bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The US Federal Radio-navigation Plan
Authors: Scull D.
Published: November 2009

The United States is in the process of determining what the future mix of radio-navigation should be for its users. Air, marine and land navigation requirements are being closely re-examined and the ability of future or existing systems to meet these requirements is being investigated. Events such as the destruction of Korean Airline Flight 007 have focused new attention on the Navstar Global Positioning System (GPS), both by the President and Congress. Behind the selection of a future systems mix is a planning process that has been under way for some time. The first Federal Radio-navigation Plan, published in 1980, listed two key decision points in the planning process; a joint preliminary recommendation to be made by the Departments of Defense (DOD) and Transportation (DOT) in 1983 and a national level decision in 1986 (Fig. 1). A national decision will not be made without an opportunity for user comment and international consultations.
Air Navigation Cost-benefits and Payments
Authors: Ambrose M. A.
Published: November 2009

At the end of World War II civil aviation inherited an infrastructure in which the state of the art had necessarily been accelerated beyond normal commercial pressures and for which the research and development costs had been funded by military resources and requirements. Within the UK a patchwork quilt of military aerodromes were progressively run-down as military activities decreased and were either adopted by the state, the municipal authorities or private ownership. The possibilities for civil aviation development seemed boundless and to many communities the availability of airline services were deemed sufficiently desirable, because of ancillary benefits, to justify the subsidization of the airport and navigation facilities inherited.
A World-wide Navigation System for Shipping
Authors: Lameijer J. N. F.
Published: November 2009

Since the end of the second world war hyperbolic position-fixing systems have been available for use by merchant vessels. These systems originated in military requirements. Today for the navigation of merchant ships a number of existing systems can be used, such as Decca, Loran C, Omega, Transit and Cikada, the two latter being satellite navigation systems. Transit became operational in 1964 for military use and in 1967 the system was made available for use by merchant shipping.
The Use of Satnav Systems for Precise Time Transfer
Authors: Pilkington J. D. H.
Published: November 2009

Everyone needs a knowledge of ‘the time’, even if the accuracy required is only sufficient to keep an appointment, catch a train or watch a particular TV programme. An isolated clock, started at random and ticking at an unknown rate, can only be used to compare intervals of time. Although this is often useful – for example, in cookery or athletics – the full value of a clock can be realized only if its reading provides a model of the status of a continuing process (such as the rotation of the Earth) or if the clock is a member of a group of clocks, all of which show the same time and may be expected to continue to do so. Particular applications may demand that some members of the group must be kept in closer agreement than others, or must all reliably remain within a stated tolerance for a longer period, but specifications of this kind arise only from economic necessity; in principle all clocks should agree at all times – subject, of course to the unavoidable restrictions imposed by the laws of physics and perhaps the complexities of daylight-saving time.
An Electronic Chart Display for Fishing Vessels
Authors: Coates R. , Dye Keith , Knox K.
Published: November 2009

This paper, which discusses a preliminary development of a microcomputer-based navigation system for the fishing industry, was presented at the Oceanology International Congress at Brighton in March. Dr Coates is at the University College of North Wales, Mr Dye and Mr Knox with the Sea Fish Industry Authority.

The history of the sea-fishing industry is one in which success has only been achieved at the price of experience, painfully gathered as a consequence of abortive fishing trips or damaged gear. A detailed knowledge of conditions on the sea-bed, in particular preferred fishing areas and sea-floor obstacles such as wrecks or sand-pinnacles, is clearly of paramount importance in maintaining commercial viability. At the present time, for the requirements of the UK Sea-Fishing Fleet, such specialist information is available in the form of the widely used ‘Kingfisher’ chart series. With the advent of cheap, yet powerful microcomputer systems, the possibility now exists to create a data-base version of the Kingfisher Charts, thus offering the advantages of rapid updating of information and convenient wheelhouse presentation of user-selected chart features by means of a video monitor.
The Evolution of the Arctic Submarine
Authors: McLaren Alfred S.
Published: November 2009

This paper examines the evolution of the arctic submarine and the ever-increasing scientific and commercial potential which have accompanied this evolution over the past 340 years. It is a sporadic history of arctic submarine ideas, concepts and actual experiences with vessels at sea. It happens to be a history that is largely American, with important additions as a result of the experiences of the Germans, Soviets and the British, particularly during World War II. Finally, it is a history in which five early visionaries in particular stand out: Bishop John Wilkins of England; Jules Verne of France; Professor Anschutz-Kampfe of Germany; the submarine designer Simon Lake, of the United States — whose influence extended over four decades until well into the twentieth century; and Sir Hubert Wilkins of Australia.
Quantification of Action to Avoid Collision
Authors: Zhao-Lin Wu
Published: November 2009

Before 1972 the Collision Regulations were drafted so as to enable a court to decide which vessel was to be blamed rather than to assist the mariner to avoid collision. The new Regulations have been drafted primarily to assist mariners to prevent collisions at sea. Even so, actions to avoid collision required by the Rules are described in abstract terms because of the variety of visibility, sea-room available, manoeuvring capability of the vessels and the nature of the encounters. In order to help mariners understand the requirements of action to avoid collision both in quality and quantity, some reference data are recommended by experienced mariners and researchers. This paper is an attempt to introduce a study on quantification of the term substantial action to avoid collision and the distance of last-minute action in turning to avoid collision.
On the Validation of Radar Simulator Results
Authors: Curtis R. G. , Barratt M. J.
Published: November 2009

When measurements and observations are made using a radar simulator, the researcher assumes that mariners behave in the same way, whether they are handling a simulator or a real ship. This paper, which was presented at an Ordinary Meeting of the Institute held in London on 22 April 1980, investigates whether this is a reasonable assumption.
Personality Factors and Ship Handling Behaviour
Authors: Hagart J. , Crawshaw C. M.
Published: November 2009

Human error is a contributory factor in many accidents at sea. To explore some of the variables involved, a study of simulated ship-handling was undertaken. This investigated the possibility of predicting behaviour at sea from the personality of the individual ship-handler. Results indicated that, in particular, the scores of the seafarers on one simple test correlated with the distances at which they took avoiding action, and that, in general, the relationships between personality factors and ship-handling behaviour was a promising line to pursue.
The Frequency of Overtaking Manoeuvres in Shipping Lanes
Authors: Lamb W. G. P.
Published: November 2009

When vessels are required to adhere to a routing scheme involving long segments of one-way traffic, as in the Dover Strait, the overtaking of one ship by another can result in some degree of hazard and nuisance as well as loss of time. The frequency of such manoeuvres would appear to depend on a number of factors, such as the density of shipping in the lane, the domain size of individual vessels and the speed and lateral-distribution profiles of the traffic. From general considerations it seemed likely that the manner in which overtaking manoeuvres are made, with regard to the presence of other ships in the vicinity, might have some effect on their frequency and extent. It therefore seemed worthwhile to investigate theoretically any change or reduction which might result if overtaking ships were to take account of the presence and location of other vessels in the vicinity when the decision whether to pass to port or starboard of a ship being overtaken was about to be made.
Collision Avoidance as a Game of Co-ordination
Authors: Cannell W. P.
Published: November 2009

The literature of the recent past concerned with the collision avoidance regulations cannot be regarded as the model of rational scientific discussion. Subjective arguments based on personal experience of particular situations and very general mathematical analyses are pitted together without any generally accepted criteria by which to judge them. Obviously both mathematics and experience have great relevance to this geometrically simple, but operationally involved, problem. One step nearer a rational optimization of a set of regulations defining action during collision avoidance would be a formalization of the criteria a successful rule of the road must meet, and of the operational difficulties it faces. The present regulations, for instance, suffer from several logical inconsistencies which are difficult to describe in simple mathematical terms.
Integration of Navigational Information in Aircraft
Authors: Hopkin V. David
Published: November 2009

Mr Hopkin, Senior Principal Psychologist at the Royal Air Force Institute of Aviation Medicine, discusses the human implications of recent advances in the automation of data processing and display as affecting both the role of the navigator and the safety of navigation. This paper was presented in London on 11 December 1980 at a joint meeting of the Institute and the Nautical Institute.
A Table of Latitude Parts
Authors: Williams R.
Published: November 2009

Thirty years ago, in the April 1950 issue of this Journal (3, 133) J. E. D. Williams published a paper ‘Loxodromic distances on the terrestrial spheroid’, in which inter alia he provided a table of latitude corrections to allow for the varying length of a minute of latitude. In the present paper R. Williams tackles the same problem more directly and proposes a table of ‘latitude parts’.
Solo Navigation in a Light Aircraft
Authors: Cyster D.
Published: November 2009

This paper, which was presented at a meeting of the Bristol Channel Branch of the Institute in Cardiff on 23 April 1980, describes Squadron Leader Cyster's solo flight from Dunsfold to Sydney in a vintage Tiger Moth in 1978.
Pre-Computed Flight Planning in Australia
Authors: Jackson P. C. S.
Published: November 2009

Various methods of standard, or stored, flight planning are in use throughout the world and have some degree of success, but on occasions they are too rigid to accommodate changes to routes or in weather patterns. A standard plan should eliminate the individual differences between manually computed flight plans by two pilots for the same route in identical aircraft. It should be in real time, flexible enough to allow route changes by ground control and capable of taking advantage of fuel-saving tail-wind components. All four requirements are inextricably linked.
The Instruments of Navigation
Authors: Cotter Charles H.
Published: November 2009

‘A labourer works with his hands.

A craftsman works with his hands and his head.

An artist works with his hands, his head and his heart.’
A Collision Avoidance System
Authors: Degré T. , Lefèvre X.
Published: November 2009

In this paper, by T. Degré and X. Lefèvre of the Organisme de Recherches Informatiques et Opérationnelles appliqués à la Navigation (ORION), the authors outline the principles of a proposed collision avoidance aid based on the concept of a ship's ‘room to manoeuvre’ in the presence of the vessels' or hazards to navigation and a corresponding bridge display.
The Use of Radar in Polar Areas
Authors: Biskopshaun Birger
Published: November 2009

The University of Bergen chartered the Norwegian ice-breaker MS Polarsirkel in early December 1977 to conduct oceanographic experiments at the Polar ice-edge north of Spitsbergen. Figure 1 indicates the working area. The aims of the experiment were to study the structure of the upper layers of the water column in the vicinity of an ice-edge in winter and to search for wind-generated upwelling along the ice-edge. In this connection we took current measurements in the open upper layers. Figure 2 shows the open area (polynia). At the time of the experiment the air temperature was about − 26°C and the sea surface temperature − 1 °C.
A High-precision Underwater Navigation System
Authors: Pearson M. G.
Published: November 2009

The stringent maintenance requirements that apply to North Sea structures make the cost of inspection a significant factor in North Sea operations. A failure on a large production platform necessitating its shut down would result in a loss of revenue of between half and three-quarters of a million pounds per day. Current practice is such that the whole inspection process is very weather-dependent, and only a portion of a large structure can be examined during the ‘weather window’ (roughly speaking, the period between April and October). The area to be inspected has to be planned in advance, acoustic nets have t o be laid down and calibrated, a range of sophisticated equipment has to be deployed; divers also require relatively long lead times prior to the operation and considerable time for decompressing after the operation. The use of divers will, it is hoped, diminish. It is now general practice to use Remotely Controlled Vehicles (RCV) and television for sub-sea inspection.
The Present Use of Satellites for Sea-state Observations and Prediction
Authors: Allan T. D.
Published: November 2009

Weather satellites such as NOAA 6 and 7, which produce the imagery that appears on our television screens, are largely unsuitable for measuring sea-surface conditions since their sensors operate in the visible/infra-red part of the electromagnetic spectrum and, whereas weather patterns can be inferred from images of cloud formations, for much of the time these clouds also deny the sensors a view of the sea surface.
The Nautical Chart
Authors: Maybourn R.
Published: November 2009

Captain Maybourn's paper, and that which follows by Kerr and Anderson, were presented at a hydrographic symposium entitled ‘The Nautical Chart – The Future’, held during the 12th International Hydrographic Conference at Monaco, April 1982. It outlines the Merchant Mariner's requirements of the chart and speculates as to the effect of new navigation aids on both chart making and use. All the papers presented at the symposium, together with the ensuing discussion, will in due course be available in book form from the International Hydrographic Bureau in Monaco.
Economic Aspects of Marine Navigational Casualties
Authors: Giziakis Kostas
Published: November 2009

The present paper reports a small part of a research project aimed at finding the cost of marine casualties. It is hoped first to find acceptable ways of estimating the cost of casualties and, by applying cost/benefit theory, to help decision makers to choose the most cost-effective programmes of marine safety and environmental protection.
Marine Traffic Analysis
Authors: Whalley T. P.
Published: November 2009

Many nations are debating the implementation of vessel traffic services (VTS) and it is envisaged that some regulation of the movement of marine traffic may soon be imposed. It is highly desirable that prior to any change a rigorous appraisal of the existing traffic be carried out to establish the level of risk in the area; this level can then be used to evaluate any proposed change. The following note describes a research project concerned with establishing a general method of determining the base risk level, developed from earlier research by M. Degré and M. Lefèvre who used a computer simulation of marine traffic in the Dover Strait to assess the impact of various suggested traffic separation schemes. A cost-effective tool has been developed at Liverpool which will enable traffic patterns to be studied in areas remote from the land. This is a computer simulation model which is being used to establish dynamic areas of risk in the Irish Sea, which could easily be transposed to study traffic patterns in any other area.
The Placement of Ancient Sites in the New Forest Area
Authors: Watts Alan J.
Published: November 2009

In the eighth Duke of Edinburgh Lecture, presented to the Institute in 1976, Professor Thorn discussed the extent of Megalithic man's knowledge of astronomy and from surveys of ancient sites showed how a calendar was produced and sensitive methods of astronomical observation developed. Mr Watts suggests that the positions of ancient sites in the area he has examined show an early familiarity with the concept of parallels and meridians.

It is not normally assumed that latitude and longitude were in use in times as remote as the late Neolithic and early Bronze Ages. The New Forest with its relatively sparse set of major earthworks is, however, a good area to illustrate that ancient sites are set with careful regard for both latitude and longitude, arid particularly the latter.
The Development of Programs for Minimum-time Tracks
Authors: Bennett L.
Published: November 2009

This paper outlines the phase of the flight planning operation in which airlines calculate minimum-time tracks for the purpose of advising oceanic control centres of their needs prior to the definition of the Organised Track System (OTS). The results are based on 12- and 24-hour forecasts for a level of 250 mb and aircraft assumed to fly at a constant Mach number of 0·82. The problem is defined in terms of a network in which the domestic route structure on each side of the North Atlantic is represented.
Some Interim Results of the Study
Authors: Monk R.
Published: November 2009

We are still in the process of collecting and developing ways of studying and analysing air traffic routes across the North Atlantic. The results presented in this paper must therefore be recognized as provisional. The data comprise some twelve examples of North Atlantic weather forecasts issued from Bracknell; they are sent to us regularly for the 2nd and 15th day of each month. We have also made arrangements to receive notification from the Heathrow Meteorological Office of any days in which there were significant changes in the weather forecast, so that we can request the additional information from Bracknell. Each set of weather data contains the ‘analysis weather’, that is the best estimate of the actual weather at 1200 GMT, and therefore applicable to the time when aircraft are making westerly departures across the North Atlantic from European cities, and also the weather forecasts issued for 12 and 24 hours before this time.
‘On a Problem of Navigation’
Authors: Williams J. E. D.
Published: November 2009

I am reminded that this was the title of a paper by Professor W. M. Smart, published elsewhere in 1946, dealing with the rhumb line on the spheroid, by references in recent issues of this Journal to a paper of mine entitled ‘Loxodro-mic distances on the Terrestrial Spheroid’ which appeared in this Journal 32 years ago: the subject crops up every few years.
What Course Should You Steer?
Authors: Van de Ree A.
Published: November 2009

Suppose on an ocean voyage a ship, cruising speed 25 knots, using 30·2 tons of fuel oil daily, encounters winds and heavy seas, forcing the ship to reduce her speed to 12 knots using 9·5 tons of fuel oil daily (Fig. 1). The ship in point A is bound for destination D at a distance of 63 miles on a course of 270°.
I – Improvements to Secondary Radar for Air Traffic Control
Authors: Bowes R.C
Published: November 2009

Secondary surveillance radar (SSR) is nearly as old as radar itself. It has evolved from a need in the last war for an Identification system between Friend and Foe (IFF)

Primary radar has a scanning aerial beam which transmits a burst of energy, and the reflected signal from an aircraft is detected. In the simplest form of IFF the aircraft carries a receiver/transmitter (transponder), which detects the primary radar beam and transmits a pulse (on the same frequency) a few microseconds later. Thus two ‘blips’ appear on the radar display, one at the shorter range due to reflected energy from the aircraft followed by a stronger reply from the transponder. The system requires all aircraft to carry a transponder which upon receipt of an ‘up link’ signal or message transmits a ‘down link’ signal or message. SSR has evolved (and is still evolving) from this early IFF technique into the present-day system which serves both military IFF needs and the requirements for Air Traffic Control. This paper concentrates on the civil use of SSR where it is the prime sensor for the control of aircraft.
III – Secondary Radar for Airborne Collision Avoidance
Authors: Ratcliffe S.
Published: November 2009

For many years there has been keen interest, especially in the avionics industry, in the possibility of devising some airborne device which would warn aircrew of an impending mid-air collision. At sea, the use of radar as a collision-warning device is now common, and the carriage of a computer-based collision warning device on tankers in US waters is expected to become mandatory in the near future.
The Calculation of Astronomical Refraction in Marine Navigation
Authors: Bennett G. G.
Published: November 2009

Since programmable electronic calculators were first employed in marine navigation, a variety of formulae has been used for calculating astronomical refraction. As the choice is wide, some formulae have been selected from commonly used reference sources and their accuracy and suitability examined. No attempt has been made to assess the validity of the selected formulae to represent astronomical refraction in practical circumstances. Accuracy comparisons have been made using the refraction algorithm proposed by Garfinkel – the standard adopted by the British and American Nautical Almanac Offices. New formulae are given that are simple and accurate, even over a wide range of temperature and pressure, and which for all practical purposes may be considered equivalent to the tables of refraction given in the Nautical Almanac.
Navigational Implications of the Law of the Sea Conference
Authors: Beazley P. B.
Published: November 2009

Over the past ten years at least the Law of the Sea has been a subject of continuing debate. This would have been inevitable even if there had been no UN Law of the Sea Conference to focus people's minds; the increasing importance of offshore hydrocarbon deposits, the potential exploitation of seabed mineral nodules and the competition to exploit fish stocks would have ensured that. Add to these factors the demands of the large number of newly formed coastal states, which did not see their interest well served by the law that had largely developed under the influence of the western maritime nations, and something clearly had to be done.
Cause Relationships of Collisions and Groundings
Authors: Cockcroft A. N.
Published: November 2009

A major research project to investigate the causal relationships of collisions and groundings involving Norwegian registered vessels has recently been completed. This article reviews mainly the Final Report, by K. H. Drager, but earlier project reports have also been taken into account.

The project was launched in 1976 by Det Norkse Veritas in co-operation with Norwegian maritime authorities, shipowners and research organizations. It was inspired by what was considered to be a high rate of collisions and groundings, attributed mainly to human error. The aim of the project was to investigate the causes of the accidents and to develop measures to reduce the incidence of collisions and groundings.
The Hazards of Close Overtaking
Authors: Cahill R. A.
Published: November 2009

Rule 13 of the Collision Regulations reads as follows:

Overtaking:

(a) Notwithstanding anything contained in the Rules of this Section any vessel overtaking any other shall keep out of the way of the vessel being overtaken.

(b) A vessel shall be deemed to be overtaking when coming up with another vessel from a direction more than 22·5 degrees abaft her beam, that is, in such a position with reference to the vessel she is overtaking, that at night she would be able to see only the sternlight of that vessel but neither of her sidelights.

(c) When a vessel is in any doubt as to whether she is overtaking another, she shall assume that this is the case and act accordingly.

(d) Any subsequent alteration of the bearing between the two vessels shall not make the overtaking vessel a crossing vessel within the meaning of these Rules or relieve her of the duty of keeping clear of the overtaken vessel until she is finally past and clear.
The Optimum Speed of Ships
Authors: Williams J. E. D.
Published: November 2009

Having been concerned in the mid-fifties with developing the general equations of most economic flight and applying them to the profitability of an airline, I was surprised to discover when I was a ship financier in the early seventies that the much simpler equivalent marine problem had never been addressed by our clients, nor did the question arise apparently in the negotiation of their time charters with oil companies which are not conspicuously unsophisticated in some matters. I was therefore most interested to read Captain P. M. Alderton's paper on ‘The optimum speed of ships’, this Journal, 34, p. 341. If it were not for his charming reference to Napier's paper on the same theme dated 1865 one would be tempted to think that this was a case where the air leads the sea by decades.
Banded Contour Charts
Authors: Le Pla P.
Published: November 2009

The proposal by A. J. Wright (this Journal, vol. 34, no. 1, p. 142) that banded contour charts should be introduced, appears attractive at first sight. It appears to provide immediately recognizable indication of safe areas for the navigation of those ships whose draught is within certain limits. However, I feel that the system as proposed suffers from some major weaknesses

Allowance for height of tide. Tidal ranges of several metres are by no means uncommon. Failure to make proper allowance for this could result in a wrong assessment by the user of where navigationally safe water lies. Such tidal ranges frequently occur in areas of high-density traffic. Here, the pressures on the mariner are such that the temptation to ‘eye-ball the navigation’ is greatest – yet it is in such areas that positional accuracy based on sound chartwork procedures is vital.
Halley in Istria, 1703; Navigator and Military Engineer
Authors: Cook A. H.
Published: November 2009

Nowadays it is as an astronomer that Halley is best known. While still an undergraduate at Oxford, he travelled to St Helena and there observed the positions of the southern stars and compiled a catalogue of them similar to those Hevelius and Flamsteed were making of the northern stars. In the last decades of his long life, when he was now the second Astronomer Royal, he began and finished a series of observations of the Moon for a complete saronic cycle of eighteen years. In the middle years of his life he made those observations and calculations of comets that we shall shortly recall with the return of the comet bearing his name. To many of us his outstanding contributions to knowledge and natural philosophy lie in his instigating Newton to undertake the studies that led to the Principia and in ensuring that it was written and published.
A Review of Commercial Wind Propulsion Projects
Authors: Bradbury W. M. S.
Published: November 2009

The commercial viability of wind propulsion is of itself not strictly a navigational problem. However, the implications for navigation of a return to commercial sail in some form are clearly considerable. Mr Bradbury's summary of the various proposals put forward in the last few years and the extensive bibliography will interest many navigators.

In 1980 The Times printed an article on its front page under the headline ‘Oil prices put sails back on the horizon’ (Baily, 1980). This article must have surprised many people. It reflected a growing awareness and interest in the idea of wind propulsion for commercial ships. A better indication of this interest may be the number of related symposia held since the oil crisis. The symposia have been held by The Royal Institution of Naval Architects (1975 and 1980), Liverpool Polytechnic (1976), this Institute (1977), and the Department of Industry (1979). Some interesting papers by Mudie (1977a, b and 1980) have particularly brought the subject to the attention of this Institute.
Risk Analysis of Shipping and Offshore Operation
Authors: Cuming J. A. , Jenssen T. K.
Published: November 2009

Det Norske Veritas is a Norwegian ship classification society with a large classified fleet registered in 94 countries. The paper printed below was presented by Mr Cuming at an Ordinary Meeting of the Institute held in London on 18 May 1983 with Dr J. F. Kemp in the Chair.

Risk analysis is a method of evaluating potential risks which has been used for the past ten years by Det Norske Veritas, in both the shipping and the offshore fields of operations. The method is based on the systematic identification of hazards, the estimation of probability of occurrence and the evaluation of consequences.
The Safety of UK Fishing Vessels 1961–80
Authors: Reilly Mark S. J.
Published: November 2009

Retrospective analysis of the Total Loss and Serious Casualty Rate (TL/SC Rate) for UK registered deep-sea and inshore fishing vessels over a twenty-year period (1961–80) revealed a gradual and sustained increase.

The mean TL/SC rate for 1971–80 (6·041/1 000 vessels at risk) was almost 70 percent higher than the corresponding mean for the previous decade (3·79/1000 vessels at risk) and this difference was statistically significant (p< 0·05).

Subsequent examination of vessel losses and casualties by cause indicate that 64 per cent of this detected increase was due to a concomitant increase in vessels lost or damaged due to foundering (particularly inshore vessels) and that the mean vessel age at loss from this cause was 24 years old. Synthesis of available evidence relating to the onset of this increase (1971); mean age at loss due to foundering (24 years); and the current age structure of the fleet, supports the hypothesis that the increase in founderings in the early 1970s may be explained partly by a cohort effect resulting from the uncontrolled fleet rebuilding programme almost a quarter of a century earlier in the immediate post-war period.

Current combined risks of fishing vessel loss and casualty are about twice as great overall as those with which the Committee of Inquiry into Trawler Safety (1969) was concerned and over which it expressed deep concern.
An Alternative System of Collision Avoidance
Authors: Zhao-Lin Wu
Published: November 2009

Collision statistics indicate that many collisions at sea occur after one or both vessels take action to avoid collision. It is worth considering why this should be so. Is the action taken contrary to the requirements of the Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea or are the Rules unsatisfactory in not stating clear and effective requirements? It is necessary to consider the principles of collision avoidance to determine whether a more effective solution can be obtained. This investigation relates to all types of craft, not necessarily only marine craft.
The Graphical Records of Matthew Flinders's Voyage to Terra Australis
Authors: Ferrar A. N.
Published: November 2009

This second Matthew Flinders Memorial Lecture, in a series sponsored jointly by the Royal Institute of Navigation and the Hydrographic Society with the cooperation of Lincolnshire and Humberside Arts was presented at the University of Hull on 11 May 1983 with Sir John Dudding, Chairman of Lincolnshire and Humberside Arts in the Chair. The first lecture, presented by Rear-Admiral G. S. Ritchie in April 1974 (Journal27, 3) on the bicentenary of the birth of Matthew Flinders, described the hydrographic work of this exploring navigator. Miss Ferrar concentrates on the graphical records of Flinders's Australian voyages.

When Marco Polo made his journey to China, overland from Venice in the thirteenth century, the lands around the Pacific Ocean were wholly unknown to Europeans. But the silks and spices with which he returned sowed the seeds of the quest for a sea route to the ‘Spice Islands’ which was to be one of the mainsprings of exploration for nearly 500 years. The Spaniards crossed the Atlantic. But instead of finding themselves on the coast of Asia as they had expected they discovered the lands (and the wealth) of the Aztecs and Incas, and their explorations extended along the Pacific coasts of Central and South America from Mexico to Peru. The Portuguese found their way around southern Africa and across the Indian Ocean to South-east Asia, where they attained their objective and established a lucrative trade with the Spice Islands. Sailing ship routes depend upon the direction of prevailing winds, so the outward voyage took them eastwards from the Cape of Good Hope and then northwards to their destination. The homeward crossing of the Indian Ocean was in more northerly latitudes.
Human Navigation
Authors: Anderson E. W.
Published: November 2009

In this last communication to theJournal, the late Wing Commander Anderson, whose bookAnimals as Navigatorsis reviewed on p. 146, discusses the natural sensors by means of which man may control his (purposeful) motion from place to place.

The qualification ‘human’ can convey many things. It could cover the impact of human characteristics on various systems, including the most sophisticated, but we shall use the word to mean that navigation information is garnered by the human senses without the aid of anything that has been manufactured. We shall exclude artificial sensors to provide control and not even accept a marching compass to guide the motion. There will be no printed map to give position and no watch to register time.
The Probability of Overlap in the Vertical Dimension
Authors: Nagaoka S.
Published: November 2009

The mathematical collision risk model developed by Reich can be used for evaluating the current air traffic control (ATC) separation minima. This model requires such parameters as volume of traffic, navigational errors of aircraft and the structure of routes. The navigational errors are closely related to the probability of overlap, which is one of the most important parameters for the model.

Distributions of navigational errors have been studied by many researchers since the advent of the collision risk model. Because data collection on the navigational errors in the vertical dimension is expensive and time-consuming, there are few examples of observed data. Thus, at present, data on the probability of overlap in the vertical dimension are not available in a large enough sample to derive any conclusions.
The Navigation of Arctic Polar Submarines
Authors: Lyon Waldo K.
Published: November 2009

In September 1931 Sir Hubert Wilkins and Harald Sverdrup made the first attempt to explore the Arctic Ocean by submarine in Wilkins's Nautilus. The Nautilus was the ex-Navy submarine O-12 modified with topside runners to slide against the underside of the sea ice. Seventeen years later the US Navy developed the sonar system necessary for safely piloting a diesel-battery submarine underneath the ice pack and began exploration of ice covered areas.

In 1957, with the nuclear-powered Nautilus, the US Navy began exploration far into the Arctic Ocean. Problems were found concerning determination of ship's position, ice avoidance manoeuvres, and surfacing up through ice. Sonar and inertial navigation equipments and operating techniques were developed to solve these problems. Submarines have since sailed to all parts of the Arctic Ocean during all seasons — more than twenty explorations since 1957. The history, problems and interrelationships of the many explorations are described.

Dr Lyon's paper was presented at a colloquium on the conquest of the North Pole held in Paris, 7–1 1 November 1983, and organized by the Centre d'Etudes Arctiques by whose permission it is here published. (Throughout the paper miles means nautical miles.)
The Origin of Portolan Charts
Authors: Freiesleben H. C.
Published: November 2009

In the course of a summary of established views about the still unknown origins of portolan charts (this Journal, 36, 124, 1983) the hypothesis was advanced that they originated as a result of the maritime interests of Frederick II of Hohenstaufen. It should perhaps be made clear straight away that this is no mere attempt by a German author to further German pretensions in this matter. In fact, of course, Frederick II (1194–1250) was the last emperor of the Holy Roman Empire and, according to the excellent biography by Kantorowicz, felt himself more and more the spokesman for cosmopolitan thought as his years advanced. He spent his youth in Sicily and was known as ‘The Sicilian’, and learned to speak German only during the third decade of his life during his first visit to Germany; by then he was fluent in half a dozen other languages. Sicily of course, where he spent most of his life, meant not simply the island but the kingdom of the two Sicilies which, since the Norse conquests, comprised extensive parts of southern Italy and notably Apulia, where Frederick had his court at Foggia. His dominions bordered papal territory, which accounts for the hostility to him of several popes.
Navsat: Principles and Potential
Authors: Diederich P. , Jones S. S. D.
Published: November 2009

Navsat is a civil satellite-navigation system which was presented by the European Space Agency. It is still at the system definition phase as distinct from the pre-operational stage, but since the original presentation it has been the subject of studies which have included analysis and synthesis of the main parameters.

The underlying principles of the concept as initially described by Rosetti remain unchanged but sufficient progress has now been made to predict the capability of the system in satisfying a number of objectives in the civil fields of navigation, position fixing and survey.
A Marine Traffic Flow and Collision Avoidance Computer Simulation
Authors: Colley B. A. , Curtis R. G. , Stockel C. T.
Published: November 2009

In a previous paper a model was outlined for an encounter between two vessels using the ‘range to domain over range rate’ (RDRR) criterion. This paper shows how the model has been developed to simulate traffic flow and collision avoidance through the main south-west bound lane of the Dover Strait traffic separation scheme. B. A. Colley and C. T. Stockel are at Plymouth Polytechnic, R. G. Curtis with the Department of Trade and Industry. The paper was presented at an ordinary meeting held in London on 16 November 1983.
A Survey of Traffic Passing Offshore Installations in the North Sea
Authors: Pyman M. A. F. , Lyon P. R. , May G. Rowe
Published: November 2009

Since drilling for oil and gas began in the North Sea in the mid 1960s, the possibility of merchant ships colliding with offshore platforms or rigs, has been of concern to both government and operators. There are nearly 100 fixed and floating installations in the UK sector of the North Sea; they vary in size, location and type of construction, but in all cases, collision would pose serious risks to life, pollution and loss of production. Some platforms are near busy shipping lanes and some have several hundred personnel on them at certain times.
Dynamic Positioning Systems
Authors: Daniel J. J. S.
Published: November 2009

The purpose of this paper, which was presented at a joint meeting held in London with the Nautical Institute on 1 December 1983, is to give an account of the development of Dynamic Positioning from its inception to the present day, a simple description of the principles on which it works, and makes some predictions about its future.

Dynamic Positioning (DP) has been defined in various ways. For the purpose of this paper it will be denned as ‘The ability to hold a vessel in its desired position automatically without the use of physical restraints.’ Physical restraints are ropes, cables, anchors or any other items which connect the vessel to the bottom or to a fixed structure, be it an offshore installation or quay. The word ‘automatically’ means that manoeuvring control must be achieved without manual input.
Encounters in Restricted Waters
Authors: Coldwell T. G.
Published: November 2009

Lewison gave a brief outline in modelling of marine traffic flow and gave four possible definitions of the ship to ship encounter as well as developing his own optimal criteria. Barratt has been working on the concept of an encounter for several years and has developed the postulates given by Stratton in a presidential address to the Royal Institute of Navigation in 1971. It is interesting to note that Lewison1 distinguished between a ‘ship domain’, which is the area around a vessel that it is observed to keep free of other traffic and is estimated in terms of the actual density of shipping observed to occur around a vessel, and an ‘encounter area’, which is a radius traced out around a ship in the different directions from which threats may come and is the desired area which the vessel should try to keep clear. The nicety of the ‘encounter area’ is that it is generated in terms of mathematical models and in quantitative terms, and can be reasonably easily established; but it totally ignores any human element or navigators' preferences, whereas the ship domain takes both these factors into account and can only be established after long observation of actual traffic behaviour.
Fishing Vessel Navigation
Authors: Witty J. H.
Published: November 2009

The fisherman's task in navigating his craft are threefold:

(i) to guide his craft safely and by the most direct route between his terminal ports and the fishing grounds;

(ii) to shoot, tow and haul his fishing gear in such a manner as to prevent it being damaged or becoming fast to any obstruction on the seabed;

(iii) to search for aggregations of commercial fish species and by lures, snares and the use of towed nets to capture viable quantities of the fish located.

The navigation to and from the fishing ground poses the same problems as for other marine craft, but once on the grounds, using towed or encircling nets, the position of the nets, not only horizontally but also in the vertical plane, are as much his concern as is the position of the parent vessel. Most fishing grounds are situated where there are irregularities in the seabed topography or where oceanographical factors provide a rich feeding area for a range of fish species. Alternatively many fish species carry out an annual migratory journey to their spawning areas or towards more favourable environmental conditions, their shoaling behaviour at this time making them particularly susceptible to mass capture.
Precise Positioning for Port Navigation and Berthing
Authors: Danson E. F. S. , Kibble P.
Published: November 2009

Vessel damage incurred by ships manoeuvring in restricted waters and during berthing operations has identified a need for a precise navigation system that would give a master positional information of a high degree of accuracy in a simple visual manner. Such a system would improve operations in marginal weather conditions and decrease turn-around time for the regular port user.

Drawing upon its offshore survey and positioning experience, Wimpol Ltd has developed a precise vessel positioning system which meets a demanding specification with regard to accuracy, reliability and simplicity of operation.
‘Sources of Latitude Error in English Sixteen Century Navigation’
Authors: Forty Gerald
Published: November 2009

In Gerald Forty's paper published in Vol. 36, September 1983, line 36 on p. 325 should read: ‘When using the lower limb with a shade…’
Vehicle Navigation, Location and Control – Keynote Address
Authors: Norris Steven
Published: November 2009

This paper and the following four papers were presented at the EURNAV-96 conference, held in London, 18–19 June 1996 and organized jointly by the Royal Institute of Navigation and the German Institute of Navigation. Copies of the full proceedings, comprising some 22 papers, may be obtained from the Director of the RIN.

I am delighted to be here at the EURNAV-96 conference. Vehicle navigation, location and control is a special interest of mine and I have no doubts about its value and potential.
The Highways Agency Approach to Traffic Management
Authors: Quinn Mel G.
Published: November 2009

Road transport plays a vital part in the UK economy and will continue to do so for the foreseeable future. However, the environmental issues surrounding transport are also of growing concern to the nation, with roads seen as a key element in the environmental debate. These two issues are in conflict, with one pointing to the need for greater road capacity to accommodate more vehicles while the other suggests a limit on road space and fewer vehicles. The Highways Agency has a responsibility to help resolve this dilemma and is doing so by placing increased emphasis on making more efficient use of existing roads.
ROMANSE Public Transport Information Systems
Authors: Brown Steven
Published: November 2009

ROMANSE — Road Management System for Europe — is multi-million pound pilot project based in Southampton. It aims to use Advanced Transport Telematics (ATT) to develop the city as a model for transport management systems across Europe. ROMANSE achieves this by providing realtime traffic and travel information to influence travel behaviour, increase the use of public transport, maximize the efficiency of the transport system and provide high-quality information for use in strategic policy decisions.
Dynamic Route Guidance: the prospects for establishing a sustainable business
Authors: Catling Ian , Harris Richard
Published: November 2009

In a paper in 1988 it was confidently predicted that there would be a commercial dynamic route guidance system operating in London by about 1992. When in 1993 a review was conducted of why the optimism of the late 1980s had not been played out in reality, there were four main reasons given for the delays:

(i) Availability of mapping data.

(ii) Establishment of good traffic monitoring networks.

(iii) Choice of communication method.

(iv) Need for integration with other Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS) services.
Transportation Command, Control, Communication and Information Systems (C3I): ‘Lifting the Lid of Pandora's Box’
Authors: Grocott D. F. H.
Published: November 2009

Integrated Command, Control, Communication and Information (C3I) Systems have developed a language of their own, drawing heavily on acronyms and information technology terminology, resulting in the impression being given to the uninitiated that either a black art is being practised or at least there is a mystique unknown in other complex systems. No master plan or model exists for C3I systems, and their very existence is predicated primarily on the need to fulfil two basic requirements. First, they exist where there is a need at the highest level of management of an international or national authority, or of a large company, or of a large organization, to exercise real-time optimum use of the total and diverse resources available to the corporate body in pursuit of its mission, charter or commercial goal. Secondly, at the lowest level, C3I systems exist to help an individual, or a machine, or a sensor, to perform a given task or rôle more effectively. The integration of emergency services and the operation of large modern transportation systems are among the civilian systems that stand to gain most from the use of integrated C3I systems.