bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Sport for Whom? Differential Participation Patterns of Recreational Athletes in Leisure-Time Physical Activities
Authors: Fishwick Lesley , Hayes Diane
Published: August 2016

Traditional involvement patterns in leisure-time physical activities may have changed with demographic shifts in American society. We analyzed a community survey of 401 Illinois adults to determine involvement in recreational activities by gender, age, race, and social class. Regression analyses reveal differences in participation in individual and team activities. These differences by demographic classification are explained by structural and normative influences.
Competitive Swimming Careers through the Life Course
Authors: Hastings Donald W. , Kurth Suzanne B. , Meyer Judy
Published: August 2016

Using a convenience sample of 299 Masters swimmers, we examined the timing of youthful and adult phases of competitive swimming careers. Gender similarities and differences in the ages of youthful entry and exits and of adult resumption were identified. The ages associated with phases of swimming careers corresponded with age norms for participation in nonsport careers (educational, occupational, and familial) for males and married females.
The Academic All-American as Vaunted Adolescent Role-Identity
Authors: Chandler Timothy J.L. , Goldberg Alan D.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to assess the perceived importance (salience) of the role-identity of scholar-athlete to high school students. A total of 1,255 students responded to a questionnaire entitled “A Survey of School Climates.” Males perceived obtaining high grades and achieving athletic success—the academic All-American—as most important, while females perceived getting high grades and being a member of the leading group as their most salient role-identities. The results of this study also suggest several potential sources for adolescent role conflict as well as a research methodology for examining the relationship between the adolescent value structure and indices of academic achievement, personal development, and psychological stress.
Centrality of Position and Managerial Recruitment: The Case of Major League Baseball
Authors: Leonard Wilbert M. , Ostrosky Tony , Huchendorf Steve
Published: August 2016

Grusky’s seminal investigation of the theoretical linkage between formal structure and organizational leadership, now a quarter of a century old, was replicated and extended. All major league baseball managers between 1876 and 1984 (N=504) as well as a random sample of players (n=504) comprised the units of analyses. The empirical results support Grusky’s theory of formal structure and managerial recruitment. Managers were found to be recruited more heavily from the high interactive positions of catcher and infield than from the low interactive positions of pitcher, outfield and designated hitter. This confirmation holds whether the operationalization of formal structure was the primary position, multiple positions, or the number of games played at each position.
Structural Variables That Offer Explanatory Power for the Underrepresentation of Women Coaches Since Title IX: The Case of Homologous Reproduction
Authors: Stangl Jane Marie , Kane Mary Jo
Published: August 2016

The dramatic decline of women coaches since Title IX has been well documented. This investigation examined how homologous reproduction has influenced the proportion of female to male head coaches within the historical context of Title IX. Homologous reproduction is a process whereby dominants reproduce themselves based on social and/or physical characteristics. Therefore the employment relationship between sex of athletic director and sex of head coach was considered. The sample included 937 public high schools for three Title IX time periods. Analysis of variance procedures indicated significant main effects for sex of athletic director and Title IX timeframe: Significantly more women were hired under female versus male athletic directors. However, there was also a significantly smaller proportion of female coaches in 1981-82 and 1988-89 compared to 1974-75. This latter pattern occurred under both female and male athletic directors. Findings are discussed in terms of analyzing employment practices toward females as manifestations of hegemony.
Club Tennis: A Case Study in Taking Leisure Very Seriously
Authors: Muir Donal E.
Published: August 2016

Tennis is examined as a recreational activity conducted within the context of a social system, in this case a tennis club. Participant observation revealed that this “leisure sport” was in fact highly work-like—the pursuit of athletic status being structured by a system of “implicit-tournament” norms defining where, when, and with whom one played—a predictable side effect of the dominant U.S. culture, with its economic ideology of laissez-faire capitalism and blurred distinction between work and play.
Social Risk and the Meaning of Sport
Authors: Frey James H.
Published: August 2016

The topic of risk is most often discussed in the literature on environmental, health, and technical hazards. More recently, however, it has become a topic of concern to social scientists who apply risk analysis to social relations and social structure. The concept of risk can be used in analyses of sport as a factor in analytical models and as a component of applied sport sociology. This essay considers definitions of risk, the sociological tradition in risk analysis, and the application of risk to sport studies.
“Born to Play Ball” The Relative Age Effect and Major League Baseball
Authors: Thompson Angus H. , Barnsley Roger H. , Stebelsky George
Published: August 2016

The records of 837 major league baseball players were examined in order to determine whether the Little League age eligibility criterion, based on the month of birth, affected participation rate at the professional level. The results indicated that major league players were more likely to have been born in the first months of the year, if that year corresponded to the one used for eligibility for Little League baseball (i.e., beginning in August and ending in July). A reanalysis of data presented in the literature (which suggested no effect) produced a similar result. These data are interpreted in terms of the relative age effect. That is, because of age cutoffs used in Little League baseball, some players gain a developmental advantage when competing against other youngsters who are considerably younger, although they are placed in the same age category for league play.
The Rhetoric of Racism in Sport: Tom Brokaw Revisited
Authors: Mathisen James A. , Mathisen Gerald S.
Published: August 2016

This article provides a sociorhetorical analysis of the April 25, 1989, NBC telecast of “Black Athletes—Fact and Fiction.” It applies Toulmin’s (1958) model of the structure of argumentation to identify the major claims, data, and warrants Tom Brokaw used to construct the program and argues that a racist rhetorical structure resulted. We posit that the racism lay in the claims Brokaw made, the data he utilized, the inferences he drew from selected sources, and the absence of alternative explanations. The sociological implications of such a racist rhetorical structure are explored.
Sports Diffusion: A Response to Maguire and the Americanization Commentaries
Authors: Guttmann Allen
Published: August 2016

In response to the recent collection of articles on sports diffusion, some generalizations are in order. While a number of factors determine the processes of ludic diffusion, the most important of them is the relative political, economic, and culture power of the nations involved. The power vectors are usually, but not always, aligned. Cultural imperialism is a useful term to apply to these processes if one remembers that politically and economically dominated nations sometimes influence the sports of dominant nations. Modernization is on the whole a more precise term than Americanization to describe these processes. Traditional sports are certain to survive into the next century, but their formal-structural characteristics are likely to undergo changes that make them increasingly modem.
Sport Sociology That Matters: Imperatives and Challenges for the 1990s
Authors: Nixon Howard L.
Published: August 2016

The development of “a sport sociology that matters” requires sport sociologists to confront and make fundamental decisions about major imperatives and challenges that implicitly or explicitly can be found in recent work in the field. Five major imperatives are discussed: the relevance imperative, the cultural interpretive imperative, the critical imperative, the engagement imperative, and the application imperative. While the list is not assumed to be exhaustive or definitive, these imperatives are believed to be sufficiently provocative to pose significant challenges to conventional approaches to sport sociology and perhaps general sociology as well. The imperatives are discussed in relation to two major recent controversies in and about sport sociology, concerning the need for a cultural studies approach and the need for a more applied sociology of sport. The implications and risks of accepting the challenges implied or stated in the imperatives are assessed.
The Effect of Career-Ending Injuries on the Subsequent Well-Being of Elite College Athletes
Authors: Kleiber Douglas A. , Brock Stephen C.
Published: August 2016

In a previous investigation of the factors that make for a satisfying “exit” from organized sport (Kleiber, Greendorfer, Blinde, & Samdahl, 1987), it was determined that the only predictor of life satisfaction in the years following departure from formal participation was whether one had sustained a career-ending injury. By examining degree of investment in playing professional sports and the academic orientation of that earlier sample, it was possible in the current study to refine the profile of those vulnerable to subsequent depression of well-being (as reflected in lower life satisfaction and self-esteem). Of athletes who had been injured, only those who had an investment in playing professional sport were likely to show lower selfesteem and life satisfaction 5 to 10 years later. The disruption to a “life narrative” that is suggested by these findings argues for a more interpretive approach to research on and treatment of injury and illness among athletes and others.
Shifting Patterns of Working-Class Leisure: The Case of Knur-and-Spell
Authors: Tomlinson Alan
Published: August 2016

This article presents a single case study in the context of an exploration of social and cultural change and the major influences affecting patterns of working-class culture in interwar and postwar Britain. The case study is of knur-and-spell, a form of working-class sport (also known as tipping or poor man’s golf) in the northwest region of England. The study draws upon newspaper and oral sources. It is presented as evidence of the unevenness of cultural change, and so in one sense as a challenge to overgeneralized conceptions and theories of social and cultural change. The case study is also a reminder that mainstream and dominant understandings of sport may in themselves be merely partial contributions toward any truly comprehensive history and sociology of ludic culture.
Burnout among Adolescent Athletes: A Personal Failure or Social Problem?
Authors: Coakley Jay
Published: August 2016

Most explanations of burnout among young athletes identify chronic, excessive stress as the cause. Strategies for preventing burnout emphasize techniques that help athletes control stress and adjust to the conditions of sport participation. However, informal interviews with 15 adolescent athletes identified as cases of burnout suggest that the roots of burnout are grounded in the social organization of high performance sport; these roots are tied to identity and control issues. The model developed in this paper conceptualizes burnout as a social problem grounded in forms of social organization that constrain identity development during adolescence and prevent young athletes from having meaningful control over their lives. This model is intended as an alternative to more widely used stress-based models of burnout. Recommendations for preventing burnout call for changes in the social organization of high performance sport, changes in the way sport experiences are integrated into the lives of young athletes, and changes in the structure and dynamics of relationships between athletes and their significant others.
Questioning the Inference of Ethnic Differences in Achievement Values from Types of Sport Participation: A Commentary on White and Curtis
Authors: Laberge Suzanne , Girardin Yvan
Published: August 2016

White and Curtis’ recent papers (Sociology of Sport Journal, 1990, 7, pp. 347-368; International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 1990, 25, pp. 125-141) claiming a difference between Canadian Anglophones and Francophones in achievement values are critiqued. Two particular concerns are at issue. The first bears on the relationship these authors make between competitive sport participation and competition/achievement values. On that score, attention is focused upon some epistemological and methodological inadequacies. It is further argued that a conservative ideological perspective is implied in the inferring of achievement values from competitive sport participation. The second point challenges the idealistic conception conveyed by the authors’ contention that “studies outside the domain of work, on people’s ‘voluntary’ orientations to leisure activities, may more clearly show language group differences in achievement values.” Instead, it is proposed that sport practices are determined by the given social structure in which social agents live and by its specific social history. It is contended that an hermeneutical approach would be a more adequate alternative to the cross-cultural study of values differences.
Psychological Rehabilitation and Physical Injury: Implications for the Sportsmedicine Team
Authors: Wiese Diane M. , Weiss Maureen R.
Published: August 2016

Psychological rehabilitation in response to physical injury is of primary concern to athletes, trainers, coaches, and sport psychologists. To date, there is little empirical research to shed light on this topic, as well as on the role of sport psychology practitioners in facilitating the prevention, rehabilitation, and recovery from athletic injuries. The purpose of this paper is to consolidate and report the information available on the nature of injuries and make suggestions concerning the application of sport psychology principles when working with injured athletes. Four major concerns are addressed with regard to current knowledge and practical implications: how injuries happen, how athletes respond to injuries, how psychological rehabilitation as well as physical recovery from injuries can be facilitated, and determining when injured athletes are psychologically ready to return to competition.
Single-Subject Evaluation of a Self-Talk Package for Improving Figure Skating Performance
Authors: Ming Siri , Martin Garry L.
Published: August 2016

A self-talk package was used to improve performance of compulsory figures by prenovice- and novice-level figure skaters. The study included ongoing objective behavioral assessment across practices of the figure skating performance as well as the extent to which the skaters actually utilized the self-talk. A multi-element design with multiple baseline replications across 4 participants demonstrated that improvements were due to the treatment. Self-report follow-up at 1 year indicated that the participants continued to utilize the selftalk during practices and that they believed that it enhanced their test and/or competitive performance. The results support the view that planned self-talk can aid skill acquisition. Results are conceptualized in terms of rule-governed control over behavior, which may provide a useful framework for enabling sport psychologists to increase the efficacy of self-talk interventions.
Reaching for Gold and the Price of Glory: A Motivational Case Study of an Elite Gymnast
Authors: Krane Vikki , Snow Jeannine , Greenleaf Christy A.
Published: August 2016

The present investigation is a qualitative case study of a former elite gymnast. The social cognitive approach to achievement motivation has been applied to understand and explain the behavior of this gymnast, her coaches, and her parents. The gymnast participated in three unstructured interviews which were grounded in a feminist view of sport and research (cf. Harding, 1991; Krane, 1994). The data analysis resulted in three dimensions: Motivational Climate, Evidence of an Ego Orientation, and Correlates of Ego Involvement. An ego-involved motivational environment was developed and reinforced by the gymnast’s coaches and parents. Her ego-involved goal orientation was revealed through her reliance on social comparison, emphasis on external feedback and rewards, need to demonstrate her superiority, and acting out behaviors in the face of adversity. This gymnast practiced and competed while seriously injured, employed unhealthy eating practices, overtrained, and refused to listen to medical advice in order to continue her quest towards the Olympic team. All of these behaviors are discussed within the framework of goal orientation theory.
Race Modeling: An Effective Cognitive Strategy for the 100 m Sprinter?
Authors: Mallett Clifford J. , Hanrahan Stephanie J.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of a specific cognitive race plan on 100 m sprint performance. Twelve elite sprinters (11 male and 1 female) performed 100 m time trials under normal (control) conditions and then under experimental conditions (use of race cues). In the experimental condition, participants were asked to think about specific thought content in each of three segments of the 100 m. A multiple baseline design was employed. A mean improvement of 0.26 s was found. Eleven of the 12 participants showed improvement using the specific cognitive race plan (p < .005). Participants also produced more consistent sprint performances when using the cues (p < .01). Subjective evaluations made by the participants unanimously supported the use of the race plan for optimizing sprint performance. Environmental conditions, effort, and practice effects were considered as possible influences on the results.
The Effects of Group versus Individual Goal Setting on Bowling Performance
Authors: Johnson Scott R. , Ostrow Andrew C. , Perna Frank M. , Etzel Edward F.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of group and individual goal setting versus a control condition on bowling performance (BP), personal goals (PG), and perceived goal difficulty (PGD) across five weeks. Novice bowlers (N = 36) were randomly assigned to one of the three goal conditions. Three separate 3 × 5 (Goal Condition × Time: Weeks of Study) repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) revealed significant main effects for time on BP and PGD, and significant group by time interaction effects on BP and PG. The significant group × time interaction effects revealed that participants in the group goal setting condition increased both BP and PG relatively more than participants in the other goal setting conditions. Therefore, group goal setting may enhance performance in an individual sport by potentially increasing personal goal setting under difficult performance demands.
Burnout in Competitive Junior Tennis Players: III. Individual Differences in the Burnout Experience
Authors: Gould Daniel , Udry Eileen , Tuffey Suzanne , Loehr James
Published: August 2016

This is the third in a series of manuscripts reporting results from a research project designed to examine burnout in competitive junior tennis players. Individual differences in burnout are examined by discussing idiographic profiles from three athletes who were identified as having burned out in the earlier phases of the project. These cases were chosen as they represented different substrains of social psychologically driven and physically driven burnout. In particular, the three cases included: (a) a player characterized by high levels of perfectionism and overtraining; (b) a player who experienced pressure from others and a need for a social life; and (c) a player who was physically overtrained and had inappropriate goals. It was concluded that although important patterns result from content analyses across participants, the unique experience of each individual must be recognized.
Adolescent Goal Profiles, Perceptions of the Parent-Initiated Motivational Climate, and Competitive Trait Anxiety
Authors: White Sally A.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to examine the combined effects of task- and ego-orientation on adolescents’ perceptions of the parent-initiated motivational climate and competitive trait anxiety. Participants were 279 male and female adolescents (mean age = 14.41 years) who competed on organized sport teams. Based on a mean split on the two TEOSQ subscales, four goal orientation profile groups were created: high-task/high-ego, high-task/low-ego, high-ego/low-task, and low-task/low-ego. MANOVA results indicated that the high-task/low-ego group perceived that both their mother and father endorsed a learning and enjoyment motivational climate. In contrast, the high-ego/low-task group thought their mother and father valued a climate where success was coupled with low effort. In this group, fathers were perceived to cause worry about making mistakes. This group experienced the highest levels of competitive trait anxiety. For the high-task/high-ego group it was found that fathers emphasized a climate where success was linked to low levels of exerted effort and mothers were perceived to cause worry about making mistakes. However, the high-task/high-ego group also believed that both parents still valued learning and enjoyment in the development of physical skills. Lastly, individuals in the low-task/low-ego group perceived mothers to make them afraid of making mistakes in the learning of skills.
Validity in Qualitative Inquiry and the Problem of Criteria: Implications for Sport Psychology
Authors: Sparkes Andrew C.
Published: August 2016

Evaluating the quality of qualitative inquiry has begun to intrigue researchers in sport psychology. Consequently, this has raised important questions regarding the criteria for judging this emerging form of inquiry. With the intent to stimulate methodological debate, this paper explores prevailing notions of validity in qualitative sport psychology by focusing on how various scholars have framed this term. The prevailing parallel perspective of validity is discussed, as are specific problems associated with this view. In contrast, recent attempts to reconceptualize validity in relation to particular forms of qualitative inquiry are considered. The socially constructed nature of validity and the multiplicity of meanings associated with this term are presented according to a diversification perspective. More radical calls to renounce validity and seek alternative criteria for judging qualitative inquiry are also discussed. In closing, the ongoing problem of criteria and its implications for research in sport psychology are considered.
The Influence of Career Planning, Race, and Athletic Injury on Life Satisfaction among Recently Retired Collegiate Male Athletes
Authors: Perna Frank M. , Ahlgren Rebecca L. , Zaichkowsky Leonard
Published: August 2016

Collegiate male athletes and nonathletes’ (N = 76) level of life satisfaction was assessed at termination of their collegiate careers, and further analyses indicated the degree of association between athletic injury history and life satisfaction after accounting for demographic and career-planning variables. While no significant Group or Group by Race interaction effects were found, life satisfaction was significantly lower among African American students. Regression analysis, controlling for demographic variables, further indicated that athletes who had sustained a severe athletic injury were no less satisfied with life than noninjured and moderately injured athletes. However, athletes who could state a postcollegiate occupational plan were significantly more satisfied with life than those who were unable to indicate such a goal. Results suggest that the role of athletic participation and athletic injury with respect to life satisfaction may have been overemphasized. The potential role of career planning in understanding termination from collegiate sport is discussed.
Goal Orientations, Perceptions of Aggression, and Sportspersonship in Elite Male Youth Ice Hockey Players
Authors: Dunn John G.H. , Dunn Janice Causgrove
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between goal orientations, perceptions of athletic aggression, and sportspersonship among elite male youth ice hockey players (M age = 13.08 years). Athletes (N = 171) completed questionnaires to assess their goal orientations, attitudes toward directing aggressive behaviors during competition, and non-aggression-related sportspersonship. In accordance with Vallerand, Deshaies, Cuerrier, Brière, and Pelletier (1996), sportspersonship was conceptualized as a five-dimensional construct. Multiple regression analyses revealed that high ego-oriented athletes were more inclined to approve of aggressive behaviors than those with low ego orientation. Players with higher levels of task orientation (rather than low task orientation) had higher sportspersonship levels on three dimensions. An analysis of goal orientation patterns revealed that regardless of ego orientation, low (compared to high) task orientation was more motivationally detrimental to several sportspersonship dimensions. The practical implications of these results are discussed in the context of Nicholls’s (1989) achievement goal theory.
Adherence to Fitness Training of Elite Netball Players: A Naturalistic Inquiry
Authors: Palmer Claire L. , Burwitz Les , Smith Nickolas C. , Collins David
Published: August 2016

This study uses naturalistic inquiry to identify fitness training facilitators and barriers experienced by elite netball players and to determine whether they were related to types of Fitness training behavior. Semistructured interviews were conducted with 15 female national netball players. Inductive analysis revealed large variability between players’ fitness-training behaviors. Four case families of training behavior based on similar adoption and maintenance behaviors were identified. Cross-case analysis revealed that (a) self-motivation, enjoyment, attitude toward fitness training, and role of an England netball player were key facilitators of fitness training behavior; (b) facilitators and barriers appeared similar to those identified in the exercise-adherence literature; and (c) most facilitators and barriers could be viewed as operating through a revised theory of planned behavior (Maddux, 1993). Practical applications of the findings are discussed.
The Influence of the Family in the Development of Talent in Sport
Authors: Côté Jean
Published: August 2016

The purpose of the present study was to describe patterns in the dynamics of families of talented athletes throughout their development in sport. Four families, including three families of elite rowers and one family of an elite tennis player were examined. The framework provided by Ericsson, Krampe, and Tesch-Römer (1993) to explain expert performance served as the theoretical basis for the study. Ericsson et al. suggested that the acquisition of expert performance involves operating within three types of constraints: motivational, effort, and resource. In-depth interviews were conducted with each athlete, parent, and sibling to explore how they have dealt with these three constraints. A total of 15 individual interviews were conducted. Results permitted the identification of three phases of participation from early childhood to late adolescence: the sampling years, the specializing years, and the investment years. The dynamics of the family in each of these phases of development is discussed.
The Effects of Motivational versus Instructional Self-Talk on Improving Motor Performance
Authors: Theodorakis Yannis , Weinberg Robert , Natsis Petros , Douma Irini , Kazakas Panagiotis
Published: August 2016

This study examined the effectiveness of different self-talk strategies on increasing performance in different motor tasks. Specifically, four laboratory experiments were conducted to examine the effect of motivational versus instructional self-talk strategies on four different tasks. Included in the experiments were a soccer accuracy lest, a badminton service test, a sit up test, and a knee extension task on an isokinetic dynamometer. Results of the first two experiments indicated that only the participants of the instructional group improved their performance significantly more than the motivational and control groups. Results of the third experiment indicated no significant differences between the three groups, although all groups showed improvements across trials. Results of the fourth experiment showed a significant improvement for both the motivational and instructional groups compared to the control group. It appears that when the task requires fine motor movements, an instructional self-talk strategy is more effective, whereas when the task requires predominantly strength and endurance, both motivational and instructional strategies are effective.
Perceived Goal Setting Practices of Olympic Athletes: An Exploratory Investigation
Authors: Weinberg Robert , Yukelson Dave , Burton Damon , Weigand Daniel
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this investigation was to explore Olympic athletes’ perceptions concerning the frequency and effectiveness of goal setting strategies as well as goal preferences and barriers to achieving these goals. Participants were 185 male and 143 female Olympic athletes from a variety sports. Each athlete completed a questionnaire detailing their perceptions, use, and effectiveness of a number of different goal-setting strategies. Factor analysis revealed four similar factors for goal effectiveness and goal frequency and two distinct factors for goal barriers. Descriptive results revealed that all of the Olympic athletes practiced some type of goal setting to help enhance performance, and they found their goals to be highly effective. Athletes also reported that improving overall performance, winning, and having fun were the three most important goals. In addition, setting difficult goals that were somewhat above the level at which they perform was the most preferred level of goal difficulty. Future directions for research are offered including exploration of developmental differences and variations in coach versus athlete perceptions.
The Cognitive and Motivational Effects of Imagery Training: A Matter of Perspective
Authors: Cumming Jennifer L. , Ste-Marie Diane M.
Published: August 2016

The primary purpose of this study was to use synchronized skaters to examine the influence of imagery perspective on the cognitive and motivational functions of imagery during a five-week imagery training program. To this end, 16 novice synchronized skaters participated in an imagery intervention that incorporated both cognitive and motivational imagery. The Sport Imagery Questionnaire (SIQ: Hall, Mack, Paivio, & Hausenblas, 1998) was used to assess changes in the skaters’ use of cognitive and motivational images as a result of the training program. The results of a MANOVA indicated that skaters increased their use of cognitive specific and cognitive general imagery, regardless of their preferred imagery perspective. Furthermore, neither group showed changes in their use of imagery for motivational functions. The findings are discussed within the context of Hardy’s (1997) proposal that a particular imagery perspective is beneficial for the learning and performance of motor skills if it provides visual information that is otherwise not available to the performer.
Shaking the Foundation: Women of Color in Sport
Authors: Hall Ruth L.
Published: August 2016

Feminist sport psychologists agree that the playing field is not level regarding gender issues in and out of sport and that sexism is alive and well. Ironically, the myth persists that race and racism are not prevalent in sport. Like any aspect of culture, sport is influenced by societal norms. Thus, for women of color, race and gender are accompanied by racism and sexism within and outside of athletics. The purpose of this paper is to briefly examine the experiences of women of color within sport and the feminist sport psychology community in particular. The feminist preoccupation with gender frequently ignores or minimizes race and cultural differences between women and the racism that can emerge in cross-racial interactions. The result is the marginalization of women of color.
Enhancing Performance and Skill Acquisition in Novice Basketball Players with Instructional Self-Talk
Authors: Perkos Stefanos , Theodorakis Yannis , Chroni Stiliani
Published: August 2016

This study examined the effectiveness of instructional self-talk on acquiring and performing three basketball skills (dribbling, passing, and shooting). Sixty-two young, novice players were organized into two groups. The experimental group accompanied the practice of three specific drills with self-talk. The control group performed the same drills traditionally. Six assessment sessions were completed. Repeated measures MANOVAs showed that experimental group participants performed better than their control group counterparts when dribbling and passing. Experimental group participants and their coaches reported using self-talk more when passing and dribbling and less when shooting. In addition, experimental group participants achieved significantly better dribbling and passing scores (p < .05) between assessment sessions. These results support instructional self-talk as an effective tool for skill acquisition and performance enhancement of skills low in complexity.
Behavioral Assessment in Sport Psychology
Authors: Tkachuk Gregg , Leslie-Toogood Adrienne , Martin Garry L.
Published: August 2016

We suggest that expanded use of behavioral assessment strategies in sports by researchers and practitioners will be beneficial for researchers, practitioners, athletes, and coaches. Behavioral assessment involves the collection and analysis of information and data in order to identify and describe target behaviors, identify possible causes of the behaviors, select appropriate treatment strategies to modify the behaviors, and evaluate treatment outcomes. In this paper, we summarize characteristics of traditional approaches to assessment in sport psychology, describe differences between behavioral assessment and traditional assessment, examine components of behavioral assessment for sport psychology practitioners and researchers, and discuss future directions in behavioral assessment in sport psychology.
Controlling Emotions in Sport
Authors: Jones Marc V.
Published: August 2016

Emotions play a central role in sport performance. Accordingly, it is important that athletes are able to draw on a range of strategies to enhance emotional control. The present paper outlines a number of strategies based on Lazarus’ cognitive-motivational-relational theory of emotion. Strategies are outlined that aim to change cognitions, resulting in either a more appropriate emotional response or a suppression of the expression of emotion and any maladaptive behavioral consequences. These techniques comprise self-statement modification, imagery, socratic dialogue, corrective experiences, self-analysis, didactic approach, storytelling metaphors and poetry, reframing, cognitive paradox, and use of problem-solving skills. Furthermore, given the changes in physiological arousal accompanying certain emotions, it is also suggested that general arousal control strategies could play an important role in emotional control.
Role of the Coach: How Model Youth Team Sport Coaches Frame Their Roles
Authors: Gilbert Wade D. , Trudel Pierre
Published: August 2016

Similar to a belief system, a role frame acts as a perceptual filter that influences how practitioners define their professional responsibilities (Schön, 1983). The purpose of this article is to present the role frame components of model youth team sport coaches. The results are based on a two-year multiple-case study with six coaches. On average, the coaches’ role frame comprised two boundary components and nine internal components. Boundary components are objective environmental conditions that can influence an individual’s approach to coaching. Internal role frame components are personal views a coach holds regarding youth sport coaching. A discussion of how role frames can be examined and used by researchers, coaches, and coach educators is provided.
An Imagery Intervention during the Competitive Season with an Elite Rugby Union Player
Authors: Evans Lynne , Jones Leigh , Mullen Richard
Published: August 2016

The purpose of the present study was to explore the use of imagery by an elite rugby union football player and to examine the effects of an imagery intervention in a practical performance environment. The study took place over a 14-week period of the competitive season. Data collection comprised semi-structured interviews, diaries, and the Sport Imagery Questionnaire. The findings suggested that the participant primarily used cognitive specific and cognitive general imagery. Post-intervention, the participant reported greater clarity; detail; control over his anxiety, activation, and motivation levels; an improvement in his ability to generate confidence in his playing ability prior to games; and more structure to his imagery use. The study highlighted the importance of individualizing imagery interventions to meet the specific needs of different athletes.
Effects of an Imagery Training Program on Selective Attention of National Softball Players
Authors: Calmels Claire , Berthoumieux Christelle , Fabienne d’Arripe-Longueville Fabienne
Published: August 2016

This study examined the effectiveness of an imagery training program in improving national softball players’ selective attention. A multiple-baseline design across individuals was used. There were four participants. One remained at baseline, while the other three spent 10 min a day practicing an audio-taped imagery program composed of 28 sessions. Measures of selective attention were collected via a baseball/softball batting specific version stemming from Nideffer’s (1976) Test of Attentional and Interpersonal Style (TAIS). The results demonstrated that the imagery training program generally enhanced the ability of softball players to integrate external stimuli without being overloaded with them and to narrow attention. Results were discussed in relation to the usefulness of multiple-baseline designs for investigating individual differences among elite athletes. Practical pedagogical considerations for coaching are proposed.
Academic Course for Enhancing Student-Athlete Performance in Sport
Authors: Curry Lewis A. , Maniar Sameep D.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this paper is to describe content and methods of an academic course offered twice annually at an NCAA Division I University. With empirical support to the effectiveness of this academic approach to psychological skills training presented elsewhere (Curry & Maniar, 2003), the focus of this paper is on the type and extent of each intervention treatment during the 15-week semester course (Vealey, 1994). Course content includes applied strategies for best performance targeting, arousal/affect control, identifying purpose, goal setting, imagery, sport confidence, trust, flow, sport nutrition, on-/off-field problem solving, self-esteem, and life skills education on eating disorders and drug/alcohol abuse. Teaching methods include narrative story telling, small group activities, journal writing, cognitive-behavioral homework, brainteasers, and active learning demonstrations.
Physical Appearance and the Perceived Effectiveness of Performance Enhancement Consultants
Authors: Lubker John R. , Watson Jack C. , Visek Amanda J. , Geer John R.
Published: August 2016

Research has revealed that dress and build can impact others’ perceptions of personality, knowledge, competence, and effectiveness (Hash, Munna, Vogel, & Bason, 2003; Lennon, 1986). This study investigated athletes’ first impression formation of performance enhancement consultants (PECs) and its influence on athletes’ perceptions of their knowledge, ability, and personality characteristics. Participants (N = 86) rated 11 pictures of PECs on personality traits, sport knowledge, and likeliness of seeking services. Results revealed that build and dress were most influential on PEC ratings. PECs with a lean build and academic clothing were rated higher on personality traits PECs than other groups. PECs with a lean build and athletic clothing were rated higher on sport knowledge and more likely to be sought for services than PECs with a large build and academic clothing.
Facilitating Endurance Performance: The Effects of Cognitive Strategies and Analgesic Suggestions
Authors: Spink Kevin S.
Published: August 2016

This study examined the effects of a cognitive strategy (dissociation) and an analgesic suggestion on the duration and pain ratings of individuals performing a muscular endurance task. Thirty-six individuals were randomly assigned to one of three experimental groups: dissociation group, dissociation/analgesic group, and a control group. Measures of leg-holding times and subjective pain ratings were obtained twice, once before the treatment and once after the treatment. Results indicated that individuals in the dissociation/analgesic group performed significantly better on the posttest than individuals in the dissociation and control groups. No significant differences in reported pain ratings were found between any of the three groups. The findings are discussed in terms of alternative explanations. Future research directions are also provided.
Sport Psychology Consultants’ Experience of Using Hypnosis in Their Practice: An Exploratory Investigation
Authors: Grindstaff Jason S. , Fisher Leslee A.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to explore sport psychology consultants’ experiences of using hypnosis in their practice. Specifically a better understanding of hypnosis utilization as a performance enhancement technique in applied sport psychology was sought. Semi-structured, in-depth interviews were conducted with six sport psychology consultants (all PhDs) who each possessed training and experience related to hypnosis. Analysis of the interview data revealed a variety of major themes and subthemes related to the guiding interview questions: (a) hypnosis training and experience, (b) stereotypes and misconceptions related to hypnosis, (c) utilizing hypnosis as a performance enhancement technique, (d) advantages and disadvantages of using hypnosis with athletes, and (e) cultural considerations related to using hypnosis.
Risk Factors for Heavy Drinking in College Freshmen: Athletic Status and Adult Attachment
Authors: Doumas Diana M. , Turrisi Rob , Wright Dale A.
Published: August 2016

This study examined athletic status and adult attachment as risk factors for high-risk drinking in 249 freshmen. Results of hierarchical regression analyses indicated attachment avoidance was related positively to high-risk drinking for former high school and collegiate athletes, but related inversely to high-risk drinking for nonathletes. Further, athletes with high attachment avoidance reported the highest levels of heavy drinking and associated consequences. Findings suggest athletes with high attachment avoidance may use drinking as a coping strategy to manage discomfort associated with social situations and this strategy is likely an extension of patterns established in high school. Clinical implications include providing prevention programs for both high school and collegiate athletes, with an emphasis on targeting interpersonal avoidance and discomfort with relationships.
Countertransference and the Self-Aware Sport Psychologist: Attitudes and Patterns of Professional Practice
Authors: Winstone William , Gervis Misia
Published: August 2016

The literature in psychotherapy and sport psychology has supported the importance of self-awareness and countertransference management (Ellis, 2001; Leahy, 2001; Van Raalte & Andersen, 2000) and its applicability in all psychological settings (Hayes, 2004). This study was an audit of (n = 58) accredited UK sport psychology practitioners that explored the importance they attached to self-awareness and their behavior in practice that supported the management of these concerns. Results indicated that practitioners regarded self-insight and self-integration as important (Mdn = 4), but relied upon themselves and informal peer networks rather than regular supervision for professional support. Most practitioners never (Mdn=1) used counseling or therapy for personal support. Recommendations are made for piloting post-accreditation professional supervision in sport psychology and developing the provision of general counseling and sport psychology sessions for trainees.
Flow Experience and Athletes’ Performance with Reference to the Orthogonal Model of Flow
Authors: Stavrou Nektarios A. , Jackson Susan A. , Zervas Yannis , Karteroliotis Konstantinos
Published: August 2016

The purposes of the current study were to examine (a) the differences in Flow State Scale (FSS) subscales between the 4 experiential states of the orthogonal model (apathy, anxiety, relaxation, and flow), (b) the relationship between challenge, skills, and flow experience; and (c) the relationship between flow experience and athletes’ performance. Two hundred twenty athletes volunteered to participate in this study. Challenge of the game and skills of the athlete were measured before and after competition. Thirty minutes after the competition, the FSS was used to measure flow experience. In addition, subjective and objective measures of athletes’ performance were assessed. Athletes in the flow and relaxation states revealed the most optimal states, whereas the athletes in the apathy state showed the least optimal state. There were positive associations between athletes’ flow experience and their performance measures, indicating that positive emotional states are related to elevated levels of performance. On the other hand, there were low or no correlations between athletes’ performance and reported challenge of the game, whereas skills of the athlete were moderately correlated with flow. Multiple-regression analysis demonstrated significant prediction of athletes’ performance based on flow experience during competition. Future research should examine the relationship between flow, athletes’ performance, and additional dispositional and state variables.
Enhancing the Evaluation of Effectiveness with Professional Judgment and Decision Making
Authors: Martindale Amanda , Collins Dave
Published: August 2016

On the basis of anecdotal evidence and media interest, the public profile of applied sport psychology is ever increasing in terms of its perceived impact on the performance of elite athletes and teams. In the profession, however, there is some concern over whether we are managing to concurrently match this pace empirically, through the evolution of scientific methods and mechanisms to evaluate the effectiveness of practice. This article considers requirements of the current evaluation climate and provides an overview of existing formal evaluation procedures. It is suggested that the evolving intricacies and complexities of applied sport psychology practice are neither fully captured nor represented by these procedures. Consequently, a framework of professional judgment and decision making (PJDM) is proposed from which to consider the evaluation of practice. In addition, methods and mechanisms for enhancing and building on our current evaluation procedures are offered.