bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
As the Eagle to the Sparrow
Authors: Gonaver Wendy
Published: January 2020

This chapter discusses the lives of the enslaved men and women who worked at the Eastern Lunatic Asylum, particularly their interactions with patients and administrators. Enslaved attendants were tasked with arduous labor; enslaved women were assigned the most menial jobs. They were also entrusted with significant authority; some were even authorized to seize and forcibly medicate patients when moral methods failed. Dorothea Dix and other asylum reformers criticized the asylum for its reliance on slave labor because they didn’t believe slaves were capable of providing moral treatment. Despite the challenges of institutional caregiving, enslaved attendants used their influence to assert their capacity for moral judgment. The actions of asylum slaves suggest that an ethic empathic equality rooted in Afro-Christianity was central to their conception of care.
So Different
Authors: Gonaver Wendy
Published: January 2020

This chapter looks at the transformation of asylum care that was initiated by the Civil War. At the Eastern Lunatic Asylum, the biggest change came after the suicide of Superintendent John M. Galt during Union occupation of Eastern Virginia. Ultimately, Galt’s death created opportunities for his professional rivals in the Association of Medical Superintendents of American Institutions for the Insane to end his experiments with outpatient care and to insist upon the creation of segregated institutions for black and white patients. In the interim, the asylum was run by a series of Union doctors and civilians with the aid of former staff, including enslaved attendants. Operating during wartime was especially difficult for enslaved staff because their legal status was in limbo, and they were liable to seizure by raiding Confederates. Wartime shortages further compounded these challenges.
Not a Human Being
Authors: Gonaver Wendy
Published: January 2020

The two decades after the Civil War saw the creation of a handful of insane asylums for African Americans in the South. The first of these institutions was the Central Lunatic Asylum of Virginia, to which all African American patients at the Eastern Lunatic Asylum were transferred at the end of the war. The quality of care at asylums generally deteriorated in this period due to overcrowding and underfunding, but this chapter argues that asylums for African Americans were at the opprobrious vanguard. Focusing on conditions at Central Lunatic Asylum reveals that moral means were immediately abandoned in favor of mechanical restraint and hard labor because white superintendents asserted that newly freedmen and women lacked a moral conscience and refined sensibilities. Using dehumanizing language, they characterized patients as sexually profligate and viewed African American religious culture as inferior.
Prescribing the Dharma
Authors: Helderman Ira
Published: January 2020

Interest in the psychotherapeutic capacity of Buddhist teachings and practices is widely evident in the popular imagination. News media routinely report on the neuropsychological study of Buddhist meditation and applications of mindfulness practices in settings including corporate offices, the U.S. military, and university health centers. However, as Ira Helderman shows, curious investigators have studied the psychological dimensions of Buddhist doctrine for well over a century, stretching back to William James and Carl Jung. These activities have shaped both the mental health field and Buddhist practice throughout the United States. This is the first comprehensive study of the surprisingly diverse ways that psychotherapists have related to Buddhist traditions. Through extensive fieldwork and in-depth interviews with clinicians, many of whom have been formative to the therapeutic use of Buddhist practices, Helderman gives voice to the psychotherapists themselves. He focuses on how they understand key categories such as religion and science. Some are invested in maintaining a hard border between religion and psychotherapy as a biomedical discipline. Others speak of a religious-secular binary that they mean to disrupt. Helderman finds that psychotherapists’ approaches to Buddhist traditions are molded by how they define what is and is not religious, demonstrating how central these concepts are in contemporary American culture.
Coming to Terms with Our Terms
Authors: Helderman Ira
Published: January 2020

This chapter surveys psychotherapists’ common understandings for the primary terms the volume tracks: psychotherapy, religion, secular, science, medicine, Buddhism, spirituality, and terms for the ultimate aim of life such as enlightenment. Psychotherapists’ “conventional definitions” for these concepts are established as drawn from both textual analysis and data from interviews and ethnographic observation. The chapter then explains how therapists inherited these conventional definitions through brief histories of how European communities came to invent a modern concept of religion that is based on a Protestant prototype of inner belief or came to discover a Buddhism defined as atheistic (despite the evidence of Buddhist communities throughout history who propitiate deities). The chapter thus clarifies the socially constructed nature of these core concepts, concepts to which psychotherapists then contribute to in an ongoing revision and reconstruction.
With Rigor
Authors: Helderman Ira
Published: January 2020

In the adopting religion approaches to Buddhist traditions explicated in this chapter, clinicians actively and openly take up Buddhist teachings, practices, and identities. Instead of treating Buddhist traditions as resources for clinical work, therapists taking adopting religion approaches sometimes frame psychotherapies as resources to aid Buddhist communities. The chapter briefly surveys the impact this has on Buddhist communities in the United States, a number of which have been established by psychotherapists. Such approaches can appear to upend a hierarchy between the religious and not-religious as clinicians characterize therapy as merely a tool to, for example, clear psychological obstacles from meditation practice. This reversal can be traced back to humanistic and transpersonal therapists of the 1960s-1970s like Abraham Maslow who, critiquing secularity and “the medical model,” remade therapeutic goals to include the activation of “human potential.” While contemporary therapists who take adopting religion approaches could be defined as fully practicing religion (some describe their psychotherapies as new hybrid Buddhist schools), this arrangement of religious/not-religious also remains unstable: the specific Buddhist traditions they adopt can themselves be characterized as secularized forms, already bereft of features coded as more “conventionally” or “self-evidently” religious (merit-making practices, propitiation of deities, etc.).
Over the Borderline
Authors: Helderman Ira
Published: January 2020

This chapter surveys clinicians’ integrating religion approaches to Buddhist traditions. Here psychotherapists seek to incorporate Buddhist and psychotherapeutic elements in such a way that both remain recognizable. Some believe that common elements or shared ultimate aims make Buddhist and psychotherapeutic “compatible.” Others design methods to overcome what they otherwise portray as fundamental incommensurables (e.g., dissonances between Buddhist and therapeutic conceptions of the self). At times, therapists explain their integrative efforts to be what they call “hybrids” consistent with those of previous locations of Buddhist transmission (e.g., medieval China). The chapter considers whether scholarly concepts such as hybridity or religious repertories used to describe historical religious mixing could be useful in describing these contemporary activities. Or, alternatively, whether the combinativeness here is unique and without historical precedent: the bricolage of the religious and the not-religious, scientific or biomedical. To some therapists, integrating Buddhist and psychotherapeutic frames necessitates asking questions of definition (whether Buddhist traditions are properly classified as religious; psychotherapy as not-religious, etc.). Some take up cultural rhetoric surrounding the term “spirituality” in this context to argue that their activities are neither religious or not-religious.
An Imperfect Revolution: Enforcing Alexander
Authors: Hustwit William P.
Published: January 2020

The seventh chapter explores the implementation of the Alexander ruling in Holmes County and across the South. The chapter mainly analyses the legal work of Jackson’s NAACP LDF office. There is also an assessment of the overall effect of school desegregation, especially in Mississippi.
The Making of a Modern Religious Seeker
Authors: Neumann David J.
Published: January 2020

This chapter places Yogananda’s spiritual development in the context of Indian modernity, with rapid travel, exposure to diverse traditions, and awareness of the outside world—particularly the U.S. and the larger West. The chapter examines his childhood, adolescence, and young adulthood, focusing on the spiritual journey that culminated in his decision to become a swami under the leadership of a guru. He grew up in Kolkata, influenced by the writings of the Bengali Renaissance who opposed British imperialism. His connection to modernity continued with his college education and adoption of modern Hinduism, a framework that severed belief from its historic embeddedness in land, caste, life stage, and gender. This universalizing of Hinduism paved the way for Yogananda’s American ministry as a Hindu missionary.
The Founding of a Home for Scientific Religion
Authors: Neumann David J.
Published: January 2020

This chapter traces Yogananda’s early years in the United States. The chapter begins by examining the conference that brought him to the U.S. and his presentation on “the Science of Religion,” placing both in the context of an intramural Protestant debate that offered competing answers to the epistemological challenges modernity raised for the universalistic claims of Christianity. A cross-country road trip in 1924 took Yogananda to Los Angeles, which quickly became his national headquarters. Southern California played an important role in fostering Yogananda’s ministry at a time when American racism stirred racism and Orientalism among white Americans. The nation’s new “spiritual frontier,” the region was an ideal space for a new religious movement, a relatively tolerant center of religious diversity that had already fostered Hindu movements by the time Yogananda arrived. He made Mount Washington his headquarters, which quickly become part of the sacred landscape to his followers.
The Creation of a Yogi Guru Persona
Authors: Neumann David J.
Published: January 2020

In this chapter, Yogananda’s ministry is evaluated through the lens of modern consumer religion, mass marketing, and religious branding. The early portion investigates the religious products he touted, most centrally, his systematic, practical method for God-realization through yoga—in the innovative form of a correspondence course. Yogananda’s instruction inculcated a larger Hindu worldview, not just a set of meditative techniques. His East-West magazine was a promotional tool designed to highlight his brand’s distinctiveness. The chapter also explores the way the yogi, like evangelists of the time, promoted his message to a modern American audience saturated in savvy advertising and modern products. The final section considers the hazards of the religious market, including negative press attention and several lawsuits that threatened his brand image as well as his solvency just as the Depression arrived.
The Apotheosis of a Global Guru
Authors: Neumann David J.
Published: January 2020

This chapter explores Yogananda’s growing status as a global spiritual authority and a divine figure. The chapter begins by placing Yogananda in the context of religious internationalism, a subset of interwar cultural internationalism driven by concerns for world peace. It details his use of East-West as a vehicle for a cosmopolitan spiritual vision. An extravagant worldwide journey in 1935-36 from California to England, the Continent, the Middle East, and ultimately to his home city of Calcutta solidified his reputation as a “global guru.” The chapter also explores his syncretism, through his lengthy exegesis of New Testament gospel narratives that transformed the story of Jesus and his teachings into a revelation of yogic truth that hinted at Yogananda’s own divine identity. But it was the 1946 Autobiography of a Yogi that firmly established Yogananda’s reputation as a guru to the world. An analysis of this text’s structural features reveals it to be a new scripture, designed to inculcate belief in the spiritual world Yogananda evoked and a hagiography of the yogi who wrote it.
The Death of an Immortal Guru
Authors: Neumann David J.
Published: January 2020

This chapter explores discipleship and conversion in SRF, Yogananda’s dramatic death, and the transfer of authority that transpired afterward. The chapter explores profiles of more than fifteen Yogananda disciples, employing a model of conversion to offer insight into common patterns of the spiritual seekers who chose to join a new religious movement, following a guru who claimed powers like clairvoyance and hinted at his own deity. The circumstances surrounding Yogananda’s death and his followers’ efforts to cope with the tragedy are considered next. Yogananda’s death produced a crisis in leadership. Max Weber’s model of the routinization of charisma, modified by subsequent scholars, offers insight into the common challenge faced by organizations led by charismatic individuals, particularly after their death. Yogananda spiritualized his own leadership by indicating that his writings were to become the “guru” after his departure, but this did not fully solve the problem of human leadership. After the short tenure of one leader, long-term female disciple Faye Wright was appointed. Her half-century tenure at SRF stabilized the organization and routinized its publications by and about Yogananda.
Epilogue
Authors: Parker Traci
Published: January 2020

The department store movement succeeded in opening this world to African Americans and provided them with the means with which to make claims to middle-class citizenship, but it certainly did not foresee the dramatic decline of these retail institutions. The struggle for racial equity in work and consumption, thus, continues. Racial discrimination in the retail industry persists in ways that are consistent with early forms of discrimination—not hiring African Americans in skilled and status positions, and limited black consumers’ mobility in and access to retail institutions. Discrimination is also shaped by and reflective of the changing nature of American retailing, employment, and consumption in the twenty-first century—in that African Americans are hired in sales vis-à-vis cashiering and denied managerial, supervisory, and executive positions.
Postscript
Authors: Rocklin Alexander
Published: January 2020

This postscript takes an example of a controversy over animal sacrifice to the goddess Kali in the 1930s in Trinidad to explore broader issues from the book, including colonialism, modernization, religion-making, and the Hindu diaspora.
✦ Citizen Saint ✦
Authors: Cummings Kathleen Sprows
Published: January 2020

This chapter focuses on the life and afterlife of Frances Cabrini, founder of the Missionary Sisters of the Sacred Heart who served as a missionary in the United States between her arrival in New York in 1889 and her death in Chicago in 1917. Pope Pius XI beatified Cabrini in 1938, and Pius XII canonized her in 1946. This record speed was owed both to her proximity to the Roman center of power in the Catholic church and her popularity on the American periphery, given the ways her life story could be molded to support American ideals of sainthood that foregrounded immigration, urbanization, and U.S. citizenship.
The Pageant and the Glory
Authors: Gerard Philip
Published: January 2020

A white handkerchief waved from a capitol window signals secession-and all over North Carolina the news is greeted with celebration and a rush to enlistment-though other voices are raised in dire warning of the destruction and death to come. The population of just under a million is almost evenly divided: one-third Unionists, one-third Secessionists, one-third enslaved and free blacks. The volunteer companies bear bellicose names: the Rough and Readies, the Lexington Wildcats, the Rockingham Invincibles. The Guilford Greys receive a silk flag from the local female seminary; 180 march to war and only 13 return home unscathed.
A House Divided
Authors: Gerard Philip
Published: January 2020

On the eve of war, Dr. John D. Bellamy of Wilmington-one of the wealthiest slave owners in the South-throws a torchlight parade to celebrate secession. He builds a Greek Revival mansion, the grandest in the city, symbol of both the wealth generated by slave labor and the impending cataclysm. Almost at once, as yellow fever-carried ashore by a blockade-running sailor-strikes the city, Bellamy and his family flee the mansion.
Unflinching Leader
Authors: Gerard Philip
Published: January 2020

Zebulon Baird Vance, a staunch Unionist and U.S. Congressman, reluctantly embraces secession. Soon he commands the 26th North Carolina Regiment and proves himself a brave and fierce leader in battle at New Bern and Malvern Hill, Va.-he becomes a war hero. A public clamor led by newspaper editor William Woods Holden results in his election as governor-without making a single campaign speech.
Glory Bound
Authors: Gerard Philip
Published: January 2020

Capt. William Henry Asbury Speer marches off to war from his beloved Yadkin River Valley a reluctant soldier who blames the Secessionists for the war. He is captured in battle, then exchanged, and rejoins the 28th regiment. Even as he fights bravely at Fredericksburg and is wounded at Chancellorsville, he campaigns hardest to keep his younger brother out of the war. He survives Pickett’s Charge at Gettysburg and ten more major engagements, rising to command the regiment. He pens a dark poem predicting his on death and near Petersburg is blasted by shrapnel from an artillery shell. Friends cart his body home in a wagon for burial among his Ulster Scots and Quaker ancestors.
The Heroes of America Rise for the Union
Authors: Gerard Philip
Published: January 2020

A secret group modeled on the Freemasons call themselves the Heroes of America and sabotage the Confederacy from their headquarters-the Grand Council of the Heroes-near the state capitol. Violence erupts among warring factions in Raleigh and the Heroes are suppressed.
The Battle of the Bands
Authors: Gerard Philip
Published: January 2020

Wanting neither to kill or be killed, Julius Leinbach of Salem enlists with his fellow Moravian musicians as a “Band Boy” for the 26th North Carolina. The small brass ensemble quickly gains fame as the most stirring band in the army and performs not just for parade and marching but also concerts-including for Gov. Vance’s inaugural. Like other bandsmen in both armies, they not only play music but also help carry off the battlefield wounded and assist the surgeons as orderlies. Music is a crucial aid to morale and order. Leinbach is captured but survives, the last of his bandmates to be liberated at war’s end. He brings home the band’s coveted, original, sheet music arrangements-the only band in the Confederate Army to do so.
The Burden of War
Authors: Gerard Philip
Published: January 2020

The war has heft and weight and substance. The war exists in pieces, and every soldier must carry his part of the war to the great staging grounds and there assemble it. They carry four kinds of burden: clothing and personal effects;
weapons and ammunition; food and water; and the emotional weight of fear, grief, homesickness, longing for loved ones, and despair. Sometimes the heaviest weight to bear is a letter spelling out the death of a family member back home, or the grief for a fallen comrade, or the memory of their own actions. And it is evident from the start that the U.S. Army has more of the first three: more guns and muskets, more shoes and uniforms, more mules and wagons, more horses and regiments, more beef and medicine. Inevitably the Confederate soldiers who survive must bear the last burden: defeat.
The Stockard Family’s War
Authors: Gerard Philip
Published: January 2020

Six men of the Stockard clan from Alamance County go off to war, and all but one are killed, captured, or die of disease. Their story illustrates how a small village can be devastated by a single day’s battle: soldiers enlist with their brothers and cousins, are commanded by uncles and fathers, and form a line of battle with their friends and neighbors. Wounding and death are almost always personal, never just the fate of strangers.
Ministering Angel
Authors: Gerard Philip
Published: January 2020

Rev. Alexander Davis Betts, a minister from Smithville, on the Cape Fear, honors a request by his friend Lorenzo Cain to become chaplain in the 30th North Carolina. Partially lame from a childhood accident, he is torn between strenuous duty in the field and the comforts of a safe village and a loving family. He leaves behind a young wife and four small children. He serves through the worst battles for nearly the entire duration of the war-ministering not just to souls but to the wounded, traveling so relentlessly that once he falls off his horse, unconscious, and awakens in a field. He consoles the dying of both armies, including friends like Lorenzo Cain, endures multiple bouts of illness and exhaustion, but somehow always comes back to where he is needed most. After the war, he preaches far and wide, meeting many survivors from his old regiment, attended always by a company of ghosts.
From Slave to Free Warrior
Authors: Gerard Philip
Published: January 2020

William Henry Singleton, born a slave near New Bern, is sold away from his family at age four. Taken to Atlanta, he escapes by pretending to be a lady’s servant, makes his way back to New Bern. For three years he hides under the cellar of his mother’s house, till he is discovered and sold again. Again he escapes. He is lured out of hiding, only to be caught and sold again. Again he escapes, this time hiding in plain sight as a bellboy in New Bern-and is found out. At last he enters the war as a Confederate officer’s body servant, escapes through the U.S. Army lines, and after long trials enlists in the 1st North Carolina Colored Volunteers. In 1938, at the age of 95, he marches in the Grand Army of the Republic parade.
Rose of the Rebellion
Authors: Gerard Philip
Published: January 2020

One of the most glamorous and successful spies for the Confederacy, Rose O’Neale Greenhow uses her Washington society connections to extract sensitive military information from infatuated officers. She acquires the U.S. Army’s plans for the Battle of Manassas and passes them on the Gen. P.G.T. Beauregard. Her treason is discovered by Allan Pinkerton and she is imprisoned, first in her own home, later at Old Capitol Prison. Released for want of evidence, she sails to England as an envoy of the Confederacy, writes a book about her imprisonment, and sails home aboard Condor, a fast blockade runner, bearing the gold she earned form the sale of her book. In the stormy midnight waters off Cape Fear, Condor founders on a shoal, and she insists on being ferried to shore in a small boat-which capsizes. Her body washes ashore near Fort Fisher and she is buried in a city of strangers.
Ironclad Men
Authors: Gerard Philip
Published: January 2020

Gilbert Elliott, managing a shipyard for Col., William Francis Martin, succeeds in building an ironclad ram for the Confederacy-CSS Albemarle. William Barker Cushing, a daredevil young U.S. naval officer, hatches a bold plan to destroy it-partly to avenge the death of his best friend, Charles Flusser, killed in action against the ram. He leads his small hand-picked team up the Roanoke River in the dead of night on Oct 27, 1864, and launches a successful attack-though only he and one of his men escape death or capture.
Occupying Army
Authors: Gerard Philip
Published: January 2020

A prosperous landowner in Indian Town, Currituck County, Joseph B. Morgan, experiences the strange and unpredictable regimen of living under military occupation. Meanwhile his son, Patrick, is at Virginia Military Institute-safe, as far as Morgan knows. But when Gen. Franz Sigel’s troops in the Shenandoah Valley are threatened with attack, he sends for the VMI cadets. They march eighty miles, then are thrust into battle at New Market, charging across the muddy “field of lost shoes” with horrific casualties. Patrick survives, even as his father endures the cruelties of guerrilla attacks and reprisals.
The Iron Lifeline
Authors: Gerard Philip
Published: January 2020

Col. William Shepperd Ashe, President of the Wilmington and Weldon railroad, is called on by Jefferson Davis to create a unified rail system for the Confederacy-as the Union states have done. He tries but fails-a confederation built on disdain for central authority defeats his effort. When he learns that his son has ben captured in battle, fate unknown, he hurries home from Wilmington to Rocky Point-a distance of twenty miles-on a handcar propelled by two employees. But he never makes it-an oncoming train, running ahead of schedule and with no headlight, smashes into the handcar, mortally injuring him. His captured son, Samuel A’Court Ashe, is exchanged and returns to duty as second in command of the Fayetteville Arsenal.
Gettysburg
Authors: Gerard Philip
Published: January 2020

The three-day battle becomes a turning point for support of the war in North Carolina. The state’s most famous regiment-the 26th-is virtually wiped out. One in four of the 28,000 Confederate casualties is a Tar Heel. Samuel Weaver recovers the Union dead for burial in the national cemetery; his son Rufus takes over the task upon his death and ships the remains of more than 2,900 soldiers South for burial. Meanwhile in North Carolina, the Peace Movement sweeps the state, erupting in 100 rallies calling for the state to make a separate peace with the U.S. Government
Caught between Blue and Gray
Authors: Gerard Philip
Published: January 2020

Maj. Gen George E. Pickett’s attack on New Bern in January 1863 results in a fiasco. Having failed utterly to take the city after seven hours of fighting, the 13,000 troops retreat back to Kinston. On the way, they overwhelm a small outpost battery and capture ninety-seven men of the 2nd North Carolina Union Volunteers. Pickett labels a number of them Confederate deserters-a dubious claim-and, following cursory trials, he hangs twenty-two North Carolinians. The atrocity shocks even his own troops and provokes outrage in the U.S. War Department, which pursues Pickett as a war criminal, forcing him to flee to Canada in disguise.
Sisters of Mercy
Authors: Gerard Philip
Published: January 2020

In July 1862, small band of Sisters of Mercy, led by Mother Mary Madeline Tobin, arrive at Beaufort and take charge of the military hospital at the Atlantic Hotel-once a fine report, now half-derelict and spoiled by looting. They find patients badly fed, suffering with little care and no sanitation. They demand food, clothing, cleaning and medical supplies. Quickly they transform the squalid place into a clean hospital that provides excellent care for wounded and ill men of both armies. They are among some 600 women from 21 religious orders who labor among the battlefield wounded. Four of the sisters die in service. All exhibit extraordinary commitment and perseverance and earn the undying loyalty of the soldiers to whom they minister-many of whom have never before encountered a nun and are at first confounded by their black and white habits, but quickly are won over by the sisters’ gentleness and competence.
Sherman’s Final March
Authors: Gerard Philip
Published: January 2020

Having taken Savannah in December 1864, Maj. Gen. William Tecumseh Sherman convinces his superior and friend, Lt. Gen. U.S. Grant, to let him strike northward through the Carolinas towards Goldsboro, a railroad junction from where he can resupply and move north to join Grant in defeating Lee’s army. His force of 60,000 veterans moves north in two great parallel wings, forging corduroy roads through the swamps, to Columbia-which is burned. Entering North Carolina, Sherman modifies his “hard war” tactics, confident of finding many Unionists among the population. His troops occupy Fayetteville and destroy the Arsenal. He sends some 25,000 “contrabands”-liberated blacks-on steamboats and mule trains to Wilmington. After three days, his troops cross the Cape Fear and resume their march.
Afterword
Authors: Gerard Philip
Published: January 2020

A reflection on the personal experience of writing the war-of a sense of grief and emotional ambush from encountering so many personal stories of anguish, suffering, death, and loss. Also admiration for wanton courage, often spent in an abominable cause. And a sense of great unfinished business, after a war that should have settled certain matters for good.
Preface
Authors: Gerard Philip
Published: January 2020

Gerard reports the war as if it is happening in real time to living people-mostly ordinary civilians and soldiers-visiting important sites, poring over pencilled letters written in the lull between battles, reading private diaries, trying to capture the true and terrible suspense felt by those embroiled in a struggle the outcome of which was as yet unknown.
From the Slave Revolt in Saint Domingue to the Founding of the Black Nation of Haiti
Authors: Helg Aline
Published: January 2020

This chapter discusses the 1791 slave revolt in Saint Domingue and the following impact it had on the entire continent. This uprising marks the first time that thousands of slaves had attacked their exploiters and their plantations to demand freedom with unprecedented violence, implementing a scenario of servile revolt long feared by supporters of slavery. From 1791 to 1804, the slave uprising in Saint Domingue and its transformation into a liberation war panicked the rulers and slaveowners in a large portion of the Americas as well. Following the French defeat in 1803, Saint Domingue was renamed Haiti and became the second independent nation in the Americas and the only one to have irreversibly abolished slavery.
Marronage and the Purchase of Freedom
Authors: Helg Aline
Published: January 2020

This chapter explores the ways in which manumission and the purchase of freedom remained highly dependent on circumstances and geography. Despite the changes caused by wars and the independence of most territories on the American continent, in every state or region in which slavery had not been abolished, slaves, whether Africans or creoles, plantation or mine workers, artisans or servants, continued to use flight as a way to gain their freedom. In Brazil and Spain's former colonies, the opportunities to do so varied considerably. In the French colonies, authorities adapted to the presence of libres de savane and maroons who contributed to the informal economy without directly challenging the system of slavery. In the United States, more and more slaves escaped from Virginia and Maryland toward northern cities where they hoped to blend into small communities of free African Americans; farther south, however, the strengthening and expansion of racial slavery to the detriment of the establishment of free black populations rendered marronage nearly impossible.
Feminismo americano
Authors: Marino Katherine M.
Published: January 2020

The prologue introduces the reader to Pan-American feminism: a movement that promoted women’s rights throughout the Americas over the first half of the twentieth century. It argues that inter-American feminism was at the vanguard of global feminism and international human rights. One of the movement’s signal contributions was its promotion of women’s rights treaties at Pan American and League of Nations conferences. The movement was also defined by its increasingly expansive definition of feminismo americano pioneered by Spanish-speaking Latin American activists, that included women’s political, civil, social, and economic rights; anti-imperialism; anti-fascism; and anti-racism. The movement culminated after the Second World War when, at the 1945 founding of the United Nations, a group of inter-American feminists pushed women’s rights and human rights into the UN Charter. The prologue introduces the six feminists at the heart of this activism: Paulina Luisi (Uruguay), Bertha Lutz (Brazil), Clara Gonzoz (Panama), Ofelia Dom쭧uez Navarro (Cuba), Doris Stevens (the United States), and Marta Vergara (Chile). Their friendships and their conflicts, over language, race, class, nation, empire, and different understandings of “women’s rights” and feminist strategy, were critical to the movement’s dynamics and its greatest accomplishments.
Heroes and Cowards
Authors: Silkenat David
Published: January 2020

This chapter explores how ideas about honor and shame shaped how Civil War era Americans understood surrender. Robert Anderson was celebrated as a hero for his honorable surrender at Fort Sumter. By contrast, Union surrenders at San Antonio, San Augustin Springs, and Harpers Ferry, and Confederate surrenders at Fort Donelson and Fort Jackson, were seen as dishonorable.
Instinctively My Hands Went Up
Authors: Silkenat David
Published: January 2020

This chapter explores how and why soldiers surrendered on the battlefield. It examines the role of agency, the circumstances under which soldiers surrendered, and which soldiers were most likely to surrender. It also examines the early history of Civil War prisoner of war camps and prisoner exchange, including the Dix Hill cartel and the Lieber Code.
A Convulsion at Appomattox
Authors: Silkenat David
Published: January 2020

This chapter examines Robert E. Lee's surrender of the Army of Northern Virginia to Ulysses S. Grant at Appomattox Courthouse. It explores Lee's decision to surrender, their meeting at the McLean house, and the patrol of Confederate soldiers. It demonstrates how the surrender at Appomattox Courthouse built on earlier surrenders and set the stage for the surrenders that came afterwards.
German Critical Philosophy and Marx
Authors: Robinson Cedric J.
Published: January 2020

In this chapter, Robinson explores the German intellectuals who form the basis of Marxism. He links the history of German pietism and the Church with the development of Kantian materialism, which advocated for a radical reformulation of the German social order. Robinson then demonstrates how Kantian German idealism set in motion in German thought a series of determinations essential for Marx’s philosophy. While Marx is applauded for positing a revolutionary theory from the less radical ideas of Hegel, Robinson instead suggests that Hegel in fact contributed far more directly to Marxism than Marx admitted. Indeed, Robinson demonstrates how Hegel’s conception of a universal class (to be Marx’s proletariat), secularization of history (making history happen), and privileging of Western civilization as the only society based on Reason (the secularization of social change) all made their way into Marxism, notwithstanding Marx’s dismissal of Hegel as a mystical idealist. Robinson historicizes Marxism by demonstrating how Kant’s formulation of the German bureaucracy as a class, followed by Hegel’s argument that this class’s consciousness came from its political work, were appropriated by Marx and Engels for their later work.
The Entente Cordiale and American Policy
Authors: Sainlaude Stève
Published: January 2020

In late 1860, faced with the unprecedented events that were rocking the U.S., France and Britain sought to coordinate their policies on the American Question through an extension of the countries’ 1830 entente cordiale. The foreign ministers from both countries welcomed this convergence. But France did not follow Britain blindly. The entente cordiale deteriorated as the war went on; divergent diplomatic choices, mutual distrust and resentment between French and British foreign ministers, and political events in the European theatre strained relationships between the two countries. The Trent affair and the revelation of an incident relating to French mediation heightened tensions.Ultimately, the entente cordiale was a means to protect the rights of neutrals, which both powers feared would be trampled by the warring parties given that the U.S. had not originally subscribed to the Declaration of Paris.
Act II Man
Authors: Goudsouzian Aram
Published: January 2020

Chapter Three explores the quixotic campaign of Eugene McCarthy, with a particular focus on the first primary in New Hampshire, when he surprised the nation with a good showing, helping to drive out Johnson. Student volunteers flocked to help his campaign, illustrating how portions of the Baby Boomer generation were altering the political landscape. Yet McCarthy – a former professor and poet – was an indifferent campaigner with little appeal to a broader Democratic coalition.
Man of the Family
Authors: Goudsouzian Aram
Published: January 2020

Chapter Five follows the halting, inspiring, and ultimately heartbreaking campaign of Robert F. Kennedy. Especially among poor minorities, he had a particular magnetism – at once shy, boyish, and tough. As part of his own evolution, he found himself most comfortable in black inner cities, on Indian reservations, or among striking Chicano workers. Yet the former Attorney General also preached “law-and-order,” winning cheers from white working class audiences. His assassination in the immediate aftermath of his California primary victory stained an already-marred year, with deep effects on the electorate’s moods and the candidates’ fortunes.
The Little Man
Authors: Goudsouzian Aram
Published: January 2020

Chapter Eight explores the phenomenon of George Wallace. In September, his third-party candidacy surged in the polls and stoked fears about the entire political system. His popularity revealed the surfacing resentment among white working-class voters, even beyond the South. Would he prevent the major candidates from winning an electoral majority, throwing the nation’s fate to the House of Representatives? Wallace aroused political demons that keep plaguing the nation, and his own campaign faltered in the homestretch.
Impacts of water partitioning and polarity of organic compounds on secondary organic aerosol over Eastern China
Authors: Li Jingyi , Zhang Haowen , Ying Qi , Wu Zhijun , Zhang Yanli , Wang Xinming , Li Xinghua , Sun Yele , Hu Min , Zhang Yuanhang , Hu Jianlin
Published: January 2020

Abstract. Secondary organic aerosol (SOA) is an important component of fine particular matter (PM2.5) in China. Most air quality models use an equilibrium partitioning method along with estimated saturation vapor pressure of semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs) to predict SOA formation. However, this method ignores partitioning of water vapor to the organic aerosols and the organic phase non-ideality, both of which affect the partitioning of SVOCs. In this study, the Community Multi-scale Air Quality model (CMAQv5.0.1) was used to investigate the above impacts on SOA formation during winter (January) and summer (July) of 2013 over eastern China. The organic aerosol module was updated by incorporating water partitioning into the organic particulate matter (OPM) and considering non-ideality of organic-water mixture. The modified model can generally capture the observed organic carbon (OC), the total organic aerosol (OA) and diurnal variation of PM2.5 at ground sites. SOA concentration shows significant seasonal and spatial variations, with high concentration levels in North China Plain (NCP), Central China and Sichuan basin (SCB) areas during winter (up to 25 μg m−3) and in Yangtze River Delta (YRD) during summer (up to 12 μg m−3). When water partitioning is included in winter, SOA concentrations increase slightly, with the monthly-averaged daily maximum relative difference of 10–20 % at the surface and 10–30 % for the whole column, mostly due to the increase in anthropogenic SOA. The increase in SOA is more significant in summer, by 20–90 % at the surface and 30–70 % for the whole column. The increase of SOA over the land is mostly due to biogenic SOA while the increase of SOA over the coastal regions is related with that of anthropogenic origin. Further analysis of two representative cities, Jinan and Nanjing, shows that changes of SOA are favored under hot and humid conditions. The increases in SOA cause a 12 % elevation in the aerosol optical depth (AOD) and 15 % enhancement in the cooling effects of aerosol radiative forcing (ARF) over YRD in summer. The aerosol liquid water content associated with OPM (ALWorg) at the surface is relatively high over the land in winter and over the ocean in summer, with the monthly-averaged daily maximum of 2–9 and 5–12 μg m−3, respectively. By using the κ-Köhler theory, we calculated the hygroscopicity of OA with modeled ALWorg, finding that the correlation with O : C ratio varies significantly across different cities and seasons. Water partitioning into OPM only promotes SOA formation, while non-ideality of organic-water mixture only leads to decreases in SOA in most regions of eastern China. Water partitioning into OPM should be considered in air quality models in simulating SOA, especially in hot and humid environments.
Evaluation of the Aqua MODIS Collection 6.1 multilayer cloud detection algorithm through comparisons with CloudSat CPR and CALIPSO CALIOP products
Authors: Marchant Benjamin , Platnick Steven , Meyer Kerry , Wind Galina
Published: January 2020

Abstract. Since multilayer cloud scenes are common in the atmosphere and can be an important source of uncertainty in passive satellite sensor cloud retrievals, the MODIS MOD06/MYD06 standard cloud optical property products include a multilayer cloud detection algorithm to assist with data quality assessment. This paper presents an evaluation of the Aqua MODIS MYD06 Collection 6.1 (C6.1) multilayer cloud detection algorithm through comparisons with active CPR and CALIOP products that have the ability to provide cloud vertical distributions and directly classify multilayer cloud scenes and layer properties. To compare active sensor products with an imager such as MODIS, it is first necessary to define multilayer clouds in the context of their radiative impact on cloud retrievals. Three main parameters have thus been considered in this evaluation: (1) the maximum separation distance between two cloud layers, (2) the thermodynamic phase of those layers, and (3) the upper layer cloud optical thickness. The impact of including the Pavolonis-Heidinger multilayer cloud detection algorithm, introduced in Collection 6, to assist with multilayer cloud detection has also been assessed. For the year 2008, the MYD06 C6.1 multilayer cloud detection algorithm identifies roughly 20 percent of all cloudy pixels as multilayer (decreasing to about 13 percent if the Pavolonis-Heidinger algorithm output is not used). Evaluation against the merged CPR and CALIOP 2B-CLDCLASS-lidar product shows that the MODIS multilayer detection results are quite sensitive to how multilayer clouds are defined in the radar/lidar product, and that the algorithm performs better when the optical thickness of the upper cloud layer is greater than about 1.2 with a minimum layer separation distance of 1 km. Finally, we find that filtering the MYD06 cloud optical properties retrievals using the multilayer cloud flag improves aggregated statistics, particularly for ice cloud effective radius.
A multi-model CMIP6 study of Arctic sea ice at 127 ka: Sea ice data
compilation and model differences
Authors: Kageyama Masa , Sime Louise C. , Sicard Marie , Guarino Maria-Vittoria , de Vernal Anne , Schroeder David , Stein Ruediger , Malmierca-Vallet Irene , Abe-Ouchi Ayako , Bitz Cecilia , Braconnot Pascale , Brady Esther , Chamberlain Matthew A. , Feltham Danny , Guo Chuncheng , Lohmann Gerrit , Meissner Katrin , Menviel Laurie , Morozova Polina , Nisancioglu Kerim H. , Otto-Bliesner Bette , O'ishi Ryouta , Sherriff-Tadano Sam , Stroeve Julienne , Shi Xiaoxu , Sun Bo , Volodin Evgeny , Yeung Nicholas , Zhang Qiong , Zhang Zhongshi , Ziehn Tilo
Published: January 2020

Abstract. The Last interglacial (LIG) is a period with increased summer insolation at high northern latitudes, which results in strong changes in the terrestrial and marine cryosphere. Understanding the mechanisms for this response via climate modelling and comparing the models’ representation of climate reconstructions is one of the objectives set up by the Paleoclimate Mod-elling Intercomparison Project for its contribution to the sixth phase of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project. Here we analyse the results from 12 climate models in terms of Arctic sea ice. The mean pre-industrial to LIG reduction in minimum sea ice area (SIA) reaches 59 % (multi-model mean LIG area is 2.21 mill. km2, compared to 5.85 mill. km2 for the PI), and the range of model results for LIG minimum sea ice area (from 0.02 to 5.65 mill. km2) is larger than for PI (from 4.10 to 8.30 mill. km2). On the other hand there is little change for the maximum sea ice area (which is 12 mill. km2 for both the PI and the LIG, with a standard deviation of 1.04 mill. km2 for PI and 1.21 mill. km2 for LIG). To evaluate the model results we synthesize LIG sea ice data from marine cores collected in the Arctic Ocean, Nordic Seas and northern North Atlantic. South of 78° N in the Atlantic and Nordic seas the LIG was seasonally ice-free. North of 78° N there are some discrepancies between sea-ice re-constructions based on dinocysts/foraminifers/ostracods and IP25: some sites have both seasonal and perennial interpretations based on the same core, but different indicators. Because of the conflicting interpretations it is not possible for any one model to match every data point in our data synthesis, or say whether the Arctic was seasonally ice-free. Drivers for the inter-model differences are: different phasing of the up and down short-wave anomalies over the Arctic ocean, associated with differences in model albedo; possible cloud property differences, in terms of optical depth; LIG ocean circulation changes which occur for some, but not all, LIG simulations. Finally we note that inter-comparisons between the LIG simulations, and simulations with moderate CO2 increase (during the transition to high CO2 levels), may yield insight into likely 21C Arctic sea ice changes using these LIG simulations.