bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Infant Intersubjectivity: Research, Theory, and Clinical Applications
Authors: Trevarthen Colwyn , Aitken Kenneth J.
Published: October 2003

We review research evidence on the emergence and development of active “ self‐and‐other ” awareness in infancy, and examine the importance of its motives and emotions to mental health practice with children. This relates to how communication begins and develops in infancy, how it influences the individual subject's movement, perception, and learning, and how the infant's biologically grounded self‐regulation of internal state and self‐conscious purposefulness is sustained through active engagement with sympathetic others. Mutual selfother‐ consciousness is found to play the lead role in developing a child's cooperative intelligence for cultural learning and language. A variety of preconceptions have animated rival research traditions investigating infant communication and cognition. We distinguish the concept of “ intersubjectivity ”, and outline the history of its use in developmental research.

The transforming body and brain of ahumanindividual grows in active engagement with an environment of human factors‐organic at first, then psychological or inter‐mental. Adaptive, human‐responsive processes are generated first by interneuronal activity within the developing brain as formation of the human embryo is regulated in a support‐system of maternal tissues. Neural structures are further elaborated with the benefit of intra‐uterine stimuli in the foetus, then supported in the rapidly growing forebrain and cerebellum of the young child by experience of the intuitive responses of parents and other human companions. We focus particularly on intrinsic patterns and processes in pre‐natal and post‐natal brain maturation that anticipate psychosocial support in infancy. The operation of an intrinsic motive formation (IMF) that developed in the core of the brain before birth is evident in the tightly integrated intermodal sensory‐motor coordination of a newborn infant's orienting to stimuli and preferential learning of human signals, by the temporal coherence and intrinsic rhythms of infant behaviour, especially in communication, and neonates' extraordinary capacities for reactive and evocative imitation. The correct functioning of this integrated neural motivating system is found to be essential to the development of both the infant's purposeful consciousness and his or her ability to cooperate with other persons' actions and interests, and to learn from them.

The relevance of infants' inherent intersubjectivity to major child mental health issues is highlighted by examining selected areas of clinical concern. We review recent findings on postnatal depression, prematurity, autism, ADHD, specific language impairments, and central auditory processing deficits, and comment on the effcacy of interventions that aim to support intrinsic motives for intersubjective communication when these are not developing normally.
Research in Mental Retardation: Toward an Etiologic Approach
Authors: Dykens Elisabeth M. , Hodapp Robert M.
Published: October 2003

Over the past two decades, mental retardation research converges on three general themes: co‐occurring mental retardation and psychopathology; families of offspring with mental retardation; and the developmental approach regarding behavioral sequences and profiles. Intertwined with each theme is a mounting body of research on genetic mental retardation syndromes. We first review recent progress in each of the three domains—psychopathology, families, and development—based on studies of groups with heterogenous or nonspecific mental retardation. We then show how new findings from specific genetic syndromes take this knowledge even further, as well as aid in the search for genetic, physiological, and environmental mechanisms associated with certain behaviors. We end the review by briefly summarizing our reasons for promoting an etiological approach to future mental retardation research, as well as by discussing methodological and other challenges.
Pediatric Psychopharmacology
Authors: Riddle Mark A. , Kastelic Elizabeth A. , Frosch Emily
Published: October 2003

This paper reviews research in pediatric psychopharmacology over the past decade. The authors first discuss social, economic, and other influences on pediatric psychopharmacology research and prescribing patterns including changing models of childhood psychopathology, increased government funding, and changes in industry regulations. Definitions are offered for current research terminology including efficacy, effectiveness, and adverse events. Design trends and new approaches to outcome measurement are also presented. New data from the last 10 years of research is reviewed for each major class of psychotropic agents. Criteria for inclusion in the review are presented and include aspects of study design (placebo‐controlled, large sample size), source of funding (government funded vs. industry), and vision (creative applications). Data for short‐term efficacy, long‐term efficacy, effectiveness, and safety and adverse events are discussed for each class of medication, although for many, there remains little empirical data. Findings for stimulants, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, neuroleptics, alpha‐adrenergic agonists, mood stabilizers, buproprion, secretin, naltrexone, immune therapies, and natural supplements are all presented. Finally, the authors offer some speculations regarding the future of pediatric psychopharmacology research.
Current Trends in the Understanding and Treatment of Social Phobia in Youth
Authors: Velting Olivia N. , Albano Anne Marie
Published: October 2003

Social phobia is a common psychiatric problem in children and adolescents that has recently gained serious attention in clinical practice and research. This article describes the clinical presentation of social phobia and reviews several emergent areas of related research to social phobia in children and adolescents. We begin with a summary of research regarding the developmental pathways of childhood social anxiety into social phobia, highlighting normative developmental factors, behavioral inhibition, pathophysiology, genetics, and parenting/environmental factors. This is followed by a critical review of findings from studies providing evidence for and against the existence of subtypes of social phobia. Common comorbid disorders and sequelae of social phobia in children and adolescents are discussed, bringing to attention the critical need for effective treatments, the current status of which is reviewed in the final section. In sum, this review demonstrates that through research in multiple disciplines, scientists are now developing a better understanding of the risk and protective factors of social phobia in children and adolescents, ultimately leading to improvements in primary prevention and intervention efforts for children at serious risk for long‐term problems with education, employment, social relationships, and independent adult functioning.
Multilevel Modelling of Hierarchical Data in Developmental Studies
Authors: Boyle Michael H. , Willms J. Douglas
Published: October 2003

This report attempts to give nontechnical readers some insight into how a multilevel modelling framework can be used in longitudinal studies to assess contextual influences on child development when study samples arise from naturally formed groupings. We hope to achieve this objective by: (1) discussing the types of variables and research designs used for collecting developmental data; (2) presenting the methods and data requirements associated with two statistical approaches to developmental data—growth curve modelling and discrete‐time survival analysis ; (3) describing the multilevel extensions of these approaches, which can be used when the study of development includes intact clusters or naturally formed groupings; (4) demonstrating the flexibility of these two approaches for addressing a variety of research questions; and (5) placing the multilevel framework developed in this report in the context of some important issues, alternative approaches, and recent developments. We hope that readers new to these methods are able to visualize the possibility of using them to advance their work.
Genetic Influences on Language Impairment and Literacy Problems in Children: Same or Different?
Authors: Bishop D. V. M.
Published: October 2003

Data from two twin studies are examined to assess genetic and environmental influences on literacy, and the etiological relationship between language and literacy. Study 1 used children from 86 families previously recruited for a study of the genetics of specific language impairment (see Bishop, North, & Donlan, 1995), who completed tests of single‐word reading and spelling. Literacy problems in this sample were common, were strongly heritable, and showed a close genetic relationship with poor nonword repetition. Study 2 included two subsets of children: 37 twin pairs who had taken part in study 1, 3 to 4 years earlier, and 100 twin pairs recruited from the general population by Bishop et al. (1999). All children were given a standardised test of nonword reading. There was no genetic influence on nonword reading ability, either across the normal range, or at the lower extreme, though there were significant associations with some social variables. However, bivariate DeFries–Fulker analysis suggested that in this study, as in study 1, there was shared genetic variance between poor nonword repetition and literacy deficits. It is concluded that poor nonword repetition, which is known to be highly heritable, puts the child at risk for literacy problems. However, in a general population sample, such as that included in study 2, poor nonword repetition is a relatively rare correlate of literacy problems, which are more likely to have an environmental origin. Thus the different pattern of results in the two studies can be explained if one assumes that genetic influences are substantial only when literacy problems are severe and/or accompanied by oral language difficulties.
Development and Current Functioning in Adolescents with Asperger Syndrome: A Comparative Study
Authors: Gilchrist Anne , Green Jonathan , Cox Antony , Burton Di , Rutter Michael , Couteur Ann Le
Published: October 2003

Adolescents with Asperger syndrome (AS: without delay in speech development, diagnosed according to ICD‐10 clinical criteria) were compared with a group with high‐functioning autism (HFA: all with delayed speech development), and a group with conduct disorder (CD). Family and genetic studies suggest that Asperger syndrome and autism form part of the same spectrum, whereas the social impairments in conduct disorder are assumed to have different origins. The aims were to explore the relationships between early speech development and other aspects of functioning in autistic disorders, and to compare autistic and nonautistic social impairments. Early and current behaviour and IQ profiles were investigated.

The CD group were clearly different from both the AS and HFA groups. The AS group tended to have less severe early behavioural abnormalities than the HFA group, and were unlikely to have speech abnormalities, but other communicative, social, and restricted/ stereotyped behavioural difficulties were largely of a similar pattern to the abnormalities in the HFA group. Eighty per cent of the AS group met criteria for autism on the diagnostic algorithm associated with the Autism Diagnostic Interview‐Revised. By adolescence, the AS group were reported to be as abnormal as the HFA group but in structured 1: 1 interaction their conversation was better. IQ profile in the AS group showed relative strength on verbal measures, unlike the HFA group, but relatively good performance on the Block Design subtest of the WISC/WAIS was a feature of both the AS and HFA groups. The results indicate closely similar behavioural manifestations may arise by adolescence despite differences in speech development. Follow‐up studies and further family investigations will be required to clarify the origins of these and other patterns of autistic development.
Executive Functioning in High‐functioning Children with Autism
Authors: Liss Miriam , Fein Deborah , Allen Doris , Dunn Michelle , Feinstein Carl , Morris Robin , Waterhouse Lynn , Rapin Isabelle
Published: October 2003

Executive functioning was investigated in 34 children (24 boys and 10 girls) with developmental language disorder (DLD) and 21 children (18 boys and 3 girls) with high‐functioning autistic disorder (HAD) matched on Full Scale IQ, Nonverbal IQ, age (mean age 9 year, 1 month), and SES. The DLD group had a Verbal IQ that was 10 points higher than the HAD group. These children were given the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST), the Mazes subtest from the WISC‐R, the Underlining test, and the Rapid Automatized Naming test. In addition, these children were given the Vineland Scales of Adaptive Functioning and the Wing Diagnostic Symptom Checklist in order to assess severity of autistic symptomatology. Results indicated that the only significant difference between the two groups on the cognitive tasks was perseverative errors on the WCST; there was no significant difference on total number of categories achieved or total number of errors on the WCST or on the other executive function measures. There was also significant overlap in the scores between the two groups and the difference in perseverative errors was no longer significant when Verbal IQ was partialled out. Executive functioning was strongly related to all IQ variables in the DLD group and particularly related to Verbal IQ in the HAD group. Although there was a relationship in the HAD group between executive functioning and adaptive functioning, as well as between executive functioning and autistic symptomatology, these relationships were generally no longer significant in the HAD group after the variance due to Verbal IQ was accounted for. The results are interpreted to indicate that although impaired executive functioning is a commonly associated feature of autism, it is not universal in autism and is unlikely to cause autistic behaviors or deficits in adaptive function.
Advancing Advanced Mind‐reading Tests: Empathic Accuracy in Adults with a Pervasive Developmental Disorder
Authors: Roeyers Herbert , Buysse Ann , Ponnet Koen , Pichal Bert
Published: October 2003

Research using advanced but static mind‐reading tests with high‐functioning adults with a pervasive developmental disorder (PDD) provided evidence for subtle social cognitive deficits. In the present study, adults with PDD were unimpaired on such tasks, relative to individually matched normal controls. Significant differences between the two groups were, however, found on a more naturalistic empathic accuracy task developed for this study. Participants viewed two videotaped interactions that both depicted a male and female stranger having an initial conversation and were asked to infer the unexpressed thoughts and feelings of the four targets. Subjects with PDD performed significantly worse on the second video. These findings suggest that the mind‐reading deficit of a subgroup of able adults with PDD may only be apparent when a sufficiently complex naturalistic assessment method is being used.
Phonological Processing, Language, and Literacy: A Comparison of Children with Mild‐to‐moderate Sensorineural Hearing Loss and Those with Specific Language Impairment
Authors: Briscoe Josie , Bishop Dorothy V. M. , Norbury Courtenay Frazier
Published: October 2003

Phonological skills, language ability, and literacy scores were compared for four groups: 19 children with mild‐to‐moderate sensorineural hearing loss (SNH), 20 children with specific language impairment (SLI), 20 controls matched on chronological age to the SNH group (CA), and 15 controls matched on receptive vocabulary level to a subset of the SLI group (CB). In common with the SLI group, mean scores of children with mild‐to‐moderate hearing loss were significantly poorer on tests of phonological short‐term memory, phonological discrimination, and phonological awareness than CA controls. No differences between group means were observed in SNH and CA control groups on vocabulary, digit and sentence recall, sentence comprehension, and literacy scores. However, there was considerable individual variation within the SNH group. Nearly 50% of the SNH group showed phonological impairment associated with poorer expressive and receptive vocabulary and higher hearing thresholds than remaining children without phonological impairment. Nonword repetition deficits were observed in SNH subgroups with and without phonological impairment and were of a similar magnitude to those observed in children with SLI. Indeed, poorer repetition in children with SLI could only be differentiated from children with SNH on phonologically complex nonwords. Overall, findings suggested major problems in nonword repetition and phonological impairment occurred without clinically significant deficits in wider language and literacy abilities in children with mild‐to‐moderate sensorineural hearing loss. Implications for theories of SLI are discussed.
War Exposure and Maternal Reactions in the Psychological Adjustment of Children from Bosnia‐Hercegovina
Authors: Smith Patrick , Perrin Sean , Yule William , Rabe‐Hesketh Sophia
Published: October 2003

As part of a UNICEF‐sponsored Psychosocial Programme in Bosnia, data were collected from a representative sample of 339 children aged 9–14 years, their mothers, and their teachers in order to investigate risk and moderating factors in children's psychological reactions to war. Self‐report data from children revealed high levels of post‐traumatic stress symptoms and grief reactions, but normal levels of depression and anxiety. Mothers’ self‐reports also indicated high levels of post‐traumatic stress reactions, but normal levels of depression and anxiety. Child distress was related to both their level of exposure and to maternal reactions. Structural equation modeling was used to quantify the relationships between these risk factors and child distress, and to examine putative pathways to account for the association between child and maternal health. Children's adjustment was associated significantly with both exposure (φ= .37) and maternal mental health (φ= .37). Modeling also revealed a significant distorting effect of mother's own mental health on behavioural ratings of her child (ψ= .59). Although evidence exists for an association between maternal mental health and mother rating errors, there is also a substantive association between maternal mental health and children's adjustment following war.
Stress, Emotional Skill, and Illness in Children: The Importance of Distinguishing between Children's and Parents’ Reports of Illness
Authors: Meade Jill A. , Lumley Mark A. , Casey Rita J.
Published: October 2003

This study examined relationships of stress (negative event frequency during the last year) to reports of illness among 92 children, aged 10 to 13 years. Children's health status was reported separately by children and parents, and children's skill in identifying and communicating their feelings was tested for direct and buffering relationships on illness reports. Analyses controlled for demographics and negative affect of both children and parents, and children's verbal ability was also tested for confounding. Results showed that stress correlated positively with children's poor health, whether the children's health status was reported by children or by parents. Children's emotional skill was correlated with better health when health was reported by children, but with worse health when health was reported by parents. Further, moderator analyses indicated that the relationship between negative event frequency and children's poor health as reported by parents held only for children with high levels of skill in identifying and communicating feelings. These findings suggest that negative life events impair children's health, but that the health reports of children and parents are quite different, and parents’ views may be affected by children's skill in communicating their internal states.
The Assessment of the Situational Specificity of Children's Problem Behaviour in Peer—Peer Context
Authors: Matthys Walter , Maassen Gerard H. , Cuperus Juliane M. , Van Engeland Herman
Published: October 2003

In both theory and research the general issue of the extent to which children's problem behaviour is generalised across situations, and to what extent it is situation specific, has been neglected. In the clinical assessment of disordered children, too, little attention has been paid to the specific situations in which these children display their inappropriate behaviour. In this study the Taxonomy of Problematic Social Situations (TOPS) (Dodge, McClaskey, & Feldman, 1985) was employed. This is a questionnaire in which the child's teacher is asked to rate the likelihood of a child responding in an inappropriate manner in a specific situation. Characteristics of TOPS were investigated both in randomly selected normal school children and in boys with a conduct disorder. Four factors appeared to underlie the TOPS scores from 652 randomly selected boys and girls from grades 1 to 6, these being: teachers’ scores for the types of problem situation, Being Disadvantaged, Coping with Competition, Social Expectations of Peers, and Teacher Expectations. Because of the high internal consistency of the four factors, TOPS was abbreviated to a TOPS‐Short Form (18 instead of 44 items). The four‐factor model was cross‐validated by means of a second sample of 326 boys and girls. A model with only one general problem behaviour factor did not fit the data of both samples. When the four specific factors were added a satisfactory fit resulted. Moreover, it was found that in the first sample 52% of the variance was explained by the general factor, whereas 18% of the variance was explained by the four specific factors together. Thus, the extent to which problem behaviour is situation specific should not be disregarded. In all four types of problem situation, boys showed more inappropriate behaviour than girls. With increasing age, children were rated as being more competent in dealing with the problem situation, Being Disadvantaged. Teachers rated the four types of problem situation as more problematic for boys with a conduct disorder (N= 42) than for normal control boys (N= 67). Conduct disordered boys also differed individually in the number of situational types that were problematic for them. With respect to clinical implications, the identification of the particular social context in which a conduct disordered child displays his or her inappropriate behaviour may help refine treatment goals: more adequate social functioning should be aimed at specifically in those situations that are problematic.
Using Claims Data to Examine Mortality Trends Following Hospitalization for Heart Attack in Medicare
Authors: Ash Arlene S. , Posner Michael A. , Speckman Jeanne , Franco Shakira , Yacht Andrew C. , Bramwell Lindsey
Published: October 2003

Objective.

To see if changes in the demographics and illness burden of Medicare patients hospitalized for acute myocardial infarction (AMI) from 1995 through 1999 can explain an observed rise (from 32 percent to 34 percent) in one‐year mortality over that period.

Data Sources. Utilization data from the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) fee‐for‐service claims (MedPAR, Outpatient, and Carrier Standard Analytic Files); patient demographics and date of death from CMS Denominator and Vital Status files. For over 1.5 million AMI discharges in 1995–1999 we retain diagnoses from one year prior, and during, the case‐defining admission.

Study Design. We fit logistic regression models to predict one‐year mortality for the 1995 cases and apply them to 1996–1999 files. The CORE model uses age, sex, and original reason for Medicare entitlement to predict mortality. Three other models use the CORE variables plus morbidity indicators from well‐known morbidity classification methods (Charlson, DCG, and AHRQ's CCS). Regressions were used as is—without pruning to eliminate clinical or statistical anomalies. Each model references the same diagnoses—those recorded during the pre‐ and index admission periods. We compare each model's ability to predict mortality and use each to calculate risk‐adjusted mortality in 1996–1999.

Principal Findings. The comprehensive morbidity classifications (DCG and CCS) led to more accurate predictions than the Charlson, which dominated the CORE model (validated C‐statistics: 0.81, 0.82, 0.74, and 0.66, respectively). Using the CORE model for risk adjustment reduced, but did not eliminate, the mortality increase. In contrast, adjustment using any of the morbidity models produced essentially flat graphs.

Conclusions. Prediction models based on claims‐derived demographics and morbidity profiles can be extremely accurate. While one‐year post‐AMI mortality in Medicare may not be worsening, outcomes appear not to have continued to improve as they had in the prior decade. Rich morbidity information is available in claims data, especially when longitudinally tracked across multiple settings of care, and is important in setting performance targets and evaluating trends.
Expanding Public Health Insurance to Parents: Effects on Children's Coverage under Medicaid
Authors: Dubay Lisa , Kenney Genevieve
Published: October 2003

Objective. To assess whether expanding public health insurance coverage to parents leads to increases in Medicaid participation among children.

Data Sources/Study Setting. Study uses data from the 1997 and 1999 National Survey of America's Families. Insurance coverage of children eligible for Medicaid under the poverty‐related expansions is analyzed.

Study Design. We conduct two analyses. In the first, we examine the cross‐sectional difference regarding whether Medicaid participation is higher for children eligible for Medicaid under the poverty‐related expansions when states expand public health insurance programs to cover their parents. In the second, we use a difference in‐difference approach to assess whether the expansion of the Medicaid program to cover parents in Massachusetts led to an increase in Medicaid coverage among children between 1997 and 1999 relative to changes that occurred in the rest of the nation.

Data Collection/Extraction Methods. The analysis relies on a detailed Medicaid and SCHIP eligibility simulation model that identifies children surveyed on the NSAF who are eligible for Medicaid under the poverty‐related expansions.

Principal Findings. Children who reside in states that expanded public health insurance programs to parents participate in Medicaid at a rate that is 20 percentage points higher than of those who live in states with no expansions. The Massachusetts expansion in coverage to parents led to a 14 percentage point increase in Medicaid coverage among children due principally to reductions in uninsurance among already eligible children.

Conclusions. Expanding public health insurance coverage to parents has benefits to children in the form of increased participation in Medicaid.
Working More Productively: Tools for Administrative Data
Authors: Roos Leslie L. , Soodeen Ruth‐Ann , Bond Ruth , Burchill Charles
Published: October 2003

Objective. This paper describes a web‐based resource (http://www.umanitoba.ca/centres/mchp/concept/) that contains a series of tools for working with administrative data. This work in knowledge management represents an effort to document, find, and transfer concepts and techniques, both within the local research group and to a more broadly defined user community. Concepts and associated computer programs are made as “modular” as possible to facilitate easy transfer from one project to another.

Study Setting/Data Sources. Tools to work with a registry, longitudinal administrative data, and special files (survey and clinical) from the Province of Manitoba, Canada in the 1990–2003 period.

Data Collection. Literature review and analyses of web site utilization were used to generate the findings.

Principal Findings. The Internet‐based Concept Dictionary and SAS macros developed in Manitoba are being used in a growing number of research centers. Nearly 32,000 hits from more than 10,200 hosts in a recent month demonstrate broad interest in the Concept Dictionary.

Conclusions. The tools, taken together, make up a knowledge repository and research production system that aid local work and have great potential internationally. Modular software provides considerable efficiency. The merging of documentation and researcher‐to‐researcher dissemination keeps costs manageable.
IAS Versus U.S. GAAP: Information Asymmetry–Based Evidence from Germany's New Market
Authors: Leuz Christian
Published: October 2003

abstract

Motivated by the debate about globally uniform accounting standards, this study investigates whether firms using U.S. generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP) vis‐à‐vis international accounting standards (IAS) exhibit differences in several proxies for information asymmetry. It exploits a unique setting in which the two sets of standards are put on a level playing field. Firms trading in Germany's New Market must choose between IAS and U.S. GAAP for financial reporting, but face the same regulatory environment otherwise. Thus, institutional factors such as listing requirements, market microstructure, and standards enforcement are held constant. In this setting, differences in the bid‐ask spread and share turnover between IAS and U.S. GAAP firms are statistically insignificant and economically small. Subsequent analyses of analysts' forecast dispersion, initial public offering underpricing, and firms' standard choices corroborate these findings. Thus, at least for New Market firms, the choice between IAS and U.S. GAAP appears to be of little consequence for information asymmetry and market liquidity. These findings do not support widespread claims that U.S. GAAP produce financial statements of higher informational quality than IAS.
Accuracy and Fluency in List and Context Reading of Skilled and RD Groups: Absolute and Relative Performance Levels
Authors: Jenkins Joseph R. , Fuchs Lynn S. , Van Den Broek Paul , Espin Christine , Deno Stanley L.
Published: October 2003

The purpose of this study was to examine (1) the performance levels and the magnitude of performance difference between students with reading disabilities (RD) and skilled readers when reading a typical classroom text; (2) the hypothesis that students with RD have specific difficulty using context in such a way that reading fluency is affected; and (3) whether RD subtypes may be differentiated according to performance on contextual and context‐free reading tasks. Two groups of fourth graders (85 skilled readers and 24 students with RD) completed a standardized test of reading comprehension, read aloud a folktale, and read aloud the folktale's words in a randomly sequenced list. Performance was scored as correct rate and percentage correct. Based on the number of words per idea unit in the passage, we also estimated the rate at which reader groups encountered and processed text ideas. Compared to the RD group, skilled readers read three times more correct words per minute in context, and showed higher accuracy and rates on all measures. Both context and isolated word‐reading rates were highly sensitive to impairment. We found no evidence for RD subtypes based on these measures. Results illustrate differences in reading levels between the two groups, the temporal advantage skilled readers have in linking text ideas, how word reading differs as a function of task format and performance dimension, and how limited word‐identification skills (not comprehension) produce contextual reading difficulties for students with RD.
Learner Characteristics that Influence the Treatment Effectiveness of Early Literacy Interventions: A Meta‐Analytic Review
Authors: Ron Nelson J. , Benner Gregory J. , Gonzalez Jorge
Published: October 2003

The purpose of this article was to systematically review the available research on learner characteristics that influence the treatment effectiveness of early literacy interventions. Meta‐analytic procedures were applied to a total of 30 studies that met the inclusionary and exclusionary criteria. Mean average effect sizes were computed for seven primary learner characteristic categories: (1) rapid naming, (2) alphabetic principle, (3) phonological awareness, (4) problem behavior, (5) memory, (6) IQ, and (7) demographic. The primary learner characteristics that influenced the treatment responsiveness of early literacy interventions were, in order of magnitude, rapid naming, problem behavior, phonological awareness, alphabetic principle, memory, IQ, and demographics. With the exception of the demographic category, the obtained effect sizes for the primary learner characteristics were moderately large. The demographic primary learner characteristic (i.e., disability, ethnicity, grade‐level status) of children was not statistically (p < 0.05) distinct from zero. The findings, limitations, and future research needs are discussed.
Measuring Development Performance in the Electronics Industry
Authors: Loch Christoph , Stein Lothar , Terwiesch Christian
Published: October 2003

Within a year or so, the computer you purchased last month will probably be obsolete. For a manufacturer faced with such short product life‐cycles, the performance of the new product development (NPD) function can determine whether the firm itself is relegated to the scrap heap. With such a close link between NPD performance and a firm's overall success, we need to do more than simply ensure that individual projects are well managed; we need to assess NPD's overall contribution to the company's business performance.

Christoph Loch, Lothar Stein, and Christian Terwiesch develop a two‐step model for measuring the performance of the NPD function. In this model, development output performance is the direct driver of business success. In other words, the output and the productivity of the NPD function directly affect a company's profitability and sales growth. Development output performance is driven by development process performance—that is, the operational management of development projects.

Using data from the “Excellence in Electronics” project (a joint research effort of Stanford University, the University of Augsburg, and McKinsey & Co.), the two‐step model is applied to a sample of 95 business units operating in three international electronics industries: consumer/small products, computers/communications, and industrial measurement/large systems. This analysis has two main objectives: identifying the key measures of development output performance and their contribution to business success; and identifying the important measures of development process performance and their contributions to development output performance.

Development productivity, measured by development expense intensity, is the clearest predictor of business success. In other words, you can't buy a competitive advantage by pouring more money into R&D. Success comes from more efficient NPD, not simply outspending the competition. In the computer industry, design‐to‐cost has a positive effect on profitability growth, and design quality has a positive influence on sales growth.

The factors underlying development process performance are much more dependent on the nature of competition in each industry. For example, because competition in the large systems industry still focuses primarily on technical competence, design‐to‐cost efforts in this industry lag behind those of the computer industry. Important measures of development process performance for all industry segments examined in the study include supplier involvement in the design, early prototyping, a team‐based development organization, the use of team rewards, and value engineering.
Validation of Expert Systems for Innovation Management: Issues, Methodology, and Empirical Assessment
Authors: Ram Sundaresan , Ram Sudha
Published: October 2003

Faced with the complexities of managing new product development, most of us would welcome the support of a computer‐based system that captures the knowledge and the reasoning capabilities of experts in our field. Considerable effort has been focused on the design and development of expert systems for applications such as new product management. However, design and development are only two steps on the path to successful implementation of a useful expert system. A rigorous validation process is essential for ensuring that the expert system performs as intended.

Using the INNOVATOR expert system as an example, Sundaresan Ram and Sudha Ram propose and test a framework for validating expert systems designed for new product management. The proposed validation framework considers three aspects of the expert system: its knowledge acquisition methodology, its performance, and its utility.

Validation of an expert system's knowledge acquisition methodology involves assessment of the knowledge sources used, the criteria for selecting human experts, and the methods used for knowledge acquisition. Using multiple sources improves the likelihood that the expert system will capture the necessary core knowledge. Similarly, selection of the experts who are to supply the knowledge used by the expert system should be based on reliable measures of new product expertise rather than ad hoc measures.

The system's performance is evaluated through formal tests of the accuracy and the completeness of the knowledge base, the consistency and the accuracy of the decisions made by the system, and the reasoning process by which the system reaches its decisions. Such tests may involve direct examination of the system by experts, and Turing tests, which compare both the recommendations and the reasoning process of the system with those of selected experts. Both types of tests may involve experts from whom knowledge was acquired during the development of the system as well as experts who were not involved in the design and development of the system.

Assessment of an expert system's utility focuses on user perceptions of system performance and utility as well as the design of the user interface. First, end‐users must evaluate the relevance of the chosen problem domain. In other words, the validation process must verify that the expert system addresses an important problem that requires decision support tools. Second, the expert system must provide a logical, systematic approach to solving the problem. Finally, the expert system must provide a consistent, intuitive user interface.
Interdepartmental Integration: A Definition with Implications for Product Development Performance
Authors: Kahn Kenneth B.
Published: October 2003

Improved interdepartmental integration yields improved product development performance. But what do we mean by interdepartmental integration? Is it increased interaction between the various departments involved in product development—in other words, more meetings and other formal information flows between R&D marketing and manufacturing? Or is the term integration another way of saying collaboration—that is, various departments working collectively toward common goals? Or are collaboration and interaction both important elements of interdepartmental integration?

Kenneth B. Kahn presents the results of a study exploring how collaboration and interaction affect product development performance and product management (post‐launch) performance. Survey respondents are marketing, manufacturing, and R&D department managers working for firms in the electronics industry. It is hypothesized that both collaboration and interaction between departments will positively influence product development performance and product management performance. It is further hypothesized that collaboration will have a stronger effect than interaction.

The survey responses indicate that collaboration has a strong, positive effect on performance. (The only exception is the effect of manufacturing managers' collaboration with marketing on product development success; the effect of this variable is not statistically significant). However, interaction does not have a significant effect on product development performance or product management performance. In fact, the responses indicate negative effects for meetings and the exchange of documented information.

The results support increased emphasis on company policies that facilitate collaboration between departments as opposed to those that only stress meetings and documented information exchange. Although a certain level of interaction is necessary throughout the product development process, such interaction doesn't lead to success; collaboration makes the difference between success and failure.

To best manage interdepartmental integration, managers should first assess their firm's levels of interdepartmental collaboration and interaction. The scales presented in this study can be used for this benchmarking effort. The results of this assessment can be used for developing and implementing an action plan for improving interdepartmental integration. For example, a manager faced with a prevailing interaction philosophy might seek to reduce the number of meetings or the amount of paperwork flowing between departments.
R&D Project Termination Decisions: Processes, Communication, and Personnel Changes
Authors: Balachandra R. , Brockhoff Klaus K. , Pearson Alan W.
Published: October 2003

The decision to terminate a project can demoralize project managers and team members, and increase concerns about job security. For these reasons, managers tend to delay project termination decisions. However, delaying project termination diverts scarce R&D resources from higher potential projects.

Ramaiya Balachandra, Klaus K. Brockhoff, and Alan W. Pearson describe the results of a study that explores the manner in which managers inform staff of the decision to terminate or continue a project. Survey respondents are the highest ranking R&D managers in 78 large German, British, and U.S. companies. Respondents were asked to describe the procedures they use for monitoring R&D projects and deciding whether to continue a project. Underlying this research is the belief that more effective management of these processes can improve project team effectiveness, employee relations, and morale.

All survey respondents use project monitoring procedures. Most use formal procedures, often supplemented with informal procedures. More than one person usually monitors projects. Project managers, their immediate superiors, and project staff typically have these responsibilities, but respondents also indicate that marketing managers often monitor projects. Compared to U.S. companies, European firms typically involve fewer people in project monitoring. U.S. firms involve more non‐R&D personnel in these tasks.

Most firms focus on monitoring such variables as time, technical success, and probability of technical success. Staff motivation is the least used monitoring variable. Cost control was mentioned more frequently by German respondents than by respondents from other countries. Decisions regarding the fate of a project usually come from individuals not directly involved with the project.

Termination decisions are typically communicated in writing; no respondents use staff meetings to relate such decisions. Following the decision to terminate a project, management faces the difficult task of finding suitable jobs for project team members. Rather than assign an entire team to a new project, management typically disbands a team and assigns its members to other teams. The inherently uneven progress of R&D projects complicates these scheduling problems, and thus compounds the career uncertainty caused by project termination decisions.
New Product Strategies of Large, Dominant Product Manufacturing Firms: An Exploratory Analysis
Authors: Firth Richard W. , Narayanan V. K.
Published: October 2003

Although researchers have expended considerable effort exploring the links between new product strategy and firm‐level performance, most studies of this subject focus on small‐ to medium‐sized firms. Compared to smaller firms, however, large companies typically maintain broader portfolios of products and have easier access to capital markets. Such fundamental differences suggest the need for closer examination of the relationship between new product strategy and the performance of large firms.

Based on a study of 459 new products introduced during a 5‐year period, Richard W. Firth and V. K. Narayanan profile the new product strategies of 18 large companies. They examine the methods used to acquire new products (internal development or external sources) as well as three dimensions of each firm's new product introductions: newness of embodied technology, newness of market application, and innovativeness in the market. In other words, these profiles identify the degree to which a firm's new product introductions involve core technologies and markets that are new to the firm, as well as the degree to which the market views these products as innovative. Because new product strategy is an investment decision, the study also examines the relationship between these strategic profiles and two facets of firm‐level performance: risk and return.

The study identifies five archetypes of new product strategy: Innovators, who produce innovative products by using their existing resources; Investors in Technology, who focus on expanding their technological base. Searching for New Markets, firms that venture into unfamiliar markets by introducing products closely aligned with those in their existing portfolios; Business as Usual, firms that rely on existing technologies and products to serve existing markets; and Middle‐of‐the‐Road, firms content to introduce new products rated as low to moderate along all three dimensions of the strategic profile.

For new products closely aligned with their core markets and technologies, the firms in this study typically rely on internal development. To introduce products involving new technologies or market applications, they turn to acquisition from external sources. Firms that emphasized market innovativeness in their new product introductions enjoyed higher returns than less innovative firms. And contrary to conventional wisdom, they gained this advantage without an accompanying increase in risk. In other words, continual innovation might provide a large firm with the means for achieving higher returns without higher risk.