bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Person marking in the wake of /s/ deletion in Andalusian Spanish
Authors: Ranson Diana L.
Published: November 2008

Data on person marking in Andalusian Spanish argue in favor of a revision of the functional hypothesis, which pertains to “the tendency for semantically relevant information to be retained in surface structure” (Kiparsky, 1982:87). The first part of this study shows that subject pronouns in Andalusian are not used to disambiguate verb forms, in direct contrast to Hochberg's (1986) findings on subject pronoun usage in Puerto Rican. In the second part of the study, an analysis of contextual person markers, not undertaken in previous studies, shows that person can be indicated by means outside the surface structure. When both linguistic and contextual person markers are taken into account, only 2% of the 1,035 verbs in this sample of Andalusian are unmarked for person. Person marking is thus maintained where it is important to the speaker's message, but it is not limited to surface structure realization as the strong form of the functional hypothesis suggests.
Punctors: A pragmatic variable
Authors: Vincent Diane , Sankoff David
Published: November 2008

Punctors constitute a class of markers that have usually been classified as nervous tics, fillers, or signs of hesitation. The words we consider to be punctors share a number of structural and functional characteristics: they manifest prosodic assimilation to the preceding phrase; they are almost never preceded by a pause; they show a high degree of phonological reduction; and all punctors have lost their original meaning or function. From the analysis of twelve interviews sampled from the Sankoff-Cedergren corpus, we have isolated the following punctors:là‘there’,tu sais, vous savez‘you know’,n'est-ce pas‘isn't it so’,hein‘eh’,je veux dire‘I mean to say’,moi‘me’,osti‘[communion] host’,vois-tu‘do you see’, andil/elle dit, j'ai dit‘he/she says’, ‘I said’ (used in reported discourse). Our main concern in this article is to present the distribution of punctors, within the sentence and within the discourse, and to suggest an explanation of some aspects of their conditioning in terms of the interaction of etymological, discursive, syntactic, and social constraints.
Vowel deletion in Latvian
Authors: Kariņš A. Krišjānis
Published: November 2008

This article investigates the constraints on variable deletion of short vowels in word-final unstressed syllables found in the variety of Latvian spoken in Riga. The affected vowels are almost always inflectional endings. Results from a variable rule analysis of 8 native speakers from Riga indicate that internal phonological and prosodic factors (especially distance from the main word stress) act as the strongest constraints on vowel deletion, along with the educational level of the speaker. The functional constraint of the recoverability of the deleted vowel is not significant.
Learning to talk Philadelphian: Acquisition of short a by preschool children
Authors: Roberts Julie , Labov William
Published: November 2008

Recent work in the acquisition of variation has shown that children begin to learn patterns of stable variation at a very early age. In fact, it appears that they acquire variable rules at about the same time as they are acquiring related categorical rules. Little is known, however, about the transmission from generation to generation of features undergoing sound change in progress. Therefore, this study examines the acquisition of the Philadelphia short a pattern by 18 3- and 4-year-old children. Even though this pattern of the raising and tensing of short a is a complex one, the children had, for the most part, acquired it. In almost all cases, the children matched the short a distribution both of their parents and a group of adult Philadelphians who were interviewed in the mid 1970s and described in Labov (1989b). These results indicate that even the youngest members of the speech community are actively participating in ongoing sound change.
Relative salience of gender and class in a situation of multiple competing norms
Authors: Cravens Thomas D. , Giannelli Luciano
Published: November 2008

One of the most consistent findings to emerge from sociolinguistic research is that “men use more nonstandard forms, less influenced by the social stigma directed against them; or, conversely, women use more standard forms, responding to the overt prestige associated with them” (Labov, 1990:210). With regard to change, these findings indicate that “women lead in both the acquisition of prestige patterns and the elimination of stigmatized forms” (p. 213), apparently without exception in change from above the level of conscious awareness and in all but a few of the cases studied in change from below. An examination of the social parameters of acceptance and spread of intervocalic spirantization of /p/, /t/, /k/ in Tuscany offers the possibility for testing and refining these precepts in a situation of rule competition that is more complex than most of those studied previously, in that here there are three forms in competition. Building on established principles (e.g., Trudgill, 1972), this sociolinguistic analysis of the interaction of three options provides a more precise understanding of the significance of both gender and class as (co-)conditioners of variation and change.
Disfluencies in the analysis of speech data
Authors: Naro Anthony Julius , Scherre Maria Marta Pereira
Published: November 2008

In our study of concord phenomena in spoken Brazilian Portuguese we found disfluencies, including apparent corrections, in about 15% of the relevant tokens in our corpus of recorded speech data. Disfluencies have very little effect on the rate of marking. When fluency is included in a variable rule analysis as a factor group containing categories for different types of disfluency, as well as for data without any disfluency, it is not selected as statistically significant. Furthermore, separate analyses of all data, only fluent data, and only disfluent data revealed no significant changes in the numerical results obtained for other factor groups. We conclude that, at least insofar as the variable phenomena we studied are concerned, speech is not overly laden with errors; there is nothing in the data to mislead the language learner.
Out of the AIR and into the EAR: Another view of the New Zealand diphthong merger
Authors: Maclagan Margaret A. , Gordon Elizabeth
Published: November 2008

In this article, we report on the results of a study of the diphthongs EAR and AIR, which are merging for many New Zealand speakers. Each stage of the study, which has been repeated at five-year intervals since 1983, involves the analysis of word lists and sentences read by over 100 14- and 15-year-old school pupils. The results show a clear trend toward a merger to the EAR diphthong. This is also confirmed in a study carried out in 1994 of 79 speakers (selected according to age, sex, and socioeconomic class) reading six word pairs. The results from both of these studies differ from those reported by Holmes and Bell (1992). We suggest the reasons for the different results could be methodological, and that the mechanism of the merger is merger by approximation after the AIR diphthong became involved in the New Zealand front vowel chain-shift raising.
The devoicing of fricatives in Standard Dutch: A real-time study based on radio recordings
Authors: van de Velde Hans , Gerritsen Marinel , van Hout Roeland
Published: November 2008

This article gives a detailed analysis of devoicing of the voiced fricatives /v/, /z/, /y/ in two varieties of Standard Dutch: Southern Standard Dutch (as spoken in Belgium) and Northern Standard Dutch (as spoken in The Netherlands). The study is based on archived recordings of radio broadcasts from 1935 to 1993. First, our study shows a divergence between Southern and Northern Standard Dutch in the pronunciation of voiced fricatives in this period. In The Netherlands there is a strong tendency towards devoicing, but in Belgium this tendency is very weak. Second, this study offers insight into the linguistic path of this change: partially voiced compromise variants play an important role, and devoicing is favored in word-initial position. Finally, our study shows the benefits of a retrospective trend study on the basis of radio recordings. In comparison with traditional real-time studies, it offers more insight into the social and linguistic embedding of changes in progress. Its results are also more reliable than those of apparent-time research.
Object relative pronoun use in native and non-native English: A variable rule analysis
Authors: Flanigan Beverly Olson , Inal Emel
Published: November 2008

This study examines the use of object relative pronouns by native (NS) and nonnative (NNS) speakers of Standard American English. Three hypotheses were tested: (1) relative pronoun choice by NNSs will differ from that of NSs, principally because of prescriptive grammar instruction abroad; (2) wh, that, and zero froms will be used variably by both NSs and NNSs, depending on the function of the object and the human/nonhuman status of its antecedent; and (3) increased exposure to native speaking environments will cause a shift toward NS norms of use by NNSs. Half the subjects were given a preference task and asked to mark the relative pronoun variants they would be most likely to use in speech and in writing. The other subjects were given a production task in which sentences were combined to produce relativization. The data and varbrul2 analyses supported all three hypotheses: NNSs used all forms roughly equally in speaking but preferred Wh in writing, whereas NSs favored That or no pronoun. A shift away from Wh was also evident in NNSs after extended exposure to NS English.
A diachronic study of relative markers in spoken and written English
Authors: Ball Catherine N.
Published: November 2008

Although English relative clauses have been the subject of considerable research, few quantitative studies have traced their development over an extended period of time. The present study focuses on factors governing the choice of relative markers in restrictive relative clauses with relativized subjects from the 16th century to the present day, using both spoken and written data, and including non-standard and regional varieties. The study examines claims by Romaine (1982) that the wh-strategy has not affected spoken English, and that no major qualitative changes have occurred in the relative system since the early 16th century. The results, however, show that these claims are not correct: a major event occurred in the 17th century which had a significant impact on spoken and written English. Many areas are identified which merit further research.
Syntactic variation, parameters, and social distribution
Authors: Cornips Leonie
Published: November 2008

This article concerns the interrelation between the theoretical status and the social dimensions of syntactic variation in Heerlen Dutch. I discuss syntactic variation in Heerlen Dutch, which consists of (i) a range of dative constructions that are acceptable in the Heerlen dialect but unacceptable in Standard Dutch and (ii) Standard Dutch variants of the dative constructions that are rare in the Heerlen dialect. The theoretical primitive causing syntactic variation is taken to be the different values or settings of a parameter. Although all local dialect constructions in Heerlen Dutch seem superficially similar because they are construed with a dative NP or the reflexivezich, I argue that these constructions must be attributed to two distinct parameters. The different social distributions of dative constructions in Heerlen Dutch are a confirmation that two distinct parameters are involved.
Shared accents, divided speech community? Change in Northern Ireland English
Authors: McCafferty Kevin
Published: November 2008

This article interrogates the line taken in studies of Northern Ireland English that Catholic/Protestant ethnicity is sociolinguistically irrelevant. Using data from Derry/Londonderry English, gathered with the objective of answering the question of whether ethnicity matters in sociolinguistic terms, it examines the relative importance of a set of social factors for language variation. The strength of these factors (ethnicity, class, sex, and age) varies, but where change is occurring, ethnicity has an effect on the adoption of innovations. In particular, changes originating in the (predominantly Protestant) east of Northern Ireland tend to be adopted primarily by Protestants, whereas Catholics tend to be more conservative. This fits well with a general pattern of diffusion of change suggested by a reading of the sociolinguistic literature from the region.
Was/werevariation across the generations: View from the city of York
Authors: Tagliamonte Sali
Published: November 2008

In this article, I describe a new research project on York English (YrkE), a variety in northeast England. In addition to providing the first systematic linguistic documentation of YrkE, I conduct a quantitative analysis of a linguistic feature which not only is well documented in the literature, but also recurs pervasively in varieties of English worldwide—was/werevariation in the past tense paradigm. Two separate tendencies are observed, neither of which can be explained by any unidimensional notion of analogical leveling of the paradigm: (1) nonstandardwasin existential constructions, and (2) nonstandardwerein negative tags. Both trends can be tracked in apparent time in which the contrasting behavior of men and women reveals that women are leading both types of linguistic change. In other contexts, nonstandardwasis a synchronic remnant which can be traced to earlier stages in the history of English.
Aspects of Spanish deictic expressions in Barcelona: A quantitative examination
Authors: Vann Robert E.
Published: November 2008

This sociolinguistic investigation analyzes an innovative usage of Spanish motion verbs, demonstratives, and locatives in Barcelona that involves crosslinguistic pragmatic transfer. Speakers in the two social networks examined (N= 58) use these Spanish deictics following pragmatic rules that generally correspond to the rules for their Catalan counterparts. Quantitative analysis demonstrates that this innovative usage of the Spanish deictics is not predictable from the lexical form of the deictic systems in both languages. Multiple regression analysis (SPSS) demonstrates that as relative exposure to Catalan increases so does the amount of innovative usage observed, although degree of integration into a Catalan social network and degree of Catalanist ideology do not affect such usage. Qualitatively, this innovative usage is a linguistic marker of a unique contact variety of Spanish spoken in Catalonia (i.e., Catalan Spanish). In this variety, such usage represents a potential resource for performing Catalan identity.
Preferred argument structure in spoken French and Spanish
Authors: Ashby William J. , Bentivoglio Paola
Published: November 2008

This article uses the quantitative methodology of goldvarb to examine the variable distribution of lexical noun phrases representing core arguments of the verb in a corpus of spoken French and a corpus of spoken Spanish. It is shown that this distribution is not random, but instead conforms to a grammatically and pragmatically motivated pattern known as Preferred Argument Structure.
Third-person present singular verb inflection in early British and American English
Authors: Kytö Merja
Published: November 2008

This study concentrates on the development of the third-person indicative present singular verb inflection in Early Modern British and American English. Within the framework of sociohistorical variation analysis, corpus-based comparisons focus on a number of extralinguistic and linguistic factors that have influenced the choice of the forms over successive periods of time. During the period studied, the main line of development is the replacement of the -thby the -s ending; the zero from is clearly in decline, as is the use of the -s and the -thendings in the third-person present plural inflection. The type of the verb (notablyhaveanddo vs. other verbs) and stem-final sounds play an important role in the choice of the form. The text type, the level of formality, and the sex of the author can also be seen to influence the distribution patterns. The -s ending had already been firmly established in everyday usage before the settlers left for the New World. Contrary to what has usually been attributed to the phenomenon of “colonial lag,” the rate of change was more rapid in the colonies than in the mother country.
Variability in the use of perfect have in Trinidadian English: A problem of categorial and semantic mismatch
Authors: Winford Donald
Published: November 2008

Sociolinguistic situations that involve interplay between standard and nonstandard varieties have posed certain difficulties for the analysis of variation at the morphosyntactic level (Harris, 1984; Milroy, 1987). In particular, there is the problem of defining the scope and relevant contexts of morphosyntactic variables—a problem closely linked to that of identifying the semantic equivalence in terms of which the variable is defined (Cheshire, 1982; Romaine, 1984). This article addresses such issues by examining variation in the use of perfect have and its alternatives in the Trinidadian creole continuum. The alternatives to have include other Standard English (SE) forms (e.g., the past), as well as forms like perfective Ø, completive done, and others which function in the Trinidadian Creole (TC) system. The analysis is based on data from a sample of speakers from different social backgrounds. The variation described here is part of a wider pattern involving different strategies for expressing the various meanings associated with the perfect in SE, namely, the “continuative,” “experiential,” and “resulative” interpretations of have. TC employs different strategies for expressing these meanings. Perfective Ø is used (along with apporopriate adverbial specifications) to convey the experiential meaning; progressive -in, Ø copula, or Ø-marked statives convey the continuative sense; and completive done competes with prefective Ø to convey the resultative sense. All of these may vary with have. I discuss at length the procedures that are used to define the variable and the equivalents of have that are identified. A quantitative analysis reveals clear patterns of variation according to class, subcategory of perfect, and predicate type. The differences in the use of have are explained in terms of varying degrees of influences from vernacular norms among the social groups, as well as the availability of alternative choices to have within the pragmatic and grammatical environments. Finally, I indicate the implications of this investigation for the study of morphosyntactic variation in other divergent dialect situations. Specifically, the findings are relevant to situations, such as AAVE, which involve variation between standard and nonstandard strategies for expressing the meanings associated with the perfect and other morophosyntactic categories.
Linguistic analysis of dialect “correction” and its interaction with cognitive salience
Authors: Yaeger-Dror Malcah
Published: November 2008

This article considers language variation within one “ethnic” group: Israelis of Middle Eastern origins. Earlier studies (Yaeger-Dror, 1988, 1991) found that singers from the dominant “koiné” -speaking social group (Blanc, 1968) use [r] in pop songs and [R] in casual interviews. This can be defined as a register distinction. On the other hand, singers from a MidEastern ethnolinguistic background, whose underlying dialect includes [r], use [R] even in songs. Given that singers whose vernacular consonant invetory does not even include [r], and who should find it easire to use it categorically, have such a difficult time maintaing [r] consistently (and appropriately) in the song register? One of the recorded variants for these singers “merges” the [r] and [R] into coarticulated [rR]. Why does this previously unattested sound arise, and what does it tell us about the linguistic and sociolinguistic situation? Data from various registers are analyzed in order to discover the answers to these questions. This analysis is concerned with the quantifiable evidence of systematic patterns in the use of these three pronunciations for [r] and uses this evidence to demonstrate that subconscious sociolinguistic pressures on members of the minority community influence them to assimilate to the dominant social group while still retaining ethnolinguistic proof of a narrower ethnic identity. For example, the use of [rR] is found to be correlated with a wish to affiliate with both an [R]-using group and an [r]-using group, showing that sociolinguistic techniques can reveal social psychological ethinc affiliation. Like Trudgill's (1986) discussions of dialects in contact, the present theoretical discussion takes advantage of proposals advanced by Giles, to explain why the data reveal both convergence (toward the dominant out-group) and divergence (toward the in-group) (Giles & Coupland, 1991). Sociolinguistic methods permit a quantitative analysis of the strength of these conflicting tendencies, both of which are subsumed under the technical term “accommodation.” Methods are proposed to determine if choice of the

[R] or [rR] variant is conscious or not, and variable rule analysis reveals that for most of the singers the less cognitive salience, the greater the degree of convergence to the Koiné norm [R]. The linguistic factors that are correlated with the relative degree of salience can be used in future studies when the relationship between convergence toward another dialect or language and relative cognitive salience is also at issue.
The relationship between lexical variation and lexical change
Authors: Johnson Ellen
Published: November 2008

Much has been written about the relationship between the usage of particular social groups and language change. This article reports on a longitudinal study of lexical variables that analyzed comparable data from the 1930s and 1990. Nearly 1,000 words were tested to determine differences in usage related to age, sex, race, education, region, and rurality. Another set of tests compared the terms used at each point in time. Yielding a list of words that exhibited both change and a pattern of social or regional variation, the results indicated that males, whites, older speakers, and speakers from rural areas use more older terms. The most educated speakers use more newer terms. These findings were reinforced by an analysis of “No Response” answers, especially on questions about obsolete or agricultural referents, which were more common among females, blacks, and urban dwellers. Most of the linguistic change was not accompanied by significant social variation.
Relative pronouns in it-clefts: The last seven centuries
Authors: Ball Catherine N.
Published: November 2008

It has often been claimed that it-cleft complements differ syntactically from restrictive relative clauses. Alleged differences in the distribution and relative frequency of wh-forms in the two clause types are generally offered to support this view, but such claims have not been empirically verified. In this study, we examine synchronic and diachronic data for clefts and relative clauses and show that the major claims are unsupported. The diachronic data further show that cleft complements and restrictive relative clauses have changed together over time and at the same rate. On the constant rate hypothesis, the evidence supports the position that the two clause types are not syntactically distinct.
Subject-verb agreement in Newfoundland French
Authors: King Ruth
Published: November 2008

In Newfoundland French the verb does not agree in number with a plural subject in one particular construction–subject relative clauses–but rather displays default singular marking. Agreement is made with the subject relative pronoun, which does not have a morphological feature for number associated with it. This absence of a number feature results in a form consistently spelled out as homophonous with the third-person singular. Gender agreement transmitted in subject relatives containing a predicate adjective is evidence that number marking is at issue, not agreement in general. An exception to this pattern is the (variable) marking of plural agreement in theil y en aconstruction, explained in terms that are independent from the analysis of the default singular. Newfoundland French agreement is then compared with data from other French varieties, and the approach taken in this study is compared with those of other studies of grammatical variation.
China's industrial SO2 emissions and its economic determinants: EKC's reduced vs. structural model and the role of international trade
Authors: HE JIE
Published: November 2008

This paper discusses the validity of the Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) hypothesis for the case of China's industrial SO2 emissions: both its reduced form and structural model are considered. The EKC curve for China's per capita industrial SO2 emissions predicts the turning point at 10,000 yuan (3,085 US$, Purchasing Power Parity (PPP)). However, given China's fast population expansion, the decreasing trend in per capita emissions may well not be enough to bring about an immediate reduction in terms of total industrial SO2 emissions and emissions density. Using the structural EKC model makes it possible to reveal how various factors contribute to the industrial SO2 emissions density – namely, the three commonly known structural determinants and the marginal impact of international trade. International trade proves to have a two-fold impact: a significantly negative direct one and an indirect one that is dependent on the current capital–labour abundance ratio and on the income level of each province.
Toward a Theory of Backlash: Dynamic Resistance and the Central Role of Power
Authors: Mansbridge Jane , Shames Shauna L.
Published: November 2008

To understand backlash theoretically, we must first carve out an analytically useful term from the cluster of its common political associations. In colloquial usage, “backlash” denotes politically conservative reactions to progressive (or liberal) social or political change (Faludi 1991 is a classic in this vein). Here, however, we attempt a nonideological definition of backlash embedded in a more neutral approach to its study. In colloquial usage, backlash includes acts of genuine persuasion as well as of power. Here, however, we suggest that it may be analytically helpful to confine its meaning to acts of coercive power. We draw on the sociological literature on social movements and countermovements, as well as the political science literature on power, preferences, and interests. We focus mostly on examples drawn from the United States and relating to feminism and gender. We begin where the process of backlash itself begins, with power and a challenge to the status quo.
Cyclic behavior of solar full‐disk activity
Authors: Li K. J. , Li Q. X. , Gao P. X. , Shi X. J.
Published: November 2008

In order to describe the cyclic behavior of solar full‐disk activity (the surface magnetic fields, filaments, the green Fe XIV, 5303Å corona local maxima intensities, and torsional oscillations), we propose a new concept, a “full‐disk activity cycle,” which consists of two successive normal cycles: a high‐latitude activity cycle following a low‐latitude activity cycle. When solar activity begins to progress into a full‐disk activity cycle, it latitudinally rushes to the poles, starting from middle latitudes (about 40°) at about a normal cycle minimum. At the solar poles, magnetic polarity reversal takes place on both the solar hemispheres, and opposite reversals occur on the opposite hemispheres; resultingly, the new appearing magnetic polarity at high latitudes on a hemisphere will become the leading magnetic polarity of regions at low latitudes on the same hemisphere in the following normal cycle. After the latitudinal drift of solar activity reaches the solar poles at about the maximum time of the normal cycle, solar activity begins to latitudinally migrate in a reverse direction; it moves toward the equator continually till almost arriving at the solar equator and lasting for about 1.5 normal cycles. When a full‐disk activity cycle progresses from a high‐latitude activity cycle into a low‐latitude activity cycle, the next full‐disk activity cycle begins. Two successive full‐disk activity cycles have a normal cycle overlapped in time but are spatially separated. The characteristics of full‐disk activity cycles are summarized as well. At present we do not know why a full‐disk activity cycle begins at midlatitudes; it is perhaps related with solar differential rotation. Further work is required to uncover the physical mechanisms behind the concept.
Estimation of new primary production in the Benguela upwelling area, using ENVISAT satellite data and a model dependent on the phytoplankton community size structure
Authors: Silió‐Calzada Ana , Bricaud Annick , Uitz Julia , Gentili Bernard
Published: November 2008

The spatial and temporal variations of oceanic new primary production have a crucial importance for the study of biogeochemical fluxes in the ocean; however, they have been poorly documented. In this paper, we propose a revision of the “shift‐up” new production model developed for upwelling areas by Dugdale et al. (1989), and later adapted by Kudela and Dugdale (1996), using ocean color and sea surface temperature satellite data as inputs. The major improvement of the model is that the estimation of nitrogen uptake rates takes into account the phytoplankton community size structure, estimated for each pixel using the method of Uitz et al. (2006). Appropriate physiological parameters are then used for each size class. This revised model has been applied to Medium‐Resolution Imaging Spectrometer and Advanced Along Track Scanning Radiometer data acquired over the year 2003, using the Benguela upwelling area as a test site. The combination of the new production model with a total production model allows the seasonal variations of new and total productions (including the respective contributions of the three size classes) to be estimated and compared. Even though microphytoplankton are generally considered to be responsible for new production, our results show that the contribution of small cells should not be overlooked in the upwelling‐affected areas.
Change in ozone air pollution over Chicago associated with global climate change
Authors: Holloway Tracey , Spak Scott N. , Barker Daniel , Bretl Matthew , Moberg Claus , Hayhoe Katharine , Van Dorn Jeff , Wuebbles Donald
Published: November 2008

This study uses statistical downscaling to estimate the impact of future climate change on air quality. We employ historical observations of surface ozone (O3) over the Chicago area, large‐scale climate variables from the National Center for Environmental Protection (NCEP) reanalysis data, and climate projections from three GCMs (GFDL, PCM, and HadCM3), driven by two SRES emission scenarios (A1FI and B1 for GFDL and PCM; A2 and B1 for HadCM3). This approach calculates historic relationships between meteorology and O3, and considers how future meteorology would affect ground‐level O3 if these relationships remain constant. Ozone mixing ratios over Chicago are found to be most sensitive to surface temperature, horizontal surface winds, surface relative humidity, incoming solar radiation, and cloud cover. Considering the change in O3 due to global climate change alone, summertime (June, July, and August) mean mixing ratios over Chicago are projected to increase by 6–17 ppb by the end of the century, depending on assumptions about global economic growth and choice of GCM. Changes are greater under higher climate emissions scenarios and more sensitive climate models (e.g. 24 ppb for GFDL A1FI as compared to 2 ppb for PCM B1). However, this approach does not take into account changes in O3‐precursor emissions nor changes in local and lake‐effect meteorology, which could combine with climate change to either enhance or diminish the projected change in local mixing ratios. Statistical downscaling is performed with the Statistical DownScaling Model (SDSM v. 4.1, a publicly available scientific analysis and decision‐support tool.
Estimating household water demand using revealed and contingent behaviors: Evidence from Vietnam
Authors: Cheesman Jeremy , Bennett Jeff , Son Tran Vo Hung
Published: November 2008

This article estimates the water demand of households using (1) municipal water exclusively and (2) municipal water and household well water in the capital city of Dak Lak Province in Vietnam. Household water demands are estimated using a panel data set formed by pooling household records of metered municipal water consumption and their stated preferences for water consumption contingent on hypothetical water prices. Estimates show that households using municipal water exclusively have very price inelastic demand. Households using municipal and household well water have more price elastic, but still inelastic, simultaneous water demand and treat municipal water and household well water as substitutes. Household water consumption is influenced by household water storage and supply infrastructure, income, and socioeconomic attributes. The demand estimates are used to forecast municipal water consumption by households in Buon Ma Thuot following an increase to the municipal water tariff to forecast the municipal water supply company's revenue stream following a tariff increase and to estimate the consumer surplus loss resulting from municipal water supply shortages.
Effect of nonlinear flow on DNAPL migration in a rough‐walled fracture
Authors: Ji Sung‐Hoon , Lee Hang‐Bok , Yeo In Wook , Lee Kang‐Kun
Published: November 2008

Experiments were carried out to investigate the influence of the groundwater flow regime on dense nonaqueous phase liquid (DNAPL) migration in a rough‐walled fracture. Hydraulic and DNAPL migration experiments were performed at Reynolds numbers ranging from 0 to 60.8. Nonlinear groundwater flow occurred in the fracture from Reynolds number of approximately 10. Different migration paths taken by DNAPL were observed between linear and nonlinear flow regimes. Experiments were quantitatively analyzed using the modified invasion percolation (MIP) model, which was found to be attributed to the inertial force of flowing groundwater. The MIP model was reformulated to incorporate the effect of inertia to predict the DNAPL migration path in a rough‐walled fracture. The model data provided a good match to the experimentally determined DNAPL migration. The studies indicated that DNAPL migration depended on the groundwater flow regime, which needs to be considered in order to better understand DNAPL migration in rock fractures.
Synthetic normal faulting of the 9 January 2008 Nima (Tibet) earthquake from conventional and along‐track SAR interferometry
Authors: Sun Jianbao , Shen Zhengkang , Xu Xiwei , Bürgmann Roland
Published: November 2008

We use Synthetic Aperture Radar Interferometry (InSAR) to derive the coseismic deformation field of the 9 January 2008 Nima (Tibet) earthquake. The results show an asymmetric deformation pattern, consistent with normal faulting on a NW‐dipping fault plane. The complex line‐of‐sight (LOS) fringe pattern suggests that a second, synthetic fault in the hanging wall of the mainshock rupture slipped during the event, most likely during the largest aftershock. We use conventional and along‐track InSAR data to invert for the geometry and the slip‐distribution on the two fault planes. The focal mechanisms of the mainshock and its largest aftershock show normal faulting with a small left‐lateral strike‐slip component near the NE‐trending Riganpei Cuo fault, which is consistent with our InSAR observation and inversion result. This event suggests that normal faulting in addition to previously established conjugate strike‐slip deformation in the region contributes to the internal deformation of central Tibet.
Scavenging of black carbon by ice crystals over the northern Pacific
Authors: Baumgardner D. , Subramanian R. , Twohy C. , Stith J. , Kok G.
Published: November 2008

Airborne measurements over the northern Pacific are evaluated to characterize properties of black carbon (BC) in cirrus crystal residuals and background aerosols in the upper troposphere. Although the mass and number concentrations of BC were 7–25 times lower in crystal residuals than in particles outside of cloud, twice as many of the residuals (31%) contained BC compared to 17% of the particles in cloud‐free air. In addition the average mass equivalent diameter (MED) of BC was 10% larger in crystal residuals than in particles outside of cloud. These differences in crystal residuals compared to the background aerosols suggest that inertial scavenging is a significant mechanism for removing BC compared to removal by nucleation. The scavenging efficiency, calculated as the BC mass in condensed cloud water, ranged from 7–44 ng of carbon per gram of water, consistent with previous studies in marine stratus clouds.
HF signatures of powerful lightning recorded on DEMETER
Authors: Parrot M. , Inan U. , Lehtinen N. , Blanc E. , Pinçon J. L.
Published: November 2008

Emissions in the HF range (1.7 – 3 MHz) are observed at the times of powerful lightning on the low‐altitude satellite DEMETER. At ∼700 km, wave activity observed on the E field spectrograms recorded on DEMETER during nighttime is mainly dominated by upgoing 0+ whistlers and higher‐order dispersed whistlers. Over a period of 30 months, 130 events with HF emissions at frequency ∼2 MHz have been observed at the time of intense 0+ whistlers on VLF spectrograms. A global map of the distribution of events indicates that they do not occur above regions of most thunderstorm activity such as the upper part of South America or the middle of Africa. This lack of occurrence above these two near‐equatorial regions is consistent with the high value of the critical frequency of the F layer which prevents the transionospheric propagation of the HF component of the lightning pulses up to 700 km. The time, location, intensity, and polarity of the lightning discharges related to a subset of these HF events are determined above the North American region with the National Lightning Detection Network. As most of the events are recorded in Survey Mode when full resolution of the data is not available, the neural network on board DEMETER is used to determine the times of the 0+ whistlers recorded by the satellite with a time accuracy of ∼0.1 s. The impulsive HF events correspond to intense lightning discharges occurring in regions immediately below the satellite. It is assumed that the propagation of these HF pulses up to the altitude of the satellite is favored by local ionospheric heating due to high thunderstorm activities.
Observations and simulations of asymmetric magnetic field reconnection
Authors: Mozer F. S. , Pritchett P. L. , Bonnell J. , Sundkvist D. , Chang M. T.
Published: November 2008

Comparisons of asymmetric magnetic field reconnection at the subsolar magnetopause are made between satellite data and computer simulations for the ratio of the antiparallel components of the magnetic fields at the boundaries being about three and the density ratio being 10 to 30. The bipolar electric field and quadrupolar magnetic field of symmetric reconnection are not found in either the simulations or the experimental data because the Hall term in the generalized Ohm's Law (the leading term on its right side on the ion scale) is a factor up to 100 smaller on the magnetosheath side of the current layer than on the magnetospheric side. Average plasma densities and fields at six THEMIS magnetopause crossings agree with open simulations provided that the experimental data is in the joint variance, not minimum variance, frame. This is because the magnetic field component normal to the assumed planar current sheet is not constant for asymmetric reconnection while it is forced to be approximately constant by the mathematics of minimum variance analyses. A north‐south asymmetry of the fields and flows in asymmetric reconnection is found in both the simulations and the space measurements. The simulations and the satellite data both have regions the order of the electron skin depth in size that contain significant electric fields. In such structures, parallel electric fields exist in the simulation throughout the current layer. Such parallel fields are similar to those reported earlier from Polar satellite data.
Electric field modulation behind pulsating aurora
Authors: Hosokawa K. , Kadokura A. , Sato N. , Milan S. E. , Lester M. , Bjornsson G. , Saemundsson Th.
Published: November 2008

We present, for the first time, the modulation of the electric field at ionospheric altitudes possibly associated with an occurrence of pulsating aurora. In November 2005, campaign‐based simultaneous measurements of pulsating aurora were conducted in Iceland with an all‐sky TV camera (ATV) at Tjornes (66.20°N, 17.12°W) and the SuperDARN radar at Thykkvibaer (63.77°N, 20.54°W). During an interval within the campaign period, pulsating aurora whose frequency was approximately 8 seconds were observed with the ATV in the morning sector. A quasi‐periodic oscillation was identified in the line‐of‐sight Doppler velocity from the radar backscatter colocated with the pulsating aurora. The amplitude of the velocity fluctuation ranged from 50 to 100 m s−1, which corresponds to an electric field modulation of 4–7 mV m−1. The period of the electric field fluctuation was the same as that of the optical pulsating aurora. We suggest that the oscillating Doppler velocity is driven by polarization electric fields generated through charge accumulation at the edges of region of enhanced electron density caused by the occurrence of pulsating aurora.
Remote sensing of the absorption coefficients and chlorophyll a concentration in the United States southern Middle Atlantic Bight from SeaWiFS and MODIS‐Aqua
Authors: Pan Xiaoju , Mannino Antonio , Russ Mary E. , Hooker Stanford B.
Published: November 2008

At present, satellite remote sensing of coastal water quality and constituent concentration is subject to large errors as compared to the capability of satellite sensors in oceanic waters. In this study, field measurements collected on a series of cruises within United States southern Middle Atlantic Bight (SMAB) were applied to improve retrievals of satellite ocean color products from the Sea‐viewing Wide Field‐of‐view Sensor (SeaWiFS) and the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectrometer (MODIS‐Aqua) in order to examine the factors that regulate the bio‐optical properties within the continental shelf waters of the SMAB. The first objective was to develop improvements in satellite retrievals of absorption coefficients of phytoplankton (aph), colored dissolved organic matter (CDOM) (ag), nonpigmented particles (ad), nonpigmented particles plus CDOM (adg), and chlorophyll a concentration ([Chl_a]). Several algorithms were compared to derive constituent absorption coefficients from remote sensing reflectance (Rrs) ratios. The validation match‐ups showed that the mean absolute percent differences were typically <35%, although higher errors were found for ad retrievals. Seasonal and spatial variability of satellite‐derived absorption coefficients and [Chl_a] was apparent and consistent with field data. CDOM is a major contributor to the bio‐optical properties of the SMAB, accounting for 35–70% of total light absorption by particles plus CDOM at 443 nm, as compared to 30–45% for phytoplankton and 0–20% for nonpigmented particles. The overestimation of [Chl_a] from the operational satellite algorithms may be attributed to the strong CDOM absorption in this region. River discharge is important in controlling the bio‐optical environment but cannot explain all of the regional and seasonal variability of biogeochemical constituents in the SMAB.
Improved regional gravity fields on the Moon from Lunar Prospector tracking data by means of localized spherical harmonic functions
Authors: Han Shin‐Chan
Published: November 2008

An approach to enhance regional gravity fields of the planets using the line‐of‐sight (LOS) Doppler range‐rate measurements is presented. Instead of representing the gravity fields as nonlocalized spherical harmonic functions, I introduced a lumped harmonic representation for obtaining regionally concentrated orthogonal basis functions. Without any regularization or spectral power control, the gravity fields over the four spherical cap regions with the radius of 20° on the nearside of the Moon to degree and order 200 were estimated using all 8 months of the extended mission data from Lunar Prospector. The regional models are variations on the initial global gravity model LP100J. It was found that the regional estimates significantly improve the initial gravity model at all four regions of interest. My improved gravity models fit the LOS Doppler range‐acceleration data better than any other global lunar gravity model, especially the data for when the satellite was at low altitude (40 km or less). In addition, a better cross correlation with the topography was obtained from the regional model. The regional enhancement of the correlation was prominent in degrees greater than 100 and in polar regions characterized by clusters of medium‐ or small‐size craters that are presumably uncompensated.
Groundwater flow through anisotropic fault zones in multiaquifer systems
Authors: Anderson E. I. , Bakker M.
Published: November 2008

Vertical faults through the shallow crust are commonly believed to act as either barriers to horizontal groundwater flow normal to the fault, conduits to horizontal flow tangential to the fault, or a combination of both. In addition, enhanced vertical permeability has been identified as a common feature. We investigate the effects of vertical anisotropy of a fault zone on the distribution of hydraulic head within the fault, using an analytic solution. We conclude that anisotropy ratios greater than 100 result in nearly hydrostatic conditions within the fault zone, despite the existence of significant vertical flow rates. Under these conditions, the Dupuit approximation is adequate for predicting the flow from one side of the fault to the other. We then present explicit analytical solutions to problems of steady groundwater flow in a multiaquifer system cut by a single vertical fault. The fault is linear and of negligible width, is infinite in length, and acts as a conduit for vertical fluid flow. The fault may act as a leaky barrier to horizontal flow normal to the fault, as a conduit to horizontal flow tangential to the fault, or a combination of both. Examples are presented that highlight the effects of enhanced vertical permeability of a fault on aquifer interaction in a multiaquifer system. Particle tracking is used to investigate the effects of the fault on pathlines.