bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
E
Authors: Bunson Matthew
Published: November 2023

EBURACUM (York) Town in the north of Britain (BRITANNIA); originally belonging to the BRIGANTES but conquered by the Roman General AGRICOLA in 78 A.D. He made Eburacum into a powerful fort, stationing a legion there and launching his campaigns into the far north from that new post. Subsequent Roman conquests stabilized the region, and Eburacum achieved the status of coloniaand eventually became a municipiumas well. It was the leading city in Roman Britain next to LONDINIUM (London), and it wasthe most important military post in the isles. When the numerous breakthroughs on the frontier by the Caledonians threatened the city’s survival in the 2nd and 3rd centuries A.D., the counterattacks of Septimius SEVERUS were based in Eburacum. In the late 3rd century, CONSTANTIUS chose the site as his personal residence, and on July 25, 306, he died there, as had Septimius Severus a century before. Constantius’s son, CONSTANTINE, was hailed as emperor by the legions of Eburacum shortly afterward. EURONES People of German origin, who crossed into Gallia Belgica to settle there sometime in the 2nd or 1st centuries B.c. They were a leading party in the revolt against Julius Caesar in Gaul in 54 B.c. Under their King AMBIORIX, the Eburones successfully lured out and destroyed Caesar’s legate, Q. Titurius Sabinus, at ADUATUCA. The Eburones participated in the unsuccessful general uprising following Aduatuca but were isolated by Caesar’s deliber3te policy of reducing the mutinous tribes one by one in the spring of 53 B.c. The Eburones were the last, and during that year the Roman legions marched into Gallia Belgica. Ambiorix fled over the Rhine, and his people ceased to be a vital entity.
F
Authors: Bunson Matthew
Published: November 2023

FABIAN (d. 250 A.D.) Bishop of Rome and leader of the Christian community there from 232 to 250; he divided the city into seven regions or districts to improve the spiritual administration. In 250, when Emperor DECIUS launched his terrible persecutions, Fabian had the distinction of being the first martyr. FABIANUS PAPIRIUS (fl. 1st century A.D.) Roman philosopher; probably born in the late 1st century B.c. and ,studied rhetoric before speaking and teaching on his own. His most famous pupil was SENECA, who ardently defended his writings by claiming that in style and philosophy Fabian was surpassed only by LIVY, CICERO and Asinius POLLIO. Fabianus also wrote on natural history and was quoted by PLINY THE ELDER in his Natural History . FALCO, SOSIUS (fl. late 2nd century A.D.) Consul in 192 (with Erucius Clarus). For a brief time in 193, he ,vas proposed as a replacement for the short-reigned PER­-Z1NAX, but never received popular support. FARMING Rome began as a community of farmers and shepherds, as with other cultures throughout the Mediterranean. The Romans, however, made farming a major ,eiconomic support of their imperial endeavors. Farming was for centuries the gauge of prosperity, both in Italy and in the provinces, and its decline signaled the true deterioration of imperial power and vitality. Although the Greeks, Egyptians and other cultures increased the efficiency of growing crops throughout the Hellenic and later Seleucid eras, the innovative Roman farmers did much to improve the entire system. Crop rotation, amelioration, fertilization and harvesting were all adapted to Italian lands, and agricultural output was vast. Colonies were founded in Italy, especially in such regions as Sicily (SICILIA), as former army veterans ploughed and reaped the benefits of the fertile soil.
H
Authors: Bunson Matthew
Published: November 2023

HADRIAN (Publius Aelius Hadrianus) (76-138 A.D.) Emperor from 117 to 138 A.O., his reign marked one of the great ages in the history of the Roman Empire. Hadrian was born the son of Publius Aelius Hadrianus Afer and Domitia Paulina. The date of his birth was reported as January 24, 76, in Rome, although his family came from Picenum in Italy and had lived in ltalica, a town of Hispania Baetica. Connections to the imperial palace came from the marriage of his grandfather, a senator, to Ulpia, the aunt of TRAJAN. Thus when Hadrian’s father died in 85, the lad fell under the care of his guardians, Trajan himself (not yet emperor) and Acilius ATTIANUS, both of whom would prove influential in his subsequent development. During his education, Hadrian displayed an intense fondness for all things Greek, earning the nickname “Greekling.” Through Trajan’s influence he entered into government service and held the powerful rank of tribune, with posts in Pannonia, Moesia and Germania Superior. During this last posting, with the XXII Legion, the Primigenia Pia Fide/is,word arrived in October of 97 that Nerva had died. Trajan succeeded him. Hadrian hurried to give him congratulations and never ceased to enjoy the emperor’s favor, journeying with him to Rome. There Hadrian married Trajan’s grandniece, Vibia Sabina.
M
Authors: Bunson Matthew
Published: November 2023

MACEDONIA Roman province that, in the time of Philip and Alexander the Great, was the most powerful nation in the ancient world. Its armies conquered the Persian Empire, and Alexander’s generals, Seleucus Nicator and Ptolemy, created their own kingdoms. The homeland and its armies and generals began to feel the pressure of Rome by the 2nd century B.c. Rome terminated Macedonian mastery over Greece by 168 B.C., when General Lucius PAULLUS won the battle of Pydna over King Perseus, son of Philip V. Pydna proved for all time that the venerable phalanx of the Macedonians was useless against the legions, and Romans controlled the entire eastern Mediterranean. Initial Roman policy in Macedonia centered on retaining a high degree of self-government. Toward this end, the old realm was divided into four separate republics. This arrangement worked only until 148 B.c., when a revolt was started by Andriscus. To improve the administrative deficiencies that had allowed the uprising in the first place, the Romans seized outright the entire country, declaring it a province. Atthat time it contained most of Greece as well. All of this changed with Emperor Augustus, who perceived Macedonia’s importance strategically when he formulated coherent plans for the region. Augustus’ first objective was to remove any chance of local trouble. Macedonia had always been plagued by tribal incursions from Dacia and Thrace. Thus, in 30 B.C., the legate M. Licinius Crassus was sent with four legions. In a series of brilliantly waged campaigns, Crassus reduced the strength of the surrounding people, pacified Macedonia and established a buffer zone with client chieftains. By 27 u.c. Crassus’ work was done. Augustus declared Macedonia a province in the care of the Senate. Its size, however, was reduced as other provinces, Achaea and Epirus, were carved out of it.
N
Authors: Bunson Matthew
Published: November 2023

NABATAEANS An ancient Arabian people who occupied an extensive part of Palestine, stretching through 1orthem ARABIA into areas on both sides of the Red Sea md north to eastern IDUMAEA and the Dead Sea. The capital of the Nabataeans (or Nabataei) was the stone city of ‘ETRA. Founded in the 4th century B.C., Petra eventually ·served as a major trade center. Caravans from the Mediverranean ports moved through the city to the Far East, and the Nabataeans based their wealth on trade in Arabian incense and myrrh, Indian spices, and silk and other textiles from China. In tum, their kings started vast expansion programs along the Red Sea and into JUOAEA and SYRIA. The advance southward was highly successful, as most of the Red Sea coast fell into their hands. Campaigns .against Judaea proved both expensive and fruitless. King Aretas II was prevented by the Priest-King Jannaeus Alexander from acquiring land in that domain and in Gaza, 1lthough Aretas III, in 85 B.C., temporarily held Damascus. The inevitable collision with Rome came in 65 B.c., when Aretas III was induced by a minister, ANTIPATER oF 1ouMAEA, to invade Judaea and support the claim of HYRANUS for the Jewish throne against Hyrcanus’ brother, ARISTOBULUS. Aretas marched into the area to besiege Arstobulus at Jerusalem. Pompey’s lieutenant, Aemilius caurus, forced Aretas to give up the siege, and the NaJataeans, unwilling to engage the armies of Rome, retired. A formal treaty was signed later between the Romans and Petra, and Nabataea was recognized as a reliable client. The Nabataeans gave slight resistance to the prefect of Egypt, Aelius GALLUS, in his attempted conquest of Arabia and supplied troops for Roman use. When Gaius Caesar traveled to the East for Augustus (c. 1 B C.) he reminded them of their obligations. In 106 A.O., under Trajan, Cornelius Palma and his Legion conquered the Nabataeans, and the kingdom became the province of Arabia Petraea.
P
Authors: Bunson Matthew
Published: November 2023

PACATIANUS, TITUS CLAUDIUS MARINUS (d.c.249 A.D.) Usurper in the reign of PHILIP the Arab (c. 248-249); probably of the senatorial class and an officer on 1he Danube frontier. Shortly after declaring himself, he lost 1he support of the legions in Moesia and Pannonia and was killed. PACATUS, LATINUS DREPANIUS (fl. late 4th century) One of the most gifted rhetoricians of the Late Empire. Like his friend and older colleague, Ausonius, Pacatus came from Gaul. He served as proconsul of Africa in 390 and as comes rerum privatarumunder Theodosius I around 393. His panegyric on TI1eodosius, delivered before the Senate in Rome in 389, displayed a classical up-bringing, a blend of Christianity and paganism, and a sense oi’ legend and history. PACHOMIUS (c. 290-346 A.D.) The founder of Christian monasticism; born to a pagan family, probably ir1 Upper Egypt. After serving unhappily in the army of MAXIMINUS DAIA until 313, he became a Christian and was baptized. Initially, Pachomius lived as a hermit under the guidance of a fellow hermit, PALAEMON, but after three years (c 320) he established an actual monastery at Tabennisi on the banks of the Nile. At a time when many were seeking c escape the world or to emulate St. Anthony and other Christian ascetics, Pachomius’ retreat proved immensely popular. By the time he died, he was the head of nine monasteries for men and two for women. The rule that guided these institutions was very influential, spreading the idea of monasticism throughout the East and, eventually, into the West.
T
Authors: Bunson Matthew
Published: November 2023

TACFARINAS (d. 24 A.D.) A rebel chief in AFRICA from 17 to 24 A.D. A Numidian by birth, Tacfarinas became an auxiliary in the Roman army. In 17, he deserted, gathered together a group of followers, ravaged the provinces and became the leader of the local Musulamii. Four Roman generals campaigned against the rebel. Camillus defeated the Musulamii and their Moorish allies in 17, winning triumphal honors, while the new proconsul of Africa, APRONIUS, helped to thwart a Tacfarinas attack in 20 A.D .Blaesus used guerrilla tactics against him in 22, and in 24 P. Cornelius DOLABELLA arrived to finish the war. Marching through the country with four flying columns, Tacfarinas was trapped by the Romans and killed in battle. TACITUS (1), PUBLIUS CORNELIUS (c. 55-120? A.D.) Considered the last of the great Roman classical historians, and a major source of information concerning the 1st century A. o. and its sociopolitical climate. Little has survived of his own life except for the barest details of a public career. He was probably of Gallic descent, attaining senatorial rank during the reign of VESPASIAN. Further advancement came after 77, when he married the daughter of AGRICOLA. He was made a QUAESTOR in 81 and a PRAETOR in 88, and received an appointment to the quindecemviri. With a consulship in 97, Tacitus had survived the harsh time of DOMITIAN, a period that saw the death of his father-in-law and a regime whose cultivated despotism left a major mark on his writings. Viewed as one of the foremost orators of the age, Tacitus delivered the funeral oration for VERGINIUS RUFUS in 97. Three years later he prosecuted Marius Priscus for extortion, receiving help from PLINY the Younger. In 112-113, Tacitus became proconsul of Asia, dying a few years later.
V
Authors: Bunson Matthew
Published: November 2023

VABALLATH (Lucius Julius Aurelius Septimius Vaballathus Athenodorus)(fl. mid-3rd century A.O.) King of Palmyra, the son of ODAENATH and Queen ZENOBIA; ruler of his land from 266 to 272. Vaballath assumed his father’s title upon the latter’s death in 266, and may also have taken the title of corrector Orientis,or leading official of the East for the Roman Empire. Realistically, Vaballath held little power, as his mother Zenobia was the driving force behind Palmyra’s rise to leading state of the Eastern provinces. He finally did take the rank of Augustus in 272, but he was deposed when captured by Emperor AURELIAN a short time later. VADOMAR (mid-4th century A. D.) King of the ALAMANNI who shared power with his brother Gundomadus. Together they launched attacks on Gaul but signed a peace treaty with Emperor CONSTANTIUS n in 356. When Gundomadus died shortly therafter, elements of Vadomar’s people took hostile actions in Gaul (c. 357); two years later Constantius put these incursions to use by encouraging Vadomar to make war upon Julian the Apostate, whom the emperor did not trust. Another peace was signed in 359, this time with Julian. In 361, Vadomar entered and pillaged a part of Raetia. Julian’s solution was to kidnap the barbarian ruler. Ironically, Vadomar emerged as one of the first Germans to be hired by the emperors, for Emperor VALENS made him a general and sent him to recapture Nicaea from the usurper Procopius (356-366). He subsequently fought against the Persians but did not lose touch with his own people, his son Vithicab becoming king before being assassinated in 368.
Z
Authors: Bunson Matthew
Published: November 2023

ZABDAS, SEPTIMIUS (fl. mid-3rd century A.D.) The most successful general in the service of Queen ZENOBIA of PALMYRA; also called Saba or Zaba. Zabdas led the armies of Palmyrene expansion in 270-271, sweeping into EGYPT and, with the aid of the pro-Palmyrene political faction, annexing the entire province in the name of his queen. Further advances were made throughout the entire East, including SYRIA and ASIA MINOR, until Emperor AURELIAN took to the field in 271. Zabdas focused on ANTIOCH as his strategic base and moved north to the banks of the Orontes where he had his first engagement with the Romans. Zabdas probably had a numerical advantage, especially in cavalry units, his horsemen being strongly armored on huge mounts, but this failed to serve him. Aurelian’s infantry allowed the cavalry to charge and then simply rolled up the Palmyrene flank. Defeated but not destroyed, Zabdas retreated to Antioch but had to leave there because of the inhabitants’ unrest. Aurelian entered the city and pushed on, following Zabdas’ circuitous route to Emesa. Zabdas hoped for Persian aid, which did not materialize, and turned to give battle again. With some 70,000 men at his disposal and the cavalry still large and formidable, Zabdas repeated the tactics of his first encounter with Aurelian, with the same results. The Roman cavalry (mostly Moors and Dalmatians) was routed, but the LEGIONS weathered the charges and then advanced, demolishing the Palmyrene army. The survivors broke and fled to Emesa, while Zenobia retreated to her native city. What became of Zabdas is unknown.
Insights and Application of Large-Scale, Long-Term Ecological Observations and Experiments
Authors: Lodge David M , Blumenshine Steven C , Vadeboncoeur Yvonne
Published: November 2023

One of our goals as ecologists involved in basic research, should be to contribute knowledge that will enhance management of natural resources (Peterson 1993). As C. J. Krebs (1994:8) defines it, “ecology should be to environmental science as physics is to engineering.” But the manner in which ecologists conduct research determines the extent of its usefulness to resource management and conservation efforts.

One frequent mismatch between basic research and resource management arises because the small spatial and temporal scale of much basic research does not provide information relevant to resource management (Kitchell et al. 1988, Cullen 1990, Hall et al. 1994, Naiman et al. 1995). Whereas basic research is often conducted at small temporal and spatial scales in simplified systems, management often operates on the whole-ecosystem scale and over many years. Even if only one species of economic interest is directly managed, the whole ecosystem is often affected because many indirect and feedback effects exist that cannot be adequately addressed in small-scale, short-term studies. Large-scale issues that require long-term research and management include acidic deposition, lake eutrophication and biomanipulation, fisheries management, forest management, role of large mammalian predators in affecting prey populations, invasion by exotic species, role of iron in controlling oceanic productivity, stratospheric ozone depletion, and global warming (Carpenter et al. 1995b). For many aspects of these topics, large-scale, long-term research (augmented by small-scale mechanistic experiments) can offer appropriate guidance to manage resources and mitigate anthropogenic effects (Fisher 1994, Brown 1995, Franklin 1995, Lubchenco 1995, Schindler 1995).
Introduction
Authors: Hatch Upton , Swisher Marilyn
Published: November 2023

Economic development and resource conservation are often in conflict because of concurrent demands for an improved standard of living for a growing population and environmental quality. Globalization brings in creasing biophysical and socioeconomic interactions. The potential irreversibilities associated with the loss of biodiversity and unique natural ecosystems to society are typically pitted against the opportunity of individuals to improve their economic well-being.
Protecting Natural Resources in a Developing Nation: The Case of Costa Rica
Authors: Ulate Gilbert Vargas
Published: November 2023

Any nation’ s development should be based on the rational use of natural resources, the objective being to use them optimally. The definition of areas that will be used for the development, protection, and exploitation of natural resources is necessary. Furthermore, it should be done in a way that will provide both immediate and long-term benefits to the population. To make this a reality, both the ecological dimension (the natural environment) and the cultural dimension (the historical, social, economic, and technological environment) should be considered.
Organic Farming in Central America
Authors: Muñoz Gabriela Soto
Published: November 2023

The organic farming movement has grown steadily since the mid-1960s, especially in Europe and the United States. Organic farming is becoming a well known new production strategy in Central America, pushed by international buyers and local growers. How ever, while the organic movement is promoted in Costa Rica, it is common for older farmers to say, “I have been an organic farmer all my life, as my father and his father were.” What is organic farming? Is it simply a traditional farming system with a new name? Is it a modern, more marketable farming system? Or is it a philosophy that tries to reset the natural balance? This chapter provides a brief overview of the organic farming movement and the politics associated with it in Central America.
The Sustainability of Milk Production in Mesoamerica
Authors: Jimenez-Créspo Carlos A
Published: November 2023

The role that cattle ranching has played and continues to play in deforestation is discussed elsewhere in this volume (Boza, chapter 6; Fisher, chapter 23; Mayne, chapter 9; and others). The attention devoted to the role that ranching plays in environmental degradation in Mesoamerica leads almost inevitably to the conclusion that cows are indeed the culprits in many of Central America’ s environmental problems. However, cattle ranching to produce beef is only one way that cattle are exploited in Central America. They also provide animal traction in many nations, and milk is an important source of animal protein in the diets of many of the people.
Biologically Sustainable Agroecosystems: Using Principles of Ecology
Authors: Mayne John C
Published: November 2023

Modern agriculture has been based on adapting the plant, soil, and climatic environment to a single desired crop, usually the most profitable crop, for many years. Farmers must grow crops for which there is a demand. Nonetheless, we now see that the agricultural system may ultimately fail if the crops grown are so unsuited to the natural environment that they need large inputs of nutrients, pesticides, herbicides, and petroleum-driven mechanical labor.
Shrimp Farming in Southern Honduras: A Case for Sustainable Production
Authors: Teichert-Coddington David
Published: November 2023

Commercial shrimp farming in southern Honduras began in 1972 with the establishment of Sea Farms of Honduras near Punta Raton on the Gulf of Fonseca. Sea Farms was located onplayon (salt flats) and private land shared with cattle ranchers. Water was pumped from Estero Los Butus, an embayment of the Gulf of Fonseca. Sea Farms expanded from 45 to about 300 hectares during the decade that followed, accounting for almost all shrimp production in Honduras.
Otitis Media an Evolutionary Perspective
Authors: Daniel Hal J
Published: November 2023

In this chapter I provide a review and update of otitis media (OM) and suggest that the prevalence and severity of OM could be reduced by adopting an evolutionary perspective. Many of the ideas that follow are oriented toward a reduction in the expensive, contemporary medical treatment of OM in favor of conservative, less medicalized “complementary” interventions. I present information that demonstrates a need to seriously consider these nonconventional intervention strategies for the prevention and control of OM.
Introduction
Authors: Lundberg Anders
Published: November 2023

When the brief report by Frank and Fuortes appeared in 1957, I was in Canberra, and I remember vividly the excitement that it created. I had an experiment with Rose Eccles planned for the next day and we had no difficulty confirming their findings. I left Canberra soon afterwards and could not participate in the analysis, but in subsequent years, I read, with increasing amazement, the remarkable series of papers on presynaptic inhibition that emanated from there. Two of Eccles’s main collaborators in that body of work, R. F. Schmidt and W. D. Willis, are contributing to the present volume.
Selectivity of the Presynaptic Control of Synaptic Effectiveness of Group I Afferents in the Mammalian Spinal Cord
Authors: Rudomin Pablo , Jimenez Ismael , Quevedo Jorge
Published: November 2023

Until the late 1950s, it was considered that action potentials generated in the peripheral receptors traveled up the spinal cord to the terminal regions of the afferent fibers, where they promoted transmitter release, as in the peripheral neuromuscular junction (Rosenblueth et al., 1949). The profuse intraspinal branching of the afferent fibers was regarded as a mechanism that disperses information to a relatively large number of spinal neurons, as evidenced by the finding that single fibers from muscle spindles are connected with most of the homonymous motoneurons in the pool (Mendell and Henneman, 1971; see also chapter 15).
Differential Control of Presynaptic Inhibition of Ia Terminals During Voluntary Movement in Humans
Authors: Pierrot-Deseilligny Emmanuel , Meunier Sabine
Published: November 2023

The monosynaptic stretch reflex has often been regarded as a system for the servo-control of limb position, but its low gain during steady contraction (Matthews, 1972) has led to questioning of its functional importance (Gottlieb and Agarwal, 1980). This gain may change during the course of a movement, however, as various mechanisms modulate it. One of them is presynaptic inhibition of Ia terminals, which is accompanied by primary afferent depolarization (PAD) (reviewed in Rudomin, 1990).
Maxima And Minima
Authors: Courant Richard , Robbins Herbert
Published: November 2023

A straight segment is the shortest connection between its endpoints. An arc of a great circle is the shortest curve joining two points on a sphere. Among all closed plane curves of the same length the circle encloses the largest area, and among all closed surfaces of the same area the sphere encloses the largest volume. Maximum and minimum properties of this type were known to the Greeks, even though the results were often stated without a real attempt at a proof. One of the most significant Greek discoveries is ascribed to Heron, the Alexandrian scientist of the first century A.D. It had long been known that a light ray from a point P meeting a plane mirror L in a point R is reflected in the direction of a point Q such that PR and QR form equal angles with the mirror. Heron found that if R’ is any other point on the mirror, then the total distance PR’ + R’Q is larger than the distance PR + RQ. This theorem, which we shall prove presently, characterizes the actual path of light PRQ between P and Q as the shortest possible path from P to Q by way of the mirror-a discovery that can be considered the germ of the theory of geometrical optics.
Subterranean Wind and Internal Combustion
Authors: Sigurdsson Haraidur
Published: November 2023

From the dawn of history, Mediterranean people have witnessed eruptions of volcanoes. Because of its unique geologic structure and high level of activity, this region had already fostered an interest in volcanic phenomena and other Earth processes in antiquity. As noted earlier, the thick continental African plate pushes inexorably northward at a rate of about 1 cm (0.4 in) per year, and the weak floor of the Mediterranean Sea is deformed, folded, and thrust down into the depths of the Earth’s mantle. This has led to a string of volcanoes along the zone of weakness, forming two major volcanic subduction zones: the Aeolian island arc in the west and the Hellenic island arc in the east.
How We Discover What Works
Authors: Beutler Larry E , Bongar Bruce , Shurkin Joel N
Published: November 2023

While therapists expect their patients to confuse their beliefs with reality, they are not as attentive to their own blind spots. Therapists are led by theories of behavior that they often take on faith. And like their patients, these private theories do affect their practices. An example might illustrate better how personal theories operate. A number of years ago, one of us [LB] was sitting in his office at a small university in rural Texas when a young man approached and entered the office, asking, “Is this the place that has the machines?” He reported that somewhere in the building, there were machines, including a radio transmitter. He said the FBI was using the machines to broadcast thoughts to the inside of his head, and he was certain that he was being watched and that his life was in danger.
Molecular Motors
Authors: Orme Nigel
Published: November 2023

Every biologist has seen it and marveled. Some watch it for hours, spell-bound. Take an individual living cell—a human skin cell, for example and put it under a powerful microscope. What comes into view is a far cry from the vague “protoplasm,” the so-called living jelly, “the stuff of life” that was taught in high school biology courses a generation ago.“There’s a whole world buzzing in there,” says Robert D. Goldman, a cell biologist at Northwestern University’s medical school in downtown Chicago. “You can see all kinds of different things. Some of them just sit there and kind of jiggle but lots of them are traveling, going somewhere.” Goldman, who gets visibly excited when he talks about cells and microscopes, spies on the inner workings of individual cells both by peering directly into a microscope and also by using a special video camera that is sensitive to differences in light levels the eye cannot see. The camera looks into the eyepiece and relays what it sees through a battery of electronic devices that pick out the subtle contrasts and emphasize them. It displays the enhanced image on a video screen.
In Self-Defense
Authors: Orme Nigel
Published: November 2023

In a natural world teeming with millions of forms of life that have evolved to exploit every conceivable ecological niche, it should come as no surprise that the interior of the human body offers some of the richest habitats available. It is always warm and wet and, of course, it is richly supplied with nutritious organic compounds.
40 Ar/39Ar Data Presentation and Interpretation
Authors: McDougall Ian , Harrison T Mark
Published: November 2023

Up to this point, our focus has largely been on describing the materials that are appropriate for 40 Ar/39Ar dating and presenting the technical details required to produce reliable isotope ratio measurements. In this and subsequent chapters, we discuss the methods used to interpret 40Ar/ 39 Ar data in terms of geologic history. Depending upon the physical environment, 40 Ar/39Ar dates may be interpreted as rock forming ages or in terms of thermal closure to argon loss. In certain cases, interpretation of results using these models is quite straightforward, but in others, analysis artifacts and natural complications tend to obscure the age and/or thermal history information. Even in these latter cases, however, there are correction schemes we can apply to help overcome problems. In this chapter, we introduce the two graphical devices that have proved most useful in interpreting step heating results, the age spectrum and isochron. We then describe various artifacts of sample preparation and analysis that can reduce the clarity of the chronological information and discuss how these effects can be avoided or minimized. We include a discussion of the effects of excess argon on age interpretation and the steps that can be taken to see through this contamination.
Introductory Remarks, Notations, and Units
Authors: Salzmann David
Published: November 2023

The field of atomic physics in hot plasmas, also called plasma spectroscopy, is the study of the properties of the electrons and ions in an ionized medium and the electromagnetic radiation emitted from this medium. The plasma is assumed to have a temperature high enough so that the greater part of the atoms are ionized and all the molecular bonds are broken.
All the Fish in the Sea
Authors: Baron Jonathan
Published: November 2023

Some warnings are worth heeding. In the 1980s, scientists such as Vaughn Anthony of the National Marine Fisheries Service in Woods Hole, Massachusetts, began saying that the fish off the coast of New England and Canada ‘s maritime provinces were disappearing because of overfishing. Fishing has been a major industry in these areas for centuries, and nothing like this had happened before. People did not act fast enough. Now the numbers of cod, haddock, and flounder are so low that it is not worth fishing for them.
Do No Harm
Authors: Baron Jonathan
Published: November 2023

When one nation attacks another, plunders its resources, and kills its people, we think of that as an unmitigated harm. There is no excuse for it, and nations that engage in this are international outcasts at best. But when people in one nation merely let those in other nations suffer from poverty, disease, war, and hunger, little scorn or reprobation is forthcoming. This distinction between acts and omissions is understandable, but it is overdone. Why do I say it is understandable? After all, national distinctions are just as arbitrary as those based on race and sex. Here is why. If acts and omissions do not differ in their effects, then we have no reason to distinguish them. But often they do differ because of the way in which institutions are set up, because of the lines of authority that people have drawn. Social custom, convention, and law dictate that certain decisions are to be made by certain people. We say that these people are “responsible” for the decision. At one extreme, national governments are responsible for certain decisions about their citizens. At the other extreme, individuals are responsible for certain decisions about their own lives. In the middle, decision-making authority is allocated in complex ways within institutions like corporations. Social groups differ in how they assign responsibilities.
Buried in Sand
Authors: Cunningham Carol , Berger Joel
Published: November 2023

To much lives on sand when air temperatures hit l 22°F. The Namib’s raw desert of sand and sun requires special ecological adaptations. One local species coping with these torrid living conditions is the Namib ant, !mown also as Ocymyrmrx robustior. Biologist Alan Marsh found that these long-legged ants, which don’t become active until the ground reaches 87°F, tolerate sands heated to l 51°F. Leaving subterranean nests to search for food, they cool themselves by pausing on grass stems, where it may be a remarkable 36°F cooler.
The Europa Hof
Authors: Cunningham Carol , Berger Joel
Published: November 2023

January. Pacific storms pounded the mountains that separate Nevada from California. Outside our home up in the Sierra Nevada Range heavy snow covered the sagebrush and manzanita, and the pathway from our front door was lined by snowy walls more than two meters high. With our Volkswagen van parked in the paved cul-de-sac, we trudged beyond the icy driveway and the unplowed dirt road, tugging trunks destined for Africa. Namibia’s warmth and sand would be a shocking contrast.
The Role Of Environmental Variation In Parental Effects Expression
Authors: Rossiter Marycarol
Published: November 2023

Despite the growing realization that parental effects are pervasive, our ability to quantify their contribution to fitness is tenuous. This is due, in part, to the fact that we have not fully appreciated the extent to which the expression of parental effects (presence/absence and magnitude) can be modified by the environment. Our ability to quantify the contribution of parental effects to fitness is also limited by the availability of experimental designs that reliably separate parental effects from genetic effects (Rossiter 1997). In this chapter, I show how the expression of maternal and paternal effects can be subject to the vagaries of environmental experience. Examples taken from the literature include parental effects whose expression, lack of expression, or intensity of expression is the result of environll).ental variation unpredictable variation such as rainfall or food availability and predictable variation such as photoperiod or seasonality.
D
Authors: Sacks David
Published: November 2023

Daedalus Mythical Athenian inventor, regarded as a patron hero of craftsmen. According to legend, Daedalus (Greek: Daidalos) invented carpentry and woodworking, among other skills. But he fled from ATHENS after murdering his nephew-apprentice, who showed signs of .surpassing him in talent. Traveling to CRETE, Daedalus constructed a number of fabulous works, including the mechanical cow in which Queen Pasiphae was able to quench her unnatural lust for a bull. Imprisoned by the enraged king MINOS on account of the Pasiphae episode, Daedalus and his son, Icarus, escaped by flying away on mechanical wings attached to their arms. But Icarus, despite his father’s warning, soared too close to the sun, which melted his wings’ adhesive wax, and plummeted to his death in the AEGEAN SEA. Icarus’ fatal flight has often been interpreted as a metaphor for HUBRIS and overreaching ambition.
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Authors: Sacks David
Published: November 2023

Labyrinth In MYTH, the Labyrinth was the mazelike palace designed by the Athenian craftsman DAEDALUS at Cnossus, in CRETE, to house the monstrous Minotaur: The Athenian hero THESEUS, making his way through the Labyrinth’s corridors with the help of the Cretan princess Ariadne, slew the Minotaur. The classical Greeks described any kind of architectural maze as a labyrinth (laburinthos) much as we use the word today.
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Authors: Sacks David
Published: November 2023

names Unlike modem Americans, ancient Greek males and females typically carried only one personal name-for example, Socrates. In formal address, a man or boy might be specified by a patronymic (his father’s name): “Themis-tocles, son of Neocles.” However, at some Greek cities, specifically ATHENS, the use of the patronymic was discouraged due to social-leveling legislation aimed at removing distinctions and stigmas of lineage. Hence “Themistocles of the DEME of Phrearrus” was the preferred form. The masculine or feminine ending of a name clearly distinguished the person’s gender-Diotima and Elpinice are female; Pericles and Diodorus, male.
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Authors: Sacks David
Published: November 2023

religion The ancient Greeks believed that their gods had a guiding hand in human affairs. Events as diverse as the annual sprouting of crops, disease epidemics, victory or defeat in war, and individual victories in sports events-which modem observers might assign to scientific causes-were seen by the Greeks as proof of the gods’ involvement in human events great and small. Greek MYTH told of gods in “the old days” who had actually descended to earth to make love or war among mortals. Although the Greeks of 400 s.c. did not expect to meet a god in the street, they did expect their gods to be invisibly present-at least in major, public events.
How Not to Think About Business Myths and Metaphors
Authors: Solomon Robert C
Published: November 2023

Every discipline or profession has its own self-glorifying vocabulary. It is how its proponents justify themselves, sell themselves, and think of themselves and what they do. A Politicians bask in the concept of public service even while they pursue personal power and exploit the fears and prejudices of their constituents. But who would question the virtue of devoting oneself to public service?
An Unusually Inhospitable Environment for Reform
Authors: Noble Charles
Published: November 2023

Three factors have proved decisive in the development of Western welfare states: the balance of power between business and labor, the organization of political institutions, and the nature and extent of racial and ethnic cleavages. Individually and in combination, these factors have determined whether social reformers have been able to build comprehensive welfare states. Where wage earners have been unified and well-organized; where labor, social-democratic, or socialist political parties have emerged to represent working-class voters; and where the state and party systems have been centralized-under these conditions, welfare-state building has proceeded apace. Absent these preconditions, social reformers have faced enormous collective action problems that have made only the most limited reforms politically feasible.
The Great Society
Authors: Noble Charles
Published: November 2023

Changes in the political and institutional environment opened a third window in the 1960s, and liberals responded. The results were dramatic: a War on Poverty, the extension of medical care to the aged and the poor, the liberalization of public assistance, the expansion of social security. But rather than narrow the differentiation between the U.S. and European welfare states the gap widened: instead of building institutions that might support a commitment to full employment or developing social policies to help working families, the United States embraced a conservative version of Keynesianism that privileged tax cuts for business and the affluent and adopted a limited set of income-maintenance and social-service programs narrowly targeted on the very poor.
The Development of the Child with Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Authors: Wender Paul H
Published: November 2023

In Chapter 2 on the characteristics of the ADHD child, I discussed the problems a child with ADHD encounters, and how these change as he grows. I also mentioned that the sequence of problems is not inevitable, and that may cause ADHD children to grow out of their problems as they become older. An obvious and reasonable question that parents might ask is what the fate of their ADHD child will be. Ten years ago we did not know. As I will explain, this question is now easier to answer. Because of new clinical data, we are obtaining a picture of the changes in the condition over time. The information comes from two sources. The first consists of studies of ADHD children who were followed from childhood into adolescence. We are beginning to obtain information about the adult outcome of ADHD children from a second source-two scientific studies, started about fifteen years ago, that systematically followed and compared a group of ADHD children with a group of non-ADHD children and evaluated them into their mid-twenties. These two studies, one conducted in New York City and the other in Montreal, are described later in this chapter.
The Virtual Campaign
Authors: Davis Richard
Published: November 2023

At the end of his first presidential debate with Bill Clinton, 1996 GOP presidential candidate Bob Dole did something no other candidate has ever done in the history of presidential debates; he announced the address for his World Wide Web home page and encouraged voters to visit the site. For the GOP presidential candidate, the invitation was a subtle reassurance that he was futuristic and not too old to be president. But, more important for electoral politics, Dole’s announcement was a symbol of the Internet’s expanding role in the American electoral process. Dole’s act was only one sign that 1996 was an important mile­ stone for the Internet as an election information tool. Election-re­ lated sites multiplied throughout the year, representing parties, in­ terest groups, the media, and voter educational organizations.
Regional Climate and the Distribution of Tallgrass Prairie
Authors: Hayden Bruce P
Published: November 2023

The Konza Prairie lies near the southeastern margin of the North American prairie (Transeau 1935) at the latitude where grasslandsexhibit extensive development (Fig. 2.1). The term prairie as defined by Transeau (1935) and used here includes communities that range from steppes to tallgrass prairies. To understand the climatic causes of prairies, a distinction between prairies and grasslands is needed. The term grasslands is reserved here as the more generic term, because many grasslands exist that generally are not called prairies. Whittaker (1975) and later McNaughton et al. (1982) characterized the extent of grasslands on a climate nomogram (Fig. 2.2) in which the x-axis is mean annual precipitation and the y-axis is mean annual temperature. Whittaker showed that grasslands occur over almost all mean annual thermal climates, excluding icebound landscapes, but only within a narrow range of mean annual precipitation. Even this delineation for grasslands is narrow. The Virginia Coast Reserve LTER site includes submerged marine grasslands (Zostera), emergent Spartina alterniflora grasslands, fresh-to-brackish wetland Spartina patens grasslands, mesic Amophila, and semiarid Aristida grasslands on the sandy barrier islands. These grasslands are within tens to hundreds of meters of each other and therefore have not been “established” or “caused” by large-scale climatic processes.
Introduction
Authors: Goovaerts Pierre
Published: November 2023

Earth sciences data are typically distributed in space and/or in time. Knowledge of an attribute value, say, a mineral grade or a pollutant concentration, is thus of little interest unless location and/or time of measurement are known and accounted for in the data analysis. Geostatistics provides a set of statistical tools for incorporating the spatial and temporal coordinates of observations in data processing.
The Random Function Model
Authors: Goovaerts Pierre
Published: November 2023

Data description is rarely, if ever, the ultimate goal of a statistical study. Typically, one wants to go beyond the data to characterize the population from which the sample has been drawn. One essential step in this process is the quantitative modeling of the spatial statistics of that population from the data available over the study area. All subsequent applications, such as prediction or risk analysis, rely on the model (representation) chosen.

The deterministic and probabilistic approaches to modeling are compared in section 3.1. Section 3.2 introduces the random function model from which most geostatistical algorithms are built.
Inference and Modeling
Authors: Goovaerts Pierre
Published: November 2023

Once a random function model has been chosen, the next step consists of inferring its parameters from the available information. The focus of this chapter is on inference of the two first moments (mean, covariance) of the multivariate RF Z(u), which are required by the interpolation (kriging) algorithms introduced in Chapters 5 and 6.

Section 4.1 addresses the problem of determining statistics representative of the study area and not only of the sample available. Theoretical and practical issues of modeling the spatial variability of continuous attributes are discussed in section 4.2. The discussion is extended to the modeling of cross correlations in section 4.3.
The Constraints of Place on Leadership
Authors: Rosenthal Cindy Simon
Published: November 2023

California State Senator Diane Watson and Utah Representative Beverly Evans live in very different political worlds. There are the obvious contrasts of size and demographics between their home states and their districts: Senator Watson represents some 750,000 residents of a Los Angeles district that is 40 percent white and 60 percent minority with growing Asian and Hispanic populations. Representative Evans represents two rural counties and some 28,000 residents in racially homogeneous (93 percent white) Utah. Their legislatures also differ. California dwarfs other states in terms of the number of staff, the year-round legislative session, legislator compensation (h5,600 a year), and the funds required to wage a successful electoral campaign. Utah lawmakers, by contrast, meet forty-five calendar days every year, earn $100 per diem salary, and have no personal staff or offices.1 As a result, Senator Watson finds she has much more in common with her California male colleagues than with many other women legislators: “Where you are has great meaning; geography is destiny.”2
A Vision of Integrative Leadership
Authors: Rosenthal Cindy Simon
Published: November 2023

State Representative Maxine Berman describes the anonymity of the unknown wives of Arlington cemetery to drive home the point that women remain collectively invisible in American politics. In a bitingly sarcastic, sometimes bawdy portrayal of life in the Michigan State Legislature, Representative Berman laments the absence of women wielding visible political power and wonders whether politics and legislatures would be different if they did.1 The picture of women as committee leaders suggests that when legislatures reflect the diversity in the general population, they also may “think, feel, reason and act” in a different fashion. Indeed, the perspective from the other side of the tombstone has the potential to be quite different.