bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
World's Fairs (International Expositions)
Authors: Gotham Kevin Fox
Published: September 2017

World's Fairs or International Expositions are short‐term attractions officially organized by a nation‐state with exhibits, pavilions, tourist venues, and other spectacular displays of socioeconomic progress, technological development, and cultural advancement. Unlike local festivals or small‐scale tourist attractions, World's Fairs are associated with costly investments in infrastructure development, extensive and intensive formal planning, and the use of sophisticated revitalization strategies for urban reimaging. The first World's Fair took place in 1851 in London and other nations followed with expositions that left lasting residual products including the Eiffel Tower created with the Paris Exhibition of 1889. Since their inception during the mid‐nineteenth century, World's Fairs have excited much debate and discussion over their multitude of roles and cultural meanings, impact on architecture and urban form, and trajectory of historical development. Early, Walter Benjamin (1978: 49) claimed that nineteenth‐century World's Fairs “are sites of pilgrimages to the commodity fetish” that express the emerging values of profligacy and excessiveness in the growth of a broad‐based consuming public organized around the fetishism of commodities. For Leo Tolstoy, the 1893 Chicago World's Columbia Exposition was a “striking example of imprudence and hypocrisy; everything is done for profit and amusement – from boredom – but noble aims of the people are ascribed to it. Orgies are better” (quoted in Rydell 1993: 15). In his observations on the Berlin Trade Exhibition of 1896, Georg Simmel viewed expositions as a “fundamental type of human sociation” involving the consumption of commodities. For Simmel, the significance of International Expositions is that “in the face of the richness and diversity of what is offered, the only unifying and colorful factor is that of amusement.” A city that hosts an exposition enters into the “totality of cultural production” because merchandise from around the world has “attained a conclusive form and become part of a single whole” in the rationalized space of the exposition grounds (Simmel 2000 [1896]: 257, 255, 256). In this view, early World's Fairs expressed and helped legitimate an emerging conception of urban culture as an object of visual consumption, a conception that reflected broader transformations in the political economy of consumer capitalism.
Whistleblowing
Authors: Brennan Niamh M.
Published: September 2017

Whistleblowing (or good faith reporting) is a term widely used to describe an act whereby wrongdoing is exposed. There is no agreed, widely accepted definition of whistleblowing. All definitions agree that it involves the reporting of wrongdoing, that wrongdoing is not confined to illegality, and that whistleblowing is not confined to reporting to fellow employees. Disagreement arises concerning the persons involved (wrongdoer, whistleblower, recipient), the circumstances of the disclosure, motives for disclosure, and whether disclosures are both internal and external or external only.
Whistleblowing
Authors: M. Brennan Niamh
Published: September 2017

Whistleblowing (or good faith reporting or anonymous reporting) is a term widely used to describe an act whereby wrongdoing is exposed. There is no agreed, widely accepted definition of whistleblowing. All definitions concur that it involves the reporting of wrongdoing, which is not confined to illegality and is not confined to reporting internally to fellow employees. Disagreement arises concerning the persons involved (wrongdoer, whistleblower, recipient), the circumstances of the disclosure, motives for disclosure, and whether disclosures are both internal and external or external only.
Advertising, Cross‐Cultural
Authors: Gelbrich Katja , Roschk Holger , Eisend Martin
Published: September 2017

With the globalization of markets, advertisers are faced with the question whether to internationally standardize their campaigns or to tailor them to each country's target audience. This controversial issue is discussed in the so‐calledstandardization/differentiation debatein international marketing literature. Although standardization has the advantage of saving costs, companies that stress global standardization do not necessarily perform better than others (Schilke et al. 2009). This is because standardized advertising campaigns run the danger of misunderstanding and violating cultural rules in the target markets. Hence, cultural differences are a reason why many companies favor a more localized approach (Kanso & Nelson 2002).
Agenda‐Setting Effects
Authors: Weaver David H.
Published: September 2017

One of the most frequently cited approaches to studying media effects that emerged in the early 1970s is known as the agenda‐setting effect (or function) of mass media. First tested empirically in the 1968 US presidential election by University of North Carolina journalism professors Maxwell McCombs and Donald Shaw (McCombs & Shaw 1972), this approach originally focused on the ability of the mass media to tell the public what to think
about
rather than what to think. This was a sharp break from previous media effects studies that had focused on what people thought (their opinions and attitudes) and on behaviors such as voting and purchasing various goods and services (→ Media Effects, History of).
Health Campaigns for Development
Authors: Tufte Thomas
Published: September 2017

Development communication engages strategic social change in a variety of areas, yet a great proportion of resources in this field are allocated toward the field of → Health Communication (Hemer & Tufte 2005; → Development Communication). There is no universal → strategic communication response to complex health‐related challenges, but rather a framework of general principles, ranging from behavior change through mediated communication to advocacy communication directed toward policy and structural change, through the processes of → participatory communication (Nutbeam & Harris 2001. The practices engaged follow the standards invoked in → development communication campaigns (McKee et al 2000; → Media Advocacy in Health Communication).
Online Relationships
Authors: Parks Malcolm R.
Published: September 2017

Integrated Internet and cellular applications are becoming a multifaceted resource for the development and maintenance of online social relationships. These relationships vary in length, level of development, and migration to face‐to‐face interaction.
Open Source
Authors: Berdou Evangelia
Published: September 2017

Open source software (OSS) refers to software that can be freely used and modified. It is developed collaboratively over the → Internet by teams of globally distributed and predominantly volunteer programmers without the need for centralized control and often without monetary reward (→ Network Organizations through Communication Technology; Virtual Communities). The OSS movement is a continuation of a long tradition of sharing and cooperation that started in the early days of the Internet.
Peace Journalism
Authors: Roberts Nancy L.
Published: September 2017

Peace journalism is an attempt at persuasive communication, usually by a social movement, to advocate in favor of ending war and violence. Journalism that advocates reforms such as social justice, the abolition of slavery, woman suffrage, and, most centrally, international peace has flourished in the United States, partly because of the press freedom the First Amendment of the US Constitution affords (→ Freedom of the Press, Concept of). Perhaps not surprisingly, much of the research to date on peace journalism has focused on US subjects and concerns (Roberts 1991, 1995). More recently, a body of research focusing on how mass media can or might advance conflict resolution rather than war has taken a more international perspective (Keeble et al. 2010).
Pornography, Media Law on
Authors: Lipschultz Jeremy Harris
Published: September 2017

Pornography or “porn” is a socially defined class of sexual communication, which may or may not be protected under evolving national and international laws. The term may be distinguishable from legal definitions of obscenity or indecency. Pornography is generally considered the depiction of graphic sexual behavior usually designed to promote sexual arousal. Pornographic material may be either legal erotica or illegal obscenity. Many have questioned the validity of the distinction between erotica and pornography, the latter being a pejorative and subjective term.
Postfeminism
Authors: Gill Rosalind
Published: September 2017

Postfeminism is one of the most important and contested terms in the lexicon of western feminist cultural critique. The term signifies something that is either after or beyond feminism in some way, yet still maintains a distinctive relationship to it. The notion of postfeminism was first used in the 1920s to describe the reaction against women's activism in the early part of the twentieth century (Faludi 1992), but it is only since the early 1990s that it has come to prominence as a central term in the field of gender and media.
Prevention and Communication
Authors: Lampert Claudia
Published: September 2017

The main objective of prevention is to avoid diseases by reducing risks that may negatively affect health (→ Health Communication). The prevention approach complements the health promotion approach. While prevention intends to avoid disease and reduce risks, health promotion focuses on resources that sustain the opportunity of healthy living. Even though the two concepts are sometimes used synonymously, lately the prevention approach has been proffered as independent of the health promotion concept. Both prevention and health promotion aim at a modification of attitudes and behavior by specific communication strategies to raise the empowerment of individuals. The problem is that not all individuals are interested in health‐related topics per se. In most cases, information is sought when people are directly or indirectly (e.g., through a family member or friend) concerned with a disease.
Propaganda
Authors: Wilke Jürgen
Published: September 2017

The term “propaganda” is of Latin origin, meaning spreading, extending, or propagating with the help of the laity. It was first used by the Catholic church to denominate its mission. In 1622, the Sacra Congregatio de Propaganda Fide, a council of cardinals responsible for the spread of the Catholic faith, was established in Rome under Pope Gregory XV. During the Age of Enlightenment the term assumed a polemic connotation. In the course of the French Revolution “propaganda” lost its ecclesiastic meaning in favor of a political one. The term then stood for the proclamation of an ideological expansion program hitherto unknown. Propaganda was adapted in a positive sense by the European labor movement in the nineteenth century and consequently also became a central concept of communist ideology. Lenin adopted propaganda, agitation, and organization as core terms of his press theory. The term also gained ground in commerce and became partly a synonym for → advertising. While the latter term, however, referred to economic goods, propaganda took on a more psychological meaning. It was also taken on favorably in the twentieth century by the National Socialist (Nazi) movement in Germany and the fascist movement in Italy. This has always been typical of totalitarian and authoritarian states. As a consequence, the term aroused highly negative associations in western democracies and was replaced there by the term → Public Relations.
Public Journalism
Authors: Kurpius David D.
Published: September 2017

Public journalism is a movement that arose principally among journalists in the United States during the late twentieth century, as an effort to draw the people to the media at a time of declining readership and viewership by showing the value of the media in civic life. Public journalism is also known as “civic,” or less often “community,” journalism. The movement developed in part as an answer to the decline of civic participation that scholars noted (Yankelovich 1991; Merritt 1998; Rosen 1999; Putnam 2000) at a time of renewal in many cities (Sirianni & Friedland 2001). Public journalism refocused news on issues and engagement using a community approach. Its founders believed that journalism could improve public dialogue by developing content that citizens engaged in the deliberative process could use in their communities to develop solutions to common problems.
Public Relations: Global Firms
Authors: Bardhan Nilanjana
Published: September 2017

After World War II, a spurt in the growth of multinational companies and worldwide trade led to the concomitant growth of global advertising and marketing agencies, networks, and conglomerates (→ Media Conglomerates) around the world. Such growth was the inevitable outcome of the need to coordinate the → advertising and → marketing of goods and services in the various markets that were joining the global trade flow and becoming part of the multinational market domain (→ Globalization Theories). In the marketing mix, the global expansion of → public relations (PR) firms got a late start. However, in the 1950s, the growing realization of the cost‐effectiveness of PR in relation to advertising and marketing, along with an increased understanding that PR can effectively support advertising and marketing efforts through reputation management, media relations, and relationship building with diverse publics around the world, led to the start of the expansion of international or global PR firms and networks (→ Professionalization of Public Relations; Corporate Reputation; Organizational Image).
Public Relations and Social Media
Authors: Kent Michael L.
Published: September 2017

“Social media” refers to any interactive communication channel that allows for two‐way interaction and feedback among members (→ Social Media). Because one of → public relations' primary responsibilities is to create and maintain relationships between organizations and publics, social media are seen as powerful communication tools, capable of building relationships and keeping professionals informed (→ Stakeholder Theory; Intereffication Approach in Public Relations).
Real‐Time Ratings (
RTR
)
Authors: Fahr Andreas
Published: September 2017

Real‐time rating (RTR) methods – also called “real‐time response” or “continuous response measurement” (CRM) – collect judgments or evaluation data from a subject during media exposure (→ Exposure to Communication Content; Audience Research). While questionnaires provide data about the outcome of a perception (e.g., television viewing), RTR focuses on the process of viewing. Besides the application to academic questions of reception research, it is widely used within the media industry for testing → Television programs or movies before they are aired or released. Applications range from commercial television or radio programs, → advertising research, to measuring judgment processes in presidential debates (→ Televised Debates). It can also be used for content analysis of television programs or speeches (e.g., measuring perceived degree of violence, dimensions of characters' behavior, interaction, etc.; → Content Analysis, Quantitative).
Realism in Film and Photography
Authors: van Leeuwen Theo
Published: September 2017

From its very beginnings, photography was understood and experienced in terms of its capacity for realism. “It is not merely the likeness which is precious … but the sense of nearness involved in the thing … the fact of the very shadow of the person lying there fixed forever,” wrote Elizabeth Barret in 1843 (quoted in Sontag 1977, 183). Soon it would be used to record events and document many aspects of the world, not just in people's family albums, but also in science, medical training, police work, military reconnaissance, and many other spheres of activity. Yet photography also developed into an art form, with highly allegorical
tableaux vivants
that “combined the sensuous beauty of the fine print with the moral beauty of the fine image” (Mike Weaver, quoted in Wells 2000, 262). In the twentieth century both these aspects of photography would continue to develop: documentary photography and → photojournalism with masters such as Erich Salomon, Cartier‐Bresson, and Robert Frank; and photography as a form of modern art with, for instance, the formal, quasi‐abstract landscapes of Edward Weston and the nudes of Bill Brandt.
Realism in Film and Photography
Authors: van Leeuwen Theo
Published: September 2017

From its very beginnings, photography was understood and experienced in terms of its capacity for realism. “It is not merely the likeness which is precious … but the sense of nearness involved in the thing … the fact of the very shadow of the person lying there fixed forever,” wrote Elizabeth Barrett in 1843 (quoted in Sontag 1977, 183). Soon it would be used to record events and document many aspects of the world, not just in people's family albums, but also in science, medical training, police work, military reconnaissance, and many other spheres of activity. Yet photography also developed into an art form, with highly allegorical
tableaux vivants
that “combined the sensuous beauty of the fine print with the moral beauty of the fine image” (Mike Weaver, quoted in Wells 2000, 262). In the twentieth century, both these aspects of photography would continue to develop: documentary photography and → photojournalism with masters such as Erich Salomon, Henri Cartier‐Bresson, and Robert Frank; and photography as a form of modern art with, for instance, the formal, quasi‐abstract landscapes of Edward Weston and the nudes of Bill Brandt.
Reality TV
Authors: Andrejevic Mark
Published: September 2017

Reality TV became an increasingly prevalent global entertainment → Genre in the 1990s and early 2000s. The popularity of reality shows with producers is due in large part to the fact that they represent a cheap, flexible form of programming that is easily customizable to different audiences and lends itself to forms of interaction and participation associated with new communication technologies (→ Interactivity, Concept of; Digitization and Media Convergence). As an entertainment genre that relies on the unscripted interactions of people who are not professional actors, reality TV develops and discards formats at a rapid rate, parasitizing the permutations available in everyday life – including everything from romance to warfare – for raw material. Reality‐based formats can be differentiated from → news and other informational or documentary programming insofar as their focus is not on bringing the public realm of politics into the private sphere, but on publicizing the private and intimate (→ Television News; Tabloidization). The emphasis is not on matters of public interest for the purpose of democratic participation, but on therapy and social experimentation for the purpose of diversion (→ Enjoyment/Entertainment Seeking; Media Democracy). Reality formats make their claim to reality on the basis of their lack of scriptwriters and professional actors, but they are, for the most part, highly edited portrayals of patently contrived situations.
Rhetoric in the Middle East
Authors: Frank David A.
Published: September 2017

An overview of rhetoric in the Middle East should begin with the recognition that the terms “rhetoric” and the “Middle East” are not neutral, as they reflect the ideological and cultural values of the Occident. There is a general consensus that the notion of rhetoric, coined by Plato in the fourth century
bce
to define the art of public → Discourse and oratory practiced in ancient Greece and the western tradition, should be challenged for its Hellenocentrism. Western scholars of rhetoric have moved beyond the belief that those outside the constellations of Occidental thought lack a “rhetorical consciousness.” The ancient Africans, Egyptians, Hebrews, and Chinese reflected on the role of symbols and argument (→ Rhetoric in Africa; Rhetoric in East Asia: China and Japan; Rhetorical Studies). Western rhetoric owes a deep dept to the Arab world, which preserved and translated the classical rhetorical texts of Greece and Rome during the Islamic world's renaissance in the ninth and tenth centuries
ce
, a period in which Athens yielded to Baghdad as the center of humanistic scholarship. Between 711 and 1492, the art of rhetoric flourished in Spain during the period known as
La Convinencia
(“the coexistence”) as Muslims, Jews, and Christians lived in a cosmopolitan community (→ Rhetoric in Western Europe: Spain). The discourse of and in the modern Middle East is a tangle of religious, national, and sectarian myths and arguments, often prompted by traumas (e.g., the crusades, Muslim expansion, the rise of the Ottoman empire, colonialism, the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, 9/11, etc.) that are the result of conflict between the west and the Middle East.
Rhetoric and Philosophy
Authors: Gaines Robert N.
Published: September 2017

Interactions between rhetoric and philosophy have always been marked by concerns (and sometimes controversy) about the scope, status, and interdependence of the two disciplines. The reason is that while both disciplines are concerned with → Discourse, their aims are different. Philosophy is chiefly concerned with discourse as a medium to express and test knowledge, whereas rhetoric is chiefly concerned with discourse as a medium of influence on minds of individuals and collectives. As a historical matter, contacts between rhetoric and philosophy have differed according to intellectual and cultural circumstances within the ancient, medieval, renaissance, modern, and contemporary eras.
Rhetoric and Politics
Authors: Parry‐Giles Shawn J. , Samek Alyssa A.
Published: September 2017

The study of rhetoric and politics examines the role of → persuasion in the political process. The study of rhetoric most commonly begins with readings from ancient Greece and Aristotle's handbook,On rhetoric. Classical scholars conceived of rhetoric as a practical art involving the performance of public oratory in the contexts of politics, law, and ceremonial occasions, separated from the philosophy of knowledge. As Isocrates’ words expressed during the classical period: “Speech is responsible for nearly all of invention. It legislated in matters of justice and injustice, in beauty and baselessness…. With speech we fight our contentious matters, and we investigate the unknown” (Antidosis254–256, in Mirhady 2000; → Rhetoric, Greek; Rhetoric, Roman). While twentieth‐century rhetorical scholars continued to address the role of persuasion in the → public sphere, its study has more recently expanded beyond public oratory to include other persuasive texts, including advertisements, autobiographies, → cartoons, films, manifestoes, memorials, photographs, → television, print, and digital news, and many other forms of → discourse circulating in public spaces (→ Advertising; Cinema; Newspaper; Photography). Rhetoricians of today also recognize the epistemological contributions of rhetoric, which accentuate its role in creating knowledge and constituting perceptions of political reality (→ Media and Perceptions of Reality; Rhetoric and Epistemology).
Rhetoric, Pre‐Socratic
Authors: Enos Richard Leo
Published: September 2017

Pre‐Socratic rhetoric is an overarching concept that captures not only the traits of Hellenic rhetoric that were demonstrated by the sophists who immediately preceded Socrates, but also the antecedent forces that shaped sophistic views on thought and its relationship to expression. The dialogues of Plato and the development of the Socratic movement have often been considered the seminal events in recognizing rhetoric as a formal discipline or
technê
(→ Rhetoric, Greek). Yet, the dramatic date of these dialogues – particularly such dialogues as Plato's
Gorgias
and his later
Phaedrus
– reveal that sophists were already established and teaching rhetoric within and throughout Hellenic culture well before Plato (apparently) abstracted and coined “rhetoric” as a discipline worthy of scrutiny. Gorgias, a sophist who was clearly older than Plato's mentor and primary dialogue‐character, Socrates, professed to be an established teacher of rhetoric, claiming a pedagogical ancestry dating back to his fellow Sicilians Corax and Tisias. Of course, the debates over the “founding” of rhetoric, whether abstracted as a discipline or long practiced as a craft, continue even today. Yet, what is clear is that several forces were at work prior to the sophists and Plato, which contributed greatly to rhetoric's evolution into a discipline, regardless of when historians of rhetoric wish to select the moment when rhetoric became recognized as an area of study.
Rhetoric and Religion
Authors: Maddux Kristy
Published: September 2017

The relationship between rhetoric and religion is fourfold: (1) rhetoric is a tool used by religious groups; (2) political rhetoric draws upon religious language; (3) religious systems contribute to the discursive constructions of their adherents' worldviews; and (4) religious traditions contribute to rhetorical theory and practice.
Rhetoric in the South Pacific
Authors: Thomas Susan
Published: September 2017

Since the “new rhetorical” movement of the 1960s, the definition of rhetoric has expanded to encompass a variety of theories and movements, technologies and innovations, thereby raising the question of how rhetoric is understood and employed in the twenty‐first century (→ Rhetorics: New Rhetorics). While its rich connection with composition studies has increased the profile, popularity, and applications of rhetoric in North America, the emphasis on composition or academic writing as a mainstay of tertiary education is not nearly so widespread in the South Pacific. As a result, the term “rhetoric” is regarded dubiously.
Rhetoric and Technology
Authors: Warnick Barbara
Published: September 2017

Rhetoric as the study of forms of self‐expression has many meanings depending on the context in which it is used. For theorists and practitioners of public speech, it is concerned primarily with the study of persuasion (→ Rhetoric, Argument, and Persuasion). For those interested in cultivation of effective expression, rhetoric concerns the use of style and development of polished writing and speaking (→ Style and Rhetoric). Rhetoric has been the subject of scholarly theory and analysis in education since at least the fourth century
bce
, when Aristotle developed his theories of artistic proof and stylistic expression in
On rhetoric
(Aristotle 1991; → Rhetoric, Greek; Rhetorical Studies).
Rhetoric in Western Europe: Germany
Authors: Till Dietmar
Published: September 2017

During the early modern period, in Germany rhetoric was taught at grammar schools (
Gymnasien
), both Protestant and Jesuit, and at Protestant universities. Rhetorical theory provided a basis for writing, especially in Latin, serving as a means of communication for scholars throughout Europe. It influenced the theory of poetics as well as art, each of which relied heavily on rhetorical theory (→ Rhetoric and Poetics).
Rhetorical Criticism
Authors: Campbell Karlyn Kohrs
Published: September 2017

Rhetorical criticism analyzes → Discourse in order to understand its communicative power. In US departments of speech and communication, it grew out of the emphasis on public speaking as an expression of democracy and from perspectives developed by literary theorists (→ Rhetorical Studies; Speech Communication, History of).
Rhetorical Theory of Public Relations
Authors: Ihlen Øyvind
Published: September 2017

Rhetorical theory can help public relations to account for the symbolic aspects of communication, which arguably are the heart of → Public Relations activity. Although some fleeting mentions were made of the term in the early public relations literature, it is often said that the rhetorical approach originated around 1980, when Robert L. Heath proposed rhetoric to be the essence of an organization's relationship to its environment (Heath 1980; → Rhetorics: New Rhetorics; Rhetorical Studies; Organization–Public Relationships). Heath has since argued consistently that rhetoric affords public relations with the possibility for an ethical and pragmatic practice: “the good organization communicating well” (Heath 2001, 39; → Public Relations Ethics). Rhetoric assists organizations to achieve legitimacy as well as specific goals. It helps to focus the different interpretations, the zones of meaning, of stakeholders and, ideally, to co‐define and co‐create these (→ Stakeholder Theory). Concurrence is the aim, and the clash of different viewpoints strengthens the public opinion process.
Right to Communicate
Authors: Omachonu John
Published: September 2017

In its modern use, freedom of speech means the freedom of communicating in a variety of formats, including but not limited to the spoken word (→ Freedom of Communication). The right to communicate may vary from one medium to another, and when scholars and jurists discuss free speech, they focus on a broader freedom to communicate, rather than on the narrow right to speak orally. Therefore, “freedom of speech,” “freedom of expression,” “freedom of the press,” and “freedom of information” are often used interchangeably (even though each is distinctive; → Freedom of the Press, Concept of; Freedom of Information).
Risk Perceptions
Authors: Lipkus Isaac M.
Published: September 2017

One definition of risk communication is “communication with individuals (not necessarily face‐to‐face) that addresses knowledge, perceptions, attitudes, and behavior related to risk” (Edwards & Bastian 2001, 147). In the public health arena, we often hear about the dangers of poor lifestyle habits (e.g., smoking, drinking, not exercising, failure to vaccinate or screen for cancer) or how to engage in preventive health behaviors (e.g., taking aspirin to prevent heart disease). Often, the media, health providers, and even our family and friends craft persuasive communications designed to inform us about our risk of disease or other bad outcomes. The basic idea behind these messages, and consistent with many theoretical models of behavior change, is that increasing a person's sense that something bad can happen to them, that is, perceived risk, will motivate behavior change to either prevent or diminish the threat. Thus, perceptions of risk entail not only the perceived probabilities of an event occurring – or not – but the negative consequences as well; negative consequences can encompass the physical, social, psychological, and economic realms (→ Health Communication; Persuasion; Persuasion and Resistance).
Science Journalism
Authors: Wormer Holger
Published: September 2017

In a classic sense
science journalism
deals with results, institutions, and processes in science, technology, and medicine. Its main occasions have been publications in journals, lectures at conferences, and prizes (such as the Nobel Prize). Science reporting is not necessarily prompted by the science system. The occasion may also arise from interesting phenomena in daily life or from general news (such as the scientific explanations behind a tsunami). Under this broader definition, many journalists working outside the science sections of the media do not recognize that they do science journalism when reporting on health, environment, or consumer affairs (Russ‐Mohl 1987). Research results from the social sciences and humanities fit less in the category of science journalism, because those disciplines have places in other sections of the media (such as the
feuilleton
, culture, or political section). For many authors this separation also mirrors the notion of
two cultures
, the scientific on one side, the literary on the other (Snow 1964).
Sesame Street
Authors: Bryant J. Alison
Published: September 2017

Sesame Street is an educational children's television series for preschoolers that teaches a broad range of curricula, from letter and numbers to socio‐emotional and coping skills (→ Educational Media; Educational Media Content). The series is the longest running US children's television show, having first aired in 1969, and has won over 100 Emmys, more than any other television program. It is often heralded as the hallmark of → entertainment education programming because of its broad spectrum popularity, its stringent research process, and its international impact.
Sign
Authors: Steinman Clay
Published: September 2017

The sign, in terms first articulated by Ferdinand de Saussure (1857–1913), the Swiss linguist, has come to serve as the basic unit of approaches to communication that focus on meaning‐making relations rather than on the effectiveness of senders' communication of intended messages to designated receivers (→ Linguistics; Meaning). Semiotic approaches have been taken up by general communication studies, → cultural studies, post‐1960s literary studies, and other fields. For Saussure and for those who analyze culture in his wake, communication involves not messages but signs, material forms that when articulated and then encountered engender meanings bounded by cultural schemata (→ Culture: Definitions and Concepts). The study of signs, then, is at its core social: What conventions determine how signs are made? What conventions determine their readings?
Sleeper Effect
Authors: Schenk Michael
Published: September 2017

“Sleeper effect” describes a phenomenon in which messages from sources with originally low credibility cause opinion change over time. The credibility of a source as perceived by receivers of its message constitutes a central issue in the theory of persuasion, in particular with regard to its impact on attitude change (→ Attitudes). A highly credible communicator (e.g., by virtue of trust, expertise, or reliability) commands an increased probability that the receivers of a message will accept and absorb the persuasive intent of the communication (→ Persuasion). However, the effect of credibility varies during the course of persuasive effects over time. In general, the impact of a persuasive message peaks immediately after exposition and declines over time (→ Credibility Effects). The sleeper effect describes a contrary phenomenon for messages from low‐credibility sources. Here, the immediate effect is overruled by the long‐term effect: The sleeper effect is thus defined as the absolute increase in attitude change over time for receivers of a low‐credibility message (Hovland et al.

).
Small Talk and Gossip
Authors: Coupland Justine
Published: September 2017

The need for the companionship of others is one of the fundamental features of human social nature, and talk is a primary form of human communion. “Small” talk is a type of talk through which we mark co‐presence, e.g., the mutual recognition provided by threat‐reducing talk to strangers in a lift or neighboring airline seat. This need to commune through speech is also enacted across distances (intimacy‐confirming phone calls, texts, emails to significant others, friends, family). Within small talk, what is talked
about
may matter less to participants than the interpersonal significance of talking at all – in a range of social contexts – from intimate, playful encounters (e.g. “pillow” talk) to formal, hierarchical gatherings (e.g., in breaking the ice at the beginning of a job interview).
Social Exchange
Authors: Roloff Michael E.
Published: September 2017

Human survival is based on the ability to exchange resources, and as a result of evolution, the human brain has adapted so as to facilitate exchange (Cosmides & Tooby 2005). Communication is a tool by which individuals can negotiate an exchange (→ Negotiation and Bargaining) as well as provide resources (Roloff 1981). Appropriately, communication scholars have used social exchange theories to guide their research. Interpersonal researchers have applied these frameworks to a variety of relational processes (→ Disclosure in Interpersonal Communication; Interpersonal Conflict; Relationship Development; Relational Maintenance). Organizational researchers have found the frameworks useful for investigating → supervisor–subordinate relationships, as well as other aspects of the workplace (Cropanzano & Mitchell 2005).
Speech Codes Theory
Authors: Philipsen Gerry
Published: September 2017

Speech codes are historically situated and socially constructed systems of symbols, meanings, premises, and rules about communicative conduct. The “speech” in “speech codes” is a shorthand term, a figure of speech, standing here for all the possible means of communicative conduct that can be encountered in a given time and place. The “code” in “speech codes” refers to a system of symbols, meanings, premises, and rules pertaining to those means. These senses of “speech” and of “code,” when placed together in the term “speech code,” establish a definition of a speech code as a historically situated and socially constructed system of resources that people use to talk about their own and others' communicative conduct.
Speech Communication, History of
Authors: Keith William
Published: September 2017

The field of speech emerged out of changing teaching practices in US higher education in the early twentieth century. Between 1880 and 1920, many of the academic fields in the US formed associations and university departments. University education, with the rise of the research university and the land‐grant schools, was becoming accessible to a larger and more diverse group of Americans. Higher education was outstripping its traditional function of reproducing an elite class, qualifying them only for the “gentle professions” of the clergyman, the lawyer, and the politician. Speech instruction had traditionally been integrated into the general, liberal education of the private colleges, with students writing and speaking as part of the study of classics and philosophy. But as the nineteenth century came to a close, speech instruction, focused mainly on delivery, became a separate course in the curriculum. Speaking as a performance art, that of the “platform entertainer,” had become lucrative and popular, and college instruction reflected that reality.
Stages of Change Model
Authors: Valente Thomas W.
Published: September 2017

Some behaviors take a long time to change, and rarely do individuals progress immediately from awareness of a new product or idea to its use. Stages of change models document and specify the specific stages or steps a person goes through when they adopt or quit a behavior. At least four distinct stages of change models have been proposed: (1) diffusion of innovations (Rogers); (2) hierarchy of effects (McGuire); (3) steps to behavior change (Piotrow et al.,); and (4) transtheoretical model (Prochaska et al.).
Standards of News
Authors: Dicken‐Garcia Hazel
Published: September 2017

News standards connote normative qualities, such as accuracy and decency (→ Ethics in Journalism), but the term specifically means the way information is gathered, made into news reports, and presented (Dicken‐Garcia 1989). For example
, objectivity
encompasses six standards: verified facts, fairness, non‐bias, independence, non‐interpretation, and neutrality (Ward 2004). Journalists develop standards to gain credibility in society, and standards change across space and time. For example, US news standards changed as the press shifted from partisan (→ Partisan Press) to event‐centered to commercial during nineteenth‐century industrialization. Accuracy and balance, of little concern to partisan journalists, became more important with the shift from producer to consumer society (→ Professionalization of Journalism).
Storytelling and Narration
Authors: Katriel Tamar
Published: September 2017

Communication research has long recognized the centrality of storytelling in the construction of identities, relationships, and communities. Fisher (

) went so far as to propose the metaphor of man as “homo narrans,” pointing to the narrativization of experience as a fundamental human cognitive strategy and social practice (→ Rhetoric and Narrativity). Narratives are made up of sequentially organized verbal and/or other types of signs (visual, musical, kinesthetic) that depict a temporal transition from one state of affairs to another (Ricoeur 1988). Using one or more modalities, they create a plot that incorporates the narrated events within a sense‐making scheme. Thus, narratives interweave events, circumstantial elements, and emotions by imbuing them with a sense of meaning and order in terms of temporal coherence, causal links, and value orientations. Current research into narration as a socio‐culturally situated activity is a multidisciplinary enterprise, spanning literary studies, psychology, sociology, anthropology, and linguistics. It encompasses both face‐to‐face and technologically mediated communicative encounters, as well as the poetics and politics of high‐profile narrations and everyday storytelling performances. While some scholars view the term “narrative” as an overarching category designating any explanatory system (such as science), reserving the term “story” to refer to one of its sub‐genres, most studies of narration as a discursive activity embedded in social interaction use these terms interchangeably, as will be done here.
Suspension of Disbelief
Authors: Böcking Saskia
Published: September 2017

In general, suspension of disbelief is understood to be an audience's tolerance of the fictionality of media content (→ Fiction). The phrase means that the audience accepts limitations in the presented story, sacrificing →  Realism, and occasionally logic and believability, as well as the media content's aesthetic quality for the sake of enjoyment. Originally, the term traces back to the British Romantic and literary critic Samuel T. Coleridge (1772–1834), who used it to describe the necessity for readers of poetry to accept the fictive world proposed in literary work. Although Coleridge proposed suspension of disbelief as a stance a user has to adopt willingly – he speaks of the “willing suspension of disbelief for the moment, which constitutes poetic faith” (Coleridge

, 169) – in later publications the “willing” is often omitted. Only recently, suspension of disbelief has also been connected with the usage of electronic media such as →  virtual realities and movies, or, more generally, of narratives (→  Presence; Cinema; Transportation Theory; Storytelling and Narration).
Symbolic Interaction
Authors: Sandstrom Kent
Published: September 2017

Symbolic interactionism is a sociological theory that emphasizes the centrality of meaning, interaction, and human agency in social life. This theory emerged out of the American philosophical tradition of → pragmatism, an approach developed in the late nineteenth century by Charles Peirce, William James, and John Dewey. Challenging the assumptions of classical rationalism, these scholars saw “reality” as dynamic and pluralistic, viewed people as actors rather than reactors, tied human meanings to social acts and perspectives, and regarded knowledge as a key resource for addressing problems and improving the social world.
Symbolic Politics
Authors: Sarcinelli Ulrich
Published: September 2017

In habitual language use, symbolic politics means a publicly displayed deception or surrogate action that is used to detract from actual political reality. In this sense symbolic politics is considered to be a surrogate for politics. Symbolic politics differs from substantial policy. As a policy of → signs (terms and slogans, badges, banners and pictures, gestures, ritual acts, and political staging), symbolic politics evolves in a semantic field. Substantial policy, by contrast, consists of a revisable succession of political decisions (e.g., legislation, contracts, taxes, etc.). Symbolic politics and substantial policy can be related to each other. On the one hand, symbolic politics can have an impact on substantial policy. On the other hand, substantial Policy can be communicated, implemented, or averted by symbolic politics.
Teacher Assertiveness
Authors: Thomas‐Maddox Candice
Published: September 2017

Assertiveness, one of the three primary dimensions studied under the rubric of → teacher socio‐communicative style (the others are responsiveness and versatility), refers to an ability to use effective and appropriate communication in making requests and defending one's position. It involves a willingness to speak up for one's own beliefs without impinging on the rights of others. In the classroom, assertive teachers demonstrate confidence in speaking and presenting, facilitating class discussions, engaging in effective classroom management, and presenting an overall positive, authoritative image (→ Pedagogy, Communication in). Teacher assertiveness varies along a continuum from high to low levels of the behavior. When measured in conjunction with responsiveness, a teacher's level of assertiveness provides an overview of communication effectiveness.
Teacher Clarity
Authors: Chesebro Joseph L.
Published: September 2017

Teacher clarity is the extent to which the meaning stimulated in students' minds by an instructor accurately matches the meaning an instructor intends to convey. In their article on teacher behaviors, Rosenshine and Furst (

) identified teacher clarity as the most important aspect of teaching that researchers should investigate. Since that article, research programs originating from both education and instructional communication have examined teacher clarity in a variety of ways and have demonstrated that it is one of the most significant teacher behaviors affecting student learning (→ Classroom Student–Teacher Interaction; Learning and Communication).
Teacher Comforting and Social Support
Authors: Egbert Nichole
Published: September 2017

The communication ofsocial supportis central to relationships in and outside of the classroom. Although scholars offer many definitions, social support is widely understood to be resources – time, money, comforting – that people possess and extend to others. These resources can be further defined by the type of help that is provided, using categories like emotional, informational, instrumental, and appraisal support (House).Emotional supportcan be acts that demonstrate concern, empathy, trust, and caring. For teachers, emotionally supportive behaviors can also include being sensitive, positive, involved, and flexible (→ Teacher Communication Concern).Instrumental supportrefers to providing tangible resources (such as gifts or loans) or time.Informational supportcan include advice, counsel, or information that assists another person, whereasappraisal supportconsists of evaluative feedback and/or social comparison. One other type of support relevant to classroom interactions isinstructional support– reading to and with students, providing high‐quality feedback, leading interactive discussions, and encouraging students to take responsibility in the classroom (Hamre & Pianta).
Teacher Feedback
Authors: Mottet Timothy P.
Published: September 2017

Teacher feedback is considered one of the most powerful instructional variables in terms of enhancing student achievement (Hattie

). Because teaching and learning are relational processes, teachers are both sources and receivers of feedback (→ Classroom Student–Teacher Interaction). Teachers provide feedback to their students about their learning and they receive feedback from their students about their teaching.