bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A model analysis of the effects of wobbling mass on whole‐body vibration
Authors: Yue Z , Kleinöder H , Mester Joachim
Published: December 2005

The effects of wobbling mass on the whole‐body vibration are studied in terms of the comparison between two models A and B regarding their detailed behavior during the ‘whole‐body vibration,’ where Model A is a system of four degrees of freedom with rigid and wobbling masses in both lower body and upper body, while Model B is a system of three degrees of freedom with a rigid upper body and is otherwise identical to Model A. Various quantities are calculated for both models. It is found that for the frequency range where the foot‐to‐upper‐body transmission is important, the wobbling mass is able to reduce the transmissibility, to reduce the amplitude of the oscillation of the center of mass of the body, and therefore to reduce the amplitude of the fluctuation of the external force from the source of vibration. The model analysis reveals the mechanism for these reductions as follows: The oscillation of the wobbling mass in the upper body is carried by the oscillation of the rigid mass of the upper body and therefore the phase of the wobbling mass lags behind the phase of the rigid mass. For this reason, the average power which the wobbling mass in the upper body gives to the rigid mass of the upper body is negative.
Messages from the future: Significance of sport and exercise in the third millennium
Authors: Renson Roland
Published: December 2005

Some predictions are made on the future developments of exercise and sport in the third millennium by examining certain trends and signals of the last centuries of the second millennium. Six standpoints are put forward: (a) The human body is designed for movement; we are ‘homobiles.’ Virtual reality cannot replace corporeality. (b) Sport was a product of modernity. The postmodern era will have to replace the worn out sporting value of progress at all costs. (c) Professional elite sport will survive as a new form of neo‐gladiatorism, an independent branch of show biz. (d) The monopoly of the western sports model will be replaced by a postmodern mélange of new movement (sub)cultures. This new movement culture will be characterised by hybridization. (e) Physical education will end its dangerous liaison with sport pedagogy and will go back to its roots. Its core business will be movement enculturation, both in theory and practice. (f) As sport will no longer be the appropriate denomination of the new movement culture, some of the paradigmatic myths linked with sport will have to be critically revised. A better concept and term must be found than sport science for the biocultural science of human movement and humans in movement.
Caffeine in doping control: Determination of 13 C in urinary excreted caffeine
Authors: Flenker Ulrich , Schänzer Wilhelm
Published: December 2005

The ratio of the 2 stable carbon isotopes 13C and 12C reveals synthetic or natural origin of caffeine. 13C was measured in caffeine isolated from several beverages, several pharmaceutical preparations, and in caffeine obtained from urine samples collected during routine doping controls. Caffeine in soft drinks, “energy drinks,” and pharmaceutical products showed 13C depletion typical for synthetic material. Urinary caffeine mostly showed values typical for tea or coffee products. One urine sample testing positive for caffeine showed evidence for synthetic material. This sample contained 25 μg/ml caffeine, whereas a threshold level of 12 μg/ml has been established by sports federations.
The nature and nurture of human performance
Authors: Klissouras Vassilis
Published: December 2005

The focus of this review is on the role of genes in human phenotypic variation. Early twin studies amply demonstrated that the variation observed in several physiological responses to maximal muscular effort is largely genotype‐dependent, while in VO2max variation is almost entirely due to the variety of genotypes that exist in individuals. More recent studies have applied the path genetic analysis to twin and nuclear family data, and found genetic influence to be mainly additive and environmental influence to be non‐shared, with no evidence for a major impact of genetic dominance of shared environment. Taken together, twin studies converge on the conclusion that not only are genetic influences significant, they are also substantial, accounting for the greatest part of individual differences in most phenotypes related to human performance. However, genetic dependence does not exclude environmental influences. A highly heritable phenotype does not mean that it is predetermined, but training can exert its profound effect only within the fixed limits of heredity. Though genes and training may set the physiologic limit, it is behavioral and other factors that determine the ultimate frontiers of human performance. (Note: This article is based on an invited lecture presented at the Vth Annual Congress of the European College of Sport Science, Jyvaskyla, July 19–23, 2000, and supported by the Hellenic Ministry of Research and Technology and by the Special Account for Research Grants of the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens.)
Exercise and youth: Physical activity,sport involvement, and development
Authors: Wigger Ulrike
Published: December 2005

This article summarizes Plenary Session I, “Exercise and Youth,” at the 6th Annual Congress of the European College of Sport Science (Cologne, 24–28 July 2001). The session provided a broad overview of current knowledge and progress in the field. Using the results of cross‐sectional studies, Dietrich Kurz of Germany demonstrated associations between sport activity and personal attributes of psychosocial and physical health. Using the results of a longitudinal study, Wolf‐Dietrich Brettschneider found that German sport clubs in and of themselves do not have significant effects on the development of psychosocial health in young people. In a Dutch longitudinal study, Willem van Mechelen found moderate tracking of biological cardiovascular risk factors and of physical fitness from adolescence into adulthood, as well as relationships between adolescent physical activity and both adult bone health and maximal aerobic power. Reporting on findings from U.S.‐American school intervention program, Tom McKenzie demonstrated the importance of social contexts, physical opportunities for sport, mental motivation for healthy lifestyles, trainer and teacher development with continuous education, and innovative, cooperative arrangements between schools and community‐based agencies.
The importance of sport and physical exercise in the prevention and therapy of osteoporosis
Authors: Platen Petra
Published: December 2005

Osteoporosis is a systemic skeletal disorder involving low bone mass and micro‐architectural deterioration of the bone tissue. Effective prevention of osteoporosis can primarily be expected from optimized nutrition and from increasing general physical exercise: “Food and exercise—equal attention to both is wise.” This article reviews the effects of sport and physical activity in the prevention and therapy of osteoporosis. The main aspects and conclusion are the following: (a) not duration, but rather frequency of exercise, combined with its intensity, seems to determine the level of the bone‐anabolic effect; (b) training stimuli should become effective at those skeletal sites where an increase in bone mass is desired; (c) considerable evidence supports the importance of activity, especially activity initiated before puberty, for the development of peak bone mass; (d) even raised physical activity in daily life without any specific training of a certain body region may have a positive effect on total skeletal mass; (e) both general and specific strength are of great importance to bone mass to individual skeletal sections and to the entire skeleton; (f) non‐specific variable strain with accordingly high peak strengths and various forces acting on the skeletal system are of enormous bone‐stimulating importance; (g) in older adults, high‐intensity resistance training, in contrast to traditional pharmacological and nutritional approaches for improving bone health, has the added benefit of influencing multiple risk factors for osteoporosis including improved strength and balance and increased muscle mass; (h) training adjustments of the bone in the sense of overcompensation can only be achieved if the “endocrine environment” and/or food‐dependent parameters are not changed pathologically, and training is carried out according to individual load tolerance under scientific training aspects; (i) in the periand postmenopausal period, an actual increase in bone mass might be achieved by the combination of exercise and hormone replacement therapy; (j) physical activity may be a particularly promising preventive measure for hip fractures.
Introduction to the special issue on motivational climate in sport and physical education
Authors: Weigand Daniel
Published: December 2005

This issue of the European Journal of Sport Science is dedicated to six investigations of motivational climate in sport and physical education. The combined results of these articles underscore the facilitative value of significant others in developing achievement motivation among sport and physical education participants. Moreover, the research supports the argument that task‐involved climates ‐ where effort, learning, and self‐referential goal achievement are promoted ‐ produce more adaptive motivational climates than do ego‐involved climates, where winning and social comparisons of ability are advocated.
Motivational climate in sport and physical education: The role of significant others
Authors: Weigand Daniel , Carr Sam , Petherick Caroline , Taylor Adrian
Published: December 2005

The purpose of this paper is to review research that has considered the interaction of dispositional (goal orientations) and situational (motivational climates) factors of achievement motivation. The paper begins with a review of achievement goal and motivational climate theories. Next, research is highlighted that focuses on the relative influence of significant others such as parents, coaches, teachers, sport heroes, and sport scientists on the development of achievement motivation in sport and physical education.
Culture and achievement motivation in sport: A qualitative comparative study between Maghrebian and European French adolescents
Authors: Fontayne Paul , Sarrazin Philippe , Famose Jean‐pierre
Published: December 2005

Within the framework of achievement motivation, the authors assessed gender and ethnic differences for preferential choices of social situations of achievement (e.g., academic, sport, art) and motivational goals pursued. A contents analysis of the essays of 202 pupils (boys and girls of Maghrebian and European origin) from a suburb of Paris was used. The subjects of Maghrebian origin tended to choose the school for social situations of achievement, while those of European origin appreciated the possibility for sport and art. Gender differences were more specifically pronounced for the Maghrebian girls. Concerning motivational goals, boys showed a less‐marked orientation towards mastery goals than girls, whatever the social situation of achievement. Finally, the data analysis revealed that the nature of the social domain of achievement influences whether adolescents become intrinsically or extrinsically motivated.
The effect of coach's task‐ and ego‐involving climate on the changes in perceived competence, relatedness, and autonomy among girl handballers
Authors: Sarrazin Philippe , Guillet Emma , Cury François
Published: December 2005

Adolescents, especially females, have been identified as a group at risk of poor health due to their declining level of physical activity. To prevent sporting attrition, several researchers highlighted the importance of the fit between the motivational context provided by the coach and the socio‐emotional needs brought by adolescents. This study concerns the role of the coach's task‐ and ego‐involving climate on the changes in 3 fundamental perceptions underlined by the self‐determination theory (8): perceived competence, autonomy, and relatedness. Contrary to the cross‐sectional nature of the former studies, this one used longitudinal survey data from 236 French girl handballers. The 3 perceptions were measured by a questionnaire at the beginning and the end of one season. In the middle of the season, perceptions of coaches' motivational climate were also evaluated. Results showed that at the end of the season, feelings of competence, autonomy, and relatedness were both positively predicted by a task‐involving climate and negatively predicted by an ego‐involving climate, even after controlling for the level of each variable at the beginning of the season.
Influence of the motivational climate in physical education on the intention to practice physical activity or sport
Authors: Escartí Amparo , Gutiérrez Melchor
Published: December 2005

This study is based on the achievement goal theory and intended to verify the effects of the motivational climate of the physical education (PE) on students' motivation, interest, and intention to practice physical activity or sport. In order to meet these objectives, 975 participants, from 13 to 18 years of age, completed the following instruments: PECCS, TEOSQ, IMI, Satisfaction Scale, and the Intention to Practice Physical Activity or Sport. The data were analyzed by means of Structural Equation Modeling (SEM). The results confirmed that the mastery dimension of motivational climate has an influence, directly or indirectly, on task orientation, the three dimensions of intrinsic motivation—interest, perceived competence, and satisfaction—and the intention to practice physical activity or sport, in contrast to ego orientation. On the other hand, the comparison dimension of the motivational climate demonstrated specific effects on each of the variables analyzed, increasing the tension‐pressure and negatively affecting the enjoyment and interest of the students. Therefore, in PE, a motivational climate oriented more toward mastery, rather than a competitive climate, should be promoted.
The influence of the physical education teacher on intrinsic motivation, self‐confidence, anxiety, and pre‐ and post‐competition mood states
Authors: Cecchini José , González Carmen , Carmona Ángel , Arruza Josean , Escartí Amparo , Balagué Gloria
Published: December 2005

One of the fundamental problems facing teachers of physical education (PE) is how to increase pupils' motivation. From the point of view of goal achievement, guidelines need to be established so that information may be used to greater effect in classes. This study examined the relationship between the motivational climate created by the PE teacher and the intrinsic motivation of the preparatory sessions together with self‐confidence and anxiety prior to competition and pre‐ and post‐competition mood states. The sample was made up of school children (M age = 11.7) from a state school (N = 115), who, after an introduction to an athletics course of 12 sessions, took part in a sports competition. During this time, a teacher (trained to this effect) manipulated the motivational climate, adapting the strategies of TARGET (11, 12, 26, 28). The mastery climate was linked to enjoyment, perceived ability, and effort in the PE classes, as well as to pre‐competition somatic anxiety and post‐competition vigor. On the other hand, the performance climate was associated with self‐confidence, pre‐competition vigor, and post‐competition stress. The results are discussed in relation to achievement goal theory and motivational climate manipulation.
The mediating role of self‐determination in the relationship between goal orientations and physical self‐worth in greek exercisers
Authors: Georgiadis Manolis , Biddle Stuart , Chatzisarantis Nikos
Published: December 2005

This paper examines correlates of physical self‐worth (PSW) in exercisers through employing two theoretical constructs popular in motivational psychology. Selfdetermination theory (SDT) and achievement goal orientation theory were adopted, and a cross‐sectional survey was employed. Greek exercisers (N = 350, mean age = 30.8 years), participating in 1 of 4 different exercise activities were studied. Theoretical predictions established a model that was tested through path analysis. The selfdetermination continuum was hypothesized to mediate the relation between goal orientations and PSW. Task orientation predicted PSW through intrinsic motivation and identified regulation and, to a lesser extent, through introjected regulation. Ego orientation was related mainly to extrinsic regulation, and it predicted PSW only through the internally regulated variables of intrinsic and identified regulation. The model was found to fit the data well. Results showed that 17.2% of PSW was explained by the 2 motivational constructs.
The effect of pre‐shot routines on golf wedge shot performance
Authors: McCann Paul , Lavallee David , Lavallee Ruth
Published: December 2005

The objective of this study was to examine the effect of pre‐performance routines among golfers of low skill and non‐golfers on wedge golf shot performance. The intervention strategies involved a physical skill and cognitive‐behavioral routine program, as well as a physical skills‐only program. Performance was measured on a pre‐intervention test, postintervention test, and following a period of time without treatment, and involved wedge shots being played from distances of 40, 50, and 60 m from a target. Participants in this study (N = 68) were assigned to either a golfer or non‐golfer group. Participants in the treatment groups attended 2 practice sessions per week during the acquisition phase. A variable practice design was incorporated during the intervention phase. Non‐golfers in both intervention groups improved performance following the acquisition phase and maintained these levels of performance in the retention test. Greater improvements in performance were found in the non‐golfer physical skills and cognitive‐behavioral routine group. The non‐golfer physical skills and cognitive‐behavioral routine group was the only group to realize significant improvements in performance when comparing initial test performance measures to post‐intervention and retention test performance measures across all test distances. Although the golfer treatment groups had consistent improvement in performance measures following the intervention phase, these improvements did not reach statistical significance in the majority of cases.
Correlations of the renin‐angiotensin‐system (RAS) gene polymorphisms with cardiac growth factors endothelin‐1 and angiotensin II in high performance athletes
Authors: Graf Christine , Diet Frank , Palma‐hohmann Isabel , Mahnke Nicole , Böhm Michael , Rost Richard , Predel Hans‐georg
Published: December 2005

Background: The regulation of myocardial mass in athletes involves complex interactions between physical stress, cardiac growth factors (GF), and the individual genetic background. Studies suggest the renin‐angiotensin‐system (RAS) plays a key role in the development of myocardial hypertrophy. Genetic polymorphisms of the RAS, associated with an activation, have been shown to correlate with left ventricular mass (LVM) in athletes. It is not clear whether these polymorphisms influence angiotensin (A) II levels directly or only markers coprecipitating with other factors modifying LVM. Endothelin (ET)‐1 acts synergistically to AII in the induction of cardiac hypertrophy. The role of these GF in an athlete's heart is not yet clarified. Objectives: To analyze the correlation of RAS‐gene polymorphisms with AII and ET‐1 plasma concentrations in high performance athletes. Methods: In 83 male Caucasian, mainly endurance trained, elite athletes, intensity and duration of exercise were assessed by questionnaires; LVM was determined by 2‐dimensional echocardiography. Plasma concentrations of AII and ET‐1 were determined by radioimmunoassay. Results: LV/VMi significantly above reported average levels in sedentary persons was observed. AII plasma restingconcentrations correlated with the ACE gene polymorphism (p =. 039), finding the highest levels in DD‐athletes. There were no further correlations between the AII levels and the angiotensinogen gene polymorphisms, and the combined polymorphisms (p =.585, p =. 162). ET‐1 plasma levels did not correlate with any of the investigated parameters. No GF correlates with LV/VMi. Conclusions: The highest AII plasma resting concentrations were found in athletes homozygous to DD. This finding suggests a functional effect of the ACE I/D genotypes, possibly influencing cardiac growth in high performance athletes. The absence of a correlation with ET‐1 plasma levels does not rule out its influence; local cardiac effects remain elusive. Further longitudinal studies under controlled exercise conditions are necessary.
When anxiety is not always a handicap in physical education and sport: Some implications of the defensive pessimism strategy
Authors: Pérès Céline , Cury François , Famose Jean‐pierre , Sarrazin Philippe
Published: December 2005

In this article we present a defensive strategy that individuals may use to cope with sporting events in that they present the possibility of failure and potential threat to self‐esteem. Previous research has indicated that failures in sport and educational contexts are related to high anxiety and low self‐estimates of ability. The defensive pessimism strategy lead anxious people to perform well in a risky situation by managing their anxiety as motivation. Defensive pessimists may use low expectations to cope with their anxiety so that it does not become debilitating. Decreasing strategic expectations may help individuals negotiate sporting events by intensifying reflectivity about possible negative outcomes, and increasing effort to reinforce the task focus. But defensive pessimists possess a cognitive flexibility that leads them to use their preferred strategy in risky situations and to select in their repertoire another strategy when failure is unlikely. These data showed that the effects of high anxiety and low expectations on performance may be mediated by the strategy use. That is why the users of defensive pessimism perform as well as strategic optimists, who report lower anxiety and higher expectations of success.
Technology in sport: Three ideal‐typical views and their implications
Authors: Loland Sigmund
Published: December 2005

This paper examines various kinds of sport technology from the perspective of three normative theories of competitive sport. Sport technology represents a certain type of means to realize human interests and goals in sport. Such technology ranges from body techniques, via traditional sport equipment used by athletes within competition, to performance‐enhancing machines, substances, and methods used outside of the competitive setting. Any critical and systematic discussion of sport technology in competitive sport should relate to some kind of interpretation of the main constituent of these practices: athletic performance. The paper discusses three ideal‐typical theories in this respect. The first possibility presented is the so‐called non‐theory. As the term indicates, the non‐theory is no real theory of performance. Rather, it is a theory of how sport can serve as a means towards external goals such as prestige and profit. In technological terms, the non‐theory is relativistic; it accepts any kind of sport technology as long as it serves as a means to reach external goals. The second theory of performance is the thin theory. The thin theory builds on a particular sport ideal: CITIUS, ALTIUS, FORTIUS. Sport is considered an arena for the testing out of the performance potential of the human body. To end up with valid and reliable tests, performance measurements have to be accurate, and the thin theory requires equal opportunity in competitions. The implication for technology is increased demand on standardization. However, the thin theory implies no regulation outside of competition. An acceptable technology is simply a performance‐enhancing technology. A third, thick theory of performance does not just require equality of opportunity; its basic premise is that sport should be an arena for moral values and for human self‐development and flourishing. Technology that requires athletic efforts and skills, to which there is equal access, and that does not represent unnecessary risk for harm, is considered not merely as acceptable but as constitutive to the value in sport. Expert‐administrated technology that enhances performance without athletic effort or which exposes athletes to the risk of harm is problematic and should be avoided. In a final, critical comparison, it is argued that the thick theory represents the only possibility towards a sound ethics of technology in sport.
Modeling and prediction of competitive performance in swimming upon neural networks
Authors: Edelmann‐nusser Jürgen , Hohmann Andreas , Henneberg Bernd
Published: December 2005

The purpose of the paper is to demonstrate that the performance of an elite female swimmer in the finals of the 200‐m backstroke at the Olympic Games 2000 in Sydney can be predicted by means of the nonlinear mathematical method of artificial neural networks (Multi‐Layer Perceptrons). The data con‐sisted of the performance output of 19 competitions (200‐m backstroke) prior to the Olympics and the training input data of the last 4 weeks prior to each competition. Multi‐Layer Perceptrons with 10 input neurons, 2 hidden neuron, and 1 output neuron were used. Since the data of 19 competitions are insuffi‐cient to train such networks, the training input and competition data of another athlete were used in the training processes of the neural networks to pre‐train the neural networks. The neural models were validated by the “leave‐one‐out”; method, then the neural models were used to predict the Olympic competitive performance. The results show that the modeling was very precise; the error of the prediction was only 0.05 s, with a total swim time of 2:12.64 min:s.
Contribution of vitamin D receptor genotypes to bone mineral density in young male athletes with different impact loading
Authors: Nakamura Orie , Ishii Tomoo , Mankyu Hirotoshi , Tsubakimoto Shozo , Nomura Takeo , Tokuyama Kumpei
Published: December 2005

Bone adaptation to exercise relies on exposures to impact loading in sports, but the ability of skeletal change seems to be highly variable among individuals. The present study was designed to investigate the association between a poly‐morphism in the vitamin D receptor (VDR) gene at the translation initiation site and impact loading on bone mineral density (BMD). Analysis of the VDR genotypes detected by endonuclease FokI (FF, Ff, and ff) and measurement of total body BMD (TBMD) were performed in 212 young males; 84 athletes were involved in weight‐bearing sports, 48 in competitive swimming, and 80 non‐athletic controls. The differences in TBMD between athletes and controls de‐pended on the VDR genotypes; enhanced BMD in weight‐bearing athletes was found in FF (7.7%, p
Using ratings of perceived exertionto reproduce blood lactate levels duringa continuous exercise bout of varying intensities
Authors: Misic Mark , Plowman Sharon , Wiese Christine
Published: December 2005

The purpose of this study was to investigate whether blood lactate concentra‐tion (BLC) could be reproduced, corresponding to previously measured BLC, by using Borg's rate of perceived exertion (RPE) scale to determine exercise intensity at 3 different levels during a single 30‐min exercise bout. Twelve participants (4 M, 8 F; age: 26.5 ± 3.7 years; height: 168.9 ± 8.3 cm; weight: 68.2 ± 14.1 kg) completed an RPE estimation trial (a 3‐min stage incremental treadmill protocol to volitional fatigue, where RPE was noted at each stage); practiced running at the workloads corresponding to their RPE of 11, 14, and 16; and, within 2 weeks after the practice run, completed a continuous, self‐selected intensity run for 10‐min at each RPE target value (the production run). Paired t tests indicated that there were no significant difference (p >. 05) in BLC between the estimation and production trials at RPE of 11, 14, and 16 (estima‐tion trial 2.71 ± 0.83, 4.15 ± 1.78, 5.83 ± 2.09 mM, production trial 2.99 ± 1.18, 4.32 ± 2.09, 5.62 ± 1.90 mM), indicating as a group that subjects were able to successfully reproduce target BLC. There was, however, considerable intra‐and inter‐subject variability that warrants additional investigation before these results can be used to support RPE as a production tool for target BLC.
Public assistance in spectator sport: A comparison between Europe and the United States
Authors: Durand Christophe , Bayle Emmanuel
Published: December 2005

As regards its legality and legitimacy, direct but also indirect public financing for professional sport is currently subject to hostile scrutiny. This observation applies both to the American and (as yet nascent) European models of profes‐sional sports management. Our empirical study shows that public financing occupies a non‐negligible place in both models. The difficulty of defining the status of professional sports (a social activity or one that is purely economic?) explains the current uncertainty as regards the legitimacy and legality of public financing for spectator sport enterprises. If in the United States judges justify attributing public funds to spectator sports enterprises on the grounds that it is good for the local economy, the recent recognition in Europe of the legitimacy of subsidizing projects specifically identified as of public interest is testimony of the realization on the part of the European Commission of the specificity of this sector. This article invites its readers, beyond this, to reflect upon what would permit the founding of a true European model of professional team sports management preserving thereby the organization, the coherence, and the final‐ity of European sport.
Anaerobic power characteristics of elite athletes in national level team‐sport games
Authors: Kalinski Michael , Norkowski Henrick , Kerner Matthew , Tkaczuk Wlodzimierz
Published: December 2005

Purpose: The purpose of the study was to acquire current anthropometric and physiological profiling of elite athletes and to examine differences in the characteristics. Methods: Three hundred and sixteen male, team‐sport athletes were evaluated for anaerobic performance using the Wingate anaerobic test. Results: MANOVA procedures indicated significant differences in height among players of the sports. Pearson correlations indicated strong correlations for body mass with absolute peak power (Pp) and mean power (Pm), and relative Pm. Height correlated strongly with absolute Pp and Pm, with a low correlation with relative Pp. MANOVA procedures indicated that athletes who specialized in handball, volleyball, and basketball attained the greatest relative and absolute Pp, and the greatest relative Pm. Relative and absolute Pp of the soccer athletes were lowest of all other elite athletes. Conclusion: This study introduces normative values for elite male athletes, empowering coaches in the evaluation of anaerobic abilities and in the objective selection of athletes for competition
Long‐Term training induces specific adaptations on the physique of rhythmic sports and female artistic gymnasts
Authors: Douda Helen , Laparidis Konstantinos , Tokmakidis Savvas
Published: December 2005

The purpose of the present study was to observe the specific adaptations, induced by long‐term training, on the physique of rhythmic sports (RSG) and artistic gymnasts (GYM). Two hundred females (N = 200) aged 8–17 years (RSG: n = 60; GYM: n = 60; CONTROL: n = 80) participated in the study. Measurements of height, body mass, sitting height, armspan, skinfold thickness, circumferences, and diameters were obtained. The MANOVA and the Scheffe post hoc test indicated that GYM athletes were shorter in height (p <. 01), lower in body mass (p <. 01), had lower values in fat content (p <. 001), had narrow bi‐iliac breadth (p <. 001), but presented higher values in the upper limb circumferences (p <. 01) as compared to the females of the control and the RSG groups. On the other hand, RSG athletes had leaner upper limbs than nonathletes (p <. 01), presented broad shoulders (p <. 05), and had a prevalence in the lower limbs against the trunk (p <. 05). Significant differences were also observed in circumferences between the right and left legs (p <. 05) in RSG elite athletes. Apart from the differences between athletes and non‐athletes, these observations suggest that long‐term training affects the muscle mass of the upper limbs in GYM gymnasts, due to the dynamic structure of supporting exercises. In addition, the significant differences between left and right legs (thigh and calf circumferences), only in RSG elite gymnasts, point out the unilateral adaptations for the thigh of the raised prevalent working leg and for the calf of the supported leg due to one‐sided specific training demands.
Physical activity counseling: Assessment of physical activity by questionnaire
Authors: Frey Ingrid , Berg Aloys
Published: December 2005

Regular physical activity is regarded as an important component of a healthy lifestyle. Nevertheless, most adults remain essentially sedentary. Counseling by healthcare providers has the potential to increase physical activity in sedentary individuals. For effective counseling, healthcare professionals will need information on current recommendations on physical activity, and on the client's current level of physical activity and motivational readiness for change. A standardized questionnaire can be a helpful tool to assess physical activity levels. Administered by interview, the questionnaire will facilitate documentation and analysis of the client's physical activity patterns and will also provide information on the individual stage of motivational readiness for change. According to information derived from the questionnaire, appropriate interventions can be selected.
Factors triggering upper airway infections in athletes
Authors: König Daniel , Northoff Hinnak , Berg Aloys
Published: December 2005

Clinical and epidemiological data suggest that strenuous exercise increases the incidence of upper respiratory tract infections (URTI) in athletes. However, little is known if the risk for URT infections is associated with the type of sports performed (e.g., endurance vs. strength exercise, or mixed sports) or whether accompanying lifestyle factors such as dietary behavior, daily stress, and the intake of nutritional supplements or immunostimulants influence the incidence of URT infections. In order to increase our knowledge on such questions, 852 athletes who attended our outpatient department for sports medicine filled out a retrospective questionnaire (1‐year self‐recalled) dealing with the following questions: number of URTI episodes in the last 12 months; number of training days lost due to URTI; type of exercise (endurance/power/mixed type/swimming); training extent; special procedures for regeneration (e.g., physiotherapy); lifestyle and daily stress; dietary behavior; intake of nutritional supplements; and use of immunostimulants. Of the respondents, 72.1% reported one or more URTI episodes in the last 12 months. In a multiple‐regression model, the following variables were positive predictors of an URTI episode: endurance sports [odds ratio, 2.15; CI (95%), 1.51–3.06; p <. 000], daily stress [odds ratio, 1.97; CI (95%), 1.26–3.08; p <. 01], sleep deprivation [odds ratio, 1.69; CI (95%), 1.14–2.5; p <. 01], female gender (odds ratio, 1.5; CI [95%] 1.05–2.13; p <. 05),training extent in hour per week [odds ratio, 1.05; CI (95%), 1.02–1.08; p <. 01), and diet control [odds ratio, 0.6; CI (95%), 0.37–0.82; p <. 01]. The positive predictive value of this model for URTI episodes was 76%. Subgroup analysis revealed that in athletes exhibiting the highest rate of infections, use of immunostimulants reduced the number of training days lost (2 days) due to infections. In conclusion, both sports‐specific items as well as lifestyle variables contribute substantially in explaining the risk for athletes to develop respiratory infections. These findings should be considered in sports‐specific training regimes, particularly in athletes prone to URT infections.
Measurement of achievement orientations: Psychometric measures, gender, and sport differences
Authors: Hanrahan Stephanie , Biddle Stuart
Published: December 2005

Four scales that have been used to measure achievement orientations were administered to 399 Australian adult competitive athletes. The Competitive Orientation Inventory (COI), the Sport Orientation Questionnaire (SOQ), the Perception of Success Questionnaire (POSQ), and the Task and Ego Orienta‐tion in Sport Questionnaire (TEOSQ) were completed in counterbalanced or‐der. Results showed that the COI is unrelated to the other three measures. Confirmatory factor analyses demonstrated that only the TEOSQ data adequately fit its hypothesized model. Gender differences were found but with no consis‐tent pattern with prior research. Track and field athletes were found to have significantly higher task orientations than the competitors from other sports. The findings indicate that the TEOSQ is the better instrument for measuring achievement orientations. In addition, future research should investigate the impact of the structure of sports on the development of achievement orientations.
Causative and protective effects of sport injury trait anxiety on injuries in German University sport
Authors: Kleinert Jens
Published: December 2005

In the present prospective study, we examine relationships between sport injury anxiety, injury history, and the occurrence of injuries. Using the Sport Injury Trait Anxiety Scale (SITAS), 114 male and 92 female sport students were questioned on their concern for sustaining an injury. Furthermore, injury history was assessed using a retrospective‐oriented questionnaire concerning foregoing 1‐year and 5‐year periods of sport activity. After 4 months, subjects were asked about the occurrence of injuries regarding these past 4 months. In respect to injury incidence, we found causative and protective main effects of sport injury trait anxiety. While high injury‐anxious subjects are more likely to sustain a less severe injury (16.3%) than low injury‐anxious subjects (7.6%), this relationship is inverse concerning severe injuries. Subjects with high sport injury anxiety are at lower risk of a severe injury (9.7%) than those with low SITAS scores (22%). To find out interactional effects of injury anxiety and injury history, 4 subgroups were built using a cluster analysis. We found groups with high or low injury trait anxiety and high or low injury experiences, respectively. The group with high injury experiences and simultaneously low injury anxiety shows significantly more severe injuries (28%) than the other groups. Furthermore, the group with high injury experiences and simultaneously high injury anxiety sustains less severe injuries significantly more frequently (22%) than the other groups. These results are discussed as a function of an inadequate perception and an unrealistic estimation of their own physical and technical competencies and situational possibilities, especially in the case of high injury history.
The effect of rest periods on energy system contribution during interval swimming
Authors: Shimoyama Yoshimitsu , Tomikawa Masamitsu , Nomura Takeo
Published: December 2005

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of rest periods on energy system contribution during interval swimming and whether the energy system contribution varied depending on the swimmer's specialty, such as swimmers who specialize in the 100 m or 200 m. Seven highly‐trained male varsity swimmers performed three different tests: a 10‐min continuous test (CON), 10 × 1‐min interval test with rest periods of 20 s (INT20) and 10 × 1‐min interval test with rest periods of 30 s (INT30). Swimming velocity during all tests was set to maintain a blood lactate of 4 mM determined by progressive swimming. The relative aerobic and anaerobic energy system contribution was evaluated from accumulated oxygen uptake and oxygen deficit. Aerobic energy system contribution in CON, INT20, and INT30 was 93.3 ±1.1, 81.0 ±10.4, and 67.4 ±8.5%, and anaerobic contribution was 6.7 ±1.1, 19.0 ±10.4, and 32.6 ±8.5%, respectively. There were significant differences (p
The serotonergic system: Implications for overtraining and exercise‐induced eating disorders
Authors: Strüder Heiko
Published: December 2005

Serotonin (5‐HT) regulates the most extensive modulatory behavioral system in the brain of vertebrates. 5‐HT projections are influenced by extrinsic and intrinsic impulses from different cortical brain areas, which reach Raphe nuclei over feedback loops, containing external and internal body information about planning, evaluation, motivation, or excitation. Serotonergic neurotransmission adjusts neuromodulation with consecutive adequate stimulation of the neuronal network. This depends on appropriate equilibration of presynaptic 5‐HT storage and release but also on 5‐HT reuptake from synaptic cleft by 5‐HT transporters. The associated pre‐ and postsynaptic 5‐HT receptor cooperation, postsynaptic second messenger response, and phosphoinositide signaling mediated by postsynaptic 5‐HT 2 receptor subpopulation alter signal transduction in which myristolated alanine rich C kinase substrate is prominently involved in regulation of further central 5‐HT areas in the brain and corresponding functional neuronal changes. Even though the central function of 5‐HT neurotransmission is dominating in multifold behavioral regulation, peripheral concentration of tryptophan (TRP) and TRP passage across the blood‐brain barrier and TRP hydroxylase activity are also important for appropriate 5‐HT neurotransmission, as they affect central 5‐HT synthesis. The high adaptability of 5‐HT neurotransmission is able to compensate neuromodular dysfunctions in the brain by mechanisms that mediate 5‐HT biosynthesis, release, reuptake, pre‐and postsynaptic receptor stimulation with the respective second messenger response, and signal transduction to various areas of the brain that are involved in regulation of behavior, mood, memory, learning, and attenuation of obsession. Adequate 5‐HT system function supports regulation of intercommunicative neuronal transmission in the brain, which optimizes behavioral neuromodulation during and after transient disturbances of neuromodular behavior caused by stress‐induced exertions. Impairment of neuromodulation and neuronal network in the brain with transient dysfunctions or permanent substantial deficits at manifestation of various types of depression results from prevalent impairment of 5‐HT neurotransmission and its central interaction with other neurotransmitter systems. It is suggested that in overtrained athletes, central fatigue, mental deficiency, and behavioral alterations with depressive mood are probably caused by a central exhaustive exercise stress that elicits impairment of complex neuromodulation, also afflicting the interaction of central neurotransmitters or hypothalamic neuropeptides and releasing factors. This suggestion is also supported by data on alterations in 5‐HT neurotransmission in eating disorders.
Plasma prolactin concentration increases during hyperoxia: A new hypothesis for its causes
Authors: Vega Sandra , Strüder Heiko , Abel Thomas , Mester Joachim , Hollmann Wildor
Published: December 2005

The acute responses of plasma prolactin (PRL) concentration to inspiration of 80 Vol% oxygen over 45 min at rest were analyzed in 8 male subjects. After 15, 30, and 45 min of oxygen inhalation, a significant increase (p <. 01) of arterial partial pressure of carbon dioxide (p CO2) in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) due to well‐established Haldane effect induced by hyperoxia lead to decreased (p 2 at these time points. Plasma PRL concentration was significantly increased (p
CHO‐induced blunting of cortisol response to weightlifting exercise in resistance‐trained older men
Authors: Tarpenning Kyle , Hawkins Steven , Wiswell Robert
Published: December 2005

With weightlifting exercise, the attenuation of the cortisol response is a major factor by which an increase in muscle mass occurs. A reduction in the exercise‐induced cortisol response has been observed in younger but not older men, suggesting that under normal circumstances older men may lack the mechanism(s) to down‐regulate cortisol activity. The purpose of this study was to determine if CHO consumption during a weightlifting exercise bout could modify the cortisol response to exercise. Five resistance‐trained older men (62.8 ± 1.5 y) completed (on 2 occasions) a 9‐station weightlifting protocol (3 sets, 10 repetitions, 75% of 1RM). One session included the ingestion of a placebo beverage, and the other, a CHO solution. Blood samples were collected prior to, during, and after the exercise bout. With the placebo, plasma glucose levels remained unchanged, while plasma cortisol levels were significantly elevated (from 284 ± 49.7 nmol/L to 474 ± 130 nmol/L). In contrast, CHO consumption resulted in significantly higher plasma glucose levels (from 5.55 ±. 48 to 7.63 ± 0.53 mmol) and a blunted cortisol response. These findings indi‐cate that the stimulatory effect of exercise on cortisol secretion can be overcome by CHO administration.
Performance profile and health assessment of elite quad rugby players
Authors: Abel Thomas , Peters Christiane , Platen Petra
Published: December 2005

Objective:Since 1992, the sport of quad rugby has gained increasing popularity in Germany. This has led to the desire to record reference parameters of func‐tional efficiency. Investigation: Thirteen male, quadriplegically handicapped quad rugby players from the German league took part in the investigation. The maximum functional efficiency (W) and speed (m/s) with associated heart rate and lactate values were 45.4 ± 6.9 W, 124.0 ± 19.0 bpm, 4.07 ± 1.09 mmol/L using the arm crank. On the frictionless roller, the values were 2.17 ± 0.48m/s, 133.0 ± 19.1 bpm, 3.91 ± 1.42 mmol/L. In the field test, the values were 3.01 ± 0.64m/s, 142.1 ± 27.5 bpm, 5.63 ± 3.05 mmol/L. Comparison of the heart rate and lactate parameters at the arm crank and on the frictionless roller under maximum load revealed significantly higher heart rate (p =. 037) with no sig‐nificant differences in lactate (p =. 660; n = 13).Conclusion:Health assess‐ments in quad rugby are possible using arm crank and frictionless roller ergometry. The essential requirement for being encouraged to make use of performance assessments is that they are carried out as specific as possible with respect to the type of sport involved.
A practical indicator of muscle oxidative capacity determined by recovery of muscle O 2 consumption using NIR spectroscopy
Authors: Nagasawa Takeshi , Hamaoka Takafumi , Sako Takayuki , Murakami Motohide , Kime Ryotaro , Homma Toshiyuki , Ueda Chihoko , Ichimura Shiro , Katsumura Toshihito
Published: December 2005

We examined the relationship between the time constant (Tc) for muscle oxygen consumption (VO 2mus) recovery after exercise, as measured by near‐infrared continuous wave spectroscopy (NIRcws), and the Tc for phosphocreatine (PCr) recovery as an index of muscle oxidative capacity. Eight healthy male subjects performed a dynamic handgrip exercise, and the VO2mus recovery after exercise was measured with NIRcws by repeated arterial occlusion. VO2mus was determined from the rate of deoxygenation during arterial occlusion, and muscle oxidative capacity was calculated from the Tc for PCr recovery using 31 phosphorus‐magnetic resonance spectroscopy. VO2mus increased 8.9 ± 4.9 (mean ± SD) fold of resting after exercise and thereafter decreased exponentially. The Tc for VO2mus recovery and the Tc for PCr recovery were 33.1 ± 9.0 and 35.0 ± 8.5 s, respectively. The Tc for VO2mus recovery was significantly correlated to the Tc for PCr recovery (r = 0.92, p <. 01).