bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Attitudes towards Women Scale (AWS‐B): A comparison of women in engineering and traditional occupations with male engineers
Authors: Haworth Geoffrey , Povey Robert , Clift Stephen
Published: June 2011

Parry (1983) presents a British version of the Attitudes towards Women Scale (Spence et al., 1973) and reports data for middle‐class and working‐class women. In the study described here the AWS‐B was administered to four groups of males and females aged between 16 and 21 years. The groups comprised 39 male and 27 female trainee engineers, 59 females pursuing careers in traditional occupations and 14 secondary school girls following an engineering link course. No significant differences in overall attitude emerged between female groups, but males were significantly more traditional in their attitudes towards women compared with the females. On 16 of the 21 items in the scale women were significantly more liberal, with strong differences on items concerned with women's position in politics, business and industry. Men were significantly more liberal on one item concerned with women's freedom to propose marriage, and more liberal, but not significantly so, on a further four items. Further research is needed into the determinants and consequences of individuals' attitudes towards women, and the AWS‐B provides a valuable instrument for this purpose.
Attributional style and learned helplessness: Relationship to the use of causal schemata and depressive symptoms in children
Authors: Fincham Frank D. , Diener Carol I. , Hokoda Audrey
Published: June 2011

The attributional style associated with learned helplessness in children is examined in terms of its (i) stability over a six‐month period; (ii) impact on causal schemata used by children; and (iii) association with depressive symptoms. Seventy‐three fifth grade children provided attributions for success and failure and were divided into learned helpless and mastery‐oriented groups on the basis of the attributions typically associated with these response patterns. The attributional styles were relatively stable, influenced responses to stimuli used to investigate the use of causal schemata and were related to depressive symptoms. These results are discussed in terms of research on learned helplessness in children and several research questions are identified.
Sex‐role beliefs, work attitudes and mental health in employed and non‐employed mothers
Authors: Parry Glenys
Published: June 2011

The attitudes of mothers to their home and child‐care role, to their employment role and to sex roles are potentially important correlates of mental health but have been little researched. Results from a general population survey of 160 working‐class mothers of young children suggest that dissatisfaction with the home‐maker role is associated with higher levels of psychiatric symptoms, psychological distress and self‐depreciation. These relationships are strongest for full‐time home‐makers. For employed mothers, dual‐role conflict was more strongly associated with psychological distress than was job satisfaction. Liberal sex‐role attitudes were associated with lower psychiatric symptom levels in employed mothers and with higher self‐esteem in non‐employed mothers. There was a significant interaction between employment status and sex‐role beliefs in relation to anxiety. Employed mothers with traditional attitudes and non‐employed mothers with liberal attitudes were more anxious. This result was replicated in an independent sample of 200 working‐class and middle‐class mothers.
The subject matter of psychology: Volunteers
Authors: Cowles Michael , Davis Caroline
Published: June 2011

Scores on the scales and subscales of the Eysenck Personality Inventory were obtained from a sample of 1421 undergraduate students. The students were also asked to indicate their willingness, in principle, to participate in further research. The scale scores obtained do not depart greatly from those norms given by Eysenck for American college students. Females are somewhat more likely to volunteer than males, and, generally, extraverts are more likely to volunteer than introverts. However, a logistic regression analysis showed that Neuroticism‐Stability interacts with Extraversion‐Introversion to increase or decrease the probability of volunteering. The results may have important implications for research findings based on data collected from volunteer subjects.
Conditions for assigning blame: The impact of necessity and sufficiency*
Authors: McGraw Kathleen M.
Published: June 2011

The purpose of the experiment reported here was to examine the impact of necessary and sufficient causal conditions on assignment of blame for a negative outcome. In addition, the influence of inferential goals on the relative impact of necessity and sufficiency was investigated. Subjects read written scenarios in which the pattern of covariation between a target's behaviour and a negative outcome was systematically varied. The results indicate that subjects were able to integrate the covariation data to infer the nature of the causal condition, and utilize this information to infer the extent to which the target was the cause of, and deserving of blame for, a specific negative outcome. There were no effects due to the inferential goal factor. Implications for understanding the impact of necessary and sufficient conditions are discussed.
Relative deprivation theory and responses to discrimination in a gay male and lesbian sample
Authors: Birt Catherine M. , Dion Kenneth L.
Published: June 2011

Relative deprivation (RD) theory states that the perception of the relative positions of one's group and an out‐group in terms of status and privilege is psychologically important. RD theory predictions for members of oppressed groups include increased endorsement of militant acts, decreased feelings of control and life‐satisfaction as a function of perceived relative deprivation and perceived discrimination. In the present study, these predictions were tested with 74 members of Toronto's gay male and lesbian community. RD measures encompassed the cognitive‐affective (i.e. concerned with knowledge vs. feelings about the deprivation) and egoistical‐fraternal (i.e. concerned with the status of the individual vs. the in‐group) dimensions, with a measure of concrete fraternal discrimination (CFD) also included for comparison. The results indicated that CFD was the best predictor of increased militancy, decreased control and decreased satisfaction. Implications for RD theory are discussed.
Gustav Ichheiser in the history of social psychology: An early phenomenology of social attribution
Authors: Rudmin Floyd , Trimpop Rüdiger M. , Kryl Ilona‐Patricia , Boski Pawel
Published: June 2011

Gustav Ichheiser (1897–1969) was a social psychologist in the Austrian phenomenological tradition. He wrote extensively on person perception, social attribution, occupational psychology, ethnic relations and political psychology, always with an eye towards the illusions and misunderstandings inherent in social relations. His personal life and professional career were disrupted in Europe by the rise of Fascism and were impeded in the United States by unemployment, poverty and confinement in a state mental hospital. However, throughout all of these difficulties, he continued to publish his critical observations and analyses of social life. His writings, whether in German, Polish or English, are stylistically and conceptually rich and are remarkably current. His ideas have been used by Allport, Goffman, Heider, Nisbett, Ross and others. This report presents the biographical and bibliographical background necessary for a reappraisal of his work.
Individual differences in dyadic conversational strategies: A further study
Authors: Roger Derek , Nesshoever Willfried
Published: June 2011

In a previous experiment (Roger & Schumacher, 1983), interruption rates were found to increase significantly during the second half of conversations between pairs of unacquainted subjects of the same sex who both scored high on dominance. The study described here investigated the interactive effects of both gender and dominance predispositions on turn‐taking behaviour in mixed‐sex dyads and, although there were no effects for sex on interruption rate, the interaction between time and dyadic dominance condition obtained earlier was replicated. However, women were found to use significantly more back‐channels than men across all dominance conditions. Comparing speech rate and amplitude before and during successful and unsuccessful interruption attempts showed that these indices tended to serve both turn‐taking and turn‐maintaining functions.
A priori vs. spontaneous models of attribution: The case of gender and achievement
Authors: Sousa Elizabeth , Leyens Jacques‐Philippe
Published: June 2011

This study aims to relate causal explanations for men's and women's achievements to implicit theories held about sex stereotypes. Two different methods were used: one following Weiner's two‐dimensional attribution model, and another expressed in terms of attributional semantic space. The classical analysis, in terms of locus of causality and stability, replicated previous results and did not show differences between male and female observers. However, the second method showed that men and women use different vocabularies and call up different representational elements when they have to explain male and female achievement. Further, whereas males discriminate the performance of another male from that of a female, females evaluate the performances of males and females similarly. The use of free responses under a spontaneous model is discussed. Although not without disadvantages, this method is more sensitive to the implicit theories of the judges than are the classical ones.
Emotion and social context: An American—German comparison
Authors: Sommers Shula , Kosmitzki Corinne
Published: June 2011

Are emotions essentially an individual‐subjective phenomenon, or are they broader in scope? Do emotions mainly represent what the individual feels ‘inside’ or do they also carry implications for the social context? Questions such as these were in the background of the present research that has examined the way emotions are viewed, understood, and experienced by young and older adult men and women (ranging in age from 18 to 50) in two cultural environments, Germany and the US. Overall, the results revealed distinctly different patterns of age and sex differences in the evaluation and experience of emotions for Americans and Germans. In addition, the study identified specific emotions (e.g. gratitude, despair, rage) that seem to have different connotations and associations for individuals in the two cultural groups. Interpretation of the findings emphasizes connections between the emotional life and emotional understanding of the individual and broad sociocultural themes. It is argued that social context is an important feature of emotion requiring more extensive consideration is psychological theory and research on emotion.
The relationship between participation rate and liking ratings in groups
Authors: Koomen Willem
Published: June 2011

The relationship between participation rate in groups and liking ratings was hypothesized to depend on the attraction to the group of the raters. This hypothesis was tested in an investigation in which 20 five‐person male groups worked on a discussion task. The results showed that the higher the attraction to the group, the more positive the relationship between participation rate and liking rating received.
Experimental manipulation of the vacillating—persisting tendency
Authors: Hyland Michael E. , Coates David S. , Curtis Chris , Hancocks Matt , Mean Lindsey , Ogden Clare , Sherry Richard
Published: June 2011

This paper provides an analysis of the behavioural style of vacillation vs. persistence which underlies the concept of strength of will. Vacillation‐persistence was assumed to be associated with a phenomenological state called ‘self‐engagement’. In three experiments, manipulations of self‐engagement led to effects on a measure of task persistence, and results on a performance measure were systematically different from those on the task persistence measure. A fourth study showed task persistence to be correlated with post‐experimental reports of being excited by the task and doing the task in order to improve self‐perception. Alternative interpretations of these data based on intrinsic motivation theory are discussed.
Marriage in two cultures
Authors: Stopes‐Roe Mary , Cochrane Raymond
Published: June 2011

This paper reports some of the data collected in a survey of minority groups of Asian ethnic extraction and a white British comparison group in the West Midlands, UK. The issues addressed here concern marriage choices and customs discussed in relation to Tajfel's (1978) intergroup theories and Gordon's (1964) models of assimilation. It was hypothesized that the minority ethnic groups would differ from the majority groups both in the clarity of their definition of possible marriage partner and in the strength of their feeling for endogamous marriage; and that, since exogamous marriage is the most extreme aspect of assimilation, attitudes towards it would be related to other forms of assimilation. A further issue is the extent of conflict occurring between first and second generations in ethnic minority groups, particularly on the point of marriage practices. This was investigated by relating the responses of parents and young person within the same family. Based on this analysis and reports from respondents themselves, such conflict seems to be far less endemic than is supposed.
The relation between stable/unstable attribution and learned helplessness
Authors: Mikulincer Mario
Published: June 2011

This study assessed the effects of stable/unstable attributions on subsequent task performance. In Expt 1, subjects were exposed to no‐feedback, solvable or unsolvable problems in which they received instructions encouraging them to attribute the outcome to stable or unstable causes. In Expt 2, subjects were divided according to their attributional style for bad events into stable, non‐defined and unstable attributors and were exposed to no‐feedback or unsolvable problems. Both experiments assessed subjects' performance in a subsequent solvable task. It was found that exposure to unsolvable problems worsened subsequent performance only for those subjects who attributed failure to stable causes. An attribution of failure to unstable causes prevented the detrimental effects of unsolvable problems on performance. The role of stability attributions is discussed in terms of Abramson, Seligman & Teasdale's reformulation of learned helplessness.
The role of contextual factors in the relationship between physical activity and self‐awareness
Authors: Kernis Michael H. , Grannemann Bruce D. , Richie Talman , Hart Judy
Published: June 2011

Previous research has indicated that performing arousing or unusual activities heightens self‐awareness, as indexed by the use of first person singular pronouns in a sentence completion task (McDonald, Harris & Maher, 1983; Wegner & Giuliano, 1980; 1983). This type of self‐awareness seems to reflect awareness of oneself as an individual. In the study reported here, we examined the impact of contextual factors on both awareness of oneself as an individual and awareness of oneself as a group member. The latter type of self‐awareness was indexed by the use of first person plural pronouns. Subjects either ran or walked in place while in one of three contexts: (1) alone; (2) with co‐actors present; or (3) in a group which fostered interaction and interdependence among participants. The results indicated that, relative to the other two contexts, the group context lowered self‐awareness as indexed by the use of first person singular pronouns, but enhanced self‐awareness as indexed by the use of first person plural pronouns. This is discussed in terms of the impact that social context has on different forms of self‐awareness.
A note on the effects of age and gender on children's social behaviour
Authors: Duveen Gerard , Lloyd Barbara , Smith Caroline
Published: June 2011

Observations of 40 3–4‐year‐olds' social behaviour in dyadic play show that total social behaviour towards opposite gender partners increases across this age range, while remaining constant for same gender partners. This finding partially replicates the results of an earlier study (Lloyd & Smith, 1986). In addition, analyses of three subcategories of social behaviour (prosocial, assertive and withdrawal) also yield partial replications. It is suggested that variations in procedure may account for differences between the two studies.
Involvement and need for cognition as moderators of beliefs—attitude—intention consistency
Authors: Verplanken Bas
Published: June 2011

Moderating effects of involvement and need for cognition in the relationships between beliefs, attitudes and behavioural intentions towards large‐scale use of nuclear energy and large‐scale use of coal in The Netherlands for the production of electricity were investigated in a survey (n = 2439). Using moderated multiple regression analyses, moderating effects of both factors were detected in the attitude—intention relationships for both issues. A moderating role of involvement was also found in beliefs‐attitude relationships. The results indirectly support a previously given explanation of such moderating effects in terms of cognitive effort spent by an individual in forming or changing attitudes.
The relationship between gender‐role measures: A review
Authors: Archer John
Published: June 2011

The relationship between self‐report measures of gender traits (PAQ and BSRI), behaviour (SRBS and MFRQ) and attitudes (AWS) is reviewed by considering the comparison of two or more groups differing on trait scores, correlations between the scales and relevant experimental studies. Trait measures show extremely small relationships to attitudes: for men, lower instrumental and higher expressive trait scores were weakly associated with a more non‐traditional attitude. For women, higher instrumental scores, lower expressive scores and higher (i.e. less feminine) M‐F PAQ scores were weakly associated with a more non‐traditional attitude. A very low relationship was found between the AWS and the Masculine and Feminine scales of the SRBS, but higher correlations were found for the M‐F scale (negative for men and positive for women). Very high correlations were found between the MFRQ (a role preference scale) and the AWS. There were conistent positive associations between the respective M and F scales of the PAQ and SRBS for both men and women, accounting for between 2.6 and 14.4 percent of the variance. Correlations between the PAQ scales and the MFRQ were generally low. These results support the multidimensional rather than the unidimensional view of masculinity and femininity.
Justice and discrimination between minimal groups: The limits of equity
Authors: Diehl Michael
Published: June 2011

Intergroup discrimination in the minimal group paradigm (MGP), which is usually invoked in support of social identity theory (SIT), seems to contradict every principle of social justice. A contradiction to equity theory (ET), however, exists only if one is committed to the transferability of ET from intragroup to intergroup relations. But even in that case one could explain intergroup discrimination in the MGP as a reaction to anticipated discrimination by out‐group members and as therefore being in accordance with ET. Two experiments were devised to test SIT against ET as an explanation of intergroup discrimination in the MGP. In the first experiment the introduction of ‘interindividual mutuality’ into the experimental condition was found to significantly reduce intergroup discrimination almost down to equality as compared with a control condition which resembles the usual MGP procedure. In a second experiment first assumed distribution behaviour of out‐group members as well as subjects' own intended distribution behaviour were assessed and second anticipation of fairness and discrimination was manipulated. Although most of the subjects assumed that they would be treated fairly by out‐group members and likewise intended to be fair themselves, manipulation of anticipated out‐group behaviour was found to lead to significant intergroup discrimination regardless of whether discrimination or fairness was anticipated. Implications of these findings for SIT and ET are discussed.
Intragroup identification and intergroup differentiation: A multicomponent approach
Authors: Hinkle Steve , Taylor Laurie A. , Fox‐Cardamone D. Lee , Crook Kimberly F.
Published: June 2011

The factor structure of an intragroup identification scale was examined. Subjects participating in small groups worked on a decision‐making task, completed the identification measure and made in‐group and out‐group evaluations. Three factors reflecting emotional, cognitive and individual/group interdependence aspects of identification accounted for 70.5 percent of the scale's total variance. Based upon these results, the identification scale was decomposed into three subscales. Correlations between subscale scores and differentiation were positive, but small in magnitude (range 0.23–0.28). In contrast, subscale scores were more strongly associated with the in‐group aspect of differentiation (rs from 0.37 to 0.62). Implications of the findings for social identity theory are discussed along with the value of multicomponent conceptualizations and methodologies.
Children's reactions to transgressions: Effects of the actor's apology, reputation and remorse
Authors: Darby Bruce W. , Schlenker Barry R.
Published: June 2011

This experiment examined children's reactions to a transgression in which one child's property was damaged by another who (a) had a reputation as a good or bad child, (b) apologized or did not, and (c) later expressed remorse when talking about the incident or was happy and unremorseful. As expected, actors who had a good reputation or were remorseful were seen as more likable, as having better motives, as doing the damage unintentionally, as more sorry and as less blameworthy. Further, actors who were good and remorseful were punished least, suggesting that punishment was applied in a rehabilitative fashion. The actor's reputation determined how his or her actions were interpreted: bad actors were seen as more worried about punishment when they expressed remorse and older children thought they apologized merely to avoid punishment. Interestingly, apologies were effective in reducing punishment and making the actor seem more likable, and this was true irrespective of the other factors. The apology‐forgiveness script may be such an ingrained aspect of social life that its appearance automatically improves the actor's position. The reactions of second and fifth graders were generally similar, although the younger children displayed less coherent relationships between judgements.
Age and social competence in preschoolers' decoding of facial expression
Authors: Philippot Pierre , Feldman Robert S.
Published: June 2011

This study examines the relationship between social competence and decoding of emotions in children aged between three and five years. Children were shown videotaped scenarios depicting emotional situations and were asked to choose which of three facial expressions, representing happiness, sadness and fear, would be most appropriate for the character in the situation. Children's level of social competence was assessed by a standardized questionnaire completed by their parents. Results showed that subjects with relatively higher social skills were better decoders than subjects with relatively lower social skills, and that decoding performance improved with age. The results are discussed in terms of the role of non‐verbal behavioural skills in general social competence.
The child‐rearing values of Asian and British parents and young people: An inter‐ethnic and inter‐generational comparison in the evaluation of Kohn's 13 qualities
Authors: Stopes‐Roe Mary , Cochrane Raymond
Published: June 2011

As part of a larger survey concerned with attitudes and experiences of two generations of Asian—British and of native white British, respondents were asked to rate the three most desirable of Kohn's (1969) 13 values in child rearing. Sampling in urban areas with large Asian populations provided a total sample of relatively homogeneous socio‐economic status; thus, the class comparisons which informed Kohn's original thesis were less relevant. Comparisons were made on the basis of generation and of ethnicity. It was found that Asians value conformity more and self‐direction less than the British, and that this difference is considerably more pronounced in the older than in the younger generation. Extent of traditionalism in family processes was related to evaluations. For Asian young people only, extent of assimilation with British life was related to evaluation made.
The stability and coherence of aggregated and single‐item measures of antisocial behaviour
Authors: Bukowski William M. , Ferber‐Goff Janet , Newcomb Andrew F.
Published: June 2011

Aggregated and single‐item measures of antisocial behaviour taken from a one‐year longitudinal study of early adolescents (N = 334) were examined according to their consistency across situations and the degree of coherence among them. To assess the extent to which differences between single‐item scores and aggregated scores could be attributed to differences in reliability, comparisons were made with scores that were either corrected or uncorrected for measurement error. Consistent with predictions derived from Rushton & Erdle (1987), both consistency and coherence increased as the number of items contributing to a score increased. However, as expected in light of the arguments of Campbell, Muncer & Bibel (1987), these increases appeared to be primarily due to higher reliability in the multiple item scores. Nevertheless, some increases in consistency and coherence remained after the effects of measurement error had been accounted for, thus indicating that the higher degree of consistency in aggregated scores cannot be due solely to their higher reliability. These results are important as they demonstrate that, relative to single‐item scores, aggregated scores provide a more consistent index of antisocial tendencies regardless of whether the effects of measurement error have been taken into account. Practical and theoretical issues regarding the use of single‐item and aggregated scores to represent behavioural constructs are discussed.
Heightened damage assessment as a result of the intentionality of the damage‐causing act
Authors: Darley John M. , Huff Charles W.
Published: June 2011

Subjects judged the damages caused by an act that was done intentionally, negligently or accidentally. Although the damages caused by the act were described in an identical way, subjects who read that the act was done intentionally inflated their estimation of the damage done by that action (as compared to an identical, but unintentional, action). This effect was serendipitously discovered in one study and conceptually replicated with different populations and different experimental designs in two subsequent studies. The experimental designs made certain explanations for the results less plausible, and the discussion assesses other possible explanations for the effect.
Social facilitation effects in recognition memory
Authors: Hartwick Jon , Nagao Dennis H.
Published: June 2011

This study investigates the effects of observer presence on recognition memory. The number of learning repetitions, the degree of association of category‐instance word pairs, and the time interval between acquisition and testing were manipulated. While the basic recognition data conformed well to previous findings in the learning and memory literature, predictions derived from the drive theory of social facilitation found little support. Instead, study results seem best explained by descriptions of the cognitive processes employed by subjects both during the initial acquisition and later recognition of the category‐instance pairs.
Salience of comparison standards and the activation of social norms: Consequences for judgements of happiness and their communication
Authors: Strack Fritz , Schwarz Norbert , Chassein Brigitte , Kern Dieter , Wagner Dirk
Published: June 2011

Two studies were conducted in which subjects' reports of their own happiness were influenced (a) by the salience of comparison standards and (b) by the social norm that was activated in the context of communicating those judgements. It was found that the presence of another person who was relatively worse off led to more positive judgements of the subjects' own happiness. This contrast effect was increased when subjects' attention was directed towards the comparison person by a natural salience manipulation in the form of a seating arrangement at the time the questionnaire had to be filled out. The results of the second study, in which the mode of communication (private vs. public) and the apparent state of health of the comparison person were varied (physically disabled or not), show that such contrastive judgements may not be uttered when the judgement has to be reported publicly to the disabled confederate. Taken together, these studies demonstrate how both cognitive and communicative mechanisms must be taken into account to understand the determinants of judgements of subjective well‐being.
Automatic and controlled activation of stereotypes: Individual differences associated with prejudice
Authors: Locke Vance , MacLeod Colin , Walker Iain
Published: June 2011

Devine (1989) has proposed a model which suggests that when individuals are required to evaluate stereotyped groups both low‐prejudice and high‐prejudice persons will automatically activate the pertinent stereotype content. Controlled inhibition of the content of the stereotype characterizes low‐prejudice responses and distinguishes low‐from high‐prejudice persons. The experimental evidence Devine (1989) reports to support this model is criticized on several grounds, and a methodology that avoids these shortcomings is described. Two groups of subjects were tested, one with and one without a stereotype of the target group. The results from the group knowledgeable of the stereotype were inconsistent with Devine's (1989) model. Differences in the automatic activation of stereotype content, rather than differences in the tendency to employ strategies to inhibit stereotype content, were related to levels of prejudice towards the target group. The results from a sample of subjects not possessing a stereotype of the target group confirmed the integral role of automatic processes in prejudice. Prejudice for these subjects was related to the tendency to automatically activate negative rather than positive concepts, irrespective of their relatedness to the stereotype of the target group. The implications of these findings for Devine's (1989) model and the more general nature of the relationship between stereotypes and prejudice are discussed, and the advantages of the current methodology detailed.
Deindividuation, power relations between groups and the expression of social identity: The effects of visibility to the out‐group
Authors: Reicher S. , Levine M.
Published: June 2011

This paper builds upon Reicher's (1984a) model of deindividuation by arguing that manipulations of identifiability do not only affect the salience of social identity but also have strategic consequences for the expression of in‐group stereotypes. Increasing the visibility of group members to a powerful out‐group should decrease the ability of those members to express any aspects of their identity which would meet resistance from the out‐group. A preliminary study found that making supporters of the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament individually identifiable to a powerful out‐group only affects the incidence of stereotypic behaviours which would be punishable by that out‐group. In the main study, science students taking a psychology course are either defined as ‘scientists’ or as ‘students’. They are then asked to complete a questionnaire about the psychology course consisting of items where difference from a staff norm would either be unpunishable or punishable. On the punishable items, the ‘science’ stereotype is compatible with the staff position, while the ‘student’ stereotype is incompatible. As expected, increased visibility of subjects to academic staff decreases conformity to the in‐group stereotype for those defined as students but does not affect the behaviour of those defined as scientists. What is more, this pattern of results only holds for the punishable items. However, contrary to expectations, on the unpunishable items, increased visibility increases conformity to the in‐group stereotype for both groups. Taken together, the two experiments confirm that immersing individuals in a group where they are anonymous to outsiders not only predisposes them to act in terms of social identity but also blunts out‐group power in such a way as to allow full expression of that identity.
Social and geographical factors in the explanation of the content of European nationality stereotypes
Authors: Linssen Hub , Hagendoorn Louk
Published: June 2011

In this study the determinants of the content of Western European stereotypes are investigated. The content of the stereotypes was reflected in four dimensions: attributed efficiency, emotionality, empathy and dominance. Attributed efficiency appeared to be determined by social factors, such as perceived economic development and social security, along with the geographical location of the stereotyped nation. Attributed emotionality was solely related to the north—south location of the stereotyped national. Attributed empathy and dominance were related to perceived political power and nationalism and to the geographical size of the stereotyped nation. The effects of the geographical factors are interpreted in terms of cultural, economic and historical factors associated with or relating to these geographical factors. The research and its results are placed in the framework of Von Ehrenfels' thesis of a north—south polarization effect in nationality stereotypes.
Causal and non‐causal interpretations of regularity information
Authors: White Peter A.
Published: June 2011

Many models of causal judgement have been based on the principle that causal relations are inferred between two things which exhibit regularity of association. The idea that regularity is necessary for causal judgement is false, as shown by several findings that people use, and often prefer, cues and rules for causal inference other than regularity. The study reported here shows that regularity is not sufficient for causal judgement either. In several scenarios, subjects preferred non‐causal interpretations of patterns of association which exhibited distinctive perfect positive covariation between two things. The patterns were interpreted as representing social conventions, signs or indicators, or independent effects of a hidden cause. Choice of interpretation as causal or non‐causal varied with scenario content, in the absence of variation in the degree and pattern of covariation. Regularity‐based models have not explained how people choose between causal and non‐causal interpretations of regularity information. The role of regularity information in judgement of any kind is not well understood at present.
Selective exposure and the false consensus effect: The availability of similar and dissimilar others
Authors: Bosveld Willem , Koomen Willem , van der Pligt Joop
Published: June 2011

Selective exposure to a biased sample of others is supposed to play an important role in explaining the false consensus effect (FCE). Selective exposure is generally assessed by asking subjects to estimate the prevalence of certain behaviours among their friends. We argue that this measure may easily lead to erroneous conclusions about the mediating role of friends' positions, since subjects are also likely to overestimate the prevalence of their own responses in a sample of friends. In the present study a process tracing task was used in which subjects were asked to think aloud when estimating the prevalence of specific opinions about 20 issues. Three predictions were tested. First, subjects were expected to refer to similar others more often than to dissimilar others. Second, referring to similar others was expected to lead to larger FCEs. Third, referring to dissimilar others was expected to lead to smaller FCEs. Results provided direct evidence of selective exposure, but this was most pronounced for issues for which opinions were relatively heterogeneous, i.e. for which there was no clear majority or minority opinion. The availability of similar others was further shown to be associated with larger FCEs, whereas the availability of dissimilar others was associated with smaller FCEs.
Social categorization and group homogeneity: Changes in the perceived applicability of stereotype content as a function of comparative context and trait favourableness
Authors: Haslam S. Alexander , Oakes Penelope J. , Turner John C. , McGarty Craig
Published: June 2011

Using the Katz‐Braly checklist subjects (N = 65) assigned five traits to a national group and estimated the percentage of group members who had those traits. This was either an in‐group (Australians) or an out‐group (Americans), and subjects either judged that group alone (one‐group conditions) or also estimated the percentage of people from the other nation (the United States or Australia, respectively) who had those same traits (two‐group conditions). Across one‐group conditions there was a significant out‐group homogeneity effect with traits being seen to apply to more Americans than Australians, but there was no such effect across the two‐group conditions. These findings were predicted on the basis of self‐categorization theory's analysis of the role of comparative context in determining level of social categorization. Across two‐group conditions non‐stereotypic traits were also applied to fewer in‐group than out‐group members. This result suggests that trait favourableness is an important normative—motivational determinant of perceived homogeneity. A second experiment (N = 297) confirmed this point through an additional manipulation of the favourableness of checklist traits. This study also replicated the effect for comparative context. Implications for the analysis of social categorization, perceived group homogeneity and stereotyping are discussed.
The theory of planned behaviour: The effects of perceived behavioural control and self‐efficacy
Authors: Terry Deborah J. , O'Leary Joanne E.
Published: June 2011

The present study was undertaken to assess the utility of the theory of planned behaviour, using separate measures of the two variables that are considered to comprise the notion of perceived behavioural control, namely, beliefs concerning the controllability of the behaviour and efficacy expectancies. The study was concerned with the prediction of intentions to engage in regular exercise (for at least 20 minutes, three times a week for a fortnight) and actual exercise behaviour. A sample of 146 undergraduate subjects participated in the study. It was prospective in design; measures of attitudes, norms, intentions, perceived control and self‐efficacy were obtained at the first wave of data collection, while actual behaviour was assessed two weeks later. The results of the study revealed support for the view that separate measures of self‐efficacy and perceived behavioural control should be employed in the theory of planned behaviour. In the first instance, confirmatory factor analysis revealed that the two variables could be empirically distinguished. Second, the effects of perceived behavioural control and self‐efficacy on behavioural intentions and actual behaviour differed. As predicted, efficacy expectancies influenced behavioural intentions, but not actual behaviour. In contrast, levels of perceived behavioural control had no effect on behavioural intentions, but emerged as a significant (positive) predictor of actual behaviour (there was also evidence that the effects of intentions on behaviour were moderated by the level of perceived behavioural control).
Do people really distinguish between behavioural and normative beliefs?
Authors: Trafimow David , Fishbein Martin
Published: June 2011

Several theories (e.g. Ajzen, 1988; Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975; Triandis, 1980) imply that people distinguish between beliefs about the consequences of performing a behaviour and beliefs about the opinions of important others toward performing that behaviour. In order to test this, subjects were presented with ‘behavioural’ or ‘normative’ items that were relevant to the performance of a behaviour. Experimental group subjects in two experiments were asked to decide, on the basis of these items, whether or not they would perform the behaviour. Control group subjects were given other processing objectives; these were different in the two experiments. All subjects were asked to recall the items. According to the distinction between behavioural and normative beliefs, experimental group subjects' recall protocols should be clustered by belief type, but this should not be true for control group subjects. Findings from two experiments were consistent with predictions. Finally, a third experiment, in which subjects wrote down beliefs that were not presented by an experimenter, further supported a distinction between these two types of beliefs.
Manners of expressing negative and sympathetic attitudes towards the unemployed
Authors: McFadyen Ruth G. , Gray Colin D.
Published: June 2011

Social psychologists have examined ways in which indirectness and discursive techniques allow the communication of prejudice while not breaching the tolerance norm. The role these techniques play in the expression of other kinds of attitude, however, is as yet unknown. The present study examined the discursive techniques used by 67 employed individuals to express negative and sympathetic attitudes towards the unemployed. A style of directness was used significantly more frequently to express sympathetic attitudes than negative attitudes. Conversely, credibility techniques were used significantly more frequently to express negative attitudes than sympathetic attitudes. These credibility techniques were used in conjunction with either directness or indirectness. However, against hypothesis, indirectness alone was not used more frequently to express negative than sympathetic attitudes; in fact, one type of indirectness was associated to a greater extent with the expression of sympathy than with negativity. It was predicted that professionally employed individuals would tend to use different discursive techniques than non‐professionally employed individuals. This prediction, while supported by a difference on a composite measure of the manners of expression, was not confirmed for any of the styles considered separately.
Perceiving pub violence: The symbolic influence of social and environmental factors
Authors: Leather Phil , Lawrence Claire
Published: June 2011

Recent research on human violence emphasizes the importance of the internal, cognitive processes which influence the perceptions and evaluations involved in the classification of aggression. This study explores how specific social and environmental characteristics of public houses can influence the perception of some bars as being more ‘violence prone’ and some licensees as being more aggressive. Ninety‐six university undergraduates responded to vignettes and photographic information about an aggressive incident in a pub. The results show that judgements of the licensee and the pub atmosphere, together with estimates of incident frequency, are influenced in identifiable ways by manipulation of the physical and social ‘character’ of the setting. These results are discussed in terms of the social and physical symbolism inherent in the pub setting and the notion of person, environment and behaviour ‘fit’. Some implications of the applied importance of the results are also drawn.
Positive–negative asymmetry in social discrimination: The impact of stimulus valence and size and status differentials on intergroup evaluations
Authors: Blanz Mathias , Mummendey Amélie , Otten Sabine
Published: June 2011

This article deals with a positive‐negative asymmetry in social discrimination. While social psychological research investigating in‐group favouritism has primarily focused on positive evaluations of in‐ and out‐group, a study is presented which examines intergroup differentiation in the positive and in the negative domain. In this study, we examine the influence of stimulus valence (positive vs. negative) and size and status differentials on intergroup differentiation. The dependent measures included evaluative attributes which referred either to a status‐related or to a status‐unrelated dimension. As expected, generally there was in‐group favouritism in the positive domain in which inferior minorities showed highest biases. In‐group favouring evaluations in the negative domain appeared only under ‘aggravating’ conditions, i.e. when the in‐group had inferior and minority status. However, while this pattern of findings was true with respect to status‐unrelated measures, there was a mere reproduction of the status manipulations on measures which were related to the status differential.
A naturalistic minority influence experiment: Effects on divergent thinking, conflict and originality in work‐groups
Authors: Van Dyne Linn , Saavedra Richard
Published: June 2011

This study examines the Nemeth (1986) model of minority influence in a field study of natural work‐groups. Confederates (who were also permanent members of the ongoing, interacting groups) served as designated minority influence agents during the 10‐week study. Results demonstrated that experimental groups engaged in more divergent thinking and developed more original products than control groups. Minority influence groups did not experience more social conflict than control groups. Contrary to expectations, minority influence agents received higher peer ratings than other group members. Exploratory analysis of qualitative data, however, indicates that the role of a minority influence agent is stressful. Results are discussed in terms of managing the minority influence process in organizations in order to facilitate divergent thinking and originality while protecting agents from excessive personal strain.
Why politicians are three‐faced: The face model of political interviews
Authors: Bull Peter , Elliott Judy , Palmer Derrol , Walker Libby
Published: June 2011

To investigate the relationship between face and equivocation in political interviews, a new typology of questions was devised, based on their face‐threatening properties. This typology was applied to the analysis of 18 interviews with the leaders of the three main political parties in the 1992 British General Election. Nineteen different subcategories were distinguished, grouped into three superordinate categories of face which politicians must defend—their own personal face, the face of the party which they represent and face in relation to supporting or not supporting significant others. On the basis of this analysis, a new model of question‐response sequences in political interviews was proposed, the main tenet of which is that face is the most important factor in determining whether or not a politician replies to a question. This model provides both a means of predicting the direction of politicians' responses to questions, and a framework for future studies evaluating the performance of both politicians and political interviewers.