bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
An Application of Computed Tomography Inspection on Butt Weld of Super Duplex Umbilical Tube
Authors: An Xiaoxue , Brambilla Marco , Dobson Alan , Francois Olivier
Published: April 2015

Super duplex stainless steel (SDSS) tube is a main component in steel tube umbilicals to convey hydraulic fluids, chemicals or to control the flow of gas into subsea wells. Butt welds are used in the umbilical tube manufacturing for all tube joints and their quality directly impacts the in service performance of the steel tube umbilical.

The butt welds are 100% inspected by X-Ray radiography. The obtained images are 2D shadowgraphs of a 3D object and, as such, they are limited in providing the exact depth of the defects inside the weld and part of geometry information of the weld is easily lost. To address this radiography limitation, the acceptance criteria of NDT are therefore very strict, and generally no porosity is allowed within the butt welds. As result, high rejection rate can be observed for thick wall tube (WT > 2.5mm). This limitation can be overcome by replacing X-ray radiography with X-ray Computed Tomography (CT). This technique provides a full 3D picture of the butt weld and allows enhancing the weld quality and improves productivity by reducing rejection rate caused by lack of information on the flaw depth through the wall. The technology can constitute a step change in the Non Destructive Testing (NDT) technology for the production of umbilical tubes.

This paper presents the results of the X-ray CT inspection of umbilical tube butt weld and the concept design of a computed tomography machine for on line butt weld inspection. The machine is based on a computer controlled rotating gantry on which an X-ray source and a digital detector are installed. This gantry can perform a 190° rotation, during which several hundred radiographic projections of the inspected weld can be acquired under different view angles. A purpose developed image reconstruction software processes the acquired data to provide the full 3D representation of the weld.

The article describes the selected X-ray chain, the reconstruction algorithm and the effect of the reduction of the number of acquired projections on the resolution of the 3D image of the weld. The study demonstrates that CT is a very pertinent technique for the inspection of butt welds in an industrial production environment, with superior accuracy compared to film or digital radiography. The combination of a dedicated CT machine and state of the art reconstruction algorithm can provide volume information of the weld flaw, for example gas pores, as small as 5 % of the tube's nominal wall thickness (150 ^m for a 2.7 mm WT tube), showing the ease of interpretation of CT images with respect to classical radiographies.
Oil Offloading Lines and Fiber Optic Cable Package
Authors: Nehme R. , Dethoor X.
Published: April 2015

As part of the CLOV project located offshore in Angola (Block 17) developed by TOTAL E&P ANGOLA, SBM OFFSHORE has been awarded a contract to provide the Oil Offloading Lines (OOL) and Fiber Optic Cables (FOC) sub-package.

The scope comprises the Engineering, Procurement, Supply, Construction and lnstallation (EPSCI) of OOL, FOC and associated sub-packages onboard the Oil Loading Terminal (OLT) and FPSO such as receptacles and winches as well as the transportation and installation of the OLT.

The OOL and FOC packages have been through an extensive design phase followed by detailed qualification testing program of each of their components. A number of improvements and lessons learnt from previous projects have been accounted for.

The two 600mm (24") lD OOLs have a length of 2058 m and transfer crude oil from the FPSO to the export tanker moored to the OLT, making these OOL the largest diameter oil export system ever made. The OOLs are made by the assembly of Trelline™ flexible bonded hoses with some sections of buoyancy modules in order to have a so-called 2 arches configuration. The OOL is hung off at each end (FPSO and OLT) by means of Gimbal Tables. The Gimbal Table is an articulated mechanical connection with a low friction double articulation designed to transfer the tension from the OOLs to the structural components of the FPSO and OLT.

The two FOC consists of 12 pairs of fibers housed in a gel filled steel carrier tube surrounded by a polyethylene sheath and layer of steel wires that form a protective vault against pressure and water ingress. The FOC are secured at each end (FPSO and OLT) to the l-Tubes using Bending Stiffeners laid in a lazy-wave configuration using buoyancy modules near the seabed.
Developing Mega Projects Simultaneously: The Brazilian Pre-Salt Case
Authors: Filho Flavio Gonçalves Reis Vianna , Naveiro Jaime Turazzi , de Oliveira Andrea Pontual
Published: April 2015

This article discusses the development of several mega projects for the development of the Pre-Salt fields, in the Santos Basin, deepwater, offshore Brazil. Special focus is given to the Lula Field, a super giant field, operated by Petrobras, having BG Brasil and Petrogal Brasil as partners.

Discovered in 2006 and with an estimated potential recoverable volume up to 8.3 billion barrels of oil equivalent (boe), Lula field placed pre-salt fields in the spotlight as it opened a new prospective frontier in Brazilian deep waters. To develop Lula field, a multi-module development project, it was adopted a fast track strategy to achieve material production levels in a very short time frame.

In such a massive capital expenditure program, in an area with no infrastructure, and in an environment of heterogeneous carbonate reservoir, risk mitigation actions are a must. The first step taken was to acquire static and dynamic reservoir data, through data acquisition wells, extended well tests and implementation of two pilot FPSOs. Also, flexibility in the projects was carefully evaluated aiming to comply with possible bad, and good, reservoir surprises.

This information was used to optimize the development plan of Lula field, which comprises 10 FPSOs with processing capacity ranging from 100k bpd to 150k bpd of oil, and 175 million cubic feet/day to 280 million cubic feet/day of gas. The two pilot production units started operation in 2010 and 2013, respectively, and the first module of Iracema area in Lula Field started production in October 2014. The following FPSOs are expected to be installed in the upcoming years.

In a scenario of simultaneous projects under implementation, a clear long lead items strategy is critical to ensure the planned fast-track pace. Also, standardization of subsea equipment and production platforms, in an increasing local content requirement, mitigates supply chain risks and allows resources allocation flexibility.

This paper details the key success factors of Lula field development strategy, and show why it is nowadays a reference for the following mega developments that will take place in the Brazilian pre-salt, by combining a risk mitigation strategy with a fast pace production ramp-up, anticipating cash flow funds and maximizing returns.
Subsea Factory–Standardization of the Brownfield Factory
Authors: Økland Ole , Ramberg Rune Mode
Published: April 2015

As part of the corporate technology strategy Statoil has launched a technology plan for the Subsea Factory concept. The plan describes how to combine subsea production and processing technology elements with key business cases and define enabling and cost-efficient field development concepts.

With the advent of moving processing facilities from topside to subsea, Statoil has made major technological advances in placing conventional processing equipment on the seabed. As of today, Statoil has successfully deployed subsea pumps and subsea separators (Troll Pilot and Tordis). Statoil is also in the process of deploying the world's first subsea compressors in 2015 (at both the Åsgard- and Gullfaks field).

While there has been a gradual increase in the complexity of the subsea processing systems we have also advanced our analytical and modelling approach to subsea processing concept evaluation and selection. In our recent concept evaluation we have used an integrated modelling approach, in which subsea processing options are directly linked to reservoir models, flow lines and surface facilities. This enables us to see value added in terms of increased reservoir productivity, but also overview of entire system behavior from reservoir to the topside, throughout the expected field life.

The cost level within subsea has increased by a factor 2.5 over the last 10-12 years. Statoil aims at establishing a Business Agreed Standardization on subsea processing interfaces and modules.

This standardization strategy will allow suppliers to compete within modules/technology elements, but standardize on module size and open interfaces to achieve plug-and-play functionality

The goal is to reduce costs and improve competitiveness of subsea solutions:

More profitable subsea developments Increased subsea processing volume

Statoil believes that alignment with the other operators is vital to succeed in establishing a global, open standard.

Standardization enabling cost reduction through simplification More profitable subsea developments Increased subsea processing volume (? win-win-solution for the O&G industry)

The paper describes the ongoing work to achieve standardization of the Brownfield Subsea Factory with focus on near infrastructure solutions of existing fields. Subsea boosting and compression are important technologies enabling extended lifetime and increased recovery of mature subsea fields. In the paper several business cases will be described.
Evaluation of Paraffin Wax Inhibitors: An Experimental Comparison of Bench-Top Test Results and Small-Scale Deposition Rigs for Model Waxy Oils
Authors: Perez Peter , Boden Eugene , Chichak Kelly , Kate Gurnon A. , Hu Lishun , Lee Julia , McDermott John , Osaheni John , Peng Wenqing , Richards William , Xie Xiaoan
Published: April 2015

The performance of paraffin inhibitors from several chemical families was evaluated using two model waxy oils in bench-top tests such as cloud point and pour point, and in small-scale deposition rigs using a cold finger and a flow loop. In addition, rheological characterization of the inhibited systems was conducted to provide additional insights into the function of the paraffin inhibitors. Similarities and differences in the response of the model oils to the paraffin inhibitors are discussed along with the correlations between the results from bench-top tests and the observed wax deposit inhibition performance.

The model waxy-oils were formulated using blends of commercially available waxes dissolved in a paraffinic solvent or a mixture of paraffinic and aromatic solvents. The wax blends were chosen to represent a broad range of carbon number distributions including one highly polydisperse distribution with an extended distribution of high carbon number waxes exceeding C50. Candidate paraffin inhibitors were initially evaluated for their impact on cloud point and pour point in these model oils. Subsequent testing of the inhibited systems included rheological characterization over a range of temperatures, cold finger deposition tests and flow loop deposition tests in a pipe-in-pipe geometry. All results are compared to the baseline results for the uninhibited model waxy oils.

While changes in cloud point and pour point gave a good indication that a particular paraffin inhibitor was impacting the wax crystallization process, this did not guarantee a significant reduction in deposits of the inhibited system. Moreover, the experimental conditions used in the small-scale deposition tests also affected the observed performance of paraffin inhibitors, indicating that temperature gradients (i.e., oil temperature and coolant temperature) must be optimized to achieve the highest discriminating power. This study highlights the degree of correlation and the areas of departure between bench-top test results and the main objectives of deposit reduction, and yield stress reduction in flowing systems. It also discusses the advantages and risks of using only the bench-top test results for the selection of paraffin inhibitors.
Lifetime Extension of Flexible Risers: A Generic Case Study
Authors: Leira Bernt , Berge Stig , Løtveit Svein-Are , Fergestad Dag , Langhelle Nina
Published: April 2015

The number of flexible pipes in operation is increasing due to new field developments and the desire to extend the lifetime of existing fields. There have been many challenges with respect to long term operation of such pipes, in many cases with the need to replace or repair before the end of the initial design life. The number of identified failure mechanisms and observed failure events is also increasing.

The objective of the present paper is to describe the steps required in order to be able to extend the lifetime of a flexible riser for the case of corrosive annulus environments. A specific riser configuration is considered, and the particular case of outer sheath damage is applied for the purpose of illustration.
Multi Scales Exploration Strategy - Example of Research For Hydrothermal Mineralization in the French EEZ of Wallis and Futuna
Authors: Fouquet Y. , Scalabrin C. , Alix A.S. , Donval J.P. , Dupré S. , Guérin C. , Guillou M. , Guyader V. , Konn C. , Patriat M. , Pelleter E. , Pierre D. , Rosazza F. , Saint-Laurent X. , Dyment J. , Szitcar Florent
Published: April 2015

As part of a Public Private consortium, explorations to locate sulfide mineralization in the French EEZ of Wallis and Futuna allowed to discover new hydrothermal fields. Three cruises organized between 2010 and 2012 have explored this area. The first phase focused on a regional mapping to find areas of recent volcanism using multibeam echosounders and acoustic imaging. Hydrothermal plumes produced by high temperature hydrothermal activity were located using chemical and physical anomalies in the water column. Using a CTD/rosette we collected water samples and measured physical parameters. Onboard methane and manganese concentrations and physical parameters studies helped to locate active fields with a precision of about 5 km. Physical anomalies caused by the hydrothermal plumes were also recorded by analyzing the multibeam backscattered signals of the water column. In a second phase, an AUV, operated at 70m above the seafloor, helped to establish high-resolution (1 m) bathymetric maps on targets identified during Phase 1. Near seafloor, magnetic anomalies were recorded using a deep magnetometer on the AUV. Analysis of AUV acoustic signals in the water column allowed to find the vertical part of the hydrothermal plumes and to pinpoint areas of fluids discharge with a precision of a few meters. During the third phase, manned submersible dives were conducted on the hydrothermal fields to study the hydrothermal fluids, the different types of mineralization and associated ecosystems. This multi-scale strategy allows gaining considerable time in exploration, and led to the discovery of several hundred of active and inactive fields and associated sulfides mineralization on an area not previously mapped. The AUV high-resolution mapping and detection of vertical plumes and inactive chimneys can thus be considered as a missing link of the exploration strategy to locate hydrothermal deposits.
DP Design Philosophy and Planning for Assurance Success
Authors: Bateman Mat , Maritime Global , Wallace Peter
Published: April 2015

Many marine activities require a marine vessel to remain stationary or move in a precise and controlled manner. Dynamic Positioning (DP) is the technology that enables this by by means of automation and specifically designed station keeping systems. DP is used in the energy industry for upstream and downstream activities ranging from exploration (e.g. core sampling), construction (e.g. pipelaying), drilling (e.g. drillships and semi-subs), production (e.g. supply vessels or well workovers), or downstream (e.g. shuttle tankers). DP has moved from novel concept to commonplace.

DP can be characterized as being medium-to-high complexity and tightly coupled; this means the potential for downside consequences are always present and can come from any number of directions with little or no warning. The marine industry is adapting to this higher level of complexity and coupling combined with a mixture of goal based and prescriptive standards.

There are many perspectives with respect to DP requirements coming from different regulatory agencies, Class Societies, charterers, operators, general public, other stakeholders and precedent established by industry practice. These different perspectives create an environment for ambiguity and misunderstanding on the true DP capabilities of the vessel. Getting this wrong can lead to poor performance that can amount to considerable frustration for all involved.

Getting DP right gives us a vessel that enables us to do more, in more in increasingly difficult environments with lower downside risk exposures and better managed consequences when compared to non-DP vessels.

The purpose of this paper is to outline a three-step process that makes sense of the different perspectives and provides a framework to technically deliver a vessel that meets these expectations. The three phases are the following: Establish the risk tolerance and design intent of the vessel.Establish the DP design philosophy. This sets the design and engineering requirements to build and operate a real vessel for real projects that meet the design intent within the risk tolerances.Design for Assurance. Consider and manage the assurance and control aspects of the design, equipment, systems and total vessel with respect to DP during the life cycle of the vessel.
Lessons Learned and Safety Considerations for Installation and Operation of a Managed Pressure Drilling System on Classed Floating Drilling Rigs
Authors: Patel Harish , Bruton Jay , Dietrich E. , Prince-Wright R.
Published: April 2015

This paper will discuss the review, integration assessment, engineering analysis, and process safety analysis carried out prior to installing a managed pressure drilling (MPD) system on a classed floating mobile offshore drilling unit (MODU). MPD techniques have proven cost-effective, reliable, and safe when drilling difficult onshore wells, as well as drilling from MODUs with a surface blowout preventer (BOP). However, the implementation of MPD on deepwater wells has been hampered by industry inertia and questions about reliability, barriers, riser gas management (RGM), and general riser interface issues. This paper will focus on those distinctly different aspects introduced by MPD while drilling from a floating MODU. The primary objective will be to highlight how innovative application of MPD can enhance safety when drilling challenging wells in deep water.

Additional insights are provided regarding experience from several MPD installations on deepwater rigs around the world that have been tasked with drilling challenging wells.

The process employed in these discussions are mainly centered on the following major categories of MPD equipment and methods:

Installing and operating a rotating control device (RCD) below the ocean's surface, including integration with a riser gas handling device.

Redundancy and fail-safe considerations for valving, both for flow lines and control lines.

Piping, umbilicals, and hoses in the moon pool area.

Nodal safety assessment of the system.

An Operator-Contractor-Service Company ‘bridged’ well control philosophy.

The procedures will recount safety considerations of equipment classifications and system certification for MPD systems used on deepwater rigs.

The lessons learned during this project help to establish a baseline for standardizing MPD drilling equipment and systems for global applications. The knowledge gained also was instrumental for the classification society certifying this equipment and system to develop safety and certification requirements aimed at improving MPD safety on deepwater drilling units.

This paper will outline the core steps taken to achieve classification of an MPD system for a MODU, as well as enable increased utilization of MPD methods in deepwater wells worldwide. Class and certification can provide greater confidence to offshore operators that they can commission drilling equipment and systems capable of delivering safer, more dependable MPD wells, some of which may be considered un-drillable using conventional methods.
Improving Drilling Success by Integrating Sedimentology and Diagenesis models: Case Study from South America
Authors: Ait-Ettajer Taoufik , Fontanelli Laurent , Mookanahallipatna Lakshmikantha
Published: April 2015

The improvement of the success of the well drilling is an important task during the development of hydrocarbon reservoirs, and the use of three dimension mechanical earth model (MEM) is key to predict the behavior of drilled well and to prevent damaging the well. The MEM encapsulates several information related to pore pressure, mechanical properties of the reservoir rock, the geometry of the reservoir limits and the overburden and the stress regime. Various workflows were proposed to build and update the MEM. However, those approaches do not incorporate the complexity of the carbonate rocks. In fact, the carbonate rocks, hold heterogeneous pore systems that impact the rock strength and the pore pressure behavior. The heterogeneity of the pore systems is due to the specificity of the deposition process of the carbonate rocks, mainly composed of fauna and or flora, and the rate of diagenesis.

In this paper, we propose a workflow that improves the modeling of the mechanical properties for carbonate reservoirs. This workflow starts by reconciling data at different scales, diagenesis rate at thin-section scale, scratch and laboratory strength tests at plug scale, electrical logs at well scale, and three dimension sedimentology and seismic volumes at reservoir scale. The second step is to establish the relationship between the mechanical properties, the pore pressure, the seismic attributes, the sedimentology and the rate of diagenesis. The last step allows interpolating and assessing the uncertainty of the mechanical properties and pore pressure in the three dimension reservoir model.

The workflow was applied to an off-shore carbonate field in South-America. It showed that there is a strong relationship between the type of fauna and flora, composing the carbonate rock, and the rock strength and pore pressure. The three dimension mechanical model, at hundred meter horizontal resolution and one foot vertical resolution, allowed to quantify the risk associated with the drilling of the previously planned wells, to improve the location for future drilling wells and to optimize the drilling parameters such as mud weight.
Dynamic Calibration of the Empirical Pore Pressure Estimation Methods Using MPD Data
Authors: Rostami S. Ameen , Kinik K. , Gumus F. , Kirchhoff M.
Published: April 2015

Pore pressure (PP) is one of the most critical parameters in geomechanical analyses of wellbore stability along with well planning. Several empirical methods aim to estimate the pore pressure using seismic and logging while drilling data, and drilling parameters. Considerable number of studies addressed the uncertainty in the PP estimate using these methods due to noise and fluctuation in the received data as well as under compaction effect in over-pressured formations. It is common practice to calibrate these methods with data from Repeat Formation Tester (RFT) or Drill Stem Test (DST). Managed pressure drilling (MPD) allows precise measurement of the PP with dynamic pore pressure testing (DPPT), reducing the non-productive time inherit in RFT and DST without compromising operational safety.

This paper presents methodology to calibrate the available pore pressure prediction methods using dynamic PPT data. Presented methodology involves comparison of several correlations and selection of the one with the best fit to the dynamic PPT data, and determination of the formation-specific correlation coefficients using regression analysis. The work includes validation of the method on case study example. The technique implemented in a new MPD control software platform for real time analysis of the dynamic PPT data to forecast the pore pressure of the following formations while drilling.
Forward Predictions for Life-of-Field Assessments Based on the Observed Lateral Buckling Behavior of Operating Deepwater Pipelines
Authors: Sriskandarajah T. , Roberts Graeme , Tanscheit Peter , Solano Rafael F. , Hansen Alexandre , Antunes Bruno R.
Published: April 2015

Making forward predictions of a pipeline's behaviour from an operational base state requires a working knowledge of the pre-existing stresses and strains. To gain this working knowledge for a pipeline that has undergone lateral buckling requires either an engineering assessment that can accurately predict the displacement of the pipeline on the seabed, and from which the operational stresses and strains can be estimated and extracted, or instrumentation on-board the pipeline that records stress and strain information which can be uploaded and sent back to the analyst.

Whilst it is hoped that the pipeline analysis carried out in design stage be focused and accurate enough to capture and present the required data for life-of-field assessments the reality is otherwise. The purpose of the design strategy would have been to attain code compliance and the required safety level for the pipeline system, which are targets that may be at odds with predicting most realistically the pipeline's state in the operating condition. This is a result of the design needing to accommodate multitudinous conservative assumptions about the pipeline geometrical properties, the seabed profile, operating pressure and temperature profiles, as-laid out-of-straightness and pipe-soil axial and lateral resistances and also the need to attend to code requirements which will have their own partial safety factors embedded. It must be admitted, reluctantly, that the pipeline response realized in the field may never be an accurate reflection of the outcome of the design process.

This paper presents data pertaining to the surveyed as-built configurations of deep water HP/HT pipelines and a small diameter piggyback pipeline and a method for making forward predictions from such pipelines about their observed base states. The information contained in the paper may be used as input to future design strategies or as key considerations for the successful completion of such re-analyses by other operators, contractors and consultancies.
Adapting Aerospace Technology to DP Vessels for Safe and Stable Station Keeping
Authors: Hickey Mark , Morton Russell , Lund Chris , Galligan Dan
Published: April 2015

The requirements for aerospace positioning and a system for DP vessels have much in common. Both markets are mature yet there has been very little technology transfer between the two disciplines. Both have the same concern for safety of life and need the three "Rs": Resiliency, Reliability, and Robustness.

Why hasn’t there been more technology exchange between marine and aerospace? There are probably two key reasons. First, there is a different approach to regulations and rule setting. Second, the physical difference of the platforms requires that aerospace employ the latest technology to reduce the size, weight, and power consumption; to improve the total performance and safety of the platform. This paper will only focus on the second reason.

According to a United Kingdom (UK) Department for Business, Innovation, and Skills (BIS) (https://www.gov.uk/government/groups/bis-aerospace-marine-and-defence-sector-team#marine) the UK marine sector generates over £10 billion turnover and employing nearly 90,000 people while the Aerospace sector has a turnover of £24 billion and supports 230,000 jobs. Some of the investment in Aerospace can benefit DP applications. This paper will discuss the integration of an aviation INS and integrated GNSS augmentation technology that was developed for docking the space station. This INS is several years old, well tested and proven technology, that is keeping millions of people safe each day.

Offshore, there is an opportunity to take it one step further by integrating an acoustic positioning system to improve the resilience of the total system. We will talk about how the INS can use one, two, or three aiding sources and what happens if one or two of the aids drop-out.
Assessing Uncertainty in Hydrocarbon Volumes with Application of a Workflow on a Field
Authors: Schnetzler E. T.
Published: April 2015

A probabilistic workflow is presented on a real field to study both local and global uncertainty of in-place hydrocarbon volumes. Different products are generated, designed to help with specific questions and decisions. A picture of the global uncertainty helps drive large scale decisions such as selling or retaining a lease. The local uncertainty view relates to questions of well drilling and planning. Finally, looking at the contributions of each source of uncertainty helps decide what additional data to collect in order to reduce the global uncertainty.
Welding Robot Repairing Subsea Pipelines
Authors: Berge Jan Olav , Armstrong Mike , Woodward Neil
Published: April 2015

Offshore oil and gas pipelines are important assets for maintaining stable energy supply as well as being critical for maintaining cash flow to the owners and shippers.

Emergency repair response time is in focus by all major pipeline operators, and the need for remote repair technology has been addressed since the mid 1990s. Statoil have, on behalf of the Pipeline Repair and Subsea Intervention (PRSI) Pool in Norway, developed new technology allowing remote controlled repair by hyperbaric welding of large diameter subsea pipelines in water depths down to 1300 meters.

The new Remote Welding System consist of three main modules; a habitat providing a dry gas filled work location at the tie-in location, a power and control unit launched separately providing all essential services needed for the job and the remote welding tool performing the welding operation itself.

The system is built and qualified for pipelines from 30" to 42" diameter, but may be expanded to smaller diameters and deeper waters.
A Dynamic Positioning MODU Critical Control Systems Communications and Software Reliability Assessment
Authors: Savoy Steve , Wilson Richard , Dewitt Cris , Romero Matt , Morgan Christopher
Published: April 2015

Objectives/Scope

Deepwater drilling units utilize critical Industrial Control Systems (ICS) that may be vulnerable to malicious software attacks. These systems include Dynamic Positioning, Vessel Management, BOP and Drilling Control. Dynamic Positioning Systems are critical to deepwater operations and many software failures pose a risk of environmental and/or economic impact. The objective is to assess a Mobile Offshore Drilling Unit (MODU) systems architecture and communication connections for the possibility of unauthorized access. A review of Software Management of Change (SMOC) procedures as practiced on these vessels is included to determine adherence to any existing procedures or policies.

Methods, Procedures, Processes

The vast majority of control systems contain dedicated embedded processors. These processors use operating systems that have an extremely low risk with regard to common malicious software. However, many systems have operator Human Machine Interfaces (HMI) that use Microsoft Windows or other vulnerable operating systems. These operating systems represent a risk of vulnerability if not managed appropriately. Newer processors or consoles have USB ports and/are connected via Ethernet or similar communication links that provide an entry point for unauthorized software. There are some systems that connect via remote communication links over the Internet for system data extraction and/or troubleshooting. If these communication links have not been validated as secure, unauthorized access is possible.

Results, Observations, Conclusions

This paper will present successes in other industries, how they apply to offshore assets, and prioritized areas of a rig's critical control systems. Demonstrated performance of a rig assessment (case study) on one particular unit is presented and how United States (US) and International standards and methods were applied is addressed. Results of the assessment and the remedial actions taken are presented. Relevant standards or methods for conducting an audit are reviewed.

Novel/Additive Information

Approaches to software reliability management including an "assessment template" that may be applied to a similar unit or production facility are included.
Geotechnical Challenges in the Caspian Sea
Authors: Hill Andy , Prakash Anant , Hampson Kevin , Gray Thomas , Rushton David , Mackenzie Brian , Puzrin Alexander
Published: April 2015

Challenges face the geotechnical engineer in the ACG Field in the Caspian Sea, from data acquisition, through soil characterization, to foundation design and installation. This paper seeks to address some of these challenges and describes some case examples from the authors' experiences, particularly in the treatment of geohazards and their threat to foundation integrity.

Limited guidance exists within industry codes and standards to address the interaction of geohazards with jackets and with subsea infrastructure. As such, quantified risk assessment becomes complex. This paper suggests some solutions to these problems, borne out of more than 20 years' operating experience in the Production Sharing Agreement (PSA) and the need to consider development in some of the more geohazardous areas.

Unusual methods of geotechnical data acquisition are presented along with tools and novel analytical techniques specific to the needs of Caspian soils. Finally, the paper presents some approaches to quantify the impact of geohazards, including the influence of unusual soil conditions as they present themselves today.
Improving Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA) Progression to Project-specific Risk Assessment
Authors: Greene W.S. , Bitar G.E
Published: April 2015

During Risk Assessment of project–specific procedures, the Designer, Operator and Client should scrutinize the original vessel Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA) and associated mitigations to ensure they include analysis of integrated vessel and equipment systems; and that the FMEA are still applicable and / or sufficient.

FMEA usually occurs, as the vessel and/or mission equipment design nears completion. Typically, the Designer and the Operator collaborate to produce the FMEA. On the other hand, Risk Assessments for a specific project typically occur at two key times: when a Client and Operator consider the suitability of a vessel for a given project and then, in detail, once the vessel mission procedures have been prepared.

The Risk Assessment of mission procedures provides the opportunity to align the Designer, Operator and Client with regard to the fit–for–purpose nature of the vessel and Mission Specific Equipment (MSE) or the Client's mission. The alignment extends to understanding the Designer's load development choices and the implication on capability / capacity assessment.

The paper uses examples of incidents and discusses concepts to make the case for rigor in FMEA and project–specific Risk Assessments. The examples provide the rationale for greater emphasis on whether the mitigations developed during FMEA are adequate for specific offshore construction operations.

Risk Assessment, tied to both mission procedures and the mitigations from FMEA, is critical for the improved performance and reliability of the offshore vessel mission.
Rotary Rock Coring and Drilling Data Parameters from a Seafloor-based Drilling Technology - a Case Study
Authors: Smith Robert , Nguyen Hoang , Payor Steve
Published: April 2015

A seafloor based drilling technology offers a stable drilling platform where precision in the acquisition of real-time drilling parameters can enhance geological site characterization, this paper discusses how these drilling parameters (Drill Bit Weight, Penetration Rate, Water Pressure, Rotary Torque and Rotary Speed) obtained from the Portable Remotely Operated Drill (PROD) can be used to plan drilling in real time and supplement field test results.

PROD's location on the seafloor, independent of vessel movement and sea state, allows for a relatively short drill string (compared to a conventional drillship). This means more accurate measurements of drilling parameters can be taken. The drilling parameters are also logged with millimeter accuracy with respect to Drill Bit Depth. Raw drilling data is recorded with a second time interval and subsequently processed and filtered to create a unidirectional data set. The data shows a distinct relationship between several drilling parameters and observed geology.

A bimodal distribution of sedimentary units (excluding limestone) is apparent on the crossplots Penetration Rate against Rotary Torque and Rotary Speed. This corresponds to gear changes occurring when loose sediments clog up the drill bit and reveals that softer sediments (Silt and Clay) require more energy to drill than lithified rocks (Limestone). As the majority of coreloss occurs in highly weathered or non-lithified sediments, real time analysis of drilling parameters can be used to monitor drilling and maximize core recovery. Subsequently, these parameters can aid in cross formation correlation and estimation of mechanical characteristics in the absence of core samples and in-situ testing data. This paper introduces an advanced seafloor-based drilling technology and its capability to complement conventional in-situ testing and sampling data with real-time drilling parameters for marine site characterization.
Fracture Imaging Using Microseismic Signals to Predict Frac Performance and Active Producing Volumes
Authors: Sicking Charles , Vermilye Jan , Lacazette Alfred
Published: April 2015

Computing fracture image volumes before the frac treatment, during frac treatment, and during production provides a new approach to managing hydraulic fractured reservoir. Computing the producing volume at regular intervals over time allows for better decisions on the designs of the frac treatments for future wells and for the determination of where to do infill drilling. The installation of shallow buried grids over the reservoir provides for efficient data recording for the monitoring of frac treatments and for compution of producing volumes. A byproduct of the fracture imaging method is the ability to store the first instance of activation for each segment of each fracture. This allows detailed analysis of how the rocks are fractured.

The Fracture Imaging method uses depth imaging applied to Long Duration Signals (LDS) and focuses that signal to the location of origin in the rocks. This focused signal is integrated to produce the depth volume required for computation of a detailed fracture image volume. Applying this method to the time interval before the frac pumping allows for the prediction of the frac performance before the treatment. Applying the method to the time interval during the frac treatment provides a good measure of the activated fracture volume caused by the treatment. Applying this method to a time interval recorded while the well is producing provides a measure of the active volume while producing. Use of passive recordings from a buried grid and the facture imaging method provides for the prediction of the frac performance before the treatment, for the measurement of the fractures activated during treatment, and for the mapping of the actively producing volume.
Safety Case Versus SEMS, Are They Really All That Different?
Authors: Israni Kumar (Chris) , Butts Dennis , Bompelly Radhika
Published: April 2015

Although the safety case is becoming fairly popular throughout the world, there are also regulatory requirements in regions other than the US for a similar safety case regime. This process of developing and maintaining a safety case model, is not be considered as a mere regulatory item but rather a safety based value proposition for the corporation. This essentially is a "cradle to grave" safety management system for the corporation.

In recent years, there have been several waves of discussions in the US to adopt the safety case model. Just like any new potential ordinance awaiting its buy-in from the industry, this has also been a case of differing opinions from the various industrial verticals.

However, getting back to the drawing board and taking a look at compliance towards any specific model, the industrial authorities need to take a step back and review the components of a safety case. Doing so will reveal that the majority of these requirements have been already met by the corporation on account of their compliance models – SEMS or PSM compliance or by way of due diligence. Looking at process safety as a moral responsibility of the corporation that extends for the life of the facility, it is clear that the majority of the requirements of the UK type of safety case model have been already met by US corporations.

This paper will compare and contrast the similarities and differences between the safety case model and the SEMS model. Both of these models are performance based, with variations falling into categories of who sanctions and/or enforces the respective models. The big success in the solution to this model puzzle is determining how effective the implementation of either in the field, and adheres to a proactive approach.
Gulfstar - Conceiving a Standard FPS Design for Deepwater
Authors: Davidson Nathan A.
Published: April 2015

"Design one, build many." That is the oft tried, but seldom achieved, industry goal behind Williams’ Gulfstar FPS, a Classic Spar hull form with a traditional GoM three-level topsides. Williams set out to design the Gulfstar FPS as a flexible production handling hub for deepwater producers that would provide a re-usable core design which could be combined with plug and play options to adapt that design for specific developments. This overall goal of developing a re-usable design was soundly achieved but, in keeping with the industry's historical struggle to design "standard" platforms, the list of things to be done differently next time in the design and delivery is still substantial.

With Serial # 1 installed and producing, the paper describes some notable lessons learned, particularly related to standardization, as well as the challenges of expanding Gulfstar's capabilities to service the special requirements of the Lower Tertiary developments that will become commonplace in the years ahead.

In addition to describing the key characteristics of this design that enable it to be considered and used as a "standard," this paper addresses some broader field development questions such as, ‘Why a Spar?,’ and ‘Why a Classic Spar?’

The information and results presented in this paper are applicable to engineers and planners of deepwater developments when evaluating floating systems, particularly designs that have the potential and/or the goal to become a "standard" and applicable to be re-used to a significant degree.
Improving Operation Safety of Multi Zone Single Trip Gravel Pack : Holistic Approach to Minimize Well Control Risk in Mahakam
Authors: Muryanto B. , Lavoix F. , Labeyrie C. , Wijaya R. , Ji Y. , Roane T. , Hustache H. , Ayusta P. , Albertson E.
Published: April 2015

Multi Zone Single Trip Gravel Pack (MZ-STGP) system has been the main solution for developing shallow reservoirs in the Mahakam Delta, Indonesia. Despite providing cost effective solutions, the system poses safety challenges related to well control. These challenges (i.e long non-shearable period (NSP), heavy completion fluids losses, severe cross flow and trapped gas) must be overcome in design and operational stages. Robust operating procedures and new equipment have been developed to assure safe and efficient operation.

Three main steps of completion (perforation, concentric completion make up and service tool manipulation) were identified as critical and may generate a major well control situation. The completion design phase shall address the issue by carefully targeting appropriate reservoir characteristics, selecting perforation length and total gross net pay. Specific procedures for perforating and making up and manipulating service tools were generated and continuously improved. The continuous improvement process was able to avoid classic challenges such as heavy completion fluid losses after perforating long heterogeneous reservoirs or heavy losses following reservoir stimulation.

Specific tools and equipment such as screens with closing sleeves were designed and deployed to assure the whole process was undertaken safely. One of the important innovations was first worldwide use of a dropping table system to handle multiple concentric pipes. This was developed for two different systems through careful engineering design. It allows securing the well in less than 30 seconds.

To date, more than 200 wells have been safely completed without any major well control issue. Most importantly, the robust safety approach did not hinder operational performance as very low Non­Productive Time (NPT) has been maintained since 2008.
Ultimately Reliable Pyrotechnic Systems
Authors: Scott John H. , Hinkel Todd
Published: April 2015

Objectives/Scope: This paper presents the methods by which NASA has designed, built, tested, and certified pyrotechnic devices for high reliability operation in extreme environments and illustrates the potential applications in the oil and gas industry. Methods, Procedures, Process NASA’s extremely successful application of pyrotechnics is built upon documented procedures and test methods that have been maintained and developed since the Apollo Program. Standards are managed and rigorously enforced for performance margins, redundancy, lot sampling, and personnel safety. The pyrotechnics utilized in spacecraft include such devices as small initiators and detonators with the power of a shotgun shell, detonating cord systems for explosive energy transfer across many feet, precision linear shaped charges for breaking structural membranes, and booster charges to actuate valves and pistons. Results, Observations, Conclusions NASA’s pyrotechnics program is one of the more successful in the history of Human Spaceflight. No pyrotechnic device developed in accordance with NASA’s Human Spaceflight standards has ever failed in flight use. NASA’s pyrotechnic initiators work reliably in temperatures as low as -420 °F. Each of the 135 Space Shuttle flights fired 102 of these initiators, some setting off multiple pyrotechnic devices, with never a failure. The recent landing on Mars of the Opportunity rover fired 174 of NASA’s pyrotechnic initiators to complete the famous "7 minutes of terror." Even after traveling through extreme radiation and thermal environments on the way to Mars, every one of them worked. These initiators have fired on the surface of Titan. Novel/Additive Information NASA’s design controls, procedures, and processes produce the most reliable pyrotechnics in the world. Application of pyrotechnics designed and procured in this manner could enable the energy industry’s emergency equipment, such as shutoff valves and deepsea blowout preventers, to be left in place for years in extreme environments and still be relied upon to function when needed, thus greatly enhancing safety and operational availability.