bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Explaining Ourselves in Court
Authors: Edwards James
Published: August 2023

Justifications and excuses figure in our lives apart from the law. Why, if at all, should they figure in the life of the criminal law? John Gardner offers us an arresting answer to this question: eliciting justifications and excuses from responsible agents, he claims, is the primary function of the criminal law. This chapter offers some reasons to doubt that the arresting answer is the right one. It does not deny that eliciting rational explanations from responsible agents is a function of the criminal law. It does claim, however, that the explanatory function is parasitic on others, and that it lacks primacy in two senses of that term. The chapter concludes by suggesting that we should agree with HLA Hart. Criminal law’s primary function, it is claimed, is not explanatory but preventive: it is fulfilled by criminal laws that harness our responsible agency in ways that help reduce the incidence of wrongdoing.
Private, Public, and Punitive Blame
Authors: Dahan Katz Leora
Published: August 2023

This chapter addresses a broad trend in the literature on blame, taken up in John Gardner’s later work, which suggests that if blame is to be endorsed it must be safely divorced from punishment, its brutal brother-in-arms. The chapter examines Gardner’s particular defence of blame and blaming, and its accompanying rejection of reproach and punishment. It suggests that the position Gardner motions towards—in defence of private, attitudinal blame and in opposition to public blame—is an unstable one. It proposes that we can nonetheless make sense of Gardner’s attraction to the suggested view if we recognize the essentially punitive nature of public blame despite efforts in the literature to deny this. The chapter argues, however, that accepting the punitivity of blame does not mean we should come out against public blame, as intimated by Gardner. Rather, attending to the excesses and pathologies of public blame, we can proceed with the necessary caution with respect to blaming practices while defending not only the significance of private blame, but that of public blame as well. The chapter suggests that Gardner would thus have done well to push his reconsidered position even further, in defence not only of private blame, but of public blame as well.
Blame and Punishment: The Difference Duty Makes
Authors: Dempsey Michelle Madden
Published: August 2023

This chapter addresses John Gardner’s scholarship on wrongdoing, blameworthiness, and punishment. The motivating question is: What difference does it make if blame and punishment are in response to a breach of duty (a wrong) rather than simply a failure to conform to an ordinary reason (a mistake)? In his later work, Gardner acknowledged that one’s action can be blameworthy even if one commits only a mistake, not a wrong. However, Gardner never recanted his earlier claim that ‘the only actions that deserve to be punished are both wrongful [breaches of duty] and blameworthy’. In this chapter, I start by agreeing with Gardner that breach of duty is not necessary when it comes to blameworthiness. I then argue, contra Gardner, that breach of duty is also not necessary when it comes to punishment-deservedness. Finally, I argue that breach of duty typically does make a difference when it comes to standing to blame and punish.
Never Let Me Go: Private Law and the Conservative Impulse
Authors: Saprai Prince
Published: August 2023

In his recent work on private law, John Gardner argues that private law has conservative leanings, which explain its central features. He argues that private law is designed to protect or promote the security interests of victims or likely victims of legal wrongs. Gardner appeals to the thinly conservative value of preserving the lives that people already have to justify this conception. This chapter expresses doubts about whether this thin version of conservativism plays a characteristic or organizing role in private law. Instead, it is argued that a thicker or more deeply conservative outlook according to which the purpose of private law is the preservation of social virtue, or our existing forms of civility, reveals much more about private law. It is the value of these social relations rather than security severally considered which private law refuses to let go.
Audition and composite sensory individuals
Authors: Young Nick , Nanay Bence
Published: August 2023

It is common in philosophical work on audition to say that we hear not only sounds, but also sound sources: the collisions, rollings, and scrapings which cause objects to vibrate and produce sound waves in the surrounding air. The focus in this chapter is on two questions concerning the sensory individuals of source hearing. First, what aspects of the environment do we represent and attribute properties when we hear sources? Second, how does the representation of sources relate to the representation of sounds? The chapter examines various ways in which these questions have been answered and argues that each faces certain difficulties. The chapter then puts forward a new conception of sensory individuals according to which auditory sensory individuals are composite individuals. A feature shared by all existing accounts of sounds and sources is that they postulate sensory individuals that are non-composite. This chapter questions this assumption and argues that our perceptual systems represent two or more aspects of the environment as a single sensory individual. Finally, this chapter shows that taking auditory individuals to be composite sensory individuals allows for an account of source hearing that is less problematic than existing alternatives.
What is it we touch?
Authors: Lycan William G.
Published: August 2023

Among the traditional ‘five senses’, touch is an outlier in more than one respect. For some purposes, it comprises several different sensory systems and it interacts almost inextricably with proprioception and kinaesthesis. After making some needed distinctions, this chapter argues that what touch primarily represents are properties internal to the skin. But tactual representation is unusually layered: by representing the skin properties, an internal tactual state further represents external objects and various of their properties, including hardness, surface texture, shape, heft, vibration, comparative temperature, and such features as being wet or dry, slippery, sticky, or squishy. The chapter closes with some remarks on tactual aspect-perception (‘feeling-as’) and its lessons for aspect-perception generally.
Multisensory feature integration
Authors: Spence Charles
Published: August 2023

Several theoretical accounts have been put forward to help explain feature integration, including Treisman’s Feature Integration Theory and Bayesian causal inference. However, there may be some important differences between multisensory feature integration (MFI) in the spatial and chemical senses. While several of the same factors undoubtedly do appear to modulate MFI, regardless of the combination of senses under consideration (such as attention and crossmodal correspondences, or congruency), there are also a number of salient differences; these include the phenomenon of oral referral in the chemical senses, and the fact that olfactory stimuli tend to take on the sensory properties of the tastes with which they happen to be regularly paired. As such, it may not be possible to account for all cases of MFI within a single theoretical framework.
Multimodal binding as mereological co-constituency
Authors: Cohen Jonathan
Published: August 2023

Suppose you perceive a scene with a green triangle and a red square. It is natural to describe your visual system as responding to this scene by organizing the greenness and triangularity together into one bundle, organizing the redness and squareness together into a second bundle, and treating the two as separate. On the standard account, this ‘bundling,' or binding, is to be understood in terms of vision’s representing features as convergently exemplified by a single object. However, this chapter will argue that this standard account, which has proven fruitful in the study of unimodal perception, does not extend smoothly to cases of multimodal perceptual binding (for which there is a large and growing body of evidence). After critically considering alternatives, this chapter will put forward a novel, deflationary account in terms of mereological co-constituency, and argue that it answers to the empirically motivated needs that multimodal binding has been called on to address.
The multisensory perception of persistence
Authors: Green E. J.
Published: August 2023

This chapter examines how our sense modalities interact in the perception of persistence. The chapter concentrates on two questions. The first concerns perceptual processing—do perceptual computations of object persistence ever integrate and compute over representations from more than one modality? It argues that this question should be answered affirmatively. The second question concerns perceptual experience—do experiences of object persistence ever exhibit a constitutively multisensory phenomenal character, or is the phenomenology of object persistence always uniquely associated with just one modality? The chapter argues that the available evidence underdetermines the answer to this question, but suggests ways it might be empirically resolved.
Pictures as supramodal sensory individuals
Authors: Calzavarini Fabrizio , Voltolini Alberto
Published: August 2023

For many psychologists, there are tactile pictures—that is, pictures recognized as such via a tactile perceptual mode, notably by the congenitally blind. While the recognitional theory of depiction fully accounts for these data, the subjective resemblance theories have questioned them. For these theories there can be no tactile pictures because, unlike sight, touch has no perceptual point of origin. However, such theories are questionable in this respect. Neuroscience findings show that the congenitally blind can gain perspectival access via touch to the shape of objects and the relations between their depth placements in three-dimensional scenes. More radically, it is hypothesized in this chapter that the congenitally blind, by means of touch, are even able to perceive those three-dimensional groupings in a two-dimensional picture that determine the figurative value of the picture. One can explain these abilities by claiming that not only the perception of shape and depth, but also that of three-dimensional groupings, is supramodal.
Broad Function (Part 1)
Authors: Pinillos N. Ángel
Published: August 2023

This chapter introduces the meta-cognitive framework through which we will understand the broad function of skeptical doubt. It starts off by giving some prima facie reasons to think that this approach is on the right track. Following established psychological literature, the structure of the basic model posits that meta-cognition monitors and controls object-level reasoning. Our occurrent skeptical doubts are normally a type of skeptical experience, a meta-cognitive monitoring representation, which combines both an inclination to judge “I don’t know…” and an epistemic feeling that something has gone wrong. The function of this skeptical experience is to control and regulate our object-level reasoning.
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder
Authors: Pinillos N. Ángel
Published: August 2023

The chapter argues that the doubt associated with obsessive-compulsive disorder results from a disfunction of the skeptical mechanism. There are seven different features of OCD doubt that can be explained, in part, by our theory. OCD doubt is sustained by attending to mere possibilities, it is typically associated with attempts to meet higher epistemic standards, it is triggered in situations that are perceived to be high stakes, it is guided by feelings, it is conflicted, it is sustained by meta-cognitive attitudes, and OCD may implicate similar brain structures as the skeptical mechanism.
Philosophically Accommodating Accounts
Authors: Pinillos N. Ángel
Published: August 2023

This chapter discusses two important theories in epistemology. The first is global skepticism and the second is Relevant Alternative Theory. These approaches can be adapted to help account for our skeptical intuitions. Global skepticism can easily explain our skeptical inclinations, but it has trouble explaining ordinary knowledge reports. Relevant Alternative Theory is importantly incomplete since it needs to be supplemented with a proper theory of what counts as “eliminating” an alternative. The chapter suggests that adopting a sensitivity principle may help. The chapter also argues that the approaches which try to determine what counts as a relevant alternative approach can be suitably modified to explain what it means to take a possibility of doubt seriously in our skeptical model. This is done by modifying a presuppositional approach to relevant alternatives defended by Michael Blome-Tillmann.
Mind the consequences
Authors: Drechsler Wolfgang , Fuchs Lukas
Published: August 2023

Looking at the pervasiveness of model-driven public and especially economic policy, which in turn is quantification- and (especially) numbers-based, this chapter outlines the pitfalls and problems of such an approach. This is the case for the current discourse and classical, Gadamerian hermeneutics, and also applies to the thinking of the German Historical School of Economics. We pay special attention to issues in the public sector, and to the underlying ideologies that make quantitative modelling so pervasive and so attractive. In doing so, we pursue a two-step approach: first, we seek greater modesty in using numbers and models; second, we question the paradigm altogether.
International Norm Disputes
Authors: Zimmermann Lisbeth , Deitelhoff Nicole , Lesch Max , Arcudi Antonio , Peez Anton
Published: August 2023

This book is an in-depth comparative study about when and why international norms decline when they are contested. It presents central findings on the link between contestation and norm robustness based on four contemporary case studies (the torture prohibition, the responsibility to protect, the duty to prosecute institutionalized in the International Criminal Court, and the moratorium on commercial whaling) along with two historical case studies (privateering and the transatlantic slave trade). We demonstrate that norms are likely to weaken when challengers contest the validity of a norm’s core claims but remain robust when they contest a norm’s application and such contestation does not become permanent. In the contemporary cases, the shift to validity contestation and norm weakening was due to perceptions of the procedural fairness of international institutions. In contrast, in the historical case studies, the relative power of the norm challengers mattered. This book offers important findings on the dynamics of international norms, which are crucial for understanding the alleged problems of the liberal international order.
Lucca and the Lucchesia
Authors: Tabarrini Lorenzo
Published: August 2023

Chapter 3 examines the transformations of estate management in the Lucchese countryside from the early Middle Ages to c. 1230. Like the section on Florence, this chapter begins with a description of the geography and historical ecology of the Lucchesia and then discusses the economic transformations marking the decades from roughly 1180 to 1230—with a focus on the trend of land prices. Subsequently, it moves on to the case studies regarding the forms of land management and their change: the first of them consists in a comparison between the two major estate centres belonging to the Lucchese canons of the local cathedral, Massarosa and Massa Macinaia; the second covers the documentation of one of the richest city monasteries, S. Ponziano; the third one analyses some of the notarial registers written by the Lucchese notary Ciabatto.
Democracy News Live
Authors: Dahiya Surbhi
Published: August 2023

This chapter take us through the journey of a democratic and independent digital platform that seeks out to repress the domination of the rich. Democracy News Live (DNL) wants to stand out by presenting actual and factual news. The Founder of DNL, Rohit Gandhi, emphasized the importance of efficient co-partners for the foundation of the organization to the author in a personal interview. Gandhi also talked about their vision and business model. In the interview, he even talked about the uniqueness of their product and the variety of content they are serving to the audience. Vrinda Agarwal and Rohit Gandhi also explained the growth of entrepreneurial journalism in India.
Boom in Digital Journalism
Authors: Dahiya Surbhi
Published: August 2023

Journalism has seen a lot of changes over the period of time and therefore with the advent of digitalization there were some changes in the industry which were bound to happen. It is an inevitable journey. There are many digital ventures which are striving hard to make a mark in the industry. They are trying new ways of connecting with the fast-changing digital audience. It is not easy to create a niche in this booming sector, as this is a novel industry the idea as to how to develop a market and explore the uncharted spaces is relatively new to everyone. There has been an incessant trial by all new digital ventures and start-ups to understand the market and analyse the need of the hour. In this chapter, the author has taken into account some more digital journalism ventures who have garnered enough popularity. Some of them have really gotten into domains which are entirely new concepts especially in the digitalization era. Some others are attempting the hit and trial method. Some are trailblazers, while others are fairly good at what they do and they get their kind of audiences too. Some of them get the engagement more specific while others have a scattered audience. Let us understand how some of the digital ventures are exploring entertainment, journalism, technology, development news, and sensitive socio-cultural issues as the themes of their respective portals and how they are surviving or thriving as an entrepreneur. This penultimate chapter talks about the rise of other digital media organizations that have mushroomed in India. The chapter briefly covers organizations such as The Citizen, Khabar Lahariya, Editorji, SheThePeople, Gaon Connection, Newsclick, NEWJ, CGNet Swara, Indian Observer Post, How India Lives, The News Minute, Pulse India, OpIndia, Cobrapost, Catch News, POPxo, Asiaville, MediaCrooks, Homegrown, BlackMonk, Sportskeeda, Live Law, The New Indian, UnReal Times, The Hoot, and Peepli.
Friends
Authors: Waters Rob
Published: August 2023

‘Friends’ looks at how the idea and practice of friendship operated within post-war integration culture. It locates the popularity of friendship as a model for integration in the context of long-running distrust in political institutions and ideologies as capable of building a peaceful and cooperative world society. It explains the popularity of friendship as an attempt to depoliticize race, which drew both on the popular peace-making projects emerging in the reaction to the global wars of the first half of the century and on the ‘feminizing’ projects for building a more domestic and inclusive empire forged in the same period.
Subalterns
Authors: Waters Rob
Published: August 2023

‘Subalterns’ engages with the way that integrationists approached the question of political participation. Black middle-class integrationists sought to cultivate black working-class participations in the political institutions of state—to get them voting, running for office, and to have their voices included in what counted as public opinion. They did this with a clear purpose in mind, hoping to get black citizens reckoned with as a political force and so to register their concerns politically. But they were not alone in this insistence on the need to get working-class black Londoners active in the accepted channels of political citizenship. All the major parties, to varying degrees, concerned themselves with the black voter. They worried that without conscripting these citizens into the political system, their frustrations would register in other, disorderly, potentially violent ways. And yet, as this chapter shows, the effort at orderly integration of these citizens into the dominant habits and institutions of political citizenship was repeatedly disrupted by their refusal to behave as they were expected to. Working-class black Londoners entered the political field as a disruptive, subaltern force, bringing with them their own practices, institutions, and beliefs and both hybridizing and pluralizing the political culture of the city. This constituted a disorderly integration, of a type that integrationists were constantly required to work with in the failure of their project of reform.
The tradition of Scotus
Authors: Cross Richard
Published: August 2023

At Paris and elsewhere many Franciscan theologians followed Scotus closely, rejecting Ockham’s proposed modifications to Scotus’s modal account of subsistence, and holding instead that all creatures have a natural inclination to subsistence. This chapter provides an account of the ways in which some of these theologians attempted to defend Scotus’s position against Ockham’s attack, and, relatedly, some of the ways in which they attempted to plug some perceived gaps in the details of Scotus’s Christology. The chapter concludes with a discussion of Pico della Mirandola, who expressly situated his Christological speculations in the context of a broadly Scotist approach to the question.
The opinio communis without real relations
Authors: Cross Richard
Published: August 2023

The theologians thus far considered hold that what ties the human nature to the divine person is a real relation, much as such a relation ties accident to substance. The theologians considered in the current chapter accept the analogy to an accident, but deny that any such real relation is required. Some hold a strongly voluntarist position, that the union of human nature to divine person is simply a matter of divine will, involving no entity over and above the person and nature themselves. Others, following a suggestion made and rejected in Ockham, hold that what unites the human nature to the divine person is a quality, a variety of created grace, of which sanctifying grace is another.
Unions by perichoresis and activity
Authors: Cross Richard
Published: August 2023

This chapter examines two highly original Christologies that are peculiar to the theologians who proposed them. First, the view of the Dominican William Crathorn, reported by Robert Holcot, that the Incarnation consists in the perichoresis of the divine person in the human nature. Holcot subjects this view to sharp criticism, since divine omnipresence seems to entail that God is universally incarnate. The second is the view of the Franciscan John Went, according to which Incarnation simply consists in the divine person acting in a naturally human manner. Went grounds this view on the further claim that we know neither the essence of the hypostatic union nor the essence of a human being, and can describe both merely by their effects. Went argues that it is possible for God to act in a naturally human way either with or without a human nature. Factually, Incarnation consists in the assumption of a human nature; but counterfactually God could have been incarnate without assuming a human nature.
The Flavians in Jewish War 7
Authors: Davies Jonathan
Published: August 2023

This chapter examines the depiction of the Flavian dynasts in Book 7 of the Jewish War. The first half of Book 7 offers us an almost idyllic depiction of the establishment of the new dynasty, ostensibly admiringly portraying the three dynasts operating first individually and then corporately to dispense the blessings of peace to all corners of the empire. However, Josephus’ depiction of the Flavian Triumph hints at the subterfuge and deception inherent in the way that the dynasty commemorated the crushing of the Jewish rebels, and the book ends with a remarkable failure of Flavian justice, slyly reminding readers that there is a higher and better authority, the Jewish God, overseeing world history.
Present
Authors: Floridi Luciano
Published: August 2023

Previously, in Chapter 1, we saw how the digital revolution has cut and pasted our realities along with our ideas about our realities, re-ontologizing and re-epistemologizing modernity. This has led to the development of AI as a new form of agency that can be successful without being intelligent. This chapter analyses the above interpretation. Section 2.1 shows how the absence of a definition for AI is evidence that the expression is not a scientific term. Instead, it is a helpful shortcut for referring to a family of sciences, methods, paradigms, technologies, products, and services. Section 2.2 refers to the classic, counterfactual characterization of AI provided by McCarthy, Minsky, Rochester, and Shannon in their ‘Proposal for the Dartmouth Summer Research Project on Artificial Intelligence’, the founding document and later event that established the new field of AI in 1955. This is the characterization adopted for the rest of the book. Turing’s famous question ‘Can machines think?’ is then discussed. Section 2.3 moves from the previous analysis to outline the engineering and cognitive approaches to AI, arguing that the former has been a great success and the latter a complete failure. The interpretation of AI as a new form of agency that does not need any intelligence to be successful is based on the engineering tradition. Section 2.4 suggests that a similar form of agency can be successful because we have been transforming the world (enveloping it) into an increasingly AI-friendly environment. The conclusion in Section 2.5 stresses that such a process generates the risk of nudging humanity to adapt to its smart technologies.
Soft Ethics and the Governance of AI
Authors: Floridi Luciano
Published: August 2023

Previously, in Chapters 4 and 5, a unified framework for the ethical principles of AI was suggested and some main ethical risks that arise when translating principles into practices were identified. This chapter discusses the governance of AI, and more generally of digital technologies, as the new challenge posed by technological innovation. A new distinction between soft and hard ethics is introduced. Hard ethics first precede and then further contribute to shaping legislation. In contrast, soft ethics apply after legal compliance with legislation (that is, post-compliance ethics), such as the GDPR in the EU. The chapter concludes by developing an analysis of the role of digital ethics with respect to digital regulation and digital governance, thus preparing for the next chapter on the fundamental ethical principles for an ethics of AI.
Bad Practices
Authors: Floridi Luciano
Published: August 2023

Chapter 7 provided an overview of the various ethical challenges posed by the widespread use of algorithms. This chapter concentrates on the negative side of AI’s impact (the positive side will be discussed in Chapter 9). AI research and regulation seek to balance the benefits of innovation against any potential harms and disruption. But one unintended consequence of the recent surge in AI research is the potential reorientation of AI technologies to facilitate criminal acts, called here AI crime or AIC. We already know that AIC is theoretically feasible thanks to published experiments in automating fraud targeted at social media users as well as demonstrations of AI-driven manipulation of simulated markets. Yet because AIC is still a relatively young and inherently interdisciplinary area—spanning socio-legal studies to formal science—there remains some uncertainty about what an AIC future might look like. This chapter analyses the foreseeable threats of AIC to offer a synthesis of the current problems and outline a possible solution space.
Conclusion
Authors: Floridi Luciano
Published: August 2023

Chapters 1–12 analysed the nature of AI, its positive and negative impact, the ethical issues arising from it, and what measures may be taken to ensure that a good AI society is more likely to develop. This final chapter draws some general conclusions and offers a view of what may be coming: a move from the ethics of artificial agency to the politics of social actions, to pursue a human project based on the marriage between the green of all our environments and the blue of all our digital technologies. With all its advantages, the marriage between the green and the blue counterbalances the divorce between agency and intelligence with all its risks. It is our responsibility to design and manage both successfully.
Time and Ancient Medicine
Authors: Miller Kassandra J.
Published: August 2023

This monograph is the first to explore, on the one hand, how the introduction of new timekeeping technologies (namely, sundials and water clocks) affected the practice, rhetoric, and philosophy of ancient medicine and, on the other hand, how medical timekeeping practices affected engagement with time elsewhere in society. The study seeks, first, to offer a chronological narrative of how timekeeping technologies and medical practices evolved and influenced one another in ancient Greece and Rome, with consideration of relevant Pharaonic Egyptian and Assyro-Babylonian precedents. It turns then to a series of case studies, drawn from the Roman Imperial period, in order to investigate thematic questions, asking how debates over medical timekeeping interacted with debates over proper scientific methodology, the status of medicine as a formal art, and the relationships between medicine and other disciplines like mathematics, astronomy, and astrology. Throughout, this study places epigraphic, artistic, and other material evidence for hourly timekeeping in dialogue with selections from medical literature, some of which has not previously been published in modern-language translation. Ultimately, this study reveals that time and timekeeping played fundamental roles in ancient medical debates and practices and challenges the traditional narrative that the social history of “clock time” only begins with the invention of the mechanical clock in the medieval period. It offers new insights into the specific ways that physicians of the ancient Mediterranean engaged with their evolving temporal landscapes and raises questions about the relationships between time and medicine in the modern day.
Coda
Authors: Savill Benjamin
Published: August 2023

This ‘coda’ addresses the ways in which the seventh- to eleventh-century papal privileges discussed in this volume were subsequently archived, copied, forgotten, and falsified over the course of the high middle ages. It considers in particular the fragility of the early medieval papyral record; the allure of turning to forgery (especially in England, where archives may have been more poorly stocked with first-millennium papal documents than many continental ecclesiastics might have expected); and the signs that, already by the thirteenth century, much of the original material evidence for early medieval papal documentary culture may have already been lost.
The Muslim Secular
Authors: Sohal Amar
Published: August 2023

Muslim political thought in modern South Asia has often been associated with religious nationalism and the creation of Pakistan. The Muslim Secular complicates that story by reconstructing the ideas of three prominent thinker-actors of the Indian freedom struggle: the Indian National Congress leader Abul Kalam Azad, the popular Kashmiri politician Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah, and the non-violent Pashtun activist Abdul Ghaffar Khan. Revising the common view that they were mere acolytes of their celebrated Hindu colleagues M.K. Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru, this book argues that these men produced a distinct Muslim secularity from within the grander family of secular Indian nationalism. At a time when many across the decolonizing world were separating identity-based majorities and minorities into sovereign equals, Azad, Abdullah, and Ghaffar Khan thought differently about the problem of religious pluralism in a postcolonial democracy. The minority, they contended, could conceive of the majority not just as an antagonistic entity, but as a category to which it can belong and which it can uniquely complete. Premising its claim to a united India upon Islam’s universalism, the Muslim secular jettisoned the demographic inequality between Hindus and Muslims by redefining equality itself. Rejecting its liberal definition for being too abstract and thus prone to majoritarian assimilation, these thinkers replaced it with their own rendition of parity to simultaneously evoke (cultural and ethical) commonality and (religious and regional) distinction between different Indians. Retaining their Muslimness and Indian nationality in full, equality-as-parity challenged both Gandhi and Nehru’s abstractions and Mohammad Ali Jinnah’s supposedly dangerous demand for Pakistan.
A Three-Nation Theory
Authors: Sohal Amar
Published: August 2023

This chapter offers a rare treatment of Sheikh Abdullah as a political (and indeed pan-Indian) thinker. It begins to illustrate that, by locating Islamic belief and concepts in the sub-national culture of pre-Partition India’s Muslim-majority regions, nationalists were able to settle the minority question and affirm secular Indian nationhood. Claiming that Kashmir was an ethno-linguistic nation of its own, Abdullah’s politics was designed to manage both its distinction from, and unity with, the rest of India. Like his émigré interlocutors, the poet-philosopher Muhammad Iqbal and independent India’s first prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru, Abdullah formulated a notion of natural purity out of the celebrated Kashmiri landscape. This idea, because of its metaphorical power and significant disconnection from (past and present) human endeavour, was astonishingly unreliant on others to effectively render Kashmiri distinction. And yet nature is unable to definitively hand Kashmir over to its inhabitants. While its great qualities of economy and metaphor allow Kashmiris to momentarily escape more protracted narratives of history to define the ethnic nation, nature is simultaneously the alluring, non-human power gesturing towards a past of subjugation. Since the powerful outsider can, therefore, profit from the disconnect between Kashmiris and their beautiful land, Abdullah is forced to look elsewhere to found Kashmiri nationhood and connect it to an organic Indian federation of free peoples. So, much of this chapter explores how Abdullah deployed localized renderings of both Islam and socialism, a mainly negative historical imagination, and even the defunct Dogra monarch to fulfil this delicate task.
Introduction
Authors: Rolls Edmund T.
Published: August 2023

An introduction is provided to neurons; computation by biologically plausible networks of neurons; the representation of information in the brain; the functions of different brain regions; and the structure and connectivity of the cerebral neocortex.
The prefrontal cortex
Authors: Rolls Edmund T.
Published: August 2023

The prefrontal cortex receives perceptual information from the temporal and parietal cortices, and is in a position to perform ‘off-line’ processing, including holding items in a short-term memory when the items are no longer present in the input processing streams. This off-line capacity develops into a capability of manipulating and rearranging items in short-term memory, and this is called working memory, which is also implemented in the prefrontal cortex. This ability in humans develops into systems that can plan ahead, and then can control behaviour according to such plans, which is referred to as ‘executive function‘. Attractor networks are fundamental to understanding the functions of the prefrontal cortex in short-term and working memory; and in providing the source of the top-down bias in top-down models of attention. The frontal pole cortex is implicated in exploit vs explore behavioral strategies.
Language and syntax in the brain
Authors: Rolls Edmund T.
Published: August 2023

What is computed in brain systems involved in language is assessed based on the neuropsychology and neuroimaging of language. This is complemented by a computational neuroscience approach in which some of the key principles of the operation of the cerebral cortex are used as a foundation for hypotheses about how syntax and semantics may be implemented in attractor networks, and how syntax might be implemented by a trajectory through a state space of coupled attractor networks in a biologically relevant model.
Contemporary Islamic Jihadism from a Counterterrorism Perspective
Authors: Mekky Omar
Published: August 2023

This chapter introduces the emerging legal paradigm that the international community has put in place in order to respond to Islamic Jihadism, namely the counterterrorism legal framework. It focuses on exploring the legal implications of fighting contemporary Islamic Jihadism under the evolving counterterrorism framework and the challenges that it might pose to the other pre-existing legal frameworks, such as domestic laws, International Humanitarian Law, and International Human Rights Law. It further, discusses the role of the UNGA and UNSC in dealing with the phenomenon of terrorism and the dilemma of the ambiguity of its definition(s). This chapter also tackles the approach of the OIC—as it is often claimed to be the collective voice of the Muslim states—vis-à-vis the phenomenon of terrorism. Finally, it explores the jus ad bellum and jus in bello challenges that are posed by the contemporary fight against the Jihadist movements.
Americans in a World at War
Authors: Blower Brooke L.
Published: August 2023

On February 21, 1943, Pan American Airways’ celebrated seaplane, the Yankee Clipper, took off from New York’s Marine Air Terminal and island-hopped its way across the Atlantic Ocean. Arriving at Lisbon the following evening, it crashed in the Tagus River, killing twenty-four of its thirty-nine passengers and crew. Americans in a World at War traces the backstories of seven worldly Americans aboard that plane, their personal histories, their politics, and the paths that led them toward war. Combat soldiers made up only a small fraction of the millions of Americans, both in and out of uniform, who scattered across six continents during the Second World War. This book uncovers a surprising history of American noncombatants abroad in the years leading into the twentieth century’s most consequential conflict. Long before GIs began storming beaches and liberating towns, Americans had forged extensive political, economic, and personal ties to other parts of the world. These deep and sometimes contradictory engagements, which preceded the bombing of Pearl Harbor, would shape and in turn be transformed by the US war effort. As the Yankee Clipper’s passengers’ travels take them from Ukraine, France, Spain, Panama, Cuba, and the Philippines to Java, India, Australia, Britain, Egypt, the Soviet Union, and the Belgian Congo, among other hot spots, their movements defy simple boundaries between home front and war front and upend conventional American narratives about World War II.
Stolen Soil
Authors: Blower Brooke L.
Published: August 2023

Manuel’s shipping agency thrives during the 1930s, due in large part to the policies of Franklin D. Roosevelt and Spain’s Second Republic. Nevertheless, Spaniards like Manuel see such left-leaning governments as a threat to order and tradition. He and his partner, Marcelino Garcia, collaborate with the fascist-inspired Falange Party and do what they can to assist General Francisco Franco’s Nationalist coup. As international shipping agents they are able to open up far-flung information and supply networks for the rebels, pressure diplomats and leaders along vital trade routes, and throw up legal roadblocks against the loyalists in the United States, Mexico, Cuba, and elsewhere. The contest over ships during the Spanish Civil War helps to prepare Manuel for future battles in the Atlantic.
Dangerous Acts
Authors: Blower Brooke L.
Published: August 2023

Stalin’s pact with Hitler in August 1939 turned the world upside down for leftist, Russian-speaking New Yorkers like Tamara, but the Nazi invasion of the USSR in June 1941, though heartbreaking and tragic, puts the world ideologically right side up again. After the Soviets join the Allies, Tamara throws herself into singing at benefit concerts and on radio programs for Russian War Relief. Meanwhile, concerns about the “morale” of conscripts pouring into US training camps mount. When war planners set out to find amusements for troops without resorting to government-run programs, which conservatives opposed, Tamara becomes one of the first Americans to volunteer to travel overseas with the newly created USO-Camp Shows, Inc.
Conclusion
Authors: Blower Brooke L.
Published: August 2023

As Sully navigates toward Cabo Ruivo airport in Lisbon, ground crew radio final landing instructions to the cockpit. Disaster strikes minutes later. Recovery and salvage operations take weeks. The war that will unfold after the crash is in many ways not the same war that had taken place before the Yankee Clipper’s last flight. It is this last chapter of the war, when US industrial, diplomatic, and military might come alive, that generations of Americans will most like to remember. Over time, this focus on the war’s final stages will make it harder to reflect on just how close to disaster the world had come and how much Americans’ experiences and efforts had been intertwined with, and built upon, the work and resources of other people and places around the globe.
America’s Expanding, Unequal, and Hidden Health Care State
Authors: Grogan Colleen M.
Published: August 2023

This introductory chapter provides an overview of the Grow-and-Hide phenomenon: how the American state investment in the health care system grows substantially over time yet hides this investment. The chapter highlights how three main structural features explain Grow and Hide—use of the federal structure, delegating authority to the voluntary sector, and institutional fragmentation—along with discursive strategies used by political actors to hide growth and demonize government. The chapter also provides an overview of the major consequences of Grow and Hide: extreme fragmentation, private profiteering off high health care prices and lack of regulation, and focusing on the poor as “the problem” despite growing inequality.
Public Health Planning
Authors: Grogan Colleen M.
Published: August 2023

This chapter documents how leaders in the public health network throughout the 1910s and 1920s were primarily concerned with developing a unified health care system that would provide prevention and treatment. They were adamant that despite state investment to develop the health care system, the provision of care could be provided under public and private auspices. As the health care system grew, public health leaders continued to hide the extent to which public health departments provided medical treatment but also hid the growing subsidies to the private voluntary sector, especially to the voluntary hospital system. Despite substantial subsidies to develop the U.S. hospital system in this early period, public discourse depicted voluntary hospitals as privately funded with minimal government involvement. This is how the Grow-and-Hide strategy worked, using the rhetoric of classic liberalism while expanding the role of government.
A new framework of the evolution of the ctenodactylids (Mammalia: Rodentia) in Asia: new species and phylogenetic status of distylomyins
Authors: Oliver Adriana , Carro-Rodríguez Patricia M , López-Guerrero Paloma , Daxner-Höck Gudrun
Published: August 2023

Two new species of ctenodactylid rodents, Prodistylomys taatsinius sp. nov. and Prodistylomys mongoliensis sp. nov., are described from the Valley of Lakes, Central Mongolia. They represent the first record of this genus in Mongolia. Prodistylomys is characterized by a simple dental pattern and high hypsodonty, reflecting an adaptation for tough vegetation in a dry environment, which is congruent with the aridification event that took place during the Late Oligocene and Early Miocene. We performed the most complete phylogenetic analysis combining the largest sampling in the family Ctenodactylidae and the best-represented stratigraphical distribution for the sample. This allowed us to propose that the origin of ctenodactylids lies in East Asia during the Eocene, and after that, the group dispersed through western Asia, Europe, and Africa. The presence of several similar rodent taxa in Mongolia, Kazakhstan, and China confirms that these areas were part of a large bioprovince covering most of central Asia during the Oligocene and Early Miocene.
Assessment of computed tomography for the diagnosis of exudative and transudative pleural effusion
Authors: Pathak Subash , Mahat Asim , Yadav Gopal Kumar , Mishra Upama , Duwadi Bikash , Bhattarai Mamata , Rijal Alisha
Published: August 2023

Introduction:

The basic computed tomography (CT) characteristics of pleural effusion (PE) were analyzed, and the association between demographic factors and prominent CT findings with different types of PE was assessed. The individual CT characteristics and Light’s criteria for exudative PE were also evaluated. In addition, a cutoff for attenuation values of CT scans for exudative PE was determined.

Methods:

A cross-sectional study among 92 participants with PE was carried out at Bir Hospital, Kathmandu, Nepal. The χ2 test, logistic regression analysis, and diagnostic statistics were calculated. The ethical clearance was obtained from the institutional review committee of Institutional review board of National Academy of Medical Sciences (NAMS), Bir Hospital (Ref. 876/076/77).

Results:

The study examined 92 cases of PE, with 78.3% occurring in males and the majority affecting individuals aged 55–74 years old. Results showed that on CT scans, pleural thickening [odds ratio (OR): 13.89, 95% CI: 4.96–38.86, P < 0.05], pleural nodules (OR: 12.72, 95% CI: 2.64–61.18, P < 0.05) and loculations (OR: 13.46, 95% CI: 4.03–44.89, P < 0.05) were significantly associated with exudative PE. Of these, pleural nodules had the highest specificity (96.4%) and positive likelihood ratio (9), whereas pleural thickening had the highest sensitivity (70.3%). When using the criterion “pleural fluid Lactate Dehydrogenase concentration as positive if it was over two-thirds of the upper limit of normal serum Lactate Dehydrogenase,” the CT scan had a positive likelihood ratio of 22.52. The study also found that an attenuation value ≥9.70 HU could indicate an exudative PE (area under the curve: 0.80, 95% CI: 0.70–0.90, P < 0.05).

Conclusion:

The CT characteristics, such as pleural thickening, pleural nodules, and loculations, were more likely to be present in exudative PE. In addition, the attenuation values of PE could also determine its nature as either exudate or transudate, with an attenuation value of >9.70 HU indicating an exudative PE.