bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Conflict, Consensus, and Policy Outcomes: Immigration and Integration in Germany and The Netherlands*
Authors: Thränhardt Dietrich
Published: October 2023

Germans often look to The Netherlands as a model country for its integration policies. Dutch experts are frequently invited to Germany, and expected to tell the Germans how to deal with problems of immigration. Indeed, it is fascinating that two countries so similar with respect to economic development, Protestant-Catholic composition, a ‘Christian Democratic welfare state’ (Schmidt 1996) and party systems composed of moderate centre-right and centre-left parties, have experienced politics of immigration looking so different.
Malthus Revisited: Exploring Medium-Range Interactions between Economic and Demographic Forces in Historic Europe*
Authors: Reher Davids. , Osona JosÉ Antonio Ortega
Published: October 2023

Over two centuries ago, Thomas Robert Malthus (1798, 1836) described a system in which economic and demographic forces were inextricably linked in such a way as to maintain population growth within the limits defined by the carrying capacity of local, regional, national, and even international economies. For Malthus, population size and densities were major factors conditioning economic well-being, and the very components of population growth (fertility and mortality) were themselves constrained by economic forces. He described a model driven by a circular type of causality in which population and economy were both the explained and the explanatory variables, each tending to contain the other. His was and is a deceptively simple theory, but an enormously attractive one, in that it has helped to explain the fundamentally reduced rates of population growth holding nearly everywhere before the central decades of the nineteenth century.
Mortality and Economic Stress: Individual and Household Responses in a Nineteenth-century Belgian Village*
Authors: Alter George , Oris Michel
Published: October 2023

The research described here is part of a larger project to compare demographic responses to economic stress across five historical societies in Europe and Asia. The EurAsia Project for the History of Population and Family will describe the ways in which different family systems distributed the burdens of hard times within families. In this chapter we report early results from the Belgian contribution to this larger comparative project. Data from the commune of Sart in eastern Belgium is used to examine mortality patterns by age, sex, and marital status with respect to economic factors at the household and community levels.
A Framework for Livelihoods Analysis
Authors: Ellis Frank
Published: October 2023

This chapter sets out a policy framework that can be utilised for thinking through diversified rural livelihoods. This is a version of the ‘assets-mediating processes-activities’ framework that is utilised in various different guises by researchers concerned with poverty reduction, sustainability, and livelihood strategies.
International Trade
Authors: Rivera-Batiz Luis A , Oliva Maria-A
Published: October 2023

The field of international trade has been a focus of renewed debate for academics and policy-makers alike. The progressive integration of economics at a worldwide level have led to debates surrounding the migration of labor markets, restrictive trade practices, the impact of foreign investment, the role of cooperation through multilateral and regional agreements, and the enforceability of international agreements. This book reviews the new research findings and theoretical developments that have informed these debates, offering a balanced analytical account of American and European experiences, viewpoints, approaches and policy. Written in six parts, the first part examines the determinants of trade patterns, economic location, foreign investment and the interaction between trade and economic growth. The second part deals with strategic policy interventions. The third part examines the role of innovation, skills and contracts in trade and foreign direct investment. The fourth part focuses on trade reform, trade and investment restrictions and economic sanctions. The fifth part tackles the endogenous formation of policy through the interaction between interest groups and the government, block formation and a host of coexisting trade-restricting and -promoting practices. The sixth part focuses on the economics of the World Trade Organisation, cooperative agreements, and their sustainability. Comprehensive in its approach, this book will be of particular interest to graduate students, policymakers, and practitioners with an interest in international trade.
Relational Financing as an Institution and Its Viability under Competition
Authors: Aoki Masahiko , DinÇ Serdar
Published: October 2023

The Japanese main bank system, as an institution which supported high economic growth up to the mid-1970s, comprised three complementary elements: a type of relational contracting between banks and firms, a specific inter-bank relationship (mutual delegation of monitoring), and a particular set of regulatory measures such as entry regulation, ‘financial restraint’, deposit guarantees, and restriction on market financing (Aoki et al. 1994). Deregulation in foreign exchanges and other domains starting in the late 1970s triggered the increasing reliance of the Japanese corporate sector on bond financing. However, the regulatory framework insulating the banking and securities businesses from each other was kept intact until recently, which contributed to the erosion of coherence of the system.
Austria Tight Coalitions and Stable Government
Authors: Müller Wolfgang C
Published: October 2023

For most of the post-war period the Austrian party system displayed a remarkable degree of stability and concentration. Until 1986 two major political parties, the Social Democratic (Socialist until 1991) Party (SPO) and the Christian democratic Austrian People’s Party (OVP) held 87.3 to 96.4 per cent of the parliamentary seats between themselves.
Bargaining, Transaction Costs, and Coalition Governance
Authors: Lupia Arthur , Strøm Kaare
Published: October 2023

Representative democracies face two fundamental challenges, delegation and coalescence. Delegation is necessary because most citizens have neither the capacity nor the time to make many important political decisions on their own. To facilitate large-scale governance, delegation must occur. Citizens must find and select representatives whom they can trust to make public policy in accordance with particular principles. Elected representatives, in turn, must delegate to leaders of political parties or bureaucratic agencies to further the pursuit of policy goals. Heads of executive agencies have to delegate to their subordinates. While delegation makes large-scale representative democracy possible, it is not without risk. Problems of delegation need to be overcome. For with the power of the elective or appointive office also come opportunities to act against the public interest.
The Empirical Study of Cabinet Governance
Authors: Bergman Torbjörn , Gerber Elisabeth R , Kastner Scott , Nyblade Benjamin
Published: October 2023

To understand why and how political actors form, govern, and terminate cabinets we must consider the choices made by these actors under uncertainty and complexity as well as under the shadow of the past and the promise of the future. We are thus interested in both retrospective and anticipatory logics, and in how this is played out in the real world. Drawing on the first two chapters of this book, in the following eight chapters the contributors analyse specific phases of the governmental process, including the bargaining process, coalition contracts, cabinet composition, portfolio allocation, conflict management, termination, duration, and electoral performance.
Conclusion: Cabinet Governance in Parliamentary Democracies
Authors: Strøm Kaare , Bergman Torbjörn , Müller Wolfgang C , Nyblade Benjamin
Published: October 2023

The previous eight chapters have provided an analysis of the various phases of what we have called the life cycle of cabinet-level politics in Western European parliamentary democracies. This is a subject of no mean importance, since parliamentary government is the most common form of democratic governance and indeed the type of regime under which approximately one-third of the world’s population lives. No other type of political regime, presidential, military, communist, or whatever, shapes the daily lives of similar numbers of human beings.
CSBMs in the post-cold war period
Authors: Lachowski Zdzislaw
Published: October 2023

In November 1990, 22 NA TO and WTO members signed a Joint Declaration in Paris declaring that they were no longer adversaries and would build new partnerships. The countries affirmed that ‘security is indivisible and that the security of each of their countries is inextricably linked to the security of all the States participating in the Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe’. The CSCE signatories of the 1990 Charter of Paris for a New, Europe vowed that the unprecedented reduction of conventional armaments (the CFE Treaty) and new approaches to security and cooperation ‘will lead to a new, perception of security in Europe and a new dimension in our relations.
New Keynesian macroeconomics: the role of theory and evidence
Authors: Dixon Huw D
Published: October 2023

In this paper I wish to focus on some of the main developments associated with new Keynesian macro theory (NKM) in the 1980s and early 1990s. Let me preface the paper with two observations about my own perspective. I will argue that empirical evidence in itself has little to do with the choice of the macroeconomic framework adopted. This is because the theory itself determines the way the evidence is interpreted and indeed what evidence is considered at all. At the base of macroeconomists’ worldviews are basic preconceptions about what is really going on, what needs explaining, and what is worth taking seriously (and hence what can be ignored). Within a given theoretical framework evidence can matter, because there is then an agreed framework both for what is admissible evidence and for its interpretation. I would argue this as a general statement which applies to most of economics. In this paper, however, I try to explore its validity primarily in the context of NKM and related developments.
The Law-As-Literature Trope
Authors: Binder Guyora
Published: October 2023

The law and literature movement is identified with the analogy of law to literature. This analogy is not a single proposition, but a range of different and possibly incompatible propositions. The analogy may involve a claim that law is like literature in one or several or all possible respects; and that the attributes law shares with literature are more essential, or more important, or more valuable, or simply more worthy of discussion than those that distinguish it from literature. Yet, if we are to take seriously the claims of legal scholars that they are participants in a literary practice, we should probably not read these claims propositionally. We should read them figuratively, as tropes. If we do so, the law—literature analogy ceases to denote one of several possible incompatible claims and instead connotes them all.
Tess of the D’Urbervilles and the Law of Provocation
Authors: Williams Melanie
Published: October 2023

It is no surprise to find that the most winning characters in Victorian novels experience little mercy once they carry out a desperate act resulting in the death of another. Tess of the d’Urbervilles is just such a case. Tess kills her seducer and her own execution is a foregone conclusion. Victorian law might well have been draconian in its disposition to such crime. In one sense, the novel encourages the reader to accept this: there is no trial, no appeal and the text summarily marks the execution with the fatalistic words ‘ “Justice” was done, and the President of the Immortals, in Aeschylean phrase, had ended his sport with Tess.’ Yet, in another very real sense the novel screams ‘injustice!’. In reading this message, the lawyer-reader can derive an intriguing and profound lesson for present-day criminal law; that in our obsession with the minutiae of doctrinal propriety we overlook the social construction of victims turned perpetrators and the concomitant complicity of doctrine. This is an issue of central importance to criminal jurisprudence and is most evident in the doctrine of provocation.
Electronic Money: A North American Perspective
Authors: Crawford Bradley QC , Sookman Barry
Published: October 2023

At the beginning of the third millennium of the Christian era the most interesting 19.01 development in the field of monetary law, and the one with the greatest potential to influence the future of both monetary law and commercial and financial practices, is the appearance of new forms of money expressed in electronic media. In the whole period since the invention of money as a medium of exchange, the magnitude of this potential is rivalled only by the recognition of transferable bank credit. At the present time it appears that the changes that will follow the widespread use of electronic forms of money will be as revolutionary as those that followed the development of transferable bank credit as a medium of payment. But in the case of electronic money, the effects will chiefly be felt in the realm of retail payments. It is, perhaps, significant that we are experiencing at the same time both the demonetization of gold and the break in the monopoly of official specie as the sole medium of immediately final retail payments.
Conflicts Of Laws Issues Of International Payments
Authors: Brozolo Luca G Radicati di
Published: October 2023

Since international payments involve contacts with at least two different states 24.01 and their respective legal systems, it is intuitive that they raise issues of conflicts of laws. Anybody even superficially familiar with private international law would be quick to realize that such issues are bound to be numerous and complicated. Yet it is surprising that, despite the number of international payments made each day around the world and the likelihood of disputes liable to raise conflicts problems, both the case law and the literature on these issues are quite scarce.
Governing diverse societies
Authors: Innes Joanna
Published: October 2023

The basis of internal government throughout the British Isles was the allocation of power to local elites: landowners in the countryside, trading and professional elites in the towns (sometimes with some share of power for local gentry too)– and below them, at the level of the manor or parish, small landowners, tenants, or ratepaying house- holders. One effect of this arrangement was that the character of government in the localities varied, even when formal institutions were the same, as social structures, social relations, and political and religious cultures varied.
Victorian Activity 1869-1890
Authors: Lloyd T O
Published: October 2023

Cutting military spending by withdrawing troops from Canada after the scattered colonies had been strengthened by Confederation was such a satisfactory piece of retrenchment that British ministers looked round for similar opportunities to save money. But somehow they never occurred; the detachment from imperial expansion which had been so general a feature of policy since 1850 was replaced by the re-emergence of the century-old tendency to move forward all over the world. It could not be said to be inspired by an outburst of direct imperial enthusiasm in the opening stages; at least until Queen Victoria's Golden Jubilee in 1887 the process of imperial expansion was something that took place with very little discussion, no continuous public pressure - if imperial sentiment helped Disraeli win an election in 1874, it did nothing to save him from defeat in 1880 - and every sign of being a response to particular challenges rather than formed policy.
Victorian Imperial Enthusiasm 1883-1899
Authors: Lloyd T O
Published: October 2023

The changes that had led to the territorial acquisitions of the 1870s and 1880s were changes in the worlds of commerce and diplomacy. Miners and traders might want to gain land or at least have it made secure for them to go about their business, and diplomats might devote their attention to making sure that disputes and wars did not break out in Africa that might cause unwanted trouble in European affairs, but all this took place against a background of lack of public interest that made politicians uneasy about committing their countries to too much expense. The strength of the resistance in the chambre des deputes to French expansion in Indochina was the most clear-cut example of parliamentary opposition to spending money on colonial adventures. Political leaders may have kept episodes like this one or Gladstone’s anti-expansionist electoral success in 1880 in mind even longer than was necessary. In the Britain of the 1890s there were signs that some ministers were slow to catch up with the way that imperial enthusiasm had by that time made people think that a little extra spending or a little war overseas were enterprises they were ready to support.
Fighting and Reorganizing 1899-1922
Authors: Lloyd T O
Published: October 2023

The Boer War marked the end of a period of territorial expansion of the empire, and led to a time of imperial rethinking and reorganization. The setbacks and defeats of the first stage of the war, and the unexpectedly long-drawn-out closing stage poured cold water over imperial enthusiasm, but they did not lead to any suggestion of imperial withdrawal. In the years after the war economic development and domestic reform received more attention than they had done for some years, but these new steps were sometimes expressed in the language of empire: the rehabilitation of South Africa after the Boer War was directed by ardent exponents of the imperial idea, and Liberals in Britain expressed their ideas for reform in a book entitled The Heart of the Empire. So much new land had been acquired, and so greatly had relations with some of the colonies changed that the task of administration was enough by itself to absorb all the energy that people were ready to devote to the empire.
Race and Gender: The Role of Analogy in Science
Authors: Stepan Nancy Leys
Published: October 2023

Metaphor occupies a central place in literary theory, but the role of metaphors, and of the analogies they mediate, in scientific theory is still debated. One reason for the controversy over metaphor, analogy, and models in science is the intellectually privileged status that science has traditionally enjoyed as the repository of nonmetaphorical, empirical, politically neutral, universal knowledge. During the scientific revolution of the seventeenth century, metaphor became associated with the imagination, poetic fancy, subjective figures, and even untruthfulness and was contrasted with truthful, unadorned, objective knowledge—that is, with science itself.
Though This Be Method, Yet There Is Madness in It: Paranoia and Liberal Epistemology
Authors: Scheman Naomi
Published: October 2023

In an article entitled ‘The Politics of Epistemology’, Morton White argues that it is not in general possible to ascribe a unique political character to a theory of knowledge.1 In particular, he explores what he takes to be the irony that the epistemologies developed by John Locke and John Stuart Mill for explicitly progressive and democratic ends have loopholes that allow for undemocratic interpretation and application. The loopholes White identifies concern in each case the methods by which authority is granted or recognized.
Toward an Agonistic Feminism: Hannah Arendt and the Politics of Identity
Authors: Honig Bonnie
Published: October 2023

Hannah Arendt is an odd, even awkward figure to tum to if one is seeking to enrich the resources of a feminist politics. Notorious for her rigid public/private distinction, Arendt protects the sui generis character of her politics and the purity of her public realm by prohibiting the politicization of issues of social justice and gen der. These sorts of occupation belong not to politics but to the traditional realm of the household as Aristotle theorized it. In short, the ‘Woman Problem’, as she called it, was not one that Arendt thought it appropriate to pose, politically.
Regarding Some ‘Old Husbands’ Tales’: Public and Private in Feminist History
Authors: Davidoff Leonore
Published: October 2023

A central platform of feminist critique and attempted revision of mainstream thought has focused on the construction and boundaries of classifications: of femininity and masculinity, women and men, woman and man. These classifications have in turn been linked to the construction of other highly significant categories, the complicated—and slippery—notions of public and private.
The Patriarchal Welfare State
Authors: Pateman Carole
Published: October 2023

According to Raymond Williams’s Keywords, ‘the Welfare State, in distinction from the Warfare State, was first named in 1939’.The welfare state was set apart from the fascist warfare state, defeated in the Second World War, and so the welfare state was identified with democracy at the christening. In the 1980s most Western welfare states are also warfare states, but this is not ordinarily seen as compromising their democratic character. Rather, the extent of democracy is usually taken to hinge on the class structure. Welfare provides a social wage for the working class, and the positive, social democratic view is that the welfare state gives social meaning and equal worth to the formal juridical and political rights of all citizens.
French Administrative Law
Authors: Brown L Neville , Bell John S , Galabert Jean-Michel
Published: October 2023

As the bicentenary of the Conseil d’Etat approaches, this new edition of the leading English-language text provides a detailed profile of the Conseil and offers an up-to-date overview of le droit administratif, which is regarded, alongside the Code Napolon, as the most notable achievement of French legal science. The Conseil d’Etat is taken as a model for many administrative systems in Europe and beyond, and it continues to exercise a strong influence upon the emerging democracies of Eastern Europe and the Third World. The eleven expanded appendices, including statistics, model pleadings and other illustrations, provide an invaluable and accessible source of information on the French administrative courts, their procedure and case-load. Throughout the approach is comparative, with frequent references to developments in United Kingdom administrative law and in the EC institutions. The book will be an invaluable guide to all students of French law and comparative public law.
Pricing and Hedging of Derivative Securities
Authors: Nielsen Lars Tyce
Published: October 2023

The theory of pricing and hedging of derivative securities is mathematically sophisticated. This book is an introduction to the use of advanced probability theory in financial economics, presenting the necessary mathematics in a precise and rigorous manner. Professor Nielsen concentrates on three main areas: the theory of continuous-time stochastic processes, a notorious barrier to the understanding of probability theory in finance; the general theory of trading, pricing, and hedging in continuous time, using the martingale approach; and a detailed look at the BlackScholes and the Gaussian one-factor models of the term structure of interest rates. His book enables the reader to read the journal literature with confidence, apply the methods to new problems, or to do original research in the field.
US Third World Feminism: The Theory and Method of Oppositional Consciousness in the Postmodern World1
Authors: Sandoval Chela
Published: October 2023

The enigma that is US third world feminism has yet to be fully confronted by theorists of social change. To these late twentieth century analysts it has remained inconceivable that US third world feminism might represent a form of historical consciousness whose very structure lies outside the conditions of possibility that regulate the oppositional expressions of dominant feminism.
Women on Top in the Pamphlet Literature of the English Revolution
Authors: Achinstein Sharon
Published: October 2023

There was much gender trouble in the pamphlet literature of the English Revolution, and that gender trouble was often expressed through sexual satire. Radical sects in particular bore the brunt of much of this satire. “Unnatural” sexual acts were commonly depicted in this literature, like the woodcut of the public masturbation of ‘Adamite” men on the title-page of A New Sect of Religion Decried, called ADAMITES (1641), which, though it served the reader’s voyeuristic pleasure also served to delegitimize the sects by ridicule.
The Trinity, Prayer and Sexuality
Authors: Coakley Sarah
Published: October 2023

So that will be my first thesis: the inextricability of renewed trini tarian conceptuality and the renewal of prayer practice, and I shall be arguing that Christian prayer practice is inherently trinitarian. In a way this is a belated riposte to the charge of the great German ‘liberal’ theologian, Friedrich Schleiermacher, that the Trinity can never be experienced, can never be, as he put it, ‘direct to consciousness’. This I want to challenge.
The Roar on the Other Side of Silence
Authors: MacKinnon Catharine A
Published: October 2023

Women speak in public for the first time in history of the harms done to them through pornography in the hearings collected in this volume [Ed’s note: ‘This volume’, here and throughout this chapter, refers to In Harm’s Way: The Pornography Civil Rights Hearing, ed. Andrea Dworkin and Catharine A. MacKinnon (Harvard University Press, 1997)]. Their first-person accounts stand against the pervasive sexual violation of women and children that is allowed to be done in private and is not allowed to be criticized in public. Their publication, which comes almost fifteen years’ after the first hearing was held, ends the exclusion from the public record of the information they contain on the way pornography works in social reality. Now ended is the censorship of these facts and voices from a debate on the social and cultural role of pornography that has gone on as if it could go on without them.
The Force of Fantasy: Feminism, Mapplethorpe, and Discursive Excess
Authors: Butler Judith
Published: October 2023

A contemporary feminist interrogation of representation is inevitably caught up in a set of persistently ambivalent ontological claims. Recent feminist criticisms of poststructuralism and poststructuralist feminism take issue with what appears to be a refusal to grant a pre-given, pre-linguistic or self-identical status to the real. The so-called deconstruction of the real, however, is not a simple negation or thorough dismissal of any ontological claim, but constitutes an interrogation of the construction and circulation of what counts as an ontological claim. The critical point is to examine the exclusionary means by which the circumspection of the real has been part of feminist practice prior to there being any question of its status as a poststructuralist intrusion.
Porn in the USA
Authors: Royalle Candida
Published: October 2023

There were three reasons why I started Femme Productions. After a few years of working as an actress in adult films, I began to write for men’s magazines and review adult movies. That was when I started looking closely at the films and was horrified to see how sexist they were. So I began to think about making porn movies that were aimed at women, and which couples could share together. I felt that adult entertainment could be very valid and life-enriching, but it wasn’t being done with that in mind. Unlike the antiporn movement, I don’t think porn causes violence. But the films were very exploitive of women and of sexuality in general. I didn’t think that they were offering anything constructive about our sexuality. I also realized that women were beginning to watch porn, and I knew that there was nothing out there for them to watch. So I began Femme with three aims in mind. I wanted to show that it was possible to produce explicit porn that had integrity, I wanted to show that porn could be nonsexist, and I wanted to show that porn could be life-enriching.
Estonia, Hungary, and Slovenia: Banking on Identity
Authors: Greskovits Béla
Published: October 2023

A powerful new institution, the independent central bank, emerged rapidly from the transformation of inherited financial systems in postcommunist Central and Eastern Europe (CEE). Its power entailed the ability to define macroeconomic stability as a policy priority, institutionalize it against rival preferences, and shape economic performance in line with its own agenda. However, rather than converging on a single uniform model, the new central banks adopted varied institutional features. They also diverged in terms of their performance and central bankers’ identities.
The Us Federal Reserve and the Politics of Monetary and Financial Regulatory Policies
Authors: Woolley John T
Published: October 2023

As a model independent central bank in the world’s economic superpower, the US Federal Reserve System (the Fed) has never been far in the background for planners of European monetary union and the European Central Bank (ECB). Since 1980, the Fed has seemed to consolidate a dominant position in US macroeconomic affairs. A consensus emerged that inflation, widely seen as the pre-eminent macroeconomic challenge, could be solved only through steady, but technically supple, politically independent monetary policy (Woolley 1998). While the Fed experienced occasional political challenges to its regulatory powers and public disclosure, these challenges did not extend to monetary policy.
Transparency and Accountability
Authors: Jabko Nicolas
Published: October 2023

In the contemporary discourse of financial and monetary officials across the world, ‘transparency and accountability’ are usually lumped together as paired requirements. The spread of this global ethos is puzzling if we consider that central bankers not long ago derived pride and authority from their power to make important decisions outside the public eye. In 1986, Marvin Goodfriend, a vice-president of the Federal Reserve Bank of Richmond, acknowledged—and questioned—central bankers’ adherence to a ‘mystique’ of secrecy surrounding monetary policy (Goodfriend 1986).
OPEC Pricing Power: The Need for a New Perspective
Authors: Fattouh Bassam
Published: October 2023

Since the 1973 oil price shock, the history and behaviour of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) have received considerable attention both in the academic literature and in the media.1 Many conflicting theoretical and empirical interpretations about the nature of OPEC and its influence on world oil markets have been proposed. The debate is not centred on whether OPEC restricts output, but the reasons behind these restrictions. Some studies emphasize that OPEC production decisions are made with reference to budgetary needs, which in turn depend on the absorptive capacity of the members’ domestic economies (Teece, 1982).
Pension Funds And The Evolution Of Financial Markets In The European Union
Authors: Davis E Philip
Published: October 2023

Owing to population ageing and the financing diﬃculties of public pension systems, as well as maturing of existing funded systems, there is a widespread trend in Europe towards funded pensions. Whereas funding of retirement income is most directly related to the development of pension funds, the broader growth of institutional investors such as mutual funds and life insurers may also link directly or indirectly to saving to meet income needs in retirement.
Twenty Years of Economic Reform and Structural Change in the Chinese Economy
Authors: Garnaut Ross
Published: October 2023

On 22 December 1978, the Eleventh Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party completed its third plenary meeting. There was no contemporary recognition in the West of the significance of the meeting. The twentieth anniversary of the third plenum received far more attention. In the intervening years, China, and its relations with the inter¬ national community, have been transformed. China’s economy has expanded by five times, and its foreign trade by twelve. It has greatly increased consumption levels of what had been about half of the world’s people in poverty. Then an isolated, autarchic economy, China through the mid and late1980s absorbed about half of the direct foreign investment flows to developing economies. From having no trade or investment ties with Taiwan and the Republic of Korea, it is now the first or second export destination of one and the third of the other.
Low Pay—A Special Affliction of Women
Authors: Asplund Rita , Persson Inga
Published: October 2023

Over recent decades women throughout Europe have steadily increased their market work. Cohort by cohort, activity rates have gone up (Meulders, Plasman, and Vander Stricht 1993; Persson 1993). Particularly marked has been the increase in the labour market participation of mothers of small children. These developments have gone much further in certain countries, especially the Scandinavian ones, where the activity rates of women now resemble those of men, but the direction and pattern of this economic and social transformation are the same throughout Europe. In economic terms the transformation means that out of 100 persons in the EU labour force in the mid-1990s, forty-three were women (Eurostat 1998a). In social terms it means that in the overwhelming majority of households throughout Europe women are doing market work. Concomitant with the increase in women’s participation in market work has been an increase in their educational investments so that in more recent cohorts young women tend to bring with them as much human capital to the labour market as young men. But, in spite of the increased similarities between European women and men in terms of labour market participation and educational investments, their positions and the economic outcomes for them in the labour market differ greatly. The types of jobs held and the economic rewards to work show a very clear gendered pattern in all the countries, even in those where the participation rates and the human capital investments of men and women are very similar. Horizontal and vertical job segregation are extensive; women are paid less than men at given human capital characteristics; and female-dominated occupations are paid less than male-dominated ones (at given human capital and other job requirements).
Earnings Mobility of the Low Paid
Authors: Sloane Peter , Theodossiou Ioannis
Published: October 2023

Over a great part of the post-war period the earnings distribution has exhibited remarkable stability in many OECD countries. However, during the 1980s this longterm trend altered by varying degrees across countries and earnings inequality rose. This had the inevitable consequence of worsening the relative position of those at the lower tail of the distribution. Thus, the incidence of low-paid work has increased and become an important policy issue. In investigating this issue and for policy purposes it is important to consider issues concerning the ability of individual workers to increase their earnings capabilities through time. To the extent that low pay is merely a transient phenomenon in which young workers acquire the necessary skills to enhance their lifetime earnings, low pay is not a matter for particular policy concern. To the extent, however, that certain workers become trapped in low-paid jobs, a number of policy concerns are raised.
FDI in the Restructuring of the Japanese Economy
Authors: blomström Magnus , konan, denise , Lipsey robert E
Published: October 2023

Both outward and inward foreign direct investment (FOi) play an important role in restructuring economies. Outward investment is a way of maximizing the rents on the accumulated knowledge and skill of a country’s firms, or preserving them as long as possible when the country itself has lost its comparative advantage in their industries, and the industries, or parts of them, must relocate.
Economic Development in China and Its Implications for Japan
Authors: Abe Shigeyuki , Lee Chung H
Published: October 2023

Since the Four Modernizations undertaken in the late 1970s, China has emerged as one of Asia’s most dynamic newly industrializing economies. In the decade following the reform China’s real GNP grew at an annual average rate of 10 per cent, up from an annual rate of 6.5 per cent during the 1970s. Although its economy slowed down in the late 1980s due to the government’s anti-inflationary measures, it regained momentum in the early 1990s, achieving a 13.4 per cent rate of growth in 1993. China’s economy posted somewhat lower growth rates in subsequent years, but not less than 7.8 per cent even in the Asian crisis year of 1998 (Table 14.1).
The Character of the 1998 Agreement: Results and Prospects
Authors: O’Leary Brendan
Published: October 2023

The 1998 Agreement was a major achievement, both for its negotiators and for the peoples of Ireland and Britain, emerging from a political desert whose only landmarks were failed ‘initiatives’. The Agreement’s proposed model of devolution was consociational, meeting the criteria specified by Arend Lijphart namely, cross-community executive power-sharing; proportionality rules throughout the governmental and public sectors; community self-government or autonomy and equality in cultural life; and veto rights for minorities. A consociation is an association of communities, in this case British unionist, Irish nationalist, and others, that is the outcome of formal or informal bargains or pacts between the political leaders of ethnic or religious groups. The Agreement was the product of both tacit and explicit consociational thought, and of ‘pacting’ by most of the leaders of the key ethno-national groups and their respective patron-states.
The Belfast Agreement and the Republic of Ireland
Authors: Coakley John
Published: October 2023

Electoral and survey data from the Republic of Ireland at the end of the twentieth century suggested the emergence of a remarkable consensus on what was for long known as ‘the national question’—the partition of the island and the relationship with Great Britain. A referendum on the Belfast Agreement on 22 May 1998 saw a vote of 94 per cent in favour of a set of constitutional changes designed to permit its implementation. A poll in mid-December 1999 showed that 96 per cent of those expressing a view on the matter would like a united Ireland-though subject to a rather indefinite time limit: ‘at some stage in the future’.
The World’s Religious Systems and Democracy: Crafting the “Twin Tolerations”
Authors: Stepan Alfred
Published: October 2023

Are all, or only some, of the world’s religious systems politically compatible with democracy? This is, of course, one of the largest, most important, and intensely debated questions of our times. Illuminating, or at times obfuscating, contributions to this question have been made by practitioners and theoreticians of politics, as well as by philosophers, historians, and sociologists of religion. In this essay my attempt to contribute to this debate will be from the perspective of comparative politics. More specifically, as a specialist in political institutions and democratization, I intend to ask three cumulatively related questions, the answers to which, in my judgement, will give analysts and practitioners increased cognitive control over this critical issue.
Offshore Sourcing and Production Sharing in Preference Areas
Authors: Arndt Sven W
Published: October 2023

The traditional approach to trade analysis has shown a strong preoccupation with trade in end-products. There is, of course, a comprehensive and elegant literature on trade in intermediate products,1 but it leads a rather separate and cloistered existence. This emphasis finds its underpinnings in the assumption that production is a spatially concentrated and functionally integrated process. We are used to thinking about products as ‘made’ in a country. Trade in components and crossborder dispersion of production, both characteristics of intra-product specialization, have no place in this approach.
Iceland
Authors: Gauksdóttir Gudrun
Published: October 2023

Iceland joined the Council of Europe on 7 March 1950 and ratified the European Convention on Human Rights on 19 June 1953. Iceland has successively ratified the Additional Protocols to the Convention. 1 In accordance with Article 25 of the Convention, Iceland has made a declaration, for an indefinite period, recognizing the competence of the Commission to receive individual complaints. It has also accepted the jurisdiction of the Court in accordance with Article 46 for a specified period. The initial declaration was given on 3 September 1958 and is renewed periodically.
Poland
Authors: Drzemczewski Andrew , Nowicki Marek Antoni
Published: October 2023

In countries of the former Soviet bloc, Poland included, the ECHR was for many years a document known to a few people only. According to the official ideology of those days, it reflected an alien bourgeois concept of human rights. The Convention was quoted as an example of the hypocrisy of the West, creating formal paper guarantees but unable to stand the test of real life. Human rights, it was argued, could only find an appropriate place in the Socialist system, and only in its Realsozialismus version born in Soviet Russia. Others, who had never accepted the grim and hypocritical reality east of the Laba River, saw the text of the Convention and their own study of that document, if incidental, as either an expression of their honesty as researchers1 or a manifestation of a rebellious attitude, similar to the practice of wearing bright socks or playing jazz under Stalin and even later on.
Money and Politics
Authors: Einaudi Luca
Published: October 2023

Money and Politics reconstructs for the first time the full history of the creation of the Latin Monetary Union (LMU), a long forgotten precedent of the Euro. It focuses in particular on the attempted transformation of the LMU into a European Monetary Union between 1865 and 1873. The use of extensive diplomatic and banking archives in France, Britain, Italy, and Germany has enabled the author to reconstruct in detail the intellectual debate concerning the gold standard and bimetallism, as well as the surrounding political and diplomatic manoeuvres, which in many ways anticipated the conflicts of today's monetary unification. Einaudi's findings show that the project of a common currency was well received in central and southern Europe, but worked against the emergence of a united Germany, and was blocked by the Franco--Prussian war. In Britain, Disraeli declined to join the Latin Monetary Union, but in 1869, the new Liberal Chancellor of the Exchequer saw the advantages offered by a scheme which appeared to be enjoying success on the Continent, and attempted to join the monetary union, thereby alienating and securing the opposition of both the City and Gladstone. This book is written in an accessible and multidisciplinary fashion, and will appeal to economists, historians, and political scientists with an interest in the formation and readjustment of government policies. It also paints a fascinating picture for policy makers and all those concerned with current debates surrounding EMU and the British position.
Lender of Last Resort: A Contemporary Perspective
Authors: Kaufman George G
Published: October 2023

Although much discussed in both the economic and banking literature, the lender of last resort (LLR) has always been a vague concept. Apparently first discussed by Sir Francis Baring in 1797 and refmed by Henry Thornton (1802) and Walter Bagehot (1873), among others, the lender of last resort’s function was to prevent fmancial panics and crises from being ignited by problems at individual institutions or markets. This has generally been interpreted as preventing the individual problem from causing a decline in the aggregate money supply.
Can there be an International Lender-of-Last-Resort?
Authors: Capie Forrest
Published: October 2023

Around the world, from Asia to Russia and beyond, there is considerable fmancial turmoil. There is widespread talk of fmancial crises, and there are many suggestions being advanced for their resolution. One frequently suggested remedy is that there should be an international lender-of-last-resort. Kindleberger (1989) devoted a chapter to the ‘International lender of last resort’, in his Manias, Panics, and Crashes. A recent suggestion has been made that the Bank for International Settlements could be made an international lender-of-last-resort. And in The Economist of 10 October 1998 consideration was given again to the possibility of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) being the international lender-of-last-resort.
The Gold Standard Illusion
Authors: Mouré Kenneth
Published: October 2023

Economic historians have established a new orthodoxy attributing the onset and severity of the Great Depression to the flawed workings of the international gold standard. This interpretation returns French gold policy to centre stage in understanding the origins of the Depression, its rapid spread, its severity and its duration. The Gold Standard Illusion exploits new archival resources to test how well this gold standard interpretation of the Great Depression is sustained by historical records in France, the country most often criticized for hoarding gold and failure to play by the rules of the gold standard game. The study follows four lines of inquiry, providing a history of French gold policy in its national and international contexts from 1914 to 1939, an analysis of the evolution of the Bank of France during this period and the degree to which gold standard belief retarded the adoption of modern central banking practice, a re-examination of interwar central bank cooperation in the period and its role in the breakdown of the gold standard, and a study of how gold standard rhetoric fostered misperceptions of financial and monetary problems. The French case was exceptional, marked by absolute and tenacious faith in the gold standard, by the import and accumulation of a vast hoard of gold desperately needed as reserves to prevent monetary contraction abroad, and by adamant claims for the need to return to gold after most countries had left the gold standard, which had become, in the words of John Maynard Keynes, ‘a curse laid upon the economic life of the world’. The Gold Standard Illusion explains French gold standard belief and policy, the impact of French policy at home and abroad, and reassesses the gold standard interpretation of the Great Depression in the light of French experience.
The Worm in the Fruit, 1914–1920
Authors: Mouré Kenneth
Published: October 2023

With the outbreak of war in August 1914. international financial markets faced massive demands for liquidity and gold. The international gold standard collapsed. Where convertibility vas not suspended by belligerents to prevent gold losses (as in France, Germany, Russia, Austria-Hungary, Belgium), it vas effectively impaired (Britain); even creditor countries (Argentina, Denmark, the Netherlands, Norway, Spain, Sweden) intervened to obstruct gold imports.1
Mental Accounting and the Absent-minded Driver
Authors: Gilboa Itzhak , Gilboa-Schechtman Eva
Published: October 2023

The term ‘mental accounting’ refers to a variety of phenomena in which money is non-fungible. Since the pioneering works of Kahneman, Tversky, and Thaler (Kahneman and Tversky, 1979, 1984; Tversky and Kahneman, 1981; and Thaler, 1980, 1985) it has become abundantly clear that people do not treat all dollars alike. Rather, people manage different accounts in their minds, in which money has origins and goals that cannot be ignored when this money is spent.