bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The development of man’s ideas concerning nature
Authors: Williams R J P , Da Silva J J R Frausto
Published: November 2023

Ever since man became self-conscious he has tried to build up knowledge about himself and his relationship with his surroundings, even with the universe. One approach through chemistry and the associated physics of chemicals, which we will use in this book, has existed for thousands of years in developing form. It is based on the concept that all that we observe can be broken down into basic primary components, of which there are a limited number. The physical if not in chemical terms. In effect, today we express the physical relationships in a simple phase diagram of a one-component system (no chemical distinctions), as shown in Fig. 4.1. What is more, the phases, of water for example, can be changed into one another by a supply of energy, which, in a general sense, is to be likened to ‘fire’, (Chapter 3). The Greeks had no chemistry, but it would be quite wrong to push the idea of a purely philosophical (and physical) attitude in the Greek world too far-they were looking for cosmological explanations but also for explanations of the ‘chemical’ behaviour of materials on Earth and their possible applications (see footnote ton p. 4). Of course, they were not alone in this search-thoughtful man everywhere has always puzzled in this way about his environment.
Phase equilibria
Authors: Williams R J P , Da Silva J J R Frausto
Published: November 2023

In Chapter 1 we maintained that all material objects on Earth are to be described in terms of atomic elements and their combinations. Since there are 90 different types of element on Earth, it might appear as if their combinations were of virtually infinite variety, especially since we can choose to put together any number of kinds of element in any quantity. In Chapter 2 we showed that, in fact, some ordered combinations or association of atoms were more stable than others due to the different strengths of bonding between atoms and molecules. Thus, there are limitations on combinations and this is one indication of the natural selection of the elements. By treating specific combinations of elements in isolation, both in fixed atomic chemical proportions, for example H and O in H20, and in given physical states, for example H2O as ice, we could then discuss many features of the nature of element combinations, here of the atoms Hand 0. We established that some followed valence rules, which placed further restrictions on variability. We noted too that it was possible to produce more than one combination of some elements, for example Hp2 from Hand 0, although this compound is not as stable as H20. Each such chemical substance could also be discussed in isolation in at least three physical states-solid, liquid and gas. However, as stressed in Chapter 2, the majority of combinations did not give rise to simple stoichiometric compounds, which implies a greater opportunity for variability. In the present chapter we use the principles of Chapter 3, that is, of order disorder equilibrium, to extend our discussion of the variability of chemical systems to put together all kinds of physical and chemical equilibria. This will help us to see to what extent physical and chemical equilibria, all related to chemical selective combination, have constrained the formation of the objects seen around us within the limits of the particular composition of the Earth.
The evolution of inorganic chemicals on Earth
Authors: Williams R J P , Da Silva J J R Frausto
Published: November 2023

Given the principles of chemistry, thermodynamics and kinetics outlined in the previous chapters, we can only follow the natural selection of the chemical elements at a sophisticated inorganic level by homing in on Earth. Earth itself may or may not be very similar to millions of other planets, but this we do not know. We know that it is quite different in inorganic chemistry from all other planets in the solar system and differs considerably from the moon. We can sense with some security too that only conditions of chemistry and physics, especially temperature, similar to those on Earth could have given rise, after cooling below l00°C at the surface, to the equally sophisticated organic chemistry that we describe in Chapter 9, and thus, with the pre-existing inorganic chemistry, could have generated life which, we shall see, illustrates the most refined chemical selection we know. Earth itself could therefore be a unique chemical laboratory formed 4.5 x 109 years ago and life, which probably appeared around 4.0 to 3.5 x 109 years ago, has then had a very long time to search out optimal element selection for survival. As we shall show, the steps that have occurred up to man exhibit an almost inevitable progression in the natural selection of the elements given the conditions around and on Earth. Moreover, given the time taken for man to appear, it could be that he too is unique as a self-conscious living organism.
Palladium-catalysed carbon—carbon bond formation
Authors: Browning Andrew F , Greeves Nicholas
Published: November 2023

The use of palladium complexes as catalysts for a range of reactions has been one of the most remarkable developments in synthetic organic chemistry over the last 25 years. The variety of reactions that can be catalysed, together with the range of functional groups tolerated and usually excellent chemo-and regioselectivity, has meant that an increasing amount of research has gone into this area of chemistry and that· there are several important industrial applications. Indeed, such is the widespread use of these compounds, there is seldom a total synthesis project that does not involve palladium chemistry in one or more key steps. For example, compounds containing an ene-diyne function, a class of molecules which has been under considerable scrutiny in recent years, have been targeted for total synthesis by a number of research groups. Frequently, the ene-diyne unit of these molecules is constructed using a Sonogashira coupling in excellent yield.
Organoiron chemistry 2: iron acyl and 1r-ally1tricarbonyliron lactone chemistry
Authors: Wills Martin
Published: November 2023

Two classes of organoiron chemistry will be described in this chapter. The first part concerns the synthesis and applications of acyl derivatives of the enantiomerically pure chiral auxiliary [(C5H5)Fe(CO)(PPh3)]. Such complexes may be elaborated through a variety of synthetic transformations with invariably high diastereoselectivity. Removal of the acyl group furnishes enantiomerically enriched or pure products. The second class of organoiron reagents featured in this chapter are iron tricarbonyl ir-allyl complexes. These have been employed as intermediates in general methods for the synthesis of lactones and lactams and have been applied to a number of total syntheses of complex natural products.
Arene chromium tricarbonyl chemistry
Authors: Perrio Stéphane
Published: November 2023

Chromium tricarbonyl complexes range in colour from bright yellow to red. They are air-stable, crystalline solids but are generally air sensitive in solution. The decomposition in solution, leading to chromium oxides, is autocatalytic in nature; as a consequence, when decomposition products are detected, at any stage of a synthesis, a filtration should be carried out. Purification is easily accomplished by chromatography on silica gel and/or recrystallisation from a nonpolar organic solvent.
General techniques for handling air-sensitive compounds
Authors: Guillo Nathalie , Perrio Stéphane
Published: November 2023

The manipulation and purification of many of the compounds described in this Practical Approach volume are best performed using a vacuum/inert gas manifold together with Schlenk tubes (or round-bottomed flasks fitted with a gas inlet adapter). The protocols in this chapter describe, in general terms, how a vacuum/inert gas manifold is used to fill Schlenk tubes with an inert gas (nitrogen or argon), how a solvent or solution is saturated with an inert gas using Schlenk techniques, and how solvents are removed from a Schlenk tube. The transfer of liquids from one Schlenk to another, either directly or via a filtration device, is also described, as is the column chromatography of air-sensitive materials. Finally, a technique for preparing samples for NMR spectroscopy under an inert atmosphere is detailed.
Introduction
Authors: Merricks Linda
Published: November 2023

Biography is a somewhat peculiar branch of history. History, conventionally, looks at and tries to explain a particular community or culture, whether a parliament or food riots, through a particular period of time. In this it is selective, choosing what is relevant to that specific organization and the relationships of individuals to it, and history therefore tends to remain within a set of parameters defined by the topic. For example, historians of parliament rarely look at the popular culture of their period. In contrast to this, the only defining feature of a biography is that it centers on one person. This can lead to the most unexpected areas of investigation since any individual will intersect with a number of different societies in the course of a lifetime. What are fascinating are the connections between these different areas and the ways in which they interact with each other and with the subject of the biography.
Exercises in Synthetic Organic Chemistry
Authors: Ghiron Chiara , Thomas Russell J
Published: November 2023

This book is comprised of a series of exercises in synthetic organic chemistry based around recently published syntheses. Each exercise gives a reference to the original work, a synthetic scheme in which either structures or reagents have been omitted, a series of questions on the exercise, and in most cases references to related literature and useful reviews. The exercises are designed to provide challenges for people with a wide range of backgrounds, from undergraduates to academic staff and industrial group leaders, and they enable the readers to increase their vocabulary of synthetic transformations. Taking a novel approach, this volume encourages active participation; instead of absorbing standard strategies, readers are asked to propose solutions to set problems. The exercises are ideal for group discussions of organic chemistry.
Electromagnetic and Circuit Modelling of Multicondtuctor Transmission Lines
Authors: FachÉ Niels , Olyslager Frank , De Zutter Daniël
Published: November 2023

Multiconductor transmission lines form the basic building blocks of microwave and millimetre-wave integrated circuits, and are omnipresent in digital systems. The early chapters of this book give a detailed account of the way in which self-consistent CAD circuit models for such coupled lines, carrying either TEM or hybrid modes, can be obtained from a full-wave solution of Maxwell's equations. Most of the knowledge in the field is covered, including the latest advances for lossy lines. Subsequent chapters discuss the full-wave integral equation solution for basic transmission structures on MMICs, PCBs, and Multiwire® and Microwire® boards with the method of moments. For thin coupled microstrips and striplines the proposed space domain solution offers an alternative for the classical spectral domain approach. This book is the first to handle the full-wave analysis of discrete wire structures and of lossy polygonal conductors. The modal propogation constants and all (coupling) impedances necessary to construct a circuit model are determined.
Innate Immunity And Immune Complexes In Rheumatoid Arthritis
Authors: Nigrovic Peter A , Lee David M
Published: November 2023

Prominent within the complex histopathology of the rheumatoid synovium are cellular and soluble constituents traditionally viewed as members of the innate immune system. Support for the notion that innate immune mechanisms function pathogenically in rheumatoid arthritis (RA) derives from multiple animal models that have demonstrated a critical role for innate immune elements in the genesis of joint inflammation. In this chapter, we will introduce innate immunity generally and within the synovium and discuss how these mechanisms may participate in RA, with a focus on the potential role of immune complexes in the pathogenesis of this common and potentially disabling condition.
Biomarkers For Cartilage And Bone In Rheumatoid Arthritis
Authors: Saxne Tore , Månsson, Bengt , Heinegård Dick
Published: November 2023

A biological marker (biomarker) can by consensus be defined as a characteristic that is objectively measured and evaluated as an indicator of normal biological processes, pathological processes, or responses to a therapeutic intervention . This definition includes a variety of methods that relate to the presence and severity of a disease and could comprise both biochemical assays and imaging techniques. In a more restricted sense we consider biomarkers to be such that can be measured in patient samples, that is, blood, urine, synovial fluid, or tissue specimens. This type of marker is often developed following discoveries in basic biology, for example the identification and characterization of a matrix molecule in a certain tissue involved in the pathophysiology of a disease, such as a cartilage protein in rheumatoid arthritis (RA) . In RA, which is characterized by progressive destruction of articular cartilage and bone, the release of matrix macromolecules or their fragments reflects processes in these tissues that can be detected at an early stage both quantitatively and qualitatively.
Biologics In The Treatment Of Rheumatoid Arthritis
Authors: Tutuncu Zuhre , Kavanaugh Arthur
Published: November 2023

The treatment of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) has evolved rapidly during the last couple of decades. With the improved understanding of pathophysiologic mechanisms involved in the development and the progression of RA, and the progress in biotechnology, further targets are coming to light, and newer drugs are continually becoming available. While the effects of certain biologic agents on RA were recognized several decades ago, the development of biologics for the treatment of RA is still an area of intense activity and rapid progress. The cause of immunologically driven inflammation in RA is not completely understood. Nevertheless, it is well recognized that multiple exogenous and endogenous antigenic triggers result in series of autoimmune responses. These responses are sustained by cell–cell interactions, including cell types such as T cells, endothelial cells, macrophages, monocytes, dendritic cells, B cells, and mast cells. These complex interactions result in the production of cytokines, prostaglandins, and many other mediators. Biologics that specifically target individual pro-inflammatory cytokines, chemokines, adhesion molecules, costimulatory molecules, proteolytic enzymes, and angiogenic factors are now believed to represent a viable therapeutic strategy for arresting disease progression.
Inhibition Of Proteolytic Activity Involved In Cartilage Breakdown
Authors: Cawston Tim E , Young David A
Published: November 2023

In severe cases of arthritis both cartilage and the underlying bone are destroyed and this prevents joints from functioning normally. Cartilage tissue consists of a single cell type, chondrocytes , which are embedded within an extracellular matrix (ECM) of aggrecan, type II collagen, and other minor components. The rodshaped collagen molecules aggregate in a staggered array to form cross-linked fibers giving connective tissues strength and rigidity. Trapped between these collagen fibers are the aggrecan molecules that, in the presence of hyaluronic acid, form highly charged aggregates that attract water into the tissue and allow cartilage to resist compression. Chondrocytes in normal adult cartilage maintain a steady state where the rate of matrix synthesis equals the rate of degradation. Any change in this steady state will affect the functional integrity of the cartilage. During growth and development synthesis of matrix components exceeds the rate of degradation; a reduction in the rate of matrix synthesis and an increase in the rate of degradation occurs during matrix resorption .
Signal Transduction In Rheumatoid Arthritis
Authors: Chen Di , Schwarz Edward M
Published: November 2023

Cellular activation, suppression, replication, differentiation, and apoptosis occur as a consequence of extracellular signals. The biochemical events utilized by cells to perceive and respond to these signals appropriately is known as signal transduction. Extensive research over the last twenty years has elucidated many of the critical signal transduction pathways that are operant in rheumatic diseases . Moreover, this knowledge has been used to develop novel therapeutic interventions, both small molecules (i.e. cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 selective inhibitors) and biologics (i.e. tumor necrosis factor (TNF) antagonists), which have completely transformed rheumatology and our ability to effectively treat arthritis. In this chapter we will review the fundamental basis of signal transduction using the TNF, interleukin (IL), interferon (IFN), T-cell receptor (TCR), steroid, and transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-(3) signaling pathways as examples of host inflammatory/immune responses. Since a new research focus to understand the pathways involved in healing and skeletal repair has emerged, we will also review bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) and Wnt signal transduction as examples.
Patients with common haematological malignancies
Authors: Watson Dr Max , Barrett Ann , Spence Roy AJ , Twelves Chris
Published: November 2023

Leukaemias may be subdivided into acute and chronic, myeloid and lymphatic The acute leukaemias are characterized by the accumulation of blast (primitive) cells in the bone marrow. These cells are usually also present in the peripheral blood, sometimes in high numbers. Acute leukaemia is characterized by a rapid cellular proliferation and a corresponding rapid disease course. The patient may quickly develop life-threatening complications such as neutropenic sepsis unless treated promptly. The chronic leukaemias are characterized by the accumulation of cells that have differentiated beyond  the blast stage. Organ dysfunction may develop after many months/years because of the accumulation of malignant cells.
Parasympathetic activation in experimental trigeminal pain
Authors: Evers S , Rahmann A , May A , Husstedt, I W , Frese A
Published: November 2023

Autonomic, in particular parasympathetic, activation ipsilateral and simultaneously to unilateral trigeminal pain is a hallmark of a group of primary headache disorders. The most common of these disorders, cluster headache and paroxysmal hemicranias, are characterized by strictly unilateral autonomic symptoms such as miosis, ptosis, lacrimation, conjunctival injection, and nasal congestion/rhinorrhea. In fact, the autonomic disturbances are so prominent that this group of headache syndromes has been coined trigemino-autonomic cephalgias (TAC). However, it seems frequently overlooked that other primary headache and facial syndromes may also exhibit autonomic symptoms. Most recently, autonomic activation during severe unilateral migraine attacks and first division trigeminal neuralgia have been described.
Mechanisms of cutaneous hyperalgesia
Authors: Treede Rolf-Detlef
Published: November 2023

Hyperalgesia is the psychophysical counterpart of sensitization (either peripheral or central) of the nociceptive system (for review see Cervero and Laird 1991, Treede et al. 1992, Woolf and Salter 2000).ȃ3 As such, it is characterized by a decrease in pain threshold, increased pain to suprathreshold stimuli, and spontaneous pain. Increased pain sensitivity at a site of tissue damage is called primary hyperalgesia: in normal skin surrounding a site of tissue damage it is called secondary hyperalgesia. The antonym to hyperalgesia is hypoalgesia (decreased pain sensitivity), which may occur as a consequence of damage to the peripheral or central nociceptive system.
Allodynia as a manifestation of migraine and other headaches
Authors: Ashina Messoud
Published: November 2023

In the last ten years there has been an increasing focus on the role of extra cranial hypersensitivity or cutaneous allodynia in pathophysiology of primary headaches, in particular in migraine. Since most of the important studies on cutaneous allodynia were performed in migraines this review will highlight the contribution that these studies have made to our understanding of the pathophysiology of migraine.
Brainstem mechanisms of ongoing pain
Authors: Goadsby Peter J
Published: November 2023

Migraine is a complex central nervous system disorder characterized by pan-sensory sensitivity that seems substantially inherited. One conceptual way to explain the throbbing discomfort, unpleasantness of light, sound and smells and pain with head movement would be to consider that normal afferent signals are hyper synchronized producing perceptions of profound discomfort that are fundamentally of the central nervous system (CNS) in origin. In this chapter I have been assigned the task of discussing the role of the brainstem in migraine, and I will extend this to involve the central nervous system more broadly (Table 26.1). The role of the peripheral trigeminovascular system is discussed elsewhere in this volume, as is classical central sensitization. Suffice to say here that pain-producing structures within the head are innervated substantially by branches of the ophthalmic division of the trigeminal nerve, and by branches of the C2 dorsal root.
Crustacea Iii Malacostraca Eucarida
Authors: Moyse J , Smaldon G
Published: November 2023

The Decapoda is the largest natural grouping within the Mala¬ costraca. In all decapods the thoracic segments are fused dorsally to a carapace, a fold of which extends ventrally on each side of the animal, enclosing the gills and constituting a branchial chamber. The maxilla has a large, modified endopodite, the scaphognathite, which drives water through the branchial chamber by rhythmic beating.
Stratigraphy, Depositional Environments, and Palaeogeography of the Koobi Fora Formation
Authors: Brown F H , Feibel C S
Published: November 2023

Studies of the geology of the Koobi Fora deposits have been under way for nearly two decades. Over that span of time, a great deal of information has accumulated, and many arguments have been raised and laid to rest. In recent years our understanding of the Koobi Fora sequence has changed dramatically through geochemical correlation of volcanic ashes, improved age control by reliable isotopic age determinations, continued study of the stratigraphical features of the deposits themselves, and, perhaps most importantly, secure correlation of the Koobi Fora sequence with those of the lower Omo Valley and along the west side of Lake Turkana. As a result, we are now able to outline our knowledge of the sequence at Koobi Fora in far greater detail than was possible only a few years ago, and to present a summary of some important revisions to earlier discussions.
Introduction
Authors: Isaac Glynn Ll.
Published: November 2023

The researches that form the basis of the reports in this volume started in 1970 and ended in 1979. They began with exploratory work conducted in an atmosphere of high adventure, as one dramatic discovery followed another in quick succession. That the work was being done by an expedition operating in remote, wild, and beautiful terrain added an air of romance to the enterprise. The early discoveries defined opportunities for detailed work relating to questions and problems that steadily became more clearly articulated. Each phase of the research had its own legitimacy, with its own limitations.
The rabbit in New Zealand
Authors: Gibb John A , Williams J Morgan
Published: November 2023

New Zealand has the same two lagomorphs introduced from Britain in the nineteenth century as has Australia: the rabbit Oryctolagus cuniculus and the hare Lepus europaeus. Both are widespread and com mon. Though the hare has been blamed for damaging high country catchments and newly-planted trees (Flux 1967), the rabbit has been the major pest competing with sheep, depleting native vegetation and aggravating erosion. New Zealand (Fig. 6.la) has a wide latitude range from 34° to 48°S and mountain ranges rising to 3760 m (Mt Cook). Cook Strait, separating the North and South islands, is at the same latitude as Tasmania, or Madrid.
Stramenopiles: Chromophytes From A Protistan Perspective
Authors: Patterson David J
Published: November 2023

The concept of chromophytes as a group of algae is restrictive and phylogenetically unsatisfactory. As a result, the composition of the taxon (and the meaning of the word) is unclear. For the purposes of discussion, the group is pruned to well-documented ‘core chromophytes’. Similarities in ultrastructural appearance are used to identify those protozoan taxa that may be related to the core chromophytes. Arguments are presented in relation to the opalinids and proteromonads; bicosoecids; actinomonads (Pedinellales and actinophryid heliozoa); labyrinthulids, thraustochytrids, Diptophrys, and Sorodiplophrys; Spiromonas, Perkinsus, and the apicomplexa; and the foraminifera. The character best suited to define the core chromophytes and related protists is the presence of tripartite tubular hairs attached to the cell surface _ usually to the surface of one flagellum. From a phylogenetic perspective it is desirable that the concept of the Chromophyta be relinquished in favour of an extended (mostly protistan) assemblage, members of which are here referred to as stramenopiles.
Morphology And Anatomy
Authors: Kapp H
Published: November 2023

Chaetognaths are elongated, bilaterally symmetrical marine animals; they may be planktonic or benthic. Their body, which is more or less circular in section, bears one or two pairs of lateral fins and a tail fin. Chaetognaths are named from their large cephalic grasping spines (χαιτζ = chaete = spine, γνατoζ = gnathos = jaw). Their common name, arrow worms, aptly describes both their body form (Fig. 2.1) and their remarkably rapid darting movements. The majority of species are almost completely transparent, but some are translucent and others contain blue, brown, orange, or red pigments.
Distribution Patterns In Chaetognatha
Authors: Pierrot-Bults A C , Nair V R
Published: November 2023

Chaetognatha are holoplanktonic animals, except for the genera Spadella, Bathyspadella and Krohnittella. They are found in all oceans and seas, from coast to coast and from the surface to the bottom; they have even invaded estuarine habitats.
Some foliicolous lichens 1n Xishuangbanna, China
Authors: Wei J C , Jiang Y M
Published: November 2023

Twenty species of foliicolous lichens from 12 genera in 10 families, collected in October 1980 from Xishuangbanna are reported in the present paper. Amongst them seven foliicolous genera, Asterothyrium, Byssolecania, Dimerella, Fellhanera, Gyalectidium, Opegrapha, and Tricho thelium, and 15 species including one variety are new to China, and Byssolecania deplanata is new to Asia.
Spore ontogeny of Sphaerophorus diplotypus and S. fragilis
Authors: Wedin M
Published: November 2023

The spore ontogeny of Sphaerophorus diplotypus and S. fragilis has been investigated and the results are in agreement with studies of other species in Sphaerophorus. Concentric bodies are reported from young stages of ascospores in both species.
Tropical pyrenocarpous lichens. A phylogenetic approach
Authors: Aptroot A
Published: November 2023

The study of the phylogenetic relationships of tropical pyrenocarpous lichens was undertaken in view of their present doubtful systematic position. The pyrenocarpous lichens as a whole are probably not monophyletic, but have evolved several times from non-lichenized fungi. Before preparing a monograph of some selected, presumably monophyletic, genera within, or closely related to, the Pyrenulaceae, a cladistic analysis was made of most groups within the pyrenocarpous lichens. For this purpose material was studied of most genera and of some species with uncertain affinities. Interpretation of the resulting cladogram leads to hypotheses about character transformations and relationships, as well as to inferred monophyletic groups. A key to genera investigated is provided in an appendix.
Parent-offspring conflict IV: clutch size and sexual conflicts
Authors: Mock Douglas W , Parker Geoffrey A
Published: November 2023

Up to this point, our attention has been directed toward the genotypic ‘ hattleground’ for POC and the resolutions one most expects for behavioural phenotypes. Trivers’ s original characterizations of POC were mostly behavioural (e.g. weaning conflict), yet there is no reason why other fitness-affecting components of phenotype should not be subject to the arguments, in which case some attention should be paid to life-history traits. This chapter addresses some of these issues and completes our treatment of POC theory with a consideration of how sexual conflicts may affect the ·supply side’ in taxa with both hiparental and uniparental care. The following chapter then deals with some of the interpretation problems that remain.
Epilogue
Authors: Mock Douglas W , Parker Geoffrey A
Published: November 2023

This book began with the observation that Hamilton’ s rule initially inspired a generation of field studies on the apparent cases of altruism among close kin. The main thrust of our efforts, by contrast, has been to explore how it may influence the dark side of family interactions. Along the way, it will have occurred to many readers that virtually every biological system featuring important contact among close genetic relatives surely contains a shifting equilibrium between the incentives for selfishness and those for altruism. As ecological and social conditions change over time, the balance point-or balance zone, in fact, as it will usually span a range of values-moves toward greater or lesser co-operation among kin. The next focus, it seems to us, must be on identifying and testing the factors that set and re-set this zone. That search will operate on many levels, some relatively ‘ ultimate’ (e.g. modelling the ecological consequences of one strategy or another) and others quite ‘ proximate’ (e.g. working out which actual cues provide the stimuli on which behavioural changes depend or the hormonal changes that affect important perceptual limits).
Cell diversification in heterotrophic flagellates
Authors: Cavalier-Smith T
Published: November 2023

Heterotrophic flagellates are tremendously diverse. This chapter aims: (1) to outline my recent ideas on the higher classification of heterotrophic flagellates from the perspective of an eight kingdom system; (2) to outline the most probable phylogenetic relationships of heterotrophic flagellates; and (3) to discuss the radical steps in eukaryote cell evolution and diversification that created the major differences among the 15 phyla that contain heterotrophic flagellates. I argue that the first eukaryote was a heterotrophic and phagotrophic flagellate. The most fundamental steps in eukaryote evolution occurred either in heterotrophic flagellates or during their conversion into other types of eukaryote. These steps include the symbiotic origin of mitochondria and of chloroplasts. Heterotrophic flagellates are either primitively heterotrophic (most) and form a paraphyletic assemblage directly descended from the first eukaryote flagellates which had neither mitochondria nor chloroplasts, or they are derived from photosynthetic eukaryotes by the loss of plastids.
Diversity of heterotrophic cryptomonads
Authors: Hill David R A
Published: November 2023

Two genera of heterotrophic cryptomonads are recognized: Goniomonas and Chilomonas. The generic characters, composition, and systematics are reviewed.
The diversity of heterotrophic dinoflagellates
Authors: Larsen Jacob , Sournia Alain
Published: November 2023

Dinoflagellate genera which are partly or entirely composed of heterotrophic species are included. About half of the extant dinoflagellates are presumed to be heterotrophic or mixotrophic and are assigned to 9 of the 13 orders recognized here. The group is very diverse, ranging in size from nanoplanktonic to millimetres, and morphologically from relatively simple, unarmoured-’non-preservable’-species to forms with highly elaborate architectures. A few of the heterotrophic dinoflagellates have been associated with red tides.
Free-living heterotrophic flagellates: methods of isolation and maintenance, including sources of strains in culture
Authors: Cowling Andrew J
Published: November 2023

Methods of isolating flagellates and maintaining them are reviewed. Basic media and sources of strains are indicated.
The Relative Vulnerabilities of Moth Higher Taxa to Habitat Change in Borneo
Authors: Holloway J D
Published: November 2023

Biogeographic and ecological data for about 1200 Bornean species in 15 higher taxonomic groups of moths are analysed to assess the relative vulnerabilities of these groups to habitat change. The numbers of taxonomic decisions required to establish these data are calculated. The results illustrate a spectrum of vulnerability amongst the groups to different types of habitat change, with those most at risk having a high proportion of endemic species dependent on primary lowland rainforest. The implications for environmental management and conservation policy are discussed.
Using the Proteaceae to Design a Nature Reserve Network and Determine Conservation Priorities for the Cape Floristic Region
Authors: Rebelo A G
Published: November 2023

The Cape Floristic Region (CFR), covering 90 000 km2, comprises one of the world’s six floral kingdoms. With 8600 species, of which 68 per cent are endemic, it ranks amongst the richest of temperate and tropical floras, although most of the diversity is concentrated in a few speciose taxa. Some 19 per cent of the area of the CFR is in nature reserves, but by far the majority of the preserved area comprises mountain Fynbos. Fortunately Fynbos vegetation is the richest habitat for Red Data Book (RDB) plant, freshwater fish, amphibian, butterfly, and reptile species in southern Africa. However, only 3 per cent of the original extent of lowland Fynbos is preserved, with the greater Cape Town metropolitan area ranking globally as one of the most urgent conservation priorities. Previously used methods for evaluating priority conservation areas have underrated species-poor areas containing a high proportion of RDB species. By correcting for species richness, a far more realistic picture of threatened areas can be obtained from RDB taxa. Utilizing an iterative selection procedure to identify optimal reserve configurations, based on Proteaceae species richness, suggests that 95 per cent of all vascular plant species in Fynbos can be preserved in 16 per cent of the area. Two null models for evaluating the efficiency of a spatial configuration of reserves are proposed. These results suggest that the ideal approach to designing a reserve configuration is to identify areas of high endemism and richness in distinctive vegetation types within particular biogeographical regions. A priori hypotheses based on ecological traits indicate that seed dispersal and regeneration strategies are most strongly correlated with rarity, most specifically with distributional area.
Embodying natural vision into machines
Authors: Srinivasan M V , Chahl J S , Nagle M G , Zhang S \V
Published: November 2023

Anyone who has tried to swat a fly, or watched it execute a flawless landing on the rim of a teacup, would have noticed that insects possess a visual system that is fast, precise, and reliable. This is so despite the fact that the insect brain weighs less than a tenth of a milligram and possesses far fewer than 0.01 per cent as many neurones as the human brain. Do simple nervous systems such as these use computational ‘short-cuts’ to achieve their goals? Observation of the visual behaviour of insects suggests that this may indeed be the case.
Natural vegetation
Authors: Hadidi M N El
Published: November 2023

Egypt is perhaps the most arid country in North Africa. According to Ayyad and Ghabbour (1986), hot desert ecosystems cover all of Egypt and extend south to latitude 12°N in Sudan. Such hot ecosystems are either arid or hyperarid and it is possible to distinguish between three main hyperarid and two arid provinces (see Fig. 3.1). Hyperarid provinces are characterized by a hot or very hot summer (mean temperature of 30 °C in the hottest month) and a winter rainfall averaging 30 mm per year. Arid provinces are characterized by a hot summer (mean temperature of 20-30 °C in the hottest month) and a winter rainfall ranging between 20 and 100 mm per year.
Land tenure
Authors: Richards A
Published: November 2023

Ever since the eighteenth century, economists have argued that the distribution of land shapes the pattern of resource allocation, distribution, and growth in an agricultural economy. We have since accumulated a great deal of evidence which strongly suggests that the distribution of assets determines how the gains of growth are shared. Although the percentage of land in the value of total assets declines with economic development, historical evidence shows that the land tenure system has important consequences for the rate and distribution of human capital investment, which becomes increasingly important as development proceeds. Viewed historically, the distribution of land is fundamental to the distribution of income in the rural areas. Income distribution, in turn, may affect the pattern of industrial growth through final demand linkages. The structure of asset ownership and the pattern of growth and distribution are intimately connected (Johnston and Kilby 1975; Mellor 1976; De Janvry 1981; Adelman 1984).
Natural environment
Authors: Guohua Xu
Published: November 2023

China is the third largest country in the world, after the USSR and Canada. It has a land area of 9.6 million km. This is 6.5 percent of the total land area of the world, 40 times the size of Great Britain, or 91 per cent of the area of Europe as a whole. Located in the east of the continent of Eurasia, bordering the Pacific Ocean, China extends over 49° 16’ of latitude, from 4° 15’ N to 53° 31’ N. It thus lies mainly in the subtropical and temperate zones. The western border begins at 73° 43’ E, and the furthest eastern point is at 135° 5’ E, a distance of 65° 25’ of longitude. The northern part of the country is adjacent to the USSR and the People’s Republic of Mongolia, the western part to Afghanistan and Pakistan, and the southern part to India, Nepal, Bhutan, Burma, Laos, and Vietnam. Japan is to the east of China across the Sea of Japan, and Korea lies to the north-east across the Yalu Jiang River (see Fig. 1.1).
Systems of agricultural production in western Sudan
Authors: Haaland G
Published: November 2023

Western Sudan includes the two regions of Darfur and Kordofan, and covers a vast area of 850000 km ranging from desert in the north to high rainfall savanna in the south. Of a total population of 6.5 million, 85 per cent is classified as rural, deriving all or part of their livelihood from agricultural and pastoral production.
AIDS
Authors: Rowe Glenn
Published: November 2023

Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome, or AIDS, has been claiming headlines for several years as a new and potentially devastating disease. Since it is a disease of the immune system, and several theoretical models have been proposed to simulate its behaviour, it seems appropriate to include a chapter on AIDS in this section of the book.
Neurons and synapses
Authors: Rowe Glenn
Published: November 2023

The human brain is without doubt the most complex object in the known universe. It is a lump of tissue about the size of two clenched fists, yet it contains more than 1012 cells and is the seat of essentially everything a human being is. The brain controls and initiates virtually every act a person performs in his life, from relatively simple, but vital, functions such as breathing and heartbeat, to the height of creativity as exemplified by the composition of great symphonies and the formulation of intricate scientific theories.
Memory
Authors: Rowe Glenn
Published: November 2023

How does the brain store its past experiences? It would be reasonable to think that there is a strong analogy between the human brain and a modern digital computer. After all, both systems are composed of a large number of units (neurons in the brain, bits in a computer), which communicate with each other electrically, have two main states (firing and quiescent in the brain, binary 1 and O in the computer) and can store enormous amounts of information which can be retrieved more or less at random (you can think of widely different topics in quick succession, and a computer’ s RAM—random access memory—can be accessed in any location).
Evolutionary learning
Authors: Rowe Glenn
Published: November 2023

The models of learning that we have studied so far have all relied on the modification of synaptic weights, as suggested originally by Donald Hebb in 1949. The majority of these approaches treat the neuron as a point object whose only property is its threshold response to its input.
Principles and Parameters
Authors: Culicover Peter W
Published: November 2023

Principles and Parameters is a new textbook intended for the advanced undergraduate or postgraduate student of linguistics. In this readable and authoritative survey of the theory, incorporating much of Government and Binding (GB) theory, Peter Culicover summarizes the major proposals and results of Case theory, Theta theory, X'-theory, Binding theory, the theory of A- and A'- movement, locality conditions, and the theory of Logical Form (LF). He provides an up-to-date introduction to a number of more recent proposals, including Chomsky's Minimalist Program, Larsonian shells, and Kayne's Antisymmetry theory. A major concern and organizing principle of the book is to give the student an understanding of how specific methodological assumptions underlie the core analyses that have played a central role in the development of the theory. Each chapter is followed by an extensive set of exercises which lead the student from the point of applying the mechanics of the theory to developing and organizing new data, providing analyses, and exploring alternative hypotheses. There are also graded and annotated guides to further reading for each chapter, and, as a general aid to the student, a comprehensive glossary of terms.
Language in Society
Authors: Romaine Suzanne
Published: November 2023

Why have 1500 separate languages developed in the Pacific region? Why do Danes understand Norwegians better than Norwegians understand Danish? Is Ebonics a language or a dialect? Linguistics tends to ignore the relationship between languages and the societies in which they are spoken, while sociology generally overlooks the role of language in the constitution of society. In this book Suzanne Romaine provides a clear, lively, and accessible introduction to the field of sociolinguistics and emphasizes the constant interaction between society and language, discussing both traditional and recent issues including: language and social class, language and gender, language and education, and pidgins and creoles. The text shows how our linguistic choices are motivated by social factors, and how certain ways of speaking come to be vested with symbolic value and includes examples drawing on studies of cultures and languages all over the world. This new edition incorporates new material on current issues in the study of gender as well as other topics such as the linguistic dimension to the ethnic conflict in the Balkans, and the controversy over Ebonics in the United States.
Introduction:Philosophy and the Physical Sciences
Authors: Sklar Lawrence
Published: November 2023

The demarcation of the natural sciences from philosophy has been a long and gradual process in Western thought. Originally, inquiry into the nature of things consisted in an amalgamation of what would now be thought of as philosophy: general considerations of the broadest sort about the nature of being and the nature of our cognitive access to it, and what would now be considered to be the specific sciences: the amassing of observational fact and the formulation of general and theoretical hypotheses to explain it. If we look at the fragmentary remains of the works of the pre-Socratic philosophers, we find not only important and ingenious attempts to apply reason to broad metaphysical and epistemological questions but also the first crude, if extraordinarily imaginative, physical theories concerning the nature of matter and its changing aspects.
The Quanturn Picture of the World
Authors: Sklar Lawrence
Published: November 2023

Quantum theory has presented scientists and philosophers of science with a series of perplexing questions. It seems to many that any attempt to comprehend a world described by quantum theory will require revision in our understanding of the nature of things far more radical than the revision in our understanding of the nature of space and time demanded by the theories of relativity. It has been claimed that to comprehend quantum theory we must revise our very understanding of such matters as the objective nature of reality and its independence from our perception of it, the nature of a complex system and its relation to its components, and the nature of causal and other kinds of determination in the world.
Locks, Schlocks, and Poisoned Peas: Boyle on Actual and Dispositive Qualities
Authors: Kaufman Dan
Published: November 2023

A piece of gold dissolves when it is immersed in aqua regis: gold is dissolvable in aqua regis; dissolvability in aqua regis is one of the qualities of gold. Now, imagine a world with the same natural laws as the actual world. In that world, a piece of gold exists, but aqua regis does not. In that world, does gold actually have the quality dissolvability in aqua regis? According to Robert Boyle, the answer to this question is ‘no’. In that world, is it true that if there were some aqua regis and a piece of gold were immersed in it, the gold would dissolve? According to Boyle, the answer is ‘yes’. This seems like a strange thing to say, given Boyle’s answer to the first question and his common-sense view that qualities (e.g. dissolvability) are not to be confused with their manifestations (e.g. dissolving). In this chapter, I hope to show why Boyle gives these answers. More importantly, I hope to show how Boyle can consistently give these answers.
Descartes, the First Cartesians, and Logic
Authors: Ariew Roger
Published: November 2023

Descartes wrote the Principles of Philosophy as something of a rival to scholastic textbooks, although the latter usually had quadripartite arrangements — that is, logic, ethics, physics, and metaphysics — mirroring the structure of the collegiate curriculum. But Descartes produced at best only a partial physics and what could be called a general metaphysics: he did not finish his physics and did not write a particular metaphysics; he did not produce an ethics or logic for his followers to use or to teach from. These things must have been perceived as glaring deficiencies in the Cartesian programme and in the aspiration to replace Aristotelian philosophy in the schools. So the Cartesians rushed in to fill the voids.
Crisis resource management in healthcare
Authors: Lighthall Geoffrey K
Published: November 2023

Crisis resource management (CRM) has come to define the cognitive and teamwork skills that facilitate management of medical events bearing a high risk to patient well being. There are various definitions for crisis, but for purposes of this discussion, the definition below will be used.
Effective management of anaesthetic crises
Authors: Weller Jennifer
Published: November 2023

Establishing a new course within an existing curriculum or training programme can be challenging. Implementing a programme on a national or international level, while maintaining and controlling course standards and uniformity presents specific advantages and particular challenges. This chapter describes the development, design and implementation of a course in crisis management and its incorporation into the anaesthesia training programme across three countries. Our experiences in this course may assist others considering similar initiatives.