bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Verfahrensentwicklung einer enzymkatalysierten Fettsäureveresterung mittels Prozeßsimulation
Authors: Mühlhaus Robert , Jupke Andreas , Mehrwald Andreas
Published: November 2006

Die diskontinuierliche Veresterung von Fettsäuren mit Hilfe von immobilisierten Enzymen besitzt gegenüber der konventionellen Herstellungsweise mit Metallkatalysatoren wesentliche Vorteile. Am Beispiel der Synthese von Decyloleat aus Ölsäure und 1‐Decanol konnte gezeigt werden, daß die Reaktion bei niedrigen Temperaturen von < 80°C produktschonend durchgeführt werden kann und Selektivitäten von nahezu 100% erreicht werden. Zusätzlich zu diesen prozeßintegrierten Umweltschutzverbesserungen besitzt das Verfahren auch ökonomische Vorteile, da die Chargenzeit verkürzt und die Ausbeute erhöht werden konnten.

Durch den Einsatz der instationären Prozeßsimulation (zeitabhängige mathematische Prozeßnachbildung) war es möglich, die im Labormaßstab gewonnenen Versuchsergebnisse innerhalb kurzer Zeit zu validieren und unter Minimierung des Scale‐up Risikos auf eine Betriebsanlage zu übertragen. Zusätzlich wurden ein tieferes Verständnis für das Verfahren und wichtige Hinweise für die Prozeßoptimierung gewonnen. Durch Parametervariationen mit dem Simulationsmodell wurden die optimale Flußrate durch das Festbett sowie die wirtschaftlichste Enzymmasse bestimmt. Simulationsstudien zu unterschiedlichen Betriebsweisen ergaben, daß die Pendelfahrweise zu kürzeren Reaktionszeiten als die Batchfahrweise führt, der Zeitvorteil den zusätzlichen apparativen Aufwand jedoch unter wirtschaftlichem Blickwinkel nicht aufwiegt.

Es konnte gezeigt werden, daß auch ein neues, innovatives Verfahren, wie eine enzymkatalysierte Veresterung, mit hinreichender Genauigkeit modelliert und auf einem PC instationär simuliert werden kann. Die aus dem Simulationsmodell gewonnenen Erkenntnisse rechtfertigen den Aufwand für die Modellerstellung und ‐validierung, zumal eine Erweiterung des Modells auf ähnliche Stoffsysteme problemlos möglich ist.
Der Einfluß fettreicher Rapsprodukte auf die Fettqualität von Lämmerschlachtkörpern
Authors: Bellof Gerhard , Freudenreich Peter , Mayer Paul
Published: November 2006

In einem Fütterungsversuch mit Lämmern sollte folgende Fragestellung geprüft werden: Welche Effekte zeigen die mit unterschiedlichen Rapsprodukten (Rapssaat, Rapskuchen, Rapsöl) zugeführten ungesättigten Fettsäuren auf das Fettsäurenmuster im Muskel‐ und Depotfett der Schlachtkörper?

Insgesamt vierzig abgesetzte Bocklämmer (genetische Herkunft: Merino‐Landschaf, Schwarzköpfiges Fleischschaf × Merino‐Landschaf) wurden unter den Bedingungen einer hohen Fütterungsintensität bis zu einem mittleren Endgewicht von 49 kg gemästet. In vier Gruppen (n = 10) wurden vier verschiedene Kraftfuttermischungen eingesetzt. Die Kontrollgruppe erhielt eine konventionelle Kraftfuttermischung auf der Basis Getreide‐Trockenschnitzel‐Sojaextraktionsschrot. Die Mischung für die Versuchsgruppe 1 wies 10% Rapssaat auf. In der Mischung für Versuchsgruppe 2 wurde Sojaextraktionsschrot durch 34% Rapskuchen ersetzt. Die Versuchsgruppe 3 erhielt eine Kraftfuttermischung mit 4% Rapsöl. Alle Mischungen waren isoenergetisch und isonitrogen zusammengesetzt. Die drei Mischungen für die Versuchsgruppen enthielten höhere Rohfett‐ und Rohfasergehalte als die Kontrollmischung. Die Fettgehalte der Versuchsmischungen lagen auf gleichem Niveau.

Die Fettsäurenmuster im Fettgewebe (Nierenfett, Rückenfett, intramuskuläres Fett) der Versuchsgruppen unterschieden sich charakteristisch von denen der Kontrollgruppe. Die Versuchsgruppen wiesen insbesondere höhere Gehaltswerte an trans‐Fettsäuren (C16:1, C18:1) und geringere Anteile an mehrfach ungesättigten Fettsäuren auf als die Kontrolle.

Zwischen den drei Versuchsgruppen bestanden keine Unterschiede in der Fettzusammensetzung. Diese Übereinstimmung deutet darauf hin, daß die Verdauungsvorgänge im Pansen weitgehend parallel abliefen. Die Form der Fettzulage zeigte keinen Einfluß.
Untersuchungen über die Eignung von Leindotterpreßkuchen als Futtermittel, 2. Mitteilung: Futterwert und Einsatzgrenzen bei der Fütterung von Wiederkäuern
Authors: Lebzien Peter , Daenicke Reinhard , Aulrich Karen , Böhme Hartwig , Einhoff Kurt
Published: November 2006

Futterwert und Akzeptanz von Leindotterpreßkuchen bei Wiederkäuern wurden in Versuchen an vier Hammeln, sechs pansenfistulierten und 18 intakten laktierenden Milchkühen untersucht. Hinsichtlich der Akzeptanz ergaben die Versuche, daß Tagesgaben bis zu 0,24kg von Hammeln und bis zu 2,4kg von Milchkühen problemlos verzehrt wurden. Der im Verdauungsversuch an Hammeln ermittelte energetische Futterwert lag bei 15,4 MJ ME/kg T bzw. 9,5 MJ NEL/kg T.

Die intakten bzw. pansenfistulierten Milchkühe erhielten Kraftfuttermischungen mit 0%, 15% und 30% Leindotterkuchen zusammen mit einem Gemisch aus Gras‐ und Maissilage. Aufgrund seines hohen Gehalts an mehrfach ungesättigten Fettsäuren führte der Leindotterkuchen zu einer Abnahme des Essigpropionsäureverhältnisses im Pansensaft von 3,3:1, über 3,0:1 auf 2,7:1. Weitere Kennzahlen der Pansenfermentation (pH‐Wert, NH3‐N‐Gehalt) wurden nicht signifikant beeinflußt. Bei einer mittleren Milchleistung von 22,7 kg je Tag führten steigende Mengen an Leindotterkuchen zu einem drastischen Abfall des Milchfettgehalts von 3,73% auf 3,28% bzw. 2,46%. Der Milcheiweißgehalt nahm von 3,20% auf 3,18% bzw. 3,05% ab. Durch die Verfütterung von Leindotterkuchen wurde die Milchfettzusammensetzung, das heißt die Qualität des Butterfetts, deutlich verändert. So nahm der Anteil an gesättigten Fettsäuren bis zu einer Kettenlänge von C18 von 75,3% bis auf 62,7% ab, der Anteil an einfach ungesättigten Fettsäuren von 21,5% bis auf 33,5% zu, und der Polyensäurenanteil blieb mit im Mittel 2,7% gleich. Ein Einfluß auf die Schmackhaftigkeit der Milch konnte nicht nachgewiesen werden.
Potentiometrische Titration des Amid‐Stickstoffs von Tensiden — Deutsche Einheitsmethoden zur Untersuchung von Fetten, Fettprodukten, Tensiden und verwandten Stoffen: Analyse von grenzflächenaktiven Stoffen XXXIII
Authors: Arens M. , Hirschen M. , Klotz H.
Published: November 2006

Die nachstehende Methode wurde im “Gemeinschaftsausschuß für die Analytik von Tensiden (GAT)” im Ringversuch geprüft. Der GAT stellt die Methode, die dann in den DGF‐Einheitsmethoden

Verlegt bei der Wissenschaftlichen Verlagsgesellschaft mbH, Stuttgart.

veröffentlicht werden soll, zur Diskussion und bittet um Anmerkungen an die Berichterstatter.
Selective improvement of porcine fat firmness by a diet enriched in medium‐chain fatty acids
Authors: Kreuzer Michael , Gerdemann Marlies M. , Reyer Wolfgang
Published: November 2006

The effects of 4% fat either rich in medium‐chain fatty acids (MCFA; saturated fat) or in polyenoic fatty acids (PUFA; unsaturated fat) isoenergetically exchanging carbohydrates of a low‐fat diet (control) on performance and product quality were evaluated with 180 growing pigs. Growth, carcass and meat quality were not affected by the fat treatments. Although elevated in blood serum, cholesterol was not increased in belly meat when the MCFA‐rich diet was fed. Fatty acid composition of backfat reflected dietary fat composition. The significantly lowest shelf life and melting temperatures were found with the unsaturated‐fat diet. When compared with control, fat tissue PUFA contents were slightly higher in the saturated‐fat diet, and fat melting temperatures were somewhat lower. In contrast, the use of this MCFA‐enriched diet increased penetrometer firmness in pure 4°C temperated backfat by more than 50% as compared with control and to about the tenfold level of the firmness obtained in the unsaturated‐fat diet. Impression of flavour and odor in lean and fatty meat were not systematically affected by the diets. The present results show a high potential of MCFA‐enriched diets to selectively increase fat firmness in pigs without greater undesired side effects on other traits of product quality.
Incubation period in the 2,2,4,4‐tetramethyl‐1‐piperidinyloxy‐mediated thermal autopolymerization of styrene: Kinetics and simulations
Authors: Saldívar‐Guerra Enrique , Bonilla José , Zacahua Gregorio , Albores‐Velasco Martha
Published: November 2006

Mechanisms and simulations of the induction period and the initial polymerization stages in the nitroxide‐mediated autopolymerization of styrene are discussed. At 120–125 °C and moderate 2,2,4,4‐tetramethyl‐1‐piperidinyloxy (TEMPO) concentrations (0.02–0.08 M), the main source of radicals is the hydrogen abstraction of the Mayo dimer by TEMPO [with the kinetic constant of hydrogen abstraction (kh)]. At higher TEMPO concentrations ([N•] > 0.1 M), this reaction is still dominant, but radical generation by the direct attack against styrene by TEMPO, with kinetic constant of addition kad, also becomes relevant. From previous experimental data and simulations, initial estimates of kh ≈ 1 and kad ≈ 6 × 10−7 L mol−1 s−1 are obtained at 125 °C. From the induction period to the polymerization regime, there is an abrupt change in the dominant mechanism generating radicals because of the sudden decrease in the nitroxide radicals. Under induction‐period conditions, the simulations confirm the validity of the quasi‐steady‐state assumption (QSSA) for the Mayo dimer in this regime; however, after the induction period, the QSSA for the dimer is not valid, and this brings into question the scientific basis of the well‐known expression kth[M]3 (where [M] is the monomer concentration and kth is the kinetic constant of autoinitiation) for the autoinitiation rate in styrene polymerization. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Polym Sci Part A: Polym Chem 44: 6962‐6979, 2006
Gauge sector statistics of intersecting D‐brane models
Authors: Gmeiner F.
Published: November 2006

In this paper, which is based on the first part of the author's PhD thesis, we review the statistics of the open string sector in T6/(ℤ2 × ℤ2) orientifold compactifications of type IIA. After an introduction to the orientifold setup we discuss the two different techniques that have been developed, using either a saddle point approximation or a direct computer based method. We explain the two approaches by means of eight‐ and six‐dimensional toy models and present the results for the four‐dimensional models in detail. Special emphasis is placed on models containing phenomenologically interesting gauge groups, in particular those containing a standard model, Pati‐Salam or SU(5) part.
Mechanisms responsible for high levels of permethrin resistance in the house fly
Authors: Scott Jeffrey G. , Georghiou George P.
Published: November 2006

The mechanisms responsible for > 6000‐fold permethrin resistance in a pyrethroid‐selected strain of house fly, Learn‐PyR, were investigated. Through electrophysiological, in vitro metabolism, in vivo penetration and synergism studies it was demonstrated that the resistance mechanisms consisted of enhanced metabolic detoxification via the mixed‐function oxidase (MFO) system, target‐site insensitivity and decreased cuticular penetration. The major resistance mechanism was the MFO‐mediated detoxification. The elevated MFO activity was correlated with higher levels of cytochrome P‐450, cytochrome b5 and NADPH‐cytochrome c reductase activity. The kinetics of the latter showed similar Km but greater Vmax values in the Learn‐PyR than in the susceptible strain, suggesting that the elevated activity was due to an altered amount, but not an altered form, of the enzyme. The Learn‐PyR strain showed widely varying levels of resistance to the pyrethroids tested. Comparison of the pyrethroid structures with the resistance ratios revealed that resistance was highest in the presence of an unsubstituted phenoxybenzyl alcohol moiety. Substitution or certain modifications of the alcohol moiety reduced the level of resistance. Structure of the acid moiety or the presence or absence of an a‐CN group did not affect the resistance level. These results are discussed with reference to the resistance mechanisms present.
Evaluation of models used to assess the fate of chemicals in aquatic systems
Authors: Crossland Norman O. , Bennett David , Wolff Cor J. M. , Swannell Richard P. J.
Published: November 2006

Five reference chemicals, 2,5,4′‐trichlorobiphenyl (3‐CB), chloroform, parathionmethyl (MEP), pentachlorophenol (PCP) and 3,4‐dichloroaniline (DCA), were applied to experimental outdoor ponds by sub‐surface injection. Samples of water, sediment and vegetation were removed and analysed for residues at various intervals after treatment. The fate of these chemicals in the ponds was predicted through the use of process analyses and mathematical models. The predicted rates of loss were compared with experimental observations. Data obtained for 3‐CB were fitted to a three‐compartment model and this was used to calculate the rates of transport between water and sediment, and between water and vegetation. These processes are primarily dependent on turbulent mixing. In experiments with MEP it was shown that biodegradation was primarily associated with bacterial populations in the sediment rather than with those suspended in the water. The rate of biodegradation in sediment was relatively fast and there was no detectable lag phase. The sediment could therefore be considered a sink for MEP and the overall rate of loss of the latter was dependent on its rate of transport to the sediment. In an experiment with chloroform there was reasonably good agreement between predicted and observed rates of evaporation. However, observed rates were always greater than predicted rates, suggesting a systematic bias that may warrant further investigation. In experiments with PCP and DCA there was good agreement between predicted and observed rates of phototransformation.
Determination of sugarbeet herbicides in soil samples by hplc
Authors: Ghebbioni Cristina , Trevisan Marco
Published: November 2006

Determination of sugarbeet herbicides such as chloridazon, metamitron and phenmedipham in soil samples is described. After extraction with acetone, pesticides were determined by HPLC on an RP‐18 column using methanol/water as mobile phase. Average recoveries were 82% for chloridazon, 93% for metamitron and 77% for phenmedipham. Quantification limits were 3·5 μg kg−1 for chloridazon, 6·3 μg kg−1 for metamitron and 3·6 μg kg−1 for phenmedipham.
Soil sensitised generation of singlet oxygen in the photodegradation of bioresmethrin
Authors: Clements Paul , Wells Clifford H. J.
Published: November 2006

The ability of soil samples of pH 4·2, 5·5 and 7·2 to generate gaseous singlet oxygen was investigated using a separated‐surface‐sensitised reactor. It was found that the soil samples can act as sensitisers for the production of singlet oxygen in a similar fashion to the well known sensitisers chlorophyll and Rose Bengal. The reaction of singlet oxygen so produced with the pyrethroid insecticide, bioresmethrin, has been investigated.
Physicochemical properties of agrochemicals: Their effects on foliar penetration
Authors: Baker Edward A. , Hayes Ann L. , Butler Ruth C.
Published: November 2006

Uptake and translocation of 26 chemicals (herbicides, fungicides, growth regulators, insecticides and model compounds), formulated with and without ‘Ethylan TU’ (NP8) surfactant, have been determined 24, 48 and 72 h after spraying onto leaves of maize, rape, strawberry and sugar beet. Eight of the chemicals may be classified as polar (log partition coefficient (P) < 0) and 18 as lipophilic (log P 0·8‐4·6). Chemicals penetrated more readily into waxy leaves of rape and strawberry than into less‐waxy sugar beet, whilst lowest rates were observed for maize. Rates of uptake varied from exceedingly low (< 2% 72 h after application) for uracil, maleic hydrazide, isoproturon and methyl phenylurea applied to maize, to rapid (>98% within 24 h of application) for acephate and triadimefon applied to strawberry leaves. The effects of NP8 on rates of chemical uptake were classified into 4 types, viz:‐

low rates, with limited enhancement by NP8;

high rates unaffected by NP8;

marked enhancement by NP8 within 24 h; and

continuous enhancement by NP8 over 0‐72 h.

Translocation into the tissues immediately adjacent to the target site was greater for waxy than less‐waxy plants, enhancement by NP8 was attributed to its effects on penetration rather than to surfactant interactions at the sub‐cuticular level. Logarithms of physicochemical properties (partition coefficient, water solubility S, molecular weight MW), together with deposit area and melting point (m.p.) values were used to investigate relationships with uptake and translocation. In most cases the variability could not be described adequately in a simple linear form. Regressions using the entire group of 26 chemicals also showed poor correlations between uptake patterns and individual variables. Polynomials in log S, log P, log MW and m.p. were used to test for complex relationships. A quadratic polynomial in log P, log S and m.p. accounted for slightly more (77%) of the variability between the means for total uptake than a cubic polynomial in log P and log S (75%). Although both regressions were significant, the ‘lack of fit’ indicated that other factors need to be included to account fully for the variability in rates of uptake and translocation.
A database of packaging laboratory test equipment
Authors: Salisbury John
Published: November 2006

The paper reports a recent data base produced for, and available to National Packaging Centres, in developing countries. The ITC in Geneva hold the material which is updated regularly. It should enable enquirers to ascertain details of the equipment they require and to choose between several alternatives.
Filling characteristics and dosing accuracy of volumetric dosing devices in vertical form—fill—seal machines
Authors: Hohmann H. J.
Published: November 2006

A Study has been made of the physical characteristics of the participate products to be filled in vertical form‐fill‐seal machines and the configuration and dimensions of the filling and dosing devices commonly employed.

Filling from cups with different opening mechanisms and filling systems using an auger have been examined, and the dosing accuracy found in all instances to be more dependent on variations in the bulk density, general particle shape and size etc. of the product being filled than on the dimensions etc of the filling device.

Results are reported on many of the possible characteristics in an attempt to find the relevant one(s) but it is concluded that our knowledge of product characteristics is insufficient and that more research is required.
Mechanical stresses on products during air cargo transportation
Authors: Trost Thomas
Published: November 2006

A field study was conducted on board a Boeing 747 Combi (freight and passenger) aircraft on the route Stockholm (Arlanda) via Oslo (Gardermoen) to New York (John F. Kennedy Airport) and return to Stockholm (Arlanda). Shock and vibration, acting on the cargo, during air transportation were measured and analysed.

The study encompassed all phases of the flight, including taxiing, climb, cruise during both calm and turbulent conditions, descent and approach, landing including touchdown and taxiing to apron.

The field data were analysed by conventional frequency analysis and modelling techniques. In order to generalize the results, flight recorder data from the field trial and from other flights are included.

Guide‐lines for the development of realistic, simulation test programs for product and package design are included.
Military packaging in the UK today
Authors: Slate P. M. B. , Freeman R. S.
Published: November 2006

Equipment for the Defence Services is daily becoming more expensive and more sophisticated and it therefore has to have a high reliability to enable the serviceman to have confidence in it. Therefore the quality and design of packaging coupled with its cost effectiveness is everyones business whether they be in design, development, production, purchasing, supply management, operational maintenance, storage, distribution or quality assurance and the aim must be that‚packaging is as important as the materiel it contains'. The paper outlines the way in which the packaging needs of the British Army, Navy and Air Force are met by the Central Packaging Unit (CPU) of the Ministry of Defence (MOD). The equipment for testing is briefly described and the main R & D projects outlined.
Evaluation of the potential mutagenicity of plastics packaging by testing food simulant extracts
Authors: Hens L. , Loxt F. , Susanne C.
Published: November 2006

A method of evaluating the mutagenicity of extracts from plastic food packaging materials has been developed using sister chromatid exchange (SCE). The procedure for the plastics material (PVC, PS and PP) is based upon a Soxhlet extraction and the operations of dispersing the polymer into an adequate solvent followed by precipitation with methanol, filtration and evaporation to dryness of the filtrate containing the total mix of additives.

The solvents used are double‐distilled water, simulating most aqueous liquid foods, and n‐heptane as a fat simulant.

The extracts were added to cell cultures of human lymphocytes. The mutagenetic activity of this mixture was evaluated using an SCE test. No extract showed any such activity. The study demonstrated that the SCE test on human lymphocytes can be used as a valid method for evaluating the mutagenic quality of complex mixtures.
The effectiveness of the United Nations' leakproofness tests
Authors: Löschau Gerhard
Published: November 2006

The regulations for the packaging of dangerous goods, which are applicable world‐wide for the various modes of transport, include performance tests. It is impossible to conduct laboratory tests for every environmental condition, but the tests can produce a conservative estimate of the situation during transport. This paper analyses the so‐called leakproofness test as one of the design‐type tests for packagings covered by the United Nations' (UN) recommendations for dangerous goods.
Vibration testing of filled packages at different stress levels and vibration modes: With special emphasis on 1‐litre pure‐pak milk cartons
Authors: Sundell Hans A.
Published: November 2006

Pure‐Pak milk cartons were placed in a shipping unit (rolling container) with a capacity of 160 1‐litre cartons. Standing on a vibration table, the shipping units were subjected to both typical and severe vibration stresses. The table was driven by tape recorder, containing the actual vibration signals from a truck. One‐ and two‐dimensional vibration modes were used. The leakage frequencies of the milk cartons were recorded and the results discussed with respect to both stress levels and vibration mode.
Preservation of freshness of yellowtail fillet packaged using carbon dioxide‐nitrogen gas mixture
Authors: Yasuda Matsui , Nishino Hajime , Chiba Tokiko , Nakano Hisako , Yokoyama Michio
Published: November 2006

Gas‐exchange packaging was studied as a method of maintaining the freshness of fish‐farm‐cultured yellowtail, and its effectiveness was examined. The fish‐farm‐cultured yellowtail was processed into three layers (two fillets plus bones). Half of these fillets were wrapped using co‐extruded ethylene vinyl acetate/polyvinylidene chloride/polyolefin film. The gas used, which was sealed into the packaging, was a mixture of nitrogen and carbon dioxide (N2/CO2:60/40). Packages were kept at 5°C. The other half of the fillets were packaged in stretch‐wrap made of PVC, for comparison. The effectiveness of both types of packaging on maintaining freshness was examined. Results show that stretch‐wrap‐packaged yellowtail suffered discoloration of the dark meat sections and a degeneration of quality during the first day of preservation. Discoloration was extremely marked by the 3rd day and the fish was completely valueless as merchandise. In contrast, gas packaging of yellowtail prevented rapid discoloration, maintained taste and texture, and suppressed the growth of bacteria, to give a 3‐4‐day shelf‐life for the fish which was to be used subsequently as sashimi.
Comparative sorption of citrus flavor compounds by low density polyethylene
Authors: Halek G. W. , Meyers M. A.
Published: November 2006

Mixtures of seven characteristic flavor solutes commonly found in orange juice were studied for their interaction with low‐density polyethylene (LDPE) from aqueous solutions at 20°C. Precautions were taken to avoid thermal and chemical degradation of the flavor solutes and degradation components were not found by HPLC analysis. Hydrocarbon monoterpenes showed 30–40% sorption by the LDPE over a 25‐day period. Oxygenated monoterpenes showed ca. 10% sorption in the same time period. Further study of one of the hydrocarbon terpenes (d‐limonene) showed both adsorption (surface attraction) and absorption (matrix dissolution), while its analogous oxygenated terpene (I‐carvone) displayed predominantly adsorption. These findings are useful for deciding proper compensations for changes in flavor profiles in packaged orange juices in contact with LDPE. They also illustrate the importance of learning the nature of polymer‐flavour interactions between foods and packaging materials.
Packaging production and consumption in the world and in some industrialized countries
Authors: Pariat Maurice , Pothet Jean‐Paul , Veaux Michel
Published: November 2006

This paper reports on statistics concerning production and consumption of packaging (as a whole or per capita) in Europe, in the USA, in Japan and in the world. Data have been provided by National Trade Associations and by consultants specialized in packaging and in economics. It is estimated that in 1986 the global consumption of packaging reached 150 millions of tonnes valued at 1200 billions of French francs. Consumption could reach 247 million tonnes by the year 2000. Paper and board have the highest consumption rate, but plastics have the highest rate of growth. Nevertheless, consumption per capita in the industrialized countries will be more than 10 times the consumption in underdeveloped countries. The packaging industries take fourth place in the USA, sixth in Western Germany and twelfth in France.

In Europe, as in the world, paper and board is the material most used (40%), with glass (a high density material) taking second place and plastics third, i.e. if we consider the quantity of materials and not their value. Some differences appear between the various countries, but the figures for USA and Japan lead to similar conclusions.

The survey shows clearly that the USA as compared with Europe has twice the consumption of packaging materials per capita and this difference is even greater compared with the rest of the world.
Polyvinyl chloride and its organotin stabilizers with special reference to packaging materials and commodities: A review
Authors: Figge K.
Published: November 2006

Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) is a thermoplastic that has entered practically all areas of life as a cheap and versatile material. Since PVC also fulfils the high quality requirements placed on modern packaging materials, with respect to packaging techniques and consumer protection, it is being used to an increasing extent for packaging of food and beverages as well as pharmaceutical and cosmetic products. The various additives required for processing PVC into packaging materials and commodity articles, as well as improving its properties during usage (e.g. lubricants and stabilizers), are harmless with regard to human and ecotoxicological aspects. Their use is non‐hazardous and is therefore permitted by authorities. In the group of thermo‐ and light stabilizers for PVC, mixtures of mono‐ and dialkyltin thioglycolates play a major role. In accordance with legislation, these are allowed to be used in rigid PVC. In addition to their excellent stabilizing effect, they are not hazardous to the health of consumers of products packed in rigid PVC.

Similarly, no health hazards exist to personnel, working in PVC production and processing plants, from volatile components of organotin stabilizers provided that processing and environmental prerequisites of modern technology are observed. The disposal of household waste that contains used PVC materials — stabilized with mixtures of mono‐ and dialkyltin thioglycolates — does not cause additional difficulties.
A laboratory model of climatic stress and prediction of protective package life
Authors: Kubeš Jaroslav
Published: November 2006

The paper formulates a complex model of climatic stress, which influences packages during transport and/or storage in natural climatic conditions. As all methods of prediction of material deterioration under real operating conditions are necessarily based on model test results, the proposed laboratory model works both with dominant sensitivities (or features) of the protected product and the main climatic hazards that may cause damage during distribution. The model is solved as a set of rules, which determine—within the pre‐defined limits—the laboratory multitest schedule for each specific case.

The philosophy of the test is based on a well‐known idea that transformation of the real stress into a model stress makes it possible, for any real time, place and conditions, to deduce an equivalent model stress. The direct relation between test schedule and real climatic conditions is provided by selecting such test parameters (temperature, both relative and absolute humidity, UV radiation, additional mechanical stress) as those that arise from the real climatic characteristics.

Values of the probable maximum climatic hazards during transport and/or storage were determined on the basis of an analysis of the daily, monthly and yearly meteorological data f rom more than 500 stations in Europe and Asia. The results were combined with those of monitoring parameters of transport container microclimates during land and sea transport.

From the viewpoint of economic pressure relating to the development of modern protective systems, the test helps to meet the rising demand for package reliability while decreasing their production costs.
Effects of ionizing treatments on packaging ‐food simulant combinations
Authors: Pillette Lucien
Published: November 2006

Research relating to ionizing treatment has been carried out on ‘food simulants polyethylene film’ combinations. Pouches have been irradiated by gamma photons or accelerated electrons at a 10kGy dose. Overall, the migration test has given some interesting results, particularly in the case of acid simulant, where a limit of validity has been found for the overall migration method. Many radiolytic products and degradation reactions have been indicated, and it has been established that the high permeability of packaging film to oxygen had influenced the radiolytic product yields. The results show some interactions between packaging film and food simulant under irradiation conditions.
Application of high‐speed motion analysis to measure shock in cushioned drops
Authors: Marcondes J. , Waldeck J. , Burgess G. , Singh S. P.
Published: November 2006

A high‐speed motion analysis technique for measuring shocks in cushioned drops is developed and compared with the conventional accelerometer method. Actual drop‐test results show significant differences between the measured peak decelerations using the two methods. The drop‐test results are also compared with the published cushion‐curve data and are again found to be in disagreement. The errors associated with each method are discussed and related back to the observed differences in measured acceleration.
Cause of catty odour formation in packaged food
Authors: Franz R. , Kluge S. , Lindner A. , Piringer O.
Published: November 2006

In two different ‘cook‐in‐the‐bag’ ham products packed in polyamide‐ethylene ionomer laminate pouches, the same obtrusive catty off‐odour was complained about. In this paper the analytical resolution of a complex off‐odour problem is described. Identification of the catty odour as the mesityf oxide‐hydrogen sulphide adduct 4‐methyl‐4‐mercaptopentan‐2‐one is followed by investigating the formation of the off‐odour with the aid of different model experiments. It is pointed out that the ethylene ionomer material that is used for the sealing layer of the multilayer packaging film has some dehydration property for diacetone alcohol, which was found as a residual solvent in the film material in question. Probably this pathway seems most likely to be responsible for the off‐odour.
Modelling acidic corrosion of aluminium foil in contact with foods
Authors: Piergiovanni Luciano , Fava Patrizia , Ciappellano Salvatore , Testolin Giulio
Published: November 2006

The possible interaction between non‐coated aluminium and foods was studied using the corrosion behaviour of an aluminium household foil under different conditions of acidity, dissolved oxygen and temperature of the contacting phase.

The aluminium foil was kept in contact with acetic acid solutions of pH values varying from 2.5 to 3.5 and dissolved oxygen concentrations between 0 and 8 ppm, under different conditions of temperature (from 0.3 to 50 °C) and contact time between 24 and 120 h. Corrosion was always detected and it was shown that all three variables influence the rate, and consequently the extent, of the interaction but pH and temperature have a greater effect since their relationships with rate are of an exponential nature. The relationship between corrosion rate and dissolved oxygen, however, is linear and has a minor accelerating effect on the corrosion rate.

By applying the Arrhehius equation it was possible to evaluate the thermal sensitivity of the phenomenon with respect to the different variables.

The activation energies vary between 31–635 and 88–471 J mol−1, indicating a higher thermal sensitivity at the lowest pH values and highest dissolved oxygen amounts.
Packaging and physical properties of food
Authors: Yano Toshimasa
Published: November 2006

When packaging technology reaches a certain level, it should be prepared for a variety of demands from the packed‐side about how to be packed. Knowledge of physical properties of food will be of importance to solve problems for controlling the food quality both during and after packaging. In this review paper, first the importance of controlling the water activity of the food is explained in relation to chemical and biochemical reactions.

The significance of hysteretic in the process of drying and wetting is also indicated. Second, progress in the prediction of the thermal properties of food is reviewed. Special attention is paid to the systematic understanding of the effective thermal conductivity of various foods. Third, the seemingly irregular archeological behaviour of food materials is presented with recent theoretical explanations. Development in computational techniques helps to solve problems that have previously been left unsolved.
Oxygen diffusion rate through the gamma bottle and associated kinetic effects on tomato ketchup
Authors: Burgess Christine , Burgess Gary , Ofoli Robert
Published: November 2006

An experiment was performed to measure the oxygen transmission rate through the Gamma squeeze bottle for tomato ketchup and to determine the permeability constant for the Gamma material itself. Another experiment was carried out to study the change in the co lour of ketchup after long‐term exposure to an oxygen‐rich environment and to establish a minimum acceptable redness level for ketchup as measured by a standard Chroma Meter®. (Minolta Camera Co). The combined results were then used to determine the reaction rate between oxygen and ketchup and to predict the shelf‐life for co lour stability of ketchup packaged in the Gamma bottle. The predicted shelf‐life is at least 206 days.
Permeation characteristics of and extractables from gamma‐irradiated and non‐irradiated plastic laminates for a unit dosage injection device
Authors: Kim‐Kang Heasook , Gilbert Seymour G.
Published: November 2006

Potential migrants were isolated by Soxhlet extraction from plastic laminates used to make a single‐use injection system. The concentrated extracts were then subjected to GCIMS analyses and about 22 compounds were identified. The majority of these appeared to be oligorners derived from polyethylene. Other compounds included monomers, oligomers. cross‐linking agents, processing aids such as fatty acids, plasticizers and anti‐slip agents. Three major new compounds were identified in the Soxhlet extract of gamma‐irradiated test laminates, all of which were considered to be reaction products of nonanedioic acid with alkoxy radicals. The effect of irradiation on the profile of potential migrants and the permeabilities of the laminates were also evaluated. The amount of extractives was determined using food simulating solvents such as n‐heptane, 8% alcohol and water. Minimal changes were observed in the extractives from gamma‐irradiated laminates compared with non‐irradiated laminates. The oxygen permeability was significantly reduced after gamma irradiation, while the average water vapour transmission rate was not significantly changed after irradiation.
Development of a mathematical model for the effect of temperature and relative humidity on the water vapour permeability of plastic films
Authors: Samaniego‐Esguerra Christine M. , Robertson Gordon L.
Published: November 2006

The water vapour permeability constants of three flexible films (LDPE, PET and a laminate of both films) were determined at 20, 30 and 40 °C and from 55 to 90% relative humidities. The relationship between permeability and temperature followed the Arrhenius model for the three films. The relative humidity also influenced the permeability of the films. A mathematical model describing permeance (P/X ‐ the permeability of laminates or films) as a function of external relative humidity and temperature was developed. The model can be used to predict the permeance of the three films at different temperatures and relative humidities.
The effect of temperature and vibration on emulsion stability of mayonnaise in two different package types
Authors: Mackson Jeffery P. , Singh S. Paul
Published: November 2006

Mayonnaise in two different packages was compared for its susceptibility to vibration‐induced breakdown. The researchers investigated the effect of truck vibration on emulsion stability and compared two different package systems.

The containers were 32 oz glass and 32 oz polyethylene terephthalate (PET). Mayonnaise was conditioned at three different temperatures (40°, 72° and 100 °F), for three time periods (21, 26 and 36 days), and vibrated at normal and worst‐case transportation g levels. Emulsion stability was quantified by specific gravity, percentage of surface oil, and qualitatively rated by a visual pass/fail test. The specific gravity measure positively correlated to surface oiling. Glass containers showed a higher rate of emulsion failure at the worst‐case vibration levels. No consistent difference in emulsion breakdown was found between plastic and glass at the normal transportation g levels.
Determination of the Resistance to Light of Polyethylene Shrink Films Used for Pallet Loads
Authors: Mullot Patrice , Veaux Michel
Published: November 2006

The shrink films used to fix the loads on pallets are subjected to outdoor exposure and, particularly, to temperature changes and light. The resistance to photodegradation of these films must be taken into account in the design of a quality certificate.

The natural degradation of the films was carried out in the natural environmental testing station in Bandol (south of France). The climate of this area represents the conditions encountered around the Mediterranean (moisture, temperature and radiant energy), which are as severe as those in most temperate countries.

The accelerated tests were made at 60°C in a Sairem‐Cepap 12/24 cabinet comprising four mercury gas‐filled arc lamps of the mean pressure type. The quality of the light is representative of natural photoageing. Any radiation of wavelength lower than 290 nm, which is absent from the solar spectrum, is carefully eliminated. The light sources radiate light rich in photons that have wavelengths between 290 and 450 nm, and provide one of the main factors of degradation. The intensity of emission and the spectral composition were constant during 5000 h.

Three kinds of films of 120 μm thickness were tested:

(i) four films with ‘medium’ protection against sunshine (6 months resistance in a very sunny country);

(ii) four films with ‘high’ protection against sunshine (12 months resistance in a very sunny country);

(iii) one reference film without any protection.

A film was considered acceptable if its mechanical properties (tensile strength and elongation) did not fall more than 50% after exposure to natural radiations for 6 or 12 months, respectively.

Comparative tests have shown that for these particular kinds of polyethylene films, exposure to natural radiations at Bandol for 6 or 12 months is equivalent to an accelerated ageing in a Sairem‐Cepap cabinet of 350 or 500 h, respectively.
What institutional kitchens require of packages
Authors: Räty Maija , Järvi‐Kääriäinen Terhen , Leppänen Annukka
Published: November 2006

A theme interview study technique was used to investigate the requirements of institutional kitchens on packages. The interviewees included experts in the food and packaging industries as well as workers in staff restaurants and school dining rooms. Packages containing milk, juice, vegetables and convenience food products were studied.

This study shows that the packages did not always function in a satisfactory way. The biggest problem seemed to be the weight of the package and the opening mechanism. The workers are mainly female and therefore 20 kg is too heavy for lifting. It is also important that the package can be disposed of easily. A good package is easy to open and reclose. Reclosing, in particular, proved to be problematic. It is important that the package can be reclosed properly. A problem with packages filled with convenience food is that they are often too full and the food boils over hen heated.
Procedure to determine optimum dimensions of packages
Authors: Marcondes Jorge A.
Published: November 2006

A mathematical method to establish the optimum relationships between geometrical dimensions of containers is outlined, comprising several shapes and fabrication processes of packages. The relationship between dimensions settles one priority for the cost of packaging material used, given a fixed volume of product to be packed.

The method employs the minimization of a function of geometric variables. The function minimized is directly related to the amount of packaging material used to fabricate the packaging item. Two examples of the application of the method are shown to illustrate the procedure, and a list of the optimum relationships between the dimensions of several shapes of containers is presented. This procedure is of primary importance for packaging designers and requires some knowledge of differential calculus.
Gas transmission properties of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) films studied under subambient and ambient conditions for modified atmosphere packaging applications
Authors: Doyon Gilles , Gagnon Jean , Toupin C. , Castaigne Francois
Published: November 2006

This study was undertaken to determine the gas transmission properties of three polyvinyl chloride (PVC) films mostly used as overwrap for fresh produce under subambient and ambient conditions (5–40°C). Three different kinds of curves or groups of data are presented: gas transmission rates, activation energy measurements and the permeability coefficient. Hydrophobic by nature, the PVCs are not affected in their gas transmission properties (O2, CO2) by the moisture level. Reliable gas transmission data were obtained with method variability (≤9%) over a wide range of temperature. Regression constants, activation energies for prediction equations and permeability ratios (CO2/O2) are presented for the three films. Greater uniformity in test procedures, and the presentation of permeability data normalized to 1 μm instead of 1 mil would simplify comparative studies within and between countries, laboratory services and from the scientific literature. More research is needed to study the wide variety of polymers available under subambient conditions.
Optimization of folding box manufacture: Part one
Authors: Pelli T. , Grosz P.
Published: November 2006

The cost of producing folding boxboard cartons is dependent on a number of factors, among the most important of which are: machine costs, material costs and overheads.

In estimating costs, decisions must be made that are often based on experience rather than on a precise knowledge of he facts. The use of an expert system can provide a more effective tool and procedure than that used currently.

Part one of this report illustrates the effects of some of the variables, while part two describes the OPTICALC expert system devised by the authors.
Optimization of folding box manufacture: Part two
Authors: Pelli T. , Grosz P.
Published: November 2006

The cost of producing folding boxboard cartons is dependent on a number of factors, among the most important of which are: machine costs, material costs and overheads.

In estimating costs, decisions must be made that are often based on experience rather than on a precise knowledge of the facts. The use of an expert system can provide a more effective tool and procedure than that used currently.

Part one outlined the effect of the variables. This part of the report describes the OPTICALC expert system devised by the authors.
Carton systems—a service enhancement for carton makers and their customers
Authors: Hayes Graham
Published: November 2006

From their early development in the 1950s to the present time all packaging systems have benefitted from close cooperation between machinery makers and material suppliers.

This paper outlines briefly the development from the 1950s and comments on marketing methods, the benefits of cooperation, the relationships between board and machine, and suggests how future development may progress.
Computer‐aided package design for sensitive products
Authors: Geißler Egon , Weber Herbert
Published: November 2006

The paper presents a method to calculate mechanical loadings on a product‐package system. A finite element analysis is used to determine the frequency response that characterizes the damping behaviour of the cushion structure. With the presented method it is possible to compare different design versions of product‐package systems.
Effect of organic vapour interaction on permeation rate through polymer films
Authors: Theodorou Efthimios , Paik James S.
Published: November 2006

The permeability coefficients (P) of linalool, citral ethyl butyrate, d‐limonene and octanal permeating through LDPE and ionomer films were measured alone as individual and as a component of a mixture at a temperature of 23 °C and in saturated water vapour. Values of P for ionomer film were approximately two orders of magnitude below those for LDPE for the compounds tested. Both PET and PETG films were found to be much better barriers against the compounds tested than LDPE and ionomer films. In general, the permeability, diffusion and solubility coefficients (P. D, and S) values measured in mixture were substantially less than the values obtained individually. Permeability behaviour of these compounds at low concentrations in the mixture was similar to that of permanent gases. Reduction of solubility coefficients in mixture permeation was greater with the higher solubility coefficients. These results provide a better understanding of the mechanism of vapour diffusion through polymers.