bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Constraining modern‐day silicon cycling in Lake Baikal
Authors: Panizzo V. N. , Swann G. E. A. , Mackay A. W. , Vologina E. , Alleman L. , André L. , Pashley V. H. , Horstwood M. S. A.
Published: February 2017

Constraining the continental silicon cycle is a key requirement in attempts to understand both nutrient fluxes to the ocean and linkages between silicon and carbon cycling over different time scales. Silicon isotope data of dissolved silica (δ30SiDSi) are presented here from Lake Baikal and its catchment in central Siberia. As well as being the world's oldest and voluminous lake, Lake Baikal lies within the seventh largest drainage basin in the world and exports significant amounts of freshwater into the Arctic Ocean. Data from river waters accounting for ~92% of annual river inflow to the lake suggest no seasonal alteration or anthropogenic impact on river δ30SiDSi composition. The absence of a change in δ30SiDSi within the Selenga Delta, through which 62% of riverine flow passes, suggests a net balance between biogenic uptake and dissolution in this system. A key feature of this study is the use of δ30SiDSi to examine seasonal and spatial variations in DSi utilization and export across the lake. Using an open system model against deepwater δ30SiDSi values from the lake, we estimate that 20–24% of DSi entering Lake Baikal is exported into the sediment record. While highlighting the impact that lakes may have upon the sequestration of continental DSi, mixed layer δ30SiDSi values from 2003 and 2013 show significant spatial variability in the magnitude of spring bloom nutrient utilization with lower rates in the north relative to south basin.
The export and fate of organic matter in the ocean: New constraints from combining satellite and oceanographic tracer observations
Authors: DeVries Tim , Weber Thomas
Published: February 2017

The ocean's biological pump transfers carbon from the surface euphotic zone into the deep ocean, reducing the atmospheric CO2 concentration. Despite its climatic importance, there are large uncertainties in basic metrics of the biological pump. Previous estimates of the strength of the biological pump, as measured by the amount of organic carbon exported from the euphotic zone, range from about 4 to 12 Pg C yr−1. The fate of exported carbon, in terms of how efficiently it is transferred into the deep ocean, is even more uncertain. Here we present a new model of the biological pump that assimilates satellite and oceanographic tracer observations to constrain rates and patterns of organic matter production, export, and remineralization in the ocean. The data‐assimilated model predicts a global particulate organic carbon (POC) flux out of the euphotic zone of ∼9 Pg C yr−1. The particle export ratio (the ratio of POC export to net primary production) is highest at high latitudes and lowest at low latitudes, but low‐latitude export is greater than predicted by previous models, in better agreement with observed patterns of long‐term carbon export. Particle transfer efficiency (Teff) through the mesopelagic zone is controlled by temperature and oxygen, with highest Teff for high‐latitude regions and oxygen minimum zones. In contrast, Teff in the deep ocean (below 1000 m) is controlled by particle sinking speed, with highest deep ocean Teff below the subtropical gyres. These results emphasize the utility of both remote sensing and oceanographic tracer observations for constraining the operation of the biological pump.
Modeling the impact of melt on seismic properties during mountain building
Authors: Lee Amicia L. , Walker Andrew M. , Lloyd Geoffrey E. , Torvela Taija
Published: February 2017

Initiation of partial melting in the mid/lower crust causes a decrease in P wave and S wave velocities; recent studies imply that the relationship between these velocities and melt is not simple. We have developed a modeling approach to assess the combined impact of various melt and solid phase properties on seismic velocities and anisotropy. The modeling is based on crystallographic preferred orientation (CPO) data measured from migmatite samples, allowing quantification of the variation of seismic velocities with varying melt volumes, shapes, orientations, and matrix anisotropy. The results show nonlinear behavior of seismic properties as a result of the interaction of all of these physical properties, which in turn depend on lithology, stress regime, strain rate, preexisting rock fabrics, and pressure‐temperature conditions. This nonlinear behavior is evident when applied to a suite of samples from a traverse across a migmatitic shear zone in the Seiland Igneous Province, Northern Norway. Critically, changes in solid phase composition and CPO, and melt shape and orientation with respect to the wave propagation direction can result in huge variations in the same seismic property even if the melt fraction remains the same. A comparison with surface wave interpretations from tectonically active regions highlights the issues in current models used to predict melt percentages or partially molten regions. Interpretation of seismic data to infer melt percentages or extent of melting should, therefore, always be underpinned by robust modeling of the underlying geological parameters combined with examination of multiple seismic properties in order to reduce uncertainty of the interpretation.
Active microwave observations of diurnal and seasonal variations of canopy water content across the humid African tropical forests
Authors: Konings Alexandra G. , Yu Yifan , Xu Liang , Yang Yan , Schimel David S. , Saatchi Sassan S.
Published: February 2017

A higher frequency of severe droughts under warmer temperatures is expected to lead to large impacts on global water and carbon fluxes and on vegetation cover—including possible widespread mortality. Monitoring the hydraulic state of vegetation as represented by the canopy water content will allow rapid assessment of vegetation water stress. Here we show the potential of active microwave backscatter observations at Ku band for monitoring the diurnal and seasonal variations of top‐of‐canopy water content. We focus on the humid tropical forests of Central Africa and examine spatiotemporal variations of radar backscatter from QuikSCAT (2001–2009) and RapidScat (2014–2016). Diurnal variations in RapidScat backscatter demonstrate the occurrence of widespread midday stomatal closure in this region. Increases in backscatter during the dry seasons in humid forests could be explained by both dry season leaf flushing (as supported by canopy structure) and vapor pressure deficit‐driven increases in evapotranspiration rates.
Theoretical modeling insights into elastic wave attenuation mechanisms in marine sediments with pore‐filling methane hydrate
Authors: Marín‐Moreno H. , Sahoo S. K. , Best A. I.
Published: February 2017

The majority of presently exploitable marine methane hydrate reservoirs are likely to host hydrate in disseminated form in coarse grain sediments. For hydrate concentrations below 25–40%, disseminated or pore‐filling hydrate does not increase elastic frame moduli, thus making impotent traditional seismic velocity‐based methods. Here, we present a theoretical model to calculate frequency‐dependent P and S wave velocity and attenuation of an effective porous medium composed of solid mineral grains, methane hydrate, methane gas, and water. The model considers elastic wave energy losses caused by local viscous flow both (i) between fluid inclusions in hydrate and pores and (ii) between different aspect ratio pores (created when hydrate grows); the inertial motion of the frame with respect to the pore fluid (Biot's type fluid flow); and gas bubble damping. The sole presence of pore‐filling hydrate in the sediment reduces the available porosity and intrinsic permeability of the sediment affecting Biot's type attenuation at high frequencies. Our model shows that attenuation maxima due to fluid inclusions in hydrate are possible over the entire frequency range of interest to exploration seismology (1–106 Hz), depending on the aspect ratio of the inclusions, whereas maxima due to different aspect ratio pores occur only at sonic to ultrasound frequencies (104–106 Hz). This frequency response imposes further constraints on possible hydrate saturations able to reproduce broadband elastic measurements of velocity and attenuation. Our results provide a physical basis for detecting the presence and amount of pore‐filling hydrate in seafloor sediments using conventional seismic surveys.
Integrating puffing and explosions in a general scheme for Strombolian‐style activity
Authors: Gaudin Damien , Taddeucci Jacopo , Scarlato Piergiorgio , del Bello Elisabetta , Ricci Tullio , Orr Tim , Houghton Bruce , Harris Andrew , Rao Sandro , Bucci Augusto
Published: February 2017

Strombolian eruptions are among the most common subaerial styles of explosive volcanism worldwide. Distinctive features of each volcano lead to a correspondingly wide range of variations of magnitude and erupted products, but most papers focus on a single type of event at a single volcano. Here, in order to emphasize the common features underlying this diversity of styles, we scrutinize a database from 35 different erupting vents, including 21 thermal infrared videos from Stromboli (Italy), Etna (Italy), Yasur (Vanuatu), and Batu Tara (Indonesia), from puffing, through rapid explosions to normal explosions, with variable ejection parameters and relative abundance of gas, ash, and bombs. Using field observations and high‐speed thermal infrared videos processed by a new algorithm, we identify the distinguishing characteristics of each type of activity and how they may relate and interact. In particular, we record that ash‐poor normal explosions may be preceded and followed by the onset or the increase of the puffing activity, while ash‐rich explosions are emergent, i.e., with inflation of the free surface followed directly by emission of increasingly large gas pockets. Overall, we see that all Strombolian activities form a continuum arising from a common mechanism and are modulated by the combination of two well‐established controls: (1) the length of the bursting gas pocket with respect to the vent diameter and (2) the presence and thickness of a high‐viscosity layer in the uppermost part of the volcanic conduit.
Stress accumulation in the Marmara Sea estimated through ground‐motion simulations from dynamic rupture scenarios
Authors: Aochi Hideo , Douglas John , Ulrich Thomas
Published: February 2017

We compare ground motions simulated from dynamic rupture scenarios, for the seismic gap along the North Anatolian Fault under the Marmara Sea (Turkey), to estimates from empirical ground motion prediction equations (GMPEs). Ground motions are simulated using a finite difference method and a 3‐D model of the local crustal structure. They are analyzed at more than a thousand locations in terms of horizontal peak ground velocity. Characteristics of probable earthquake scenarios are strongly dependent on the hypothesized level of accumulated stress, in terms of a normalized stress parameterT. With respect to the GMPEs, it is found that simulations for many scenarios systematically overestimate the ground motions at all distances. Simulations for only some scenarios, corresponding to moderate stress accumulation, match the estimates from the GMPEs. The difference between the simulations and the GMPEs is used to quantify the relative probabilities of each scenario and, therefore, to revise the probability of the stress field. A magnitudeMw7+ operating at moderate prestress field (0.6 < T ≤ 0.7) is statistically more probable, as previously assumed in the logic tree of probabilistic assessment of rupture scenarios. This approach of revising the mechanical hypothesis by means of comparison to an empirical statistical model (e.g., a GMPE) is useful not only for practical seismic hazard assessments but also to understand crustal dynamics.
Climate change impacts on southern Ross Sea phytoplankton composition, productivity, and export
Authors: Kaufman Daniel E. , Friedrichs Marjorie A. M. , Smith Walker O. , Hofmann Eileen E. , Dinniman Michael S. , Hemmings John C. P.
Published: February 2017

The Ross Sea, a highly productive region of the Southern Ocean, is expected to experience warming during the next century along with reduced summer sea ice concentrations and shallower mixed layers. This study investigates how these climatic changes may alter phytoplankton assemblage composition, primary productivity, and export. Glider measurements are used to force a one‐dimensional biogeochemical model, which includes diatoms and both solitary and colonial forms of Phaeocystis antarctica. Model performance is evaluated with glider observations, and experiments are conducted using projections of physical drivers for mid‐21st and late‐21st century. These scenarios reveal a 5% increase in primary productivity by midcentury and 14% by late‐century and a proportional increase in carbon export, which remains approximately 18% of primary production. In addition, scenario results indicate diatom biomass increases while P. antarctica biomass decreases in the first half of the 21st century. In the second half of the century, diatom biomass remains relatively constant and P. antarctica biomass increases. Additional scenarios examining the independent contributions of expected future changes (temperature, mixed layer depth, irradiance, and surface iron inputs from melting ice) demonstrate that earlier availability of low light due to reduction of sea ice early in the growing season is the primary driver of productivity increases over the next century; shallower mixed layer depths additionally contribute to changes of assemblage composition and export. This study further demonstrates how glider data can be effectively used to facilitate model development and simulation, and inform interpretation of biogeochemical observations in the context of climate change.
PAN in the eastern Pacific free troposphere: A satellite view of the sources, seasonality, interannual variability, and timeline for trend detection
Authors: Zhu Liye , Payne Vivienne H. , Walker Thomas W. , Worden John R. , Jiang Zhe , Kulawik Susan S. , Fischer Emily V.
Published: February 2017

Peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) is an important trace gas that serves to transport nitrogen oxide radicals throughout the troposphere. We present an analysis of satellite observations of PAN from the Tropospheric Emission Spectrometer (TES) over the eastern Pacific Ocean for April and July 2006–2010 and the spring‐to‐summer seasonal transition for 2006. TES can provide quantitative estimates of free tropospheric PAN in clear‐sky or thin cloud conditions where elevated PAN (>0.2 ppbv) is present. The percentage of successful PAN detections increases from April to July and then decreases in August and September. However, there are no significant differences in the tropospheric average PAN either interannually or between these months. Plumes containing elevated PAN are present almost every day in July. Elevated PAN observed in July has multiple sources, including fires in Siberia, anthropogenic sources in eastern China, and recirculated pollution from the continental U.S. We combined the observed variability in the TES PAN retrievals over the eastern Pacific Ocean with a range of possible trends in PAN to determine the observational requirements to detect such trends. Based on the variability observed in the PAN retrievals over this region, we predict that it would be faster to detect a trend of a given magnitude in PAN using satellite observations over the eastern Pacific Ocean region rather than in situ surface observations and that a trend of a given magnitude would be more quickly detected in summer than spring.
Turbulent mixing and removal of ozone within an Amazon rainforest canopy
Authors: Freire L. S. , Gerken T. , Ruiz‐Plancarte J. , Wei D. , Fuentes J. D. , Katul G. G. , Dias N. L. , Acevedo O. C. , Chamecki M.
Published: February 2017

Simultaneous profiles of turbulence statistics and mean ozone mixing ratio are used to establish a relation between eddy diffusivity and ozone mixing within the Amazon forest. A one‐dimensional diffusion model is proposed and used to infer mixing time scales from the eddy diffusivity profiles. Data and model results indicate that during daytime conditions, the upper (lower) half of the canopy is well (partially) mixed most of the time and that most of the vertical extent of the forest can be mixed in less than an hour. During nighttime, most of the canopy is predominantly poorly mixed, except for periods with bursts of intermittent turbulence. Even though turbulence is faster than chemistry during daytime, both processes have comparable time scales in the lower canopy layers during nighttime conditions. Nonchemical loss time scales (associated with stomatal uptake and dry deposition) for the entire forest are comparable to turbulent mixing time scale in the lower canopy during the day and in the entire canopy during the night, indicating a tight coupling between turbulent transport and dry deposition and stomatal uptake processes. Because of the significant time of day and height variability of the turbulent mixing time scale inside the canopy, it is important to take it into account when studying chemical and biophysical processes happening in the forest environment. The method proposed here to estimate turbulent mixing time scales is a reliable alternative to currently used models, especially for situations in which the vertical distribution of the time scale is relevant.
Simulated contrasting influences of two La Niña Modoki events on aerosol concentrations over eastern China
Authors: Feng Juan , Li Jianping , Zhu Jianlei , Liao Hong , Yang Yang
Published: February 2017

Using the Goddard Earth Observing System (GEOS)‐Chem model driven by GEOS‐4 assimilated meteorological data, the potential influence of two La Niña Modoki events on aerosol concentrations over eastern China is explored. The results indicate that the impact of La Niña Modoki on aerosol concentrations differs between strong and moderate events. During the mature phase of the strong event of 1998/1999, an anomalous dipole pattern is observed over eastern China, i.e., with increased aerosol concentrations in the south and reduced concentrations in the north. The dipole pattern in the moderate event of 2000/2001 is reversed, with reduced aerosol concentrations in the south and increased concentrations in north China. Additionally, decreased aerosol concentrations are seen in spring of the decaying phase for the 1998/1999 event, while in the decaying spring of the 2000/2001 event, the dipole is reversed relative to the mature phase. During the decaying summer, aerosol concentrations are found to increase over eastern China in the 1998/1999 event but not in the 2000/2001 event. These anomalous aerosol concentrations are mainly caused by changes in circulation associated with the two La Niña Modoki events. In contrast, the role of wet deposition is observed to be limited during the lifespan of these two events. It is also found that the potential influence of the two La Niña Modoki events on aerosol concentrations can be up to 20% of the climatological mean. This suggests that La Niña Modoki has an important role in determining the distribution of aerosol concentrations over eastern China.
Nonlinear and threshold‐dominated runoff generation controls DOC export in a small peat catchment
Authors: Birkel C. , Broder T. , Biester H.
Published: February 2017

We used a relatively simple two‐layer, coupled hydrology‐biogeochemistry model to simultaneously simulate streamflow and stream dissolved organic carbon (DOC) concentrations in a small lead and arsenic contaminated upland peat catchment in northwestern Germany. The model procedure was informed by an initial data mining analysis, in combination with regression relationships of discharge, DOC, and element export. We assessed the internal model DOC processing based on stream DOC hysteresis patterns and 3‐hourly time step groundwater level and soil DOC data for two consecutive summer periods in 2013 and 2014. The parsimonious model (i.e., few calibrated parameters) showed the importance of nonlinear and rapid near‐surface runoff generation mechanisms that caused around 60% of simulated DOC load. The total load was high even though these pathways were only activated during storm events on average 30% of the monitoring time—as also shown by the experimental data. Overall, the drier period 2013 resulted in increased nonlinearity but exported less DOC (115 kg C ha−1 yr−1 ± 11 kg C ha−1 yr−1) compared to the equivalent but wetter period in 2014 (189 kg C ha−1 yr−1 ± 38 kg C ha−1 yr−1). The exceedance of a critical water table threshold (−10 cm) triggered a rapid near‐surface runoff response with associated higher DOC transport connecting all available DOC pools and subsequent dilution. We conclude that the combination of detailed experimental work with relatively simple, coupled hydrology‐biogeochemistry models not only allowed the model to be internally constrained but also provided important insight into how DOC and tightly coupled pollutants or trace elements are mobilized.
Long‐term trends and synchrony in dissolved organic matter characteristics in Wisconsin, USA, lakes: Quality, not quantity, is highly sensitive to climate
Authors: Jane Stephen F. , Winslow Luke A. , Remucal Christina K. , Rose Kevin C.
Published: February 2017

Dissolved organic matter (DOM) is a fundamental driver of many lake processes. In the past several decades, many lakes have exhibited a substantial increase in DOM quantity, measured as dissolved organic carbon (DOC) concentration. While increasing DOC is now widely recognized, fewer studies have sought to understand how characteristics of DOM (DOM quality) change over time. Quality can be measured in several ways, including the optical characteristics spectral slope (S275–295), spectral ratio (SR), absorbance at 254 nm (A254), and DOC‐specific absorbance (SUVA; A254:DOC). However, long‐term measurements of quality are not nearly as common as long‐term measurements of DOC concentration. We used 24 years of DOC and absorbance data for seven lakes in the North Temperate Lakes Long‐Term Ecological Research site in northern Wisconsin, USA, to examine temporal trends and synchrony in both DOC concentration and quality. We predicted lower SR and S275–295 and higher A254 and SUVA trends, consistent with increasing DOC and greater allochthony. DOC concentration exhibited both significant positive and negative trends among lakes. In contrast, DOC quality exhibited trends suggesting reduced allochthony or increased degradation, with significant long‐term increases in SR in three lakes. Patterns and synchrony of DOM quality parameters suggest that they are more responsive to climatic variations than DOC concentration. SUVA was particularly responsive to the degree of soil moisture. These results demonstrate that DOC quantity and quality can exhibit different complex long‐term trends and responses to climatic drivers, with implications for carbon cycling and microbial communities in aquatic ecosystems.
Lateral expansion and carbon exchange of a boreal peatland in Finland resulting in 7000 years of positive radiative forcing
Authors: Mathijssen Paul J. H. , Kähkölä Noora , Tuovinen Juha‐Pekka , Lohila Annalea , Minkkinen Kari , Laurila Tuomas , Väliranta Minna
Published: February 2017

Data on past peatland growth patterns, vegetation development, and carbon (C) dynamics during the various Holocene climate phases may help us to understand possible future climate‐peatland feedback mechanisms. In this study, we analyzed and radiocarbon dated several peat cores from Kalevansuo, a drained bog in southern Finland. We investigated peatland succession and C dynamics throughout the Holocene. These data were used to reconstruct the long‐term atmospheric radiative forcing, i.e., climate impact of the peatland since initiation. Kalevansuo peat records revealed a general development from fen to bog, typical for the southern boreal zone, but the timing of ombrotrophication varied in different parts of the peatland. Peat accumulation patterns and lateral expansion through paludification were influenced by fires and climate conditions. Long‐term C accumulation rates were overall lower than the average values found from literature. We suggest the low accumulation rates are due to repeated burning of the peat surface. Drainage for forestry resulted in a nearly complete replacement of typical bog mosses by forest species within 40 years after drainage. The radiative forcing reconstruction suggested positive values (warming) for the first ~7000 years following initiation. The change from positive to negative forcing was triggered by an expansion of bog vegetation cover and later by drainage. The strong relationship between peatland area and peat type with radiative forcing suggests a possible feedback for future changing climate, as high‐latitude peatlands may experience prominent regime shifts, such as fen to bog transitions.
Debates—Hypothesis testing in hydrology: Pursuing certainty versus pursuing uberty
Authors: Baker Victor R.
Published: February 2017

Modern hydrology places nearly all its emphasis on science‐as‐knowledge, the hypotheses of which are increasingly expressed as physical models, whose predictions are tested by correspondence to quantitative data sets. Though arguably appropriate for applications of theory to engineering and applied science, the associated emphases on truth and degrees of certainty are not optimal for the productive and creative processes that facilitate the fundamental advancement of science as a process of discovery. The latter requires an investigative approach, where the goal is uberty, a kind of fruitfulness of inquiry, in which the abductive mode of inference adds to the much more commonly acknowledged modes of deduction and induction. The resulting world‐directed approach to hydrology provides a valuable complement to the prevailing hypothesis‐ (theory‐) directed paradigm.
Changes in cold region flood regimes inferred from long‐record reference gauging stations
Authors: Burn Donald H. , Whitfield Paul H.
Published: February 2017

Variability and nonstationarity in flood regimes of cold regions are examined using data from hydrometric reference streamflow gauging stations from 27 natural watersheds in Canada and adjacent areas of the United States. Choosing stations from reference networks with nearly 100 years of data allows for the investigation of changes that span several phases of some of the atmospheric drivers that may influence flood behavior. The reference hydrologic networks include only stations considered to have good quality data and were screened to avoid the influences of regulation, diversions, or land use change. Changes and variations in flood regimes are complex and require a multifaceted approach to properly characterize the types of changes that have occurred and are likely to occur in the future. Peaks over threshold (POT) data are extracted from daily flow data for each watershed, and changes to the magnitude, timing, frequency, volume, and duration of threshold exceedences are investigated. Seasonal statistics are used to explore changes in the nature of the flood regime based on changes in the timing of flood threshold exceedences. A variety of measures are developed to infer flood regime shifts including from a nival regime to a mixed regime and a mixed regime to a more pluvial‐dominated regime. The flood regime at many of the watersheds demonstrates increased prominence of rainfall floods and decreased prevalence of snowmelt contributions to flood responses. While some individual stations show a relationship between flood variables and climate indices, these relationships are generally weak.
Debates—Hypothesis testing in hydrology: Introduction
Authors: Blöschl Günter
Published: February 2017

This paper introduces the papers in the “Debates—Hypothesis testing in hydrology” series. The four articles in the series discuss whether and how the process of testing hypotheses leads to progress in hydrology. Repeated experiments with controlled boundary conditions are rarely feasible in hydrology. Research is therefore not easily aligned with the classical scientific method of testing hypotheses. Hypotheses in hydrology are often enshrined in computer models which are tested against observed data. Testability may be limited due to model complexity and data uncertainty. All four articles suggest that hypothesis testing has contributed to progress in hydrology and is needed in the future. However, the procedure is usually not as systematic as the philosophy of science suggests. A greater emphasis on a creative reasoning process on the basis of clues and explorative analyses is therefore needed.
Bone and Soft Tissue Tumours
Authors: Wittekind Christian , Asamura Hisao , Sobin Leslie H.
Published: February 2017

This chapter deals with bone and soft tissue tumours. It discusses the rules for classification, TNM clinical classification, and pTNM pathological classification of bone and soft tissue tumours. N &;#x02013; regional lymph nodes and M &;#x02013; distant metastasis are also explained for bone tumours. The classification for bone tumours apply to all primary malignant bone tumours except malignant lymphomas, multiple myeloma, surface/juxtacortical osteosarcoma, and juxtacortical chondrosarcoma. There should be histological confirmation of the disease and division of cases by histological type and grade for both bone and soft tissue tumours.
Introduction
Authors: Brierley James D. , Gospodarowicz Mary K. , Wittekind Christian
Published: February 2017

The TNM system for classification of malignant tumours was developed by Pierre Denoix (1943–1952). In 1950, UICC appointed the Committee on Tumour Nomenclature and Statistics, which in 1958 published recommendations for the clinical stage classification of breast and larynx cancers. In 1968, the Livre de Poche was published, and in 1993, the project published the TNM Supplement, TNM Atlas an Illustrated Guide to the TNM Classification of Malignant Tumours, and Prognostic Factors in Cancer (1995). The current edition of TNM contains rules of classification and staging in accordance with the AJCC Cancer Staging Manual.
Head and Neck Tumors
Authors: Brierley James D. , Gospodarowicz Mary K. , Wittekind Christian
Published: February 2017

Head and neck tumours commonly occur in the lip and oral cavity, pharynx, larynx, nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses (maxillary and ethmoid sinus), major salivary glands and thyroid gland, whereas unknown primary carcinoma and malignant melanoma can emerge in cervical nodes and upper aerodigestive tract, respectively. Carcinomas arising in minor salivary glands of the upper aerodigestive tract are classified according to the rules for tumours of their anatomic site of origin. Each site is described under the rules for classification with the procedures for assessing T, N and M categories, anatomical sites and subsites, definition of the regional lymph nodes, TNM clinical classification, pTNM pathological classification, stage and prognostic factor grid.
Breast Tumours
Authors: Brierley James D. , Gospodarowicz Mary K. , Wittekind Christian
Published: February 2017

Carcinomas, nodes, and metastases arising from the breast have been classified clinically and pathologically. Primary sites include the quadrants of the breast, the nipple, the central portion of the breast, and the axillary tail/ Clinical assessment is based on physical examination and imaging. Factors that influence prognosis have been included.
Gynaecological Tumours
Authors: Brierley James D. , Gospodarowicz Mary K. , Wittekind Christian
Published: February 2017

The article provides an introduction to the sites and types of the various gynaecological tumours that will be classified and staged in this section.
Vagina
Authors: Brierley James D. , Gospodarowicz Mary K. , Wittekind Christian
Published: February 2017

Primary carcinomas, nodes, and metastases arising from the vagina have been classified clinically and histologically. Clinical assessment is based on physical examination, endoscopy and imaging. FIGO stages are also included for comparison. Factors that influence prognosis have been included.
Penis
Authors: Brierley James D. , Gospodarowicz Mary K. , Wittekind Christian
Published: February 2017

Carcinomas, nodes, and metastases arising from the penis have been classified clinically and histologically. Primary sites include the prepuce, glans penis, and body of penis. Clinical assessment is based on physical examination and endoscopy/imaging. Factors that influence prognosis have been included.
Kidney
Authors: Brierley James D. , Gospodarowicz Mary K. , Wittekind Christian
Published: February 2017

Renal cell carcinomas and the nodes and metastases thereof have been classified clinically and histologically. Clinical assessment is based on physical examination and imaging. Factors that influence prognosis have been included.

Renal cell carcinoma, kidney, hilar nodes, abdominal para‐aortic nodes
Urethra
Authors: Brierley James D. , Gospodarowicz Mary K. , Wittekind Christian
Published: February 2017

Carcinomas of the urethra and transitional cell carcinoma of the prostate, prostatic urethra and nodes and metastases thereof are classified clinically and histologically. Clinical assessment includes physical examination, imaging, and endoscopy.
Carcinoma of Skin of the Eyelid
Authors: Brierley James D. , Gospodarowicz Mary K. , Wittekind Christian
Published: February 2017

Carcinomas, nodes, and metastases arising from the skin of the eyelid have been classified clinically and histologically. Clinical assessment is based on physical examination for primary and nodes, and also imaging for metastases. Factors that influence prognosis have been included.
Carcinoma of Conjunctiva
Authors: Brierley James D. , Gospodarowicz Mary K. , Wittekind Christian
Published: February 2017

Carcinomas of the conjunctiva, nodes, and metastases have been classified clinically and histologically. Clinical assessment is based on physical examination for primary and nodes, and also imaging for metastases.
Retinoblastoma
Authors: Brierley James D. , Gospodarowicz Mary K. , Wittekind Christian
Published: February 2017

Retinoblastoma and the nodes and metastases thereof have been classified clinically and histologically. Clinical assessment is based on physical examination and imaging. Factors that influence prognosis have been included.
Appendix
Authors: Brierley James D. , Gospodarowicz Mary K. , Wittekind Christian
Published: February 2017

Adenocarcinomas of the appendix and the nodes and metastases arising thereof have been classified clinically and histologically. Clinical assessment is based on physical examination, imaging, and/or surgical exploration.
Merkel Cell Carcinoma of Skin
Authors: Brierley James D. , Gospodarowicz Mary K. , Wittekind Christian
Published: February 2017

Merkel cell carcinomas and the nodes and metastases thereof have been classified clinically and histologically. Clinical assessment is based on physical examination for the primary and imaging additionally for the nodes and metastases.
Uterine Sarcomas (Leiomyosarcoma, Endometrial Stromal Sarcoma, Adenosarcoma)
Authors: Brierley James D. , Gospodarowicz Mary K. , Wittekind Christian
Published: February 2017

Sarcomas arising from the uterus and the nodes and metastases thereof have been classified clinically and histologically. Primary sites include the cervix uteri, isthmus uteri, and fundus uteri. Clinical assessment is based on physical examination and imaging.
Bone and Soft Tissue Tumours
Authors: Brierley James D. , Gospodarowicz Mary K. , Wittekind Christian
Published: February 2017

Paediatric bone and soft tissue tumours and the nodes and metastases thereof have been classified clinically and histologically. Tumours are classified into Tier 1 and Tier 2. Factors that influence prognosis have been included.
Principles of Cancer Staging
Authors: Sobin Leslie , Brierley James D. , Gospodarowicz Mary , O'Sullivan Brian , Wittekind Christian
Published: February 2017

The TNM System for the classification of malignant tumours was developed by Pierre Denoix (France) between the years 1943 and 1952. The present seventh edition of TNM Classification contains rules of classification and staging that correspond with those appearing in the seventh edition of the AJCC Cancer Staging Manual and have the approval of all national TNM committees. The TNM system for describing the anatomical extent of disease is based on the assessment of three components: extent of the primary tumour; absence or presence and extent of regional lymph node metastasis; and absence or presence of distant metastasis. The sites in the TNM classification are listed according to the code number of the International Classification of Diseases for Oncology. TNM and pTNM describe the anatomical extent of cancer in general without considering treatment. They can be supplemented by the R classification, which deals with tumour status after treatment.
Treatment in Pregnancy
Authors: Azim Hatem A. , Peccatori Fedro A. , Demeestere Isabelle , ­Gentilini Oreste , Pavlidis Nicholas
Published: February 2017

The diagnosis of cancer during pregnancy is a relatively uncommon, yet a highly challenging, clinical situation. Hence, it is vital to understand the key management strategies to maximize maternal benefit while minimizing potential fetal risks. In this chapter, we will discuss the diagnosis, and treatment of tumours diagnosed during pregnancy in order to provide guidance for optimal management of these patients.
Supportive Care During Curative Treatment
Authors: Urba Susan , Walker Suzette , Karsies Danielle , Allore Dawna , Casselman Claire , Almond Maria
Published: February 2017

Cancer patients undergoing curative treatment for their disease often experience numerous symptoms related to the cancer and its therapy. These patients need strong supportive care throughout the course of their treatment and afterwards. The most typical symptoms they may experience include fatigue, diarrhoea, constipation, nausea, pain and psychological distress. The cancer clinician must be skilled in supportive care to provide optimal quality of life for the patient during this difficult time.
Rehabilitation
Authors: Gillis Theresa A. , Tobias Kerry
Published: February 2017

The goal of rehabilitation is to maximize a person's function by minimizing impairment and resulting disability, preventing debility and accumulation of further functional deficits. Rehabilitation utilizes specific targeted therapies (physical, occupational, vocational, psychosocial) to restore an individual's quality of life and maximal possible independence. Impairments which impede a person from fulfilling life roles create handicap; rehabilitation seeks to reduce the degree of impairment or manage its consequences to avoid handicap, displacement and diminished quality of life. For those with cancer, rehabilitation interventions are needed during their treatment, at its conclusion and in the years following successful treatment. Cancer may directly impair function, but cancer treatment is also frequently associated with pain, fatigue and disability. Late functional sequelae of cancer treatment are common and also require rehabilitative interventions. The success of cancer care is determined not solely by the effectiveness of antitumour treatment, but also how well a patient is able to maintain his/her function and quality of life throughout it.
Biliary Tract
Authors: Smoot Rory L. , Hallemeier Christopher L. , McWilliams Robert R. , Truty Mark J.
Published: February 2017

Extrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma encompasses both hilar and distal cholangiocarcinoma. The incidence is varied worldwide but has been associated with various infectious and inflammatory conditions, such as primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC) and liver fluke infection, as well as other predisposing factors, such as biliary adenoma and choledochal cyst. Surgical resection offers the only chance of cure, but fewer than half of patients are resectable at the time of presentation. Work‐up includes CT (chest, abdomen and pelvis) and imaging of the biliary system with either magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography (MRCP) or endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ECRP). In locally‐advanced or metastatic disease, chemotherapy is the treatment of choice (gemcitabine and cisplatin combination), except in highly selected patients with locally‐advanced hilar cholangiocarcinoma, for whom neoadjuvant chemoradiation and liver transplantation may be possible at specialized centres.
Penis
Authors: Crook Juanita , Pagliaro Lance , Pettaway Curtis
Published: February 2017

Cancer of the penis is an uncommon malignancy with an incidence in the developed world of about 1 per 100,000 men. There is considerable geographical variation in incidence. Established risk factors include oncogenic HPV types 16 and 18, tobacco consumption, phimosis and increasing age. It most commonly occurs on the glans and foreskin and in early stages is highly curable by local management. Penile preserving options, both surgical and radiotherapeutic, are emphasized. First line of spread is to regional lymph nodes, evaluation of which is essential for high‐risk tumours. For locally‐advanced presentations, a multidisciplinary approach is recommended, combining surgery, radiation and chemotherapy, the optimal sequencing of which is being explored in international cooperative clinical trials.
Lymphoma
Authors: Tsang Richard W. C. , Crump Michael
Published: February 2017

Hodgkin lymphoma is the classical type, with a small proportion of nodular lymphocyte‐predominant histology, and usually presents at a localized stage. Non‐Hodgkin lymphoma has many subtypes, but most are of B‐cell origin, and can broadly be divided between aggressive and indolent histologies for treatment purposes. There is large geographical variation between the individual subtypes of non‐Hodgkin lymphoma and varying aetiological agents (e.g. Epstein‐Barr virus or Helicobacter pylori) or predisposing factors (e.g. immunosuppression or autoimmune diseases). Symptoms include lymphadenopathy, mass lesion in organs and sometimes, constitutional symptoms such as weight loss, fever and night sweats. Standard investigations are CT neck, chest, abdomen and pelvis, FDG‐PET scan, complete blood count and blood work for organ function, HIV status, hepatitis serology and bone marrow biopsy. Early‐stage Hodgkin lymphoma is treated with combined brief chemotherapy and radiation therapy with a high cure rate. Advanced‐stage Hodgkin lymphoma are treated with full courses of chemotherapy with a good cure rate. Non‐Hodgkin lymphomas of aggressive histology are primarily treated with chemotherapy with a moderately high cure rate. Non‐Hodgkin lymphomas of indolent histology usually present in advanced stages and are not curable.
Ovary and Fallopian Tube
Authors: Owens Gemma , Kitchener Henry
Published: February 2017

Ovarian cancer describes a heterogeneous group of tumours which account for more than 140,000 deaths annually. Symptoms are non‐specific and as such, the disease is often diagnosed at an advanced stage. Currently, there is no acceptable screening test for epithelial ovarian cancer. Standard treatment involves primary debulking surgery followed by platinum‐based chemotherapy. Where this is not feasible, patients should be offered neoadjuvant chemotherapy followed by surgery.
Adrenal Tumours
Authors: Romero Arenas1 Minerva Angélica , Amir Habra2 Mouhammed , Perrier1 Nancy D.
Published: February 2017

Adrenal tumours have various patterns of presentation depending on their endocrine functionality and oncological potential. Evaluation of the patient with an adrenal tumour requires a thorough understanding of adrenal physiology and proper application of imaging and biochemical testing to guide therapy. The spectrum of adrenal disease is wide and includes endocrinopathies such as Cushing syndrome, Conn syndrome (hyperaldosteronism) and phaeochromocytoma. Although rare, primary adrenal malignancy dictates a different therapeutic approach from that for benign disease. Non‐functional disease includes benign ‘incidentalomas’, malignant masses, both of primary adrenal origin and of metastatic origin, from another primary site. We describe the presentation and natural history of common adrenal pathologies, including the diagnostic work‐up and treatment options. Furthermore, operative strategy is discussed with details regarding perioperative issues specific to each pathological entity being treated. A summary of ongoing research in adrenal tumours and controversies in the field is included.
Neuroendocrine Tumours
Authors: O'Toole Dermot , Tang Laura H. , Jensen Robert T. , Falconi Massimo , Pape U.‐F. , Kwekkeboom Dik
Published: February 2017

Gastroenteropancreatic neuroendocrine neoplasms (NEN) are complex tumours arising from many different sites and expressing a broad range of biological behaviours. Their incidence and that of bronchopulmonary NEN are rising. Recent staging and pathological classification systems aim at improving risk stratification and better categorizing NEN with respect to further therapy. Most tumours are well differentiated, but have frequently metastasized at time of diagnosis; despite this, patients often live for a relatively long time. Some tumours secrete biologically active hormones or peptides resulting in specific symptoms (or syndromes) and may require specific therapy for this, e.g., somataotatin analogue therapy. In advanced disease, a large number of treatments have been shown to be effective, including surgery, systemic chemotherapy, biotherapy (using somatostatin analogues or interferon), targeted therapies, liver‐directed strategies (liver embolization or radioembolization) and peptide receptor radionuclide therapy. Recent phase III trials have opened newer therapeutic possibilities, but strategic phase III trials testing the correct sequence of therapy are required to improve overall management in this group of patients. The multidisciplinary approach is essential in optimizing management in patients with NEN.
Soft tissue
Authors: Dickie Colleen , Gupta Abha , Pollock Raphael , O'Sullivan Brian
Published: February 2017

Soft tissue sarcoma is a rare disease requiring multimodality discussion and management. Just over half of these tumours originate in the limbs approximately 40% arise in the retroperitoneum/visceral tissues and torso and the remainder occur in the head and neck region (10%). In general, the treatment approach is surgery with or without the addition of local radiotherapy. Radiation therapy may include particle beam therapy, brachytherapy or external beam techniques, such as conformal radiotherapy and intensity‐modulated radiotherapy (IMRT). Chemotherapy remains controversial and it is usually restricted to established chemoresponsive subtypes and high'risk cases.
Cancer of Unknown Primary (Non‐Head and Neck)
Authors: Pentheroudakis George , Pavlidis Nicholas
Published: February 2017

Cancer of unknown primary site (CUP) possesses a unique natural history of early systemic dissemination from an occult primary, resulting in atypical high‐volume metastases. Histologically, adenocarcinoma is the commonest type followed by undifferentiated and squamous cell pathology. Studies on the biology of CUP established active angiogenesis, tumour suppressor and oncogene aberrations, active AKT pathway signalling and presence of circulating tumour cells (CTC) as hallmark features. Patients with CUP are divided into those with favourable (20%) and unfavourable (80%) subsets. To identify the primary site, physical examination and history, immunohistochemistry, radiological imaging (including CT and sometimes PET‐CT) are the cornerstone diagnostic tools. Favourable subsets are managed with locoregional treatment and/or chemotherapy, while unfavourable patients are treated with platinum‐based palliative chemotherapy. Multigene expression profiling platforms are effective in biologically assigning a primary; however, their impact on patient management and survival remains to be proven.