bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Chambers, Robert
Authors: Rehbock Philip F
Published: September 2006

1802

–

1871

Scottish

publisher

,

geologist

, and author of the controversial evolutionary treatise,
Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation
.
Cohn, Ferdinand Julius
Authors: Gradmann Christoph
Published: September 2006

1828

–

1898

German

botanist

, who developed many of the principal

concepts of modern bacteriology.
Cori, Carl Ferdinand
Authors: Watson Katherine D
Published: September 2006

1896–1984 Czech‐born (then Austria‐Hungary) American biochemist who carried out pioneering work on carbohydrate metabolism.
Theiler, Max
Authors: Wilkinson Lise
Published: September 2006

1899–1972 South African born research physician whose work culminated in the development of the yellow fever 17D vaccine, still the preferred method of immunization today.
Crick, Francis Harry Compton
Authors: Witkowski JA
Published: September 2006

1916

–

English

scientist

who, with James D. Watson, discovered

the double helical structure of DNA.
Tinbergen, Nikolaas
Authors: Burkhardt Richard W
Published: September 2006

1907–1988 Dutch‐born British biologist instrumental in establishing ethology as a scientific discipline.
Darwin, Francis
Authors: Browne Janet
Published: September 2006

1848–1925 British botanist and editor of his father Charles Darwin's letters and papers.
De Abreu Freire, Antonio Caetano (alias Egas Moniz)
Authors: Berrios GE
Published: September 2006

1874

–

1955

Portuguese

physician

,

diplomat

and

politician

who developed cerebral angiography and frontal lobectomy.
Moleschott, Jacob
Authors: Schickore J
Published: September 2006

1822–1893 Dutch physician and physiologist who developed a chemical theory of metabolism embedded in a framework of philosophical materialism.
Leeuwenhoek, Antoni van
Authors: Power Helen J
Published: September 2006

1632–1723 Dutch amateur scientist who ground his own lenses and whose microscopical studies made important contributions to knowledge about microorganisms and the structure of blood vessels and cells.
Villemin, Jean‐Antoine
Authors: Wilkinson Lise
Published: September 2006

1827

–

1892

French

physician

who in animal experiments demonstrated the transmissibility of tuberculosis against prevailing beliefs in heredity as the only determining factor.
Monod, Jacques Lucien
Authors: Fantini Bernardino
Published: September 2006

1910–1976 French molecular biologist who, with F. Jacob, introduced the ‘operon model’ of the regulation of cellular activity.
Virchow, Rudolf Carl
Authors: Bynum WF
Published: September 2006

1821

–1902

German

pathologist, reformer and man of science who

first systematically applied cell theory to the understanding of pathological processes

.
Morgagni, Giovanni Baptista
Authors: Nicolson Malcolm
Published: September 2006

1682–1771 Italian professor and physician who made many anatomical discoveries, was a pioneer of pathological anatomy and elucidated clinical diagnosis.
Hodgkin, Alan Lloyd
Authors: Tansey EM
Published: September 2006

1914

–

1998

English

physiologist

and

biophysicist

who

made fundamental discoveries about the mechanisms of nervous system activity and the conduction of nerve impulses.
Müller, Paul Hermann
Authors: Bynum WF
Published: September 2006

1899

–

1965

Swiss

chemist

whose

demonstration that 4,4′‐dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) was an effective residual insecticide revolutionized strategies aimed at the control of insect‐borne diseases

.
von Gaertner, Carl Friedrich
Authors: Browne Janet
Published: September 2006

1772–1850 German botanist and experimental hybridizer whose experiments on in‐ and outbreeding in order to define the stability of species were a prerequisite for Darwin's investigation into fertility.
Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von
Authors: Sosulski Michael J
Published: September 2006

1749

–

1832

German

poet

,

scientist

and

statesman

who

authored influential works on the morphology of plants and animals, as well as a theory of colours

that countered that of Isaac Newton.
Hooker, Joseph Dalton
Authors: Browne Janet
Published: September 2006

1817

–

1911

British

botanist

and

traveller

,

Director

of Kew Garden
Humboldt, Alexander von
Authors: Rupke Nicolaas A
Published: September 2006

1769–1859 German natural scientist who explored the equatorial Americas and laid the foundations of geobotany and meteorology.
Hunter, John
Authors: Bynum WF
Published: September 2006

1728–1793 British surgeon, anatomist and experimentalist who did much to raise the status of surgery and whose extensive collection of specimens formed the basis of the Hunterian Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons.
Huxley, Andrew Fielding
Authors: Tansey EM
Published: September 2006

1917

–

English

physiologist

and

biophysicist

who

made fundamental discoveries about the basic mechanisms of the nervous system, and how muscle fibres contract.
Warburg, Otto Heinrich
Authors: Coley Noel G
Published: September 2006

1883–1970 German biochemist and cell physiologist noted for studies of metabolic processes, enzymes and photosynthesis.
Watson, James Dewey
Authors: Witkowski JA
Published: September 2006

1928– American scientist who, with Francis Crick, discovered the double helical structure of DNA and went on to establish the Human Genome Project in the USA.
Pearson, Karl
Authors: Magnello ME
Published: September 2006

1857

–

1936

English

mathematician

and

statistician

who provided the foundation to the modern theory of mathematical statistics.
Prochaska, Georgius
Authors: Manuel Diana E
Published: September 2006

1749–1820 Moravian ‐born physician who worked in the universities of Prague and Vienna on anatomy and physiology. Through his work on reflex action he became the posthumous ‘victim’ of a charge of plagiarism against Marshall Hall.
Punnett, Reginald Crundall
Authors: Bowler Peter J
Published: September 2006

1875

–

1967

British

geneticist

who applied

Mendel's laws to animal breeding and to the study of evolution

.
Purkinje (Purkinyé), Jan Evangelista
Authors: Russell GA
Published: September 2006

1787–1869 Czech physiologist whose pioneering investigations made important contributions to areas ranging from visual perception, functional anatomy (brain and heart), histology, embryology, botany to pharmacology.
Ray, John
Authors: Allen David E
Published: September 2006

1627–1705 English divine who pioneered natural systems of classifying plants and animals.
Romanes, George John
Authors: Forsdyke Donald R
Published: September 2006

1848 – 1894 Canadian ‐born British research associate of Charles Darwin and a founder of evolutionary psychology, whose fundamental contributions to speciation theory were ignored for much of the twentieth century.
Ross, Ronald
Authors: Bynum WF
Published: September 2006

1857–1932 British doctor who elucidated the role of the mosquito in the transmission of malaria.
de Maillet, Benoît
Authors: Cohen Claudine
Published: September 2006

1656–1738 French amateur naturalist and libertine philosopher, author of the illicit treatiseTelliamed, one of the first transformist theories about the living world.
Maupertuis, Pierre Louis Moreau de
Authors: Lynn Michael R
Published: September 2006

1698

–

1759

French

savant

who defended

Newtonian physics and argued in favour of epigenesis

.
Descartes, René
Authors: Sutton J
Published: September 2006

1596–1650 French natural philosopherwhose mechanization of physiology was coupled with a speculative psychosomatic medicine.
Sharpey, William
Authors: Jacyna S
Published: September 2006

1802

–

1880

British

histologist

and

physiologist

known as the ‘Father of Modern Physiology in Britain’.
Sharpey‐Schafer, Edward Albert
Authors: Power Helen J
Published: September 2006

1850

–

1935

English

physiologist

, whose

early work in histology and embryology was eclipsed by his later research in endocrinology, particularly the suprarenal and pituitary extracts and internal secretions of the pancreas

.
Sherrington, Charles Scott
Authors: Magner Lois N
Published: September 2006

1857

–

1952

British

physiologist

who elucidated

the workings of the nervous system

.
Smith, Homer William
Authors: Bynum WF
Published: September 2006

1895

–

1962

American

renal physiologist

whose research

contributed much to modern understanding of the functions of the kidneys in health and disease

.
Spemann, Hans
Authors: Horder Tim
Published: September 2006

1869–1941 German embryologist who, through his technical finesse and masterly design of experiment, exemplified the pinnacle of achievement of classical experimental embryology; his work culminated in the discovery of the amphibian embryonic organizer.
Koch, Heinrich Hermann Robert
Authors: Gradmann Christoph
Published: September 2006

(1843–1910) German medical bacteriologist, who supplied the principal tools, methods and theories of bacteriological hygiene and established the bacterial aetiology of various infectious diseases.
Koelreuter, Joseph Gottlieb
Authors: Browne Janet
Published: September 2006

1733–1806 German botanist and plant experimentalist who carried out pioneering investigations into plant fertilization.
Du Bois‐Reymond, Emil Heinrich
Authors: Gradmann Christoph
Published: September 2006

1818–1896 Prussian ‐German physiologist who developed physical methods for research in electrophysiology.
Krebs, Hans Adolf
Authors: Coley Noel G
Published: September 2006

1900–1981 German ‐born British biochemist noted for the elucidation of metabolic pathways, especially the citric acid cycle.
Lavoisier, Antoine Laurent
Authors: Coley Noel G
Published: September 2006

1743–1794 French chemist, economist and public servant, architect of the eighteenth‐century chemical revolution.
Linnaeus, Carl (Linné)
Authors: Browne Janet
Published: September 2006

1707–1778 Swedish naturalist whose classification scheme became the basis of modern taxonomy
Macleod, John James Richard
Authors: Herrick Claire EJ
Published: September 2006

1876–1935 Scottish physiologist who helped to isolate insulin.
Feldberg, Wilhelm Siegmund
Authors: Tansey EM
Published: September 2006

1900–1993 British neuropharmacologist who worked with Sir Henry Dale in establishing that synaptic transmission in the nervous system has a chemical basis. His later work elucidated the mechanisms by which many drugs act on the central nervous system.
Magendie, François
Authors: Albury WR
Published: September 2006

1783–1855 French medical figure of the early nineteenth century who was one of the founders of experimental physiology and pharmacology.
Flourens, Marie Jean Pierre
Authors: Olry Régis
Published: September 2006

1794–1867 French anatomist and physiologist who clarified some important functions of the brain, cerebellum and medulla.
Medawar, Peter Brian
Authors: Manuel Diana E
Published: September 2006

1915–1987 Brazilian‐born British biologist who furthered the science of immunology and who was awarded the Nobel Prize for work on acquired immunological tolerance and its importance to tissue transplantation.
Hippocrates of Cos
Authors: Nutton V
Published: September 2006

c
460
BC
–
c
370
BC
Greek physician and medical teacher.
Foucault, Michel
Authors: Armstrong David
Published: September 2006

1926–1984 French philosopher–historian–sociologist who made a major contribution to the understanding how Man became an object of study in the natural and social sciences.
Golgi, Camillo
Authors: Mazzarello P
Published: September 2006

1843–1926 Italian doctor who developed the first method to stain a nerve cell in its entirety, discovered the Golgi apparatus of the cell, described the intraerythrocytic cycle of the malaria parasitePlasmodiumin humans, and identified the Golgi tendon organs.
Haeckel, Ernst Heinrich Philipp August
Authors: Di Gregorio Mario A
Published: September 2006

(1834–1919) German zoologist who elaborated a complex view of evolution based on the concept that ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny and a whole worldview called Monism.
Haldane, John Burdon Sanderson
Authors: Forsdyke Donald R
Published: September 2006

1892–1964 British polymath, popularizer, educator, biochemist and geneticist, who cofounded mathematical population genetics.
Hench, Philip Showalter
Authors: Herrick Claire EJ
Published: September 2006

1896–1965 American physician, who demonstrated the value of cortisone in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis.
Johannsen, Wilhelm Ludwig
Authors: Roll‐Hansen Nils
Published: September 2006

(1857–1927) Danish biologist, theoretician and experimentalist, who clarified the basis of classical genetics and its relation to evolution by introducing the concepts of gene, genotype and phenotype.
Kammerer, Paul
Authors: Gratzer Walter
Published: September 2006

(1880–1926) Austrian biologist, noted, until discredited, for his work on the inheritance of acquired characteristics.
Mayr, Ernst Walter
Authors: Cain Joe
Published: September 2006

(1904–) German‐born American ornithologistwith major impacts on evolutionary theory and
systematics in the twentieth century; also tireless campaigner for the importance of biogeography, systematics and the study of organisms when
biology seemed increasingly reductionist.
Roux, Wilhelm
Authors: Gradmann Christoph
Published: September 2006

1850–1924 German anatomist who did fundamental work in experimental embryology, for which he coined the concept of developmental mechanics (Entwickelungsmechanik).
Lewis, Thomas
Authors: Hollman Arthur
Published: September 2006

(1881–1945) British doctor who did pioneer work in electrocardiography, cardiology, pain, and blood vessels of the skin and who founded the Medical Research Society.
Jenner, Edward
Authors: Baxby Derrick
Published: September 2006

(1749–1823) English physician, surgeon and naturalist who introduced smallpox vaccination in 1798.
Meyerhof, Otto Fritz
Authors: Parascandola John
Published: September 2006

(1884–1951) German–American biochemist noted for his work on the biochemistry of muscle contraction.
Cell Culture Contamination
Authors: Gollin Susanne M
Published: September 2006

Cell cultures are very important in laboratory biomedical sciences research. Culture
in vitro
facilitates analysis of cells in a controlled environment, minimizes morbidity and mortality of human, animal or plant subjects, and enables replicate studies over long periods of time. The main difficulty with cell cultures is their propensity to contamination, whether by microbes or stray cells from other cultures in the laboratory.
Cell Differentiation
In Vitro
: Model Systems
Authors: Studzinski George P
Published: September 2006

Because conditions of culture
in vitro
cannot be identical to those in the living system, cell lines cultured
in vitro
are referred to as ‘model systems’. Not all cell types are capable of differentiation
in vitro
. Procedures for studying differentiation in model systems depend on the type of culture that can be employed. Techniques employed include liquid suspension cultures, monolayer cultures and complex culture systems involving semisolid matrices or liquid overlay methods. Such
in vitro
culture techniques have applications to the study of differentiation in basic research and clinical applications.
Cell Senescence
In Vitro
Authors: Rattan Suresh IS
Published: September 2006

Cell senescence
in vitro
refers to the physiological, structural, biochemical and molecular changes that occur in normal cells during their limited lifespan in laboratory conditions.
Cytotoxicity Assays
Authors: Pagé Michel
Published: September 2006

Drug development and screening of natural products for their cytotoxicity require methods that are reliable, rapid, sensitive and economic. The growth of mammalian cells in microplates is used to monitor the cytotoxicity of potentially active compounds.
Cell Cycle: Synchronization at Various Stages
Authors: Tate Sharon , Ko Ferrigno Paul
Published: September 2006

Progression through, and exit from, the cell cycle are tightly coupled processes that are key to the development and health of multicellular organisms. Synchronization is a technique commonly used to enrich cell populations at a single cell‐cycle stage, enabling the study of cell‐cycle‐specific regulation.
Physarum
Cell Culture
Authors: Kohama Kazuhiro , Nakamura Akio
Published: September 2006

Physarum
cell cultures have proved valuable for biochemical research due to the ease with which they can be grown. They have been widely used for studies on cell motility.
Plant Cell Culture
Authors: Smith Roberta H
Published: September 2006

Plant cell culture is a broad term applied to a wide range of techniques involving plant parts cultured on an artificial nutrient medium under a controlled culture environment.
Retrovirus Culture
Authors: Butera Salvatore T
Published: September 2006

To successfully isolate and propagate retroviruses, several critical aspects of viral tropism and replication must be considered. Issues related to viral growth can be quite varied among the retroviral family members and dictate the establishment of appropriate culture conditions.
Plasma Membranes: Methods for Preparation
Authors: Jergil Bengt , Ekblad Lars
Published: September 2006

All cells are contained within plasma membranes, which have important functions in the cell's relation with its surroundings. Plasma membranes can be purified from different kinds of tissues and cells in order to study their structure and function.
Endocytic Organelles: Methods for Preparation
Authors: Fialka Irene , Huber Lukas A
Published: September 2006

A variety of techniques has been established for the preparation of endocytic organelles. Methods include the homogenization of cells, the isolation of endosomes by density centrifugation, electromigratory techniques, immunoisolation and flow cytometry as a developing technique.
Peroxisomes: Methods for Preparation
Authors: Völkl Alfred , Fahimi H Dariush
Published: September 2006

Peroxisomes are ubiquitous cell organelles which are particularly enriched in mammalian liver and kidney. They contain oxidases producing hydrogen peroxide and catalase which degrades it. Their main functions are in the metabolism of complex lipids such as bile acids, leucotrienes and prostaglandins. Peroxisomes can be isolated by classical density gradient centrifugation methods and by more recent immunochemical techniques.
Synaptic Vesicles: Methods for Preparation
Authors: Floor Erik
Published: September 2006

Synaptic vesicles are small organelles that store and release neurotransmitters at synapses. They can be purified from brain or other sources to study their structure and function.
snRNPs: Methods for Purification
Authors: Kastner Berthold
Published: September 2006

Small nuclear ribonucleoprotein particles (snRNPs) are essential cofactors for the nuclear splicing of pre‐mRNA introns. The method best suited to the purification of snRNPs is affinity chromatography combined with competitive elution.
DNA: Methods for Preparation
Authors: Ling Michael Mingfu
Published: September 2006

The isolation of DNA is required for genetic analysis and genetic engineering. There are primarily two types of method for isolating genomic DNA: (i) proteinase K digestion in the presence of SDS and EDTA at temperatures between 50 and 60°C; (ii) the use of strong chaotropic reagents such as guanidinium chloride. The trend is towards methods that are amenable to high‐throughput screening and automation.
Cell Invasion Assays
Authors: Holst‐Hansen Claus , Frandsen Thomas Leth , Brünner Nils
Published: September 2006

Cell invasion assays have been developed for quantitative study under well‐established
in vitro
conditions of the ability of cultured cells to penetrate biological barriers such as artificial basement membrane.
Cotranslational Translocation of Proteins into Microsomes: Methods
Authors: Pool Martin , Dobberstein Bernhard
Published: September 2006

Translocation of secretory and membrane proteins through the membrane of the endosplasmic reticulum involves a signal sequence on the nascent protein, a cytosolic receptor system and a translocation channel (translocon). The process can be reconstituted using a protein synthesizing system and rough microsomes derived from the endoplasmic reticulum of eukaryotic cells.
Protein Sorting During Endocytosis: Methods
Authors: Fabbri Monica , Pardi Ruggero
Published: September 2006

Endocytosis in eukaryotic cells is a regulated array of several complex processes and is involved in many cellular activities. The quantitative biochemical assay described herein integrates the qualitative results obtained with the morphological techniques previously used to study endocytosis. A method based on use of a biotinylated reagent that binds covalently to proteins and is cleavable by reducing agents at 4°C allows study of the molecular mechanisms involved and the structural requirements for protein sorting.
Endoplasmic Reticulum to Golgi Transport: Methods
Authors: Allan Bernard B , Weissman Jacques T , Balch William E
Published: September 2006

Newly synthesized cargo proteins translocated into the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) are incorporated into small vesicular carriers that mediate transport to the Golgi, via pre‐Golgi intermediates along microtubule tracks.In vitroassays allow for the examination of factors that are required for and/or regulate the budding of vesicular carriers from the ER and the subsequent fusion of these vesicles with the Golgi.
Mitochondria Protein Import: Methods
Authors: Ryan Michael T
Published: September 2006

The main biochemical approach for analysing protein import into mitochondria is to perform an
in vitro
import assay by incubating a radiolabelled precursor protein with isolated mitochondria.
Protein Import into Endoplasmic Reticulum: Methods
Authors: Morrow Michael W , Brodsky Jeffrey L
Published: September 2006

Nascent secretory proteins and integral membrane proteins must translocate into the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). The regulation of translocation remains ill‐defined. Post‐translational translocation into the yeast ER can be measured using ER‐derived microsomes or reconstituted proteoliposomes and as the substrate the mating pheromone precursor prepro‐alpha factor.
Indirect Immunofluorescence of Cultured Cells
Authors: Fritschy Jean‐Marc , Härtig Wolfgang
Published: September 2006

Immunofluorescence is an immunoassay for the detection of specific cellular constituents using antibodies conjugated to a fluorochrome. Indirect immunofluorescence refers to a two‐step procedure, whereby the target‐specific, primary antibodies are applied unlabelled and are detected with fluorochrome‐conjugated secondary antibodies. Its main applications are identification and localization of cell components by fluorescence microscopy, and automated identification, sorting and quantification of fluorescent cells by flow cytometry.
Cell Staining: Fluorescent Labelling of the Endoplasmic Reticulum
Authors: Terasaki Mark
Published: September 2006

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) performs functions of protein and lipid synthesis and calcium regulation. Under optimal conditions, its complex structure of interconnected tubules and cisternae can be imaged by high‐resolution light microscopy. Immunofluorescence methods, which are useful in many situations, usually destroy the delicate ER structure during fixation and permeabilization.
Cell Staining: Fluorescent Labelling of the Golgi Apparatus
Authors: Dejgaard Kurt
Published: September 2006

The Golgi apparatus can be fluorescently labelled in living cells either by a fluorescent dye, by microinjection of fluorescently conjugated antibodies to exposed Golgi epitopes, or by tagging Golgi‐resident enzymes or exocytic cargo of cells transfected with the appropriate constructs linked to green fluorescent protein (GFP). Such approaches have helped study the Golgi apparatus as well as the dynamics of cargo transport through the exocytic pathway.
Phase Contrast Microscopy
Authors: Sanderson Jeremy B
Published: September 2006

Phase contrast microscopy is a method that enables us to see very transparent objects, which are otherwise almost invisible by ordinary light microscopy, in clear detail and in good contrast to their surroundings. This is achieved optically, without altering the specimen by staining or other processing.
Morphometrics
Authors: Bookstein Fred L
Published: September 2006

Morphometrics is the quantitative summary of size and shape differences among organisms and their components.
Microinjection into
Xenopus
Oocytes
Authors: Sigel Erwin
Published: September 2006

Microinjection of genetic information into the
Xenopus
oocyte leads to the functional expression of proteins. The oocyte is a major expression system used in membrane protein structure–function studies.
Gene Transfer and Expression in Tissue Culture Cells
Authors: Gromov Pavel S , Celis Julio E
Published: September 2006

Gene transfer and expression in cultured mammalian cells comprise a complex of techniques to introduce and express novel genetic material in a variety of eukaryotic cell types in an effort to examine the possible effect of its activity on intracellular processes.
Mouse Knockouts
Authors: Mansouri Ahmed
Published: September 2006

Mouse knockout is the modification of the mouse genome by using the technique of homologous recombination in embryonic stem cells. Knockout mice may serve to elucidate gene function, give new insights into normal and pathological processes and provide animal models for human genetic diseases.
Nuclear Transfer from Established Cell Lines
Authors: Wells David
Published: September 2006

The production of cloned animals following nuclear transfer using differentiated somatic cells grown in culture represents a remarkable aspect of developmental biology. In addition to the exciting opportunities for research there are many future practical applications in the fields of agriculture, conservation and medicine. Realizing these potentials will require a greater understanding of ‘nuclear reprogramming’, whereby the pattern of gene expression in somatic cells is reset to that at the zygotic state, enabling development to proceed.
Drosophila melanogasterGermline Transformation
Authors: Atkinson Peter W , Michel Kristin
Published: September 2006

Ptransposable elements as well as five other transposable elements can be used to efficiently transformDrosophila melanogaster. ThePelement in particular has facilitated the isolation of genes and the determination of gene and promoter function in this important genetic model organism.
Peptide Mapping
Authors: Judd Ralph C
Published: September 2006

Peptide mapping is a technique for comparing protein primary structures and determining surface‐exposed sites or epitopes within proteins. It can be adapted to obtain internal protein sequences.
Ion Exchange Chromatography
Authors: Sheehan David , O'Sullivan Siobhan
Published: September 2006

Ion exchange chromatography is a method for separating complex mixtures on the basis of differing tendencies of individual charged molecules (ions) to exchange with like‐charged species bound by electrostatic attraction to groups immobilized on a stationary phase. It is especially suitable for purification of proteins as their net charge may be altered by varying pH.
Hydrophobic Interaction Chromatography
Authors: Jennissen Herbert P
Published: September 2006

Hydrophobic interaction chromatography involves the separation of protein molecules owing to the differential interaction of these molecules with hydrophobic sites on the surface of a solid support. In the separation process, hydrophobic patches on the protein interact with hydrophobic molecules (e.g. alkyl residues) immobilized on the hydrophilic solid phase surface (agarose).
Capillary Electrophoresis
Authors: Righetti Pier Giorgio
Published: September 2006

Capillary zone electrophoresis is a separation technique that uses narrow‐bore (10–100 μm) fused‐silica capillaries, which reduces joule heating and increases heat dissipation, and allows the use of very high electric fields (100–500 V cm
−2
). The use of high electric fields produces short analysis times with high efficiency and high resolution.
Chromatofocusing
Authors: Frey Douglas D , Narahari Chittoor R , Bates Ronald C
Published: September 2006

Chromatofocusing is a form of gradient elution chromatography performed using an ion‐exchange column packing and an internally generated pH gradient that travels through the column as a retained pH front.
Gel Electrophoresis: One‐dimensional
Authors: Chrambach Andreas
Published: September 2006

Gel electrophoresis in a single direction of migration is termed ‘one‐dimensional’. It is presently the most widely used mode of gel electrophoretic separation.
Gel Electrophoresis of Proteins: High‐resolution Two‐dimensional
Authors: Celis Julio E , Gromov Pavel S
Published: September 2006

The technique of high‐resolution two‐dimensional gel electrophoresis separates proteins according to both isoelectric point and molecular weight, giving it unsurpassed resolving power.
Autoradiography and Fluorography
Authors: Gromov Pavel S , Celis Julio E
Published: September 2006

Radioactive compounds are used to detect and monitor labelled cellular components by imaging on photographic emulsion in contact with the sample. In direct autoradiography, emissions from high‐energy radioisotopes directly affect the emulsion. In indirect autoradiography, a fluorescent intensifying screen produces photons that affect the emulsion; and in fluorography the emulsion detects photons produced when radioactive emissions interact with an added scintillant and the techique can use low‐energy emitters.
Protein Identification: Overlay Procedures
Authors: Gromov Pavel S , Celis Julio E
Published: September 2006

The protein blot overlay assay is a powerful technique for identifying proteins transferred to an immobilizing matrix. It is based on the specific binding of labelled ligands with proteins of interest blotted onto the membrane, followed by detection of the complexes formed.
Transcription and Translation
In Vitro
Authors: Tymms Martin J
Published: September 2006

In vitro
transcription–translation provides the means to synthesize proteins rapidly from a DNA template sequence. Using polymerase chain reaction, DNA templates can be generated rapidly from any coding sequence and protein produced without the use of time‐consuming protein expression systems using living cells.
Permeabilized mammalian cell systems for protein synthesis
Authors: Bulleid Neil J
Published: September 2006

The use of semipermeabilized cells allows complex intracellular processes such as protein translocation, folding, assembly, glycosylation, disulfide bond formation and degradation to be studied in a system amenable to experimental manipulation. The ability to manipulate the translated protein means that the affect of changing the primary amino acid sequence on folding and assembly can be rapidly assessed.
Solid‐phase Peptide Synthesis: Fmoc
Authors: Yang Chi C
Published: September 2006

Synthetic peptides are increasingly important in biochemical, pharmacological, neurobiological, enzymological and molecular biological research. Use of Fmoc as temporary amino‐protecting group allows solid‐phase peptide synthesis with a milder acid cleavage process. Other advances in the ligation approach provide further potential for peptide synthesis.
Titration and pH Measurement
Authors: Jennings Patricia A , Mullen Christine A
Published: September 2006

Titration is the gradual addition of measured amounts of one solution to another until the reaction between them is complete. Titration of an acid with a base requires that the pH, or relative concentrations of the two reactants, be monitored.
Enzymology Methods
Authors: Copeland Robert A
Published: September 2006

Enzymes are important catalysts throughout biology and are now being applied to chemical synthesis. Methods for analysing these catalysts through steady‐state kinetics are described, along with application of these methods to studies aimed at altering and/or inhibiting specific enzyme reactions.
Centrifugation Techniques
Authors: Rickwood David
Published: September 2006

Centrifugation is the use of the centrifugal forces generated in a spinning rotor to separate biological molecules primarily on the basis of either their size or their density.
Chromatographic Techniques
Authors: Lewis Alastair C
Published: September 2006

Chromatography achieves the physical separation of components in a mixture for either analytical or preparative purposes, based on the unique degree of interaction between each component and the separating medium. Spanning a vast range of application areas, chromatography is probably one of the most commonly used laboratory techniques.
Chromosomes: Methods for Preparation
Authors: Pack Svetlana D , Stratakis Constantine A
Published: September 2006

Visualization of the genome is possible within a short time frame during a cell division, the metaphase stage. Chromosomes can be arrested, fixed and used for the analysis.
Protein Kinases: Physiological Roles
Authors: Woodgett James Robert
Published: September 2006

Protein kinases play multiple roles in cells and act as the primary messenger enzymes that coordinate cellular responses to the environment.
Protein Motifs for DNA Binding
Authors: Xu Hang , Morrical Scott W
Published: September 2006

Protein–DNA interactions play a central role in directing the flow of genetic information and in the control of life itself. Research has demonstrated that many DNA‐binding proteins belong to distinct families containing common structural motifs.
Base Flipping
Authors: Cheng Xiaodong , Roberts Richard J
Published: September 2006

Base flipping involves rotation of backbone bonds in double‐stranded DNA to expose an out‐of‐stack base, which can then be a substrate for an enzyme‐catalysed chemical reaction. The phenomenon is fully established for DNA methyltransferases and for several key DNA repair enzymes, and is likely to prove general for enzymes that require access to unpaired, mismatched or damaged bases.
Macromolecular Structure Determination: Comparison of Crystallography and
NMR
Authors: Guss J Mitchell , King Glenn F
Published: September 2006

The two techniques used to define the three‐dimensional structures of biological macromolecules at or near to atomic resolution are X‐ray crystallography and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR). These techniques are based on different physical principles, and may be applicable to different systems, but they often yield complementary results.
Crystallization of Proteins and Protein–Ligand Complexes
Authors: McPherson Alexander
Published: September 2006

Many factors affect the crystallization of macromolecules such as proteins; whether it occurs at all, the rate of crystallization, and the quality of the product. Crystallization conditions are optimized by various techniques that allow one to screen as many combinations of parameters as possible, based on previous experience wherever possible.
X‐ray Diffraction: Principles
Authors: Drenth Jan
Published: September 2006

The properties of biological macromolecules cannot be fully understood without knowledge of their three‐dimensional structure. For mutation of proteins and for rational drug design it is essential to know the three‐dimensional structure. X‐ray diffraction is one technique for structure determination. It requires the macromolecules to be present in a well‐organized arrangement as crystals or as fibres; amorphous material does not provide sufficient information.
Macromolecular Structure Determination by X‐ray Crystallography
Authors: Jaeger Joachim
Published: September 2006

X‐ray diffraction is a well‐established method to elucidate the atomic structure of single‐crystal macromolecules. An image of the macromolecule forming the crystal cannot be directly recorded as the X‐ray phase information is lost during the diffraction experiment. Through systematic variation of the chemical content in the crystal and/or through small changes in the wavelength of the incident X‐ray beam, however, a sharp image can be reconstituted computationally. Within the Protein Data Bank, the vast majority of three‐dimensional structures available have been determined using X‐ray diffraction. These structures are used to correlate macromolecular structure with function, to study molecular mechanisms and serve as templates for structure‐based drug design of novel therapeutic agents for the treatment of many diseases.
Adanson, Michel
Authors: Lagueux Olivier
Published: September 2006

1727

–

1806

French

botanist

and explorer who

devised a classification system based on natural series

.
Alder, Kurt
Authors: Watson Katherine D
Published: September 2006

1902

–

1958

German

organic chemist

, one of the discoverers of the Diels–Alder reaction.
Anfinsen, Christian Boehmer
Authors: Brock WH
Published: September 2006

1916

–

1995

American

biochemist

and Nobel Prize winner who related the

biological activity of enzymes to amino acid sequences and their conformation

.
Arber, Werner
Authors: Brock WH
Published: September 2006

1929

–

Swiss

molecular geneticist

and Nobel Prize winner who discovered

restriction enzymes

.
Axelrod, Julius
Authors: Brock WH
Published: September 2006

1912

–

American

pharmacologist

and Nobel Prize winner

who elucidated the chemical mechanism of neural transmission

.
Bischoff, Theodor Ludwig Wilhelm
Authors: Lohff B
Published: September 2006

1807

–

1882

German

anatomist and physiologist

who

worked on

embryology, ontogenesis, evolutionary theory and the law of biogenesis

.
Bloch, Konrad Emil
Authors: Brock WH
Published: September 2006

1912

–

German

‐born

American

biochemist

and Nobel Prize winner who worked on the

biosynthesis of cholesterol

.
Bovet, Daniel
Authors: Canali Stefano
Published: September 2006

1907

–

1992

Swiss

‐born

Italian

physiologist

and

pharmacologist

who

discovered the antihistamine drugs

.
Brown, Michael Stuart
Authors: Witkowski JA
Published: September 2006

1941

–

American

scientist

who, with Joseph Goldstein,

elucidated the molecular mechanisms of cholesterol synthesis

and the clinical consequences of their abnormalities.
Brown, Herbert Charles
Authors: Watson Katherine D
Published: September 2006

1912

–

English‐born

American

chemist

who opened the field of organoborane chemistry.
Chargaff, Erwin
Authors: Forsdyke Donald R
Published: September 2006

1905 – Austrian ‐born American biochemist whose discovery of the equality in quantity between certain bases in DNA (Chargaff's first parity rule) led to the Watson–Crick model .
Conklin, Edwin Grant
Authors: Cooke Kathy J
Published: September 2006

1863

–

1952

US

biologist

who laid substantial groundwork for the understanding of

embryonic development and developmental biology through cell lineage studies

.
Curie, Pierre
Authors: Watson Katherine D
Published: September 2006

1859

–

1906

French

physicist

who discovered piezoelectricity and was a pioneer in the study of

radioactivity

.
Du Vigneaud, Vincent
Authors: Anderson Raymond G
Published: September 2006

1901

–

1978

American

biochemist

whose extensive

work on sulfur‐containing compounds of biological importance included the synthesis of the peptide hormone oxytocin

.
Eccles, John Carew
Authors: Herrick Claire EJ
Published: September 2006

1903

–

1997

Australian

neurophysiologist

, renowned for his work on the nature of

synaptic transmission

.
Finsen, Niels Ryberg
Authors: Herrick Claire EJ
Published: September 2006

1860

–

1904

Danish

physician

and

pioneer of the therapeutic use of concentrated light rays

.
Fleming, Alexander
Authors: Quirke Viviane
Published: September 2006

1881

–

1955

British

bacteriologist

, whose early

study of penicillin

won him the Nobel Prize for Physiology and Medicine in 1945, alongside Howard Florey and Ernst Chain.
Flexner, Simon
Authors: Herrick Claire EJ
Published: September 2006

1863

–

1946

American

pathologist

and first Director of the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research.
Florey, Howard Walter
Authors: Quirke Viviane M
Published: September 2006

1898

–

1968

Australian

pathologist

who in 1945 shared the Nobel Prize for Medicine with Alexander Fleming and Ernst Chain for

developing penicillin

.
Flory, Paul John
Authors: Watson Katherine D
Published: September 2006

1910

–

1985

American

polymer chemist

who made fundamental contributions to the

study of macromolecules

.
Garrod, Archibald Edward
Authors: Power Helen J
Published: September 2006

1857

–

1936

British

physician‐scientist

whose work on

human biochemical individuality, expressed as rare inherited diseases, linked the emerging disciplines of biochemistry and genetics in the 1910s

.
Gray, Asa
Authors: Power HJ
Published: September 2006

1810

–

1888

American

botanist and botanical taxonomist

who

collaborated in producing the
Flora of North America
and became the leading promoter of Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection in the United States

.
Guillemin, Roger Charles Louis
Authors: Brock WH
Published: September 2006

1924

–

French

‐born

American

endocrinologist

and Nobel Prize winner who

discovered the releasing hormone of hypothalamus

.
Harden, Arthur
Authors: Watson Katherine D
Published: September 2006

1865

–

1940

English

biochemist

known for his study of the

alcoholic fermentation of sugars

.
Hassel, Odd
Authors: Watson Katherine D
Published: September 2006

1897

–

1981

Norwegian

chemist

who contributed to the development and application of the

principles of conformation in chemistry

.
Hertwig, Wilhelm August Oscar
Authors: Laubichler MD
Published: September 2006

1849

–

1922

German

cell biologist

who was the first to observe the

fusion of male and female nuclei during fertilization.
Hill, Archibald Vivian
Authors: Power HJ
Published: September 2006

1886

–

1977

English

physiologist

noted for his work on

the thermodynamics of muscle fibres

.
Hinshelwood, Cyril Norman
Authors: Shorter John
Published: September 2006

1897

–

1967

British

physical chemist

who made

notable contributions to chemical kinetics.
Hopkins, Frederick Gowland
Authors: Carpenter KJ
Published: September 2006

1861–1947British biochemistwho made important contributions to the discovery of vitamins and was a pioneer of dynamic biochemistry.
Huber, Robert
Authors: Watson Katherine D
Published: September 2006

1937– German biochemist who solved the crystal structure of a membrane‐bound protein essential to photosynthesis.
Huggins, Charles Brenton
Authors: Martensen Robert L
Published: September 2006

1901–1997 Canadian/ American physician who invented hormonal therapy of cancer.
Hunter, William
Authors: Bynum WF
Published: September 2006

1718–1783 Scottish anatomist and male midwife who pioneered anatomy teaching in London.
Jerne, Niels Kaj
Authors: Cruse JM , Lewis RE
Published: September 2006

1911–1994 Danish immunologist who proposed a selection theory of antibody formation, the functional network of antibodies and lymphocytes and distinction of self from nonself by T lymphocytes.
Joliot‐Curie, Irène
Authors: Power Helen J
Published: September 2006

(1897–1956) French nuclear physicist and chemist, who with her husband Frédéric Joliot, discovered artificial radioactivity. They shared the 1935 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.
Kendall, Edward Calvin
Authors: Power Helen J
Published: September 2006

1886–1972 American biochemist whose particular focus was endocrinology (thyroid and adrenal cortex).
Kendrew, John Cowdery
Authors: Perutz Max
Published: September 2006

1917–1997 English chemist and molecular biologist who built the first atomic model of a protein molecule.
Klug, Aaron
Authors: Morgan Gregory J
Published: September 2006

1926– Lithuanian‐born South African – British crystallographer who developed crystallographic electron microscopy and elucidated the structure of tRNA, the nucleosome and the zinc‐finger DNA‐binding domain.
Köhler, Georges JF
Authors: Cruse JM , Lewis RE
Published: September 2006

1946–1995 German immunologist who, with Cesar Milstein, perfected the hybridoma technique of preparing monoclonal antibodies against specific antigen.
Kornberg, Arthur
Authors: Coley Noel G
Published: September 2006

1918–1997Americanbiochemist who devised the artificial enzymatic synthesis of DNA.
Kuhn, Richard
Authors: Watson Katherine D
Published: September 2006

1900–1967 Austrian ‐born German chemist known for his work on carotenoids and vitamins.
Lederberg, Joshua
Authors: Morange Michel
Published: September 2006

(1925–) Joshua Lederberg, American microbiologist, winner of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1958, played a major role in the creation and development of bacterial genetics.
Lehn, Jean‐Marie
Authors: Bostanci Adam
Published: September 2006

1939– French chemist who initiated supramolecular chemistry as a field experimental investigation.
Loeb, Jacques
Authors: Sankaran Neeraja
Published: September 2006

1859–1924 German ‐born physiologist best known for his work on artificial parthenogenesis in animals.
Leuckart, Karl Georg Friedrich Rudolf
Authors: Power HJ
Published: September 2006

1822–1898 German zoologist who made major contributions to comparative anatomy and classification of invertebrates, and helped establish the formal study of parasitology.
Levi‐Montalcini, Rita
Authors: Russell GA
Published: September 2006

1909– Italian physician who discovered and isolated a critical chemical substance that promotes growth and development of nerve cells, now known as the nerve growth factor (NGF).
Libby, Willard Frank
Authors: Watson Katherine D
Published: September 2006

1908–1980 American chemist who developed the radiocarbon dating technique used to determine the age of organic materials.
Loewi, Otto
Authors: Magner Lois N
Published: September 2006

1873–1961 German physiologist and pharmacologist who discovered the chemical transmission of nerve impulses; he became an American citizen in 1946.
Marcus, Rudolph Arthur
Authors: Watson Katherine D
Published: September 2006

1923– Canadian‐born American physical chemist who developed the theory of electron‐transfer reactions in chemical systems.
Marsh, Othniel Charles
Authors: Kneeland Timothy W
Published: September 2006

1831–1899 American vertebrate palaeontologist whose fossil excavations shaped the popular understanding and scientific study of dinosaurs and early mammals.
McClintock, Barbara
Authors: Comfort Nathaniel
Published: September 2006

1902–1992 American geneticist who established maize cytogenetics and discovered genetic transposition.
Meckel, Johann Friedrich, the Younger
Authors: Lohff B
Published: September 2006

1781–1833 German anatomist, pioneer of pathological anatomy and teratology, who built up an important anatomical collection in Halle.
Milstein, Cesar
Authors: Cruse JM , Lewis RE
Published: September 2006

1927–2002 Argentinian molecular biologist who, with Georges Köhler, perfected the technique of monoclonal antibody production from hybridomas.
Minot, George Richards
Authors: Herrick Claire EJ
Published: September 2006

1885–1950 American physician responsible for the development of liver therapy as a treatment for pernicious anaemia.
Mitchell, Peter Dennis
Authors: Brock WH
Published: September 2006

1920–1992 British biochemist and Nobel prize winner who developed the chemiosmotic theory of energy transfer.
Munk, Hermann
Authors: Russell GA
Published: September 2006

1839–1912 Prussian physiologist whose pioneering experimental investigation of localization of function in the cerebral cortex influenced subsequent brain research in anatomy, physiology, pathology and psychology.
Nathans, Daniel
Authors: Witkowski JA
Published: September 2006

1928–1999 American scientist who used restriction enzymes to map genes in DNA.
Nernst, Walther Hermann
Authors: Shorter John
Published: September 2006

1864–1941 German chemist, whose heat theorem came to be known as the third law of thermodynamics; one of the pioneers of the new discipline of physical chemistry.
Nirenberg, Marshall Warren
Authors: Park BS , Harden VA
Published: September 2006

1927– American scientist who deciphered the genetic code in living cells.
Northrop, John Howard
Authors: Brock WH
Published: September 2006

1891–1987 American biochemist and Nobel Prize winner who prepared enzymes and virus proteins in pure form.
Perutz, Max Ferdinand
Authors: Coley Noel G
Published: September 2006

1914–2002 Austrian‐born British biochemist who determined the structure of the oxygen‐binding protein haemoglobin by X‐ray diffraction analysis.