bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
COLLOIDAL STABILITY OF ICE CREAM MIX*
Authors: SHERMAN P.
Published: February 2007

The contributions of oil globule size (dv), emulsifying agent, hydrocolloid stabilizer, and temperature, to the stability of ice cream mix have been investigated.

On ageing the mix at 20 °C, the oil globules coalesce in one or two stages, depending on the initial size. When this is less than approximately 0.95 n, coalescence proceeds rapidly until a critical size is reached. The number of oil globules per unit volume of mix (TV) and variations in holding temperature influence the rate of coalescence at this stage. Subsequent coalescence, which is unaffected by N, proceeds at a much slower rate. Mixes with initial globule sizes exceeding 0.95 μ show only this second stage.

It is suggested that the sharp reduction in coalescence rate for globules of diameter greater than 0.95 μ arises from the pronounced increase in the energy barrier to coalescence. Decreasing inter‐facial area with increasing diameter of the globules leads to a more rigid emulsifier layer at the oil‐water interface.

Milk protein is the main contributor to stability during slow coalescence. The emulsifier exerts only a synergistic effect.

Data are provided to show how the texture of frozen ice cream may be related to the initial size of the globules in the mix from which it is prepared.
A VERSATILE RECORDING COUETTE‐TYPE VISCOMETER
Authors: COREY HAROLD , CRESWICK NORMAN
Published: February 2007

Abstract A coaxial‐cylinder viscometer with novel drive, control, and recording features was developed. It is capable of measuring many of the rheological properties of fluid systems over a wide range of viscosities and shear rates. The instrument is load‐independent and thermostatically controlled, and has good frequency response. The viscometer can be driven according to a variety of input wave forms either unidirectionally or in an oscillatory mode about zero with the output fed into an X‐Y recorder. A continuous shear rate/shear stress flow curve can be obtained in less than 30 sec.
PARAMETERS OF TEXTURE CHANGE IN PROCESSED FISH: MYOSIN DENATURATION
Authors: CHU GEORGE HAO , STERLING CLARENCE
Published: February 2007

Abstract The white muscle of the Sacramento blackfish (Orthodon microlepidotus) was processed by freezing, dehydration, and cooking. Myosin was extracted immediately afterwards or following a period of storage in order to examine evidence for denaturation. The tests used were the solubility of whole muscle protein and the intrinsic viscosity, isoelectric point, ATPase activity, ultra‐violet absorption spectrum, and optical rotatory dispersion of purified myosin extract. Almost all measures used showed that denaturation increased in the order: fresh < frozen < frozen‐stored < dehydrated < dehydrated‐stored < cooked.
STUDY OF FOOD TEXTURES BY RECORDING OF CHEWING AND SWALLOWING MOVEMENTS
Authors: PIERSON A. , MAGNEN J. LE
Published: February 2007

Abstract Chewing and swallowing patterns were recorded in three subjects eating freely pieces of foods of various initial textures in an attempt to assess objectively these food textures as sensory stimuli in the mouth. In each phase of masticatory and swallowing movements corresponding to each piece of food, variations were noted differentiating the 16 textures tested. The number of masticatory movements, the time of mastication up to complete swallowing, the time course of the force of mastication and the number and distribution of swallowing movements were found to be the most discriminating parameters. In considering them, foods might be placed on a scale from hard and dry to soft and fluid textures. The results confirm the validity of recording chewing and swallowing movements as a new method for describing the true dimensions of oral sensory stimulations by food textures.
COLLECTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS FOR DESCRIPTION OF FOOD TEXTURE
Authors: YOSHIKAWA S. , NISHIMARU S. , TASHIRO T. , YOSHIDA M.
Published: February 2007

Using 40 texture‐describing words as rating scales, texture profiles were constructed for 79 foods employing the constant‐sum method. The following words were found to be important: soft, hard, juicy, chewy, not chewy, warm, cold, elastic, greasy, moist, and smooth.
A PHYSICO‐CHEMICAL STUDY OF THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF LOW AND INTERMEDIATE MOISTURE FOODS*
Authors: KAPSALIS J. G. , WALKER J. E. , WOLF M.
Published: February 2007

A number of textural properties of precooked, freeze‐dried beef were examined by a cutting‐extrusion test (force) and by a compression test (seven different properties). The tests were performed at different points of the moisture sorption isotherm over the complete range of water activity, Aw. In cutting‐extrusion experiments (Allo Kramer Shear Press), a maximum in the force vs. Aw curve was observed at about Aw= 0.85. In compression experiments (Instron Universal Testing Apparatus), important changes of the textural properties were found in the range Aw= 0.15–0.30. These changes were paralleled by changes in the thermodynamic functions of water vapor sorption, especially in the standard differential entropy. Thermodynamic theory and mechanical measurements were used to interpret the textural changes in terms of increased crystallinity and subsequent swelling of the food structure.
TASTE INTENSITY AS A FUNCTION OF STIMULUS CONCENTRATION AND SOLVENT VISCOSITY
Authors: MOSKOWITZ HOWARD R. , ARABIE PHIPPS
Published: February 2007

The method of magnitude estimation was used to determine how viscosities imparted by sodium carboxymethylcellulose affect the taste intensities of various concentrations of glucose, citric acid, sodium chloride and quinine sulfate. For almost all levels of concentration across the four substances, an increase in the viscosity of the aqueous solvent produced decreases in taste intensity. A power function with a negative slope was chosen to describe the relation between the apparent viscosity (V, in centipoises) and the taste intensity (T): T=kV−n, where n varied between 0.05 and 0.20. The relation between the concentration of the sapid chemical and the taste intensity, in most instances, also conformed to a power function, although some deviations occurred at low stimulus levels.
DENTAL FORCES AND MASTICATION*
Authors: LEDLEY ROBERT S.
Published: February 2007

An engineering approach is presented to the evaluation of forces of mastication. An analysis of the force direction on the teeth is given. Applications of the results are shown to artificial teeth in their placement in a complete denture and in the design of their occlusal surfaces.
DYNAMIC ELASTIC PROPERTIES AND SENSORY QUALITY OF APPLE FRUIT
Authors: FINNEY ESSEX E.
Published: February 2007

A nondestructive resonance technique for measuring the textural qualities of apple fruit was evaluated. The resonance frequency, f, and the mass, m, were measured on each intact fruit, and a factor, f2m, was computed. This resonance factor, f2m, directly reflected the elastic properties of the fruit flesh and correlated significantly with sensory judgements of apple firmness during harvest. The dynamic resonance test is not as reliable an index of sensory firmness as the pressure test, but it has the advantage of being nondestructive.
TEXTURE OF BAKED BEANS ‐ A COMPARISON OF SEVERAL METHODS OF MEASUREMENT
Authors: VOISEY PETER W. , LARMOND ELIZABETH
Published: February 2007

Objective techniques for measuring the textural characteristics of baked beans were compared with sensory analysis. The Kramer shear‐compression cell, a back extrusion cell, the F. M. C. Pea Tenderometer, a plate extrusion cell and a wire extrusion cell were tested. The objective results were highly correlated with each other and with sensory ratings for hardness and cohesiveness. It was concluded that the selection of an objective test could, therefore, be based on practical considerations and the equipment at hand.
THE EFFECT OF THE COLLOIDAL STATE OF THE EMULSION ON ICE CREAM STRUCTURE
Authors: MUSSELLWHITE P. R. , WALKER D. A.
Published: February 2007

Ice creams with different ‘stand‐up’ characteristics have been prepared using the same basic mix but without emulsifiers. This has been achieved by allowing the gelatin stabiliser to compete for the oil‐water interfaces in the emulsion yielding mixes of varying emulsion stability. The emulsion stability varies according to the ratio of gelatin to milk protein present at the homogenisation stage and shows a minimum which corresponds to ice creams with maximum stand‐up. The data provides an independent check of the theory of Kloser and Kenney in mixes not containing lipid emulsifiers.
FIRMNESS MEASUREMENT OF PROCESSED TABLE BEETS *
Authors: SHANNON S. , BOURNE M. C.
Published: February 2007

Abstract. A rapid back extrusion method for estimating textural quality of processed table beets was well correlated with taste panel evaluation of commercial (r= 0.91) and experimental samples (r= 0.98). An estimate of the mean of the fluctuations of the plateau of the force‐distance recording was found to provide a less variable value for firmness than the maximum force. The extrusion method was correlated with a puncture method (r= 0.91).
TEXTURE PROFILE OF IRRADIATED MANGOES AND PEACHES*
Authors: AHMED E. M. , DENNISON R. A.
Published: February 2007

The mechanical characteristics of the texture profile of Kent mango and Loring, Redskin and Suwannee peach fruits were determined. Irradiation at 150 or 300 krad as well as storage at 20°C decreased all of the measured parameters with the exception of mango cohesiveness which increased during storage. Hardness, gumminess and chewiness of irradiated Loring peaches reflected the sensory hardness ratings to a greater extent than did the puncture or shear forces.
MEASUREMENT OF PEA TENDERNESS
Authors: VOISEY PETER W. , NONNECKE I. L.
Published: February 2007

Abstract Twenty one tenderometers were compared in processing plants for their accuracy of measurement using wax wafers as the test material. The results indicate that there are serious differences among the tenderometers and that the accuracy of measurement is unsatisfactory for the purpose of grading peas to establish the price paid to the grower. If a relationship of compatible trust is to remain between the processor and the grower, serious consideration must be given either to better calibration of currently used tenderometers or to devising some other method of grading and paying for peas.
BOOK REVIEW
Authors: Haas Gerhard J.
Published: February 2007

Advances in Enzymology (edited by F. F. Nord)
TEXTURAL AND ELASTIC PROPERTIES OF IRISH POTATOES II.
Authors: SCHMIDT THOMAS R. , AHMED ESAM M.
Published: February 2007

Unprocessed steam‐peeled potatoes exhibited lower apparent moduli of deformability and elasticity than unpeeled or abrasion‐peeled potatoes. Both moduli decreased upon thermal processing and on storage of the processed product. The degree of elasticity and energy capacity decreased, while mechanical hysteresis increased, due to peeling prior to processing. The processed Sebago variety showed greater mechanical hysteresis than the Red LaSoda variety. The apparent elastic properties of processed potatoes exhibited varied trends due to the peeling method and storage as evidenced by the significant interaction of these two main variables.

The results obtained suggest that apparent elastic moduli are not reliable indices of the degree of firmness of the peeled and processed Irish potatoes. Texture measurements on these potatoes should involve destructive forces and deformations to give true indications of differences in firmness.
AN INSTRUMENT FOR MEASURING RHEOLOGICAL PROPERTIES BY BENDING. APPLICATION TO FOOD MATERIALS OF PLANT ORIGIN*
Authors: KAPSALIS JOHN G. , SEGARS R. A. , KRIZIK JAN G.
Published: February 2007

A new instrument, the MITEX MK II Bending Tester, is described as a means of measuring the following rheological properties of solid foods: bending moment, curvature, bending rigidity, modulus of elasticity, curvature set and bending moment loss. Equations applicable to bending and results of measurements on samples of celery, carrot, apple and potato are presented. Changes of the modulus of elasticity in relation to the time of exposure of sample strips to the ambient atmosphere, and graphical and mathematical treatment of the data for estimating a total ‘adjusted time’ (age) of a particular sample are discussed.
TEXTURAL PROPERTIES OF STORED AND IRRADIATED TIOGA STRAWBERRIES*
Authors: AHMED E. M. , DENNISON R. A. , FLUCK R. C.
Published: February 2007

Fresh as well as irradiated Tioga strawberries were softer, required smaller forces to puncture and to compress, and exhibited smaller degrees of elasticity and recoverability from applied stress than the stored berries. Thus, fresh or irradiated strawberries should be more susceptible to mechanical damage during handling, shipping and marketing than the stored fruits.
PSYCHOPHYSICAL MEASURES OF TEXTURE
Authors: MOSKOWITZ HOWARD R. , DRAKE BIRGER , ÅKESSON CAJ
Published: February 2007

Psychophysical measurement seeks functional relations between instrumentally measured quantities and subjective perceptions. The review concerns the sequence of operations needed to construct meaningful scales for dimensions of perceived texture. Initial investigations require delimitations of the range of texture description in order to select ‘fundamental’ perceptual dimensions. Once dimensions such as subjective hardness or viscosity are selected, the next step is to develop an appropriate scale of magnitude. Placing products into verbal categories or into an ordinal arrangement cannot provide the necessary scale. However, when a scale is set up so that differences or ratios of scale values are meaningful, then an equation can be chosen to describe perceptual strength as a function of physical intensity. By constructing valid scales of perceived texture, it is possible to expand the applications of sensory scaling to encompass the optimization of products and the quality control of food materials under development.
VIBRATION TECHNIQUES FOR TESTING FRUIT FIRMNESS*
Authors: FINNEY ESSEX E.
Published: February 2007

Vibration instruments and tests previously developed for engineering materials have been applied recently to measuring the vibration properties of agricultural commodities. The vibration properties of some of these commodities are significantly correlated with firmness and ripeness. This paper reviews the current methodology for measuring and characterizing the vibration response of fruits within the frequency region 20–10000 Hz. Sweep‐sine as well as random‐vibration test methods are discussed. Emphasis is placed upon test techniques and sources of variation in test results due to such factors as the vibrator capacity, detector mass, and the manner of coupling the fruit to the test transducers.
DEFORMATION TESTING OF FOODS: III. Effect of Size and Shape on the Magnitude of Deformation
Authors: BRINTON RALPH H. , BOURNE MALCOLM C.
Published: February 2007

Slabs of uniform agar gels were cut into standard shapes of various sizes and their deformation under a small compressive force was measured in an Instron Universal Testing machine. The deformation of rectangular solids and regular cylinders with vertical axes was found to be directly proportional to the specimen height and inversely proportional to the cross‐sectional area. The deformation of regular cylinders with horizontal axes was inversely proportional to the length and was a linear function of the diameter. Deformation of spheres first increased to a maximum, then decreased as the diameter increased giving an inverted V‐shaped curve. The diameter at which the maximum deformation of spheres occurred depended on the agar concentration in the gel and the magnitude of the deforming force.
SENSORY AND OBJECTIVE MEASUREMENTS OF PEACH FIRMNESS
Authors: FINNEY ESSEX E. , ABBOTT JUDITH A.
Published: February 2007

A non‐destructive random‐vibration technique was used to test whole intact peaches over the frequency region 250–10000 Hz. Changes in the vibration properties of peaches during maturation and ripening were related to changes in fruit firmness. Vibration measurements in the frequency region 2–5 kHz provided the best correlations with pressure test measurements and with sensory firmness ratings. Such correlations were in general greater than 0.80.
MEASUREMENT OF PEA TENDERNESS IV. Development and Evaluation of the Test Cell*
Authors: VOISEY PETER W. , NONNECKE I. L.
Published: February 2007

A wire extrusion cell was developed to measure pea tenderness. The area of the cell and the wire grid dimensions affected the readings. The maximum force was linearly related to the total length of the shearing wires and the open area of the grid. Cells could be made interchangeable in testing unsieved peas within 1% or better using economic manufacturing tolerances. Sample temperature, time after harvest and damage to the wires of the test cell had negligible effects on the readings. The effect of variation in compression speed was small and erratic. Sample weight, however, had a marked effect on the results.
DISPERSION STATE OF PROTEIN‐STABILIZED EMULSIONS Dependence of Globule Size and Size Distribution upon pH in Concentrated Oil‐in‐Water Systems
Authors: MITA TOMOYOSHI , YAMADA KENICHI , MATSUMOTO SACHIO , YONEZAWA DAIZO
Published: February 2007

Concentrated benzene‐in‐water emulsions were prepared with various proteins such as lysozyme, bovine serum albumin, ovalbumin, casein and gluten. The emulsions consisted of coarse globules whose size distribution could be approximated to the log‐normal distribution function, while the adsorbed film of protein molecules seemed to contribute to the stabilization of the globules. These properties were influenced by the pH of the aqueous phase. The mean globule size increased progressively up to the isoelectric point of the proteins. Both the interfacial tension and the rate of coalescence between the globules were minimized as the isoelectric point of the proteins was approached.
SENSORY ASSESSMENT OF STIFFNESS AND RHEOLOGICAL MEASUREMENTS ON DOUGHS OF IDENTICAL FARINOGRAPH CONSISTENCIES
Authors: BLOKSMA A. H. , MEPPELINK E. K.
Published: February 2007

Significant differences were found in the sensory assessment of stiffness of doughs made from various wheat varieties with such water additions that their Brabender farinograph consistencies would have been identical. Sensory ratings correlated significantly with extensigraph and creep measurements. The use of the farinograph for the determination of baking absorption is discussed. It is suggested that other rheological measurements should be considered as a possible replacement for the farinograph method.
MEASUREMENT OR PEA, TENDERNESS II: A Review of Methods*
Authors: VOISEY PETER W. , NONNECKE I. L.
Published: February 2007

Abstract. Different methods used to measure pea tenderness are reviewed. Objective estimation of crop maturity, pea tenderness and quality has concerned researchers for many years. Chemical and mechanical methods have been used, and several instruments developed. There is a high degree of correlation between methods which also appear to agree with sensory analysis.

For grading peas to establish the price paid to the grower, accuracy and economy under commercial conditions is of prime importance. Some methods are unsuitable on this basis, and presently used instruments and the manner in which they are operated require improvement.
EFFECT OF HYDROCOLLOIDS ON ORAL VISCOSITY AND BASIC TASTE INTENSITIES *
Authors: PANGBORN ROSE MARIE , TRABUE IDA M. , SZCZESNIAK ALINA S.
Published: February 2007

Abstract. This study determined the effects of low concentrations of five food hydrocolloids on the taste intensities of aqueous solutions of sucrose, citric acid, sodium chloride, saccharin, and caffeine. The effects of the taste compounds on both oral and Brookfield viscosities were also measured. In general, sourness of citric acid and bitterness of caffeine were suppressed, while sweetness of saccharin was enhanced. Among the basic tastes, sourness was affected the most and saltiness the least. Except for sucrose, modification of taste intensity was independent of viscosity, and appeared to be related to the physicochemical properties of the hydrocolloid and the taste compound. About 16 cps were needed to reduce significantly the sweetness of sucrose. The taste compounds altered oral and physical viscosities differentially depending on the specific gum/taste combination. Generally, viscosity was reduced by the addition of all taste compounds except sucrose which increased the physical viscosity.
PECTIN ULTRASTRUCTURE I: Pectate Elementary Fibrils
Authors: LEEPER GEORGE F.
Published: February 2007

Abstract. Direct evidence for a supramolecular pectate structure is presented. Both positive and negative staining indicates that these tertiary structures exist as elementary fibrils. In their hydrated form, these elementary fibrils are 30.8 ± 6.2 Å wide and could contain 13 pectate molecules in their cross sectional area. The smaller width observed in the dehydrated form is probably due to the decrease in intermolecular distance on dehydration. These elementary fibrils, as a tertiary structure organizing pectate molecules, are a possible method for stabilization of component molecules of a gel network. They can serve as a basis for explanation of differences in molecular weight determined by end group analysis as compared to other methods.
APPARATUS FOR MEASURING TIME TO BREAKDOWN OF HEATED FLESHY PLANT TISSUES *
Authors: POWERS MYRON J. , BOARD P. W.
Published: February 2007

Abstract. Equipment is described for measuring the resistance of fleshy plant tissue to textura breakdown during heating. A cylindrical sample of tissue is heated at a selected temperature up to 100°C while under a known compression load. The time required for the sample to break down by a predetermined amount is automatically recorded. The equipment has been used to measure the time to breakdown (TTB) of almost 2000 samples from apples and potatoes. The TTB is useful for assessing the suitability of fruits or vegetables for cooking or processing methods involving heating.
ADVANCES IN SAUSAGE MEAT RHEOLOGY
Authors: GORBATOV A. V. , GORBATOV V. M.
Published: February 2007

Abstract. The paper reviews the work conducted by the authors on engineering and technological aspects of meat sausage production. Equations were derived for adhesion, friction and flow of sausage meat. They provide a basis for selecting optimal operating conditions and for designing efficient equipment resulting in high product quality. This was made possible by considering meat from the standpoint of physico‐chemical mechanics and by applying rheological principles.
STRESS‐STRAIN RELATIONSHIPS OF CHEMICALLY IMPROVED UNFERMENTED DOUGHS: I: The Evaluation of Data Obtained at Large Deformations in Simple Tensile Mode
Authors: RASPER V. , RASPER J. , DE MAN J.
Published: February 2007

Abstract. The rheological behaviour of doughs prepared from flours treated with potassium bromate, azodicarbonamide and ascorbic acid was studied at large deformations in simple tension. The results were interpreted in terms of isochronal constant strain rate modulus F(t*), and exponent n characterizing the time dependence of modulus F(t). The exponent n can be calculated from the equation: F(t) =F(t*)·(t/t*)n; n= ‐1 indicates a purely viscous response, n= 0 a purely elastic one. The strengthening effect of the improvers at different moisture absorptions and temperatures was demonstrated by the drifting of the exponent n closer to 0, which indicated that the behaviour of the dough was becoming more similar to that of an elastic body. The stress‐strain relation measurements as well as the evaluation of the ultimate properties of the doughs in terms of ‘failure envelopes’ reflected the combined effect of the temperature on both the reaction rate of the improver and the consistency of the dough.
EFFECT OF HYDROCOLLOIDS AND VISCOSITY ON FLAVOR AND ODOR INTENSITIES OF AROMATIC FLAVOR COMPOUNDS*
Authors: PANGBORN ROSE MARIE , SZCZESNIAK ALINA S.
Published: February 2007

Abstract. This study was undertaken to determine the flavor‐ and odor‐modifying effects of low concentrations of five selected food hydrocolloids (hydroxypropylcellulose, sodium alginate, xanthan, and sodium carboxymethylcellulose of low and medium viscosity types) on typical flavor compounds. The flavorants, representing polar/non‐polar and low/high boiling compounds, were: acetaldehyde, acetophenone, butyric acid and dimethyl sulfide. Their effects on both oral and Brookfield viscosities were also measured.

Only one flavorant had a significant and consistent effect on viscosity of the hydrocolloids; butyric acid reduced both physical and oral viscosity, primarily of CMC‐M, sodium alginate and xanthan gums. This was similar to the previously reported effect of citric acid (J. Texture Studies4, 224, 1973).

In general, addition of hydrocolloids decreased both the odor and the flavor intensities, with dimethyl sulfide being affected the most and acetophenone the least. The flavor of butyric acid was affected by more hydrocolloids than was its odor. Acetaldehyde represented an interesting case in that the general effect of the hydrocolloids was to reduce its odor but to increase its flavor. Overall, the effects were independent of viscosity and specific for the gum/odorant combination. A relationship may be postulated between the physico‐chemical nature of the odorant and the frequency/intensity of the observed effects.
AN ATTEMPT AT ESTIMATING THE SIZE DISTRIBUTION OF OIL GLOBULES IN EMULSION TYPE COMMERCIAL FOODS BY MEANS OF A MODIFIED CENTRIFUGAL PHOTOSEDIMENTOMETER
Authors: MATSUMOTO SACHIO , FUKUSHIMA SHOHJI
Published: February 2007

The size distribution of oil globules in emulsion type foods (mayonnaise, cow's milk, and ice cream) was estimated with the homogeneous (simple dilution) technique in the modified disk‐centrifugal photosedimentometer, for which data were available for calculating the cumulative size distribution. It was confirmed that, in many of the tested samples, a large number of oil globules are in the sub‐micron range. These very small globules have an important effect on the rheological properties of emulsion type foods.
CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL ATTRIBUTES OF MUSKMELON RELATED TO TEXTURE
Authors: DINUS LINDA A. , MACKEY ANDREA C.
Published: February 2007

Effects were investigated of certain physical and chemical characteristics on muskmelon texture as described by sensory evaluation. Turgor pressure, moisture content and concentrations of total sugars, alcohol insoluble solids, three pectin fractions, starch and cellulose were determined in 50 melons purchased randomly from a retail market. Sensory assessments included crispness, fibrous‐ness, and resistance to cutting, biting and crushing. Results indicated that the texture of muskmelon is determined largely by the type and amount of cell wall constituents. Maturity, inferred from starch and protopectin content, also affected sensory panel scores. Moisture, alcohol insoluble solids, total sugars and pectic substances, except protopectin, were not reliable texture indicators. Although turgor pressure was not related significantly to any textural characteristics, a trend was observed suggesting that this variable warrants further investigations.
MEASUREMENT OF PEA TENDERNESS
Authors: VOISEY PETER W.
Published: February 2007

The effect of pendulum inertia on Pea Tenderometer readings was examined by recording the pendulum angle and the torque that it applies to the peas during a test. The effect was significant at the critical point in the test cycle where the torque is at a maximum. It was concluded that this affects the standardization of the Tenderometer.
A MODIFIED RIGIDITY MODULUS TECHNIQUE FOR STUDYING THE RHEOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF W/O EMULSIONS CONTAINING MICROCRYSTALLINE WAX
Authors: KOMATSU H. , SHERMAN P.
Published: February 2007

The creep compliance‐time responses at constant pressure of W/O emulsions containing microcrystalline wax were determined by subjecting them to air pressure in a glass U‐tube and measuring the resultant volume deformations. The constant stress at the tube wall was 2.52 times 102 dyn cm‐2. Sample slippage along the tube was avoided by blowing protuberances in the wall. Owing to the dynamic nature of the emulsions data reproducibility on a single sample could not be ascertained; with 4.0% gelatine gels reproducibility of the data was very satisfactory.
A COMPREHENSIVE FORMULA FOR THE ACCEPTANCE OF FOOD TEXTURE, AND ITS GENERALIZATION TO OVERALL FOOD ACCEPTANCE
Authors: DRAKE BIRGER
Published: February 2007

A survey is made of factors contributing to food texture (atoms, molecules, structure, mechanics) together with factors leading to food texture acceptance (stimulus‐response, preferences), and a formula is developed for the relations among all these factors. An extension to general acceptance, involving all sensory quality factors, is also made.
EFFECTS OF CONCENTRATION ON THE VISCOSITY PROFILE OF CASSAVA STARCH PASTES DURING THE COOKING‐COOLING PROCESS
Authors: ODIGBOH E. U. , MOHSENIN N. N.
Published: February 2007

Raw cassava starch, dried at 50 d̀C, was cooked at four concentrations in the Stormer visco‐meter modified in such a manner that the viscosity measurements were made under conditions satisfying the requirements of theoretical viscometry. The measurements provided rheological data usable in engineering design problems involving mixing, heat transfer or transport of the pastes. Viscosity and yield stress of the pastes were measured at 5d̀C intervals through the cooking‐cooling process. Plots of viscosity values versus cooking‐cooling temperatures and time yielded viscosity profiles for different paste concentrations. The results showed that paste concentrations have pronounced effects on the magnitude of viscosity values, the rate of viscosity rise to the peak value, the time and temperature of this peak, the paste shear‐thinning tendency and the extent of retrogradation on cooling.
TRAINING A SENSORY TEXTURE PROFILE PANEL AND DEVELOPMENT OF STANDARD RATING SCALES IN COLOMBIA
Authors: BOURNE MALCOLM C. , SANDOVAL ANA MERCEDES R. , VILLALOBOSC MARGY , BUCKLE TERESA S.
Published: February 2007

Two texture profile panels and two panel leaders were trained in the General Foods Sensory Texture Profiling Technique in Colombia using Colombian foods as reference points on the standard rating scales. The texture profiling technique adapted to Colombian conditions very successfully. The trained texture profile panel is now playing an essential part in the development of protein‐fortified staple foods of acceptable textural quality for Colombia.
APPLICATION OF TEXTURE PROFILE ANALYSIS TO INSTRUMENTAL FOOD TEXTURE EVALUATION*
Authors: BREENE WILLIAM M.
Published: February 2007

Although the Texturometer was used in establishing the GF objective Texture Profile Analysis (TPA) of foods, it has been largely supplanted by the Instron. The Instron GF TPA parameters have been determined for the most part by the original Texturometer procedures. Some workers have chosen to measure only one or several of the GF TPA parameters; others have added new ones. Changes proposed to make parameter names more descriptive have not been universally adopted. Testing conditions (crosshead and chart speed, % deformation, etc.) have varied considerably and have often been poorly described. Multiple point non‐GF TPA has been performed on foods using homemade as well as commercial instruments, e.g., Instron, Ottawa Texture Measuring System. Major shortcomings of studies involving TPA include poor experimental design, absence or improper use of statistical analysis and incomplete description of experimental materials and testing conditions. Despite certain shortcomings, TPA (GF or non‐GF) via interpretation of stress‐strain curves is, and will continue to be, extremely useful in evaluating the textural quality of foods, particularly when parameters can be correlated with sensory assessments.
TEXTURAL CHARACTERIZATION OF TEMPERATURE SENSITIVE FOODS
Authors: SZCZESNIAK ALINA SURMACKA
Published: February 2007

The instrumental texture profile method is extended to include the temperature variant. Using dessert gel systems and whipped toppings as examples of thermally sensitive foods, advantages are demonstrated of performing instrumental measurements at a series of ascending temperatures covering the range that would be encountered during sensory evaluation. Plotting instrumental values against temperature yields curves which, for different samples within a product system, cross each other at different points and exhibit different rates of change. Advantages are also demonstrated of using several complementary instruments to obtain a more complete characterization. The Texturometer, the Gel Characterization Apparatus and the Brookfield Viscometer were used with the gel systems. In addition, the Texture Test System fitted with an orifice attachment and the Cenco Calorimeter were used with whipped toppings. Correlations with sensory evaluations using the texture profiling system are reported.
TEXTURE EVALUATION OF FRANKFURTERS BY DYNAMIC TESTING*
Authors: WEBB N. B. , RAO V. N. M. , CIVILLE G. V. , HAMANN D. D.
Published: February 2007

Abstract. A direct sinusoidal force was applied at six frequencies to four brands of commercial frankfurter samples and the magnitude of deformation was sensed to determine the complex dynamic modulus and energy loss.

Instrumental values were individually correlated with 23 characteristics identified by a trained texture profile panel as the texture profile for frankfurters. The results indicated that the dynamic testing method, especially the percent energy loss, provided a highly significant means of determining differences for eight of the frankfurter texture characteristics. Initial hardness, cohesiveness, elasticity, hardness of the cross‐section, ease of swallowing, moisture release, coarseness and skin texture identified by the profile panel had highly significant coefficients of correlation with the energy loss, ranging from—0.612 to—0.984 at 80 Hz frequency. The results indicated that the percent energy loss, as determined by the dynamic modulus technique, described a substantial amount of the total texture profile, probably as complete as any single instrumental method reported to‐date.
UTILIZATION OF MATERIALS SCIENCE TO ACHIEVE A BETTER UNDERSTANDING OF THE MECHANICS OF FOOD TEXTURE EVALUATION
Authors: Sherman P.
Published: February 2007

Abstract. Many analogies exist between the behaviour of foods when evaluating their textural characteristics and of other (non‐food) materials during instrumental evaluation. Utilizing theory developed for the latter situation, it can be inferred that at least two factors operate simultaneously during sensory and instrumental evaluation of certain textural characteristics. The consumer's evaluation of each of these characteristics is based on the overall effect arising from two or more operative factors. Drawing analogies in this way could lead to better understanding of the mechanics of texture evaluation and also to improved definition of textural terminology.
A NEW APPROACH TO CAPILLARY EXTRUSION RHEOMETRY
Authors: BLAKE J. A. , MORAN J. J.
Published: February 2007

Abstract. A capillary extrusion rheometer has been developed which circumvents many of the problems of traditional hypodermic principle rheometers. The capillary is enclosed in a hollow plunger driven at a series of fixed rates into a barrel containing the test sample. Drawbacks observed with traditional viscometers have been obviated, for example, entrapment of air between the sample and the plunger leading to gas compression effects, gross motion of the fluid in the barrel leading to fluid structure breakdown and difficulties in determining plunger/barrel friction contributions. With strict temperature control, it has been shown that absolute values for fluid flow properties could be determined on small samples quickly and easily with an accuracy of ±0.5%.
AN IMPROVED SHEAR STRESS CALIBRATION METHOD FOR THE HAAKE ROTOVISKO
Authors: HAŨBGEN P. , TUNG M. A. , RUNIKIS J. O.
Published: February 2007

Two shear stress calibration methods for the Haake Rotovisko Model RV1 were tested for non‐Newtonian shear‐thinning fluids. Determination of a shear stress calibration constant for each shear rate provided a significant improvement over the manufacturer's calibration method when both methods were compared with corresponding data generated with the Weissenberg Rheogoniometer.
CALIBRATION OF THE PEA TENDEROMETER AND A COMPARISON OF TENDEROMETER READINGS FROM THREE COUNTRIES
Authors: RAWSTHORNE JAMES
Published: February 2007

The validity of the Texture Test System (TTS) as a reference calibration instrument for the Pea Tenderometers has been evaluated. The factors influencing the results are discussed. A linear correlation between TTS values and tenderometer units has been obtained with a correlation coefficient of at least 0.98. Calibration of the Pea Tenderometers by means of the TTS is now the standard procedure in Sweden. A comparison has been made between Swedish, English and American tenderometer readings. The results show that Swedish and English tenderometer readings are quite similar, whereas the U.S. values differ by up to 9 TU depending on the sample tenderness.
A METHOD FOR MEASURING THE TEXTURE OF MEAT AND THE EFFECT OF NITRITE AND SALT ADDITION ON THE TEXTURE OF CURED MEATS1
Authors: RANDALL C. J. , VOISEY PETER W.
Published: February 2007

An instrumental technique was developed for measuring the texture of canned chopped ham using the 15 cm
2
wire extrusion cell of the Ottawa Texture Measuring System. Its measurement efficacy was evaluated by testing enzymatically tenderized ham. This showed that the technique was sensitive to textural changes and that the level of the added enzyme affected the ham's texture exponentially. Nitrite addition to the canned chopped ham product at levels of 0‐1000 ppm did not affect its texture. The level of salt used in the curing solution, however, had a marked tenderizing effect. Similarly, compression tests on wieners indicated that nitrite addition did not influence their texture.

It was concluded that the characteristic texture of the two products tested cannot be attributed to nitrite addition and that other factors such as the level of salt addition to the canned chopped ham must be responsible.
EFFECT OF GAMMA RADIATION ON RHEOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF PHARMACEUTICAL SEMISOLIDS
Authors: DAVIS S. S. , KHANDERAI M. S. , ADAMS I. , COLLEY I. R. , CAMMACK J. , SANFORD P.
Published: February 2007

Nonaqueous oleaginous gel systems were little affected by radiation, whereas aqueous gels were completely destroyed. In contrast, sterilization by heat had a profound effect on the nonaqueous gels and little effect on the aqueous gels.
PSEUDOPLASTIC AND RHEOPECTIC PROPERTIES OF A GLOBULAR PROTEIN (β‐LACTOGLOBULIN) SOLUTION1
Authors: PRADIPASENA PASAWADEE , RHA CHOKYUN
Published: February 2007

The apparent viscosity of β‐lactoglobulin solutions was studied as a function of shear rate using a cone and plate uiscometer (Ferranti‐Shirley Viscometer System). Aqueous buffered solutions (pH 7, ionic strength 0.04) containing up to 40% protein were subjected to a rate of shear between 800 and 17,000 sec‐1.At protein concentrations of 5% and lower, the viscosity was independent of the shear rate or the time of shearing. At protein concentrations of 10% or higher, the viscosity decreased asymptotically with an increasing shear rate.

At a constant shear rate, the viscosity of 10‐30%β‐lactoglobulin solutions increased with shearing time. However, this rheopectic property was not consistently observed but, rather, was dependent on the rate of shear at concentrations lower than 20%. A rheopectic hysteresis effect was observed for 10‐30% protein solutions whereas thixotropy was observed for 40% solutions. The rheopectic nature appeared to be the result of the permanent denaturation of protein characterized by UV absorption and gel filtration.
RHEOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SUNFLOWER PROTEIN DISPERSIONS
Authors: LEFEBVRE J. , SHERMAN P.
Published: February 2007

Rheological properties of 10.0% and 20.0% (wt/wt) aqueous dispersions of sunflower proteins have been examined at pH 10.0 by shear stress‐shear rate and stress relaxation‐time studies, respectively. The 10.0% isolates exhibited non‐Newtonian power law flow behaviour, with the power exponent decreasing during sample ageing to a mini‐muni at about 180 min and then increasing. The 20.0% isolates exhibited uiscoelasticity with the stress relaxation modulus increasing with ageing times up to about 290 min and then decreasing. Both series of observations can be explained in terms of aggregation, hydration and chain entanglement of protein molecules, with protein hydrolysis becoming a major factor after longer ageing times.
EFFECT OF SHEAR ON THE NEMATIC MESOPHASE OF THE WHEAT STORAGE PROTEIN A‐GLIADIN
Authors: BERNARDIN JOHN E.
Published: February 2007

The nematic mesophase of A‐gliadin exhibits rheopectic properties under oscillatory shear but not under unidirectional shear. The solutions change from a viscous sol to a stable gel after 28 cycles of oscillatory shear at 0.17 Hz, 22°C. The interaction energy between A‐gliadin fibrils is estimated as 10.2 Kcal mole below 35°C and 6.25 Kcal/mole above 35°C with the change in interaction energy coinciding with a known change in the tertiary structure of the molecule. It is suggested that the different response of the solutions to oscillatory shear versus unidirectional shear results from the asymmetric tactoids present in the solutions and that any system which forms nematic tactoidal solutions would exhibit similar properties.
EVALUATION OF THE FIRMNESS OF LEICESTER CHEESE BY COMPRESSION TESTS WITH THE INSTRON UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE1
Authors: CARTER E. J. VERNON , SHERMAN P.
Published: February 2007

The force‐compression behaviour of Leicester cheese was studied at several crosshead speeds with a table model Instron Universal Testing Machine under normal test conditions, and with a sheet of emery paper or a thin layer of mineral oil between the sample's surfaces and the compressing plates. Simultaneously, cine films were taken of the compression tests. In the first two test situations the deformations were primarily barrel shaped, particularly at temperatures approaching body temperature, whereas in the third test situation the deformation was concave shaped. Cracks appeared in all samples at 20–30% compression. The surface stress‐compression curves did not show a sharp rise in stress after crack initiation, whereas the force‐compression curves showed a sharp increase in force. The relevance of these observations to the sensory evaluation of firmness is discussed.
CONSUMER AWARENESS OF TEXTURE IN MEDICINES
Authors: FALAMARZIAN M. , PICKETT J. M.
Published: February 2007

The word‐association technique was used to evaluate public awareness of texture in medicines. The results indicated that texture is an important attribute of medicines. The degree of association with texture varied with the type of medicine. Externally used semi‐solid dosage forms, such as creams, pastes and ointments, and also viscous materials, such as medicinal syrups, elicited more texture responses than the other types of medicines. The largest percentage of responses belonged to a ‘visual aspects’ category, while texture responses were the second largest group.
ON VISCOGRAMS AND VISCOGRAPHY, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO RICE FLOUR
Authors: BHATTACHARYA K. R. , SOWBHAGYA C. M.
Published: February 2007

Brabender viscograms are usually determined at an arbitrarily fixed starch (or flour) slurry concentration and the resulting peak viscosity (P), breakdown (BD) and setback (SB) values are used as criteria for starch characterization. However, the use of this technique in rice quality research has not been fruitful. A critical review of some of the literature on viscography uncovered a number of fallacies in the above technique. It was revealed that even in a given sample, the magnitude of BD and SB varied drastically with the peak viscosity obtained, which in turn varied exponentially with the slurry concentration. In several samples of rice flour studied, it was found that not only the magnitudes of BD and SB but even the algebraic sign of SB depended on the slurry concentration chosen. Clearly, viscogram parameters of different samples can be properly compared not at a fixed slurry concentration but only at a fixed peak viscosity. Values of a few ratios at a fixed P value, particularly that of relative breakdown (BDr= BD/(BD + SB)), could effectively differentiate between starch and rice types.
STRUCTURAL AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF TEXTURED PROTEINS
Authors: STANLEY D. W. , DeMAN J. M.
Published: February 2007

Mechanical properties of foods are a direct consequence of micro‐structure which, in turn, results from an interaction of chemical composition and physical forces. In thermally‐extruded soy grits voids, caused by the escape of superheated steam as the textured vegetable protein product strikes the atmosphere, are thought to be responsible for the spongy, porous nature of the material. A breakdown of soy protein subunits followed by their reassembly into larger molecular weight aggregates, possibly via intermolecular amide bonds, may account for the formation of protein fibers that become aligned as they leave the extruder barrel. This structure persists after rehydration and imparts a desirable meat‐like texture to the product. By correlating mechanical properties to sensory analysis, an objective method has been developed for assessing the texture of extruded textured vegetable protein. This method has also proved useful in response surface investigations of the influence on texture of processing variables, including machine parameters and composition of the starting material. Other processes useful for producing textured vegetable proteins include freeze‐texturization and film formation and the formation of co‐extrudates.
TEXTURE OF TABLE OLIVES AND PIMENTOS
Authors: DÍEZ MATIAS J. FERNÁNDEZ
Published: February 2007

Mechanical and chemical methods applied to quantifying the texture of table olives and pimientos are reviewed, and examples are given of studies on factors affecting the texture of these products (such as fruit maturity and processing) in which these methods have been used. The four instruments found applicable to olives are: Christel Texturometer, FFL Penetrometer, IG Texturometer and Kramer Shear Press (compression and shear/compression cells). The latter has also been used with pimientos. Advantages and disadvantages of each are discussed. Additional work is needed on correlating the mechanical tests with sensory evaluation. The chemical methods involve quantification of pectic substances and their degradation products.