bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Pattern Recognition, Statistical
Authors: Hofmann Thomas
Published: December 2005

Statistical pattern recognition deals with the problem of automatically classifying objects as belonging to one or more classes from a set of possible classes. Objects are typically represented by raw data that may include measured or known object properties and which are summarized in a feature vector. The general goal is to infer suitable classification rules that map feature vectors to class labels based on a training set of objects with known class memberships.
Search
Authors: Korf Richard E
Published: December 2005

A search is a trial‐and‐error exploration of alternative solutions to a problem.
Hill‐climbing Search
Authors: Selman Bart , Gomes Carla P
Published: December 2005

Many computational and cognitive tasks involve a search through a large space of possible solutions. Hill‐climbing, or local search, is one strategy for searching such a solution space.
Search, Adversarial
Authors: Nau Dana S
Published: December 2005

Adversarial search, or game‐tree search, is a technique for analyzing an adversarial game in order to try to determine who can win the game and what moves the players should make in order to win.
Computational Models: Why Build Them?
Authors: Simon Herbert A
Published: December 2005

The term ‘computational model’ is used for a theory that is stated definitely enough that precise reasoning (not necessarily numerical) can be performed on it to infer the course of system behavior. Nowadays, such a theory is often expressed as a computer program, the computer tracing the system's path.
Computer Modeling of Cognition: Levels of Analysis
Authors: Dawson Michael RW
Published: December 2005

According to Marr's three‐level hypothesis, information processors must be described at the computational level, the algorithmic level, and the implementational level in order to be fully understood.
Dynamical Systems Hypothesis in Cognitive Science
Authors: Port Robert F
Published: December 2005

The dynamical systems hypothesis in cognitive science identifies various research paradigms applying the mathematics of dynamical systems to understanding cognitive function.
Symbolic versus Subsymbolic
Authors: Eliasmith Chris , Bechtel William
Published: December 2005

There are two competing approaches to computational modeling of cognition: the symbolic approach, based on language‐like representations, and the subsymbolic (connectionist) approach, inspired by neuroscience.
Frame Problem, the
Authors: Shanahan Murray
Published: December 2005

The frame problem is a difficulty that arises when formal logic is used to represent the effects of actions. The challenge is to avoid having to represent explicitly large numbers of common‐sense facts about what does not change when an action occurs.
Symbol‐grounding Problem
Authors: Harnad Stevan
Published: December 2005

The symbol‐grounding problem is related to the problem of how words get their meanings, and of what meanings are. The problem of meaning is in turn related to the problem of consciousness, or how it is that mental states are meaningful.
Constraint Satisfaction
Authors: Dechter Rina , Rossi Francesca
Published: December 2005

Constraints are a formalism for the representation of declarative knowledge that allows for a compact and expressive modeling of many real‐life problems. Constraint satisfaction and propagation tools, as well as constraint programming languages, are successfully used to model, solve, and reason about many classes of problems, such as design, diagnosis, scheduling, spatio‐temporal reasoning, resource allocation, configuration, network optimization, and graphical interfaces.
Inference using Formal Logics
Authors: McAllester David
Published: December 2005

Formal logics are used fundamentally in mathematics, natural language syntax and semantics, computer programming languages, and artificial intelligence.
Fuzzy Logic
Authors: Yager Ronald R
Published: December 2005

Fuzzy logic provides a methodology that enables the modeling of human reasoning.
Connectionist Implementationalism and Hybrid Systems
Authors: Sun Ron
Published: December 2005

We may incorporate symbolic processing capabilities in connectionist models, including implementing such capabilities in conventional connectionist models and/or adding additional mechanisms to connectionist models.
Machine Learning
Authors: Dietterich Thomas G
Published: December 2005

Machine learning is the study of methods for programming computers to learn.
Learning Rules and Productions
Authors: Taatgen Niels A
Published: December 2005

Learning rules and productions involves creating new rules through inference, induction and compilation and is used in both machine learning and cognitive modeling.
Learning through Case Analysis
Authors: Leake David B , Kolodner Janet L
Published: December 2005

Case‐based reasoning is a process for reasoning by remembering prior experiences and adapting their lessons to new circumstances. Cognitive science research on case‐based reasoning has developed computational models of how humans learn from experience, and suggests principles for providing more effective support for human learning.
Reinforcement Learning: A Computational Perspective
Authors: Dayan Peter , Watkins Christopher JCH
Published: December 2005

Reinforcement learning is one of the means by which animals and artificial systems can learn to optimize their behaviour in the face of rewards and punishments. Reinforcement learning algorithms have been developed that are closely related to methods of dynamic programming, which is a general approach to optimal control. Reinforcement learning phenomena have been observed in psychological studies of animal behaviour, and in neurobiological investigations of neuromodulation and addiction.
Learning from Advice
Authors: Noelle David C
Published: December 2005

Computer models of how humans learn from direct instruction by a knowledgeable teacher have demonstrated how language processing mechanisms may be leveraged to rapidly acquire and apply new knowledge, as well as how such explicit knowledge may be refined through experience.
Working Memory, Computational Models of
Authors: Lewandowsky Stephan , Farrell Simon
Published: December 2005

Comparison of localist, distributed, and rule‐based models of working memory gives insight into the essential processes underlying short‐term retention of information.
Convolution‐Based Memory Models
Authors: Plate Tony A
Published: December 2005

Convolution‐based memory models are mathematical models of neural storage of complex data structures using distributed representations. Data structures stored range from lists of pairs, through to sequences, trees, and networks.
Computational Neuroscience: From Biology to Cognition
Authors: O'Reilly Randall C , Munakata Yuko
Published: December 2005

Computational neuroscience involves the construction of explicit computational models that implement neural mechanisms to simulate cognitive functions such as perception, learning and memory, motor function, and language.
User Interface Design
Authors: Dillon Andrew
Published: December 2005

The design of computer interfaces that are usable and easily learned by humans is a non‐trivial problem for software developers. As information technologies mediate many of the activities we now perform routinely, the process of human–computer interaction is of fundamental importance.
Intelligent Tutoring Systems
Authors: Lesgold Alan
Published: December 2005

Intelligent tutoring systems are computer programs that use artificial intelligence techniques to interact with students and to provide experiences tailored to students' immediate needs. Originally, the term included only systems that modeled the student's developing knowledge, but today the term often includes systems that adapt to the pattern of a student's activity and to estimates of what the student knows.
Natural Language Processing: Models of Roger Schank and his Students
Authors: Schank Roger C , Leake David B
Published: December 2005

Over many years, Roger Schank and his students developed a series of theories and computer models of natural language processing, guided by two main tenets: that natural language processing cannot be studied in isolation from the purposes for which language is used, and that meaning and world knowledge may be crucial at even the earliest points in the understanding process. Through an interplay between study of human reasoning, development of theories, and experiments with computer models, this work has identified important research questions and shed light not only on natural language processing but on a broad range of cognitive processes such as planning, learning, explanation, and even creativity.
Distributed Representations
Authors: Plate Tony
Published: December 2005

Distributed representations are a way of representing information in a pattern of activation over a set of neurons, in which each concept is represented by activation over multiple neurons, and each neuron participates in the representation of multiple concepts.
Non‐Monotonic Logic
Authors: Gelfond Michael , Watson Richard
Published: December 2005

A logic is called non‐monotonic if assertions made in a theory in the logic may be retracted when new information is added to the theory.
Adaptive Resonance Theory
Authors: Grossberg Stephen
Published: December 2005

Adaptive resonance theory is a cognitive and neural theory about how the brain develops and learns to recognize and recall objects and events throughout life. It shows how processes of learning, categorization, expectation, attention, resonance, synchronization, and memory search interact to enable the brain to learn quickly and to retain its memories stably, while explaining many data about perception, cognition, learning, memory, and consciousness.
Connectionist Architectures: Optimization
Authors: Frean Marcus
Published: December 2005

A key issue in using connectionist methods is the choice of which network architecture to use. There are a number of ways this choice can be made automatically, driven by the problem at hand.
Vision, Early
Authors: Tomasi Carlo
Published: December 2005

Early vision algorithms in humans and computers process images from the eye and from electronic video cameras respectively. They infer the shape, appearance, and motion of objects in the world. Conventionally, the lack of semantic interpretation distinguishes between ‘early’ and higher levels of vision.
Situated Robotics
Authors: Matarić Maja J
Published: December 2005

Situated robotics is the study of robots embedded in complex, often dynamically changing environments. The complexity of the robot control problem is directly related to how unpredictable and unstable the environment is, to how quickly the robot must react to it, and to how complex its task is.
Spatial Representation and Reasoning
Authors: Hobbs Jerry R , Narayanan Srini
Published: December 2005

Spatial representation and reasoning is a way of representing the facts about spatial properties and relationships, contiguity, dimensionality, shape, and motion, in a way that is convenient for a computer to reason about them.
Navigation
Authors: Nehmzow Ulrich
Published: December 2005

Navigation is the ability of a mobile agent (living being or machine) to move in a goal‐directed way.
Motor Control: Models
Authors: Brown Liana E , Rosenbaum David A
Published: December 2005

The term ‘motor control’ refers to the ability of biological and artificial systems to plan, initiate, maintain, monitor, and correct movements to attain physically realizable goals. A ‘model’ is a system or process that permits predictions.
Natural Language Processing
Authors: Allen James F
Published: December 2005

Natural language processing is a field that explores computational methods for interpreting and processing natural language, in either textual or spoken form.
Semantics and Pragmatics: Formal Approaches
Authors: Ramsay Allan
Published: December 2005

Formal languages can be used to throw light on how natural language relates to the world.
Story Understanding
Authors: Mueller Erik T
Published: December 2005

Story understanding researchers have built computer programs that read and answer questions about simple stories. They have proposed a number of knowledge structures and processing mechanisms useful for this task.
Speech Perception and Recognition, Theories and Models of
Authors: Massaro Dominic W
Published: December 2005

Multiple sources of information are exploited to perceive and understand spoken language.
Machine Translation
Authors: Boitet Christian
Published: December 2005

Machine translation is the subset of automated translation which aims to build programs capable of taking over translation per se, whether fully automatically or with the assistance of monolingual users.
Sparse Distributed Memory
Authors: Hely Tim A
Published: December 2005

The sparse distributed memory is a mathematical technique for storing and retrieving large random binary patterns. The memory has been used in simple visual and linguistic applications, and has been proposed as a model of cerebellum function.
Computational Models of Cognition: Constraining
Authors: Regier Terry
Published: December 2005

Computational models of cognition may be constrained in various ways. The three primary benefits of constraining a computational model are: (1) parsimony; (2) avoiding over‐flexibility; and (3) potentially stronger motivation for the elements of the model.
Artificial Life
Authors: Packard Norman H , Bedau Mark A
Published: December 2005

Artificial life is the study of life and life‐like processes through simulation and synthesis.
Evolutionary Algorithms
Authors: Hallinan Jennifer S , Wiles Janet
Published: December 2005

Evolutionary algorithms make direct use of adaptive change in a population of computational agents in order to solve problems or model complex systems.
Binding Problem
Authors: Sougné Jacques P
Published: December 2005

The binding problem is the problem of how a cognitive system (a brain or a computational model) groups a set of features together, associates a filler with a role, a value with a variable, an attribute with a concept, etc.
Catastrophic Forgetting in Connectionist Networks
Authors: French Robert M
Published: December 2005

Unlike human brains, connectionist networks can forget previously learned information suddenly and completely (‘catastrophically’) when learning new information. Various solutions to this problem have been proposed.
Implicit Learning Models
Authors: Cleeremans Axel
Published: December 2005

Implicit learning is the process through which we become sensitive to certain regularities in the environment (1) in the absence of intention to learn about those regularities, (2) in the absence of awareness that one is learning, and (3) in such a way that the resulting knowledge is difficult to express.
Analogy‐Making, Computational Models of
Authors: Kokinov Boicho , French Robert M
Published: December 2005

Analogy‐making is the process of finding or constructing a common relational structure in the descriptions of two situations or domains and making inferences by transferring knowledge from the familiar domain (the ‘base’ or ‘source’) to the unfamiliar domain (the ‘target’), thus enriching our knowledge about the latter.
Modeling Individual Neurons and Small Neural Networks
Authors: Thomas Elizabeth
Published: December 2005

Realistic models of neurons range in complexity from the perfect integrate‐and‐fire model to conductance models in which the ionic currents are computed from the kinetics of the underlying gating particles.
History of Cognitive Science and Computational Modeling
Authors: Schonbein Whit , Bechtel William
Published: December 2005

The various strands of computational modeling in cognitive science are simultaneously grounded in foundational work in the theory of computation and in recent developments in computational neuroscience and dynamical systems theory. All these approaches face important challenges, and to some degree they stand opposed in their treatment of role of computation in modeling.
Game‐Playing Programs
Authors: Epstein Susan L
Published: December 2005

Game‐playing programs rely on fast, deep search and knowledge to defeat human champions. For more difficult games, simulation and machine learning have been employed, and human cognition is under consideration.
Cognitive Science: Philosophical Issues
Authors: Von Eckardt Barbara
Published: December 2005

Numerous philosophical questions can be raised about cognitive science, including what cognitive science is, what counts as representation, computation, and explanation in cognitive science, and what the limits of cognitive science are.
Mind–Body Problem
Authors: Gulick Robert Van , Clark Jason
Published: December 2005

The mind–body problem is the problem of explaining the relation between the mental and the physical, especially the question of whether the mind is something over and above the physical or just a special part of it.
Materialism
Authors: Lycan William G
Published: December 2005

According to the doctrine of materialism, the mind is no more than a complex arrangement of physical matter. This is maintained by most philosophers of mind and presupposed by cognitive science, but it is difficult to make precise and it faces some formidable objections.
Epiphenomenalism
Authors: Robinson William S
Published: December 2005

Epiphenomenalism is the view that mind does not affect behavior, or does not affect behavior in the ways it is commonly believed to affect it.
Anomalous Monism
Authors: Antony Louise M
Published: December 2005

According to the theory of anomalous monism, every individual mental event is identical with some physical event, but there are no strict laws relating physical kinds to mental kinds.
Mental Causation
Authors: Crane Tim
Published: December 2005

It is arguably an assumption of both common sense and scientific psychology that mental states and events cause events in the physical world. Yet this fact is problematic for both physicalist and dualist theories of the mind.
Behaviorism, Philosophical
Authors: Hocutt Max
Published: December 2005

Philosophical behaviorism, the belief that states and traits of mind are behavioral dispositions, was the dominant philosophy of mind for much of the twentieth century.
Simulation Theory
Authors: Cruz Joe , Gordon Robert M
Published: December 2005

The simulation theory is an account of our everyday ability to attribute mental states and predict and explain human behavior. It has been developed both as an empirical hypothesis in cognitive science and as an account of mental concepts in the philosophy of mind.
Narrow Content
Authors: Segal Gabriel
Published: December 2005

Narrow content is the cognitive content of a psychological state that is conceptually and metaphysically independent of relations between the subject of the state and factors in the external environment.
Possible Worlds Semantics
Authors: García‐Carpintero Manuel
Published: December 2005

Possible worlds semantics is a framework for semantics that takes as primitive the notion of possible world. This framework is used to explain how modal expressions creating intensional contexts work, and more generally to characterize propositional content.
Sense and Reference
Authors: Reimer Margaret
Published: December 2005

Many philosophers of language believe that sense and reference are two essential components of linguistic meaning. The reference of an expression is (roughly) that which the expression is used to talk about; the sense of an expression is (roughly) the criterion an entity must satisfy in order to be the reference of that expression. The intuitive, nontechnical notion coming closest to the notion of ‘sense’ is that of meaning.
Indexicals and Demonstratives
Authors: Ezcurdia Maite
Published: December 2005

Indexicals are expressions that vary in reference according to the context in which they are used. They are of two sorts: pure, and impure or demonstrative. Unlike pure indexicals, demonstratives require an extralinguistic element, like a demonstration or an intention of a certain sort, in order to refer.
Speech Acts
Authors: Harnish Robert M
Published: December 2005

Speech acts are acts performed in or by speaking (or more generally, in or by using language).
Meaning
Authors: Bach Kent
Published: December 2005

Sentences have meanings, and speakers mean things in using them. The meaning of a sentence is determined by the meanings of its constituents, together with its syntactic structure, but what a speaker means in using it is often not determined by what it means: the speaker may mean something more or something else.
Propositional Attitudes
Authors: Garfield Jay L
Published: December 2005

Propositional attitudes are psychological states such as belief, desire, hope, and fear that seem to take propositions as their intentional states. Propositional attitudes constitute a central concern for cognitive science, and questions about the attitudes focus on the relations among diverse branches of cognitive science.
Philosophy of Linguistics
Authors: Scholz Barbara C
Published: December 2005

The philosophy of linguistics addresses both general issues in the philosophy of science that occur in the scientific study of language, and philosophical issues that arise in linguistic theorizing. It shares many issues with the philosophies of language and of mind, but is distinct from them in that it focuses directly on questions about linguistic theories, the epistemology and metaphysics of linguistic science, and the psychology of language.
Vagueness
Authors: Varzi Achille C
Published: December 2005

Vagueness arises whenever a concept or word admits of borderline cases of application. It can be viewed as a feature of human thought and language (conceptual or linguistic vagueness) or as a characteristic of the world itself (ontic vagueness).
Intention
Authors: Pacherie Élisabeth
Published: December 2005

The concept of intention is used to characterize both actions and states of mind. To a first approximation, we classify actions as intentional if they are both purposeful and voluntary and we say that someone intends or has the intention to do something if he is settled on so acting.
Knowledge Argument, the
Authors: Vinueza Adam
Published: December 2005

The knowledge argument purports to show that there are nonphysical facts – facts that cannot be expressed in physical terms – because one can know all the physical facts without knowing facts about what it is like to have an experience.
Z
ombies
Authors: Güzeldere Güven
Published: December 2005

A zombie is a creature that is indistinguishable in behavior as well as in certain physical or physically specifiable respects from a human being, yet which lacks certain mental features that a human being possesses.
Consciousness and Representationalism
Authors: Hellie Benj
Published: December 2005

The representationalist theory of consciousness is the view that consciousness reduces to mental representation. This view comes in several variants which must explain introspective awareness of conscious mental states.
Self
Authors: Kihlstrom JF , Klein Stanley B
Published: December 2005

Viewed from the perspective of cognitive science, the self is a knowledge structure representing one's declarative knowledge of oneself. This knowledge, in turn, may be classified as semantic knowledge of one's physical, personal, and sociocultural characteristics, episodic knowledge of one's past actions and experiences (and, perhaps, prospective memory of one's future actions and experiences as well), and metaknowledge of one's repertoire of mental and behavioral skills.
Phenomenology
Authors: Smith David Woodruff
Published: December 2005

Phenomenology is the study of consciousness as experienced from the first‐person point of view. Focusing the philosophical theory of mind on intentionality, or mental representation, it lays a foundation for empirical studies of mind in cognitive science.
Introspection
Authors: Lyons William
Published: December 2005

Philosophers and psychologists have both appealed to introspection as a privileged and direct method of gaining knowledge about the mind and its activities. What exactly introspection is, and what role it might play in a scientific psychology, are subjects of major debate.
Artificial Intelligence, Philosophy of
Authors: Dietrich Eric
Published: December 2005

The philosophy of artificial intelligence examines the foundational assumptions, methodologies, and consequences of the field of artificial intelligence.
Consciousness, Machine
Authors: Gunderson Keith
Published: December 2005

The widespread use of computers and robots within research programs in cognitive psychology has stimulated interest in the possibility of machine consciousness. As a result, many unsettled issues in the philosophy of mind and theory of knowledge have been reformulated in terms of, and in turn raised questions about, machine‐oriented modeling.
T
uring Test
Authors: Cole David J
Published: December 2005

Alan Turing proposed a test for deciding whether a computer can think: if a computer could converse well enough to pass for human, it should be recognized as intelligent. This behavioral test is a natural extension to machines of one way we assess each other's intelligence; but it has been subjected to many criticisms, including the Chinese room argument, the frame problem, and claims that Gödel's results show that computers are limited in ways that human intelligence is not.
Chinese Room Argument, The
Authors: Searle John
Published: December 2005

The Chinese room argument is a refutation of ‘strong artificial intelligence’ (strong AI), the view that an appropriately programmed digital computer capable of passing the Turing test would thereby have mental states and a mind in the same sense in which human beings have mental states and a mind. Strong AI is distinguished from weak AI, which is the view that the computer is a useful tool in studying the mind, just as it is a useful tool in other disciplines ranging from molecular biology to weather prediction.
Dynamical Systems, Philosophical Issues about
Authors: Garson James
Published: December 2005

Dynamical systems theory provides an alternative to the dominant paradigm in cognitive science that claims human intelligence results from digital computation. The dynamical account of cognition avoids symbolic representation, and stresses the importance of modeling human interactions with the external environment through time.
Connectionism and Systematicity
Authors: Matthews Robert J
Published: December 2005

Connectionists claim that human cognitive computational architecture is connectionist. Proponents of classical computational architectures have challenged this claim, arguing that a pervasive feature of human cognition, its ‘systematicity’, cannot be explained in connectionist terms.
Representation, Philosophical Issues about
Authors: Lloyd Dan
Published: December 2005

Representation, the relation between a symbol, sign, or other vehicle and its content, has historically been analyzed through resemblance and causality; both accounts are flawed. The connectionist idea of distributed representation opens a window into the algebraic structure of representational vehicles, improving the prospects for a scientific theory of representation.
Implicit and Explicit Representation
Authors: Kirsh David
Published: December 2005

The degree to which information is encoded explicitly in a representation is related to the computational cost of recovering or using the information. Knowledge that is implicit in a system need not be represented at all, even implicitly, if the cost of recovering it is prohibitive.
Innateness, Philosophical Issues about
Authors: Cowie Fiona
Published: December 2005

Philosophical problems about innateness cover conceptual and empirical issues regarding the claim that concepts or beliefs are innate, inborn, or genetically determined.
Modularity
Authors: McClamrock Ron
Published: December 2005

Various cognitive and perceptual processes may be separated or isolated from one another. Those processes may be understood as relatively independent subsystems, or modules.
Perception, Direct
Authors: Noë Alva
Published: December 2005

The theory of direct perception holds that perception, in any sensory modality, is a form of noninferential awareness of the sorts of things we normally take ourselves to perceive. This view rejects the idea, common to many philosophical and scientific approaches to perception, that our only immediate contact is with sensations, impressions, or mere patterns of stimulation of the sensory receptors.
Rationality
Authors: Samuels Richard , Stich Stephen
Published: December 2005

Rationality is a normative notion used to evaluate beliefs, inferences, decisions, goals, actions, and people.
Embodiment
Authors: Chrisley Ronald , Ziemke Tom
Published: December 2005

An understanding of how cognition is realized or instantiated in a physical system, especially a body, may require or be required by an account of a system's embedding in its environment, its dynamical properties, its (especially phylogenetic) history and (especially biological) function, and its nonrepresentational or noncomputational properties.
Color Vision, Philosophical Issues about
Authors: Byrne Alex , Hilbert David R
Published: December 2005

The main philosophical issues about color concern whether objects have colors, and what sorts of properties colors are. Some philosophers hold that nothing is colored, others that colors are powers to affect perceivers, and others that colors are physical properties.
Wittgenstein,Ludwig
Authors: Leiber Justin
Published: December 2005

For his views on language, logic, and mind, Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889–1951) is perhaps the most studied, most influential, and most puzzling philosopher of the twentieth century.
J
ames,
W
illiam
Authors: Taylor E
Published: December 2005

William James (1842–1910) made significant contributions to the fields of psychology and philosophy. He is perhaps best known for his monumental work the
Principles of Psychology
(1890) which introduced several influential concepts, amongst the most notable being the ‘stream of consciousness’.
T
uring,
A
lan
Authors: Copeland B Jack
Published: December 2005

Alan Turing was a British mathematical logician who pioneered computer science, cognitive science, artificial intelligence, and artificial life.
Implicit Cognition
Authors: Reingold Eyal M , Ray Colleen A
Published: December 2005

‘Implicit cognition’ refers to unconscious influences reflecting perception, memory, and learning, without subjective phenomenal awareness.
Neural Correlates of Visual Consciousness
Authors: Heywood Charles A , Milner A David
Published: December 2005

The neural correlates of consciousness are those patterns of neural activity that are associated with subjective experience.
Emotion, Philosophical Issues about
Authors: Griffiths Paul E
Published: December 2005

Philosophers have discussed the nature of emotions with particular reference to whether emotions are feelings, whether they are, or involve, cognitive states such as beliefs, whether they are human universals, whether the category of emotion is a unitary one, and the relationship between emotion and rationality.
Perception, Unconscious
Authors: Snow Jacqueline C , Mattingley Jason B
Published: December 2005

Unconscious perception involves the processing of sensory information by the brain in the absence of subjective awareness. The physical properties of sensory stimuli, their meaning, and their emotional significance, may all be perceived unconsciously.
Unconscious Processes
Authors: Shevrin Howard
Published: December 2005

The existence and nature of unconscious processes have been subjects of philosophical and scientific controversy for centuries. Only recently have scientific methods been developed that may resolve the controversy.
Change Blindness
Authors: O'Regan J Kevin
Published: December 2005

Change blindness is a phenomenon in visual perception in which very large changes occurring in full view in a visual scene are not noticed.
Action, Philosophical Issues about
Authors: Mele Alfred R
Published: December 2005

The philosophy of action concerns theories about what actions are, how they are to be explained, and the mental events and states associated with intentional action.
Philosophy of Neuroscience
Authors: Gold Ian
Published: December 2005

The philosophy of neuroscience is concerned with the philosophical investigation of neuroscience as a science and is distinguished from neurophilosophy, which is concerned with the application of neuroscience to the philosophy of mind and epistemology.
Epistemology
Authors: Cruz Joseph
Published: December 2005

Epistemology is the philosophical study of what is required in order to have rational beliefs and knowledge. Both traditional a priori methods of philosophy and a posteriori methods of cognitive science have been brought to bear on this question.
Metaphysics
Authors: Gertler Brie
Published: December 2005

Metaphysics aims to determine the basic nature of entities, states, properties, and events. A metaphysics of cognition will specify the logical relationship between mental and physical entities, and will account for the representational power of brain states.
Ethics
Authors: Doris John M , Stich Stephen
Published: December 2005

Ethics is the philosophical study of standards of conduct and value. Such inquiry often encounters questions regarding human motivation, affect, and cognition that can be addressed by empirical and theoretical work in the cognitive sciences.
Thought Experiments
Authors: Gendler Tamar Szabó
Published: December 2005

Thought experiment: to perform a thought experiment is to reason about an imaginary scenario with the aim of confirming or disconfirming some hypothesis or theory.
Split Brains, Philosophical Issues about
Authors: Gillett Grant
Published: December 2005

A split brain is a brain in which the large bundle of fibres called the corpus callosum is divided. In such brains, information flows separately into the right and left hemispheres.
Descartes, René
Authors: Gaukroger Stephen
Published: December 2005

Descartes pursued two different approaches to the question of the nature of the mind: one via psychophysiology and one via a theory of the different properties of mind and matter, construed as different substances.
K
ant,
I
mmanuel
Authors: Brook Andrew
Published: December 2005

Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) has had an enormous influence on cognitive research: the dominant model of the mind in contemporary cognitive science is thoroughly Kantian. Nonetheless, some of his most distinctive ideas have played little role in it.
F
rege,
G
ottlob
Authors: Stanley Jason
Published: December 2005

Gottlob Frege (1848–1925) was a German mathematician and philosopher widely credited with discovering modern quantificational logic.
Consciousness, Function of
Authors: Polger Thomas W
Published: December 2005

To inquire about the function of consciousness is to ask what consciousness does, what it enables us to do that we might not be capable of otherwise, or why some creatures came to be conscious.
Qualia
Authors: Alter Torin
Published: December 2005

Qualia are the subjective aspects, the characteristic properties, of conscious experience. There is extensive philosophical debate about how qualia relate to the physical world, and in what terms they can be characterized.
Levels of Analysis, Philosophical Issues about
Authors: Houng Allen Y
Published: December 2005

The world, including cognitive systems, is organized into hierarchies of levels. Levels of analysis represent different stances from which predictive and explanatory theories are constructed.
Computation, Philosophical Issues about
Authors: Scheutz Matthias
Published: December 2005

‘Computation’ is a cluster concept and has been characterized in many different ways (e.g. ‘the execution of algorithms’). It underwrites philosophical analyses of what can be done in principle by a mechanism, and is intrinsically connected to the idea of manipulating symbols or representations by formal rules.
Mental Imagery, Philosophical Issues about
Authors: Thomas Nigel JT
Published: December 2005

Mental imagery, often informally described as ‘seeing in the mind's eye’, ‘visualization’, etc., is quasi‐perceptual experience: it significantly resembles perceptual experience, but occurs in the absence of the appropriate perceptual stimuli.
Agreement
Authors: den Dikken Marcel
Published: December 2005

Agreement in linguistics is a relationship of matching or systematic covariation of the features of constituents of a syntactic construct. All major syntactic categories and many minor categories can entertain agreement relationships of a variety of different kinds, typically involving subject–verb or modifier–head configurations.
Anaphora
Authors: Carlson Gregory
Published: December 2005

Anaphora refers to referentially dependent expressions in natural language which contribute their meaning by identifying another expression to give them their semantic value.
Binding Theory
Authors: Reuland Eric
Published: December 2005

Languages contain elements such as pronouns and anaphors or reflexives, which lack lexical/semantic content and may or must depend on another element for their interpretation. These dependencies cannot always be established freely, but are subject to structural conditions.
Cognitive Linguistics
Authors: Fauconnier Gilles
Published: December 2005

Cognitive linguistics is a theoretical and empirical programme that goes beyond the visible structure of language to investigate the complex background operations of cognition that create grammar, conceptualization, discourse, and thought itself.
Constraints on Movement
Authors: Webelhuth Gert
Published: December 2005

Within a sentence, constituents may appear in the local context of the items they stand in a grammatical relation with or they may move to other positions. Such movement phenomena are subject to a number of grammatical constraints.
Construction Grammar
Authors: Goldberg Adele E
Published: December 2005

Construction Grammar is a linguistic theory concerned with the nature of speakers' knowledge of language. Like traditional grammars, Construction Grammar takes the basic units of language to be form–meaning pairings, or
constructions
.
Ellipsis
Authors: May Robert C
Published: December 2005

A linguistic ellipsis, most generally expressed, is a truncated or partial linguistic form. It is a linguistic form in which constituents normally occurring in a sentence are superficially absent, licenced by structurally present prior antecedents.
Government–Binding Theory
Authors: Lasnik Howard
Published: December 2005

Government–Binding theory is an approach to the study of the syntax of human languages based on an abstract underlying representation and transformations successively altering that structure. The approach posits universal principles innately represented in the mind, and simple parameters, fixed by the language learner from simple evidence, determining how languages can differ.
Innateness and Universal Grammar
Authors: Crain Stephen , Pietroski Paul
Published: December 2005

In linguistics, the Innateness Hypothesis is the claim that all children have, by virtue of a common biology, a ‘Universal Grammar’ that defines a space of possible human languages. Children explore this space, influenced by the environment, until they stabilize on grammars that are equivalent to those of adult speakers in the linguistic community.
Local Dependencies and Word‐Order Variation
Authors: Müller Gereon
Published: December 2005

Certain syntactic displacement operations target clause‐internal positions. These movement types are typically clause‐bound, and they are responsible for word order variation within and across languages.
Lexical‐Functional Grammar
Authors: Dalrymple Mary
Published: December 2005

Lexical‐functional grammar is a linguistic theory that explores the nature of the various aspects of the structure of language and the relations between them.
Phrase Structure andX‐Bar Theory
Authors: Pullum Geoffrey K
Published: December 2005

The phrase structure of an expression is its structure in terms of the subexpressions of which it is composed and the categories to which they belong. X‐bar theory is a family of related theories of phrase structure.
Phrase Structure Grammar, Head‐Driven
Authors: Levine Robert D
Published: December 2005

Head‐driven phrase structure grammar is a monostratal theory of natural language grammar, based on richly specified lexical descriptions which combine according to a small set of abstract combinatory principles stated as formulae in a constraint logic regulating, for the most part, the satisfaction of valence and other properties of syntactic heads. These constraints, applying locally, determine the flow of information, encoded as feature specifications, through arbitrarily complex syntactic representations, and capture all syntactic dependencies – both local and non‐local – in elegant and compact form requiring no derivational apparatus.
Syntax
Authors: Phillips Colin
Published: December 2005

Syntactic theory aims to explain how people combine words to form sentences, and how children attain knowledge of sentence structure.
Typology
Authors: Croft William
Published: December 2005

Typology is an empirical, cross‐linguistic approach to the study of grammatical structures in the world's languages.
Conversation, Structure of
Authors: Clark Herbert H
Published: December 2005

Conversations emerge as people use dialogue to coordinate on joint activities they engage in. People proceed turn by turn as they reach local agreements on the course of each section and subsection, including the opening and closing of the conversation itself.
Semantics, Dynamic
Authors: Vogel Carl
Published: December 2005

Dynamic semantics is concerned with modeling the processes that change the information held by participants in a discourse or dialogue where those changes are brought about by the sentences contained in the discussion.
Pragmatics, Formal
Authors: Roberts Craige
Published: December 2005

Formal pragmatics is a subfield of linguistics, with a focus on the influence of context on interpretation. It has close ties to the study of formal semantics, as well as to philosophy of language and to language processing in the field of artificial intelligence.
Generalized Quantifiers
Authors: Hamm Fritz
Published: December 2005

Generalized quantifiers in logic are those quantifiers which go beyond the traditional first order quantifiers ∃, ∀. Quantifiers in natural language semantics are the denotations of determiners; generalized quantifiers are the denotations of noun phrases (NPs).
Implicature
Authors: Horn Laurence R
Published: December 2005

Implicature is a non‐truth‐conditional aspect of speaker meaning that represents (part of) what is meant in a speaker's utterance without being part of what is said. What the speaker intends to convey is almost always far richer than what he or she directly expresses, as linguistic meaning radically underdetermines the communicated message. The speaker tacitly exploits pragmatic principles to bridge this gap.
Lexical Semantics
Authors: Barker Chris
Published: December 2005

Word meaning mediates between conceptualization and language: simply put, words name concepts. Studying which concepts can have names – and how the fine‐grained structure of those concepts interacts with the linguistic structures that contain them – reveals something important about the nature of language and cognition.
Metaphor
Authors: McGlone Matthew S
Published: December 2005

Metaphor is a figure of speech in which a word or phrase is used to describe something it does not literally denote. How we are able to go ‘beyond the literal’ to understand metaphors is a central question in the study of language and thought.
Tense and Aspect
Authors: Smith Carlota S
Published: December 2005

Tense and aspect convey temporality in language. Tense relates situations to a reference time and the moment of speech. Aspectual information classifies events and states into situation types, and presents them from a perfective or imperfective viewpoint.
Optimality Theory
Authors: Archangeli Diana
Published: December 2005

Optimality theory proposes that universal grammar consists of a set of constraints, and that language‐ specific grammars consist of different rankings of these constraints.
Distinctive Feature Theory
Authors: Hume‐O'Haire Elizabeth , Winters Stephen
Published: December 2005

The term ‘distinctive features’ is used in phonology to refer to the minimal units of sound that serve to distinguish the meaning of one word from another within a language. Distinctive features generally correspond to a specific articulatory or acoustic property of sound.
Stress
Authors: van der Hulst Harry
Published: December 2005

Stress is a phonetic manifestation of accent, which marks the phonological head of the word.
Language Disorders
Authors: Grodzinsky Yosef
Published: December 2005

Language disorders (as distinct from communicative deficits) provide an important tool for research on brain–language relations.
Language Comprehension, Methodologies for Studying
Authors: Starr Matthew S , Rayner Keith
Published: December 2005

Language comprehension processes are those by which people extract meaning from texts, whether written or spoken. Researchers have developed a variety of experimental methodologies in order to study these processes.
Discourse Processing
Authors: Eugenio Barbara Di
Published: December 2005

The theory of discourse processing concerns the computational processes underlying the interpretation and production of text encompassing more than one sentence – i.e., discourse. Discourse is generally taken to be written, and often, but not always, monologic.
Lexical Access
Authors: Cutler Anne
Published: December 2005

Lexical access occurs in speaking when the pronounceable word forms are found which encode the concepts the speaker wishes to communicate; and it occurs in listening when the meaning is found which is expressed in the word forms the listener has heard.
Parsing
Authors: Pickering Martin J
Published: December 2005

Parsing refers to the way that people assign a syntactic (grammatical) analysis to a sentence as they hear or read it.
Disfluencies in Spoken Language
Authors: Tree Jean E Fox
Published: December 2005

Speech disfluencies are phenomena that cause a break in the smooth flow of talk, affecting speaking and understanding. Everyone who talks produces disfluencies. Several decades of research have provided a good understanding of the types of disfluencies people produce, and a beginning understanding of why disfluencies occur and how they impact addressees.
Prosody
Authors: Ferreira Fernanda
Published: December 2005

Every utterance is produced with variations in word duration, pitch, and stress. These features constitute the prosody of language and provide important information about meaning and structure.
Reading and Writing
Authors: Pollatsek Alexander , Miller Brett
Published: December 2005

Reading and writing are two important human activities in which language transmission is carried out through skilled visual processing and motor acts. Evidence suggests that reading, even for skilled readers, is essentially a word‐by‐word process, involving accessing the spoken language.
Speech Perception
Authors: Cleary Miranda , Pisoni David B
Published: December 2005

Speech perception is the process of recognizing the words and speech sounds of a spoken language. Specific acoustic cues in the speech signal contribute to the identification of phonemes, minimal linguistic contrasts that distinguish different words from each other.
Sentence Comprehension, Linguistic Complexity in
Authors: Gibson Edward
Published: December 2005

The process of comprehending a sentence involves the moment‐by‐moment evaluation of a variety of informational and computational constraints. The combination of these constraints makes a sentence easy or difficult to process.