bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Elementos para la construcción de una política pública de bilingüismo en el Valle del Cauca: un análisis descriptivo a partir del censo ampliado de 2005
Authors: Alonso Julio César , Gallo Beatriz Eugenia , Torres Giselle
Published: July 2013

Los índices de competitividad reflejan un pobre desempeño del departamento del Valle del Cauca, especialmente en lo referente al capital humano. Una política pública de bilingüismo permite acumular capital humano a través de la educación en inglés, acceder a nuevos mercados y mejor información, lo que hace posible el desarrollo de otros factores necesarios para la competitividad de una región. En este documento se hace un primer diagnóstico del bilingüismo en el Valle del Cauca, con miras a brindar argumentos para la creación de una eficaz política pública de bilingüismo. Los datos procesados provienen del Censo ampliado de 2005, y los resultados obtenidos a partir de él no son alentadores, pues muestran la necesidad de convertir el bilingüismo en un tema de prioridad en la agenda pública.
Finanzas públicas de Cali: evolución, caracterización y diagnóstico
Authors: Collazos Jaime Andrés
Published: July 2013

Este documento diagnosticó los principales factores que afectaron al comportamiento de las finanzas públicas de Cali. Para su análisis se utilizó la evolución y la caracterización de dieciocho indicadores de capacidad fiscal y financiera tomados de la evidencia internacional y nacional, calculados entre 1998 y 2009. Los resultados encontrados muestran que los escasos aportes de las empresas públicas, la baja disponibilidad de ahorro para la inversión, la alta dependencia de las transferencias, el poco esfuerzo fiscal, los elevados gastos de funcionamiento y el sobreendeudamiento para financiar el gasto corriente —en vez de proyectos productivos— son las principales variables que han afectado a los ingresos y los gastos del Municipio.
Quality of Government: Toward a More Complex Definition
Authors: AGNAFORS MARCUS
Published: July 2013

Concepts such as “quality of government” and “good governance” refer to a desired character of the exercise of public authority. Recently the interest in good governance, the quality of government, and similar concepts has increased considerably. However, despite this increasing interest and use, an adequate definition of the concept of quality of government has proved difficult to find. This article criticizes recent attempts at such a definition and proposes an alternative, more complex definition that includes moral content and also encompasses a plurality of values and virtues at its core. An acceptable definition of the quality of governance must be consistent with the demands of a public ethos, the virtues of good decision making and reason giving, the rule of law, efficiency, stability, and a principle of beneficence. The article describes these components in detail and the relations among them.
Effect of probiotic fermented milk on blood pressure: a meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials
Authors: Dong Jia-Yi , Szeto Ignatius M. Y. , Makinen Kimmo , Gao Qiutao , Wang Junkuan , Qin Li-Qiang , Zhao Youyou
Published: July 2013

Previous studies have suggested that probiotic fermented milk may possess blood pressure (BP)-lowering properties. In the present study, we aimed to systematically examine the effect of probiotic fermented milk on BP by conducting a meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. PubMed, Cochrane library and the ClinicalTrials.gov databases were searched up to March 2012 to identify eligible studies. The reference lists of the obtained articles were also reviewed. Either a fixed-effects or a random-effects model was used to calculate the combined treatment effect. Meta-analysis of fourteen randomised placebo-controlled trials involving 702 participants showed that probiotic fermented milk, compared with placebo, produced a significant reduction of 3·10 mmHg (95 % CI − 4·64, − 1·56) in systolic BP and 1·09 mmHg (95 % CI − 2·11, − 0·06) in diastolic BP. Subgroup analyses suggested a slightly greater effect on systolic BP in hypertensive participants than in normotensive ones ( − 3·98v. − 2·09 mmHg). Analysis of trials conducted in Japan showed a greater reduction than those conducted in European countries for both systolic BP ( − 6·12v. − 2·08 mmHg) and diastolic BP ( − 3·45v. − 0·52 mmHg). Some evidence of publication bias was present, but sensitivity analysis excluding small trials that reported extreme results only affected the pooled effect size minimally. In summary, the present meta-analysis suggested that probiotic fermented milk has BP-lowering effects in pre-hypertensive and hypertensive subjects.
The Mediterranean diet in relation to mortality and CVD: a Danish cohort study
Authors: Tognon Gianluca , Lissner Lauren , Sæbye Ditte , Walker Karen Z. , Heitmann Berit L.
Published: July 2013

The aim of the present study was to determine whether the Mediterranean Diet Score (MDS) is associated with reduced total mortality, cardiovascular incidence and mortality in a Danish population. Analyses were performed on 1849 men and women sampled during the 1982–83 Danish MONICA (MONItoring trends and determinants of Cardiovascular disease) population study, whose diet was assessed by means of a validated 7 d food record. The adherence to a Mediterranean dietary pattern was calculated by three different scores: one based on a classification excluding ingredients from mixed dishes and recipes (score 1); another based on a classification including ingredients (score 2); the last one based on a variant of the latter including wine instead of alcohol intake (score 3). The association between these scores and, respectively, total mortality, cardiovascular incidence and mortality was tested by a Cox proportional hazards model adjusted for several potential confounders of the association. Generally, all three scores were inversely associated with the endpoints, although associations with score 1 did not reach statistical significance. Score 2 was inversely associated with total mortality (hazard ratio 0·94; 95 % CI 0·88, 0·99). This association was confirmed for total cardiovascular as well as myocardial infarction (MI) incidence and mortality, but not for stroke. Score 3 was slightly more associated with the same outcomes. All associations were also resistant to adjustment for covariates related to potential CVD pathways, such as blood lipids, blood pressure and weight change after 11 years of follow-up. In a Danish cohort, the MDS was inversely associated with total mortality and with cardiovascular and MI incidence and mortality, but not with stroke incidence or mortality.
The Core of Mythology
Authors: Rose H. J.
Published: July 2013

I have been moved to write this article by receiving a letter from a man of learning and sense, whose name, if I were at liberty to mention it, would be familiar to readers of this journal. Speaking of mythology, he said: ‘It is a desert of names to most of us, with heavy Germans grubbing for solar myths; but there is a core of imagination, if some one would point it out to us.’ I wish to make it clear that the desert of names is no essential part of the subject; that Germans, heavy or light, no longer grub for sun-myths unless they are strangely behind the times and out of tune with the rest of the world in their researches; and that the core of imagination is quite easy to find, and refreshing when found.
The Pronunciation of Latin
Authors: Alington C. A.
Published: July 2013

I Have been invited to write an article on the subject of the pronunciation of Latin. I put this fact in the forefront, for I do not wish it to be supposed that I am a fanatic who seeks every opportunity of bombarding an unwilling audience with his one fixed idea. As a matter of fact, my main feeling in the matter is that a completely undue importance has been attached to the question, and that it is the so-called reformers and not their opponents who are responsible for this tedious discussion. Having made this apology I will state my case with what brevity I can.
A Matter of Emphasis
Authors: Casson Stanley
Published: July 2013

The veering of the weathercock of taste is a phenomenon which has never yet been fully studied by either aestheticians or historians of art. The shifting of emphasis in matters of choice and appreciation in art have been faithfully recorded, but as yet no attempt to explain the variations has been put forward. Sometimes variations of taste throughout a long period are in the form of a progressive or regressive series, sometimes they are purely erratic, one movement not necessarily being dependent upon its predecessor.
Tacitus Reconsidered
Authors: White H. W.
Published: July 2013

Tacitus as an historian has long been critically revalued: as an artist, I think, he has been spared too much. To promote that further revaluation is the purpose of these notes.
Greek Inscriptions
Authors: Tod Marcus N.
Published: July 2013

Among the many valuable epigraphical discoveries which have rewarded the labours of the Italian Archaeological Mission at Cyrene, not the least interesting is that of which I here present a brief account.
Games and Playthings
Authors: Thompson D'arcy Wentworth
Published: July 2013

To collect something or another, stamps, coins or butterflies, is a universal pastime, and it needs no explanation or excuse save the satisfaction which it brings. One may play the same game in another way, by collecting information; but the facts which one accumulates must be remote from one's duty and avocation. An old scholar taught me the game more than fifty years ago and I have never stopped playing it; it is such an easy and so engrossing a game. You choose some subject or other which takes your fancy; you buy a note-book and label it with the title of your theme; and you keep jotting down therein whatsoever bears upon the subject, as it comes your way, in all your reading, observation and reflection. I have had many such note-books, and some I have soon grown tired of; but others have lasted long and served me well. One of these is called De Ludis Antiquorum; it is grown old and shabby, for I played with it during many years. Your subject opens out wonderfully as time goes on; it tempts you into by-ways, it carries you afield; if you play the game aright it never comes to an end. It grows in interest continually, for things are interesting only in so far as they relate themselves to other things; only then can you put two and two together and tell stories about them. Such is science itself and such is all the knowledge that interests mankind.
Philemon Holland, Translator and Schoolmaster
Authors: Broughall M. S.
Published: July 2013

In 1763 the Clarendon Press at Oxford issued a Greek Testament printed from a fount newly cut for them by John Baskerville of Birmingham. It was the beginning of a new era in Greek typography in England. For the crabbed and curly abbreviations which perpetuated in print the obscurities of manuscript, following the sixteenth-century type of Robert Estienne, were substituted clearly formed letters pleasant to see and easy to read. Some abbreviations there still were, for the basis was still a written hand of not a century later than Estienne, but they were not obscure. Estienne, printer to the King, Francis I, had taken as his model the letters drawn for him by the King's scribe, a Cretan, Angelos Vergetios: Baskerville borrowed from the school library of Coventry a manuscript written by an English schoolmaster, Euclid's Harmonics copied by Philemon Holland, and ‘partly formed his characters from it’.
The Portrait of a Greek Gentleman
Authors: Dodds E. R.
Published: July 2013

‘I never looke upon an author’, says Montaigne, ‘be they such as write of vertue and of actions, but I curiously endevour to find out what he was himselfe.… Plutarke's compositions, if they be well savored, do plainly manifest the same unto us: and I am perswaded I know him inwardly: yet would I be glad we had some memories of his owne life.’ What we know of the externals of Plutarch's life can in fact be put in a few sentences. Born shortly before the middle of the first century a.d., a member of an old Boeotian family in easy circumstances, he combined with the ordinary occupations of a country gentleman the profession of lecturing, though it is improbable that he charged any fees for his courses. His devotion to the municipal affairs of Chaeronea involved him in various missions, one of which took him to Rome while still a young man, in the principate of Vespasian. Here his days were occupied by lecturing and what he grandly calls ‘political business’, his evenings by dinner parties; so that he had no time, he tells us, to practise himself in the Roman tongue. In his youth he visited Alexandria also, perhaps for his studies; and we find him at Rome again under Domitian, perhaps collecting materials for the Roman biographies. But his later years were passed, so far as our knowledge goes, between Chaeronea, where he kept a sort of school for gentlemen's sons and held a succession of municipal offices, and Delphi, where he was a member of the priestly college. He married the daughter of a fellow citizen; begot five children (two of whom died in childhood); and himself lived to a ripe age. Practically the whole of this meagre curriculum vitae has been constructed out of scattered references in Plutarch's own writings. Almost the only piece of extraneous evidence is Suidas' statement that Trajan made him consul in his old age: this I have some difficulty in crediting, for there is no hint anywhere in his writings of his having held high office or of any personal relations which could explain Trajan's act—and Plutarch was hardly the man to leave his honours unmentioned. If he has told us little of the outward tenor of his life, I suspect that there was little to tell. He likens it himself to a well-written manuscript, wherein are few erasures.
The Procedure of the Senate
Authors: Russell A. G.
Published: July 2013

The greatest contribution which Rome made to the history of the world is perhaps to be found in her government, in her solution of political problems, and in the machinery she devised to carry out the hundred and one duties that fall to the lot of executive powers. No one institution of Rome is so interesting and intriguing in its origin and development as the Senate, which from the early days of the Republic down to the foundation of the Empire played an enormous part in moulding the whole political life of Rome; and even when the golden days of senatorial authority were over, its name and tradition remained to exercise a great influence and fascination on succeeding times. When we read of the Senate and its part in Roman history we try to think of parallels in our own government, and the first thing that suggests itself to us is the Houses of Parliament and more particularly the House of Commons. But there are so many differences between the two that it is worth while briefly to describe the Senate and in so doing compare it with our own system.
The Problem of the Bacchae
Authors: Barnard A. S. C.
Published: July 2013

Few readers of the Bacchae will disagree with Professor Gilbert Murray's statement that ‘for excitement, for mere thrill, there is absolutely nothing like it in ancient literature’. Most readers will probably also feel that the whole thing is cruel and barbarous, and that it is difficult to suppose that Euripides had much real sympathy with the wild revellings and orgies so beautifully depicted, or that he thought it a good thing for women to get into a state in which they mistook men for animals, and deserted their own babies to suckle the offspring of wild beasts. Such being the results at Thebes of the new ritual, it is hard not to feel from the first that Pentheus is right in trying to suppress it, and right in denying the divinity of Dionysus. It is not easy to agree with Tyrrell in finding in all this the marks of an ‘ethical contentment and speculative calm’. The man who should be ethically contented with that would not be worth reading.
Helen with Priam
Authors: Sheppard J. T.
Published: July 2013

Nine years the Achaeans lay encamped beside the sea. Toll was taken of the wealth of Priam and the lives of men in forays, raids, and skirmishes, but no pitched battle fought, until a time of pestilence and disaffection in the Greek camp culminated in the quarrel with Achilles and in Agamemnon's preparation for a general attack.
Horace's Personality and Outlook on Life as Revealed in his Satires and Epistles
Authors: Bury J. H.
Published: July 2013

The writer of what we may call, for want of a better name, vers de société, usually wins a popularity that is merely fleeting; he must be in touch with the thought of his own generation, and in his poems reflect its sentiments, express its humour, and satirize its manners: but his subjects often fail to interest posterity, and in a few decades the poems are apt to be forgotten unless they contain a divine spark of intrinsic excellence. In like manner, the claim to a lasting reputation of the moral essayist is no less hazardous unless he can avoid, above all things, what a recent writer has termed ‘the dull insolence of technicality’. The Satires and Epistles still live after nineteen centuries, and require no apologist. They have earned immortality because of their influence both on the Roman world that Horace knew and on the minds of men, particularly Englishmen, for centuries afterwards. His world was not a very serious world, and he wrote of it as he found it, with his inimitable touches of half-cynical, but never unkindly moralizing; and yet, as these poems and the Odes show, he found it a pleasant enough place for those who knew where true joy was to be found. The Satires and Epistles would be interesting enough if only for the facts that Horace discloses about himself: his freedman father (a coactor), his own personal appearance (Epist. i. 20. 24), the simplicity of his early home (ib. 20, ‘me libertino natum patre, et in tenui re’), and his intense affection for his equally devoted father. He must have been more than thirty years of age when he wrote Satire i. 6, which, in lines 58–100, is one long tribute to his father, and expresses his gratitude for the sacrifices made by a father who was not too well-off; no snob could have written as sincerely as this about his humble family, and no man with any false pride would frankly confess that, in the reverse inflicted on the Republican army at Philippi, he was forced to leave his shield on the field of battle (Carm. ii. 7. 10: ‘relicta non bene parmula’). The disastrous war shattered any illusions he had of rising to eminence in the army, and left him a poor man; but it gave us the poet (Epist. ii. 2. 51, ‘paupertas impulit audax ut versus facerem’), and his subsequent introduction to Maecenas resulted in his fortune being assured.
Roman Education
Authors: Poynton J. B.
Published: July 2013

The importance which the Romans attached to the family is well known, and it is natural enough that in early times the Roman boy received his only education at home. Plutarch to be sure would have us believe that Romulus and Remus went to school at Gabii, but his story is not to be taken seriously: it is simply an attempt to present these legendary characters as human beings, living the sort of life with which the reader himself was familiar. As we approach history we find several mentions of schools in Livy: the master of Falerii has won eternal infamy by delivering his pupils as hostages to the Roman general, an act with which many of his profession have sometimes felt a certain ambiguous sympathy. But it is idle to speculate on the truth of such tales: we may take the statement of Pliny (Ep. viii. 14) suus cuique parens pro magistro as substantially correct for the time before the First Punic War.
Plot and Character in Sophocles
Authors: Saunders A. N. W.
Published: July 2013

Aristotle'sPoetics has centuries of tradition behind it as a substitute for first-hand appreciation in dramatic criticism, and this work has lent colour to the old view that the characters of Greek tragedy were all ‘idealized types’ in a performance in which the plot was the thing. This is because Aristotle explicitly puts plot above character in his list of the essentials of a tragedy, and when he comes to treat of character has little to say which appeals to us. But the pure tragic drama of human feeling depends entirely on its success in eliciting sympathy with its characters. Of this art Sophocles, like Shakespeare, is the acknowledged champion. Aeschylus is inspired to ‘justify the ways of God to man’, Euripides is concerned to question the ways of man to his neighbour. When Aeschylus added characterization to his loftier qualities, he produced in the Agamemnon the greatest play ever written, but we do not suspect his ‘Prometheus’ of character drawing any more than Shelley's. And in Euripides, as sometimes in Shaw, the characters are so under the thumb of the theories that we forget to take much personal interest in them. But in Sophocles we are not distracted by the prophet or the propagandist, and we can let his pathetic, human people stir in us their own hopes and sorrows.
Roman Board Games. I
Authors: Austin R. G.
Published: July 2013

The study of classical board games offers a most fertile field for conjecture, yet at the same time yields a distressing paucity of certain fact. Hasty conclusions of all kinds have been drawn from the sources available, both as to the nature of the games and as to methods of playing them; encouraged by the cheerful ambiguities of our authorities, investigators have not hesitated to equate Greek games with Roman, or both with those of Egypt and the Orient if occasion suited, and to lay down rules for the one deduced entirely from the other. Actually, the most sober caution is necessary. We are not justified in deriving the games of one country from those of another; but when a game obviously conforms to a definite type as played throughout the ages in various parts of the world, then we may justifiably make certain assumptions concerning it; for example, in the case of those Roman games which are of the backgammon type we may reasonably infer that they were played in a certain way. Beyond that we cannot go, and the utmost care is needed not to pervert the tradition of ancient authors, vague and obscure as it so often is. It is especially important to note that none of these games, either Greek or Roman, had any connexion with chess. There is no proof that the latter was derived either from the πέντε γραμμαί or from the ludus latrunculorum; any such claim is quite invalidated by the anachronisms and impossibilities involved. Thus ‘chess’, even as a loose translation of a term such as πεττεία, so commonly found, is inaccurate and misleading. If this paper is less inconclusive than many previous accounts, it is due to the help freely given me by Mr. H. J. R. Murray, who has put at my disposal his own notes and suggestions, backed by his expert practical understanding of board games and his unique knowledge of their comparative history.
An Old School Library
Authors: Williams B. H. Garnons
Published: July 2013

There has recently been unearthed from the Governors' minute book of a public school in the north of England a list of books which formed the school library in the year 1707. It provides some interesting sidelights on the educational ideas of the time.
Plato's Commonwealth
Authors: Cornford F. M.
Published: July 2013

A country so situated that its growth depends on sea-power and foreign trade heads an alliance against an emperor bent on adding a good part of Europe to his dominions. The emperor is defeated; and in an ample stretch of comparatively quiet years the champion of freedom finds opportunity to take the lead among its neighbours in the arts of peace. At home, democratic institutions are developed towards their logical completion; abroad, ambition is satisfied by consolidating an empire overseas. A golden age of prosperity and progress—or so it will seem when men look back upon it from the darker days that are to come. For an expanding prosperity has to reckon with the jealousy of commercial rivals; and an expanding empire is not always welcomed as a boon by the countries it penetrates and absorbs. There is a growing tension. A continental power, whose citizens are trained to the highest pitch of military efficiency, declares war. The States are grouped in two alliances, neither of which is strong enough to overpower the other or to inflict a fatal wound. No soldier of genius appears on either side, and the war drags on in a series of futile successes and futile defeats. The strain of anxiety and the release of those ugliest passions which, in time of war, assume the name of virtue, demoralize the combatants. The tacit conventions that lie at the base of civilized life are called in question or openly denied. Men lose faith in democracy, and even in freedom; they come near to losing faith in life itself. Somewhere at the heart of their being a nerve snaps; and when the war of exhaustion comes to a disastrous close, they are left disheartened and listless, unable to believe in a future worth the effort they lack the driving power to make.
The Study of Roman Britain in a Sixth Form
Authors: Williams B. H. Garnons
Published: July 2013

There are some to whom Roman remains have no appeal; there are others to whom a fragment of Samian ware is of more value than the Vaphio cups. Both classes are to be pitied. The former are naturally the more numerous; the latter perhaps do more harm. For such an attitude is not merely a sign of a lack of aesthetic sensibility; it tends to alienate people of aesthetic sensibility from the study of antiquities. To tell a person of taste to admire the Corbridge lion as a first-rate work of art simply has the effect of estranging him from the study of Roman Britain altogether.
The Tactics of Odysseus
Authors: Macdonell P. J.
Published: July 2013

Odysseus had heard long ago from the shade of Tiresias that in Ithaca he would find insolent men devouring his goods and wooing his wife, and from the shade of Agamemnon that he should arrive there in secret; and now Athene, when she found him on that April morning wandering by the shore that he had forgotten, told him that for three years past the suitors had been lording it in his house, and she at once changed him to an old man in whom no one would recognize Odysseus, sacker of cities. He knew then of his enemies and had been given the advantages of disguise and secrecy and the possibility of surprise that would go with them.
A Latin Epitaph of the Early Nineteenth Century
Authors: Macnaughton D. A.
Published: July 2013

This epitaph is on a tombstone in the churchyard of Kenmore, Perthshire, a little village on the shores of Loch Tay, close to the point at which the river leaves the parent lake. In the early nineteenth century Kenmore had some importance as the market of a wide rural area and as containing the parish church and parish school. The epitaph is the work of the son, William Armstrong, who succeeded to his father's post and died in 1879. Purists might perhaps take exception to the post-classical authority of puritate, but it will be generally allowed that as the composition of the Headmaster of a rural parish school its Latinity is as remarkable as its pietas. It is to be regretted that the author left no pupil to pay him a fitting tribute in the same tongue. But among his alumni there were many who remembered his teaching with admiring gratitude. Of these was one of the principal farmers of the district who told me years ago that he held Latin in high esteem as the subject which, as he put it, ‘opened his head’. His precise meaning eluded me until in later years I reflected that Highland farmers have a gift of imagination and a command of terse and figurative expression. Clearly what he implied was that, just as, when Hephaestus split the skull of Zeus, Athene sprung out in full panoply, so the impact of the lene tormentum of Latin on his own brain let wisdom loose.
Circe A Satyric Drama With a Metrical Paraphrase
Authors: Dobson J. F.
Published: July 2013

The Circe belongs to that class of plays which is described, rather vaguely, as Satyric Drama. Though not a Tragedy, it is of the Tragic rather than of the Comic type, and contains many of the elements without which no good play is complete. Thus there are two περιπέτειαι and one deus ex machina, and though άναγνώρισις is unfortunately absent (a fault noticeable also in many of the plays of Euripides) it contains some examples of Irony; the Unities of Time and Place are strictly observed, and the Hero is neither better nor worse than he should be.
Historical Novels
Authors: Irwin-Carruthers G.
Published: July 2013

Does any one ever read Henty nowadays? It is a pity if they do not, for in his unpretentious way he serves as a very good model for one type of historical fiction, and it may upon reflection appear that his is not the worst type to follow. It was his practice to take some historical period of general interest, and into the framework of fact to work the adventures of a fictitious hero; the real historical heroes paced at intervals across the background, the facts of history were generally accurately enough presented, and the dialogue was couched in the ordinary speech of all ages: the more educated spoke the standard English of Henty's own day, the uneducated a sort of conventional Loamshire, which had the advantage of being equally suitable for Kingswear, Kenmare, or Kircudbright. He never attempted to give his books an air of antiquity by plastering them with what passed for the vocabulary of the period.
Ionia in the Sixth Century b.c.
Authors: Webster T. B. L.
Published: July 2013

A tilted nose, long rather mysterious eyes, and a subtle mouth are the obvious characteristics of the little head which forms the subject of my first illustration. It is a small perfume-vase found in Rhodes and made about 550 b.c. We feel that we are in the presence of a lady of an inquiring turn of mind and a great appreciation of the joys of life. I hope that she is sufficiently interesting to justify an inquiry into her life and surroundings. Is this curiosity and enjoyment of life characteristic of Ionian art and literature in general?
Tacitus' Conception of the Function of History
Authors: Roberts R. L.
Published: July 2013

There were various conceptions of the function of history current in the ancient world. There was always one school of so-called historians who wrote with the motive of giving pleasure uppermost in their minds. The absence of a novel from classical literature left romance to invade history and oratory, and writers of this school might often be more properly called historical novelists than historians. They were especially susceptible to the influence of declamation and the rhetorical worship of style. For this school, in brief, history was nothing but the raw material for the literary artist. A second school, of which Polybius is the most prominent representative, held that history should be the training-ground of politicians, statesmen, and soldiers, who may learn from the past how to discover the real significance of events. Polybius naturally attached more importance to truth (which, he says, is to history what the eye is to the human body) than did those who wrote only for entertainment. Thirdly, there was the view that it is the function of history to teach men of all stations the lessons of the past, and by so teaching form and strengthen the individual moral character. This last is the view of Tacitus, though his conception of the function of history is broad enough to embrace the other two in a properly subordinate measure.
The Shape of Greek Tragedy
Authors: Greenwood L. H. G.
Published: July 2013

When this paper was first written, a few months ago, it was christened ‘Greek Tragedy and Modern Religious Worship’. But this name will not describe it properly. Its subject is not modern religious worship, but Greek tragedy. I hope to use what we know about modern religious worship to help our understanding of Greek tragedy, and not vice versa. And I wish, at the outset, to stress the word ‘worship‘—‘religious worship’, nor ‘religion’, not ‘religious belief’. We are to consider rather the outward form than the inward content of religion as we know it to-day. And the same is true of what is, as I have said, my real subject. I will not attempt any general account of Greek tragedy. I am concerned with one aspect of it only, its outward form. We have, preserved to us through twenty-three centuries and more, thirty-three specimens of it, all (with one possible exception) by one or other of the three great masters of tragic poetry. That is to say, the words of these plays have been preserved. We know less than we could wish, to be sure, of other things upon which the total effect of an ancient tragedy depended: the buildings and scenery, the dresses, the gestures, the dancing, the music, and much besides. Still, even of these things we know something and can safely guess more; we have the words, and may claim to understand their meaning fairly well; putting all together, we may say that we know what the form of a Greek tragedy was. That this form is interesting and beautiful, most of those who have been able to make its acquaintance are disposed to agree. But it is also a strange form. It does and must appear strange to those who have read modern plays, and seen modern plays performed, and then come to read Greek tragedies, whether in Greek or in English, and even, with luck, to see Greek tragedies performed. The feeling of strangeness wears off, like other things, with time and familiarity, to a great extent; but it seldom wears off completely. We may cease to wonder that an old Greek play is so unlike a modern play; we never quite cease to wonder that an old Greek play is what it is.
Geometric Man
Authors: Austin R. P.
Published: July 2013

There is some special quality inherent in primitive art which arouses our curiosity about the personality, the aims, and the methods of its creators. The outline of the reindeer roughly incised on a rock, the crude figure of a man carved out in stone, which betoken the difficult achievement of a race low in the scale of civilization, often excite in us keener interest and speculation than the more facile perfection of the masterpieces of a later age.
Down the High St.
Authors: Gosling W. F.
Published: July 2013

I wandered down the High St. of our little town and noticed with particular interest the shop signs, brass plates, and commercial notices which met my eyes in every direction. I was interested because I wanted to see how greatly even the exterior of our everyday surroundings, so to speak, are dominated by the connexion of our language with Latin and Greek. I was not concerned with the more obvious words—dentist, oculist, doctor—but with those which had a story to tell.
The Franco-German Frontier
Authors: Rollo William
Published: July 2013

Only a few years ago Professor Carcopino of the Sorbonne published a book entitled Ce que Rome et l'Empire remain doit à la Gaule. For the classical scholar brought up under the Victorian régime this was turning the tables with a vengeance: from time immemorial, people, and classical historians in particular, had looked to Rome and Greece as the origin of all that was worth mentioning in the inheritance of western European culture from the ancient world. And now a famous scholar, and a classical one at that, unexpectedly wrote a book on what Rome owed to Gaul, and put up such a very good case for Gallic civilization that it is no longer possible to ignore it. Since then further researches have shown that the Gallic contribution to Gallo-Roman culture and through it to our heritage down the ages was considerable. While it is still too early to give a reasoned and detailed account of this Gallic contribution, we can at any rate state that Professor Carcopino's book and the work of other historians both before and after him have forced us to reorientate our ideas about the early influences which combined to form what we call modern western European culture. To-day we hear all kinds of fancy theories put forward to suit the national consciousness of various peoples, which all attempt to show that one or the other people has contributed most to the building up of our modern world. I do not think it will ever be possible to divide up and allot the various component parts of our culture to the different formative elements; but it is true that there are certain historical facts which will not admit of negation and simply cannot be ignored, however much this or that national consciousness might like to ignore them.
The Dumb Wit
Authors: Broughall Marjorie S.
Published: July 2013

Tiberius was taking exercise in the water-garden. He had dismissed his attendants and given orders that he was not to be disturbed; with bent head and brooding pace he passed and repassed the fountain, finding no solace in its pleasant sound for the unpleasing memories that chafed him. ‘Slaves! born slaves!’ he muttered as he walked. It is a hard fate to love liberty and justice, and to be at once the guardian and the ruin of both. A shout of laughter broke his meditations, and a cry from several voices, ‘Bravo! Do it again.’ Tiberius frowned; but the disturbance ceased before he had decided that it must be stopped. He went on walking, and was once more sunk in troubled cogitation when the noise broke out afresh. Brief as before, it nevertheless put an end this time to all hope of quiet thought: to expect interruption is to be all the while disturbed. Now really angry, for nature and training alike were affronted by this disregard of his command and of his comfort, Tiberius turned towards the sound, not without curiosity, for it came from the audience-chamber, usually deserted at this hour. His rapid entrance was unobserved, so intent was the group of household servants at the other end. It is a rare experience for an emperor to remain unnoticed, and Tiberius found his anger subsiding into ironic amusement as he approached them from behind and no one turned. His great height enabled him to look over their heads and see a young slave mouthing and gesticulating in a manner that struck him as familiar. It was very like—yes, surely it was an imitation in dumb show of the speaker he had last heard that morning in the courts.
A Roman River: and a Roman poet
Authors: Tattersall A.
Published: July 2013

To-day, not for the first time, the borderland between France and Germany, a land of hills, forests, and rivers, has been the unhappy scene of warfare. Though its pleasant prospects are worthy of activities less vile, man has used the natural gateways of this region for purposes of war, as well as of peaceful intercourse, discreditably often. It is through one of these gateways that the Mosel flows, linking the Gauls and the Germanics. This delightful river rises in the Vosges and, flowing north-eastward, adds breadth to the broad Rhine at Coblenz. On its way it passes by Metz, of French military fame, and later by Trier, or Trèves, a lovely old place which as Augusta Treverorum was in Roman times one of the most important towns of western Europe. Now the river's course is disfigured by fortified barriers, named after a legendary hero and a modern politician. But in Roman times it was a land of peace more continuously than at any other period.
Dogs in Ancient Warfare
Authors: Forster E. S.
Published: July 2013

This passage has suggested that it might be interesting to collect, as far as possible, the passages dealing with the use of dogs in ancient warfare and make a comparison with modern practice. The references which I have discovered, and which seem mainly to refer to Greek warfare, are numerous, but no doubt there are others which I have failed to trace.
Latin Before Greek
Authors: Oakley H. C.
Published: July 2013

In the May number of Greece and Rome Mr. R. S. Stanier, in a stimulating and provocative article, contended that, if only one ancient language can be taught in our schools, that language should be Greek rather than Latin, because of the greater variety, interest, and value of Greek literature.
Schoolboys of the Ancient World
Authors: Blaiklock E. M.
Published: July 2013

In the Greek papyri from Egypt we meet a little band of schoolboys. They are a remnant of their kin. The tousled heads which bowed over the clay tablets laboriously incised with wedge-shaped tables in the Sumeria of Hammurabi and Nebuchadnezzar are gone. No one even thought of carving them on a temple wall. Gone, too, are the lads of Egypt's temple schools. They had no free milk at school by the Nile, but each morning their mothers appeared with three rolls of bread and two jugs of beer to be consumed during lessons. ‘A boy who wanted more’, says the document which supplies the information, ‘is a gluttonous creature.’ Were there brown Oliver Twists among the budding scribes in the days when Tahutmes III was setting up ‘Cleopatra's’ needle ? The sturdy scribe who sits cross-legged in limestone in the Louvre looks as if he might have merry tales to tell of schooldays in his century. It was the twenty-seventh before Christ.
The Greek as a Mercenary Soldier
Authors: Russell A. G.
Published: July 2013

Every young man in Greece during the fifth and fourth centuries b.c. had to be a soldier or a sailor, whether he liked it or not, for the greater part of his life; we may recall that Socrates ‘trailed a pike’ when he was forty-five at the battle of Delium, and the records of those times certainly show that anyone to whom the life of soldiering appealed had ample opportunity to indulge his taste to the full. If he did not like it, there was little remedy, and no provision for conscientious objection in the city-state. There were some, however, who found an outlet for their surplus energies not in the army of their own city but in that of a foreign overseas power, or even of a neighbouring and rival state, sometimes from choice, often compelled by a variety of causes which we shall shortly mention. It was with the Carians of southern Asia Minor that mercenary service of this sort traditionally originated in the eighth and early part of the seventh centuries b.c.—with their neighbours from Ionia they had long been troubling the shores of the Nile Delta by their freebooting expeditions until Psammetichus I actually took them into his service in his successful attempt to gain the throne of Egypt, and then formally incorporated them in his army, stationing them at Daphnae on the eastern frontier of the Delta. From that time onward Egypt also knew other large bodies of Greek soldiers, still mainly from Asia Minor; in return for their help the Egyptian kings on various occasions sent gifts to the great shrine of Apollo at Branchidae. Later on we find that this habit of mercenary service spread to, and grew in, mainland Greece.
Livy and Romance
Authors: Martin J. M. K.
Published: July 2013

There are arid patches in Livy, as in most historians, but for these there is ample compensation in passages of brilliant description and characterization.
A Study in the ‘Medea’
Authors: Mead Louise M.
Published: July 2013

Euripides’ reputation has often suffered from a comparison of his works with those on similar subjects by Aeschylus and Sophocles. In such a comparison Euripides stands at a disadvantage, since it involves comparing what are acknowledged to be his lesser plays with the masterpieces of the two earlier tragedians, while no plays are extant by his predecessors on the same subjects as his greatest plays. To take as an example one of Euripides’ acknowledged masterpieces, the Medea, the only Greek works we still possess in which Medea is a prominent figure are one of Pindar's Odes and Apollonius Rhodius’ epic, the Argonautica, both of which deal with an earlier phase of the legend; while for plays dealing with the same incidents we must turn to those of a Roman dramatist, Seneca, and a French dramatist, Corneille. In comparing Euripides’ Médea with the plays of these two dramatists we give Euripides an advantage which is possibly greater than that which Aeschylus and Sophocles have in a comparison of their works with his; for tragic drama was not a branch of literature in which the Romans excelled and the Médée is admittedly not one of Corneille's successes. Nevertheless, even a hurried reading of their plays is of value in helping us to appreciate Euripides’ Medea, since salient points of that play stand out by contrast in bolder relief.

Such a comparison impresses upon us two important aspects of Euripides’ play: first, that he reduced the magical element, itself an essential part of the story, to the barest minimum, and second, that he alone feels sympathy with Medea herself.
Class Distinctions in Fifth-Century Athens
Authors: White A. J.
Published: July 2013

The origins of Athenian class distinctions lie far back in the days of the synoecism, and it is tantalizing that so little is known of this process. Yet much of the interest of the question depends on differences of time and circumstance, so that, although the Athenian social atmosphere was something very unlike our own, the dissimilarity is partly due to conditions which were general in the ancient world and not peculiar to the case under consideration. It is true that, like us, the ancients were distinguished by the fact of belonging to classes. Not all were wealthy; not all were celebrated. Neither were they all skilled, humble, virtuous, or unscrupulous. As now, wealth was not infrequently the accident of birth, and the example of Democedes the physician, who won affluence by his personal capacity, is a rather rare one. On the other hand, many factors which emphasize class distinction to-day were absent. There was no large-scale industry in our sense of the word. Indeed, if we wished to speak of industry in Greek, we should use the term χειρουργία—something performed manually. Again, there was not available a large multiplicity of goods, the acquisition of which would stamp the obviously wealthy. Consider the simple items mentioned in the inscription which gives the inventory of Alcibiades’ bedroom furniture and compare them with those of a later age, with the multa et lauta supellex which Cicero tells us belonged to Pompey. Or compare Cicero's own villas and portrait galleries with the homely domesticity of Ischomachos as we see it in Xenophon's Oeconomica.
Priene and Modern Planning
Authors: Wycherley R. E.
Published: July 2013

The present war will leave architects unexpected and wonderful opportunities for replanning our cities and making them more worthy of the name ‘city’. The impressive schemes already laid before the public show that they intend to be ready when the moment comes. They will produce something better than a formless huddle of shops and slums or a wide but still formless expanse of suburbs. A more organic structure will be their object, built round a vital centre. In achieving this the creators of the new towns will be guided first and last by the needs and ways of life of those who will have to live in them. These will not be sacrificed to tradition or to artistic fancy. There will be no meaningless imitation and no appeal to precedent unless it is based on similar ways of life and similar ideas. For these reasons one hesitates to turn to classical precedents; but perhaps there is something in the ancient Greek city, the polis, which is not altogether foreign to the modern spirit, and arising out of this, elements in its architectural form which are applicable to modern needs.

The city in the best sense of the word was a Greek creation. The polis was a compact community in which life was so organized that each citizen could get the greatest benefit from his membership. It was not so large that he was completely swallowed up, but it was sufficiently large for him to enjoy a rich and full political and economic, social and intellectual life.