bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
R
okeach,
M
ilton (1918–1988)
Authors: Staff
Published: January 2010

Milton Rokeach was born in Hrubishow, Poland, in 1918, and moved with his family to Brooklyn when he was seven years old. He graduated from Brooklyn College in 1941. He enrolled in the fledgling social psychology program at Berkeley in 1941, but his studies were interrupted by a stint (1942–1945) in the Air Force Aviation Psychology Program. He returned to Berkeley in 1946 and received his Ph.D. in 1947. From 1947 to 1970 he was a member of the Michigan State University Psychology faculty. He joined the faculty at the University of Western Ontario from 1970 to 1972, and he then moved to Washington State University where he worked in sociology and psychology from 1972 to 1986. He joined the faculty at the University of Southern California in 1986. Rokeach received the Kurt Lewin Memorial Award from the American Psychological Association in 1984 and the Harold Lasswell Award from the International Society of Political Psychology in 1988.
Rumor
Authors: DiFonzo Nicholas
Published: January 2010

Rumors are information statements in circulation that lack a solid basis of evidence. They typically arise in contexts that are unclear or threatening and are passed along in an attempt to gain clarity or reduce risk (DiFonzo, 2008). Rumors are, first of all, declarative statements that purport to tell us something, and—especially in contradistinction to gossip and urban legends—are perceived as relatively urgent or important. For example, the false rumor “Tropical Fantasy Fruit Punch contains a sterilizer for black men” made a claim about the punch's ingredients that Brooklyn residents once took quite seriously (Freedman, 1991). Rumors are more than private thoughts, attitudes, or stereotypes; they must be communicated or discussed with others. The central feature of rumor statements is that they are unverified or unsubstantiated. A comparison with news is helpful here. News is normally backed up by secure standards of evidence, whereas rumors never are. Labeling a statement as “rumor” does not signify that it is necessarily false but simply doubtful; the statement may in fact be true or false.
Russia, Psychology in
Authors: Balachova Tatiana , Tsvetkova Larissa
Published: January 2010

Two important traditions of clinical and experimental research played a decisive role in the development of psychology in Russia. Psychiatrists established most of the early psychological laboratories to serve the needs of psychiatric patients and to facilitate clinical research. V. Bekhterev inaugurated the first laboratory at the Kazan University clinic in 1886, soon followed by laboratories in other psychiatric clinics. Bekhterev founded the journal
Review of Psychiatry, Neuropathology, and Experimental Psychology
in 1896, and in 1907, he founded the Psychoneurological Institute in St. Petersburg, which is currently named the Bekhterev Research Psychoneurological Institute and is the leading center for medical (clinical) psychology in Russia.
Scapegoating
Authors: Glick Peter
Published: January 2010

Scapegoating is unfairly blaming a group for causing societal misfortunes (e.g., the Nazis blaming the Jews for Germany's loss of World War I). Mass frustrations, such as economic, political, and social crises, can lead to severe attacks against scapegoated groups, including ethnic cleansing and genocide. Early scapegoating theories invoked Freudian psychodynamics and, later, the frustration–aggression hypothesis. Both view scapegoating as displaced aggression, in which people vent frustrations on an innocent and usually weak and vulnerable victim. A recent approach, however, views scapegoating as rooted in stereotypes that exaggerate the power of successful minority groups.
Schizoaffective Disorder
Authors: Tso Ivy F. , Chun Jinsoo , Deldin Patricia J.
Published: January 2010

Schizoaffective disorder was first described in the literature by Kasanin in 1933, referring to a group of patients in whom both psychotic (“schizo”) and mood (“affective”) symptoms are prominent features. A formal diagnosis of schizoaffective disorder requires that (1) a mood episode (major depressive, manic, or mixed) co‐occurs with active schizophrenia symptoms; (2) hallucinations or delusions have occurred for at least 2 weeks in the absence of prominent mood symptoms; (3) the mood symptoms are present for a substantial portion of the total active and residual phases of schizophrenia; and (4) the symptoms are not related to the direct physiological effects of a substance or a general medical condition. Schizoaffective disorder can be further broken down into two subtypes: depressive type (if the mood component consists of only major depressive episodes) and bipolar type (if a manic or mixed episode is part of the mood component). Because loss of interest or pleasure also resembles another common symptom of schizophrenia (i.e., anhedonia), the other essential feature of a major depressive episode, pervasive depressive mood, must be present in the depressive type of schizoaffective disorder.
Schizophrenia
Authors: Marcello Stephanie C. , Silverstein Steven M.
Published: January 2010

Schizophrenia is a severe mental disorder that is characterized by abnormal sensory experiences, or hallucinations (e.g., hearing voices that are not there); odd beliefs not shared by those around you, or delusions (e.g., that one is being followed by the FBI or that one's thoughts can be heard by nearby people); loss of normal functions such as motivation and anticipating pleasure (i.e., negative symptoms); cognitive impairment; and problems in social functioning. It is a heterogeneous disorder, in that the extent and severity of the symptoms, cognitive deficits, and social dysfunction vary among individuals. The diagnosis of schizophrenia is based on meeting criteria for the presence of symptoms, decline in functioning, and level of disability and on ruling out other possible causes of the symptoms (e.g., certain neurological disorders, substance abuse). There is no laboratory or medical test that can be used to diagnosis this disorder. One theory is that schizophrenia is not a single disease but an array of disorders that share a final common pathway leading to the brain abnormalities and clinical features associated with this diagnosis.
Schizophrenia, Childhood and Adolescent
Authors: Larsen Molly , Walker Elaine
Published: January 2010

Schizophrenia is a serious mental illness that usually has its onset in early adulthood, with a typical age at onset between ages 20 and 25 (Goldner, Hsu, Waraich, & Somers, 2002). Although much less common, the illness can also occur in children and adolescents. These early‐onset cases are often characterized by more severe symptoms with a worse prognosis, and the patients are more likely to be male (Rapoport & Inoff‐Germain, 2000). However, the results of genetic and neurobiological studies generally suggest that childhood‐onset schizophrenia and adult‐onset schizophrenia are the same disorder and have common etiologic factors. Thus, the same diagnostic criteria are used to diagnose children and adults (American Psychiatric Association [APA], 2000).
Schizophrenia, Functional Outcomes in
Authors: Harvey Philip
Published: January 2010

The classic symptoms of schizophrenia, such as delusions, hallucinations, and elements of disorganized behavior (e.g., communication abnormalities and bizarre behavior), are striking in their presentation. However, the most common symptom of schizophrenia is disability in everyday functioning: impairments in social, living, and vocational outcomes. The striking clinical signs of schizophrenia are episodic in nature and can come and go even in the absence of treatment, as demonstrated by the fact that up to a third of people with schizophrenia demonstrated remission of these symptoms even prior to the development of antipsychotic medications. In contrast, disability in schizophrenia develops early in the illness and is persistent, even during periods when the symptoms just described are absent because of treatment or spontaneous remission.
Schizotypal Personality Disorder
Authors: Peskin Melissa , Raine Adrian
Published: January 2010

Schizotypal personality disorder is characterized by a constellation of traits that fall into three main clusters: cognitive‐perceptual disturbances, interpersonal disturbances, and disorganized, eccentric behavior. Although long described under a variety of names by researchers, this constellation of traits was given its current name in 1980 with the publication of the third edition of the
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM‐III; American Psychiatric Association, 1980). Prior to that, researchers referred to the interpersonal and disorganized features of schizotypy as “borderline schizophrenia” in an attempt to characterize those clinical features seen in relatives of individuals with schizophrenia. According to the most recent revision of the DSM, the DSM‐IV‐TR (American Psychiatric Association, 2000), the disorder consists of a pervasive pattern of social and interpersonal deficits characterized by profound discomfort with, and decreased capacity for, close relationships, in addition to odd behaviors and cognitive and/or perceptual distortions. This pattern begins by early adulthood and occurs in various contexts.
School Adjustment
Authors: Reich Holly A. , Flanagan Kelly S.
Published: January 2010

School adjustment is the degree of school acculturation required or adaptations necessitated for maximizing the educational fit between students' unique characteristics and the distinct nature and requirements of learning environments. Indeed, a student's school adjustment depends on the match between his or her competencies and needs and the demands of the school environment. School adjustment may fluctuate across schools and years or across different domains or classrooms within the same year and is influenced by a myriad of complex and interconnected factors.
Schools of Professional Psychology
Authors: Chin Jean Lau
Published: January 2010

Schools of professional psychology have as their primary purpose to educate and train psychologists for clinical practice that is informed by the science of psychology. The professional psychology movement began in the 1970s as a response to the gap in clinical psychology training in which the study of psychology as a science was often disconnected from the practice of psychology. The Vail Conference of 1973 defined this practitioner–scholar focus on professional psychology training. In addition to the Doctor of Philosophy degree (PhD), the Doctor of Psychology degree (PsyD), with its emphasis on practice, had also achieved credibility by this time, making it possible to expand clinical training of psychologists beyond research universities. In addition, Adelphi University had shown that it was possible for such programs to develop in a university setting, and the California School of Professional Psychology had shown that these programs could develop as free‐standing entities. Following the Vail Conference, many professional schools either were founded or were in the process of being founded (Peterson, Peterson, Abrams, & Stricker, 1997).
Scientific Method
Authors: Machado Armando , Silva Francisco
Published: January 2010

In their search for knowledge, scientists engage in a variety of research activities. For example, they perform systematic observations and controlled experiments, measure and correlate variables, build and refine instruments, develop test theories, and propose and refute alternative conceptions of phenomena. When used to achieve knowledge and justify claims of it, these activities constitute the scientific method.
Seasonal Affective Disorder
Authors: Roecklin Kathryn A. , Rohan Kelly J.
Published: January 2010

Seasonal affective disorder (SAD) is recurrent major depression with onset and full remission (or change to hypomania or mania) during characteristic seasons. For the vast majority of SAD cases, major depressive episodes begin in the fall or winter and remit or change in the spring. SAD is diagnosed as major depressive, bipolar I, or bipolar II disorder with a seasonal pattern in the
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM‐IV‐TR; American Psychiatric Association, 2000). Among SAD patients, major depressive disorder is the most common diagnosis, bipolar II is less common, and bipolar I is rare. The average age of onset for SAD is 23 to 27 years, but SAD has also been observed in children and adolescents (Magnusson & Partonen, 2005).
Self‐Determination
Authors: Deci Edward L. , Ryan Richard M.
Published: January 2010

Early psychological scientists interested in the regulation of behavior focused primarily on reinforcements such as tangible rewards that were said to strengthen the associative bonds that regulated people's behavior (Hull, 1943; Skinner, 1953). An associative bond is a hypothetical construct represented as a mechanistic link between some type of stimulus and a particular response, which then prompts the response when that stimulus is present. With reinforcements and associative bonds as the determiners of behavior, people's thoughts were said to be irrelevant to the causes of behavior.
Self‐Esteem
Authors: Mruk Christopher J.
Published: January 2010

The term
self‐esteem
was first coined by William James in 1890, which makes it one of the oldest concepts in psychology. Self‐esteem's importance is often seen in relation to such crucial areas as human motivation, development, performance, coping ability, relationship formation, psychopathology, and mental health or overall well‐being. Self‐esteem also appears to be the third most frequently occurring theme in psychological literature, with more than 25,000 articles, chapters, and books written on the topic (Rodewalt & Tragakis, 2003). Given such a long and important history, it is not surprising to find several definitions of self‐esteem in the field (Mruk, 2006). Three of these definitions generate distinct schools of thought consisting of central ideas about self‐esteem, major theories consistent with each set of ideas, and a related body of research concerning the role self‐esteem plays in behavior. Therefore, understanding self‐esteem and its field requires appreciating each position, especially in terms of relative strengths and weaknesses.
Self‐Help Groups
Authors: Klaw Elena , Luong Desiree
Published: January 2010

A self‐help group is an organization of individuals sharing a common concern who meet regularly to provide and receive emotional support and to exchange information. Self‐help groups exist for nearly every health and social support problem; this makes them a useful referral source for mental health professionals. Further, because self‐help groups are free of charge and allow unlimited attendance, they provide ongoing support to participants regardless of limits imposed by financial resources and managed health care. Self‐help groups thus provide vital access to care for underserved groups. In fact, individuals with low incomes (less than $20,000/year) and low social support are more likely to participate than individuals with higher levels of economic and support resources (Klaw & Humphreys, 2004). Although self‐help groups have traditionally convened through face‐to‐face meetings, in recent years Internet self‐help forums have proliferated.
Sensation Seeking
Authors: Zuckerman Marvin
Published: January 2010

Sensation seeking is a personality trait expressed in the generalized tendency to seek varied, novel, complex, and intense sensations and experiences and the willingness to take risks for the sake of such experiences (Zuckerman, 1979, 1994, 2007). Others have used different terms to describe what is essentially the same trait (e.g. novelty seeking, arousal seeking, thrill seeking, experience seeking, venturesomeness, excitement seeking, fun seeking).
Separation‐Individuation
Authors: Lapsley Daniel K.
Published: January 2010

Separation‐individuation is a fundamental organizing principle of human growth that has implications for adaptive functioning across the lifespan. In its most general sense individuation refers to a process “by which a person becomes increasingly differentiated from a past or present relational context” (Karpel, 1976, p. 66). Mature differentiation resolves the relational tension between agency and communion. Regarding communion, individuation requires maintaining a sense of attachment and connection to others—children and parents, mentors and protégés, friendship dyads, romantic partners and spouses—but without enmeshment and fusion with them. Indeed, the extent to which one experiences the self as fused with another is an indicator of how well communion is differentiated from enmeshment. Regarding agency, individuation requires a mature sense of autonomy and independence, but without isolation and alienation. Hence the goal of individuation is the capacity for autonomous selfhood in the context of ongoing relational commitments.
Sex Offenders
Authors: Campbell Terence W.
Published: January 2010

In response to public outrage evoked by highly publicized sexual assaults, 19 states have enacted sexually violent person (SVP) statutes (Arizona, California, Florida, Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Missouri, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North Dakota, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Texas, Virginia, Washington, and Wisconsin). These laws mandate a civil hearing to determine whether a sex offender should be committed and confined indefinitely for treatment. Texas's SVP statute is unique in that it places committed offenders into supervised community settings.
Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity
Authors: Diamond Milton
Published: January 2010

Sexual orientation refers to the erotic‐love‐affectional partners a person prefers. In lay usage, one often speaks of a person as a homosexual or heterosexual, and indeed, people often refer to themselves the same way. Such usage, however, often links together those whose regular sexual partners are of the same sex with those whose same‐sex encounters are rare. The terms
heterosexual, homosexual,
and
bisexual
are better used as adjectives, not nouns, and are better applied to behaviors, not people. Diamond has encouraged using the terms
androphilic, gynecophilic,
and
ambiphilic
to describe the sexual‐erotic partners one prefers (
andro
 = male,
gyneco
 = female,
ambi
 = both,
philic
 = to love). Such terms obviate the need to specify the subject and focus instead on the desired partner. This usage is particularly advantageous when discussing the partners of transsexual or intersexed individuals. These newer terms also do not carry the social weight of the former ones.
Sexuality, Optimal
Authors: Kleinplatz Peggy J. , MéNARD Dana
Published: January 2010

Optimal sexuality occupies a paradoxical place in the public consciousness: Everybody seems to want more and better sex, as is evident in popular culture (e.g., magazine headlines, television talk shows, the Internet). However, few lay or professional persons have any idea as to what that would actually look like or how to attain it. There is very little emphasis within psychology in general and sexology in particular on optimal experience (Mahrer, 2008). At present, despite the plethora of ill‐conceived advice about how to achieve “great sex” in the mass media, there is a lack of clinical knowledge and in‐depth public discourse concerning the nature of optimal sexuality.
Sham Rage
Authors: Robinson Jennifer L. , Demaree Heath A.
Published: January 2010

Sham rageis defined as an affective and pathological aggressive state characterized by manifestations of fear and anger that lead to drastic physiological and behavioral changes. Although research has attempted to better understand the anatomical substrates associated with sham rage since its earliest observations dating back to the late 1800s, variations in the methodological approaches employed and the diverse range of species studied, combined with contradicting results, have limited advances within the field. The present description outlines the history and the most consistent neurological findings of sham rage in both animals and humans. The major connections from the limbic system, and the amygdala in particular, to other brain regions are then elucidated. In conclusion, a general model of hostility and sham rage is presented.
S
herif,
M
uzafer (1906–1988)
Authors: Lundin R.W.
Published: January 2010

Muzafer Sherif received his BA from Izmir International College and his MA from Istanbul University. He came to the United States in 1929, where he entered Harvard University and earned a second MA in 1932. He returned to Turkey where he began work on norm formulation that eventually resulted in his doctoral dissertation. In 1935 he received his PhD from Columbia University. He returned to Turkey for a second time but found himself in conflict with the Turkish government and some officials at Ankara University over their pro‐Nazi attitudes. He was imprisoned and put in solitary confinement, but he was eventually released through the efforts of the U.S. State Department and a number of influential American psychologists with whom he had been associated at Columbia. He spent the next two years at Princeton University, where he collaborated with Hadly Cantril on
The Psychology of Ego‐Involvement
.
Single Parenthood
Authors: Nystul Michael S. , Devall Esther L.
Published: January 2010

Rawlings and Saluter (1995) noted that single parenthood results when a parent divorces (57%), when a child's parents are not married (33%), or a parent becomes widowed (6%). The number of single‐parent families in the United States has increased from 9% of the general population in 1960 to 28% in 1990 and is expected to increase in relation to two‐parent families in the twenty‐first century. Research on single parenthood has tended to focus on the impact on children, impact on parents, and the impact on the parent–child relationship.
Sleeper Effect
Authors: Kumkale G. Tarcan
Published: January 2010

Thesleeper effectrefers to a delayed increase in the impact of a persuasive message. It is said to occur when the delayed effect of the message is greater than its immediate effect. For instance, recipients of a message may disagree with the message and show little or no attitude change in response. Over time, however, attitudes may shift in the direction of advocacy, especially if the recipients remember the message well but forget the reason for discounting it in the first place. In everyday life, people receive hundreds of messages on a given day. Therefore, remembering the message, its source, and the features of the original learning context becomes quite difficult. Consequently, the sleeper effect should be widely observed in everyday life.
Social Climate Research
Authors: Bennett J. B.
Published: January 2010

Social climate (psychological climate, social context) is typically defined as the perceptions of a social environment that tend to be shared by a group of people. Climate is rooted in perception (“how I see the way things are done or how people treat each other around here”). Culture refers more to the beliefs, values, and norms that comprise the interdependent experiences and practices of larger collectives (“what we—as a group—should do and why and how we do it”) (Deninson, 1996; Schneider, 1990). Like meteorological or atmospheric climate, social climate is relatively distinctive across groups (as the tropics differ from the Himalayas), is dynamic or changeable within groups (like the seasons), and can influence behavior (like an individual's choice of clothing). Social climate research has grown considerably since White and Lippitt's (1960) early experiments comparing democratic, autocratic, and laissez‐faire leadership in small groups of children. The concept and measurement of social climate have since been applied across widely diverse disciplines both within and outside the field of psychology.
Social Cognitive Development
Authors: Olson Kristina R. , Shutts Kristin
Published: January 2010

Social cognitive development (SCD) is a field of psychology that is concerned with the origins and development of representations and processes involved in social thought and interactions. Topics of study in social cognitive development are diverse and include theory of mind, social preferences and attitudes, relationships, aggression, morality, and prosocial behavior.
Social Neuroscience
Authors: Cacioppo John T. , Berntson Gary G. , Waytz Adam
Published: January 2010

Social neuroscience is the study of the associations between social and neural levels of organization and the biological mechanisms underlying these associations. Neuroscientists have tended to focus on single organisms, organs, cells, or intracellular processes. Social species create emergent organizations beyond the individual. These emergent structures evolved hand in hand with neural and hormonal mechanisms to support them because the consequent social behaviors helped animals survive, reproduce, and care for offspring sufficiently long that they, too, reproduced. Social neuroscience, therefore, is concerned with how biological systems implement social processes and behavior. It capitalizes on concepts and methods from the neurosciences to inform and refine theories of social psychological processes, and it uses social and behavioral concepts and data to inform and refine theories of neural organization and function.
Social Phobia
Authors: Beidel Deborah C. , Wong Nina
Published: January 2010

Since its official recognition in the third edition of the
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM‐III) in 1980, social phobia has been the subject of much empirical study. One of the most common disorders in the general population, social phobia is characterized by extreme social reticence, social isolation, social avoidance, and difficulty in social interaction. This article surveys the clinical syndrome, etiology, and treatment options for this chronic and debilitating disorder.
Social Skills Training
Authors: Mueser Kim T.
Published: January 2010

Social skills training is a widely used method in clinical, counseling, and educational psychology for teaching people more effective interpersonal skills. For example, goals such as having rewarding conversations, making friends, resolving conflict, resisting pressure from others, handling social situations at work or school, and getting one's needs met during a visit to the doctor can all be accomplished through the use of social skills training. In order to teach these skills, complex social behaviors are first broken down into smaller component skills. Four broad types of component skills include nonverbal skills (e.g., facial expression, body language), paralinguistic features (e.g., voice tone and loudness), verbal content (the actual words spoken), and interactive balance (e.g., amount of time each person talks, latency to respond to the other person's verbalization). Breaking complex skills into simpler ones makes it easier for people to gradually learn them through focusing on small, incremental changes, much like the old saying, “Rome wasn't built in a day.”
Society for Consumer Psychology
Authors: Campeau Larry D.
Published: January 2010

The Society for Consumer Psychology (Division 23, American Psychological Association [APA]) represents the interests of social scientists in the fields of psychology, marketing, advertising, communication, consumer behavior, and other related areas. Each year the Society sponsors a national conference program (February), an Advertising and Consumer Psychology conference (May), and a national conference program in conjunction with the annual meeting of the APA (August). The Society publishes the
Journal of Consumer Psychology,
the Advertising and Consumer Psychology Book Series, conference proceedings, and
The Communicator
(a newsletter published online).
Society for General Psychology
Authors: Wertheimer Michael , Dewsbury Donald A.
Published: January 2010

When in 1945, a little over a half century after it was founded, the American Psychological Association (APA) reorganized itself to include the perspectives of the American Association of Applied Psychology and other groups, it inaugurated a division structure that has been an integral part of the APA ever since. The various divisions were intended to appeal to special interests (e.g., teaching, clinical psychology, experimental psychology, testing, counseling, personality). The exception was the first of the now more than 50 divisions, the Division of General Psychology. The mission of this division was and is overarching and integrative; it became a microcosm of the entire APA, endeavoring to deal with the “general problems of psychology considered both as science and as a profession,” as well as with the “relationship among specialties in psychology” and the “relationships of psychology to other areas of human knowledge.” In 1998, the division's name was changed to the Society for General Psychology in order to provide “greater recognition and authority outside of APA and give the integrative, synthesizing discipline ‘General Psychology' greater identity and visibility.”
Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology
Authors: Tetrick Lois E.
Published: January 2010

The Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP) is Division 14 of the American Psychological Association (APA) and an organizational affiliate of the Association for Psychological Science (APS). The mission of SIOP is “to enhance human well‐being and performance in organizational and work settings by promoting the science, practice, and teaching of industrial‐organizational psychology” (
http://www.siop.org/siophoshin.aspx
). Industrial organizational psychology (IO) applies psychological principles to the development of strategies that build better organizations that contribute to the health and well‐being of both individual employees and the organizations for which they work.
Society for Military Psychology
Authors: Rumsey Michael G. , Kennedy Carrie H.
Published: January 2010

The Society for Military Psychology is the premier organization for military psychologists in the United States. Its mission includes advancement of the science and practice of military psychology, fostering professional development of military psychologists, and support of the dissemination and application of the products of military research (Estrada, 2007).
Society for Personality and Social Psychology
Authors: Reis Harry T. , Dunning David
Published: January 2010

The Society for Personality and Social Psychology (SPSP), the world's largest and most influential organization dedicated to personality and social psychology, was founded in 1976. SPSP has grown to more than 5,000 members, predominantly from North America but with significant international representation from Europe and Asia as well. Although most of SPSP's members are personality or social psychologists, SPSP also counts among its members individuals from most other disciplines of psychological science.
Society for Research in Child Development
Authors: Sherrod Lonnie R. , Pacynski Steven R.
Published: January 2010

The Society for Research in Child Development (SRCD) was established in 1933 by the National Research Council of the National Academies of Science. The history of the society's origin and evolution parallels that of the academic specialty of child development. To realize its original mission, SRCD has recently developed a strategic plan to guide its future. This plan outlines five primary goals for the society that represent a broad vision for the organization and a commitment to the long‐term planning that is required to meet the challenges inherent in the present‐day situation of children and families. The society will remain a central professional organization for researchers and practitioners in all aspects of infant, child, and adolescent development. It will more extensively incorporate international perspectives in its organization, activities, and membership. Reflecting the fact that an understanding of development requires multiple perspectives and methods of research, it will broadly pursue multidisciplinary perspectives and incorporate cultural and contextual diversity in all its activities. Finally, SRCD strives to be recognized for its dissemination of research‐based knowledge that informs research priorities, public policy, professional and educational practice, and the broader public.
Society for the History of Psychology
Authors: Johnson Deborah F.
Published: January 2010

The Society for the History of Psychology (SHP) serves to foster an awareness of and appreciation for the history of psychology among members of the American Psychological Association (APA) and other scientists, scholars, and teachers. SHP, which is Division 26 of the APA and formerly named History of Psychology, was organized first and foremost to encourage original scholarship in the history of psychology. However, the division is also committed to extending awareness of that history to the psychological community in order to foster a better understanding of the aims of contemporary psychology, its relation to other scientific and scholarly fields, and its role in society.
Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues
Authors: Frieze Irene Hanson , Perlman Daniel
Published: January 2010

The Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues (SPSSI) is an organization of social scientists that has historically brought research to bear on a wide array of societal problems. SPSSI was organized during the Depression of the 1930s in an attempt to bring together a national group of socially minded psychologists to address social and economic issues. While maintaining its status as an independently incorporated society, SPSSI also became an affiliated organization of the American Psychological Association (APA) from 1937 to 1945 and has been Division 9 of the APA from 1945 to the present.
Society for the Psychological Study of Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Issues
Authors: Kimmel Douglas C.
Published: January 2010

The Society for the Psychological Study of Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Issues was approved as Division 44 of the American Psychological Association (APA) by the APA Council of Representatives on August 26, 1984, by a vote of 80 to 26, with 8 abstentions (some of the other abstaining votes had left the room because a vote of two‐thirds approval was required) (Kimmel & Browning, 1999).
Society of Consulting Psychology
Authors: Cooper Stewart
Published: January 2010

The history of Division 13 of the American Psychological Association (APA) and how it became the Society of Consulting Psychology (SCP) are articulated in a 1999
Consulting Psychology
article by Ann O'Roark, the SCP President at that time (O'Roark, 1999). Division 13 began with a charge from the APA governance in 1920 to identify the competencies of
consulting
psychologists. Preexisting roots were the 1915 Whipple Resolution, which created the need to determine essential qualifications for psychological examiners, especially in the areas of assessment of intelligence and special abilities. In 1924, the APA‐charged group adopted its first bylaws and became the Division of Consulting Psychology. The history reveals extended discussions over many years of who was eligible to be a member of this division. In fact, up until 1963, eligibility required being a fellow of some other APA division. Work in mental health and organizational consulting has been a focus of the division from that time to the present. The current SCP owes its foundation to organizational work beginning in 1999 that included a series of strategic planning meetings, followed by changes in the organization's structure and processes, as well as programs and services. Part of these efforts led to the development and APA endorsement in 2007 of the
Guidelines for Education and Training at the Doctoral and Postdoctoral Levels in Consulting Psychology/Organizational Consulting Psychology
(APA, 2007). The current organization and its programs, services, and governance structure are markedly different from those of the past.
Somatoform Disorders
Authors: Watson William H.
Published: January 2010

In the
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM‐IV‐TR; American Psychiatric Association, 2000), the class of mental disorders involving symptoms pertaining primarily to the body are designated somatoform disorders (in Greek,
soma =
body). All somatoform disorders are marked either by the presence of medically unexplained symptoms driven at least in part by psychological processes or by anxious preoccupation with the body. Somatoform patients have significantly higher utilization of outpatient and inpatient care compared to nonsomatizing patients. They generally seek care from medical rather than mental health providers. As a result, mental health practitioners often have the mistaken impression that somatoform disorders are exceedingly rare.
Somatosensory Function
Authors: Puce Aina , Carey Leeanne
Published: January 2010

Somatosensory function is the ability to interpret bodily sensation. Sensation takes a number of forms, including touch, pressure, vibration, temperature, itch, tickle, and pain. The somatosensory system allows us to interpret sensory messages received from our body and consists of sensory receptors located in the skin, tissues, and joints; the nerve cell tracts in the body and spinal cord; and brain centers that process and modulate incoming sensory information (Figure 1).
Spain, Psychology in
Authors: Prieto JosÉ M. , Blasco Ricardo D.
Published: January 2010

The first chair of experimental psychology in Spain was created at the Complutense University of Madrid in 1900, followed by another in advanced psychology in 1923. This university led a postgraduate program that continued until the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939), when many professors and researchers on psychology went into exile. In 1952, new chairs were appointed in Madrid, Barcelona, and Valencia, and the Spanish Psychological Society (SPS) was founded. In 1953, institutes of applied psychology emerged as state agencies.
Stanford‐Binet Intelligence Scales
Authors: Kamphaus Randy W. , Juechter Julia I.
Published: January 2010

Originally released in 1905 by Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon, the Binet‐Simon Intelligence Scale marked the beginning of a new era in the measurement of intelligence. Initially designed as a diagnostic system primarily for identifying children with mental retardation, the first edition of the Binet‐Simon Intelligence Scale included 30 pass‐fail items such as word problems, paper cutting, and repeating sentences and digits. The original concepts, such as presenting items of varying levels of difficulty, the use of age‐graded norms to predict mental age, and the provision of standardized instructions for administration, set the precedent for the development of future measures of intelligence.
State‐Trait Anger Expression Inventory
Authors: Spielberger Charles D.
Published: January 2010

In 1872, Darwin (1965) observed that anger (rage) was a powerful emotion that motivated “animals of all kinds, and their progenitors before them, when attacked or threatened by an enemy, to fight and protect themselves” (p. 74). Anger is reflected in facial expressions (e.g., reddened face, clenched teeth), muscular tension, and accelerated heart rate, and it differs from rage “only in degree, and there is no marked distinction in their characteristics” (Darwin, 1965, p. 244).
Stress Consequences
Authors: Anisman Hymie
Published: January 2010

Stressors promote behavioral, cognitive, emotional, and biological changes, many of which are essential to contend with the ongoing challenge. The biological changes introduced by stressors are a cascade of neuronal, hormonal, and immunological alterations that are thought to serve in an adaptive capacity. They may prepare the organism to cope with the challenge, blunt the psychological impact of the stressor, limit excessive activation of biological systems that might otherwise produce adverse outcomes, and diminish the influence of foreign pathogens (McEwen, 2000; Sapolsky, Romero, & Munck, 2005).
Striate Cortex
Authors: Wong‐Riley Margaret T. T.
Published: January 2010

The striate cortex, also known as the primary visual cortex, area 17, or V1, is involved in conscious visual perception. It is located in the occipital pole of the cerebral cortex, where much of it is deep within the calcarine fissure. There is a precise, retinotopic representation of the contralateral visual field in each hemisphere. The vertical meridian is represented at the border between V1 and V2 (the secondary visual cortex), and the horizontal meridian bisects it midway. The contralateral lower and upper visual fields are represented in the cuneus and lingual gyrus, respectively. The map is skewed because a much larger proportion of the striate cortex is devoted to the processing of the central visual field than to the periphery. The magnification therefore changes from about 4 mm of cortex per degree of visual field to about 0.5 mm/degree as the representation moves from 1° to 25° away from the center of gaze. In humans, approximately 53% of striate cortex is devoted to the representation of the central 15° of the visual field.
Student's

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Statistic
Authors: Coladarci Theodore
Published: January 2010

At the dawn of the twentieth century, a young scientist faced the limitations of existing statistical theory when applied to research involving small samples. He worked for the Guinness brewery in Dublin, and his investigations of the quality of raw ingredients, the nature of the production process, and the resulting quality of the end product—beer—often entailed decidedly small samples of 10 or fewer experiments. The scientist was William Sealy Gosset (1876–1937). He is better known by his pseudonym “Student,” which, for proprietary reasons, his employer required him to use when publishing.
Sublimation
Authors: Graebner William
Published: January 2010

Freud brought the termsublimationinto psychoanalytic discourse in an 1897 letter to Wilhelm Fliess, in which he described culture and the libidinal drive as essentially antagonistic and conceptualized sublimation as a filter for primal memories. However, the concept, as well as the word, has significant pre‐Freudian origins. The idea that the containment of desire might yield cultural fruit dates at least to the Greeks, and the understanding of sublimation as a transformation of one substance into another is derived from ancient Egyptian and medieval alchemy (and resembles Wilhelm Ostwald's turn‐of‐the‐century ideas about the transformation of energy). Although Freud's goal in developing sublimation was to bridge mind and culture, his interest in the concept also was an expression of the anxieties about sexuality that were common in the Victorian era and that shaped the lives and work of, among others, Henry James, G. Stanley Hall, Thomas Mann, and Gaston Leroux, the author of the 1910 novelThe Phantom of the Opera.
Supportive Psychotherapy
Authors: Bloch Sidney
Published: January 2010

The derivation of the word “support” illuminates the treatment under consideration:supportare: sup _ sub _ portare—to carry (Oxford English Dictionary, 1978). In essence, the therapist helps to sustain people who are so affected by a mental disorder or personality dysfunction that they depend on that assistance, over an extended period, to function adequately. Piper, Joyce, McCallum, Azim and Ogrodniczak (2002) put it this way: “supportive therapy is…principally focused on strengthening mental structures that are actively or chronically deficient…”
Sympathetic Nervous System
Authors: Quigley Karen S.
Published: January 2010

The sympathetic nervous system (SNS) is one of the divisions of the autonomic nervous system that controls the function of organs and glands in the body (efferent portion) and senses changes in these visceral systems (afferent portion). The other division of the autonomic nervous system is the parasympathetic nervous system (PNS). The neurons comprising the efferent SNS arise from the thoracic and lumbar portions of the spinal cord (with the SNS also called the thoracolumbar division). Sympathetic fibers originating from the thoracic cord innervate organs of the head, neck, chest, and upper abdomen. Sympathetic fibers originating from the lumbar cord innervate the lower gastrointestinal (GI) tract and organs of the pelvis.
Taste Aversion Learning
Authors: Kimball Bruce A.
Published: January 2010

Learned avoidance of a specific food resulting from negative postingestive consequences is known as taste aversion learning (TAL) or flavor aversion learning. Although TAL causes avoidance behavior, taste aversion is a unique category of avoidance. Taste aversions arise specifically from exposure to stimuli that produce nausea and a qualitative shift in palatability (Pelchat, Grill, Rozin, & Jacobs, 1983). Taste aversions are the product of a hard‐wired system connecting the nose and mouth, gastrointestinal tract, and brain that allows animals to learn about toxic foods and limit intake (Provenza, 1995). Subsequent to this affective (subconscious) process, taste is further integrated with other sensory attributes of the food, such as color, odor, or texture. Such cognitive associations are said to be potentiated by taste because aversions are formed to the taste cue first. Together, these affective and cognitive processes yield an adaptive system that enables animals to learn which foods are safe to eat and which are not.
Telephone Counseling
Authors: Reese Robert J.
Published: January 2010

Telephone counseling refers to the delivery of counseling services for a variety of mental health and life problem concerns via the telephone. Services range from crisis lines provided by paraprofessionals to traditional mental health counseling provided by licensed mental health professionals. Telephone counseling was born out of the development of crisis intervention services, including suicide and teen hotlines, in the 1950s. Such services proliferated in the 1960s and 1970s and were typically provided by paraprofessionals who were trained to refer callers to the appropriate services and/or to provide empathic listening (Hornblow, 1986). The telephone offered an immediate and convenient means to accomplish these goals. These services continue to be provided in many communities today in the United States and internationally.
Tertiary Prevention
Authors: Greenfield Shelly F.
Published: January 2010

The concept of tertiary prevention arises from the public health preventive services model (U.S. Preventive Services Task Force, 1996). In this model, preventive services are categorized into primary, secondary, and tertiary interventions. The goal of primary prevention is to decrease the prevalence of disease via a reduction in its rate of occurrence. Primary prevention is therefore directed at eliminating etiologic factors, thereby reducing the incidence of the disease or eradicating it entirely. A classic example of primary prevention is the use of immunization against measles and rubella to eliminate neonatal neurological impairment caused by these diseases. Secondary prevention works to reduce prevalence (a function of both duration and rate of occurrence of the illness) by decreasing the illness's duration through early intervention and effective treatment. Tertiary prevention efforts refer to interventions that aim to reduce the severity, discomfort, or disability associated with a disorder through rehabilitation or through the reduction of the acute and chronic complications of the disorder (Mrazek & Haggerty, 1994).