bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Demos-cracy for the European Union
Authors: Van Parijs Philippe
Published: September 2018

The European Union (EU) has become a community of citizens whose fates are massively affected by socioeconomic institutions they share in common. For this reason, the European Union will need to be governed not quite like a nation—which it will never be—but far more like a nation than like a mere international organization (IO)—which it no longer is and will never be again. That is, it should be governed far less through bargaining between member-states and far more through arguing between citizens and their representatives. This requires strengthening a common demos through such means as the pan-European election of some members of the European Parliament and the democratization of English as a lingua franca, while never losing sight of the fragmented nature of this demos. In this respect, the Swiss model should provide, if not guidance, at least inspiration.
All Together Now
Authors: Deudney Daniel H.
Published: September 2018

Today, swollen numbers of humanity are now intensively interactive and interdependent through vast networks of complex machines and built infrastructures that span the planet, whose unintended consequences and spillovers have grown to species significance. The practical context for all human activities has become a densely occupied and tightly coupled neighborhood. While the content of cosmopolitanism, in its ancient, Enlightenment, and current phases, reflects shrinking geographical spaces, it presumes an Earth composed of different places, rather than a more accurate “terrapolitan” view of Earth as a single place. In the terrapolitan situation, the central problem is not that humans are insufficiently attentive to the needs of distant others. Rather, it is that they are insufficiently attentive to their collective self-interest in survival in the face of existential threats. In part, these limitations stem from the utter novelty of the threats to basic interests that have arisen with such historical rapidity.
The Making of a Scientific Logic from Bacon to Wolff
Authors: Lu-Adler Huaping
Published: September 2018

This chapter examines how Francis Bacon, Locke, Leibniz, and Wolff view the nature of logic and its role in our cognitive endeavors. Bacon initiates a “natural history” method by which to overhaul all philosophical sciences, including logic. Following this method, Locke measures the legitimacy of a putative logic against facts about the natural workings of human intellect and challenges the view that the Aristotelian syllogistic is necessary to the proper use of our reason. Leibniz responds to this challenge by making syllogism part of “universal logic” and by grounding a logical theory (logica artificialis) on a divinely sourced natural logic (logica naturalis). Drawing on Leibniz’s ideas as well as certain medieval traditions, Wolff develops an elaborate account of natural and artificial logics as what represent, though in different manners, the same rules that regulate our mental operations, and thereby seeks to restore the centrality of syllogism in all philosophical sciences.
The First Humans and the First Art
Authors: Hogh-Olesen Henrik
Published: September 2018

The chapter follows the aesthetic impulse back to human prehistory and looks at prehistoric art. In order to establish our aesthetic inclinations as a primary impulse—and not just as a surplus phenomenon appearing in high cultures in times of plenty, when people have no better things to do—it is important to track this impulse back to its first expression and to the material living conditions at the time. Regarding the origin of this primary impulse, it is interesting to consider who these people were in terms of psychology. Who were the creators of the prehistoric art, and what motivated this activity?
The Woman in Red and the Man with the Chrome-Plated Wheels
Authors: Hogh-Olesen Henrik
Published: September 2018

Chapter 4 looks at how key stimuli and brain programming affect our own species’ aesthetics and determine which shapes, colors, and landscapes humans are attracted to and consider beautiful. Like other animals, people are predisposed to respond to certain key stimuli, which have been associated with an expectation of functionality, fitness, and increased well-being. In other words, the perception of beauty represents a strong internal indicator, which it pays to be guided by in order to gain various benefits. In this investigation, the chapter enters the micro-processes of artistic creation. It looks at the aesthetic effects that make up an artwork and at the understanding of why something captivates and fascinates people. The right embellishment can transform a trivial everyday object into an overwhelming power object—a kind of fetish that means the world to us and costs a fortune. How does something like this happen?
Fiction and Narrative
Authors: Hogh-Olesen Henrik
Published: September 2018

Humans also create stories and dramatic settings that deal with the theme of what it means to be human. Humans live in narratives, and narratives are everywhere. This chapter looks at why humans spend that much time and resources on telling each other stories and dramatizing common human experiences. Which themes do these narratives revolve around? Are there universal themes? And what function do these symbolic universes have for our development and survival as individuals and as a species? Moreover, how and why do artistic expressions, themes, and forms change over time? The chapter lists existential, cognitive, and social functionalities .
Summing Up the Aesthetic Impulse
Authors: Hogh-Olesen Henrik
Published: September 2018

In Chapter 9, the threads from the different investigations are gathered, and the evolutionary functions and conditions behind the aesthetic impulse are outlined in a synthesizing model. One of the main discussions in the aesthetic field concerns whether artistic behavior should be considered a biological adaptation in its own right and thus an innate behavioral repertoire with direct consequence to our survival and reproduction, which has been passed down the genetic line through evolutionary selection. Or should this behavior rather be considered a random by-product that may hold certain advantages for us, but which is a side effect of other adaptive processes? The chapter argues for the author’s stand in the adaptation/by-product opposition and shows how the viewpoints presented throughout the book best can be contained within the adaptation theory.
Opening the Doors of Aesthetics
Authors: Hogh-Olesen Henrik
Published: September 2018

Chapter 10 concludes with showing the strength and limitations of the approach presented in this book, in a discussion that highlights the differences between a classic humanistic approach and an evolutionary, behavioral approach. The aim is not to move aesthetics from the humanities and into behavioral psychology and other sciences. On the contrary, the aesthetic field is a house with many doors, and you will need several keys to open them. However, aesthetics and art are also behavior. They are something our species does, and that is why behavioral sciences were prioritized. Furthermore, with behavioral and evolutionary psychology as tools, we can really shine an extensive and important light on the big Why of art and aesthetics.
Perceiving Your Own Body
Authors: and Bruno
Published: September 2018

The perception of our own body is a defining characteristic of our sense of self and a prerequisite for interacting with the environment and guiding movements. In the traditional view, the body is perceived mostly through somatosensation. However, experimental results are increasingly demonstrating that visual and vestibular signals also play an important role in body perception, that somatosensation in body perception is not limited to touch as traditionally conceived but may also include signals from the interior of the body (interoception), and, perhaps most surprisingly, that how we perceive and represent our body can be rapidly altered by novel combinations of multisensory stimuli. These findings have important implications for our understanding of neurological impairments of body representation and for their rehabilitation.
Perception for Action
Authors: and Bruno
Published: September 2018

Our bodies are not static, and multisensory signals are constantly being processed to produce motor behaviours. This chapter will discuss how multisensory interactions shape three kinds of such behaviours: reaching and grasping objects with the hand, walking, and maintaining one’s posture. Motor control is inherently multisensory, as it involves combining anticipatory sensory signals from vision and proprioception, as well as, in some cases, other sensory channels, to prepare movements before they are actually initiated, and then combining online multisensory feedback to control movements while they are being executed. In addition, multisensory motor processes turn out to be important in understanding how we perceive agency, the awareness that our own minds are the agents that will allow our actions to take place, how we adapt to novel sensory environments, how we understand actions performed by others exploiting ‘mirror’ sensorimotor brain systems, and perhaps even why we can’t tickle ourselves.
Time
Authors: and Bruno
Published: September 2018

Within the traditional notion of the senses, the perception of time is especially puzzling. There is no specific physical energy carrying information about time, and hence no sensory receptors can transduce a ‘temporal stimulus.’ Time-related properties of events can instead be shown to emerge from specific perceptual processes involving multisensory interactions. In this chapter, we will examine five such properties: the awareness that two events occur at the same time (simultaneity) or one after the other (succession); the coherent time-stamping of events despite inaccuracies and imprecisions in coding simultaneity and succession (temporal coherence); the awareness of the temporal extent occupied by events (duration); the organization of events in regular temporal units (rhythm).
Introduction and Brief History of the Issue
Authors: Lewis David M.
Published: September 2018

This book presents a case for radically reassessing our picture of ancient Greek slavery in its contemporary Mediterranean context. The standard view in classical scholarship holds that Greece (by which Athens is usually meant) and Rome were the only ‘genuine slave societies’ of the ancient world. Failing to attain to this dubious honour, other ancient slave systems (often labelled ‘societies with slaves’) thus recede into the background, with twofold consequences: first, a stark, black-and-white picture emerges, with Greece and Rome as apparently stand-alone exempla of slavery practised on a large scale in antiquity; second, this picture provides historians with a ready-made excuse to ignore what went on among the neighbouring ‘societies with slaves’. Greece and Rome are presented as historical rarities, ranking among only a handful of societies in which slaves made up a noticeable proportion of the overall population and whose labour underpinned the dominant position of elites. Such rarities, of course, are usually more interesting to the historian than the comparatively prosaic ‘societies with slaves’: the former require models of development and elaborate theories to explain why they evolved so differently from the norm, whereas the latter, as historically commonplace, require no explanation at all. Greece and Rome can thus be conceptually detached and studied in isolation from their broader historical contexts....
Ownership and the Articulation of Slave Status in Greek and Near Eastern Legal Practice
Authors: Lewis David M.
Published: September 2018

This chapter reviews the various approaches scholars have taken to defining slavery in a global perspective. It proceeds to set out a legal methodology for understanding slave status in comparative perspective. It engages with several critiques of this approach, showing how they are misplaced and reaffirming the importance of legal ownership to the definition of slavery. Two case studies are provided to give empirical confirmation of this theoretical approach, showing how this legal methodology aligns with slaving practices in Athens and Babylonia. It finishes with some general remarks on the importance of observing sociolegal practices empirically rather than beginning and ending with abstract definitions and formal statutes.
Status Distinctions in Greece and the Ancient Near East
Authors: Lewis David M.
Published: September 2018

This chapter considers whether the Greek ability to distinguish legally free persons from legally enslaved persons was unique and whether (as M. I. Finley claimed) statuses were blurred together in ancient Near Eastern societies. It shows (pace Finley) that the Babylonians were able to make razor-sharp status distinctions, and had their own emic vocabulary of freedom that was set in contradistinction to slavery. Although Greek and Near Eastern slave metaphors differed profoundly, sociolegal practices were quite similar. The chapter finishes by analysing Finley’s theory of the economic foundations undergirding the emergence of the concept of freedom, and shows it to be flawed: concepts of slavery and freedom are not necessarily coupled to the economic role of slavery in this or that society.
Punic Carthage
Authors: Lewis David M.
Published: September 2018

This chapter examines the legal position and economic role of slaves in Punic Carthage. First, through an examination of the evidence of Graeco-Roman and Punic sources, it shows that Finley was mistaken to dismiss Carthage as relying on non-slave dependants and that slavery was an important institution at Carthage. Second, this chapter looks at the evidence for large-scale exploitation of slave labour in Carthage’s large agricultural hinterland and the scale of slave ownership among the Carthaginian aristocracy. It ends by showing how the Romans drew on the technical expertise of Carthaginian slaveholding agronomists in their own approach to slave-based agriculture in Italy.
Representing ‘Woman’ in Split Britches’ Honey I’m Home, the F-RTC’s Oedipus Rex XX/XY, and Douglas Carter Beane and Lewis Flynn’s Lysistrata Jones
Authors: Powers Melinda
Published: September 2018

This chapter uses case studies from both comedy and tragedy, including Split Britches’ Honey I’m Home: The Alcestis Story (1989), the Faux-Real Theatre Company’s Oedipus Rex XX/XY (2012), and Douglas Carter Beane and Lewis Flynn’s Lysistrata Jones (2011), to explore the extent to which costuming and casting choices may reinforce or challenge the male-invented, male-performed idea of ‘Woman’ performed on the ancient stage. It argues that the employment of women actors in a play written by and for men does not preclude a feminist critique, for Split Britches’ and Faux-Real’s performances have used feminist performance techniques and cross-gendered casting to challenge the gender binary of male/female. However, in some cases, such as Lysistrata Jones, reperforming Greek drama may inadvertently result in the reinforcement of negative depictions of women and essentialist ideas that attach sex (the physical body) to gender (the cultural performance of that body).
Boni homines in Northern Iberia
Authors: Davies Wendy
Published: September 2018

The term boni homines was widely used in early medieval charters in Europe to refer to trusted people who gave oaths or were called to give evidence or from whom judges were chosen. Despite the common heritage, in Iberian texts the term is very rare before the late tenth century, when it was used both very generally to signify the presence of acceptable people but also much more specifically to refer to individuals (often named) who had a practical and distinctive role in judicial process or in concluding and validating transactions. In court they are particularly associated with intercession to get penalties reduced and in other kinds of meeting with fixing prices and distributing property. There is much to suggest that the people referred to as boni homines in court cases were aristocrats, rather than the local worthies one might expect. This chapter explores whether or not the functions of the boni homines of northern Iberia were differentiated by social status and how far they were different from their Italian and other western European counterparts.
Still Fussing about Feudalism
Authors: Reynolds Susan
Published: September 2018

Most medieval historians interested in whatever it is that they think of as feudalism do not pay much, if any, attention the early twelfth-century work known as Consuetudines (or Libri) Feudorum, which is generally considered to be more or less irrelevant to the history of property and society, except possibly in Italy. That is, in a way, quite right. But though the Libri is indeed a poor reflection of norms and practice at the time it was written, it has since the sixteenth century been extremely important in the historiography of medieval Europe. The argument of this chapter is that modern ideas about the origin of fiefs and their gradual acquisition of rights derive, not from records of medieval law in practice, but from sixteenth-century interpretations of the Libri Feudorum and the commentaries written on it by later medieval academic lawyers.
An Arena of Abuses and Competing Powers
Authors: Rocca Cristina La
Published: September 2018

Using Cassiodorus’s Variae (537–40), this chapter deals with Rome and its controversial image through one very important aspect of Theoderic’s political activity, his building policy. While in the case of other Italian cities, especially Theoderic’s capital, Ravenna, Cassiodorus’s letters emphasized the efficiency of building activity in terms of obedience to the king’s orders, in Rome Theoderic’s building activity is used to show local resistance. This group dealt with the repression of frequently occurring abuses, such as the misappropriation by private citizens of public building structures and of their ornaments, as well as the appropriation by private individuals of the funds allocated by public authority for the restoration of buildings in the city. Furthermore, it is only in the case of Rome that we see these letters having direct counterparts in the authorizations given by the king to private individuals to build new private buildings on what had previously been public monumental sites, even including an order to Symmachus to restore Pompey’s theatre. The panorama in Rome was therefore much more controversial than in other Italian cities, and it allows us to grasp not only the efficacy of Theoderic’s control over building, but also the difficulties he faced and the strategies he employed to create consensus in a controversial context.
Lands and Lights in Early Medieval Rome
Authors: Story Joanna
Published: September 2018

This chapter analyses the text and epigraphy of two monumental inscriptions in Rome; both are important sources of information on landholding in early medieval Italy, and both shed light on the development of the Patrimony of St Peter and the evolving power of the popes as de facto rulers of Rome and its environs in the seventh and eighth centuries. Pope Gregory the Great (d. 604) commissioned the earlier of the two inscriptions for the basilica of St Paul, where it still survives (MEC I, XII.1). The inscription preserves the full text of a letter from Gregory to Felix, rector of the Appian patrimony (Ep. XIV.14). It ordered Felix to transfer the large estate (massa) of Aquae Salviae, with all its farms (fundi) as well as other nearby properties, from the patrimony into the direct control of the basilica of St Paul in order to fund the provision of its lighting; it was one of the last letters that Gregory wrote. The patron of the second inscription was Gregory’s eighth-century namesake and successor, Pope Gregory II (715–31), indignus servus (MEC I, XIV.1). This one is fixed in the portico of the basilica of St Peter, where it stands alongside another eighth-century inscription, namely, the epitaph of Pope Hadrian I that was commissioned by Charlemagne after Hadrian’s death in 795. Gregory II’s inscription also records a donation in Patrimonio Appiae, this time to provide oil for the lights of St Peter’s. This chapter investigates the form, content, and historical context of the production and display of these two inscriptions, analysing parallels and differences between them. It considers what they reveal about estate organization and the development of the territorial power of the papacy in this formative period, as well as the role of Gregory the Great as an exemplar for the early eighth-century popes.
Ivthe Spiritual EconomyDevozione longobarda
Authors: Delogu Paolo
Published: September 2018

The investigation takes its inspiration from the book recently dedicated by Peter Brown (Through the Eye of a Needle, 2012) to the genesis of the Christian ethics of wealth and its good use. Brown had highlighted the transition from pagan evergetism to Christian charity; from the use of wealth for public display in favor of the city and the fellow-citizens, to its dispensation to the poor, who are the representatives of Christ. Thanks to this providence the rich can gain the divine mercy and save his soul. The Church, as a mundane institution, receives the pious gifts of the rich and administers them for the relief of the poor, but the poor are considered to be the real owners of the wealth accumulated by the Church. This ideological expedient allows the Church to consider itself poor. When this cultural process is complete, the Middle Ages have arrived. My aim has been to investigate how the precepts of the ancient Fathers were received and put into practice by the Langobardic society in Italy. Given the shortage of doctrinal texts similar to those exploited by Brown, I had recourse to more humble documents such as the deeds edited by Luigi Schiaparelli in the first two volumes of the Codice Diplomatico Longobardo. It is a collection of 296 documents, for the larger part concerning foundations or endowments of churches, monasteries, senodochia and oratoria, ordered by lay devotees. Most of them come from Tuscany; a lesser number from centres of the Po plain. These texts do not have any doctrinal purpose, but they give an insight into the way in which the Christian doctrine of wealth and its good use was received and put in practice by the Langobards in the 8th century.
Introduction
Authors: Pfeiffer Christian
Published: September 2018

The Introduction locates the study of body within Aristotle’s philosophy and within contemporary metaphysics. Today, philosophers discuss these topics in the field of mereology or, more specifically, mereotopology. They study concepts such as ‘part’, ‘whole’, ‘being connected’, ‘being continuous’, or ‘having a boundary’. Although Aristotle had no formal theory of parts and wholes and their spatial relations, it is true that modern‐day philosophers are working with a conception that has been shaped by Aristotle. Putting it in the context of Aristotle’s philosophy, the treatment of bodies is important for Aristotle’s conception of the physical sciences because almost all branches of physical science employ the notion of body and related notions.
Financial Crises and the Public Discourse on Financial Elites
Authors: Cassis Youssef , Telesca Giuseppe
Published: September 2018

Why were elite bankers and financiers demoted from ‘masters’ to ‘servants’ of society after the Great Depression, a crisis to which they contributed only marginally? Why do they seem to have got away with the recent crisis, in spite of their palpable responsibilities in triggering the Great Recession? This chapter provides an analysis of the differences between the bankers of the Great Depression and their colleagues of the late twentieth/early twenty-first century—regarding their position within, and attitude towards the firm, work culture, mental models, and codes of conduct—complemented with a scrutiny of the public discourse on bankers and financiers before and after the two crises. The authors argue that the (relative) mildness of the Great Recession, compared to the Great Depression, has contributed to preserve elite bankers’ and financiers’ status, income, wealth, and influence. Yet, the long-term consequences of their loss of reputational capital are difficult to assess.
The Pre-Born Child
Authors: Flynn Shawn W.
Published: September 2018

A previously unstudied stage of the child’s life in current scholarship, the pre-born child is an essential expression of the child’s life in the ancient Near East. Through Mesopotamian medical texts, personal letters, prayers, and the mythology that intersects with this data set, thought on pre-born and birthing children strongly suggests the child’s value in domestic cult. In particular the connection between child and deity is an important connection between the child and the domestic cult that underpins the question of value. This data illustrates how the child is understood in ancient Israel, showing that texts like Jeremiah 1 and Psalm 139 are rooted in a wider comparative matrix. Here we see where Israelite intersects and diverges from its cultural matrix to make unique claims about YHWH through the pre-born child.
When Children Die
Authors: Flynn Shawn W.
Published: September 2018

This chapter examines texts in which children experience violence. By examining childhood violence in war contexts, we see how brutal treatment is used in promotional texts for its rhetorical effect. Likewise, violence against children through curses is met with an equally robust societal response. Further, child sacrifice is rarely practiced but had broad narrative impact. In childhood burials, we see a high regard for children reflecting the child’s value in the domestic cult. These contexts frame how we read childhood violence in the Hebrew Bible. Psalm 137 and 2 Kings 8:11–12 offer a poetic and narrative example of how violence against children assumes a child’s value in order to be effective texts. This is demonstrated through 2 Samuel 12 and the boys and the bears in 2 Kings 2 as well as in Genesis 22. To be rhetorically effective, violence used against children assumes their broadly held value.
Once a Child, Always a Child
Authors: Flynn Shawn W.
Published: September 2018

This final chapter is both a conclusion and a brief consideration of one final category in a child’s life. It offers an overview of how children likely functioned in the domestic cult, and thus explores the child’s ongoing role as “child” even into adulthood. This is reinforced by a discussion of delinquency and the consequences for not upholding the domestic context as the child faced growing responsibility. The logic of the child’s domestic-cultic value in the pre-birth stage and as expressed in the material culture of childhood burials is extended to the expectations placed on them to promote the domestic cult. The role of children in the domestic cult forms the basis for one final application of this lens to the biblical text, specifically Ezekiel 16. This final reading leverages various aspects of the entire study, showing that the Hebrew Bible uses the child’s value as a social promotion of YHWH to the domestic cult.
‘Many kyne and few that dothe for me’
Authors: Clark Nicola
Published: September 2018

Family relationships were the cornerstone of society, especially for women, whose time was often spent advancing their kin. But not every relationship between kin could be positive all of the time, and this is as true for women as for men. Noble dynasties are often presented either as a series of coherent family groups united in pursuit of shared goals, or, conversely, as disparate individuals as likely to fight as unite, and women are not always given space in these interpretations. Yet this need not be an either/or choice. While both these interpretations might be true under extraordinary circumstances, even the Howards did not live every moment under such intense pressures. This chapter examines the everyday relationships between the Howard women and their kin, arguing that the family were neither automatically united nor wholly disunited.
Introduction
Authors: Mackay Ronnie , Brookbanks Warren
Published: September 2018

Fitness to plead is an area of growing importance in most Western jurisdictions. It challenges the justification for criminalisation wherever a person’s mental capacity calls into question their ability to participate meaningfully in a trial. However, the doctrine has proven difficult to apply in practice, with many legislative models represented across the jurisdictions. How best to formulate rules for the fair trial of those with mental or physical incapacity and how to manage the issue of disposition following a finding of unfitness is a challenge in most countries. These and other issues are explored in this book through the insights of domestic and international scholars who are familiar with the law around unfitness to stand trial. This chapter broadly describes the fundamental parameters and human rights aspects of the fitness-to-plead doctrine, and concludes with a brief account of the essential elements of each chapter.
Involuntary Competence in United States Criminal Law
Authors: Morse Stephen J
Published: September 2018

This chapter explores all the stages in the United States criminal justice process in which a defendant or prisoner may become incompetent and a potential candidate for involuntary treatment to restore the subject’s competence, including competence to stand trial, competence to plead guilty and to waive trial rights, competence to represent himself, and competence to be sentenced. Other legal systems may treat this as primarily a mental health law question addressed best by mental health laws, but in the United States, it is a criminal law question, although some courts are very deferential to the judgement of mental health professionals. The chapter then surveys the law and offers a normative set of recommendations for when involuntary treatment is justified, as well as recommendations for the disposition of the subject if involuntary treatment is not justified or is unsuccessful.
Introduction
Authors: Preyer Gerhard
Published: September 2018

The study of meaning in language embraces a diverse range of problems and methods. Philosophers think through the relationship between language and the world; linguists document speakers’ knowledge of meaning; psychologists investigate the mechanisms of understanding and production. Up through the early 2000s, these investigations were generally compartmentalized: indeed, researchers often regarded both the subject matter and the methods of other disciplines with skepticism. Since then, however, there has been a sea change in the field, enabling researchers increasingly to synthesize the perspectives of philosophy, linguistics, and psychology and to energize all the fields with rich new intellectual perspectives that facilitate meaningful interchange. One illustration of the trend is the publication of Lepore and Stone’s ...
Calculability, Convention, and Conversational Implicature
Authors: Davis Wayne A.
Published: September 2018

I applaud the arguments in Lepore and Stone (2015) that Gricean, Neo-Gricean, and Relevance theories of conversational implicature and utterance interpretation are deeply flawed because the additional meanings speakers convey when using sentences are conventional rather than calculable. I then go on to rebut several conclusions Lepore and Stone endorse that do not follow: that there is no such thing as conversational implicature; that in figurative speech speakers do not mean anything beyond what the sentences they utter mean; that anything a speaker means is something the speaker directly intends and says; and that any meanings conveyed conventionally are given by the grammar or semantics of the language. Along the way, I argue that conventions are constituted by certain causal processes, not mutual expectations, and I distinguish two types of speaker meaning.
The ECOWAS Community Court of Justice
Authors: Ebobrah Solomon T.
Published: September 2018

This chapter examines whether the ECOWAS Community Court of Justice (ECCJ or Court), as an international court operating in the West African region with its peculiar sociopolitical and economic context, enjoys any form or degree of actual authority in any of its main functions. The ECCJ’s two contrasting epochs represent a variation in the authority of the Court. Whereas under its 1991 Protocol, the Court enjoyed limited de jure authority with little potential for growing its de facto authority, the 2005 Supplementary Protocol introduced expansions that increased the potential for enhanced de facto authority. Ultimately, the Court’s authority varies significantly both in terms of areas of competence, as among different court-users and in relation to wider communities in its State Parties. Arguably, these variations indicate that different factors influence the responses that the Court attracts from different user-groups.
The Inter-American Court of Human Rights
Authors: Huneeus Alexandra
Published: September 2018

This chapter seeks to explain why the impact of the Inter-American Court of Human Rights varies greatly across the different Latin American countries under its jurisdiction. Three case studies suggest that the uneven spread of constitutional ideas and practices across Latin America helps shape the type of authority the IACtHR exerts. In Colombia, where neoconstitutionalist lawyers were able to successfully ally themselves with reformers and participate in the construction of a new constitution and court starting in 1991, the Court now enjoys narrow, intermediate, and extensive authority. In Chile, where constitutional reform was muted, and neoconstitutionalist doctrines have not found strong adherents in the judiciary, the IACtHR has achieved narrow authority and, at times, intermediate authority. In Venezuela, neoconstitutionalism was sidelined as the new Bolivarian constitutional order was forged. Meanwhile, the Mexican case study suggests that the neoconstitutionalist movement can also work transnationally.
The European Court of Human Rights
Authors: Madsen Mikael Rask
Published: September 2018

This chapter studies the transformation of the authority of the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) since its genesis. It shows how the ECtHR, until the mid-to-late 1970s, struggled to maintain narrow legal authority. Both the Court’s caseload and civil society engagement changed fundamentally however throughout the late 1980s and the 1990s when the ECtHR gained intermediate and extensive authority in large parts of Europe. During this period, the Court became the de facto Supreme Court of human rights in Europe. Starting around 2000, the Court became increasingly overburdened. It was in the context that a number of member states launched a systematic critique of both the Court’s power over national law and politics and the quality of the Court’s judges and their judgments. This discontent climaxed with the 2012 Brighton Declaration, adopted by all forty-seven member states, which began an institutionalized process that aimed to limit the ECtHR’s power.
International Courts
Authors: Zürn Michael
Published: September 2018

This chapter discusses the core components of the meaning of authority in order to derive from each of them an argument directed at the framework chapter. This leads to three points indicating differences to the framework piece. First, while deference is constitutive for authority in a social relationship, a focus on commands seems too narrow to understand courts’ authority. Second, while distinguishing authority and legitimacy is advocated, this chapter argues that the framework chapter goes too far in pushing legitimacy outside of the conceptual framework. Third, by pointing to legitimation (as opposed to legitimacy) as an integral part of authority, the notion that one can say a lot about the determinants of authority by looking at contextual factors alone will be called into question. International institutions become effective only via a social process that produces both authority and legitimacy. Courts are an important party of this authority–legitimacy interaction.
International Courts’ De Facto Authority and its Justification
Authors: Venzke Ingo
Published: September 2018

This chapter argues that the framework chapter’s understanding of de facto authority above all fits the relationship between international courts (ICs) and the parties to a case. Questions arise when it comes to intermediate and extensive audiences. The way in which ICs exercise authority beyond any concrete dispute is, above all, due to the sway they hold over the legal discourse—their semantic authority. ICs have the capacity to establish content-laden reference points for legal discourse that other actors can hardly escape. The chapter also claims that the distinction of authority from persuasion should be maintained as a constitutive feature of both concepts. This is not only in line with a strong tradition of the authority concept, but also clarifies the legitimacy challenge.
Power or Authority; Actions or Beliefs
Authors: Follesdal Andreas
Published: September 2018

This chapter examines how the theoretical framework presented in this book fits with the substantive chapters. It argues that if the authors maintain their position about motivational agnosticism, they should reconsider whether “de facto authority” is the best label for the kind of impact of international courts (ICs) at various levels that concerns them. At times their claims seem to fit better with an aspiration to map the ICs’ power more generally. The chapter then questions the framework’s explicit bracketing of social legitimacy in the sense of actors’ beliefs about normative legitimacy. It concludes by suggesting one area for future research where scholarship on social and normative legitimacy may in fact be relevant to understand the politics and legitimation strategies of international courts with variable authority.
Getting to Sweden
Authors: Nistotskaya Marina , D’Arcy Michelle
Published: September 2018

This chapter argues that the roots of Sweden’s exceptional tax state lie in the early modern period. From c.1530 the state began monitoring economic activity and developing a direct vertical fiscal contract between the king and his subjects. The extensive data collected by the state, with the assistance of the newly reformed Church, facilitated fairness in the distribution of tax and conscription burdens and fostered a horizontal contract between subjects. With a free peasantry and a weak nobility, the state’s relationship with the peasantry was direct and unmediated. Furthermore, late industrialization preserved a tax structure and administration based on direct taxes that could easily adapt to the collection of modern taxes. Taken together, these factors explain how Sweden, over the course of 400 years, cultivated its fiscal capacity and strengthened the fiscal contract between ordinary taxpayers and the state.
Tax Collection without Consent
Authors: Volintiru Clara
Published: September 2018

This chapter examines tax collection in pre-modern Romanian provinces. Similar to the other case studies in this volume, legitimacy, the balance of powers, and administrative capacity influence greatly the fiscal and state-building process. Romanian rulers did not seek popular consent, nor did they actively engage in any form of social contract. Taxes were predominantly a burden imposed on behalf of neighboring foreign powers, or exploitative noblemen. Public goods and services were often provided by the Church. This chapter also explains some of the differences between the historical provinces. In the semi-periphery of the Ottoman Empire, fiscal collection was not a priority for the impoverished population, but rather the responsibility of patrimonial rulers. In contrast, social norms and institutional context encouraged fiscal compliance in the urban areas of Transylvania, where a nascent bureaucratic system provided the benefits of predictability and rule enforcement for tradesmen and guild workers.
Neurobiology
Authors: von Philipsborn Anne C.
Published: September 2018

Behavioral neurobiology aims at explaining behavior at the level of neurons and neuronal circuits, based on linking comparative anatomy, and the observation and manipulation of nervous system activity with animal behavior. The numerical simplicity and the presence of identified neurons in insect nervous systems make them outstanding model systems for neurobiology. The insect nervous system has a common ground plan with functionally specialized regions for sensory processing, integration, and motor control. In holometabolous species, the nervous system is restructured during metamorphosis to support new behavior. Different forms of plasticity allow for behavioral adaptations in the adult stage. Neuronal circuits for behavior in Drosophila melanogaster can be effectively analysed with genetic tools, as exemplified for courtship and mating behavior. Recent developments in connectomics and genome editing are expected to further behavioral neurobiology in a broad range of species and permit a comprehensive comparative approach to the neurobiology of behavioral ecology.
Phenotypic plasticity
Authors: Williams Karen D. , Sokolowski Marla B.
Published: September 2018

Why is there so much variation in insect behavior? This chapter will address the sources of behavioral variability, with a particular focus on phenotypic plasticity. Variation in social, nutritional, and seasonal environmental contexts during development and adulthood can give rise to phenotypic plasticity. To delve into mechanism underlying behavioral flexibility in insects, examples of polyphenisms, a type of phenotypic plasticity, will be discussed. Selected examples reveal that environmental change can affect gene expression, which in turn can affect behavioral plasticity. These changes in gene expression together with gene-by-environment interactions are discussed to illuminate our understanding of insect behavioral plasticity.
Parental care
Authors: Machado Glauco , Trumbo Stephen T.
Published: September 2018

Parental care is any parental trait that enhances the fitness of a parent’s offspring, and that is likely to have originated and/or be currently maintained for this function. How parental care evolves and which sex should care for the offspring are central questions in evolutionary biology. The theoretical bases to address these questions were proposed almost 45 years ago, but recent models have challenged classical foundations and proposed new hypotheses. An in-depth account of these models is beyond the scope of this chapter. Updated numbers for the taxonomic distribution and frequency of the different forms of post-ovipositional parental care in insects are provided. These numbers are used to construct hypotheses on the transitions between systems of care, the selective pressures that favoured the origin of care, and the evolution of male care and biparental care. Finally, gaps in our knowledge and indicate possible directions for future studies are empahsized.
Personality and behavioral syndromes in insects and spiders
Authors: Keiser Carl N. , Lichtenstein James L.L. , Wright Colin M. , Chism Gregory T. , Pruitt Jonathan N.
Published: September 2018

The field of animal behavior has experienced a surge of studies focusing on functional differences among individuals in their behavioral tendencies (‘animal personalities’) and the relationships between different axes of behavioral variation (‘behavioral syndromes’). Many important developments in this field have arisen through research using insects and other terrestrial arthropods, in part, because they present the opportunity to test hypotheses not accessible in other taxa. This chapter reviews how studies on insects and spiders have advanced the study of animal personalities by describing the mechanisms underlying the emergence of individual variation and their ecological consequences. Furthermore, studies accounting for animal personalities can expand our understanding of phenomena in insect science like metamorphosis, eusociality, and applied insect behavior. In addition, this chapter serves to highlight some of the most exciting issues at the forefront of our field and to inspire entomologists and behaviorists alike to seek the answers to these questions.
Cognition and learning
Authors: Dukas Reuven
Published: September 2018

The traditional view of insects, as driven primarily by instinct, has changed dramatically in the past few decades. It begins with a brief review of insects’ sophisticated cognition, defined as the neuronal processes concerned with the acquisition, retention, and use of information. Three illuminating examples that illustrate adaptive aspects of cognitive traits in the context of night vision, memory and antipredatory decisions are given. Most insects possess good individual learning abilities and learning is positively associated with insect fitness. While social learning has been instrumental in social insects’ lives, its prevalence and importance in other insect taxa is still unknown. The chapter concludes by highlighting promising topics for future investigation, including research on heritable variation in insect cognitive traits and its association with fitness, expertise development, social learning in non-social insects, and the role of emotion in guiding insect decisions.
Behavior-based control of arthropod vectors: the case of mosquitoes, ticks, and Chagasic bugs
Authors: Gutiérrez-Cabrera Ana E. , Benelli Giovanni , Walker Thomas , Antonio De Fuentes-Vicente José , Córdoba-Aguilar Alex
Published: September 2018

This chapter outlines the patterns and occurrences of major diseases transmitted by arthropod vectors, highlighting the need for behavior-based control strategies, first, focusing on mosquito control tools with an emphasis on how knowledge of mosquito behavioral ecology may help vector control programmes. The potential of sound traps, swarm manipulation, ‘lure and kill’, radiation, transgenicm and symbiont-based approaches will be outlined, and how mosquito behavior influences these vector control strategies. Secondly, tick control strategies, as well as pheromone-assisted tick control will be reviewed, with special reference to pheromone-assisted matrix for application to vegetation, tick decoy, bont tick decoy, and the deployment of confusants. Thirdly, how Chagasic bugs are traditionally controlled will be summarized. Also, we highlight emerging chemical-based attraction methods, employing bug pheromones, as well as the use of entomopathogens. This review is not a thorough one, as it should only instruct students on how to use arthropod behavior to control arthropod vectors.
Introduction
Authors: Carter J. Adam , Clark Andy , Kallestrup Jesper , Palermos S. Orestis , Pritchard Duncan
Published: September 2018

Between 2013 and 2016, Edinburgh’s Eidyn research centre hosted the AHRC-funded Extended Knowledge (AH/J011908/1) project (http://www.extended-knowledge.ppls.ed.ac.uk/). The papers presented in this volume are the direct or indirect products of workshops, conferences, and impact events held at the University of Edinburgh under that umbrella. The project’s main team consisted of the present editors, but the project itself comprised an international, interdisciplinary network spanning epistemology, philosophy of mind, cognitive science, cognitive and social psychology, computer science, Web science, and cybernetics. The goal was to provide, for the first time, a systematic exploration of the various ways of “externalizing” knowledge....