bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Oikistes
Authors: Tsetskhladze Gocha R.
Published: December 2012

Whether a colony was established as an act of state by a mother‐city or as the private venture of a group or individual, the foundation process had, it is widely claimed, a certain pattern, essential to which was the appointment of a founder(oikistes,anglicized as oikist) with the requisite abilities or connections. He then consulted the Delphic oracle in order to obtain the gods’ approval for the venture – in the Classical period, specifically, the blessing of Apollo in his attribute ofArchegetes(”leader of expeditions”) – as the colony would be a new home both for Greeks and for the Greek gods(seeAPOiKiA(Overseas Settlement)); and to receive general guidance on where to settle. This process achieved a certain panhellenic uniformity, itself suggesting a narrative of later confection. The uniformity of procedure was also a matter of self‐interest for Delphi: an essential element of this scheme was the explanation that failed expeditions had done badly because the oracle was not consulted or had been misinterpreted (as e.g., in the case of Dorieus in North Africa).
Panionion
Authors: Boffo Laura
Published: December 2012

Panionion is the name of a sanctuary on Mount Mykale in Ionia, which was dedicated to Poseidon Helikonios (after Mount Helikon in Boiotia). This “sacred area” without a temple was the place of the communal meetings of the Ioniandodekapolis(group of twelve cities) and the site of its religious Panionian festivals (Hdt. 1.142, 143.3, 148.1).
Patrios politeia
Authors: Bearzot Cinzia
Published: December 2012

Patrios politeia(”constitution of the ancestors”) was a political slogan forged in Athens during the last phase of the Peloponnesian War: it is first attested in a fragment from a work of Thrasymachus of Chalcedon (DK 85 F 1), dated ca. 411bce. A well‐attested variant ispatrioi nomoi(”ancestors' laws”). This type of formation is based on the principle that what is ancient and in accordance with constitutional tradition is in all cases better and deserves to be preserved or restored.
Peloponnesian War
Authors: Samotta Iris
Published: December 2012

The Peloponnesian War was the internecine conflict amongst the Greeks between 431 and 404bce.
Pentekontaetia
Authors: Sickinger James P.
Published: December 2012

The term “Pentekontaetia” refers both to the approximately fifty‐year period between the end of the Persian wars in 479bce.
PerdikkasII
Authors: Worthington Ian
Published: December 2012

Perdikkas II was king of Macedonia from 454 to 413bce.
Philip
II
of Macedon
Authors: Mari Manuela
Published: December 2012

Philip II (383 or 382–336
bce
), king of Macedonia, son of Amyntas III and father of Alexander III, the great, established the Macedonian hegemony over Greece and turned a peripheral area of the Greek world into the greatest empire of Mediterranean Europe.
Salaminioi
Authors: Taylor Martha C.
Published: December 2012

Salaminioiwas an epithet for men from Cyprian Salamis, and also for members of several groups in Attica.
Sicilian expedition
Authors: Samotta Iris
Published: December 2012

The Sicilian expedition of 415–413BCEwas the most ambitious and also the most disastrous military operation of thePELOPONNESIAN WAR, claiming the lives of ca. 45,000 Athenians and their allies (Thuc. 7.87; Bleckmann 2007: 85).
Sophocles
Authors: Lloyd Michael
Published: December 2012

Sophocles (ca. 496–406/5BCE) was one of the three great fifth‐century Athenian tragic dramatists, along withAESCHYLUSandEURIPIDES, and a leading figure in Athenian public life. He wrote around 120 plays, seven of which survive. He competed in the CityDIONYSIAfor the first time in 468BCE, defeating the old master Aeschylus.
Spartan kings
Authors: Hicks Benjamin , Figueira Thomas J.
Published: December 2012

The Spartan dual kingship, drawn from the Heraclid dynasties of the Agiads and Eurypontids, represented a unique evolution of
basileia
“monarchy” within the
polis
.
Ten Thousand, the
Authors: Almagor Eran
Published: December 2012

The “Ten Thousand” (Xen.Hell. 3.2.7), also known as the “Cyreans” (Plut.Ages. 9.2;Ant. 45.6; Arr.Anab.
Theron, tyrant of Akragas
Authors: Lomas Kathryn
Published: December 2012

Theron was tyrant of Akragas (Agrigentum) from ca. 488 to 472
BCE
.
Tragedy, Greek
Authors: Medda Enrico
Published: December 2012

The creation of tragic theater and its artistic peak in fifth‐centuryBCEAthens must be numbered among the greatest contributions of the ancient Greeks to western culture.
Walls, city, Greece
Authors: Lindenlauf Astrid
Published: December 2012

City‐walls enclosed either the city proper (e.g., Athens) or the city and part of its hinterland. They consisted of a stone socle on which a mud‐brick superstructure rested (e.g., at Mantinea in Arcadia) or they were entirely built of stone (e.g., at Palairos in Akarnania).
Women, Greece
Authors: Cantarella Eva
Published: December 2012

Athenian women are the only women in Greece whose life can be reconstructed with a certain amount of completeness.
Dinarchus
Authors: Worthington Ian
Published: December 2012

Dinarchus (ca. 361–?
BCE
) was a
logographos
(hired writer of speeches for delivery in court) who worked in Athens in the later fourth century
BCE
.
Angels, Christian
Authors: Garrett Susan R.
Published: December 2012

Early Christians took over many of the ideas about angels prevalent in the cultures of the ancient Near East. Their most interesting innovations entailed application of teachings about angels to the person of Christ.
Apelles, Marcionite theologian
Authors: Roth Dieter T.
Published: December 2012

Apelles, active in the mid second centuryce, was a disciple of Marcion (seeMarcion and Marcionites), first in Rome, then in Alexandria, and finally back in Rome.
Aphrahat
Authors: Shepardson Christine
Published: December 2012

Aphrahat (fl. 337–345ce), “the Persian Sage,” provides an invaluable witness to fourth century Christianity outside the Roman Empire.
Apocalypticism in Early Christianity
Authors: Royalty Robert M.
Published: December 2012

Apocalypticism is a dualistic religious world‐view that encompasses belief in the imminent end of the world (eschatology), accompanied by natural and social disasters, via divine agency. Apocalypticism typically includes the final struggle with the evil force and its agents in the world by God and angels, the resurrection and judgment of all human‐kind, and a restored world ruled directly by God. It includes a historical dimension in its eschatology and spatial dimension in the interconnectedness, and eventual melding, of the transcendent and earthly realms. As with early Christianity itself, apocalypticism derived from Second Temple Judaism. Apocalypticism has been called “the mother of Christian theology” (Käsemann 1969).
Apocrypha, Christian
Authors: Elliott Keith
Published: December 2012

The word “apocryphal” in Biblical Studies normally refers to those Old Testament texts that are not found in the Hebrew canon of scripture but which appear in manuscripts of the Septuagint and later in the Latin Vulgate.
Beggars
Authors: Marsilio Maria S.
Published: December 2012

Ancient Greek authors define beggary and poverty in relative terms.
Birds, Greece and Rome
Authors: Carlà Filippo
Published: December 2012

Birds played an important role in the Classical world.
Black Sea
Authors: Andrews Smaranda
Published: December 2012

The Black Sea (Greek: Pontos Euxeinos, Latin: Pontus Euxinos) is an inland sea between south‐eastern Europe and west Asia.
Bullion
Authors: Hollander David B.
Published: December 2012

Bullion – uncoined gold, silver, or other metals – functioned as a store of wealth, means of payment, and standard of value in the ancient Near East, Greece, and Rome prior to and even after the advent of coinage. While bullion was certainly an important currency in many Mediterranean economies, a lack of evidence makes it difficult to gauge the scale of its use.
Capitalism
Authors: Morley Neville
Published: December 2012

Capitalism is a term that is frequently used to describe the modern economy. Its application to pre‐Modern societies, including Antiquity, is highly controversial, for at least three interrelated reasons (Morley 2004: 33–50).
Caravan trade
Authors: Graf David F.
Published: December 2012

Long‐distance, overland caravan trade was time‐consuming and expensive, so it is normally associated with exotic luxury items (silk and other textiles or spices) or required raw materials (metals and marble).
Cástulo
Authors: Hoffmann‐Salz Julia
Published: December 2012

Cástulo (near Linares, Province of Jaén) is an Iberian settlement in the ancient region of Oretania on the River Guadalimar, a tributary to the Guadalquivir.
Cog wheel
Authors: Schneider Helmuth
Published: December 2012

The cog wheel was part of complex tools and machines in antiquity and primarily served for the transmission of energy.
Coinage, Roman Empire
Authors: Meyers Rachel
Published: December 2012

During the Roman imperial period, coinage was modified a number of times through the introduction of new denominations and the debasement of the metals. By studying the coins, we can also learn about the organization of the empire and the increasing concentration of power in the hands of one supreme ruler. The imperial portraits, always identified by name on the obverse, have long assisted in identifying sculpted portraits, but the images on the reverse side can be of even greater importance. For there we find the messages and accomplishments that were deemed worthy of circulation throughout the empire.
Commentariis, a
Authors: Hirt Alfred M.
Published: December 2012

The term
a commentariis
describes a clerical function at Rome and within Roman provincial administration and is best documented during the Roman Principate.
Consumption
Authors: Morley Neville
Published: December 2012

Consumption is usually defined in economic terms in opposition to production and distribution, as the final stage in the circulation of goods.
Decumanus
Authors: Spanier Ethan
Published: December 2012

Decumanus
, running east‐west, and its counterpart kardo, running north‐south, were the axial lines of the Roman coordinate system used to demarcate land.
Dolium
Authors: Ikeguchi Mamoru
Published: December 2012

Adolium(pl.dolia, Gk.pithos) was a large earthenware vessel used for the fermentation of wine as well as the storage of liquids (esp. wine and olive oil), dry foods, and pickles.
Economic performance
Authors: Ray Nick M.
Published: December 2012

Economic performance is a construct for indicating and, where empirical data permits, measuring the productivity and growth (or contraction) of economies. It refers to the functioning of an economy in terms of the stability and level of production, and is reflected in the circulation and Consumption of goods. In the past “the ancient economy” has been described in terms of institutional structure, placing it on a primitive‐to‐modern scale. Modern scholars remain subject to discrepant experience but have moved to discuss both structure and performance as codependents, resulting in comparative and contextual theoretical models that incorporate quantifiable evidence.
Economy, Near East (Persian)
Authors: Bedford Peter R.
Published: December 2012

The Persian Empire (550–331
BCE
) was the largest empire to have existed in the Near East up until that point.
Electrum, electrum coinage
Authors: Wallace Robert W.
Published: December 2012

Electrum (lit. “amber”) a natural pale‐yellow alloy of gold and silver (with trace copper), is found especially in Lydia's Pactolus and Hermos rivers in western central Asia Minor.
Emporos
Authors: Petropoulos Elias K.
Published: December 2012

The Greek termemporosderives from the wordporoswhich means “road.” Consequently,emporos(pluralemporoi) is the man in the road, that is, the man who travels away from his home.
Ethnoarchaeology
Authors: Sapirstein Philip
Published: December 2012

Ethnoarchaeology fundamentally addresses how archaeologists interpret ancient remains.
Flax
Authors: Geyer Patrick Scott
Published: December 2012

The story of flax processing in the western world begins in the rabbinic traditions surrounding the story of Cain and Abel, Cain's offering being that of flax, while Abel's having been the more favorable one of wool.
Fodder
Authors: Carlà Filippo
Published: December 2012

Fodder was generally variated and included legumes, acorn, hay, green fodder (CatoAgr. 69.60; Columella 6.3); widely used were also turnips (Plin.HN18.126), alfalfa, fenugreek (e.g., Columella 2.7.1–2), shrub trefoil (Plin.HN13.130), clover.
Formalism–substantivism debate
Authors: Jongman Willem M.
Published: December 2012

The debate that dominated ancient economic history during the closing decades of the twentieth century was that between the so‐called primitivists and the so‐called modernists.
Ges anadasmos
Authors: Gottesman Alex
Published: December 2012

The term
ges anadasmos
(literally, “re‐division of land”) refers to the redistribution of the land of a
polls
in order to attain a political or social aim, such as cohesion or equality.
Hierodouloi
Authors: Gottesman Alex
Published: December 2012

Hierodouloiliterally means “sacred slaves.”
Horeia, Horia
Authors: Boetto Giulia
Published: December 2012

Thehoreiais a type of vessel well known from iconographic sources that portray these Roman craft curved at one end and flat at the other.
Idios logos
Authors: Blouin Katherine
Published: December 2012

The
Idios logos
or “special account” was one of the departments of the Ptolemaic and Roman administration of Egypt.
Incuse coinage
Authors: Cunnally John
Published: December 2012

A coin is said to be incuse when the impression on one side is concave or intaglio instead of in relief, in contrast to the double‐relief fabric commonly used for coins throughout antiquity and still employed today. In one area of the Hellenic world — the Greek colonies of southern Italy — the early silver coinage displayed an idiosyncratic format, a relief image on the obverse repeated in a concave impression on the reverse. These incuse coins of Magna Graecia are also distinguished by a wider, flatter body than corresponding denominations struck by other Greek cities.
Indemnities
Authors: Stern Gaius
Published: December 2012

The precedent whereby the Allies made Germany pay a ruinous price for the expenses of World War I harks back to the treaties ending the first two Punic Wars, when the Romans made the Carthaginians endure heavy financial burdens to cover the Roman expenses of the wars. This punishment was also inflicted upon Philip V, Antiochos III, and Mithradates VI in the Second Macedonian, Syrian, and the First Mithradatic wars respectively, but is infrequently reported thereafter.
India, trade with
Authors: Tomber Roberta
Published: December 2012

Between the first centuryBCEand at least the sixth centuryCE, Rome played an important role in Indian Ocean trade that was primarily facilitated through its Egyptian Red Sea ports. This trade was important both economically and culturally, as it built on the interest in India established by Alexander the Great's overland India campaign of 327–325BCE, during which he traveled to the Indus from the northwest.
Ivory
Authors: Papagiannaki Anthousa
Published: December 2012

A term used to describe an increasing number of organic substances (including the tusks of hippopotamus and walrus, as well as sperm whale and narwhal).
Labor, Greece and Rome
Authors: Sobak Robert B.
Published: December 2012

Labor refers to the use of human beings as factors of production within the organization of an economic system. Labor production in the Greco‐Roman world was performed by three main groups: slaves, wage‐laborers, and independent craftsmen. Wage‐labor was employed both for the long‐term and from season to season. Independent, free producers tended toward skilled labor, especially within urban contexts. The shape of labor in Greco‐Roman antiquity, however, was dominated by chattel slavery, both because of the sheer numbers of slaves involved, and because of an anti‐labor mentality that the dominance of slavery within the ancient economy had engendered. The fact that so many laboring individuals were un‐free meant that the act of laboring itself carried with it a slavish tinge, regardless of the legal status of the individual in question.
Landscapes, Greek
Authors: Pettegrew David K.
Published: December 2012

The countryside was central to the life of the Greekpolisbut was routinely ignored by ancient writers more interested in cities and urban affairs than the mundane arenas of work and toil. Since the 1960s, historians and archaeologists have met the neglect of textual sources with regional programs of archaeological research aimed at reconstructing the ancient territories of Greece. Today scholars use the conceptual framework of “landscape” for describing the natural environment that shaped Greek history, the local unit of town and territory that formed thepolis, and patterns of habitation, human activity, and meaning visible at a regional level.
Latifundia/large estates
Authors: Marzano Annalisa
Published: December 2012

Latifundia(from Lat.latus=large andfundus=estate) is a term that does not occur often in Latin sources; the majority of the texts concerned date to the first centuryCE.
Linen
Authors: Gleba Margarita
Published: December 2012

Since prehistory, linen has been one of the most widely used textile materials.
Metronomoi
Authors: Efsthathiou Athanasios
Published: December 2012

Metronomoi
(controllers of measures) were the public officials who oversaw the weights and measures (
metra kai stathma
) in Athens, five for the city, five for Peiraeus elected by lot for one year ([Arist.]
Ath. Pol
. 51.2 with lexicographers Harp. s.v. and Phot.
Lex. Seg
. s.v.).
Mints, minting
Authors: Ponting Matthew
Published: December 2012

Minting is the term used for the process/es by which coins were and are manufactured. The place where these processes are conducted is called a mint.
Oikos(family)
Authors: Schaps David M.
Published: December 2012

The wordoikosin early Greek referred to a building (see Oikos(House)) or to the aggregate of a person's possessions. In the Classical period it came to be used also for what we should call the nuclear family: a husband, wife, their dependents (both children and retired parents) and their property, including slaves and animals. The family in this sense both predated and outlasted thePolis, and although the laws took its existence for granted, it seems never to have received a strict legal definition in Athens or anywhere else known to us.
Pastoralism
Authors: Carlà Filippo
Published: December 2012

Pastoralism is an ideal type that has never existed in pure form.
Peasant society
Authors: Gallego Julián
Published: December 2012

The concept of peasant society, together with those of peasant economy and peasant culture, is a theoretical framework for the analysis of the vast majority of ancient rural populations.
Pentakosiomedimnoi
Authors: Taylor Claire
Published: December 2012

Thepentakosiomedimnoiwere the wealthiest group in Athens as defined by Solon's reforms. Classified by agricultural produce, the name indicates that one's land needed to produce (perhaps annually under “normal” circumstances) at least 500medimnoiof grain to qualify for this group ([Arist.]Ath. Pol. 7.3–4). Estimates suggest individual estates would need to be at least 40 ha in size in order to produce this much barley, and larger to produce the equivalent measure of wheat, olive oil, or wine, but it is likely that the “wet” measures (oil, wine) mentioned in theAthenaion Politeiawere a later addition to the solonian division. The wealth of this group meant that they played an important role in political life: all offices were open to them and some financial offices only open to them. But by the end of the fourth century, although these rules remained law, they were no longer enforced ([Arist.]Ath. Pol. 47.1). Changes in patterns of landholding and the growth of a politically important group whose wealth was not derived solely from land meant that solonian assessments had become so unrealistic in the fourth century that it was impossible to prescribe access to office in these terms.
Pneumatics
Authors: Schneider Helmuth
Published: December 2012

For Philo of Byzantium, pneumatics was a branch of mechanics; the term is derived from the wordpneuma, which means “moved air.”
Poll tax, Ptolemaic
Authors: Gibbs Matt
Published: December 2012

Under the Ptolemies, a precursor of the Romanlaographia(seePoll tax, Roman) was the so‐called “salt‐tax,” orhalike, documented primarily from 263 to 217BCE.
Poppy
Authors: Hnila Pavol
Published: December 2012

Ancient Greek
mekon
and Latin
papaver
refer primarily to the opium poppy (
Papaver somniferum L
.), and occasionally to other plant species of the genus
Papaver
or plants bearing certain similarities to the
Papaveraceae
family.
Redistribution
Authors: Palmer Ruth
Published: December 2012

Redistribution is an economic system where a central authority assesses and collects commodities from towns and villages under its control, then redistributes them to workers serving the authority in various functions.
Regionalism
Authors: Reger Gary
Published: December 2012

Regionalism is the idea that geographic spaces and the human populations that occupy them can be characterized in such a way that the space and people so defined make an entity distinct from other spaces and human populations, and that ties of various kinds – linguistic, cultural, ethnic, economic, religious, and so on – are stronger within the region and between its occupants than across regional boundaries. Regionalism has been used in geography, political economy, international relations, economic history, and other disciplines as a way of analyzing and explaining human behaviors.
Saltus
Authors: Carlà Filippo
Published: December 2012

The Latin word
saltus
indicates, in its broader sense and particularly in historical texts, uncultivated areas, such as woods, mountain areas, and impracticable places (e.g., Livy 10.24.6). But a more specialized meaning is also attested, indicating private properties mainly used for pasture (Varro
Ling
. 5.36; Ov.
Fast
. 5.282–9), or places where extensive animal rearing occurs (
pastio agrestis
: Varro
Rust
. 3.1.8), and so where shepherds and herds live (Cic.
Tog
.
cand
. 11).
Scales
Authors: Schaps David M.
Published: December 2012

The
balance
(Gk.
talanta
,
stathmon
, Lat.
libra
,
trutina
, later
bilanx
, “double‐dish”) had two pans suspended from a beam (Gk.
zygon
, Lat.
iugum
,
librile
,
scapus
), itself suspended in the center by a cord (Gk.
spartion
, Lat.
ansa
): the item to be weighed was placed in one pan and known weights in the other.
Sitesis
Authors: Sara Sara
Published: December 2012

Sitesis
was the invitation to meals at the State's expense and one of the highest possible honors a
polis
could grant.
Sitologos
Authors: Adams Colin E. P.
Published: December 2012

The Sitologos was an official in Greco‐Roman Egypt in charge of state granaries, in villages, toparchies, and metropoleis, responsible for the receipt of tax grain in kind, the issuing of receipts to tax‐payers, drawing up day‐books and regular reports of grain received for Strategoi, Nome officials in charge of the land economy and taxation.
Sitophylakes
Authors: Battistoni Filippo
Published: December 2012

Apart from the obvious fact that their function was related to grain, it is not clear exactly which dutiessitophylakes(lit. “grain wardens”) had.
Standards of living, wealth
Authors: Kron Geof
Published: December 2012

Problems of evidence and interpretation make any account of ancient living standards controversial and hazardous, but our scattered literary and documentary sources and a growing corpus of archaeological evidence are making it increasingly clear that Greco‐Roman society was populous, urbanized, and prosperous, with a much broader middle class and a more comfortable lifestyle for ordinary working people than can be attested in most pre‐industrial or even early industrial societies, with the possible exception of the city‐states of Renaissance Italy or Holland in its Golden Age. Unskilled slaves, common laborers, and even some craftsmen, share‐croppers, or struggling tenant farmers had only a small margin separating them from subsistence, and our sources suggest that approximately 10 percent of the urban population were in want. Nevertheless, a substantial proportion of the population owned land, houses or apartments, garden plots, and businesses, and the vast majority enjoyed a relatively ample diet, spacious and attractive, often opulent, housing, clothing of good quality, a wide range of consumer goods, access to a large range of commercial and public services, and more options to enjoy art, entertainment, and culture than any society prior to the twentieth century. While this critical middle income group was much smaller and more vulnerable in Pharaonic Egypt or among the Celts, societies dominated socio‐economically by priestly or warrior elites, some Mesopotamian cities were prosperous and egalitarian enough to support a populous class of middling traders and craftsmen.
Stelae, Greek
Authors: Bolmarcich Sarah
Published: December 2012

The word stele means a block of stone, and came to mean a slab or block of stone, usually standing upright on the ground, which had been inscribed or decorated with relief work, or both. Stelae were used in many different contexts, took many different forms, and serve as an important source of evidence for ancient Greek history.
Theorika
, Theoric Fund
Authors: Roselli David Kawalko
Published: December 2012

Not all festivals were free in Athens.
Threshing
Authors: Carlà Filippo
Published: December 2012

Threshing is the act of separating edible grain from husk.
Tourism
Authors: Stumpf Joseph A.
Published: December 2012

The movement of individuals or groups for the purposes of visiting the locations of famous deeds, spas, art, relics, games, and (rarely) nature, is attested through literary references and corroborated through archaeological material.
Trade, Greek
Authors: Carlson Deborah
Published: December 2012

For the ancient Greeks, trade was generally regarded as undesirable, devious work and was left largely to foreigners (xenoi) or registered foreign residents called metics.
Tresviri monetales
Authors: Hollander David B.
Published: December 2012

The
tresviri monetales
were three Roman magistrates responsible for minting bronze, silver, and gold coins.
Vilicus
Authors: Waddell Philip
Published: December 2012

A vilicus was the foreman or overseer of a Roman landed estate (see Villa).
Midas
Authors: Burke Brendan
Published: December 2012

King Midas of Phrygia reigned in the late eighth century from his capital at Gordion, located in central Turkey.
Antinoopolis
Authors: Schubert Paul
Published: December 2012

Antinoopolis was a Greek city founded in Middle Egypt by the emperor Hadrian in 130CE. It took its name from Hadrian's belovedantinoos, who died by drowning in the Nile during the emperor's visit to Egypt. The city is well attested in the Greek papyri from Egypt until the eighth centuryCE(especially in the sixth century). Many documents, however, especially for the early period of the city, do not come from Antinoopolis, but from the Arsinoite nome (Fayyum).
Arsinoe, Fayyum
Authors: Reiter Fabian
Published: December 2012

Arsinoe was the unofficial name of the capital (metropolis) of the Arsinoite nome in Greco‐Roman times. The town was situated on the western side of the Nile near the Bahr Yussuf Canal in the northern part of the modern capital of the Fayyum, Medinet el‐Fayyum. Arsinoe became famous at the end of the nineteenth century as one of the most important find spots for papyri. These papyri offer an enormous amount of information about the administration, economy, and social, religious, and private life of themetropolisin Roman, Byzantine, and early Arab times.
Augustamnica
Authors: Benaissa Amin
Published: December 2012

Augustamnica was the name of a province in the Eastern Roman Empire, created in 341
CE
and lasting until the Arab conquest of Egypt in 641. For the most part of its existence, it encompassed the eastern half of the Egyptian Delta. Its genesis was a result of the continuous administrative reorganization of the former Roman province of Egypt (Aegyptus) in the fourth century, which involved a series of experimental subdivisions of the old province into two, three, or four smaller provinces.
Cleopatra
V
Berenike
III
Authors: Llewellyn‐Jones Lloyd
Published: December 2012

Cleopatra V Berenike III Philopator (also referred to simply as Cleopatra V, Cleopatra Berenike III, or even Berenike III), queen of Egypt, was the daughter of Ptolemy IX.
Calendar, Greco‐Roman Egypt
Authors: Jones Alexander
Published: December 2012

Several calendars were used, by various people and for various purposes, in Greco‐Roman Egypt. By far the most important in all periods was the Egyptian civil calendar that had provided the chronological framework for daily life, including administrative as well as many religious purposes, since Pharaonic times. Every year of this calendar comprised twelve months of exactly thirty days, which in the Greco‐Roman period were usually identified by Hellenized versions of their Egyptian names:
Dioiketes(Egypt)
Authors: Clarysse Willy
Published: December 2012

Thedioiketeswas a financial official. In the Ptolemaic period, there were localdioiketaiand adioiketeslocated centrally in Alexandria; in the early Roman period, thedioiketeswas a lower rank administrator, and from 120CEonward a Romanprocurator. In 284CE, he was replaced by thekatholikos. The present article only concerns the Ptolemaic centraldioiketesin Alexandria.
Imperial estates, Egypt
Authors: Tacoma Laurens E.
Published: December 2012

Imperial estates were personal property of members of the imperial family, as distinct from property belonging to the Roman state.
Imperial titulatures in papyri
Authors: Kruse Thomas
Published: December 2012

In the documentary papyri from Roman and Late Roman Egypt, there is a rich variety of imperial titulatures — that is, the whole set of personal names, titles, and honorific epithets of a Roman emperor.
Library of Alexandria
Authors: Quattrocelli Luana
Published: December 2012

The library in Alexandria was home to the vast number of books belonging to the Museum. This library was both royal, because the books belonged to the king, and public, because, along with the Pergamon library, it was one of the first to open its doors to the literate public.
Memnon, Colossi of
Authors: Fischer‐Bovet Christelle
Published: December 2012

The Colossi of Memnon are two monumental statues standing in front of the now‐destroyed mortuary temple of Amenhotep III, a pharaoh of the 18th Dynasty, on the west bank of the Nile in Thebes.
Persians in Egypt
Authors: Fournet Jean‐Luc
Published: December 2012

Egypt was a rich country, and the Persians had coveted it for more than a millennium. It had been conquered twice by the Achaemenids (525–404 and 343–332
BCE
, until Alexander's conquest), but the stable and powerful Ptolemaic kingdom, and then the Roman Empire, kept away Persians from Egypt for much of the Greek, Roman, and Byzantine periods. But the expansionist designs of the Sasanian King Chosroes II Parwêz (590–628), taking advantage of a troubled period on the Byzantine side, allowed Persians under the command of Shahrbaraz to conquer Egypt once again (among other parts of the Near East), for a short period (619–629).
Proskynema
formulas
Authors: Tallet Gaëlle
Published: December 2012

In a broad sense, a
proskynema
is an act of devotion, etymologically related to the
Proskynesis
, a prostration by which one makes obeisance to a god or his statue.
Ptolemy IV Philopator
Authors: Nadig Peter
Published: December 2012

Ptolemy IV was born around 244BCEas the oldest son of Ptolemy III and Berenike II.
Ptolemy V Epiphanes
Authors: Nadig Peter
Published: December 2012

Ptolemy V Epiphanes (r. 204–180BCE), the only son of Ptolemy IV Philopator and Arsinoe III, was born on October 9, 210.
Ptolemy XIV
Authors: Nadig Peter
Published: December 2012

Ptolemy XIV (co‐ruler 47–44
BCE
), the younger son of Ptolemy XII by an unknown mother, was born around 59.
Soterichos of Oasis
Authors: Derda Tomasz
Published: December 2012

Soterichos of Oasis, “an epic poet, who fourished under Diocletian” (Suda [σ 877]), wrote “anEncomium on Diocletian, four booksBassarikaorDionysiaka,The Story of the Babylonian Panthea,The Story of Ariadne,The Life of Apollonius of Tyana,Python or Alexandriakosand other works”.
Thebes (Diospolis Magna), Ptolemaic and Roman periods
Authors: Manning Joseph
Published: December 2012

A city in Upper Egypt that rose to prominence during the Middle Kingdom (2055–1650
BCE
), Thebes became the effective southern capital of Egypt during the New Kingdom, when the temple of “Amun‐Re King of the gods” functioned as a major ritual center for the Egyptian state.
Akoe
Authors: Longley Georgina M.
Published: December 2012

Akoemeans “hearing” or “thing heard.” Herodotus and Polybius distinguished the eyes and the ears as the instruments of historical inquiry, but they considered the latter less reliable than the former (Hdt. 1.8.2, Polyb. 12.27.7; for eye‐witnessing,seeAutopsy).
Annales Maximi
Authors: Forsythe Gary
Published: December 2012

Modern scholars have generally construed Cicero's remarks at
De oratore
2.52–3 to mean that, while Publius Mucius Scaevola was
pontifex maximus
(130–115
BCE
), all the material accumulated in the pontiffs' archive since early times was reworked and consolidated into the
Annales maximi
, which, according to, comprised eighty books (the relevant passages of Cicero and Servius are both quoted in the entry
pontifical chronicle
).
Annalists, Roman
Authors: Forsythe Gary
Published: December 2012

“Annalists” is a term applied by modern scholars collectively to Livy's predecessors: the twenty or so Romans who flourished ca. 230–30
BCE
and wrote histories of Rome. None of these works survived beyond antiquity, except in fragments–that is, direct quotations or paraphrases of portions of these works made by ancient writers whose writings have survived.
Arrian (Arrianus, Lucius Flavius)
Authors: Popov‐Reynolds Nadejda V.
Published: December 2012

Lucius Flavius Arrianus (late 80s–ca. 160
CE
) was a distinguished Roman politician, general, historian, and philosopher from Nicomedia in
bithynia
.
Autopatheia
Authors: Longley Georgina M.
Published: December 2012

Autopatheia(“self‐suffering,” i.e., the result of having suffered/experienced something by oneself) was a device used in literary composition for conveying one's own experience; it was understood as an individual's own feeling, gained from personal experience.
Cassius Dio
Authors: Clay Andrew W.
Published: December 2012

Cassius Dio (ca. 164–after 229CE) was a Roman senator of Greek provincial origin who wrote a history of Rome from its foundation to the reign of Severus Alexander (229).
Catulus, Quintus Lutatius,
Liber de Consulatu
Authors: Brennan T. Corey
Published: December 2012

Cicero cites the noble Q. Lutatius Catulus (born by 147
BCE
, suicide in 87) as a shining example of affability, erudition, and pure Latin diction, evidenced by his speeches and also his book “on his consulship and military exploits,” which he dedicated to his friend the poet Aulus Furius (Antias). For a work that comes to us only in a few paraphrased snippets (via Plutarch's Greek), Catulus' political autobiography offers little guesswork as to its tone and approach — which (
pace
Cicero) clearly was pugnacious and self‐serving.
Cincius Alimentus, Lucius
Authors: Beck Hans
Published: December 2012

Lucius Cincius Alimentus was a plebeian senator and one of Rome's earliest historians. His family most likely obtained membership in the Senate only in the troubled years of the Hannibalic War (218–201BCE), and only for a short period of time.
History, contemporary
Authors: Lateiner Donald
Published: December 2012

One may, logically, write a sensible narrative only of events past, since the present lacks visible shape or point for one to view it from, and no mortal knows the future by observation and rational consideration. Historiography, before the word existed, faced the issue of what a human can know of any period of the past and of the extent to which a Greek can know it.
Cremutius Cordus, Aulus
Authors: Rutledge Steven H.
Published: December 2012

Aulus Cremutius Cordus (d. 25CE) was an historian who flourished in the time of Augustus and Tiberius.
Dinon of Kolophon
Authors: Almagor Eran
Published: December 2012

Dinon of Kolophon was active ca. 340 BCE. Little is known of his writings, and even less of his life. If he is indeed the same person referred to by Pliny the Elder (HN 1.10) asDione Colophonio, he was probably a native of Kolophon and the father of the popular Alexander historian Kleitarchos of Alexandria (Plin.HN 10.136). His work, titled Persica, was divided into at least three series (syntaxeis: FGrH690 F 1–3), each containing several books.
Dionysius of Halicarnassus
Authors: Farrington Scott
Published: December 2012

The corpus from Dionysius of Halicarnassus encompasses history, literary criticism, and rhetorical theory.
Documents and archives
Authors: Rhodes P. J.
Published: December 2012

Although in the Greek states and in Rome literacy was less widespread and oral communication was more important than it is in the more developed parts of the modern world, businesses – both of states and of individuals or groups of individuals – generated documents, which were stored and published in various ways.
Duris of Samos
Authors: Pownall Frances
Published: December 2012

Duris of (ca. 330–ca. 260
BCE
) served as tyrant of his native island and was the author of numerous historical and literary works; he is best known for his Macedonian history, which covered the reigns of philip ii of macedon, alexander iii, the great, and his early Successors. Because his work does not survive apart from snippets quoted by later authorities, little can be determined with any certainty about his life and the character of his historical writing.
Exempla
Authors: Chaplin Jane D.
Published: December 2012

According to the definitions in ancient handbooks of rhetoric, anexemplum(pluralexempla) is a brief embedded narrative designed to illustrate an argument.
Genealogy
Authors: Vivero Manuel Albaladejo
Published: December 2012

Bachofen's famous work provides a good starting point for discussing the historiographic treatment of Greek genealogies. For him, the Greek heroic genealogies were reliable descriptions, or descriptions slightly derivative of actual social situations, and he used them to produce his theory of matrilineality and matriarchy as features of that institution that had characterized all societies at an early stage of development.
Hellanicus of Mytilene
Authors: Brodersen Kai
Published: December 2012

Hellanicus of Mytilene on Lesbos (ca. 480–ca. 400BCE), a younger contemporary of Herodotus in the later fifth century, is the author ofat least twenty‐three books on the past, which are lost save for some 200 fragments. Hellanicus was born in Mytilene on Lesbos, perhaps in 480/79 BCE, and died around or after 400 in Perperne in Mysia.
Hellenica
Authors: Corcella Aldo
Published: December 2012

Ancient sources on historiography use the termHellenica (ta Hellenika, “Greek affairs”) rather vaguely.
Herodian
Authors: Sommer Michael
Published: December 2012

Herodian (Herodianos, ca. 175–250
CE
) is the author of a
History of the Empire since the death of Marcus
, in eight books, covering the period from 180 to 238:
Horography
Authors: Lateiner Donald
Published: December 2012

Horographies, local histories of Hellenicpoleis, put each Hellenicpolis, a historical collective, at the center of a sequential story, as ethnogra phies put a particular foreign community at their center.
Impartiality
Authors: Fronda Michael P.
Published: December 2012

Ancient authors and their audiences had some sense that the writing of history should be free from undue partisanship, malice, and favoritism. However, ancient expectations and assumptions differed greatly from the modern concepts of historical impartiality and objectivity.
Ion of Chios
Authors: Grillo Luca
Published: December 2012

Ion of Chios (ca. 484–422
BCE
) was a tragedian comparable to Sophocles, one of the most prominent Chiotes of all time, and a public figure in Classical Athens, well acquainted with Aeschylus, Sophocles, Kimon, and perhaps Perikles.
Josephus
Authors: Chapman Honora Howell
Published: December 2012

(Titus?) Flavius Josephus (37/38–ca. 100CE), a Judaean priest and general during the First Jewish Revolt, composed thirty extant volumes of ancient and contemporary Jewish history that serve as invaluable literary evidence for the Second Temple and early Roman imperial periods.
Juba II of Mauretania
Authors: Roller Duane W.
Published: December 2012

Juba II (48BCE–23CE) was king of Mauretania and a noted explorer and scholar. His father, Juba I of Numidia, had become embroiled in the Roman civil war and was defeated by Julius Caesar in 46BCE; his infant son was taken to Rome and raised in the household of Caesar's great‐niece Octavia, becoming a noted scholar, writing on the history of Rome, the theater, and linguistics.
Justin, Roman historian
Authors: Popov‐Reynolds Nadejda V.
Published: December 2012

Justin (fl. sometime between the mid‐second and the late fourth centuryCE; exact date unknown) is known solely as the author of an extensive LatinEpitome(summary) of a lost Universal History,Historiae Philippicae (Philippic Histories), of the Augustan historian Pompeius Trogus. The primary significance of Justin's summary is that it is “the only universal history of any sort from before the Christian era to survive in its entirety” (Yardley and Develin 1994: 2). Because nothing is known about Justin outside his work, modern readers of his history have to deal with two challenges: the first is the problem of separating Justin's own views from thoseof Trogus within theEpitome, while the second is the uncertainty surrounding the date of Justin's text.
Livy
Authors: Chaplin Jane D.
Published: December 2012

Livy (Titus Livius in Latin) was, in antiquity, and remains to this day, the single most important guide to Roman republican history.
Local histories
Authors: Wiemer Hans‐Ulrich
Published: December 2012

Local history as a genre of historical writing developed in Greek city‐states during the Classical period, flourished during the three centuries after Alexander, and experienced a revival in the second centuryCE.
Lucian
Authors: AndúJar Rosa M.
Published: December 2012

Lucian (ca.120–ca.180CE) was the author of approximately eighty prose works in Greek, chiefly dialogues and rhetorical showpieces, characterized by a uniquely witty blend of literary knowledge, philosophy, and satire.
Persica
Authors: Lenfant Dominique
Published: December 2012

Persica
were specific works on Persian history written by Greeks of the fifth and fourth centuries
BCE
.
Philistos of Syracuse
Authors: Champion Craige B.
Published: December 2012

Philistos of Syracuse (ca. 430–356
BCE
;
FGrH
556) witnessed the Spartan commander Gylippos' rescue of his native city as a youth, and as an adult he supported the Syracusan tyrants Dionysios i and Dionysios ii.
Plutarch
Authors: Tatum W. J.
Published: December 2012

Lucius (?) Mestrius Plutarchus (ca. 45–125CE) was born in Chaeronea and became one of the leading writers of the Second Sophistic (a common designation for this period during the high empire, when Greek literature and oratory conspicuously flourished).
Polemic
Authors: Champion Craige B.
Published: December 2012

In ancient Greek historiography, authors routinely used polemic against rival historians as a device to establish their own authority and credibility.
Pompeius Trogus
Authors: Beck Hans
Published: December 2012

Pompeius Trogus was a Roman historian from Vocontii in Gallia Narbonensis.
Procopius
Authors: Lenski Noel
Published: December 2012

Procopius was born in Palestinian Caesarea (Bell. 1.1.1;Anecd. 11.25), probably ca. 500CE. Nothing firm is known of his family background.
Rhetorical history
Authors: Longley Georgina M.
Published: December 2012

The notion that history and rhetoric, the art of persuasion, could be closely connected and mutually influential has caused some embarrassment to modern observers of the ancient world.
Skylax of Karyanda
Authors: Johnston Andrew C.
Published: December 2012

Skylax of Karyanda (ca. 550–after 480BCE) was a Greek navigator and geographer.
Speeches in historical works
Authors: Corcella Aldo
Published: December 2012

As Plato already knew (Resp. 392d), epic poems consisted of narration and reported speeches.
Stesimbrotos of Thasos
Authors: Pownall Frances
Published: December 2012

Stesimbrotos of Thasos (fl. mid‐ to late fifth century
BCE
) is a shadowy and mysterious figure, the author of various literary works in a wide range of genres.
Universal history
Authors: Thornton John
Published: December 2012

In the opinion of Diodorus Siculus (1.3.2) (seeDiodorus of Sicily), who was probably one of the most rigorous (cf. Clarke 1999: 259–60) adepts of the genre defined by modern scholars, starting in the Renaissance (Desideri 2001), as “universal history,” an historical work was all the more useful to its readers, the greater the number and variety of the events it encompassed.
Velleius Paterculus
Authors: Pagán Victoria E.
Published: December 2012

Velleius Paterculus (19BCE–31CE) was a Roman historian under the reign of Tiberius.
Zeno of Rhodes
Authors: Wiemer Hans‐Ulrich
Published: December 2012

Zeno of Rhodes (born not later than 220
BCE
) was a Rhodian politician and writer of a historical monograph in perhaps fifteen books (
FGrH
523) that can, though entirely lost in the original, partly be reconstructed from passages in later authors that, directly or indirectly, are derived from it.
Kleitarchos of Alexandria
Authors: Wiemer Hans‐Ulrich
Published: December 2012

Kleitarchos of Alexandria, the son of Dinon, known as author of a “History of Persia,” was the author of a monograph on Alexander the Great (
FGrH
137) in more than twelve books, which was very popular in the Late Republic and Early Empire and lies at the back of the historiographic tradition represented by Diodorus (book 17), Curtius Rufus, Justin (books 11–12), and others (the so‐called
Vulgata
).
Onesikritos of Astypalaia
Authors: Prandi Luisa
Published: December 2012

Onesikritos of Astypalaia
(FGrH
134), member of an Aiginetan family already experienced with seafaring and involved with the philosopher Diogenes the Cynic (Figueira 1993), followed Alexander in Asia and wrote – perhaps close to 323 Bce – a work entitled
How Alexander was educated,
clearly inspired by Xenophon's
Cyropaedia
.
Aesop
Authors: Gibbs Laura
Published: December 2012

Aesop is an ancient folkloric figure associated with the genre of “Aesop's fables.” Approximately six hundred fables have survived in ancient Greek and Roman sources.
Agathokles, Ptolemaic minister
Authors: Mairs Rachel
Published: December 2012

Agathokles (d. 203
BCE
;) was a minister of the Ptolemaic king Ptolemy IV Philopator (reigned 221–204) and served as guardian to and regent for his heir, Ptolemy V Epiphanes (reigned 204–181).
Agis IV of Sparta
Authors: Kralli Ioanna
Published: December 2012

When the Eurypontid Agis IV (born ca. 262
BCE
) came to the throne around 244, Sparta urgently needed reformation, or even revolution. This Agis attempted to implement; it cost him his own life, in 241.
Antipater
Authors: Scholten Joseph B.
Published: December 2012

Antipater (Antipatros) was arguably the most important figure in the fourth centuryBCErise of Macedonia, behind the Argead kings Philip II and Alexander III.
Apollonios of Kition
Authors: Massar Natacha
Published: December 2012

Apollonios of Kition was a doctor of the first century
BCE
. Originally from Cyprus, then under Ptolemaic rule, he studied medicine in Alexandria (Egypt) with the doctor Zopyros, and was the fellow pupil of the otherwise unknown Poseidonios.
Ariobarzanid Dynasty
Authors: Michels Christoph
Published: December 2012

Ariobarzanes I Philorhomaios (epithet on coins, Simonetta 1977: 39–42) was a Cappadocian noble elected king (96/5–63/62BCEwith several interruptions) after the extinction of the Ariarathid Dynasty with the death of Ariarathes VIII.