bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Challenges to the Mindlessness Model of Vigilance through Signal Regularity
Authors: Helton William S. , Hollander Todd D. , Warm Joel S. , Matthews Gerald , Dember William N. , Wallaart Matthew , Beauchamp Gerald , Parasuraman Raja
Published: January 2012

Robertson et al. (1997) have proposed that detection failures in vigilance tasks result from a “mindless” withdrawal of attentional effort from the monitoring assignment. To explore that view, they modified the traditional vigilance task in which observers make button-press responses to signify the detection of rarely occurring critical signals to one in which button-press responses acknowledge frequently occurring non-signal events and response-withholding signifies signal detection. This modification is designed to promote a mindless withdrawal of attentional effort from the task through routinization. The present study challenges the validity of the mindlessness model by showing that with both types of tasks observers can utilize subtle regularities in the temporal structure of critical signal appearances to develop expectations about the time course of those appearances that affect performance efficiency. Such expectations enhance performance with the traditional vigilance task but degrade performance with the modified task.
Searching Visual Displays: The Role of Attention
Authors: Davis Elizabeth T. , Shikano Terry , Peterson Scott A. , Michel Rachel K.
Published: January 2012

Previous research suggests that (a) target localization tasks, (b) apprehension of spatial relations among stimuli, (c) critical features shared between target and non-target stimuli, and (d) mirror-image symmetry between target and non-targets each place demands on attention, resulting in poor search performance caused by capacity limitations. But, are these performance deficits actually caused by capacity limitations? Perhaps they are caused by early, pre-attentive visual processing or by noisy decision making instead of capacity limitations. If so, this has implications for the design of “user-friendly” displays to facilitate search performance. To address these questions, we controlled sensory effects and systematically varied the complexity and number of stimuli as well as whether non-targets were mirror-images of the target. Comparisons of data to theoretical predictions showed that capacity limitations occurred only when the target shared critical features with complex non-target stimuli, so that one must apprehend spatial relations of each object's component parts. No other factors resulted in capacity limitations. Moreover, although mirror-image symmetry adversely affected early visual preattentive processing, it did not place additional demands on attention.
Moderating Factors in Visual Search: The Role of Ecological-Validity
Authors: Diaz Derek D. , Sims Valerie K. , Hancock Peter A. , Smith Hana S. , Ellis Linda Upham , Clark Bryan , Sushil David
Published: January 2012

Participants completed a visual search task that varied along three dimensions: 1) stimulus type: ecologically valid humans or ecologically neutral objects, 2) stimulus behavior: static, dynamic or random, and 3) number of targets: one or two. Search was faster when ecologically valid stimuli were used, and when these moved in a predictable fashion. Certain types of visual searches require search memory, or the ability to mentally tag previously examined objects. This search memory is optimized when ecologically valid stimuli are used. Design of visual search interfaces should take into account both the task and the stimuli.
Using Motion to Visualize Flow Facilitates Monitoring in Process Control
Authors: Essenberg Gavin R. , Wiegmann Douglas A. , Overbye Thomas J. , Sun Yan
Published: January 2012

In this experiment, we examined the use of motion in displays to illustrate power transactions in a large-scale electrical power network. Participants located and selected the selling and buying nodes for a single power transaction in each trial based on patterns in power flow between the nodes in the network, and they designated an arbitrary power flow path from the seller to the buyer in trials where they were not directly connected. Participants performed the tasks using interactive displays indicating power flow with stationary arrows, arrows moving at a uniform speed, and arrows moving at a speed proportional to power flow. The two motion displays supported faster selection times, fewer errors, and lower workload than the no-motion display. Selection times and error rates were slightly lower in the proportional-motion display than in the uniform-motion display, but the differences were not significant. These results indicate that motion used in displays to indicate flow among system components can significantly improve performance in tasks that require detection of specific flow patterns.
Length Perception by Dynamic Touch under Dual-Task Conditions
Authors: Santana Marie-Vee , Tollner Alison M. , Riley Michael A. , Black David P.
Published: January 2012

We examined perceivers' ability to perceive the lengths of hand-held rods under dual-task conditions. Participants used magnitude estimation to report the whole (tip-to-tip) and partial (from the point of grasp to the forward tip) lengths of rods held in one hand. At the same time, participants had to perform with the other hand a rhythmic-aiming task of varying difficulty. The results indicated that haptically perceived length was relatively unaffected by dual-task conditions, although there were hints of a mild dual-task effect: Perceptual performance was slightly better when participants held the to-be-perceived rod still, as opposed to when they actively wielded it. The results of this research are important for understanding how people are able to divide attention in order to interact with hand-held tools while performing concurrent tasks.
Performance, Workload, and Stress Correlates of Temporal and Spatial Task Demands
Authors: Ross Jennifer M. , Szalma James L. , Thropp Jennifer , Hancock Peter A.
Published: January 2012

Increased understanding of the mechanisms by which stress impacts performance is essential to the design and operation of complex information systems. This study represents a test of the hypothesis of Hancock, Szalma, and Weaver (2002) that the attentional narrowing observed under stressful conditions results from spatial and temporal perception drawing on common resource capacities. Although the present results were unable to resolve the specific issue to a satisfactory degree, a novel finding was observed that noise increases leniency in responding. The impact of noise on performance thus depends on the characteristics of the task to be performed, with spatial uncertainty exerting a significant influence on perceived workload.
Separating the Effects of Warning and Information Distribution Practices: A Case of Cascading Responsibility
Authors: Kalsher Michael J. , Viale Alex J. , Williams Kevin J.
Published: January 2012

In this study we examine how participants allocate blame after reading one of several variants of a fictitious product-use scenario that describes a construction worker who is injured after falling through an acrylic panel used in the construction of greenhouses. The safety practices and policies exhibited by the manufacturer, distributor, construction company owner and worker were cast either in a positive or negative light. Among the variables studied was the quality of the product warning and the methods used to distribute safety materials (e.g., installation manual) to the end user (panel installers). The results showed that blame allocation fell “downstream”, where most blame fell on the party that failed to distribute the safety information to the next step of the chain. The effects of distribution breakdown on blame was moderated by the type of warning provided by the manufacturer in that greater blame was placed on the negligent party when a good warning is used, and part of the blame for the accident was shifted to the manufacturer when it provided a poor warning, regardless of where the breakdown occurred. The implications of these results for consumers, legal professionals, and researchers are discussed.
Testing the Effects of Label Deterioration on the Legibility and Comprehensibility of Warnings
Authors: Dorris Nathan T. , Davis Jerry
Published: January 2012

On-product warning signs and labels face a variety of potential sources of deterioration (e.g., abrasion, ultraviolet light, and exposure to chemicals). Reviews of the available literature have produced few references regarding the effects of this deterioration on the ability of warnings to communicate. The objective of this study was to provide an initial investigation into this void in the literature. Actual warnings used on forest-harvesting equipment were photographed and rated with respect to the intensity of degradation. These real-world labels were then tested for legibility and comprehensibility using a sample of undergraduate students. The results indicate that at moderate levels of label deterioration persons can often correctly comprehend the intended safety messages. With respect to a degradation intensity rating of 3 (on a 5–point scale), the number of participants that correctly identified the conceptual meaning of the warnings (82) considerably exceeded the number that correctly identified the entire set of text messages (53).
On the Prediction of Pictorial Comprehension
Authors: Hicks Kevin E. , Bell Jennifer L. , Wogalter Michael S.
Published: January 2012

Pictorial development and testing can be a costly and inefficient process. The process of designing and testing pictorial symbols could benefit from a precursor test to determine the likelihood that a concept will permit the design of a successful symbol (according to subsequent comprehension testing). This study examines whether ratings of the concepts of to-be-designed symbols could be useful in the prediction of comprehension of the ensuing symbols for those concepts. Participants rated 50 text descriptions (referent plus further verbal context) on: (1) how concrete is this concept? (2) how easy is it to visualize this concept?; and (3) how effective would a simple picture be in conveying this concept? These ratings served as predictors of the population estimates and open-ended comprehension scores obtained from previous research by Young and Wogalter (2001). Results showed that there was a high correlation between the measures used in this study with both population estimates and open-ended comprehension scores. Ease of visualization of a concept had the highest predictive value with concreteness, being the second highest predictor. Measures of the ease of visualization or imaging a concept may be useful preliminary tools for pictorial designers.
Fixed Site Amusement Park Injuries: An Examination of Two Sources of Data
Authors: Arndt S. R. , Al-Tarawneh I. S.
Published: January 2012

The Consumer Product Safety Commission's (CPSC) National Electronic Injury Surveillance System (NEISS) provides the best available national estimates of injuries associated with more than 800 consumer products. The statistically based sample of hospital emergency rooms is very well designed to allow extrapolation of national estimates for products and activities that are distributed relatively evenly across the country. However, the system is not designed to generate accurate estimates of national injuries for “products” that are geographically fixed and not evenly distributed across the country. This paper discusses the problems associated with using NEISS data to extrapolate national estimates of injuries for amusement parks and rides. Data from first aide stations at a sample of Six Flags' largest theme parks are presented. These data describe the distribution and type of injuries treated at first aide stations within the parks.
Severity Message from Hazard Alert Symbol on Caution Signs
Authors: Jensen Roger C. , McCammack Andrew M.
Published: January 2012

Standards for the design of signal word panels specify different combinations of colors, signal words, and a hazard alert symbol. The warning sign standards of the American National Standards Institute specify a yellow signal word panel, with the word Caution and a hazard alert symbol, for signs marking people hazards. The same panel, without the symbol, is intended for property hazards. The purpose of this study was to determine if the presence or absence of the symbol effectively conveys the intended severity messages. A sample of 59 college students rated their impressions of a Caution sign with and without the symbol. Subjects rated the plain Caution sign as communicating significantly higher severity levels than property damage, indicating that a yellow Caution sign inaccurately communicates a hazard to property. Subjects rated the sign with the symbol as connoting significantly greater severity than the sign without the symbol.
Conceptual versus Procedural Feedback in the Training of a Home Medical Device
Authors: Fiesler Casey L. , McLaughlin Anne Collins , Fisk Arthur D. , Rogers Wendy A.
Published: January 2012

With the aid of new technology, the use of home medical devices is becoming more prevalent among older adults. These devices are often not designed with consideration for the cognitive differences that come with aging, and older adults often require training to use the devices. This study considered a blood glucose monitor, and attempted to discern what type of feedback yielded better performance from older adults: conceptual or procedural feedback-training. Participants calibrated the monitor and were given feedback when they made mistakes. The prediction was that the procedurally trained group would require fewer trials to attain criterion (a trial without error), but that the conceptually trained group would have better performance after a retention interval, showing a greater understanding of the system. Results indicated that there was no significant difference in performance between experimental conditions, but that feedback itself had a positive effect on performance.
Improving Human Scaling Reliability
Authors: Boring Ronald Laurids
Published: January 2012

In order to measure the subjective experience of system users, the field of human factors makes extensive use of classical scaling methods. In this paper, the applicability of a new scaling method for human factors research is demonstrated. Constrained scaling, a technique for training individuals to translate mental magnitudes to numeric scales, is introduced. Constrained scaling has been found to reduce significantly the variability in scale use between individuals. Prior research has focused extensively on psychophysical constrained scaling. As an example of how constrained scaling can also improve the quality of psychometric measures available to human factors researchers, new research is presented that compares classical scaling with constrained scaling for rating the visual appeal of Web pages. Constrained scaling is found to increase scaling reliability in this subjective domain.
Lessons Learned during Two Naturalistic Truck-Driving Studies
Authors: Neale Vicki L. , Hanowski Richard J. , Klauer Sheila G. , Dingus Thomas A.
Published: January 2012

The Virginia Tech Transportation Institute (VTTI) was contracted by the Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration (FMCSA) and the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) to collect data from Commercial Vehicle Operators (CVO) under two contracts. The first study, Impact of Local/Short Haul Operations on Driver Fatigue (Hanowski, et al., 2000), focused on those drivers who drive an average of three hours a day while delivering goods but sleep at home each night. The second study, Impact of Sleeper Berth Usage on Driver Fatigue (Dingus, et al., 2002), studied fatigue in drivers who are on the road up to two weeks at a time and use the truck sleeper-berth unit for rest. Each study presented unique obstacles to overcome in order to make data collection possible. This paper will summarize the lessons learned during recruiting, truck licensing, and coordination and will provide insight into the rigors of collecting data in a truck-driving environment.
Quantifying Car following Performance as a Metric for Primary and Secondary (Distraction) Task Load: Part A — Modification of Task Parameters
Authors: Ward Nicholas J. , Manser Michael P. , de Waard Dick , Kuge Nobuyuki , Boer Erwin
Published: January 2012

Driver impairment as a result of attention-related factors is a common concern to many areas of safety research in driving. Previously, the “coherence technique” was developed to provide several metrics of performance in relation to the continuous task of car following presumed to require vigilance and perceptual capacity (Brookhuis, De Waard, & Mulder, 1994). This study examines a modified version of this technique that is more natural. This modified technique was sensitive to both increased primary and secondary (distraction) task load.
Ocular Movement during Curbside Turns at Intersections
Authors: Kitajima Muneo , Akamatsu Motoyuki
Published: January 2012

We conducted a driving experiment and measured and analyzed the data on eye movement in order to understand ocular movement during curbside turns at intersections. We used a driving simulator equipped with a system capable of measuring the direction of a subject's glances relative to the heading of their vehicle. By analyzing this data, measured at three intersections, we identified three tasks commonly observed in curbside turns: 1) object inspection; 2) turning; and 3) aligning. During the first task, the measurements showed variable swinging patterns. There was a consistent pattern of looking at targets along the curb in the second task, presumably for guidance while turning the vehicle. During the third task, measurements showed a coherent pattern of returning the glance from turning to the subsequent driving maneuvers.
On-Road Measures of the Nighttime Conspicuity of Pedestrians
Authors: Tyrrell Richard A. , Wood Joanne M. , Carberry Trent P.
Published: January 2012

Pedestrian fatalities, which in the U.S. account for 12% of all traffic fatalities, are more common at night. This experiment quantified drivers' ability to recognize the presence of pedestrians at night. Ten younger and ten older participants drove around a closed road circuit and indicated when they first recognized that a pedestrian was present. The percentage of pedestrians recognized was recorded and a parallax-based video system measured recognition distances. Results confirm that a severe pedestrian conspicuity problem exists and that driver age, clothing configuration, headlamp beam setting, and glare all significantly affect pedestrian recognition. In the most challenging condition (low beams, black clothing, glare) only 5% of pedestrians were recognized. At the other extreme, 100% of the pedestrians were recognized when they wore retro-reflective materials depicting biological motion (without glare present). Without glare, mean recognition distances varied from 0.0 meters (older drivers, low beam, black clothing) to 220 meters (younger drivers, high beam, biomotion).
Dual-Task Interference: Using Hierarchical Cluster Analysis to Identify Underlying Cognitive Mechanisms
Authors: Nicholls Alastair P. , Farmer Eric W. , Peachey Richard , Belyavin Andrew J.
Published: January 2012

It is generally assumed that performance impairment in dual-task studies reflects the degree to which the two tasks draw upon common cognitive processes or mechanisms. The present paper reports an attempt to identify and categorise the cognitive functions that underlie interference effects in dual-task studies. The extant literature was reviewed, and a short-list of twelve tasks used commonly in dual-task studies was identified. A task similarity matrix was constructed that plotted the degree of interference between task pairs. Based on the similarity matrix a first estimate of the positions of the selected tasks in Euclidean (interference) space was made and clusters of tasks identified. Results suggest that the common modular dichotomy between verbal and spatial resources is necessary but not sufficient to explain the findings.
Identification of Cognitive Demands for New Systems
Authors: Lintern Gavan , Miller Christopher
Published: January 2012

The fast pace of technological change has pushed military procurement into a design environment in which traditional evolutionary design methods no longer satisfy the need to take advantage of emerging functionality. No aspect of this new demand is more taxing than the design for human participation. A more systematic, human-oriented approach is needed to elicit and define the cognitive requirements associated with new systems. We plan to resolve these issues by melding the constraint based approach of Cognitive Work Analysis with a task-based modeling approach in order to down-select scenarios and explore critical cases in preparation for resolving cognitive issues with constructive and Human in the Loop simulation. In this project we have so far undertaken a cognitive analysis of some aspects of our client system, the Multi-sensor Command and Control Aircraft. We have also developed strategies and formal guidelines for translating results of the cognitive analysis into forms suitable for the task-based modeling.
Using Cognitive Work Analysis to Develop a Capability for the Evaluation of Future Systems
Authors: Crone David J. , Sanderson Penelope M. , Naikar Neelam
Published: January 2012

Evaluating complex human-machine systems is a multidimensional problem that requires the analyst to specify the characteristics of the system to be evaluated and to specify the method of evaluation to be used in determining its effectiveness. Whereas current approaches using task analysis techniques are used widely for evolutionary systems, other approaches, such as those from within the Cognitive Work Analysis (CWA) framework, may be better suited to revolutionary systems. This paper presents ongoing work directed at developing a human-in-the-loop simulation capability for revolutionary, or novel, systems that aims to evaluate the impact of a subsystem's performance (e.g. radar detection range) on the overall system's purpose (e.g. the safe transportation of troops). Two aspects of the development of this capability are presented: 1) the use of Work Domain Analysis and Control Task Analysis to represent systems for the purpose of providing measures of performance for human-in-the-loop experiments performed in support of system evaluation and 2) criteria for judging the utility of a CWA approach for system evaluation compared to other more traditional techniques.
Evaluation of Floor Mats Using Two Pressure Measuring Systems: In-Shoe Type and Platform Type
Authors: Na Seokhee , Song Young W. , Kim Seong-Han , Chung Min K.
Published: January 2012

Four floor surface conditions were evaluated using two foot plantar pressure measuring systems: Emed (platform type) and Pedar (in-shoe type). Six male subjects walked barefoot on four different floor surface mats to determine the mean reaction force and maximum reaction force during gait. The results revealed significant differences in mean reaction force and maximum reaction force among the floor surface conditions (p < 0.05) and between the measurement systems (p < 0.05). Furthermore, the results indicate that the in-shoe type system is a more appropriate method for the evaluation of floor mats.
An Experimental Investigation of Skill, Rule, and Knowledge-Based Performance under Noise Conditions
Authors: Weaver J. L. , Bradley K. A. , Burke K. A. , Helmick J. A. , Greenwood-Ericksen A. , Hancock P. A.
Published: January 2012

An important aspect of soldier effectiveness is the ability to perform multiple tasks in the face of stress. It has likewise been found that performance on a secondary task degrades when multiple tasks are being performed simultaneously and that the presence of stress is associated with general decrements in performance. Consequently, it is important to understand how the presence of stress impacts complex task performance in the military domain. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the effect of noise on multiple task performance, subjective workload, and subjective dimensions of stress framed within the skill — rule — and knowledge based trichotomization.
Dyadic Protocols, Observational Learning, and the Acquisition of Complex Skills
Authors: Day Eric Anthony , Paulus Leigh E. , Arthur Winfred , Fein Erich C.
Published: January 2012

We examined two dyadic training protocols, both featuring observational learning, with respect to the acquisition of a complex skill. Specifically, we compared an active interlocked modeling (AIM) protocol which requires trainees to alternate between performing half of a task simultaneously with a partner who performs the other half to an alternating perform-and-observe (APO) protocol which requires trainees to alternate between performing the whole task and observing a partner performing the whole task. Sixty-four young adult males were assigned to either an AIM or APO protocol and underwent 3 days of skill acquisition training on a complex computer task that simulated the demands of a dynamic aviation environment. Results indicated that the APO protocol led to greater levels of skill acquisition and skill retention (after an 8-day nonpractice interval), but the advantage of APO training diminished after a brief period of individual reacquisition and on a test of skill transfer.
Effectiveness of Computer Game Instructions
Authors: Chen Jessie Y. C.
Published: January 2012

One important issue facing the military training community for incorporating computer games into training programs is that training time is at a premium and trainees need to learn the game as quickly as possible so they can start using the game to train the skills of interest. This study examined various game-related performance measures and concluded that different instructional techniques (i.e., computer-based tutorials and game playing tips) appeared to be effective in different ways, and players with access to both learned the game most effectively. Specifically, computer-based tutorials were more beneficial for enhancing overall game scores; on the other hand, those who had access to game tips performed better in cognitive segments of the game such as setting up game plans and familiarity with the game interface.
A Virtual Environment for Training Military Checkpoint Guards
Authors: Catanzaro Jean M. , Scerbo Mark W. , McKenzie Frederic , Phillips Mark A. , Bailey Nathan R. , Loftin R. Bowen
Published: January 2012

The present study describes a Virtual Environment (VE) designed to train individuals to perform the role of a military checkpoint guard. Participants stood guard at a fictitious base in which simulated drivers in vehicles would approach seeking entrance. Participants were asked to inspect each vehicle, interact with the drivers, verify their identification, and make a decision to allow the driver to enter the base, to detain the vehicle, or to ask the driver to turn around and leave. The experiment was conducted in a CAVE™ with stereoscopic visual and auditory displays, participant tracking, and voice recognition. The results showed that participants were able to learn quite effectively in the VE with the biggest performance improvements seen in the areas of proper protocol and social influence. These findings suggest that VE technology holds promise for activities that are more like experience-based training and which place a greater emphasis on social interaction skills.
Personal Space in Virtual Reality
Authors: Wilcox Laurie M. , Allison Robert S. , Elfassy Samuel , Grelik Cynthia
Published: January 2012

Improving the sense of ‘presence’ is a common goal of 3D display technology for film, television and virtual reality. However, there are instances in which 3D presentation may elicit unanticipated negative responses. For example, it is well established that violations of interpersonal space cause discomfort in real-world situations. Here we ask if people respond similarly when viewing life-sized stereoscopic images. Observers rated their level of comfort in response to animate and inanimate objects in live and virtual (stereoscopic projection) viewing conditions. Electrodermal activity was also recorded to monitor their physiological response to these stimuli. Subjects exhibited significant negative reactions to violations of interpersonal space in stereoscopic 3D displays, which were equivalent to those experienced in the natural environment. These data have important implications for the creation of 3D media and the use of virtual reality systems.
Virtual Contact: The Continuum from Purely Visual to Purely Physical
Authors: Lindeman Robert W.
Published: January 2012

Providing appropriate cues to users when interacting with objects in immersive virtual environments (IVEs) is a difficult task. In addition to individual user differences, environmental factors, and task-specific requirements, the technological complexity of the current state of the art in haptic feedback further increases the difficulty. Though the technology continues to improve, we are still a long way from having haptic feedback that meets the demands of a “general solution” to the problem. This paper focuses on ways of providing effective contact cues in IVEs, starting with purely-visual approaches and moving along a continuum to the use of actual physical objects as high-fidelity interfaces.
Evaluation of Tactile Alerts for Control Station Operation
Authors: Calhoun Gloria , Draper Mark , Ruff Heath , Fontejon John , Guilfoos Brian
Published: January 2012

In complex systems, it is difficult to efficiently provide operators with timely and meaningful information. Tactile displays may alleviate visual workload by transmitting information through the skin. This study examined the utility of active tactile alerts versus salient visual and/or auditory alerts in an unmanned aerial vehicle ground control station simulation. Tactor location (right or left arm) and number of factors vibrating (one or two) were used to code three types of alerts. Results showed that tactile stimulation, when presented in concert with visual and auditory alerts, did not aid (or degrade) performance, suggesting they could substitute for auditory alerts when the aural channel is overloaded. Results also indicated that tactile alerts used as the sole cue, compared to a visual alert, improved reaction time which suggests that vibratory stimulation may be an effective non-redundant cue. Further research is warranted to determine how best to apply tactile alerts in control stations to reduce visual and auditory workload.
Spatial Learning in Transparent Virtual Environments
Authors: Piller Michael J. , Sebrechts Marc M.
Published: January 2012

Participants learned the spatial layout of a virtual building using one of two models: one with transparent walls and one with opaque walls. Learning was assessed through an object location task in which two objects from the virtual environment were presented in succession, the first object was always presented visually; the second was presented visually or acoustically. Participants judged the location of the second object relative to the first. Both accuracy and response time analyses indicated that training in the transparent model supported the formation of a survey representation of the space. Opaque training, in contrast, resulted in representations consistent with a route-based model of the space. These differences were most evident when the second object was presented acoustically, suggesting the importance of task characteristics on the determination of spatial representations.
Kids Get Sick Too: A Proposed Child Simulator Sickness Questionnaire
Authors: Hoeft Raegan M. , Vogel Jennifer , Bowers Clint A.
Published: January 2012

The increasing use of video games and virtual reality for education, as well as entertainment, warrants a method of assessing the degree to which these modalities of presentation may adversely affect the viewers. For adults, this tool currently exists in the Simulator Sickness Questionnaire (SSQ; Kennedy, Lane, Berbaum, & Lilienthal, 1993). However, for children, who are more exposed to these technologies and who are more prone to these adverse effects, there is no appropriate method of attaining this important information. Often, researchers will attempt to adapt some of the questions on the SSQ to fit their purposes; however this creates a completely unstandardized method of assessing the amount of simulator sickness experienced. This paper introduces a Child Simulator Sickness Questionnaire as a simple, short, standardized method of collecting simulator sickness symptom data for children.
Testing the Surface Management System (SMS) Through Operational Trials with Air Traffic Control and Airline Participants
Authors: Martin Lynne , Hitt James M. , Lozito Sandra
Published: January 2012

The Surface Management System (SMS) aims to increase airport capacity and decrease surface gridlock, which are goals consistent with the Federal Aviation Administration's (FAA) National Airspace System Operational Evolution Plan (FAA, 2002). An operational trial was conducted to evaluate the initial design of the SMS traffic management tools. Although the dataset was small, participant responses were positive on four dimensions (usefulness, frequency of use, perceived accuracy, and ease of use) for nearly all of the six traffic management tools. Participant debriefs highlighted additional issues including the effects of SMS on coordination between Air Traffic Management facilities. This paper outlines the conduct of the operational trials and explores two of the major issues raised by the observations made during the trials.
Psychophysiologically Determined Classification of Cognitive Activity
Authors: Wilson Glenn F. , Russell Christopher A.
Published: January 2012

Psychophysiological measures and artificial neural networks were used to determine how well higher levels of cognitive activity, such as executive function, spatial and verbal working memory and global workload, could be assessed. A complex uninhabited air vehicle simulator was used in which subjects were responsible for four vehicles simultaneously. The subjects had to evaluate visual images and maintain the status of the vehicles. The results showed that the cognitive states, derived from subjective reports, could be accurately classified. These results have application in human factors environments which demand higher level cognitive processing and may be useful when implementing adaptive aiding in these systems.
Comparison of Two Voice Synthesis Systems as to Speech Intelligibility in Aircraft Cockpit Engine Noise
Authors: Lancaster Jeff A. , Robinson Gary S. , Casali John G.
Published: January 2012

Empirical studies comparing newer text-to-speech (TTS) synthesis systems to older systems are lacking. This study compared two speech synthesizers, DECtalk ‘Perfect Paul,’ one of the most popular ‘older’ synthesizers, and a ‘newer’ synthesizer, AT&T's Natural Voices ‘Mike,’ for intelligibility utilizing the Modified Rhyme Test (MRT). Each system was evaluated at three speech-to-noise (S/N) ratios: −5 dB, −8 dB, and −11 dB, in a within-subjects design. Aircraft engine noise at 85 dB(A), produced by a Cessna 172R flight simulator, served as background noise. Normal hearing non-pilots served as subjects. Results indicated differences in intelligibility between the two speech synthesizers at each speech-to-noise ratio, with the AT&T product showing significantly better intelligibility than the DECtalk product. Potential applications of this research include guidance for the integration of automated voice technologies in the cockpit and in similar systems that present elevated levels of background noise during normal communications and auditory display operations.
Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Flight Control: False Alarms versus Misses
Authors: Dixon Stephen R. , Wickens Christopher D. , Chang Dervon
Published: January 2012

Thirty-two undergraduate pilots from the University of Illinois School of Aviation performed simulated military reconnaissance missions with an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV). Pilots were required to: a) navigate the UAV through a series of mission legs, b) search for possible targets of opportunity, and c) monitor system health. They performed the missions under three types of auditory auto-alert aids (a 100% reliable system, a 67% reliable system with automation false alarms, and a 67% reliable system with automation misses), as well as a non-automated baseline condition. Results indicate that while reliable automation can benefit performance relative to baseline in the automated task, the unreliable automation aids reduced performance to that of baseline or worse. The automation false alarms and misses harmed performance in qualitatively different ways, with false alarm prone automation appearing to cause more damage than miss prone automation to both the automated task and the concurrent target search task.
Criterion Setting for Objective, Fourier Analysis Based Pilot Performance Metrics
Authors: Johnson Nicholas R. , Rantanen Esa M. , Talleur Donald A.
Published: January 2012

This study reports the development and evaluation of time series based objective pilot performance metrics. From a previously developed array of autocorrelation and Fourier analysis based metrics, five Fourier-based metrics that employed a threshold value were chosen to investigate their effectiveness in separating pilots who, based on instructor pilot (IP) evaluations, had either passed or failed a particular segment of an instrument proficiency check flight. An instrument landing system (ILS) approach was chosen for analysis based on IP feedback of what flight segments were most difficult to evaluate, had greatest sensitivity to overall pilot performance, and greatest criticality to the flying task. Further analysis showed that an optimal value for the criterion value could be found that most effectively separated those pilots that had passed the ILS segment from those who had failed. Criterion setting methods without external criteria using multidimensional scaling and cluster analysis techniques are also discussed.
An Empirical Investigation of the Effects of Controller Experience on Conflict Detection Ability under Free Flight
Authors: Nunes Ashley
Published: January 2012

The progression towards the implementation of Free Flight has raised concerns over lapses in a controller's ability to detect the presence of conflicts amongst multiple aircraft pairs. These concerns have been supported through numerous empirical studies. An issue that has not received much attention is the impact of controller experience on conflict detection ability under Free flight. In the present study, fourteen controllers performed a conflict detection task. Variables manipulated included experience level and traffic load and controller performance was assessed using response time and accuracy as measures. Results from the study surprisingly suggest that controllers with more experience take longer to ascertain conflict likelihood under free flight conditions compared to their novice counterparts, even when the age factor is accounted for. We attribute the presence of the effect to the greater reliance on conventional cues, such as a route structure, and postulate that the absence of such cues produce the observed effects. The implications of these findings are discussed.
Atc Usability of the Navigation Reference System
Authors: Mills Scott H. , Domino David A. , Borowski Michael , Wendling Valerie , Ball Celesta G. , Rowe Dennis W. , Helleberg John R.
Published: January 2012

The navigation reference system (NRS) was designed to provide increased routing flexibility to aircraft operators and air traffic controllers. The NRS is a grid of points that employs a shorthand naming convention to specify waypoints independent of ground-based navigation aids. This study assessed usability of the NRS in simulated en route air traffic control (ATC). Scenarios were designed to exercise the NRS by varying factors such as traffic level and weather conditions. Twenty-four controllers representing four ATC facilities participated. Controllers completed six 45-minute simulation runs and completed questionnaires and debriefing sessions after each run. Controllers found the use of the NRS to be generally acceptable and usable even when traffic counts were high. The NRS was reported to provide significant added flexibility in performing important ATC rerouting procedures. Although several usability issues were identified, none were considered significant enough to outweigh the advantages of the NRS.
Measuring Traffic Awareness in an Integrated Hazard Display
Authors: Alexander Amy L. , Wickens Christopher D.
Published: January 2012

The ability for pilots to estimate traffic location, and how such estimations should be measured, was examined within an Integrated Hazard Display context. Twelve pilots viewed static images of traffic scenarios and then estimated the outside world locations of queried traffic represented in one of three display types (2D coplanar, 3D exocentric, and split-screen) and in one of four conditions (display present/blank crossed with outside world present/blank). Overall, the 2D coplanar display best supported both vertical (compared to 3D) and lateral (compared to split-screen) traffic position estimation performance. Furthermore, although pilots were faster in estimating traffic locations when the display was blank, accuracy was greatest when both the display and outside world were available.
Symbology Development for General Aviation Synthetic Vision Primary Flight Displays for the Approach and Missed-Approach Modes of Flight
Authors: Bartolone Anthony P. , Hughes Monica F. , Wong Douglas T. , Takallu Mohammad A.
Published: January 2012

Spatial disorientation induced by inadvertent flight into instrument meteorological conditions (IMC) continues to be a leading cause of fatal accidents in general aviation. The Synthetic Vision Systems – General Aviation (SVS-GA) research element, an integral part of NASA's Aviation Safety and Security Program (AvSSP), is investigating a revolutionary display technology designed to mitigate low visibility events such as controlled flight into terrain (CFIT) and low-visibility loss of control (LVLOC). The integrated SVS Primary Flight Display (SVS-PFD) utilizes computer generated 3-dimensional imagery of the surrounding terrain augmented with flight path guidance symbology. This unique combination will provide GA pilots with an accurate representation of their environment and projection of their flight path, regardless of time of day or out-the-window (OTW) visibility. The initial Symbology Development for Head-Down Displays (SD-HDD) simulation experiment examined 16 display configurations on a centrally located high-resolution PFD installed in NASA's General Aviation Work Station (GAWS) flight simulator. The results of the experiment indicate that situation awareness (SA) can be enhanced without having a negative impact on task performance, by providing a general aviation pilot with an integrated SVS display to use when OTW visibility is obscured.
Traffic and Flight Guidance Depiction on a Synthetic Vision System Display: The Effects of Clutter on Performance and Visual Attention Allocation
Authors: Wickens Christopher D. , Alexander Amy L. , Horrey William J. , Nunes Ashley , Hardy Thomas J.
Published: January 2012

Fourteen pilots flew a synthetic vision system (SVS) display, through a terrain and traffic-rich environment in a high fidelity flight simulator. Traffic information was hosted on the SVS display. In a 2times2 factorial design, the SVS display hosted a highway-in-the-sky in half the conditions, and hosted an instrument panel overlay in the other half. We examined the effects of the resulting clutter from overlay (but reduced scanning) on routine flight performance, SVS traffic detection, and response to off-normal events, as these were mediated by visual scanning measures of attention allocation. The tunnel greatly improved flight path tracking and traffic detection, but slightly disrupted the detection of unexpected outside world traffic. The instrument panel overlay provided no benefits to tracking and a clutter-related time cost to SVS traffic detection. Visual attention was focused on the SVS display over half the time, and rarely on the outside world, even in visual meteorological conditions (VMC), a source of possible cognitive tunneling.
Eye-tracking and Individual Differences in off-Normal Event Detection when Flying with a Synthetic Vision System Display
Authors: Thomas Lisa C , Wickens Christopher D
Published: January 2012

Eye-tracking data were collected on eight pilots who flew a high fidelity flight simulator with a synthetic vision system (SVS) display, which included a tunnel-in-the-sky in half of the experimental conditions. In this paper, we examined the individual pilots' detection and response to two unexpected events, where the true information was inaccurately (or not) represented on the SVS display. The results indicate that the pilots who failed to detect these unexpected events spent most of their time scanning the SVS display, which included the tunnel, and rarely scanned the outside world. The pilot who detected the unexpected events showed scan patterns with a more even distribution of scans to the SVS, the outside world, and other displays even when the tunnel was present. This suggests that detection of unexpected in-the-world events depends on the individual pilot's vigilance in maintaining a regular scan pattern and resistance to “cognitively tunneling” into only one display.
Expertise and Aging in a Pilot Decision-Making Task
Authors: Morrow Daniel , Miller Lisa Soederberg , Ridolfo Heather , Kokayeff Nina , Chang Dervon , Fischer Ute , Stine-Morrow Elizabeth
Published: January 2012

We examined age/expertise trade-offs in a laboratory pilot decision-making task. Expert and novice pilots read at their own pace brief scenarios that described simpler or more complex flight situations, then in a standard interview discussed the problem in the scenario and how they would respond if they were pilot-in-command. Decision making was measured by coding the protocols for correctly identifying the problems and solutions to problems. Scenario comprehension was measured by reading time and the accuracy of answering questions about the scenarios. All groups accurately identified the problems, but experts elaborated problem descriptions more than novices did. Older experts elaborated more, and older novices elaborated less, than their younger counterparts. Older experts also identified more appropriate solutions to problems while older novices identified less appropriate solutions compared to their younger counterparts. Reading time findings suggested that experts maintained decision-making accuracy by spending more time on critical information when reading more complex scenarios.
Investigating Issues in Aging and Work Performance Using a Customer Service Task Simulator
Authors: Sharit Joseph , Czaja Sara J. , Hernandez Mario , Yang Yulong
Published: January 2012

This paper discusses the use of a simulation tool for investigating information search performance in customer service work involving e-mail correspondence. Some unique opportunities for examining issues in aging and task performance that this customer service task simulator provides are also discussed. Integrated into this discussion are some results from an initial study of age group differences in performance of this type of task. Most importantly, this simulator's portability and the ease in which realistic customer queries can be captured enable it to be used as a platform for translating experimental research findings into more real-world settings by investigating task performance within the user's home environment.