bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Recent Cost Increases: Their Future Impacts on Agriculture
Authors: Boutwell Wayne A. , Little Thomas W.
Published: July 2016

The impact of rapidly escalating input prices of farm income, agricultural production, production adjustments, the general price level, the cost of living and capital requirements in the agricultural sector is a source of increasing concern to farmers, suppliers of capital to agriculture, and consumers of agricultural products. Record prices for agricultural commodities, such as feed grains and soybeans, partially masked the effects of a 52 percent increase in the index of prices paid for production items on net farm income during the period 1971–74. As agricultural machinery and farm buildings are replaced, world stocks of agricultural commodities are replenished, and domestic prices begin to decline, the magnitude of these cost increases will become more apparent.
National Markets and the Impacts of State Land Use and Environmental Programs
Authors: Heady Earl O. , Nagadevara V.S.S.V. , Nicol Kenneth J.
Published: July 2016

Environmental and resource quality recently have become special public concerns. A few states have already enacted legislation posing land use-environmental restrictions. Vermont, Hawaii, Colorado, Maine, Massachusetts and New York, passed land use laws. Illinois formed a Pollution Control Board to quantify nutrients and sediment polluting streams and suggest action. In 1971, the Iowa Legislature passed the “Conservancy District Act,” creating soil conservancy districts “to preserve and protect public interest in soil and water resources for future generations.” Legislation centers on soil erosion and sedimentation. Erosion is declared a nuisance if it results in siltation damage. The law sets allowable soil loss limits on land at one to five tons per acre per year, depending on soil type.
The Economics of Bolivian Self-Sufficiency in Wheat Production
Authors: Gomez D. Enrique , Gardner B. Delworth
Published: July 2016

The primary purpose of this paper is to provide estimates of the government subsidy that would have to be paid to wheat producers if Bolivia is to reach self-sufficiency in wheat. These estimates are then utilized in a producer's surplus analysis to determine whether or not such a policy would enhance the economic welfare of the country.

Bolivia has a chronic deficit in wheat production. Imports composed about 80 percent of consumption in 1971, the last year of our data series (Table 1). Domestic production in 1971 was roughly the same as 14 years earlier, while imports have steadily increased. A linear regression of imports on time revealed an annual increment of imports of 7,748 metric tons (MT), whereas total annual consumption increased by 8,833 MT. (Thus increases in imports have supplied about 88 percent of the estimated increases in consumption.) Requirements of foreign exchange for wheat purchases have been heavy, especially as Public Law 480 concessional sales have been winding down and Bolivia has had to turn to purely commercial transactions to satisfy her consumption requirements.
Estimating Marketing Margin Cost Components: An Application of Simulation to Products of the Vegetable Oil Industry
Authors: Lamm R. McFall
Published: July 2016

While many methods have been proposed for evaluating agricultural processing market efficiency, estimation of product marketing margins has received the most attention and direct research effort. Despite this fact, there are many technical and statistical problems associated with both the performance of marketing analyses and utilization of margin reports. Most early marketing margin studies either ignored or circumvented these problems, concentrating on estimating absolute magnitudes of marketing margins over time. Marketing margin studies performed in the last few years have continued, in varying degrees, to ignore these and other problems implicit in the analysis. Relative levels of marketing margins over time may provide some insight into marketing efficiency, but those of various cost components of the marketing margin over time appear to give even more suitable indications of changing market performance.
Empirical Measures of Risk for Selected Field and Horticultural Crops
Authors: Mathia Gene A.
Published: July 2016

Farm planning and enterprise selection have been studied by agricultural economists for many years. Detailed methodology has been developed to analyze the economic situation of farm firms and to project optimum combinations of resources used in producing selected enterprise activities. Programming techniques have been used extensively. They provided planning guidelines, with quality dependent on availability of data and completeness of the programming format.

One area of concern arising from many programming efforts is that resource utilization and, ultimately, enterprise selection do not accurately project the general patterns of production observed in a specific area. Furthermore, there is little observable indication that farmers tend to move toward the programming solution. This problem is apparent when more variable enterprises are programmed with traditionally less variable enterprises. The more variable enterprises are frequently indicated to be profitable in the programming solutions, but farmers are not very interested in growing them.
A Two-Pricing System for Exporting Frozen Concentrated Orange Juice
Authors: Ward Ronald W.
Published: July 2016

The Florida citrus industry is in the unique position of being both importer and exporter of frozen concentrated orange juice. On one hand, exports provide the industry with an additional outlet for concentrate. On the other, imports being brought into the U.S. market creates considerable controversy as to whether this imported juice is economically desirable for the industry.

Two basic issues have evolved from these international trading activities. First, Florida exports concentrate on both Canadian and European markets. The former differs little from the domestic market. In contrast, the European market is expected to differ substantially from the U.S. market. Florida faces a number of competing suppliers in Europe. Often, the price of foreign concentrate exported to Europe is priced lower than Florida's export price. Recognizing that competition exists in the European market, how then should Florida price its product relative to the world price? Similarly, should the Florida export price be discounted to the domestic?
Optimizing Soil Moisture Conservation by Mulch of Hydrophobic Aggregates Using Simulation and Numerical Search Procedures
Authors: Talpaz H. , Hillel D. I.
Published: July 2016

Reducing soil water losses due to evaporation, runoff or weeds, is a primary concern in the management of agriculture in arid and semiarid regions. A method has recently been proposed to promote infiltration and retard evaporation and weed infestation by waterproofing surface-zone clods with chemical agents to form a mulch of loose, dry clods. The effect of this treatment is to stabilize the clods against breakdown and consequent water and wind erosion. Rain or irrigation water can trickle off individual clods and flow downward through open spaces between them, thus penetrating directly into the deeper soil layers. In this way, the intake of water is enhanced and the hazard of runoff (entailing erosion) is reduced.
Voluntary Effort as a Tax Substitute in the Revenue-Sharing Allocation Formula
Authors: Lederer Thomas H. , Badenhop Merton B.
Published: July 2016

As a cost reducing measure, it is appropriate that local government officials use voluntary labor in their programs supplying public services to constituencies. The Revenue-Sharing Act of 1972, however, may actually serve as a disincentive to this use of voluntary effort, because the revenue-sharing allocation formula may discriminate against communities using voluntary labor. Stinson and Stam state that “the current allocation procedure (of revenue sharing) fails to take into account the cost of inputs which are not purchased with tax revenues” [7, p. 11]. They further suggest that “the most important of these neglected costs is the opportunity cost of voluntary labor” [7, p. 11]. Hitzhusen states, “to the extent the smaller communities substitute … volunteer for paid effort, then tax effort, and thus their revenue-sharing payment, is decreased” [2, p. 10]. The problem is one of examining alternative ways of modifying the present revenue-sharing allocation formula to include the value of voluntary effort. Providing fire protection services to rural areas by employing voluntary labor is the example used here.
Effects of Forage Quality Restrictions on Optimal Production Systems Determined by Linear Programming
Authors: Whitson Robert E. , Parks Don L. , Herd Dennis B.
Published: July 2016

Due to changing feed price relationships for beef production, it is anticipated that linear programming (LP) will be used to develop optimal feeding strategies for cow-calf operations in the South. An important relationship between forage quality and forage intake has been ignored in previous LP analyses. Forage quality and cows' intake of it are inversely related; i.e., as forage quality decreases with maturity, a cow's or calf's consumption of a particular forage must increase to continue meeting the animal's nutritional requirements. However, as the quality of forage decreases, digestibility decreases, and the animal's maximum intake capacity of that forage decreases (Figure 1). It is hypothesized that consideration of intake restrictions will change the optimal LP forage production system, livestock grazing system or supplemental feeding strategies when forages are an important nutrient source.
Estimating Education Production Functions in Rural and Urban Areas
Authors: Debertin David L.
Published: July 2016

Public elementary and secondary education represent the largest single expenditure by units of state and local governments. Nearly 30 percent of all tax dollars raised at the state and local level is spent for funding public elementary and secondary schools. The magnitude of expenditures for public education relative to other public goods makes questions concerning resource allocation for this service extremely important. It is not surprising that a great deal of attention has been directed toward determining if the educational process can be made more efficient.

Politicians, school administrators and other decision-makers who deal with school finance problems in rural and urban areas face a key policy question concerning the educational production process: “Does the spending of additional tax dollars in local public schools necessarily insure increased scholastic achievement for all students?”
Measuring Economic Growth in Rural Communities: The Shift-Share Approach
Authors: Gordon John , Darling David
Published: July 2016

Communities interested in economic growth and development need to be concerned with understanding at least three aspects of the development process. The first deals with identifying existing and historical composition of industry in the community, including an explanation of how changes in the study area differ from changes in other areas, and an identification of industries in which the community has had a comparative advantage. The second aspect deals with the many considerations involved in increasing desired economic activity in the community. This includes business and industrial development. The third aspect is addressed to estimating impacts of growth and development on the local community. Knowledge of expected consequences of alternative growth and development possibilities improves residents' ability to select preferred types of community growth. All three aspects must necessarily be considered as a community strives to expand and improve economic opportunity for its residents.
Tobacco Mechanization and Potential Out-Migration
Authors: Perkinson Leon B. , Hoover Dale M.
Published: July 2016

This paper reports an investigation of the potential out-migration response to flue-cured tobacco harvest mechanization in an eight county area of eastern North Carolina. The study is unique in that lost harvest earnings and potential out-migration response are reported in a household context. In addition, as the adoption process of mechanization is still in its beginning stages, out-migration responses are those that could be anticipated.

The impact of increased agricultural productivity and substitution of capital for labor are familiar to agricultural economists. So, too, is the social concern about farm-to-city migration which accompanied the mechanization of agriculture.
A Production Function for Florida Foliage Nurseries From Time-Series and Cross-Section Data
Authors: Gunter Dan L. , Emerson Robert D.
Published: July 2016

The foliage industry is the most rapidly expanding segment of commercial agriculture in Florida [1]. The industry accounted for about $13 million of the agricultural income in 1966 and over $187 million in 1975. The area in production in the state has more than doubled in the last ten years; it was increased from about 26 million square feet in 1966 to just over 65 million square feet in 1975. Nurserymen were expected to expand their production area by about 8.6 million square feet during 1976 [14].

This rapid increase in production area has been from expansion of established producers and entry of new growers into the industry. The producers increased from 163 in 1966 to 262 in 1975. The average foliage nurseryman participating in the Florida Cooperative Extension nursery business analysis program expanded employment from 23 employees in 1970 to 30 in 1975.
Supply Response by Traditional and Commercial Producers of Basic Grains in LDCs
Authors: Alvarez Jose , Andrew Chris O.
Published: July 2016

Traditional farms can play an important role in the agricultural development process [4, 6, 7, 8]. Less developed countries (LDCs) emphasize production and productivity increases for basic grains by relying on modern yield-increasing technology [2]. Technological advance, however, may produce diverging results; productivity may increase while production stagnates or declines. Due to both major seasonal and cyclical price fluctuations in basic grains and income limitations, traditional farmers in LDCs choose, quite rationally, to grow only enough of some food crops for home consumption. Yet policy makers often seek to increase the marketed supply of food crops and to determine possible changes in land utilization to meet that objective.
Demand and Supply of Vegetable Oil Products in the United States: A Short-Run Analysis
Authors: Lamm R. McFall
Published: July 2016

Over the last decade consumption of vegetable oil products in the United States has increased enormously. Per capita consumption of vegetable oil products rose from 30.6 pounds in 1965 to 43.1 pounds in 1975—an increase of more than 40 percent. This expansion continues a historic trend and represents the single largest ten-year increment in the last fifty years [1, 2, 3]. The principal vegetable oils used in domestic products are soybean, cottonseed and corn oil. For this reason the increase in consumer demand for vegetable oil products over the last decade has had an important effect on the derived demand for soybeans, cottonseed and corn.
Factors Affecting Efficiency of Feeder Cattle Hedging in Kentucky
Authors: O'Bryan Stephen L. , Bobst Barry W. , Davis Joe T.
Published: July 2016

Recent commodity price volatility and development of new futures contracts has kindled interest in hedging among farmers in many parts of the country. Due to the importance of feeder cattle production in Kentucky and in the South generally, recent development of a feeder cattle contract is of special interest. This paper addresses some potential problems associated with use of feeder cattle futures markets by Kentucky producers. Specifically, it tries to: (1) determine the effect, if any, of location basis variability on ex post hedging results in Kentucky markets versus delivery markets at Omaha and Oklahoma City, (2) assess the ability of hedging to reduce revenue variability as compared to cash marketing and (3) determining the presence of bias in feeder cattle futures prices.
Response—External Finance: A Necessary Component in Growth Projections for Southern Agriculture
Authors: Penson John B.
Published: July 2016

The discussion of my paper by Emanuel Melichar presented elsewhere in this issue of theJournalinitially focuses on use of mathematical notation when discussing concepts and theory in the absence of corresponding empirical estimates. Apparently attempting to demonstrate how a relatively simple task—illustrating the areas in which financing considerations should be included in sector projections models—was made difficult by using “hieroglyphics,” Melichar summarizes the equations in my paper with brief, one sentence descriptive statements. Unfortunately, he chooses to ignore the fact that economic relationships inherent in each equationwerediscussed so that “decoding by faithful readers” is not required by those uninterested in issues related to specification of variables or aggregate model design.
Verification of Linear Programming Solutions, with Emphasis on Supply Implications
Authors: Shumway C. Richard , Talpaz Hovav
Published: July 2016

Linear programming (LP) models have been developed for a wide range of normative purposes in agricultural production economics. Despite their widespread application, a pervading concern among users is reliability — how well does a particular model actually describe and/or predict real world phenomena when it is so designed.

Much attention has been devoted in recent years to methods for making programming models produce results more in line with those actually observed. These efforts have included development of more detail in production activities and restrictions, incorporation of flexibility constraints into recursive programming systems, specification of more realistic behavioral properties, and development of guidelines for reducing aggregation error.
On The Facilitative Role of the Economist in Economic Development—Case Study of a Georgia Shrimp Harbor Investment
Authors: Miller B. R. , Ersoz A. , North R. M.
Published: July 2016

The major premise of this paper is rather simple, but hopefully provocative to those economists concerned with real world problems and willing to enter controversial situations. Economic development, as typically encountered, is often controversial. Seldom in the modern economy do we find a Pareto optimum development that makes some people better off while leaving no one worse off. Even when this ideal is realized in the long-run, lack of instantaneous adjustment to new parameters of development means that new investment or organizational change is threatening to someone. Furthermore, both those threatened by development and those who stand to gain may have recognized relative merits of a particular development long before it comes to an economist's attention. This speaks well of the free enterprise system, but may be disconcerting to the ivory tower economist whose hope is that “my results” will be used by other economists or decision-makers who will, in turn, produce development efforts. Although the domino theory may be valid, all too frequently the dominoes fail to fall because of the scarcity of practicing economists in active development efforts.
Food Stamp Program Impact on Resource Use: Texas Compared with The U.S., Fiscal Year 1974
Authors: Nelson Paul E. , Perrin John
Published: July 2016

During fiscal year 1974 the National Food Stamp Program disbursed $2.7 billion in bonus stamps. Of this amount, Texas received about $208 million. These money injections will increase each economy's final demand, ceteris paribus.

However, an increase in the final demand of low income households will result in a discernibly different pattern of resource allocation than would occur if it came from high income households: the larger the increase in final demand, the greater the impact on patterns of resource use. The amount of bonus stamps distributed has reached a point where impacts may be identifiable.

The source of funds likewise affects such expenditure patterns and resulting resource use. For example, when funds for bonus stamps are raised by increasing taxes of the higher income households, their expenditure patterns will reflect their increased tax payments. In contrast, when funds are raised by sale of government securities, the immediate impact will be different, in part because individuals account for only about 16 percent of the ownership of all federal securities.
Adjustments of Midwest Grain Farm Businesses in Response to Increases in Petroleum Energy Prices
Authors: Kliebenstein James B. , Chavas Jean-Paul
Published: July 2016

Since the early 1970s, the increasingly tight energy situation has introduced a new emphasis, if not a wholly new concern, into the economics of agriculture. Assuming the tight energy situation continues, or even intensifies in the future, it is likely to require economic adjustment in U.S. agriculture—an agriculture heavily dependent on fossil fuels.

Dvoskin and Heady have shown that when maximizing farm profits is the primary goal, energy price levels have a minimal impact on acres of crops produced under reduced tillage methods in the U.S.. However, when energy minimization was the primary goal, there was a substantial shift from conventional to reduced tillage. An ERS study proposes that forms of reduced tillage can be a major means of achieving fuel savings. Reduced tillage methods do reduce fuel requirements, but these are accompanied by higher chemical requirements. Eidman, Dobbins and Mapp found that with current energy prices, a form of reduced tillage for corn production was preferable to conventional tillage methods. In a recent study, Musser and Marable concluded that with respect to machinery purchases, energy cost increases are providing incentives for substitution of labor for capital.
Fire Protection Alternatives for Rural Areas
Authors: Badenhop M. B. , Jones T. Morris
Published: July 2016

Studies show that populations of 10-12 thousand and more are needed before maximum savings in providing fire protection services to rural areas can be achieved. Yet, many rural areas have smaller, widely scattered populations, lax building codes and inadequate water supplies. Fire damage to rural property is three to six times greater per occurrence than for city property. Also, insurance costs are about six times greater on unprotected farm property than on protected. Data published for 1974 conditions indicate that all rural Tennessee counties and 45 percent of its municipalities were assigned Class 10, the lowest possible fire protection rating, denoting little or no fire fighting capability.
The Incidence, Nature, and Implications of Price-Fixing Litigation in U.S. Food Industries
Authors: Polopolus Leo , Wershow James S.
Published: July 2016

Antitrust laws generally seek to promote competition in U.S. markets. Alternatively, these laws attempt to correct the type of market failure that occurs when the market does not sustain price competition or embodies undesirable features, such as prices fixed and agreed upon by rival sellers. It is well known that the federal policy to curb price-fixing agreements was central to the enactment of the Sherman Act of 1890. Formal cartels of the 19th and early 20th centuries, with their sales quotas, exclusive sales agencies, price-fixing committees, and customer and geographic sales allocations, apparently have been eliminated from the contemporary scene. Despite the disappearance of United States based formal cartels, there has been considerable litigation in recent years over pricing behavior of individual firms. A wide array of agricultural and food industries have been involved in these actions.
Research Needs in Agricultural Economics from the Extension Perspective: Attitudes vs. an Inventory of Needs
Authors: Sprott J. Michael
Published: July 2016

It would be presumptive of me to inject an Alabama bias into the rank ordering of research needs which should be addressed by the agricultural economist; I prefer to address the issue of how priorities will be set and how the use of the research will be brought about.

These topics have received much attention over the last decade, in the journals of both the Southern Agricultural Economics Association and the American Agricultural Economics Association.
Location Determinants of Manufacturing Industry in Rural Areas
Authors: Smith Eldon D. , Deaton Brady J. , Kelch David R.
Published: July 2016

The spatial distribution of economic activity has been the subject of much theoretical study during the last 150 years. The two-state study which provides primary evidence for this article is, to the authors' knowledge, the first attempt to analyze statistically the determinants of industrial location in rural communities with an explicit objective of more enlightened public action at the local, state, and federal levels.
The Demand for Gasoline and Diesel Fuel in Agricultural Use in Virginia
Authors: Capps Oral , Havlicek Joseph
Published: July 2016

A useful guide for the direction of future agricultural policy on energy requires, in part, detailed knowledge of the demand for different types of energy in different types of agriculture. Two approaches have been used in examining these demand relationships: (1) projecting total agricultural energy requirements, allocating these requirements among different agricultural subsectors, and estimating energy use in different agricultural enterprises; and (2) linear programming (LP) or constrained input-output (I/O) analyses to assess impacts of high energy prices and quantity restrictions on agricultural activities. However, these approaches usually require some stringent assumptions which limit the applicability of the results, and they provide little information about the economic factors that influence the demand for various types of energy. In short, the two approaches may be too restrictive to portray adequately the range of opportunity and response open to the agricultural sector. Emphasis needs to be given to those approaches which can provide information about the economic structure of energy use in the agricultural sector.
U.S. Grapefruit Exports and Japanese Trade Restrictions
Authors: Ward Ronald W. , Tang John
Published: July 2016

The U.S. grapefruit industry is dependent on continual growth in fresh sales in both domestic and foreign markets. From 1969 to 1975 slightly more than 40 percent of each season's output went to fresh use. Much of the future growth in fresh use is expected to come from new and larger export markets. Both political and economic trade problems continue to occur as greater emphasis is placed on the export markets for fresh grapefruit. Threats of Japanese embargoes and restrictions on containers and fumigants present continual problems with the development of the Japanese export market. The ultimate result of these export restrictions is reallocation of supplies among markets.
An Area Economic Development Impact Model for Extension Application
Authors: Nelson James R.
Published: July 2016

Most area economic development impact models are based on the premise that the basis of an area economy is a group of local firms which produce goods and services for sale outside the area. Agriculture, mining, and manufacturing firms typically make up a large part of such a group of exporting or basic firms. However, in most communities and some larger areas, many service firms (wholesale, retail, transportation, finance, medical, utilities) sell some of their products outside the local economy. These exports are part of the area's economic base. That portion of the output of the firms in an area which goes to satisfy local demands is nonbasic output. Area employment used to produce basic and nonbasic goods and services can be classified similarly as basic and nonbasic employment, respectively.
Issues and Problems in Agricultural Water Demand Estimation from Secondary Data Sources
Authors: Lynne Gary D.
Published: July 2016

Economists have a continued and justified interest in agricultural water demand estimation. Water is becoming a scarce resource throughout much of the United States, even in “water abundant” eastern states such as Florida. As a result, new water institutions are evolving to address the water allocation problems. Estimates of values in alternative uses are important information in these water allocation decision processes.
Were U.S. Crop Yields Random in Recent Years?
Authors: Lin Kuang-hsing T. , Seaver Stanley K.
Published: July 2016

After three to four decades of substantial increase, yields per acre of major U.S. crops appear to have tapered off. The average annual rate of growth in crop yields decreased markedly from 2.7 percent for the 1950s to 1.8 percent for the 1960s, and finally fell to 0.1 percent for the first half of the 1970s. Scientists commissioned by the National Academy of Sciences to investigate agriculture production efficiency first discovered the problem [6]. Concern about the situation was expressed in the literature early this year by both a plant physiologist and agricultural economists. If a crop yield series has reached and remains on a plateau, it would conform with what is expected in a stationary or trendless series. Therefore, examination of the leveling of crop yields can be accomplished by testing for the presence or absence of a trend in the series.
Human Capital and Labor Turnover in Manufacturing Industries: The Case of a Relatively Undeveloped Region in Southeast Ohio
Authors: Acquah Emmanuel T. , Hushak Leroy J.
Published: July 2016

Since 1970, increased attention has been devoted to examining the development potential of rural areas. Among the contributing factors are the reversal of population migration trends which began about 1970, the increasing dispersion of manufacturing activities, and the congestion and population losses of central urban cities. This study, as part of Title V research in Ohio, is an examination of labor force behavior in manufacturing. Although manufacturing employment has declined in relation to total employment in the region, the manufacturing sector has been and continues to be one of the major sources of income and employment. The characteristics and behavior of labor in this region are expected to be similar to those of many other rural areas in the United States, particularly areas of the Appalachian region.
A Computerized Remote-Access Commodity Market: Telcot
Authors: Ethridge Don E.
Published: July 2016

Cotton marketing, like the marketing of other agricultural commodities, traditionally has been done through relatively small country markets. Problems for cotton producers resulting from this type of market structure are the limited availability of market price information and the limited degree of buyer competition for their product at the local level. Though these are seemingly inherent problems in local markets, new technologies in the form of electronic markets can help to overcome them.
Evaluating Vegetable Production for Market Windows as an Alternative for Limited Resource Farmers
Authors: Colette W. Arden , Wall G. Brian
Published: July 2016

Increased vegetable production for the fresh market often has been suggested as an agricultural alternative that will improve the income situation of small-scale farmers. Because vegetable production is an intensive activity and high incomes per acre are possible, it has political appeal as a quick solution to the low income levels generally associated with small farm operations. This study was developed from the small farm program of the University of Florida, which has concentrated on the northern and panhandle areas of Florida. Trials conducted by the Vegetable Crops Department of the University of Florida in 1974 and 1975 indicate that by variation of the planting season and control of insects and diseases, vegetables can be produced during periods of the year when the north Florida area has not historically competed in the fresh vegetable market.
Efficient Interfacing of the Truck-To-Ship Intermodal Grain Transfer System: Port of Houston
Authors: Fuller Stephen , Paggi Mechel
Published: July 2016

Agricultural transportation is often characterized by seasonal and cyclical traffic flows that unfavorably affect the logistical efficiency of the marketing system. Congestion problems arise in the truck-to-ship intermodal grain transfer system at the Port of Houston. Seasonal peaks in truck-delivered grain receipts create problems with efficient interfacing of the port elevators' grain-receiving capacity and truck arrival patterns. During peak volume periods, the elevators' receiving capacity is inadequate; long truck queues develop and congestion or waiting occurs. Queues of 3-4 miles are common during the peak receipt periods, whereas the facility may be idle for extended periods of off-peak time.
Influence of Market Diversification on Farm Income Variability of Soybean Producers
Authors: Eddleman B. R. , Moya-Rodriguez J. E.
Published: July 2016

Many decisions made by farm producers are based on expectations. The process of formulating and incorporating these expectations into decision making is difficult when high variability occurs in product prices, crop yields, production costs, or other factors affecting net income. Farm producers may be influenced by a number of goals in selecting combinations of crops to produce and marketing outlets for the crops. Two goals generally held to be important to farm decision makers are maximization of net income and net income stability. Given the price, yield, and cost of production variability characteristics of a farm enterprise and these two goals of farm decision makers, a fundamental problem is to determine what combination of alternative marketing actions can best satisfy the two objectives. A systematic examination of the relationship between the level of net income and net income variability for combinations of marketing alternatives would aid farmers in deciding on marketing actions to attain these goals.
Structure of the U.S. and West Texas Early Summer Onion Markets
Authors: Davis Bob , Hise Billy R.
Published: July 2016

In recent years, producers in West Texas have sought alternatives to traditional field crops in an effort to maintain or increase farm income. Declining groundwater supplies available for irrigation and sharply increasing fuel costs have served to reduce returns from traditional field crops. Vegetables, which offer much higher average returns per acre, are one alternative to field crops. However, production of vegetable crops introduces some difficult problems. The price of most vegetables is very erratic from season to season and often within the same season. Though on the average the income received per acre from vegetables is much higher, the risk of loss due to low prices for vegetables is also much higher.
Foreign Trade, Protection, and Multinational Activity in U.S. Food Processing Industries
Authors: Pagoulatos Emilio , Sorensen Robert
Published: July 2016

The analytical framework of international trade and industrial organization is used to review and test some new hypotheses about the effect of foreign trade, protection, and foreign direct investment on domestic profitability of U.S. food processing industries. Though several studies have examined the relationship between market structure and performance in food processing [7, 10], they are based on an implicit assumption that the economy is closed. The extensive multinational expansion of American food processors, documented by Horst [8], and their growing dependence on foreign trade suggest that this assumption has become untenable and that the proper identification of industrial structure must account for these foreign factors.
Analysis of USDA Funded Rural Development Research Programs in the United States and the Southern Region
Authors: Otto Daniel , Havlicek Joseph
Published: July 2016

The improvement of economic and social conditions in rural areas has long been a special goal in our nation's history. Rural development is a broad-scale effort encompassing the many dimensions or conditions which determine the quality of life, such as access to public services and facilities, economic development, and the protection or enhancement of natural and environmental resources. As suggested by this diversity of programs, numerous government agencies and academic disciplines are involved in the process of rural development.
Ground Beef: Implications for the Southeastern U.S. Beef Industry
Authors: Conner J. Richard , Rogers Robert W.
Published: July 2016

Currently the United States consumes an estimated 39 to 45 percent of its beef in the “ground” form [3, 7, 8]. As recently as 1972 the estimated percentage of beef consumed as ground was only 33 [3] and some industry leaders have estimated the proportion by 1985 to be from 50 to 65 percent [5, 8, 11, 12]. This increasing trend in the percentage of beef consumed in the ground form is often attributed to several factors including (1) an increase in the percentage of wives working away from home which results in more “eating out” and less home preparation of “traditional” meat dishes for those meals consumed at home, and (2) the continuing growth of the fast-food restaurants and their popular “hamburger” meals [5, 8, 11, 12].
A Variance Component Approach To Industry Cost Analysis
Authors: Kilmer Richard L. , Tilley Daniel S.
Published: July 2016

Cost and volume data used in long-run cost studies often are observations from a single cross-section on firms or the average of multiple observations for each firm [1, 3, 5]. Averaging costs and volume over a time series is designed to eliminate the effect of short-run disturbances on the estimated long-run cost function. This practice results in a loss of information on the cost effects of short-run disturbances and significantly reduces the potential degrees of freedom that could result from pooling cross-sectional time-series data. In order to pool data, binary variables for each firm previously have been used to account for short-run fixed firm effects [4].
An Econometric Model of Manufacturing Employment Growth in Rural Tennessee Counties from 1962 to 1976
Authors: Leuck Dale J.
Published: July 2016

Modeling local and regional manufacturing activity is an important component of economic research. Models that explain the levels of local aggregates, such as employment, aid the efforts of state and local governments to influence the future course of economic activity. Such models also aid private decision makers in their efforts to develop feasibility studies of projects representing different investment alternatives. Input-output and economic base studies are the most common means of modeling local economic activity. These studies, though useful in assessing the multiplier effects of changes in local manufacturing activity, do not capture the temporal influence of national economic trends or the specific community characteristics responsible for varying levels of manufacturing activity. Econometric models, being more flexible and less expensive, may better serve the latter purposes.
Economics of Swine Crossbreeding Systems
Authors: Merrell Randall A. , Shumway C. Richard , Sanders James O. , Tanksley T. D.
Published: July 2016

Crossbreeding in commercial hog operations is widely practiced and has increased substantially in recent years. Perhaps the most important positive feature of crossbreeding is heterosis, i.e., the performance of crossbred progeny is superior to the average performance of the parents. In addition, producers have much wider options in breeding for desired carcass traits and sire and dam characteristics when blending breeds than when making genetic selection within any single breed. The costs to the firm are primarily managerial because of the necessity of buying replacements, frequently rotating boar breed, or maintaining miniherds to produce replacements for the breeding herd. Over the long run there is also a potential cost to the industry of reducing the number of purebred lines from which the crossbreds are derived and thus slowing genetic improvements within breeds.
A Framework for Food and Agricultural Policy in the 1980s
Authors: Lee John E.
Published: July 2016

The thesis of this article is that food and agricultural policy in the 1980s will be shaped by emerging economic, social, and political realities that are different from the realities which gave rise to policies and programs of the 1920s, 1930s, and 1940s and which, modified, continued through the 1970s. The characteristics of this new policy environment include:

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A changed economic structure and character of United States agriculture, and thus a changed constituency with changed policy needs.

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The internationalization of U.S. agriculture with its favorable and unfavorable implications, but which imposes certain constraints and disciplines on domestic agricultural and food policy.

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The prospect of a new supply and demand “equilibrium” and the end of 60 years of adjustment to supply growing faster than demand.

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The new, broadened context within which agricultural policies and programs must be considered.
Commodity Policy Issues for the 1980s
Authors: Ericksen Milton H. , Johnson James D.
Published: July 2016

National food, agriculture, and trade policies operate in part through commodities. In our view, commodity policy encompasses the actions policymakers direct toward individual commodities in their attempt to influence supply, demand, price, farm income, and resource use. The instruments or provisions Executive branch policymakers use are granted by Congress through legislation. In this article we consider commodity-related developments that could occur in the 1980s and relate those developments to issues that policymakers will confront. We examine the economic pressures likely to affect producers, the instruments that policymakers may seek, and the legislative response.
Some Evidence on Pecuniary Economies of Size for Farm Firms
Authors: Tew Bernard V. , Spurlock Stan , Musser Wesley N. , Miller Bill R.
Published: July 2016

Economies of size for farm firms in the United States are a traditional interest of agricultural economists (Heady). Continued interest in this topic is related to the implication of economies of size for the size structure of farm firms. The structure issue has the potential to affect not only current farm firms but also agricultural marketing firms, rural communities, and consumers of agricultural commodities (Krause and Kyle). In the past, the relationship between economies of size and farm firm growth was the basis for research. More recently, the relationship of economies of size to public policy issues has gained attention (Bardnam, Hall and LeVeen, Seckler and Young).
Measurement and Modeling of Farmers' Goals: An Evaluation and Suggestions
Authors: Patrick George F. , Blake Brian F.
Published: July 2016

Farmers and other business people commonly consider multiple goals or objectives in their-decisions, especially investment or other long-run decisions. Various techniques, such as discussed by Keeney and Raiffa, have been developed to incorporate multiple goals or objectives in decision making. These techniques differ in how the decision-making process is viewed, empirical data required about goals, and solution algorithms. Considerable emphasis has been given to development of alternative models and solution algorithms, but problems (Willis and Perlack), of quantifying farmers' goals for use in these models have received relatively little attention.
The Future of Commodity Programs: Some Comments
Authors: Schuh G. Edward
Published: July 2016

Three excellent papers addressing the future of commodity programs were presented at the SAEA Annual Meeting in February 1980. Each has some very important strengths. “Commodity Policy Issues for the 1980s” by Erickson and Johnson is almost encyclopedic in its coverage, while at the same time being issue-oriented and presenting some very pertinent data. Pasour's “A Critique of Federal Agricultural Programs” is an effective assessment of commodity programs as they existed in the past. Goodwin and his colleagues do yeoman's work in attempting to defend current programs in “The Future of Federal Programs for Southern Commodities.” I assume the contrast between that paper and Pasour's was intentional. Certainly the two of them together help to focus the issues.
Assessment of the Price Impact of the South Carolina Cucumber Marketing Order
Authors: Wells Gary J. , Pittman Jerold F.
Published: July 2016

In 1970 a marketing order, made possible by a 1968 state enabling act, was formed for South Carolina fresh market cucumbers. This legislation is similar to current federal legislation, but South Carolina has no federal marketing order for cucumbers. Order provisions that affect price formation are the subject of this article. Price posting and adoption of statewide USDA inspection requirements are the order provisions that yield the largest and most direct price impact (S.C. Cucumber Board.) The apparent goal of these provisions is higher and more stable prices.

The objective of our research is to investigate the success of the South Carolina marketing order in achieving its goal of higher and more stable fresh market cucumber prices.
An Analysis of Policy Alternatives for the U.S. Burley Tobacco Market
Authors: Reed Michael R.
Published: July 2016

The U.S. burley tobacco industry faces an important crossroad in this decade. It appears that domestic disappearance of burley tobacco will continue to decrease and U.S. burley tobacco will continue to have stiff competition in foreign markets. The government can influence the U.S. tobacco market in the coming decade through its tobacco program. The alternatives available to government policy makers must be analyzed to help guide policy formulation.
The Impact of Capital Gains Tax Treatments on Optimal Livestock Enterprise Selection
Authors: Pounder John T. , Schoney Richard A. , Peterson Gustof A.
Published: July 2016

Current income tax provisions bear little resemblance to those enacted by the original law, the Revenue Act of 1913. Because of the progressive nature of the federal income tax, a need for special provisions for capital gains was recognized. In 1921, gains from the sale or disposition of capital assets and certain other capital items were identified and taxed differently from income from other sources. The capital gains provisions resulted in the separation of ordinary and capital gains income.

Gains and losses from the sale or exchange of a capital asset and other capital items are classified as either short- or long-term, depending on the period of time the property is held. Income from items held for less than the required period is taxed as ordinary income. Income from items held for longer than the required period receive preferential treatment only if the net long-term gain exceeds the net short-term capital loss. If long-term capital gains are realized, 60 percent of the excess gain is claimable as a deduction; the remaining 40 percent of the net gain is taxed at the taxpayer's ordinary tax rate. If the net short-term capital gain exceeds the net long-term loss, 100 percent of the excess is taxable at the normal rate.
Research Productivity and Selected Characteristics of Agricultural Economics Research and Teaching Faculty in the Southern Region
Authors: Broder Josef M. , Ziemer Rod F.
Published: July 2016

Among agricultural economics faculty in the Southern region of the United States, awareness of research productivity, teaching loads, and faculty rewards is growing. Studies on research productivity have included classifications of contributors to this journal (Oursbourn, Hardin, and Lacewell), the Journal of Farm Economics (Holland and Redman), and major economic journals (Opaluch and Just). The findings generally indicate that agricultural economics faculty of universities in the Southern region have not ranked very high as contributors to major economic journals (Holland and Redman). Opaluch and Just found only two universities in the Southern region among the top 20 universities contributing papers to the American Journal of Agricultural Economics. Among universities contributing to major national economic journals, only one of the top twelve was in the Southern region.