bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Manchester and London
Authors: Williams Trevor I
Published: November 2023

When Robinson returned to Manchester he was just thirty-six years old, yet he already had three major academic appointments behind him, plus a senior—if short—lived-one in the chemical industry. By any standards this can fairly be described as a meteoric rise, but the more so when it is recalled that before the Second World War professors were commonly appointed much older than they are now. It is, therefore, timely to pause for a moment, and consider the qualities that had so firmly established his reputation that he was actively, and exclusively, sought for perhaps the most prestigious chair of organic chemistry in Britain.
The electronic theory of reaction: the Ingold controversy
Authors: Williams Trevor I
Published: November 2023

‘The development of these ideas constituted, in the writer’s opinion, his most important contribution to knowledge.’ So wrote Robinson, at the very end of his long life, but it is doubtful if many modern organic chemists would agree with his self-evaluation: he is much better known for his work on natural products. His electronic theory of organic reactions was undoubtedly important in its day, as providing some logical explanation of hitherto largely empirical observations, but he did not adequately publicize his ideas nor update them to match advances on other fronts, and they are now largely of historical interest.
The last years of academe
Authors: Williams Trevor I
Published: November 2023

As every soldier carries a Field Marshal’s baton in his knapsack, so ambitious professionals of every kind look to achieving some ultimate pinnacle which demonstably stamps them with the approbation of their peers. In politics it is to be Prime Minister; in the Church, Archbishop of Canterbury; in the judiciary, Lord Chancellor; and so on. In British science, it is to be President of the Royal Society. It was to this high office that Robinson was elected in 1945; but to understand how this came about, and its significance, something must be said about the nature of the Society and its organization.
An active retirement
Authors: Williams Trevor I
Published: November 2023

After Gertrude’s death circumstances were such that Robinson could have no direct support from his two children. Michael—mentally handicapped from birth—was a permanent and worrying liability and Marion’s career had followed a course very different from anything her parents had imagined, and one to which he was not, indeed, particularly sympathetic. The general ethos of Headington School helped to develop strong religions convictions, and as a girl she decided to dedicate her life to furthering Christian ideals. After graduating at Oxford from Lady Margaret Hall in 1943, she qualified in medicine at University College Hospital.
Ethnic origins of the people and population trends
Authors: Wahba M M
Published: November 2023

Egypt is, after Nigeria, the most heavily populated state in Africa. Within the group known as the Arab World, Egypt is by far the most populated of the states, with double the population of the second most populated Arab nation, Morocco. In addition, Egypt has the dubious distinction of having the largest city in Africa and the Arab World. The importance of the population of Egypt is reinforced by a paradoxical land situation, where of the one million km2 forming Egypt only some 55 039 km2are inhabited, i.e. around 5.5 per cent of the total area (CAPMAS 1985a, p. 5). Some 99 per cent of the population live in the inhabited area, while the remainder are scattered among the oases of the Western Desert, the Mediterranean coastal regions where rainfall allows for agriculture, the Sinai, and the Red Sea littoral. As a consequence of the crowding of the quasi-totality of the population in the Nile Valley and Delta, population densities in Egypt are among the highest in the world, rivalling the most crowded of the Asian states.
Marketing channels and price determination for agricultural commodities
Authors: Rowntree J
Published: November 2023

Egypt was essentially food self-sufficient 30 years ago, whereas today it imports more than one-half of its food requirements. This declining food self-sufficiency can be attributed to several factors, notably: the rapidly growing population, increasing demands for food associated with rising per caput income and an extensive food subsidy system, slow growth in agricultural productivity associated in part with government production and marketing policies which have repressed the agricultural sector, and extensive food wastes in a ‘backward and inefficient’ marketing system (Wally et al. 1983). The inadequacies of the agricultural marketing and distribution system have been repeatedly indentified as being a significant constraint on increasing agricultural production and food self-sufficiency (USDA 1976; USAID 1982; IADS 1984; NCBA 1986).
Systems of agricultural production in northern Sudan
Authors: Wilson R T
Published: November 2023

For the purposes of this chapter, northern Sudan comprises that part of Northern Darfur Province lying north of approximately 16°N latitude and the whole of Nile and Northern Provinces. The total area is about 650000 km. With the exception of narrow strips of land along the Atbara and Nile Rivers it is wholly desert.
Development programmes in non-irrigated rainland areas
Authors: Davies H R J
Published: November 2023

In the Sudan 80 per cent of the population depend on agriculture and related activities for their subsistence. Agriculture contributes some 40 per cent of GDP and accounts for some 90 per cent of the country’s earnings from foreign export trade. The first comprehensive attempt at national planning, the Ten Year Plan of Economics and Social Development, 1961162-1970171 (Ministry of Finance and Economics 1961) states ‘As agriculture is the mainstay of the country’s economy, considerable emphasis has been placed on its development’. Direct public sector investment in agriculture was to account for 41 per cent of the total, whilst investment in public health, roads, railways, and education would also have an influence on the agricultural sector. The same view is stated constantly in the planning documents. In the Six Year Plan of Economic and Social Development 1977178-1982183 (MNP 1977) agriculture was allocated 32 per cent of total public sector investment (£S425m.). The private sector was expected to invest a further £S290m. giving an overall total of £S715m., but this target was beyond the indigenous sources of funding.
Sometimes we can’t afford to do it
Authors: Harel David
Published: November 2023

The fact that some tasks cannot be computerized is bad enough already. But we are not done yet. Let us now concentrate on the ones that can. Say we are asked to construct a bridge over a river. The bridge could be ‘incorrect’; it might not be wide enough for the required lanes, it might not be strong enough to carry rush- hour trafﬁc, or it might not reach the other side at all! However, even a ‘correct’ design may be unacceptable. It might call for too large a workforce, or too many materials or components. It might also require far too much time to bring to completion. In other words, although it will result in a good bridge, a design might be too expensive.
Turning bad into good
Authors: Harel David
Published: November 2023

This chapter is devoted to cryptography, one of the most interesting application areas of algorithmics and a wonderful source of research challenges.
How Does DNA Keep its Secrets
Authors: Wilkins Maurice
Published: November 2023

The history of DNA research certainly had its up and downs. Barber’s ambition to bring Sepia sperm to Randall, Schrödinger’s quantum mechanics gene, Mirsky fighting Avery, Signer’s DNA crystallizing, and Randall writing his secret letter to Rosalind – all this drama led to our quiet, steady colloquium and Bruce Fraser’s very noteworthy ball-and-stick model of DNA, which had several important features of the Double Helix. But X-ray diffraction ruled out Fraser’s arrangement of three chains – Rosalind quickly pointed out that the diffraction showed that three was not possible. I do not think that was why Bruce would follow Barber to Australia few months later. Bruce had married Mary Nicholls, who had made us herring DNA (Mary had dinner with me, but Bruce’s Scottish moustache won the day). The loss of Bruce and Mary was to break the very valuable link we had with Bill Price’s group at King’s, which specialized in infra-red spectroscopic and physical-chemistry approaches to the structure of nucleic acids and proteins.
Language Typology and Linguistic Reconstruction
Authors: Fox Anthony
Published: November 2023

As we have seen, a major task of historical linguistics is the grouping of languages into families on a genetic basis. Genetic affiliation is not, however, the only criterion for relating languages to one another; other approaches to language classification are also possible, using different criteria, and producing different results. One of these is AREAL classification, the grouping of languages on a geographical basis, for example as Balkan languages, African languages, and so on, irrespective of any genetic relationships between them. Such a classification is of limited value, since the geographical location of a language as such may clearly be of little or no relevance to any other of its features. Nevertheless, the physical juxtaposition of languages is often of importance for their historical development, since it facilitates language contact, which in turn may lead to borrowing and mutual influence. In time, therefore, languages in the same geographical area may come to resemble one another, forming what is known as a SPRACHBUND,1 and allowing a certain amount of predictability in the characteristics of the languages concerned.
Lesson VII
Authors: Mcgregor R S
Published: November 2023

The subject implied in an absolutive form is generally the same as that of the main verb in its sentence, but not invariably.
Lesson X
Authors: Mcgregor R S
Published: November 2023

Where the second reference to the possessor is within the same syntactic unit of the sentence.
Lesson XVIII
Authors: Mcgregor R S
Published: November 2023

MANY Hindi verbs may be classified in pairs or larger groups according to a similarity in the form of their stems, reflecting a loose semantic relationship.
Introduction
Authors: Lennard John , Luckhurst Mary
Published: November 2023

This book is born of frustration. For full-time students of drama there are many books on text and elements of performance; but for students of English Literature, who may in their studies at school or university encounter one classical Greek, one mediaeval, several Renaissance, and a variety of later plays, and for the general reader or playgoer, there is no good, short guide to all the basics. Our remit therefore is what all such readers need to know to avoid misunderstanding drama, and to develop their reading in ways that promote better connections with their experiences of spectating and auditing. Those familiar with John Lennard’s Poetry Handbook (OUP, 1996) might expect something closely similar, but with drama it is not possible to select a single work for exemplary analysis nor to treat technical elements abstractly.
Performance: process and the ephemeral
Authors: Lennard John , Luckhurst Mary
Published: November 2023

Drama is not like poetry or prose, though it contains both. If you read a poem or passage of prose silently to yourself your reading is not necessarily incomplete. With drama it will be, for plays and other dramatic texts do not simply exist on paper to be read but are written to be performed, and for most dramatists written text is a by-product, necessary for production and a vital means of disseminating work and generating income but secondary to what happens in rehearsal and on stage.
The spaces of the book trade: the scriptorium, printshop, publishing house, bookshop, and library
Authors: Lennard John , Luckhurst Mary
Published: November 2023

Behind every performance are the spaces of study, rehearsal, and stage, and behind every book are one or more spaces of the book trade. Before printing texts were hand-copied, and hands had to be trained. Scriptoria, usually in monasteries, copied sacred or approved texts-the basis of church control over what people read; reading was itself a restricted skill. The growth of international commerce extended literacy and guilds probably helped prepare scripts for actors in medieval play-cycles, but had no interest in producing multiple copies for wider distribution.
Actors
Authors: Lennard John , Luckhurst Mary
Published: November 2023

Acting is an ancient art, but the skills attributed to its craft are culturally and historically specific. Over the centuries there have been many notable actors in the West: we select a few as stars of their times to emphasize the importance of thinking about and (if possible) researching an actor’s conditions of work, personality, particular skills, reputation for certain kinds of roles or forms of audience interaction, and responsibility for creating particular roles.
Designers
Authors: Lennard John , Luckhurst Mary
Published: November 2023

In Restoration theatres influenced by Jones perspectival scenery mounted on wings and shutters was normal, but scene-painters could not achieve good perspectival effects from every angle (the best was from the Royal Box), scenery was expensive, and the choice of scenes in a new play or opera could be governed by the scenery available. Restoration playwrights nevertheless provided far more stage directions about scenes than their predecessors, incorporating scenery into composition by using tensions and contrasts manifested by locale to parallel or clash with dramatic action. Of Etherege’s She Would If She Could (1668) Peter Holland argues:
Personal Identity: Hume’s Solution and his Later Recantation
Authors: Pears David
Published: November 2023

Hume’s views about the unity and structure of an individual mind are set forth in two chapters near the end of Book I, ‘Of the Immateriality of the Soul’ and ‘Of Personal Identity’. He starts with this bold claim: The intellectual world, tho’ involv’d in infinite obscurities, is not perplex’d with any such contradictions, as those we have discover’d in the natural. What is known concerning it, agrees with itself; and what is unknown, we must be contented to leave so.
Introduction
Authors: Bostock David
Published: November 2023

The most fundamental notion in classical logic is that of truth. Philosophers, of course, have long debated the question ‘what is truth?’, but that is a debate which, for the purposes of the present book, we must leave to one side. Let us assume that we know what truth is.
Semantic Tableaux
Authors: Bostock David
Published: November 2023

A tableau proof is a proof by reductio ad absurdum. One begins with an assumption, and one develops the consequences of that assumption, seeking to derive an impossible consequence. If the proof succeeds, and an impossible consequence is discovered, then, of course, we conclude that the original assumption was impossible. If the proof does not succeed, and no impossible consequence comes to light, then in some cases we can conclude that there is nothing wrong with the opening assumption. These are the cases where it can be shown that the search for an impossible consequence has been exhaustive, and would have found such a consequence if one existed. But not all cases are like this. Sometimes all that can be said is that the proof has not yet succeeded, and we do not know whether it would succeed if carried further.
Natural Deduction
Authors: Bostock David
Published: November 2023

Axiomatic proofs are hard to construct, and often very lengthy. So in practice one does not actually construct such proofs; rather, one proves that there is a proof, as originally defined. One way in which we make use of this technique is when we allow ourselves to use, in a proof, any theorem that has been proved already. For officially this is short for writing out once more, as part of the new proof, the whole of the original proof of that theorem. Another way is when we are explicitly relying on the deduction theorem, and so are actually concerned with a proof from assumptions, and not an axiomatic proof as first defined. Proofs from assumptions are much easier to find, and much shorter. A third way is when we introduce new symbols by definition, for in practice one will go on at once to derive new rules for the new symbols, and these will usually be rules for use in proofs from assumptions. So it comes about that, after a few initial moves, the development of an axiomatic system will scarcely ever involve writing out real axiomatic proofs, but will rely on a number of short cuts.
Hume versus Price on Miracles and Prior Probabilities: Testimony and the Bayesian Calculation
Authors: Owen David
Published: November 2023

Hume’s essay on miracles is one of his most celebrated arguments. It is also, perhaps, the second most discussed and argued-over of his sceptical positions. Reading it in the light of a recent controversy over Bayesianism and the appropriateness of taking prior probabilities into account when judging the likelihood of an event’s occurrence on the basis of reliable testimony, I have been struck by the thought that Hume can best be seen as applying a proto- Bayesian argument to a celebrated eighteenth-century controversy.
Ethics
Authors: Kenny Anthony
Published: November 2023

Histories of ethics often skim swiftly over the sixteenth century. In the high Middle Ages moral philosophy was presented in commentaries on Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics and in treatises on the natural or revealed law of God. In Aquinas’ Summa Theologiae both elements are combined, but the system is structured around the concept of virtue rather than around the concept of law. It was Aquinas’ successors, from Duns Scotus onward, who gave the theory of divine law the central place in presentations of Christian morality. But the medieval tradition in ethics suVered a shock, from which it never recovered, under the impact of the Reformation and the Counter-Reformation.
Hobbesian Mechanics
Authors: Jesseph doug
Published: November 2023

The concept of motion lies at the very centre of Hobbes’s philosophical system. In his scheme of things motion is the only cause, and because all of philosophy involves reasoning about causes, he is committed to the thesis that motion is the ultimate explanatory concept. Indeed, Frithiof Brandt noted that ‘Whenever we sift the subject to the bottom we come across motion in Hobbes,’ and he concluded that instead of being characterized as a materialist ‘Hobbes should more properly be called a motionalist, if we may be permitted to coin such a word.’
Speaking With The Same Voice As Reason: Personification In Plato’ S Psychology
Authors: Kamtekar Rachana
Published: November 2023

Contemporary readers of Greek ethics tend to favour those accounts of the virtuous ideal according to which virtue involves the development of our non-rational—appetitive and emotional— motivations as well as of our rational motivations. So our contemporaries find much of interest and sympathy in Aristotle’s conception of virtue as a condition in which reason does not simply override our appetites and emotions, but these non-rational motivations themselves ‘speak with the same voice as reason’.
The bad is last but does not last: aristotle’ s metaphysics Θ 9
Authors: Katz Emily Catherine , Polansky Ronald
Published: November 2023

Aristotle’s Metaphysics Θ investigates being according to actuality and potentiality, one of the four main kinds of being.1 Previously, book E delineated accidental being and being as true and false, as much as needed for first philosophy, while books Z–H explored being in virtue of itself, concentrating upon substantial being. The books prior to Θ suggest the crucial role of being according to actuality and potentiality for the unity of substantial being, and they point towards non-sensible substance. What book Θ establishes is: that potentiality and actuality are both real (against those such as the Megarians who deny one or the other of these), what potentiality and actuality both are in several possible meanings, and why and how actuality is prior to potentiality.2 The priority of actuality to potentiality makes possible the unity of sensible substantial beings that combine form (actuality) and matter (potentiality), and this priority accounts for the existence of eternal beings as actualities, since what merely has being in potentiality may be or not be, and hence is not eternal (1050B8–28).
living in doubt: carneades’pithanon reconsidered
Authors: Obdrzalek Suzanne
Published: November 2023

Though the interpretation of ancient texts is inevitably diffcult, Carneades presents what one might call a worst-case scenario. In the first place, he wrote nothing. To complicate matters, Carneades’ views were so obscure that his faithful disciple Clitomachus confessed that he could never figure out what Carneades actually believed (Cic. Acad. 2. 139). Showing remarkable fortitude in the face of such an obstacle, Clitomachus, attempting to play Plato to Carneades’ Socrates, reportedly recorded Carneades’ teachings in 400 books (D.L. 4. 67). Not one remains. None the less, Clitomachus’ attempt to make a philosophy of Carneades’ anti-theoretical stance was not a complete failure; Carneades had a tremendous influence on the later Academy as well as the Stoa, and his views (or lack thereof) have been handed down to us by both Sextus Empiricus and Cicero. These sources are, however, problematic. As a Pyrrhonist, Sextus was critical of the Academy and may have exaggerated what he took to be Carneades’ dogmatism. Cicero, on the other hand, a student of Philo, was undoubtedly influenced in his interpretation of Carneades by his teacher’s dogmatic scepticism. Carneades is perhaps best known for proposing the pithanēphantasia (probable impression) as a criterion for life. However, the status of his theory of the pithanon (probable) is completely unclear.
Mobile simulation
Authors: Forrest Frances C
Published: November 2023

This chapter is based on experiences at Bristol Medical Simulation Centre (BMSC). The content refers to mannequin simulators that are hardware based and either script or model controlled(1). Running a scenario where the simulator has to move location (for example, transferring a head injured patient from one site to another) is the ultimate challenge for teachers. Most simulators are not up to this task because they are not completely wireless controlled or battery driven. Thus there are restrictions imposed by computer control, power or gas supply. This chapter will review our experience with a mobile simulation capability.
Cardiopulmonary resuscitation and training devices
Authors: Ferguson Sheena
Published: November 2023

There are a myriad of passive mannequins and partial task trainers that are available on the market (e.g. Ambu, Armstrong, Gaumard, Laerdal, Limbs & Things, Lifeform, Nasco, Simulaids) to augment or ‘accessorize’ the range of low to high fidelity full-body human simulators on today’s market. Some of these catalogue giants are retailers for several smaller companies and may include their own unique products. The numbers of products are much larger than most simulation lab directors realize and it is worth shopping around and checking with colleagues to see what the experience of other centres has been with a product. Customer service and postpurchase assistance varies tremendously. The end of this chapter includes a resource section; this information is provided as a service, not an endorsement of any particular product. The B*A*T*C*A*V*E* (University of New Mexico) is a multidisciplinary simulation and skills centre that purchases the best tool for the task at hand.
Training and assessment with standardized patients
Authors: Boulet John R , Errichetti Anthony
Published: November 2023

Although simulation in healthcare can take many forms, the use of standardized patients (SPs), lay people trained to model the mannerisms and complaints of real patients, is prevalent throughout the world(1,2,3,4,5). Starting with their employment for medical student training(6), SP-based evaluation methods have evolved to be of sufficient quality to become part of highstakes certification and licensure examinations(7). Standardized patients have also been used in many disciplines outside of medicine, including dentistry and nursing(8,9,10). Along the way, numerous research studies have been published covering diverse topics ranging from case development to training methods to equating performance scores(11,12). These research endeavors, while extremely valuable for the advancement of SP-based evaluation and training methods, also provide some lessons to help guide other performance-based simulation activities in medicine and related healthcare disciplines. As a result, it will be informative for those individuals involved in simulation activities, not necessarily only those that are SP-based, to have some understanding
Team building and simulation
Authors: Anderson Andrew
Published: November 2023

The advantages of simulators in enhancing the objectivity and efficiency of training are clear, and the increased emphasis placed upon the ability to perform a task (rather than simply having knowledge of it) is now an accepted advantage of such systems. Anaesthesia is one of the few areas of medicine which has embraced the use of simulator technology, and a network of high fidelity simulator centres has been developed in the UK since 1997. There are now over 20 such centres across the country and most offer some sort of team building training course. Despite the wealth of positive experience and peer-reviewed papers emanating from these centres, in 2006 simulator-based assessment had not been incorporated into the anaesthesia curriculum.(1) The higher the fidelity designed into the simulator the more expensive it is and this has been a barrier to their more widespread use and adoption.
Intern training
Authors: Rubin Orit , Berkenstadt, Haim , Ziv Amitai
Published: November 2023

The transition from the students’ status at medical schools to the physicians’ status at the residency programmes is commonly bridged by an internship period during which graduates of medical schools are working under close supervision. Although the internship programme is built upon the knowledge, skills and competencies acquired during medical school, the overnight change in status and level of clinical responsibilities is well recognized to be accompanied by a sense of un-readiness and anxiety on behalf of the beginning interns(1,2,3). Thus, the combination of lack of experience and low confidence level creates a threat to patient safety, and challenges the medical education system to explore thoroughly ways to smooth the transition and ensure a safe shift from medical school into actual medical practice.
Non-technical skills: identifying, training, and assessing safe behaviours
Authors: Flin Rhona , Maran Nicola
Published: November 2023

In aviation, it has been realized for 30 years that aircraft crashes are usually not only due to mechanical failures or pilots’ inadequate technical competence. Many of the errors that contribute to accidents across industries could have been avoided if better non-technical skills had been demonstrated by the personnel operating or maintaining the system. The term non-technical skills (NTS) is used by a range of technical professions, to describe what they previously referred to as ‘soft’ skills. In aviation, the term was first used by the European regulator and was defined as ‘the cognitive and social skills of flight crew members in the cockpit, not directly related to aircraft control, system management, and standard operating procedures’.
Simulation for military medical training
Authors: Bowyer Mark W , Ritter E Matt
Published: November 2023

The care of patients with multiple severe injuries as a result of trauma requires extensive training for all involved. Every member of the trauma team must possess both the individual knowledge and skill to care for the patient as well as understand their role in the overall team. For civilian trauma in the urban setting, where pre-hospital transport times are frequently less than 10 minutes, training for trauma skill management can be focused in specialized trauma centres where interventions such as definitive airway management, control of haemorrhage, performance of tube thoracostomy for haemothorax or pneumothorax, or establishment of intravenous access for fluid resuscitation are typically performed. The care of combat casualties during war time differs in many respects. The transport time from time of injury to definitive care can range from less than an hour when there is air superiority but can be as long as 72 hours. Therefore, it is essential to have a number of pre-hospital providers able to perform these kinds of potentially life saving interventions in the field, and often under austere conditions while engaged in combat. This requires extensive training of not only military doctors and nurses, but a large cadre of battlefield medics who will be called on to provide cutting edge trauma care in some of the worst conditions imaginable.
Simulation in sedation training for non-anaesthesiologists
Authors: Bermann Mordechai , Fischberg, Bryan L , Rao Malay
Published: November 2023

Full-scale simulators provide an educational setting where healthcare providers can acquire skills and develop expertise necessary to recognize and manage infrequent life-threatening events(1); it has the potential to be a well-suited teaching technique for non-anaesthetists providing sedation. This chapter addresses some general considerations, specific examples, and trends in effective use of simulation for sedation training.
The processing of modifiers
Authors: Bornkessel-Schlesewsky Ina , Schlesewsky Matthias
Published: November 2023

If any domain within sentence processing can be said to be even more complex than the processing of relative clauses, it is the processing of non-obligatory information. In spite of the wealth of findings on the comprehension of modifiers (e.g. attachment of prepositional phrases and relative clauses) to be found in the literature, there is no general agreement about the status of this information within the comprehension architecture.
The influence of prosody
Authors: Bornkessel-Schlesewsky Ina , Schlesewsky Matthias
Published: November 2023

Since the earliest days of psycholinguistics, researchers have concerned themselves with the basic units of speech perception. One of the central questions in this domain is how the overall speech stream can be broken down and structured into smaller categories. One of the earliest studies to examine this issue at the sentence level was reported by Fodor and Bever (1965). Using an experimental technique first developed by Ladefoged and Broadbent (1960), they asked participants to report the location of clicks heard during speech and found a significantly higher number of correct responses when clicks were positioned at major syntactic boundaries as well as a tendency for clicks to be ‘‘attracted’’ towards the nearest boundary.
Neurocognitive models of language comprehension
Authors: Bornkessel-Schlesewsky Ina , Schlesewsky Matthias
Published: November 2023

As briefly described in Chapter 4, the declarative/procedural model (Ullman 2001; Ullman 2004) provides a neurocognitive implementation of a language processing architecture that differentiates between lexical knowledge and rule-based knowledge. Furthermore, rather than positing such a distinction from a purely language-internal point of view, Ullman proposes that it can be situated within the more general cognitive dissociation between declarative and procedural memory (see, for example, Squire and Zola 1996). Declarative memory is responsible for the storage of facts (‘‘semantic memory’’) and events (‘‘episodic memory’’).
Phylogenetic Invariants
Authors: Allman Elizabeth S , Rhodes John A
Published: November 2023

Probabilistic models for the evolution of biological sequences are used throughout phylogenetics, both for theoretical analysis and for practical inference. Basic assumptions in these models lead naturally to expressing their predictions through polynomial expressions. This simple observation leads to the insight that polynomial algebra can provide alternative perspectives in phylogenetics.
The Evolution and Emergence of RNA Viruses
Authors: Holmes Edward C
Published: November 2023

RNA viruses provide unique insights into the patterns and processes of evolutionary change in real time. The study of viral evolution is especially topical given the growing awareness that emerging and re-emerging diseases (most of which are caused by RNA viruses) represent a major threat to public health. However, while the study of viral evolution has developed rapidly in the last 30 years, relatively little attention has been directed toward linking work on the mechanisms of viral evolution within cells or individual hosts, to the epidemiological outcomes of these processes. This novel book fills this gap by considering the patterns and processes of viral evolution across their entire range of spatial and temporal scales. The Evolution and Emergence of RNA Viruses provides a comprehensive overview of RNA virus evolution, with a particular focus on genomic and phylogenetic approaches. This is the first book to link mechanisms of viral evolution with disease dynamics, using high-profile examples in emergence and evolution such as influenza, HIV, dengue fever, and rabies. It also reveals the underlying evolutionary processes by which emerging viruses cross species boundaries and spread in new hosts.
The origins of RNA viruses
Authors: Holmes Edward C
Published: November 2023

Of all the issues in RNA virus evolution, and of all those covered in this book, inferring the origins and deep phylogenetic relationships of RNA viruses has proven the most difficult to resolve. This is an extremely frustrating state of affairs as understanding how viruses originated, and how they relate to cellular organisms, is one of the most interesting topics in evolutionary biology, with the potential to shed light on key moments in the early history of life on Earth. Indeed, to some evolutionary biologists viruses have played a central role in the establishment of complex living systems on Earth (although more so for DNA than RNA viruses; Bell 2001; Forterre 2005; Koonin et  al . 2006; Prangishvili et  al . 2006).
The molecular epidemiology, phylogeography, and emergence of RNA viruses
Authors: Holmes Edward C
Published: November 2023

In some respects, this is a chapter about viral ‘life history’. It is certainly the most ecological of any chapter is this book, although doubtless many ecologists would object to my classifying it so. My aim is to document the epidemiological patterns, both temporal and spatial, exhibited by RNA viruses in nature, and to explore aspects of their emergence. In keeping with the overall theme of this book, the phylogenetic analysis of viral gene sequences will be the main analytical tool, often set within an approach that has been termed phylodynamics (Grenfell et  al . 2004). Given that human viruses have been the most actively studied in this respect, I will necessarily focus on their evolution. However, the generalities drawn from this chapter should be applicable to a broad range of RNA viruses.
Predicativization
Authors: Stassen Leon
Published: November 2023

By the term predicativization I will refer to a process that results in a reanalysis of the categorial and syntactic status of the phrase which contains the possessed. In particular, this possessed phrase – which may consist of the possessed only, or of a collocation of the possessed and some marker – comes to be reanalysed as the predicate of a possessive construction that has the possessor as its subject.
Locational Possessives
Authors: Stassen Leon
Published: November 2023

To this end, I will examine all instances of Locational Possessive encoding in my data base. The discussion will be organized on the basis of areal and genetic groupings, and will include all cases of standard and non-standard encoding of the type. Cases of marked adnominalization, that is, cases in which the possessor NP is marked for genitive case, will form part of the investigation here. However, I will ignore Topic-Locational hybrid encoding in this chapter.
Topic Possessives
Authors: Stassen Leon
Published: November 2023

In the discussion, all variants of Topic Possessive encoding will be taken into account. That is, besides the standard encoding of this type as defined in Section 2.5, I will include the various non-standard variants of the type that have been mentioned in Chapter 3, such as the possessor-indexed Topic Possessive, the zero-encoded Topic Possessive, the Conjunctional Possessive, the Clausal Possessive, as well as instances of the hybrid Topic-Locational Possessive (see Section 3.6).
Chest pain
Authors: Nicholls Anthony
Published: November 2023

Chest pain after surgery is relatively common. Apart from those patients who have had thoracic surgery, the important causes to consider are MI, angina, PE, pneumonia, pneumothorax, and (in those who have had oesophageal dilatation or repeated vomiting) oesophageal rupture. 50% of patients given suxamethonium develop chest, neck, and/or shoulder pain. As in medical practice, benign oesophageal disease (acid reflux or spasm) is common, often provoked by abdominal surgery, and some­ times difficult to differentiate from cardiac pain on the history. The rarer causes of chest painaortic dissection, pericarditis, and pain referred from the spine - are uncommon in surgical practice and only need brief consideration. Acute myocardial infarction (AMI): Consider this diagnosis in any patient with central chest pain/tightness/heaviness.
Postoperative seizures
Authors: Hardie Richard
Published: November 2023

The management of postoperative seizures differs between patients with and without a pre-existing seizure disorder (see p. 186). In someone with a poorly controlled chronic seizure disorder, one or two seizures should not normally be regarded as an emergency, although it may be prudent to seek expert advice before discharging the patient back home. Do not over-react to this situation. Avoid drugs which lower the seizure threshold in patients with epilepsy. The management of a single seizure should be according to that of convulsive epileptic status, described below. Although uncommon, non-convulsive status does occur, and may present as postoperative confusion in patients with established epilepsy. It can only be diagnosed by electroencephalography. Convulsive epileptic status (status epilepticus) is defined as prolonged or recurrent seizures lasting more than 30 min.
Can Music Function as a Metaphor of Emotional Life?
Authors: Robinson Jenefer
Published: November 2023

Over the past thirty years or so there has been a significant change in Anglo-American music theory. The idea of “pure” instrumental music as a formal, quasi-mathematical structure with no reference to anything beyond itself has given way to more contextual approaches, in which instrumental music is treated as having meaning and expressive qualities which link it to wider human concerns. Instead of focusing solely on the intricate technicalities of harmonic analysis, music theorists are turning to the study of musical semiotics, so-called musical “topoi,” and, more generally, the psychological and emotional meanings to be found in even the purest of pure music.
Treatment of hair loss
Authors: Elsheikh Mohgah , Murphy Caroline
Published: November 2023

Hair loss is a big worry to many people. It is relatively common in women, with a recent survey suggesting that 1.6 million British women have problems with hair loss. Another survey revealed that significant hair loss in women can be so devastating that it can cause depression and relationship break-ups. We all lose about 100 hairs a day, particularly during shampooing and brushing our hair. If you have noticed a persistently larger number of hairs than usual in the plughole after showering, then perhaps you should see your doctor.
The ‘Secretissima instructio’ Texts
Authors: Malcolm Noel
Published: November 2023

What sort of text, then, was the Altera secretissima instructio, and why was it thought so worthy of attention? It was in fact the third in a sequence of pamphlets (though its title, Altera, correctly translated by Hobbes as ‘A second’, suggests that its author was unaware of the second in the sequence); the first, entitled Secretissima instructio, had achieved considerable notoriety, becoming one of Europe’s most widely read works of political propaganda after its first publication in 1620.
‘Reason of State’ and Hobbes
Authors: Malcolm Noel
Published: November 2023

The first book to have ‘ragion di stato’ (reason of state) in its title, and the most influctional of all books on this topic, was published by the ex-Jesuit Giovanni Botero in 1589. In his dedicatory epistle Botero explained that he had made many journeys in recent years, and had visited the courts of several kings and princes.
Introduction
Authors: Burge Tyler
Published: November 2023

The essays in this volume center on philosophical issues about mind, and about language insofar as it is an indication of mind. The volume includes most of the essays in which I defend anti-individualism. It also includes discussion of other aspects of mind—mind–body causation, the mind–body problem, and consciousness. In this introduction I sketch some background. I also comment on the individual essays and how they relate to one another.
Individualism and the Mental
Authors: Burge Tyler
Published: November 2023

Since Hegel’s Phenomenology of Spirit, a broad, inarticulate division of emphasis between the individual and his social environment has marked philosophical discussions of mind. On one hand, there is the traditional concern with the individual subject of mental states and events. In the elderly Cartesian tradition, the spotlight is on what exists or transpires ‘in’ the individual—his secret cogitations, his innate cognitive structures, his private perceptions and introspections, his grasping of ideas, concepts, or forms. More evidentially oriented movements, such as behaviorism and its liberalized progeny, have highlighted the individual’s publicly observable behavior—his input–output relations and the dispositions, states, or events that mediate them.
Intellectual Norms and Foundations of Mind
Authors: Burge Tyler
Published: November 2023

Two paramount tasks for philosophy are articulating the nature of propositional attitudes and articulating the nature of the intellectual norms that govern thinking about objective matters. The first task is fundamental to explicating the notion of mind. The second is fundamental to saying what is significant and distinctive about being human.
Philosophy of Mind: 1950—2000
Authors: Burge Tyler
Published: November 2023

I want to outline some of the main developments in the philosophy of mind in the last half of the twentieth century.1
On the Historically Informed Performance
Authors: Kivy Peter
Published: November 2023

After my book Authenticities was published in 1995,1 various people told me that I was, in effect, beating a dead horse; for the book was an extended analysis and critique of what had come to be known as the “historically authentic performance”, which was supposed to be—at least as I understood it—the performance of a musical work in strict compliance with the way that work would have been performed in its own historical period and no other; or, if it didn’t come to the same thing, in strict compliance with the performing intentions of the composer. But, so I was told, no one was pedantic or dogmatic enough any longer to endorse or pursue that sort of thing. Rather, what was now endorsed and pursued in its stead was something much more reasonable, yet, I presume, still in the historicist spirit: it was called the “historically informed performance”. And none of the critical or analytical things I said in Authenticities, so these folks admonished me, had anything to do with that project at all.
The Facts Head injury
Authors: Daisley Audrey , Tams Rachel , Kischka Udo
Published: November 2023

Head injury affects approximately 1 in 300 families in England and Wales. It happens ‘out of the blue’ - without warning and therefore can be a bewildering and frightening experience, and frequently has a dramatic and sometimes devastating effect on the lives of the people involved. The sudden onset and the uncertainty surrounding recovery means that head injury often presents families with a wide array of emotions such as fear, guilt and sadness. With no previous experiences to guide them, people with head injury and their families can feel overwhelmed. This book begins with essential information about head injury including basic knowledge about the brain and how it is damaged. The book goes on to explore typical problems associated with a head injury and how to cope with specific issues. The third section provides support and guidance about how to deal with the long term consequences of a head injury, including information on where to find further support. Head Injury: The Facts is a family guide to understanding and coping with the practical and emotional problems that head injury brings.
Changes in emotions and behaviour
Authors: Daisley Audrey , Tams Rachel , Kischka Udo
Published: November 2023

A head injury often has a significant effect on a person’s emotions and behaviour. After head injury, changes in emotional responses to situations, and the ability to control emotions and behaviour can all occur. These difficulties have been shown to be the hardest for families to cope with. Common emotional reactions after brain injury include: • depression • anxiety and fear • anger • frustration • mood swings and feeling less in control of emotions than previously.
Helping children cope with head injury in the family
Authors: Daisley Audrey , Tams Rachel , Kischka Udo
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we turn our attention to the issues faced by children who have a close relative, particularly a parent, with head injury. We discuss the ways in which children can be affected by family head injury and provide guidance for adults on how to explain head injury and support children. We have written this as a separate chapter for the following reasons. • Children have their own special needs at times of stress and cannot be regarded as ‘mini-adults’. • Head injury services do not routinely offer help to children (because of lack of resources, lack of expertise, and lack of awareness of the issues facing them). However, without advice, it can be difficult for families to know how best to help children through this emotional experience. It is hoped that this chapter will address this gap and increase your confidence in supporting children and asking for help for them at this difficult time. The information contained here is directed, in the main, towards helping children who have a head-injured parent. However, much of it is applicable to children with other relatives with head injury, such as a grandparent or a sibling. We provide guidance on children’s information and support needs at the different stages of their relative’s recovery, and as children’s needs also vary with age, we have tried to draw out the key issues for children at various ages. This might be helpful to families where there are children with different age ranges.
Clarifying “Blur”: Paradigms, defaults, and inflectional classes
Authors: Halle Morris , Marantz Alec
Published: November 2023

Despite the emphasis placed on paradigms in many recent papers on morphology and phonology, we believe that linguists are, for the most part, using “paradigm” as a convenient cover term for a variety of distinct morphological issues. For example, much discussion within OT of “paradigm uniformity” uses “paradigm” to point to issues of allomorphy between “related” forms of a stem or root that do not crucially rely on paradigms in any demonstrable sense. These discussions employ paradigms to provide a set of forms that might be related via output-output constraints.