bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Cytokine Genes I IL10, IL6, IL4, and the IL1 Family
Authors: Moraes Milton O , McNicholl Janet M , Huizinga Tom W J , Ottenhoff Tom H M
Published: November 2023

There is growing recognition that cytokine production is under tight genetic control and that variations in cytokine genes play a direct role in regulating cytokine production, disease pathogenesis, and host resistance to infectious diseases, particularly those due to intracellular pathogens. This hypothesis has led to epidemiological and functional studies of variant alleles at different polymorphic sites in many human populations. Promoter polymorphism studies, especially of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), have been conducted in association studies (mostly case–control) in many diseases, including autoimmune=inflammatory diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, multiple sclerosis, ankylosing spondylitis, and asthma, and infectious diseases such as malaria, hepatitis B (HBV), hepatitis C (HCV), HIV infection, tuberculosis (TB), leprosy, and sepsis=septic shock. Polymorphisms in TNF, IL12, and IFNG genes are reviewed in other chapters. Here we focus on IL10, IL6, IL4, and the IL1 gene cluster, including available evidence on the functional role of some promoter polymorphisms. Case–control studies have produced variable results, with little consensus on whether any polymorphisms are actually associated with disease, although results have been more consistent in the case of certain infectious diseases. Functional studies have also sometimes produced discrepant results. More recently, instead of focusing on single promoter polymorphisms in isolation, investigators have appropriately begun to examine extended haplotypes, which can better capture the true genetic functional variation. This has led to notable success in the identification of new functional loci and set a new standard, replacing smaller case–control studies using single markers with integrative large-scale studies focusing on haplotype analyses.
Cytokine Genes II IL12, IFNG, and Their Receptor Genes
Authors: Haverkamp Margje H , Holland Stephen M
Published: November 2023

The host immune response is divided into early innate (nonspecific) and adaptive (later) phases. The latter aims at sustained control of infection ( Janeway 1992). The interleukin-12=interferon-g (IL-12=IFN-g) signaling axis encourages T-helper-1 (Th1) and discourages T-helper-2 (Th2) development. Genetic deficiencies in IL-12, its receptor (IL-12R), the IFN-g receptor (IFN-gR), and in STAT-1 all cause susceptibility to weakly pathogenic mycobacteria, Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Salmonella (Ottenhoff et al. 2002). About 140 patients suffering from Mendelian defects in IL-12p40, IL-12Rb1, IFN-gR1, IFN-gR2, or STAT-1 have been reported (Mendelian susceptibility to mycobacterial disease; Casanova and Abel 2002, Dorman and Holland 2000, Ottenhoff et al. 2002).
Leishmaniasis
Authors: Dessein Alain
Published: November 2023

The different forms of leishmaniasis are caused by the protozoan Leishmania, belonging to the order Kinetoplastida, family Trypanosomatidae (Lainson 1987). Leishmania is injected in vertebrate epidermis and dermis by female sand flies (phlebotomes) when they take their blood meal. These organisms can parasitize a wide range of vertebrate hosts, from lizards to humans. Leishmania is an obligate intracellular parasite that develops inside macrophage phagolysosomes. These parasites have evolved sophisticated strategies to evade destruction by a phagocytic cell that is well suited for killing microorganisms (reviewed in Olivier et al. 2005).
Schistosomiasis
Authors: Dessein Alain , Chevillard Christophe , Elwali Nasr Eldin
Published: November 2023

Schistosomiasis is a disease caused by several species of 1to 2-cm-long helminths—trematodes or flat worms—called schistosomes. Some 250 million people are believed to be infected, mainly in developing countries, and schistosomiasis causes 100,000–250,000 deaths annually. Schistosomes are disseminated by freshwater snails that release infective swimming larvae, the cercariae, in ponds, small rivers, and irrigation canals. Humans and animals are infected following exposure to the waters during agricultural activities such as irrigation and from bathing, washing, or drinking (animals). In the snails, the parasite undergoes asexual multiplication that increases the parasite population size by a thousand times. In its vertebrate hosts, schistosomes undergo sexual reproduction, with female worms laying a few hundred eggs per day in the vessels of the host intestine and bladder. These eggs perforate the mucosa to enter the fecal or urinary stream, whereupon they shed into a river or pond and hatch and release a larva (miracidium) that infects the snails.
Pain Assessment
Authors: Fink Regina , Gates Rose
Published: November 2023

Key Points Pain is multifactorial and affects the whole person. Pain prevalence at the end oflife is high and can be acute,chronic,or both. Patients or residents should be asked whether they have pain(screened for pain) on admission to a hospital,clinic,nursing home,hospice,or home care agency. Ifpain or discomfort is reported,a comprehensive pain assessmentshould be performed at regular intervals,whenever there is achange in the pain,after analgesic administration,and after anymodifications in the pain management plan. The patient’s self-report ofpain is the gold standard,even for thosepatients who are nonverbal or cognitively impaired. Standard pain scales should be used in combination with clinicalobservation and information from health care professionals andfamily caregivers. Multiple barriers to pain assessment exist.
Dyspnea, Death Rattle, and Cough
Authors: Dudgeon Deborah
Published: November 2023

Dyspnea is a very common symptom in people with advanced disease and can severely impair their quality of life. The presence of dyspnea correlates with the probability of dying in hospital.1 In one international study, dyspnea prompted the use of terminal sedation in 25% to 53% of patients.2 Management of breathlessness requires understanding and assessment of the multidimensional components of the symptom, knowledge of the pathophysiological mechanisms and clinical syndromes that are common in people with advanced disease, and knowledge of the indications and limitations of the available therapeutic approaches.
Lymphedema Management
Authors: Smith Jean K
Published: November 2023

Lymphedema and edema are seen regularly in palliative and acute care settings. Both are often neglected despite their capacity to cause pain, immobility, infection, skin problems, and significant patient distress. Long-term, neglected edemas, such as lower extremity venous insufficiency, can develop into chronic lymphedema. Discerning the difference between edema and lymphedema allows appropriate treatment. Because nurses have access to large, diverse patient populations, they constitute an ideal resource for improving patient care. This text prepares nurses to understand, assess, and manage both edema and lymphedema. Information is applicable to various clinical settings, including acute, outpatient, and palliative care.
Skin Disorders: Pressure Ulcers— Assessment and Management
Authors: Bates-Jensen Barbara M
Published: November 2023

Palliative care for skin disorders is a broad area, encompassing prevention and care for pressure ulcers, management of malignant cutaneous wounds and fistulas, and management of stomas. The goals of treatment are often to reduce discomfort, manage odor and drainage, and provide for optimal functional capacity. In each area, involvement of the caregiver and family in the plan of care is important. Management of skin disorders involves significant physical care as well as attention to psychological and social care. To meet the needs of the patient and family, access to the multidisciplinary care team is crucial, and consultation by an Enterostomal Therapy nurse or a certified Wound, Ostomy, Continence nurse is highly desirable.
Delirium, Confusion, and Agitation
Authors: Kuebler Kim K , Heidrich Debra E , Vena, Catherine , English Nancy
Published: November 2023

The human “living” experience will eventually tread the path toward the inevitable physical decline that accompanies age, disease, and death. Yet each individual’s dying experience is as unique as the life that he or she has lived. Many of the common threads that often create fear in the dying process are similar and include the fear of pain, the fear of loss, and the fear of losing control over one’s physical, emotional, and mental capacities. As nurses caring for those that are facing the end of their lives and their families, it is important that we understand how to empower both patients and families and how to reassure them that they will receive the care and support necessary to control symptoms at life’s end.
Meaning in Illness
Authors: Borneman Tami , Brown-Saltzman Katherine
Published: November 2023

Is it possible to adequately articulate and give definition to meaning in illness? Or is meaning in illness better described and understood through using symbolism and metaphors such as the above poem? To try to define that which is enigmatic and bordering on the ineffable seems almost sacrilegious. The unique individual journey of finding meaning in illness experienced by each patient facing the end of life and their family caregiver would seem to be diminished by the very process that seeks to understand through the use of language. Is it that we seek to find meaning in illness or is it that we seek to find meaning in the life that is now left and in those relationships and things we value? Do we seek to find meaning in illness itself as an isolated event or that which is beyond the illness, such as how to live out this newly imposed way of life? Terminal illness forces us to look at and possibly to reappraise the meaning in and of our life.1 If we allow space in our lives for the process of meaning in illness to unfold, we then move from the superficial to the profound.
The Role of Nursing in Caring for Patients Undergoing Surgery for Advanced Disease
Authors: Ferrell Betty R , Juarez, Gloria , Borneman Tami
Published: November 2023

Rosa Hernandez is a 38-year-old Hispanic woman who resided in Southern California for the past 8 years, having previously lived her entire life in Mexico. She is married to Juan, and they have four children ranging in age from 6 to 17 years. Three months ago, she began to experience numerous gastrointestinal symptoms including bloating, mild nausea, abdominal pains, and severe indigestion. After trying numerous over-the-counter medications and herbal treatments, she sought medical evaluation and was diagnosed with cholangiocarcinoma. She and her family were drawn to the University Cancer Center, in part because a cousin who had been diagnosed with acute leukemia several years previously had been very successfully treated at this center and cured of his leukemia. They came to the Cancer Center with great confidence that Rosa would also be cured of her disease. The surgeon explained the seriousness of her cancer in the gallbladder and the widespread metastases to the liver. When offered treatment choices, Rosa and Juan as well as their large extended family aggressively voiced their desire for all treatments possible and repeatedly expressed their confidence in the surgical team and staff to save her life.
Symptom Management in Pediatric Palliative Care
Authors: Hellsten Melody Brown , Kane Javier
Published: November 2023

Complex chronic conditions of childhood (Table 49–1) are defined as “any medical condition that can be reasonably expected to last at least 12 months, involves either multiple organs or one organ system severely enough to require specialty pediatric care, and some probability of hospitalization at a tertiary care center.”1 Currently, there are limited estimates on the numbers of children living with these disabling and potentially life-limiting complex chronic conditions. Newacheck and Halfon2 estimated that approximately 4.4 million children in the United States currently live with some level of disabling chronic condition, and that roughly 450,000 of those children have conditions that prevent participation in age-appropriate activities, result in significant limitation in school, and account for increased numbers of hospitalizations and contacts with the health care system. Feudtner and colleagues3 reviewed death-certificate data from 1979 to 1997 and reported that 21% of the 1.7 million child deaths during that time were the result of a complex chronic condition.
Pediatric Care: The Hospice Perspective
Authors: Sumner Lizabeth H
Published: November 2023

Although much has been written about end-of-life care for adults, far less emphasis has been placed on the needs of dying infants and children. The ongoing painful dilemmas and struggles for families with infants and children who are dying remain hidden from society’s view, yet the demands and challenges of caring for a dying child are being addressed within hospitals and homes on a daily basis. Individuals committed to children with life-threatening illnesses and a modest number of hospice programs are making a difference, finding ways to significantly impact the imbalance in addressing the needs of children. The irony for pediatric caregivers is that “end-of-life care” is often necessary at the very beginning of a child’s life. Nurses can be instrumental in incorporating this contradiction into a realistic and compassionate framework for the care of children and families dealing with terminal illnesses. The report from the Institute of Medicine, When Children Die: Improving Palliative and End-of-Life Care of Children and Their Families, set forward the challenge to improve all aspects of end-of-life care for children and families, including improved quality and access to pediatric hospice. The National Consensus Project Guidelines for Quality Palliative Care published in 2004 also provide direction for pediatric care within the over-all perspective of care for all those, adults or children, facing life-threatening illness.
Nursing Education
Authors: Sheehan Denice K , Ferrell Betty R
Published: November 2023

One of the earliest responsibilities of the professional nurse was care of the dying. Florence Nightingale and other nurses provided care to soldiers dying on battlefields as well as to civilians dying as a result of epidemics. A major shift in patterns of disease and treatment began in the 20th century as more effective treatment modalities became available. Today, student nurses are exposed primarily to curative-oriented care and are less likely to encounter comfort-oriented care. Although many health care providers work with people at the end of their lives, nurses spend the most time with the dying and their families. Most nurses will provide palliative care to patients and their families no matter where they practice. Therefore, education in palliative care should begin in the nursing schools and extend through clinical inservices, continuing education courses, and professional conferences.
Harlem Palliative Care Network*
Authors: Canning Eleanor , Payne Richard
Published: November 2023

Imagine that you are the 51-year-old, Spanish-speaking, single mother of two children, 11 and 13 years old. You have bilateral breast cancer; you are in extreme pain, and your body is distorted with edema. Your lifelong belief in spiritual healing is no longer helping to relieve the pain and fight the cancer. Your children have no bedroom furniture and are sleeping on mattresses on the apartment floor. Your family, which includes a male companion, is threatened with eviction from your East Harlem, New York, apartment. In fact, the electricity has already been turned off. You are too ill to work. Your health insurance has lapsed; your family does not have enough food. You will die in 276 days. Among other issues important to you in your care is the fact that you want to die at home.
Understanding a Good Death: James’s Story
Authors: Steeves Richard , Kahn David
Published: November 2023

A good death is as difficult to define as a good life in that the former is, or should be, an extension of the latter. What makes life enjoyable and worth living does not change when a person is dying. But while most of us are concerned with how to make our lives as good as possible, we rarely think about what might make our deaths good. We might consider the details of dying while reading serious fiction, however, we are unlikely to think of them in the context of our daily experience. But to paraphrase an old saw, there is nothing like the prospect of death to focus a person’s attention. The dying want their deaths and what remains of their lives to be as good as possible. They count on palliative care nurses to do as much as possible to ensure this goodness. Of course, there may come a time for any patient when death will seem preferable to life. For example, an 87-year-old man dying of lung cancer, who was an in-formant in our study of cancer patients in hospice, stated: “I’m going downhill now and I don’t like it. It just gets harder to breathe. I can see that eventually I’ll be far enough down that hill that it will be better to be at the bottom and dead then still sliding down.” The goal of palliative care is to ensure that this desire for the bottom of the hill is not inevitable even though finally reaching that bottom may be.
Slayer Slang
Authors: Adams Michael
Published: November 2023

Buffy the Vampire Slayer entered stage left, with a whimper. Joss Whedon, a versatile screenwriter whose credits include Alien: Resurrection, Toy Story, and Speed, introduced Buffy the Vampire Slayer in the eponymous feature film (1992), but many considered the film so bad that it looked as though the Buffyverse would end then, without a bang. As we have learned since, however, Whedon is some thing of a genius, not only persistent and ambitious, but brave.
Studying the Micro-histories of Words
Authors: Adams Michael
Published: November 2023

When dictionaries not dedicated specifically to recording new words enter a word or sense of a word for the first time, it has very likely been around as long as the person who looks it up. Even a dictionary as comprehensive as the Oxford English Dictionary (henceforth OED) offers little insight into the early lives of words, as entries include evidence of use usually at 50-year intervals: even if the OED accurately identifies the first known written use of a word (as it does usually, but not infallibly), at least the next 25 years of the word’s history is obscure, and those are the very years in which most words assert themselves and gain wider acceptance among English speakers. With all of its commendable detail, the OED nonetheless records only the macro-histories of words.
Ephemeral Language
Authors: Adams Michael
Published: November 2023

I grew up in a family ruled by an English professor who expected us to speak and write with impeccable grammar and elevated vocabulary. Our models were the literature that I went on to study in graduate school and that I teach today; if we had any questions, we could turn to a dozen dictionaries, including the Oxford English Dictionary. Whenever we lapsed, we were reminded that standard English comprised more words than we were likely to use and that recourse to low language betrayed an unbecoming emptiness of mind. Experience and study, though, have taught me not only to accept, but to admire ephemeral and other supposedly low forms of English.
The Evolving Concept of Schizophrenia
Authors: Williamson Peter
Published: November 2023

Schizophrenia is a uniquely human disorder. Many other psychiatric disorders have their counterpart in the animal world. Dogs suffer from acral lick dermatitis, which bears some resemblance to obsessive-compulsive disorders in humans (Stein et al., 1992). Learned-helplessness models in animals also closely approximate depression in humans (Maier and Seligman, 1976). However, no naturally occurring animal model captures the collection of symptoms that we have come to know as schizophrenia (Overall, 2000).
Neuropsychological Studies
Authors: Williamson Peter
Published: November 2023

Kraepelin’s astute observations about the difficulties that patients had with calculation tasks highlighted the presence of cognitive problems in schizophrenia. He speculated that this deficit went beyond the effects of fatigue. Either a “rapid yielding of will-tension” or a problem with attention seemed to be the cause. There have been countless studies since then devoted to trying to define the nature of this psychological deficit. Schizophrenic patients perform poorly on tests of general intelligence. Superimposed on this deficit are more specific deficits. Most of the tests used to assess specific deficits were developed by investigators at the Montreal Neurological Institute, who studied the performance of more than 1000 patients with intractable epilepsy, tumors, or vascular malformations before and after corrective surgery.
Implications for Treatment
Authors: Williamson Peter
Published: November 2023

It could be argued that the treatment of patients with schizophrenia began with the discovery of chlorpromazine in the early 1950s. Before that time, anyone with this illness had a greater than even chance of spending the rest of their life in an institution. With antipsychotic medication, most patients are able to live in the community, even though they may be unable to work or have a family because of persistent negative and, in some cases, positive symptoms.
Defining Palestrina
Authors: Ellis Katharine
Published: November 2023

Fétis called it “fashionnable” as early as 1827 but remained skeptical of its value as expressive music. By the beginning of the twentieth century it was enshrined, second only to Gregorian chant, as an appropriate vehicle for the Catholic liturgy in the Motu proprio of Pope Pius X on 22 November 1903. Counter-Reformation polyphony was a focus for debate throughout the period, its revival geographically wide spread and uneasily shared between church and concert hall.
Baroque Choral Music: The Popular and the Profound
Authors: Ellis Katharine
Published: November 2023

Happy shall I be if the publication of this work, by recalling to my countrymen the memory of a great master whom they know too little of, shall suggest to them the regular performance of his immortal works There can be little doubt that the French public would not be slow to reward such an effort. So long as France deprives herself of the oratorios of Handel, there will be found within her a great deficiency in the culture of Musical Art.
The Test of Time
Authors: Walton Kendall L
Published: November 2023

The test of time is a deeply ingrained tenet of folk wisdom. The works of art which last through the centuries, it is assumed, are those which are great. But why assume this? What does longevity have to do with greatness? What warrant is there for taking longevity as proof of greatness? These questions constitute the framework of Anthony Savile ‘s book.
On Pictures and Photographs
Authors: Walton Kendall L
Published: November 2023

Nearly all films are representational; more specifically, they are visual or depictive representations, pictures. And the vast majority of films are photographic depictions.
Myway
Authors: Fischer John Martin
Published: November 2023

This is a selection of essays on moral responsibility that represent the major components of John Martin Fischer’s overall approach to freedom of the will and moral responsibility. The collection exhibits the overall structure of Fischer’s view and shows how the various elements fit together to form a comprehensive framework for analyzing free will and moral responsibility. The topics include deliberation and practical reasoning, freedom of the will, freedom of action, various notions of control, and moral accountability. The essays seek to provide a foundation for our practices of holding each other (and ourselves) morally and legally accountable for our behavior. A crucial move is the distinction between two kinds of control. According to Fischer, “regulative control” involves freedom to choose and do otherwise (“alternative possibilities”), whereas “guidance control” does not. Fischer contends that guidance control is all the freedom we need to be morally responsible agents. Further, he contends that such control is fully compatible with causal determinism. Additionally, Fischer argues that we do not need genuine access to alternative possibilities in order for there to be a legitimate point to practical reasoning. Fischer’s overall framework contains an argument for the contention that guidance control, and not regulative control, is associated with moral responsibility, a sketch of a comprehensive theory of moral responsibility (that ties together responsibility for actions, omissions, consequences, and character), and an account of the value of moral responsibility. On this account, the value of exhibiting freedom (of the relevant sort) and thus being morally responsible for one’s behavior is a species of the value of artistic self-expression.
Determinism, And Moral Responsibility
Authors: Fischer John Martin
Published: November 2023

Ishtiyaque Haji believes that moral responsibility does not require alternative possibilities and further that it is compatible with causal determinism; but he rejects the contention that causal determinism is compatible with judgements employing “obligation,” “ought,” “ought not,” “right,” and “wrong.”1 Following Haji, let us call the latter “judgments of deontic morality.” Why might one think that the judgments of deontic morality are incompatible with causal determinism? I will treat “ought not” and “wrong” as interchangeable, and “ought” and “obligatory” as interchangeable. I shall lay out the argument with respect to “wrong.” It will be easy to see how to construct parallel arguments for the other judgments of deontic morality.
The Via Naturaliter Negativa
Authors: Hartman Geoffrey h.
Published: November 2023

Man y readers have felt that Wordsworth’s poetry honors and even worships nature. In this they have the support of Blake, a man so sensitive to any trace of “Natural Religion” that he is said to have blamed some verses of Wordsworth’s for a bowel complaint which almost killed him.1 Scholarship, luckily, tempers the affections, and the majority of readers have emphasized the poet’s progression from nature worship or even pantheism to a highly qualified form of natural religion, with increasing awareness of the “ennobling interchange” between mind and nature and a late yielding of primacy to the activity of the mind or the idealizing power of imagination. A very small group, finally, has pointed to the deeply paradoxical character of Wordsworth’s dealings with nature and suggested that what he calls imagination may be intrinsically opposed to nature. This last and rarest position seems to me closest to the truth, yet I do not feel it conflicts totally with more traditional readings stressing the poet’s adherence to nature. It can be shown, via several important episodes of The Prelude, that Wordsworth thought nature itself led him beyond nature; and, since this movement of transcendence, related to what mystics have called the negative way, is inherent in life and
Wordsworth and the Conception of The Prelude
Authors: Erskine-Hill Howard
Published: November 2023

The 1798–99 The Prelude opens abruptly with a rhetorical question the antecedent of which is never formally identified: ‘Was it for this That one, the fairest of all rivers loved | To blend her murmurs with my nurse’s song...’ (I, I–3).1 This question, well known in eighteenthcentury poetry and carrying with it a series of heroic and mock-heroic associations, goes back in its English form to Harington’s version of Ariosto’s Orlando Furioso.2 (Wordsworth carried an Ariosto with him to read during his tour of France and Switzerland in 1790.3 The context from Orlando Furioso, and from the suggestive analogue in the opening of Milton’s Samson Agonistes (‘For this did the angel twice descend? For this | Ordained thy nurture holy... ?’ (ll. 361–2), invokes a destined hero or heroic enterprise, apparently in utter defeat. In lines closely following this opening description of The Prelude, but dropped after 1799, Wordsworth, thinking of himself, alludes to those similarly marked out by higher powers:
A Language That Is Ever Green
Authors: Bate Jonathan
Published: November 2023

During h is highly p r oductive residence at Racedown in Dorset and then at Alfoxden in Somerset, Wordsworth worked on ‘The Ruined Cottage’, a poem Coleridge took to be one of the most beautiful in the language. Over the last twenty years this poem has come to look absolutely central to Wordsworth’s achievement, and its narrative is now highly familiar to students: owing to failed harvests and high prices, Margaret’s husband enlists as a paid recruit; he does not return, Margaret and her family decline and die, nature reencroaches upon her cottage plot until all that is left is an overgrown ruin. For the poet and the character— originally called the Pedlar, later the Wanderer—who narrates Margaret’s tragedy, the ruined cottage provides an image of consolation. Wordsworth tells of how he traced with milder interest That secret spirit of humanity Which, ‘mid the calm oblivious tendencies Of nature, ‘mid her plants, her weeds, and flowers, And silent overgrowings, still survived.
Amylopectin
Authors: Zhao W Brooke , Kadla John F , Braun Jennifer L
Published: November 2023

Major Applications Thickeners, stabilizers, and adhesives. Properties of Special Interests The highly branched nature of amylopectin accounts for the extreme brittleness of its films and extrudates. The extensive branching reduces chain entanglements usually required in high polymers to achieve satisfactory film properties. Preparative Techniques Fractionation of starches. Native starches usually contain about 70–80% amylopectin. Genetic modification can result in starches having virtually no amylose content, such as waxy maize.
Cellulose
Authors: Mansencal Rachel , Kadla John F , Braun Jennifer L
Published: November 2023

Functions It is the basic structural material of the cell walls of all higher land plants and of some seaweeds. Natural Sources Wood (coniferous, deciduous), bamboo, cotton, hemp, straw, jute, flax, reed, sisal. Cellulose is isolated from the plant cell walls and is never in a pure form in nature. Always associated with lignin and hemicellulose.
Cellulose Butyrate
Authors: Yang Yong
Published: November 2023

Major Application Used as cellulose acetate butyrate in lacquers, coatings, hot-melt adhesives, and plastics. Properties of Special Interest Good tolerance for inexpensive lacquer solvents and common diluents.
Elastic, Plastic, and Hydrogel-forming Protein-based Polymers
Authors: Urry Dan W , Luan Chi-Hao
Published: November 2023

To perform free energy transduction involving the intensive variables of mechanical force, temperature, pressure, chemical potential, electrochemical potential, and light.Thermoplastics (regular and inverse).
Gelatin
Authors: Zhao W Brooke , Gao Zongming
Published: November 2023

Gelatin (also gelatine, from French gélatine) is a translucent brittle solid substance, colorless or slightly yellow, nearly tasteless and odorless, which is created by prolonged boiling of connective tissue such as skin, cartilage, and bones obtained from the animal processing industry.
Hydroxypropylcellulose
Authors: Yang Yong
Published: November 2023

Major Applications Lubricants for artificial eyes , pharmaceutical excipients such as tablet binder, tablet coatings, modified drug release, food additives, protective colloid for emulsion polymerization, rheology additive for coatings, inks, adhesives, cosmetics, and papers. Properties of Special Interest Completely soluble in water and organic polar solvents such as alcohols.
Nylon 6,12
Authors: Peterson Gus G , Zhao W Brooke , Abouhussein R
Published: November 2023

Preparative Techniques Polycondensation of hexamethylenediamine and Major Applications Engineering resin, flbers for textiles, brushes and sutures, cable sheathing and tubing and bearings, cams, gears, and casings for tools and appliances. Properties of Special Interest Low water-absorbing nylon; heat , chemical, and wear resistance and lubricity; excellent toughness and strength.
Poly(acrylic acid)
Authors: Orwoll Robert A , Chong Yong S
Published: November 2023

Major Applications Thickening and suspension agents for petroleum recovery, pigment dispersements in paint, ion exchange resins (with cross-linking), flocculating agents for particles suspended in water, adhesives, dental cements, drag reduction in fluid flow through pipes. Many applications involve copolymers of acrylic acid. Properties of Special Interest Amorphous polymers.
Poly(γ -benzyl-L-glutamate)
Authors: Gold Douglas G , Miller Wilmer G , Sen Taner Z , Kloczkowski Andrzej
Published: November 2023

Major Applications Modeling of conformational changes of biopolymers and modeling of α-helical polypeptides. Used in chromatography as a stationary phase for the resolution of racemic materials. Microencapsulation of pharmaceutically active hydrophobic liquids. Improves shatter resistance of plastics when blended with poly(vinyl chloride), poly(vinyl acetate), or their copolymers. Photo-induced energy transfer switches containing chromophores at both ends of oligopeptide chains. Properties of Special Interest Exists in a highly ordered, well-defined, α-helical conformation held intact by intramolecular hydrogen bonds. The α-helical structure renders the polymer as a relatively stiff rigid rod and is retained when the polymer is dissolved in many solvents. In these helicogenic solvents, PBLG exists as a single isotropic phase at low concentration. At higher concentrations a liquid-crystalline cholesteric phase is present.
Poly(dimethylsilylene-co-phenylmethylsilylene)
Authors: West Robert
Published: November 2023

Major Applications Precursor for silicon carbide ceramic. Initiator for free-radical polymerization. Properties of Special Interest None. For general information about polysilane polymers see the entry for Poly(methylphenylsilylene) in this handbook.
Poly(1,3-dioxepane)
Authors: Riande Evaristo , Guzmán Julio
Published: November 2023

Major Applications None known Properties of Special Interest None known Preparative Techniques Cationic polymerization of 1,3-dioxepane in solution or in bulk at temperatures normally lower than 25◦C. Initiators: Lewis acids, oxonium salts, etc.
Poly(1,3-dioxolane)
Authors: Riande Evaristo , Guzmán Julio
Published: November 2023

Major Applications None known. Stabilizer of Delrin by copolymerization with trioxane. Properties of Special Interest Possible use as a modifier for elastomers. Preparative Techniques Cationic polymerization of 1,3-dioxolane in solution or in bulk at temperatures normally lower than 25-C. Initiators: Lewis acids, oxonium salts, etc.
Poly(di-n-propylsiloxane)
Authors: Godovsky Yuli K , Papkov Vladimir S
Published: November 2023

Properties of Special Interest Low glass transition temperature, mesophase behavior.
Poly(epichlorohydrin)
Authors: Yuan-Huffman Qingwen Wendy
Published: November 2023

Odian G. Principles of Polymerization. 3rd ed. Wiley Interscience; 1991. 2. Rodriguez F. Principles of Polymer Systems. 4th ed. Taylor & Francis Publishers; 1996. 3. Brabdrup J, Immergut EH. Polymer Handbook. 3rd ed. New York: Wiley Interscience; 1989.
Poly(ether ketone)
Authors: Fried J R
Published: November 2023

Type of Polymerization Nucleophilic displacement of activated aromatic halides in polar solvents by alkali metal phenates or Friedel–Crafts processes.
Polyethylene, Elastomeric (very highly branched)
Authors: Prasad A
Published: November 2023

Introduction POE is a new family of ethylene α-olefin copolymers produced using a metallocene catalyst. The metallocene catalyst selectively polymerizes the ethylene and comonomer sequence and on increasing the comonomer content, produces chains of higher elasticity due to efficient incorporation of the comonomer that effectively disrupts the polymer crystallinity. The uncross-linked polymers referred to in this chapter are known to have only moderate elastomeric recovery properties (up to 96%). These copolymers are characterized by a narrow molecular weight distribution (MWD) (Mw /Mn = 2–2.5) and homogeneous comonomer distribution.
Polyethylene, Linear Low-density
Authors: Prasad A
Published: November 2023

Introduction LLDPE is the common name for copolymers of ethylene with α-olefin comonomer. The comonomers most frequently used commercially are butene, hexene, and octene. Commercial grade LLDPE resins with 4-methyl-1-pentene (4-MP-1) as comonomer is also available. LLDPE prepared by the conventional Ziegler-Natta (Z-N) catalyst system always exhibit high heterogeneity in the intermolecular distribution of comonomer units along the polymer chains. The branches are preferentially located in the lower molecular weight chains; thus the bulk of LLDPE behaves as if it were a blend of high molecular weight, linear molecules and low molecular weight, branched molecules. LLDPE differs from LDPE principally through a lack of long-chain branching (LCB) and a narrower molecular weight distribution (MWD). New types of LLDPEs based on the metallocene catalyst technology have been introduced recently in the market place. Such LLDPEs are characterized by narrower molecular weight and homogeneous short-chain branching distribution. Some of the metallocene catalyst-based octene-1 LLDPE copolymers made by the Dow Chemical Company are known to have LCB. For the properties of metallocene LLDPE see the entry Polyethylene, metallocene linear low density, in this handbook. LLDPE is commercially available in wide variety of melt indexes (MI) and density ranges. The properties of LLDPE are functions of molecular weight (MW), MWD, density, type, and amount of comonomer. The comonomers are also referred to as short-chain branches (SCB). Consequently, physical and mechanical properties also vary accordingly. Mechanical properties such as tensile, tear, and impact are strongly dependent on the chemical nature of the comonomer type. Therefore, it is difficult to list all properties separately. The values of the properties shown in the following table are given in ranges because of their dependence on molecular structure and type of comonomer and are intended to represent the best published examples of the most commonly used commercial grades of LLDPE resins. The physical properties of extruded materials may vary substantially from those of the compression molded materials. For illustration purposes, a few of the physical properties that depend on the chemical nature of the comonomer are presented in Tables 3, 6, 7, and 8.
Polyethylene, Metallocene Linear Low-density
Authors: Prasad A
Published: November 2023

Introduction New types of linear low-density polyethylenes (LLDPE) based on the metallocene catalyst technology was introduced in the market place in 1991. There are now a number of well-established metallocene PE families commercially available and new products are constantly being introduced into the marketplace. Current production based on metallocene catalyst technology exceeds 3 billion pounds. Metallocene share of global LLDPE consumption is projected to grow between 11% and 22% by 2012.
Poly(ethylene oxide)
Authors: Yuan-Huffman Qingwen Wendy
Published: November 2023

Introduction New types of linear low-density polyethylenes (LLDPE) based on the metallocene catalyst technology was introduced in the market place in 1991. There are now a number of well-established metallocene PE families commercially available and new products are constantly being introduced into the marketplace. Current production based on metallocene catalyst technology exceeds 3 billion pounds. Metallocene share of global LLDPE consumption is projected to grow between 11% and 22% by 2012.
Poly(ethylene sulfide)
Authors: Masamoto Junzo
Published: November 2023

Major Application Poly(ethylene sulfide) is a high melting plastics material. However, this polymer has not yet achieved commercial production, although its properties makes it warrant serious consideration as a plastic. Properties of Special Interest Poly(ethylene sulfide) is a high melting crystalline material. High-molecular-weight polymers prepared by ring-opening polymerization of ethylene sulfide have melting points generally above 478 K. The melting point of PES is much higher compared to poly(ethylene oxide) (melting point = 341 K). Only a few solvents are known that dissolve PES, but only at temperatures above 413 K. PES requires addition of stabilizers to permit processing in standard molding equipment, the best of which are polyamines with high boiling points and their derivatives. The polymer, properly stabilized, can best be molded using screw injection-molding equipment at temperature of 488–523K.
Poly(hexene-1)
Authors: Patki R P , Panse D R , Phillips P J
Published: November 2023

Major Applications Comonomer for ethylene and 4-methyl pentene-1, flow modifier, viscosity modifier in lubricants and petroleum oils.
Poly(4-hydroxy benzoic acid)
Authors: Wu Sizhu , Madkour Tarek M
Published: November 2023

Major Applications A component in a family of random copolymers that show thermotropic liquid crystalline behavior and are marketed as structural materials. Properties of Special Interest Intractable polymer with no melting behavior below temperatures of significant degradation. It polymerizes directly into the crystalline state, thus showing high tensile stiffness, low dielectric constant, and dimensional stability at high temperatures.
Poly(2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate)
Authors: Peppas N A
Published: November 2023

Major Applications Contact lenses, intraocular lenses, drug delivery systems, biomedical applications, chromatographic columns, hemodialysis membranes, flocculating agents. Properties of Special Interest Hydrophilicity. Good swelling in water and electrolytic solutions.
Poly(4-hydroxystyrene)
Authors: Zhang Ruzhi
Published: November 2023

Properties of Special Interest and Major Applications Poly(4-hydroxystyrene) is an analogue of Novolac that has comparable solubility in organic solvents and in aqueous bases. It also has comparable resistance to dry etching environments. It is transparent at DUV (∼ 250 nm) wavelength and is the polymer backbone of a number of positive resists used for KrF lithography.(1,2) Its high glass transition temperature and hydrogen bonding capability, in comparison to polystyrene, are also of special interests to industrial applications.
Poly(isobutylene), Butyl Rubber, Halobutyl Rubber
Authors: Murugesan Suresh , Strate Gary W Ver , Lohse David J
Published: November 2023

Properties of Special Interest High bulk density (0.917 g cm− 3 at 20°C for PIB and IIR) for an amorphous elastomer, which leads to low gas permeability and high hysteresis at a given temperature. The introduction of a mole percent of olefin or halogen dramatically changes chemical reactivity but not physical properties. (2,3)
Cis-1,4-Polyisoprene
Authors: Zhang Ruzhi , MarkAcronyms, James E
Published: November 2023

Properties of Special Interest High degree of stereoregularity in structure, presence of the reactive double bonds (unsaturation), strain-induced crystallization, high gum tensile strength, superior building tack, green stock strength, better processing, high strength in non-black formulations, hot tear resistance, retention of strength at elevated temperatures, high resilience, low hysteresis (heat build-up), excellent dynamic properties, and general fatigue resistance.
trans-1,4-Polyisoprene
Authors: Rajan Guru Sankar
Published: November 2023

Properties of Special Interest TPIP resists abrasion, scuffing, and cutting; it is a tough, rigid, durable, and lightweight polymer at room temperature; it can be extruded, calendered, injection molded, and compression molded; it can be compounded with fillers, and used in blends with other polymers; resistant to ozone, alkalies, fats, oils, and some concentrated acids except nitric acid and sulfuric acid.
Poly(N-isopropyl acrylamide)
Authors: Peppas N A
Published: November 2023

Major Applications Membranes, chromatographic resins, size exclusion particles, drug delivery systems, actuators, intelligent systems, separation units. Properties of Special Interest Exhibition of low critical solubility temperature in water at 32°C provides for interesting applications in separation science. This temperature maybe modified with copolymerization.
Polymeric Selenium
Authors: Clarson Stephen J
Published: November 2023

Selenium and its Applications Selenium derives its name from the Greek name for the moon (Selene)— in part due to its silvery appearance (Atkins). The most stable form of this element is grey selenium (metallic) which has a melting point of 494K. This trigonal grey selenium consists of parallel spiral chains of Se atoms which repeat after three atoms. Red crystalline selenium Se8 rings (Sealpha and Sebeta) can be obtained by crystallization from a carbon disulphide solution of black selenium. Black selenium is formed by pouring molten selenium in water. Detailed calculations on the conformations of polymeric selenium chains and on their ring-chain equilibration distributions have been described by Semlyen. In the gas phase above the boiling point the dominant species is Se2. Grey selenium has an electrical conductivity which increases with temperature and thus exhibits semiconducting behavior.
Poly(methyl acrylate)
Authors: Wen Jianye
Published: November 2023

Properties of Special Interest A tough, rubbery, and moderately hard polymer, with little or no tack at room temperature; superior resistance to degradation and remarkable retention of their original properties under use conditions.
Poly(methylene terephthalate)
Authors: Zhang Xiujuan , Lin Gui
Published: November 2023

Major Applications Fiber, filament, yarn, film and the like(1) Properties of Special Interest PMT can be viewed as a candidate of higher strength and modulus material.
Poly(4-methyl pentene-1)
Authors: Patki R P , Panse D R , Phillips P J
Published: November 2023

Major Applications Hypodermic syringes, needle hubs, blood collection and transfusion equipment, pacemaker parts, cells for spectroscopic and optical analysis, laboratory ware, light covers, automotive and electrical components, microwave components, cookware.
Poly(methylsilsesquioxane)
Authors: Lin Gui , Baney Ronald H
Published: November 2023

The structure of poly(phenylsilsesquioxane) depends upon the method of preparation. The structure is a function of the concentration of the initial monomer, the nature of the solvent, the nature of the hydrolysable substituents, the concentration of water, the temperature, the type of catalyst, and the nature of the non-hydrolysing substituent.
Polyoctenamer
Authors: Galiatsatos Vassilios
Published: November 2023

Synthesis Ring-opening polymerization of cyclooctene in the presence of Ziegler Natta catalysts. Cyclooctene is polymerized to polyoctenamer (TOR) in a metathesis reaction that produces both linear and cyclic macromolecules. The cis/trans ratio, which determines the degree of crystallinity of TOR, is controlled by the polymerization conditions.
Poly(1,4-phenylene)
Authors: Swiatkiewicz Jacek , Prasad Paras N
Published: November 2023

Properties of Special Interest Electroactive and electroluminescent material. Electrical properties can be tuned by choice of doping and preparation procedure. Insoluble and infusible material, sustains high-temperature treatment.
Poly(m-phenylene isophthalamide)
Authors: Pu Zhengcai
Published: November 2023

Major Applications Heat-resistant and flame-retardant apparel; (high-voltage) electrical insulation; low-, medium-, and high-density pressboard; honeycomb structure composite
Poly(1,4-phenylene vinylene)
Authors: Swiatkiewicz Jacek , Prasad Paras N
Published: November 2023

Properties of Special Interest Electroactive and electroluminescent material. Electrical and electrooptical properties can be tuned by choice of doping and preparation procedure. Large third-order nonlinear optical susceptibility. Insoluble and infusible material, sustains high temperature treatment.