bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Heme Oxygenase-1 Protects against Neutrophil-Mediated Intestinal Damage by Down-Regulation of Neutrophil p47phox and p67phox Activity and O2− Production in a Two-Hit Model of Alcohol Intoxication and Burn Injury
Authors: Li Xiaoling , Schwacha Martin G. , Chaudry Irshad H. , Choudhry Mashkoor A.
Published: April 2014

Heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) has been demonstrated to protect against tissue injury. Furthermore, HO-1 is also shown to be antioxidant. Our recent findings indicate that acute alcohol (EtOH) intoxication exacerbates postburn intestinal and lung tissue damage, and this was found to be neutrophil dependent. Because neutrophil-mediated tissue injury involves the release of superoxide anions (O2−), the present study examined the role of HO-1 in neutrophil O2− production following EtOH and burn injury. Furthermore, we investigated whether HO-1 antioxidant properties are mediated via modulation of p47phox and/or p67phox proteins. Male rats (∼250 g) were gavaged with EtOH to achieve a blood EtOH level of ∼100 mg/dL before burn or sham injury (∼12.5% total body surface area). Some rats were treated with HO-1 activator cobalt protoporphyrin IX chloride (Copp; 25 mg/kg body weight) at the time of injury. On day 1 after injury, we found that EtOH combined with burn injury significantly increased neutrophil O2− production and p47phox and p67phox activation and decreased caspase-3 activity and apoptosis. This was accompanied with a decrease in neutrophil HO-1 levels. The treatment of animals with HO-1 activator Copp normalized neutrophil HO-1, O2−, p47phox, and p67phox following EtOH and burn injury. The expression of caspase-3, however, was further decreased in Copp-treated sham and EtOH plus burn groups. Moreover, Copp treatment also prevented the increase in intestinal edema and permeability following EtOH and burn injury. Altogether, these findings provide a new insight into the mechanism by which HO-1 regulates neutrophil O2− production and protect the intestine from damage following EtOH and burn injury.
Enhanced Dendritic Cell Survival Attenuates Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Immunosuppression and Increases Resistance to Lethal Endotoxic Shock
Authors: Gautier Emmanuel L. , Huby Thierry , Saint-Charles Flora , Ouzilleau Betty , Chapman M. John , Lesnik Philippe
Published: April 2014

Impaired immune function and associated immunosuppression are hallmarks of septic syndromes. As part of an overall deactivation of the immune system, profound depletion of dendritic cells (DCs) occurs in both septic patients and septic mice. Such depletion of DCs is potentially associated with immunosuppression and with failure to induce a protective Th1 immune response; it may equally be predictive of fatal outcome in septic patients. To evaluate the impact of enhanced DC survival on LPS-induced immunosuppression and on survival after LPS-induced septic shock, we created a transgenic mouse model specifically overexpressing the human form of the antiapoptotic protein Bcl-2 in DCs (DC-hBcl-2 mice). DCs derived from DC-hBcl-2 mice exhibited higher resistance to maturation-induced apoptosis after LPS treatment both in vitro and in vivo. Moreover, prolongation of DC survival diminished sublethal LPS-induced DC loss and immunosuppression, with maintenance of the differentiation potential of Th1 cells and enhanced T cell activation. Such modulation of the immune response appears to constitute a key feature of the attenuated mortality observed after LPS-induced shock in DC-hBcl-2 mice. Our study therefore identifies DC death as a key determinant of endotoxin-induced immunosuppression and mortality in mice.
CD47 Deficiency Protects Mice from Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Acute Lung Injury and Escherichia coli Pneumonia
Authors: Su Xiao , Johansen Mette , Looney Mark R. , Brown Eric J. , Matthay Michael A.
Published: April 2014

CD47 modulates neutrophil transmigration toward the sites of infection or injury. Mice lacking CD47 are susceptible to Escherichia coli (E. coli) peritonitis. However, less is known concerning the role of CD47 in the development of acute lung inflammation and injury. In this study, we show that mice lacking CD47 are protected from LPS-induced acute lung injury and E. coli pneumonia with a significant reduction in pulmonary edema, lung vascular permeability, and bacteremia. Reconstitution of CD47+/− mice with CD47−/− neutrophils significantly reduced lung edema and neutrophil infiltration, thus demonstrating that CD47+ neutrophils are required for the development of lung injury from E. coli pneumonia. Importantly, CD47-deficient mice with E. coli pneumonia had an improved survival rate. Taken together, deficiency of CD47 protects mice from LPS-induced acute lung injury and E. coli pneumonia. Targeting CD47 may be a novel pathway for treatment of acute lung injury.
Development of a Novel Noncompetitive Antagonist of IL-1 Receptor
Authors: Quiniou Christiane , Sapieha Przemyslaw , Lahaie Isabelle , Hou Xin , Brault Sonia , Beauchamp Martin , Leduc Martin , Rihakova Lenka , Joyal Jean-Sébastien , Nadeau Sylvain , Heveker Nikolaus , Lubell William , Sennlaub Florian , Gobeil Fernand , Miller Greg , Pshezhetsky Alexey V. , Chemtob Sylvain
Published: April 2014

IL-1 is a major proinflammatory cytokine which interacts with the IL-1 receptor I (IL-1RI) complex, composed of IL-1RI and IL-1R accessory protein subunits. Currently available strategies to counter pathological IL-1 signaling rely on a recombinant IL-1 receptor antagonist, which directly competes with IL-1 for its binding site. Presently, there are no small antagonists of the IL-1RI complex. Given this void, we derived 15 peptides from loops of IL-1R accessory protein, which are putative interactive sites with the IL-1RI subunit. In this study, we substantiate the merits of one of these peptides, rytvela (we termed “101.10”), as an inhibitor of IL-1R and describe its properties consistent with those of an allosteric negative modulator. 101.10 (IC50 ≈ 1 nM) blocked human thymocyte proliferation in vitro, and demonstrated robust in vivo effects in models of hyperthermia and inflammatory bowel disease as well as topically in contact dermatitis, superior to corticosteroids and IL-1ra; 101.10 did not bind to IL-1RI deficient cells and was ineffective in vivo in IL-1RI knockout mice. Importantly, characterization of 101.10, revealed noncompetitive antagonist actions and functional selectivity by blocking certain IL-1R pathways while not affecting others. Findings describe the discovery of a potent and specific small (peptide) antagonist of IL-1RI, with properties in line with an allosteric negative modulator.
Enhancement of DNA Vaccine Potency through Coadministration of CIITA DNA with DNA Vaccines via Gene Gun
Authors: Kim Daejin , Hoory Talia , Monie Archana , Ting Jenny Pan-Yun , Hung Chien-Fu , Wu T.-C.
Published: April 2014

Administration of DNA vaccines via gene gun has emerged as an important form of Ag-specific immunotherapy. The MHC CIITA is a master regulator of MHC class II expression and also induces expression of class I molecules. We reasoned that the gene gun administration of CIITA DNA with DNA vaccines employing different strategies to improve MHC I and II processing could enhance DNA vaccine potency. We observed that DC-1 cells transfected with CIITA DNA lead to higher expression of MHC I and II molecules, leading to enhanced Ag presentation through the MHC I/II pathways. Furthermore, our data suggested that coadministration of DNA-encoding calreticulin (CRT) linked to human papillomavirus (HPV) 16 E6 Ag (CRT/E6) with CIITA DNA leads to enhanced E6-specific CD8+ T cell immune responses in vaccinated mice. In addition, coadministration of the combination of CRT/E6 DNA with CIITA DNA and DNA encoding the invariant chain (Ii) linked to the pan HLA-DR-reactive epitope (Ii-PADRE) further enhanced E6-specific CD8+ T cell immune responses in vaccinated mice. Treatment with the combination vaccine was also shown to enhance the antitumor effects and to prolong survival in TC-1 tumor-bearing mice. Vaccination with the combination vaccine also led to enhanced E6-specific CD8+ memory T cells and to long-term protection against TC-1 tumors and prolonged survival in vaccinated mice. Thus, our findings suggest that the combination of CIITA DNA with CRT/E6 and Ii-PADRE DNA vaccines represents a potentially effective means to combat tumors in the clinical setting.
Antigen Sensitivity of CD22-Specific Chimeric TCR Is Modulated by Target Epitope Distance from the Cell Membrane
Authors: James Scott E. , Greenberg Philip D. , Jensen Michael C. , Lin Yukang , Wang Jinjuan , Till Brian G. , Raubitschek Andrew A. , Forman Stephen J. , Press Oliver W.
Published: April 2014

We have targeted CD22 as a novel tumor-associated Ag for recognition by human CTL genetically modified to express chimeric TCR (cTCR) recognizing this surface molecule. CD22-specific cTCR targeting different epitopes of the CD22 molecule promoted efficient lysis of target cells expressing high levels of CD22 with a maximum lytic potential that appeared to decrease as the distance of the target epitope from the target cell membrane increased. Targeting membrane-distal CD22 epitopes with cTCR+ CTL revealed defects in both degranulation and lytic granule targeting. CD22-specific cTCR+ CTL exhibited lower levels of maximum lysis and lower Ag sensitivity than CTL targeting CD20, which has a shorter extracellular domain than CD22. This diminished sensitivity was not a result of reduced avidity of Ag engagement, but instead reflected weaker signaling per triggered cTCR molecule when targeting membrane-distal epitopes of CD22. Both of these parameters were restored by targeting a ligand expressing the same epitope, but constructed as a truncated CD22 molecule to approximate the length of a TCR:peptide-MHC complex. The reduced sensitivity of CD22-specific cTCR+ CTL for Ag-induced triggering of effector functions has potential therapeutic applications, because such cells selectively lysed B cell lymphoma lines expressing high levels of CD22, but demonstrated minimal activity against autologous normal B cells, which express lower levels of CD22. Thus, our results demonstrate that cTCR signal strength, and consequently Ag sensitivity, can be modulated by differential choice of target epitopes with respect to distance from the cell membrane, allowing discrimination between targets with disparate Ag density.
H2E-Derived Eα52-68 Peptide Presented by H2Ab Interferes with Clonal Deletion of Autoreactive T Cells in Autoimmune Thyroiditis
Authors: Brown Nicholas K. , McCormick Daniel J. , David Chella S. , Kong Yi-chi M.
Published: April 2014

Susceptibility and resistance to experimental autoimmune thyroiditis is encoded by MHC H2A genes. We reported that traditionally resistant B10 (H2b) mice permit thyroiditis induction with mouse thyroglobulin (mTg) after depleting regulatory T cells (Tregs), supporting Ab presentation to thyroiditogenic T cells. Yet, Eak transgenic mice, expressing Ab and normally absent Eb molecules (E+B10 mice), are susceptible to thyroiditis induction without Treg depletion. To explore the effect of Eb expression on mTg presentation by Ab, seven putative Ab-binding, 15–16-mer peptides were synthesized. Five were immunogenic for both B10 and E+B10 mice. The effect of Eb expression was tested by competition with an Eα52-68 peptide, because Eα52-68 occupies ∼15% of Ab molecules in E+B10 mice, binding with high affinity. Eα52-68 competitively reduced the proliferative response to mTg, mTg1677, and mTg2342 of lymph node cells primed to each Ag. Moreover, mTg1677 induced mild thyroiditis in Treg-depleted B10 mice, and in E+B10 mice without the need for Treg depletion. Eα52-68 competition with mTg-derived peptides may impede clonal deletion of pathogenic, mTg-specific T cells in the thymus.
Cutting Edge: Foxp3+CD4+CD25+ Regulatory T Cells Induced by IL-2 and TGF-β Are Resistant to Th17 Conversion by IL-6
Authors: Zheng Song Guo , Wang Juhua , Horwitz David A.
Published: April 2014

TGF-β has pleiotropic effects on T cell differentiation that are determined by other cytokines in the local environment. Whereas IL-2 and TGF-β induce naive T cells to become forkhead/winged helix transcription factor (Foxp3) positive regulatory cells (iTregs), the combination of IL-6 and TGF-β induces IL-17-producing cells (Th17). Moreover, IL-6 can use TGF-β produced by thymus-derived natural regulatory T cells (nTregs) to convert them to Th17 cells. In this study, we report a major difference between iTregs and nTregs. Treatment of iTregs with IL-6 did not affect Foxp3 expression, and their suppressive activity in vitro and in vivo was intact. To explain this difference between nTregs and iTregs, we found that IL-2 and TGF-β down-regulate IL-6 receptor expression and IL-6 signaling. The resistance of iTregs to Th17 conversion suggests that they can function more effectively than nTregs in an inflammatory milieu and emphasizes the central role of IL-2 in combination with TGF-β to maintain immunologic homeostasis.
Plasticity of Regulatory T Cells: Subversion of Suppressive Function and Conversion to Enhancement of Lung Allergic Responses
Authors: Joetham Anthony , Matsubara Shigeki , Okamoto Masakazu , Takeda Katsuyuki , Miyahara Nobuaki , Dakhama Azzeddine , Gelfand Erwin W.
Published: April 2014

Activation of CD4+CD25+Foxp3+ naturally occurring regulatory T cells (nTregs) resulting in suppression of lung allergic responses requires interaction of MHC class I on nTregs and CD8. In the absence of CD8 (CD8−/− recipients), transferred nTregs restored airway hyperresponsiveness, eosinophilic inflammation, and IL-13 levels following allergen exposure. Enhancement of lung allergic responses was accompanied by reduced expression of Foxp3 and increased expression of IL-13 in the transferred nTregs. In CD8−/− recipients pretreated with glucocorticoid-induced TNFR-related protein-ligand Ab, the transferred nTregs maintained high levels of Foxp3 and did not result in altered lung responses. Thus, the regulatory function of nTregs can be subverted by reducing the expression of Foxp3 and following signaling through glucocorticoid-induced TNFR-related protein are converted nTregs into IL-13-producing CD4+ T cells mediating lung allergic responses.
TLR Ligand-Induced Type I IFNs Affect Thymopoiesis
Authors: Baron Marie-Laurence , Gauchat Dominique , La Motte-Mohs Ross , Kettaf Nadia , Abdallah Ali , Michiels Thomas , Zúñiga-Pflücker Juan-Carlos , Sékaly Rafick-Pierre
Published: April 2014

The interactions between TLRs and their ligands have profound immune modulation properties. Attention has focused mostly on the impact of TLR ligands on peripheral innate and adaptive immunity during viral infections, whereas little impact of TLR activation has been shown on thymic development. Here we show that treatment of murine fetal thymic organ cultures (FTOCs) with TLR3 or TLR7 ligands induced rapid expression of IFN-α and -β mRNA, hallmarks of acute and chronic viral infections. This resulted in an early developmental blockade, increased frequencies of apoptotic cells, and decreased proliferation of thymocytes, which led to an immediate decrease in cellularity. FTOCs infected with vesicular stomatitis virus, known to act through TLR7, were similarly affected. Down-regulation of IL-7R α-chain expression, together with an increased expression of suppressor of cytokine signaling-1 and a concomitant decreased expression of the transcriptional regulator growth factor independence 1 were observed in TLR ligands or IFN-treated FTOCs. This indicates a role for these pathways in the observed changes in thymocyte development. Taken together, our data demonstrate that TLR activation and ensuing type I IFN production exert a deleterious effect on T cell development. Because TLR ligands are widely used as vaccine adjuvants, their immunomodulatory actions mediated mainly by IFN-α suggested by our results should be taken in consideration.
Dissociation between Epitope Hierarchy and Immunoprevalence in CD8 Responses to Vaccinia Virus Western Reserve
Authors: Oseroff Carla , Peters Bjoern , Pasquetto Valerie , Moutaftsi Magdalini , Sidney John , Panchanathan Vijay , Tscharke David C. , Maillere Bernard , Grey Howard , Sette Alessandro
Published: April 2014

Understanding immunity to vaccinia virus (VACV) is important for the development of safer vaccines for smallpox- and poxvirus-vectored recombinant vaccines. VACV is also emerging as an outstanding model for studying CD8+ T cell immunodominance because of the large number of CD8+ T cell epitopes known for this virus in both mice and humans. In this study, we characterize the CD8+ T cell response in vaccinated BALB/c mice by a genome-wide mapping approach. Responses to each of 54 newly identified H-2d-restricted T cell epitopes could be detected after i.p. and dermal vaccination routes. Analysis of these new epitopes in the context of those already known for VACV in mice and humans revealed two important findings. First, CD8+ T cell epitopes are not randomly distributed across the VACV proteome, with some proteins being poorly or nonimmunogenic, while others are immunoprevalent, being frequently recognized across diverse MHC haplotypes. Second, some proteins constituted the major targets of the immune response by a specific haplotype as they recruited the majority of the specific CD8+ T cells but these proteins did not correspond to the immunoprevalent Ags. Thus, we found a dissociation between immunoprevalence and immunodominance, implying that different sets of rules govern these two phenomena. Together, these findings have clear implications for the design of CD8+ T cell subunit vaccines and in particular raise the exciting prospect of being able to choose subunits without reference to MHC restriction.
Human Tumor-Derived Exosomes Down-Modulate NKG2D Expression
Authors: Clayton Aled , Mitchell J. Paul , Court Jacquelyn , Linnane Seamus , Mason Malcolm D. , Tabi Zsuzsanna
Published: April 2014

NKG2D is an activating receptor for NK, NKT, CD8+, and γδ+ T cells, whose aberrant loss in cancer is a key mechanism of immune evasion. Soluble NKG2D ligands and growth factors, such as TGFβ1 emanating from tumors, are mechanisms for down-regulating NKG2D expression. Cancers thereby impair the capacity of lymphocytes to recognize and destroy them. In this study, we show that exosomes derived from cancer cells express ligands for NKG2D and express TGFβ1, and we investigate the impact of such exosomes on CD8+ T and NK cell NKG2D expression and on NKG2D-dependent functions. Exosomes produced by various cancer cell lines in vitro, or isolated from pleural effusions of mesothelioma patients triggered down-regulation of surface NKG2D expression by NK cells and CD8+ T cells. This decrease was rapid, sustained, and resulted from direct interactions between exosomes and NK cells or CD8+ T cells. Other markers (CD4, CD8, CD56, CD16, CD94, or CD69) remained unchanged, indicating the selectivity and nonactivatory nature of the response. Exosomal NKG2D ligands were partially responsible for this effect, as down-modulation of NKG2D was slightly attenuated in the presence of MICA-specific Ab. In contrast, TGFβ1-neutralizing Ab strongly abrogated NKG2D down-modulation, suggesting exosomally expressed TGFβ as the principal mechanism. Lymphocyte effector function was impaired by pretreatment with tumor exosomes, as these cells exhibited poor NKG2D-dependent production of IFN-γ and poor NKG2D-dependent killing function. This hyporesponsiveness was evident even in the presence of IL-15, a strong inducer of NKG2D. Our data show that NKG2D is a likely physiological target for exosome-mediated immune evasion in cancer.
IL-15 Expands Unconventional CD8ααNK1.1+ T Cells but Not Vα14Jα18+ NKT Cells
Authors: Terabe Masaki , Tagaya Yutaka , Zhu Qing , Granger Larry , Roederer Mario , Waldmann Thomas A. , Berzofsky Jay A.
Published: April 2014

Despite recent gains in knowledge regarding CD1d-restricted NKT cells, very little is understood of non-CD1d-restricted NKT cells such as CD8+NK1.1+ T cells, in part because of the very small proportion of these cells in the periphery. In this study we took advantage of the high number of CD8+NK1.1+ T cells in IL-15-transgenic mice to characterize this T cell population. In the IL-15-transgenic mice, the absolute number of CD1d-tetramer+ NKT cells did not increase, although IL-15 has been shown to play a critical role in the development and expansion of these cells. The CD8+NK1.1+ T cells in the IL-15-transgenic mice did not react with CD1d-tetramer. Approximately 50% of CD8+NK1.1+ T cells were CD8αα. In contrast to CD4+NK1.1+ T cells, which were mostly CD1d-restricted NKT cells and of which ∼70% were CD69+CD44+, ∼70% of CD8+NK1.1+ T cells were CD69−CD44+. We could also expand similar CD8ααNK1.1+ T cells but not CD4+ NKT cells from CD8α+β− bone marrow cells cultured ex vivo with IL-15. These results indicate that the increased CD8ααNK1.1+ T cells are not activated conventional CD8+ T cells and do not arise from conventional CD8αβ precursors. CD8ααNK1.1+ T cells produced very large amounts of IFN-γ and degranulated upon TCR activation. These results suggest that high levels of IL-15 induce expansion or differentiation of a novel NK1.1+ T cell subset, CD8ααNK1.1+ T cells, and that IL-15-transgenic mice may be a useful resource for studying the functional relevance of CD8+NK1.1+ T cells.
Latency-Associated Peptide Identifies a Novel CD4+CD25+ Regulatory T Cell Subset with TGFβ-Mediated Function and Enhanced Suppression of Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis
Authors: Chen Mei-Ling , Yan Bo-Shiun , Bando Yoshio , Kuchroo Vijay K. , Weiner Howard L.
Published: April 2014

CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells (Tregs) are essential for maintaining self-tolerance and immune homeostasis. Here we characterize a novel subset of CD4+CD25+ Tregs that express latency-associated peptide (LAP) on their cell surface (CD4+CD25+LAP+ cells). CD4+CD25+LAP+ cells express elevated levels of Foxp3 and Treg-associated molecules (CTLA4, glucocorticoid-induced TNFR-related gene), secrete TGFβ, and express both cell surface TGFβ and surface receptors for TGFβ. In vitro, the suppressive function of CD4+CD25+LAP+ cells is both cell contact and soluble factor dependent; this contrasts with CD4+CD25+LAP− cells, which are mainly cell contact dependent. In a model of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis, CD4+CD25+LAP+ cells exhibit more potent suppressive activity than CD4+CD25+LAP− cells, and the suppression is TGFβ dependent. We further show that CD4+CD25+LAP+ cells suppress myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein-specific immune responses by inducing Foxp3 and by inhibiting IL-17 production. Our findings demonstrate that CD4+CD25+ Tregs are a heterogeneous population and that the CD4+CD25+ subset that expresses LAP functions in a TGFβ-dependent manner and has greater in vivo suppressive properties. Our work helps elucidate the ambiguity concerning the role of TGFβ in CD4+CD25+ Treg-mediated suppression and indicates that LAP is an authentic marker able to identify a TGFβ-expressing CD4+CD25+ Treg subset.
Macrophage Migration Inhibitory Factor Contributes to the Immune Escape of Ovarian Cancer by Down-Regulating NKG2D
Authors: Krockenberger Mathias , Dombrowski Yvonne , Weidler Claudia , Ossadnik Monika , Hönig Arnd , Häusler Sebastian , Voigt Heike , Becker Jürgen C. , Leng Lin , Steinle Alexander , Weller Michael , Bucala Richard , Dietl Johannes , Wischhusen Jörg
Published: April 2014

The proinflammatory cytokine macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF) stimulates tumor cell proliferation, migration, and metastasis; promotes tumor angiogenesis; suppresses p53-mediated apoptosis; and inhibits antitumor immunity by largely unknown mechanisms. We here describe an overexpression of MIF in ovarian cancer that correlates with malignancy and the presence of ascites. Functionally, we find that MIF may contribute to the immune escape of ovarian carcinoma by transcriptionally down-regulating NKG2D in vitro and in vivo which impairs NK cell cytotoxicity toward tumor cells. Together with the additional tumorigenic properties of MIF, this finding provides a rationale for novel small-molecule inhibitors of MIF to be used for the treatment of MIF-secreting cancers.
Bacillus Calmette-Guérin and TLR4 Agonist Prevent Cardiovascular Hypertrophy and Fibrosis by Regulating Immune Microenvironment
Authors: Liu Yu-Ying , Cai Wen-Feng , Yang Hong-Zhen , Cui Bing , Chen Zhi-Rong , Liu Han-Zhi , Yan Jun , Jin Wen , Yan Hui-Min , Xin Bing-Mu , Yuan Bin , Hua Fang , Hu Zhuo-Wei
Published: April 2014

Hypertension-induced cardiovascular hypertrophy and fibrosis are critical in the development of heart failure. The activity of TLRs has been found to be involved in the development of pressure overload-induced myocardial hypertrophy and cardiac fibrosis. We wondered whether vaccine bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG), which activated TLR4 to elicit immune responses, modulated the pressure overload-stimulated cardiovascular hypertrophy and cardiac fibrosis in the murine models of abdominal aortic constriction (AAC)-induced hypertension. Before or after AAC, animals received BCG, TLR4 agonist, IFN-γ, or TLR4 antagonist i.p. BCG and TLR4 agonist significantly prevented AAC-induced cardiovascular hypertrophy and reactive cardiac fibrosis with no changes in hemodynamics. Moreover, TLR4 antagonist reversed the BCG- and TLR4 agonist-induced actions of anti-cardiovascular hypertrophy and cardiac fibrosis. BCG decreased the expression of TLR2 or TLR4 on the heart tissue but TLR4 agonist increased the expression of TLR2 or TLR4 on the immune cells that infiltrate into the heart tissue. This led to an increased expression ratio of IFN-γ/TGF-β in the heart. The cardiac protective effects of BCG and TLR4 agonist are related to their regulation of ERK-Akt and p38-NF-κB signal pathways in the heart. In conclusion, the activity of TLR4 plays a critical role in the mediation of pressure overload-induced myocardial hypertrophy and fibrosis. The regulation of immune responses by BCG and TLR4 agonist has a great potential for the prevention and treatment of hypertension-induced myocardial hypertrophy and cardiac fibrosis.
Human Flt3 Is Expressed at the Hematopoietic Stem Cell and the Granulocyte/Macrophage Progenitor Stages to Maintain Cell Survival
Authors: Kikushige Yoshikane , Yoshimoto Goichi , Miyamoto Toshihiro , Iino Tadafumi , Mori Yasuo , Iwasaki Hiromi , Niiro Hiroaki , Takenaka Katsuto , Nagafuji Koji , Harada Mine , Ishikawa Fumihiko , Akashi Koichi
Published: April 2014

FLT3/FLK2, a member of the receptor tyrosine kinase family, plays a critical role in maintenance of hematopoietic homeostasis, and the constitutively active form of the FLT3 mutation is one of the most common genetic abnormalities in acute myelogenous leukemia. In murine hematopoiesis, Flt3 is not expressed in self-renewing hematopoietic stem cells, but its expression is restricted to the multipotent and the lymphoid progenitor stages at which cells are incapable of self-renewal. We extensively analyzed the expression of Flt3 in human (h) hematopoiesis. Strikingly, in both the bone marrow and the cord blood, the human hematopoietic stem cell population capable of long-term reconstitution in xenogeneic hosts uniformly expressed Flt3. Furthermore, human Flt3 is expressed not only in early lymphoid progenitors, but also in progenitors continuously along the granulocyte/macrophage pathway, including the common myeloid progenitor and the granulocyte/macrophage progenitor. We further found that human Flt3 signaling prevents stem and progenitors from spontaneous apoptotic cell death at least through up-regulating Mcl-1, an indispensable survival factor for hematopoiesis. Thus, the distribution of Flt3 expression is considerably different in human and mouse hematopoiesis, and human FLT3 signaling might play an important role in cell survival, especially at stem and progenitor cells that are critical cellular targets for acute myelogenous leukemia transformation.
C5a and TNF-α Up-Regulate the Expression of Tissue Factor in Intra-Alveolar Neutrophils of Patients with the Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome
Authors: Kambas Konstantinos , Markiewski Maciej M. , Pneumatikos Ioannis A. , Rafail Stavros S. , Theodorou Vassiliki , Konstantonis Dimitrios , Kourtzelis Ioannis , Doumas Michael N. , Magotti Paola , DeAngelis Robert A. , Lambris John D. , Ritis Konstantinos D.
Published: April 2014

Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is characterized by the presence of fibrin-rich inflammatory exudates in the intra-alveolar spaces and the extensive migration of neutrophils into alveoli of the lungs. Tissue factor (TF)-dependent procoagulant properties of bronchoalveaolar lavage fluid (BALF) obtained from ARDS patients favor fibrin deposition, and are likely the result of cross-talk between inflammatory mediators and hemostatic mechanisms. However, the regulation of these interactions remains elusive. Prompted by previous findings suggesting that neutrophils, under certain inflammatory conditions, can express functional TF, we investigated the contribution of intra-alveolar neutrophils to the procoagulant properties of BALF from patients with ARDS. Our results confirm that the procoagulant properties of BALF from ARDS patients are the result of TF induction, and further indicate that BALF neutrophils are a main source of TF in intra-alveolar fluid. We also found that BALF neutrophils in these patients express significantly higher levels of TF than peripheral blood neutrophils. These results suggest that the alveolar microenvironment contributes to TF induction in ARDS. Additional experiments indicated that the ability of BALF to induce TF expression in neutrophils from healthy donors can be abolished by inhibiting C5a or TNF-α signaling, suggesting a primary role for these inflammatory mediators in the up-regulation of TF in alveolar neutrophils in ARDS. This cross-talk between inflammatory mediators and the induction of TF expression in intra-alveolar neutrophils may be a potential target for novel therapeutic strategies to limit ARDS-associated disturbances of coagulation.
Production of CCL2 by Central Nervous System Cells Regulates Development of Murine Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis through the Recruitment of TNF- and iNOS-Expressing Macrophages and Myeloid Dendritic Cells
Authors: Dogan Rukiye-Nazan E. , Elhofy Adam , Karpus William J.
Published: April 2014

Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis is a T cell-mediated demyelinating disease of the CNS that serves as a model for the human disease multiple sclerosis. Increased expression of the chemokine CCL2 in the CNS has been demonstrated to be important in the development of demyelinating disease presumably by attracting inflammatory cells. However, the mechanism of how CCL2 regulates disease pathogenesis has not been fully elucidated. Using radiation bone marrow chimeric mice we demonstrated that optimum disease was achieved when CCL2 was glia derived. Furthermore, CNS production of CCL2 resulted in the accumulation of iNOS-producing CD11b+CD11c+ dendritic cells and TNF-producing macrophages important for demyelination. Lack of glial-derived CCL2 production did not influence experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis by altering either Th1 or Th17 cells, as there were no differences in these populations in the CNS or periphery between groups. These results demonstrate that the glial-derived CCL2 is important for the attraction of TNF- and iNOS-producing dendritic cells and effector macrophages to the CNS for development of subsequent autoimmune disease.
Requirement for Enhancer Specificity in Immunoglobulin Heavy Chain Locus Regulation
Authors: Kuzin Igor I. , Bagaeva Ludmila , Young Faith M. , Bottaro Andrea
Published: April 2014

The intronic Eμ enhancer has been implicated in IgH locus transcription, VDJ recombination, class switch recombination, and somatic hypermutation. How Eμ controls these diverse mechanisms is still largely unclear, but transcriptional enhancer activity is thought to play a central role. In this study we compare the phenotype of mice lacking the Eμ element (ΔEμ) with that of mice in which Eμ was replaced with the ubiquitous SV40 transcriptional enhancer (SV40eR mutation) and show that SV40e cannot functionally complement Eμ loss in pro-B cells. Surprisingly, in fact, the SV40eR mutation yields a more profound defect than ΔEμ, with an almost complete block in μ0 germline transcription in pro-B cells. This active transcriptional suppression caused by enhancer replacement appears to be specific to the early stages of B cell development, as mature SV40eR B cells express μ0 transcripts at higher levels than ΔEμ mice and undergo complete DNA demethylation at the IgH locus. These results indicate an unexpectedly stringent, developmentally restricted requirement for enhancer specificity in regulating IgH function during the early phases of B cell differentiation, consistent with the view that coordination of multiple independent regulatory mechanisms and elements is essential for locus activation and VDJ recombination.
The Evolution of Multiple Isotypic IgM Heavy Chain Genes in the Shark
Authors: Lee Victor , Huang Jing Li , Lui Ming Fai , Malecek Karolina , Ohta Yuko , Mooers Arne , Hsu Ellen
Published: April 2014

The IgM H chain gene organization of cartilaginous fishes consists of 15–200 miniloci, each with a few gene segments (VH-D1-D2-JH) and one C gene. This is a gene arrangement ancestral to the complex IgH locus that exists in all other vertebrate classes. To understand the molecular evolution of this system, we studied the nurse shark, which has relatively fewer loci, and characterized the IgH isotypes for organization, functionality, and the somatic diversification mechanisms that act upon them. Gene numbers differ slightly between individuals (∼15), but five active IgM subclasses are always present. Each gene undergoes rearrangement that is strictly confined within the minilocus; in B cells there is no interaction between adjacent loci located ≥120 kb apart. Without combinatorial events, the shark IgM H chain repertoire is based on junctional diversity and, subsequently, somatic hypermutation. We suggest that the significant contribution by junctional diversification reflects the selected novelty introduced by RAG in the early vertebrate ancestor, whereas combinatorial diversity coevolved with the complex translocon organization. Moreover, unlike other cartilaginous fishes, there are no germline-joined VDJ at any nurse shark μ locus, and we suggest that such genes, when functional, are species-specific and may have specialized roles. With an entire complement of IgM genes available for the first time, phylogenetic analyses were performed to examine how the multiple Ig loci evolved. We found that all domains changed at comparable rates, but VH appears to be under strong positive selection for increased amino acid sequence diversity, and surprisingly, so does Cμ2.
Autoimmune Disease-Associated Histamine Receptor H1 Alleles Exhibit Differential Protein Trafficking and Cell Surface Expression
Authors: Noubade Rajkumar , Saligrama Naresha , Spach Karen , del Rio Roxana , Blankenhorn Elizabeth P. , Kantidakis Theodoros , Milligan Graeme , Rincon Mercedes , Teuscher Cory
Published: April 2014

Structural polymorphisms (L263P, M313V, and S331P) in the third intracellular loop of the murine histamine receptor H1 (H1R) are candidates for Bphs, a shared autoimmune disease locus in experimental allergic encephalomyelitis and experimental allergic orchitis. The P-V-P haplotype is associated with increased disease susceptibility (H1RS) whereas the L-M-S haplotype is associated with less severe disease (H1RR). In this study, we show that selective re-expression of the H1RS allele in T cells fully complements experimental allergic encephalomyelitis susceptibility and the production of disease-associated cytokines while selective re-expression of the H1RR allele does not. Mechanistically, we show that the two H1R alleles exhibit differential cell surface expression and altered intracellular trafficking, with the H1RR allele being retained within the endoplasmic reticulum. Moreover, we show that all three residues (L-M-S) comprising the H1RR haplotype are required for altered expression. These data are the first to demonstrate that structural polymorphisms influencing cell surface expression of a G protein-coupled receptor in T cells regulates immune functions and autoimmune disease susceptibility.
Constitutive ERK MAPK Activity Regulates Macrophage ATP Production and Mitochondrial Integrity
Authors: Monick Martha M. , Powers Linda S. , Barrett Christopher W. , Hinde Sara , Ashare Alix , Groskreutz Dayna J. , Nyunoya Toru , Coleman Mitchell , Spitz Douglas R. , Hunninghake Gary W.
Published: April 2014

A unique feature of human alveolar macrophages is their prolonged survival in the face of a stressful environment. We have shown previously that the ERK MAPK is constitutively active in these cells and is important in prolonging cell survival. This study examines the role of the ERK pathway in maintaining mitochondrial energy production. The data demonstrate that ATP levels in alveolar macrophages depend on intact mitochondria and optimal functioning of the electron transport chain. Significant levels of MEK and ERK localize to the mitochondria and inhibition of ERK activity induces an early and profound depletion in cellular ATP coincident with a loss of mitochondrial transmembrane potential. The effect of ERK suppression on ATP levels was specific, since it did not occur with PI3K/Akt, p38, or JNK suppression. ERK inhibition led to cytosolic release of mitochondrial proteins and caspase activation. Both ERK inhibition and mitochondrial blockers induced loss of plasma membrane permeability and cell death. The cell death induced by ERK inhibition had hallmarks of both apoptotic (caspase activation) and necrotic (ATP loss) cell death. By blocking ERK inhibition-induced reactive oxygen species, caspase activation was prevented, although necrotic pathways continued to induce cell death. This suggests that mitochondrial dysfunction caused by ERK inhibition generates both apoptotic and necrotic cell death-inducing pathways. As a composite, these data demonstrate a novel mitochondrial role for ERK in maintaining mitochondrial membrane potential and ATP production in human alveolar macrophages.
SHIP-1 Increases Early Oxidative Burst and Regulates Phagosome Maturation in Macrophages
Authors: Kamen Lynn A. , Levinsohn Jonathan , Cadwallader Amy , Tridandapani Susheela , Swanson Joel A.
Published: April 2014

Although the inositol phosphatase SHIP-1 is generally thought to inhibit signaling for Fc receptor-mediated phagocytosis, the product of its activity, phosphatidylinositol 3,4 bisphosphate (PI(3,4)P2), has been implicated in activation of the NADPH oxidase. This suggests that SHIP-1 positively regulates the generation of reactive oxygen species after phagocytosis. To examine how SHIP-1 activity contributes to Fc receptor-mediated phagocytosis, we measured and compared phospholipid dynamics, membrane trafficking, and the oxidative burst in macrophages from SHIP-1-deficient and wild-type mice. SHIP-1-deficient macrophages showed significantly elevated ratios of PI(3,4,5)P3 to PI(3,4)P2 on phagosomal membranes. Imaging reactive oxygen intermediate activities in phagosomes revealed decreased early NADPH oxidase activity in SHIP-1-deficient macrophages. SHIP-1 deficiency also altered later stages of phagosome maturation, as indicated by the persistent elevation of PI(3)P and the early localization of Rab5a to phagosomes. These direct measurements of individual organelles indicate that phagosomal SHIP-1 enhances the early oxidative burst through localized alteration of the membrane 3′-phosphoinositide composition.
Detrimental Contribution of the Immuno-Inhibitor B7-H1 to Rabies Virus Encephalitis
Authors: Lafon Monique , Mégret Françoise , Meuth Sven G. , Simon Ole , Velandia Romero Myriam L. , Lafage Mireille , Chen Lieping , Alexopoulou Lena , Flavell Richard A. , Prehaud Christophe , Wiendl Heinz
Published: April 2014

Rabies virus is the etiological agent of an acute encephalitis, which in absence of post exposure treatment is fatal in almost all cases. Virus lethality rests on its ability to evade the immune response. In this study, we analyzed the role of the immuno-inhibitory molecule B7-H1 in this virus strategy. We showed that in the brain and spinal cord of mice, rabies virus infection resulted in significant up-regulation of B7-H1 expression, which is specifically expressed in infected neurons. Correlatively, clinical rabies in B7-H1−/− mice is markedly less severe than in wild-type mice. B7-H1−/− mice display resistance to rabies. Virus invasion is reduced and the level of migratory CD8 T cells increases into the nervous system, while CD4/CD8 ratio remains unchanged in the periphery. In vivo, neuronal B7-H1 expression is critically depending on TLR3 signaling and IFN-β, because TLR3−/− mice—in which IFN-β production is reduced—showed only a limited increase of B7-H1 transcripts after infection. These data provide evidence that neurons can express the B7-H1 molecule after viral stress or exposure to a particular cytokine environment. They show that the B7-H1/PD-1 pathway can be exploited locally and in an organ specific manner—here the nervous system—by a neurotropic virus to promote successful host invasion.
PDL-1 Blockade Impedes T Cell Expansion and Protective Immunity Primed by Attenuated Listeria monocytogenes
Authors: Rowe Jared H. , Johanns Tanner M. , Ertelt James M. , Way Sing Sing
Published: April 2014

Infection with attenuated Listeria monocytogenes (Lm) is a robust in vivo model for examining how Ag-specific T cells are primed, and subsequent challenge with virulent Lm allows for the protective effects of T cell priming to be quantified. Herein, we investigated the role of programmed death ligand 1 (PDL-1) in T cell priming and immunity conferred after primary infection with Lm ΔactA followed by virulent Lm challenge. In striking contrast to the inhibitory role of PDL-1 on T cell immunity in other infection models, marked reductions in the magnitude of T cell expansion and the kinetics of T cell proliferation were observed with PDL-1 blockade after primary Lm ΔactA infection. More importantly, PDL-1 blockade beginning before primary infection and maintained throughout the experiment resulted in delayed bacterial clearance and T cell expansion after secondary challenge with virulent Lm. These results indicate that for immunity to intracellular bacterial infection, PDL-1 plays an important stimulatory role for priming and expansion of protective T cells.
Multiple Nod-Like Receptors Activate Caspase 1 during Listeria monocytogenes Infection
Authors: Warren Sarah E. , Mao Dat P. , Rodriguez April E. , Miao Edward A. , Aderem Alan
Published: April 2014

Listeria monocytogenes escapes from the phagosome of macrophages and replicates within the cytosolic compartment. The macrophage responds to L. monocytogenes through detection pathways located on the cell surface (TLRs) and within the cytosol (Nod-like receptors) to promote inflammatory processes aimed at clearing the pathogen. Cytosolic L. monocytogenes activates caspase 1, resulting in post-translational processing of the cytokines IL-1β and IL-18 as well as caspase 1-dependent cell death (pyroptosis). We demonstrate that the presence of L. monocytogenes within the cytosolic compartment induces caspase 1 activation through multiple Nod-like receptors, including Ipaf and Nalp3. Flagellin expression by cytosolic L. monocytogenes was detected through Ipaf in a dose-dependent manner. Concordantly, detection of flagellin promoted bacterial clearance in a murine infection model. Finally, we provide evidence that suggests cytosolic L. monocytogenes activates caspase 1 through a third pathway, which signals through the adaptor protein ASC. Thus, L. monocytogenes activates caspase 1 in macrophages via multiple pathways, all of which detect the presence of bacteria within the cytosol.
Differential Involvement of IκB Kinases α and β in Cytokine- and Insulin-Induced Mammalian Target of Rapamycin Activation Determined by Akt
Authors: Dan Han C. , Baldwin Albert S.
Published: April 2014

The mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) is a mediator of cell growth, survival, and energy metabolism at least partly through its ability to regulate mRNA translation. mTOR is activated downstream of growth factors such as insulin, cytokines such as TNF, and Akt-dependent signaling associated with oncoprotein expression. mTOR is negatively controlled by the tuberous sclerosis complex 1/2 (TSC1/2), and activation of Akt induces phosphorylation of TSC2, which blocks the repressive TSC1/2 activity. Previously, we showed that activation of mTOR in PTEN-deficient cancer cells involves IκB kinase (IKK) α, a catalytic subunit of the IKK complex that controls NF-κB activation. Recently, a distinct IKK subunit, IKKβ, was shown to phosphorylate TSC1 to promote mTOR activation in an Akt-independent manner in certain cells stimulated with TNF and in some cancer cells. In this study, we have explored the involvement of both IKKα and IKKβ in insulin- and TNF-induced mTOR activation. Insulin activation of mTOR requires Akt in a manner that involves IKKα, preferentially to IKKβ, and TSC2 phosphorylation. TNF, in most cells examined, activates Akt to use IKKα to control mTOR activation. In MCF7 cells, TNF does not activate Akt and requires IKKβ to activate mTOR. The results show that Akt-dependent signaling, induced by cytokines or insulin, alters the IKK subunit-dependent control of mTOR.
Up-Regulation and Activation of Eosinophil Integrins in Blood and Airway after Segmental Lung Antigen Challenge
Authors: Johansson Mats W. , Kelly Elizabeth A. B. , Busse William W. , Jarjour Nizar N. , Mosher Deane F.
Published: April 2014

We hypothesized that there are clinically relevant differences in eosinophil integrin expression and activation in patients with asthma. To evaluate this, surface densities and activation states of integrins on eosinophils in blood and bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) of 19 asthmatic subjects were studied before and 48 h after segmental Ag challenge. At 48 h, there was increased expression of αD and the N29 epitope of activated β1 integrins on blood eosinophils and of αM, β2, and the mAb24 epitope of activated β2 integrins on airway eosinophils. Changes correlated with the late-phase fall in forced expiratory volume in 1 s (FEV1) after whole-lung inhalation of the Ag that was subsequently used in segmental challenge and were greater in subjects defined as dual responders. Increased surface densities of αM and β2 and activation of β2 on airway eosinophils correlated with the concentration of IL-5 in BAL fluid. Activation of β1 and β2 on airway eosinophils correlated with eosinophil percentage in BAL. Thus, eosinophils respond to an allergic stimulus by activation of integrins in a sequence that likely promotes eosinophilic inflammation of the airway. Before challenge, β1 and β2 integrins of circulating eosinophils are in low-activation conformations and αDβ2 surface expression is low. After Ag challenge, circulating eosinophils adopt a phenotype with activated β1 integrins and up-regulated αDβ2, changes that are predicted to facilitate eosinophil arrest on VCAM-1 in bronchial vessels. Finally, eosinophils present in IL-5-rich airway fluid have a hyperadhesive phenotype associated with increased surface expression of αMβ2 and activation of β2 integrins.