bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Implications of Changes in the composition of Australian Exports for Export Sector Instability
Authors: Martin W. J.
Published: January 2008

Variability in export returns is a major source of instability in the Australian economy and, in the presence of price and wage rigidities, may be a substantial cause of social costs. There have been calls for explicit policies to change Australia's pattern of exports away from traditional agricultural and mineral exports. In this article, the implications of changes in the pattern of Australian exports have been examined taking into account the variability of each category and the correlations between categories. From the results it appears that the diversification from rural to mineral exports since 1970 has substantially reduced the variability of export returns. While rural exports remain the most variable component of the total, a reduction in the rural share of total exports and a corresponding expansion of Australias traditional manufactured exports would appear to have surprisingly little effect on export variability.
A Sceptical View of Australia's Current Account and Debt Problem
Authors: Pitchford J. D.
Published: January 2008

This article puts forward the view that there are considerable benefits to be gained from foreign borrowing and that policy actions of a macro nature should be diverted towards internal balance.

In Section 2 a brief history of the evolution of approaches to the current account is set out. Recent theories imply that the current account indicates the optimal amount of foreign borrowing both by firms and households, at least with zero fiscal deficits. The present conventional Australian approach to current account issues (Section 3) would seem to be based on theories which were relevant in an era of pegged exchange rates.

In Section 4 it is suggested not only that the current account should not be a target of macroeconomic policy, but that any microeconomic policy directed at reducing it should be justified by the existence of externalities in the borrowing/debt process.
How Far Should Mr Keating Go?
Authors: McDonald Ian M.
Published: January 2008

Australia's current account deficit is large by historical standards and so is the boom in private investment spending. The net effect is a level of thrift that is not unusually low. A major uncertainty facing policymakers is how far unemployment can be reduced without causing an inflationary spiral. If unemployment can be reduced without igniting inflation, then there is a case for loosening monetary policy.
Pension Schemes and Incentives: Case Studies from Australia and the United Kingdom
Authors: Creedy John , Disney Richard
Published: January 2008

The use of selective benefits, directed to those considered most in need, has a high ‘poverty reduction efficiency’. But selectivity inevitably produces non‐linearities in the budget constraints facing individuals, which may have incentive effects. The design of a tax and transfer scheme requires these two aspects to be carefully balanced. This article considers the issues in the context of means‐testing within the Australian and UK State pension schemes. In the Australian case, the main question concerns the incentive to save, while in the UK scheme the ‘earnings rule’ presents a strong disincentive to work beyond pension age.
Whither the Balance of Payments?
Authors: Lewis M. K. , Polasek M.
Published: January 2008

This article sets out the analytical framework of the ‘new’ approach to the balance of payments under the conditions of ‘international financial laissez faire’ characterised by financial deregulation, floating exchange rates, and high international capital mobility. It is argued that much of the reasoning underlying the new approach derives from the modus operandi of regional payments systems. The fundamental differences between the benchmark model of regional financing and the current international financial laissez faire are explored, and the extent to which the presence of exchange risk may interfere with the ‘optimal’ debt/borrowing processes posited by the new approach is discussed. The possibility of a transfer problem arising from Australia's rapid accumulation of short‐term foreign debt is considered.

While developments in international banking, together with the liberalisation and globalisation of world securities markets, have considerably narrowed the differences between the new global financial environment and regional payments systems, the conclusion of the article is that there are substantial externalities in the international case which are intrinsic to the debt/borrowing process and which are likely to remain a source of continued policy concern.
The Ddeterminants of Individual Wages in Australia: Competitive and Non‐Competitive Influences
Authors: Borland Jeff , Suen Anthony
Published: January 2008

This work provides a test of competitive theories of wage determination by examining the wages of identical workers across industry classifications. The finding that a set of significant industry wage differentials exists would seem to contradict a purely competitive theory of wage determination. However, the apparent presence of unmeasured human capital that is correlated with industry status does provide one potential competitive explanation for the industry wage effects. Moreover, non‐competitive explanations for the differences in industry wages, such as efficiency wage theory or institutional factors, appear to be inconsistent with the nature of the wage differentials.
Trade Taxes and Welfare: The Case of Export Incentives in South‐East Asian Countries
Authors: Falvey Rodney E. , Gemmell Norman
Published: January 2008

It is now widely recognised that the distortions common in many developing countries lead to a bias against exporting. In consequence many governments have begun to provide export incentives aimed at compensating for this bias. This article begins by examining the range of such incentives offered in South‐East Asian countires. It then goes on to use the standard theory of the second‐best to develop a simple framework within which these policies can be assessed. The difficulties encountered in constructing a system of export incentives that will not introduce distortions of their own are highlighted. The constraints imposed by GATT obligations are also noted.
The Macroeconomic Outlook
Authors: Murphy C. W.
Published: January 2008

A slow recovery is expected from the current recession. Since reaching a trough in the September quarter of 1990, real gross domestic product (GDP) has followed a flat path which is likely to continue through to the September quarter of 1991. A slow recovery may then commence in the December quarter of 1991. This is consistent with real GDP growth of ‐0.9 per cent in 1990‐91 followed by 2.4 per cent in 1991‐92 and around 3 per cent per annum to the mid‐ 1990s compared with ‘normal’ growth of 2.5 per cent per annum.

This recovery is likely to see the unemployment rate at over 10 per cent for most of 1991‐92, before moving to around 8 per cent by the mid‐1990s.

Inflation may fall sharply from a peak of 8.0 per cent in 1989‐90 to a trough of 3 to 4 per cent in 199 1–92, due to the recession and movements in oil prices. With a slow recovery, inflation may increase to 4 to 5 per cent per annum in the medium term.

The current account deficit has fallen from 5.9 per cent of GDP in 1989‐90 to a likely level of 4.1 per cent in 1990‐91, but part of this gain is cyclical rather than structural. Thus the deficit is expected to increase to around 5 per cent during recovery and remain flat to the mid‐ 1990s, implying steady increases in the ratio of foreign debt to GDP.

Looser monetary policy would erode part of the forecast sustained reduction in inflation. Looser fiscal policy would lead to a higher current account deficit.
The Macroeconomic Outlook
Authors: Murphy C. W.
Published: January 2008

A slow recovery, commencing in the December quarter of 1997, is expected from the current recession. Overall, gross domestic product (GDP) may increase by 2.8 per cent in the year to the June quarter of 1992, and continue to increase at a similar rate thereafter.

This subdued recovery is likely to see the unemployment rate at over 70 per cent to the end of 1992, before moving down slowly to around 8.5 per cent by the mid‐1990s.

Consumer price index (CPI) inflation may fall sharply from a peak of 8.0 per cent in 1989‐90 to a trough of under 3 per cent in 1997‐92, due to the recession and movements in oil prices. With a slow recovery, inflation may then increase to 5 per cent per annum in the medium term.

The current account deficit has fallen from 6.0 per cent of GDP in 1989‐90 to 4.7 per cent in 1990‐91, despite a fall in the terms of trade of 5 per cent. However, this has been due to the cyclical downturn. With a slow recovery in demand, and rising real labour costs hampering expansion in export and import‐competing industries, the current account deficit may once again reach 6 per cent of GDP by the mid‐1990s, implying steady increases in the foreign debt‐to‐GDP ratio.

This forecast assumes monetary policy targets an inflation rate of 5 per cent per annum. Any further easings in monetary policy may undermine the credibility of the inflation objective with the result that the trade weighted index (TWI) exchange rate may drop sharply from 59.
Determinants of Household Weatlh: Assets of Divorcing Couples in Australia
Authors: McCallum John , Beggs John
Published: January 2008

Recent reviews indicate that research on wealth in Australia has been limited by a lack of reliable data. The Economic Consequences of Marital Breakdown Survey containing data on the wealth of couples about to divorce, and items from the National Social Science Survey, provide new data for analysis. Shares of net wealth of housing (55 per cent) and superannuation (1 4 per cent) are comparable to those in previous studies. A ‘wealth function’ was developed taking account of age, gender, years of schooling and further education. There was a 2.6 per cent gain for each year of age and a decumulation of assets after age 58 years. Each year of schooling adds another 10 per cent to net wealth. There is a 16 per cent gain for those who have undertaken some further education after completing school. Some 22 per cent of adult Australians report ever receiving an inheritance. This new information begins to provide some of the answers on ‘how’ and, by inference, ‘why’ Australian households save.
The Use and Cost of Child Care in Australia
Authors: Teal Francis
Published: January 2008

The use and cost of child care have become important policy issues with rising labour force participation for women responsible for young children. In this article it is shown that for children aged less than 2 informal care is much more important than formal care. For children aged 3 to 5 by far the most important, and cheapest, form of formal care is preschool. The category of formal care which has expanded most rapidly is child care centre places. However the recent expansion of female employment has been effected with no rise in the share of formal care in the total. Publicly supplied child care centre places are over 40 per cent more expensive to produce than private ones. It is argued that for those who do not receive a fee relief subsidy public care is more expensive than private care. The inference is drawn that people are willing to pay more for public than private care because public care is of higher quality. However those buying this higher quality care pay (at most) only 80 per cent of the cost of producing the care. The shortage of care in the public sector is not solved by private sector expansion because users of care are not willing to pay the price of producing high quality care.
A Vision for Australia: Indicators from Singapore
Authors: Edwards Clive T.
Published: January 2008

This article suggests that Australia could benefit from observing more closely Singapore's current development strategy. The production of labour intensive manufactures primarily by foreign firms and for export formed the core of Singapore's successful economic advance in the 1960s and 1970s. While a factor endowment strength—comparatively cheap labour—lay behind this achievement, the Singapore government actively supplemented this strength by creating a business environment highly favourable to the needs of foreign investors.

With full employment and rising wage levels since then, Singapore lost its comparative advantage in the production of low wage manufactures to other East Asian countries. Recently, its development has been based more on created than inherited advantages. The Singapore government argues that the resources crucial to sustained per capita income advance in middle and higher income countries are not natural resources but rather information, technology, investible funds, research and development (R&D) spending and professional people. Singapore aims to develop its business environment to attract such resources to Singapore.

The government's vision for Singapore is a nation where the share of professional and highly skilled manpower in the workforce rises over time. This employment goal informs the government's approach to all policy matters: infrastructure development, education, urban development, microeconomic reform, taxation, fiscal, monetary and exchange rate policy, support for manufacturing and service activities, and attitudes to foreign investors.

By comparison with Australia, Singapore has a very level playing field. The government sees no conflict between intervening to attempt to create competitive advantage while vigorously pursuing microeconomic reforms to make the playing field in Singapore still more level.
Living Decently
Authors: Travers Peter , Richardson Sue
Published: January 2008

One of the reasons why poverty lines became popular at the turn of the century was their promise of a scientific technique that would dispense with moralising about poverty. We argue that a price paid in this quest has been an impoverishment of the richness of the notion of ‘a decent life’, the moral concept underlying poverty. In addition, poverty lines have in practice been more to do with inequality at the bottom end of the income distribution than with poverty. The purpose of this article is to rehabilitate the measurement of poverty, and to make it credible. We set out our preferred method of poverty measurement, and illustrate it using data from the Australian Standard of Living Study. A feature of our approach is to distinguish clearly between issues of inequality and issues of poverty. Questions such as who is on the bottom of the income distribution, whether this has changed over time, and how income levels of the worst off compare with the mean, are questions of inequality. As such, the answers tell us nothing at all about how the worst off are actually living. To answer that question, we require direct measures of consumption and of social participation. These measures are not as simple, but they provide us with knowledge about poverty that poverty lines have promised, but have not delivered in a credible fashion.
Trade Liberalisation, Closer Economic Relations and Intra‐Industry Specialisation
Authors: Menon Jayant
Published: January 2008

Abstract

Much of the growth in trade among the industrialised countries, and more recently among countries in the Asia‐Pacific region, has taken the form of intra‐industry trade (HT). Australia has historically had one of the lowest shares of IIT among OECD countries. This article examines how Australia's IIT has changed in the 1980s in response to the process of trade liberalisation and completion of the Closer Economic Relations (CER) pact with New Zealand. HT indexes are estimated for Australia's multilateral and trans‐Tasman trade for 1981 and 1991 for 132 industries using data at the 3 and 4‐digit level of the Standard International Trade Classification (SITC). The results point to a sharp increase in the share of IIT for both multilateral and trans‐Tasman trade. Industries that have undergone the largest reductions in protection levels have increased their shares of IIT quite considerably. Increased intra‐industry specialisation suggests that the short‐run adjustment costs associated with trade liberalisation are likely to be lower. If IIT continues to grow in response to the ongoing process of internationalisation of the Australian economy, then Australia's prospects for expanding its share of world trade are good.
Independent Living and Home Ownership: An Analysis of Australian Youth
Authors: Bourassa Steven C. , Haurin Donald R. , Haurin R. Jean , Hendershott Patric H.
Published: January 2008

Abstract

This study extends economic models of the joint decisions of living arrangement and home ownership. The cost of shelter is an important factor in determining whether youth live independently (apart from parents and other non‐related adults), and the cost of home ownership relative to renting is important to the tenure decision (choice of owning or renting). Simulations suggest that the post‐1985 decline and eventual removal of the Australian subsidy for first‐time home owners has lowered the home ownership rate among young households by 23 per cent, the equivalent of slowing the time to first ownership by two years.
Statics and Dynamics of Income Distribution: An Introductory Survey
Authors: Creedy John
Published: January 2008

Abstract

This article discusses some of the issues involved in making comparisons of income distributions using cross‐sectional data and in examining the dynamics of income distribution using longitudinal data. Any study of income distribution must consider the unit of analysis, the time period and the measure of income, and these are the focus of the article. Section 2, on annual incomes, begins with problems of intra‐household income sharing and the measure of income used, including household production. Comparisons among households of different size are discussed, involving the choice of equivalence scales, the use of decomposition analysis and more general dominance conditions. The role of value judgments in the use of equivalence scales is stressed. Section 3 is concerned with dynamic aspects of income distribution. It discusses methods of constructing synthetic cohorts for use in simulation exercises, the varieties of longitudinal data available, sample attrition and the unit of analysis. An appendix provides further references to the literature and data sources.
Unfinished Business
Authors: Vines David
Published: January 2008

Abstract

This article is about three phases in Australian trade policy: protectionism, unilateral liberalisation, and participation in regional trade liberalisation. Australia used to have one of the most protected economies in the world. The last dozen years have seen a radical transformation of Australian economic policy: Australia is in the process of becoming one of the most open economies in the world. The last five‐to‐ten years have also seen a related transformation of Australian foreign economic policy. This policy is now centrally concerned with promoting the process of international economic integration within the Asian region; particularly through the APEC process. Should Australia be pursuing ‘open regionalism’ in the Pacific? or promoting an Asia Pacific trading bloc? or concentrating on its own unilateral trade liberalisation? or using its energy to press for global liberalisation through the GATT? I argue that there remains a deep contradiction in the APEC process; that ‘open regionalism’ is in Australia's interests, and that the critical test of Australia's conversion to liberalisation will come in this third phase, in the future answers that it gives to these questions.
Macroeconomic Policy and Employment Growth in Australia
Authors: Phipps A. J. , Sheen J. R.
Published: January 2008

Abstract

This article, which explores various aspects of macroeconomic policy and employment growth, is prompted by the relative lack of attention given to these issues in the Green and White Papers on unemployment. The problem of hysteresis reinforces the generally recognised need to reduce the excessive volatility of output and employment growth in Australia. International comparisons presented in the article suggest that Australian output and employment growth have been more volatile than those of the three major OECD countries. Reduction in macroeconomic volatility requires more effective short‐term demand management than we have had in the recent past, and in turn, means that we must know more about the strength and timing of the effects of major macroeconomic policy instruments on employment growth and unemployment. This article presents employment growth equations for Australia over the period 1979–93 which incorporate domestic macroeconomic policy effects as well as the influences of the international business cycle. We show that monetary and fiscal policy have had a significant impact on the evolution of employment in Australia and, in particular, that tight monetary and fiscal policy contributed substantially to the recession of 1990–92.
The Influence of Financial Factors on Corporate Investment
Authors: Mills Karen , Morling Steven , Tease Warren
Published: January 2008

Abstract

Recent theoretical developments have shown that cash flows and the structure of a firm's balance sheet may have an important influence on investment. Establishing a link between cash flows, leverage and investment provides insights into the way that monetary policy and cyclical factors more generally influence the corporate sector. If cash flows are an important determinant of investment then changes in monetary policy (by changing interest rates) will influence investment through a cash flow effect as well as through altering the rate at which the returns to investment are discounted. If this is the case, the higher leverage of the corporate sector implies, other things being equal, that monetary policy may have a larger impact on investment than in the past.

In this article we use panel‐data analysis to examine the impact of financial factors on investment decisions of firms in the Australian corporate sector. We find strong support for the influence of financial factors on investment decisions. Leverage, internally generated cash flows, and the stock of cash and liquid financial assets are all important influences on investment behaviour, particularly for smaller firms, highly leveraged firms, and firms with high retention ratios.
Australian Capital City Real House Prices, 1979–1993
Authors: Bourassa Steven C. , Hendershott Patric H.
Published: January 2008

Real house prices have increased by 35 per cent in Australian capital cities during the last 15 years, with Brisbane, Canberra, and Sydney experiencing rises of 48 to 61 per cent and Adelaide, Melbourne and Perth having increases of 20 per cent or less. This article estimates a single model for the six cities to explain the divergent real price behaviour over time and space. It is concluded that the fundamental forces driving real house prices are the growth rate in real wage income (primarily due to employment growth) and the growth in population caused by net overseas migration.
Monetary Policy in Australia: An Introduction
Authors: Kenyon Peter
Published: January 2008

This Policy Forum brings together three views on the conduct of monetary policy in Australia. It arose from a submission by Peter Stemp which was refereed in the normal manner for contributed papers. One referee, Stephen Grenville, was prompted to forego his anonymity and to submit a paper addressing similar issues but taking a very different approach on the objectives of monetary policy. The editors asked John Pitchford to comment on both papers. The Grenville and Pitchford papers were edited in the manner used for Policy Forum.
Private Sector Involvement in Infrastructure Projects
Authors: Quiggin John
Published: January 2008

There has been little systematic discussion of the issues associated with private involvement in infrastructure. Analysis of the relative performance of the private and public sector in different phases of infrastructure provision suggests that, in most cases, the private sector will be most efficient in the construction phase but the public sector will be best equipped to handle the risks associated with ownership. The situation is less clear‐cut with respect to operation—a mixture in which core operations are undertaken by the public sector owner with peripheral operations being contracted out may be optimal in many cases.
Protection and Liberalisation in Australia and Abroad
Authors: Corden W. Max
Published: January 2008

This article reviews changes in Australian protection policy between 1967 and 1995, particularly the political economy aspects. The story is quite complex, and until 1974 was unusual by international standards, with a sophisticated Australian tariff debate and the remarkable transparency role of the Industry Assistance Commission (IAC), and its predecessor, the Tariff Board. The role of Alf Rattigan, Chairman of the Tariff Board and later the IAC, is stressed. Liberalisation since 1988 has been drastic, so that most tariffs will be brought down to 5 per cent by the year 2000. All quotas were ended by 1993. This can be contrasted with very high protection levels in 1967 and quite high levels even in 1987. Substantial unilateral trade liberalisation normally requires exchange rate depreciation, and the floating of the Australian dollar made the tariff reductions possible. The motives for Australian trade liberalisation in the 1980s are compared with those for similar liberalisations in many developing countries.
Engel Scales for Australia, the Philippines and Thailand: A Comparative Analysis
Authors: Valenzuela Ma. Rebecca J.
Published: January 2008

The purpose of this study is to explore the question of how similar or how different are equivalence scales of selected countries in the Asia‐Pacific region. In particular, the article investigates whether equivalence scales for Australia, the Philippines and Thailand are comparable. That the Philippines and Thailand are two countries which are strikingly similar in their levels of socioeconomic development suggests the possibility that the relative income needs of households of different sizes in these countries are similar. In contrast, Australia is seen as an industrialised nation unlikely to have scales similar to the two other countries.

The comparability problem is addressed via the widely used Engel estimation methodology applied to similarly selected samples and a common model specification. It is found that the level of agreement between the country‐specific scales is highly dependent on what ‘basket of necessities’ is used as an indicator of welfare. An interesting outcome that may well be of useful empirical significance is that with necessities defined to include food, clothing, and housing (and possibly, medical care as well), the equivalence scales for the Philippines, Thailand and Australia are more or less invariant; no such regularity exists if the definition of necessities is confined to food alone.
THE BIOCHEMICAL ASPECT OF THE RECAPITULATION THEORY
Authors: NEEDHAM JOSEPH
Published: January 2008

A discussion of the transitory functions of embryonic life introduces an account of the theory of recapitulation as it stands at the present time. The similarity between organiser phenomena and the formative stimuli provided by recapitulated structures is pointed out, and it is concluded that recapitulation itself cannot be regarded as an explanation of anything. A survey is given of the chemical events in embryonic development which seem to possess recapitulatory significance. Recapitulation may be regarded as fundamentally the result of the necessary passage from simplicity to complexity, from low to high organisation, which is entailed by the metazoal sexual system of reproduction, with its single egg cell. The retention of visible organs or structures from lower ontogenies in a given ontogeny is only a special case of this general rule and probably depends on the presence in them of essential formative stimuli.
VISCOSITY OF PROTOPLASM AS DETERMINING THE RATE OF BIOLOGICAL REACTIONS
Authors: STILES WALTER
Published: January 2008

A review of the available data shows that in solutions of non‐electrolytes and in heterogeneous systems the coefficient of diffusion of substances is not inversely proportional to the viscosity of the medium. Consequently there is no basis for Bělehradek's theory, based on such a supposed relation, that viscosity of the protoplasm, by determining rate of diffusion, determines the rate of biological reactions.
RESULTS OF SOME RECENT STATISTICAL INVESTIGATIONS OF INVERTEBRATE FOSSILS
Authors: TRUEMAN A. E.
Published: January 2008

Statistical investigations of Lamellibranchs and Gastropods show that there is considerable variation in any series collected at one horizon. The variation is greatest in such sedentary forms as Gryphaea and Carbonicola, but the variations appear to be similar in character, although they are not so wide in range, in certain Gastropods.

At each horizon variation appears to be continuous, and the characters, on the whole, vary independently. Each community is apparently homogeneous and indivisible. It is suggested that such an evolving stock must be regarded as a “plexus” or bundle of anastomosing lineages.
EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES UPON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE AMPHIBIAN NERVOUS SYSTEM
Authors: DETWILER S. R.
Published: January 2008

An account is given of certain experiments which bear upon the problems of morphogenesis in the central and peripheral nervous system. By means of grafting embryonic limbs and other rudiments it has been possible to alter the direction of growth in spinal nerves. These responses are discussed in relation to the probable nature of forces responsible for the general growth and connection of nerves.

Experiments involving limb and somite excision and grafting are described as they bear upon the development of primary somatic sensory and motor neurones, and upon the segmentation of spinal nerves. The results indicate a fundamental difference in the growth response of motor and sensory neurones to peripheral changes. They also support the theme that segmentation in the spinal cord is entirely subservient to mesodermic metamerism.

The autoplastic interchange of various embryonic spinal cord segments, as well as heterotopic grafting experiments, are described as they bear upon the problem of cellular proliferation and differentiation within the embryonic spinal cord. These results, in combination with those following limb and somite excision and grafting, indicate that forces within the central nervous system are chiefly responsible for proliferation therein, rather than growth influences from the periphery.
PROGRAMME‐EVOLUTION IN THE GRAPTOLITES
Authors: BULMAN O. M. B.
Published: January 2008

1. As an illustration of the occurrence of programme‐evolution among the graptolites, some of the series included within the “isolate” line of thecal elaboration in the monograptids have been selected.

2. These are represented in the Lower Silurian (Valentian) rocks of Sweden, Britain, Germany and Bohemia. When the species constituting these series in any one area are compared with those of another, as is attempted here for the British and German forms, they are found often to exhibit slight differences in form (although occupying the same relative positions in precisely comparable evolutionary series), and possibly also in time‐range. It is suggested that this local aspect is probably to be attributed largely to direct environmental influence.

3. Against the view that the thecal elaboration is adaptive, it is pointed out that several distinct progressive and regressive lines of development, not only in the isolate line, but also in the hooked and lobate lines, occur simultaneously (while simple unmodified thecal types also persist), and all these are represented by species which, as far as can be ascertained at present, lived under the same environmental conditions.

4. There is evidence of certain definite periods of evolutionary activity (represented by a marked abundance of species and particularly of new species), again suggesting the operation of what may be referred to as some “internal” factor in the evolution of the race. None of the explanations which has been advanced in the interpretation of similar series in other groups of animals seems applicable here, but no alternative is offered.
THE IN VITRO CULTIVATION OF FILTERABLE VIRUSES
Authors: EAGLES G. HARDY
Published: January 2008

The two generally held theories of the nature of the filterable viruses affecting animals are outlined. The living, particulate nature of these is discussed in the light of present research and their almost certain affinities with the known bacteria. The weight of evidence is almost wholly in favour of this view.

The importance of cultivation as evidence in favour of the living nature of the viruses is pointed out and the cultivation of vaccinia virus discussed in some detail. A short survey of the cultivation of some other viruses is given mainly to show that the methods successful in vaccinia have proved successful with other viruses.

The requirements of filterable viruses for successful culture are discussed in so far as knowledge at present permits. The bulk of opinion is in favour of an intimate relation between living susceptible cells and the elementary bodies which constitute the virus. The possibility of culture in the absence of cells is dealt with and the evidence on this point outlined. The significance of the interrelation of elementary bodies, virus inclusion bodies and cultivation is indicated.
THE COMPARATIVE PHYSIOLOGY OF COLOUR RESPONSE IN REPTILES AND FISHES
Authors: SAND A.
Published: January 2008

1. There is evidence that in both reptiles and teleost fishes the melanophores react to light in two ways:

(a) Expansion in response to illumination of the body surface or some part of it.

(b) Adaptation to shade of background.

2. Both processes must be considered in the formulation of a theory of coordination of pigmentary response.

3. Such a theory is discussed, and is shown to be applicable to the minnow and the chameleon.

4. The lipophores are concerned in adaptation of fishes to the colour of the background.

5. Recent work shows that they are controlled by endocrine agencies, which may also influence the melanophores to some extent.
THE SYSTEMATIC VALUE OF CUTICULAR CHARACTERS IN RECENT AND FOSSIL ANGIOSPERMS
Authors: EDWARDS W. N.
Published: January 2008

The study of cuticular structure as an aid to identification and classification, first extensively applied to fossil plants (particularly gymnosperms), is being increasingly used in recent taxonomic researches.

The investigation of spodograms (the characteristic figures due to siliceous skeletons, crystals, and the like seen in the residue of leaves slowly reduced to ash) has proved of great value in the Gramineae especially, and among dicotyledons in the Urticales. Attempts to apply the method to fossil plants have not so far led to any results.

Prat's analysis of epidermal characters in the Gramineae indicates the principles on which detailed taxonomic work should be based, and the systematic results he has so far obtained in this family are supported by evidence from other sources. Similar surveys of dicotyledonous families have scarcely yet been attempted; Bandulska's work on the Lauraceae is especially worthy of mention.

The available evidence suggests that in cases of convergence of leaf form, structural differences in the cuticle will almost always provide a means of distinguishing isolated leaves.

The distribution of cuticular elements may often furnish a means of discriminating closely related taxonomic groups which cannot be differentiated by purely structural characters.

Statistical characters such as size or frequency of the elements, though often of value, must always be used with extreme caution. The ratio of stomata to epidermal cells (the stomatal index) is less variable than mere stomatal frequency.

Individual cuticular and other epidermal characters cannot be considered in isolation in taxonomic work. As with other features used in classification, the sum of the available characters must be taken as the basis.

The literature on fossil angiosperms, here summarised, is already extensive, particularly on the dicotyledons. Valuable results, however, can only be expected from full and detailed investigations of well‐preserved cuticles, together with a close comparison with a wide range of living forms.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS IN INTERMITTENT LIGHT, IN RELATION TO CURRENT FORMULATIONS OF THE PRINCIPLES OF THE PHOTOSYNTHETIC MECHANISM
Authors: BRIGGS. G. E.
Published: January 2008

We have shown that the effect of such factors as concentration of chlorophyll, concentration of carbon dioxide, intensity of illumination, and poisons, on the rate of photosynthesis in continuous illumination can be interpreted on the basis of a mechanism of photosynthesis suggested in an earlier paper. Other suggested mechanisms are shown to be inadequate.

The results of the recent experiments of Emerson and Arnold with flashing light have been shown to be in harmony with the schema, but further experiments are necessary before the full significance of the results can be ascertained. This necessity has been emphasised by a comparison of the results with the earlier work of Warburg with intermittent illumination.
CEPHALIC SUTURES AND THEIR BEARING ON CURRENT CLASSIFICATIONS OF TRILOBITES
Authors: STUBBLEFIELD C. J.
Published: January 2008

1. The cephalic sutures are defined; their distribution and interrelationships discussed. Few facts are available concerning the evolutionary movements of these, but various theoretical deductions have been made.

2. Opinion on the supposed function of these sutures is summarised and it is concluded that the sutures probably did not exist solely for the purpose of ecdysis.

3. Consideration is given to the historical aspect of trilobite classification into three orders where the ordinal character is the course taken by some of the cephalic sutures. This classification has been adversely criticised; attention is called to the fallacy of assuming that the chosen cephalic sutures were:

(a) relics of primary segmentation,

(b) homologous in all groups,

(c) in themselves alone of phylogenetic significance.

4. Three orders have been erected in turn to accommodate, according to their founders, the most primitive trilobites; none contains a single family in common with another of the orders. Pompeckj's and Swinnerton's objections to Beecher's order Hypoparia are upheld, as are Warburg's and Rud. Richter's objections to Swinnerton's order Protoparia.

5. The order Mesonacida (as defined by Poulsen) has a unique position; Poulsen regarded it as the most primitive group of known trilobites; Raw, as the most specialised group at least as far as the cephalic “segmental” spines and sutural evolution is concerned. Disagreement is expressed with this opinion of Raw's, essentially because of a more probable interpretation of the particular segmental origin of one series of spines homologised by Raw, and because there are doubts whether the remaining two spine pairs are necessarily of metameric (segmental) origin.

6. Though absolute proof is as yet lacking, Swinnerton and Poulsen are thought to have justifiably stated that the absence of true facial sutures in Mesonacidae is primary; some of the supposed primitive features of the family (or order using Poulsen's restricted sense) are discussed.

7. The bearing of recent ontogenetic work on the relationship of Proparia and Opisthoparia suggests that the proparian condition may be regarded as arrested development, and therefore previous failure to recognise this has resulted in the establishment of a group here held to be polyphyletic.

8. A satisfactory classification of the group might be evolved, as sufficient reliable knowledge accumulates, by combining allied families into superfamilies. Two attempts at this form of classification are discussed and summarised; these however are based on the primary ordinal value of the supposed (adult) static condition of part of one of the cephalic sutures, and can only be regarded as provisional.
THE PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF PRESSURE
Authors: CATTELL McKEEN
Published: January 2008

Our knowledge of physiological effects of pressure is as yet too incomplete to permit of generalizations, and we are still very much in the dark regarding the mechanism of pressure action. Any influence of hydrostatic pressure must be secondary to a decrease in volume. In non‐living systems this results in important changes in physical and chemical properties and gives a basis for the explanation of the changes produced in living material. Such factors as the velocity of chemical reaction and the viscosity of fluids are, in general, increased quite out of proportion to the volume change. High pressures bring about an irreversible polymerization of many substances, including proteins. The same order of pressure inactivates most enzyme solutions, bacterial toxins, antibodies, viruses, and other biological agents. The simpler forms of life, such as bacteria and yeast cells, are only slightly less resistant, but all are killed by sufficiently high pressure. On higher forms relatively low pressures cause death, especially when long continued.

There are many known instances where small pressures cause a stimulation of physiological processes, and this may prove to be a general phenomenon occurring at pressures below those resulting in depression. In the case of muscle contracting under pressure there is a marked augmentation in the response, and the application of pressure may, independently of any other form of stimulus, result in the prolonged liberation of energy. Provided that the pressure increase is not too extreme, all the changes observed are reversed with decompression.

The action of pressure on physiological mechanisms has a special interest because it is a fundamental one on molecular relationships extending throughout the cell structure. Furthermore, it is an agent which can be supplied and removed with great rapidity and as such provides a unique tool for the study of physiological problems.
ÜBER DIE TIERGEOGRAPHISCHEN VERHÄLTNISSE DER CIRCUMANTARKTISCHEN SÜSSWASSERFAUNA
Authors: BREHM V.
Published: January 2008

This review gives a survey of endemic organisms of the fresh‐water fauna of the circumpolar regions, which have geologically, but not ecologically, separate habitats. A number of examples has been selected which indicate that various animals occur in approximately the same geographical distribution areas as Irmscher established for his plants, although the insufficiency of our knowledge of large regions (e.g. Western and Northern Australia, New Guinea, the west of the Argentine Republic) does not allow of the zoological maps being so complete as the botanical. The similarity of the animal and plant results, however, may perhaps support Wegener's theory.
INSECT SURVIVAL IN RELATION TO THE RATE OF WATER LOSS
Authors: G. JOHNSON C.
Published: January 2008

1. If the relationship between rate of water loss from an insect and saturation deficiency is linear and survival is limited only by water loss, then the curve of longevity against saturation deficiency is hyperbola‐shaped. The position of this curve with respect to the co‐ordinates is, however, affected by other factors, which are discussed.

2. The work of Bacot & Martin (1924) on the longevity of the rat flea, Xenopsylla cheopis, is reviewed in the light of the above hypothesis: errors in curve fitting are revealed which make it necessary to modify some of Bacot & Martin's conclusions.

3. Selected data from various authors subsequent to Bacot & Martin are considered. The discrepancies, real and apparent, between Leeson's results with rat fleas and those of Bacot & Martin are analysed, and it is pointed out that these were to some extent due to errors in curve fitting. The hypothetical relationship between longevity, rate of water loss and saturation deficiency set out in the first part of this article are illustrated by Ludwig's (1937) data for Popillia japonica; the linear relationship between 1/longevity and the rate of water loss demonstrates the hypothesis that water loss limits survival with this insect. Other less complete data are also discussed.

4. Various types of longevity‐saturation deficiency curves are described and the causes which probably account for such variations.

5. The relationship of pupal or egg mortality to saturation deficiency cannot by itself throw light on the variation of rate of water loss with saturation deficiency; the time factor must also be taken into account. Lines of equal mortality may coincide with lines of equal saturation deficiency (the co‐ordinates being relative humidity and temperature), so that the product of mortality and saturation deficiency is constant at any one temperature; but this indicates only that temperature is without effect on mortality and does not throw light on the relation of mortality to different saturation deficiencies. Such coincidence of lines cannot, therefore, be taken as proof that Dalton's law operates.

This work was done while I held the Avebury Studentship in the Department of Entomology, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, and I am greatly indebted to Prof. P. A. Buxton for his great kindness and ready help. I also thank Drs W. J. Martin and D. L. Gunn for their advice and criticism.