bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The effect of various concentrations of tocopherols and tocopherol mixtures on the oxidative stability of a sample of lard
Authors: Parkhurst R. M. , Skinner W. A. , Sturm Priscilla A.
Published: January 2007

A comparison was made of α‐, γ‐, and δ‐tocopherol at various concentrations and a mixture of these tocopherols representing the average tocopherol content of peanut oil on the oxidative stability of lard at 97C. Uptake of oxygen was used to indicate the length of the induction period. The antioxidant effectiveness of the tocopherols was found to increase in the order α, δ, γ. The antioxidant efficiency decreases with increasing concentrations of tocopherols such that addition of any single tocopherol above a concentration of 250 µg/g has little effect on oxidative stability. A mixture equivalent to that of an average peanut oil sample, containing 150 µg/g of α‐tocopherol and 250 µg/g of γ‐tocopherol and 15 µg/g of δ‐tocopherol was found to be no more stable than one containing 250 µg/g of γ‐tocopherol alone.
Characterization of some heated fat components
Authors: Artman Neil R. , Alexander J. Craig
Published: January 2007

Substances produced at low levels in fat by heating were isolated and characterized. Partially hydrogenated soybean oil (Iodine Value 78) was heated at 182 C for 10, 8.5‐hr, days with exposure to air. The oil was converted to ethyl esters, which were distilled and adducted with urea. The nonadductable fraction was subjected to chromatographic separations, and some of the components were purified sufficiently for chemical and spectroscopic characterization. Substances recognized include aromatic esters, saturated and unsaturated cyclic esters, ethoxyoctadecenoate, ethoxyhydroxyoctadecanoate, oxo‐octadecanoate, oxo‐octadecenoate, and cyclic hydroxy esters, all having 18 carbons in the acid chain.
Effect of tallow‐coconut fatty acid ratios on properties of bar soaps
Authors: Ginn M. E. , Steinhauer R. C. , Liebman Irwin , Jungermann Eric
Published: January 2007

In this study, blends of tallow and coconut fatty acids prepared at ratios ranging from 95:5 to 75:25 were converted to sodium soaps, and were processed into soap bars through conventional milling and pressing techniques. Other minor ingredients were included in the bar to protect against rancidity and to provide color. The resulting bars were tested for lather, solubility, penetration, swell, slushing tendency, moisture and cracking. According to one mechanical method, the 85:15 tallow/coconut fatty acid blend yields optimum lather quickness. This does not agree with lather preference by an expert panel which preferred bars with increasing sodium cocoate content or with increasing levels of sodium laurate. Coincident with these effects was an increase in aqueous solubility. However, certain deleterious effects were observed with increase of sodium cocoate, namely: increased slushing and a higher erosion rate.
Effect of additives on the critical micelle concentration of some polyethoxylated nonionic detergents
Authors: Malik W. U. , Saleem S. M.
Published: January 2007

The effect of electrolytes and other additives influencing water structure, viz., urea and formamide, has been studied on the micelle formation of polyethoxylated nonionic detergents in their aqueous solutions. The decrease in critical micelle concentration (c.m.c.) by electrolytes has been interpreted in terms of salting out mechanism and evidence has been obtained in support of the contention that micelles of polyethoxylated nonionic detergents are weakly positively charged. Effect of urea and formamide on the c.m.c. values of these nonionic detergents indicate that hydrophobic bonding is loosened in their presence with a consequent increase in the c.m.c. of these detergents.
Aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, and G2: Separation and purification
Authors: Stubblefield R. D. , Shotwell O. L. , Shannon G. M.
Published: January 2007

Aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, and G2 have been separated on a series of chromatographic columns. Chromatography of crude products isolated from molded wheat and rice on silicic acid with washed chloroform:ethanol (99:1) gave relatively pure B1. The rest of the column fractions containing predominantly G1, along with B1, B2, and G2, were pooled and fractionated on a Silica Gel G column. The mobile phase was washed chloroform:acetone:ethanol (97.3:2.0:0.75). Thin‐layer chromatography was used to follow column development. Each of the aflatoxins was treated with either decolorizing carbon or copper carbonate to remove colored pigments, and rechromatographed on Silica Gel G. Crystalline aflatoxins were prepared from chloroform solutions by addition ofn‐hexane, methanol, or ethanol.
Carbonyls in oxidizing fat. VII. A comparison of methods of isolating monocarbonyl compounds
Authors: Gaddis A. M. , Ellis Rex , Shamey Jennie , Currie G. T.
Published: January 2007

Comparison of quantitative methods for the isolation of aldehydes from lard oxidized at 23C showed an extreme sensitivity of precursors to isolation conditions. Differences existed in the quantity and class compositions of the monocarbonyl compounds isolated. Acid conditions caused considerable breakdown of alkanal and alk‐2‐enal precursors. Steam distillation (100C) released alkanals, alk‐2‐enals, and alk‐2,4‐dienals. The mild Girard T method apparently produced a small amt of alk‐2‐enals from precursors, but except in the initial stages isolated the lowest amounts of aldehydes. Complete evaluation of the method for isolation of free aldehydes was not possible because alkanals were released from precursors during the vacuum distillation procedure (50C). The Schwartz (dilute phosphoric acid), Girard T, and vacuum distillation methods isolated similar amounts of alk‐2,4‐dienals. Curious changes in relationships, possibly indicative of oxidation stages, were observed as autoxidation progressed.
Cleaned‐in‐place (CIP) systems and controls
Authors: Welch E. Scott
Published: January 2007

A discussion of how C.I.P. relates tocontrol of plant operation, sanitation and operating costs. Slides will show typical layout and design. There will be photos of existing installations. Some of topics covered will be: How C.I.P. Relates to Basic Elements of Cleaning; Other Methods of Cleaning; Process Equipment; Process Layout; Process Control; Labor Relations; Quality Control; Cleaning Control; Cleaning Costs; Plant Operating Costs.
The preparation and properties of amines and cationic surfactants from fatty acids
Authors: Egan Richard R.
Published: January 2007

The general industrial chemical methods of preparation of primary, secondary, and tertiary amines and quaternary ammonium compounds are discussed. The physical properties and uses of the amines and quaternary ammonium compounds are described. Particular attention is paid to corrosion inhibition of steel, to ore flotation of taconite ores, to solvent extraction of uranium ores, and to the use of cationic surfactants as emulsifiers for asphalt and as fabric softeners and antistatic agents. The relationship of chemical structure to performance in the above applications is covered.
Enol esters. VII. Isolation and rearrangement of terminal fatty oxirane esters
Authors: Serota S. , Rothman E. S.
Published: January 2007

Isopropenyl esters of mono‐ and dibasic fatty acids were epoxidized with m‐chloroperbenzoic acid in carbon tetrachloride. The isolation of the resulting oxirane ester was difficult because of the spontaneous rearrangement to a hydroxyacetone ester. Rapid gel filtration was the only method that consistently afforded good yields of the oxiranes. The infrared spectra of these oxirane esters had many strong, sharp bands which were completely lacking in the rearranged product. The isomerization, carried out in several ways, could easily be followed spectrally and a qualitative estimate of purity made.
The function of bleaching earths in the processing of palm, palm kernel and coconut oils
Authors: Morgan D. A. , Shaw D. B. , Sidebottom M. J. , Soon T. C. , Taylor R. S.
Published: January 2007

The results presented in the literature, which attempt to elucidate the mechanisms by which triglyceride oils are bleached by earths, are reviewed. The impact of this work and how the mechanistic proposals affect changes in oil properties are considered, with particular emphasis on the needs of the palm oil processor. Important properties include color, metals and phosphorus content and oxidative stability of the oil.

Investigations made in our own laboratories have been aimed at elucidating the effect of varying physical and chemical properties of the bleaching earth on the quality of bleached and deodorized oils. Techniques used in this work are pore‐size distribution, surface area, scanning and transmission electron microscopy and a variety of chemical and X‐ray analysis methods.

The ability to vary such parameters in montmorillonite clays by alteration of process conditions to give materials with specific performance characteristics is demonstrated.

Comparisons are made between acid‐activated montmorillonites and other clay types.
Soap and related products: Palm and lauric oil
Authors: Ogoshi T. , Miyawaki Y.
Published: January 2007

There are three main methods for producing soap: direct saponification of fats and oils, neutralization of fatty acids and saponification of fatty acid methyl esters. Our unique process of soapmaking, based on the methyl ester saponification method, is described here. By this process, high‐quality toilet soaps can be produced from palm stearin and palm kernel oil as well as tallow and coconut oil.

A new sulfonation process was developed to produce high‐quality α‐SFMe (α‐sulfo fatty acid methyl ester) from palm stearin as the starting material. Quality and performance of α‐SFMe bear comparison with those of LAS, AES, AS or AOS. Thus α‐SFMe is a promising surfactant for detergents and will contribute to expanding the use of palm oil in the near future.
Industrial uses of palm, palm kernel and coconut oils: Nitrogen derivatives
Authors: Reck Richard A.
Published: January 2007

Palm, palm kernel and coconut oils are sources of fatty acids that can be converted to other oleochemicals that have many applications. This paper describes manufacturing procedures, product characteristics and uses for many fatty acids, alcohols, primary amides, monosubstituted amides, diamides, disubstituted amides, nitrites, primary amines, secondary amines, tertiary amines, diamines, quaternary ammonium compounds, amphoterics, amine oxides and polyoxyalkylene alkylamines.
Quality control in storage and transport of edible oils
Authors: Berger K. G.
Published: January 2007

Care for quality of edible fats and oils during transportation and storage is especially important for partially or fully refined products. This paper describes some examples of deterioration caused by a brass sampler, by improper reheating during voyage, by contamination in a pipeline, and by absorption of oxygen during various processing steps. Trade associations have published recommended procedures to minimize some of these problems. From these recommendations and many personal experiences, PORIM has drafted a “Code of Practice” bringing together elements of good design of physical facilities and of good operating practices. A copy of this code appears as an appendix to this paper.
Enzymatic production and physicochemical characterization of uncommon wax esters and monoglycerides
Authors: Multzsch Raimund , Lokotsch Wolfram , Steffen Beate , Lang Siegmund , Metzger Jürgen O. , Schäfer Hans J. , Warwel Siegfried , Wagner Fritz
Published: January 2007

Wax esters from fatty alcohols and uncommon fatty acids were synthesized in yields up to 90% when commercially available microbial lipases fromRhizomucor miehei (Lipozyme™) andCandida antarctica (SP 435) were used with limited water content in nonpolar solvents under mild conditions. The corresponding fatty acids were prepared by chemical conversion of naturally occurring resources (agricultural surpluses). Also, when phenylboronic acid was added as solubilizing agent in a nonpolar solvent, the direct enzymatic monoacylation of glycerol with uncommon fatty acids was successful. The measurement of π/A‐isotherms by means of a Langmuir film balance indicated medium film pressures, medium or large molecular areas, and interesting phase behavior. The monolayer of a wax ester at the air/water interface could be directly visualized by Brewster angle microscopy.
Effect of solubilized amines on the structural transition of cetyltrimethylammonium bromide micelles in aqueous potassium bromide
Authors: Kumar Sanjeev , Kirti  , Kabir‐ud‐Din
Published: January 2007

Rod‐shaped micelles were produced by mixing 0.1 M cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) and 0.1 M KBr in aqueous solution. The effects of the addition of aliphaticn‐amines (C4, C6, C7 and C8) and temperature on the shape of micelles were studied by viscosity measurements. The viscosity data show that transition of rod‐shaped micelles to larger aggregates is induced by addition of higher amines (≥C6) up to a certain concentration; a further increase in concentration produced the opposite effect. Addition of C4‐amine induces only a rod‐to‐sphere transition. The data were interpreted in terms of solubilization/incorporation (decrease of micellar surface charge density) of amines inside the micelles and the nature of the effective solvent (water+amine). The latter effect dominated the change from larger aggregates to smaller micelles at higher concentrations of the added amine. Increasing the temperature produced effects similar to C4‐amine addition, namely, rod‐to‐sphere transition. Activation free energy (ΔG*) and enthalpy (ΔH*) were also computed from the temperature dependence of the viscosity. ΔG* and ΔH* values were higher for larger aggregates (long rods) than for smaller ones (spherical micelles) and ΔH* covered almost the total contribution to ΔG*.
Kinetics and preparation of amine oxides
Authors: Toney C. Joe , Friedli F. E. , Frank P. J.
Published: January 2007

A kinetic model for the oxidation of dimethyllaurylamine to its amine oxide with hydrogen peroxide was developed. It is a second‐order reaction where k=.0250, .0079 and .0037 kg per mol/min at 75, 60 and 50°C, respectively. Amine oxides ofN‐lauryl morpholine, piperidine and 3‐methyl piperidine were synthesized, and their rates of formation were determined. Compared to dimethyllaurylamine, the piperidines react slower, while the morpholine reaction is much faster.
Effect of secondary alcohol ethoxylates on behavior of triolein‐water‐surfactant systems
Authors: Tungsubutra Teeradetch , Miller Clarence A.
Published: January 2007

Study of the equilibrium phase behavior of systems containing water, triolein and secondary alcohol ethoxylates showed that a D or microemulsion phase, which solubilized significant amounts of triolein, formed at temperatures as low as 25°C when the surfactant was a suitable mixture of TERGITOL 15‐S‐3 and 15‐S‐5 (Union Carbide, Charleston, WV) with average ethylene oxide numbers of 3 and 5, respectively. In previous work with pure C12 linear ethoxylates and triolein, the D phase had formed only at temperatures above about 55°C. Based on the earlier studies, formation of the D phase would be expected to improve soil removal from synthetic fabrics by a solubilization‐emulsification mechanism. When sufficient oleyl alcohol was mixed with triolein, the D phase was observed at 25°C with Tergitol 15‐S‐5 alone. Observation of dynamic behavior in this system for triolein‐oleyl alcohol drops injected into surfactant‐water mixtures revealed that intermediate phases frequently formed near the drop surfaces and that considerable spontaneous emulsification of triolein occurred for appropriate drop compositions. Experiments with drops initially attached to individual polyester fibers confirmed that little oil remained on the fibers when emulsification was extensive. This mechanism involving spontaneous emulsification provides a means for soil removal different from that found previously in other systems, where the soil was solubilized into an intermediate phase, and this phase was emulsified by externally imposed agitation.
Synthesis and hydrolysis of chemodegradable cationic surfactants containing the 1,3‐dioxolane moiety
Authors: Wilk Kazimiera A. , Bieniecki Albert , Burczyk Bogdan , Sokolowski Adam
Published: January 2007

In acid‐catalyzed reactions of long‐chain aliphatic aldehydes (Ia‐d wherea=n‐C7H15;b=n‐C9H19;c=n‐C11H23; d=n‐C13H27), and tridecan‐7‐on (Ie) with 3‐chloro‐1,2‐propane‐diol, 2‐alkyl‐ and 2,2‐dihexyl‐4‐chloromethyl‐1,3‐dioxolanes (IIa‐e) were obtained. They were reacted with anhydrous dimethylamine to obtain, respectively, 2‐alkyl‐and [(2,2‐dihexyl‐1,3‐dioxolan‐4‐yl)methyl] dimethylamines (IIIa‐e), which were quaternized with methyl bromide to obtain the desired ammonium bromides (IVa‐e). The structure and purity of the compounds was proved by mass spectrometry and proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Additionally, [(2‐methyl‐1,3‐dioxolan‐4‐yl)methyl] trimethylammonium bromide and [(2,2‐dimethyl‐1,3‐dioxolan‐4‐yl)‐methyl] trimethylammonium bromide were synthesized as nonaggregating standards. Hydrolysis reactions of the synthesized ammonium bromides were performed by 0.1 M hydrochloric acid in 1∶1 (vol/vol) 1,4‐dioxane‐water mixtures at 50, 60 and 70°C. Rate constants of hydrolysis reactions were determined by observing carbonyl group formation at 280 nm. The hydrolytic reactivity of the studied surfactants (IVa‐c,e) was determined under unaggregated conditions. Compound IVd showed decreased reactivity. The length of the 2‐alkyl group has a minor effect on rate constant values. The influence of various substituents at the C‐4 atom of the 2‐nonyl‐1,3‐dioxolan‐4‐yl derivatives on rate constants was also investigated.
Composition of polar lipids in rapeseed
Authors: Sosulski F. , Zadernowski R. , Babuchowski K.
Published: January 2007

Phosphatidylcholine, ‐inositol and ‐ethanolamine represented 48, 18 and 8%, respectively, of the total phospholipids in medium and low erucic acid rapeseed. Oleic acid was the principal fatty acid in phosphatidylcholine and ‐ethanolamine but all components contained high levels of linoleic and saturated acids. There were eight components in the glycolipid fraction of which digalactosyl diglyceride, monogalactosyl diglyceride, sterol glycoside, esterified sterol glucoside and cerebrosides were identified. Defatted flours contained 2.0–3.5% of bound lipid which was composed primarily of phospholipids and glycolipids whereas neutral lipids were also a major component in the bound lipids of protein concentrates. The storage properties of these protein products would be adversely affected by the polyunsaturated fatty acids in these bound fractions.
Diesel engine evaluation of a nonionic sunflower oil‐aqueous ethanol microemulsion
Authors: Ziejewski Mariusz , Kaufman Kenton R. , Schwab A. W. , Pryde E. H.
Published: January 2007

A nonionic sunflower oil‐aqueous ethanol microemulsion was formulated, characterized and evaluated as a fuel in a direct injection, turbocharged, intercooled, 4‐cylinder Allis‐Chalmers diesel engine during a 200 hr EMA cycle laboratory screening endurance test. Differences in engine operation between a baseline Phillips 2D reference fuel and the experimental fuel were observed. The major problem experienced while operating with the microemulsion was an incomplete combustion process at low‐load engine operation. Significant lubricating oil dilution was observed initially, followed by an abnormal increase in the viscosity of the lubricative oil. Heavier carbon residue on the piston lands, in the piston ring grooves and in the intake ports was noted. In addition, premature injection‐nozzle deterioration (sticking of the needle) was experienced. At present, the sunflower oil‐aqueous ethanol microemulsion studied cannot be recommended for long‐term use in a direct‐injection diesel engine, but further modifications in formulation may produce acceptable sunflower oil microemulsions as alternative diesel fuels.
Engine durability screening test of a diesel oil/soy oil/alcohol microemulsion fuel
Authors: Goering Carroll E. , Fry Bob
Published: January 2007

A hybrid fuel and No. 2 diesel fuel were burned in direct‐injection diesel engines to compare the effects of the fuels on engine durability. The hybrid fuel was a microemulsion of soybean oil, diesel fuel, 190‐proof ethanol and 1‐butanol. The engines were run for 200 hr on each fuel with loads and speeds controlled by computer according to a cycle suggested by the EMA (Engine Manufacturer's Association). Engines were disassembled before and after the runs to determine the difference in wear and carbon deposits. The engine running on the hybrid fuel completed the 200‐hr EMA test without difficulty. The hybrid produced less engine wear than diesel fuel, but produced greater deposits of carbon and lacquer on the injector tips, intake valves and tops of the cylinder liners. Also, engine performance was degraded ca. 5% at the end of the 200‐hr test.
Variables affecting the yields of fatty esters from transesterified vegetable oils
Authors: Freedman B. , Pryde E. H. , Mounts T. L.
Published: January 2007

Transesterification reaction variables that affect yield and purity of the product esters from cottonseed, peanut, soybean and sunflower oils include molar ratio of alcohol to vegetable oil, type of catalyst (alkaline vs acidic), temperature and degree of refinement of the vegetable oil. With alkaline catalysts (either sodium hydroxide or methoxide), temperatures of 60 C or higher, molar ratios of at least 6 to 1 and with fully refined oils, conversion to methyl, ethyl and butyl esters was essentially complete in 1 hr. At moderate temperatures (32 C), vegetable oils were 99% transesterified in ca. 4 hr with an alkaline catalyst. Transesterification by acid catalysis was much slower than by alkali catalysis. Although the crude oils could be transesterified, ester yields were reduced because of gums and extraneous material present in the crude oils.
Preparation and properties of pure alkyl glucosides, maltosides and maltotriosides
Authors: Koeltzow Donald E. , Urefer Allen D.
Published: January 2007

Alkylβ‐D‐glycopyranosides composed of glucose, maltose or maltotriose attached to alkyl groups having from 4 to 18 carbon atoms were synthesized and tested for their physical and functional properties. Values are given for melting points, optical rotations, detergencies, critical micelle concentrations, surface tensions, interfacial surface tensions, Draves wetting tests and Ross Miles foam tests. Results show that maximum cleaning was obtained with maltosides attached to straight chain alkyl groups having from 12 to 15 carbon atoms.
Effect of ascorbyl palmitate on the quality of frying fats for deep frying operations
Authors: Gwo Y. ‐Y. , Flick G. J. , Dupuy H. P. , Ory R. L. , Baran W. L.
Published: January 2007

The addition of 0.02% ascorbyl palmitate (AP) reduced color development of frying fat (animal fat/vegetable oil [A‐V] shortening) and vegetable oil (partially hydrogenated soybean [V‐S] oil) in simulation studies. It also reduced peroxide values, development of conjugated diene hydroperoxides (CDHP) and their subsequent degradation to volatile compounds, such as decanal and 2,‐4 decadienal, indicating that AP has the ability to inhibit thermal oxidation/degradation of frying fats and oils. A commercial french fry fat had lower CDHP values compared to A‐V fat in simulated studies, and fried chicken oil had lower CDHP values than the V‐S oil. Peanut oil had higher thermal stability than the other fats and oils.
Modification of surface charges of soy protein by phospholipids
Authors: Chen W. S. , Soucie W. G.
Published: January 2007

Lecithin is used to prevent soy protein isolates from clumping in food processing. A PenKem Inc. System 3000 Electrokinetic Analyzer was used to investigate how the phospholipid modified the surface charge of soy protein. Electrophoretic mobility‐pH curves showed that a commercial soy lecithin lowered the isoelectric point (pI) and increased the electrical mobility of soy protein more than did a pure phosphatidylcholine. The modification of the surface charge of the protein was a function of the phospholipid added. Lecithinated soy isolate was more negatively charged and thus more dispersible in water than the nonlecithinated soy control.
Growth potential for soybean oil products as industrial materials
Authors: Sonntag Norman O. V.
Published: January 2007

Crude soybean oil, as a major source of edible oil for the world, is available on such a scale that it serves additionally as the origin for many industrial applications and for such materials as phospholipids (lecithins, cephalins), tocopherols (for vitamin E), sterols (for pharmaceuticals) and recovered fatty acids from acidulated soapstocks. The latter always have offered the oleochemicals manufacturer a low cost source of valuable fatty acids, and soybean oil itself, after hydrogenation, serves as the most readily available, lowest cost source of 90% stearic acid from among all fats and oils. As an alternative to alkali refining and the soapstock produced, physical refining of the degummed soybean oil is a potential source for fatty acids and for recovery of larger amounts of valuable sterols and tocopherols, but this process severely degrades the oxidation stability of the fatty acids.

The largest potentials for growth in industrial applications are for soybean oil itself in pesticide dispersion and grain dust control; triglycerides and fatty acids split therefrom for 90% stearate oleochemicals and selected food additivies; fatty acids from soapstocks up‐graded medium‐grade oleochemicals, medium‐grade soaps for industrial cleaning operations, and in animal feeds and pet foods; phospholipid gums in fractionated and modified lecithins and cephalins; soy deodorizer distillates containing α‐to copherol (vitamin E) and sterol‐derived sex hormones. Inclusion of food additives, feed and pet food additives with the more usual industrial markets results in the conclusion that industrial utilization of soybean oil could reach 12% of total consumption in the U.S. within five years.
Quantitative preparation of long chain thioethers from an oxo‐trans‐2‐enoic ester and a 9,12‐dioxo‐trans‐10‐enoic acid
Authors: Mustafa J. , Ahmad M. S. , Rauf A. , Osman S. M.
Published: January 2007

Branched‐chain thioethers have been prepared from methyl 4‐oxo‐trans‐2‐hexadecenoate and 9,12‐dioxo‐trans‐10‐octadecenoic acid. The reagents involved in these preparations were mercaptoacetic and mercaptopropionic acids. The yields of these thioethers are almost quantitative.
Effects of maturation and storage on solubility, emulsion stability and gelation properties of isolated soy proteins
Authors: Yao J. J. , Tanteeratarm K. , Wei L. S.
Published: January 2007

Solubility, emulsion stability and gelation of isolated soy proteins and their 7S and 11S fractions from three stages of seed maturity were studied. The pH‐solubility profile was similar irrespective of maturation and six‐month storage. The 11S protein was more soluble in the acidic pH range than the 7S protein. Oil‐in‐water emulsion stability of isolated soy protein from mature soybeans was higher than that from the immature ones. This is due to the fact that there was more 7S fraction in the mature soybeans, and 7S protein was found to form a more stable emulsion than that formed from 11S protein. The result suggests that isolated soy protein from mature soybeans would serve as a better emulsifying agent. Heat‐induced soy protein gels became weaker as the soybeans became more mature. This can be attributed to the higher content in the immature soybeans of 11S fraction which gives a stronger gel than 7S fraction in the protein from immature soybeans.
Storage of commercial margarine at different temperatures
Authors: Segura J. A. , Herrera M. L. , Añón M. C.
Published: January 2007

The effect of storage temperature on the consistency of commercial margarine was analyzed by viscometry, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), microscopy at low temperature and X‐ray diffraction. The results obtained show that samples harden at 13°C and soften at 4°C. The greater strength of samples was apparently associated with crystals of higher melting points. Recrystallization takes place during storage leading to more stable solid solutions with higher melting points.
Surface activity of the lipid products hydrolyzed with lipase and phospholipase A‐2
Authors: Fujita Satoshi , Suzuki Kazuaki
Published: January 2007

We examined thein vitro surface activity, immersional wettability and adhesional wettability shown by aqueous solutions of soy lysophospholipid (SLP)/monoglyceride (MG)/fatty acid (FA), SLP/FA and SLP/MG, and found that many lipid mixtures showed significant surface activity when their MG and FA components consisted of polyunsaturated FA and/or medium chain FA. The more unsaturated the FA, the higher the surface activity. A mixture of SLP/medium chain fatty acid MG (medium chain MG)/medium chain FA showed the highest surface activity, and was comparable to an Aerosol‐OT surfactant, the most effective wetting agent. SLP/polyunsaturated FA monoglyceride (polyunsaturated MG)/polyunsaturated FA, SLP/medium chain FA, and SLP/polyunsaturated FA, SLP/medium chain MG, and SLP/polyunsaturated MG also showed a high degree of activity. Wettability decreased rapidly when the amount of saturated, long chain FA moieties increased. It is recognized that the degrees of unsaturation and the chain length of FAs in the lipid mixtures have a decisive influence on surface activities. Higher ratios of MG and FA to SLP gave higher activity; and solubilizers such as bile salts were necessary to dissolve them in water.
Effects of antioxidants, methyl silicone and hydrogenation on room odor of soybean cooking oils
Authors: Warner K. , Mounts T. L. , Kwolek W. F.
Published: January 2007

Room odor characteristics produced by heated soybean oil (SBO) and soybean oils hydrogenated with copper (CuHSBO) and nickel (NiHSBO) catalysts were evaluated by a trained panel. Oils were intermittently heated to 190 C for total heating periods of 5, 15 and 30 hr. Oil additives investigated included methyl silicone (MS), tertiary butylhydroquinone (TBHQ) and a polymeric antioxidant in various combinations with citric acid (CA). In room odor tests directly comparing SBO, CuHSBO and NiHSBO, panelists rated the hydrogenated oils as having significantly less odor intensity than the SBO. The combination of CA+MS had the greatest effect in lowering odor intensity of the heated oils, followed by the mixture of CA+MS+TBHQ. The low odor intensity of the MS‐treated oils remained fairly constant throughout the tests, while the higher intensity associated with all the other additive‐treated oils decreased with increasing heating times, possibly as the result of formation of more volatile decomposition products in the initial heating stages. Methyl silicone had the strongest effect of any additive in decreasing objectionable room odors in the oils. Partially hydrogenated SBO treated with up to 5 ppm of MS produced cooking oils with low room odor intensity and low color development during prolonged heating.
Comparative study of physical methods for lipid oxidation measurement in oils
Authors: Yoon S. H. , Kim S. K. , Shin M. G. , Kim K. H.
Published: January 2007

For the determination of lipid oxidation in oils, electrical, optical, spectroscopic and extraction methods were investigated using rice bran oil and doubly‐fractionated palm olein as model systems. The oxidized polar components and dielectric constant of rice bran oil increased very similarly with those of double‐fractionated palm olein. In the case of rice bran oil, all of the test methods were shown to possess good statistical correlations. Polar components, dielectric constant, refractive index and polymer content showed relatively better correlations. It was shown that diene and triene content determined by spectroscopic methods was not suitable for more saturated oils such as palm olein.
Soy protein products and their production
Authors: Horan Frank E.
Published: January 2007

The soybean industry in the U.S. started in the first years of this century and was only 5,000,000 bushels just 50 years ago. This year it is expected to be over 1.5 billion bushels, reflecting a remarkable growth. Beans are processed primarily for soybean oil and for meal to be used in poultry and livestock feeds. Only ca. 3% soy protein is used in human food today. Special processing is required to prepare proteins to meet the various specifications of products for the food industry. Methods used to produce flour and grits, spun fibers, textured proteins, concentrates, and isolates are described.
Full‐fat soy flour
Authors: Pringle William
Published: January 2007

Full‐fat soy flours containing ca. 40% protein and 20% oil are described. Manufacturing procedures as well as nutritional and functional qualities are described.
Some aspects of research in the application of soy proteins in foods
Authors: Greuell E. H. M.
Published: January 2007

Some of the work on soy products being conducted at Unilever Laboratories is described. Two off‐flavor precursors and several meat flavors have been identified. By studying protein solubility relationships, a new method of concentrating soy proteins has been developed.
Beef/soy: Consumer acceptance
Authors: Wolford Kenneth M.
Published: January 2007

Significant changes of social pursuits are not easily wrought. We are steeped in traditions which influence every aspect of our behavior. History shows it is difficult to alter these patterns. Food consumption is at the nucleus of this tradition and it is not without difficulty that we successfully introduce major change to our eating habits. Yet this was accomplished within this current year in a great portion of society, and with more than a modicum of success by the blending of textured soy protein with red meats at the retail store level.
Soy protein products in other foods
Authors: Levinson Arthur A. , Lemancik John F.
Published: January 2007

Both long‐term and emerging patterns of utilization underscore the diversity of the use of soy protein products in processed foods other than meat foods. The purpose of this paper is to present a selective overview of this diverse usage.
Soy protein in school feeding programs
Authors: McCloud J. T.
Published: January 2007

Textured vegetable protein has been a tremendous asset to the Memphis school feeding program. There are several reasons for this: (A.) it is a dry product, easy to handle and store; (B.) shelf life is long enough to permit quantity purchasing and warehousing; (C.) dry storage of textured vegetable protein is much cheaper than refrigerated storage of meats; (D.) our students have not objected to its use; (E.) the absorption qualities of the textured vegetable protein allowed us to purchase ground beef with a 30% fat content, rather than a 22% fat content; (F.) it allows a more innovative approach to school food services; and (G.) it saves money. The introduction of textured vegetable protein into our operations has saved the U.S. school lunch program millions of dollars.
Nutritional effectiveness of soy cereal foods in undernourished infants
Authors: Graham George G. , Baertl Juan M.
Published: January 2007

These studies show that a variety of cereal‐soy foods can be the major or only source of protein in the diet of growing infants and children. These included various combinations of cornmeal and soy flour, with and without added dry skim milk or methionine; a wheat flour‐wheat concentrate mixture or whole wheat flour with soy flour; oat and soy flours; and a corn‐wheat‐soy flour macaroni. Apparent absorption of nitrogen from each of these mixtures was similar, averaging 76.3±0.6 (SEM) % of intake, but was inferior to that from casein in the same children, which averaged 86.8±0.4% of intake. Apparent retentions of nitrogen averaged 26.6±0.8 and 33.8±1.0% of intake respectively, with all but one of the soy‐cereal combinations being similar. This one had a mean retention equal to that from casein, possibly as the result of “instantizing” of the cornmeal which probably resulted in increased availability of dietary energy. For all the mixtures, nitrogen retention was influenced by the efficiency of nitrogen absorption, suggesting that processing methods can improve the nutritional quality of these foods.
Future developments in soy protein research and technology
Authors: Wilcke Harold L.
Published: January 2007

The many successful and desirable uses of soy products have been recounted in the talks during the past three days. We will attempt to emphasize: (A.) That practically every natural food can be improved in its adaptation to food for man. This includes milk. Improvement may be made by deleting certain undesirable factors such as flavors, odor, or anti‐nutritional factors. We will attempt to point out that many of these undesirable factors have been recognized and either eliminated or reduced to insignificance. We also will point out that further improvement may be made by enhancing functional and nutritional characteristics; (B.) That acceptance of soybean products as desired food constituents can result in further improvement in both yield and quality of the basic product as well as of the flours, concentrates, and isolates, which in turn may result in more economical production and processing costs; (C.) That the best progress is accomplished by those who recognize the inherent problems in the products and who are honestly willing to do something about them. It is the responsibility of every processor of food products, in the U.S. and elsewhere, to produce food products worthy of the quality of the raw product from which they are produced. This is particularly true of soybeans. The observance of all these factors will result in a real contribution to the food industry throughout the world.
Degumming soybean oil from fresh and damaged beans with surface‐active compounds
Authors: Nash A. M. , Frankel E. N. , Kwolek W. F.
Published: January 2007

Oils from both properly stored and damaged soybeans were degummed with a series of 4 nonionic, 2 cationic and 5 anionic surfactants and with lecithins as amphoteric emulsifiers. Efficiency of phosphatide removal in the presence or absence of citric acid was determined by colorimetric analysis of phosphorus in the degummed oils. For normal oils, efficiency of citric acid degumming was improved by the addition of fatty alkyl oxazoline, polymeric sulfonate, alkyl sulfate and crude or purified lecithin. Success in degumming of oils from partially damaged soybeans was limited; however, the average phosphorus content was lowest for those solutions degummed with alkyl sulfate. Aqueous citric acid degumming of oils from severely damaged soybeans indicated high levels of nonhydratable phosphatides (NHP). When added to the oil from severely damaged beans, several nonionic and anionic surfactants showed statistically significant improvements in degumming efficiency. However, the nonhydratable phosphorus contents of the degummed oils were still too high, indicating the need for special processing of damaged oils. Crude lecithin was effective in removing NHP from oil of fresh soybeans, but was ineffective on oils of stored and severely damaged beans.
Nonionic surfactants in municipal sewage in Israel
Authors: Zoller U. , Romano R.
Published: January 2007

Nonionic surfactants are a significant factor in the municipal sewages profile, which, in turn, affects the efficiency of sewage‐treatment processes and determines the possibility of sewage‐water reuse. Hard (nonbiodegradable), nonionic surfactants are the most commonly used nonionics in Israel, which probably has no parallel in other western industrial countries. In view of the increased share of nonionic surfactants at the expense of anionic surfactants, a worldwide trend, municipal sewages in Israel were expected to contain increasing amounts of nonionic surfactants, unless the ratio between the biodegradable and nonbiodegradable nonionics used was significantly changed. In vivo determinations of nonionic surfactants in representative municipal sewage systems in Israel, applying a modified SDA‐cobalt thiocyanate (CTAS) procedure and calibration curves (prepared under in vitro conditions), established typical concentrations of nonionic surfactants in municipal sewage in the northern part of Isreal to be in the range of 3–4 mg/L. Under the particular local situation, a calibration curve derived from a mixture of nonylphenol ethoxylates (NP8–14), having a slope of 0.165 absorbance units/mg of nonionic, can be reliably used to determine the content of nonionic surfactant of municipal sewage effluents. A correction factor based on the extent of nonionic recovery should be applied to ensure accuracy. All of the results obtained agree with other relevant studies and worldwide trends. The concentration of nonionic surfactants in municipal sewage in Israel appears to be decreasing. The results of the study, selected aspects involved with the determination procedure under in vivo conditions and issues relevant to the problem of nonionic detergents in municipal sewage, are discussed. The contribution of the study toward the improvement of water quality, thus increasing its potential for reuse in Israel (and elsewhere), is emphasized.
Polar lipids of sunflower meal and isolates
Authors: Millan F. , Vioque E. , Maza M. P.
Published: January 2007

The polar lipids present in the 86% ethanol extract obtained from sunflower meal and isolates were studied. The isolates were obtained in 2 ways: (a) by precipitation at the isoelectric point of the alkaline extract of the meal and further washing of the curd with water, and (b) by precipitation at the isoelectric point of the extract obtained with a 0.25% sodium sulfite solution and washing the curd with water, ethanol and acetone, successively. The polar lipids eluted from a Florisil column with chloroform/acetone (1:1) and with methanol, glycolipids and phospholipids, respectively, were studied both qualitatively and quantitatively. The components found were glycolipids, including sterol glycosides and esterified sterol glycosides, and phospholipids, including phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidylserine and sphingomyelin.
Hydrogenation of soybean oil with cationic Rh(I)‐Phosphine complexes as catalysts — Para‐toluene sulfonate and sulfonated styrene resins as counterions
Authors: Berglund Mats , Andersson Carlaxel
Published: January 2007

A cationic rhodium(I) complex, viz. Rh NBD diphos+ 4‐CH3‐C6H5SO3− [NBD = norbornadiene, diphos = (C6H5)2 P‐CH2‐CH2‐P(C6H5)2], has been used as a homogeneous catalyst for the hydrogenation of soybean oil in acetone solution. This complex acts almost in the same way as the corresponding ones with ClO4− or PF6− as conuterions, i.e., it gives high polyene selectivity and low formation oftrans isomers. Because of the somewhat stronger basic character of the p‐toluene‐sulfonate ion compared with the perchlorate and hexafluorphosphate ions, the relative proportion of reaction via the so‐called monohydride path is larger in the present case. When the ionic complex, Rh NBD diphos+, is bound to a solid support, e.g., to the anionic sites of sulfonated polystyrene resins, a nearly total lack of catalytic activity is observed. Possible reasons for these effects are discussed‐in terms of π‐arene‐metal binding and covalent coordination of the sulfonate group.
Enrichment of polyunsaturated fatty acids withGeotrichum candidum lipase
Authors: Shimada Yuji , Maruyama Kazuaki , Okazaki Suguru , Nakamura Masaki , Sugihara Akio , Tominaga Yoshio
Published: January 2007

Three lipases, isolated previously in our laboratory, each with different fatty acid and positional specificities, and a known lipase fromCandida cylindracea were screened for concentrating docosahexaenoic (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic (EPA) acids in glycerides.Geotrichum candidum lipase was found to be suitable for their concentration in glycerides. Tuna oil was treated at 30°C with this lipase for 16 h, and 33.5% hydrolysis resulted in the production of glycerides containing 48.7% of DHA and EPA. The hydrolysis was not increased despite adding further lipase, so the glycerides were extracted, and the reaction was repeated. The second hydrolysis produced glycerides containing 57.5% of DHA and EPA in a 54.5% yield, with recovery of 81.5% of initial DHA and EPA. Of the total glycerides, 85.5% were triglycerides. These results showed thatG. candidum lipase was effective in producing glycerides that contained a high concentration of polyunsaturated fatty acids in good yield.
Comparison of processes for the supercritical carbon dioxide extraction of oil from soybean seeds
Authors: Reverchon E. , Osséo L. Sesti
Published: January 2007

Three different process alternatives for the production of soybean oil by supercritical carbon dioxide extraction were analyzed. The first two processes were organized according to the classical scheme, based on high‐pressure extraction followed by separation induced by pressure reduction. Different techniques were used to recover the solvent in these two schemes, in the liquid and in the gas phases, respectively. The third alternative was based on an isobaric scheme—the oil, extracted at high pressure, was separated by chainging the temperature in the separator. In a further improvement, a technique for the heat transfer network integration was added to all the process schemes. The different schemes were used to establish the process configuration that can produce a lower operating cost for soybean oil extraction. Operating costs were considered on an industrial scale to carry out a screening of the different alternatives. The operating cost of these plants were then compared with the hexane extraction process. A substantial reduction in the specific costs was obtained in the case of heat transfer integration, and the operating costs fell in the same range as conventional extraction plants.
Oxidative stability of high oleic sunflower and safflower oils
Authors: Purdy Richard H.
Published: January 2007

High oleic sunflower seed progenies derived from normal seed by chemical mutagenesis were extracted and their oils refined by standard laboratory procedures. Oxidative stability was related directly to linoleic acid content with an AOM value of 100 hr obtained at 1% linoleate. Data is presented comparing linoleate concentration and oxidative stability of oils obtained from normal sunflower seed and high linoleic (normal) and high oleic (naturally induced mutations) varieties of safflower seed.
Influence of phospholipids on the crystallization of waxes in sunflowerseed oil
Authors: Rivarola G. , Añón M. C. , Calvelo A.
Published: January 2007

The effect of lecithins on wax crystallization in sunflowerseed oil was studied. The results showed that the presence of lecithins does not modify the nucleation stage, but decreases the crystalline size. Lecithin has a minimal effect on viscosity and does not change the wax/oil equilibrium ratio. It is proposed that the main mechanism of action of lecithin involves the partial adsorption on the surface of the wax crystals interfering with their growth.
Investigation of phase transitions in glyceride/paraffin oil mixtures using ultrasonic velocity measurements
Authors: McClements D. J. , Povey M. J. W.
Published: January 2007

A pulse echo technique has been used to measure the ultrasonic velocity of a number of 15% w/w glyceride/paraffin oil mixtures with increasing temperature (0–70 C). At the lower temperatures the glycerides are completely solid and there is a fairly steady decrease in velocity with temperature (ca. −3.8 ms−1C−1). As the temperature rises the glycerides become increasingly soluble in the paraffin oil and the velocity decreases more rapidly. Once the glyceride is completely soluble in the paraffin oil, a fairly steady decrease in velocity with temperature (ca. −3.3 ms−1C−1) resumes. The dependence of ultrasonic velocity on the amount of solid glyceride present means the technique can be used to investigate phase transitions in binary glyceride/oil mixtures.