bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Past, Present and Future of Memory
Authors: Reznick Jeffrey S.
Published: March 2022

This chapter offers perspectives on the recurring cycle of reflecting on, recording and remembering medical histories of the 1918–19 influenza epidemic in the United States, from the period of that epidemic itself to epidemics, pandemics and the pervasive digital character of the early twenty-first century. It reveals the processes and implications of these cycles, arguing that key factors in their continuation—lest they be broken—are the very acts of consistently, deliberately and responsibly archiving and preserving primary sources of memory—and memory itself—and, above all, valuing it as part of the future historical record.
Between the Great War and the Great Flu
Authors: Bruendel Steffen
Published: March 2022

While the Great War immediately became a topos of modernity, the Great Flu was seen as part of a war-related apocalyptic complex that remained outside the literary and artistic canon. Hence, the pandemic eluded cultural memory. Since the war and the influenza were often interwoven in the literary processing of the events, the sometimes hidden references in poems or novels were not sufficient to commemorate the latter. The vague allusions to the pandemic may have been obvious to contemporaries but over time became less recognisable for later generations. Furthermore, the pandemic has left only few traces in the canonical works of the visual arts. With the exception of Edvard Munch, artists usually did not portray themselves suffering from influenza, but rather depicted close relatives or people from their immediate surroundings. Without titles that explicitly referred to the pandemic, it was not readily apparent to—at least later—viewers that the pictures visualised the ‘Spanish’ Flu. Based on a research group of twenty-five mostly avant-garde artists and writers from seven European countries and the United States—among them Schiele, Kollwitz, Kafka, Munch, Sargent, Graves, Eliot, Woolf, Mann, Döblin, Zweig and Apollinaire—this chapter is an initial attempt to systematically investigate the traces of ‘Spanish’ Flu in modernist art and literature.
From the Holy Roman Empire to the Land of the Tsars
Authors: Martin Alexander M.
Published: March 2022

From the Holy Roman Empire to the Land of the Tsars is a history of life in the German lands and Russia during the Age of Revolution. The story begins in 1768, when the Old Regimes of early modern Europe were still intact, and ends in 1870, when nationalism, liberalism, and industrial capitalism were triumphant. Using the methodology of microhistory, the book traces the odyssey of one family, the Rosenstrauchs. Johannes Ambrosius Rosenstrauch, the book’s central figure, was a shapeshifter who embodied the restless mobility of the Age of Revolution. Born and raised in Prussia, he wandered across the German lands and Holland, lived for years in St. Petersburg and Moscow, and finally settled on the Ukrainian steppe. He was a barber-surgeon, then an actor, then a businessman. He was raised a Catholic, became a prominent Freemason, and ended his life as a Lutheran pastor. He saw the terminal crisis of Germany’s Holy Roman Empire, the Napoleonic Wars, and the rise of the centralized nineteenth-century Russian autocracy. When Europe changed after the Napoleonic Wars, his family changed with it: his son Wilhelm fashioned himself into a quintessential Moscow bourgeois of the age of Nicholas I, and prospered until he was brought low by a financial scandal in the 1860s. Presenting a broad panorama of society and culture in Germany and Russia from the Enlightenment to the dawn of modernity, this microhistory explores how the lives of individual people are entangled with the great forces of their age.
The Barber-Surgeon from Silesia
Authors: Martin Alexander M.
Published: March 2022

Chapter 1 introduces the society and culture of the Holy Roman Empire under the Old Regime. This was the world in which Rosenstrauch grew up in the 1770s and 1780s. He was secretive about his origin and rarely spoke of it; all that is known with reasonable certainty is that he came from a Catholic burgher family in Breslau in Prussian Silesia, and was destined as a young man to become a barber-surgeon. Based on this limited information, the chapter reconstructs the environment in which he was formed. After describing the general character of Old Regime society, the chapter focuses on two social worlds suspended between tradition and modernity: Breslau, a city steeped in baroque culture and religion, but also a center of economic and educational innovation; and barber-surgery, a centuries-old artisan trade in the early stages of a transformation into a modern medical specialty.
An Irresistible Inclination to the Stage
Authors: Martin Alexander M.
Published: March 2022

Chapter 2 explores the theater world of Enlightenment Germany, which Rosenstrauch entered as an actor in the late 1780s. Theater in the late eighteenth century was in the early stages of a momentous transition. Much theater continued to be provided by traveling companies of dubious quality, and actors were still widely held in disdain as footloose entertainers of low morals. At the same time, however, leading Enlightenment thinkers in Germany conceived of theater as a noble art form that could uplift the people and help to create a modern, unified national culture. The chapter discusses the development of German theater and the social world of actors in this period, and, drawing on memoirs by other actors and Goethe’s novel Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship, it reconstructs the path that probably led Rosenstrauch to become an actor.
Theater, Revolution, and Freemasonry
Authors: Martin Alexander M.
Published: March 2022

Chapter 4 explores the connections linking Germany and the Dutch Republic following the outbreak of the French Revolution. Tracing Rosenstrauch’s path as a traveling actor in 1790–2, the chapter explores theater life in Enlightenment Germany, and the contrasts between the backward-looking Old Regime society of the Westphalian prince-bishoprics of Münster and Osnabrück and the modern consumer society that was taking shape in Nenndorf and other newly developed resort towns. With the outbreak of the War of the First Coalition in 1792, Rosenstrauch and his family went to the Dutch Republic. The chapter discusses the relationship between German and Dutch society, Rosenstrauch’s initiation into Freemasonry, his experience of the invasion of the Dutch Republic by Revolutionary France, and the diverse groups of Dutch society with which he came into contact: German migrants of various classes, the Dutch Orangists (conservative supporters of the existing regime), and the Orangists’ opponents, the revolutionary Patriots.
The Landgrave’s Theater
Authors: Martin Alexander M.
Published: March 2022

Chapter 5 focuses on the court theater of Landgrave William IX of Hesse-Kassel. Rosenstrauch was a member of the theater’s acting troupe, which was managed by Karl Theodor Hassloch, from 1794 to 1800. The chapter reconstructs how the theater in Kassel was organized, funded, and managed, how actors were cast in particular roles, and the repertory of plays and operas that were staged; it also discusses the theater’s relationship with its audiences and the landgrave’s court, the reviews it received in the German press, and its tours to the Rhineland during the War of the First Coalition. For Rosenstrauch, these were years of professional success. In his personal life, he and his wife had stable employment and were presumably reunited with her family, but the decade ended in disaster when his wife abandoned him and their four children. To understand what caused the breakdown of his marriage, the chapter explores the personal and familial pressures that he faced in Kassel as an actor, a non-native, and a Catholic.
Excellent Acting and Upright Character
Authors: Martin Alexander M.
Published: March 2022

This chapter examines Rosenstrauch’s years as an actor in Mecklenburg-Schwerin between 1800 and 1804. He had left Kassel in 1800 for a new engagement with the ducal court theater in Schwerin. The chapter opens with his trip from Kassel to Schwerin, explaining the challenges of traveling between the fragmented states of the Holy Roman Empire and the historical and socioeconomic peculiarities of the Baltic region of Europe to which Mecklenburg belonged. It then describes the differences between Hesse-Kassel and Mecklenburg-Schwerin. In contrast to Hesse, Mecklenburg was dominated by serf-owning nobles, and enlightened absolutism had made few inroads. As a result, the ducal capital, Schwerin, was too small to support a permanent theater, so Rosenstrauch’s troupe, directed by Karl Ludwig Krickeberg, spent much of the year on tour. These tours influenced its theatrical work and took it to places that illustrated the diversity of premodern Germany, including the seaport of Rostock, the beach resort of Doberan, and the Swedish exclave of Stralsund. In Rostock, Rosenstrauch renewed his participation in Freemasonry, which was to be an important aspect of his life for the next two decades.
The Land of Extremes
Authors: Martin Alexander M.
Published: March 2022

This chapter introduces the connections between the Holy Roman Empire and Russia. In spring 1804 Rosenstrauch agreed to accept an engagement with the German theater of St. Petersburg. The chapter explores the historical background of the migration of Germans to Russia, and the information and ideas about Russia that were available in Enlightenment Germany in Rosenstrauch’s time. It then describes his preparations as he readied himself for departure: his successful quest for promotion to a higher masonic rank; his attempt (apparently unsuccessful) to divorce his wife; and, as a legal precondition for seeking a divorce, his conversion to Lutheranism. Drawing on accounts by other Germans of the period, the chapter concludes by describing his likely experience sailing on the busy commercial shipping lane through the Baltic to Kronstadt, the port of St. Petersburg.
A So-Called Cosmetics Store
Authors: Martin Alexander M.
Published: March 2022

Freemasonry and international commerce are the focus of this chapter. Rosenstrauch joined a St. Petersburg Masonic lodge in 1806 and, within a few years, became its chairman. The chapter discusses the revival of Russian Freemasonry under Alexander I and the similarities and differences between Masonic life in Russia and Germany. Thanks (apparently) to connections he formed in his Masonic lodge, Rosenstrauch was able to become a merchant of so-called cosmetics, that is, imported luxury goods, but first he had to be naturalized as a Russian subject and become a member of the Russian merchant estate. To make sense of these events, the chapter explores the Russian system of social estates, the process of naturalization for foreigners, the organization of the trade in luxury imports, the specific role of Germans as cultural intermediaries between Russia and the West, and the perils and opportunities of becoming a merchant at a time when Napoleon’s embargo against Great Britain (the Continental System) was strangling Russia’s foreign trade.
The Real Russia
Authors: Martin Alexander M.
Published: March 2022

Chapter 10 provides an introduction to the interior of Russia. In 1811, Rosenstrauch moved to Moscow to open a “cosmetics” shop there. The first part of the chapter reconstructs his likely experience on the trip to Moscow from St. Petersburg: the system of postal relay stations (iam) that made swift long-distance travel possible; the encounter with the vastness, emptiness, and poverty of the Russian countryside; and the visible signs of the reforming power of the imperial regime, such as the canal system linking Europe with Asia. Drawing on the writings of other travelers, this section also considers the reflections about the Russian social system that such a trip inspired, and discusses the debates among contemporaries about the morality of serfdom, the spread of luxury goods in the provinces, and the civilizing potential of Russia’s authoritarian regime. The second part of the chapter describes Moscow’s role as the premier gathering place for much of the Russian nobility, and the important role that foreign luxury-goods merchants played in Russian noble life as well as the hostility that their activities attracted from Russian nationalists and social critics.
A Man of Consequence
Authors: Martin Alexander M.
Published: March 2022

This chapter focuses on society and culture in Moscow between 1812 and 1820. Following the Napoleonic Wars, Emperor Alexander I tried to strengthen the bonds among European states, and also within Russian and European society, on the basis of an ideology that combined conservative and liberal elements and was influenced by the Pietistic religiosity of the Awakening. This chapter shows how the framework of Alexander’s postwar policies allowed Rosenstrauch to reach the peak of his worldly success. It explores how he built a strong business and, through the marriages of his son and daughter, an influential family network; how he positioned himself among the diverse currents of contemporary Lutheranism and became a leading lay member of his congregation; and how he built a large Masonic organization and developed his own understanding of the meaning of Freemasonry. It also describes the backlash that he and others like him faced, both from liberal Russian nationalists who resented the wealth and influence of immigrant merchants, and from conservatives who, after the revolutions in Southern Europe in 1820–1, accused the Freemasons of being revolutionaries. The chapter concludes with the personal crisis that he experienced in 1820, which led him to leave his business and seek to become a pastor in Odessa, in the frontier area on the Black Sea called New Russia.
New Russia
Authors: Martin Alexander M.
Published: March 2022

Chapter 13 is about New Russia, the region along the Black Sea coast that Russia had annexed under Catherine II. The Russian government encouraged the colonization of the area by settlers, including large numbers of immigrants from Germany. Rosenstrauch’s aim was to become a pastor among these settlers. The chapter begins with his trip from Moscow to Odessa, examining the geography, history, and ethnic makeup of the spaces he crossed, and how the character of these regions—particularly the fertile south Russian and Ukrainian farmlands, the sparsely settled steppe, and the multiethnic boomtown of Odessa—were depicted by contemporaries. Then it describes the efforts of the Russian government to find Protestant and Catholic clergy for the region, and the challenges that clergymen faced from the difficult frontier environment and the unruly foreign settlers. Finally, the chapter discusses the unusual way in which Rosenstrauch was able to become a minister despite his lack of conventional credentials, and the formative influence that his experience in Odessa had on his development as a pastor.
The Sage of Kharkov
Authors: Martin Alexander M.
Published: March 2022

This chapter describes the last thirteen years of Rosenstrauch’s life (1822–35), during which he was the Lutheran pastor of Kharkov. Several themes take center stage. One is his management of his congregation. The Russian Empire’s ruling institutions under Nicholas I were growing more professional, but also more hierarchical and bureaucratic; Rosenstrauch did his part by putting the previously disorganized Kharkov congregation on a solid institutional footing. However, his checkered personal history made him personally a perennial outsider in the institutional church. The consequences of this are the chapter’s second theme: he was portrayed as a threat to Russia’s institutions by people who tried to implicate him in the Decembrist revolt and other alleged revolutionary conspiracies, and he found spiritual companionship mainly outside the official church institutions, in informal relations with Pietist fellow believers and efforts to bring the Gospel to congregants on their deathbeds.
Honored Citizens
Authors: Martin Alexander M.
Published: March 2022

This chapter examines how Rosenstrauch’s family tried to adapt to the world of capitalism, nationalism, and bourgeois culture of the nineteenth century. The central figure is Rosenstrauch’s son Wilhelm, who carried on his father’s business in Moscow until his death in 1870. The chapter has two principal themes: the succession of generations, and the evolution of Russian society. Wilhelm had painful memories of the 1790s and 1800s: his parents’ separation, his father’s social marginality as an actor, and the hardships of his family’s early years in Russia. Formed by these experiences of disruption and insecurity, Wilhelm, like many European bourgeois after the Napoleonic Wars, was a forceful but conservative personality and sought above all order and respectability. These qualities allowed him to flourish during the reign of Nicholas I, whose regime wanted to foster a bourgeoisie that would help modernize Russia but be loyal to the autocratic political order. In the 1830s–1850s, Wilhelm was a prominent figure in Moscow society: he was a leading merchant, a philanthropist, a leader in his Lutheran congregation, the consul of Prussia, and a friend of Russian literati (Mikhail Pogodin was a relative and close friend), and he achieved the coveted social status of hereditary honored citizen. In the 1860s, however, Russia was transformed by the Great Reforms, even as Wilhelm himself was growing old and rigid and refused to cede control of his business to the next generation. The final denouement was a calamitous financial scandal, caused by Wilhelm’s son, that led to a lengthy trial, bankruptcy proceedings, and finally the collapse of the Rosenstrauch family business.
Context-Sensitivity by Way of Parameters
Authors: Yalcin Seth
Published: March 2022

There is the sort of context-sensitivity that is hard-wired into particular lexical items, Kaplan-style; and then there is the sort of context-sensitivity that can enter into a sentence in virtue of the way that index parameters are ‘initialized’ by context. Call the former sort of context-sensitivity indexical, and the latter parametric. Philosophical thinking about context-sensitivity is dominated by a focus on the indexical variety. Indeed, ‘context-sensitive’ is often defined in ways that would make all context-sensitivity indexical. Yet parametric context-sensitivity is arguably the more pervasive phenomenon. Drawing together some themes in recent work by Dilip Ninan, Brian Rabern, and Paolo Santorio, this chapter offers a study of parametric context-sensitivity. Attention to it is important for thinking straight about the relation between compositionality and content, about monsters, and about what it takes to motivate the context parameter of Kaplan’s two-dimensional semantics.
Kantian Commitments
Authors: Herman Barbara
Published: March 2022

The ten essays collected here represent a series of efforts to rethink many of the fundamentals of Kant’s ethics and to draw out some implications for moral theory and practice. The five essays of Part One revisit and revise several core pieces of Kant’s moral framework, offering a new understanding of the formulas of the categorical imperative, revisiting the idea of making exceptions, and deepening the contrast between Kant’s project and other deontologies (especially recent contractualisms). The key is to take seriously the idea that what Kant gives us is a theory of moral reasoning, with standards of validity and soundness that position moral judgment to explicate the connection between our rational natures and our duties. Part Two takes on some less familiar topics: the ideas behind Kant’s moralized view of history; the implications of a Kantian view of morality for social pluralism; the fit of Kant’s conception of moral psychology with theories of normal human development; the implausible argument about our duties to animals; and last, how to understand the place of the idea of the highest good in a morally good life. The overall aim of these essays is to show that we are far from having a settled account of core Kantian commitments and to initiate a program of inquiry to peel away assumptions brought to the texts that introduce questions their arguments were not meant to answer. The more straightforward readings of central arguments remove obstacles to appreciating Kantian theory’s ambition and scale.
Reasoning to Obligation
Authors: Herman Barbara
Published: March 2022

This chapter offers an attractive simplification of some of the basic elements of Kant’s moral philosophy that hinge on our interpretation of the categorical imperative, especially in its universal law formulation. It takes as its point of departure the idea that if the will is practical reason, good willing is correct reasoning. It’s a small adjustment with extensive ramifications, especially as it resists the misguided psychologizing of Kant’s account of moral action and motivation. New interpretations are offered of the formula of universal law (and law of nature), what it means to act “from duty” (and why overdetermination of motive is not a problem for moral worth), the independence of the nonmoral imperatives, and the need for moral premises as conditions of sound practical reasoning.
Making Exceptions
Authors: Herman Barbara
Published: March 2022

The standard line about Kantian ethics is that as an ethics of duty it can brook no exceptions, no matter how awful the results of acting from duty. This chapter argues that the standard line misunderstands what a Kantian ethics of duty is, and where, in the deliberative structure of a duty, its necessity lies. What duties rule out are exceptions to their requirement for self-interest as such. Various contexts of self-killing are explored to make this point. And it is explained why the discretion that comes with an imperfect duty like beneficence is not a matter of making exceptions to a general duty at all.
A Mismatch of Methods
Authors: Herman Barbara
Published: March 2022

This chapter addresses Derek Parfit’s aim in On What Matters to produce an extended and inventive critical reconstruction of Kant’s ethics in a hybrid contractualism. The mismatch is immediate. Contrary to Parfit’s view, Kantian theory sees objective goodness as a function of, not independent of, moral principle. Other fundamental differences follow, from the scope of moral wrongness to the role of motive in action assessment. Parfit also claims that Kantian theory has too little to say about the nonmoral ends we prize, its prohibitions indifferent to the costs they impose. In response, the chapter reintroduces Kant’s deliberative reasoning account of morality, emphasizing the work of obligatory ends as premises of moral reasoning that encourage the development of nonmoral ends. A discussion of the necessary lie closes the chapter, showing how the deliberative theory is not trapped in the kind of rigid duty-following that is indifferent to outcomes.
Kantian Commitments
Authors: Herman Barbara
Published: March 2022

This chapter starts with the idea that when competing moral theories adjust to each other’s attractive parts in a ptolemaic manner, the resulting theory is neither satisfactory nor stable. Contemporary contractualists who align themselves with Kantian aversion to maximizing principle in just this way not surprisingly miss the core commitments of Kantian moral theory and inadvertently drift towards consequentialism. Their mistake is in regarding reasons as primitive and the moral relevance of states of affairs that reasons track as about benefits and burdens. But the core commitment of Kantian theory begins in reasoning: to actions, ends, and principles. Reasons and interests enter only as justified in relation to the conditions of rational and moral agency. The chapter argues that the deliberative structure about the choice of ends, both for individuals and for their social environment, shows Kantian ethics, often treated as a retrospective, individualist view, has natural continuity with forward-looking social and political philosophy.
A Habitat for Humanity
Authors: Herman Barbara
Published: March 2022

In his Idea for a Universal History with a Cosmopolitan Aim Kant suggests that we should tell the story of the development of reason and so of morality as the result of blind (even nasty) historical processes that have mature reason and morality as their telos. This chapter seeks to understand the point of this conjecture, and considers how it comports with the activity of good moral agents who seem just a by-product of a non-moral process. The key is in the idea of a proleptic effect: the emergent idea of a possible occurrence (a moral order) the understanding of which contributes essentially to bringing it about.
Religion and the Highest Good
Authors: Herman Barbara
Published: March 2022

John Rawls once said that Kant’s turn to religion was a disappointment. That verdict missed some of the non-foundational parts of religion that Kant investigates in the second and third parts of Religion within the Boundaries of Mere Reason. This chapter looks at the contribution Kant saw religion making in managing anxieties about the sufficiency of even good moral character. Using Christianity as an example (scripture and church), Kant shows how it can be read as reconciling persons with the deep challenges of moral subjectivity. His argument suggests that the same value might also be had through the discipline of progressive collective action.
Digital MemComputing machines
Authors: Di Ventra Massimiliano
Published: March 2022

This Chapter introduces the formal definition of digital MemComputing machines (DMMs), designed to solve combinatorial optimization problems. It then shows the difference between their test and solution modes of operation, and discusses how to transition from the mathematical definition of DMMs to their physical realization.
Topological features of DMMs
Authors: Di Ventra Massimiliano
Published: March 2022

This Chapter shows that DMMs employ critical points and trajectories between them (instantons) to efficiently solve combinatorial optimization problems. It does so by introducing supersymmetric Topological Field Theory. It then shows that temporal and spatial dynamical long-range order emerges during the dynamics of DMMs. This is key for their efficient exploration of the phase space.
Teos and Abdera
Authors: Adak Mustafa , Thonemann Peter
Published: March 2022

In late summer 2017, ongoing Turkish excavations at the site of Teos in Ionia uncovered one of the largest and most important Greek inscriptions to have been discovered this century. It records, in thrilling and moving detail, the assistance provided by the Teians in the repopulation and rebuilding of their daughter-city, Abdera in Thrace, after its sack by the Romans in 170 BC during the Third Macedonian War. The new text, published here for the first time, is startling testimony to the ancestral friendship- and support-networks that existed between Greek poleis in the Hellenistic world, and includes (among other things) the longest surviving description of an honorific statue to survive from the ancient world. In the light of the new inscription, the authors offer a full reassessment of the epigraphic and literary evidence for relations between Teos and Abdera, thereby providing a comprehensive long-term history of the two cities, from the sixth to the second century BC. The book also includes major new editions of the ‘Teian Dirae’ (public curses at Teos and Abdera in the early fifth century BC) and the second-century decree of Abdera for the Teian ambassadors Amymon and Megathymos, as well as two further new texts from the sanctuary of Dionysos at Teos.
Abdera and Teos after the Third Macedonian War
Authors: Adak Mustafa , Thonemann Peter
Published: March 2022

This chapter consists of a full edition with translation and commentary of a major decree of Abdera in honour of the Teians, almost certainly dating to the mid-160s BC. The decree recounts the restoration of Abdera with Teian help after the Roman sack of 170 BC, and confers extraordinary honours on the people of Teos in gratitude for their assistance over many years. The upper part of this decree (Fragment A) was discovered at Teos near the temple of Dionysos in the 1960s, and was published in 1997 by Christian Marek; the lower (and much larger) part of the decree, Fragment B, was discovered in 2017, also near the temple of Dionysos, by the Turkish team currently excavating the site of Teos. The new edition of Fragment A presented here offers a much-improved text of the opening lines of the decree; the new Fragment B, containing ninety-three lines of Greek text, sheds a flood of light on the history of both Teos and Abdera in the mid-second century BC. The extensive line-by-line commentary focuses both on the language and phraseology of the decree (remarkably elaborate and rhetorical) and on its rich historical content.
The Statue of the Dēmos of the Teians
Authors: Adak Mustafa , Thonemann Peter
Published: March 2022

As part of the honours conferred by Abdera on the Teians, the Abderites voted to erect a colossal bronze statue of the personified Dēmos of the Teians in the agora at Abdera. This statue has an altar associated with it, and was at the centre of what appears to be a new civic cult of the personified Teian Dēmos at Abdera. The honorific statue is described at remarkable length, prompting a new assessment of the varieties of visual representations of the personified Dēmos in the Classical and Hellenistic Greek world; the authors also assemble the rich and complex evidence for cults of the Dēmos in the Hellenistic and Roman imperial period. The pose and attributes of the new statue of the Dēmos of the Teians are analysed in particular detail, and the authors suggest that the statue may have been modelled on the cult-statue of Dionysos at Teos.
Before and After Frege
Authors: Tennant Neil
Published: March 2022

The logicizing trend of Dedekind and Frege arose in the wake of the arithmetization of analysis begun by Gauss and consummated by Weierstraß. In Kantian terms, these mathematicians and foundationalists sought to account for number theory as the product of our faculty of understanding, and not of a priori forms of intuition. The discussion turns to Frege’s class theory and his ill-fated Basic Law V, which was prey to Russell’s Paradox; and describes the later development of modern set theory as the ‘carrier theory’ for mathematical foundations.
Logico-Genetic Theorizing
Authors: Tennant Neil
Published: March 2022

The general features of logico-genetic theorizing are explained. The Natural Logicism advanced in this study is an example. This kind of theorizing is concerned to clarify rational beings’ entitlement to various familiar species of mathematical object. A logico-genetic account must meet certain conditions of adequacy. In the case of number theory, four such conditions are proposed. The first, which is to explain the applicability of various kinds of number, is to be met by deriving all instances of a relevant Schema: Schema N for the natural numbers, Schema Q for the rationals, and Schema R for the reals. The second condition of adequacy is that it be revealed how it is that the naturals sit among the rationals as themselves again, and the rationals in turn sit among the reals as themselves again. The third and fourth conditions concern a logico-genetic account of the reals: it should reveal enough of the metaphysical nature of the reals to allow one to derive the basic laws about the real numbers; and it should reveal that there are uncountably many real numbers. A logico-genetic account can be, but does not have to be, fully logicist. It can recognize non-logical sources of intuition as providing first principles from which mathematical knowledge of suitably related objects can flow in a strictly logical fashion. Thus, for example, geometric intuition about the continuity of a line can provide first principles from which one can logically deduce basic properties of the real numbers.
Denoting Numbers
Authors: Tennant Neil
Published: March 2022

Three main systems of notation for canonical numerals are examined: the Dedekind‒Peano system based on s and 0; k-place-notational systems (for k > 1); and the system of Fregean numerals. The lengths of these numerals are, respectively, linear, logarithmic, and exponential in the size of the numbers they denote. It is stressed that numerals in a place notation can be decidably well-ordered without resorting to a grasp of addition, multiplication, or exponentiation. The Constructive Logicist avoids all the definitional prolixity of the Fregean and gives the pure Peanoan mathematician her due, by taking on her primitive symbols 0 and s as primitives of his own, and laying down rules governing them.
The Adequacy Condition Involving Schema N
Authors: Tennant Neil
Published: March 2022

Schema N states that the two main ways of answering the question ‘How many Φ‎s are there?’ (when there are only finitely many of them) are equivalent. Any account of the natural numbers needs to establish this equivalence. One way to answer the ‘how many?’ question is to say that there are exactly nΦ‎s. That is, one makes a numerosity statement, or, formally, asserts one of its regimentations, of the kind explained in Chapter 8. The other way of answering the question is to say that the number of Φ‎s is identical to the number n. Here, ‘the number n’ will be replaced by a numeral in whatever system of canonical notation one has chosen; and the singular term ‘the number of Φ‎s’ will be regimented as the number-abstractive term #xΦ‎(x). Suppose one has chosen the ∇-sequence of (regimentations of) numerosity statements. Suppose further that one has chosen the Dedekind−Peano system of canonical numerals. (In this system the numeral n that denotes n is a string of n occurrences of s followed by an occurrence of 0.) Then the instance for n of Schema N will be #xΦx=n_⊣⊢∇nxΦx. This chapter provides a detailed discussion of Schema N and its role in meeting the Adequacy Condition on any theory of natural numbers that it explain their applicability.
The Rules of Constructive Logicism
Authors: Tennant Neil
Published: March 2022

This chapter states and explains all the formal rules of inference that are involved in the Constructive Logicist account of the natural numbers. Natural-deduction rules of introduction and elimination govern the primitives 0, s, and #, as well as various pasigraphs (such as Nx, for ‘x is a natural number’) that are inferentially definable in terms of the primitives. We set out important inferences about 1‒1 mappings, and define ancestrals of one-place functions by means of special introduction and elimination rules. The ancestral of the successor function affords a definition of Nx. All the reasoning involving these notions, by means of these rules, will be both constructive and relevant.
Formal Results about the Inductively Defined Numerically Exact Quantifiers
Authors: Tennant Neil
Published: March 2022

This chapter is devoted to the excruciating drudgery of a logical monk actually doing the work that a logical saint would find unnecessary, to establish the metatheorem which states that for all n, and for all substituends for Φ‎, one has ∇nxΦx⊣⊢⋄nxΦx. Note that although for any particular n one can effectively find the requisite proofs in monadic first-order logic, the proof of the metatheorem itself, because of its general form, does not proceed within monadic first-order logic. An important philosophical corollary of this metatheorem is that no ordering of the Φ‎s—be it one intrinsic to them, or imposed upon them arbitrarily in the act of counting—can possibly figure into the truth-conditions of numerosity statements to the effect that ‘there are exactly this-many Φ‎s’.
The Concept of Real Number
Authors: Tennant Neil
Published: March 2022

This chapter lays the conceptual groundwork that is necessary by way of prelude to the technical work that is to be undertaken in Chapter 22, where logically precise axioms are framed governing the orderings of points on directed lines. Here it is explained how reference (and commitment) to reals arises from the re-carving of contents of statements of dimensional measurement in terms of a unit, and a notion of congruence (or equality-of- magnitude). Thus one speaks of a dimension D (e.g., length; duration), unit-of-D (e.g., meter; second), D* (e.g., long), #D (e.g., the length of; the duration of), and ≅D (e.g., exactly as long as; equal in duration to). There follows a survey of the different locutions we employ that appear to embed reference to reals, and a tabulation of the systematic similarities across various measurable dimensions (such as length, time, weight, etc.). The outcome of this study of systematic variations in expression of some same state of affairs (i.e., the outcome of measurement) is the formulation of Schema R for the reals. It is compared and contrasted with Schema N for the naturals and with Schema Q for the rationals. Schema R turns out to admit of proof (more precisely: proofs of all its instances) courtesy of introduction and elimination rules involving canonical statements of measurement and identity statements involving the real-number abstraction operator #D on one side, and a de-dimensionalized numerical term on the other side. The crux of this treatment by appeal to one’s geometric intuition of the continuity of a (directed) line will be its painstaking description of how, in principle, to determine the aforementioned de-dimensionalized numerical representation. The considered choice here will be a (potentially infinite) bicimal expansion. The constructive character of such an expansion turns on the determinacy of the trichotomy of ordering of points on a directed line. The chapter argues, as Russell did, for the primacy of spatial measurement (that is, lengths of line segments). Measurement of lengths serves as the paradigm case of measurement in any dimension, for reasons that are expounded upon.
Bicimals
Authors: Tennant Neil
Published: March 2022

In this chapter one finally arrives at the natural logicist’s proposed method of numerical representation of real numbers. The chosen method is of bicimal (rather than decimal) expansions, since it is so elegant and straightforward. It also makes the correspondence between expansions and sets of natural numbers pellucid. The central aim is to show that any point in the open unit segment is represented by a (possibly infinite) unique canonical bicimal expansion. In doing so one draws only on the conceptual resources available to the Euclidean that were developed in Chapter 22, and one uses only effective Euclidean constructions. We show how to generate the expansion for any point in a unit interval (whose left endpoint is the origin) of a directed straight line. The process involves finding the midpoints of each successive interval (chosen in an orderly way), and determining whether the point in question is to the left of, to the right of, or identical to, the midpoint. The first case generates a 1; the second case generates a 0; and in the case of identity, the construction ceases.
Genetic Criticism and Related Fields of Study
Authors: Van Hulle Dirk
Published: March 2022

Genetic criticism is not an isolated discipline. It plays a natural role in an ecosystem of related fields of study, such as bibliography, book history, archive studies, filologia d’autore, variantistica, writing studies, digital humanities, and scholarly editing. Usually ‘textual scholarship’ is employed as the umbrella term covering these fields of study, which have been compartmentalized for decades. It is time for a rapprochement, and the digital medium is a great catalyst in this process. Rather than mere pigeonholes, these fields are interconnected areas of study that can inform each other in innovative ways, especially by way of digital scholarly editing. This chapter discusses the place of genetic criticism in this ecosystem of literary and textual scholarship.
Compiling a Genetic Dossier
Authors: Van Hulle Dirk
Published: March 2022

Notebooks, marginalia, manuscripts, and typescripts (even if one works with scans) give a concrete dimension to literature. Their study can be a helpful reading strategy. On the one hand, this involves concrete, transferable skills such as aspects of transcription and digital scholarly editing. On the other hand, it also involves more abstract theoretical issues. This chapter focuses on the concrete skills, starting with discerning different types of documents and draft material, such as field notes, commonplace books, reading notes, maps, lists, sketches, diaries, letters, digital drafts, fair copies, typescripts, carbon copies, foldings and gatherings, annotated editions, or production notes. It also zooms in on the temporal dimension of literature: (absolute and relative) chronology as the backbone of the literary genesis, along the two axes of narrative sequence and the chronology of versions. Practical skills such as transcription and digitization are discussed, as well as the relevance of (intradocument and interdocument) variants.
Ecologies of Writing
Authors: Van Hulle Dirk
Published: March 2022

In science and scholarship, modelling is often used to purposefully simplify complex processes. In the case of genetic criticism, these processes are of a creative nature. They either have resulted in a work of art or at least have left traces. By means of these traces, genetic criticism tries to reverse-engineer the complex process, resulting in various models. One of these models is the ‘ecology’. This chapter discusses writers’ libraries as creative ecologies. A single document can be an ecology in its own right, for instance when a notebook fills up with notes and becomes such a stimulating creative space that a writer only reluctantly leaves it when it is full. Another ecology is the interactions with confidants, editors, censor, critics, and translators that constitute the sociology of writing, involving collaborative revision, editorial collaboration, censorship and self-censorship, collaborative translation, adaptations, collaborations for performance, or writing on commission. The author’s own writings can become an ecology as well, as concurrent projects often influence each other. The chapter ends with a discussion of this creative concurrence.
‘Sentenced to Die as in Cases of High Treason’
Authors: Questier Michael
Published: March 2022

This chapter surveys the English Catholic martyrologies of the sixteenth century up until the early 1580s. It distinguishes the martyr texts of the Henrician Reformation from those which were generated in and after the late 1570s. It reintegrates Catholic claims about persecution into some of the more recent accounts of a mid-Elizabethan political crisis and, more specifically, of what happened when the discontents of contemporary puritanism expressed themselves via critiques of royal policy. Here, the queen confronted those who disliked her preferred politique methods of dealing with religious dissent and of trying to construct European dialogues and alliances without resort to what some saw as a European ‘Protestant cause’. From a position in the 1560s where external political forces meant that there was often an incentive for those in authority not to identify public expressions of Catholicism with sedition, despite the Northern Rebellion of 1569, the papal bull of excommunication Regnans in Excelsis, and then the Ridolfi conspiracy, we arrive at a point in the later 1570s and the early 1580s when that was exactly what some of the queen’s councillors did. Front and centre here we have the two Jesuit priests, Edmund Campion and Robert Persons. Their high-profile intervention in the politics of the queen’s diplomacy with the French court, often referred to as the ‘Anjou match’ negotiations, provoked a raft of new legislation in parliament and a violent reaction from the regime to what it interpreted as Catholic treasons.
After Campion
Authors: Questier Michael
Published: March 2022

This chapter deals with the aftermath of the regime’s decision to prosecute Edmund Campion and his associates. Having introduced new legislation to thwart the perceived threat from the activism of a Continentally trained Catholic clergy, the regime had baulked at using it against Campion and was then faced with the issue of whether it had trespassed into the realms of actual oppression rather than confining itself to the maintenance of the queen’s safety. Even while a number of Catholics who had gone into separation in response to the Jesuit agitation of 1580–1 now conformed, and others, not least Robert Persons himself, may have been radicalized by, as they saw it, the regime’s injustices, there were those who identified the queen’s real enemies as puritans. In this context, the use of the treason law in and after 1582 remained controversial and provoked more insistent Catholic comment and claims that the regime was in a political crisis of its own making. This led in late 1583 to the exposure of the Throckmorton conspiracy and Lord Burghley’s attempt to impose closure on the debate about loyalty and treason with his pamphlet entitled The Execution of Justice in England.
Catholic Martyrs and the Political Crises of the mid-1580s
Authors: Questier Michael
Published: March 2022

The failure of the queen’s preferred method of dealing with the Dutch revolt in Flanders led, eventually, to the English military intervention there and a de facto state of war with Spain. As some contemporary commentators saw it, this fed into the setting up of a new State security apparatus. Influential Catholic exiles, notably William Allen in his pamphlet entitled A True, Sincere, and Modest Defence, in reply to Burghley’s Execution of Justice, claimed that the queen’s government had turned into a tyranny and that it might be necessary to appeal to papal authority to confront that development. Inevitably the regime’s officials started to retaliate against separatist Catholics who, covertly or overtly, made this case. The further strengthening of the law of treason in 1585 coincided with what some scholars have discerned as a republican moment in Elizabethan politics—based upon the so-called bond of association and various schemes for dealing with an interregnum in the event of Elizabeth’s death. This was the backdrop for the prosecutions, of Catholic clergymen and their harbourers and patrons, under the new act against seminary clergy. That measure was highly controversial, and preceded the regime-led strike against Mary Stuart in the context of the Babington conspiracy. Although this did not prevent a new spate of anti-puritanism, it also provoked new and much more overt expressions of Catholic resistance theory, paralleling the same case being made in France against the Valois monarchy by the Holy Catholic League.