bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Rebuilding of Exeter College
Authors: Maddicott John
Published: January 2022

This chapter traces the process by which Exeter College was largely rebuilt during Prideaux’s rectorship. This was one of his major achievements, which transformed a ramshackle and higgledy-piggledy college into a model of well-planned order and even grandeur devised around a central quadrangle. The chapter analyses Prideaux’s relations with the leading benefactors––John Peryam, Sir John Acland, George Hakewill––who made the rebuilding possible and stresses the common ground in religion which underlay their friendly relations. It also raises the question why Prideaux fundraising efforts were so narrowly confined to the city of Exeter and its immediate hinterland. The new buildings are described, with particular attention being paid to the hall and the chapel, and the course of the rebuilding and its consequential costs are outlined. Finally, stress is laid on the degree to which the rebuilding was regarded as a religious enterprise intended in part to promote the work of the church through the provision of more rooms for undergraduates whose destiny it might be to serve as clerics. His achievement in renewing Exeter’s physical structure was recognized even by his enemy Peter Heylyn. The chapter draws on a hitherto unknown file of informal and personal letters between Prideaux, benefactors, and College fellows.
In Office and in Retirement, 1642–50
Authors: Maddicott John
Published: January 2022

This chapter opens by discussing Prideaux’s work as bishop of Worcester during the Civil War, 1642–6. It shows that he worked conscientiously to manage a see that was devastated by the military operations of the royal and parliamentary armies, striving to maintain effective diocesan administration and to support his parish clergy in difficult circumstances. When in 1646, at the war’s conclusion and with the abolition of episcopacy, he lost his bishopric, he went to live in retirement with one of his daughter and his son-in-law at Bredon in Worcestershire. His relations with his two daughters and their husbands, Henry Sutton and William Hodges, both Worcestershire parish clergy, were close and affectionate, but were set against a dark religious background of what Prideaux regarded as national apostasy. His final years also saw a renewed burst of intellectual activity, centred once again on Oxford, where Prideaux stayed for several periods in 1648–9. He published some notable works of theology, two pastoral guides for his daughters and his wife, and some undergraduate textbooks. The books which he is known to have read in the Bodleian Library suggest a new interest in early British history. His death in July 1650 was followed by a well-attended funeral and a funeral oration which summarised his illustrious achievements as seen by his many friends and admirers.
‘Strange passages in divers suits’
Authors: Peacey Jason
Published: January 2022

This chapter traces the first era of the Warrens Court dispute, from the 1560s to 1615, during which it was passed down through successive generations of litigants who laid claim to the inheritance of lands leased from the master of the free grammar school in Wotton-under-Edge. It pieces together fragmentary evidence to map the legal moves made by both sides, demonstrating how arguments changed when circumstances altered and new disputants became involved; how it proved possible to contest both substantive issues as well as the manner in which litigation was undertaken; and how both sides found sufficient grounds for confidence regarding the chances of success.
‘Given to superstitious uses’
Authors: Peacey Jason
Published: January 2022

This chapter completes the second part of the narrative of the Warrens Court dispute, from 1615 to 1662, the phase in which contestation revolved more obviously around the fate of a grammar school that had been founded in 1384. It was the school that owned the Warrens Court estate, and it was eventually alleged that control of the estate formed part of an attempt to ‘suppress’ a charitable institution. Making the school the centrepiece of litigation raised controversial issues, relating to chantry lands, ‘concealed’ lands, and ‘charitable uses’, and threw up increasingly contentious claims about the behaviour of those involved. This ensured that disputation reached Parliament and the crown, and became increasingly public and acrimonious, eventually escalating into a libel case before Star Chamber, and reverberating throughout the civil wars and Interregnum.
‘A huntsman after broken titles’
Authors: Peacey Jason
Published: January 2022

This chapter turns to the behaviour of Benjamin Crokey, examining surviving evidence about his attitude, strategies, and tactics, as well as the claims made about his lack of legal ability—and indeed sanity—by John Smyth. It suggests that, whether or not he lacked legal acumen, Crokey certainly demonstrated a capacity to behave in an entrepreneurial fashion, as petitioner, lobbyist, and pamphleteer, and that, while his conduct certainly perplexed some contemporaries, its logic can also be appreciated. What certainly emerges is that Crokey was prompted to reflect upon the judicial and political systems that he encountered, and that his approach to disputation needs to be understood in relation to his sense of what was ‘right’, and to his concern over the likelihood of being able to secure ‘justice’ from the legal system.
‘For your sake I sent this down’
Authors: Peacey Jason
Published: January 2022

This chapter focuses upon the reverberations of one of the dispute’s most important episodes, when Benjamin Crokey and his associates distributed copies of one of his pamphlets to MPs, peers, and officials at Westminster, before distributing them more widely—if selectively—around London and the West Country. Utilising evidence from John Smyth’s forensic investigation, it refines our appreciation of the strategies and tactics of both men, in terms of Crokey’s ability to undertake an audacious publicity campaign from within prison, and Smyth’s ability to use his wealth and influence to collate evidence with which to construct a libel case, as well as Crokey’s ability to frustrate legal proceedings by exploiting sympathy in Parliament. Overall, this chapter provides a dramatic case study of the use and power of print in early modern England.
Separation of powers ≠ presidentialism
Authors: Ganghof Steffen
Published: January 2022

The separation of powers between executive and assembly is often conflated with the presidential form of government, as if one could not be had without the other. Prevalent typologies in political science facilitate this conflation because they limit themselves to dichotomies or trichotomies. This chapter evaluates forms of government along two separable analytical dimensions: the separation of powers and executive personalism, that is, “the degree to which the power of the executive is constitutionally focused on a single human being.” It distinguishes six basic forms of government and highlights how three of them can be understood as efforts to reap some or all of the benefits of the powers separation while limiting executive personalism: elected prime-ministerial government in Israel (from 1992 to 2001), assembly-independent government in Switzerland, and semi-parliamentary government in Australia. Semi-parliamentary government is unique in achieving powers separation without any executive personalism.
Why we need the concept of semi-parliamentary government
Authors: Ganghof Steffen
Published: January 2022

This chapter specifies and defends the concept of semi-parliamentary government. It provides an operational definition of semi-parliamentarism and identifies the cases that fall under it. It shows that existing typologies in political science disregard this unique constitutional structure because they neglect how directly elected second chambers relate to the executive. The chapter also compares how well the cases that fall under the operational definition express the underlying logic of constitutional design. Finally, the chapter generalizes the analysis—and hence an ideal-typical definition of semi-parliamentarism—in two ways. First, it shows how semi-parliamentary government could balance fundamentally different visions of majority formation: partisan and individualist visions, electoral and sortitionist visions, democratic and epistocratic visions. Second, it explains why semi-parliamentary government does not require two separate chambers.
Are some forms of government more democratic than others?
Authors: Ganghof Steffen
Published: January 2022

This chapter explains the normative approach of the book and clarifies the distinction between instrumentalist and proceduralist evaluations of political institutions. It defends a minimalist form of proceduralism, which highlights the comparative evaluation of institutional schemes, as well as potential conflicts between horizontal and vertical equality. Based on these conceptual clarifications, the chapter rejects the idea that presidentialism is inherently more democratic in virtue of the direct election of the chief executive. It also rejects the notion that pure parliamentarism is inherently more egalitarian than semi-parliamentarism in virtue of giving all assembly members equal formal power over the cabinet.
Against presidentialism
Authors: Ganghof Steffen
Published: January 2022

This chapter uses the book’s insights about semi-parliamentary government to articulate a systematic instrumentalist case against presidentialism. It discusses major justifications of presidential government to be found in the academic literature and shows that virtually all of them concern the separation of powers, not executive personalism (i.e. the constitutional concentration of executive power in a single human being). Moreover, executive personalism tends to undermine the benefits of powers separation, either directly or by requiring problematic constitutional safeguards, such as presidential term limits. Explicit justifications of executive personalism are neither well developed nor supported by systematic empirical evidence. Semi-parliamentary government is superior to presidential government because it can achieve the benefits of powers separation without the perils of executive personalism.
The Conversion of Isaac Da Costa
Authors: Molendijk Arie L.
Published: January 2022

In 1822 Isaac da Costa converted to Christianity, together with his wife Hanna Belmonte (1800–1867) and his friend the physician Abraham Capadose (1795–1874), who is well-known for his battle against vaccination. Da Costa presented his conversion as a quest for personal truth, which individuals have to appropriate for themselves. His own conversion narrative ultimately resolved the dialectics between free personal conversion and the outer personal and socio-political circumstances and constraints (the death of his father, the emancipation of the Jews in the Netherlands) in favour of the authenticity of the individual decision. From a structural point of view his choice of the ‘religion of my fathers’ was also a conversion to modernity. After his conversion Da Costa became a public figure in the Netherlands and he played a leading role in the early nineteenth-century Dutch revival movement, the Réveil.
Allard Pierson’s Farewell to Christianity and His New ‘Agnostic’ Worldview
Authors: Molendijk Arie L.
Published: January 2022

According to an obituary written by a colleague, Allard Pierson (1831–1896) had epitomized Dutch intellectual history for almost forty years. Like Pierson, the writer had started his career as a minister in the Nederlandse Hervormde Kerk (Dutch Reformed Church) but resigned when he could no longer come to terms with his religious doubts. After his resignation, Pierson still obtained a teaching position at the theological faculty in Heidelberg, but he ended his career as a professor of art history in Amsterdam. Nevertheless, he remained fascinated by religion and especially the religion of his childhood. His admiration for the Réveil milieu and its sincere and intense piety seems to have been barely diminished by his criticism of its theological presuppositions. This longing for a distant past may explain his lasting attempts to come to terms with the religion of his youth. It took a great effort to arrive at his new ‘agnostic’, humanistic worldview, which broke radically with the supernatural and with infallibility.
Dutch Protestant Modernism
Authors: Molendijk Arie L.
Published: January 2022

‘Modernism’ is not to be confused with the term ‘modernity’ and the process of modernization mentioned above, but it is also a contentious notion. Although the term has a more restricted sense, it is also used in different domains in a variety of ways. In the arts and philosophy, the term generally refers to innovative movements and individuals, although who actually belongs to the avant-garde is a matter of dispute. It is frequently used to characterize modern culture as opposed to religion. Yet it may apply to the religious and theological sphere too, indicating new theologies and the critical interpretation of the Bible, which demythologizes Scripture. In the present book the term is primarily used to refer to the Protestant movement that aimed at a synthesis of liberal Protestantism and modern culture. The chapter presents an overview of the various meanings of the term, in both a general and a religious sense. Alongside terminological issues, the main protagonists are introduced, debates within Dutch modernism are analysed, and a brief description of the movement is given. Finally, the chapter gives an explanation of the decline of liberal Protestantism in the Netherlands in the twentieth century, by referring to the Dutch system of pillarization. The liberal idea that Protestant religion was an integrative force in Dutch society was severely frustrated in a situation where their counterparts organized themselves into separate confessional organizations that came to dominate the public sphere.
Abraham Kuyper’s Critique of Theological Modernism
Authors: Molendijk Arie L.
Published: January 2022

In a popular address of 1871, Kuyper famously spoke of modernism as ‘a fata morgana in the Christian domain’. It was Kuyper who made the term ‘modernism’ (modernisme) current at the time. His argument was more along the lines of philosophy of religion than of dogmatic theology. In fact, Kuyper compared worldviews and argued for the superiority of his own system of thought, which was allegedly geared to reality, whereas modernism to him represented a dishonourable compromise with the spirit of the times, based on a superficial understanding of reality. Modernism was in his view a heresy, denying special revelation. The rhetorical power of the 1871 speech lies predominantly in the suggestion that modernism (although a necessary phase in the course of history) would perish and ‘we’ would prevail. The speech turns on the double meaning of ‘real’ and ‘realism’. Kuyper argued that by making a compromise with the predominant ‘realism’ of the nineteenth century, modernists actually bypassed reality: no real God, no real prayer, no real sin, and no real church.
Historical-Critical Analysis of the Bible and the Rise of Science of Religion
Authors: Molendijk Arie L.
Published: January 2022

The main intellectual developments discussed in this chapter are the rise of the historical-critical study of the Bible and the science of religion in the Netherlands in the second half of the nineteenth century. Both developments concern the historization of the field of theology itself, the use of historical and comparative methods to study religions. The influence of the natural sciences and Darwinism on theology was not particularly strong in the Netherlands. The first section addresses the ground-breaking work of the Old Testament scholar Abraham Kuenen, especially in relation to the publications of Julius Wellhausen and William Robertson Smith. The second section is devoted to the Dutch Radical School, which emerged at the end of the nineteenth century. The third section focuses on the new 1876 Higher Education Act, which introduced history of religions and philosophy of religion (often considered to be the two main branches of the ‘science of religion’) as part of the theological curriculum. The fourth section briefly introduces the work of two Dutch ‘pioneers’ of the science of religion and their views on theology in relation to it. Cornelis Petrus Tiele originally hoped for a complete transformation of theology into a science of religion that could fulfil the tasks of theology in a scholarly fashion, whereas Pierre Daniël Chantepie de la Saussaye aimed at a new phenomenology of religion that would remodel the study of religion, including Christianity.
The Companies
Authors: Drakeman Donald L. , Drakeman Lisa N. , Oraiopoulos Nektarios
Published: January 2022

This chapter focuses on how biotechnology companies are founded and the process by which they raise funds. Developing new pharmaceutical products is incredibly expensive, so the search for a continuing supply of cash resources has been an essential component of the biotech industry. The chapter looks at the primary ways that these two critical biotech industry components—molecules and money—manage to get together. Since many of the molecules have their origins in government grant-funded research, this chapter will follow the ownership of that technology as it goes through the technology transfer process and thus moves from universities and other not-for-profit research organizations into for-profit companies that have the potential to attract investors. The chapter then describes the capital-raising process through various venture capital stages and ultimately, for some companies, an initial public offering of stock.
The Biotech Entrepreneur
Authors: Drakeman Donald L. , Drakeman Lisa N. , Oraiopoulos Nektarios
Published: January 2022

This chapter addresses the principal challenges facing entrepreneurial biotech CEOs and offers insights into how they may choose to address them. In particular, the chapter focuses on the entrepreneur’s critical role in fundraising and discusses how to make an effective venture capital pitch. It describes biotech CEOs’ impressively diverse backgrounds, which include scientists, physicians, and pharmaceutical executives, as would be expected. But these backgrounds also include historians, lawyers, regulatory experts, investment bankers, and a range of other professions. The chapter identifies some of the personal characteristics often shared by entrepreneurs in a way that may help prospective biotech entrepreneurs consider the attractiveness of that career path.
Segments and Body Regions
Authors: Schram Frederick R. , Koenemann Stefan
Published: January 2022

There are limits to the current understanding of arthropod segment formation, in large part linked with the superabundance of information from one particular model system, that of Drosophila, and a paucity of work on other arthropods. Segmentation exhibits multiple levels of genetic control. Various types of genes that control segment formation have been identified. Conceptual models or evolutionary scenarios have tried to make sense of this critical process: the naupliar/post-naupliar/merosegmental model, the arthropod pattern theory, the tagmosis model, and the idiosyncratic periodic table of articulata. These models are not hypotheses suitable for testing; rather, they form scenarios (stories) of evolution. None of these processes are effective toward generating explanatory scenarios, so the focus on producing testable hypotheses will continue.
Phylogeny and Classification
Authors: Schram Frederick R. , Koenemann Stefan
Published: January 2022

The production of phylogenies and taxonomies has long been based on personal interpretation rather than rigorous character analysis. The introduction of Hennig’s phylogenetic systematics (cladistics) has markedly improved the situation. However, not only is the amount of data derived from whatever sources (anatomy, development, and molecules) important but also the need to employ comprehensive taxon samples is critical. Any phylogeny represents one opinion (hypothesis) until tested against alternatives. A rigorous phylogeny can lead to more reliable classification schemes. Even so, phylogenies and taxonomies are only hypotheses that must remain open to consideration of alternative hypotheses. This chapter provides the framework for the structure of the rest of the book.
Mystacocarida
Authors: Schram Frederick R. , Koenemann Stefan
Published: January 2022

Mystacocarids, or brush shrimp, are a small group, both literally (1 mm or less) and taxonomically (13 species). They live interstitially in marine sands or muds. Once thought to occupy only Atlantic and Mediterranean shores, they are now also known to occur in Chile and Western Australia. Differences between species are subtle in the extreme. They feed on bacterial films that grow on sediment grains. Their sperm evokes that seen in ostracods. Development begins with a metanauplius and passes through seven stages to the adult. Their locomotory abilities are limited, so their wide distribution indicates great age—as does their possible links to the Cambrian Skaracarida.
Skaracarida
Authors: Schram Frederick R. , Koenemann Stefan
Published: January 2022

Skaracaroda contain three species from distant separated localities: two species from Gotland (Sweden) and one species from Hunan Province (southern China). In addition to the Swedish site, with S. anulata and S. minuta, and the Chinese species S. hunanensis, S. minuta apparently occurred in Poland. Hence, examples of Skara are widely spaced not only across the current-day geography but also in Upper Cambrian terms. Because of the great detail preserved on the Orsten fossils, they can be analyzed in a vigorous comparative manner to modern forms. The genus Skara generally resembles mystacocaridans but has fewer pairs of limbs. No gonopods are preserved on available specimens, but consensus seems to favor an adult condition for the largest specimens. Their phosphatic preservation allows insight into fine anatomical details.
Copepoda
Authors: Schram Frederick R. , Koenemann Stefan
Published: January 2022

Copepoda constitutes a separate infraclass within Class Multicrustacea—a superclade with approximately 12,500 species. Some authorities have claimed that despite the domineering positions of insects and nematodes in the numbers sweepstakes, there are more individual copepods in the world than any other animal group. The free-living copepods conform to a 5–7–4 body plan (head–thorax–abdomen somites). However, the group is marked with rampant parasitism, with some taxa so modified that they are barely recognized as crustaceomorphs. Ortho-and metanauplii yield a total of six stages. With so many species with such divergent anatomical plans, the use of molecule sequences has and will continue to play an important role in soring copepod relationships. Until then, multiple alternative trees must be considered.
Ascothoracida
Authors: Schram Frederick R. , Koenemann Stefan
Published: January 2022

Within the Hexanauplia, the copepods are the sister group of infraclass Thecostraca, a group also marked by a high degree of parasitism. Among the thecostracans is a small parasitic group, Ascothoracida, which infests anthozoans and echinoderms. The body plan of forms such as Ascothorax reveals a 5–7–4 array of tagmata. However, a form such as the starfish parasite Dendrogaster elaborates the carapace into many extensions, with the lobes reaching into the five arms of the host’s coelom. First infectors of a host develop into females, and subsequent arrivals become males. Phylogeny within the group is not clear, and species are grouped into families on the basis of the hosts they infect, but they are currently viewed as a sister group of Cirripedia.
Tantulocarida
Authors: Schram Frederick R. , Koenemann Stefan
Published: January 2022

Tantularida is a truly “small” group: There are few species, and the size ranges down to 83 µm in length. They are all parasites on other crustaceomorphs and exhibit one of the most complicated life cycles, having both parthenogenetic and sexual phases. Although the bodies are segmented and an abdomen is present, many appendages (e.g. on the head) are absent. Limited molecular data ally the tantulacarids as a sister group to the cirripedes within the thecostracans. Although pedomorphosis has been invoked to explain limb evolution in tantulocaridans, it is likely progenetic rather than neotenous. Caution must be exercised in this regard.
Phyllocarida
Authors: Schram Frederick R. , Koenemann Stefan
Published: January 2022

Phyllocarida, a distinct infraclass of the subclass Malacostraca within the class Multicrustacea, has a deep history extending into the Paleozoic; its fossil diversity exceeds that which we find in the modern fauna of approximately 39 species. A pleon of seven segments marks the group. Great variation occurs in external anatomy, and habitats extend from the deep-sea hydrothermal vents, through pelagic deep and shallow marine, and into anchialine cave waters. The earliest taxa are present in the Cambrian, but the greatest diversity occurs in the Devonian. Although much is not known about the basic biology of the phyllocarids, even of the living forms, most now seem satisfied with the infraclass Phyllocarida as a sister group to the infraclass Eumalacostraca.
Stem Eumalacostracans?
Authors: Schram Frederick R. , Koenemann Stefan
Published: January 2022

Eumalacostraca is by far the largest and most diverse clade of Multicrustacea. Both cohorts, Caridoida and Hoplocarida, extend back to at least the middle of the Paleozoic. Others among these species eventually might be assigned to actual crown taxa when understanding of their anatomy becomes clearer, as indeed has happened in one case. However, many of the earliest fossils are incomplete in their preservation, and what is known of their anatomy requires that they be treated cautiously. Thus, they are best characterized as “stem forms” rather than being squeezed into some higher taxon. These groups do illustrate aspects of the earliest eumalacostracan radiation.
Stomatopoda
Authors: Schram Frederick R. , Koenemann Stefan
Published: January 2022

Stomatopoda constitute the largest radiation in cohort Hoplocarida, with the living mantis shrimp, Unipeltata, and a series of “stem forms,” archaeo- and palaeostomatopods. They exhibit a long list of autapomorphies, of which the most important are a series of subchelate maxillipeds (the second modified as a “ballistic,” either a spearing or a crushing terminus) and an elongate pleon with gills on the bases of the pleopod exopods. They are obligate carnivores with murderous habits, and they have remarkable optic systems to assist in hunting. The Paleozoic fossils clearly reveal the evolution of the ballistic maxillipeds and the distinctive shield-like telson.
Aeschronectida
Authors: Schram Frederick R. , Koenemann Stefan
Published: January 2022

Aeschronectida is a sister group of Stomatopoda within the cohort Hoplocarida, although it shares many apomorphies with the mantis shrimp. They have a shrimp-like habitus, moderate to large in size. The compound eyes were stalked and elevated on the anterior cephalon, with those of Kallidecthes richardsoni indicating dorsal and ventral lobes separated by a mid-band. Based on the hoplocarid features on the aeschronectidans (the enlarged pleon with gills on the pleopods, triflagellate antennules, an articulated rostrum over a probable cephalic kinesis, and thoracopods with three-article protopods and four-article endopods), it was concluded that the hoplocarid morphotype is very ancient and completely distinct from that of other eumalacostracans. That justified their treatment as a separate cohort of Malacostraca.
Bathynellacea
Authors: Schram Frederick R. , Koenemann Stefan
Published: January 2022

In 1882, Bathynella natans was described, but the higher affinities presented problems. Calman offered that they were allied with an Australian shrimp, Anaspides, and placed both within superorder Syncarida, coequal with other eumalacostracan superorders. This was widely accepted until Serban placed Bathynella and allies into a separate superorder Podophallocarida. Recent cladistic analyses agree. Preferring groundwaters, aspects of their distribution clearly bear the marks of vicariance and indicate very ancient origins on Paleozoic paleocontinents. Either two or three families of bathynellaceans are recognized. The more primitive Bathynellidae have paragnaths, scaphocerites, untoothed labrum, prehensile mandibular palps one to three segments long, thoracic exopods always as a single segment, and only one or at most two pairs of pleopods. In contrast, Leptobathynellidae and Parabathynellidae have no paragnaths, no scaphocerite, a toothed or setose labrum, non-prehensile mandibular palps of a single segment, thoracic exopods with one or more segments, and pleopods absent or highly reduced.
Anaspidacea
Authors: Schram Frederick R. , Koenemann Stefan
Published: January 2022

The first species of syncarids described in 1847 were actually fossils from the Coal Age. More fossil species were described, but after 45 years, the first living syncarid was recognized in 1894. Molecule sequences revealed that mountain shrimp have little to do with bathynellaceans. They are classic caridoidans except for the lack of a carapace. Their biogeography indicates a Gondwana pattern—for example, Stygocaris has species in Victoria, New Zealand, and Chile. The fossil Anaspidacea (palaeocaridaceans), largely Carboniferous, were once thought of as a separate order, but recent cladistic analyses locate them within the living order. A Triassic species and a Cretaceous taxon provide a minuscule post-Carboniferous fossil record.
Lophogastrida
Authors: Schram Frederick R. , Koenemann Stefan
Published: January 2022

Lophogastrida are a very small group of animals; currently, there are only approximately 53 species, which are known from deep-water and benthic habitats. Their jaws are among the most specialized of all eumalacostracans, while the circulatory system is primitive. The sixth and seventh ganglia of the pleon fuse during development to form one structure. No clear consensus prevails concerning phylogeny within the group or for relationships within Peracarida. A comprehensive cladistic analysis of the group based on morphology and molecular sequences is required because until this is performed, one cannot assess the status of family-level and generic relationships and thus achieve consensus on the taxonomy of Lophogastrida.
Pygocephalomorpha
Authors: Schram Frederick R. , Koenemann Stefan
Published: January 2022

Pygocephalomorpha have been long known as characteristic fossils of the Carboniferous. They were long thought to be macrurous decapods, until Karl Beurlen placed them in their own order. Although they might look like clawless crayfish, their biramous limbs, male cones on the eighth thoracic sternite, and possession of oöstegites show clear affinities to Peracarida. Their tail fan bearing one or two pairs of lobes and a single terminal lobe mark them as unique. Most Pygocephalidae are characterized by branchiostegal serrations, anterolateral spines, and gastric spines on the carapace; a carapace marked with a cervical groove that is split or posteriorly directed; and the presence of telson terminal processes or a pointed telson spine.
Spelaeogriphacea
Authors: Schram Frederick R. , Koenemann Stefan
Published: January 2022

Four living species of Spelaeogriphacea have been described since 1957. These all occur in either cave waters or groundwater aquifers. Fossils include an apparent proto-spelaeogriphacean from the Carboniferous of Canada and lacustrine fossils from the Jurassic/Cretaceous of Jehol, northeastern China (and possibly from central Asia) and the Cretaceous of Spain. The body of spelaeogriphaceans is elongate, slender, and circular in cross section, although the living animals themselves are small (a few mm). For a group with so few species, there are some notable variations in the external morphology. Not a great deal is known concerning the internal anatomy of this order. As with Mictacea, the Spelaeogriphacea are a jumble of primitive features.
Cumacea
Authors: Schram Frederick R. , Koenemann Stefan
Published: January 2022

Currently, cumaceans authorities recognize approximately 1,606 species; most of the literature concerning the order focuses on α-taxonomy. Although the cumaceans have more species than the tanaidaceans, they are distributed among far fewer families. Cumaceans are benthic animals and, for the most part, marine in their habits, although some brackish and freshwater forms occur. They can be found from littoral to abyssal depths; their greatest diversity seems to be in the deep sea. A poor fossil record exists, with specimens generally so small that they lend themselves to study only with scanning electron microscopy. They prefer in-faunal benthic habitats. The females remain cryptic, while the males seek out the sequestered females—although one species is often taken in plankton tows. The cumaceans possess one of the most distinctive anatomical body plans among the peracaridans.
Dendrobranchiata
Authors: Schram Frederick R. , Koenemann Stefan
Published: January 2022

The suborder Dendrobranchiata comprises some 500 species that all shed a non-feeding, yolk-laden nauplius. They feature a gastric mill built around a large median tooth equipped with curved denticles along its margins, and a battery of flanking lateral teeth. This type of foregut could indicate that this was present in the stem decapods. Because a similar gut armature occurs in pleocyemate decapods. The freely shed nauplii are followed by metanauplii, protozoea (elaphocaris), mysis (acanthosoma), stages; and then decapodid phases. The fossil record indicates that Dendrobranchiata is of great age, with some purely fossil families. Recent anatomical analysis places Dendrobranchiata as the sister group to a clade Xenomocarida, a new taxon Richter and Scholtz erected for all the other Caridoida.
Caridea and Amphionides
Authors: Schram Frederick R. , Koenemann Stefan
Published: January 2022

The infraorder Caridea has figured under various names as an important component of natant decapods. But it was not until the 1980s that cladistic analyses of carideans appeared in print (Christoffersen), and that which lead to a series of cladistically framed revisions of the infraorder. With well over 3,000 species, the secret to their success most likely arises from their diverse modes of reproduction., They also possess multiple patterns of foregut ossicles, thus easily accommodating a wide variety of diets. Caridea, while conforming to a generalized natantian body type, is morphologically a rather diverse group in many subtle ways. It is difficult to provide exact numbers of taxa because this group is actively being worked on, with new species frequently being described.
Thylacocephala
Authors: Schram Frederick R. , Koenemann Stefan
Published: January 2022

The infraclass Thylacocephala features marine predatory, or scavenging, arthropods that populated the seas from at least the Early Silurian to the Upper Cretaceous. The name “thylaco-cephala” refers to the sac-like (or bag-like, or pouch-like) head seen on many of the larger, better preserved species, which arises from an extreme hypertrophy of the compound eyes. Assessing the higher affinities and determining the internal phylogeny of thylacocephalans have proven difficult. This chapter advances hypotheses that the body tagmosis patterns could be either 5–8–0, or 5–8–8, although the Silurian Thylacares might be 5–8–14. Hence, they filled an effective role in the Paleozoic and Mesozoic seas as rapacious carnivores. It is suggested that they be possibly assigned to subclass Malacostraca.
Anostraca
Authors: Schram Frederick R. , Koenemann Stefan
Published: January 2022

Anostraca range up to approximately 15 cm maximum length (although typically only 1–3 cm on average). Their body includes a shieldless cephalon with prominent stalked compound eyes; large antennae modified as claspers in males; a 12-segment thorax with Hox gene expression and an array of leaf-like appendages; and a thin limbless abdomen with no Hox expression. Many anostracans bear an “antennal appendage” arising at the base of the antennae that occurs only in males and can be incredibly elaborate. The maxillules and especially the maxillae are frequently better developed in the larvae than in adults, in which they are greatly reduced—a distinctive feature of Branchiopoda. Anostracans inhabit brine pools, temporary melt waters, vernal pools, or floodwater catchments—places that are transient in nature, isolated, and with a lack of major food competitors. Anostraca as a sister group to the phyllopod branchiopods has obtained wide support.
Notostraca and Allies (Calmanostraca)
Authors: Schram Frederick R. , Koenemann Stefan
Published: January 2022

The living Notostraca, ranging up to 10 cm in length, are a small group (approximately 11 species), but the larger assemblage of fossils (including Kazacharthra and the problematic Castrocollida) provides added depth and interest, thus facilitating the creation of a cohort Calmanostraca within infraclass Phyllopoda. The body bears a large, concave, shield-like carapace enveloping most of the anterior two-thirds of the body. The trunk consists of three regions: 11 anterior-most “thoracic” segments (thorax I), each with a single large pair of well-developed limbs; a second region in which the somites are fused into “rings” formed from 2 to 6 segments, with a number of limb pairs per ring (thorax II); and the most posterior region of a limbless abdomen terminating in an anal somite, or telson.
Remipedia
Authors: Schram Frederick R. , Koenemann Stefan
Published: January 2022

Remipedia, or fire shrimp, have a 6-segment head (maxilliped fused with the cephalon even in early stages of development) and extremely long trunks (up to 42 segments, with each segment bearing a pair of biramous limbs). Female gonopores are located on the 7th trunk segment, whereas the male gonopores sit on the 15th trunk segment. The sperm has apical acrosome with a large nucleus that surrounds what looks to be a central perferatorium (as in cephalocaridans). The trunk terminates in an anal somite bearing variably long caudal rami loaded with tegumental glands. The most apomorphic feature is a hypodermic maxillule connected to a venom gland producing the most complex cocktail of lethal secretions seen in arthropods, if not in all of the animal kingdom. Their biogeographic distribution exhibits a Tethyan pattern.
Yicaris, Rehbachiella, and Allies
Authors: Schram Frederick R. , Koenemann Stefan
Published: January 2022

The Cambrian Period has yielded incredible specimens of arthropods from various sites throughout the world that have stimulated much phylogenetic speculation and analysis. Some members of the Cambrian microbiota have figured in important ways in commentaries on the possible origins of crustaceans. These fossils all seem to be larvae. Speculations about phylogeny universally depend on comparisons among adult forms. This leads to a serious problem—incompatible semaphoront status. When undertaking phylogenetic analyses, one should strive to compare only similar life stages—that is, adults to adults or nauplii to nauplii. This chapter reviews several of these taxa for completeness, but it cannot argue for or against these species as being ancestral or stem forms.
Epilogue
Authors: Schram Frederick R. , Koenemann Stefan
Published: January 2022

Do scientists search for enduring absolute Truth, or do they hold with relativism that science deals not with absolutes but merely organizes information from which many hypotheses can be derived and tested against each other? Historiographers can never know the past because the knowledge base is never complete. Although the hard data about the past are scientifically verifiable, the weaving of these into historical narratives involves fictions. It is the systematist who makes the story, the explanatory narrative, what Hayden White called “emplotment,” the act of telling a story that makes the past relevant and understandable. Scientists collect data, a process that can produce much noise. At some point, a scientist has to organize those data, extract pattern from the noise, and then formulate hypotheses that explain the data, while remaining open to alternative testable hypotheses. That job is never finished because it leads to a need for more data and the re-forming of hypotheses for further testing. Let others carry on.
Americans in China
Authors: Lautz Terry
Published: January 2022

This book reviews the first-hand experiences of men and women who provide a human perspective on issues that have shaped US engagement with China: politics and diplomacy, business and education, art and culture, journalism, law and human rights. It describes how, for them, China was more than just another place, it was an idea, a cause, a revolution, a civilization; some were born in China, others were motivated by curiosity and adventure; and some saw China as an existential threat, some as a socialist utopia, and others worked to improve US-China relations for non-ideological reasons. The book also chronicles Chinese Americans who wanted to help China overcome the poverty and humiliation of its past. Looming over the narratives presented in the book is the question of whether starkly different Chinese and Western worldviews could find common ground. Was it best to abide by Chinese norms, taking into account China’s unique history and culture? Or should individual civil and human rights be defended as universal? Would the PRC move in the direction of Western-style liberal democracy? Or was the Communist Party destined to continue on an authoritarian path? The figures in this book had distinctive answers to these questions. Their stories hold up a mirror to our two societies, helping to explain how we have arrived at the present moment.
J. Stapleton Roy
Authors: Lautz Terry
Published: January 2022

US diplomat Stapleton Roy played a key role in achieving the normalization of diplomatic relations between China and the United States in 1979. He and Leonard Woodcock negotiated with Deng Xiaoping to reach an agreement whereby the United States would break official relations with the Republic of China on Taiwan but would continue unofficial relations and sell arms to Taiwan. Roy grew up in China, where his parents were Christian missionaries, and became a Foreign Service Officer after graduating from Princeton. He was a Soviet as well as a China specialist. Later in his career, he was US ambassador to China, Singapore, and Indonesia. Since retiring from the State Department, he has continued to advocate for pragmatic approaches to US-China relations.
Jerome and Joan Cohen
Authors: Lautz Terry
Published: January 2022

Jerome and Joan Cohen were pioneers in the fields of Chinese law and contemporary Chinese art, respectively. Their encounters with law and art raised basic questions about human values and freedom of expression in the PRC. They lived in Beijing during a period of economic and cultural ferment in the early 1980s, in the aftermath of Mao’s destructive Cultural Revolution. Jerry Cohen, who was a professor at Harvard, practiced corporate law with a US law firm when the PRC’s legal system was being reconstructed. After returning to New York, he fostered legal educational exchange and advocated for dissidents and human rights in China. Joan Cohen, who had taught Asian art at the Boston Museum of Fine Arts, lectured to Chinese audiences on modern Western art and introduced a number of avant-garde Chinese artists to the American public.
Introduction
Authors: Cabalquinto Earvin Charles B.
Published: January 2022

This chapter lays the foundation for the readers to unpack the digital and transnational lifeworlds of dispersed Filipino family members. To begin with, it presents a brief overview of Filipino migration to Australia, and how this condition has shaped the way Filipino migrants and their left-behind family members use smartphones, social media, and mobile applications in sustaining ties beyond borders. Moreover, it highlights the uneven technological landscape between Australia and the Philippines, which moulds the quality of transnational and familial communication. More importantly, it explains the key dimensions of (im)mobile homes, particularly charting the influences of socio-historical, socio-cultural, socio-economic, socio-political, and socio-technological factors in mobilizing the formation of a networked and transnational Filipino family life.
Bittersweet Festivity
Authors: Cabalquinto Earvin Charles B.
Published: January 2022

How do digital communication technologies mobilize the enactment of family celebrations in a transnational setting? This chapter unwraps the bittersweet moments of digital media use by migrants and their left-behind family members to enact intimate interactions during special family occasions. In the first instance, it showcases the joyful, creative, and customized moments embodied by transnational family members through the circulation of personalized messages and material gifts. However, it also exposes the frustrating experiences encountered by dispersed family members, as shaped by asymmetrical familial dynamics, economic status, uneven access, digital literacy, and technological parameters. Ultimately, this chapter opens a critical conversation on the paradoxical outcomes of the reliance of transnational family members on smartphones, social media, and mobile applications to reclaim and revive traditional and household celebrations in their efforts to sustain ties at a distance.
An (Im)mobile Home and Beyond
Authors: Cabalquinto Earvin Charles B.
Published: January 2022

In an increasingly digital world, how do members of a transnational household perform, embody and negotiate a sense of home? This chapter summarizes the key contentions of the study in defining, characterizing, and interrogating the notion of (im)mobile homes in the digital age. To start with, it presents a recap of the introduced concepts across the chapters. It also highlights the communicative benefits and tensions produced in a personalized, digital, and transnational environment. Noting the gaps within the literature alongside some key reflections on insights generated through the study, it articulates several recommendations for future research directions. We see in here ways of expanding on the potentialities, constraints, paradoxes, and politics of virtual connectedness among transnational families. Ultimately, this final chapter identifies points of departure for future critical research approaches in further investigating the formation and maintenance of a home from afar in the age of mobile media.