bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Evidence, policy, and practice: developing collaborative approaches in Scotland
Authors: Wimbush Erica , Harper Helen , Wight Daniel , Gruer Laurence , Lowther Matthew , Gordon, Jackie , Fraser Shirley
Published: November 2023

Over the last century the health of the people of Scotland has dramatically improved. The eradication of infectious diseases, the improvement in living conditions and nutrition, and the creation of the National Health Service (NHS) have all contributed to significant reductions in infant mortality rates and the opportunity of a disease-free life for most people. However, the rate of improvement in life expectancy since the mid-twentieth century has been slower in Scotland than in other parts of the UK and Europe (Leon et al. 2002).
Evidence for public health practice: conceptual and methodological challenges
Authors: Swann Catherine , Naidoo, Bhash , Kelly Michael P
Published: November 2023

The evidence-based medicine movement can be traced back to the early 1990s (EBM Working Group 1992), since when the process of drawing together, analysing, and synthesizing evidence from the ‘best available’ research has become a central practice across many areas of administration, including education and social care. The election of the Labour Government in 1997 saw a retreat from polices based on political ideology and a shift towards evidence-based policy with a philosophy of ‘what matters is what works’ (Davies et al. 2000). The Modernising Government agenda (Cabinet Office 1999) established a central role for evidence in policy-making, and the ‘what works’ philosophy was rapidly taken up across all areas of governance.
The Bayesian approach to decision-making
Authors: Dowie Jack
Published: November 2023

There is a misleading implication in the title of this chapter. There is no such thing as a non-Bayesian approach to decision-making, whether it is about health, health inequalities, or anything else. If one is deciding under uncertainty, and genuine decisions are always made under uncertainty, at the moment of decision one is being a Bayesian in the key sense of that term.
Healthy Living Centres
Authors: Hills Dione , Stern Elliot
Published: November 2023

In 1998, the Healthy Living Centre (HLC) programme was launched with the central aim of addressing health inequalities. The effectiveness and evaluation of such communitybased health initiatives have been subject to much debate. The national evaluation of this programme provided an important opportunity to improve knowledge on the role and impact of community-based health interventions. In this chapter we discuss the evidence that informed the programme, outline the national evaluation programme and report the initial findings.
Evidence into practice for service improvement in health care: experience from the NHS Modernisation Agency
Authors: Ketley Diane , Gollop Rose
Published: November 2023

‘Good clinical care poorly delivered is care diminished’ (Aidan Halligan, personal communication). This quotation epitomizes the importance of providing good service organization and delivery (the how) in addition to good clinical care (the what).
Assessing and addressing health inequalities: the Canadian experience
Authors: Frank John , Mustard Cam , Dunn Jim , Ross, Nancy , Ruggiero Erica Di
Published: November 2023

Canada has a proud history of analytic thinking regarding the ‘determinants of health’. The federal Lalonde Report in 1974 (Lalonde 1974) was widely read and cited internationally for a decade or more. It proposed that four ‘health fields’ of broad determinants were critical to inform policies and programmes in the modern era: human biology (including but not limited to genetic influences), the environment (both physical/ chemical and social), the health care system, and ‘lifestyles’.
The social psychological study of widespread beliefs
Authors: Gaskell George , Fraser Colin
Published: November 2023

Our aim in this book is to explore both conceptual and substantive approaches to the following questions: to what extent and why do many people share similar views in socially significant domains such as politics, the economy, race, and the sexes? The questions raised by the book are, we believe, important ones for social psychologists as well as for other social scientists, but they have not been at the heart of social psychology’s concerns in recent decades.

The phrase we are using to label the primary focus of the book, ‘widespread beliefs’, has not been a particularly common one in social psychological writings. We find ‘widespread beliefs’ a helpful phrase for our purposes because in itself it does not imply a particular theoretical or conceptual position on the substantive issues. Thus, the term widespread beliefs denotes a general domain and, in mapping out its contours with our contributors, we hope to stimulate research and theorizing in this neglected area.
Social representations as widespread beliefs
Authors: Farr Rob
Published: November 2023

A distinct tradition of social psychology has evolved in France in the course of the past 30 years. It is clearly different from the dominant American tradition of social psychology. The difference, according to Herzlich (1972), resides in its being both a European tradition of research and a sociological form of social psychology. Over 80 per cent of the literature is in French. It is unique, in my view, because the objects of study are social representations. Moscovici (1961/1976) started this tradition of research in the late 1950s with his empirical studies of how a knowledge of psychoanalysis had diffused throughout French society and of how its vocabulary had become part of popular culture. Social representations (Farr and Moscovici 1984a) reflects, in English, some of the rich variety of the original studies carried out, either in the field or in the laboratory, within this French tradition of research. Elsewhere I have reviewed the literature, in both English and French, on social representations (Farr 1987).
Attitudes, social representations, and ideology
Authors: Scarbrough Elinor
Published: November 2023

It is surprising that at a time when social and political ideologies play such an important role in human affairs so little interest is being shown in their effects on social conduct and in the definition of conflicts (Moscovici 1972, p. 29). The most important differentiating feature of human social behaviour is the human use of symbols in social communication ... the creation and diffusion of ideologies which are produced by, and in turn contribute to producing, new conditions of social life and new modes of social conduct. But ... the study of ideologies have hardly made their appearance in contemporary social psychology (Tajfel 1972, pp. 3-4).With these passing remarks both Moscovici and Tajfel intimate that the study of ideology is a proper concern of social psychology. Indeed, in observing that ‘even if ideologies and their impact have been widely discussed, they have not been extensively researched’ (Moscovici 1984, p. 16), Moscovici might also have arraigned sociology and the study of politics: writings about ideology are commonplace but empirical studies are scarce. But whilst Moscovici and his colleagues may be alert to a lacuna in their discipline, their focus on social representations has not led them to address directly questions of ideology, in particular, what constitutes an ideology and how ideologies bear upon attitudes. None the less, in pointing to the place of social representations in the life of societies, Moscovici promises additional insights on a central question in the study of politics: the place of ideology in political action. The performance of governments, the manoeuvrings of parties, the direction of public policy, the behaviour of electors–all are areas of research where the dynamics of action raise questions of ideology. Equally, they are often questions which the political scientist is not well equipped to tackle; critically, how ideologies come to be formed and how the pervasiveness of ideologies is to be measured. This contribution, then, has a dual focus: to consider what the notion of social representations contributes to the empirical study of ideologies; to clarify the place of ideology in the notion of social representations.
Social beliefs and intergroup relations: the relevance of some sociological perspectives
Authors: Doise Willem
Published: November 2023

To assimilate information is to organize it. There may perhaps exist highly structured scientific domains in which the explanatory principles used by researchers are sufficient in themselves to produce an ordering of all new information applicable to these domains. At first sight, however, this does not appear to apply to social psychology: the enormous mass of new information which accumulates each year in various journals, essay collections, and monographs is widely disparate. Nevertheless, certain major themes, such as differentiation and group formation, or autonomy and interdependence in interpersonal relations, do permit some organization of this particular area in the social sciences. Furthermore, these different polar themes are complementary, since in-depth investigation of one of these themes entails reference to its opposite; there can be no group formation without differentiation, no interdependence of individuals without autonomy and vice versa (see Doise et al. 1978).Another way of organizing the vast amount of research in social psychology takes into account the nature of the explanatory principles involved as well: these are the explanatory principles which relate to an individual’s organizational processes, to interpersonal dynamics, to asymmetrical social positioning in the context of social relations, and to the impact of social norms and representations. Elsewhere (Doise 1984) I have already demonstrated how important this distinction of levels of analysis is if we wish to account for the specificity of different studies of intergroup relations. It should also be remembered that we have distinguished among these four levels of analysis only so that we may demonstrate the need to articulate them at a theoretical level.
Motor cortex (area 4)
Authors: Passingham Richard
Published: November 2023

The cortex of the frontal lobe divides into four strips. Figure 2.2 shows these on a drawing of the macaque brain. The strips will be referred to as motor cortex, premotor cortex, prefrontal cortex, and the anterior dngulate cortex. The first three strips are arranged vertically and they wrap round on to the medial surface; they include the upper hank of the cingulate sulcus. The last strip is arranged horizontally, and this includes the lower bank of the cingulate sulcus. The distinction between the strips is best drawn on the basis of differences between the areas in cytoarchitecture (Brodmann 1925).
Premotor area 8
Authors: Passingham Richard
Published: November 2023

This classification is supported by the functional evidence reviewed in this chapter. The argument is that, like area 6, area 8 plays a crucial role in the selection of movements. The difference lies in the nature of the movements. In a macaque brain, Brodmann (1925) identified area 8 as the tissue in the anterior bank of the arcuate sulcus, and on the convexity between the upper and lower limbs of the sulcus. Area 8 is very extensive in the human brain (Fig. 5.1).
Dorsal prefrontal cortex (areas 46 and 9)
Authors: Passingham Richard
Published: November 2023

Figure 6.3 shows the subareas as identified by Barbas and Pandya (1989) in the macaque brain. Preuss and Goldman-Rakic 0990 present a similar scheme, though they differ in identifying more subareas. Areas 9 and 46 were first distinguished by Walker (1940); they are shown separately in Figs 6.1 and 6.2. It will he convenient to use the term ‘dorsal prefrontal cortex for areas 9 and 46 combined, and the term ‘dorsal prefrontal convexity’ for area 9 alone. Areas 11, 12, 13, and 14 lie on the inferior convexity and orbital surface; these will be termed the ‘ventral prefrontal cortex’.
Psychological perspectives on ethnic minority identity
Authors: Hutnik Nimmi
Published: November 2023

Psychology has been generally remiss in explaining the relationship between ethnic minority and majority groups and even more so in propounding models for explaining the psychology of ethnic minority identity. Some of the major social psychological theories that touch upon inter-group behaviour are: realistic group conflict theory; the frustrationaggression hypothesis; game theories; and research on the perception of out-group stereotypes. As these theories do not easily accommodate the concept of ethnic identity (Taylor and Simard 1979), they will not be discussed here. A detailed study of the above has been made by LeVine and Campbell (1972).
Self-categorization and social stereotypes
Authors: Hutnik Nimmi
Published: November 2023

Another major area of interest to students of ethnic minority identity is the research related to self-categorization and social stereotypes. Most of the recent work on these topics is ensconced in the domain of social cognition, which has sought to investigate the role of cognitive structures and processes in our understanding of social groups. The foundation was laid in the early 1970s with the work of Henri Tajfel and his colleagues and has since developed into an impressive body of research. Historically, the main features of psychological group formation were conceived in terms of identity (that group members define themselves as being part of a distinct social category), inter-dependence (that people form themselves into groups for the mutual satisfaction of their needs), and structure (that groups stabilize over time into a set of structured relations and develop a system of social norms and role differentiations regarding matters relevant to the group) (see Turner 1985). Research was thus directed at issues such as: problem-solving in groups (Shaw 1932); leadership styles (Lewin et al. 1939); communication networks (Leavitt 1951); group cohesiveness (Lott and Lott 1961); inter-personal attraction (Cartwright and Zander 1968); and inter-group co-operation, competition, and conflict (Sheriff 1966).
Theory of mind and the early diagnosis of autism
Authors: Charman Tony
Published: November 2023

An over-simplistic extension of the 'theory of mind deficit hypothesis' of autism-that individuals with autism show a specific impairment in their theory of mind abilities evidenced by their performance on false-belief tasks (see Baron-Cohen et al. 1993; Yirmiya et al. 1998, for reviews)-might lead to the conclusion that theory of mind tasks will provide a litmus test or diagnostic marker for autism. Following this erroneous line of thinking for a moment, the proposal might hold true whatever the associations are between the theory of mind and executive function impairments found in individuals with autism (see Ozonoff 1997; Perner and Lang, Chapter 4, this volume). In this simplistic, hypothetical world it may not matter whether theory of mind and executive function deficits in autism are causally related (in one direction or the other) or whether they are independent of each other. If it could be demonstrated that the theory of mind hypothesis of autism was correct at the descriptive level-that individuals with autism show unique and universal impairments on theory of mind tasks that are not shown by individuals with other disorders, regardless of whether these impairments are specific to theory of mind tasks compared with other types of reasoning tasks (Zelazo et al. 1996)-then developmentally appropriate theory of mind tasks could act as diagnostic markers.
Other E. coli
Authors: Pennington T Hugh
Published: November 2023

Large and dramatic B. coli 0157 outbreaks started to occur only in the 1990s, presumably because that was when the organism first firmly established itself as a member of the normal bacterial ecosystem of cattle and sheep intestines. Where had it come from? We will never know for certain, although the prevalence of the haemolytic uraemic syndrome in middle-class Argentinian children from the 1960s onwards-admittedly without proof that they followed an B. coli 0157 infection-hints tentatively at an origin in cattle on the pampas.
BSE
Authors: Pennington T Hugh
Published: November 2023

The Central Veterinary Laboratory (CVL) is located near Weybridge, in Surrey. In the 1980s it was part of MAFF and provided a diagnostic and consulting service for farm veterinarians and for the State Veterinary Service. Rare and difficult animal health problems from all over Britain were referred to it.
vCJD-The Future
Authors: Pennington T Hugh
Published: November 2023

What about vCJD? Making predictions about the future size of the epidemic or how long it will last is very difficult because we have no direct information about any of the parameters needed to make the calculation. We do not know how many people were infected before effective control measures were introduced, when they were infected, or the length of the incubation period the interval between infection and the beginning of the illness.
Schrodinger-Poisson self-consistency
Authors: Ram-Mohan L Ramdas
Published: November 2023

In Group IV bulk semiconductors such as Si, it is possible to replace some of the atoms in the lattice by impurity atoms belonging to group V of the periodic table, such as P. The group V impurity atom has an additional electron which is not used in the covalent bonding in the crystal. Due to the effective dielectric constant of the host and its reduced effective mass the electron is weakly bound to the impurity atom forming a hydrogenic structure. In III---V compound semiconductors such as GaAs an analogous impurity doping can be accomplished by using Si which replaces a Ga atom in the GaAs lattice. These impurity atoms, called donors, ionize easily, giving off the bound electron to enable electrical conduction; the binding energy of an Si donor in GaAs is about 5 meV. The conduction is limited by scattering from the ionized impurity atoms, besides other scattering mechanisms. With the advent of molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) it was recognized that the conduction channel and the location of impurity doping can be separated to improve the mobility of carriers. With the remarkable control over the composition and almost atomic perfection in the heterostructure crystals grown by MBE, a quantum well structure can be grown with selective doping only in specified sections of the barrier regions. If the barrier regions alone are doped with impurity atoms, the electrons initially bound to the impurity atoms seek lower energy states and fall into the quantum well. This reduces their probability of being in the barrier region with the ionized impurities, resulting in a reduction in ionized impurity scattering in transport in the in-plane direction. This selective doping of the barrier, or any particular layer for that matter, is called modulation doping.
Landau states in a magnetic field
Authors: Ram-Mohan L Ramdas
Published: November 2023

A uniform magnetic field changes the energy levels of charged carriers in an intrinsic, fundamental way. For this reason, magnetic fields have been used as an externally controlled perturbation in the investigation of the electronic energy levels in quantum systems. We solve Schrodinger’s equation by including the interaction energy between the external field and the dipole moment of the electron due to orbital motion in the field, and also the interaction energy for the spin magnetic moment of the electron interacting with the external magnetic field. We investigate the effect of a magnetic field on carriers in a layered quantum semiconductor heterostructure. The finite element method (FEM) is shown to be a natural computational approach for layered structures that easily accounts for the interface boundary conditions (BCs).
Wavefunction engineering
Authors: Ram-Mohan L Ramdas
Published: November 2023

Over three decades ago, Esaki and Tsu proposed that one can impose a super-periodicity in the crystalline growth of semiconductor hetero structures, and that this would lead to very fundamental changes in the electronic and optical properties of the composite structure as compared with those of the constituent layers. This proposal was an important milestone in the evolution of the field of semiconductor hetero structures. Since then, advances in the technology of MBE and metallo-organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD) have enabled the growth of layered semiconductor structures of any binary, ternary, or quaternary combination of semiconducting materials with control at essentially the atomic level. Essentially any of the compound semiconductors from the group III-V or II-VI elements can be arranged, layer by layer, to form a hetero structure. When ∼100 A layers of different materials, such as GaAs and AlGaAs, are laid one on top of another, the natural or bulk energy bandgaps of the individual layers will generally not align with the adjacent ones. An electron in the conduction band of the GaAs layer will then confront a barrier in the adjacent AlGaAs layer. We have mentioned in earlier chapterst how such confinement, through the Heisenberg uncertainty principle, leads to a raising of the conduction bandedge of the hetero structure. A similar effect occurs for the carriers in the valence bands, leading to an overall change in the bandgap of the hetero structure.
Quantum waveguides
Authors: Ram-Mohan L Ramdas
Published: November 2023

When the dimensions of semiconductor hetero structure devices are reduced to about 50 nm, electrons in the device start behaving more like waves than particles. Hetero structures of such dimensions are called "mesoscopic" devices. With the mean free path becoming comparable to the dimensions of the electronic device, an electron is transmitted through the device ballistically with no scattering. The electron waves will display phase coherence, however, and undergo quantum interference effects as defined by the geometry of the mesoscopic device. These features of electron transport change the usual macroscopic nature of resistance, leading to a quantization of resistance. In this chapter, we give a qualitative derivation of the Landauer relation defining the quantized conductance in terms of the transmission coefficient of electron waves through the device. The electron waves are guided through the device in a manner similar to optical waveguides
Global public goods and health: Concepts and issues
Authors: Woodward David , Smith Richard D
Published: November 2023

Public goods have, for centuries, been part of the economic analysis of government policy at the national level (Connolly and Munro 1999). However, as globalization progresses, it is becoming clear in many areas that matters which were once confined to national policy are now issues of global impact and concern. This has been evidenced, for example, in dealing with environmental problems, such as chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) emissions and ozone depletion, and carbon emissions and global warming. These affect the nation involved in their production, but also impact significantly on other nations; yet no one nation necessarily has the ability, or the incentive, to address the problem. Recognition of this led to the development of the concept of Global Public Goods (GPGs) (Sandler 1997), which has recently been advocated and supported by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) (Kaul etal. 1999).
Polio eradication
Authors: Aylward R Bruce , Acharya Arnab , England Sarah , Agocs, Mary , Linkins Jennifer
Published: November 2023

The control of an infectious disease is a classic example of a public good for health (Zacher 1999). The global eradication of an infectious disease is a classic example of a global public good for health (GPGH). Once a disease is eradicated no one person’s receipt of this protection will diminish the protection everyone else enjoys, and every new born entering the global community is also protected.
Transport equations and processes
Authors: Lapeyre B , Pardoux É , Sentis R
Published: November 2023

Monte-Carlo methods for the numerical solution of partial differential equations are based on the links between stochastic processes and these equations. In this chapter, we shall give the probabilistic interpretation of linear transport equations (or Vlasov’s equation) thanks to a class of random evolutions that are Markov processes, called ‘transport processes’. The corresponding Monte-Carlo methods will be presented in detail in Chapter 3 (whereas the nonlinear Boltzmann equation and its numerical solution by Monte-Carlo methods will be studied in Chapter 4).
Separatrix Chaos
Authors: Zaslavsky George M
Published: November 2023

In low dimensional Hamiltonian systems, the area near a separatrix is the most important domain to study the origin of chaos, since the dynamics near a saddle point is sensitive to small perturbations. The problem of the change of the dynamics near a separatrix under a periodic perturbation can be studied in fairly general way. Destruction of separatrices under perturbations leads to chaos, and that is why this problem is one of the most important ones in the analysis of dynamics.
Phase Space of Chaos
Authors: Zaslavsky George M
Published: November 2023

The phase space of an idealized system with chaotic dynamics is uniformly field by almost all trajectories. This reveals both ergodicity and mixing independently on the initial conditions up to zero measure exclusions.
Poincare´ Recurrences
Authors: Zaslavsky George M
Published: November 2023

Poincar´e recurrences, or simply recurrences, are one of the most important notions for kinetic theory and dynamical analysis of random-like motion. For a long time after the famous discussion between Boltzmann and Zermelo recurrences did not play any serious constructive role in the study of dynamical systems. The situation has drastically changed in recent decades after developing new tools for time series analysis and for kinetic description of non-linear systems with chaotic dynamics.
Fractal Time
Authors: Zaslavsky George M
Published: November 2023

Fractal time can be considered as one of the most important concepts in the description of fractal properties of chaotic dynamics. One can consider any time series as a set of samples tjimbedded into one-dimensional space and determine the box or Hausdorfic dimension of the set. The notion of fractal time was coined in Berger and Mandelbrot (1963) to characterize transmission in telephone networks. Some time later the notion of fractal time was linked to the intrinsic structure of the set tjand the so-called Bernoulli scaling and Weierstrass random walk (Montroll and Shlesinger (1984); Shlesinger and Hughes (1981); Shlesinger (1988)).
General Principles of Kinetics
Authors: Zaslavsky George M
Published: November 2023

The first detailed approach to the kinetic description of many particle systems appeared in the famous works of Boltzmann (1872, 1895, 1898). The main idea of the derivation of a kinetic equation is to describe a complex system dynamics using a reduced number of variables.
Renormalization Group of Kinetics (RGK)
Authors: Zaslavsky George M
Published: November 2023

In the previous chapters we discussed in detail how the dynamics forms a specific topology of phase space, which leads to self-similar patterns in time and phase space. The existence of scaling properties in the space-time behaviour makes it possible to apply the renormalization group approach which we call Renormalization Group of Kinetics (RGK).
Fractional Kinetic Equation: Solutions and Modifications
Authors: Zaslavsky George M
Published: November 2023

This section presents mainly technical material on how to operate with the fractional kinetic equation. We provide only some preliminary information addressing details in special literature (see the book by Podlubny (1999) and references therein). There are three different approaches to the solutions of FKE: series, Fourier–Laplace transform, and separation of variables. We consider a simplifiled form of them with respect to some simple models (Note 18.1).
Complexity and Entropy of Dynamics
Authors: Zaslavsky George M
Published: November 2023

This chapter is devoted to the extension of notions of entropy and complexity of Hamiltonian dynamics that can be chaotic or pseudochaotic. We have partly set out this discussion in Section 4.5, but for strongly intermittent motions of Hamiltonian systems, we need more specific details of trajectories to perform the entropy analysis. The notion of complexity has a rigorous meaning and it presents a quantity that characterizes systems and that can be measured. In an oversimplified way, one can say that the less predictable a system is, the larger the complexity that should be assigned to the system. The original version of the complexity of dynamics was closely linked to the system’s instability and entropy (Kolmogorov and Tikhomirov (1959), Tikhomirov (1963), Bowen (1973)). A typical situation of the chaotic dynamics could be associated with a positive Kolmogorov–Sinai entropy, or be similar to the Anosov-type systems (Sections 4.5 and 4.6). This type of randomness and complexity of the systems can be characterized by the exponential divergence of trajectories in phase space.
Complexity and Entropy Functions
Authors: Zaslavsky George M
Published: November 2023

The goal of this chapter is to introduce a new definition of a complexity function rather than just complexity in order to be able to characterize a system with at least two different time scales of ‘complex’ dynamics: one time scale can characterize an exponential dispersion of trajectories while the second time scale is related to the power-wise dispersion.
Chaos and Foundation of Statistical Mechanics
Authors: Zaslavsky George M
Published: November 2023

This is a chapter dedicated to a very special topic of theoretical physics and statistical mechanics: the role of chaos in the foundation of laws of statistical mechanics. Any kind of a physical object, particle, or field can be described by the corresponding equations, Newton equation, Maxwell equations, etc. These equations are reversible in time and fully deterministic, i.e. there exists a unique solution (trajectory) at any time instant t > 0 if some initial conditions are given at t = 0. How, when, and why can an ensemble of a large number of such objects be described in a statistical or probabilistic way, with time irreversible equations, growth of entropy, relaxation to the equilibrium, and other features of the kinetics? The question implies two sides of the problem: one formal and one real.
Chaotic Advection (Dynamics of Tracers)
Authors: Zaslavsky George M
Published: November 2023

The dynamics of fluids can be presented by a vector field v(r, t) that defines a velocity of fluid at any time instant t at the point r.
Advection by Point Vortices
Authors: Zaslavsky George M
Published: November 2023

A system of point vortices is a specific type of flow with singularities at the points of the vortices location. Being an exact solution of the Euler equation, a set of point vortices is a convenient model to study different problems of fluid dynamics and turbulence. Such types of models occur in other areas of physics: condensed matter, statistical physics, plasma physics, oceanography, meteorology, etc. Advection of tracers by point vortices is an important and constructive way for the resolution and diagnostic of the vortices states. At the same time, systems with point vortices present a special and interesting types of Hamiltonian dynamics as well as dynamics of advected particles. In this chapter we demonstrate how the fractional kinetics and anomalous transport appear for advection of tracers and vortices (Note 24.1).
Subcortical Brain Mechanisms In Speech Motor Control
Authors: Murdoch Bruce E
Published: November 2023

Speech production requires smooth coordination of orofacial, laryngeal, and respiratory muscles. Clinical data indicate that initiation and precise execution of articulatory movements depend upon the integrity of various neural subsystems involving both cortical and subcortical structures, such as the primary motor cortex, supplementary motor area, the basal ganglia, and the cerebellum. It is well established that neurological disorders considered to be attributable primarily to lesions involving subcortical structures such as the basal ganglia and cerebellum are frequently associated with the occurrence of motor speech disorders (Darley et al. 1975; Murdoch 1998).
The Differential Diagnosis Of Apraxia Of Speech
Authors: Mcneil Malcolm R , Pratt Sheila R , Fossett Tepanta R D
Published: November 2023

The study of apraxia of speech (AOS) has received renewed interest in the past 5 or 6 years, as evidenced by several large critical reviews (McNeil et al. 1997, 2000; Code 1998; Ballard et al. 2000; Miller 2000). This interest was preceded by earlier description (e.g. Itoh et al. 1979; Katz 1987; Odell et al. 1990, 1991), experimentation (e.g. Monoi et al. 1983) and hypotheses about the nature of AOS (e.g. Darley et al. 1975; Kelso and Tuller 1981; Wertz et al. 1984) and has been expressed in a recent flurry of theoretical formulations (van der Merwe 1997; Dogil and Mayer 1998; Whiteside and Varley 1998; Rogers and Storkel 1999; Miller 2002; Ziegler 2002, 2003a, b; Ballard et al. 2003). These formulations follow a history, encompassing 30 years and more, of perceptual, acoustic and physiologic descriptions of AOS, and comparisons to other similar populations.
Excitons In Conjugated Polymers
Authors: Barford William
Published: November 2023

The study of excitons in conjugated polymers has often been inspired by the treatment of excitons in bulk three-dimensional semiconductors (as described in Knox (1963)). A particle-hole excitation from the valence band to the conduction band in a semiconductor leaves a positively charged hole in the valence band and a negatively charged electron in the conduction band. The Coulomb attraction between these particles results in bound states, or exactions. In three-dimensional semiconductors the excitons are usually weakly bound, with large particle-hole separations, and are well described by a hydrogenic model. Excitons in this limit are known as Mott-Wannierexcitons.
The epidemic in India
Authors: Gupta Prakash C , Ray Cecily S
Published: November 2023

Tobacco was introduced in India during the late sixteenth-century into the kingdom of Adil Shah, with its capital at Bijapur, presently in Karnataka. The Ambassador of the Mogul Emperor Akbar in Delhi, after a visit to Bijapur, brought for him tobacco and jewel-encrusted European style pipes. The appreciation at court was marred only by the Emperor’s physicians who forbade him to inhale the smoke, since tobacco was an unknown substance. A compromise was reached wherein the smoke was to be first passed through water for purification, resulting in invention of hookah. Hookah smoking became popular in parts of India where a strong Mogul influence prevailed; it was especially favoured among the aristocratic and elite classes, mainly in North India. Ornately crafted in engraved silver, brass, or other precious materials and decorated with enamel or jewels, the hookah became a status symbol. Paintings of the Mogul period show both men and women smoking hookahs.
The future worldwide health effects of current smoking patterns
Authors: Peto Richard , Lopez Alan D
Published: November 2023

Worldwide, there are only two or three major causes of death whose effects are now increasing rapidly: tobacco and HIV (and, perhaps, obesity). If current smoking patterns persist, there will be about 1 billion deaths from tobacco during the twenty-first century, as against ‘only’ about 0.1 billion (100 million) during the whole of the twentieth century. About half of these deaths will be in middle age (35-69) rather than old age-and, those killed by tobacco in middle age lose, on average, more than 20 years of non-smoker life expectancy (Box A). First, the world population in middle and old age will increase. Second, the proportion of the deaths in middle and old age that is caused by tobacco will increase substantially over the next few decades, due to the delayed effects of the large increase in cigarette smoking among young adults over the past few decades (Doll et al. 1994; Peto et al. 1994, 1999; Murray and Lopez 1996; World Health Organization 1996, 1997). Among cigarette smokers,
Tobacco and women
Authors: Amos Amanda , Mackay Judith
Published: November 2023

Smoking is still seen mainly as a male problem, since in most countries smoking prevalence is lower among women than men. Yet, it is currently estimated that there are already about 200 million women in the world who smoke, and in addition, there are others who chew tobacco (WHO 1999). Approximately 15% of women in developed countries and 8% of women in developing countries smoke, but because most women live in developing countries, there are numerically more women smokers in developing countries. Unless effective, comprehensive and sustained initiatives are implemented to reduce smoking uptake among young women and increase cessation rates among women, the prevalence of female smoking in developed and developing countries could rise to 20% by 2025 (Lopez A., personal communication 1997).
Laryngeal cancer
Authors: Boffetta Paolo
Published: November 2023

More than 160 000 new cases of laryngeal cancer are estimated to occur each year worldwide, and 89 000 people die from this disease. Tobacco smoking is the main cause of laryngeal cancer in all populations among which studies have been conducted, and at least two-thirds of cases among men and one-third of cases among women are attributable to tobacco smoking. The risk of laryngeal cancer among heavy smokers is at least 20 times higher than that of non-smokers. Both the amount of cigarettes smoked per day and the duration of smoking are important determinants of the risk; a protective effect of quitting smoking is clear after five years. Several studies have suggested a higher risk among deep inhalers; smokers of hand-rolled cigarettes and smokers of black-tobacco cigarettes have a higher risk than other smokers. An increased risk has been shown following smoking of cigar and pipe, as well as of bidi and other local tobacco products.
Cigarette smoking and colorectal cancer
Authors: Giovannucci Edward
Published: November 2023

Our understanding of the potential association between tobacco and risk of colorectal cancer has had an interesting history. The landmark early studies, which covered the 1950s and 1960s, consistently did not support an association between tobacco and colorectal cancer risk (Hammond and Horn 1958, 1966; Higginson 1966; Kahn 1966; Staszewski 1969; Weir and Dunn 1970; Doll and Peto 1976; Williams and Horm 1977; Graham et al. 1978; Doll et al. 1980; Haenszel et al. 1980; Rogot and Murray 1980). Many of these studies had been instrumental in demonstrating important associations with other cancer sites. Generally, by the 1970s, tobacco was not considered an important risk factor for colorectal cancer. However, around this time colorectal adenomas had become established as cancer precursors through careful pathologic studies (Morson 1974; Lev 1990). Epidemiologists began studying risk factors for colorectal adenomas in studies conducted in the 1980s and 1990s, and smokers were consistently found to have an appreciably elevated risk
Smoking and cervical neoplasia
Authors: Szarewski Anne , Cuzick Jack
Published: November 2023

Squamous cell cervical cancer is primarily related to sexual activity (reviewed by Brinton 1992). Important risk factors are the number of sexual partners (of both the woman and her male partner) and early age at first intercourse. Use of barrier methods of contraception appears to be protective, whereas long-term use of the combined oral contraceptive pill appears to increase risk (Moreno et al. 2002; Skegg 2002). Overwhelming evidence now implicates the human papillomaviruses (HPVs), particularly certain so-called ‘high-risk’ types (e.g. 16, 18, 31, 33, 35, 39, 45, 51, 52, 56, 58, 59, and 68) as the causal sexually transmitted agents (Walboomers et al. 1999) although other sexually transmitted infections such as chlamydia, herpes simplex virus (HSV), and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) may also have a role. The high frequency of infection with HPV and the relative rarity of cervical cancer suggest that other factors are needed to facilitate the carcinogenic process.
Tobacco and alcohol interaction
Authors: Lowenfels Albert B , Maisonneuve Patrick
Published: November 2023

Throughout the world, tobacco and alcohol abuse are responsible for an appreciable proportion of avoidable deaths. Alcohol has been used in all cultures throughout recorded history, but tobacco only became widely available after the discovery of the New World. At first, tobacco use was restricted to the wealthy class, but by the beginning of the seventeenth century, combined exposure to alcohol and tobacco was common in all classes (Figure 36.1). Both agents are addictive, although nicotine, the major addictive compound contained in tobacco, is probably more so than alcohol. Both agents are widely used: nearly 80% of Americans over age 12 have consumed alcohol at some time, which is similar to the percentage of persons who report ever using tobacco. However, less than one-third of adults are current smokers-much smaller than the proportion of current alcohol users.
A brief history of legislation to control the tobacco epidemic
Authors: Roemer Ruth
Published: November 2023

The protection and promotion of the health and welfare of its citizens is considered to be one of the most important functions of the modern state (Rosen 1958). In no sense is this more true than with respect to the role of governments in combating the world-wide tobacco epidemic. This chapter seeks to trace the evolution of tobacco legislation in the second half of the twentieth century, from 1950 to 2002. Our object is to analyse the progress made, the deficits still existing, and the challenges facing the countries of the world in the future.
Effective interventions to reduce smoking
Authors: Jha Prabhat , Ross Hana , Corrao Marlo A , Chaloupka Frank J
Published: November 2023

Cigarette smoking and other tobacco use currently accounts for one of every ten adult deaths world wide. Given current trends, about 500 million people alive today will die prematurely as a result of tobacco use, with one billion deaths from tobacco expected during this century (WHO 1997; Peto and Lopez 2001). Future tobacco mortality depends largely on current smoking patterns. The increase in tobacco deaths is the result of both increases in the susceptible population size and increases in age-specific disease rates.
Polymer molecules
Authors: Witten T , Pincus P
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we have our first in-depth encounter with a specific fluid structure: the flexible chain molecules known as polymers. The basis for much of their distinctive behaviour lies in their flexibility and randomness. This chapter focus on the properties of individual molecules that embody this flexibility and randomness. The next chapter focuses on the further properties that emerge when large numbers of polymers interact in a liquid. There we will also treat the basic motions of a polymer solution: diffusion and flow. The Preface notes a number of other texts covering these polymer phenomena.
Polymer solutions
Authors: Witten T , Pincus P
Published: November 2023

The previous chapter has shown how a polymer chain behaves when it is by itself in a solvent. But the properties seen in a macroscopic fluid result from many polymers interacting in the solvent. In this chapter we turn to a survey of how polymer structure, energy, and motion are altered by their mutual interactions. We first describe the energy associated with interaction in dilute solution. The following section discusses the new structural and energetic features that appear when the polymers interpenetrate. Then we turn to dynamics. The first subsection discusses the Brownian motion of a sphere, the starting point for understanding how objects move in a liquid. We show how spontaneous thermal motions are related to the work needed to create motion.
Colloids
Authors: Witten T , Pincus P
Published: November 2023

Colloidal dispersions are homogeneous suspensions of solid particles in a Historically colloids referred to any sticky, fluid. Most inks and paints are colloidal dispersions. The particle size ranges from nanometers to microns. Such a particle is large enough to approach its bulk properties on the atomic scale but small enough that its thermal gelatinous material. Here, we follow the more recent usage. energy dominates its gravitational energy colloid science is concerned with maintaining the dispersed state. This is the problem of colloidal stabilization. Stabilization is achieved by modifying the particles’ surfaces to prevent aggregation. Thus understanding and control of interfacial forces is central to colloid science and to this chapter.
Interfaces
Authors: Witten T , Pincus P
Published: November 2023

Most of our experience with liquids arises not from the bulk of the liquid but from its interfaces with other media. As we gaze onto the ocean or into our cup of coffee, it is the surface of the liquid that catches our eye. The property that distinguishes a liquid from a gas is the existence of this surface. This chapter deals with such interfaces—how they are structured, how much energy they have, and how fast they move and relax. Most importantly, it deals with how solute molecules, both simple and complex, affect these properties.
Classical Elasticity
Authors: Warner M , Terentjev E M
Published: November 2023

The deformation tensor λ has arisen naturally in the derivation of classical rubber elas-ticity. In the form given by eqn (3.20) it is appropriate for small and large strains alike, which is as well since rubber is capable for strains up to many hundreds of percent. Since the remainder of this book is concerned with elasticity of a new and unexpected form, with hitherto unsuspected phenomena to be summarised in the next chapter, we devote some space to reviewing the symmetry character of λ, from whence the effects will arise. We also examine the structure of non-linear elasticity and the connection with linear elasticity commonly used to describe solids at small strains. In contrast to classical elasticity, nematic rubber elasticity relies on the coupling of the rotations of internal degrees of freedom (the director n) to not only elastic strains but also body rotations. We thus illustrate the geometry of deformations and local rotations in order to prepare for this new type of elasticity. We note that incompressible distortions are all essentially shears; even the simple extensions and compressions of the rectangular block in Fig. 3.9 are shears, just viewed from a rotated coordinate frame. Deforma-tions, not in general symmetric or anti-symmetric, can be broken down into symmetric (pure shear) and rotational components. This will be useful in considering the mechano orientational responses and instabilities of nematic elastomers. Intimately related to this symmetric/anti-symmetric resolution of strains are the square roots of tensors. We dis-cuss them in this context, though principally to introduce them for the later treatment of soft elasticity. Finally, we discuss the (limited) role of compressibility in this elasticity.