bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Controlling Erosion
Authors: Keefer Robert F.
Published: November 2020

Erosion can be controlled by four main means, that is, improving soil structure, covering soil with plants, covering soil with mulch, and using special structures. Soil structure is related to the soil tilth, or physical condition of a soil, with respect to ease of tillage or workability as shown by the fitness of a soil as a seedbed and the ease of root penetration. Other terms relating to soil structure improvement are soil aggregation and the formation of aggregates. Aggregates form when a cementing substance is present in a soil. The most important cementing substances in soil are soil polysaccharides and soil polyuronides produced as by-products from microorganisms during decomposition of organic matter. Other less important cementing substances in soil include clays, Ca, and Fe. Formation of aggregates results in improved water infiltration with reduction in erosion. Decomposition of organic matter in soils can be shown as an equation: . . . Plant and animal remains + O2 + soil microorganisms → CO2 + H2O + elements + humus + synthates + energy . . . The decomposition process has the following features: . . . 1. Oxygen is required; thus soil aeration is important. Anytime a soil is stirred or mixed by cultivation, spading, plowing, some organic matter decomposition occurs. 2. Readily available decomposable organic material is required for the microbes to work on. Green organic material, such as grass clippings, is an excellent substrate. 3. Many different types of soil microorganisms are involved in this process. Decomposition is more rapid in soils at pH 7 (neutral). 4. A product of organic decomposition is humus. Humus has many desirable features that improve a soil for plant growth. 5. Plant or animal remains are not effective in soil aggregation until they begin to decompose. 6. The more rapid the decomposition, the greater effect of soil aggregation. . . . Microbial synthates consist of polymers called “polysaccharides” and “polyuronides.” A polymer is a long-chain compound made up of single monomer units hooked together acting as a unit. The term “poly” means “many” and “saccharide” means “sugar.”
Macronutrients—Nitrogen
Authors: Keefer Robert F.
Published: November 2020

Important considerations concerning nitrogen in plants include the amount of nitrogen required, the forms of nitrogen (inorganic and organic) present in plant tissue, the ways that nitrogen is used in plants and affected by fertilization, and symptoms plants show when nitrogen is deficient. After the nonmineral elements, N is found in the next largest amount. More N is needed by plants than all the other nonmineral elements combined, except for K. The range of N concentrations in plants is from 0.5 to 6.0%, with most plants having 1.5 to 3.0%. Inorganic forms of N in plants are NO3- (nitrate) and NH4+ (ammonium). These forms are usually present in relatively small amounts. Other inorganic forms of N do not accumulate without injury to the plants. Organic forms of N predominate in plants, mainly as amino acids and proteins. During and after absorption, N often follows this pathway: Proteins consist of a number of amino acids linked together into a large molecular structure. Once the proteins are formed in plants, N moves to other parts of the plant only if the proteins are split apart by hydrolysis into amino acids. The amino acids then flow freely to other parts of the plant where they can recombine into proteins again. Proteins consist of 12 to 19% nitrogen. Other complex proteins formed from amino acids are enzymes that act as catalysts in biochemical reactions. Proteins also act as reserve food in the seeds that is released during germination for early seedling growth. Another type of N-containing material is chlorophyll (the green coloring matter in leaves necessary for photosynthesis). In the center of a chlorophyll molecule is a Mg atom surrounded by four N atoms. Therefore, N is a part of the chlorophyll molecule and if N is deficient, then plants become yellow since there is insufficient chlorophyll produced. Other important N-complexes are purine and pyrimidine bases that can form adenosine triphosphate (ATP) during the respiration process as an energy carrier.
Income-Specific Population Models: Steady States and Comparative Dynamics
Authors: Chu C. Y. Cyrus
Published: November 2020

I mentioned in chapter 1 that the standard new household economics model of fertility, derived and modified by Becker (1960), DeTray (1973), Willis (1973), and later followers, emphasized the parental choices and tradeoffs between the quantity and the quality of their children. As Becker (1960) pointed out, one motivation for the new household economics approach to fertility decisions is to construct a demand-side household-decision structure to replace Malthus’s out-of-date supply-side population theory. The fertility decision theory along these lines has been called by Schultz (1981, 1988) and Dasgupta (1995) the demand-side demography theory. One difference between the demand-side demography theory and the classical Malthusian theory is that the former approach emphasized the static decision of a micro agent, whereas the Malthusian theory described the macro dynamic pattern of the population. Thus, from a theoretical point of view, the development of the demand-side demography lacks a macro dynamic counterpart. In this chapter I shall establish a macro dynamic population theory based on a fairly general version of Becker’s and others’ static setup of fertility demand. Once we shift our focus to the household fertility decision, it is natural that the household economic variables that affect female fertility decisions, such as her wages, family income, or the opportunity cost of babysitting, will become important explanatory variables of aggregate demographic patterns. Given that the fluctuation of mortality is no longer significant in recent years and that human fertility decisions are largely affected by the above-mentioned household economic variables, then in order to explain the aggregate pattern of population movement, it is natural to classify people by these economic variables rather than by ages. This is another motivation for the derivation of a non-age-specific stable population theory. As we focus upon the macro dynamic implications of Becker’s micro static fertility decision model, it is convenient to ignore sex differences and suppress the age structure of a person by assuming that everyone lives two periods, young and old. This is very much the same as the one-sex Samuelsonian (1958) overlapping-generation model: individuals who remain in the parental household are called young; they become old when they form their own families.
Epilogue
Authors: Chu C. Y. Cyrus
Published: November 2020

One of the most striking features of the topics analyzed in the previous chapters is the breadth and depth of the economics involved in the analysis of population dynamics. The conventional perception that “demographic movements were largely exogenous to the economic system, and were to be left to sociologists and other non-economists” (Samuelson, 1976, p. 243) may be based on a conventional understanding of demography itself. Once we realize that modern individual fertility decisions may be affected by many economic variables, we can understand why demographic movements may be correlated with various economic indexes of the society. Once we shift our focus from the size and growth rate of the population to its economic characteristics, we realize that there is an abundance of topics for research and analysis. Moreover, once we perceive that the characteristic composition of the population is usually an aggregate result of various decisions by individuals, we find that our analysis is not confined to fertility-related economic variables. Thus, we are able to use the general framework to study the income distribution (chapters 4, 5), the attitude composition (chapter 8), the occupation structure (chapter 9), and the aggregate savings and pensions (chapters 11,12) of the population. The methodology adopted in this book is quite consistent: I emphasize the impact of individual decisions on the aggregate dynamics of demographic characteristics. As far as the steady state or dynamic fluctuations are concerned, the theory of stochastic processes is the basic tool necessary for the analysis. Other than the possible technical difficulty, there is nothing conceptually difficult in the modeling. But very often, the aggregate variables in question may feed back and influence individual decisions. In chapters 8 and 9, we see how the aggregate custom or occupational composition in the previous period affects individual decisions in the current period. These are in fact special cases and are easily dealt with. For many other economic variables, the micro-macro interaction involved is rather complex. There are several variables that may affect and also be affected by individual decisions.
Volterra Models
Authors: Pearson Ronald K.
Published: November 2020

One of the main points of Chapter 4 is that nonlinear moving-average (NMAX) models are both inherently better-behaved and easier to analyze than more general NARMAX models. For example, it was shown in Sec. 4.2.2 that if ɡ(· · ·) is a continuous map from Rq+1 to R1 and if ys = ɡ (us,..., us), then uk → us implies yk → ys. Although it is not always satisfied, continuity is a relatively weak condition to impose on the map ɡ(· · ·) . For example, Hammerstein or Wiener models based on moving average models and the hard saturation nonlinearity represent discontinuous members of the class of NMAX models. This chapter considers the analytical consequences of requiring ɡ(·) to be analytic, implying the existence of a Taylor series expansion. Although this requirement is much stronger than continuity, it often holds, and when it does, it leads to an explicit representation: Volterra models. The principal objective of this chapter is to define the class of Volterra models and discuss various important special cases and qualitative results. Most of this discussion is concerned with the class V(N,M) of finite Volterra models, which includes the class of linear finite impulse response models as a special case, along with a number of practically important nonlinear moving average model classes. In particular, the finite Volterra model class includes Hammerstein models, Wiener models, and Uryson models, along with other more general model structures. In addition, one of the results established in this chapter is that most of the bilinear models discussed in Chapter 3 may be expressed as infinite-order Volterra models. This result is somewhat analogous to the equivalence between finite-dimensional linear autoregressive models and infinite-dimensional linear moving average models discussed in Chapter 2. The bilinear model result presented here is strictly weaker, however, since there exist classes of bilinear models that do not possess Volterra series representations. Specifically, it is shown in Sec. 5.6 that completely bilinear models do not exhibit Volterra series representations. Conversely, one of the results discussed at the end of this chapter is that the class of discrete-time fading memory systems may be approximated arbitrarily well by finite Volterra models (Boyd and Chua, 1985).
Gaps and Inconsistencies in Modern Evolutionary Thought
Authors: West-Eberhard Mary Jane
Published: November 2020

One of the oldest unresolved controversies in evolutionary biology—and a source of many bitter arguments and failed revolutions—concerns the relation between nature and nurture in the evolution of adaptive design. In modern evolutionary biology there is still a gap between the conclusions of a genetical theory for the origin and spread of new traits, and the observed nature of the traits being explained, the manifest phenotypes, always products of genes and environment. This gap is especially clear in discussions of adaptively flexible morphology and behavior. How are complex adaptively flexible traits constructed during evolution? Remarkable adaptability is shown by humble plants and animals. I see a young female Polistes wasp approach the dominant queen of her colony and adopt a subordinant position that condemns her to permanent sterility and serfdom. Yet she has done the right thing in Darwinian terms, for she genetically profits by helping to rear her despotic sister’s young. How should we explain such behavior? Should we visualize the spread of genes for flexibility and altruism, and the eventual construction of a genetic capacity for environmental assessment and social judgment? Or is the evolutionary construction of such complex abilities something other than an accumulation of modifier alleles, selected gradually and independently, one by one? It is not surprising that students of human behavior have been among the first to complain about the failure of evolutionary biology to deal effectively with complex adaptive plasticity. Anthropologists, for example, have good reason to question the explanations of a strongly gene-centered sociobiology. Human behavior is essentially circumstantial. We know intuitively that our phenotypes are molded by our environments—by mothers, fathers, schoolteachers, economics, and accidents of history. But in this respect human nature is like every other phenotype of every other animal or plant. A phenotype is a product of both genotype and environment.
Modularity
Authors: West-Eberhard Mary Jane
Published: November 2020

Modularity, like the responsiveness that gives rise to it during development and evolution, is a universal property of living things and a fundamental determinant of how they evolve. Modularity refers to the properties of discreteness and dissociability among parts and integration within parts. There are many other words for the same thing, such as atomization (Wagner, 1995), individualization (Larson and Losos, 1996), autonomy (Nijhout, 1991b), dislocation (Schwanwitsch, 1924), decomposability (Wimsatt, 1981), discontinuity (Alberch, 1982), gene nets (Bonner, 1988), subunit organization (West-Eberhard, 1992a, 1996), compartments or compartmentation (Garcia-Bellido et al., 1979; Zuckerkandl, 1994; Maynard-Smith and Szathmary, 1995; Kirschner and Gerhart, 1998), and compartmentalization (Gerhart and Kirschner, 1997). One purpose of this chapter is to give consistent operational meaning to the concept of modularity in organisms. Seger and Stubblefield (1996, p. 118) note that organisms show “natural planes of cleavage” among organ systems, biochemical pathways, life stages, and behaviors that allow independent selection of different ones. They ask, “What determines where these planes of cleavage are located” and suggest that a “theory of organic articulations” may give insight into the laws of correlation, without specifying what the laws of articulation may be. Wagner (1995, p. 282) recognizes the importance of modularity and proposes a “building block” concept of homology where structural units often correspond to units of function, but concludes (after Rosenberg, 1985) that “there exists no way to distinguish an adequate from an inadequate atomization of the organisms.” Here I propose that modularity has a specific developmental basis (see also West-Eberhard, 1989, 1992a, 1996; see also Larson and Losos, 1996). Modular traits are subunits of the phenotype that are determined by the switches or decision points that organize development, whether of morphology, physiology, or behavior. Development can be seen as a branching series of decision points, including those caused by physical borders such as membranes or contact zones of growing or diffusing parts (e.g., see Meinhardt, 1982; see also chapter 5, on development). Each decision point demarcates the expression or use of a trait—a modular set—and subordinate branches demarcate lower level modular subunits, producing modular sets within modular sets.
Reversion
Authors: West-Eberhard Mary Jane
Published: November 2020

Deletion sets the stage for reversion, the reappearance during evolution of traits lost earlier in the evolution of a lineage. Reversion can also refer to a return to an ancestral phenotypic state, as when a lineage of multicellular organisms gives rise to a lineage of unicellular ones, even though the single cell that results may not closely resemble the ancestral single cell. Deletions can occur due to changes in regulation that are small relative to their phenotypic effects. So some deleted traits may be subject to atavistic recall and reversion with little environmental or genetic change. An atavism is a low-frequency or sporadic reversion, the reappearance of a lost character of remote ancestors not seen in the parents or recent ancestors of the individuals that express it (Hall, 1984). Like heterochrony and heterotopy (see chapters 13 and 14), reversion, as a category of evolutionary transition, overlaps on all sides with other categories. The reestablishment of a lost, ancestral trait that had evolved via heterochrony, for example, may occur if the heterochrony, or change in timing of expression, is reversed. Such a reversion could itself accurately be called a heterochrony. Many reversions could be classified as deletions, if they involve the loss of a recently evolved trait. One of the examples discussed in this chapter, the reversion to solitary reproduction in lineages of social bees, could be termed a deletion because it involves the loss of worker behavior. Atavisms occur in a wide variety of organisms. An often-cited example of a revealing and useless atavism is the case of one humpback whale (Megaptera nodosa) with two hind limb-like appendages reflecting its terrestrial ancestry. Each limb was over a meter long and contained a nearly complete femur, tibia and vestiges of tarsal and metatarsal bones (Andrews, 1921, cited by Hall, 1984, as M. novaeangliae; Levinton, 1988; John and Miklos, 1988). Skeletal atavisms are relatively well studied in whales because Russian researchers (cited in Yablokov, 1966) have taken advantage of large numbers of specimens available in a whale factory in the Central Kuril Islands.
Recurrence
Authors: West-Eberhard Mary Jane
Published: November 2020

Recurrent phenotypes are similar or identical phenotypic traits with discontinuous phylogenetic distributions, which owe their similarity to common ancestry (homology). A recurrent trait may be found as a fixed trait, as an alternative phenotype (one morph of a polymorphism or polyphenism), or as a low-frequency developmental anomaly. Recurrence, then, is the phyletically disjunct appearance of homologous traits. An example is the repeated evolution of larviform (paedomorphic) adults in salamanders. The larviform morph is characterized by retention in the reproductive stage of homologous larval traits such as external gills and a tail. This has involved changes at various points in the hormonal mechanism that controls metamorphosis in all salamanders (chapter 25), perhaps under selection for accelerated reproduction in stressful environments (Whiteman, 1994). As is characteristic of recurrent phenotypes, the occurrence of the reproductive larviform adult morph varies in frequency from one species of salamander to another: it can be absent, an anomaly (<5% of population), a common (>5%) alternative to complete metamorphosis, or a predominant or fixed form. Even within the genus Ambystoma, the unmetamorphosed larviform adult occurs as an occasional anomaly in some populations, as a facultatively expressed alternative phenotype in others (e.g., A. tigrinum) and as a fixed form in others (e.g., A. dumerilii; Collins et al., 1993). All atavisms and reversions (see chapter 12) are examples of recurrence. Discontinuity of expression is expected in combinatorial evolution, where traits are turned off and on and expressed in different combinations due to regulatory change. The growing evidence of homoplasy in phylogenetic studies is important evidence that combinatorial evolution occurs and that homoplasy itself is worthy of study, not just a source of “noise” in cladistics (Wake, 1996a). Homoplasy has been defined as “possession by two or more taxa of a character derived not from the nearest common ancestor but through convergence, parallelism, or reversal”. More simply, homoplasy is the recurrence of similarity in evolution (Sanderson and Hufford, 1996).
Complex Enzymes
Authors: Frey Perry A. , Hegeman Adrian D.
Published: November 2020

Most enzymes discussed in the preceding chapters consist of single proteins that catalyze single biochemical reactions. Many of them contain one type of polypeptide chain, although most exist as oligomers of a polypeptide, and some consist of different polypeptides that cooperate to catalyze one reaction. Increasing attention is being focused on enzymes that catalyze more complex processes and are composed of more than one enzyme or enzymatic domain, each of which catalyzes or facilitates a specific biochemical process. These complex enzymes are the subjects of this chapter. Complex enzymes are so numerous and the processes they catalyze so complex that a complete discussion would fill a book. We therefore limit this discussion to a few examples. The first complex enzymes to be discovered were the multienzyme complexes. They included the four terminal electron transport complexes of the respiratory chain: complex I, known as NADH dehydrogenase (formerly DPNH dehydrogenase); complex II, known as succinate dehydrogenase; complex III, known as cytochrome c reductase; and complex IV, known as cytochrome c oxidase. Other multienzyme complexes discovered at about the same time were the pyruvate dehydrogenase and α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complexes, the fatty acid synthase complexes, and the glycine reductase complex and the anthranilate synthase complex. Later, the multimodular polyketide synthases and nonribosomal polypeptide synthetases were characterized. The ATP synthases are multiprotein complexes that function as molecular motors in catalyzing a complex reaction, the condensation of ADP with Pi driven by proton translocation to form ATP. The ribosome catalyzes the polymerization of amino acids in defined sequences specified by the nucleotide sequences in species of mRNA, and nitrogenase catalyzes the ATP-dependent reduction of molecular nitrogen to ammonia. Some of the actions of complex enzymes link together common biochemical reactions of the types discussed in preceding chapters. Others catalyze difficult reactions through mechanistic coupling to energy-producing processes that provide driving force for otherwise unfavorable transformations. We present examples of each type. Catalysis by an α-ketoacid dehydrogenase complex is carried out by three physically associated enzymes, a TPP-dependent α-ketoacid dehydrogenase (E1), a dihydrolipoyl transacetylase (E2), and dihydrolipoyl dehydrogenase (E3).
An Empirical Study of Travel Behavior
Authors: Boarnet Marlon , Crane Randall C.
Published: November 2020

The empirical strategy described here involves matching travel diary data to land-use characteristics for two different southern California regions. The first data set is from Orange County and nearby parts of suburban Los Angeles, and the other data are from San Diego. Each data set poses somewhat different opportunities and challenges in measuring the factors of interest, so we describe these in turn. The Orange County/Los Angeles travel diary data set includes data for 769 southern California residents. These were obtained from a 1993 survey administered as part of the Panel Study of Southern California Commuters. Because that survey includes each respondent’s street address, we were able to match the travel diary data to land-use variables from the 1990 census and from the Southern California Association of Governments (for the years 1990 and 1994). The travel diary covered a two-day period, and respondents were pre-assigned days, so trip making on all days of the week is represented in the data. Individual respondents were first contacted through their employer, and then for follow-up waves the same persons were contacted at home. The sample is employer based, and consequently the respondents are not a random sample of southern California residents. About half of the respondents worked at the Irvine Business Complex, a large, diversified employment center near the Orange County Airport, and the other half worked elsewhere throughout the Los Angeles metropolitan area. The descriptive statistics shown in table 5.1 illustrate how the survey oversampled Whites, highly educated persons, and persons with high income. This suggests some caution is warranted in interpreting beyond these individuals. Yet restricting attention to an educated, upper-middle-income, largely suburban population still provides interesting information, because many of the new urban designs are intended for low-density, suburban environments with demographics similar to those in this sample. The dependent variable for the model is the number of nonwork automobile trips made by an individual during the two-day travel diary period.
Solute Transport and Crop Growth Models in the Field
Authors: Tinker Peter B. , Nye Peter
Published: November 2020

In this chapter we deal with vegetation growing in the field. This introduces new and challenging questions of scale and heterogeneity, in time and space, of the environment in which plants grow. It builds on the concepts and methods explained in earlier chapters, especially the movement of water and solutes (chapters 2, 3 and 4) and the distribution of roots (chapter 9) in field soils. In some cases, it requires changes and simplifications in the methods that we have used earlier. The problems of dealing with water and nutrient movement and uptake at the field scale are discussed first. The modelling approach that we developed in the earlier chapters of this book, up to the end of chapter 10, logically resumes at section 11.3. This covers both uptake models and the more complex combined crop growth and uptake models that simulate the main interactions with the environment. This chapter considers increasingly complex systems: first, uniform monocultures, including models of a ‘green leaf crop’, a root crop, a cereal, and a tree crop. At this level, the presence of weeds or groundcover is deliberately ignored. Interspecies competition is included later, with vegetation composed of more or less regularly spaced plants of more than one species. This occurs in many agricultural systems, such as mixtures of forage species and agroforestry systems. The competition processes become even more complicated where there is no spatial symmetry, and models of crop/weed mixtures, grass/legume mixtures, and planted woodlands are used as examples. Progress with crops has been more rapid because of their more regular structure, so we deal mainly with these, but we believe that similar ideas will be applied to natural vegetation also, and this is discussed in section 11.5. Most of these models have a water submodel, or, if not, one could be added. As the physical basis is normally rather similar for all water models, one model for water uptake is explained in some detail (section 11.1.2), but elsewhere water uptake is dealt with very briefly. For each model, the preferred order of discussion is water; growth, including economic yield; nitrogen; potassium; phosphorus; and other nutrients, unless the logic of the subject demands a different order.
Religious Madness in the Vormärz : Culture, Politics, and the Professionalization of Psychiatry
Authors: Goldberg Ann
Published: November 2020

In 1849 Germany’s leading psychiatric journal reported a curious “illness” that, “like a plague,” had swept through a number of rural Swedish communities: young girls subject to an “involuntary drive to preach.” The “preaching illness” began with symptoms of a “strongly-felt awakening towards repentance and improvement,” headaches, and burning in the chest. It then progressed to “automatic convulsions” and visions, which the girls “imagine are the effects of God’s spirit.” In this state, they preached a message admonishing against sin—against dancing, drinking, card-playing, and other depraved behavior—and prophesied the coming destruction of the world. Whole communities had been infected, believing in the girls’ message and in their connection to God. Identifying new forms of religious “madness” (and other mental illnesses) was a learning process, and one important venue for this was the collegial exchange of case histories in professional journals. In a postscript to the article, Carl Friedrich Flemming (1799–1880), an editor of the journal and one of Germany’s leading asylum psychiatrists, appended his own recent treatment of a case in Prussia that remarkably matched the symptoms of the Swedish preaching illness. A young village girl took to falling into “epileptic fits” and, in a trance state, would admonish people in her community about their sins. She attained “great respect through her preachings and prophesying”; “listeners streamed” to hear her, even paying money for the privilege. A doctor was called in to examine her; she was ultimately removed to an asylum where, through Flemming’s successful cure, she “never again made the least attempt to preach,” and was able to be returned home without any further “public nuisance.” The preaching illness was but one variant of a larger epidemic of religious madness that physicians, asylum alienists, and others were convinced plagued their society. They saw patients troubled by anxiety, guilt, and terror over real or imagined sins; people who were bewitched or possessed by the devil; prophets and mystics whose diseased imaginations led them to believe themselves endowed with divine powers. This was the heyday of religious madness, an illness discussed at length in the professional literature and registered in asylum statistics across Europe and North America.
Conclusion
Authors: Goldberg Ann
Published: November 2020

Almost unknown before the 1970s, multiple personality disorder (M.P.D.) has become an epidemic in the last twenty years. One estimate puts the incidence of new cases between 1985 and 1995 at forty thousand. The patients are overwhelmingly “white, female, and North American.” The New Yorker tells of one such case: Elizabeth Carlson, a suburban housewife, who began psychiatric treatment in 1989 for depression. Within a year she had discovered more than two dozen personalities inhabiting her mind and had recovered horrifying memories of childhood sexual molestation at the hands of a satanic ritual cult. The psychiatrist, Diane Humenansky, had supplied her patient with a M.P.D. illness script— books, videotapes, and leading questions— which Carlson faithfully internalized and made her own. It was a dangerous script. Before long, Carlson’s condition was deteriorating: she no longer left her bedroom and her marriage was falling apart; she became suicidal, and felt she was going crazy. M.P.D. is not a disease entity. Not the tools of the psychiatrist, but those of the historian, social psychologist, and sociologist are best suited to explain its epidemiology and symptomatology. The illness script Humenansky and other psychiatrists made believable to their patients drew from a number of political, social, and cultural currents: the child-protection movement of the 1970s, the later recovered-memory movement, and the involvement of an unlikely alliance of feminists and Christian fundamentalists. M.P.D. became a psychiatric growth industry, which promoted the illness from new institutional bases: a professional organization (I.S.S.M.P.&D.: International Society for the Study of Multiple Personality and Dissociation), annual conferences, specialized units within hospitals, and publications. Finally, the media spread the word through magazine, talk show, and news coverage (one program featuring a “star [M.P.D.] patient who switched personalities [on cue] for the camera”). On the other hand, it is not accurate to make M.P.D. alone responsible for mental disorder in these women and the medicalization of otherwise purely social problems. Like Carlson, most of these women had long been troubled in mind and “already spent [on average] seven years in the mental—health system” before undergoing M.P.D. therapy.
The Soil System
Authors: Warrick Arthur W.
Published: November 2020

Soil exists at the boundary between the atmosphere and the Earth’s subsurface. It plays a critical role in the hydrologic cycle, in addition to serving as the location of most human activity. An examination below the Earth’s surface generally reveals a profile similar to that shown in figure 1-1 A. The first zone encountered is the soil zone. This soil has developed from parent material through biological and other factors of weathering. If time is sufficient, then horizons will have formed with differing physical and chemical properties. At greater depths the soil merges with additional unconsolidated material. Eventually, at still greater depths, bedrock is encountered. The dimensions of these various zones are highly variable. For example, the soil profile may exist on bedrock that is partially exposed at the soil surface. Conversely, the unconsolidated layer can be hundreds of meters thick, as is the case in many alluvial basins. The subsurface can also be described in terms of water regimes that exist.The hydrologic profile consists of the vadose zone and the phreatic zone. The vadose zone is from the ground surface to the permanent water table, and includes the root zone, the soil profile, and the capillary fringe, which is a tension-saturated zone bordering the water table. The water at the water table is at atmospheric pressure; above the water table the pressure is less than atmospheric pressure and below the water table it is greater. The system is unsaturated above the capillary fringe, meaning that not only is the water under tension, but that some of the pore space is filled with air. The extent of the capillary fringe is dependent on the porous material. Generally, itextends a few centimeters for coarse material, or perhaps a meter for fine materials. A more complete depiction would include further saturated regions in the vadose zone, such as those due to surface infiltration or due to impeding layers that result in a perched water. Historically, the term groundwater was used to denote water beneath the permanent water table, but it is now commonly used to describe all subsurface water.
Industrial Ecology in Historical Perspective
Authors: Gordon Robert B.
Published: November 2020

Industry consumes natural resources and makes wastes as it manufactures and delivers products to consumers. Subsequent use of a product— its eventual discard, recycling, or storage in a waste depository—puts additional demands on the environment. Decisions made by many different individuals direct the progress of a product through manufacture, use, and disposal. In the past, each decision maker along this chain responded to concerns that encompassed only a fraction of the product’s progression from raw materials to ultimate fate. No one had much reason to enlarge these decision horizons as long as natural resources remained abundant, and the industrial impact on the environment was small compared with natural processes of environmental change. Now people in the western industrialized nations realize that their consumption of goods and services could change the environment in ways that rival natural causes. Their heightened awareness led scientists and engineers to start systematically investigating the life cycles of industrial products. These investigators soon found that Western industry has created a web of resource use so complex that tracing the demands made by even a single, simple product on the environment requires the new analytical methods of industrial ecology. Industrial ecologists see the farm and the factory as the main sources of environmental change caused by people. With their focus on the factory, along with its associated mines, power plants, and transportation systems, they search out the consequences of consuming natural resources to make and use material goods and generate energy. They study resources consumed, wastes released, and the fate of discarded products. They may include in their research advocacy of, and searching for, means to minimize the environmental impacts of industry. They look to a future where recycling eliminates all wastes and where energy comes from renewable resources. Most see a guiding principle in sustainability, the concept that each generation should leave to the next undiminished opportunities for fulfillment of material needs. People make their decisions about the production, consumption, and disposal of material goods in terms of the costs and benefits they perceive, and they may be unwilling to bear extra costs for environmental benefits that offer them no immediate rewards.
Surface Properties and Gas Adsorption
Authors: Enoki Toshiaki , Endo Morinobu , Suzuki Masatsugu
Published: November 2020

It is well known that alkali metal binary GICs adsorb gaseous species (H2, N2, Ar, CH4, etc.) physisorptively at low temperatures, where physisorbed gaseous molecules are accommodated in the interstitials of the alkali metal lattice within the graphitic galleries (Lagrange and Hérold, 1975; Lagrange et al., 1972, 1976; Watanabe et al., 1971, 1972, 1973). The capacity for hydrogen adsorption, which is estimated at 144 cm3/g in KC24, for example, is large and comparable to the capacity in other adsorbers such as zeolite or activated charcoal. Interestingly, the physisorption phenomenon in alkali metal GICs has different features from that in conventional adsorbents such as zeolite or activated charcoal; that is, guest molecules in alkali metal GICs are not simply bonded to the adsorbents through weak van der Waals forces without any change in the electronic structures. Here we discuss the gas physisorption phenomenon in alkali metal GICs from general aspects, in relation to their specific features. Then in subsequent sections, we will give details of actual cases. Hydrogen is a typical gaseous molecule adsorbed in alkali metal GICs. Hydrogen physisorption takes place at low temperatures below about 200 K, where hydrogen molecules are accommodated in the graphitic galleries and are not dissociated into atomic hydrogen species. When the temperature is increased to over 200 K, the alkali metal GICs work as catalysts to hydrogen, resulting in the occurrence of hydrogen chemisorption. Hydrogen physisorption will be discussed in Section 8.1.2, hydrogen chemisorption and related issues have been discussed partly in Sections 2.2.1 and 5.4.1 from the viewpoints of structure and electronic properties, and will be discussed again in Section 8.1.2. Figure 8.1 represents the composition dependence of the amount of physisorption of hydrogen molecules in KCm at 77 K (Lagrange and Hérold, 1975). The composition of 1/m = 1/8 corresponds to the stage-1 compound and the composition 1/m = 1/24 to the stage-2 compound; intermediate compositions between 1/8 and 1/24 are considered to have a mixed structure of stage-1 and stage-2 compounds. The stage-1 compound does not adsorb hydrogen at all.
Space and the Chiral Molecule
Authors: Poidevin Robin Le
Published: November 2020

According to classical stereochemistry, the molecules of some substances have doubles, in the sense of incongruent mirror-image counterparts. This is the phenomenon of optical isomerism, first identified 150 years ago by Pasteur. In some cases, the double occurs naturally; in others, it has to be artificially synthesized. These molecules thus share a geometrical feature with such familiar objects as our hands, and, indeed, it is this connection that gives the feature its technical name: chirality (from the Greek for hand, kheir). Instances of chirality in chemistry are numerous, especially in living things: examples of chiral molecules include adrenaline, glucose, and DNA. Optical isomerism is interesting, both historically—it played a crucial role in the emergence of structural chemistry and in the attempt to link chemistry with physics— and, I believe, philosophically. I should like to take this opportunity to revisit the scene of an earlier article of mine (Le Poidevin, 1994) in which I examined the implications optical isomerism has for a philosophical debate concerning the nature of space. In that article I argued that chirality in chemistry reinforces a conclusion that Graham Nerlich (1994), in a brilliant reconstruction of a famous argument of Kant’s, had derived from more visible instances of chirality: that we should be realists about the geometrical properties of space. I did not, however, want to follow Nerlich (and Kant) in drawing a more radical conclusion: that we should be realists about the existence of space. That may sound paradoxical, but it is possible (or so I thought) to regard space as a logical construction from its contents and still think of it, qua construction, as possessing certain intrinsic properties that we do not merely impose on it by convention. Since then, I have become more sympathetic to Nerlich’s position. Chirality is best understood by thinking of space as an entity in its own right. So chemistry has some lessons for the philosophy of space. But the pedagogical relation goes the other way, too: the philosophy of space has interesting implications for chemistry.
The Slighting of Smell (with a Brief Word on the Slighting of Chemistry)
Authors: Lycan William G.
Published: November 2020

Philosophy articles on prepositional attitudes, attitude content, and related matters sometimes begin by reminding us that there are many prepositional attitudes besides belief: there are desire, intention, remembering, guessing, speculating, wondering, hoping, wishing, resenting, regretting, being embarrassed, and whatnot. Those same philosophy articles then immediately serve notice that, for simplicity, they will discuss only belief. Desire, intention, and memory very occasionally receive attention from philosophers of mind and philosophers of psychology; the other attitudes almost never. It is an interesting question why belief holds this overwhelming social preeminence over the other attitudes. Similarly, philosophy articles on perception sometimes begin by reminding us that there are other senses besides vision; but those articles then immediately serve notice that, for simplicity, they will discuss only vision. The other senses—especially the chemical senses, smell, and taste—almost never receive the slightest attention from philosophers (though noteworthy exceptions are Perkins, 1983, and Clark, 1993). Psychologists and neuroscientists have, of course, done work on smell, but there, too, not nearly as much as they have on vision and usually in pursuit of research on something else, such as memory. My question here is how the philosophy of perception would be different if smell had been taken as a paradigm rather than vision. I argue that vision is not a typical sense modality at all, but a very unusual, unrepresentative example of one. If I am right about that, then we may expect to find that the philosophy of perception has been warped and skewed by its persistent focus on vision. And—now that the Decade of Neurophilosophy is over—I contemplate ushering in the era of Rhinophilosophy (or more grandly, Osphresiophilosophy). But the claims I shall actually make here will be only rudimentary. There is a difference between the social preeminence of belief and that of vision. For it is arguable that, in fact, belief is conceptually prior to the other attitudes. The more rarified prepositional attitudes may well be denned partly in doxastic terms; for example, a correct analysis of regret or wish or even memory would very probably make mention of belief, but not vice versa.
Futuristic Garbology: A Vision
Authors: Tammemagi Hans
Published: November 2020

We gaze with some apprehension at a sleek, shiny machine that looks like a cross between a sports car and a small spaceship. Illuminated in a vertical cylinder of light, the time capsule silently awaits our entry; it gives no clue to what we can expect at our destination, the year 2032. With racing hearts, our small group of garbologists enters; we strap ourselves in. Soon the countdown begins. There is only the briefest feeling of levitation, a slight rising sensation in the pit of the stomach as though descending in a fast elevator, and then we are there. As we exit, our curiosity is at fever pitch. What has happened to the Earth in the three decades we miraculously skipped over? Before we departed, the world’s population was rapidly approaching 6 billion, with many signs that the environment was finally wilting under this onslaught. We could only guess at what three more decades of continued environmental degradation might yield. Would we find air that was breathable, only traces of an ozone layer, any remnants of tropical or old-growth forests, any parks or green spaces in cities? Would North America be one giant parking lot? With these questions buzzing through our brains, we begin our futuristic exploration, like archeologists working in reverse. We move invisibly through this new time domain, knowing that we can only observe and not affect anything we see. It is clear that we are still in New York City, but what a change! The streets are no longer choked with car traffic, although small motorized bicycles, some built for two or three people, are darting everywhere. There is no haze in the sky, the air feels clean and brisk, and the streets are completely free of litter. Recycle containers are ubiquitous; they are green and divided into six compartments. As we soon discover, every house, apartment building, streetcorner, park, airport, shopping mall, and baseball diamond has recycling containers; there are no waste bins. People treat garbage as a resource rather than as something undesirable, and they spend considerable effort in separating the various recyclable components, whether they are at home, at work, in a cafeteria, or at play.
Talent as Performance
Authors: Haroutounian Joanne
Published: November 2020

The lovely student pianist was bowing graciously to an appreciative audience of music teachers from across the country. She was the junior high winner of a national competition, and her exquisite playing and careful training was apparent. Her performance was no surprise. It was polished and well prepared. As we rustled our programs, searching for the next performer’s name, the junior high cellist awkwardly stepped on stage, tried to adjust the chair and struggled with an endpin that seemed to enjoy sliding rather than sticking to the floor. After a few uncomfortable moments, she nodded to her accompanist and began to play. This performance was a captivating surprise. From the first notes, the audience was caught up in the enthusiasm, excitement, and connection she made with her cello and the music. As she finished, with a flourished release of the bow, the audience spontaneously rose to its feet, shouting “Bravo.” This young teenager, with the simple cotton dress and awkward entrance, stood transfixed. She looked around at her fellow competition winners to see them on their feet as well. She turned, bowed slightly, and gave a shy smile of appreciation. A musician communicates through performance. The recognition of musical talent through performance makes common sense to anyone who is a musician or teacher of musicians. Music aptitude may measure musical potential, but musical talent is realized through performance. We hear it. Musical talent blends the inborn perceptive capacities of the individual with the physical ability to perform with personal interpretation. Quite simply, a musician or music teacher believes that you can determine talent if you just listen to the student play. In fact, the assessment of musical talent by listening to a performance isn’t quite that simple. It poses a number of problems because of its inherently subjective nature. Performance is a process as well as a product. It is phenomenological. The opening performance of the young cellist was captivating. Why? It could have been the audience’s surprise at hearing a brilliant performance from a student who outwardly didn’t have the trappings of a seasoned competition winner.