bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
An Economic Theory of the Free-Standing Company
Authors: Casson Mark
Published: November 2023

The free-standing company flourished in the age of high imperialism, 1870-1914. It was a company typically based in London or some other European financial center which owned purely overseas operations. It was a distinctive form of international business enterprise, although, as indicated below, it evolved from antecedents elsewhere. According to the product-cycle theory of foreign direct investment, successful overseas operations hinge on the exploitation of competitive advantages developed in the home market. From this perspective the free-standing company appears paradoxical because it has no domestic operations from which it can derive competitive strength. This has suggested to some writers that the free-standing company is inherently weaker than the kind of multinational enterprise described by the product-cycle theory. The free-standing company may be just a transi-tory phenomenon, it is suggested, called into being by speculative bubbles on the stock exchange, and doomed to failure in the long run. It has been further alleged that the nineteenth-century free-standing firm was a typical product of European capitalism, in that it lacked professional management, and so failed to exploit economies of scale and scope in the way that US multinationals subsequently did. The apparent decline of the free-standing firm after 1914 is cited in support of this view.
British Free-Standing Companies in Mexico, 1884-1911
Authors: Liehr Reinhard , Bautista Mariano E Torres
Published: November 2023

Mira Wilkins has described the most common type of British direct investment abroad in the period 1870-1914 as the ‘free-standing company ‘. Earlier chapters in this volume have analysed the characteristics of this form of investment. This chapter examines the British freestanding company as it operated in Mexico during the era of President Porfirio D ‘iaz (1876-1911). Most of our data commence in 1884, the year of the start of British-Mexican negotiations to resume long-severed diplomatic relations, and include the period up to D ‘iaz ‘s resignation from the Mexican presidency in 1911. The first part of this chapter provides a general overview of foreign investment in Mexico from the 1820s to 1913, with emphasis on Porfirian Mexico. Then we specifically consider free-standing companies, based on a sample that we have developed of such Anglo-Mexican enterprises.
The Slip Accounting System: Traditional Bookkeeping Procedures in Japan
Authors: Someya Kyojiro
Published: November 2023

An accounting system which uses slips for journalizing purposes or slips bound, account by account, as substitutes for accounting records, and therefore requires neither journal nor ledger, is called ‘slip accounting’ or ‘slip bookkeeping’. Slips were introduced into Japan early in the Meiji era (1868-1911) by the Scotsman Alexander Allan Shand, who designed a bookkeeping system for the National Bank of Japan. Since that time, this method has been employed not only by Japanese banks, but also by nearly all Japanese business firms. While accounting systems in Europe and the United States primarily use accounting books, those in Japan depend largely upon slips. This is a singular characteristic of Japanese accounting.
The Development of Funds Flow Accounting
Authors: Someya Kyojiro
Published: November 2023

Funds flow accounting is the accounting that clarifies the sources from which enterprises raise funds and the purposes to which they apply the funds. As the problems of income accounting are embodied in the income statement, so problems of funds accounting are crystallized in the funds statement. Therefore, the development of funds flow accounting is that of the funds statement.
The Development of Funds Flow Accounting in Japan
Authors: Someya Kyojiro
Published: November 2023

The end of the war in 1945 found the Japanese economy burnt out. Most factories and other production facilities had been consumed in the flames of war. The conscription of human and material resources exclusively for war production had been going on for so long that, even in those factories escaping actual destruction, the potential for making even a conservative new beginning was minimal. People had lost their houses and clothing in the blaze. But to this was added the needs of the large number of returning soldiers and civilians who had been living abroad before the war. The shortage of housing and clothing was drastic. The production of goods and services was far less than demand and post-war Japan was engulfed in a wave of inflation.
The Lancashire Cotton Industry and its Rivals
Authors: Kawakatsu Heita
Published: November 2023

The purpose of this essay is to examine the question whether Britain suffered from a ‘failure of entrepreneurship’ in the cotton industry during the period 1870-1914. I will focus on Asian markets for cotton goods, because Asian markets were crucial for the British cotton industry. Furthermore, at a macro level, Britain’s deficits of the balance of payments were covered by export surpluses from Asia. In 1910 Britain had £118 million surplus on dealings with the rest of the world, to which India contributed £60 million, China £13 million and Japan £13 million-or in all 70 per cent. Britain’s transactions with Asia, particularly with India, sustained the deficits with industrial Europe and the USA, and the surplus with India, as far as visible items are concerned, largely accrued from the exports of cotton goods. Thus the Indian market is an appropriate arena to test the performance of the ‘old’, staple industry.
British Management 1945-64: Refarmers and the Struggle to Improve Standards
Authors: Tiratsoo Nick
Published: November 2023

One of the most striking features of Britain’s post-war economic record is the comparatively poor performance of its manufacturing industry. Some sectors have prospered, but these tend to be exceptions. Overall, as Barry Supple has recently observed, manufacturing and manufacturing productivity have experienced ‘a relatively slow rate of expansion’. The result has been ‘a dramatic fall’ in Britain’s share of world manufacturing output and an inability to maintain competitiveness in many markets. Indeed, the country’s share of global trade in manufactured products ‘fell from some 25 per cent in 1950 to 14 percent in 1964, 9 per cent in 1973, and less than 8 per cent in the early 1980’s’.
Combining Mass Production with Variety: Itaku Automotive. Production in the 1960s
Authors: Shioji Hiromi
Published: November 2023

It is well known that the ratio of outsourcing of automotive parts in the Japanese automotive industry is high compared with that of the industries in America and Europe. Compared to the outsourcing ratios in America, which tend to be between 40 and 60 per cent (based on the ratio of cost of goods), 60-80 per cent of the parts in Japan are not produced by the car manufacturer but are manufactured by first-tier suppliers (who actually out base a large proportion of the parts to second-tier suppliers).
Changes in the Industrial System II: Increased Enterprise Autonomy
Authors: Chai Joseph C H
Published: November 2023

The comprehensive reform of China’s industrial system began with the expansion of state enterprise autonomy. On the eve of the reforms in 1978, China’s state industrial sector was under a system of centralized planning copied from the Soviet Union (Howe and Walker, 1989). Decisions on current input and output choices as well as investment were made at either the central or the local government level and were conveyed to individual enterprises in the form of detailed obligatory targets and rules. Individual enterprises had very little discretionary power within the constraints imposed from above (Ma, 1982: 198-210).
Reforms of the Price System
Authors: Chai Joseph C H
Published: November 2023

There are basically four types of prices in China: industrial ex-factory, agricultural purchase, wholesale, and retail (Zuo, 1985: 31-2). Indus trial ex-factory and agricultural purchase prices are basically the producer prices received by industrial and agricultural producers when they sell their output whereas wholesale and retail prices are basically the consumer prices paid by the end-users and final consumers of the industrial and agricultural products (Gu, 1987: 156-62).
The Open Door Policy I: Trade Liberalization
Authors: Chai Joseph C H
Published: November 2023

The open door policy was an integral part of China’s new development strategies adopted by the country’s leadership since 1978 to modernize its economy. A comprehensive evaluation of China’s open door strategy requires a detailed analysis of its six main features, which are trade liberalization, foreign direct investment (FOI) liberalization, utilization of foreign loans, exports of labour for construction work abroad, the development of special economic zones, and the development of the tourist industry. Within the space limitations of this book it is impossible to discuss all of these policy elements or to analyse them exhaustively. Instead this and the following chapter focus on the first and second elements, namely trade and FDI liberalization only.
The Role of the Non-State Sector
Authors: Chai Joseph C H
Published: November 2023

China’s non-state sector consists of the collective and private sectors. The collective sector includes urban collectives and township and village enterprises (TVEs). The private sector comprises individual and private enterprises (IEs and PEs). China’s non-state sector was the most important contributor to the country’s economic growth over the last 15 years. In the early 1990s its output share exceeded that of the state sector and by 1994 it accounted for more than half of China’s industrial output, retail sales, and exports. This chapter identifies the composition and significance of the non-state sector and explores the trend of its development. Since foreign-invested private enterprises have already been discussed in the previous chapter this chapter focuses mainly on domestic collective and private enterprises, namely, TVEs, IEs, and PEs.
Hyundai Tries Two Industrial Models to Penetrate Global Markets
Authors: Chung Myeong-Kee
Published: November 2023

Korea emerged as a significant world producer during the 1980s. The growth of the Korean automobile industry has been remarkable. Since 1973, under the ‘automobile promotion plan’, a combination of active corporate development, joint ventures with multinational corporations, low wages, a protected home market, export promotion policies and government subsidies have supported the creation of this dynamic new industry.
Reinventing Chrysler
Authors: Belzowski Bruce M
Published: November 2023

From the perspective of the mid-1990s, it was difficult not to be impressed by the strength of Chrysler in product and process innovation, a strength that had led to a complete rejuvenation in sales and profits. The trajectory of this company, which in the previous fifteen years had barely escaped bankruptcy and more recently had lacked money for new model development, was a remarkable story of poor management, luck, resiliency, and the power of personality. It was also a remarkable story in terms of the industrial models that lay behind the public face of restructuring at Chrysler.
‘A Price Well Worth Paying’? The Benefits of a Full-Employment Strategy
Authors: Kitson Michael , Michie, Jonathan , Sutherland Holly
Published: November 2023

According to Britain’s ex-Chancellor of the Exchequer, Norman Lamont, unemployment is ‘a price well worth paying’ to keep down inflation. Free market policies pursued by successive Conservative governments in Britain since 1979 have involved an additional price-as well as that of high unemployment-namely, growing inequality with a concomitant increase in poverty for many of those in work as well as out of work. In this chapter we make an attempt to calculate just how great this price has been-the price of high unemployment and increased inequality. The price involves a number of different costs, some more hidden than others. Other work has evaluated the impact of unemployment on health and crime, but the main focus of our chapter is on the fiscal costs. These costs derive from the unemployed and the working poor receiving various forms of benefit payments and at the same time paying less tax than they would were they in reason ably paid employment.
The Transmission of Work Systems A Comparison of US and Japan Auto ‘s Human Resource Management Practices in Mexico
Authors: Hibino Barbara
Published: November 2023

A major issue that many multinational firms face in setting up subsidiaries abroad is whether to transfer practices from headquarters ‘as is ‘, adapt practices to local circumstances, or alter the practices into a third, hybridized form. In some cases, the firm can transmit globally standardized work systems across institutional contexts, as discussed by Muller and Loveridge in this volume. However, there is also considerable evidence that organizations owned by multinationals cannot easily implement new man-agerial interventions and forms of organizing work since the local environ¬ment can be also highly influential in transfer outcomes.
The Social Regulation of Work Systems Institutions, Interest Groups, and Varieties of Work Organization in Capitalist Societies
Authors: Whitley Richard
Published: November 2023

As the chapters in this book demonstrate, the organization and control of work processes and of workplace relations in capitalist societies are complex, systemic phenomena which vary substantially between institu-tional contexts (cf. Boyer 1990, 1991; Lane 1989). While Taylorism or sci¬entific management principles were once thought to represent the only efficient way of structuring work activities, they are now seen to be histor-ically and societally contingent patterns of work organization which depended on a number of circumstantial factors to become established in the USA, and which by no means dominated industrial organizations in Europe or Japan (Guillen 1994; Merkle 1980). As Kristensen emphasizes, it is also apparent that Fordist production systems have had many variants and have not always proved as cost effective as some adherents claimed (Boyer 1988, 1991; Wood 1989).
The Electricity Industry in England and Wales
Authors: green Richard , Newbery david m.
Published: November 2023

By the time that the government started to plan the privatization of the electricity supply industry in 1987, it had become apparent that effective competition could only be introduced into formerly monopolized indus tries if structural changes were made. The White Paper, Privatising Electricity (Department of Energy, 1988), accordingly announced that the Central Electricity Generating Board (CEGB) was to be split into three parts: two generating companies and a transmission company. The transmission company, to be jointly owned by the twelve regional electricity companies (RECs) responsible for distribution, would act as a common carrier and facilitate competition. The generating companies would compete to sell to the distribution companies and large custom ers, and would face entry from new stations built by independent power producers.
The Generation and Supply of Electricity: The British Experience
Authors: Littlechild S C
Published: November 2023

It is now 7 years since the restructuring and privatization of the British electricity industry. To a greater degree than in the privatization of the other utilities, electricity privatization was accompanied by an intention to introduce competition in those parts of the industry where competi tive forces could apply. This intention was reflected in the government’s 1988 White Paper, Privatising Electricity, in the statutory framework, in the restructuring of the industry, and in the accompanying regulatory regime.
Regulating Telecommunications
Authors: Littlechild S C
Published: November 2023

Competition is rapidly taking over from regulation as the main’control’ on the UK telecommunications industry. The benefits of this are becom ing apparent: more imaginative pricing packages, better consumer focus, and prices being set by competitive pressure rather than by regulation. This change is underpinned by an increasingly competitive market structure. At the top level there are now over 50 major public telecommunications operators (over 190 licences have been issued), four mobile network operators, and many more providers of telecommunica tion services. At a more important level an increasing proportion of the population has a realistic choice of suppliers for telecommunications services: as of January 1997 in excess of 35 per cent of residential customers had a choice of two or more local access suppliers, and this is likely to rise to more than 70 per cent over the next 3 years. Business customers are even better off in terms of choice of local access provider. And in addition, nearly everyone has access to a choice of long distance and international telecommunications companies.
The New Officer Corps: Implications for the Future
Authors: Dreyer June Teufel
Published: November 2023

In early 1975, in a speech to the cadres of the headquarters of the General Staff Department of the People’s Liberation Army (PLA), Deng Xiaoping delivered his blueprint for the military of the future. The radical restructuring of the military and its officer corps that it entailed was purportedly proposed by Mao Zedong himself. However, the fact that the speech was not made public until 1983, allegedly because it had been suppressed by the Gang of Four, makes it more likely that the architect of the reorganization, with its far-reaching implications for the PLA’s officer corps, was Deng himself. Two decades later, at the close of the Deng era, it is important to examine the thrust of this document in assessing trends for the officer corps of the future.
Current and Future Challenges Facing Chinese Defence Industries*
Authors: Frankenstein John , Gill Bates
Published: November 2023

The fundamental questions are simple. Can the Chinese defence indus tries make what the People’s Liberation Army (PLA) needs? Can they develop and produce systems to allow the PLA first to overcome its problem of “short arms and slow legs,” secondly to move from brown water coastal defence to green-water offshore defence (and eventually blue-water power projection), and thirdly successfully to conduct “limited wars under high-tech conditions”? Indeed, in a larger sense, can the defence industry, under the conditions and pressures of economic reform, survive except by “converting”? The answers, however, are not as simple as might be thought.
Prospects for Chinese Nuclear Force Modernization: Limited Deterrence Versus Multilateral Arms Control*
Authors: Johnston Alastair lain
Published: November 2023

In this article I argue that China currently has the technical capacity to increase the size of its nuclear forces by about two to three times and to improve its operational flexibility. Whether it does so or not will depend primarily on four variables or constraints: trends in thinking about nuclear doctrine that justify these sorts of changes; the economic and technological resources available; China’s commitment to nuclear arms-related arms control conventions; and strategic and arms control decisions by the United States. I suggest that for the foreseeable future the variables relating to doctrine, economics/technology and Chinese arms control preferences are all relatively fixed or constant. That is, present trends in all three suggest a continuing will and ability to modernize Chinese nuclear forces. The last variable is somewhat less fixed, and thus may be the one that is most amenable to external manipulation.
Harmful or Irrelevant? Italian Industrial Policy, 1945-1973
Authors: Federico Giovanni
Published: November 2023

The performance of the Italian economy during the ‘golden years’ of the postwar period was exceedingly good. From 1950 to 1973 the industrial value added grew at an impressive 6.8 per cent yearly (Rossi, Sorgato, and Toniolo, 1993: table l.A) and the GDP per capita at 4.8 per cent, the second best performance (along with Germany) among the seven major industrialized countries after Japan (Maddison, 1991: table 1). The Italian miracolo economico was even more impressive than the German Wirschaftswunder. In fact in 1951 Italy, unlike Germany, was not a fully fledged member of the club of advanced countries. Agriculture still accounted for a quarter of GDP (ISTAT, 1985: table 8.18) and employed 9 million people out of an active population of about 20 million (Zamagni, 1986: table A.l). Twenty years later, Italy was undoubtedly an advanced industrial country, even if it was still lagging behind others in Europe.
Foreign Direct Investment: Towards Co-operative Institutional Arrangements between the North and the South?
Authors: Singh Ajit , Zammit Ann
Published: November 2023

The last decade has witnessed a very fast growth of foreign direct investment (FDI)—this both reflects and extends the globalization of production. Although the greater part of FDI is still carried out by multinationals of one advanced country investing in another, a significant and perhaps increasing proportion of multinationals’ foreign investment is now taking place in developing countries (the South).
Sustainable Prosperity, Corporate Governance, and Innovation in Europe
Authors: O’Sullivan Mary
Published: November 2023

The extent to which, and the manner in which, innovation occurs in an economy depends on decisions about the allocation of resources; that is, on investment decisions or strategies. In particular, an economy’s capacity to achieve sustainable prosperity—by which I mean a progressive spreading of the benefits of economic growth to more and more people over a prolonged period of time—is closely related to the process through which corporate revenues are allocated. Corporate strategists control substantial financial and productive resources that permit them to make strategic choices in the allocation of resources. Retained earnings—undistributed profits and capital consumption allowances—have always provided, and continue to provide, the financial resources that are the foundation of investments in productive capabilities that can make innovation and economic development possible. The strategic choices of corporate decision-makers can thus have profound effects on the availability and viability of stable and remunerative employment opportunities. To understand what has happened and what will happen to employment opportunities and income levels, we have to understand strategic decision-making within major corporations, and how and why that process changes over time.
Towards a non-Zero-Sum Analytical Framework
Authors: Li Linda Chelan
Published: November 2023

What degree of power does the provincial government command within the Chinese political system, and what is the nature of this power? This is the fundamental question which runs through the literature on central—provincial relations in contemporary China. In trying to understand this power relationship, analysts have often dwelt on the roles of provincial leaders and the nature of the political system within which they operate. This chapter reviews how the existing literature has addressed and answered the following questions in the context of contemporary China. To what extent do provincial leaders act as the loyal agents of the centre, and, conversely, as representatives of their province? How can we make sense of the prevalence of bargaining behaviour between the centre and the provinces, and the intensity of conflicts in their interactions? Do the instances of China’s previous disintegration and the emergence of separatist movements in some provinces signal a trend towards independence for the provinces? Or do they represent the reaction of provincial forces to a weak centre? How should these tensions between the centre and the provinces be interpreted? Moreover, by what approach may changes in the balance of power between the centre and the provinces be better understood?
Discretion and Strategies in Guangdong
Authors: Li Linda Chelan
Published: November 2023

This chapter discusses the development of the discretion of the Guangdong government in the investment arena during the period 1979-93, using the typology of provincial discretion described in Chapter 1. The next chapter addresses the same issue for Shanghai. The purpose is to show, by explicating the details of provincial discretion and strategies, how provincial governments interacted with the centre and what strategies they undertook to gain more investment and faster economic development within the context of central policies. Discussions will follow the typology of discretion described in Fig. 1.2.
Shifting Central-Provincial Relations: Emerging Trends
Authors: Li Linda Chelan
Published: November 2023

An interactive relationship emphasizes the interdependence of and mutual influences between the centre and the provinces. This concluding chapter highlights the dynamic aspects of this interactive relationship, and demonstrates that the central and provincial actors, by influencing each other, themselves constitute the forces of change for their relationship. This chapter also identifies the emerging trends of change in central-provincial relations in the post-Mao period. It explains their emergence and draws preliminary conclusions as to the significance of these trends regarding political processes in the Chinese system generally.
Small-Scale Business in Germany: The Flexible Element of Economic Growth
Authors: Wengenroth Ulrich
Published: November 2023

Small-scale business was a flexible element of economic growth in Germany,1 and it was flexible in two ways: First, it transformed itself from a pre-modern and anti-industrial stronghold of corporatism to a competitive partner in a rapidly changing industrial society. Secondly, in providing technology-intensive services and tailor-made applications, it paved the way for the advance of mass-produced industrial goods into domestic markets. Earlier than industry, small-scale business blurred the distinction be tween manufacturing and services, thereby reconciling economies of scale in industrial production with growing diversity on the side of consumption. Rather than direct competition and marginalization, co-evolution of small and big business has been characteristic of the last century of German economic history. To be sure, the position of small business during this period was always challenged, and survival was never guaranteed. Only by flexibly adapting to new functional requirements in an economy that was ever more dominated by large enterprise, did small-scale business continue to flourish. Small-scale business did not control the many vicissitudes to which it was exposed. It is no surprise, therefore, that small businessmen mostly tried to resist the transformation of the German economy, which at the same time they were so successfully helping to bring about. And, when it came to institutions, small business never lost its historical backward orientation, inventing traditions of a golden past that never was. Thus, despite well-proven adaptability, the mentality of its entrepreneurs, as well as a large portion of the institutional arrangements and legislation for small firms, can only be understood if viewed against the back gound of retro spective ideals.
Historical Features of Japanese Small and Medium Enterprises: A Comparative Economic Approach
Authors: Takeuchi Johzen
Published: November 2023

Through the 1960s small and medium enterprises (SMEs) were commonly associated with symbols of Japanese social backwardness representing cheap labour, low productivity, and other negative factors. In fact, there was indeed a serious wage and productivity gap known as ‘the dual structure’, which was considered by many academicians to be a unique feature of Japanese capitalism. However, the economic conditions of SMEs were improved significantly in the 1970s and social critics became less interested in the matter.
The Role of Technical Education and Public Research Institutes in the Development of Small and Medium Enterprises: The Case of Osaka Between the Wars
Authors: Sawai Minoru
Published: November 2023

Osaka Prefecture is one of the largest industrial centers in Japan, ranking third in 1994 in terms of its share of the value of Japan’s manufactured goods shipments (MITI 1994). At 6.9 per cent, Osaka is just ahead of Tokyo (6.5 per cent), and is surpassed only by Aichi Prefecture (11.3 per cent) and Kanagawa Prefecture (8.0 per cent). In much of the pre-war period, however, Osaka was the undisputed king of Japanese industry, consistently contributing 16 to 17 per cent of the national value of production (see Table 10.1). It maintained its pre-eminent position until 1938, when the rising tide of war production carried Tokyo to the top position (MITI 1961). Osaka remained in second place through the first oil crisis, falling to third thereafter.
Varieties of Capitalism
Authors: Whitley Richard
Published: November 2023

During the twentieth century a number of quite distinctive forms of capitalism have become established and continue to be reproduced as different systems of economic organization. Despite numerous claims of growing convergence and the ‘globalization ‘ of managerial structures and strategies, the ways in which economic activities are organized and controlled in, for example, post-war Japan, South Korea (henceforth Korea), and Taiwan differ considerably from those prevalent in the USA and UK. They also vary significantly between themselves (Orru et al. 1997; Wade 1990; Whitley 1992a). Equally, substantial variations in types of dominant firm, customer-supplier relations, employment practices, and work systems remain across the regions and countries of Europe, despite the efforts of ‘modernizing ‘ elites in the post-war period (see e.g. Herrigel 1996; Kristensen 1996, 1997; Lane 1992; Maurice et al. 1986; Sorge 1991). Convergence to a single most effective type of market economy is no more likely in the twenty-first century than it was in the highly internationalized economy of the late nineteenth century (Hirst and Thompson 1996; Kenworthy 1997; Koechlin 1995; Wade 1996).
Divergent Capitalisms in East Asia: The Post-War Business Systems of South Korea and Taiwan
Authors: Whitley Richard
Published: November 2023

The wide variety of industrial capitalisms has become especially marked in the post-war period as a result of the widespread success of Japanese and other East Asian firms. It is widely recognized that these firms behave in quite different ways from many of those in Western countries, particularly North American and British ones (see e.g. Aoki 1988; R. Clark 1979; Kagono et al. 1985), and that these differences are connected to distinctive features of dominant institutions in these societies (Orru et al. 1997). However, while considerable attention has been paid to the particular characteristics of the Japanese enterprise system (see e.g. Fruin 1992; Gerlach 1992; Westney 1996), rather less effort has been devoted to analysing the nature of firms and markets in South Korea, Taiwan, and Hong Kong, partly because they are often viewed as being similar products of ‘post-Confucianism ‘ and not differing greatly from the dominant Japanese form of economic organization.
Introduction and Overview
Authors: Leete Richard
Published: November 2023

The global fertility transition, from high to low levels, has undoubtedly been one of the most remarkable changes in social behaviour in the twentieth century. Couples living in both rich and poor settings, with and without access to organized family planning programmes, are now having much smaller numbers of children than in the past. The search for explanations of the causes of the fertility transition and the changes in values attached to children, taking into account the great diversity of economic, social, political, and cultural contexts where they have occurred, has long been one of the central research preoccupations of population scientists (van de Kaa 1996).
Mortality Change and the Epidemiological Transition Beijing, 1644-1990
Authors: Campbell Cameron
Published: November 2023

Describing and explaining China’s mortality decline was until recently a straight forward task, if only because a lack of data has prevented it from being analyzed in as much detail as Europe’s. First, until the middle of this century, death rates in China were high because infectious diseases were endemic and malnutrition was widespread (Banister, 1987: 50; Jamison et al., 1984: 1, 11). Second, death rates began to fall rapidly after 1949. An epidemiological transition (Omran, 1971) took place, with chronic, non-communicable diseases such as cancer and heart disease replacing communicable diseases as the leading causes of death. By the late 1970s China had a life expectancy at birth that was high not only by the standards of other countries at similar levels of development, but also by the standards of much wealthier countries (Caldwell, 1986). Third, resource allocations and policy interventions by the post-1949 mainland Chinese government were largely responsible for improvements in health (Bumgarner, 1992; Halstead et al., 1985; Jamison et al., 1984; Lavely et al., 1990; Banister, 1987: 83-5). The state devoted a relatively large share of the country’s limited resources to the health sector, focusing on the prevention of disease, the provision of primary health care, and the delivery of services to rural areas. At the same time, it improved nutrition and education through other policy interventions.
Public Health and the Diffusion of Vaccination in Japan
Authors: Jannetta Ann Bowman
Published: November 2023

At the end of the nineteenth century Japan was a vigorous exporter of sanitation and public health programmes to the rest of East Asia. Certainly such a role for Japan could not have been predicted half a century earlier. In 1850, Japan was a poor and isolated island nation about to be descended upon by the great Western powers seeking new markets to exploit. And Japan’s long-established political system-a loose conglomerate of feudal kingdoms ruled by a Tokugawa shogun was approaching a final state of collapse. In 1868, a young and energetic cadre of reformers successfully ousted the shogun, and took over the reins of government in the name of the Meiji Emperor-an event known as the Meiji Restoration. The new Meiji leaders had monumental problems on their hands, but one of the earliest and most enduring themes to emerge among government initiatives was a strong commitment to the principles of public health, even though the term ‘public health’ was new to them. One reason for this focus was the loss of control of Japan’s ports which foreign ships with virulent germs from afar could enter unbidden for the first time in over 200 years. A second reason was that a surprising number of Meiji leaders had been trained in medicine-in many cases in a rarefied form of Western medicine-and it soon became apparent to them that public health was the idea of the moment. The concepts and policies of public health would not only help to solve problems at home, but would connect Japan with the Western world of technology and science.
The Economic Sociology of Firms and Entrepreneurs
Authors: Granovetter Mark
Published: November 2023

The central issue I want to address is how it is possible for entrepreneurs to assemble the capital and labor required to sustain the cooperative venture we call a “firm.” Although firms will find it difficult to survive in an economic environment that affords them no profit, I argue that the possibility of profits that is, profits above and beyond those available in other uses of resources, or what are sometimes called “excess profits”-is also not a sufficient condition for such emergence; instead, one must study the social structure within which individuals and groups attempt the construction of firms.
Introduction
Authors: Dierkes Meinolf , Antal Ariane Berthoin , Child John , Nonaka Ikujiro
Published: November 2023

As explored in Part I, organizational learning is grounded in a wide range of social science disciplines. Just as the theoretical foundations are diverse, so are the factors that stimulate learning. The chapters in this part are all manifestations of a common theme: that fundamental changes in society are linked to a shift in socioeconomic values. Each of the authors in this part explore how value changes are mediated through social and environmental movements, political transformations, markets, and technological visions to influence organizational learning. These changes or discontinuities in existing patterns in the environment can be perceived as either opportunities or threats and can thereby stimulate different responses within organizations.
Learning in Global and Local Networks: Experience of Chinese Firms in Hong Kong, Singapore, and Taiwan
Authors: Tsui-Auch Lai Si
Published: November 2023

The development of perspectives on organizational learning has been based primarily on the experience in large Western industrialized countries. The learning experience of enterprises in non-Western countries is underrepresented. This chapter presents a review of the learning processes of Chinese firms in Hong Kong, Taiwan, and Singapore, which have characteristics distinct from large Western and Japanese enterprises (see Macharzina, Oesterle, and Brodel, Ch. 28; Child, Ch. 29; Lane, Ch. 31; Nonaka, Toyama, and Byosiere, Ch. 22 in this volume).
Introduction
Authors: Pollitt Christopher , Bouckaert Geert
Published: November 2023

This is an ambitious book, aimed at remedying some perceived weaknesses in the current literature on public management reform. It is ambitious in several respects, most obviously in taking such a broad perspective (ten countries across three continents) and in attempting to compare such very different state apparatuses as those of Finland, France, New Zealand and the United States.
The Experience-Curve of Capability Management
Authors: Bresman Henrik
Published: November 2023

The encompassing objective of the research presented in this chapter is to obtain a better understanding of how external knowledge is integrated by high-technology firms in a turbulent industry setting, and how the capab¬ilities to do so are developed. The successful integration of knowledge from external sources-’external integration’-is a critical driver of firm performance in turbulent high technology (Burns and Stalker 1961; Lawrence and Lorsch 1967; Eisenhardt and Tabrizi 1995; Iansiti 1998; Leonard-Barton 1995; Maccormack 1998). Previous research has identified organizational mechanisms which enable firms to take advantage of knowledge emanating from their external environment. These include devices such as the nurturing of ‘technological gatekeepers’ (Allen 1977), encouraging ‘informal know-how trading’ (von Hippel 1987), and establishing organizational units dedicated to external integration (Granstrand et al. 1992).
Strategy in the Periphery: The Role of External Linkages in Strategy Creation
Authors: Regnér Patrick
Published: November 2023

Contemporary strategic management models appear to include two striking paradoxes. First, strategies are assumed to emanate from the centre of firms (most often referring to the upper echelons). However, in reality the centre often opposes strategy change and creation and peripheral sections play the active and primary role. An examination of successful strategies in several Swedish multinational corporations (MNCs) reveals that peripheral sections were decisive for the strategies, while the corporate centres opposed them. A case that illustrates this is the development of the blockbuster drug Losee by Astra (Johanson and Vahlne 1992). It was developed by a peripheral section of Astra against the will of corporate management. A second anomaly is that factors peripheral to and outside a company’s traditional industry and resource spheres often play a crucial role in the creation of new strategies.
Innovation in the Networked Firm: The Need to Develop New Types of Interface Competence
Authors: Jonsson Stefan
Published: November 2023

There are several reasons why outsourcing and being networked is beneficial to firms. This chapter investigates the relation between outsourcing, capability development, and innovation. Increased networking (expanded use of the external market) is assumed to be a result of outsourcing certain capabilities and thus introducing changes into the innovative system. It is argued that when the balance of internal to external sources of inputs to innovation changes, firms need to beware of and manage three interrelated issues: This chapter will first discuss the relationship between learning by doing, external capabilities, and innovations. Following this is a discussion of the potential effects of outsourcing on capability formation and how these effects can be mitigated. Lastly, there is a case-study illustrating these concepts and a discussion extending and generalizing the ideas.
Testing DHSY as a Restricted Conditional Model of a Trivariate Seasonally Cointegrated System
Authors: Ermini Luigi
Published: November 2023

The UK consumption function has been analyzed in numerous studies, of which the model developed two decades ago by Davidson, Hendry, Srba and Yeo (1978), henceforth DHSY, is one of the best known and most successful (for a recent survey of these studies, see Muellbauer, 1994). Two main features of DHSY were the explicit modeling of the seasonal patterns present in the data. through fourth-differencing and the presence of an error-correction term, whose central role in the empirical success of DHSY would be better understood a decade later in light of the newly developed literature on cointegration (for example, Granger, 1986); particularly, in light of the Granger representation theorem which formalizes the link between cointegration and error-correction (Engle and Granger, 1987). The introduction of the error-correction term in DHSY was based on intuitive rather than formal arguments to explicitly model the presence of a self-regulating mechanism that would keep consumption and income aligned in the long run.
M-Testing Using Finite and Infinite Dimensional Parameter Estimators
Authors: White Halbert , Hong Yong Miao
Published: November 2023

A prominent theme recurring throughout Clive Granger’s extensive body of work is his concern with the adequacy of econometric models. Granger (1990) gives this concern the status of an axiom in his general introduction to his volume Modelling Economic Series. In fact, it is his first axiom: Axiom A. Any model will only be an approximation to the generating mechanism, with there being a preference for the best available approximation.
Compromising Zero-Sum Morals
Authors: Blattberg Charles
Published: November 2023

However they may differ otherwise, there are two central principles upon which pluralists of every persuasion can be said to agree, namely, that there is a plurality of sometimes incommensurable values in the world, and that these sometimes conflict. That is why, to pluralists, those who would attempt to reduce such values systematically in order to incorporate them within a neutral theory of morals or politics, whether formalist or consequentialist, will only end up distorting them. For when intrinsic, incommensurable values ‘collide’, as pluralists often put it, we have no choice but to try to reach the necessary compromises without theoretical guidance.
Towards the Patriotic Polity
Authors: Blattberg Charles
Published: November 2023

The differences in approach between the pluralist and the hermeneuticist as regards both the process and the product of practical reason lead, as might be expected, to differences as regards their overall attitudes to moral and political conflicts. Pluralists, as should be quite evident by now, feel quite negative about these things. To them, to face up to a genuine conflict between incommensurables is to recognize that one will not be able to escape without doing some moral wrong. And since politics is a realm which is riddled with such conflicts, many of which are especially significant due to the high stakes involved, pluralists will be found clearly echoing Max Weber’s pessimism in their portrayals of it.
Conclusion: Aim Higher
Authors: Blattberg Charles
Published: November 2023

Why call it a ‘patriotic’ politics? One reason is that, by invoking the republican tradition of political liberty, we are reminded that politics should always strive to be true to the goods shared in common by all of a polity’s citizens. And if it is to do this, I have been arguing, a place needs to be granted to the reconciling kind of dialogue that is conversation as a means of responding to the conflicts on which politics is based. In neglecting this, and so leaving us with but a politics of negotiation and compromise, pluralists end up so distorting this political liberty that they can almost be said to deny it.
The Politics of ‘Pioneering’ in Anhui: Local Innovation, Provincial Support, and Central Auspices
Authors: Chung Jae Ho
Published: November 2023

An unresolved debate over the process of decollectivization concerns the role played by the state in general and by the central government in particular. One influential perspective characterizes the central government of the period concerned as a ‘passive state’ conducting benign neglect toward local innovations and deviations. This perspective attributes such passivity to the circumstances in which the central government was then placed. Facing a systemic crisis of shortage, falling productivity, lingering dangers of food riots, and plummeting regime legitimacy, the central, government had no other choice but gradually to relax its control over the egalitarian collective system of production, and work-point distribution.
Corporate Communication Orchestrated by a Sustainable Corporate Story
Authors: van Riel Cees B M
Published: November 2023

Communication enables an organization to begin a dialogue to create aware ness, understanding, and appreciation for the firm’s strategic goals, ideally resulting in the satisfaction of the interests of both the firm and its environment. Stakeholders will, in my view, be more receptive to corporate messages if the contents of organizational messages are coherent and appealing (contributing to the personal advantage of stakeholders, and above all not irritating them). I shall claim that communication will be more effective if organizations rely on a so-called sustainable corporate story as a source of inspiration for all internal and external communication programs. Stories are hard to imitate, and they promote consistency in all corporate messages.
State Succession In Respect Of Property, Archives And Debts
Authors: Arthur Watts
Published: November 2023

Initiation of the topic: ‘Succession of States and Governments’ was included in the International Law Commission’s initial provisional list of14 topics suitable for codification (YBILC (1st session, 1949), p. 281). Following a request by the General Assembly (GA Res. 1686 (XVI), of 18 December 1961), the Commission initiated work on the subject in 1962 (YBILC (14th session, 1962), Vol. II, p. 190).
Rights And Duties Of States
Authors: Kcmg,Qc Sir Arthur Watts
Published: November 2023

As international law developed in the second half of the nineteenth century and the first half of the twentieth it was thought useful, and perhaps even necessary, to consider whether there were some fundamental legal principles which were inherent in the relations of States as members of the international community The search for some hierarchical structure to the many particular rules of international law seemed to require no less. The idea grew that there were certain fundamental rights which were essential and self-evident attributes of Statehood, together with certain fundamental duties.
Present Statelessness
Authors: Kcmg,Qc Sir Arthur Watts
Published: November 2023

Although as part of the International Law Commissions work on Nationality, including Statelessness, the Commission prepared draft Conventions on the elimination and reduction offuture statelessness (see Chapter 2), this left the question of present statelessness still for consideration.