bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
THOSE WHO KNOW, THOSE WHO DON'T, AND THOSE WHO KNOW BETTER: BALANCING COMPLEXITY, SOPHISTICATION, AND ACCURACY ON TAX RETURNS
Authors: Drumbl Michelle Lyon
Published: March 2014

Refundable credits, particularly the earned income tax credit (EITC) and the child tax credit, serve an important anti-poverty measure for low-income taxpayers.  Annually, millions of taxpayers who do not owe any federal income tax must file a tax return in order to claim these credits that are in the nature of social benefits.  The eligibility requirements for refundable credits are complex, and these returns are particularly prone to audit: EITC audits comprise one-third of all individual income tax audits.  Because of the large dollar amounts at stake, a taxpayer’s mistaken understanding of the eligibility requirements for these refundable credits can often result in a deficiency of several thousand dollars. Though studies indicate that taxpayer error is more commonly inadvertent than intentional, the section 6662 20% accuracy-related penalty applies once the deficiency reaches a statutory “understatement” threshold; it is imposed computationally and without regard to the taxpayer’s intent. By statute, taxpayers have the right to contest the accuracy-related penalty by demonstrating that there was reasonable cause for the underlying error and the taxpayer acted in good faith. Treasury regulations provide that such a circumstance might include “an honest misunderstanding of fact or law that is reasonable in light of all the facts and circumstances, including the experience, knowledge, and education of the taxpayer”.  Yet for all of these reasons – lack of experience, lack of knowledge, and relative lack of education – the taxpayer is unlikely to have the knowledge or resources to raise the very defense that is meant to protect an unsophisticated taxpayer. Drawing comparisons between refundable tax credits and social programs administered by other agencies, this article calls upon the IRS to better differentiate between inadvertent error (“those who don’t know”) and intentional or fraudulent error (“those who know better”).  The article argues that the current accuracy-related penalty approach is unduly punitive.  It concludes by proposing solutions that the IRS might consider in light of Congress’s desire for the Service to administer these social benefits through the Internal Revenue Code.
Front Matter
Authors: Review Tax
Published: March 2014

Front Matter
Dialectics of Travel:
Authors: Perelis Ronnie
Published: March 2014

The Relación of Antonio de Montezinos (1644) recounts one of the few direct encounters between a Jew and the New World during the formative period of European expansion and colonization of the Americas. Montezinos's narrative of his encounter with the lost tribe of Reuben in the Northern Andes is of obvious relevance to the history of early modern messianisms as well as the proto-anthropological question of the origin of the Native Americans. However, in this essay I look at the Relación as a uniquely Jewish American narrative of spiritual transformation; Montezinos's experience in the Americas inspires a radical reassessment of his life and religious commitments. This transformation is fueled by the journeys he embarks upon and the texts—both oral and written—which he encounters along the way; both text and travel dialectically inform his process of self-discovery. By focusing on this one angle we can see how Montezinos's Relación participates in the wider discourse of the European encounter with the Americas, and how, at the same time, it is integral to Jewish literature, to the writings of individual Jews as they attempt to make sense of the New World.
Poetics of the Apocalypse:
Authors: Leibman Laura Arnold
Published: March 2014

The early Jewish American apocalyptic verse of Isaac Aboab da Fonseca, Miguel de Barrios, and Daniel Israel Lopez Laguna provides an important starting point for the history of Jewish American poetry. By beginning Jewish American literature with these poets, I aim to accomplish three important goals: (1) to more accurately reflect Jewish American literature's diversity; (2) to denaturalize the concept of America; and (3) to remind readers that literary history need not be teleological, even when the poets themselves dreamt of a final telos—the messiah. After summarizing the main tenets of early Jewish American messianism, I show how this messianism impacted Aboab's, de Barrios's, and Laguna's content, genre, and style. Messianism, I argue, affects the poets' desire to write from and of America and their understanding of poetry's goal. Messianism provided a means by which each poet made sense of temporal and spatial ruptures and placed those ruptures in the larger narrative of Jewish (American) history. Throughout my explication of each of these poets' works, I highlight their relationship to later Jewish American literary history by taking note of the unintentional echoes between early and later Jewish American poets. I draw out these parallels in order to argue for a new understanding of literary history that is just as interested in drift, variation, and fragmentation as it is interested in expectancy, reinforcement, and cohesion. Correlation, not causation, is the narrative thread of this new literary history.
“The Seventh Angel Woke Me”:
Authors: Levinson Julian
Published: March 2014

This article explores the development of a “prophetic” poetic mode in the writings of self-proclaimed Jewish poet Adah Isaacs Menken (1835–1868). Although Menken laid claim to a Jewish identity, it now appears all but certain that she was neither born Jewish nor underwent any sort of formal conversion. Nevertheless, her self-positioning is highly instructive, since it reveals how the symbolic meanings associated with Jewishness in nineteenth-century America could be pressed into the service of an experimental and culturally subversive literary project. I argue that Menken's “prophetic” or “Israelite” texts of the 1860s drew upon and mediated between two broader cultural trends: the resurgent apocalyptic strain in antebellum American Protestantism and the post-denominational naturalism and experimental poetics of Walt Whitman. Her idiosyncratic engagements with these trends enabled her to break free of the codes of literary sentimentalism that shaped her early poems and delimited her cultural role as a woman in American culture.
Research Note: The Determinants of Tourists' Length of Stay: Some Further Modelling Issues
Authors: Thrane Christer
Published: March 2014

Very complicated so-called ‘survival’ (or duration) models have featured strongly in research aimed at explaining variation in tourists' length of stay at destinations. In a constructive critique of this research, Thrane (2012) has shown that use of these models lacks sound footing on conceptual as well as statistical grounds. In recent studies, length of stay has been thought of as a count variable, and the variation in this variable has accordingly been modelled with count data regression models. The purpose of the present study is to provide a constructive critique of this research. There are two conclusions. First, count data regression models should be used when analysing ‘how-many-times-something-happened’ data. Consequently, these models are not ideal when the non-discrete dependent variable is length of stay measured in days. Second, since an OLS regression analysis on the natural log of length of stay yields the same results as a far more complicated count data regression model, the former is preferable on the principle of parsimony and with regard to reaching out to an audience not well acquainted with statistics.
Macroinvertebrados bentónicos como bioindicadores de calidad de agua del trópico húmedo en las microcuencas de los alrededores de Bluefields, RAAS
Authors: González A Néstor , Sánchez Mateo Sonia , Mairena Valdivia Álvaro
Published: March 2014

En este estudio realizado del 2008 hasta la época seca del 2012 se presenta los resultados de un monitoreo sobre el estado de las poblaciones de macroinvertebrados acuáticos (MAIA) y su valor bioindicador en cuatro microcuencas: Lunku Creek, Walpatara, El Pool y Esconfran. Estas microcuencas están situadas en los alrededores de la ciudad de Bluefields, y las principales problemáticas que presentan son la reducción de la cobertura vegetal y el crecimiento de la población. El estudio dio como resultado que las zonas más críticas tanto en la estación seca como en la lluviosa fueron: la parte media y baja de las microcuencas de Walpatara y el Pool. En estos sitios, la calidad de las aguas es dudosa, es decir, que son aguas moderadamente contaminadas.Naha stadi muni kaikan ka 2008 wina 2012 lapta pyua nani kat daukan ba, marikisa laki kaiki bangwn ba daiwan nani nina dusa nani apu ba li munhtara ba nahki iwi bangwiba (MAIA) an kulkanka nahki briba rayaka bri tanka ba tasba piska li wal briba pliska walhwalh ra: Lunku Creek, Walpatara, El Pool an Esconfran. Naha tasbaia piska sirpi nani ai laya wal ba Bluefields tawanka tnaya piska nani ra bara sa. An trabilka kau tara kaiki ba naha piska nani ra ba dus nani inma nani pawan danh taki auya ba an tawanka ba kau upla aahwi auya ba. Stadi muni sakanka nani ra wan marikisa pliska nani kau Saura ba, ban lapta taki taim kara bara li auhwi taim kara sin, baha nani ba: Walpa tara an el Pool tasbaya ai laya piska ba sirpi nani lila bara mayara piska nani ba. Naha nani pliska ra, li pain barasa sapa kler apia, wibia sa kaka, naha laya nani ba wira taski nani brisa.Adika walwi talna yamna 2008 kurihni kaupak 2012 kat dawak pa muihni balna awaskat was amput daukalna kidi amanglana as yakwi dawak was sahni arungka Lunku Creek, Walpatara, El Pool y Esconfran yak ais pitni kat kidi ulwi yakwi. Adika wasni balna kidi Bluefields pâni yaihnit yak bang ki dawak kapahnini baisa nuhni kidi laih, dî kasnin sâtni balna kidi daukalwi dawak pâ muihni balna laih baisa mahni kalahwi kaiwi. Adika walwi talna yak amanglana kidi kurih dawak was taimni balna yak dutni palni ki kau palni kidi: Walpatara dawi Pool wasni sahni parah dawi tanwa saitni yak. Adika palni balna yak, was balna kidi yamni awas kulwi kat was kidi di sâtni mahni yaklauwi daukalna yamwa bangh. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5377/wani.v68i0.1354 Wani No. 68 2013: 53-63
GOLD guidelines adherence impact on the NHS budget
Authors: Guasconi Alessandro , Ripellino Claudio , Heiman Franca
Published: March 2014

OBJECTIVE: Aim of this study was the evaluation of the adherence level to GOLD guidelines for the COPD patients’ treatment in the Italian GPs setting, observing the time trend on ICS therapies’ pharmacoutilization, specifically in mild and moderate COPD patients, which is considered inappropriate by GOLD guidelines. Moreover, a pharmacoeconomic analysis has been implemented in order to evaluate the economical burden of the improper management of COPD.METHODS: The retrospective GPs database study has analyzed patients with at least one diagnosis of COPD during the periods January 2005 – December 2008 (Cohort 1) and January 2009 – December 2011 (Cohort 2), who had a reported value of VEMS, at least one prescription of a drug from ATC R03 class within two months from the date of spirometric exam and aged 40 or more. Disease severity has been defined according to 2008 GOLD guidelines. Comparison between the cohorts has been implemented to verify possible variations in guideline adherence. Furthermore, an economical analysis has been developed in order to highlight saves obtained by following GOLD guidelines and the total inappropriate therapies’ costs.RESULTS: The first cohort involved 2,103 COPD patients, while the second cohort included 1,647 subjects. Reduction of ICS therapies has been shown between the two cohorts, with a decrease of 8.4% for mild patient and 1.6% for moderate patients; considering all the disease severities, the reduction was about 4%. Pharmacoeconomic analysis on mild and moderate patients has pointed out that about 50% of the total ICS treatments (814,692 € on 1,658,164 €) is related to the ICS element, and so considered inappropriate costs.CONCLUSION: Economic differences between the two periods have highlighted a minor mean costs for Cohort 2, underlining an improvement in the adherence to the GOLD guidelines in the last period.
A formação ética dos médicos: saindo da adolescência com a vida (dos outros) nas mãos
Authors: Rego Sérgio
Published: March 2014

Traz um estudo da realidade da formação ética dos futuros médicos nas escolas de medicina do Brasil, retratando as dificuldades que os jovens profissionais se deparam quando deixam de ser formalmente aprendizes e passam a responder moral, jurídica e socialmente pela vida de um semelhante. Leitura necessária para os envolvidos com a formação moral do futuro médico.
Reliability analysis and yield enhancement of resistive random access memory with adaptive incremental step pulse programming sizing
Authors: Kim Sang-Yun , Baek Jong-Min , Seo Dong-Jin , Park Jae-Koo , Chun Jung-Hoon , Kwon Kee-Won
Published: March 2014

We investigated the reliability of resistive random access memory (ReRAM) under two different types of incremental step pulse programming (ISPP) along with the yield enhancement by the customized programming pulses based on the susceptibility of memory cells. Adaptive step-size control of ISPP enabled by an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) based sense amplifier significantly reduces the cycling disturbance by 54% because of the decreased number of effective write accesses. The programming yield of ReRAM was further improved with a proposed write scheme. The defective ReRAM cells are classified as soft fail cells and hard fail cells by the ADC-based sense amplifier, and soft fail cells are rescued by using a modified programming pulse. Measurements verified that the programming yield drop of 3% is completely recovered by the program pulse shaping.
Low power low phase noise phase locked loop frequency synthesizer with fast locking mode for 2.4 GHz applications
Authors: Liu Xiaodong , Feng Peng , Liu Liyuan , Wu Nanjian
Published: March 2014

We designed a low power low phase noise phase locked loop (PLL) frequency synthesizer for 2.4 GHz wireless communication applications. Current reusing technique and triple-well NMOS transistors are applied to reduce power consumption and improve phase noise performance of the voltage controlled oscillator (VCO), respectively. The synthesizer has a fast locking mode that uses frequency presetting technique to greatly shorten the locking time. The synthesizer was implemented in 0.18 µm CMOS process. The chip core area is 1.49 mm2. Measured results show that the output frequency tuning range is 2.16–2.55 GHz. The phase noise is −124.18 dBc/Hz at 1 MHz from a 2.4 GHz carrier. The power consumption is 4.98 mW and the locking time in fast locking mode is about 4 µs.
Impact of semiconductor on diamond structure for power supply on chip applications
Authors: Nakagawa Kentaro , Kodama Takuya , Matsumoto Satoshi , Yamada Takatoshi , Hasegawa Masataka , Nishizawa Shinichi
Published: March 2014

In this study, we assessed a semiconductor (silicon or GaN)-on-diamond (SeOD) structure and compared it with a conventional silicon on insulator (SOI) structure, i.e., diamond, for power-supply-on-chip (power-SoC) applications by numerical simulations. The SeOD structure has thermal advantages over the conventional SOI structure without degrading electrical characteristics even using a thin diamond film (0.3 µm).
Prognostic Factors for Gastrectomy in Elderly Patients
Authors: Endo Shunji , Yoshikawa Yukinobu , Hatanaka Nobutaka , Dousei Tsutomu , Yamada Terumasa , Nishijima Junichi , Kamiike Wataru
Published: March 2014

The decision to undergo surgery for gastric cancer patients aged ≥85 years should be made carefully. We retrospectively reviewed the prognostic factors of gastrectomy for 64 patients aged ≥85 years who had undergone curative gastrectomy for gastric cancer. The effects of various clinical characteristics and surgical interventions on survival were retrospectively analyzed. Univariate analysis revealed that sex (male/female; P = 0.001), the extent of gastric resection (total/distal; P = 0.028), the extent of lymph node dissection (D2/<D2; P = 0.019), and blood loss (P = 0.005) were significant prognostic factors for overall survival. Multivariate analysis demonstrated that sex was the only independent prognostic factor. For pneumonia-specific survival, sex was also the only prognostic factor by multivariate analysis.Prognoses of males aged ≥85 years after gastrectomy were significantly worse than those of females, as they were more likely to die of pneumonia.
A Case of Very Well-Differentiated Adenocarcinoma With Carcinoid Tumor in the Ascending Colon
Authors: Yamauchi Hayato , Sakurai Shinji , Tsukagoshi Ritsuko , Suzuki Masaki , Tabe Yuichi , Fukasawa Takaharu , Kiriyama Shinsuke , Fukuchi Minoru , Naitoh Hiroshi , Kuwano Hiroyuki
Published: March 2014

Malignant tumors with mixed glandular and neuroendocrine characteristics with at least 30% of each component are classified as mixed adenoneuroendocrine carcinoma (MANEC) by the World Health Organization 2010 classification. We report here a case of very well-differentiated adenocarcinoma accompanied by carcinoid tumor, categorized as MANEC. A 41-year-old Japanese man was clinically diagnosed with ascending colon cancer and underwent right hemicolectomy. Using an immunohistologic technique, the pathologic diagnosis was very well-differentiated adenocarcinoma accompanied by carcinoid tumor and marked eosinophil infiltration, which was categorized as MANEC. By immunohistochemical analysis, tumor cells of the carcinoid component exhibited very low proliferation activity. Our case was thought to be MANEC without high malignant potential. MANEC as per the World Health Organization 2010 classification seems to include tumors with diverse grades of malignancy, and it might need to have subclassifications according to the malignancy potential of the tumor cells.
Analysis of Potential Oral Cleft Risk Factors in the Kosovo Population
Authors: Salihu Sami , Krasniqi Blerim , Sejfija Osman , Heta Nijazi , Salihaj Nderim , Geci Agreta , Sejdini Milaim , Arifi Hysni , Isufi Ramazan , Ueeck Brett A.
Published: March 2014

The aim of this study was to analyze the association of potential risk factors such as positive family cleft history, smoking, use of drugs during pregnancy, and parental age with oral clefts in offspring within the Kosovo population. We conducted a population-based case-control study of live births in Kosovo from 1996 to 2005. Using a logistic regression model, 244 oral cleft cases were compared with 488 controls. We have excluded all syndromic clefts. Heredity increases the risk of clefts in newborns [odds ratio (OR) = 8.25, 95% confidence interval (CI) 3.12–23.52]. Clefts were also associated with smoking (OR = 1.87, 95% CI 0.75–4.08), use of drugs during pregnancy (OR = 2.25, 95% CI 0.82–5.12), increasing maternal age (OR = 1.83, 95% CI 1.42–2.49), and increasing paternal age (OR = 1.3, 95% CI 1.2– 1.4). We found heredity to be the most important factor for cleft occurrence in Kosovar newborns. Another significant potential risk factor for occurrence of clefts is the parental age. We found the use of drugs and smoking during pregnancy to be less significant.
A Comparison of Outcomes and Complications of Totally Implantable Access Port Through the Internal Jugular Vein Versus the Subclavian Vein
Authors: Nagasawa Yoshinobu , Shimizu Tomoharu , Sonoda Hiromichi , Mekata Eiji , Wakabayashi Masato , Ohta Hiroyuki , Murata Satoshi , Mori Tsuyoshi , Naka Shigeyuki , Tani Tohru
Published: March 2014

Totally implantable access ports (TIAPs) are generally used in oncology. Few studies have addressed complications associated with the insertion site. A total of 233 consecutive oncology patients were enrolled to receive TIAP inserts via internal jugular vein (IJV) or subclavian vein (SV). Data on clinicopathologic parameters and early/late complications were retrospectively collected. No differences were found early and late complication rates. Catheter injury was observed more frequently in the IJV group (2.9%) than in the SV group (1.0%) without statistical significance. Multivariate logistic regression analysis showed that age, switch to palliative use of TIAP, and the distribution of diseases (low risk in patients with colorectal cancer) were independent risk factors for determining complications. In conclusion, TIAP insertion site showed no impact on the early and late complication rates. Catheter injury appears to occur at the same frequency with both approaches. Therefore, medical doctors may choose their preferred puncture site when performing TIAP insertion.
Outcome of Hepatectomy for Hepatocellular Carcinoma in Elderly Patients With Portal Hypertension
Authors: Mori Shozo , Kita Junji , Shimizu Takayuki , Kato Masato , Shimoda Mitsugi , Kubota Keiichi
Published: March 2014

The outcome of liver resection (LR) for elderly hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) patients with portal hypertension (PHT) who may be excluded as liver transplantation candidates has not been fully evaluated. One hundred ninety-five patients who underwent initial curative LR for HCC with PHT were divided into 2 groups: age <70 years (n = 131) and age ≥70 years (n = 64). Clinicopathologic data and postoperative complications were compared. Preoperative characteristics and postoperative complications were similar in both groups. However, in-hospital mortality was significantly more frequent in elderly than in younger patients (11% versus 1%, P = 0.002). No significant intergroup differences were observed in the 5-year disease-free survival rate or recurrence rate (19.7% versus 17.2%; P = 0.338, 63% versus 56%; P = 0.339). Although LR for elderly HCC patients with PHT can be performed with curative intent and gives results comparable with those in younger patients, it is associated with higher in-hospital mortality.
Synthesis of 8‐Oxoguanosine Phosphoramidite and Its Incorporation into Oligoribonucleotides
Authors: Taniguchi Yosuke , Koga Yohei , Sasaki Shigeki
Published: March 2014

The detailed synthetic protocol for preparation of the phosphoramidite of an oxidatively damaged ribonucleotide, 8‐oxoguanosine (8‐oxo‐G), and its incorporation into RNA are described. The O
6‐ and N
7‐bisdiphenylcarbamoyl‐protected 8‐oxoguanosine phosphoramidite was synthesized as a new phosphoramidite precursor unit for the synthesis of RNA. It was successfully incorporated into the RNA sequences, and the synthesized RNAs were completely deprotected with 28% aqueous ammonia solution at 55°C for 24 hr. After purification using HPLC, they were identified by MALDI‐TOF mass measurement. The base‐pairing properties showed that 8‐oxo‐G forms base pairs not only with rC or dC in anti‐conformation, but also with rA in syn conformation within the RNA duplexes or RNA/DNA heteroduplexes. Curr. Protoc. Nucleic Acid Chem. 56:4.58.1‐4.58.10. © 2014 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Molecular Modeling of Nucleic Acid Structure: Setup and Analysis
Authors: Galindo‐Murillo Rodrigo , Bergonzo Christina , Cheatham Thomas E.
Published: March 2014

The last in a set of units by the same authors, this unit addresses some important remaining questions about molecular modeling of nucleic acids. The unit describes how to choose an appropriate molecular mechanics force field; how to set up and equilibrate the system for accurate simulation of a nucleic acid in an explicit solvent by molecular dynamics or Monte Carlo simulation; and how to analyze molecular dynamics trajectories. Curr. Protoc. Nucleic Acid Chem. 56:7.10.1‐7.10.21. © 2014 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Lithium and Lithium Compounds
Authors: Wietelmann Ulrich , Steinbild Martin
Published: March 2014

The article contains sections titled:1.Introduction1.1.History2.Properties2.1.Physical Properties2.2.Chemical Properties3.Occurrence3.1.Important Lithium Minerals3.1.1.Lithium Aluminum Silicates3.1.2.Micas3.1.3.Lithium Phosphates3.1.4.Lithium Boron Silicates3.1.5.Other Lithium Ores3.2.Lithium Resources and Reserves3.2.1.Resources in Minerals3.2.2.Resources in Continental Brines4.Process Technology4.1.Concentrate Production4.2.Mineral Conversion4.2.1.Acid‐Roast Conversion4.2.2.Lime‐Roast Conversion4.2.3.Ion‐Exchange Processes4.2.4.Clay Roasting Process4.3.Brine Purification and Concentration4.4.Lithium Carbonate Production from Brine Concentrate5.Lithium Metal and Lithium Alloys5.1.Production of Lithium Metal5.2.Uses of Lithium Metal5.3.Lithium Alloys6.Lithium Compounds6.1.Inorganic Lithium Compounds and Lithium Salts6.2.Organolithium Compounds, Lithium Alkylamides, and Lithium Alkoxides7.Quality Specifications and Analysis8.Recycling9.Economic Aspects10.Toxicology and Occupational Health
Seismological analysis of conduit dynamics in fragmentation experiments
Authors: Arciniega‐Ceballos A. , Alatorre‐Ibargüengoitia M. , Scheu B. , Dingwell D. B. , Delgado‐Granados H.
Published: March 2014

We simulate gas‐burst and volcanic explosions under controlled laboratory conditions inducing fragmentation of volcanic rocks by rapid depressurization. A series of experiments were performed in a shock‐tube apparatus at room temperature and a pressure range of 4 to 20 MPa using Argon (Ar) gas and, particles or pumice samples of different porosities. The instrumentation of this system with high‐precision piezoelectric sensors enabled us to capture elastic waves and to recognize their characteristic signatures. By relating these signals to physical processes in the wave field, we have been able to characterize the conduit mechanism and the source dynamics. We compare and discuss conspicuous features of the waveforms and frequency spectra of these experimental signals with those of volcanic origin. Despite the fact that these signals are different in amplitude (resulting from different scale conditions); our observations indicate that the physical processes that occur during simulated explosions and those that occur during volcanic eruptions yield comparable signatures in their respective records. The effects of the source‐receiver configuration and resonance also have significant implications. All this suggests that the physical processes (e.g. pressurization and depressurization of a system) involve a system response that causes similar distinctive effects independent of the system size, reflecting its intrinsic dynamics. These similarities imply that powerful constraints on the source mechanisms of volcanic seismicity can emerge from seismic investigations of experimental simulations of volumetric sources. Such constraints may yield significant advances in the understanding of volcanic conduit dynamics and in the interpretation of seismic unrest at volcanic centers.
Numerical modeling of convective erosion and peridotite‐melt interaction in big mantle wedge: Implications for the destruction of the North China Craton
Authors: He Lijuan
Published: March 2014

The deep subduction of the Pacific Plate underneath East Asia is thought to have played a key role in the destruction of the North China Craton (NCC). To test this hypothesis, this paper presents a new 2‐D model that includes an initial stable equilibrated craton, the formation of a big mantle wedge (BMW), and erosion by vigorous mantle convection. The model shows that subduction alone cannot thin the cold solid craton, but it can form a low‐viscosity BMW. The amount of convective erosion is directly proportional to viscosity within the BMW (η0bmw), and the rheological boundary layer thins linearly with decreasing log10(η0bmw), thereby contributing to an increase in heat flow at the lithospheric base. This model also differs from previous modeling in that the increase in heat flow decays linearly witht1/2, meaning that the overall thinning closely follows a natural log relationship over time. Nevertheless, convection alone can only cause a limited thinning due to a minor increase in basal heat flow. The lowering of melting temperature by peridotite‐melt interaction can accelerate thinning during the early stages of this convection. The two combined actions can thin the craton significantly over tens of Myr. This modeling, combined with magmatism and heat flow data, indicates that the NCC evolution has involved four distinct stages: modification in the Jurassic by Pacific Plate subduction and BMW formation, destruction during the Early Cretaceous under combined convective erosion and peridotite‐melt interaction, extension in the Late Cretaceous, and cooling since the late Cenozoic.
A statistical study of inertia gravity waves in the troposphere based on the measurements of Wuhan Atmosphere Radio Exploration (WARE) radar
Authors: Qing Haiyin , Zhou Chen , Zhao Zhengyu , Chen Gang , Ni Binbin , Gu Xudong , Yang Guobin , Zhang Yuannong
Published: March 2014

Wuhan atmosphere radio exploration (WARE) radar is the first mesosphere‐stratosphere‐troposphere radar to have become operative in the mainland of China and is dedicated to real‐time atmospheric observations. Based on the WARE radar data collected for the period from September 2011 to February 2013, 2666 downward and 1735 upward inertia gravity waves (IGWs) are identified from three‐dimensional (3‐D) wind fields observed in the troposphere and subsequently analyzed in a statistical manner. Wave characteristics including intrinsic frequencies, vertical wavelengths, horizontal wavelengths, vertical wave number spectra, energy density spectra, and wave sources are investigated using a combination of the Lomb‐Scargle spectral analysis, the quasi‐monochromatic gravity waves model, and the hodograph method. Our results demonstrate that the characteristic parameters of upward and downward tropospheric IGWs are not significantly different. These results indicate that the tropospheric IGWs parameters are not directly correlated with propagation directions. Combining with the information of statistical 3‐D wind field and some climatic characteristics of Hubei Province, atmospheric moist convection will contribute most in summer, whereas jet/front systems will contribute most in winter. One may expect seasonal variations to be tied to the varying importance of these sources.
Effects of vertical resolution and nonorographic gravity wave drag on the simulated climate in the Community Atmosphere Model, version 5
Authors: Richter Jadwiga H. , Solomon Abraham , Bacmeister Julio T.
Published: March 2014

Horizontal resolution of general circulation models (GCMs) has significantly increased during the last decade, however these changes were not accompanied by similar changes in vertical resolution. In our study, the Community Atmosphere Model, version 5 (CAM5) is used to study the sensitivity of climate to vertical resolution and nonorographic gravity wave drag. Nonorographic gravity wave drag is typically omitted from low‐top GCMs, however as we show, its influence on climate can be seen all the way to the surface. We show that an increase in vertical resolution from 1200 to 500 m in the free troposphere and lower stratosphere in CAM5 improves the representation of near‐tropopause temperatures, lower stratospheric temperatures, and surface wind stresses. In combination with nonorographic gravity waves, CAM5 with increased vertical resolution produces a realistic Quasi‐Biennial Oscillation (QBO), has an improved seasonal cycle of temperature in the extratropics, and represents better the coupling between the stratosphere and the troposphere.
Joint estimation of soil moisture profile and hydraulic parameters by ground‐penetrating radar data assimilation with maximum likelihood ensemble filter
Authors: Tran Anh Phuong , Vanclooster Marnik , Zupanski Milija , Lambot Sébastien
Published: March 2014

Ground‐Penetrating Radar (GPR) has recently become a powerful geophysical technique to characterize soil moisture at the field scale. We developed a data assimilation scheme to simultaneously estimate the vertical soil moisture profile and hydraulic parameters from time‐lapse GPR measurements. The assimilation scheme includes a soil hydrodynamic model to simulate the soil moisture dynamics, a full‐wave electromagnetic wave propagation model, and petrophysical relationship to link the state variable with the GPR data and a maximum likelihood ensemble assimilation algorithm. The hydraulic parameters are estimated jointly with the soil moisture using a state augmentation technique. The approach allows for the direct assimilation of GPR data, thus maximizing the use of the information. The proposed approach was validated by numerical experiments assuming wrong initial conditions and hydraulic parameters. The synthetic soil moisture profiles were generated by the Hydrus‐1D model, which then were used by the electromagnetic model and petrophysical relationship to create “observed” GPR data. The results show that the data assimilation significantly improves the accuracy of the hydrodynamic model prediction. Compared with the surface soil moisture assimilation, the GPR data assimilation better estimates the soil moisture profile and hydraulic parameters. The results also show that the estimated soil moisture profile in the loamy sand and silt soils converge to the “true” state more rapidly than in the clay one. Of the three unknown parameters of the Mualem‐van Genuchten model, the estimation of n is more accurate than that of α and Ks. The approach shows a great promise to use GPR measurements for the soil moisture profile and hydraulic parameter estimation at the field scale.
Assessing the recent droughts in Southwestern China using satellite gravimetry
Authors: Tang Jingshi , Cheng Haowen , Liu Lin
Published: March 2014

Heavy droughts have frequently struck Southwestern China in recent years. A major consequence of these droughts is the loss of terrestrial water storage (TWS) which affects agriculture, civil life, and industry production and results in serious social and economic losses. The satellite gravimetry has been proved an effective way to estimate hydrological variations over the globe, and we use the monthly gravity solutions from the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) satellite mission and extract the hydrological variations from the regional gravity signal. Here we show that the recent heavy droughts in Southwestern China have caused observable nonseasonal gravity changes in the monthly GRACE solutions. Two heavy droughts in September 2009 to May 2010 and August 2011 to January 2012 have resulted in significant TWS deficit up to hundreds of gigatons in Southwestern China. It is found that the latter drought in 2011–2012 is the most severe one in Southwestern China over the decade, hitting large areas, and causing heavy TWS deficit. Affected by the recent droughts, the GRACE estimate shows a gradual decrease in the regional TWS during the recent 4 years in Southwestern China with a nominal rate of −13.3 ± 7.5 mm/yr, which indicates the severity of the TWS deficit in this area.
Genocide
Authors: Castle Tammy L.
Published: March 2014

Genocide is an international crime, defined as acts committed with the intent to destroy a national, racial, or religious group. Genocidal acts can include mass killings of the targeted group, as well as acts that cause serious mental or bodily harm such as deportation and sterilization. Charges of genocide can be submitted by a member country to the United Nations, and tribunals occur in the nation‐state where the crimes occurred or in the International Criminal Court. Comparative studies on genocide focus on identifying stages for prevention and intervention, while explanatory studies examine perpetrator motivation. Much of the scholarly debate on genocide revolves around the definition, and criticisms of the established definition in international law are ongoing.
Cultural Criminology
Authors: Castle Tammy L.
Published: March 2014

Cultural criminology is a critical perspective that examines the convergence of culture and crime in everyday social life. As an orientation, cultural criminology draws from a variety of theoretical traditions, including subcultural and interactionist theories, cultural and media studies, and postmodern and feminist approaches. Cultural criminologists utilize a variety of methodologies, including ethnography and textual analysis, to explore “crime as culture” and “culture as crime.” Crime as culture focuses on the shared meanings of subcultural style and rituals among subcultural groups, while culture as crime explores the mediated constructions and criminalization of popular culture artifacts. Cultural criminologists approach the study of culture and crime from a place of criminological “Verstehen,” or an empathic understanding of the lives of their research subjects.
Elder, Glen H. Jr.
Authors: Balderrama Dana , Evans Sara Z.
Published: March 2014

Glen H. Elder, Jr. is a recognized American sociologist. He has dedicated a great deal of his life to positively impacting the field of psychology and sociology. Elder is most commonly known for his research on life‐course theory and the changes in human socialization. Elder's research provides an in‐depth analysis of the theoretical basis of life‐course theory and the changes that occur in the life course of humans over their lives. Elder introduced life‐course theory as a developmental theory.
Sex Crimes
Authors: Zgoba Kristen M.
Published: March 2014

This entry discusses several key sex crime cases, specifically those that have initiated much of the sexual offender legislation that exists today. The particular cases discussed include Megan Kanka, Amber Hagerman, Jessica Lunsford, and Chelsea King; and a detailed explanation of the resulting memorialization law is provided. Additionally, this entry provides a review of the empirical research on the laws and on the disconnect that exists between society's expectation of increased penalties and the reality of ineffectiveness.
Education and Crime
Authors: Crews Gordon A.
Published: March 2014

While the topic of education and crime may seem straightforward, there are many different perspectives from which it can be viewed. From a criminological view, many connections betweeneducation and crimehave been introduced into the literature and are widely accepted. At the same time, there are also many connections made betweencrime and education. Most believe that thelack of educationindividuals have very often increases the likelihood that they will become involved in crime and antisocial behavior. Thus the opposite is considered true as well; themore educationan individual has the increased likelihood that they will live a crime‐free life.
Containment Theory
Authors: Flexon Jamie L.
Published: March 2014

Walter C. Reckless formally conceived of containment theory in the early 1960s. Containment theory is a forerunner of contemporary control theories (e.g., self‐control theory) aimed at explaining deviance and delinquency among youth populations. A central premise of containment theory, as with all control theories of crime and delinquency, is that behavior must be controlled, and in the absence of appropriate controls, people will deviate. Though the theory has fallen out of vogue in recent times, it is frequently referenced in the criminological literature, and some argue it isthe predecessorto modern control theories of crime and delinquency.
Social Learning Theory
Authors: Jennings Wesley G. , Henderson Brandy B.
Published: March 2014

Social learning theory is one of the most widely tested and cited criminological theories in the field. Since Burgess and Akers's first conceptualization and Akers's more recent refinements of social learning theory, a considerable amount of support has been evidenced surrounding its four theoretical components: differential association, differential reinforcement, definitions, and imitation. Furthermore, social learning variables are also found to be robust predictors of crime and deviance alongside other general theories of crime. This entry reviews the theoretical propositions of social learning theory and the empirical tests of the theory and concludes with a consideration of future directions for research.
Prescription Drug Abuse
Authors: Kopak Albert M. , Frederick Hawley F.
Published: March 2014

Although recent media coverage of “pill mills,” or high‐volume and high‐prescribing pain clinics has dramatically increased public awareness of prescription drug abuse, these substances have been used and abused throughout history. Different types of prescription drugs have prompted cause for concern at different time periods. Strict drug control policies have become the primary response aimed at the reduction of prescription drug diversion and corresponding levels of abuse.
Subculture of Violence Theory
Authors: Hawley F. Frederick
Published: March 2014

In the late 1950s various ideas concerning violent subcultures as explanations for concentrations of violent crime were formulated by criminologists, sociologists, and historians. Inner city Afro‐American violence and “Southern violence” were prominent among the problematic manifestations studied. Although subcultural explanations for crime in general have receded in importance, interest in subcultures of violence continues to the present.
Homelessness and Crime
Authors: Santiago Jason P.
Published: March 2014

This paper explores the factors of homelessness and crime in American society. The perspective of a homeless individual has significantly shifted over the past several years to include a new image, intertwined factors, and a new form of criminal activity. The connections provided in this paper are reflected in a 1985 study from Michigan's Department of Corrections. In addition, this information is supported by a 2011 study from the National Law Center on Homelessness and Poverty. The use of the traditional criminal justice system might not always work when trying to combat such significant sociocultural issues and concerns.
Rurality and Crime
Authors: Ruddell Rick
Published: March 2014

While Americans tend to think of life in the countryside as peaceful or idyllic, there are rural towns and counties that have very high rates of crime. Prior research has shown that levels of violent and property crimes, and the responses to those acts, are shaped by a number of geographic, economic, demographic, and cultural factors, and that some offenses, such as wildlife, agricultural, and environmental crimes, rarely occur in the city. Despite the recognition that crime in the countryside is unlike what occurs in the cities, there has been comparatively little theoretical development that explains these differences. Instead, most theoretical explanations of rural crime are based on observations of urban conditions, and as a result the development of theories explaining rural crime is underdeveloped.
Same‐Sex Intimate Partner Violence
Authors: Fahmy Chantal , Fradella Henry F.
Published: March 2014

Although prevalence rates of same‐sex intimate partner violence (
IPV
) are debated,
IPV
appears to occur for many of the same reasons why it transpires in opposite‐sex relationships, as well as for several reasons unique to same‐sex relationships. For a variety of reasons, both legal protections and social services assistance are significantly reduced for same‐sex
IPV
victims by comparison to their heterosexual counterparts.
Rape: Theories of
Authors: Suzuki Yumi
Published: March 2014

Although limited in number and scope, existing rape theories attempt to understand, on both individual and societal levels, the motivation to commit rape and the aftermath of victimization. Uncontrollable impulse, mental illness/disease, alcohol or drugs, and victim precipitation are often discussed as motivations for rape, while attribution theory/acceptance of rape myths, feminist theories, and routine activity theory are utilized in understanding rape victimization. Existing theories may need to take into account male rape victimization and the evolving meaning of rape.
Marx, Karl
Authors: Stretesky Paul B. , Lynch Michael J.
Published: March 2014

The work of Karl Marx (1818–1883) has had a significant impact on the development of radical criminology. Marx's approach assumes each economic system develops a unique class structure that shapes life chances and is tied to social, political, and economic power. The class structure also has implications for social control as well as the definition and causes of crime. Radical criminology has garnered significant theoretical attention and empirical support, though it is often neglected in contemporary criminology.
Kelling, George
Authors: Servino Carol
Published: March 2014

George L. Kelling is an American criminologist and criminal justice professor, author, and co‐creator with the late James Q. Wilson (1931–2012) of the broken windows theory that posited a relationship between community disorder, quality of life, fear, and crime. Kelling is Professor Emeritus at the School of Criminal Justice at Rutgers University‐Newark, a senior fellow at the Manhattan Institute, and a former fellow in the Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University. Kelling is married to Catherine M. Coles, with whom he co authored
Fixing Broken Windows
in 1996.
Juvenile Justice
Authors: Butler Frank
Published: March 2014

Juvenile justice involves an array of procedures and processes that come into play when minors are suspected of involvement in legally prohibited activities, including status offenses that apply only to minors. Originally ensconced in a highly paternalistic philosophy, it has come to enshrine many of the punitive aspects that characterize adult criminal court. Many criminological theories support the idea of juvenile justice, though others are critical of its workings.
CPTED
(Crime prevention through environmental design)
Authors: Cohen Derek M.
Published: March 2014

Arising from Newman's theory of defensible space, the theory of crime prevention through environmental design (
CPTED
) is premised on the idea that crime is linked to physical features of the environment and not solely predicated on individual, structural, or institutional measures.
CPTED
enjoyed a flourish of support in the early 1970s but, following years of limited success, it has fallen by the wayside in criminological theory. Currently,
CPTED
has yet to be definitively demonstrated as a successful strategy for suppressing crime.
Decriminalization and Legalization
Authors: Roberts Melinda R.
Published: March 2014

One of the most controversial debates in criminology surrounds the decriminalization and legalization of drugs. Public policy and drug laws continue to change, based on varied theoretical arguments and the repercussions of the “war on drugs.” Evaluations of drug enforcement and policy produce mixed results as researchers evaluate the link between drugs and crime.
Longitudinal Designs
Authors: Maldonado‐Molina Mildred M. , Delcher Chris , Snyder Nichole
Published: March 2014

Longitudinal research designs are critical to analyzing change in outcomes important to criminology, epidemiology, and an emerging field known as “epidemiological criminology.” Key methodology concepts, examples from peer‐reviewed publications in criminology and epidemiology, and detailed discussion of longitudinal studies of alcohol and violence are presented.
Somatotype Theory
Authors: Morin Robert
Published: March 2014

Somatotype theory is one of the biological theories of criminology and is considered to be included in the biological school of criminology. Somatotyping is the classifying of people into types according to body build. Somatotype theory relates distinctive body types to personality characteristics and relates criminal behavior to the body types. Somatotype theory is most commonly associated with William Sheldon. Sheldon's somatotype theory established three basic body types: endomorph, mesomorph, and ectomorph.