bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Stability and Alliance Cohesion
Authors: Chernoff Fred
Published: March 2007

There are differences between what the United States says and does with regard to strategic arms. There are also differences between policies that are ideal from a uniquely U.S. perspective and from a broader alliance perspective. These two sets of differences correspond to one another; the latter help to explain the former. Furthermore, recent discussions of arms reduction options, such as Nalebuff (1988), fail to consider the differences between national and alliance points of view. Arguments for minimal deterrence do not account for the damaging effects on alliance relations. A clear understanding of the different perspectives, which consequently pull U.S. policy in different directions, is necessary to see the genuine merits of various options under discussion for future agreements. American alliance commitments help to explain the divergence.
Electoral and Congressional Incentives and Arms Control
Authors: Morrow James D.
Published: March 2007

This article presents and tests two arguments about how the democratic institutions of the United States influence arms control bargaining. Principal-agent models of elections with retrospective voters form the basis of a formal model linking elections and arms control. It implies that the United States offers additional concessions as economic conditions deteriorate, but also that this effect declines as conditions get worse. Congress' control of the defense budget provides a way to affect the Soviets' reservation level for negotiations. But if the Soviets anticipate congressional actions, the only effects are reduced Soviet concessions immediately before critical votes on defense and a response to the outcome of the vote. An empirical examination of U.S. and Soviet bargaining behavior during the 1970s supports these hypotheses. The United States increases its concessions as inflation heightens. The Soviets reduce their concessions during periods with critical votes on defense in Congress, offer additional concessions after prodefense votes pass, and offer fewer concessions after prodefense measures fail.
War, Socialization, and Interpersonal Violence
Authors: Ember Carol R. , Ember Melvin
Published: March 2007

This cross-cultural study investigates why some societies have more interpersonal violence (homicide, assault) than others. Multiple regression analysis suggests that socialization for aggression in boys in late childhood is by far the strongest socialization predictor of higher rates of homicide and assault. But why socialize boys for aggression? Other analyses suggest that socialization for aggression is a likely consequence, not a cause, of war. The theory of violence suggested here is that war is the major cause of more homicide/assault. We suggest that the effect of war is mostly indirect, by motivating parents to socialize for aggression. In addition, war may have some direct effect by legitimizing violence. According to the theory suggested here, high rates of homicide/assault are inadvertent (unintended) consequences of the need to produce effective and unambivalent warriors.
Democracy, Power, Genocide, and Mass Murder
Authors: Rummel R. J.
Published: March 2007

From 1900 to 1987, state, quasi-state, and stateless groups have killed in democide (genocide, massacres, extrajudicial executions, and the like) nearly 170,000,000 people. Case studies and quantitative analysis show that ethnic, racial, and religious diversity, economic development, levels of education, and cultural differences do not account for this killing. Rather, democide is best explained by the degree to which a regime is empowered along a democratic to totalitarian dimension and, second, the extent to which it is characteristically involved in war or rebellion. Combining these results with those that show that democracies do not make war on each other, the more democratic two nations are the less foreign violence between them, and that the more democratic a regime the less internal violence, strongly suggests that democracy is a general method of nonviolence.
Perception of Power, Threat, and Conflict Intensity in Asymmetric Intergroup Conflict
Authors: Rouhana Nadim N. , Fiske Susan T.
Published: March 2007

This article examines the perception of power, threat, and conflict intensity in an asymmetric intergroup conflict. About 900 Arab and 900 Jewish high school and university students in Israel were surveyed on their sense of threat and security, the intensity of the conflict between their communities, and power relations between Arabs and Jews who both are citizens of Israel. Scales were developed to measure all three concepts in that setting. Factor analysis of the power scale shows that the two groups distinguish between two dimensions of power. Both sides agree that the Jewish population asymmetrically controls more institutional power and to a lesser extent social-integrational power. The two groups distinguish between two dimensions of threat, but what threatens one group evokes either security or no threat in the other. Perceived power, threat, and intensity of conflict are best predicted by political affiliation, although other social and political predictors were also found. A profile of the right wing in the Israeli sample emerged, which resembled, but did not mirror, the profile of the left wing in the Arab sample.
High And Low Trusters' Responses To Fear in a Payoff Matrix
Authors: Parks Craig D. , Hulbert Lorne G.
Published: March 2007

Interpersonal trust has long been known to influence cooperation. This study tested the hypothesis that one's degree of trust in others will influence the extent to which one reacts to the presence of fear (or the possibility of receiving no payoff for cooperative actions) in a payoff matrix. The hypothesis was formally tested with public goods games and resource dilemma games, with fear manipulated. Results support the hypothesis: when fear was present, high trusters cooperated more frequently than low trusters; when absent, high and low trusters cooperated at the same rate. The findings held across both games. However, the effects of fear within each game were not straightforward: removing fear from the resource dilemma increased low trusters' cooperation rates, but removing fear from the public goods game decreased high trusters' cooperation rates. Results imply that discussion of the role of trust in cooperation must consider whether the particular dilemma contains an element of fear.
Conditions of Successful Third-Party Intervention in Intrastate Conflicts
Authors: Regan Patrick M.
Published: March 2007

Since the end of the cold war, foreign policy makers appear to be devoting increasing amounts of energy to containing intrastate conflicts. They are doing so, moreover, with little guidance from the social science community. This article uses data on all third-party interventions into intrastate conflicts since 1944 to assess historical patterns of intervention strategies and their relative success rates. Building on this, it uses a logit analysis to develop prescriptive outlines for future intervention attempts. The results demonstrate that it is the characteristics of the intervention strategy rather than the characteristics of the conflict that largely determine the success of the intervention.
Strategic Behavior in Refugee Repatriation
Authors: Zeager Lester A. , Bascom Johnathan B.
Published: March 2007

The authors present a game-theoretic analysis of negotiations involving two players: the government of a country of origin and the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), in which the latter represents refugees, countries of asylum, and donor countries at the negotiating table. Ordinal preference orderings of outcomes allow the authors to represent the attitudes of governments in countries of origin toward their refugees as well as the urgency of repatriation for countries of asylum and donor countries. For alternative configurations of preference orderings, the authors analyze repatriation negotiations using classical game theory and the theory of moves, which assume different rules of play. They find the theory of moves is better suited for understanding efforts to achieve repatriation agreements in actual refugee crises and conclude with reflections on the difficulties of reaching repatriation agreements in recent years.
Testing Power-Transition Theory Using Alternative Measures of National Capabilities
Authors: de Soysa Indra , Oneal John R. , Park Yong-Hee
Published: March 2007

There has been a long debate over whether peace is best preserved by a balance or preponderance of power. Organski and Kugler suggested that the dynamics of relative dyadic power matter most. Using GNP to measure national capabilities, they found support for their power-transition theory, but only for states considered to be contenders for dominance in the international system. Subsequently, Houweling and Siccama reported important new evidence in support of the theory. They concluded that power transitions are a potent predictor of war for all major powers, not just a small subset; but it has been unclear whether their stronger results were a consequence of genuine improvements in methods, the use of a different measure of power, or alterations to the list of major powers. The authors replicate Houweling and Siccama's analysis using the two most common, and recently revised, measures of national capabilities—the Correlates of War composite index and GDP—and investigate the effects of modifying the set of major powers. They find substantial support for the power-transition theory, but the strength of the evidence depends importantly on how power is measured and the set of cases analyzed.
Domestic Political Vulnerability and International Disputes
Authors: Leeds Brett Ashley , Davis David R.
Published: March 2007

The proposition that domestic political vulnerability provides an incentive for leaders to engage in international conflict has been widely accepted because of appealing logic and anecdotal support. Although empirical studies of U.S. behavior during the cold war era have demonstrated some support for a relationship between domestic political vulnerability and aggressive international behavior, the generalizability of these tests should not be assumed. In fact, there is little empirical evidence in support of this relationship as a general pattern. This study assesses theories linking domestic political vulnerability to international disputes on a cross-national basis by examining the relationships between economic decline, the electroal cycle, and measures of aggressive international action for 18 advanced industrialized democracies during the period from 1952 to 1988. The authors find no consistent support for a relationship between constraining domestic political conditions and international behavior. Instead, fewer international demands are made on politically vulnerable leaders. Due to strategic interaction in the international system, just when a state leader might be most willing to act aggressively, he or she is likely to have the least opportunity to do so. Variance in the behavior of international rivals may explain the lack of an empirical relationship between domestic political conditions and foreign policy behavior.
Timing the Changes in Political Structures
Authors: McLaughlin Sara , Gates Scott , Hegre Håvard , Gissinger Ranveig , Gleditsch Nils Petter
Published: March 2007

This article introduces the Polity IIId (“d” is for dates) data set. The Polity IIId project codes the precise dates of changes in political structure identified by Polity III for all independent countries in the international system from 1800 to 1994. By moving from annual measurements of authority and polity characteristics, the Polity IIId data are more appropriate for event-based analysis. The authors discuss the implications of the new data set for event count and event history models of democracy and war, democratization and war, regime type and civil war, and causes of change in political structure.
The Sources of Humanitarian Emergencies
Authors: Auvinen Juha , Nafziger E. Wayne
Published: March 2007

This study identifies the sources of humanitarian emergencies characterized by warfare, displacement, hunger, and disease. The authors emphasize that economic variables often become salient through relative deprivation. Their econometric analysis indicates that stagnation and decline in real GDP, a high ratio of military expenditures to national income, a tradition of violent conflict, high income inequality, and slow growth in average food production are sources of emergencies. Also, inflation and low levels of IMF funding are associated with emergencies, although the direction of causation may be opposite.
Military Strategy and the Outbreak of International Conflict
Authors: Reiter Dan
Published: March 2007

Military strategy is an area of growing interest in the study of international conflict. It is linked to the outbreak, duration, and outcome of wars. This article presents the first quantitative empirical tests of the proposition that military strategy affects the outbreak of international conflict. The focus is on maneuver-oriented military strategies, such as the German blitzkrieg in World War II, which are hypothesized to be particularly conflict prone. Tests were conducted on the initiation and escalation of militarized interstate disputes for a sample of states from 1903 to 1992. The results indicate that states with maneuver strategies were significantly more likely to initiate disputes in general, although not disputes that escalate to the use of force. However, dispute participants with maneuver strategies were significantly more likely to escalate a dispute to war if the adversary employed a military strategy that emphasized attrition.
On the Comparability of Constructs in Cross-Cultural Research
Authors: Little Todd D.
Published: March 2007

A critique of Cheung and Rensvold’s article describing the use of mean and covariance structures (MACS) techniques for assessing bias in cross-cultural research is offered. In particular, the author highlights the critical distinction between item bias and construct bias. Although the author’s view is in fundamental agreement with Cheung and Rensvold’s primary argument that MACS analyses are a very useful tool to determine comparability of constructs across cultural settings, The author disagrees with their conclusion that measurement invariance indicates a lack of construct bias. The author argues that cross-group equivalence of all reliable measurement parameters only indicates a lack of differential item bias and does not indicate lack of construct bias. Finally, two related and important issues in MACS analyses are discussed, namely, (a) the choice of rationale for significance testing and (b) the effects of different identification methods on estimating latent mean levels.
Memory for Cultural Information about Russia and the United States
Authors: Abalakina-Paap Marina , Stephan Cookie White , Stephan Walter G. , Stefanyenko Tatyana , Gabrielidis Cristina
Published: March 2007

This study examines the processing of information about culture by Russians and Americans. The participants were induced into either a positive or a negative mood; read identical favorable, unfavorable, and neutral information about Russia or the United States; and completed a recognition task containing both statements they had read and statements they had not read. There was evidence of a bias toward greater recognition of unfavorable cultural information, particularly for Americans. In addition, Russians and Americans recognized different types of information, with Americans more likely to accurately recognize information that had been presented, and Russians somewhat more likely to recognize information that had not actually been presented. Finally, for anxiety a mood-incongruent effect was found for favorable cultural information. Implications of these findings for cross-cultural interactions and research needed to understand the effects of anxiety on memory are discussed.
Honor in the Mediterranean and Northern Europe
Authors: Mosquera Patricia M. Rodriguez , Manstead Antony S. R. , Fischer Agneta H.
Published: March 2007

The authors report two studies on notions of honor (i.e., the situations and behaviors associated with honor, its enhancement, and its loss) in a Mediterranean country (Spain) and a northern European country (the Netherlands). A total of 271 persons (140 Spanish, 131 Dutch) participated in Study 1, and a total of 327 persons (169 Spanish, 158 Dutch) participated in Study 2. The main aim of Study 1 was to characterize Spain and the Netherlands in terms of their value priorities. Study 2 consisted of an in-depth analysis of Spanish and Dutch participants’free descriptions of honor. The results indicated that Spanish and Dutch notions of honor are closely related to the values emphasized in these countries: Honor is more closely related to family and social interdependence in Spain than in the Netherlands, whereas honor is associated with self-achievement and autonomy to a greater extent in the Netherlands than in Spain.
Social Axioms
Authors: Leung Kwok , Bond Michael Harris , de Carrasquel Sharon Reimel , Muñoz Carlos , Hernández Marisela , Murakami Fumio , Yamaguchi Susumu , Bierbrauer Günter , Singelis Theodore M.
Published: March 2007

To broaden our conceptual framework for understanding cultural differences, the present article reports two studies that examined whether pancultural dimensions based on general beliefs, or social axioms, can be identified in persons from five cultures. A Social Axioms Survey was constructed, based on both previous psychological research primarily in Europe and North America on beliefs and qualitative research conducted in Hong Kong and Venezuela. Factor analyses of these beliefs from student as well as adult samples revealed a pancultural, five-factor structure, with dimensions labeled as: cynicism, social complexity, reward for application, spirituality, and fate control. In the second study, this five-factor structure, with the possible exception of fate control, was replicated with college students from Japan, the United States, and Germany. The potential implications of a universal, five-factor structure of individual social beliefs were discussed, along with the relation of this structure to indigenous belief systems and to culture-level analyses.
The Conceptualization and Expression of Intimacy in Japan and the United States
Authors: Seki Kyoko , Matsumoto David , Imahori T. Todd
Published: March 2007

This study addresses several limitations of previous cross-cultural research of intimacy by (a) differentiating meaning and expression of intimacy, (b) developing items reflecting both cultures’concepts of the two constructs, (c) specifying the relationship context rated, and (d) examining and adjusting cultural response sets in the data set. Findings indicated that the Japanese were more likely to conceptualize intimacy through expressive concepts such as “consideration/love” and “expressiveness” than did the Americans toward same-sex best friend. Likewise, “directly verbalizing how you feel about each other” was more valued by the Japanese than by the Americans toward mother, father, and same-sex best friend, whereas the Americans valued “indirectly verbalize how you feel about each other” more than did the Japanese toward mother, father, and lover. These results, which are contrary to those typically found in the literature, were discussed in relation to the methodologies used, which we believe reduced the possible cultural bias in research.
The Sleep-Wakefulness Cycle in Mexican Adults
Authors: Taub John M.
Published: March 2007

The sleep-wakefulness patterns of 257 Mexican males and females ranging in age from the 20s to 80s was studied using a questionnaire. The average duration of sleep exceeded that typically prescribed for other Western cultures (8 hours per 24), and significantly varied with age decreasing from the 20s to 50s, after which there was an increase. There was a significantly greater incidence of sleep disturbance in subjects over 50 Compared to the other Ss the post-awakening mood of those with sleep disturbance and those over 50 was described by a significantly greater frequency of negative affect. Significant age and sex differences were found for the frequency of dream recall. The duration and frequency of daytime naps in Ss of all age groups revealed the presence of a polycyclic sleep-wakefulness cycle which has not been reported with such generality in other Western cultures.
Developmental and Cross-Cultural Differences in the Cooperative and Competitive Behavior of Young Children
Authors: Madsen Millard C.
Published: March 2007

A two-person experimental task was developed for use in the study of age and cultural differences in the cooperative-competitive behavior of children in a small Mexican town and in California. The results indicate a higher level of cooperation among Mexican than among Anglo-American children and an increase in nonadaptive competition with age among the Anglo-American children.
Cross-Cultural Piagetian Research: A Summary
Authors: Dasen Pierre R.
Published: March 2007

The large number of studies which have been published recently on the cross-cultural implications of Piaget's theory are extremely heterogeneous. This summary attempts to classify them into descriptive and quasi-experimental studies; the former are seen as attempting to verify Piaget's stages in non-Western cultures. They are further subdivided according to three interpretations of Piaget's stages: 1) the three global stages (sensori-motor, concrete operational and formal); 2) horizontal decalages; 3) sub-stages on particular tests. Whereas the qualitative aspects of Piaget's theory (the stages and individual reactions to the tasks) are verified in most cases, the rate of operational development is affected by cultural factors, sometimes to the extent that the concrete operational stage is not reached by large proportions of non-Western samples. A great deal of further quasi-experimental research is needed in order to link these findings to specific cultural factors.
Cooperation-Competition: A Comparison of Australian European and Aboriginal School Children
Authors: Sommerlad Elizabeth A. , Bellingham W. P.
Published: March 2007

Australian European and full-blood Aboriginal school children were assigned to groups of four individuals who performed a task in which cooperation maximised and competition minimised reward. The Aboriginal sample showed significantly more cooperative responses than the European sample. Differences also occurred within the Aboriginal sample, with individuals in the stream preparing for secondary education showing more competitive behaviour than those continuing post-primary courses emphasising manual training and domestic science. The role of kinship as a determinant of cooperation was investigated, but Aborigines from the same tribe with reciprocal kinship obligations failed to be more cooperative than those Aborigines from different tribes.
A French Application of the CPI Social Maturity Index
Authors: Gough Harrison G. , Quintard Georges
Published: March 2007

A social maturity index based on six scales of the California Psychological Inventory was developed on samples of 2,146 nondelinquent and 881 delinquent males. The index was cross-validated on 2,482 nondelinquent versus 409 delinquent American males, 659 nondelinquent and 38 delinquent Italian men, and 113 Japanese male nondelinquents versus 36 delinquents. All mean differences were highly significant, and Ss in the three cross-validating samples were classified with percentage accuracies of 92.3 (American), 83.8 (Italian), and 83.2 (Japanese) by a cutting score of 45. New results for 1,270 males and 391 females tested with a French edition of the index give similarly positive findings, and classificatory hit rates of 86.2% for males and 90.3% for females.
A Decision-Theoretic Technique for the Illumination of Cultural Differences
Authors: Guttentag Marcia , Sayeki Yutaka
Published: March 2007

At a conference of U.S. and Japanese social scientists, a decision-theoretic, multiattribute utilities methodology was used to elucidate values and beliefs of each group. The ten-step process requires each group to specify their values and to rank order and importance weight them. Then a series of judgments are made about the extent to which a list of action alternatives is likely to maximize each value. Compared with the Japanese, the U.S. group was vociferously individualistic. The U.S. group used more extreme importance weights. The Japanese values emphasized the importance of the third world and improved international trade. Both groups judged energy resources, population policies, and economic and arms issues to be highly important. The method was useful in illuminating cultural differences.
Measurement of Intelligence among Three New Zealand Ethnic Groups
Authors: Klippel Margot D.
Published: March 2007

A battery of tests of intelligence, consisting of both psychometric and Piagetian instruments, was administered to 60 five-year-old children from 3 New Zealand ethnic groups-Maori, Samoan, and Pakeha-within one month of their commencing school. Maoris and Samoans are members of the Polynesian race, while Pakehas are persons of predominantly European descent. In general there were few significant differences between the ethnic groups, except on some subtests involving expressive language. It appeared that the sex variable confounded patterns of performances, with the Polynesian male groups generally performing at a higher (but not necessarily significant) level than the Polynesian female groups, and the Pakeha groups showing the reverse pattern of female superiority. The low intercorrelations of the tests suggested a wide variety of skills being sampled.
Cultural Differences in the Perception of a Three-Dimensional Ponzo Illusion
Authors: Brislin Richard W. , Keating Caroline F.
Published: March 2007

An ecological hypothesis related to the Ponzo illusion is that people who show a large susceptibility are misapplying cues that are valid in their natural environments with which they have everyday experience. Past cross-cultural research supporting this hypothesis has been based on two-dimensional stimuli. A better test of the hypothesis would be based on judgments of three-dimensional, natural-world stimuli. Judges from urbanized areas in the United States (N = 21), from the Pacific islands (N = 21), and from urbanized areas in the Philippines (N = 10) viewed a three-dimensional version of the Ponzo illusion from a distance of 13.20 m. As predicted, Pacific Islanders showed less susceptibility to the illusion than judges from either of the two other two groups.
Transcultural Similarity in Personal Significance of Esthetic Interests
Authors: Haritos-Fatouros M. , Child Irvin L.
Published: March 2007

A measure of esthetic interest in visual art-tendency to prefer art which experts consider esthetically better-was developed in the United States, but showed high internal consistency in Greece as well. Measures of self-characterizations correlated with esthetic interest, and of active versus passive preferences in food and drink, originally developed in the United States, also showed internal consistency in Greece. The correlations among these measures found in the United States, moreover, were substantially replicated in Greece. The personal significance of esthetic interests is thus shown to have marked transcultural stability. In both countries, esthetic interest is positively related to liking for autonomy, variety, and challenge.
Increased Maternal Power Status
Authors: Minturn Leigh , Boyd Dennis , Kapoor Swaran
Published: March 2007

The changes in reported socialization practices of Rajput mothers of Khalapur, India from 1955 to 1975 are presented. A modified version of the socialization interview given to 24 mothers in 1955 was given to 38 mothers from the same families in 1975. During the intervening 20 years, improved grains have resulted in greatly increased prosperity in Khalapur, houses have been expanded to include private rooms for most couples, daughters-in-law are now usually educated, while mothers-in-law are typically illiterate. The effect of these changes has been to increase the power status of daughters-in-law, and decrease both the power of mothers-in-law and the deference accorded to them by their sons' wives. As a result of these alterations in status, mothers now have more direct control over the care and discipline of their children. Mothers in the 1975 sample train their children for greater responsibility and assertiveness, and allow them to cry more and are more severe in dealing with boys than were the mothers in the 1954 sample.
The Development of Psychomotor Skills
Authors: Biesheuvel Simon
Published: March 2007

The article reviews the state of knowledge in psychomotor research. Factorial studies have revealed a high degree of specificity in motor skills. Different abilities are involved in successive stages of acquiring a psychomotor skill. Psychomotor coordination and dexterity emerge as broadly based abilities involved in a wide range of industrial tasks. There is no evidence that blacks differ basically from whites in respect of these abilities, though cultural circumstances may affect the development of psychomotor skills. Proficiency in industrial tasks is predominantly the outcome of training and there is a strong case for the use of aptitude tests in developing countries to select those who will respond most readily to such training.
Self-Identification and Preferences
Authors: Weiland Andrea , Coughlin Ronald
Published: March 2007

The ethnic identification skills and ethnic preferences of white and Mexican-American first- and third-grade males and females were investigated. Subjects were asked a series of identification questions and responded to each item by selecting a photograph of a male or female white, Mexican-American, or black child. Preferences for ethnic groups were indicated by the selection of a classmate in response to each of a series of preference questions. Both white and Mexican-American subjects made accurate self-identifications. All subjects were able to identify other persons along an ethnic dimension. All white subjects indicated strong preferences for white classmates. With one exception, preferences of Mexican-American groups for white versus Mexican-American classmates did not significantly differ from chance.
Cross-Cultural Perspectives on Foreign Aid Deservingness Decisions
Authors: Taormina Robert J. , Messick David M. , Iwawaki Saburo , Wilke Henk
Published: March 2007

This study presents a conceptual model that describes how aid deservingness decisions are made. The model contains the three concepts of need, similarity, and estimated effectiveness. The model also includes an interaction component involving need and similarity. Two variables were used to operationalize each of the three concepts. A total of 136 subjects from the Netherlands, Japan, and the United States were asked to rate 96 stimulus countries (constructed by factorially varying the levels of the six variables) on their deservingness for foreign aid. Results revealed that foreign aid deservingness judgments in all three cultures are based on perceived need, similarity, effectiveness, and a multiplicative combination of recipient need and similarity. There was also evidence that egoistic as well as altruistic motivations enter into aid decisions in all three cultures. Overall, the Dutch were more responsive to recipient need information and less influenced by potential benefits to their own nation than were either the Japanese or American subjects. Also found were close parallels in judgments made by Japanese and American subjects.
Cultural Influences on the Perception of Emotion
Authors: Matsumoto David
Published: March 2007

Previous cross-cultural research on the emotions have operationalized culture by country. This article suggests that the use of stable and meaningful dimensions of cultural variability, such as those offered by Hofstede (1980), may be useful in studies on emotion. To illustrate their potential usefulness, cultural differences in previous judgment studies of universal facial expressions were reanalyzed, using Hofstede's (1980, 1983) dimensions. The results indicated that meaningful dimensions of cultural variability can be a potentially useful theoretical and empirical construct in future cross-cultural research on the emotions.
Work-Related Values of Managers
Authors: Shackleton Viv J. , Ali Abbas H.
Published: March 2007

The cultural dimensions of Power Distance and Uncertainty Avoidance described by Hofstede (1980a) were tested using samples from seven different organizations, four Sudanese, two British, and a Pakistani organization in Britain, in an attempt to replicate and extend Hofstede's work. With large Power Distance and weak Uncertainty Avoidance, work-related values of Sudanese managers were found to lie in accordance with Hofstede's findings for some other African and Arabic nations. The British scores were very close to the ones reported by Hofstede. The study showed that the Pakistanis in Britain, despite a lifetime spent in Britain, scored closer to their country of origin than to their current home.
Cultural and Sexual Differences in Test Anxiety, Trait Anxiety and Arousability
Authors: El-Zahhar Nabil E. , Hocevar Dennis
Published: March 2007

Cultural and sexual differences in test anxiety were investigated in samples of high school students in Egypt (N= 277), Brazil (N = 234), and the United States (N = 141). Measures of trait anxiety and trait arousability were also included. Compared to the United States greater test anxiety was found in Egypt on both the worry dimension and the emotionality dimension. Greater test anxiety was also found in Brazil, but only on the emotionality dimension. Compared to both the United States and Brazil, greater trait anxiety and arousability were reported by high school students in Egypt. Finally, in all three cultures females reported greater worry, emotionality, trait anxiety, and arousability than males. A possible explanation for the cultural differences in test anxiety is the important consequences of high school testing in Egypt and Brazil.
The Structure of Leader Influence
Authors: Schmidt Stuart M. , Yeh Ryh-Song
Published: March 2007

This is an exploratory study examining the structure of leader influence among Australian, English, Japanese, and Taiwanese managers. The findings from these cultures are compared to a previous study of managers in the United States. This study demonstrates the utility of examining the factor structure of survey instruments rather than relying only on scale reliability scores in cross-cultural research. The leader influence strategies of Reason, Bargaining, Higher Authority, Sanctions, Friendliness, Assertiveness, and Coalition were found in each country and collectively accounted for at least half of the variance in leader influence with subordinates. However, the specific tactics defining these leader influence strategies were not uniform across cultures.
Family Socialization and the Ethnic Identity of Mexican-American Children
Authors: Knight George P. , Bernal Martha E. , Garza Camille A. , Cota Marya K. , Ocampo Katheryn A.
Published: March 2007

This research focused on the role of the ethnic family background and ethnic socialization in the social cognitive development of ethnic identity in Mexican-American children. Aspects of a theoretical model of the socialization of ethnic identity were tested in forty-five 6- to 10-year-old children and their mothers. Individually administered scales assessed parental generation of migration; parental education; mothers' cultural orientation; mothers' teaching about Mexican culture, ethnic pride, and discrimination; Mexican objects in the home; and children's ethnic identity. As predicted, the socialization indices functioned as a mediator of the influence of ethnic family background on their children's ethnic identity.
Human Factors on the Flight Deck
Authors: Merriti Ashleigh C. , Helmreich Robert L.
Published: March 2007

Pilots from the United States, the Philippines, and Taiwan as well as flight attendants from the United States, Hong Kong, Japan, Korea, Thailand, Singapore, and Taiwan completed a 20-item attitudinal questionnaire about group processes on the flight deck. A three-dimensional INDSCAL analysis revealed one dimension, used primarily by the eight Asian groups, which reflected high power distance and collectivism. The second dimension, reflecting individualism and moderate power distance, was used by the U.S. flight attendants. The third dimension, individualism and low power distance, was used almost exclusively by the U.S. pilots. The attitudinal similarity among the eight Asian groups was attributed in part to the questionnaire's monocultural bias. A new study is outlined, and training recommendations are offered.
Recognition of Emotion by Chinese and Australian Children
Authors: Markham Roslyn , Wang Lei
Published: March 2007

The performance of Chinese children in Beijing and Australian children in Sydney was compared on two types of facial expression task. Children of 4, 6, and 8 years of age were presented situation discrimination and situation inference/labeling tasks with both Chinese and Caucasian faces. Some evidence was obtained for an ethnic bias effect in emotion recognition from facial expressions. There was no indication that children from a collectivist culture are poorer at recognizing certain emotions than children from an individualistic society. Overall accuracy increased with age for children from both cultures, but the Chinese children were significantly more accurate than the Australians at all ages. These results are discussed in terms of the possible effects of different socialization practices, demographic factors, and suitability of the testing procedures for the two cultures.
Unequal Relationships in High and Low Power Distance Societies
Authors: Spencer-Oatey Helen
Published: March 2007

This study investigated people's conceptions of an unequal role relationship in two different types of society: a high power distance society and a low power distance society. The study focuses on the role relationship of tutor and student. British and Chinese tutors and postgraduate students completed a questionnaire that probed their conceptions of degrees of power differential and social distance/closeness in this role relationship. ANOVA results yielded a significant nationality effect for both aspects. Chinese respondents judged the relationship to be closer and to have a greater power differential than did British respondents. Written comments on the questionnaire and interviews with 9 Chinese academics who had experienced both British and Chinese academic environments supported the statistical findings and indicated that there are fundamental ideological differences associated with the differing conceptions. The results are discussed in relation to Western and Asian concepts of leadership and differing perspectives on the compatibility/incompatibility of power and distance/closeness.
Culture's Consequences for Leadership Behavior
Authors: Offermann Lynn R. , Hellmann Peta S.
Published: March 2007

Relationships between work-related values held by managers from 39 diverse national cultures and their leadership practices as assessed by subordinates were examined. Power distance was significantly and negatively associated with leader communication, delegation, approachability, and team building; uncertainty avoidance was significantly associated with more leader control, but less delegation and approachability.
Cognitive Differences between Japanese and Americans in their Perceptions of Difficult Social Situations
Authors: Nishida Hiroko , Hammer Mitchell R. , Wiseman Richard L.
Published: March 2007

This study examined the effects of such situational factors as contexts, behavioral rules, and social roles on human behavior in intercultural settings. These situational factors were extracted through an intensive review of the literature on recent schema research. This study was conducted in two phases. Study I was carried out to determine the situations that contained different behavioral rules held by Japanese and Americans. In Study 2, two research questions were raised: "Do different behavioral rules held by Japanese and Americans lead to a unidimensional or multidimensional pattern of intercultural relations?" and "If behavioral rules prove to be multidimensional, what difficulties are Japanese and Americans likely to experience when they communicate with one another?" The results in Study 1 indicated that 21 situations that were investigated did contain different Japanese and American behavioral rules, thus supporting the validity of the instrument (scenarios containing different Japanese and American behaviors based on these behavioral rules) used in Study 2. The results in Study 2 showed (a) multidimensionality of behavioral rules and (b) types and degrees of difficulties that Japanese and Americans are likely to experience.
Levinas, Psychotherapy, and the Ethics of Suffering
Authors: Gantt Edwin E.
Published: March 2007

This article argues that by adopting a medical approach to the conceptualization, diagnosis, and treatment of emotional and psychological distress, contemporary psychotherapy has robbed itself of the possibility of genuinely understanding the radically ethical nature and significance of human suffering. This article discusses both some of the original sources and assumptions that provided the impetus for the adoption of the medical model in psychotherapy and also some contemporary restatements of these original positions. In opposition to both the dualism and reductionism inherent in medical approaches to psychotherapy, this article aims at providing a more hermeneutic-phenomenological understanding of human suffering, particularly as detailed in the work of the French philosopher Emmanuel Levinas. Such an alternative approach will seek to explicate the radically ethical nature of human suffering by recognizing therapists’ fundamental responsibility to “suffer-with” and “suffer-for” their clients.
Goals, Congruence, and Positive Well-Being: New Empirical Support for Humanistic Theories
Authors: Sheldon Kennon M. , Kasser Tim
Published: March 2007

Although some have suggested that humanistic theories and quantitative methodologies are inherently contradictory, this article will try to demonstrate that they can be quite complementary. To this end, the authors will review their own findings with regard to the nature of “positive motivation,” research that has been based in humanistic theoretical ideas but that also has employed state-of-the-art quantitative methodologies, longitudinal designs, and causal modeling techniques. First, the article discusses numerous studies that have shown that striving for authentic, self-concordant reasons yields greater goal attainment and enhanced well-being. Second, the article reviews evidence that well-being and relationship quality are also better when people orient toward intrinsic values such as intimacy, community, and growth, rather than extrinsic values such as status, money, and image. The authors conclude that the positive psychology movement offers important new opportunities to bridge the gap between humanistic and more mainstream psychologies, to the potential enrichment of both fields.
Toward a Psychology of Optimal Human Functioning: What Positive Psychology Can Learn from the “Experiential Turns” of James, Dewey, and Maslow
Authors: Rathunde Kevin
Published: March 2007

Past perspectives on optimal functioning and experience are discussed to inform current epistemological debates in humanistic and positive psychology. It is suggested that William James, John Dewey, and Abraham Maslow initiated “experiential turns” in American psychology, or turns toward immediate subjective experience, to explore questions about what makes life fulfilling and meaningful. Furthermore, these turns toward subjectivity were grounded in philosophical initiatives that challenged traditional, positivistic methods in science. The argument presented here is that a deeper appreciation of the benefits and inherent challenges of adopting an experiential perspective may help build a more unified psychology of optimal human functioning and avoid misunderstandings concerning the role of scientific research in humanistic and positive psychology.
Jung’s Contribution to an Ecological Psychology
Authors: Yunt Jeremy D.
Published: March 2007

This article connects the psychological concepts and philosophical insights of Jung with some of the basic postulates of ecopsychology. The thesis of the article is that Jung’s depth psychological approach is a relevant hermeneutic device for understanding and dealing with the psychic roots of the modern world’s ecological problems. Using the concepts of archetypes, the collective unconscious, repression, archaic consciousness, personal and collective shadows, and individuation, the article demonstrates how each has implications for the advancement of an ecopsychological approach to the psyche and our understanding of the world. Perhaps most important, the article exemplifies how Jung’s psychological research allows us to envision the interpenetration of psyche, nature, and spirit, thus bridging the modern epistemological gap that has developed between them in the Western world.
Symbolic Latency: Images of Transformation Across Space and Time
Authors: Frick Willard B.
Published: March 2007

Following extensive work on the symbolic dimensions of experience (The Symbolic Growth Experience), the author turns to the romantic poetry of William Wordsworth and his concept of “spots of time” from Wordsworth’s work. The author develops the concept of symbolic latency, identifying those powerful images and emotions of youth and childhood that remain latent in their meaning until brought to fruition through additional experience and emotional readiness. Wordsworth informs us that this interval of time, this “latency,” allowed him “fair seed time” for development. This article introduces Wordsworth’s “Spots of Time,” explores the related phenomenon of symbolic latency, and presents four important examples to illustrate its significance and the rich variety of forms such transformations may take. The author also examines the critical relationship that exists between the perceiving subject and the object of perception, concluding that the most reasonable theoretical position in understanding these transformative experiences is to be found in the unifying forces of synchronicity, the interconnectedness of all phenomena.
Culture, Human Energy, and Self-Actualization: a Sociological Offering To Humanistic Psychology
Authors: Marks Stephen
Published: March 2007

I have long felt the crippling impact of disciplinary boundaries. Being both a sociologist and a humanist is an especially uneasy combination. Since sociology tends to have a grossly underestimated conception of human potential, I often seek intellectual refuge in humanistic psychology. There, however, I often feel like an alien intruder. The basic sociological paradigm (which I accept) tells me that culture is an extraordinarily potent shaper of human character But many humanistic psychologists (Maslow included) tell me that to self-actualize is to step outside one's culture and its shaping influence. How, then, can I intellectually honor that which is fully human, yet do so as a sociologist? My solution is to try to insinuate some room for a sociological perspective into humanistic psychology while still retaining the latter's vision of human potential. In this article I focus on some qualities of metamotivation and metapathology as products of particular kinds of culture. Specifically, I look at high and low human energy states and their linkages to different cultural commitments.