bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Design Parameters of a Machine Suitable for Testing Automotive Friction Materials
Authors: Hatch D. , Goddard E. J.
Published: June 2010

The current high standards of road safety and the responsibilities of vehicle manufacturers to ensure a good quality product have brought about the need for manufacturers of component parts to take new steps to test their products at the production stage for consistency of performance.

This paper refers to earlier types of friction testing machines and describes the design, construction and operation of a machine for testing friction materials both as a functional quality control instrument, and to categorize materials into performance groups.

The machine has been operated on the basis of intermittent cyclic application, and covers a range of rubbing speeds and pressures which should suffice for the majority of automotive conditions.

By ensuring that the ratio of surface area of specimen to thermal capacity of heat sink is of the same order of magnitude as experienced in practical conditions, the test machine simulates not only energy dissipation rates, but also rate of rise of temperature. It is considered by the authors that this factor is of first importance in achieving good correlation with service performance and takes precedence over other design features of the machine including the selection of sample area and shape.

A number of these machines have now been in operation for several years and a great deal of experience gained in their use. The results obtained are in broad agreement with those obtained on vehicles in service and the machines are now used in intensive quality control.

Many European countries and America have issued acceptance specifications which have no common basis, and this paper is presented in the hope that a discussion of its design features will lead to the evolution of a widely acceptable uniform specification.
Third Paper: The Tandem Vibrating Roller: Its Design and Development in the Field of Dynamic Compaction
Authors: Cowley H. R.
Published: June 2010

Some designs of the self-propelled tandem vibrating roller are reviewed. Consideration is given to design aspects of the vibrating roll with particular reference to bearings, lubrication and fatigue. Means for varying amplitude are also illustrated.

The ground/roll system subjected to vibration is reviewed and the effects of resonance and frequency shown. Information is provided on operational costs for a range of machines. Some aspects of ergonomics are examined for modern machines. Consideration is given to future trends in construction and some conclusions drawn.
Design, Development and Application of Vehicle Gas Turbine Engines
Authors: Phillips P. A. , Spear Peter
Published: June 2010

After briefly summarizing worldwide automotive gas turbine activity, the paper analyses the power plant requirements of a wide range of vehicle applications in order to formulate the design criteria for acceptable vehicle gas turbines.

Ample data are available on the thermodynamic merits of various gas turbine cycles; however, the low cost of its piston engine competitor tends to eliminate all but the simplest cycles from vehicle gas turbine considerations. In order to improve the part load fuel economy, some complexity is inevitable, but this is limited to the addition of a glass ceramic regenerator in the 150 b.h.p. engine which is described in some detail. The alternative further complications necessary to achieve satisfactory vehicle response at various power/weight ratios are examined.

Further improvement in engine performance will come by increasing the maximum cycle temperature. This can be achieved at lower cost by the extension of the use of ceramics.

The paper is intended to stimulate the design application of the gas turbine engine.
An Automatic Car Heater System-Description and Performance Prediction
Authors: Plackett A. G.
Published: June 2010

The objective of the system is to control the car heater temperature to ensure an optimum comfort level, without the need for periodic adjustment, despite variations in ambient temperature and vehicle usage.

Reasons for choosing a particular type of system are explained.

The operation is analysed, and expressed in terms of an equation. Difficulties in solution due to non-linear terms are overcome with the aid of a digital computer.

Test data on the system components and vehicle characteristics are used in the computer program to obtain a prediction of the accuracy of temperature control over a wide range of operating conditions.

Predicted performance is compared with actual road tests results for an installation.

Design optimization is facilitated by using the computer to examine the effect of system parameter changes on the overall performance.
Computer-Aided Design Applied to a Model of a Chassis Type Structure Using Finite Element Techniques
Authors: Ali R. , Hedges J. L. , Mills B.
Published: June 2010

The finite element technique has been used for the examination of a chassis-type structure. A computer program was developed to predict the static and dynamic behaviour of frames. The program is quite general but its use has been restricted to structures consisting of beam elements only.

A scale model of a production car chassis was made in perspex. Nodal displacements of the model, in bending and torsion, natural frequencies and corresponding mode shapes were predicted by the computer program and confirmed experimentally in the laboratory. Several coarser idealizations of the model were examined to study the effect on the accuracy of predictions and the computation time.
Paper 3: Hydraulic Requirements for Dowty Roofmaster Mining Supports
Authors: Marlow M. J. , Vincent K. V.
Published: June 2010

The authors describe the Roofmaster system of powered roof supports for long wall coal faces. They deal with the application of automatic operation to these supports required by the increased speed of coal-winning machines.

The desirability of fire-resistant fluids for mining operations is discussed and three types of water-containing fluids are described. Pump life is the chief factor to be taken into consideration when specifying a system for use with fire-resistant fluids and the authors discuss tests carried out with various fluids and pumps.
Paper 3: The Design History of Ford of England'S 1000 cm3 −1500 cm3 Engine Family
Authors: Worters R. A. S.
Published: June 2010

This paper covers the design history of an engine family which originally spanned a capacity range of 1000–1390 cm3 but has lately been extended to 1500 cm3.

The requirements which governed the basic engine design are dealt with from two angles—the vehicle requirements, which determined the cylinder capacity and arrangement and led to the adoption of a water-cooled four-stroke design; and the production requirements, which dictated the need for a ‘family’ concept to give the maximum range of engine capacity from a single tooling set up. Performance, package and durability targets were established and it was essential to meet these while maintaining minimum cost and weight.

The layout of the basic engine provides for changes of capacity by variation of the stroke only; the advantage of this method over varying the bore or both bore and stroke is discussed from both product and manufacturing viewpoints. The engines are considerably ‘oversquare’ (large bores, short strokes) and the effect of this and the importance of connecting rod length to crank throw ratio is discussed.

The detail design of the cylinder block was influenced by the short stroke and resulted in equally spaced cylinder centres and main bearings of ample capacity being incorporated. A unique treatment of the push rod ‘chamber’ was adopted to eliminate coring.

The cylinder head has individual ports and fully machined combustion chambers with vertical valves and this layout made possible a single piece water jacket core. For the crankshaft, a hollow nodular iron casting was chosen and the very short strokes enabled balance weights to be omitted without bearing loads exceeding the limits of modem materials.

In laying out the ancillary components an unusual arrangement for the oil pump and filter was chosen with advantages of easy assembly and servicing.

After production of the engine family had commenced in 1000 cm3 and 1340 cm3 versions, the need for a 1500 cm3 version arose. This was achieved within the basic framework of the original design by a further increase of stroke, but required some increase of cylinder block height to maintain a reasonable connecting rod length.

Production tooling was fortunately able to accommodate this change and because of the equal bore and bearing spacing in the original design, it was possible to incorporate five main bearings.
Paper 3: Paper 4: Renault Engines for Light Cars
Authors: Bachex R.
Published: June 2010

The problem posed was the design of an engine having a taxable horsepower of 5 for a private car with rear wheel drive and weighing 700 kg when empty. It was also required that there be two main variants derived from this: an engine for a sports car and one with a larger cubic capacity for a utility vehicle. The paper describes how this problem was approached.

After a re-examination of why the four-stroke carburation engine is very popular, the number and arrangement of the cylinders in relation to the cooling is considered.

Apart from certain arrangements imposed by the fitting of the engine in the car, the simplest form of construction is that of the water-cooled engine with the cylinders in line. The cooling circuit is sealed.

The arguments enabling the stroke and bore to be decided upon, first within the limits of a given cubic capacity and then by removing this restriction, are then expounded. The conclusion is that the bore should be as small as possible compatible with the performance called for.

The following technological details of the engine, which has been designed with two possible cubic capacities—956 and 1100 cm3 by varying the bore, are then considered: design of the cylinder block with wet liners; piston, connecting rod, crankshaft assembly; arrangement of valves, camshaft, carburettor and manifold; engine sealing and filtration.
Paper 5: The Hillman 875 cm3 Engine
Authors: Kuzmicki L. , Miller A. C. , Ware P. G.
Published: June 2010

The paper covers the constructional considerations, design and development of the engine to be installed in a rear-engined vehicle.

The need for minimum weight and size coupled with adequate power output resulted in the decision to use light alloy diecastings wherever possible. The various methods of diecasting are considered and the methods used for the various components are discussed with the reasons for their use. Problems with cast-in cylinder liners, machining considerations and the implications of laying the engine at an angle in the car are covered.

With regard to performance, several factors are discussed: the reasons for adopting the four-stroke cycle, four cylinders, water cooling; determination of capacity from power required data; the use of a single overhead camshaft; combustion chamber shape and compression ratio; port shapes and determination from air flow research. Then follow the various stages of development work and endurance testing.
Paper 6: The Engines of the Smaller Fiat Cars
Authors: Giacosa Dante
Published: June 2010

The paper deals with the story of the engines intended for the smaller Fiat cars, starting with the ‘500’ model produced in 1936: all engines with displacements in the neighbourhood of 500 cm3.

With small cars, especially of the utility class, the adaptability of the piston engine to a variety of design and space requirements is used to best advantage. The size, weight and displacement must blend with the design of the car as a whole; in turn, the design must feature the highest degree of simplicity compatible with the qualities required.

It is, therefore, important for the engine of utility cars to be designed as a function of the general architecture of the vehicle. At Fiat, after a period in which economical cars of conventional design were produced, work was started along this line with the ‘500’ (Topolino) model in 1933–1934.

The paper illustrates the design of this model and describes the reasons behind some of its engineering details, as well as the subsequent developments which led to the final solution. Also outlined are the more important designs of experimental engines studied as substitutes for the ‘500’ model: a transversal four-cylinder engine, with overhead camshaft, built in 1945, for a front-wheel drive prototype; an air-cooled, two-cylinder in-line engine, mounted transversally, for a rear-wheel drive prototype; an opposed two-cylinder engine, with longitudinal axis, in replacement of the previous unit; a two-cylinder in-line engine with longitudinal axis, finally chosen for the ‘New 500’ model introduced in May 1957.

Also described are the further developments of the latter engine for the version with horizontally arranged cylinders suitable for underfloor application.

The paper highlights the more interesting aspects regarding both the design and the experiments made and explains the principal reasons leading to the choice of given solutions and to the modifications which followed.
Paper 13: Recent Developments in Light Alloys for Engineering Applications
Authors: Dedrick J. H. , Clayton H. R. , Fisher P. A.
Published: June 2010

This paper covers developments during the last five years in the fields of light alloys for engineering applications. Wrought aluminium alloy development is discussed in relation to new alloys for armour-plate, missile and aerospace applications, general structural use, and alloys for decorative bright trim. Specific attributes of the various alloys are covered to a degree depending upon the particular alloy or alloy system, in relation to elevated temperature properties, cryogenic properties, corrosion resistance, weldability and, formability. New aluminium casting alloys with higher properties and better machinability are referred to. In the area of aluminium powder and particle metallurgy, newly developed porous aluminium bearings, particle sheet alloys, and exceptionally high-strength alloys are discussed. Reference is also made to new aluminium base anode alloys for cathodic corrosion protection. Magnesium alloy developments in the fields of general engineering, and in the specialized fields of aerospace and nuclear energy applications are covered and the problems of surface protection of these materials are also dealt with. Recent developments in the field of beryllium-aluminium alloys for aerospace applications are discussed in some detail.
Paper 6: An Appreciation of the Practical Problems: A Survey of the Problems and their Importance
Authors: Koffman J. L. , Bartlett D. L.
Published: June 2010

The parameters of both the track and the vehicle involved in the interaction problem arc discussed in general terms, and examples of the effects of variations of some of these are given. Among the parameters discussed are the effect of track shape, contact profiles and track resilience upon such features as safety, tractive resistance, riding qualities, and wear. The effect of running gear, vehicle configuration, and suspension design are considered briefly and particularly in relation to adhesion, interaction forces, and the results of these.

The paper concludes with an outline of current design procedures and highlights areas where more information seems necessary.
Paper 3: Measurement of Total Head Pressures in an Unsteady Flow of a Compressible Fluid in a Duct
Authors: Voas P. , Woods W A.
Published: June 2010

The paper is introduced with a discussion on how a knowledge of total pressures in exhaust systems would help in the development of internal combustion engines. The concept of a total pressure in a steady flow is straightforward and well known but it is shown that under unsteady flow conditions the concept needs further qualification. A full discussion on the matter is given in the paper.

A brief review of previous work on similar types of probes is presented before the ‘Fecheimer’ type of probe is described. In order to test the probes a special ‘simple wave’ technique was used. A discussion of the technique together with the theory on which it is based is included. The tests on the Fecheimer type of probe are described and results presented. The second type of probe, which was an impact-tube type, is also described. The tests on the second type of probe revealed interesting results which were explained by a theoretical calculation. Details of the test results and the theoretical analysis which explain the results are discussed. It is shown that the theory could explain some of the results obtained with the Fecheimer type of probe.

Finally, conclusions are given on the concept of a total pressure and the results of the tests carried out on the probes are discussed.
Paper 6: Electronic Instrumentation Techniques in the Development of Pistons and Rings
Authors: Westbrook M. H. , Munro R.
Published: June 2010

Both general and particular aspects of the application of electronic instrumentation in internal combustion engine development are discussed, and the work which has been carried out in the authors' establishment on instrumentation for dynamic measurements on the piston assembly is described, in particular, measurements of engine noise and vibration, and of displacement and temperature during operation, using telemetry systems, and making use of both radio and mechanical linkage techniques.

The development of a new type of sub-miniature inductive transducer for non-contact displacement measurement under the extreme conditions inside a working piston is described, and the reasons making its development necessary discussed.

Results obtained from a working engine showing piston movements as measured by several inductive transducers and transmitted over the linkage system are shown and compared to block vibration recordings made simultaneously; an initial interpretation of the very recent results is made.

Finally, electronic methods developed for the static measurement of piston and ring properties are described and the results obtained discussed.
Paper 8: Gas Chromatography for the Analysis of Exhaust Gases
Authors: Jeffery P. G. , Kipping P. J.
Published: June 2010

The traditional methods for the analysis of vehicle exhaust gases have never been entirely satisfactory. The recent development of gas analysis by gas chromatographic methods offers considerable improvement in accuracy, precision, and also in time required. Difficulties still arise for certain constituents, notably sulphur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen, for which chemical methods of analysis are still preferred. The chromatographic analysis of the hydrocarbon fraction and the remaining inorganic fraction of exhaust gases, where this is required, is now a routine operation, calling for neither expert chromatographic knowledge, nor exceptional skill in manipulation. A typical gas Chromatograph may be considered as comprising a number of simple building blocks, including a carrier gas flow system, a sample inlet mechanism, a chromatographic material for component resolution, a detector for those components of interest, and a display mechanism. Some form of electrical control is required; this may amount to little more than a Wheatstone bridge network, or may be a high quality linear amplifier and associated voltage-decade supply for the more sophisticated ionization detectors. Each of these building units is considered in detail, and the errors that can arise in the course of making an analysis of an exhaust gas are noted. The possibility of gross errors arising from defective equipment is also considered.
Paper 10: The Rapid Estimation of Transient Response of a Cascade of Instrument Elements
Authors: Bushell K. W.
Published: June 2010

This paper presents some observations on the dynamic behaviour of a chain of typical instrument elements, for example, a pressure measuring system consisting of a transducer-amplifier-galvanometer (or oscilloscope) chain.

The approach adopted is by way of two approximate formulae which have been found to describe the dynamic characteristics of pulse amplifiers. These formulae are then applied to a linear second-order system which is shown to represent many transducer and galvanometer systems.

The bounds within which the formulae apply to such systems are easily found from the transient response of the second-order system model which is readily available in analytical form.

The dynamic input function used is not a true step function but an ‘imperfect step function’ having a finite, but small, input rise time. This input is likened to the output of a preceding instrument element, in response to a true step input, and thus the overall rise time of the two elements is obtained.

Apart from its use in the verification of the two formulae, the imperfect step function response of transducers and galvanometers is important in its own right, and thus is discussed in some detail in relation to some recently published papers.

As this work proceeded, information was required on such instrument characteristics as rise time, bandwidth, and damping factor. Published data on such topics, especially for the majority of pressure transducers, was found to be sparse and thus the topics are discussed at some length and new information is presented on transducer damping factors.
Paper 20: The Thermodynamics of Charging and Discharging Processes
Authors: Horlock J. H. , Woods W. A.
Published: June 2010

A comprehensive analysis of charging and discharging processes is presented. The work is of particular relevance to gas exchange processes which occur in internal combustion engines.

A rigorous treatment is given of discharge from and charge to a container. In the discharge process irreversibility in the container and the outlet passage are considered separately. A unique pressure-temperature relation is derived for a special case of the charging process and an equation giving the entropy change in the container is derived. It is shown that the mass trapped in the container is a linear function of the pressure in the container.

The case of discharge from one container to another is considered, as is the problem of consecutive charging and discharging of one container.

For simultaneous charging and discharging no entirely rigorous analysis can be derived. Two analyses—those of ‘filling and emptying’ and ‘perfect displacement’—are presented.
Paper 30: Effects of Recovery Factor on Measurement of Temperature of Moving Fluids
Authors: El Agib A. A. R. , Binnie A. J. , Foord T. R.
Published: June 2010

In practice, the temperature of a moving liquid is usually determined from a stationary probe inserted into the liquid stream. The ‘probe error’, in terms of boundary-layer theory, thus introduced, involves an overall recovery factor which is dependent on thermodynamic and transport properties of the fluid. A semi-empirical expression for this recovery factor is developed, and an experimental method for determination of the probe error is described.
Paper 15: Vibration of Flexible Cylinders with Supported Ends, Induced by Axial Flow
Authors: Paidoussis M. P.
Published: June 2010

A flexible cylinder with pinned ends in axial flow of sufficiently high flow velocity is subject to buckling and oscillatory hydroelastic instabilities. These instabilities are discussed briefly and it is shown that they occur at such high flow velocities that they are not likely to be encountered in practice, unless the cylinder is made of very flexible material such as rubber.

The cylinder is subjected to small amplitude vibration, however, even at flow velocities very much smaller than the critical velocities for hydroelastic instabilities. The mechanism of energy transfer from the fluid to the cylinder is examined and it is postulated that this vibration is excited by cross-flow components of flow and other departures from steady, uniform and perfectly axial flow. Experimental evidence supporting this postulate is presented.

An empirical expression is given for the amplitude of vibration based on reported experimental observations covering a variety of geometries, fluids and cylinder materials.
Paper 21: An Experimental Investigation into Multi-Cylinder Turbocharged Two-Stroke Engine Exhaust Systems
Authors: Benson R. S. , Wild A.
Published: June 2010

The results are given from a comprehensive investigation of the exhaust pipe configurations for five-, six-, seven-and eight-cylinder turbocharged two-stroke engines. The tests were carried out under cold conditions on a multi-cylinder pulse generator. For each engine two firing orders and the maximum number of alternative pipe arrangements compatible with minimum interference between cylinders were examined. Three nozzle sizes were tested for each basic configuration. The test results were analysed to determine the maximum efficiency of the exhaust pipe, expressed as the availability factor, the average scavenge ratio and the distribution of retained air between cylinders. Results of the investigation showed that in the multi-cylinder system the scavenge ratio increased with increase in nozzle area ratio, increase in the number of cylinders discharging into the pipe system, and with decrease in pipe length. The gas retained in the cylinders was found to increase with decrease in nozzle area to pipe area ratio and decrease in pipe volume. The availability factor was found to increase with decrease in nozzle area to pipe area ratio and decrease in pipe volume.
Paper R1: Review of Recent Research on Friction, Lubrication and Wear in the Netherlands
Authors: Salomon G.
Published: June 2010

Research in this field is performed by T.N.O., by the three technical universities and by a few industrial laboratories. Discussions, refresher courses and education of technicians have been organized by several technical societies to reach all members of the engineering community.

Hydrodynamic lubrication, grooved bearings and seals are the principal topics of engineering research. Vehicle research has led to new approaches in measuring tyre-road interactions.

The influence of traces of oxygen on the friction of metals and on lubrication by solids is studied. Special equipment has been designed to solve fretting problems in atomic energy engineering. Two items of great importance to marine diesel engineering have been developed in Holland, viz. chromium-plating of cylinder liners and emulsion oils.

Organization of maintenance work in collieries, steel mills and the transport industries is briefly outlined. Selecting wear-resistant materials for a specific application demands an operational approach.

Government-sponsored education and research in ‘tribology’ meet the requirements of Dutch industry.
Paper R2: Review of the Activities of the O.E.C.D. Group of Experts on ‘Wear of Engineering Materials’
Authors: de Gee A. W. J.
Published: June 2010

The history, composition, and main activities of the O.E.C.D. Group of Experts on ‘Wear of Engineering Materials’ are described. The Group's method of working is illustrated through a discussion of some of the results that have been obtained. The co-operative research programmes which have been drawn up recently are discussed in detail.
Paper 22: The Onset and Cessation of Half-Speed Whirl in Air-Lubricated Self-Pressurized Journal Bearings
Authors: Kerr J.
Published: June 2010

The experimental work reported in this paper has shown that it is possible to proceed into and beyond the half-speed whirl region and operate at much higher speeds without vibration, using plain cylindrical journal bearings. Journals of 1-in diameter, clearance ratios greater than 1 in 1000, and bushes with length-diameter ratio of 1 were used. The bushes were mounted flexibly in rubber O-rings.
Paper 23: Dynamic Displacements in a Diesel-Engine Main Bearing
Authors: Cooke W. L.
Published: June 2010

Dynamic displacements of a crankshaft journal in its main bearing under various load and speed conditions were measured in a Petters AV1 diesel engine, the shaft loci within the bearing clearance circle being displayed by an a.c. bridge system comprising inductance transducers. Analysis of the results in terms of dynamic hydro-dynamic lubrication theory demonstrates the importance of shaft-housing deflections under high impulsive loading. With due allowance for such deflections, experimental results are in fair agreement with data calculated from Ocvirk's narrow bearing theory.
Paper 5: A New Calcium-Lead Lubricating Grease for Multi-Service Industrial Use
Authors: Armstrong E. L. , Balmforth N. , Berkley J. B.
Published: June 2010

Advances in technology have led to the development of a new type of lubricating grease. The product described in this paper is a calcium-lead-complex grease which possesses a combination of high drop point and load-carrying capacity, together with other improved characteristics. Laboratory rig test data and documentation of extensive field evaluation demonstrate the suitability of this new grease for a much wider range of industrial applications than has hitherto been possible with a single product.
Paper 15: A Consideration of Factors Affecting the Wear Resistance of Materials Used in Aircraft Gas-Turbine Engines
Authors: Jesper A. C.
Published: June 2010

Despite the increasing need for engineering materials to be wear-resistant, wear has usually been considered only after all other design factors, and frequently not at all. This is undesirable and all locating surfaces should be regarded with suspicion at the design stage, particularly with a view to lessening and facilitating repairs.

Some effects on wear, of load and movement, vibration, temperature, and material are discussed and the undesirability of rattling loads emphasized.

The influence of surface oxides is discussed and the results of some other investigators related to practical experience of flight engine components.

A rubbing test and a hammer test are described and from their results and the observations of two other authors, it is suggested that all the more wear resistant materials rely upon the formation of a Buckley and Johnson surface ‘glaze’ whose characteristics are dependent upon the base material composition. It is further suggested that such materials will exhibit an impact limit beyond which the glaze will have a limited ability to survive, suggesting that the most promising line of approach to wear resistance is in the field of complex oxides.
Paper 10: The Investigation of Unusual Bearing Failures
Authors: Barwell F. T. , Scott D.
Published: June 2010

The diagnosis of bearing failures as preliminary to their elimination by design improvement is discussed against the background of ‘profiles’ which are intended to display the functional aspects of a bearing situation.

The importance of accurately determining the applied conditions is illustrated by the case of a rolling mill bearing which was intended to carry a load of 350 tons but was actually subjected to loading of more than 1700 tons.

Unusual failures require to be investigated by all available laboratory techniques as specific fine-scale information from each technique enables a comprehensive elucidation of the mechanism of failure to be achieved. Simulated laboratory tests and a considerable research effort on an inter-disciplinary basis are usually initiated to confirm postulations regarding the causes of failure and to determine the controlling factors. The investigation of failures brought to the attention of the National Engineering Laboratory enables research to be directed to problems causing major difficulties in practice and thus provides industry with the information it requires to solve its own specific problems.
Paper 2: Hydraulics in Flight-Deck Machinery
Authors: Garstin D. J. I.
Published: June 2010

This paper is concerned with the machinery for the launching of aircraft from and the recovery of aircraft on to the flight decks of aircraft carriers. The machinery to do this is hydraulic—except for the working fluid of slotted cylinder catapults, which is steam—and is required to control the application of large amounts of energy, in a short period, precisely in accordance with a set programme, with complete consistency and absolute reliability. Hydraulic machinery has successfully met all these requirements for fifty years, being developed and revised to keep pace with the increases in the performance of carrier-borne aircraft.

The major developments—catapults for launching and arresting gear for recovery—are described, together with some items of ancillary equipment that demonstrate the versatility of hydraulic machinery. Simple principles have always been used, but the designs have always made use of the most advanced techniques of hydraulic engineering.
Summary 1: The Influence of Viscosity Variation with Temperature on Journal Bearing Performance
Authors: Smalley A. J. , McCallion H.
Published: June 2010

A computer program which solves the Reynolds equation for a journal bearing in conjunction with an energy balance equation has been developed.

In this program, distributions of pressure and temperature are obtained iteratively, to satisfy finite difference forms of both equations simultaneously. The pressure distribution is integrated numerically to yield non-dimensional parameters of load, friction torque, oil flow, and peak pressure. The average outlet temperature and corresponding viscosity are evaluated, and the difference between relating the load parameters to the inlet or to the outlet viscosities is illustrated.

An examination of the influence of the numerical parameters on the values of the above performance para-meters, and on the overall heat balance, is used to justify the numerical accuracy of the method.

A simple method of determining the effect of mixing the circulating heated oil with the cool inlet oil is de-scribed. This mixing improves the comparison of computed and experimental results.

A range of values of journal speed, inlet viscosity, and index of viscosity variation are examined, and the influence of these on the performance parameters of the bearing is shown.
Paper 10: The Effect of Elastic Distortions on the Performance of Thin Shell Bearings
Authors: Hooke C. J. , Brighton D. K. , O'Donoghue J. P.
Published: June 2010

The paper presents a solution to the problem of elastohydrodynamic lubrication in thin shell bearings using an exact solution for the elastic distortions due to a pressure distribution around the bearing. Results are presented for various shell diameter ratios. The computed solutions are for a material with a Poisson's ratio of 0·4, and the bearing is assumed to be infinitely long and lubricated with an isoviscous fluid. Additional results are presented for the elastic distortions in bearings with rubber and metal shells.
Summary 1: The Influence of Engine Component Inertia Forces on Minimum Oil Film Thickness in Connecting Rod Big-End Bearings
Authors: Booker J. F. , Martin F. A.
Published: June 2010

when Designing steadily loaded bearings the designer can usually predict the position of the journal centre quite easily with the aid of one of the many load carrying capacity/eccentricity relationships available. With dynamically loaded bearings, however, the journal path will vary in magnitude and direction throughout the loading cycle and one of the designer's interests is in the trends of maximum eccentricity ratio and the corresponding oil film thickness for various bearing and engine conditions. From experience with journal path predictions for big-end bearings it has been found that the eccentricity ratio in the bearing due to the peak firing load seldom exceeds that obtained by the inertia load loop (although this load is smaller) and therefore, as a first approximation, it is thought justifiable to neglect the gas forces.

The results of this inertia study (numerical solution) applied to big-end bearings are presented in a general graphical form. Further work can be carried out on the same basis for main bearings, but this is more difficult to present in a general fashion as there are many more variables to consider, such as the phasing and magnitude of the crank out of balance and the firing order. This report therefore concentrates on the first step, i.e. that of big-end bearings.
Paper 7: The Protection of Car Occupants in Accidents
Authors: Grime G. , Lister R. D.
Published: June 2010

This paper is concerned with the main principles which should govern the design of devices to protect the occupants of cars in accidents and includes consideration of desirable alterations in the design of the car.

The main conclusion is that effective protection can be obtained at very little extra cost by means of properly designed seat belts, and that major alterations to the design of the car are necessary in only a few instances.
Paper 2: Signalling and Telecommunications Works on the Euston Main Line Electrification
Authors: Brentnall E. G.
Published: June 2010

The basic requirements of the signalling and telecommunications scheme are presented in this paper. Details of maximum speed of various types of trains, average headway, desirability for consistency of aspects, all necessitated the provision of four-aspect colour-light signalling with continuous track circuiting.

Originally, power signal boxes with limited range were programmed, but economic conditions necessitated reconsideration for some electromechanical boxes.

Difficulties arising in the manning of the signal boxes later caused replanning for power signal boxes throughout with much longer sections controlled from each box following technical developments. Particulars are given of the telecommunications requirements in principle.

The planning of the signalling and telecommunications schemes are dealt with in some detail with special reference to the various factors to be met.

Sections of the paper deal with design factors and equipment both for signalling and telecommunications with special reference to the methods which had to be adopted to give immunization against inductive effects from the 25 000 V 50 c/s traction system. Particular reference is also made to the instances where other electrical factors had to be met.

Developments which occurred during the progress of the scheme are detailed and their effect on the original design is mentioned. The planning and execution of the installation work and the testing and commissioning are described, with some reference to the maintenance of the works. At the end of the paper reference is made to present-day experiences and some remarks are presented about the future.
Paper 12: The Mechanical Design of Fuel Injection Equipment
Authors: Warwicker P. G. , Cornfoot P. F.
Published: June 2010

Loading problems on cam, follower, pump, and tappet are frequently encountered in high-output engines. The main parameters are Hertzian stresses, bouncing tendencies, and cam profile design. Rising speeds, line pressures, and injection rates have brought about major changes in pumping element design, and in this paper plunger and sleeve materials and their failures are discussed.

Hydraulic considerations determine the fuel pump delivery valve design, and the chief mechanical problem is fatigue failure. Body redesign has accommodated the increased clamping and sealing loads which higher line pressures demand.

Causes and prevention of fuel pipe breakage are described.

In the injector assembly the major mechanical problems are the inertia of moving parts, spring stresses, and sealing.

As regards future designs, are there ultimate hydraulic or mechanical limitations to conventional jerk pumps and, if so, what are the alternatives ?
Paper 19: Unlubricated Sliding at High Speeds between Copper and Steel Surfaces
Authors: Kadhim M. J. , Earles S. W. E.
Published: June 2010

Experiments are described in which stationary copper specimens are rubbed in a normal atmosphere against a rotating S62 steel disc under normal loads up to 4·5 lbf. The coefficient of friction is measured at sliding speeds of 93, 220, 328, and 490 ft/s using ⅛-in diameter specimens. Except at the lowest speed a gradual buildup of a continuous copper oxide layer on the disc track is observed with increasing normal load together with a corresponding decrease in the coefficient of friction. Having established an oxide layer on the track the coefficient of friction observed is low for all normal loads. The coefficient of friction is shown to decrease with normal load N and sliding speed U, to be a function of N1/2 U, and to depend on the state of the disc surface. Wear of -in diameter specimens is measured by weighing before and after a test. The wear rate is shown to decrease with sliding speed and increase with load, and for speeds of 220 and 328 ft/s to be a function of N/U. The wear rates measured at 93 ft/s are the same function of N/U for low values of N/U.
Paper 10: Metallurgical Aspects of Rolling Contact Fatigue
Authors: Scott D. , Loy B. , Mills G. H.
Published: June 2010

Metallurgical investigations aided by electron microscopy and associated techniques have been carried out on failed test specimens and bearings from service, to obtain information of use in the elucidation of the mechanisms of failure. Investigations have revealed that cracks initiating rolling contact fatigue can start at the surface and spread into the material, or start below the surface and spread outwards, the more dominant mechanism depending upon prevailing circumstances. Metallographic changes in surface material owing to rolling and sliding action, and subsurface microstructural changes at depths associated with the region of maximum Hertzian shearing stress can influence the mechanism of failure. Environment can affect the rate of crack propagation and mode of fracture; hydrogen embrittlement can be a contributory factor in catastrophic fracture, and non-metallic inclusions can have a dominant effect on the incidence of failure.
Paper 25: Use of Similarity Numbers in Connection with Plain Bearings under Conditions of Varying Temperature and Viscosity
Authors: Pollmann E.
Published: June 2010

The similarity conditions for the phenomena in a lubricating film follow from the Reynolds equation and from the energy equation. It will be shown that with the aid of some justifiable simplifications the properties of a bearing may be described by two characteristic magnitudes only. From the inlet viscosity, a loading value and a similarly constituted temperature rise value may be derived. Further, since an approximation method is used, the calculation effort has been considerably reduced. (A similar form of approximation was used by Schiebel and Vogelpohl for the finite bearing.)

The results obtained for a 360° bearing are compared with those obtained by Motosh, which were calculated from a more complicated numerical method. As an example of the description of the bearing characteristics, calculations are made for a 120° bearing, and the temperature and pressure curves together with the loading and temperature rise values are shown in the form of curves. The limitations on the use of adiabatic conditions are illustrated by an example. Finally, the effects arising from the variation of viscosity with pressure are demonstrated by means of a further example. In the application of the method, it is not necessary to calculate with a mean value of viscosity for the lubricating medium in the lubricating gap, so that more reliable calculations are possible.
Paper 7: An Experimental Analysis of the Cold Cranking Resistance of an Automotive Engine
Authors: Pike W. C. , Haisell O.
Published: June 2010

A study has been made of the total engine friction, the piston assembly friction, and the unrecovered work done on the gases in a four-cylinder automotive engine cranked at low temperatures with its starter motor. Development of the instrumentation is briefly described, and the results obtained with a range of single and multigrade lubricating oils, at temperatures between 0 and 42°F, are given. The effect of oil viscosity (determined in a Ferranti–Shirley cone-and-plate viscometer) on the various losses was studied. Piston assembly friction, measured without the cylinder head in position, accounted for between 40 and 50 per cent of the engine friction and was predominantly viscous. The effect of pressure acting on the pistons was to increase the engine friction only slightly at the higher temperatures; unrecovered work done on the gases was a very important cause of cranking resistance and did not vary with oil viscosity. Shear stresses measured in the engine at the lower temperatures were higher than could be reached in the viscometer. The viscometer may, therefore, not have a general application for predicting the cranking resistance of non-Newtonian oils.
Paper 5: Viscoelastic Behaviour of Frictional Hertzian Contacts under Ramp-Type Loads
Authors: Seireg A. , Weiter E. J.
Published: June 2010

This paper describes an investigation of ‘load–displacement’ and ‘displacement—time’ characteristics of frictional contacts of a ball between two parallel flats under low rates of tangential load application. Time history of ball displacement under sustained loads below gross slip is investigated. The tests showed that the frictional joint exhibited ‘creep’ behaviour at room temperatures under loads below the gross slip values which can be described by a Boltzmann model of viscoelasticity.
Paper 30: Lubricants for Hot Environments with Special Reference to Aero Gas Turbines Operating under Severe Conditions
Authors: Blanchard P. M.
Published: June 2010

This paper reviews some of the problems associated with lubricants for bearings and gears in aero gas turbines operating under severe conditions. The physical limitations imposed on oils by the requirement for high thermal stability are discussed in relation to the necessity for adequate gear lubrication at elevated temperatures. An outline is given of the effects which lubricant additives can have on oil performance in bearing and gear tests. Some adverse side effects of otherwise beneficial additives are pointed out and finally a brief account is given of the methods employed to improve the resistance of oils towards oxidation at high temperatures.
Paper 31: Lubrication and Wear Fundamentals for High-Vacuum Applications
Authors: Johnson R. L. , Buckley D. H.
Published: June 2010

The problems of lubrication and wear in vacuum are mostly caused by the low pressure and the lack of oxygen. Important considerations are: (1) inability to maintain oxide films; (2) evaporation of lubricants and (3) poor heat transfer. The usefulness of the adhesion concept of friction is demonstrated by correlation of cleavage and adhesion studies with sliding friction. Behaviour of solids in these areas of study is significantly influenced by crystal structure and atomic bonding forces. Better definition of surface, lubricating films and slider material on the basis of atomic arrangement in crystals and molecules is required for continued progress.

Metals and alloys with hexagonal crystal structure and a c/a stacking ratio approaching ideal (1·633) have useful friction and wear properties. Crystal structures of inorganic lubricants are also important. Adhesion between surfaces in sliding contact may result in junctions formed from (1) diffusion bonding (i.e. solid solubility), (2) chemical bonding and (3) mechanical bonding. Material transfer occurs during sliding with most material combinations by one or more of these adhesion processes. Properties such as the proper hexagonal structure or contamination films that cause subsequent shearing to occur in the plane and region of the original interface will minimize adhesive wear. Friction responds to factors such as crystal structure that influence the shear strength of metal junctions.

Methods for maintaining useful surface contamination and obtaining proper crystalline structure are the most promising areas for study in achieving efficient operation of sliding surfaces in vacuum. The problems as well as materials for their solutions need to be defined on the basis of atomic structure.