bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Modern Novel: Principles and Methods
Authors: Baldick Chris
Published: November 2023

The next three chapters, and parts of Chapters 11 and 13, will be devoted to various species of extended prose fiction. The purpose of the present chapter is to provide a preliminary sketch of this large field, partly in order to account for the ways in which I have distributed different kinds of novels and prose romances among later chapters. Our main objects of investigation here are the idea of ‘the novel’ as understood in this period; its relation to nineteenth-century traditions; its formal principles of composition and narrative perspective as debated in novelistic theory of the 1920s; and its competing responsibilities to art and to ‘life’. I will look first at theories of the novel, and then review some modern fictions that press in various directions against the limits of novelistic construction.
The Modern Novel as Social Chronicle
Authors: Baldick Chris
Published: November 2023

The great Victorian tradition of realistic fiction, devoted to the study of ordinary lives within carefully specified social environments, survived vigorously into this period. Modernist fictional experiment has commanded more critical attention, but the mainstream of the English novel still lay here, inheriting from George Eliot and Thomas Hardy the recognized conventions of realism and its emphases on local community and social change.
The Modern Psychological Novel
Authors: Baldick Chris
Published: November 2023

The psychological novel in English has a long history going back to Samuel Richardson’s works of the 1740s. The term itself had been introduced by George Eliot in 1855, and was by the 1920s widely used in critical discussion. Novels of the special kind that concentrate on the emotional crises of a protagonist entering upon adulthood were already central to the tradition of English fiction. Although the German word Bildungsroman (variously translated as ‘novel of formation’, ‘education novel ‘ or ‘coming-of-age novel’) was not domesticated as an English term before 1910, the thing itself was prominent in Victorian literature, in Thackeray’s Pendennis (1850), Dickens’s David Copperfield (1850) and Great Expectations (1861), and George Eliot’s The Mill on the Floss (1860). Outside this particular genre of subjective fiction, there had been in the late Victorian and Edwardian periods a few distinguished novelists, most notably Henry James and Joseph Conrad, for whom the events of a novel’s action seemed less important than the characters ‘ perceptions and interpretations of them in the perplexing mazes of ‘consciousness ‘.
Modern Essays, Biographies, Memoirs, and Travel Books
Authors: Baldick Chris
Published: November 2023

Before the Second World War there prevailed among readers, authors, and publishers a shared conception of literature far more capacious than the restricted model of ‘imaginative’ writing that we now usually entertain. It was taken for granted that Literature included not only poems, plays, and fictional prose, but also biographies, travel books, essays, memoirs, critical studies, historical narratives, philosophical treatises, sermons, political speeches, and even scientific lectures. This breadth can be seen in the scope of the reprinted classics issued by J. M. Dent in their popular Everyman’s Library series during this period. These included, along with poetry, drama and fiction, dozens of volumes categorized under Biography, Essays & Belles-Lettres, History, Oratory, Philosophy & Theology, Science, and Travel & Topography; the number of titles published under these categories indeed outnumbered those in the Fiction list.
Modern Entertainment: Forms of Light Reading
Authors: Baldick Chris
Published: November 2023

A major feature of this period’s social history was the growth of leisure, particularly in the domestic realm. As middle-class suburbia expanded, countless families were served in the comfort of their well- lit homes by new kinds of leisure industry linking mass-production to private consumption. Away from the ‘mass’-entertainment venues of the cinema or football stadium, a transformation of domestic leisure was under way, one that brought standardized products and designs into the private sphere of hobby, pastime, and diversion: whether listening to radio broadcasts from mass-produced wireless sets, or to music from gramophone records, or playing the piano from sheet music, the average middle-class English family was amusing itself with pursuits that were increasingly similar to those of most others, from jigsaw puzzles to board games, from dress-making to crossword-solving. Uniform but non-communal, widely shared but reclusively housebound, this new culture of private recreation had as a central element the consumption of standardized ‘light’ reading matter.
Childhood and Youth
Authors: Baldick Chris
Published: November 2023

As we noted in Chapter 2, modern literary culture echoed and amplified the grievances of the young against the old, especially in the aftermath of the Great War, when many writers presented that calamity as a massacre of youth perpetrated by bloodthirsty elders. By the late 1920s, the blaming of the older generation and the praising of youth for youth’s sake had been identified by Wyndham Lewis as central problems of post-War life. Lewis’s long satire The Apes of God (1930) diagnoses the pseudo-bohemian culture of contemporary art and literature as a bogus ‘Revolt of the Children’ against imaginary ogrish father-figures, and as a melodramatic ‘child-parent-war- game’ (pp. 412, 578). Retarded by self-pitying vanity, the typical modern writer—and reader—is in Lewis’s view deeply infantilized, a Peter Pan refusing to assume adult responsibility. One minor character in Apes of God is a journalist who makes a lucrative profession from’sucking-up to the Young ‘ in articles with titles like ‘Youth at the Helm!’ (p. 290). Whether or not we follow Lewis all the way in his interpretation of the youth cult as the central illusion of his time, we must concede that the period was dazzled by the young, as a few book titles may indicate.
Andrew Marvell: ‘Its Own Resemblance’
Authors: Ricks Christopher
Published: November 2023

A characteristic figure of speech in Marvell is that which goes beyond saying of something that it finds its own resemblance, and says instead, more wittily and mysteriously, that some thing is its own resemblance. When William Empson remarked such a figure in Shelley— So came a chariot in the silent storm Of its own rushing splendour. . . . And others mournfully within the gloom Of their own shadow walked, and called it death.
Walter Pater, Matthew Arnold And Misquotation
Authors: Ricks Christopher
Published: November 2023

‘To see the object as in itself it really is’: so Arnold entered upon ‘The Function of Criticism at the Present Time’. Pater retorted that ‘in aesthetic criticism the first step towards seeing one’s object as it really is, is to know one’s own impression as it really is’. Oscar Wilde then took the next step: ‘The highest criticism, then, is more creative than creation, and the primary aim of the critic is to see the object as in itself it really is not’.2 As when the critic misquotes it? There is an innovative essay called ‘Misquotation as Re creation’ by Matthew Hodgart. Hodgart’s earliest example of a critic’s quasi—creative misquoting of the lines by Burns which he was instancing was Thomas Carlyle in 1828, and Carlyle at once followed his misquotation by of course insisting:
Introduction
Authors: Cooper Helen
Published: November 2023

Douglas Gray’s Oxford Book of Late Medieval Verse and Prose,1 to which the present collection of essays is intended as a companion volume, was a landmark work in the study of the literature of the end of the Middle Ages. The brilliance of other forms of the arts in the England of the period is unmistakable. It was in this period that the architecture of stone learned to fly, in the vaulting of Norwich Cathedral, the chapel of King’s College, Cambridge, or Henry VII’s chapel in Westminster Abbey.
Fleshly Monks and Dancing Girls: Immorality in the Morality Drama
Authors: Godden Malcolm
Published: November 2023

The morality play Wisdom, usually dated around 1460, survives in two early manuscripts, a rare thing for medieval English drama and presumably testifying to some degree of interest, if not popularity, in its own time. Yet though it has received a fair degree of attention in recent years, compensating for earlier neglect in favour of the racier Mankind and the better known Everyman, its place in late medieval dramatic and theatrical tradition remains a puzzle.
‘Spekyng for one’s sustenance’: The Rhetoric of Counsel in Mum and the Sothsegger, Skelton’s Bowge of Court, and Elyot’s Pasquil the Playne
Authors: Barr Helen , Ward-Perkins Kate
Published: November 2023

In keeping with the ambiguous meanings of the poem as a whole, the title of Skelton’s Bowge of Court can be understood in at least two senses. ‘Bowge’ is both ‘an allowance of food at court’ and an anglicized form of the French word for mouth: ‘bouche’: the mouth of the court, that is, court language, is inseparable from court sustenance.
Visio Baleii:An Early Literary Historian
Authors: Hudson Anne
Published: November 2023

The idea of a chair in English Literature and Language would have struck John Bale as a surprising, indeed probably a bizarre, notion. Yet the work of this irascible, prejudiced antiquarian has a claim to recognition as one of the first foundations to the edifice of vernacular literary scholarship, even if its author’s objectives were theological, ecclesiological, or historical rather than literary. Bale’s life was eventful: first a Carmelite friar, zealous for the reputation and history of his order, in the early I53os the views of the reformers persuaded him to abandon his fraternal profession in I 536, but not his intellectual pursuits.
Thomas Gray’s ·Thoughts, that breathe, and words, that burn’
Authors: Mcgann Jerome
Published: November 2023

Although Johnson thought him ‘dull in company, dull in his closet, dull everywhere’ and a mere ‘mechanical poet’, Gray’s work survives the judgement. As with our contemporary James Merrill, Gray’s learning and verbal fastidiousness can obscure the adventurousness of his poetical practice. Coleridge seconded Johnson’s view, but one may fairly dissent from both, and even fairly think that Gray was in certain respects the ‘daring Spirit’ he dared to name himself in ‘The Progress of Poesy’ (line 112). An index of his boldness appears in the fact that he pursued his study of Northern Antiquities exactly as he pursued his classical studies: in the mode that Keats would later call ‘negative capability’. Pindar, Lucretius, the Sagas: it was their perfect and pagan integrity that attracted Gray’s Christian, enlightened mind.
Contributions To Books And Pamphlets (Excluding Selections Reprinted In Anthologies) And Books Translated By Virginia Woolf
Authors: Kirkpatrick B J
Published: November 2023

Navy-blue cloth boards; lettered in gold on spine; publisher’s floral device with motto in blind on lower cover; top edges gilt, others partially trimmed; end-papers. No specimen of dust-jacket available.
Translations Into Foreign Languages
Authors: Kirkpatrick B J
Published: November 2023

D02 VIRGINIA WOOLF, AL-MANA.R.* 182 pp. A translation by Jirjis Mansi’ of To the Lighthouse; published by Dar al-hilal, al-Qahirah, Egypt, 1973.
Books and Articles containing Uncollected Letters and Extracts from Uncollected Letters
Authors: Kirkpatrick B J
Published: November 2023

Delattre, Floris. Le Roman psychologique de Virginia Woolf. Paris, Librairie philosophique J. Vrin, 1932, 48 (quotation from undated letter). Reprinted in The Psychological Novel of Virginia Woolf, by Floris Delattre, translated with a foreword by Constance Hunting, Orono, Maine, Puckerbrush Press, [1994], 24.
Manuscripts
Authors: Kirkpatrick B J
Published: November 2023

Locations for letters have been omitted since these are recorded in The Letters of Virginia Woolf, edited by Nigel Nicolson and Joanne Trautmann, 6 vols., 1975-80; and Congenial Spirits: The Selected Letters of Virginia Woolf, edited by Joanne Trautmann Banks, [1989] (includes hitherto unpublished letters) (see A44, 47, 51, 53, 54, 56,66).
‘Gleaming Twilight’: Literature, Culture, and Society
Authors: Stevenson Randall
Published: November 2023

‘A story has no beginning or end’, Graham Greene warns in The End of the Affair (1951): ‘arbitrarily one chooses that moment of experience from which to look back or from which to look ahead’ (bk. 1, ch. 1). Like other stories, histories have no absolute beginnings. Yet some are less arbitrary than others, and 1960 is in many ways an obvious starting point. Factors shaping life and imagination throughout the rest of the century—many patterns in its literature, discussed in later chapters—originated either in that year, or at any rate in the late 1950s and the early part of the new decade. Its opening naturally encouraged reflection about new directions and developments: differing enthusiasm in looking ahead, on different sides of the Atlantic, highlighted some of the pressures shaping Britain’s outlook generally at the time. In the United States, presidential-nominee John F. Kennedy talked expansively of ‘a New Frontier—the frontier of the 1960s—a frontier of unknown opportunities…new invention, innovation, imagination, decision’. The British Prime Minister, Harold Macmillan, more modestly noted only a ‘wind of change’ blowing across the threshold of the 1960s (Gilbert, pp. 224, 245).
An Age of Theory? Critics, Readers, and Authors
Authors: Stevenson Randall
Published: November 2023

High, high above the North Pole, on the first day of 1969, two professors of English Literature approached each other at a combined velocity of 1200 miles per hour. The opening of David Lodge’s Changing Places (1974) goes on to explain that collision is avoided, literally at any rate, by the two professors: the ‘thoroughly conventional English don’ Philip Swallow and the aggressively up-to-date Morris Zapp, travelling on exchange to each other’s universities (ch. 1). Hurtling towards each other in the late 1960s, carrying such different intellectual baggage, they nevertheless provide a good metaphor for the high-level collisions of ideas which came to dominate academic study of English Literature over the next two decades. Later parts of Lodge’s trilogy of campus novels, Small World (1984) and Nice Work (1988), further illustrate the transformations which resulted. Rapid expansion in theoretical thinking at the end of the 1960s, mostly Continental in origin, eventually impacted profoundly on established conceptions of literature, and of how it should be studied, in British universities. There were also wider influences on reading practices during the period, and often on its authors themselves. Generally, theory and criticism took on roles more prominent in the last decades of the century than at any earlier stage of literary history. In the United States, Geoffrey Hartman even claimed that critical or theoretical writing could assume a status equal to the literature it had once been thought to.
A Golden Age? Readers, Authors, and the Book Trade
Authors: Stevenson Randall
Published: November 2023

No common person reads a book. Your telly’s done for all that guff. (John Whitworth, ‘The Middle-Sized Poem’, 1989) It hadn’t, as it turned out. Yet the appeal of print culture was often doubted, naturally enough, in an age increasingly dominated by images and mass media, and eventually by other new forms of leisure technology. In influential 1960s studies such as Media (1964), the Canadian theorist Marshall McLuhan suggested that the cultural centrality of books and print, globally, might be nearing its end. The English critic George Steiner also wondered at the time if ‘an historical era of verbal primacy’ might be giving way under media and other pressures (p. 13). Concerns of this kind were sharply focused, early in the period, by the emergence of a mass television audience in England during the 1950s, especially following coverage of the Coronation, watched by 20 million people in 1953.
Movement or Revival: The Late 1950s to the 1980s
Authors: Stevenson Randall
Published: November 2023

Though it is ‘twenty-five years since the battle | Plucked up the sand and let it settle’, the desert landscape Anthony Thwaite surveys in ‘At Asqefar’ (1967) is still stained and strewn with relics of war. In the literary landscape of the later twentieth century, memories of the Second World War likewise faded only very gradually, long influencing directions followed by English poetry.
Rosebay Revived: Language, Form, and Audience for ‘This Unpopular Art’
Authors: Stevenson Randall
Published: November 2023

‘This unpopular art’ was W. H. Auden’s description of poetry in ‘The Cave of Making’ in 1965. Rumens’s ‘In the Craft Museum’ indicated that it later came to seem not only an unpopular art, but even a faintly obsolescent one. As they suggest, English poetry seemed to endure a troubled period late in the twentieth century, encountering many difficulties in meeting the demands of the times, and of its potential audience.
Last Year in Jerusalem: Politics and Performance after 1968
Authors: Stevenson Randall
Published: November 2023

Today, it is hard to see how a vital theatre and a necessary one can be other than out of tune with society—not seeking to celebrate the accepted values, but to challenge them. (Brook, The Empty Space (1968), p. 150) For about fifteen years after 1968, this challenge was extended throughout English theatre by a generation of writers including Edward Bond, David Hare, Howard Brenton, David Edgar, Howard Barker, John McGrath, and Trevor Griffiths. Most of them were strongly influenced by the emergence of the counter-culture in the late 1960s, by the new theatrical possibilities it encouraged, and above all by the ‘great watershed’, as Howard Brenton called it, of the near-revolution in Paris in the summer of 1968 (Trussler (ed.), p. 96).
Genres, Carnivals, Conclusions
Authors: Stevenson Randall
Published: November 2023

David Lodge talked in 1991 of an ‘aesthetic supermarket’ of diverse fictional styles. Malcolm Bradbury also figured the novel’s diversity in the 1990s in terms of retailing, describing a ‘great shopping mall world of pluri-culture’ in which ‘genres leak freely into one another’, and in which ‘various layers and categories of culture, from the avant garde to the populist, constantly interpenetrate’ (Brown (ed.), p.viii).
The Rhetorical Feminine (Ii): Separating the Women From the Boys
Authors: Colvin Sarah
Published: November 2023

Gryphius’s and Lohenstein’s conceptions of Turkish and other Islamic characters indicate the extent to which their texts rely on an idea of society that is pre-defined as Christian. For Christian, male writers in a hierarchical, masculinist society, otherness is not only equated with wrong ness, but is ‘naturally’ located in binary opposition to the Self; that is, in women and non-Christians. As in a hall of mirrors, this inverted reflection is perceived as an excess that is instructive or interesting in so far as it refers back to the Self.
The Orpheus of Ulster
Authors: Fenton James
Published: November 2023

In 1982, when Blake Morrison and Andrew Motion published their Penguin Book of Contemporary British Poetry, Seamus Heaney exploded. He had had enough. He was not British, and he was fed up with being called British, or anything other than Irish. But since his work had first appeared with Faber in 1966, it had regularly been called British, and it had appeared in such anthologies as Edward Lucie-Smith’s British Poetry Since 1945 (1970), Jeremy Robson’s The Young British Poets (1971), Michael Schmidt’s Eleven British Poets (1980), and even, in 1968, Karl Miller’s Writing in England Today: The Last Fifteen Years. It was time to set the record straight.
Becoming Marianne Moore
Authors: Fenton James
Published: November 2023

Something held women back when it came to the writing of poetry, and since whatever it was that held them back failed to hold women back from writing novels, we must suppose that the inhibition had something, at least, to do with the antiquity and prestige of the art. Certainly the social disad vantages under which women laboured will not, taken alone, explain the conundrum away. I follow Germaine Greer in this when she writes: ‘Homer and Milton were blind; can we claim that being female is a worse handicap than being blind?’ And when she says that In large measure it is women who have deified the poet; it was women who fainted when Byron came into a room, who looked for signs of superhumanity in the brow of Wordsworth and grieved over the world-woe engraved in Tennyson’s cheeks. The more women adored poetry, the less able they were to write it. From being practical and external, the obstacles in the path of the woman who wanted to write songs for others to sing became progressively internalised.
The Many Arts of Elizabeth Bishop
Authors: Fenton James
Published: November 2023

‘Feminists!’ growled EJizabeth Bishop, and vaguely scandalized her 1977 Harvard class.1 But in the same year, the year of the publication of Geography lll, she also wrote a letter in which she claimed to have been a feminist since the age of 6, and she was not being contradictory. It was in the late Seventies that, for instance, some creative writing classes introduced segrega tion of the sexes, so that the women could express their thoughts more freely. But what Bishop meant by feminism in her own case was to be taken on equal terms with any man notto be (as she would have felt) downgraded into the cate gory of woman poet, not to write about ‘women’s experience’ but to take universal experience as her legitimate range, not to be used, politically, as a member of some kind of sisterhood.
Introduction: Reflections on Nature, Society, and Geography
Authors: Tsouvalis Judith
Published: November 2023

The relations of people in Britain to trees and forests are changing. Towards the end of the twentieth century-perhaps because of the doom and gloom prophecies inspired by the millennium, perhaps because of guilt about global deforestation and concerns about global warming-forests have become a socio-ecological utopia. This utopia is based on a vision of forests as multi purpose-forests that provide a variety of benefits, are sustainable, and bio logically diverse. Through its multi-purpose forest policy, the government hopes to fulfil the dream of an expanded timber and woodland resource, contribute to an aesthetically pleasing countryside, and create a diverse and distinctive rural and urban landscape. Forests should enhance and conserve wildlife habitats; revitalize derelict and degraded land; provide job opportunities and possibilities for economic diversification; help reduce carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere; and improve the quality of life in and around cities (FA 1998: 1).
Language Policy and Social Reproduction
Authors: Riagáin Pádraigó
Published: November 2023

During the nineteenth century Irish-speaking communities declined almost to the point of extinction. But in 1922 the new Irish state launched a broad strategy to re-establish Irish as a national language. This book is about that policy and its impact over the last seventy years. Ó Riagáin focuses on the evolving structure of bilingualism in Ireland but he is more centrally concerned with the process of bilingual reproduction. His analysis is based on a series of language surveys conducted between 1973 and 1993. In Part I he reviews the evolution of language policy and the main theoretical perspectives emerging in Irish research. In Part II he is concerned with the position of the Irish language in the residual Irish-speaking areas, and in Part III with the present position of the Irish language in the English-speaking areas. He examines the role of policy in education, in the public sector, and in the forming of Irish-speaking networks. He argues that the various dimensions of Irish language policy have been heavily conditioned by the way the Irish economy and, in turn, Irish society has developed since independence. He concludes in Part IV with a discussion of current issues within Irish language policy.
The Development of Irilsh Language Policy1893-1993
Authors: Riagáin Pádraigó
Published: November 2023

In the early part of the twentieth century Irish was spoken by less than 18 per cent of the population, and as in many of the indigenous minority language communities in Europe, these speakers were situated mainly in the western peripheral regions of the state. Three centuries earlier, the demographic and geographic position of Irish was almost the exact opposite. Irish was spoken by the overwhelming majority of the population and English was dominant only in a small eastern region around Dublin. Despite the well-established dynamic of language assimilation, the small demographic base, and the rural character of Irish language communities, the new native government in 1922 adopted a broadly based strategy to enhance the social and legal status of Irish, to maintain its use in areas where it was still spoken, and to promote and revive its use elsewhere. Following a short historical overview, this introductory chapter presents an outline of the main features of this complex process of language assimilation and the state’s language policy. Language policy is seen as an integral part of the wider processes of social reproduction in pre- and post-independence Ireland. The movement to reverse the shift to English began while Ireland was still part of the United Kingdom. The British state did not, of course, initiate a policy for the Irish language, but reluctantly allowed some relatively modest concessions to the emerging language revival movement.
An Overview of Bilingualism 1926-1993
Authors: Riagáin Pádraigó
Published: November 2023

This part of the book begins with an overview of survey research conducted in Ireland which sought to measure and describe the evolving pattern of bilingualism in the predominantly English-speaking parts of the state. The discussion will mainly focus on three national language surveys conducted in 1973, 1983, and 1993 respectively, although in the latter case only preliminary findings have so far been published. The discussion is restricted to major features of the survey results in order to provide a brief description of the contemporary state of bilingualism in Ireland and to set a context for later chapters which discuss some of the major research and policy issues in more detail. The relationships between education, social class, social networks, and language use patterns are each the subject of a full chapter. For similar reasons, the issue of public attitudes towards Irish is only briefly discussed at this point: it too will be examined more fully in a separate chapter. The statistics throughout are largely confined to national aggregates, but these are supplemented in the case of the main indicators of language use and ability with an analysis of intergenerational and regional differences.
Specificity and Definiteness of Prenominal Possessives
Authors: Taylor John R
Published: November 2023

In this chapter I address one important aspect of the semantics of prenominal possessives, namely their referential properties. We saw in section 5. I that in a prenominal possessive expression, the possessor phrase [NP POSS] can be regarded as a kind of determiner to the possessee noun. Determiners comprise such items as the articles (the, a), demonstratives (this, that), and quantifiers (stressed some, many, most). Determiners make a distinctive semantic contribution to the meaning of an NP. Whereas an Nor N’ denotes a kind, or category of entity, the determiner establishes reference, that is, it picks out those members or those instances of the category as the entities being spoken about Three kinds of reference can be distinguished: definite-specific, indefinite-specific, and non-specific.
The Cue Validity of the Possessor
Authors: Taylor John R
Published: November 2023

In this chapter I consider some further entailments of the reference point analysis, especially as these pertain to the semantic relation between possessor and possessee. We have remarked on several occasions that the possessive construction does not of itself encode any specific semantic relation. Even so, it is not the case that any semantic relation is compatible with the construction. Restrictions on the semantic relation of possessor to possessee were in fact a major topic of the literature reviewed in Chapter 6.We saw in the preceding chapter how some of these restrictions fall out from the requirement that the possessor nominal be topical; this requirement, in turn, is a natural consequence of the reference point analysis. Continuing this approach, I argue here that the restrictions reflect a further requirement on the possessor nominal, one which, again, falls out from the reference point analysis. This requirement concerns the cue validity of the reference point vis-a-vis the intended target.
Possession
Authors: Taylor John R
Published: November 2023

We come, finally, to the topic of possession. Traditional grammarians have long given the name ‘possessive’ to the various constructions that have been our concern in the preceding chapters; it is also the name that I have chosen in this book over its main competitor, ‘genitive.
The Death of Languages
Authors: Calvet Louis-Jean
Published: November 2023

The idea that languages can ‘die’ will come as no surprise, since it is quite common to speak of a ‘dead language’, defined by a technical dictionary as ‘a language which is no longer spoken, but which sometimes still has status in the sociocultural community and a role in teaching, in ceremonial rituals, etc., as with Latin’.1 The Littre dictionary gives two examples, Latin and Hebrew, having defined them as ‘languages which exist only in books’. More recently, the Dictionnaire Robert gives ‘dead languages: languages which are no longer spoken’, without offering any examples, but it does, on the other hand, quote Greek and Latin under the entry for Classical languages.
The War of Words
Authors: Calvet Louis-Jean
Published: November 2023

There are two kinds of justification for intervening in the lexical domain. In some cases, action on lexis is a response to a threat. People think that the language is being invaded by a foreign vocabulary and it is agreed that this vocabulary should be driven out of the lexis in order to replace it with an autochthonous (indigenous) vocabulary. This defence of the lexi cal ‘purity’ of the language is a frequent occurrence, and we shall have an opportunity to analyse it in the next chapter, taking the example of French.
Tradition and Novelty: Descartes and Some Cartesians1
Authors: Verbeek Theo
Published: November 2023

The first official condemnation of Cartesian philosophy in the Low Countries was by the Municipality of Utrecht.2 Their decree of 24 March 1642 confirmed an Academic Judgement proposed a few days earlier by the ‘Senate’ of Utrecht University-the assembly of professors-which had been provoked by a pamphlet of Descartes’s friend the Professor of Theoretical Medicine Henricus Regius (1598-1679). The reasons for condemning ‘this new philosophy’ were, first, that Cartesian philosophy is opposed to ‘ancient’ philosophy and ruins its foundations; second, that, by preventing the students from understanding the technical terms of philosophy, it blocks their way to the heights of learning; and third, that several ideas follow from it which are false and absurd.
Morals And Modernity In Descartes
Authors: Sorell Tom
Published: November 2023

In a letter of July 1638 Descartes referred to the hypotheses that he presented in the Dioptrics and Meteors, and invited a critic, Jean Baptiste Morin, to compare these with would-be explanations put forward by other people: Compare all their real qualities, their substantial forms, their elements and their other countless hypotheses with my single hypothesis that all bodies are composed of parts . . Compare the deductions I have made from my hypothesis-about \’ision, salt, winds, clouds, snow, thunder, the rainbow, and so on-with what others have derived from their hypotheses on the same topics! (AT ii. 196).
Reason and Responsibility
Authors: Wallace R Jay
Published: November 2023

Can people ever be to blame for doing the rational thing? More broadly, what are the connections between the responsibility of moral agents and the rationality of the moral demands to which they are held accountable? As I see matters, these questions turn on the relations between two different practical points of view. Questions about the rationality of moral conduct are in the first instance deliberative questions, arising within the first-personal perspective of an agent trying to reach a decision about how to act. The task of practical deliberation, after all, is the task of determining what one has reason to do. The claim that it is rational for a given agent to comply with moral demands can accordingly be understood as the claim that, if the agent deliberated correctly, he or she would acknowledge reason to act morally and would choose to act accordingly.
Creating Fictional Contexts
Authors: Emmott Catherine
Published: November 2023

In Chapter 2, I suggested that one important and under-investigated type of knowledge is ‘text-specific’ knowledge. To make sense of full, real texts, such as novels, a reader must have background information about specific entities and about the configurations of entities which occur in specific situations. This chapter describes how the reader needs to create mental representations of the fictional context, collecting information from the text and maintaining an awareness of these facts whilst the subsequent text is read. Chapter 5 continues the discussion with regard to multiple contexts and Chapter 6 considers the implications of this discussion of context for mental representations of characters.
Characters and Contexts
Authors: Emmott Catherine
Published: November 2023

Chapters 4 and 5 have argued that characters are ‘episodically’ linked to the other individuals in particular locations at particular times. Assumptions can be made on the basis of these episodic contextual links, such as the inference that a character in a context is still present even when not explicitly referred to and the inference that the action of one character in a context can affect the others in that context. For this reason, readers need to keep track of the current context, changing their assumptions if there is a switch of context.
Distinguishing Narrative Test Types
Authors: Emmott Catherine
Published: November 2023

Narrative is usually defined as a succession of events but another important feature of narrative texts is that some or all of the events are described as they take place within a particular context. As a result, these events are ‘brought to life’ for the reader, being ‘acted out’ rather than presented in summary form. This type of presentation I term ‘framed’ text, since the reader needs to monitor the context by means of a contextual frame (see Chapter 4). Another type of presentation, termed here ‘unframed’ text, is when events are summarized and presented as background to the main action. It is important for the reader to be aware of these different types of text because for events-in-context, assumptions need to be made about the continuity of the participant set, place and time, whereas the same assumptions do not need to be made for background summaries. Since one type of text can be embedded within another, readers must be able to recognize signals of a switch between text types.
Introduction
Authors: Schirn Matthias
Published: November 2023

The Philosophy of Mathematics Today-the title of this collection is meant to convey a twofold objective: first, to document important approaches, tendencies, and results in current philosophy of mathematics, and second, to provide fruitful impulses for future work in several of its areas. In my view, the volume reflects, to a considerable extent, the different methods and viewpoints of current research in the field. If one were to attempt to characterize the essays collected here in terms of a feature they all share, one would probably appeal to their being essentially concerned with foundational issues. Questions regarding the historical development of mathematics or the growth of mathematical knowledge play little role in these essays.
Beyond Definitionism-But Not Too Far Beyond
Authors: Hellman Geoffrey
Published: November 2023

Our aim here is twofold: first, to identify the principal advantages and disadvantages of the definitionist foundational programme of predicativist mathematics (originating with Poincaré and Wey1, and developed by Fefer man et al.), and second, to propose a recipe for liberalizing that programme which overcomes the disadvantages identified while preserving most of the advantages, and which synthesizes (arguably the best of) nominalism.
Holistic Mathematics
Authors: Resnik Michael d.
Published: November 2023

By holism I shall mean epistemic or confirmational holism, that is, the thesis that no claim of theoretical science can be confirmed or refuted in isolation but only as part of a system of hypotheses. Duhem’s remarks on the law of inertia and similar scientific claims make a strong case for a version of holism restricted to the theoretical branches of natural science; but, as several philosophers of mathematics have noted,2 Quine’s extension of Duhemian holism to include mathematics and logic is much more problematic. Recently Penelope Maddy3 and Elliott Sober* have tied difficulties with Quine’s holism to his indispensability argument for the existence of mathematical objects. My purpose here is to defend Quine’s thesis, or at least a close variant of it.
‘ A people exists and that people has its language’: Language and Nationalism in the Balkans
Authors: Carmichael Cathie
Published: November 2023

For the purposes of this chapter the term ‘the Balkans’ is used to denote Bulgaria, Romania, Albania, Macedonia, Kosovo, the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (Serbia-Montenegro), Bosnia-Hercegovina, Croatia, and Slovenia. It is unlikely that the inhabitants of the latter two would define themselves as ‘Balkan’; indeed the call to be part of’Europe’ formed an important part of the process of rejection of Yugoslavia (and in particular of Slobodan Milosevic’s vision for a future Yugoslavia) in the two northern republics in the countdown to the break-up of 1991. Despite different traditions and orientations, all of these states are products of relatively recent political changes (the most important of which occurred during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries), but all also enjoy rich cultural and linguistic histories that are infinitely more complicated than the individual back grounds to state formation would suggest.
Method
Authors: Berg Thomas
Published: November 2023

As argued in the preceding chapter, the link between the explanans and the explanandum is weakened by the fact that students of language are free to take their explanation from any area that appears suitable to them. The connection between language and the extralinguistic world would be more compelling if this freedom were curtailed by restricting the pool of possible explanations to a single area, viz. psycholinguistics. This restriction should make it possible to gauge more precisely the contribution that language processing can make to the explanation of linguistic structure. While this procedure by no means negates the importance of other disciplines, it focuses upon only one in an attempt to ascertain how far this one takes us. Implicationally, interactions among various disciplines have to be ignored.
Language Structure
Authors: Berg Thomas
Published: November 2023

The main body of this monograph is organized as follows. The first part is about language structure (Chapter 4), the second about language change (Chapter 5), and the third about poetic language (Chapter 6). Qualitatively and quantitatively, the first and second parts are much more important than the third. Its main function is to illustrate the diversity of domains for which relevant hypotheses may be developed. The logic of the argument is quite similar across the individual sections. A review of psycholinguistic evidence serves as the background against which pertinent predictions as to language structure are derived. These predictions are subsequently put to the test and evaluated. This procedure will be adopted irrespective of whether the linguistic data are taken from the relevant literature or presented for the first time. The logic of the argumentation is reflected in the somewhat unconventional structure of the individual sections: psycholinguistic evidence ࢐ predictions as to language structure ࢐ test and evaluation. My major objective is to assess the value of the processing approach, not the value of more linguistically oriented approaches. This precludes an exhaustive review of the linguistic literature on each topic. Alternative accounts are only considered when they are immediately relevant to the issue at hand, in particular when they am be directly contrasted with the approach advocated here. Unless stated otherwise, the hypotheses advanced below should not be taken automatically to invalidate other claims made in the literature. Rather, they should be construed as additive in two respects. Because of the multiple causation of linguistic phenomena, one explanation does not rule out another, as mentioned. The approach taken here may also provide a deeper understanding of well-known linguistic phenomena by showing how the empirical data follow naturally from a particular conception of language, and how the extant theoretical claims may benefit from being placed in a wider perspective.
A Psycholinguistic Model of Language Structure and Change
Authors: Berg Thomas
Published: November 2023

The overall objective of this work has been to establish a relationship between language processing and language structure. Thus far, all the attention has been focused upon identifying linguistic patterns which are predictable on psycholinguistic grounds. The weakest interpretation of this procedure would be to say that correspondences have been uncovered. For example, iconicity corresponds to parallel information processing. In a similar vein, the regularization of irregular verbs in history corresponds to the ‘majority rule1 in language processing. While interesting in themselves, it might be held that these correspondences do not suffice to demonstrate the relationship between process and product. What has to be specified is the exact mechanism whereby processing principles impinge upon the linguistic system. This is what Clark and Malt (1984) termed the linkage problem. According to them, an essential requirement of a theory is that it specify precisely how a given psychological constraint brings about a particular linguistic phenomenon. How important this requirement is can be seen from the fact that a processing principle may be a necessary though not a sufficient cause. As it alone cannot be held responsible for the existence of a given linguistic pattern, a certain indirectness between assumed cause and effect has to be acknowledged.
The Overall Perspective: Reductionist or Non-Reductionist?
Authors: Berg Thomas
Published: November 2023

The central question addressed in this work is how far the psycholinguistic approach takes us in explaining language. The overall conclusion is that it takes us quite a long way. Of course, this does not mean that the psycholinguistic approach is omnipotent: language cannot be reduced to psychology, in much the same way as phonology cannot be reduced to phonetics. This is because language is more than a psychological phenomenon. All the other facets discussed in Chapter 2 also have a role in this game. Unfortunately, it is not known how far these non-psychological approaches take us, because their impact upon the structure of language has not yet been investigated systematically and comprehensively. We are even more in the dark as to the multifarious interactions that may exist among the various dimensions of language. There are two reasons why relatively little explanatory work has been forthcoming. For one thing, the relevant disciplines have not progressed to the point where a direct and systematic link with language can be established. The paradigm case exemplifying this state of affairs is the neurosciences. For another, researchers in the disciplines in question have been intent on setting themselves off against the philosophy of autonomous linguistics; their attempts to establish their relative independence from formal linguistics have distracted their attention from issues of language structure. Therefore, the results of their research are often not directly transferable to the issues that are of major concern in the present study.
Introduction
Authors: McGregor William B
Published: November 2023

Arguably the single most fundamental and significant notion Ferdinand de Saussure promoted in his posthumously published Cours de linguistique generale was the revolutionary insight that language is a semiotic phenomenon, and thus that linguistics is a part of a more general science of semiotics, or semiology, as Saussure himself called it (Saussure 1959/1974: 16). By this is meant that language is a system of signs that are used by people for expressing and communicating ideas; and as such, it is both a social and a psychological phenomenon. It is not merely a formal system (e.g. a set of sentences), as mainstream linguistics would have it; nor is it simply a functional system (e.g. a system of disembodied purposes or uses) as some functional theories envisage it. In a sign system form and function are inseparably connected and must be studied as aspects of a single Janus-faced entity, the sign.
Enough Ain’t Enough: The Grammar of Nominal Tautologies in English
Authors: McGregor William B
Published: November 2023

The question of how to interpret sentences such as Boys will be boys may seem minor or unimportant. I think, however, that the consequences of one’s stand on this point are far-reaching; they determine one’s entire idea of linguistics, its boundaries, its capacities, and its responsibilities. (Wierzbicka 1987: 95)

We have now discussed in some detail the SG theory of grammar and the classification of grammatical signs which it proposes. As remarked in Chapter 1, one of the criteria of adequacy of a grammatical theory is whether it provides insights into the analysis of novel grammatical constructions, constructions which it was not initially developed to deal with. Accordingly, in this chapter we confront the theory with a somewhat unusual grammatical phenomenon and explore ways in which this can be accounted for and analysed. (See also Malczewska and McGregor (1991) and McGregor (forthcoming a) for discussion of two other rather unusual grammatical phenomena—inalienable possession and noun incorporation, respectively—and how they can be accounted for within the parameters of SG.) In the process of doing this we are drawn into a consideration of the boundaries and limits of grammar, semantics, and pragmatics.
The Verbal and the Locational Strategy
Authors: Stassen Leon
Published: November 2023

In the preceding chapter we have delimited the scope of our investigation to the encoding of main predicates of intransitive sentences. Given that the semantic domain covered by these predicates can be divided into four (prototypically defined) categories, we can start our inquiry by documenting the ways in which these four semantic categories are formally encoded in each language in the sample. Following that, we should be able to group the languages of the sample into types, on the basis of whether or not they show differentiation in the encoding of the domain.