bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Differences in Pour Temperature Affect Hardness Properties of CuZn Brass Alloy through Metal Casting
Authors: Iqbal  , Ali Nurdin , Husin Husni , Akhyar  , Khairil  , Farhan Ahmad
Published: February 2021

The purpose of this study to evaluate the effect of pouring temperature on the Vickers hardness of CuZn brass alloys through metal casting. The pouring temperature varied from 1,060; 1,110; 1,160; 1,210; and 1,260 °C; while metal molds were not given preheat treatment or at room temperature conditions. The results obtained that the maximum hardness is 616 HV shown at 1,210 °C of the pouring temperature, while the minimum hardness is 574 HV can be seen at 1,210 °C of the pouring temperature. The significance of the difference in casting temperature on the hardness of CuZn brass alloy through metal casting was analyzed using one-way ANOVA. Generally, it appears that hardness increases with increasing pouring temperature. The effect of pouring temperature results in differences in solidifying rates and freezing intervals of brass alloys. Furthermore, it affects the grain structure growth of the brass alloy which led to the difference in Vickers hardness.
Working posture analysis of wall building activities in construction works using the OWAS method
Authors: Iqbal M , Angriani L , Hasanuddin I , Erwan F , Soewardi H , Hassan A
Published: February 2021

Activities of construction works are carried out manually and continuously with critical and repetitive working postures. The poor working condition causes fatigue, musculoskeletal disorder, in the worst case could lead to working accident. The paper discussed critical working postures of construction works of house construction project in Indonesia. Three mains activities have been identified to be studied, namely building up the brick wall, plastering the wall, and casting the concrete column. The activities were video recorded, the dimension of the work place and its component were measured and further analyzed in ergonomics laboratory. The postures were studied using Ovako Working Posture Analysis System (OWAS) method to identify their critical levels. The improvements were proposed to remove the critical posture and reduce the risk of injury. Result of the study showed that building up the brick wall was the most critical task since it has 2 critical postures, while plastering the wall and casting the concrete column have 1 critical posture respectively. The propose improvement has successfully removed the critical posture and reduce the risk of injury.
The design parameters’ analysis of typical support parts for the ferro-concrete roof beams reinforced with unweighted frame
Authors: Degtyarev G V , Salloum M R , Arraj S G Abo
Published: February 2021

It is necessary to use ferro-concrete roof beams of considerable length, which, together with operational loads, often leads to an abnormal state of the latter, especially their support parts, in industrial buildings, especially in the presence of large spans, when they overlap. The option of strengthening the beam with an unweighted frame, in comparison with a typical solution is considered.
Technical and technological aspects of ensuring seismic stability during the construction of buildings and structures
Authors: Sekisov A N , Shipilova N A , Bortsov V N , Dolbnya D M , Kavkazi O
Published: February 2021

The aim of the work is to consider the basic technical and technological aspects of ensuring the seismic resistance during the construction of buildings and structures, to study and analyze the existing technologies of earthquake-resistant construction, to identify their advantages and disadvantages, and the possibility of using them in mass construction. In addition, the analysis of the requirements of Building Codes of the Russian Federation for earthquake-resistant construction was carried out. This study presents the options for seismic isolation used in the world practice of earthquake-resistant construction. On the basis of the conducted studies, the conclusions about the effectiveness of seismic isolation methods, as well as the possibilities of achieving economic efficiency in the construction of earthquake-resistant buildings have been drawn. The paper gives recommendations on the earthquake-resistant construction technologies’ dissemination in Russia and the development of a regulatory framework in this area of construction.
Trihedral lattice towers with optimal cross-sectional shape
Authors: Chepurnenko A S , Sabitov L S , Yazyev B M , Galimyanova G R , Akhtyamova L Sh
Published: February 2021

The article discusses a new design of triangular lattice supports and suggests a technique for optimizing their cross-sectional shape. Optimization is carried out from the condition of the cross-section being equally stable in two planes. Such relationships are found between the geometric parameters of the section, at which the moments of inertia take the maximum value.
Stress-strain state of the soil mass under the uniformly distributed load action adjacent to a vertical excavation
Authors: Ter-Martirosyan Z G , Luzin I N , Vanina Yu V , Ter-Martirosyan A Z
Published: February 2021

This article provides a solution to the problem of the stress-strain state of a soil mass adjacent to a vertical excavation when applying a uniformly distributed load on its surface. The solution of the problem was obtained by the method of trigonometric Ribere-Fileon series. The final expressions for the SSS components are provided. Contours of stresses and displacements are also shown.
The technical state experimental studies of construction with free support in the non-stationary oscillations’ analysis
Authors: Grigoryan M N , Polyakova T V , Kokareva Ya A , Parinov I A , Cherpakov A V
Published: February 2021

An algorithm for the experimental determination of the defective zones of the construction with free support is presented. A reinforced concrete floor plate freely supported on both sides is studied as an example. The oscillation method is used as a diagnostic method. Impact loading is used as the excitation of non-stationary oscillations. The studies were carried out using an oscillation measuring setup. The research is based on the analysis of oscillation modes under non-stationary dynamic loading of an object. The analysis of oscillation modes makes it possible to detect the conditionally defective zones of floor plate.
Eco-sustainable architecture and comfortable living environment
Authors: Yazyeva S B , Mayatskaya I A
Published: February 2021

Eco-sustainable architecture strives to achieve the integration of the human habitat with natural ecosystem. It gives a rise for the harmonious development of all the components in this direction, allows to apply the methods of structures’ entire complex optimal design, taking into account the natural features of the area and the comfort of people living in this urban space. The problems associated with the peculiarities of the eco-houses’ construction are considered. The article focuses on the relationship of architectural, engineering, economic, socio-cultural and environmental aspects of modern structures’ design.
New type of hybrid housing structure for the city of Yerevan
Authors: Safaryan A Yu , Safaryan Yu A
Published: February 2021

The accumulated development experience in Yerevan over the past century (1920-2020) is analyzed taking into account the practice of housing designing and building of the past stage. Based on the analysis of the existing development experience and the studied material, a number of significant shortcomings in the space-planning solutions available for the housing currently in exploitation are identified.

Using the principles of sustainable architecture and the foreign experience, we offer the suggestions for the new type hybrid house structure with the possibility of variations in the number of stories and planning solutions. The expected effectiveness of these proposals‘ implementation in the development execution in Yerevan is assessed.
Analysis of the welded pipe joints state and the methods for increasing the bearing capacity of gas transmission systems‘ pipelines
Authors: Pirumyan N V , Stakyan M G , Khazaryan H A
Published: February 2021

The changes in the structural state of the weld material of gas pipes at different seam cross-sections are considered. The classification of external and internal weld defects caused by different types of factors carried out, the stress concentration in the transition zone of the weld to the pipe metal is the most significant factor. The analysis of atmospheric effects on the welded seams of pipelines, that initiate adsorption and electrochemical processes of the metal microstructure, which cause corrosion on the external surface of the weld, is given. Taking into account the non-stationary loading mode of pipes due to fluctuations in the internal gas pressure, corrosion and fatigue damages are also added to these defects, which cause the development of fatigue cracks, leading to a violation of the system’s tightness and even to the welds destruction. The method for increasing the bearing capacity of pipelines is proposed by applying a technological operation of the external surface plastic deformation of the weld and of the transition zone to the pipe metal, which creates residual compressive stresses that relieve working tensile stresses in the stress concentration zone.
Forced oscillations of beams with installation (Part II)
Authors: Kulterbaev Kh P , Vodakhova V A , Baragunova L A , Shogenova M M , Tsypinova A Kh
Published: February 2021

This article (Part II) is a continuation of Part I, published in the same edition, where the spectral problem is considered. Part II examines two types of transverse beam oscillations: forced harmonic and forced random. The beam carries its own distributed mass and discrete mass. The source of oscillations is operating equipment with an element moving during technological operations. The mathematical model of oscillations is presented as a boundary value problem from the main partial differential equation of the hyperbolic type of the fourth order in the spatial coordinate, the second order in time, the boundary conditions and the conditions of the beam sections‘ conjugation. The technical theory of the rods‘ bending oscillations is used, based on Bernoulli‘s hypothesis about the beam plane cross-sections‘ invariability. The methods of variables separation and finite differences are applied. The algorithms for solving the problems have been developed, implemented in the Matlab software environment. Verification of the proposed mathematical models is demonstrated using the specific examples. The particular examples have been carried out and the practical conclusions have been outlined.
Procedure for digitalization of measures to create a gas distribution network
Authors: Yedukov D A , Yedukov V A
Published: February 2021

The article describes the possibility of measures digitalization to create a gas distribution network. The description of processes at definition of the contract category on connection, performance and the statement of the design documentation is resulted. The analysis of possible reduction of actions terms at the expense of electronic geodetic database use, a uniform platform on coordination of gas distribution networks projects is carried out. As a result of the introduction of measures digitalization to create a gas distribution network, the contractual obligations term on the part of the gas distribution organization will be reduced to 3 calendar months.
Integral assessment of anti-corrosion materials‘ quality
Authors: Deryushev V V , Zaitseva M M , Kundryutskova I V , Ovchinnikov O S
Published: February 2021

In modern conditions, protective paint and varnish coatings are used everywhere to ensure the safety of metal structures and include the materials of various composition and application. The paints and varnishes market offers conventional hard and thixotropic anticorrosive coatings applied by the devices using airless spray technology. The article describes the experiment results, which consists in conducting a comparative analysis of protective materials in the framework of laboratory studies. The main physical and mechanical properties are determined. Modeling of anticorrosive coatings‘ indicators, which determine the degree of change in material properties in terms of adhesion, thickness, uniformity, flexibility and weather resistance of the treated surface of a metal structure, has been carried out. The values of the indicators were formed within the framework of the existing database, created and replenished using the real data obtained during the maintenance and repair of the existing facilities. The considered method is applicable for any number of analyzed surfaces and parameters of anticorrosive materials. As a result, it was found that the traditional coatings within the considered sufficiency indicators meet the specified requirements by 85-90=. However, the primer “Tectyl BT Coat” is the best option for using anticorrosive materials to protect the steel structures exposed to aggressive environmental influences. The sufficiency level for this primer is 92=, which determines its first place in the rating. The proposed method of experimental research and subsequent integral assessment of satisfying the requirements adequacy is versatile and is a tool that can be used when solving the problems of multi-criteria selection or ranking of a finite number of different anti-corrosion coatings or other objects.
Checking the adequacy of the technical and economic model for ensuring a target life of an individual production machine
Authors: KasyanoV V E , Kosenko E E , Kosenko V V , Demchenko D B , Khvan R V
Published: February 2021

A number of principles to ensure the reliability of individual production machines have been formulated. A block diagram of the model for ensuring the gamma-percentage target life of the individual production machine parts has been built on their basis. To assess the model adequacy, the accelerated operational tests without a test stand base have been proposed. A machine (units, parts) is considered as a system with mutually loaded elements, i.e. self-stand.
Development of an algorithm for increasing the construction organization efficiency in the context of using production outsourcing
Authors: Klochko E N , Britikova E A
Published: February 2021

Modern economic conditions faced by the construction organizations in Russia necessitate the use of outsourcing as a technology for transferring certain types of activities or functions of their business to third-party specialized organizations, together with responsibility for the result of the latter. The article proposes an algorithm for increasing the construction organizations efficiency in terms of the production outsourcing use. The main stages are considered as a part of the algorithm, being guided by which it is possible to make a decision about the outsourcing effectiveness in these organizations. The authors believe that the justification of outsourcing advisability should be based on a clear algorithmizing of the decision-making process on the issue under consideration. After determining the approach to the decision on the outsourcing use, the construction organization management should determine what type of outsourcing for the integrity of the business processes transferred to the side is necessary at this stage, conduct an economic and strategic assessment of the outsourcing use and develop the measures to adapt the construction organization organizational structure.
Nitrogen oxide emissions reducing in cement production
Authors: Guseva T V , Potapova E N , Tichonova I O , Shchelchkov K A
Published: February 2021

In the European Union, the Russian Federation, as well as in a number of other countries, cement production is regulated by legislation on the best available technologies. Mandatory requirements (technological parameters, BAT-AELs) are imposed, first of all, on the emissions limitation of inorganic dust, nitrogen and sulfur oxides. The majority of Russian cement plants are currently characterized by the nitrogen oxide emissions state-established technological indicators‘ excess. The technological indicators of the best available technologies and methods for reducing nitrogen oxide emissions operating in the Russian Federation and the EU countries are considered. It is demonstrated that the most efficient technologies are the staged fuel combustion and selective non-catalytic reduction (SNCR) of nitrogen oxides.
The carcinogenic risk index of the Vladikavkaz city territory in GIS technologies is an indicator of natural and technological safety level
Authors: Burdzieva O G , Kanukov A S
Published: February 2021

Environmental pollution, in addition to harm to nature, leads to various diseases of the population living in the contaminated area, including cancer. In the Republic of North Ossetia-Alania, environmental pollution is mainly due to non-ferrous metallurgy enterprises and vehicles. The capital of the Republic - Vladikavkaz is the most polluted city in the region, where the main stationary sources of pollution and the largest number of vehicles are located. The material on cancer was selected from the data in various regions of the Vladikavkaz city. The main share of newly registered oncological disease falls on the age groups over 60 years. An analysis of cancer showed that in those areas of the republic, including the city of Vladikavkaz, where the environmental pollution level is higher, the rates of cancer are higher. The risk coefficient for public health under the influence of chemicals polluting the environment is calculated. For all the studied indicators, there is a significant excess of the maximum permissible values, with the exception of mercury. The data obtained are consistent with a high level of cancer incidence in the city, which indicates a close relationship between the incidence and the carcinogenic risk index.
Vibrations of nonlinear, absorbing soil medium according to the seismic microzoning instrumental method
Authors: Zaalishvili V B
Published: February 2021

In order to assess the nonlinear and absorbing properties of soils, the studies in typical areas of the Tbilisi territory were carried out using a powerful vibratory source SV-10/100. It was found that the nonlinearity indicators used in the previously obtained formulas for the increments of the intensity make it possible to evaluate the stress-strain state of soils (linear elasticity, nonlinear elasticity, inelasticity). The “pure” absorption, as the ratio of the normalized spectrum to the vibration frequency, is actually a loss factor. This will make it possible to widely use the easily calculated “pure” absorption index in solving many problems of engineering seismology and earthquake-resistant construction, as well as to increase the reliability of the data obtained. In particular, these indicators can be used in the energy calculation of buildings, structures, etc.
Optimisation of environmental protection measures in the electrodeposition industry
Authors: Shchitov D V , Yuriev Yu Yu , Nesterchuk A V , Moskvicheva A V
Published: February 2021

At present, the quality of wastewater treatment at machine-building enterprises and disposal of generated sludge does not meet modern technical, economic and ecological requirements. In the course of research into galvanic wastewater, the problem of its neutralization at galvanic production was analyzed. The quality of industrial waste water and the structural composition of pollutant compounds molecules containing heavy metal ions were studied. Physical and chemical characteristics of real and model solutions were studied when different system parameters were changed: pH, temperature, oxidant impact (6% solution H2O2), reagent concentration). The negative impact of complex formation processes on the depth of electroplating methods was also studied and experimentally confirmed, which technical essence is due to the structure, size, charge size of pollutant particles (electrochemical, membrane, coagulation). The data obtained formed the basis of the methodology for determining the effectiveness of the treatment of these effluents using known methods.
The breakthrough of large particles in small devices of counter-swirling flows with top strikers
Authors: Lupinogin V V , Azarov D V , Sakharova A A , Dobrinski D R
Published: February 2021

The work considers the breakthrough effect of large particles in a small diameter device on counter-swirling flows. The dependences of particle breakthrough on different diameter devices were built. An experiment was carried out on a device of 100, 200, 300 and 400 mm with top paddle strikers installed at the axial outlet. A comparative analysis is made with the calculated and experimental data of the researchers in this area. The results of devices with small diameter are obtained and presented in the visual graphs and conclusions.
Historical transformations of early medieval basilica churches of the North-Eastern Black Sea region in the light of the new data method based on lime mortars
Authors: Pishchulina V V , Kotlyar V D
Published: February 2021

The article is devoted to the study of the medieval temples‘ architecture historical transformations in Musser, Tsandripsh, Loo in comparison with the data of the temples‘ mortar analysis by the X-ray phase method. The scientific novelty of the article is due to the fact that a comprehensive study of historical transformations and volumetric-spatial solutions of the temples made it possible to clarify their dating and construction periods.
Experimental investigation on mechanical characterization of 3D printed PLA produced by fused deposition modeling (FDM)
Authors: Moradi Mahmoud , Aminzadeh Ahmad , Rahmatabadi Davood , Hakimi Alireza
Published: February 2021

This study aims to systematically experimental investigate the influence of infill-patterns (IPs) on specific mechanical responses of parts fabricated by fused deposition modeling (FDM). A poly-lactic-acid (PLA) feedstock filament is utilized in the manufacturing process. Furthermore, six types of infill-patterns (deposition angle), namely full honeycomb, rectilinear, triangular, fast honeycomb, grid, and wiggle, are designed and printed. In order to determine the mechanical properties of manufactured parts, tensile tests are carried out. The mechanical properties such as extension, stress, elongation, energy, and Young’s modulus are considered as objective functions. As a result, there is a direct correlation between mechanical properties and infill patterns. Thus, it is essential to select the best infill-pattern in terms of their applications, giving sufficient strength without overdoing time and cost. Based on the results, a triangular infill-pattern has a maximum value of ultimate tensile strength and E-module (15.4 and 534 MPa, respectively). On the other hand, the wiggle pattern is more flexible.
Effect of the addition of cerium on the microstructure evolution and thermal expansion properties of cast Al-Cu-Fe alloy
Authors: Wang Juan , Yang Zhong , Ma Zhijun , Duan Hongbo , Zhang Jiachen , Tao Dong , Li Jianping
Published: February 2021

The evolution of the microstructure and the variation in the thermal expansion properties of the Al
63
Cu
25
Fe
12 alloy by the addition of different amounts of cerium (Ce) are investigated by x-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). Herein, a new series of quasicrystal alloys containing Ce are prepared. Results revealed that the Al
63
Cu
25
Fe
12 alloy contains icosahedral quasicrystal phase (I-phase), λ − Al
13
Fe
4 phase, β − Al
0.5
Fe
0.5 phase and Al
2
Cu
3 phase. The addition of Ce is confirmed to lead to grain refinement, formation of the Al
13
Ce
2
Cu
13 phase, disappearance of the λ − Al
13
Fe
4 phase. Furthermore, the area fraction of the I-phase in the alloy is confirmed to reach the maximum value, and the linear expansion coefficient of the alloy is the lowest due to the addition of Ce of up to 1 at%. The addition of Ce can reduce the linear expansion coefficient of the Al
63
Cu
25
Fe
12 alloy by ∼20%. The contribution of Ce will render better prospects for the application of Al-Cu-Fe-Ce materials.
Invited Commentary: Machine Learning in Causal Inference—How Do I Love Thee? Let Me Count the Ways
Authors: Balzer Laura B , Petersen Maya L
Published: February 2021

In this issue of the Journal, Mooney et al. (Am J Epidemiol. 2021;190(8):1476–1482) discuss machine learning as a tool for causal research in the style of Internet headlines. Here we comment by adapting famous literary quotations, including the one in our title (from “Sonnet 43” by Elizabeth Barrett Browning (Sonnets From the Portuguese, Adelaide Hanscom Leeson, 1850)). We emphasize that any use of machine learning to answer causal questions must be founded on a formal framework for both causal and statistical inference. We illustrate the pitfalls that can occur without such a foundation. We conclude with some practical recommendations for integrating machine learning into causal analyses in a principled way and highlight important areas of ongoing work.
Bidialectal Practices and L2 Arabic Pragmatic Development in a Short-Term Study Abroad
Authors: Al Masaeed Khaled
Published: February 2021

The current study takes a bidialectal perspective for the conceptualization of pragmatic competence and its development through illuminating the need for the field to move forward and overcome the standard language ideology in research on L2 pragmatic competence. To this end, it brings bidialectal practices to the forefront to investigate L2 Arabic pragmatic development in a short-term study abroad programme. In particular, bidialectal practices, or the ability to use one or more spoken varieties alongside Modern Standard Arabic, are explored in this study in relation to appropriateness and pragmatic strategies in the production of apologies, refusals, and requests. A spoken discourse completion task that included scenarios with varied power and social distance combinations were utilized to collect data from 36 participants (21 L2 Arabic learners and 15 L1 Arabic speakers) in an eight-week study abroad sojourn. Findings indicated an overall improvement of pragmatic competence over the period of eight weeks. Specifically, significant developments were demonstrated in appropriateness scores and learners’ use of bidialectal practices in pragmatic strategies. Moreover, the qualitative analysis of strategies development identified areas in which learners converged towards or diverged from L1 speaker norms. Methodologically, the study shows that utilizing bidialectal practices to measure L2 Arabic pragmatic competence development is key to understanding learners’ developmental trajectories.
On the importance of evolutionary constraint for regulatory sequence identification
Authors: Giudicelli François , Roest Crollius Hugues
Published: February 2021

Regulation of gene expression relies on the activity of specialized genomic elements, enhancers or silencers, distributed over sometimes large distance from their target gene promoters. A significant part of vertebrate genomes consists in such regulatory elements, but their identification and that of their target genes remains challenging, due to the lack of clear signature at the nucleotide level. For many years the main hallmark used for identifying functional elements has been their sequence conservation between genomes of distant species, indicative of purifying selection. More recently, genome-wide biochemical assays have opened new avenues for detecting regulatory regions, shifting attention away from evolutionary constraints. Here, we review the respective contributions of comparative genomics and biochemical assays for the definition of regulatory elements and their targets and advocate that both sequence conservation and preserved synteny, taken as signature of functional constraint, remain essential tools in this task.
Hope, trust and segregation in schools: An analysis of contextual effects on violent and general offending
Authors: Sandahl Julia
Published: February 2021

Influenced by the theoretical concepts of ‘Relative deprivation’ and ‘Social cohesion’, this study adds to the relatively limited literature of socio-structural approaches to the school–crime relationship. Multilevel analysis was conducted to explore the independent and interactive effects of three distinct features of the school setting—concentrated (dis)advantage, the proportion of students with poor future prospects and teacher-rated social cohesion—in relation to self-reported offending. Using information from three data sources on 4,608 students and 1,056 teachers from 77 lower secondary schools in Stockholm, the results showed that school concentrated (dis)advantage and school-level future prospects were directly related to offending. In addition, cross-level interactions indicate that the association between student performance and offending differs depending on school type.
Florivory by the occupants of phytotelmata in flower parts can decrease host plant fecundity
Authors: Missagia Caio C C , Alves Maria Alice S
Published: February 2021

Some types of plant accumulate liquid in their inflorescences creating phytotelmata. These environments protect the flowers against florivory, although they may be colonized by aquatic or semi-aquatic florivorous insect larvae, whose effects on the fitness of the plants remain unclear. We tested the hypothesis of floral antagonism by the occupants of phytotelmata, which predicts that florivory by the occupants of the phytotelmata represents a cost to the female fitness of the plant, reducing its fecundity. We manipulated experimentally the infestation by 3 florivores larvae species occupants of phytotelmata in inflorescences of Heliconia spathocircinata (Heliconiaceae) to test for negative direct trophic effects on the fecundity of the flowering and fruiting bracts. We found that the foraging of the hoverfly (Syrphidae) and moth (Lepidoptera) larvae in the inflorescences contributed to a decline in the fecundity of the plant. While the lepidopteran impacted fecundity when foraging in both flowering and fruiting bracts, the syrphid only affected the fruiting bracts, which indicates that the nectar and floral tissue are the principal resource exploited by the hoverfly. By contrast, soldier fly (Stratiomyidae) had a neutral effect on fecundity, while foraging in flowering or fruiting bracts. These findings corroborate our hypothesis, that herbivory by the larval occupants represents cost to the host plant having phytotelmata. The negative influence of this foraging on plant fecundity will nevertheless depend on the consequences of the exploitation of resources, which vary considerably in ephemeral habitats such as the phytotalmanta of flower parts.
Open Source Information’s Blind Spot
Authors: McDermott Yvonne , Koenig Alexa , Murray Daragh
Published: February 2021

Digital open source information has been heralded for its democratizing potential, insofar as it allows access to a much broader range of sources and voices than would normally be consulted through traditional methods of information gathering for international criminal investigations. It also helps to overcome some of the physical access barriers that are commonplace in international criminal investigations. At a time when the use of digital open source information is becoming more widespread, this article warns of the cognitive and technical biases that can impact upon two key stages of an investigation: finding relevant information and analysing that information. At the information-gathering stage, there are particular crimes, regions and groups of people whose experiences are more likely to be overlooked or hidden in digital open source investigations. When it comes to analysing digital open source information, there is a danger that cognitive and technical biases may influence which information is deemed most relevant and useful to an international criminal investigation, and how that information is interpreted. This article proposes some steps that can be taken to mitigate these risks.
Architecture of South Asia
Authors: Sohoni Pushkar
Published: February 2021

‘South Asia’ is a term used for the Indian subcontinent after its rearrangement into several independent nations in the mid-20th century. It includes the countries of Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka. Most of these countries have roots in common, shared history and culture, and very frequently, they have been part of the same empires—for example under the Mauryas, or the Mughals. The region is home to several faiths, the birthplace of the Indic religions of Buddhism, Hinduism, and Jainism. In addition, the region has a long-standing presence of Christianity, Islam, Judaism, Sikhism, and Zoroastrianism. The entire region has rich architectural traditions, with various geographical and cultural zones employing their own regional idioms of construction while also participating in much larger aspirational architectural styles. Exploring a span from the Indus Valley civilization in the Bronze Age (3rd and 2nd millennia bce) to the modernism of new nations in the 20th century, there are several works that center on the architectural history of South Asia. While there are some journals that are dedicated to the architectural and art history of South Asia, there are others that include architectural history of South Asia significantly though the publication might have a slightly different focus. Most monographs are dedicated to specific periods, geographies, and themes. Because of the identity politics of the modern nations in South Asia, most architectural themes after 1947 (when the British left South Asia) are usually limited to each single nation, often not relating that nation’s architecture to that of neighboring countries. However, books before 1947 tend to use ‘India’ as a generic civilizational term for the entire South Asian region, and not just the nation state of India. This bibliography deliberately leaves out several kinds of publications such as archaeological reports, volumes in which architecture is only one of the many cultural facets, common textbooks that are usually introductory surveys of both architecture and art, and monographs that are narrowly focused on period and place.
Interpretations of Probability
Authors: Hájek Alan , Hitchcock Christopher
Published: February 2021

If you check the weather prediction on your phone, you might read that there is a 30 percent chance of rain at 4:00 in the afternoon. What does this mean? More precisely, what is the fraction 30/100 a measure of? Probability is a concept that is widespread both in everyday life and in science. Ordinary speakers of English utter and have some understanding of sentences such as “I will probably be late for the meeting,” or “it’s unlikely that Luxembourg will win the next World Cup.” Various sciences make explicit probabilistic claims: “the probability that a radium atom will decay in 1620 years is 0.5”; “the probability that a house mouse whose father is heterozygous for the t haplotype will inherit that trait is 0.9.” Other claims implicitly invoke probability: “the life expectancy of a child born in Japan today is 85.3 years.” Probability theory is also a major branch of mathematics, and it was given its modern formulation by Kolmogorov in 1933. Kolmogorov’s formalism presents a function P that satisfies a set of axioms: it is non-negative, normalized, and additive. These axioms entail a rich set of theorems concerning the behavior of P; together they make up the probability calculus. While the resulting theory is a formal theory in its own right, it is also natural to interpret P—to attach meanings, or truth conditions to claims involving it. “What is P?”, one may ask. This may be understood as a metaphysical question about what kinds of things are probabilities, or more generally as a question about what makes probability statements true or false. The various interpretations of probability attempt to answer this question, one way or another. This article surveys the literature on the interpretations of probability, due to mathematicians and especially philosophers. It divides the interpretations into two broad categories. Epistemological interpretations understand probability in terms of an agent’s beliefs, the strength of evidence in support of a statement, or other epistemological categories. Physical interpretations view probability as a feature of the world that would exist regardless of what evidence exists or what agents believe. This is a natural taxonomy, but others could be adopted, and its sub-categories are also somewhat pliable. The authors would like to thank Kim Border, Chris Bottomley, Kenny Easwaran, Hanti Lin, Michael Nielsen, Charles Sebens, Glenn Shafer, Julia Staffel, Jeremy Strasser, Michael Titelbaum, and an anonymous referee for many helpful suggestions.
Mercantilism
Authors: Reinert Kenneth A.
Published: February 2021

The notion of “mercantilism” or the “mercantile system” as a formal idea was identified by Adam Smith in his The Wealth of Nations. Smith had in mind a set of writers (the mercantilists) who were active in the 16th and 17th centuries, primarily but not exclusively in England. As commonly stated, mercantilist thought supported a policy position that countries should attempt to achieve trade surpluses that result in an inflow of “precious metals” or gold. In some renderings, this inflow of gold was seen as supporting royal treasuries. Mercantilism was often expressed as a system of economic nationalism. As such, it also had elements of a “zero sum” approach to international economics relations, although whether this “zero sum” thinking extended into the domestic realm is a matter of some debate. In recent decades, interpretations of what exactly mercantilism stood for have diverged significantly. This is perhaps a positive development as it provides layers of nuance to what had become a simplification of what mercantilist writers really stated, as well as differences of opinion among these writers. The origins of mercantilism are wrapped up with another school of thought—that of “bullionism,” which focused directly on transactions in precious metals. These two schools of thought had a significant temporal overlap, although mercantilism eventually prevailed. Mercantilism also became wrapped up in European colonial activities, from the British East India Company, some of whose spokesmen were mercantilist writers, to Prince Leopold’s Belgian Congo disaster. For this reason, it is important to consider the impacts of mercantilism both within the Western European context and within Western European colonial systems. While in the end the mercantilist emphasis on the balance of trade and, more broadly, economic nationalism was incorrect, modern analysis of the school of thought has revealed that the mercantilist writers were indeed engaged in real economic analysis. Key concepts uncovered by mercantilist writers included balance of payments accounting, trade in services, monetary theory, aggregate employment, exchange rate determination, and others. These insights secure mercantilism a place in the history of economic thought.
Urban Ethnography
Authors: Stuart Forrest
Published: February 2021

If ethnography is the study of people as they negotiate their everyday lives, then urban ethnography is the study of how urban residents and other inhabitants make sense of their daily social worlds, navigate surrounding communities, and manage the broader forces that structure the urban experience. Methodologically, it privileges deep, immersive fieldwork alongside research participants. Substantively, it focuses on interactions and institutions that define urban space, whether those are public streets, neighborhood organizations, or community events. Urban ethnographies have traditionally thought of “communities” geographically, examining how the central topics of poverty, crime, culture, and peer group formation play out in delimited spaces such as neighborhoods, wards, and districts. Theoretically, it has historically tended to draw on social-constructionist and interactionist orientations, conceiving of the urban life as something “built up,” so to speak, from repeated and ritualized encounters. As one of the longest-standing and iconic subfields of sociology, anthropology, and other humanistic social sciences, urban ethnography remains one of the most influential modes of understanding social life in cities. True to form as one of the most conflictual and controversial subfields, an increasing number of scholars are pushing back on convention, insisting on the need to embrace theoretical orientations that are more critical and structurally focused, and to more adequately consider the global forces and relational dynamics that exist beyond, but fatefully impinge upon, bounded field sites. As urban ethnography’s readership has grown, so too have methodological critiques regarding replicability, as well as concerns about potential exploitation and voyeurism among its practitioners and readership.
Miles Davis
Authors: Casey Brian
Published: February 2021

Miles Davis is consistently regarded as one of the most iconic, impactful, and creative innovators in the history of jazz. He is recognized by most jazz historians as being a key player in the development of several of the major subgenres in modern jazz. As a bandleader, Miles Davis repeatedly created some of the most cohesive, integrated, and innovative groups in jazz. Many of the musicians who joined Miles Davis groups became major voices in jazz, both with his groups and as leaders; a short list includes John Coltrane, Cannonball Adderley, Herbie Hancock, Wayne Shorter, and Chick Corea. Born Miles Dewey Davis III on 26 May 1926 in Alton, Illinois, Davis was the son of a dentist and was raised in a middle-class lifestyle, yet one amid the endemic racism of the Midwest in the 1930s. While still in his teens, Davis moved to New York City and almost immediately was playing music with the progenitors of the modern jazz movement. After replacing Dizzy Gillespie in the frontline of Charlie Parker’s quintet, Davis went on to lead his own mid-sized group, the Miles Davis Nonet, which explored a novel approach to modern jazz that was later associated with the cool jazz subgenre. Never willing to compromise and striving for continual development, Davis fought through heroin addiction in the early 1950s and produced music in 1954 associated with the development of yet another subgenre, hard bop. With the critical and popular success of a 1955 performance at the Newport Jazz Festival, Davis ascended to the highest ranks of jazz stardom, and formed the 1950s Miles Davis Quintet with John Coltrane, regarded as a model of modern jazz interaction and performance. 1959 saw Davis exploring another new approach termed modal jazz and producing what is commonly regarded as the best-selling record in the history of jazz, Kind of Blue. By 1964, Davis had retooled his quintet to produce the Miles Davis Quintet of the 1960s (known to many as Davis’s Second Great Quintet), featuring Wayne Shorter, which created an approach to composition and group improvisation subsequently referred to as post bop. Refusing to become static creatively, Davis was innovative in the application of popular and rock music influences to jazz, helping lead the way toward the development of jazz-rock fusion. Davis continued to explore electronic forms of jazz until his death in 1991. This article generally privileges scholarly writing and collections to best aid the Miles Davis researcher.
Johann Christian Bach
Authors: Corneilson Paul
Published: February 2021

Johann Christian Bach, the youngest son of Johann Sebastian Bach (b. 1685–d. 1750), was one of the originators of the Classical style, an important composer and concert organizer in London. Born in Leipzig on 5 September 1735, J. C. Bach began his musical training under his father and mother, Anna Magdalena (b. 1701– d. 1760), and continued his studies in Berlin with his half-brother, Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach (b. 1714–d. 1788), after his father died in July 1750. In 1755, J. C. Bach went to Italy, studied with Padre Martini in Bologna, converted to the Roman Catholic faith, and eventually was appointed organist at the Milan Cathedral, where he composed much Latin church music. After receiving commissions for an opera in Turin (Artaserse in 1760) and two operas for the Teatro San Carlo in Naples (Catone in Utica and Alessandro nell’Indie in 1761–1762), J. C. Bach was called to London, where he served as music director at the King’s Theater in 1762–1763 (writing two operas that season, Orione and Zanaida), and he became Music Master to Queen Charlotte. With Carl Friedrich Abel, Bach organized a series of concerts at various locations in London. He continued to write operas and one oratorio for London, plus two operas for Mannheim (Temistocle in 1772 and Lucio Silla in 1775) and one for Paris (Amadis de Gaule in 1779). His keyboard and instrumental music was widely published, and he was admired by the young Mozart, who met him during his visit to London in 1764. J. C. Bach was the most cosmopolitan composer of his family; he maintained a long correspondence with Martini, and his portrait was painted by Thomas Gainsborough for Martini’s extensive collection.