bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A Survey of Treatment Methods for Geothermal Fluids
Authors: Phillips Sidney L. , Mathur Ashwani K. , Doebler Raymond E.
Published: December 2007

American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers, Inc.

This paper presents a study of methodology used to control geothermal scaling and corrosion. The information used for this study was screened from the geothermal, oil and gas, wastewater disposal, and boiler water treatment industries. This information was evaluated and the current state of knowledge and methodology concerning the treatment of geothermal brines to control scaling and corrosion in geothermal electric power production was assessed. Currently, power production was assessed. Currently, geothermal scale in pipes and wells is removed by physical or chemical methods. There is a growing effort on developing methods to control scale formation for both fresh and spent brines, including pH adjustment and application of an electrical potential for fresh fluids, and coagulation to potential for fresh fluids, and coagulation to treat spent fluids. Current methods of corrosion control center around planned replacement of piping and other plant components, with efforts focused primarily on development of materials with improved corrosion resistance. Recommendations for additional work include the following:chemical and physical characterization of brine and scale compositions;basic data on the mechanism of scale formation and the effects of inhibitors;development of instrumentation to monitor geothermal brine constituents;correlation of laboratory results with field test data, andscreening of currently available commercial inhibitors for application to geothermal brines.

Introduction

Utilization of geothermal energy for power production requires a fluid to extract power production requires a fluid to extract heat from the earth. Major development of geothermal energy in the next 25 years will be in regions where the fluid occurs naturally as hot water and has been in contact with the country rocks for a considerable period of time. The chemical composition of period of time. The chemical composition of the fluids will therefore reflect the composition of the country rock and in general be in chemical equilibrium with it. Because of the wide variety in rock types, the composition of geothermal hot water fluids is expected to vary widely, ranging from several thousand to several hundred thousand ppm dissolved solids combined with dissolved ppm dissolved solids combined with dissolved gases in an aqueous solution.
Considerations for The Effective Regulation of the E&P Sector of the Nigerian Petroleum Industry
Authors: Nwasike Obi Timothy
Published: December 2007

The petroleum industry of Nigeria has a very long history. The management of regulatory matters has not fared so well in the period. A discussion of the issues that could influence good regulatory practices is included in this technical paper. It is concluded that such factors as adequate and regular flow of funds, appropriate skills, information technology and the use of consultants by regulatory agencies are pre-requisites that will ensure an effective regulation of the petroleum sector of the Nigerian economy.
Guidelines for Energy and Emissions Calculation in Offshore Decommissioning
Authors: Curtis Tim , Steinar Nesse , Picken G. B.
Published: December 2007

In February 2000, the Institute of Petroleum published its ‘Guidelines for the Calculation of Estimated of Energy Use and Gaseous Emissions in the Decommissioning of Offshore Structures’. These guidelines were prepared for the Institute of Petroleum (IOP) by Cordah Limited, Det Norske Veritas and ERT Ltd to assist in the calculation of energy use and gaseous emissions relating to the decommissioning of offshore oil and gas structures. They are intended to represent an overview of "best practice" with regard to the assessment of gross energy use and emissions, as well as being a practical help in standardising the calculation and presentation of data.

This paper summarises the data sets and methodologies used in studies of the decommissioning of offshore installations for the estimation of energy use and gaseous emissions production. It describes a common structure for undertaking such studies, including the rules for analysis and calculation, proposed by the IOP manual. Finally, it reviews some of the experiences of the use of this manual and identifies some points for future development in this discipline.
Developing Risk-Based Cleanup Standards for Soils in Nigeria
Authors: McMillen S. J. , Magaw R. I. , Spence L. R.
Published: December 2007

Regulators outside of the United States either have not set cleanup goals for Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons (TPH) and other chemicals in soil, or they have proposed very low concentrations based on reviews of European and North American regulations. Soil TPH or oil and grease cleanup levels range from 50 to 10,000 ppm (mg/kg) in North America and Europe. This reflects that not all jurisdictions acknowledge differences between types of hydrocarbon mixtures (e.g., gasoline and crude oil), not all jurisdictions recognize that soil organic matter can report as TPH, and that not all jurisdictions utilize a risk analysis approach for evaluating human health and environmental impacts. In addition to these issues, there has been until recently no standardized, scientifically defensible procedure for interpreting risk associated with complex mixtures of hydrocarbons like TPH. However, recent efforts by the TPH Criteria Working Group (TPHCWG) and the Petroleum Environmental Research Forum (PERF) have established procedures to derive human-health Risk-Based Screening Levels (RBSLs) for refined petroleum products and crude oils. In 1999, the Nigeria Department of Petroleum Resources proposed using Intervention and Target Values established by the Dutch Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning, and the Environment for soil remediation at oil impacted sites in Nigeria. They proposed using the Dutch Target Value for mineral oil of 50 mg/kg; however, since that time the Dutch have adopted an approach similar to that of the TPHCWG. This paper discusses the new approach being used by the Dutch, as well as the Risk-Based Corrective Action approach for TPH and other chemicals being used by many state regulators in the United States. A modified approach for developing Nigeria specific RBSLs for oil impacted soil is proposed.
Lime Treatment of Oily Saline Drilling Wastes
Authors: Deuel Lloyd E. , Holliday George H.
Published: December 2007

Land treatment of oily saline drilling wastes is problematic in low pH, high iron and aluminum activity soils commonly found in China, Southeast Asia, South America and North America. Problems stem from the addition of salts promoting hydrolysis of iron and aluminum acidity and exacerbates an often extreme (pH < 4.0) acid reaction. Most drilling wastes are strongly alkaline and offer a beneficial neutralization reaction when mixed with native acid soils. However, land treating of oily saline drilling wastes generally is ‘limited’ by either the petroleum hydrocarbon content or salinity before sufficient base is added to neutralize excess acid in the receiving native soil.

The paper offers a practical and economical means of managing potentially problematic reactions by the prophylactic treatment of oily saline drilling wastes with agricultural grade, hydrated lime (calcium hydroxide) prior to land application.

The results presented show hydrated lime reacts with the oil-base drill cuttings:acid soil mixture in a manner promoting the biological degradation of the oil. Lime also functions to sequester free oil fractions making it easier to land apply oily wastes and control application rates. Free lime neutralizes excess soil acidity. The high pH associated with hydrated lime is ameliorated in the lime:drilling waste:receiving soil blend by fixation of atmospheric carbon dioxide to a pH < 8.3 s.u. The data suggests the optimum lime application is equivalent to the total petroleum hydrocarbon (TPH) content as measured on a dry weight basis.
Minimizing E&P Liability at Superfund Sites
Authors: Roberson D. R.
Published: December 2007

Many environmental managers for E&P operations do not realize that small amounts of oil field waste can result in substantial CERCLA or Superfund liability. Believing that the petroleum exclusion within CERCLA and the oil and gas waste exemption in RCRA covers their company's liabilities, many E&P firms are very surprised when USEPA or state environmental agencies make demands for substantial funding to clean up an abandoned waste site. Planning for waste disposal before it is generated can minimize the likelihood of becoming involved in a CERCLA site. The crucial planning steps in reducing this liability are 1) knowing what hazardous substances are in the waste stream, 2) segregating exempt wastes from non-exempt wastes, and 3) very carefully selecting where the waste will be taken.

Waste from an E&P company can quickly become very expensive waste when it is commingled with other industrial waste streams at commercial disposal sites. Although most E&P waste is not very toxic, it typically comes in large quantities. When the E&P operator decides for economic or other reasons to commingle just the smallest amount of hazardous material with a large load of water-based drilling mud or bottom sediments from a field separator or a tank at a waterflood, the entire load can be classified as hazardous. It is crucial to completely segregate the true E&P waste from all other wastes and to make sure that there is no ambiguity on the manifest as to what is sent for disposal. It is then important to know how to select a disposal site. Although the process may not completely relieve a company from liability, it can greatly reduce the cost.

This paper will go through the steps that can aid environmental managers in reducing their overall Superfund liability and offer suggestions on how to minimize remediation costs once they find themselves targeted by agencies to clean up abandoned sites.
Hydrocarbon Remediation Using Microwaves
Authors: Ferri R. P. , Uthe M. T.
Published: December 2007

Enhanced Recovery, Inc. (ERI) developed and field-tested an innovative process that removes hydrocarbon contamination from the near surface formations and groundwater using microwaves. This in-situ technology is effective in increasing recovery for light, non-aqueous phase liquids (LNAPL) and it's contaminents.

Since 1995 ERI conducted continuous research and development at an upper mid-west refinery. Full-scale operations have been successful in recovering hydrocarbon at two separate sites within the refinery. This proven technology reduces remediation costs compared to alternatives such as pump and treat systems by eliminating the contamination at the source with no further treatment. The microwave system principally recovers only free product and volitile vapors. The results of these case studies are presented in this paper.
Disposal of E & P Waste by Injection: An Assessment of Technology and Regulatory Impacts
Authors: Marinello S. A. , Lyon F. L. , Ballantine W. T.
Published: December 2007

The disposal of exploration and production wastes through deep well injection has increased dramatically during the last seven years. Prior to that time, most injection wells were used almost exclusively for produced water and brine disposal. During this period, the injection of waste solids in slurried form has been accomplished through low, sub-fracture pressure injection, slurry fracture injection, annular injection and injection into salt caverns. All of these types of disposal have been permitted by the governing regulatory bodies and have operated with varying degrees of success, problems and environmental impact.

The injection of E & P solid waste has been, and continues to be, driven by the changing regulatory climate and by the sociopolitical perception of the industry, its’ past and present methods of waste management and projections of future impacts and regulations. As the search for hydrocarbons has shifted to the offshore, the regulations governing handling and disposal of all wastes has become more rigorous. Of particular impact to E & P waste handling is past and projected modifications to permits tied to the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES). The key word in the title is "elimination" and the industry looks to injection to handle the elimination of the discharge of generated wastes into surface waters.

Each different injection technology has its’ own set of issues relative to its’ applicability to a particular situation. These include regulatory controls and limitations, engineering parameters and guidelines, disposal capacities available, potential environmental and safety issues and liabilities and the public and regulatory community perception of all of the above. The continually changing regulatory framework and its’ interpretation within a given region or state affects the implementation of the different injection technologies, as well as their commercialization.
Oil in Water Monitoring for Subsea and Downhole Separators
Authors: Schanke T. , Kjølberg S. A. , Vogel F.
Published: December 2007

This paper describes the use of pulsed photoacoustics to measure ppm concentrations of oil in treated/separated water from subsea and downhole separators. The principle of operation and the system for the pulsed photoacoustic Oil-In-Water Monitor (OIWM) prototype is described. Main test results for the prototype sensor are presented, with focus on the impact on measurement by changes in temperature, pressure and salinity. Following, a model used to compensate such variations is shown. The paper finally addresses the implications of using pulsed photoacoustic measurement principle to measure oil entrainment in produced water from subsea and downhole separators.
Establishing Best Practicable Environmental Option Practice for Produced Water Management in the Gas and Oil Production Facilities
Authors: Georgie W. J. , Sell D. , Baker M. J.
Published: December 2007

With the increased volume of produced water handled in the North Sea, the environmental issues are becoming a major concern in the industry, especially with the possibility of further reduction in the oil content allowed in the discharged water, as well as the fact that produced water contains a number of undesirable toxic components. These components are either added in the process of treating the produced fluid or some are already present naturally in the water produced from the reservoirs.

Using most of the alternative options available to handle produced water, a procedure has been established to determine the Best Practicable Environmental Option (BPEO) for handling produced water both in mature fields and future developments in general terms. The BPEO takes into consideration the nature of the water, technology limitations, both emission to the atmosphere and discharges into the sea, nature of the discharges, safety concerns and cost, as well as establishing any environmental gains in each case. In this procedure a systematic empirical ranking and indicator tool has been applied to the different aspects of the alternative options considered. In addition, the strengths and limitations of BPEO procedure will be addressed for specific cases offshore, in terms of oil production facilities and gas / condensate production facilities.
Field Application of "Total Fluids Management" of Drilling Fluids and Associated Wastes
Authors: Greaves Christopher , Rojas Juan Carlos , Chambers Bryan
Published: December 2007

In 1997 BP was operating an 11 rig drilling operation, onshore in the Casanare region of Colombia. A decision to introduce indirect thermal desorption technology to treat oil based drilling cuttings to improve environmental performance had been made the previous year. A consequence of this decision was very high waste management costs and a strain on the environmental controls at the wellsite owing to the inability to process oily wastes at sufficient rates. Evaluation of the underlying causes of these problems revealed significant inefficiencies in fluids and waste management and solids control. The whole process of drilling fluids and waste management was re-evaluated in the light of these experiences and steps taken to radically reduce the cost of the operations and the environmental impact by reducing waste. In 1998 The ’Total Fluids Management’ process was adopted which has resulted in reduced overall costs of fluids and waste-related activities together with an improved environmental performance through a like-for-like reduction in oily wastes of 41% compared to the 1997 benchmark. This paper describes the Total Fluids Management process and the experiences from its’ application by BP in Colombia.
Evolution of International Law on the Decommissioning of Oil and Gas Installations
Authors: Igiehon Mark Osa , Park Patricia
Published: December 2007

In the laws of many States such as Norway, Australia, Nigeria, the US and the UK, there is to be found legislation governing the abandonment or decommissioning disused offshore oil and gas installations. Additionally and especially as many of the offshore installations fall outside a State's territorial waters and into waters otherwise covered by international law, there are many international agreements and regulations equally providing for the standards and manner in such abandoned structures may be disposed off or otherwise handled.

National and International regulations on the decommissioning of abandoned or disused offshore oil and gas installations have in the years past gone through a metamorphosis. In considering the stages through which international regulations (and to a lesser extent national regulations) have progressed, it is very easy to recognise two very distinct phases, the pre-Brent Spar era and the post-Brent Spar. The phases are discernible in that after the Brent Spar incident, international organisations such as the International Maritime Organisation, Oslo and such like Regional Organisations had to revisit their guidelines, rules and regulations on the subject.

This paper therefore proposes to consider in detail, the comparative law on abandonment in selected jurisdictions, the international legal and regulatory regime on abandonment both pre-Brent Spar and post Brent Spar. In doing so, the paper would reveal that to a large extent, the identified inadequacies of the regime pre-Brent spar made the turnaround in regulation pretty inevitable. The paper would contend that the inadequacy of the international regime pre-Brent Spar made the incident rather inevitable. The paper concludes with a discussion as to how the abandonment issue may be fairly expected to develop into the future.
Trends in Offshore Environmental Regulations in the United Kingdom
Authors: Stewart I.
Published: December 2007

The offshore oil and gas industry in the UK is currently undergoing a sea change in the way in which environmental aspects of its business are managed. In 1999, the Department of Trade and Industry, the UK's regulator with responsibility for environmental issues offshore, announced its intention to apply elements of the European Directive on Pollution Prevention and Control to the offshore oil and gas industry. In the first instance, the scope of the regulation will cover the generation of power on offshore facilities. From November 2000, all new installations and existing installations undergoing a substantial change will require a permit to operate combustion processes. From 2001 it is proposed to extend this permit system to the control of chemical use and discharge. Further extension of the permit system is anticipated over the following years. By November 2007, all offshore installations will be covered by the regulation and will require a permit to operate.

This paper addresses the requirements of the new regulatory regime and the implications for the UK offshore industry. Using the combustion processes regulation as an example, it discusses the information required by the DTI before a permit can be granted and the problems operators may face in meeting requirements of the regulation. Specifically the paper will discuss the problems associated with retrofitting dry low NOx technology, the monitoring of emissions and the benefits of atmospheric dispersion modelling. Wherever possible the paper draws on the experience of operators and uses practical examples to highlight the issues.
Summary of Cooperative Research Projects conducted by the Petroleum Environmental Research Forum
Authors: Khatib Z. I. , McMillen S. , Wilkinson J. B.
Published: December 2007

The Petroleum research forum (PERF) was established in 1986 to stimulate cooperative research and development of technology for environmental pollution control, safety, and waste management for the petroleum industry. Membership currently consists of 19 major companies (Table 1). At year-end 2000, PERF membership had completed 66 projects with a value of $58M, with an additional 12 projects valued at $8M underway and 11 projects worth over $3M under consideration. This paper focused on how PERF is organized; and how we generate, manage and fund projects. Special emphasis is placed on case study examples of several large, successful programs. Further information on PERF, including summaries of all projects, can be found at www.PERF.org.
Towards Improved Environmental Performance In West Africa
Authors: Ogunsanya B. O
Published: December 2007

Every industry that seeks to remain efficient and relevant in this millennium should constantly be looking for ways of becoming more environmentally responsible – no business may call itself efficient if it threatens the environment within which it operates. As the quest for hydrocarbons intensifies in our deeper waters, we see environmental performance quality playing an increasingly critical role in every company's business performance.

In the last couple of years, reports from onshore E&P activities in Nigeria have shown that operating in the Niger Delta region poses some of the toughest challenges in the world. This region has witnessed a spate of attacks on oil and gas facilities, staff and contractors. Consequently, major oil and gas players have to contend with complex operational uncertainties due to increased pressures from the local communities for improved environmental control measures.

In this project, we have outlined safe and effective plans, actions, and procedures to help pre-empt these pressures; maintain harmony with local communities, and effectively manage operational uncertainties within complex environmental settings like the Nigerian Niger Delta area. A proactive environmental management style based on continuous consultation, goal-oriented monitoring, as well as a continuous improvement attitude (CIA) are some of the various solutions proposed in this work.

Finally, we are confident that this kind of environmental management system will undoubtedly enhance the economic viability, as well as the global competitiveness of our deep-water fields in offshore West Africa
Subsidence Induced by Offshore Gas Production in the Northern Adriatic Sea
Authors: Brighenti G. , Macini P. , Mesini E.
Published: December 2007

In the decades between early ‘70s and ‘90s, ENI discovered 15 gas fields in the Northern Adriatic Sea, offshore the historical city of Venice. Notwithstanding the social and economic value of these resources, in 1995 the Italian Government issued a decree stopping all projects of offshore development in the Northern Adriatic Sea, in order to better evaluate the environmental impact on land. To this regard, it is important to remind that in Italy have been recorded significant phenomena of land subsidence connected with natural gas production. This paper is aimed to briefly recall the well-studied cases of subsidence in the Po River Delta region and in the town of Ravenna, highlighting in both cases the different extent of the phenomenon, the surveys and the monitoring systems adopted, and eventually the actions undertaken to limit subsidence. Finally, the paper outlines some provisional suggestions about the possibility to produce gas from Northern Adriatic offshore fields, without compromising the coastal altimetry, and so the integrity of the historical cities of Venice and Chioggia and their complex lagoon ecosystems. In general, it is necessary to establish a wide and proactive cooperation among Oil Companies, National and Regional Authorities and Research Institutes, in order to manage development projects in the most favorable way for the whole Community.
Coalbed Methane Development: A Land Owner's Prospective
Authors: Roberts Roy D.
Published: December 2007

A mineral extraction Agreement (MEA) is useful in protecting the Land Owners interest while allowing oil and gas development projects to proceed. The combination of the MEA and close cooperation between the Land Owner and Developer can accomplish the objectives of both parties.
St. Charles Field: A Culture of Environmental Stewardship
Authors: Dumas Darrell
Published: December 2007

Conoco's St. Charles Field, located in the Aransas National Wildlife Refuge, is a sterling example of profitable oil and gas operations co-existing with wildlife and nature. Since 1939, Conoco's plan for managing the St. Charles Field provides for the minimization of impact to the Refuge's primary whooping crane territories and allows systematic and prudent oil and gas exploration and development of remaining reserves. Through Conoco's culture of environmental stewardship, an ongoing relationship and spirit of cooperation exists with the Refuge and other environmental advocates in the preservation of this environmentally sensitive area.
How EHS Auditing Programs Will Evolve for the New Millennium
Authors: Johnstone J. E. , Moore D. W. , Wouch M. L.
Published: December 2007

Over the past 25 years, oil companies have been implementing environmental, health and safety (EHS) auditing and review programs which have resulted in positive benefits, but have required continual revisions to adapt to changing needs. Industry's EHS parameters and major incidents have been trending positively since these programs were initiated. These programs have resulted in an increased level of safety and environmental performance for most companies. However, the programs have undergone continual changes to meet the needs of the corporation, operating groups and stakeholders.

Audit programs have continued to change and evolve as regulations, demands of the public, technology and management philosophies have changed. Often, programs have been modified after major events, such as the Bhopal incident, or to conform to changes in governmental policies. Although the strategic goals have remained constant throughout time, the programs have continued to evolve to reflect both internal and external forces.

The key goals for the EHS auditing programs have been to: Manage risks effectively,Improve compliance,Increase awareness and understanding of EHS hazards,Improve public image,Provide assurance to executive management andAssist the facility manager to operate efficiently and safely.

This paper will explore the evolution of these different programs over the past twenty-five years and what we can expect in the new millennium. Management system audits have evolved from an informal internal review process to one, which in some countries, is now stipulated by international bodies. Compliance audits were once the domain of outside auditing firms, but are now successfully managed by facility personnel. Numerous non-government organizations (NGOs) are pressing for more accountability to the public. Several forms of audits have disappeared while other methods have come into widespread use. International organizations are now requiring accredited environmental auditors. These and other changes are explored in this paper.

The paper will review case histories of several companies’ EHS audit programs as they strive to determine the best type of program to enact for their circumstance. Examining past programs and their measure of success, which they enjoyed, can help plan future programs with a high probability of success. Audit programs appear to pass through five distinct phases. The phases are not always linear as companies try to constantly improve their programs. Recommendations for successful programs are presented.

Audits and related reviews for this new century are discussed in this paper. Corporations and their partners will find it necessary to continue to improve and update their programs to meet the demands from governments, partners, corporate management and outside stakeholders.
A Management Trend: Towards Special Remedial Organizations
Authors: Skaggs M. M. , Harris M. A.
Published: December 2007

Corporations are managing their environmental remediation responsibilities using a variety of organizational strategies. Applicable recent literature and several recent benchmarking surveys were reviewed to gain an understanding of these strategies. Among 31 major corporations included in two recent benchmarking efforts, centralized remediation groups are currently the dominant management structure, outnumbering decentralized organizations twenty-fold. Remedial staff sizes, normalized for spending levels and portfolio size, average one remediation professional for every $ 1.7 million of current year spending and for every $ 11 million in accrued ("reserved") money. A trend exists towards the creation of "special remedial organizations" (SROs). SROs allow a management focus on remediation activities, often provide significant tax benefits to the parent corporation, and also provide an excellent vehicle for creating partnership opportunities with remedial service providers.
An Environmental Information Management Suite for U.S. Oil and Gas Wells
Authors: Belieu S. D. , Paque M. J. , Simmers R. J.
Published: December 2007

The Ground Water Protection Council (GWPC), working with agencies that represent the oil and gas producing states, has developed a comprehensive system titled Environmental In-formation Management Suite (EIMS) to manage data from oil, gas and injection well operations.

The EIMS program offers flexible integration of highly customizable data solution tools, including the Risk Based Data Management System (RBDMS), an oil and gas production module, a stand-alone geographic information system (GIS) module, an internet reporting module, a runtime version, a wellbore schematic package, and an economic and engineering module. RBDMS is a complete well database system and has a built-in environmental risk assessment com-ponent that is used for injection wells.

The cooperative funding for the development of the system has been provided by the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) and from 17 EIMS user states.

EIMS is designed to run on stand-alone and net-worked PC's that run the Windows 95, 98, 2000, or NT oper-ating systems. Microsoft Access was chosen as the database development tool. EIMS can also attach to backend database management systems such as SQL Server, Oracle, or Sybase. Like Access, EIMS uses the familiar Windows graphical user interface.

An important aspect of this project is the cooperative approach used by the team of designers. Personnel from vari-ous state agencies, GWPC, and database design consultants have developed this system to be easily customized to meet the varying needs that exist among state environmental regu-lations. State agency database administrators communicate with each other to solve the problems associated with main-taining the system. This paper describes the EIMS program and some of its applications.

New modules are currently being developed that will increase this system's usefulness to the industry and regulatory agencies. EIMS is distributed cost free.
Creation of an Integrated Management System
Authors: Abernathy S. E. , Knode T. L.
Published: December 2007

One of the keys to implementing structural controls that guarantee continual improvement is a comprehensive management system. Health, safety, and environmental management systems have historically been separate from main-stay processes of a company. This distinction may hinder full implementation of the system because operations personnel do not consider HSE to be integral to their function.

The Halliburton Management System is an integrated management system that provides a structure covering HSE and Quality within the framework of each activity. Elements of the E&P Forum, ISO 9000, and ISO 14001 provided the framework for development of this management system. Processes are mapped within HMS and HSE risks are identified within the processes, with appropriate controls or countermeasures established. Competencies are easily identified and managed through this process focus. Feedback is captured with the Correction Prevention Improvement system and appropriate changes to the processes can be made.

HMS is designed to focus on performance rather than compliance. By focusing on the process as a whole we keep our purpose, as defined in the mission statement, within sight. This paper will describe how the HMS was developed, and will serve as a guide to those interested in furthering their organization's process improvements and HSE performance.
The Impact of Rate-Limited Release on the Aqueous Leaching Characteristics of Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons From Soils
Authors: Kim S. , Rixey W. G.
Published: December 2007

The purpose of this research was to characterize the rate limited release of polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) from soils to an aqueous phase. Experimental results were obtained for the aqueous release of naphthalene, C1-naphthalenes, C2-naphthalenes, fluorene, and phenanthrene from field soils obtained from manufactured gas plant sites. To characterize rate-limited release of compounds from soils, fixed-bed rate of release (ROR) experiments were used. A two-site equilibrium/rate-limited model was used to interpret the slow rate of release of a fraction of each compound initially in the soil. The model was used to analyze the experimental data and obtain the following key parameters: Kd, F, and k2 (day-1), where Kd is the equilibrium partition coefficient for contaminant, F is the fraction available for equilibrium release, and k2 is the mass transfer rate constant for the slowly released fraction. The Kd values were also independently measured in batch partitioning experiments.

It was observed that the partition coefficients determined from the fixed-bed experiments for most of the soils tested were very consistent with the batch partitioning results. This result is also consistent with the values of F that were generally observed, which indicated that large fractions of the various PAHs for these soils were readily available for transport to the aqueous phase.

Rate constants for the slowly released fractions, k2, were measured to be of the order of 0.001?0.01 day-1 for the five different PAHs in the various soils. Values within this range are significant with respect to establishing environmentally acceptable endpoints, since these values are lower or of the same magnitude as those for other loss processes that can occur in soil such as biodegradation.
Analytical Solutions for Free-Hydrocarbon Recovery using Skimmer and Dual-Pump Wells
Authors: Obigbesan A. B. , Johns R. T. , Lake L. W. , Bermudez L. , Hassan M. R. , Charbeneau R. J.
Published: December 2007

Accidental release of petroleum hydrocarbons to the subsurface may occur through spills around refineries, leaking pipelines, storage tanks or other sources. If the spill is large, the hydrocarbon liquids may eventually reach a water table and spread laterally in a pancake-like lens. Hydrocarbons in the aquifer that exist as a separate phase are termed free product or light nonaqueous phase liquids (LNAPL).

This paper presents new analytical solutions for the effective design of long-term free-product recovery from aquifers with skimmer-, single- and dual-pump wells. The solutions are derived for steady-state flow based on the assumption of vertical equilibrium, and include the effect of coning of LNAPL, air, and water on flow.

The results show how to estimate the maximum rate of inflow of LNAPL for skimmer wells, i.e. wells in which LNAPL is recovered with little or no water production. The paper also shows how to calculate the increase in LNAPL recovery when water is pumped by single or dual-pump wells. A simple equation is given that can be used to adjust the water rate to avoid smearing of the LNAPL below the water table.
Evaluation of a pH-Sensitive Polymer for Gravel-Packing Operations
Authors: Al-Anazi H. A. , Sharma M. M.
Published: December 2007

Anionic polymers such as polyacrylic acid, polymethacrylic acid, and their derivatives are known to show pH sensitive rheology. Rheological data is presented for a polyacrylic acid type polymer as a function of polymer concentration, pH, shear rate, and temperature. The effects of monovalent and divalent ions on the rheology are also presented. Core flow experiments were conducted on Berea sandstone cores. Fluid loss and filter cake stability was investigated at an overbalance pressure of 100 psi. Its effectiveness was compared with that of a conventional carrier fluid (HEC) used for gravel packing. It was found that the viscosity of the polymer is strongly dependent upon the pH of the solution. At higher pH values (>6), the polymer viscosity reached a high value that is sufficient to suspend most gravel. Hydrochloric acid breaks this high viscosity to a low value (<5 cp) at pH values below 2. The thickening and thinning with pH was found to be reversible. The effect of temperature on the rheological properties was not significant. Compatibility tests showed that the polymer was compatible with most brines (NaCl, NH4Cl, and KCl) used for field applications. Core flow results indicated that the filtration rate was low (<9 ml/hr) compared to that of HEC (106 ml/hr), at an overbalance pressure of 100 psi. The retained permeability of the core was found to be 80% and 40% after using the polymer and HEC, respectively. The invasion depth is also shorter than that of HEC due to the formation of a stable filter cake. Our evaluation study shows that this anionic polymer would be an excellent non-damaging carrier fluid for gravel packing. It has excellent rheological and suspension properties and is easily broken down with a mild acid wash before flowback.
Production Optimization and Practical Reservoir Management of Coal Bed Methane Reservoirs
Authors: Manrique J. F. , Poe B. D. , England K.
Published: December 2007

A systematic and focused engineering approach for production optimization and reservoir management of Coal Bed Methane field developments is discussed. Such an approach constitutes a decision making tool for production optimization of CBM fields.

The paper briefly discusses the dynamics of the reservoir/production mechanisms, dewatering, desorption, fracturing mechanics and damage mechanisms affecting fracture conductivity and methane production. We present a set of best completion practices for CBM field ranging from reservoir behavior of CBM reservoirs, formation evaluation applications, reservoir modeling, production analysis, perforating for fracturing and completion design and optimization.

An integrated reservoir description is incorporated into the completion strategies by the development and use of a Geomechanical model that accounts for the reservoir characterization and mechanical properties (pore pressures, k, ϕ, saturations, coal quality, stress gradients, stress contrast, Young's modulus, Poisson's ratios). The approach results in an efficient design and optimum placement of hydraulic fracture stimulation treatments and provides the strategy for high grading the coal quality and selective stimulation of the coal seams.

A robust methodology for analysis of commingled production data is performed using historical production data and advanced diagnostic procedures that match and predict performance to accurately estimate reservoir potential, well deliverability and completion efficiency. The unique procedures combine superposition-in-time with rate-transient analytic solutions for finite-conductivity vertically fractured and non-fractured wells to accurately determine effective properties. Simulation scenarios are created using a CBM simulator and used for optimizing reservoir/field development scenarios to accelerate the dewatering process and increase production by selective stimulation / completion criteria.

The optimization process can effectively improve field performance and economics and can be continuously improved according to the evolving needs of the economics of the reservoir development.
Status of the Section 26C Steamflood Midway-Sunset Field, California
Authors: Duerksen John H. , Gomaa E.E.
Published: December 2007

This paper describes the status of a 23-acre, six-pattern steamflood pilot in the thick (300 ft) steeply-dipping (10 °) Monarch sand, Section 26-C, Midway-Sunset Field after 18 months of steam injection.

The steamflood response shows a significant increase in oil production (520 B/D) relative to cyclic stimulation response. The response is significantly affected by preferential permeability, areal confinement and localized barriers to vertical flow. The observation well temperature profiles confirm that the low permeability zone just above the steam injection interval is at least a local barrier to vertical steam flow.

Differences between steamflood performance and previous simulator predictions were due to reservoir heterogeneities not accounted for in the simulator study.

Introduction

A six-pattern steamflood pilot was initiated in November 1975 in the thick Monarch sand of the Midway-Sunset field. The main objective of the pilot was to demonstrate that a very thick, dipping, heavy oil reservoir can be steamflooded successfully. The design and simulation of the pilot are described in a previous paper.

Based on log data obtained prior to the coring of the pilot observation wells, the Monarch sand was thought to be reasonably homogeneous. Examination and analysis of the cores showed that this was not the case. These results were used to develop a geologic model which is described in a companion publication. This model and References and illustrations at end of paper.
Subsea Re-Injection of Drilled Cuttings - Operational Experience
Authors: Saasen A. , Tran T. N. , Jøranson H. , Meyer E. , Gabrielsen G. , Tronstad A. E.
Published: December 2007

Subsea re-injection of drilled cuttings has been applied on the Åsgard field to handle oil wet cuttings. For various reasons, oil based drilling fluids have been used in all 12 ¼" and 8 ½" sections at Åsgard. Discharge of oil wet cuttings is not permitted. Cuttings have to be re-injected to the formation or sent onshore for treatment. Onshore treatment and logistics, are expensive and involve a large emission of CO2. If re-injection can be performed, big bag handling operations are significantly reduced. Furthermore, it is difficult to have reliable logistics to bring cuttings onshore. Therefore, cuttings re-injection is the optimum solution for this operation, where the preferred injection point is below the 20" casing shoe.

Re-injection is straightforward if cuttings can be re-injected into a formation underneath a large sand formation where the liquid phase of the slurry can leak off. At Åsgard there are no such large sands. Therefore, cuttings have to be re-injected into shale formations. Since the fluid does not leak off sufficiently fast in shale there is a danger that the annulus may be exposed to a too high pressure for a long time. If too large a fluid volume is injected at a time, there is a danger that the fluid may propagate as a fluid bubble to the surface.

Leakage to surface has been observed four times at Åsgard. It has been recognized that the cementing results must be better than normal to hinder leakage to surface if cuttings are re-injected into shale formations without sand layers. This paper describes the leakages in detail. It focuses on the necessary improved drilling and cementing precautions to hinder leakage. The paper also describes a technique with alternating re-injection and static periods to make the liquid phase leak off into minor sands and shale, preventing the formation of too high an annulus pressure and hindering the formation of a fluid bubble propagating to the surface.
Coiled Tubing Seismic While Drilling
Authors: Jackson T. S. , Gorrara A. J.
Published: December 2007

The efficient exploitation of hydrocarbon resources is strongly dependent on the drillers’ ability to position wells accurately. This is particularly challenging for smaller targets and on long reach or horizontal wells. Conventional wireline VSP’s can provide valuable assistance but such operations require either the drill string to be removed from the hole or the pumping of the geophone tool through the drill string. Both of these methods add time to the well construction. In long sections of open hole wireline operations may present risks, in the form of sticking and potential fishing operations, which prevent VSP surveys being acquired in lookahead mode. Ideally, VSP data would be acquired at several stages of the drilling process to enable corrective action to be taken to assist accurate bit placement. The costs in terms of rig time alone generally make this option prohibitive.

Ongoing developments for cost effective exploitation of mature and pressure-depleted reservoirs have led to wider applications for coiled tubing drilling. The combination of a seismic tool with the coiled tubing drill string therefore provides an ideal configuration to reduce drilling costs and optimise well placement. This paper discusses the conventional methods available for geosteering of the bit, the additional benefits of incorporating a seismic tool into the drill string and describes the development of a seismic while drilling tool (SMWD) for coiled tubing drilling.
Chemically-Enhanced Drilling with Coiled Tubing in Carbonate Reservoirs
Authors: Rae Phil , Di Lullo Gino
Published: December 2007

There has been a dramatic increase in the use of continuous reeled tubing (coiled tubing) for drilling operations. Much of this increase can be attributed to improvements in the quality and dimensions of coiled tubing itself – pipe sizes have steadily increased over the years from 1 inch OD to 3 ½ inch OD and bigger. Other developments have included improved downhole motors and, for directional work, sophisticated survey and orienting tools that can be controlled, in real time, from surface.

Despite these developments, CT drilling is still applied to very few wells, or a tiny percentage of the total drilling market. There are many reasons for this including high equipment and personnel costs, low rates of penetration (ROP), and issues related to the reliability of high-cost "smart" bottom hole assemblies (BHA's) needed for directional work. The idea that CT drilling would offer a cheap alternative to conventional rigs is, and probably will remain, an unfulfilled pipe-dream. However, CT drilling certainly has its place, particularly for vertical well deepening and for slimhole multilateral work. The method presented here provides the opportunity to improve the efficiency and lower the cost of such operations. This paper describes a technique that we call Stimulation While Drilling (SWD), a drilling method that is particularly applicable to the use of coiled tubing. In particular, the method is intended for use in the drilling of multiple short, lateral drainage holes originating in the main borehole and extending outward radially through the reservoir, at one or several depths. However, any hole, including the main borehole itself, can be created using this technique, depending on the lithology. This ability to make large multilateral conduits, at high speed, in underbalanced conditions, if desired, and with no drilling damage offers significant advantages for well construction and completion, particularly in hard carbonate reservoirs.