bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Federal Republic of Germany: Conscientious Objection as Social Welfare
Authors: Kuhlmann Jürgen , Lippert Ekkehard
Published: November 2023

The right to conscientious objection is more unequivocably specified in the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Germany than in any other country in the world. Article 4 of the Basic Law of 1949 states: “No one shall be forced to do war service with arms against his conscience.” This fundamental right became operative in 1956 with the formation of the Bundeswehr and the introduction of male conscription. Subsequent judicial and administrative rulings have made the right of conscientious objection equally applicable to both peacetime military service and war service. In German constitutional law the right to object to military service for reasons of conscience takes priority over the principle of compulsory military service. This right extends to the service member already in uniform as well as to the potential draftee. From a legal standpoint, a person’s conscience is considered to be “an inner moral conviction of what is right and wrong and the resulting obligation to act or not act in a certain way. ... 5,1 Selective conscientious objection, however, is not allowed under German law. A German CO must, in theory if not in actuality, be against the use of all armed force.
South Africa: From Laager to Anti-Apartheid
Authors: Seegers Annette
Published: November 2023

Beyond the legal demise of apartheid, the future of South Africa remains unknown. However, with its polarized racial situation and its divided white minority, South Africa has traditionally had a particular problem with compulsory military service and conscientious objection. South Africa’s experience with conscientious objection can best be understood by dividing its history into four periods. The first starts with the years between the creation of the Union of South Africa—in 1910—and 1961, when the Republic of South Africa left the British Commonwealth and assumed for the first time sole responsibility for its own defense. The second period, from 1960 to 1983, represents the first policy towards conscientious objectors by the newly independent South African military. In the third period, from 1983 to 1990, a new policy is introduced: alternative service for COs. The final period, from 1990 on, heralding the dismantling of apartheid, portends a new era for COs as well as for all of South Africa.
Switzerland: Questioning the Citizen Soldier
Authors: Haltiner Karl W
Published: November 2023

Switzerland is the only Western democracy that as yet offers no official civilian alternative service for conscientious objectors. Indeed, conscientious objection is legally still a crime in Switzerland. Widely known for its long-standing tradition of democracy, Switzerland, a confederation composed of twenty-six cantons, each of which has considerable local autonomy, is less well known for its tradition of universal conscription in the militia. For centuries all male Swiss citizens have been trained to defend the democratic community, a role seen as bestowing their rights of citizenship. Because of the political and social importance of this militia principle, the symbolic functions of a citizen army developed comparatively early. Symbolic functions of the citizen army include the role of the military as the “school of the nation”: the symbol of civil honor and national identity. The degree of military participation has determined the degree of civil integration and closeness to the social and political core of Swiss society. Because of this close link between the civic and military tradition, the issue of conscientious objection has long defied resolution in Switzerland.
Israel: Conscientious Objection in a Democracy under Siege
Authors: Peri Yoram
Published: November 2023

The Palestinian uprising in the Israeli-occupied territories that began in December 1987 poses challenges of an unprecedented nature and difficulty for Israeli society. One of those challenges comes in the form of a conscientious objection to perform military service. Yet the intifada has not appreciably affected the high public support for the army in Israel. In 1987 slightly less than 90 percent of Israelis declared themselves as having faith in the army; they ranked it the most trustworthy of Israeli national institutions. (In comparison, the courts of law won the trust of 80 percent of the public; the political parties, only 30 percent.) Three years after the outbreak of the intifada, the Israel Defense Forces (idf) continued to head the list of the most trusted institutions. In fact, its support had risen: in 1990 over 90 percent of the public declared themselves to have faith in the army.
Church People In The Struggle
Authors: Findlay James F
Published: November 2023

The role of the African American Churches in the civil rights movement of the 1950’s and 1960’s has received a great deal of scholarly attention. Little has been written, however, about the contributions of the predominantly white denominations. This pathbreaking study focuses on the role played by the ecumenical National Council of Churches (NCC), which represented the white northern mainline churches. Drawing heavily on interviews and untapped archival materials, Findlay charts the awakening of the NCC leadership to the plight of southern blacks, and demonstrates the key role played by the organization in the passage of the 1964 Civil Rights Act. He examines in detail the active part played by NCC groups in the `Freedom Summer’ and their long-term involvement in the civil rights movement in Mississippi, including the Delta Ministry, which worked with local blacks in the areas of job and housing and provided much-needed support for the Movement-sponsored Head Start programme and the Mississippi Freedom Democratic party. In his concluding chapters, Findlay portrays a rising tide of black resentment of white liberal `paternalism.’ He goes on to link the rise of black power inside and outside the religious community to the decline of church participation and interest in addressing the critical problems of racism and inequality in the U.S.
Introduction
Authors: Findlay James F
Published: November 2023

On June 7, 1963, the General Board of the National Council of Churches voted to establish immediately a Commission on Religion and Race to help initiate a new role for mainstream Protestant churches in the racial conflicts that increasingly engulfed the nation. “Up to now,” asserted a council spokesperson, “there has always seemed to be time for gradual change, and modest tokens of progress in racial justice were accepted as the best we could do.” But now, “the issue is being sharply focused in every corner of the nation,” especially by the African American community “moving quickly and with great commitment to action that often means suffering, harrassment and sometimes death.” The writer went on: “There is a growing consensus that this summer may be a decisive period in American history for beginning to deal with this haunting sin. The world watches to see how we will act-whether with courage or with fumbling expediency.” Therefore, “in such a time the Church of Jesus Christ is called upon to put aside every lesser engagement, to confess her sins of omission and delay, and to move forward to witness to her essential belief that every child of God is a brother [sister?] to every other.”
The Churches and the Civil Rights Act of 1964
Authors: Findlay James F
Published: November 2023

From the beginning in June 1963, the Commission on Religion and Race assumed as one of its major responsibilities the coordination of all support from organized religion for civil rights legislation. Jewish and Roman Catholic leaders encouraged this approach. At its first meeting the commission heard a report that these two large religious groups “would welcome the stimulus which would be given by firm National Council of Churches action. “1 If these activities of the religious establishment were in part the result of the massive marches of African American citizens of Birmingham against police dogs and the blistering power of water hoses, those same demonstrations also helped to draw President Kennedy more fully into the fray. On June 11, 1963, Kennedy, struggling also with Governor George Wallace over the integration of the University of Alabama, went on national television to endorse the “moral issue” of equality for African Americans. Then a week later, on June 19, 1963, he introduced into Congress his first major piece of civil rights legislation.2 These were the beginnings of what eventually became the Civil Rights Act of 1964.
“Visitors in Hell”: Church Involvement in the Movement in Mississippi
Authors: Findlay James F
Published: November 2023

Like raw recruits entering battle for the first time, the Commission on Religion and Race seemed intent on tasting and testing every facet of the civil rights struggle in the first months of its existence. As we have noted, activist white church leaders wanted to move quickly in part to “catch up,” and thus perhaps to assuage pangs of guilt for not having moved much at all previously. Edler Hawkins, widely respected black activist and Presbyterian minister, drove this point home at the first meeting of the commission when he noted that the church had been “silent too frequently, and even when it has spoken, it has not used its own distinctive language to stress . . . the moral dimension of this issue.” A bit later another person on the commission spoke of being “chagrined by the remembrance of our hesitancy and expediency in the years just past.”1 Or perhaps people wanted to embrace the entire spectrum of possibilities as protection against feelings of inadequacy, of lack of experience and understanding. Better than most, Robert Spike was able to voice those misgivings in the summer and fall of 1963.
“Servanthood” in Mississippi: The Delta Ministry, 1964-1966
Authors: Findlay James F
Published: November 2023

On September 1, 1964, a small group of church people known as the Delta Ministry opened an office on the main street of Greenville, Mississippi. They had chosen Greenville as their headquarters in part because of its widespread’ reputation as the most open town in Mississippi regarding race relations. One of their first acts was to hire as staff secretary a local African American, Thelma Barnes. Passersby glimpsed Mrs. Barnes working at her new job. Soon the ministry received a “suggestion” either to move their new staff person to a back room or fire her. A prompt refusal resulted in an eviction notice. The Delta Ministry relocated its headquarters in the black section of Greenville, where it remained for almost a decade.1 This incident announced in an ugly and rather grim manner the beginnings of an important, yet little-recognized civil rights organization of the sixties, revealed a bit about powerful and surprising mainline church commitments to racial change and equality, and suggested once again how all-pervasive racial prejudice was in Mississippi in the sixties, even in the most “liberal” community in the state.
Reconciliation and “The Justice Place”: The Delta Ministry, 1966-1974
Authors: Findlay James F
Published: November 2023

In the first half of 1966, the Delta Ministry experienced a special challenge resulting from a thorough internal evaluation by officials of the National Council of Churches. In part arising naturally out of the desire of the people in New York to assess the results of the project after a period of time had passed, the review also reflected other, more complex, forces at work. The ministry and its activities were exposing some of the deep ambiguities that existed within mainline Protestantism, especially in the churches in Mississippi. The rank and file who occupied the pews and funded the mainline churches were primarily middle-class whites. The Delta Ministry came to Mississippi officially representing these people, yet was fundamentally motivated by biblical injunctions to serve the poor and the dispossessed. Their program and daily actions were based on powerful biblical precepts that implicitly, if not directly, urged Christians to work to create a society more nearly of equals and certainly to end racial discrimination. But in Mississippi, the local mainline churches were a central element in a social structure that daily lived by and wielded much of its power through racial discrimination and the belief that black people were fundamentally inferior to whites. Moreover, the ministry represented “outside forces,” national ecumenical and denominational agencies with headquarters in the North, who by their very location were objects of great suspicion, fear, and scorn.
The National Council of Churches and Racial Matters “At Home”: Changing Circumstances, 1964-1969
Authors: Findlay James F
Published: November 2023

Since the moment of its founding in June 1963, the National Council’s Commission on Religion and Race had experienced an almost unbroken series of successes in its support of the black freedom movement. Two years later self-confidence and a strong sense of connectedness to national centers of decision making and public power were still manifest in the words and actions of ecumenical church leaders. The triumphalism that often accompanied national religious endeavors in the 1950s even now occasionally revealed itself In March 1965, for example, in the aftermath of the brutal attacks by state and local police on black demonstrators in Selma, Alabama, the commission and national church leaders drew religious folk from across the nation to Washington to support a powerful new voting rights act proposed by the Johnson administration. On March 12 a delegation of these church people met with the president at the White House for over two hours, “discussing frankly the concerns of the country, and urging him Uohnson] to act decisively for the whole nation in the disgraceful business in Alabama.” For two days thereafter Robert Spike and others continued in “frequent consultation” with the White House over the matter, and on Monday evening, March 15, 1965, Spike and Eugene Carson Blake, the chairman of the Commission on Religion and Race, were “guests of the President in his family box” as LyndonJohnson spoke before ajoint session of Congress proposing and urging passage of the Voting Rights Act.
Marriage: From Daughter to Wife
Authors: Minturn Leigh
Published: November 2023

Whyte’s cross-cultural study of the relative status of men and women in preindustrial societies finds several clusters of variables measuring components of status in different cultural realms-for example, economic, kinship, sexual behavior (Whyte, 1978). However, Whyte does not address status variation of women in their parental versus their marital homes. Women in exogamous societies marry out of their natal communities into the communities of their husbands. Among many Hindus, women’s status as wives is lower than their status as daughters. One would expect this difference to appear in most exogamous societies and to be particularly marked in elite groups where the patrilineage is of paramount importance. This dual aspect of women’s status is crucial for understanding the lives of the women in our study.
Changing Times
Authors: Minturn Leigh
Published: November 2023

The preceding statements, taken from our 1975 interviews, exemplify the attitudes of most older women about changes in the last generation. The bahus left the courtyard and visited other houses more frequently than they did in former times. New commercial products, unfamiliar to sasus, were purchased and used by young women, many of whom disregarded the customary confinement to the bughar and walked to village stores. Traditionally young Rajput women could leave the bughar to visit or shop only if they were daughters of village families, and except for ceremonial occasions wives of Khalapur Rajputs were confined to their bughars until their sons married and they became sasus. In 1955 some bahus had not left their bughars in years. One young wife of a conservative husband had been confined to her small bughar for 8 years, even though she had no sasu or bahus to share her isolation. Such isolated women were completely dependent on visits from neighbor women for company.
Education
Authors: Minturn Leigh
Published: November 2023

In traditional societies, where children do not go to school, the primary method of socialization is usually apprenticeship. Whereas school teaches rote learning and the manipulation of abstract concepts, apprenticeship is on-the-job training that teaches skills. Fathers teach their sons farming skills, and mothers teach their daughters household skills by letting them help with simple tasks, gradually introducing them to more difficult chores. Children are always present: They listen to adult conversation and quarrels, participate in celebrations, observe births, deaths, and marriages, and the comings and goings of neighbors and family servants. The women we interviewed did not teach their children about caste differences; instead, children learned about expected behavior by observing the adults. Observation and practice, rather than reading and memory, are the methods of learning in apprenticeship.
Prologue: Looking at Mark Scope of the Inquiry
Authors: Bryan Christopher
Published: November 2023

The Gospel according to Mark is a Greek text composed in the second half of the first century of the Christian era. It was written at a time when authors who wrote for publication generally expected their work to be read aloud in groups, rather than privately or silently by individuals. If these assertions are accepted, at least provisionally, then we are offered two areas of inquiry in our attempt to see Mark in its literary and cultural setting. First, we can reflect on the fact that Mark is a text, and ask what kind of text it would have been seen to be, either by its author or by others who encountered it near to the time of its writing. Should Mark be seen as an example of any particular literary type, and if so, which? Here we shall need to compare Mark with other texts of the period. This inquiry will occupy us in Chapters 2 to 9.
Mark’s Milieu
Authors: Bryan Christopher
Published: November 2023

The recognition of a genre is, then, easy when we are familiar with it, and that is why genres are useful. But genres change, and particular genres belong to particular milieus, so problems arise when the text we are considering is two thousand years old. How can we identify the texts with which contemporaries might have compared or contrasted Mark? Where should we look for evidence of his literary milieu? The answers require critical and historical judgment, and involve the uncertainties and ambiguities of any subjective procedure. Nevertheless, there are some criteria that may fortify us against mere caprice, notably criteria of place, social level, and time.
Unscientific Postscripts
Authors: Bryan Christopher
Published: November 2023

A recurring feature of religious history is the way in which groups of persons who hold widely differing, or even opposed, emphases and beliefs, will yet see themselves as the legitimate heirs of a single figure. Those who claim to be heirs of St. Paul, Mahomet, and Martin Luther could all be offered as examples. Even with a figure so close to us in time and so well documented as C. S. Lewis, we find already the development of a “Catholic” Lewis, endorsed by Walter Hooper and the C. S. Lewis Society in Oxford, and an “Evangelical” Lewis endorsed by the Marion E. Wade Center at Wheaton College, Illinois. It is not here our concern to discuss the reason for such a phenomenon (which, incidentally, in the case of Lewis has been well discussed by A. N. Wilson in a recent biography), but simply to note that we need hardly be surprised to find exactly the same thing happening in the case of Jesus of Nazareth. I refer, not to the comparatively recent division of Christendom into its major groupings, but to variations of emphasis and understanding that seem to have been present almost from the beginning.
Reconstructing Federal Indian Policy: From Termination to Self-determination
Authors: Nagel Joane
Published: November 2023

Throughout American history, federal Indian policy has shifted between two essentially contradictory goals: sovereignty and assimilation. During those policy periods when the United States emphasized the national or tribal sovereignty of Indian peoples, treaties were signed (eighteenth and nineteenth centuries), reservations were established (nineteenth and twenieth centuries), and tribal governments were encouraged and supported (mid- and late-twentieth century). Those periods embracing assimilation were dominated by policies intended to restrict non-Indian trade with Indian nations, reduce or eliminate tribal land bases (both of these in the late nineteenth century), abrogate treaty rights, and relocate the Indian population from reservations to cities (both of these in the two decades after World War 11). It is important to note that of these two themes in federal Indian law, tribal sovereignty was the weaker and often more grudgingly acknowledged, whereas assimilation represented a more consistently and enthusiastically pursued policy course.
Ascent to Heaven in Jewish and Christian Apocalypses
Authors: Himmelfarb Martha
Published: November 2023

This book is a study of the ancient Jewish and Christian apocalypses involving ascent into heaven, which have received little scholarly attention relative to apocalypses concerned primarily with the end of the world. Recent developments like the publication of the Aramaic Enoch fragments from Qumran and interest in questions of genre in the study of the apocalypses make this a particularly appropriate time to undertake this study. The book emphasizes the emergence of the understanding of heaven as temple in the Book of the Watchers, the earliest of these apocalypses, and the way in which this understanding affects the depiction of the culmination of ascent, the hero’s achievement of a place among the angels, in the ascent apocalypses generally. It also considers the place of secrets of nature and the story of creation in these works. Finally, it offers an interpretation of the pseudepigraphy of the apocalypses and their function. It places the apocalypses in relation to both their biblical antecedents and their context in the Greco-Roman world.
What is systematic theology?
Authors: Wentz Richard E
Published: November 2023

Hatch reminds us that Americans “relished the right to shape their own faith and submit to the leaders of their own choosing.”2 The culture assaulted all mediating elites and institutions, and ignored tradition, structure, and history. The common people generated their own ideas and leadership. They were not especially enamored of education or hierarchical orders. Yet, of course, their democracy was a leveling sort of democracy in which an aristocratic impulse asserted itself among those who leveled in order to acquire power for themselves.
Introduction
Authors: Hawley John S , Proudfoot Wayne
Published: November 2023

Fundamentalism, the dictionaries tell us, is something that has to do with texts. In the most basic use of the term, fundamentalists are American Protestants with a militant desire to defend religion against the onslaughts of modem, secular culture; their principal weapon is their insistence on the inerrancy of scripture. As for the enemy—the world view propagated by secular naturalism or “scientific humanism,” as fundamentalists often call it—its most invidious manifestations are the theory of evolution and the methods of “higher” textual criticism, as applied to sacred texts. Both raise questions about the inherent correctness of the Bible.
Aeschines And Athenian Politics
Authors: Harris Edward M
Published: November 2023

Filling a major gap in scholarship, this is the first full-length study of the Athenian politician Aeschines. Along with Isocrates, Aeschines was one of the most prominent Athenian politicians who advocated friendly ties with the Macedonian king Philip II. Though overshadowed by his famous rival Demosthenes, Aeschines played a key role in the decisive events that marked the rise of Macedonian power in Greece and formed the transition from the Classical to the Hellenistic period. Three long speeches by Aeschines, all delivered in court battles with his opponent Demosthenes, have been preserved and provide us with valuable information about Athenian politics during a major turning point in Greek history. This study of Aeschines’ political career examines the reliability of court speeches as historical evidence and shows how they help reveal how democratic institutions actually functioned in Athens when faced with the rise of Macedonian power.
Introduction
Authors: Harris Edward M
Published: November 2023

The decade that began in 348 B.c. with the fall of Olynthus and climaxed in 338 B.c. in the Battle of Chaeronea marked a decisive turning point in Greek history. Before 348, the Macedonians played only a marginal role in the world of the Greek poleis of central and southern Greece. The kings of Macedon, when not fighting off dangerous pretenders, were forced to devote most of their efforts to securing the kingdoms vulnerable borders against neighboring tribes. Their few attempts at territorial expansion were checked first by the Athenian Empire in the fifth-century, then by the Spartans and the Thebans in the fourth century. But the stalemate of the major Greek powers after the Battle of Mantinea in 362 removed the barriers to Macedonian ambitions. When Philip ascended the throne in 359, he quickly put the affairs of the kingdom in order, developed his military resources, and took advantage of the new opportunity. By 348 he had already made remarkable progress. The neighboring tribes of Paeonia and Illyria had been defeated, the Chalcidian League destroyed, and its leading city Olynthus sacked. Philip had also extended his power southward, leading the Macedonians and his Thessalian allies to victory over the Phocians. Yet these achievements were only a prelude. In the next decade his military victories and diplomatic triumphs established Philip as the undisputed leader of the Greeks. Al though Philip did not live to see his army win its greatest victories in Asia, his legacy proved to be long-lasting: Macedon remained the leading power in Greece until the Roman conquest.
The End of the Third Sacred War
Authors: Harris Edward M
Published: November 2023

After ratifying the treaty with Philip, the Athenians could put to rest their fears about the Chersonese. The only task remaining was for the Athenian ambassadors to travel to Macedon and receive the oaths from Philip and his allies. At this point the Peace of Philocrates, as the treaty would come to be known, appeared to be a success: Philip gained his victory over Cersebleptes, and the Athenians gained security for their interests in the Chersonese. In the meantime, however, a new issue had arisen. In central Greece, the Third Sacred War had dragged on for a decade. All the major powers of Greece-Phocis, Thebes, Thessaly, Sparta, and Athens-were caught up in the conflict. Philip, too, had entered the fighting on the side of Thessaly and had won a major victory over the Phocians in 352, but had chosen to remain aloof since then. By the spring of 346, all of the contestants had grown weary of the conflict and wanted to see it resolved.
Asimov as Acrophobe
Authors: Elms Alan C
Published: November 2023

So John W. CAMPBELL’S science fiction was at least expressive, and Robert E. Howard’s was definitely defensive. Cordwainer Smith’s science fiction was mainly restitutive, and Jack Williamson’s gave a good try at being restitutive, even though it didn’t go all the way. After I’d lived with that way of looking at fiction­ writing for a while, one other possibility seemed worth pursuing: that for some writers, writing serves no distinctive psychological function at all; it’s just another way to make a buck or to offer an argument. In science fiction, ideas rather than strong emotions or violent acts often provide the focus for a story.
Working Conditions and Health
Authors: Theorell Töres
Published: November 2023

We are living in a rapidly changing world, and this includes working conditions. In order to understand the association between health and working conditions, we need multiple, sensitive systems that can record these conditions.
The Impact of Job Loss and Retirement on Health
Authors: Kasl Stanislav V , Jones Beth A
Published: November 2023

The evidence about the impact of work on health can be divided, artificially and arbitrarily, into the impact of the chronic (steady-state) work environment and the impact of changes in the work environment or in aspects of the work role. This is a distinction of convenience only. Consider some of the following possible scenarios: (1) Individuals cope with and adapt to enduring conditions so that the impact over time changes rather than remaining constant.
Social Integration, Social Networks, Social Support, and Health
Authors: Berkman Lisa F , Glass Thomas
Published: November 2023

It is difficult now to reconstruct the logic that led us to believe that the nature of human relationships—the degree to which an individual is interconnected and embedded in a community—is vital to an individual’s health and well-being as well as to the health and vitality of entire populations. In retrospect, a combination of observations and reading the rich theoretical literature on social integration, attachment, and social networks led us to test these ideas empirically.
Ecological Approaches: Rediscovering the Role of the Physical and Social Environment
Authors: Macintyre Sally , Ellaway Anne
Published: November 2023

Ecological approaches have received a bad press within sociology and epidemiology. For the last 50 or so years, analysis at the ecological level has been regarded as suspect and inherently inferior to individual-level analysis. For example:
Introduction
Authors: Milner Murray
Published: November 2023

“The study of the caste system is both useful for our knowledge of India, and is an important task of general sociology.” This is the opening sentence of Homo Hierarchicus, Louis Dumont’s classic study of caste (1980:xiv). Karl Marx and Max Weber also thought the analysis of India was important—both in its own right and as a contribution to general sociological understanding (Marx 1968, 1983; Madan 1979; Weber 1958b, 1968). I share this conviction.
Explaining the Key Features of Caste
Authors: Milner Murray
Published: November 2023

For this ideal type of hierarchy to emerge it was necessary that the mixture of status and power ordinarily encountered (everywhere else?) should be separated, but this is not enough: for pure hierarchy to develop without hindrance it was also necessary that power should be absolutely inferior to status. (1980:74)
The Articulation of Status and Material Resources: Political and Economic Legitimacy
Authors: Milner Murray
Published: November 2023

Since this is a book about the nature of status and sacral relationships, an extensive analysis of India’s enormously complex political and economic structures is beyond the scope of this endeavor. Rather, the task at hand is to indicate some of the key links between the status order and the organization of political and economic power. The essence of political and economic power in an agrarian society is the control of land and labor. This chapter considers the ways such control is dependent on the status order, and more specifically, how a theory of status relations can help us understand the mechanisms used to produce political legitimacy.
A Theory of Status Relationships: Additional Elements
Authors: Milner Murray
Published: November 2023

Maps tend to point out the primary features of a region: the highest mountains, the biggest rivers, the busiest roads, the most famous or important buildings. This is also the tendency of sociological theories; they typically focus on the most prominent structural features of a social situation. One of the basic assumptions of this study, and of structural sociology in general, is that it is possible to meaningfully identify the primary patterns that help us to understand why people behave the way they do—at least much of the time. This has been the main thrust of the preceding chapters.
Cultural Codes and Rituals: I
Authors: Milner Murray
Published: November 2023

Chapter 3 introduced the concept of secondary elaboration and ritualization. Status groups tend to elaborate and ritualize their norms in order to make it more difficult for outsiders to conform. This process is especially characteristic of upper status groups that wish to exclude those of lower status, but excluded groups also elaborate and ritualize to create counter norms and values. Elaboration is a means not only of excluding outsiders, but also of social control for group members. If ritualistic conformity to a multitude of petty rules is obtained, more crucial rules and orders are likely to be followed. Perhaps even more importantly, such obedience and the very existence of elaborate sets of cultural categories increase the taken-forgrantedness of the system as a whole. That is, they contribute to the institutionalization of the core norms of the group.
On the Nature of Sacredness
Authors: Milner Murray
Published: November 2023

Before the empirical analysis can be extended, additional theoretical concepts are required; more specifically, the nature of the sacred and its relationship to status must be considered. I have tried to keep this abstract level of discussion to a minimum; the enormous literature on the nature of the sacred is only touched upon. The purpose of the discussion is to connect this part of the analysis with the theoretical arguments that have guided the whole endeavor.
The Worship of Gods
Authors: Milner Murray
Published: November 2023

Some of sociology’s most insightful theory is built on Durkheim’s (1965) analysis of worship of the sacred in The Elementary Forms of Religious Life. Goffman (1967, 1971) drew on Durkheim’s notions to brilliantly analyze face-to-face interaction in contemporary society. Collins has formalized and extended Goffman’s work to help us explain variations in the class subcultures and ritual styles of different types of societies (1975, 1982, 1988).1 Goffman’s seminal insight was that Durkheim’s analysis of worship could serve as a paradigm for understanding the rituals of everyday life, and that many of these rituals were directed toward something analogous to the sacred. Yet despite the enormous fruitfulness of drawing on Durkheim’s understanding of the worship of the sacred, virtually no attempt has been made to extend our understanding of these paradigmatic notions.2 Both Goffman and Collins treat ritual and sacredness as largely undefined terms.
Salvation and Soteriology
Authors: Milner Murray
Published: November 2023

The word “soteriology” refers to religious doctrines about salvation, especially the means of salvation.1 The word “salvation” implies deliverance or release from an undesirable state of being to one that is qualitatively better—usually from the historical empirical world to another world beyond history. Many religions are not particularly concerned about notions of salvation, but it is central to all of the great world religions, including Hinduism.2 Typically, salvation religions see the present world as at best flawed and imperfect and at worst inherently sinful and evil. In the Hindu view, the essence of human existence is suffering (duhkha).
Vowels and Diphthongs
Authors: L.Sihler Andrew
Published: November 2023

The normal correspondences of the vowels and short diphthongs may be surveyed in the accompanying table. The long diphthongs (63-4), and the syllabic liquids (93-8), nasals (99-100), and laryngeals (101-2) are treated separately. r.PIE LONG VOWELS and sequences of SHORT VOWELS PLUS IARYNGEAL with few exceptions (mostly in G, 49-50) have identical reflexes in the IE languages. As a consequence it is not always possible to determine whether a given long vowel, for example the ii of L miis ‘mouse’, continues PIE “ii or “uH 2. GREEK. The Greek vowels and diphthongs reflect most nearly those of the parent speech, though the system is not as conservative as used to be taught. The most obvious innovations are Attic-Ionic rather than generally Greek, namely the change of” a to T/ (54-6), and the (purely phonetic) change of “u and “ii to front rounded vowels /ii ii/ (38a). There are in addition a number of pan-Greek metatheses, syncopes, and assimilations, and a variety of conditioned lengthening and shortening.
Shortening of Vowels in Latin
Authors: L.Sihler Andrew
Published: November 2023

Long vowels were shortened in prehistoric times before a resonant plus consonant. Apart from one evident case of ..-oys > ..-iJys (below, and 260.4), the shortening is practically limited to position before nt or nd; for example, from stems aImii-‘love’ and vide-‘see’: pres. pple. stem amant-, vident- (the long vowels of amiins, videns nom.sg. are lengthenings, per 81.2); and gerundive amandus, videndus. The zero grade of the PIE opt. of ..H1es­ ‘be’, namely ..H1s-iHr, underlies Pltal. “si’mos rpl., *si’tes 2pl., ..si’nt 3PL (< sient, 68), whence L si’mus, si’tis, but sfnt. This development looks like Osthoff’s Law (63-2), but the G and L shortenings are independent rather than shared innovations. Evidence pointing to a relatively late date for the L shortening is as follows. The rule applies to sequences that arose within the history of L, as ..lawdiiyonti ‘they praise’ > “laudiint (88.3) > L laudant, and “‘moneyonti ‘they cause to think’> “monent(88.3) >
Prothetic Vowels in Greek
Authors: L.Sihler Andrew
Published: November 2023

In G, a vowel, usually e-but sometimes ex-or o-, appears before resonant consonants in word-initial position. Such a vowel invariably develops before an original initial ..r-; less commonly before ..!-, ..m-, ..n-, and ..w-; and never before “y-. (For the special behavior of “y-, see 191.) The term prothetic vowel is reserved for vowels that have no self-evident PIE source, either in ablaut alternations or as a morphological prefix. Some of them are now generally agreed to reflect word-initial laryngeals (90). LARYNGALS AND PROTHETIC VOWELS. A number of G prothetic vowels are the presumably regular outcomes of word-initial laryngeals rather than spontaneously generated within G. For example, G &(f}r,<n ‘blows’ was traditionally traced to PIE “we- (that is, “weH,) ‘blow’ with prothetic a-. But now Hitt.vhu-u-wa-an-te-ef’winds’ < “H2uHront- (556) re­ quires instead “H2weH,, such that Gar- is seen to come from “H2w-. G a.Eiow ‘speak’ and Ved. viivad1ti ‘declares’ together point to a reduplicated pres. (451A) “H2we-H2wed- (Indic), “H2we-H2ud- (G), from a root “H2wed- (Indic ii< “-eH-; G fEi < “wew, 61.rn).1 Similarly, PIE “nogwh-/ “ongwh- ‘nail, hoof’ (100b); this, the traditional reconstruction, supposes implausibly elaborate ablaut for an underived form, and can be replaced to advantage by *H1nogwh-, whence PG “onoks > G ovu (44), L unguis (100b). Such an etymon also accounts elegantly for µwvu ‘single-hooved’ (107).
Reduced Grades
Authors: L.Sihler Andrew
Published: November 2023

As alluded to in 112, in addition to the full and zero grades discussed here, many scholars posit two or more reduced grades, that is, vowels somehow intermediate between full and zero grades. To such grades were traced all sorts of things: the first vowels of G -yvv ‘woman’, KVKAoc; ‘circle’, 0&varoc; ‘death’, ‘iu0L ‘be’ (imperat.), L frangii ‘break’, maneii ‘remain’, in- ‘un-’, cams ‘dog’, simul ‘at once’, and many others. Theories requiring reduced grades were once the norm, but are less in vogue now; and in fact there have been objections to such constructs from their first appearance. One serious reproach, which has never been squarely faced by proponents of reduced grades, is that once one starts subdividing the distinction be­ tween PRESENCE and ABSENCE (in other words, full vs. zero grade), it is in principle possible to insert as many intermediate degrees as one wishes. That is, the number and kind of such intermediate vowels is open-ended and unconstrained, which is a serious demerit from the standpoint of methodology and theory.
Lengthened Grades
Authors: L.Sihler Andrew
Published: November 2023

The lengthened grades, although a feature of the parent language, are clearly secondary. They are particularly associated with three morphological categories: the nom.sg. of consonant stems; the root vowel of s-aorist verbs; and semantically derivative forms. Nominative singulars. A long vowel in the nom.sg. of consonant stems is seen in lnlr., L, and G (though in L particularly the original distribution was obscured by the tendency of such long vowels to be leveled through whole paradigms). These long vowels arose by compensatory lengthening in the nom.sg. of various stem types. These included isolated forms like “ker ‘heart’ < ““kerd nom./aceneut. More important were the non-neuter r- and n-stems (““plf2 ters ‘father’ > PIE “plf2 ter, ““dhglnt;tmons ‘earthling’ > PIE “dhghtt;tmo), and the trait was transplanted from there to other forms like PIE “pots ‘foot’ for ““pots, and “dyews ‘sky’ for ““dyews. (The last was additionally influenced by acc.sg. “dyem < ““dyewm, 325.)
PIE *s
Authors: L.Sihler Andrew
Published: November 2023

PIE * s has diverse conditioned outcomes in most IE languages. For G and L the changes will be given in detail below, but the most striking innovations can be previewed here. (1) In G, “s > *h before a vowel, except when preceded by certain consonants. In most dialects this “h survives as such in initial position, where it is known as the 1rvEvµ,a owJu (spiritus asper)-the term identifies an ordinary consonant phoneme, /h/, about which there is nothing unusual apart from the awkward fact that in the Athenian (Ionic) alphabet it was not represented by an actual letter. lntervocalically, PG “h disappears in all varieties of G except (apparently-172c) Myc. (2) In L, “s between vowels merges with r, a change known as rhotacism (173). Between a vowel and most voiced consonants “s drops, with compensatory lengthening of the preceding vowel (225.i).
Stop+ Nasal
Authors: L.Sihler Andrew
Published: November 2023

Labial Stopi + NASAL. Before either -m- or -n- a labial stop becomes -m- in L; in G, a parallel assimilation occurs when any labial (or labiovelar) stop is followed by -µ-, but does not affect -cf>- and -1r- before-11-. That these developments in G and L are independent innovations is 1 Evidence for a present-stem formative in *-d-, though it is sometimes proposed (458.3), is doubtful. In the case of L -fendo, the isolated form znfinsus is equally inconvenient for a theoretical present-stem marker in •d and for the idea that the present-stem in *fend- continues •gwhen-y-. r. Since assimilation of the stop to the nasal is straightforwardly parallel to the behavior of ‘-pn- and •-kn-, -nn- qualifies as the expected outcome. It is attested in: PIE ‘atnos (or ‘H2etnos) > L annus ‘year’: Go. a/ma-. PIE ‘pet-neH,- > L penna ‘feather’ : G 7fETOµm ‘fly’, Ved. root pat- (Olr. En /en/ ‘bird’ reflects ‘pet-no-).
Shortening of Long (‘Double’) Consonants
Authors: L.Sihler Andrew
Published: November 2023

r. G <J<J, whether original or from apical stop + <J or from *ty, *t’y (per the first palatalization, 196), was simplified after a consonant, a diphthong, or a long vowel, and when final. Between vowels -<J<J- remains in many dialects, but becomes -<J- in Att. and later Ion., Homer having both L long consonants, whether original or the result of assimilation or other changes, shorten after a diphthong or long vowel. This is of particular significance in the case of ss: whether original, from apical stop + s (215), or from apical stop + apical stop (212), ss > s after a consonant, diphthong, or long vowel, and when final. As an example of original -ss-: hausz’I drew out’ from *haussay (perf. to hauriii from *hausiii) in contrast to gessz ‘I did’ from *gessay (gerii from *gesii).
Assimilation and Dissimilation of Non-Contiguous Consonants. Metathesis
Authors: L.Sihler Andrew
Published: November 2023

Most changes falling under these heads occur only sporadically,or under conditions too complex, obscure, or idiosyncratic to allow generalizations. For the most part these things are ‘slips of the tongue’ (and in writing as ‘slips of the pen’) which rarely become permanent.
Accent
Authors: Sihler Andrew L
Published: November 2023

In many languages particular syllables have special prominence relative to others. This prominence, which is the result of variations of amplitude or pitch of voiced phones (or spans of phones), goes by the name accent. Traditionally one speaks of two species of accent: stress accent and pitch accent (alternatively, musical accent), depending on which element is thought to be the more conspicuous in distinguishing tonic (more prominent) from atonic (less prominent) syllables. But the phonetics of accent are not adequately captured in this scheme. For example, although it is widely taken as obvious that English has a stress accent, in fact the word accent of English is phonetically complex: the two most important marks of tonic syllables are (1) sharply changing pitch (usually but not invariably downward)-thus pitch, more specifically pitch change, is central to this supposed ‘stress accent’; and (2) a notable lengthening of the tonic vowel. Prolongation of tonic vowels is notoriously associated with a corresponding reduction or loss of unaccented (short) vowels. An opinion sanctified by tradition is that stress accent CAUSES such reductions and losses; but Finnish, Hungarian, and Czech, for example, all have a strong stress accent on the first syllable of a word but maintain a full array of vowel contrasts in posttonic syllables, which shows that vowel weakening is not an inevitable concomitant of stress accent. The converse is probably more nearly true, namely that accent defined by pitch changes alone is not likely to result in phonetic differences between atonic and tonic vowels.
Greek
Authors: L.Sihler Andrew
Published: November 2023

In the discussion that follows, ‘Greek’ must be understood to mean Athenian as described and codified by Alexandrian scholars. From such sources we also have information on Homeric accent. Of the dialects, only for Lesbic do we have reliable information. The habit of generations of Hellenists of inventing accents for dialect forms (which is not followed in this book) cannot be defended in principle, and seems particularly incautious in view of the fact that in Lesbic, the only dialect for which we do have reliable information, the accentual system differs in important ways from the Attic. The G tonic syllable, as indicated above, was distinguished from its atonic neighbors by having a higher pitch. This is clear from its description by G writers, and from the metaphors that underlie the terminology they employ: the whole system of accentuation is 1rpo<Jwioiix, lit. ‘a song sung to music’; the feature of prominence, Tovoc;, is lit. ‘stretching’ esp. tuning the strings of a musical instrument (the term Ta.me; < “t’l}-ti- is synonymous on both counts). Similarly the names for the different kinds of syllables: o E”icx (acute)
M-, I-Stems
Authors: L.Sihler Andrew
Published: November 2023

only s-stem inflection in Hom. (rip<X<X nom.pl., KEp<Xoc; gen.sg.), become Att. rip<Xroc;, KEpiiroc; (the -ii- of the latter from “KEP<X-<Xroc;), like -yov<Xroc;.’ Similarly </>we; n., </>wroc; ‘( day)light’ (Hom. </>&oc;, </>otEt); and Att. Kpfoc;, Kpiwc; (“KpE<Xoc;) ‘meat’, but later Kpforoc;. There are no productive types of stems ending in m or I. There were however a few nouns (root-formations in point of fact, 275) ending in such consonants. 1. In G, there are disguised reflexes of what originally were three m­ stems; v has replaced the original m by leveling in all three, though with some differences in detail: G XLWV, xiovoc; ‘snow’ and xOwv, -ovoc; ‘earth’. G XLWV ( cf. L hiems, below) continues an ancient root noun with an original paradigm based on three stems, “i,hyom(s) nom.sg., “ghyom-, and “i,him-, parallel to “dyews nom. sg., “dyew-, and “diw- ‘sky/day’ (325-6); to both, likewise, were built thematic adjectives with a different full grade: *i,heym-o-, “deyw-o-. Bits of the original paradigm are seen in Av. zya nom.sg. ‘winter’, zy m acc., zimo gen.sg.