bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Seasonal and regional variation in triglyceride composition of French butterfat
Authors: Bornaz Salwa , Novak Georgette , Parmentier Michel
Published: January 2007

In the present study, high‐performance liquid chromatography analysis of butterfat allowed separation of 46 peaks at 32°C. Knowing the theoretical carbon number value of each triglyceride (TG), 32 peaks of the butterfat chromatogram were identified. These TGs were determined by extrapolation of their capacity factor values, and their identifications were confirmed with some standard TGs. Analysis of winter and summer butterfat from five different French areas showed significant seasonal and regional variation in the TG composition. However, the most important contribution to this variation was provided by TG groups represented by only four peaks. To approximately select the predominant TGs in these four peaks, a random distribution hypothesis was used to predict the amount of each TG. This hypothesis allowed the prediction of the TG components that seem to provide the most important contribution to both seasonal and regional variation.
Participation of free fatty acids in the oxidation of purified soybean oil during microwave heating
Authors: Yoshida Hiromi , Kondo Izumi , Kajimoto Goro
Published: January 2007

Effects of 0 to 1.0% levels of caprylic, capric, lauric, myristic, palmitic or stearic acid on the oxidative stability of purified soybean oil were investigated under microwave heating conditions. A prooxidative effect of the fatty acids introduced into the systems was established. The extent of this effect depended on the acyl chin and levels of added fatty acids. During microwave heating, the oxidative rate of purified soybean oil by the fatty acids was rapid compared to the addition of their corresponding hydrocarbons; the shorter the chainlength and the higher the levels of fatty acids, the more accelerated was the thermal oxidation in the oil. The results are explained on the basis of the catalytic effect of the carboxylic group on the formation of free radicals by the decomposition of hydroperoxides. Therefore, particular attention should be paid to the free fatty acid content, which affects the oxidative stability of purified soybean oil.
Alternative extraction effects on the free fatty acids and phosph in oil from damaged and undamaged soybeans
Authors: Adhikari C. , Snyder H. E. , Kwon T. W. , Clark P. K.
Published: January 2007

By varying the extracting conditions, it may be possible to produce high‐quality, low‐phosphorus and low‐free fatty acid (FFA) oil extracted from water or mechanically damaged soybeans. The variability in phospholipids and FFA was studied in oil extracted by an alternative process from undamaged, damaged and aged soybeans subjected to various changes. Forrest and Hutcheson cultivars were used, and extractions were from finely ground flour rather than from flakes. Freezing caused the maximum increase in FFA and phosphorus levels compared to other levels in damaged or undamaged soybeans, but the levels were reasonable compared to flake extraction. Phosphorus and FFA increased when storage temperatures went from 25 to 45°C, extraction temperatures from 25 to 50°C and moisture of the flour from 6 to 10%. However, the storage time of soybeans with initially high moisture (20%) did not have a marked influence on FFA and phosphorus levels. Immediately after grinding moisture of the flour elevated or lowered the phosphorus level to a great extent, although it had little influence on the FFA level. Phosphatidic acid and phosphatidylcholine were identified as the main phospholipids present when total phosphorus was low in extracted oil. The time taken for the flour to dry to 6% moisture (after grinding and before it was extracted) was critical. The alternative extraction process moderated the expected increase in FFA and phospholipids as the result of soybean damage.
Adsorptive removal of aflatoxins
Authors: Kuk M. S. , Hron R. J. , Abraham G. , Wan P. J.
Published: January 2007

Physical removal of aflatoxins from cottonseed by solvent extraction with ethanol or isopropyl alcohol is technically feasible. These solvents used in the removal process are recycled to extraction systems after regeneration by distillation. However, distillation is costly due to high latent heat of the solvents. Adsorption techniques have been explored as a method to remove aflatoxins from these solvents. Enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assays method and a high‐performance liquid chromatography method with fluorescence detector were used to determine the toxins in the feed and eluates from the adsorption columns. Experimental data indicate that montmorillonite is highly effective for adsorptive aflatoxin removal. Adsorption data with neutral alumina and silica are also presented. Ethanol and ethanol‐based miscellas, obtained from alcoholic cottonseed extractions were spiked with aflatoxins for this investigation.
Assessment of oxidative deterioration of salted dried fish by nuclear magnetic resonance
Authors: Saito Hiroaki , Udagawa Miho
Published: January 2007

Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) was used to evaluate the oxidative deterioration of oil in salted dried fish. The ratios of olefinic proteons (Ro) and divinylmethylene protons (Rm) to aliphatic protons in the oil of salted dried fish, as determined by NMR, decreased steadily during storage. On comparing Ro and Rm with data for peroxide value (PV) and acid value, Ro was shown to serve as an index of the oxidative deterioration of the oil of salted dried fish, particularly in the case of oil whose PV had decreased.
Long‐chain derivatives with a hexahydrothioxotetrazine moiety as potential antimicrobial agents
Authors: Khan M. W. Y. , Mustafa J. , Rauf A. , Saeed M. T. , Osman S. M.
Published: January 2007

A series of hexahydrothioxotetrazine‐containing compounds I–IV were evaluated for their antimicrobial activity. Fungi (Aspergillus sydowii, A. nidulari, A. terreus, Fusarium solanum, Trichoderma viridae, T. lignorum, Rhizopus arrhitus andCandida albicans) and bacteria (Escherichia coli, Salmonella sp.,Pseudomonas aeruginosa, bacillus sp.,Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsella sp.,Shigella sp. andStreptococcus faecalis) were used for this examination. Compounds I–III showed 90% growth inhibition against a large number of fungi. Two compounds (II and III) have shown significant antibacterial activity. The most striking feature of this study is that compound II, which does not carry an ester function, is the most potent antifungal and antibacterial agent. In general, these promising compounds may be of commercial significance in the future and therefore need developmental studies.
Recovery of hydroxy fatty acids from lesquerella oil with lipases
Authors: Hayes Douglas G. , Kleiman Robert
Published: January 2007

Two hydroxy acids, lesquerolic (53 wt%) and auricolic (4%), are present at significant quantities inLesquerella fendleri seed oil. Results reported here indicate the selective release of hydroxy fatty acids during hydrolysis of this oil catalyzed byRhizopus arrhizus lipase. For example, hydroxy acids composed 85–90 wt% of the free fatty acids released during lipolysis, as compared to 54% present overall in the oil. In addition, over 80% of the lesquerolic acid is released from the triglycerides. The reason for this lipase’s success was determined to be its 1,3‐positional specificity. The vast majority of lesquerella oil’s hydroxy acids is at the 1‐ and 3‐positions of its triglycerides, as confirmed by the compositional analysis of partial glycerides formed during lipolysis.
Thermodynamic limitations for pigment adsorption during the bleaching of triglyceride oils
Authors: Chapman D. M. , Pfannkoch E. A.
Published: January 2007

Triglyceride oils are complex multi‐component mixtures, so that the adsorption of chlorphylls is limited by co‐adsorption of other components. Efforts to evaluate the effect of co‐adsorbates on the capacity of adsorbents for a chlorophyll model compound were undertaken for two‐component systems by means of the Ideal Dilute Solution Theory, (IDST). Single‐component isotherms were measured for adsorption of the model compounds protoporphyrin IX dimethyl ester (PPIX), tripalmitin, trilinolein, stearic acid and linolenic acid onto both acid‐activated clay (ABE) and an experimental adsorbent (EXP1) in a non‐interacting solvent (CH2Cl2). Adsorbent affinities, as qualitatively measured by the initial slope of the isotherms, were in the order porphyrin (pKb = 4.8) » fatty acid (pKb ∼ 20.0) > triglyceride (pKb ∼ 20.5) for EXP1, while for ABE the affinities were in the order porphyrin » fatty acid, triglyceride. These affinities roughly correlate with the adsorbate basicity so that the mechanism of adsorption is acid‐base reaction. Isotherms for binary mixtures of PPIX with the other adsorbates were calculated from single‐component isotherm data by using IDST. Calculated isotherms for the adsorption of low concentrations of prophyrin in the presence of higher concentrations of triglyceride or fatty acid dramatically demonstrate the ability of these co‐adsorbates to suppress the adsorption of porphyrin. Thus, competitive adsorption has a predominant effect on the behavior of adsorbents in the edible oil application. Improvements in adsorbent selectivity or the removal of co‐adsorbing components are necessary to substantially improve bleaching performance.
Dehulling of palm kernel of oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) to obtain superior‐grade palm kernel flour and oil
Authors: Sreedhara N. , Arumughan C. , Narayanan C. S.
Published: January 2007

A novel method has been developed for the removal of the thin, dark‐brown skin, called testa, from the palm kernel of the oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) by chemical treatment. Studies carried out for this purpose included physical or mechanical means, dry or wet heat, solvents and other chemicals. Of the procedures tried, treatment with hydrochloric acid (HCl) resulted in complete removal of the testa, producing a pearl‐white palm kernel. All other treatments were found to be ineffective. Based on our laboratory studies, semi‐large‐scale trials were made with 4N HCl for continuous dehulling of palm kernel in an abrasive peeling machine for the preparation of superiorgrade kernel flour and oil.
The effect of freezing on the analysis of chlorophyll content of canola seed (Brassica napus L.)
Authors: Ward K. , Scarth R. , Daun J. K.
Published: January 2007

High levels of chlorophyll in harvested canola seed result in loss of revenue to producers and problems for processors. Studies on chlorophyll degradation often require plant material to be stored for some time prior to measuring the chlorophyll content. Storage of unripe canola seed in a freezer for up to one month prior to measuring the chlorophyll content did not alter the chlorophyll level in the seed. Seeds were frozen while still in the pods as well as after removal with no change in chlorophyll content over time.
Photopyroelectric determination of thermophysical parameters and detection of phase transitions in fatty acids and triglycerides. Part II: Temperature dependence of thermophysical parameters
Authors: Dadarlat Dorin , Bicanic Dane , Visser Henk , Mercuri Fulvio , Frandas Angela
Published: January 2007

The photopyroelectric (PPE) technique was used to detect solid‐to‐liquid phase transitions in saturated [C6:0, C10:0, C12:0, C16:0 palmitic acid (P), C18:0 stearic acid (S)] and unsaturated (C18:2) fatty acids and some triglycerides (PSP, PPS). By using the standard PPE configuration with a thermally thin and optically opaque sample and a thermally thick sensor (a1.1); the temperature behavior of the volume‐specific heat in a temperature range that includes the melting points for C10:0, C12:0, C16:0, and C18:0 was obtained. When the standard PPE configuration, with sample and sensor both being thermally thick and the sample being optically opaque (a1.2), was used, the information contained in the phase of the PPE signal allowed direct measurement of the thermal diffusivity for C10:0, C12:0, and PSP. The inverse configuration with a thermally thick sample and thermally thin sensor (b1.2) or a semitransparent thermally thick sensor (b2) was used to obtain critical behavior of the thermal effusivity for C10:0 and C12:0, respectively. Critical behavior of the thermal conductivity for same samples was computed from information obtained from amplitude and phase measurements (a1.2), or by combining a1.1 and b1.2 data. The history (age, storage conditions, annealing) of the samples affects the critical behavior of thermal parameters.
Furanoid fatty acids in oils from soybeans lacking lipoxygenase isoenzymes
Authors: Guth Helmut , Zhang Yanmin , Laskawy G. , Grosch Werner
Published: January 2007

The concentrations of 10, 13‐epoxy‐11, 12‐dimethyloctadeca‐10, 12‐dienoic acid (F20) and 12,15‐epoxy‐13, 14‐dimethyleicosa‐12, 14‐dienoic acid (F22) were determined by a stable isotope dilution assay in oils extracted from the soybean cultivar Century and from five soybean genotypes that lacked one or two of the three lipoxygenase isoenzymes. The concentrations of F20 and F22 ranged between 190–225 mg/kg oil and 91–132 mg/kg oil, respectively. The concentration differences were not correlated to the differences in lipoxygenase activities of the soybeans.
Prepress‐solvent extraction of crambe: First commercial trial run of new oilseed
Authors: Mustakas G. C. , Kopas G. , Robinson N.
Published: January 2007

Commercial‐scale equipment was used to process experimentally 36 tons ofCrambe abyssinica seed grown in the western part of the United States to obtain information on the processing of this new oilseed and to determine characteristics of the oil and meal products. The run was carried out for USDA at the Pacific Vegetable Oil Corporation plant at Sidney, Nebraska, February 1964.

Process objectives in the study included dehulling, primary oil removal by expeller prepress, secondary oil removal by solvent extraction and control of thioglucosides to obtain good oil quality. A continuous plant operation yielded crude oils and toasted meal that will be compared with similar products from other commercial oilseed processes.

Characteristics of the crude oils that have been determined are composition, refining losses and hydrogenation ability. Organoleptic data on the refined, bleached and deodorized oils have been obtained, as well as compositional data on the desolventized‐toasted meals. More than 13 tons of meal and 10 tons of oil were prepared.
Preparation of 2‐hydroxytridecanenitrile from petroselinic acid
Authors: Holmes R. L. , Moreau J. P. , Sumrell G.
Published: January 2007

The cyanohydrin of dodecanal has been isolated in 90% crude yield from reaction of hydrogen cyanide formed in situ with the mixed aldehydes resulting from reductive ozonization of petroselinic acid. Attempts to isolate the cyanohydrin of the other fragment, adipaldehydic acid, were unsuccessful.
Quantitative gas‐liquid chromatography of triglycerides
Authors: Litchfield Carter , Harlow R. D. , Reiser Raymond
Published: January 2007

To determine optimum operating conditions, an extensive study was made of the variables affecting quantitative recovery and resolution of model triglyceride mixtures. Parameters investigated included: flash heater temperature, carrier gas flow rate, type of carrier gas, column length, glass and metal columns, temperature program rate, linearity of detector response, physical design of gas chromatograph, and molecular species of triglyceride.

Results indicate that with optimum operating conditions, triglyceride molecular weights through trierucin can be quantitatively analyzed. Accurate calibration is essential, since quantitative response factors vary somewhat with operating conditions, triglyceride carbon number, and the chromatograph used. Cocoa butter and rat adipose tissue triglycerides have been quantitatively analyzed by this technique.
Radiolysis of lipids: Mode of cleavage in simple triglycerides
Authors: Dubravcic M. F. , Nawar W. W.
Published: January 2007

The effect of gamma radiation on simple triglycerides was investigated. Trilaurin, trimyristin, tripalmitin, tristearin, tripalmitolein, triolein and trilinolenin were irradiated under vacuum at 6 megarads. The volatile breakdown products were separated by vacuum distillation and identified by gas chromatography and mass spectrometry. Qualitative and quantitative data show that the cleavage in fatty acids essentially follows a specific pattern and is not random. A mechanism of radiolysis is proposed.
Degradation of linear alkylate sulfonates in sewage
Authors: Simko J. P. , Emery E. M. , Blank E. W.
Published: January 2007

Residual linear alkylate sulfonates isolated from sewage effluents during a field test of biologically soft detergents reveal chain‐length and phenyl isomer distributions similar to those in the influent stream. The data suggest no preferential degradation of linear alkylate sulfonate isomers under the field test conditions. The effluent is, however, characterized by apparent changes in branching content.
Methods for the determination of cyclopropenoid fatty acids. VI. A direct infrared absorption method
Authors: Bailey A. V. , Boudreaux G. J. , Skau E. L.
Published: January 2007

A simple rapid method for the estimation of the cyclopropenoid content of glycerides and methyl esters is described based upon the measurement of the characteristic infrared absorptivity of cyclopropenoids at 9.9 Ɓ. Autoxidation products do not interfere, and the sample can be recovered. Equations are given for the calculation of the cyclopropenoid content of both glycerides and methyl esters.
Studies on a vegetable protein mixture based on peanut and soya flours
Authors: Narayana Rao M. , Rajagopalan R. , Swaminathan M. , Parpia H. A. B.
Published: January 2007

A vegetable protein mixture made up of 50% edible peanut flour and 50% full‐fat soya flour and fortified with 1% each of 1‐lysine and dlmethionine and adequate amts of essential vitamins and minerals has been developed. Two formulations, 1) unseasoned and 2) seasoned have been developed for use in sweet and savoury preparations; both the formulations keep well for more than 9 months at 37C when stored in hermetically sealed cans. The protein mixture contains 49.2% protein which possesses a PER of 2.80 and NPU of 72.3; these values compare favourably with those for skim milk powder. Growth studies on albino rats and feeding trials on school children have shown that the protein mixture has a significant supplementary value to poor cereal‐based diets. The mixture fortified with methionine alone is equally effective as skim milk powder for the treatment of kwashiorkor.
Review of stability measurements for frying oils and fried food flavor
Authors: Melton S. L. , Jafar Sajida , Sykes Danielle , Trigiano M. K.
Published: January 2007

Measurements of degradation in frying oils based on oil physical properties and volatile and nonvolatile decomposition products were reviewed. Rapid methods by means of test kits were also considered. Factors that affect the analysis of total polar components (TPC) in frying oils were examined. Relationships between TPC, free fatty acid (FFA) content, Food Oil Sensor readings (FOS), color change (ΔE), oil fry life and fried‐food flavor were evaluated. Flavor scores for codfish, fried in fresh and discarded commercial frying oil blends, were dependent upon individuals in the consumer panel (n=77). Part (n=29) of the panel preferred the flavor of fresh fat; others (n=24) didn't; the rest (n=24) had no preference. FFA, FOS and TPC were analyzed in two soybean oils and in palm olein during a four‐day period in which french fries were fried. Flavor score and volatiles of potatoes fried on days 1 and 4 in each oil were also determined. TPC, FFA and FOS significantly increased (P<0.05) in all oils during the frying period. TPC and FFA were highest in the used palm olein, and flavor of potatoes fried in palm olein on day 1 was less desirable than those fried in the soybean oils. Potatoes fried in day‐1 oils had significantly higher concentrations (P<0.10) of several pyrazines and aldehydes than those fried in day‐4 oils.
Supercritical carbon dioxide extraction of cottonseed with co‐solvents
Authors: Kuk M. S. , Hron R. J.
Published: January 2007

Extraction of cottonseed lipids with supercritical carbon dioxide (SC‐CO2) was conducted with and without a cosolvent, ethanol or 2‐propanol (IPA). At 7000 psi and 80°C, the reduced pressure, temperature and density of SC‐CO2 was at 6.5, 1.17 and 1.85, respectively; the specific gravity was 0.87. Under these conditions, CO2 is denser than most liquid extraction agents such as hexane, ethanol and IPA. The extraction of cottonseed with SC‐CO2 gave a yield of more than 30% (moisture‐free basis). This is comparable to yields obtained by the more commonly used solvent, hexane. The crude cottonseed oil extracted by SC‐CO2 was visually lighter than refined cottonseed oil. This was substantiated by colorimetric measurements. No gossypol was detected in the crude oil. However, crude oil extracted by SC‐CO2, to which less than 5% of ethanol or IPA as co‐solvent was added, containedca. 200 ppm of gossypol, resulting in the typical dark color of cottonseed crude oil with gossypol. CO2 extracted a small amount of cottonseed phosphatides, about one‐third of that extracted by pure ethanol, IPA or hexane. A second extraction with 100% ethanol or IPA after the initial SC‐CO2 extraction produced a water‐soluble lipid fraction that contained a significant amount of gossypol, ranging between 1500 and 5000 ppm. Because pure gossypol is practically insoluble in water, this fraction is believed to be made up of gossypol complexed with polysaccharides and phosphatides.
A comparison between lipase‐catalyzed esterification of oleic acid with glycerol in monolayer and microemulsion systems
Authors: Singh C. P. , Skagerlind Peter , Holmberg Krister , Shah D. O.
Published: January 2007

Lipase‐catalyzed synthesis‐esterification of oleic acid with glycerol‐was carried out in L2 microemulsions and in monolayers. The microemulsions were based on isooctane as a nonpolar component and various water‐glycerol mixtures as polar component. The substrate, oleic acid/sodium oleate, constituted the microemulsion surfactant. The lipase resides mainly in the water pools. Monolayers of oleic acid/sodium oleate were formed on subsolutions of glycerol and water, and the enzyme solution was injected under the compressed monolayers. Thus, the arrangement of the reactants at the oil‐water interface of the microemulsion can be regarded as analogous to that at the airwater interface of the monolayer. The microemulsion structure was characterized by self‐diffusion nuclear magnetic resonance. It was found that the higher the glycerol‐to‐water ratio, the lower are the water D‐values. The reactions in microemulsions generally gave a low degree of oleic acid conversion. The yield increased with increasing glycerolto‐water ratio. Monoglycerides were the main product, and no triglyceride could be detected. The monolayer experiments gave a somewhat higher degree of conversion, with tri‐ and diglycerides being the major reaction products. The reason why triglycerides are formed in monolayer experiments but not in microemulsions is believed to be due to an unfavorable partitioning of the diglyceride in the microemulsion systems. Once formed, the diglyceride will partition into the hydrocarbon domain and become inaccessible for reaction with the enzyme‐O‐acyl intermediate at the oil‐water interface. In addition, the interfaces in the two systems are different. The monolayer interface is static, whereas the microemulsion interface is highly dynamic, and this difference may also influence the product patterns.
Lipase ofGeotrichum candidum immobilized on silica gel
Authors: Sonnet Philip E. , McNeill Gerald P. , Jun Wang
Published: January 2007

Silica gel is a useful support for the lipases ofGeotrichum candidum. Esterification of selected fatty acids and alcohols proceeded to 85–92% conversion in hydrocarbon solvents, and the degree of esterification was increased to 96–98% by adding 4Å molecular sieves at later stages of reaction. The equilibrium ratio of ester to fatty acid (butyl oleate to oleic) was determined for the supported lipase in a number of solvents and ranged from 92∶8 in hexane and isooctane to 16∶84 int‐butanol. The essential character of the enzyme seemed unimpaired by deposition onto silica gel as judged by fatty acid selectivity and stereoselectivity.
The biotechnology of oilseed crops
Authors: James A. T.
Published: January 2007

A general summary of possibilities and limitations application of biotechnology processes to processing and/or production of fats and oils is presented. Enzymatic processes, cloning of premium perennial oil crops and genetic manipulation of oilseed compositions are discussed.
Present and prospective development in the palm oil processing industry
Authors: Kheiri M. S. A.
Published: January 2007

Malaysia, the leading producer of palm oil, is now also the major producer and exporter of processed palm oil (PPO). Since 1977 she has been exporting PPO in increasing amounts. As a result about 50% of world production of palm oil is now traded as PPO in the international market.

Currently, Malaysia has processing capacity far exceeding her production of crude palm oil. Guaranteed capacities for physical refining, fractionation and chemical neutralization are 12,075, 9,940 and 4,949 metric tons (MT) per day, respectively. These can be increased to 16,285, 12,705 and 6,170 MT per day, respectively, by some modification and rationalization. Thus Malaysia is geared to cope with increased production of PPO at least up to 1990.

The PPO products exported are the results of primary down streaming of crude palm oil. The production and export of these products are very well established. The emphasis is now on further down‐streaming of PPO products into specialized products such as food ingredients, nonfood applications and finished products such as shortenings, margarines, cocoa butter replacer fats and oleochemicals both for local consumption and export. By the end of the decade, Malaysia is likely to become a center for the manufacture of basic oleochemicals and their derivatives.
Minor constituents of palm oil
Authors: Goh S. H. , Choo Y. M. , Ong S. H.
Published: January 2007

Crude palm oil contains about 1% of minor components including carotenoids, tocopherols, sterols, triterpene alcohols, phospholipids, glycolipids and terpenic and paraffinic hydrocarbons. The nutritionally important components such as carotenes and tocopherols also improve stability of the oil. Although a highly valued product, carotene unfortunately is bleached or destroyed in refining because suitable recovery technology is not available. Thermal degradation of carotene, previously suspected of giving rise to undesirable chemicals, now is known to furnish mainly harmless hydrocarbons, most of which are removed by the deodorization step in refining. Tocopherols, being natural antioxidants, need to be carefully preserved during milling, refining, fractionation and modification of palm oils. The accumulation of tocopherols in the palm fatty acid distillate promises to provide a new source for the recovery of this valuable substance. The role played by phospholipids is frequently misunderstood because they can act in two ways, i.e. as an antioxidant synergist and a surface active agent to disperse impurities in oil. In crude palm oil the phospholipid content is small, because most of it is removed during milling; the phosphorus content is due mainly to inorganic phosphorus. Among the sterols, cholesterol constitutes too small a percentage to be of much concern. Sterols, triterpenoids and terpenoid hydrocarbons are also potentially useful side products should recovery technology become available. Other newly characterized minor and trace components also are discussed.
Palm oil and palm kernels
Authors: Southworth A.
Published: January 2007

Events leading up to the introduction of the pollinating weevil (Elaeidobius kamerunicus) into Malaysian plantations are described, and the effect of this on the industry is discussed. The main benefits so far are increased kernels and savings in estate pollination costs. It is as yet too early to assess other benefits. The changes in bunch composition have given rise to some processing problems, i.e., sterilization and nut processing, which are currently being corrected.

There have been no major changes in processing procedures, but process developments, such as the use of decanters, computerization, steam utilization and quality improvements, are being made. A review of effluent treatment from palm oil mills shows that most mills conform to government standards using mostly biological digestion processes and land application. Research and development projects are discussed. These include tissue culture and utilization of byproducts.
Palm kernel oil extraction ‐ The malaysian experience
Authors: Tang Thin Sue , Teoh Pek Kooi
Published: January 2007

In direct screw pressing, kernels must undergo seed preparation steps of size reduction, flaking and steam conditioning prior to mechanical extraction. Mechanical wear and tear, maintenance expenses and electricity are the major costs.

The direct solvent extraction process is used in larger plants. Production cost depends mainly on solvent loss and energy used in solvent recovery and pelletizing. However, oil recovery is more complete than in screw pressing.

A third processing method uses pre‐pressing followed by solvent extraction.

The choice of process or machinery depends on capital investment, production cost, oil recovery and its value. Whether the higher investment and production cost incurred in solvent extraction is offset by the higher oil extraction rate needs to be determined.

Strict quality control right from fruit processing to kernel extraction is necessary to ensure production of good quality oil and by‐products. Malaysian palm kernel oil has proven to be of consistent quality, with narrow ranges in chemical characteristics. The palm kernel cake and pellets are important ingredients for animal feed.
Coconut oil and its byproducts
Authors: Montenegro Herman M.
Published: January 2007

Byproducts of processing coconut fruit include coconut water usable as a carbohydrate beverage or fermentable substance; the husk, as a source of fibers, charcoal and chemicals; and the shell, usable primarily as a source of carbon. Coconut‐shell activated carbon is discussed in detail. This effective adsorbent has increasing applications in industrial and environmental processes.
Automation of palm oil mills
Authors: Sivasothy K. , Lim Nicholas B. H.
Published: January 2007

Automation is the function of monitoring and regulating process operations non‐manually or remotely to check or maintain the required processing conditions and product quality, the use of instrumental techniques of analysis in the laboratory and the use of computers for data processing and other miscellaneous applications. Applications where automation is justifiable and the impact of changing trends in automation technology, especially the recent influx of microprocessor‐based systems, are discussed briefly. Applications in the palm oil mill where automation is fairly well‐developed and is being developed, as well as ideas for future applications are reviewed. An example of a practical approach to automation in palm oil mills is given using automatic control of crude oil dilution.
Hydrogenation of palm and lauric oils
Authors: Grothues B. G. M.
Published: January 2007

The technology and equipment for hydrogenating fats and oils is described. Advantages and disadvantages of various batch and continuous processes are discussed. Continuous hydrogenation is suggested for plants that process essentially only one type of oil. When several different feedstocks are to be processed in the same equipment, batch autoclaves may be advantageous.

Hydrogenated palm kernel and coconut oils or fractions have many uses in food products, especially in products where specific melting points and good oxidative stabilities are important. Trends in hydrogenation indicate that more and more energy‐saving and automation devices will be used to reduce energy and labor costs and to make more uniform products, especially in batch processes.
Palm oil in margarines and shortenings
Authors: Duns Malcolm L.
Published: January 2007

Palm oil has become used increasingly as a raw material in soaps, edible fat‐based products and confectionary. This paper deals specifically with applications in margarines and shortenings. Properties of palm oil are described, indicating both the special characteristics that make it suitable for such applications and its limitations. Modification techniques which can minimize or eliminate the disadvantages and hence broaden the scope of application include hydrogenation, fractionation and interesterification. Various applications of palm oil, both modified and unmodified, in margarines and shortenings for use in both tropical and temperate climatic conditions are described.
Confectionery fats from palm oil
Authors: Okawachi T. , Sagi N. , Mori H.
Published: January 2007

The influence of diglycerides (DG's) and trisaturated glycerides (P‐P‐P) on tempering and the hardness of confectionery products are described. Palm oil and its processed products in confectionery fats have been reported (1,2). Palm oil contains a symmetric triglyceride (P‐O‐P) as a main component which has polymorphic changes similar to those of cocoa butter, so a mixture of these is able to use a tempering process similar to that used for cocoa butter.

Details for fat crystals and polymorphism have been reported (3,4). Okada (5) used a mixture of tristearin and tripalmitin and studied the behavior of polymorphism using X‐ray diffraction. The effects of DG's on polymorphic change in palm oil also have been reported (6,7), and Okiy (8) suggested that DG's have an inferior effect on the quality of palm oil when used in the solidified phase. However, there have not been many papers regarding how the above influence works in the production process or how it affects confectionery products.

Palm oil contains about 10% trisaturated glycerides together with a few percent of mono‐ and diglycerides as minor components, which have been produced during the maturation of palm fruits and processing of fats. It is very difficult to eliminate these completely during the refining process.

This paper reports a study of the influence of these minor components on tempering and hardness of products by using a simulated tempering machine. We have found that DG's lower the temperature of tempering and soften the hardness of products and that P‐P‐P increased the viscosity of products during tempering process but increased the hardness of products very little.
Linear alkylbenzene
Authors: de Almeida J. L. G. , Dufaux M. , Taarit Y. Ben , Naccache C.
Published: January 2007

Linear alkylbenzene (LAB) was introduced in the mid‐1960s as a raw material for cleaning products. Since then, continuing and explosive research on its biodegradation and on its environmental and human toxicity has been performed. The efficiency of linear alkylbenzene sulfonate as surfactant is clearly established, and it is one of the safest and most cost‐effective products in widespread commercial use. The aim of the present paper is to survey the most important developments and understandings of the chemistry of LAB production and of its physical and environmental properties. The expected consequence of this analytical survey is to envisage the continuous challenges for the detergents industry in catalytic production of LAB, better control of selectivity, replacement of corrosive and mineral liquid acid catalyst by heterogeneous acid catalyst and the maintenance of competitiveness of LAB with respect to natural alcohols.
A novel dianionic surfactant from the reaction of C14‐alkenylsuccinic anhydride with sodium isethionate
Authors: Schmidt W. W. , Lilienthal W. , Raney K. H. , Dubey S. T.
Published: January 2007

A novel derivative of alkenylsuccinic anhydride has been developed. When the anhydride is opened with sodium isethionate, a difunctional surfactant, alkenyl carboxysulfonate (ACS), is produced. This product has a unique combination of properties: moderate foaming, effective detergency, as well as the capability to function as a hydrotrope and as a co‐builder in formulated cleaning systems. This paper briefly reviews some past studies with ACS. The utility of ACS in hard‐surface cleaning is also examined, especially the capacity of this molecule to act both as a low‐streaking surfactant and a hydrotrope. This combined function should allow formulators to diminish or eliminate volatile solvents in a variety of cleaning products. ACS has shown merit as an agent to reduce soil redeposition in three different heavy‐duty liquid formulations. Additionally, heavy‐duty liquid detergents containing ACS can be formulated to high surfactant and organic builder levels.
Chemo‐enzymatic synthesis of disaccharide fatty acid esters
Authors: Sarney Douglas B. , Kapeller Herwig , Fregapane Guiseppe , Vulfson Evgeny N.
Published: January 2007

A novel enzymatic method for the synthesis of disaccharide fatty acid esters was developed with immobilizedMucor miehei lipase (Lipozyme IM‐60; Novo Nordisk, Bagsvaerd, Denmark) as a catalyst. A range of lactose and maltose monoesters was prepared in overall yields of 48–77% from the corresponding sugar acetals and fatty acids.
Builder performance in detergent formulations and biodegradability of partially dicarboxylated amylopectin
Authors: Matsumura Shuichi , Aoki Kiyotaka , Toshima Kazunobu
Published: January 2007

Amylopectin was partially dicarboxylated so as to retain the unreacted glucopyranose groups as biodegradable segments in the polymer chain; and the bioenzymatic degradability, as well as builder performance in detergent formulations, was evaluated and compared with data obtained from amylose. Dicarboxylation of amylopectin was carried out by conversion of the vicinal diols of the glucopyranose groups of amylopectin into the corresponding dicarboxylatesvia dialdehydes. The aerobic biodegradability of sodium dicarboxyamylopectin (DCAp) was evaluated by measuring the biological oxygen demand (BOD) with activated sludge. The biodegradability, of DCAp depended on the content of unreacted glucopyranose groups in the polymer chain. DCAp containing more than 80 mol% glucopyranose groups showed excellent biodegradability. The biodegradability, obtained by the BOD test, and the enzymatic degradability also correlated well, suggesting that these polymers are first cleaved at the unreacted glucopyranose units with subsequent assimilation of the resultant oligomeric fractions. DCAp, which was biodegradable under aerobic conditions, also biodegraded under anaerobic conditions. Detergency tests were carried out with heavy‐duty detergent formulations. The detergency was determined by the content of dicarboxylate groups in the polymer when compared on an equal weight basis. The polymers with high dicarboxylate contents showed better builder performance. DCAp showed better builder performance than the corresponding amylose derivatives. This excellent builder performance is ascribed to the cluster‐type structure of amylopectin, in which calcium ion is effectively sequestered. Builder performance in detergent formulation improved greatly with increasing amounts of DCAp used in the detergent formulation.
Nonionic detergent degradation: III. Initial mechanism of the degradation
Authors: Patterson Stella J. , Scott C. C. , Tucker K. B. E.
Published: January 2007

In Parts I and II of this series (1,2), degradation and foaming experiments on a number of commercially available alcohol polyethoxylates and alkyl phenol polyethoxylates are described. This paper describes an extension of the thin layer chromatographic work on which the experiments described earlier were based, supplemented by a variety of other chemical and physical tests to provide some insight into the initial mechanism of degradation of these materials before they disappear by the established oxidation and hydrolytic routes. In the case of the readily degradable alcohol ethoxylates, two distinct mechanisms are shown to proceed simultaneously: a fission of the molecule into hydrophobic and hydrophilic entities, and a rapid oxidation of the hydrophobic group. No fission occurs in the case of the alkyl phenol ethoxylates, the more usual route of degradation being slow oxidation and hydrolysis of the alkyl groups, the aromatic ring and the ethoxy chain simultaneously; occasionally, and at higher pH, the hydrolysis of the ethoxy chain proceeds at a considerably increased rate.
The use of agroindustrial by‐products for biosurfactant production
Authors: Mercade M. E. , Manresa M. A.
Published: January 2007

Traditionally, hydrocarbons have been used for biosurfactant production. However, urban waste, peat pressate and agroindustrial by‐products, such as olive oil mill effluent and acid whey, are possible substitutes for microbial growth and biosurfactant production. The state of the art has been reviewed, augmented by some new information onPseudomonas fermentation of olive oil mill effluent. More research is needed to improve yields and production economics.
Fatty acids: part 27. Olefin inversion involving unsaturated fatty esters
Authors: Lie Ken Jie M. S. F. , Chan M. F.
Published: January 2007

Unsaturated long chain fatty esters gave the corresponding bromochloro ester derivatives when treated with N‐bromosuccinimide and hydrogen chloride. Treatment of the intermediate halo esters with sodium iodide furnished the same positional unsaturated fatty ester isomers, but of opposite geometric configuration. This olefin isomerization method was found to be high yielding, stereospecific and to cause no double bond migration.
Detection of chlorophyll derivatives in soybean oil by HPLC
Authors: Fraser M. S. , Frankl G.
Published: January 2007

Chlorophyll derivatives have been isolated from a degummed soybean oil by cellulose column chromatography and resolved by reversed phase HPLC. The HPLC separation was performed on a Zorbax ODS column using acetone‐methanol (75:25) as the mobile phase. Seven major components were detected by visible (650 nm) light absorption. Pheophytin A is the predominant component of the mixture (40–45% of the total). Pheophytin A’, pyropheophytin A, and three unidentified pigments having spectral features resembling pheophytin A comprise the other major pigments. No evidence was found for the presence of chlorophylls A and B in this oil.
Characterization of γ‐linolenic acid geometrical isomers in borage oil subjected to heat treatments (deodorization)
Authors: Wolff Robert L. , Sébédio Jean‐Louis
Published: January 2007

Heating of borage oil, either under vacuum as a model or during steam‐vacuum deodorization, produces artifacts that are geometrical isomers of γ‐linolenic acid (cis‐6,cis‐9,cis‐12 18∶3 acid). In a first approach, we have studied the behavior of these fatty acids in the form of either methyl or isopropyl esters on two capillary columns (CP‐Sil 88 and DB‐Wax). From this study, it appears that the DB‐Wax capillary column is the best suited analytical tool to study in some detail γ‐linolenic acid geometrical isomers. In a second approach, the structure of these isomers was formally established by combining several analytical techniques: Argentation thin‐layer chromatography, comparison of the equivalent chainlengths with those of isomers present in NO2‐isomerized borage oil on two different capillary columns, partial hydrazine reduction, oxidative ozonolysis, gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry and gas chromatography coupled with Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. The two main isomers that accumulate upon heat treatments are thetrans‐6,cis‐9,cis‐12 andcis‐6,cis‐9,trans‐12 18∶3 acids with minor amounts ofcis‐6,trans‐9,cis‐12 18∶3 acid. One di‐trans isomer, supposed to be thetrans‐6,cis‐9,trans‐12 18∶3 acid, is present in low although noticeable amounts in some of the heated oils. The content of these artificial fatty acids increases with increasing temperatures and duration of heating. The degree of isomerization (DI) of γ‐linolenic acid is less than 1% when the oil is deodorized at 200°C for 2 h. Heating at 260°C for 5 h increases the DI up to 74%. Isomerization of γ‐linolenic acid resembles that of α‐linolenic (cis‐9,cis‐12,cis‐15 18∶3) acid in several aspects: The same kinds and numbers of isomers are formed, and similar degrees of isomerization are reached when the octadecatrienoic acids are heated under identical conditions. It seems that the reactivity of a double‐bondvis‐à‐vis cis‐trans isomerization is linked to its relative position, central or external, and not to its absolute position (Δ6, 9, 12 or 15).
Analysis of the seeds ofVentilago calyculata Tul.
Authors: Grover G. S. , Rao J. T.
Published: January 2007

Seeds ofVentilago calyculata contained 3.4% moisture, 1.8% ash, 32.9% fiber, 3.5% protein, 1.3% reducing sugars (as glucose), and 40% fixed oil, sterols, coloring matter, glycosides and free acids. The fixed oil of the seeds has been investigated in detail. Oleic acid was the major constituent at 63.1%; others were 15.9% palmitic, 13.6% linolenic, 4.5% linoleic, 1.2% lauric, 1.1% stearic and small amounts of caprylic acids. The unsaponfiable matter contained β‐amyrin and lupeol along with traces of two unidentified hydrocarbons.
Effect of salt and aging on aqueous surfactant formulations for tertiary oil recovery: A correlation of physical properties with microstructure using spin‐labels
Authors: Vijayan S. , Ramachandran C. , Shah D. O.
Published: January 2007

Physical properties and molecular packing in surfactant aggregates of the surfactant formulation 5% (w/w) TRS 10–410 (a petroleum sulfonate), 3% (w/w) isobutanol and desired quantities of sodium chloride in distilled water were studied using electron spin resonance (ESR) technique and pH, density, viscosity, screen factor, specific conductance, surface tension and free sodium ion measurements of fresh and aged solutions. The results suggested that both salt concentration and aging lead to changes in molecular packing of surfactant aggregates. At optimal salinity, the order parameter was a maximum. With increasing salt concentration, the correlation time increases initially and decreases at higher salt concentration. Various physical property data substantiate the observed microstructural changes. A detailed discussion is presented of the interrelations of these parameters operative in this complex surfactant formulation.
Sterols, methyl sterols, triterpene alcohols and fatty acids of the kernel fat of different malagasy mango(Mangifera indica) varieties
Authors: Gaydou Emile M. , Bouchet Philippe
Published: January 2007

The kernel fat content of 16 different mango varieties collected from the Northwestern part of Madagascar island were examined. The fat content (22–54%) was determined by chloroform/methanol extraction. Investigation by gas liquid chromatography (GLC) revealed 15 fatty acids, mainly palmitic (7–12%), stearic (22–40%), oleic (41–48%) and linoleic (7–17%). Significant correlations were observed among the main fatty acids. Testing for the sterol fraction in 15 mango varieties allowed us to separate and quantitatively analyze 7 sterols by GLC. The main sterols wereβ‐sitosterol (47–76%), stigmasterol (12–23%) and campesterol (7–12%). The stigmasterol/campesterol ratio (1.2:2.3) was lower in mango kernel fat than in cocoa butter. Among the 4‐methyl sterol fractions, gramisterol, lophenol, obtusifoliol and citrostadienol were tentatively identified by GLC. Lupeol, cycloartenol,α‐ andβ‐amyrins and friedelinol were tentatively identified by GLC in the triterpene alcohols fractions.