bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Cognitive and Psychological Side Effects of Antiepileptic Drugs
Authors: Eva Brückner Katja
Published: November 2020

Among well-known side effects such as dizziness, nausea, headache and diplopia medical treatment of epilepsy may cause side effects on cognition, mood and behavior. In special constellations this can profoundly affect compliance with the medication as well as quality of life. Some patients are more vulnerable to side effects than others. Side effects can have profound impact on the development and future life of a patient. Some antiepileptic drugs (e.g. topiramate, zonisamide) show a more severe side effect profile than others (e.g. lamotrigine, levetiracetam). Thus, in the treatment of epilepsy, it is crucial to consider such possible side effects – especially in the beginning of or while changing the medical treatment. Specific neuropsychological examinations can monitor side effects on cognitive functions like concentration, memory or speech function. If this is not possible in an ambulant setting, specific screening instruments and repeated and precise interviews of patients and/or relatives can help to discover potential side effects. Because most side effects can be reversible, dosage modification or drug replacement is required as soon as incompatibilities are discovered.
Origin and Fundamentals of Perovskite Solar Cells
Authors: Quasim Khan Mohd , Ahmad Khursheed
Published: November 2020

In the last few decades, the energy demand has been increased dramatically. Different forms of energy have utilized to fulfill the energy requirements. Solar energy has been proven an effective and highly efficient energy source which has the potential to fulfill the energy requirements in the future. Previously, various kind of solar cells have been developed. In 2013, organic–inorganic metal halide perovskite materials have emerged as a rising star in the field of photovoltaics. The methyl ammonium lead halide perovskite structures were employed as visible light sensitizer for the development of highly efficient perovskite solar cells (PSCs). In 2018, the highest power conversion efficiency of 23.7% was achieved for methyl ammonium lead halide based PSCs. This obtained highest power conversion efficiency makes them superior over other solar cells. The PSCs can be employed for practical uses, if their long term stability improved by utilizing some novel strategies. In this chapter, we have discussed the optoelectronic properties of the perovskite materials, construction of PSCs and recent advances in the electron transport layers for the fabrication of PSCs.
Thin Film Stabilization of Different VO2Polymorphs
Authors: Kumar Manish , Saharan Chirag , Rani Sunita
Published: November 2020

In recent years, VO2 has emerged as a popular candidate among the scientific community across the globe owing to its unique technological and fundamental aspects. VO2 can exist in several polymorphs (such as: A, B, C, D, M1, M2, M3, P, R and T) which offer a broad spectrum of functionalities suitable for numerous potential applications likewise smart windows, switching devices, memory materials, battery materials and so on. Each phase of VO2 has specific physical and chemical properties. The device realization based on specific functionality call for stabilization of good quality single phase VO2 thin films of desired polymorphs. Hence, the control on the growth of different VO2 polymorphs in thin film form is very crucial. Different polymorphs of VO2 can be stabilized by selecting the growth route, growth parameters and type of substrate etc. In this chapter, we present an overview of stabilization of the different phases of VO2 in the thin film form and the identification of these phases mainly by X-ray diffraction and Raman spectroscopy techniques.
Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis for Beta Thalassemia
Authors: Khordadpoor Deilamani Faravareh , Akbari Mohammad Taghi
Published: November 2020

Background: Beta thalassemia is an autosomal recessive genetic disease with the symptoms of severe anaemia, ineffective erythropoiesis and bone deformities. Preimplantation genetic diagnosis is a noninvasive clinical tool for couples who are at risk of affected pregnancy to have a healthy child. Objectives: Here we report a PGD test for a couple who were heterozygous for CD36/37(-T) mutation in HBB gene and had terminated one affected pregnancy. Methods: Haplotype analysis of 6 flanking STR markers as well as variant detection by cycle sequencing were included in our PGD test in order to investigate the status of the embryos reliably. Results: Three out of five embryos were transferable. Conclusions: One normal and one carrier embryo were transferred which resulted in the singleton pregnancy and the birth of a healthy girl.
A Political a priori?
Authors: Adler Yuval ,   DePaul University
Published: November 2020

This essay speculates on how variations in political attitudes—and in particular differences in perceptions of, and reactions to, the COVID-19 pandemic—might in fact be rooted in variations in our a priori conceptions of the thing and our understandings of the place of the human in the world.
УТИЦАЈ ПРОЦЕСА МОДЕРНИЗАЦИЈЕ НА ЈАПАН
Authors: ВАСИЋ Љубица М.
Published: November 2020

Често су се у визуелном облику представљале разлике између модерног историјског искуства Јапана и Кине, посебно у вези са одговорима ових двеју земаља на западни империјализам у 19. веку.   Научници јапанске и кинеске историје проблематизују претпоставке од 1960-их. Уствари, ове претпоставке су толико темељно критиковане да, бар када говоримо или пишемо другим научницима, можда се чини сувишним давати аргументе против њих. Ипак, оне упорно трају међу научницима. Овај рад ће, дакле, говорити широј публици о томе зашто су ове претпоставке проблематичне и о томе како можемо да предајемо о критичном тренутку историје источне Азије о коме говоре разноврсни пројекти - одговор на западни империјализам, превасходно Јапана, у деветнаестом веку.
LIGHT CHAIN MULTIPLE MYELOMA: A CASE REPORT
Authors: Moideen Shamsudeen , V Maheshwari , Prabhu Raghuveer
Published: November 2020

Light chain multiple myeloma (LCMM) initiates approximately 15 percentage of patients with multiple myeloma (MM). It has a lower prognosis when compared with the variant immunoglobulin (Ig) G or IgA. We report a rare case on Light chain multiple myeloma in 49-year-old male patient who presented with acute kidney injury, hypercalcemia. histopathology examination was found to be plasmacytoma, kappa restricted; and free kappa lamda chain in urine and serum was found to be greater. Bone pain and renal dysfunction were the most common prevalent initial signs and symptoms while extramedullary disease (EMD) was later acquired during disease. Bortezomib demonstrated superior efficacy over nonbortezomib in LCMM patients.
PREPARATION, CHARACTERIZATION AND OPTIMIZATION OF PRONIOSOMAL GEL OF ANTI-INFLAMMATORY AGENT
Authors: Lekkala Vamshi Krishna , Subramanian N Siva , Gupta K Srikanth
Published: November 2020

Proniosomal gel of anti-inflammatory agent (Diclofenac Sodium) was developed using two different non – ionic surfactants (Span 60 and Span 40) with an objective to develop stable, robust, controlled release gel of diclofenac sodium as it has short half-life and narrow therapeutic index. Various proniosomal gels were developed using different concentration of nonionic surfactants and one formulation was selected as optimized formulation based on the size, shape and % entrapment efficiency. FS603 was selected as an optimized formulation and was characterized further for zeta potential and stability and was found as stable at both refrigerated and room temperatures. No edema and erythema were observed in rats treated with formulation FS603 for four days and skin irritation index found as zero. In vivo anti-inflammatory activity with optimized formulation was carried out in rats against marketed preparation using carrageenan induced rat paw method and shown greater % inhibition of inflammation and extended period when compared with marketed preparation.
Proximate, Mineral and Vitamin Content of Flesh, Blanched and Dried Tomatoes (Lycopersicon esculentum)
Authors: Ahmed Mashi Jamila , Iya Idris Ramatu , Dogara Markus Faith
Published: November 2020

The experiment was aimed at comparing the effect of preservation methods on proximate, vitamins and mineral composition of fresh, blanched and dried tomatoes.  The tomatoes samples were divided into three; fresh, blanched and dried tomatoes.

The research was conducted at the Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Basic Medical Science, Bayero University, Kano, between the month of February 2019 and August 2019. The Proximate Composition was determined using AOAC methods (1975), the Vitamins were determined by (Pearson Chemical methods, 1970), and Minerals using (Atomic Absorption Spectro-photometer).The results of this research revealed the Blanched tomatoes has significant  higher (P=.05) percentage moisture (77.58±2.71), however it has the least percentage composition of Crude Protein and Carbohydrate. The fresh tomatoes has the higher  composition of crude fibre (17.00±1.87) and crude protein (1.78± 0.13) as compared with the other two samples at (P=.05), while the dried sample has the higher percentage composition of crude fat and Carbohydrate, (8.34±0.84) and (21.77±2.02) at (P=.05) respectively. Vitamin A and lycopene content were found to be significantly higher (P=.05) in Dried tomatoes, with Vitamin C content of blanched tomatoes been significantly higher (P=.05). Mineral analysis indicates that sodium, magnesium, calcium, copper and lead has no significant difference in all the three samples.

Conclusion: This study reveals that dried tomatoes are also a good source of Vitamin A, lycopene and other nutrients.
Study of the Variation of Some Biochemical Parameters in Rattus norgevicus
Authors: Okou Obou Constantin , Akré Djako Sosthène Thierry , Bleu Gomé Michel , Ehounou Assandé Francis , Bidié Alain Dit Philippe
Published: November 2020

The biochemical assessment in animals is of capital interest to define the diagnosis of many diseases. The variation of biochemical parameters (urea, glycemia, creatinemia, transaminases: GPT and GOT, total cholesterol, HDL-c, LDL-c, triglycerides and total lipids) is an indicator of the state of health of certain vital organs such as the kidney, liver, pancreas, veins, heart, etc... . For this study, to be able to determine the normal values of the rats, a set of batches of male and female Wistar rats was formed and acclimatized for 2 months. Each batch set consisted of thirty-nine (39) rats. Each rat was weighed and then sampled by venipuncture at the caudal level to collect their blood in a dry tube (red). The red tube was used to determine the biochemical parameters. The results of this study showed that some animals already had certain pathologies before the use of any beneficial or harmful substance on them. However, most of the animals used have normal biochemical parameters revealing the good state of their various vital functions (kidney, liver, heart, veins, pancreas, etc.). These values of determining standard biochemical parameters can form a basis for future tests.
Variational and Topological Methods for a Class of Nonlinear Equations which Involves a Duality Mapping
Authors: Cringanu Jenica
Published: November 2020

The purpose of this paper is to show the existence results for the following abstract equation Jpu = Nfu,where Jp is the duality application on a real reflexive and smooth X Banach space, that corresponds to the gauge function φ(t) = tp-1, 1 < p < ∞. We assume that X is compactly imbedded in Lq(Ω), where Ω is a bounded domain in RN, N ≥ 2, 1 < q < p∗, p∗ is the Sobolev conjugate exponent.Nf : Lq(Ω) → Lq′(Ω), 1/q + 1/q′ = 1, is the Nemytskii operator that Caratheodory function generated by a f : Ω × R → R which satisfies some growth conditions. We use topological methods (via Leray-Schauder degree), critical points methods (the Mountain Pass theorem) and a direct variational method to prove the existence of the solutions for the equation Jpu = Nfu.
Molecular Detection of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. Cubense Race TR4 Infecting Banana Groups in Indo-Gangetic Plains of India
Authors: Rana Debashis , Ghorai Ankit Kumar , Pramanik Krishnendu , Das Arpita , Banerjee Joydeep , Misra Dilip Kumar , Oraon Uday Bikash
Published: November 2020

Panama wilt or Fusarium wilt incited by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense (Foc) is a major threat for banana cultivation and impacting symbolic economic losses worldwide. Previously Foc race 1 and race 2 was detected in India which eventually spread monoculture of ‘Cavendish’ bananas resistant against these two races. Later on, another new race TR4 of Foc was detected to be incited in ‘Cavendish’ group of banana raised an alarming situation to the global banana industry. In the present study detailed survey was conducted in popular banana growing districts of West Bengal, India for visualizing the impact of disease incidence as well as collection of isolates from infected suckers and rhizomes of ‘Cavendish’ banana with an aim to develop a rapid detection technique for apprehending the presence of Foc TR4 race at early infection stages. Methods comprised of field survey followed by isolation of pathogen, test of pathogenicity and further molecular detection through Foc TR4 specific primers. Results revealed that the colonies formed on the potato dextrose agar (PDA) medium exhibited typical characteristic of Foc. Pathogenicity test conducted by considering healthy plantlet of ‘Grand Naine’ also detected characteristic symptom of Foc. Additionally, PCR assay using specific markers followed by sequencing of 28S-18S ribosomal RNA intergenic spacer spacer (IGS) confirmed the presence of this isolate in the infected samples. Phylogenetic evolution assays revealed a very close relationship of the Foc TR4 strains of India with Asia-Pacific isolates of Foc TR4. This study advocated the urgency of prevention of introduction of Foc TR4 into disease-free areas in the banana growing districts of India for maintaining sustainable banana production.
Studies on the Physicochemical Effects of pH, Sulphate and Zinc Concentrations on the Water Samples in Nsukka Town, Enugu State of Nigeria
Authors: Ndefo J. C. , Joshua P. E. , Arazu A. V. , Okagu I. U. , Nnamani V. I. , Obeta J. N. , Cosmas S.
Published: November 2020

Most of our water resources are gradually becoming polluted due to the addition of foreign materials from the surroundings. These include organic of plant and animal origin, land surface washing, and industrial and sewage effluents. The problem of environmental pollution due to toxic metals has begun to cause concern now in most major metropolitan cities. Nsukka environs have been plagued with perennial problem of water supplies round the year and a better understanding of its water physicochemically status will help to address this daunting problem and issues of human health. The analysis carried out was on the utility water supplies in Nsukka area. Thirteen sampling areas consisting of four boreholes, six dug wells and three springs were chosen for this research work. A total of 26 water samples were taken from the sampling areas during the dry season and another 26 samples during the wet season. Water samples were collected from these sampling areas and refrigerated at 4°C for processing. Concentration of zinc was determined in each sample by spectrophotometric method. Harch Model C50 digital multi-range meter was used to measure the pH. Chemical parameter such as sulphate was also determined by spectrophotometric method. Bacteriological analysis of the water samples was carried out to ascertain whether there was faecal contamination by the use of multiple tube/most probable number techniques. Sulphate concentration of water sample from spring sources increased significantly (p<0.05) during dry season iiwhen compared with that of wet season. No significant difference (p>0.05) exists in the concentration of zinc compared to all other test samples.
Studies on Physico-chemical and Organoleptic Properties and Economic Analysis of Guava-sapota (Psidium guajava-Achrus zapota) Blended Cheese
Authors: Ruksana Syed Poola , Mishra S.
Published: November 2020

The present experiment was carried out during April 2019 to July 2019 in the Post Harvest Laboratory of the Department of Horticulture, SHUATS, Prayagraj (India). The experiment was conducted in Completely Randomized Design (CRD), with eleven treatments and three replications. The treatments were T0 (Guava pulp 100% (Control)), T1 (Guava pulp 90% + Sapota Pulp 10%), T2 (Guava Pulp 80% + Sapota Pulp 20%), T3 (Guava Pulp 70% + Sapota Pulp 30%), T4 (Guava Pulp 60% + Sapota Pulp 40%), T5 (Guava Pulp 50% + Sapota Pulp 50%) , T6 (Guava Pulp 40% + Sapota Pulp 60%) , T7 (Guava pulp 30% + Sapota Pulp 70%), T8 (Guava pulp 20% + Sapota Pulp 80%), T9 (Guava pulp 10% + Sapota Pulp 90%) and T10 (Sapota Pulp 100%). The main objectives of the research is to standardize the proportion of guava and sapota pulp for Guava-Sapota blended cheese, in order to improve physico-chemical properties, organoleptic characteristics and shelf-life of the product, within an affordable economics. From the present investigation it is found that treatment T5 (Guava Pulp 50% + Sapota pulp 50%) was superior in respect of the parameters Total Soluble Solids (74.75°Brix), Acidity (0.40%), pH (5.27%), Ascorbic acid (83.72 mg/100 g), Reducing Sugar (3.93%), Non-Reducing Sugar (5.75%) and Total Sugar (9.07%). In terms of organoleptic properties like Colour and Appearance (8.52), Flavour and Taste (8.47), Texture (8.60) and Overall Acceptability (8.65) T5 was found best. In terms of cost benefit ratio, the highest net return (325.50/-) and Cost Benefit Ratio (1:2.08) were found in T5 (Guava Pulp 50% + Sapota pulp 50%). Hence, T5 was found superior based on above parameters.
The Therapeutic Potential of Time-Restricted Fasting on Experimental Ulcerative Colitis
Authors: Ige Serah Funke , Okanlawon Idowu Adebola , Adio Oluwatomiwa Toby , Ojoye Oluwatosin Funmi
Published: November 2020

Aim: Intermittent fasting have been reported to have beneficial effect, in that it improves gut microbiota and lowers inflammation. This research is, however, targeted at evaluating the healing effects of fasting on ulcerative colitis in rats.

Study Design: A total of eighteen Wistar rats were used for this study, and were divided into three major groups; animals that were neither induced with colitis nor fasted (group 1), animals with colitis and were allowed to fast (group 2), animals with colitis but were not allowed to fast (group 3).

Place and duration of study: Department of Physiology, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Ogbomoso, Oyo State, between March, 2020 and July, 2020

Methodology: The weight of the 18 animals used was 180 ± 20 g. Colitis was induced by a single dose of intra-rectal administration of 1mL/100g body weight of 6% acetic acid. Animals in group 1 served as control animals. Animals in group 2 were only given access to food between 4:00 p.m and 6:30 p.m, whereas animals in group 3 were given food and water ad libitum. Animals were sacrificed ten days post colitis induction. Colonic levels of Tumor necrotic factor-alpha (TNFα), Glutathione (GSH) concentration, Superoxide dismutase (SOD), Catalase (CAT) and Myeloperoxidase (MPO) activities were measured. The blood glucose level in the animals was also recorded by the use of a glucometer.

Results: There was a reduction in the concentration of TNFα and GSH, an increase in CAT and SOD activities in the colitis animals that were allowed to fast when compared with colitis animals that were not allowed to fast, ten days post colitis induction. There was also the lowering of blood sugar level, all signifying the beneficial effect of fasting on chemically-induced colitis. Thus, intermittent fasting helped the animals to heal from chemically-induced colitis.
Antifungal Activity of Fruit Extracts of Azadirachta indica on Germination, Infection, Rotten Seeds and Abnormal Rice Seedlings from Chad Republic
Authors: Noumbo G. R. Tsopmbeng , Signaboubo Serferbe , Roger Kuiate Jules
Published: November 2020

Aim: Test the effect of Azadirachta indica fruit extract on seed-borne fungi and seed performance of different rice varieties.

Study Design: Neem fruits harvested in the locality of Pala in Chad were used to assess the antifungal effect on rice seeds. Samples of eight rice varieties (TOX, CH3, CH8, WITA9 D6, D4, D3 and D1) were collected in Bongor, Chad to assess their performance against the aqueous extract of neem fruits.

Place and Duration of Study: This study was carried out at the Research Unit of Phytopathology and Agricultural Zoology of the Faculty of Agronomy and Agricultural Sciences of the University of Dschang/Cameroon from June to October 2018.

Methodology: Rice seeds were dipped in Azadirachta indica extract at concentrations of T25 (25 mg/ml), T50 (50 mg/ml) and T75 (75 mg/ml) for 1 hour before being incubated in petri dishes containing blotting paper. Distilled water (T0) and mancozeb 80 WP (TMn1 mg/ml) were used as negative and positive controls respectively.

Results: The results showed that the germination rate from rice seeds treated with Azadirachta indica extract was better (97.14%) than the rate from the negative controls (82.53%). The infection rate of rice seedlings, the number of rotten seeds and the number of abnormal seedlings were significantly (P =.05) lower for Azadirachta indica extract treatments than for the negative control (T0).

Conclusions: Neem (Azadirachta indica) fruit extract has a bio-fungicidal potential and a bio-stimulator of rice seed germination. This extract of Azadirachta indica fruit can be used to improve rice cultivation.
Alignment and Affiliation
Authors: Goebel Zane
Published: November 2020

Various approaches to the study of language in social life use different terms to refer to similar phenomena. While this entry introduces the meanings of “orient,” “align,” “alignment,” and “affiliation,” the focus will be on “role alignment” and “belonging” because they cover both talk‐in‐interaction and mass‐mediated communicative practices. Role alignment refers to the use of signs to inhabit, model, and evaluate figures of personhood, while belonging refers to explicit claims of community membership.
Bright, William O.
Authors: Miller Laura
Published: November 2020

William O. Bright (1928–2006) was a prolific writer whose research interests spanned numerous Native American and South Asian languages. He excelled as an editor, most notably for the journalLanguage, which he edited for 22 years.
Brown, Roger
Authors: Khor Su Yin
Published: November 2020

Roger Brown (1925–1997) was an American psychologist whose work contributed to the understanding of child development and, in particular, child language acquisition. He received his degree in psychology, and later started his academic journey at Harvard University in 1952 as an instructor in social psychology, before going to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). He spent five years at MIT before he returned to Harvard in 1962 as professor in social psychology. Brown's work on children's language development, specifically first language acquisition, motivated research on both first and second language acquisition in children and adults.
Conversational Maxims and Conversational Implicature
Authors: Zentz Lauren
Published: November 2020

Grice's theory of the “cooperative principle” (CP) includes the two key concepts of conversational implicature and conversational maxims. Implicature can simply be understood as what is unsaid but still meant in a given utterance. The four maxims that Grice delineates are the rules that must be obeyed in a conversation in order for communication to succeed. When speakers obey the CP in an interaction, they cannot feasibly state everything that they intend to say, and thus, Grice claims, they flout, or disobey, various maxims in order to implicate to their interlocutors the full extent of what they really mean. In linguistic anthropology, these ideas have generally been taken up as a statement of a culture‐specific ideology of how language works in interaction. Many have therefore taken it upon themselves to explore, in interaction, how conversational rules and “understoods” happen in specific conversational moments using real conversational data.
Dispute
Authors: Valldejuli Luis Galanes
Published: November 2020

This entry reviews the multiple links that connect language to disputes, as they have been explored in the linguistic anthropological literature. It also traces the deep philosophical roots of contemporary anthropological debates and approaches to language and dispute, beginning with Kant's and Hume's discoveries of “nonsensical” statements and “merely verbal” disputes. Competing views of language as either a tool or an obstacle, a “bridge” or “barrier,” for the resolution of disputes will tend to divide the academic community. Moreover, both philosophical and anthropological reflections on language will evidence a gradual shift from a view of language as “bridge” to a view of language as “barrier” for the resolution of disputes. The entry finally explores trends in contemporary linguistic anthropological research and literature on use of language in dispute‐ridden contexts.
Face
Authors: Nozawa Shunsuke
Published: November 2020

In the study of language and culture, the idea of face has carved out at least three “spaces” of analytic concern. First, languages across the world possess numerous idiomatic expressions featuring “face.” In addition to this (i)
cultural‐idiomatic space
provided and reproduced through ethnolinguistic traditions, face also constitutes (ii)
analytic‐metalinguistic space
generated as part of a universal metalanguage of analysis. Over and above these spaces is the “literal” (sur)face of humans, animals, objects, and other materializable existents, (iii)
material‐semiotic space
of embodiment, inscription, defacement, effacement, and other socioculturally consequential semiotic events.
Ferguson, Charles
Authors: Stanlaw James
Published: November 2020

Charles Ferguson (1921–1998) was a pioneer founder of the field of sociolinguistics in the 1960s. His notion of “diglossia” has been one of the most often‐cited and influential concepts in all of linguistics and anthropology.
Folk Taxonomies
Authors: Occhi Debra J.
Published: November 2020

Folk taxonomy is a methodology aiming to construct nested categories of entities by exploring relationships between them with local consultants within the cultural group of interest. Defining kinship and other social relationships and categorizing local fauna via ethnobotany are two areas within which folk taxonomy research has been especially fruitful. The latter has continued as a strong area of research interest both within and outside academia. Folk taxonomy is currently identified with cognitive studies, both in cognitively influenced cultural linguistics and as part of a toolkit referred to broadly as cognitive domain analysis.
Forms of Talk
Authors: Reynolds Jennifer F.
Published: November 2020

“Forms of talk” reflects a 1960s‐era interdisciplinary regrouping of approaches to the study of language use within the social sciences and humanities. Scholars in anthropology, folkloristics, sociology, and sociolinguistics rallied around “talk” and forms of “speaking” as conceptual emblems to expand the range of phenomena that fell within the purview of language sciences during a period when North American linguists were restricting their scope to purely formal linguistic cognitive phenomena. “Talk” in particular implied reflexive action whereas “speech” often denoted unconscious linguistic behavior. Likewise, humans were reframed as active social actors instead of passive human subjects. Among the most influential scholars from that time was sociologist Erving Goffman. A volume of his essays was published as
Forms of Talk
. The ideas and frameworks contained therein still animate lively interdisciplinary debates and figure in analyses of enregistered voices and remediated genres and frameworks for participation in systems of mass‐mediated communication.
Inflection, Grammatical
Authors: Stanlaw James
Published: November 2020

Grammatical inflections are morphemes – often affixes – that, when connected to a stem, can express certain grammatical categories and “agree” with other words in a sentence.
Person, Grammatical
Authors: Stanlaw James
Published: November 2020

Grammatical person refers to the formal means available in a language to distinguish speakers, addressees, and others.
Questions and Interrogatives
Authors: Park Song Hee , Hepburn Alexa
Published: November 2020

Conversation analysts distinguish between the terms “interrogative” and “question.” Interrogative is a grammatical term describing the syntactic form of a turn at talk. “Question” describes the type of action – requesting information – that a speaker can do. From a conversation analytic perspective, questions project a relevant next action in the form of a response, for which the answerer is accountable. The design of a question can set an agenda and embody presuppositions and assumptions about the states of affairs referenced by the question. Question design can also encode the relative states of knowledge of questioner and questioned parties. The grammatical form of questions can project or “prefer” an expected kind of response, sometimes irrespective of the action preference carried by the question.
Reichard, Gladys
Authors: Stanlaw James
Published: November 2020

From the early 1930s Gladys Reichard (1893–1955) was one of the most important anthropologists and linguists studying the Navaho, the largest Native American population in the United States. She was among an early group of female anthropologists who had a major impact on early and mid‐twentieth‐century Southwestern ethnography and linguistics.
Reported Speech and Represented Speech
Authors: Rumsey Alan
Published: November 2020

All languages haveindexicalwords and/or grammatical categories (e.g. “I,” “you,” “this,” “that,” the past tense marker ‐ed) for grounding speech in the situation where it is being used. All languages also have ways of representing another speech situation within the immediate one through the use ofreported speech. Its most basic form, which is found in all languages, isdirect discourse, in which the indexical grounding of the reported utterance is imported into the reporting one (e.g. “He said ‘I'll go’”). Many languages also have forms ofindirect discourse, in which the indexical grounding is shifted to that of the reporting speech situation (e.g. “He said he would go”). Often the shift is only partial, resulting in intermediate varieties between direct and indirect. There is alsofree indirect discourse, in which the speaker represents the speech of another without any explicit indication of that fact. Free indirect discourse shades off into the more general phenomenon of “voice,” which has been much explored by linguistic anthropologists under the influence of Michael Bakhtin. Here I present examples of all these phenomena in various languages of the world and relate them to other aspects of culture and social life.
Sign Languages
Authors: Brenier Laura Davies
Published: November 2020

This entry provides a look at various topics pertaining to sign languages, including a history of ASL in the United States and its rightful place among natural languages. ASL, British Sign Language, Black ASL, and two attempts to create an international sign language are briefly discussed. Tactile Signing, an umbrella term for a number of methods for signed communication among Deafblind people, is also described. Next, 10 sign language writing systems are outlined. Finally, the concepts of a Deaf culture and Deaf identity in the United States are discussed along with the role that ASL plays. To conclude, a few ethnographies are suggested as further reading.
Sociolinguistics
Authors: Johnstone Barbara
Published: November 2020

Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationships between language and the social contexts in which it is used. Sociolinguistics got its start in the 1960s, when scholars from various disciplines came together to talk about language as a social phenomenon. The four main strands of research that resulted were interactional sociolinguistics, language variation and change, conversation analysis, and the sociology of language. The entry touches on the core concerns and major figures associated with each.
Translation
Authors: Schram Ryan
Published: November 2020

Unlike many philosophers of language and scholars of translation, linguistic anthropologists see translation practices as both ubiquitous and necessary to communication, and one of many different kinds of metalinguistic capacities that all languages must possess. The anthropological study of translation has attended to what particular societies' ideas about translation reveal about their ideological conception of linguistic difference and its relation to other kinds of difference. In general, classical conceptions of translation as the conveyance of intended meaning also involve the alienation of language from its speakers and its conditions of use. Such formal translations thus exist in contradiction with the implicit kinds of translations and other metalingual operations found in bilingualism and pidgin languages.
Human Language, Unique Features of
Authors: Kegl Judy Anne
Published: November 2020

This entry examines unique features of human language from a modern vantage point where innately human instincts for language are now more widely recognized than they were when structuralists viewed language as more of a social and behavioral phenomenon. In 1961, Joseph Greenberg brought together researchers in structural linguistics, anthropology, psychology, and philosophy to a conference focused on universals of language. Charles Hockett had just published his work on the design features of language and Eric Lenneberg was in the initial stages of his work on the biological bases of language that would lead to current theories of critical periods for language. Unique features of human language are reconsidered in the light of subsequent research including identification of naturally occurring signed languages that contribute to a modality‐independent perspective on language universals, further insights regarding the biological bases of language, and developments in syntactic theory focusing on universal linguistic constraints on hierarchical structures.
Volition
Authors: Khor Su Yin
Published: November 2020

Volition refers to the intentionality of an action, and specifically whether the subject or the agent intended the action or not. It is marked linguistically in a language and there is no universal way of marking volition. In addition, it can be expressed by, for example, using adverbs, grammatical morphemes in the form of affixes, or case markings.
Von Frisch, Karl
Authors: Stanlaw James
Published: November 2020

Until his death, Karl von Frisch (1886–1982) was the world's most renowned authority on honeybees and their means of communication. He is remembered for his discovery of the bees' “waggle dance,” whereby a bee can communicate to others the location and quality of pollen and water sources.
Whorf, Benjamin Lee
Authors: Stanlaw James
Published: November 2020

Benjamin Lee Whorf (1897–1941) was one of the co‐founders, with Edward Sapir, of the notion of “linguistic relativity” (sometimes called the Sapir–Whorf Hypothesis): the idea that a language influences the way its speakers see the world. Though largely dismissed by many linguists, at least in its stronger forms, this claim has had a lasting impact in both cultural and linguistic anthropology.
Word Order, Grammatical
Authors: Stanlaw James
Published: November 2020

Grammatical word order refers to the arrangement of words (or clauses) in a sentence, and the degree to which they are relatively fixed or not.
Language and Social Justice
Authors: Piller Ingrid
Published: November 2020

Social justice is the overcoming of injustice. Linguistic injustice manifests as linguistic subordination and as the restriction of access to social goods through language. Linguistic subordination is based in the fact of linguistic diversity and means that some linguistic repertoires and their speakers are denied parity of recognition. Restriction of access to social goods such as education, employment, healthcare, or welfare works through institutions. Institutions tend to operate relatively rigid language regimes that place a double burden on those whose linguistic repertoires deviate from those of the institution. This pattern is illustrated with reference to schools as one example. To overcome linguistic injustice, language must be recognized as a mechanism of exclusion and institutions need to be tasked with the responsibility to ensure equitable access irrespective of the linguistic background of the individual.
Semantic Differential
Authors: Stanlaw James
Published: November 2020

The semantic differential is a psychometric technique invented by Charles Osgood to analyze the emotional reactions people have to lexical items by using a bipolar adjective scale, usually graded between one and seven, indicating the intensity of their feelings.
Linguistic Landscape
Authors: Bender Margaret
Published: November 2020

Linguistic landscape (LL) labels a highly fruitful interdisciplinary discourse on visible language and the ways in which written language articulates with the social and physical public landscapes in which it appears. Linguistic landscapes consist most obviously of publicly visible signs (street, commercial, informational, etc.) but the context has extended to other meaningful elements of public space, sometimes with the broader label of semiotic landscape. This work initially focused on diverse urban contexts, but it has since come to include rural and monolingual contexts as well. The focus on linguistic landscapes has facilitated the extension of many central topics in linguistic anthropology into public physical spaces. These topics include indexicality, voice, language ideology, linguistic hierarchy, language revitalization, entextualization, multimodality, linguistic geography, globalization, the materiality of language, semiotic mediation and mediatization, chronotopic phenomena, the cultural contingency of literacy, and the nature of participant structures and communities of practice.
Workplace Communication
Authors: Kerekes Julie , Chubak Lynda
Published: November 2020

Workplaces utilize, even require, communication to get things done. Workplace communication plays an essential role in achieving business objectives, accomplishing day‐to‐day institutional tasks, and maintaining smooth operations. It encompasses the myriad of language, linguistic, and social semiotic practices emerging within the varied physical and digital spaces where work‐related goals permeate. While the field has expanded both in depth and scope since its early days, these situated environments unite the diverse range of disciplines examining occupational, organizational, business, and professional discourses. It is the orientation that some sort of transactional work undergirds the communication, whether a workplace role is evoked or not, that delineates workplace written, oral, and visual text from everyday talk.
Artificial Languages
Authors: Schreyer Christine
Published: November 2020

Artificial languages are languages that are developed by an individual or a group for a specific purpose, usually international communication or for linguistic experimentation. Artificial languages can also be known as constructed languages. Artificial languages that are developed as a language for international communication are also known as international auxiliary languages and one of the most popular ones of these is Esperanto. Artificial languages are of interest to linguistic anthropologists as they help us understand societies' desires for a “better” language, as well as how we can test the limits of human language.
Cognitive Grammar
Authors: Manetta Emily
Published: November 2020

Cognitive grammar is a theory of grammar originally proposed by Robert Langacker which contends that the lexicon, syntax, and semantics form a continuum of symbolic elements and that all grammatical processes consist of meaning‐building. The theory was explicitly conceived as an alternative to the dominant formalist approaches to grammar in which syntax is an autonomous system interpreted through an objectivist semantics. Cognitive grammar falls squarely within the family of functionalist approaches, sharing with cognitive linguistics broadly the goal of associating the mechanisms of language with what is known about human cognitive systems. Usage‐based theories such as cognitive grammar require that language knowledge is built from generalizations over actual usage events. Constructions in the grammar are conventionalized, and informed through a user's embodied and cultural experience.
Indexical Bleaching
Authors: Squires Lauren
Published: November 2020

Indexical bleaching is a semiotic process whereby the indexical links between a linguistic form and its social meanings are weakened, while the form's linguistic meaning and general grammatical and/or referential functions remain intact. The concept was proposed as part of a framework for tracing mass media linguistic innovations into everyday speech repertoires, and has been used to understand sociolinguistic change that occurs through the circulation and recontextualization of discourse.
Metrolingualism
Authors: Otsuji Emi , Pennycook Alastair
Published: November 2020

Metrolingualism is a term used to describe relations between language and the city. By focusing on everyday, grassroots, multilingual language use in urban workplaces (rather than top‐down approaches to ethnolinguistic groups), it explores the ways in which different people, different interactions, and different semiotic and linguistic resources come together at different times and in different places in the city. Metrolingualism challenges common language ideologies around multilingualism, questioning enumerable and separable languages in favor of an understanding of repertoires and resources. The focus through linguistic ethnography on the dynamic integration of diverse linguistic and other semiotic resources in the city has led to an emphasis on
spatial repertoires
and
semiotic assemblages
to draw attention to the interactions among language, space, place, and objects as part of a critical sociolinguistics of diversity.
Whiteness and Language
Authors: McIntosh Janet
Published: November 2020

Whiteness, like all racial categories, is a mythic and cunning construct with little biological credibility but tremendous social power. Historically, White social dominance has been propped up not only by violence, political control, and socioeconomic configurations, but also by language ideology and linguistic practice. This entry explores several ways in which White advantages and subject positions have been constructed through language. It looks at the racial politics of colonial‐era language policies and attitudes, and the racial hierarchy implicit in the contemporary valorization of “standard” language, particularly in the United States. It examines whiteness as a verbal performance and a matter of style, and how White borrowings from non‐standard linguistic varieties have often functioned to affirm White racism. It describes how some non‐white communities have mocked White language (and, by extension, the negative qualities they associate with whiteness). And it examines some of the linguistic strategies, from code choice to subtle discursive maneuvers, pursued by self‐conscious Whites at pains to avoid accusations of racism.
Language and Religion: Individual Practice and Collective Belonging
Authors: Talib Mohammad
Published: November 2020

Prayer is what transpires between the worshiper and divinity, expressed in silence or words, in a language that sometimes goes beyond the familiar semantics, its grammar or routine use, outside the criteria of being true or false. While anthropologists account for how ritual prayer impacts the related communities, the focus on the language of a worshiper brings the focus beyond the utterances, onto the way the situated individual experiences the self in the wider context before the divine court. Broadly speaking, the performance of prayer, evocative of Saussure's distinction betweenlangueandparole, is observed in terms of how it is spoken through a person in the congregational worship and intertwines with matters of collective living outside the sacred sphere. The related aspects of believing individuals who are also praying in their own terms are crucial. The individual performing prayer brings in contextual connotations that are linked to the aspects of language, and the reflexive relation of the individual's biography, society, and history. A prayer, as an interaction between the believer and the divinity, opens up the aspect of language, whether what transpires during prayer is tilted toward the prescribed script, or the individual's improvised expressions.
Spanish and English Language Issues in the United States
Authors: Urciuoli Bonnie
Published: November 2020

Spanish‐English language issues in the United States are best understood in relation to the social and political histories within which they formed. Research has demonstrated the formal characteristics of linguistic varieties, the social functions that constitute their users' communicative competence, the ideologies that shape their users' perceptions of their linguistic practices, and the ways that social and political histories frame the racialization and marginalization of US Spanish speakers, especially in relation to Spanglish, Mock Spanish, and white public space.
Firth, John Rupert
Authors: Stanlaw James
Published: November 2020

John Rupert Firth (1890–1960), along with colleague Bronisław Malinowski, was one of the founders of the London school of sociological linguistics, and was a key founder of modern general linguistics in the United Kingdom. He anticipated much of what was to come in twentieth‐century sociolinguistics, and his theories of meaning – being predicated on the “context of situation” – has influenced studies of pragmatics, discourse analysis, and the ethnography of communication.
Fishman, Joshua
Authors: Stanlaw James
Published: November 2020

Joshua Fishman (1926–2015) is generally recognized as one of the founders of sociolinguistics, and was one of the most influential researchers in the sociology of language. He worked on a wide range of topics, including language and ethnicity, identity, bilingualism, and language revitalization and preservation.
Hjelmslev, Louis
Authors: Stanlaw James
Published: November 2020

Louis Hjelmslev (1899–1965) was an important linguist and semiotician who linked together several strands of language scholarship from Saussure to Chomsky to Halliday. Hjelmslev attempted to transform linguistics from purely an exercise in technical analysis into a broad inquiry into the interplay between language and all of human culture and society. In this sense, Hjelmslev anticipated some of the directions formal sociolinguistics would take in the 1960s.
Kroeber, Alfred
Authors: Stanlaw James
Published: November 2020

Alfred Kroeber (1876–1960) was one of the early seminal founders of American anthropology in general, and linguistic anthropology in particular. He continues to be widely known for his contributions to culture theory, his study of Native Americans cultures and languages (especially in California), and his leadership position in anthropology for some 40 years.
Whitney, William Dwight
Authors: Stanlaw James
Published: November 2020

William Dwight Whitney (1827–1894) was America's first great linguist. He institutionalized American language studies and gave the field the organization that is still in place today. He helped take linguistics from being focused mostly in comparative philology to becoming a full‐fledged science.