bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
H
opkins,
H
arry (1890–1946)
Authors: Doenecke Justus D.
Published: May 2018

After heading major New Deal agencies, including the Works Progress Administration, Harry Hopkins (1890–1946) became the administrative linchpin of the entire American mobilization effort. From 1941 to 1945 Hopkins served as Franklin Roosevelt's troubleshooter, attending international conferences and representing the president in one‐on‐one meetings with major Allied leaders. In 1941 he visited Winston Churchill in London and Josef Stalin in Moscow. He played a significant part in the conferences held at Argentia, Newfoundland (1941), Casablanca (1943), Teheran (1943), and Yalta (1945). In May 1945 he was Harry S. Truman's personal envoy to Stalin. He was a strong advocate of aiding the Soviet Union and helped smooth over Roosevelt's relationships with Jiang Jieshi (Chiang Kai‐shek) and Charles de Gaulle.
Human Rights
Authors: Snyder Sarah B.
Published: May 2018

This entry catalogues the evolution of the term human rights and surveys the many ways concern over the protection of human rights has shaped diplomacy historically. The entry particularly highlights the contributions of the United Nations and non‐governmental organizations in ensuring the respect of human rights internationally.
Kant,Immanuel (1724–1804)
Authors: Rech Walter
Published: May 2018

Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) is one of the towering figures of modern Western thought. His ground‐breaking work has impacted on a number of disciplines, including ethics, law, and politics, in addition to theoretical philosophy. In the area of international relations he is mostly known for his theories of “perpetual peace” and world federation, laying out the principles for achieving enduring international stability and preventing the recurrent outbreak of armed conflicts, in particular among Europe's states.
KennedyRoundNegotiations (1964–67)
Authors: Colman Jonathan
Published: May 2018

The Kennedy Round was a series of tariff‐reduction talks held under the aegis of GATT from 1964 to 1967. The talks were notable for how the EEC represented the interests of its constituent member‐states, in what represented the organization's debut on the international stage, and for how they featured the novelty of linear rather than product‐by‐product tariff reductions. The results included industrial tariff reductions of around 35 percent, along with lower levels of agricultural reductions. The round was widely considered a success, because it helped to avoid a trade war between the EEC and the United States, which would also have damaged Western political unity as well as trade links. For good or ill, the round can be seen as a contribution to the process of globalization through economic integration.
K
ennedy,
J
oseph (1888–1969)
Authors: Doenecke Justus D.
Published: May 2018

Diplomat and financier Joseph Patrick Kennedy (1888–1969) rose meteorically in the world of business, then held major posts in the New Deal until March 1938, when Franklin D. Roosevelt appointed him ambassador to Great Britain. He supported the accommodationist foreign policy of Prime Minister Neville Chamberlin towards Adolf Hitler, even calling for bargaining with Germany over the Polish crisis of August 1939. Once Britain entered World War II, Kennedy kept reporting to Washington that Britain was likely to experience defeat. Marginalized by the president and his British counterpart Winston Churchill, he resigned in December 1940, having just publicly endorsed FDR's re‐election. When World War II ended, Kennedy claimed the conflict had been futile. During the Cold War he maintained his anti‐interventionist stance, opposing American participation in the Marshall Plan, Atlantic Pact, and the Korean War.
K
onoe
F
umimaro (1891–1945)
Authors: Mimaki Seiko
Published: May 2018

Konoe Fumimaro (1891–1945) was a political leader who served as prime minister three times during the turbulent late 1930s. Soon after Konoe formed his first cabinet in 1937, the Marco Polo Bridge Incident led Japan into all‐out war with China, which contributed to increasing tension between Japan and the United States. Though he believed that Japan should bring the war with China to an early end and save Japan from a doomed confrontation with the United States, his policy often worked in the opposite direction. After World War II, he was investigated as a class‐A war criminal but committed suicide shortly before being arrested.
Law of the Sea Negotiations
Authors: Frei Gabriela A.
Published: May 2018

The law of the sea negotiations which took place during the twentieth century eventually led to the adoption of the United Nations Law of the Sea Convention (UNCLOS) in 1982 which entered into force in 1994. Celebrated as a “Constitution for the Oceans,” UNCLOS marked an incredible achievement in the process of the codification of international law. Nevertheless, many setbacks had accompanied the negotiations, and four major international conferences, one conducted by the League of Nations in 1930 and three conducted by the United Nations (1958, 1960, 1973–82), were needed to reach the goal of creating a universally applicable law of the sea, benefiting all states.
L
ondon
N
aval
C
onference (1930)
Authors: Webster Andrew
Published: May 2018

The London Naval Conference met from January 21 to April 22, 1930, attended by the five major naval powers: Britain, the United States, Japan, France, and Italy. It was a continuation of the private talks on naval limitation (i.e., conducted outside the ambit of the League of Nations) begun successfully at the Washington Naval Conference of 1921–22 and continued at the failed Geneva Naval Conference of 1927. The conference ultimately achieved some meaningful agreement among the three main powers – Britain, the United States, and Japan – by extending a modified version of the Washington treaty's system of ratios to ships displacing less than 10,000 tons, namely auxiliary craft such as cruisers, destroyers, and submarines. France and Italy, however, ultimately refused to sign the critical sections of the London Naval Treaty.
Minorities and Diplomacy
Authors: Goldstein Erik
Published: May 2018

Minority protection as a diplomatic issue was largely a concern of the period between the two world wars. Its roots go back to at least the 1648 Peace of Westphalia, and continue after World War II with the broader concerns of human rights. Minority rights issues remain a potent source of conflict.
N
icholas
I
(1796–1855)
Authors: Knight Nathaniel
Published: May 2018

Nicholas I (1796–1855) was emperor of Russia from 1825 to 1855. Known as the “Gendarme of Europe” for his steadfast opposition to revolution, Nicholas worked to forge an alliance between Russia, Prussia, and Austria in defense of the principle of autocracy. His actual interventions in European affairs were relatively limited, as most of his diplomatic activity was directed towards the so‐called Eastern Question, the quest to maintain stability and balance competing interests in light of the waning power of the Ottoman Empire. Tensions in the east ultimately drew Russia into the Crimean War in the last years of Nicholas's reign. Britain and France intervened to defend the Ottoman Empire and inflicted on Russia a humiliating defeat resulting in the temporary withdrawal of Russia from European affairs.
Ō
kuma
S
higenobu (1838–1922)
Authors: Wert Michael
Published: May 2018

Ōkuma Shigenobu was an ex‐samurai politician, diplomat, and two‐time prime minister of Japan during its transition to modernity in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Influenced by his studies about the West, he advocated for British‐style parliamentary government. He negotiated the revision of the unequal treaties imposed upon Japan by the West during the mid‐nineteenth century and issued the Twenty‐One Demands to China during World War I. Although he was popular for advocating a party system, establishing one of Japan's first political parties, he often clashed with his oligarch contemporaries. Active in cultural pursuits, he also founded what is now one of Japan's premier universities, Waseda.
Ottoman Diplomacy
Authors: Işıksel Güneş
Published: May 2018

The Ottoman Empire spanned the heart of the Eastern Hemisphere by connecting its three continents. Encompassing a wide array of climates, confessions, and nations, as well as various social and economic structures, it came into contact, in its six centuries‐long existence (1299–1922), with different polities, ranging from medieval kingdoms to the colonialist empires of the nineteenth century. Its major achievement was the formation of a sustainable administration, through successful negotiations, over a vast territory covering autonomous enclaves, vassal states, and client‐principalities. Other important factors in its longevity were the creation of an operational frontier administration – the earliest examples of which date back to the 1470s – that served to carry out intense diplomatic negotiations with its neighbors, and also the sultans' ability to forge, from the fourteenth century until the First World War, strategic and sustainable alliances by initiating commercial and military partnerships.
Paléologue,Maurice (1859–1944)
Authors: Wargelin Clifford F.
Published: May 2018

Maurice Paléologue (1859–1944) was a controversial diplomat in the service of France who exercised considerable influence over French foreign policy before and during the First World War. As principal liaison between the Foreign Ministry and military intelligence, he briefed successive cabinets on the contents of secret files. After serving as ambassador to Bulgaria from 1907 to 1912, he played a key role in the introduction of three‐year military service in 1913 as political director. As ambassador to Russia from 1914 to 1917, during the July Crisis he gave the Russians strong assurances of French support, worked against efforts at compromise, and subsequently lobbied for extensive Entente war aims. His postwar Russian and Hungarian policies as secretary general proved disastrous and led to his resignation. He spent the rest of his life writing, including his three‐volumeAn Ambassador's Memoirs(1925–27), and died in November 1944.
P
oincaré,
R
aymond (1860–1934)
Authors: Laberge Martin
Published: May 2018

Raymond Poincaré (1860–1934) was one of the dominant diplomatic figures of the French Third Republic in the 1920s. President of the Republic and several times minister of foreign affairs between 1913 and 1920, Raymond Poincaré was instrumental in strengthening Franco‐Russian diplomatic relations before the First World War. On the other hand, his policy also embodied the difficulty that France's diplomacy had transitioning to a new model after the end of the First World War, away from a traditional approach that was based on the use of threat and military power. His policy led to the sending of French troops into the Ruhr in 1922 to enforce the settlement of the Treaty of Versailles.
P
otsdam
C
onference (1945)
Authors: Neiberg Michael S.
Published: May 2018

Code named TERMINAL, the Potsdam Conference brought together the victorious powers of World War II to set the terms of the peace to come. Although they disagreed and represented states with divergent interests, the Big Three (the United States, Soviet Union, and United Kingdom) were able to agree on the prosecution of Nazi war criminals, a strategy for ending the war against Japan, and the redrawing of the borders of Central and Eastern Europe. The leaders left Potsdam reasonably confident of their ability to work together, but soon their divergent interests complicated attempts at creating permanent postwar amity.
R
hineland
C
risis (1936)
Authors: Zander Patrick G.
Published: May 2018

On March 7, 1936, Adolf Hitler made the decision to move German troops into the region known as the “Rhineland.” This was German territory but had been designated a demilitarized zone by the Treaty of Versailles in 1919, and Germany had willingly accepted this status in the Locarno treaties of 1925. But, as Hitler began to build military power during 1935–36 he sensed that he could reoccupy this area without a military response from the Western democracies (Britain and France). Britain and France did react, but neither nation was willing to take on the military risks of intervention. As such the two nations negotiated with each other over how to challenge Germany through diplomatic negotiation. Hitler's finesse and timing combined with further events to force the democracies to resign themselves to a militarized Rhineland. For Hitler this now meant that he could contemplate further expansionist moves in the east without being exposed to military invasion on a defenseless western border.
Rosier,Bernardde(1400–75)
Authors: Fedele Dante
Published: May 2018

Jurist and ecclesiastic, author of an important corpus of political and legal texts, active in the service of the church, as a university professor and diocesan administrator, Bernard de Rosier (1400–75) is remembered by diplomatic historiography as the author of theAmbaxiatorum brevilogus(1435–36), generally considered to be “the first textbook of diplomatic practice written in Western Europe” (G. Mattingly). Rosier also wrote an account of Pierre de Foix's 1427–30 legation to Aragon, on which he served as secretary, and a treatise on the office of papal legate.
Rousseau,Jean‐Jacques (1712–78)
Authors: Ramel Frédéric
Published: May 2018

The two moments when Rousseau (1712–78) became most concerned with international relations are examined in this entry: 1743–44 when he served as secretary in the French embassy in Venice and in 1756 when he wrote a summary and a judgement of the Abbé de Saint‐Pierre'sProject of perpetual peace. Both episodes contributed to his central thesis that international peace through law remains a utopian dream because states existed in a permanent state of war.
Special Relationship
Authors: Blair Alasdair
Published: May 2018

The “special relationship” between the United Kingdom and the United States of America refers to the particularly close economic, political, and security relationships that exist between the two countries. Although the “special” nature of the relationship has its roots in the Second World War, the ties between the two countries go back many centuries by virtue of the legacy of the United Kingdom's imperial past. The fact that both countries have tended to possess a similar set of preferences on such matters as trade and foreign policy, as well as a shared language, has created a climate conducive to close relationships. The relationship has, however, been subject to periods of tension, while there have also been broader questions about the extent to which both countries have viewed the special nature of the relationship in a similar vein.
Suleiman the Magnificent (1494–1566)
Authors: Işıksel Güneş
Published: May 2018

The tenth and the longest‐reigning Ottoman sultan, Suleiman I (1494–1566), ruled between 1520 and 1566. During this half century, the empire became one of the mightiest political entities of the early modern world, covering southeastern Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa. His navy dominated the eastern Mediterranean, the Black Sea, and the Red Sea. The expansion into eastern Europe gave the Ottomans a powerful presence in the European balance of power, while the protection of the two holy cities of Islam, Mecca and Medina, offered the sultan an important position in Muslim lands. He was acclaimed as “the Magnificent” for his military achievements, the splendor of his palace, and for his patronage of arts and letters.
Treaty ofKarlowitz (1699)
Authors: Roider Karl A.
Published: May 2018

The Treaty of Karlowitz (1699) ended the great war between the Habsburg and Ottoman empires that began with the siege of Vienna in 1683. Prior to the war, in southeastern Europe the mighty power was the Ottoman Empire – Muslim, strong, aggressive, and posing a threat to Christian Europe. After the war, the Ottoman Empire lost over 100,000 square miles of territory and slowly but surely earned the reputation of a declining and even vanishing empire, one that became a target of opportunity for the mightier European great powers.

The diplomatic principle providing the foundation of the Treaty of Karlowitz wasuti possidetis, meaning land would go to the power whose armies possessed it. Based on this principle, the Ottomans ceded to the Austrians the kingdom of Hungary and the principality of Transylvania, to the Russians the fortress of Azov (confirmed by treaty in 1700), and to the Venetians Dalmatia and the Greek Peloponnesus. Although the borders between the Christian powers and the Ottomans would undergo tweaks after later wars, the borders spelled out in the Treaty of Karlowitz served as the model upon which later adjustments were made.
T
reaty of
T
rianon (1920)
Authors: Lojko Miklos
Published: May 2018

The Treaty of Trianon (1920) was a peace treaty and territorial settlement drawn up for Hungary by the victorious Allied and Associated Powers at the end of the First World War. The treaty was signed on June 4, 1920, at the Palace of Grand Trianon, a part of the Versailles palace compound outside Paris, without significant prior consultation with Hungarian representatives. Having failed to ratify this treaty, the United States later concluded a separate peace treaty with Hungary. The settlement dismembered the historic kingdom of Hungary, allotting its extensive borderlands to the successor states of the defunct Austro‐Hungarian monarchy. Constructed, in theory, to create ethnically homogeneous nation‐states, the treaty left sizable Hungarian minorities in most of the successor states which embittered relations between them and Hungary during the interwar years.
Welles,Sumner (1892–1961)
Authors: Doenecke Justus D.
Published: May 2018

Sumner Welles (1892–1961) began his career with minor posts in Tokyo (1915–17) and Buenos Aires (1917–19), then worked his way to chief of the Latin Affairs Division of the US State Department (1920–21) and, after a brief resignation, served three years as special commissioner to the Dominican Republic. In 1933 Franklin D. Roosevelt made him assistant secretary of state for Latin American affairs and special ambassador to Havana, in which capacity he mediated between fighting factions. After negotiating treaties with Cuba (1934) and Panama (1934), in 1937 he became under secretary, and – because of secretary of state Cordell Hull's illnesses – often acting secretary. Although entrusted with a special mission to the European belligerents in 1940 and representing the United States at inter‐hemispheric conferences in Panama City (1939) and Rio de Janeiro, in 1943 Roosevelt dismissed him in the aftermath of a homosexual scandal.
Angell,Norman (1872–1967)
Authors: Coates Benjamin A.
Published: May 2018

Norman Angell (1872–1967) was a prominent British journalist considered by some to be a founder of modern international relations scholarship. His bestselling 1910 work,The Great Illusion, argued that modern economic interdependence made war counterproductive. World War I curtailed his popularity, but he regained prominence in the 1930s as a crusader for collective security against fascism and an opponent of pacifists, isolationists, and appeasers. Though derided by opponents as a naive utopian, his insights about interdependence and globalization remain influential today.
Bevin,Ernest (1881–1951)
Authors: Johnson Edward
Published: May 2018

Ernest Bevin (1881–1951) was the foreign secretary in Clement Attlee's Labour government from 1945–51. He was from a solid, traditional Labour Party background, having spent much of his early political life in the Trade Union movement. In post he realized that the wartime alliance of Britain, the USA, and the Soviet Union was unlikely to be transferred into the postwar period and that Britain needed to ensure the security of Europe against the incursions of Soviet‐backed communism. To do this he forged strong relationships with the USA in aiding the delivery of the European Recovery Programme and the formation of NATO. His success in Europe was not to be repeated in the Middle East over Palestine, but this should not detract from his status as a major political diplomatic figure.
C
iano,
G
ian
G
aleazzo (1903–44)
Authors: Wright Owain
Published: May 2018

Gian Galeazzo Ciano's (1903–44) principal legacy is the collection of diaries he kept while serving as fascist Italy's foreign minister from 1936 to 1943. The diaries are an exceptionally important resource for scholars of fascist foreign policy during the years in which Mussolini aligned his country with Hitler's Germany. They provide a vivid firsthand account of Ciano's relationship with Mussolini, as well as the Italian leader's encounters with Hitler and other senior political and diplomatic figures before and during the Second World War.
CongoCrisis of 1958–65
Authors: Johnson Edward
Published: May 2018

The crisis emerged when the Congo was granted independence from Belgium in 1960. Following an army mutiny, the state descended into chaos and near civil war. In order to stabilize the situation and prevent the Cold War from entering central Africa, the United Nations dispatched a peacekeeping force to the Congo. From 1960 to 1964 its role was to maintain law and order, a task made more difficult by the secession of the mineral‐rich province of Katanga from the rest of the country. The crisis could only be resolved with the ending of the Katangan secession, something the UN had to do by force, which led it into controversy with some members of the UN Security Council. In seeking to bring about a ceasefire during a period of fighting between the UN forces and the Katanganese, the second UN secretary‐general, Dag Hammarskjöld, lost his life in a plane crash in Ndola, northern Rhodesia. The withdrawal of the UN force from the Congo in 1964 did not herald a period of peace as more disorder followed, something which was not suppressed until the head of the Congolese army, Joseph Mobutu, took power in acoup d'étatin 1965.
EasternQuestion
Authors: Wright Owain
Published: May 2018

The Eastern Question was a problem in international diplomacy which arose in the late eighteenth century, and was not resolved until the early twentieth. It resulted from the declining status of the Ottoman Empire, the dominant power in southeastern Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa. The main issue of contention was which powers would gain control of the territories gradually relinquished by the Ottomans as their empire disintegrated. This matter caused friction between the Great Powers of Europe – Britain, France, Austria, and Russia especially – on account of their own ambitions and rivalry in the region. The Greek War of Independence, the Don Pacifico Affair, the Crimean War, the various Balkan Crises of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, and ultimately the First World War can all be seen as resulting, entirely or in part, from the Eastern Question.
E
den,
A
nthony (1897–1977)
Authors: Johnson Edward
Published: May 2018

Anthony Eden (1897–1977) was a successful British foreign secretary, holding the office on three occasions. He served with distinction in the 1930s and in Churchill's wartime coalition government and enjoyed some key diplomatic successes in his third term, from 1951 to 1955. He is chiefly remembered, however, as the British prime minister who, acting in secret with the French and Israelis, organized the invasion of Egypt in 1956 following the nationalization of the Suez Canal Company by President Nasser. The invasion was a political and diplomatic disaster which forced Eden's resignation in 1957 and led to the end of his political career.
Hammarskjöld,Dag (1905–61)
Authors: Johnson Edward
Published: May 2018

The second secretary‐general of the United Nations, Dag Hammarskjöld (1905–61) raised the status of the organization and his office from a period of inertia in world politics which had characterized the final months of Trygve Lie, his predecessor's tenure. He promoted the role of preventive diplomacy whereby both the UN and the personal office of the secretary‐general could be used to stop the Cold War tensions spreading to the states of the developing world before his untimely death during the Congo crisis in 1961.
Mussolini,Benito (1883–1945)
Authors: Wright Owain
Published: May 2018

Benito Mussolini (1883–1945) was the founder of fascism, both as a movement in Italy and as a more international phenomenon. Although his bequest to the world is a dark one, he was surely one of the most talented statesmen of the twentieth century, shaping a movement with a vague and incoherent ideology into something that appeared credible, and using it to establish and maintain a dictatorship which governed Italy for two decades. Fancying himself as a latter‐day Roman emperor, Mussolini had a profound impact upon international affairs during the years between the First and Second World Wars.
N
apoleon
III
(1808–73)
Authors: Wright Owain
Published: May 2018

As the emperor of France from 1852 to 1870, Napoleon III ruled one of the world's leading powers at a time of rapid economic and technological advancement. France's burgeoning power and wealth, combined with unresolved conflicts within French society, put pressure on the emperor to restore the country's status in the world after decades of languishing in the shadow of the defeat of Napoleon I and national humiliation at the Congress of Vienna. The foreign policy of Napoleon III was consequently aimed at the overturning of the Vienna settlement and the enhancement of French security; this was to be achieved through international agreements as far as possible, but also through warfare if necessary. On his mission to restore France's international prestige, Napoleon III found himself caught between opposition from progressive liberals and Catholic reactionaries at home, as he pursued an increasingly adventurous foreign policy that ultimately resulted in disaster for France and for his regime.
Palestine Crisis of 1948
Authors: Johnson Edward
Published: May 2018

The Palestine Crisis of 1948 resulted from the inability of the British government to deliver the League of Nations Mandate on Palestine to a successful conclusion. The territory had competing claims on it by Palestinian Arabs and Jews, both of which had been recognized by the British during the First World War. Being unable to solve the problem, the British handed it to the United Nations in 1947 which recommended the partition of the territory into an Arab and a Jewish state. This created a civil war between the Palestinians and the Jews which the Jews won and, in 1948, the state of Israel was declared, which precipitated an invasion by five Arab armies. After seven months of fighting the war ended with an Israeli victory but left the legacy of longstanding problems over the denial of a Palestinian state and a continuing refugee question.
Pearson,Lester (1897–1972)
Authors: Johnson Edward
Published: May 2018

Lester Pearson (1897–1972) was the Canadian secretary of state for external affairs from 1948 to 1957 and later prime minister from 1963 to 1968. As a young diplomat, Pearson had witnessed a number of the founding landmarks of the United Nations and most of his reputation was built on establishing for Canada a distinctive policy in the UN and the wider international community. In 1956 he played a major role in the creation of the first United Nations Emergency Force (UNEF I) which was deployed into the Suez Canal Zone, to police the ceasefire approved by the UN and provide the British and French governments with a face‐saving military and diplomatic exit from the Suez Crisis. For this he received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1957. Pearson was instrumental in developing, during the Cold War, a reputation for Canada as a model UN member, an honest diplomatic broker, and a state committed to promoting compromise and avoiding dangerous confrontations through negotiation and good offices.
Satow,SirErnest (1843–1929)
Authors: Wright Owain
Published: May 2018

Sir Ernest Satow (1843–1929) acquired an unusually high public profile for a British diplomat. He became an expert not only in oriental languages, but also the art, literature, and culture of Japan during an age when the Far East was being opened up to trade with the West. As a translator in the British consular service, Satow played an important role in developing British links with Japan at a time when few westerners were proficient in the use of oriental languages, and when English was scarcely known in the Far East. In the middle of his career he was afforded the rare distinction of promotion from the consular to the diplomatic service, and he finished his career as Britain's most renowned representative in the Far East. In retirement he published a handbook for diplomats, which remained in print well beyond his death and is still considered relevant today.
Coercive Diplomacy
Authors: Jönsson Christer
Published: May 2018

The blurring of the line between diplomacy and violence is arguably one of the characteristics of modern diplomacy. During the Cold War, the notion of coercive diplomacy was introduced to denote the use of threats or limited force in diplomatic persuasion. Thomas Schelling and Alexander George were pioneers in elaborating the concept. Schelling made a distinction between brute force and coercion, arguing that the power to hurt can be exploited in diplomacy. On the basis of extensive comparative case studies, George and colleagues identified a set of contextual factors and conditions favoring the success of coercive diplomacy. Their analytical framework has since been used, evaluated, and modified in several studies. The end of the Cold War created new preconditions for coercive diplomacy. All empirical studies indicate that it is difficult to make coercive diplomacy work. Failure is more common than success.
Diplomatic Rank
Authors: Carroll Francis M.
Published: May 2018

Diplomacy and the categories of diplomats can be traced back to ancient times. In the early modern era national prestige and diplomatic rank became linked, giving rise to the need to establish agreed upon rules of rank and privilege in the conduct of diplomacy. The Congress of Vienna in 1815 and the Congress of Aix‐la‐Chapelle in 1818 defined four classes of diplomat: ambassadors, envoys, ministers, andchargés d'affaires, in descending order. In 1961 the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations codified these ranks in a tighter order of three: ambassadors, envoys/ministers, andchargés d'affaires; and new rules for matters of diplomatic precedence, privilege, and immunity were established. Historically and under the current provisions of the Vienna Convention, rank confers upon diplomats gradations of status and authority, as well as privilege and immunity, that shape diplomatic relations.
Entente Cordiale (1904)
Authors: Seligmann Matthew S.
Published: May 2018

The Entente Cordiale is the name given to an agreement of 1904 settling colonial differences between Britain and France. It is also the name given to the system of close Anglo‐French relations that developed after 1904 and which culminated in the Anglo‐French alliance during the First World War. While there is a clear relationship between the agreement and the subsequent friendship, the two are not the same, a fact that has long complicated interpretations of the meaning and significance of the Entente Cordiale.
FrederickBarbarossa (1122–90)
Authors: Huffman Joseph P.
Published: May 2018

A gifted diplomat, Frederick I (1122–90) often turned apparent defeat into victory. High imperial rhetoric early in his reign gave way, under pressure of military failure in Italy and political factionalism in Germany, to compromise settlements with the Lombard League, the papacy, and the German princes. Each of these still preserved his imperial prerogatives and resources, and he was astute enough in his diplomacy with the kings of England and France to avoid political isolation. His final diplomatic triumphs were securing the kingdom of Sicily for his son Henry (VI) and support from Hungarian and Byzantine monarchs for his campaign to Jerusalem during the Third Crusade. His sudden drowning in the River Saleph amid so much success shocked all Europe, and assured him a legendary status as both the most powerful German emperor since Otto I as well as a crusader‐king who died for the cause.
Kennedy,JohnF. (1917–63)
Authors: Colman Jonathan
Published: May 2018

President (1961–63) John F. Kennedy's foreign policy record was mixed: he was responsible for a disastrous attack on socialist Cuba by émigrés in April 1961 but acted much more judiciously during the Cuban Missile Crisis in October the following year. The Soviet renewal of its challenge to the Western position in Berlin in 1961 culminated in the communist authorities building the Berlin Wall, which Kennedy was willing to accept (despite criticism) on the grounds that it helped to preserve peace. He was responsible for increasing the US commitment in Vietnam but resisted pressure to send combat troops. He showed growing maturity during his brief time in office, with his main achievement being the Nuclear Partial Test Ban Treaty of 1963.
Marriage Diplomacy
Authors: Watkins John
Published: May 2018

Marriage alliances were a common feature of the premodern diplomatic landscape. Dynasties used them for multiple purposes: to ensure successions, to obtain properties, to expand their political influence, to heighten their international prestige, to balance against a common threat or bandwagon with a burgeoning power, and to make peace with a former enemy. Although marriage alliances sometimes worked well, they were subject to accidents of death, infertility, erotic caprice, shifts in the regional balance of power, and canonical strong‐arming by powerful ecclesiastics. Dynasties continued to intermarry through the twentieth century, but the political significance of their marriages waned as power passed from monarchs to parliaments and elected ministers of state.
Mazarin,Cardinal (1602–61)
Authors: Osborne Toby
Published: May 2018

Cardinal Mazarin (1602–61), born Giulio Mazzarini, began his career in service to the papacy, as an army officer and then as an ambassadorial agent, gradually becoming more Francophile in his diplomatic outlook during the 1620s and 1630s. After catching Richelieu's attention and acquiring his cardinal's hat through French backing, he eventually succeeded Richelieu as France's leading minister following his death in 1642; Mazarin was to control French foreign policies thereafter until his death in 1661. Mazarin was instrumental in the protracted negotiations for the eventual settlement of the Thirty Years' War, seeking to advance France's territorial and political interests, though he continued France's war with Spain until 1659. Like Richelieu, Mazarin contended with various domestic opponents and eventually died in office, whereupon Louis XIV declared his intention to rule without the dominating guidance of a single minister.
Non‐State Actors and Diplomacy
Authors: Jönsson Christer
Published: May 2018

“Club diplomacy,” in which diplomats interact primarily with other members of the profession and government officials, is giving way to “network diplomacy,” in which diplomats need to engage with an expanded set of non‐state actors. These, in turn, engage in diplomatic activity vis‐à‐vis each other, governments, and international organizations. Transnational actors, operating across state boundaries while not being controlled by state governments, include both non‐profit actors, such as non‐governmental organizations (NGOs), and profit‐oriented actors, such as transnational firms. Other non‐state actors are located at a level below the state (subnational) or above the state (supranational). The term “paradiplomacy” is sometimes used to refer to the diplomatic activity of subnational actors, such as cities and federated entities. The European Union is thus far the only example of a supranational actor enjoying full diplomatic recognition.
O
livares,
C
ount‐
D
uke of (1587–1645)
Authors: Osborne Toby
Published: May 2018

The Count‐Duke of Olivares (1587–1645) was Philip IV's favorite, guiding Spanish foreign policies from 1622 until early 1643. His principal aim was to conserve Spanish power in Europe and further afield against a combination of opponents, principally the Dutch Republic and France. In the face of the enormity of this task, he sought to institute reforms in the monarchy and to encourage closer cooperation with Spain's imperial Habsburg cousins. However, these efforts were largely unsuccessful, and the burden of war contributed to revolts in Portugal and Catalonia. Olivares's ministry ended with a sense of failure, with the man himself broken by the burdens of his responsibilities.
P
araguayan
W
ar (1864–70)
Authors: Weis W. Michael
Published: May 2018

The Paraguayan War or War of the Triple Alliance (1864–70) was the bloodiest conflict in post‐independence Latin American history. Pitting Paraguay against Brazil, Argentina, and Uruguay, the origins and consequences remain hotly disputed. The war ended all pretensions of Paraguay as a regional power and had important internal consequences for both Brazil and Argentina. The war continues to shape political and cultural debates throughout the region.
Ping‐Pong Diplomacy
Authors: Qing Simei
Published: May 2018

On April 10, 1971, the US table tennis (ping‐pong) team began its first China visit, when the two nations did not have diplomatic relations. On April 14, Chinese premier Zhou Enlai met with US ping‐pong players and accompanying American journalists. Following this ping‐pong event, national security adviser Henry Kissinger visited China in July 1971, followed by President Richard Nixon in February 1972. The US–China rapprochement was achieved after more than twenty years of a US non‐recognition policy towards the People's Republic of China (PRC). Behind the scenes, however, the US–China reconciliation did not happen as suddenly or accidentally as it appeared. Underneath the success of ping‐pong diplomacy were both “long‐term causes” and “short‐run occasions,” combining the hard work of statesmen at the policy‐making level and the efforts of unsung heroes at the grassroots level. Ping‐pong diplomacy employed people‐to‐people diplomacy in order to improve state‐to‐state relations.
SuezCrisis (1956)
Authors: Jönsson Christer
Published: May 2018

The Suez Crisis refers to the chain of events following the Egyptian nationalization of the Suez Canal in July 1956. In late October Israel, followed by Britain and France, attacked Egypt in an effort to regain Western control of the Suez Canal. After diplomatic interventions by the United States, the Soviet Union, and the United Nations, the invaders were forced to withdraw. Diplomatic communication throughout the crisis was complicated by vastly different perceptions among the main actors. The Suez Crisis marked the beginning of US–Soviet involvement in regional conflicts in the Middle East, while Britain and France lost their status as the major external powers in the Middle East. In addition to causing an acute but temporary Anglo‐US rift, the crisis had a longer‐term effect on France's relations with the United States and Britain.
Treaty of Ryswick (1697)
Authors: Onnekink David
Published: May 2018

The Treaty of Ryswick (1697) actually consisted of a series of bilateral treaties that ended the Nine Years' War between France and Spain, England, the Holy Roman Empire, and the Dutch Republic. The war can be regarded as part of the ongoing struggle between Habsburg and Bourbon. Ryswick was a stalemate as it left the matter of the Spanish Succession unresolved, leading to renewed war in 1702. The war played an important role in the development of the balance of power in Europe.
Priscus ofPanium (Mid‐Fifth Centuryce)
Authors: Lee A. D.
Published: May 2018

Priscus of Panium was a lawyer, rhetorician, and historian in the mid‐fifth centuryce, who participated on a number of imperial embassies from Constantinople, the most memorable of which was to Attila the Hun in 449. Priscus's detailed account of this embassy provides fascinating insights into the conduct of diplomacy in this period, as well as into the character and rule of one of the late Roman Empire's most feared antagonists.
CharlesV(1500–58)
Authors: Shaw Christine
Published: May 2018

Although a vision of universal Christian empire has often been seen as underlying the strategy of Charles V (1500–58), historians are now inclined to see his diplomacy as personal and dynastic, rather than driven by imperial ideals. Much of his diplomacy, when not concerned with the negotiation of truces or peace treaties with his major rival, Francis I, was concerned with the formation of alliances directed against him.
C
romwell,
O
liver (1599–1658)
Authors: Burns William E.
Published: May 2018

Oliver Cromwell, ruler of the British Isles from 1653 to his death in 1658, pursued an active foreign policy, making peace with the Dutch, and initially balancing between the two major European powers, France and Spain, then locked in a conflict that dominated European politics. Cromwell eventually came down on the side of France, attacking Spain in the Caribbean in the 1654 Western Design, generally viewed as a failure although it won Jamaica for Britain, and joining France in an attack on Spanish possessions in the Low Countries. A zealous Protestant, Cromwell was influenced by religious concerns, but also traditional English national interests, and the desire to win stability for his revolutionary regime.
Strengthening in Boron Nitride Nanotube Reinforced Aluminum Composites Prepared by Roll Bonding
Authors: Antillon Melania , Nautiyal Pranjal , Loganathan Archana , Boesl Benjamin , Agarwal Arvind
Published: April 2018

Boron Nitride Nanotube (BNNT) is a promising reinforcement for developing strong and lightweight metal matrix composites due to its brilliant mechanical properties and excellent high‐temperature oxidation resistance. In this study, layered composites of aluminum and BNNT are fabricated by a multi‐step process comprising of hot pressing, rolling, and annealing. Less than 0.1 wt% of ultra‐long nanotubes (up to 200 μm in length) are used to induce superior strengthening. For achieving enhanced mechanical properties, nanotubes are de‐agglomerated and chemically dispersed in an aqueous solution before introducing between the layers of aluminum sheets. Application of pressure (up to 10 MPa) and temperatures (up to 300 °C) during rolling and hot pressing induces a bonding between aluminum sheets and nanotubes. Scanning electron microscopy reveals that the nanotubes survive these conditions, suggesting superior thermal and mechanical endurance of BNNT. The nanohardness and elastic modulus of the composites are found to improve by 52% and 17%, respectively, by merely 0.045 wt% BNNT addition. BNNT reinforced composites exhibit up to 13% improvement in ultimate tensile strength. The improvement in mechanical properties is ascribed to effective load transfer from the aluminum matrix to the long nanotubes via interfacial shear stress and enhancement of dislocation density.
Accurate Extraction of Charge Carrier Mobility in 4‐Probe Field‐Effect Transistors
Authors: Choi Hyun Ho , Rodionov Yaroslav I. , Paterson Alexandra F. , Panidi Julianna , Saranin Danila , Kharlamov Nikolai , Didenko Sergei I. , Anthopoulos Thomas D. , Cho Kilwon , Podzorov Vitaly
Published: April 2018

Charge carrier mobility is an important characteristic of organic field‐effect transistors (OFETs) and other semiconductor devices. However, accurate mobility determination in FETs is frequently compromised by issues related to Schottky‐barrier contact resistance, that can be efficiently addressed by measurements in 4‐probe/Hall‐bar contact geometry. Here, it is shown that this technique, widely used in materials science, can still lead to significant mobility overestimation due to longitudinal channel shunting caused by voltage probes in 4‐probe structures. This effect is investigated numerically and experimentally in specially designed multiterminal OFETs based on optimized novel organic‐semiconductor blends and bulk single crystals. Numerical simulations reveal that 4‐probe FETs with long but narrow channels and wide voltage probes are especially prone to channel shunting, that can lead to mobilities overestimated by as much as 350%. In addition, the first Hall effect measurements in blended OFETs are reported and how Hall mobility can be affected by channel shunting is shown. As a solution to this problem, a numerical correction factor is introduced that can be used to obtain much more accurate experimental mobilities. This methodology is relevant to characterization of a variety of materials, including organic semiconductors, inorganic oxides, monolayer materials, as well as carbon nanotube and semiconductor nanocrystal arrays.
Recent Advances in Polyanhydride Based Biomaterials
Authors: Basu Arijit , Domb Abraham J.
Published: April 2018

This review focusses on recent developments of polyanhydrides, a class of degradable synthetic biopolymers. Polyanhydrides have been used as carriers for controlled delivery of drugs. A polyanhydride copolymer of carboxyphenoxy propane and sebacic acid has been used in Gliadel brain tumor implants for the controlled delivery of carmustine or bis‐chloroethylnitrosourea. They are easy and inexpensive to synthesize (especially scale up). However, polyanhydrides possess a short shelf‐life. Hydrolytic cleavage and anhydride interchanges lower their molecular weights during storage. One of the highlights in recent developments of polyanhydride chemistry is the discovery of alternating copolymers having extended shelf‐life. Other highlights include their applications in biomedical electronics, vaccine delivery, and nano/micro particulate delivery systems. This review examines approaches for polyanhydride synthesis followed by their recent developments in biomedical applications.
Aligning Ag Nanowires by a Facile Bioinspired Directional Liquid Transfer: Toward Anisotropic Flexible Conductive Electrodes
Authors: Meng Lili , Bian Ruixin , Guo Cheng , Xu Bojie , Liu Huan , Jiang Lei
Published: April 2018

Recent years have witnessed the booming development of transparent flexible electrodes (TFEs) for their applications in electronics and optoelectronic devices. Various strategies have thus been developed for preparing TFEs with higher flexibility and conductivity. However, little work has focused on TFEs with anisotropic conductivity. Here, a facile strategy of directional liquid transfer is proposed, guided by a conical fibers array (CFA), based on which silver nanowires (AgNWs) are aligned on a soft poly(ethylene terephthalate) substrate in large scale. After further coating a second thin layer of the conductive polymer poly(3,4‐ethylenedioxythiophene):poly(styrenesulfonate), a TFE with notable anisotropic conductivity and excellent optical transmittance of 95.2% is prepared. It is proposed that the CFA enables fine control over the receding of the three‐phase contact line during the dewetting process, where AgNWs are guided and aligned by the as‐generated directional stress. Moreover, anisotropic electrochemical deposition is enabled where the Cu nanoparticles deposit only on the oriented AgNWs, leading to a surface with anisotropic wetting behavior. Importantly, the approach enables alignment of AgNWs via multiple directions at one step. It is envisioned that the as‐developed approach will provide an optional approach for simple and low‐cost preparation of TFE with various functions.