bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
An Overview
Authors: Powell Jeffrey R
Published: November 2023

The Problem Of the millions of species that inhabit the earth, biological researchers tend to concentrate on relatively few organisms that subsequently become “model systems.” The reason is obvious: Research builds on past research. To advance the forefront of knowledge, the system one studies must be known up to that forefront. Obviously not all the millions of species can be so well known, so a few have been chosen for intense “vertical” study. The faith is that what holds for one species holds for all, a mindset captured in the famous (or infamous) dictum, “What is true of E. coli is true of elephants.” While today this naive faith is rarely embraced in a literal sense—given the abundant evidence that the dictum is just plain wrong—the vertical, in-depth approach to understanding biological systems still rests on confidence that what is found for one species applies in some degree to all (or at least many) living systems.
Phylogenetics
Authors: Powell Jeffrey R
Published: November 2023

The topics covered in this chapter traditionally fall into three disciplines: taxonomy, systematics, and phylogenetics. Taxonomy is the science of accurately naming, defining, and identifying various taxa. Systematics is concerned with arranging the named taxa into a logical hierarchical framework to make sense of the many millions of named taxa. Phylogenetics aims to understand the historical ancestral-descendent relationships of the taxa, both extant and extinct. Clearly the three disciplines are tightly integrated in modern biology, although this has not always been the case. For example, today it is quite widely accepted that systematics should, as far as practical, reflect phylogeny, a proposition of considerable controversy not so long ago. Because this lbook is primarily concerned with evolutionary issues, phylogenetics will be the primary focus here, although we can hardly address these issues without frequent reference to systematic and taxonomic issues as well.
Molecular Evolution
Authors: Powell Jeffrey R
Published: November 2023

The previous chapter presented a global view of the evolution of Drosophila genomes, and now we increase our magnification in examination of the genome and deal with changes in specific genes and gene systems. We will be concerned primarily with DNA variation, since protein variation, as revealed by allozyme electrophoresis, was discussed in chapter 2. However, since most studies at the DNA level have involved regions coding for proteins, we will frequently refer to issues relevant to protein evolution. In addition to describing patterns of variation observed in Drosophila, we will also examine what is known of the mechanisms that generate the patterns.
The Characteristics of Children Who Create Imaginary Companions
Authors: Taylor Marjorie
Published: November 2023

Not all children create imaginary companions. What can be said about the children who do? Is there any truth to the idea that these children are especially bright and creative, but perhaps too shy or socially awkward to develop friendships with real children? What about the Hollywood portrayal of such children as emotionally damaged or lacking a firm grasp of reality? The purpose of this chapter is to describe what the most recent research has revealed about children with imaginary companions. Along the way, I will point out why overly negative stereotypes of these children have been generated and perpetuated.
Why Do Children Create Imaginary Companions?
Authors: Taylor Marjorie
Published: November 2023

The Cat in the Hat by Dr. Seuss begins with two bored children who can’t go outside to play because it is too cold and wet. They are sitting around with nothing to do, when suddenly a tall black cat in a red top hat walks through the door and saves the day by entertaining the children for hours with his peculiarities. Everyone has a great time messing up the house until the grownups return. Scholars of popular culture differ in their interpretations of the title character of this story, but he sounds like an imaginary companion to me. For many children, someone like the Cat in the Hat would be an ideal solution to the problem of being stuck in the house on a rainy day, and it is likely that many imaginary companions have their beginnings in scenarios like the one described in Dr. Seuss’s story. As discussed in Chapter 3, children who create imaginary companions tend to enjoy social interaction.
What Happens to the Imaginary Companions Created in Early Childhood?
Authors: Taylor Marjorie
Published: November 2023

Children’S friendships with imaginary companions are often in¬ tense, emotional, and absorbing, but they don’t last forever. One day, parents realize that the pretend friend they have been hearing about for months, or even years, is no longer mentioned. A once-cherished stuffed animal ends up in the back of the closet; invisible beings dis¬ appear without a trace. These endings are typically difficult to pin¬ point and can be as perplexing as the initial appearances. When children are asked what happened to their imaginary companions, they usually report that they don’t remember. Curiously, they also express very little sadness or regret. Note that in Peter, Paul, and Mary’s well-known song, it is Puff the Magic Dragon, not Jackie Pa¬ per, who mourns when their relationship is over. In real life most children, like the fictional Jackie, give up imaginary companions without fuss or fanfare. When they are finished with their pretend friends, they move on to something new and often forget about them completely.
Synaptic Plasticity, Neural Architecture, and Forms of Memory
Authors: Morris Richard G M
Published: November 2023

This chapter deals with the relationship between synaptic plasticity and learning, with particular reference to the work of Kandel and his colleagues on Aplysia. After summarizing several general principles that may be derived from this work, I argue that the claim that the neural mechanisms of conditioning involve altering the efficacy of existing synapses does not require that all forms of conditioning elaborate existing reflexes. I argue further that a neural mechanism which detects the conjunction of two events will allow the nervous system to represent this temporal relationship only if the conjunction mechanism is embedded into appropriate circuitry. These arguments are relevant to efforts to understand the relationship between psychological and neurobiological accounts of conditioning, and they offer a new way of thinking about the significance of parallel distributed memory systems.
Time and Memory
Authors: Doty Robert W
Published: November 2023

While memory preserves times past, a record that will instruct an organism’ s future, time also enters the mnemonic process in many other guises. A critical aspect is how long the mnemonic trace will endure, a time stretching from seconds to a lifetime. Vastly shorter, yet meaningfully measurable to some degree, is the time it takes to retrieve a memory. The time between the occurrence of two successive events is also important. This temporal relation will determine whether, and in what direction, an enduring association will be formed between the events, as in the rules found applicable in forming conditioned reflexes. In terms of expectations from neurophysiology (e.g., Auyeung, May, Goh, & Sastry, 1987; Larson & Lynch, 1986), the direction of this association is paradoxical, for in the formation of a conditioned reflex it is the response to the first occurring event, the conditional stimulus, that becomes altered, whereas the response to the subsequent, unconditional stimulus is stable. I have termed this the “temporal paradox” of conditioning (Doty, 1979). This relation prevails for the usual type of Pavlovian conditioning, even in bees (Menzel, 1983), as well as when assayed with electrical excitation of randomly chosen points in mammalian neocortex (Doty & Giurgea, 1961) or, with entirely different parameters, for establishing long-term potentiation in the hippocampus with stimulus relations similar to those in conditioning (Levy & Steward, 1983). The temporal paradox is thus an underlying principle in the formation of such associations.
Dorothy Richardson.’s Pilgrimage
Authors: Wallace Doris B
Published: November 2023

Dorothy Richardson’s pilgrimage was a long walk back and forth between the self and the earlier selves. Her life and work show how the artist, by creating life, changes it. She wrote about herself, reconstructing her own past and thus her identity. The very fact that no one knew of the autobiographical nature of her novel Pilgrimage gave her more latitude, both for revelation and for blending the lived life with the created one. The, fact, also, that she wrote this very long novel over a 40-year period and lived with the central character herself-all that time strengthened the fusion of the two levels of reality. Un tangling these two skeins to make plain their relationship as part of the creative process is one of the aims of this chapter.
The Superstitious Person
Authors: Vyse Stuart A
Published: November 2023

In May 1988, Donald Regan, former White House Chief of Staff to President Ronald Reagan, released his memoirs to a flood of publicity. His insider’s view of the presidency revealed that, over a seven-year period, First Lady Nancy Reagan had employed an astrologer to advise her on a wide range of topics, many of which bore directly on the affairs of state. According to Regan, ‘‘Virtually every major move and decision the Reagans made during my time as White House Chief of Staff was cleared in advance with a woman in San Francisco who drew up horoscopes to make certain that the planets were in a favorable alignment for the enterprise.’’ He claimed that Mrs. Reagan ‘‘insisted on being consulted on the timing of every Presidential appearance and action so that she could consult her Friend in San Francisco about the astrological factor.’’ Suggestions that certain days were ‘‘bad’’ for the President led to the cancellation of speeches and press conferences and, on occasion, the curtailment of all travel for days at a time. Regan never discussed the issue with the President, so he was uncertain whether Mr. Reagan knew the extent to which his administration had been controlled by the alignment of the stars.
Language and Mind: Methods
Authors: Bartsch Karen , Wellman Henry M
Published: November 2023

Our basic assumption is that children’s talk about the mind can reveal their conceptions of the mind. Specifically, we assume that at least some uses of terms such as think, know, and want can reveal the speaker’s understanding of beliefs and desires, core concepts in an everyday theory of mind. An example might be Mark’s statement above that “he thought there were haunted things in his house.” Of course, charting children’s concepts by examining their everyday language is not simple. On the one hand, children (and adults) may use terms like think, know, or want without any conception of, or reference to, beliefs and desires. For example, they might learn to say “Know what?” to gain a listener’s attention without any deeper understanding of notions such as knowledge or knowing. Or they might say “I don’t know” in a ritualistic way, as perhaps Ross does above. On the other hand, children might understand something of beliefs and desires but never talk about them. Or they might talk about such mental states but never use conventional terms like think and want. In these ways, among others, children’s language might underestimate or overestimate their understanding.
Talk about Desires
Authors: Bartsch Karen , Wellman Henry M
Published: November 2023

We examined children’s use of the terms want, wish, hope, care, and afraid in order to chart their early understanding of mental states of desire.’ Together, desires and beliefs constitute the core constructs in our everyday mentalism. Desires, broadly conceived, include a person’s goals and motives; they point to what the person wants, or is attracted to. Beliefs cognitively frame these desires. Desires provide the dispositional bedrock of our everyday psychology; we construe human actions as essentially desire-driven, intentional actions motivated by the actor’s desires.
Individual Differences
Authors: Bartsch Karen , Wellman Henry M
Published: November 2023

In prior chapters, piecing together a composite picture of early talk about the mind was only possible because of certain important commonalities in young children’s talk about these topics; the composite picture mirrored the individual developments of 10 children. However, there are obvious and striking differences among these children as well. Consider the excerpts above, which are among the early subjective contrastives for Abe and Sarah respectively, utterances in which the child acknowledges that two people can have very different attitudes about the same state of affairs. However, Abe’s subjective contrastives began at 2;5, Sarah’s began at 2;10; Abe produced 55 such contrastives before his fourth birthday, Sarah produced 15. Differences such as these in the onset and frequency of individuals’ references to mental states are intriguing in their own right, and they provide insight into several larger issues, especially the correlates and antecedents of an understanding of mind.
Children’s Developing Theory of Mind
Authors: Bartsch Karen , Wellman Henry M
Published: November 2023

When and how do children come to understand people as thinkers, knowers, wanters, wishers, fearers, hopers, and intentional actors? In addressing these questions, we are lucky that children quickly learn to talk and that they talk not just about the physical world but about themselves and others. Children’s everyday conversations provide an effective window onto their understanding of people and minds, as demonstrated by the 10 children described in the preceding pages. Our findings are not simply empirical; the data are organized around various con ceptual distinctions that underpin and frame the research results. Some of these distinctions were outlined at the start-those between subjective and objective construals, connections and representations, beliefs and desires, for example. Other conceptual analyses were required as we proceeded so that we could more comprehensively characterize children’s conversations, such as our analysis of arguments, and of advance belief versus false belief contrastives. When this conceptual groundwork is in place, then the children’s conversations “speak for themselves.” Amidst our many findings, children’s talk about the mind reveals a relatively clear progression of three phases. There is an early phase when children talk about desires, essentially wants and likes, in a wide variety of situations: desires for objects, desires for actions, desires for current or future states of affairs, and their own desires and the desires of others. Very young children draw revealing contrasts between desires and actions or objects, and they appeal to desires in order to explain human action, emotion, and interaction.
Introduction: “The Very Essence of Judicial Duty”
Authors: Schwartz Bernard
Published: November 2023

“Human history,” says H. G. Wells, “is in essence a history of ideas.” To an American interested in constirotional history, the great theme in the country’s development is the idea of law as a check upon governmental power. The instimtion that best embodies this idea is the United States Supreme Court. But the Court itself is the beneficiary of a constimtional heritage that starts cenmries earlier in England.
Fuller Court, 1888-1910
Authors: Schwartz Bernard
Published: November 2023

The law is both a mirror and a motor. It is, as Holmes tells us, a mirror wherein we see reflected the society which it serves. But the law also helps to move the society in the direction that is perceived to serve best the “felt necessities of the time.” The jurisprudence of the Supreme Court inevitably reflects both aspects of the law’s role.
Watershed Cases:Lochner v. New York) 1905
Authors: Schwartz Bernard
Published: November 2023

Aside from Dred Scott itself, Lochner v. New Y ork is now considered the most discredited decision in Supreme Court history. When commentators discuss the case at all, they use it as a vehicle to illustrate the drastic change in jurisprudence during the twentieth century, which has seen the Holmes dissent in Lochner elevated to established doctrine.
Hughes Court, 1930-1941
Authors: Schwartz Bernard
Published: November 2023

In 1935 the Supreme Court moved into its new building across the plaza from the Capitol. For the first time in its history, the Court had a home of its own-a magnificent Marble Palace symbolizing its role as the ultimate embodiment of Equal Justice Under Law-the motto inscribed on the frieze above the front entrance. The new building at last presented the Court with a physical setting that matches the splendor of its constitutional role. Whatever purely architectural criticisms may be directed at the Court building, it cannot be denied that it is one of the most imposing structures in Washington. Its design is modeled on a classic Greek temple and is intended as a shrine to the majesty of the law. Its physical scale is truly impressive. Both longer and wider than a football field, it is four stories high and is constructed almost entirely of marble. At the main entrance are sixteen huge Corinthian columns, topped by a pediment; in its center, Liberty Enthroned, holding the scales of justice, guarded by Order on one side and Authority on the other.
The Outcome of Neuropsychological RehabiIitation Programs that Incorporate Cognitive Rehabilitation and Psychotherapeutic Intervention
Authors: Prigatano George P
Published: November 2023

Neuropsychological rehabilitation that is holistic in scope and embedded in a milieu day-treatment program often seems to produce the best out comes for patients with traumatic brain injuries (TBls), but opinions on this proposition differ (Malec and Basford, 1996). This chapter focuses on the clinical and scientific evidence that supports the clinical usefulness (or efficacy) of such programs of care. To aid this analysis, four inter connected questions must be considered (as outlined in Chapter 4).
Introduction
Authors: Hesse-Biber Sharlene
Published: November 2023

Several years ago, the director of the Counseling Center at Boston College asked me to help find out why the Center was overwhelmed with female students reporting eating problems. The situation had been getting worse over the past few years. Numerous cases of bulimia (compulsive binge eating, often followed by self-induced vomiting) and anorexia (obsession with food, starvation dieting, and severe weight loss) appeared every week.
Men and Women: Mind and Body
Authors: Hesse-Biber Sharlene
Published: November 2023

Our culture judges a man primarily in terms of how powerful, ambitious, aggressive, and dominant he is in the worlds of thought and action. These are qualities more of the mind than the body. A woman, on the other hand, is judged almost entirely in terms of her appearance, her attractiveness to men, and her ability to keep the species going. Her sexual body can even be quite dangerous to a man on his way to success. She becomes a temptress distracting him from his true work, the pursuit of rationality, knowledge, and power. The split between mind and body is a central idea in Western culture. It often frames our perceptions of what it means to be feminine and masculine. This has been illustrated by studies conducted by Paul Rosenkrantz and his colleagues in the 1960s. They gave college students a list of extreme personality traits and their opposites: very passive vs. very active; very illogical vs. very logical; very vain about appearance vs. uninterested in appearance, and so on. The students were asked to ascribe each trait to either males or females, and to rank each trait’s social desirability. The findings from this study (and from others) showed that traits most often associated with competence and social desirability were assigned to men and those associated with having an “emotional” life were assigned to women. Men were viewed as more independent than women, more logical, more direct, more self-confident, more ambitious.
Introduction to nonlinear dynamical systems
Authors: Sandefur James T
Published: November 2023

A model of population growth Consider a population of rabbits. For simplicity, assume that on the average each rabbit gives birth to two new rabbits in one unit of time and that no rabbit dies. The easiest way to model this problem is to consider the change in the size of the population of rabbits in one time period. Let a(O) be the number of rabbits at time t = 0 (the time when we start our observations).
Vectors and matrices
Authors: Sandefur James T
Published: November 2023

Introduction to vectors and matrices In section 3.4 we had bags containing differently colored marbles. A marble was drawn from one bag and its color determined the bag in which the next marble was drawn. For example, suppose we have a red bag and a blue bag. The red bag contains 6 red and 4 blue marbles while the blue bag contains 7 blue and 3 red marbles. A marble is drawn from a bag, its color is recorded and the marble is then returned to the bag from which it was drawn. The next marble is drawn from the bag that is the same color as the last marble drawn. We let r(n) and b(n) be the probabilities that the nth marble drawn is red and blue, respectively.
Introduction: The Meaning of Insight
Authors: Sackeim Harold A
Published: November 2023

Case A is a talented linguist. He has translated books into scores of languages, earning an international reputation. Casual conversation reveals that A is an elderly, engaging man and indicates little else that is peculiar. It is a mystery that he has been continuously hospitalized since receiving his undergraduate degree at Oxford. However, during this time A has had the fixed delusion that he is the Duke of Windsor. Nothing seems to shake this belief.
lnsight in the Psychoses A Conceptual History
Authors: Berrios German E , Markova Ivana S
Published: November 2023

Attempting a history of insight (and its clinical derivative, lack of insight) illustrates the problem of chronicling the evolution of an ambiguous notion. Should the historian use as a guiding object, or invariant, a narrow definition such as the correct attitude to being ill (Lewis, 1934), or the equally narrow view implicit in most current empirical studies (Markova & Berrios, 1995) or in configurational learning (Hartmann, 1931; Sternberg & Davidson, 1994)? Or perhaps the historian should embrace the wider idea of insight as self-knowledge (Markova & Berrios, 1992; Gillett, 1995), mystical intellection (Lonergan, 1970, pp. 406-408), creative moment (Hutchinson, 1939; 1941), or psychoanalytic comprehension (Richfield, 1954). And how about the cognitive view that insight is a function of a putative mind-reading system (Baron-Cohen, 1995)? The difficulty concerns not the history of these views in particular but the composition of a general history of insight.
Japanese Attitudes Toward Insight in Schizophrenia
Authors: Kim Yoshiharu
Published: November 2023

The aim of this chapter is to give an overview of how insight in schizophrenia has been understood and discussed in Japanese psychiatry. The chapter is divided into four sections. In the first, I will briefly review the significance of this issue in the development of modern Japanese psychiatry, for the benefit of readers who are not familiar with the history of psychiatry in Japan. The second and third sections deal with selected theoretical debates and clinical practices concerning this issue. The last section outlines some evidence-based Japanese studies and representative attitudes of Japanese psychiatrists toward this matter.
Pleistocene Amphibians and Reptiles in North America
Authors: Holman J Alan
Published: November 2023

This book presents a major summary of what is currently known about North American amphibians and fossils in the Pleistocene. The only book available on the subject, it includes a general treatment of the Pleistocene and its effects on the physical and biological world, and features an illustrated bestiary of the herpetological families and genera as well as a discussion of the identification of fossils. The changes in the North American herpetofauna from the Cretaceous to the Pleistocene are cogently summarized, and complete herpetofaunal lists from the seven designated Pleistocene regions of North America are included. The concluding chapter details range adjustments and extinction patterns, and contrasts the evolutionary “stasis” of the herpetofauna with the avian and mammalian fauna. The work will be considered an essential reference for paleontologists.
Plant Physiological Responses to Elevated CO2, Temperature, Air Pollution, and UV-8 Radiation
Authors: Allen Leon Hartwell , Amthor Jeffreys.
Published: November 2023

Measurements of the CO2 and CH4 content of entrapped gas bubbles in the Vostok Core show a clear correspondence with deuterium content-derived temperatures (Lorius et al. 1990). It has not, however, been established whether changes in these two greenhouse gases have been the primary drivers of the global climatic cycles that have occurred over the last 160,000 years of ice core records. The Milankovich orbital variations of the earth appear to be primary factors in governing global climates (Lorius et al. 1990). Recent analyses of the effects of frequency variations of the orbital obliquity of the earth, superimposed on records of the eccentricity of its orbit, indicate that the frequency variations may induce climatic changes by modulating the seasonal distribution of solar radiation (Liu 1992).
Permafrost and Vegetation Response to Global Warming in North Eurasia
Authors: Velichko A A , Borisova 0. K , Zelikson E M , Nechayev V P
Published: November 2023

The largest variations in temperature and precipitation regimes from a global warming are predicted to occur in middle and high latitudes. In this chapter we have used both modeling and paleoclimatic analogues to examine the response of permafrost and vegetation in North Eurasia. The distribution of vegetation in this regime is dependent on permafrost amd will be affected by the warming.
Soil Respiration and Changes in Soil Carbon Stocks
Authors: Schlesinger William H
Published: November 2023

The pool of carbon in soils is one of the largest near-surface stores of carbon on earth. Although estimates vary widely, most workers now agree that between 1400 and 1500 petagrams (Pg) (= 1015 g)of carbon are contained in soil organic matter, which includes undecomposed litter on the soil surface and humic materials dispersed throughout the soil profile (Schlesinger 1977; Post et al. 1982). A large portion of this pool is held in the organic soils of tundra and boreal forest ecosystems, in which dramatic changes in climate are expected during the next century.
The Biogeochemistry of Northern Peatlands and Its Possible Responses to Global Warming
Authors: Gorham Eville
Published: November 2023

Plant remains accumulate as variably decomposed material, often in highly organic deposits above the mineral surface. These may occur as mor humus in the case of unsaturated forest and heath soils (Romell and Heiberg 1931), where the deposit is seldom more than 10-20 cm deep, or as peat (Clymo 1983) in waterlogged wetlands. Where the organic wetland deposit is shallow and mixed with a good deal of mineral matter, it is often designated muck. Where the wetland accumulates more than 30 cm of highly organic peat (40 cm in Canada), it is said to be a peatland. Peatlands, sometimes several meters in depth, are particularly common in the northern landscapes of Russia and the Baltic republics, Canada, the northern United States (especially Alaska), and Fennoscandia, where they cover 342 x 106 ha (Gorham 1991a) and account for about 9.7% of the total land surface.
Linkages between Carbon and Nitrogen Cycling and Their Implications for Storage of Carbon in Terrestrial Ecosystems
Authors: Davidson Eric A
Published: November 2023

Nitrogen is an essential element for life, but the transformation of elemental nitrogen into organic forms that can be used by living organisms requires large inputs of energy. Organic carbon is one of the currencies by which energy is transferred among cells, among organisms, and among communities of people, so it is not surprising that the biogeochemical cycles of carbon and nitrogen are linked. One such linkage occurs in the soil, where the presence of organic carbon and organic nitrogen, and the ratio of the two, affect soil fertility.
Net Carbon Metabolism of Oceanic Margins and Estuaries
Authors: Smith Stephen v.
Published: November 2023

Primary production in the oceans fixes approximately 4 x 1015 mol CO2 into organic matter annually. This rate is about 80% that of primary production on land and about 10 times the anthropogenic emissions of CO2 into the atmosphere via burning of fossil fuel. The coastal ocean, which is the focus of this summary, apparently accounts for about 10% of the total primary production in the global ocean.
Implications of Increased Solar UV-B For Aquatic Ecosystems
Authors: Smith Raymond C
Published: November 2023

There is considerable and increasing evidence that higher levels of UV-B radiation (280-320 nm) at the surface of the earth, the result of a reduction of the ozone layer, may be detrimental to various forms of marine life in the upper layers of the sea. It is now widely documented that reduced ozone concentration will result in increased levels of UV-B incident at the surface of the earth (NAS 1979, 1982, 1984; Watson 1988; Anderson et al. 1991; Frederick and Alberts 1991; Schoeberl and Hartmann 1991). With respect to aquatic ecosystems, we also know that this biologically damaging mid ultraviolet radiation can penetrate to ecologically significant depths in the ocean (Jerlov 1950; Lenoble 1956; R. C. Smith and Baker 1979, 1980, 1981).
Brother Forten
Authors: Winch Julie
Published: November 2023

In 1785, When he returned from his year-long sojourn in England and apprenticed himself to Robert Bridges to learn the “mystery” of the sailmaker’s craft, James Forten was one of some 1500 black people who counted themselves as residents of Philadelphia and its surrounding districts.” In certain respects he was an anomaly. Freeborn, and a Philadelphia native, his experiences were unlike those of the vast majority of black Philadelphians, who had known physical bondage and who were, in so many cases, relatively new arrivals to the city. His almost two years of formal education also set him apart, not just from black citizens but from many working people in the larger white community. However, when all was said and done, James Forten was a member of the black community, and to understand his growing influence within that community entails understanding the world black Philadelphians were struggling to make for themselves as the eighteenth century drew to a close.
Reflections of “A man of Colour”
Authors: Winch Julie
Published: November 2023

In The Decade and a half after his return from England in 178 5 James Forten not only made the transition from apprentice to master craftsman but established himself as a man of influence within Philadelphia’s free community of color. During the next decade and a half, from 1800 to the end of the War of 1812, he would build on those foundations. In terms of his business career, these were the years when he began to branch out, buying real estate, extending loans, forging ties with white businessmen. During this period he would also gain the recognition of his community as a figure of real authority, an individual capable of articulating the hopes and fears of black Philadelphians. Inevitably the two worlds intersected. His increasing prosperity and business know-how contributed to his influence. Here was a man who could get things done, a man who could chair committees, write petitions, and approach white men in positions of power in state and city governments, the court system, and the church. James Forten had had the formal education most people of color had not. Moreover, he worked in a world few of them could imagine.
The Limits of Brotherhood
Authors: Winch Julie
Published: November 2023

Waging War Against the American Colonization Society demanded a great deal ofJames Forten’s time and attention after 1817. When he was not supervising his work force or overseeing his growing family, he was often to he found chairing a protest meeting or penning yet another letter to the press denouncing the ACS. However, although he did battle against the champions of colonization with all the energy he could muster, there were other causes that demanded his attention, other battles that needed to he fought.

The late 1810s and 1820s in Philadelphia brought econoinic and social upheavals. The City of Brotherly Love was a city under pressure, and as James Forten knew only too well, brotherly love could all too easily disappear when men and women were faced with crises that impacted on their everyday lives and undermined their sense of well-being. In the Panic of 1819 scores of businesses failed, hundreds of citizens were jailed for debt, and many more found themselves out of work, forced to turn to friends, neighbors, the network of private charities, or the almshouse for relief.
New Friends of Freedom
Authors: Winch Julie
Published: November 2023

As The 1820s drew to a close, there was no respite inJames Forten’s war against the forces of colonization. It was obviously disheartening to him to see how many well-meaning individuals in Philadelphia’s white community had been won over by the American Colonization Society’s propaganda. Forten’s lawyer, Richard Peters, had given the ACS his grudging support. Bishop William White, his denomination’s spiritual leader in Pennsylvania, had endorsed it. Even the likes of abolitionist Roberts Vaux had been convinced. What Vaux found so repugnant in 1820 he had come to see as a necessary if regrettable “solution” to America’s racial problems by 1830. White churches in Philadelphia and in many other towns and cities throughout the North often dedicated their July Fourth collections to the cause or held special concerts of prayer, with donations going to advance the work of the ACS. Benevolent female Friends in Philadelphia sponsored two black women to teach at a school in Liberia, and there were similar initiatives elsewhere among other well-intentioned whites. It was all very depressing to Forten and other free people of color, who were sure the ACS aimed at nothing less than their expulsion from America.
“Abolition Property”
Authors: Winch Julie
Published: November 2023

It Is Difficult not to conclude that James Forten was being somewhat disingenuous when he wrote to William Lloyd Garrison on March 21, 1831, that the Liberator “has roused up a Spirit in our Young People, that had been slumbering for years.” Although it might have been true that some members of Philadelphia’s small but influential African-American elite had rejected the notion that they were connected in any way with the nation’s slave population, that was unlikely to have been the case with James Forten’s children. They had grown up hearing their father and his friends speak of the injustice of human bondage, and of the role people like themselves, men and women linked by “consanguinity[,] . . . suffering, and . . . wrongs” with those still held in bondage, must play in eradicating slavery. Perhaps Forten was being more frank with Garrison when he assured him that “we shall produce writers able to vindicate our cause.” He looked to his children and to Robert Purvis to use their talents and their education to the task.
The Old Southern Democracy and Its Erosion, 1876 to 1965
Authors: Rae Nicol C
Published: November 2023

Most of our present-day conceptions of southern politics remain grounded in the era of the “Solid South,” the period between the end of Reconstruction and the Voting Rights act of 1965. During this time the Democratic party achieved such a degree of political dominance over the entire region that it became identified by both its followers and its opponents as the ‘‘party of the South” above all else. The virtual one-party system established by the Democrats in the former Confederate states, however, was not a dictatorial system in the sense of rule by a monolithic entity. Solidity behind the Democratic label was necessary for national politics, but that label covered a variety of political phenomena-factions, demagogues, violence, racism, populism, authoritarianism-that were truly unique to the South and seemed bizarre to nonsoutherners. This chapter sketches the origins and development of the Solid South, the operation of the system at its height, and the factors that led ultimately to its demise. The story has been told frequently and in much greater detail elsewhere, but it is reiterated here as a reminder of the nature of the pre-civil rights southern Democratic party in national politics relative to the southern Democratic party that succeeded it. We begin by retreating further back to the antebellum South to understand the nature of southern political culture and the reasons for the ascendancy of the Democratic party after the Civil War.
Stone Pine Seeds and Cones
Authors: Lanner Ronald M
Published: November 2023

On August 22, 1805, Captain William Clark discovered for science the nutcracker that was later to bear his name. The Lewis and Clark expedition was then in Lemhi Pass, in the Bitterroot Mountains bordering present-day Montana and Idaho. Clark wrote in his journal that day, “I saw today a Bird of the woodpecker kind which fed on Pine burs its bill and tale white the wings black every other part of a light brown, and about the size of a robin.” Nothing more was said of the pine, but the observation that the nutcracker was feeding on “burs” (cones) strongly suggests the bird was harvesting seeds of whitebark pine. Whitebarks still grow in Lemhi Pass, and several are old enough to have witnessed the captain’s journey.
Memories
Authors: Lanner Ronald M
Published: November 2023

How Do Nutcrackers Find Their Caches? Over the years many naturalists have been intrigued by the unhesitating way in which birds of both nutcracker species fly to the ground and unearth pine nuts with a few swipes of the bill, as if knowing exactly where to dig. Even snow is no deterrent. Claude Crocq has described how European Nutcrackers in the French Alps recover pine nuts by tunneling to caches concealed by more than a meter of snow. Their tunnels frequently curve beneath the snow, and while excavating, the completely submerged bird cannot see out (Figure 6.1). Yet more than three-fourths of 125 such galeries bore the tell-tale evidence of seed-coat fragments, attesting to the excavator’s success.
Other Arrangernents
Authors: Lanner Ronald M
Published: November 2023

When The Enlightened Czar Alexander II of the Russian Empire ordered “cedar-pines”-kedr-to be planted in Finland and Sweden in the 1860s, he had no idea that a century later they would nurture kedrovka, the pine nut-eating birds that liven autumn in Siberia. The 1860s had been years of famine in his western duchies, and the czar’s order was intended to provide long-lived trees that would bear nutritious nuts for many years as a hedge against future crop failures. Kedr nuts were an esteemed food and a source of cooking oil in Siberia, so it seemed only natural to spread this useful tree beyond its precincts. But in Finland the czar’s order was not taken seriously, and resulted mainly in the pro forma establishment of handsome pines for shade in parks, railway stations, and other public places. A seed had been planted, however, and a new tree was introduced into the country.
Building Ecosystems
Authors: Lanner Ronald M
Published: November 2023

The Triggering Of Great Events By Slight force is a common theme in science. Thus very small amounts of a catalyst can allow a chemical reaction to go forth which would otherwise not occur. The amount of reactive matter greatly exceeds the bulk of the catalyst, which is itself unchanged by the reaction. In the realm of biochemistry an enzyme, which is a protein of very specific function and molecular structure, acts much like the catalyst in an inorganic chemical system, controlling the rate at which chemical reactions progress in a much greater mass of substrate. And at the level of the whole organism, hormones formed in the leaves or roots of a plant, and present in very low concentrations, are transported to sites where they stimulate growth or movement of relatively large masses of plant material.
The Odd Couple
Authors: Lanner Ronald M
Published: November 2023

Red Squirrels Are Small And Lively, forever running out on their aerial highways, making sprightly springing leaps between trees, loudly berating interlopers who enter their spiritedly defended little territories, comically playing the fool of the coniferous forest. Grizzly Bears are very large. They move on the ground with magisterial gait, sometimes plodding, sometimes pursuing in a burst of speed. They seldom vocalize loudly, and they roam over immense areas of wilderness. They play fearsome king to the squirrel’s jester. Yet these mammals of contrasting physique and behavior are linked by the chain of events set in motion by Clark’s Nutcracker. In brief, Red Squirrels hustle pine nuts for Grizzly Bears.
Origins
Authors: Lanner Ronald M
Published: November 2023

Near The Hamlet Of El Chico, In The Mexican state of Hidalgo, a range of heavily wooded hills is crowned by the rocky peak of La Muela-the Molar. If you let yourself down a steep slope, slick with recent rains and densely grown with towering oyamel firs, you will reach in the barranca below La Muela a tumbling clearwater brook. Here, at an elevation of 8,600 feet, the boulder-strewn banks are dominated by groves of white pines with long, slender, blue-green needles, evenly spaced tiers of horizontal limbs, and trunks clothed in furrowed gray bark. Clusters of cylindrical cones, emerald-green in their final summer, hang from branch tips, beads of aromatic resin congealed on their scales. Trunks of the larger pines and firs are encrusted with blue-gray lichens and studded with corsages of red-flowered bromeliads. Their massive lower limbs bear thickly layered sphagnum in which ferns root, forming von Humboldt’s forest piled upon forest. The pines are Mexican white pines, Pinus ayacahuite, and local farmers call this place “La Ayacahuite.” Take away the epiphytes, especially the bromeliads, and this could be an Adirondack haunt or a canyon bottom in northern Idaho. Places like it can be found in several other central and southern Mexican states, and in Guatemala, El Salvador, and Honduras, where the elevation is high, the soils deep and moist, the air cool.
Other Paths in Cognitive Science
Authors: Dodwell Peter
Published: November 2023

Of the five strands in cognitive science, I give the most attention to experimental psychology, not just because I know it more intimately but because historically it has been dominant. Not only was it “first in the field,” but many of its basic ideas initiated and informed the development of the other four. In examining these four remaining strands, little more than a series of sketches is possible. I shall outline the core assumptions, history, methods, and findings of each, providing landmarks and signposts rather than maps of the territory. All these topics are discussed in much greater detail, but from the same point of view, in another place.

Modern science has been dependent for its development, even in some cases for its very emergence, on new instruments and technologies such as the microscope and telescope. Nowhere is this dependence more evident than in neuroscience, one of the hottest areas of research of the late twentieth century. Neuroscience encompasses the study of all life systems of such complexity as to require neural tissue—sets of functionally interconnected neurons (nerve cells)—to “work”; that is, to live, grow, reproduce, and behave.
Introduction
Authors: Vogel Joseph Henry
Published: November 2023

Economics is a rhetorical enterprise. This is the central message of a seminal article that appeared in the economics literature several years ago. Its author, Donald McCloskey, argued that economists persuade not by the weight of the evidence but by the appeal of their words. However, McCloskey does not advocate a “more evidence, better science” approach. Instead, he argues that the scientific method is often unattainable for social phenomena. According to McCloskey, economists should not prostrate themselves over the trappings of science; any rhetorical device, scientific or otherwise, will move the discussion forward.
Genesteaders
Authors: Vogel Joseph Henry
Published: November 2023

Let us suppose that governments around the world legislate ownership over genetic information. Under the proposed law, those who conserve genetic information would become the residual claimants to the royalties. Because conservation does not just mean letting the habitats be, the policy will re­ quire managers. Several issues quickly emerge. The first is one of desirability. It boils down to this: How many people really want the job of genetic­ information management? Economists will step in and claim this as their turf. They will see the question as of one of “elasticity,” where elasticity is defined as the percentage change in quantity divided by a percentage change in price. In this case, what percentage of genetic-information managers will offer their services for what percentage of expected royalties? Such a calculation would be a mechanical exercise if the data existed; but the data do not exist. What’s an economist to do? The answer: assume. The economist could assume that the labor response to royalties will be similar to the labor response to, say, the gold rush in the Amazon for which the data do exist.
Conclusion: Ten Principles for Conserving Genetic Information
Authors: Vogel Joseph Henry
Published: November 2023

The late Al Eichner, one of my professors in graduate school, edited a volume of essays entitled Why Economics Is Not Yet a Science. A summary of the essays appeared in Nature, and the summary itself triggered a backlash by neoclassical economists. In the same journal, Partha Dasgupta and Frank Hahn of the University of Cambridge chastised not just Eichner but Nature for printing such “nonsense”!1 With fear of similar reprisal, I now take Eichner’s reasoning one step further: economics not only is “not yet a science,” but is a false science. Like a false prophet, a false science can take you exactly where you do not want to go. It is false for basically three reasons: By not incorporating, by ignoring, and by suppressing, economists have helped transport us into a greenhouse world, where genetic information is expunged and hundreds of millions starve.
1968: The Competing Pasts of Nixon and Humphrey
Authors: Jamieson Kathleen Hall
Published: November 2023

More so than in any other campaign in recent times, the contest in the general election of 1968 turned on the personal pasts of the three men who sought the office. Two of the three, Nixon and Humphrey, seemed so comparable on the issues that it was difficult for most voters to distinguish the promises of one from another. The outcome of this election hinged not so much on what the candidates promised but on how the electorate came to perceive what each had done and been throughout a lifetime of public service. This, in turn, forced the candidates to reconcile the public’s sense of their pasts with the sense the candidates themselves were trying to sculpt and their opponents were trying to destroy. Consequently, the “old” Nixon competed with the “new” Nixon; Humphrey, “the apologist for Johnson’s policies in Vietnam,” competed with Humphrey, “the veteran social reformer,” and the George Wallace who pledged to effect fundamental change in Washington clashed with the George Wallace who as governor seemed to have effected little change in Alabama. Just how successful the candidates would be in molding a vision of the future from selected elements in their pasts was then a decisive question in 1968.