bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Assessment of Translation
Authors: Colina Sonia
Published: December 2012

The focus of this entry is the assessment of translated texts forsummativepurposes; that is, for the purpose of offering a summary recommendation, rather than to provide feedback for learners or as a diagnostic tool (level placement, entrance exams, professional practice, and so forth). Reference, however, will be made to related areas such as the assessment of translator competence, student translation assessment, and so on (for more on areas of evaluation, see Martínez Meliz & Hurtado Albir, 2001). A translated text, also known as thetarget text, is defined here as a text that fulfills or attempts to fulfill a certain function in a target culture (in accordance with a set of explicit or implicit instructions, known as thetranslation brief) and that bears a translation relationship to another text in another language,the source text(ST); the specifics of a translation relationship (versus version, adaptation, etc.) can vary from one culture to another. This discussion takes the position that a translated text comes about as the result of the interaction of social participants (minimally, the writer, the target language audience, and the translator) and a purpose (often, but not always, the same as that of the original). While in the educational literature assessment and evaluation often refer to different concepts, here they will be used interchangeably, given that the content and ideas presented apply to both notions.
Attitudes and Motivation in Bilingual Education
Authors: Lasagabaster David
Published: December 2012

Languages play a paramount role in any society in general and in education in particular. A student enrolled in a bilingual school in which different languages are in contact soon realizes that society, family, peers, and school all place importance on these languages. The students' own assessment, together with the context, the information, and the knowledge they acquire will shape their attitudes toward these languages and their motivation for learning them.
Authoring Tools for Language Assessment
Authors: Kessler Greg
Published: December 2012

Authoring tools, which include an array of software designed to create material for computers and the Internet, are ubiquitous throughout the Web development world, including language education. Such tools, designed specifically for language assessment, allow language teachers, material developers, and language department administrators to create a variety of interactive computer‐based assessments. These can include embedded media, automated scoring, feedback, and database archival storage of performance. Since the early 1990s a number of such authoring tools have been developed to allow teachers to prepare evaluation and assessment materials for their unique needs. Many of these have become commonplace in classrooms while they may be unfamiliar at institutional levels of assessment, possibly because the assessment needs are different in the classrooms and institutions responsible for test development (Fulcher & Davidson, 2007).
Automatic Speech Recognition
Authors: Levis John , Suvorov Ruslan
Published: December 2012

Automatic speech recognition (ASR) is an independent, machine‐based process of decoding and transcribing oral speech. A typical ASR system receives acoustic input from a speaker through a microphone, analyzes it using some pattern, model, or algorithm, and produces an output, usually in the form of a text (Lai, Karat, & Yankelovich, 2008).
Bachman, Lyle F.
Authors: Kunnan Antony J.
Published: December 2012

Lyle Bachman has been one of the leading theorists in the field of language testing for the last three decades. He was born in Iowa, USA, in 1944 and received his BA, MA, and PhD (1971) in English, all from Indiana University. Although his PhD was in English literature, his dissertation was in second language acquisition, and was based on research he conducted with schoolchildren learning English in Thailand. After completing his PhD, he went to the University of Hawai'i as assistant professor in the Departments of English and Second Language Studies. After a year in Hawaii, he took up a position as project specialist with The Ford Foundation in Thailand, where he directed a large‐scale longitudinal research and development project in individualized English language instruction for Thai elementary schools. It was while in Thailand that he developed an interest in quantitative research and language testing. In 1976, he took a position in Tehran, Iran as director of a joint University of Illinois‐Tehran University project for developing ESP materials for university students. In 1979 he returned to the USA as assistant professor in the division of English as a second language at the University of Illinois, Urbana‐Champaign. In 1989, he moved to the University of California, Los Angeles, where he has been since, as professor of applied linguistics teaching courses and seminars in language assessment, language program evaluation, research methods, and epistemology in applied linguistics, and directing student research projects in language testing. He has also held temporary appointments as chair professor and director of the English Language Teaching Unit at the Chinese University of Hong Kong (1994–6) and Fulbright fellow and visiting professor in the faculty of education at the University of Hong Kong (2008–9).
Baetens Beardsmore, Hugo
Authors: García Ofelia
Published: December 2012

I first met Hugo Baetens Beardsmore (1942) in New York City in the mid‐1980s. He had come to meet with Joshua Fishman and others, but also to visit bilingual schools. Although I had learned much about bilingualism from Baetens Beardsmore's work and especially hisBilingualism: Basic Principles, it was his watch that impressed me most. I accompanied him then on a visit to a bilingual elementary school. There, Hugo sat in children's chairs, as children and teachers spoke Spanish and English. But he was wearing a special watch that he casually displayed for the children. Eventually they noticed and started asking questions. Baetens Beardsmore urged them on, speaking in English, as well as French and Dutch, each time showing them one more fascinating aspect of the special watch. And the children responded by not only speaking English and Spanish, but also by trying out words in his languages. Hugo did not shower the children with questions. Instead, he waited until they asked him questions to which he answered with thorough insights, important details, and yet humor. For me, it is this image of Hugo Baetens Beardsmore (or H.BB. as his students fondly call him) that has forever been imprinted in my memory— a giant able to adapt to small chairs, an intellectual able to have fun with children, a scholar and a profoundly humane person, a humble and engaging person. And precisely these are the qualities that have made Baetens Beardsmore's scholarly work so important, from the very earlyBilingualism: Basic Principles(1982) to his recent contributions toBilingual Education in the 21st Century(García, 2009).
Bakhtin and Second Language Acquisition
Authors: Dufva Hannele
Published: December 2012

One cannot study grammatical forms without constantly considering their stylistic significance. When grammar is isolated from the semantic and stylistic aspects of speech, it inevitably turns into scholasticism.
Bamberg, Michael
Authors: Moissinac Luke
Published: December 2012

Michael Bamberg (1947‐ ) is coeditor of the journal
Narrative Inquiry
through which he supports and encourages theorizing and research into narrative from differing perspectives. In addition, he is the series editor of
Studies in Narrative
consisting of a series of books at the cutting edge of narrative research. Michael Bamberg has been an important figure in the promotion of a series of different genres of applied linguistic and narrative research. From his dissertation work on the acquisition of narratives by young children (Bamberg, 1987), through positioning theory (Bamberg, 1997a, 2003) and analysis of narratives (Bamberg, 2011b, 2012), to identity construction in talk‐in‐interaction (Bamberg & Georgakopoulou, 2008; Bamberg, 2011b, 2011c; Bamberg, De Fina, & Schiffrin, 2011), he has contributed varied strands to applied linguistics (De Fina, Schiffrin, & Bamberg, 2006; Bamberg, De Fina, & Schiffrin, 2007, 2011; Bamberg, 2011a).
Basic English
Authors: Meara Paul
Published: December 2012

Basic English was developed by C. K. Ogden and I. A. Richards during the 1920s and 1930s. It grew out of an earlier and very influential collaboration which appeared as
The Meaning of Meaning
in 1923.
Bateman, John
Authors: Tseng Chiaoi
Published: December 2012

John A. Bateman (b. 1957) has a distinguished research background in applied linguistics and has contributed to a wide range of research areas since the 1980s. He started working on natural language generation in 1982 and was awarded the degree of PhD in artificial intelligence in 1986 at Edinburgh University. Since then, he has engaged in research projects on language generation, translation science, discourse structures, and descriptive linguistics at Kyoto University, the Information Sciences Institute of the University of Southern California, the University of the Saarland in Saarbrücken, the former GMD Institute of Integrated Publication and Information Systems in Darmstadt, and the University of Stirling. In 1999, he was appointed Professor of Applied Linguistics at the University of Bremen within the Department of English, where he has initiated several linguistic projects on ontology, language, and space.
Bazerman, Charles
Authors: Prior Paul
Published: December 2012

Charles Bazerman's foundational contributions to the interdisciplinary field of writing and literacy studies have had a wide influence in applied linguistics. As a writing researcher, rhetorician, and literacy theorist, he is particularly known for his contributions to genre theory, the rhetoric of science and technology, writing across the curriculum/writing in the disciplines (WAC/WID), and theories of literate practice as social action.
Beliefs in Second Language Acquisition: Learner
Authors: Kalaja Paula , Maria Ferreira Barcelos Ana
Published: December 2012

Second‐ and foreign‐language learners of all ages, from young children to teenagers and adults, have beliefs about language learning. This is true whether learning takes place in formal contexts such as regular English as a foreign language (EFL) classrooms and immersion programs or informal contexts such as home and workplace. Teachers also have beliefs about teaching and learning processes. It is important to understand how learners' beliefs relate to (a) their approaches to learning languages, including use of learning strategies; (b) their background characteristics, such as language learning anxiety; (c) the approaches, methods, or techniques their teachers use in the classroom; and (d) the possible conflicts arising from the differences in learners' beliefs and those of their teachers.
Beliefs in Second Language Acquisition: Teacher
Authors: Ferreira Barcelos Ana Maria , Kalaja Paula
Published: December 2012

Research into teacher beliefs is a relatively new topic in language education; however, in the field of education it was addressed as early as the mid‐1970s. In his study, now a classic, Lortie (1975) looked at the socialization into teaching of first‐language teachers. The study marked a change in paradigm. Previously, teaching had been viewed as a process‐product with an emphasis on teacher behavior and learning outcomes. Now, teacher thinking and knowledge are recognized as playing an important role in teaching. Teaching began to be studied from an emic, or insider, perspective, and so research into what is now known as teacher thinking, teacher cognition, teacher learning, or teacher knowledge was born.
Berk‐Seligson, Susan
Authors: Fowler Yvonne A.
Published: December 2012

Susan Berk‐Seligson (b. 1947) graduated with a first degree in Spanish and was subsequently a Peace Corps Volunteer in Costa Rica before obtaining her MA in Linguistics in 1971. The subject of her doctoral thesis was
Phonological Variation in a Synchronic/Diachronic Sociolinguistic Context: The Case of Costa Rican Spanish
and she duly obtained her PhD from the University of Arizona in 1978. She taught in the Modern Languages Department of Purdue University from 1983 to 1985 but spent the bulk of her career (from 1985 to 2004) at the University of Pittsburgh. Here she taught in the Hispanic Languages and Literatures Department but also held a secondary appointment in the Department of Linguistics where she was Director of the MA program in Hispanic Linguistics. At the time of writing she was at Vanderbilt University in Nashville, Tennessee, and has held a post as Associate Director of the Center for Latin American Studies as well as Director of Graduate Studies of that Center.
Bialystok, Ellen
Authors: Luk Gigi
Published: December 2012

Ellen Bialystok (1948– ) is a Distinguished Research Professor in the Department of Psychology at York University, Toronto, Canada. She has bridged studies of language and cognition through her investigation of bilingualism. Her pioneering interdisciplinary research examines the cognitive consequences of bilingualism both in linguistic and nonlinguistic domains across the lifespan. Most notably, Professor Bialystok has reported a bilingual advantage in tasks assessing executive function, which is a set of skills that are necessary for planning, cognitive flexibility, suppressing distracting information, and selectively attending to relevant information. These research findings have significant implications for education, linguistics, cognitive science, psychology, and neurology.
Bible Translation
Authors: Wendland Ernst , Noss Philip
Published: December 2012

The Bible is the most translated and retranslated book in the world. The process of Bible translation involves a complex, multidisciplinary effort that is aimed at rendering what is in essence a library of diverse literary genres in the various world languages. It consists of the 39 books of the Hebrew Scriptures (Old Testament, OT), the 27 books of the Greek New Testament (NT), and an Apocrypha or Deuterocanon (DC) of up to 15 books depending on the church tradition. The practice of Bible translation is at once a science, an art, a craft, and a technology that benefits most from a team approach.
Bilingual and Monolingual Language Modes
Authors: Grosjean François
Published: December 2012

Bilinguals communicate differently when they are with monolinguals and when they are with bilinguals who share their languages. Whereas they avoid using their other language(s) with monolinguals, they may call upon it (or them) when interacting with bilinguals, either by changing over completely to the other language(s) or by bringing elements of the other language(s) into the language they are speaking.
Bilingual Education
Authors: García Ofelia , Homonoff Woodley Heather
Published: December 2012

Bilingual education is the use of two, or more, languages in the instruction and assessment of learners. Bilingual education differs from traditional language education programs that teach an additional language as a subject in that it uses the language as a medium of instruction. Programs vary in their goals, language use, and students served, and are also shaped by sociocultural and sociopolitical factors, historical context, as well as the status and power of speakers and languages.
Bilingual Literacy
Authors: Hornberger Nancy H.
Published: December 2012

Bilingual literacy, or biliteracy, can be defined as “any and all instances in which communication occurs in two (or more) languages in or around writing” (Hornberger, 1990, p. 213), where these instances may be events, actors, interactions, practices, activities, classrooms, programs, situations, societies, sites, or worlds (Hornberger, 2003). The continua model of biliteracy offers a framework in which to situate research, teaching, and language planning in bilingual and multilingual settings. The model's intersecting and nested continua demonstrate multiple, complex, and fluid interrelationships between bilingualism and literacy and the contexts, media, and content through which biliteracy develops. From the framework, we argue that for multilingual learners, thedevelopmentof biliteracy occurs
Bilingual/Immersion Teacher Education
Authors: Tedick Diane J. , Fortune Tara W.
Published: December 2012

Bilingual education is a broad term that encompasses a wide range of program models involving use of at least two languages for academic instruction, one being the majority language of the geographic area where the program is offered. Fortune and Tedick (2008), among others, identify four bilingual/immersion models as a subset within this broad category that have distinct design features and end goals: one‐way foreign language immersion, two‐way bilingual immersion, one‐way developmental bilingual education, and indigenous language immersion. These school‐based programs offer a minimum of 50% of subject‐matter instruction through a second, foreign, heritage, or indigenous language. They aim foradditive bi‐ or multilingualism and additive bi‐ or multiliteracy(i.e., the addition of one or more languages while further developing the first), academic achievement, and intercultural understanding. Baker (2006) refers to these four models as “strong” forms of bilingual education. This entry is limited to teacher education for these models.
Bilingualism and Age
Authors: Singleton David
Published: December 2012

Three issues arise from any consideration of the topic of bilingualism and age. The first has to do with the relationship between age and the characterization of bilingualism; the second relates to the question of whether maturational constraints may impede progress in late bilinguals toward very high degrees of proficiency in both languages; and the third concerns the methodology of investigating maturational constraints and the possible desirability of using the proficiency of early bilinguals rather than that of native speakers as the yardstick in the evaluation of the ultimate attainment of later L2 beginners.
Bilingualism and Speech Perception
Authors: Sebastian‐Galles Nuria , Díaz Begoña , Costa Albert
Published: December 2012

Speech perception refers to the process whereby acoustic linguistic information is interpreted and given a meaning. It proceeds through a series of stages in which acoustic cues are extracted and stored in sensory memory and then mapped onto linguistic information. Crucially, the relevance of these acoustic cues varies across languages in a very important way (Mattys, White, & Melhorn, 2005), and certain acoustic cues may have a linguistic significance for a particular language, but not for another. These crosslinguistic differences lead to significant differences in the way native and non‐native listeners process subphoneme traits (Underbakke, Polka, Gottfried, & Strange, 1988), syllables (Cutler, Mehler, Norris, & Segui, 1986), stress patterns (Dupoux, Peperkamp, & Sebastian‐Galles, 2010), and phonotactic constraints (Sebastian‐Galles & Bosch, 2002). This research also suggests that learning a second language can imply nonexclusive solutions to bridge the gap between native and non‐native speech processing: the suppression of the first language strategy, the development of new and separate strategies for the second language, and a compromise of the reweighting of each cue. The specific solution for each case depends, though not exclusively, on the relative properties of the two languages of the bilingual. For instance, if the sound to be learned has no close correspondence with the learner's existing language, like Zulu clicks for English native listeners, listeners may develop new processing strategies that most likely will not affect how the first language is perceived. On the contrary, if the sounds to be learned are similar though not identical to those of the native language, adjustments of the already existing processes and representations are most likely to be needed; so, for example, Japanese listeners must modify the way they categorize some sounds in their first language in order to perceive the English contrast between /r/ and /l/ (see Best, 1995; Flege, 1995). Similarities and differences between the two languages of a bilingual therefore play a fundamental role in how the speech processing system will cope with the two languages.
Bilingualism and Youth Language
Authors: Dorleijn Margreet , Nortier Jacomine
Published: December 2012

In this contribution we will give an introduction to the linguistic behavior of young people in ethnically mixed groups, often referred to as youth language or multiethnolects.
Brain Imaging Studies and Vocabulary
Authors: Randall Mick
Published: December 2012

Brain imaging studies, behavioral studies, and anatomical studies of brain lesions are the three principal methods of investigating the way the brain processes language.
Bredella, Lothar
Authors: Burwitz‐Melzer Eva
Published: December 2012

Lothar Bredella (b. 1936) is one of the most eminent scholars in the field of intercultural learning and the teaching of literature to learners of foreign languages. As a prolific writer and chairperson of a graduate school on the didactics of understanding others his influence extends far beyond Germany.
Broeders,
A
.
P
.
A
.
Authors: Van Charldorp Tessa
Published: December 2012

A. P. A. (Ton) Broeders (b. 1946) has published extensively in the field of forensic phonetics and still contributes greatly to the professionalization of the field of forensic linguistics and forensic science in the Netherlands and abroad. Broeders does this by questioning the value, validity, and reliability of technical and scientific forensic evidence. He is concerned with the way in which scientists—but also lawyers, prosecutors, and judges—formulate conclusions based on forensic research, and stresses the important role they play in the criminal justice process.
Bush, Vannevar and Hypertext
Authors: Cobb Thomas
Published: December 2012

Widely known as the father or even guru of hypertext and its principal medium the World Wide Web, Vannevar Bush (1890–1974) never employed either of these names. Rather, he envisaged a “memex” system for organizing and retrieving multimedia information on microfilm, memex being a word like rolodex or index (card), that is, more redolent of the actual period of his activities. Yet Bush's memex system went far beyond any index‐based information retrieval system and in many ways is the true precursor of the Internet, at least on the concept level.
Butters, Ronald R.
Authors: Chovanec Jan
Published: December 2012

Ronald R. Butters was born in 1940 in Cedar Rapids, Iowa, USA. He obtained his BA and PhD degrees in English at the University of Iowa. Immediately after graduation, he took up a position at Duke University, where he taught for 40 years until his retirement in 2007. He was Professor of English (1990) and Professor of Cultural Anthropology (2000) at Duke University, and is now Professor Emeritus. From the 1970s, he was Chair of Duke University's linguistics program and from 2008 President of the International Association of Forensic Linguistics. He is currently a coeditor of
The International Journal of Speech, Language, and the Law
, and was formerly an editor and editorial board member of various journals, including
American Speech, Papers in Linguistics
, and
Journal of Metaphor and Symbolic Activity
. His book
Displacing Homophobia
(1989), coedited with John Clum and Michael Moon, won the 1989 Conference of Editors of Learned Journals Best Special Issue award.
Byram, Michael
Authors: Doyé Peter
Published: December 2012

Michael Byram is an influential theorist of foreign‐language education and intercultural education whose thinking has helped to shape policies for and research on pedagogic curricula and the practice of teaching‐and‐learning of languages all over Europe.
Carroll, John B.
Authors: Skehan Peter
Published: December 2012

John (Jack) Bissell Carroll was a psychologist interested in language who had immense impact, both within his own field and also in applied linguistics.
Case Study
Authors: Duff Patricia A.
Published: December 2012

Case study is a very common and important approach to research in applied linguistics and many other academic and professional fields. Case studies are frequently qualitative and interpretive, but they can also be combined with, or can include, quantitative analyses and other approaches to knowledge generation. Case studies generally involve rich contextualization and a deep, inductive analysis of data from a small set of participants, sites, or events in order to understand aspects of language learning or use. Sometimes the focus of study is the knowledge, performance, or perspectives of a single individual, such as a language learner or teacher. Other types of case study may focus less on the individuals involved and more on a single speech event, activity, institution, policy, country, or scenario in which particular language issues figure prominently and are the focus of analysis. Regardless of what constitutes the case (a person, site, or situation), by definition, one or more
single bounded units
are selected for study because of their complexity, the types of interactions among their constituent parts, or how the cases relate to existing knowledge or theories about the way language operates in the world. The cases may confirm, disconfirm, complicate, illustrate, describe, explain, or extend existing knowledge in a variety of ways and drawing on a variety of epistemologies and theoretical and methodological frameworks. Despite the range in types and purposes of case studies, one commonality is that they provide concrete instances of a phenomenon of interest.
Catford, J. C.
Authors: Harris Jimmy G. , Esling John H.
Published: December 2012

Professor Emeritus J. C. Ian Catford was born in Edinburgh, Scotland, in 1917 and died peacefully in Seattle, Washington, in 2009. Ian's father was English and his mother was Scottish. He grew up in Edinburgh and considered himself more Scottish than English. In his preteens, he was seriously interested in engineering, especially the aerodynamics of steam flow, steam values, and cylinders of steam locomotives.
Christian, Donna
Authors: Temple Adger Carolyn , Kenyon Dorry , Kreeft Peyton Joy , Rhodes Nancy
Published: December 2012

Donna Christian (1949– ) is among the foremost authorities in the United States on language education and language in education. She began her academic career in mathematics, completing an undergraduate degree at St. Lawrence University with high honors, and went on to study applied linguistics and French at Georgetown University. As one of the first students in Georgetown's sociolinguistics program (PhD, 1978), Christian conducted dissertation research on the dialect of the Appalachian region.
Appalachian Speech
(1976), which she wrote with Walt Wolfram, still stands as the seminal source on this dialect. Christian's collection of American English dialect recordings is available in The Library of Congress American Memory series (
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/collections/linguistics
). This collection of interviews and other speech recordings, primarily from dialect research and oral history projects, provides a centralized source of North American dialect samples, preserving linguistic resources that might otherwise be lost. Christian taught linguistics and education courses for George Mason University, Georgetown University, the George Washington University, the University of California‐Santa Cruz, and the University of Virginia. In 1979, she received a Fulbright Senior Lecturer award in linguistics and taught for two years at Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań, Poland.
Citizenship Education
Authors: Byram Michael
Published: December 2012

Citizenship education, whether under this label or under some other, such as “civics,”“education civique” or “politische Bildung,” has a long history; the field is also attracting increasing contemporary interest and, therefore, a source of growing academic literature. The recent appearance of aHandbook of Education for Citizenship and Democracymight indicate that there is a settled body of knowledge to which the book provides guidance, but the tendency to polemic in some of the articles indicates that this is not the case. The appearance of collections of essays too in which there is frequent reference to “dilemmas” or to new theories and terms, is another indicator of flux.
Classroom Discourse
Authors: Jocuns Andrew
Published: December 2012

Classroom discourse, broadly defined, refers to all of those forms of talk that one may find within a classroom or other educational setting. However, a review of the literature reveals that the context of what makes up classroom discourse as a unit of analysis is quite broad, and perhaps a better way of thinking of this unit is to broaden the scope of the term to discourse in educational settings. The analysis of classroom discourse has evolved from studies that examined teacher and student interaction to a more recent emphasis on learning and identity construction through discourse. The range of topics included within classroom discourse analytical studies has also ranged from such topics as literacy and teacher‐student interaction to a more recent emphasis on multimodal semiotics and interactions in STEM classrooms (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics). In addition the breadth of research on classroom discourse has ranged in scope from microanalytical conversation analysis to Halliday's systemic functional grammar (1978, 1994). While many linguists have fostered the development of classroom discourse, it should also be noted that education research has evolved its own paradigmatic approaches to classroom discourse (e.g., interaction analysis). This selective review will begin by examining some seminal texts in the study of classroom discourse focusing first upon ethnographic studies, then offer a discussion of the influence of conversation analysis in the study of classroom discourse, and finally highlight some recent trends in the study of this phenomenon including knowledge in classroom discourse and research in STEM classrooms.
Clyne, Michael
Authors: McNamara Tim
Published: December 2012

Michael Clyne (1939–2010) was an Australian sociolinguist and sociologist of language who worked in the areas of language contact, code switching, bilingualism and multi‐lingualism, immigrant language maintenance and shift, language education, language policy, and the sociolinguistics of the German speech area. He was a passionate advocate of multilingualism
COBUILD
Project
Authors: Groom Nicholas
Published: December 2012

The COBUILD project was a partnership between Collins publishers (later HarperCollins) and the University of Birmingham, UK, which was established in 1980 and lasted for two decades.
Code Mixing
Authors: Nicoladis Elena
Published: December 2012

“Code mixing” refers to a multilingual's or a bilingual's use of two or more languages in a single unit of discourse, such as a word, an utterance, or a conversation (see, e.g., Genesee, Paradis, & Crago, 2004).
Cognitive Approaches to Communication Strategies
Authors: Littlemore Jeannette
Published: December 2012

In second language acquisition research, the study of communication strategies (CSs) has traditionally gone hand in hand with interest in communicative competence, which is broadly defined as the ability not only to know the rules of the target language, but also to know how to use the language appropriately in different contexts.
Cognitive Second Language Acquisition: Quantitative Methods
Authors: Vanpatten Bill
Published: December 2012

Cognitive second language acquisition (SLA) research encompasses a wide variety of issues and phenomena, including, but not limited to, language processing (including sentence, discourse, and lexical processing), nonlinguistic factors affecting acquisition (e.g., aptitude, motivation), and instructed SLA (e.g., the effects of formal instruction on acquisition, the effects of task orientation on performance). In short, cognitive SLA research can refer to that which is not either purely linguistic or social in nature (“purely” suggesting that there can be overlap between the linguistic, the social, and the cognitive in some cases).
Cohen, Andrew D.
Authors: Ishihara Noriko
Published: December 2012

Being a prolific researcher and an exceptionally extroverted individual, Andrew D. Cohen (born March 14, 1944) is known as a researcher in applied linguistics, teacher and educator in second/foreign language learning and teaching, learner of11 languages (Aymara, Quechua, German, Italian, and Latin, with working knowledge of Spanish, French, Hebrew, Portuguese, and some Japanese and Arabic), vigorous international traveler and lecturer, timely and informative e‐mail responder, energetic squash player (until age 66), cyclist in all weather, enthusiastic trumpeter and guitarist, and father of two children with one grandchild as of 2010. His work encompasses several subfields of applied linguistics, including assessment, bi/multilingualism and immersion education, language learner styles and strategies, pragmatics, and research methodology.
Collaborative Language Learning
Authors: Storch Neomy
Published: December 2012

The term
collaborate
means to share labor (co‐labor) and hence collaborative language learning is often taken to mean assigning students to work in pairs (or small groups) on language tasks.
Colonialism and Language Policy and Planning
Authors: Phillipson Robert
Published: December 2012

Key factors that account for European languages and Christianity being transplanted worldwide are identified. The privileged position of excolonial languages has been consolidated through Western influence on educational policies and linguistic imperialism. The existence of alternative language policies that create greater social justice shows that much‐needed change is possible.
Commercial Translation
Authors: Koby Geoffrey S.
Published: December 2012

Commercial translation is the translation of a source text (a written original) into a written target text, generally by a freelance professional translator, for a commercial purpose and for remuneration, often with short deadlines. The translation industry operates largely using an agency model: translation agencies work with clients to determine translation needs, then contract with freelance translators who produce the translation using a “translate‐edit‐proof” model where one translator produces a translation, a second translator in the same language pair (the “editor”) checks for accuracy and revises the translation, and a proofreader checks the target text for correctness. Translation agencies also provide other services to clients, such as desktop publishing. Some professional translators also provide the entire translation service to direct clients.
Comparing Groups With Multiple Independent Variables
Authors: Sweet Shauna J. , Rupp AndrÉ A.
Published: December 2012

Factorial analysis of variance (ANOVA) is a specific form of the general linear model in which variation in a single continuous outcome measure of interest,Y, is expressed as a function of the overall and combined effects of two or more categorical independent variables or factors that represent different treatments, conditions, or characteristics.
Comparing Two Independent Groups
Authors: Dronjic Vedran , Helms‐Park Rena
Published: December 2012

This entry deals with research designs in applied linguistics in which two independent groups of participants are compared. First, the concept of independent groups is defined and contrasted with other designs. Then, a number of essential research and statistical terms related to studies involving two independent groups are elaborated on. Finally, appropriate statistical procedures for analyzing data from such research designs are described, and the reader is pointed to a number of useful sources for further reading.
Comparing Two+ Independent Groups
Authors: Larson‐Hall Jenifer
Published: December 2012

A statistical comparison among groups asks the basic question of whether the means of the groups differ widely enough to conclude that the groups come from different populations.
Competition Model
Authors: Li Ping , MacWhinney Brian
Published: December 2012

The competition model (CM) made its debut in Bates and MacWhinney (1982) as a mechanistic explanation of language acquisition. Since its inception, there have been a large number of studies using this framework to account for not only language acquisition but also language comprehension, language production, and impaired language processes. Because the CM distinguishes itself from many other psycholinguistic theories in its emphasis on language variation, the model has been applied to the analyses of many typologically different languages, including Chinese, English, German, Hungarian, Italian, Russian, and Spanish, to name a few. Like other scientific hypotheses, the CM has continued to evolve in order to increase its explanatory power (Bates & MacWhinney, 1987, 1989; MacWhinney, in press). Here we first provide an overview of the model and then discuss its application to the study of second language acquisition.
Computer‐Assisted Language Learning and Machine Translation
Authors: Somers Harold
Published: December 2012

Machine translation (MT) is the oldest application of what is sometimes called “language engineering,” and has been around for over 60 years. While not fulfilling the early promise of “fully automatic high‐quality translation of unrestricted texts,” the technology has now reached a stability and a maturity, where developers and experienced users well understand the capabilities and limitations, and, in general, present these honestly to the general public.
Computer‐Mediated Communication and Second Language Development
Authors: Sauro Shannon
Published: December 2012

Computer‐mediated communication (CMC) is person‐to‐person communication that takes place via a range of computer‐supported transmission technologies that enable both synchronous real‐time and asynchronous interaction across different modalities. Thus, CMC encompasses such technologies as e‐mail and text chat, blogs, vlogs (video blogs), bulletin boards and voice boards, and Web sites and wikis (a series of interconnected Web pages). Within language learning contexts, certain types of CMC are more prevalent, and accordingly research on language development that occurs during and through CMC reflects this tendency.
Concordancing
Authors: Tribble Christopher
Published: December 2012

For most language teachers and lexicographers, a concordance will be a computer‐generated listing of all of the instances of a word in a collection of texts.
Connectionism
Authors: Li Ping , Zhao Xiaowei
Published: December 2012

Connectionism, also known as parallel distributed processing (PDP) or artificial neural networks, is an important theoretical framework as well as a computational tool for the study of mind and behavior.
Content and Language Integrated Learning
Authors: Marsh David , Frigols Martín María Jesús
Published: December 2012

Content and language integrated learning (CLIL) is a dual‐focused educational approach in which an additional language is used for the learning and teaching of both content and language. CLIL involves the use of language‐supportive methodologies leading to authentic learning where attention is given to both the topic and the language of instruction. “Achieving this twofold aim calls for the development of a special approach to teaching, in that the nonlanguage subject is not taughtina foreign language butwithandthrougha foreign language” (Eurydice, 2006, p. 8).
Content‐Based Instruction in English for Specific Purposes
Authors: Brinton Donna M.
Published: December 2012

The field of teaching English to speakers of other languages (TESOL) abounds with a veritable “alphabet soup” of acronyms: English language teaching (ELT), English‐language learners (ELLs), English for general purposes (EGP), English for academic purposes (EAP), English for specific purposes (ESP), and content‐based instruction (CBI), to name just a few. ESP is particularly rich in acronyms that describe its various subdisciplines: English for science and technology (EST), English for business and economics (EBE), English for legal purposes (ELP), English for medical purposes (EMP), English for occupational purposes (EOP), and so on.
Content‐Based Language Instruction
Authors: Ann Snow Marguerite
Published: December 2012

What is the “content” of second or foreign language teaching? A visitor to a second or foreign language class might observe the teacher teaching a grammar point such as relative clauses, students working in pairs to give directions from a map, or a small group listening to a taped folk tale. In a class at another school, the visitor might find the class reading an article about wildlife trafficking one day, and, in the next class session, participating in an activity in which they read biographies of wildlife traffickers, then state their opinions, using expressions such as “I think _________ should go to jail because __________.” At the end of the two‐week unit, students prepare a poster and make presentations about endangered animals, displaying information on the causes of endangered status and current conservation efforts.
Context in the Analysis of Discourse and Interaction
Authors: Saint‐Georges Ingrid De
Published: December 2012

Context is a central concept in the analysis of discourse and interaction in all the major research traditions in applied and sociolinguistics. Early linguistics did not display much sensitivity to it (Scollon, 1998, p. 80) and tended to study utterances in isolation and without reference to context. Today, however, there seems to be a general consensus around the idea that we understand utterances because they fit or make sense within particular situations. Studies of discourse and interaction include some orientation to context, if nothing else because “language is always produced by someone to someone else, at a particular time and place, with a purpose and so forth” (Blommaert, 2005, p. 39).
Conversation Analysis and Affiliation and Alignment
Authors: Steensig Jakob
Published: December 2012

When people respond in interaction they will invariably indicate whether they cooperate with aspects of the utterances they respond to.
Conversation Analysis and Child Language Acquisition
Authors: Forrester Michael A.
Published: December 2012

There is now an emerging body of work that can be best described as child‐focused conversation analysis (child‐CA).
Conversation Analysis and Gender and Sexuality
Authors: Kitzinger Celia
Published: December 2012

Gender and sexuality are routinely displayed, negotiated, and constructed through talk‐in‐interaction. The cumulative, empirically derived body of knowledge foundational to conversation analysis (CA) as a discipline is increasingly used in feminist (and other politically engaged) research as a way of engaging with gender and sexuality as part of the politics of everyday life.
Conversation Analysis and Institutional Interaction
Authors: Mondada Lorenza
Published: December 2012

Within the last fifty years, the study of institutional interaction has been carried out by a large number of scholars referring in diversified ways to conversation analysis (CA), ethnomethodology (EM) and workplace studies (WPS). This entry presents the specific approaches of these three related fields, elaborating on their major topics. In the conclusion, their theoretical, methodological, and applied contributions are highlighted.
Conversation Analysis and Interview Studies
Authors: Kasper Gabriele
Published: December 2012

Conversation analysis (CA) approaches any kind of interview from a set of empirically grounded premises.
Conversation Analysis and Language Acquisition
Authors: Hellermann John
Published: December 2012

Researchers interested in language in use have used methods from ethnomethodological (EM) conversation analysis (CA) to show convincing evidence for the process of learning as it happens in a turn‐by‐turn manner in sequences of talk (e.g., Garfinkel, Lynch, & Livingston, 1981; Macbeth, 1994; papers in Markee & Kasper, 2004). Recently, theoretical and practical concerns have motivated researchers using CA to consider the possibilities of observing learning beyond individual interactions, to look longitudinally and propose that learning is observable in changes in practices for interaction (Wagner, 2004; Hellermann, 2007) at different points in time. The practical concerns are developmental (how children learn language), pedagogical (how adults learn additional languages), and vocational (how professionals learn their professions). For much of this research, another practical concern is the expectation of making connections between research and practice.
Conversation Analysis and Membership Categories
Authors: Day Dennis
Published: December 2012

Membership categorization analysis (MCA) deals primarily with the way we use categories to make sense of and for each other in social interaction. As such, it is one means of explicating the practically oriented, commonsensical, and cultural reasoning of people as they go about their social lives. In particular it focuses on the recognizability of people as certain sorts of people or, more specifically, people as certain sorts of members of society, and how this recognizability is a resource for members in their dealings with each other. And as one of the primary ways in which we “deal” with each other is through language, MCA is often brought to bear on the analysis of how people use language in situations of everyday life.
Conversation Analysis and Turn Taking
Authors: Ford Cecilia E.
Published: December 2012

Turn taking refers to a system through which interlocutors manage transfer of speakership, with each next turn in sequence displaying how that speaker has interpreted previous talk and the action so far.
Cook, Vivian
Authors: Bassetti Benedetta
Published: December 2012

Vivian James Cook (born June 13, 1940) is an English applied linguist who investigates second language acquisition, and especially multicompetence. He holds a Chair in Applied Linguistics at Newcastle University, UK.
Corpora in the Teaching of Language for Specific Purposes
Authors: Cortes Viviana
Published: December 2012

The analyses of specialized corpora (i.e., large collections of machine‐readable texts) help describe language in detail, providing data that can be easily transferred to pedagogical contexts. Thus, corpus‐based language analyses have become an invaluable tool in the teaching of, and materials design for, language for specific purposes (LSP), as language learners need to master the specific discourses used in their new language communities to become successful members of those communities.
Corpora: German‐Language
Authors: Teubert Wolfgang
Published: December 2012

This entry focuses on large and more frequently used German‐language corpora, their use, and applications.
Corpus Analysis for Operational Communication
Authors: Johnson Edward
Published: December 2012

“Operational communication” refers to the combination of communication procedures, technologies, and language systems used for a range of operationally specifiable communicative purposes, working environments, or settings
Corpus Analysis in Dialectology
Authors: Kolbe Daniela
Published: December 2012

Dialectology is the study and description of dialect(s); the first studies in this field were conducted in the 19th century.
Corpus Analysis In Forensic Linguistics
Authors: Cotterill Janet
Published: December 2012

This article looks in two directions with respect to the use of corpora within forensic linguistics:
Corpus Analysis in Social and Public Policy Research
Authors: Channell Joanna
Published: December 2012

Corpus analysis can be used to research problems and issues in government and public policy.
Corpus Analysis in Translation Studies
Authors: Kenny Dorothy
Published: December 2012

Translation normally involves the production of a written text in a target language based on a previously existing written text in a source language, while its sister activity, interpreting, usually involves spoken (or sign) language.