bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Islamic Background To Indian History
Authors: Athar Ali M.
Published: June 2008

The medieval period of Indian history, as conventionally fixed by historians, c. 1000 to c. 1750 had so deep an imprint of Islam, that during much of the period, India could be held to belong culturally to the Islamic World, not on its periphery, but close to its core. It is, of course, the uniqueness of India's situation, that at the very same time, strictly in terms of its Hindu component, it could be said to be a world in its own right, with Islam only as a peripheral phenomenon. Yet, since the Islamic connexion greatly influenced the political structure, the fiscal system and even much of the network of internal commerce and external trade, it is crucial to understand the background that Islam provided to Indian history, or in other words, to understand Islamic history till the arrival of Islam in Northern India, c. 12001). A splendid effort to do so was provided by Professor Mohammad Habib in his introduction to a reprint of Vol. II of Elliot and Dowson's History of India as told by its Own Historians, Aligarh, 1952. A year later Hamilton Gibb came out with his well known essay, "An Interpretation of Islamic History", published in Journal of World
Origine, sens et survie du terme boécien «secundum placitum»
Authors: Engels J.
Published: June 2008

La première fois que SECUNDUM PLACITUM se présente chez Boèce, c'est dans sa traduction de la définition aristotélienne du nom du Peri Herméneias (I6 a I9): "Ovoμα μν oüv στ φων σημαντιΧ Χατ συνΧην...Ι qu'il rend: NOMEN ERGO EST VOX SIGNIFICATIVA SECUNDUM PLACITUM. L'expression y est le substitut de Χατ συνν qu'on interprète en général comme signifiant «par convention». En interprétant SECUNDUM PLACITUM de la même manière, on a l'avantage de faire correspondre parfaitement l'expression latine au sens usuel du terme grec. En a-t-on le droit? Ici surgissent deux problèmes connexes: Quel est le sens exact de Χατ συνΧην, quel est celui de SECUNDUM PLACITUM? Commençons par le premier.
Some new Evidence on twelfth century Logic
Authors: De Rijk L.M.
Published: June 2008

IT is well known that the art of logic (logica or diale(c)tica) knew a remarkable flourishing period during the twelfth century. In the first half of the century its main centres in Paris were: the School of Notre DameI, of St. Victor2, of the Petit Pont3 and of Mont Ste Geneviève4. The present paper aims to offer some new evidence from the manuscripts on the teaching of logic as given in the School of Mont Ste
Prophecy and Ecstasy in Greco-Roman Religion and in 1 Corinthians
Authors: Callan Terrance
Published: June 2008

We have seen that in Greek prophètes means spokesman in a very general sense. Most characteristically it designates the medium, or mantis, at an oracle, who is considered a spokesman for the god of the oracle. This mantic prophecy is accompanied by trance, i.e., when the mantis functions as spokesman, his or her ordinary consciousness is replaced by another. However, in an effort to explain why oracles at Delphi are no longer given in verse, Plutarch develops a theory according to which even prophecy in this sense does not involve trance, but makes use of the ordinary consciousness of the mantis. In addition to this use of prophetes, it is also used to designate other spokesmen. Some of these are considered entranced, e.g., poets, the spokesmen of the Muses, in Plato's view. But most are not, e.g., poets according to the understanding of poetic inspiration reflected in Pindar, and those who functioned at oracles as spokesmen for the mantis. I have argued that the uses of prophètes in Greek correspond fairly well to the apparent range of meanings for nabi in the OT. But the use of prophètes to translate nabi involved a shift of emphasis: while in Greek prophètes mainly designates those who prophesy in trance, as a translation for nabi, prophètes mainly designates those whose prophecy is apparently not accompanied by trance. This can be seen clearly in Philo who knows of prophecy as a trance phenomenon, but who sees at least Moses mainly as a prophet whose prophecy does not involve trance. This understanding of prophecy results both from fidelity to scripture and from Philo's desire to praise Moses and account for certain difficulties in scripture.
The Behaviour of the Male Three-Spined Stickleback in a Natural Situation: a Quantitative Description
Authors: Wootton R.J.
Published: June 2008

The behaviour of male Three-spined Sticklebacks in a stretch of the River Wear in Durham City is described. Quantitative data on parental behaviour and the effects of creeping through agreed closely with data collected under laboratory conditions. A decrease in territory size during the parental phase was noted. Nest raiding and egg stealing were also observed. Circling and dorsal-pricking were important components of courtship behaviour.
The Role of the Epaulets in the Red-Winged Blackbird, (Agelaius Phoeniceus) Social System
Authors: Smith Douglas G.
Published: June 2008

The role of the epaulets of the male Red-winged blackbird, Agelaius phoeniceus, was examined. Territorial male Red-wings were captured and their epaulets blackened with Nyanzol D, a permanent black dye. The following results were obtained: 1) Sixty-four percent of the males with black epaulets lost their territories while only eight percent of the control males lost theirs. 2) Males with epaulets blackened prior to pair formation were still able to "attract" females and mate successfully. It was concluded that the epaulets communicate threat between rival males but that they have little if any role in intersexual encounters. The epaulets, therefore, have probably evolved in response to intrasexual (epigamic) selection pressure.
Sexual Behavior in Continuously Cycling Rats
Authors: Fitzroy Hardy Donna
Published: June 2008

The succession of vaginal and behavioral changes was followed throughout the estrous cycle of ten continuously cycling female rats. Interruption of cycles by pregnancy or pseudopregnancy was prevented by the use of the vaginal mask. The behavioral indices were Lordosis Quotient, a measure of sexual responsiveness, and Rejection Quotient, a measure of tolerance by the female of mounting by the male. Before the onset of lordosis, which took place during proestrus, females rejected males on many attempted mounts, although rejection decreased rapidly with rise in frequency of lordosis. Full receptivity was displayed for 6 to 9 hours, but females began to reject the males while still displaying high levels of lordosis. The total period of 19 hours over which lordosis is shown was divided into pre-heat, heat, and post-heat periods.
Socio-Ecological Implications of Individual Differences in Wolf Litters : a Developmental and Evolutionary Perspective
Authors: Fox M.W.
Published: June 2008

Individual differences in response to a number of animate and inanimate moving and non-moving stimuli were studied in 18 wolf cubs from four litters. Social rank was closely correlated with reactivity, exploratory behavior and prey-killing ability. A wide range of variability in test scores was found in all litters. It is proposed that pack integration and coordination of activities is enhanced by intra-specific socialization, social facilitation, and leader-follower relationships between subordinates and the more exploratory alpha individual. The evolutionary advantages of selection for individual differences or behavioral polymorphism within litters are discussed and inferences drawn for significance in pack formation. This hypothesis is supported by contrasting evidence of greater behavioral homogeneity in less social canids, where intra-specific aggression and mutual proximity intolerance prevents pack formation and leads to dispersal of the litter.
The Role of the Nasonov Gland Pheromone in Crop Communication By Honeybees (Apis Mellifera L.)
Authors: Free J.B. , Williams Ingrid H.
Published: June 2008

Honeybees were trained to forage at a dish of sucrose syrup. Those that danced on their return home showed a greater tendency to expose their Nasonov glands on later trips than those that did not dance, but, contrary to previous supposition, these two activities were not closely correlated; each may, therefore, be released by a different stimulus or, perhaps, by different intensities of the same stimulus.
The Effect of a Supra-Normal Threat Stimulus On the Growth Rates and Dominance Relationships of Pairs of Male and Female Golden Hamsters
Authors: Payne A.P. , Swanson H.H.
Published: June 2008

Weanling male and female golden hamsters were caged in matched-weight pairs on removal from their mothers. There were pairs of littermates and non-littermates of each sex. One partner of each pair was dyed on the chest with a black commercial hair-dye. Over 20 days, dyed animals of both sexes had a significantly higher growth rate than their untreated partners. In observations carried out between days 10-20 of the test period, dyed animals were found to be aggressively dominant over their untreated partners, and showed more aggressive behaviour. It is suggested that the growth of untreated animals was inhibited as a "stress" response either to the presence of the supra-normal threat stimulus, or to the aggressive relationship which resulted from it.
The Relation Between Eliciting Stimulus Strength and Habituation of the Threat Display in Male Siamese Fighting Fish, Betta Splendens
Authors: Figler Michael H.
Published: June 2008

The threat display of the male Siamese fighting fish (Betta spiendens) is a highly integrated phenomenon, involving approach, extension of the gill covers (opcrculae) and brachiostegal membranes, erection of the medial fins, intense deepening of body color, orientation movcmcnts, and undulatory movements. Many qualitatively different stimuli are capable of eliciting the complete threat display (e.g., live male Betta, mirror image, two dimensional cut-out). However, the relations between the initial eliciting strength of the threat stimulus and the degree of habituation, retention, and recovery of habituation have not been systematically investigated. These relations are important in an eliciting stimulus and competing response theory of habituation like that of RATNER (1970). To investigate the above relations, 40 adult male Bettas were randomly assigned to four independent groups (n = 10). Each S in a particular group was exposed to one of four different eliciting stimuli for two 40 minute sessions separated by a 24 hour rest period. The four thrcat elicitors were: a live unhabituated, highly responsive male Bettca (Unhab. male); a mirror image (Mirror) ; a livc habituatcd, relatively unrcsponsive male Betta (Hab. male) ; and a two dimensional cut-out of a male Betta in lateral display (Cut-out). During threc ro minute observation periods in each session, five different reliable components of the display were simultaneously recorded: air gulping frequency (AG), gill cover erection frequency (GF), gill cover erection duration (GD), fin erection frequency (FF), and fin erection duration (FD). For all five dependent measures, the Unhab. male stimulus was the strongest elicitor followed by the Mirror, Hab. male and Cut-out stimuli, respectively. Only two of the dependent measures (GD, FD) showed a systematic decrement for all stimulus groups. With respect to both of these measures, initial eliciting stimulus strength (response level during the first 10 minute observation) was positively related to absolute response decrement, and proportion of recovery of habituation. Initial eliciting stimulus strength was inversely related to the proportion of decrement across sessions, and the proporton of retention of habituation over a 24 hour period. Four of the threat components (GF, GD, FF, FD) were highly positively related. AG was shown not to be an integral component of the display, itself. The data provided support for portions of an eliciting stimulus and competing response theory of habituation.
Effects of Conspecifics and Vegetation On Nest Site Selection in Gasterosteus Aculeatus L
Authors: Jenni Donald A.
Published: June 2008

Vegetation and conspecific rivals both exert significant influences on the locations of territories as determined by the nest sites selected by naive male three-spined sticklebacks. The effect of a row of vegetation along one end of a tank depends on the size of the tank. In small tanks (up to I20 cm), a row of vegetation at one end repels males. In the 300 cm tank, a row of vegetation at one end did not appear to influence the overall distribution of nests, but those nesting in the end with the vegetation tended to nest in the vegetation. A row of vegetation at one end of the 600 cm ditch attracted some males who nested in the row. The remaining nests were located in the middle portion of the ditch,, and the end effect in the unplanted ditch disappeared. Thus the effect of a row of vegetation depends on the amount of open space available in front of it. In the 600 cm ditch, a row of vegetation standing away from the end attracted 65 per cent of the males who selected nest sites within and adjacent to the rows compared to 40 per cent when the row was at the end. The difference is not quite significant. With a rival behind a glass plate 30 cm from one end of the otherwise bare 600 cm tank, rival males selected nest sites at the opposite end of the tank. The repelling effect of a rival was effective over a relatively large distance in this bare environment. The repelling effect of the rival was exaggerated in some experiments in which a second glass plate was placed 30 cm from the opposite end. Separate experiments proved that a glass plate attracted males who tended to nest near it. The repelling effects of a rival was greatly reduced when a row of vegetation was placed at some distance from his territory boundary (glass plate).
The Effects of Ambient Temperature and Population Density On Aggression in Two Inbred Strains of Mice, Mus Musculus
Authors: Greenberg Gary
Published: June 2008

I. 240 Male mice from the aggressive C57BL/I05 strain and non-aggressive A/J strain were subjected to temperatures of I8.3°C, 2I.I°C, 26.7°C, 32.2°C or 35°C for 24 hours. 2. The mice were then crowded in groups of 8 into enclosures with floor areas of 0.09, 0.2I, or 0.38 m2. 3. The frequency of aggression acts (biting frequency) was recorded for each animal 30, 60, and 90 min. after being put in the enclosures. 4. Aggression was lowest at I8.3°C and 35°C and tended to increase as the temperature increased from I8.3°C to 32.2°C. 5. There appeared to be more aggression in the more crowded conditions than in the less crowded conditions. 6. The results were attributed to metabolic changes induced by increasing temperature and to perceptual and proximity effects resulting from increasing population density.
Experiments On Mimicry: Ii. the Effect of a Batesian Mimic On Its Model
Authors: Lea R. Geraldine , Turner John R.G.
Published: June 2008

Artificial prey, consisting of pieces of pastry placed on coloured cards, were placed on a lawn ; birds, predominantly Blue Tits, were allowed to eat them. When the prey were palatable, the birds ate more from black cards than from red, blue or grey cards. The birds ate significantly more of a "perfect" Batesian mimic than of its model, placed on an identical card, but made distasteful by soaking in a 2 1/2% solution of quinine dihydrochloride. This "discrimination" by the birds probably shows that they can see a slight yellowness in the quinine-soaked pastry. The birds showed no preference between blue, red and yellow prey when the pastry was palatable, but ate significantly more pastry from blue than from red cards when the pastry was distasteful. As this happened equally when the blue or the red prey were in the greater number, it was not due to Mullerian mimicry in the context of the experiment, but probably resulted from Batesian mimicry between the blue distasteful prey and the grey palatable prey which was intended as a control in the experiment. Thus the blue prey, acting as a Batesian model, is shown to suffer increased predation as a result of the predators' confusing it with its mimic.
Hierarchy and Its Relation To Territory in the Cockroach Nauphoeta Cinerea
Authors: Ewing Leonie S.
Published: June 2008

(I) The first aim of the study was to determine the role of the hierarchy in the social organisation of a group of male cockroaches and specifically to determine the advantages of high rank. The second aim was to see if social structure could be altered by changing the density. (2) On the basis of rank three classes of males can be distinguished. The characteristics of these three classes are described. (3) The main outcome of the hierarchy is that it determines a class of territorial males. Only top-dominant (alpha) males have absolute territorial rights. Bottom-ranking (gamma) males have none. The main evidence that territory holding itself does not confer dominance is that any change in the hierarchy is followed, rather than preceded by, a change in the animals holding territories. This type of organisation can be called territorial/hierarchical. (4) Gamma males are at a disadvantage only with respect to territory unless the group is very crowded (see below). They compete just as successfully as other males for food and water and also for females in non-territorial situation. (5) The hierarchy is stable for long periods and while it is stable the behaviour is predominantly territorial. Eventually changes in rank order do occur and possible explanations for this are discussed. (6) Groups of three densities were observed. Different social organisation is found with different degrees of crowding. At low density the society is territorial/hierarchical as described above. As the density increases so the number of territorial animals declines. At high density there is a marked change in the resting pattern. Most males clump together leaving wide unoccupied spaces. Only one male, the owner of the food territory, occupies the same site consistently. This male is not the top-dominant animal. Aggressive behaviour in middle-ranking males is inhibited and some bottom-ranking males show elements of the stress syndrome. There is a more rapid turn-over of top-ranking animals with increasing density. (7) When receptive females are introduced into a relatively stable group of males in a non-territorial situation, the level of aggression is raised and total disruption of the hierarchy follows. The implication of this observation is discussed. There was no correlation between rank and mating success.
Sexual Behavior in the Northern Elephant Seal Mirounga Angustirostris
Authors: Leboeuf Burney J.
Published: June 2008

The mating behavior of Northern elephant seals, Mirounga angustirostris, was studied during the I968, I969 and I970 breeding seasons at Año Nuevo Island, I9 miles north of Santa Cruz, California. Copulation takes place primarily on land, from January to March; it is initiated and terminated by the male and lasts approximately 5 minutes. A few males do most of the breeding and the higher a male's rank in the social hierarchy, the more frequently he copulates. Some bulls may maintain high rank and participate in mating for 3 breeding seasons. Low ranking males are kept out of the harem so they attempt to copulate with females on the periphery or in the water with departing females. Males prevent subordinates from mounting females and disrupt copulations in progress. The higher a male's rank, the more freedom he has to copulate without interference, and the more frequently he interferes with the copulation of others. The highest ranking males interrupt their own copulations prematurely to attack other males and prevent them from copulating. Males mount weaned pups, yearlings, and non-estrous females in addition to estrous females; the latter are mounted most frequently. Females come into estrus 24 days after parturition. They are receptive for about 3 days (range I-I3 days), during which they may copulate several different times with one or more males. Females are usually in estrus when they leave the rookery and return to sea. The greatest difference in the copulatory pattern of the elephant seal, a true seal, and members of the sea lion family, is that the former interfere with the copulations of other males while the latter do not. This may he due to differing social systems, a social hierarchy in elephant seals and a territorial system in sea lions. In elephant seals, where copulations are interrupted, mating may be incomplete. This is not as likely with sea lions where copulations are never interrupted because males honor the boundaries of their neighbors. The differences in female behavior and sexual physiology - a long promiscuous estrous period in elephant seals as opposed to a brief estrus with only one copulation in sea lions - may have evolved as a compensation for the consequences of the social behavior of males.
On the Social Behavior in a Stable Group of Long-Tailed Field Mice (Apodemus Sylvaticus). I. an Interpretation of Defensive Postures
Authors: Bovet Jacques
Published: June 2008

The social behavior of a group of four adult (2 ♂ ♂ and 2 ♀ ♀) long-tailed field mice (Apodernus sylvaticus) living together for a long period of time in a large terrarium is described and analyzed. As a rule, the social behavior patterns correspond to those described for other rodent species. Analysis of the occurrence of encounters involving defensive postures with other types of encounters, and the behavior of the mice before they display defensive postures suggest that not only attack and flight, but also amicable and non-social tendencies could be involved in the elicitation of this type of behavior.
On the Social Behavior in a Stable Group of Long-Tailed Field Mice (Apodemus Sylvaticus). Ii. Its Relations With Distribution of Daily Activity
Authors: Bovet Jacques
Published: June 2008

A group of three or four long-tailed field mice (Apodemus sylvaticus) living in a large terrarium was observed for three consecutive months. A comparative analysis of their social behavior and temporal distribution of activity shows that there was a simple direct correlation between the number of encounters and the amount of time two or more mice spent together at the surface of the terrarium. It also shows an alternation of social and asocial periods, each of those lasting one or several weeks. In a social period, encounters were frequent, the mice spent much time together and were rarely seen to be active alone. The individual activity patterns were concordant, which contributed to the high amounts of simultaneous activity and of encounters. But in an asocial period, encounters were scarce, little time was spent together and solitary mice were often seen; the socially top ranking animal restricted its activity to certain times of the day and the three other mice to other times of the day, which contributed to the low amount of simultaneous activity and to the low frequency of encounters.
A Comparative Study of the Body Movenients of Displaying Males of the Lizard Genus Sceloporus (Iguanidae)
Authors: Purdue James R. , Carpenter Charles C.
Published: June 2008

Males of species of the genus Sceloporus (Sauria, Iguanidae) display by performing a series of push-ups involving their forelegs and, to varying degrees, their hindlegs. The amount of shoulder and hip movement per push-up was quantified by calculating two ratios: one by dividing the vertical shoulder movement by the vertical eye movement, and the second by dividing the vertical hip movement by the vertical eye movement. Each of the 2I species analyzed had a characteristic mean hip ratio. Inter-specifically there was a highly significant positive correlation coefficient between the mean shoulder and hip ratios, which simply indicated that species which had much hip movement also had much shoulder movement. Another significant, but negative, correlation was between the mean hip ratios and the mean snout-vent lengths. This relationship was attributed to a general compensation for the proportionately greater weight of the larger species. Further analysis indicated that the amount of hip movement was not merely an individual response to the weight/ length relationship, rather it was a genetic response by the species with closely related species having similar amounts of hip movement.
Novelty-Induced Self-Food Deprivation in Wild and Semi-Domestic Deermice (Peromyscus Maniculatus Bairdii)
Authors: Price Edward O.
Published: June 2008

A population of prairie decrmice (Peromyscus maniculatus bairdii) maintained in captivity for I7 years (20-25 generations) was compared with the laboratory-reared offspring of a field-caught population in regard to their response to the forced occupation of a novel environment (activity wheels). It was hypothesized that the incidence of self-induced food deprivation had been significantly reduced in the semi-domestic population as a result or genetic changes accompanying the domestication process. Controls were established for handling, social isolation, post-natal maternal environment (fostering) and post-weaning rearing environment (field enclosure vs. laboratory cages). Unrestricted food consumption of the wild genotype subjects was significantly reduced during the first 48 hours in the novel environment while the food consumption of the semi-domestic subjects did not change. This strain differential response to a novel environment could not be explained by strain differences in responses to handling and social isolation nor was it affected by fostering and post-weaning rearing experience. Changes in body weight and activity could not account for the self-induced food deprivation exhibited by the wild-genotype mice. It was concluded that the differential reactivity of the wild and semi-domestic strains may be due to changes in the gene pool of the semi-domestic population resulting from a shift in selection pressures accompanying the transition from field to laboratory environments.
Vocalizations of East African Monkeys Ii: Black and White Colobus
Authors: Marler Peter
Published: June 2008

Six sound patterns are important in social communication of the black and white colobus, Colobus guereza, in the Budongo forest, Uganda. The loud roaring of adult males seems to function in intergroup spacing. The snort of adult males may be a threat or an alarm. A soft purring, rarely heard, accompanies a group movement. A cawing sound is used by adult females, juveniles, and infants in situations of mild distress or threat. Squeaks and screams are used by adult females, infants, and juveniles in acute distress. A non-vocal sound, the tongue click, is employed in territorial defense. The characteristics of these sounds are interpreted in light of the social organization of this species which is territorial, with an average group of eight animals, typically with only one adult male. Signals used primarily in intertroop communication are discrete, while those used for signalling within the troop are graded.
Some Behavioral Tests of Domestication in Norway Rats
Authors: Boice Robert
Published: June 2008

Five experiments with wild and domestic rats (Rattus norvegicus) were designed to assess behavioral effects of domestication. The results, which must be considered preliminary, are supportive of the notion that domestication in the Norway rat has induced an adaptive fitness rather than degeneration: 1. Scar-marked captives showed the poor reproductive success typical of traditional attempts at initial laboratorization. In 10 such pairs, three of the females killed prospective mates and five of the six who produced litters cannibalized all or some of the offspring. Unscarred captives, assumed to represent higher social status in the wild population, produced litters in eight of ten pairings with no abnormal breeding or maternal behaviors. 2. Scar-marked captives were least dominant in water competition and were most likely to show abnormal behaviors, new wounds, and mortalities. Similar competitive groupings of domestic rats showed the expected difference in social behavior; fighting was less intense, social distance was less, and threat signals were rare compared to wild rats. Where wild and domestic rats were housed together, however, the intensity of social behaviors in the latter increased, even leading to deaths, although interaction was almost segregated between the two kinds of rats. 3. In an avoidance learning situation, wild-caught and wild F1 (laboratory raised) rats were markedly inferior in performance compared to domestic rats in paradigms with internally or externally cued warnings. 4. In another avoidance learning context, wild rats showed limited evidence of a passive style of learning while domestic rats showed clear evidence of active avoidance learning. These data suggest that learning styles may differ in the two kinds of rats and that definitive evidence of a learning difference will be difficult to obtain. 5. Daily patterns of responding for drinking water were more resistant to change in the wild rats, even at a substantial cost in water obtained, suggesting that domestication may have induced greater behavioral flexibility.
The Ontogeny of Impaling Behaviour in the Loggerhead Shrike, Lanius Ludovicianus L
Authors: Smith Susan M.
Published: June 2008

1 . The ontogeny of impaling (including wedging) behaviour by Loggerhead Shrikes was studied both in wild and in captive birds. 2. The earliest elements of impaling: "dabbing" and "dragging" behaviour, are described. 3. Field work was done in central Washington state; most of the data were obtained from two broods totalling 13 birds. Laboratory work was done on more than 60 hand-reared birds. 4. There did not appear to be any attempt by the parents to demonstrate impaling to either nestlings or fledglings. The young normally did not observe adults impaling food until they were past the age at which they start impaling by themselves. 5. The ontogeny of impaling under natural conditions was found to be essentially Identical to that of hand-reared birds that had been raised in cages containing natural branches. 6. The earliest dragging behaviour by both captive and wild birds was done as soon as the food was obtained, whether or not the bird was within reach of a thorn or fork. 7. The motor patterns of impaling (dragging behaviour) appeared in every young shrike by the age of 26 days. However, a period of trial-and-error behaviour was apparently necessary before these motions were directed towards a suitable place (i.e., thorn or fork). 8. Observational learning is not involved; birds that had been reared in the absence of any impaling device until they were at least 75 days old failed to use thorn branches when provided, regardless of whether or not they had had the opportunity to observe older birds impaling and wedging in an adjacent cage. 9. It is, therefore, concluded that personal experience with impaling devices is necessary for the appearance of the orientation component of impaling in Loggerhead Shrikes. Furthermore, this experience must occur within a "critical period" whose boundaries are roughly 20 to 70 days after hatching. 10. Hence, in this species, the orientation component of impaling is apparently normally learned by a process similar to imprinting.
The Temporal Pattern of Behaviour in Isolated Male Zebra Finches : Transition Analysis
Authors: Slater Peter J.B. , Ollason Janet C.
Published: June 2008

A transition analysis has been carried out on the behaviour of single male zebra finches, isolated as far as possible from all varying environmental stimuli. As wide a variety of behaviour patterns as feasible was included and grouping of these was kept to a minimum. The dangers of grouping acts on functional rather than causal grounds are stressed. The method of analysis differs from most of those used previously in the following ways: 1. Data from different individuals are not massed for statistical treatment. This avoids a source of bias which makes it difficult to reach conclusions about the population as a whole. 2. Transitions between one act and itself are not considered. It is argued that models including such transitions have a strong arbitrary component and are predisposed to demonstrate merely that certain acts occur in bouts. A method is employed for calculating the expected frequencies of transitions which does not appear to have been used before in this field. It is based on a random model which excludes from consideration homogeneous transitions and any others which cannot occur because of environmental constraints. The analysis suggests that zebra finches show cycles of behaviour having active and inactive phases, with ingestion occurring mainly in the former and grooming in the latter. Song appears to be transitional between the two and to occur during periods when other tendencies are low, while stereotypes often follow such periods. Certain pairs of behaviours which occur frequently in sequence are discussed. In some cases one probably generates the peripheral state appropriate to the other and in others the pairing appears to have central causation. Triplet analysis on the massed data from all birds suggests that for most behaviours triplets of the form A-B-A are commoner than would be expected from the frequencies of the pairs A-B and B-A. It is suggested that factor analysis is not a very useful method for dealing with transition data. Detailed closer study of particular interactions, and of the temporal pattern of individual behaviours, are likely to prove more fruitful.
The Effects of Prior Exposure To Light On the Imprinting Process in Domestic Chicks
Authors: Bateson P.P.G. , Wainwright Averell A.P.
Published: June 2008

Domestic chicks were placed in isolation under a constant white light for 30 minutes. Afterwards these birds and a group previously kept in the dark were trained with a Red or a Yellow flashing light for 45 minutes. Subsequently all chicks were given a choice between familiar and unfamiliar flashing lights in some new apparatus which is described in detail for the first time. The chicks exposed to constant light showed a clear preference for the flashing light with which they had been trained whereas the Dark control chicks did not. It is suggested that the constant light activated their visual pathways enabling the Light-exposed chicks to learn more than the Dark control chicks during the imprinting procedure.
Decisions and the Uncertainty of Behaviour
Authors: Richard  , Dawkins Marian
Published: June 2008

Behaviour can be described in terms of its changing uncertainty or decision structure over time. Such a description is economical, maximally informative and may well be of importance neurophysiologically. We try to show that the methods which are normally used to detect temporal patterning between already recognized behavioural acts can also be used on a finer time scale to detect moment to moment patterns of posture within those acts. From such analyses, it is possible to calculate the 'decisioniness' or 'uncertainty' of different parts of the behavioural sequence. We illustrate this by an attempt to describe the decision structure of the drinking behaviour of domestic chicks, using frame by frame videotape analysis. For example, it appears that the first downstroke phase of each drink is more uncertain as to outcome than the other phases, suggesting that 'decisions' are taken during the downstroke. We end with an attempt to plot a continuous graph of behaviour uncertainty against time sampled at 50 msec intervals.
Feeding History, Parental Stock, and Food Selection in Rainbow Trout
Authors: Bryan J.E.
Published: June 2008

Feeding history and parental stock were manipulated to determine whether they could influence food selection in young trout, Salmo gairdrceri Richardson. After 9 training meals of one food, trout selected that food, the familiar one, when given a choice between it and a novel food. (Most choice situations used high and equal densities of unconcealed foods). Selection of the familiar food occurred with several kinds of non-living food. Trout trained on live prey, however, did not always select the familiar one when botli prey were alive, although they did when both prey were dead. Some characteristics of the training effect were investigated. As they became satiated, trout consumed relatively more of the novel food. Duration of food deprivation before a choice test did not change the degree of selection for the familiar food. In addition to eating more of the familiar food, trout struck but rejected relatively more of the novel food. Individual trout trained on two foods ate them in proportions which were characteristic for an individual. After they had learned to select one food, trout were given further training on one of the following: the familiar food, a novel food, or both. Further training on the familiar food did not change the proportion selected. Trout trained on one food for 12 meals and then on a second food for 12 meals selected the second food when given a choice. When the initial training was followed by continuous feeding of both familiar and novel food, trout continued to select the familiar food for 14 to 23 meals. All results suggested that effects of such feeding history would not greatly influence food selection in natural situations. Progeny of different parental stocks were tested to determine whether parental food can influence food selected by offspring. Eggs from trout which ate different kinds of food were hatched in the laboratory. For their first meal, trout were given choices of the kinds of food eaten by the parental stocks. In three main experiments, the young trout did not select the type of food commonly eaten by their parents.
Stochastic Properties of the Foraging Behavior of Six Species of Migratory Shorebirds
Authors: Baker Myron Charles
Published: June 2008

A statistical description of the temporal and sequential organization of foraging behavior in six species of migrant shorebirds is presented. Intervals between successive pr.edation attempts produce distributions approximating gamma or exponential probability laws. These distributions undergo seasonal changes in the direction of more shorter intervals in winter. The events constituting the intervals between predation attempts exhibit ecologically meaningful relationships and their analysis has provided some insight into the mechanisms of behavioral control. Testable hypotheses may be suggested from these results. Sequential patterns of foraging events show strong second order redundancy (Markovian) but have weaker dependencies extending over higher orders. As a result of this analysis it was found that stereotypy in foraging behavior was higher in winter. The findings of this detailed analysis of hunting strategy correspond to the results of a coarse analysis of behavior reported previously (BAKER, I97I). The methods used here may be generally useful in studying the evolution of ecological behavior.
Extinction, Disinhibition and Spontaneous Recovery of the Pecking Response in Young Herring Gulls
Authors: Nyström Mats
Published: June 2008

Red, blue and white stimulus strips were repeatedly presented for I5 sec., with I5 sec. pauses between trials, to three different groups (N=I0, I0 and I8, respective) of two-day old herring gulls. The pecking response to these colours gradually extinguished, requiring I2I, 55 and 36 pecks in the respective group until the criterion (three consecutive trials of zero frequency) was reached. Since the blue and the red group revealed similar pretest frequency (before extinction) there was evidence for a flatter regression to the red stimulus. This was further supported by the similarity between the blue and the white group on other parameter values during extinction. The finding was taken as a partial explanation of the divergent results obtained earlier concerning the peak colour preference in this species; investigations build around repeated stimulus presentations would favour a red preference. A test stimulus of different colour presented after complete extinction gave rise to a strong disinhibition of the response. There was a limited degree of stimulus generalization evident through disinhibitional effects toward darker achromatic stimuli presented after extinction to the white stimulus. The response showed an exponential rate of spontaneous recovery, reaching the original strength within about three hours. In general, the pecking response showed characteristics during extinction in common with responses studied hitherto.
Territoriality and the Influence of Females On the Spacing of Males in the Cockroach, Nauphoeta Cinerea
Authors: Ewing Leonie S.
Published: June 2008

(I) The first aim of the study was to extend earlicr observations on the effect of density on social structure and in particular to see if all males in a group became territorial at very low density. The second aim was to determine the social organisation of females in relation to territorial males. (2) Most males were observed to become territorial at very low density but there was a definite limit to the tendacy to spread out. A few males were not territorial and the behaviour of these animals is described. (3) The females formed a group, usually but not always, on a male-occupied territory. Unreceptive, virgin females introduced into the observation tank remained inactive for the first few days. In these females activity and exploration were correlated with the onset of receptivity. Some females mated at this time and then moved on until they joined the female group. Others joined the female group immediately and mated with the territory owner if one was present. Once females had joined the group they did not leave except for brief sallies or to give birth to their young. The female group did however move en masse and sometimes moved the entire length of the tank. (4) One of the most obvious effects of the females was on the pattern of male territory holding. Competition for territory centred round the female group and several males took up residence with the females during the day. Either one of these males became a despot or a hierarchy of dominance developed. At night the top-dominant chased the others off his territory. These males, with the exception of a few very low-ranking males, then set-up territories on adjacent rest-sited and made occasional attempts to rejoin the female group. This sequence of events was repeated each day. (5) The second obvious effect of the females was on the amount of fighting. Males were alone more often than they were with females but when females were present there was more fighting. (I) The relationship between hierarchy and territory is discussed and conclusions are drawn about the function of territory and the limitations of the territorial system in Nauphoeta.
Habituation in a Protozoan Vorticella Conyallaria
Authors: Patterson David J.
Published: June 2008

The response of Vorticella convallaria to electrical and mechanical stimuli was investigated. It was shown that: (I) V. convallaria becomes habituatcd independently to both mechanical and electrical stimuli if these are repeated at I0 sec. intervals. (2) The habituation is more rapid to lower intensities of stimuli. (3) The form of the response curve is similar for both types of stimulus. (4) No habituation was obtained when the animals were stimulated while in deionized water. No response was obtained while they were placed in a solution of CaCl2 but continuous contraction was induced in a solution of KOH. Other potassium and sodium salts in deionized water gave response curves similar to those obtained under normal conditions.
Der Politische Einfluss Des Islams in Indonesien
Authors: Poetzelberger H.A.
Published: June 2008

Die vorliegende Untersuchung befaßt sich nicht allgemein mit der Geschichte und Bedeutung des Islams als staatsformender Kraft in Indonesien, sondern beschränkt sich auf die aktuellen Bestrebungen der mohammedanischen Parteien Indonesiens, den Islam zur Grundlage der Staatsverfassung und des staatlichen Lebens überhaupt zu erheben. Sie fußt auf den Protokollen der in Bandung tagenden Konstituante, sowie auf dem persönlichen Erleben des politischen Geschehens in Indonesien während der letzten Jahre.
The History of the Rechabites— an Initial Commentary
Authors: Knights Chris H.
Published: June 2008

This article is the third in a series of studies on The History of the Rechabites. The first, "The Story of Zosimus or The History of the Rechabites?,"1 established the independent identity of this text within the Christian monastic work, The Story of Zosimus, and was a sort of prolegomena to the study of this text. The second, "Towards a Critical-Introduction to The History of the Rechabites,"2 sought to address the standard introductory issues, such as date, original language, provenance and purpose. The present paper seeks to examine the text verse-by-verse, and to offer a commentary on it. Or, rather, an initial commentary. No commentary of any sort has ever been offered on the Greek text of HistRech before, and it would be foolhardy to claim that any one scholar could perceive all the allusions and meanings in a particular text at a first attempt. This commentary, then, is offered in the same spirit as my two previous studies on HistRech: as a step along the way towards unravelling the meaning of this pseudepigraphon about the Rechabites, not as the last word on the subject.
Diplomacy and Domestic Devotion: Embassy Chapels and the Toleration of Religious Dissent in Early Modern Europe
Authors: Kaplan Benjamin J.
Published: June 2008

In the wake of Europe's religious wars, it became accepted that embassies could include chapels where forms of Christianity illegal in the host country could be practiced. In theory, only ambassadors and their entourage had the right to worship in such chapels, but in practice the latter became bases for full-fledged congregations of native religious dissenters. Constructed out of residential space, the chapels belonged to a broader category of edifice, the "clandestine church." They helped give birth to the modern doctrine of "extraterritoriality."
Parliamentary Life in the Crown of Aragon: Cortes, Juntas De Brazos, and Other Corporate Bodies
Authors: Gil Xavier
Published: June 2008

The Cortes of Aragon, Catalonia, and Valencia were well known in Renaissance times for their mature institutional development and their capacity to counterbalance the tendency of monarchs towards authoritarianism. But, from the mid sixteenth century onwards, they were summoned by kings at increasingly long intervals, thus losing part of their visibility in the political scene. But this did not exactly mean parliamentary decline. As Cortes became rarer, lesser corporate bodies, ultimately deriving from the Cortes themselves, acquired an enhanced political status. Different sorts of meetings of estates (brazos) and small committees of members of the estates, while already known in previous times, won a more active role by the late sixteenth century and were a major, if not crucial, factor in the different political crises of the seventeenth century. This article contributes to the current reassessment of the Cortes by emphasizing the role of these bodies, focusing on their interplay with the Cortes, with some comparative remarks on other such bodies in Europe.
Retail, Monopoly, and Privilege: the Dissolution of the Fishmongers' Guild of Venice, 1599
Authors: Shaw James E.
Published: June 2008

In 1599, centuries of tradition came to an end when the Venetian fishmongers' guild was dissolved. In the late sixteenth century, the government had increasingly adopted a position that linked retailers to the crime of "monopoly," abusing their position at the expense of consumers. However, this simplistic conception of economic behavior proved disastrously misguided, and only a few years later the guild had to be restored. This humiliating reversal of government policy led to an important reappraisal of the role of retail guilds, and nothing similar would be attempted until the eighteenth century.