bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A63 Quantifying the dynamics of evolutionary rates through time
Authors: Membrebe J V , Baele G , Suchard M A , Lemey P
Published: August 2019

The availability of evolutionary rate estimates in recent years led to the observation that they may depend on the time-scale on which they are measured. Specifically, RNA virus evolutionary rates are frequently estimated to be low towards the past and high towards the present. This time-dependent rate phenomenon (TDRP) has important implications for evolutionary studies as it could severely bias divergence time estimates. While recent studies are providing insights into the relationship between viral evolutionary rate and time, formal probabilistic models to draw inference under TDRP scenarios remain lacking. Here, we adopt epoch-modelling to develop a Bayesian model of discrete rate changes through time in an unknown evolutionary history and combine this with a log-linear parameterization of rates as a function of times in the past. We provide an implementation for nucleotide substitution rates as well as for nonsynonymous rates change in a codon substitution model. Using a foamy virus dataset for which internal node calibrations can be applied based on host-virus co-divergence, we estimate a significant decline in evolutionary rates as a function of time into the past for nucleotide substitutions as well as for non-synonymous substitutions in a codon model. We also estimate a deep evolutionary history for primate Lentiviruses by combining an HIV-1 group M node calibration and a biogeographic calibration for viruses in drill monkeys in the TDRP model. Our analyses lead to the conclusion that studies of evolutionary timescales require a reconsideration of substitution rates, in either codon and nucleotide substitution model, as a dynamic feature of molecular evolution.
A67 Bloodstream infections by carbapenem-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae subsp. pneumoniae: Bayesian phylogenetic analysis of whole genomes
Authors: Cella Eleonora , Leoni Davide , Mirandola Walter , Fontana Carla , Sarmati Loredana , Andreoni Massimo , Angeletti Silvia , Ciccozzi Massimo
Published: August 2019

Bloodstream infection (BSI) caused by carbapenemase-producing Enterobacteriaceae (CPE) is a major public health concern, particularly in the hospital setting. The rapid detection of resistance patterns is of paramount importance for establishing the proper antibiotic regime. In addition, in countries where CPE are endemic, it is also important to evaluate genetic relationship among the isolates in order to trace pathogen circulation and to improve the infection control programs. This study is an application of a rapid blood culture (BC) workflow consisting of fast reporting of Gram stain results, rapid pathogen identification (using MALDI TOF technology), and a molecular assay for the detection of the major genes conferring resistance, all of them performed directly from positive BCs. The application of phylogenetic and phylodynamic analyses to bacterial whole-genome sequencing (WGS) data have become essential in the epidemiological surveillance of multidrug-resistant nosocomial pathogens. We analyzed 40 strains of Klebsiella pneumoniae subsp. pneumoniae (KP) carrying blaKPC (KP-KPC), randomly selected among 147 CPE identified from BCs collected from consecutive patients from 2013 to 2016. The number of BSIs-related CPE were 23, 31, 43, and 50 in 2013, 2014, 2015, and 2016, respectively. Among 147 CPE isolates, 143 were KP and four were Escherichia coli (EC). The gene blaKPC was detected in 117 strains of KP and in four strains of EC. Other carbapenemase genes, such as blaVIM and blaOXA-48, were detected in four and nine different isolates of KP, respectively. Moreover, 13 KP strains carried two resistance genes: twelve vehicled blaKPC plus blaVIM and one blaKPC plus blaOXA-48. Phylogenetic analysis of bacterial WGS data was used to investigate the evolution and spatial dispersion of KP in support of hospital infection control. The maximum likelihood tree showed two main clades statistically supported, with statistical support for several subclusters within as well. The minimum spanning tree showed mixing between sequences from different years and wards with only few specific groups. Bayesian analyses are ongoing, as the aid of Bayesian genomic epidemiology in combination with active microbial surveillance is highly informative regarding the development of effective infection prevention in healthcare settings or constant strain reintroduction.
Stump-to-Truck Cable Logging Cost Equations for Young-Growth Douglas-fir
Authors: LeDoux Chris B. , Fight Roger D. , Ortman Tom L.
Published: August 2019

Logging cost simulators and data from logging cost studies have been assembled and converted into a series of equations that can be used to estimate the cost of logging young-growth coastal Douglas-fir. (Pseudotsuga menziesii [Mirb.] Franco var. menziesii) in mountainous terrain of the Pacific Northwest. These equations were developed for two small cable yarders and one medium-sized yarder and are applicable for harvests of timber from 6 to 24 inches in diameter on slopes of 10 to 50%. Cost components can be easily Calculated on a hand calculator. A computer program that can be adapted to many desktop computers and that will calculate the total stump-to-truck logging cost for a specified set of logging conditions is also available. West. J. Appl. For. 1:19-21, Jan. 1986.
Production Analysis of the Bitterroot Yarder in Colorado
Authors: Lynch Dennis L.
Published: August 2019

The Bitterroot Miniyarder was analyzed for productivity during demonstrations on Colorado's Front Range. The yarder was operated in both single-span and multi-span configurations and averaged 13.25 cords/day and 12.21 cords/day, respectively. Environmental damage was minimal, and areas not accessible to ground skidding were logged. The yarder lost horsepower at higher elevations, which reduced its potential effectiveness. Estimated productive hourly cost was $34.43, which translates to a cost of $28.42 per cord at an average production rate of 12.7 cords per day. West. J. Appl. For. 1:22-25, Jan. 1986.
Can Income Tax Rules Affect Management Strategies for Forest Roads?
Authors: Sessions John
Published: August 2019

Income tax rules on capital investments in forest roads affect strategies for managing forest land. Costs of roads plus harvesting are divided into expensable, depreciable, and nondepreciable components. Tax rules that differentiate among types of costs can influence investments in both the number and standard of roads. The marginal tax rate of the landowner is an important variable. Income tax rules may lead landowners with similar management objectives but different marginal tax rates to adopt different strategies of road management. West. J. Appl. For. 1:26-28, Jan. 1986.
Silvicultural Value of Chemical Brush Control in the Management of Douglas-fir
Authors: Walstad J. D. , Brodie J. D. , McGinley B. C. , Roberts C. A.
Published: August 2019

Retrospective analyses of three conifer sites in western Oregon and Washington were conducted to determine the long-term silvicultural impact and economic value of chemical brush control treatments performed 10 to 25 years earher. Comparisons between areas treated with phenoxy herbicides and untreated areas of the sites revealed significant differences in stocking and growth of Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii). On two sites, invading red alder (Alnus rubra) virtually excluded conifers in the absence of brush control. On the untreated area of the third site, dense growth of varnishleaf ceanothus (Ceanothus velutinus var. laevigatus) reduced Douglas-fir stocking and diameter growth. On all three sites, projections of mature yield and economic returns based on current stand conditions indicated substantial benefits for areas where brush control treatments were applied. West. J. Appl. For. 1:69-73, July 1986.
The Impact of Logging on Red Squirrels in an Idaho Conifer Forest
Authors: Medin Dean E.
Published: August 2019

Red squirrel (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus) population densities were studied on logged and unlogged plots in an Idaho Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) forest. Squirrel population densities were estimated before and after logging by using spot-mapping methods. In the unlogged forest, we estimated 0.75 to 1.25 individuals/ac, but in the second year after logging there were only 0.05 to 0.08 squirrels/ac. Red squirrel densities on logged study plots were less than one-fifth those on unlogged plots. West. J. Appl. For. 1:73-76 July 1986.
Sampling Aerial Photographs for Estimation of Pest-Caused Tree Mortality
Authors: Waters William E. , Graebner Robert W.
Published: August 2019

Six methods of estimating pest-caused tree mortality were evaluated by computer-based sampling of the aerial photo and numerical database of a 9,320 ha area of ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) in the central Sierra Nevada, California. Two sampling universes were defined, one comprising 9 X 9 in photo units, the other 70 mm photo units. Of the sampling designs simulated, 2-stage designs involving subsampling of photo strips with either equal or variable probability provided estimates with the lowest standard deviations, and hence would require smaller sample sizes (and less photo-interpretation time) for a specified precision. The findings of this study have application to operational surveys of pest damage for which complete aerial photo coverage is available, or to the design of surveys for which only sample aerial photo coverage is feasible. West J. Appl. For. 1:84-89, July 1986.
Productivity of Nonindustrial Private Forests in Western Washington: Alternative Futures
Authors: Alig Ralph J. , Adams Darius M.
Published: August 2019

Nonindustrial private timberlands in western Washington have high productive potential and contribute harvest amounts somewhat more than proportional to their area. Of all private ownerships they are influenced the most by land use shifts and are affected in important ways by forest practice regulations. About 1 million acres of nonindustrial private timberland contain opportunities for timber management intensification that would increase net growth, in many cases offering attractive financial returns. Significant increases in timber growing investments could double softwood harvest levels in the long term. A combination of forest practice regulations to lengthen rotations by 10 yr and a 15% setaside of other timberland with older timber could reduce short-term softwood harvest levels by one-third. West. J. Appl. For. 10(1):29-35.
Short-Term Impacts of Thinning Ponderosa Pine on Pandora Moth Densities, Pupal Weights, and Phenology
Authors: Ross Darrell W.
Published: August 2019

Second-growth ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) stands with outbreak populations of the pandora moth (Coloradia pandora) were thinned from below removing about half of the basal area. Thinning had no effect on pandora moth pupal density or weight, or emerging adult density in the following generation. However, adult emergence and egg hatch occurred 7-10 days earlier in thinned plots compared with unthinned plots. Egg and larval densities on a foliage weight basis were not significantly different between thinned and unthinned plots. Thinning stands infested with pandora moth will not significantly affect the course of an outbreak for at least one generation. Timing of direct controls for the pandora moth should consider the effect of stand density on insect phenology. West. J. Appl. For. 10(3):91-94.
Visual Counts of Acorns of California Black Oak (Quercus kelloggii) as an Indicator of Mast Production
Authors: Garrison Barrett A. , Wachs Robin L. , Jones James S. , Triggs Matthew L.
Published: August 2019

In 1995, acorn production of California black oak(Quercus kelloggii) was measured on 20 mature trees located in two stands in Placer County, California. Acorn production of each tree was measured using three 0.8 m² cone traps and a single 30 sec visual count. Visual counts were compared with trap data to develop statistical relationships between the two methods because visual counts have some advantages over traps, and we desired an efficient measure of the amount of acorns available as food for wildlife. Visual counts were positively correlated (P < 0.020) with several trap measures including wet acorn weight, weight of sound acorns, dry acorn weight, and total number of sound acorns. Linear regression of square-root transformed data found that visual counts could be used to predict total weight of sound acorns and total weight of dry acorns (P < 0.003). These results indicate that visual counts are adequate surrogates for more detailed measures of acorn production. West. J. Appl. For. 13(1):27-31.
Fifteen-Year Provenance Tests of Lodgepole Pine (Pinus contorta) in North Dakota
Authors: Dow Beverly D. , Cunningham Richard A. , Krupinsky Jospeh M.
Published: August 2019

To determine the usefulness of lodgepole pine in windbreak plantings in the Northern Great Plains, seeds were collected from 25 locations in the western United States and Canada and planted at the Northern Great Plains Research Laboratory ( USDA-ARS) in Mandan, North Dakota. Survival, height, crown diameter, crown density, and Petrova damage were recorded over a 15 yr period. Once established, lodgepole pines were hardy and drought resistant, and there was no mortality after the first 6 yr. Average annual growth was 29 cm. Our results suggest that lodgepole pines may be selected for survival after 2 yr of growth in the field and selected for height after 5 yr. Seed sources from southwestern Montana, northern Idaho, and southern Canada had the best overall performance as measured by good survival, superior height, and narrow crowns. West. J. Appl. For. 13(1):5-11.
Infection of Young Western Larch by Larch Dwarf Mistletoe in Northern Idaho and Western Montana
Authors: Mathiasen Robert L.
Published: August 2019

Six-hundred dwarf mistletoe-infected western larch (Larix occidentalis) ranging in age from 10-20 yr were sampled to determine the approximate age and height at which they were initially infected by larch dwarf mistletoe (Arceuthobium laricis). The age of each observable mistletoe infection was determined for each sapling, and the age and height of the trees when they were initially infected were estimated based on the age of the oldest mistletoe infection. Few of the young larch sampled were infected before they reached 7 yr old or 1.5 m in height. Most of the young larch, however, were infected before they were 14 yr old or 4 m in height. Initial age and height of infection were significantly influenced by the infection intensity of the overstory larch growing within 12 m of the infected saplings. Because parasitism by larch dwarf mistletoe can be extremely damaging to western larch, infected overstory larch should be removed or killed before nearby larch regeneration reaches 7 yr old or 1 m in height when minimizing infection of the regeneration is a management objective. West. J. Appl. For. 13(2):41-46.
Fuel Bed Characteristics of Sierra Nevada Conifers
Authors: Van Wagtendonk Jan W. , Benedict James M. , Sydoriak Walter M.
Published: August 2019

A study of fuels in Sierra Nevada conifer forests showed that fuel bed depth and fuel bed weight significantly varied by tree species and developmental stage of the overstory. Specific values for depth and weight of woody, litter, and duff fuels are reported There was a significant positive relationship between fuel bed depth and weight. Estimates of woody fuel weight using the planar intercept method were significantly related to sampled values. These relationships can be used to estimate fuel weights in the field. West. J. Appl. For. 13(3):73-84.
Science-Management Collaboration: Lessons from the Revision of the Tongass National Forest Plan
Authors: Mills Thomas J. , Everest Fred H. , Janik Phil , Pendleton Beth , Shaw Charles G. , Swantston Douglas N.
Published: August 2019

The role of scientists in development of U.S. federal policy on various issues has been debated for decades and is documented in a large body of literature. No consensus on appropriate roles for scientists has yet been reached by either policymakers or the scientists themselves. Consequently, an opportunity remains for those working at the science-policy interface to contribute to resolution of the debate. Recent broad-scale federal land-use planning efforts in the western United States were completed through collaborative partner-ships between managers and scientists. The revision of the Tongass National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan, completed in May 1997, integrated Forest Service managers and scientists into one interdisciplinary planning team. This precedent-setting planning model produced a significant body of policy-relevant literature, a national forest plan that balances competing public desires for natural resources while providing for long-term sustainability of those resources, and planning decisions that are consistent with the best available scientific information. During the process, both scientists and managers faced numerous challenges and learned many lessons about collaborative partnerships. This paper describes critical challenges and lessons so that others undertaking similar efforts can benefit from our experiences. West. J. Appl. For. 13(3):90-96.
Site Productivity and Soil Conditions on Terraced Ponderosa Pine Sites in Western Montana
Authors: Zlatnik E. J. , DeLuca T. H. , Milner K. S. , Potts D. F.
Published: August 2019

The USDA Forest Service built terraces on the Bitterroot National Forest in the 1960s and 1970s as a means of mechanical site preparation prior to machine-planting ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) in clearcuts. We examined the influence of terracing on planted ponderosa pine and soil characteristics more than 20 yr after site treatment and planting. Replicated plots at three separate paired (terraced/unterraced) sites were measured for tree diameter at breast height (dbh), total tree volume, planted tree volume and height, and understory biomass. Soil samples were analyzed for total C, Bray-1 extractable P, exchangeable K, soil pH, soil water-holding capacity, and particle size distribution. Terraced sites had significantly higher tree volumes, heights, and dbh, and higher silt contents than unterraced sites. Two of the three terraced sites also had greater understory biomass than the unterraced sites. Soil C and nutrient concentrations on terraced and unterraced pairs were generally similar. West. J. Appl. For. 14(1):35-40.
Black Bear Damage to Forest Stands in Western Washington
Authors: Stewart William B. , Witmer Gary W. , Koehler Gary M.
Published: August 2019

Cambium-feeding behavior by black bears (Ursus americanus), or bear damage, is a major reforestation problem in the Pacific Northwest. Historically, studies have measured the cumulative effects of damage over time, but few have viewed damage in the frame of one season. Bear damage occurring in 1996 was surveyed in areas of radio-marked bears in western Washington. Fresh damage occurred on 48% of bear location plots (n = 96). Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) (69%), western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) (19%), and Pacific silver fir (Abies amabilis) (10%) with a mean dbh of 25.1, 29.5, and 30.7 cm, respectively, were most frequently damaged. Random plots were surveyed from mid-July to mid-August to measure habitat availability. Stand and site variables were measured on freshly damaged bear location plots, random plots, and nondamaged bear location plots. This study identified several variables that make forest stands vulnerable to bear damage: conifer dbh, conifer density, stand age, and canopy cover. Awareness of such stand characteristics can assist natural resource managers with animal damage prevention and control programs. West. J. Appl. For. 14(3):128-131.
Riparian Management Area Condition for Timber Harvests Conducted Before and After the 1994 Oregon Water Protection Rules
Authors: Hairston-Strang Anne B. , Adams Paul W.
Published: August 2019

The 1994 Oregon Water Protection Rules introduced new and expanded requirements for streamside timber harvesting. Postharvest conditions in Riparian Management Areas (RMAs) were evaluated on 21 harvests throughout Oregon in 1995 and compared to results of 22 harvests from a study completed in 1993. Average conifer retention in these RMAs increased from 35% in 1993 to 75% in 1995, a desirable change for long-term supplies of large woody debris for fish habitat. Differences in distance from stream to harvest edge and percent of exposed mineral soil in the RMAs were not significant. Sites visited in 1995 averaged significantly more snags in RMAs than sites from the 1993 study, although snag diameters tended to be smaller, and greater numbers could be related to preharvest snag densities on sites. Although the RMA shade data were limited in this study, the 1994 Rules apparently provide at least as much shade as under the previous rules on most sites. West. J. Appl. For. 15(3):147-153.
Mortality of Mixed-Conifer Regeneration Surrounding Stumps Infected by Heterobasidion annosum 15–19 Years after Harvesting in Northeastern Oregon
Authors: Filip Gregory M. , Schmitt Craig L. , Parks Catherine G.
Published: August 2019

In 1989, a high frequency (89%) of Heterobasidion annosum, cause of annosus root disease, was found in true fir stumps cut 5 to 9 yr earlier in northeastern Oregon. Despite high stump infection levels, mortality of surrounding regeneration was very low (1.4%) in 1989 and even lower (0.7%) in 1999. High-elevation mixed-conifer stands in northeastern Oregon are often overstocked with regeneration. This regen-eration often includes H. annosum-susceptible species such as grand fir and subalpine fir and H. annosum-tolerant species such as Douglas-fir, Engelmann spruce, and western larch. The recommendation to treat true fir stumps with boron-containing products to prevent infection by H. annosum is discussed. West. J. Appl. For. 15(4):189–194.
Evaluation of Three Machines to Remove Armillaria- and Annosum-Infected Stumps
Authors: Omdal Daniel W. , Shaw Charles G. , Jacobi William R.
Published: August 2019

Many root disease fungi survive as saprophytes in large roots and stumps, which is the primary means by which they persist on a site from one rotation to the next. A Vibro-Driver/Extractor (VDE) or backhoe excavator was used to remove root systems of 89 ponderosa pine infested with Armillaria ostoyae, and a bulldozer was used to remove root systems of 40 white fir infested with A. ostoyae, Heterobasidion annosum, or both. Based on direct measurements of extracted biomass and models to predict biomass remaining in the soil, all machines removed at least 83% of the belowground coarse root biomass. The VDE was the most powerful machine and was able to extract the largest stumps. The backhoe excavator was used on the smallest stumps, yet left the highest proportion of large root biomass in the ground. Residual biomass following excavations should not be a significant source of root disease fungi as 90% of broken roots were less than 5 cm dia. and would likely decay rapidly. West. J. Appl. For. 16(1):22–25.
Vegetation Management Using Polyethylene Mulch Mats and Glyphosate Herbicide in a Coastal British Columbia Hybrid Poplar Plantation: Four-Year Growth Response
Authors: Thomas K.D. , Reid W.J. , Comeau P.G.
Published: August 2019

This study was initiated in 1995 to gather information on the effectiveness of opaque polyethylene mats and glyphosate herbicide treatment on growth and yield of hybrid poplar plantations on south coastal British Columbia. Immediately after planting 40 cm tall hybrid poplar cuttings, 60 × 60 cm opaque polyethylene mats were installed. All treatment plots were mechanically cultivated in one direction twice yearly from 1995 to 1997. This practice left an uncultivated strip between trees running in the same direction as the cultivation. The uncultivated strip was approximately 1 m wide, and represented approximately one-third (0.04 ha) of the total plot area (0.13 ha). Glyphosate was applied at a rate of 2.1 kg active ingredient (ai)/ha in water to the uncultivated strips in the herbicide treatment plots in midsummer of the second and third growing seasons. The opaque polyethylene mats significantly improved poplar height growth only for the first growing season. After four growing seasons, hybrid poplars treated with glyphosate were significantly taller (983 cm) than those in either the mat (915 cm) or control treated plots (902 cm). Diameter at breast height (dbh) was also significantly greater in the herbicide treated plots (88 mm) than in either the mat (78 mm) or control (77 mm) treated plots. Total volume was also significantly greater in herbicide plots (23 ³/ha) than in either the mat (17 m³/ha) or control (17 m³/ha) plots. Basal area and total volume were 14% and 37%, respectively, greater in the herbicide plots than in the mat and control plots following the fourth growing season. West. J. Appl. For. 16(1):26–30.
Effect of Dwarf Mistletoe on Bole Taper and Volume in Young Douglas-Fir
Authors: Tinnin Robert O.
Published: August 2019

Boles of 210 residual understory Douglas-fir trees, ranging from uninfected to heavily infected with Douglas-fir dwarf mistletoe, were measured for cylindrical form factor, Girard form class, height-to-diameter ratio, bole profile, and volume. Height-to-diameter ratio and Girard form class were significantly reduced by dwarf mistletoe across the range of infection classes. However, no effect due to infection by dwarf mistletoe was found on cylindrical form factor, and only a slight difference in bole profile between uninfected and heavily infected trees was found. These results suggest that dwarf mistletoe increases bole taper and affects the volume of younger Douglas-fir by affecting tree diameter and height but not by a substantive change in bole profile. West. J. Appl. For.16(1):5–8.
Height:Diameter Ratios and Stability Relationships for Four Northern Rocky Mountain Tree Species
Authors: Wonn Hagan T. , O'Hara Kevin L.
Published: August 2019

Ratios of tree height to diameter have been used to predict susceptibility to storm damage for many years. In this study, individual trees damaged by recent snow and wind events in western Montana were sampled in 1997 and 1998 to determine their height:diameter ratios in comparison to nearby undamaged trees. Four species were sampled: ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa), western larch (Larix occidentalis), interior Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca), and lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta var. latifolia). Ratios of 80:1 (both measures in equal units) provided a stability threshold for all four species. Trees with higher ratios were more prone to damage than trees with lower ratios. Height:diameter ratios from trees grown in spacing trials were used to examine spacings that avoided development of unstable trees. Wide spacings or early thinnings provide the best means of avoiding major losses to snow and wind damage. The growth and yield model Prognosis was unable to predict height:diameter ratios for developing stands. West. J. Appl. For. 16(2):87–94.
Forest Type Definitions by Cluster Analysis
Authors: van Hees Willem W.S. , Dobelbower Kevin , Winterberger Kenneth
Published: August 2019

A method is presented to develop forest type definitions by using cluster analysis of forest inventory data collected in southeast Alaska from 1995 through 1998. Species stocking levels were used as variables for cluster development. Pacific Northwest Research Station forest inventory staff could not compute forest type for some forested conditions in southeast Alaska using then existing forest type definitions. Forest type definitions developed by cluster analysis improved computed assignment of forest type. West. J. Appl. For. 16(3):101–105.
Little Response of True Fir Saplings to Understory Shrub Removal
Authors: Oliver William W. , Uzoh Fabian C.C.
Published: August 2019

The ability of white fir and California red fir to become established, persist, and eventually dominate montane shrub fields is well known. When the firs have eventually dominated do the understory shrubs continue to inhibit growth? In a small study in the southern Cascade Range of northeastern California, we tested the growth response of a thinned stand of saplings to removal of a shrub understory. Also, we examined several commonly used predictors of the ability of saplings to respond to release. Results indicated a statistically significant increase in dbh and height growth following release that disappeared after 5 yr. The growth response that was probably too small to justify the cost of shrub removal was best predicted by the trees' height growth the 5 yr before release. West. J. Appl. For. 17(1):5–8.
Ten-Year Effect of Fertilization on Tree Growth and Mortality Associated with Armillaria Root Disease, Fir Engravers, Dwarf Mistletoe, and Western Spruce Budworm in Northeastern Oregon
Authors: Filip Gregory M. , Ganio Lisa M. , Oester Paul T. , Mason Richard R. , Wickman Boyd E.
Published: August 2019

In October 1988, each of four randomly selected 4 ha plots within four 16 ha blocks in a mixed-conifer forest in northeastern Oregon received one of the following treatments by helicopter: (1) urea at 350 kg/ha of N, 2) 100 kg/ha N, 25 kg/ha P, 25 kg/ha K, 25 kg/ha S, and 3) 300 kg/ha N, 75 kg/ha P, 75 kg/ha K, 75 kg/ha S, or 4) untreated control. Ten years after treatment, grand fir mortality within plots averaged 37% (range 4 to 56%) of the sampled trees. Fir mortality was associated with fir engraver beetles, flatheaded fir borers, Armillaria root disease, and defoliation by western spruce budworm. Larch mortality ranged from zero for trees with no or low dwarf mistletoe infection to 56% in trees with severe infection. After 10 yr, there were no significant fertilizer effects on grand fir and western larch with respect to (1) incidence of mortality; (2) diameter increment; (3) vigor as assessed by cambial electrical resistance (CER); (4) live crown ratio; and (5) larch dwarf mistletoe severity rating (DMR). DMR significantly affected larch diameter increment, incidence of mortality, and CER regardless of treatment. Possible reasons why fertilization in this experiment did not have the same effects as fertilization in smaller studies are discussed. West. J. Appl. For. 17(3):122–128.
The Effect of Multinutrient Fertilization on Understory Vegetation Annual Production
Authors: VanderSchaaf Curtis L. , Moore James A. , Kingery James L.
Published: August 2019

This study quantified the effects of operational multinutrient fertilization on understory shrub, forb, and grass production in inland Northwest forests. Understory vegetation annual production increased at some sites while other sites showed no change or decreases following fertilizer treatments. The greatest understory response to fertilization occurred in low density, shade-intolerant, overstory-dominated stands. Understory vegetation response was lower under overstories dominated by more shade-tolerant conifers. Multinutrient fertilization produced increases in annual understory production of up to 2,400 lb/ac for combined understory growth forms over the entire growing season. West. J. Appl. For. 17(3):147–153.
Effect of Chemical and Manual Release on Live Oak Sprouts and Other Vegetation in a Ponderosa Pine Plantation on a Poor Site
Authors: McDonald Philip M. , Fiddler Gary O.
Published: August 2019

In their quest to increase vegetation management alternatives, managers continue to test new treatments and to apply old ones to different species. In this northern California study, the new treatment was undiluted Velpar applied with a spot-gun; the old treatments were Garlon 3A, Garlon 4, and manual release; and the different species was canyon live oak (Quercus chrysolepis). Principal categories of vegetation in the new plantation were hardwoods (mostly live oak root-crown sprouts), shrubs, forbs, and grasses. Planted 2-yr-old ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa var. ponderosa) seedlings were part of the plant community. Eleven growing seasons after treatment (1988–1998), hardwood sprouts in the untreated control averaged 1,850/ac, combined shrubs over 3,600/ac, forbs 5,900/ac, and grasses more than 19,500/ac. Mean hardwood height in 1998 was significantly shorter when treated with Velpar and Garlon 4 than in the control. Significantly longer needles for pines in the Velpar and manual release treatments in 1989 forecast a significant difference among treatments that was realized in 1994, when mean stem diameter of pines at 12 in. above ground was significantly larger in all treatments than in the control. Stem height and diameter of pine did not differ significantly among treatments in 1998, but needle length again indicated that it would in the near future. Ten years may not be enough time to fully evaluate release treatments on poor sites with hard-to-control species. West. J. Appl, For. 18(1):22–28.
Tree Growth on Forested Wetlands of Southeastern Alaska Following Clearcutting
Authors: Julin Kent R. , D'Amore David V.
Published: August 2019

Growth of forested wetlands was investigated in this southeast Alaskan study. Eighteen young, even-aged stands dominated by western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) and Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) rooted in wet, organic soils (Histosols) were sampled. The soils were Cryohemists and Cryosaprists ranging in depth from 38 cm to more than 2 m. The stands were naturally regenerated, densely stocked, and had wood-volume production ranging from 12 to 78 m3/ha for 15- and 46-yr-old stands, respectively. These production rates are consistent with those estimated using a regional growth and yield model and applied in Tongass National Forest planning. If observed rates of growth are sustained, these stands would produce wood volume at a level nearly double the USDA Forest Service minimum standard for commercial timberland at culmination of mean annual increment. West. J. Appl. For. 18(1):30–34.
Ponderosa Pine and Lodgepole Pine Growth Response to One-Time Application of Herbicide During Seedling Establishment in Western Montana
Authors: Keyser Chad E. , Milner Kelsey S.
Published: August 2019

This study examined long-term diameter and height response of ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) and lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta var. latifolia) to a one-time application of herbicide during seedling establishment in western Montana. Two herbicide trials initiated in 1981 and 1983 by Champion International Corporation were resurrected during the summer of 1997. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) F-tests along with Duncan's Multiple Range tests (DMR) were performed on mean tree dbh, tree height, and competing vegetation percent cover estimates. In addition, a graphical analysis of mean annual height growth over time was performed. Significant increases (alpha = 0.05) in ponderosa pine dbh (25 to 44%) and height (11 to 28%) were found after 16 yr of growth on Velpar L. (hexazinone) treated plots, while lodgepole pine had significant increases in dbh (70 to 118%) and height (41 to 82%) after 15 yr of growth on Velpar L. treated plots. Graphical analyses indicated a positive height growth effect for a period of 11 to 13 yr following treatment for ponderosa pine; however, total height gains had decreased in recent years. Positive increases in height growth for lodgepole pine were continuing after 15 yr of growth. These results indicate that a one-time application of herbicide applied during seedling establishment will promote faster tree growth in western Montana. We also note that proper density management will be necessary early in the life of the stand to maintain height gains. West. J. Appl. For. 18(3):149–154.
An Analysis of Future Private Timber Supply Potential in Western Oregon
Authors: Schillinger Randall R. , Adams Darius M. , Latta Gregory S. , van Nalts Adrienne K.
Published: August 2019

Projections of potential supply with volume-flow and market-based models suggest that western Oregon forest industry owners could sustain cut at recent levels, stemming the 40 yr declining trend in their harvest. NIPF owners could raise harvests to near historical peak levels. These harvests would entail oscillating long-run inventories under the market projection and stable to declining inventories in the even-flow case. Average clearcut age would decline over the projection. Forest industry management would shift toward plantations with thinning and early density control. NIPF management would continue to depend on natural regeneration with increased use of commercial thinning. Simulated riparian protection policies lower harvest roughly in proportion to the land base reduction, raise log prices, and drive up the price of land not subject to restrictions. The present value of future net returns to private timberland owners would decline. A policy to extend the minimum age of clearcut harvest could have large near-term impacts on both industrial and NIPF owners. Prices rise sharply, and harvest declines in the near term. In the longer term, the policy acts like an enforced supply expansion, raising harvest and depressing prices. Timberland owners lose both in terms of income and in the reduction of bare land values due to lower product prices and harvest timing restrictions. West. J. Appl. For. 18(3):166–174.
Is There a Correct Stand Density Index? An Alternate Interpretation
Authors: Ducey Mark J. , Larson Bruce C.
Published: August 2019

Recent authors have asserted that the original form of Reineke's stand density index is flawed, and that an additive version represents the correct form. An examination of the literature provides no historical or mathematical reason why additivity should be required in the original index. Reineke's stand density index, and the additive or area-based stand density index, should be considered as separate indices with different properties. The sensitivity of the area-based index to stand diameter distribution is illustrated with the Weibull distribution. Its sensitivity provides testable hypotheses that could be used in empirical studies to determine the better index. West. J. Appl. For. 18(3):179–184.
Growth of Residual Branches on Pruned Coastal Douglas-Fir
Authors: Turnblom Eric C. , Collier Randol L.
Published: August 2019

Anecdotal evidence gathered from pruning crew observations indicates that there may be enhanced branch growth at the new crown base in young pruned coastal Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii) trees compared to unpruned trees. This has the potential to reduce the quality and value of the stem above the pruned portion of the bole. An analysis of the size of branches in the remaining crown on pruned trees and matched unpruned trees of the same size at the time of pruning indicates that residual branches do not increase in diameter or length in response to light and moderate pruning. However, with a severe pruning there was a modest increase in branch length. Residual branch size in response to pruning 4 yr after treatment appears to offer no real risk in degrading quality of the unpruned portion of the stem as a cost for increasing the quality of the pruned stem. West. J. Appl. For. 18(3):185–188.
The Dynamic Wyoming Timber Economy
Authors: Rideout Douglas B. , Hesseln Hayley
Published: August 2019

In the 1990s, the United States experienced unprecedented growth and prosperity while western timber economies experienced a series of national and international events that would challenge their future. This contrast of rapid national expansion amid regional challenge for the timber industry was related to a series of international monetary crises that depressed world commodity prices while domestic policy restricted timber supply. Higher prices, lower quantities, lower quality, longer haul distances, and industry consolidation all posed changes and challenges. These events affected Wyoming's timber processors as they attempted to adjust to the dynamic timber economy. Wyoming's dynamic economy suggests that changes, including the potential for consolidation, would be important considerations for industry officials and policy makers. West. J. Appl. For. 18(4):233–237.
Uphill and Downhill Gradeability of Log Trucks with Short Log Trailers
Authors: Chung Woodam , Sessions John
Published: August 2019

The use of cut-to-length systems has increased the use of short log truck and trailers in the western United States and elsewhere. The equations for uphill and downhill gradeability for loaded short log truck and trailer units are derived under conditions of nonturning motion. A sensitivity analysis shows both uphill and downhill gradeability of the short log truck and trailer is highly affected by the load distribution and is also affected by the angle of the tongue between the tractor and trailer. West. J. Appl. For. 19(2):88–94.
Early Warning System for Douglas-Fir Tussock Moth Outbreaks in the Western United States
Authors: Sheehan Katharine A. , Daterman Gary E. , Wenz John M.
Published: August 2019

The Early Warning System is a pheromone-based trapping system used to detect outbreaks of Douglas-fir tussock moth (DFTM, Orgyia pseudotsugata) in the western United States. Millions of acres are susceptible to DFTM defoliation, but Early Warning System monitoring focuses attention only on the relatively limited areas where outbreaks may be developing. During 20+ years of monitoring, the Early Warning System provided warnings of 1–3 years for seven of nine outbreaks. No warnings were provided for two outbreaks because of inadequate density and distribution of Early Warning System plots in those specific areas. Plots should be evenly distributed over host-type forests at a density of at least 1 Early Warning System plot per 3,000 ac. After potential outbreaks have been identified by the Early Warning System, ground sampling for egg masses and larvae is necessary to characterize local DFTM populations. West. J. Appl. For. 19(4):232–241.
Demand and Value of Firewood Permits as Determined by the Travel Cost Model
Authors: Markstrom Donald C. , Rosenthal Donald H.
Published: August 2019

The travel cost method is used to determine the value of trips to collect weekend firewood near the Denver-Boulder metropolitan area. The analysis indicated an average willingness to pay of $21.42 per cord for small live lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) stumpage. This value, including a $10.00 per cord permit fee, is directly comparable to values commonly assigned to other goods and services, such as sawlogs or recreation, for resource allocation. In particular, values obtained through the residual value timber appraisal system are analogous to this figure. West. J. Appl. For. 2(2):48-50, April 1987.
Wildfire Occurrence in Aspen in the Interior Western United States
Authors: DeByle Norbert V. , Bevins Collin D. , Fischer William C.
Published: August 2019

The western United States contains more than 7 million acres of quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides). On the majority of this acreage, aspen sprouted as even-aged stands after fires in the last 150 years. For several reasons, however, fire evidently is no longer playing its historic role of killing and regenerating western aspen stands. A survey was made of wildfire occurrence from 1970 through 1982 in aspen stands on National Forest lands in three Forest Service Regions. The survey data, expanded to include all aspen acreage, revealed that an average of 600 acres are annually consumed by fire. At this rate, it would require about 12,000 years to burn the entire aspen type in the West. During this time span, without management intervention, seral aspen will probably be replaced by conifers, and stable aspen stands may become all-aged and perhaps less productive. Use of prescribed fire is recommended. West. J. Appl. For. 2(3):73-76, July 1987.
The Secure Rural Schools Act, Federal Land Payments, and Property Tax Equivalency
Authors: Gebert Krista M. , Calkin David E. , Schuster Ervin G.
Published: August 2019

Federal land payments are a very important source of revenue for many county governments in the west. The concern of many is the extent to which these payments are equivalent to property tax revenues those lands would likely have generated if taxed as similar lands. Sustained decreases in federal revenue-sharing payments, along with passage of the Secure Rural Schools Act of 2000, have rekindled interest in this area. Building on a 1997 analysis of property tax equivalency, we simulated the effect of this new legislation on property tax equivalency for sampled counties aggregated to three western and one eastern region. Analyses confirm substantial increases in federal land payments and a corresponding improvement in overall tax equivalency throughout the country. However, much of the improvement is due to increased federal payments to counties that were already tax equivalent. Regardless of region, tax equivalent counties are more frequently characterized by lower taxes than higher federal land payments. West. J. Appl. For. 20(1):50–57.
Uprooting and Trenching to Control Annosus Root Disease in a Developed Recreation Site: 12-Year Results
Authors: Kliejunas John T. , Otrosina William J. , Allison James R.
Published: August 2019

Six annosus (Heterobasidion annosum) root disease centers in a proposed campground on the north shore of Big Bear Lake in southern California were treated in 1989. Trees, stumps, and roots were removed in six disease centers, and in two cases, soil trenching was used to stop the progress of the disease. A total of 154 trees and 26 stumps were removed; 300 linear feet of trenching was done around two disease centers. Of 101 trees sampled, 47% were infected with H. annosum. Sixteen percent of infected trees exhibited no visible crown symptoms. The pathogen was isolated from 50% of roots that showed resinosis and 14% of roots not exhibiting resinosis. Only the P biological species was present on living, infected Jeffrey pine and juniper roots. Twelve years after treatment, all six sites appear to be disease free with no aboveground symptoms of root infection. Tree mortality is continuing on untreated disease centers in this recreation area. West. J. Appl. For. 20(3):154–159.
A Comparison of the Costs of Forest Service and Contract Fire Crews in the Pacific Northwest
Authors: Donovan Geoffrey H.
Published: August 2019

Rising wildfire suppression expenditures on public land in the United States have led to increased scrutiny of wildfire management practices. One area that has received particular attention is the Forest Service's increasing reliance on contract fire crews. Because a contract crew rate includes several costs that are not included in the wage costs of a Forest Service crew, it is difficult to determine if this increasing reliance on contract fire crews increases or decreases wildfire suppression costs. The full cost of 33 Forest Service type II fire crews dispatched during the 2003 fire season from five national forests in Oregon and Washington are estimated and compared with the cost of contract crews dispatched in the same region. Results suggest that if sufficient work is available to keep a Forest Service crew productively employed throughout a fire season, then the daily cost of a Forest Service type II crew is lower than the daily cost of a contract crew. West. J. Appl. For. 20(4):233–239.
Development of a New Deer Repellent for the Protection of Forest Resources
Authors: Kimball Bruce A. , Nolte Dale L.
Published: August 2019

We have identified hydrolyzed casein as a promising repellent for minimizing damage to forest resources inflicted by browsing ungulates. Eight and twelve percent hydrolyzed casein formulations prepared in water with a latex-based agricultural sticker significantly reduced browse damage by captive black-tailed deer (Odocoileus hemionus columbianus) to western redcedar (Thuja plicata) saplings. These repellent formulations can be prepared by the user at significant cost savings versus commercial products.