bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Beyond Translation
Authors: McDonald Peter D.
Published: October 2017

Seen in the context of the hopes the ICIC and then UNESCO invested in translation as a way of securing world peace, this chapter traces the career of the leading Afrikaans writer Antjie Krog from her debut as a young avant- garde poet writing exclusively in Afrikaans to her later work as a prose writer who chose creative non-fiction and English as additional literary media. The chapter shows how Krog, like Joyce before her, betrayed the ‘genius’ of her ‘mother tongue’ from within but not the language itself, and how she then developed, again like Joyce, a conception of translation as a radical process of mutual transformation between languages and cultures. After considering some of her early work, the chapter focuses on Lady Anne (1989), A Change of Tongue (2003), and There was this Goat (2009), a collaborative project Krog co-authored with Nosisi Mpolweni and Kopano Ratele.
Beyond Multiculturalism
Authors: McDonald Peter D.
Published: October 2017

Seen in the context of the evolving critique of multiculturalism within UNESCO, this chapter examines the network of relationships linking Joyce, Tagore, Salman Rushdie, and Amit Chaudhuri. It begins by showing how The Satanic Verses (1988) constitutes a creative adaption of Finnegans Wake, effectively re-novelizing it in terms that were more consistent with Rushdie’s conception of multiculturalism than Joyce’s more challenging idea of the interlingual and the intercultural. As a way of thinking about the ‘unconstitutional spaces’ literature opens up, the chapter then considers the importance of Tagore’s modernist poetics and anti-statism for the contemporary Indian writer Amit Chaudhuri. It concludes with a reading of Chaudhuri’s Odysseus Abroad (2014) as an articulation of his alternative vision of the intercultural in general and of the legacies of Joyce and Tagore in particular.
Postscript
Authors: McDonald Peter D.
Published: October 2017

The postscript recapitulates some of the main themes of the book via the work of the contemporary Chinese artist Xu Bing. On the one hand, it argues that Book from the Sky (1988), which reflects Xu Bing’s debts to the Chan (or Zen) Buddhist tradition, exemplifies an ‘Eastern’ form of linguistic scepticism directed primarily against writing. On the other hand, it argues that Book from the Ground (2007–), which reflects Xu Bing’s engagement with the pictographic aspects of contemporary ‘world culture’, expresses the equally profound utopianism that has always permeated international language debates. The challenge both works pose for the literate brain has consequences not just for the way we read but for the ways in which states conceptualize languages, cultures, and communities as stable, countable things rather than as ‘centres of revolving forces’ expressing ‘the pervasive truth of inter-relation’, as Tagore put it in the 1930s.
The high altitude environment
Authors: Jacobsen Dean , Dangles Olivier
Published: October 2017

Chapter 1 gives a brief overview of the climatic and terrestrial environment in which high altitude waters are embedded. This context is necessary to understand the prevailing environmental conditions in the aquatic systems. The chapter begins by defining high altitude, alpine, and mountain, and provides an overview of the distribution of the world’s main high altitude regions. The overall picture of the climatic setting is drawn, from the inevitable consequences of high altitude (low temperature, low atmospheric pressure, and high solar radiation) to the highly region-specific patterns in precipitation and wind. The various ways that highland regions are formed, their temporal evolution, and climatic changes are treated in a section on the palaeo-environmental perspective. Finally, general patterns in high altitude (alpine) vegetation zones and treelines on different continents are synthesized, as well as major soil-forming processes in the catchments surrounding aquatic systems.
A growing human footprint in the highlands
Authors: Jacobsen Dean , Dangles Olivier
Published: October 2017

Chapter 9 reviews the threats imposed by human activities to aquatic life at high altitude. High altitude regions of the inter-tropical belt are generally much more densely populated than their temperate counterparts. Therefore, they are directly affected by a number of human-related disturbances such as land use changes, water contamination, use and diversion, and the introduction of invasive species. The chapter details several unique environmental conditions of high altitude environments that make their aquatic biota particularly at risk in the face of anthropogenic disturbances. Among others, glaciers concentrate pollutants, low oxygen concentrations affect the response of aquatic fauna to stress, ultraviolet B modifies the bioavailability of contaminants, high primary productivity of grasslands encourages cattle ranching and fuels fires over large scales, and isolated watersheds favour species extinction following biological invasions.
The Role of Education
Authors: Tholen Gerbrand
Published: October 2017

This chapter assesses whether higher education within the four occupations performs as assumed according to the dominant discourse on graduate labour. The chapter aims to elucidate what the meaning and value of graduate education and university qualifications are within the four graduate occupations under investigation. The chapter examines how we can describe the meaning that higher education has within these occupations, whether the university degree functions as a credential, and to what extent higher education drives career progression. It shows that the significance of higher education differs between the occupations and tends to be overstated. Within a mass system of higher education, university credentials lose much of their value to employers and employees alike, certainly several years after graduation.
Overview of the Legislative Process and Case Studies
Authors: Russell Meg , Gover Daniel
Published: October 2017

This chapter summarizes the basics of the legislative process in the Westminster parliament, as well as introducing the 12 case study bills which form the focus of the book, using them to illustrate some key aspects of the process. It provides background on Westminster’s functions and composition during the period of study (2005–12), and explains the legislative process stage by stage: including the different ‘readings’ in the two chambers, the committee stage, and how differences between the two chambers are resolved. It introduces readers to the basics of legislative amendments, both in terms of procedural aspects and their great diversity. For each bill, it provides a paragraph explaining the political background, what the bill sought to do and the degree of controversy that it attracted, as well as summary statistics about the number of amendments proposed and agreed to the bill at each legislative stage.
Military Trials of War Criminals in the Netherlands East Indies 1946-1949
Authors: Borch Fred L.
Published: October 2017

From 1946 to 1949, the Dutch prosecuted more than 1,000 Japanese soldiers and civilians for war crimes committed during the occupation of the Netherlands East Indies during World War II. They also prosecuted a small number of Dutch citizens for collaborating with their Japanese occupiers. The war crimes committed by the Japanese against military personnel and civilians in the East Indies included mass murder, murder, torture, mistreatment of prisoners of war and civilian internees, and forced prostitution. Beginning in 1946, the Dutch convened military tribunals in various locations in the East Indies to hear the evidence of these war crimes and imposed sentences ranging from months and years to death; some 25 percent of those convicted were executed for their crimes. The difficulty arising out of gathering evidence and conducting the trials was exacerbated by the ongoing guerrilla war between Dutch authorities and Indonesian revolutionaries and, in fact, the trials ended abruptly in 1949 when 300 years of Dutch colonial rule ended and Indonesia gained its independence.
An Unfortunate Sideshow
Authors: Borch Fred L.
Published: October 2017

There have always been men and women who collaborate—provide aid, comfort, and support—to the enemy in time of war. In the Indies, both Europeans and nonEuropeans collaborated with the Japanese during the occupation. This chapter examines five war crimes tribunals involving Europeans, with the focus on the prosecution of a Japanese-speaking Dutchman who made radio propaganda broadcasts for the enemy and the trial of Head Police Commissioner P. J. H. M. Maseland, the highest-ranking official to collaborate with the enemy. The former was the NEI equivalent of “Lord Haw-Haw” and “Tokyo Rose,” and demonstrates that the Dutch took the impact of enemy propaganda on the war effort seriously. The latter was a Japanese-speaking police official who compromised his integrity during the occupation.
The Balance of Payments
Authors: Tomlinson Jim
Published: October 2017

This chapter traces the changing representation of the balance-of-payments ‘problem’ from the 1940s through the post-war period, and the reasons for its virtual disappearance as an important narrative about the economy in the last quarter of the twentieth century. The balance of payments is an especially striking case of both the malleability and partiality of narratives deployed to seek to persuade the public of the importance of an economic policy issue. This chapter also shows the possibility of long-standing economic ‘problems’, once deemed vital to the national economy’s management, disappearing from view as new ways of looking at economic issues, linked to changing institutional arrangements and doctrines, come to the fore.
Conclusion
Authors: Golder Sona N. , Lago Ignacio , Blais André , Gidengil Elisabeth , Gschwend Thomas
Published: October 2017

The goal of this book has been to examine in detail the micro mechanisms underlying the aggregate patterns described by the second-order election model commonly used to study multi-level elections. The book builds on existing work showing that the incentives provided by multiple arenas affect political behaviour and show that these effects are heterogeneous across parties and voters and across regions and countries. Multi-level governance complicates the study of elections but it also creates greater variation, and this variation allows richer theories about party and voter behaviour to be tested. As the importance of electoral arenas beyond the national level increases across ever more countries, it is imperative that those theories help us to understand the implications not just for parties and voters but for the quality of electoral democracy.
Intentionalist Strategies of Interpretation
Authors: Stock Kathleen
Published: October 2017

This chapter addresses the complaint that extreme intentionalism standardly forces the reader who engages in interpretation to posit private, or hidden, authorial intentions, for which she has little or no evidence. It is first argued that there are no automatic strategies of interpretation of fictional content: at every stage, whether or not a given interpretative strategy is to be appropriately applied depends on the presence of relevant authorial intention as a sanction. (This section includes a discussion, and rejection, of the views of David Lewis and Gregory Currie about fictional truth; a discussion of the relevance of genre to fictional content; and a consideration of the issue of unreliable narration for an intentionalist view.) The foregoing material on strategies of interpretation is then used to show that it is false to think of the extreme intentionalist as being committed to ‘hidden’ or ‘secret’ meanings in the ordinary case.
Fiction, Belief, and ‘Imaginative Resistance’
Authors: Stock Kathleen
Published: October 2017

The chapter starts with a focus on the relation between fiction and the inculcation of justified belief via testimony. The claim, relied upon in Chapter 3, that fictions can be sources of testimony and so justified belief, is defended. Then the fact that fictive utterances can, effectively, instruct readers to have beliefs, is implicated in a new explanation of ‘imaginative resistance’. The author suggests that the right account of this phenomenon should cite the reader’s perception of an authorial intention that she believe a counterfactual, which in fact she cannot believe. This view is defended against several rivals, and distinguished from certain other views, including the influential view of Tamar Gendler. Finally there is a consideration of whether one can propositionally imagine what one believes to be conceptually impossible.
Conclusion
Authors: Stock Kathleen
Published: October 2017

In this book, a central aim has been to defend what many have taken to be an indefensible view: extreme actual intentionalism about fictional content. This book has the aim of demonstrating that extreme intentionalism should be taken seriously. Meanwhile, if the ideas about fictional content presented here are right, then, as the book has shown, a number of interesting consequences follow for other matters, among them, that a theory of fiction as a set of instructions to imagine certain things is provided with additional motivation. This account also furnishes a neat explanation of how testimony-in-fiction can provide the reader with justified beliefs, and a plausible explanation of what has come to be known as ‘imaginative resistance’. Propositional imagining is revealed to be a flexible action which can be directed at various valuable ends, and which is neither inevitably constrained as belief is, nor inevitably radically unconstrained. A theory of supposition has also been provided.
The Messages We Send
Authors: Ferrari G. R. F.
Published: October 2017

This is a book about ‘intimations’: social interactions that approach outright communication but do not quite reach it. The controlling metaphor is that of a communicative scale or switch, which goes from ‘off’ (no communication intended) to fully ‘on’ (outright communication). Intimations lie in between. Three intermediate positions are identified: quarter-on, half-on, and three-quarters-on. The metaphor is cashed by appeal to a Gricean model of communication: progression along the communicative scale is determined by the extent to which what comes across in the transmission is required to come across by recognition of the intention of the transmitting party. At a quarter-on, it is required not to; at half-on, it is neither required to nor required not to; at three-quarters-on, it is required to, but only partially; at full-on, it is required to, and the recognition is complete. The half-on intimation is primarily used for impression-management in social life (Goffman is an important influence here). To illustrate it, the book concentrates on fashion and the ‘messages’ we send with our clothes. With the quarter-on and three-quarters-on intimation, the focus of argument is on the fact that transmissions at the same position of the communicative scale have the same underlying structure, whether they are made in the formal arts or in daily life outside the arts. For the quarter-on intimation, the formal art is lyric poetry; for the three-quarters-on intimation, it is storytelling. Storytelling is discussed at length, and at the end is connected to situational irony.
Storytelling as Intimation
Authors: Ferrari G. R. F.
Published: October 2017

The chapter argues against a ‘conversational’ model of the relation between storyteller and audience, on the grounds that it puts the storyteller at too little distance from the audience. Although more overt than intimation at the half-on position (since the transmission is required to come across by recognition of the intention of the transmitting party), the storyteller’s intimation still lacks the complete overtness of full-on communication (since that recognition is only partial); hence its ‘three-quarters-on’ position. Contrast the full covertness of the quarter-on position, whose underlying form is: I want you to know (something), but I also want you not to know that I want you to know (that thing). Lyric poetry, which comes alive for us by masking its own artificiality, belongs here. A derivation is then proposed that makes mimicry fundamental to storytelling’s manner of intimation, rendering theoretical appeal to make-believe, imagination, or the authorial ‘persona’ unnecessary.
Situational Irony
Authors: Ferrari G. R. F.
Published: October 2017

When a situation feels like a story, we call it ironic. It seems audience-directed, though we know it is not. On the other hand, a large class of situations that strike people as ironic are simple incongruities, with no apparent connection to how stories work. This chapter therefore proposes a model that applies equally to ironies of simple incongruity and story-like ironies of peripety. It is the play of the mundane against the surprising (and not surprise alone) that makes a situation ironic. This characteristic of situational irony bears comparison with how, in stories, surprises that a plot holds in store must emerge from a plausible nexus of events, rather than springing from nowhere. It turns out, however, that ironies of simple incongruity manifest the same pattern: what makes their incongruity exquisite is that it shows up against a mundane background. Situational ironies ‘speak’ to their audiences, then, in the manner of a three-quarters-on intimation.
Ethics and Depression
Authors: Ashcroft Richard
Published: October 2017

This chapter discusses the ethics of depression from a personal perspective. The author, an academic who has worked in the field of medical ethics or bioethics, has suffered episodes of depression throughout his life, some lasting several months. Here he shares a few quite informal things about how these two facts about him are connected. He first considers the paradigm of autonomy and autonomous decision-making, as well as the problem with functional accounts of autonomy with regard to depression. He then reflects on an approach to ethics and depression that involves thinking about the ethics of being depressed. He also highlights two aspects of the ‘ethics of depression’: treatment and the ethical obligation to talk about it.
Is Treating Depression Like Treating Appendicitis?
Authors: Biegler Paul
Published: October 2017

This chapter proposes an ethically defensible approach to treatment that does not remove depression as one would an inflamed appendix. Treatment should instead, it is argued, transform depression by discerning its value as an insight into various threats to the sufferer’s interests. Psychotherapy elucidates the stressors that trigger depression, equips people to deal with unrealistic pessimism, and promotes personal autonomy. The value of autonomy as an instrument to well-being is a primary moral driver of the case for psychotherapy in depression. It is concluded that doctors must recommend psychotherapy, either stand-alone or as an adjunct to antidepressants, in all cases of major depression.
Depression and Assisted Dying
Authors: Huxtable Richard
Published: October 2017

This chapter examines the relationship between depression and assisted dying, or euthanasia, by drawing on the metaphor of a ‘black dog’ being ‘put to sleep’. Focusing on English law, it argues that the law has been guilty of obfuscation in its dealings with assisted dying. The chapter proceeds by discussing situations involving compassionate killing and the notion that medically assisted dying should no longer be prohibited in England. The chapter considers two arguments for medically assisted dying, one premised on respect for autonomy and the other tethered to the obligation to remove suffering. Sometimes, in the so-called bare choice argument, the former claim dominates; elsewhere, the claims are conjoined to form the understandable choice argument. However, the chapter argues for straight-talking about assisted dying and emphasizes the need to consider the rightful limits of such a policy and whether it could—or should—extend to the depressed.
Extending the Argument
Authors: Stoljar Daniel
Published: October 2017

This chapter asks whether the argument for optimism presented in Chapters 3–4 may be extended from boundary problems to problems of other types, and argues that it can be—to a type of problem the author calls a constitutive problem. Roughly, a constitutive problem is an explanatory problem that presupposes that various items of philosophical interest are located at the apex of what is called a constitutive hierarchy, a vast and complicated explanatory structure among facts (i.e. true propositions). The argument is presented in the context of the theory of causal explanation defended by David Lewis, and explores how this can be extended to constitutive explanation.
Mendelssohn’s Critique of Lessing’s Laocoon
Authors: Beiser Frederick
Published: October 2017

Frederick Beiser’s chapter demonstrates the palpable impact of Moses Mendelssohn on Lessing’s Laocoon. Mendelssohn composed his own treatise about the differences between the arts in 1757, paying particular attention to hybrid artistic forms that combined ‘natural’ and ‘arbitrary’ signs through their fusion of ‘successive’ and ‘instantaneous’ elements. In his comments on an early draft of Laocoon, Mendelssohn reminded Lessing that poetry—due to the arbitrariness of its signs—could also successfully express objects that coexist with one another rather than consecutive actions in time. Of all Mendelssohn’s comments on Laocoon, Beiser argues, this was the one that most troubled Lessing as he tried to develop a system for understanding ancient ‘poetry’ and ‘painting’.
Puzzling Patterns of Knowledge Ascriptions
Authors: Gerken Mikkel
Published: October 2017

Chapter 2 surveys the philosophical reasons and empirical evidence for assuming that there are a number of puzzling patterns of knowledge ascriptions. Three effects on folk knowledge ascriptions are considered in turn. The first one is an alternatives effect—roughly, the inclination to deny S knowledge that p in the face of a salient alternative, q. The second effect is a contrast effect—roughly, the idea that whether an alternative, q, to S’s knowledge is “in contrast” partly determines our inclination to ascribe knowledge. The third effect is a practical factor effect—roughly, the effect of salient practical factors on our inclination to ascribe knowledge. Overall, Chapter 2 provides a state-of-the-art presentation of the shifty patterns of knowledge ascriptions.
Arguments for Strict Purist Invariantism
Authors: Gerken Mikkel
Published: October 2017

A number of arguments against the epistemological views motivated by the salient alternative, contrast and practical factor effects are set forth. The negative arguments suggest that these effects reflect folk epistemological practices that are heuristically useful but systematically inaccurate. On this basis, it is argued that taking these effects as straightforward evidence for epistemological theorizing has consequences that are problematic so that we should instead consider whether strict purist invariantism may account for them. In this manner, Chapter 4 provides some substantive arguments that simultaneously shed light on epistemological matters and offer a guide to the subsequent empirical account of the systematic errors in folk knowledge ascriptions.
Coda
Authors: Gerken Mikkel
Published: October 2017

The brief Coda considers the key conclusions and methodology as a general framework for the study of folk epistemology. In particular, it highlights how the study of folk epistemology simultaneously requires and contributes to epistemological theorizing. Moreover, it briefly considers how our folk epistemological practices may yield distinctive forms of epistemic injustice. For example, it is hypothesized that our ordinary knowledge ascriptions may be biased in terms of gender, race, or social power structure. So, the book concludes by emphasizing a key rationale for engaging in the study of folk epistemology: understanding our folk epistemology may serve as the basis for an important area of applied epistemology.
The Exorcism of the Salt Ponds at Xie
Authors: ter Haar Barend J.
Published: October 2017

The historical Guan Yu came from a village in Xie Prefecture (modern Yuncheng) in the south of the modern province of Shanxi, close to one of the main salt producing sites of traditional China. From the early twelfth century onwards a new type of worship for Lord Guan was transmitted throughout southern China by Daoist exorcist specialists, which was motivated by a story about his successful defeat of a demon causing mishap in the salt ponds of Xie. The Daoist connection of the deity was much stronger than the Buddhist one, but this was the Daoism of ritual practice, rather than the philosophical approaches as some may construct them from the Book of the Way and the Virtue that is ascribed to Laozi. A substantial numbers of temple foundations in southern China in particular can be explained through this Daoist connection.
Household Wealth Trends in the US, 1983 to 2010
Authors: Wolff Edward N.
Published: October 2017

This chapter investigates wealth trends from 1983 to 2010. Median wealth plummeted between 2007 and 2010 by 44%. The inequality of net worth, after almost two decades of little movement, was up sharply between 2007 and 2010. Relative indebtedness continued to expand for the middle class. The sharp fall in median net worth and the rise in its inequality from 2007 to 2010 are traceable to the high leverage of middle-class families and the high share of homes in their portfolio. The racial and ethnic disparity in wealth holdings, after remaining more or less stable from 1983 to 2007, widened considerably between 2007 and 2010. Hispanics, in particular, got hammered by the Great Recession in terms of net worth and net equity in their homes. Households under age 45 were also pummeled by the Great Recession, as their relative and absolute wealth declined sharply from 2007 to 2010.
Secular Beats Spiritual
Authors: Bruce Steve
Published: October 2017

The decline of Christianity in the West is undeniable but commentators differ in their understanding of what this represents. For some, it shows a decline in interest in religion; for others, religion has not declined, only changed shape. Possible candidates for Christianity’s replacement are the new religious movements of the late 1960s and what is variously called New Age, alternative, or contemporary spirituality. This detailed study of the religious and spiritual innovations since the 1970s assesses their popularity in Britain and concludes that the ‘not-decline-just-change’ view is unsustainable. Serious interest in spirituality has grown far less quickly than has the number of people with no religious or spiritual interest. The most popular and enduring movements have been the least religious ones; those that have survived have done so by becoming more ‘this-worldly’ and less patently religious or spiritual. Yoga is popular but as a secular exercise programme; Transcendental Meditation now markets its technique as a purely secular therapy; British Buddhists now offer the secular Mindfulness; the Findhorn Foundation (Europe’s oldest New Age centre) no longer promotes counter-cultural communalism but sells its expertise to major corporations. The book also demonstrates that, although eastern religious themes such as reincarnation and karma have gained popularity as the power of Christianity to stigmatize them as dangerous has declined, such themes have also been significantly altered so that what superficially looks like the easternization of the West might better be described as the westernization of the easternization of the West.
The Secularization of the West
Authors: Bruce Steve
Published: October 2017

The decline of religion, common across the developed world and now evident even in the USA, is not an accident and nor is it the work of committed atheists. It is an unintended consequence of a series of subtle long-run social changes, such as an increase in religious diversity and religion’s loss of social functions and problem-solving expertise. Modernization changes the status and nature of religion in ways that weaken it and make it difficult to pass it successfully from generation to generation. The meaning of such key terms as secularization, secularism, and secularity is clarified, as is the difference between world-affirming and world-rejecting new religions.
The pathways for perception
Authors: Guillery Ray
Published: October 2017

Chapter 2 outlines some of the evidence on which the seemingly strong standard view has been based. The early discovery that ventral nerve roots of the spinal cord provide a motor output and dorsal nerve roots provide a sensory input supported the dichotomy of the standard view. Then as each sensory pathway was traced to the thalamus for relay to the cortex, the separate inputs from the sensory receptors—visual, auditory, gustatory, and so on—could be seen as providing the cortex with a ‘view’ of the world. The nature of this view became strikingly clear once investigators could understand (read) the messages that pass along the nerve fibres on the basis of very brief changes in membrane potentials, the action potentials. However, many branches given off by sensory fibres on their way to the thalamus remain unexplained on the standard view. These are important for the integrative sensorimotor view and their precise functional roles need to be defined.
The pathways for action
Authors: Guillery Ray
Published: October 2017

Early nineteenth-century studies demonstrated, on the basis of clinical, experimental, and anatomical evidence, that a motor pathway, the corticospinal or pyramidal tract, passes from a specific area of the cortex, the precentral motor cortex, to the brainstem and spinal cord. The motor cortex can be seen as a topographic map of the movable body parts, and damage to the cortex or pathways produces correspondingly localized paralysis. However, there are a great many other pathways that link other areas of the cortex to parts of the brain active in the control of movements. These still play a puzzling role in the standard model where the control of movements focuses on cortical contributions to voluntary movements by the corticospinal pathways.
The subcortical motor centres
Authors: Guillery Ray
Published: October 2017

This chapter looks more closely at some of the subcortical motor centres that play a peripheral or an auxiliary role in the standard view: primarily the basal ganglia, the cerebellum, and the superior colliculus; also several brainstem centres. These all play a significant role in motor control and between them receive inputs from the majority of cortical areas. The colliculus serves as an example of a centre that in mammals is often dominated by the cortex. The cortical action may be direct or may involve a strong inhibitory pathway through the basal ganglia. The standard view assigns even quite simple actions to the motor cortex, although comparable actions can be controlled in our vertebrate ancestors by the midbrain tectum which corresponds to the mammalian superior and inferior colliculi. The interactive view has information about movements going to most parts of the cortex, and has all cortical areas contributing to motor control through phylogenetically old centres. For most cortical areas, we must still learn how their motor outputs influence our actions.
Starting to study the brain
Authors: Guillery Ray
Published: October 2017

Chapter 5 takes a look at some of the basic assumptions, questions, rules, laws, and dogmas that we encounter, use, or ignore when we study the brain. As a student, I was taught to study the brain as a functional part of a whole animal, and the nervous system as a part of biology. I was introduced to the ‘neuron doctrine’, which was applied specifically to studies of the brain. I became aware of its strengths and gradually learnt its weaknesses. I learnt the difference between descriptive science and science as a hypothetico-deductive system, and began to see myself as a descriptive scientist looking for areas of the unknown still needing to be explored. I have used this chapter to illustrate, that for the most complex parts of the brain, the rules that are useful where we know and understand many details are often irrelevant or confused where, as for the thalamus and cortex, we know only a few of the relevant details. This book has been written about areas where we often lack such details, where crucial questions have not been asked because they did not arise under the standard perception-to-action model. New questions become relevant under the interactive view, providing opportunities for many new, needed descriptive studies.
Translating Institutions
Authors: Berger Tobias
Published: October 2017

This chapter proves the decisive importance of local translators. It analyses a large-scale social experiment that is built into the development project aimed at activating the village courts. Whereas in four regions it is implement by a local NGO, in a fifth region it is directly run by the experts of international donor agencies. In this region, the project clearly fails to change established patterns of conflict resolution. In the other four regions, however, the NGO fieldworkers have enhanced access to local authorities for marginalized people by introducing village courts. They do not do so as anticipated by their international donors who want the village courts to become an extension of the state-backed rule of law—but instead of adhering to strict substantial and procedural requirements, the fieldworkers translate the institution of the village courts by integrating them into the universe of non-state justice institutions in rural Bangladesh.
India’s Turn to Populism
Authors: Kenny Paul D.
Published: October 2017

This chapter shows how the fragmentation of political authority precipitated a crisis of legitimacy of the old order. Using a mix of qualitative and quantitative data, it first shows how Indira Gandhi attempted to restore central control through intervention in India’s states. Failing to reestablish control over India’s fragmented patronage network, she then made a populist turn, mobilizing the masses across India through the media and mass rallies in her conflict with her opponents. This chapter argues that this strategy was a consequence of the breakdown of the Congress system, rather than its cause. Mrs Gandhi’s attempt to recentralize power met with substantial resistance in the states. Her government eroded the rule of law and the undermined the formal institutions of intermediation between state and society. The authoritarian emergency that followed from 1975 to 1977 was not an aberration of this populist program, but its logical fulfillment.
Conclusion
Authors: Kenny Paul D.
Published: October 2017

This final chapter draws out the two main conclusions from the book. First, it discusses the policy implications of its findings. It suggests caution in the decentralization of political authority as a remedy for democratic underperformance in patronage-based democracies. Rather than making government more accountable, it may instead exacerbate principal–agent conflicts between center and periphery. More important than decentralization in the short term may be institutional reforms at the center that make parties more programmatic and responsive to citizens. Second, it sets out some of the implications of the book’s findings for the study of populism and party-system change more generally. It shows that the varied ways in which voters and parties are linked creates different pathways to the decline of establishment parties and the success of populist alternatives. Further comparative research across party systems might contribute positively to institutional reform and political change.
Introduction
Authors: FitzGerald Brian
Published: October 2017

The Introduction offers an overview of recent scholarship on medieval prophecy and provides the book’s interpretative framework. The book differs from much previous scholarship by examining how prophecy had a multiplicity of meanings besides prediction in the Middle Ages and by showing the significance of debates over those meanings. The chapter then explains the chronological parameters of the book, beginning in the twelfth century when prophecy became a subject of controversy and ending in the early fourteenth century when humanist intellectuals and poets began challenging the authority of scholastic theologians. The chapter ends by surveying the conceptual background to the book’s subject matter: the classical idea of the vates (poet-prophet) and patristic (particularly Augustinian) theories of prophecy and inspired vision. It shows how these concepts were combined with a functional-institutional model of prophecy derived from St Paul and left a tangled legacy that twelfth-century thinkers needed to resolve.
Inside the Empire
Authors: Conway Stephen
Published: October 2017

This chapter explores the different ways in which continental Europeans worked within the British Empire between about 1740 and 1800. It draws on a wide range of sources to piece together the picture, from official records to private letters, diaries, wills, inventories, and account-books. Foreign Europeans made an appearance in the empire in a variety of guises—as cartographers, scientists, technical experts, clergymen, merchants, sailors, and, perhaps most notably, in numerical terms at least, as settlers and soldiers. Some attempt is made to assess the significance of their contributions, and even measure their importance by making comparisons with inputs provided by the British and Irish, by non-European imperial subjects, and by autonomous native peoples.
Outside the Empire
Authors: Conway Stephen
Published: October 2017

This chapter considers the part played by continental Europeans in sustaining the empire from without, a role that was less conspicuous than internal involvement but nevertheless helped to support British imperial activity. Here we consider other Europeans as investors; as consumers of British imperial products; as suppliers of goods to British imperial sites; and as facilitators of the British presence across the globe, who from outside the empire provided stopping off places on voyages to imperial destinations and channels for the movement of British personnel and communication with the home islands, as well as various forms of social sustenance. As in the previous chapter, some attempt is made, where possible, to assess the significance of such contributions, by making comparisons with inputs from the British and Irish themselves, and by other imperial subjects, and native peoples beyond British control.
CETA, TTIP, TiSA, and Financial Services
Authors: Ohler Christoph
Published: October 2017

Financial services are considered as an economic sector that is particularly suited for trade liberalization. While many countries opened their markets considerably, financial institutions are at the same time subject to strict domestic regulation and supervision. They lead to financial and organizational burdens for service suppliers which may have an effect similar to trade barriers. However, traditional market access obligations do not apply to these national or, in the case of the EU, supranational regulatory systems. In addition, the GATS as well as bilateral trade agreements contain so-called prudential carve-out provisions. As a consequence, any international attempt for further liberalization in the financial services sector will be limited in its effect as long as regulatory issues are not integrated in these negotiations.
Conclusions
Authors: Griller Stefan , Obwexer Walter , Vranes Erich
Published: October 2017

This chapter synopsizes principal conclusions presented in this book. It stresses that mega-regional agreements risk further augmenting the fragmentation of international economic law and undermining the WTO negotiating forum. Regarding regulatory cooperation, it questions whether non-binding initiatives as those envisioned under CETA and TTIP will succeed and argues that efforts to reduce the vagueness of investment disciplines and thereby to protect domestic policy spaces are questionable. It also stresses that the controversial division of competences between the EU and its Member States greatly impedes their capability to act in international relations. It submits furthermore that citizens are increasingly anxious that they may not be able to democratically influence the process of international economic governance, which makes them feel progressively estranged also from European integration. This chapter concludes that international trade and investment agreements will, for a considerable time, not be discussed, negotiated, and concluded, in the same manner again.
Translation as Citation
Authors: Saussy Haun
Published: October 2017

Translation as Citation denies that translating amounts to the composition, in one language, of statements equivalent to statements previously made in another. Rather, translation works with elements of the language and culture in which it arrives, often reconfiguring them irreversibly: it creates, with a fine disregard for precedent, loan words, calques, forced metaphors, forged pasts, imaginary relationships, and dialogues of the dead. Creativity, in this form of writing usually considered merely reproductive, is the subject of this book. When the first proponents of Buddhism arrived in China, creativity was forced upon them: a vocabulary adequate to their purpose had yet to be invented. A Chinese Buddhist textual corpus took shape over centuries despite the near-absence of bilingual speakers. One basis of this translating activity was the rewriting of existing Chinese philosophical texts, and especially the most exorbitant of all these, the collection of dialogues, fables, and paradoxes known as the Zhuangzi. The Zhuangzi also furnished a linguistic basis for Chinese Christianity when the Jesuit missionary Matteo Ricci, arriving in the later part of the Ming dynasty, allowed his friends and associates to frame his teachings in the language of early Daoism. It would function as well when Xu Zhimo translated from The Flowers of Evil in the 1920s. The chance but overdetermined encounter of Zhuangzi and Baudelaire yielded a “strange music” that retroactively echoes through two millennia of Chinese translation, outlining a new understanding of the translator’s craft that cuts across the dividing lines of current theories and critiques of translation.
Norns and Norms
Authors: Saussy Haun
Published: October 2017

We often hear that certain words or texts are “untranslatable.” At the root of this judgment lies an exaggerated respect for the native language, which must not be altered by contact with other languages. Against this superstition, it is here argued that translation is one of the great movers of change in language, and accomplishes this precisely through the rendering of difficult and unidiomatic texts. At another level, a purported ethics of translation urges that translations should be “foreignizing” rather than domesticating: this too evidences a normative idea of the integrity of the language and culture of the foreign text. Against such defences of purity, a sense of both language and translation as inherently hybrid, and literary language in particular as macaronic, should open to examination the historical individuality of encounters that every translation records. Examples from Western European languages indicate how this hybridity is to be understood.
Death and Translation
Authors: Saussy Haun
Published: October 2017

The first translation of a Baudelaire poem into Chinese, a 1924 version of “A Carcass” by Xu Zhimo, offers an example of creative adaptation in translation: in his version and preface Xu assimilates Baudelaire to the early Daoist philosopher Zhuangzi. This is a strange choice on general grounds, but reflects the translator’s strategy of creating a recognizable identity for the Flowers of Evil, and for modernist poetics generally, within the world of Chinese thought. Furthermore, the content of Baudelaire’s poem, the changes made to it in Xu’s translation, and the relationship Xu devises with the works of Zhuangzi together outline a different theory of translation: not the creation of equivalents, but the chewing, digestion, and assimilation of a previous text, whether native or foreign, as part of the life-process of a literary tradition. Xu’s version of “A Carcass” enacts what Baudelaire’s poem describes, thereby displacing the ground of translational equivalence.
The “First Age” of Translation
Authors: Saussy Haun
Published: October 2017

Buddhist ideas were transmitted to China over a period of several hundred years, originally via Central Asia and later through direct contact with Indian believers. Translation was essential to this process of conversion—arguably the most consequential in world history—but the mechanisms of translation remain unfamiliar. Documents indicate that for the first three centuries of Buddhist influence, source texts in Indic languages were almost never directly accessible to the Chinese “translators,” who worked, rather, from paraphrases dictated by speakers of one or another Central Asian language; these paraphrases were then worked up into acceptable literary Chinese by scribes unacquainted with Sanskrit, Pali, or any other foreign tongue. The means whereby Buddhist ideas achieved acceptance in China therefore had little to do with fidelity to an original and much to do with adaptation to the Chinese cultural context through patchworks and redeployments of Chinese predecessor texts with little or no relation to Indian thought.
Industrial Policy as Implementation or Legitimation
Authors: Brunsson Nils
Published: October 2017

This chapter raise some doubts regarding the hierarchic metaphor — that the role of the politicians is to govern and guide — in the sphere of industrial policy. It is assumed that the function of industrial policy is to influence the structure and development of industrial enterprises, to bring them more in line with political preferences regarding employment, expansion, level of technological development, export sales, etc. Such an ambition requires not only that the political system takes the initiative and actively controls the development of individual companies but also that it solves difficult problems. The hierarchic metaphor presupposes that the state, with the politicians at its head, is able and willing to control. Both these assumptions are called in question in this chapter.
Phytoplankton Biogeochemical Cycles
Authors: Robinson Carol
Published: October 2017

This chapter describes how the activity of phytoplankton, bacteria, and Archaea drive the marine biogeochemical cycles of carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus, and how climate driven changes in plankton abundance and community composition influence these biogeochemical cycles in the North Atlantic Ocean and adjacent seas. Carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus are essential elements required for all life on Earth. In the marine environment, dissolved inorganic carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus are utilized during phytoplankton growth to form organic material, which is respired and remineralized back to inorganic forms by the activity of bacteria, Archaea, and zooplankton. The net result of the photosynthesis, calcification, and respiration of marine plankton is the uptake of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, its sequestration to the deep ocean as organic and inorganic carbon, and its availability to fuel all fish and shellfish production.