bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Effect of Sex Identification on Instrument Assignment by Band Directors
Authors: Johnson Christopher M. , Stewart Erin E.
Published: June 2006

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of sex identification on the assignment of instruments to beginning band students. Participants were band directors solicited at music conferences and music education students solicited from major universities across the United States. Participants completed an online survey about instrument assignments. Half the participants were sent to a Web site that had full-head pictures of eight students and assigned them to one of six beginning band instruments. The other half of the participants were given a site address that had pictures of the same students, but only the lips and dental aspects of the students' faces were visible. Results indicated that the ability to identify the sex of subjects only had an effect on the assignment of an instrument for one of the eight students. Furthermore, when data were analyzed factoring in the sex of the respondent, one other difference became apparent. Since this difference was for the sole African-American stimulus, it is possible that this difference may have been related to the student s race. These findings show that, generally, differences in instrument assignment were not linked to the subjects' ability to identify the sex of the student.
Attractiveness Bias in the Evaluation of Young Pianists' Performances
Authors: Ryan Charlene , Costa-Giomi Eugenia
Published: June 2006

We investigated how the attractiveness bias that influences the judgment of a variety of characteristics and behaviors in infants, children, and adults affects the evaluation of young pianists' performances. The assumption was that both the visual and the audio components of a videotaped musical performance influence the viewers perception of performance quality. We asked children, musicians, and nonmusicians (n = 75) to rate the quality of 10 piano performances from audiotapes (sound only) and from videotapes (sound and image). Additionally, the participants rated the attractiveness of the performers from brief videos of the performers getting ready to play. Results show that evaluations of audiovisual recordings of musical performances are judged more reliably than are audio recordings but also suggest that they may be affected by an attractiveness bias. The bias was found to favor the more attractive pianists among the female performers and among the best players, and the less attractive pianists among the male performers. The decision to use more reliable means of evaluation (videotapes or DVDs) at the expense of favoring a particular group of performers would have to be taken carefully depending on the outcomes of the situation.
Learning Environments, Goal Orientations, and Interest in Music
Authors: Marjoribanks Kevin , Mboya Mzobanzi
Published: June 2006

This study is an examination of relationships among family background, family and school learning environments, goal orientations, and students' interest in music. Data were collected from 18-year-old black South African students, 340 women and 285 men, whose main language was Isi Xhosa. Findings indicated that when family background was defined conjointly by family social status and parents' aspirations, (a) family background, gender, family and school learning environments, and goal orientations combined to have medium associations with students' interest in music, (b) relationships among learning environments, goal orientations, and students' interest in music varied for students with different family backgrounds, and (c) the learning environment and goal-orientation variables partially accounted for the relationships between family background, gender, and students' interest in music.
An Analysis of Vibrato among High School and University Violin and Cello Students
Authors: Geringer John M. , Allen Michael L.
Published: June 2006

We investigated vibrato performance of university student and high school string players. Forty violinists and cellists performed an eight-measure passage both with and without vibrato. Analyses indicated that the mean rate of vibrato was approximately 5.5 Hz, with no significant differences between instruments or performer experience level. The mean width of violin vibratos was larger than cello vibratos. Violinists' mean pitch levels were sharper than cellists' in both vibrato and nonvibrato performances. Analysis of intonation patterns within the duration of tones showed that performers were more stable when using vibrato. University players tended to become sharper during both vibrated and nonvibrated tones compared to the younger players. Pitch oscillations during vibrato were alternations both above and below conceived pitch, rather than oscillations only above or only below the conceived pitch.
Influence of Starting Grade and School Organization on Enrollment and Retention in Beginning Instrumental Music
Authors: Hartley Linda A.
Published: June 2006

The purpose of this study was to explore differences in enrollment and retention of instrumental music students between the initial grade level of instruction and Grade 7. Specifically, fifth- and sixth-grade starting levels were examined. Two organizational structures of grade levels were also compared: those that housed Grades 5 and 6 in the same building (unified), and those that housed Grades 5 and 6 in separate buildings (split). Subjects were elementary, middle, and junior high school band directors (N = 45) from Indiana, Ohio, and Virginia. A questionnaire that asked for information pertaining to various stages of enrollment and retention was distributed to directors. Results indicated that initial-year retention was significantly higher in those schools that started training in Grade 5. However, percentages of enrollment and retention were not significantly affected by starting grade or grade-level organization by the time students reached Grade 7.
The Effectiveness of Individual/ Small-Group Singing Activities on Kindergartners' Use of Singing Voice and Developmental Music Aptitude
Authors: Rutkowski Joanne
Published: June 2006

The following were investigated in this study: the effect of individual/small-group singing activities used within the traditional large-group setting on kindergartners' use of singing voice and developmental music aptitude; the strength of relationship between tonal aptitude and use of singing voice; the length of time over which instruction is needed to provide significant results. Songs, activities, and games were the same for both the control and treatment groups; however, instruction for the treatment group involved small-group and individual participation in the singing activities. Results showed that the treatment did have an effect on the children's development of use of singing voice, that an entire year of instruction was needed for the treatment to be effective, and that a very small relationship seems to exist between use of singing voice and developmental tonal aptitude.
Vocal Integrity of Elementary Vocal Music Teachers: Personal and Environmental Factors
Authors: Bernstorf Elaine D. , Burk Kenneth W.
Published: June 2006

Voice and music education literature describe vocal stresses associated with vocal music teaching that may jeopardize vocal integrity. The purpose of this investigation was to systematically examine the predictive ability of three factors associated with professional voice use in elementary vocal music teaching to predict scores on a self-rated index of vocal integrity (Voice Conservation Index). Factors were: (a) percentage of life span spent in teaching, (b) a teaching schedule factor, and (c) specific dosimetric measures of classroom noise. Regression analysis results showed a significant relationship between maximum classroom noise level and VCI pathology scores. Recorded maximum noise levels as high as 117 dBA with an average maximum level of 106.1 dBA across all teachers suggest the need for systematic assessment of noise in teaching environments. Given the demonstrated relation of noise level to teachers' perceptions of their vocal health, results also suggest the need for in-service training regarding their vocal use habits and teaching strategies for noisy environments.
A Comparison of the Basic Song Repertoire of Vocal/Choral and Instrumental Music Education Majors
Authors: Prickett Carol A. , Bridges Madeline S.
Published: June 2006

Following up on an earlier study, an audiotape of the tunes of 25 standard songs, assumed to be known by everyone who has finished 6th grade, was played for 135 undergraduate instrumental music education students and 79 undergraduate vocal/choral music education students. There was no significant difference in the ability of either group to identify the songs. The means for both groups indicated that neither had developed a strong repertoire of standard songs outside the college classroom. Several songs that music educators have stated are very important for children to learn could not be identified by even half the students in either group. It is recommended that professors preparing music education students for their future careers consider adding activities to music education courses that build a strong song repertoire.
Preservice and In-Service Teachers' Perceptions of Band Music Content and Quality Using Self-Report and Behavioral Measures
Authors: Sheldon Deborah A.
Published: June 2006

This study is an examination of experienced and inexperienced teachers' perceptions of band music content and quality in three experimental settings. Estimates of time focusing on musical elements and perceptions of difficulty and quality of a mid-level band work after silent score study and after listening were investigated. In a separate study, participants demonstrated musical element focus using an operant measure while simultaneously listening to and reading scores of three works in different styles. Perceptions of difficulty and quality were again examined. Level of expertise was not a mitigating factor in these tasks; preservice teachers' focus generally paralleled responses of in-service teachers. Mode of study seemed to influence decisions of quality and craftsmanship, since these were rated more highly by listeners than by readers. Results suggest that preservice teachers may possess abilities similar to experienced teachers concerning decisions about mid-level band works. Limitations of these studies suggest caution in interpretation of results and demonstrate a need for continued study.
Swiss-German Music Books in the Mason-McConathy Collection: Accounts from Europe to the United States
Authors: Howe Sondra Wieland
Published: June 2006

This article describes an examination of the Swiss-German music books in the Luther Whiting Mason—Osbourne McConathy Collection, undertaken to learn about music education in nineteenth-century Switzerland and its influence on American music education. Pfeiffer and Nägeli introduced Pestalozzi's ideas to Swiss schools, teaching the elements of music separately and introducing sounds before symbols. Swiss educators in the mid-1800s published numerous songbooks and teachers' manuals for an expanding school system. Foreign travelers praised the teaching of Schäublin in Basel. In Zurich, a cultural center with choruses for men and women, music directors continued to produce materials for schools and community choruses in the 1800s. Because travelers like Luther Whiting Mason purchased these books, Swiss ideas on music education spread to other European countries and the United States.
Analysis of Teacher-Student Interactions in the Piano Lessons of Adults and Children
Authors: Siebenaler Dennis J.
Published: June 2006

The purpose of this investigation was to identify and describe the characteristics of effective teaching in the piano studio. Thirteen piano teachers were videotaped with one adult student and one child student during three consecutive lessons each. An 8- to 12-minute segment showing work on a piece in progress was excerpted from each of the 78 lessons. Computerized observation procedures, designed specifically for this and related research, were used to record and analyze teacher behavior, student behavior, and lesson progress. Ten representative excerpts were evaluated by five expert piano pedagogues, who rated the teaching effectiveness observed in each. The expert pedagogues were generally reliable in identifying ineffective teaching, but were less reliable in assessing effective teaching. Correlational analyses were used to identify the lesson characteristics associated with effective and ineffective ratings. Relatively active teachers were ranked higher than were inactive teachers. Active teachers provided more modeling and gave more feedback. Student performance episodes generally were shorter among the more active teachers, and students of the more active teachers tended to perform mare successfully. The duration and pace of behavior episodes were important variables in discriminating among levels of instructional quality, with shorter episodes and, thus, faster pace associated with more effective teaching.
Verbal Instruction in Instrumental Rehearsals: A Comparison of Three Career Levels and Preservice Teachers
Authors: Goolsby Thomas W.
Published: June 2006

Part 1 of this study was an investigation of the verbal instruction used during 60 rehearsals by expert, novice, and student teachers. Frequency distributions were established for 15 performance variables and 10 rehearsal variables and comments as well as for the number of complete sequential patterns of instruction. Part 2 was a pre-experimental study to determine changes in instruction evidenced by preservice teachers (22 rehearsals) exposed to guided observation as part of an instrumental methods course. Evidence suggests that all three groups of teachers address rhythm/tempo the most frequently. Expert teachers devoted more time to overall ensemble sound (including more demonstrations, instruction/explanations on intonation, and guided listening); of their rehearsal segments, 23% were complete sequential patterns. Novice teachers spent the most time tuning individual notes, whereas student teachers spent the most time correcting wrong notes. Gains for the undergraduates included less emphasis on wrong notes and greater emphasis on rhythm/tempo and style. The percentage of complete sequential patterns of instruction used by undergraduates nearly tripled with minimal training.
Preservice and Experienced Teachers' Opinions of Skills and Behaviors Important to Successful Music Teaching
Authors: Teachout David J.
Published: June 2006

The purpose of this study was to compare the responses of preservice teachers and experienced teachers when asked, “What skills and behaviors are important to successful music teaching in the first three years of experience?” The sample consisted of randomly selected groups of preservice teachers ( n = 35) and experienced teachers ( n = 35). Subjects were given a list of teacher skills/behaviors and asked to rate the level of importance of each item using a 4-point Likert-type scale. For each item, the mean score for both groups was calculated and used to determine rank order. Of the 10 top-ranked items for each group, 7 were common to both groups. On 6 of the 40 items, there existed a difference of 10 or more rankings between the groups. Nine of the 40 items were ranked equally or within one ranking of each other. As an ex post facto measure, each of the items was placed into one of three broad skill categories (personal, musical, or teaching). A two-way ANOVA with repeated measures was used to determine that both groups rated personal skills and teaching skills as significantly more important than musical skills.
Focus of Attention and Aesthetic Response
Authors: Madsen Clifford K.
Published: June 2006

In the present study, focus of attention to musical elements was investigated in an attempt to ascertain which elements are perceived as most prominent in relation to aesthetic response as demonstrated in previous work. One hundred experienced musicians listened to the last 20 minutes of Act I of Puccini's La Bohème. Fifty musicians indicated via the Continuous Response Digital Interface (CRDI) which of five musical elements (Melody, Rhythm, Timbre, Dynamics, or Everything) commanded their attention as they listened throughout the excerpt. Additionally, another 50 subjects, divided into five groups of 10 subjects each, registered their degree of attention for each specific musical element; these subjects had only one element presented on the CRDI dial with instructions to register their degree of attention to this specific element throughout the selection. Results from those subjects who tracked all elements simultaneously indicated that the highest percentage of attention throughout the entire excerpt was registered for Dynamics, followed closely by the elements Everything, Melody, Rhythm, and Timbre. For those subjects who responded to only one element, the highest degree of attentiveness was registered for Melody, followed by the elements Dynamics and Everything. Timbre was next in degree-of-attentiveness rating, and rhythm was by far the lowest. The element Melody was most closely related to aesthetic responsiveness for this Puccini excerpt.
Development and Testing of a Computer-Assisted Instructional Program to Teach Music to Adult Nonmusicians
Authors: Parrish Regena Turner
Published: June 2006

Two universities were selected to evaluate music fundamentals software developed for prospective nursery-school through sixth-grade teachers. Using folk songs as examples, the investigator designed computer-assisted instructional (CAI) software to supply future teachers with a repertoire of songs and related music concepts for classroom use. Subjects at the first university ( N = 148) were enrolled in a music fundamentals and performance skills course, the first of two music courses for preservice teachers. Subjects at the second university ( N = 95) were enrolled in a music methods and materials course, the only music course for preservice teachers offered at this site. A comparison of posttest scores of control (in-class lecture) and experimental (CAI) groups yielded no significant differences in either experiment. Students in both experiments thought the song examples were helpful. Furthermore, reducing class time spent with music theory allowed instructors to spend more time with other instructional tasks, potentially enabling students to improve in other performance areas.
Women in Music Education in the United States: Names Mentioned in History Books
Authors: Livingston Carolyn
Published: June 2006

The purpose of the study was to determine which women were mentioned most frequently in general United States music education history books and to examine the contexts in which the authors discussed women's work. A survey of individuals interested in music education history was then conducted to determine whether they would recognize the names of these women and whether they would consider them important to the music education field. An examination of five histories revealed 334 citations for 164 women. Only 11 women's names were mentioned five or more times. A questionnaire was sent to 39 respondents, who were invited to rate each of the 11 names for recognition of the woman's name and her work in music education. Agreement regarding name recognition was found to exist between histories and the 28 respondents who returned the questionnaire.
A Comparison of Faculty, Peer, and Self-Evaluation of Applied Brass Jury Performances
Authors: Bergee Martin J.
Published: June 2006

Authorities agree that peer evaluation and self-evaluation can help improve teaching performance. Evaluation of applied music skills, however, remains heavily teacher-centered. In this investigation, I explored the efficacy of peer and self-evaluation of applied brass jury performances. In three episodes at two locations, university faculty members evaluated live brass jury performances using an author-constructed Brass Performance Rating Scale (BPRS). Also using the BPRS, students rated these same performances (one of which was theirs) on videotape. To control for adjudicators' prior knowledge of performers, a fourth panel of adjudicators unfamiliar with the performers evaluated one episodes performances. Interjudge reliability for faculty and peer evaluation panels generally was high, with total score correlations ranging from .83 to .89 ( p < .01). Correlations among faculty and peer-group evaluations also were high, with total score r ranging from .86 to .91 ( p < .01). Consonant with prior investigations, self-evaluation generally correlated poorly with faculty and peer evaluation. The effect of videotape seemed minimal; scoring discrepancies between live and videotaped performances were low. In this investigation, prior knowledge of performers did not seem to affect evaluations.
A Study of Middle School Band Students' Instrument Choices
Authors: Fortney Patrick M. , Boyle J. David , DeCarbo Nicholas J.
Published: June 2006

The purpose of this study was to investigate reported influences on middle school band students' instrument choices. A questionnaire was developed to gather information concerning students' instrumental music experience, family participation in instrumental music, and reported reasons for instrument choice and nonchoice. The sample ( N = 990) consisted of sixth-, seventh-, eighth-, and ninth-grade band students from 13 middle schools in the Dade County (Florida) Public Schools. Results revealed strong gender/instrument associations, and students indicated that their instrument choices were most influenced by the instrument sound. Other reported influences included “people,” that is, middle school music teachers, parents, and friends. Although students did not indicate it directly, gender association with certain instruments seemed to override professed reasons for instrument selection.
The Effect of Piano Accompaniment on Kindergartners' Developmental Singing Ability
Authors: Atterbury Betty W. , Silcox Lynn
Published: June 2006

The purpose of this study was to investigate the influence of piano harmonic accompaniment on singing ability of kindergarten students during a year of music instruction. The study used a pretest-posttest control-group design with an additional posttest measure. Both the pretest and posttest were the individual rote-singing of “Pinto Pony,” a four-phrase song with a range from the D to the A above middle C. The additional posttest was Gordon's Primary Measures of Music Audiation (1979). Results showed that: (a) no significant differences existed in singing ability between the two groups of kindergartners who had accompaniment and no accompaniment during a year of instruction, and (b) no significant differences existed in the composite scores of the PMMA between the experimental and control group.
The Effect of Task Analysis on Sequential Patterns of Music Instruction
Authors: Maclin Jean Phillips
Published: June 2006

Three groups of undergraduate elementary/early-childhood education majors participated in a study designed to help examine the effect of task analysis on use of complete sequential patterns and sequential pattern components in teaching music. A complete sequential pattern was defined as one continuing academic presentation or academic-related question, the resulting student response, and general or specific feedback. Three different teaching strategies were used for the three groups, and each group taught six times. One group wrote a task analysis before all teaching experiences; a second group was instructed to write two task analyses as an exercise, unrelated to actual teaching; a third group had no task-analysis instruction. Posttest videotapes of 60 subjects were analyzed for time spent in each component as well as in complete sequences. Results indicated the task-analysis group had a significantly greater number of complete sequences. The task-analysis group also had significantly more time in student performance. No significant differences were shown for specific or general feedback.
Success Attributes in Teaching Music as Perceived by Elementary Education Majors
Authors: Kvet Edward J. , Watkins Rosemary C.
Published: June 2006

The purposes of this study were to (a) develop an instrument, using attribution theory models, to measure perceptions of elementary education majors related to success in teaching music; (b) determine those factors that elementary education majors believe contribute to success in teaching music; (c) determine the relative strength of each factor; and (d) compare the factors with traditional and music-related attribution theory models. A researcher-developed instrument directed 306 elementary education majors to rate the degree to which they believed positive attributes contribute to success in teaching music. A principal-factor analysis produced four factors, accounting for 53.13% of the total variance. Factor 1 (understanding and organizing for individual differences in children) and Factor 3 (proactive personality characteristics) were consistent with literature on teacher effectiveness. Factor 2 (musical ability and positive feelings for music) and Factor 4 (external factors affecting music teaching), however, were similar to traditional attributional models.
Teacher and Student Behavior in Suzuki String Lessons: Results from the International Research Symposium on Talent Education
Authors: Duke Robert A.
Published: June 2006

The investigation described in this report documents the types of behavior that take place in the studios of nationally and/or regionally acclaimed string teachers whose instruction is based on the principles of Shinichi Suzuki. The specific focus of the investigation was the time allocated to different aspects of teacher, student, and parent behavior as teachers and students worked to improve students' playing of repertoire in the context of individual lessons. The study also examined the relationships among various student characteristics and the lesson behavior observed. Each of 29 string teachers was observed teaching two or three different students across three consecutive lessons—a total of 246 lessons. A unique aspect of the investigation was the enlistment of 13 expert string pedagogues who were trained to evaluate videotaped instruction using systematic observation procedures designed specifically for this project. The observation procedures were designed to address specific research questions that had been identified at the International Suzuki Institute Research Symposium (Aber, 1990).
The Effect of Observation Focus on Evaluations of Choral Rehearsal Excerpts
Authors: Yarbrough Cornelia , Henley Paul
Published: June 2006

Seven rehearsal excerpts demonstrating research-identified teaching characteristics were presented to university music majors ( N = 176) for ratings. Subjects watched either a videotape focused on the teacher or another focused on students. Numerical ratings from 1 to 10 were assigned by subjects to 10 categories of student and teacher behavior: time use, musicianship, accuracy of presentation, student attentiveness, student performance quality, enthusiasm, intensity, pacing, personality, and overall effectiveness. Results demonstrated that subjects gave their highest ratings when viewing the teacher and lowest ratings when viewing students. The highest-rated excerpt contained a hw percentage of student off-task behavior (6.53%), a high percentage of approvals (71%), moderate eye contact (2730%), many activity changes (27), a high percentage of student response time (66%), and rapid pacing, as indicated by an average length of both teacher and student activities of 5-6 seconds.
Music Mainstreaming: Practices in Arizona
Authors: Frisque James , Niebur Loretta , Humphreys Jere T.
Published: June 2006

This study examined mainstreaming in music via a survey of a sample of Arizona music educators. Among the respondents (n = 107), the vast majority are or have been responsible for teaching students with disabilities, although most have received little or no training in special education. Emotionally/behaviorally disordered students are perceived as the most difficult to mainstream, and physically handicapped and speech-impaired students the least difficult. Among disabled students, “learning disabled” was the category most frequently encountered. In most schools, mainstreaming is the only music placement option, and regular music faculty members are the sole providers of music instruction for special learners. Musical ability is rarely the primary reason for mainstreaming students, few respondents have access to special education consultants or adequate time to individualize programs, and most respondents rarely or never participate in placement decisions. The respondents' goals for special learners in music center on student participation and classroom management, with little demarcation between musical and nonmusical goals or objectives. We concluded that effective mainstreaming in music, as implied by the Education for Handicapped Children Act of 1975 and recommended by the Music Educators National Conference, does not exist in Arizona.
Unison versus Individual Singing and Elementary Students' Vocal Pitch Accuracy
Authors: Green Georgia A.
Published: June 2006

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of unison singing versus individual singing on the vocal pitch accuracy of children in Grades 1, 2, 3, and 5, as well as to observe the effects of gender and maturation on children's singing ability. Subjects (N = 241) were asked to sing a simple children's song both individually and as a member of a small group consisting of children's voices only. Responses were recorded on separate channels of a multichannel tape recorder and subsequently scored for pitch and melodic interval accuracy. Results indicated that singing in unison and singing individually did have an effect on the children's vocal accuracy. Children at each grade level studied sang more accurately when singing in unison with their peers than when singing individually. Both group and individual scores improved with each successive grade level; however, the difference in scores between group and individual singing was much greater for children in Grade 5 than for the other three grade levels. Results also indicated that in each of the grade levels and for each of the singing conditions, girls sang more accurately than did boys.
Precursors of Musical Aptitude Testing: From the Greeks through the Work of Francis Galton
Authors: Humphreys Jere T.
Published: June 2006

Carl E. Seashore's tests of musical aptitude, originally published in 1919, were a logical outgrowth of first, centuries of research and thinking on sensory discrimination and specification, and second, applications to psychological research of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution. These two fields came together when English anthropologist Francis Galton (1822-1911) devised tests of sensory perception to test individual mental capacity in the 1870s and 1880s. Galton, who modeled his tests on those devised previously by physicists, included measures of musical perception in his test batteries. He believed that individual differences are quantifiable and that discrete measures of sensory acuity, including musical discrimination, would provide at least an indirect measure of intelligence. Galton influenced American psychologist James Cattell (1860-1944), who in turn influenced Seashore. Because Seashore, like all experimental psychologists of his day, was a sensory psychologist, he produced tests that were criticized from the beginning for being sensory and atomistic. Nevertheless, Seashore's work fired the imaginations and profoundly influenced the work of the first generation of American music education researchers.
Predictors of Music Sight-Reading Ability in High School Wind Players
Authors: Gromko Joyce Eastlund
Published: June 2006

The purpose of this study, grounded in near-transfer theory, was to investigate relationships among music sight-reading and tonal and rhythmic audiation, visual field articulation, spatial orientation and visualization, and achievement in math concepts and reading comprehension. A regression analysis with data from four high schools (N = 98) in the American Midwest yielded a 4–variable model that included reading comprehension, rhythmic audiation, visual field articulation, and spatial orientation, F = 21.26, p < 0.001, accounting for 48% of the variance on music sight-reading. The results support previous studies in music education, cognitive science, and neuroscience that have shown that music reading draws on a variety of cognitive skills that include reading comprehension, audiation, spatial-temporal reasoning and visual perception of patterns rather than individual notes.
The Effect of Harmonic Accompaniment on the Tonal Achievement and Tonal Improvisations of Children in Kindergarten and First Grade
Authors: Guilbault Denise Marie
Published: June 2006

The purpose of this research was to examine the effect of harmonic accompaniment on the tonal achievement and tonal improvisations of young children. The specific problems of this study were the following: (1) Does the addition of a root melody accompaniment to song instruction affect the tonal achievement of children in kindergarten and first grade? (2) Does the addition of a root melody accompaniment to song instruction affect the tonal strength of the improvisations of children in kindergarten and first grade? Results indicated that song instruction with a root melody accompaniment had no significant effect on the tonal achievement of children in kindergarten and first grade. However, children who received song instruction with root melody accompaniment improvised melodies with implied harmonic functions while maintaining the tonic pitch and tonality of the song better than those children who did not have such instruction.
A 30-Year Follow-Up Study of Actual Applied Music Practice versus Estimated Practice
Authors: Madsen Clifford K.
Published: June 2006

This study was designed to determine if adults are able to remember how much time they actually spent practicing during a past time period of their lives where detailed daily records were kept of actual number of minutes practiced. It also addressed how past practice time relates to their highest level of musical performance across the 30 years on a scale of top-level expert to competent. Responses were divided into six classifications: (1) professional, (2) semiprofessional, (3) free-lance musician/college instructor, (4) music teacher, (5) community musician, and (6) jury/senior recital. Results indicated that after a 30-year period, students are not accurate in assessing past amounts of applied music practice when comparing records of actual practice time to later perceptions of this practice time. Also, there is not a strong relationship between practice time and their highest level of performance, although most participants indicate that they believe that there is.
Structured and Unstructured Musical Contexts and Children's Ability to Demonstrate Tempo and Dynamic Contrasts
Authors: Flowers Patricia J. , Wapnick Joel , Ramsey LaShell
Published: June 2006

Twenty-two children, 5 through 9 years old, were tested in structured and unstructured contexts (software environments) to determine their ability to demonstrate contrasts in tempo and dynamics using a synthesizer keyboard. EZ Vision sequencing software provided the unstructured environment—students heard exactly what they played when they depressed keys. Instant Pleasure software produced a harmonized version of “Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star” regardless of which keys were played. Under both environments, children could control tempo and dynamics of individual events. Tempo was defined as the average duration in milliseconds of notes played. Dynamics was defined as “MIDI on” data, ranging from 1-127. Each child demonstrated four single discriminations (fast, slow, loud, and soft) and four double discriminations (fast/loud, fast/soft, slow/loud, and slow/soft) in each of the two environments, resulting in a total of 16 performances. These performances were recorded via MIDI, and data were prepared for subsequent statistical analyses. Results showed that the children were able to demonstrate contrasts in loudness (dynamics) and duration (tempo) by playing a synthesizer keyboard. The more structured environment (Instant Pleasure) had the effect of producing louder performances and a greater range of total playing times across performance demands than did the less structured environment (EZ Vision). There was no clear evidence that the double-discrimination demands were obviously more difficult than were the single-discrimination demands except that when given a double-discrimination task, children played significantly louder than when making a single discrimination. Children consistently paired slower (longer durations) with softer performances even when both conditions were not required.
Self-Reported versus Observed Classroom Activities in Elementary General Music
Authors: Wang Cecilia Chu , Sogin David W.
Published: June 2006

This study compared self-reported music class activity time use and actual time use of general music teachers. Responses from a questionnaire provided self-report data regarding general music instruction from 45 elementary general music teachers participating in a one-day Orff-Schulwerk workshop, whereas observed data were obtained by time analysis on videotaped lessons taught by 19 teachers from the same group. Variables observed included student activities and teacher behaviors. Student activities were measured as the amount of time spent in reading, listening, singing, describing, playing, creating, and moving to music; teachers were observed for the amount of talking or modeling as well as the provision of academic and social reinforcement. Comparison of self-reported activity estimates and time-analyzed data indicate that the teachers' own estimate of time use is greater than is the actual time recorded for each music activity. Additional findings related to general music teaching, teaching intensity, and effectiveness. Correlations among activities are also reported.
Effects of Physical Attractiveness on Evaluation of Vocal Performance
Authors: Wapnick Joel , Darrow Alice Ann , Kovacs Jolan , Dalrymple Lucinda
Published: June 2006

The purpose of this study was to determine whether physical attractiveness of singers would affect judges' ratings of their vocal performances. Fourteen singers (6 female, 8 male) were videotaped. They and their performances were rated by 82 musicians, who were randomly assigned to one of three groups. The visual group rated singers on physical attractiveness only; they viewed the videotape with the sound turned off. The audiovisual group subjects rated musical performance from the videotape. Subjects in the audio group rated musical performance from an audiotape dubbed from the videotape. On the basis of visual group ratings, male and female singers were each divided into more-attractive and less-attractive groups. Four-way mixed-design analyses of variance (treatments by sex of rater by sex of singer by singer attractiveness) subsequently were calculated for each of the seven rating categories on the rating forms. Results revealed in every category a significant treatment by sex of singer by attractiveness interaction. For male singers only, there was no difference in performance ratings between more-attractive and less-attractive singers when rated by audiotape; but audiovisual ratings significantly favored the more attractive singers over the less attractive singers. Results for female singers were confounded by the audio-alone ratings, which favored the more-attractive singers over the less-attractive singers. Other results showed that, for both male and female singers, male raters were more severe than were female raters; that audiovisual ratings were higher than were audio-alone ratings; and that ratings of undergraduate majors versus graduate students and faculty members combined were not differently affected by singers' attractiveness.
Effect of Audience on Music Performance Anxiety
Authors: LeBlanc Albert , Jin Young Chang , Obert Mary , Siivola Carolyn
Published: June 2006

We tested 27 male and female high school band members performing solos under three levels of audience presence. Participants performed alone in a practice room, in a practice room with one researcher present, and in the rehearsal room with all researchers, a peer group, and a tape recording being made. Dependent measures were an analog scale self-report of perceived anxiety, heart rate recorded during performance, judges' rating of the final performance, and an exit interview. Self-reported anxiety rose with each succeeding performance condition, and each reported increase was significant. Heart rate was steady across the first two performance conditions, but rose significantly at the third. Female participants presented better performances, reported significantly higher anxiety levels than did males in the third performance condition, and attained significantly higher heart rates than did males in the first and third conditions. Gender emerged as a significant predictor of heart rate during performance, with female performers attaining higher heart rates.
Personal Perspectives on Research: Past, Present, and Future
Authors: Radocy Rudolf E.
Published: June 2006

Rudolf E. Radocy is the recipient of the MENC 1998 Senior Researcher Award. The following speech was presented on April 16, 1998, at a special session of the Society for Research in Music Education at MENC's National Biennial In-Service Conference held in Phoenix, Arizona.
Effects of Contextual Sight-Singing and Aural Skills Training on Error-Detection Abilities
Authors: Sheldon Deborah A.
Published: June 2006

Effects of contextual sight-singing and ear training on pitch and rhythm error detection abilities among undergraduate instrumental music education majors were examined. Experimental (n1 = 15) and control (n2 = 15) groups received identical training in instrumental methods and conducting. Experimental subjects additionally received 50 minutes of sight-singing and ear training per week over 11 weeks using materials drawn from extant band repertoire. Subject responses to errors in one-, two-, and three-part homorhythmic and polyrhythmic examples were examined. Results showed significant differences in correct detection of rhythm and pitch errors. Experimental subjects were better at error detection compared to control subjects. Subjects were better at detecting rhythm errors compared to pitch errors. They were best with one-part, did less well with two-part, and least well with three-part examples. Differences attributable to texture were not significant. Contextual sight-singing and aural skills training and practice may have contributed to short-term development of error-detection abilities.
The Effects of Expressive Variation in Dynamics on the Musical Preferences of Elementary School Students
Authors: Burnsed Vernon
Published: June 2006

The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of expressive variation in dynamics on the musical preferences of elementary school students. Participants were 315 students in Grades 1–5 who attended two urban elementary schools. The music teacher administered a music preference test that presented two versions each of 10 folk songs. One version of each song used expressive variation in dynamics; the other was consistently even in dynamics and other expressive variables. Analysis of the results indicated that a significant proportion of students at each school preferred the expressive versions of 6 different songs. Between the two schools, seven expressive versions were preferred. Age did not seem to have a systematic effect. It was speculated that different dynamic interpretations of the three nonsignificant folk songs may have produced different responses. Recommendations were made concerning the importance of expressive performance in elementary music education.
Establishing Journal Eminence in Music Education Research
Authors: Hamann Donald L. , Lucas Keitha V.
Published: June 2006

The purpose of this study was to use citation information from six nationally distributed music education research journals for the period 1990–1995 to determine journal eminence. All references for all articles in the six journals were reviewed and the journals cited were tabulated. Final tabulations included 576 different journals, with 134 of the journals from the field of music. Music journals included both professional and research journals. Through citation analysis, it was found that 15 journals represented the majority of music research journal citations. Three journals formed a first tier of prominent music research journals and represented over 80% of the total citations, with one journal accounting for nearly 55% of the total citations. Three journals in a second tier accounted for approximately 12% of the total citations, while the remaining 9 journals, in a third tier, accounted for less than 8% of the total citations.
Frequently Cited Studies as Indicators of Music Education Research Interests, 1963-1989
Authors: Sample Duane
Published: June 2006

The purpose of this study was to examine the reference pages of three research journals, the Journal of Research in Music Education (JRME), the Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education (BCRME), and Contributions to Music Education (CME), from their inceptions through 1989 to determine which research studies were cited most frequently and could be recognized as important and influential I used a reverse chronological approach to reveal 27 articles with 10 or more citations. Most of the articles were published in the 1970s, and there was a correlation of .29 between number of citations and years in print.

A majority of these studies are experimental, and more than a third of them deal with tempo and intonation. This perspective on the research base in music education, as reflected in selected journals, can assist researchers in determining those research areas that have received considerable attention and in identifying topics that have had less intensive investigation.
The Effects of Error-Detection Practice on Keyboard Sight-Reading Achievement of Undergraduate Music Majors
Authors: Kostka Marilyn J.
Published: June 2006

This investigation compared three methods of teaching keyboard sight-reading to undergraduate music majors. Sixty-nine students enrolled in six piano classes were randomly divided among three conditions: (1) error-detection practice plus “shadowing” (silently playing the notes on top of the keys), (2) shadowing only, and (3) unguided independent practice (contact control). A pretest-posttest design was used to assess subjects' achievement on five selected sight-reading assignments during the course of one academic semester (15 weeks). Individual pretest and posttest performances were tape-recorded and evaluated across three error categories: rhythm, notes, and hesitations. Results indicated that, while no significant differences were found in overall sight-reading improvement among groups, the EDS (error-detection plus shadowing) subjects achieved modest overall gains, and rhythm was the most improved category, followed by notes and hesitations.