bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Emergence of the Diversity of Igneous Rocks As A Geological Problem: Part One—Early Speculations
Authors: Young Davis
Published: April 2015

Speculation about igneous rock diversity began in the first half of the nineteenth century after acceptance of the existence of ancient volcanism and the recognition of two fundamental types of lava: basalt and trachyte. Before 1850, George Poulett Scrope (1797-1876), Charles Darwin (1809-1882), and James Dwight Dana (1813-1895) attributed diversity to intumescence of gas-rich lava, crystal settling, and differential fusion of minerals. In the 1850s, Robert Bunsen (1811-1899) maintained that lava is derived from two deep normal trachytic and normal pyroxenic sources. Wolfgang Sartorius von Waltershausen (1809-1876), Joseph Durocher (1817-1860), and Ferdinand von Richthofen (1833-1905) universalized Bunsen's sources by postulating a density-stratified Earth in which a layer of acid, feldspathic material rested above a layer of basic, basaltic material. Exploration of the complex volcanic terranes of western America in the 1860s and 1870s undermined the two-source theories and opened the way for the concept of fusion of already solid crust. Prior to 1880, speculations about diversity were typically suggested by naturalists, chemists, and geological generalists with strong interests in the geomorphic or geophysical aspects of Earth. Consequently, the problem of diversity was a peripheral concern to most of those proposing hypotheses. The hypotheses characteristically reflected the professional interests of their proposers. The content of the early speculations was further shaped by the nature of the field areas studied by proposers, and by their views on the correlation between geologic age and igneous rock type. Those, like Scrope, Darwin, Dana, Joseph Jukes (1811-1869), Carl Bernhard von Cotta (1808-1870), and Clarence Dutton (1841-1912), who rejected such correlations, located the source of igneous rock diversity at the surface, within a volcano, or within the acid crust. Those, like Bunsen, von Waltershausen, Durocher, von Richthofen, and Clarence King (1842-1901), who accepted the Wernerian idea that there had been changes in igneous rock type through time were more inclined to attribute diversity to multiple lava sources at great depth.
The Dreamer and the Pragmatist: A Joint Biography of Walter Wetzel and Otto Wetzel, with A Survey of their Contributions to Geology and Micropaleontology
Authors: Dietz Linda , Sarjeant William , Mitchell Trent
Published: April 2015

After a long hiatus, work on fossil dinoflagellates was revived in Germany during the 1920s and 1930s by two geologists who were namesakes, but unrelated—Walter Wetzel (1887-1978) and Otto Wetzel (1891-1971). An account is presented of their lives and geological work, their contributions to micropaleontology being emphasized and their research approaches contrasted. It is hoped this may enable a greater insight to be gained, not only into their personal academic achievements but also into the peculiar influences exerted upon them by the events which both shaped and destroyed Germany in the first half of this century. Following this article, a comprehensive bibliographical list of works published by Walter Wetzel and Otto Wetzel is presented, with translations of titles.
Commentaries on the Huttonian Theory of the Earth From Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 1805-1815
Authors: Bretsky Peter
Published: April 2015

Articles published from 1805 to 1815 in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh reflect a rapidly emerging and meticulous empiricism in the study of earth history; an empiricism directed principally toward an understanding of James Hutton's notions about cyclical, igneous-based, earth processes. One obvious focus for this detailed testing was Hutton's disagreement with Werner over the origin of basalt, which was most carefully explored in the laboratory studies of Sir James Hall and Robert Kennedy. However the geological field observations of Sir George Mackenzie, Lord Webb Seymour, John Playfair and other Society members seemed also to play a most important role in deciphering the Huttonian logic.

Hall, following Lavoisier but in disagreement with Hutton, repeatedly emphasized that a more rigorous experimental micro-chemistry would eventually result in a more fundamentally sound macrogeology. In a number of papers read before the Royal Society it was obvious that Hall and his colleagues were indebted to Hutton for his demanding brand of field empiricism, which they acclaimed as a break with the less rigorous 18th century cosmologies, but Hutton was definitely not venerated. Certain Huttonian conclusions were verified but others were severely compromised not only by the results of Hall's fusion experiments but also by numerous field observations especially of Alpine geomorphic features. Indeed, attempting to understand the scale of geological processes through their subsequent effects appears at times to have been a more fundamental pursuit than a continual chorus of fire versus water.

Obscured perhaps by the studies of subsequent generations these turn-of-the-century geological controversies were so enriched by empirical fervor that even this brief perusal of the Transactions cannot fail to impress us with the high level of imaginative experimentation devised by members of the Society, experimentation, however, resulting in large part from the Huttonian legacy.
Geology and the Wheeler Survey
Authors: Guth Peter
Published: April 2015

The Wheeler Survey was the only one of the territorial surveys of the 1860's and 1870's to concentrate on topographic mapping rather than geology. This difference in emphasis contributed to the poor relations of the Army survey with the two Interior Department surveys and with the scientific community after 1873. Geologists' complaints with the Wheeler Survey centered on: the rapid pace of fieldwork, the publication policy, the accuracy and utility of the topographic base maps, and the subordination to the Army's young lieutenants.

Ten geologists and three paleontologists served in the field with Wheeler. His survey's official publications reported reconnaissance work in Colorado, New Mexico, Utah, Arizona, Nevada, and California. The survey's geologists collected many new fossils for description and stratigraphic evaluation by F.B. Meek and by C.A. White. E.D. Cope discovered the Puercan (earliest Paleocene) faunas of New Mexico, one of his most significant scientific discoveries, while with Wheeler. Mining geologist John Church based his theory of heat generation in the Comstock Lode on field work for the Wheeler survey. While serving with Wheeler, J.J. Stevenson made controversial discoveries of late Paleozoic orogeny in the Rockies and Cretaceous coal deposits. G.K. Gilbert recognized the fault block nature of the Basin Ranges, and began his study of Lake Bonneville during field work with the Wheeler survey; he established in its publications the basis for his later career.
Edward Hicks Reads the Book of Nature
Authors: Porter Charlotte
Published: April 2015

The special concern with organized natural history which distinguished the Philadelphia community following the War of 1812 can be found in surprising places. The natural environment of the new nation thoroughly Americanized a biblical subject in the paintings of Edward Hicks (1780-1849), a devoted Quaker who lived in Bucks County, Pennsylvania. Although little is known about his artistic methods, his compositions of the "Peaceable Kingdom" are probably the most famous examples of 19th-century folk art in this country.

Hicks' pictorial idiom is so idiosyncratic that it has tended to defy placement within the American developments within art history of his time. However, the geological theories of the period help to clarify some of Hicks' oddly organized compositions, particularly those which introduce the Falls of Niagara, the Natural Bridge of Virginia or the Delaware Water Gap and give a rationale to Hicks' wooden style of painting typical of American folk artists.
Boris V. Timofeyev (1916-1982): Pioneer of Precambrian and Early Paleozoic Palynology
Authors: Jankauskas Tadas , Sarjeant William
Published: April 2015

Boris Timofeyev is a name little known to scientists outside the former U.S.S.R. However, he was a principal pioneer in the study of Late Precambrian and Early Palaeozoic microfossils (in particular, acritarchs). Though by no means free from error, his contributions on the microbiota of the Precambrian to Devonian are of lasting importance. An account of his life and researches is presented, along with a comprehensive listing of his scientific publications.
Philanthropy and Global Climate Monitoring
Authors: Quayle Robert
Published: April 2015

Several times in the past, philanthropists have stepped forward to support work on climatoloeical data-sets, aimed either at preserving them or making them more readily available for researchers. Perhaps it is time again for this type of philanthropy.
The French Botanist Aimé Bonpland and Paleontology at Cuenca Del Plata
Authors: Ottone Eduardo
Published: April 2015

Mainly recognized in his role of naturalist-explorer by his travels with Alexander von Humboldt (1769-1859), and so by his studies on tropical plants from Central and South America, the French botanist Aimé Bonpland (1773-1858) pursued important paleontological investigations in Argentina, Uruguay, and southern Brazil. In the early nineteenth century, when the earth sciences were just developing at Cuenca del Plata, Bonpland collected invertebrates, mammal bones, and petrified wood. Most of his findings have never been published. A part of his collections has been held at the Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle of Paris since 1837. Alcide d'Orbigny (1802-1857) studied the pelecypods collected by Bonpland in Entre Ríos province, Argentina, and named a species in his honor: Arca bonplandiana d'Orbigny.
Aimé Bonpland's Drawings of Itá Pucú, 1834, and the History of Early Geological Representations in Argentina
Authors: Ottone Eduardo
Published: April 2015

The early geological representations in Argentina dated from the middle of the nineteenth century when Alcide d'Orbigny, Charles Darwin, Bartholomew James Sulivan, Franz Foetterle, Auguste Bravard, Jakob Christen Heusser and Georges Claraz, and Victor Martin de Moussy accompanied their scientific observations with geological maps, stratigraphic sections or sketches of rocky outcrops. Aimé Bonpland (1773-1858), a French naturalist mainly known by his travels with Alexander von Humboldt and by his contributions on tropical botany, settled in southern South America in 1817, and displayed a relevant activity as botanist, zoologist, paleontologist, and geologist. In this last field, Bonpland prepared in 1834 a series of drafts and drawings about the geology of the Itá Pucú that constitute one of the first geological representations to the country and it is the first document providing a detailed description and a schematic graphical representation of a sedimentary outcrop.
Ancient References to the Fossils from the Land of Pythagoras
Authors: Solounias Nikos , Mayor Adrienne
Published: April 2015

Ancient people, as indicated by a few myths, knew of the vertebrate fossils from Samos, an island of Greece. The ancient Greeks interpreted these fossils as the remains of Neades, strange exotic beasts, or of the Amazons who perished in battle. Some of the fossils have been found in the ruins of a temple where they had been gathered for display. The red soil in which the fossils were found was explained as from blood spilled during a bloodbath. Furthermore, the Greeks had correlated geologic faults to earthquakes. The myths clearly state that they also had a sense of deep time (the great antiquity of the fossils). They named two bone beds because of the fossils: Panaima and Phloios respectively. These are proper names given in upper case letters in the myths. In Greek, Panaima means bloodbath and Phloios means thick and hard crust. Phloios is located in a ravine named Adrianos, which is a non-Greek name. Small ravines rarely have names in Greece, especially foreign names, and we explain the name as the renaming of Phloios by the Roman emperor Hadrian. Hadrian is known to have collected fossils near Troy and may have visited Samos.
The Desert Sandstone of Australia A Late Nineteenth-Century Enigma of Deposition, Fossils, and Weathering
Authors: Branagan David
Published: April 2015

The term "Desert Sandstone" was featured on geological maps and in the literature of Australian geology for more than eighty years from 1872. The name was suggested by Richard Daintree (1832-1878) (1868) for what were later described as "a promiscuous lot of sediments that form a dissected tableland in some of the drier portions of the continent" (Howchin, 1918). The name became current, particularly in Queensland, but there were many problems in mapping the unit, which was at first thought to be of Tertiary age, but then became largely accepted as Late Cretaceous.

While some geologists thought the unit was of marine origin, others believed it was aeolian, even partly made of volcanic dust, but most geologists thought it was largely lacustrine. In many areas the rock appeared to be highly silicified, and opinions differed as to the source of silicification—a former covering of basalt, or siliceous hot waters from below?

Complications arose when Glossopteris, regarded as a Late Palaeozoic fossil, was found in the "Desert Sandstone," and arguments arose about the possibility of this plant having persisted in Australia until the late Mesozoic.

The stratigraphic/palaeontological problems were eventually sorted out by detailed mapping, which showed that there were in fact a number of sandstones of similar appearance but quite different ages. It took longer to realise that the apparent uniformity of sedimentary rocks of different ages was largely the result of weathering, which produced the silicified "duricrust" in many parts of inland Australia.

The "Desert Sandstone" played an important part in the unravelling of three important lines of earth history in Australia (and there were even repercussions abroad). These were: (a) sedimentation during the Mesozoic and Cainozoic; (b) the clarification of the temporal range (and lateral extent) of the Glossopteris flora; and (c) the weathering processes that produced some of the characteristic scenery of inland Australia.
Marlies Teichmüller (1914-2000): A Successful Woman Geologist and the Berlin School of Organic Petrology
Authors: Mohr Barbara , Vogt Annette
Published: April 2015

Marlies Teichmüller, née Köster (1914 Herne-2000 Krefeld), was one of the few women geologists in Germany who as early as the 1940s had a successful scientific career. To accomplish this unusual career path various prerequisites had to be met. Besides a strong character and talent, the support of her family proved to be crucial. Her childhood that was troubled by the early death of her father, her and her sisters' upbringing as half-orphans and her schooling probably played a major role in her decision making process. The influence of her teachers during her student years at the University of Berlin as well as her marriage to a scientist in a related field are considered to have been most important for her later scientific success. Their shared knowledge and many decades of lasting cooperation led to completely new insights in the field of organic petrology. In addition we emphasize her accomplishments in improving communication between the German and the American scientific traditions in the field of coal studies.
The Rush Started Here II: Hard Rock Gold Mining in North Carolina, 1825 to 1864
Authors: Hines Elizabeth , Smith Michael
Published: April 2015

From 1799 until the early 1830s, North Carolina's Piedmont had rich surface and near-surface gold deposits. Land owning farmers were interested in improving their finances through gold mining in the slow seasons. Those unable to work their deposits leased them to neighbors or landless prospectors for additional income. Over this thirty year period, the surface placer deposits were exhausted and ended the casual off-season gold mining. Dabblers and fair-weather farmers turned miners became entrepreneurs who sought investors for the hard rock mining necessaries of labor, machinery and processing technology. State government stepped in to help them by liberalizing the terms of incorporation for mining companies. The government support of mining stock companies facilitated private profits and improved the state (and ultimately federal) money supply by adding specie and advancing industrialization in mining and, contagiously, other industries and services such as textiles and the railroads. North Carolina's early industrial leaders invested in mining stock companies. However, the heaviest investments came from Northeastern industrialists and European, especially English, mining firms that insisted upon skilled managers, labor and the best technology with which to develop their investment. Thus, a new breed of miner and mining and milling supervisor, usually immigrants from the northern states or abroad, came to dominate North Carolina's gold fields from 1825 to 1864.
Ebenezer Emmons (1799-1863), Founder of American Paleozoic Stratigraphy: Hero of the Taconic Controversy, one of the Most Celebrated Geological Disputes in North America
Authors: Friedman Gerald
Published: April 2015

One of the most important and distinguished geologists in the history of the earth sciences was Ebenezer Emmons Sr., father of the Taconic System. The overthrust which places Lower Cambrian rocks in contact with Middle Ordovician rocks, known as Emmons' Line, formerly Logan's Line, is a segment that extends from Canada through New York, and as far south as Alabama. Emmons, a graduate of Rensselaer in the first class of 1826, was inspired by Amos Eaton. Emmons became junior professor at Rensselaer in 1830, a position he held for ten years, and while serving there, was appointed State (Chief) Geologist of the northern Geological District of the New York State Geological Survey in 1836. He named the Adirondack Mountains (1838), and the Taconic Mountains (1844, 1846) and acquainted the public with these regions. Emmons had noted the presence of a group of rocks between the Potsdam Sandstone, the oldest of the then recognized sedimentary formations in New York, and what was called then the Primitive Rocks of Central Vermont. Emmons inferred that the deformed rocks in Washington County, New York, north of Troy, New York, were older than any fossiliferous rocks then known. For these oldest fossil-bearing rocks he coined the name Taconic System. Emmons later became state geologist of North Carolina, spreading the influence of Rensselaer, and promoted his ideas of the Taconic System.Emmons' student at Rensselaer, James Hall became the chief American paleontologist of his era and one of the greatest American scientists of the 19th century. Emmons and Hall ‘dueled’ over the age of the Taconic rocks, a disagreement that became known as the Taconic controversy. Hall said they were younger, whereas Emmons claimed them to be older. This division led to suit and counter suit, and ultimately Emmons was forced to leave New York as a result of a court decision favoring Hall. Emmons and Hall are buried next to each other at the Albany Rural Cemetery in Albany, New York. The argument over the Taconic fossils raged for many years, and ultimately Emmons was vindicated, for Joachim Barrande, the chief student of European Paleozoic faunas, agreed with Emmons. The Taconic rocks of Troy, New York, are comparable in age and lithology to the rocks of the district near Prague which have been named Barrandian after Barrande. The American Museum of Natural History in New York honors "Scientists Who Have Served the State of New York and the Nation"; this list includes four geologists, three of whom are from Rensselaer. The first listed is Eaton, founder of Rensselaer, and last is Ebenezer Emmons.
From Sketches to Publication: The Genesis of the Essai D'une Carte Géologique by Omalius D'halloy and Coquebert de Montbret (1810-1823)
Authors: Laboulais Isabelle
Published: April 2015

While the Essai d'une carte géologique published in 1822 did not achieve the fame that its authors had hoped for, its history nevertheless deserves a closer look. Although its scale (about 1:3,700,000), and the technique used for making it (the map was coloured by hand at a time when the first geological maps printed in colour were appearing) make it a map of the past, it nevertheless testifies to the experiments and even cartographic tinkerings that were conceived in the 1810s by conciliating the expectations of the administration and those of science. Moreover, it offers a good example of the conditions of map production at that time. Without suggesting that the appearance of that Essai constituted a critical step in the history of cartography, this article examines the different steps that led to its publication, by considering first the investigative methods, then the different stages of map construction, and finally the uncertainties surrounding its publication, in order to grasp the stakes of such an enterprise, at the moment when reflections on the making of a geological map of France were developing, in particular at the École des mines.
Historical Review of the Study on Intermediate and Deep Earthquakes
Authors: Suzuki Yasumoto
Published: April 2015

The deep earthquake was first detected by Herbert Hall Turner in 1922, and confirmed by Wadati in 1928, Scrase in 1931 and Stechschulte in 1932. Wadati demonstrated the inclined intermediatedeep earthquake zone under the Japanese islands and neighborhoods in 1935. Such earthquake zones were found in other areas in the circum-Pacific regions. Benioff (1954) classified them morphologically into two types, and ascribed them to thrusts, following Suess's idea. Richter (1958) critisized the thrust hypothesis, as most of deep earthquakes were not accompanied by reverse faults, but by normal faults which were deduced from the initial motion of P-waves. Gutenberg and Richter (1954) pointed out the regular arrangement of geology and geophysical phenomena from an outer oceanic trench to an inner belt of deep earthquakes in the circum-Pacific region. Wadati (1928) demonstrated the vertical relation between shallow earthquakes and deep ones in central Honshu of the Japanese islands. Suzuki (1975) showed a similar relationship in northeast Honshu, and suggested the role of vertical deep faults. Bemmelen (1972) attributed the inclined intermediate-deep earthquake zone to the upward driving force derived from the deep mantle. Suzuki et al. (1978) tried a simulation experiment using the finite element method to propagate the inclined intermediate-deep earthquake zone by the differential vertical displacement at the base of mantle, and the result was compared with the earthquake-generating stresses.
Esmark's End Moraine and the Glacial Theory from a British Perspective
Authors: Worsley Peter
Published: April 2015

An end moraine (Vassryggen) and associated sandur, described by Jens Esmark as early as 1824, was the first pre-Neoglacial glacigenic landform association to be recognised as such. It formed the most important element of a range of evidence used by Esmark in support of his continental-scale glaciation hypothesis. The career of Esmark, who became a foundation professor of the Royal Frederick University in Christiania (Oslo), is outlined and his influence on the development of the glacial theory in Britain is appraised, as is the role of his associate Robert Jameson in Edinburgh. A sketch of the glacial geology of the Forsand area of southwest Norway examines the Vassryggen and allied landforms in the context of deglaciation and sea level change at the close of the Younger Dryas stadial.
Robert M. Kleinpell: Founder of the Berkeley School of Stratigraphic Paleontology
Authors: Berry William
Published: April 2015

Robert M. Kleinpell (1905-1986) has been called the founder of a ‘Berkeley School of West Coast Cenozoic Stratigraphic Paleontology’. Through his personal experiences in carrying out oil exploration in California's Cenozoic stratigraphic successions, his extensive inquiry into the fundamentals of stratigraphic paleontology, and his teaching activity while held in a Japanese prison camp during World War II, Kleinpell developed the basic ingredients for his school of stratigraphic paleontology. His school attracted numbers of students interested in obtaining employment in the oil industry when Kleinpell joined the Department of Paleontology at University of California, Berkeley, in 1953. Kleinpell told his students that the first step toward a basic understanding of stratigraphic geology came from field mapping and recording of all relevant data. The data included collecting fossils from precisely-positioned stratigraphic levels. The fossil occurrence information was then plotted carefully to ascertain associations of taxa that appeared to be unique. The associations that appeared to be unique in time, based on their stratigraphic positions (Kleinpell came to term these ‘congregations’), were used to recognize zones and stages. Kleinpell was firm in his conviction that the zones and stages that he and his students recognized in American West Coast Cenozoic strata were closely similar in principle to the zones and Zonengruppe of Albert Oppel who had worked with ammonite faunas in the European Jurassic. Kleinpell did not publish a diagram or definition of the zones that he espoused because, he said, Oppel had already defined that type of zone. Hollis Hedberg, Kleinpell's former fellow-student in graduate study at Stanford, did include a discussion of the ‘zone’ of Oppel and Kleinpell in the 1976 International Stratigraphic Guide. Subsequent international and American stratigraphic guides and codes have omitted Hedberg's discussion and illustration of the Oppel zone. The West Coast Cenozoic zones and stages, recognized using the methodology established by Oppel, are a primary characteristic of the Berkeley School of Stratigraphic Paleontology.
Eleanora Bliss Knopf and Unequal Erosion
Authors: Bourne Jennifer , Twidale C.
Published: April 2015

Eleanora Bliss Knopf (1883-1974) was one of several American women geologists working in the Appalachians during the first two decades of the twentieth century. Though primarily a petrologist, she made astute observations concerning inequalities in erosion in catchments and hence the survival of palaeoforms in the landscape.
The Heringen Collection of the US Geological Survey Library, Reston, Virginia
Authors: Hadden R.
Published: April 2015

A special collection of German, Polish, and Russian language books, maps and reports in the US Geological Survey Library has an interesting and unusual history. The so-called ‘Heringen Collection’ came from Nazi Germany. Many of these items were captured from libraries, offices and even private homes as the German Army advanced into neighboring countries. In the last days of the war, these maps, reports, photos and other records were sent from the Military Geology offices in Berlin to the safety of a deep potash mineshaft in Heringen (Werra), in Hessen, Germany. A group of US Army soldiers found these lost records of the Third Reich. When removed from the Heringen mine, those records that dealt with the earth sciences, terrain analysis, military geology and other geological matters were sent to the USGS, and eventually came to reside at the USGS Library. The printed papers and books were mostly incorporated into the main collection, but a portion of the materials have never been cataloged, calendared or indexed. These materials have many current uses, including projects of value to citizens in their nations of origin.
Origin of the American Qantitative Igneous Rock Classification: Part 2
Authors: Young Davis
Published: April 2015

After the tragic premature death of George Huntington Williams in 1894, the attempt by four young American petrographers to collaborate on construction of a quantitative classification of igneous rocks fell apart. The three survivors of the original quartet, C. Whitman Cross, Joseph P. Iddings, and Louis V. Pirsson, kept up their close friendship but produced their important petrological papers, including some contributions relating to classification, independently. In time, Henry Stephens Washington befriended the three.

Discussions about igneous rock classification at the VII International Geological Congress (St Petersburg, 1897); establishment of the International Committee on Rock Nomenclature; efforts to develop an international classification; and renewed discussion at the VIII International Geological Congress (Paris, 1900) re-ignited Iddings' passion to develop a cooperative American scheme. Beginning with preliminary conferences at Iddings' instigation at annual meetings of the Geological Society of America in Washington, DC (1899), and Albany, NY (1900), Cross, Iddings, Pirsson, and Washington renewed the effort to produce a new classification to be based on chemico-mineralogical principles.

In the first three months of 1901, Iddings and Washington offered proposals on the number and identity of major factors, namely chemically-based mineral groups, on which to base initial subdivision into major rock groups. They also generated ideas for diagrams on which to represent major rock groups in terms of the major factors, and they took tentative steps toward a new rock nomenclature. Remaining somewhat in the background, Cross and Pirsson cheered on their friends and offered an occasional response to the proposals.
How to Find Water: The State of the Art in the Early Seventeenth Century, Deduced From Writings of Martine de Bertereau (1632 and 1640)
Authors: Kölbl-Ebert Martina
Published: April 2015

When Martine de Bertereau (who died around 1643) married the alchemist and mining engineer Jean du Chastelet, Baron de Beausoleil, she had long been occupied with the art of mining "that was hereditary in her house". She wrote two pamphlets on mining addressed to the French king and the Cardinal Duke of Richelieu. In her short publications de Bertereau not only treated mining and mineral deposits in France, she also gave a short introduction to the art of finding water and of assessing its quantity and quality. While divining-rods featured widely, she also gave useful practical advice describing some sensible experiments, which she derived from Vitruvius's book on architecture. Her writings thus allow a unique glimpse into craft-skills, which centuries later developed into what came to be called hydrogeology, but which in the seventeenth century were essentially the same as in Roman times, albeit ‘corrupted’ by esoteric practices.
The Education and Career of Carlotta J. Maury: Part 2
Authors: Arnold Lois
Published: April 2015

Carlotta Joachina Maury (1874-1938) was an American paleontologist who specialized in Tertiary mollusks. She was involved in explorations for the oil industry as well as teaching and museum work. The second part of this biographical narrative traces the latter part of her career and her involvement in a serious conflict with her mentor and friend at Cornell University, Gilbert Harris (1864-1952). It was an early case of the conflicts of interest that can arise between public academic research and that of commercial companies. Maury's later work went largely unrecognized in the United States. Some of her research, for oil companies, was confidential and most of it was based on fossil material from the Caribbean and South America. In her extensive work for the Geological Survey of Brazil, her research interests extended beyond Tertiary mollusks to studies of the Cretaceous and to a wider range of fossil flora and fauna. The present paper is a sequel to Part 1, published in Earth Sciences History, Vol. 28 No. 2, 2009.
Walfrid Ekman (1874-1954): Theoretical Oceanographer
Authors: Svansson Artur
Published: April 2015

The Swedish oceanographer Vagn Walfrid Ekman (1874-1954, see Figure 1) is best known for his work on shallow ocean circulation, especially his 1905 paper ‘On the influence of the Earth's rotation on ocean currents’. My paper examines Ekman's early work in its contemporary context, outlines his later work (after 1923) on horizontal circulation of ocean currents, and ends with a brief account of his contribution to oceanographic instruments, especially current meters.
Wives and daughters of early Berlin geoscientists and their work behind the scenes
Authors: Mohr Barbara
Published: April 2015

The lives and work and accomplishments of three women, Clementine Helm Beyrich, Clara Ehrenberg and Ina von Grumbkow Reck are described. All three were writers who in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries significantly contributed to the field of natural history and palaeontology even though they were not academically trained. Their work included the spread of general knowledge of geosciences including technical processes among women (C. Helm), the description and drawings of new microorganisms and curation of a major micro-palaeontological collection with several thousand type specimens (C. Ehrenberg) and the maintenance of logistics for two major expeditions to Iceland and to East Africa, the latter involving large-scale excavations for dinosaurs that are still among the highlights of the Berlin Natural History Museum's exhibition today.
Earth, sky and prayer in harmony: aspects of the interesting life of Father Edward Pigot, SJ, BA, MB, BCh (1858-1929), Part 2 (1911-1929)
Authors: Branagan David
Published: April 2015

Edward Francis Pigot (1858-1929) spent the last twenty-four years of his life as Director of the Riverview Observatory of the Jesuit St Ignatius ‘Riverview’ College, Sydney. The onset of World War I caused the cancellation of the proposed International Seismological Congress in St Petersburg, Russia, in 1914. But he received plans of Galitsin's seismograph and one was later built in Sydney and installed at Riverview Observatory. From 1914, in addition to seismology Pigot participated in studies of earth deformation, earth tides, Foucault pendulums and solar radiation. In 1919, in preparation for astronomical work at Riverview, Pigot visited major US observatories. His support of US astronomers in the 1922 solar eclipse observations played a part in the attempts to confirm Einstein's Theory of Relativity.
Essay review: Geology's youthful romance with the landscape
Authors: Heringman Noah
Published: April 2015

Dean's Romantic Landscapes documents the influence of rapid advances in the nascent geosciences on literature and the arts during an especially dynamic phase of British and European history. His ten substantive chapters, along with numerous illustrations and appendices, provide exceptionally rich documentation of verbal and visual motifs that we can now recognise as geological. More than this, he argues that ‘the geological’ itself arose together with ‘the sublime’ and ‘the picturesque’ as a new way of understanding landscapes as changing over time. Dean uses the element of time to distinguish ‘the geological’—as it occurs in poems, travel narratives, and paintings, as well as in works more commonly held to belong to the history of geology—from the other two categories. Numerous chapters are geographically based, skillfully interweaving travel journals of major Romantic writers with popularising geological works on the Harz, Vesuvius, and Fingal's Cave, among other sites. Other chapters are organised around concepts such as ‘Time and Chance’ and ‘Relics of the Flood’. The book concludes, fittingly, with a chapter on extinction—the culmination of the ‘naturalistic’ worldview that Dean traces throughout this book as a contested but ultimately triumphant legacy of Romantic thought.
The Archives of the Geological Society of London
Authors: Thackray John
Published: April 2015

A brief and selective account is given of the archives and miscellaneous manuscripts of the Geological Society of London (founded 1807). Particular attention is paid to items of the early nineteenth century, and to those likely to interest historians of geology rather than historians of the Geological Society. Information is also given on the current state of cataloguing and conserving the collection, and the regulations concerning access, photography, photocopying etc.
Geological Exploration as Related to Railroad Development in Kansas and the Western United States
Authors: Gries John
Published: April 2015

Preliminary geologic reconnaissance of Kansas and the western United States tended to develop in concert with preliminary railroad surveys and later construction. Developing railroads had immediate needs for coal, water, dimension stone, and ballast stone for construction purposes and long-term interest in any mineral resource that might generate shipping revenue to the completed road. Military expeditions as early as S. H. Long's 1819-20 tour reported occurrences of such geologic resources as coal on the western plains near the Rocky Mountain front. Interest in a transcontinental railroad in the 1850's caused the Congress to order a series of Pacific railroad surveys which included possible construction routes and reports by J. H. Schiel on the various mineral and fuel resources along these routes. Early detailed knowledge of stratigraphy developed from railroad coal mines and examination of stone quarries opened for construction. Geologists such as Orestes H. St. John worked first on government surveys and then went to work for railways as company geologists. Ease of travel plus fresh exposures in cuts and quarries caused considerable geologic work to be done immediately along the right-of-way in Kansas and other areas. General public interest culminated in a series of U. S. Geological Survey bulletins written on the geology of major western U. S. rail routes in the 1920's. Railroads with large land holdings in the West formed geologic staffs to explore and develop those properties - a process which continues today.
A Brief History of Vertebrate Fossil Collecting in Western Kansas
Authors: Zakrzewski Richard
Published: April 2015

Western Kansas has been known for 125 years for the collecting of vertebrate fossils. Numerous spectacular and important specimens have been collected from the Smoky Hill Chalk Member of the Niobrara Formation of Cretaceous age as well as from the younger Tertiary and Quaternary deposits. The early history of collecting was influenced by two factors, the building of army forts along the Smoky Hill Trail and the energy of Benjamin F. Mudge. There are two major repositories of vertebrate fossils in the State, the Sternberg Memorial Museum at Fort Hays State University, Hays and the Museum of Natural History at the University of Kansas, Lawrence. The Sternberg Museum can trace its development via George F. Sternberg through his father, Charles H, and uncle, George M., who was an army physician at one of the forts. The vertebrate fossil collections at the University of Kansas can trace their beginnings from H. T. Martin and S. W. Williston to Mudge. Other early giants of paleontology, such as E. D. Cope, O. C. Marsh, J. C. Leidy, and J. B. Hatcher, began their work or enhanced their reputations with research on Kansas fossils.
A. Wegener - O. Ampferer - R. Schwinner: The First Chapter of the "New Globale Tectonic"
Authors: Fiügel Helmut
Published: April 2015

Between 1906-1948, Wegener, Ampferer, and Schwinner worked out many tectonic concepts which are today parts of the New Globale Tectonic, including the idea of convection currents, the origin ofthe Middle Atlantic Ridge in connection with sea-floor spreading, the concept of the "Benioff-Zone", the subduction of parts of the Pacific plate under the continents, and the linkage of these features with volcanism. Many of these ideas were soon forgotten and had to be "rediscovered" once again.
Origin of the American Quantitative Igneous Rock Classification: Part 4
Authors: Young Davis
Published: April 2015

After several failed attempts to construct a new chemico-mineralogical igneous rock classification on the basis of three or more factors, C. Whitman Cross, Joseph P. Iddings, Louis V. Pirsson, and Henry S. Washington decided to establish a practical and logically consistent scheme on the basis of only two factors, namely, two primary groups consisting of hypothetical minerals with ideal chemical compositions, the amounts of which were to be calculated from the chemical compositions of igneous rocks. One primary group consisted mainly of alkali alumina silicates and quartz (salic minerals), whereas the other consisted mainly of calcic ferromagnesian minerals (femic). A list of the amounts of these calculated standard minerals within an igneous rock was termed the norm, and the list of the proportions of actual minerals in a rock was termed its mode.

In the Fall of 1901 the quartet decided to publish a preliminary paper that presented the major themes of their two-factor classification scheme. Iddings was charged with writing a draft of the scheme, and Washington was assigned the task of producing an essay on nomenclature to be published later. The team continually refined the definitions of specific subdivisions of the scheme proposed by Iddings as well as the corresponding nomenclature proposed by Washington. They also refined the norm calculation algorithm and developed methods for calculating the norm from the mode of rocks containing aluminous ferromagnesian minerals such as hornblende and biotite.

After a few months of evaluating and revising a succession of drafts, the team eventually determined to publish their work of classification and nomenclature all at once by combining the refined drafts into one large comprehensive manuscript in three parts: Part I on classification, Part II on nomenclature, and Part III on methods of calculation. Iddings coordinated and edited the various criticisms and drafts contributed by team members into one large manuscript and shepherded the project to final publication in late October 1902 in Journal of Geology. The massive 139-page article entitled ‘A quantitative chemico-mineralogical classification and nomenclature of igneous rocks’ was preceded in earlier issues of the same journal by a two-part series authored by Cross on the historical development of systematic petrography. In early 1903, both of Cross's papers and the CIPW article were combined and published as a book, Quantitative Classification of Igneous Rocks.
Matching Mind and Method with Material: John Imbrie and Quantitative Facies Analysis
Authors: Laporte Léo
Published: April 2015

John Imbrie (b. 1925) always had deep mathematical insight and facility. At Yale University he completed his PhD (1951) under Carl Dunbar working on Middle Devonian brachiopods where he employed a statistical technique—'reduced major axis regression'—to differentiate several subspecies. Later, in a study with Edwin Colbert at the American Museum of Natural History, he used the same technique to determine subtle, yet significant, variations in the growth patterns of Triassic Metoposaurid amphibians (1956). At about the same time as sedimentary facies analysis was becoming of increased interest, Imbrie sought to test what one might do with quantitative facies analysis by undertaking a decade-long study of the Lower Permian Florena Shale (Kansas) using multivariate cluster analysis to characterize different litho- and biofacies. Despite much hard work in the field and with a highdecibel desk calculator, the hoped for results were lackluster.

But neither the man nor the methods were wanting. The materials—fragmented, scattered invertebrate fossils imbedded in shales and limestones—permitted no more understanding than qualitative, eye-ball analysis. Even a late stage attack with the IBM computer at Columbia University merely groaned and brought forth similar mousey results.

What was needed was a problem whose material components (abundant planktonic microfossils) within well-characterized stratigraphic sequences (deep-sea Pleistocene cores) were suitably matched to the man's mind and his quantitative procedures. And, of course, the result was phenomenal: his empirical demonstration of the deep-sea data for the validity of Milankovitch Cycles as the forcing factors for large-scale global climate change. His scientific success was duly honored by awards, prizes, medals, and elections to distinguished honorary societies.

How did this happen?
Testing Continental Drift: Constructing the First Palaeomagnetic Path of Polar Wander (1954)
Authors: Creer Kenneth , Irving Edward
Published: April 2015

We describe the discovery that the natural remanent magnetisation (NRM) of certain rock formations in Britain that are Eocene or older have directions that differed significantly from the Earth's present field and from one another. In 1954 the first author, a third year research student in the Department or Geodesy and Geophysics (DG&G) at Cambridge University, observed that the poles corresponding to these old geomagnetic field directions fell consecutively on a path beginning in the Proterozoic in Arizona, swooped across the Pacific Ocean to the coast of eastern Asia and from there northwards to the present north geographic pole by the middle Tertiary. This was the first path of apparent polar wander (APW) based on the NRM of rocks. This path ought to have been reproducible in all continents had they not moved. Thus was born the first successful physical test of Wegener's Theory of continental drift. The work had its origins several years earlier with the construction in the later 1940s of a very sensitive magnetometer by P. M. S. Blackett at Jodrell Bank, a field station of the University of Manchester. In the summer and autumn of 1951, the second author, a recent geology graduate from Cambridge University, showed that Blackett's instrument, which had been made for an entirely different purpose, was well suited to measuring the NRM of rocks (palaeomagnetism). In the following years Blackett-type magnetometers became the means by which the British path of APW was observed. Although Creer's path was based only on nine poles we show that subsequent work fully justifies its use as a starting point for the successful global test of Wegener's theory that was carried out in the following years. Since then, palaeomagnetic poles and the APW paths derived from them have become the basis for constructing the general frame of reference for palaeogeographic maps, for mapping the past distribution of continents, oceans and orogenic belts, the location of ancient climatic zones and many other applications.
Nāri in the Levant: Historical and Etymological Aspects of a Specific Calcrete Formation
Authors: Itkin Danny , Geva-Kleinberger Aharon , Yaalon Dan , Shaanan Uri , Goldfus Haim
Published: April 2015

The colloquial Arabic term nāri has become, since the late 1890s, the most commonly used term for describing a specific type of calcrete formation in the Levant. While it is reasonable to expect that such a long period of time would be sufficient for the establishment of a coherent use of the term, a combination of extensive literature reviews with field observations prove otherwise. A study of the geological contexts and etymology of the term nāri and a review of literature back as far as the second half of the nineteenth century reveal a great lack of consistency among scientists' use of the term. Correlating the terminological evolution of nāri with present-day understanding of its formation mechanisms, its stratigraphic associations and contemporary uses of the term among scientists and local Arabs, allows us to propose a clear and consistent definition of nāri. Our suggested definition recognizes it as a distinct surficial lithology. We show that the formation of nāri in the Levant started in a regional calcretisation event in the late Pliocene to mid Pleistocene and is ongoing in the Levant nowadays.