bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Introduction
Authors: Quadagno Jill
Published: November 2023

On April 29, 1992, three hours after an all-white jury acquit ted four white police officers in the brutal beating of black motorist Rodney King, the streets of Los Angeles erupted in flames as enraged ghetto residents took to the streets. In the eyes of a stunned nation, and especially its black citizens, the verdict was incomprehensible. How could anyone discount the videotaped horror of King being clubbed and kicked 56 times in 81 seconds? Six days later, when the flames had been reduced to smoldering rubble, President George Bush declared that what had triggered the riot was not frustration at an unjust system, not the despair of grinding poverty and blocked opportunity, but rather the failure of the liberal social programs of the 1960s.
Unfinished Democracy
Authors: Quadagno Jill
Published: November 2023

According to the British sociologist T. H. Marshall, democratization has proceeded in three stages with the granting of civil, political, and finally social rights. In Europe the struggle for civil rights emerged out of a feudal heritage where serfdom locked workers to the land. The transition from servile to free labor “introduced the notion of citizenship as the right to pursue the occupation of one’s choice freely, without compulsion, subject only to requirements for training. By the beginning of the nineteenth century, the principle of individual economic “freedom” was accepted as axiomatic.
Extending Equal Employment Opportunity
Authors: Quadagno Jill
Published: November 2023

In the South, African Americans clearly lacked the most basic civil right-the right to freely pursue an occupation without constraint. Less obvious were the constraints on free labor in the North. Here discrimination by the skilled trade unions prevented black men from pursuing work in these coveted jobs, a practice that the federal government had tacitly allowed since the New Deal. As poor, black men moved out of the job-training programs established by the Economic Opportunity Act and into the labor market, their inability to obtain employment highlighted the barriers to equal opportunity erected by the unions. Federal officials could no longer ignore practices that threatened the success of the antipoverty effort. Yet in banning discrimination by trade unions on projects using federal funds, the government provided an easy and highly visible target for civil rights protestors. Federal job sites became the locus of the struggle for equal opportunity, mandating government intervention in union prerogatives to make the recalcitrant unions admit black men. The conflict between these two Democratic party constituents-trade unionists and African Americans-triggered a backlash among resentful skilled trades men.
The Politics of Motherhood
Authors: Quadagno Jill
Published: November 2023

During the first half of the turbulent sixties, child-care policy remained disengaged from the volatile battles raging over race and rights. Rather, improving child care remained the obscure mission of two federal bureaus, the Women’s Bureau and the Children’s Bureau. Before the decade was over, child care, too, became embroiled in the struggle for racial equality. Child care provided through the War on Poverty’s Headstart program was designed to provide enriching experiences for poor children, which in practice meant black children. Day care provided to welfare mothers to reduce the welfare rolls also disproportionately benefited African Americans.
France: A Statute but No Objectors
Authors: Martin Michel L
Published: November 2023

In France, the concept of the citizen soldier and the obligation of male citizens for military service through universal conscription have been vital parts of the nation’s tradition ever since the French Revolution linked democracy and universal service. In the French view, conscription contributes to the republican tradition and national unity as well as to national defense: Those who refuse to serve are seen as directly challenging a unifying and primary principle that underlies the nation and the state itself. Objection to armed service is a perennial phenomenon. It takes various forms, from lack of discipline and disobedience to draft dodging and desertion. Its causes are complex—at the same time psychological, economical, and social. They can also be idealistic, related to the domain of conscience. Weapons are rejected because they suggest the inflicting of death on others; bearing arms is refused because it prefigures the resort to violence. In a less holistic fashion, military service is denied because it operates in an unjust or questionable sociopolitical order.
Denmark: The Vanguard of Conscientious Objection
Authors: Sørensen Henning
Published: November 2023

In Europe, the Scandinavian countries’ historically have been in the vanguard in recognizing the right of conscientious objection and, in most cases, in liberalizing provisions for COs, including alternative service. Among these advanced countries, Denmark has been a leader of this movement toward liberalizing and secularizing conscientious objection. Universal compulsory military service for males was first introduced in Denmark by the Danish Constitution of 1849, and remains in force to the present day. (Before that time, only the rural population had been conscripted, as needed.) Initially, however, conscription was not implemented universally. Although the urban population was now included in the program, ministers, teachers, and members of certain other occupations were exempted. In addition, between 1849 and 1867, it was legal for other persons to purchase exemption from the draft.
Chattel or person?
Authors: Wegner Judith Romney
Published: November 2023

The problem of women’s status in the Mishnah is multifaceted, having legal, theological, anthropological, psychological, and sociological dimensions. Though I shall touch on all of these aspects, the present study emphasizes a jurisprudential approach, which focuses on the specific question of women’s personal status in the law of the mishnaic system. Central to the analysis are the basic legal concepts person and chattel. We must consequently begin with some definitions.
The Mishnaic Woman And Feminist Theory
Authors: Wegner Judith Romney
Published: November 2023

The raising of women’s consciousness in the past two decades has generated both secular and religious feminism in the Western world. Jewish, Christian, and Muslim feminists share a strong interest in understanding the relationship between patriarchy and religion; but the focus of discussion varies in response to different doctrinal and practical problems in the three traditions. After reviewing some of the more important differences, we shall discuss some recent Jewish feminist scholarship that has particular relevance to the present study.
From Liberty to License
Authors: Satloff Robert B
Published: November 2023

Abdullah’s assassination was at least as much a turning point in the life of his grandson Hussein as it had been for the kingdom as a whole.1 It thrust the young prince into the political limelight for the first time and ushered in twenty-two months of continuous, almost dizzying, change. Forced to discard plans to return to Alexandria’s Victoria College, Hussein was sent instead to Harrow. There, Whitehall first began to take interest in the education, both scholastic and political, of the heir to the throne of its closest Middle East ally. Shortly before Talal’s deposition, when Fawzi al-Mulqi, Jordan’s ambassador in London, suggested that Hussein enroll in a training course at the Royal Military Academy, Sandhurst, the idea caught the prince’s fancy, and over Abu’l Huda’s initial objections, he departed in September 1952 for a condensed, six-month course.2 Again, London attached great importance to Hussein’s training and took steps to ensure that he “profited not only in his military instruction” but also from his exposure to “aspects of British life.” In particular, Sandhurst’s commandant took pains to strike the proper balance between
The Kingdom Restored
Authors: Satloff Robert B
Published: November 2023

The first weeks of 1957 were the nadir of King Hussein’s young reign. One by one, the essential elements of the Hashemite system-a loyalist government; a strong, formidable, and cohesive army; a dependable and faithful patron-were slipping away. “People were convinced that the country didn’t have any potential for surviving,” Hussein later recalled. “Everything was falling apart.”1 But before all was lost, Hussein summoned up the courage and resources to arrest what looked like an inexorable slide toward extinction and to patch together an alliance of royalist forces unseen in Jordan since the days of Abdullah. In retrospect, Hussein was excruciatingly slow to respond to the fateful challenges facing his regime. There were at least three reasons to account for that. First, it was Hussein’s nature to tarry long before deciding to act but then to act swiftly once the decision was made. Such was the case, for example, with his sacking of al-Mulqi in 1954 and with the buildup to the Baghdad Pact crisis in 1955, and he remained true to form in 1957, too.* Second, for a dangerously long time, Hussein underestimated the magnitude of those challenges. He continued to retain confidence in the loyalty of the army’s command, and especially in ‘Ali
The Khalapur Rajputs, 1955 to 1975
Authors: Minturn Leigh
Published: November 2023

It was on a hot September afternoon, 20 years to the week after my first field trip to Khalapur, that I found myself, with my new assistant, Swaran Kapoor, traveling once again from the railroad station in Bhudana to Khalapur. We still traveled in a horse-drawn cart, but the road was now paved, so the ride was considerably less bumpy. I was returning to a village that was larger and more prosperous than it had been during my 1955 visit. The Khalapur of 1975 also had a faster pace and more sophistication than the one I had left. The population had doubled since 1955, from 5,000 to 10,000. Rajputs continued to be the largest and dominant caste. The population of children between the ages of 3 and 10 had tripled in the families I studied. The increase in children was evident throughout the village. On my first visit I had the impression that the journey from Delhi to Khalapur was a journey back in time; on my second visit I was impressed with the degree to which Khalapur had moved forward in time. The river of modernity was flowing by the village, and the villagers, not being fools, were bathing in it.
Purdah: Respect-Avoidance, Dominance-Submission
Authors: Minturn Leigh
Published: November 2023

This quotation, recorded in 1954, is typical of the descriptions of restrictions imposed by the complex customs of purdah on Rajput women of that time. Purdah is a severe form of cloistering women, observed by high-caste Hindus. This chapter describes these customs and their significance for the regulation of social interaction, the maintenance of traditional authority, and the solidarity of the extended family. I refer to purdah customs as a keystone custom complex because they are, in my opinion, such important regulators of traditional role relationships that their demise may cause that tradition to collapse. The anger and anxiety expressed by older women over such seemingly trivial matters as a 4-to 5-inch difference in the degree to which the sari covers the faces of their bahus, conversation between their sons and bahus, or the practice of some bahus of sitting on cots, at the same level as older women, instead of on floor mats can only be understood in terms of the symbolic significance of these practices.
Land and Dowry: Modern Laws, Traditional Beliefs
Authors: Minturn Leigh
Published: November 2023

Traditionally sons inherited land, while daughters’ inheritance was given in dowry goods and jewelry. Landholdings passed from father to son, and gold jewelry passed from mother to daughter. Traditionally, dowry goods and food supplies were controlled by sasus. Dowry goods came from bahus and were distributed to daughters and other household members by sasus. Although traditional law gave sons the right to claim their share of the family land when they reached adulthood, this right was seldom exercised. Land, crops, and money from their sale was owned by soosars. Therefore, elder men controlled the land, and elder women controlled the distribution of household goods. Elders of either sex might control some or all of the household money.
Domestic Economy: Chores, Chuulas, Cash, and Clothing
Authors: Minturn Leigh
Published: November 2023

Bughars are women’s workplaces as well as women’s quarters. Much of the grain is processed in the bughars. Traditionally sasus assigned work to bahus and exercised control over stored grain, unallocated dowry goods, money bahus brought from home, and income from spinning and loans. The control of bahus over the money and clothing they bring from home has increased in recent years, and some bahus have more autonomy over their work selection than was the case in former times. The increase in literate bahus in bughars with illiterate sasus has enhanced the financial autonomy of bahus, who buy products not previously available. Educated bahus may think they are more capable of handling financial matters than their illiterate sasus, and some sasus agree. As might be expected, these changes are a cause for concern for some sasus, but they are adjusting to them as they are adjusting to the other innovations sweeping the country.
Widows: Sati, Rand, Bhaktani
Authors: Minturn Leigh
Published: November 2023

Widows are unlucky, so unlucky that they are frequently underreported in census figures, because other family members are reluctant to admit that a widow, particularly a young widow, lives in the household. Hindus believe that misfortune is the result of bad karma earned by sins of previous lives, and widows may be blamed for their husbands’ deaths. They are an unwelcome burden on their husbands’ families, particularly if they do not have grown sons. Although the general improvement in women’s status by 1975 had lessened the stigma of widows, their basic situation was the same as I described it in 1955. Rajput widows were still forbidden to remarry but remained in their husbands’ homes as financial burdens and potential sources of scandal.
Socialization
Authors: Minturn Leigh
Published: November 2023

its forehead at birth was one of the most frequently stated beliefs. Mothers of that time were very reluctant to express any long-term expectations for their children’s future, and, if they did answer questions concerning such expectations, such as how much schooling they wanted their children to have, they usually qualified their nervous answers with “if it is in his/her fate.” In 1975 no mother quoted this proverb, and they readily answered questions concerning their plans for their children’s futures. Clearly, the mothers of 1975 thought that they had control over their children’s future. The 1975 mothers also had more control over their own lives than the mothers of 1955. They practiced less purdah, controlled more of their money, had more autonomy, and were less subservient to their sasus than the mothers of 1955. The increased education and autonomy of mothers was accompanied by changes in their treatment of their children. These were documented by repeating the socialization interview given in 1955 with a sample of mothers in 1975.
Constructing Ethnic Identity
Authors: Nagel Joane
Published: November 2023

In the decades after World War II, social science thinking on both the right (assimilationist models) and the left {class models) predicted the end of ethnicity. Despite their ideological differences, these models depicted ethnicity as a primordial form of group organization, rooted in history, fixed in content, and premodern in form. Such ancient differences were destined to wither in the face of more modern class and national forms of identification. These expectations were only partially met. Numerous ethnic mobilizations and conflicts around the world challenged the view of ethnicity as a vestigial form of group organization likely to give way in the face of modernization. In the United States, the failure of the American melting pot to assimilate most nonwhites and the resurgence of ethnic identification among American whites further called into question both social science and popular assumptions about the inevitable decline of ethnicity.
The “Jungli Rani” and Other Troubled Wives in Rajasthani Oral Traditions
Authors: Gold Ann Grodzins
Published: November 2023

Women’s oral traditions often express immediate, daily concerns that are both practical and moral. Those stories that women tell as an integral part of domestic rituals, although filled with unlikely events and supernatural interventions, realistically portray household roles and relationships. They also articulate the conflicts and anxieties entailed by those roles and relationships. The persons, both male and female, who populate these stories are almost never named but rather are referred to by kin categories (“there were seven sons’ wives”; “there was a sister’s brother”; “there was a Brahman’s daughter”). Some stories focus on relationships in a woman’s natal home, where she is daughter or sister, others on her married roles, most often as a brother’s or son’s wife. In several stories a transition from one setting to the other is central; these begin with a daughter and end with a wife. Although the new bride arrives in her husband’s home as a distrusted stranger, she will eventually-especially with the onset of motherhood-come to feel and act as an integral family member. However, this personal passage and transformation is not always a smooth one.
Heavenly Ascent and Priestly Investiture
Authors: Himmelfarb Martha
Published: November 2023

In the centuries that followed its composition, the Book of the Watchers was among the most influential works outside the canon for both Jews and Christians. Several of the later ascent apocalypses are deeply indebted to it. Even those that show no clear signs of dependence take over a central aspect of its legacy, the depiction of the visionary’s ascent to heaven in terms drawn from the understanding of heaven as a temple. This is not to suggest that the picture of heaven as temple was restricted to the Book of the Watchers; on the contrary, it is clear that the picture was widely held in early Judaism. But the Book of the Watchers is the first Jewish work to depict an ascent to heaven, and it sets the tone for the entire body of later apocalyptic literature.

In the Book of the Watchers, Enoch is overcome by fear at the awesome majesty of the heavenly temple, yet God welcomes him and speaks to him without requiring any purification or change in his physical being. In most of the later apocalypses the visionary undergoes some kind of physical transformation in order to stand before God, a transformation that is shaped by the understanding of heaven as temple. This chapter examines such transformation in works explicitly indebted to the Enochic tradition, 2 Enoch and 3 Enoch (Sepher Hekhalot). Chapter 3 treats transformation in works that are not directly dependent on this tradition, the Apocalypse of Zephaniah, the Ascension of Isaiah, and the Apocalypse of Abraham, as well as the Similitudes of Enoch (1 Enoch 37-71), which, despite its debt to the Book of the Watchers, is better treated with those works for reasons to be discussed there.
The Secrets of Nature, Primeval History, and the Order of the Cosmos
Authors: Himmelfarb Martha
Published: November 2023

One important aspect of the content of the ascent apocalypses remains to be discussed, their interest in nature. Nature is in fact one of the most ancient subjects of preserved apocalyptic speculation, for the Astronomical Book of Enoch is devoted almost entirely to the paths of the sun and moon and their implications for the calendar. The interest in nature takes a different form in the works with which we are concerned. In the Book of the Watchers, earthly geography is given more attention than heavenly, and nature serves as testimony to God’s greatness and to the order of the universe. In the three later apocalypses to be discussed in this chapter (the Similitudes of Enoch, 2 Enoch, and 3 Baruch), earth has disappeared from the picture and heaven alone is the object of cosmological concern. Nature plays a central role in all three, in rather different ways. In the Similitudes of Enoch, God’s ordering of nature is a model for his ordering of the fate of human beings. In 2 Enoch God’s revelation about the creation of the world is the culmination of Enoch’s ascent. In 3 Baruch certain natural phenomena are personified to dramatize their importance as testimony to the glory of God.
John Williamson Nevin
Authors: Wentz Richard E
Published: November 2023

This study of the life and thought of John Williamson Nevin (1803-1886) offers a revised interpretation of an important nineteenth-century religious thinker. Along with the historian, Phillip Schaff, Nevin was a leading exponent of what became known as the Mercersburg Movement, named for the college and theological seminary of the German Reformed Church located in Mercersburg, Pennsylvania. The story is a neglected aspect of American studies. Wentz provides a kind of post-modern perspective on Nevin, presenting him as a distinctively American thinker, rather than as a reactionary romantic. Although influenced by German philosophy, historical studies, and theology, Nevin’s thought was a profound response to the American public context of his day. He was, in many respects, a public theologian, judging the prevailing development of American Christianity as a new religion that was fashioning its own disintegration and that of American culture at large. Nevin’s reinterpretation of catholicity in the American context opened the way for a radical understanding of religion and of American public life.
Toward A Theology Of History
Authors: Wentz Richard E
Published: November 2023

The rationality of history is a postulate of our reason and of our religious reason in particular. . . . [I]t has not been proved that we are capable of determining the life of the world by simply studying the life of man. . . . It has been supposed that [the] key is to be found in the political and scientific life of man, but it has proved to be unsatisfactory; and we are therefore compelled to admit that man’s chief end lies beyond the present life and order of things.
Beyond Sectarian Missions
Authors: Wentz Richard E
Published: November 2023

At this very time it is of more account, that the power of Christianity should be wrought intensively into the whole civilization of this country (the weight of which prospectively no one can fully estimate); that it should have in it not merely an outward and nominal sovereignty, but be brought also fully to actuate and inform its interior collective life . . . for the bringing in of the millenium [sic], than the conversion of all India or China. The life of the Church is the salvation of the world.
Preface
Authors: Takaki Ronald T
Published: November 2023

One of the crucial moments of the civil rights movement occurred when hundreds of thousands of people gathered at the 1963 March on Washington. “Five score years ago, a great American, in whose symbolic shadow we stand, signed the Emancipation Proclamation,” Martin Luther King, Jr., reminded them. Now, a hundred years later, blacks were still not free. King described his vision of a brighter future for America: “I say to you today, my friends, that in spite of the difficulties and frustrations of the moment I still have a dream. It is a dream deeply rooted in the American dream. I have a dream that one day this nation will rise up and live out the true meaning of its creed: ‘We hold these truths to be self-evident; that all men are created equal.’ “1 “Black and white together,” the marchers sang, “we shall overcome someday.” The way to overcome, King had been insisting, was through nonviolence. Eight years before the March on Washington, King had been catapulted into the leadership of the Montgomery bus boycott. In the crucible of that struggle, he had forged his philosophy and strategy of nonviolence. King told the boycotters: ‘‘There comes a time when people get tired. We are here this evening to say to those who have mistreated us so long that we are tired-tired of being segregated and humiliated; tired of being kicked about by the brutal feet of oppression.” What should be the course of resistance? ‘‘Our actions must be guided by the deepest principles of our Christian faith,” King declared. “Love must be our regulating ideal.
Fapanese New Religions: Profiles in Gender
Authors: Hardacre Helen
Published: November 2023

In a Yokohama branch church of a Japanese Buddhist New Religion, a small, elderly man stands in his stocking feet at the head of a large meeting room. Tensely resting his right hand upon the doilied lectern before him, he taps with his thumb on the larger beads of his tasseled wooden rosary. He is not pleased; he is not sure his message is getting through. He pauses to survey his audience. About 150 in all, every one is a member of his church, and virtually all are women. They are sitting formally on their knees upon the straw-matted floor, listening to this monthly sermon by the head of their church, the kyōkaichō. The leaders among them are dressed in black, as befits a Buddhist gathering in Japan. Some are taking notes.
Freud as Leonardo
Authors: Elms Alan C
Published: November 2023

In One Of My first public appearances as a psychobiographer, I filled in for Erik Erikson. A Freud scholar named Herbert Lehmann was scheduled to speak at the San Francisco Psychoanalytic Institute on one of Freud’s dreams. Erikson had reanalyzed Freud’s most thoroughly analyzed dream in a classic paper,1 so he had been asked to serve as the official discussant following Lehmann’s talk. When Erikson canceled because of illness, the search began for a substitute. I wasn’t an analyst and had visited the Institute only once or twice, but I had written about the same Freud dream that Erikson had reanalyzed. A friend who’s a training analyst at the Institute proposed that I take Erikson’s place. I felt like a member of the chorus who goes on for the ailing diva.
Discrimination and Health
Authors: Krieger Nancy
Published: November 2023

Inequality hurts. Discrimination harms health. These seem like straightforward, even self-evident, statements. They are propositions that epidemiologists can test, just like any other proposition about health that we investigate.
Psychosocial Intervention
Authors: Glass Thomas A
Published: November 2023

Within the larger field of social epidemiology, investigators are increasingly making the transition from observational studies to interventions designed to improve health and functioning. This transition has not, in all cases, been a smooth one. The design and evaluation of psychosocial interventions is an exceptionally challenging enterprise undertaken by practitioners forging what is still a relatively new field.
Status and Sacredness
Authors: Milner Murray
Published: November 2023

In this provocative study, Milner argues against the widely held view that the caste system of India is unique. Instead he contends that caste distinctions which appear to be singular or exotic are actually similar to customs elsewhere-a theory that sets in sharp relief the methods by which society is organized around status relations.
Theoretical Concepts
Authors: Milner Murray
Published: November 2023

Humans are different from rocks. People are affected not only by material forces, but also by symbolic communication.1 The most eloquent speech will leave a rock unaffected, whereas even children are influenced primarily by talk, rituals, and other forms of symbolic communication. Furthermore, people, but not rocks, attempt to influence their environment. They are not simply objects affected by external forces; humans are also subjects who have agency. They have power to affect their environment in a conscious and intentional way.2 Of course, in some respects humans are objects affected by forces outside of themselves.3 Often these forces are unpredictable, mysterious, and beyond control. Stated another way, humans are susceptible to considerable contingency.4
A Theory of Status Relationships: Key Elements
Authors: Milner Murray
Published: November 2023

Two characteristics typically receive special attention when any resource is analyzed: amount and distribution. For example, in the modem world two of our most crucial concerns are economic growth and the distribution of income and wealth. Underlying the ideas of amount and distribution are several related notions that are taken for granted. Implicit in the concept of amount is the notion of what I call expansibility: Can the amount be increased or decreased?1 The preoccupation with economic growth only developed after people began to perceive that wealth could be systematically expanded rather than simply shifted from one individual or group to another.2 Implicit in the concept of distribution is some notion of movability or alienability: for distribution to be a relevant concern, it must be possible to transfer resources from one social location to another. Until recently, no one was concerned with the distribution of human organs because they were an inalienable resource; they could not be transferred from one person to another.3
The Social Categories of Traditional India
Authors: Milner Murray
Published: November 2023

In Chapter 5, explanations for some of the key structural features of the caste system were sketched out. These features are closely associated with a set of interrelated indigenous social categories that also require analysis and explanation. These categories (introduced in Chapter 4) have been used by Hindus to describe and understand their society. For example, the varna scheme (Brahman, Kshatriya, Vaisya, and Sudra) has been an especially important model for the appropriate relationship between caste groups. Why are these categories more salient to the actors than other distinctions? And why does the importance of particular subcategories vary? Certainly the particular historical experiences and cultural traditions of India have played a crucial role in forming these categories, but that is only part of the story.
New Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin
Authors: Sihler Andrew L
Published: November 2023

Like Carl Darling Buck’s Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin (1933), this book is an explanation of the similarities and differences between Greek and Latin morphology and lexicon through an account of their prehistory. It also aims to discuss the principal features of Indo-European linguistics. Greek and Latin are studied as a pair for cultural reasons only; as languages, they have little in common apart from their Indo-European heritage. Thus the only way to treat the historical bases for their development is to begin with Proto-Indo-European. The only way to make a reconstructed language like Proto-Indo-European intelligible and intellectually defensible is to present at least some of the basis for reconstructing its features and, in the process, to discuss reasoning and methodology of reconstruction (including a weighing of alternative reconstructions). The result is a compendious handbook of Indo-European phonology and morphology, and a vade mecum of Indo-European linguistics--the focus always remaining on Greek and Latin. The non-classical sources for historical discussion are mainly Vedic Sanskrit, Hittite, and Germanic, with occasional but crucial contributions from Old Irish, Avestan, Baltic, and Slavic.
The Indo-European Family of Languages.
Authors: L.Sihler Andrew
Published: November 2023

Similarities will always be found between any two languages. Some of these similarities are due to pure chance, such as the resemblance between L deus, G 0e6c;, and Aztecteotl all ‘god’, or between NE whole and G o>..oc;, or between Fr. le and Sa­ moan le both ‘the’, or between G ..oc; ‘pillar’ and L stilus ‘stake’.’ And of course human languages are generally similar by virtue of being human languages. Two remaining kinds of similarity, however, are the direct result of the histories of the languages in question. One of these is diffusion, that is, a language takes over traits (vocabulary or other details of structure) from another language. The familiar term for this phenomenon is borrowing. By far, the most frequently borrowed elements are words, but in fact any component of linguistic structure might be borrowed. The other kind of similarity with historical significance is a pervasive PATTERN of similarities (and differences) in the most BASIC VOCABULARY. Since basic vocabulary is largely immune to changes of fashion, it is highly persistent through time; that means it is least likely to be replaced as time passes, either by borrowing or by disuse. And where PATTERNS are noted, the odds against chance resemblance, as an explanation for the similarity, increase exponentially. Recurring correspondences in basic vocabulary are best explained by assuming that the languages showing such patterns are descended from a common ancestor; less figuratively, THEY WERE ONCE THE SAME LANGUAGE. This ancestor is called a proto-language.
Latin and the Italic Languages
Authors: L.Sihler Andrew
Published: November 2023

THE LANGUAGES OF ITALY. In contrast to Greece, which in the historical period was a country of one language though many dialects, Italy was a land of many languages: non-IE, IE but not of the Italic branch, and those that were sister languages to Latin but not in any sense dialects of it. Etruscan, the language of that people which had the most profound influence upon early Roman civilization, is not obviously IE, though there may be some remote connection. The tradition of the Anatolian (specifically Lydian) origin of the Etruscans (Hdt. r.94) may be substantially true. In fact, a recent idea takes Etruscan to be a close relative of Hittite, but there are difficulties with this as with all other Etruscan theories. Epigraphic evidence for the ancient languages of Italy (Old Latin included) is very scanty; and, worse, in the 19th century forgeries of archaic Italic materials were produced in abundance. The consequences of this are still being sorted out. Ligurian, once spoken along the Gulf of Genoa, is believed by some to be an IE language intermediate between Italic and Celtic. However, the linguistic material is very scanty-local and tribal names. The ‘Lepontic’ inscriptions, from the region of the North Italian lakes, are better regarded as Celtic in fact-an archaic form of Gaulish (appropriately so for 550-150 BC) and more or less dating from the Celtic invasion, vid.inf.
The Greek and Latin Signaries
Authors: L.Sihler Andrew
Published: November 2023

The study of writing systems in general, and of the histories of the Greek and Latin alphabets in particular, are matters for specialists. And although certain facts are pretty solidly established, for example that the ultimate origin of these alphabets is the Phoenician signary, there continues to be much discussion of the details. The dating of many inscriptions crucial to the debate is uncertain. Indeed, some long-standing views about relative dates are being questioned, such as the too-ready assumption that inscriptions using simpler signaries (lacking the supplementary characters, for example) are primitive prima facie, and therefore necessarily earlier than inscriptions in more elaborate signaries. Newly-discovered inscriptions have been challenging settled opinion about the age or route of diffusion of this or that detail. Those interested in a proper discussion of the histories of the amphimediterranean signaries should consult specialized treatments of these matters. THE PHOENICIAN-BASED ALPHABETS. The Greek alphabet is in reality a collection of similar signaries differing in such matters as their inventories of signs, the shapes of the letters, and even in the values of the letters. These differences are partly regional and partly chronological. The Latin alphabet-technically rather the Latin ABC, but the term alphabet is too well established to be dislodged by puristic qualms-belongs to a family of signaries known as Italic, which include the alphabets used to write Oscan, Umbrian, Etruscan, and most other Italic languages (17-8).
Notes on Citation and on the Transcription of Words in IE Languages.
Authors: L.Sihler Andrew
Published: November 2023

Sanskrit. Various transcription systems have been used to romanize Skt.; the system used here is in accord with current practice. The Skt. short vowels are a (pronounced [J ]), i, and u; the long counterparts are ii, T, and ii, respectively. The symbols r and ! (the latter only occurring in a few forms from a single root) are syllabic liquids, and are short vowels in the Skt. grammatical tradition; f, which is of secondary origin in Indic, is to r as ii is to a. The letters e and o stand for syllabics which the native grammarians call diphthongs; they reflect Pinlr. * ay and * aw, respectively, and although not marked as such they are always LONG as to literal duration (but they are nevertheless at the same time ‘short diphthongs’). In Ved. devf nom.sg. ‘goddess’ < Pinlr. * daywi < PIE * deyw-iH2 both syllabics are long, even though only one letter carries a macron. The ‘long diphthongs’ (63-4) corresponding to e and o are are written iii and iiu, respectively. Many of the letters used in transcribing consonants are self-explanatory, such as m, r, p. The sound system of Indic, though complex, is highly patterned; the following is the scheme of the native grammarians, and is incidentally the order of the letters of the Devanagari’ writing system (read across):
Diphthongs
Authors: L.Sihler Andrew
Published: November 2023

1. In G, as early as the 5th century BC, the diphthong had become a monophthong [e:], that is, a long higher-mid vowel in contrast to the lower ‘Y/ [e:] (76). But the SPELLING t:i was unchanged, and EL thus came also to be used to write the [e:] which had never been a diphthong (76). Thus </>EPEL ‘carries’ < <pEp-t:-i next to </>Ept:iP infin. < 2. L ei was a real diphthong in the earliest period. In Plautus and Terence it reflects Pltal. “ey, and also was the sound resulting from “ay in medial syllables (70.2) and “oy in final syllables (75.2). The spelling for all three was ei, occasionally e, as in the SC de Bacch. DEICERENT, INCEIDERETIS, nom.pl. FOIDERATEI (never i in such forms, and conversely never ei for original f, as later). Also during this period, ei is occasionally used for proper e and even for e. By the middle of the 2nd century BC, however, the sound had become identical with f, the spelling for which fluctuated between ei and i; and the former, being now merely a sign for f, was also used for L f which had never been a diphthong (AVDEIRE). This spelling ei is frequent in inscriptions down to the time of Cicero, and even in the Augustan period was not wholly obsolete.
Vowel Assimilation in Greek
Authors: L.Sihler Andrew
Published: November 2023

Stable as the vowels of G are by comparison with those of L, the short vowels of G are subject to assimilation to the phonetics of SHORT vowels in adjacent syllables. A resonant (p, “‘r.., µ, v) is almost invariably the intervening consonant, but there are secure instances of assimilation across obstruents. There are two kinds of evidence for assuming assimilation in a given word. First, the word may be attested in two forms, one with matching vowels and one with different ones; these are sometimes found in different dialects, but occasionally are different chronologically. In these cases, it is generally prudent to assume that the form showing a sequence of different vowels is more original. The second kind of argument rests upon our understanding of the distribution of ablaut grades in PIE (and hence G) morphology. Both kinds of argument are demonstrated by Att. µE”(E0o<;, Ion. µE”(a.0o<; ‘magnitude’. The certain etymology of the first part of the formation is “mei,IJ2- (cf. Ved. complexes like mahitvd- and mahimdn- ‘greatness’, mahiid- ‘great’, all from “mei,IJ2-, with -h- < “-i,HF just as in duhitdr­ ‘daughter’ < “dhuglj2ter-) which would give G µeya-. -G mvao<; ‘thin’ is a case where only ablaut patterns point to assimilation. The form is manifestly a thematization of PIE “f1Jnu- (100; cf. G mvv-, combining form), built to a full grade of the stem.
Groups Containing *s
Authors: L.Sihler Andrew
Published: November 2023

An s is lost before most voiced consonants (in compounds before all such); and a preceding vowel, if short, is lengthened (see also L fdem nom.sg.m. ‘the same’ < “is-dem. L iiidex ‘judge’ < “ymvos-dik- (72 fn.). L nfdus ‘nest’< PIE “ni-sd-o- (“sed- ‘sit’ and “ni- ‘down’): Go. nists, OE nest, Ved. nft/d- ‘resting-place, nest’. L bfnf ‘two each’ < “dwisnoy (bis, duo). L aenus (often spelled ahenus, cf. U ahesnes) < “ayesnos ‘brazen’ (L aes ‘bronze’ : Ved. dyas- n. ‘metal’, Go. aiza-smipa ‘smith’);
The Indo-European Nominals
Authors: L.Sihler Andrew
Published: November 2023

Gender. The distinction of three genders (masculine, feminine, and neuter) is characteristic of G and L, together with most of the other IE languages. This is grammatical gender, that is, a purely formal and syntactic system of morphology and concord. The IE languages vary in the degree to which the natural gender of beings aligns with grammatical gender. Of course, words for most objects and abstractions are ‘masculine’ and ‘feminine’ rather than neuter, and it is commonplace for words for babies to be neuter. But in, say, German there is the additional peculiarity that personal nouns like Weib ‘woman’ and Miidchen ‘young lady’ are grammatically neuter, Hoheit ‘Highness’ is feminine, and cats and dogs are grammatically feminine and masculine, respectively, regardless of reproductive details. In G and L there is an accommodation of the grammatical gender of animate nouns to natural gender by means of epicene nouns, that is, nouns that are both masculine and feminine like L filis ‘cat’ and canis ‘dog’, ditto G 0t.’iA.ov­ poc; and Kvwv.
R-Stems And N-Stems
Authors: L.Sihler Andrew
Published: November 2023

In PIE there were consonant stems ending with -r- (paradigms given in 283). Masc. and fem. nouns thus formed are attested in all varieties of IE. Neut. inflection is more fugitive. In lndic, the reflex of the nomenagentis suffix “-tor builds a kind of future participle (555); a few neut. forms are actually attested, but not before the Brahmal)as. In Hitt., with a more original state of affairs, there are neuter r-stem nouns as well, and a few primary adjectives. Parallel stems in -n- (see 283 and 285) formed nouns in all three genders, and (at most) one or two primary adjectives. In G and L, the PIE neut. r-stems have disappeared as a type; G has one n-stem primary adjective, cxp<JrJv, Att. cxppr,v (“warsen-) ‘male’ (= Ved. vt[an- ‘vigorous, macho’); but bahuvrihi compounds formed from both r­ and n-stem nouns are abundant, like uw<ppwv ‘sane, of sound mind’ < <10t.fo­ ‘sound’ and <pp v ‘diaphragm’).1
Greek T-Stem Forms in Other Neuters
Authors: L.Sihler Andrew
Published: November 2023

From its presumed beginnings in connection with n- and r/n-stem neuters (288, 290-2), an oblique stem in -7- spread to a wide range of neuter nouns which originally had one or another quite different inflection. This took place especially in Attic, and spread even further in the later KOLVYJ. By way of secondary 7-stem neut. inflection Hom. has our;, ovaTOc; (Att. wToc;) ‘ear’; Ion. KOtP’Y/ nom./acc.n. ‘head’ (poe,t.; elaborated from &p < “krH2, like Kp’i0 f. ‘barley’ next to Kp’i n.), gen. KpctaToc; (“ krasat- < 1j-t-; cf. Ved. obl. stem ffri -), contracted KpEiToc;; there are also conflations like KOtP’Y/Toc; and Kap aTOc;. Additionally, there were patterns like -yovv ‘knee’, “(Ol)ll<X.TOc; (“gonwatos) and oopv ‘tree’, oovpaTOc; (‘ dorwatos), Att. “(0/J<X.TOc;, oopmoc; (190.1). Originally these nouns were ablauting (proterokinetic) u­ stems, of a type (311) lost in both G and L: “gonu nom./acc., “gnew-s gen. They had already been remodeled once as simple consonant stems, -yovv
Greek Reciprocal Pronouns
Authors: L.Sihler Andrew
Published: November 2023

The stem a.A.A.aA.o- (Att.-Ion. a.A.A.’Y/A.o-) ‘one another’, occurring only in oblique cases of the du. and pl., are developments from phrases, “i:’x),.),.or; i:’xAA.ov, “i:’x),.,),.,oi i:’xAA.ovr;, and so on, parallel to L alter alterum, ali’f alias, Indic “anyds anydm, containing a nominative and an accusative (or some other oblique case). Dissimilation accounts well enough for the shortening of the second *-A.A.-; the -&- is surprising, however, and much discussed. It could arise automatically only in certain feminine and neuter forms, such as *cx’AA.a cxA.A.&11 (*&’A’Afi.’A’Aa11). But feminines were certainly less common than masculines, and neuter plurals in any such function were rare abso­ lutely. One possibility is that the intermediate forms were something like *&’A’A’a.A.A.011, with the ending of the first element truncated (as in Ka.T’fXw ‘hold back’) rather than contracted. If the result was felt as a compound, the lengthening of the -a.- could be a case of Wackernagel’s Law (87), as in aTpa.Ta-yor; (aTpa.rq-yor;) < *a7pa.TO-a.-y-. Finally, there may be a connection between the shortening of the -A.A.- and the lengthening of the -a.-: unlike L, G had no system of trading off length between a vowel and a following consonant, but such a trade-off is a very general feature of language change (it is the underlying principle of compensatory lengthening).
Denominative Stems
Authors: L.Sihler Andrew
Published: November 2023

Denominative” -f / o-Stems. The usual formation of denominatives is by the addition of the suffix “-f / o- to the stem of the noun. The formation is most transparent in Ved., where the -ya- (usually in fact -yd-) is everywhere preserved, while in G and L and other IE languages it is disguised by the loss of intervocalic -y-, contraction, and other phonetic changes. Note that in PIE the o-stems do not appear as such; most appear in the e-grade, while many others make denominative verbs to a stem “-eH2- which does not otherwise appear in nominal paradigms. 461. Functions OF DENominatives. Most denominatives fall into broad functional categories, such as factitive (to enslave, to shred, to steady); ingressive (inchoative) (to age; not a common type in NE, but abundant in L); agentives (to dog, to shepherd, to doctor ‘to do what a dog/shepherd/doctor does [in some specific regard]’); instrumentives (to force ‘to employ force’; to rope; these include the numerous denominatives meaning ‘to use X in the usual way’, as to bandage, to paint, to phone, to wedge); locatives (to center, to list), ablatives (to seed, to gut, to skin), and others.
The Future
Authors: L.Sihler Andrew
Published: November 2023

As discussed in 417, what is called the future tense might better be called the simple future or the like. Other ways of talking about events that have not yet taken place include promises, commands, and what collectively might be called modals: conditionals, conatives, purposives, necessitaives, precatives, desideratives, and others. PIE had special forms for some of these, but no simple future tense. The so-called present tense--more accurately the non-past tense--served also for ordinary future events, as it continued to do to some extent in G, as Eiµi which, like its English gloss ‘I am going (to) .. .’, often refers to the future. 500. In a number of IE languages, the PIE desiderative (457) is the basis for a simple future. This is the source of two different-looking but originally identical G formations: the a-future and the ‘liquid futures’ in r. The original desiderative formation was formed directly from the root, by means of the desiderative element “-H1s-, which inflected athematically.