bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Pile Load Tests to Evaluate Load Transfer Mechanisms
Authors: Montgomery MW
Published: March 2009

Load transfer mechanisms in 17 test piles are evaluated by means of an extensive monitoring program during full-scale load testing and are compared with behavior computed by a displacement compatibility analysis. H-piles, Raymond step taper piles, auger-cast piles, and steel pipe piles were tested, in many cases to failure. These piles were installed at a power generating station in saprolites of the Piedmont Province of Georgia. Deflection was measured at the butt of each pile and at the tip and one or two intermediate levels in most piles by means of telltales. A boring and laboratory testing program was an integral part of the program. Load transfer mechanisms are evaluated by means of a displacement compatibility analysis using results of the field and laboratory investigations. Good agreement between computed pile behavior and that determined by the monitoring program during load testing is demonstrated. The results of the monitoring program and the enhanced understanding of the load transfer mechanisms involved make a comparison of the effectiveness of the various pile types possible and allow development of rational installation criteria.
Determination of Pile Damage by Top Measurements
Authors: Rausche F , Goble GG
Published: March 2009

Measurements of force and acceleration at the pile top during driving cab be used to detect the presence of damage at points along the pile below the ground surface. Analytical considerations based on one-dimensional wave mechanics are discussed, and a method is derived to place a quantitative measure on the degree of damage. Actual field measurements on damage piles are presented.
Capacity of Axially Loaded Bent Piles in a Bearing Stratum Overlain by a Thick Layer of Soft Clay
Authors: Wu AH , Fox RR
Published: March 2009

This paper presents a case study of four pipe piles, 35.6 cm (14 in.) outside diameter and 34.3 cm (13½ in.) inside diameter driven through a very soft sensitive clay with the pile tip embedded a short distance into a competent gravelly sand stratum. These pipe piles, 9.1 m (30 ft) to 15.2 m (50 ft), long were driven without leads due to the headroom limitation and were filled with high early strength concrete. Load tests were then performed on these piles with a known bend to failure or to the point of yielding. Results of the pile load tests, pile misalignment, soil properties, and pile-driving records were evaluated. A method of predicting the ultimate soil bearing capacity supporting the bent piles is then developed. The computed and measured ultimate pile capacities are compared and commented upon. Graphs are presented to indicate the interrelations among thickness of soft clay, geometric properties of the pile, and reduction of pile end-bearing capacity that likely occur.
A Procedure for Determining the Validity of Data Produced by Automatic Continuous Area Monitors
Authors: Toy HD , Cash LN
Published: March 2009

A procedure was developed and demonstrated to determine the validity of data produced by automatic continuous area monitors for ambient air monitoring. The validation procedure uses a portable dynamic gas standard generation system to generate low concentration, high volume standards. Field tests indicate the procedure to be reliable and point to the need for this type of validation to ensure the integrity of continuous monitor data.
Portable X-ray Survey Meters for In Situ Trace Element Monitoring of Air Particulates
Authors: Rhodes JR , Stout JA , Schindler JS , Piórek S
Published: March 2009

The use of new portable X-ray fluorescence instruments is described for nondestructive elemental analysis of air contaminants. Elements from silicon to uranium can be monitored in particulate deposits on filters. Most detection limits are in the range 0.1 to 1.0 µg element per square centimetre of deposit. These values translate to 1 to 10 µg/m3 for personal samplers operated at 2 L/min over an 8-h shift. They are 1 to 4 orders of magnitude below Permissible Exposure Limits for workplace air contaminants. This new capability should fill the need for rapid, on-site elemental analysis of air contaminants. Instruments can be employed for routine monitoring of breathing zones and work areas, for detecting fugitive emissions and for on-the-spot surveys of accidental releases of toxic materials.
PRO-TEK Organic Vapor Air Monitoring Badges
Authors: Kring EV , Graybill MW , Morello JA , Ansul GR , Adkins JE , Lautenberger WJ
Published: March 2009

The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) of the U.S. Department of Labor has established criteria for workers' exposure to airborne contaminants. To monitor some of these contaminants, passive monitoring badges with solid sorbents have been developed. Verification of the validity of the sampling and analytical methods has ensured that these devices meet OSHA's accuracy requirements. A protocol has been developed that provides a systematic badge validation procedure and includes a statistical evaluation of the data. The validation protocol for a specific organic vapor includes: a description of the test apparatus and equipment required, the type and number of tests to run, sampling and analysis procedures, precision and accuracy requirements, effects of environmental variables, interferences, storage stability, sorbent capacity, and the importance of independent methods for verifying test chamber concentrations. Both PRO-TEK (registered trademark of E.I. du Pont de Nemours and Co.) organic vapor air monitoring badges and charcoal tubes with constant flow pumps were used in the field to monitor benzene exposures in the range of 0.004 to 5.7 ppm. The two monitoring methods had excellent correlation.
Organic Vapor Dosimeter
Authors: McKee ES , McConnaughey PW , Pritts IM
Published: March 2009

The concentrations of a wide variety of organic compounds present in working environments may be determined easily and inexpensively using diffusion dosimetry. Personal and area monitoring, resulting in data similar to that obtained with charcoal tubes, are accomplished without using pumps. A small lightweight dosimeter containing carbon sampling strips is exposed for a specific time period, usually 8 h. The front carbon strip adsorbs the organic vapor at a fixed, known sampling rate, which is dependent on the diffusion rate of that particular organic vapor. After exposure, the organic compound is desorbed from the carbon strip, usually in carbon disulfide, and analyzed by gas chromatography. Knowledge of the exposure time, the sampling rate, and the chromatographic result allows the time weighted average (TWA) concentration of organic vapor to be calculated. A back-up carbon strip in the organic vapor dosimeter insures that the capacity of the sampling section has not been exceeded. The dosimeter was calibrated and evaluated with gas concentrations generated using syringe pumps or vapor pressure methods. Air velocity effects have been studied as well. The organic vapor dosimeter proves to be a convenient alternative to charcoal tubes for the determination of many organic vapors in the workplace.
Sampling and Chemical Characterization of Concentrated Smokes
Authors: Jenkins RA , Gayle TM , Wike JS , Manning DL
Published: March 2009

Because of rapid change in both their chemical and physical properties, concentrated (0.5 to 100 g/m3) aerosols, such as a diesel fuel-based military obscurant and tobacco smoke, represent a unique challenge to the analytical chemist. Sampling procedures must minize the alteration of phase concentrations of particular constituents. For example, collection of tobacco smoke particulate matter on glass fiber filters is limited to linear velocities of ∼100 cm/min to prevent evaporation of nicotine. Trapping of reactive constituents must be performed rapidly so as to prevent loss through side reactions with other smoke constituents.

Chemical characterization studies are directed at comparing laboratory generated test aerosols with those existing under field or “real world” conditions. For the diesel fuel aerosol, a tiered analytical scheme, high-performance liquid chromatographic (HPLC) fractionation followed by high resolution gas chromatography, has proved useful for the determination of major constituents. Limited comparisons have suggested that observed differences result from differences in fuel composition and sampling conditions, rather than generation procedures. For tobacco smoke, comparisons are made between the composition of smokes generated under standard conditions by smoking machines and that of smokes to which animals are actually exposed. In some cases, exposure smokes have been found to be depleted in particulate matter, relative to the vapor phase. However, gross changes in the composition of the particulate matter do not occur.

On-line instrumental monitoring of smoke concentrations provides an important adjunct to chemical measurements. An optical particle monitor measures back-scattered infrared radiation as being proportional to smoke concentration. Systems employing the particle sensor are being used now to quantitatively determine particle concentrations in tobacco smoke and diesel fuel aerosol inhalation toxicology studies.
Characterization of Delamination Onset and Growth in a Composite Laminate
Authors: O'Brien TK
Published: March 2009

The onset and growth of delaminations in unnotched [±30∕±30∕90∕90¯]s graphite-epoxy laminates is described quantitatively. These laminates, designed to delaminate at the edges under tensile loads, were tested and analyzed. Delamination growth and stiffness loss were monitored nondestructively. Laminate stiffness decreased linearly with delamination size. The strain energy release rate, G, associated with delamination growth, was calculated from two analyses. A critical G for delamination onset was determined, and then was used to predict the onset of delaminations in [+45n/−45n/0n/90n]s (n = 1,2,3) laminates. A delamination resistance curve (R-curve) was developed to characterize the observed stable delamination growth under quasi-static loading. A power law correlation between G and delamination growth rates in fatigue was established.
Compression Fatigue Behavior of Composites in the Presence of Delaminations
Authors: Ramkumar RL
Published: March 2009

This paper discusses an experimental program that investigated the effect of imbedded (idealized) delaminations on the compression fatigue behavior of quasi-isotropic T300/5208 graphite/epoxy laminates. Three different stacking sequences of a 64-ply layup were tested. No lateral constraints were imposed on the specimen test section during static and fatigue loading, to permit unencumbered precipitation and propagation of delaminations. Test specimen geometry was chosen to preclude gross (Euler) buckling between test grip fixtures. Post-failure examination of specimen cross-sections revealed the absence of any fiber microbuckling. Consequently, the predominant failure mode in the test specimens was the propagation of imbedded delam-inations to the tab region. A 1-D delamination, located below the surface ply across the entire width, and a 2-D circular delamination, buried one or four plies below the surface, were considered. The out-of-plane deflection of the thin delaminated region was measured during static loading to estimate the extent of post-buckling that induces delamination growth. During fatigue, the growth of an imbedded delamination was monitored using diiodobutane (DIB)-enhanced radiography. A new procedure, involving laser-drilled minute holes, was used successfully in extending the application of enhanced radiography to buried delaminations. S-N, half-life residual strength, and ultimate strength data were obtained.
Relationship of the Physiology of Aquatic Organisms to the Lethality of Toxicants: A Broad Overview with Emphasis on Membrane Permeability
Authors: Katz B
Published: March 2009

A mechanism is proposed to explain differences in acute toxicity to different species caused by substances that form stable ammonia complexes. These substances include chlorine and various heavy metals. A deficiency in osmoregulation, resulting in damage to the gill but not the skin epithelia, is discussed in relation to varying degrees of toxicity affecting a wide spectrum of aquatic organisms.
Respiratory Activity of Fish as a Predictor of Chronic Fish Toxicity Values for Surfactants
Authors: Maki AW
Published: March 2009

A system was developed to monitor the ventilation frequency of bluegills (Lepomis macrochirus) under continuous-flow exposure to test compounds. The nerve-action potential associated with the opening and closing of the buccal cavity, branchial arches, and operculum was simultaneously monitored for 16 fish, four each from three exposure concentrations and four controls.

The system was used to determine the effects of several representative surfactants on the diurnal respiratory activity of the test fish. The test compounds were selected on the basis of previously existing full-life-cycle chronic fish data with which to compare the respiratory data. Good correlations are demonstrated between the chronic maximum acceptable toxicant concentration for fathead minnows and the concentrations of surfactants that elicit statistically significant changes in the diurnal ventilation frequencies of exposed bluegills. A simplified statistical procedure, employing the log 10 of observed rates, was developed, allowing determination of the changes in rates over the entire day and night exposure periods. It appears that the monitoring of aberrant respiratory activity in bluegills for a two-day period has potential predictive value as a scanning tool for a rapid prediction of chronic fish toxicity values.
A Method for Measuring Algal Toxicity and Its Application to the Safety Assessment of New Chemicals
Authors: Payne AG , Hall RH
Published: March 2009

An algal toxicity test has been developed specifically for use in the environmental safety assessment of new chemicals. The test is based on the Algal Assay Procedure (Bottle Test) but has been modified in order to make the procedure useful for toxicity assessment. A five-day exposure of freshwater or marine unialgal cultures to a range of test material concentrations is followed by a nine-day recovery period in the absence of the test material. Cell counts or in vivo fluorescence measurements made during the study allow the quantification of toxic responses ranging from reduced growth, through the algistatic response, to the algicidal response. The primary toxicity effect sought in this method is the algistatic response, which is both easily determined and environmentally meaningful. The algistatic concentration of a test material, as derived by this method, is the concentration that causes no net change in cell number after chronic exposure but permits regrowth when the cells are resuspended in fresh media without the test material. The environmental significance of this type of measurement relative to other measurements of algal toxicity is discussed.
Physical and Chemical Aspects of the Distribution of Polychlorinated Biphenyls in the Aquatic Environment
Authors: Pavlou SP , Dexter RN
Published: March 2009

The distribution of polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) compounds in Puget Sound is discussed in terms of the physical and chemical processes that influence their flow throughout the estuary. These data were used to examine the accumulation of PCBs in suspended phases and in lower trophic level biota. At the low PCB levels detected in this region, the data suggest that accumulation is predominantly governed by an equilibrium-partitioning mechanism. Support for the applicability of partitioning constants is presented, together with a discussion of their utility in describing the general distribution of PCBs in the aquatic environment.
Procedures for Sampling Urban Rat Populations for Anticoagulant Resistance Evaluation
Authors: Frantz SC
Published: March 2009

Procedures are described which have been developed by the New York State Department of Health for evaluating anticoagulant rodenticide resistance in project cities of the U.S. Urban Rat Control Program. After several years of preliminary study, it has become necessary to set more rigorous standards for the manner in which rats are collected for testing. The statistical background is described in conjunction with the guidelines for planning the trap-sampling program to be used by the project cities. The procedures are designed specifically for accumulating data on urban rat populations in a statistically sound manner. That is, the rats will be trapped in sufficient numbers and in a well-distributed fashion, so as to be representative of the greater urban rat populations from which they come. Additional details are given concerning the basic statistical analysis of the data obtained from the sampling procedures. The methods described should be easy to follow and are generally applicable to the assessment of anticoagulant resistance in rodents in urban areas throughout the world.
Evaluation of Nonlethal Electrical Barriers for Crop Protection Against Rodent Damage
Authors: Shumake SA , Kolz AL , Reidinger RF , Fall MW
Published: March 2009

Three methods are described for evaluating the efficacy of nonlethal electrical barriers in reducing damage to growing rice by Philippine rice-field rats (Rattus rattus mindanensis). First, a laboratory observation method was used to observe ana count individual rat behavior as the animals attempted to traverse different barrier configurations to get to food. Second, a semifield-test method was used with small groups of rats in 9-m2 enclosures where small areas containing food were fenced off by nonlethally charged barriers; the rat activity and feeding were monitored over 42 days. This method of evaluation allowed for social interactions that could either enhance or detract from the effectiveness of the barriers. Third, two small-scale field trials were undertaken in Philippine rice plantings to confirm the effectiveness of this damage control method. The first trial compared rat activity and damage in un|protected plots with that in plots protected by nonlethal electrical barriers. The second trial compared rat activity and damage in plots protected by lethal versus nonlethal electrical barriers. This field test method was found to be the most useful of the three, since direct measurements of crop damage reduction could be made. The prototype nonlethal barrier developed with these test methods was found to have several advantages over lethal barriers now in use, including safety, lower labor costs, and a longer battery life of the fence chargers.
Test Method for Evaluating the Efficacy of Rodenticides Against Anticoagulant-Resistant Norway Rat
Authors: Peardon DL , Ware JE , Peacock DB , Matheny RW
Published: March 2009

A laboratory test method developed for evaluating rodenticide efficacy against anticoagulant-resistant Norway rats is described. Procurement of the candidate test animals from an area of high resistance is discussed. The test method described involves three consecutive treatment regimens separated by 30-day cleansing periods. The first two treatments employ anticoagulants from two different chemical series to establish cross-resistance; one from the 4-hydroxycoumarin group and one from the 1,3-indandione series. Subsequently the survivors of the two anticoagulant treatments are treated with the candidate rodenticide to evaluate its efficacy against anticoagulantresistant rats.
Peromyscus Acute and Anticoagulant Dry Bait Laboratory Efficacy Test Method
Authors: Palmateer SD
Published: March 2009

A test method has been developed to evaluate the effectiveness of poison baits used against Peromyscus mice. The mice are group-caged and offered the poison bait along with a nonpoisonous field rodent alternate diet. The rationale for the alternate diet is discussed. A Peromyscus mouse bait tested with this method is considered satisfactory if a 90 percent mortality is achieved.
Seed Impregnation with Rhodamine B Dye for Studying Wild Animals
Authors: Lindsey GD , Heebner CF , Anthony RM , Evans J.
Published: March 2009

In recent studies on protective measures for direct seeding of conifers, we developed methods for tracing the consumption of chemically treated and untreated Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) seeds by deer mice (Peromyscus maniculatus), dark-eyed juncos (Junco hyemalis), and other seed-eating animals in the Pacific Northwest from the time of sowing of seed in the fall until germination in the spring (about five months). We impregnated the seeds with rhodamine B and identified the dye in feces from live and dead animals by alcohol extraction and thin-layer chromatography. The rhodamine B-impregnation, recovery, and identification methods appear promising for use in other studies.
Preliminary Studies of a Bird Damage Assessment Technique for Trellised Grapes
Authors: Martin LR , Crabb AC
Published: March 2009

A mechanical sampling device was designed to locate grape bunches randomly. These bunches were visually assessed to determine the percent of bird damage. The sampling device consisted of a length of plastic pipe over which a plastic T joint was slid. A rope was attached to the T joint with three knots tied at equal spacings. The sliding T joint determined the horizontal location, and the knotted rope provided the vertical location. Trained scorers made visual assessments of the sample bunches. Three scorers practiced evaluating artificially damaged grape bunches, using a predetermined rating system. A repeatability test was used to determine whether the scorers were ready for field work. The scorers were tested again in the field with damaged grape bunches on the vine, before beginning actual damage assessment. This system allowed the assessment of large acreages at the rate of one vine per minute with two people and one vine per half minute with three people. The technique is adaptable to different varieties of table and wine grapes and is useful as a reference locator for repetitive evaluations of samples over a prolonged period.
Evaluating Bird Protection to Mechanically Sown Rice Seed Treated with Methiocarb at Nianga, Senegal, West Africa
Authors: Ruelle P , Bruggers RL
Published: March 2009

A two-replicate trial design was tested and found adequate to demonstrate the repellency against pest birds in West Africa of a seed-coat treatment to rice. A treatment of 0.25 percent methiocarb by seed weight provided good protection to mechanically drilled rice seed at Nianga, Senegal, West Africa, against damage by European migrant bird species. Twice as many plants and nearly four times fewer individuals of the pest species (ruffs and godwits) were counted in treated than in untreated plots. The results present interesting possibilities for large-scale treatments, since (a) few difficulties exist in treating dry, nongerminated seeds; (b) the seeding rate might be justifiably reduced from the 120 kg/ha presently used with the necessity of reseeding perhaps eliminated; and (c) the cost probably is not prohibitive.
Testing for Daily Susceptibility Cycles in Birds Exposed to Avicides
Authors: Crabb AC
Published: March 2009

It has been shown that starlings exhibit daily susceptibility cycles to some avicides. A test procedure is outlined that can be used to determine whether daily susceptibility cycles exist for other bird species exposed to avicides.
The Effects of Environmental-Political Factors on Predator Research
Authors: Wade DA , Beasom SL
Published: March 2009

Environmental and political factors, regulations, and various reports are reviewed, and their effects on predator damage control research with chemicals are discussed.
Behavior of Inorganic Materials in Fire
Authors: Abrams MS
Published: March 2009

Behavior of inorganic materials exposed to fire depends upon the time-temperature relationship during exposure. Exposing these materials to heat generally causes significant changes in strength, elastic, and thermal properties. Temperature-distribution information developed during exposure and changes in properties occurring over the exposure temperature range are essential for evaluating the behavior of a structure where these materials are used.

This report provides information on changes in strength, elastic, and thermal properties due to increasing temperatures for various concretes, steels, and concrete masonry. Also, some thermal-property information is given for common brick, gypsum, ceiling tile, plasterboard, and asbestos-board. Use of temperature distribution and property information in predicting the performance of fire-exposed structures is described.

Finally, information on some actual fires in structures is presented to demonstrate how a knowledge of the behavior of inorganic materials exposed to fire can be used to predict the performance of structures.
Understanding and Modeling Preflashover Compartment Fires
Authors: Pape R , Waterman TE
Published: March 2009

The evolution of preflashover compartment fire modeling is discussed. Early understanding of fire development in enclosures came largely from observing full scale experiments, and the need for modeling arose due to the high costs of running such large experiments. First, experimental modeling techniques were tried, and eventually mathematical models were developed.

The discussion begins with Ingberg's severity equivalent presented in 1928. The history of preflashover compartment fire modeling is carried to the present time. At present, there is considerable emphasis on developing mathematical enclosure fire models. Three types of mathematical room fire models exist. These are the probabilistic, modular, and differential field equation models. Three of the modular models (the IITRI RFIRES Code, the Harvard Computer Fire Code, and the UDRI DACFIR Code) are compared in order to present the techniques currently employed.
The Spread of Fire from a Compartment—A Review
Authors: Quintiere J
Published: March 2009

The spread of fire from a compartment is considered as spread through a window, through a doorway, through openings associated with entry conduits, or ultimately through openings caused by deterioration of the structure shell. The literature is reviewed for each mode of spread. Emphasis is placed on the interaction of building geometry and building materials and their relationship to fire spread from a compartment. Examples are given in which mathematical design procedures or analysis could determine a fire safe design. Recommendations are presented for continued studies and practices in this area.
Trihalomethanes in Drinking Water: Analysis by Liquid-Liquid Extraction and a Comparison to Purge and Trap
Authors: Reding R , Kollman WB , Weisner MJ , Brass HJ
Published: March 2009

A liquid-liquid extraction (LLE) procedure is discussed in relation to the proposed U.S. Environmental Protection Agency regulation of trihalomethane (THM) levels in drinking water. It consists of the extraction of THMs from aqueous samples into an organic solvent followed by electron capture gas chromatographic analysis. A comparison is made of the THM data obtained by both LLE and purge and trap analyses of duplicate samples of drinking water. Both procedures utilize aqueous THM standards and quality control samples. Given suitably purified solvents and blank water, the four THMs can be quantified at the low microgram per litre concentrations required in the proposed regulation. The stability of samples and standards, reagent purification, and the possible extension of the LLE procedure to the qualitative and quantitative measurement of other volatile organohalides are considered.
Quantitative Determination of Priority Pollutants—Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry Response Factor Variation
Authors: Sauter D , Kieda C , Devine R , Nowicki H
Published: March 2009

The quantitative gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy-data system technique recommended by the Environmental Protection Agency for the determination of “extractable priority pollutants” in industrial effluent extracts has been evaluated. For standard solutions, the relative standard deviation (correlation coefficient) for selected priority pollutant response factors was considered as a measure of the precision of one aspect of the quantification of organic compounds in water extracts. It has been shown that for compounds similar in physical properties to the internal standard (anthracene-d10), single-level response factors can be determined at low nanogram levels with correlation coefficients as good as 1.2 percent. Data are presented that suggests that, for compounds that are “well behaved” from the viewpoint of consistent and reproducible gas chromatographic elution, the correlation coefficient of the response factor can be independent of the ion employed for quantification. Correlation coefficients of response factors for packed column and capillary column experiments demonstrated, not surprisingly, that response factor variation is compound dependent. For most cases cited, the relative standard deviation (RSD) of the response factor was less than 20 percent. However, for certain priority pollutants, response factor variation indicated that the recommended analysis protocol has serious deficiencies.
Identification and Quantitation of Brominated Fire Retardants
Authors: Zweidinger RA , Cooper SD , Pellizzari ED
Published: March 2009

Qualitative and quantitative analysis of water and sediment samples for semivolatile brominated fire retardants was conducted. Four brominated fire retardants were identified and quantitated. Sample analysis included solvent extraction followed by gas-liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (GLC-MS) and thin-layer chromatography/scanning spectrodensitometry (TLC-SD).

The fire retardants decabromobiphenyl ether (DBBE) and tris(2,3-dibromopropyl) phosphate (tris) presented special analytical problems related to their very low volatility and thermal instability, respectively. More than one analytical method was developed for some of the fire retardants under investigation. For most brominated compounds gas-liquid chromatography/electron capture detector (GLC-ECD) was the most sensitive method. Tris required a very short [0.2 cm inside diameter by 42 cm long, 2 percent OV-101 on Chromosorb W(HP) ] column to avoid extensive thermal degradation, and decabromobiphenyl ether could not be readily analyzed by GLC-ECD due to the very high temperature at which it must be chromatographed and GLC-MS or TLC was used for its quantitation with GLC-MS confirmation of identity. The very low volatility of DBBE required the use of a short [0.2 cm inside diameter by 42 cm long, 2 percent OV-101 on Chromosorb W(HP)] column. The GLC-MS methods for DBBE are also applicable to 2,2-bis(dibromo-4-hydroxy- phenyl)propane (Tetrabromobisphenol A, TBBA) and 1,2-bis(2,4,6-tribromophenoxy)ethane (BTBPE, Firemaster 680).

Samples from the vicinity of manufacturing sites were examined. The analytical procedures employed and representative samples of qualitative and quantitative data from these samples will be presented.
Surface Crack Life Prediction: An Overview
Authors: Cruse TA , Gemma AE , Lacroix RF , Meyer TG
Published: March 2009

Successful application of fracture mechanics methodology to component fatigue life prediction requires knowledge of flight cycle loading, local stress and material conditions, da/dN characterization for the material, and the stress intensity factor(s) for the appropriate crack geometry(ies). It is generally assumed that all of the aforementioned conditions are well within current state-of-the-art design procedures for through-thickness cracks. It is further assumed that the part-through, surface crack stress intensity factor distribution is now sufficiently easily characterized that accurate fatigue life predictions can be made for this class of crack geometries. Major unresolved issues for surface cracks exist for small surface cracks, which are initiated within surface layers of machining stress and flight cycle-induced plastic zones near structural notches. The issues include definition of the material properties within the surface layer, unknown surface “values” of the stress intensity factor distribution, crack growth through highly varying stress/material property fields at the surface, and the applicability of macrocrack growth models to small cracks. Further experimental and analytical effort is required in order to achieve accurate fatigue life prediction design methodologies for small surface crack problems in real structures.
A Review and Assessment of the Stress-Intensity Factors for Surface Cracks
Authors: Newman JC
Published: March 2009

The stress-intensity factor solutions proposed for a surface crack in a finite plate subjected to uniform tension are reviewed. Fourteen different solutions for the stress-intensity factors are compared. These solutions have been obtained over the past 16 years using approximate analytical methods, experimental methods, and engineering estimates.

The present paper assesses the accuracy of the various solutions by correlating fracture data on surface-cracked tension specimens made of a brittle epoxy material. Fracture of the epoxy material was characterized by a constant value of stress-intensity factor at failure. Thus, the correctness of the various solutions are judged by the variations in the stress-intensity factors at failure. The solutions were ranked in order of minimum standard deviation. The highest ranking solutions correlated 95 percent of data analyzed within ±10 percent, whereas, the lowest ranking solutions correlated 95 percent of data analyzed within ±20 percent. However, some solutions could be applied to all data considered, whereas, others were limited with respect to crack shapes and crack sizes that could be analyzed.
Life Prediction Analysis of Part-Through Cracks
Authors: Vroman GA
Published: March 2009

The ability to predict part-through crack behavior analytically based on compact specimen crack growth rate data is quantified by comparing analytical predictions of cyclic life under constant amplitude loading with laboratory test results. In three analytical exercises performed by ASTM Task Group E24.06.01, a total of 24 specimens included 2219-T851 aluminum, 6A1-4V-Ti, and 9Ni-4Co-0.20C steel.
Part-Through Crack Problems in Aircraft Structures
Authors: Rudd JL , Hsu TM , Wood HA
Published: March 2009

Flaws occur in aircraft structures due to material and structural manufacturing and processing operations. The most prevalent sources of cracking in aircraft structures are fastener holes, although cracking does occur at locations other than fastener holes (for example, surface cracks). This paper presents a discussion of the most common types of flaws which exist in aircraft structures and the test data and analytical criteria needed to predict their growth. A number of special analytical and structural considerations are discussed such as small flaws, cold-worked holes, plasticity effects, failure criteria, and multiple flaw sites. The analytical crack growth and residual strength requirements which must be met as well as the initial flaw sizes and shapes which must be assumed in the Air Force damage tolerance design requirements (MIL-A-83444) are presented. Recently developed stress intensity factor solutions for quarter elliptical corner cracks emanating from various types of fastener holes are presented. Predictions using these current solutions are correlated with other approximate solutions as well as experimental test data.
An Overview of Fuel and Ambient Temperatures
Authors: Thomas I
Published: March 2009

Maximum airport storage and fuel dispensing temperatures were collected from various parts of the world. These data have been reduced to probabilities of occurrence in three latitudinal zones so that it is possible to estimate the probability of reaching a particular maximum fuel temperature that can be compared to the fuel's flash point. The paper also reviews ambient temperatures in the same geographic areas. In the contiguous 48 states of the United States both airport storage and ambient temperature tend to reach a maximum near 38°C (100°F) while more typical upper limits of fuel storage temperatures are between 27 and 32°C (80 and 90°F). Any discussion on flash point reduction below 38°C (100°F) must recognize these facts.
State Controls of Evaporative Emissions
Authors: Wagner TO
Published: March 2009

Twenty-six states have adopted regulations to control evaporative emissions from petroleum products in the distribution system. In no state except New Jersey would the true vapor pressure limit of 10.3 kPa (1.5 psia) be critical for reduced flash Jet A or Jet A-1 fuels. In New Jersey, equipment to control “breathing” of storage tanks would be required if the flash point were below 38°C (100°F).
Evaluating the Severity of Rocket Motor Case during Burst Test Using Acoustic Emission
Authors: Kishi T , Mori Y
Published: March 2009

The method of evaluating the severity of flaws by acoutic emission techniques was applied to the burst test of rocket motor case, in order to evaluate the structural integrity of the motor case during hydraulic pressurization. Three regions of high activity in acoustic emission signals were observed, and two of these became an initial point of fracture. The evaluation method used in the present test could anticipate these fracture characteristics very well before rupture.
Acoustic Emission Surveillance of Boiling Water Reactor Piping Nozzles and Valves
Authors: Hartman WF , McElroy JW
Published: March 2009

Traditional inservice inspection (ISI) techniques for nuclear power plants are hampered by personnel radiation exposure. There is a genuine need for on-line surveillance methods which can identify areas of possible structural degradation, thereby resulting in reduced inspection time because of concentrated inspection activity. One potential method, acoustic emission (AE) monitoring, is being investigated as a surveillance technique at Philadelphia Electric Company's Peach Bottom Atomic Power Station, Unit 3. The data produced by the AE surveillance are being compared with the ISI results.

Acoustic emission sensors are mounted on two feedwater nozzles, two core spray lines, and one recirculation by-pass line. Also, eleven mainstream safety/relief valves are being acoustically monitored for the detection and measurements of leaks. This paper describes the correspondence of the AE results with the inservice inspection data obtained during two refueling outages. The feasibility of general implementation of AE surveillance is discussed.
Assessment of Radiopharmaceutical Usage Release Practices by Eleven Western Hospitals
Authors: Leventhal L , Melgard R , Claridge DE , Kendricks H
Published: March 2009

A survey of radiopharmaceutical usage and releases to the environment by eleven western hospitals located in San Diego, Los Angeles, San Francisco, and Berkeley, California, was completed under U.S. Atomic Energy Commission (USAEC) Contract No. AT(043)-907. A simplified hospital radioisotope cycle which starts with production and ends with return to man was developed. Procedures in which radioisotopes are used can generally be classified as diagnostic, therapeutic, or research, and may be in vivo or in vitro. These procedures relate to the dose, form of isotope used, and frequency of employment of these procedures and directly impacts on the type and quantitiy of waste produced. A survey of the medical uses of radiopharmaceuticals was conducted to obtain a general picture of the nature of current radioactivity uses and the routes and quantities that might be involved in release to the environment. Field studies were made of the quantity of 99mTc and 131I released to hospital sewage systems and arriving at a sewage treatment plant tributary to several of the hospitals.
Evaluation of Methodology for Quantifying Radiopharmaceuticals in Tertiary-Treated Sewage
Authors: Krieger H , Frishkorn G , Martin E , Jacobs B
Published: March 2009

The production and utilization of radioactive pharmaceuticals and radionuclides for medical diagnosis and therapy warrant consideration of their fate and their radiation hazard to the population after discharge. Some of these nuclides—198Au, 133Xe, 131I, 99mTc, 85Sr, 75Se, 57Co, and 51Cr—represent curies of activity from a single facility that are being released to the sewers over a year's time. Although their relatively short half-life (6 h to 270 days) and the large sewer dilution may reduce the activity in the waste by several orders of magnitude at the point of treatment, the unpredictable range of decontamination (0 to 90 percent) by normal sewage treatment practices means that some will remain in the final effluent.

Even after tertiary treatment operations, many of these radionuclides will still be present. This tertiary treatment is necessary when sewage effluents are to be used as coolants for nuclear reactors, and the confirmation of these nuclides in these effluents becomes of major concern as possible radiation hazards.

Methodology to identify and measure the activity of five radionuclides—131I, 85Sr, 57Co, 51Cr, and 75Se—has been developed and tested. The validity of the developed procedures has been checked with standardized traces solutions added to different sewage effluents and dried lime-treated sludges. Chemical yields agreed with radiochemical yields, and with 15 litres of sewage, or 10-g sludge, the chemical yields were atleast 70 percent.

Since the normal activity levels of each of these nuclides will be low, nondestructive quantification becomes questionable. The required precision and accuracy can best be satisfied by collecting intermittent samples and by radiochemical analysis of large volumes. Analyses on the influents, sludges, and treated effluents will indicate the overall efficiency of the entire sewage treatment process, provide evidence of the fate of each nuclide discharged into the sewage stream, and indicate whether a potential radiation hazard exists.
External and Internal Dosimetry—The Correlation Between Response and Dose Interpretation
Authors: Chabot GE , Skrable KW
Published: March 2009

This paper emphasizes aspects of personnel radiation dosimetry which the authors feel are significant because of present-day inadequacies in dosimetry systems, techniques, and procedures, and because of recently recommended changes with respect to the approaches to dose assessment. In the area of shallow dose measurement the discussion treats weaknesses with respect to badge designs, with emphasis on the common fault of excessive dosimeter coverings and its effect on response. The inability to measure surface doses is discussed in relation to current dosimeter systems, and recommendations are made for designs to measure average doses to the live skin layer. The problems with respect to neutron dosimeters are presented, and tentative suggestions are made for improving responses of these systems. In the area of internal dosimetry, emphasis is on the correlation between uptake, dose, and concentration of the radionuclide in the exposure medium. The significance of the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) Report 26 is discussed as it relates to approaches to occupational dose assessment.
Radionuclides in Liquid Effluents from Argonne National Laboratory—An Example of Monitoring for a Multidisciplinary Nuclear Laboratory
Authors: Sedlet J , Golchert NW
Published: March 2009

The environmental monitoring program conducted by Argonne National Laboratory for radionuclides in effluent and surface water is described and the results for the past six years are summarized. Small amounts of several radionuclides have been present in Argonne wastewater, and are consequently detectable in the stream that receives this water. The most abundant of these is hydrogen-3, whose average concentration in the stream during this period was about 3000 pCi/litre, equivalent to 0.1 percent of the drinking water standard. The distribution of plutonium and neptunium between stream water and particulate matter was studied. Plutonium tends to be relatively insoluble and become associated with the sediment, while most of the neptunium is in solution. This difference in behavior should be taken into account in designing environmental sampling and analytical programs and in dosimetric evaluation of effluent releases.
Methodology for the Determination of Environmental 129I and 99Tc
Authors: Anderson TJ
Published: March 2009

The Savannah River Laboratory is using existing techniques and developing new methodology to determine the environmental impact of the Savannah River Plant with regard to 129I and 99Tc. 129I is determined by neutron activation after the method of Brauer. Activation products are quantified by gamma-ray spectroscopy [germanium (lithium)] following chemical isolation. 125I is used as a yield tracer. 129I amounts as low as 3.8 fCi can be determined with 30-min counting times. An isotope dilution method for 99Tc based on a three-stage surface ionization mass spectrometer is being developed. Its chemical isolation scheme ends with the technetium loaded on a single ion-exchange bead for enhanced mass-spectrometric sensitivity. 97Tc will be used as a yield tracer. A lower limit of 0.2 fCi is sought. A modified method using liquid scintillation counting has determined 99Tc in some aqueous samples. These methods have confirmed that 129I and 99Tc can be highly mobile in the aqueous environment, establishing the need for monitoring.
Present Practices and Future Requirements for Monitoring the Aquatic Environment at Nuclear Facilities
Authors: Blanchard RL
Published: March 2009

Routine monitoring and assessment for radioactivity in the aquatic environment at nuclear facilities are discussed briefly relative to the critical-pathway philosophy. Limitations associated with present practices of monitoring and assessment are considered as they relate to the requirements of present radiation protection standards 10CFR50 and 40CFR190. Future research needs are identified, particularly as they relate to environmental transport of radionuclides and dose computations.
Analysis of Environmental Samples—Tennessee Valley Authority's Radiological Environmental Monitoring Program
Authors: Hobbs BB , Clayton WR , Frederick CE
Published: March 2009

The Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) has 17 nuclear reactors in seven separate nuclear sites that are either operating, under construction, or in various stages of licensing. As a result, TVA has developed an extensive radiological environmental monitoring program.

TVA's environmental monitoring program began in 1968 as a preoperational program around Browns Ferry Nuclear Plant to determine the levels of natural and man-made radiation present before plant operation. From a relatively modest number of 2000 samples and 8800 analyses in 1968, the number of samples has grown to 10 000 per year and the number of analyses has grown to over 42 000 per year. We expect a threefold increase over the next five years as new areas are added to the monitoring program.

Recognition of the large number of samples requiring analyses, and the desire to identify and analyze for specific isotopic content, led us to conclude early in our program that we would have to perform most analyses by gamma spectrometry. Considering costs and the instrumentation then available to us, we decided to use sodium iodide detectors, resolving the complex gamma spectra thus obtained by the use of least-squares analyses.

We are using a slightly modified form of the Alpha-M computer program developed at Oak Ridge National Laboratory by Schonfeld, and the TVA computing center at Chattanooga runs the program for us. We have also developed capabilities using germanium gamma detectors.

The laboratory recently completed detailed studies on both the germanium (lithium) and the sodium iodide (thallium) least-squares gamma analysis systems. These studies show the advantages and limitations of each system, and the application of each system to the analysis of environmental samples. By using the advantages that each system offers, we have developed a balanced approach to gamma-ray analyses.