bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Radar for River Rhine Navigation
Authors: Koch H. M.
Published: January 2010

The Rhine which has a length of about 900 km. (approximately 560 statute miles) carries perhaps a greater volume of traffic than any other river in the world. This traffic mainly consists nowadays of high-powered motor vessels varying in size between 300 and 1500 tons, and large tugs towing six to eight non-motorized barges of 500–3000 tons.
The Effect of Gusts on Aircraft When Landing
Authors: Durst C. S.
Published: January 2010

For the satisfactory understanding of the mechanical effects which occur in an aircraft landing in a gusty wind it is necessary to know something of the time-scale of the wind fluctuations during the moments when the aircraft is touching down. Such information can only be given on a statistical basis but it so happens that there is a body of data on the subject which may not be generally appreciated.
Navigational Aspects of Turboprop Operation on the North Atlantic
Authors: Williams J. E. D.
Published: January 2010

If navigation were confined to the function of keeping a craft on a desired track, and estimating its progress periodically, then a long-range turboprop would present no features of navigational interest. Navigation, however, is supposed to encompass a wider field than this. In a famous sixteenth-century definition, ‘Navigation demonstrateth how, by the shortest good way, by the aptest direction, and in the shortest time, a sufficient ship between any two places may be conducted’. The economic realities of modern airliner operation give a new emphasis to those phrases ‘By the shortest good way, by the aptest direction, and in the shortest time’. A Britannia 310, for example, which will be the first, probably the cheapest, and possibly the smallest, long-range turbineengined airliner, costs about £1 million and is capable of producing a gross revenue of £1000 per hour. The sum of payload and fuel load is limited in most long-range cases by maximum take-off weight, and the fuel for one hour of flight is equivalent in weight to about 2 5 passengers and their baggage. It is not surprising in the circumstances that quite minor refinements of navigational technique are worth tens of thousands of pounds per aircraft per year, while major improvements can alter the status of an aircraft type as an instrument of transport. Such aircraft should be considered as acutely sensitive instruments to be operated precisely according to scientifically designed techniques.
True-motion Marine Radar
Authors: Foy H. L. A.
Published: January 2010

A study of many collisions at sea in which the misuse of radar may have been a contributory cause leads to the conclusion that much difficulty might be overcome if a less ambiguous method of displaying radar information were provided. To this end an entirely new type of radar presentation has been embodied in the latest equipment produced by Decca Radar Limited. Type TM 46 displays the radar picture so that the true movements of all vessels, including own ship, can be assessed by inspection of the display. This continuous presentation on the radar screen of the true course and speed of all targets is an entirely new feature in radar equipments. Unlike former systems, where own ship appears continuously at the centre of the display and the movement of other echoes is relative, ‘true-motion’ presentation shows own ship moving across the display at the correct course and speed, and the true movement of other echoes. Stationary objects such as buoys or anchored ships do not move on the PPI and can be readily identified.
III—Constant-level Ballooning
Authors: Durst C. S.
Published: January 2010

For a number of purposes it is convenient to have a platform floating at a constant level high up in the atmosphere. This can be contrived by the use of a special arrangement of balloons for heights up to about 100,000 ft. There are at least three ways in which this can be achieved. In the first an extensible balloon is filled with sufficient gas to give it buoyancy for a definite rate of ascent. As it ascends and the atmospheric density decreases, the gas and the balloon expand and if the ascent goes on long enough the balloon bursts. If when the balloon reaches a certain dimension (or alternatively when the exterior pressure falls to a certain figure), a valve opens and allows sufficient gas to escape to stop the ascent, the balloon will float in equilibrium. A second method is to use a non-extensible balloon only partially filled with gas and with an open mouth; as the balloon ascends, the gas expands to fill the whole balloon and overspills thereby reducing the rate of ascent until equilibrium is reached. A third method involves the use of a number of extensible balloons tied together. When they have risen in the air and the balloons have stretched, some will burst before others and thereby a rough equilibrium is attained and the remaining balloons will float at nearly a constant level. A variant of this is to detach some of the balloons from the assembly at a predetermined pressure level, so that the remainder are just able to support the instruments and equipment.
The Accuracy of Dead Reckoning in the Air
Authors: Maya E. D.
Published: January 2010

We have followed what has been written in this Journal about the accuracy of dead reckoning in the air and the determination and use of the most probable position. We wish to refer in particular to the article by J. B. Parker entitled ‘The navigational implications of Mr. Durst's paper’ (this Journal, 8, 113). We are not familiar with the routes of the North Atlantic or Central Africa; we have, however, eight years experience on the routes Lisbon–Luanda–Lourenço Marques, via Dakar, as well as those overflying the Sahara Desert via Oujda and via Agadir. The following considerations are in great part the result of that experience.
Mariner' Astrolabes
Authors: May W. E.
Published: January 2010

In Dr. Derek Price's most interesting article ‘Two Mariner's Astrolabes’ he suggests that the heyday of this instrument was from 1530 to 1630. Some additional light is thrown on the closing date of the period of use of the astrolabe by Seller's Practical Navigation, a book which ran into many editions, the earlier ones being now somewhat rare. Successive editions of a book are usually of little value in giving a terminal date for the era of an instrument, for descriptions of it are only too often left in, unweeded long after the instrument is obsolete. Here, however, we have a description of the astrolabe inserted in the first edition of 1669 while it is omitted from the second edition of 1672. This later edition shows signs of careful rewriting and the fact that the author has expunged mention of some instruments, while retaining descriptions of others which never had much vogue, would seem to indicate that he thought that those which he had deleted would no longer be of value to the seaman.
Navigation and Traffic Control over the North Atlantic
Authors: Fraser D. O.
Published: January 2010

At present the total number of military and civil flights across the North Atlantic is about 130 per day counting both directions. Once aircraft are outside the systems of airways used in the high traffic density areas over each continent there are no fixed traffic lanes and aircraft plan their flights independently, generally following composite tracks to take maximum advantage of the wind distribution. Pilots are familiar with the natural tendency for tracks to diverge even when aircraft are being navigated via the same route but when the navigator in each aircraft is following an independent flight plan the separation of tracks will be much greater. Thus on the 2000-mile North Atlantic route the traffic density in real terms—say the number of aircraft per 10,000 square miles—is extremely low, and it is open to question whether the chance of two aircraft colliding in mid-Atlantic is not so remote as to be treated as an impossibility for practical purposes. This may sound heretical but if, as the writer suspects, the chance is so low as to make no significant difference to the overall risk of aircraft accidents, then there are other aspects of aircraft operation where the attention now being given to Atlantic traffic control might yield quicker dividends in the improvement of air safety.
Since when have we known that the Earth is a Globe?
Authors: Taylor E. G. R.
Published: January 2010

There are still people who believe that only during the last four-hundred years have we known that the Earth is a globe. They were taught this at school when they were told the story of Christopher Columbus. Columbus, it was said, went to King John of Portugal with the proposal to reach the fabulously rich Cathay, situated in the Far East, by sailing across the Atlantic Ocean to the west. The king consulted a committee of mathematicians who rejected the idea with scorn. The Earth was round and flat like a trencher, they said, and not a globe as Columbus maintained. And some teachers added that not until the circumnavigation of Magellan's ship, Victoria, was there any proof of the shape of the Earth.
I—Liverpool Port Radar
Authors: Colbeck W. R.
Published: January 2010

The pattern of port operation in fog which was established in Liverpool in 1948 when the Port Radar Station (Fig. 1)was opened, has not materially altered, except in the volume of shipping now using the service provided.
II—The Nature of the Problem
Authors: Le Page L. S.
Published: January 2010

A straightforward shore-based radar has been shown to be a reliable and effective aid to pilots in bringing ships in from sea in fog through the port channel area into the berthing area, with or without the assistance of the ships' own radar. Once there, however, further movement now depends upon the visibility in relation to such factors as radar assistance, shipping density, the presence or absence of emergency anchorage, the nature of the berth, that is, floating stage, river wharf, or dock, and so on. Below a certain visibility, shipping hold-ups and increased risk of stranding for ships on the move may be expected, As an ultimate ideal, we may have in mind the integration of all available facilities and inventions so as to allow shipping to carry out all its normal activities in the worst of fogs, with no less speed and safety than is customary in clear weather. But this is rather idealistic, and I would like to introduce a criterion, suggested by Mr. Eric Parker, which he terms the ‘Critical Visibility’, and which is the visibility at which 50 per cent of ships will proceed no further than the berthing area. This statistical measure of the effect of fog is one which will give a real indication of the value of any improvements. It will of course be different in different ports, but if say it is half-a-mile with no shore radar assistance, the introduction of shore radar might reduce it to quarter-of-a-mile, and in a few years time it might be reduced by improved aids to say a hundred yards. Eventually it would be at such a value that annual delays to shipping would be of negligible importance.
All-weather Helicopter Operation
Authors: Hearne P. A.
Published: January 2010

The operation of helicopters in all weathers is an essential development if full advantage is to be taken of this class of vertical take-off aircraft. Helicopters must operate in weather minima at least as low as the current fixed-wing limits of 300 yards visibility and 300 ft. cloudbase, and should approach the limits approached by surface transport which continues to operate down to visibilities of the order of 10 to 20 yards. Present experience suggests that it should be possible to conduct regular operations down to 200 yards visibility and 200 ft. cloudbase provided the necessary aids are available. As experience is gained, these limits might be reduced to 150 yards and 150 ft. However, as the pilot needs time to change over to visual guidance before landing, it does not seem likely that these limits could be much reduced before the development and acceptance by civil operators of either completely automatic landing or some radical new landing aid.
III—The Need for Bold Alterations
Authors: Topley H.
Published: January 2010

When plotting a series of radar bearings to determine the other vessel's course and speed, any alteration of own course or speed during the plotting interval greatly complicates the construction of a relative plot. A continuous alteration would make it very difficult to construct a plot at all. As far as the other vessel is concerned, should she also have radar, your echo on her PPI will not follow a straight line and she will be able to draw no conclusions regarding your course and speed. There is therefore no doubt that, when using radar for anticollision purposes, alterations of course and speed should, as far as circumstances permit, be as few as possible and each should be bold. Let us consider what is ‘bold’, treating alterations of course and speed separately, and remembering that it is necessary for the other vessel, if she is using radar, to appreciate that you have altered course as early as possible after your action.
VI—Collision Avoidance Aids
Authors: Grant G. A. A.
Published: January 2010

It seems to me that the radar screen does not present collision avoiding information in the best form and that we should give some thought to the way in which we would like this information to be presented. Then we should ask the back-room boys to present it to us electronically. It must, of course, be remembered that a ship does not occupy a geometrical point and it will want to escape collision by more than the merest miss. Therefore we should build a margin of safety into the presentation.
The Place of Navigation in Modern Air Transport
Authors: Hunt V. A. M.
Published: January 2010

In his Presidential Address at the Annual General Meeting of the Institute, Captain Majendie spent some time on demonstrating the restrictions imposed on free navigation by air traffic control. Whilst there is much truth in his statement the matter does not end there and I believe that those who study his address in retrospect should remember that the marked inflexibility of economic operation in the vertical plane of the modern jet aircraft and, to a lesser extent, the turbo-propeller driven aircraft, imposes considerable restrictions on air traffic control! In fact, the designers of modern aircraft and engines seem to be doing their best to deprive air traffic of its unique asset—the third dimension.
The Problem of Aircraft Separation over the Atlantic
Authors: Durst C. S.
Published: January 2010

At the present time with the increase of air traffic across the Atlantic (and still more so in the future when jet aircraft will be numerous) it becomes very necessary to know what is the safe separation between aircraft, and whether some form of controlled paths may not economically be imposed between America and Europe.
Route Analysis and Flight Planning with Isotachs
Authors: Powell P. G.
Published: January 2010

Some meteorological offices now include isotachs (lines joining points of equal wind speed) on forecast upper-air charts for long-range flights. Heretofore, dispatchers and aircrews have been obliged to measure winds from upper-air charts displaying contours only. This meant use of a geostrophic wind template, and correction for cyclostrophic component and latitude. The new contour-isotach charts, in addition to displaying wind speeds more readily, present greater accuracy, since they are determined by forecasters, who may call upon better theoretical know-how, and later observational data. In order to take full advantage of this improvement, Trans-Canada Air Lines has developed two new templates; one for route analysis (determination of the best-time track) and the other for flight planning. These are designed with ease of production in mind as well as simplicity in use. They are produced photographically on heavy film, and have no moving parts.
The Presentation of Radar Information for Collision Avoidance
Authors: Milwright A. L. P.
Published: January 2010

If a navigator wishes to determine the closest passing distance of his ship to any other ship by means of radar, it can be done quite simply by plotting the ranges and bearings of the other vessel's echo. The line joining the plotted positions will indicate the relative course of the other vessel and by extending the relative-course line the closest passing distance can be measured. With the existing method of measuring bearing by means of a mechanical cursor with its attendant possible in-accuracies, it is necessary to plot a number of positions and draw the relative-course line as a mean through the plotted positions. The time taken to establish the nearest approach is therefore comparatively long. If an electronic bearing cursor is used the time to determine the nearest approach can be reduced since the accuracy of the measured bearings will be higher, and fewer measurements required. It may, however, be inconvenient to move from the radar screen to the plotting table and if plotting is done on the face of the PPI or a reflection plotter, the accuracy may be poor, particularly if the nearest approach is determined by extending a relative-course line formed by two plotted positions close together, using a blunt wax pencil.
Position Reporting for Advisory Air Routes
Authors: Cowan J. L.
Published: January 2010

Over the better developed land areas of the world, where radio and communication facilities enable aircraft positions to be known on the ground, the system of Airways flying has been introduced. In areas of high traffic density it is of the greatest value, as it allows the traffic control authorities to separate aircraft at moderate to close intervals. The system requires good and continuous radio track guidance and a regular reporting procedure at specific radio fixes. (Airways are normally looked upon as fully controlled areas and until some more reliable long-range aid which can present continuous fixing is developed, Oceanic Airways would be more properly referred to as Oceanic ADR's.)
The Mathematics of Collision Avoidance at Sea
Authors: Sadler D. H.
Published: January 2010

Of the many factors affecting the collision problem, the mathematics of relative motion is the one most susceptible to formal analysis. Moreover, this ‘collision geometry’ must form the basis of any investigation into the instrumental, operational and human factors involved. It is therefore surprising that no complete description of the (mathematically) simple relationships is readily available. The object of this paper is to present such a connected account of the mathematics of relative motion, in so far as it appears relevant to the collision problem and within the limitations of time and space available.
Radar Manœuvring and the Collision Regulations
Authors: Hugon P.
Published: January 2010

In view of the immensity of the sea, the relative smallness of ships and the range of speeds, the probability of a collision at sea between ships blindly following constant and random courses is very low. Even on high-density routes, the probability is low for intersecting courses if speeds and headings remain constant. The risk is higher for routes which are at angles of less than 20° from each other, and where a ship is overtaking another rather than following an opposite course. It is lower if the speeds are very different, and higher if they are similar.
Navigation and the Airlines
Authors: Pike E. W.
Published: January 2010

With the comparative absence of navigation aids in the earlier days of flying, up to about ten years ago, the navigator was constantly engaged in associating observations, calculations and chart work in what was essentially a high-class guessing game. The low speeds (just over 100 knots on flying boats and just under 200 knots on landplanes) provided enough time for this rather intriguing exercise to be carried out in a fairly relaxed atmosphere, conducive to an individualistic approach that could be justified by results. The navigator's performance was largely (at that stage of aviation) judged on the neatness of his plotting, the accuracy of E.T.A.'s and the absence of late course corrections before arriving at destination or a check point. If there is anything in the view that navigation is an art, this particular yardstick certainly induced considerable artifice in the navigator.
A Tenth Mariner's Astrolabe
Authors: Waters D. W.
Published: January 2010

In his paper ‘Two Mariner's Astrolabes’ (Journal, 9, 338) Dr. D. J. Price stated that hitherto only seven mariner's astrolabes had been found and the details published. He then described two more mariner's astrolabes, the Dundee astrolabe of 1555, discovered some months previously, and the Kronborg astrolabe of 1600, discovered in 1928.
The Display and Use of Navigational Intelligence
Authors: Majendie A. M. A.
Published: January 2010

When I presented my address to the Institute last year, I took as its theme ‘The Place of Navigation in Modern Air Transport’. Then I endeavoured to put before you some general thoughts and considerations, which I hoped might be stimulating to the further work of the Institute and its Members in the general field of air navigation.
The Mathematics of Collision Avoidance in the Air
Authors: Morrel J. S.
Published: January 2010

There are three aspects of collision avoidance in the air which require mathematical investigation:

(a) discovery and evaluation of the risk;

(b) the remedial manœuvre;

(c) the probabilities associated with (a) and (b).
The Limitations of Air Traffic Control in the Prevention of Collisions
Authors: Fraser D. O.
Published: January 2010

Apart from visual avoidance of other aircraft by pilots the only system of preventing air-to-air collisions at present is by means of air traffic control from the ground. With the increased speed of modern aircraft and increased traffic density on long-distance routes there is a tendency to demand further extension and development of air traffic control to solve the collision problem. The object of this paper is to examine the problems and limitations of air traffic control as a method of avoiding collisions between aircraft in cruising flight and how these are likely to be affected by future aircraft developments.
Visual and Electronic Methods of Avoiding Collision
Authors: Gaudillère Colonel P.
Published: January 2010

Vertical speeds of aircraft are always very slight compared with their horizontal speeds (except in the case of aerobatics) and it is first necessary to study the problem of air collisions in horizontal flight, a problem which, from the point of view of the geometry, is analogous to that of collisions at sea.
Collision and the Airlines
Authors: Karwath Karl E.
Published: January 2010

Statistics reveal that the vast majority of mid-air collisions in the past years have occurred during daytime under visual meteorological conditions in the vicinity of airports and at low altitudes. From the description of possible proximity warning or collision avoidance systems it follows that it is just this type of collision that causes technically the greatest difficulties for an operationally and economically feasible solution because of the multiple intruder problem, mutual interference, ground echoes, curved flight paths, and changes in aircraft attitude with resulting changes in aircraft speed. Under these conditions, the automatic pilot, the general introduction of which (for transport aircraft) has been recommended in the interest of collision avoidance, would be only of minor importance as it is common practice to switch off the automatic pilot whilst flying in the aerodrome traffic pattern.
American Thinking on the Collision Problem
Authors: White Frank C.
Published: January 2010

Even in good weather, visual collision avoidance by pilots is unsatisfactory for reasons which include the following:

(i) When on a collision course the other aircraft has no relative motion across the windscreen and is indistinguishable from other marks on the windscreen until danger is very close.

(ii) There is a tendency to focus the eyes on nearby objects on the windscreen instead of at infinity, especially in the absence of conspicuous cloud and at high altitude. This can cause ‘empty field myopia’ whereby a normal pilot becomes nearsighted, his eyes focusing on a location less than six feet away.

(iii) In modern jet fighter aircraft the pilot must give much of his visual attention to instruments in the cockpit, such as the altimeter, owing to the difficulty of maintaining longitudinal stability, especially when heavily loaded. In clear air above 35,000 ft, it is estimated the pilot flies half contact and half on instruments.
Physiological Factors in the Avoidance of Air Collision
Authors: Perdriel G. F. J.
Published: January 2010

For anti-collision purposes, the identification of an aircraft requires perception of its presence, detection of its track, and determination of its relative altitude. This evaluation will be recorded by the cerebral cortex and give rise to decisions regarding the action to be taken, which will vary from one individual to another. The avoidance manœuvre will be dictated by the situation and the rules of avoidance, and will involve a psychomotor coordination. Time is the essential factor in the chain of events, since the speed of the pilot's reactions will reduce the possibility of collision.
A Doppler Collision Course Indicator for Use at Sea
Authors: Whitfield H. R. , Cade C. M.
Published: January 2010

The usefulness of radar plotting, as at present practised, may be considerably enhanced by the application of a doppler radar technique which gives instantaneous measurement of relative velocity components and quickens the whole plotting process. The range and bearing of the target are given by an ordinary radar PPI, from which the rate of change of bearing may also be determined. The doppler radar gives an immediate measurement of the radial component of relative velocity and the derivative of radial velocity: from these data the course and speed of the target may readily be determined, using an automatic computer if so desired. Possible errors in deducing the true aspect and speed are discussed and the mode of operation, and principal design parameters of suitable doppler radar are given.
A Simple Graphical Solution for Satellite Orbits
Authors: George Frank
Published: January 2010

The first amazement at hearing of the successful launching of the Russian Earthsatellite in October may have been followed in the reader's mind by some bewilderment at its rapid and seemingly erratic progress over all the world's capitals, large cities and outlying island groups. One supposed that a mathematical prediction would be possible but hesitated to attempt anything so complex. Yet, with some simplifying assumptions which must in any case be rather closely approximated by any near satellite that can continue to rotate in orbit, the problem is not difficult and lends itself to graphical treatment. The construction here proposed will give a good insight into the behaviour of such satellites and provide reasonably accurate predictions for a day or two ahead.
Inertia Navigation Systems
Authors: Anderson E. W.
Published: January 2010

The object of this paper is to present various practical solutions to the problems of inertia navigation in a descriptive rather than a mathematical form. Inertia navigation is an automatic bump of locality, a dead-reckoning device which, starting from a known point, seeks to find position. Other dead-reckoning devices measure speed, which is only relative to the fluid sea or air. Inertia navigation measures accelerations, which are absolute, and hence builds up a measure of speed. The accelerometer is, therefore, a good starting point for our survey.
The Effective Use of Airspace
Authors: Dickie E. J.
Published: January 2010

Whenever the subject of air traffic control is discussed reference is made to what are described as ‘areas of high traffic density’. This is a misleading expression because the areas referred to are those in which the traffic density is high in relation to the capacity of the air traffic control system, not to the airspace itself. It is probably true to say that there are in fact only three areas where traffic density is high in relation to the volume of airspace. These are the arrival and departure paths at busy aerodromes and the area occupied by a number of aircraft flying in close formation. Elsewhere the traffic density is not such as to create congestion in the air. It is the traffic control system which becomes overloaded, not the airspace. In this paper an attempt is made to isolate some of the factors giving rise to this state of affairs and to discuss ways of achieving a better state of balance between airspace capacity on the one hand and control capacity on the other.
II—Simulators for Training Ground Radar Operators
Authors: Hunt V. A. M.
Published: January 2010

The Ministry of Transport and Civil Aviation makes extensive use of radar for the protection of aircraft en route and also in helping to bring them in on approach for a final visual landing. Since we really became interested in radar we have trained 470 PPI directors and 150 precision controllers; the latter use special equipment and cathode-ray tubes which accurately show the glidepath being followed.
A Frame of Reference at Sea
Authors: Fendig N. L.
Published: January 2010

Despite increasing use of radar, marine collisions have continued to occur in significant number. The principal reason advanced for this development has been the ‘human element’ and many new electronic innovations have been suggested or built to minimize this factor. This note is written not for the purpose of providing an absolute answer to the problem, but rather to suggest there may be another angle from which it may be approached.
Journey Across Antarctica
Authors: Lowe George
Published: January 2010

Two years ago I gave an account to a meeting in this series of the establishment of Shackleton Base and of Theron's voyage (Journal, 10, 161). The second part of the expedition began with the sailing of the Magga Dan for the Weddell Sea and Shackleton Base. The ship, of some 1800 tons and 2000 s.h.p., with variable-pitch propellers, was built especially to withstand ice pressures. Even so, the Weddell Sea proved too much for her at one point; but fortunately not for long, and she was soon moving down to Shackleton, calling at Halley Bay, to see the British I.G.Y. base, and Emperor Bay, where an estimated ten-thousand birds gather and nest each year.
The Para-Visual Director
Authors: Majendie A. M. A.
Published: January 2010

In the development of instrument systems for the purpose of flight control, traditional designs have consistently failed to solve three particular operational problems:

(a) The difficulty of transition from instrument to visual flight conditions at the final stages of an instrument approach to land in bad weather.

(b) The preservation of instrument control when the pilot±s attention is, for any reason, directed away from the appropriate instruments. Preoccupation with other duties, lack of concentration due to fatigue, keeping a look-out for other aircraft, &c, are examples of situations when the maintenance of accurate flight control may be lost.

(c) The effective monitoring of the accuracy and precision with which an automatic pilot is achieving its selected function. Admittedly this can be achieved by the pilot continuously watching his appropriate primary instruments, but this tends to be extremely monotonous, and to a considerable extent reduces the advantages to be derived from effective automatic control. This particular problem reaches its peak under high altitude, high-speed, conditions of cruise of a jet transport, and in the final stages of an automatic approach, automatic flare, or automatic landing, on any type of aircraft.
The Value of Research to Navigation
Authors: Deacon G. E. R.
Published: January 2010

The Council's report, our increasing membership, the eminence and wide range of activity of the new Fellows and the growing status and rising circulation of theJournalshow that the Institute is making very good progress. I felt, nevertheless, as former Presidents have, that I should attempt some kind of reckoning and try to make some useful suggestions. I soon found that I could not improve on what Sir Robert Watson Watt said when he addressed us in 1950 and 1951, what he said seems all the more appropriate now. When he spoke, this country had the world's largest shipping and shipbuilding industries and a lead in the design and manufacture of the most advanced types of civil aircraft. He was concerned that we should do all we could to maintain and increase such dearly bought greatness. We could no longer afford, he said, to concentrate almost exclusive attention on the big 10 to 20 per cent factors which govern overall efficiency in such industries, and must give a greater share than before to the small 1 to 5 per cent factors. These, he pointed out, were mainly advances in the arts and sciences on which navigation depends for its full usefulness, and on which navigators depend more or less consciously in making their decisions. They generally advance with the help of new methods and practices which, though at first too novel or too elaborate for ordinary use, become commonplace before long.
Automatic Landing: The Role of the Human Pilot
Authors: Majendie A. M. A.
Published: January 2010

Accepting the technical fact of automatic landing, an examination is made of the basic human problems in its application to commercial air transport. This examination starts with an analysis of the use of human operators and automatic machines applied to operational tasks. Consideration is given to both control and monitoring functions, and conclusions are drawn about the correct approach to man/machine system design.

The required standard of safety for commercial automatic landing is briefly reviewed, with particular reference to the official British attitude. It is shown that automatic landing can be a tool for improving safety in future. The role of the pilot is considered. It is concluded that there is no real conflict between man and machine: that the automatic system will not affect the crew complement, or the basic responsibilities of an airline pilot: and that the potential of automatic systems can only be realized by a proper understanding of their true implications.

The original paper, of which this is an abbreviated version, was presented at the Institute of Aerospace Sciences National Meeting held in Seattle, Washington, on 10 and 11 August 1962.

Automatic landing systems are already in full production in Britain for Bomber and Transport aircraft of the Royal Air Force, and many thousands of successful landings have been made in both jet and propeller driven aircraft in all sorts of weather conditions. Second generation equipment is now clearing the prototype stage and entering production for application to passenger carrying aircraft at a civil standard of safety. This equipment is destined initially for application to the De Havilland Trident for British European Airways, and to the Short Belfast heavy transport for the Royal Air Force.
Collision at Sea in Fog: The Commonsense Approach
Authors: Wylie F. J.
Published: January 2010

Recent correspondence in the Shipping Press brings to mind many of the sayings, writings and judgments of the last 10 years and stimulates thought once more in search of some basic weakness in the partnership between the seaman and his radar which, all too often, turns the risk of collision into the fact. Re-examination of the circumstances of some of the better annotated and sometimes more publicized cases is frustrating, partly because of the lack of personal detail in the evidence and partly because some of the conclusions which may be drawn point to failure of bridge personnel to understand the obvious fundamentals and so suggest that there must be undisclosed and more complicated causes. This latter, it is believed, is debatable.
Problems of Operating Large Ships in the Arctic
Authors: Maybourn R.
Published: January 2010

In this paper, which was presented at an Institute meeting, held in Britannic House in London on 1 December 1970, the Chief Marine Superintendent of the BP Tanker Company examines the problems of operating large merchant vessels in the Arctic and describes the experience gained from the two voyages of S.S. Manhattan through the North-West Passage. The chair was taken by the President, Rear Admiral G. S. Ritchie, C.B., D.S.C, Hydrographer of the Navy.
The Lighthouse Services
Authors: Dickens D. A. G.
Published: January 2010

Captain Dickens, an Elder Brother of Trinity House, here describes the history and function of the lighthouse authorities in catering for the needs of shipping around our coasts, and discusses the wide range of navigational aids now in use. The paper was presented at an Ordinary Meeting of the Institute held in London on 18 November 1970 with the President, Rear Admiral G. S. Ritchie, C.B., D.S.C., in the chair.

One of the first lights to be set up to aid mariners was the Pharos erected at the entrance to the port of Alexandria in 270 B.C. and said to have been visible at sea for 40 miles. With the development of maritime traffic, more and more lights have been established so that shipping can proceed in comparative safety around the various seaboards of the world. In the United Kingdom the early lights and beacons were either privately owned, attached to various monasteries or managed by the Trinity Houses, which were corporations of seafaring men.
How to Prevent Collisions
Authors: Oudet L.
Published: January 2010

The Collision Regulations were long considered as sacrosanct and the question posed by this paper never arose. How to prevent collisions? Simply by applying the Regulations established for that purpose. Nevertheless a revision of the Regulations has been decided upon, to be undertaken by an international conference to be convened in 1972, and meanwhile many public and private bodies have applied themselves to the preliminary studies. As the author is not familiar with all the work now being done in this way a general review will not be attempted, but some thoughts on the subject arise from Commandant Robichon's paper ‘Reflections sur une enqu^tersquo; in the January 1970 issue of the Journal de la Marine Marchande and from the proceedings of the Working Party set up in the spring of 1970 by the Institute of Navigation, of which the author was a member.
Collisions Between Very Large Ships
Authors: Clissold P. C. H.
Published: January 2010

We have not yet heard the full story of the Pacific Glory—Allegro collision and it may be jumping the gun to make any comment, but one thing seems to be clear about the handling of very large single-screw ships. Because of their unwieldiness an avoiding action must be initiated while still at a considerable distance from the threat, if it is to have any effect. This distance is beyond that at which the eye of a navigator can accurately assess the risk of collision or the need to manœuvre. He must, therefore, depend upon instrumental information for making his decisions; in other words, in clear weather as in thick, he must use his radar and plot continuously if he is not to hazard his ship. If the argument is put forward that this will require two men on watch together and that the state of manning does not permit this to be done, the answer is that a change in organization must be made to make it possible.
Watch Keeping at Sea
Authors: Thompson P. A.
Published: January 2010

The two following incidents might be of interest as an example of situations which arise today, and which well illustrate the standard of seamanship and watchkeeping which are encountered.
An Approach to the Problem of Estimating Safe Separation Standards for Air Traffic
Authors: Treweek K. H.
Published: January 2010

When studying the influence of navigational accuracy on collision risk, operating economy, or traffic organization it is necessary to distinguish between monitored and unmonitored traffic. With the monitored traffic the relative separation between aircraft is detected by the monitor and can be controlled by it. This is a closed-loop concept. With unmonitored traffic the separation is provided by procedural clearance of the flight plan. This is an open-loop concept.
Loran-Inertial Navigation Systems for Long-Range Use
Authors: De Groot Loren E.
Published: January 2010

Loran C, a long-range hyperbolic navigation system, is currently used in transoceanic aircraft only to provide periodic position up-dating of primary self-contained navigation systems. The successful development and flight testing of an automatic coordinate converter has recently shown that the potential of the Loran system of navigation is vastly greater than past utilization has indicated. This paper briefly discusses the advantages of combining an increased capability Loran sub-system and an unsophisticated inertial sub-system within the framework provided by a heavy logistics support aircraft.
Radar Design in Relation to Human Performance
Authors: Freiesleben H. C.
Published: January 2010

The surveillance of the air space by ground-based radar is important in air navigation and its military applications may be particularly mentioned since they have led to many important investigations, while aspects of the problem of less military significance have been neglected. Shore-based radar has also been applied to the surveillance of shipping in congested areas, captains and pilots being advised by VHF telephone though the captain retains full responsibility. This brings out a fundamental difference between the sea and the air. Air navigation and the ground control are integrated and the responsibility is shared. At sea the responsibility remains with the captain, and the use of radar increases this responsibility although ships are not yet obliged by law to be equipped with radar. Several court rulings have penalized the incorrect use of radar because of the greater responsibility that its availability entails and the recommendations of the Conference on Safety of Life at Sea (1960) concerning the Collision Regulations must also be remembered.
Ice and its Effect on Navigation in the Baltic Sea
Authors: Wennink C. J.
Published: January 2010

The safety of a vessel is the prime interest in ice conditions and routes must be selected which afford the least risk. However, this is only one aspect of the safe conduct of a voyage. The other is the expert handling of a vessel in ice-encumbered waters, or even when beset in ice. Both these aspects, the selection of the safest route and the expert handling of the vessel when ice is encountered, are discussed in this paper.
A Radar Computer for the Closest Point of Approach
Authors: Tarnowski P. G.
Published: January 2010

The paper describes an experimental analogue computer used with a civil marine radar set for determining the closest point of approach of selected ship's echoes and the time to closest approach. The equipment was installed on shore and measurements made of shipping passing to and from Portsmouth and Southampton harbours. The projected track of a ship echo was displayed on a 5-in. diameter cathode ray tube and the closest point of approach read as the distance of this track from the centre of the tube. The results show a high probability that under these conditions errors in C.P.A. will not exceed ±0·5 n.m. for targets between 10 and 6 n.m. range, and ±0·3 n.m. for targets nearer than 6 n.m.
Interpretation and Behaviour in using Radar at Sea
Authors: Davies D. A.
Published: January 2010

I should like to make some comment on Captain Wylie's article in the January issue of the Journal (18, 27). While not disputing his arithmetic I should like to state that in practice true motion is much more effective than he implies. For two years I used an Escort true motion set on the Southampton, Cherbourg, New York run and I can say most unequivocally that ships did not have to be proceeding at 18 knots to get satisfactory trails on the 12-mile range scale. In fact one could see useful trails when ships were proceeding reasonably slowly.
Marine Radars for Large Ships
Authors: Wylie F. J.
Published: January 2010

This paper is concerned with a limited part of the marine radar field, namely the equipments intended primarily for the larger ships. In these sets the greatest refinement and versatility is aimed at, to cover the wide variety of circumstances met with by the ocean fliers, the great tankers and the deep-sea tramps seeking port in any corner of the world. The paper is a factual record of radar characteristics as we enter the sixties and the fifteenth year of commercial radar; it seeks to make no invidious comparisons, but it is intended mainly to provide food for thought.

Marine radar has reached a very interesting stage in its progress. From 1947 to 1952 there was a gradual development in the United Kingdom towards a common, rather strict, specification. In the United States there was a similar trend towards a somewhat different standard. Between 1953 and 1959 the American tendency was to move towards the high definition favoured by Britain while British manufacturers began to offer the large diameter displays, 15 or 16 in., which were always popular in the States. Other trends on the whole have been similar, that is towards high definition, operational refinement, general reliability and better control of rain and sea clutter.
The Earliest Original English Seaman's Rutter and Pilot's Chart
Authors: Ruddock Alwyn
Published: January 2010

This article reports the discovery of two documents of considerable interest in the early history of navigation in England. When Henry VIII was planning to send ships of the royal fleet to Harderwijk in Guelderland in 1539, no pilot's book or chart of this part of the coast of northern Europe could be found in England. Therefore two experienced shipmasters, John Aborough of Devon and Richard Couche of Dover, were sent in haste to the Low Countries to make a survey of the coast and chart the route the king's ships would have to follow. Working with speed and secrecy, they compiled and brought back to the king a rutter giving sailing directions for Zeegat van Texel and the Zuider Zee and also a rough chart showing in detail the channels through the Haaks Banks, the entry to Marsdiep and the channel from thence to Enkhuizen. These two documents are the earliest original examples of such navigational directions drawn up by Englishmen which have so far been discovered. Both are reproduced in full and discussed in detail in this study.

Among the Marquess of Salisbury's family archives at Hatfield House is a document of great interest in the early history of navigation in England. It is a seaman's rutter giving directions for the navigation of Zeegat van Texel and the Zuider Zee which was compiled by two English shipmasters in 1539 on direct orders from King Henry VIII. A narrow roll of manuscript fashioned by roughly sewing four strips of parchment end to end, being not quite 6 in. wide and nearly 3½. long when fully opened out, this appears to be the earliest original English rutter which can be found today. It is true that the well-known set of fifteenth-century ‘Sailing Directions’ published by the Hakluyt Society in 1889 were compiled at an earlier date. But these have only survived in a copy transcribed by a professional scribe, William Ebesham, among a number of treatises on heraldry, chivalry and similar matters contained in a volume called the Great Book, part of the library of a country gentleman of East Anglia, Sir John Paston. The parchment roll at Hatfield would appear, therefore, to be the earliest example of an original English rutter which has yet been discovered.
The Cocked Hat
Authors: Parker J. B.
Published: January 2010

The cocked hat problem is a difficult one and though Captain Cotter in a recent article, has gone a long way towards clarifying it, I believe that the fundamentals of the subject are more difficult than this article suggests. A brief treatment of these, together with an indication of how they may be applied in practice, may be worth while.