bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Phylogeny and evolution of the green lizards, Lacerta spp. (Squamata: Lacertidae) based on mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequences
Authors: Godinho Raquel , Crespo Eduardo , Ferrand Nuno , Harris D. James
Published: October 2005

Partial DNA sequences from three mitochondrial (cytochrome b, 12S rRNA and 16S rRNA) and two nuclear (β-fibrinogen intron 7 and C-mos) genes were used to estimate the phylogenetic relationships among all eight extant species of green lizards, Lacerta sensu stricto, and many currently recognized subspecies. All eight species form a monophyletic group. L. agilis, L. schreiberi and L. strigata are genetically well differentiated species. L. trilineata and L. pamphylica are not monophyletic units based on analyses of the β-fibrinogen intron 7. Lacerta media is closely related to some Lacerta trilineata. L. bilineata and L. viridis are closely related, and recognition of L. bilineata as a distinct species makes L. viridis paraphyletic also. For both L. bilineata and L. viridis, some subspecies appear to remain in their southern glacial refugia, while a single genetic entity shows successfully postglacial expansion. The topology derived from C-mos variation is concordant with that derived from mtDNA, with substitutions occurring at a similar rate to that of transversions in the rRNA genes. Although C-mos is typically used at deeper taxonomic levels it is also phylogenetically informative within green lizards. β-fibrinogen intron 7, typically used for assessing phylogenetic relationships among bird species, is a useful phylogenetic marker for reptiles also, showing considerable variation between species. There is not complete concordance between estimates of relationships derived from the mtDNA and nuclear markers, probably because rapid diversification led to incomplete lineage sorting in the green lizards. Introgression could also be occuring between some species.
Soil Control on Runoff Response to Climate Change in Regional Climate Model Simulations
Authors: van den Hurk Bart , Hirschi Martin , Schär Christoph , Lenderink Geert , van Meijgaard Erik , van Ulden Aad , Rockel Burkhardt , Hagemann Stefan , Graham Phil , Kjellström Erik , Jones Richard
Published: October 2005

Simulations with seven regional climate models driven by a common control climate simulation of a GCM carried out for Europe in the context of the (European Union) EU-funded Prediction of Regional scenarios and Uncertainties for Defining European Climate change risks and Effects (PRUDENCE) project were analyzed with respect to land surface hydrology in the Rhine basin. In particular, the annual cycle of the terrestrial water storage was compared to analyses based on the 40-yr ECMWF Re-Analysis (ERA-40) atmospheric convergence and observed Rhine discharge data. In addition, an analysis was made of the partitioning of convergence anomalies over anomalies in runoff and storage. This analysis revealed that most models underestimate the size of the water storage and consequently overestimated the response of runoff to anomalies in net convergence. The partitioning of these anomalies over runoff and storage was indicative for the response of the simulated runoff to a projected climate change consistent with the greenhouse gas A2 Synthesis Report on Emission Scenarios (SRES). In particular, the annual cycle of runoff is affected largely by the terrestrial storage reservoir. Larger storage capacity leads to smaller changes in both wintertime and summertime monthly mean runoff. The sustained summertime evaporation resulting from larger storage reservoirs may have a noticeable impact on the summertime surface temperature projections.
Mechanisms of Decadal Arctic Climate Variability in the Community Climate System Model, Version 2 (CCSM2)
Authors: Goosse Hugues , Holland Marika M.
Published: October 2005

Several mechanisms have been proposed to explain natural climate variability in the Arctic. These include processes related to the influence of the North Atlantic Oscillation/Arctic Oscillation (NAO/AO), anticyclonic/cyclonic regimes, changes in the oceanic and atmospheric North Atlantic–Arctic exchange, and changes in the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation. After a brief critical review, the influence and interrelation of the above processes in a long climate integration of the Community Climate System Model, version 2 (CCSM2) are examined. The analysis is based on the time series of surface air temperature integrated northward of 70°N, which serves as a useful proxy for general Arctic climate conditions. This gives a large-scale view of the evolution of Arctic climate. It is found that changes in oceanic exchange and heat transport in the Barents Sea dominate in forcing the Arctic surface air temperature variability in CCSM2. Changes in atmospheric circulation are consistent with a wind forcing of this variability, while changes in the deep overturning circulation in the Atlantic are more weakly related in CCSM2. Over some time periods, the NAO/AO is significantly related to these changes in Arctic climate conditions. However, this is not robust over longer time scales.
Integrating Ocean Subsurface Temperatures in Statistical ENSO Forecasts
Authors: Ruiz Jose Eric , Cordery Ian , Sharma Ashish
Published: October 2005

Subsurface characteristics of oceans have recently become of interest to climate modelers. Here subsurface information has been linked to the evolution of the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) in a simple statistical formulation. The hypothesis proposed is that the inclusion of subsurface ocean heat content in a persistence-based representation of ENSO results in an increase in prediction skill. The subsurface temperature field is represented by anomalies in the 20°C isotherm (Z20) in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. Using a cross-validation approach, the first two empirical orthogonal functions (EOFs) of the Z20 anomalies are derived, but only the second EOF is used as a predictor. The first EOF is found to be representative of the mature ENSO signal while the second EOF shows characteristics that are precursory to an ENSO event. When included in a persistence-based prediction scheme, the second EOF enhances the skill of ENSO hindcasts up to a lead time of 15 months. Results are compared with another model that uses the second EOF of the SST anomalies in the tropical Pacific Ocean and persistence as predictors. Cross-validated hindcasts from the isotherm-based scheme are generally more skillful than those obtained from the persistence and SST-based prediction schemes. Hindcasts of cold events are particularly close to the observed values even at long lags. Major improvements occur for predictions made during boreal winter and spring months when the addition of subsurface information resulted in predictions that are not greatly affected by the damping effect of the “spring barrier.”
Two Independent Triggers for the Indian Ocean Dipole/Zonal Mode in a Coupled GCM
Authors: Fischer Albert S. , Terray Pascal , Guilyardi Eric , Gualdi Silvio , Delecluse Pascale
Published: October 2005

The question of whether and how tropical Indian Ocean dipole or zonal mode (IOZM) interannual variability is independent of El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) variability in the Pacific is addressed in a comparison of twin 200-yr runs of a coupled climate model. The first is a reference simulation, and the second has ENSO-scale variability suppressed with a constraint on the tropical Pacific wind stress. The IOZM can exist in the model without ENSO, and the composite evolution of the main anomalies in the Indian Ocean in the two simulations is virtually identical. Its growth depends on a positive feedback between anomalous equatorial easterly winds, upwelling equatorial and coastal Kelvin waves reducing the thermocline depth and sea surface temperature off the coast of Sumatra, and the atmospheric dynamical response to the subsequently reduced convection.

Two IOZM triggers in the boreal spring are found. The first is an anomalous Hadley circulation over the eastern tropical Indian Ocean and Maritime Continent, with an early northward penetration of the Southern Hemisphere southeasterly trades. This situation grows out of cooler sea surface temperatures in the southeastern tropical Indian Ocean left behind by a reinforcement of the late austral summer winds. The second trigger is a consequence of a zonal shift in the center of convection associated with a developing El Niño, a Walker cell anomaly. The first trigger is the only one present in the constrained simulation and is similar to the evolution of anomalies in 1994, when the IOZM occurred in the absence of a Pacific El Niño state. The presence of these two triggers—the first independent of ENSO and the second phase locking the IOZM to El Niño—allows an understanding of both the existence of IOZM events when Pacific conditions are neutral and the significant correlation between the IOZM and El Niño.
Effects of Secular Changes in Frequency of Observations and Observational Errors on Monthly Mean MSLP Summary Statistics Derived from ICOADS
Authors: Chang Edmund K. M.
Published: October 2005

A Monte Carlo technique has been employed to assess how sextile mean sea level pressure (MSLP) statistics derived from ship observations can be affected by changes in the frequency of observations. The results show that when the number of observations is small (less than 20 per month), the estimates of the first sextile as well as the intersextile range, which is considered to be a resistant estimate of the standard deviation, can contain large biases. The results also suggest that, while changes in the frequency of observations do not have strong impacts on the standard way of estimating the standard deviation, such statistics are strongly affected by secular trends in observational error statistics.

The results are applied to examine the increasing trend in cool season (December–March) Pacific cyclone activity during the second half of the twentieth century. The results show that the trends in sextile statistics derived from the NCEP–NCAR reanalysis data are only consistent with those derived from the International Comprehensive Ocean–Atmosphere Data Set (ICOADS) summary statistics if biases due to changes in the frequency of observation are not taken into account. When such biases are accounted for, the trends derived from the observations are significantly smaller than those derived from the reanalysis data. As for the increasing trend in MSLP variance, the trends derived from the ICOADS statistics are smaller than those derived from the reanalysis regardless of whether corrections are made to account for the secular trend in MSLP error statistics. In either case, the corrections that have to be applied have the same order of magnitude as the observed trends.

The two main conclusions are that 1) climate statistics can be strongly affected by changes in frequency of observations as well as changes in observational error statistics and 2) the trends in North Pacific winter cyclone activity, as derived from NCEP–NCAR reanalysis data, appear to be significantly larger than similar trends computed from ICOADS sextile and variance statistics, when biases due to changes in frequency of observations and observational error statistics have been taken into account.
Effect of Preconditioning on the Extreme Climate Events in the Tropical Indian Ocean*
Authors: Annamalai H. , Potemra J. , Murtugudde R. , McCreary J. P.
Published: October 2005

Sea surface temperature observations in the eastern equatorial Indian Ocean (EEIO) during the period 1950–2003 indicate that Indian Ocean dipole/zonal mode (IODZM) events are strong in two decades, namely, the 1960s and 1990s. Atmospheric reanalysis products in conjunction with output from an ocean model are examined to investigate the possible reason for the occurrence of strong IODZM events in these two decades. Specifically, the hypothesis that the mean thermocline in the EEIO is raised or lowered depending on the phase of Pacific decadal variability (PDV), preconditioning the EEIO to favor stronger or weaker IODZM activity, is examined. Diagnostics reveal that the EEIO is preconditioned by the traditional PDV signal (SVD1 of SST), deepening or shoaling the thermocline off south Java through its influence on the Indonesian Throughflow (ITF; oceanic teleconnection), and by residual decadal variability in the western and central Pacific (SVD2 of SST) that changes the equatorial winds over the Indian Ocean (atmospheric teleconnection). Both effects produce a background state that is either favorable or unfavorable for the thermocline–mixed layer interactions, and hence for the excitation of strong IODZM events. Collectively, SVD1 and SVD2 are referred to as PDV here.

This hypothesis is tested with a suite of ocean model experiments. First, two runs are carried out, forced by climatological winds to which idealized easterly or westerly winds are added only over the equatorial Indian Ocean. As might be expected, in the easterly (westerly) run a shallower (deeper) thermocline is obtained over the EEIO. Then, observed winds from individual years are used to force the model. In these runs, anomalously cool SST in the EEIO develops only during decades when the thermocline is anomalously shallow, allowing entrainment of colder waters into the mixed layer.

Since 1999 the PDV phase has changed, and consistent with this hypothesis the depth of the mean thermocline in the EEIO has been increasing. As a consequence, no IODZM developed during the El Niño of 2002, and only a weak cooling event occurred during the summer of 2003. This hypothesis likely also explains why some strong IODZM events occur in the absence of ENSO forcing, provided that PDV has preconditioned the EEIO thermocline to be anomalously shallow.
A Cautionary Note on the Use of Error Bars
Authors: Lanzante John R.
Published: October 2005

Climate studies often involve comparisons between estimates of some parameter derived from different observed and/or model-generated datasets. It is common practice to present estimates of two or more statistical quantities with error bars about each representing a confidence interval. If the error bars do not overlap, it is presumed that there is a statistically significant difference between them. In general, such a procedure is not valid and usually results in declaring statistical significance too infrequently. Simple examples that demonstrate the nature of this pitfall, along with some formulations, are presented. It is recommended that practitioners use standard hypothesis testing techniques that have been derived from statistical theory rather than the ad hoc approach involving error bars.
Top-of-Atmosphere Direct Radiative Effect of Aerosols over Global Oceans from Merged CERES and MODIS Observations
Authors: Loeb Norman G. , Manalo-Smith Natividad
Published: October 2005

The direct radiative effect of aerosols (DREA) is defined as the difference between radiative fluxes in the absence and presence of aerosols. In this study, the direct radiative effect of aerosols is estimated for 46 months (March 2000–December 2003) of merged Clouds and the Earth’s Radiant Energy System (CERES) and Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) Terra global measurements over ocean. This analysis includes the contribution from clear regions in both clear and partly cloudy CERES footprints. MODIS–CERES narrow-to-broadband regressions are developed to convert clear-sky MODIS narrowband radiances to broadband shortwave (SW) radiances, and CERES clear-sky angular distribution models (ADMs) are used to estimate the corresponding top-of-atmosphere (TOA) radiative fluxes that are needed to determine the DREA. Clear-sky MODIS pixels are identified using two independent cloud masks: (i) the NOAA/National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service (NESDIS) algorithm that is used for inferring aerosol properties from MODIS on the CERES Single Scanner Footprint TOA/Surface Fluxes and Clouds (SSF) product (NOAA SSF); and (ii) the standard algorithm that is used by the MODIS aerosol group to produce the MODIS aerosol product (MOD04). Over global oceans, direct radiative cooling by aerosols for clear scenes that are identified from MOD04 is estimated to be 40% larger than for clear scenes from NOAA SSF (5.5 compared to 3.8 W m−2). Regionally, differences are largest in areas that are affected by dust aerosol, such as oceanic regions that are adjacent to the Sahara and Saudi Arabian deserts, and in northern Pacific Ocean regions that are influenced by dust transported from Asia. The net total-sky (clear and cloudy) DREA is negative (cooling) and is estimated to be −2.0 W m−2 from MOD04, and −1.6 W m−2 from NOAA SSF. The DREA is shown to have pronounced seasonal cycles in the Northern Hemisphere and large year-to-year fluctuations near deserts. However, no systematic trend in deseasonalized anomalies of the DREA is observed over the 46-month time series that is considered.
The Impact of Deployment on the Retention of Military Reservists
Authors: Kirby Sheila Nataraj , Naftel Scott
Published: October 2005

Since Operation Desert Shield/Storm (ODS/S), the reserve forces have participated in almost every large foreign deployment. Understanding how mobilizations and deployments of reservists affect their attitudes and those of their families and employers is important because of the potential effects on retention and future recruiting. This article examines retention of enlisted reservists three years after Operation Desert Storm, using a rich array of data available from the 1991 Guard/Reserve Survey of Officers and Enlisted Personnel. Overall, there is little difference between the retention of mobilized and nonmobilized reservists. The most important factors in retention are satisfaction with reserve duty and spouses' attitudes toward reserve participation. Among the mobilized, a statistical model shows no difference in the probability of retention, regardless of economic loss. However, these conclusions may not extend to deployments that are less popular and more frequent, such as those experienced by the reserve components in recent years.
The Imprint of the Int fad: Response of Kibbutz-Born Soldiers to Military Service in the West Bank and Gaza
Authors: Dar Yechezkel , Kimhi Shaul , Stadler Nurit , Epstein Alek D.
Published: October 2005

Israel Army veterans of kibbutz background who had served in the occupied territories during the Intifada were retrospectively asked how this service affected them. Some common themes were disclosed. Service in the territories deepened understanding of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict but increased fear and hate of Arabs. These feelings did not lead to a national extremism, but rather to a rationalistic position demanding a peaceful, political solution. The majority of respondents became firmer in their original "leftist" position, and the justification for their position was utilitarian, considering the needs of the Israeli side; only a few based their position on support for the Palestinians' rights or suffering. To cope with the conflict between their military duty and their moral values, soldiers either sought shelter in military orders or compartmentalized their humanistic values and military duty. Few criticized the army. The major criticism, that soldiers had not been given enough tools to deal with the challenges of the Intifada, was directed at the state. Many regarded military service during the Intifada as a most difficult experience, but with only a temporal imprint.
The Effect of Declining Military Influence on Defense Budgets in Latin America
Authors: Looney Robert E. , Frederiksen Peter C.
Published: October 2005

While military governments have often been a tradition in many Latin American countries, a relatively small and stable number of national resources are traditionally allocated to national defense. Recent studies on the determinants of defense spending in this region have employed data only through the mid-1980s. Since then, sweeping economic and political changes have occurred in the region. This article examines the factors influencing Latin American defense allocations for fifteen countries in the 1980s to the mid-1990s. We posit a long-term relationship between defense and other variables (such as GNP), and employ a technique to separate year to year movements in the defense burden into components associated with (a) short-run factors and (b) the correction of the deviation from the long-run pattern. Factors such as military influence and changes in regional defense expenditures are examined. The results suggest that for most of the 15 countries, a high proportion of the defense burden is explained by relatively few variables. For six countries, no long-run trend was identified and defense expenditures are determined by short-run shocks. For the other nine countries, equilibrating corrections are made to the defense budget in response to short-run shocks.
Measuring the Cohesion of Military Communities
Authors: Mcclure Peggy , Broughton Walter
Published: October 2005

Several trends affecting the military make the cohesion of installations increasingly problematic. At the same time, recent work in military sociology contends that greater attention should be paid to the integration of military units within the larger social entities that contain them. We report the results of a pretest conducted among 325 military personnel and spouses at an East Coast air base to construct a measure of base cohesion. A principal components analysis yields two relatively stable and independent dimensions from the 50 Likert items we constructed. These reliable scales correlate well with measures of work unit cohesion and with a measure of neighborhood cohesion (especially among respondents in neighborhoods that are an extension of the base). They also correlate as well or better than work unit cohesion with measures of extension and retention.
Cultural Dynamics of Civic Action in the Central Highlands of Vietnam, 1967-1968
Authors: Kirkland Faris R.
Published: October 2005

From 1966 to 1968 the 4th U.S. Infantry Division operated in the Central Highlands of Vietnam, where the indigenous population consisted primarily of Montagnard tribesmen with near-Neolithic cultures living in the countryside, and secondarily of a ruling group of Vietnamese living in the cities and a few villages. Personnel of the 4th Division conducted civic action programs among the Montagnards and the Vietnamese for the purpose of enhancing the security of the division, but the nature of these programs had to be adapted to the needs and mores of the two indigenous cultures. Officials of the Vietnamese government also conducted programs among the Montagnards to maintain governmental control and ethnic dominance over them. American civic action policies varied over time as officers with different perceptions were in charge of them, and implementation of the policies affected the Montagnard and the Vietnamese cultures in ways that were sometimes constructive and sometimes contradictory. This article is an analysis of psychological, cultural, and military relationships among members of the three cultures, and of the consequences of American civic action policies for the two indigenous populations and for the security of the division. It is based on archival materials from the 4th Infantry Division and letters from American officials who participated in the civic action programs.
The Politics of Language in Multiethnic Militaries: The Case of Oriental Jews in the Israel Defence Forces, 1950-1959
Authors: Peled Alon
Published: October 2005

This article argues that effective linguistic policies in multiethnic militaries do not evolve by themselves. Rather, they require both political pressure on the military to reform its language policy and the willingness of the military to learn from the experience of other militaries. It also provides new evidence to explain how a new quality classification system of manpower excluded Oriental conscripts (Jews who emigrated from Arab and Muslim countries) from the IDF's aptitude testing process because the tests were in Hebrew, not in their native languages, and therefore did not measure their true aptitude. Poor exam results were in turn interpreted as indications of widespread illiteracy among Oriental soldiers who were assigned to low-prestige vocations, with few succeeding in gaining entry into officer courses. The article also explains why David Ben-Gurion, Israel's first Prime Minister and Defence Minister, senior military officers, and Oriental leaders did nothing to rectify this situation.
The Privatization of Security
Authors: Mandel Robert
Published: October 2005

From ragtag bands of mercenaries to organized and well-funded private military companies, much of the responsibility for providing security for citizenry has been moving from governmental to nongovernmental hands. This article provides a comprehensive exploration of this privatization of security. After summarizing recent trends and supplying a theoretical context, it presents a multifaceted taxonomy of the different types of security privatization, and then proceeds to examine carefully the causes and potential consequences of this pattern. Brief case study evidence illustrates and fleshes out the generalizations presented. Finally, the complexities surrounding responses to security privatization are examined.
The Propensity of Junior Enlisted Personnel to Remain in Today's Military
Authors: Moore Brenda L.
Published: October 2005

This study examines the effects of both economic and noneconomic factors on the propensity of junior enlisted (El-E4) personnel to remain in the military, using data from the Armed Forces 1996 Equal Opportunity Survey. Among the findings: (1) years of service, job satisfaction (as a whole), and pride in service are all highly correlated with self-reports of respondents' likelihood of remaining in service; (2) among junior enlisted personnel, African-American men are more inclined to remain in the military than are men and women of other subgroups; and (3) while satisfaction with pay benefits has a significant positive effect on the likelihood that respondents will stay in the military, pride in service is more robust.
Clinton's Military Strikes in 1998: Diversionary Uses of Force?
Authors: Hendrickson Ryan C.
Published: October 2005

Much research addresses the possibility of "diversionary uses of force" by American presidents. Nearly all of it employs aggreated time-series data sets, testing for the relevance of factors such as the domestic economy's strength, public approaval ratings for the president, perceptions of the levels of "international tension," or the partisan makeup of Congress when a president uses force. Many believed that President Bill Clinton used force on Usama Bin Laden and on Iraq in 1998 to distract the public from his personal problems. In a new case study approach, this article explores four propositions regarding diversionary uses of force to examine these two Clinton military strikes. Analysis of them suggests that it is unlikely, especially in the strikes on Usama Bin Laden, that force was used for diversionary purposes.
Overview: Civil-Military Relations in Central and Eastern Europe in Former Communist Societies
Authors: Jones Christopher D. , Mychajlyszyn Natalie
Published: October 2005

This article reviews studies on civil-military relations by David Betz (Russia), Daniel Nelson (Romania and Bulgaria), Natalie Mychajlysyn (Ukraine), Marybeth Ulrich (Czech Republic), and Mark Yaniszewski (Poland and Hungary). All note minimal progress in developing a cadre of civilian defense experts who can end the monopoly of ministries of defense on policymaking. Those states that are candidates for NATO membership have made much more drastic cuts in the size of paramilitary and internal security forces than have Russia and Ukraine. They have also moved toward postures and doctrines based on coalition security policies, which have all but ruled out the internal use of armed force on the model that Milosevic developed in the former Yugoslavia and Tudjman attempted to develop in Croatia. In Russia and Ukraine, the strong presidential systems have at their disposal large internal armed forces that could be available for targeting domestic political opponents or minority groups.
Armies, Security, and Democracy in Southeastern Europe
Authors: Nelson Daniel N.
Published: October 2005

Armed forces, defense ministries, and broader national security structures sometimes resist political accountability and guidance. In other cases, they are penetrated and manipulated by political forces. What explains these variations of "politicization"? Using the case studies of postcommunist Romania and Bulgaria, this article offers the preliminary notion that previous political or economic prominence (in a prior authoritarian system) is a critical variable in answering such questions. Further, without protection or insulation from such politicizing influences that might be offered by a stratum of highly competent experts, national security organizations (including the uniformed military) are much more likely to be politicized either penetrated by political interests or aggressively interjecting military and national interests into the political realm.
Civil-Military Relations in Post-Soviet Ukraine: Implications for Domestic and Regional Stability
Authors: Mychajlyszyn Natalie
Published: October 2005

Ukraine's progress towards a fully functioning democratic, civilian model has been weak. Due to the weakness of the military as a political force in Ukraine, this lack of progress itself does not threaten Ukraine's domestic stability. Instead, of greater concern and potential impact are the absence of significant military restructuring and implementation of Ukraine's military and strategic doctrine as well as the absence of any measure of civil-military control over the internal security forces of Ukraine. Moreover, the arrest of military restructuring impacts fundamentally on regional security as it affects Ukraine's ability and capacity to forestall any military aggression as well as Ukraine's contribution to multinational peacekeeping operations, under either NATO or UN auspices. Ultimately, the lack of progress in democratic civil-military reforms in Ukraine is of greater significance at the regional level than at the national one.
No Place for a Civilian?: Russian Defense Management from Yeltsin to Putin
Authors: Betz David J.
Published: October 2005

Under the leadership of Presidents Yeltsin and Putin the authorities in the Kremlin have well understood that the armed forces need to be tightly controlled, but they have shown a consistent preference for control from the top with minimal societal intervention or influence. The army is subordinate to a civilian head of state, yet it is also largely free from civilian interference in the way it is managed. There are few civilian decision-makers of any consequence in the Ministry of Defense. At the same time, the military has deeply penetrated the various parliamentary and governmental bodies that are meant to provide civilian oversight of defense policy and expenditure. This calls into question the prospects of democratic consolidation in Russia.
The Mutiny Wagon Wheel: A Leadership Model for Mutiny in Combat
Authors: Hamby Joel E.
Published: October 2005

This article provides and analyzes the factors present during incidents of military mutiny. It proposes a model that explains how leadership interacts with factors present in combat units to assist in determining when mutiny is possible and how the actions of leaders influence its formation. By first defining the factors present during mutiny as they apply to front line combat soldiers, the foundation for examining mutiny is established. Also examined are the symptoms of mutiny and probable portents for the future of the phenomenon. The eight factors that influence the formation of mutiny are alienation, environment, values and hope, combat experience, training, discipline, primary groups, and finally leadership. This article explores how leadership determines when and where mutiny will strike, and proposes remedies for military leaders using the leadership doctrine of the United States Army.
Discourses of War: The Landscape of Congressional Rhetoric
Authors: Phelps Glenn A. , Boylan Timothy S.
Published: October 2005

In writing the U.S. Constitution the framers anticipated that the use of American military force should require an extraordinary consensus between Congress and the President. The era of the Vietnam War led many to believe that Congress had become the junior partner to presidents who exercised an increasing degree of constitutional independence in use of force issues. The War Powers Resolution (WPR) of 1973 attempted to address that constitutional imbalance. Our analysis of the constitutional debates surrounding the adoption of the WPR reveals that members of Congress were unable to agree upon a coherent "institutional" vision for Congress; even those who supported the measure were unsure of its meaning. When Congress took up measures related to the commitment of American forces in Kosovo, the same constitutional divisions that existed 25 years previously reemerged and Congress was unable to perform as a full constitutional partner-not because of presidential bullying, but because it lacked its own institutional view of its constitutional responsibilities.
The Second Generation Problematic: Rethinking Democracy and Civil-Military Relations
Authors: Cottey Andrew , Edmunds Timothy , Forster Anthony
Published: October 2005

This article argues that a decade after the collapse of communism in central and eastern Europe, the establishment of democratic civil-military relations has moved on from first generation issues of institutional restructuring to second generation challenges relating to the democratic consolidation of these relationships. In practice, these have more to do with issues of state capacity-building and bureaucratic modernization with the traditional concerns of the civil-military relations literature. In most cases, the problem is not the establishment of civilian control over the armed forces or the separation of the military from politics, but rather that of the effective execution of democratic governance of the defense and security sector-particularly in relation to defense policy-making, legislative oversight and the effective engagement of civil-society in a framework of democratic legitimacy and accountability.
Teaching Poetry to Soldiers in a Post-Heroic Age
Authors: Samet Elizabeth D.
Published: October 2005

In antiquity the epic poet's need for the soldier was reciprocated. Today, however, poets and soldiers operate in an altered relation. The association of poetry with often violent action is very much alive, yet the once intertwined existence of soldier and poet-an incorporation that perhaps reached its apex in the figure of the World War I soldier-poet has been replaced by diffidence, curiosity, and sometimes distrust. This climate of estrangement notwithstanding, poetry thrives at the United States Military Academy, where all plebes take a core curriculum literature class. Cadets emerge from this class with a recognition of the long-standing connections between literature and war; of the historical role of poetry in shaping culture, attitudes, and values; and of the ongoing imperative for military officers to be able to use language with precision. Moreover, by exercising the cadets' imaginations, the study of poetry helps to cultivate the powers of anticipation and invention these young men and women will need as military professionals in an unsettled, unsettling world.
The Turkish Military's Decision to Intervene: 12 September 1980
Authors: Demirel Tanel
Published: October 2005

This article analyzes the Turkish military's decision to take over the government on 12 September 1980. It argues that just because the military believed itself to be a true guardian state, it easily considered intervention a legitimate solution. The perceived threats to the integrity of the Republican state posed by rampant terrorism were the key elements driving soldiers towards intervention. In retrospect, the military's willingness to learn from experience and the role played by civilians in encouraging the military to take over the reins of government are striking features of the whole episode.
The Reconstruction of Culture, Citizenship, and Military Service
Authors: Morgan Matthew J.
Published: October 2005

Changing prevailing attitudes in society are leading to new formulations about the relationship between the individual and the state in industrialized countries. The emerging belief systems and social trends underpinning them are collectively described using the term "postmodern." This article explores the dynamics of the postmodern society and their likely impact on military service. After introducing the general characteristics of postmodernity, it will be necessary to develop a framework for assessing its effects on society and culture. Finally, the implications of these developments are assessed as they apply to military service in the twenty-first century.
Welfare and Warfare: American Organized Labor Approaches the Military-Industrial Complex, 1949-1964
Authors: Wehrle Edmund F.
Published: October 2005

In the decades following World War II, U.S. organized labor became a vigorous supporter of the military-industrial complex. Clearly, trade unionists appreciated the plentiful jobs produced by such spending. Representatives of organized labor also worked hard, behind the scenes, to channel military dollars to serve what they saw as the broader needs of society. In particular, trade unionists sponsored programs designed to direct defense spending to economically stagnant areas and industries. Opposition from the military and other sources slowed and eventually completely frustrated labor's efforts. Nevertheless, in the postwar period, organized labor was a significant, inside force in the shaping of military appropriation.
Military Rule, State Autonomy, and Privatization in the Southern Cone
Authors: Biglaiser Glen
Published: October 2005

This article compares military regimes in Argentina, Chile, and Uruguay to show the political challenges military governments confront in implementing privatization policies. Using a case-study approach, it describes the effect of differences in long-standing characteristics of the armed forces, and in the military regime's governing institutions on the political survival strategies of military rulers. Analysis of the data on privatization under military rule in these countries suggests that consolidated one-man rule provides advantages over more collegial forms of military rule when it comes to selecting economic policy makers and directors of state-owned enterprises who will facilitate privatizing state enterprises. Furthermore, the findings reveal how rarely military regimes succeed in achieving their privatization goals.
Ideas, Interests, and Strategy: Bureaucratic Politics and the United States Navy
Authors: Mitchell Paul T.
Published: October 2005

Edward Rhodes has proposed that ideas are more important to the formulation of policy than interests are. This article challenges that proposal by examining the role of ideas and interests in the navy's strategic planning of the 1980s. It first examines the role of service unions in naval policy, finding that they were much more influential than Rhodes suggests and goes on to examine the validity of the notion of the superiority of ideas over interests in terms of realist and bureaucratic politics theory. Showing that ideas and interests are not strictly separable, it then examines these findings against the experience of the navy's Maritime Strategy, which further supports the mutual dependency of ideas and interests. This allows analysts to assess the "validity" of strategic concepts using criteria laid down by Roger Hilsman and Bernard Brodie. Successful strategy is that which pays attention to both service interests and national interests. Strategies that neglect either component will ultimately fail, either on the battlefield or bureaucratically.
How Long Does it Take to Change a Culture? Integration at the U.S. Naval Academy
Authors: Bodnar John W.
Published: October 2005

Just as the armed forces are a microcosm of American society, so the Naval Academy is a microcosm of military society. By examining the U.S. Naval Academy, a small, well-defined, but important part of the armed forces, we can see how social change comes about in the military and how long it takes. Although integration of the military was begun by President Roosevelt over half a century ago, I suggest that it may be another decade before we can realistically expect a black Chief of Naval Operations or Naval Academy superintendent. I propose four stages in integration at the Naval Academy: a stonewall of senior leadership; leveling the playing field for a generation from the bottom up; gaining representative share by direction; and percolation for yet another generation. While social changes in the armed forces can be ordered, they require several generations to complete.
Gender Composition and Group Cohesion in U.S. Army Units: A Comparision across Five Studies
Authors: Rosen Leora N. , Bliese Paul D. , Wright Kathleen A. , Gifford Robert K.
Published: October 2005

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between gender composition and group cohesion in U.S. Army combat support and combat service support units. Five studies were compared in this analysis, including survey data obtained in the Persian Gulf during Operation Desert Storm; in Somalia during Operation Restore Hope; in Haiti during Operation Uphold Democracy; and in two garrison samples.

A higher percentage of women in the unit was strongly associated with lower horizontal cohesion in the Somalia sample, and there was a much smaller association between these variables in the Persian Gulf sample. This relationship was present only among junior enlisted soldiers in one of the garrison surveys but was absent in the other garrison survey and in the Haiti sample. In most cases, a higher percentage of women was associated with lower cohesion. Possible reasons for differences across studies in the strength of the association may include gender differences in support for the mission and differences in deployment circumstances.
Propensity to Serve in the U.S. Military: Temporal Trends and Subgroup Differences
Authors: Segal David R. , Bachman Jerald G. , Freedman-Doan Peter , O'Malley Patrick M.
Published: October 2005

Data from the Monitoring the Future project, a study of high school seniors (and since 1991, eighth and tenth graders) are used to define six recruitment periods in America's all-volunteer military force, characterized by variations in entry-level pay, recruiting resources, educational benefit programs available, the recruiting environment, and recruit quality. Propensity to enlist is shown to drop between the eighth and the twelfth grades, and between 1991 and 1997 at each grade level studied. Propensity is also shown to have varied between 1976 and 1997 by gender, race, and college plans
Samuel Huntington and Communist Civil-Military Relations
Authors: Herspring Dale R.
Published: October 2005

Contrary to Huntington's hypothesis, analysis suggests that the relationship between the party-political apparatus and line elements of the armed forces of the former Soviet Union and the former German Democratic Republic was less confrontational and more symbiotic. In the USSR, Huntington's subjective control measures accurately described the situation that existed during the early 1920s. However, as Soviet officers internalized the regime's value structure, the relationship became more symbiotic and was increasingly characterized by what he called objective control measures. In the case of East Germany's National People's Army, the relationship between political and line officers was never as confrontational as Huntington expected. To encompass the communist experiment, Huntington's model would have to be modified to take into account the fact that subjective control measures can change into objective ones over time. The nature of civil-military relations in communist countries was more dynamic than Huntington assumed.
Changes in Patterns of Sexual Harassment in the U.S. Military: A Comparison of the 1988 and 1995 DoD Surveys
Authors: Firestone Juanita M. , Harris Richard J.
Published: October 2005

This article compares results from the 1988 DoD Survey of Sex Roles and the 1995 Sexual Harassment Survey and assesses the impact of changes within the DoD and heightened awareness brought about by increased publicity surrounding sexual harassment. Responses are evaluated in terms of individual and environmental harassment. The first is defined as more personalized behavior that includes actual or attempted rape, assault, pressure for sexual favors or dates, sexual touching or cornering, and sexual letters or phone calls. Environmental harassment is more generalized and includes sexual teasing and jokes, suggestive looks and gestures, and sexual whistles, calls, and hoots. The data document a slight decline in the prevalence of perceived sexual harassment in the military since 1988. However, respondents, especially women, continue to indicate a substantial amount of harassment, which is still perpetrated primarily by other military members and coworkers, despite the 1995 survey results indicating that 98 percent of the military members "at least to some extent... know what sexual harassment is." The 1995 results also reinforce a key finding from the 1988 data: respondents reporting no environmental types of harassment are very unlikely to report individual harassment, and the vast majority of those reporting some environmental harassment are also likely to report individual harassment.
A Unified Theory Of Civil-Military Relations
Authors: Bland Douglas L.
Published: October 2005

This article's thesis is that civil control of the military is managed and maintained through the sharing of responsibility for control between civilian leaders and military officers. Specifically, civil authorities are responsible and accountable for some aspects of control and military leaders are responsible and accountable for others. Although some responsibilities for control may merge, they are not fused. The relationship and arrangement of responsibilities are conditioned by a nationally evolved regime of principles, norms, rules, and expectations concerning civil-military relations. Although a regime may be stable for long periods, it can change as basic causal factors such as values, issues, interests, personalities, and threats change. Alterations of rules and decision-making procedures account for the dynamic nature of civil-military relations, while alterations of norms and principles account for conflict in civil-military relations. Regime differences between states account for the particular national character of civil-military relations, much as like-minded regimes account for cross-cultural similarities in civil-military relations.