bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Vaccine Innovation and Global Sustainability
Authors: Possas Cristina , Martins Reinaldo M. , Homma Akira
Published: August 2020

Innovative preventive vaccines against emerging and neglected infectious diseases, such as Zika, dengue, influenza, and HIV/AIDS, are examined from a global sustainability perspective in this chapter, aiming to integrate public health and innovation governance approaches. Innovation-intensive vaccines with reduced adverse effects can have an enormous impact on life expectancy and on the quality of life of the global population, but in contrast only one of the SDGs, SDG3, refers directly to vaccines (3.b.1). However, this chapter also identifies seven other SDGs strongly related to vaccines and six additional SDGs related to vaccines, leading to a total of 14 vaccine-related goals in 17 SDGs. Two of these goals are related to innovation and technological development of vaccines (SDG9 and SDG17). The authors examine vaccine performance indicators and current technological and regulatory obstacles to achieve these goals, particularly affecting developing countries, and propose STI governance strategies to overcome these gaps and increase access to vaccines. Policy recommendations for vaccine funding and incentives for innovation, development, and vaccine production are made. Recommendations are also given for specific vaccine STI performance indicators and strategies to achieve the 14 vaccine-related SDGs.
Optimal Nitrogen Management for Meeting Sustainable Development Goal 2
Authors: Harpankar Kshama
Published: August 2020

Sustainable development goal 2 aims to “end hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition, and promote sustainable agriculture.” SDG2 is one of the most challenging goals to achieve, as it needs to be achieved within the constraints of the multiple demands agriculture faces. The goal of this chapter is to discuss the roles that science, technology, and innovation (STI) can play in optimal nitrogen management as a way to meet sustainable development goal 2. Optimal nitrogen management will enhance food security by improving yields, and it will promote sustainable agriculture by limiting environmental externalities associated with nitrogen. Specifically, this chapter aims to address the following two questions: 1) How can new technologies help boost agricultural productivity while also reducing nitrogen pollution? And, 2) What policy and institutional changes will be needed to encourage innovation and diffusion of these technologies in developing countries? The authors present STI possibilities for improved nitrogen management in the following categories: new types of nitrogen fertilizers, integrated soil and fertility management technologies, precision agriculture technologies, technologies aiding biological nitrogen fixation, and biotechnology solutions. The chapter ends with a discussion of institutional and policy changes needed for widespread adoption of the technology options among resource-poor smallholder farmers.
Doing Justice Better
Authors: Tonry Michael
Published: August 2020

The main ideas in this book are simple. Treat people charged with and convicted of crimes justly, fairly, and even-handedly, as anyone would want done for themselves or their children. Take sympathetic account of the circumstances of peoples’ lives. Punish no one more severely than he or she deserves. Those propositions are implicit in the rule of law and its requirement that the human dignity of every person be respected. Three major structural changes are needed. First, selection of judges and prosecutors, and their day-to-day work, must be insulated from political influence. Second, mandatory minimum sentence, three-strikes, life without parole, truth in sentencing, and similar laws must be repealed. Third, correctional and prosecution systems must be centralized in unified state agencies.
The Western Imperial Church and Beyond (312–500)
Authors: Kling David W.
Published: August 2020

This chapter opens with an analysis of the revised meaning of conversion as Christianity transitioned from a “cult” (out-group) to a “church” (in-group) now favored by Christian emperors. Following Constantine’s ascent to power, Christian leaders complained of hasty, superficial, and opportunistic conversions. Indeed, in many areas, very little separated Christians from their pagan counterparts. The issue became not merely a “culture war” between paganism and Christianity but a conflict among Christians over what constituted a “true” convert. Changed social conditions favorable to Christianity contributed to the distinctions between the nominal catechumen, the baptized faithful, and the ascetic virtuoso. These distinctions are illustrated by the extravagant conversionary baptismal rituals in Cyril’s Jerusalem church, the ascetic conversion of Pelagia, and the paradigmatic conversion of Augustine. The chapter concludes with a discussion of conversion in regions beyond the Roman Empire—Edessa, Armenia, and Georgia.
The East African Revival (1930–2000)
Authors: Kling David W.
Published: August 2020

The focus of this chapter is on the East African Revival, one of the most powerful and enduring African conversionary movements of the twentieth century. From the mid-1940s through the late 1970s, the revival expanded well beyond East Africa as teams of missionaries and African leaders carried the message to an international audience, from Brazil to the Far East. The revival represented a recovery of the indigenous structure of the Church. As the revival spread under African impetus and leadership, it creatively melded with African tradition. Under lay, independent initiative within the mission churches, the Balokole (“saved ones”) formed communities of prayer and fellowship that emphasized repentance, public confession, testimony, and restitution. The revival broke down tribal and political barriers and provided new opportunities for women. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the revival in relation to the 1994 genocide in Rwanda.
A Review of the Literature
Authors: Gibson Rachel K.
Published: August 2020

This chapter reviews the growing body of literature that has emerged on the subject of digital campaigns since they first emerged as a web- and email-based activity in the mid-1990s. It does so chronologically and shows how, when viewed in the aggregate and from a historical perspective, these studies form a narrative that maps onto the four distinct phases of development outlined in Chapter 1. Thus, early studies largely describe a period of experimentation in most countries, while subsequent work in the late 1990s and the first decade of the 2000s reveals a shift toward standardization in practice across parties and countries. Analyses from the middle of the first decade of the twenty-first century focus largely on online political community-building efforts by web campaigns, while the most recent work examines how digital tools are increasingly being used to intensify micro-targeting of voters
The Slow Burner
Authors: Gibson Rachel K.
Published: August 2020

This chapter examines developments in digital campaigning in the United Kingdom from 1994 to 2015. It does so by reviewing the findings from the secondary literature, and conducting original analysis of web content and national survey data. These data sources build a picture of key changes in the supply and demand for digital campaigning in the United Kingdom, and particularly whether they fit the four-phase model of development. The results show that UK digital campaigning has followed the anticipated cycle in a largely steady and incremental manner. An early phase of experimentation and standardization yielded to more strategic attempts at community building by 2010, and the 2015 election saw signs of entry into phase IV. At the party level, the Conservatives emerge as most aggressive in pushing the new forms of individual online targeting, while Labour and the smaller parties concentrate more on organic phase III–style indirect mobilization.
The Late Bloomer
Authors: Gibson Rachel K.
Published: August 2020

This chapter examines developments in digital campaigning in France during the period 1994–2012. It does so by reviewing the findings from the secondary literature, and conducting original analysis of web content and national survey data. These data sources build a picture of key changes in the supply and demand for digital campaigning in France, and particularly whether they fit the four-phase model of development. The results show that French parties and voters were slower than their UK and Australian counterparts in engaging with web campaigning. The inertia was due in part to the presence of the rival digital infrastructure Minitel and extensive regulations governing campaign communication in France. The direct importation of US expertise from the Obama 2008 campaign saw a rapid acceleration of party usage, with the Socialists proving the most enthusiastic adopters. The response of voters, however, still proved less enthusiastic than for the other cases studied.
Tilling the Soil of an Uneven Landscape
Authors: Hiskey Jonathan T. , Moseley Mason W.
Published: August 2020

This chapter offers an evaluation of a central proposition of the study—that citizens living in dominant-party enclaves will be more exposed to and familiar with such political machine tactics as clientelism and corruption than those citizens living in multiparty systems. The empirical analysis offers robust support for the idea that while no political system is immune to dirty politics, individuals living in dominant-party enclaves are far more likely to have direct experience with corrupt public officials and efforts to buy their votes than their counterparts in multiparty provinces. The chapter concludes with an analysis of citizens’ perceptions of corruption and government efforts to combat it. We find that those victims of corruption in dominant-party enclaves are less inclined to view corruption as a problem than their multiparty neighbors. For the former group of citizens, the dirty politics of political machines appears to be viewed as business as usual.
Contexts of Exit and Reception
Authors: Burgess Katrina
Published: August 2020

Chapter 3 lays the groundwork for the comparative analysis by describing the specific contexts of exit and reception for migrants from Turkey, the Dominican Republic, Mexico, and the Philippines. For contexts of exit, it pays particular attention to how political regimes and economic development policies have contributed to migration since each country’s first migratory wave. For contexts of reception, it identifies the relevant host countries for each case and then shows how their immigration laws, labor markets, and public opinion have affected the composition and experiences of migrants living within their borders. The chapter concludes with a picture of the legal, socioeconomic, and geographical profiles of migrants from each of the four countries.
Mobilizing Diaspora in Turkey and the Dominican Republic
Authors: Burgess Katrina
Published: August 2020

Chapter 5 compares the cases of Turkey and the Dominican Republic, both of which have above-average turnout in homeland elections by their citizens abroad. In each case, the prior “export” of domestic politics under authoritarian rule sparked the transnationalization of political parties and created incentives for political leaders to court migrants as an electoral constituency. As a result, diaspora-making became a mobilizing project aimed at cultivating partisan loyalties. The chapter also reveals two key differences between these cases. First, the Turkish state has pursued more heterogenous goals with a wider range of policy instruments, including both state-based and party-based mechanisms of outreach. Second, Turkey’s contested identity politics lend more resonance to nationalist appeals to migrant loyalty while sparking counter-narratives. These differences help explain why extraterritorial turnout is so much higher in Turkey than in the Dominican Republic.
From the Neoclassical Turn to the Baroque Return
Authors: Franko Mark
Published: August 2020

This chapter begins with an overview of Lifar’s postwar career at the Paris Opera. It then traces the development in the postwar era of a French notion of the baroque that had remained unacknowledged under interwar neoclassicism. This chapter tracks the gradual emergence of the French baroque as an idea from the early 1950s through the 1980s when it exerted a decisive impact on choreographic culture in France, as well as elsewhere in Europe and in the United States. I view the baroque in the postwar period not as a cyclical or structural response to interwar neoclassicism but as a historic reaction in historical terms. This trend is investigated in literature and literary criticism, philosophy, and dance. Baroquism is understood as a historically conjunctural concept related to articulation and theatricality. The chapter concludes with a discussion of Francine Lancelot’s company Ris et Danceries in the 1980s and the emergence of the baroque as a choreographic paradigm of postmodernity.
Music Learning Today
Authors: Bauer William I.
Published: August 2020

Grounded in a research-based, conceptual model called Technological Pedagogical and Content Knowledge (TPACK), the essential premise of Music Learning Today: Digital Pedagogy for Creating, Performing, and Responding to Music is that music educators and their students can benefit through use of technology as a tool to support learning in the three musical processes—creating, performing, and responding to music. Insights on how technology can be used to advantage in both traditional and emerging learning environments are provided, and research-based pedagogical approaches that align technologies with specific curricular outcomes are described. Importantly, the book advocates that the decision on whether or not to utilize technology for learning, and the specific technology that might be best suited for a particular learning context, should begin with a consideration of curricular outcomes (music subject matter). This is in sharp contrast to most other books on music technology that are technocentric, organized around specific software applications and hardware. The book also recognizes that knowing how to effectively use the technological tools to maximize learning (pedagogy) is a crucial aspect of the teaching-learning process. Drawing on the research and promising practices literature in music education and related fields, pedagogical approaches that are aligned with curricular outcomes and specific technologies are suggested. It is not a “how to” book per se, but rather a text informed by the latest research, theories of learning, and documented best practices, with the goal of helping teachers develop the ability to understand the dynamics of effectively using technology for music learning.
Performing Music
Authors: Bauer William I.
Published: August 2020

Grounded in the research and promising practices literature, Chapter 4 discusses concepts and skills, pedagogies, and technology related to musical performance. Technologies may be of assistance in developing psychomotor knowledge and skills, and in accomplishing effective musical practice. Models of exemplary performances and performers, along with feedback on performance may also be augmented through technology. The aural and visual skills necessary to read and write music with fluency, and the identification and selection of musical literature can be enhanced via technology. Technology can assist with traditional ensemble rehearsals and new technologies are creating new performance opportunities, even for people without a formal musical background. Technology facilitated learning in music performance classrooms has the potential to benefit both teachers and their students, and to allow more individuals to experience the joy and benefits of active musical participation through performance.
“The humble Baptists”
Authors: Smith Eric C.
Published: August 2020

In the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries, Baptists in middle colonies like Pennsylvania competed against a staggering variety of religious denominations and sects. Essential for establishing and maintaining their denomination in this context was the founding of the Philadelphia Baptist Association in 1707, the first Baptist institutional structure in America. In addition to tracing his family lineage, this chapter explores the early influences of the Philadelphia Baptist Association on Oliver Hart, along with the Baptist rituals and doctrines he absorbed in the Pennepek Baptist Church. Hart’s exposure to Quaker and Keithian antislavery sentiments in Pennsylvania is also considered.
“A regular Confederation”
Authors: Smith Eric C.
Published: August 2020

The eighteenth century was an era of religious institution-building, and no figure was more important for the birth of Baptist denominationalism in the South than Oliver Hart. In 1751 Hart drew together the Particular Baptist churches of South Carolina to form the Charleston Association, the second Baptist association in America. Successfully transplanting ideas and models he had witnessed in the Philadelphia Association, Hart led the South’s Baptists to form a minister’s education fund, send missionaries to the western frontier, and formalize the doctrines and church practices that would define the Baptist South for the next 150 years.
“Every day brings fresh wonders!”
Authors: Smith Eric C.
Published: August 2020

In 1754 Oliver Hart led a revival among the youth of the Charleston Baptist Church which mirrored the awakenings that had been taking place throughout the colonies since the 1730s. Hart kept a careful record of the revival in his personal diary after the pattern of George Whitefield’s Journals, documenting his own revivalist practices, such as preaching in private homes and counseling those who had fallen into sin. The 1754 Charleston revival involved a number of dramatic conversion experiences and exhibited some of the egalitarian tendencies of the Great Awakening, including Hart’s encouragement of public testimony and exhortation of a enslaved black woman to a group of white girls. This revival is also noteworthy for the conversion of Samuel Stillman, who would go on to become the influential pastor of the First Baptist Church of Boston at the time of the American Revolution. The 1754 Charleston revival shows Hart attempting to walk the line of discerning, moderate revivalism in the context of a dynamic awakening. It also demonstrates that a robust revivalism existed among the Regular Baptists of the South before the more famous Separate Baptists arrived in 1755.
“Seals of my ministry”
Authors: Smith Eric C.
Published: August 2020

Before Oliver Hart’s arrival in Charleston, the Southern colonies had produced none of their own indigenous ministers, having always looked to the Northern colonies or to Great Britain to supply their pulpits. One of Hart’s most significant contributions was to address this need. He personally trained in his home many young Baptist men called to gospel ministry and led the Charleston Association to found the minister’s education fund, the first cooperative education effort by Baptists in America. Hart actively recruited young ministers from other regions to fill the empty pulpits of the South and counseled other novice pastors on a variety of issues in his extensive correspondence. This chapter uncovers the greatest crisis of Hart’s pastoral career, the near-usurpation of the Charleston Baptist pulpit by one of his own trainees, Nicholas Bedgegood. It also recounts the story of the conversion and ministerial call of one of Hart’s most significant protégés, Edmund Botsford.
Taking Public Administration Seriously
Authors: Heath Joseph
Published: August 2020

This chapter begins with a series of examples that illustrate the power wielded by unelected state officials. This power includes not only discretion but also control over the policy process, as well as the ability to bring pressure to bear upon elected officials. The exercise of this administrative power, far from being an imperfection in the system, contributes a great deal to the quality of public decision-making. But it raises a difficult normative question concerning how unelected officials can wield power in a way that is consistent with the commitment to political neutrality of the permanent civil service and to the more general principles of democratic legitimacy that govern liberal-democratic states. A contrast is drawn between this position and the one defended by Pierre Rosanvallon.
A General Framework for the Ethics of Public Administration
Authors: Heath Joseph
Published: August 2020

It is generally understood that civil servants, in carrying out their work, should be committed to promoting the “public interest” or the “common good.” This ideal, however, is too abstract to serve as a practical guide without further institutional specification. This chapter examines three different models of public-sector ethics, based on different ways of institutionalizing this commitment to the public interest: hierarchical, populist, and vocational. A critical survey of the strengths and weaknesses of each model is presented, leading to a qualified endorsement of the vocational model.
Hearing Perfection
Authors: Dolan Emily I.
Published: August 2020

This chapter examines the formation of a particular rhetoric and constellation of values surrounding the violin through the lens of comparative tests between new and old violins. Since the nineteenth century, new violins have consistently won out over old ones. This is part of an ongoing process of mutual calibration between old and new violins: the old violins are updated to meet new playing needs; new violins are made as copies of older instruments. The continual blurring of distinctions between new and old produces what this chapter calls mendacious technology: an instrument that lies about its own historicity. Mendacious technology performs a productive, even essential, role within musical history. The violin itself has undergone many significant, though underplayed, technological alterations, but what has endured is the very notion that the instrument has endured. The musical canon—and meaningful access to it—depends on this careful obfuscating of technological history.
Opelt’s Siren and the Technologies of Musical Hearing
Authors: Rehding Alexander
Published: August 2020

Friedrich Wilhelm Opelt (1794–1863) proposed a revolutionary music theory based on the recursive features of human hearing. Opelt based his theory on a recent invention, Charles Cagniard de la Tour’s mechanical siren (1819), which he expanded and improved. Cagniard’s model consists of a metal disk with holes in regular intervals that, when set in rotation and with air blown through them, produce a series of air puffs. Once their pulsation increases above 20Hz, this pulse is heard as a continuous, rising pitch. Opelt employed this device to test the properties of hearing against the parameters of music: he noted that more complex patterns of holes translate into intervals, chords, and harmonies and showed that every pitch event can be translated into a corresponding rhythmic event. Pitch and rhythm may be different perceptual parameters, but physically, they are both temporal events, which merely inhabit different dimensions of the time axis.
Testing the Underwater Ear
Authors: Camprubí Lino , Hui Alexandra
Published: August 2020

World War II fueled technologies for underwater listening, such as hydrophones, and Cold War antisubmarine strategies further rendered the oceans audible, noisy even. This novel ability to hear marine sounds radically transformed not only the discipline of oceanography but also the oceans themselves and the people listening. An examination of U.S. Navy ear-training manuals and sound recordings reveals continuities of testing protocols and ontologies between military oceanographers and marine biologists. Underwater listeners were additionally informed by musical training and technologies such as graphic representation and image processing software. In the oceanic soundscape, marine life was defined relative to Soviet vessels and was approached through an epistemology of error: plankton stood in the way of sound waves, shrimp distorted hydrophone receptions, and whales emitted enigmatically unclassifiable sounds that questioned existing sound signature catalogs. As technologies and data were disclosed to the biologists, this knowledge about error became scientific knowledge.
This Is Not a Test
Authors: Steege Benjamin
Published: August 2020

In response to the devastating human and environmental impact of U.S. nuclear testing in the mid-1950s, the philosopher Günther Anders concluded that it was meaningless in such situations to distinguish between “test” and “reality.” In a surprising twist of thought, the radical putting into question of life, brought about by the global nuclear experiment, led Anders to turn to what initially appears an unrelated interest in the phenomenology of musical hearing. Where the fact of worldhood was being put to the test, he responded with a provocative call to “test” in kind the limits to which one might extend the capacity for imagination through desperate acts of aesthetic listening and sober exercise in “techniques of feeling.” Meanwhile, an opportunity for exploring Anders’s ideas appears in a reworking of one of his thematically germane texts in the context of a 1962 electronic composition by his contemporary Herbert Eimert.
Nostalgia for the Empire
Authors: Yavuz M. Hakan
Published: August 2020

This book examines the social and political origins of beleaguered and wistful expressions of nostalgia about the Ottoman Empire for various groups in the region. Rather than focus on how Ottomanism evolved, the book examines how social and political memories of the Ottoman past have been transformed in Turkish society along with reactions from the outside world. This Ottoman past, as remembered now, is grounded in contemporary conservative Islamic values. Thus, the connection between memories of the Ottoman past and these values defines Turkey’s new identity. This new expression of memory portrays Turkey as a victim of the major powers, justifying its position against its imagined internal and external enemies. The book explores why Turkish society has selectively brought the Ottoman Empire back into the public mindset and for what purpose. It traces how memory of the Ottoman period has changed in Turkish literature, mainstream history books, and other cultural products from the 1940s to the 21st century. A key aspect of Turkish literature is its criticism of the Kemalist modernization of Turkey matched by its return to the Ottoman past to articulate an alternative political language. This book responds to several interrelated questions: What is neo-Ottomanism, in general, and what is the significance of various terms using Ottoman as a variant and what purpose do they serve? Who constructed the term and for what purpose? What are the social and political origins of the current nostalgia for the Ottoman past?
Introduction
Authors: Yavuz M. Hakan
Published: August 2020

This chapter sets the book’s main issues by defining key concepts including nostalgia, memory, identity, nationalism, Ottomanism, variants of the Ottoman term, neo-Ottomanism, and nationalism versus patriotism. It identifies the most critical factors in the struggle to resurrect the Ottoman ideal and explains the importance of studying the rise of nostalgia for the Ottoman Empire, especially in Turkey’s political environment desiring to restore the country’s greatness as a geopolitical power. The second part examines the connection between nostalgia and contemporary Ottomanism in Turkey. After identifying diverse modes of nostalgia, the chapter focuses on the politics of identity, explaining the set of structural conditions that facilitated the reconstruction of the Ottoman memory.
Conclusion: Implications of Ottoman Nostalgia for Twenty-first Century Turkey
Authors: Yavuz M. Hakan
Published: August 2020

The multireligious and multinational Ottoman Empire did accommodate diverse identities more adeptly than the modern nation-states, which have converged on the notion of homogenization. In order to understand state-society relations in Turkey, one must realize there are two simultaneous processes in force since the Tanzimat Reform of 1839: the nationalization of the Ottoman Empire and the Ottomanization of Turkish nationalism. This demonstrates how deeply concepts of empire and nation are entangled. The shift from nationalizing the Ottoman Empire to an imperialized Turkish nation has become modern Turkey’s predominant historical narrative. Turkey’s identity is reconstituted from historical memory of the Ottoman Empire, conservative norms and Islamic values, and republican reforms and achievements. In domestic policies, government officials have stressed with greater frequency the Ottoman model of Muslim fraternity to address concerns about Kurdish secessionism.
Rebecca, Foreign Correspondent, Mr. and Mrs. Smith, Suspicion
Authors: Callahan Dan
Published: August 2020

Hitchcock guided the inexperienced Joan Fontaine through his first American film, Rebecca (1940), going to great lengths to get her into the mood she needed to be in, and he also inspired and controlled a major performance by Judith Anderson as the vengeful housekeeper Mrs. Danvers while allowing Laurence Olivier to give a merely external performance as the male lead. In the work of Fontaine, Anderson, and Olivier, Rebecca penetratingly surveys different styles of acting, favoring Fontaine but finally letting Anderson dominate with work where she is “doing nothing well” on the surface but with clearly contrasting emotions battling underneath the mask of her face. The Master was mainly let down by the actors in Foreign Correspondent (1940), but he brought out dark undercurrents in the expert comic performances of Carole Lombard and Robert Montgomery in Mr. and Mrs. Smith (1941). Hitchcock used Cary Grant for the first time in Suspicion (1941) as a sexy, irresponsible playboy who may or may not be murderous, and he reveled in Grant’s ability to do or say one thing ambiguously enough to suggest another thing at the same moment.
Notorious, The Paradine Case, Rope, Under Capricorn, Stage Fright
Authors: Callahan Dan
Published: August 2020

Still in Ingrid Bergman’s thrall, Hitchcock made one of his most romantic pictures for her, Notorious (1946), in which she and Cary Grant work out many of the contrasts and tensions in their screen personas. Hitchcock was stymied by casting decisions not his own on The Paradine Case (1947), which was the last film he made for producer David O. Selznick, and then he foundered on miscasting again when James Stewart was given the central role of a queer academic in Rope (1948), his first color picture. Hitchcock made Under Capricorn (1949) as a valentine to Ingrid Bergman, allowing her to dominate an eight minute and forty-seven second take where her character confesses to a crime, a rare instance of acting for its own sake in Hitchcock’s work. Though Marlene Dietrich was superficially in the mode of the liberated women that Hitchcock enjoyed like Carole Lombard and Tallulah Bankhead, the Master was mainly bemused by Dietrich’s demands for special lighting in Stage Fright (1950), and so he lets her have her way as he lets Charles Laughton dominate Jamaica Inn.
Introduction
Authors: Muller Richard A.
Published: August 2020

This study of William Perkins’ thought on grace and free choice places his thought in the variegated tradition of the Reformation as established by writers like Calvin, Vermigli, Bullinger, and Musculus. More specifically, his thought can be placed in the version of that tradition exemplified in the Thirty-Nine Articles of the Church of England and in the Elizabethan Settlement. Closer examination of Perkins’ thought in its context yields a window on the more technical understanding of the relationship of divine grace to human knowing and willing, which demonstrates its eclectic reception of late medieval scholasticism, its elaboration of the work of the Reformers, and its distance from modern theories of compatibilist and libertarian freedom. This work traces Perkins’ views on the nature of free will both as created and in the fallen and regenerate states of humanity, correlating them with the views of Reformed contemporaries, and lining out the issues that they sought to address.
Action
Authors: Reed Stephen K.
Published: August 2020

Actions can be either physical, virtual, or mental and act on either physical, virtual, or mental objects. For instance, Maria Montessori constructed educational materials that enabled students to learn by manipulation. The materials required physical actions on physical objects, such as combining beads to depict operations on numbers. Nintendo’s Wii video game supported physical actions on virtual objects. Gestures are actions that often apply to imaginary objects. Virtual actions involve manipulating computer consoles such as those used in robotic surgery to operate on physical objects. Virtual actions on virtual objects occur in many video games and instructional software. Virtual actions on mental objects occur in computer systems that use audio feedback to help the blind learn to navigate. Mental actions can be captured in brain–computer interfaces to control both physical robots and information on a computer screen. Mental actions on mental objects produce mental simulations. The increasing popularity of augmented reality will require more research on the pairing of physical, virtual, and mental actions and objects.
Abstraction
Authors: Reed Stephen K.
Published: August 2020

The power of abstract thinking is captured by the brilliance of John von Neumann who made many contributions to mathematics, computer science, and game theory. One definition of abstraction is that an instance exists only in the mind (the word truth) rather than in the environment (the word car). An advantage of the latter, concrete examples is they support the formation of visual images to aid recall. A second definition of abstraction is a focus on the most important attributes of an instance. These attributes include those that differentiate one object from another or one category from another. A third definition of abstraction is that an abstract idea applies to many particular instances of a category. Prototypes, rules, and schema are examples.
Networks
Authors: Reed Stephen K.
Published: August 2020

Networks provide organization through nodes that are connected by links. Characteristics of networks that matter include clusters, path lengths, link weights, and hubs. A semantic network displays connections among concepts in which shorter links represent stronger associations between two concepts. A spreading activation model is a theory of how related concepts become activated. Variations of the theory enable predictions, such as spreading activation, is partitioned among the links at a node. This assumption leads to the testable prediction that the strength of activation along each link diminishes as the number of links increases. Brain imaging has revealed that information transfer depends not only on the direct path between nodes but also on the availability of alternative detour paths. This hyperconnectivity following a lesion lowers efficiency and is reduced with recovery from brain injury.
Problems
Authors: Reed Stephen K.
Published: August 2020

A general framework for solving problems begins with constructing a representation of the problem. A familiar problem should activate a schema stored in memory that provides guidance for finding a solution. Schemas are typically helpful but may result in cognitive entrenchment that produces inflexible thinking. An unfamiliar problem requires applying strategies such as forming a subgoal or using analogy. The type of strategy depends on whether the problem is a puzzle, an insight puzzle, or a classroom or a design problem. Well-structured problems differ from ill-structured problems because both the goal and constraints on actions are clearly defined. Many design problems are ill structured but can often be decomposed into well-structure components.
Introduction
Authors: Billioud Sébastien
Published: August 2020

The introduction provides some background information about the Yiguandao, focusing on its historical roots, its ideology (spiritual lineages/daotong, syncretism, cosmology, millenarian eschatology), and its history across the twentieth century. The aim is to get a better understanding of what the Yiguandao has now become, that is to say, a transnational religious organization with a global footprint that currently attempts to reestablish itself in Mainland China where its expansion was strong before 1949. Mainland China, precisely, is the spiritual wilderness that the group ambitions to reclaim by promoting its Way of Heaven (Tiandao). The introduction also addresses the issue of fieldwork and more specifically participant observation and its difficulties in the context of new religions.
The Production of Missionary-Adepts
Authors: Billioud Sébastien
Published: August 2020

Chapter 1 introduces the notion or ideal-type of a missionary-adept in order to highlight the importance of proselytizing for Yiguandao adepts. The typical itinerary of the adept is detailed, with its different phases: initiation, participation to Dharma seminars (fahui), systematic training, and activities carried out in places of worship (fotang). These different elements illuminate the gradual process of increasing involvement of new adepts in the group up to the point where they ultimately become missionary-adepts. As an ideal-type, the missionary-adept points to an adept who embraces most of Yiguandao’s ideology, has turned vegetarian and has taken progressive commitments and responsibilities in the organization to the point where the religious perspective has become the prevailing driving force in his or her life. The latter is totally dedicated to the promotion of the Dao.
Production of Charisma Within the Yiguandao
Authors: Billioud Sébastien
Published: August 2020

Yiguandao’s Patriarch Zhang Tianran (1889–1947) managed to turn a small sectarian movement into a mass organization with millions of adepts. Although he passed away in 1947, his charisma did not vanish and is still operating today within the group. It is this phenomenon that the current chapter attempts to explore: it first provides some insight into the figure of Zhang Tianran in history before discussing his deification, lasting influence, and charisma. Finally, the chapter shows that the way missionary-adepts relate to their dead Master also provides a model for further dissemination of charismatic authority within the group.
Judicializing Religion
Authors: Tew Yvonne
Published: August 2020

Religion has become one of the great fault lines of modern Malaysian politics and adjudication. This chapter focuses on the role of religion and religious freedom in the contemporary Malaysian state. It outlines the constitution-making process to locate the place of Islam and religious liberty within the Constitution’s generally secular original framework. Over the past quarter century, the politicization and judicialization of religion has led to an expansion of Islam’s role, fueling polarizing debate over the Malaysian state’s identity as secular or Islamic. Courts have contributed to elevating Islam’s position by deferring jurisdiction to the Sharia courts and expansively interpreting Islam’s constitutional position. The chapter then turns from the descriptive to the prescriptive. It discusses how courts can draw on the constitutional basic structure doctrine to entrench the judicial power of the civil courts to reclaim jurisdictional areas that engage constitutional rights which in the past they have ceded to the religious courts, such as apostasy. It also outlines how courts can use a purposive interpretive approach in line with the Constitution’s framework of protection for religious minorities and individual rights. Finally, it shows how the court can operationalize a proportionality analysis to closely scrutinize government regulations that restrict religious freedom or freedom of expression.
Conclusion
Authors: Tew Yvonne
Published: August 2020

Constitutional Statecraft in Asian Courts offers at once an engaging analysis of Southeast Asia’s unique constitutional context as well as a broader narrative that should resonate in many countries across Asia that are also grappling with colonial legacies, histories of authoritarian rule, and societies polarized by race, religion, and identity. It explores the judicial strategies used for statecraft in Asian courts, including the elaboration of specific mechanisms that courts can use to employ to entrench constitutional basic structures and to protect rights in a manner that is purposive and proportionate. The book’s analysis informs its readers how courts in Asia’s emerging democracies can chart a path forward to help safeguard the constitutional core and to build an enduring constitutional framework.
Introduction
Authors: Bartels Lorand , Paddeu Federica
Published: August 2020

This chapter introduces the concept of the book, and brings together the common themes addressed in each chapter. It elaborates on the concepts of rule and exception, both as a matter of legal theory and as these concepts are manifested in different areas of international law.
The Compelling Law of Jus Cogens and Exceptions to Peremptory Norms
Authors: de Hoogh André
Published: August 2020

In this chapter, the problematic of exceptions to peremptory norms is investigated in view of the defining feature of jus cogens rules as not admitting of derogation. This problematic appears singularly concerned with exceptions to the prohibition of the use of armed force, since that prohibition is regularly claimed to constitute a peremptory norm but admits of exceptions. Different legal constructions have been proposed to explain why exceptions would not amount to derogation. One construction, logically coherent but not (fully) borne out by positive law, is to see exceptions as limiting and lying outside of the substantive scope of a general rule and thus not amounting to derogation. Another construction concerns the claim that the prohibition of the use of armed force is not a jus cogens rule but rather the prohibition of aggression. As such, exceptions such as self-defence, force pursuant to a Security Council authorization, and consent would not amount to derogation, since they would not entail the commission of aggression. This construction would allow for the conclusion that peremptory prohibitions are absolute in character and not subject to exception or justification. Circumstances precluding wrongfulness, as general exceptions, appear to qualify as derogation, since Article 26 of the Articles on the Responsibility of States bars their invocation when conduct would be contrary to a peremptory norm. Finally, a narrow interpretation of the word derogation, as being involved only when states attempt to legalize or justify conduct in relation to already existing, concrete circumstances, could also explain why exceptions to peremptory prohibitions may be considered admissible.
Exceptions
Authors: Scobbie Iain
Published: August 2020

This chapter initially examines philosophical approaches to the international use of force in an historical context before examining the development of the doctrine of collective security as the unifying value of international relations at the end of the First World War and subsequently. States’ right of self-defence is seen as an exception to this doctrine. Drawing on analytical legal theory and theories of legal reasoning, it explores the nature of an exception to a rule. This classification can be difficult to identify as legal propositions can compete rather than exist in a hierarchical rule-exception relationship. The parameters of self-defence as an exception to the doctrine of collective security and the prohibition on the use of force is explored in this light, casting doubt on the validity of contemporary attempts to expand self-defence to justify extra-territorial attacks on non-state actors within states deemed unwilling or unable to curb their hostile activity.
Defences in the Law of State ResponsibilityA View from Jurisprudence
Authors: Duarte d’Almeida Luís
Published: August 2020

Ongoing discussions among international lawyers on defences in state responsibility have close analogies with debates in two other fields: debates in general legal theory on defeasibility in law, and debates in criminal law theory (and philosophy) on the elements of criminal responsibility. The similarities are not surprising. But it is striking how little cross-fertilization there seems to have been. For jurisprudence and criminal law scholars have developed a number of points and distinctions that international law theorists working on defences should find helpful. This chapter illustrates these claims. Section 2 looks at defences from the point of view of general legal theory, and section 3 does the same from the point of view of criminal law theory, recommending specific solutions to particular problems. Section 4 then shows how these contributions can help to answer some persistent questions surrounding defences in the law of state responsibility.
Clarifying the Concept of Circumstances Precluding Wrongfulness (Justifications) in International Law
Authors: Paddeu Federica
Published: August 2020

This chapter seeks to clarify the concept of circumstances precluding wrongfulness in international law which, according to Ian Brownlie, is a concept that ‘had never been properly worked out’ by the ILC during its work on the Articles on State Responsibility. Indeed, it is not infrequent to find in the case law and the literature diverse, and often contradicting, explanations of this concept and its effects. Two misunderstandings which are recurrent in international law are especially troubling: (i) the notion that justified conduct is nevertheless a ‘breach’ of international law; and (ii) the qualification of justified conduct as ‘non-wrongful’ or ‘unlawful with precluded wrongfulness’, and variations thereof. The chapter first elucidates the concept of circumstances precluding wrongfulness and its relation with the notions of breach, internationally wrongful act, and excuse. It then considers the operation of these circumstances by means of two different models for the representation of reasoning with justifications: one based on deductive reasoning and the other on dialogic reasoning. The chapter concludes that justified conduct does not constitute a breach of international law and that it must be qualified as lawful.
Both the Rule and the Exception
Authors: Jeutner Valentin
Published: August 2020

The chapter considers whether there can be legal states of affairs that are both the rule and the exception or, in other words, whether there can be situations where the rule and the exception are superimposed upon each other so that neither the rule nor the exception singularly controls the legal classification of a given situation, although both the rule and the exception continue to apply. The chapter attempts to show that such situations can exist and that such situations can have a very distinct and useful legal function. The argument is illustrated with reference to the International Court of Justice’s 1996 Advisory Opinion concerning the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons and, in particular, with reference to the notion of the ‘survival of the State’ as a ground of self-defence, as discussed in the Advisory Opinion.