bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Changes in land cover and stream flows in Gilgel Abbay catchment, Upper Blue Nile basin – Ethiopia
Authors: Rientjes T. H. M. , Haile A. T. , Mannaerts C. M. M. , Kebede E. , Habib E.
Published: December 2010

Abstract. We evaluated the land cover change in the Upper Gilgel Abbay catchment in the Upper Blue Nile basin through classification analysis of remote sensing based land cover data and through assessing the changes in the hydrological regime by statistical analysis of stream flow observations. Results of the land cover classification analysis indicated that 50.9% and 16.7% of the catchment area was covered by forest in 1973 and 2001, respectively. This significant decrease in forest cover is mainly due to expansion of agricultural land. A comparison of stream flow time series of the Upper Gilgel Abbay catchment to stream flow time series from two neighbouring catchments shows a different trend and a statistically significant change over time. In 1986–2001, the annual and the high flows of the catchment increased by 13% and 46%, respectively while the low flows decreased by 35%. Generally, the results indicate significant changes in land cover and the hydrological regimes of the Upper Gilgel Abbay catchment over the past 30 years.
Simulation of the long-term behaviour of a fault with two asperities
Authors: Dragoni M. , Santini S.
Published: December 2010

Abstract. A system made of two sliding blocks coupled by a spring is employed to simulate the long-term behaviour of a fault with two asperities. An analytical solution is given for the motion of the system in the case of blocks having the same friction. An analysis of the phase space shows that orbits can reach a limit cycle only after entering a particular subset of the space. There is an infinite number of different limit cycles, characterized by the difference between the forces applied to the blocks or, as an alternative, by the recurrence pattern of block motions. These results suggest that the recurrence pattern of seismic events produced by the equivalent fault system is associated with a particular stress distribution which repeats periodically. Admissible stress distributions require a certain degree of inhomogeneity, which depends on the geometry of fault system. Aperiodicity may derive from stress transfers from neighboring faults.
Dissimilatory Sulfite Reductase
Authors: Parey Kristian , Schiffer Alexander , Steuber Julia , Fritz Günter , Ermler Ulrich , Kroneck Peter MH
Published: December 2010

Dissimilatory sulfite reductase (dSiR) belongs to the group of oxidoreductases and is a key enzyme of the biogeochemical sulfur cycle. The enzyme is organized as a heterotetrameric α2β2, or a heterohexameric α2β2γ2complex, and catalyzes the reduction of sulfite (SO32−) to hydrogen sulfide (H2S) in a six‐electron transfer process as the final step of dissimilatory sulfate reduction. Thiosulfate (S2O32−) and trithionate (S3O62−) have been postulated as potential intermediates in this energy conserving process, which evolved in an early stage of prokaryotic life in an anoxic environment. Like assimilatory sulfite reductase (aSiR), dSiR also reduces nitrite to ammonia. Sulfite reductases and related nitrite reductases are the only known class of enzymes that couple a siroheme (an iron‐tetrahydroporphyrin of the isobacteriochlorin class) to an iron–sulfur cluster to construct a catalytically active redox center.
Calmodulin Interactions withCav1 andCav2 Voltage‐Gated Calcium ChannelIQDomains
Authors: Kim Eun Young , Findeisen Felix , Minor Daniel L
Published: December 2010

High‐voltage‐activated calcium channels (CaV1s and CaV2s) are transmembrane protein complexes that couple membrane depolarization to cellular calcium entry. Because calcium is an intracellular messenger and CaVs are important calcium sources, CaVs have a key role in the conversion of electrical signals into the chemical signaling cascades that drive a variety of vital physiological processes in nerve and muscle. These include excitation‐contraction coupling, hormone release, gene regulation, and synaptic transmission. CaVs are regulated by a diverse set of feedback mechanisms. Two important forms of activity‐dependent feedback modulation involve interactions between calcium‐calmodulin (Ca2+/CaM) and the CaVα1pore‐forming subunit of CaV1s and CaV2s: calcium‐dependent inactivation (CDI) in which calcium influx promotes channel closing following activation, and calcium‐dependent facilitation (CDF), a process that enhances channel opening in response to elevated cytoplasmic calcium. The main site of action for Ca2+/CaM is a motif, known as anIQ domain, located on the C‐terminal cytoplasmic tail of the CaVα1pore‐forming subunit. Strikingly, different Ca2+/CaM lobes are responsible for CDI and CDF in CaV1 and CaV2 channels. Crystallographic studies have indicated a structural basis for the apparent inversion of lobe‐specific roles in CDI and CDF in which Ca2+/CaM binds CaV1 and CaV2 IQ domains in opposite orientations.
Medicinal Inorganic Chemistry: Continuum of Dose versus Response—From Deficiency through Optimal Intake to Toxicity
Authors: Thompson Katherine H.
Published: December 2010

Metal‐ion essentiality is not a static concept. Over the course of the last several decades, essentiality has been redefined to broaden the definition beyond “necessary to support human life” to include “having a defined biochemical function.” The main effect of this redefinition has been to restrain the addition of additional ultratrace elements, present in the human body, but not clearly required in a specific amount in the daily nutrient intake, to the ever‐expanding list of known essential elements. Essential metal ions are associated not only with recognizable deficiency symptoms under conditions of inadequate intake but also with existing homeostatic mechanisms that regulate absorption, distribution, storage, and excretion of the metal‐ion in vivo. The Bertrand diagram is a schematic representation of the range of essential metal‐ion intake consistent with optimal nutrient intake, bounded on the lower intake range by deficiency symptoms and on the upper intake end, by increasingly severe toxicity symptoms. The continuum of dose versus response includes both tails of this spectrum for all essential metal ions. Not all metal ions are the same: each has an appropriate “window of optimal intake” whose width and concentration ranges vary widely from one metal ion to the other.
Medicinal Inorganic Chemistry: Ligand Design Objectives and Principles
Authors: Thompson Katherine H.
Published: December 2010

Metal‐based pharmaceutical agents are composed of one or more metal ions and at least one ligand. Additional molecular substituents may include targeting moieties, linking groups, antioxidants, or pendant carbohydrates, or some combination of these. There are two main applications of metal‐based pharmaceutical agents: diagnostic and therapeutic. Ligand requirements for the two streams of development differ in some important ways, but are still based on the same basic principles for molecular design, including consideration of thermodynamic and hydrolytic stability, pharmacokinetics, molecular weight and charge, lipophilicity and hydrophilicity, aqueous solubility, functional groups, and ligand nontoxicity (sometimes achieved by using naturally occurring binding groups). Examples of the principles that are discussed in this article include Gd(III)‐based magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) contrast agents, Cu(II)‐clotrimazole, proposed as an antiparasitic agent,67Ga‐citrate for tumor imaging, and99 mTc(I)‐sestamibi for cardiac imaging.
Archaeal Ribosomes
Authors: Londei Paola
Published: December 2010

Ribosomes, the essential cellular organelles carrying out protein synthesis, have a basic design that is fundamentally conserved in all three kingdoms of life (Archaea, Bacteria and Eukarya). Nevertheless, there are ribosomal features specific of each kingdom. Archaeal ribosomes have a size and composition similar to those of their bacterial counterparts: they contain three
ribonucleic acid
(RNA) molecules, 16S, 23S and 5S RNA and 50–70 proteins depending on the species. However, the primary structures of both archaeal ribosomal RNA and r‐proteins are closer to those of eukaryotes. As many Archaea have adapted to function under conditions of extreme salt or temperature, their ribosomal components are highly resistant to such adverse conditions, and the overall ribosome structure often has an higher rigidity than that of mesophilic microorganisms. This makes archaeal ribosomes optimally suited for crystallographic studies, and in fact, high‐resolution three‐dimensional structures have been obtained with ribosomal crystals from halophilic and thermophilic Archaea. These studies pioneered the resolution at the atomic level of ribosome architecture, a feat that won the 2009 Nobel Prize in Chemistry to Ada Yonath, Thomas Steitz and Venki Ramakrishnan.

Key Concepts:

Ribosome structure is very well conserved in all cells. In Archaea, the small ribosomal subunits have certain structural features (‘bill’ and ‘lobes’) also seen in Eukarya but not in Bacteria.

Archaeal ribosomes are composed of 30S and 50S subunits that join to make a 70S particle. They contain 3 rRNA molecules (16S, 23S and 5S) and up to 68 ribosomal proteins.

The primary sequences of both archaeal rRNA and r‐proteins are closer to those of eukaryotes than to those of bacteria. All of the archaeal r‐proteins are represented in eukaryotes, whereas no r‐proteins are shared by Archaea and Bacteria only.

Archaeal ribosomes have a heterogeneous protein composition. Early branching Archaea (Crenarchaeota) tend to have protein‐richer ribosomes, whereas late‐branching species (halobacteriales, Thermoplasmatales) tend to have protein‐poorer ribosomes.

The ribosomes of the extremophilic Archaea show specific adaptations to harsh environmental conditions. In general, they have a more rigid structure than mesophilic ribosomes. Halophilic ribosomes increase their hydration capacity by having acidic instead of basic ribosomal proteins.
Histocompatibility Antigen Complex of Man
Authors: Mehra Narinder K , Kaur Gurvinder
Published: December 2010

The histocompatibility antigens are cell surface glycoproteins expressed on nucleated cells whose major function is to bind peptides within the cell or from outside and present them at the cell surface for inspection by T cells of the immune system. These antigens are a part of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC), which exists in most vertebrate species and whose products were originally defined as the most crucial elements controlling graft rejection. Human MHC research has revealed human leucocyte antigen (HLA) to be the most polymorphic genetic system in the mammalian genome, and this unique diversity parallels the need for diverse peptide sites within the MHC to combat a fast‐evolving range of pathogens. Clinical screening of HLA polymorphism is now an important prophylactic biomarker system for various diseases and a useful tool for development of peptide‐based vaccination approaches.

Key Concepts:

HLA is the most polymorphic component of the human genome. It is a part of the major histocompatibility complex that exists in many animal species.

The major function of HLA molecules is antigen presentation.

High degree of molecular diversity of classical HLA class I and class II molecules is a reflection of their direct role as antigen presenting molecules against a wide range of pathogens

MHC region is characterised by strong linkage disequilibrium between its loci such that conserved ancestral haplotypes can be identified.

There are population‐based differences in allelic distribution of MHC molecules primarily due to historical human migration patterns and varying microbial pressures in different geographical regions

An individual heterozygous at a particular HLA locus has an added advantage than homozygous as the two different HLA molecules can bind and present large number of peptides.

The function of the ubiquitous HLA class I gene products (HLA‐A, HLA‐B and HLA‐C) is to present endogenous peptides to responding CD8+ T cells, whereas the class II coded molecules (HLA‐DR, HLA‐DQ and HLA‐DP) have restricted tissue distribution and process exogenous peptides for presentation to CD4+ helper T cells

The antigen‐binding cleft of HLA class I molecules can bind peptides that are usually nonamers, whereas the HLA class II antigen‐binding cleft can bind longer peptides of 11–18 mers.

Polymorphisms in the MHC have been associated with disease susceptibility and varying rates of disease progression.

MHC matching is crucial in donor selection for haematopoietic stem cell and organ transplantation.
Rabies: Virus and Disease
Authors: Nadin‐Davis Susan A
Published: December 2010

Rabies is an acute encephalomyelitis, caused by a group of genetically related lyssaviruses. The primary sources of rabies are major animal reservoirs in the orders Chiroptera and Carnivora, although this deadly zoonosis may affect all mammals, including humans. Despite the availability of biologicals that are efficacious in preventing the disease, once clinical signs develop, the disease is almost invariably fatal and kills over 50 000 people annually. The most effective control measures involve parenteral dog vaccination and oral vaccination of wildlife. Genetic analysis of lyssaviruses is extending our understanding of their diversity and evolution. The mechanisms that contribute to viral pathogenesis are being explored by studying the molecular interactions of the viral components with host cell factors. Such knowledge may provide for new less costly vaccines and effective therapeutic interventions in the future.

Key Concepts:

Rabies is a neurological disease that can affect almost all mammals and is almost invariably fatal once clinical signs develop.

Rabies is caused by all members of the
Lyssavirus
genus, bullet‐shaped neurotropic viruses with small RNA genomes, which are normally transmitted in virus‐laden saliva through bites.

Humans rarely transmit the disease to other humans but are exposed through contact with rabid animals.

Prevention of human disease is undertaken by a regimen of timely post‐exposure prophylaxis.

Distinct
Lyssavirus
species and variants thereof are maintained in dogs in the developing world and by several wildlife species including foxes, skunks, raccoons, raccoon dogs, mongooses, jackals and many species of bats.

Through a series of viral–host interactions, rabies virus has evolved mechanisms that maintain the neural network required for its propagation and spread within the infected host while avoiding clearance by the host's immune system.

Knowledge of the diversity of the
Lyssavirus
genus is steadily expanding with increased surveillance and development of molecular tools to enable rapid characterisation of new isolates.

Current vaccines and biologicals are ineffective against the more diverse members of the genus thereby indicating that additional novel reagents may be required in the future.

Ultimately, control and eradication of rabies will require elimination of the disease from animal reservoirs through the application of efficacious and cost‐effective methods of animal vaccination.
Duisberg, Carl
Authors: Parascandola John
Published: December 2010

Carl Dusiberg (1861–1935) was a German chemist and industrial executive. He began working in the German dyestuffs industry in the late nineteenth century, when it was a rapidly expanding field. He and his colleagues produced many new dyestuffs and intermediates. His real strength, however, was in the area of management. Along with Carl Bosch, he was responsible for the merger of several German chemical companies into a large conglomerate, IG Farbenindustrie. It was the largest firm in Europe and dominated the chemical market. The company was ostracised after World War II for its collaboration with the Nazi regime (e.g. in the production of poison gas for the death camps) and its use of slave labour, but Duisberg died before these excesses took place.

Key Concepts:

Carl Dusiberg was involved in the rapid expansion of the German dye industry in the late nineteenth century.

Carl Duisberg was a cofounder of the German chemical conglomerate IG Farbenindustrie.

IG Farben collaborated with the Nazi regime during World War II.

He was (1861–1935) a German chemist and industry executive, a principal founder of the German firm I. G. Farbenindustrie AG.
Cystathionine β‐synthase (CBS) Deficiency: Genetics
Authors: Kožich Viktor , Kruger Warren D , Kraus Jan Peter
Published: December 2010

Cystathionine β‐synthase(CBS) is an enzyme that catalyses condensation of homocysteine and serine to cystathionine. CBS deficiency, an autosomal recessive trait with estimated population frequency of around 1:10 000–1:20 000, resembles in the most severe forms Marfan syndrome with thromboembolism and neurological impairment, whereas milder forms may manifest with only thromboembolism or may remain asymptomatic. Laboratory findings include grossly elevated plasma total homocysteine and in part of patients also elevated blood methionine; the latter feature is utilised in neonatal screening. CBS binds three cofactors: pyridoxal 5′‐phosphate, an allosteric activatorS‐adenosylmethionine and haem with as yet unresolved function. In theCBSgene, more than 150 different mutations have been described to date, almost 90% of them are missense variants. Although some of the mutations affectribonucleic acidprocessing and its stability, the majority of mutations lead to enzyme misfolding and misassembly, which may be in part rescued by chemical or molecular chaperones.

Key Concepts:

Cystathionine β‐synthase catalyses the first step in homocysteinetrans‐sulfuration.

Cystathionine β‐synthase is a modular enzyme composed of a haem‐bindingN‐terminal domain, the catalytically active core and theC‐terminal autoinhibitory domain.

More than 150 different pathogenic mutations have been described in theCBSgene, almost 90% of all mutantCBSalleles carry missense mutations.

Misfolding and misassembly of mutant CBS subunits is a common pathogenic mechanism leading to CBS deficiency.

Mutation topology predicts in part the behaviour of mutant CBS enzymes, solvent accessible mutations have less severe effect than those buried in the enzyme globule.

Deficient CBS activity leads to gross elevation of plasma total homocysteine and often to elevated blood methionine levels.

Phenotypic consequences of mutations in theCBSgene include thromboembolism and vascular occlusion, which is accompanied in some patients by lens dislocation, marfanoid features and varying degree of neurological involvement.

Population frequency of clinically ascertained patients with CBS deficiency is one to two orders of magnitude lower than the frequency calculated from the prevalence of heterozygotes for pathogenic mutations; this observation indicates an ascertainment bias or lack of symptoms in many CBS‐deficient individuals.

Murine models of CBS deficiency recapitulate in part the pathophysiology and organ involvement observed in human patients.
Sex Differences in Brain Function
Authors: McCarthy Margaret M
Published: December 2010

Sex differences in the brain come in many sizes, shapes and forms. The most robust differences between males and females are not surprisingly those directly relevant to reproduction. The neural underpinnings controlling sex behaviour and control of gonadal function are establishing during a developmental sensitive period by the differential hormonal milieu found in males versus females. Considerable advances have been made in identifying the cellular mechanisms of early organizational effects of testosterone and its metabolite estradiol, which then determine adult physiology and behaviour. These mechanisms are highly region‐specific and impact on cell death, axonal projections and synaptogenesis, resulting in a brain that combines varying degrees of maleness and femaleness. The study of reproductive endpoints is not only valid in its own right but also provides insight into the more subtle sex differences associated with cognition, emotionality, social behaviour and relative risk of neurological disorders and diseases of mental health.

Key Concepts:

During development sex‐specific hormones organize the brain into a male or female phenotype which is then activated by hormones in adulthood.

The largest magnitude sex differences in the brain are in areas associated with control of reproduction.

Hormones regulate growth factors, cell death, cell genesis and synaptogenesis to build sexually dimorphic neural circuits.

There are multiple cellular mechanisms of hormonally mediated sexual differentiation which vary by brain region and endpoint.

Because of the myriad of mechanisms and the impact of environment and experience, ultimately every brain is a moasic of masculine and feminine in varying degrees.
Chromosome Condensation and Cohesion
Authors: Díaz‐Martínez Laura Angélica , Yu Hongtao
Published: December 2010

The diploid human genome consists of 46 chromosomes, which collectively contain about 2 m of
deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA). During mitosis, the genome is packaged into 46 pairs of sister chromatids, each less than 10 μm long. Two fundamental mechanisms govern the formation and maintenance of chromosome structure during mitosis: (i) the dramatic and progressive compaction of chromosomes in the process of chromosome condensation and (ii) the establishment of the physical linkages or
cohesion
between the sister chromatids. Central to the processes of chromosome condensation and cohesion are the
type II topoisomerases
and the Structure Maintenance of Chromosomes (SMC) family of proteins, which form the
condensin
and
cohesin
complexes. These proteins cooperate to ensure chromosome condensation and cohesion, thus promoting the accurate partition of the genome during mitosis.

Key Concepts:

Chromosome condensation and cohesion are necessary for accurate chromosome segregation.

Condensin and topoisomerase IIα are the major regulators of chromosome condensation.

Sister‐chromatid cohesion is required for the bipolar attachment of chromosomes to the spindle microtubules and counteracts the spindle pulling forces generated at the kinetochores.

The cohesin complex is critical for sister‐chromatid cohesion.

Both DNA catenation and sister‐chromatid cohesion have to be resolved for proper sister‐chromatid separation.

Centromeric cohesion is regulated by the spindle checkpoint. Its removal occurs at the onset of anaphase.
Phylogenetics of Baleen Whales
Authors: Jackson Jennifer A
Published: December 2010

At present, there are 15 species of baleen whales that belong to the monophyletic suborder Mysticeti. The family‐level designations of Balaenidae (right and bowhead whales) and Neobalaenidae (pygmy right whales) are strongly supported and well resolved. However, family‐level designations and inter‐relationships among the remaining species and genera of Balaenopteridae (rorquals) and Eschrichtiidae (grey whales) are less well resolved. Taxonomic relationships vary between studies, reconstruction methods and marker types, despite strong morphological support for the placement of Eschrichtiidae as a sister group to the Balaenopteridae. This phylogenetic uncertainty appears to have originated from a rapid Miocene radiation of both families, which has resulted in incomplete sorting of genetic lineages and therefore conflicting phylogenetic signals among nuclear and mitochondrial loci. The earliest radiation of baleen whales (suborder Mysticeti) occurred in the Late Eocene. The fossil record of subsequent species diversifications has been strongly correlated with changes in fossil diatom diversity and isotopic oxygen levels over time.

Key Concepts:

The monophyletic suborder Mysticeti is composed of four families and 15 species of baleen whales.

Mysticete families Balaenidae and Neobalaenidae are strongly supported and well resolved.

Molecular genetic support for inter‐species relationships within and between Balaenopteridae and Eschrichtiidae is poorly resolved and suggests a rapid Miocene radiation of lineages at the origin of these families.
Sampling, Detection and Screening of Chemicals Related to the Chemical Weapons Convention
Authors: Pottage Colin , Buckley Margaret E.
Published: December 2010

The Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC), which came into force on April 29, 1997, prohibits the development, production, stockpiling, and the use of chemical weapons (CW). It is administered by the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW), which is based in The Hague. The CWC verification regime requires States Parties to declare the use of CW‐related chemicals, which may be used legitimately for nonprohibited purposes, and allows for OPCW inspections of production sites.

During the course of inspections, there may be a requirement for the inspection team (IT) to investigate unresolved ambiguities. The IT has the right to request clarification and, if these ambiguities cannot be clarified by negotiation, then samples may be taken for analysis.

Examples of sampling equipment, procedures, and sample management techniques are described, together with a brief description of screening and detection. Some analyses may be performed on‐site by the inspectors, using equipment brought with them, but for the resolution of more difficult ambiguities it may be necessary to send a sample for off‐site analysis, maintaining the anonymity of its origin, in two or more of a global network of laboratories “designated” by the OPCW. The results of any sampling and analysis process must be able to stand up to international scrutiny, and therefore chain‐of‐custody or audit‐trail procedures must be strictly followed. The process should allow the re‐creation of the position or state of the sample at any time during the handling of the sample from collection through to disposal.
Direct Analysis in Real‐Time Ion Source
Authors: Cody Robert B. , John Dane A.
Published: December 2010

Direct Analysis in Real Time (DARTTM) refers to an atmospheric‐pressure “open‐air” ion source that is based on the interaction of long‐lived (“metastable”) excited‐state neutral atoms or molecules with analytes and atmospheric gases. The DART source is used for the rapid analysis of liquids, solids, vapors, or materials on surfaces in open air with little or no sample preparation.
Expression of Recombinant Genes in the Yeast Pichia pastoris
Authors: Cregg James M. , Tolstorukov Ilya , Kusari Anasua , Sunga Anthony Jay , Madden Knut , Chappell Thomas
Published: December 2010

The synthesis of specific recombinant proteins using single‐celled organisms from bacteria to mammalian tissue culture cells has become a major source of biopharmaceutical products for the industry and a source of a wide variety of proteins for academic research. A range of organisms are utilized for this purpose. One of the newest and most promising of these is the yeast Pichia pastoris. This article provides detailed basic protocols for the expression of heterologous genes and the synthesis of recombinant proteins utilizing this yeast. Specifically provided are protocols for the insertion of foreign vector DNAs into the yeast by electroporation, amplification of vector sequences by the post‐translational vector amplification (PTVA) method, and growth and expression of foreign genes in shake flask cultures. Curr. Protoc. Essential Lab. Tech. 4:13.2.1‐13.2.14. © 2010 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Brand Value
Authors: Raggio Randle D.
Published: December 2010

Brand value, the sale or replacement price of a brand, is considered from the perspective of a firm that owns, potentially owns, or uses a brand. Two levels of brand value are identified:
current
and
appropriable
, along with strategies for chasing appropriable value. Valuation approaches and uses of brand valuations are discussed.
Customer Analysis
Authors: Babin Barry J. , Harris Eric G.
Published: December 2010

This article provides an overview of the tools, methods, and aims of customer analysis. Businesses need to know how to create value to be successful. Different approaches to analyzing customers with an orientation toward understanding value creation are described. Examples of customer analysis types from the marketing literature are referenced.
Database Mining and Marketing
Authors: Saar‐Tsechansky Maytal
Published: December 2010

Database mining refers to the data‐driven process of extracting useful patterns or relationships from large databases, usually by means of sophistical statistical techniques. In marketing, while data base mining discovers and unravels patterns in data, it is not guided by underlying marketing theories. Marketing applications of data base mining include market basket analysis, propensity models, and ad placement models.
Global Marketing Strategy
Authors: Johansson Johny K.
Published: December 2010

This article makes a concise statement of what a global marketing strategy involves, including sections on organizational context, market segmentation and positioning, product standardization and global branding, pricing and distribution with special attention to gray trade, and global promotional strategy, including global advertising. The strategic implications of global versus multidomestic markets are explored and competitive strengths and weaknesses against local competitors are discussed. The principles are illustrated throughout with illustrations of actual companies.
Innovation Diffusion
Authors: Mahajan Vijay
Published: December 2010

This article highlights (i) the objectives of the innovation diffusion models, (ii) the role of interpersonal communication, signals, and network externalities in determining the speed and shape of the diffusion process in a social system, and (iii) possible applications of diffusion models in marketing.
Market Orientation
Authors: Slater Stanley F. , Mohr Jakki J. , Sengupta Sanjit
Published: December 2010

One of the most enduring pieces of advice for executives over the past 30 years has been, “Focus on your customers!” Customer focus is the centerpiece of the market‐oriented business. The meaning of market orientation, the performance implications of being market oriented, and the processes for achieving a market orientation have been the subject of much debate and research for the past 20 years. In this article, we provide clarity on these issues. In essence, market‐oriented businesses generate intelligence about customers, competitors, and other key influencers; share that intelligence broadly throughout the company; integrate and achieve a shared interpretation of the meaning of the market intelligence; and take coordinated action based on that shared interpretation. A large body of research has shown that market‐oriented businesses achieve superior new‐product success, sales growth, and profitability. Becoming market oriented is not an easy task though. In extreme cases, it requires a total organizational transformation that requires top management commitment, organizational restructuring, new compensation systems, and a commitment to team rather than to self. The material in this article is largely drawn from our book,
Marketing of High Technology Products and Innovations
(3rd edition) by Jakki Mohr, Sanjit Sengupta, and Stanley Slater, published by Prentice‐Hall (2010).
Market Share
Authors: Hassay Derek N.
Published: December 2010

This article defines market share and demonstrates the revenue and unit approaches to calculating this, the most widely referenced marketing metric. The article also explores the theoretical relationship between market share and profitability. It concludes with a discussion of the limitations inherent with the metric and the challenges that these biases present to practitioners and researchers.
Marketing Mix
Authors: Albaum Gerald
Published: December 2010

Every marketing program embodies what has come to be known as the marketing mix. This mix is the combination of marketing activities that a firm uses to serve markets for its products or services. This article discusses the major elements of the marketing mix and presents illustrations of the research that has been reported on the effectiveness of marketing mix tactics and models.
Marketing Strategy Models
Authors: Shankar Venkatesh
Published: December 2010

A marketing model is a mathematical representation of a marketing phenomenon. Marketing strategy models are models focused on strategic marketing problems. The main purpose of a marketing strategy model is to develop tools and insights for the formulation of marketing strategies. Marketing strategy models can be classified into three types: descriptive models, normative models, and predictive models. Game theoretic models, which are based on normative behavioral assumptions, exist for analyzing competition in strategic marketing variables such as order and sequence of market entry, positioning, and defensive reactions and in strategic levels of product, price, distribution channels, and advertising. Empirical industrial organization models – models that focus on marketing strategy decisions through analysis of both demand (e.g., sales, market share) and supply (e.g., pricing strategy, marketing allocation strategy) functions – are growing in popularity. Although marketing strategy models span several areas of strategy, models on three topics, namely, new‐product development and product management strategy, market entry and growth strategy, and defensive strategy, are discussed in detail in this article. More models and decision support systems are needed for marketing strategies related to international entry, allocation between product development and marketing expenditures, product portfolio analysis, and allocation across own marketing and comarketing spending.
Market‐Based Assets
Authors: Shervani Tasadduq
Published: December 2010

Market‐based assets are intangible assets that arise from the commingling of the firm with entities in its external environment. Brands, customer relationships, distribution channel, and other partner relationships are all examples of market‐based assets. These assets create value for a firm because they allow the firm to (i) accelerate cash flow, (ii) enhance cash flow, (iii) reduce the volatility and vulnerability of cash flows, and (iv) increase the residual value of cash flows. The ultimate goal of the marketing function within a firm can be defined as increasing the value of the market‐based assets of the firm. By conceptualizing market‐based assets as a significant portion of the goodwill earned by a firm over time, marketing researchers and practitioners can better understand how marketing creates value. The relationship between marketing and finance, two critical functions in any business, can be better managed using the common language of market‐based assets. Finance personnel can now understand the value created by marketing in a language that they are familiar with. Marketers, in turn, can use this common language to ensure that the firm makes appropriate investments in the marketing function and marketing activities
Product Category
Authors: Jeong Jaeseok
Published: December 2010

A group of products that are homogeneous are generally considered as substitutes for each other. The product category is considered as narrow or broad depending on how substitutable the various products are. A products is generally identified in terms of its product category, which can be defined as the classification to which the product is assigned. The identification of the product category sometimes can be ambiguous and even arbitrary and this can be an issue for marketing managers in measuring the market performance and understanding the market structure and competition for their own product(s).
Stages of the Product Life Cycle
Authors: Jeong Jaeseok
Published: December 2010

The product life cycle (PLC) is a marketing concept that describes the way the revenues from the sale of a product behave over time. Typically, the PLC is drawn as a bell curve with the life cycle being divided into several stages. The PLC has four stages: (i) introduction – the slow sales growth that follows the introduction of a new product; (ii) growth – the rapid sales growth that accompanies product acceptance; (iii) maturity – the peak of sales growth when the product has been accepted by most potential buyers; and (iv) decline – the decline of sales that results as the product is replaced (by a substitute) or as it discontinues in the market.
Supply Chain Management Strategy
Authors: Mentzer John T. , Esper Terry L.
Published: December 2010

Successfully managing a supply chain requires a supply chain management strategy, aligning all of the companies involved in a supply chain with respect to product, market, and supply characteristics. Doing so requires balancing acceptable levels of cost efficiencies and customer service effectiveness and adopting a supply chain orientation in the firm.
SWOT
Analysis
Authors: Srinivasan Srini
Published: December 2010

SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats) analysis posits that to compete successfully in the market place, organizations need to consider concurrently both internal and external factors – some of which may be favorable to the organization while others may not. In the SWOT analysis, internal factors that drive firm performance are broadly classified into strengths and weaknesses. Businesses derive their strengths from superior skills and tangible and intangible resources that help them to perform better in the market place and thwart competition. Weaknesses are deficiencies and constraints that prevent a firm from performing optimally or succeeding in the market place. SWOT analysis also places emphasis on identifying relevant external factors that impact firm performance, and it broadly classifies them into opportunities and threats. Opportunities are trends and events outside the business that can significantly improve firm performance if appropriate actions are taken by the organization. Threats are environmental factors, which, in the absence of proper strategic response, are likely to result in significant decrease in firm performance and erode its competitive advantage
A Framework for Creating Value Propositions
Authors: Anderson James C. , Carpenter Gregory S.
Published: December 2010

A
value proposition
is the statement of those few points of difference that create a compelling reason for a customer to select one market offering relative to competing alternatives. The primary factors in constructing value propositions that target customers find persuasive are frame of reference, points of parity, and points of difference. The
frame of reference
is the set of potential competing alternatives that a customer considers.
Points of parity
are the elements of the market offering on which the customer views the offerings as essentially the same.
Points of difference
are the elements of the offering on which the customer views one offering as noticeably superior.

Potential value propositions can be evaluated on three criteria: distinctiveness, measurability, and sustainability.
Distinctiveness
captures the extent to which the value proposition is uniquely able to deliver on a claim relative to alternative offerings.
Measurability
is the extent to which the value proposition can be substantiated in tangible ways, such as in monetary terms.
Sustainability
captures how long the uniqueness the value proposition conveys is expected to last.
Exploratory Research
Authors: Mittal Vikas
Published: December 2010

Exploratory research, also known as
qualitative research
, typically involves techniques such as focus groups, in‐depth interviews, ethnography, and metaphor elicitation. Rather than being a substitute for quantitative research, exploratory research when conducted properly can be a useful and necessary complement that allows the researcher to fully understand the needs, motivations, judgments, perceptions, and intentions that customers bring to the table. By following the guidelines described here, marketing researchers can ensure that they maximize the upside potential of their research project while minimizing the downside.
Survey Research
Authors: Agrawal Jagdish
Published: December 2010

Survey is a method of collecting data by means of a questionnaire containing a set of questions. The survey can be conducted by using a variety of methods such as personal (face‐to‐face) interview at home, malls, or any other convenient place; telephone interview; mail (postal) survey; and online (electronic) survey. Each of these methods have certain costs and benefits associated with them such as monetary costs, degree of expertise needed, response time, response rate, and many others. The choice of appropriate method(s) depends upon the criteria such as availability of budget and time; nature of research design; sample size and amount of data needed from each respondent; and the nature and format of the questions. For example, a low cost and fast response rate, among other things, is making the online survey a very popular means of doing surveys. Given that data collection from any one of these methods requires a certain degree of expertise and administrative capacity, many firms prefer to outsource the task of collecting data to outside vendors. Irrespective of who does the survey, it is very important to honor the privacy of respondents and maintain the confidentiality of their responses.
Models for Categorical Dependent Variables
Authors: Russell Gary J.
Published: December 2010

The analysis of categorical dependent variables requires special care in both model specification and parameter interpretation. Researchers must understand that models for categorical data are designed to forecast the discrete probability distribution of categorical outcomes, not the actual outcome itself. By far, the most prominent analysis tools used in marketing research are variants of the multinomial logit model (random utility theory (RUT) logit, common logit). These models can be viewed as special types of generalized linear models (GLM). More complex models can be developed through the use of latent variables. In particular, latent variables permit the construction of models that incorporate ordinal relationships among outcomes (ordinal regression), differing patterns of similarity among alternatives (multinomial probit), and heterogeneity in response parameters (latent class and random coefficient treatments of logit and probit). Recent research has begun the development of multivariate models (multivariate probit, autologistic regression) that allow for correlations among categorical dependent variables.
Multidimensional Scaling of Preference Data
Authors: DeSarbo Wayne S. , Scott Crystal J.
Published: December 2010

Multidimensional scaling represents a family of various geometric models for the multidimensional representation of the structure in data as well as the corresponding set of methods for fitting such spatial models. Its major uses in marketing include positioning, market segmentation, new‐product design, consumer preference analysis, and so on. We present two popular multidimensional scaling models for the analysis of consumer preference data. The first model presented is called the
vector
or
scalar products model
that represents brands by points and consumers by vectors in a T‐dimensional derived joint space. The second model is called the
multidimensional unfolding
or
ideal point model
where both brands and consumers are jointly represented by points in a
T
‐dimensional derived joint space. We contrast the underlying utility assumptions implied by each of these two models with illustrative figures of typical joint spaces derived from each approach. An actual commercial application of consideration to buy large sports utility vehicles is provided with the empirical results from each model discussed. Implications for positioning are also revealed.
Structural Equation Modeling
Authors: Baumgartner Hans
Published: December 2010

Structural equation modeling (SEM) with latent variables is a technique for investigating relationships between latent (unobserved) variables or constructs that are measured by multiple manifest (observed) variables or indicators. We provide an overview of SEM organized around the steps involved in using SEM for theory testing: model specification (graphical model specification, model identification, measurement and latent variable model specification issues, and sample size considerations); preliminary data analysis; model estimation; overall model evaluation (based on the chi‐square goodness‐of‐fit test and alternative fit indices); model modification; and model interpretation. More advanced uses of SEM and recent developments are also briefly described. These include models for multiple populations and models with mean structures, latent variable mixture models, models incorporating nonlinear relationships, multilevel SEM, and latent curve models.
Internal Databases for Marketing Research
Authors: Mulhern Frank J.
Published: December 2010

Direct marketing and database marketing involve the use of customer‐level data on buying behavior to target and communicate to individual consumers. Database analysis provides specific measurement of the financial value of customers to a firm and the responsiveness of individual consumers to direct communications. A major advantage of customer databases is they allow for precise specification of market segments compared to the more limited information used in segmentation with demographic or survey data. Direct marketing features an array of direct media technologies that allow for one‐to‐one communications. With the ongoing digitization of media, the direct approach and database marketing approach are becoming more central to the practice of marketing. Digital, interactive media facilitate addressable marketing communications that are precise and measurable. The ability to communicate with individual consumers through direct media will revolutionize the way marketing is practiced and advance the field to a more rigorous level.
Electronic Scanner Services
Authors: Mulhern Frank J.
Published: December 2010

Electronic scanner services are data‐collection systems that capture brand sales information from scanner systems at retail store checkouts and sell that information to brand manufacturers and retailers. The retail scanner systems read the universal product codes (barcodes) on each item purchased and tabulate information on brand sales. Unlike scanner panels, which capture data on the purchases of individuals and households, electronic scanner services provide aggregate data for individual store locations, retail chains, and metropolitan areas. The scanner systems provide data with a great deal of detail including brand names, package sizes, and prices. The electronic scanner services industry is dominated by AC Nielsen and Information Resources Inc. Both companies collect data from carefully selected samples of retail store locations and conduct statistical analysis to estimate brand sales at the account (retail chain) and market levels. Scanner data services are shifting emphasis toward customer‐level data, which allows for more precise measurement of purchase behavior. The leading company in customer‐level data collection in retailing is DunnHumby, Inc.
Noncomparative Scaling Technique
Authors: Swaminathan Vanitha
Published: December 2010

Noncomparative scaling techniques is a set of scaling methods in which each item is scaled independently of each of the others. There are various types of noncomparative scaling techniques such as the graphic rating scale, Likert scale, semantic differential scale, and Stapel scale. In addition to the type of scale, researchers must make decisions regarding the number of scale categories (odd or even), whether to use verbal descriptors along with numbered response categories, balanced versus unbalanced scales, and forced or nonforced responses.