bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Parasites and bright birds: new data and a new prediction
Authors: Zuk Marlene
Published: November 2023

The function of male secondary sexual characters such as colourful plumage or elaborate courtship displays is controversial among evolutionary biologists, with some suggesting that females assess the genetic quality of potential mates by the development of these characters (Thornhill 1980; Heisler 1984; Nur and Hasson 1984; T rivers 1985; Andersson 1986) and others maintaining that conspicuous traits indicate nothing about male fitness outside of sexual attractiveness, and have evolved through genetic correlation with a female preference for the ornament (Fisher 1930; Lande 1981; Kirkpatrick 1982; Arnold 1983; cf. Pomiankowski 1987). In a specific version of this former type of ‘good genes’ hypothesis, Hamilton and Zuk (1982) proposed that male ornaments signal the bearer's health and freedom from parasites, and that resistant males within a species have brighter plumage and more vigorous displays than susceptible males. The relationship between host and parasite is likely to generate ‘good genes’ sexual selection because frequency-dependent interactions between host and parasite alleles readily produce stable limit cycles in the gene frequencies of both species, helping to maintain heritable genetic variation in fitness (Eshel and Hamilton 1984; Hamilton 1982). Species susceptible to parasites will therefore be most likely to evolve male ornaments as indicators of male resistance to common pathogens. Across species, then, Hamilton and Zuk (1982) predicted that the degree of ornamentation should be positively correlated with the proportion of individuals infected with parasites.
A global plant taxonomy database: design considerations
Authors: Everard M
Published: November 2023

Commercial implementations of the technology necessary to run a globally accessible plant species information system, consolidating and centralizing existing taxonomic information, have been available for some years. Advantages to the delay in implementing such a system are that database technology has matured, computers have become more capable and cheaper per unit computing power, computer literacy has become more widespread, and data presentation features have been refined. Industry-standard software is generally recommended as a technical solution, for reasons of usability, cross-system compatibility, and cost. A commercially oriented design process has been used to assess the features required of the database. One of the first steps in this process is to consider the ‘customers’ of the data. Data customers dictate the search and presentation methods that must be designed into the database. The system must be designed with the flexibility to be adapted to support unforeseen future needs, including exploitation of novel technology.
Cytokinin-binding protein(s) and protein kinases in cytokinin signal transduction
Authors: Kulaeva Olga N , Karavaiko Natalia N , Moshkov Igor E , Selivankina Svetlana Yu. , Novikova Galina V , Pereverseva Inna N , Yakovleva Ludmila A
Published: November 2023

In contrast to wheat embryo CBP, cytokinin-binding proteins from tobacco cell culture (Hamaguchi et al. 1985), barley leaves (Romanov et al. 1988), maize seedlings (Romanov et al. 1990), and cucumber cotyledons (Jayabaskaran 1990) possess a high affinity to zeatin; however, this is not sufficient evidence to consider these CBPs as cytokinin receptors. As Napier and Venis (1990) wrote: ‘A receptor, in addition to binding a ligand in a specific and saturable manner, should generate some defined response as a consequence of that binding.’ From this point of view our data on barley leaf cytosolic CBP(s) which participates in the activation of RNA synthesis in vitro is of interest.
Pictures, words, and numbers: sorting and indexing
Authors: Davies Duncan , Bathurst Diana , Bathurst Robin
Published: November 2023

We must now face c1n unsolved problem of fundamental importance and great difficulty: the sorting and indexing of pictures. To understand the situation we must spend a little time examining how lexicographers, librnrians. and scholars sort words, how accountants. scientists, and engineers sort numbers, and how computers sort either or both. These tusks we can perform with precision. because we understand all of the processes, having designed them as part of our alphabetic and alphanumeric techniques. \Ve must next observe that the mammalian brain in general, and the human brain in particular, can rccogni'l.c and sort pictures at a level of sophistication that isquite unattainable by computer-based methods.
Electromagnetic radiation
Authors: Baldomir D , Hammond P
Published: November 2023

The natural geometry of electromagnetic fields is four-dimensional in space and time. In the previous chapters we have developed a mathematical structure to deal with four-dimensional electromagnetic effects. We have also shown that the more familiar three-dimensional quantities can be obtained as projections from four-dimensional space. In principle, therefore, it is always possible to treat electromagnetic problems by starting with the full four dimensional geometry and then making suitable approximations. However, this is not the best procedure, because various approximations are important in different technological applications and each of these requires close attention to its own peculiar geometrical features. As a result it is convenient to consider the subject under such headings as quasi-static electric or magnetic fields, diffusion of energy in conducting materials, magnetic induction fields, and electromagnetic radiation. In this chapter we consider radiation and show that a full understanding of radiation phenomena needs the covariant relativistic formalism which we have developed.
Spiral Vector Theory of AC Circuits and Machines
Authors: Yamamura Sakae
Published: November 2023

The spiral vector theory proposed and explained in this book unifies the steady state and transient state theories of AC circuits and machines. Previously steady state theory and transient state theory were separated by different expressions for state variables. This new theory makes possible the analysis of transient phenomena in three phase machines, an area largely untouched by conventional AC machine theories. Results of AC motor analysis obtained by the spiral vector method have led directly to new torque controls which give AC motors much superior performance to the usual DC control motors. With the rapid developments in inverter technology making the control of AC power easier the spiral vector theory provides the necessary theoretical foundation for the understanding and design of AC circuits and machines. The spiral vector theory provides superior computer simulations to AC circuits and machines, which are simple in structure and easy in use. The salient-pole AC generator is a good example for it.
Mexico, Brazil, and the Latin World
Authors: Sinclair John
Published: November 2023

We think of the development of television on a global scale as primarily an ‘American’ phenomenon, and so it has been in important ways, but as this chapter will demonstrate there is also a Latin American version of that story to be told. To most English-speakers, ‘America’ means the USA, even though that is just one zone within the two continents of America that join to form a virtual hemisphere, almost from one pole to the other. We also need to remind ourselves that the legacy of the Iberian colonization of America which began more than half-a-millennium ago includes the fact that the majority of the inhabitants of those continents speak Spanish or Portuguese. Not only do South and Central America, including Mexico, present a unique world region of contiguous nations with a common language, with the notable exception of Brazil, but now close to a tenth of the US population is Spanish-speaking. In significant respects, it has been Latin American corporations which have been best placed to perceive and exploit the commercial possibilities of the region’s demographics for television. Their comparative advantage in that regard has been the basis upon which they have built a major world market, one which the US television programme and service providers have begun to take seriously in only recent years.
Shakespeare and Eastern Europe
Authors: Stříbrný Zdeněk
Published: November 2023

Oxford Shakespeare Topics provides students, teachers, and interested readers with short books on important aspects of Shakespeare criticism and scholarship. Each book is written by an authority in its field, and combines accessible style with original discussion of its subject. Notes and a critical guide to further reading equip the interested reader with the means to broaden research. This is the first full account of Shakespeare's impact on the whole of Eastern and East Central Europe up to the present day. Starting with the tours of the English Comedians on the Continent during Shakespeare's lifetime and shortly after his death, it traces their routes as far as Poland (Gdánsk, Warsaw) and the core of the Habsburg Empire (Prague, Vienna, Graz). Later chapters explore the profound Shakespearian influence on Russian drama, literature, and criticism since the 18th century-Tsarina Catherine II's Russian adaptations of Merry Wives and Timon, Tolstoy's attack on King Lear, Stanislavsky's interpretation of Hamlet and Othello-and Shakespeare's major role in the national revivals in Poland, the Czech lands, Slovakia, Hungary, Romania, Slovenia, Croatia, Serbia, and Bulgaria. Chapters on Shakespeare after the Bolshevik revolution and behind the Iron Curtain deal with the appropriation of his plays for political interpretations but also with the ways his humanism became an increasingly inspiring voice of dissent from Stalinist totalitarianism. The book evaluates the Shakespearian achievements of the film-maker Grigori Kozintsev, the poet and translator Boris Pasternak, the composers Sergei Prokofiev and Dmitry Shostakovich, and the stage designer Josef Svoboda as well as the more controversial contributions of the critic Jan Kott and the playwright and director Bertolt Brecht.
[c.1700], Colley Cibber (167I-1757) on Thomas Betterton (1635-17Io) as Hamlet, from An Apology for the Life of Mr Colley Gibber (1740), ed. Robert W. Lowe, 2 vols. (1889), i. 100-2.
Authors: Shakespeare Critics Theatre
Published: November 2023

Over his fifty-year career Thomas Betterton was by all accounts the greatest actor after Richard Burbage and before David Garrick, and Hamlet was one of his greatest roles. Samuel Pepys noted in 1661, when Betterton was twenty-six, that he ‘did the Prince’s part beyond imagination’; he was still playing it at the age of seventy-four, when, according to a report in The Tat/er, ‘he acted youth; and by the prevalent power of proper manner, gesture, and voice, appeared throughout the whole drama a young man of great expectation, vivacity, and enterprise’. He appears to have used a somewhat truncated but not substantially adapted text. We lack detailed accounts of his performances, but a vivid glimpse of his Hamlet, along with a sense of the technical means by which he achieved his effects, is preserved by the actor, playwright, and theatre manager Colley Cibber in his autobiography, an invaluable source of information about the theatre of his time.
[1789-c.1817], Sir Walter Scott (1771-1832) on John Philip Kemble (1757-1823) as Macbeth (pp. 218-19) and on Coriolanus’ death scene (p. 224); from Scott’s review of James Boaden’s Memoirs of the Life of John Philip Kemble, in The Quarterly Review, 34 (June, 1826), pp. 196-248.
Authors: Shakespeare Critics Theatre
Published: November 2023

John Philip Kemble, actor, manager, and play adapter, was the leading figure of the English theatre between the death of Garrick and the emergence of Edmund Kean, whose fiery genius threw him into eclipse in his final years. Kemble managed Drury Lane from 1788 to 1802, and Covent Garden from 1803 till he retired in 1817. He often played Macbeth with his sister, Sarah Siddons, as his Lady. Sir Walter Scott was a favourite drinking companion who helped him to write a farewell speech in verse, delivered after his last performance, as Macbeth, in Edinburgh during his final season. Scott’s long review of Boaden’s biography gave him the opportunity to assess the actor’s qualitities with affectionate but judicious nostalgia.
14 March 1814, William Hazlitt on Edmund Kean as Hamlet at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, London, from the Morning Chronicle, reprinted in Hazlitt on Theatre, ed. William Archer and Robert Lowe (1895; repr. New York, n.d. [1957]), pp. 10-14.
Authors: Shakespeare Critics Theatre
Published: November 2023

In the opening paragraphs, omitted here, Hazlitt writes in general terms of Shakespeare and of the play, remarking that, though ‘This character is probably of all others the most difficult to personate on the stage’, ‘Mr Kean’s representation of the character’ which ‘had the most brilliant success’, ‘was a most striking and animated rehearsal [i.e. rendition, performance] of the part.’ Igh as Mr. Kean stood in our opinion before, we have no hesitation in saying that he stands higher in it (and, we think, will in that of the public), from the powers displayed in this last effort.
5 December 1819, Leigh Hunt on William Charles Macready as Coriolanus at the Theatre Royal, Covent Garden, London, from The Examiner, reprinted in Leigh Hunt’s Dramatic Criticism I8o8-I8JI, ed. L. H. and C. W. Houtchens (New York, 1949), pp. 223-5.
Authors: Shakespeare Critics Theatre
Published: November 2023

M.R. Macready has appeared twice during the past week in the character of Coriolanus; and is to repeat it tomorrow. It is another unquestionable addition to his repute, though not so high a one as his Richard. In Richard, Mr. Macready seized one particular side of the character—the gayer and more sanguine—and appropriated it to himself
25 April 1820, anonymous review of Edmund Kean as King Lear at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, London, from The Times, reprinted in Eyewitnesses of Shakespeare, edited by Ga.mini Salgado (1975), pp. 280-2.
Authors: Shakespeare Critics Theatre
Published: November 2023

Public expectation has seldom been raised to a greater height than by the announcement of Kean’s appearance in King Lear, which, after numerous delays, took place yesterday evening. The admirers of this highly-gifted actor, confident in the extent and diversity of his talents, have long anticipated this trial as the last seal to his theatrical renown; while his enemies, on the other hand (for Kean, like other men of genius, has encountered the extremes of hostility as well as of admiration), have not scrupled to predict failure and loss of reputation. Such was the anxiety of all parties to witness the experiment, that a crowd was collected at the doors long before the period of admission; and the first rush filled the pit, with a great portion of those boxes where seats had not been secured.
November 1922, Stark Young (1881-1963) on John Barrymore(1882-1942) as Hamlet, directed by Arthur Hopkins, at the Sam H. Harris Theater, New York, from The New Republic, reprinted in his Immortal Shadows (New York and London, 1948; repr. New York, Dramabooks series, n.d., pp. 8-14).
Authors: Shakespeare Critics Theatre
Published: November 2023

MR. John Barrymore seemed to gather together in himself all the Hamlets of his generation, to simplify and direct every-ne’s theory of the part. To me his Hamlet was the most satisfying that I have seen, not yet as a finished creation, but a foundation, a continuous outline. Mounet-Sully’s1 Hamlet was richer and more sonorous; Forbes-Robertson’s2 at times more sublimated; Irving’s3 more sharply devised; and Sothem’s,4 so far as we are concerned strictly with the verse pattern, was more securely read. But there is nothing in Mr. Barrymore’s Hamlet to get in the way of these accomplishments also, with time and study.
[1923], Herbert Farjeon (18811945) on Nigel Playfair’s production Of The Merry Wives of Windsor, with Edith Evans (1888-1976) as Mistress Page, at the Lyric Theatre, Hammersmith; from his The Shakespearean Scene ([1949]), pp. 20-1.
Authors: Shakespeare Critics Theatre
Published: November 2023

He revival of The Merry Wives of Windsor at the Lyric Theatre, Hammersmith, is a very jolly affair. This was almost inevitable, for the the play is essentially so jolly, so blithe, and, withal, so thick-skinned as tobe practically producer-proof The best possible description of the mood in which Shakespeare wrote it is to be found in the terms applied by the Host of the Garter Inn to Master Fenton: ‘He capers, he dances, he has eyes of youth: he writes verses, he speaks holiday, he smells April and May, he will carry’t, he will carry’t, ‘tis in his buttons, he will carry’t.’ Master Fenton does not fulfil the expectations aroused by these exuber-ant, bouncing words.
30 September 1933, Virginia Woolf (1882-1941), on Twelfth Night directed by Tyrone Guthrie (1900-71) at the Old Vic Theatre, London, from The New Statesmans reprinted in The Death of the Moth and Other Essays (1942; Harmondsworth, 1961, pp. 43-7).
Authors: Shakespeare Critics Theatre
Published: November 2023

The great novelist wrote this review out of friendship for Geoffrey Maynard Keynes and his wife, Lydia Lopokova, who had won fame as a ballet dancer; she had a strong Russian accent. Woolf referred to it in her diary as Lydia’s extortidri (10 September 1933, in Diaries. .., vol. 4,1931-45, Hogarth Press, 1982); and in a letter to Ethel Smyth of 14 September she wrote ‘my horror is that I must write an article on it...’ (Letters, ed. Nigel Nicolson, vol. 5 (1979), p. 225). Her dismay increased when she read a review by W. A. Darlington in The Daily Telegraph, which declared that ‘Lydia Lopokova makes her bow... as the most humourless female in literature... What possessed anybody to give the part of Olivia to her?’ ‘My god; what shall I say?’, she wrote in a letter to Quentin Bell (19 September); ‘I think the only possible line to take is how very exciting it is to see Shakespr mauled... Well. Pity me.’ In the event she produced a beautifully written essay on the difference between reading and seeing plays.
[1945-6], Kenneth Tynan on Laurence Olivier and Ralph Richardson (1902-83, knighted 1947), in Henry IV, Part One and Part Two, directed by John Burrell for the Old Vic Company at the New Theatre, London, from his He that Plays the King (i95°)> pp. 48-53-
Authors: Shakespeare Critics Theatre
Published: November 2023

From a production so unobtrusive that at times it looked positively mousy, three very great pieces of acting emerged. The Old Vic was now at its height: the watershed had been reached, and one of those rare moments in the theatre had arrived when drama paused, took stock of all that it had learnt since Irving, and then produced a monument in celebration. It is surprising, when one considers it, that English acting should have reached up and seized a laurel crown in the middle of a war, and that the plays in which the prize was won should have been plays of battle, tumult, conspiracy and death, as the histories are.
27 August 1965, Ronald Bryden on Peter Halls production of Hamlet at the Royal Shakespeare Theatre, Stratford-upon-Avon, in his The Unfinished Hero and Other Essays (1969), pp. 63-6.
Authors: Shakespeare Critics Theatre
Published: November 2023

The four captains kneel on either side of the body. Awkwardly they hoist it on their shoulders, its arms out flung as if in horizontal crucifixion.
29June 1984, Stanley Wells (born 1930) on Antony Sher (born 1949) as Richard III, directed at the Royal Shakespeare Theatre, Stratford-upon-Avon, by Bill Alexander (born 1948); from the
Times Literary Supplement,
p. 729.
Authors: Shakespeare Critics Theatre
Published: November 2023

Bill Alexander’s1 big, bold production of Richard mis distinguished by its respect for the text, its confident but sensitive response to verbal style, and its willingness to draw on the traditions of spectacular theatre to flesh out Shakespeare’s rhetorically sophisticated and self-conscious dialogue. William Dudley’s set fills the proscenium arch with a two-storey, elaborately sculpted and windowed screen; its style is continued in the benches and doors on each side of the forestage. The screen can rise to reveal a cathedral interior with four massive tombs, two to each side of the main stage. This is a society dominated by at least the forms of religion; Richard’s evil is measured by his revolt against it. The thematic deliberateness is stressed by the reprinting in the programme of Browning’s3 ‘The Bishop Orders his Tomb at Saint Praxed’s Church’.
[1986], Stanley Wells on Henry IV, Parts One and Two, and Henry V directed by Michael Bogdanov (born 1938) and performed on tour by the English Shakespeare Company, from Shakespeare Survey 41 (1989), pp. 159-62.
Authors: Shakespeare Critics Theatre
Published: November 2023

The new company’s first production presented Parts One and Two of Henry IValong with Henry Vas a cycle, and I saw all three plays at the Old Vic during a single day. Such theatrical endurance tests, though popular, are of doubtful validity. Of course, this one provided an opportunity to enjoy within a short space of time an extraordinary diversity of dramatic writing linked by a narrative thread. It also brought audiences together in a curious sort of bonding with their fellow theatregoers and the performers, with both of whom they experienced an unnaturally close relationship for a concentrated period of time.
II April 1987, Michael Billington (born 1939) on Antony and Cleopatra, directed by Peter Hall at the National Theatre, from The Guardian, reprinted in his One Night Stands: A Critics View of British Theatre from 1971-1991 (1993), pp. 278-80.
Authors: Shakespeare Critics Theatre
Published: November 2023

I asked yesterday if we are facing a Shakespearean-acting crisis owing to dearth of opportunity and growing disregard for language. Time alone will teU. But I can say, with ringing certainty, that there is no hint of crisis in Peter Hall’s new production of Antony And Cleopatra at the Olivier. It is not only the most intelligently spoken Shakespeare I have heard in years but it also contains two performances from Judi Dench and Anthony Hopkins that, in their comprehensive humanity, rank with Ashcroft and Redgrave1 at Stratford many moons ago.
[1989], Robert Smallwood (born 1941) on Othello^ directed by Trevor Nunn at The Other Place, Stratford-upon-Avon, from Shakespeare Quarterly^ 41 (1990), pp. 110-14.
Authors: Shakespeare Critics Theatre
Published: November 2023

The most remarkable event of this first half of the Stratford season was certainly the production of Othello at the Other Place. Officially closed last January before demolition and rebuilding, the tin-shed studio theatre reopened for six weeks in August and September for Trevor Nunns first Shakespeare production in seven years. The company was a specially recruited one, not drawn from the Swan and main-house Stratford group, and the casting was strong even in the minor roles. The aim, clearly, was to rediscover the power and energy generated by this director’s Macbeth in the same space in 1976 and Ian McKellen (Macbeth then) returned now as Iago.
Others
Authors: Smith Bruce R
Published: November 2023

The problem posed by other people in finding and maintaining one’s own identity is especially acute in Shakespeare’s sonnets. ‘Two loves I have, of comfort and despair’, declares the speaking persona in sonnet The word ‘suggest’ here carries the force of ‘promptor ‘propose’, so that the man right fair and the woman coloured ill function as tempter-figures in a morality play, with the persona as the central protagonist. The ‘I’ who speaks through all the sonnets may seem to enjoy an independent existence, but he is constituted by this ‘him’ and this ‘her’.
Narcissus in Bloom The Desiring Subject in Modern Latin American Narrative-María Luisa Bombal and Juan Rulfo
Authors: Rodenas Adriana Méndez
Published: November 2023

One of the most subtly disparaging criticisms of Latin American women’s writing came from the pen of Jorge Luis Borges in the 1938 issue of Sur, where the Argentine recounted his initial negative reaction to the projected plot of La amortajada (Borges 1938: 80-1). María Luisa Bombal had conveyed to Borges that her tale was to centre on a sole woman character who anticipates her own burial by looking back over the events of her life in a lucid moment of agonizing self-reflection. Borges was sceptical, however, as to the very possibility of narrating the story, which, for him, was ‘de ejecución imposible’ (impossible to carry out) (1938: So).
Response Cutting/Edge
Authors: Castillo Debra
Published: November 2023

Anny Jones’ s essay elegantly articulates a concern that has been exercising many of us for some time now about the role of the Western or Western-trained academic in relation to Third World cultural expressions and artefacts. As she points out, in Talking Back, I focus on questions of theoretical appropriation and on specific critical readings of (mostly) fictional texts that help me explore these concerns. I try to look at questions of knowledge production and the normalization of certain institutional practices. At the same time, one of the things I want to show in that book is how issues of curriculum, pedagogy, and politics unfold in tense imbrication with issues of crosscultural, interclass, and sexually charged exchanges.
Aristophanes and Athens
Authors: MacDowell Douglas M
Published: November 2023

Aristophanes is the most versatile and iridescent of authors. It is hard to define his qualities at all, and quite impossible to discuss them all fully within one book of moderate length. This book is primarily an introduction for those reading him for the first time, and I concentrate mainly on the subjects of the plays in relation to the historical circumstances of Athens, because that seems to me a good way for a newcomer to approach them. I say relatively little about literary and theatrical features, although those are not entirely ignored.
Giuseppe Mazzini and his opponents
Authors: Sarti Roland
Published: November 2023

For Mazzini, the cause of Italian unity was part of the larger struggle for the emancipation of all oppressed nationalities and groups, particularly women, serfs, and slaves. Patriot and democrat at one and the same time, Mazzini lived at a time when it was still possible to imagine that free nations would not infringe on one another’s rights or on the rights of individuals. The optimism of such an outlook is perhaps surprising in one who belonged to the generation of romanticism which was more likely to despair at the hopelessness of the human condition than to accept the idea of progress.
Political development
Authors: Pasquino Gianfranco
Published: November 2023

Italy’s political development from 1945 to 1999 can be appropriately divided into three different phases: 1945–79; 1980–92; 1993–99. These phases do not coincide with the different alignments of the various Italian coalitional governments, that is: centrist coalitions (1947–62); centre-left coalitions (1963–76); national solidarity (1976–9); pentapartito (1980–92); centre-right vs. centre-left (1994–present), that have been traditionally utilized. None the less, I believe that a different criterion, referring to the nature and dynamics of democratic life, is overriding and can be precisely and profitably used.
The Church in post-war Italy
Authors: McCarthy Patrick
Published: November 2023

The Catholic Church describes itself as universal and eternal but it also lives and hence changes in space and time. The Italian Church is different from the Irish and French Churches. The post-war Italian Church is no longer the Church that Cavour or Mussolini faced. There is also much geographical and cultural diversity within the national Church: in central Italy Catholics are fewer and more likely to have centre-left political views; Romano Prodi is only one of many examples. In the Veneto the Church acted as an intermediary between the peasants and the Habsburg rulers, and it was rewarded with a mass following. In Calabria, however, the middle classes were agnostic and the peasantry superstitious.
The Bible
Authors: Swinburne Richard
Published: November 2023

The Church has always claimed that the first part of the Bible, the Old Testament, is the record of God’s revelation to Israel, and the second part, the New Testament, is the record of God’s final revelation through Jesus; and that the Old Testament has to be interpreted in the light of the New. It has claimed that the Bible was inspired by God, although written down by human authors; and so, at any rate when it has a clear message, it is true.
Two Routes Lead to Trap Building
Authors: Hansell Mike
Published: November 2023

I have a fish trap that I bought in a market in Thailand a few years ago. It is sausage-shaped, 60cm long, 12 wide, and made of fine strips of rattan palm. It is really a highly specialized basket in the form of an open lattice cage, permanently closed at one end and stoppered at the other. Into the side, at the end with the stopper, an ingenious valve has been fitted; a narrowing funnel of springy rattan teeth, through which a fish can force its way in but which bar its way out. It is a variant of traditional fish traps made of natural materials which can be found the world over: a baited cage with a valve entrance.
The Magic of the Tool Users
Authors: Hansell Mike
Published: November 2023

Imagine me facing a lecture theatre full of students, pointing out to them, as I did earlier in this book, that the height of a large termite mound is the equivalent of three times the height of our highest buildings. Having delivered this impressive statistic, I contrast this with our current realization that this is accomplished by a hoard of insects that communicate poorly with one another and almost certainly have no concept of what they are building. How different a termite mound is to this, I say, holding up a short stick, frayed at one end.
Setting the stage for the evolution of life on a tumultuous planet
Authors: Gale Joseph
Published: November 2023

When astronauts look back to Earth from space they see a beautiful, unique blue planet, swarming with life. But it is no ‘rose garden’, either now or in the past. Ever since life first appeared on Earth about 3.7 Gy BP it has had to contend with and adapt to an ever changing and often extremely stressful environment. Some of the more significant of the cosmic and terrestrial factors affecting and modifying the biosphere have already been described. They include: the slowing revolution of the Earth on its axis and its ever changing and complicated circumnavigation of the Sun, which determine and modify day length, weather and climate; the solar radiation incident on Earth, which has gradually increased, by some 20% in the last 3 Gy; the Sun’s life-impeding UV radiation, some of which penetrates the atmosphere, and the Moon, which has receded, reducing its originally massive tidal effect (Chapters 3, 4, and 5). In addition, and in part as a result of the above motions, Earth has gone through a series of cold periods, the Ice Ages. Planet Earth itself has not been quiescent, but has challenged the biosphere with movements of tectonic plates (Chapter 4), periodic extreme volcanic activity, upwelling of poisonous gases from the oceans, and changes in the composition of the atmosphere. Finally, in our list of stress factors, Earth has suffered from abuses of extraterrestrial origin, especially the impacts of comets and asteroids. Most recently humans have been affecting the biosphere in ways detrimental to themselves and other species (Chapter 9).
Mechanisms of evolution: from first cells and extremophiles to complex life
Authors: Gale Joseph
Published: November 2023

We learn of former life from its signatures (fossils and organic and isotope tracers) which are found in the different geological strata of the Earth, and from the physiology, biochemistry, embryology, and genetics of early, but still extant, life forms. It would be easy if the deeper we dug the older were the strata. In a general way this is true, but upheavals and subsidence often confuse such a neat picture. This greatly troubled the first palaeobiologists striving to determine the dating and order of appearance and disappearance of species. It led to never-ending disputes as to the age and periods of life on Earth. Dating arguments sometimes became circuitous; with the age of a newly found stratum being based on the fossils it contained and vice versa. These debates came to an end with the development of isotopic dating methods (see part 2 of Lunine, 1999). Radioactive isotopes have constant exponential rates of decay, typical of each element. They radiate energy while decaying to a lighter, usually stable element. Decay begins immediately following the formation of the radioactive isotope from another, stable element. The radioactive isotope forms in the atmosphere or on the surface of the Earth, as a result of cosmic radiation. For example, when 14N in the upper atmosphere absorbs neutrons from cosmic rays, C is formed. C is unstable and breaks down, emitting beta rays and reverting to N.
The evolution of humans and their interaction with the biosphere
Authors: Gale Joseph
Published: November 2023

In this chapter the appearance of humans and their effect on planet Earth is reviewed. Maintaining the Earth’s biosphere in a conformation favourable to humans is today an urgent priority. This urgency is the result of a rapidly increasing population and modern technology. There is a digression to a discussion of over-enthusiastic environmentalism. The latter, comes from genuine concern but is often based on poor information. It may engender policies which are misdirected. The wrong ‘culprit’ is often implicated. This can lead to a waste of always limited resources. Two hundred and fifty years ago the great Swedish taxonomist Carolus Linnaeus devised the system of plant and animal classification which has survived, with small changes, to this day. He assigned modern humans to the subspecies Homo sapiens sapiens (the very intelligent human; today Linnaeus might have called us Homo horribilis horribilis). The Linnaen genealogy for humans was as follows: Kingdom, Animalia; phylum, Chordata; class, Mammalia; order, Primates; family, Hominidae; genus, Homo; species, H. sapiens; subspecies, H. s. sapiens. The first Chordata (which later included the vertebrates) appeared around the time of the Cambrian explosion 550-530 My BP. The first mammals appeared around 220 My BP, but only expanded rapidly in the last 55 My.
Ratzinger's Faith
Authors: Rowland Tracey
Published: November 2023

A general introduction to the theology of Pope Benedict XVI, including his approach to issues in moral and political theology, ecclesiology, liturgy, interpretations of the of the documents of the Second Vatican Council, and the theology of history. Tracey Rowland also addresses the question of Pope Benedict's place in the constellation of contemporary Catholic theologians. It has become a commonplace observation that Pope Benedict has been influenced by the thought of St Augustine, in contrast to many of his predecessors in the papacy who were much more strongly influenced by St Thomas Aquinas. Rowland therefore asks in what way Benedict is an Augustinian, and how this marked difference in theological perspective may play out in the coming years. Her book includes an extensive thematic bibliography, which will be valuable for students.
Introduction
Authors: Brüne Martin
Published: November 2023

Psychiatry is the medical field that deals with the assessment, description, prevention, and treatment of mental disorders and psychological problems. Psychiatry deals with the assessment, description, prevention, and treatment of mental disorders and psychological problems.Psychiatry is interdisciplinarily situated at the interface of the social and the biological sciences. Psychiatry utilizes insights from psychology, philosophy, and ethics, as well as from neuroscience, biology, pharmacology, neurology, and other medical specialties. Contemporary psychiatry can be divided into several subspecialties, including biological psychiatry, social and community psychiatry, consultation and liaison psychiatry, emergency psychiatry, child and adolescence psychiatry, old age or geriatric psychiatry, crosscultural psychiatry, and forensic psychiatry.
Attention-deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
Authors: Brüne Martin
Published: November 2023

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a common disorder of childhood onset with inattentiveness, hyperactivity, and impulsivity clearly exceeding the degree of typical child development. Depending on the leading symptom constellation, a hyperactive/impulsive type can be distinguished from a predominantly inattentive subtype or mixed type of ADHD. Individuals with ADHD usually have problems in organizing and planning of behaviour, as well as difficulties in sustained attention and reduced inhibitory control of behavioural impulses, which is often associated with the inability to tolerate delay of being rewarded.
Introduction
Authors: Hansen Mogens Herman
Published: November 2023

Both geographically and demographically the ancient Greek citystate culture was much the biggest of the thirty-seven cultures I have listed in the previous part. The Greeks called a city-state polis, plural poleis, and there were in all c. 1,500 poleis. More than 600 are attested in Greece proper; more than 400 were colonies or Hellenised communities along the coasts of the Mediterranean and the Black Sea,4 to which must be added more than 300 Hellenistic foundations in the Near East as far as the River Indus.5 But there were never 1,500 poleis at the same time. Throughout new poleis were being founded and old ones were disappearing. In c.400 bc we can trace about 850 poleis in the sources we have,6 and we can guess that many others may have been named in all the sources that have been lost. At any given time in the Classical period there were at least 1,000 poleis, and that makes the ancient Greek city-state culture the biggest in world history: the next biggest was that of the Aztecs in Central America in the fifteenth century ad.
The End of the City-State Culture in Ancient Greece
Authors: Hansen Mogens Herman
Published: November 2023

The lack of agreement as to when the epoch of the Greek city-states came to an end is even greater than that as to its beginning. Some historians still hold that the city-state flourished in the Archaic and Classical periods but was destroyed by the Macedonians in the second half of the fourth century bc. Independence (autonomia) is regarded as the most important characteristic of a city-state, and city-states lost their independence at the beginning of the Hellenistic period.1 Indeed, it is often supposed that the city-state disappeared at a single blow, the blow being the Battle of Chaironeia on 7 Metageitnion 2 August 338,2 probably at c.3 o’clock in the afternoon when the defeat of the Thebans and Athenians by the Macedonians under Philip II was a reality—and that was what rang the referee’s bell for the city-state.
How Poleis Arose and Disappeared
Authors: Hansen Mogens Herman
Published: November 2023

With the exception of regions of western Greece, most of the poleis in Greece arose during the Archaic period, many so early that polis had not yet become a key concept in political thought. The lack of source material is an insurmountable hindrance to our ever being able to trace the beginnings of the hundreds of city-states in Greece that our Classical sources characterise as poleis with a long history behind them. However, many poleis had a foundation myth. It was typical of the Greeks that they did not conceive the emergence of a polis as the result of a continuous evolution, but believed that it had been created by the deliberate intervention of a named person (or god).
The Settlement Pattern of the Ancient Greek City-States
Authors: Hansen Mogens Herman
Published: November 2023

In modern studies of historical settlement patterns it is customary to distinguish between nucleated settlement and dispersed settlement, and between three different forms of settlement: (1) cities (large nucleated settlements), (2) villages (smaller nucleated settlements), and (3) farmsteads (isolated dispersed settlements). In all studies of ancient Greece nucleated settlement in cities and villages is contrasted with dispersed settlement on farmsteads. Until the 1970s the prevalent view was that the Greeks lived in nucleated settlements, whether cities or villages, and that isolated settlement was so rare as scarcely to be evidenced at all.2 But in the most recent generation a number of archaeological surveys in several di·erent regions have been conducted, and large stretches of a city-state’s territory investigated in search of traces of settlement,3 and such surveys have caused an ongoing revision of the view of the historians, especially in two regards: (1) traces have been found of the part of the population that lived in the countryside and not in the city, and (2) many of those who lived in the countryside lived on isolated farmsteads and not in nucleated settlements.
The Greek Conception of Polis as a City with a Hinterland
Authors: Hansen Mogens Herman
Published: November 2023

As shown above, a polis in the sense of ‘city’ was thought of as the centre of a polis in the sense ‘state’, and in most poleis in the sense of ‘state’ there was only one city called polis. It had a hinterland called chora or ge, and a polis by the sea had a harbour, called limen or epineion. Linked to the harbour there was often an emporion, a distinct market for the long-distance trade of the city-state.3 Large cities situated inland could have a harbour-town, often treated as part of the city itself, and sometimes connected to the city by walls.5 In other cases the harbour-town had succient self-government to count as a dependent polis. Almost all poleis had a city wall that separated the city from its hinterland. Larger poleis had villages within their hinterland. If the citizen body was subdivided into territorially based groups, many of those districts would have had a village as their central place; but in other cases the villages were just settlements with no political status.
The Hellenistic Polis
Authors: Hansen Mogens Herman
Published: November 2023

In this book the main weight has been placed on the Archaic and Classical periods, when the polis was the exclusive society of adult male citizens to deal with their political institutions, when war between the city-states was the order of the day, and when the majority of the citizens preferred to live within the city’s protecting walls. In the course of the Hellenistic period the polis underwent a set of changes, which have already been noted in the relevant contexts, but not assembled as a whole. So to set the classical polis in relief, I will give a sketch of a polis from the second half of the second century bc, when Greece had become a part of the Roman Empire. By then not just some but almost all poleis were dependent states.
Wittgenstein ‘s Ethics: Boundaries and Boundary Crossings
Authors: Oberdiek Hans
Published: November 2023

Wittgenstein led a tumultuous internal life, one lived with white-hot intensity, marked by deep concern, especially about his moral character. He placed great demands on students and friends, but nothing like the extraordinary demands he placed on himself. If he was often hard on others, he was always much harder on himself. The ‘duty of genius ‘ drove him into the depths of philosophy — which turned out to be in front of our eyes if we could but see it!— but never allowed him much satisfaction, other than in the knowledge that his mistakes and infelicities were at least in pursuit of deep philosophical understanding. Self-satisfaction in a philosopher was, to Wittgenstein, intolerable: far better to be a philosopher dissatisfied than a fool satisfied. But in addition to his exacting and unending duties as a philosopher, there were equally exacting and unending self-imposed moral duties. These included his philosophical duties— how could they not? — but extended to every aspect of life, in thought, will, and deed. He was a man of great moral seriousness and an unrelenting truthfulness and rejection of guile or affectation. Wittgenstein knew a wide range of moral emotions and virtues, but especially, I think, those that exact from one the most: self-reproach and courage.
Hard and Easy Questions about Consciousness
Authors: Dupré John
Published: November 2023

After a quiet period for much of the twentieth century, presumably reflecting the influence of various forms of behaviourism, in recent years philosophical writing on consciousness has reached epidemic proportions. A well-known philosophical website lists almost a thousand online articles on the philosophy of consciousness, and no doubt there are another thousand not so available. This writing has, however, had a quite peculiar focus. A founding document of recent philosophical studies of consciousness is Thomas Nagel ‘s classic article ‘What is it Like to be a Bat? ‘ The almost universally accepted answer to this question nowadays is that although there is definitely something it is like to be a bat, it is extraordinarily difficult, perhaps impossible, to say exactly what this is. More difficult still is the problem of explaining how this ineffable something could somehow have resulted, as it is almost universally agreed it must, from the merely mechanical operations of the brain. This latter conundrum, in particular, has come to be known as the Hard Problem of consciousness— in contrast with the apparently ‘Easy Problem ‘ of understanding the relevant mechanical operations of the brain— and has provided the motivation for a great deal of the philosophical work I have mentioned.
Action, Content and Inference
Authors: Dancy Jonathan
Published: November 2023

In this essay I try to make progress with a rather peculiar question: can an action be the conclusion of an inference? My answer to this question is no. But it takes me quite a long time to get to this answer. Probably some readers will feel that the answer is obvious. How could one infer an action? Action is just the wrong sort of thing to be the conclusion of anything worth calling inference. All that inference can do is to take one from belief to belief; it can ‘t take one from belief to action— say, the action of combing one ‘s hair. Unfortunately this is altogether too quick. My question is ambiguous, and its ambiguity sets us a puzzle, and it is a puzzle to which the answer is not obvious, as we will see. There is a familiar distinction between inference-as-process and inference-as-structure. Modus ponens is an example of an inferential structure. An inferrer whose inference has that structure is engaging in a process, that of moving from two beliefs to a third— or, if not exactly that process then some similar one. This process can also be called an inference, and it is an action. Someone who infers is someone who acts. But where such an action is done, there must be premises and conclusions, and these are not actions (at least not normally), nor are they parts of the process that constitutes the inference-as-process.
City and Empire
Authors: Dihle Albrecht
Published: November 2023

The Persian Wars of 490 and 480/79 bc, remembered and glory Wed for centuries, had a great impact upon the feelings of national identity among the Greeks. The Persian Empire, founded in the sixth century bc, stretched from Egypt to the Caucasus and from India to Asia Minor. In 480 bc the Persian Great King joined the forces of all his tribes and nations and led a powerful feet and a huge army against Greece to conquer this small piece of land. The Greeks were conscious of their common cultural and religious background, but politically split into many independent little communities, called Poleis, with or without an urban settlement, centered at the cult of local divinities, and governed in various ways. Some of them had a territory of no more than 200 to 300 square kilometers, the greatest ones, Athens and Sparta, 2,500 and 8,000 square kilometers respectively, with approximately 120,000 to 180,000 inhabitants, including women, children, and slaves.