bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Ostracoda
Authors: Schram Frederick R. , Koenemann Stefan
Published: January 2022

The diagnostic features that characterize Ostracoda, or seed shrimp, include distinctness of each pair of limbs from each other, body displaying little or no segmentation (although individual taxa can exhibit sclerite features that suggest possibly up to 11 trunk somites), an all-encompassing bivalved shell that lacks growth lines, and location of an adult male copulatory limb or organ just anterior to the caudal rami. The World Ostracoda Database indicates approximately 34,660 accepted species. The shell is typically calcareous, but in purely planktonic forms, calcium carbonate can be all but absent. The shell is often linked with a carapace, but this is not necessarily homolous with other pancrustacean carapaces. Once thought to be polyphyletic, the consensus, supported by molecule sequences, leans toward monophyly. The expression of the engrailed gene in Vargula hilgendorfii has allowed limb identifications. Initial hatching can happen at a variety of larval stages: three-segment nauplii, four-segment head larvae, or even longer segmental stages. Ostracods definitely occur in the Ordovician, but fossilized, ostracod-like limb fragments occur in the Cambrian. Sequencing of ostracods has helped reform the modern understanding of crustaceomorph evolution and taxonomy.
Acrothoracica
Authors: Schram Frederick R. , Koenemann Stefan
Published: January 2022

Acrothoracica constitute one of the suborders of order Cirripedia. This is a small group of approximately 70 species, all of them with cryptic habits; they burrow into mollusk shells. Their own carapace lacks plates. Only females feed; the reduced male lives within the female’s burrow and consists only of a testis and might or might not possess a penis. When males exhaust their reserves, they are replaced by newer males. Dispersal depends on the nauplii and the cypris larvae. Biogeograpic distributions are rather incompletely understood, but fossil burrows are recognized in molluskan shells as far back as the Devonian at least, although there are reports of fossilized rostral plates of acrothoracicans.
Cyclida
Authors: Schram Frederick R. , Koenemann Stefan
Published: January 2022

This extinct group extended in age from the early Carboniferous to late-most Cretaceous, although the latter date is problematic. Cyclida exhibit a flattened to domed carapace, rather circular in outline, the body shield completely covering the animal beneath. Often compared to the branchiurans, that affinity has now been disgraced. The body plan appears to conform to a either 5–6–2 or 5–7–1 plan. In addition, at least some of these forms have a distinctive horseshoe arrangement of gill plates beneath the carapace. The posterior cephalic and anterior thoracic limbs had a geniculate or subchelate form. The thorax was well developed, but the abdomen was small and had few segments.
Thermosbaenacea
Authors: Schram Frederick R. , Koenemann Stefan
Published: January 2022

The thermosbaenaceans were first recognized less than a century ago. Thermosbaenacea were originally thought to sit separately from Peracarida in a superorder Pancarida. This placement arose from the females brooding of their eggs under their short carapaces; these females lack oöstegites. Molecule sequences now indicate that thermosbaenacea are within the mancoid Peracarida. The animals inhabit caves and groundwater habitats. Furthermore, the numbers of individuals at some localities are truly astounding compared to the numbers of individuals of spelaeogriphaceans, for example. These are truly small animals (generally only a few mm in length), so it appears that brooding under the carapace is more effective than brooding in a marsupium under the thorax.
Tanaidacea
Authors: Schram Frederick R. , Koenemann Stefan
Published: January 2022

At present, approximately 1,402 species of tanaidaceans are recognized—a sizable number and of the same order of magnitude as Cumacea. Within Tanaidacea, a surprising amount of anatomical diversity appears, especially within species. For decades, they have been divided into Dikonophora and Monokonophora, based on whether there are one or two genital cones in the males. The order displays widespread progeny, with females remaining in their burrows to bear the young, which eventually bore out of the burrows to take up independent existence in their own burrows. After reproducing, the females molt to eventually become copulatory males, which then range about seeking suitable females. Tanaidacea lack a telson in favor of an anal somite.
Procaridea
Authors: Schram Frederick R. , Koenemann Stefan
Published: January 2022

Members of the infraorder Procaridea were at first located as a family of Caridea, then separated out as a sister group to the carideans, then placed back inside Caridea, and finally today currently sit as a distant sister group to Caridea. There are only six6 species known at present in two genera—certainly one of the smallest of pancrustacean groups. They brood their eggs on their pleopods, and so are good pleocyematans. What is distinctive about them is that they all occur on widely isolated islands. This could be a relict distribution from an ancient origin,. or perhaps these species might all be linked by certain “conveyor-belt” surface currents in the world’s oceans. We await further discoveries.
Clam Shrimp
Authors: Schram Frederick R. , Koenemann Stefan
Published: January 2022

The clam shrimp, once thought to be a single order, are now viewed as three distinct orders within a cohort Diplostraca. Laevicaudata (or the lynceids) have ambiguous features such that they might be either closely related to Calmanostraca or stand as a sister group to a clade containing the rest of the Diplostraca. Lynceus has 11–13 limb-bearing somites in the thorax. Spinicaudata have 11–32 segments depending on the species, but the gonopores open on the 11th trunk somite. Cyclestheriida, however, is a sister taxon to the order Cladocera; it bears 16–18 pairs of trunk limbs in females and 15 pairs in males.
Cladocera
Authors: Schram Frederick R. , Koenemann Stefan
Published: January 2022

The cladocerans, currently thought to contain approximately 630 species, constitute the most speciose and anatomically diverse group within Branchiopoda. Unlike other branchiopods with gonopores located around the 12th thoracic somite, cladocerans are truly oligomerous, with greatly shortened bodies. Cladocerans sort themselves into two general types: swimmers and crawlers. The swimmers typically use the antennae for locomotion, assisted to a greater or lesser degree by the buoyancy of the body. The crawlers live on or in the bottom or on the surface of water plants. There are five subgroups: anomopods, ctenopods, haplopods, onychopods, and the extinct cryptopods. Determining phylogeny among cladocerans has been hindered by overreliance on morphology. Increasing use of molecular sequences is beginning to gain in significance, although problems with unresolved clades remain. The important achievement to date is a consensus regarding a clearly monophyletic Cladocera.
“Enantiopods”
Authors: Schram Frederick R. , Koenemann Stefan
Published: January 2022

The fossil arthropods discussed in this chapter represent problem taxa. Almost all occur in the middle of the Paleozoic (mostly Devonian), although one species derives from the Cambrian. All possess “long bodies” but present confusing and incomplete preservations of their anterior-most features. Their trunk limbs appear as unremarkable, either biramous or multiramous. These species often are placed among “primitive” arthropods, and such might well be so. Pancrustacea were long thought to have begun their evolution in the Cambrian as long-bodied, homonomous marine creatures. However, the molecular sequence data “insists” living taxa that conform to the longer bodied morphotypes occur high up in the pancrustacean cladograms. Thus, long-bodied homonomy must express either some kind of atavistic throwback as an apomorphy or are part of a logical continuum from the short-bodied Oligostraca, through middle-sized Multicrustacea, to the derived, long-thorax Allotriocarida. This chapter examines nine species, suggests alternative interpretations of their anatomy, and offers a dendrogram that could explain the evolution of Allotriocarida. “Enantiopod” is used as a catchall term—a common name—which is at best a parataxon.
Clarence Adams and Morris Wills
Authors: Lautz Terry
Published: January 2022

This chapter relates the story of twenty-one US Army soldiers, prisoners of war (POWs) in Korea, who at the end of the Korean War, chose to live in China instead of returning home. Among them were Clarence Adams, an African American from Memphis who believed the PRC would be free of racism, and Morris Wills, a White American from upstate New York who hoped China would offer him a better life. As the chapter shows, the PRC welcomed them for propaganda purposes, and many Americans blamed brainwashing, which the Chinese called thought reform, for their decision. Both men attended universities, married Chinese women and had children, but became disillusioned and returned to the United States after the Cultural Revolution broke out in the mid-1960s. In the United States, they lived with the stigma of being “turncoats” who had defected to Communist China.
Joan Hinton and Sid Engst
Authors: Lautz Terry
Published: January 2022

Joan Hinton and Sid Engst went to China in the late 1940s, became fervent believers in Mao’s revolution, and stayed for the rest of their lives, working to improve China’s dairy industry. Hinton was a promising physicist who worked on the atomic bomb at Los Alamos and Engst was a farmer from central New York. In spite of the horrors of the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution, they remained dedicated to socialism, believing that Mao had done a tremendous amount to improve Chinese society. After Deng Xiaoping’s reforms and opening to the West, they lamented the loss of Mao’s dream for a classless egalitarian society. From their perspective, his vision had been betrayed.
(Im)mobile Homes
Authors: Cabalquinto Earvin Charles B.
Published: January 2022

The home is at the forefront of rapid transformation brought upon the expansion of globalizing economies, transnational migration, and the widespread uptake of ubiquitous digital communication technologies. This book unravels how geographically dispersed family members use smartphones, social media, and mobile applications in forging and sustaining long-distance relationships. It foregrounds the diverse, personalized, intimate, and creative mobile practices of fragmented family members in the enactment of everyday household interactions, festivities, homeland connections, and crisis management. On the one hand, mobile device use facilitates transnational connectivity, paving the way for enabling intimate ties, care expressions, and homeland linkages. Yet, communicative tensions also arise when digital routines are shaped by uneven familial expectations, differential financial conditions, asymmetrical technological access and capacities, work conditions, and migration policies and processes. It is by deploying various strategies that transnational family members cope with an often unstable, unsettling, and ambivalent networked environment. Ultimately, this book provides a nuanced perspective on examining the mobilization of a home from afar in the age of smartphones and mobile applications.
A Lesson from Francesco Rognoni Taeggio
Authors: Reiter Walter S.
Published: January 2022

Part One of Rognoni’s Selva (1620) builds on the ornaments of Caccini, introducing two further devices “useful to him who desires to sing with grace and style,” the “portar della voce” and “accenti,” both ways of moving gracefully from note to note. In this lesson, all ornaments are explored in terms of violin technique. Rognoni’s passaggi and cadences are more than merely exhaustive in their invention, they are miniature masterpieces that should be systematically worked through in the way advocated in previous lessons. Part Two completes the link between vocal and instrumental music. Describing the violin as “crude and harsh,” Rognoni shows us ways of sweetening the sound with a table of bowing patterns, showing remarkable variety and sophistication; it is reproduced in full, with observations. There is also information on a useful trill/vibrato hybrid advocated by Rognoni and on the need to insert commas before final notes of passaggi, gruppi, and trilli.
Giovanni Antonio Pandolfi Mealli
Authors: Reiter Walter S.
Published: January 2022

After biographical details (including an alleged murder), we discuss “stylus fantasticus” at length; although present in the previous two sonatas, it is most clearly discernible here. Quoting Athanasius Kircher and Johann Mattheson, we conclude that the implication for performers is that there are sections where no boundaries or limitations exist as to what we can do to make the music come alive: dynamics, tempo, rubato, bow strokes, ornamentation, tone color, and double stops are all in the service of enhanced expression. Extreme examples are quoted, including the “unmeasured preludes” of Louis Couperin. The subject of accidentals was far from an exact science at this time and is most relevant to this sonata: a discussion on this topic, known as musica ficta, is timely. The Observations section draws on accumulated knowledge from previous lessons: there are detailed suggestions for many passages and sections as well as for ornamentation, rhythmic alteration, and slurs.
Transforming Visual Gestures into Sound
Authors: Reiter Walter S.
Published: January 2022

This interlude proposes a way of harnessing powers of expression from a work of art, a sculpture by Bernini, and a mystical text, the autobiography St. Teresa. Imitating the pose of a painting or sculpture, internalizing the emotions with which the artist has painstakingly struggled to endow that work, allows us a glimpse into a world that is not ours, into a time and a place that is far distant but which we, as artists and students of that age, must struggle to understand and make our own. Some may find such an idea too fanciful; others may protest that it is out of place in a book on how to play the violin. But part of a teacher’s job is surely to inspire and it is my hope that some may find the concept enriching, revealing or, at the very least, diverting.
François Couperin: Septiéme Concert (II)
Authors: Reiter Walter S.
Published: January 2022

The influence of Lully on the formation of a national French style is outlined. Muffat codified Lully’s insistence on bowings that suited the articulation and character of each dance: the greatest skill of the Lullists was that even with many repeated down-bows, nothing unpleasant was heard. A bowing based on Muffat is suggested for the start of the Sarabande and a bowed Sarabande by Montéclair is reproduced to demonstrate other bowing possibilities. The detailed Observations section highlights the subtlety and sophistication of Couperin’s music, including the extraordinary ending, in which the two parts descend slowly in parallel notes but with contrary rhythms.
Johann Sebastian Bach
Authors: Reiter Walter S.
Published: January 2022

The Siciliana is the only dance movement among the sonatas of the Sei Solo, and the author believes it should truly be played in the manner of a dance. The keywords in Baroque dance movements are “grace,” “refinement,” “elegance,” and “articulation”: without these, a dance can easily become earthbound. Bach uses the siciliano rhythm in both vocal and instrumental works: a light, gently swung sixteenth note is suggested. The structure of the movement is elusive, certainly in relation to the other movements of the sonata; this relative lack of clear structure is precisely what gives it its identity. Much of it is written in the form of a trio sonata, with a bass part and two upper parts. In the previous movements, Bach almost entirely avoided entering the relative major key, thus enabling us to enjoy a fresh tonal experience here. A detailed Observation section forms most of the movement.
Bach and the Influence of French Culture in the German Lands
Authors: Reiter Walter S.
Published: January 2022

Bach’s contact with French culture dates from his schooldays in Lüneberg and was to last all his life, so the French influence in his music and the consequences for historical performance practice cannot be ignored. After the devastating Thirty Years War, many German rulers looked to the court of Versailles for cultural regeneration: French culture became fashionable and French musicians, many of whom Bach knew personally, exerted an influence on German musical life. The entire body of Bach’s work, instrumental and vocal, is permeated with the rhythms of dance. The dances in his suites, many of which originated as French court dances, were not composed to be danced to, but many nevertheless conform sufficiently to the structure and conventions of the dances to merit investigation. Comparative examples are given of dances from other partitas that are so different in character that they cannot be considered in the light of historic dance.
Johann Sebastian Bach
Authors: Reiter Walter S.
Published: January 2022

Textual similarities abound between the Bourée and the Gigue in Bach’s Partita III in E Major, giving the movements a strong element of unity. As the combined movements are a mere sixty-eight bars long, they may be considered as a pair, the first leading almost attacca into the second. The choreography of both movements is discussed.
The metric structure of the Bourée is identical to that of the Gavotte. Syncopation is a common feature and there is a strong element of it throughout this movement.
Bach wrote some forty-two movements with the title of Giga, Jig, Jigg, or even (BWV 815) Gique, composed in any of seven time signatures. Of the two examples in Sei Solo, both are clearly of the Italian kind, even though Bach calls this one a “Gigue.” Possible reasons for this are discussed. As ever, it is in the Observations section that the minutiae are discussed, for details are of the essence in this music.
The Rules of Capitalism
Authors: Chambers Samuel A.
Published: January 2022

Chapter 9, “The Rules of Capitalism,” outlines five “rules” of capitalism as strong tendencies or gravitational forces of a capitalist social order. Like all rules, the rules of capitalism can be broken, but understanding the rules themselves is essential to understanding capitalist economics.
The Prison Society’s Problem
Authors: Edwards Laura F.
Published: January 2022

Textiles were not just necessities or desirable consumer goods. As this chapter shows, they also circulated as currency. That was particularly true for people who had difficulty acquiring property or credit. The federal system’s decentralized structure enabled that situation: lax financial regulation allowed textiles to circulate just like mediums of exchange that bore the imprimatur of states and the federal government. If anything, the people who used textiles as currency improved on the systems of exchange overseen by their government. Textiles stored value reliably. There was considerable consensus as to their value. They were extremely liquid. And they were attached to people through longstanding practices acknowledged in law. Through use, people turned textiles into banknotes—which is where textiles eventually ended up anyway, since banknotes were made of rags. Spinners, weavers, seamstresses, dressmakers, tailors, and even washerwomen were all, essentially, printing money.
Though I Walk through the Valley
Authors: Harris Paul William
Published: January 2022

One of the first fields for Methodist Episcopal Church missions was New Orleans and the lower Mississippi River valley, and it proved to be fertile soil for the rise of vibrant congregations of aspiring African Americans. Records for this area give a better portrait of the Black members than can be found elsewhere, thanks in large part to Octavia Rogers Albert’s House of Bondage. Chapter 3 discusses how white leaders like Joseph Hartzell and Black leaders like Hiram Revels hoped to cultivate relations with southern whites that would pave the way toward social acceptance. That included resisting the movement toward separate conferences for the races. Freed slaves and their white allies faced instead a violent backlash that caused the Exoduster movement toward Kansas.
The Chattanooga Embarrassment
Authors: Harris Paul William
Published: January 2022

In the 1880s, the Freedmen’s Aid Society and the Methodist Episcopal Church concluded that building an interracial church in the South ought to entail supporting white schools as well as Black. After founding a college for whites in Chattanooga, they soon discovered to their embarrassment that the white faculty felt free to officially exclude Black applicants and practice the etiquette of Jim Crow. The episode sparked a national controversy over what it meant to create schools “for whites” and highlighted a growing tension within the denomination over its commitment to opposing racial caste. While many M.E.C. leaders concluded that opposition to segregation was vain, others regarded it as sacrificing principle for expediency. Chapter 4 analyzes the controversy as a revealing window on the fundamental tensions involved in trying to build a racially inclusive Church in the South.
Our Brothers in White
Authors: Harris Paul William
Published: January 2022

As the self-proclaimed capital of the New South, Atlanta cultivated an image that seemed to promise opportunity for African Americans, and it became a center of higher education for African Americans. Chapter 5 focuses on Atlanta and examines the New South ideal. The Methodist Episcopal Church notably founded Gammon Theological Seminary there in 1883, looking to the school as the pinnacle of their educational system for training the leaders of their people. The seminary also hosted the Stewart Missionary Foundation, created to promote missions to Africa. Seminary president Wilbur Thirkield joined with Black ministers in support of prohibition, but they received little reward for their efforts. Educated African Americans increasingly expected an equal voice in denominational affairs. However, during the 1890s a growing movement in favor of reuniting with the M.E.C., South, foretold that their dream of a national reconciliation between North and South could only be achieved by sacrificing the goal of racial reconciliation.
“What Shall We Do with the Negro”
Authors: Harris Paul William
Published: January 2022

Chapter 7 covers a period of time in which a rising generation of Black leaders in the Methodist Episcopal Church continued to strive for acceptance and equality, and they set their sights on the goal of electing a bishop of African descent. With support from their white allies, promoting the candidacy of J. W. E. Bowen became the focus of their efforts. Despite his sterling qualifications, which included a prominent role in the famed Cotton States Exposition of 1895, Bowen repeatedly fell short of the votes needed, and his candidacy revealed that a clear majority of General Conference delegates were not prepared to accept an African American in a leadership position with authority over whites. Instead, involvement in missions to Africa came to serve as an alternative route to advancement within the Church. Under the direction of Joseph Hartzell, Alexander Camphor was recruited to bring racial uplift to Liberia as the president of the College of West Africa.
Can there be free will in a determined universe?
Authors: O’Connor Timothy
Published: January 2022

This chapter explains the thesis of causal determinism and summarizes the competing perspectives of philosophers who regard it as compatible with free will and those who don’t. It discusses challenges to the internal consistency or meaningfulness of compatibilism. And it considers whether incompatibilism has the consequence—since causal determinism is an open scientific question—that we cannot now know whether we have free will.
How is consciousness related to freedom of action or will?
Authors: Bayne Tim
Published: January 2022

Consciousness is—or is alleged to be—related to free will in a number of ways. This chapter distinguishes two main points of contact. The first is related to belief in the existence of free will. Here, it is argued that one might appeal to the experience of freely willing an action to explain why belief in the reality of free will is widespread and/or to explain why that belief is true (or at least reasonable). The second point of contact between consciousness and free action/will holds that consciousness is in some way necessary for free action/will. The chapter considers this proposal in light of a number of distinctions: between consciousness as a property of agents and consciousness as a property of mental state, and between consciousness understood as wakefulness and consciousness understood as experience.
How do higher-level brain areas exert control over lower-level brain areas?
Authors: Hallett Mark
Published: January 2022

The chapter begins with a discussion of what brain levels might mean and whether there really are brain levels. Assuming there are, the basic processes of the motor system are reviewed, focusing on control of muscle activation. Basic functions of spinal cord, brain stem, basal ganglia, cerebellum, thalamus, and different regions of the cortex are discussed. The key role of the primary motor cortex (M1) in issuing the motor command via the corticospinal tract is noted, and the influences on M1 are emphasized. Questions are raised of when and where a voluntary movement is initiated and how the sense of volition arises.
Which neural mechanisms could enable conscious control of action?
Authors: Gavenas Jake , Hallett Mark , Maoz Uri
Published: January 2022

This chapter discusses contemporary perspectives on the role of consciousness in decision-making and action production. Everyday experience and common sense suggest that the subjective experience of will causes overt movement. But some neuroscientific research seems to provide evidence against this notion, with some claiming consciousness has no causal role in decision-making and action. Scientific perspectives that retain a role for consciousness vary across at least two dimensions. First, perspectives differ in whether consciousness has an active, online, immediate role in producing action (proximal) or a delayed, modulatory role—perhaps related to learning or planning (distal). Second, perspectives differ in whether consciousness itself generates actions or decisions or modulates them by inhibiting or vetoing decisions and actions generated by unconscious processes. These two dimensions define four quadrants, each with predictions about how action-related neural mechanisms relate to consciousness. The chapter places contemporary action-oriented theories of consciousness into these quadrants.
How does the absence of a consensus about the neural basis of consciousness and volition affect theorizing about conscious volition?
Authors: Hopkins Amber , Mudrik Liad , Maoz Uri
Published: January 2022

This chapter introduces the neuroscientific study of consciousness, volition, and conscious volition, discussing the lack of consensus and other obstacles neuroscientists face in identifying their neural bases. It describes how theoretical frameworks and philosophical work come into play toward this end. The chapter also discusses the importance of collaboration between neuroscientists and philosophers, zooming out and reflecting on differences between progress in philosophy and progress in neuroscience.
How can we determine the precise timing of brain events related to action?
Authors: Hallett Mark , Schurger Aaron
Published: January 2022

Recording the precise timing of brain events related to action requires recording techniques that can keep pace with neuronal activity that plays out on the time scale of milliseconds. This chapter discusses available techniques, the pros and cons of each, and the relevant considerations involved in the study of action initiation. Non-invasive techniques with high time resolution are available, but these are limited to detecting relatively large-scale neuronal events. Invasive techniques can pick up even very localized and small-scale neuronal events, but their spatial coverage can be limited and ethical considerations greatly limit their use. Determining the precise timing of the brain events related to action also hinges on whether the brain activity in question happens at a precise time or is extended in time.
How can we determine the precise timing of mental events related to action?
Authors: Lee Sae Jin , Wong Sook Mun (Alice) , Maoz Uri , Hallett Mark
Published: January 2022

Actions involve body movements which are easily and precisely timed. Mental events are subjective, thus much more difficult to time. Intentions are mental events that come before action and appear to be causal for the action. This chapter deals with proximal intention, which subjectively immediately precedes movement, and the multiple experimental methods to assess its timing. One well-studied method is the recollection by the subject of the “time” of a clock at the moment of the sense of willing. Intention formation may be a process rather than a point in time. This process is noticeable up to 1,400 ms before movement onset but rises to full consciousness only about 200 ms before movement onset.
How can computational models help us understand free will?
Authors: Kreiman Gabriel , Liljenström Hans , Schurger Aaron , Maoz Uri
Published: January 2022

A comprehensive, falsifiable, theory of volition necessitates quantitative computational models. Ambiguous word models are insufficient to understand volition. The desiderata for computational models, and hence for understanding volition, include (1) explaining and predicting how neurons give rise to volitional decisions, as well as (2) explaining and predicting behavior from the activity of such neurons. Efforts toward building computational models of volitional decisions remain in their infancy. Initial and preliminary sketches of models rely on gradual integration toward a threshold that originates the decision. The integration of computational models with state-of-the-art experimental observations in the field constitutes an essential goal to pave the way toward understanding volition.
Chinese Approaches to International Security
Authors: Rühlig Tim Nicholas
Published: January 2022

This chapter briefly summarizes the Responsibility to Protect (R2P), explaining the underlying paradigmatic shift in the understanding of international security and how it relates to the issue of state control. While China might have been expected to reject this development, the PRC selectively adopted some core elements of the emerging norm while rejecting others. By examining two particular decisions—on the Libyan war in 2011 and the Syrian civil war—the chapter demonstrates China’s contradictory approach. It explains the PRC’s decisions in both cases as a trade-off between different domestic sources of economic and nationalist legitimization, coupled with the dynamics of decision-making within the foreign policy apparatus. The chapter elaborates on the consequences of these findings for the future international order. Two modes of action—an instrumental approach to law and the undermining of core definitions that shape international security policy—translate China’s contradictory R2P policy into systemic influence.
Zen Pathways
Authors: Davis Bret W.
Published: January 2022

This book offers an in-depth introduction to the philosophy and practice of Zen Buddhism. The author is a philosophy professor who formally practiced Zen in Japan for more than a dozen years and is authorized to teach Zen. During his years studying and teaching philosophy in universities in Japan, he worked closely with the leading contemporary representatives of the Kyoto School. The book lucidly explicates the philosophical implications of Zen teachings and kōans, comparing and contrasting these with other Asian as well as Western religions and philosophies. Throughout it relates traditional Zen teachings and practices to our twenty-first-century lives. In addition to being a scholarly and philosophical introduction to Zen, the book provides concrete instructions for beginning a practice of Zen meditation. Its twenty-four chapters treat such philosophical topics as the self, nature, art, morality, and language, as well as basic Buddhist teachings such as the Middle Way and karma. Several chapters engage in interreligious dialogue with Christianity and other religions, as well as with other schools of Buddhism. The Zen-based philosophies of the Kyoto School are introduced in one chapter and frequently referenced throughout the book. The concluding chapter reviews the path of Zen practice and enlightenment by way of commenting on the beloved Zen classic, The Ten Oxherding Pictures. The book can be read in its entirety as a coherently organized introduction to the philosophy and practice of Zen, or chapters can be read independently according to the reader’s specific interests.
How to Practice Zen Meditation
Authors: Davis Bret W.
Published: January 2022

This chapter provides instructions for practicing Zen meditation, zazen. It explains how to attend to place, body, breath, and mind. First, it explains how to set up a good space for meditation, and it discusses when, how often, and for how long one should meditate. Next, it explains in detail how the body should be positioned, either on a chair, in a cross-legged (Burmese, half-lotus, or full-lotus) position, or in a kneeling position. Then it introduces the traditional Zen method of “counting the breaths,” up to ten, one number per breath, as a method for concentrating and calming the mind. It goes on to discuss the importance of maintaining physical stillness as a gateway to mental, emotional, and ultimately spiritual peace, and it explains how to clear the mind by neither chasing after nor chasing off distracting thoughts. It ends by explaining how to practice walking meditation, kinhin.
The Buddha’s Strong Medicine
Authors: Davis Bret W.
Published: January 2022

After outlining the Buddha’s Four Noble Truths, this chapter focuses on the first of these—namely, the idea that our life is pervaded by duhkha, a word that often gets translated as “suffering” but is better rendered as “dissatisfaction” or “existential unease.” The Buddha presented himself as a kind of spiritual doctor who could diagnose and offer a prescription for this pervasive dis-ease. Suffering in general is caused by a mismatch between desire and reality. We suffer when what we are or have does not match up with what we want to be or want to have. To relieve suffering we must change either reality or our desire. The law of impermanence is a fact of reality that cannot be changed; everything that comes to be eventually passes away. The Buddha teaches that the path to peace and joy requires that we embrace change rather than pine for permanence.
Zen Lessons from Nature
Authors: Davis Bret W.
Published: January 2022

This chapter examines Zen’s understanding of the place of human beings in the wider natural world. It begins by explaining how Zen thinks of freedom as “freedom in nature” rather than as “freedom from nature.” It then discusses how samu or “meditative work” was incorporated into Zen practice, and how it brings practitioners into a more intimate relation with nature. Recounting a personal experience of raking and composting maple leaves at a Zen monastery in Kyoto, it suggests that one of the virtues that can be learned from this intimate working with nature is what Zen, and Mahayana Buddhism in general, calls the Perfection of Giving. The chapter ends by commenting on how Zen masters have instructed their students to learn Zen from the sights and sounds of the natural world.
Zen and Language
Authors: Davis Bret W.
Published: January 2022

This chapter examines Zen’s stress on both the limits and expressive power of language. The intimate relation between sound and silence is presented in haiku by Matsuo Bashō and poetry by Rainer Maria Rilke. Paradoxically, a motto of Zen is “not relying on words and letters” or “not establishing words and letters,” and yet it has produced a vast body of literature, including kōans and kōan commentaries as well as poetry. On the one hand, Zen says that a linguistic teaching is merely a “finger pointing at the moon,” and yet, on the other hand, it affirms some uses of language as what Dōgen calls an “expressive attainment of the Way” (dōtoku). In order to resolve this paradox, the chapter turns in the end to Ueda Shizuteru’s understanding of Zen practice, and human existence in general, in terms of a ceaseless dynamic of “exiting language and exiting into language.”
Introduction
Authors: Lee John W.I.
Published: January 2022

This chapter introduces John Wesley Gilbert as a pioneering African American scholar, archaeologist, teacher, civic leader, and missionary. The chapter begins with the story of the 1968 Paine College fire that destroyed vital historical evidence and then discusses previous study of Gilbert’s life and work. The chapter provides background information on the American School of Classical Studies at Athens, where Gilbert studied in 1890–1891. The chapter gives an overview of the sources and methods used in the book, gives an outline of the book’s organization, and examines the authorial stance involved in writing a biography.
This Young Man Deserves Special Mention
Authors: Lee John W.I.
Published: January 2022

This chapter focuses on John Wesley Gilbert’s undergraduate studies at Brown University from 1886 to 1888. The chapter examines the previous experiences of black students Inman Page and George Washington Milford at Brown, along with Gilbert’s choice of the school. The chapter explores his housing situation on campus and the reaction of fellow students to his presence, his coursework with Greek professor Albert Harkness and other instructors, and his growing involvement in the black community of Providence, Rhode Island. The chapter pays special attention to Gilbert’s relationship with Harkness, who was one of the most noted classical scholars in the United States as well as a leading figure in the establishment of the new American School of Classical Studies at Athens (American School or ASCSA). The chapter culminates with Gilbert’s hiring at Paine Institute in early 1888, a decision made by Paine’s interracial board of trustees in spite of objections from a white faculty member at Paine.
The American School
Authors: Lee John W.I.
Published: January 2022

This chapter begins by examining Gilbert’s classmates at the American School of Classical Studies at Athens, in 1890–1891—Carleton Brownson, Andrew Fossum, John Pickard—and their professor, Annual Director Rufus Richardson of Dartmouth College. It then proceeds to examine Gilbert’s living accommodations at the American School’s new building on the eastern outskirts of Athens. From there, it paints a portrait of the city of Athens in 1890, highlighting the contrasts between old and new in the rapidly growing city. The chapter introduces Greek minister Michael Demetrius Kalopothakes and his Canadian-born wife Margaret who welcomed Gilbert and other Americans to their church and home in central Athens. It also introduces US consul Irving Manatt, a classical scholar who was an avid booster of the American School. Through the lenses of the Kalopothakes family and Manatt, the reader learns more about the politics, culture, and society of Greece in 1890 and gains a better understanding of how Gilbert experienced Greece.
No Stone Unturned
Authors: Lee John W.I.
Published: January 2022

This chapter focuses on John Wesley Gilbert’s experiences during fall 1890 as a member of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens. It examines the American School’s topographical studies of ancient Athens, comparing what visitors to Athens see today with what was visible to Gilbert and his companions in 1890. It also examines the School’s October 1890 hike through northern Attica (the countryside around Athens), including visits to the famous ancient battlefield of Marathon (490 bc), to the temple site of Rhamnus, and to other ancient archaeological sites. The chapter discusses Gilbert’s decision to forego the School’s two-week hike into central Greece in order to focus on his Greek reading list for his Brown graduate studies. The chapter ends with a discussion of Gilbert’s response to the Christian heritage of Greece, specifically the Areopagus or Mars Hill where, according to the Book of Acts, the apostle Paul spoke.
The Demes of Athens
Authors: Lee John W.I.
Published: January 2022

This chapter reconstructs Gilbert’s thesis research at the American School of Classical Studies at Athens during winter 1890–1891. Gilbert’s thesis on the urban demes (neighborhoods or districts) of Athens would help him earn his 1891 master of arts degree from Brown University, making him one of the first African Americans ever to earn an advanced degree in Greco-Roman classical studies. Although the text of his thesis is lost, the chapter explains why he chose the topic, describes the sources and methods he probably used, and places his research into the broader context of ancient Athenian topographical studies. Gilbert was the first American scholar to write about the urban demes, which played a key role in the political, cultural, and social organization of classical Athenian democracy. The chapter also examines Gilbert’s growing friendship with his American School classmate John Pickard and his relationship with Charles Waldstein, the Permanent Director of the American School, who arrived in Athens in December 1890. The chapter also describes Gilbert’s attendance at the January 1891 funeral services held in Athens for Heinrich Schliemann, the discoverer of Troy.
Excavating Eretria
Authors: Lee John W.I.
Published: January 2022

This chapter focuses on John Wesley Gilbert’s archaeological excavation and survey work at the ancient Greek site of Eretria, on the island of Euboea north of Athens. The chapter begins by explaining the history of Eretria from ancient to modern times and describing conditions in the modern village of Nea Psara (built atop the ancient ruins) when Gilbert arrived there in February 1891. From there, the chapter discusses Gilbert’s participation in the American School of Classical Studies at Athens’s excavations of the ancient cemeteries east of Eretria, especially on a grave that Charles Waldstein would erroneously identify as “the tomb of Aristotle.” The chapter then investigates the archaeological and topographical survey of ancient Eretria’s fortifications that Gilbert and his classmate John Pickard conducted, using their original survey map, essays they wrote from the site, and several preserved photographs. The chapter concludes by examining how the “tomb of Aristotle” fiasco overshadowed the valuable contributions of Gilbert and Pickard’s survey and discusses how African American participation in Greek archaeology might have developed differently had Gilbert excavated with the American School at Corinth in 1895 or afterward, rather than excavating at Eretria in 1891.
Arguing about the Jus ad Bellum
Authors: Hakimi Monica
Published: January 2022

Quite a bit of research suggests that international law’s argumentative practice has value insofar as it leads to or affirms some kind of normative settlement. This chapter uses the argumentative practice in the jus ad bellum to counter that view. The chapter’s central claim is that arguments about the jus ad bellum are valuable, even when they do not lead to normative settlement and the law’s content on the issue in dispute remains contested. The reason they are valuable is that they promote certain values that are associated with the rule of law.
Argumentation in the UN Security CouncilInternational Law as Process
Authors: Sheeran Scott P.
Published: January 2022

This chapter addresses the process of international legal argumentation within the UN Security Council context. The Council is the central global stage for mitigating international conflict and for managing cooperation on threats to international peace and security. The Council is relatively unique in that it creates, interprets, and enforces international law. The Council’s processes of decision-making are influenced more by international relations, underpinned by diplomacy and consensus, than the norms of international law. To have influence in the Council, international lawyers must think and argue laterally and embrace law as a social process. The leveraging of extralegal factors—arising from international relations, diplomacy, policy considerations, and international values—ultimately shapes the output of the legal process itself.
Nuclear Non-Proliferation LawWhy Argue and to What Effect?
Authors: Johnstone Ian
Published: January 2022

Because nuclear non-proliferation is a highly political security issue governed by relatively hard law, it is an interesting case study for legal argumentation. The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) has been the subject of debates over interpretation in variety of nonjudicial settings, from the UN Security Council and International Atomic Energy Agency, to NPT review conferences and the diplomatic back and forth over the nuclear programs of Iraq, Iran, and North Korea. This chapter analyzes the argumentation as an intersubjective activity, with the NPT serving as a shared frame of reference among states and, to a lesser extent, non-state actors. It focuses on interpretative disputes over two provisions of the treaty: Article IV on the right of non-nuclear weapon states to enrich uranium and Article VI on the disarmament obligation of nuclear weapon states. The chapter considers several possible reasons for the argumentation and observes that, regardless of motives, debates about compliance alter the normative climate surrounding the regime and has led to the creation of new law.
Legal Argumentation in the Evolving Climate Regime
Authors: Brunnée Jutta
Published: January 2022

This chapter explores the evolution of the UN climate regime and its implications for patterns of legal argumentation. The 2015 Paris Agreement introduced three interrelated shifts. First, it brings a shift from a model in which the treaty serves as centralized forum for inter-state standard setting and accountability practices, epitomized by the 1997 Kyoto Protocol, to a more decentralized model in which the treaty helps orchestrate a range of state and non-state practices, epitomized by the Paris Agreement. Second, it marks a turn toward non-binding substantive terms, supported by binding procedural terms. Finally, the Paris Agreement shifts from legal accountability practices toward non-legal performance assessment. A practice-based, interactional, account of international law suggests that only the third shift stands to reduce the scope for legal argumentation in the regime. The Paris Agreement’s decentralized approach and its increased reliance on non-binding or procedural terms are unlikely to diminish the salience of legal argumentation.
Prologue: The Paradox of Revivalist Fundamentalism
Authors: Marsden George M.
Published: January 2022

Dwight L. Moody’s closest associates were evangelists who also became leading proponents of dispensational premillennialism or dispensationalism. The associates included Reuben A. Torrey, James M. Gray, C. I. Scofield, William J. Erdman, A. C. Dixon, and A. J. Gordon. John Nelson Darby was the progenitor of this system. Dispensationalism became one of the foundations for much of fundamentalism. It was a system for interpreting biblical prophesies. It proponents also emphasized personal piety. American revivalism tended to include these emphases: simple ways of interpreting the Bible, warm emotions, and personal piety and purity. Reuben Torrey, who came closest to being Moody’s successor, particularly illustrates this combination of emphases.