bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Production and handling techniques for processing apples.
Authors: Crassweller R. M. , Greene G. M., II
Published: November 2009

This chapter covers the production and handling techniques for apples that are to be processed as juice, cider, apple sauce, or slice or whole apples. The apple processing industry in the People's Republic of China is described, along with the important apple processing cultivars and fruit attributes for processing. Differences in cultural practices, harvest and handling techniques and delivery of the produce to the processing plant are discussed.
Conceptual and theoretical perspectives.
Authors: Ritchie J. R. B. , Crouch G. I.
Published: November 2009

This chapter consists of two complementary components that are intended to provide the theoretical and managerial interfaces between the two main concepts of competitiveness and sustainability. This chapter consists of two parts: Part I and Part II. Part I examines the theoretical and conceptual foundations of competitiveness in order to impart a basic understanding of what a destination is trying to achieve when it proclaims a goal of enhancing its competitiveness. The tourism industry must continue to organize, professionalize, communicate, educate, and conduct and support research if it is to compete effectively for its share of a nation's resources. Part II examines the concept of sustainability. Because the historical roots of this concept are more recent and much shallower than those of competitiveness, there is often no clear consensus regarding what sustainability truly means. Although much of the traditional concern for sustainability, as related to tourism, has focused on environmentally sensitive areas such as national parks, it is argued that every destination must examine its ability to maintain all dimensions of environmental, economic, social, cultural and political sustainability if it is to develop and preserve true competitiveness.
The macroenvironment: global forces shaping world tourism.
Authors: Ritchie J. R. B. , Crouch G. I.
Published: November 2009

This chapter examines the global forces and the manner in which they affect each of the components of the model of destination competitiveness. As shown, the totality of global forces affecting destination competitiveness/sustainability is captured within what we term an 'onionskin taxonomy'. The global forces may be viewed as consisting of different layers surrounding the destination. The innermost layer, or layer 1, of the 'onion' consists of three types of forces that tend to affect changes in the performance and well-being of the destination most directly, in that they normally fluctuate widely and rapidly within short periods of time. These forces can usually be categorized as economic, political and technological. The next layer of the onion, layer 2, contains forces that tend to be somewhat more stable, and therefore a bit easier to predict. Demographic and sociocultural forces are in layer 2. Finally, there are forces that, in normal times, are quite stable and that can be anticipated with a fairly high degree of reliability. Climatic forces, geographical forces and environmental forces are in this layer. This taxonomy reflects the stability of the global forces but not necessarily their importance. Consequently, at any given point in time, any particular force within any of the layers can be having the greatest impact on destination competitiveness/sustainability/success.
Supporting factors and resources: elements that enhance destination appeal.
Authors: Ritchie J. R. B. , Crouch G. I.
Published: November 2009

This chapter examines the supporting factors and resources that serve as the foundation of a competitive tourism and hospitality industry. The core resources and attractors represent the principal 'pulling' force driving the demand for destination tourism, but if these are inaccessible, if the private sector is unable or unwilling to create the necessary business services which bring core resources to the market, if the economic and social infrastructure is insufficient, and if the resources which facilitate tourism development are limited or substandard, abundant core resources and attractors will be significantly constrained in their ability to pull tourists.
Destination management: the key to maintaining a sustainable competitive advantage.
Authors: Ritchie J. R. B. , Crouch G. I.
Published: November 2009

This chapter examines the ways by which a destination should ensure its economic profitability while avoiding degradation of the factors that have created its competitive position.
Fruit disorders.
Authors: Huang XuMing Huang XuMing
Published: November 2009

This chapter discusses the factors that affect the occurrence of fruit cracking in litchi (Litchi chinensis) and longan (fruit skin morphology, cell walls, endogenous growth regulators, weather, nutrient content, pests and diseases, and orchard management), and briefly describes the symptoms and development of sunburn and stunted fruit disorder in longan.
Attitudes to risky consequences.
Authors: Hardaker J. B. , Huirne R. B. M. , Anderson J. R. , Lien G.
Published: November 2009

This chapter shows how the degree of risk aversion of a decision maker, in the context of agriculture, can be assessed and quantified. Sections discuss: utility function elicitation; risk aversion; utility function fitting; ways to transform expected utilities into certainty equivalents; problems in utility function elicitation; alternatives to direct elicitation of utility functions; rationalizing risk aversion; and group decision making.
Stochastic simulation.
Authors: Hardaker J. B. , Huirne R. B. M. , Anderson J. R. , Lien G.
Published: November 2009

Stochastic simulation, as a tool in decision analysis, is introduced and illustrated with a simple dairy farm budgeting example. Then sampling techniques that are commonly used in stochastic simulation are described, followed by a discussion and illustration of methods to account for stochastic dependency among input variables. Finally, the way stochastic simulation can be combined with optimization is briefly explained and illustrated.
Risky decision making and time.
Authors: Hardaker J. B. , Huirne R. B. M. , Anderson J. R. , Lien G.
Published: November 2009

This chapter focuses on the time factor in the analysis of risky decisions in agriculture. Sections discuss: investment appraisal under uncertainty; dynamic decision analysis; and stochastic dynamic modelling methods.
Early development of small intestinal function.
Authors: Uni Z.
Published: November 2009

To accommodate the rapid transition to external nutrient sources, the chicken small intestine goes through morphological, cellular and molecular changes towards the end of incubation. The weight of the intestine, as a proportion of embryonic weight, increases from approximately 1% at 17 days of incubation (17E) to 3.5% at hatch. At this time, the embryonic small intestinal villi are divided into two main developmental stages, which differ in both length and shape. Mucin-producing cells can be observed from 17E and at that time contain only acidic mucin. The activity and RNA expression of brush-border enzymes, which digest disaccharides and small peptides, and of major transporters (sodium-glucose transporter and ATPase) which are found at 15E, begin to increase at 19E (2 days prior to hatch), and increase further on the day of hatch. Although the digestive capacity begins to develop a few days before hatch, most of the development occurs post-hatch when the neonatal chick begins consuming feed. During the post-hatch period, the weight of the small intestine increases at a faster rate than body mass. Rapid enterocyte proliferation and differentiation occur. In addition the intestinal crypts, which begin to form at hatch, are clearly defined several days post-hatch, increasing in both cell number and size. Goblet cells produce acidic and neutral mucins in similar proportions. Studies have shown that feeding immediately post-hatch or even pre-hatch accelerates the functional development of the small intestine, while delayed access to external feed arrests the development of the small intestine's mucosal layer and changes mucin dynamics.
Absorptive function of the small intestine: adaptations meeting demand.
Authors: Mitchell M. A. , Moretó M.
Published: November 2009

The mucosal epithelium of the small intestine constitutes a highly dynamic interface with the external environment through the delivery, digestive processing and absorption of nutrients. The intestinal mucosa is capable of rapid and extensive morphological and functional adaptation in response to evolutionary changes, genetic selection, altered dietary composition or food availability and pathological processes. The function of the intestine and adaptations therein may be studied at the molecular, cellular, organic or whole animal level, employing a variety of in vitro and in vivo techniques. This review addresses the mechanisms mediating adaptations in mucosal structure and function in chickens in response to selection for production traits and in the face of thermal stress and of changes in dietary sodium intake. The data presented draw upon the outputs of studies using membrane vesicles, isolated enterocytes, in vitro sheets and in vivo perfusion preparations. The findings of the different methodologies and approaches are compared and contrasted and their contribution to characterization of digestive and absorptive function in the whole animal is considered. These studies help elucidate the basic mechanisms involved in nutrient absorption from the small and large intestine in the fowl and an understanding of the adaptive potential of the mucosa and the underlying mechanisms may provide the sound scientific basis for nutritional strategies that exploit the physiological adaptations induced by the requirement for improved growth rates or efficiency of production under a wide range of climatic conditions.
Effects of amino acid and protein supply on nutrition and health.
Authors: Kidd M. T. , Corzo A.
Published: November 2009

Modern commercial broiler strains accrete more breast meat and are marketed earlier than were previous strains, in addition to typically having different feed intake patterns. Much recent research has addressed increasing dietary amino acid density to optimize growth and tissue accretion rates of modern commercial broilers. Increasing amino acid density, especially early in the bird's life, results in improved live production and carcass traits, resulting in increased profitability. However, supplying amino acids in excess can be costly and increase nitrogen excretion, whereas limiting their supply can result in suboptimal yields and economic returns. Essential amino acid (i.e. threonine, isoleucine, valine, arginine and tryptophan) experimentation with respect to their effect on broiler live performance, carcass traits and health is discussed. Although feeding deficient levels of isoleucine, valine and arginine suppressed some aspects of the immune system, fortifying these amino acids to levels above surfeit was without effect on immune system measurements. Our findings suggest that the threonine, valine and isoleucine requirements for functionality of a normal immune system do not exceed needs for growth. Arginine, however, has vast metabolic functions related to immunity and further testing is warranted to determine if its need for health is higher than that for growth in commercial broilers. Although the dietary supply of amino acids is critical for good growth and tissue accretion, marginal limitations or excesses do not seem to impact bird health. Future amino acid research via early feeding and in ovo may result in early growth and health benefits.
Broodiness and broody control.
Authors: Sharp P. J.
Published: November 2009

Broodiness is a nuisance and sometimes a serious problem in some poultry. The behaviour is recognized as persistent nesting, usually associated with cessation of egg laying. Broodiness has two components: incubation and brooding behaviour; the former can only be induced in laying hens, while the latter can be induced in both laying and non-laying hens and in males, by forced fostering of chicks. The motivation to incubate wanes after 4-5 weeks sitting on infertile eggs, while brooding behaviour gradually declines as the chicks become independent and egg laying resumes. Incubation and brooding behaviour are associated with low concentrations of plasma luteinizing hormone (LH) and ovarian steroids, and with high and low concentrations of plasma prolactin, respectively. The preoptic area of the hypothalamus (POA) forms part of the neural circuitry controlling both incubation and brooding behaviours. High concentrations of prolactin and low concentrations of plasma LH in incubating hens are a consequence, respectively, of increased vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP) and decreased gonadotrophin-releasing hormone (GnRH) release from the hypothalamus. Changes in the release of these two neuropeptides from the hypothalamus are, in part, a consequence of changes in their rates of synthesis. The release of VIP in incubating hens is stimulated by dopaminergic input from the POA, which in turn is stimulated by a serotonergic input. Incubation behaviour is a form of extended nesting behaviour induced by the synergistic action of oestrogen and progesterone. It is transformed into incubation behaviour by increased prolactin secretion stimulated by neural information transmitted through the brood patch from a clutch of eggs to hypothalamic VIP neurones. Broody control is best achieved by good husbandry directed to discouraging the behaviour. Pharmacological and immunological methods can be used to control or prevent broodiness but for most practical purposes are uneconomic and some may delay resumption of egg production. Broodiness is a polygenic trait, and quantitative trait loci analysis can be applied to identify regions of the genome controlling broodiness. Identification of markers in, or linked to, these genes and associated with broody behaviour is likely to be of value in breeding programmes incorporating DNA marker-assisted selection.
Behaviour and environmental enrichment in broiler breeders.
Authors: Estevez I.
Published: November 2009

Management practices in broiler breeder production are mostly based on years of farming experience and trial-and-error attempts to address problems as they arise. Some of the problems observed during breeding may be a consequence of the discontinuity in environmental conditions from the rearing to the breeding phase. Rearing takes place in a two-dimensional world, while during breeding birds will have to jump on and off and navigate around farm furniture to find and gain access to nest boxes, feeders and drinkers. Without prior experience this may be a difficult task. Environmental enrichment techniques may help to alleviate this problem as birds gain experience early in life in using the three-dimensional space and would be better prepared for the more complex breeder facility. Enrichment provided by perches, cover panels or other forms of visual barriers not only can reduce the stress of the transition among facilities but may also have a significant impact in reducing the incidence of floor eggs, disturbances, aggression and over-mating. In addition, the presence of cover panels during breeding has been shown to have a positive impact on reproductive performance, and the initial cost of implementation can soon be recovered with additional economic profit. It is clear that environmental enrichment programmes have the potential to benefit animals from the health and welfare standpoint and also improve the management and efficiency of breeding farms.
Feed restriction.
Authors: Hocking P. M.
Published: November 2009

It is common practice to control the feed consumption, and therefore the energy intake, of the parents of commercial broilers and ducks but not turkeys. Genetic selection for high rates of body weight gain results in correlated increases in ovulation rate and disrupted production of eggs with sound shells suitable for hatching. Feed restriction controls multiple ovulation in broiler breeders and ducks but not turkeys. The reasons for these breed and species differences and the biological principles underlying the allocation of feed energy are outlined. A series of experiments provided the basis for a theory of feed restriction in broiler breeders and led to the development of a stochastic model to predict egg production. Research has shown that achieving the target body weight at the onset of lay is critical and that feed supplied after the onset of lay should be adequate to support the peak of egg production. Feed allocation after the peak of egg production has been reached can be gradually decreased to match the requirements for lower egg production and to limit the effects of excessive body weight gain on mortality and productivity. Feed restriction is not practised in turkey breeders because it does not control the ovarian hierarchy and persistency of lay is poor, probably because the birds naturally lose a considerable quantity of body weight after the onset of lay. Conversely, excessive weight gain is undesirable and turkeys are fed low-energy and low-protein diets to limit body weight gain before photostimulation. The body weight of broiler breeder cocks and drakes is substantially limited during rearing to enhance mating efficiency and fertility. Low-protein or low-energy diets are used to limit excessive body weight gain in stags as this facilitates semen collection and improves health. In males of all three species, body weight is allowed to increase slowly during the mating period to maintain fertility. The welfare consequences of feed restriction in breeding birds are discussed and alternatives to quantitative feed restriction are outlined. It is concluded that the long-term solution to the need for substantial feed restriction in breeding birds is genetic selection for a decreased propensity of multiple ovulation.
Protein and amino acid responses.
Authors: Fisher C. , Gous R. M.
Published: November 2009

This article discusses the provision of protein to breeding hens; protein deposition in breeding hens; response to amino acids in broiler breeder hens; protein utilization in breeding hens; dietary protein supply and breeding males; dietary protein supply and embryonic development; carry-over effects of maternal protein supply; empirical evidence about protein supply to breeding birds; integration: a model of protein utilization in female broiler breeders; and some reference is made to turkey and duck breeders, but most of the evidence and discussion refers to broiler breeders.
Rootstock development.
Authors: Reighard G. L. , Loreti F.
Published: November 2009

This chapter discusses traditional and new rootstock cultivars of peach, and their potential for solving some of the specific soil and site problems that peach growers are experiencing worldwide. Selection criteria (graft compatibility, ease of sexual or asexual propagation, resistance to abiotic stresses, resistance to soil pests and diseases, increased yield and fruit quality, and tree size control and anchorage), horticultural characteristics, and breeding programmes for these rootstocks are discussed.
Crop load management.
Authors: Marini R. P. , Reighard G. L.
Published: November 2009

This chapter covers peach tree physiology and the physiological importance of fruit thinning. Various methods that have been developed to thin peach trees and some of the factors affecting the efficacy of these practices are discussed. Specific topics covered are: fruit growth and development; quantification of crop load; modification of crop load (pre-bloom, bloom and post-bloom stages); and crop load interactions with stresses (tree density, water stress, leaf-feeding arthropods, high temperatures and low temperatures).
The structure of edible alliums.
Authors: Brewster J. L.
Published: November 2009

This chapter discusses edible alliums in terms of the: visible growth stages; outline of the overall plant structure; structure of the vegetative shoot apex; stem structure; bulb structure; foliage leaf structure; root system; inflorescence and flower structure and seed development.
The genetics and plant breeding of allium crops.
Authors: Brewster J. L.
Published: November 2009

This chapter reviews: the chromosomes; breeding systems; genetics; genetic linkage maps; genomics; hybrid vigour; genetic male sterility and hybrid breeding; techniques of breeding and cultivar improvement; pollination control in breeding; breeding objectives in edible alliums; selection methods and environmental influences; genetic transformation of alliums; breeding for disease and pest resistance.
Interactions with other organisms: weeds, pests, diseases and symbionts.
Authors: Brewster J. L.
Published: November 2009

The main pests and disease-causing organisms and the symptoms they can cause on alliums are briefly described. This chapter aim to show how scientific knowledge of weed, pest and disease biology underlies rational crop protection. Attention is also paid to the interrelations between different classes of noxious organisms. For example, allium viral diseases are vectored by pest insects and mites, pest damage can predispose plants to infection by disease-causing bacteria and fungi, and weeds often act as alternative hosts for such bacteria and fungi. This chapter ends with a section on the mycorrhizal fungi of allium roots where a fungi that can be of direct benefit to the plants is exemplified. Symptoms of a number of the important pests and diseases are also illustrated.
The end of tourism, or endings in tourism?
Authors: Gale T.
Published: November 2009

This chapter picks up the idea of the 'end of tourism' and explores the capacity for 'endings' in tourism in the context of wider debates on mobilities, sustainable development and the risk society. It adopts a more literal interpretation of John Urry's ideas on the 'end of tourism', extending his thesis beyond the social construction of leisure travel - which, it is argued, has become less distinct and more ordinary - to encompass a number of issues that problematize existing notions of tourism as an industry and a phenomenon in ascendancy. These include the decline of traditional seaside resorts, the unsustainability of 'old' and 'new' tourism alike, and the potentially deleterious effects of macro environmental and political crises such as climate change and the 'war on terror'.
Of time and space and other things: laws of tourism and the geographies of contemporary mobilities.
Authors: Hall C. M.
Published: November 2009

This chapter looks at the development of geographical accounts of mobilities and addresses some of the ontological and epistemological issues that they raise, including intersections between the 'old' and 'new' social physics, issues of scale of analysis and method, as well as the sociology of knowledge of tourism mobilities. It argues that there is great value in engaging in multiple understandings of mobilities in order to better inform method, theory and debates surrounding human behaviour in space and time, including the issue of whether there are laws of mobility. The chapter concludes by arguing that although notions of grand theory in the social sciences are usually relegated to the position of wishful positivist thinking there are nevertheless certain principles that apply to an improved understanding of accessibility and mobility issues in tourism.
Section I. Cassava: postharvest quality and marketing.
Authors: Lebot V.
Published: November 2009

This chapter covers the following aspects of the postharvest quality and marketing of cassava: chemical composition, physiological disorders in freshly stored roots, marketing and quality standards, storage methods, traditional processing techniques, and industrial processing.
Section II. Sweet potato: postharvest quality and marketing.
Authors: Lebot V.
Published: November 2009

This chapter covers the following aspects of sweet potato postharvest quality and marketing: chemical composition, physiological disorders in freshly stored roots, marketing and quality standards, storage methods, traditional processing techniques, and industrial processing.
Morphology and taxonomy of the olive.
Authors: Therios I.
Published: November 2009

This chapter describes the growth habit; taxonomy; anatomy of root system, trunk, main branches, leaves, inflorescences, flowers; growth; morphology; and physiology (flowering, pollination, fertilization and ripening) of olive tree.
Major trends in olive farming systems.
Authors: Therios I.
Published: November 2009

Significant changes in cultivation techniques have occurred since the 1970s, such as the use of chemical fertilizers, herbicides and insecticides and modern cultivation and irrigation systems. The expansion of new plantation systems and the abandonment of the old, traditional ones have produced significant environmental consequences. This chapter examines what changes and progress in olive culture have been at work in the three main EU olive-producing countries, i.e. Spain, Italy and Greece.
Systems of planting and canopy training.
Authors: Therios I.
Published: November 2009

This chapter discusses the systems of planting and canopy training in olive trees. The orchard site selection, soil preparation, selection of cultivar and rootstock are discussed. Four major types of olive plantation systems (traditional, semiintensive, intensive and organic) and several modern training systems (including vase, polyconic, central leader trees or monocone, vasebush, palmette and globe, high-density, and super high-density orchards) are described. A mechanical method of harvesting by using the over-the-row harvester is also described.
Irrigation of the olive.
Authors: Therios I.
Published: November 2009

This chapter describes the quality of irrigation water, the water requirements of olive trees, the root system of an olive tree, and the principles of irrigation programming (by measuring soil water, leaf water potential, trunk diameter, sap flow and infrared thermography). The low-volume and partial root zone-drying irrigation techniques are also described. The effect of irrigation on the quality of table olives and olive oil is discussed, as well as the use of water for olive irrigation.
Olive fruit harvesting.
Authors: Therios I.
Published: November 2009

This chapter outlines the various methods used in the harvesting of olive fruits, from the simple and traditional to the modern and sophisticated: hand harvesting, hand harvesting with abscission chemicals, pneumatic beating poles, use of plastic nets and canvases. The features and advantages of mechanical harvesting are given, and molecular strategies (using transgenic plants or insertion of an active ACC synthase [1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate synthase] into the trees) for improving olive harvesting are mentioned.
Olive varieties.
Authors: Therios I.
Published: November 2009

The use of molecular markers to characterize and classify olive (Olea europaea) germplasm is discussed. Tabulated data on the number of cultivars grown and their synonyms, their separation into type (olive oil, table olives and dual-purpose cultivars) and their distribution throughout various countries; on the main olive cultivars grown in various countries; and on the taxonomy of 24 Greek cultivars, are presented.
Olive oil.
Authors: Therios I.
Published: November 2009

This chapter describes the olive oil extraction, characteristics, storage, bottling, sensory evaluation, and certification. The criteria for determination of quality (free acidity, oxidation, colour and organoleptic traits) are given. Various conventional (determination of physical and chemical constants and chemical compounds of olive oil, changes in squalene concentration, ultraviolet absorption, gas or HPLC and infiltrated spectroscopy) or non-conventional (DNA polymorphism, random amplified polymorphic DNA, sequence characterized regions, amplified fragment length polymorphism, simple sequence repeats, single nucleotide polymorphism, and inter-simple sequence repeats) methods developed for detection of adulteration of olive oil are described.
Insect pests and their management.
Authors: Ram Ujagir Ram Ujagir , Byrne O. M.
Published: November 2009

This chapter on the insect pests of lentil covers the following: estimation of losses caused by the insect pest complex; viruses/diseases transmitted by insect pests (including lentil yellows disease, Bean yellow mosaic virus, Broad bean stain virus, Pea seed-borne mosaic virus, and Cucumber mosaic virus); cultural, biological and chemical control methods; and host plant resistance.
Weed management.
Authors: Yenish J. P. , Brand J. , Pala M. , Haddad A.
Published: November 2009

This chapter presents weeds common in lentil fields and their management (i.e. through preventive measures, and cultural, mechanical, chemical and integrated control methods).
Seed quality and alternative seed delivery systems.
Authors: Bishaw Z. , Makkawi M. , Niane A. A.
Published: November 2009

This chapter on lentil covers the following: factors determining seed quality (seed genetic purity, physical purity, germination, vigour and health), factors affecting seed quality (genetic factors, production environments, harvesting and mechanical damage), seed treatments (seed priming, Rhizobium inoculation, and chemical treatments), requirements for quality seed production, status of the seed industry in developed and developing countries, constraints to the seed industry (availability of quality seeds, mechanization problems, and high production costs), and alternatives for seed delivery (formal seed supply, farmer-based seed supply, non-commercial seed supply, and village-based seed enterprises). Key elements for the success of village-based seed enterprises are discussed.
Ecophysiology.
Authors: Schaffer B. , Urban L. , Lu P. , Whiley A. W.
Published: November 2009

This chapter discusses the impact of photosynthesis and tree water relations on the growth and development of mango. The effects of environmental and crop-related factors on photosynthesis (light, leaf temperature, elevated atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration, humidity, flooding and internal factors), tree growth and development (light, temperature, drought, flooding, wind, salinity, and elevated atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration) and crop production (temperature limitations, light interception and orchard design) are covered.
Multilateral responses to the global food crisis.
Authors: Margulis M. E.
Published: November 2009

Skyrocketing food prices in 2007 and 2008 have produced social and political unrest in many developing countries and threaten to precipitate an unprecedented humanitarian crisis. This review looks at the present food crisis through the analytical lenses of international political economy and global governance. I argue that the study of the food crisis is enhanced by contextualizing the crisis within broader processes of globalization. The review is divided into three parts. The first section examines the magnitude of the current food crisis and clarifies what is meant by the term 'global food crisis'. The second section reviews the policy measures implemented in response to the crisis, focusing particularly on the multilateral level. The third section examines two vital elements of the multilateral response, emergency food aid and establishing an international agreement on biofuels, and identifies key obstacles to their efficacy.
Incidence and microbiology of salad-borne disease.
Authors: Allerberger F. , Sessitsch A.
Published: November 2009

Because consumers have developed a better understanding of the health benefits associated with eating fresh produce, salads are increasingly being served in the home, in restaurants and as ready-to-eat pre-packaged foods. The associated increase in food-borne diseases must be seen in view of these benefits. Bacterial pathogens can survive on growing plants over prolonged periods of time under field conditions. In addition, the ability of human pathogens to infiltrate plant tissues has been recognized recently. Prepackaged, precut lettuce (i.e. damaged plant tissue) may pose a risk as an emerging source of food-borne illness. Surprisingly, there are no clear differences in pathogen contamination reported between organically grown produce and conventionally grown produce. The present intervention strategies are inadequate to ensure by 100% that salads are not contaminated with food-borne bacterial pathogens. The relative infrequency of outbreaks associated with preharvest contamination with
Shigella
, an organism with humans as its major reservoir, and the relative frequency of those associated with
Salmonella
or Shiga toxin-producing
Escherichia coli
, organisms with animals as their major reservoirs, underline the role of domestic and wild animals as dominant sources of preharvest contamination of vegetable salads. In the overwhelming majority of reported outbreaks, the contamination of salads did not occur before harvest nor did it originate at the processing plants, but rather the source could be traced to symptomatic or asymptomatic food handlers. Thorough epidemiological and microbiological investigation of all food-borne outbreaks is essential to finally assess the importance of preharvest contamination of salads.
Green tea and cardiac health.
Authors: Liou YingMing Liou YingMing , Hsieh ShihRong Hsieh ShihRong , Wu TsuJuey Wu TsuJuey
Published: November 2009

Growing evidence has established a close relationship between the consumption of green tea and protection against cardiovascular diseases. In contrast to the well-known effects of green tea on blood vessels, limited information is available regarding its myocardial effects. Experimental studies have suggested that the myocardial protective effect of green tea is associated with the antioxidant properties of scavenging reactive oxygen species, modulating redox-sensitive transcription factors (e.g. NF-κB and AP-1), reducing the activation of signal transducers and activators of transcription (STAT)-1 and the expression of Fas receptor, and increasing NO production. Recent data obtained from biochemical studies have shown that green tea polyphenols can bind to cardiac troponin C and exert their direct effects on myofilament Ca
2+
-sensitivity in isolated skinned cardiac myofibrils. Studies with rat models of myocardial infarction and ischaemia/reperfusion induced by a surgical ligation on left anterior descending coronary artery have provided
in vivo
evidence for green tea protecting against myocardial damage and enhancing cardiac contractility by modulating myofilament Ca
2+
sensitivity. In summary, green tea protects against myocardial damage, which may be considered as a promising medicine for cardiac health.
Application of metabolomic profiling for identifying valuable traits in tomato.
Authors: Osorio S. , Tohge T. , Fernie A. R.
Published: November 2009

Naturally occurring variation in wild species can be used to increase the genetic diversity of cultivated crops and improve agronomic value. Understanding plant metabolic pathways and the interactions between genes, phenotype and environment is fundamental to functional genomics. Analysis of the complex network of plant metabolism requires analytical methods capable of recording information on as many metabolites as possible. Metabolite profiling is a rapidly expanding technology (which aims to quantify the entire metabolome or metabolic complement, of biological samples), for phenotyping and diagnostic analysis of plants. These tools have recently been used to evaluation of the natural variance in metabolite content: an approach with great potential for improvement of the compositional quality of crops. Here, we assess the contribution of metabolite profiling in the identification of genetic determinants of plant chemical composition.
Leaf senescence and gene expression.
Authors: Kudryakova N.
Published: November 2009

The long-standing view of leaf senescence as an organized genetically controlled process has received convincing support from recent genome-wide studies of differential gene expression. Many hundreds of senescence-associated genes (SAGs) appear to be up- or down-regulated for the sake of nutrient salvage, including a wide array of SAGs that encode proteases, nucleases, lipid-, carbohydrate- and amino acid-degrading enzymes. Mobilization and export of nutrients from senescing leaves is accompanied by complex expression of a special set of genes for transporters. Another category of genes with altered transcription rates was shown to control protective- or stress-response functions necessary to keep the cells viable till the task of salvage is completed. Coordinated activation or inactivation of various subsets of SAGs is governed by a comprehensive network of regulatory genes, such as genes for transcription factors and hormone pathways. Transcriptome data and mutant screens provide a foundation for further analysis of physiological functions of senescence-expressed genes and subsequent manipulation for the benefits of plant breeding.
Aquaculture of detritivorous fish in China: status and perspective.
Authors: Kang Bin Kang Bin
Published: November 2009

The aim of this review is to give a description of aquaculture of detritivorous fish in China. China has a long history of using aquaculture. With the increasing demand for fishery products, intensive aquaculture has been encouraged to a great degree, which has also led to a series of environmental, technical and social problems. Besides physical, chemical and mechanical removal of waste by sedimentation and microsieving, a biologically and technically feasible method called integrated aquaculture has been proposed to reduce environmental impacts. Bivalve molluscs, seaweeds and detritivorous fish are considered as suitable subjects for integrated culture. A model showed that sedimentary N decreased from 37% of the total original nutrients to 8.5% after the introduction of bivalve molluscs and seaweeds into aquaculture. Four detritivorous fish,
Plagiognathops microlepis
,
Xenocypris davidi
,
Squaliobarbus curriculus
and
Liza haematocheila
, are now used in aquaculture in China. To determine the most suitable initial integrated culture level of detritivorous fingerlings, a dynamic model was constructed based on a computer simulation method according to the following principle: the level of scavenging by detritivorous fish equals the level of waste left by the main culture object. Selecting suitable detritivorous fish species, solving the technical problems of artificial propagation and determining the initial culture level of selected species are three key problems associated with maintaining an effective integrated aquaculture system. Raising awareness about the importance of 'clean' aquaculture and performing corresponding scientific research should be encouraged.
Mitigating diffuse water pollution from agriculture: riparian buffer strip performance with width.
Authors: Collins A. L. , Hughes G. , Zhang Y. , Whitehead J.
Published: November 2009

There is currently a dearth of empirical evidence on the performance of most options for mitigating diffuse pollution from agriculture across a representative range of environmental and agricultural conditions. Riparian buffers have, however, received more attention than most mitigation options over the past 20 years. Ranges for positive buffer efficacy were found to be 30-100% for sediment, 30-95% for total phosphorus, 10-100% for total nitrogen, 30-100% for pesticides and 53-100% for faecal indicator organisms. Since many of the experiments underpinning this evidence base were conducted under 'ideal' operating conditions, it is likely that buffer performance in reality will be further hampered by a number of factors such as compaction or the occurrence of concentrated flows. Overall, the evidence base suggests that buffers provide useful short-term benefits, but the longer-term impacts remain questionable owing to risks of pollution swapping. Optimal buffer performance will be site-specific and typically limited in duration, thereby requiring a targeted approach for deployment. Assessing the implications of the reported ranges in buffer performance for implementing a targeted approach remains a key challenge.
The causes and consequences of the food crisis.
Authors: Bigman D.
Published: November 2009

The origins of the sharp rise in food prices towards a peak in mid-2008 are evaluated and analyzed. The food crisis has been felt not only among the poor people in both developing and developed countries but also increasingly among the working and middle-income people as the rising inflation eroded their hard-earned incomes, their savings, and their pensions. The protests and the spreading discontent forced the governments in many low-income countries to take drastic measures to restrict the rise in domestic food prices and ensure sufficient supply of basic agricultural products in order to protect their consumers. In many countries, the food crisis deteriorated into a recession that deepens their poverty and malnutrition. Threats to global security and the risk of widespread violent demonstrations that may shatter the stability of the regimes in many countries are evaluated.
Carbon sequestration in forest trees of the EU as affected by long-term changes of land use.
Authors: Kauppi P. , Rautiainen A. , Lehtonen A. , Saikku L.
Published: November 2009

The biomass of forest vegetation expands in all EU countries. This review analyses the long-term development of forest vegetation and, thereby, the sequestration of carbon in forest biomass in the EU, country by country. The sequestration estimates and their uncertainties are assessed focusing on the period 1990-2006. The most recent estimates are compared with those for earlier times. A case study from Finland is presented, which helps understand the causal mechanisms affecting long-term sequestration of carbon in forest vegetation on a centennial scale. The forests of the 27 countries of the European Union (EU-27) represent approximately 4% of global forest area and 5% of global growing stock volume [1]. Despite their relatively small global shares, the region's forests remove carbon from the atmosphere at a surprisingly high rate. During 1990 to 2006 within the 27 countries (that were members of the EU in 2008) the expanding woody biomass annually sequestered 360 to 495 million tonnes CO
2
from the atmosphere (
high confidence
). The rate of sequestration accelerated over time during the same period (
low confidence
). Over a more extended decadal scale from 1900 to 2006, the rate accelerated (
high confidence
). The biomass sink was mainly driven by increasing density of average European forests and to a lesser extent by increasing forest cover (
high confidence
). Changes in forestry, nature conservation and other land management practices were the main drivers of carbon sequestration (
medium confidence
). The contribution of carbon sequestration in forests to the national carbon budget varied among countries depending on the extent of forests. Estimates for individual years varied and the accuracy and precision of the national estimates was not high, typically ÃÂ±30%. A three-year moving average can be recommended as a basis for calculations, because it evens out inter-annual variation. Biomass sequestration has potential to continue in the EU for at least 50 years into the future. If land use trends revert and consumption patterns change, for example, if the demand for agricultural and wood products increases and bioenergy is developed on a large scale, sequestration can decelerate in the very long term. Climate change in itself is a risk factor to forest ecosystems in terms of increasing risks of storm damage, forest fire, forest pests and drought. Losing the biomass sink in EU, notably only a theoretical scenario in the next 20 to 30 years, would become an obstacle to reaching the main goal of climate policy: a stable atmosphere in terms of greenhouse gases. Promoting the sink on the other hand would make a contribution to achieving that goal. If the global trends of deforestation and forest degradation are reverted, forest sequestration of carbon can make an important contribution to stabilizing the atmosphere and preventing a serious climate change. Forest biomass has a potential to expand significantly worldwide.
Targeting the most vulnerable in the food crisis.
Authors: Rossi L.
Published: November 2009

The objective of this paper is to review the wide range of literature on the public health nutrition approach aimed at meeting the nutritional needs of an at-risk group of population during humanitarian emergencies characterized by shortage of food and famine. Food crisis in general occurs when living conditions in an area change and communities become vulnerable and are no longer able to meet their nutritional needs. High prevalence of malnutrition can usually be found in food crisis. As a consequence, nutrition interventions have become a standard component of the humanitarian response. Data on nutritional status of vulnerable groups of populations are used to identify relief needs, to prioritize affected groups or geographical areas, to plan nutritional interventions, to target scarce resources and also to monitor the effectiveness of food aid programmes. Selective feeding programmes aimed at reducing the prevalence of acute malnutrition are mainly addressed to infant and young children and pregnant and lactating women. Other population groups, such as elderly or HIV infected adults, could be at risk in food crisis. In fact, while targeting malnourished persons follows strict scientific rules, the detection of 'poorest' or 'most vulnerable' families in a given area required a most complex analysis that has to include also well-structured methods of community participation. Nutritional screening is the prerequisite of programme implementation; however, food security and livelihoods assessments could help in the identification of vulnerable groups other than malnourished at an early stage providing better basis for action and maximizing the impact of interventions.