bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Community Transformation
Authors: Kruse Tina P.
Published: February 2019

This chapter provides a foundational overview of community development theory as fodder for connecting community change to youth social entrepreneurship. The chapter includes special attention to elements of community development such as community asset-mapping and community social capital. To round out the argument that youth social entrepreneurs effect community change, the reader will consider research on youth organizing and activism, with an eye to meaningful community engagement. Finally, the chapter attends to the tricky but imperative issue of how community members (e.g., adults) can reciprocally support youth in their social change efforts. This dynamic form of engagement is referred to here as “youth–adult partnerships.”
The Global Context for Youth Social Entrepreneurship
Authors: Kruse Tina P.
Published: February 2019

This chapter engages a more inclusive view of youth social entrepreneurship because it explores the practices of youth-focused social entrepreneurship outside of the United States. This chapter situates the youth social entrepreneurship model within the informal economy that has existed in every geographic context across human history. Then the chapter embarks on descriptions of sample organizations in countries other than the United States that aim to promote social entrepreneurship. These examples are categorized by region and differentiated by whether they exist within developed or developing countries. Last, the chapter identifies examples of international efforts that cross borders to promote social entrepreneurship among youth.
Combining Minds
Authors: Roelofs Luke
Published: February 2019

This book explores a neglected philosophical question: How do groups of interacting minds relate to singular minds? Could several of us, by organizing ourselves the right way, constitute a single conscious mind that contains our minds as parts? And could each of us have been, all along, a group of mental parts in close cooperation? Scientific progress seems to be slowly revealing that all the different physical objects around us are, at root, just a matter of the right parts put together in the right ways: How far could the same be true of minds? This book argues that we are too used to seeing the mind as an indivisible unity and that understanding our place in nature requires being willing to see minds as composite systems, simultaneously one conscious whole and many conscious parts. In thinking through the implications of such a shift of perspective, the book relates the question of mental combination to a range of different theories of the mind (in particular panpsychism, functionalism, and Neo-Lockeanism about personal identity) and identifies, clarifies, and addresses a wide array of philosophical objections (concerning personal identity, the unity of consciousness, the privacy of experience, and other issues) that have been raised against the idea of composite minds. The result is an account of the metaphysics of composition and consciousness that can illuminate many different debates in philosophy of mind, concerning split brains, collective intentionality, and the combination problem, among others.
Pakistani Madrasas
Authors: Siddiqa Ayesha
Published: February 2019

Ayesha Siddiqa’s chapter traces the complex dynamics of the connections between the Pakistani education system and the Gulf monarchies by examining the state and nature of Pakistani Sunni madrasas. The role of the madrasas in the education system is explained by placing them in their cultural and socio-political context. The chapter expands upon the Saudi Arabian and Gulf funding received by these institutions and the politico-ideological interests motivating the same. Three waves of progressive consolidation of such Saudi-Gulf influence are mapped out to show the ‘mutual influence’ emphasized in Chapter 1 being replaced by a top-down patronage system driven by some Gulf monarchies. A resulting expansion of the Deobandi and Ahl-i-Hadith seminaries is therefore presented as proof of South Asian Islam moving further away from its Sufi-based idiosyncrasies.
Explaining Variation in Borrowing Portfolios
Authors: Bunte Jonas B.
Published: February 2019

This chapter illustrates that borrowing patterns differ significantly across developing countries, even if they have the same credit rating, income level, and degree of democracy. Some rely on private creditors, others on multilateral institutions; some use loans from Western governments like the United States, while others borrow from emerging creditor governments such as China. These empirical patterns suggest that it is not only creditors who determine loan allocations, but that recipient governments have preferences and act upon them. This book argues that governments choose their creditors to satisfy the demands by the dominant societal interest groups. These groups prefer one type of creditor to others because the conditions attached to the monetary transfers imply positive (or negative) distributional consequences for the groups. The chapter concludes with a preview of the qualitative and quantitative evidence presented later in the book.
How Governments Choose Their Creditors
Authors: Bunte Jonas B.
Published: February 2019

This chapter introduces a demand-side theory to explain how governments choose their creditors. Labor, Industry, and Finance are important interest groups in recipient countries. Their governments can borrow from four types of creditors: Western governments, BRIC governments, multilateral institutions, and private creditors. These creditors may offer the same loan amount, but the strings attached to their loans differ. Therefore, the expected distributional consequences of a particular loan differ across domestic interest groups. Policymakers try to satisfy the two most influential groups simultaneously by borrowing from the creditor that is jointly preferred by both groups. A government will rely on loans from BRICs if a Corporatist Coalition between Labor and Industry dominates the political landscape. In contrast, governments will tend to borrow from private creditors if a Capital Coalition between Finance and Industry predominates, but will obtain loans by Western governments if faced with a Consumer Coalition between Labor and Finance.
Generalizing the Findings with Statistical Analyses
Authors: Bunte Jonas B.
Published: February 2019

Qualitative evidence is useful in tracing the process by which borrowing decisions are made. However, the question is how generalizable the findings from Ecuador, Colombia, and Peru are to other developing countries. Statistical analyses can provide insights into whether domestic political dynamics within recipient countries affect borrowing portfolios across developing countries. This chapter describes three challenges that need to be resolved before such analyses are possible: First, data on incoming loans must be obtained, which is particularly difficult for Chinese loans. Second, estimating the political strength of societal interest groups is challenging, as it cannot be observed directly. Third, analyzing a compositional variable (i.e., the loan shares of four creditors that must add up to 100%) presents a methodological challenge: increasing the share of loans obtained from one type of creditor must be matched by a corresponding decrease in the share of loans obtained from other creditors.
Governments’ Borrowing Decisions across the Developing World
Authors: Bunte Jonas B.
Published: February 2019

Societal coalition shape governments’ borrowing decisions across the developing world. The analyses use a compositional data model to estimate the effect of societal coalitions on the share of loans obtained from four types of creditors. The results indicate that borrowing portfolios differ significantly across coalitions: Corporatist Coalitions rely primarily on BRIC loans, Capital Coalitions on private creditors, Consumer Coalitions on bilateral loans from Western governments. These differences remain significant after controlling for economic factors (recipient GDP, current account, existing debt levels, trade, and natural resources) and political considerations (democracies versus autocracies, type of electoral system, or government ideology). Furthermore, the results are robust to analyzing China separately from Brazil, India, and Russia, as well as when combining Western bilateral with multilateral loans. The evidence strongly supports the argument that developing countries make choices among competing loan offers.
Shia-centric State-Building and Sunni Rejection in Post-2003 Iraq
Authors: Haddad Fanar
Published: February 2019

Both Shia-centric state building and Sunni rejection of the post-2003 order are the result of cumulative processes that have unfolded over the course of the twentieth century. These developments ranged from the homogenizing nation building propagated by successive Iraqi regimes to the rise of a sect-centric Shia opposition in exile. The sectarianization of Iraq was not inevitable, but regime change in 2003 accelerated the empowerment of new and preexisting sect-centric actors. The necessary will, vision, and political skill to avert the sectarianization of Iraq were absent among Iraqi and U.S. decisionmakers at the time. The failure of the occupation forces and the new political classes to construct a functioning state that could deliver basic services exacerbated the problem. Sunni opponents of the post-2003 order became as sect-centric as the system they once derided for its Shia-centricity. Sectarianization will continue to define Iraqi politics. The spread of the self-proclaimed Islamic State across much of Iraq in 2014 represents the most extreme form of Sunni rejection,while the state-sanctioned Hashd al-Shaabi, the term given to the mass mobilization of volunteers to repel the Islamic State, embodies the most serious defense of Shia-centric state building as of late 2015.
Religious Sectarianism and Political Pragmatism
Authors: Lacroix Stéphane
Published: February 2019

The Salafi movement in Egypt illustrates that the dynamics of sectarianism are fluid and sometimes contradictory. Over the last five years, the Salafi party, Hizb al-Nour, has taken a pragmatic, flexible approach to politics, but maintained its intransigent religious stances. While the party has made several political concessions and decisions that go against the Salafi doctrine, it considered them necessary to protect the “interest of the Da‘wa” and hold its position of influence among society—justifications that the Salafi Da‘wa, the religious organization behind Hizb al-Nour, has largely accepted despite some internal conflict. Arguably, in contrast to the Muslim Brotherhood, Hizb al-Nour does not behave like an Islamist party, at least in its current form; for Salafis, politics is just a means to an end. The party’s recent stances, especially during the military takeover in July 2013 and in its aftermath, can best be explained by analyzing Hizb al-Nour not as an Islamist party, but as the lobbying arm of a religious organization. The paradox of the party’s extreme political pragmatism and its rigidity and sectarianism at the doctrinal level seems sustainable and likely to remain.
The Forest
Authors: Kingsbury Benjamin
Published: February 2019

A history of the Sundarbans mangrove forest of Bakarganj, on the western edge of the Meghna estuary. By 1876 much of this forest had disappeared. The deforestation of the Sundarbans was driven by an imperial idea of “improvement” and the government’s ever-increasing hunger for land revenue. In the course of the nineteenth century the government became aware of the Sundarbans’ role in reducing cyclone damage, but did nothing to preserve the remaining forest in Bakarganj. Many of those who drowned in the storm-wave were living on land that had until recently been forested.
Russian "Hybrid Warfare"
Authors: Fridman Ofer
Published: February 2019

During the last decade, 'Hybrid Warfare' has become a novel yet controversial term in academic, political and professional military lexicons, intended to suggest some sort of mix between different military and non-military means and methods of confrontation. Enthusiastic discussion of the notion has been undermined by conceptual vagueness and political manipulation, particularly since the onset of the Ukrainian crisis in early 2014, as ideas about Hybrid Warfare engulf Russia and the West, especially in the media. Western defense and political specialists analyzing Russian responses to the crisis have been quick to confirm that Hybrid Warfare is the Kremlin's main strategy in the twenty-first century. But many respected Russian strategists and political observers contend that it is the West that has been waging Hybrid War, Gibridnaya Voyna, since the end of the Cold War. In this highly topical book, Ofer Fridman offers a clear delineation of the conceptual debates about Hybrid Warfare. What leads Russian experts to say that the West is conducting a Gibridnaya Voyna against Russia, and what do they mean by it? Why do Western observers claim that the Kremlin engages in Hybrid Warfare? And, beyond terminology, is this something genuinely new?
Legal Translation Outsourced
Authors: Scott Juliette R.
Published: February 2019

This highly interdisciplinary practitioner research explores the outsourced legal translation environment, with a view to optimizing fundamental aspects of procurement—commissioning and performance. The results of a global survey are analysed: participants comprised 84 principals, for the most part from leading law firms and corporations, and 303 legal translation practitioners (41 countries, 6 continents). Concepts from corporate agency theory are used to shed light on market dysfunctions, such as a tortuous chain of supply, while perspectives from genre theory, comparative law, and functionalist translation studies are applied to offer a multidimensional model for legal translation performance, and to foreground its risks and constraints. Fitness-for-purpose is examined as a workable quality criterion associated with translation briefs supplied. Professionalization and empowerment are raised as key factors with potential to significantly improve target text quality. Extensive fieldwork has brought to light ‘hot spots’ for risk, such as severely impeded information flows, insufficient interaction between market actors, and deficient translation briefs. The groundwork for dissemination to practice has already been laid, for example using a briefing template specifically developed for the outsourcing of legal translation, set to benefit commissioning clients by increasing the fitness-for-purpose of translated texts. The types of legal texts outsourced have proved in many instances to be highly sensitive, which further emphasizes the gravity of the problem and the need to take action.
Keshab
Authors: Stevens John
Published: February 2019

Keshab Chandra Sen (1838-84) was one of the most powerful and controversial figures in nineteenth-century Bengal. A religious leader and social reformer, his universalist interpretation of Hinduism found mass appeal in India, and generated considerable interest in Britain. His ideas on British imperial rule, religion and spirituality, global history, universalism and modernity were all influential, and his visit to England made him a celebrity. Many Britons regarded him as a prophet of world-historical significance. Keshab was the subject of extreme adulation and vehement criticism. Accounts tell of large crowds prostrating themselves before him, believing him to be an avatar. Yet he died with relatively few followers, his reputation in both India and Britain largely ruined. As a representative of India, Keshab became emblematic of broad concerns regarding Hinduism and Christianity, science and faith, India and the British Empire. This innovative study explores the transnational historical forces that shaped Keshab's life and work. It offers an alternative religious history of empire, characterized by intercultural dialogue and religious syncretism. A fascinating and often tragic portrait of Keshab's experience of the imperial world, and the ways in which he carried meaning for his contemporaries.
Interview With Official Spokesman Abu Mus‘Ab Al-Barnawi
Authors: Cook David
Published: February 2019

(27 JANUARY 2015)

[Trans.: Abdulbasit Kassim]

Available at: http://jihadology.net/2015/01/27/al-urwah-al-wuthqa-foundation-presents-a-new-video-message-from-from-boko-%e1%b8%a5arams-jamaat-ahl-al-sunnah-li-dawah-wa-l-jihad-interview-with-the-official-spokesma/

From 3–7 January 2015, Boko Haram attacked Baga, a town on the border with Chad, and gained control over the military base of the multinational Joint Task Force. According to Amnesty International, the attack on Baga, which claimed as many as 2,000 lives, was the deadliest attack in the history of Boko Haram. Although the Nigerian military underestimated the number of casualties, Abu Mus‘ab al-Barnawi, son of Muhammad Yusuf, in this interview explained the reasons Boko Haram attacked Baga and the strategic importance of the city to the group and the Nigerian military. This video and the next video (text 54) are unique for the fact that they were issued under a new media agency, al-‘Urwa al-Wuthqā, and did not mention Shekau at all, while the style and contents of the videos carry many of the messages of Ansaru, protesting Muslim civilian deaths. It is likely that the speaker in this video represented a faction of Boko Haram that comprised of former Ansaru members who reintegrated with Boko Haram ...
Exposé: An Open Letter to Abubakar Shekau
Authors: Nur Mamman
Published: February 2019

(4 AUGUST 2016)

[Trans.: Abdulbasit Kassim]

Available at: https://soundcloud.com/saharareporters/2016-08-04-audio-00000003-1

This video is a scathing attack upon Shekau and the direction in which he has led Boko Haram by Mamman Nur, one of the oldest veterans of the movement (see text 18). From summer 2015 through spring 2016 Boko Haram carried out a long string of suicide attacks, usually using young female suicide attackers, against mosques, market places, and refugee centers throughout the territories in northeastern Nigeria and northern Cameroon that it had controlled the previous year. Most probably, unless this was purely nihilistic violence, Shekau viewed these attacks as punishment for apostasy on the part of Boko Haram’s former subjects. Those numerous attacks against refugee centers are particularly indicative, as most of the people living in them are originally from towns and villages that were controlled by Boko Haram and are still too dangerous to return to. Nur attacks Shekau’s strategy in terms that are strongly reminiscent of al-Zawahiri’s attack upon al-Zarqawi in 2005...
Slavery and Class in the American South
Authors: Andrews William L.
Published: February 2019

In this study of an entire generation of slave narrators, more than sixty mid-nineteenth-century narratives reveal how work, family, skills, and connections made for social and economic differences among the enslaved of the South. Slavery and Class in the American South explains why social and economic distinctions developed and how they functioned among the enslaved. Andrews also reveals how class awareness shaped the views and values of some of the most celebrated African Americans of the nineteenth century. Slave narrators discerned class-based reasons for violence between “impudent,” “gentleman,” and “lady” slaves and their resentful “mean masters.” Status and class played key roles in the lives and liberation of the most celebrated fugitives from US slavery, such as Frederick Douglass, Harriet Jacobs, William Wells Brown, and William and Ellen Craft. By examining the lives of the most- and least-acclaimed heroes and heroines of the African American slave narrative, Andrews shows how the dividing edge of social class cut two ways, sometimes separating upper and lower strata of slaves to their enslavers’ advantage, but at other times fueling convictions among even the most privileged of the enslaved that they deserved nothing less than complete freedom.
Blavatsky and Reincarnation
Authors: Chajes Julie
Published: February 2019

Chapter 1 introduces Helena Blavatsky and explains her importance. It gives an account of her ancestry, childhood, education, religious background, and character, her early marriage to Nikifor Blavatsky (1809–after 1877), and her ‘veiled years’. It documents her public life, beginning in 1873 with her arrival in America, where she met Henry Steel Olcott (1832–1907). Contextualising its emergence in American metaphysical religion, the chapter gives an account of the foundation of the Theosophical Society in New York City in 1875 and the writings and publication of Blavatsky’s two major works: Isis Unveiled (1877) and The Secret Doctrine (1888). It recounts her move to India and argues she first started teaching the doctrine of reincarnation with which she is usually associated around 1882, while living on the subcontinent. The chapter concludes with a consideration of Theosophy’s historical and cultural importance, and its legacy.
Platonism
Authors: Chajes Julie
Published: February 2019

Chapter 5 argues that Blavatsky’s works are an important site for the intersection of occultist thought with nineteenth-century Classicism. It shows that Blavatsky initially argued that Pythagoras and Plato were advocates of metempsychosis and that later, she said they taught reincarnation. The chapter considers the relationship between Blavatsky’s rebirth teachings and her constructions of the ancient Greeks, situating her interest within a far-ranging nineteenth-century fascination with Classical civilisation. It argues that Blavatsky’s interpretations had substantial anti-establishment elements and that they were influenced by her friend, the American physician Alexander Wilder (1823–1908), himself a member of an American Platonic tradition with roots in Transcendentalism and the thought of the English neo-Platonist Thomas Taylor (1758–1835). The chapter shows that Blavatsky drew on her sources to construe the Greeks according to an occultist exegesis that claimed Hellenism had an Oriental source and located parallels for Greek rebirth ideas in Hebraic, Gnostic, and Indian thought.
4E Cognition and Eighteenth-Century Fiction
Authors: Kukkonen Karin
Published: February 2019

The early novel developed modes of writing that are considered gripping and immersive, because they foreground physical states, meaningful gestures, and emotional excitement. This monograph shows how these changes relate to “embodied” and “enactive” cognition, “embed” themselves into the cultural and material contexts, and “extend” readers’ thoughts. In an investigation of works from Eliza Haywood, Charlotte Lennox, Sarah Fielding, and Frances Burney, it traces the ways in which such “4E cognition” can contribute to a new perspective on stylistic and narrative changes in eighteenth-century fiction. The embodied dimension of literary language is then related to the media ecologies of letter writing, book learning, and theatricality in the eighteenth century. As the novel feeds off and into these social and material contexts, it comes into its own as a lifeworld technology that might not answer to standards of nineteenth-century realism but that feels real because it is integrated into the lifeworld and its embodied experiences. Together with the issue of realism, this book revisits traditional understandings of the “rise of the novel” and earlier historical perspectives in cognitive literary studies. And the perspective from 4E cognition, it is argued, opens links to book history and media ecologies that can launch historically situated cognitive approaches to literature.
Introduction: How the Novel Found Its Feet
Authors: Kukkonen Karin
Published: February 2019

The introduction presents an outline of 4E approaches to cognition and sketches how these approaches are brought to bear on developments in the eighteenth-century novel in this book. 4E cognition conceptualises cognition as embodied (as thinking is rooted in our bodies and their movement), embedded (as the mind/body connects to social environments and interactions with others), extended (as cognitive processes involve both the mind/body and material artefacts from the environment), and enactive (as perception depends on the body). The chapter briefly relates the contribution of this book to earlier work on literature from a 4E perspective in cognitive literary studies, as well as to the interest in materialism and book history in eighteenth-century studies.
Haywood: Shaping a Fictional Language of Embodiment
Authors: Kukkonen Karin
Published: February 2019

This chapter traces how the eighteenth-century novel develops a language of emotional involvement and embodied intensity through the works of Eliza Haywood. It discusses Haywood’s early works in amatory fiction, her later reflections on the mid-century novel, and her translations from the French. Haywood’s works are related to the integration of letters in novel writing and to the context of the theatre, as this chapter works towards an account of embodied style that is embedded in contemporary media ecologies. In more general terms, models of embodiment in fiction are specified through the way in which these media differences give rise to stances in embodied writing and modulations of joint attention between readers and narrators that make the literary language of embodiment go beyond the mere simulation of bodily states.
Lennox: Repertoires of Embodiment
Authors: Kukkonen Karin
Published: February 2019

This chapter begins with a systematic comparison of seventeenth- and eighteenth-century styles of embodied language through versions of the same narrative in French and English. Lennox’s work as a cultural broker and translator aims not only to bring narratives rooted in the seventeenth century into her contemporary literary world but also to extend their repertoires of embodied language. In her translations, she integrates instances of inner and outer bodily perception and grounds direct speech in the characters’ bodies. With Lennox’s literary magazine The Lady’s Museum, it will be shown how the novel and its embodied style are embedded in a larger world of book learning. The relations that Lennox establishes between the serialised novel, short forms like the maxim, and educational treatises document an understanding of the role of the novel that differs from the indices and abridgements around Samuel Richardson’s Pamela and Clarissa.
Burney: Writing Life and Fiction
Authors: Kukkonen Karin
Published: February 2019

This chapter traces the interfaces between Frances Burney’s use of embodied language in her novels and her life-writing in journals and diaries. It considers how Burney inhabits a world of letters through her familiarity with poetry and plays (performed in amateur theatricals) and how this surfaces, in particular in her use of free indirect discourse, both in her life-writing and in her novels. Burney’s practice` of writing and editing is investigated through an analysis of the different stages of composition in the manuscripts for her tragedies. Burney’s reflection of conduct book writing and the emergent form of the Bildungsroman are related to how her encounter with Madame de Genlis features in her life-writing and in Camilla. Across life-writing and fiction, Burney keeps renegotiating the embodied style developed throughout the eighteenth century.
The Novel as a Lifeworld Technology
Authors: Kukkonen Karin
Published: February 2019

This chapter makes the proposal to conceive of the novel as a lifeworld technology. It bases this argument on the ways in which the eighteenth-century novel has been shown to integrate contemporary media (such as letters, books of maxims, the theatre and educational literature) into its narratives and to reflect on its workings, in particular through embodied uses of language and its modulations in literary style. Such aspects of the lifeworld technology are proposed to constitute the feeling of the “real” in the novel in the period. Beyond the historically situated analyses and arguments of the case studies, the notion of the novel as a lifeworld technology is also shown to open new conversations between literary studies based on 4E cognition, actor-network theory, media archeology and posthuman approaches.
Indonesia
Authors: Bianchi Robert R.
Published: February 2019

With Indonesia, the Chinese are doubly vulnerable. Racial and religious prejudice against Indonesians of Chinese descent threatens both government and private business deals. At the same time, Jakarta is determined to project maritime power and to lead the creation of a broader Pacific community—ambitions that openly contradict China’s desire for preeminence in East Asia. Indonesian politicians can use the threat of Islamic militancy to great advantage, seeming to restrain it when Beijing is pliable and quietly encouraging it when China becomes overbearing. President Joko Widodo skillfully challenges China on maritime disputes while enlisting its economic support to fend off hard-line Muslims and nationalists. But in the capital city of Jakarta, the incumbent governor—a Chinese Indonesian—was ousted by an openly racist campaign that many mainstream Muslim leaders failed to denounce.
Iran
Authors: Bianchi Robert R.
Published: February 2019

The recent uprisings in Iran provide a poignant example of a common dilemma in authoritarian regimes. The mullahs and security forces can contain the blazes with Chinese-inspired controls over the internet and social media, but they cannot prevent future ignitions or rule out a wider conflagration. On the other hand, reformers have little hope of winning meaningful freedoms or promoting a less adventurous foreign policy. There is no sign of an authoritarian silver bullet to quash unrest or of a revolutionary breakthrough that could propel the country in a new direction. As Beijing expands the New Silk Road, it confronts similar problems in one country after another. Stronger linkages between domestic politics and transnational relations promote ongoing turmoil and crisis management across interdependent regions and cultures. Although this represents an important surge in transcontinental connectivity, it is hardly the kind that Chinese planners anticipated.
Egypt
Authors: Bianchi Robert R.
Published: February 2019

China’s misgivings toward Egypt flow from an awareness of the vulnerability of its military rulers. For Egyptians, the Arab Spring replaced a hated dictator with an even more ruthless tyrant, creating the expectation that another revolt was just a matter of time. Egypt has few assets to recommend it as a Silk Road partner. It is in perpetual debt with declining diplomatic influence—especially as China develops multiple routes to bypass the costly Suez Canal. Geopolitically, Egypt is unstable and marginalized. Economically, it seems like a bottomless pit that no single donor can rescue. Religiously, it has crushed all hopes for a liberal Islamic future, allowing extremists to fill the vacuum. The more Cairo presses Beijing for larger investments, the more the Chinese back away—convinced that the country is ruled by a frightened and greedy clique intent on wringing as much profit as possible from foreigners and Egyptians alike.
Break all the Borders
Authors: Ahram Ariel I.
Published: February 2019

Since 2011, civil wars and state failure have beset the Arab world, underlying the perceived misalignment between national borders and identity in the region. This book is about the separatist movements that aim to remake those borders—the Southern Movement in Yemen, the federalists in eastern Libya, Kurdish nationalists in Syria and Iraq, and the Islamic State (IS). These movements took advantage of state breakdown to seize territory and set up states-within-states. They ran schools, hospitals, and court systems. Their militias provided security to those whom the state had failed. Separatists drew inspiration from the ideals of self-determination that emerged after World War I during the brief “Wilsonian moment.” They built off the historical legacies of prior state-building projects that had failed to gain recognition. New international norms, such as responsibility to protect, offered them hope to correct mistakes of the past. Separatists reached out to the international community for acknowledgement and support. Some served as crucial allies in the campaign against terrorism. Yet the United States and the rest of the international community refused to grant them the recognition they sought. This book shows how understanding the separatist movements’ efforts to break borders in their own terms can help illuminate avenues toward a more stable regional order in the Arab world.
Introduction
Authors: Kekes John
Published: February 2019

The book is concerned with what we personally can do to answer hard questions we face in our personal and social circumstances. Reasonable answers depend on a critical examination of anthropological, historical, and literary contexts in which others struggled to give reasonable answers to hard questions. Our understanding of our possibilities and limits are enriched by learning from the good and bad examples of others. Each of the following chapters compares and critically examines two conflicting answers given by two people to the same hard question they faced in different circumstances.
Must We Conform?
Authors: Kekes John
Published: February 2019

This chapter compares Melville’s Bartleby and the Venetian atheist savant, Sarpi. Bartleby lived a miserable life in nineteenth-century New York City. His inner resources were meager, and quiet desperation eventually led him to refuse to conform any longer. He died of self-inflicted inanition. The other lived in sixteenth-century Venice. His inner resources were considerable, and they enabled him to wear a lifelong mask hiding what he really believed. Both had reasons for the different answers they gave to the hard question. Comparison between their responses makes it possible for us from a distance to evaluate whether conformity was or was not reasonable for them and whether it would be reasonable for us as we face the question of whether we should conform to our conditions. I follow Montaigne in concluding that although circumstances may force us to make prudent compromises, there is a limit beyond which we should not go. But what that limit is varies with social and personal circumstances.
Must Justice Be Done at All Costs?
Authors: Kekes John
Published: February 2019

In the Tibetan Sherpa society, the dominant value was social harmony, and it was valued much more than justice. In ancient Greece, Sophocles’s Creon and Antigone thought that the dominant value was justice, but they radically disagreed about whether it was primarily political or religious. The comparison in the chapter is between a Sherpa who had reason for accepting the unjust treatment he received and Creon and Antigone who had reasons for defending what they took to be justice at great cost to themselves, others, and social harmony. This chapter is concerned with evaluating the reasons for and against regarding justice as necessary. The crucial point is that there are good reasons for both of the conflicting answers, but they vary with the contexts of those who face the question. And that rules out the possibility of relying on an absolute value that could determine when justice is and is not necessary. We can then ask ourselves whether we in our context would be reasonable in regarding justice as necessary even if it conflicts, for instance, with peace, compassion, or loyalty to those we love. And that must be an individual, not a social, decision.
Should We Forgive Wrong Actions?
Authors: Kekes John
Published: February 2019

The question is considered by comparing the reasons for and against forgiving two men whose actions were wrong. Captain Vere in Billy Budd did wrong in the course of discharging his duty to uphold military law. It required him in time of war to hang a morally innocent although legally guilty person. The other was Albert Speer, who was responsible for German war production in the latter part of World War II. His dedication and efficiency prolonged the already lost war for years, during which time millions were killed. Both had reasons for and against their actions. Whether it is right to forgive them depends on how wrong their actions were; whether their actions were isolated episodes in their lives or part of a pattern; whether the war in which they acted was just; whether they regretted their actions; and whether they had reasonable alternatives. This chapter shows that the reasons for and against forgiveness vary with persons, actions, and contexts. If by thinking about these cases we realize that forgiveness is neither always right, nor always wrong, then we see that reasonable answers to this hard question must vary from case to case. Given that, I claim that there are good reasons for forgiving Vere for the one episode of killing of a morally innocent person and against forgiving Speer for the pattern of his actions that led to the deaths of millions of innocent people.
The Politics of Consumer Credit in the UK, 1938-1992
Authors: Aveyard Stuart , Corthorn Paul , O'Connell Sean
Published: February 2019

Over a decade on from the ‘credit crunch’ and with recurring warnings of the potential for a repeat of that financial trauma, this book offers the first sustained historical investigation of the politics of consumer credit in modern Britain. It explains why, by the 1980s, Britain had the most diverse and liberalized consumer credit sector in Europe. This was the result of myriad factors and was not simply the product of a shift to neo-liberal thinking. The Politics of Consumer Credit in the UK explores how the UK government often struggled to manage the burgeoning consumer credit sector between the 1930s and the 1990s. Also inspected are the important role of actors with varying degrees of influence on policymaking, ranging from the Bank of England, the representatives of consumer finance associations and consumer durable manufacturers, and consumers and their spokespersons. The book’s central focus is on consumer credit, but it also provides a case study through which a number of important areas of British history can be re-examined. Issues discussed here include: the ‘post-war consensus’ and its demise; the impact of rising home ownership and its consumer credit; the rise of affluence and the responses to this of the major political parties; the management of consumer society from both a consumer protection perspective as well as in terms of macroeconomic policy; class, gender, and race and equitable access to personal financial products; and the place of consumer credit in Keynesianism, neo-liberalism, and privatized Keynesianism.
God and Christ in Irenaeus
Authors: Briggman Anthony
Published: February 2019

For too long certain scholars have been content to portray Irenaeus of Lyons as rather stupid, a well-meaning churchman but incompetent theologian. The Irenaeus that emerges from a careful reading of his polemical and constructive arguments, as this book demonstrates, is highly educated, trained in the rhetorical arts, aware of general philosophical positions, and able to use both rhetorical and philosophical theories and methods in his argumentation. Moreover, the theological account laid down by his pen was original and sophisticated, supremely so for one of the second century. In contrast to readings that minimize the metaphysical dimension of Irenaeus’ theology, this study shows that his conception of the divine being as infinite and simple, the reciprocal immanence of the Word-Son and God the Father, divine generation, the union of the divine Word-Son and human nature in the person of Christ, and the revelatory activity of the infinite and incomprehensible Word-Son, amongst other features of his theology detailed in these chapters, are pillars of his polemical argumentation and constructive theology. What emerges from these pages, then, is a fundamentally new understanding of Irenaeus and his thought.
Christ and his Work
Authors: Briggman Anthony
Published: February 2019

Chapter 2 through 4 lead on to Chapter 5. Having established Irenaeus’ understanding of the nature of the divine being, the Word-Son, and the person of Christ, this chapter shows that central aspects of Irenaeus’ account of the economic activity of Christ are grounded upon his understanding of God. It constitutes the final movement in my argument that scholars have underappreciated—or failed to appreciate altogether—the significance of metaphysics to Irenaeus’ theology. This chapter consists of two sections. The first focuses on AH 3.18.7, wherein Irenaeus founds essential features of the economy of salvation upon the divinity of Christ—namely, the security of salvation, the reception of incorruptibility, and the adoption as children of God. The second section shows that Irenaeus’ understanding of the revelatory activity of the Word-Son in the Old Testament theophanies and incarnation is based upon his conception of the divine being as infinite and incomprehensible.
Conclusion
Authors: Briggman Anthony
Published: February 2019

The Conclusion summarizes previous findings and locates Irenaeus in the Christian tradition. Irenaeus was the first Christian to attribute infinitude to God and possibly the first to attribute simplicity to God. Irenaeus, and not Origen, is also the first to affirm the eternal generation of the Word-Son. This being the case his conception of divine generation is more advanced than Theophilus of Antioch and Tertullian. Irenaeus is the first theologian after the New Testament writings to affirm both the eternal unity and diversity of the divine being. He is also the first to attempt to explain, by utilizing Stoic mixture theory, how the two realities of the incarnate Word-Son function as one reality. The bishop of Lyons, therefore, emerges as a subtle and eclectic thinker able to use philosophical and rhetorical ideas in order to substantiate his understanding of the apostolic tradition and the hypothesis of Scripture.
Introduction
Authors: Briggman Anthony
Published: February 2019

When it comes to the history of Christian thought, Irenaeus is most famous as the greatest opponent of Gnosticism in the early Church. For that reason his polemic has received considerable attention and at times his polemical significance has overshadowed his importance as a theologian. But a focus on his polemical significance was not the only thing that discouraged nuanced analysis of his theological account. For his theological ability and even intelligence have been impugned for generations. As a result central aspects of Irenaeus’ thought have gone unexplored—especially the metaphysical dimension of his theology. This Introduction locates this study within the scholarly conversation about Irenaeus that has taken place over the past two centuries, and then summarizes the themes and chapters that constitute the study proper.
The Ulster Unionist Party
Authors: Hennessey Thomas , Braniff Máire , McAuley James W. , Tonge Jonathan , Whiting Sophie A.
Published: February 2019

This book undertakes the first detailed membership study of the Ulster Unionist Party (UUP). The UUP was the dominant political party in Northern Ireland during the twentieth century, but since the 1998 Belfast Agreement, the UUP has struggled to retain the loyalty and affection of many within the majority Protestant-Unionist-British community. The Belfast Agreement was internationally lauded, the UUP leader David Trimble feted with a Nobel Peace Prize.The Agreement largely produced by the UUP established power-sharing between unionists and nationalists. Yet many unionists abandoned the UUP. Many defectors, angered by UUP concessions of paramilitary prisoner releases, policing changes, and ‘terrorists’ in government, wanted a more robust defender of unionist interests. Having switched to the one-time ferociously religious and militant DUP, they have not returned to the UUP. This book analyses these developments and the current state of the Party, particularly through the prism of its (still sizeable) membership. It draws upon the first-ever quantitative study of those members, examining who they are; how and why they joined; why they have stayed loyal to their party; how they view those who defected and where the UUP is heading. The volume also uses a wide range of interviews with members at all levels of the Party and with its five most recent leaders, to analyse views on the UUP’s electoral and political difficulties and how they might be reversed. The book draws upon historical, political, and sociological perspectives in analysing the identities of UUP members and their perceptions of a wide range of contemporary issues, covering political institutions, other parties, social change, moral issues, religion, and voting.
Gavel
Authors: Parker James EK
Published: February 2019

The gavel is one of the most widely recognized objects of law around the world today. Images of it are everywhere. Gavels feature in some of the most prominent institutions of international law as well as in many courts and legislatures internationally. Even in jurisdictions where the gavel doesn’t appear in conventional legal settings it can still be found at auctions, conferences, and meetings, and will be doing important juridical work. It is not, however, well understood. Drawing on contemporary work in sound studies and jurisprudence, and via a close reading of a film by Italian artist Diego Tonus, this chapter provides a critical evaluation of the gavel’s material, symbolic, and sonic lives. It suggests that the gavel is right at the centre of the global juridical imaginary, and that this serves as a reminder that sound matters in law in ways that are not yet adequately explored.
Screen
Authors: Schwöbel-Patel Christine , Werner Wouter
Published: February 2019

This chapter considers the screen as an object of international law. Screens fulfil two dual and paradoxical functions: They simultaneously disclose and conceal information; they create both co-presence and distance. The revealing screen conceals the selective process of exclusion, editing, assemblage, and adaptation, and the concealing screen silences dissent. A discussion of the dual function of screens in international law foregrounds the political implications, which are hidden when screens are presented as (merely) neutral media. The dual functions of screens and its political significance are demonstrated through two examples from international criminal law: The screening of the Kony 2012 advocacy film in Northern Uganda and the screening of Judge Sow’s ‘dissent’ at the Charles Taylor trial.
USAID Rice—Haiti
Authors: Peevers Charlotte
Published: February 2019

This chapter examines an image of USAID rice being distributed in the aftermath of the 2010 earthquake in Haiti. The chapter begins by examining what the image invites us to see and not see, framing the event of disaster as natural and (naturally) anarchic in its consequences for social, legal, and political order. It then threads a way back through this spectacle by telling a story of USAID rice which allows attention to be drawn to this object’s redistributive effects on power and authority and the intertwined politics of humanitarianism, aid, trade, and development expertise.