bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Adolescents' Perception of Parental Involvement in Schooling
Authors: Deslandes Rollande , Cloutier Richard
Published: July 2003

This study examines the types of parental involvement activities that adolescents are willing to support. It also investigates the extent to which adolescents' support is related to their gender and autonomy. The results showed that even though adolescents welcome most of the parental involvement activities, the support is generally stronger among girls than among boys and that parental physical attendance in school activities is not wished. Data also revealed a positive relationship between adolescents' openness to parental involvement activities and their level of work-orientation and identity. Gender effects are discussed in light of the hypothesis of girls' earlier maturation combined with greater receptiveness to social influence. Further, higher boys' work-orientation and girls' identity scores predict the likelihood of their support of a greater number of parental involvement activities. These results point out to the importance of taking into account adolescents' views of parental involvement activities when designing family-school partnerships programs.
Consuming Images: How Television Commercials that Elicit Stereotype Threat Can Restrain Women Academically and Professionally
Authors: Davies Paul G. , Spencer Steven J. , Quinn Diane M. , Gerhardstein Rebecca
Published: July 2003

Women in quantitative fields risk being personally reduced to negative stereotypes that allege a sex-based math inability. This situational predicament, termed stereotype threat, can undermine women’s performance and aspirations in all quantitative domains. Gender-stereotypic television commercials were employed in three studies to elicit the female stereotype among both men and women. Study 1 revealed that only women for whom the activated stereotype was self-relevant underperformed on a subsequent math test. Exposure to the stereotypic commercials led women taking an aptitude test in Study 2 to avoid math items in favor of verbal items. In Study 3, women who viewed the stereotypic commercials indicated less interest in educational/vocational options in which they were susceptible to stereotype threat (i.e., quantitative domains) and more interest in fields in which they were immune to stereotype threat (i.e., verbal domains).
In Search of Underlying Dimensions: The Use (and Abuse) of Factor Analysis in Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin
Authors: Russell Daniel W.
Published: July 2003

An examination of the use of exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis by researchers publishing in Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin over the previous 5 years is presented, along with a review of recommended methods based on the recent statistical literature. In the case of exploratory factor analysis, an examination and recommendations concerning factor extraction procedures, sample size, number of measured variables, determining the number of factors to extract, factor rotation, and the creation of factor scores are presented. These issues are illustrated via an exploratory factor analysis of data from the University of California, Los Angeles, Loneliness Scale. In the case of confirmatory factor analysis, an examination and recommendations concerning model estimation, evaluating model fit, sample size, the effects of non-normality of the data, and missing data are presented. These issues are illustrated via a confirmatory factor analysis of data from the Revised Causal Dimension Scale.
Should We Stay or Should We Go? A Social Psychological Model of Schisms in Groups
Authors: Sani Fabio , Todman John
Published: July 2003

The authors present and test a model of schismatic processes in social groups. According to this model, schismatic intentions are caused by the perception that a proposed new norm fundamentally changes a central aspect of group identity. Also, the impact of this perception on schismatic intentions is mediated by the belief that group identity has been subverted, whose effect on schismatic intentions is, in turn, mediated by perceived inability to voice dissent and perceived lack of group entitativity. Data from officials of the Church of England who are against the ordination of women to the priesthood (N = 211) fit the predicted model.
Empathy, Attitudes, and Action: Can Feeling for a Member of a Stigmatized Group Motivate One to Help the Group?
Authors: Batson C. Daniel , Chang Johee , Orr Ryan , Rowland Jennifer
Published: July 2003

Research reveals that inducing empathy for a member of a stigmatized group can improve attitudes toward the group as a whole. But do these more positive attitudes translate into action on behalf of the group? Results of an experiment suggested an affirmative answer to this question. Undergraduates first listened to an interview with a convicted heroin addict and dealer; they were then given a chance to recommend allocation of Student Senate funds to an agency to help drug addicts. (The agency would not help the addict whose interview they heard.) Participants induced to feel empathy for the addict allocated more funds to the agency. Replicating past results, these participants also reported more positive attitudes toward people addicted to hard drugs. In addition, an experimental condition in which participants were induced to feel empathy for a fictional addict marginally increased action on behalf of, and more positive attitudes toward, drug addicts.
Battling Doubt by Avoiding Practice: The Effects of Stereotype Threat on Self-Handicapping in White Athletes
Authors: Stone Jeff
Published: July 2003

Two experiments examined the use of behavioral self-handicapping as a strategy for coping with stereotype threat. Using sports as the performance context, it was predicted that if a sports test was framed as a measure of “natural athletic ability,” White participants would feel threatened about confirming the negative stereotype about poor White athleticism and would practice less before the test as compared to control groups. The data from Experiment 1 supported the prediction and showed that the effect of stereotype threat on self-handicapping was moderated by participants’ level of psychological engagement in sports. Experiment 2 showed that engaged White participants practiced less than engaged Hispanic participants when their performance was linked to natural athletic ability. The discussion focuses on the processes by which the salience of a negative stereotype in a performance context induces proactive strategies for coping with the implications of a poor performance.
Violent Video Games and Hostile Expectations: A Test of the General Aggression Model
Authors: Bushman Brad J. , Anderson Craig A.
Published: July 2003

Research conducted over several decades has shown that violent media increase aggression. It is now time to move beyond the question of whether violent media increase aggression to answering the question why violent media increase aggression. The present research tested whether violent video games produce a hostile expectation bias—the tendency to expect others to react to potential conflicts with aggression. Participants (N = 224) played either a violent or nonviolent video game. Next, they read ambiguous story stems about potential interpersonal conflicts. They were asked what the main character will do, say, think, and feel as the story continues. People who played a violent video game described the main character as behaving more aggressively, thinking more aggressive thoughts, and feeling more angry than did people who played a nonviolent video game. These results are consistent with the General Aggression Model.
Effects of Exposure to Thin Media Images: Evidence of Self-Enhancement among Restrained Eaters
Authors: Mills Jennifer S. , Polivy Janet , Herman C. Peter , Tiggemann Marika
Published: July 2003

The effects of viewing media-portrayed idealized body images on eating, self-esteem, body image, and mood among restrained and unrestrained eaters were examined. Study 1 found that restrained eaters (i.e., dieters), but not unrestrained eaters, rated both their ideal and current body sizes as smaller and disinhibited their food intake following exposure to idealized body images. These results suggest that restrained eaters are susceptible to a “thin fantasy” brought about by viewing ideal body images. Study 2 found that strengthening thinness attainability beliefs can further enhance the thin fantasy demonstrated by restrained eaters following exposure to idealized body images. Study 3 examined whether demand characteristics moderate these effects of media-portrayed idealized body images. As predicted, when explicit demand characteristics were present, participants reported feeling worse following exposure to thin models. The complexities of the media’s role in the development and maintenance of body dissatisfaction and dieting behavior are discussed.
Ease of Retrieval Effects in Persuasion: A Self-Validation Analysis
Authors: Tormala Zakary L. , Petty Richard E. , Briñol Pablo
Published: July 2003

Three studies are reported examining a new explanation for ease of retrieval effects in persuasion. In each study, participants read a persuasive communication and were induced to generate either a low or high number of favorable or unfavorable thoughts in response. In conflict with the assumptions of most previous studies, the authors predicted and found that ease of retrieval effects occur primarily under high rather than low-elaboration conditions. Under high-elaboration conditions, people were more influenced by their thoughts when few rather than many were retrieved (ease of retrieval effect), and this was mediated by the confidence participants had in those thoughts. These findings are consistent with the self-validation hypothesis. Under low-elaboration conditions, participants based judgments more on the actual number of thoughts generated, reflecting a numerosity heuristic.
Dissonance on the Road: Self-Esteem as a Moderator of Internal and External Self-Justification Strategies
Authors: Holland Rob W. , Meertens Ree M. , van Vugt Mark
Published: July 2003

Processes of self-justification were investigated in a field experiment among car drivers. High self-esteem was expected to reduce internal and external self-justification strategies. Dissonance was aroused by confronting respondents with the negative consequences of car driving either for others, that is, moral dissonance (e.g., environment, public health), or for themselves, that is, hedonistic dissonance (e.g., travel time). A third group served as a no-dissonance control group. Consistent with the predictions, no self-justification was found among high-self-esteem respondents. Low-self-esteem respondents displayed more external self-justification strategies in response to moral dissonance and internal self-justification strategies in response to hedonistic dissonance, although the latter effect was weaker. Results of Study 2 suggest that high-self-esteem respondents are less likely to engage in self-justification because they experience less discomfort after a self-threat. Together, the results illuminate the relation between self-esteem and self-justification and provide external validity for self-affirmation theory.
Emotional Consequences of Positive Daydreaming: The Moderating Role of Fear of Failure
Authors: Langens Thomas A. , Schmalt Heinz-Dieter
Published: July 2003

The authors argue that the emotional consequences of positive daydreaming (i.e., spontaneously imagining the successful attainment of personal goals) depend on an individuals fear of failure. Positive daydreaming may signal an absence of positive outcomes for individuals high in fear of failure. As a consequence, positive daydreaming may induce negative emotions and attempts at mood repair in individuals high in fear of failure. Three studies (one concurrent, one experimental, and one prospective) examined this hypothesis. Study 1 found that individuals high (relative to low) in fear of failure who had recurrent positive daydreams about attaining agentic personal goals reported increased levels of depression and confusion. In Study 2, fear of failure predicted reductions in goal commitment after participants imagined the successful attainment of an agentic personal goal. Study 3 found that participants high in fear of failure reported fewer daydreams about attaining a personal goal when they were strongly committed to attain this goal.
Attributional Biases in the Service of Stereotype Maintenance: A Schema-Maintenance Through Compensation Analysis
Authors: Seta John J. , Seta Catherine E. , McElroy Todd
Published: July 2003

Six experiments were conducted to test assumptions of a schema-maintenance through compensation analysis. The results of these experiments indicated that perceivers can compensate for the inconsistent action of one individual (the target) by altering their attribution concerning the action of a fellow group member. When the target performed an inconsistent behavior, perceivers compensated by making especially extreme stereotypically consistent attributions concerning a fellow group member’s subsequent action. In addition, in Experiment 5, perceivers compensated via a fellow group member for a target’s inconsistent action while maintaining their general view of group members. Experiments also provided tests of the capability and motivation assumptions of the schema-maintenance through compensation analyses.
Younger Achievement Age Predicts Shorter Life for Governors: Testing the Precocity-Longevity Hypothesis With Artifact Controls
Authors: McCann Stewart J. H.
Published: July 2003

McCann’s precocity-longevity hypothesis suggests that the prerequisites, concomitants, and consequences of early peaks in career achievement may foster the conditions for premature death. In the present test of the precocity-longevity hypothesis, it was predicted that state governors elected at younger ages live shorter lives. Two competing explanatory frameworks, the life expectancy artifact and the selection bias artifact, also were tested. In a sample of 1,672 male governors, the precocity-longevity prediction was supported, and it was demonstrated with correlation, regression, and subsample construction strategies that the life expectancy and selection bias artifacts were not sufficient to account or the significant positive correlation between election age and death age. The positive correlation also was maintained when year of birth, years of service, span of service, and state of election were statistically controlled.
Choosing Social Situations: The Relation Between Automatically Activated Racial Attitudes and Anticipated Comfort Interacting With African Americans
Authors: Towles-Schwen Tamara , Fazio Russell H.
Published: July 2003

This research explored how White students’ automatically activated racial attitudes and motivations to control prejudiced reactions (MCPR) related to their self-reported comfort and willingness to interact with Black partners in a variety of situations. Participants completed the MCPR scale and a priming task that provides an unobtrusive measure of automatically activated racial attitudes. In a later session, participants rated their comfort and willingness to enter eight situations varying in their degree of intimacy and scriptedness and then rerated each situation while imagining different interaction partners, including a Black individual. When the situations were scripted or participants were low on the restraint to avoid dispute factor of the MCPR scale, participants expressed willingness to interact with Black partners. When the situation was unscripted and participants were characterized by higher restraint scores, anticipated comfort varied as a function of automatically activated racial attitudes and the concern with acting prejudiced factor of the MCPR scale.
Respect for Group Members: Intragroup Determinants of Collective Identification and Group-Serving Behavior
Authors: Simon Bernd , Stürmer Stefan
Published: July 2003

This experiment examined how (disrespectful vs. respectful) treatment and (negative vs. positive) performance evaluation, both received from the same fellow group members, affects collective identification and willingness to engage in group-serving behavior. It was predicted and found that respectful as opposed to disrespectful intragroup treatment increased collective identification and willingness to engage in group-serving behavior in the immediate group situation, irrespective of whether intragroup evaluation was positive or negative. There was also evidence of a mediating role of collective identification. Regression analyses based on the measurement of perceived intragroup treatment and perceived intragroup evaluation as continuous variables corroborated these findings but also pointed to limits of the positive effects of respectful intragroup treatment. Finally, the interrelation of treatment and evaluation by fellow group members as two possible components of intragroup respect are discussed as well as the political dimension of research on intragroup respect.
A Case of Collective Responsibility: Who Else Was to Blame for the Columbine High School Shootings?
Authors: Lickel Brian , Schmader Toni , Hamilton David L.
Published: July 2003

Two studies examined perceptions of collective responsibility for the April 20, 1999, shootings at Columbine High School in Littleton, Colorado. Collective responsibility refers to the perception that others, besides the wrongdoers themselves, are responsible for the event. In Study 1, the authors assessed perceptions of the shooters’ parents and their peer group (the Trenchcoat Mafia), whereas Study 2 tested perceptions of collective responsibility across a range of groups. In both studies, perceptions of a target group’s entitativity predicted judgments of collective responsibility. This relationship was mediated by two situational construals that justify applying collective responsibility: responsibility by commission (encouraging or facilitating the event) and responsibility by omission (failing to prevent the event). Study 2 also determined that perceptions of authority predicted judgments of collective responsibility for the Columbine shootings and was mediated by inferences of omission. Future directions in collective responsibility research are discussed.
Mediator of Moderators: Temporal Stability of Intention and the Intention-Behavior Relation
Authors: Sheeran Paschal , Abraham Charles
Published: July 2003

Intention certainty, past behavior, self-schema, anticipated regret, and attitudinal versus normative control all have been found to moderate intention-behavior relations. It is argued that moderation occurs because these variables produce “strong” intentions. Stability of intention over time is a key index of intention strength. Consequently, it was hypothesized that temporal stability of intention would mediate moderation by these other moderators. Participants ( N = 185) completed questionnaire measures of theory of planned behavior constructs and moderator variables at two time points and subsequently reported their exercise behavior. Findings showed that all of the moderators, including temporal stability, were associated with significant improvements in consistency between intention and behavior. Temporal stability also mediated the effects of the other moderators, supporting the study hypothesis.
Framing Social Judgment: Self-Ingroup Comparison and Perceived Discrimination
Authors: Quinn Kimberly A. , Olson James M.
Published: July 2003

Members of disadvantaged groups often report that they are less vulnerable to discrimination than is the average member of their group. In two experiments, we examined how the framing of self-ingroup comparisons moderates this phenomenon. In Experiment 1, participants estimated the relative likelihood that either they, compared to the average member of their ingroup, would experience discrimination or that the average member of their ingroup, compared to themselves, would experience discrimination. In Experiment 2, a direct manipulation of self-ingroup similarity was added to this framing manipulation. Across the experiments, the results demonstrated that conditions highlighting differences between the individual and the group led participants to perceive themselves as much less vulnerable to discrimination than their group, relative to conditions highlighting similarities between the individual and the group.
In the Privacy of Their Own Homes: Using the Internet to Assess Racial Bias
Authors: Evans David C. , Garcia Daniel J. , Garcia Diane M. , Baron Robert S.
Published: July 2003

Recent studies suggest that research participants show reduced distortion of their taboo attitudes and behaviors when they take part in Internet-based procedures from outside the laboratory. We explored whether such procedures would reduce distortion in the assessment of racial bias. In Study 1, White participants who completed the study in the laboratory evaluated Black targets more favorably than White targets. This unexpected “outgroup-favoring” pattern occurred in both pencil-and-paper and Internet versions of the study, showing that modality did not produce it; but when participants worked outside the laboratory via the Internet, this pattern disappeared. Study 2 replicated the above findings and further indicated that the reduced distortion in Internet-based studies was due to the removal of the experimenter rather than removing the participants from the laboratory environment. The implications of these findings for the study of controlled processes of prejudice and the nature of Internet-based social communication are discussed.
A Basis for Multidimensional Item Response Theory
Authors: McDonald Roderick P.
Published: July 2003

Independent clusters, as treated in classical linear factor analysis, provide a desirable basis for multidimensional item response models, yielding interpretable and useful results. The independentclusters basis serves to determine dimensionality, while establishing a pattern for the item parameter matrix that provides identifiability conditions and facilitates interpretation of the traits. It also provides a natural extension of known results on convergent/discriminant “construct” validity to binary items, allowing the quantification of the validity of test and subtest scores. The independent-clusters basis simplifies item/test response and information hypersurfaces, which cannot otherwise be easily studied except in the trivial case of two dimensions, and provides estimates of latent traits with uncorrelated measurement errors. In addition, the affine transformation needed for the informative analysis of the causes of differential item functioning is simplified using the independent-clusters basis. These classically based procedures are already well-established in the context of the linear commonfactor model and, accordingly, they set a standard against which more recently developed procedures for the same purposes need to be judged.
An Integer Programming Approach to Item Bank Design
Authors: Van Der Linden Wim J. , Veldkamp Bernard P. , Reese Lynda M
Published: July 2003

An integer programming approach to item bank design is presented that can be used to calculate an optimal blueprint for an item bank, in order to support an existing testing program. The results are optimal in that they minimize the effort involved in producing the items as revealed by current item writing patterns. Also presented is an adaptation of the models, which can be used as a set of monitoring tools in item bank management. The approach is demonstrated empirically for an item bank that was designed for the Law School Admission Test.
A Rasch Model for Detecting Learning While Solving an Intelligence Test
Authors: Verguts Tom , De Boeck Paul
Published: July 2003

A dynamic extension of the Rasch model (Verhelst & Glas, 1993, 1995) is developed from a Bayesian point of view, and it is shown how this permits application of the model in a wide variety of test settings. In particular, the method allows for an adequate modeling of learning throughout a test, determining whether learning has occurred and whether individual differences in learning rate should be assumed. An example is provided in which the model is applied to a computer-administered intelligence test. A satisfactory fit of the model was found for these data. Results indicated that learning did occur, and that there might be individual differences in learning rate.
A Latent Variable Model for Ordinal Variables
Authors: Moustaki Irini
Published: July 2003

A full-information maximum likelihood method for fitting a multidimensional latent variable model to a set of ordinal observed variables is discussed. This method is an implementation of a general class of models for ordinal variables, and for regression models with one ordinal dependent variable and all explanatory variables observed. Estimation of the model, scoring of persons on the latent dimensions, and the goodness-of-fit of the model are also discussed. The method is applied to an example dataset concerning attitudes toward technology.
Optimal Assembly of Tests with Item Sets
Authors: Van Der Linden Wim J.
Published: July 2003

Six computational methods for assembling tests from a bank with an item-set structure, based on mixed-integer programming, are presented. The methods were evaluated using mathematical programming problem feasibility and expected solution times. Two item banks with a set structure from the Law School Admission Test were used to illustrate application of the methods. Solutions were found that satisfied all constraints within short computing times. The best approximations to the target information functions were obtained for the methods that simultaneously selected the stimuli and items for the set-based items.
A Comparison of Item Selection Rules at the Early Stages of Computerized Adaptive Testing
Authors: Chen Shu-Ying , Ankenmann Robert D. , Chang Hua-Hua
Published: July 2003

The effects of five item selection rules—Fisher information (FI), Fisher interval information (FII), Fisher information with a posterior distribution (FIP), Kullback-Leibler information (KL), and Kullback-Leibler information with a posterior distribution (KLP)—were compared with respect to the efficiency and precision of trait (Θ) estimation at the early stages of computerized adaptive testing (CAT). FII, FIP, KL, and KLP performed marginally better than FI at the early stages of CAT for Θ= -3 and -2. For tests longer than 10 items,there appeared to be no precision advantage for any of the selection rules.
Estimation of Trait Level in Computerized Adaptive Testing
Authors: Cheng Philip E. , Liou Michelle
Published: July 2003

In computerized adaptive testing (CAT), an examinee’s trait level (Θ) must be estimated with reasonable accuracy based on a small number of item responses. A successful implementation of CAT depends on (1) the accuracy of statistical methods used for estimating and (2) the efficiency of the item-selection criterion. Methods of estimating suitable for CAT are reviewed, and the differences between Fisher and Kullback-Leibler information criteria for selecting items are discussed. The accuracy of different CAT algorithms was examined in an empirical study. The results showed that correcting estimates for bias was necessary at earlier stages of CAT, but most CAT algorithms performed equally well for tests of 10 or more items.
Restriction of Range and Correlation in Outlier-Prone Distributions
Authors: Zimmerman Donald W. , Williams Richard H.
Published: July 2003

Statistical theory indicates that restriction of the range of possible values of normally distributed variables, and many non-normal variables, reduces correlations in unrestricted populations. Contrary to this typical outcome, results of a simulation study show that range restriction sometimes increased the correlation between variables having outlier-prone distributions. This result occurred in the case of exponential and ex-Gaussian distributions, which are encountered in experimental studies involving response times. It did not occur in truncated versions of the same densities. Chance occurrence of outliers in contaminated-normal, or mixed-normal, distributions reduced the correlation found between samples from uncontaminated populations. Conversely, detection and downweighting of outliers increased the magnitude of sample correlations, and a similar result occurred for many other outlier-prone distributions. Practical implications of these findings are discussed.
Three Response Types for Broadening the Conception of Mathematical Problem Solving in Computerized Tests
Authors: Bennett Randy Elliot , Morley Mary , Quardt Dennis
Published: July 2003

Three open-ended response types—mathematical expression (ME), generating examples (GE), and graphical modeling (GM)—are described that could broaden the conception of mathematical problem solving used in computerized admissions tests. ME presents single-best-answer problems that call for an algebraic formalism, the correct rendition of which can take an infinite number of surface forms. GE presents loosely structured problems that can have many good answers taking the form of a value, letter pattern, expression, equation, or list. GM asks the examinee to represent a given situation by plotting points on a grid; these items can have a single best answer or multiple correct answers. For the three basic types, sample items are provided, the examinee interfaces and approaches to automated scoring are described, and research results are reported. It is illustrated how ME, GE, and GM can be combined to form extended constructed-response problems, and adescription is offered of how item classes might be used as a basis for creating production-ready scoring keys.
Recurrent Issues and Recent Advances in Scoring Performance Assessments
Authors: Clauser Brian E.
Published: July 2003

A conceptual framework is provided to guide the development of scoring procedures for performance assessments. Within this framework are four questions: (1) what aspects of the performance are to be scored, (2) what criteria are to be applied to evaluate the identified aspects or components of the performance, (3) how should the scoring criteria be developed, and (4) how should these criteria be applied? The historical limitations of performance assessments are reviewed and recent efforts to avoid those limitations are discussed in the context of these questions.
Performance Assessments from the Perspective of Generalizability Theory
Authors: Brennan Robert L.
Published: July 2003

Relevant aspects of generalizability theory relating to performance assessments (PAs) are reviewed. The role of various facets in assessing the generalizability of PAs is examined, and some popular estimates of reliabilityfor PAs are considered from the perspective of generalizability theory.
Setting Performance Standards on Complex Educational Assessments
Authors: Hambleton Ronald K. , Jaeger Richard M. , Plake Barbara S. , Mills Craig
Published: July 2003

Performance assessments have become popular in education and credentialing, and performance standards are common for interpreting and reporting scores. However, because of the unique characteristics of these assessments compared to multiple-choice tests (such as polytomous scoring), new and validstandard-setting methods are needed. Well-known standard-setting methods are no longer applicable. A number of promising methods for setting performance standards are described and their strengths and weaknesses are discussed. Suggestions for additional research are offered.
Validation of Performance-Based Assessments
Authors: Miller David M. , Linn Robert L.
Published: July 2003

Using Messick’s (1995, 1996) framework for validity, six aspects of construct validation are outlined to guide the validation of performance-based assessments: content, substantive, structural, generalizability, external, and consequential. Each aspect is discussed, with the focus on studies that could be conducted within the context of a large-scale educational assessment. Also discussed are the issues that affect construct validation within that context, and recommendations for future areas of study are outlined.
Methodology Review: Evaluating Person Fit
Authors: Meijer Rob R. , Sijtsma Klaas
Published: July 2003

Person-fit methods based on classical test theory-and item response theory (IRT), and methods investigating particular types of response behavior on tests, are examined. Similarities and differences among person-fit methods and their advantages and disadvantages are discussed. Sound person-fit methods have been derived for the Rasch model. For other IRT models, the empirical and theoretical distributions differ for most person-fit statistics when used with short and moderate length tests. The detection rate of person-fit statistics depends on the type of misfitting item-score patterns, test length, and trait levels. The usefulness of person-fit statistics for improving measurement depends on the application.
The Precision of Simulation Study Results
Authors: Cohen Allan S. , Kane Michael T. , Kim Seock-Ho
Published: July 2003

The number of replications in monte carlo simulation studies can be modified to improve the precision of parameter estimates. Given the speed and power of microcomputers, it is not necessary to hold the number of replications to past levels. Reasons why increasing the number of replications is not necessary for satisfactory levels of precision are discussed. Some guidelines are offered in the context of an error tolerance analysis for determining how much precision is needed.
An Evaluation of a Markov Chain Monte Carlo Method for the Rasch Model
Authors: Kim Seock-Ho
Published: July 2003

The accuracy of the Gibbs sampling Markov chain monte carlo procedure was examined for estimating item and person ( .) parameters in the one-parameter logistic model. Four datasets were analyzed using the Gibbs sampling method, conditional maximum likelihood, marginal maximum likelihood, and joint maximum likelihood. Maximum likelihood and expected a posteriori. estimation methods were used with marginal maximum likelihood estimation of item parameters. Item parameter estimates from the four methods were almost identical;. estimates from Gibbs sampling were similar to those obtained from the expected a posteriori method.
Computerized Adaptive Testing with the Generalized Graded Unfolding Model
Authors: Roberts James S. , Lin Yan , Laughlin James E.
Published: July 2003

The use of the generalized graded unfolding model (GGUM) in computerized adaptive testing was examined. The objective was to minimize the number of items required to produce equiprecise estimates of person locations. Simulations based on real data about college student attitudes toward abortion and on data generated to fit the GGUM were used. It was found that as few as 7 or 8 items were needed to produce accurate and precise person estimates using an expected a posteriori procedure. The number of items in the item bank (20, 40, or 60 items) and their distribution on the continuum (uniform locations or item clusters in moderately extreme locations) had only small effects on the accuracy and precision of the estimates. These results suggest that adaptive testing with the GGUM is a good method for achieving estimates with an approximately uniform level of precision using a small number of items.
Estimating Comparable Scores Using Surrogate Variables
Authors: Liou Michelle , Cheng Philip E. , Li Ming-Yen
Published: July 2003

The possibility of using surrogate variables (e.g., school grades, other test scores, examinee background information) as replacements for common items predicting sample-selection bias between groups was investigated. The problem was specified as an incomplete data problem of comparability studies and was addressed using nonequivalent groups. A general model for estimating complete data (fitted) distributions through covariates is proposed (including common-item scores and surrogate variables as special cases). Model parameters are estimated using the EM algorithm. Standard errors of comparable scores are derived under the proposed model. Data from an empirical example examined the use of surrogate variables for establishing score comparability.
Nonparametric Regression and the Parametric Bootstrap for Local Dependence Assessment
Authors: Habing Brian
Published: July 2003

Ideas underlying nonparametric regression and the parametric bootstrap are discussed. An overview is provided of their application to item response theory and, in particular, local dependence assessment. The resulting nonparametric item response theory parametric bootstrap can remove the need to specify a particular parametric form for the item response functions and correct for the statistical bias caused by conditioning on observed test scores. The method is applied to the problem of assessing local dependence that varies with examinee trait levels. This is done by using pointwise testing bands to examine the item pair conditional covariance at each examinee trait level. The pointwise bands are used to diagnose speededness in a testing situation in which unanswered items are scored as incorrect.
Nonparametric Item Response Function Estimation for Assessing Parametric Model Fit
Authors: Douglas Jeffrey , Cohen Allan
Published: July 2003

Methods are developed that investigate the fit of parametric item response models by comparing them to models fitted under nonparametric assumptions. The approach is primarily graphical, but is made inferential through resampling from an estimated parametric model. The identifiability and estimation consistency of item response theory models are discussed and shown to be vital to the interpretation of differences between two fitted item response theory models. Simulation studies and real-data examples illustrate these techniques.
Relationships and Properties of Polytomous Item Response Theory Models
Authors: Van Der Ark L. Andries
Published: July 2003

Relationships among twenty polytomous item response theory (IRT) models (parametric and nonparametric) and eight measurement properties relevant to polytomous IRT are described. Three tables are provided to assist in choice of an appropriate model, and examples demonstrate the use of the models in test construction.
Thirty Years of Nonparametric Item Response Theory
Authors: Molenaar Ivo W.
Published: July 2003

Relationships between a mathematical measurement model and its real-world applications are discussed. A distinction is made between large data matrices commonly found in educational measurement and smaller matrices found in attitude and personality measurement. Nonparametric methods are evaluated for estimating item response functions and (unconditional and conditional) inter-item covariances.
Nonparametric Item Response Theory: A Maturing and Applicable Measurement Modeling Approach
Authors: Stout William
Published: July 2003

The papers in this Special Issue are briefly discussed. The practical applicability of nonparametric item response theory (NIRT), NIRT's capacity to address fundamental modeling issues and to function effectively with smaller sample sizes than parametric item response theory (PIRT), along with how NIRT addresses lack-of-fit issues, are emphasized. NIRT assesses latent multidimensionality using item pair conditional covariances and other approaches. This and the relation of latent multidimensionality analyses to construct validity are discussed. The need for NIRT analyses to provide analogues for users to the parameters supplied by PIRT analyses, is stressed. The interaction between fundamental order relationships and polytomous NIRT is discussed. It is concluded that NIRT is an important area of research that should continue to be emphasized in the future.
Defining Error Rates and Power for Detecting Answer Copying
Authors: Wollack James A. , Cohen Allan S. , Serlin Ronald C.
Published: July 2003

A family wise approach is described for evaluating the significance of copying indices designed to hold the Type I error rate constant for each examinee. The empirical Type I error rate and power of two indices, ω (Wollack, 1997) and g2 (Frary, Tideman, & Watts, 1977), are examined under a variety of copying situations. Results indicated that the traditional pairwise approach falsely detected examinees almost three times more often than the nominal α level. Familywise Type I error rates were substantially smaller, although they also tended to be somewhat inflated at small α levels as the percentage of items copied increased. Eliminating the indices detecting a source from the copier, in situations where the copier was also detected from the source, helped control the familywise Type I error rates for all α .001. Lack of Type I error control meant power could not be evaluated for g2 under any of the simulated familywise conditions. Familywise power for ω was reasonable when at least 30% of the items were copied.
Precision of Warm’s Weighted Likelihood Estimates for a Polytomous Model in Computerized Adaptive Testing
Authors: Wang Shudong , Wang Tianyou
Published: July 2003

This monte carlo study evaluated the relative accuracy of Warm’s (1989) weighted likelihood estimate (WLE) compared to the maximum likelihood estimate (MLE), expected a posteriori (EAP) estimate, and maximum a posteriori (MAP) estimate. The generalized partial-credit model was used under a variety of computerized adaptive testing (CAT) conditions. The results indicated that WLE was more accurate than MLE with a fixed-length CAT, consistent with previous findings. WLE and MLE had smaller bias and larger standard errors than EAP and MAP. EAP was more accurate than MAP in a variety of CAT conditions. Although root mean squared errors were different among the four estimation methods, no statistically significant mean differences were found. EAP and MAP had advantages over WLE and MLE in terms of test efficiency. These results suggest that the test termination rule has more impact on the accuracy of θ estimation methods than does the item bank size.
a-Stratified Multistage Computerized Adaptive Testing with b Blocking
Authors: Chang Hua-Hua , Qian Jiahe , Ying Zhiliang
Published: July 2003

Chang & Ying’s (1999) computerized adaptive testing item-selection procedure stratifies the item bank according to a parameter values and requires b parameter values to be evenly distributed across all strata. Thus, a and b parameter values must be incorporated into how strata are formed. A refinement is proposed, based on Weiss’ (1973) stratification of items according to b values. Simulation studies using a retired item bank of a Graduate Record Examination test indicate that the new approach improved control of item exposure rates and reduced mean squared errors.
Computerized Adaptive Testing with Equated Number-Correct Scoring
Authors: van der Linden Wim J.
Published: July 2003

A constrained computerized adaptive testing (CAT) algorithm is presented that can be used to equate CAT number-correct (NC) scores to a reference test. As a result, the CAT NC scores also are equated across administrations. The constraints are derived from van der Linden & Luecht’s (1998) set of conditions on item response functions that guarantees identical observed NC score distributions on two test forms. An item bank from the Law School Admission Test was used to compare the results of the algorithm with those for equipercentile observed-score equating, as well as the prediction of NC scores on a reference test using its test response function. The effects of the constraints on the statistical properties of the θ estimator in CAT were examined.
Comparison of Dichotomous and Polytomous Item Response Models in Equating Scores from Tests Composed of Testlets
Authors: Lee Guemin , Kolen Michael J. , Frisbie David A. , Ankenmann Robert D.
Published: July 2003

The performance of two polytomous item response theory models was compared to that of the dichotomous three-parameter logistic model in the context of equating tests composed of testlets. For the polytomous models, testlet scores were used to eliminate the effect of the dependence among within-testlet items. Traditional equating methods were used as criteria for both. The equating methods based on polytomous models were found to produce results that more closely agreed with the results of traditional methods.
Least Squares Estimation of Item Response Theory Linking Coefficients
Authors: Ogasawara Haruhiko
Published: July 2003

Three types of least squares estimation (generalized, unweighted, and weighted) for item response theory linking coefficients are discussed. Unweighted least squares estimation gives somewhat large asymptotic standard errors. Although generalized least squares has the smallest asymptotic standard errors, it frequently gives biased estimates. Thus, weighted least squares estimation is the preferred method. In weighted least squares estimation, the ordinary weights are replaced with their powers. Results from a monte carlo simulation study showed that the weighted least squares method generally reduced bias without increasing the asymptotic standard errors, in comparison to other least squares methods.
The Information in Multiple Ratings
Authors: Bock R. Darrell , Brennan Robert L. , Muraki Eiji
Published: July 2003

In assessment programs where scores are reported for individual examinees, it is desirable to have responses to performance exercises graded by more than one rater. If more than one item on each test form is so graded, it is also desirable that different raters grade the responses of any one examinee. This gives rise to sampling designs in which raters are nested within items. These designs lead to simple methods for estimating variance components owing to examinees and to interactions of examinees by items and examinees by raters within items. The authors review here some useful results from generalizability analysis based on these estimates and show that they may be used to correct the item response information functions and standard errors for conditional dependence of multiple ratings. Examples based on data from two performance testing studies are presented.
Item Selection in Computerized Adaptive Testing: Improving the a-Stratified Design with the Sympson-Hetter Algorithm
Authors: Leung Chi-Keung , Chang Hua-Hua , Hau Kit-Tai
Published: July 2003

Item exposure control, test-overlap minimization, and the efficient use of item pool are some of the important issues in computerized adaptive testing (CAT) designs. The overexposure of some items and high test-overlap rate may cause both item and test security problems. Previously these problems associated with the maximum information (Max-I) item selection method have been partially solved by incorporating the Sympson-Hetter (SH) probabilistic procedure that attempts to control the actual usage of the popular high-discrimination items. On a different line of thought, Chang and Ying proposed the a-stratified design (STR) and advocated the use of less discriminating items in the earlier stages of testing. The method has been demonstrated to be effective in improving the utilization of the entire pool without sacrificing the efficiency in ability estimation. Nevertheless, the problem of item overexposure still persists when the ratio of pool size to test length is small. In four simulation studies, the possible benefits of incorporating the SH procedure in the STR method were investigated. The performance of such an enhanced stratified method (STR-SH) was compared with that of STR as well as Max-I-SH. The results indicated the potential advantages of the STR-SH design over the original STR in yielding a more balanced item exposure distribution, lowering the test-overlap rate, and remarkably reducing the number of overexposed items.