bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The ‘Nekyia’
Authors: Gazis George Alexander
Published: May 2018

This chapter offers an analysis of the beginning of Odysseus’ Underworld journey in Odyssey 11. It follows closely the action as it develops in Odyssey 11 and it introduces the reader to the actual poetics of Hades through the discussion of the first encounters the hero has in Hades with his former companion Elpenor, the seer Teiresias, and his mother Antikleia. The chapter further offers an interpretation of the prophecy of Teiresias, which has often been seen as problematic by readers and scholars alike. This chapter shows that, on the contrary, it can be understood if it is seen through the lens of the poetics of Hades.
The ‘Intermezzo’
Authors: Gazis George Alexander
Published: May 2018

The focus of this chapter is on the break in Odysseus’ narrative halfway through Odyssey 11, which is otherwise known as the ‘Intermezzo’. The discussion offers an overview of the problems relating to the ‘Intermezzo’ and offers a new interpretation of the necessity of the narrative break according to which the poet uses this interruption to validate the accuracy and truthfulness of his protagonist’s narrative through the praise of his internal audience. Through the praise that the hero receives from both Arete and Alcinous and especially through the latter’s explicit reference to the truthfulness of his story, the alternative traditions that Odysseus presented in his ‘Catalogue of Heroines’ are authenticated and integrated within the wider epic tradition.
Introduction
Authors: Buga Irina
Published: May 2018

This chapter introduces the discussion of the key role of subsequent practice in the process of treaty adaptation and the formation of international law more generally. The chapter explains the need to explore the treaty modifying potential of subsequent practice—a topic that has, in recent years, generated an increasing amount of attention—and its potentially far-reaching effects for States and dispute settlement bodies alike. The chapter also defines treaty ‘modification’ in this context. The final section sets out the book's systematic approach to exploring the relevance and dynamism of the process of treaty modification by subsequent practice and showing—on a theoretical and practical level—how it can be identified and dealt with more consistently in the future.
Revisiting privileged access
Authors: Harris Paul L
Published: May 2018

Children are prone to similar errors in attributing beliefs (or belief-based emotions) to themselves or to another person. Children also display no obvious advantage or accuracy in talking about their own mental states compared with those of other people. By implication, children have no special access to their own mental states. However, a closer examination of children’s reference to knowing and not knowing, shows that they talk asymmetrically about their own knowledge as compared with that of an interlocutor. More specifically, young children—two-year-olds—ask questions about what others know but not about what they know themselves. Conversely, they deny that they have knowledge but rarely deny that others have knowledge. The data imply that children have privileged access to, and less uncertainty about, their own knowledge states as compared with those of other people. Potential implications for future research on children’s developing theory of mind are discussed.
The world as we see it
Authors: Yan Veronica X , Oyserman Daphna
Published: May 2018

Cultural knowledge allows people to engage the world seemingly effortlessly—their implicit expectations for how everyday experiences will unfold seem to match their observations, triggering a sense that all is right with the world and oneself. However, culture-based expectations are sometimes violated; yielding an experience of cultural disfluency that triggers increased systematic reasoning, reduces experienced inherence, and increases uncertainty about the world and one’s present and future self. This chapter synthesizes these culture-based processes with identity-based motivation theory to yield predictions. Identity-based motivation theory predicts that people prefer to act (action-readiness) and make sense of their experiences (procedural-readiness) in ways that fit who they are but that who they are is dynamically constructed in context. Procedural-readiness entails go-to interpretation of metacognitive experiences of ease and difficulty and go-to mental procedures—focusing on a main point, on connections, or on ranking—that align with individualistic, collectivistic, and honor mindsets.
Prayer as a metacognitive activity
Authors: Luhrmann Tanya M
Published: May 2018

The central act of prayer involves paying attention to inner experience—to thoughts, images, and the awareness of the body—and treating those sensations as important in their own right, rather than as distractions from the everyday business of living. There are many metacognitive consequences of this basic act. Its overt features include the redirecting of attention, which cognitively restructures mental content, leading the person who prays to focus on positive topics like gratitude, to set achievable goals, and to hope. Prayer’s less obvious metacognitive features include an invitation to absorption or being caught up in the act of imagination, which makes what must be imagined feel more real. The light trance associated with intense absorption is the result of a metacognitive act that alters the relationship of those who pray to their own mental domain. In short, we should reconceive prayer as a fundamentally metacognitive act.
Metacognitive variety, from Inner Mongolian Buddhism to post-truth
Authors: Mair Jonathan
Published: May 2018

In this chapter, a case study is presented based on ethnographic research carried out in Inner Mongolia, northern China. A Buddhist teacher and his students have subtly different metacognitive relationships to Buddhism, and their practice and knowledge are dramatically different as a result. This case study is offered as an example of metacognitive variety, and an argument is made that a similar approach is required to understand other cases in which people reflect, and attempt to act, on their own belief, knowledge, ignorance, and cognitive experience, including the transformations that have been described as “post-truth.” In conclusion, some methodological remarks are made about the study of metacognition through ethnography.
Philosophy and Model Theory
Authors: Button Tim , Walsh Sean
Published: May 2018

Model theory is used in every theoretical branch of analytic philosophy: in philosophy of mathematics, in philosophy of science, in philosophy of language, in philosophical logic, and in metaphysics. But these wide-ranging appeals to model theory have created a highly fragmented literature. On the one hand, many philosophically significant results are found only in mathematics textbooks: these are aimed squarely at mathematicians; they typically presuppose that the reader has a serious background in mathematics; and little clue is given as to their philosophical significance. On the other hand, the philosophical applications of these results are scattered across disconnected pockets of papers. The first aim of this book, then, is to consider the philosophical uses of model theory, focusing on the central topics of reference, realism, and doxology. Its second aim is to address important questions in the philosophy of model theory, such as: sameness of theories and structure, the boundaries of logic, and the classification of mathematical structures. Philosophy and Model Theory will be accessible to anyone who has completed an introductory logic course. It does not assume that readers have encountered model theory before, but starts right at the beginning, discussing philosophical issues that arise even with conceptually basic model theory. Moreover, the book is largely self-contained: model-theoretic notions are defined as and when they are needed for the philosophical discussion, and many of the most philosophically significant results are given accessible proofs.
Introduction and overview
Authors: Glanville Peter John
Published: May 2018

Chapter 1 presents the book as an investigation of the construction of meaning and its linguistic construal, focusing on the derivational morphology of Arabic. It presents the thesis of the work, which is that the verb patterns of Arabic are linguistic representations of a set of semantic structures and are therefore iconic, bearing a direct relation to the types of participant involved in a situation and their relationships to each other. The chapter also asserts that the verb patterns are ultimately the result of grammaticalization. It finishes with an overview of the remaining chapters.
Reflexive marking
Authors: Glanville Peter John
Published: May 2018

Chapter 4 examines the semantics of Arabic reflexive verbs formed in pattern VII, which produces anticausative verbs, and pattern VIII, associated with the middle voice. It argues that these patterns result from the conversion of full reflexive pronouns into reflexive affixes, and considers the difference between them in the framework of an agency continuum. It then offers an analysis of reflexive verbs that do not participate in a verb alternation. The chapter argues that once a reflexive verb pattern comes about due to affixation, it becomes a morpheme paired with a reflexive semantic structure, and is then no longer restricted to producing verbs that alternate with an unmarked base verb. The chapter shows that verbs marked with this morpheme may be derived from a variety of base nouns and adjectives, or may not be derived at all, but simply marked because they construe a reflexive action.
The beginnings of a system
Authors: Glanville Peter John
Published: May 2018

Chapter 8 concludes the book with a theory of how the verb patterns of Arabic have come to exist. It presents evidence from numerous studies of grammaticalization that show bound morphemes developing from full lexical words which reduce phonetically and fuse with other words, and it asserts that Arabic verb patterns are the result of a similar process. It also argues that once created, verb patterns become associated with abstract relational structures, allowing them to be employed in a wider range of contexts. The chapter discusses the role of analogy and linguistic categorization in shape-invariant morphology, and illustrates how derivation within this system reflects a cognitive operation termed conceptual blending. The final section discusses directions for further research.
Non-canonical gender in Mopan Maya
Authors: Contini–Morava Ellen , Danziger Eve
Published: May 2018

Mopan (Mayan, Belize/Guatemala) has two noun classifiers that resemble gender markers. However, the gender markers (GMs) violate expectations about canonical gender (Corbett and Fedden 2016): only a minority of Mopan nouns are gendered; gender is marked only together with the noun, not in multiple syntactic domains; gender marking can be omitted in certain syntactic contexts; and gender marking can be introduced when a normally non-gendered noun co-occurs with an adjectival modifier. We address the grammatical and discourse functions of Mopan GMs in relation to their non-canonical properties. Two productive functions—use as honorific titles with proper names and derivation of agentive nominals—are extended to various functions involving agentivity and differentiation, e.g. derivation of descriptive terms for non-human implements and terms for varietal subcategories. GMs are also employed creatively in discourse, e.g. to suggest animacy of inanimates or to introduce sex differentiation where it would not otherwise be signalled.
Conclusion
Authors: Gragl Paul
Published: May 2018

This concluding chapter once again takes up the overall research question of this book (i.e. whether the ‘law is one’) and answers it in the affirmative. It argues that only monism under the primacy of international law is capable of taking the concept of ‘legal validity’ seriously and that it is indispensable in cognizing and explaining the law. Furthermore, it demonstrates moral superiority over its competitor theories, which make it even more appealing in terms of its ethical dimensions. Lastly, especially in our politically turbulent times, this conclusion emphasizes that only international law-centred monism can successfully contribute to global unity and the peaceful resolution of conflicts through legal means.
The Formation of the Republican Institutions
Authors: Capussela Andrea Lorenzo
Published: May 2018

This chapter reviews the evolution of Italy’s social order and institutions between the end of Fascism, in 1943, and the early 1950s. The peninsula was a battlefield for two years, during 1943–5. War and resistance shook Italy’s social order, and the post-war years saw the emergence of a democratic republic based on a progressive constitution. Reconstruction was rapid, and laid the basis for the country’s full industrialization. The ideological cleavage traced by Marxism, however, which split the anti-fascist coalition, and the political repercussions of the Cold War eased the efforts of the pre-war elites to constrain the opening up of the social order and undermine the newly adopted political institutions. An episode of collective action in the rural South nonetheless showed the potential of well-designed reforms sustained by effective organizations. The chapter concludes that during the 1950s electoral democracy consolidated, but Italy remained distant from the liberal democracy paradigm.
The ‘Economic Miracle’ and an Ambitious Reform Programme
Authors: Capussela Andrea Lorenzo
Published: May 2018

This chapter discusses the 1950–64 period, during which Italy’s convergence to the productivity frontier proceeded at the fastest pace in its history. This burst of catch-up growth—the so-called ‘economic miracle’, which radically transformed Italian society—was driven by TFP growth. Though largely unreformed, the country’s economic institutions sustained structural change, technology absorption and adaptation, and intense capital accumulation. The weakness of this transitory growth model—for which the unlimited supply of labour from the agricultural sector was a critical condition—emerged when the North-West approached full employment. In 1962–4 an ambitious attempt to reform Italy’s economic institutions was defeated, also through means—including the threat of a coup d’état (Piano Solo)—that revealed the persisting profound inefficiency of its political institutions. The synchrony between the country’s progress through the stages of its development and the evolution of its economic institutions was thus broken.
Parentheticalism and Normative Reasons
Authors: Henning Tim
Published: May 2018

Parentheticalism is put to use as an explanation of the (otherwise puzzling) ubiquity of sentences involving “believe” and “want” in normative reasons specifications. It is shown that parentheticalism dovetails with a contextualist view of core normative terms. On the resulting view, parenthetical sentences are tailor-made for information-sensitive discourse about reasons and oughts. They specify worldly considerations as reasons and at the same time serve to fix and keep track of subjective bodies of information in the conversational background. Finally, it is argued that the results undermine at least some part of the motivation for psychological views of the nature of normative reasons.
Parentheticalism and Action Explanation
Authors: Henning Tim
Published: May 2018

This chapter discusses the nature of action explanation. Against so-called psychologist accounts, it is argued that the reasons cited as explanantia are usually not mental states but worldly states of affairs. Against so-called Anti-Psychologist accounts (such as Dancy’s), it is argued that the factivity of such explanations is not easily cancelled, and that verbs like “believe” and “want” are not mere devices for cancelling factive implicatures (even though there can be ellipsis). In fact, it is argued that simply citing the relevant worldly reasons leaves out an important part of typical action explanations. The correct view is given by parentheticalism: We must explain actions by citing worldly reasons from subjective points of view.
Introduction
Authors: Hummer Hans
Published: May 2018

The Introduction sets out the epistemology of studying kinship in the Middle Ages. It proposes that investigations of medieval kinship have been frustrated because researchers have assumed that kinship is a human universal which can be retroactively and safely applied to the analysis of different times and places. It sketches David Schneider’s anthropological critique that kinship studies have been based on biogenetic and genealogical assumptions of the modern West that are fundamentally alien to the societies they seek to understand. It puts forth an alternative approach by proposing a method for identifying indigenous conceptions of kinship which can help illuminate the place of kinship within the societal cosmologies of early medieval Europe.
The Modernity of Kinship
Authors: Hummer Hans
Published: May 2018

Chapter 1 explores the modern values that have animated kinship studies since their emergence in the nineteenth century. It examines the sudden invention of kinship by Johann Bachofen, Henry Maine, John Ferguson McLennan, Numa Denis Fustel de Coulanges, and Lewis Henry Morgan in the 1860s, and the internal and external developments in the West that prompted their discoveries: revolutionary agitation, the engagement with “primitives” around the globe, industrialization and the disintegration of old solidarities, and intellectual revolutions in the study of prehistory, especially Indo-European studies and Darwinian evolution. Social theorists transformed kinship into an elemental form of human sociality and evolutionary development, and a building block of the emerging liberal order as the West coped with the ontological sea change wrought by the desacralization and industrialization of society.
Kinship in the City
Authors: Hummer Hans
Published: May 2018

This chapter examines the ancient traditions of thought bequeathed to the Middle Ages to show that in antiquity kinship was neither an object of analysis nor considered an elemental or primitive social form. Kinship did not loom large when the ancients pondered prehistory, neither in origin myths, nor in the philosophical works of Plato, Aristotle, and Augustine. What consumed them was human sociality in the preeminent mark of human civilization, the city. The fullest discussions of matters that we associate with kinship appear in discussions of civic life, where familial forms testify to the associative impulses inherent in friendship, rulership, and civic life. In his City of God, Augustine expressed a native view of kinship that became dominant in medieval Europe, that kinship is love and that humans instinctively multiply the bonds of kinship to extend the net of peace, a process perfected in the spiritual regeneration of the Church.
The Nature of Things
Authors: Hummer Hans
Published: May 2018

This chapter turns to conceptions of kinship in the Carolingian Empire, where the political order was practically the City of God on earth. It finds in Hrabanus Maurus’s De rerum naturis, “On the Natures of Things,” a Carolingian cognate of sociology which treated kinship as a manifestation of the deeper mystical forms of divine sociality binding the cosmos. It examines two lay authors, Dhuoda and Nithard, to demonstrate that laypeople essentially shared the ontological outlook of clerics like Hrabanus. Dhuoda’s handbook to her son William ruminates on the dialectic of worldly and spiritual fathers, showing that her conception of family was bound to a cosmological vision in which families stretched from earth to heaven and were embedded in a wider vision of kinship animated by “fraternal love.” Similarly, Nithard’s family consciousness was attached to his saintly father Angilbert and the monastery of St. Riquier, where Nithard presided as lay abbot.
Conclusion
Authors: Hummer Hans
Published: May 2018

The conclusion summarizes the main points of the previous ten chapters. It suggests how kinship as understood in this study can shed light on related historical problems, such as property and inheritance and the suspected dynamism of an early European economy that has traditionally been seen to be static and bounded by family rights. It situates medieval kinship within the longer history of European kinship, as a phenomenon based on a distinctive ontology predicated on the unity of humanity through sacred genealogy. In the final analysis, kinship will always defy comprehensive understanding because kinship speaks the language of intimacy rather than that of fixed structures, and its expressions continually evolve as societies generate new pathways of connectedness.
Closure and Defeat
Authors: Brown Jessica
Published: May 2018

After arguing that infallibilism faces serious problems, this chapter turns to consider objections levelled at fallibilism. Chapters 5 and 6 consider the objection that fallibilism undermines closure for knowledge. In reply, it’s been argued that closure fails for reasons quite independently of the fallibilism–infallibilism debate, specifically because of defeat. If that’s right, then closure provides no reason to prefer infallibilism over fallibilism. However, the very idea of defeat has come under recent attack. This and the next chapter provide an extended defence of a variety of kinds of defeat. This chapter provides a positive argument for rebutting and undermining defeat. It also examines and rejects some recent objections to rebutting defeat, including Lasonen-Aarnio’s objection that rebutting defeat fails to answer the dogmatism puzzle.
Introduction
Authors: Cullity Garrett
Published: May 2018

Three simple forms of thought are fundamental to morality: treating others’ interests as important, respecting their equal status as agents, and being willing to join others as partners in a worthwhile cause. The aim of this book is to develop a substantive moral theory structured around this idea. To be successful, a theory of this kind must meet three constraints: it must be true, useful, and illuminating. The introduction specifies these constraints as a set of principles associated with Hume, Kant, Rousseau, Von Wright, Williams, Prichard, Aristotle, Hill, and Ross; and summarizes the structure of the book.
Introduction
Authors: Thomas Emily
Published: May 2018

Absolute Time: Rifts in Early Modern British Metaphysics explores the development of absolute time during one of Britain’s richest metaphysical periods, from the 1640s to the 1730s. This study is the first of its kind, although it connects to several existing bodies of literature. The Introduction places Absolute Time in the existing literature, and details it scope with regard to geography, historical period, and topic. The Introduction also sets out Absolute Time’s general developmental theses. First, the complexity of positions on time (and space) defended during this period is under-appreciated. Second, three distinct kinds of absolutism appeared during this wedge of philosophical history: Morean, Gassendist, and Newtonian. Finally, the Introduction provides an overview of the coming chapters.
Newton’s De Gravitatione on God and his Emanative Effects
Authors: Thomas Emily
Published: May 2018

Isaac Newton’s space and time absolutism is infamous, and would prove hugely influential. This chapter explores Newton’s early manuscript De Gravitatione, and asks two questions of it. First, what are time and space? In answer, it builds on John Carriero’s 1990 ‘Causation’ reading, arguing that Newton was drawing on Henry More’s account of emanative causation. It goes on to read Newton as holding that time and space are real but not really distinct from God, and they should be understood as incorporeal dimensions. Second, how is God present in time and space? It answers that Newton’s God is holenmeric, not extended.
Conclusion
Authors: Thomas Emily
Published: May 2018

This Conclusion draws the study to a close, and recounts its developmental theses. The first thesis is that the complexity of positions on time (and space) defended in early modern thought is hugely under-appreciated. An enormous variety of positions were defended during this period, going far beyond the well-known absolutism–relationism debate. The second thesis is that during this period three distinct kinds of absolutism can be found in British philosophy: Morean, Gassendist, and Newtonian. The chapter concludes with a few notes on the impact of absolutism within and beyond philosophy: on twenty-first-century metaphysics of time; and on art, geology, and philosophical theology.
Welfare Democracies and Multidimensional Party Competition in Europe
Authors: Polk Jonathan , Rovny Jan
Published: May 2018

This chapter explains the relationship between the four European worlds of welfare democracies (Nordic, continental, southern, and Anglo-Saxon) and multidimensional party competition. It systematically examines the variation of the relationship between party positions and salience on economic and cultural politics. The expectation is that southern political economies facilitate closer association between economic and cultural issues, whereas Nordic welfare states produce party systems where competition between mainstream parties is defined by economic politics. The continental political economies stand between the two extremes. The argument is tested with the most recent (2014) waves of data from the Chapel Hill Expert Survey and the European Elections Studies. The analysis suggests different political opportunity structures, and consequently different behavior of radical challenger parties of western Europe. Here, the diverse political economies again correlate with the flavors of radicalism.
Determinants of Dimension Dominance
Authors: Kitschelt Herbert , Rehm Philipp
Published: May 2018

In some countries, electoral competition predominantly revolves around redistributional questions (“first-dimension politics”), while in other countries, issues related to cultural matters (guns, gays, and god) or immigration play a more dominant role (“second-dimension politics”). This chapter studies the question of dimension dominance, or more precisely, under which circumstances the first dimension of political competition dominates the second dimension. The chapter presents cross-national estimates of the importance of redistributive vs. non-redistributive concerns in party competition and seeks to explain cross-national differences. It is argued that the dominance of first-dimension politics is a function of (relative) party polarization; the progressivity of welfare states; the historical strength of secular liberal parties; and clientelism, among other factors.
Public Opinion, Party Politics, and the Welfare State
Authors: Lindvall Johannes , Rueda David
Published: May 2018

This chapter examines the long-run relationship between public opinion, party politics, and the welfare state. It argues that when large parties receive a clear signal concerning the median voter’s position on the welfare state, vote-seeking motivations dominate and the large parties in the party system converge on the position of the median voter. When the position of the median voter is more difficult to discern, however, policy-seeking motivations dominate, and party positions diverge. This argument implies that the effects of government partisanship on welfare state policy are more ambiguous than generally understood. The countries covered in the chapter are Denmark, France, Germany, Norway and the United Kingdom (going back to the 1960s). The number of observations is (necessarily) limited, but the diverse cases illustrate a common electoral dynamic centered around the position of the median voter.
Electoral Demand, Party Competition, and Family Policy: The Politics of a New Policy Field
Authors: Schwander Hanna
Published: May 2018

This chapter studies the effect of changing electoral demand and party competition on parties’ family policy orientation in two continental and two southern European countries. Changes in the electoral landscapes represent a necessary but not sufficient condition that provides parties with an incentive to reform their family policy position. As the electoral relevance of the core constituency of both center-right and center-left parties is declining, both center-left and center-right parties are prompted to use progressive family policies to attract new voter groups. Yet, the chapter shows that the strategic configuration of parties influences the extent to which center-right parties modernize their family policy positions. The arguments are tested using data on attitudes toward gender roles and family policy from the European and World Values Survey and a new database on party positions on family policy in two continental and two southern European countries in the last two decades.
Skills in Demand? Higher Education and Social Investment in Europe
Authors: Ansell Ben , Gingrich Jane
Published: May 2018

The chapter analyzes how welfare democracies expanded higher education systems. It argues that the “massification” of higher education across the OECD has had starkly different impacts on occupational structure and returns depending on countries’ institutional environment. The chapter identifies four ideal types in terms of the employment prospects and wage premia associated with higher education: credentialism, mismatch, social investment, and “winner takes all,” which correspond closely to the four types of welfare democracies. Employment and wage data drawn from the European Community Household Panel and Social Inclusion and Living Condition datasets is used to demonstrate these patterns. The chapter also uses individual survey data drawn from the European Social Survey to show the effects of graduate skill mismatch on policy attitudes.
A Structural-Institutional Explanation of the Eurozone Crisis
Authors: Iversen Torben , Soskice David
Published: May 2018

This chapter presents an argument about the underlying reasons for the persistent economic troubles in the Eurozone based on the two different and divergent growth models in the Eurozone’s member states: the export-oriented, skill-intensive, coordinated model of the northern and continental welfare economies and the demand-driven model with strong public sector unions in southern Europe. The chapter then argues that the interactions between macroeconomic policies and national institutions render policies that are appropriate for southern Europe dysfunctional for northern Europe, and vice versa. Is goes on to discuss different reform scenarios for the Eurozone, emphasizing that all reforms come at a considerable political cost, as the same political-economic institutions that would have to be reformed have strong stakes in the status quo in both political economy models. As there are no political incentives for structural change in either model, crises will persist.
Algebraic Art
Authors: Henderson Andrea
Published: May 2018

Algebraic Art explores the invention of a peculiarly Victorian account of the nature and value of aesthetic form, and it traces that account to a surprising source: mathematics. The nineteenth century was a moment of extraordinary mathematical innovation, witnessing the development of non-Euclidean geometry, the revaluation of symbolic algebra, and the importation of mathematical language into philosophy. All these innovations sprang from a reconception of mathematics as a formal rather than a referential practice—as a means for describing relationships rather than quantities. For Victorian mathematicians, the value of a claim lay not in its capacity to describe the world but its internal coherence. This concern with formal structure produced a striking convergence between mathematics and aesthetics: geometers wrote fables, logicians reconceived symbolism, and physicists described reality as consisting of beautiful patterns. Artists, meanwhile, drawing upon the cultural prestige of mathematics, conceived their work as a “science” of form, whether as lines in a painting, twinned characters in a novel, or wave-like stress patterns in a poem. Avant-garde photographs and paintings, fantastical novels like Flatland and Lewis Carroll’s children’s books, and experimental poetry by Swinburne, Rossetti, and Patmore created worlds governed by a rigorous internal logic even as they were pointedly unconcerned with reference or realist protocols. Algebraic Art shows that works we tend to regard as outliers to mainstream Victorian culture were expressions of a mathematical formalism that was central to Victorian knowledge production and that continues to shape our understanding of the significance of form.
Invariant Forms
Authors: Henderson Andrea
Published: May 2018

In the later nineteenth century formal regularity was regarded as the hallmark of mathematical and scientific inquiry as well as the burgeoning “social sciences” and the arts—all presumed to be governed by formal “laws.” But insofar as formal regularity was seen to characterize natural and civil law, it allowed for an equivocation between them, such that formal laws might be understood to be not an abstraction from but an imposition on content. Thus conceived, form and content could actually be at odds, and this would have important implications for the arts. In the context of linguistic and literary study, the structures of languages and literatures were often allied with formal law while individual words were perceived as rich in meaning but wayward. Max Müller’s philology, Coventry Patmore’s prosody and poetry, and Christina Rossetti’s poetry all present form and content as being in tension, locked in a struggle for domination.
Coda
Authors: Henderson Andrea
Published: May 2018

Modernist writers loudly proclaimed their difference from their Victorian forebears, whom they pronounced conventional, moralizing, and sentimental. Yet the formalizing impulse of Victorian art was a crucial precursor to a set of similar tendencies in early modernism. Because, for the moderns, that formalism had a different ethical inflection, it’s easy to overlook the continuing importance of the Victorian notion of form to work in literature and art. That mathematical conception of form continues to matter, especially within literary criticism, and literary critics need to understand the history of this formalism in order to understand the stakes we still attach to it.
Introduction
Authors: Brownlee Victoria
Published: May 2018

The Introduction begins with a short discussion of George Herbert’s ‘H. Scriptures II’, a poem that demonstrates, unequivocally, literary interest in the particularities of biblical interpretation. This poem serves as a departure point for a broader survey of scripture’s profound influence on early modern culture and a preview of the book’s objectives. Acknowledging the Bible’s impact on individuals’ daily habits, education, and modes of reading and writing, as well as the period’s poetry, drama, and art, the discussion situates the book’s central concerns and questions in relation to the critical field. Historical and critical approaches to the relationship between early modern literature and the Bible are considered, and a brief preview of the chapters is offered by way of conclusion.
Introducing concepts
Authors: Pietroski Paul M.
Published: May 2018

Concepts are here considered to be composable mental symbols that can be used to think about things. But an animal may have various languages of thought whose symbols exhibit multiple formats, in ways that keep the animal from combining its mental symbols systematically and productively. This chapter argues that lexicalization is often a process of using available concepts to introduce concepts that exhibit a distinctive format that promotes systematic productive composition. More specifically, the introduced atomic concepts are predicative (monadic) or minimally relational (dyadic); and the new complex concepts are predicative and conjunctive, in ways that would have been familiar to Aristotle and medieval logicians. Much of the chapter is devoted to the relevant notion of a predicate—which contrasts with the modern notion of a function from entities to truth values—and the relevant forms of conjunction, which do not presuppose variables.
Truth or understanding
Authors: Pietroski Paul M.
Published: May 2018

This chapter and the next argue against the idea that children acquire languages whose sentences have compositionally determined truth conditions. The chapter begins by discussing Davidson’s bold conjecture: the languages that children naturally acquire support Tarski-style theories of truth, which can serve as the core components of meaning theories for the languages in question. The argument is that even if there are plausible theories of truth for these languages, formulating them as plausible theories of meaning requires assumptions about truth that are extremely implausible. Sentences like ‘My favorite sentence is not true’, which happens to be my favorite sentence, illustrate this point. But the point is not merely that “Liar Sentences” are troublesome, it is that theories of truth and theories of meaning have different subject matters.
Minimal semantic instructions
Authors: Pietroski Paul M.
Published: May 2018

This chapter provides the compositional details, showing how lexical meanings can be combined (via relatively simple operations) to form complex meanings, and how executing these meanings/instructions can yield conjunctive concepts whose atomic constituents are monadic or dyadic. After introducing some assumptions about the syntactic structures that connect meanings with pronunciations, the discussion turns to simple examples like combining ‘cow’ with a plural morpheme, and work up to untensed clauses like the complement of ‘saw’ in ‘saw a dog chase cows’. The next step is to accommodate tensed constructions, matrix sentences, indices, relative clauses, and examples involving sentential negation. A key idea, borrowed from Tarski, is that sentential expressions can be viewed as predicates of a special sort (rather than denoters of truth values). Finally, it is argued that not only can this proposal handle quantificational constructions, it yields an account that is preferable to more familiar accounts that employ Fregean typology.
Immigration, Immigration-Related Concerns, and Welfare Support in Europe
Authors: Spies Dennis C.
Published: May 2018

The chapter analyzes the effect of immigration on program-specific welfare support among ten European countries. The findings indicate that as far as individual attitudes are concerned the pattern found in the US recurs in Europe. In line with the New Progressive Dilemma (NPD) literature, there is indeed much evidence that immigration has lowered support for at least some welfare programs—and especially for those that disproportionally benefit foreign-born citizens. There is also considerable evidence of anti-immigrant sentiments among Europeans, who would be willing to support policies of welfare chauvinism. Furthermore, the impact of immigration on general welfare support appears to be dependent on the program’s degree of middle-class involvement with universal programs generating far less conflict than targeted ones.
Conclusions
Authors: Spies Dennis C.
Published: May 2018

The purpose of this last chapter is to summarize the results of the comparative analysis of the US and Western Europe and point to venues for further research. Race and immigration are strongly linked to questions of welfare in the US, but there is little empirical support for the argument that immigration has also led to welfare state retrenchment in Europe. Notwithstanding the negative effects of increased ethnic diversity on support for welfare by natives, the institutional design of European welfare programs and the economically divided anti-immigrant movement prevent immigration concerns from translating into actual retrenchment in the core areas of welfare. Ironically, in many cases it is the anti-immigrant Extreme Right that prevents such an outcome in Western Europe.
Contestation, Cooperation, and Competition in (Re)Defining European Security
Authors: Gheciu Alexandra
Published: May 2018

Chapter 4 continues the exploration of practices of insertion of East European polities in the European field of security. Here, the focus is on the bigger picture of European security governance. Specifically, the chapter explores performances of security through which private security actors—including, increasingly, PSCs from former communist countries—seek to enhance their power and play more prominent roles in European security governance. In recent years, one of the most interesting developments in the European field of security has been the growing mobilization of the private security industry—especially within the framework of the Confederation of European Security Services (CoESS)—in an effort to enhance its role in security governance and security provision.
Written from the Body of Sisterhood
Authors: Tarter Michele Lise
Published: May 2018

This chapter, focusing on transatlantic Quaker women’s autobiographical writings between 1650 and 1800, explores the ways in which these Spiritual Mothers prophetically performed and sustained George Fox’s calling for an embodied spirit theology. Faced with impending, male-inscribed censorship on their female body/text, these women resisted patriarchal control and emigrated to the ‘Holy Experiment’ of early America. Their separate and privatized Women’s Meetings became a dynamic network for channelling female prophecy and agency in the colonies. Quaker women established a radical literary tradition, locating autobiography as the new site of prophecy and the semiotic voice in the eighteenth century. Writing from the female body as from the body collective, these women thus created a ‘New Word’ and simultaneously expanded the boundaries of gender and prophecy in the ‘New World’.
‘The Days of Thy Youth’
Authors: Bouldin Elizabeth
Published: May 2018

This chapter explores the range of ideas and activities that engaged Quaker women educators during the eighteenth century, a critical period in the development of Friends’ educational efforts. It analyses key writings of Deborah Bell, Rebecca Jones, and Priscilla Wakefield. These women adopted a variety of approaches to instructing youth, ranging from informal mentorship to formal teaching that stressed a ‘guarded’ (Quaker-only) environment. Bell, Jones, and Wakefield shed light on the leading role that Quaker women played in the education and socialization of young Friends. Their writings highlight the importance of the meetinghouse, the schoolhouse, and the printed word as public venues for women who sought to instil Quaker values in future generations.
Metasemantics, Metasemantic Superstructure, and Metasemantic Base
Authors: Cappelen Herman
Published: May 2018

This chapter introduces the topic of metasemantics, developing a distinction between a metasemantic base and a metasemantic superstructure. Conceptual engineering is concerned with the meanings of our representational devices. Representational devices have meanings in virtue of some facts; there is some fact that makes it the case that ‘snow’ means snow, for example. The metasemantic base consists of those make-it-the-case facts: the grounding facts for meaning and reference. The metasemantic superstructure consists in our beliefs, hopes, preferences, and so on about our meanings. Most theorists have attempted to practice conceptual engineering at the superstructure level: they have attempted to get us to think differently about our meanings. This approach is mistaken. To change meanings we need to change the grounding facts: we need to change the metasemantic base.
Chalmers’s Subscript Gambit, the Importance of Topics, and Lack of Control
Authors: Cappelen Herman
Published: May 2018

This chapter discusses Chalmers’s view about how to deal with verbal disputes, and its relation to the Austerity Framework. According to Chalmers’s subscript gambit, when we suspect that a philosophical term is the subject of a verbal dispute, we ought to ban the use of the word, and replace it with two or more new words which express the different meanings, and investigate whether any substantial dispute remains. Although Chalmers’s method of elimination is helpful, the chapter argues that it does not give us an account of conceptual engineering, because it does not provide a theory of topics, and assumes that we are in control of the meaning of our words.
Prophets, Priests, and Kings
Authors: Roth Dieter T.
Published: May 2018

The close relationship between the two originally anonymous gospels that came to be ascribed to Marcion and to Luke is universally recognized. Attempting to reconstruct Marcion’s Gospel from the patristic sources, one finds passages attested as present, passages attested as absent, and passages that are simply unattested. Though there are a number of passages unattested, there is extant testimony concerning the presence or absence of a significant amount of material in Marcion’s Gospel. Given Marcion’s rejection of the Old Testament as scripture for his church, and his rejection of the Creator God and denial that this God was the father of Jesus Christ, it is striking that references to scriptural figures occur in Marcion’s Gospel as well as Luke’s. By raising the question of how these figures are presented and employed in these two gospels, this chapter highlights the inadequacy of simplistic views about the relationship between these texts.
Monograms, Early Christians, and Late Antique Culture
Authors: Garipzanov Ildar
Published: May 2018

This chapter surveys the origins of monograms in the Hellenistic world and their early usage in republican and early imperial Rome, and continues with a general overview of quantitative and qualitative changes in their application in the third and fourth centuries ad. It also examines the more general cultural background to the increasing popularity of late antique monograms as protective and intercessory devices, suggesting that the growing use of such invocational monograms in visual communication paralleled the increasing popularity of acclamations in oral communication. Finally, it employs a contextualized study of the dedication monogram in the Calendar of 354 as a window into fourth-century Roman calligraphic culture. The concluding section discusses the development of a new, contemplative quality of calligraphic monograms in the late fourth century, and shows how some Neoplatonic ideas and their Christian adaptations affected late antique graphicacy.
Secular Monograms, Social Status, and Authority in the Late Roman World and Early Byzantium
Authors: Garipzanov Ildar
Published: May 2018

This chapter examines the use of monograms as graphic signs of imperial authority in the late Roman and early Byzantine empire, from its appropriation on imperial coinage in the mid-fifth century to its employment in other material media in the following centuries. It also overviews the use of monograms by imperial officials and aristocrats as visible signs of social power and noble identity on mass-produced objects, dress accessories, and luxury items. The concluding section discusses a new social function for late antique monograms as visible tokens of a new Christian paideia and of elevated social status, related to ennobling calligraphic skills. This transformation of monograms into an attribute of visual Christian culture became especially apparent in sixth-century Byzantium, with the cruciform monograms appearing in the second quarter of the sixth century and becoming a default monogrammatic form from the seventh century onwards.