bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Two Villages of Pajo Mala
Authors: Forth Gregory
Published: November 2023

About a kilometre seaward of Kuyu Wulu, one comes to another double settlement, just off the modern road that leads to the coast. In its entirety, the settlement is now known as Pajo Mala and, like Pau Lundu, described in the last chapter, is often spoken of as a single village. Originally, however, the name Pajo Mala designated only the older of the two components, the more seaward of the two villages currently distinguished as Pajo Mala Nua Au (‘Lower Pajo Mala’) or, more often, simply as Pajo Au (‘Lower Pajo’). Accordingly, Keo call the landward village Pajo Wawo (‘Upper Pajo’), or Pajo Mala Nua Wawo (‘Upper Pajo Mala’).
The Tonal System
Authors: Odden David
Published: November 2023

This chapter investigates the tonal system of Kimatuumbi, which is complicated in two ways. First, distinct constraints govern lexically unpredictable tone versus predictable tone in verbs, deverbal nouns, and deverbal adjectives. The tone system is thus composed of two partially intersecting subsystems. Second, at the underlying level only a single syllable in a morpheme is allowed to have an H-tone, but on the surface H seems to appear anywhere, subject to few constraints. This is the consequence of rules copying, adding, shifting, and deleting tones in various environments. In terms of a typology of tone, Kimatuumbi acts like an accentual or restricted tone system. Other well-known examples of accentual-type Bantu tone systems are Tonga (Goldsmith, 1984), Haya (Hyman and Byarushengo, 1984), Ciruri (Massamba, 1984) and Luganda (Hyman, 1982). In lacking lexical tones in verbs, Kimatuumbi is similar to Safwa, Kinga, Makua, and Kikuria. The tonal structure of the P-zone language Makua is discussed extensively in Cheng and Kisseberth (1979; 1980; 1981). See Odden (1989) for general discussion of these ‘predictable tone’ systems. In the first section we explore the lexical tone system, and in the second section we investigate the predictable tone system. A recurrent theme is that L-tones never enter into the picture directly-it is most convenient to specify where H-tones are assigned, leaving all other moras unspecified for tone until the end of the phonology, where they are assigned a phonetic L-tone.
Rule Interaction
Authors: Odden David
Published: November 2023

This final chapter takes up the question of rule interaction and domains. Problems uncovered here force rejection of the claim in Lexical Phonology that syntax is ordered after the lexical phonological component. Therefore a more traditional view of syntax ˜ lexicon interaction is adopted, which orders syntax before lexical phonology, thereby allowing lexical rules to have access to information contained in neighbouring words. This chapter provides empirical motivation for the claim that lexical rules have access to the output of syntax. It will be shown that certain sandhi rules are lexical, since they are either provably cyclic or else precede rules which are cyclic. One such rule is Shortening (6.1.1), which applies to the head of a phrase and for that reason must refer to the output of syntax; but this rule is also ordered between applications of Glide Formation at Levels 1 and 2.
Introduction
Authors: Mateus Maria Helena , d’Andrade Ernesto
Published: November 2023

The aim of this book is to describe the phonological system of Portuguese and to discuss its functioning in the light of recent phonological theories. Chapters 1 and 2 are introductory: they describe some of the phonetic, phonological and morpho logical characteristics of European Portuguese (henceforth EP), where relevant including data from Brazilian Portuguese (henceforth BP). Chapter 2 also deals with theoretical aspects such as feature geometry and underspecification. Some of this material will be further discussed in later chapters. From Chapter 3 onwards, the analyses are based on autosegmental theory, and Portuguese phonological processes, both segmental and prosodic, are set out in terms of a multilinear structural organization. The discussion of nasalization, phonological and morphological processes, syllable and stress presupposes such a theoretical framework. All the models we use are from the same theoretical background and have been chosen for their explanatory power.
Portuguese Morphology: Derivation
Authors: Mateus Maria Helena , d’Andrade Ernesto
Published: November 2023

In the previous section we presented the internal structure of verbs and non-verbs in Portuguese in respect to the inflectional suffixes and class markers. Besides these suffixes, words can also include derivational affixes. In order to decompose the base-form of the word into its internal constituents, it is necessary to state which constituents can be considered to be the base of word-formation. As we will see in 5.1.2, there are several arguments showing that, in Portuguese, words (inflected forms), roots and stems can be chosen by derivational suffixes to provide the base of word-formation. In this sense, Villalva (1994a: 120) proposes the following Condition upon the base: ‘All word-formation processes operate upon bases that are lexical variables.’2 Word-formation processes seem to be language-specific and even in a particular language they may vary.
Introduction
Authors: Clark Andy
Published: November 2023

This is the second of two volumes of essays in commemoration of Alan Turing. Unlike the first volume Machines and Thought, the present collection does not specifically address Turing’s classic contributions to the understanding of mind and computation. Instead, we here celebrate Turing’s intellectual legacy: the continuing attempt to display the precise relationship between the scientific image of mind (given, we are assuming, in broadly computational terms) and our common-sense picture of ourselves as grasping concepts, acting for reasons, and possessed of a rich, subjective mental life. The space of possible relations between these two images of the mind (which Wilfrid Sellars termed the Manifest Image and die Scientific Image) is large and surprisingly complex. It is especially complex relative to certain philosophical projects which pursue the possible impact of new scientific images of mind upon our assessment of the folk framework as a means of properly describing and explaining intelligent behaviours. Roughly speaking, we may discern three major positions as regards the (putative) inner analogues of the class of constructs deployed in daily, common-sense mentalistic talk.
Altered States and Virtual Beliefs
Authors: Oberlander Jon , Dayan Peter
Published: November 2023

Functionalism derives its explanatory force from its firm grounding in the certainties of Turing machines (TMs) and their practical approximations, the von Neumann machines (vNMs). One branch of cognitive psychology, and its philosophical stablemate, has taken this doctrine seriously, and coupled it with some of the basic notions of folk psychology such as beliefs, desires, hopes, etc. Most of the theories are wedded rather firmly to these architectures, with all their connotations of logicality. They therefore face problems explaining the apparent illogicality and obvious tractability of human cognition. In desperation, some functionalists, whilst naturally retaining the Turing metaphor at the heart of their theories, have been forced to abandon these folk psychological constructs. The switch is either to instrumentalism, proposing that these constructs are not causal in producing behaviour but are still useful for explaining or predicting it [4], or else to a more radical position, holding that they are not even satisfactory for that [23]. Connectionism, for all its many faults, gives the first hint that something may be wrong with this retreat. It demonstrates that, despite essential computational equivalence, the strict analogy with TMs that has survived into vNMs is not the only way of conceiving of the functional mechanisms of thought. Furthermore, on broadening the range of possible mechanisms, it becomes apparent that too simplistic a notion of human competence is potentially dangerous. Unfortunately, connectionism seems rather remote architecturally and representationally from high-level psychological entities, so some independent motivation behind alternative functional mechanisms is required.
The Relation between Philosophical and Psychological Theories of Concepts
Authors: Peacocke Christopher
Published: November 2023

What should be the relation between our philosophical and our psychological theories of concepts? I will be outlining an answer to this question, and tracing out some of its consequences. It is impossible to answer the question without taking a stand on some fundamental issues about the nature of content, meaning, and understanding. The answer I will be giving also suggests an agenda for psychological and computational studies.
Conclusion
Authors: Tabouret-Keller Andree
Published: November 2023

Our book owes its qualities first of all to the fact that it stems from the collaboration of the participants in the four biennial Workshops of the IGLSVL. We have drawn on the personal observations and direct field experience of each member of IGLSVL, often in their own community, shared and discussed in our sessions. It is a book of first-hand experience, of concern for and thought about the values of vernacular literacy, its difficulties and its advantages. Our inside view contrasts with that of most official reports from international institutions such as UN or Unesco, or with humanitarian reports from religious or aid foundations or other sources. We have tried to base our work on in-depth reports and to look at literacy from a viewpoint other than a Western one.
Change and Aristotle’s Theological Argument
Authors: Ackrill J L
Published: November 2023

Aristotle’s general metaphysics starts from nature, seeking its causes and principles: matter, form, essence, and so on. His theology also starts from the world of change. The steps in his main argument for the existence of an unmoved mover are reasonably clear (although exactly where and how it fails can be disputed): there is change, and change (like time) is necessarily eternal; to guarantee that necessary eternality, there must be one eternal movement, and its cause (final cause) must itself be an eternal unchanging mover. This line of thought is expounded at length in Physics VIII (and resumed in MetaphysicsΛ ) as a deductive argument, and commentators are not wrong to refer to it as a ‘proof’ or ‘demonstration’ of the existence of an unmoved mover-which turns out to be Aristotle’s god. In his theology, therefore, the existence of change provides not just the starting-point and subjectmatter for investigation, but the first premiss of a proof-of the proof. There is, of course, much else in the discussion in Metaphysics Λ, especially on the nature and activity of god; but in what follows I shall be concerned only with the argument summarized above, and I shall feel free to refer to it as Aristotle’s theological argument.
Introduction
Authors: Miller Jim , Weinert Regina
Published: November 2023

What is the topic of this book? The answer ‘spontaneous spoken language and written language’ is brief but unhelpful, because the major topic encompasses a number of independent but interlocking themes. The descriptive and analytical chapters are devoted to the syntactic structure of clauses and phrases in spontaneous speech and to the grammatical devices that play a central role in the organization of spontaneous spoken discourse. Excluded from direct investigation are the central phenomena of intonation, rhythm, voice quality, and non-verbal communication.
Focus Constructions
Authors: Miller Jim , Weinert Regina
Published: November 2023

In Chapters 2, 3, and 4 we have examined the differences between spoken and written languages with respect to clauses and noun phrases. In both spontaneous speech and in written language, clauses are organized into larger chunks. In writing, clauses are first combined into sentences and sentences are then put together into texts. In spontaneous speech speakers combine clauses into larger units but, as argued in Chapter 2, it is not fruitful to analyse spontaneous speech in terms of sentences. Writers produce letters, novels, business and legal documents, textbooks, and so on. They typically have time to plan the written text and are able to set it down on paper or computer screen without competition from other writers wishing to make their contribution to the text. When producing spontaneous speech, however, speakers typically cooperate and take turns, especially in conversation and task-related dialogue such as the Map Task data. Both spoken and written texts have devices for organizing the presentation of information; to produce a successful text both speakers and writers have to employ appropriate ways of introducing new information, reintroducing information at a later stage in a text, contrasting one piece of information with another, and concentrating the listener’s or reader’s attention on the information that is central to the exposition at any given point.
Written Language, First Language Acquisition, and Education
Authors: Miller Jim , Weinert Regina
Published: November 2023

In the light of the demonstration in Chapters 2–6 that spoken language differs from written language in syntax and discourse organization, we turn now to the major topic of language acquisition. In addition to the differences in syntax and discourse organization, the key facts in the discussion are that, whatever their native language, children learn spoken language before they learn written language, they learn spoken language in context, and the learning of written language is very different from the acquisition/learning of spoken language.
Epilogue
Authors: Miller Jim , Weinert Regina
Published: November 2023

Our exploration of spoken and written language has covered a number of different areas within linguistics and associated disciplines. The details presented in Chapters 2-6 demonstrate that spontaneous spoken language has its own regular characteristics of grammar and discourse organization; not just English but other languages. Certain topics, such as LIKE and WH constructions, are discussed in detail in order to overcome possible reluctance to accept that spontaneous spoken language has regular patterns of syntax and discourse organization. The details and the analytical problems are interesting in themselves, and clearly have implications for theories of constituent structure in spontaneous speech.
Bradley’s Theory of Truth
Authors: Walker Ralph C S
Published: November 2023

Bradley’s views on truth are puzzling. He is often said to be a coherence theorist; but some of his remarks make him look like a correspondence theorist; and recently a case has been made out for thinking he holds an identity theory, whereby ‘the truth of a judgement consists in the identity of the judgement’s content with a fact’.1 Things are not helped when we find Bradley equating truth with the whole of reality, in a manner that feels distinctly alien to us; or when we see that he is firmly committed to holding that, strictly, truth as we ordinarily understand it is not possible at all.
The Wrong Side of History: Relations, the Decline of British Idealism, and the Origins of Analytic Philosophy
Authors: Candlish Stewart
Published: November 2023

Even to philosophers with no special interest in the monistic idealism which so marked British philosophy in the late nineteenth century and beyond, it is perhaps no longer news that the picture of those idealists bequeathed to us by Moore and Russell stands in need of correction. But how distorted is that picture, and what should take its place? I doubt that there would be much agreement even among specialists on any detailed answer to these questions: there are still confusing factors at work. Many of these belong to that Moore-Russell legacy, such as the effect of their presenting the idiosyncratic Bradley as representative of so-called Hegelians in general. This effect can take two forms. What is rightly attributed to Bradley, we may wrongly attribute to other idealists.
The Multiple Contents of Immediacy
Authors: Crossley David
Published: November 2023

Early in Appearance and Reality Bradley asserts the following: ‘Feeling, if taken as immediate presentation, most obviously gives features of what later becomes the environment. And these are indivisibly one thing with what later becomes the self’ (AR, 90).
Consonant–Vowel Interactions
Authors: Vaux Bert
Published: November 2023

In this chapter I return to the question of place features for vowels and consonants, with the goal of developing a better understanding of the mechanisms by which place features of consonants and vowels interact. Since this topic has already received a great deal of attention in Chapter 1, I limit myself here to four cases of consonant–vowel interactions found in various Armenian dialects. Perhaps the most interesting such case is the phenomenon of Adjarian’s Law, which involves interactions between consonant voicing and vocalic backness. I suggest that this superficially surprising phenomenon results from the interaction of consonantal and vocalic ATR values. I then consider interactions between vowels and uvular consonants, which also involve the activity of individual features shared by consonants and vowels. Finally, I tum to interactions between vowels and nasal and coronal consonants, which do not appear to involve simple feature interactions of the types considered in the previous two sections. I ultimately conclude that RRT, though capable of accounting for many types of consonant-vowel interactions in a straightforward manner, is (like other theories) forced to assume a number of equivalencies between consonantal and vocalic features. In the case of nasal interactions, I suggest that the feature [+nasal] can be interpreted as [+high] in vocalic contexts. Coronal-back interactions, on the other hand, appear to involve an equivalency relationship between coronality in consonants and [-back] in vowels (see Calabrese, 1992).
Respect for the Competent Child
Authors: Ross Lainie Friedman
Published: November 2023

In the development of constrained parental autonomy as a decision-making model for children in intimate families, I made the assumption that all children are incompetent and that parents should be the sole decision makers regarding their child’s health care decisions. I want to consider two objections which support giving children a greater role in the decision-making process. The first objection is based on competency and its relationship to autonomy in health care decision making.
Segments: Inventory And Feature Specifications
Authors: Kristoffersen Gjert
Published: November 2023

In this chapter an analysis of the vowel and consonant segments of UEN will be proposed. The subject of Section 2.1 is the phonetic properties of the segment inventory. Section 2.2 presents the phonological model in terms of the features and feature organization that will be used. Finally, Section 2.3 contains a phonological analysis of the segments and segment classes discussed in Section 2.1. In this section, the main stress will be put on features that are uncommon with respect to other languages. Features that Norwegian has in common with most other Germanic languages will not be commented on in detail.
Word Phonology
Authors: Kristoffersen Gjert
Published: November 2023

In this chapter phonological rules which interact with morphology, but which are not triggered nor in a substantial way constrained by prosodic features, will be discussed. Rules conditioned by prosodic structure are mainly discussed in the chapters on prosody. Examples of such mies are Glide Formation (Chapters 2.3. l .2 and 5.7.2) and Mora Insertion and Mora Linking (Chapters 6.4.8 and 8.2). In Section 4.2 rules usua1ly referred to as voice assimilations will be discussed. The subject of Section 4.3 is mies operating within the coronal node. Section 4.5 deals with a rule of consonant cluster simplification. It is preceded by a discussion of the relationship between [e] and [re] (Section 4.4). Some minor vowel alternation patterns will be discussed in Section 4.6.
Cyclic Syllabification
Authors: Kristoffersen Gjert
Published: November 2023

This chapter consists of three main sections. In Section 8.2 the relationship between Mora Insertion. the rule responsible for expanding light, stressed syllables, and the cyclic derivation of complex words, wil1 be discussed. I shall argue that Mora Insertion is a cyclic rule, and that long vowels and geminated consonants are retained through the cyclic level in cases where Stress Erasure and reapplication of the MSR move the stress to another syl1able. Closed Syllable Shortening wil1 also be discussed in this section. The topic of Section 8.3 is the distribution of syllabic sonorants. It will be argued that sonorants are syllabified at the cyclic level in nouns, at the word level in adjectives, and that sy11abic sonorants are blocked at both levels (as well as postlexically) in verbs. In Section 8.4 variable syllabification patterns in inflected nouns will be analysed as triggered by differences in sonority between adjacent, syllabic nuclei juxtaposed by the morphology.
Intonation And Rhythm
Authors: Kristoffersen Gjert
Published: November 2023

The major part of the present chapter will be devoted to a presentation of the phonological aspects of the so-called Trondheim model of East Norwegian intonation. The topic of Section 10.2 will be the (post1exical) Accent Phrase (AP), briefly introduced in Chapter 7.3.6 and 9.1.6. The way APs are strung together and organized into higher intonational units will be discussed in Section 10.3, while other aspects of intonation, including postlexica1 adjustments of the distribution of tonal accents, will be discussed in Sections 10.4 and 10.5. Finally, rhythm will be treated in Section 10.6.
Postlexical Segmental Phonology
Authors: Kristoffersen Gjert
Published: November 2023

In this chapter the postlexical phonology of UEN will be discussed. Section 11. l contains a discussion of the most important characteristics of postlexical phonology. In Section 11 .2 postlexical prosodic constituency will be discussed, based on the analysis of intonational stmcture given in Chapter 10. Postlexical r-phonology will be discussed in Section 11.3 below, while Nasal Place Assimilation will be discussed in section 11.4 . In Section 11.5 the constraints governing the distribution of schwa will be discussed in more depth. Finally the topic of Section 11.6 will be clitics.
English Synonyms and a Dictionary of Synonyms
Authors: Apresjan Juri
Published: November 2023

As its title shows, this chapter has a dual purpose: first, it is intended to provide a theoretical introduction into that field of contemporary semantics which deals with lexical synonyms and to explain the meaning of the theoretical concepts used in the dictionary; second, it is intended to provide a lexicographical introduction to the dictionary, showing what information about synonyms may be found in it and in what form. The connection between these two topics is dear: a theory of lexical synonyms should (ideally) define the practical principles of their lexicographical description. This dictates the structure of the introductory chapter: theoretical matters are not relegated to a separate section but form the background to a presentation of the design of the dictionary and the structure and composition of a standard entry; these matters are explored to the extent required to clarify the lexicographical principles of processing the material and of subsequent use of the dictionary.
The Synonymy of Mental Predicates: schitat’ [to consider] and its Synonyms
Authors: Apresjan Juri
Published: November 2023

This chapter is essentially a dictionary entry I wrote for the New Explanatory Dictionary of Russian Synonyms which is being compiled at the Russian Language Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences by a small team of lexicographers (J. D. Apresjan, 0. Iu. Boguslavskaia, I. V. Levontina, and E. V. Uryson) headed by the present author. It is a synonym series of putative verbs dumat’, schitat’, polagat’, nakhodit’, rassmatri-vat’, smotret’, usmatri-vat’, -videt’ [to think, consider, suppose, find, regard, look upon, regard, see]. The concept of the dictionary was set forth in J. Apresjan (1992b); see also Chapters 1 and 2 of this volume; and it is assumed that the reader is familiar with it. By way of preamble to the main theme, on the basis of the author’s previously published works, some points about systematic lexicography which the author would like to implement in the synonym dictionary are here set forth in summary form.
Fungu la kwanza Hujambo7 How are you?’
Authors: Maw Joan
Published: November 2023

You should always address people by title or by name, not with the bare greeting word. bwana and bibi can be combined with proper names, whether ‘Christian’ or surname, e.g. Bibi  Joan or Bibi  Maw. (Written abbreviations are Bw. and Bi. ‘Mr’ and ‘Ms’.)
Fungu la pili Habari? ‘what’s new?’
Authors: Maw Joan
Published: November 2023

The intensifier sana ‘very/very much’ can be attached to adjectives or verbs, e.g. nzuri  sana ‘very good’, hajambo  sana ‘he is very well’. Note that it follows the item it modifies Qualifiers also almost all follow the item they qualify, e.g. habari  zako ‘your news’.
Fungu la tano Matamshi — Pronunciation
Authors: Maw Joan
Published: November 2023

j in Swahili, like b, d, and g, is also pronounced as an implosive. But there are other differences from the sound in English represented by the letter j. Firstly, in Swahili, j is pronounced with the tip of the tongue down, behind the lower front teeth, and the body of the tongue against the hard palate (roof of the mouth).
Fungu la saba Wapi hasa7 —Where precisely?
Authors: Maw Joan
Published: November 2023

Not all new words were taped separately for pronunciation in Unit 6. From this point on in the course, new vocabulary will not be practised as individual items except for specific pronunciation points. This is because, apart from special occasions, words are not normally heard in isolation, and the student should try to hear, and learn, and eventually speak, words in contexts.
Fungu la ishirini na nane Malaika — Angel
Authors: Maw Joan
Published: November 2023

This is usually called a ‘tense’, but the meaning is one of characteristic or habitual action. It comes first in a verb and is not preceded by a subject marker.
Fungu la thelathini Haraka haraka haina baraka — (More haste less speed)
Authors: Maw Joan
Published: November 2023

Many verbs used in the text in Section I have a ‘causative’ meaning, grammatically expressed by a verbal extension. For example, compare:
Fungu la thelathini na tatu. Nyota — Your stars
Authors: Maw Joan
Published: November 2023

The Swahili of this passage exemplifies a rather simple journalistic style, written for a mass readership, for most of whom Swahili is the second language. The style is also possibly influenced by English, and is certainly constrained by the subject—matter.
Fungu la thelathini na tano Mpira — Football
Authors: Maw Joan
Published: November 2023

Association football (soccer) is very popular in East Africa. Being a recent import from Europe it is a fresh subject which requires new language to describe it. In some cases old words are given new meanings, e.g.
Specifiers as Secondary Heads
Authors: Cann Ronnie
Published: November 2023

One of the important tasks of a syntactic theory is to provide an account of the different dependency relations that hold between elements in a phrase. In Dependency Grammar (following various traditional grammatical traditions (cf. Lyons I 968)), there are two basic types: complement and adjunct (or modifier). The first defines an obligatory relation between a functor (or head) and its argument and the second an optional modification of a category (or head). In Categorial Grammar, these two are the only types of relation allowed by the basic theory, shown in (I), where X and Y are any category labels.
Dependencies, Phrase Structure, and Extractions
Authors: Manzini M Rita
Published: November 2023

This chapter presents a reformulation of Chomsky’s (1995) Merge, under which the basic operation of grammar cannot take as its input two constituents; rather the first member of the input is always a head, drawn directly from the numeration. While c-command has been argued to be the structural primitive defined under Chomsky’s (1995) conception, I shall argue that under the present conception, the structural primitive of the theory is head government. This has potential empirical advantages in the domain of movement. In particular, I shall argue that the present theory allows for a radical simplification of Kayne’s (I 984) Connectedness. In what follows, Section I presents Chomsky’s (1995) theory, Section 2 defines the present notion of Merge, and Section 3 demonstrates its consequences for movement theory. As part of the revision of the theory in Section 2 a principle of Interpretation is suggested which subsumes Chomsky’s (1995) Last Resort.
Movement to Specifiers
Authors: Nichols Lynn
Published: November 2023

I investigate here the case of Zuni (isolate; New Mexico) in which there are several types of movement out of VP into specifier positions of IP and CP.1 This movement is exclusively A’-movement; none of the specifiers of IP in Zuni is a Case position, as will be argued below. Movement to these specifier positions will be argued to bedriven by morphosyntactic licensing requirements of the moved element. The syntactic behaviour of several different classes of elements in Zuni, including pronouns, quantifiers, and wh-words receives a unified explanation under this account. Particularly interesting is the fact that multiple wh-movement in Zuni, involving superiority-governed movement to multiple specifiers of CP, can be explained by the same mechanism driving superiority-obeying obligatory pronominal movement to single specifiers of IP that results in the opposite order.
The Peculiarities of Language
Authors: Carstairs-McCarthy Andrew
Published: November 2023

In trying to explain aspects of human-language evolution, my focus will be on certain characteristics of human language that are peculiar to it, not shared with other animals’ communication systems. That is not to say that shared characteristics are without interest. But, as indicated in Chapter l, I will be concerned not with all aspects of language evolution but only with some.
Truth and Reference
Authors: Carstairs-McCarthy Andrew
Published: November 2023

In Chapter 5 I will offer an evolutionary explanation for what in Chapter 2 I argued to be a central puzzle about human language: the fact that all languages distinguish grammatically between sentences and NPs. But in Chapter 2 I mentioned what might seem to be a reason why this distinction is not really puzzling at all, so that no explanation of that kind is necessary. We need NPs in order to refer to things or people or events, it might be said, and we need sentences in order to make statements (whether true or false) about the people, things, and events that we refer to. I countered this by arguing that, even if the distinction between truth and reference has a basis that is independent of grammar, that does not explain why it should be reflected so pervasively in grammar, given that we could get along quite well with a language such as Monocategoric or Nominalized English in which the sentence/NP distinction is absent, and given that other philosophically important distinctions lack grammatical counterparts. But I did not challenge the assumption that truth and reference are genuinely distinct as ways in which linguistic expressions may fit the world, irrespective of these expressions’ grammatical status.
The Consonant System
Authors: Siptdr Peter , Torkenczy Miklos
Published: November 2023

The lexical consonant inventory, listed and exemplified in section 2.2.2, will be classified along the lines indicated in (1): The place-of-articulation categories of (1) may appear to be oversimplified from a phonetic point of view but are quite sufficient for a phonological classification. Labials include the bilabial stops /p b/, the bilabial nasal /f/ v/, as well as the labiodental fricatives /f v/.
Phonotactics: Syllable Structure
Authors: Siptdr Peter , Torkenczy Miklos
Published: November 2023

The phonological or phonotactic well-formedness of a word can be seen as an interplay of two factors: a prosodic and a non-prosodic one. On the one hand, a phonologically well-formed word must be parsable into (wellformed) prosodic units. It is generally assumed that the prosodic unit that is chiefly responsible for phonotactic well-formedness is the syllable, but there are well-known examples of phonotactic constraints whose domain is a higher level prosodic unit such as the foot or the prosodic word. As the foot does not seem to play an important role in Hungarian, a phonotactically well-formed Hungarian word is a unit which is exhaustively parsable into well-formed syllables. Thus, the phonotactic well-formedness of a word is derivable from well-formedness conditions on syllables (Syllable Structure Constraints (SSCs)). This relation between the well-formedness of words and syllables, however, is not symmetrical: while it holds that a well-formed word consists of a string of well-formed syllables, it is not true that any string of well-formed syllables constitutes a well-formed (potentiai) word: there are transsyllabic constraints that obtain between syllables, or more precisely, between adjacent subconstituents of different syllables. These constraints do not refer to a prosodic unit higher than the syllable, but impose restrictions on the bonding of syllable edges (interconstituent clusters). In addition, as we have pointed out above, a language may have constraints on prosodic structure that directly refer to prosodic units higher than the syllable (e.g. conditions on word minimality, etc.).
Processes Involving Vowels
Authors: Siptdr Peter , Torkenczy Miklos
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we will describe a number of phonological processes that involve vowels but are not conditioned by syllable structure. The vowel system of Hungarian, as well as the major alternation types that Hungarian vowels participate in, have been discussed in detail in Chapter 3. In particular, a number of facts concerning vowel harmony (some of which are generally ignored in the literature) were discussed there (see 3.2). In the present chapter (section 6.1), a new type of analysis of those facts will be suggested. Vowel length alternations (see section 3.1 for data and preliminary discussion) will be treated as lengthening/shortening processes in section 6.2. The processes analysed there will include low vowel lengthening (6.2.1) and stem vowel shortening (6.2.2). A number of surface lengthening and shortening processes characteristic of fast and/or casual speech will be discussed in sections 9.1 and 9.2 below.
Processes Involving Consonants
Authors: Siptdr Peter , Torkenczy Miklos
Published: November 2023

The discussion of Hungarian consonants in Chapter 4 was concluded by a summary of the underlying representations we proposed for members of the consonant system. That matrix is repeated here for convenience:

This chapter will be organized as follows. In section 7.1, palatalization rules will be discussed, both lexical and postlexical. In 7.2, various sibilant rules will be presented, including those involved in the imperative of t-final verbs, as well as postlexical rules targeting and/or triggered by strident fricatives and affricates. In 7.3, postlexical processes connected with the laryngeal properties (in particular, voicing) of obstruents will be analysed in terms of a singlevalued [voice] feature. Finally, in 7.4, we turn to sonorants and briefly discuss processes involving nasals and liquids.
Processes Conditioned by Syllable Structure
Authors: Siptdr Peter , Torkenczy Miklos
Published: November 2023

Hungarian has an intricate system of vowel ∼ zero alternations. We shall see as we proceed that not all of them can be analysed in the same way phonologically. Henceforward, we shall informally refer to any vowel that alternates with zero as ‘unstable’ and denote it with the symbol Vu. This term is meant to be neutral with respect to whether a given vowel ∼ zero alternation is considered to be the result of epenthesis, vowel deletion, or some other phonological mechanism. In this section first we examine the distribution and the quality of unstable vowels and then we present an analysis of vowel ∼ zero alternations.

The unstable vowels may occur stem-internally, i.e. inside a stem, and stemexternally, i.e. between a stem and a suffix.
Surface Processes
Authors: Siptdr Peter , Torkenczy Miklos
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, various issues in the surface (postlexical) phonology of Hungarian will be briefly discussed. Section 9.1 summarizes data about the surface vacillation of vowel length (shortening, lengthening); section 9.2 gives an overview of compensatory lengthening processes. Hiatus filling is the topic of section 9.3; the issue of degemination is discussed in 9.4. Finally, the simplification of CCC clusters in fast speech is considered in section 9.5.

The term ‘vacillation’ is normally used in two different senses in phonology. One is inter-speaker variability, i.e. the case where, with respect to some phonological phenomenon, some speakers behave in one way, whereas other speakers (consistently) behave in some other way. In such cases, the two groups of speakers have different grammars: we could say that they speak different-though very similar-languages (or dialects). Ideally, the linguist describes a single coherent linguistic system, and refrains from taking glimpses at ‘neighbouring’ systems; however, if the difference is observed within the same (sociolinguistically defined) language, in our case, standard Hungarian, the description usually has to take data from several systems into consideration.
Atatürk and the Language Reform until 1936
Authors: Lewis Geoffrey
Published: November 2023

The scattered local movements of resistance to the Allied armies that invaded Anatolia after the 1918 Armistice could never have liberated the country without the boundless energy and organizing genius of Mustafa Kemal. In the same way, it was he who gave effect to the desires of the many intellectuals who wanted to make their language more truly Turkish. I specify intellectuals because in those days four- fifths of the population were peasants, who would no more have thought of tampering with the language than of changing the alternation of the seasons. Above all he wanted to turn his people’s face westwards. He resented the dominance of the Arabic and Persian elements in the language and believed that the intelligent use of its native resources could make the use of foreign borrowings unnecessary.
Concoctions
Authors: Lewis Geoffrey
Published: November 2023

In the Introduction I mentioned three nineteenth-century English neologisms: birdlore, foreword, and folklore. What happened to them? While birdlore sank without trace, so completely have foreword and folklore been accepted into the language that few are aware that they were deliberate inventions. There are parallels in Turkish. Many neologisms have passed away, such as utku for ‘victory’, tun for ‘night’, yazgag for ‘pen’.
The New Yoke
Authors: Lewis Geoffrey
Published: November 2023

The Franglais which so exasperates the Académic Française is as nothing compared with Türkilizce,  1 some examples of which we have already met. This development was foreseen in 1954 at the Seventh Kurultay, in a contribution from a schoolmaster named Abdi Tevfik Yegül (Kurultay 1954: 82).
The Socio-Linguistics of the Old City in the 1980s
Authors: Spolsky Bernard , Cooper Robert L
Published: November 2023

ANYONE walking into the Old City through the Jaffa Gate is immediately struck by the multiliteracy proclaimed by the signs. Street signs in Hebrew, Arabic, and English, advertising placards in those and other languages, building plaques in any one or more of a dozen different languages, all make clear that the sign writers have assumed that the passers-by can read many different languages. When the market is open, this impression of multilingualism is quickly reinforced by the babel of spoken tongues.
Jewish Multilingualism
Authors: Spolsky Bernard , Cooper Robert L
Published: November 2023

IN order to understand the present socio-linguistic situation of Jerusalem in its fullest historical context, it makes sense to start our study two millenniums ago, at the beginning of the first century of the Common Era. At least four languages appear to have played significant roles: Hebrew, Aramaic, Greek, and Latin. We will look at each in turn, and then consider the pattern of multilingualism involved.
The Socio-Linguistics of Old Jerusalem: Non-Jewish Languages in the Late Nineteenth Century
Authors: Spolsky Bernard , Cooper Robert L
Published: November 2023

JERUSALEM within the walls, which we have chosen, albeit somewhat arbitrarily, to define as the area of our study, was in actual fact the major part of the city until the later years of the nineteenth century: the first houses were built outside the Old City only in the 1850s (see Ben-Arieh 1979: 93 ff.; Ben-Arieh’s books are a major source of information on nineteenth-century Jerusalem, and my debt will be apparent). The walled city of today is closely connected in all ways to the city outside the walls: whether for work, or education, or as social or political limits, the gates of the city, closed nowadays only for traffic or other emergencies, serve to join the communities inside to those outside, rather than to divide them. But until the late nineteenth century this was not the case: the gates were shut every night (Ben–Arieh 1984: 21–3), and the walls defined the extent of the city
The Revitalization and Spread of Hebrew
Authors: Spolsky Bernard , Cooper Robert L
Published: November 2023

ALTHOUGH the ravages of the Roman–Judaean wars had substantially depleted the Jewish population of Palestine, and although many of those who remained were converted to Christianity during the Byzantine period, a remnant of Jews survived and continued to live in Palestine until modem times. Their numbers were augmented at various times over the centuries by Jews from Diaspora communities returning to Palestine either as a possible place of asylum from persecution or in order to pray, study, or to be buried in their ancestral home, a wish to which their daily prayers made reference. Until the nineteenth century, however, immigration was small and sporadic, and poor local conditions—economic, health, and security–under the various foreign rulers meant that remigration was probably substantial (Bachi 1977: 77).
Language Choice in the Market-Place
Authors: Spolsky Bernard , Cooper Robert L
Published: November 2023

ONE of the central issues in the study of multilingual communities is the recognition of the ‘variables which may contribute to an understanding of who speaks what language to whom and when’ (Fishman 1971: 583). Fishman believes that by establishing the factors involved in stable multilingual situations, it should be easier to understand less stable situations. One such variable that helps to elucidate what happens in stable multilingual communities is the higher-order construct of ‘domain’.
The Spread of Hebrew among Arabic Speakers
Authors: Spolsky Bernard , Cooper Robert L
Published: November 2023

THE fortunes of a language can change as the number of its users and uses expands or contracts. Usually, but not necessarily, the spread of one language occurs at the expense of another. In the Old City we can see at least three examples of language spread: English among all sectors of the population; Hebrew among new immigrants to Israel; and Hebrew among Arabic-speaking residents. The spread of English in Israel (Fishman, Cooper, and Conrad 1977), as well as the spread of Hebrew among the Jewish residents of Palestine and Israel (Cooper 1984), have been described elsewhere. This chapter will examine the spread of Hebrew among Arab residents of the Old City.
Business Documents
Authors: Wright Laura
Published: November 2023

Some of the documents from which the vocabulary in Chapter 4 is taken were written in Anglo-Norman, some in Medieval Latin, and some in English. However, many (including all the Bridge House Estate documents) were written in a mixture of two of these languages, either Anglo-Norman plus English or Medieval Latin plus English. I have termed this mixed form ‘macaronic’ writing, as I shall explain below.
Personal Separateness
Authors: Spector Horacio
Published: November 2023

The argument in the last chapter was designed to justify the pre-eminent moral importance of those negative duties which can be generically described as duties not to actively damage positive freedom. However, the deontological conception of practical rationality which I am suggesting here must possess two other features to contribute to the justification of the existence of libertarian rights. The first of them bears upon two different meanings of the expression ‘damage to a value’. Let us go back to the familiar example of an agent who has the option of killing a person as a means of saving another five or of not slaying the first and letting the other five die. The thesis proposed in the previous chapter implies that if the agent decides on the first course of action, he performs certain bodily movements which cause the death of the first person, whereas if he chooses the second course of action, he does not causally contribute to the death of the five. But though the first course of action causally contributes to the death of a person, it does also involve a causal contribution to the preservation of the life of another five persons; therefore, it might be claimed that, since the positive freedom of the one person and the positive freedom of each of the other five have the same value in so far as they are parts or instances of one and the same value, the first course of action causes a gain of 5 units of positive freedom besides causing a loss of . The claim is then that this course of action does not signify a net loss but a net gain of positive freedom and that, consequently, proceeding in this way, the agent does not damage but promotes positive freedom. Here the two meanings of ‘damaging a value’ that I have just referred to are clearly manifested. In accordance with the first meaning, which we might call numerical, an agent damages a value if and only if he causes a net loss of this value.
Ammonius And Adverbs
Authors: Barnes Jonathan
Published: November 2023

for our part, if we are to have an articulated knowledge of the sentences here under discussion and if we are to follow with any ease what Aristotle has to say about them, then before we give an interpretation of the text, we must grasp (1) what Tp61roi are, (2) whether their number is finite and knowable by us, (3) how many and which Tp61roi Aristotle selects for his exposition of these sentences, (4) why these and not others, (5) how the Tp61roi he introduces differ from what are called 'matters' although they are called by their names, (6) whether he has omitted any of the Tp61roi which ought to have been introduced in the present treatment of sentences, (7) how we make negations from affirmations in the case of such sentences (this, as I said, is the first point which Aristotle considers about them), and finally, (8) how we may grasp by way of a division the total number of these sentences.
Theoretical Background
Authors: Rubach Jerzy
Published: November 2023

The aim of this book is twofold: descriptive and theoretical. On the one hand, we intend to provide a fairly complete description of Slovak phonology in generative terms. On the other hand, we would like to investigate how the recent developments in phonological theory can contribute to such a description. Thus, on the theoretical side Slovak is used as a testing ground for confirming or disconfirming the validity of various concepts in the most recent theories, such as Lexical Phonology, Three Dimensional Phonology, Prosodic Phonology, and Auto segmental Phonology. It is shown how these theories can be combined together in a coherent analysis of a large body of data.