bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Food digestion, absorption, and distribution to the tissues
Authors: Papachristodoulou Despo , Snape Alison , Elliott William H. , Elliott Daphne C.
Published: September 2023

This chapter looks at digestion, wherein the polysaccharides and proteins of food are hydrolysed into their monomer subunits or simple sugars and amino acids in order to be absorbed by the intestinal epithelial cells in the bloodstream. The chapter looks at triacylglycerols or fats (TAGs) which are hydrolysed into fatty acids and monoacylglycerol, the process which is aided by bile salts that emulsify the fats to give a large surface area for the enzyme lipase to attack. The storage of fat is primarily in the adipocytes or fat cells of adipose tissue, where it occurs in large amounts as TAG. The chapter describes insulin, which is released in response to high glucose levels and stimulates fat and glycogen storage. Glucagon, released from the pancreas when blood glucose is low, stimulates release of glucose from the liver and of fatty acids from fat cells.
Inorganic Chemistry
Authors: Weller Mark , Rourke Jonathan , Overton Tina , Armstrong Fraser
Published: September 2023

Inorganic Chemistry consists of three parts. Part 1 presents some foundations including atomic structure, molecular structure and bonding, molecular symmetry, acids and bases, oxidation and reduction, and coordination compounds. The second part of the book is about the elements and their compounds. This part looks at periodic trends, hydrogen, various elements in different groups, the d-block elements, metal complexes, and f-block elements. The final part is about advances and applications. This last part includes discussions on materials chemistry, nanomaterials, green chemistry, biological inorganic chemistry, and inorganic chemistry in medicine.
Molecular symmetry
Authors: Weller Mark , Rourke Jonathan , Overton Tina , Armstrong Fraser
Published: September 2023

This chapter discusses some of the consequences of molecular symmetry and introduces the systematic arguments of group theory. It emphasizes the importance of symmetry considerations in constructing molecular orbitals and analysing molecular vibrations. The chapter looks at symmetry operations, elements, and point groups. It also considers character tables which are used in the systematic analysis of the symmetry properties of molecules. The chapter then tackles polar molecules and chiral molecules before it further progresses to discuss the symmetries of molecular orbitals, covering concepts such as symmetry-adapted linear combinations, reducible representations, and projection operators. The chapter also considers polyatomic molecules.
An introduction to coordination compounds
Authors: Weller Mark , Rourke Jonathan , Overton Tina , Armstrong Fraser
Published: September 2023

This chapter introduces the common structural arrangements for ligands around a single metal atom and the isomeric forms that are possible. It starts with an explanation of coordination chemistry, discussing representative ligands, coordination numbers, and polymetallic complexes, among others. The chapter also tackles isomerism and chirality. It illustrates square-planar, trigonal-bipyramidal, square-pyramidal, and octahedral complexes. Then it explains the thermodynamics of complex formation, describing the formation constants, as well as the chelate and macrocyclic effects, which are of great practical importance in analytical chemistry. It describes trends in successive formation constants. The chapter closes with a discussion on steric effects and electron delocalization.
The Group 15 elements
Authors: Weller Mark , Rourke Jonathan , Overton Tina , Armstrong Fraser
Published: September 2023

This chapter focuses on the Group 15 elements which exhibit a wide range of oxidation states and form many complex compounds with oxygen. The chapter presents detailed chemistry of nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, bismuth, and moscovium. The chapter discusses nitrogen activation, nitrides, and azides, as well as phosphides. It also describes arsenides, antimonides, and bismuthides, and looks at hydrides, halides, and oxohalides. Furthermore, the chapter considers the oxides and oxoanions of nitrogen; oxides of phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, and bismuth; and the oxoanions of phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, and bismuth. Next, it sheds light on condensed phosphates, phosphazenes, and the organometallic compounds of arsenic, antimony, and bismuth.
The f-block elements
Authors: Weller Mark , Rourke Jonathan , Overton Tina , Armstrong Fraser
Published: September 2023

This chapter focuses on the f-block, a fascinating area of the periodic table comprising elements that collectively highlight many of the most important rules of atomic structure and bonding, yet individually demonstrate how these rules can be challenged and exploited. The chapter shows the striking uniformity in the properties of the 4f elements, collectively known as the lanthanoid,s and the discussion covers the binary ionic compounds, as well as ternary and complex oxides. The chapter also tackles the 5f elements or the actinoids, whose chemical properties show much less uniformity across the series than those of the lanthanoids. The discussion includes general trends and the electronic spectra of the actinoids.
Inorganic chemistry in medicine
Authors: Weller Mark , Rourke Jonathan , Overton Tina , Armstrong Fraser
Published: September 2023

This chapter describes how medical science is taking advantage of the stranger elements, such as platinum, gold, lithium, arsenic, and synthetic technetium, to diagnose and treat illness. It examines the inorganic complexes in cancer treatment, anti-arthritis drugs, and bismuth in the treatment of gastric ulcers. Next, it tackles the use of lithium in the treatment of bipolar disorders and organometallic drugs in the treatment of malaria. Furthermore, the chapter looks at metal complexes as antiviral agents, and metal drugs that slowly release carbon monoxide to address post-operative stress. It also tackles chelation therapy, imaging agents, and nanoparticles in directed-drug delivery.
Epithelial Tumours and Melanoma
Authors: Rodriguez-Justo Manuel
Published: September 2023

This chapter focuses on epithelial tumours and melanoma. It explains that epithelial tumours growing from the lining layer of internal organs or skin are called carcinomas while melanomas arise from melanocytes found in the epidermis, hair follicles, eyes, and brain. Moreover, the chapter discusses the epidemiology and tumour types of colorectal cancer, lung cancer, gastroesophageal cancer, and melanoma. It also explores the signalling pathways in epithelial carcinogenesis. The chapter then includes the most common molecular abnormalities found in epithelial cancers and melanoma along with their therapeutic implications. It notes the possible effect of immuno-checkpoint inhibition in melanoma and epithelial tumour treatments.
From molecule to mole: the canonical partition function
Authors: Maczek Andrew , Meijer Anthony
Published: September 2023

This chapter discusses the canonical partition function (Q). It notes that the molecular partition function contains all the thermodynamic information about a system of independent particles at equilibrium. Additionally, the chapter highlights the molecular partition function as being the number of energy states accessible to the system at a given temperature. The chapter notes the system wherein energy states are no longer constant and fluctuate over time. The canonical partition function Q does not rely on the premise of individual particles interacting with each other. Additionally, Q provides a major tool that can be used when looking at increasingly complex situations such as understanding the relationship between the molecular partition function and the canonical partition function.
Two-level systems: a case study
Authors: Maczek Andrew , Meijer Anthony
Published: September 2023

This chapter looks at applying theories discussed in earlier chapters to two-level systems. While referencing the Boltzmann law, it notes the characteristics of temperatures alongside the temperature dependence of populations. The chapter explores the impact of increasing the temperature of the two-level molecular partition function. It discusses the qualitative and quantitative assessments of heat capacity at a constant volume and looks at experimental results to illustrate these. Additionally, the chapter examines the effect of a two-level system with degenerate energy levels. It highlights how the thermal behaviour of a two-state system can be modelled with the usage of partition functions. Theoretical predictions for real systems match well with experimental results.
Biological Science
Authors: Scott Jon , Cameron Gus , Goodenough Anne , Hawkins Dawn , Koenig Jenny , Luck Martin , Papachristodoulou Despo , Snape Alison , Yeoman Kay , Goodwin Mark
Published: September 2023

Biological Science: Exploring the Science of Life spans the full scale of biological science — from molecule to ecosystem. The first part of the text looks at life and its exploration. Topics covered in this section include exploring the science of life, the emergence of life on earth, defining life, evolutionary processes, and the diversity and organisation of life. Here, classification of life is also dealt with. The next section moves on to quantitative toolkits. Here, the text showcases nine toolkits which look at understanding data, size and scale, describing data, ratio and proportion, understanding samples, designing experiments, assessing patterns, formulae and equations, and rates of changes. Thereafter there are five modules. The first module is about life at the molecular level. Topics here include genetics, genomes, proteins, metabolism, and molecular tools. The second module looks at life at the cellular level. Here the text examines cell division, microbial diversity, microbes in life, and viruses. Module 3 is about the human organism and looks in detail at tissues, organs, and systems. The fourth module covers organismal diversity and describes structure, adaptation, and survival. The text finishes with a fifth module which looks at organism in their environments. Here, the chapters turn to ecology, evolution, genes, populations, communities, and ecosystems.
Communication and Control 2
Authors: Scott Jon , Cameron Gus , Goodenough Anne , Hawkins Dawn , Koenig Jenny , Luck Martin , Papachristodoulou Despo , Snape Alison , Yeoman Kay , Goodwin Mark
Published: September 2023

This chapter explains how the sensory system provides a rich supply of information about internal and external environments. It clarifies that perception depends very much on the neural processes by which sensory stimuli are converted into patterns of action potentials and transmitted to the brain. Sensory systems respond more strongly to change or contrast compared to steady state conditions. The chapter explains how information is transmitted through taste, smell, hearing, and vision which allow for the exploration of the external world. It also considers the notion of touch, proprioception, pain, and temperature in transmitting information to the brain.
Renal System
Authors: Scott Jon , Cameron Gus , Goodenough Anne , Hawkins Dawn , Koenig Jenny , Luck Martin , Papachristodoulou Despo , Snape Alison , Yeoman Kay , Goodwin Mark
Published: September 2023

This chapter cites the structure and function of the renal system. It focuses on the kidney which primarily plays a vital role in homeostasis and cleans the blood by removing waste products. Moreover, the kidney is involved in the regulation of blood pressure, water reabsorption, sodium reabsorption and renin-angiotensin and the production of hormones like renin and calcitriol. The chapter explains the first stage of the kidney's operation, which is the filtration of the blood in the glomerulus. It then considers the kidney and acid-base balance with reference to the significance of the regulation of blood pH.
Defence against Predation and Invasion
Authors: Scott Jon , Cameron Gus , Goodenough Anne , Hawkins Dawn , Koenig Jenny , Luck Martin , Papachristodoulou Despo , Snape Alison , Yeoman Kay , Goodwin Mark
Published: September 2023

This chapter focuses on the ability to defend an enclosed region of the biosphere against predation and invasion. Defence mechanisms often overlap with those employed for other purposes such as resource protection, shelter, feeding, reproduction, and community cohesion. External defence mechanisms include the physical resilience offered by integuments and their ability to repair themselves, as well as colours, chemicals, and behaviours which give organisms camouflage and protection. Some animals rely on chemical signalling to find food and mates and to avoid and deter predators. The chapter cites how potential predators can detect toxins and warning chemicals using sensory systems.
Exploring the Science of Life
Authors: Scott Jon , Cameron Gus , Goodenough Anne , Hawkins Dawn , Koenig Jenny , Luck Martin , Papachristodoulou Despo , Snape Alison , Yeoman Kay , Goodwin Mark
Published: September 2023

This chapter explores the science of life as a way of understanding the natural world through logic and evidence while simultaneously sustaining life on the planet. It shows how technology allows researchers to work around what previously would have been a serious time constraint. Technological advances facilitate scientific inquiry which measures and analyses the world and the universe. The chapter argues that science cannot be carried out in isolation, as key mental activities need to be accompanied by crucial social activities, referencing the significance of peer review. It also clarifies the difference between theories and models, which depends on whether they use deductive reasoning or whether they denote a representation.
Understanding Data
Authors: Scott Jon , Cameron Gus , Goodenough Anne , Hawkins Dawn , Koenig Jenny , Luck Martin , Papachristodoulou Despo , Snape Alison , Yeoman Kay , Goodwin Mark
Published: September 2023

This chapter looks into the concept of data and different levels of measurement. It highlights the importance of variables to be clear on the purpose of the study. Understanding the basic features and types of data and variables will help with the planning of effective studies and the analysis and presentation of data. Meanwhile, the three main levels of measurement are nominal, ordinal, and scale. The chapter also looks into the International System of Units (SI units) and other commonly used units in biology. Finally, it addresses the conversion between different prefix-unit combinations to indicate multiples or fractions of units.
Mendelian Genetics
Authors: Scott Jon , Cameron Gus , Goodenough Anne , Hawkins Dawn , Koenig Jenny , Luck Martin , Papachristodoulou Despo , Snape Alison , Yeoman Kay , Goodwin Mark
Published: September 2023

This chapter examines the study of Mendelian genetics. It shows how genetically determined traits are transmitted in sexually reproducing eukaryotes from one generation to the next. It then considers the organization of genes and chromosomes in sexually reproducing eukaryotes. The experiments of Gregor Mendel established the laws of inheritance involving phenotypes and genotypes. They also showed how genes for different traits segregate independently through either mitosis or meiosis. The chapter considers the extensions and refinements of Mendel's laws, which include genetic heterogeneity and pleiotropy. It explains how human inheritance also covers the incidence of genetic diseases that run within families.
Molecular Biology
Authors: Craig Nancy L , Green Rachel , Greider Carol , Storz Gisela , Wolberger Cynthia , Cohen-Fix Orna
Published: September 2023

Molecular Biology focuses on the key principles of the discipline to provide a robust conceptual framework. It emphasizes the commonalities between the three kingdoms but also discusses differences between them that offer insights into molecular processes and underpin biological diversity. It begins by covering the flow of biological information, biological molecules and the chemical basis of life. It looks at chromosome structure and function, the cell cycle, DNA replication, and chromosome segregation. It then considers transcription, regulation of transcription, and RNA processing. It also examines the regulation of translation, regulatory RNAs, protein modification and targeting, and cellular responses to DNA damage. Finally, it looks at the repair of DNA double-strand breaks and homologous recombination, mobile DNA, genomics and genetic variation, and tools and techniques in molecular biology.
Chromosome structure and function
Authors: Craig Nancy L , Green Rachel , Greider Carol , Storz Gisela , Wolberger Cynthia , Cohen-Fix Orna
Published: September 2023

This chapter examines the structure and function of chromosomes. Each chromosome contains many genes embedded within a single DNA molecule; between the genes lie stretches of intergenic DNA. Moreover, each organism contains a characteristic number of chromosomes in each cell. Diploid cells contain two sets of chromosomes in each cell while haploid cells contain just a single set of chromosomes. Chromosomes in all organisms are associated with proteins that help to condense and organize the DNA molecules inside the cell. The basic building block of chromatin is the nucleosome, which consists of around 146 bp of DNA, wrapped twice around the histone octamer in a left-handed manner. The chapter then looks at DNA methylation, the elements required for chromosome function, the centromere and the telomere, and chromosome architecture in the nucleus.
Methods of mass analysis
Authors: McCullagh James , Oldham Neil
Published: September 2023

This chapter looks at the basic principles of operation of the most common mass analyzer types, which require physical and mathematical treatment while maintaining sufficient detail to understand how they function. It focuses on analysers that require an analyzer-dependent high vacuum and span the range of range 10-3 to 10-10 mbar. It also considers different analyzer types which possess different properties and performance characteristics, such as size, sensitivity, resolving power, m/z range, scan time, duty cycle, and cost. The chapter discusses beam analysers and trapping analyzers, which are the two main classes of mass analyzers. It mentions modern commercial mass spectrometers that output the mass spectrum automatically on the m/z scale.
The electrochemical cell
Authors: Browne Wesley R.
Published: September 2023

This chapter focuses on the electrochemical cell. It discusses electrode polarization in terms of the relationship between electrochemical cells and capacitors. The chapter also lists classifications of electrodes. These vary between the first, second, or third. It explores the process of achieving Galvanic (voltaic) cells. Next, the chapter cites how half-cell reactions are presented as being reduced by convention. The chapter also looks into the potential of a half-cell. It also presents the Nernst equations which relate the potential of a cell or half-cell to the actual concentration of the present species and standard reduction potential. The chapter then notes redox chemistry by referencing Latimer diagrams, Frost diagrams, Pourbaix diagrams, and Ellingham diagrams.
Dynamic electrochemical techniques
Authors: Browne Wesley R.
Published: September 2023

This chapter explores dynamic electrochemical techniques. It notes how electroanalytical chemistry relies heavily on voltammetric techniques. Such techniques put the potential at an indicator electrode, which is controlled relative to a fixed reference electrode. Moreover, the chapter explains general concepts in voltammetry such as open circuit potential, three-electrode arrangement, cell resistance, and conductivity. It also looks into the Cottrell equation, electrochemical and chemical reversibility, and mass transport limited current. The chapter then looks into the practical aspects of cyclic voltammetry. It includes the current response to potential steps. It presents the situation where there is an absence of a redox active species and a redox active species absorbed to the surface.
Introduction to the principles and phenomenology of bulk magnetism
Authors: Orchard A. F.
Published: September 2023

This chapter reviews the common forms of magnetism that are associated with the presence of unpaired electrons and the constituent atoms or molecules of a material that are endowed with a permanent magnetic dipole moment. It points out that most magnetic properties of materials are quantum mechanical in origin, causing fatal limitations to the classical approach to magnetism. It also traces the history of magnetism, which started when pre-historic man became aware of the phenomenon of magnetism after observing that fragments of the mineral magnetite could attract each other. The chapter focuses on magnetostatics: the properties of materials in time-invariant magnetic fields. It talks about electric charge as the fundamental quantity of electrostatics, which may be positive or negative.
The major aspects of bulk magnetism – additional considerations
Authors: Orchard A. F.
Published: September 2023

This chapter analyses various forms of bulk magnetism from a classical viewpoint, incorporating quantum mechanical concepts and dwelling on systems of chemical interest. It explores common forms of magnetism that arise from the spin motion of unpaired electrons and orbital contribution quenched by internal electric fields. It also considers atoms or molecules which possess only spin angular momentum in their ground states and do not interact magnetically, which could form a fluid material or crystal that contains open-shell ions. The chapter talks about the rare paramagnetic solids which have susceptibilities obeying Curie law. It describes Curie-Weiss behaviour. This is considered a manifestation of latent magnetic dipolar coupling within the solid.
Radical Chemistry: The Fundamentals
Authors: Perkins John
Published: September 2023

Radical Chemistry begins by defining the term radical. It is exactly 100 years since Moses Gomberg claimed that he had observed a substance containing a trivalent carbon atom i.e. a carbon-centred 'free radical' (nowadays, simply a carbon-centred 'radical'). The subsequent development of radical chemistry was at first very slow, but blossomed with the development of synthetic polymers, especially during and after World War II. In what is now generally understood by radical chemistry we are dealing with reactive, short-lived species which are electrically neutral. By the late 1960s, the essential features of the subject were well understood, and quantitative data on the energetics and kinetics of reactive radicals were rapidly accumulating. This text sets out to present that basic understanding in a modern context, in which extensive use of radical reactions is now being made in organic synthesis, and where, in the life sciences, reactive radicals are being recognizsed both as mediators of many disease conditions, and frequently as key players in mechanisms of enzyme action.
Alignments and phylogenetic trees
Authors: Lesk Arthur M.
Published: September 2023

This chapter examines the concept of sequence alignment, which is the identification of residue-residue correspondences. It is the basic tool of bioinformatics. The chapter presents a comparison of pairwise sequence alignments and multiple sequence alignments. Multiple sequence alignments are much more informative than pairwise sequence alignments, in terms of revealing patterns of conservation. The chapter then looks at the process of constructing and interpreting dot plots, before considering the use of the Hamming distance and Levenshtein distance as measures of dissimilarity of character strings. It also explains the basis of scoring schemes for string alignment, including substitution matrices and gap penalties. Finally, the chapter studies the applications of multiple sequence alignments to database searching, before exploring the contents and significance of phylogenetic trees, and the methods available for deriving them.
Scientific publications and archives: media, content, access, and presentation
Authors: Lesk Arthur M.
Published: September 2023

This chapter assesses the trajectory of the development of the scientific literature, and how it has affected the practice of science. Classically, scientists presented their major results as full-length books. Today, in addition to journals, formats of scientific publication include presentations at meetings; books, or chapters contributed to books; material on the web, including blogs; films; radio or television programmes; podcasts; and social media such as Twitter. Indeed, the World Wide Web provides an alternative to paper as a mechanism of distribution of the scientific literature. The chapter then looks at the differences in accessibility and convenience between paper and computer access to scientific journals, as well as the differences between traditional and digital libraries. It also considers the explosion of scientific information; the principles of markup languages; the different types of computer languages; and the power and limitations of natural language processing by computer, and its applications in bioinformatics.
Metabolic pathways
Authors: Lesk Arthur M.
Published: September 2023

This chapter explores metabolic pathways, which are the road maps defining the possible transformations of metabolites. They form a network, representable as a graph, usually with the metabolites as nodes, and reactions connecting them as edges. The enzyme that catalyses each reaction labels the edge. The chapter then looks at the defining principles of the Enzyme Commission and the Gene Ontology ConsortiumTM classifications of the functions of biological molecules. It considers the importance of accurate annotation of enzyme function in databases, before outlining the databases of metabolic networks. The chapter also discusses the physicochemical basis of enzymatic catalysis, and the quantities needed to characterize their kinetics. Finally, it examines how the algorithms for comparison of nucleic acid and amino acid sequences can be generalized to compare and align metabolic pathways.
NMR Spectroscopy in Inorganic Chemistry
Authors: Iggo Jonathan A. , Luzyanin Konstantin V.
Published: September 2023

NMR Spectroscopy in Inorganic Chemistry offers a non-mathematical grounding in the physics of NMR spectroscopy and explores why the spectra look the way they do, providing a useful collection of NMR examples and trends in NMR parameters from inorganic chemistry. The first chapter covers the fundamentals. The second chapter looks at structure determination. The third chapter covers dynamic processes and NMR. The last chapter is about the solid state.
Biomeasurement
Authors: Hawkins Dawn
Published: September 2023

Biomeasurement provides an introduction to the use of statistics in the biosciences, emphasizing why statistical tools are essential tools for bioscientists. It begins by placing data analysis in the context of the wider scientific method and introducing key statistical concepts. It discusses inferring and estimating before showing how to choose the right test and graph and introducing null hypothesis significance testing. The following chapters focus on a variety of test types, including tests of difference and tests of relationship, such as regression and correlation. The book then introduces the generalized linear model, including logistic and loglinear models.
Tests on frequencies
Authors: Hawkins Dawn
Published: September 2023

This chapter focuses on tests dealing with frequency data, looking at one-way and two-way chi-square tests. Chi-square tests are used to assess whether differences between observed and expected frequencies are due to chance alone, or to something more than sample error. One-way chi-square tests compare the observed frequency distribution to the expected frequency based on some theoretical considerations. This type of test is also used to generate expected frequencies based on standard Mendelian inheritance ratios. Two-way chi-square tests, meanwhile, compare an observed frequency distribution with the frequency distribution one would expect if the two variables in the contingency table were not associated. The chapter offers guidance on what sample sizes to use when planning to collect data for use in these tests, demonstrates how to perform each test by hand and with SPSS using real data sets, and illustrates how to identify and report the key results of both tests.
Model organisms and their genomes
Authors: Meneely Philip
Published: September 2023

The life cycles and genetics of some of the best-studied model organisms are reviewed, noting that characteristics of a good model organism include the availability of a complete genome sequence, lab maintenance, offspring generation time, induced mutations, and the establishment of homozygous true-breeding lines. The models include the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster, the flowering plant Arabidopsis thaliana, and the mouse Mus musculus. The chapter explores the advantages and potential limitations of each model organism, providing an example of a biological question that has been investigated in each one. The chapter notes that tools like RNAi and genome editing open up the possibility of genetic analysis as sequenced genomes are completed for more species.
Mutant phenotypes and gene activity
Authors: Meneely Philip
Published: September 2023

This chapter discusses what mutant phenotypes and DNA sequences can tell us about molecular function. It looks specifically at pleiotropy—a mutation in a gene that influences more than a single phenotype. Conditional mutations and temperature-shift experiments have been used to analyse mutant phenotypes and associated gene activity. The chapter notes biological noise as the stochastic variation in the level of gene expression occurring under natural conditions. It also looks at mosaic organisms, which have wild-type and mutant cells; such organisms can be used to focus on gene activity at a cellular level. While small changes in the level of gene expression can be easily determined, the same cannot be said of their impact on changes to phenotype.
Pathways, networks, and phenotypes
Authors: Meneely Philip
Published: September 2023

This chapter looks into genetic interaction networks. It highlights the importance of understanding phenotype and genotype predictions despite the difficulty of categorizing and analysing genetic interactions. It notes that attempts are being made to map each network of physical interactions. It explores how interaction networks are also being integrated into systems-level descriptions. These include physical and genetic interactions. The chapter references a study which looked into a near complete genetic interaction network for cells. This then served as a template for general genetic and physical interactions. However, it clarifies that most complete networks of gene interactions do not record all of the cells and organisms' dynamic features. The chapter explains that direct interactions have been studied on a genome-wide scale, while indirect interactions are studied with mutants. It looks at some interaction maps that deliver some of the assembly instructions for constructing how parts interact to produce a phenotype.
Cancer Biology and Treatment
Authors: Divan Aysha , Royds Janice A.
Published: September 2023

Cancer Biology and Treatment starts off by describing the fundamentals of canceras a disease of the genome. It then looks at the pathology of cancer. It also examines molecular epidemiology and looks at key players and pathways in cancer. Cancer treatment and cancer management are important topics to consider in this field. Finally, the text looks at major challenges and new opportunities in the study and research of cancer.
Food and Sustainability
Authors: Behrens Paul , Bosker Thijs , Ehrhardt David
Published: September 2023

Food and Sustainability is composed of three parts. It starts off with an introduction to the topic. Part I, food and the environment, looks at biodiversity, pollution, water, soils, climate change, and energy. The next part looks at food and society. Chapters in this part cover nutrition, food security, food aid, and consumption. The final part, food and governance, is about food systems, governance, and collective action, with the text concluding by summarizing and looking to the future.
Summary
Authors: Behrens Paul , Bosker Thijs , Ehrhardt David
Published: September 2023

This chapter visits and re-emphasizes the need for a transdisciplinary approach to sustainable food production. It underscores that there are tensions between the social needs of equitable (and maximal) food security and sustainable food systems and it emphasizes that any policy on food sustainability will therefore produce winners and losers. It shows a Doughnut model for combining social and planetary boundaries, depicting social shortfalls and ecological overshoots, as well as ecologically safe and socially just space. The discussion also touches on the ethics for food sustainability, discussing the Golden Rule and its application to future generations and other species. Finally, the discussion returns to exploring projections and looks at the future challenges to be faced.
An introduction to classification systems: lymphoid neoplasms
Authors: Knight Gavin
Published: September 2023

This chapter provides the pathobiological background or a brief description of the most common and interesting cases of lymphoid neoplasms. It outlines the main differences between precursor and mature cell neoplasms, and it considers key recurrent cytogenetic abnormalities associated with precursor lymphoid neoplasms. It also identifies key genetic mutations associated with selected lymphoid disease states and indicates how these mutations contribute to leukaemo- and lymphomagenesis. The chapter differentiates between the main plasma cell neoplasms and explains the key clinical and laboratory findings in each. It describes the common T-lineage malignancies and provides an outline of the role of anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK) dysregulation.
Diatomic molecules
Authors: Burrows Andrew , Holman John , Lancaster Simon , Overton Tina , Parsons Andrew , Pilling Gwen , Price Gareth
Published: September 2023

This chapter deals with covalent bonding, looking especially at the bonding in diatomic molecules that contain only two atoms. It considers three different approaches to bonding. The types of bonding can be thought of as a spectrum, with covalent bonding at one extreme and ionic bonding at the other. The chapter talks about the basis of Lewis, valence bond, and molecular orbital theories of bonding and determines the similarities and differences between them. It illustrates how to draw Lewis structures for molecules and determine their bond orders, the resonance forms for homonuclear and heteronuclear diatomic molecules, and boundary surfaces to show how molecular orbitals are formed from the linear combination of atomic orbitals (LCAO). The construction of molecular orbital energy level diagrams for homonuclear diatomics is also included.
Entropy and Gibbs energy
Authors: Burrows Andrew , Holman John , Lancaster Simon , Overton Tina , Parsons Andrew , Pilling Gwen , Price Gareth
Published: September 2023

This chapter details how thermodynamics can be used to predict different types of behaviour and determines whether or not reactions will occur and under what conditions their yields can be maximized. Spontaneous reactions are those that, once started, will continue without any outside intervention and spontaneous processes and move towards their equilibrium state without being driven by an external influence. The chapter describes and gives examples of spontaneous changes. It also talks about how the coupling of reactions allows nonspontaneous reactions to take place and how Gibbs energy changes with temperature, pressure, and concentration. It details the calculation of the temperature dependence of entropy using heat capacities and entropy changes of reaction from absolute entropies.
Alkenes and alkynes
Authors: Burrows Andrew , Holman John , Lancaster Simon , Overton Tina , Parsons Andrew , Pilling Gwen , Price Gareth
Published: September 2023

This chapter gives an overview of the structure and reactivity of alkenes and alkynes and highlights the most important methods of preparing these compounds. Alkenes are an important class of organic compounds that contain a C=C bond, while the C≡C bond in alkynes reacts with electrophiles in electrophilic addition reactions. The chapter describes how alkenes are prepared from halogenoalkanes, alcohols, alkynes, and aldehydes/ketones and how C=C and C≡C bonds react in electrophilic addition reactions. It shows how alkynes are prepared from 1,2-dibromoalkanes and how substituted alkynes are prepared by alkylation of alkynyl anions with halogenoalkanes. It also outlines reaction mechanisms in order to explain how C=C bonds undergo the addition reactions.
Aldehydes and ketones
Authors: Burrows Andrew , Holman John , Lancaster Simon , Overton Tina , Parsons Andrew , Pilling Gwen , Price Gareth
Published: September 2023

This chapter concentrates on the chemistry of aldehydes (RCHO) and ketones (RCOR) and how they react in nucleophilic addition reactions. An aldehyde contains a C=O group bonded to at least one hydrogen atom, whereas a ketone has a carbonyl group bonded to two alkyl or aryl groups. The chapter illustrates general mechanisms for a nucleophilic addition reaction, an α-substitution reaction, and a carbonyl–carbonyl condensation reaction and mechanisms for nucleophilic addition reactions of aldehydes and ketones using reagents. It discusses keto–enol tautomerism and the factors that influence the stability of keto and enol forms. The structure of a product derived from a nucleophilic addition, an α-substitution, or a carbonyl–carbonyl condensation reaction of an aldehyde or ketone are also covered.
s-Block chemistry
Authors: Burrows Andrew , Holman John , Lancaster Simon , Overton Tina , Parsons Andrew , Pilling Gwen , Price Gareth
Published: September 2023

This chapter discusses the s-block, which is the collective name for the elements of Groups 1 and 2 of the Periodic Table and comes from the valence electronic configurations of the elements. The ions of sodium, potassium, magnesium, and calcium are all essential for life, and many Group 1 and 2 compounds are important industrially. The chapter details the preparation, uses, and reactivity of the s-block elements, including the synthesis and reactions of the s-block oxides, hydroxides, and halides. It describes changes in the solubility of s-block compounds and explains these using the lattice Gibbs energies and hydration Gibbs energies. It also cites examples of s-block coordination complexes and confirms why Group 2 coordination chemistry is more prevalent than Group 1 coordination chemistry.
Microscopy
Authors: Sims Tony , Wang Qiuyu
Published: September 2023

This chapter focuses on microscopy, which is the use of a microscope to examine and analyse objects that would normally be too small to be seen with the naked eye. Microscopes that use a single lens are called simple microscopes; those with more than one are compound microscopes. Microscopes are perhaps the most widely used instruments in biomedical science. They have contributed greatly to the knowledge and understanding of pathological processes, and are used in all branches of biomedical science. Light microscopes are used to look at cells and tissues. The electron microscope, with its vastly increased magnification and resolution, is used to visualize virus particles, explore the structures of bacteria, and observe more fully the subcellular components seen in both normal and diseased cells and tissues. The chapter describes how the various types of microscope are constructed and work, and how they can be applied to diagnostic biomedical practice.
Spectroscopy
Authors: Wang Qiuyu , Montgomery Helen , Ahmed Nessar , Smith Chris
Published: September 2023

This chapter addresses spectroscopy, which is concerned with the interactions of electromagnetic radiation and matter, particularly the absorption of radiation by matter and, in some cases, its emission, and can be used to quantify molecules of interest in biomedical laboratories. Many molecules absorb light of characteristic wavelengths in the visible, UV, or IR regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. This is used as the basis for determining their concentrations using spectrophotometers and colorimeters. The absorbance of light of a specific wavelength by a solution of biological molecules depends on their concentration and the distance travelled by the light through the solution, as described by the Beer–Lambert law. The chapter then looks at infrared (IR) and Raman spectroscopy, light-scattering methods, fluorimetry, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, and mass spectrometry.
Supramolecular Chemistry
Authors: Beer Paul D. , Barendt Timothy A. , Lim Jason Y. C.
Published: September 2023

Supramolecular Chemistry provides an illustrated introduction to one of the fundamental areas of modern chemical research, the concepts of which are essential to understanding interactions between molecules. It provides cutting-edge examples and applications to show the relevance of the chemistry being described to current research and industry. The first chapter provides an introduction to the topic. The next chapter looks at the binding of charged guests. This is followed by a chapter about the binding of neutral guests. The text moves on to consider self-assembly. It finishes with an assessment of mechanically interlocked molecules.
Molecular Biology of Cancer
Authors: Pecorino Lauren
Published: September 2023

Molecular Biology of Cancer starts with an introduction. It then looks at the cancer genome. Other chapters consider the regulation of gene expression, growth factor signaling, and oncogenes. The cell cycle is also considered, as are tumor suppressor genes. The text moves on to look at apoptosis, cancer stem cells and the regulation of self-renewal and differentiation pathways. There are also chapters on metastasis, angiogenesis, reprogrammed metabolism and diet, tumor immunology and immunotherapy, and inflammation and infection. Finally, the text considers strategies and tools for research and for drug development.
Tumor suppressor genes
Authors: Pecorino Lauren
Published: September 2023

This chapter describes the tumor suppressor genes and retinoblastoma gene. It emphasizes that the human body has mechanisms exerted by tumor suppressor genes that normally “police” the processes that regulate cell numbers and ensure that new cells receive DNA that has been precisely replicated. The chapter then investigates how tumor suppressor gene products may inhibit the cell cycle, promote differentiation, or trigger apoptosis. It reviews the implications if both copies of a tumor suppressor gene become inactivated by mutation or epigenetic changes. Finally, the chapter explores the mutations in the RB pathway, p53 pathway, and cancer. It then considers the interaction of DNA viral protein products with RB and p53, and targeting of the p53 pathway.
Cancer stem cells and the regulation of self-renewal and differentiation pathways: focus on colon cancer and leukemias
Authors: Pecorino Lauren
Published: September 2023

This chapter begins with an overview of the process of differentiation during development and in the adult. It outlines the characteristics of cells at different degrees of differentiation and discusses their relationship to cancer. The chapter also covers the review of the “cancer stem cell model” that states that subpopulations of cells with stem cell properties initiate and maintain the cancer phenotype. These cells often reside in distinct microenvironments in tumors, called stem cell niches. Signals from the stem cell niche dictate stem cell fate and behaviour. The chapter then reviews the molecular mechanisms that underlie the regulation of self-renewal and examines specific mutations in these pathways that can lead to cancer. Finally, the chapter elaborates on the new cancer therapeutics designed to target aspects of self-renewal and differentiation pathways.
Metastasis
Authors: Pecorino Lauren
Published: September 2023

This chapter concentrates on the process by which tumor cells from a primary site invade and migrate to other parts of the body — metastasis. It stresses that metastasis, a hallmark of cancer, is the fundamental difference between a benign and a malignant growth, and represents the major clinical problem of cancer. The chapter then analyzes how tumors spread, then looks at the process of metastasis. It also discusses the nature of invasion and the epithelial-mesenchymal transition as well as the intravasation, transport, and extravasation. The spread of cells throughout the body results in physical obstruction, competition with normal cells for nutrients and oxygen, and invasion and interference with organ function. The chapter then shifts to review metastatic colonization and organotropism. It ultimately concludes by explicating metalloproteinase inhibitors and the strategies for restoring metastasis suppressors.
Atomic structure and the form of the periodic table
Authors: Norman Nicholas C.
Published: September 2023

This chapter discusses a range of properties of isolated atoms of the s- and p-block elements which will introduce the ideas of periodicity. It begins by looking at the idea of effective nuclear charge, which is useful in understanding many aspects of periodicity; but in order to utilize and appreciate the concept fully, a quantitative scale is desirable whereby we can look at values and trends in values for the valence electrons of the elements in which we are interested. The chapter then considers ionization energies and electron affinities. The ionization energy is the energy required to completely remove an electron from an atom in the gas phase, while the electron affinity of an atom is defined as the energy change which occurs when an electron is added to an atom (or ion). The chapter also studies covalent and ionic radii; electronegativity; orbital energies and promotion energies; and relativistic effects.
Nucleic Acids, Genes, and Genomes
Authors: Jennings Barbara , Thalange Nandu , Willis Gavin
Published: September 2023

This chapter examines the structure of the DNA molecule and its organization in line with chromosomes and the mitochondria of human cells. It explores the human genome and the organization of coding and non-coding DNA. Additionally, the chapter highlights the roles of the Human Genome Project (HGP) and spin-off projects in the progress of genetic medicine. It also compares the function of RNA molecules in the transcription and translation into protein sequences. It then tackles the regulation of gene expression which is the transmission of information from a DNA sequence that results in a gene product. Moreover, the chapter states that epigenetic changes can modify gene expression without an associated change in the DNA sequence.
Laboratory Techniques and the Sequencing Revolution
Authors: Jennings Barbara , Thalange Nandu , Willis Gavin
Published: September 2023

This chapter explores laboratory techniques and the sequencing revolution. It examines DNA structure and synthesis as they are applied to laboratory methods. An example is the polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The chapter then highlights how next generation sequencing (NGS) revolutionized molecular diagnostics. It notes the process of analysing DNA sequences to detect pathogenic variants. Moreover, the chapter compares whole genome sequencing and whole exome sequencing, which are both used to diagnose rare diseases. It emphasizes that molecular genetic tests could help diagnose diseases, choose medicine, and screen newborn infants for treatable conditions. The chapter also mentions bioinformatics, which is an emerging clinical science developed alongside the use of whole genome analysis.