bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Nickel effect: Lower rate of corrosion in stainless
Authors: Oldfield John W.
Published: February 2008

The positive effect of nickel in reducing the corrosion rate of stainless steels has been clearly demonstrated in a United Kingdom program.
Stress corrosion cracking in amine acid gas scrubbing units
Authors: Foroulis Z.A.
Published: February 2008

This paper presents a brief summary of the stress corrosion cracking experience of carbon steel in amine acid gas scrubbing units. In addition, it discusses the current views of the most probable mechanism of cracking of carbon steel equipment in amine acid gas scrubbing units and the probable role of the nature of the amine molecule.
Corrosion of reinforced steel in concrete
Authors: El‐Kurdey Adel , Hosny Ashraf Y.
Published: February 2008

The corrosion of reinforcing steel is considered the most critical problem for the durability of reinforced concrete structures. This study shows the experimental results of the corrosion of steel bars in mortar, using an accelerated test. The results indicate that increasing water/cement ratios accelerate the corrosion of reinforcing steel. In addition, increasing curing times decrease steel corrosion rates. The results also show that the cover to bar diameter ratio plays a significant role in determining the corrosion intensity. For the same cover thickness, the corrosion intensity increases as the steel bar diameter increases.
Influence of humidity on corrosion rate
Authors: White B.S.
Published: February 2008

Humidity has a direct effect on the rate of corrosion of metals, complicated by the presence of chloride ion and the nature of the chloride salt. This is of particular interest after fire, where hydrochloric acid has inevitably been generated by combustion of chlorinated plastics such as PVC. Experience and observation suggested that the rate of corrosion after exhaustion of the original hydrochloric acid would be determined by how wet the metal surface is, and by the chloride concentration on the surface; and the wetting of the surface would depend on humidity and the nature of the chloride salt.
Corrosion‐erosion behaviour of steel‐1, steel‐2, cast iron and polyurethane lined pipes for handling sand in mines
Authors: Swain B.C. , Panigrahi M.R. , Debroy S.K. , Murty J.S. , Mishra K.G. , Mitra P.S. , Natrajan K.R.
Published: February 2008

Transportation of solids by slurry pipeline is a rapidly growing field. The pipelines, in the process of transportation undergo severe deterioration externally as well as internally. Corrosion‐erosion, metal damage caused by the combined action of electrocemical corrosion and mechanical erosion, has been studied extensively. In hydraulic transportation of sand, internal wear is caused by combined action of corrosion, associated with the corrosive water, the flow velocity and abrasion due to geometry of the solid particles on the interior pipe wall. Corrosion in slurry pipeline is generally due to the presence of dissolved oxygen in the slurry. The control of corrosion wear in a coal slurry pipeline is reported by Bomberger. The corrosion study by Postlethwaite and Tinkler showed that the presence of solids in commercial concentration increases the rate of corrosion in pipelines. The most common erosion occurred generally is the scratching or grooving of the pipe by the slurry particles. An erosion‐corrosion study in pilot plant slurry transportation in pipeline carrying wide range of water borne solids such as coal, iron ore and sand have shown that the presence of solids increases the chemical corrosion rate, apart from any accompanying erosion. It was also observed that due to severe corrosion‐erosion problem in pipeline, even a pinhole in such a line would be enlarged gradually in a matter of minutes by the out flow of high pressure abrasive slurry. Jacues and Neil had given an account of the causes, control and the economics of internal corrosion of slurry pipelines Zabell et. al. had studied the effect of bacteria using six different processes on corrosion of iron and the steel water pipes. The copper pipe line had been specially studied by Fischer and few others in various environments.
Titanium:
Authors: Peacock David
Published: February 2008

During the past three decades, as the Offshore Industry has developed its capabilities and capacity, there has been a corresponding drive to strengthen its weakest resource — materials. Much research has been directed both to metallurgical and corrosion problems encountered in the hostile offshore working environment and there have been many repeated and expensive failures. Progressively more corrosion resistant alloys have been selected to replace the lowest cost industrial materials first selected. Frequent changes in the composition of stainless steels and copper based alloys have regularly, and in the event falsely, raised user expectations of performance. Very large quantities of new alloy formulations have been nastily put into service, with no track record of performance. Most operators today recognise that their materials package represents at best no more than a compromise and there is a continuing awareness of many problems still unsolved.
Abatement of intergranular corrosion in zinc‐aluminium foundry alloys through flux treatment
Authors: Sivaramakrishnan C.S. , Lal Kishori , Mahanti R.K. , Jain K.B.
Published: February 2008

Commercial Zn‐Al alloys are susceptible to Intergranular Corrosion (IGC) restricting their widespread use for various applications. In this paper the IGC behaviour of two important foundry alloys namely Zn‐8Al and Zn‐12Al has been studied through microstructural observations with a view to improving the resistance to intergranular attack. It has been shown that a special flux containing boric oxide along with fluoride and chloride salts employed during the preparation of the alloys significantly improves the resistance to intergranular attack.
Pipeline cathodic protection — dispelling the misconceptions
Authors: Ellison Dennis
Published: February 2008

Since the mid 1950s, considerable use has been made of cathodic protection for pipelines in the United Kingdom. It is now a well‐established method of combating corrosion. However, some of the changes in practice that have taken place since the early days are open to question and some of the misconceptions remain. The following review will hopefully assist those who have a lesser or infrequent involvement in the subject and may provoke thought by full‐time practitioners.
Electrochemical differentiation between aluminised and galvanised steels in aerated chloride environments
Authors: Singh Inder , Bhattacharjee Ashis K.
Published: February 2008

The potential measurements in NaCl solutions of varying concentrations carried out separately on galvanised steel and aluminised steel, each coupled galvanically with mild steel, have shown continuous rise of potential with increase in the concentration of NaCl in both the cases. For the aluminised steel‐mild steel couple, the protective potential of −760 mV is reached close to the NaCl concentration of 2%, while the potential in the case of galvanised steel‐mild steel couple has always been above the protective potential, right from the beginning, within the concentration range of NaCl (upto 3%) studied. The current and potential measurements in 0.1% NaCl solution have shown that the resistance of the surface film on aluminised steel grows from 1.037 ×103 ohm to 5.500×103 ohm within the test duration ranging from 20 hours to 100 hours and that on the galvanised steel increases from 0.90×103 ohm to 2.307×103 ohm within the test span ranging from 30 hours to 100 hours. The low current found to have been associated with the aluminised steel‐mild steel couple is not sufficient to bring the potential at the required protective level for the protection, while about 4 times higher current measured in the galvanised‐mild steel couple helps it in attaining the protective potential.
Corrosion of Aluminium in Acidic Methanol‐, Ethanol‐ and Acetonitrile‐ Water
Authors: Al‐Abdallah M.M.
Published: February 2008

Introduction Corrosion and the electrochemical behaviour of metals in non‐aqueous solvents are of current interest. The knowledge of the influence of a certain solvent on the dissolution processes is valuable from a practical point of view. A thorough survey of the literature reveals that little attention has been focused on aluminium in organic solvents. Due to its wide use in industry, this investigation shows the behaviour of aluminium in mixed solvents composed of methanol, ethanol or acetonitrile with water in acidic 1M HCl solutions. The corrosion of aluminium was studied by using the accelerated weight loss method.
Effect of Cold Deformation and Hydrogen Charging on TTF and Hardness of 0.1 C Steel
Authors: Banerjee M.K. , Singh Inder , Nag P.S. , Mukherjee K.P.
Published: February 2008

Introduction Plastic deformation of steel causes crystalline imperfections such as increased dislocation density, vacancies, cracks and microvoids which, in turn, influence dissolution and transport of hydrogen in traps. The increased dislocation density and dislocation pile‐ups against cementile lamella or non‐metallic inclusions lead to microcrack formation. The dislocation pile‐ups are mobile under stress. Transport of hydrogen by dislocation under stress can be expected but the temperature should be neither so high as to force the hydrogen to leave the dislocation sites nor so low that the hydrogen cannot diffuse into the dislocation sites.
Steel Protective Paints Free of Anti‐corrosive Pigments
Authors: El‐Sawy S.M. , El‐Sanabary A.A. , Badran B.M.
Published: February 2008

Introduction Over the last few years there have been several trials to replace inorganic corrosion inhibitors, which in organic coatings are pigments, with materials which are, in principle, organic corrosion inhibitors. This coincides primarily with the toxic properties of the anti‐corrosive pigments employed and also with the scarcity of raw materials for their production.
Influence of substituents in thiadiazole on the localized corrosion of 316L stainless steel in simulated flue gas desulphurization environment
Authors: Rajendran N. , Ravichandran K. , Rajeswari S.
Published: February 2008

Sulphur dioxide, a dangerous atmospheric pollutant, is a major concern with the increasing use of coal as a combustion fuel in thermal power plants. Numerous efforts were made through these years to minimize the emission of sulphur dioxide and one such effort is the desulphurization of the flue gas generated during combustion, commonly termed as flue gas desulphurization (FGD). However, the materials of construction used for FGD systems, usually of type 316L stainless steel were reported to be failed due to the localized corrosion attack by the aggressiveness of the environment, mainly of chloride, fluoride, acidity and temperature encountered during the scrubbing of SO2.
Corrosion resistance of welded and brazed engineering joints
Authors: Mukherjee D. , Balamurugan K. , Balamurugan V. , Balasubramanian K. , Kannan E. , Muruganantham M.
Published: February 2008

Introduction Welding and brazing fall into the broad category of engineering joints, where the former is a stronger joint than the latter. Nevertheless, both these joints are heterogeneous and are susceptible to environmental effects, in the form of enhanced corrosion, due to their retained residual stresses and matrix heterogeneity. Partial melting, micro structural transformation, diffusional alloy layer formation, etc. are some of the phenomena met within these joints. It is argued that relief of stresses, by heating these joints to appropriate temperatures, which are below the transformation temperature range, may deactivate the stress raiser sites, so that susceptibility to micro galvanic action is considerably reduced. Such treatment may also cause thermally‐activated reorganization of the micro structure, resulting in matrix uniformity. Such structural uniformity and stress matching may pay further for reducing the corrosion loss by reduction of micro‐galvanic action.
Evaluation of coated rebar validity of short‐term accelerated corrosion tests in relation to long‐term field evaluation
Authors: Rengaswamy N.S. , Vedhalakshmi R. , Balakrishnan K.
Published: February 2008

It is now fairly well established that steel reinforcements need some additional protection and various types of coatings such as fusion‐bonded epoxy, galvanizing and cement slurry have been used. Evaluation of such coated rebars in aggressive marine conditions is done usually by conducting some accelerated corrosion tests. These accelerated corrosion tests cannot be truly representative of field conditions and they often give higher corrosion rates. Validity of such tests becomes questionable. In the present work, corrosion rates of cement slurry‐coated rebars, obtained by ASTM impressed voltage test, salt‐spray test, precracked cantilever model slab test, alternate wetting and drying test and macrocell corrosion test, have been compared with uncoated rebars. It is shown that for a passivating type of coating such as cement slurry, accelerated corrosion tests could be equally valid.
Inhibition of zinc corrosion in alkali solutions
Authors: Ravindran Visalakshi , Muralidharan V.S.
Published: February 2008

The problem of zinc corrosion in an alkali solution is a topic of basic and technological interest, as zinc is used as an anode in a variety of alkaline batteries. Corrosion is the basic cause of self‐discharge and short shelf‐life of zinc batteries. The need for studies on the kinetics of corrosion arises as one of the corrosion products, viz, gaseous hydrogen, creates problems in sealed batteries. Sulphides and thiourea of various concentrations were added to alkali solutions and the mechanism of their inhibition is discussed.
Evaluation of mercaptoazoles as corrosion inhibitors in simulated sulphur dioxide scrubber environments
Authors: Rajendran N. , Rajeswari S.
Published: February 2008

The emission of SO2, a dangerous atmospheric pollutant, is the major problem with increasing the use of coal as fuel in various industries, particularly in thermal power plants. A variety of methods for minimizing the SO2 emission have been reported in the literature, among which the desulphurization of the flue gas, generated by combustion of coal receives much attention and is termed as flue gas desulphurization (FGD). FGD scrubbers have found widespread use in thermal power plants, smelters, incinerators and various refining operations. The scrubber parts must resist corrosion from solution which have a varying degree of acidity and erosion, besides containing substantial concentrations of chlorides and SO2, and the unfavourable conditions of fluctuations in temperature. The currently‐used type 316L stainless steel material in many FGD installations, were reported to have failed, due to the localized corrosion attack by the aggressiveness of the environment encountered during scrubbing of SO2. Normally, the improvement in corrosion performance of the construction materials can be achieved by:
Mechanism of inhibition of iron corrosion in HCl by acetylenic alcohols
Authors: Muralidharan V.S. , Uduman Mohideen A.M. , Arun Mozhi Selvan R.
Published: February 2008

Introduction The mechanism of the inhibition of the corrosion of iron in HCl by acetylenic alcohols, is investigated by weight change method, galvanostatic method and faradic impedance method. Propargyl alcohol offers greater protection than 3‐butyn‐2ol, 2‐methyl‐3‐butyn‐2‐ol and 2‐butyn 1,4 diol in hydrochloric acid solution of concentrations (1.0 to 8.0M). The corrosion of pure iron in hydrochloric acid solutions involves the participation of adsorbed FeOH intermediate and forms chlorhydroxy iron complex. The addition of ferrous ion is found to favour the three‐dimensional chelation with inhibitor molecule, leading to polymen film formation. With prolonged exposure the thickness of the polymer film increases.
Hot dip galvanizing the problem of emission control
Authors: Zawadzki Richard
Published: February 2008

Hot Dip Galvanizing is used extensively throughout industry to protect steel products from environmental corrosion. However, the process of lowering the work into the galvanizing bath, then completely immersing it and finally withdrawing it produces emissions of fine particulate pollutants in the form of a “white cloud” which rises rapidly from the galvanizing bath as a result of the thermal currents.
Impedance measurements on titanium electrodes in dimethylsulphoxide, acetonitrile, methanol and water
Authors: Al‐Abdallah M.M.
Published: February 2008

Introduction Titanium exhibits clear passivity in an aqueous medium, owing to the formation of different types of titanium oxides with very low specific conductance especially titanium dioxide. These oxides act as a barrier between the surface of a titanium electrode and the active ionic species in the solution.
Oil and gas industry is poorly informed about titanium properties
Authors: Bacon Andrew
Published: February 2008

Comments on the results of a survey into the use of titanium in the offshore industry. The results revealed that a major lack of knowledge appears to exist among marine engineers when it comes to what the exact properties and uses of titanium really are. Highlights the benefits of titanium for the offshore industry.
AC measurements and porous layer on titanium in methanolic 1M HCl
Authors: Al‐Abdallah M.M.
Published: February 2008

Discusses the results of impedance measurements done for titanium metal in methanolic 1M HCl containing 0,1,3 and 5 volume per cent H2O. Titanium metal behaved actively in such solutions and became passive when a sufficient amount of water (5 per cent) was present. As a result of anodic oxidation a porous layer has been formed at the metal surface, characterized by the presence of an additional maximum in the phase angle curves. The radii of the pores were calculated from a kugel diffusion impedance element.
Facilitating potentiodynamic anodic polarization measurement in corrosion testing
Authors: Saunders Ivan
Published: February 2008

Illustrates how potentiodynamic anodic polarization measurement conventions can be applied to electrochemical measurements in corrosion testing following the standard ASTM G5–87 and G3–89. Provides information for electrochemical corrosion data acquisition in a standard presentation format, making comparison easy with curves found in the literature or between data from different laboratories.
γ‐rays irradiation for preparation of some organic corrosion inhibitors and production of highly adhering anti‐corrosive varnishes of superior protective properties
Authors: Ibrahim M.S. , Mohsen R.M. , El‐Sawy S.M.
Published: February 2008

Reports on the preparation of some organic corrosion inhibitors, carried out by the reaction of epoxidized linseed oil free fatty acids with different aliphatic amines under the effect of γ‐ray irradiation. Notes that chemical and instrumental methods were used for identification of the reaction products and that the prepared inhibitors were tested for corrosion protection of steel surfaces by incorporating them in some chlorinated rubber varnishes. Reports that the physical, chemical and corrosion protective properties of the varnish films were studied. Concludes that the prepared inhibitors can be used in small quantities to provide varnishes of excellent adhesion and superior protective properties. Contends, also, that increase of the radiation dose during preparation of the inhibitors and/or during the drying process of the varnish films increases the protective properties of the formed films.
Time, temperature and environment interactions in carbon steel
Authors: Mukherjee D.
Published: February 2008

Carbon steels are abundantly employed in our day‐to‐day engineering services, the automotive industry, and in various domestic usages. Service life of carbon steel assumes importance, as faults bring either costly industrial downtime or embarrassing domestic inconvenience. It appears that these materials are dependent completely on the solubility of carbon in their solid‐solutions. Instabilities and destabilization mainly occur due to separation of various forms of carbides, which embrittles the matrix in the time domain. The presence of residual stress which is trapped inside the matrix, having originated from the previous deformation stresses of the wrought products, accelerates such precipitation. Thermal treatment, such as the subcritical stress relieving process, may also accelerate such an embrittlement process, although this exercise is meant for the relief of the matrix residual stresses only. Concludes that there is simultaneous precipitation of brittle phases and also deactivation of the matrix, owing to stress relieving. A surface becomes electrochemically more active when the precipitation component more than compensates the deactivation component and vice versa. Improvement of the matrix ductility also works against such deterioration processes. Suggests that imposition of the environmental constraints, such as aggressive and corrosive media, can only accelerate deterioration, by activating the brittle precipitation cycle.
Modified alkyd resin as an anticorrosive binder for paints
Authors: Abd El‐Ghaffar M.A. , Youssef E.A.M. , Abo‐Shosha M.M.H. , Ibrahim N.A.
Published: February 2008

Short and medium alkyd resins were modified using perfluorinated urethane toluene isocyanate (PFUTI). The modified resins were incorporated in a set of paint formulations containing different ratios of zinc phosphate as an inhibitive pigment. Promising results were achieved and corrosion protective properties were illustrated in various paint formulations and also in a paint formulation free of the inhibitive pigment. The corrosion protection efficiencies were enhanced by the improvement in the hydrophobicity of alkyd resin modified with perfluorinated toluene isocyanate (PFUTI). These results encourage us to minimize or neglect the most expensive inhibitive pigments from the economic point of view.
The use of galvanised steel and paints with a high concentration of zinc for car bodies
Authors: Wallgren P.A.
Published: February 2008

All metals send out ions if they are immersed in water. These ions are positively charged and therefore the metal itself becomes negatively charged. The metals have different tendencies to send out ions when in contact with water and those which have a low tendency are called noble metals. Those which have a great tendency are less noble.
Cathodic protection measurements utilising aerial monitoring
Authors: Cherry P.B.
Published: February 2008

With the increase in pipeline transportation of oil, gas and water, the maintenance of cathodic protection systems to ensure that the pipelines are corrosion‐free requires constant attention by skilled technicians.
Cold cured site applied thermosetting resin lining and coating systems
Authors: Hearn Ronald C.
Published: February 2008

Glassflake filled polyester and epoxy resin lining and coating systems have been developed and used in the fight against corrosion during the last 15 years. Similarly, sophisticated silica and carbon filled glass cloth reinforced systems have been developed for rapid site installation to tanks and floors. These linings have many technical and cost advantages over conventional materials and are now gaining wide acceptance by the plant engineer and specifier.
Cathodic Protection of Offshore Structures
Authors: Wyatt B.S.
Published: February 2008

Synopsis A brief introduction is given to the theory of cathodic protection. Principles and design procedures are described for both sacrificial anode and impressed current cathodic protection with a comparative assessment of both systems and the anodes used in them.
Instrumentation used in testing surface coatings for corrosion control
Authors: Preston David
Published: February 2008

In the control of corrosion, one of the most significant advances of recent years has been the improvement in the care taken to ensure that each stage in the coating system has been properly applied. This has necessitated care in the inspection of each stage, and to assist the inspector to ensure that standards are being met, the instrument makers have designed a range of instrumentation to meet virtually every requirement.
Early protective coatings. Part I: oils, fats & paints
Authors: Smith C.A.
Published: February 2008

A review of paint and other coverings that were used, mainly during the 19th Century, to protect against corrosion.
Early protective coatings Part 2: Products distilled from coal and wood
Authors: Smith C.A.
Published: February 2008

A review of paint and other coverings that were used, mainly during the 19th Century to protect metal against corrosion. In this second and final article a variety of substances that were tried as an alternative to paint coatings, are reviewed.
CR12 steels for the coal industry
Authors: Beckitt Chris
Published: February 2008

Over the last 25 years stainless steels have rapidly become accepted as a suitable material for coal processing, handling and transportation systems due to their fractional maintenance costs, improved operational efficiency and favourable life cycle costs. The introduction of a new generation of utility ferritic stainless steels with superior structural rigidity now also means that such steels offer significant savings over carbon steels for coal plant construction because they require less material.
FOOD IRRADIATION: AN UPDATE
Authors: Daly Lorna
Published: February 2008

An update of food irradiation developments, beginning in 1984, is provided. Differing regulations within the EEC complicate the issue, leading to the recommendation of a new strategy proposed by the Commission in a White Paper. Recent reports are described and a number of important points arose from debates within the European Parliament. Benefits to consumers and industry are weighed against possible drawbacks.
AN APPROACH TO THE APPLICATION OF NUTRITION IN FOOD MANAGEMENT
Authors: Edwards J.S.A.
Published: February 2008

The implications which nutrition has for health are major considerations in all areas of food management. The paper draws together some of the points considered during the course of a major conference and outlines possible approaches to the application of nutrition in food management. Research into the diet of the military, and the understanding amongst different ranks of dietary issues, is described.
THE CHANGING MARKET FOR BRITISH FOOD: A CASE STUDY OF MEAT
Authors: Baron Peter
Published: February 2008

Conventional economic measures are cited to show a declining demand for meat. Numerous surveys are quoted to show attitudinal factors influencing such decline. Within this decline, however, examples are given where significant market segments are available for exploitation. The report concludes that demand trends will be erratic depending on nutritional fashion; with regularisation likely to depend on emergence of channel domination by retail chains.
FARLEY HEALTH PRODUCTS — A CASE HISTORY
Authors: Goldie F.J.
Published: February 2008

Just before Christmas 1985, considerable public concern was aroused when Ostermilk baby foods and some other milk products were withdrawn following an outbreak of salmonella food poisoning. The manufacturer was the Plymouth‐based Farley Health Products although the factory where the problem occurred was in Kendal, Cumbria. The detailed account of the outbreak is given in a recent report in The Lancet (1987). The report is interpreted from a basis of sound personal knowledge.
A REVIEW OF THE EUROPEAN FLAVOURS MARKET
Authors: Samel Ralph
Published: February 2008

An overview is provided of the flavour/fragrance industry in Western Europe. “Natural” flavours are often extremely costly and difficult to use, whereas a “nature‐identical” artificial flavour can taste better than the real thing. Massive amounts of research have gone into this area, and more is known than ever before. The EEC is shortly to introduce guidelines on flavour labelling which could have a major effect on the industry.
Food‐borne Infections and Intoxications — Recent Problems and New Organisms
Authors: Gilbert Richard J.
Published: February 2008

Despite increased education and legislation to raise standards of hygiene in all aspects of food handling, a definite increase is reported in food‐borne infections and intoxications in the UK. The main bacteria are examined here and, since it is envisaged that the number of reported cases is likely to increase still further in future years, recommendations are put forward which are aimed at improved education rather than legislation.
REGULATION OF WATER QUALITY FOR THE FOOD INDUSTRY
Authors: Jacob M.
Published: February 2008

Water, as a major and vital component of food manufacture, is discussed in terms of the food industry's responsibility for its quality, in various types of establishment.
STERILISATION OF WATER IN THE BEVERAGE INDUSTRY
Authors: Chudy J.
Published: February 2008

The methods of purification of water for use in soft drink manufacture are described.
THE KITCHEN OF THE FUTURE
Authors: Jenkins Dick
Published: February 2008

Because of the gradual nature of the changes over the past 25 years, we may not have noticed the transformation of the British kitchen. The progress of the kitchen — and its contents — is clearly described, with forecasts to the year 2000.
THE EC: DANCING WITH A GORILLA?
Authors: Nicholls J.R.
Published: February 2008

The food industry's managerial response to the environmental change of EC accession is examined. Nine case studies had been carried out in the late 1970s and the same nine companies have been recently revisited to provide a longitudinal study. As we approach “1992”, EC issues have again become strategic.
Strategic planning of physical distribution systems
Authors: MERCER ALAN
Published: February 2008

Because of the marketing role of distribution it is not always appropriate to take a cost minimisation approach to distribution planning — the needs of the market must first be understood.
FINANCIAL CONTROL OF P.D.M.
Authors: Wilson R.M.S.
Published: February 2008

An increasing proportion of many companies' expenditure is incurred in distributing their products. Physical distribution covers a broad range of activities (such as transportation, warehousing, materials handling, and inventory control) that are concerned with order‐fulfilling rather than order‐getting (which is the function of advertising and related activities).
INFORMATION FLOWS THROUGH FINANCIAL ANALYSIS
Authors: Harrison R. , Groves R.E.V.
Published: February 2008

The absence of relevant information concerning channel members can form one of the major difficulties facing a company attempting to implement a systems approach to the physical distribution of its products. Where channel cohesion permits assistance and co‐ordination, the remedy may be effected by Instituting a routine feedback or conducting a specific research project to collect the data. Many manufacturers, however, possess a channel structure which can be more accurately described as a series of discrete markets rather than a process which involves sharing market opportunities and integrating to ensure the best overall marketing impact. In the former situation business information is normally jealously guarded and alternative methods of data collection, where these are possible, can be lengthy, frustrating and expensive.
SELECTION OF THE OVERSEAS DISTRIBUTOR: AN EMPIRICAL FRAMEWORK
Authors: Ross Randolph E.
Published: February 2008

The success of a firm's export operation will depend to a great extent on the quality of the middlemen involved in the distribution of its products in the overseas market. Whether or not the exporter will be able to achieve his goals depends to a great extent on how thoroughly, and how well, he has carried out his analysis of which firm will do the best possible job for him in a particular market.
THE PALLET IN THE ‘TOTAL DISTRIBUTION’ CONCEPT
Authors: Grob Gustav R.
Published: February 2008

The success of the pallet began with the development of the fork‐lift truck and with increased mechanisation of piece‐good transport since the Second World War. This brought with it a world‐wide revolution in distribution which has still today not yet run its full course. Specialised educational faculties, technical magazines and industrial management positions have been established for the “TOTAL DISTRIBUTION CONCEPT” discipline since the latter part of the Sixties and there is talk of enormous unexploited rationalisation reserves in this field which commences at the end of the extraction or manufacturing process and terminates either with the subsequent processor or the final consumer.
A SURVEY OF COMPUTER APPLICATIONS AND PRACTICES IN TRANSPORTATION AND DISTRIBUTION
Authors: La Londe B.J. , Auker Karl
Published: February 2008

Over the past decade the development of computer technology and its application to modern‐day business problems has revolutionised the whole process of business control and managment decision‐making. After initially being introduced in the financial and accounting sectors, the use of computers has been expanded to the extent that their impact is felt in nearly every department of the modern business organisation.
INFORMATION SYSTEMS AND THE LIFE CYCLE OF LOGISTICS DEPARTMENTS
Authors: Beier Frederick J.
Published: February 2008

There is a growing body of literature which focuses on the complexities of organising the logistics function(s) within an industrial firm. While some of the literature discusses traditional variables, such as centralisation‐decentralisation and staff versus line, there is also a wide variety of suggested organisational patterns. The reason for this diversity is that logistics cuts across traditional organisational lines and has no obvious and inherent position in the classic organisation chart. The consequence is that there may be as many patterns of logistics organisation as there are firms attempting to organise. Further, the fact that any formal logistics department will cause some conflict with related functions suggests that the precise structure and role of such a unit may be quite dynamic oyer time. For example, it may find itself expanding and contracting in relationship to the political winds. The purpose of this article is to explore means of reducing such conflict while still implementing an effective logistics organisation.
Distribution Channel Management
Authors: Wilkinson I.F.
Published: February 2008

Bowersox et al in their well‐known book on physical distribution management stress the underlying importance of overall distribution channel behaviour to PDM. ‘At the outset it is clear that the distribution channel is of fundamental importance to a treatment of physical distribution, because the channel is the arena within which marketing and logistics culminate into consumer transactions. Therefore, for a proper understanding of physical distribution, one should develop a sound insight into the overall nature of total distribution channels’.
Total Distribution of Fast‐moving Products: A Case History
Authors: Crawford Archibald S.
Published: February 2008

Distribution in United Biscuits Ltd. is seen as a vital part of the total marketing mix. United Biscuits differs from many other companies in the Birtish food industry in spending considerably less on “above the line marketing” and discounts and considerably more on selling and distribution. We believe that we have to be strong and efficient at the point‐of‐sale and we also believe that the success of the company's vast sales organisation depends upon a well managed distribution organisation to back it up.
Evaluating the Effectiveness of Sales and Distribution Systems
Authors: Cunningham M.T. , Hardy S.M.R.
Published: February 2008

In the last decade increasing attention has been focussed upon the newer and creative areas of marketing such as consumer behaviour, new product development and the communications interchanges between producers and consumers. More recently, the subject of distribution has been receiving a wider conceptual treatment as “marketing logistics” than had been afforded to it earlier by operational researchers searching for optimum rather than acceptable solutions. Managers have come to realise that, not only can substantial cost savings be achieved in the physical distribution area but that the distribution function complements the selling activity at the interface between the company and its customers. In the case of consumer goods these customers are the channel intermediaries such as wholesalers, cash and carry operators, independent and multiple retailers as well as the voluntary chains.
The Role of Terminal Consolidation in Urban Goods Distribution
Authors: McDermott Dennis R. , Robeson James F.
Published: February 2008

In recent years, the problem of transporting small shipments of general freight by motor carrier within an urban centre has surfaced to be, in the words of a Traffic World editorial, “the most important US transportation problem of the 1960s”. The chairman of the Transportation Association of America's Transport Technology Committee recently concluded, “Our metropolitan areas are being strangled by the inefficient movement of goods—the lifeblood of any city.”
The Contractor's Role in Physical Distribution
Authors: Fielding K.P.H.
Published: February 2008

Introduction The traditional part which contractors have played in the past in the physical distribution process has been:
The Relationship of Line and Staff Personnel in Physical Distribution Organisations
Authors: Lancioni Richard A.
Published: February 2008

Organisation of the physical distribution function within business firms is a recent development in the United States. The development of physical distribution organisational structures has generally taken the form of a firm transferring the warehousing, traffic, order processing, inventory, and purchasing responsibilities from many individual departments to a single management unit headed by a distribution manager. The reason for this departmental re‐shuffling has not been just to streamline decision making, but rather, to make the firm's physical distribution operations more effective and efficient.
Communications Forum
Authors: Doryland Charles J. , Tripp Robert S.
Published: February 2008

There are many problems in directing the study and analysis of your logistics system. This is especially true when you try to modernise existing logistics facilities for multi‐divisional organisations. Recent US Department of Defense experience has provided lessons to be learned and the authors feel many firms in private industry can profit from this effort.
Variables in the Design of Distribution Systems
Authors: Brown Jim
Published: February 2008

This paper is concerned with examining the variables which influence the periodic redesign of physical distribution systems. It assumes that with a few exceptions every arrangement for moving goods from production to customer is one which has been built up through a series of non‐related decisions made in answer to a problem which has developed to such proportions that it cannot be solved by adjusting the existing system. The paper ignores also the relatively few companies who are large enough to use an integrated distribution system which has been developed with the aid of a simulation or with linear programming techniques. The problems of these companies are adequately dealt with in the literature on simulation and linear programming techniques.
Changing Traditional Distribution Systems:
Authors: Rosson Philip
Published: February 2008

An analysis of government plans to modernise a traditional marketing system in East Africa exemplifies a frequent criticism of much development planning. Many plans for change are characterised by a too‐rigid adherence to political philosophy and economic ideas of exchange processes.
Physical Distribution Management and its Environment
Authors: Chentnik C.G.
Published: February 2008

ENVIRONMENTAL INTERRELATIONSHIPS The External Environment and Physical Distribution Management The constrained external environment within which the physical distribution effort operates must be fully understood in order to allow the necessary policies, practices, and co‐ordination to be defined and implemented. It should be borne in mind that the physical distribution manager can exercise little control, in the short run, over most of the external environmental variables. His transactions are a small portion of total economic activity which has the overall objective of translating consumer desires for time and place utility into a supply to satisfy their demands. In meeting the objective of satisfying demand, the distribution manager undertakes the generalised task groupings of movement and the handling of goods from the point of production to the point of consumption or use. A discussion of the ease with which these overall objectives are accomplished hinges on the manager's awareness and degree of influence over certain external environmental variables. Specifically these variables include: raw material and semi‐processed goods input distribution, existing distribution channels, market locations and their attendant characteristics, product demand considerations, site selection influences, competition, and transportation.
Inventory Management
Authors: Howard Keith
Published: February 2008

Inventory management is generally recognised to be of sufficient importance to warrant the appointment of a person to carry specific responsibility for it; possibly along with other areas of the distribution function. Preferably, inventory should be seen as one component of distribution, interacting as it does with all the elements contained therein. This monograph has not been written for the analyst but rather for the person responsible for taking inventory decisions. The aim is to present a general description of the main problem areas and to describe procedures by which the problems can be resolved. Given a broad appreciation a useful dialogue may then be set up with the analyst and more effective use made of the large quantity of data which is invariably available in the distribution field.
Development and Tests of Two Stockout Cost Models
Authors: Walter C.K. , La Londe Bernard J.
Published: February 2008

In calculations of inventory control costs, the effects of stockouts are often assumed or avoided because of the lack of accounting data for reasonable measurements. The authors describe the development of stockout cost models incorporating decisions made by consumers in an actual retail situation. Equations for calculating the revenue differences are based on the consumer decision alternatives. The results of a consumer survey, combined with retail prices for the product lines in question, enable the financial effects of stockouts to be calculated.
A Computer Model for Freightliner Terminal Management
Authors: Bisby H.M.V. , Wharton F.
Published: February 2008

Management in service industries are constantly faced with the problem of balancing customer service against achieving a high level of economic efficiency in managing their own resources. The problem is shown to be particularly acute in the management of Freightliner Terminals where there are extraordinary fluctuations in the demand for the service. A computer model is described which simulates operations at a terminal and assists management in predicting the likely performance of the terminal for different levels of throughput.
Using Transport Models to Cut Costs
Authors: Tarr Graham
Published: February 2008

In the present financial climate, the search for cost‐savings is intensifying. Transport and physical distribution are prime areas for examina‐tion, but their complexity often defies standard financial controls. When the transport analyst appears on the scene brandishing a modelling package, there is a temptation to place the problem in his hands. It is timely, therefore, to take stock of the strengths and weaknesses of such methods.
Financing the Transport Function
Authors: Cooke Peter
Published: February 2008

The monograph examines firstly the magnitude of demand for capital investment in individual items of distribution equipment—ships, aircraft and motor vehicles, It then concentrates on financing motor transport, examining the objectives of acquisition analysis and the relative importance of the company controlling its own fleet. Alternative methods of distributing the product are examined to show how transport involvement can be minimised according to the marketing strategy adopted. The monograph considers, in some detail, alternative approaches to commercial vehicle acquisition. The broad principles of the subject are discussed and three common methods presented—outright purchase, hire purchase and leasing. Worked examples are shown for each method, using discounted cash flow techniques and the net present costs of the alternatives compared. The final section of the paper examines the changing demand for capital in the company for transport from its launch as a one man operation through to the mature large organisation.
The Influence of the Image of Suppliers on Buyer Behaviour in the Freight Transport Market
Authors: Cunningham M.T. , Kettlewood K.
Published: February 2008

The freight transport market in the UK has been increasing at a rate of between 1 and 2% p.a. since the mid 1960 a s measured by total ton‐miles and it is worth some £1,500 million annually. The freight business of British Rail, which accounts for approximately 20% of the total market size is of particular importance to the financial viability of the railways as a whole, owing to the fact that freight traditionally has generated about 40% of the revenue of British Rail and difficulty has been experienced in operating it at a sufficiently profitable level to provide for essential re‐investment in the business. This lack of profitability caused consideration to be given to the possibility of withdrawing altogether from the market for freight traffic in less than train‐loads but this was rejected on the grounds that freigh traffic shares assets such as track, signalling, locomotives and manpower with other rail services. A withdrawal from the smaller “wagon load” traffic would reduce traffic by nearly 50% and lead to an under‐utilisation of assets thus weakening overall rail profitability.
Transport Education in Canada — A Contrast
Authors: Ruppenthal Karl M.
Published: February 2008

The rather dour outlook for transport graduates in the US noted by Gus L. Keolanui and Donald F. Wood is all too true. For a decade or so the number of transportation courses offered in US universities has declined; the numbers of students majoring in transportation has been disappointing; and the attention given to transportation topics has diminished. Some cynic would say that the quality of transport education was not very good in the first place and that many transportation courses were better off dead than alive. (While that may be true, the probability is that the quality of transportation courses on the whole was not much worse‐or much better‐than the quality of other courses in the universities in question.)
The Location of Facilities With Constraints on Capacities
Authors: Merchant J.R.
Published: February 2008

This article shows how important constraints on the capacities of facilities are in determining their correct location. It then goes on to demonstrate how such capacity constraints can be accounted for in a simple and straightforward manner by modification of a common method of facility location.
Movement Considerations for Physical Distribution Management
Authors: Chentnik C.G.
Published: February 2008

Before embarking on the task of redesigning an existing physical distribution system or in designing a completely new system, the analyst must plan a careful analysis of many related factors. It is the intention of this paper to present a framework for the study of physical distribution systems. An integral part of this discussion is the interaction of both external and internal movement factors which influence the physical distribution manager's task.