bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Non-transparent Constraint Effects in Gere: From Cycles to Derivations
Authors: Paradis Carole
Published: November 2023

This chapter addresses the case of a constraint in Gere which holds across the board—that is, an undominated (unviolated) constraint in Optimality Theory‘s (OT) terms—but whose effects are none the less non-transparent on the surface in some cases, although easily recoverable in a derivational framework. I will show that the often non-transparent effects of this constraint evidence the need for a cyclic application of constraints, and support more generally a derivational approach as advocated in Paradis (1995, 1996). More precisely, I aim at showing that phonological rules / constraints may refer to phonological properties that never come to the surface, which is in essence one of the claims of the cyclicity hypothesis in Lexical Phonology (see e.g. Booij, Chapter 8 above). We will see that evidence in favor of such a hypothesis questions the adequacy of non-derivational constraint-based theories. The argumentation will be partially based on a comparison between the Theory of Constraints and Repair Strategies (TCRS; see e.g. Paradis, 1988a; 1988b; 1993), a derivational framework, and OT (Prince and Smolensky, 1993; McCarthy and Prince, 1993), a non-derivational one.
A Linguistic Anthropology of Praxis and Language Shift
Authors: Tsitsipis Lukas D
Published: November 2023

Lukas D. Tsitsipis explores a case of linguistic shift in the Balkans. He focuses on Arvanitika, an Albanian variety spoken in Greece which is under threat through a process of attrition. Various factors relating the linguistic to the non-linguistic aspects of the shift are examined in detail. The emphasis is on both the macro-processes responsible for the shift as they emerge from the broader sociopolitical conditions of the Greek nation-state, and on the local communities' discourse as a complex response to these forces. Pragmatic aspects of discourse, power relations, the surfacing of linguistic ideology, and aspects of performance all figure prominently in a synthesis which shows that speakers are active respondents to social and political pressures. The author derives his inspiration from theoretical and methodological traditions in linguistic anthropology, but with political theory becomes as a central concern. In a period when linguistic anthropology is becoming reflexive and facing its social responsibilities, language shift is a locus for critical reflection: discourse about languages is ultimately discourse about human beings and the political process. Series Information Series Editor: Professor Suzanne Romaine, Merton College, University of Oxford Series ISBN: 0-19-961466-0 Series Description: Most of the world's speech communities are multilingual, and contact between languages is thus an important force in the everyday lives of most people. Studies of language contact should therefore form an integral part of work in theoretical, social, and historical linguistics. This series makes available a collection of research monographs which present case studies of language contact around the world. As well as providing an indispensable source of data for the serious researcher, it contributes significantly to theoretical developments in the field.
Introduction: Theoretical Discussion and Research Focus
Authors: Tsitsipis Lukas D
Published: November 2023

Arvanítika, a variety of Tosk Albanian spoken in Greece for more than four centuries, has been part of a complex process of contact-induced change. Being in contact with modern Greek, the socially dominant language, Arvanítika faces attrition by becoming gradually a threatened language.
Introduction
Authors: Keller Rudi
Published: November 2023

Signs shape our lives. This is true not only of the signs of language: we are surrounded by signs, we surround ourselves with signs, and usually we are completely unaware of them. Frequently, we become aware of the complete semiotic saturation of our lives only when the signs we use, and with which we surround ourselves, lead to unexpected interpretations. My car is a sign, and so is my bicycle. Even if I have no car, this too is a sign. Eating oysters is just as much a sign as gobbling hamburgers. It’s a sign when I wear a tie, and just as much so when I refrain from wearing one. The same is true of jeans, suits and corduroy pants. Some people might protest, “Does everything I do have to mean something? I refuse to play along!” But there are styles of dress even for those of this opinion-individualists can be identified by means of their clothing just as easily as the followers of fashion. There’s no getting away from interpretability. One is reminded of Watzlawick, Beavin, and Jackson’s famous assertion, “one cannot not communicate” ( I 967: 5 I; emphasis in original). This view, however, will not be endorsed here. It assumes a judgment whose inaccuracy will become evident, namely, that everything interpretable must have been communicated. This is not the case. Important for our lives is not only how something is interpreted, but also what is interpreted. Cultures and subcultures can be distinguished according to those areas of life that they subject to interpretation as signs, and the degree to which they do so. The amount of symbolic character accorded by a group to certain aspects of life is used as a virtual measure of the level of civilization that group is believed to have attained. The more life in a group has been “semiotized,” the more cultured we perceive that group to be.
The Epistemic Weil
Authors: Keller Rudi
Published: November 2023

“Save the Causal Clause” is the name of an action group in Hamburg, Germany, whose members have taken upon themselves to prevent adult speakers of German from uttering sentences like this: “Ich muβ noch einkaufen, weil wir bekommen heute abend Besuch” (‘I still have to go shopping, because we’re having guests tonight’). The background of the problem is as follows. In German main clauses or coordinate clauses, the finite verb is always in second position: Er hat ein Auto ‘He has a car’. However, in subordinate clauses, the finite verb comes last: Ich weiβ, daβ er ein Auto hat ‘I know that he a car has’. In colloquial German, weil ‘because’ is undergoing a process of change from a subordinating to a coordinating conjunction. “Normal” speakers notice only the resulting “incorrect” word order, often interpreted as evidence for the decay of the German language. The change of the conjunction weil will be the subject of this chapter. I will try to show that it has less to do with syntax decay than with semantic enrichment. This enrichment is created with the application of the metaphorical technique to the causal conjunction weil.
Phonology of Eighteenth-Century English: Evidence from Spence’s Grand Repository and Contemporary Pronouncing Dictionaries
Authors: Beal Joan C
Published: November 2023

We saw in § 3.4 that pronouncing dictionaries such as the Grand Repository arc a particularly valuable source of evidence for linguistic changes which were in progress in the eighteenth century, since, in providing a full ‘lexicon’, they allow us to trace the lexical diffusion of those sound changes. Wherever the entries in the Grand Repository show two or more different realizations of what was a single phoneme in ME or even ENE, then we may suspect that lexical diffusion is at work, particularly if those realizations correspond to what we know from other sources (e.g. seventeenth-century orthoepists) to be ‘older’ and ‘nevver” or conservative and innovative sounds. A thorough examination of the Grand Repository entries will allow us to ascertain whether the diffusion is phonetically (i.e. environmentally) rather than strictly lexically conditioned. whilst a comparison of these entries with the same words in other contemporary pronouncing dictionaries will enable us to judge whether Spence is so far out of line with the other orthoepists as to be the ‘lone voice I warned against in §3.2, or whether his distribution of the variants is simply more conservative (closer to that of earlier sources) or more northern (closer to that of other northern or Scots sources) than others.
James Howell’s dictionary for the genteel (1660)
Authors: Hullen Werner
Published: November 2023

James Howell’s (?1594-1666) place of birth in Wales is uncertain. He matriculated at Jesus College, Oxford, in 1610 and took his degree there in 1613. He was appointed steward of a glassware factory in London. In this capacity he travelled to Holland, France, Spain, and Italy in order to obtain materials and skilled work men for the firm. It seems that this experience laid the foundations of his later linguistic knowledge and interests. He held various posts in the orbit of the court.
Multilingual dictionaries and nomenclators
Authors: Hullen Werner
Published: November 2023

In 1477 the first onomasiological dictionary which was not devoted to teaching Latin (or Greek or Hebrew) appeared in Venice as a printed book. It used the new technique for propagating a book-genre which had already been extant in hand written manuscripts, for example in 1424, and in early prints, for example in 1533. Roughly speaking, the tradition of late-medieval vocabularies terminated at the beginning of the sixteenth century (e.g. with Murmellius’s Pappa, see below) and gave way to a new tradition of topical word-lists (nomenclators) in the light of Humanist studies (de Smet 1985).
Hierarchies and Competing Motivations
Authors: Kirby Simon
Published: November 2023

The previous chapter examined a solution to the problem of linkage in the domain of word-order universals, using Hawkins’s metric of processing complexity as an example of a partial explanation. This chapter extends the scope of the linguistic selection approach by examining an implicational hierarchy in another domain–accessibility to relativization. Once again, Hawkins (1994a) provides us with a plausible explanation for the cross-linguistic facts in terms of structural complexity, and this will be the starting point for an investigation of the origins of hierarchies in general.
A Richer Characterization of Dictionary Entries: The Role of Knowledge Representation
Authors: Pustejovsky James , Boguraev Branimir
Published: November 2023

Making disciplined use of linguistic theory in the process of writing dictionary entries is not only intuitively desirable: studies have shown how important distinctions in the lexical behaviour of words can, and should, be systematically encoded by a lexicographer (Atkins et al. 1988). These are not abstract proposals. A dictionary embodying detailed analyses of syntactic and semantic properties within a fixed theoretical framework would be a beneficial improvement on the current generation of learners’ dictionaries, and recent large scale undertakings in lexicography have taken seriously this notion. For instance, the Cobuild project not only implements a methodology of corpus-driven dictionary design and compilation (known as ‘corpus lexicography’); the Cobuild dictionary is a creation of a particular linguistic framework, which closely associates meaning with the use of a word in context (Sinclair 1987; Hanks 1987).
E
Authors: Beaton K B
Published: November 2023

Eager = ‘showing a strong desire to do, attain, or hear sth.’ It is used alone, eager faces, They are very eager, or with for, eager for success, or an infin. (Cf. 2.) Keen means ‘showing interest or enthusiasm’ and is a syn. of eager. It is used attributively, a keen student/chess player/gardener, and predicatively, They are very keen. Fervent and ardent mean ‘enthusiastic, displaying strong feelings’. An ardent sup porter of the Labour Party. A fervent admirer of the Chancellor. Zealous is applied to people who spend a lot of time or energy in supporting something, especially a political or religious ideal, that they believe in very strongly. He was a zealous anti¬ smoker .
K
Authors: Beaton K B
Published: November 2023

keep, maintain, preserve vs. Although halten also means ‘to hold’ and ‘to stop’, it and its derivatives express many of the meanings of keep. This article first deals with those senses of halten for which E. uses keep, but treats at the same time derivatives and other words with a related meaning. Order of treatment: 1. Keep = ‘observe, abide by’. She kept her promise. 2. Keep animals, oneself/one’s family, maintain roads, keep accounts, a diary, etc., keep/maintain a house in proper order. 3. Keep= ‘cause to remain in a condition’. Keep your room tidy! 4. Keep= ‘restrain from going away’. I don’t want to keep you. 5. Keep = ‘remain in good condition’. Milk keeps for several days. 6. Keep = ‘remain in a specified position’. Keep to the left! 7. Keep= ‘retain in one’s possession’ and ‘withhold from present use’. Keep the change! I’ll keep a piece of cake for you. 8. Keep, maintain, preserve= ‘save or guard from harm’.
U
Authors: Beaton K B
Published: November 2023

understand v. The main equivalent is verstehen. A common syn. in several senses is begreifen. In general begreifen is stronger and more emphatic and emotional than verstehen. It can always be replaced by verstehen, but the nuance it conveys is then lost. Understand, verstehen, and begreifen can be trans. and intr.Understand means ‘to grasp the meaning of sth. spoken or written’. Did you understand that explanation? This sense can always be expressed by verstehen. Ich verstehe, was du sagen willst. Begreifen often refers not only to a particular instance but to someone’s ability to understand explanations etc. in general.
Aims And Background
Authors: Sampson Geoffrey
Published: November 2023

This book has two purposes. First, it offers a draft of a comprehensive annotation scheme for representing the structure of the modern English language. This scheme attempts to specify a single predictable analysis for any form that is found in the language as it is used in practice, and to indicate all aspects of the grammar of English that are definite enough to be susceptible of formal annotation. And secondly, it introduces the reader to an electronic research resource, a body of English annotated in conformity with this scheme, which is available freely and without formality to anyone who would like to use it, and which is already in widespread use internationally. At the end of the book there is an explanation of how a copy of this SUSANNE Corpus can be obtained by anyone working at a computer with access to the Internet international network.
How To Get The Susanne Corpus
Authors: Sampson Geoffrey
Published: November 2023

The Susanne Corpus is distributed electronically by the Oxford Text Archive over the international network Internet. Anyone with physical access to Internet is welcome to take a copy; he needs no permission from the author or from the Archive, and there are no controls over how copies are used. The only restrictions are matters of honour rather than law: it would not be a friendly act to set up as a rival distributing centre for this resource, and, since the chief reason for creating the Susanne Corpus was to promote the SUSANNE annotation scheme, the author would be particularly sorry to see another group transpose the Susanne annotations into an alternative system and publish the new version in order to promote the other scheme. (But there is obviously no objection to research groups converting SUSANNE annotations into their preferred equivalents for their own local use; this may often be an appropriate thing to do.)
Comparative Dravidian Linguistics
Authors: Krishnamurti Bhadriraju , Emeneau Murray B
Published: November 2023

This book will make available the author's most important published articles on Dravidian over the last forty years. It will include a new and substantial introduction to the field, and will conclude with a survey of Dravidian language studies over the last thousand years and a critical account of work since 1950. Those articles reprinted in the work will appear substantially unchanged, with individual addenda in which the author will consider the impact of subsequent work by himself and others. The papers contain solutions to long-standing problems of phonology and morphology of comparative Dravidian. Many seminal ideas have been introduced into the field for the first time. The theoretical highlights such as grammatical constraints on sound change, spread of sound change through lexical diffusion, a new statistical model for linguistic subgrouping within the framework of lexical diffusion, and the interplay of synchronic and diachronic rules in language history, will all be of interest to any comparative and historical linguist working on any language family. To any student of Dravidian linguistics, this volume is indispensable.
Alternations in Vowel Length in Telugu Verbal Bases: A Comparative Study
Authors: Krishnamurti Bhadriraju , Emeneau Murray B
Published: November 2023

There are two grades of vowel length in Dravidian, viz., long and short, which are distinctly phonemic. In historical and phonetic discussions we can also speak of reduced and zero grades, but these are non-phonemic. The history of vowel length is one of the less discussed aspects of comparative Dravidian, though it is found to play an important role in etymology. I attempt to present here certain historical data concerning vowel length in Telugu with reference to the structure of verbal bases; but these conclusions are also applicable to other parts of the vocabulary, since the criteria governing vowel length are phonological rather than morphological.
Some Observations on Tamil Phonology of the 12th and 13th Centuries
Authors: Krishnamurti Bhadriraju , Emeneau Murray B
Published: November 2023

Owing to the limitations of Tamil orthography, it has not so far been possible to say, in clear terms, when intervocalic and post-nasal stops became voiced in Tamil. An analysis of a Tamil text occurring in a Telugu literary work of the 12th century now provides conclusive evidence on this question. This evidence confirms the conclusions reached earlier on comparative grounds that intervocalic and post nasal stops were completely voiced in Tamil (sub phonemically, of course) even by the time of the branching off of Malayalam from Tamil, i.e. about the 10th century. A few other significant observations on spoken Tamil of the 12th and 13th centuries can also be made on the basis of this text.
Gender and Number in Proto- Dravidian
Authors: Krishnamurti Bhadriraju , Emeneau Murray B
Published: November 2023

A language has grammatical gender if the nominal stems of that language are classifiable in their morphology/syntax partly on the basis of binary semantic oppositions like animate: inanimate, human: non-human, male: female (with animate and/or human categories), etc. At least, it is noticed that, in languages with grammatical gender, stems denoting male-human always belong to the masculine gender. Languages differ in their degree of grammatico-semantic correlation in the classification of nominal and pronominal stems.
An Overview of Comparative Dravidian Studies since Current Trends in Linguistics 5 (1969)
Authors: Krishnamurti Bhadriraju , Emeneau Murray B
Published: November 2023

1. Introduction

1.1. Although the Current Trends vol. V which dealt with the South Asian Languages was published in 1969, contributions to the volume were submitted as early as 1966. Emeneau (1971a: 34) deplored in 1968 that the Current Trends volume would become out of date even before it appeared. I wrote the chapter on comparative Dravidian studies in that volume-presenting a critical and comprehensive review of all available literature from the beginning up to 1966, with special referhence to the post-independence period. I would like to review the progress made since 1966 in the field of Comparative Dravidian. As I did in my Current Trends article, I would consider here only publications which explicitly deal with comparative Dravidian problems and not descriptive, typological, or other non-historical studies, even if they may indirectly aid comparative and historical research.
The Origin and Evolution of Primary Derivative Suffixes in Dravidian
Authors: Krishnamurti Bhadriraju , Emeneau Murray B
Published: November 2023

1. Introduction

In the1950s, when he was still in Czechoslovakia, Ladislav Zgusta wrote several reviews of works on comparative Dravidian linguistics, in collaboration with Kamil Zvelebil. This paper is a tribute to his profound contributions to the comparative method in general and to his early interest in Dravidian linguistics.

The monumental work of this century in comparative Dravidian linguistics, the Dravidian Etymological Dictionary of 1961, extensively revised in 1984, has scores of entries which lead us to reconstruct primary roots as well as extended stems for Proto-Dravidian (mainly of verbs but also of nouns), in which it is possible to assign some meaning to the monosyllabic roots, but no tangible meaning to the derivative suffixes. Consider for instance the data in 1
Patterns of Sound Change in Dravidian
Authors: Krishnamurti Bhadriraju , Emeneau Murray B
Published: November 2023

The major sound changes in Dravidian are classified into Historical and Typological. The historical changes are classified into (a) those internal to Proto-Dravidian, and (b) innovations confined to major branches, sub-branches, and individual languages, e.g. palatalization of velars, c > s > h > 0, umlaut, apical displacement, etc.
Evidence for a Laryngeal *H in Proto-Dravidian
Authors: Krishnamurti Bhadriraju , Emeneau Murray B
Published: November 2023

Old Tamil records of the early Christian era (3rd century BC to 3rd century AD) noted the occurrence of a phoneme called iiytam with some kind of h- colouring in about a dozen lexical items.
Optimality and Optimism: the Panglossian Paradigm
Authors: Mcmahon April
Published: November 2023

Prince and Smolensky (1993) quote Voltaire as an epigraph:’ “It is demonstrated,” he said, “that things cannot be otherwise: for, since everything was made for a purpose, everything is necessarily made for the best purpose” ‘ (Voltaire, Candide, or Optimism: Ch.1). Much of the argument in earlier chapters has tended towards the conclusion that things could almost always be otherwise. It is true that certain observations in biology do follow as a natural consequence of the inviolable laws of physics, and similarly in phonology, certain truly universal facts may reflect inviolable and immutable constraints. For the most part, however, the properties of language or of organisms in general could have evolved differently; and their current configuration, being in part determined by sheer historical accident, could certainly be other than it is. Constraints hypothesized by the theorist to circumscribe only the variation currently attested are therefore themselves shaped by contingency; and we require, in addition, tools for straightforward description. This may give rise to a view of the world rather less comforting, and less amenable to overall explanation, than the one of Prince and Smolensky’s quote. However, if we examine the context of that excerpt further, we shall discover that it reflects neither Candide’s view, nor Voltaire’s.
Old and New Views on Language History and Language Relationships
Authors: Bailey Charles-James N
Published: November 2023

It is regrettable that linguists, especially dialectologists and historical-comparative linguists, should have tried to force their work into static (i.e. minilectal) frameworks. For these are wholly recreant to analyses which are necessarily cross-lectal. As such, they cannot logically be made to fit into an idiolectal strait-jacket, whether the structuralist one or the transformationalist one, without becoming something other than what they are. Dialectology and comparative analysis obviously require the linguistic analogy of Bach’s well-tempered instrument. And the polylectal descriptive models of the dynamic framework are precisely this. Who, having once enjoyed a well-tempered instrument, could wish to return to one in which only tunes in one key (idiolect) can be played? Scholars in historical linguistics ought to seek their inspiration further in the past-in J. Schmidt and H. Schuchardt. We should be looking for models to implement the insights of those scholars, not aping single-key instruments totally unsuited to our needs.I maintain that, so far from its being feasible for historical investigations to employ static descriptive models, what is needed is for descriptive linguistics to adopt dynamic, or time-based, models of change. Trying to do linguistics with out a satisfactory understanding of the history of the language under analysis is like trying to fly a dirigible with gasoline in the engine but no gas in the bag: The thing is started and all sounds fine; only she will not get off the ground. In addition to the study of languages, there is the study of the history of theories. But this study can never approach in importance the study of the history of languages and should never be permitted to replace it in linguistic curriculums.
A Theory of Language and Information
Authors: Harris Zellig
Published: November 2023

Professor Harris presents a formal theory of language structure, in which syntax is characterized as an orderly system of departures from random combinations of sounds, words, and indeed of all elements of language. He argues that the combining of words into a sentence constitutes a mathematical object, and that each departure from equiprobability is a contribution both to the structure and to the meaning of a sentence. He discusses the differences in the structure and content of language, mathematics, and music, and shows that the use of language in a science constitutes a distinguishable sub-language. The structure of that sub-language organizes the information in the science and lies between the structure of language and that of mathematics. The syntactic theory developed here throws light upon the structuring of information and upon the nature and development of language, which the author shows to be a self-organizing and evolving system.
Overview
Authors: Harris Zellig
Published: November 2023

This book presents in the first place a formal theory of syntax (chs. 3, 4), in which a single relation on word-sequence gives to the set of these sequences the structure of a mathematical object, and produces a base set of sentences which carry all the information that is carried in the language. Within this set of sentences there acts a set of reductions which change the shape of words but not the information in the sentences, thereby producing the remaining sentences of the language. Prior material to this theory is an analysis of how words are constructed from sounds (7.1–4), and preliminary considerations of how words combine into sentences (7.5–8, 8.1). Following upon the establishment of sentences, we can go on to an analysis of how sentence sets, especially sentence-sequences, arc constrained in longer utterances and in discourses (ch. 9), and finally in sublanguages (ch. 10). The relation of syntactic structure to information and to the development of language is then discussed in Chapters 11, 12.
A Theory of Sentences
Authors: Harris Zellig
Published: November 2023

It has been noted (1.0, 2.1-2) that a central problem for a theory of language is determining the departures from equiprobability in the successive parts of utterances. It has been found that in natural languages it is not merely that not all combinations of parts arc equiprobable. but that not all combinations occur. That is, given even very large arbitrary samples of the utterances of a language, some word combinations have zero probability of being found. For the given language. then, we make a distinction between the combinations that have zero probability and those that have any positive probability. It will be seen below that the zero probability characterizes what is outside of syntax (3. 1), while the differences in positive probability characterize the differences in word meaning within syntax (3.2).
The Nature and Development of Language
Authors: Harris Zellig
Published: November 2023

The syntactic theory presented here enables us to arrive at some understanding of the nature of language. To he able to draw conclusions from the structural properties of language, it is necessary to have an organized and reasonably complete view of the whole structure of a language; otherwise the discussion can be supported only by episodic examples. It will be seen that certain properties are apparently common to the known languages, others belong to speech as distinguished from language structure, and still others are limited to the grammar of particular languages or language families. There are also certain kinds of phenomena which do not combine in any regular way with the main body of material in a language, and which therefore have to he left out of any precise language structure: for example, the voice of each speaker, cough of hesitation, and intonations of anger or surprise.
Primary-A verb types
Authors: Dixon R M W
Published: November 2023

This chapter deals with literal meanings of Primary-A verbs, with roles filled by NPs that have CONCRETE heads. As mentioned before, some Primary-A verbs do have secondary, metaphorical meanings, with other kinds of NP (or even a complement clause) as subject or object (e.g. John’s having got the job quite threw me i.e. ‘discomfited me’). However, these are almost all idiosyncratic to particular verbs so that no generalisations are possible across a type or subtype.

These two types have a number of subtypes which show pervasive semantic and syntactic parallels, so that they can usefully be considered together.
Dialects Converging
Authors: Kerswill Paul
Published: November 2023

Recent models of dialect contact, notably in the work of Trudgill, Chambers, James Milroy, and Labov have stressed the importance of the notions of salience, simplification, linguistic complexity, and the speech community in accounting for the patterns that arise. In this case-study of the speech of rural migrants in the Norwegian city of Bergen, Paul Kerswill critically examines the usefulness of these concepts, and puts recent models of dialect contact to the test for the first time against a case of such contact as it is actually happening. Dialect contact often, it is said, leads to Koineization - the emergence of new, mixed varieties of a language resulting from the intermingling of speakers of different varieties of that language. Kerswill investigates the extent to which processes of change typically ascribed to Koineization are already prefigured in the speech of the first-generation adult migrants of this study. While the author's approach is broadly quantitative he also demonstrates the importance of ethnographic and social-psychological explanations in accounting for the wide differences between individuals in the study. He argues for a sociolinguistic methodology founded on a richer and more comprehensive view of the social factors influencing, langague use.
Language Contact and Language Change: Linguistic and Social Issues
Authors: Kerswill Paul
Published: November 2023

For some years, there has been a fruitful interaction between structural and social approaches to language change, starting with Labov’s 1963 paper ‘The Social Motivation of a Sound Change’. This book follows in that sociolinguistic tradition, based as it is on a case study of language use by a particular social group. It will address an issue that, in the last few years, has come to the fore in both sociolinguistics and historical linguistics. This concerns the role of language contact in linguistic change. Language contact is a venerable field of study, though it was only with Weinreich’s Languages in Contact (1953) that an attempt was made to put it on an empirical footing. Surprisingly, language or dialect contact has rarely been explicitly built into either the theory or the methodology of variationism—that branch of sociolinguistics, typified by much of Labov’s work, which deals with broad patterns of social differentiation and seeks to describe linguistic change in a community.
Social Variation and Data Collection
Authors: Kerswill Paul
Published: November 2023

For the purposes of a sociolinguistic study, finding a set of extra-linguistic parameters relevant to the informant group is of crucial importance. There seem to be two general strategies for doing this: I shall call these ’inclusiveness’ and ’selectivity’. Inclusiveness has to my knowledge only been attempted once in a sociolinguistic study, that known as the Tyneside Linguistic Survey, which, as Jones (1978: 5) states: ’starts from the principle of exhaustive inclusion of parameters of variation’ (see also Pellowe et al. 1972). Its results were far from clear-cut, and point towards an extreme degree of complexity both in the social structure of an urban area and in the relationship between social and linguistic parameters in general. The ’selective’ strategy has been used in most other studies, and has given rather clearer results—perhaps partly because of the very simplification it implies. As with the strategy of inclusiveness, selectivity requires that the investigator has an intimate knowledge of the community under investigation. However, it additionally requires him or her to make informed, but ultimately subjective judgements of the relative importance of the social factors identified. There is an inherent danger in this.
Linguistic and Social Aspects of Dialect Contact: The Migrant
Authors: Kerswill Paul
Published: November 2023

In this final chapter, we shall try to see how sociolinguistic data on Stril migrants throw light on the issues raised in Chapter 1, particularly those relating to dialect contact. We shall show that the outcomes of new dialect formation are prefigured by the speech of the original migrants. It will become clear, however, that the overall sociolinguistic context the migrants find themselves in is crucial for these outcomes-a contention frequently made but less frequently studied. In order to be able to specif.y this context more precisely, a new, more inclusive speech community model will be presented.
Lukluk Bak: Recurrent Themes
Authors: Crowley Terry
Published: November 2023

Different aspects of the history of Melanesian Pidgin have been covered in studies such as Clark (1979-80) and Mühlhäusler (1979). The view of the development of the language that emerges from these studies, and others, is one of a gradually expanding and stabilizing contact language, passing through the following developmental stages: 1. Jargon Both Clark (1979-80) and Mühlhäusler (1979: 56-9) recognize the existence of macaronic, non-stable pre-pidgin English-lexified speech referred to as South Seas Jargon that was widely spoken before the 1860s around the Pacific. Mühlhäusler associates the jargon stage with the whaling, sandalwood, and sea-slug trades.
Women in Policing and Policing Women
Authors: Heidensohn Frances
Published: November 2023

In 1910 Alice Stebbins Wells was hired by the Los Angeles Police Department in the USA; in late 1915 Edith Smith was sworn in and given arrest powers in Grantham in England. There are other claims to both titles, but these two women are generally agreed to have been the first proper policewomen in their respective countries (Horne 1975; Lock 1979). Notable parallels exist between developments in both countries: women organized and campaigned in the USA and England for women police, women themselves actively sought office. For much of the twentieth century, women were a tiny minority of officers in both nations, confined to specialist roles, and this was, on the whole, what the campaigning pioneers had sought. As we shall see in later chapters, many of the problems faced are shared by female officers in both countries as are the policy issues concerning women on patrol, in public order situations, in handling violence, or in equal opportunities.
Policewomen in Britain
Authors: Heidensohn Frances
Published: November 2023

One main purpose of the earlier chapters of this book was to set the scene for the characters whom I now wish to introduce, the female police officers interviewed for this study (further details of the methodology of this study are given in the Appendix). All my informants were serving or former police officers in England or the USA. The group was formed by means of a ‘snowball’ system of sampling and thus cannot be claimed to be a random selection. As I shall make clear, it was not my intention to seek a representative group in that way. Rather, I tried to give a voice to women who have, as will become clear, a great deal to say about police and policing, yet whose voices have been relatively muted.
Introduction
Authors: Lobban Michael
Published: November 2023

This is a study of the debates about law and legal reasoning at the end of the eighteenth and the beginning of the nineteenth centuries. It seeks to address the question of what the common law was about, and how theorists and practitioners conceived it, in such a way as to make historians more sensitive to the legal framework. This is not therefore a history of any particular doctrine or area of law, but a discussion of the legal framework.
Bentham and the Complete Code of Laws
Authors: Lobban Michael
Published: November 2023

The story of how Jeremy Bentham grew disenchanted with the common law, seeing it as unable to provide either the clear rules needed for a modernizing society or the certainty that a legal system required, is now a very familiar one. Bentham’s critique of the common law—that it was ‘dog law’, whereby men were punished for their actions ex post facto, as you would beat a dog, that it existed nowhere but in the vague minds of the judges, and that it was in danger of being inflexible—led him, by the early 1780s, to seek to abandon it, or even a statutory digest of it, and put in its place a Pannomion, a complete and perfect code of laws. In so doing, Bentham had found his life’s work: the creation and completion of such a code.
Bentham’s Classifications and Analyses
Authors: Lobban Michael
Published: November 2023

If we reject Bentham’s substantive efforts at codification, we must address the ‘other’ Bentham, the classifier and analyst. Bentham’s main objections to the common law did not lie in what the judges did at case level, but in the inability of the common lawyers to create a set of terms and concepts to explain and hence to know what they were doing. His aim in writing An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation was therefore to create a code ‘in terminis’, and his delay in publishing the project resulted from him getting ‘unexpectedly entangled in ... the metaphysical maze’, that led him on to Of Laws in General . These early words should give us a clue to the nature of Bentham’s project: it was not to list offences in a simple penal code, but to create a structure of concepts and terms. An Introduction was perceived by Bentham to be a ‘metaphysical’ work, standing in relation to the substantive law as a treatise of pure mathematics stood to natural philosophy.
The Legal Basis of the Measures in Question
Authors: Ando Nisuke
Published: November 2023

In Chapter we have seen that SCAP directives were ordinarily formulated on the basis of instructions received from the US Government. The US Initial Post-Surrender Policy for Japan is the most representative and comprehensive of all these instructions. However, these instructions were of purely American origin, and, while a consideration of them is certainly necessary for an understanding of US occupation policy, the policy itself was not necessarily the legal basis for the measures deriving from it. Occupation measures were addressed to the Japanese Government and, through the Government, to the Japanese people.
The US Practice in Japan and International Law
Authors: Ando Nisuke
Published: November 2023

It was tentatively concluded in Chapter 4 that the applicability of the Hague Regulations to a post-surrender occupation is determined, for one thing, by the existence or non-existence of political terms of surrender which may constitute an advance commitment on the part of a victor state regarding post-surrender treatment of a vanquished state and its people, and for another, by the form and substance of those terms. When those terms presuppose continuation of the existing government of a vanquished state and eventual withdrawal of occupation forces, then the Hague Regulations should apply. But, when those terms presuppose suppression of the existing government of a vanquished state and annexation thereof, the Hague Regulations are not applicable. It must also be pointed out that those terms may entitle a victorious occupant to powers more extensive than those recognized under the Hague Regulations.
The Quest: Punishment in the Community, 1987–90
Authors: Windlesham Lord
Published: November 2023

The man and the moment came together in the aftermath of the General Election in June 1987. While the interrupted Criminal Justice Bill resumed its progress towards the statute book; while the committees and inquiries listed in the last chapter were busy garnering evidence; the Home Secretary stood back and took stock. Douglas Hurd had already been Home Secretary for nearly two years. Coming to the Home Office from the thankless assignment of Northern Ireland Secretary, his first Cabinet post, he had spent fifteen months’ apprenticeship as a Minister of State at the Home Office between 1983 and 1984. With the uncertainties of the General Election and the formation of the new Government behind him, it was a pensive man who returned to his room in Queen Anne’s Gate on 11 June to study the comprehensive brief drawn up by the Permanent Under-Secretary for incoming ministers after each Election.
Human Rights: Enforcing the Convention
Authors: Windlesham Lord
Published: November 2023

On 25 June 1990 nineteen judges filed into the European Court of Human Rights (the Court) at Strasbourg, taking their seats at a table in the shape of a huge horseshoe. The full Court was meeting in plenary session for a public hearing of the case of three United Kingdom applicants, each of whom had been sentenced to life imprisonment following convictions for serious sexual offences. These were discretionary, and not mandatory life sentences, bringing into question the continued lawfulness of detention after the expiry of the tariff period, determined by the UK authorities according to the procedures described in the previous chapter. Two of the applicants had been re-detained after conditional release on licence, and recalled to custody.
Psychological Hedonism and the Basis of Motivation
Authors: Kelly P J
Published: November 2023

At the beginning of An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation  I Bentham describes how mankind is placed ‘under the governance of two sovereigns masters, pain and pleasure.’ In this famous passage he indicates that his philosophy is premissed on his psychological theory. This psychological theory explains the conditions within which the legislator has to work in order to secure the maximum of social well-being. By providing an account of the way individuals act, the legislator is able to determine the encouragements and punishments needed to bring those actions into conformity with the requirements of duty. Bentham’s reliance on law as the primary means of ordering social interaction already suggests that there is no necessary conformity between the dictates of duty and ordinary human motivations. Therefore, if the legislator has to co-ordinate individual purposive action with the requirements of justice he needs to understand the sources of human motivation. Bentham’s psychological theory plays a crucial role in his thought, by explaining the causes of action, and by instructing the legislator how he is to constrain particular types of action.
Duress, Restitution, and Contract Renegotiation
Authors: Beatson J
Published: November 2023

The development of the modern doctrine of economic duress has occurred since 1976 and has been rapid. Until then duress, in the contractual context, was taken to be confined to actual or threatened violence to the person of the contracting party: duress of the person.1 As a consequence the doctrine was generally thought to be unsuitable for controlling other forms of coercion by a party to a contract that are more likely to be encountered in the modern world2 and little attention was paid to it in the contract textbooks.
Unrequested Payment of Another’s Debt*
Authors: Beatson J
Published: November 2023

The proposition which is fundamental to this essay is that the problems which arise in the law of restitution when one person pays another’s debt cannot be solved in the absence of a stable analysis of the effects of such a payment on the relationship between the creditor and the debtor. In Owen v. Tate,  1 the Court of Appeal, deciding that a voluntary surety had no right to restitution from the principal debtor, omitted to supply that analysis.2 Our aim is to show that the omission can be supplied, largely from nineteenth-century cases, and, ultimately, to suggest that the decision in Owen v. Tate then becomes open to question.
Involving the Law
Authors: Teff Harvey
Published: November 2023

A few years ago, in a much-publicized case, the House of Lords authorized the sterilization of a mentally retarded 17-year-old girl. Condemning the judgment, a leading academic physician declared that ‘the law is becoming an insatiable cormorant in matters of medicine’. Though the specific issue was emotive, such a forthright general charge of legal overreach is unsustainable. The view that the courts are meddlesome intruders in medical affairs may be popular among doctors, but it is very much at odds with judicial attitudes towards the medical profession and with the principles which govern the legal liability of its members.
Resilient Paternalism
Authors: Teff Harvey
Published: November 2023

In his classic study, The Silent World of Doctor and Patient, Katz declared that ‘if a conspiracy of silence exists, it takes place in the consulting room, right in front of the patient’. In Sidaway, the plaintiff referred to her neurosurgeon as a man of ‘very, very few words’. The trial judge found him to be ‘a reserved, slightly autocratic man of “the old school” ‘. Non-disclosure and deference have been among the hallmarks of the paternalistic tradition which has dominated orthodox medical practice over a period of some 2,500 years. It is only in the last thirty years or so that paternalism’s credentials as the appropriate model for medical relationships and as the best guarantor of patient welfare have been seriously challenged. There have, of course, always been other traditions and alternative images, complementary systems of medicine, and individual physicians averse to the dominant model. Equally, for many centuries the vast bulk of the population had little or no alternative to reliance on self-diagnosis, home remedies, and family support; while bitter experience made people sceptical about orthodox medicine’s curative powers. But paternalism has always been prominent in Western medicine, and remarkably resilient considering the strong countervailing social and cultural changes which have shaped modern society.
The Tort System In General Perspective
Authors: Fleming John G
Published: November 2023

In America tort liability is big business. More than 800,000 tort claims are filed each year and between 15,000 and 20,000 are tried, almost all before juries. Multimillion-dollar awards, once headline-makers, have become commonplace. The first million-dollar award, a combination of compensatory and punitive damages, was rendered in 1962 in a defamationaction;2 nowadays there are more than 250 a year, many of them in products liability and medical malpractice suits. Mass accidents and mass product disasters have repeatedly driven settlements into hundreds of millions of dollars, even billions, besides necessitating new procedures for administering such mass litigation. In 1985 compensation to tort plaintiffs as the result of legal proceedings alone amounted to $20-5 bn, One estimate put the total cost of the US tort system at$68 bn.