bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Nonlinear Bimodulus Model and Strength Criterion of 3D Carbon-Carbon Material
Authors: Zhenlong Gu  , Qunyao Gao  , Weibo Zhang
Published: March 2007

Biaxial loading setup and large shear strain gage are designed to achieve the tension-tension, tension-compression, compression-compression and tension-shear test ings on planar specimens. Based on the experimental results, the constitutive equations and strength criterion are established. To determine whether the tensile or compressive modulus should be used in case of combined stress state with tensile stress in one direction and compressive stress in the other, this paper suggests that it depends on the senses of the fiber stresses instead of on those of principal stresses. Symmetry of the elastic stiffness matrix is attained by assuming the existence of strain potential. Experimental results show that the nonlinearity of the stress-strain relationship stems only from the shear behavior. Strength data are fitted with quadratic function separately in each quadrant in a stress plane. Both the constitutive equations and the strength criterion thus established agree with the experimental results fairly well.
Nonlinear Mechanical Properties of a Thermoset Matrix Composite at Elevated Temperatures
Authors: Ha Sung K. , Springer George S.
Published: March 2007

Models are presented for describing the stress-strain relationships and the strengths of a thermoset matrix composite exposed to elevated temperature. The models take into account the nonlinear elastic characteristics of the material. For Fiberite 976 resin and for unidirectional Fiberite T300/976 composite the constants required in the models were determined by measuring the tensile, compressive, and shear properties, and Poisson ratios at 75, 250, 300, and 350°F. The strengths, initial (stress → 0) moduli, and initial Poisson's ratios of the unidirectional composite were calculated from the known resin and fiber properties using micromechanics equations. A procedure is also described which, together with the stress-strain-strength models developed in this study, can be used to calculate the deformations and strengths of loaded multidirectional laminates at high temperatures. To evaluate the accuracies of the models and the calculation procedure deformations and strengths of multidirectional Fiberite T300/976 laminates were calculated. These results were compared to data obtained at temperatures ranging from 75 to 350°F. The calculated results agreed well with the data.
Thick-Walled Composite Material Pressure Hulls: Three-Dimensional Laminate Analysis Considerations
Authors: Peros Vasilios
Published: March 2007

The design of composite material pressure hulls is considered for deep submergence research vehicle applications. A thick laminate must be incorporated because of the high external hydrostatic pressure design requirements. The result is a thick-walled cylinder which by definition has a radius-to-thickness ratio less than ten. Sub- scale cylinders made of graphite/epoxy have been tested and found to fail prematurely. A failure analysis is performed to investigate the failure mechanisms. Thin laminate testing results in an ultimate compressive strength significantly higher than that obtained by sub- scale cylinder testing. Hence, a discrepancy exists between thin (2-D) and thick (3-D) lam inate testing. Through the thickness and thick laminate compression tests show that a large Poisson's ratio causes significant tensile strains through the thickness resulting from hoop and axial compressive loading. Because there is no fiber reinforcement in the through the thickness direction, these tensile strains may contribute to the cylinder failure.
A Multi-Purpose Sensor for Composite Laminates Based on a Piezo-Electric Film
Authors: Campbell J.F. , Vanderheiden E.G. , Martinez L.A. , Cairns D.S. , Abdallah M.G.
Published: March 2007

In this study, a multi-purpose sensor for composite laminates is devel oped. The sensor is based on a piezo-electric film. A specialty charge amplifier was devel oped for signal conditioning for long time duration measurements. Experiments were con ducted to show the utility of the sensor for static and dynamic strain measurement. By effectively isolating the piezo film for unidirectional strain, a method was developed to utilize the piezo sensor for general, in-plane strain sensing, regardless of the constitutive properties of the laminate. Non-destructive evaluation in through-transmission and pulse- echo modes were shown to be effective for measuring and quantifying damage in lami nated structures. Using the piezo film as a sensor to detect impact, it was shown that an "event" as well as the onset of damage can be accurately measured. With standard acoustic emission equipment, the piezo film proved to be an effective direct substitution for typical piezo-crystals at a fraction of the cost and weight for acoustic emission monitoring in ad vanced composite laminates. The onset of damage, as well as damage location were ac curately measured. The preliminary results indicate that the sensor is quite versatile, inex pensive and sensitive for a variety of sensing applications in advanced composite laminates. In particular, the electronics needed for signal conditioning are much less elab orate than typical sensors such as strain gages, piezoceramic sensors, thermocouples, etc.
Mode I Interlaminar Fracture of Interleaved Graphite/Epoxy
Authors: Ozdil Feridun , Carlsson Leif A.
Published: March 2007

Mode I interlaminar fracture of interleaved graphite/epoxy has been stud ied experimentally using double cantilever beam (DCB) specimens and optical micros copy. The interleaves were either thermoset or thermoplastic films placed at the midplane along the anticipated fracture plane. To examine the possible influence of constraints on the crack tip plastic zone due to the rigid composite plies, a large range of interleaf thick nesses was investigated. At each crack increment, the crack extension initiated close to the maximum load and progressed in a stable manner during the displacement controlled test ing. Fiber bridging was not observed on the fracture specimens, or indicated by the shape of the crack growth resistance curves. The thermoplastic interleaves enhanced the fracture toughness, G IC , to a much larger extent than the thermoset interleaves, due to a larger en ergy absorption capability in the fracture process. For the thermoplastic interleaves, the maximum fracture toughness was achieved at very small film thicknesses. At larger film thicknesses GIC remained large. For the thermoset film material, the enhancement of GIC was only nominal and the thicker thermoset interleaves failed in a film delamination mode, resulting in low GIC values.
Anisotropic Viscosities of Oriented Discontinuous Fiber Laminates
Authors: Pipes R. Byron , Beaussart A.J. , Tzeng J.T. , Okine R.K.
Published: March 2007

Two theories have been compared for the prediction of the effective vis cosities of laminates made up of layers of oriented discontinuous fiber assemblies sus pended in a viscous fluid. In the first theory, the layers are constrained to exhibit identical strain-rate components, while in the second theory the individual layers are assumed to be unconstrained by one another. Results are presented for four typical laminates and for ma terial properties of a highly anisotropic assembly. These results indicate that the properties presented for the constrained condition equal or exceed those predicted for the uncon strained theory in all cases.
Anisotropic Viscosities of an Oriented Fiber Composite with a Power-Law Matrix
Authors: Pipes R. Byron
Published: March 2007

Models for the prediction of the longitudinal and transverse elongational viscosities and the inplane and transverse shearing viscosities have been developed for an oriented assembly of discontinuous fibers suspended in both a Newtonian fluid and a power-law fluid with finite yield stress. The present theory is shown to be increasingly ac curate as the fiber volume fraction is increased in contrast to the work of suspension rheology which is largely relegated to dilute and semiconcentrated systems. The approach taken is to assume the fiber kinematics, calculate the resulting fluid motion and determine directly the effective properties of the composite. Solutions are shown to compare favor ably with the results of Batchelor [2] and Christensen [6].
Extended Maxwell Garnett Formalism for Composite Adhesives for Microwave-Assisted Adhesion of Polymer Surfaces
Authors: Shanker Balasubramaniam , Lakhtakia Akhlesh
Published: March 2007

Adhesives with dielectric loss are needed for microwave-assisted joining of polymeric substances. The dielectric loss in an otherwise suitable adhesive may be en hanced by doping it with fine metallic particles. Here we use a recently extended Maxwell Garnett formalism to estimate the complex dielectric constant of a metal-doped composite adhesive, with specific focus on the imaginary part of the dielectric constant of the com posite adhesive.
High Fiber Volume Fraction Metal Matrix Composites Cast under Bi-Dimensional Compression
Authors: Senor D.J. , Peddicord K.L. , Cornwell L.R.
Published: March 2007

This study focuses on a class of metal matrix composites which derive their strength and stiffness from continuous unidirectional fiber reinforcement. The tech nique of bi-dimensional compression was used to fabricate metal matrix composites of this type. The advantage of the technique is its unique bi-dimensional stress field which creates a uniform fiber array and volume fractions approaching the theoretical maximum for rigid fibers. Volume fractions of this magnitude are not readily achievable using conventional fabrication techniques for metal matrix composites without compromising microstructural quality. This study expands previous work with bi-dimensional compression by applying the technique to the fabrication of metal matrix composites. The composites produced in this study were characterized by optical and electron microscopy which allowed qualita tive observation of the fiber distribution, matrix infiltration, void morphology and fiber/matrix interface. Quantitative measures of the quality of the specimens were obtained from fiber volume fraction, density and modulus measurements. The bulk of the speci mens were fabricated in the form of parallelepipeds, which is the shape created by the in terlocking dies of the bi-dimensional compression device. However, the flexibility and ver satility of the technique were demonstrated by the production of circular cylinders and tubes which were reinforced in the longitudinal direction.
Assertiveness and Aggression in Marketplace Exchanges Testing Measure Equivalence
Authors: Richins Marsha L. , Verhage Bronislaw J.
Published: March 2007

Assertive and aggressive behaviors may occur in marketplace exchanges, and measures of these behaviors have been developed in the United States. The appropriateness of these measures for use in other developed Western cultures was studied by examining functional/ conceptual and scalar equivalence of the measures in the Netherlands. An acceptable level of equivalence was found for the aggression construct and measure; however, some inequivalence for assertiveness was demonstrated. Assertive behaviors that involve seeking redress for marketplace problems were seen as more aggressive in the Netherlands than in the United States, and data suggested that assertive behaviors may be more location-specific in the Netherlands.
Institutions and International Cooperation
Authors: Lektzian David , Souva Mark
Published: March 2007

This paper addresses a new issue in sanctions research: the determinants of the time it takes for nations to return to presanctions levels of trade after a sanctions episode ends. The authors argue that democratic institutions reduce transaction costs and promote trust between economic agents. Their primary hypothesis is that jointly democratic dyads return to their presanctions level of trade faster than nonjointly democratic dyads. To evaluate this argument, the authors have constructed an event history data set of 59 sanctions cases beginning between 1954 and 1992. The empirical analysis finds strong support for the theoretical hypothesis that democratic political institutions facilitate a return to trade. These results hold even in the presence of competing explanations, and are robust to alternative model specifications.
Ending Economic Sanctions
Authors: Dorussen Han , Mo Jongryn
Published: March 2007

Little attention has been paid to how and when economic sanctions end, especially compared with the amount of research on their effectiveness. A game in which the ending of sanctions is part of interstate bargaining about a contested policy is analyzed. In case of audience costs, sanctions may occur because governments use strategies that commit them to their ideal policy position. Governments use as constraints domestic political groups that have an interest in the disputed policy. Alternatively, rent-seeking enables governments to obtain political gain from the opportunities for side payments provided by sanctions. Results show that commitment strategies help states improve their bargaining position and make the resolution of the conflict more difficult. Data on the duration and ending of sanctions initiated in the period between 1914 and 1990 are used to test these hypotheses. The analyses provide clear evidence that commitment strategies affect the duration of sanctions.
Determinants of Resolving a Conflict of Interest
Authors: Zechmeister Kathleen , Druckman Daniel
Published: March 2007

Three variables hypothesized as constraints on the resolution of a conflict of interest were found to significantly influence attempts to resolve the conflict and to bias perceptions of the situation. Using a model of the political decision-making process, the three variables were arranged in a 2 x 2 x 2 design with 6 male and 6 female dyads in each cell. Conflict of interest, in which the resources could be distributed only to one party's positions, resulted in less money allocated and in perceptions of the situation as more of a win-lose competition, of compromise as more like defeat, and of the greater importance of coming out favorably, than did conflict in which the resources could be distributed between the competing positions. Formal assignment of conflict positions resulted in less money allocated, and longer negotiations, than self-design of conflict positions. An explicit link between competing conflict positions and an ideological dissensus impeded conflict resolution for males, but not for females. The latter two inhibiting influences on conflict resolution were considered aspects of representation.
Counterattack or Delay
Authors: Hermann Charles F. , Hermann Margaret G. , Cantor Robert A.
Published: March 2007

This paper reports a secondary analysis of a series of simulation runs which explored the effects of a broad array of variables on a nation's response to an imminent strategic attack from an unidentified source. Seven variables appeared as important in determining whether a nation would counterattack or delay retaliation when given such a warning. These variables include availability of a weapon survivability system, the economic and force capabilities of the nation, the decision makers' perceptions of the degree of tension in the world and of the degree of ambiguity in the situation, as well as the decision style and level of self-esteem of the decision makers. The results suggest that factors other than the invulnerability of weapon systems are involved in maintaining the stability of deterrence in an extreme crisis.
The "Coup Contagion" Hypothesis
Authors: Li Richard P.Y. , Thompson William R.
Published: March 2007

This paper attempts to examine the extent to which military coups in one country influence in some fashion the occurrence of coups in other countries. The examination is conducted primarily via the application of three stochastic models (the Poisson, the "contagious Poisson," and the Gaussian [Markovian]) to 1946-1970 data on successful and unsuccessful military coups, aggregated at the world and selected regional levels. Since the statistical evidence indicates that the occurrence of earlier coups does affect the subsequent probability of coups elsewhere, the paper concludes with a speculative interpretation of the "coup contagion" phenomenon which emphasizes the possibility of behavioral reinforcement processes operating within global and regional communication networks.
The Role of Deception in Decision Theory
Authors: Greenberg Irwin
Published: March 2007

A decision maker must select one of a set of alternatives. The payoff will depend upon the state chosen by a malevolent opponent. This opponent might use deception to cause the decision maker to misperceive the likelihood that the specific state was chosen. The value of this deception is defined in terms of the payoff matrix and these misperceived likelihoods. An example, based on a simplified description of the deception planning surrounding the Normandy invasion in 1944 is included to illustrate the concepts.
Deterrence and Bargaining
Authors: Wagner R. Harrison
Published: March 2007

Recent disputes about whether nuclear superiority still has any meaning raise the question of what relation exists between threats of nuclear punishment and bargaining power. This article argues that deterrence theory has provided little assistance in discussing that question. It has often focused exclusively on the defender's influence on the decision calculus of the aggressor or on the problem of avoiding a “reciprocal fear of surprise attack.” When it has touched on the question of bargaining advantage, it has used inappropriate models and failed to draw correct conclusions from the models it has used. The article outlines the main ways in which deterrence theory must be corrected, focusing especially on the distinction between two kinds of threats whose implications for bargaining are quite different.
Extended Deterrence by Superpower Alliance
Authors: Weede Erich
Published: March 2007

Research in quantitative international politics and peace science is dominated by two puzzles and their corresponding research designs. (1) Why do some nations fight wars more often than others? (2) Which system characteristics contribute to war? What is often neglected is a third puzzle: Why do particular nations fight each other? Dyadic analyses are most useful for dealing with this problem, and can be used to test the preferred policy of national security elites on matters such as deterrence. An empirical investigation is carried out to discover whether extended nuclear deterrence has reduced the risk of war in the 1960s and 1970s. While the evidence provides only moderate support, it still confirms the view that extended nuclear deterrence has reduced the risk of war.
Walls and Boundaries in Arab Relations with Israel
Authors: Kaplan Kalman J. , Markus-Kaplan Moriah
Published: March 2007

The present article attempts to extend a model of interpersonal conflict to the international arena. Specifically, a wall-boundary analysis of interpersonal relations suggests that there is a relationship between a secure personal identity and resolution of interpersonal conflict. We extend this analysis to suggest a relationship between a secure national identity and resolution of international conflict. This analysis is applied to identity issues of four Arab-Islamic societies (Turkey, Tunisia, Egypt, and the Palestinians) and their conflict patterns with Israel.
Public Attitudes toward Key Foreign Policy Events
Authors: Hinckley Ronald H.
Published: March 2007

This study considers the attitudes of Americans toward contemporary foreign affairs. It links these opinions to the literature and theory regarding public opinion and foreign policy that have developed over the last several decades. Based on the underlying attitudes identified in this literature, measures were operationalized to describe Americans with differing opinions about the means of achieving foreign policy goals. These measures were used in a series of surveys conducted in 1986 focusing on foreign affairs events. Public opinion on these events is examined in light of the fundamental attitude variations identified and implications are drawn regarding the challenges of building any type of public opinion foreign policy consensus. It appears that an overarching foreign policy opinion consensus is impossible. Rather, the makeup of public opinion majorities will vary from issue to issue.
Implicit Coalitions in a Generalized Prisoner's Dilemma
Authors: Fader Peter S. , Hauser John R.
Published: March 2007

The presence of a third party can affect attempts by two players to cooperate in a three-player, continuous-alternative, repeated Prisoner's Dilemma-like game. If the third player is uncooperative, two players may find it advantageous to cooperate implicitly, at a level somewhere between full (i.e., three-way) cooperation and full defection. We examine this phenomenon of implicit coalitions via two sequential computer tournaments (38 algorithms in tourney 1, 44 algorithms in tourney 2). In both tournaments, each with a different payoff function, the ability to recognize and/or encourage implicit coalitions seems to be a key indicator of success. This result holds up in a test of robustness. We also examine other properties, including those identified earlier by Axelrod (1980a, 1980b).
A Bayesian Analysis of a Class of Multistage Decision Problems
Authors: Enelow James M.
Published: March 2007

This article uses a Bayesian rational approach to analyze a generic set of decision problems. A committee must decide which proposal to submit to a set of decision bodies, which decide separately whether to accept or reject the proposal. The article offers sufficient conditions for the proposing body to reach rational group decisions. The model is applied to decision making in response to an international crisis.
To Attack or Not to Attack
Authors: Wu Samuel S. G.
Published: March 2007

Specific theoretical conditions for the success or failure of extended immediate deterrence (EID) are identified based on assumptions about rational action. The resultant decision theoretic model yields four hypotheses which are tested against cases of EID between 1885 and 1970. The hypotheses are strongly supported, with about 77% of outcomes correctly predicted. In addition, the article distinguishes between two qualitatively different situations in which the model leads us to expect a defender's policy of extended immediate deterrence to succeed or fail. The results are contrasted with Huth's 1988 analysis. The formally derived hypotheses of this analysis fit the data as well as Huth's probit model. The percentage of correct predictions in the model here is slightly, but not statistically significantly, lower than that in Huth's, and the model presented here is more parsimonious than Huth's. Thus the model here seems to be a preferable construct of decision making during extended immediate deterrence situations.
Economic Causation in the Breakdown of Military Equilibrium
Authors: Wolfson Murray , Shabahang Homa
Published: March 2007

The interdependence of economic and military power have previously been discussed in terms of the ability of a dominant power to inflict economic costs on its opponent by requiring it to allocate scarce resources to a competitive arms race. This article turns the question around and asks what patterns of economic development will cause an acceleration of an arms race and increase the danger of war.
Trigger-Response Transitions in Foreign Policy Crises, 1929-1985
Authors: Wilkenfeld Jonathan
Published: March 2007

This article focuses on the behavior-begets-behavior dynamic in the context of the interactions of states in crisis. Matching behavior is defined as a reciprocal relationship between incoming behavior (crisis trigger) and outgoing behavior (crisis response). A model of matching or reciprocal behavior is proposed, and several factors — threat to basic values, sociopolitical conditions, and power relations among crisis actors — are examined from the perspective of their potential disruption of the matching process. An initial finding is that crises, like the much more heavily studied conflict processes in general, exhibit a very high degree of matching behavior. However, there is considerable evidence that the factors examined here contribute to the disruption of these processes. A low threat to decision makers' values provides a context in which decision makers may respond with violence to nonviolent crisis triggers. Similarly, deteriorating sociopolitical conditions in countries experiencing a foreign policy crisis contribute to a higher than expected level of violence in crisis behavior. Finally, power parity among crisis actors was found to contribute to disruptions in matching behavior.
General Alignment and Overt Support in Biased Mediation
Authors: Wittmer Jerry M. , Carnevale Peter , Walker Michael E.
Published: March 2007

This experiment examined the influence of mediators' interests and outcome recommendations on disputants' perceptions and behavior. A distinction (following Pruitt, 1983) was made between two types of mediator bias: general alignment and overt support. In the general alignment variable, participants dealt with a mediator who was aligned either: (a) with them - mediator outcomes were positively correlated with their own, or (b) against them - mediator outcomes were negatively correlated with their own. In the overt support variable, participants were confronted with a mediator who made outcome recommendations that were overtly favorable, even handed, or unfavorable. The results indicate that disputants mistrusted favorable recommendations from unfavorably aligned mediators; this “Trojan horse effect” also led to lower ratings of mediator acceptability. The results suggest that favorable mediator alignment may cushion the impact of overt, unfavorable recommendations from that mediator. Broader theoretical and organizational implications are discussed.
Third-Party Participation in Wars
Authors: Kim Chae-Han
Published: March 2007

This article investigates the calculus of third-party participation in ongoing wars. Altfeld and Bueno de Mesquita have shown that under an expected utility model of third-party participation, the probability of a nation's joining is in inverse proportion to the ex ante probability of other nations' joining. In seeming contradiction Yamamoto and Bremer have argued that one major power's decision to enter a war increases the probability that other powers will do likewise. In this article it is shown that these two perspectives, in fact, do not contradict one another. It is found that a nation is more likely to join a war when the initial belligerents in the conflict have few formal alliances, and when, despite ex ante beliefs, many other nations have already joined in the war. It is also shown that a third party is more likely to join the war in support of a friend than in opposition to a foe.
The Decision to Attack Iraq
Authors: Mintz Alex
Published: March 2007

This article attempts to explain the decision to use force against Iraq using a noncompensatory theory of decision making. Rather than choosing an alternative that maximizes utility on the basis of a holistic comparison process as suggested by the expected utility model, or selecting an alternative that “satisfices” a certain criterion as predicted by the cybernetic model, the noncompensatory theory suggests that decisions on the use of force are often made based on the rejection of undesirable alternatives on the basis of one, or at most a few, criteria.
Economic Growth and Defense Spending in Developing Countries
Authors: Kusi Newman Kwadwo
Published: March 2007

This article investigates the causal relationship between economic growth and defense spending in 77 developing countries. The study employs Granger-causality tests using annual time series data for each of the 77 countries to analyse the presence and direction of causality between the two variables. The results indicate that the relationship between economic growth and defense spending cannot be generalized across countries. It may depend, among other things on the sample period of study and the level of socioeconomic development of the country concerned.
To Intervene or Not to Intervene
Authors: Smith Alastair
Published: March 2007

Alliances are related to the occurrence of conflict. A theoretical model predicts how alliance reliability affects the occurrence of conflict in the international system. Suppose that two nations are at war. The intervention of a third nation into this war affects the likely outcome. Nations prefer to fight wars that they expect to win. Nations are more likely to involve themselves in wars in which they anticipate allied support. Estimates of alliance reliability are obtained and used to demonstrate that nations consider alliance reliability when deciding whether to become involved in conflict. For example, nations with unreliable allies are more likely to surrender if attacked than are nations with reliable allies. Alliance reliability affects the occurrence of war. Unfortunately, whether an alliance is honored is only observable when a war actually occurs. The author discusses the sampling bias that this creates.
Extraction, Allocation, and the Rise and Decline of States
Authors: Simon Marc V. , Starr Harvey
Published: March 2007

Using realist models of international politics that deemphasize the two-level security game that states play, most analyses of hegemonic decline argue that decline is caused by the differential growth of power between hegemons and challenging states. The authors argue that decline is affected highly by states' resource extraction and allocation decisions, and that the international and domestic consequences of these decisions must be analyzed. A model of how states respond to external and internal security threats is outlined and analyzed via computer simulation. The authors find that states are likely to decline if they overemphasize increasing capabilities to deter threats instead of allocating resources to reduce opponents' willingness to attack. In addition, a more “dovish” allocation strategy can be very effective against internal threats. Thus the decline of hegemons and rise of challengers is determined as much by strategies as by constraints posed by the system structure.
Election Frequency and the Emergence of Cooperation in a Simulated Intergroup Conflict
Authors: Fischer Ilan , Suleiman Ramzi
Published: March 2007

The present study simulates an enduring intergroup conflict in which each of two interacting groups is represented by a single representative elected for a given period. The authors assume that the conflict between the two groups can be modeled as an iterated prisoner's dilemma game played by the groups' representatives, and that the performance of each representative influences her constituents which, in turn, affects her prospects for reelection. At the end of a constituency period, new elections are called, and their results determine whether the delegate remains in her position or is replaced by another representative. The main objectives are: (1) to investigate the effect of this common democratic procedure, namely, the periodic election of group representatives, on the evolution of cooperation between the groups; and (2) to investigate the effect of the frequency of elections in the two groups on evolving intergroup relations. Outcomes of 360 simulations yielded the following main results: (1) the dynamics of the intergroup conflict evolve into five phases of well-defined patterns; (2) for most election frequencies, mutual defection was not an enduring pattern whereas mutual cooperation evolved as an enduring pattern; and (3) there exists an election frequency that optimizes the likelihood that the intergroup process converges to mutual cooperation.
Arms and Aggression in the Middle East, 1948-1991
Authors: Mayer Jochen , Rotte Ralph
Published: March 2007

In a 1995 article in Journal of Conflict Resolution, Kinsella and Tillema argued that, between 1948 and 1991, American arms transfers to Israel exercised a restraining influence on both Israel and its Arab rivals, whereas Soviet transfers to Egypt and Syria tended to destabilize the region. This article reexamines Kinsella and Tillema's Poisson results by applying a more sophisticated statistical method to their data set. Using a multiplicative Poisson model that allows for variation in the coefficients depending on a metrical reference variable, the authors show how the impact of superpower activity on Middle Eastern interventions has changed with the influx of weaponry. They confirm that U.S. arms transfers decreased the likelihood of military intervention in the region, whereas Soviet supplies did not affect it. Contrary to Kinsella and Tillema, however, the authors show that the stabilizing effect of arms transfers clearly decreases with the total amount of armaments supplied to the region.
Power Shifts and Problem Shifts
Authors: DiCicco Jonathan M. , Levy Jack S.
Published: March 2007

This article analyzes the evolution of power transition theory from the perspective of Lakatos's methodology of scientific research programs. The authors reconstruct the development of the power transition research program by analyzing its hard core of irrefutable assumptions, its negative and positive heuristics, and exemplary works contributing to its protective belt of testable auxiliary hypotheses. It is argued that some developments (e.g., Lemke's multiple hierarchy model) constitute progressive problemshifts, but other areas of the research program exhibit signs of degeneration. These include the treatment of the timing and initiation of wars associated with power transitions and causal mechanisms driving such wars. Findings show that the evolution of the power transition research program has generally been progressive in Lakatosian terms, but its future vitality will require continued efforts to explain the above-mentioned theoretical and empirical anomalies in a way that is consistent with the hard core of the research program and that generates new testable propositions.
Evolution in Democracy-War Dynamics
Authors: Mitchell Sara McLaughlin , Gates Scott , Hegre Håvard
Published: March 2007

This article explores the evolutionary and endogenous relationship between democracy and war at the system level. Building on Kant, the authors argue that the rules and norms of behavior within and between democracies become more prevalent in international relations as the number of democracies in the system increases. The authors use Kalman filter analysis, which allows for the parameters in the models to vary over time. The results support the propositions that democratization tends to follow war, that democratization decreases the systemic amount of war, and that the substantive and pacific impact of democracy on war increases over time.
Young Adult Attachment Styles and Intimate Relationships with Close Friends
Authors: You Hyo Soon , Malley-Morrison Kathleen
Published: March 2007

The contribution of attachment styles to social intimacy and expectations of friends was investigated in Caucasian American and Korean young adults. Koreans scored higher on preoccupied attachment, lower on intimacy, and lower on friendship expectations. In regression analyses, secure attachment contributed positively and dismissive attachment contributed negatively to intimacy and positive expectations; culture added significantly to the equations, with Korean students reporting less intimate relationships with friends and more negative expectations than Caucasian Americans.
Effects of Parental Attitudes and Modern Exposure on Chinese Traditional-Modern Attitude Formation
Authors: Dawson John L. M. , Wing-Cheung William NG,
Published: March 2007

Following recent Traditional-Modern attitude change regarding research, additional evidence to support traditional-modern attitude change hypotheses is presented, and is concerned with the relative effects of parental socialization and other modernizing influences on attitude change among groups of Hong Kong Chinese. Younger Hakka village children were found, as expected, to have significantly more traditional attitudes than other children, while their traditional-modern attitudes also correlated more highly with those of their parents. Two matched adolescent Anglo-Chinese and Chinese Secondary samples were also chosen to examine the relative effects of parental socialization and mass media on attitude change. Both parental T-M attitudes and exposure to mass media were relevant to the development of student's T-M attitudes at the Anglo-Chinese school but for the Chinese Middle school only parental T-M attitudes were relevant, not exposure to mass media.
Comparisons of Psychopathology Across Cultures
Authors: Draguns Juris G.
Published: March 2007

Comparative cross-cultural studies of psychopathology were reviewed in relation to the parameters of incidence, mode of manifestation, patterning, response to treatment, and outcome. A general model was proposed of regarding such differences as the joint function of subject, observer, setting, community, and instrument factors. The findings surveyed, even in their present nondefinitive state, favor the notion of cultural plasticity of psychopathology and, moreover, converge in suggesting that psychopathology represents a caricature and an exaggeration of culturally shared adaptive patterns of behavior. For a more conclusive examination of this possibility, concurrent research on normal and abnormal subjects drawn from several cultures was proposed and a number of specific modes of implementing this objective were presented.
Psychological Aspects of Modernization in Turkey
Authors: Kagitcibasi Cigdem
Published: March 2007

A ttitudinal, aspirational, familial, and social structural variables were assessed among Turkish high school students. Two main personality types emerged. Type 1, the traditional, was characterized by core authoritarianism, anomia, pessimism about personal future, belief in external control of reinforcement, and religious orientation. Type 2, the modern, was characterized by optimism about personal future, belief in internal control of reinforcement, and achievement orientation. Type 2 was found to develop in a family atmosphere characterized by affection, whereas Type 1 was associated with family control. Family control, in turn, was found to be more characteristic of immobile, lower-SES, and rural homes, whereas family affection characterized upper-SES homes. Thus, social structural variables affected attitudinal dispositions, and specifically modernity, through the mediating role of the family. Sex differences in modernity were also obtained.
Creative Thinking Abilities of Mexican Youth
Authors: Carringer Dennis C.
Published: March 2007

To examine the relationship of bilingualism to the creative thinking abilities of Mexican youth, four subtests from the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking were administered to Spanish-English coordinate bilingual and Spanish monolingual subjects from two private high schools in Torreon, Coahuila, Mexico. It was hypothesized that the Spanish-English coordinate bilinguals would score significantly higher on the dependent measures of figural fluency, figural flexibility, figural originality, verbal fluency, verbal flexibility, and verbal originality than the Spanish monolinguals. A multivariate analysis indicated that the main effect of language group was significant in favor of the bilinguals. Neither the main effect of sex nor the interaction effect was significant. Univariate analysis indicated that the dependent measures of verbal flexibility, verbal originality, and figural originality were significant at the .05 level in favor of the bilinguals, and the dependent measure of figural fluency was significant at the .01 level in favor of the bilinguals.
Developmental Order of Spatial Concepts
Authors: Omari Issa M.
Published: March 2007

A number (240) of Tanzanian schoolchildren, 60 from each of grades 1, 3, 5, 7, were individually tested on conservation of area, conservation of distance, and the concept of horizontality in the coordinate reference system. Responses were categorized on Piagetian stages of spatial competence and on a pass/fail basis. Results of chi-square anlayses showed that, at nearly all grade levels, the developmental sequence is: conservation of distance, conservation of area, and finally mastery of the concept of horizontality in the coordinate reference system. The stagewise progression was observed, but each stage was achieved at a later age as compared to Piaget's norms. It is argued that the acquisition of these concepts in children is a function of the spatial dimensions involved in each concept, and that environmental factors retard the developmental tempo of spatial concepts among the African children.
Concept Acquisition in Malaysian Bilingual Children
Authors: Keats Daphne M. , Keats John A. , Rafaei Wan
Published: March 2007

Following earlier work with Polish- and German-speaking children in Australia, a group of five-year-old Malaysian children bilingual in English and Malay and English and Chinese were pretested in both languages. They were then trained in one language on the conservation of weight, posttested on their other language, and again from one to two months later in both languages. Immediate improvements were obtained after training, but other untrained control groups also showed improvement on the delayed posttest. These results are considered together with the previous results. It is concluded that language plays a minor part in the acquisition of cognitive concepts and that young children will perform at a slightly higher level on these tasks if tested in their native language.
Attribution of Pupil Size as a Function of Facial Valence and Age in American and Persian Children
Authors: Tarrahian Gholamhossein Azam , Hicks Robert A.
Published: March 2007

This study tested the hypothesis that pupil size is primarily a cue to sexual interest which becomes salient through incidental learning and/or maturation at age 16 (or the onset of sexual maturity). Because the evidence for this hypothesis is completely confounded by possible culturally determined social learning effects, samples of both Persian children, i.e., children who were reared in a "pupil-intensive" culture and American children were used as subjects. These subjects who ranged in age from 7-10 years were tested using one of the tasks which Hess' group had used to establish 16 years as the age of onset of the salience of pupil-size cues. The results show that pupil size is a salient inter-personal cue for the 8-year-old Persian children which was further articulated in the older Persian groups. Evidence was noted that offered modest support for placing the age of onset of awareness of pupillary cues between 10 and 12 years in American children. Together these data question the validity of age 16 as the age at which pupil-size cues become salient and offer support for a social learning explanation of these behaviors.
Individual versus Societal Focus
Authors: Berman Judith
Published: March 2007

The problem diagnoses given by U. S. Black and White male and female counselors were analyzed to determine whether they were individually or societally focused. After viewing a videotape of culturally varied client vignettes, the participating counselors responded in writing to the question "What do you think is the problem?" The data were scored according to an individual-societal continuum. Race appeared as a strong source of difference: Black males and females tended to use a societal focus more frequently than did the White males and females. However, while the Whites' diagnoses were almost exclusively individual, the Blacks employed more equal distribution of individually and societally focused responses. Another major implication of this study is the relatively weak significance of sex differences.
International Preferences in Selecting Mates
Authors: Buss David M. , Abbott Max , Angleitner Alois , Asherian Armen , Biaggio Angela , Blanco-Villasenor Angel , Bruchon-Schweitzer M. , Ch'U Hai-Yuan , Czapinski Janusz , Deraad Boele , Ekehammar Bo , El Lohamy Noha , Fioravanti Mario , Georgas James , Gjerde Per , Guttman Ruth , Hazan Fatima , Iwawaki Saburo , Janakiramaiah N. , Khosroshani Fatemeh , Kreitler Shulamith , Lachenicht Lance , Lee Margaret , Liik Kadi , Little Brian , Mika Stanislaw , Moadel-Shahid Mariam , Moane Geraldine , Montero Maritza , Mundy-Castle A. C. , Niit Toomas , Nsenduluka Evaristo , Pienkowski Ryszard , Pirttilä-Backman Anna-Maija , De Leon Julio Ponce , Rousseau Jacques , Runco Mark A. , Safir Marilyn P. , Samuels Curtis , Sanitioso Rasyid , Serpell Robert , Smid Nico , Spencer Christopher , Tadinac Meri , Todorova Elka N. , Troland Kari , Van Den Brande L. , Van Heck Guus , Van Langenhove L. , Yang Kuo-Shu
Published: March 2007

This study sought to identify the effects of culture and sex on mate preferences using samples drawn world-wide. Thirty-seven samples were obtained from 33 countries located on six continents and five islands (N = 9,474). Hierarchical multiple regressions revealed strong effects of both culture and sex, moderated by specific mate characteristics. Chastity proved to be the mate characteristic on which cultures varied the most. The preference ordering of each sample was contrasted with an international complement. Each culture displayed a unique preference ordering, but there were some similarities among all cultures as reflected in a positive manifold of the cross-country correlation matrix. Multidimensional scaling of the cultures yielded a five dimensional solution, the first two of which were interpreted. The first dimension was interpreted as Traditional versus Modern, with China, India, Iran, and Nigeria anchoring one end and the Netherlands, Great Britain, Finland, and Sweden anchoring the other. The second dimension involved valuation of education, intelligence, and refinement. Consistent sex differences in value attached to eaming potential and physical attractiveness supported evolution-based hypotheses about the importance of resources and reproductive value in mates. Discussion emphasizes the importance of psychological mate preferences for scientific disciplines ranging from evolutionary biology to sociology.
Safety Culture and Risk Management in Organizations
Authors: Pidgeon Nick F.
Published: March 2007

The concept of safety culture arose in the aftermath of the Chernobyl disaster. It is argued that safety culture represents a new way of conceptualizing processes of risk handling and management in organizational and other contexts. Safety culture provides a global characterization of some of the common behavioral preconditions to disasters and accidents in high-risk sociotechnical systems, and might also prove to be a heuristic tool to aid risk management strategies to complement current risk assessment practice. Culture is conceptualized in the current article as primarily an ideational system of meanings, and safety culture as one concerned with the norms, beliefs, roles, and practices for handling hazards and risk. Possible elements of a "good" safety culture are elaborated under three headings: norms and rules for dealing with risk, safety attitudes, and reflexivity on safety practice.