bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
CityHealth
Authors: Castrucci Brian C. , Corcoran Elizabeth A. , Hearne Shelley L. , Keith Katie , Voyles Elizabeth , Patterson Catherine
Published: May 2019

The De Beaumont Foundation CityHealth project aims to provide city leaders in the United States with both an assessment of their communities and with a package of policy solutions that they can use to improve the health of populations in their cities. In so doing, CityHealth serves as a model for efforts to harness science for action toward improving health in cities. With three out of every five Americans living in cities, policy change in the nation’s most populous urban areas has the most tangible opportunity to impact people’s daily lives and health outcomes. This chapter discusses the goals of the CityHealth project and its successes and challenges, and identifies models that can improve urban health worldwide.
New York City
Authors: Lee Karen
Published: May 2019

New York City has been a global leader in healthy urban design and in improving the built environment—the human-made environment consisting of our neighborhoods, streets, buildings, and their amenities—to assist in the prevention and control of the current epidemics of noncommunicable disease and their risk factors. This chapter shows how, through the translation of research-based health evidence into the development and implementation of user-friendly resources with and for non–health professionals involved in the planning, design, construction, maintenance, and renovation of the built environment, such as the Active Design Guidelines and its supplements, NYC pioneered formal efforts toward systematic evidence-based environmental design that can decrease physical inactivity and sedentariness, key risk factors for mortality and morbidity around the world today, while addressing other key public health issues like safety and equity.
Observatory for Urban Health in Belo Horizonte City
Authors: Teixeira Caiaffa Waleska , Augusta de Lima Friche Amélia
Published: May 2019

The Belo Horizonte Observatory for Urban Health is a partnership of the Federal University of Minas Gerais, Brazil, with the Belo Horizonte Municipality. The Observatory is engaged in a wide range of studies in urban health, including projects that aim to reduce the emergence and reemergence of disease and to study the behavioral influences on health and the role of the social determinants of health. This chapter discusses the work of the Belo Horizonte Observatory, highlighting its core projects and the lessons learned that can inform urban health scholarship and action worldwide.
City Health Departments
Authors: Kass Daniel , Matte Thomas , Karpati Adam
Published: May 2019

In cities, opportunities exist to influence advances in healthcare, food systems, housing, transport, and the social, physical, and built environments to promote equity, well-being, and health. For cities to accommodate population increases and ameliorate existing conditions, they must seek greater local authority to act and regulate, decentralize power and revenue control from state and national governments, build stronger relationships among governmental sectors and civil society, and build technical and political capacity. This chapter addresses a critical mechanism by which public health as a sector must engage with these changes: local public health governance. It identifies challenges and constraints and offer recommendations for going forward.
The Changing Value and Meaning of Citizenship
Authors: Kingston Lindsey N.
Published: May 2019

Chapter 1 shows how the value and meaning of citizenship have evolved within political thought, with particular attention to the intensification of debates in relation to the protection of modern human rights. With the creation of the United Nations and the adoption of rights norms, the international community made assumptions about identity and membership that effectively limited the inclusiveness of so-called universal rights. By privileging state sovereignty and legal nationality, the human rights regime created protection gaps for noncitizens and people at the margins. Scholars continue to debate whether globalization has eroded the importance of state citizenship and the nation-state, or whether it has in fact strengthened the state’s role in the world system. I argue that citizenship continues to have persistent power and appeal, and that this complex concept is often conversely viewed as a right, an identity, and a commodity.
Statelessness and Elusive Political Membership
Authors: Kingston Lindsey N.
Published: May 2019

Statelessness is recognized not only as a violation of the “right to a nationality” but also as a root cause of additional rights abuses. Yet while legal nationality is an essential prerequisite for the mere possibility of enjoying basic human rights, the international community’s narrow emphasis on citizenship acquisition is misguided. Legal status is only one step in a long journey toward full rights protection; statelessness is both a cause of marginalization and a symptom of it. That is, most stateless populations lack legal nationality because they face systematic discrimination from the beginning. Their circumstances are worsened by statelessness, but legal status alone cannot guarantee full rights protection. Rather than relying on the acquisition of legal nationality to ensure access to human rights, advocates must acknowledge the deeply rooted complexities of statelessness and seek out solutions that guarantee functioning citizenship rather than simple legal status.
Forced Displacement and Broken Ties
Authors: Kingston Lindsey N.
Published: May 2019

Although most forcibly displaced persons are legal nationals of a state, they lack functioning citizenship with their governments. In fact, their governments are often responsible for the human rights abuses and conflicts that prompted their displacement to begin with. While some protections under international law are meant to fill the gaps created by these broken ties, in reality the displaced suffer widespread human rights abuses in the absence of a reliable state duty-bearer. Anti–Syrian refugee sentiments in Europe, refugee detention in Australia, and the stubborn refusal to acknowledge many “illegal immigrants” as asylum-seekers in North America are just a few examples of the severe challenges to basic human rights the forcibly displaced face in the absence of functioning citizenship. The inadequacies of refugee rights, including the false assumption that displacement is anything less than normal in our current system, lead to glaring denials of the rights to place and purpose for the displaced.
Indigenous Nations and Tribal Sovereignty
Authors: Kingston Lindsey N.
Published: May 2019

The Indigenous rights movement has embraced the idea of self-determination for framing their demands for economic, political, and cultural survival. Indeed, calls for tribal sovereignty problematize the international community’s central focus on state governments for legitimizing human rights claimants. For communities such as the Onondaga Nation of Central New York, state membership comes second to the ties that bind one to an Indigenous nation. (Indeed, the Onondaga Nation maintains a legally distinct territory just outside Syracuse, New York, and some members have rejected US citizenship in favor of tribe-issued passports.) While this chapter explores the historical trajectory leading to modern Indigenous rights concerns—which include an ongoing process of cultural genocide—it focuses on how Indigenous nations and tribal sovereignty challenge the reliance on state citizenship for recognizing personhood and claiming human rights. Calls for Indigenous sovereignty offer alternative pathways for conceptualizing identification, legal status, and political membership.
Between Heimat and Hatred
Authors: Nielsen Philipp
Published: May 2019

This book studies German Jews involved in ventures that were from the beginning, or became increasingly, of the Right. Jewish agricultural settlement, Jews’ participation in the so-called Defense of Germandom in the East, their place in military and veteran circles, and finally right-of-center politics form the core of this book. These topics created a web of social activities and political persuasions neither entirely conservative nor entirely liberal. For those German Jews engaging with these issues, their motivation came from sincere love of their German Heimat—a term for home imbued with a deep sense of belonging—and from their middle-class environment, as well as a desire to repudiate antisemitic stereotypes of rootlessness, intellectualism, or cosmopolitanism. This tension stands at the heart of the book. The book also asks when did the need for self-defense start to outweigh motivations of patriotism and class? Until when could German Jews espouse views to the right of the political spectrum without appearing extreme to either Jews or non-Jews? The book builds on recent studies of Jews’ relation to German nationalism, the experience of German Jews away from the large cities, and the increasing interest in Germans’ obsession with regional roots and the East. The study follows these lines of inquiry to investigate the participation of some German Jews in projects dedicated to originally, or increasingly, illiberal projects. As such it shines light on an area in which Jewish participation has thus far only been treated as an afterthought and illuminates both Jewish and German history afresh.
Introduction: Theoretical Orientation and Methodology
Authors: Nakissa Aria
Published: May 2019

This introduction provides a general overview of the book. It explains how the book combines anthropology and Islamicist history to investigate contemporary Egyptian religious education. It also explains that the aim of the book is to show how hermeneutic theory and practice theory can be brought together to analyze the Islamic legal tradition. The introduction addresses a number of methodological issues, including the problems with the trouble case method. It also covers the difference between hermeneutic theory and practice theory, which are both concerned with the relationship between action and mind, but analyze this relationship in different ways. It ends with an outline of the different sections and chapters in the book.
The Sanad
Authors: Nakissa Aria
Published: May 2019

This chapter combines ethnography and textual analysis to examine the traditional Islamic concept of sanad. A sanad is a chain of scholars through which knowledge is passed over time. The chapter discusses the importance of the sanad in the view of premodern scholars and contemporary Traditionalist scholars. It also discusses how the sanad is related to Islamic ethics, companionship, and distinctive premodern Muslim understandings of language and writing. The chapter’s account of the sanad draws on insights from hermeneutic theory and practice theory. Specifically included in the discussion are the topics of the sanad and companionship, the sanad and the limitations of learning through texts, and written texts as a medium for the transmission of knowledge.
Rashi's Commentary on the Torah
Authors: Lawee Eric
Published: May 2019

Rashi’s Commentary on the Torah explores the reception history of the most important Jewish Bible commentary ever composed, the Commentary on the Torah of Rashi (Shlomo Yitzhaki, 1040–1105). The Commentary has shaped perceptions of the meaning of the Torah, Judaism’s foundation document, among leading scholars, lay readers, and initiates in Jewish learning for more than nine centuries. The Commentary has benefited from enormous scholarly attention but analysis of diverse reactions to this work has been amazingly scant. Viewing the Commentary’s path to preeminence through a wide array of religious, intellectual, and literary lenses, Lawee focuses considerable attention on a hitherto unexamined—and wholly unexpected—feature of the work’s reception: critical, and at times astonishingly harsh, resistance to it. At the same time, he shows how Rashi’s interpretation of the Torah became an exegetical classic, a staple in the curriculum, a source of shared religious vocabulary for Jews across time and place, and a foundational text that shaped the Jewish nation’s collective identity. The book takes as its larger integrating perspective processes of canonicity as they shape how traditions flourish, disintegrate, or evolve. Rashi’s scriptural magnum opus, the foremost work of Franco-German (Ashkenazic) biblical scholarship, faced stiff completion for canonical preeminence in the form of rationalist reconfigurations of Judaism abroad in Mediterranean seats of learning. It nevertheless emerged triumphant in an intense medieval battle for Judaism’s future. Investigation of the reception of Rashi’s Commentary throws light on issues in Jewish scholarship and spirituality that continue to stir reflection, and even passionate debate, in the Jewish world today.
Rashi’s Commentary
Authors: Lawee Eric
Published: May 2019

The Commentary’s medieval reception unfolded in diverse centers of Jewish life and across a strikingly large number of spheres: exegetical, educational, polemical, and more. The chapter investigates the fortunes of the Commentary through the period of its early printing in the three key centers for its reception history: Ashkenaz (the Franco-German sphere), Sefarad (Spain), and southern France. The chapter concludes with an account of Rashi’s status as the paramount Torah commentator as it is brightly underscored in data from the first half century of Hebrew printing. In the four centuries prior to print, the Commentary had circulated in hundreds of copies—an enormous number for a Hebrew work in the chirographic age, the focus of the overview here. With printing, the number of editions exploded, reaching some three thousand in three decades. The record of early printings points to the Commentary’s status as a foundational text transcending time and place and embodying a collective Jewish identity.
Interpreting the Interpreter
Authors: Lawee Eric
Published: May 2019

One main mode of response to the Commentary that played a decisive role in its canonization is the ardent tradition of commentaries that Rashi’s work called forth (what scholars call “supercommentaries”). Simply by selecting Rashi’s interpretation of the Torah as their object of exposition, supercommentators accorded it a special status and stamp of auctoritas. In the case of Spanish supercommentators, the interpretive suppositions they brought to their study of Rashi could even bespeak a stance toward his exegesis commensurate with the one adopted toward earlier biblical and rabbinic texts. If Rashi presented ideas that troubled supercommentators, they did not seek to deauthorize the Commentary, but in keeping with strategies of commentators on canonical works across traditions, they found ways to read a difficult idea in a manner that allowed the Commentary to realize its ability to take on a new life, and even inspire, in circumstances vastly different from the one in which it was composed.
Rationalism versus the Rashi/Rabbinic Axis
Authors: Lawee Eric
Published: May 2019

The Book of Strictures, the work of an unknown late medieval rationalist, is the most concentrated assault on Rashi’s biblical scholarship in the annals of Jewish literature. In devoting himself to an often scornful assault on Rashi’s exegesis and ideas, focusing almost exclusively on those of midrashic provenance, the work’s author put himself at odds with powerful intellectual, halakhic, and educational currents pulling in the opposite direction, each buttressing the work’s growing reach and authority. Sefer hassagot occupies a significant place in the reception history of Rashi’s work, especially when viewed in terms of the hermeneutics of canonicity. The author’s literary vehicle is the stricture (hassagah), to which he often appends a corrective to Rashi’s interpretation. In so doing, he insistently contrasts an understanding of scripture grounded in canons of plain sense interpretation and scientific criteria of credibility with Rashi’s more fanciful midrashic methods and fantastical mentality.
Competing Canons
Authors: Lawee Eric
Published: May 2019

Rashi’s critics joined a battle that unfolded across the late medieval Mediterranean at the center of which stood divergent ideas not only as to the correct meaning of the Torah but how to realize the divine charge that the Torah communicated. Many in the eastern Mediterranean, including Rashi’s resisting readers, took inspirtation from teachings of the Spanish luminaries, Abraham ibn Ezra and Maimonides. The late medieval battle over Judaism’s future is apparent from a peculiar specimen of Jewish rationalism bearing the title ‘Alilot devarim (Book of Accusations). Its author put his satirical genius in the service of exposure of the obscurantism that, in his view, had come to degrade Jewish life in post-talmudic times. The corruption infiltrated every sphere, and this writer thought Rashi’s Commentary a major cause and symptom of it. In the end, amid competing canons, Rashi’s Commentary, standing in varying degrees of opposition to the exegetical and theological rationalism of Ibn Ezra and Maimonides, proved triumphant, as is betokened by the composition and popularity of the greatest of the Rashi supercommentaries by Elijah Mizrahi.
Afterword
Authors: Lawee Eric
Published: May 2019

Rashi’s Commentary became deeply and diversely embedded in Jewish life and has remained so, but modernity’s disintegrative and fragmenting effect took its toll, meaning one can also find signs in recent centuries of the work’s decanonization. Yet despite clear signs of its marginalization there are corresponding indicators of the Commentary’s ongoing influence and abiding contemporaneity. The variety of manners and modes in which the Commentary figures in Jewish life reflects the divergent and at times conflicting Jewish cultural spaces that it inhabits. Without attempting to chart all twists and turns, the Afterword provides a tour d’horizon that evokes key reference points in this story, providing a basis for detailed study of the Commentary’s modern fate.
Market Operation
Authors: Cole Harold L.
Published: May 2019

This chapter describes how several important financial markets operate.
Exchange Rates and Nominal Interest Rates
Authors: Cole Harold L.
Published: May 2019

This chapter discusses exchanges and the different types of exchange rate regimes. It describes how exchange rates impact on real exchange rates, and how movements in the real exchange rate are associated with boom-bust cycles. It also discusses interest parity.
The Financial Meltdown and the Great Recession
Authors: Cole Harold L.
Published: May 2019

This chapter lays out the major events and causes of the financial meltdown and recession of the 2000s. It also discusses the Federal Reserves policy response to the crisis.
Math Reviews
Authors: Cole Harold L.
Published: May 2019

This chapter provides a brief review of the key mathematical concepts we will be using in the text. These include aspects of optimization theory, derivatives, and probability theory.
“Yes and No”
Authors: Kars Aydogan
Published: May 2019

This chapter introduces paradoxical apophaticism on the divine essence and tests the common association of paradox and Sufism, with a particular focus on the self-contradictory phrases and statements in the “X-not-X” forms. Neither the employment nor the celebration of paradoxes were uniquely Sufi phenomenon. Yet it was primarily Sufis from early on who consciously adopted paradoxical apophatic approaches to the divine essence. I argue that the employment of paradoxes follows a rule-governed set of strategies in order to negate propositional discourse on God. These strategies entailed (1) a balanced, or symmetrical, attitude that finds affirmative and negative language equally disqualified, (2) a balanced take on the binary of divine incomparability and immanence, while the vast majority of Muslim scholars hold the former superior, and (3) a dialectical logic that performs divine trans-discursivity by uniting the irreconcilable opposites that constitute propositional discourse.
Conclusion
Authors: Kars Aydogan
Published: May 2019

This chapter highlights the broader theoretical points that can be made on the basis of the analysis made in the previous chapters. It engages with contemporary philosophical and theological discussions beyond Islamic studies, criticizing the reduction of negative theology to paradoxicality, and the modern association of apophaticism with mysticism, critical thinking, and morality. It further argues that “negative theology” does not address a sui generis category or an enduring, well-defined group of intellectuals; it is rather a conceptual construct with debated meanings in changing historical settings. The chapter reminds that there were numerous negative theological positions regarding but a single question in a rich field of intellectual activity. These positions could and did transcend disciplinary boundaries as they were adopted by scholars with diverse orientations and backgrounds. Thus, construction of singular and distinct Christian, Jewish, or Muslim “negative theological traditions” not only overlooks the diversity, and sometimes conflicts, among various theological positions within religious traditions, but it also misses the historical fact that the negative theological positions among intellectuals from different religious backgrounds had strong overlaps. The rich theological networks highlighted the intellectual porosities between not only disciplines but also religious traditions.
Political Responsiveness in a Patronage Democracy
Authors: Bussell Jennifer
Published: May 2019

This chapter draws on accounts from sustained, in-depth shadowing of Indian politicians, as well as large-scale politician surveys, to characterize the nature of politicians’ engagement with their constituents. It highlights the importance these politicians place on making time for citizen interactions and responding to requests—to the extent that high-level politicians spend, on average, a quarter of their time interacting with individual citizens. Critically, the primary focus of these contacts is requests for assistance with the same types of goods and services that are typically also requested of local politicians such as village council presidents, providing preliminary evidence that demands may at least partially originate from individuals’ failure to acquire these benefits at the local level—a topic to which the book later turns. Chapter 2 also shows that the individual benefits directly provided to citizens by high-level politicians are substantial.
Access to Services in a Patronage Democracy
Authors: Bussell Jennifer
Published: May 2019

This chapter presents a discussion of service provision in India, to set the context for an analysis of distributive politics and, in particular, constituency service, in a patronage democracy. It lays out the features of India’s political economy that continue to lead us to describe it as a patronage democracy. It then outlines the characteristics of India’s primary political, bureaucratic, and social institutions, considering the formal roles and responsibilities of key actors at all levels of government with regard to distributive politics and their informal powers over distribution, at the national, state, and local levels. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the potential for constituency service in India from the perspective of prevailing theories, considering in particular the character of political institutions, the nature of electoral and party politics, and the dynamics that may—or may not—encourage politicians to build personal reputations for responsiveness.
Constituency Service in Comparative Perspective
Authors: Bussell Jennifer
Published: May 2019

Chapter 11 considers the extent to which we should expect to observe similar dynamics of distributive politics in other parts of the world. It draws on a range of cross-national data to show that the contextual characteristics supporting constituency service—the dynamics of patronage democracy, difficulty in access to public benefits, and partisan allocation of benefits at local levels, accompanied by the presence of high-level representatives with little ability to monitor individual electoral behavior—coexist across a range of democracies around the world. It offers evidence to suggest that high-level politicians in countries across Africa, Asia, and Latin America also engage in individual-level distribution to build a personal vote, rather than support for their party, and that highly partisan distribution by local operatives may ironically heighten their incentives to assist constituents in a nonpartisan manner. Thus, India is an exemplar of a common trend, rather than a global outlier.
Post-Liberalism
Authors: Dallmayr Fred
Published: May 2019

This book is about a paradigm shift occurring under our very eyes, a shift where everything hangs and changes together. The title Post-Liberalism gestures toward this shift, without being able to exhaust it. What the title suggests is that Western modernity (the past four hundred years) was in large measure the time of a self-centered and anthropocentric “liberalism,” an ideology celebrating human autonomy or independence from everything. This view is no longer tenable. Having become a bit more mature, we have come to realize the relationality or “inter-independence” of anything. Socially and politically this means that we are moving toward the practice of shared “public freedom” in a relational democracy and commonwealth. As used here, “post-liberalism” involves neither the denial of genuine freedom nor the endorsement of illiberal collectivism or nationalism. Basically, the book’s point is to find a path beyond atomistic selfishness or narcissism and collectivist populism in the direction of a shared, interhuman space or world. In addition to charting this path, the book wrestles with other forms of relationality: between local and global concerns; between secular reason and faith or spirituality; and between concrete particularism and “world maintenance.”
The mismatch negativity (MMN): An introduction
Authors: Näätänen Risto , Kujala Teija , Light Gregory
Published: May 2019

In this chapter, the mismatch negativity (MMN) event-related brain potential is introduced. MMN is an automatic response to any sound change generated primarily in auditory and frontal cortices, reflecting auditory change detection and discrimination accuracy. Analogous responses have also been found in other sensory modalities. MMN can, for example, index improvement of sound discrimination as a function of learning or recovery. Consistent with this, MMN appears to index general brain plasticity, essential for learning and memory, and to reflect different cognitive brain disorders. It is elicited irrespective of the direction of attention, being, therefore, a feasible tool for investigating even inattentive participants, such as sleeping infants or comatose patients.
How to record and analyse MMN
Authors: Näätänen Risto , Kujala Teija , Light Gregory
Published: May 2019

This chapter will introduce and discuss different experimental paradigms that can be used for eliciting MMN. The classical paradigm for this purpose is the auditory oddball paradigm with repetitive ‘standard’ stimuli interspersed with infrequent deviant stimuli which elicit MMN reflecting change detection. Subsequently, more informative multi-deviant paradigms were developed that provide profiles of auditory-discrimination accuracy including different auditory stimulus dimensions, such as sound frequency, duration, and locus of origin. These paradigms are sensitive to various forms of training, thereby reflecting brain plasticity, and they are selectively affected in different cognitive brain disorders.
Neurological disorders
Authors: Näätänen Risto , Kujala Teija , Light Gregory
Published: May 2019

The MMN amplitude is decreased and/or peak latency prolonged in a large number of different neurological disorders, such as neurodegenerative diseases, brain lesions, cochlear lesions, chronic pain, or tinnitus. This is to a great extent due to a decreased brain plasticity affecting the formation of memory traces for different sensory stimuli essential for different cognitive operations of the brain. Furthermore, MMN can serve as a measure of recovery or neural reorganization in different neurological disorders. For example, the recovery from aphasic symptoms after stroke was associated with the enhancement of MMN. MMN has also been useful in determining neural plastic changes of the auditory system associated with cochlear implantation.
Psychiatric disorders
Authors: Näätänen Risto , Kujala Teija , Light Gregory
Published: May 2019

Psychiatric illnesses including schizophrenia, major depressive disorder (MDD), bipolar disorder (BD), post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), panic disorder, and alcohol use disorders are common and leading causes of global disability. Conventionally, diagnosis and treatment of these disorders has relied solely on clinicical observation of symptoms and inference of underlying neural dysfunction. Recently, however, technological advances have allowed for direct measurement of brain functioning in these disorders, and there has been increased interest in the exploration of sensory processing deficits involved. In this context, MMN is regarded as a ‘breakthrough biomarker’ for advancing the understanding and treatment of psychiatric illness. As MMN is among the most widely studied translational biomarkers and has already undergone extensive psychometric validation (e.g. reliability, suitability for use as a repeated measure, sensitivity to pharmacologica and non-pharmacological interventions), it is widely used for development of new treatments for brain disorders.
Absolutism and Relativism
Authors: Studd J. P.
Published: May 2019

Absolutism about quantifiers maintains, with a good deal of prima facie plausibility, that quantifiers like ‘everything’ sometimes range over an absolutely comprehensive domain. This view has been challenged on various grounds: some deny the availability of a universal nominal like ‘thing’ on the grounds that it lacks a non-trivial criterion of identity; others contend that absolutism is committed to objectionable views in metaontology. But the most compelling reason to support relativism about quantifiers as opposed to absolutism is bound up with the set-theoretic paradoxes. This introductory chapter offers an overview of the absolute generality debate, and sets the scene for the defence of relativism that follows in the rest of the book.
Schemas
Authors: Studd J. P.
Published: May 2019

Relativism about quantifiers maintains that we never quantify over an absolutely comprehensive domain. Some philosophers are quick to reject this view on the grounds that it cannot be coherently formulated. But not every coherent theory can be captured in a single thesis. Sooner or later, everyone needs to make sense of theories that are infinitely axiomatized using schemas. This chapter offers a schematic regimentation of relativism. It then goes on to investigate the use of schemas to provide a relativist-friendly means to simulate absolutely general quantification. The chapter closes by discussing whether the relativist is able to frame an appropriate side-condition on the schema intended to capture her view.
Eleaticism and the Philosophy of Nature
Authors: Clarke Timothy
Published: May 2019

This chapter considers Aristotle’s preface to his critique of the Eleatics (Phys. 1.2, 184b25–185a20). In this preface, he denies that it is the job of the physicist or natural philosopher to examine the Eleatic theory. Aristotle’s argument shows that he regards Parmenides and Melissus as entity monists (that is, as claiming that reality consists of just one entity) and as rejecting the possibility of change. The chapter situates the critique of the Eleatics within the overall argument of Physics 1, and explains why Aristotle engages with their theory at the beginning of the Physics, despite the fact that this task falls beyond the scope of natural philosophy.
Problems of One and Many
Authors: Clarke Timothy
Published: May 2019

In the middle of Aristotle’s discussion of the Eleatics in Physics 1.2–3, we find a short excursus on some post-Eleatic thinkers (Phys. 1.2, 185b25–186a3). These ‘more recent’ thinkers inherited certain Eleatic concerns about how the same thing can be both one and many at the same time. This chapter examines Aristotle’s account of the more recent thinkers’ struggles with two problems of one and many: the ‘predication problem’ and the ‘whole–parts’ problem. The first is a problem arising from our characteristic way of ascribing properties to things; the second is a problem arising from the assumption that a whole is identical to its parts. The final section of the chapter makes a proposal about the function of the excursus.
On Giving in to the Eleatics
Authors: Clarke Timothy
Published: May 2019

At the end of his discussion of Eleatic monism, Aristotle criticizes some unnamed philosophers for ‘giving in’ to two Eleatic arguments: the argument that ‘all things will be one, if being signifies one thing’, and the argument ‘from the dichotomy’ (Phys. 1.3, 187a1–10). This chapter argues that these anonymous respondents are the Presocratic atomists, Leucippus and Democritus, and that the Eleatic arguments in question are (i) Parmenides’ argument for continuity and uniformity, and (ii) a post-Parmenidean argument for the indivisibility of the universe. The chapter explains why Aristotle thinks that, in their response to these arguments, the atomists conceded too much to the Eleatics.
Introduction
Authors: Weimer Maria
Published: May 2019

This book examines the legal and political context of European Union regulation of agricultural biotechnology, using the case of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) as a classic example of the challenges and convoluted problems that public regulators in general, and EU regulators in particular, face when confronted with technological risks in a globalized risk society. Focusing on the GMO reform of 2015, the book explores possible ways forward in EU risk regulation, their legitimacy, effectiveness, and their very legality under the current framework of EU internal market law. It discusses the evolution and challenges of EU risk regulation in the internal market, the administration of GMO risks, the EU legal framework for GMO authorization and its implementation in practice, and exit options from EU harmonized rules, including the 2015 opt-out reform of GMO legislation.
Risk as a Regulatory Idea
Authors: Weimer Maria
Published: May 2019

This chapter discusses the ideational foundations of risk and its implications for regulation. It begins with an overview of the risk discourse, focusing in particular on the ‘bright’ and ‘dark’ sides of risk. On its ‘bright’ side, risk is viewed as an achievement of modernity; on its ‘dark’ side, it is described as a new technological and potentially uncontrollable hazard. The chapter then considers the roles played by risk in regulation and explains the distinction between regulation and risk regulation, along with the challenges posed by risk to public regulation. It also examines the contestability of risk and how risk differs from uncertainty, as well as the role of science and risk management principles in stabilizing risk regulation, taking into account the use of the precautionary principle and cost-benefit analysis. Finally, it analyses the rational–instrumental model of evidence-based regulation that distinguishes epistemic authority from governance authority in risk regulation.
‘Grammar, for example, can only be studied in the crowd’
Authors: Hirschkop Ken
Published: May 2019

Chapter 2 shows us how issues of argument and consent in democracy were explored in the treatment of ‘analogy’ in Saussure’s new linguistics. Analogy may seem like a minor linguistic byway; in fact, in it are condensed a series of critical questions about linguistic order. By the twentieth century, analogy was understood as the principle that underlay the systematicity and orderliness of language, but it was also understood to be a psychological process. Did it involve reasoning (which would mean that the consent grounding language was a reasoned consent)? This was the question Saussure wrestled with in his lectures on general linguistics. In this chapter we watch the wrestling and see how a conservative version of ‘language as such’—language as such as embodying an unconscious consent—emerges victorious.
The Ship of Logic on the High Seas of Discourse
Authors: Hirschkop Ken
Published: May 2019

Chapter 3 looks at the linguistic turn in analytic philosophy as it emerges from Gottlob Frege, gains momentum in Bertrand Russell, and finds elaboration in the early and middle work of Ludwig Wittgenstein. The characteristic move of linguistic philosophy will be the clarification of presumably ‘muddled’ ordinary statements: the bringing to the surface a lucidity that is lurking within language, needing only to be coaxed out. The author shows how in the works of Frege, Russell, and early Wittgenstein, the drive to clarity entails a stripping away of every intersubjective, rhetorical element in discourse. He then argues that a language clarified by professional philosophers is a substitute for the objectivity of the public sphere. The chapter concludes by showing how intersubjectivity returns first as irony in Wittgenstein’s Tractatus and then as the belief that language always ‘works’: that it fails only when external circumstances disturb its inner workings.
Saussure and the Soviets
Authors: Hirschkop Ken
Published: May 2019

Chapter 4 focuses on three particular linguists, all of whom consider whether, from the perspective of Saussure’s work, a linguistic revolution is possible. One, S. I. Kartsevskii, does not want such a revolution and believes Saussure tells us why it is not possible. Another, G. O. Vinokur, both desires it and believes Saussure has provided tools for its realization. A third, Lev Iakubinskii, shares Vinokur’s enthusiasm but sees Saussure’s linguistics as an obstacle. The problem is not one of misinterpretation, for this varied reception reveals the striking inconsistency and ambiguity of Saussure’s conservative conception of consent and change in language.
On the Diversity—and Productivity—of Language
Authors: Hirschkop Ken
Published: May 2019

Chapter 5 borrows Walter Benjamin’s description of the ‘narcotic historicism’ of nineteenth-century Paris (expressed in its arcades, panoramas, wax museums, and architecture) and applies it to comparative philology, suggesting that, in effect, it creates ‘museums’ of language. In this perspective, some forms of twentieth-century modernism appear as attempts to liberate the force bound up in historicist forms; Saussure, Bakhtin, and Benjamin unleash the productivity and creativity of language that had been explained (and confined) in the phonetic laws discovered in the previous century. Bakhtin does so by counterpoising heteroglossia with myth; Saussure does so by invoking a model of linguistic change modelled on urban life and the republican social contract; Benjamin does so in his theory of translation, which aims to recover a native linguistic energy from the diversity of actual languages. In their different ways, these paeans to linguistic productivity draw attention to another feature of mass democracy: its urban character.
High Anxiety, Becalmed Language
Authors: Hirschkop Ken
Published: May 2019

Chapter 8 looks at ‘linguistic philosophy’ in middle and late Wittgenstein and in J. L. Austin. In ordinary language philosophy, myth emerged not from charismatic demagogues but from the fervid minds of scientistic intellectuals. Wittgenstein and Austin share the conviction that ‘language as such’ is the antidote to the metaphysical entanglements that arise from this scientism. But this ordinary version of ‘language as such’ is not simply present to the naked eye and ear, but is only available as the end result of strategies of philosophical clarification, which make language a manifestation of life. The chapter therefore focuses on Wittgenstein’s idea of the perspicuous representation and Austin’s techniques of drawing out distinctions. It turns out that clarification is an ambiguous exercise: Wittgenstein’s belief that ‘language always works’ runs aground when he compares language to music, which, it turns out, doesn’t work, at least not in the twentieth century.
Conclusion
Authors: Hirschkop Ken
Published: May 2019

The conclusion examines the situation after the Second World War. It shows how the linguistic turn in analytic philosophy ended and how the social democratic settlement in Western Europe gave birth to the new linguistic turns known as structuralism. The author explores the former by examining the career of Richard Rorty and the latter by looking at how Roland Barthes combines ideas from Saussure with a project for a radical analysis of French everyday life in the Mythologies. The book concludes with a review of how the various linguistic turns overinvested in the idea of language.
Human Capital and the Labor Market Adjustment of Immigrants: Testing Alternative Hypotheses
Authors: Borjas George J. , Chiswick Barry R.
Published: May 2019

In previous research on the economic adjustment of immigrants, hypotheses were generated based on the degree of the transferability of skill and the self-selection of immigrants for labor market ability. These hypotheses were found to be consistent with cross-sectional data for the United States and other countries. This chapter considers two alternative hypotheses that have been suggested: selective return migration of immigrants and the migration of those who anticipate high earnings for reasons other than ability. To compare the original and alternative models, a variety of new tests are made using cross-sectional and longitudinal data on earnings, occupation, and schooling from the censuses of population and the National Longitudinal Survey. The model of immigrant adjustment based on skill transferability and immigrant self-selection is shown to be consistent with these new tests, while the alternative hypotheses are not.
Are Immigrants Favorably Self-Selected? An Economic Analysis
Authors: Borjas George J. , Chiswick Barry R.
Published: May 2019

One of the standard propositions in the migration literature is that migrants tend to be favorably “self-selected” for labor market success. That is, economic migrants are described as tending on average to be more able, ambitious, aggressive, entrepreneurial, or otherwise more favorably selected than similar individuals who choose to remain in their place of origin. Economic migrants are those who move from one place of work and residence to another, either within a country or across international boundaries, primarily because of their own economic opportunities. The favorable selectivity for labor market success of migrants would be less intense among those for whom other motives are important, such as tied-movers, refugees, and ideological migrants. In recent years there have been challenges to the general proposition of the favorable selectivity of migrants. This chapter considers alternative specifications of the migration model that are relevant for the issue of migrant selectivity.
The “Negative” Assimilation of Immigrants: A Special Case
Authors: Borjas George J. , Chiswick Barry R. , Borjas George J. , Chiswick Barry R.
Published: May 2019

This chapter studies whether “negative” assimilation among immigrants living in the United States occurs if skills are highly transferable internationally. It outlines the conditions for negative assimilation in the context of the traditional immigration assimilation model, in which negative assimilation arises not from a deterioration of skills but from a decline in the wages afforded by skills coincident with the duration of residence. The authors use U.S. Census data from 1980, 1990, and 2000 to test the hypothesis on immigrants to the United States from English-speaking developed countries. They present comparisons with native-born workers to determine whether the findings are sensitive to immigrant cohort quality effects and find that even after controlling for these effects, negative assimilation still occurs for immigrants in the sample. They also find that negative assimilation occurs for immigrants from English-speaking developed countries living in Australia and for immigrants from Nordic countries living in Sweden.
Ethnicity, Neighborhoods, and Human-Capital Externalities
Authors: Borjas George J. , Chiswick Barry R.
Published: May 2019

The socioeconomic performance of today's workers depends not only on parental skills, but also on the average skills of the ethnic group in the generation of their parents (or ethnic capital). This chapter investigates the link between the ethnic externality and ethnic neighborhoods. The evidence indicates that residential segregation and the external effect of ethnicity are linked, partly because ethnic capital summarizes the socioeconomic background of the neighborhood where the children were raised. Ethnicity has an external effect, even among persons who grow up in the same neighborhood, when children are exposed frequently to persons who share the same ethnic background.
Does Immigration Grease the Wheels of the Labor Market?
Authors: Borjas George J. , Chiswick Barry R.
Published: May 2019

This chapter argues that immigration greases the wheels of the labor market by injecting into the economy a group of persons who are very responsive to regional differences in economic opportunities. The evidence shows that interstate dispersion of economic opportunities generates substantial behavioral differences in the location decisions of immigrant and native workers. New immigrant arrivals are much more likely to be clustered in those states that offer the highest wages for the types of skills that they have to offer. In other words, new immigrants make up a disproportionately large fraction of the “marginal” workers who chase better economic opportunities and help equalize opportunities across areas.
Native Internal Migration and the Labor Market Impact of Immigration
Authors: Borjas George J. , Chiswick Barry R. , Borjas George J. , Chiswick Barry R.
Published: May 2019

This chapter presents a theoretical and empirical study of how immigration influences the joint determination of the wage structure and internal migration behavior for native-born workers in local labor markets. Using data from the 1960–2000 decennial censuses, the study shows that immigration is associated with lower in-migration rates, higher out-migration rates, and a decline in the growth rate of the native workforce. The native migration response attenuates the measured impact of immigration on wages in a local labor market by 40 to 60 percent, depending on whether the labor market is defined at the state or metropolitan area level.
Aesthetic Value, Inversion, and the Ethical Properties of Artworks
Authors: Stecker Robert
Published: May 2019

This chapter investigates two phenomena where values plausibly interact within artworks. One is the case of purported aesthetic value ‘inversions’ within artworks. The other is the case of purported ethical-artistic value inversions within artworks. I hypothesize that one gets inversion in the valuable properties of artworks, when the properties in question are aesthetic properties. I will look for principles for evaluating artworks that best accommodate that fact of inversion. I will argue that there is a good candidate for such a principle, but it is neither a pro tanto nor a prima facie principle as they are ordinarily conceived. I will finally argue that some proponents of ethical-artistic inversion do indeed treat it as a species of aesthetic inversion.