bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Test Theory and Classical Test Theory
Authors: Frey Felix
Published: September 2020

Test theory addresses statistical methods and criteria for the design, evaluation, and comparison of “tests,” that is, standardized procedures for measuring constructs of interest, typically encompassing several test items. These methods and criteria are based on assumptions about the composition of the measurements, the properties of these components, and the relationship between them. The most relevant test theoretical frameworks are classical test theory (CTT) and, as a representative of “modern” test theories, item response theory (IRT). The basic assumptions and procedures of the CTT were developed predominantly during the first half of the twentieth century. Within this framework, influential methods and criteria were developed for the evaluation of tests as a whole, for example, reliability, and for individual test items, for example, item difficulty and item discrimination. Since then, several serious limitations of CTT have been identified, such as the test and sample dependency of CTT's person and item parameters, incomparable scaling of person and item parameters, empirical interdependencies between parameters that should be independent theoretically, and the assumption of reliability as a uniform property of a test. Modern measurement models, like IRT, avoid or overcome these limitations of CTT. However, they do so only at the expense of more demanding assumptions, greater mathematical complexity, and more time and effort (including bigger sample sizes) needed for test construction and evaluation. Moreover, CTT‐ and IRT‐based evaluations often come to comparable conclusions regarding the quality and exclusion of items.
Cognitive Assessment: Think‐Aloud and Thought‐Listing Technique
Authors: Woelke Jens , Pelzer Elena
Published: September 2020

This entry provides an introduction to two different thought‐verbalization processes, namely the think‐aloud procedure and the thought‐listing technique. The thought‐listing technique requires participants to retrospectively list all thoughts that came to mind during media exposure, such as reading a newspaper article, navigating on a website, listening to a song, or watching a video. The think‐aloud procedure provides an ongoing record of thoughts since participants are required to verbalize their thoughts while being exposed to media or performing a task. Both analyses of cognitive responses differ in the timing, the mode of the reporting of thoughts during the completion of the primary task, and the degree of introspection. The think‐aloud procedure and the thought‐listing technique have been used in a variety of research fields such as learning with multimedia, usability and eye‐tracking studies, and the processing of advertising and health messages.
Validity
Authors: Burridge Sean , Lynch Teresa
Published: September 2020

Validity presents two factors of concern for media psychologists. Methodological validity is the likelihood that a particular approach can answer a research question accurately and thoroughly. It is a factor in the design of both qualitative and quantitative research studies, although distinct criteria for its establishment exist within each approach (i.e., credibility and transferability for qualitative researchers; internal and external validity for quantitative researchers). Measurement validity is the degree to which measures accurately capture the concept a researcher proposes to observe. This factor is represented through a variety of dimensions, some primarily established through logic (i.e., face, content, criterion, and nomological validity) and others additionally through statistical analyses (i.e., convergent, discriminant, concurrent, and predictive validity).
Variables, Types of
Authors: Jamison‐Koenig Edgar
Published: September 2020

As a research idea begins to take shape as an empirical inquiry, understanding variable types is crucial to any experimental or survey design. First, one must determine what variables are of interest and consider the relationships between them (e.g., independent and dependent variables). Then, it is important to note other variables that might exert influence on these relationships (e.g., covariates, confounds, control variables, mediators, and moderators) and deal with them accordingly. Once this is done, operationalization of these variables should be considered. Because variables can be conceptualized and measured in a number of ways, it is important to understand whether they are measured or latent, qualitative or quantitative, continuous or discrete, and what types of data are being produced by these variables. A thorough understanding of variable types ensures a more comprehensive knowledge of the factors at play in a given line of inquiry, resulting in more successful and deeply meaningful empirical research in the field of media psychology.
Verification and Falsification
Authors: Ewoldsen David R.
Published: September 2020

Epistemology involves the study of how people come to know. Scientific research uses inductive reasoning to move from specific observations of a phenomena to more general theories that attempt to explain the phenomenon. Logical positivists argued that value‐free observation could result in objective observations that could be used to advance knowledge. However, the positivist position has been rejected. Falsification has emerged as the leading alternative approach to conducting science. Falsification focuses on increasing the specificity of theories as a way to decrease the falseness found within a theory.
Wearable Devices for Health‐Related Data
Authors: Robbins Rebecca , DiClemente Ralph , Duncan Dustin T. , Zeepvat Julianna , Allegrante John P.
Published: September 2020

Our technological landscape is changing rapidly. These technologies have the potential to serve a variety of functions relating to individual and population‐level health, such as the ability for patients with chronic conditions to connect and share their experiences or for health care providers to reach underserved or hard to reach populations with telemedicine and other methods. There is also the opportunity for health campaign messages to reach a larger audience than ever before. This entry articulates a framework for understanding the research and industry developments pertaining to mobile technology as it relates to population health at the patient, provider, and population levels. In so doing, it discusses the potential advantages technology offers, but also address the potential pitfalls or perils imposed by technology. It concludes by articulating an agenda for future researchers interested in mobile technology and population health outcomes.
Desensitization
Authors: Miles‐Novelo Andreas , Anderson Craig A.
Published: September 2020

As we are exposed to varying kinds of media, we respond in differing ways both physiologically and psychologically. One effect isdesensitization, the process by which repeated exposure to a stimulus reduces negative emotional arousal to its presentation later on. Early psychological research saw desensitization manifested primarily in clinical/behavior modification contexts such as exposure therapy (e.g., presenting a snake‐phobic client with pictures of snakes, then videos, then seeing a snake from afar, to eventually holding a snake). As research has progressed, the idea of being desensitized through repeated exposure has raised questions about various types of exposure therapy (e.g., systematic desensitization, flooding, cognitive behavior modification), demonstrating that often (although not always), the more you are exposed to something, the less jarring and arousing that thing becomes mentally, emotionally, and psychophysiologically. Of particular interest in this entry is how electronic media (e.g., TV, movies, video games, social media) can desensitize us to violence. Studies of this have shown that exposure to media violence can make people less empathetic, and less physiologically aroused by portrayals of violence in both the short‐term (experimental studies) and over time (cross‐sectional and longitudinal studies).
Transportation
Authors: Sestir Marc A. , Moore Melissa M. , Green Melanie C.
Published: September 2020

Transportation, or the state of mental absorption into a narrative, is a common outcome of engaging with narrative material. Transported readers are cognitively and emotionally engaged, and may have vivid mental images of the narrative events. Transportation can be manipulated experimentally and is reliably measured by instruments such as the transportation scale. Transportation occurs across multiple media modalities (e.g., text, audio, film) and can be affected by narrative elements such as emotional content and narrative coherence. In addition to situational variation, individual trait differences can be seen in transportability, the tendency to be easily transported into a narrative. Individuals higher in need for affect tend to experience higher transportation, and temporary or contextual internal factors such as distraction and familiarity with content can also affect transportation. Higher transportation tends to lead to stronger media effects, including attitude change, most often in the form of story‐consistent beliefs, as well as behavior related to those beliefs. Narrative transportation can also influence self‐concept and self‐image, primarily by allowing the exploration of alternate identities and contexts. Transportive states frequently co‐occur with other experiential states such as identification and flow, and share some characteristics with similar concepts such as narrative engagement, presence, and immersion.
Immersion
Authors: Moore Melissa M. , Green Melanie C.
Published: September 2020

Immersion refers to the absorption individuals feel when reading a story, watching a movie, or playing a video game. Individuals are likely to experience immersion when they are engaged in the narrative world without distraction from situational influences (e.g., loud noises, software trouble) or unrealistic components of the narrative (e.g., incorrect information, poorly written or animated characters). An individual's likelihood of immersion may be increased through factors including prior knowledge of the subject, perceived realism of the narrative, and emotional realism related to the characters. Individual traits also play a role, such as one's need for affect or differences in one's ability to be transported into a narrative, referred to as transportability. Additional elements such as the quality of the narrative and situational factors should also be considered. One type of immersion is transportation into a narrative world, which occurs when a reader or viewer becomes fully absorbed in a narrative emotionally and cognitively. Similar types of narrative response include flow, presence, and narrative engagement. Immersion can be measured through scales designed to capture immersive media responses, such as the transportation scale, the narrative engagement scale, and the game engagement questionnaire.
Psychophysiological Effects of Media Use
Authors: Morey Alyssa C.
Published: September 2020

This entry serves as an introduction to psychophysiological media effects and media psychophysiology research, beginning with a general definition of psychophysiology, and followed by a brief history of the application and integration of psychophysiological methods and measures in media psychology scholarship. After explaining a fundamental principle of the psychophysiological approach (psychophysiological measures are “monstrosities”), this entry covers primary psychological variables studied in psychophysiological media effects research (arousal, attention, emotion) and the various physiological methods and measures used to assess them (skin conductance [SC], heart rate [HR], heart rate variability [HRV], facial electromyography [EMG], electroencephalography [EEG], event‐related potentials [ERPs], functional magnetic resonance imaging [fMRI]). The conclusion focuses on directions for future research that will further solidify the status of psychophysiological approaches in media psychology scholarship.
Developmental Changes in Attention to Video
Authors: Yoo Seung Heon , Kirkorian Heather L.
Published: September 2020

Previous studies have presented consistent findings in how attention to screen media changes with age. Regardless of age, viewers' visual attention is influenced by bottom‐up saliency of formal features. However, top‐down cognitive processes become increasingly important with age in determining when and where on the screen viewers are looking. Children begin to preferentially attend to comprehensible video during the second year of life, and the relative influence of comprehensibility (versus perceptual salience) in driving selective attention and fixation continues to increase throughout childhood. Even though there are substantial age differences in when and where viewers look during selective attention and fixation, there seems to be no developmental age‐related difference in the nature of attentional engagement once attention is sustained. The same general pattern of attentional inertia is seen in infants, children, and adults. That is, adults and children have a similar pattern of how attention engagement changes over a period of viewing. So these results suggest that viewers are most likely to pay attention, visually and cognitively, when a program is well produced with age appropriate content using appropriate format and editing techniques (e.g., formal features).
Priming
Authors: Dillman Carpentier Francesca R.
Published: September 2020

Priming refers to the activation, or triggering, of an idea in one's memory, making that idea more top‐of‐mind, or rather increasing the idea's accessibility in memory. Priming effects refer to the use of that accessible idea in the person's next thought process or behavior without the person's express awareness. The process that describes the act of priming and the generation of priming effects can be traced historically through psychological studies of how memory is structured and retrieved, particularly within the development of network models of memory. The ways in which concepts are thought to be stored and connected in memory lead to a variety of possibilities in which priming can occur, including priming through similarity in characteristics (semantic priming), meaning (conceptual priming), or form (perceptual priming). Underlying these various types of priming is the idea of association, through which one concept can be activated in memory and subsequently activate other closely related concepts. The automatic nature of this process is exemplified in the studies of how media representations of violence, stereotypes, and political issues, for example, unobtrusively trigger related thoughts and feelings in the media user that become important criteria in the user's judgments or behaviors toward others. Most priming effects are that of assimilation, wherein the user's next thought is reflective of the primed idea, such as violence primes leading to violent thoughts. However, primes can generate contrast effects, insofar as an extreme prime (e.g., Hitler) actually biases thoughts or behaviors away from the idea of the prime.
Pluralistic Ignorance
Authors: Chia Stella C. , Sun Yanqing
Published: September 2020

Pluralistic ignorance describes a scenario in which members of a group share the erroneous belief that their private attitudes and judgments are different from those of most of the other members of the same group even if their outward behaviors are identical. In this entry, the meaning of pluralistic ignorance and the development of the concept are reviewed. Then, the origins of the phenomenon are discussed using the individualistic psychological approach and the social structural approach. How media exposure may contribute to pluralistic ignorance is highlighted. The entry concludes with a discussion of the impacts pluralistic ignorance may have on individuals and society as a whole.
Framing and Policy Approval
Authors: Liu Jiawei , McLeod Douglas M.
Published: September 2020

An important goal of framing research is to investigate different message framing approaches and their effects on audience members' policy support. In particular, equivalence framing involves alternative formats to present the same information, with equivalence frames operationalized as different labels and statements that convey logically identical information. By comparison, emphasis framing addresses different patterns of information selection to highlight particular aspects of the same issue, with emphasis frames operationalized as issue‐specific arguments and generic news narratives. Although both framing strategies can influence readers' policy approval, equivalence framing effects emanate from reference points‐based anchoring mechanisms, whereas emphasis framing effects can be attributed to changes in how people weigh different issue‐relevant considerations.
Rape Myth Acceptance
Authors: Johnston Jennifer B. , Dill‐Shackleford Karen
Published: September 2020

Rape is a startlingly prevalent reality for many women. It is supported and excused by rape myths that blame or disbelieve women and generally exonerate male sexual aggression. Key factors that cause rape myth are rigid gender roles, mistrust of the opposite sex, and believing violence is necessary to solve problems. Media content has been identified as a contributor to rape myth acceptance (RMA). Pornography, especially if violent, leads to more RMA and even more aggression toward women, at least temporarily. High violent video game use and playing with sexualized avatars also increases RMA. All of these media reinforce the underlying inaccurate beliefs about men and women that lead to RMA, which is particularly problematic for children and adolescents. Media content has also been used to counter rape myths and increase healthy sexual behavior and beliefs with some success. Youth seek sexual information in media and may be more influenced by it than even what they learn from family. Interactive media literacy curricula, plots and characters showing equality and responsible sex between the genders, and counter‐stereotypical contacts, even virtual, all reduce the factors that lead to RMA.
Implicit and Explicit Measures of Prejudice
Authors: Ewoldsen David R.
Published: September 2020

Unfortunately, prejudice continues to be a major problem across society. Research on prejudice is difficult because people are often motivated to avoid expressing prejudice because it is typically not socially accepted to express prejudicial attitudes and behaviors. Explicit measures of prejudice are typically paper and pencil measures where people know that the goal of the measure is to gauge their level of prejudice. Consequently, these measures are subject to motivational pressures with the consequence that people's responses may reflect both their prejudicial attitudes and their motivations to control the expression of those attitudes. Implicit measures were developed a little over a quarter of a century ago. Implicit measures attempt to measure prejudicial attitudes and beliefs without participants being aware that their prejudice is being measured. Consequently, these measures avoid motivational pressures to mask prejudicial responses.
Media Use and the Development of Racial and Ethnic Attitudes and Stereotypes
Authors: Ward L. Monique , Tran‐Dubongco Mercy , Moss Lolita , Cox Vaness
Published: September 2020

Children's beliefs and stereotypes about racial groups emerge early and are shaped by many forces, both internal (e.g., categorization skills) and external. Media content and models are believed to play a prominent role in this learning, especially because portrayals are often stereotypical, youth may have little exposure to other racial groups, and youth consume media for several hours a day. However, empirical research testing media contributions to developing racial attitudes has been sparse, and has focused mainly on positive interventions among White youth, and on diverse effects among Black youth. For White youth, findings indicate that participation in media‐related interventions presenting pro‐diversity messaging can improve attitudes toward Black Americans and immigrants. Among Black youth, findings indicate that the age of the viewer and race of the portrayals matter, and that older Black youth are more likely drawn to and influenced by Black media characters, and often in a positive way. Finally, diverse forms of media use are linked to lower self‐esteem among Latinx youth. Findings among Asian American, Native American, and Middle Eastern youth are too minimal to summarize. We call for more research of any kind to help build a knowledge base in this field.
Effects of Media Use on Development of Gender Role Beliefs
Authors: Aubrey Jennifer Stevens , Roberts Lindsay
Published: September 2020

Media targeting children and adolescents tend to conform to traditional stereotypes of femininity and masculinity. In similar fashion, research on media effects on the development of gender beliefs suggests that as media exposure increases in childhood and adolescence so too does the acceptance of traditional gender stereotypes. These findings can be theoretically understood from the perspectives of social learning and social cognition processes. However, some research, albeit limited, suggests that social learning and social cognition can work in the opposite way as well; children's exposure to gender
counter
stereotypes increases their gender flexibility and challenges traditional notions of femininity and masculinity. Thus, the focus of scholars and practitioners to create more counterstereotypical content patterns in children's and adolescents' media is warranted by research and theory in this area.
Using Media to Promote Inclusive Attitudes in Childhood and Adolescence
Authors: Mares Marie‐Louise , McClain AnneMarie
Published: September 2020

Children and teens go through phases of lesser and greater inclusiveness toward particular social outgroups. Media depictions may serve as interventions to foster inclusion via formation of parasocial relationships with outgroup characters, extended contact portrayals of intergroup friendships, models of improvements in attitudes, and depictions of discrimination experienced by marginalized groups. All approaches have yielded mixed results. Effects can vary by child demographics (e.g., age, race/ethnicity, gender identity, sexual orientation), preexisting attitudes and beliefs, real‐life exposure to outgroup members, intervention design, and focal outgroup as target of inclusion. Meta‐analytic results suggest media may be more effective at promoting positive attitudes toward some groups (e.g., individuals with disabilities) than others (e.g., racial/ethnic minorities). Future directions include parental socialization of their child's inclusivity and (for marginalized groups) positive ingroup attitudes. More work is needed to understand the specific mechanisms, and obstacles, involved in promoting positive outcomes among youth of varied demographics and experiences.
Self‐Disclosure and Self‐Presentation
Authors: Choi Yoon Hyung , Bazarova Natalya N.
Published: September 2020

Self‐disclosure and self‐presentation are two related yet distinct communication processes that both reflect and influence how people associate with others. Self‐disclosure is the intentional sharing of personal information about oneself with one or more people and is a key factor in the development and management of interpersonal relationships. Self‐presentation, often referred to as impression management, is a process in which people try to present themselves in a certain way in order to influence how other people view the self. Self‐disclosure and self‐presentation play a central role in communication since both have a direct impact on how people achieve personal and relational outcomes. They are instrumental to expressing and managing a self‐concept and developing and maintaining interpersonal relationships. However, self‐disclosure and self‐presentation behaviors change when people communicate using new and digital media due to challenges that include large and unknown audiences, privacy concerns, and various technological affordances. People are often exposed to large and unknown audiences when they communicate online which leads to issues of audience management, challenges in how to address each audience, and privacy concerns. Also, the specific qualities of a mediated channel can influence how people disclose information and present themselves to others. Future research in this area should continue to conduct a comprehensive investigation of mediated self‐disclosure and self‐presentation processes and how they are influenced by the changing media landscape.
Social Media and Risk: Sexting and Grooming
Authors: Van Ouytsel Joris , Walrave Michel , Ponnet Koen
Published: September 2020

Digital media have gained an important place in young people's lives. More particularly, social media are used by adolescents to interact with friends and to expand their social circle. Within adolescents' unfolding romantic lives, social media are also intensively used. Adolescents may engage in sexting, the exchange of sexually explicit digital messages, which can be considered a normal form of sexual communication. Young people engage in sexting as a symbol of love and trust within the context of romantic or dating relationships. However, research found sexting can be related with pressure, but also with other risk behaviors such as sexual risk behaviors. Moreover, sexting images can be forwarded or shown to others without the consent of the creator of the sext, possibly leading to negative consequences for the victim. Another risk young people may be confronted with is online grooming. The subsequent phases wherein an adult abuser approaches and prepares a minor online for offline abuse, are explained in this entry, as well as the strategies used to create a bond of trust between the abuser and the victim, along with the strategies groomers use to reduce the risks of being caught.
Social Information Processing Model
Authors: Haywood Amy , Ramirez Artemio , Sumner Erin M.
Published: September 2020

Social information processing (SIP) theory is one of the most widely employed and adapted theories of computer‐mediated communication (CMC). Before it was developed, scholars were struggling to explain the ways in which text‐based CMC might limit how people exchange information, form impressions, and develop relationships. Many CMC channels are relatively cue‐lean: meaning they possess limited capacity to transmit nonverbal and social cues. Social information processing theory describes theoretically testable mechanisms through which CMC users adapt to cue leanness in order to process relational communication in ways that are similar to face‐to‐face (FtF) interaction. More specifically, SIP theory explains that the limitations of CMC are often a function of time, and that users who possess ample time can overcome limited cue bandwidth. This entry details the development of the theoretical framework, its associated empirical tests, and various extensions of SIP theory.
Social Media and Romantic Relationships
Authors: Halpern Daniel , Drobny Sammy
Published: September 2020

We already know that social network sites (SNS) represent a set of technological capabilities that allow individuals to (i) construct a public or semipublic profile within a bounded system, (ii) articulate a list of other users with whom they share a connection, and (iii) view and traverse their list of connections and those made by others within the system. We also know that these platforms have different functionalities: Some of them emphasize capabilities like photo or video sharing tools, others focus on blogging or instant messaging technologies, whereas others aim to share locations (to name only a few). And, finally, we also know that the presence of these pivotal features afforded by SNS depends on the system design intentions or the intended purpose. Thus, these platforms are designed in terms of “affordances,” a term that suggests how a technology should be used according to the capabilities offered by it. However, it is important to note that, whereas technological affordances refer to the embedded functions in a technology, social affordances refer to the relationships developing within a technical structure. What we do not know yet is the impact that social media affordances may have on romantic relationships.
Displacement
Authors: Exelmans Liese
Published: September 2020

Media scholars remain highly invested in uncovering how media technology transforms our life and affects how we spend time. This idea is rooted in the time displacement hypothesis, which proposes that time spent on one activity leaves less time available for others. Displacement effects are common in media studies: Numerous reports have shown that the advent of new media technologies not only reduces time spent on traditional media, but also displaces activities considered more valuable than media consumption, such as exercise, cultural participation, and real‐life social interaction. Although the concept dates back to the 1950s, it remains highly relevant today and informs a large number of media theories and processes. The aim of the entry is to provide a fresh view on a classic concept of communication research. It reviews the current definition of displacement, and, most importantly, identifies the conceptual and methodological challenges it faces related to massive changes in media, media users, and their context.
Media Use as Habit
Authors: Tokunaga Robert S.
Published: September 2020

Media habits provide an alternate explanation to rational‐based models of media selection. These habits are learned media routines emerging after repeated media consumption that are cued by internal and/or external stimuli. Media habit formation involves the complex storage of specific media‐related behavioral sequences as mental representations in memory. These behavioral sequences are automatically initiated given salient cues without conscious self‐instruction. Media habits can be interpreted as both good and bad behaviors with variations of strength in either direction. Bad habits, however, have received far greater attention in research on media habits, and they have been understood as deficient self‐regulation of media use, problematic media use, and even media addictions. Theory, although still nascent, has been able to explain the locomotion of media habits from development to their outcomes. Moods, psychological states, location of media use, time of day, and one's social environment, among other things, can serve as stable cues that encourage the development and maintenance of media habits. Once a media habit is imprinted, it could have positive or negative effects in media consumers' lives. Good media habits are responsible for social connectivity and relational success, whereas bad media habits are tied to relational failures and occupational or academic troubles. Future research pursuits in the area of media habits involve strengthening its conceptual understanding, reinforcing its theoretical tenets, and continuing to refine the instruments used to measure media habits.
Media Use and Obesity
Authors: Thompson Teresa L.
Published: September 2020

The obesity epidemic is widespread and is not confined to Western countries. Research has thus examined a multitude of countries and relevant variables/processes to understand the factors that lead to obesity. Media use and mediated representations are key variables that have been examined as they relate to obesity. Mediated representations place much emphasis on food. The sedentary nature of media use and snacking while viewing a medium also plays a role in the obesity epidemic. Overall, however, the relationship between media use per se and obesity is not a direct one. The nature of the food messages presented in the media is a more central factor. Two key hypotheses are relevant to understanding the impact of media use on obesity: the displacement hypothesis (arguing that media use displaces physical activity, which can impact obesity) and the content hypothesis (arguing that the content of media is what impacts obesity and other relevant variables). Physical activity moderates the relationship, as do numerous demographic and social variables. When those are controlled, media use ceases to impact obesity. Research shows more promise when it looks at
what
is viewed rather than
how much
viewing occurs. The simplistic assumption that amount of media use impacts obesity may be discarded.
Binge Behavior in Media Use
Authors: Tukachinsky Riva
Published: September 2020

Binge behavior in media use became increasingly widespread with the growing popularity of online streaming platforms, particularly among adolescents and young adults. Binge‐watching is typically driven by anticipation of enjoyment and relaxation, desire to know how the narrative unfolds, fear of spoilers, and connection to other viewers. Binge media use was theorized and researched in relation to physical and mental health. For example, binge‐watching has been viewed both as a consequence of and a factor contributing to depression. Preliminary research suggests that binge‐watching may enhance involvement with media and can moderate persuasive effects of media exposure.
Theories of Reasoned Action and Planned Behavior
Authors: Rossmann Constanze
Published: September 2020

Stemming from the field of social psychology and based on the ideas of rational choice, the theory of reasoned action as well as its successor, the theory of planned behavior, seek to explain social behavior with a limited set of cognitive determinants: behavior is predicted by behavioral intentions, which are influenced by attitudes toward behavior, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control. These determinants in turn are based on behavioral, norm, and control beliefs, and the evaluation of these beliefs. Numerous studies and meta‐analyses support the theories of reasoned action and planned behavior, as well as their applicability to various behavioral areas, such as consumption decisions, environmentally conscious behavior, career choices, and voting or health behavior. Accordingly, the theory of planned behavior has advanced to one of the most dominant models of behavioral psychology. Even if less popular in media psychology, the theories of reasoned action and planned behavior also became relevant theories in this field. Specifically, they have proved useful in explaining media choice behavior (media use, media adoption), extending media effect theories, and providing a theoretical background for strategic health campaigning. In spite of the strong empirical basis, the theories have been criticized for several reasons. The most important critiques refer to the rationality assumption as opposed to spontaneous and habitualized behavior, the insufficiency of the model components, the intention–behavior gap, the conceptualization of the model components, the static understanding of behavioral decisions, and causality issues.
Spiral of Silence
Authors: Gearhart Sherice
Published: September 2020

Noelle‐Neumann's spiral of silence theory explains how perceptions of the public opinion environment influence opinion expression behavior. The theory claims that individuals are motivated by their innate fear of being socially isolated to continually evaluate the climate of public opinion. Using interpersonal communication experiences and the media, individuals assess their environment. According to the theory, upon assessment of the opinion environment, individuals determine the climate of opinion and determine whether their own opinion on a morally based and controversial issue aligns with the belief of the majority or if their opinion is contrary to the opinion held by the majority of others. As a result, those who find they agree with the majority are believed to feel emboldened and freely express their opinion. On the other hand, those who determine they hold an alternative opinion, that is perceived to lie in the minority of public opinion, are more likely to conceal their own opinion. This theory has generated a large body of research related to political communication and public opinion. Studies have historically focused on microlevel factors and advanced measurement of psychological attributes known to influence the theory. Recent empirical applications have found renewed focus on macrolevel factors such as comparative analysis of different focal issues and application to online contexts, especially social media.
Effects of Media Use on Altruism in Childhood and Adolescence
Authors: Peebles Alanna
Published: September 2020

Previous studies have shown that media can socialize individuals to be kinder, nicer, and more altruistic. This entry examines how media may (or may not) increase altruism, given specific considerations about a child's development and the media's characteristics. First, it gives an overview of the developmental trajectory of altruism from infancy to adolescence to examine what related skills and actions media content should focus to boost altruism for different ages. Next, the entry examines current research to offer several different overarching ways media might be effectively structured to increase altruism. These ways include—but are not limited to—making content comprehensible and making the content motivating. In each of these sections, the research is summarized with consideration of different ages and different mediums (e.g., television versus video games).
Media Use and Youth Civic Engagement
Authors: Reichert Frank
Published: September 2020

The media have attracted a great deal of attention regarding their role in informing citizens about politics and in preparing them for citizenship and civic engagement. In recent decades, young people have also been the focus of research studies and public scrutiny. However, conceptualizations of “youths” and “civic engagement” require clarifications, in particular since the possibilities for participation in politics have expanded tremendously over the previous decades. This change has been further accelerated with the rise of social media. Researchers have been primarily interested in the effects of media use on civic engagement, initially in the role that exposure to news content in traditional media plays in promoting civic knowledge and participation. The possibilities of creating and sharing content through digital media have moved attention toward these technologies, which further blur the line between civic and non‐civic‐related engagement. Social media have also been of interest to researchers across the globe due to their potential in empowering citizenship. On the other hand, some scholars meet these new technologies with skepticism due to the worry that greater media choice may imply that youths pay less attention to politics which might lead to a decline in democratic citizenship. Finally, when studying the effects of media use on youth civic engagement and its mechanisms, researchers also need to pay attention to issues of measurement, model building, and contexts of media use and participation.
Media Use and the Development of Sexual Knowledge, Attitudes, and Behaviors
Authors: Maes Chelly , Vandenbosch Laura , van Oosten Johanna M. F.
Published: September 2020

The literature indicates that media content popular among young users frequently shows biased sexual messages. Different media effect theories (e.g., social cognitive theory and cultivation theory), but also self‐effects theories (e.g., self‐perception theory) explain how sexually‐oriented media interactions may shape and change sexual identities in (young) media users. Specifically, research has documented how media use relates to negative safe sex beliefs and practices, increased sexually permissive attitudes and behaviors, and gender stereotypical attitudes and behaviors. The literature has further suggested four attention points that are key for understanding sexual media effects. First, sexual media effects are dependent on the type of media genre and platform that is consumed. Second, sexual media effects can be explained by underlying (i.e., mediating) processes. Third, sexual media effect relationships can be reciprocal. Fourth and finally, sexual media use can also relate to a positive sexuality. More attention to such positive sexual outcomes is needed.
Bidirectional Socialization and Media
Authors: Nelissen Sara
Published: September 2020

The default point of view when examining children and media is that children are influenced and socialized by parents and by mass media. In this view, children are often considered as passive recipients while parents are acknowledged active agency. Concepts such as parental mediation, monitoring, and modeling all indicate the active role that parents play in children's lives. However, theory and empirical research from several fields such as socialization research, developmental psychology, parenting, and parent–child interaction literature indicate that children too, are critical evaluators of parental and mediated messages and that they have the power to influence and socialize parents as well. Although several of these well‐known concepts are inherently bidirectional by nature, this bidirectional socialization perspective is currently lacking in theories and empirical research in media research. This entry provides an introduction to child influences and a bidirectional socialization framework in media research.
Media Richness Theory
Authors: Sheer Vivian C.
Published: September 2020

Media richness theory (MRT) has sparked volumes of research on media, mediated communication, and their effects. The three implied theoretical assumptions/conditions consist of individuals' task‐driven motivation, rational evaluation of media, and the capability to use available media. Media richness, the main construct, entails four dimensions: feedback immediacy, multiplicity of cues, language variety, and personal focus—the first two are the more essential aspects. The central proposition stipulates that an appropriate match of task equivocality and media richness leads to efficiency in task accomplishment. That “task–medium match” proposition has received empirical support only in studies that largely met the implied theoretical conditions. The theoretical utility is low because very few real‐life media use situations meet those conditions. The greatest contribution of MRT stems from the construct of media richness, which has gained its own life separate from MRT's theoretical proposition. Media richness has been adopted as a predictor of many media‐related cognitions and behaviors including media use satisfaction, online consumer behavior and interpersonal interaction, and distance learning. Although media richness is still capable of describing information and symbol carrying capacity of media (albeit largely single media), richness is inadequate for explaining the interface functionalities of multimedia. More advanced, versatile multimedia communication technologies such as social media demand theories and constructs to supplement MRT. This entry covers several topics including MRT's origin and evolution, criticisms, empirical treatments of media richness, theoretical validity, competing predictors of media use, and media richness in applied contexts.
Channel Expansion Theory
Authors: D'Urso Scott C.
Published: September 2020

Channel expansion theory (CET) focuses on the role of experiential factors with communication technology channels, communication participants, messaging topics, and organizational context. It explores how these preferences impact the user's ability to communicate richly over a particular channel. This theory seeks to address the criticism of media richness theory (MRT) that personal experiences are not accounted for in the model. Taking a combined approach of using MRT with CET, a much more nuanced understanding of and ability to measure perceptions of richness of various channels can be discerned. This entry examines the origins, provides an overview of the theory and its contributions, and explores its development, expansion, and overall impact on media selection theories and research.
Efficiency Framework: Perceived Appropriateness and Outcome Success with Computer‐Mediated Communication
Authors: Nowak Kristine L. , Watt James H.
Published: September 2020

The efficiency framework argues that perceived efficiency and convenience of a modality is a better predictor of media use than perceived media appropriateness or satisfaction. While people generally say they would prefer to communicate face‐to‐face (FTF), and that FTF is the most appropriate for many communication goals, they frequently use computer media such as text messaging or e‐mail to meet their interaction goals. The efficiency framework seeks to explain the contradiction between people's stated preferences and perceptions of appropriate media usage, and the media people actually select and use in interactions. Essentially, research supporting the efficiency framework shows that people are most likely to use a modality that they perceive as the most convenient or efficient instead of one they perceive to be most appropriate, or even what they say they would prefer. It is important to recognize that while satisfaction with the interaction, perceived appropriateness, and efficiency are important considerations in computer‐mediated usage and design, it is the level of effort and involvement in the interaction that most directly predict outcome success. People can adapt their behavior to successfully utilize almost any modality to meet their goals if they are willing and able to put in the appropriate effort.
Limited Capacity Model of Motivated Mediated Message Processing
Authors: Fisher Jacob T. , Weber René
Published: September 2020

The limited capacity model of motivated mediated message processing (LC4MP) is a model for understanding the dynamic interactions between mediated messages and the human information processing system. At the time of its original writing, the LC4MP was unique in the landscape of media psychology research in that it eschewed rote investigation of message effects and instead focused on investigating how message structure and content interact with and influence various biological systems of the brain and body. Since 2000, the LC4MP has catalyzed much progress in our understanding of the biological dimensions of message processing. This entry reviews the assumptions of the LC4MP, along with key concepts and methods used in the LC4MP literature. In addition, it discusses the core propositions of the model, highlighting ways in which they have evolved as the model has developed. Finally, it introduces a few areas in which the model is still under active development, pointing out promising areas for future research.
Accessibility
Authors: Bae Soo Young
Published: September 2020

This entry introduces the concept of accessibility, its theoretical perspectives, and research applications. Accessibility provides an important foundation for understanding the link between attitudes and behaviors, as well as the effects of media and communication. Empirical research shows that accessibility of attitudes can shape the effects of mediated messages, underscoring its relevance to the study of established communication theories such as framing and priming.