bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Media Use by Children
Authors: Krcmar Marina
Published: September 2017

Media play an important role in the lives of adolescents and children. Especially as they age, today's children and adolescents are very frequently connected to each other by means of some medium such as email, instant messenger, cell phone, or beeper. However, when other media such as → television, the → Internet, → video games, and music (→ Popular Music) are added to the list of → interpersonal communication devices, children and adolescents are not merely perpetually linked but perpetually plugged in. In the US, for example, approximately 25–33 percent of adolescents use multiple media “most of the time.” Even among 5–8 year olds, 23 percent report media multitasking “most” or “some” of the time. Therefore, the amount of media to which children are exposed may be increasing even faster than the sheer number of hours spent with media (→ Media Use and Child Development). This trend seems to be occurring in both the US and Europe (Valkenburg & Peter 2007); little evidence exists that children and adolescents in less affluent countries are as media‐saturated.
Media Use across the Life‐Span
Authors: van der Goot Margot , Beentjes Johannes W. J.
Published: September 2017

A common finding in media research is that age groups differ in the amount and functions of their media use. Communication scholars have pointed out two possible explanations for such differences. First, there are life‐cycle or maturational explanations: media use is supposed to change across the life‐span in response to an individual's development. Second, there are generational explanations: people who are born in a certain period are supposed to adopt particular patterns of media use. For example, research shows that older people spend more time watching television than do younger age groups. It may be that older people watch more television than when they were younger because their situation and needs have changed. Alternatively, older people may watch more television than younger people because television is more important to their generation than it is to younger generations.
Media Use by Social Variable
Authors: Scherer Helmut
Published: September 2017

It is a phenomenon that can be observed in all industrialized societies that media use is connected with demographic factors. As a rule, people from different social backgrounds also use the media differently. On the other hand, people from similar social backgrounds also show similarities in their use of the media. Thus, there is a significant difference between the way women and men, older and younger people, and people with higher or lower levels of education use the media. Similarly, people from different ethnic groups differ in their use of the media. Another factor that is closely linked to media use is opinion leadership.
Mediated Populism
Authors: Mazzoleni Gianpietro
Published: September 2017

Populism, a notoriously ambiguous concept, is a political ideology emphasizing the central role of the “ordinary people” in the political process. Populist leaders “see themselves as true democrats, voicing popular grievances and opinions systematically ignored by governments [and] mainstream parties” (Canovan 1999, 2–3). “Mediated populism” means the outcome of the close connection between media‐originated dynamics and the rise of populist sentiments, and eventually of populist movements.
Mediated Social Interaction
Authors: Lee Eun‐Ju
Published: September 2017

Mediated social interaction refers to the interaction between two or more individuals, normally separated in time and/or space, enabled by various communication technologies. Mediated social interaction may take many different forms, depending on how many people are involved in message construction and reception (e.g., one‐to‐one vs one‐to‐many); whether participating individuals are required to be present at the time of message transfer (e.g., synchronous vs asynchronous); what kinds of modalities are being used (e.g., text vs full motion video); and so forth.
Mediated Terrorism
Authors: Mazzoleni Gianpietro
Published: September 2017

Following the September 11, 2001 massive attacks on the United States, the issue of political terrorism has assumed a priority stance in the political agenda of several countries. Once fairly disregarded by scholarly research and analysis, the phenomenon has gained wide attention since the events of that day and those that took place in Iraq, as well as in Bali, Madrid, Beslan, and London. All of these tragic events had in common huge coverage by the media, which amplified the psychological impact on public opinion in the respective nations and worldwide. Extensive and emotion‐stirring media coverage is a common feature of modern terrorist events. It has been observed in relation to other breeds of terrorism, such as the IRA in Ireland and the UK, ETA in Spain, the Red Brigades in Italy and the Rote Armee Fraktion in Germany, the Kurdish extremists in Turkey, and domestic US terrorism (the Oklahoma bombing), and others.
Mediatization of Society
Authors: Mazzoleni Gianpietro
Published: September 2017

From a very general point of view, “mediatization of society” is a concept that indicates the extension of the influence of the media (considered both as a cultural technology and as an organization) into all spheres of society and social life. In this broad sense, the way the media influence social life is linked to the larger process of culturalization, that is, the process by which culture – considered as the complex of signs, symbols, meanings, and values circulating within and between societies – has become increasingly central to the operation of all social institutions (→ Culture: Definitions and Concepts).
Medium Theory
Authors: Meyrowitz Joshua
Published: September 2017

Medium theory stands apart from more generic “media theory” in its exploration of the influences of communication technologies in addition to, and distinct from, the specific content (messages) they convey. Medium theorists argue that media are not simply channels for transmitting information between two or more environments, but are themselves distinct social‐psychological settings or environments that encourage certain types of interaction and discourage others (→ Media). Medium theory analyzes differences among communication environments.
Mentoring
Authors: Plax Timothy G.
Published: September 2017

Defined as a communication process involving a seasoned professional who counsels, guides, and tutors a protégé (Waldeck et al. 1997), mentoring within the instructional context refers to a teacher–student relationship. In this context, mentoring consists of a communication relationship between teachers and students, where the teacher provides academic, career, and social support to the student. Mentoring often extends beyond academic advising, fulfilling important personal and professional functions for the student. Mentoring provides students with invaluable information on university policies and politics, explicit and implicit rules and regulations, and other faculty in their program of study. In short, effective mentoring relationships promote personal growth as well a professional development for protégés.
Meta‐Analysis
Authors: Levine Timothy R. , Hullett Craig R.
Published: September 2017

Meta‐analysis is a set of methods and statistical analyses for summarizing the findings of an existing empirical literature. As the name implies, it is a study of studies. It provides a way to do a quantitative literature review that involves cumulating effects across studies (→ Quantitative Methodology). The purpose of a meta‐analysis is to ascertain if the findings from a collection of studies investigating some specific issue lead to some consistent result and, if so, to estimate the magnitude of that finding. If not, it serves to reconcile findings that appear to offer mixed support for a hypothesis. Meta‐analysis is also useful in identifying the reasons why findings are inconsistent from study to study (→ Generalizability) and to identify theoretically important moderators. Meta‐analysis will likely play an increasingly important role in making sense out of social science research.
Microethnography
Authors: LeBaron Curtis D.
Published: September 2017

Microethnography, sometimes called video‐based ethnography, addresses “big” social and organizational issues through careful analysis of “small” moments of human activity. Working at a particular site or institution, such as an archeological dig or an investment banking firm, researchers create video recordings of activities as they naturally occur, i.e., activities that would have happened whether or not a camera was present. These recordings are then analyzed repeatedly and rigorously, with attention to both the participants' talk (who says what, when, and how) and their embodied behaviors (the relative location, movement, and orientation of people and things). Video analyses are combined with other kinds of information, such as ethnographic data gathered through observations and interviews, altogether providing a variety of macro‐ and micro‐views of social activity.
Migration and Immigration
Authors: Ball‐Rokeach Sandra J.
Published: September 2017

With immigration and its attendant population diversity on the rise all around the world, how do we understand why people migrate, what they do when they arrive at their destinations, and what happens to the places they left? While immigration and migration are potentially rich sites of communication inquiry, communication theory and research is not well represented in the immigration studies literature.
Mindlessness and Automaticity
Authors: Kellermann Kathy , McCann Robert M.
Published: September 2017

Mindlessness is the automatic (nonconscious) management of behavior. Mindless behavior is studied under many varied and related names: mindlessness, → automaticity, tacit knowledge, implicit learning, implicit cognition, nonconscious processing and, as one recent popular book puts it, “blink” (Langer 1978; Lewicki 1986; Reber 1993; Bargh & Ferguson 2000; Gladwell 2005; Litman & Reber 2005). Langer introduced mindlessness into social psychology nearly three decades ago (Langer 1978). As editor of
Communication Monographs
, Judee Burgoon devoted a five‐article “Chautauqua” to the concept in 1992 (see, e.g., Kellermann 1992).
Minority Journalism
Authors: Lind Rebecca Ann
Published: September 2017

In a social context, scholars conceptualize minority groups on the basis of social status. Whether from a domestic or an international perspective, minority status is not predicated on numerical representation within a culture; it has to do with social or cultural difference, based on language, religion, or other cultural practices (→ Ethnic Journalism). When language differences exist, the dominant social group considers the news reports minority groups themselves produce as “foreign‐language journalism.” Most scholars discount biological theories of race, which attempt to mark minority groups on the basis of physical characteristics, but some attempt to differentiate between racial or ethnic minorities. Even so, the key relationship between the minority group and the dominant social group is that the former is subordinate to the latter. As a result, members of minority groups frequently do not enjoy the same access to education, economic or political power, or other cultural capital as do members of the dominant social group (→ Access to the Media; News Ideologies).
Mobility, Technology for
Authors: Ling Rich
Published: September 2017

Within a decade of its commercialization, mobile communication is often more used than landline telephony. Whereas in the early 1990s only the privileged few used mobile communication, by 2010 more than half the world's population have access to a mobile telephone. This seemingly effortless adoption has been accompanied by changes in our sense of safety and security, the way we coordinate everyday life, the way teenagers experience their coming of age, and the way we use and experience the public sphere. The use of voice and the growth of texting have revised the way we think about interpersonal communication.
Modality and Multimodality
Authors: Jensen Klaus Bruhn
Published: September 2017

The modalities of communication – speech, song, writing, images, etc. – constitute general registers of human expression and experience. As such, they lend themselves to different forms of technological mediation, both individually and in combination as multimodal communication.
Models of Communication
Authors: McQuail Denis
Published: September 2017

A model is a simplified description in graphic form of some aspect of reality. A model of communication seeks to show the main elements of any structure or process of human social action and the relations between these elements, plus any flow or exchange that takes place. The main benefits are to organize disparate elements and observations and to give a simplified picture of the underlying dynamics. The purpose of such models is thus primarily
heuristic
– an aid to the description and explanation of communication. To a lesser extent, they can help in predicting the outcomes of certain communication processes and situations by drawing attention to factors to take into account and forces at work. In this way, they are useful as a source of hypotheses, a guide to research, and a format for ordering the results of research.
Modernity
Authors: Straubhaar Joseph
Published: September 2017

Since the 1990s, academic debates have revived modernity as a key concept. Tomlinson (1991) argued that much of what was labeled “cultural imperialism” (→ Cultural Imperialism Theories) was in fact a broader spread of a globalized pattern of modernity. This discourse argued, in particular, that beneath much of what was seen as Americanization or westernization lay a more general, deeper globalization of capitalism, “the broader discourse of cultural imperialism as
the spread of the culture of modernity itself
” (Tomlinson 1991, 89–90, original italics; → Americanization of the Media; Globalization Theories).
Mood Management
Authors: Knobloch‐Westerwick Silvia
Published: September 2017

The term “mood management” stands for a theory that aims to predict people's choices from media messages. The audience is confronted with an enormous diversity of media channels and messages, thus selectivity in media use is inevitable. Hence, a classic key question in communication research is what drives the choices made by media users.
Morality and Taste in Media Content
Authors: Glasser Theodore L.
Published: September 2017

Tensions and contradictions abound in claims about media content and its relationship to popular taste and public morality. Media, especially mainstream media, reinforce prevailing norms of taste and morality by catering to them, but they also legitimize new and different standards of good and bad by circulating provocative and unorthodox material. Media coverage of scandals focuses on what is self‐evidently or demonstrably wrong and thus conserves the status quo, except when the scandal involves the media themselves, in which case the theme of the coverage can conveniently shift from what is right to do, properly the domain of ethics, to the right to do it, properly the domain of law (→ Scandalization in the News). In many parts of the world, particularly at times when audiences condemn what they crave, the producers of media content struggle to navigate a course between serving the public interest, typically a high‐minded standard crafted by media practitioners or promulgated by the state, and serving the public's interest, a baser standard established by market forces (→ Media Production and Content).
Multitasking
Authors: Koolstra Cees
Published: September 2017

Multitasking may be defined as the performance of two or more → information‐processing activities simultaneously. The term originated in computer science as a description of a central processor performing two or more tasks at the same time. In the context of communication and media studies, multitasking is the term used for the situation in which an individual is using a → medium while doing one or more other information‐processing tasks at the same time. If multitasking pertains to using two or more media simultaneously, for example the combination of watching → Television and reading the → Newspaper, one can speak of “media multitasking” (e.g., Foehr 2006) or simultaneous use of (multiple) media.
Museum
Authors: Waite Phelan Catherine
Published: September 2017

The visitor to a museum engages in a dialogue, enters a political space, or constructs a visual legacy, all of which signify membership in a larger community that links past, present, and future. Membership in such a community is made possible through communication. Whether one views the museum as an exchange of information or as the construction of a shared identity, communication serves as the starting point. The museum offers a public space, distinct from the mundane activities of everyday life, designed to communicate a sense of time and place distinctly different from workplace and home (→ Public Sphere).
Music Industry
Authors: Elavsky C. Michael
Published: September 2017

The music industry is a term most commonly deployed in reference to the activities of the four largest transnational record corporations – often designated as the “majors” or the “big four,” namely SonyBMG, EMI (Electric and Music Industries), the Warner Music Group (WMG), and the Universal Music Group (UMG) – which collectively account for approximately 75 percent of all legal commercial music sales globally (→ Bertelsmann Corporation; Sony Corporation; Time Warner Inc.). All of these corporations are umbrella organizations linking smaller music labels, subsidiaries, and supplementary organizations together through complex corporate ties to larger transnational → media conglomerates (→ Global Media, History of; Globalization of the Media). Emerging from a long series of mergers occurring over the past century, these music corporations wield significant influence over the contemporary global music market.
Narrative News Story
Authors: Nerone John
Published: September 2017

The term “narrative news story” refers most broadly to any sort of nonfiction storytelling, but more specifically to a → news story that begins with an anecdote rather than a summary lead and then is organized in temporal sequence rather than either by inverted pyramid style or analytically (→ news). Narrative news has a long and varied history, an interesting connection with literary history, a vibrant present, and a hopeful future (→ New Journalism).
Network Analysis
Authors: Quandt Thorsten
Published: September 2017

The term “network” denotes a central concept in the social sciences. The underlying idea of a structure that consists of elements (sometimes also called points, nodes, or vertices) and their relations (called lines, edges, arcs, or connections) has been used to illustrate and explain such diverse things as human action, information exchange in communication processes, peer groups, social formations, organizational coordination, markets and even whole societies, to name but a few of the application contexts. In many of these cases, the term “network” is used in a purely metaphorical sense, which remotely refers to a web‐like phenomenon. However, it can also stand for a clearly defined analytical concept, which can be described on the basis of a formal mathematical language. By applying mathematical network logics to the analysis of social phenomena, researchers gain insight into their structures, i.e., the arrangement of the constituent elements and their connections. Furthermore, social phenomena can be compared on the basis of their (structural) network properties when using a standardized mathematical description language and uniform measurements.
Neutrality
Authors: Heikkilä Heikki
Published: September 2017

Neutrality is a concept deployed for safeguarding one's position in the complex and sometimes hazardous world. Since the fourteenth century, the word neutrality has predominantly denoted
nonalignment
in the realms of politics, diplomacy, and war, in which no firm ground for neutrality can be assured. Thus, neutrality as nonalignment is dependent on the political judgment of others: whether they acknowledge one's neutrality to be sincere or expedient to
their
interests. The history of politics shows that in some cases the neutral political status was accepted (for instance, Switzerland since the Congress of Vienna in 1815) and in others it was not (Laos during the Vietnam war).
New Journalism
Authors: Pauly John J.
Published: September 2017

The term “new journalism” commonly refers to a style of literary reportage created in the 1960s by predominantly young American nonfiction writers such as Tom Wolfe, Norman Mailer, Gay Talese, Joan Didion, Hunter Thompson, George Plimpton, Truman Capote, and Michael Herr. Commentators have periodically declared other moments in the history of journalism as new. Most famously, the term was used in 1880s Britain to describe the popular newspapers of George Newness and W. T. Stead, then later applied in the 1890s to the mass circulation dailies being published by Alfred Harmsworth in Britain and by Joseph Pulitzer and William Randolph Hearst in the United States (→ New Journalism, Nineteenth‐Century). More recently, one commentator (Boynton 2005) has referred to writers such as Susan Orlean and Ted Conover as members of a generation of “new new journalists” influenced by the literary experiments of the 1960s (→ Journalism, History of).
New Journalism, Nineteenth‐Century
Authors: Hampton Mark
Published: September 2017

“The New Journalism,” a phrase made famous by cultural critic Matthew Arnold in 1887, refers to a wide range of changes in British → Newspaper and → magazine content and format, aimed at making print culture more accessible to working class and female readers. The controversial changes, some influenced by American practice, included formatting innovations, such as headlines, and new types of content, such as interviews, human interest stories, celebrity features, and a shifting emphasis from opinion to → news, facilitated by the emergence of Reuters and other → news agencies. Lengthier columns were replaced by paragraphs, often derisively called “snippets,” and the tone grew more personal. To its detractors (such as Arnold), the New Journalism entailed a challenge to the mid‐nineteenth‐century daily newspaper's authority and political seriousness. To its defenders, including such innovating editors and proprietors as T. P. O'Connor, George Newnes, and Alfred Harmsworth (subsequently Lord Northcliffe), the New Journalism represented an awareness that life was broader than parliamentary politics and the belief that press content should reflect readers' actual tastes rather than an elite's conception of readers' needs (→ Exposure to Communication Content; News Audience).
New World Information and Communication Order (NWICO)
Authors: Padovani Claudia
Published: September 2017

The New World Information and Communication Order (NWICO) is the result of a political proposal concerning media and communication issues emerging from international debates in the late 1970s. The term originated in discussions within the Non‐Aligned Movement (NAM), following the proposal for a “new international economic order,” and became the expression of the aspirations of many countries in the global south to democratize the international communication system and rebalance information flows worldwide. UNESCO played a major role in fostering the debate until the early 1980s, especially through the work of an independent commission chaired by Irish diplomat Sean MacBride (→ UNESCO). The commission's report,
Many voices, one world
(MacBride Commission 2004), outlined the main international problems in communication and summarized NWICO's basic philosophical thrust. It was adopted at the twenty‐first general conference of UNESCO in Belgrade (1980) and still remains a milestone in the history of global debates around communication issues.
News Agencies
Authors: Paterson Chris
Published: September 2017

News agencies are transnational media organizations that write and distribute stories and their components, such as images and interviews, to the news media (→ news). Audiences see their words and images upon almost every exposure to news, without usually knowing it. The original news agencies formed between 1835 and 1850 to fill the growing newspaper industry demand for stories. They later distributed photographs and eventually merged with newsreel companies or their successors, coming to dominate the distribution of television news images as well (→ News Agencies, History of).
News Agencies, History of
Authors: Boyd‐Barrett Oliver
Published: September 2017

News agencies are among the oldest electronic media, having survived as a genus at least since 1835, the year that the French agency Havas was established. Havas was the first of the world's agencies to engage in significant international activity. It was followed by Associated Press (AP) in the USA in 1846, Wolff in Germany in 1849, Tuwora in Austria in 1850, and Reuters in the UK in 1851. Very soon there was a national news agency in almost every European country. Outside Europe the pace of development was slower, but no less comprehensive. Generalist and specialist news agencies operating at international/global, regional, national, and sub‐national levels have constituted a networked system of news gathering and news distribution for well over one hundred years (→ News Agencies; International News Reporting).
News Corporation
Authors: Einstein Mara
Published: September 2017

News Corporation (or “News Corp”) is an international media company with annual revenues of more than $28 billion, making it the third largest entertainment and → Media conglomerate behind → Time Warner Inc. and → Disney (Hoover's Company Records 2007). The company produces and distributes filmed entertainment for the theatrical (→ Cinema) and → Television markets as well as being a leader in direct broadcast satellite (DBS) distribution (→ Satellite Television). News Corp is a major competitor in the print category with holdings in → magazines, → Newspapers, and → books. While it is an international company, more than 50 percent of revenues were generated in the United States and Canada (→ United States of America: Media System; Canada: Media System). The Murdoch family owned 30 percent of News Corp as of 2007.
News Cycles
Authors: White Kathryn Jenson
Published: September 2017

A news cycle is a round of coverage once measured in the number of hours between each issue of a newspaper (→ News Production and Technology). The term originated in the United States, and the
Oxford English Dictionary
dates the earliest use to a 1922
Los Angeles Times
article. Major metropolitan newspapers back then published multiple editions daily, but smaller local and most international newspapers followed a cycle of 24 hours, publishing at about the same time daily, either morning or evening (News; Newspaper). The Associated Press (AP) sent stories to its member organizations designated AM or PM, indicating whether the member belonged in, and could publish the content in, a morning or afternoon slot. AP sent corrections and updates over cable (first the wire, then computer) as news broke (→ News Agencies). Broadcast news initially scheduled programs in daily time slots, although stations did interrupt regular programming for breaking news (→ Television News; Radio News).
News as Discourse
Authors: Eilders Christiane
Published: September 2017

“News as discourse” marks a theoretical framework for the analysis of news. News is considered as a complex communicative event – as discourse – including the social context of news reports (→ Discourse; Political Discourse). Rather than exclusively focusing on text properties such as the thematic structure of news reports, the actors, and the opinions addressed in the reports, the framework directs attention to the participants, the production, and the reception processes, as well as to the possible effects. “News as discourse” starts from the assumption that texts are a “result of social and professional routines of journalists in institutional settings, on the one hand, and an important condition for the effective cognitive processing of news texts by both journalists and readers, on the other hand” (van Dijk 1985, 70). Investigating text and context, the approach aims to assess the systematic relationship between the two.
News Factors
Authors: Kepplinger Hans Mathias
Published: September 2017

The term “news factors” denotes characteristics of news stories about events and topics that contribute to making them newsworthy (→ news; News Values). Other than events (e.g., the attacks on the US of September 11, 2001) and topics (terrorism), news factors like “damage” are scientific constructs, which can be related to all kinds of events or topics. News factors are regarded as – among other things – causes which make news stories newsworthy: the more news factors a news story carries, the more newsworthy is it. For example, a news story about a well‐known actor killed in a car accident (two news factors: “prominent person” and “damage”) is more newsworthy than a news story about an unknown person killed (one news factor: “damage”). Besides the number of news factors, their intensity has an influence on the newsworthiness of news stories. A news story on three people killed is more newsworthy than a news story on one person killed.
News Ideologies
Authors: Deuze Mark
Published: September 2017

“Ideology” has two related definitions: a set of shared ideas that order group life, and the ways that such a set of ideas reinforces existing power relations (Barnhurst 2005). Following the first definition, an
occupational ideology
refers to a system of beliefs characteristic of a particular group of workers, including but not limited to their processes of producing meanings and ideas within the group (→ Journalism: Normative Theories). In news, a diversity of approaches across cultures has produced distinct journalisms in different locales, as for example documented in more than twenty countries all over the world (Weaver 1998). Regardless of cultural specificities, the existence of an increasingly isomorphic news ideology has consistently been documented in international journalism studies (Westerstahl & Johansson 1986). Research thus suggests that news workers around the world have in common an occupational ideology consisting of a generally shared system of ideal‐typical values (Deuze 2005).
News Magazine, History of
Authors: Scott Byron
Published: September 2017

The concept of → news as a component of a → magazine's editorial content is as old as the medium (→ Magazine, History of). The
Gentleman's Magazine
is regarded by magazine historian Frank Luther Mott (1938) and others as the first to use the word as part of a periodical's title; it was begun in 1731 by a London printer, Edward Cave, and contained tidbits of doings in the royal court and around the town. But the idea of devoting an entire magazine to in‐depth articles and interpretive features on recent events worldwide is far more modern. To remain topical, news magazines had to be weekly or at least fortnightly. Their introduction had to await an array of historical developments, including an efficient postal service, faster printing presses, and general literacy. This article deals only with the genre in print and not the labeling of television or radio shows as “newsmagazines” (→ Television).
News Myths
Authors: Lule Jack
Published: September 2017

Myth is a concept used to explore the storytelling practices of journalists. From this perspective, myth is not a false belief or an untrue story, nor is it contrasted with reality. Myth is a story that a society produces by drawing on archetypal figures and forms to express prevailing beliefs, ideals, and values. Journalists appear to apply these fundamental forms and narratives as they compose their stories (→ Narrative News Story; News Story; Attitudes, Values, and Beliefs, Media Effects on).
News Processing across the Life‐Span
Authors: Gunter Barrie
Published: September 2017

The → news is like lifeblood to democratic societies. The information provided daily through the major mass media → Television, → Radio, → Newspapers, and increasingly the → Internet – keeps citizens up to date with the latest political, economic, and social developments, world events, natural and man‐made disasters, lives of famous public figures, scientific breakthroughs, and sports and weather. It serves to keep electorates apprised of the performance of their elected political representatives, helps people to cope with bad news, and also provides a sense of continuity in an increasingly varied media landscape and a sense of security even during times of extreme adversity (→ Journalism: Normative Theories).
News Production and Technology
Authors: Weischenberg Siegfried , Matuschek Clemens
Published: September 2017

The term “news production and technology” describes the process and the tools that are necessary for formatting and disseminating journalistic content to an audience. Communication always needs a medium – be it air, paper, or electricity – to travel from producer to recipient, and the advance of technology has had a deep impact on forms of communication. Any kind of communication that goes beyond direct, local, interpersonal oral or visual interaction depends on a means of technology as a medium. The development of modern mass media, allowing journalists to reach dispersed, large audiences, is interrelated with technological innovations such as the invention of printing and electricity (→ Media History). Thus, production of media content is largely dependent on and shaped by technology, which in itself can be seen as a
necessary condition
for journalism as a profession and its economic as well as social and political relevance (→ Communication Technology and Democracy).
News Routines
Authors: Lowrey Wilson
Published: September 2017

News routines are repeated practices and forms that make it easier for journalists to accomplish tasks and ensure immediacy in an uncertain world while working within production constraints. Routines structure the context within which journalists make decisions, but journalists may also employ routines. Routines are functional for journalists, news organizations, source institutions, and audiences, as they aid predictability within the media system, thereby creating clear, agreed‐upon avenues for agency. Routines also result in dysfunction because the constraints they impose limit the ways journalists represent the world.
News Sources
Authors: Soley Lawrence
Published: September 2017

Sources are the individuals that reporters interview to obtain information. It is on this information that news stories are based. Because no standard definition exists for what constitutes a source, documents such as accident reports, corporate press releases, and even other news media reports sometimes serve as sources, providing information that becomes part of, or the basis of, news stories (→ news).
News Story
Authors: Weischenberg Siegfried , Birkner Thomas
Published: September 2017

A
news story
is the standard format that journalists employ for producing the texts they publish in the media. In contrast to feature narratives or subjective reviews and editorials, the news story aims to give a direct, succinct, and fact‐based account (→ Objectivity in Reporting), but instead the news story does political work and gives orientation in a complex world (Schudson 1982). This difference causes problems not only for storytellers but also for news researchers.
Newscast, 24‐Hour
Authors: Hoskins Andrew
Published: September 2017

The rise of 24‐hour news programming, associated with the shift from the electronic news gathering (ENG) of the 1970s to the satellite news gathering (SNG) of the 1980s, marks a shift in the temporal and spatial connectivity of the globe. The continuousness and sheer expanse of 24/7 news has driven an appetite for immediacy, proximity, and simultaneity, so that today these are the dominant modes of television news programs, defining how the world is represented to millions and shaping news agendas and allegedly the events being represented (→ Television News).
Newspaper
Authors: Ghanem Salma I.
Published: September 2017

Known as the chroniclers of daily life, newspapers assemble large amounts of information in the form of words, pictures, and graphics printed on lightweight, inexpensive paper stock for the purpose of informing and entertaining the public. Newspapers are portable, inexpensive, and printed either daily or weekly in tabloid or broadsheet format. Estimates indicate that there are approximately 60,000 newspapers in the world and about one in eight are dailies. The daily operation of a newspaper varies with the size of the paper, but most papers consist of five departments: advertising, editorial, production, circulation, and business. Newspaper revenue comes from sales and advertising. According to the
International Journal of Newspaper Technology
(Chisholm 2004), over 80 percent of revenue in the United States comes from advertising, while in the United Kingdom the figure is over 60 percent, and in Germany over 55 percent. However, both the Internet and changes in the economy have led to a decline in advertising revenue for newspapers worldwide (→ Advertising; Cost and Revenue Structures in the Media). Because revenue is linked to circulation, the commercial potential of newspapers is constrained by the size and economic prosperity of their markets. Newspapers account for the biggest segments of the publishing world, with 40 percent of the industry's revenue.
Newspaper Journalism
Authors: Matheson Donald
Published: September 2017

The newspaper is the oldest and arguably the most important of all media for journalism. More journalists work in newspapers than in any other media. Moreover, dominant ideas of news – as a factual, independent account of the day's principal events, set out in an ordered way for a geographically defined audience – emerged historically along with the business of the → Newspaper (→ Newspaper, History of). Newspapers thus provide much of the form or architecture through which journalists and their audiences recognize news (Barnhurst & Nerone 2001), such as the division of journalism into the categories → news,features, andsports, as well as journalistic ideals, including independence from power and speaking to and for a public. Changes in newspaper journalism are therefore the focus of particular scholarly concern, and some commentators suggest that recent changes signal the end of journalism (Hardt 1998).
Newspaper Journalism
Authors: Matheson Donald
Published: September 2017

The → newspaper is the oldest and arguably the most important of all media for journalism. More journalists work in newspapers than in any other media. Moreover, dominant ideas of news – as a factual, independent account of the day's principal events, set out in an ordered way for a geographically defined audience – emerged historically along with the business of the newspaper (→ Newspaper, History of). Newspapers thus provide much of the form or architecture through which journalists and their audiences recognize news (Barnhurst & Nerone 2001), such as the division of journalism into the categories of → news,features, andsports, as well as journalistic ideals, including independence from power and speaking to and for a public. Changes in newspaper journalism are therefore the focus of particular scholarly concern, and some commentators suggest that recent changes signal the end of journalism (Hardt 1998).
Newspaper, Visual Design of
Authors: Craig Robert L. , Leturia Elio
Published: September 2017

Newspaper design refers to the process of planning, selecting, organizing and arranging the → typography, photographs, illustrations, and graphics of → Newspapers (→ Photography; Infographics). It also refers to the
look
or
style
of a newspaper (→ Design; Graphic Design). Newspaper design is highly conventional, so historians have noted visual features that comprise different stylistic periods. These styles are closely related to how publishers, editors, and journalists define the role of journalism in society (Barnhurst & Nerone 2001; → Journalism, History of; Journalists' Role Perception). Changing technology also profoundly influences newspaper design.
Nollywood
Authors: Haynes Jonathan
Published: September 2017

“Nollywood” – the Nigerian direct‐to‐video film industry – has become the third largest film industry in the world, producing a staggering 1,500 titles per year. It began during the Nigerian political, social, and economic crisis of the late 1980s and early 1990s, when the collapsing national currency made celluloid film production prohibitively expensive and when rampant crime made people hesitate to go out to cinemas at night. Widespread ownership of video cassette recorders, an infrastructure developed to sell pirated cassettes of foreign films, numerous personnel who had been working in film, television, or theatre, and a huge potential market allowed the creation of a novel film industry based entirely on video (→ Video; Africa: Media Systems).
Nonverbal Communication and Culture
Authors: Li Han Z.
Published: September 2017

Humans communicate verbally through words and nonverbally via facial expressions and body movements. Nonverbal communication refers to any human behavior, other than words, that serves a communicative purpose (→ Interpersonal Communication). Such behavior can occur voluntarily or involuntarily, either simultaneously with words or alone. Nonverbal communicative behaviors that have been under intensive research include high–low context, silence, turn‐taking, facial expressions of emotion, head nod, and gaze and mutual gaze.
Nonverbal Signals, Effects of
Authors: Bente Gary , Krämer Nicole C.
Published: September 2017

Human communication is a
multichannel reality
comprising verbal, paraverbal, and nonverbal signals. Although some authors subsume paraverbal aspects, like pitch, tone of voice, etc., under the heading of nonverbal behavior, it is most common to preserve the term “nonverbal” for those aspects of communicative behavior that are transmitted visually, such as gestures, body posture and movement (→ Gestures and Kinesics), facial displays (→ Facial Expressions), gaze (→ Gaze in Interaction), and interpersonal distance (→ Proxemics).
North Africa: Media Systems
Authors: Ibahrine Mohammed
Published: September 2017

This entry focuses on the media systems in the Maghreb countries. The Maghreb (Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia) as a political entity is characterized by authoritarian structures. The regimes are omnipresent in almost every aspect of daily life, including the media sector. The countries in question share strong similarities in terms of their early historical development, their French colonial past, the nature of their media systems, the journalism practiced, their media laws, and their common struggle to increase press freedom, access to information, and protection of journalists. Tunisia has the most authoritarian regime and thus the most restrictive media policies. Morocco is the most liberal of the countries and thus has the least restricted media. Algeria exists in the middle of the spectrum. In recent times, the media landscapes in the three North African countries have changed under the combined impact of the globalization process and information and communication technologies.
Participatory Communication
Authors: Servaes Jan
Published: September 2017

Participatory communication stresses the importance of cultural identity of local communities and of democratization and participation at all levels – international, national, local, and individual. However, the point of departure must be the community. It is at the community level that the problems of living conditions are discussed, and interactions with other communities are elicited (Servaes 1999, 2003). It points to a strategy, not merely inclusive of, but largely emanating from, the traditional “receivers” (→ Models of Communication). Paulo Freire (1983, 76) refers to this as the right of all people to individually and collectively speak their word: “This is not the privilege of some few men, but the right of every (wo)man. Consequently, no one can say a true word alone – nor can he say it for another, in a prescriptive act which robs others of their words” (→ Freedom of Communication).
Popular Communication and Social Class
Authors: Drew Rob
Published: September 2017

During the Industrial Revolution, the English word “class” morphed from a general term for a division or group to a specific term for a position of rank within a social system based on economic wealth. Around the same time, the word “popular” began to be applied to communication and culture with meanings ranging from “liked by many people” to “created by many people.” Thus, social class and “the popular” simultaneously arose as objects of intellectual interest. Indeed, the very question of what counts as → popular culture or → popular communication has always led to questions of class. In the late eighteenth century, when J. G. Herder coined the term “popular culture,” he had in mind the peasant culture that, for him, represented a more authentic alternative to Europe's elite, classical culture (→ Culture: Definitions and Concepts).
Privacy
Authors: Cate Fred H. , Barnett Brooke
Published: September 2017

“Privacy” is widely recognized as a legal right, but with a range of different meanings: restraints on intrusion into the home, confidentiality of correspondence, freedom to make certain fundamental decisions, control of personal data, anonymity, among many others. Countries differ as to the specific understandings of privacy their laws protect and whether those understandings apply equally against the government and private sector entities.
Propaganda, Visual Communication of
Authors: Jowett Garth
Published: September 2017

There is no more difficult concept to clearly define than that of → propaganda. Countless books and learned essays have grappled with a definition of this persuasive practice that would encompass all of its many manifestations. The difficulty in arriving at a definition that satisfies all aspects of this particular type of persuasive behavior is compounded by the historical shift in the acceptance of those activities that today might be labeled as propaganda. Propaganda, in its most neutral sense, means to disseminate or promote particular ideas. A working definition of propaganda which focuses on the communication process is as follows: “Propaganda is the deliberate, systematic attempt to shape perceptions, manipulate cognitions, and direct behavior to achieve a response that furthers the desired intent of the propagandist” (Jowett & O'Donnell 2006).