bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Social Democratic Federation
Authors: Bevir Mark
Published: November 2017

This chapter provides a detailed investigation of the background, thought, and politics of the members of the Social Democratic Federation (SDF). Several of the early members of the SDF were followers of James Bronterre O'Brien, based in the radical workingmen's clubs of London. Even after they came to accept the need for collective ownership of the means of production, their political strategy remained that of O'Brien. They believed in political action to create a properly democratic state through which the people might then promote social reforms. This account of the O'Brienites helps to explain various unsolved problems in the history of British Marxism, notably why most members remained with Hyndman rather than follow Morris into the Socialist League, and why the SDF adopted an ambiguous attitude to trade unions and palliatives.
George Bernard Shaw
Authors: Bevir Mark
Published: November 2017

This chapter concerns the famous playwright George Bernard Shaw. Shaw's biographers consistently discuss his debt to Marx, but intellectual historians have found little sign of this debt. It shows how Shaw's Marxism becomes visible if we look for the kind of Marxism found among his contemporaries, as opposed to the kinds of Marxism that became prominent later in the twentieth century. In the mid-1880s, Shaw shared many of the Marxist ideas of the Social Democratic Federation. Even later, after he rejected Marxist economics for marginalism, he continued to defend several Marxist themes in ways that distanced him from the other leading Fabians, most importantly Sidney Webb.
Welfarism, Socialism, and Religion
Authors: Bevir Mark
Published: November 2017

This chapter suggests that ethical socialism was a response to the crisis of faith. It shows how various welfare liberals and ethical socialists adopted immanentism in an attempt to reconcile religion and science. They located God in evolutionary processes here on earth. They suggested that each person contains a divine spark and so is related to all others in fellowship. Many of them experimented with new ways of living in an attempt to realize the divine in themselves and in their relations with others and nature. Ethical socialism and liberal welfarism did not provide a new home for old religious emotions so much as emerge as part of a new set of religious beliefs.
The Sociobiology of Human Cooperation
Authors: Bowles Samuel , Gintis Herbert
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the sociobiology of human cooperation. Given the tendency of people to copy the successful and the fact that natural selection favors the more fit, the chapter asks how our altruistic preferences overcame the cultural and biological evolutionary handicaps entailed by the reduced payoffs that they elicited. To answer this question, two major biological explanations of cooperation are discussed: inclusive fitness in either a kin-based or a multi-level selection model, and reciprocal altruism and its indirect reciprocity and costly signaling variants. The chapter explores a model of inclusive fitness based on group differentiation and competition, clarifying what is meant by multi-level selection and how it works. It also discusses models that address equilibrium selection, the link between standing strategy and indirect reciprocity, and positive assortment. Finally, it assesses the mechanisms and motives underlying helping behavior.
Cooperative Homo economicus
Authors: Bowles Samuel , Gintis Herbert
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines whether recent advances in the theory of repeated games, as exemplified by the so-called folk theorem and related models, address the shortcomings of the self-interest based models in explaining human cooperation. It first provides an overview of folk theorems and their account of evolutionary dynamics before discussing the folk theorem with either imperfect public information or private information. It then considers evolutionarily irrelevant equilibrium as well as the link between social norms and the notion of correlated equilibrium. While the insight that repeated interactions provide opportunities for cooperative individuals to discipline defectors is correct, the chapter argues that none of the game-theoretic models mentioned above is successful. Except under implausible conditions, the cooperative outcomes identified by these models are neither accessible nor persistent, and are thus labeled evolutionarily irrelevant Nash equilibria.
Conclusion: Human Cooperation and Its Evolution
Authors: Bowles Samuel , Gintis Herbert
Published: November 2017

This chapter reviews the book's main findings about human cooperation, beginning with a discussion of its origins. It shows that humans became a cooperative species because the nature of our livelihoods made cooperation within a group highly beneficial to its members. Hence, they developed the cognitive, linguistic and other capacities to structure our social interactions in ways that resulted in the proliferation of altruistic cooperators. Where the benefits associated with cooperation relative to the costs are substantial, it is more likely that the evolutionary processes of gene-culture coevolution will support populations with large numbers of cooperators, regardless of whether they are altruistic or mutualistic. The chapter also explains why social preferences are highly likely to emerge among early humans before concluding with some reflections on the future of cooperation.
The heat kernel qb,tX for bounded b
Authors: Bismut Jean-Michel
Published: November 2017

This chapter establishes the estimates of a theorem discussed in Chapter 4 for the hypoelliptic heat kernel qb,tX((x,Y),(x′,Y′)) on ̂X. More precisely, this chapter shows that for bounded b > 0, the heat kernel verifies uniform Gaussian type estimates. Also, the limit is studied as b → 0 of this heat kernel. The method consists in using the techniques of chapters 12 and 13 for the scalar heat kernels over X and ̂X, and to control the kernel qb,tX by using a Feynman-Kac formula. In particular, the contribution of the representation ρ‎ᴱ is obtained by using results of chapter 12 applied to the symmetric space attached to the complexification K
C of K.
The International Context of Nineteenth-Century Humanitarian Interventions
Authors: Rodogno Davide
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the international context of humanitarian interventions during the nineteenth century in order to understand why humanitarian intervention emerged as an international practice in the Ottoman Empire. It also sets the geopolitical context of humanitarian intervention, when Ottoman Christians were victims of massacre, atrocities, and extermination. The chapter begins with a discussion of the concept and practice of intervention in nineteenth-century international relations, explaining the term “intervention.” It then provides a brief overview of the history of the Eastern Question—the question of the survival or the death of the “sick Man of Europe”—before contextualizing the meaning of “massacre,” “atrocity,” and “extermination.” It also distinguishes between the Capitulations and intervention and concludes with an analysis of the extent to which military interventions against massacre built on the Capitulations.
Intervention in Ottoman Lebanon and Syria (1860–61)
Authors: Rodogno Davide
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the European powers' military intervention in Ottoman Lebanon and Syria during the period 1860–1861. It first considers the local and international context prior to the intervention, focusing on Mount Lebanon, an autonomous administrative Ottoman entity distinct from the province of Syria, before discussing how Europeans saw themselves compared to how they portrayed Mount Lebanon's populations. It then analyzes the conditions that brought about the massacre of the Ottoman Christians in 1860, along with the European governments' reaction and the motives of their intervention. It also looks at the Paris Conference that was set up to clarify the nature and modalities of the humanitarian intervention. Finally, it explores the questions addressed by the European Commission, including the case of the thousands of refugees amassed in Beirut, and the consequences of the intervention.
The First Intervention in Crete (1866–69)
Authors: Rodogno Davide
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the motives underlying the European powers' multilateral intervention in Crete during the period 1866–1869. It first considers the context of the Cretan Christians' revolt of 1866 as well as the massacres that triggered the Cretan crisis, which revolved around the question of the union of the island with Greece. It then discusses the European powers' reactions to the Cretan insurrection, the intervening powers' rescue of Christian Cretans, and the diplomatic solution to the crisis. It shows that Great Britain opposed any forcible action to save strangers based on the belief that massacre and atrocities were not serious or tragic enough to undertake an armed humanitarian intervention. It argues that the British were determined not to help Christian Cretans due to concerns about the “Eastern Question.”
Nonintervention on Behalf of the Ottoman Armenians (1886–1909)
Authors: Rodogno Davide
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the European powers' nonintervention on behalf of the Ottoman Armenians during the period 1886–1909. From the 1870s to 1914, the “Armenian Question” was dragged into the international debate. However, Armenian nationalist leaders wrongly thought that acts of massacre, atrocity, and extermination would convince the European powers to intervene. The chapter first considers the implementation of reforms in the European provinces of the Ottoman Empire prior to the Armenian massacres before discussing the massacres that took place between 1894 and 1909, including those in Sasun and in the province of Adana. It explains why no humanitarian intervention took place after these events and goes on to explore the Third Marquess of Salisbury's last attempt to revive the Concert of Europe. Finally, it analyzes British and French public opinion regarding the Armenian Question.
Introduction to the Volume
Authors: Aldrich John H. , McGraw Kathleen M.
Published: November 2017

This chapter is an overview of the American National Election Studies (ANES) as well as its functions and overall significance for study. It indicates how and why the ANES achieved its status as the gold standard among public opinion surveys and how this volume seeks to extend that standard. First used in 1948, the ANES has been in the field in every presidential election and nearly every congressional election since. It is supported by the National Science Foundation (NSF) as one of its three “big social science” projects. Moreover, the ANES's sixty years of measuring public opinion and voting behavior has made possible the compilation of time-series analyses that are now starting to show real insights into, and to change how we view, campaigns and elections. To conclude, the chapter provides some insights into the future of survey research.
An Alternative Measure of Political Trust
Authors: Gershtenson Joseph , Plane Dennis L.
Published: November 2017

This chapter presents a critique of the standard ANES political trust question, and proposes a percentage measure as an alternative. Given the wide-ranging consequences of political trust, there is understandably a considerable body of scholarly work outlining the determinants of trust. Despite this attention, there remains no consensus on how to measure the underlying concept. The chapter seeks to address this by first analyzing the flaws in the ANES trust question and then using an alternative trust item included on the 2006 ANES Pilot Study to assess different trust measures. These analyses indicate that while neither trust indicator predicts turnout nor vote choice, the percentage measure outperforms the standard trust question in predicting policy attitudes.
Perceptions of Similarity and Agreement in Partisan Groups
Authors: Whitaker Eric A. , Fulwider John M.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines whether there are perceptual differences in how partisan identifiers think about the in-group and out-group, and whether these judgments relate reliably to other attitudes and political behaviors. It first selectively reviews the psychological literature on social identity theory and group-based perceptual differences, focusing primarily on the out-group homogeneity effect. The subsequent analyses then consider and examine: how perceptions of in-group and out-group similarity and agreement vary among Democrats and Republicans, whether these judgments are systematically related to affective judgments about political groups and political figures, and whether these judgments relate to conventional political behaviors, such as voter turnout and vote choice. Finally, the chapter concludes with a set of recommendations for future research.
Introduction
Authors: McCants William F.
Published: November 2017

This introductory chapter provides an overview of the book's themes and methodology. This book foregrounds the study of pre-Islamic culture myths and uses it to frame the Islamic material in the chapters that follow. This framing also reflects the author's belief that Islamic thinking about the origins of civilization is deeply indebted to antique thought on the subject, both in content and assumptions. Furthermore, Muslim authors were shaped by social and political circumstances that were similar to those confronting Hellenistic- and Roman-era authors and thus share many of their concerns and solutions to intellectual and cultural dilemmas. Finally, by bringing Islamic material into the debates of classicists, the book hopes to encourage scholarly communities on both sides of the Arab conquests to consider the Mediterranean and Near Eastern patrimony through a wider-angle lens. The indebtedness of Islamic culture myths to antiquity is not only evidenced by the fact that Islamic culture myths cluster around the same subject areas as pre-Islamic culture myths but also by the fact that there are numerous linkages between the myths themselves.
Gifts of the Gods: The Origins of Civilization in Ancient Near Eastern and Greek Mythology
Authors: McCants William F.
Published: November 2017

In order to see how the Greek, Roman, and Arab conquests of the Near East shaped the conqueror's and conquered's understanding of the origins of civilization, this chapter surveys the region's ancient mythologies before the conquests: Mesopotamian, Iranian, Egyptian, Greek, and Hebrew (the surviving Hurrian, Hittite, and Canaanite texts do not treat the subject). In Mesopotamian, Iranian, and Egyptian myths, gods create civilization ex nihilo and gave it to humans, sometimes through special human or semihuman interlocutors. The arts and sciences they create are almost always beneficial, and their point of origin is usually associated with cities, not with peoples. The genres of texts surveyed are also heterogeneous because of the ways that culture myths from the different ancient societies survived.
Financial Folly and Spain’s Black Legend
Authors: Drelichman Mauricio , Voth Hans-Joachim
Published: November 2017

This epilogue argues that Castile was solvent throughout Philip II's reign. A complex web of contractual obligations designed to ensure repayment governed the relationship between the king and his bankers. The same contracts allowed great flexibility for both the Crown and bankers when liquidity was tight. The risk of potential defaults was not a surprise; their likelihood was priced into the loan contracts. As a consequence, virtually every banking family turned a profit over the long term, while the king benefited from their services to run the largest empire that had yet existed. The epilogue then looks at the economic history version of Spain's Black Legend. The economic history version of the Black Legend emerged from a combination of two narratives: a rich historical tradition analyzing the decline of Spain as an economic and military power from the seventeenth century onward, combined with new institutional analysis highlighting the unconstrained power of the monarch.
Thinking Financially and Exploring the Code
Authors: Lépinay Vincent Antonin
Published: November 2017

This chapter looks at the financial operators' use of codes and languages in the trading room to articulate new financial products. It maps out the coding and modeling conflicts that arise between various disciplines (physicists, mathematicians, computer scientists). Codes can either be formal or ad hoc, but the bottom line is that no one knows for sure how best to describe these products. The problem is not a paucity of descriptions, but rather an embarrassment of riches. Capital guarantee products (CGP) have too many competing depictions that were derived from the multiplicity of languages adopted by different groups operating within the financial industry. The lack of synthesis of these languages is both a resource for and a threat to the financial industry.
What Good Are Derivatives?
Authors: Lépinay Vincent Antonin
Published: November 2017

This concluding chapter addresses the underlying economic question raised by derivation. Capital guarantee products (CGPs) can be described as combinations of existing securities; as such, their value is derived from existing values—a perfect example of economic derivation. The quest for foundations and origins that has driven economic theorists, as well as their critics, for the past three centuries prevents one from fully understanding this regime of derivation. The chapter provides a timely question in view of the most recent financial crisis: the question of setting the criteria for good and bad cascades at a time when economists have lost the hope of assigning a site to value creation, and must now live with long cascades of derivation.
Joyce Unperformed
Authors: Kurnick David
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the collective spaces invoked in James Joyce's career-long obsession with dramatic form—from the epiphanies he wrote as a teenager through his 1918 play Exiles to the closet drama of the Nighttown (or “Circe”) episode of Ulysses. Joyce's experiments with theatrical form constitute a running commentary on his interest in the “depths” of the psyche. The different conceptions of theatrical space embedded in the idea of epiphany lend a dual valence to this keystone of Joycean aesthetics. If, on the one hand, epiphany imagines a humiliating theater of psychic exposure, on the other it gestures toward a perverse collective space where such exposures would lose their policing force. These isolating and collectivist impulses are both visible in Joyce's play Exiles, which follows Ibsenesque naturalism in its representation of psychic motivation but allows its characters to mount a notable collective resistance to the diagnostic imperative structuring their stage existence.
A Public Goods Theory of Restitution
Authors: Cooter Robert D. , Porat Ariel
Published: November 2017

This chapter introduces what it calls the “public goods theory of restitution,” which applies when one person's act creates unrequested benefits for two or more people. It begins with examples that illustrate how the benefactor's act conveys a benefit to everyone in a group, noting that restitution law encourages the private production of public goods in special cases by holding the recipients liable for unrequested benefits. It then considers unrequested benefits under prevailing law and a private production of public goods theory before developing the case for an expanded duty of restitution. It advocates expanding the right to restitution to increase the private supply of public goods and argues that liability for receiving unrequested benefits should be far narrower than liability for causing harm.
Life Exposed
Authors: Petryna Adriana
Published: November 2017

On April 26, 1986, Unit Four of the Chernobyl nuclear reactor exploded in then Soviet Ukraine. More than 3.5 million people in Ukraine alone, not to mention many citizens of surrounding countries, are still suffering the effects. This is the first book to comprehensively examine the vexed political, scientific, and social circumstances that followed the Chernobyl disaster. Tracing the story from an initial lack of disclosure to post-Soviet democratizing attempts to compensate sufferers, the book uses anthropological tools to take us into a world whose social realities are far more immediate and stark than those described by policymakers and scientists. It asks: What happens to politics when state officials fail to inform their fellow citizens of real threats to life? What are the moral and political consequences of remedies available in the wake of technological disasters? The book illustrates how the Chernobyl explosion and its aftermath have not only shaped the course of an independent nation but have made health a negotiated realm of entitlement. It tracks the emergence of a “biological citizenship” in which assaults on health become the coinage through which sufferers stake claims for biomedical resources, social equity, and human rights. The book provides an anthropological framework for understanding the politics of emergent democracies, the nature of citizenship claims, and everyday forms of survival as they are interwoven with the profound changes that accompanied the collapse of the Soviet Union.
Reverie and Rivalry: Mitterrand and Reagan-Bush
Authors: Kuisel Richard F.
Published: November 2017

This chapter blends the narrative of relations between Paris and Washington with the response of the French media, elites, and public. Despite the outward appearance of strong ties between the two countries, there were sharp disagreements, mutual mistrust, and even some nasty spats—which occurred mostly off camera. It is argued that the degrees of separation from the United States, more than the strength of the partnership, determined self-esteem and France's role as a major player in global affairs. Independence helped define what it was to be “French” on the international stage, and it was the U.S. superpower that deprived France of attaining this status. The chapter begins by sketching a picture of French attitudes toward American power, policy, and leaders on the eve of the elections of presidents Reagan and Mitterrand.
The Court System
Authors: Viroli Maurizio
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses the court system. When an enormous or arbitrary power establishes itself in a country, the court system is created. A court exists when a person, by virtue of his enormous power, constantly occupies a more elevated and central position in relation to a relatively large number of individuals who depend on him in order to gain, keep, and increase their wealth, status, and chance of appearing and being seen and admired. This system depends on the effective power of the signore to distribute to the courtiers material and symbolic benefits and to threaten them, equally effectively, with the loss of those goods. In the court system, the prince too depends to a certain degree on the courtiers and all those whom he can benefit or threaten. However, the superior power of the signore and his central position are not in question. Ultimately, the most important reason for a court's existence is the practice of servitude.
The Path to Freedom
Authors: Viroli Maurizio
Published: November 2017

This concluding chapter assesses Italy's path to freedom. The Italians, at least the better individuals among that people, succeeded in being reborn from servitude to liberty when they developed a healthy scorn for the life of a courtier. However, although predictions are always chancy things in the field of politics, it appears unlikely that the enormous power that has been established in Italy can be replaced by a power that is other than that of the court. The only alternative to the liberty of servants is the liberty of citizens, and only a political leader who understands what this liberty consists of and loves it with his whole being will be able to construct in Italy the political and social ethos that is likely to prevent the rebirth of a court system.
Vision in Dim Light
Authors: Cronin Thomas W. , Johnsen Sönke , Marshall N. Justin , Warrant Eric J.
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses how darkness provides excellent advantages for a wide variety of animals, for the simple reason that vision—a primary sense for predators and foragers alike—becomes severely disabled when faced with a paucity of light. Thus, in a fiercely competitive rainforest, the cover of night provides respite from visually dependent predators and competitors, a fact that has encouraged the evolution of nocturnal activity in many different taxa. In the endlessly dim world of the deep ocean, the cover of darkness is instead permanent, and vision is relentlessly pressed at the limits of the physically possible. In some species the eyes have evolved extreme adaptations for extracting the most fleeting of visual cues. Others have given up the fight altogether, their eyes having regressed to mere vestiges.
Signals and Camouflage
Authors: Cronin Thomas W. , Johnsen Sönke , Marshall N. Justin , Warrant Eric J.
Published: November 2017

This chapter talks about how vision serves many purposes, two of the most important being predation and reproduction. Therefore, it is not surprising that a diverse assemblage of species have evolved clever ways to hide themselves and equally clever ways to signal information to both conspecifics and heterospecifics. Camouflage is usually used either to avoid being eaten or to improve the chances of getting within striking range before being detected, although it can also be seen in conspecific interactions. Signals are used to communicate with conspecifics, most often for reproductive and social purposes, and to either lure heterospecifics or warn them of chemical or other defenses. Both camouflage and signals often need to function in a number of different optical environments and against visual systems with varying abilities.
Franklin Pierce and the Kansas-Nebraska Act
Authors: Greenstein Fred I. , Anderson Dale
Published: November 2017

This chapter assesses the strengths and weaknesses of Franklin Pierce, focusing on six realms: public communication, organizational capacity, political skill, policy vision, cognitive style, and emotional intelligence. Pierce won the Democratic Party's 1852 presidential nomination after a forty-eight ballot impasse in which none of the party's top three leaders was able to muster the two-thirds vote needed to become the Democratic flag bearer. A gregarious nonentity, he took office amid growing anger over the Fugitive Slave Act and passed on to his successor an acutely polarized nation. Pierce's historical reputation is captured in a survey of sixty-four historians conducted by C-SPAN in which he ranked fortieth in a field of forty-two.
The Moral Dimension of Constitutional Faith
Authors: Levinson Sanford
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers the relationship between the Constitution—and the sovereign people ostensibly represented in its terms—and morality. Constitution faith requires the linkage of law and morality even as most twentieth-century jurisprudence has emphasized their analytic separation. All calls for renewed faith in the rule of law and renewal of the constitutional covenant imply that submission to the Constitution will create not only order but also the conditions of a social order worthy of respect. In order to see the logic and desirability of submission to the rule of the Constitution, the assumed linkage between it and morality must be closely examined.
Marshall and Mboya
Authors: Dudziak Mary L.
Published: November 2017

This chapter details the events leading up to Thurgood Marshall's adventure in Kenya. Marshall was a civil rights legend in America when he began his African journey. It became one of the great adventures of his life. He followed a path well worn by others, but his journey would be different. He would not travel by riverboat into the Congo, as had American missionaries, or sail along the West African coast as did the poet Langston Hughes. Marshall flew first to Monrovia, then on to Nairobi. He was in search not of souls to save or stories to tell. Instead, Africa was on the cusp of revolution and he had come to help.
A Tricky Constitution
Authors: Dudziak Mary L.
Published: November 2017

This chapter details events following Marshall's arrival in Africa in 1960. As an African American activist traveling to a rigidly controlled colony with the objective of aiding the nationalists, he was fortunate to get a visa. Once in Kenya, he would face colonial government restrictions on his activities. Nonetheless, going to Kenya gave Marshall a chance to step outside of it all, to make new connections. Although it might seem strange for an American lawyer with no previous experience with African law to serve as an expert at Kenya's constitutional deliberations, Marshall had something that an “underdeveloped” region like Kenya was thought to need: expertise in a “developed” legal system.
Anarchy Is Anarchy
Authors: Dudziak Mary L.
Published: November 2017

This chapter details events that occurred in summer 1966, which was marked by racial tensions and riots in cities such as Cleveland, Chicago, and Los Angeles. Throughout his career, Marshall had been a consistent critic of police misconduct and racism. Then, in 1965 he was named solicitor general, one of the nation's top legal officials. President Lyndon Baines Johnson, who seemed genuinely committed to civil rights, called on him for advice, both about civil rights proposals and about how to stem the violence. But there was another dimension to Marshall's role. He had come to believe that law structured the lives and opportunities of African Americans and that it was through legal reform that real change would come. The crowds in the streets rejected this vision. And the political climate had changed, in part a negative reaction to urban violence, undermining the political context for new civil rights legislation.
Political Violence
Authors: Besley Timothy , Persson Torsten
Published: November 2017

This chapter attempts to integrate two different strands of research on political violence, developing a theoretical model to analyze the common roots of repression and civil war. Under specific assumptions about the conflict technology, it shows that peace, repression (one-sided violence), and civil war (two-sided violence) become ordered states depending on a common underlying latent variable, which is shifted by shocks to the value of public goods, wages, aid, and resource rents. But these effects only emerge when political institutions do not provide sufficient checks and balances on the ruling group or adequate protection for those excluded from power. The chapter also shows how to start bridging the gap between theoretical modeling and econometric testing. Under specific assumptions on what can be observed, the predictions from the model can be taken to the data by estimating either an ordered logit or the conditional probability of transition from peace to violence or from non-civil war to civil war. The empirical strategy here is much sharper than in earlier chapters and shows that the kind of theory we are building can help us approach the data in a specific way.
How Best to Rule
Authors: Hall John A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter argues that the way states behave, in civil or authoritarian ways, affects social identities, and in the process says something about the reconstruction of civility. It is here that the key sociological content of civility is spelled out. Social contracts between labor, capital, and the state have as a side effect the politicizing of industrial relations—they make the state responsible for levels of employment and give workers the right of access to political power. The most obvious, appropriate, and helpful place to begin when considering class is with Karl Marx, the greatest theorist of socialism. His expectation, and that of most Marxists in the years before the First World War, was clear: workers had no countries and so would inevitably be forced to unite as a solidarity class because of the inherent contradictions of the capitalist mode of production. However, there was no single working class, but rather working classes of particular countries.
Conclusion
Authors: Hall John A.
Published: November 2017

This concluding chapter argues that anxiety and even hostility have been shown to be the actions of states; when they put ideological dreams into effect, they become enemies of civility, and all too often politicize social actors so as to make them recalcitrant. Virtue should not be the business of states, and visions should remain private. This is not to say for a moment that states are not needed. Civil behavior by political elites can lead to the creation and maintenance of an inclusive and open frame within which people, blessed with negative resisting power, can experiment with their lives. The chapter then addresses the problem of economic growth—that is, the creation of decent sufficiencies and negative resisting power.
Introduction
Authors: Katz Nicholas M.
Published: November 2017

This introductory chapter sets out the book's focus, namely equidistribution results over larger and larger finite extensions of a given finite field. Emanuel Kowalski drew attention to the interest of having equidistribution results over, for example, prime fields 𝔽p, that become better and better as p grows. This question is addressed in Chapter 28, where the problem is to make effective the estimates, already given in the equicharacteristic setting of larger and larger extensions of a given finite field. Chapter 29 points out some open questions about “the situation over ℤ” and gives some illustrative examples. The chapter concludes by pointing out two potential ambiguities of notation.
A First Construction of Autodual Objects
Authors: Katz Nicholas M.
Published: November 2017

This chapter presents the construction of autodual objects. It begins with a geometrically irreducible middle extension sheaf Ƒ on G/k which is ι‎-pure of weight zero, and which is not geometrically an Lᵪ. Thus Ƒ(1/2)[1] is a geometrically irreducible object in in Garith. Its dual in in Garith is [x ↦ 1/x]★ ℱ¯ (1/2)[1], for 𝓕 with hook and macron the linear dual middle extension sheaf. Via ι‎, Ƒ and 𝓕 with hook and macron have complex conjugate trace functions; this holds by ι‎-purity on the dense open set where Ƒ is lisse, and then on all of 𝓖 by a result of Gabber [Fuj-Indep, Thm. 3], cf. also [Ka-MMP, proof of 1.8.1 (i)].
The Previous Construction in the Nonsplit Case
Authors: Katz Nicholas M.
Published: November 2017

This chapter works on the nonsplit form G/k.
Results of Goursat-Kolchin-Ribet Type
Authors: Katz Nicholas M.
Published: November 2017

This chapter takes up the proofs of Theorems 13.1–13.5. Suppose we are given some number r ≤ 2 of objects N₁; N₂, Nᵣ in Garith of some common “dimension” d ≤ 1. Suppose they are all ι‎-pure of weight zero, geometrically irreducible, and arithmetically self-dual, all with the same sign of duality.
Frobenius Tori and Weights; Getting Elements of Garith
Authors: Katz Nicholas M.
Published: November 2017

This chapter works on Gₘ/k. It considers an arithmetically semisimple object N ɛ Garith which is pure of weight zero. It assumes it is of the form G[1], with G a middle extension sheaf. Thus, for some open set j : U ⊂ 𝔾ₘ, we have G = j
*Ƒ, for Ƒ := j
*
G a lisse sheaf on U which is pure of weight −1 and arithmetically semisimple, and having no geometric constituent isomorphic to a Kummer sheaf.
GL(n) Examples
Authors: Katz Nicholas M.
Published: November 2017

This chapter works on either the split or the nonsplit form. It begins with a lisse sheaf Ƒ on a dense open set j : U ⊂ G which is geometrically irreducible, pure of weight zero, and not geometrically isomorphic to (the restriction to U of) any Kummer sheaf L
Rᵪ. It denotes by G := j
*Ƒ its middle extension to G. Then the object N := G(1/2)[1] ɛ Garith is pure of weight zero and geometrically irreducible.
The Situation over ℤ: Results
Authors: Katz Nicholas M.
Published: November 2017

This chapter treats an integer monic polynomial f(x) ɛ ℤ[x] of degree n ≤ 2 which, over ℂ, is “weakly supermorse,” meaning that it has n distinct roots in ℂ, its derivative f'(x) has n − 1 distinct roots (the critical points) α‎ᵢ ɛ ℂ, and the n − 1 values f(α‎ᵢ) (the critical values) are all distinct in ℂ.
Introduction
Authors: Lindenstrauss Joram , Preiss David , Jaroslav Tiˇser
Published: November 2017

This book deals with the existence of Fréchet derivatives of Lipschitz functions from X to Y, where X is an Asplund space and Y has the Radon-Nikodým property (RNP). It considers whether every countable collection of real-valued Lipschitz functions on an Asplund space has a common point of Fréchet differentiability. It also examines the conditions under which all Lipschitz mapping of X to finite dimensional spaces not only possess points of Fréchet differentiability, but possess so many of them that even the multidimensional mean value estimate holds. Other topics include the notion of the Radon-Nikodým property and main results on Gâteaux differentiability of Lipschitz functions and related notions of null sets; separable determination and variational principles; and differentiability of Lipschitz maps on Hilbert spaces.
Fr ´Echet Differentiability Except For Γ‎-Null Sets
Authors: Lindenstrauss Joram , Preiss David , Jaroslav Tiˇser
Published: November 2017

This chapter gives an account of the known genuinely infinite dimensional results proving Fréchet differentiability almost everywhere except for Γ‎-null sets. Γ‎-null sets provide the only notion of negligible sets with which a Fréchet differentiability result is known. Porous sets appear as sets at which Gâteaux derivatives can behave irregularly, and they turn out to be the only obstacle to validity of a Fréchet differentiability result Γ‎-almost everywhere. Furthermore, geometry of the space may (or may not) guarantee that porous sets are Γ‎-null. The chapter also shows that on some infinite dimensional Banach spaces countable collections of real-valued Lipschitz functions, and even of fairly general Lipschitz maps to infinite dimensional spaces, have a common point of Fréchet differentiability.
Porosity and ε‎-Fr échet differentiability
Authors: Lindenstrauss Joram , Preiss David , Jaroslav Tiˇser
Published: November 2017

This chapter demonstrates that the results about smallness of porous sets, and so also of sets of irregularity points of a given Lipschitz function, can be used to show existence of points of (at least) ε‎-Fréchet differentiability of vector-valued functions. The approach involves combining this new idea with the basic notion that points of ε‎-Fréchet differentiability should appear in small slices of the set of Gâteaux derivatives. The chapter obtains very precise results on existence of points of ε‎-Fréchet differentiability for Lipschitz maps with finite dimensional range. The main result applies when every porous set is contained in the unions of a σ‎-directionally porous (and hence Haar null) set and a Γ‎ₙ-null Gsubscript Small Delta set.
Asymptotic Fr echet ´Differentiability
Authors: Lindenstrauss Joram , Preiss David , Jaroslav Tiˇser
Published: November 2017

This chapter presents the current development of the first, unpublished proof of existence of points Fréchet differentiability of Lipschitz mappings to two-dimensional spaces. For functions into higher dimensional spaces the method does not lead to a point of Gâteaux differentiability but constructs points of asymptotic Fréchet differentiability. The proof uses perturbations that are not additive, rather than the variational approach, but still provides (asymptotic) Fréchet derivatives in every slice of Gâteaux derivatives. However, it cannot be used to prove existence of points of Fréchet differentiability of Lipschitz mappings of Hilbert spaces to three-dimensional spaces. The results are negative in the sense that an appropriate version of the multidimensional mean value estimate holds.
Different Names of God
Authors: Schäfer Peter
Published: November 2017

This chapter addresses a problem that must have plagued the rabbis a great deal: the undeniable fact that the Hebrew Bible uses various names for God, most prominent among them Elohim and the tetragrammaton YHWH. Both names attracted the attention and curiosity of Gentiles, the latter because of the mystery surrounding it—it was originally used only by the High Priest entering the Holy of Holies of the Temple, and its proper pronunciation was deemed lost—and the former because it is grammatically a plural and hence could easily give rise to the idea that the Jews worshiped not just one God but several gods. The “heretics” apparently knew enough Hebrew to seize the opportunity and insinuate that the Jews were no different in this regard than the pagans and indeed accepted the notion of a pantheon of various gods.
Porphyry: On the Life of Plotinus and the Order of His Books
Authors: Kalligas Paul
Published: November 2017

This chapter presents a commentary on Porphyry’s Life of Plotinus (Vita Plotini; hereafter VP). It begins with a description of Porphyry, his times, and his work. It then discusses the composition and character of the VP. As appears from its title and final phrases, the VP was written as an introduction to the edition of the Enneads, P.’s complete written work, organized by Porphyry in a systematic manner according to themes. The chapter then describes the organization and sources of the VP, and the chronological system of the VP. It presents a table that outlines all of the chronological data contained in the VP, followed by maps, and other testimonies on Life of Plotinus.
Third Ennead
Authors: Kalligas Paul
Published: November 2017

This chapter presents the English translation of Paul Kalligas’s commentary on the third Enneads of Plotinus. The third Ennead is focused on physical reality and cosmological issues, but viewed from a more general perspective, “dealing with considerations about the universe” (VP 24.59–60). It is the most miscellaneous in character, and Porphyry spends some time in trying to justify his inclusion of treatises like III 4, III 5 and III 8 (VP 25.2–9), without mentioning III 9, which is but a cento of disparate notes without any unity. Nevertheless, this Ennead consistently revolves around issues and concepts central to Plotinus’s understanding of how the universe functions, the forces that pervade it and make it work as it does, and the way in which the various kinds of soul that Plotinus postulates (and which, according to the standard Platonic doctrine, are the cause of every change and motion in the world) govern and organize it into an integrated and coherent whole.
What Is to Be Explained, and How
Authors: McLean Ian W.
Published: November 2017

This chapter sets out the evidence of Australia's economic prosperity, covering the entire era of European settlement, and includes comparisons with the performance of other selected countries. Particular attention is paid to alternative measures of prosperity, their relationships to one another, and their limitations. As a first step toward the explanation of this evidence, the chapter reviews existing suggestions as to what are likely the most important determinants of Australia's levels of productivity and living standards. It also analyzes several literatures of relevance, especially those on Australian history, comparative economic history, and growth economics—both theoretical and empirical. The chapter argues that the determinants of this prosperity are pertinent to any accounting for the variation across time in Australia's average level of income.
Squatting, Colonial Autocracy, and Imperial Policies
Authors: McLean Ian W.
Published: November 2017

This chapter explores how the British military, convict workforce, and British government financial outlays laid the early foundations of a tiny local economy at the outer margins of a vast imperial project. From the 1820s, Australia's prosperity rested, initially, on the productivity of its labor force—convicts, emancipists, and free immigrants—and the occupation and exploratory utilization of a large area of natural grassland primarily for the production and export of wool. This geographical settlement and pastoral development occurred in a rapidly evolving institutional setting. Both in the economic and political spheres, institutional innovation and adaptation appears successfully to have underpinned the attainment of quite high incomes per capita even before the discovery of gold.
Shocks, Policy Shifts, and Another Long Boom
Authors: McLean Ian W.
Published: November 2017

This chapter explains how the higher level of prosperity attained during the second “golden age” was threatened during the late 1960s and early 1970s. Pressures for a significant restructuring in the economy arose from a boom in mineral production, the onset of Asian industrialization, and a spike in world energy prices. These forces eventually led to the adoption of more outward-oriented policies with respect to trade and capital flows and a more market-oriented approach to the regulation of the domestic economy—policies more akin to those pursued in the nineteenth century. In pursuit of enhanced levels of prosperity, the policy reforms during the 1980s and 1990s were numerous and significant, requiring the abolition or adaptation of some key economic institutions.
Erudition and Chronology in Seventeenth-Century England
Authors: Buchwald Jed Z. , Feingold Mordechai
Published: November 2017

This chapter explores the seventeenth-century English background within which Isaac Newton’s refiguring of Biblical and classical antiquity took shape. Only once did Newton address his chronological studies in public. Angered by the unauthorized 1725 French translation of the abstract of his Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms, he lashed out at the Venetian abbé Antonio Conti—the “friend” who had “betrayed” Newton’s confidence—and then proceeded to downplay the nature and extent of his interests. However, for Newton chronology was anything but a diversion; indeed, the lion’s share of his investigations was carried out after his move to London in 1696. That Newton sought to portray his chronological studies as the dabbling of a weary mind partly reflects what he understood to be the relatively low status accorded chronology in the pyramid of learning.
The War on Newton in France
Authors: Buchwald Jed Z. , Feingold Mordechai
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses the French response to Isaac Newton’s The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms. Among these is the critique by Jesuit Etienne Souciet. Souciet divided his remarks into five “dissertations. ” The first tries to counter “astronomical proofs”; the second provides “historical” arguments; the third uses medallions to counter Newton’s dating; the fourth critiques his use of regnal lengths; and the fifth, which is by far the longest, addresses Newton’s response to the Abrégé, while advancing Souciet’s own theory. The principal target of Souciet’s attack concerned the locations of the cardinal points.
Introduction
Authors: Buchwald Jed Z. , Feingold Mordechai
Published: November 2017

This introductory chapter discusses Isaac Newton’s immersion in ancient prophecies, Church history, and alchemy. These investigations raise several questions: what links his interest in such matters to his investigations in optics, mechanics, and mathematics? Was Newton in his alchemical laboratory the same Newton who analyzed the passage of light through a prism and who measured the behavior of bodies falling through fluid media? What did the Newton who interpreted the Book of Revelation have to do with the man who wrote the Principia Mathematica? And how does the Newton who pored over ancient texts square with the author of the Opticks? The Newton that is the subject of this book differs in striking ways from any scientist of the twenty-first century. But he differed as well from his contemporary natural philosophers, theologians, and chronologers. The book investigates the origin of this difference and then uses it to produce a new understanding of Newton’s worldview and its historical context.