bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Particle shape accounts for instrumental discrepancy in ice core dust size distributions
Authors: Simonsen Marius Folden , Cremonesi Llorenç , Baccolo Giovanni , Bosch Samuel , Delmonte Barbara , Erhardt Tobias , Kjær Helle Astrid , Potenza Marco , Svensson Anders , Vallelonga Paul
Published: May 2018

Abstract. The Klotz Abakus laser sensor and the Coulter counter are both used for measuring the size distribution of insoluble mineral dust particles in ice cores. While the Coulter counter measures particle volume accurately, the equivalent Abakus instrument measurement deviates substantially from the Coulter counter. We show that the difference between the Abakus and the Coulter counter measurements is mainly caused by the irregular shape of dust particles in ice core samples. The irregular shape means that a new calibration routine based on standard spheres is necessary for obtaining fully comparable data. This new calibration routine gives an increased accuracy to Abakus measurements, which may improve future ice core record intercomparisons. We derived an analytical model for extracting the aspect ratio of dust particles from the difference between Abakus and Coulter counter data. For verification, we measured the aspect ratio of the same samples directly using a single-particle extinction and scattering instrument. The results demonstrate that the model is accurate enough to discern between samples of aspect ratio 0.3 and 0.4 using only the comparison of Abakus and Coulter counter data.
A rescued dataset of sub-daily meteorological observations for Europe and the southern Mediterranean region, 1877–2012
Authors: Ashcroft Linden , Coll Joan Ramon , Gilabert Alba , Domonkos Peter , Aguilar Enric , Sigró Javier , Castella Mercè , Unden Per , Harris Ian , Jones Phil , Brunet Manola
Published: May 2018

Abstract. Sub-daily meteorological observations are needed for input to and assessment of high-resolution reanalysis products to improve understanding of weather and climate variability. While there are millions such weather observations that have been collected by various organizations, many are yet to be transcribed into a useable format. Under the auspices of the European Union funded Uncertainties in Ensembles of Regional ReAnalysis (UERRA) project, we describe the compilation and development of a digital dataset of 8.8 million meteorological observations rescued across the European and southern Mediterranean region, many of them Essential Climate Variables (ECVs) as defined by the Global Climate Observing System (GCOS). By presenting the entire chain of data preparation, from the identification of regions lacking in digitized sub-daily data and the locating of original sources, through the digitization of the observations to the quality control procedures applied, we provide a rescued dataset that is as traceable as possible for use by the research community. Data from 127 stations and of 15 climate variables in the northern Africa and European sectors have been prepared for the period 1877 to 2012. Quality control of the data using a two-step semi-automatic statistical approach identified 3.5 % of observations that required correction or removal, on par with previous data rescue efforts. In addition to providing a new sub-daily meteorological dataset for the research community, our experience in the development of this UERRA sub-daily dataset gives us an opportunity to share guidance on future data rescue projects. All data are available on PANGAEA: doi:10.1594/PANGAEA.886511.
Clast imbrications in coarse-grained sediments suggest changes from upper to lower flow regime conditions
Authors: Schlunegger Fritz , Garefalakis Philippos
Published: May 2018

Abstract. Clast imbrications are presumably the most conspicuous sedimentary structures in coarse-grained clastic deposits. In this paper, we test whether the formation of such a fabric is related to changes from lower to upper flow regime conditions in streams. To this extent, we calculate the Froude number at the incipient motion of coarse-grained bedload for various values of relative bed roughness and stream gradient. We then compare the results with data from modern streams and stratigraphic records. The calculations show that upper flow regime conditions most likely establish where average stream gradients exceed c. 0.5 ± 0.1°, and where relative bed roughness values are larger than ∼ 0.06 ± 0.01. Similarly, data from modern streams reveal that imbricated clasts are found where channels are steeper than c. 0.5 ± 0.2°, and where relative bed roughness values exceed ∼ 0.07. Likewise, imbricated conglomerates are encountered in late Oligocene foreland basin sequences where paleo-slopes were greater than 0.4°. We use these relationships to propose that clast imbrications occur where channel gradients exceed a threshold, which appears large enough for upper flow regime conditions to establish. We finally relate the formation of an imbricated arrangement of clasts to a mechanism where material transport occurs through rolling, or pivoting. This process requires a large shear force and thus a large flow velocity upon transport, which is likely to be associated with shifts from the lower to the upper flow regime. Our results thus suggest that clast imbrications are suitable recorders of upper flow regime conditions upon sediment transport.
Automatic detection of avalanches using a combined array classification and localization
Authors: Heck Matthias , van Herwijnen Alec , Hammer Conny , Hobiger Manuel , Schweizer Jürg , Fäh Donat
Published: May 2018

Abstract. We use a seismic monitoring system to automatically determine the avalanche activity at a remote field site near Davos, Switzerland. By using a recently developed approach based on hidden Markov models (HMMs), a machine learning algorithm, we were able to automatically identify avalanches in continuous seismic data by providing as little as one single training event. Furthermore, we implemented an operational method to provide near real-time classification results. For the 2016–2017 winter period 117 events were automatically identified. False classified events such as airplanes and local earthquakes were filtered using a new approach containing two additional classification steps. In a first step, we implemented a second HMM based classifier at a second array 14 km away to automatically identify airplanes and earthquakes. By cross-checking the results of both arrays we reduced the amount of false classifications by about 50 %. In a second step, we used multiple signal classifications (MUSIC), an array processing technique to determine the direction of the source. Although avalanche events have a moving source character only small changes of the source direction are common for snow avalanches whereas false classifications had large changes in the source direction and were therefore dismissed. From the 117 detected events during the 4 month period we were able to identify 90 false classifications based on these two additional steps. The obtained avalanche activity based on the remaining 27 avalanche events was in line with visual observations performed in the area of Davos.
Frictional interactions between tidal constituents in tide-dominated estuaries
Authors: Cai Huayang , Toffolon Marco , Savenije Hubert H. G. , Yang Qingshu , Garel Erwan
Published: May 2018

Abstract. When different tidal constituents propagate along an estuary, they interact because of the presence of nonlinear terms in the hydrodynamic equations. In particular, due to the quadratic velocity in the friction term, the effective friction experienced by both the predominant and the minor tidal constituents is enhanced. We explore the underlying mechanism with a simple conceptual model by utilizing Chebyshev polynomials, enabling the effect of the velocities of the tidal constituents to be summed in the friction term and, hence, the linearized hydrodynamic equations to be solved analytically in a closed form. An analytical model is adopted for each single tidal constituent with a correction factor to adjust the linearized friction term, accounting for the mutual interactions between the different tidal constituents by means of an iterative procedure. The proposed method is applied to the Guadiana (southern Portugal-Spain border) and the Guadalquivir (Spain) estuaries for different tidal constituents (M2, S2, N2, O1, K1) imposed independently at the estuary mouth. The analytical results appear to agree very well with the observed tidal amplitudes and phases of the different tidal constituents.
Using machine learning for real-time estimates of snow water equivalent in the watersheds of Afghanistan
Authors: Bair Edward H. , Abreu Calfa Andre , Rittger Karl , Dozier Jeff
Published: May 2018

Abstract. In the mountains, snowmelt often provides most of the runoff. Operational estimates use imagery from optical and passive microwave sensors, but each has its limitations. An accurate approach, which we validate in Afghanistan and the Sierra Nevada USA, reconstructs spatially distributed snow water equivalent (SWE) by calculating snowmelt backward from a remotely sensed date of disappearance. However, reconstructed SWE estimates are available only retrospectively; they do not provide a forecast. To estimate SWE throughout the snowmelt season, we consider physiographic and remotely sensed information as predictors and reconstructed SWE as the target. The period of analysis matches the AMSR-E radiometer's lifetime from 2003 to 2011, for the months of April through June. The spatial resolution of the predictions is 3.125 km, to match the resolution of a microwave brightness temperature product. Two machine learning techniques – bagged regression trees and feed-forward neural networks – produced similar mean results, with 0–14 % bias and 46–48 mm RMSE on average. Nash–Sutcliffe efficiencies averaged 0.68 for all years. Daily SWE climatology and fractional snow-covered area are the most important predictors. We conclude that these methods can accurately estimate SWE during the snow season in remote mountains, and thereby provide an independent estimate to forecast runoff and validate other methods to assess the snow resource.
Alonso Zamora Vicente: Mi maestro y yo
Authors: Viudas Camarasa Antonio
Published: May 2018

Se repasan varios aspectos de Alonso Zamora Vicente como maestro, creador de escuela, formador de investigadores, fomentador de la cultura humanista y filólogo, relacionándolos con la biografía académica y privada del autor, incluyéndose algunos documentos gráficos inéditos como el Acta del Grado de Doctor.
Produção audiovisual na formação de professores-pesquisadores: olhares compartilhados sobre o Parque Nacional da Restinga de Jurubatiba
Authors: Costa Rafael Nogueira , Branquinho Fátima Teresa Braga , Pereira Celso Sánchez
Published: May 2018

Neste artigo, descrevemos como o trabalho de campo e a produção audiovisual se complementam na formação de professores-pesquisadores. Buscamos contribuir com o debate sobre processos educativos inovadores e horizontais ao direcionar os olhares para realidades complexas e seus potenciais para a educação emergente de espaços não formais. Pretendemos responder às seguintes questões: o trabalho de campo conjugado com a produção audiovisual contribui para a formação do docente-pesquisador? A proposta dialógica de Paulo Freire aliada à teoria ator-rede é um caminho para a produção de saberes comunais num território prenhe de desigualdades, hierarquias e injustiças? Para responder às questões estruturais do artigo, realizamos os seguintes passos: i) encontros formativos com discentes do Curso de Licenciatura em Pedagogia da Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (UERJ); ii) realização de saída de campo na zona de amortecimento do Parque Nacional da Restinga de Jurubatiba; iii) produção experimental de quatro documentários no território estudado e iv) reflexões sobre a saída de campo na universidade. Identificamos que os discentes, ao observarem a realidade sem categorizações prévias e com câmeras em punho, experimentaram um modo compartilhado de conhecimento sobre a realidade. Esta experiência vivenciada nos levou a pensar num tipo específico de cinema, que chamamos de Cinema Ambiental Freiriano.
An Empirical Examination of the Compensation-Dividend Relation to Compare Conflict Resolution Strategies at Public versus Private Firms
Authors: Yurko Amy J. N.
Published: May 2018

While agency theory predicts that the unification of ownership and control of private family firms reduces agency concerns, some prior studies suggest that the complex family relationships of private, family firms increases agency conflicts.  To investigate these conflicting predictions, this study empirically examines with regression analysis how executive total compensation levels relate to dividends at public versus private firms to compare the conflict resolution strategies of public versus private firms.  For public firms, this study finds a positive compensation-dividend relation, indicating that public firms increase total compensation levels to reward executives for supporting firms’ dividend policies and realign the interests of owners and managers from the conflict created by dividends.  Drawing from special access to Forms 1120, this study examines a large sample of privately held U.S. firms.  For private firms, this study finds a negative compensation-dividend relation, indicating that private, family firms do not use compensation to realign the interests of owners and managers and overcome the conflict created by dividends.  This new evidence suggests that the ownership structure of private, family firms systematically mitigates agency concerns to some degree.  On a practical level, this study indicates that firms can provide compensation arrangements that support firms’ dividend policies, and that regulatory agencies should continue to focus on public firms where the great dispersion of ownership systematically increases agency concerns.
Educação Batista: quais são os fundamentos que a norteiam?
Authors: Alvez Monica Pinz
Published: May 2018

O presente artigo tem como objetivo conhecer a educação batista e seus fundamentos e no que se baseia esta educação que, consequentemente, é cristã. A pesquisa é de cunho bibliográfico e busca fontes históricas sobre a educação batista no Brasil, bem como apresenta conceitos e práticas de uma educação cristã. As escolas confessionais, as quais trazem em sua missão e visão os objetivos de educar integralmente, com especial ênfase a valores e princípios cristãos, levam os seus educandos e educandas a conhecer os princípios bíblicos e aplicá-los em sua vida para tornarem-se seres humanos íntegros, vivendo os valores cristãos em todas as áreas de sua vida. Os fundamentos da educação batista estão centrados em contemplar o ser humano como um todo, ou seja, uma educação holística.
Design Consistency Index for Two-lane Roads based on Continuous Speed Profiles
Authors: Almeida Raul , Vasconcelos Luís , Bastos Silva Ana
Published: May 2018

It is well known that road accidents tend to be more frequent in locations where a sudden change in road characteristics violates the driver's expectations. Most methods used to assess the design consistency are based on simplified speed profiles that give a coarse description of the vehicle dynamics along the road. This paper presents a new approach to quantify the road design consistency, based on continuous operating speed profiles. These profiles are based on the Gipps’ car-following equations, adapted to simulate the driver behaviour in the vicinity of horizontal curves under free-flow conditions. A methodology to calibrate and validate the Gipps’ behavioural parameters from field data is presented and applied to predict the speed profiles of three drivers for a set of rural road segments. The calibration is based on trajectory data collected with an instrumented vehicle and it follows an automated procedure that aims to minimize the differences between the predicted and observed speed profiles. The new consistency index is based on the deceleration distances and it allows to overcome some limitations of the existing methods.
AchaeanWar (146bce)
Authors: Champion Craige
Published: May 2018

The Achaean War of 146bcewas the result of a basic misunderstanding between the Achaean League of Peloponnesian Greek states and the Roman Republic in terms of Achaean political autonomy. Achaean statesmen believed they had room for independent action, whereas the Romans expected the league to act as an inferior ally and carry out warfare and diplomacy only after consultation with the Roman Senate. The immediate issue was of long standing: the incorporation of secessionist Sparta into the league. In 146 Achaean leaders declared war on Sparta and forced it back into league membership. This action was undertaken without Roman permission, and the Romans acted swiftly in reprisal, crushing Achaean forces militarily and destroying the Achaean city of Corinth. The Achaean War led to the diminution of the Achaean League and the creation of Achaea as a client‐state of Rome.
Albright,Madeleine (1937–)
Authors: Boys James D.
Published: May 2018

As the first female US secretary of state, Madeleine Albright (1937–) served as a key member of Bill Clinton's diplomatic team in the immediate post‐Cold War world, addressing issues in Somalia, Bosnia, the Middle East, and the Korean Peninsula.
A
nglo‐
J
apanese
A
lliance (1902–23)
Authors: Sugawara Takeshi
Published: May 2018

The Anglo‐Japanese Alliance (1902–23) was a bilateral alliance between Britain and Japan. The original alliance, signed in 1902, was limited and regional, and its purpose was to counter Russia's expansion into East Asia. During the Russo‐Japanese War Britain considered asking Japan to assist her in defending India by using Japan's army. In 1905 the alliance was renewed and extended to cover India in return for Britain's recognition of Japan's preponderant position in Korea. In 1911 Britain and Japan agreed to revise the alliance again to avoid war between the alliance countries and the United States. Although the First World War raised the value of worldwide military cooperation between Britain and Japan, their disagreement over Asia deepened. In the end, the Four‐Power Treaty, signed by Britain, France, Japan, and the United States at the Washington Conference of 1921–22, replaced the Anglo‐Japanese Alliance, which was officially terminated in 1923.
Bismarck‐Schönhausen,Otto von (1815–98)
Authors: Orgill Nathan N.
Published: May 2018

Otto von Bismarck‐Schönhausen (1815–98) was perhaps the most important European statesman in the period between the Congress of Vienna and the outbreak of World War I. His diplomatic career spanned the second half of the nineteenth century. A prototypicalRealpolitiker, Bismarck was the key diplomatic figure in achieving German unification and often employed dubious diplomatic means to achieve his ends, even to the point of risking war. Following 1871, however, Bismarck became the architect of a peacetime system of alliances intended to prevent war. This system of alignments is often counted among the long‐term causes of the First World War.
CalvinistDiplomacy
Authors: Goldstein Erik
Published: May 2018

Calvinist diplomacy focused on legal frameworks in the development of the international system. Emerging during the era of the European Protestant Reformation, it was one of the central intellectual forces during the Wars of Religion, culminating in the Peace of Westphalia. It subsequently influenced thinking that led to the creation of modern international organizations such as the League of Nations.
Daladier,Édouard (1884–1970)
Authors: Hucker Daniel
Published: May 2018

Édouard Daladier (1884–1970) was one of the foremost politicians and statesmen of the French Third Republic. A heavyweight within the Radical Party, he held several Cabinet posts in the interwar period, although his diplomatic career would be defined by his third and final tenure as the president of the council (April 1938–March 1940). This period saw Daladier play a central role in the frantic diplomatic maneuverings in Europe in the final months of peace, including the infamous Munich Agreement of September 1938. After Munich, however, Daladier's diplomacy would contribute significantly to the Western democracies' abandonment of appeasement in favor of a policy of firmness.
Decolonization and Diplomacy
Authors: Georghiou Costa A.
Published: May 2018

During decades of imperialism, the industrializing powers of Europe viewed the African and Asian continents as providers of raw materials, territory, and labor for future settlement. Decolonization is the process by which colonies became independent of the European states which initially colonized them. The newly independent states transformed the structure of the United Nations and bestowed a politically multifaceted composition to every region of the globe. Not only did they transform the practice of bilateral diplomacy, but multilateral diplomacy was changed as they became members of international forums. A new form of diplomacy also evolved which necessitated an improvement of bilateral relations with erstwhile colonies and other states of the globe. The decolonization process might have ended as a zero‐sum game for the colonial powers and the newly independent states, but diplomacy assisted in avoiding such an aftermath. Decolonization also had a definite bearing on the evolution of superpower competition and impacted the highly cooperative nature of Asian, Arab, and African diplomacy in the United Nations.
Détente
Authors: Zanchetta Barbara
Published: May 2018

The French word “détente” – which translates into “an easing of tension” – is used in diplomacy to describe a reduction of tension between antagonistic states, and has been specifically used to describe the relationship between the United States and the Soviet Union in the early to mid‐1970s. In contrast with the tension that characterized the American–Soviet relationship after World WarII, the relationship between Moscow and Washington improved remarkably during the early 1970s. The two countries engaged in arms control negotiations, and signed the first Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty in 1972. The United States at the same time improved its relationship with the People's Republic of China, with the first visit by an American president to Beijing the same year. In Europe, détente led to agreements over the status of Germany, the advent of inter‐German relations and to the signing of the Helsinki Final Act in 1975. In the later part of the 1970s, however, the process of détente eroded, due to the combination of regional crises, which unveiled the limits of superpower cooperation in the Third World, and domestic criticism of the policy in the United States.
Diplomacy and Apartheid
Authors: Geldenhuys Deon
Published: May 2018

Because of apartheid, white‐ruled South Africa was for over forty years subjected to relentless international pressure to abolish its discriminatory racial policy in favor of equal rights for all its people. The
UN
had early in its existence turned to coercive diplomacy against South Africa, thus taking the lead in what developed into a truly global diplomatic offensive against apartheid. There was a clear correlation between the intensification of external pressure against South Africa and mounting resistance by black South Africans to apartheid. Faced with adversity in the
UN
, South Africa developed a reactive diplomacy that was initially defiant in nature, but in time began reflecting some compliance with
UN
demands for political change. Full compliance followed in 1994 with the death of apartheid and the birth of South Africa's non‐racial democracy.
Diplomatic Professionalization
Authors: Kleistra Yvonne
Published: May 2018

The status and prestige of contemporary diplomacy, just like any other profession with a high social status, depends largely on the qualities and adequate training of the members of its community. Especially since the 1990s the typical diplomat is constantly working to keep up with the practical consequences of the internet and globalization. One of the most important trends in this respect is the shift from traditional state‐to‐state relations to governance. Today, the main challenge for diplomacy lies in the responsibility to operate simultaneously in multiple government and governance structures that differ greatly from one another and require the use of diverse strategies, instruments, and attitudes. Diplomats largely learn how to operate effectively in transnational governance networks without departing from the nation's objectives and priorities, by constant practicing of their professional skills to deal with ambiguity.
Disaster Diplomacy
Authors: Kelman Ilan
Published: May 2018

Disaster diplomacy investigates how and why disaster‐related activities do and do not influence conflict and cooperation. Disaster‐related activities cover actions after a disaster such as disaster response as well as before a disaster, termed disaster risk reduction. Case studies come from a diversity of places, time periods, disaster types, and conflict types. The evidence from disaster diplomacy case studies so far indicates that, while disaster‐related activities do not create fresh diplomatic opportunities, they have the possibility for catalyzing action, although that possibility is not always fulfilled. Where catalysis occurs, it happens only in the short term, over weeks and months. Over longer time periods, other reasons for supporting the diplomacy are needed to ensure that any disaster‐related activities have a lasting effect. The reason for disaster diplomacy's lack of influence is that disaster‐related activities are not typically a high political priority.
Eban,Abba (1915–2002)
Authors: Siniver Asaf
Published: May 2018

Abba Eban (1915–2002) was an Israeli statesman, politician, and scholar, who served as Israel's first ambassador to the United Nations (1949–59) and ambassador to the United States (1951–59), minister of education (1960–63), deputy prime minister (1963–66), and foreign minister (1966–74). He is considered the father of Israeli diplomacy and was described by Prime Minister David Ben‐Gurion as the “Voice of Israel” for his eloquent oratory in defense of his country during its formative years.
Elizabethan Diplomacy
Authors: Fett Denice
Published: May 2018

Under Queen Elizabeth I (r. 1558–1603) English diplomacy witnessed the emergence of new patterns and institutions that led to the creation of the British imperial diplomatic system. Diplomatic policies originated with the queen and were conducted by a vibrant and growing core of skilled civil servants. Elizabeth's diplomacy reflected the changing religious, political, economic, and military landscape of Europe. The queen's active management of England's foreign relations enabled her to craft new alliances and to manage disputes. English foreign policy led to close alliances with their traditional enemies of France and Scotland and, at the time of her death, had caused war with Spain, England's ally at the time of Elizabeth's accession.
H
alifax,
L
ord (1881–1959)
Authors: Doenecke Justus D.
Published: May 2018

Lord Halifax (1881–1959) served in World War I, sat in Parliament, and held various ministries before becoming viceroy of India (1925–31). Coping with militant insurrection, Halifax brokered a peace that led to the London Round Table Conference of 1931. Once back in Britain, he held several more ministerial posts before being made foreign secretary in February 1938. Though at first accommodationist towards peaceful German expansion in Austria, Danzig, and Czechoslovakia, he turned against Hitler once the Führer broke his word during tense negotiations, held at Godesburg in September 1938, over the Sudeten Germans. Halifax fostered massive rearmament and cemented a deal guaranteeing Poland's borders. In May 1940 he declined the prime ministership in favor of Winston Churchill, who appointed him ambassador to the United States (1941–46). He helped negotiate a much‐needed American loan and played a significant role at the Dumbarton Oaks Conference of 1944.
HolyAlliance
Authors: Goldstein Erik
Published: May 2018

In the aftermath of the Napoleonic War this alliance signed by Tsar Alexander I of Russia, Emperor Francis of Austria, and King Frederick William III of Prussia on September 26, 1815, aimed at restoring a conservative political order in Europe. It was not supported by Great Britain which instead saw the Quadruple/Quintuple Alliance as the basis of the new Concert of Europe.
International Law and Diplomacy
Authors: Lesaffer Randall
Published: May 2018

Traditional historiography of international law is both state‐ and Eurocentric. It has reduced “the history of international law” to that of the law of the sovereign states system of Europe which allegedly emerged at the end of the Middle Ages and was exported over the globe through the double device of colonization and decolonization. In recent decades, a commencement has been made with expanding the narrative of the history of international law into a pluralist and global one, which includes developments in different regions of the world. Nevertheless, this turn is in its early stages and has yet failed to offer an alternative grand narrative. Moreover, it remains to be seen whether a global history of international law will drive European history prior to the mid‐nineteenth century completely from the center in any narrative which traces the origins of modern international law.

This entry briefly covers the major developments in five fields of international law with which diplomacy directly related through history: treaty‐making, trade, dispute settlement, justification of war and peacemaking. While it indicates some major commonalities and differences between the historic regional systems of international law, the focus is on the development of the law of nations in late medieval (eleventh–fifteenth centuries) and early modern (sixteenth–eighteenth centuries) Europe, as well as on modern global international law (nineteenth–twenty‐first centuries).
JamesVI&I(1566–1625)
Authors: Fry Cynthia , Marks Adam
Published: May 2018

James VI & I (1566–1625) was a true Renaissance prince and diplomat, one who used political tactics, worldly education, and strategic negotiations to achieve personal advancement and national and international prestige. Throughout his personal reign, which ran from roughly 1584 to 1625, James grew from a half‐ignored player who was seen as a pawn for other's use to a central figure on the stage of European politics. He did this by maintaining relationships with opposing sides of conflicts and by utilizing all resources to conduct diplomacy that advanced his dynasty's power and prestige.
JulyCrisis (1914)
Authors: Otte T. G.
Published: May 2018

The 1914 July Crisis ended in the outbreak of the First World War. In the course of the events of that summer the established mechanisms of Great Power politics in the long nineteenth century failed. Concerns about the stability of existing alliances, domestic constraints, deterrence failures, and strategic miscalculations conspired to prevent a diplomatic settlement.
Kaunitz,CountWenzel (1711–94)
Authors: Szabo Franz A. J.
Published: May 2018

Count and later Prince Wenzel Anton von Kaunitz‐Rietberg (1711–94) was foreign minister of the Habsburg monarchy from 1753 to 1792. Under the impact of the Prussian invasion of Silesia, he reoriented Austrian foreign policy from focus on peripheral rivals such as France, Spain, or the Ottoman Empire to primary focus on the rivalry with Prussia within the Holy Roman Empire. He was the key figure in the realignment of alliances known as the Diplomatic Revolution and was functional prime minister of the monarchy during the Seven Years' War. He continued to regard Prussia as Austria's main enemy for the subsequent thirty years, but also became increasingly unsettled by the growing power of Russia during this period. He resigned in 1792 in opposition to an alliance with Prussia and the second partition of Poland.
Lytton Commission (1931–32)
Authors: Lojko Miklos
Published: May 2018

Led by the British peer Lord Lytton, the commission was appointed by the League of Nations in December 1931 to investigate a dispute that had arisen between the Republic of China and Japan over the so‐called Mukden Incident: an explosion on the South Manchurian Railway line in September 1931. The ensuing Manchurian Crisis was the first serious challenge to the authority and values of the League of Nations. Lytton's Commission traveled widely in Japan, China proper, and Manchuria. Its report, which attributed responsibility for the crisis to both China and Japan but effectively identified Japan as the aggressor, prompted Japan's departure from the League of Nations and the escalation of the Sino‐Japanese conflict. The commission's report was well received but its recommendations were not enforced by the League of Nations.
Maastricht Negotiations
Authors: Blair Alasdair
Published: May 2018

Legally known as the Treaty on European Union, the Maastricht Treaty entered into force on November 1, 1993. It is viewed as a key landmark in the development of European integration, bringing about the most significant institutional and policy changes since the treaties of Rome were signed on March 25, 1957. The Maastricht Treaty was the product of twin‐track intergovernmental conference (IGC) negotiations that focused on monetary union and political union and which took place at a time of momentous change in Europe. This included the end of the Cold War, the unification of Germany, and the dissolution of Yugoslavia. These developments created a heady climate where there was a tension between those countries that wished to pursue deeper European integration and those that wanted to retain more national control. And while the eventual Maastricht Treaty reflected these demands in a series of compromises, there was considerable public disquiet at the outcome. This led to a treaty ratification crisis that highlighted for the first time significant public concerns regarding the future direction of European integration in the form of Euroskepticism.
Medici,Lorenzode' (1449–92)
Authors: Lazzarini Isabella
Published: May 2018

Lorenzo de' Medici (1449–94) represented a milestone in the Italian Renaissance, achieving a legendary status that was directly linked to his conduct of diplomacy. He aimed to establish his leadership of republican Florence while simultaneously developing a more significant role for the city in the complicated political system of fifteenth‐century Italy. Lorenzo succeeded in his aims by use of both personal and public diplomacy, which he saw as an intensive process of intelligence gathering and political communication.
M
etternich,
C
lemens
von
(1773–1859)
Authors: Šedivý Miroslav
Published: May 2018

Clemens von Metternich (1773–1859) was an Austrian diplomat and statesman who successively represented Austria in Saxony, Prussia, and France after 1801 to become the foreign minister in 1809 and chancellor in 1821. He directed Austria's foreign policy until his fall from power in 1848, when European‐wide revolutions forced him into exile. He only returned in 1851 and spent his last years in quiet retirement. Metternich gained his diplomatic reputation at the end of the Napoleonic Wars when he significantly contributed to Napoleon I's defeat and belonged to the principal negotiators at the Congress of Vienna. In subsequent years he continued to be one of the most prominent diplomats in European affairs, though his influence diminished gradually as he became more and more unpopular on account of his conservative direction of policies.
New Diplomacy
Authors: Leira Halvard
Published: May 2018

New diplomacy is a term which has been used both politically and analytically since the French Revolution. It was introduced as a positive contrast to the old diplomacy of kings and intrigues, and was concerned primarily with trade. Such a liberal understanding has remained predominant – new diplomacy has typically been associated with democratic control over diplomacy, international organization, and free trade, and with openness and honesty in diplomatic practice. An alternative radical interpretation, where new diplomacy implied the complete overthrow of the old, can trace its roots to the French Revolution, and was expressed fully during the Russian Revolution. Although new diplomacy has also been used as a term of abuse by those who prefer traditional forms of diplomacy, the term has primarily signified an ongoing or desired change in a positive direction. Currently, it is being used as a label for most of the non‐state‐centric diplomacy.
Ostpolitik
Authors: van Dijk Ruud
Published: May 2018

Most often associated with the diplomatic initiatives taken by the West German government led by Willy Brandt between 1969 and 1974 towards the Soviet Union and its East European allies,Ostpolitik(literally: policy towards the East) has been central to the foreign policy of every German government since unification in 1871. Germany's national security and freedom of action have depended to a significant extent on the nature of its relations with the “East,” especially Russia. Given the country's power and central location in Europe, Germany'sOstpolitikhas also been highly consequential for peace and stability on the continent. It has been difficult for German diplomacy to find a good balance inOstpolitikbetween cooperation, competition, and confrontation. Additionally, German diplomats and politicians have had to combine their country'sOstpolitikwith itsWestpolitik– the policy toward, or alliance with, neighbors to the West, including the United States.
Papal Diplomacy
Authors: Shaw Christine
Published: May 2018

For much of its long history, the papacy has had an international role, combining claims to spiritual, ecclesiastical, and temporal power and authority. The main concern of papal diplomacy over the centuries has been to try to make those claims effective. Secular rulers have generally been unwilling to accept papal supremacy, or that the pope, by virtue of his office, had the right to act as an arbiter or peacemaker between states. Nevertheless, in some periods, not least in recent decades, the spiritual authority of the papacy has given weight to papal diplomacy.
PeterI(1672–1725)
Authors: Hennings Jan
Published: May 2018

Peter I (the Great) was born in Moscow in 1672. He was crowned tsar jointly with his half‐brother Ivan V (d. 1696) in 1682 and ruled Russia from the 1689 overthrow of the then‐regent Sophia Alekseevna to his death in 1725. A contemporary of Louis XIV, Charles XII of Sweden, Leopold I, and August II the Strong, the tsar reformed the Muscovite state, society, and culture on an unprecedented scale and witnessed Russia's rise to a place as one of the major powers that emerged in the age of European absolutism.
Postcolonial Diplomacy
Authors: Opondo Sam Okoth
Published: May 2018

While much can be said for the forms of diplomacy that emerge in the mid‐ to later part of the twentieth century owing to the formal end of colonial rule, this entry focuses more on the ways in which postcolonialism transforms our conception of modern diplomatic theory and practice. From this vantage point, postcolonial diplomacy is more than the long catalogue of the transformations in diplomacy in an era characterized by the increase in United Nations member‐states, proliferation of diplomatic missions and professional representatives, and the formation of regional organizations and alliances between newly independent states. Much like postcolonial and critical diplomatic theories, postcolonial diplomacies present historical, theoretical/conceptual, ethical, and practical/strategic claims that challenge the Eurocentrism, elitism, and colonial legacies that continue to frame modern diplomatic theory and practice.
RapalloConference (1922)
Authors: Carley Michael Jabara
Published: May 2018

The conference of Rapallo took place on April 16, 1922, between Weimar Germany and Soviet Russia. It led to the conclusion of the Treaty of Rapallo which provided for the reestablishment of diplomatic and economic relations and the writing off of all territorial and financial claims and counter‐claims arising from World War I. Germany and Soviet Russia were thus able to overcome their isolation in Europe; the one because of its defeat in the war, the other because of having created a socialist Russian state. The “Rapallo” relationship lasted until 1933 when Adolf Hitler came to power in Germany.
Russo‐Japanese War (1904–5)
Authors: Orgill Nathan N.
Published: May 2018

The Russo‐Japanese War (1904–5) was a momentous event in the diplomatic history the twentieth century. Originating in a competition for influence and territory in Manchuria and Korea a decade earlier, the conflict led to a significant victory for Japan, as Russia recognized her preponderance in the contested regions that sparked the war. The conflict proved a decisive turning point in global international politics, as it caused diplomatic squabbles among the non‐belligerent neutral powers, helped put Europe on the diplomatic trajectory to World War I, and marked the first major event pointing to Europe's waning global influence in the twentieth century.
Sassoferato,Bartolodi(1313/14–1357)
Authors: Quaglioni Diego
Published: May 2018

Bartolus of Sassoferrato (1313/14–1357) has been considered one of the founders of modern international law for having described realistically the relationship between the church and the Holy Roman Empire, and between the Holy Roman Empire and the city‐states. He was the author of commentaries toCorpus Juris Civilis, of a great number of advisory opinions (consilia), and of important treatises on city government, on tyranny, on bandits, and on reprisals. His doctrines are at the beginning of a new theory of diplomatic agents. Bartolo's thought greatly influenced sixteenth‐ and seventeenth‐century theorists like Alciato, Bodin, Gentili, Althusius, and Grotius.
ThirdPunicWar (149–146bce)
Authors: Hoyos Dexter
Published: May 2018

Defeated and disarmed after 201bce, Carthage became a client‐state of Rome, its remaining North African territories coveted by its powerful neighbor Numidia. The city's ruling elite cultivated Rome's favor with gifts of free grain and other provisions; many aristocrats also maintained friendly ties with aristocrats at Rome. Efforts by Masinissa, the long‐lived Numidian king and Roman ally, to annex parts of Carthage's territories were (contrary to the general view) rebuffed by Rome until after 167bce. After that, however, the Roman Senate approved several land‐grabs by Masinissa. In 152/151 a goaded Carthaginian government declared war on Numidia – violating the treaty of 201, which prohibited war against a Roman ally. Carthage's shattering defeat in 150 failed to avert the attack by Rome urged by the aged and influential senator Cato the Elder. The Third Punic War deliberately aimed at the destruction of Carthage.
T
reaty of
C
ambrai (1529)
Authors: Shaw Christine
Published: May 2018

The Treaty of Cambrai of 1529 marked an important stage in the conflict between the Habsburg and Valois dynasties in the sixteenth century. In the history of diplomacy, it was a rare, if not unique, example of a major peace treaty being instigated, negotiated, and concluded by two women: Louise of Savoy, mother of the French king, Francis I, and Margaret of Austria, the aunt of the Habsburg emperor Charles V. It proved to have lasting effects in the renunciation of French sovereignty over Flanders and Artois, and the abandonment of French efforts to pursue the king's claims to the duchy of Milan and the kingdom of Naples by force.
Peace ofLodi (1454) and theItalianLeague (1455)
Authors: Lazzarini Isabella
Published: May 2018

On April 9, 1454, in Lodi, the new Duke of Milan, Francesco Sforza, signed the peace which ended two years of war with the Venetian Republic. After less than one year of negotiation, the peace signed at Lodi had become a general treaty between almost every power and state in Italy, intended to last for twenty‐five years. The two events were deeply linked: for the first time in ages, their unfolding gave to the peninsula a juridical framework to control clashing ambitions, and a negotiating network to keep conflicts at bay. Orchestrated by a cluster of princes and powers in need of peace and legitimation, the Italian League is famously at the origin of the Western grand narrative of the balance of power and the birth of permanent resident embassies, and has represented a turning point in Italian history, and in the history of diplomacy.
T
reaty of the
P
yrenees (1659)
Authors: Lopez Julia Costa
Published: May 2018

The Treaty of the Pyrenees was signed on November 7, 1659, bringing to an end the Franco‐Spanish conflict that started in 1635. The war, and the subsequent process of negotiating peace had been a long and complex one, marked by the context of the Thirty Years' War and important shifts in the distribution of power throughout Europe. Indeed, despite it being narrowly known after the Pyrenees, the treaty had a broad European reach, attempting to settle matters that had not been resolved in the Peace of Westphalia. Through it, territories changed hands between the Spanish and the French Crowns in Catalonia and the Low Countries, but multiple additional rulers in Northern Europe and the Italian Peninsula were also included as contracting parties and saw their affairs regulated by the treaty. Additionally, the treaty also provided for the marriage between Louis XIV and the Infanta Maria Teresa. The peace, however, was to be short‐lived, as war broke out again a mere eight years later. Ultimately, the Treaty of the Pyrenees marked yet another point in the decline of Habsburg Spain's influence in the Continent at the same time as the start of the rise of Bourbon France as a central player.
Treaty ofTroyes (1420)
Authors: Richardson Glenn
Published: May 2018

The Treaty of Troyes was a peace agreement made in 1420 between Henry V of England and Charles VI of France. It recognized Henry V as the heir and successor to Charles as king of France. It was put into effect by the marriage of Charles's daughter Catherine de Valois to the king of England.
Unequal Treaties
Authors: van Hulle Inge
Published: May 2018

Treaties may be considered unequal on the basis of a lack of reciprocity, unequal treaty obligations, restrictions of sovereignty, or because of their conclusion under threats or use of force. While the phenomenon of unequal treaties has been debated at least since the early modern period by scholars of the law of nations, the term itself has become largely coterminous with the treaties concluded between Western powers and East Asian states, such as China, Japan, and Siam during the nineteenth century which granted commercial and extraterritorial privileges. This contribution explains the historical evolution of unequal treaties, both in practice as in theory and briefly discusses their status within contemporary international law.
V
ansittart,
R
obert (1881–1957)
Authors: Webster Andrew
Published: May 2018

Sir Robert (later Lord) Vansittart (1881–1957) served as permanent under secretary of the British Foreign Office from 1930 to 1938. While not a decisive figure himself, as Britain's chief professional diplomat Vansittart did briefly exert considerable influence upon British foreign policy decision‐making. His conspicuous public profile, based around a determined and vocal opposition to German expansionism, was highly unusual for a civil servant and made him during the later 1930s and early 1940s a figure of political controversy.