bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
American Intransigence: The Rejection Of Continental Drift In The Great Debates Of The 1920'S
Authors: Newman Robert
Published: April 2015

Historians of the early debate on the Wegenerian continental drift hypothesis all point to the 1926 symposium of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists as instrumental in turning American geologists against Alfred Wegener. Many of them believe that the anti-Wegener papers presented in this symposium were cogent enough to warrant rejecting all forms of mobilism. I argue herein that neither of the above contentions is well founded. Drift was discussed extensively in the United States before 1926, the symposium in New York was inconsequential compared with the publication in 1928 of what purported to be papers given at New York, and the final contemptuous rejection of drift was sparked by a concerted effort of a few mandarins of the geological community who were deaf to the judgments of foreigners. The coup de grace was administered by Bailey Willis and Charles Schuchert in coordinated articles published in the Geological Society of America Bulletin in 1932.
The Geologists At Prague: August 1968. History of the International Union of Geological Sciences
Authors: Schneer Cecil
Published: April 2015

In August, 1968 nearly 3000 geologists from 91 countries gathered in Prague for the XXIIIrd International Geological Congress. Geology was in a state of major transformation and the Congress was the opportunity for the nascent International Union of Geological Sciences to involve the world geological community. But a brutal invasion of Czechoslovakia by its Communist allies frustrated all plans. Over 500 papers, more than 50 field trips, dozens of colloquia, meetings of affiliated societies etc. were canceled. Thousands of geologists who might have disseminated a uniquely global science to the classrooms and boardrooms of 91 countries's, were scattered by the winds of war. In rump sessions within the dying Congress and immediately after, a handful of West bloc geologists, committed agents of the new developments, struggled to pick up the pieces. The IUGS had to wait four years for another plenary session with the world geological community.
Charles Darwin on the Origin and Diversity of Igneous Rocks
Authors: Pearson Paul
Published: April 2015

Charles Darwin provided one of the first detailed explanations for the diversity of igneous rocks. Building on many observations made during the Beagle voyage, Darwin hypothesized that density differences among crystals within a mass of partially molten rock would result in their physical separation by sinking and floating. Such a process, he proposed, could be responsible for the separation of compositionally distinct lavas from a single source. This idea, in modified form, lies at the heart of the modern science of igneous petrology. Darwin also speculated that partial melting of rocks in the deeper regions of the Earth's crust could produce basaltic melts. However, due to his lack of knowledge of the melting points of the silicate minerals, and his misinterpretation of a puzzling field locality at Bahia in Brazil, he wrongly believed granitic gneiss to be the progenitor of these basalts. Despite this error, Darwin's igneous speculations show a characteristic blend of detailed observation and broader theorizing. Most interesting of all, striking analogies can be found between Darwin's igneous work and his theory of natural selection, which he developed at about the same time.
Maria Ogilvie Gordon (1864-1939)
Authors: Creese Mary
Published: April 2015

Maria Ogilvie Gordon, honorary member of the Vienna Geological Society and the London Geological Society's 1932 Lyell Medalist, was one of the most outstanding of Britain's early women field geologists. Her work, begun in 1891 and continued until the early 1930's, was carried out in the Dolomites of the South Tyrol, and focused primarily on the unravelling of the tectonic history of the region. Her publications were substantial, many appearing in Austrian journals. She had, in addition, what amounted to a second career as a civic and social leader, particularly in matters relating to the advancement of women and the welfare of children and young people.
Old or New Red Sandstone? Evolution of a Ninteenth Century Stratigraphic Debate, Northern Scotland
Authors: Diemer John
Published: April 2015

The Old Red Sandstone crops out on the margins of the Moray Firth, northern Scotland, from Caithness on the north through Sutherland and Ross to Moray on the south. The New Red Sandstone occurs in the vicinity of Elgin, on the southern shore of the Moray Firth. The rocks comprising the Old and New Red Sandstone are lithologically similar and distinguishing them is problematical as fossil material is scarce. The stratigraphic relationship of the Old and New Red Sandstone in northern Scotland, the subject of research and debate since the late eighteenth century, was generally agreed upon by the late nineteenth century. Age determinations were made possible by advances in understanding of the geologic time scale, regional geologic mapping, and by the discovery of fossil fish and reptiles. The resolution of the stratigraphic debate concerning the Old and New Red Sandstones was the result of the collaboration between geologists who lived in the region with distant, metropolitan scientists. Two local geologists who contributed to the research on the Old and New Red Sandstones of northern Scotland were Rev. Dr. George Gordon (1801-93) of Birnie, near Elgin, and Rev. Dr. James Joass (1829-1914) of Edderton and Golspie. They published their research in major scientific journals and worked with Roderick Impey Murchison. Their reputations as scientists were of such stature that they each received the LL.D. from Aberdeen University.
James Hutton's Edinburgh: The Historical, Social, and Political Background
Authors: McIntyre Donald
Published: April 2015

James Hutton (1726-1797) was born and bred in Edinburgh. Having decided to be a farmer, he went to Norfolk aged twenty-four to learn new methods of husbandry. From that base, he travelled widely and developed an interest in geology. In 1767 he left his Berwickshire farm and returned to Edinburgh, where he became a valued member of the remarkable group of men who founded the Royal Society of Edinburgh and made the city an unrivalled intellectual centre of the age.

Edinburgh was a capital without the distractions of king and parliament. When the Industrial Revolution began, many disciplines were already represented by men of world-renown who knew each other—many, indeed, were related. There were still no boundaries between narrowly defined disciplines; there was shared interest in all knowledge.

Geological structure had constricted Edinburgh's growth, keeping the compact Old Town on its ancient defensive ridge. The North Bridge, completed soon after Hutton's return to Edinburgh, made possible the planned New Town, in dramatic architectural and intellectual contrast to the mediaeval city. The beauty and interest of Edinburgh's scenery is the result of an active geological past. Consequently, in a small and accessible space, rocks of different character are exposed in a natural geological laboratory.

James Hutton did not live in an ivory tower. War, rebellion, and revolution, both political and industrial, all had their influence. In a turbulent world, a decade of peace (1783-1793) was another factor making possible Hutton's great contribution to modern geology.
Correspondence as a Window on the Development of a Discipline: Brongniart, Cleaveland, Silliman and the Maturation of Mineralogy in the First Decades of the Nineteenth Century
Authors: Bork Kennard
Published: April 2015

The development of any scientific discipline owes much to communication and networking among peers. Mineralogy's maturation in the early nineteenth century profited not only from the publication of two key textbooks, one French and one American, but also from the subsequent correspondence of the two authors and their coteries. Alexandre Brongniart (1770-1847) produced his Traité élémentaire de minéralogie in 1807. Parker Cleaveland (1780-1858), of Bowdoin College, Maine, adopted the chemistry-based classification system of Brongniart, presenting An Elementary Treatise on Mineralogy and Geology in 1816 for an American audience. The two authors became correspondents, not only sharing ideas but also exchanging specimens. Cleaveland's friend, Benjamin Silliman, Sr. (1779-1864), of Yale College, entered the circle, corresponding with Brongniart, Cleaveland, and his own extended web of contacts. By considering the lives, contributions, and correspondence of the three men and their like-minded friends, we come to a deeper understanding of the evolution of geological disciplines and of issues of interest to naturalists in the first decades of the nineteenth century.
Building a New Foundation for the Ocean Sciences: The National Science Foundation and Oceanography, 1951-1965
Authors: Van Keuren David
Published: April 2015

The organization of the National Science Foundation in 1950 gave it a late start on supporting American science. It survived as a poorly funded sister to the Office of Naval Research until the late 1950s, when Sputnik opened up the federal coffers for science support and education. This was particularly true in the ocean sciences, where NSF financial commitment to research support remained extremely limited, until the lobbying of the National Academy of Sciences' Committee on Oceanography, combined with the results of Sputnik, led to a dramatic new commitment of resources. One of the earliest major recipients of NSF resources in oceanography and the earth sciences was Project Mohole. Mohole gave the Foundation the opportunity to take a leadership role in oceanography and the earth sciences, although internal squabbles among supporters, along with projected cost over-runs, eventually led to a funding cut-off by Congress in 1966. However, the NSF's leadership role in the ocean sciences was by then well established.
Mr. Bain And Dr. Atherstone: South Africa's Pioneer Fossil Hunters
Authors: Cohen Alan
Published: April 2015

Although a few explorers had reported the finding of fossils in South Africa during the eighteenth century, interested amateurs made the first important collections of fossils during the 1830s. Many new species were discovered and sent back to London, for further study by the newly emerging class there of professional palaeontologists such as Richard Owen (1804-1892) of the British Museum's Natural History Department. As a result of a few pioneers like Andrew Geddes Bain (1797-1864) and William Guybon Atherstone (1814-1898), the study of South African geology and palaeontology was placed on a firm footing by the 1860s. Owen publicly acknowledged their contributions to these new sciences in 1876 in his monumental study of the fossil reptiles of South Africa.1
The Wissahickon Controversy: Florence Bascom vs. Her Students
Authors: Arnold Lois
Published: April 2015

In the history of science there have been many cases where former students have broken with their mentor, often in the process of establishing their own ideas and pursuits. The resulting ambivalence and conflict can be likened to that which occurs in a family when offspring separate from parents and establish their own identities. However, there are relatively few instances in the history of science when this process has taken place in a context in which both mentor and students were women. Such was the case with Florence Bascom and her protégées at Bryn Mawr College, Anna Jonas (Stose) and Eleanora Bliss (Knopf).

The controversy began over the relative age of the Wissahickon schist/gneiss, which was referred to the Ordovician in a paper on the Piedmont district of Pennsylvania published by Bascom in 1905. Jonas and Bliss became involved following the publication in 1916 of their joint doctoral dissertation on the relation of the Wissahickon to other formations in the Doe Run-Avondale region of Pennsylvania. In subsequent papers that came out in the 1920s, they sought to establish the existence of a pre-Cambrian "Glenarm series," including the Wissahickon, and introduced the concept of the Martic overthrust. This hypothesized fault was eventually extended by them and George Stose northward to New Jersey and southward to Alabama; the argument, which peaked in the 1930s, eventually extended to everyone concerned with Appalachian geology.
An Artistic Perspective On The Continuity Of Space And The Origin Of Modern Geologic Thought
Authors: Rosenberg Gary
Published: April 2015

The western European rediscovery of geometric perspective during the fourteenth century revolutionized the understanding of spatial relationships in general, and the structure of nature in particular. Renaissance artists-naturalists wrought this revolution, and the roots of the earth sciences can be traced to achievements such as Leonardo da Vinci's oldest known work of art, a drawing of the hills of Tuscany. A perspectival analysis of it reveals a distinct sequence of laterally continuous, horizontal strata which scaffold the Tuscan hills the way that bones give structure to the flayed human body in écorché images that Renaissance anatomists such as Vesalius as well as da Vinci produced. The drawing depicts original horizontality. superposition, and lateral continuity nearly two hundred years before Steno defined them in words in his Prodromus. Steno was educated in mathematics and anatomy, and his Prodromus is clearly an attempt to apply the geometric principles he had learned to further advance the Renaissance understanding of the three-dimensional continuity of nature.
Metaphors of Nature in James Hutton's Theory of the Earth With Proofs and Illustrations
Authors: Norwick Stephen
Published: April 2015

James Hutton (1726-1797) is credited with the discovery of the rock cycle and the great age of the Earth. He used eight metaphors for the whole of Nature in Theory of the Earth with Proofs and Illustrations (1795): the Great, Flux of Nature, the Macrocosmic-Microcosmic analogy, Nature as a Machine, the Book of Nature, Nature as a Fabric, Mother Nature, the Creation, and the Globe of the Planet. These metaphors were consistent with the dynamic character of the rock cycle. Hutton seems to have played a major role in developing the metaphor of the planet as an active ecological and geophysical agent. These metaphors are all in keeping with his belief in the goodness of God and the continuous habitability of the Earth. He did not use the metaphors of the Great Chain of Being or the Music of the Spheres, two metaphors for Nature which were very common in his day. These two metaphors are static images of Nature that are out of keeping with the feelings behind the discovery of the rock cycle.
Barbara Marchioness of Hastings (1810-1858)—Fossil Collector and ‘Lady-Geologist’
Authors: Kölbl-Ebert Martina
Published: April 2015

During the first half of the nineteenth century a large group of non-professional scientists still existed in British geology. For these ‘gentleman-geologists' geology was more or less a private interest. Female counterparts or ‘lady-geologists'—following an independent research program, publishing their results, and presenting them to the contemporary scientific community—were quite rare. One of these remarkable exceptions was Barbara Marchioness of Hastings (1810-1858). She was married and a mother of seven children. She was a keen collector of fossils and sold a large collection of several thousand vertebrate fossils to the British Museum in 1855. Beginning in 1845, she undertook detailed stratigraphical fieldwork in the Eocene strata at Hordle and Beacon Cliff near Milford (Hampshire), where she produced a coloured, scale-drawn section of the strata. Between 1848 and 1853, she published three papers summarising this work. Hastings considered herself a serious geological worker and her contributions were of high quality. Her high social position ensured a reasonable reception among her male colleagues, allowing her to present a short paper at the meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science in Oxford in 1847. Nevertheless her opus is rather small compared to male contemporary geologists. Being female, she had no liberal access to the geological ‘scientific community'. Additionally, family commitments held her in Hampshire, confining her work to this restricted area.
Georges Matheron: Founder of Spatial Statistics
Authors: Agterberg Frederik
Published: April 2015

Originally a geologist, Professor Georges Matheron (1930-2000) became increasingly mathematical in his approach to problem-solving. He made fundamental contributions to science by establishing new theoretical frameworks in spatial statistics, random sets, mathematical morphology, and the physics of random media. He inspired numerous other scientists first in France and later worldwide. His ideas and methods have been tested extensively and continue to be applied widely both inside and outside of geoscience. With Ronald Fisher and John Tukey, Georges Matheron belongs to the most influential mathematical statisticians of the twentieth century.
The Pre-Modern History of the Post-Modern Dinosaur: Phases and Causes in Post-Darwinian Dinosaur Art
Authors: Allmon Warren
Published: April 2015

Our images of dinosaurs have changed greatly and repeatedly since the group was first recognized in 1842. Although these changes have frequently been noted, their causes have not been adequately investigated. The history of dinosaur iconography since the publication of the Origin of Species can be usefully divided into at least four phases. During each of these phases, images of dinosaurs have been affected as much by what scientists thought dinosaurs should look like according to their particular views of the evolutionary process, as by empirical information derived from analysis of fossils. In the late nineteenth century, when paleontological views of evolution were diverse, views of dinosaurs were highly pluralistic, with some seen as slow and ponderous and others seen as agile and active. In the early twentieth century, as paleontological opinions about evolution narrowed around progressive orthogenesis, the spectrum of images narrowed to a view of almost all dinosaurs as primitive, slow, and stupid. The advent of the modern synthetic view of evolution in the 1940s had little effect on dinosaur science, and it was not until the late 1960s that dinosaurs would be viewed as advanced in many respects, harkening back to ideas first put forward just after Darwin.
The Geological Survey of Portugal (1857-1948): An Overview
Authors: Carneiro Ana , Mota Teresa
Published: April 2015

The Geological Survey of Portugal (GSP) was created in 1857 as part of the Directorate of Geodesic, Chorographic, Hydrographical Works of the Kingdom established at the Ministry of Public Works, Trade and Industry, within a general policy of control over territory. Until its creation, Portugal lacked any sort of tradition in geological research.Despite changes in name and various restructurings, the GSP was able to produce consistent geological research that was up to international standards, releasing two editions of a geological map of Portugal in the scale 1:500,000, the first in 1876 and the second in 1899. In 1918, the Survey was once again reorganised, becoming part of the new General Directorate of Mines and Geological Survey. Portugal was then enduring a troubled period: the young Republican regime established in 1910 faced financial and political difficulties, and there was much social unrest as a result of World War I. These events deeply affected Survey activities. It is clear that between 1918 and 1948 geology and mapping were not among the Portuguese State's priorities, thus leading to a decline of geological research and mapping.
Terrestrial Heat Flow Studies: History of Knowledge and Principal Achievements
Authors: Cermák Vladimír
Published: April 2015

The outflow of heat from the Earth's interior is, energy-wise, the most impressive terrestrial phenomenon. Its rate of about 1021 joules per year is order of magnitudes greater than the heat loss from volcanic eruptions or energy dissipation of earthquakes. The study of the Earth's internal heat plays an important role in understanding the Earth's origin, its evolution, internal constitution, and plate tectonics. The paper briefly recalls the early days of geothermal understanding of our planet, lists the principal milestones of heat flow studies and reviews the major achievements of the international cooperation under the activities of the International Heat Flow Commission of the IASPEI.
A Natural Order of Volcanic Succession: Midnineteenth-Century Field-based Models of Von Richthofen, King, and Dutton
Authors: Aalto Kenneth
Published: April 2015

During the latter half of the nineteenth century, pioneering studies of volcanic rocks were undertaken by Ferdinand von Richthofen, Clarence King, and Clarence Dutton in the Great Basin and California Cascades. They developed hypotheses on the petrogenesis of magmas in order to explain what they deemed to be a regular progression of volcanic rock types through time during the Cenozoic Era. There was general agreement that effusive volcanism resulted in an orderly sequence of magmas: propylitic, andesitic, trachytic, rhyolitic, and basaltic. Von Richthofen related this phenomenon to the tapping of magma sources at ever-greater depths during orogenic activity, the basic magmas being denser and occupying a lower level within the Earth. King felt that so-called ‘lakes of fusion’ developed within the Earth as a result of erosional unloading of its crust; and that within such lakes gravity separation resulted in silicic magmas floating upon basic. In the secular refrigeration of the globe these temporary lakes would necessarily occur successively at greater and greater depths and the secular changes that recorded themselves in the subtle petrographical distinctions by which the various acidic and basic members could be distinguished were in each case an expression of depth. Dutton, by contrast, saw no connection between unloading and volcanism and established a modified model for the genesis of magma, emphasizing the importance of magma provenance being controlled by the fusion of variable source rocks. All felt that such temporal changes in magma type were universal and provided a basis for a natural classification of volcanic rocks.
J. D. Falconer and his Geomorphological Interpretations in Northern Nigeria
Authors: Twidale C.
Published: April 2015

John Downie Falconer (1876-1947) was in his time known for his work on the geology of northern Nigeria and its tin deposits. Incidentally, however, he recognised that the landscape of that Protectorate is a palimpsest surface that includes substantial elements of what are today called etch plains and inselbergs as well as very old surfaces. His was the first account of etching in the context of landscapes (as opposed to minor forms such as corestone boulders).
‘Snowball Earth’: The Early Contribution from South Australia
Authors: Cooper Barry
Published: April 2015

Much early discussion on the glaciations now dated as late Neoproterozoic (Cryogenian) emanated from the small geological community working in South Australia in the early twentieth century, when their age was regarded as Lower Cambrian. An initial glacial interpretation of long known ‘conglomerates’ by H. P. Woodward was made as early as 1884. Papers by Adelaide-based W. Howchin, were published in British, US and German Journals in 1908, 1911 and 1912 respectively, advocating floating sea ice as a major depositional mechanism. Sydney-based T. W. E. David was also significantly involved via the longstanding Glacial Research Committee of the Australasian Association for Advancement of Science. David publicised recognition of the glaciation at the International Geological Congress in Mexico (1906) where he also suggested that the entire earth might have been glaciated, hence foreshadowing the modern ‘snowball earth’ hypothesis. Objections to the hypothesis of a ‘Lower Cambrian’ glaciation were also raised at an early stage by Howchin's Adelaide-based colleagues. Howchin and his adversaries defended their opposing views in voluminous and fiery articles in the South Australian press in the period 1905-1912 during which both sides endeavoured to undermine their opponent's credibility. By 1907, David had also appreciated the importance of carbonate beds that succeed glacial deposition. R. Lockhart Jack recognised two major glacial episodes within the modern late Neoproterozoic as early as 1913.
History of Kansas Glacial Geology
Authors: Aber James
Published: April 2015

The glacial features of northeastern Kansas have been investigated scientifically for more than a century; out of this study has come the concept of the "Kansan glaciation," which is recognized as an important stage of continental glaciation during the Pleistocene Epoch. The past glaciation of the American Plains and its implication for river-system development were recognized early by Louis Agassiz in 1868. Evidence for multiple glacial advances was discovered soon after, and T. C. Chamberlin in 1896 designated five glacial periods, of which the Kansan glaciation was next to oldest. The first detailed studies of glacial features in Kansas were carried out by J. E. Todd mostly in the second decade of this century. He emphasized reconstruction of stream and lake drainage developed peripherally to the ice sheet, and he can be regarded as the "father of Kansas glacial geology." The work of Todd was followed closely by that of W. H. Schoewe in the 1920-40's. Schoewe mapped the glacial limit as presently accepted, collected nearly all measurements of glacial striations in the State, and described evidence for multiple ice advances in the region. The modern era of glacial geology in Kansas began in 1952 with a comprehensive report by J. C. Frye and A. B. Leonard. They developed the concept of a cyclical model for interpreting Pleistocene strata of the State, and although now out-dated in some respects, their report remains the "bible" for Pleistocene and glacial geology in Kansas. The complexity of glaciation in Kansas was recognized increasingly during the 1960's and 1970's by many geologists, who recognized evidence for multiple glacial advances from various directions. At least one pre-Kansan and two Kansan advances now are recognized in the State.
Two Letters of Signor Giovanni Arduino, Concerning his Natural Observations: First Full English Translation. Part 1
Authors: Ell Theodore
Published: April 2015

Giovanni Arduino is renowned for his introduction of a fourfold subdivision of the Earth's strata, as described by him in two letters to his friend Luigi Vallisnieri in 1759 (published in 1760). In this, and a follow-up paper, the first full English translations of these letters are provided. Also his famous profile of strata on the sides of Valdagno is reproduced here, with a translation of its accompanying annotations. The first letter described Arduino's fieldwork in 1758 in some detail. He seems to have been concentrating on the chemical and physical characteristics of the rocks that he had examined but did not offer a lithostratigraphy for the mountains. The second letter took a different approach, providing his fourfold subdivision.
Alexandre Brongniart (1770-1847) Shows that a ‘FActs First’ Scientific Approach Can Lead to Large-Scale Conclusions
Authors: Bork Kennard
Published: April 2015

The early nineteenth century has been described as a time of ‘Positive Geology’. The goal was to pursue fieldwork and build the edifice of science on ‘facts,’ thereby displacing the theorizing of previous centuries. French naturalists contributed prominently to the evolution of geoscience in that era. Georges Cuvier (1769-1832) and Alexandre Brongniart (1770-1847) were among the researchers who adhered to the ‘Facts First’ approach to understanding nature. Brongniart is an exemplar of the dedicated empiricist, careful observer, and cautious writer who was able to see ways to synthesize facts into conclusions of far-reaching consequence. The result is that collection and description of fossils, and observation of field relationships of rock units, led to an appreciation of the theoretical power of biotic succession, biostratigraphy, the geologic column, and geologic mapping.
British Pioneers of the Geology of Gibraltar, Part 2: Cave Archaeology and Geological Survey of the Rock, 1863 to 1878
Authors: Rose Edward
Published: April 2015

The 1860s marked a period of intense early interest in the antiquity of man, and so cave archaeology, in England and elsewhere. Systematic cave archaeology was initiated on Gibraltar in 1863 by a former infantry officer, Frederick Brome, the governor of the military prison, and his discoveries prompted cave exploration and local geological interest by two young British Army officers stationed on the Rock: Alexander Burton-Brown of the Royal Artillery and the subsequently more famous Charles (later Sir Charles) Warren of the Royal Engineers. On the recommendation of Sir Charles Lyell, President of the Geological Society of London, Brome's excavated material was sent to England for study by George Busk and Hugh Falconer: both palaeontologists of considerable distinction. The new discoveries drew attention to the ‘Gibraltar Skull’, presented to the Gibraltar Scientific Society by Lieutenant Edmund Flint of the Royal Artillery in 1848 but recognized only after description of Homo neanderthalensis from Germany in 1864 as a relic of that extinct species—one of the most complete Neanderthal skulls known. Detailed topographical mapping of the Gibraltar peninsula by Charles Warren and interest in Gibraltar geology generated by cave studies led to the first geological survey of the Rock—by Andrew (later Sir Andrew) Crombie Ramsay and James Geikie of the ‘British’ Geological Survey, in 1876. The first ‘overseas’ project to be undertaken by the Survey, this was historically significant because its purpose was primarily hydrogeological and it generated an atypically large-scale (1:2,500) geological map. The map and its 1877-1878 descriptive accounts, which featured Quaternary superficial sediments in more detail than the Jurassic limestone bedrock, were to guide development of Gibraltar's fortress infrastructure for the next sixty-five years.
British pioneers of the geology of Gibraltar, Part 3: E. B. Bailey and Royal Engineers 1943 to 1953
Authors: Rose Edward
Published: April 2015

Edward Battersby Bailey (1881-1965), Director of the Geological Survey of Great Britain, visited the 6-km2 Gibraltar peninsula twice in 1943, in transit from/to England and the Mediterranean island of Malta. He spent only five days in total on Gibraltar, but submitted two influential reports to its Fortress Headquarters, guided by rock features exposed by recent quarrying. On his recommendation, a deep borehole was drilled below the northern isthmus in an attempt to locate a supposed aquifer in Cenozoic sandstones believed to extend south from Spain, and A. L. Greig (a graduate of Imperial College, London, serving locally in the ranks of the Royal Engineers) prepared a new geological map (at 1:5,280) and a report to help guide tunnel excavation within the bedrock. Between 1945 and 1948, Lieutenant (later Captain) G. B. Alexander (a graduate of the University of Cambridge also serving in the Royal Engineers) generated a much more detailed map (at 1:2,500) of the bedrock plus superficial deposits, together with associated diagrams and geotechnical reports. These unpublished documents, and fossils collected during their preparation, influenced a re-interpretation of Gibraltar (as the remnant of an overturned limb of a klippe of Early Jurassic dolomitic limestone thrust into position during the Betic-Rif Orogeny), published by Bailey in 1953. A report to accompany Alexander's map was never completed, but documents constituting the most complete record known of his Gibraltar work are now preserved within the archives of the British Geological Survey. Reserve army officers later compiled a geological map of Gibraltar (at 1:10,000) published by the Royal Engineers in 1991. Thereafter, as garrison strength became greatly reduced, work under military auspices was increasingly superseded by civilian research.
The Reaction in Continental Europe to Wegener's Theory of Continental Drift
Authors: Carozzi Albert
Published: April 2015

The reaction in Germany indicates that in spite of World War I, the geological community was very much alive. Opinions ranged from violent and emotional rejections by prominent scientists, who saw their previously published theories challenged, to active acceptance of an exciting new concept to be tested in the various fields of geology.

The French reaction, delayed by the death of many geologists during the war, and hampered by the language barrier, remained provincial and chauvinistic. Only lofty and skeptical comments were presented against what was considered an amateurish theory by a geophysicist. In reality, nobody in France, with the exception of Philibert Russo and Boris Choubert, was at the time involved in any orogenic theory or prepared to accept the challenge. The idea of continental bridges prevailed.

In Switzerland, after the introduction of Wegener's ideas by Emile Argand during the war, and in spite of strong anti-German feelings, the concept was accepted quickly and enthusiastically as the best framework for solving critical problems of Alpine tectonics. Several famous Austrian geologists had published orogenic theories for the Alps based on the contraction the-ory and rejected Wegener's mobilism, but later, under the influence of Swiss geologists, they showed partial acceptance.

Belgian geologists rejected Wegener's theory because they considered the beautiful symmetry of the present surface of the Earth incompatible with the assumed breaking-up of an original continental mass. Italian geologists, with a few exceptions, rejected Wegener's "aberration" while Spain, unaffected by the war, had a positive attitude which was facilitated by an early translation and a receptive academic audience. Dutch geologists, deeply involved with the Indonesian archipelago, accepted widespread mobilism with enthusiasm since it provided a spectacular answer to their problems. The Scandinavians, supportive but unable to interpret Precambrian geology with Wegener's theory, concentrated their efforts on astronomical and geodetic studies of present-day drift in the Arctic region.

In summary, the reaction in Continental Europe was extremely diversified and dominated by an association of strong post World War I politics, the language barrier, the stifling of academic authority, passions of individuals, and regionalism of geology.
Achievement in Isolation: A.W. Howitt, Pioneering Investigator of Metamorphism in Australia
Authors: Vallance T.
Published: April 2015

The earliest coherent observations of metamorphic phenomena in Australia were made by a policemagistrate, stationed in a remote part of Victoria and largely self-taught in geology. In a series of reports and papers issued between 1875 and 1892 that magistrate, Alfred William Howitt, recorded details of metamorphic progressions found in the mountains of eastern Victoria - from folded Palaeozoic strata to crystalline schists and gneisses, and of different sorts of granitic bodies in the regional metamorphic association.

Howitt worked at a time when the metamorphic status of crystalline schists was far from generally accepted in Europe and America; some still regarded them as portions of unchanged Primitive crust. Like George Barrow in Scotland - whose work in some ways he anticipated, Howitt, however, through the influence of Lyell's writings, began as a believer in metamorphism. But whereas Barrow is respected for innovative contributions to metamorphic thought and method, Howitt's isolation in Australia kept his work little known. In fact, as recent studies show, Howitt was investigating a regional metamorphism different in style from that of Barrow. Howitt not only pioneered metamorphic petrology in Australia, he really began the study of what is now termed low-pressure regional metamorphism.

This paper seeks to set Howitt's metamorphic investigations in the contexts of his career and the then condition of his chosen subject. The principal influences on his approaches to petrography and metamorphism are seen to be German in origin. Howitt may have had no formal training in science but as a boy he lived in Germany for some years and learned the language. It was to be a most useful acquisition.
"Geologic Time" As Calculated By C. D. Walcott
Authors: Yochelson Ellis
Published: April 2015

In 1893, Walcott contributed to the debate on the length of geologic time. He approached the problem by calculating average thickness of the Paleozoic rock column in the west and dividing by rates of erosion and by rates of deposition to arrive at a time interval. Although he concentrated on the Cordilleran area, Walcott produced a general paleogeographic scheme for the Paleozoic of North America. He was quite clear in differentiating between chemical and mechanical deposits, and devoted most of his attention to the Paleozoic carbonates.

Walcott chose western North America as the source for data, in part because of the long sections and in part because of the large amount of limestone relative to sandstone and shale. Throughout the discussion he included pertinent comments on such subjects as size of source areas and relative speed of deposition; he was familiar with many of the issues that occupy present-day sedimentologists. After considering various aspects of the issue, Walcott estimated 17,500,000 years for the duration of the Paleozoic. Walcott also derived a Paleozoic: Mesozoic: Cenozoic ratio of 12: 5: 2, the same ratio obtained today from radiometric dates. He estimated that the Algonkian was as long as Paleozoic and guessed 10,000,000 years for the duration of the Archean.

The greatest flaws in his chain of logic were assumption of an erosion rate of 1 foot in 200 years and assumption that deposition of limestone was more or less continuous. Had he chosen 1 foot per 3,000 years, one of his other two calculations, he would have been close to present-day age figures. Perhaps it was the episodic, rather than the average, nature of sedimentation that was the pitfall. Nevertheless, Walcott's estimates of thicknesses of western Paleozoic rocks and his resulting calculations were the most detailed made on erosion/sedimentation rates to indicate the length of geologic time.

His study was published in three journals, plus other outlets, and it may have been the most widely distributed paper of the decade. It was little cited, perhaps because within several years the debate on age shifted to use of ocean salinity as a potentially more precise calender. That approach in turn ultimately succumbed to the new concept of radiometric dating.
The Transmission of Ideas in the Use of Fossils in Stratigraphic Analysis from England to America 1800-1840
Authors: Torrens H.
Published: April 2015

Transmission from the Old to the New World, by means other than publication, of the idea that fossils could help in the analysis of stratigraphic problems is discussed, over the period 1800 to 1840. Focus on the single direction of transmission from England to America does not imply that this was either the only or the most important route by which such ideas came to North America.

The contribution of William Smith, and his pupil John Farey, is first briefly reviewed in this context. Until their elucidation of an adequate Standard of sequential lithological units in England, no practical transmission of the idea that fossils could help in stratigraphy was possible. Smith's contacts with American visitors are then discussed but the first migrant informed about the ‘new stratigraphy’ was Henry Steinhauer, a Moravian missionary who emigrated to Philadelphia in 1815. He came direct from the Bath circles in which a knowledge of Smith's results was commonplace. As an even more important link in the chain of transmission, Steinhauer took his own large fossil collection with him, arranged in Standard Smithian stratigraphic order. The next such migrant was John Finch, who arrived in America in 1823 to escape his many English creditors! His success in comparing English and Atlantic coast sequences based on fossils is reviewed. Others like Professor William Buckland, who had been brought up as a Smithian stratigrapher, were also then busy in England comparing such sequences, helped, in Buckland's case, by the geologically inclined Martha Hare, aunt of Professor Robert Hare in Pennsylvania. The contribution of two of Smith's own trans-Atlantic pupils, G.W. Featherstonhaugh and R.C. Taylor, is discussed in a final section. Taylor emigrated to North America in 1831, again taking his large fossil collection, arranged in Smithian stratigraphic order, with him. He took it with the specific intention that it be used to advance correlations between America and England.

The arrival of such good collections of stratigraphically arranged fossils could have been a most important link in the chain of transmission of ideas in this field. More research is needed at the American end, in particular to discover what survives of the collections of these early scientific migrants.
Empirical Validation of a Gas Distribution System Moisture Drydown Model
Authors: Dheandhanoo Seksan , Yang James , Ciotti Ralph , Yesenofski David
Published: April 2015

Moisture is the most difficult impurity to remove from gas distribution systems due to its adsorption and desorption behavior. Several theoretical models have been proposed in an effort to understand moisture behavior and to predict the drydown time of gas distribution systems. We recently developed a model that takes into account the fluid dynamics of the bulk gas stream and incorporates two drydown regimes: a physisorbed regime and a chemisorbed regime. This paper compares experimental drydown data with model simulations of gas distribution systems under various configurations and conditions. The verified model can be applied as an engineering tool for designing a practical system and predicting the effects of a moisture intrusion into the system.
Validation of Force-Limited Vibrating Testing
Authors: Worth Daniel , Kaufman Daniel
Published: April 2015

A sounding rocket experiment was performed on May 8, 1997, that contributed to the process of validating force-limited random vibration testing. A simple structure was flown and instrumented with accelerometers and force gages. The results of the data acquired during the flight test are compared with predicted result which were performed prior to the flight tests. The data have helped to validate the force-limited testing approach for random vibration testing. Additionally, the data will be used for others to develop improved analytical techniques for force-limited vibration testing. This flight is the first in a series of at least three that will be performed.
Tailoring Temperature/Humidity Life Tests with In-Service Environment Data
Authors: Cluff Kevin , Barker Donald
Published: April 2015

Humidity combined with temperature and voltage is considered a major failure stimulus in electronic components, printed wiring boards, and assemblies. Accelerated temperature/humidity tests are commonly used to evaluate the moisture resistance of electronics, but these are rarely linked to the application environment. This work proposes a methodology to determine realistic tests based on measured usage environments. Plastic encapsulated microcircuits in the commercial airplane environment will be used to demonstrate the approach.
Measurement and Detection of Cleanroom Fabric Barrier and Shedding Properties
Authors: Foarde Karin , Hill Liz , Hanley James
Published: April 2015

This paper describes a series of standard and novel tests used to quantify cleanroom fabric barrier and shedding properties. The three tests are: a microbial penetration test, and the IEST-RP-CC003.2 particle penetration and Helmke drum tests. When used together, the combined results provide a comprehensive evaluation of the fabrics and garments.
Inadequacies in Uniaxial Stress Screen Vibration Testing
Authors: Whiteman Wayne , Berman Morris
Published: April 2015

Validating the design and reliability of equipment prior to fielding is a critical step in the materiel development and manufacturing process. Success requires that the new equipment undergo and survive testing. Stress screen vibration testing determines the equipment's design capability. Traditionally, stress screen vibration tests have been conducted by sequentially applying uniaxial excitation to test articles along three orthogonal axes. Simultaneous multiaxial excitation is an advanced method of vibration testing with the goal of more closely approximating real-world operating conditions. Multiaxial testing achieves the synergistic effect of exciting all modes simultaneously and induces a more realistic vibrational stress loading condition. This research begins an effort to explore the difference in predicting fatigue failure between sequentially applied uniaxial and simultaneous triaxial tests. The research plan starts with simple cantilever beam structures. Once initial results are complete, more complex and typical components in actual vehicles will be tested. This paper provides results that reveal inadequacies in traditional uniaxial test methods. It is shown that the order in which orthogonal uniaxial excitation is applied has a significant effect on fatigue failure.
Evaluating the Effectiveness of AMC Control Strategies with Reactivity Monitoring
Authors: Muller Chris
Published: April 2015

The control of airborne molecular contaminants (AMC) is becoming a design requirement for all semiconductor manufacturing facilities. Chemical filtration in many forms is being employed in makeup air handling units, recirculation air handlers, minienvironments, fan filter units, and process tools. Suppliers of chemical filtration systems are being asked how best to determine if their systems are working and, if so, whether they are meeting design requirements.

Just as there are many ways to apply chemical filtration for the control of AMC, there are many different methods being used to measure AMC and to evaluate filter system performance. Employed in either real-time or passive form, reactivity monitoring has been used in a number of fabs for several years as a way to gauge AMC levels and to evaluate the effectiveness of AMC control strategies. Whether controlling AMC directly or indirectly, reactivity monitoring can provide an overall indication of ambient air quality as well as AMC levels within the controlled spaces.

This paper will focus on the use of reactivity monitoring as an air monitoring technique. Results of reactivity monitoring from semiconductor manufacturing facilities will be presented, illustrating both the validity of this air monitoring technique in general as well as its ability to gauge the effectiveness of chemical filtration when applied to the control of AMC.