bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Epidemiological methods: a view from China
Authors: Shun-Zhang Yu
Published: September 2009

This chapter discusses the development of epidemiology in China. It illustrates the enormous progress that has been made in the control of infectious diseases through the application of sound epidemiological principles. It also provides a warning of the simultaneous increase in chronic disease as a health problem, even before the problems of communicable disease have been tackled.
Health transitions in Mexico and Central America: implications for health policy
Authors: Frenk Julio , Lozano Rafael , Gómez-Dantes Octavio
Published: September 2009

This chapter discusses the interaction of epidemiological and health systems analysis in Mexico and Central America (Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Panama). Emphasis is given to the specificities of health transitions in the region and what has been called the double burden of disease, and their influence on health policies. Mexico is used as a case study to illustrate the use of population health and health services assessment in the design, implementation, and evaluation of health policies.
Epidemiology and public health in Finland and Scandinavia: development and current state
Authors: Aromaa Arpo
Published: September 2009

This chapter traces the development of epidemiology in Finland. It argues that epidemiology and health services research are both more developed and used more in Finland than in many other European countries. The current relative strength is related to factors including the early adoption of a systematic approach to disease control to control tuberculosis; since the 1940s visionary paediatricians were able to push for the creation of a nationwide network of child welfare clinics; and after the Second World War the whole of Finnish society expressed an urge for international contacts, which led amongst other things to post-graduate public health training in the USA and the UK.
Statistical physics and probability theory
Authors: Mézard Marc , Montanari Andrea
Published: September 2009

This chapter introduces the basic concepts of statistical physics. The restrictive point of view adopted here keeps to classical (non-quantum) statistical physics and treats it as a branch of probability theory. The mechanism of phase transitions is described in the context of magnetic systems: ferromagnets and spin glasses.
A probabilistic toolbox
Authors: Mézard Marc , Montanari Andrea
Published: September 2009

The three fields that form the subject of this book all deal with large sets of random variables. Not surprisingly, they possess common underlying structures and techniques. This chapter describes some of them, insisting on the mathematical structures. It discusses on one hand large deviations, Sanov's theorem, and asymptotic equipartition. On the other hand, it introduces Markov chains for Monte Carlo computations, and its application to optimization with simulated annealing.
The random energy model
Authors: Mézard Marc , Montanari Andrea
Published: September 2009

The random energy model is probably the simplest statistical physics model of a disordered system which exhibits a phase transition. This chapter studies its thermodynamic properties and its phase transition, and describes in detail the condensation phenomenon at work in the low temperature phase. The same mathematical structure and techniques appear in a large number of contexts. This is witnessed by the examples from information theory and combinatorial optimization presented in the next two chapters.
Low-density parity-check codes
Authors: Mézard Marc , Montanari Andrea
Published: September 2009

Low-density parity-check (LDPC) codes are among the most efficient error correcting codes in use. This chapter introduces an important family of LDPC ensembles, based on random factor graphs, and studies some of their basic properties. It focuses on performances under optimal decoding, when no constraint is imposed on the computational complexity of the decoding procedure. Bounds in their performances are derived through an analysis of the geometric properties of their codebook. In particular, it shows that appropriately chosen LDPC ensembles allow for communication reliably at rates close to Shannon's capacity.
Bridges: Inference and the Monte Carlo method
Authors: Mézard Marc , Montanari Andrea
Published: September 2009

The mathematical structure highlighted in this chapter by the factor graph representation is the locality of probabilistic dependencies between variables. Locality also emerges in many problems of probabilistic inference, which provides another unifying view of the field. This chapter describes coding theory, statistical physics, and combinatorial optimization as inference problems. It also explores one generic inference method, the use of Monte Carlo Markov chains (MCMC) in order to sample from complex probabilistic models. Many of the difficulties encountered in decoding, in constraint satisfaction problems, or in glassy phases, are connected to a dramatic slowing down of MCMC dynamics, which is explored through simple numerical experiments on some examples.
Belief propogation
Authors: Mézard Marc , Montanari Andrea
Published: September 2009

This chapter discusses a general method for approximating marginals of large graphical models. This powerful technique has been discovered independently in various fields: statistical physics (under the name ‘Bethe Peierls approximation’), coding theory (‘sum-product’ and ‘min-sum’ algorithms), and artificial intelligence (‘belief propagation’). It is based on an exchange of messages between variables and factors, along the edges of the factor graph. These messages are interpreted as probability distributions for the variable in a graph where a cavity has been dug. The chapter also discusses the statistical analysis of these messages in large random graphical models: density evolution and the replica symmetric cavity method.
The 1RSB cavity method
Authors: Mézard Marc , Montanari Andrea
Published: September 2009

In graphical models whose factor graph has a locally tree-like structure, belief propagation may fail because variables become correlated at large distances. This phenomenon has been observed in many problems, from satisfiability to colouring or error correcting codes. This chapter describes a physics-based approach for dealing with such a problem, the ‘one step replica symmetry breaking’ (1RSB) cavity method. It is based on the idea of counting solutions to belief propagation equations, and has strong connections with the theory of pure states decomposition. Its algorithmic side, the survey propagation algorithm, is motivated and described in details. The general theory is illustrated through its application to the XORSAT problem studied in Chapter 18.
Introduction
Authors: Kuh Diana , Ben-Shlomo Yoav
Published: September 2009

This introductory chapter provides an overview of adult risk factors and why interest in the early life origins for adult chronic disease emerged. It then discusses the growth of life course epidemiology, different conceptual models, and methodological challenges encountered in life course epidemiology.
The life course and adult chronic disease: an historical perspective with particular reference to coronary heart disease
Authors: Kuh Diana , Ben-Shlomo Yoav
Published: September 2009

This chapter traces the origins of the idea that experiences early in the life course may have long-term effects on the development of chronic disease. Topics discussed include research in the first half of the 20th century on the links between child health, adult vitality, and mortality risk; developmental critical periods and the early origins of constitution; the growing interest in adult lifestyle and chronic disease; and atherosclerosis and emergence of coronary heart disease. The chapter then looks at the changing role of early life factors as explanations for adult health and chronic disease in the postwar period, the revival of a life course perspective in understanding disease patterns, and the revival of interdisciplinary developmental science.
Pre-adult influences on cardiovascular disease
Authors: Kuh Diana , Ben-Shlomo Yoav
Published: September 2009

A growing body of research has highlighted the potential role of pre-adult influences that may operate through different life course models. Until recently, much of this evidence has been relatively weak and indirect, using either ecological or proxy measures, such as adult height. However, prospective and cohort studies have provided more rigorous evidence to test associations between circumstances and outcomes several decades apart. This chapter reviews this evidence in terms of its association with coronary heart disease and stroke.
Geography and migration with special reference to cardiovascular disease
Authors: Kuh Diana , Ben-Shlomo Yoav
Published: September 2009

This chapter considers two epidemiological approaches to investigating geographic variations in cardiovascular disease (CVD): ecological studies and migrant studies. Ecological studies examine the correlation between a potential explanatory variable and disease frequency both within and between countries. Migrant studies provide the opportunity to establish the etiological importance of factors acting at different points in the life course. Ecological studies have provided useful clues to important risk factors for CVD. Migrant studies have provided compelling evidence that people moving from a low- to high-blood pressure community experience a rise in blood pressure not seen in those who remain behind.
A life course approach to diabetes
Authors: Forouhi Nita , Hall Elizabeth , McKeigue Paul
Published: September 2009

This chapter reviews evidence that the risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) in adult life may be set by factors operating early in the life course of an individual. There is consistent evidence linking small size at birth to T2DM in later life. This association appears to be mediated through insulin resistance and to be at least partially explained by the effects of environmental exposure in utero. However, this small baby syndrome is unlikely to be the main explanation for ethnic differences in rates of diabetes and insulin resistance, where genetic factors are important. The effects of reduced fetal growth in diabetes risk are modest compared with the effects of other factors that may be amenable to intervention: exposure to maternal hyperglycemia and obesity.
A life course approach to blood pressure
Authors: Kuh Diana , Ben-Shlomo Yoav
Published: September 2009

This chapter discusses blood pressure and cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk. Topics discussed include blood pressure as a risk factor for CVD, the emergence of adult patterns of blood pressure, factors influencing blood pressure in middle age, and factors that may act at specific points in the life course with long-term effects on blood pressure. Blood pressure in middle and later life is the main influence on CVD risk. The chapter reviews the role of body mass index, alcohol, sodium, and potassium intake. It concludes that fetal influence on blood pressure is small compared to factors acting in later life.
A life course approach to biological ageing
Authors: Kuh Diana , Ben-Shlomo Yoav
Published: September 2009

This chapter focuses on emerging evidence that early growth and nutrition may influence aging, with particular reference of aging in the musculoskeletal system. Topics discussed include aging at population and individual levels, genetic theories of aging, lifetime influences on aging, and musculoskeletal aging.
The outcome and impact of 10 years of HAART
Authors: Beck Eduard J. , Walensky Rochelle P.
Published: September 2009

This chapter focuses on the impact of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART). Topics discussed include the HIV pandemic, evolution of the antiretroviral therapy, global response to the epidemic, and criteria for a successful HIV intervention.
The OPTIMA Cohort
Authors: Holodniy Mark
Published: September 2009

This chapter reviews the Options in Management with Antiretrovirals (OPTIMA) study. OPTIMA study is the first tri-national collaboration between the US Department of Veterans Affairs (VA), Canadian Institutes for Health Research, and the UK Medical Research Council. It is a prospective, randomized, 2-factorial design study looking at the clinical utility of a three-month antiretroviral drug-free period (ARDFP), and whether there is a difference in effectiveness between standard and ‘mega-regimens’ (five or more active antiretroviral drugs).
Country review: China
Authors: Fu-Jie Zhang , Chen Ray Y. , Lo Selina N. , Ye Ma
Published: September 2009

This chapter begins with a description of the epidemiology of HIV/AIDS in China. It then outlines the history and evolution of the Chinese government's response, the achievements of the national HIV/AIDS programme, and its challenges as it moves towards a comprehensive integrated response to HIV/AIDS in China.
Country review: Thailand
Authors: Phanuphak Praphan , Chasombat Sanchai , Ananworanich Jintanat
Published: September 2009

This chapter begins with a description of the epidemiology of HIV/AIDS in Thailand. It then discusses the early use of antiretrovirals, early use of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART), driving forces in the scale-up of HAART, antiretroviral therapy (ART) in children, and the Thai government's policy on HAART.
Cohort studies in Brazil: Projeto Praça Onze
Authors: Schechter Mauro , Tuboi Suely Hiromi
Published: September 2009

This chapter reviews the Projeto Praça Onze. The Projeto Praça Onze was a prospective cohort study conducted in Rio de Janeiro between 1995 and 1998 to estimate the incidence of HIV infection in high-risk seronegative men who have sex with men (MSM), and to determine whether this population would be suitable for vaccine and non-vaccine intervention studies.
Country review: Senegal
Authors: Sow Papa Salif
Published: September 2009

This chapter begins with a description of the epidemiology of HIV in Senegal. It then discusses the response to HIV, treatment of opportunistic infections, and antiretroviral therapy (ART). It argues that there remain many challenges relative to HIV and ART in Senegal, including insufficient scaleup of the prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) programme, and weakness in the paediatric component of the Senegalese initiative for access to care and treatment. Access to voluntary counselling and HIV testing must be strengthened by increasing the availability of HIV care centres throughout the country.
Country review: Zambia
Authors: Sinkala Moses , Chi Benjamin H.
Published: September 2009

This chapter describes the implementation and rapid scale-up of antiretroviral therapy (ART) services in Zambia, and reports early patient outcomes from a large programmatic cohort. Although the history of ART in Zambia is limited thus far, the country's experience provides unique insight into the potential impact of HIV treatment in settings of high prevalence and low resources.
The clinical challenges of lifetime HAART
Authors: Paredes Roger , Sherer Renslow , Clotet Bonaventura
Published: September 2009

This chapter summarizes the principal challenges of antiretroviral therapy (ART) in both resource-rich and developing world settings as of the end of year 2006 and discusses the options available to address them. It shows that long-term ART involves problems of adherence, resistance and toxicity as well as cost. It also shows how the successes of HAART have modified the clinical presentation of cancers in HIV-infected individuals and how the aging of HIV-positive patients is gradually increasing the development of geriatric syndromes that were rarely seen just a few years ago. Early detection and aggressive management of hepatitis co-infections are needed in order to avoid the severe complications and elevated mortality of end-stage liver disease.
Redefining HIV/AIDS care delivery in the face of human resource scarcity
Authors: Dal Poz Mario Roberto , Dreesch Norbert , Rensburg Dingie van
Published: September 2009

This chapter analyzes the growing demands of HIV/AIDS care on existing human resources for health (HRH). The pressures on these resources have multiplied and steered many national health systems into ever deeper troubled waters as a result of dire and aggravating human resource shortages and deficits. This is especially the case in those countries hardest hit by the epidemic, and with the recent scale-up of antiretroviral therapy (ART). The crux of the crisis is related to growing mismatches between demand and supply of human resources.
Challenges and limitations of applying branding in social marketing
Authors: McCormack Lauren A. , Lewis Megan A. , Driscoll David
Published: September 2009

There are some key differences between social marketing and commercial marketing that have implications for branding. While branded messages can still be persuasive, they should take a less directional and more informational tone when the clinical or epidemiological evidence limited or weak. All forms of persuasion, including branding, should be handled with care when used in directive health promotion because it has the potential to breech the ethical boundaries of public health practice. Applying branding in combination with other communication strategies can enhance its effectiveness.
Advances in the Casimir Effect
Authors: Bordag Michael , Klimchitskaya Galina Leonidovna , Mohideen Umar , Mostepanenko Vladimir Mikhaylovich
Published: September 2009

The subject of this book is the Casimir effect, i.e., a manifestation of zero-point oscillations of the quantum vacuum in the form of forces acting between closely spaced bodies. It is a purely quantum effect. There is no force acting between neutral bodies in classical electrodynamics. The Casimir effect has become an interdisciplinary subject. It plays an important role in various fields of physics such as condensed matter physics, quantum field theory, atomic and molecular physics, gravitation and cosmology, and mathematical physics. Most recently, the Casimir effect has been applied to nanotechnology and for obtaining constraints on the predictions of unification theories beyond the Standard Model. The book assembles together the field-theoretical foundations of this phenomenon, the application of the general theory to real materials, and a comprehensive description of all recently performed measurements of the Casimir force, including the comparison between experiment and theory. There is increasing interest in forces of vacuum origin. Numerous new results have been obtained during the last few years which are not reflected in the literature, but are very promising for fundamental science and nanotechnology. The book provides a source of information which presents a critical assessment of all of the main results and approaches contained in published journal papers. It also proposes new ideas which are not yet universally accepted but are finding increasing support from experiment.
Regularization and Renormalization of the Vacuum Energy
Authors: Bordag M. , Klimchitskaya G. L. , Mohideen U. , Mostepanenko V. M.
Published: September 2009

This chapter uses the method of heat kernel expansion together with cutoff regularization to separate the divergent part of the vacuum energy. After the vacuum energy has been regularized, the procedure of renormalization is considered. The divergent contributions have a structure which allows their removal by a redefinition of the parameters in the ‘noninteracting theory’ (including the parameters of a classical background field if one is present). However, this procedure is not always possible. In the case of background fields (if these are singular or if one uses some limiting process which makes them singular) these questions are not completely settled, and they are briefly discussed. The cases of a single body and two separate bodies are considered in detail.
Approximate and Numerical Approaches
Authors: Bordag M. , Klimchitskaya G. L. , Mohideen U. , Mostepanenko V. M.
Published: September 2009

This chapter considers several approximate methods developed to calculate the Casimir energy and force for nontrivial geometries, where the separation of variables is not possible. One of these methods is the multiple-reflection expansion. This allows an iterative calculation of the corresponding Green's function. Another method is the semiclassical one. This is based on the idea of the WKB approximation in quantum mechanics, or, equivalently, the eikonal approximation in optics. Another approximate method for the calculation of the Casimir force considered is the numerical world line approach. Inspired by string theory, it uses the Feynman path-integral representation of transition amplitudes. Two other simple approximate methods are the pairwise summation method and the proximity force approximation. These are repeatedly used in the following chapters of the book.
The Casimir Effect For Two Ideal-Metal Planes
Authors: Bordag M. , Klimchitskaya G. L. , Mohideen U. , Mostepanenko V. M.
Published: September 2009

This chapter considers the simple but most important configuration of two parallel ideal-metal planes. First, the theory of the scalar and electromagnetic Casimir effects between parallel planes is presented. In comparison with Chapter 2, some basic facts are added concerning the relation between local and global approaches and the polarizations of the electromagnetic field. The radiative corrections to the Casimir force are considered. General analytical formulas for the Casimir free energy, entropy, and pressure at nonzero temperature are presented, as well as the limits of low and high temperature. The agreement between the results obtained and thermodynamics is analyzed. The spinor Casimir effect between planes and the Casimir effect for a wedge are also discussed. At the end of the chapter, the dynamic Casimir effect connected with uniformly moving or oscillating planes is briefly considered.
The Casimir Force Between Objects of Arbitrary Shape
Authors: Bordag M. , Klimchitskaya G. L. , Mohideen U. , Mostepanenko V. M.
Published: September 2009

This chapter presents a new, powerful description of the Casimir energy based on the scattering approach and functional determinants. This description allows for exact calculations of Casimir energies and forces in general geometries to be made. Special attention is paid to the cases of a spherical and cylindrical shell above a plane. In both cases, exact solutions have recently been obtained. These solutions can be compared with approximate results and thus can be used for the determination of the accuracy of those results. For nonmagnetic bodies which are mirror images of each other, it is proved that the electromagnetic and scalar Casimir forces are attractive. The electromagnetic Casimir energy between the sinusoidally corrugated surfaces is considered. This finds applications in Chapter 17, devoted to the influence of roughness and corrugations on the Casimir force.
The Lifshitz Theory of The Van Der Waals and Casimir Forces Between Plane Dielectrics
Authors: Bordag M. , Klimchitskaya G. L. , Mohideen U. , Mostepanenko V. M.
Published: September 2009

Starting with this chapter, the book goes on to deal with the Casimir effect for real bodies made of various materials rather than idealized boundaries. It presents Lifshitz theory, which provides a unified description of both the van der Waals and the Casimir interaction between planar dielectrics. The chapter contains various formulations of the Lifshitz theory as applied to planar, stratified dielectric media at both zero and nonzero temperatures. As an illustration, computational results for various dielectric materials are given. The consistency of the theory with the requirements of thermodynamics and its application region are discussed. The Lifshitz formula for anisotropic plates is presented as well as Lifshitz-type formulas for radiative heat transfer. Problems arising for polar dielectrics are considered.
The Casimir Interaction Between Real-Metal Plates at Zero Temperature
Authors: Bordag M. , Klimchitskaya G. L. , Mohideen U. , Mostepanenko V. M.
Published: September 2009

This chapter considers both analytical calculations of Casimir energies and forces between real metal plates and numerical computations using tabulated optical data for the complex index of refraction of metals. Comparison between the results of analytical and numerical computations permits one to infer the main properties of metals that affect the Casimir force, and how they enter into the Lifshitz theory. Calculations have been done with the help of the dielectric permittivity of the plasma model, the Drude model, and the generalized plasma-like model. The concept of the Leontovich surface impedance, related boundary conditions, and the application region of the impedance approach are also discussed. The chapter should be considered as a preparation for Chapter 14, where the complicated problem of the thermal Casimir force between real metal plates is considered.
The Casimir Interaction Between Real Metals at Nonzero Temperature
Authors: Bordag M. , Klimchitskaya G. L. , Mohideen U. , Mostepanenko V. M.
Published: September 2009

This chapter begins with a discussion of the problem of the zero-frequency term in the Lifshitz formula. The thermal Casimir free energy and pressure are computed using both the plasma and the Drude model, with the tabulated optical data for the complex refractive index extrapolated by use of the Drude model. It is shown that the plasma model combined with the Lifshitz formula agrees with thermodynamics while the Drude model does not if the metal crystal lattice is perfect. Physical arguments are presented for why the Drude model is outside the application region of the Lifshitz formula. The approximate approach, based on the Leontovich impedance, is shown to be consistent with thermodynamics. The role of evanescent and traveling waves in the Casimir effect between metals is discussed. The chapter concludes with the approach using the generalized plasma-like permittivity, which is shown to be thermodynamically consistent.
Measurements of the Casimir Force with Semiconductors
Authors: Bordag M. , Klimchitskaya G. L. , Mohideen U. , Mostepanenko V. M.
Published: September 2009

This chapter considers three experiments on measuring the Casimir force between an Au-coated sphere and an Si plate. The first experiment revealed that the measured Casimir force for a plate made of p-type Si was markedly different from the calculation results for dielectric Si. In the second experiment, the difference in the Casimir forces for an Au coated sphere and two plates made of n-type Si with different charge carriers densities was measured. Through this, the dependence of the Casimir force on the charge carrier density was demonstrated. Modification of the Casimir force through an optically induced change in the charge carrier density was first demonstrated in the third experiment. This experiment was also used as a test for various theoretical approaches to the description of charge carriers in dielectrics and semiconductors. All of these results are presented in the chapter.
Applications of the Casimir Force in Nanotechnology
Authors: Bordag M. , Klimchitskaya G. L. , Mohideen U. , Mostepanenko V. M.
Published: September 2009

The advances in integrated circuit fabrication techniques based on photolithography and electron beam lithography and plasma and chemical etching have now allowed fabrication of mechanical and electromechanical devices with sizes ranging from microns to nanometers. With device dimensions shrinking to nanometers, the important role of Casimir forces in nanoscale devices is well recognized. This chapter analyzes both the theoretical and the experimental aspects of the role of electrostatic and Casimir forces in microelectromechanical systems. The first such system actuated by the Casimir force, and a nonlinear micromechanical Casimir oscillator are considered. Special attention is paid to the interaction of atoms with multiwalled and single-walled carbon nanotubes. At the end of the chapter, some prospective applications of the Casimir force in nanotechnology are discussed.
Hegelian Metaphysics
Authors: Stern Robert
Published: September 2009

This book consists in a series of chapters that trace the development of a distinctively Hegelian approach to metaphysics and certain central metaphysical issues. It begins with an introduction that considers this theme as a whole, followed by a section of chapters on Hegel himself, concerning his idealism, his theory of truth, and his claim concerning the rationality of the actual in the Preface to the Philosophy of Right. The following chapters then focus on the way in which certain key metaphysical ideas in Hegel's system, such as his doctrine of the ‘concrete universal’ and his conception of truth, relate to the thinking of the British Idealists on the one hand, and the American Pragmatists on the other. The chapter concludes by examining a critique of Hegel's metaphysical position from the perspective of the ‘continental’ tradition, and in particular Gilles Deleuze.
Hegel, British Idealism, and the Curious Case of the Concrete Universal
Authors: Stern Robert
Published: September 2009

This chapter explores the way in which the British idealists took up Hegel's notion of the ‘concrete universal’. At the interpretative level, it argues that while not everything these idealists are taken to mean by the term is properly to be found in Hegel, their work nonetheless relates to a crucial and genuine strand in Hegel's position. And at a philosophical level, the question underlying the doctrine of the concrete universal is examined: namely, how far does our thought involve a mere abstraction from reality, and what are the metaphysical and epistemological implications if it turns out it does not?
Coherence as a Test For Truth
Authors: Stern Robert
Published: September 2009

This chapter argues that the coherentism of the British Idealism, and in particular of F. H. Bradley, is importantly different from the sort of coherentism familiar in contemporary philosophy. For, while the latter is largely a theory of justification, holding that the structure of justification does not rest on any intrinsically justified beliefs, by contrast Bradley's coherentism is a test for truth, holding that we can only discover the truth by using coherence as a criterion, because we have no set of infallible beliefs against which others can be tested. It is then argued that with this distinction firmly in mind, certain traditional objections to coherentism can be re-assessed, particularly the role that experience is to play within our acquisition of knowledge.
Hegel and Pragmatism
Authors: Stern Robert
Published: September 2009

This chapter considers the relation between Hegel and the pragmatist tradition. It explores the way in which Hegel puts forward a presuppositionless approach in his Logic, and considers whether this is at odds with the pragmatist, who characteristically argues for a more Neurathian picture, according to which certain claims must be taken for granted in any inquiry. The motivation behind Hegel's commitment to presuppositionlessness in the Logic is explored, and it is argued that this is neither a Cartesian desire to refute the sceptic nor a concern to think in an autonomous way without taking anything for granted; rather, it is motivated solely by the particular character of the Logic as an investigation into the nature of thought. It is then argued that whilst the first two conceptions of a presuppositionless inquiry might have set Hegel at odds with pragmatism, the latter does not, so that Hegel's approach can be made compatible with the pragmatist's concerns, and indeed is in many ways motivated by a similar set of considerations.
Peirce, Hegel, and the Category of Firstness
Authors: Stern Robert
Published: September 2009

This chapter concerns Peirce's claim that Hegel neglected to give sufficient weight to what Peirce called ‘Firstness’, by which Peirce meant immediacy or individuality. Peirce's concerns are compared to a worry that surfaces in the German Idealist tradition with the later Schelling, and goes on to play a crucial role in the thought of many of Hegel's subsequent critics, from Kierkegaard to Deleuze: namely, has Hegel succeeded in addressing Jacobi's worry that our relation to the world must involve an immediacy that cannot be grasped in conceptual terms? Where Peirce's position is interesting, however, is that while he wants to do justice to this concern, he also wants to balance it with a commitment to what he calls Thirdness, and thus to mediation and generality, so that (this chapter argues) Peirce's outlook cannot represent a complete break with Hegel (as Peirce himself thought), but may rather provide a model for thinking about what a properly Hegelian treatment of this issue should really be.
Individual Existence and the Philosophy of Difference
Authors: Stern Robert
Published: September 2009

This chapter explores Hegel's account of the ‘concrete universal’ as a distinctive metaphysical response to the problem of individuality, which concerns what makes something an individual. It is argued that Hegel introduced his notion of the concrete universal to avoid Platonism on the one hand (which leaves insufficient room for individual particulars) and nominalism on the other (which reduces that particularity to an empty haecceity or ‘thisness’). Important challenges to Hegel's position within the continental tradition are then considered, particularly that offered by Gilles Deleuze.
Identity and Obligation in a Transgenerational Polity
Authors: Thompson Janna
Published: September 2009

Members of a political society typically regard themselves as participating in intergenerational relationships of obligation and entitlement. They value the inheritance they received from past generations, regard themselves as indebted to their forebears, and accept an obligation to pass on their heritage to their descendants. Liberalism, with its emphasis, on rights, contracts, and welfare of existing people, does not provide an adequate basis for intergenerational obligations. Communitarianism, by stressing communal values of the embedded self, is in a better position to explain why obligations in respect to the past as well as the future should play a central role in conceptions of justice. This chapter critically examines communitarian approaches to intergenerational obligations, and argues for an account of the self in which lifetime-transcending interests play an important role. It presents a theory of intergenerational obligations which makes use of communitarian insights but is also compatible with basic assumptions of liberalism.
Wronging Future People: A Contractualist Proposal
Authors: Kumar Rahul
Published: September 2009

The discussion of obligations to future generations often assumes that though the global poor can be wronged because there are obligations the affluent owe to them, those who will live in the further future can't. They can't be wronged, the thought goes, because though we have obligations with regard to future generations, they aren't obligations owed to them. This chapter argues that the assumption is mistaken. Adopting a Scanlonian contractualist account of what it is for one person to wrong another, it turns out that there is no good reason to think that those who will live in the further future can't be wronged by the choices we make now. This conclusion, it is suggested, has importance for how we understand the normative basis of claims to reparations for past injustice.
Insolvency within Multinational Enterprise Groups
Authors: Mevorach Irit
Published: September 2009

Insolvency within multinational enterprise groups (MEGs) raises complex issues due to the foreign elements of the case and the multiplicity of debtors. The key problem is deciding to what extent and in which ways should there be ‘linkage’ between the entities in the course of their insolvency in order to promote insolvency goals. Historically the issue has been neglected both in national and international regimes. However, new initiatives are currently developing. In order to deal with this issue this book provides a theoretical framework, suggesting a balance between Entity-Enterprise issues (drawn from company law theory and the problem of enterprise groups) and Universality-Territoriality issues (drawn from cross-border insolvency and conflict of laws theory). This is further assisted by a taxonomy describing prototypical scenarios of MEGs and their insolvency. The theoretical framework and prototypical scenarios are the basis for critical analyses of various tools for ‘linking’ between different components of MEGs in the course of their insolvency and the degree to which they fit with a series of insolvency goals. Thus, the book suggests a comprehensive approach for dealing with insolvency within MEGs which can be used not only within the current cross-border insolvency frameworks (e.g., UNCITRAL Model Law on Cross-Border Insolvency, EC Regulation on Insolvency Proceedings) but also as a definitive guideline for future reform. It argues that a global group-wide perspective for MEG insolvencies can be desirable if its application is limited to appropriate types of cases where unduly defeat of entity law and territoriality concerns can be minimized.
Introduction
Authors: Mevorach Irit
Published: September 2009

This introductory chapter sets the scope and focus of this work. It explains that the book deals with multinational enterprise groups (MEGs) and the event of their financial distress, and it delineates the key complexities involved with this issue. It explains that the book attempts to offer a framework for critically analysing means of treating insolvencies within MEGs, and that it also applies this framework when examining possible rules and procedures for dealing with MEG insolvencies. It explains that the works takes a multi-tiered approach considering for any insolvency mechanism how it fits with problems of insolvency, company law theory (the problem of groups), and of private international law. The chapter also delineates the structure of the book.
Prototypical Scenarios of Insolvency within Multinational Enterprise Groups
Authors: Mevorach Irit
Published: September 2009

This chapter attempts to classify certain prototypes of MEG insolvency, hence, enabling some measure of generalization across cases and scenarios. The prototypes are described along three key factors identified in this chapter as relevant to the issue of insolvency within MEGs — the insolvency scenario dimension (i.e., which companies are involved in the process), the integration dimension (the level of inter-dependence among the group member) and the dimension of centralization (the extent to which the MEG was centrally managed and controlled). As the dimensions selected are first and foremost relevant for the issue of international insolvency of the MEG, the result is a suitable taxonomy that facilitates discussion in the subsequent chapters on desirable linking measures for insolvency within MEGs.
Preservation of the Estate, Maximization of Value, and Facilitation of Rescues
Authors: Mevorach Irit
Published: September 2009

This chapter focuses on the administration of MEG insolvencies and examines ‘linking tools’ which could enhance preservation of the estate, wealth maximization and rescues. It asks to what extent and in which circumstances a global unified approach should be applied. Measures such as procedural consolidation, cooperation, and coordination and substantive consolidation (on a global level) are examined in light of the goal of wealth maximization, considering to what extent they might defeat the benefits of entity law and concerns of territorialism. The chapter suggests that a global unified approach is desired for cases of ‘business integrated’ insolvent MEGs. Stronger ‘linking’ measures in the course of insolvency are proposed for centralized integrated MEGs where the entire process may be centralized and conducted in the group ‘home country’. Greater intervention with entity law by way of applying global substantive consolidation is suggested for ‘asset integrated’ insolvent MEGs.
Certainty and Predictability
Authors: Mevorach Irit
Published: September 2009

This chapter focuses on the possibility of the approach proposed in previous chapters to generate certain and predictable rules. It starts by demonstrating problems of unpredictability when applying existing frameworks for cross-border insolvency to the MEG case. It suggests that the model proposed in this work improves predictability. As the variety of linking mechanisms proposed is matched to typical cases of MEG insolvency, the possible solutions are sufficiently generalized and so improve clarity. It also makes the rules generally foreseeable by voluntary creditors. There are clear distinctions between the different linking mechanisms, mainly the procedural and substantive consolidation, and centralization versus other ‘lightweight’ global linking tools. Certainly, this should be accompanied by a clear standard for ascertaining the ‘home country’ of the MEG for the purpose of centralizing proceedings where appropriate. It is suggested that the operational head office as key factor produces a rather unequivocal and stable home country standard.
Summary and Conclusion
Authors: Mevorach Irit
Published: September 2009

This concluding chapter summarizes the key proposals of this study. Crucially, the work suggested that when assessing insolvency within MEGs a special consideration should be given to its group aspect (balancing entity-enterprise conflicts) as well as to the multinational aspect (balancing universality-territoriality conflicts). In the course of the application of this framework to the questions at hand, it was revealed that certain insolvency measures can be beneficial (and sometimes critical) for the treatment of MEG insolvencies. The chapter also considers possible oppositions to the approach proposed. Finally, it suggests that current work undertaken by UNCITRAL Working Group V on the topic of enterprise group could be a step in the right direction in the development of practical solution for MEG insolvencies.
Roles of haemolymph proteins in antimicrobial defences of Manduca sexta
Authors: Ragan Emily J. , An Chunju , Jiang Haobo , Kanost Michael R.
Published: September 2009

This chapter discusses recent advances in our understanding of plasma proteins in the immune responses of the tobacco hornworm, Manduca sexta. It focuses on microbial pattern recognition proteins, and the complex interplay between proteinases, inactive homologues of proteinases, and proteinase inhibitors, all of which collaborate to regulate the proteolytic conversion of prophenoloxidase (proPO) to its active form, phenoloxidase (PO). It is becoming clearer that the proPO system is among the most rapidly deployed immune defences in insects. Its value to the host is shown by the fact that pathogens and parasites are frequently distinguished by the presence of anti-PO counter-adaptations. It is also especially interesting that vertebrate animals do not have a homologue of this system. The reason for this remains unknown.
Drosophila as a model for studying antiviral defences
Authors: Imler Jean-Luc , Eleftherianos Ioannis
Published: September 2009

This chapter reviews the progress made in the past few years on antiviral defence mechanisms in Drosophila melanogaster, and discusses the relevance of these findings for our understanding of the complex interaction of viruses with their invertebrate or mammalian hosts. Topics covered include models of Drosophila virus infection, Drosophila immune response against viruses, antiviral defences in other insect or invertebrate species, and comparison with mammalian antiviral defences.
Specificity of the innate immune system: a closer look at the mosquito pattern-recognition receptor repertoire
Authors: Das Suchismita , Dong Yuemei , Garver Lindsey , Dimopoulos George
Published: September 2009

The insect innate immune system is encoded by three major functional categories of genes that are involved in (1) recognition of invading microbes; (2) immune-signal amplification and transduction; and (3) effector mechanisms that mediate the killing and clearance of infectious micro-organisms. Despite its lack of adaptive immune mechanisms and antibody-mediated defences similar to those found in vertebrates, the innate immune system in insects is quite specific in its antimicrobial action. Once invading microbes are recognized through specific interaction between pattern-recognition receptors (PRRs) and pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), a variety of defence reactions can be activated. This chapter discusses the specificity of the innate immune responses at the level of PRRs, with a major focus on the mosquito Anopheles gambiae as a model system. It first provides a general overview of the insects' PRR repertoire and highlights some of its most interesting features with regard to antimicrobial defence. It then provides detailed molecular and functional descriptions of some of the best characterized PRR families.
Polydnaviruses as tools to deliver wasp virulence factors to impair lepidopteran host immunity
Authors: Moreau Sebastien , Huguet Elisabeth , Drezen Jean-Michel
Published: September 2009

The associations between several thousands of parasitic wasps and viruses (polydnaviruses or PDVs) represent a unique example where a complex virus machinery has been domesticated by one organism (the parasitic wasp) to manipulate the physiology of another (the parasitized lepidopteran larval host). The viral machinery produces particles used to transfer and express virulence genes encoding factors that impair host immunity. PDV particles, injected along with parasite eggs into the host body, manipulate host immune defences and development, thus enabling wasp larvae to survive and develop in a potentially harmful environment. This chapter begins by presenting the characteristics of PDVs and the origin of the genes they encode. It then describes the general effect of PDVs on the insect immune system, and finally reviews functional analyses of PDV products.
Reproductive immunity
Authors: Siva-Jothy Michael T.
Published: September 2009

One of the most predictable episodes of a female insect's life is the timing of mate-encounter and mating. This chapter proposes that females are often subjected to predictable wounding during mating and that this wounding provides opportunity for environmental microbes to enter the female's haemocoel, thereby presenting immunological costs. It argues that this combination of factors is likely to lead to reproduction being a period of heightened immunological activity that has resulted in specific immune defence mechanisms and management systems that function to minimize costs while maximizing immunological efficacy. If true, these phenomena may provide valuable insights into how organisms with mechanistically simple immune systems protect themselves against a complex pathogenic world, and may also provide logistic opportunities to better study immunity in the wild.