bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Laments And Consolations
Authors: Whittall Arnold
Published: November 2023

The volatile musical scene of the late twentieth century embraces contrasts and oppositions which are mobile rather than static, promoting interactions as much as preserving separations. Moreover, distinguishing between ‘opposition’ and ‘interaction’ is as much a matter of personal taste as of provable ‘fact’. Aesthetic response to organized sound is never more fragile than when the compositions are relatively new, the styles relatively unfamiliar: and so a survey like the following, in this chapter and its successor, is consciously constrained and pro¬ visional, a personal response to certain landmarks selected from a terrain of immense diversity and complexity.
Theoretical perspectives II : general theories of rhythm and metre
Authors: Clayton Martin
Published: November 2023

I believe that it should be the aim of any specific study in rhythm to shed light on general issues, and this is certainly my intention here. This is not an aim which has been pursued with much vigour in recent years: such cross-cultural comparison has yet to regain the impetus it received from ethnomusicologists such as Curt Sachs, Mieczyslaw Kolinski, and Alan Lomax; studies in Western music often put forward ideas of general applicability which are however seldom tested in the context of non-Western repertoires; while studies in psychology have tended to be studies in the psychology of Western music.
Laykāri:: Rhythmic Variation
Authors: Clayton Martin
Published: November 2023

Any technique intended to vary or develop rhythm (as opposed to a technique of textual or melodic variation which indirectly determines rhythm), may be thought of as an aspect of ‘laykān-‘-a word which has, like the related term lay, a variety of senses. The term laykān-is derived from lay, which (to summarize the discussion in Chapter 6) meant originally the space or rest between beats, and has come to mean both tempo and rhythmic density, and by extension become the closest equivalent of the English term ‘rhythm’.
Signs and Evocations
Authors: Rushton Julian
Published: November 2023

Arguments over the possibility, or desirability, of ‘absolute’ or ‘autonomous’ musical thought may never end. The validity of music—just music—as a cultured form of entertainment free of ideology and, in the view of E. T. A. Hoffmann or Hanslick, of connections with anything outside itself, has taken a beating from recent musicology, and there is no reason to exempt Berlioz from contextual treatment. Some of the concerns of contextual musicology will be touched on in this chapter, but I do not wish to disguise my own ideology, which is that the .survival of artistic works is not brought about by their usefulness as a key to unlocking past ideologies or further understanding cultural history.
Sources
Authors: Herissone Rebecca
Published: November 2023

THE seventeenth century produced some true monuments of music theory, of which Mersenne’ s Harmonie universelle (1636) and Kircher’ s Musurgia universalis (1650) are probably the best known. No such great books, however, were written in England. Although there were some learned tomes published, such as Butler’ s The Principles of Musik in Singing and Setting (1636) and, in the early years of the eighteenth century, the vast Treatise of Musick (1721) by the Scotsman Alexander Malcolm, writers in England generally had a rather different focus than did those on the Continent. The overwhelming majority of books dealt only with musical rudiments and the rules of composition, known collectively at the time as practical music. There was a strong predilection for simplicity and brevity which is amply demonstrated in the titles of the books themselves: Morley’ s Plaine and Easie Introduction to Practical Musicke, Bevin’ s Briefe and Short Instruction of the Arte of Musicke, Playford’ s Breefe Introduction to the Skill of Musick, and so on.1
Tonality
Authors: Herissone Rebecca
Published: November 2023

THE development of a harmonic rather than a melodic theory of structuring music was rather different in England than it was on the Continent. Whereas many European theorists sought to explain major and minor keys through the modes, in England the two concepts were treated almost entirely separately. This disparity probably resulted from two characteristics of English theory: first, the paucity of theoretical writings produced during the sixteenth century, which meant that there was no tradition of modal theory on which later writers could base their ideas; and second, the strong bias towards practical rather than speculative theory, as discussed in Chapter 1.
Texture and Form
Authors: Herissone Rebecca
Published: November 2023

IN contrast to their extensive coverage of the rules of harmony and counterpoint, English theorists paid little attention to texture and even less to formal structure in music.
England: ‘ …yused of gentilmen, and of the best sort …’
Authors: Tyler James , Sparks Paul
Published: November 2023

Not long after it was introduced in France, the guitar also became known in England. It is first cited in Thomas Whythorne’s autobiography. Whythorne reports that when he went to London in 1545, he ‘learned to play on the Gittern, and Sithern which ii instruments were then strange in England, and therefore the more desired and esteemed’. The gittern, he writes, ‘was an instrument … yused of gentilmen, and of the best sort in thoz days’. One such gentleman was England’s Secretary of State, Sir William Petre, who owned and took lessons on a ‘gyttron’ in 1550. An engraved portrait of Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester, dated 1568, in which a small guitar is included among the objects symbolic of his interests and pursuits, suggests that he too was a gentleman occupied with the guitar.
Virtuoso Texture in Fanny Hensel’s Piano Music
Authors: Cai Camilla
Published: November 2023

Fanny Mendelssohn Hensel wrote strongly worded paragraphs opposing Franz Liszt and the virtuoso school of performing and composing, but her words seem at odds with the high level of virtuosity that appears in her own piano music. This seeming contradiction will be shown to stem from her formulation of a useless virtuosity, as epitomized in Liszt’s music, which stood in opposition to a pure virtuosity that served the music itself.
Introduction
Authors: Rushton Julian
Published: November 2023

On behalf of the Royal Musical Association, I was privileged to welcome the delegates assembled at the opening, plenary meeting of the Sixteenth Congress of the International Musicological Society on Thursday 14 August 1997 in the Queen Elizabeth Hall, South Bank Centre, London. Good wishes were received from the Minister for Culture, the Right Honourable Chris Smith MP, and the opening was attended by a number of distinguished guests, including the keynote speakers, Professor Sir Roger Penrose and Professor Sir Bernard Williams, and representatives of some of the principal British musical institutions. The opening event included a memorable recital by the BBC Singers under Stephen Cleobury, including a new work by Sir Peter Maxwell Davies commissioned for the occasion and introduced by the composer, and music by Sir Harrison Birtwistle and Giles Swayne.
The Study of Medieva Music: Some Thoughts on Past, Present, and Future
Authors: Rankin Susan
Published: November 2023

I have attempted here to indicate some of the significant moments in the process of development of this old art. It is the task of future research to create here full clarity, to pull the works of those ages into the light again, to examine their musical significance, and thus to determine the course of development in detail.
Music and Sociology: Perspectives, Horizons
Authors: Kaden Christian
Published: November 2023

The perception of music as a social phenomenon has, against all expectations and a certain amount of resistance, become a matter of course, a triviality even. In 1953 Hans Mersmann still considered sociology to be an auxiliary science of music historiography.1 Nearly twenty years later, Tibor Kneif promoted the self-dissolution of this ‘supercultivated luxury’, this ‘political doctrine of salvation and redemption’.2 Even Carl Dahlhaus unencouragingly asserted that what music so iology is or could be is uncertain.’ But, surprisingly, this scenario has changed. Music sociology has lost its ideological involvement and established itself as an academic discipline. The decisive breakthrough was a theoretical one: music was no longer said to be only an image or an imitation of social reality, but a social reality in itself, a form of human life.4
Painting War (II): La Bataille d’Eylau
Authors: Prendergast Christopher
Published: November 2023

Of all Napoleon’s painters, Gros was the one who came closest to being in everything but name his official war painter. It is entirely typical of the extent to which artistic policy during Napoleon’s reign was driven as much by sheer contingencies as by the formal directives of bureaucracy that, at least in its beginnings, Gros acquired his role more by accident than by design: wandering through Italy as a consequence of being unable to proceed to Rome (most of the French painters studying at the Academy had left because of the anti-French uprisings), in September 1796 he found himself in Genoa where he was introduced to Josephine.
Foundations: Ramism in German Context, 1543–1600
Authors: Hotson Howard
Published: November 2023

Isolating the fundamental characteristics of Ramism is less straightforward than one might expect. Accounts of Ramism generally begin with the most eccentric details of Ramus’ dialectic and rhetoric—assuming, evidently, that his most controversial doctrines were also his most fundamental. But such an approach is highly problematic. Many of these details have antecedents in the humanist pedagogical practices of his time, where they were far less controversial.1 Ramus’ teachings on dialectic and rhetoric were not stable, in any case, but evolved continuously throughout his career: the text of his Dialectica passed through five distinct stages; that of his Rhetorica through eight.2
Culmination: Alsted’s Encyclopaedia septem tomis distincta, 1620–1630
Authors: Hotson Howard
Published: November 2023

The general method of assembling a wide range of authorities within a systematically arranged structure of commonplaces, discussed in the previous chapter, illuminates one of the features of the works of Alsted and his precursors which has most persistently baffled previous attempts to characterize them: namely, their peculiarly extreme form of eclecticism.
Marcel Duchamp and Max Ernst
Authors: Hopkins David
Published: November 2023

David Hopkins analyses the extensive network of shared concerns and images in the work of Marcel Duchamp and Max Ernst, the greatest names associated with Dada and Surrealist art. This book covers a broad period from c.1912 to the mid-1940s, during which the emergence of Dada and Surrealism in Europe and the United States challenged earlier movements such as Cubism and Expressionism, creating scope for the expression of the unconscious fears and desires of artists acutely sensitive to the troubled nature of their times. Examining Duchamp's and Ernst's subversion and manipulation of religious and hermetic beliefs such as Catholicism, Rosicrucianism and Masonry, David Hopkins demonstrates the ways in which these esoteric concerns intersect with themes of peculiarly contemporary relevance, including the social construction of gender and notions of ordering and taxonomy. This detailed comparison of components of Duchamp's and Ernst's work reveals fascinating structural patterns, enabling the reader to discover an entirely new way of understanding the mechanisms underlying Dada and Surrealist iconography.
‘Constructing’ and ‘Unveiling’ the Bride: Duchamp’s Mari ée and the Ideology of Gender
Authors: Hopkins David
Published: November 2023

An unaccountable organism confronts us; part machine, part scientific apparatus, part human, animal or insect …It is painted in a delicate range of flesh tones, ochres, and browns and stands or hovers in a shallow, claustrophobic space. There is a moody intensity about the image as a whole, a product of the carefully modulated chiaroscuro, such that we could almost be in the presence of a figure portrait by Rembrandt.
The Robing of the Bride: Max Ernst’s Response to Duchamp
Authors: Hopkins David
Published: November 2023

Max Ernst’s dialogue with Duchamp’s work dates from as early as 1919-21—a period when, as coperpetrator of Cologne Dada with Johannes Baargeld, he was just beginning to formulate an irrationalist aesthetic—and, significantly, it revolves around the theme of the Bride. A photocollage produced by Ernst in collaboration with Arp at some point late in 1921, most likely as an addition to the ‘Fatagaga’ series, undoubtedly alludes to Duchamp’s Mariée, both in its title, Die Anatomie als Braut (Fig. 47), and in its fusion of dissectional and mechanical imagery.
Introduction: Surveying the Field
Authors: Richtarik Marilynn J
Published: November 2023

Field Day, a Northern Irish artistic and critical collective, has over the fourteen years of its existence come to be identified with a certain philosophical approach to the study of Irish literature and culture. This analysis centres on the idea of Ireland as a postcolonial country and of the violence in Northern Ireland as a lingering effect of colonial rule. Field Day’s success in popularizing this point of view has attracted the attention of well-known literary theorists, several of whom-Terry Eagleton, Fredric Jameson, Edward W. Said-have written under the Field Day banner. In their wake have followed a great many scholars, both Irish and international, who are at least as interested in Ireland as an exemplar of some more general theory as they are in the awkward particularities of the Irish situation itself. My own approach is different.
Translations: On the Page and On the Stage
Authors: Richtarik Marilynn J
Published: November 2023

The critical response to Translations was generally as over whelmingly positive as the popular reaction. The play was well received, not only in Derry, but everywhere it went on its two month tour, which eventually grew to include fourteen cities and towns in both Northern Ireland and the Republic. In a year of good new Irish plays, Translations was the smash hit of the Dublin Theatre Festival, with all seats at all performances, including two added shows, sold out.2 It was not forgotten, either, in the end of-the-year round-ups on both sides of the border. In Dublin, the Evening Herald proclaimed Translations the Best New Irish Play of the Year, while the Sunday Independent hailed the setting-up of the Field Day Theatre Company as the Theatrical Event of the Year. The Belfast Telegraph recognized Ray McAnally as the Best Actor of I980 for his role in Translations.A separate production opened the following year in London and was also extremely successful.
Commercialism and Consumerism: Wagnerism in The Savoy
Authors: Sutton Emma
Published: November 2023

The first Bayreuth festival was thecultural event of 1876. It was attended (amongst others) by over sixty music critics, many of whom observed-and criticized-the commercialism of the Bavarian town, the scarce and overpriced food, and the ubiquitous souvenirs.2 For commentators such as Joseph Bennett in The Daily Telegraph,the mass tourism at Bayreuth, and the extensive evidence of what would later be termed ‘the Wagner industry’, were some of the most striking elements of the occasion:
Britain in Revolution 1625–1660
Authors: Woolrych Austin
Published: November 2023

This is the definitive history of the English Civil War, set in its full historical context from the accession of Charles I to the Restoration of Charles II. These were the most turbulent years of British history and their reverberations have been felt down the centuries. Throughout the middle decades of the seventeenth century England, Scotland, and Ireland were convulsed by political upheaval and wracked by rebellion and civil war. The Stuart monarchy was in abeyance for twenty years in all three kingdoms, and Charles I famously met his death on the scaffold. Austin Woolrych breathes life back into the story of these years, the sweep of his prose buttressed by the authority of a lifetime's scholarship. He captures the drama and the passion, the momentum of events and the force of contingency. He brilliantly interweaves the history of the three kingdoms and their peoples, gripping the reader with the fast-paced yet always balanced story.
King Charles’s Inheritance I: Three Kingdoms, Three Peoples
Authors: Woolrych Austin
Published: November 2023

England was not only the largest and richest of Charles’s three kingdoms, but politically the most highly developed. Compared with the other major monarchies of early modern Europe, that of England possessed both strengths and weaknesses. In the later sixteenth century England had been arguably the most stable and best governed realm in Europe, and there was no sharp decline under James I.

Its greatest asset was its political unity. The authority of the king and his privy council extended on an almost equal footing into every corner of the land, and the system of local government was virtually uniform throughout. The regional jurisdictions of the Council of the North and the Council in the Marches of Wales, and the palatine privileges of Durham, Lancashire, and Cheshire, constituted only minor exceptions. A single system of common law operated throughout England and Wales; a single parliament represented the whole realm (except County Durham, though the Bishop of Durham sat in the Lords), and the taxes that it voted were levied equally (at least in theory) throughout it. The contrast with the regional diversity within the French and Spanish monarchies could not be stronger. In the former, only the central Île de France enjoyed anything approaching England’s political and legal uniformity.
Towards a Resolution
Authors: Woolrych Austin
Published: November 2023

It was clear by the end of the 1644 campaigning season that if the parliament was to win the war it must concentrate its resources and reorganize its armies. Yet if the need was obvious, the obstacles to fulfilling it were formidable. For a start there was the problem of military leadership. Essex would take some shifting; his standing in parliament was not as badly damaged by his recent defeat as might have been expected, he still had powerful friends and allies, and he remained popular with all who hoped as he did for a negotiated peace. Waller had once seemed a plausible alternative commander, for he had shown an altogether stronger fighting spirit. But Cropredy Bridge and the second battle of Newbury had exposed serious limitations in his generalship, and by his own later admission he had become ‘so perfectly tired with the drudgery’ of military command that he was ready to lay it down.1 As for Manchester, whose Eastern Association army had once been the white hope of the war party, he had become so reluctant to engage it in action that a running quarrel had developed between him and Cromwell, his Lieutenant- General.
King or Constable?
Authors: Woolrych Austin
Published: November 2023

Whatever one may think of the Western Design or the regime of the majorgenerals, neither fulfilled Cromwell’s hope that it would be self-financing. Consequently the most important question that faced him and the council during the first half of 1656 was whether to summon a parliament before the appointed three-year interval had elapsed, and the main arguments for doing so were to remedy the government’s growing indebtedness and to put its finances on a sounder legal footing. But another matter that they considered intermittently, and one that it would have been quite unprofitable to put before parliament, was the possible readmission of the Jews.
The Commonwealth Restored
Authors: Woolrych Austin
Published: November 2023

Once back in power, the Rump faced two obligations that would be difficult to reconcile: to content the army that had restored it, and to provide for the political needs of the nation (or nations) that it purported to represent. It failed to do either; but just whom did it represent? It recognized only seventy-eight members as entitled to sit, less than a seventh of the Long Parliament’s original strength. Some even of these did not take their seats. It contained no representatives of Scotland or Ireland, and though it claimed authority over both countries it did not recognize the terms of the Cromwellian union with Scotland.
Introduction
Authors: Pollard A J
Published: November 2023

In 1436 Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini, the future Pope Pius II, travelled home through England from an embassy in Scotland. He spent his first night on English soil in the borders. Alarmed when his male hosts took shelter in the local peel for fear of a Scottish raid, and unwilling to accept the consolation offered by two young women, he spent instead an uncomfortable night with heifers and nanny-goats as companions in a stable.
Economic and Social Trends after 1450
Authors: Pollard A J
Published: November 2023

The most complete evidence for the agrarian economy of the north-east in the later fifteenth century lies in the archives of the priory and bishopric of Durham. The net receipts of the bursar of the priory rose slightly from an average of less than £1 350 in the 1450s and 1460s to just over £1,400 in the 147os. Evaluations made of the estates of the bishop of Durham in 1463/4 and 1477/8 show a more substantial improvement in the revenues due from Durham and Yorkshire, which increased from £21940 to £3,427 p.a. In the bishopric alone the clear value was calculated to be £2,305 in 1463/4 and £2,642 in 1477/8.
Mortality
Authors: Harvey Barbara
Published: November 2023

The data on mortality in late medieval England have been characterized as ‘sparse and intractable’, ‘hard to win and treacherous to interpret’, and who will disagree? Recognizing that every piece of evidence counts, I shall begin with the death, in 1467, of a single monk, Br. Thomas Lambyrherst, of Christ Church, Canterbury. Thomas Lambyrherst had been a member of the community at Christ Church for twenty years and now held the office of shrine-keeper. In the monastery possessing the most popular shrine in England, that of St Thomas Becket, this was an extremely important office, and it placed its holder in an exposed position, for the shrine-keeper had a great deal to do with pilgrims. He died, we are told, on Good Friday (27 March) at about 7 o’clock in the evening. A death on a solemn day was always awkward for a community of monks, since the requiem Mass could not be allowed to encroach on the liturgy of the day. Yet not all the peculiar arrangements in the present case can be explained in this way. Br. Thomas died, not in the infirmary or in any part of the main claustral area, but in a chamber near one of the gates of the court, the open area separating the main monastic buildings from the edge of the precinct. The very fact that the place of death was noted suggests that it was unusual: it suggests, in fact, that when Br. Thomas became ill it had been considered appropriate to isolate him on the perimeter of the site.
Leading Minds: The World of the Victorian Intellectual
Authors: Collini Stefan
Published: November 2023

In the course of his biography of his brother, Leslie Stephen observed that, following his return to England in 1873 at the end of his period of service as Legal Member of the Viceroy’s Council in India, James Fitzjames Stephen had reached the point of enjoying an established reputation. ‘He was henceforward one of the circle-not distinguished by any definite label but yet recognized among each other by a spontaneous freemasonry-which forms the higher intellectual stratum of London society; and is recruited from all who have made a mark in any department of serious work.’ Expanding on the point, the younger Stephen indicated some of the directions in which the reputation extended: ‘He was well known, of course, to the leaders of the legal profession; and to many members of Government and to rising members of Parliament knew the chief literary celebrities . . . whom he often joined in Sunday “constitutionals” .’ And to round off the observation, he cited the fact which conclusively set the seal on Fitzjames’s standing in this world: ‘His position was recognized by the pleasant compliment of an election to the “Athenaeum”, “under Rule 11”, which took place at the first election after his return (1873).’
Introduction
Authors: Skeeters Martha C
Published: November 2023

The Reformation period in Bristol brought dramatic changes in the city’s ecclesiastical institutions, in the number and character of its clergy, and in relationships between clergy and laity. The examination of these changes is the purpose of this study. English towns and cities experienced the Reformation differently from the rest of the primarily rural nation because of the presence of municipal authorities and large concentrations of clergy, both concerned with preserving their own power and privileges. The towns and cities may not have been typical of the rest of the country, as H. G. Owen rightly said of London, but their stories can still contribute something more to our understanding of the Reformation than exceptions which contrast with the typical. If common denominators of the urban Reformation can be found, the experiences of the towns and cities may be viewed as a part of the whole nation’s experience rather than a contrast to it. The urban experience can provide another facet in our understanding of the Reformation, which may change the appearance of the whole.
Conclusion
Authors: Skeeters Martha C
Published: November 2023

The clergy of Bristol suffered a crisis during the first forty years of the Reformation. Between 1530 and 1570 the complex medieval community was transformed into a simple configuration comprising the cathedral elite and the clergy of the parishes. Economic, institutional, and religious change contributed to the development of clerical competition and fragmentation, the decline of clerical independence, and the growth of lay control. It should be emphasized that while the Reformation certainly contributed to the crisis, structural factors would have weakened the clergy in any case. Given the city’s poor, cash-dependent livings and the period’s inflation, as well as the dependence of religious houses and chantries on declining rents, a crisis of lesser dimensions would have occurred even without the institutional changes promulgated by the Crown, the tumult of popular religious conflict, or the Protestant redefinition of the clerical role. Without the institutional and ideological changes wrought by the Reformation, however, the clerical decline would have been less dramatic, less significant, and perhaps more open to remedy.
Richard II and the Church
Authors: Davies Richard G
Published: November 2023

The reign of Richard II coincided externally with the Great Schism of the west and internally with John Wycliffe and the emergence of the Lollard sect. These alone have seemed enough to some historians to presume that the king had to wrack his mind over religion. By identifying the Church as an integral, but complacent and out-of-condition, part of an old European order under challenge, other historians have portrayed it as in general crisis, its authority as noisily under threat in England as anywhere. What disappointment, then, if Richard could ride impervious through such uproar. Some have refused to believe it. Biographers of the king himself have also found it hard to suppose that Richard II could have been ordinary in his piety.
Richard II and the House of Luxemburg
Authors: Tuck Anthony
Published: November 2023

In January 1377 the Anglo-French peace negotiations, which had got under way at Bruges in the summer of 1374, finally broke down. No agreement had proved possible on the issues dividing the two sides, and all that they could achieve was a prolongation of the general truce until 24 June 1377. Charles V made one last effort in May 1377, with a series of proposals which the English envoys agreed to place before Edward III and return to Bruges with a response by I August. However, Edward III died on 21 June 1377; the English never kept their appointment at Bruges, and the war began again on 24 June.The breakdown of the Bruges negotiations and the resumption of the war necessitated, so far as the English were concerned, a renewed search for allies amongst those rulers of western Europe, particularly in the Empire, the Low Countries, and the Iberian peninsula, who might share England ‘s interest in countering French power. In the early months of 1377 English attention was directed particularly towards the Iberian peninsula. During the Parliament of January 1377 the chancellor had warned that the French king, supported by the king of Castile and the Scots, was planning to attack England by land and sea in the coming summer.2 England ‘s ineffective naval response has been discussed in some detail by James Sherborne; but the diplomatic reponse in the early months of 1377 was firmer.
‘Une bonne paix’: Richelieu’s Foreign Policy and the Peace of Christendom
Authors: Weber Hermann
Published: November 2023

In a survey of French foreign policy for the years 1624-42, the years when it was shaped principally by Richelieu, an attempt to identify its general characteristic features must begin with his efforts to secure peace. The attainment of peace was the main objective of French policy throughout this era, and the programme was conceived and diplomatically articulated in countless avis, memoranda, and directives. The French persisted in their will for peace, and it was proclaimed insistently as propaganda to both a French and a European public. And if in the process the formula ‘une bonne paix’ appears with considerable frequency, it was used not merely as a decorative tag but in order to underline their deliberate intention to give this peace a very particular quality. ‘Une bonne paix’ was throughout these years a realistic political programme.
The Reworking Of Utilitarianism
Authors: Taylor M W
Published: November 2023

In the preceding chapters it has been observed that the Individualists frequently employed the arguments of the Philosophic Radicals, but reinterpreted them to serve a conservative purpose. This was true, for example, of Spencer’s transformation of the associationist psychology or of the conception of sociological laws which lay at the heart of his analogy between society and a biological organism. The contention that the Individualists gave a conservative twist to previously radical arguments is also supported by the subject of the present chapter and the foundation stone of Philosophic Radicalism, the principle of utility.
Backwards to Forwards, I 826-I 828
Authors: Ingram Edward
Published: November 2023

How apt that Neville Chamberlain read Harold Temperley’s study of George Canning during the Munich Crisis. Appeasement has gone out of fashion as a style of foreign policy, given a bad name by the British who failed to stand up to the Nazis; although John Charmley suggests that they were wise not to try. By 1938 peace was a necessity for Great Britain: war, in whatever cause, was likely to bring disaster. In the r 820s the British thought the same of the Middle East. They rehearsed the parts Chamberlain and Lord Halifax would play less successfully-though more boldly-in more difficult conditions. First, they tried to bargain directly with Russia, to make sure that Great Britain would not be drawn into a European war arising out of an East European question, of no importance to her, but likely to draw in the other Continental states as they tried to maintain the equilibrium among them. In return for appeasement, for making bargains with Russia at the expense of other people, the British expected a final settlement.
France
Authors: Johnson P A
Published: November 2023

On 2 July 1440 Duke Richard sealed indentures as Lieutenant of France. He was to serve for five years, drawing £20,000 per annum from the English exchequer so long as Normandy was in danger, together with suitable ordnance, an adequate provision for his own maintenance, agreed councillors, and provision for shipping and other more detailed eventualities.
The Second Protectorate
Authors: Johnson P A
Published: November 2023

At no time described as a Great Council, the Greenwich meeting was, none the less, well attended. Thirty-three peers assented to the proceedings, an appreciably higher number than that found in the protectorate Great Councils, though, again, the duke of Norfolk was absent. The king clearly intended his declaration of Somerset’s innocence to be final, the last word on an issue which had been exploited for five years to weaken the Beaufort regime. The terms of arbitration between Somerset and York, agreed on the same day, implied that the remaining matters were of a civil rather than a criminal nature, thus persisting with the idea first adopted after Dartford, although now with less hostile arbitrators, only three of the eight, Wiltshire, Beaumont, and Stourton, being seemingly biased. What the populace at large thought is unknown, but, in the context of politics in 1455, was not likely to have been immediately significant. If he was to prosper, the duke of York needed a new political weapon to attack Beaufort, one which, preferably would rouse popular sentiment. There was none immediately to hand, making his political position uncomfortably exposed. Somerset was as well aware as York that he was dependent on the king’s good health for his continuing political well-being. Somerset needed, therefore, to act as quickly as possible. It had taken only eighteen months after Dartford to reduce York to a political shadow, but that might be too long. The process needed to be more energetically pressed, and Somerset started immediately.
Charity and the Poor before the Black Death
Authors: Henderson John
Published: November 2023

Poor relief throughout late medieval Europe was supplied by a series of interlinking systems from the Church and State to the craft guild, confraternity and hospital to more informal networks of parenti, amici, vicini ('kin, friends, neighbours').1 Underpinning all these systems lay the highest theological virtue, Charity, which provided the moral justification for the preservation of peace and the maintenance of order and the Buon Comune.
Siege Warfare In The Iberian Reconquista
Authors: Rogers R
Published: November 2023

The siege warfare waged in the twelfth-century phase of the Iberian Reconquista involved factors also important in Latin expansion in the eastern Mediterranean: an extension of Christian authority at Muslim expense in which the capture of large urban centres was essential; a military and economic partnership between land-based rulers and maritime powers; the importance of periodic crusading operations in augmenting Christian manpower. Although the context of siege operations in Spain and Portugal differed militarily and politically, there were important similarities in methods and machinery. Thus an examination of siege techniques in Spain and Portugal not only invites comparisons with the crusader states, but may also contribute to a wider understanding of Latin siege warfare in the twelfth century.
Industrialists and Pressure Groups, 1916-1926
Authors: Marrison Andrew
Published: November 2023

In examining the business groups pursuing Tariff Reform in the 1920s, our accent is not on high politics, since there are other studies which, at least to an extent, cover this ground, or their lobbying of politicians and the Board of Trade, since here success was limited; but on their broader objectives and strategies in a situation where there was an increasing consensus of manufacturers on at least a measure of Tariff Reform, but a pronounced government reluctance to accommodate it. This approach, undertaken comparatively, provides an indication of what policy measures appealed to the manufacturers of the 1920s. Emphasis will be put on the three most important organizations, the National Union of Manufacturers, the British Commonwealth Union, and the Empire Industries Association, with brief consideration also of the British Empire Producers’ Organization and the Empire Development Union.
Implementing Self.-Govemment
Authors: Follis Bryan A
Published: November 2023

Within two days of the King’s Speech to the Parliament of Northern Ireland and his call for peace and reconciliation, Lloyd George had invited de Valera and Craig to a conference. The ground appeared to be shifting under the very feet of the new government, Doubts increased as to whether the unionists could sustain self-government and consolidate Northern Ireland in the face of so many dangers. Craig called a meeting of his Cabinet and on 28 June 1921, with all ministers present, it unanimously agreed to accept Lloyd George’s invitation to a conference in London. There was some concern that the British Government might grant Southern Ireland more favourable concessions than those granted to Northern Ireland. Attendance at the conference was seen as a means of protecting Northern Ireland’s interests. De Valera had insisted that no settlement could be reached if it involved the separation of Northern Ireland from the rest of Ireland, and invited Craig to Dublin for talks. Craig refused, but Lord Midleton, the leader of the southern unionists, and the four Unionist MPs elected to the non-functioning Parliament of Southern Ireland, attended a conference with Sinn Fein in Dublin on 4 July. Some English newspapers criticized Craig for his refusal to meet de Valera in Dublin, predicting that it could wreck the prospect of peace between Sinn Fein and the London government. However, others felt that if he had ‘agreed to go to Dublin at Mr De Valera’s bidding, he would have demeaned himself as head of a self-governing community under the British Crown, and would have abandoned the whole position that the North of Ireland has taken up for centuries’.
Anatomy Of A Dictatorship
Authors: Fulbrook Mary
Published: November 2023

Founded on the ruins of Hitler's defeated Third Reich, and lacking any intrinsic legitimacy, the German Democratic Republic nevertheless became the most stable and successful state in the Soviet bloc. Yet in the `gentle revolution' of 1989 it collapsed with startling speed. How can this extraordinary story of political stability followed by sudden implosion be explained? With the opening of the East German archives, it is at last possible to look inside the apparently impregnable dictatorship. Mary Fulbrook provides a compelling interpretation of structures of power and patterns of popular opinion within the GDR. This absorbing study explores the ways in which the tentacles of the all-pervading state captured East German society in the grip of Stasi, party, and mass organizations, and analyses the emergence in the 1980s of oppositional cultures under the ambivalent shelter of a Protestant Church which had come to terms with the communist state. In combining careful archival research with broader theoretical and historical interpretation, Anatomy of a Dictatorship makes a major contribution to debates on recent German history and the character of contemporary Germany.
Structures And Mentalities Of Power
Authors: Fulbrook Mary
Published: November 2023

The GDR was a repressive state. It was a dictatorship. In retrospect, in the moralistic terms of popular debate in united Germany, it has been widely dismissed as an Unrechtsstaat, a state operating beyond the realms of law (in implicit or explicit contrast to the West German Rechtsstaat). In the aftermath of the GDR’s collapse and the opening of the Stasi files, the waves of revelations in the popular press about the extent of Stasi spying on friends and neighbours led to a demonization of all who were in any way involved with the apparatus of power in the GDR. ‘Victims’ were opposed to ‘oppressors’; the world was painted in black-and-white terms, the forces of good pitted against the forces of evil. And in the confused struggle for restitution, rehabilitation, or survival through restructuring, personal bitterness and emotion often served to confuse an already muddy debate.
The creation of a niche society? Conformity and grumbling
Authors: Fulbrook Mary
Published: November 2023

The Germans have long had a reputation, whether deserved or otherwise, for political obedience. Allegedly, Germans-more than any other nationtend to be rather conformist and to elevate obedience to authority above the dictates of conscience or civic courage (Zivilcourage). While this generalization about a supposed national character is clearly oversimplistic, certain variants enjoy some currency with respect to East Germany. It is frequently maintained that, among Eastern European states, the population of the GDR was the most docile in character, the least ‘uppity’ (aufmüpfig), a fact supposedly requiring some explanation. One not entirely flattering version, current for quite a while among some West Germans, was that all those with initiative and spirit fled the GDR while it was still possible, prior to 1961.
The Vocabulary of Renaissance Republicanism: A Cultural longue-duree?
Authors: Skinner Quentin
Published: November 2023

This paper seeks critically to examine one of the ways in which the concept of the Renaissance has been used to refer not merely to a historical period but to a category of thought.
An Associational World:1760-1800
Authors: Clark Peter
Published: November 2023

In the cathedral city of Lincoln, at the height of the political furor over John Wilkes, a grand masquerade was held, the scene crowded with the dedicated and desiccated followers of fashion. One of the participants appeared Janus-like, on one side dressed as ‘Crown Law’, and on the other side ‘Club Law’: a smart reminder of the enthusiastic support which Wlikes enjoyed from club and societies across the country. Under George III, voluntary associations of all sorts became an essential part of the social and cultural language of urban life, praised or satirized in literature and art. By the 1780s like time.,-could comment that ‘we have numbers assemblies, clubs and societies in this kingdom’. Across the Atlantic similar sentiments were voiced, it was not only the accelerating number of voluntary associations which impressed, but their activity and influence. On a tour of England, the Frenchman François de la Rochefoucauld proclaimed that clubs and societies arc ‘one of the most sensible institutions, the best mark of confidence felt in society and in general’. Another, Scottish, visitor stressed their impact: ‘there arc few circumstances wh1ch have contributed more lo the advancement of useful knowledge than the establishment of academics or societies of learned men’.
Regional and Ethnic Societies
Authors: Clark Peter
Published: November 2023

Regional and ethnic associations were one of the earliest types of voluntary society in early modern Britain, and we can identify distinct phases m their development and organization. County feast societies possibly originated before the calling of the Long Parliament, but their first surge of activity, with annual meetings, processions, sermon , and dinners, occurred during the 1650s. After the Restoration there were new clusters of meetings, especially in the later part of Charles II’s reign, and a final burst of activity followed the Glorious Revolution.
Pensions for the Middle Classes: The Growth of Occupational Pensions
Authors: Thane Pat
Published: November 2023

As formal pension schemes gradually became a normal feature of the life courses of most English people, they changed these lives by, for the first time, guaranteeing a right to a secure, if small, income at a feed age. The feed pensionable age itself strengthened and universalized a notion long present in English culture: that old age began somewhere between 60 and 65. It made this definition of old age more rigid, with ambiguous effects. On the one hand, it had the beneficial result of rescuing many old people from a desperate struggle for survival until they could at last prove to the poor relief system their incapacity for self-support. On the other hand, the pension paid at a feed age contributed to the construction of old people as a new and increasingly dominant (though never uncontested) cultural stereotype, the ‘old-age pensioner’, who was represented as a dependent rather than a contributing member of society once pensionable age was reached, in contrast to older assumptions that people aged and became dependent, if at all, at variable ages. Pensions for better-off workers developed in parallel with pensions for the very poor.
Pensions: From Beveridge to the Millennium
Authors: Thane Pat
Published: November 2023

Famously, the old-age pension was overhauled after the Second World War according to principles devised by William Beveridge during the war. The story of pensions policy since Beveridge published his White Paper Social Insurance and Allied Services in 1942 has been told too often to require repetition in detail. However, certain themes still deserve to be explored. First, we need to be clear about what Beveridge recommended concerning old people and the social security system, since it has been much mythologized.
Celtic Saints and Early Medieval Archaeology
Authors: Edwards Nancy
Published: November 2023

Many Celtic saints are not mentioned in the early documentary sources. Those that are remain elusive figures, their deeds re-created, often centuries later, in hagiography, which, though illuminating for the period in which it was written, tells us almost nothing about the saints themselves. Almost all were thought to have lived during the fifth to seventh centuries. They were believed to be responsible for the foundation of particular ecclesiastical sites, or at any rate they came to be identified with one or more of them. These sites may have been religious communities of one form or another, but not necessarily all; they may have begun as such, though their role would clearly have changed and evolved over the centuries. Many, often obscure, Celtic saints were associated with a single site and therefore their cults would have been very localized. Others were regional saints whose cults were centred on one or more sites within a locality often coterminous with a tribal or administrative area. The cults of some Celtic saints, however, became much wider, frequently spanning more than one Celtic country. Ultimately the cults of many univocal saints either acted as an adjunct to the more important cults or were supplanted by them. But, whether local, regional, national, or international, the power of each saint continued to protect his or less often her ecclesiasti-cal community.
Irish Saints’ Cults and Ecclesiastical Families
Authors: Riain Padraig O
Published: November 2023

However late its entry into the written record, no detail of the history of an Irish saint can be safely ignored, especially if it concerns the local commemoration of a feast. Where omitted from the quite extensive early martyrological record, feasts have been mainly noted in random lists or in collections of local lore made in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Accordingly, there can often be a considerable passage of time between a saint’s first mention in the non-martyro logical record and the earliest reference to his or her feast. One such case, involving a saint named Ailbe (modern Irish Ailbhe), patron of the church and parish of Shancough (Irish Seanchua), barony of Tirerrill, Co. Sligo, is the subject of the present paper. First mentioned in a mid to late seventh-century collection of materials on St Patrick, Ailbe had to wait over a thousand years for his feast to be recorded, in a letter dated 23 September i836. Yet, as I propose to show here, the date of the saint’s feast may in fact belong to the very earliest chapter of his history as patron of Shancough.