bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Maximizing Clarity in Economic Terminology
Authors: Christenson Andrew L.
Published: April 2006

The increasing incorporation of economic concepts into archaeological theory has led to an increased potential for misunderstanding through terminological sloppiness. Misuse of such terms as minimax, efficiency, risk, and maximization has already laid a solid foundation for confusion. These comments are intended to provide brief definitions for several key economic terms and to indicate how they can be used so that their meanings are clearly understood.
A Reexamination of Labor Investments at Tikal: Reply to Haviland, and Folan, Kintz, Fletcher and Hyde
Authors: Ford Anabel , Arnold Jeanne E.
Published: April 2006

There are two basic concerns expressed in the comments by Haviland and Folan et al.: the possible exclusion from consideration of specific residential unit areas and the method for calculating labor investments. Although all the issues expressed may be legitimate, most have been explicitly addressed in our original article (Arnold and Ford 1980), and none alter our conclusions.
Licks, Pans, and Chiefs: A Comment on “Mississippian Specialization and Salt”
Authors: Yerkes Richard W.
Published: April 2006

In a recent article in American Antiquity, Muller (1984) challenged the claim that Mississippian salt production was a specialized activity. He made a useful distinction between special activity sites and specialized production in his study, but by limiting his investigation of Mississippian specialization to a single task at a special purpose site (the Great Salt Spring in Galatin County, Illinois), he fails to prove or disprove his hypothesis that no non-leadership specialists existed in Mississippian society. Muller's article also raises some issues about the relation of economic specialization to levels of social complexity in prehistoric cultures, and about measuring the degree of economic specialization in a society from archaeological remains. These issues are addressed in this comment.
Social Differentiation and Leadership Development in Early Pithouse Villages in the Mogollon Region of the American Southwest
Authors: Lightfoot Kent G. , Feinman Gary M.
Published: April 2006

This paper examines the development of social differentiation and simple decision-making organizations in the Mogollan region of the prehistoric American Southwest. We suggest that intensifying managerial problems associated with the transition to sedentism may have selected for suprahousehold sociopolitical organizations. Based on cross-cultural data, a set of theoretical expectations concerning social differentiation and leadership development is formulated which focuses on regularities in the regional settlement pattern and intrasettlement distribution of architectural features and material goods. These expectations are then used to generate a set of propositions which are evaluated archaeologically using data from early pithouse villages. On the basis of a test of these propositions it appears that simple suprahousehold decision-making organizations were present in the American Southwest by A.D. 600. The implications of this interpretation for understanding subsequent developments in Southwestern prehistoric sociopolitical organization are then discussed.
Olsen and Olsen's Identity Crisis in Faunal Studies
Authors: Bobrowsky Peter T.
Published: April 2006

Corrections and additions to Olsen and Olsen's comment on terminology in faunal studies are provided. It is shown that a single term in faunal studies is not crucial to maintain subdisciplinary communication.

Proper words in proper places make the true de/inition of a style.

—Jonathan Swift
The Production Step Measure: An Ordinal Index of Labor Input in Ceramic Manufacture
Authors: Feinman Gary M. , Upham Steadman , Lightfoot Kent G.
Published: April 2006

We present the production step measure, an ordinal scale index of the labor input in ceramic manufacture. The measure is used to compare the relative labor costs of producing different kinds of pottery vessels. It is then employed in an analysis of archaeological ceramic samples from the Late Postclassic Valley of Oaxaca and the Reserve phase in the Pine Lawn Valley, New Mexico.
The Yanomamö of the Mississippi Valley? Some Reflections on Larson (1972), Gibson (1974), and Mississippian Period Warfare in the Southeastern United States
Authors: Dickson D. Bruce
Published: April 2006

Larson's (1972) hypothesis that warfare during the Mississippian period in the Southeast was primarily a struggle over the fertile silt and sandy loam bottomland soils is summarized. This is then contrasted with Gibson's (1974) thesis that, at least in the Lower Mississippi Valley, warfare was caused by the "asymmetrical" nature of the kinship systems found there. Such systems led to status decline over several generations and forced individuals to attempt to offset the decline by achieving success in warfare. The Larson-Gibson dispute is essentially an ontological argument which pits the materialist's view of reality against that of the idealist. This dispute is compared to a similar one between Harris (1971, 1974, 1977, 1979) and Lizot (1977) concerning the explanation of Yamomamo warfare in South America. Following this, the basic material conditions of Mississippian warfare are suggested. The importance of mechanisms such as Gibson has proposed for understanding Mississippian warfare at the "tactical" level is recognized. Finally, primacy is given to Larson"s materialism at the "strategic" level.
Central Places and Cities: A Consideration of the Protohistoric Tarascan State
Authors: Pollard Helen Perlstein
Published: April 2006

Systems of human settlement serve as primary sources of evidence for investigating variability in the evolution of complex societies. In particular, the existence of and nature of cities reveals much about the nature and direction of sociopolitical changes characteristic of prehistoric states. The present study places the analysis of prehistoric urbanism within the context of settlement system analyses and applies this approach to the protohistoric Tarascan state of western Mexico. This first synthesis of our knowledge of major Tarascan settlements evaluates the protohistoric communities at Tzintzuntzan, Ihuatzio, Pátzcuaro, and Erongarícuaro (within the Lake Pátzcuaro Basin) and considers those outside the Tarascan core, especially Zacapu. This study suggests that the Tarascan state did not participate in the Central Mexican urban tradition, and that the historic capital, Tzintzuntzan, may have been unique in its urban status. Rather, the state was characterized by a complex and overlapping network of central places and specialized places. To the extent that this pattern diverges from other prehistoric systems it constitutes one source for understanding the diversity in the protohistoric Mesoamerican world.
Conservation in Archaeology: Moving toward Closer Cooperation
Authors: Bourque Bruce J. , Brooke Stephen W. , Kley Ronald , Morris Kenneth
Published: April 2006

Many archaeologists have ignored the complexities of preservation treatments and have proceeded alone, often with unsatisfactory results. Now that new legislation can provide conservation funding, archaeologists involved in federally funded research should have little reason to ignore professional standards in the areas of conservation, preservation, and collection interpretation and maintenance. Specific advantages of professional conservation input for the archaeologist are cited with reference to a case study in Maine.
Coosa: A Chiefdom in the Sixteenth-Century Southeastern United States
Authors: Hudson Charles , Smith Marvin , Hally David , Polhemus Richard , DePratter Chester
Published: April 2006

Sixteenth-century Spanish explorers regarded Coosa as one of the most important chiefdoms in the southeastern United States. Using both documentary and archaeological evidence, we have located the main town of Coosa and several tributary towns, as well as some of the frontiers of the chiefdom. The locations of these towns and frontiers are supported by the archaeological recovery of sixteenth-century European artifacts in the postulated area of the chiefdom.
Automatic Classification of Inspectional Categories: Multivariate Theories of Archaeological Data
Authors: Benfer Robert A. , Benfer Alice N.
Published: April 2006

The application of extremely complex multivariate models of classification to subjective inspectional methods of categorization is analyzed in detail, with the widely used Texas system of dart point typology as a case study. The history of the development of the Texas dart point typological system is sketched. An attempt by Gunn and Prewitt (1975) to objectify the classificatory system by multivariate methods is criticized. The techniques applied were too idiosyncratic to the particular data set used to be of predictive value. Discriminant function and multivariate classification analysis are discussed in detail, emphasizing simple geometrical examples by which the major principles may be grasped. Suggestions for improvement are offered for those who wish to follow Gunn and Prewitt in constructing automatic classification schemes.
Evolution of “Tribal” Social Networks: Theory and Prehistoric North American Evidence
Authors: Braun David P. , Plog Stephen
Published: April 2006

This paper addresses two topics central to the study of nonhierarchical, regional social networks, sometimes termed “tribal” social networks: (1) alternative models of the evolution of regional integration; and (2) the archaeological determination of characteristics of such regional networks. Problems in previous ethnological and archaeological studies are identified, and an alternative model is proposed. This is based on a more general theory of organizational processes in nonhierarchical social systems. Data from the prehistoric North American Southwest and Midwest are shown to support the more general model, which treats such networks as organizational responses to increasing environmental uncertainty occasioned by either cultural or physical ecological factors, or both.
The Nahuatl Myth of the Creation of Humankind: A Coastal Connection?
Authors: Delhalle Jean-Claude , Luykx Albert
Published: April 2006

Two engravings from the Gulf Coast seem to refer the origin of humankind to the Fifth Sun; consequently they raise again the hypothesis of the eastern position of Tamoanchan. This sacred place, at once mythical and historical, was the home of the gods; the cradle of humanity, the point of departure of the great ancestors from the Gulf (the Olmecs); it was also the paradise lost. One of these pictures predates the Nahuatl culture, and, hence, may indicate the antiquity of this myth.
An Ancient Maya Measurement System
Authors: O'Brien Patricia J. , Christiansen Hanne D.
Published: April 2006

In this report we attempt to answer the question: which measurement system did the Late Classic Maya use to build their buildings? Measurements were collected from ten buildings at three Puuc style archaeological sites: Uxmal, Kabah and Chichén Itzá, which date about A.D. 750-1000. The tentative results of the study suggest the Maya employed a measurement system involving what we are calling a zapal, which was 147 ± 5 cm long. A zapal was divided into 16 units, kab, of 9 xóot’ each, or 9 units, oc, of 16 xóot’ each. Thus, there were two alternative ways of grouping the 144 xóot’ that made up each zapal. An examination of the linguistic and ethnohistoric data reveals nothing to contradict the notion that such a measuring system was present among the ancient Maya, and that multiples of 3, 4, and 12 are involved.
Maya Stone-Tool Craft Specialization and Production at Colha, Belize: Reply to Mallory
Authors: Shafer Harry J. , Hester Thomas R.
Published: April 2006

The definition and existence of specialized chert tool workshops and workshop deposits at Colha, Belize are addressed in this reply. Density estimates are provided for workshop deposits along with revised production estimates for the Late Preclassic Period. A pattern is beginning to emerge in the Maya lowlands with regards to communities of craft specialists; they appear to have been in settlements surrounding the larger centers, not in the major centers themselves.
Fifteen Years on the Rock: Archaeological Research, Administration, and Compliance on Black Mesa, Arizona
Authors: Powell Shirley , Andrews Peter P. , Nichols Deborah L. , Smiley F. E.
Published: April 2006

The Black Mesa Archaeological Project has been conducting field investigations and archaeological research in northeastern Arizona since 1967. The work is contracted for by Peabody Coal Company in order to comply with federal, state, and tribal statutes. The longevity of the project, as well as its size and complexity, affords a unique opportunity to evaluate and refine research, project administration, and legal compliance procedures. In most situations, clear advantages have resulted from the opportunities to learn from the project's history. Unfortunately, changing statutes and changing interpretations of the same statutes have resulted in major problems—both for the archaeologists and for the Peabody Coal Company.
Precise Characterization of Guatemalan Obsidian Sources, and Source Determination of Artifacts from Quiriguá
Authors: Stross Fred H. , Sheets Payson , Asaro Frank , Michel Helen V.
Published: April 2006

For the determination of provenience of obsidian artifacts, precise and accurate measurements of composition patterns of the geologic sources are necessary for definitive and cost-effective assignments. Inter-comparison of data from different laboratories is often difficult. Suggestions for maximizing the usefulness of data already in the literature are made, contributions to a useful data bank of source composition patterns are recorded, and provenience determinations of 30 artifacts excavated in Quirigua, Guatemala are presented to exemplify the technique.
American Antiquity's First Fifty Years: An Introductory Comment
Authors: Sabloff Jeremy A.
Published: April 2006

In its first five decades, American Antiquity has grown from a small publication with relatively limited interests to a much larger publication with wide interests. Its reputation has grown along with its change in size and look (see Figure 1), and it is now recognized internationally as a leader in the presentation of theoretical and methodological advances.

Much of the credit for this growth must be given to W. C. McKern, founding editor (see Figure 2), who devoted four years of intense effort to establish the overall quality and intellectual liveliness that are the journal's hallmarks. This commitment to excellence has been adhered to by the twelve editors who have followed McKern. The salutary growth of the journal, however, has not been without its costs. It is on one of these costs that I focus my attention here.
Digging for Credit: Early Archaeological Field Schools in the American Southwest
Authors: Gifford Carol A. , Morris Elizabeth A.
Published: April 2006

Digging in the earth, uncovering long-buried objects, and musing about past societies have long entranced humankind. As anthropology—including archaeology—became an established scientifichumanistic discipline, universities began offering specialized training and advanced degrees in archaeology. Tracing the beginnings of awarding university credit for digging in the dirt has been a nostalgic excursion, and it has uncovered tales of puzzling prehistoric clues, deep attachments to the essence of a place, camp esprit, and logistical travails made bearable only by the passage of time.
Tradition and Change in Two Archaeologies
Authors: Glock Albert E.
Published: April 2006

The Middle East has had considerable experience ingesting western cultural influence. The Hellenism of Alexander (fourth century B.C.) slowly metamorphosed into the Byzantinism of Justinian (seventh century A.D.). Two conclusions are suggested. Western cultural seed on eastern soil matures slowly and best in selected locations, and eventually a distinctive new style emerges, accommodating the needs and incorporating the traditions of the Middle East.
Long-Distance Movement of Goods in the Mesoamerican Formative and Classic
Authors: Drennan Robert D.
Published: April 2006

Many models for the development of complex societies in Mesoamerica have assigned a major role to the economic importance of long-distance trade or exchange. Consideration of the distances between major centers of the Formative and Classic indicates that basic foodstuffs could not have been profitably moved between them. The evidence for the Early and Middle Formative indicates that long-distance movement of any material of which we have evidence could not have had much economic importance. By Early Classic times higher population levels make it possible to speak of long-distance movement of goods other than food staples on a scale that could have had a significant impact on a complex society.
An Evaluation of Postdepositional Changes in the Trace Element Content of Human Bone
Authors: Nelson Dorothy A. , Sauer Norman J.
Published: April 2006

A prerequisite to dietary reconstruction based on the trace element content of disinterred bone is the evaluation of postdepositional, or diagenetic, changes in the levels of trace elements contained in the bone. This study describes one method of assessing trace element permeation in disinterred bones from the Black Earth site, Illinois. The levels of several trace elements were determined in 50 samples of bone and associated soil. Correlation coefficients were calculated to evaluate the degree to which variation in the bone levels corresponds to variation in the soil levels. The results suggest that no significant postdepositional exchange of Zn and Mn had occurred at the Black Earth site. Other methods of evaluating permeation and leaching are discussed.
Lithic Procurement in Central Australia: A Closer Look at Binford's Idea of Embeddedness in Archaeology
Authors: Gould Richard A. , Saggers Sherry
Published: April 2006

Field surveys of lithic sites in Central Australia and experimental tests of materials from these sites permit evaluation of Binford's (1979) concept of embeddedness. While basically agreeing with Binford's view that raw material procurement by mobile hunter-gatherers occurred incidentally in relation to other subsistence activities, our results indicate that Binford's argument cannot account for patterning in raw material procurement based on the utilitarian properties of the materials themselves. In dealing with questions of raw material procurement, we propose that controlled efforts be made to evaluate the technological characteristics of materials vis-a-vis the mechanical forces involved in their known or presumed uses before assuming the degree to which their procurement was structured by subsistence factors.
Rapid Postglacial Shoreline Changes in the Western Gulf of Maine and the Paleo-Indian Environment
Authors: Oldale Robert N.
Published: April 2006

Rapid shoreline regression and transgression along the western Gulf of Maine between 13,000 and 9000 years B.P. are inferred to have produced a nearshore marine environment low in biologic productivity. Paleo-Indians living near the coast of the Gulf were probably forced to rely on nonmarine resources landward of the late-glacial marine limit. Thus, Paleo-Indian sites of the time period in question may be restricted in the region between the marine limit and the postglacial low sea-level stand, or may be altogether absent.
A Comment on Microdebitage Analyses and Cultural Site-Formation Processes among Tipi Dwellers
Authors: Janes Robert R.
Published: April 2006

A recent report by Hull (1987) on the microdebitage analysis of soil samples from a stone-circle site in the Northern Plains indicates the utility of such analyses for the study of use and disposal in lithic-tool-manufacture areas. Its value could have been heightened through greater awareness of recent research on the ethnoarchaeology of tipi use and of site-formation studies in general. Various factors were overlooked in Hull's analysis, including the intentional disposal of refuse away from the place of use, the widespread distribution of secondary refuse as a result of smearing and blending, the distinction between occupation and abandonment refuse, and the effects of rodent disturbance within tipis. The fact that these factors were not considered weakens the applicability of Hull's site-formation model. Research among the Slavey Dene of the western Canadian Subarctic suggests that tipis are better viewed as generalized activity centers, embracing a variety of human activities and events, none of which have strict spatial definition. This helps to explain the weak or nonexistent patterning noted by Hull.
Prehistoric Seal and Sea-Lion Butchering on the Southern Northwest Coast
Authors: Lyman R. Lee
Published: April 2006

Ethnoarchaeological data indicate that various factors, including size of prey, influence both transport of animal parts and how animals are reduced to humanly usable or consumable portions. Remains of two taxa of pinnipeds of markedly different body size from two sites of similar age on the southern Northwest Coast of North America do not vary significantly in skeletal parts represented, which suggests similar transport histories. Butchering marks on bones of both taxa indicate that the butchery procedure was intertaxonomically similar for joint disarticulation and limb filleting. Bones of the larger taxon display significantly more butchery marks than bones of the smaller one, indicating the larger taxon was subjected to much more intensive butchery than the smaller one due to differences in body size.
The Ecology of Lucayan Arawak Fishing Practices
Authors: Keegan William F.
Published: April 2006

Fishing is a form of predator-prey interaction. As such, the behaviors of fishes can be used to define a restricted range of human behaviors that resulted in their capture. In this report, ecological evidence, fishbone analysis, ethnohistoric reports for the prehistoric Caribbean, experimental fishtrap samples, and ethnographic reports of fishing in other coral waters are brought together in the analysis of prehistoric fishing in the Bahama Archipelago. The analysis is conducted at two levels. First, general fishing strategies are distinguished on the basis of behavioral evidence; and second, specific capture techniques are identified through comparisons with experimental fishtrap samples.
The Experimental Hydration of Obsidian as a Function of Relative Humidity and Temperature
Authors: Mazer J. J. , Stevenson C. M. , Ebert W. L. , Bates J. K.
Published: April 2006

The experimental hydration of obsidian for up to 30 days is described at relative humidities (RH) of 60, 90, 95, and 100 percent and at temperatures of 150, 160, and 175°C. Under isothermal conditions, the rate of hydration increased by as much as 25 percent between 60 and 100 percent RH. The RH dependence is nonlinear, with the majority of the rate increase occurring between 90 and 100 percent RH. The effect of RH can be related to the driving force for molecular water diffusion in obsidians as described by the chemical potential difference between water sorbed onto the obsidian surface and intrinsic water in the obsidian. The differences in hydration rates caused by RH differences in experiments approximate the error commonly described for obsidian-hydration dating. These results suggest that obsidian-hydration dating requires a knowledge of the site temperature and relative humidity in order to accurately generate age estimates.
Reply to: A Phonetic Version of the Maya Glyph for North
Authors: Coggins Clemency Chase
Published: April 2006

This paper acknowledges the validity of Closs's phonetic reading of north as xaman in the Classic Mayan inscriptions, while not accepting his separation of north from up and the zenith direction.
Patterns of Population Movement and Long-Term Population Growth in Southwestern Colorado
Authors: Schlanger Sarah H.
Published: April 2006

In spite of considerable fluctuations in the likelihood of agricultural success from place to place and from time to time, the southern Colorado Plateaus show a smooth increase in farming populations between A.D. 1 and 1150. At the local level, however, population curves in this region often register a pattern of short-lived occupations and abandonments that are tied to specific patterns of short-term and long-term climatic conditions. The prehistoric population record from the Dolores area, in the southwestern corner of Colorado, demonstrates how localized population adjustments to climatically sensitive environments can result in long-term population increases. Here, a 600-year history of population increase was maintained primarily through population movements between environmentally complementary places. When that strategy failed, due to a combination of adverse short-term and long-term climatic conditions, agricultural methods shifted from rainfall farming to intensified agriculture supported by water-control facilities.
The Structure of Archaeological Theory
Authors: Schiffer Michael B.
Published: April 2006

Contradictory programmatic statements have increased uncertainty about the nature and roles of theory in archaeology. However, a framework can be constructed that ties together diverse kinds of theory that archaeologists use-and often create. Three overarching realms of theory can be recognized, each consisting of one or more functionally defined domains: social theory, reconstruction theory (the domains are material-culture dynamics and cultural and noncultural formation processes of the archaeological record), and methodological theory (the domains are recovery, analysis, and inference). Within each domain are high-level, mid-level, and low-level theories. Previous investigators often have overlooked the richness and complexity of archaeological theory, sometimes generalizing from a very narrow perspective.
Areal Decrease, Density Increase, and Circumscription: A Mathematical Note
Authors: Graber Robert Bates
Published: April 2006

Population density increases whenever a population grows more rapidly, or shrinks more slowly, than the area it inhabits; areal contraction therefore accelerates density increase. This consideration not only reinforces Dickson's (1987) suggestion that circumscription by anthropogenic environmental destruction contributed to the rise of some early states; it also implies that rate of density increase should be distinguished, as a motor of sociocultural evolution, from density itself. In light of this distinction the rise of the state in southwestern Iran, and occasional instances of high density among nonstate societies, are not necessarily inconsistent with population-pressure theories.
Reevaluation of an Implement of “Elephant Bone” from Manitoba
Authors: Buchner A. P. , Roberts L. J.
Published: April 2006

Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) dating and faunal analysis have served to reidentify an implement, fashioned from what was believed to be a proboscidean fibula, as a cranium and antler section of a modern moose. This reconciles the discrepancy between the generally accepted date for the extinction of mammoths and mastodons (before 10,000 years ago) with the recession of glacial Lake Agassiz from the site after 8,000 years ago.
On Tool-Class Use Lives and the Formation of Archaeological Assemblages
Authors: Shott Michael J.
Published: April 2006

The importance of tool-class use lives in the formation of archaeological assemblages is established both in theory and empirically, and accurate inference from the material record requires that use lives be measured or estimated with confidence. Unfortunately, no method of measuring use lives directly from archaeological remains has been developed. However, this important quantity may be related to elementary properties of tool classes such as size and weight, properties which are themselves directly measurable. Ethnographic data on ceramic vessels, in which use life is related to such properties, is described and analyzed. Using!Kung San and Ingalik data, a similar analysis is performed for a variety of nonceramic tools and objects, although few of the stone-tool classes common to archaeological assemblages are included. There, use life is related most strongly to manufacturing cost and curation rate, an archaeological measure of which is proposed. Neither is an elementary property, but they can be estimated accurately for many tool classes. These results are noteworthy but not definitive, and they underscore the continued value of museum ethnographic collections and ethnoarchaeological research.
Comments on Sullivan and Rozen's Debitage Analysis and Archaeological Interpretation
Authors: Ensor H. Blaine , Roemer Erwin
Published: April 2006

Sullivan and Rozen (1985) attempt to provide an improved method of debitage analysis. We suggest that their article is misleading in a number of ways and fails to address the methodological and theoretical issues under discussion. It is doubtful if their four new debitage categories are "interpretation free," since it now is recognized widely that a theoretical basis necessarily underlies interpretation. Their debitage categories are best viewed as morphological or descriptive groups, with technological correlates which are the expected outcomes of generalized reduction practices. They should not be used in interpretation, since the technological inferences drawn from the four debitage categories are assumed without adequate supporting experimentation on the mechanics of flake fracture. We also reject Sullivan and Rozen"s notion that lithic analysis is best interpreted as a continuum and find the criticisms of so-called stage typologies to be unfounded. Lithic artifacts ultimately should be placed within a product group or step, whenever possible, to facilitate recognition of overall manufacturing practices. Finally, we suggest that the only way to improve the subjective nature of debitage analysis is by example, and we point out where this course is not followed in their study.
Salt Production at Hierve El Agua, Oaxaca
Authors: Hewitt William P. , Winter Marcus C. , Peterson David A.
Published: April 2006

The water control system at Hierve el Agua, Oaxaca, originally described by Neely (1967), has been widely accepted as an early example of crop irrigation. Various lines of evidence including chemical analysis of the water support an alternative hypothesis that the canals and terraces were designed for salt production through solar evaporation.
Lack of Evidence for Glacial-Age Settlement of South America: Reply to Dillehay and Collins and to Gruhn and Bryan
Authors: Lynch Thomas F.
Published: April 2006

Dillehay and Collins (1991) and Gruhn and Bryan (1991) claim that my review (Lynch 1990) was impaired by errors and misrepresentations, yet they identify only one significant error–the too-early date attributed to Toca do Sitio do Meio. Inspection of the sources shows that my article contained no misrepresentations of the public record available to me at the time of writing. Selective use of sources is necessary in a review of this scale. A careful reading of the primary sources, as well as the other papers cited, will show that I have not misquoted, misconstrued, or taken statements out of context. We are dealing with differences of interpretation and emphasis. There is no such thing as an “obsolete publication,” at least until the information in it has been retracted formally. Understandably, Gruhn and Bryan have been zealots for their pre-Paleoindian cause. Hardly neutral or dispassionate, they have over-reacted to my bringing the other side forward.
Evaluating Tree-Ring Interpretations at Walpi Pueblo, Arizona
Authors: Ahlstrom Richard V. N. , Dean Jeffrey S. , Robinson William J.
Published: April 2006

The availability both of documentary data on the history of the Hopi pueblo of Walpi and of tree-ring dates from the village provides a rare opportunity to evaluate tree-ring interpretations in the light of independent chronological evidence. Three major events in the history of the community are reflected in the village's overall tree-ring date distribution: the initial settlement around A.D. 1400 of the site of Koechaptevela, located on the flank of First Mesa, the movement of the community around A.D. 1690 to the present location of Walpi on top of First Mesa, and the reconstruction of much of the village between A.D. 1880 and 1940. Analysis of the overall date distribution and of dates from individual rooms shows that many timbers in the village have been reused, sometimes more than once. For this reason, interpretation must rely on date clusters, though even they can be misleading when beams procured at the same time have been reused as a group. The significance of beam reuse to the interpretation of Walpi's tree-ring dates is a function, first, of the relocation of the village over a short distance around 1690 and, second, of the village's survival for almost 600 years. Because of Walpi's size and longevity, patterning in the pueblo's tree-ring evidence is most relevant to the interpretation of large, long-lived prehistoric and protohistoric sites in the Southwest. Historical details provided by tree-ring evidence are also likely to be of special interest to Native Americans, such as the Hopi, who live in these pueblos still.
A 7,290-Year-Old Bottle Gourd from the Windover Site, Florida
Authors: Doran Glen H. , Dickel David N. , Newsom Lee A.
Published: April 2006

A bottle gourd (Lagenaria siceraria) recovered from a burial context at the Windover site (8 BR246) in east-central Florida has been dated directly to 7,290 ± 120 radiocarbon years B.P. This provides the earliest documentation of bottle gourds north of Mexico and demonstrates approximate contemporaneity with other eastern United States Cucurbitacae. Investigations of wet sites such as Windover, while requiring substantially greater consideration of conservation than in typical dry sites, greatly expands the recovery of organic materials enabling broader insights to prehistoric processes.
Early Corn Remains from Tumamoc Hill, Southern Arizona
Authors: Fish Paul R. , Fish Suzanne K. , Long Austin , Miksicek Charles
Published: April 2006

The tandem accelerator mass spectrometer provided critical dating of corn remains in Archaic levels of juxtaposed Archaic and Hohokam occupations on Tumamoc Hill in Tucson, Arizona. This new radiometric technology confirmed an Archaic placement suggested by stratigraphy and artifact distributions. The small sample of intact remains resembles other directly-dated early corn in the Southwest and reinforces an interpretation of preceramic cultivators in the Sonoran Desert.
Points on Points: A Reply to Flenniken and Raymond
Authors: Thomas David Hurst
Published: April 2006

Three rather redundant papers (Flenniken 1984, 1985; Flenniken and Raymond 1986) recently questioned the efficacy and validity of my research on Great Basin projectile point types (especially Thomas 1970, 1981, 1983b). These articles reflect a distorted view of how lithic studies articulate with today's archaeology, betraying serious misunderstandings about the objectives and methods of contemporary archaeology. While I am generally sympathetic with experimental approaches, these particular interpretations and recommendations require rethinking.
Defining and Measuring Midden Catchment
Authors: Boone James L.
Published: April 2006

The settlement area that encompasses all the refuse-generating activities that contribute to a single midden may be referred to as a midden's "catchment." Two related issues are explored with respect to the problem of measuring midden catchment: 1) the relation between settlement density, midden size, and distribution, and midden catchment; and 2) the relation between the heterogeneity of a midden's contents and its catchment.
Intimachay: A December Solstice Observatory at Machu Picchu, Peru
Authors: Dearborn David S. P. , Schreiber Katharina J. , White Raymond E.
Published: April 2006

We show that a structure built by the Inkas at the entrance to a cave at Machu Picchu was designed to admit the light of the rising sun only for a brief period before and after the December solstice. This structure is precisely constructed, unique at Machu Picchu, and may have played a part in the annual Inka ritual, Capac Raymi.
Stone Artifact Movement on Impoundment Shorelines: A Case Study from Maine
Authors: Will Richard T. , Clark James A.
Published: April 2006

Research on natural processes that cause erosion and, in particular, studies of wave action, sediment transport, and ice movement offers guidance for understanding and predicting what can happen to archaeological remains exposed in the shoreline fluctuation zones of impounded water bodies. A field experiment to examine the effects of wave action and ice movement on stone artifacts placed in a fluctuation zone demonstrates that archaeological materials can be moved considerable distances over a single season. The experiment suggests that caution is necessary for accurately interpreting the meaning of archaeological specimens found on the shores of artificially impounded water bodies.
Bigger is Better: Comments on Kuhn's Formal Approach to Mobile Tool Kits
Authors: Morrow Toby A.
Published: April 2006

Kuhn (1994) argues that small lithic tools provide an optimal means of reducing the weight of mobile tool kits while maximizing potential utility. This assertion contradicts much of the current thinking about mobility and the organization of lithic technology and is at odds with the archaeological record. A flaw in Kuhn's equation for calculating the utility/mass ratio of retouched tools leads him to this erroneous conclusion. Problems with Kuhn's utility/mass ratio equation are described and an alternative formula is offered. The corrected formula indicates that larger stone tools maximize utility at a lower transport cost. Experimental evidence for additional advantages of larger stone tools is also provided.
Population Aggregation in the Prehistoric North American Southwest
Authors: Kohler Timothy A. , Sebastian Lynne
Published: April 2006

We attempt to clarify the role of demographic factors (size, density, history, and trajectory) in aggregation in the ancestral Puebloan Southwest, which we found obscure in Leonard and Reed (1993). In addition, we question one of the case studies from Chaco Canyon that they used to support their model, and we suggest that data from the Mesa Verde region between A.D. 700 and 1300 argue against the generality of their explanation for aggregation.
Prehistoric Reservoirs and Water Basins in the Mesa Verde Region: Intensification of Water Collection Strategies during the Great Pueblo Period
Authors: Wilshusen Richard H. , Churchill Melissa J. , Potter James M.
Published: April 2006

More than 20 examples of probable prehistoric water basins with minimum storage capacities of 10,000–25,000 gallons of water are known in the Mesa Verde region of the American Southwest. The temporal placement of these artificially constructed basins, their exact uses, and their importance as public architecture have been poorly understood. We summarize the general literature on these features, give a detailed account of the excavation results of a dam and basin that we tested and dated, and then synthesize all available data from the gray literature on prehistoric water basins in our area. We argue that water basins and reservoirs in the northern Southwest typically stored domestic water for particular communities and that the first evidence of these public features is probably associated with Chaco-era communities. These features represent early experiments with large-scale water conservation and suggest a long-term commitment to locales by specific communities. Their locations along the canyon edges foreshadow shifts in settlement and increased water conservation strategies that become more pronounced in the later Great Pueblo-period villages-the last villages in this area before the migration of Puebloan people to the south after A.D. 1280.
An Unusual Birth Depicted in Mimbres Pottery: Not Cracked up to What It is Supposed to Be
Authors: Shaffer Brian S. , Gardner Karen M. , Shafer Harry J.
Published: April 2006

Hegmon and Trevathan's (1996) contention that Mimbres figurative pottery was probably painted by men ignorant about birthing, as evidenced by a virtually impossible birthing scene, is unsubstantiated. This claim was due to a lack of familiarity with the birthing motif they described, as well as selective and unrepresentative use of relevant ethnographic and historical data. We find no evidence that men painted Mimbres pottery.
Response to Comments by LeBlanc, by Espenshade, and by Shaffer et al
Authors: Hegmon Michelle , Trevathan Wenda R.
Published: April 2006

We originally concluded that because birth scenes depicted on Mimbres bowls are anatomically unusual or impossible, and men are generally unfamiliar with the details of birth, the pots most likely were painted by men. Three of the four counter-arguments presented in the comments—(1) there is no other way to depict birth; (2) one part of one painting is actually a crack in the vessel; (3) some men are involved in birthing—either are incorrect (1) or have no impact on our conclusions (2 and 3). The fourth counter-argument—that the depictions are necessary artistic conventions—is significant but does not negate our conclusions. The comments by Espenshade and by Shaffer et al. misrepresent and distort our argument and in one case misquote us.
New Perspectives on Experimental Archaeology: Surface Treatments and Thermal Response of the Clay Cooking Pot
Authors: Schiffer Michael Brian , Skibo James M. , Boelke Tamara C. , Neupert Mark A. , Aronson Meredith
Published: April 2006

This paper examines pottery technology and change through the eyes of the experimental archaeologist. A new vision is presented of experimental archaeology and the role its findings can play in archaeological explanation. It is argued that the most useful results of experimental archaeology are best obtained with long-term research programs. This perspective is illustrated by a case study of the relations between surface treatments (interior and exterior) and thermal performance in cooking pots. The experiments indicate that surface treatments like texturing, organic coatings, and smudging have marked impacts on thermal shock cracking and on thermal spalling in simulated cooking. It is emphasized that the findings of experimental archaeology, expressed as correlates, can be employed in explanations of prehistoric technological change, but only when embedded in more inclusive correlate theories and coupled with the requisite contextual information.
Subsistence in the Florida Archaic: The Stable-Isotope and Archaeobotanical Evidence from the Windover Site
Authors: Tuross Noreen , Fogel Marilyn L. , Newsom Lee , Doran Glen H.
Published: April 2006

A paleodietary analysis of the mid-Holocene mortuary site, Windover (8BR246), based on carbon and nitrogen bone-collagen values and archaeobotanical information is consistent with a subsistence strategy that utilized river-dwelling fauna and a range of terrestrial flora, such as grapes and prickly pear. The isotopic analysis does not support the extensive human dietary use of either marine mammals or classic terrestrial fauna such as deer or rabbit. Seasonal (late summer/early fall) use of the site is indicated by the range of flora found in association with the burials.
Crop and Weed in Prehistoric Eastern North America: The Chenopodium Example
Authors: Gremillion Kristen J.
Published: April 2006

Analysis of seed morphology in paleoethnobotany typically focuses on identification of domesticates. However, the wild and weed forms that are sometimes recognized in archaeological contexts can provide pertinent information about garden ecology. Morphometric studies of Chenopodium from the eastern United States have revealed patterns of variation compatible with the coexistence and interaction of crop and weed populations. The character of this interaction reflects considerable flexibility and diversity in prehistoric agricultural systems. In addition, the frequency of weed seeds in archaeological collections can be used to assess the nature of selection in managed habitats and the husbandry practices associated with it.
Integrating Ethnohistory and Archaeology at Fort Clark State Historic Site, North Dakota
Authors: Wood W. Raymond
Published: April 2006

A two-year mapping project at Fort Clark State Historic Site produced a 15-cm contour map of the Native American (Mandan and Arikara) earthlodge village and a planimetric map of that part of the historic district that lies above the Missouri River flood plain. Aerial photography and ground-level transit mapping detected more than 2,200 surface features at the site, including 86 earthlodges, 2 fur-trading posts, hundreds of storage and grave pits, and Euroamerican and Native American roads and trails. More than 80 percent of the site as mapped lies outside the fortification ditch of the Mandan/Arikara village. When we are trying to determine the potential impact on sites such as this one of such activities as nearby road construction, our recommendations must consider the broader context of the site, not simply the narrow spectrum provided by the settlement core area. A buffer zone as presently exists at Fort Clark is not only necessary to preserve its visual integrity but also to preserve the record of the activities that took place in its immediate vicinity.
Gender and Ritual Space during the Pithouse to Pueblo Transition: Subterranean Mealing Rooms in the North American Southwest
Authors: Mobley-Tanaka Jeannette L.
Published: April 2006

Architectural patterning in the American Southwest has long been recognized as a solid manifestation of social patterns of Pueblo groups. The organization of pueblos around plazas and kivas emphasizes the importance of male-dominated ritual. The female role in ritual, while limited, centers around the production of food, an aspect that women not only participate in, but also perhaps control. What evidence exists for the antiquity of gender-specific ritual power? Subterranean mealing rooms, which appear in the Anasazi area at the time of the pithouse to pueblo transition, may indicate that these roles are quite ancient and were a part of the shift from informal household to more formal community ritual at such sites. They also may represent increased social stress and a corresponding attempt to alleviate such stress. The disappearance of these features from sites after a relatively short time may indicate the continued development of a religious system in which male-oriented aspects became increasingly dominant and female aspects became peripheral.
The Construction and Configuration of Anasazi Pebble-Mulch Gardens in the Northern Rio Grande
Authors: Lightfoot Dale R. , Eddy Frank W.
Published: April 2006

Rio Grande Anasazi in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries A.D. mulched hundreds of garden-sized plots with pebbles to increase soil moisture, reduce erosion, extend the growing season, and increase crop yields. This paper reports on the construction and configuration of pebble-mulch gardens in New Mexico, focusing particularly on those in the Galisteo Basin. Surfaces adjacent to these gardens were scraped and pits were excavated to collect gravel, which was placed over garden surfaces in layers 5 to 11 cm thick. Gardens averaged 15 x 23 m in size, although both size and shape were highly variable, and they collectively covered an area of 41,000 m2Although this unique agricultural strategy has been shown to be effective, construction was limited to sites with natural gravel deposits, pebbled surfaces inhibited the recycling of crop wastes, and such gardens never became as widely used as more traditional field forms.
Where in the World Does Obsidian Hydration Dating Work?
Authors: Ridings Rosanna
Published: April 2006

Results of a field study at Pot Creek Pueblo indicate that when effective hydration temperature varies significantly with depth, errors in obsidian hydration age estimates can occur if hydration rate constants are extrapolated to depth-specific effective hydration temperatures. This problem will be particularly severe in continental climates, but will have some effect anywhere the amplitude of the annual surface temperature wave exceeds 2-3°C.