bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Nerve Cell Studies of Freud
Authors: Shepherd Gordon M
Published: November 2023

Although Gerlach gave a new level of credibility to the reticular idea, there were many microscopists in the 1870s who were relatively unswayed by such theoretical considerations, and simply pushed forward in -the attempt to see more clearly the nerve cell and its relation to nerve fibers. As noted in the previous chapter, one of these was Sigmund Freud.
The Early Discoveries of Cajal
Authors: Shepherd Gordon M
Published: November 2023

The year 1888 arrived, my greatest year, my year of fortune. For during this year, which rises in my memory with the rosy hues of dawn, there emerged at last those interesting discoveries so eagerly hoped and longed for. Had it not been for them, I should have vegetated sadly in a provincial university without passing in the scientific order beyond the category of more or less estimable delvers after details. As a result of them I attained the enjoyment of the sour flattery of celebrity; my humble surname, pronounced in the German manner (Cayal), crossed the frontiers; and my ideas, made known among scientific men, were discussed hotly. From that time on, the trench of science had one more recognized digger.
Joining the Mainstream
Authors: Shepherd Gordon M
Published: November 2023

Despite the burst of discovery, the publications so painfully paid for and strategically posted to leading authorities in nervous system anatomy, there was little response. Of all this, the outside world knew almost nothing. Combing the periodicals of r 889, Cajal was alarmed to find his work either ignored or dismissed “contemptuously.”
The Era of Cortical Localization
Authors: Finger Stanley
Published: November 2023

The idea that the cerebral cortex is composed of functionally distinct areas was not given serious consideration by the scientific establishment prior to the nineteenth century. Only Emanuel Swedenborg seemed to be working toward a coherent theory of this sort, but his ideas about cortical localization were not published in his lifetime and do not seem to have affected his contemporaries (Swedenborg, 1887; see also Akert and Hammond, 1962; Gibson, 1967; Schwedenberg, 1960).
Terrestrial Effects Of The Giant Impact
Authors: Benz W , Cameron A G W
Published: November 2023

Although the central goal of our investigations of the Giant Impact has been to find the optimum parameters that may have led to the formation of the Moon, a secondary goal has been to find what effects the collision would have had on the early Earth. We have found that the effects are rather dramatic, and that they do not vary a great deal from one case to another. The iron from the core of the Impactor plunges through the mantle of the proto-Earth and settles on top of its core. This iron is heated to a temperature of typically several tens of thousands of degrees. This will become an important heat source to drive convection in the mantle. Most of the rock from the mantle of the impactor, together with a considerable amount of rock ejected from the mantle of the proto-Earth during the collision, falls back onto the proto-Earth. There is at least some heating of all parts of the interior of the proto-Earth, but the rock in the surface layers is vaporized; the rock vapor at the surface of the proto-Earth has a temperature of typically 16,000 K This condition, combined with the presence of an orbiting disk of rock vapors and magmas, is expected to have caused the ejection of the early terrestrial atmosphere.
Giant Impacts And The Thermal State Of The Early Earth
Authors: Melosh H J
Published: November 2023

The putative giant collision between the proto-Earth and a protoplanet half its diameter that created the Moon 4500 m.y. ago would have had a profound effect on the thermal state of the early Earth. The history of thermal models of the accreting Earth began with consideration of impacts by bodies small enough that most of their energy was radiated to space before it became incotporated in the growing Earth. Such models had difficulty explaining the onset of melting and differentiation in any planet. More recent models examined the physics of energy deposition by impacts of bodies larger than a few tens of kilometers and concluded that a large fraction of their energy is retained as heat. These models indicate that melting should have begun in the Earth when it had grown to about 10% of its present mass. In both types of model the Earth is assumed to grow gradually from bodies much smaller than the growing planet itself. However, recent work on the size-frequency distribution of the planetesimal swarm indicates that most of the mass and energy of the swarm resides in objects at the large end of the spectrum, so that most of the Earth’s growth may have occurred in catastrophic impacts with bodies up to half its own diameter. In such collisions heat is deposited deep within the growing Earth, and at the latest stages of accretion the impacts may have melted the entire impacted hemisphere. The detailed effects of such a giant impact are explored using a 3-D numerical hydrocode to simulate the collision between the proto-Earth and a body half its diameter at two different impact velocities.
Origin Of An Inhabited Planet
Authors: Walker J C G
Published: November 2023

How do the existence and history of life on Earth constrain theories of planetary origin? Something can be learned from the unambiguous record of the antiquity and continuity of life. The oldest clear evidence of life dates back to 3.5 b.y. ago; by that time the processes of planetary growth had ameliorated enough to permit a habitable environment. It is not clear from the paleontological record, however, that the environment was permanently habitable as long ago as 3.5 b.y. A clearly continuous paleontological record of Archean life does not exist, and therefore whole-Earth sterilizing impact events cannot be ruled out on biological grounds until early in the Proterozoic period. Organisms are uniquely able to separate the constituents of the environment. In particular, photosynthetic organisms can generate reduced organic compounds even in a strongly oxidizing environment. Their activities have resulted in accumulations of reduced compounds at the surface of the Earth, throughout the upper crust, and possibly at deeper levels. Equivalent amounts of strongly oxidized compounds have also accumulated. The resultant heterogeneity makes it hard to deternline the original oxidation state of Earth’s outer layers. Although life has oxidized the ocean and atmosphere, it probably has not contributed to overall oxidation of the Earth. If anything, organisms’ abilities to break down environmental compounds have preserved the oxidation state of the mantle from larger changes that would have occurred on an uninhabited planet.
Genetics of Common Diseases that Aggregate, but Do Not Segregate, in Families
Authors: Sing Charles F , Reilly Sharon L
Published: November 2023

The common diseases of humans that have a multifactorial etiology make a substantial contribution to morbidity (Baird et al., 1988; Trimble and Doughty, 1974; Trimble and Smith 1977) and mortality in the population at large. Because they are more common, and morbidity for each may extend over long periods of time, diseases like coronary artery disease, arthritis, diabetes, hypertension, and the psychiatric disorders require a greater demand on health services than the simply inherited inborn errors of metabolism and the chromosomal abnormalities combined (Baird et al., 1988). These common diseases also provide the greatest research challenge because etiological links between multiple genetic and environmental causes and health status are complex.
Atmospheric Convection
Authors: Emanuel Kerry A
Published: November 2023

This graduate-level meteorology text and reference provides a scientifically rigorous description of the many types of convective circulations in the Earth's atmosphere. These range from small-scale, convectively driven turbulences in the boundary layer to precipitating systems covering many thousands of square kilometers. The text introduces the principal techniques used in understanding and predicting convective motion: theory, field experiment, and numerical modelling. Part I explores dry convection, including turbulent plumes and thermals from isolated buoyancy sources, Raleigh-Benard convection, and turbulent convection in the planetary boundary layer. Emphasis is placed on applying theoretical understanding and lessons from experiments. Part II offers a complete treatment of the thermodynamics of moist and cloudy air, including fundamental laws, conserved quantities, graphical techniques, and stability. Part III explores the characteristics of individual convective clouds, thunderstorms, squall lines, mesoscale convective systems, and slantwise convection. Part IV studies the ensemble effects of convective clouds, including stratocumulus at trade cumulus boundary layers and the representation of convective clouds in numerical models. Each chapter is followed by a set of exercises.
General Principles
Authors: Emanuel Kerry A
Published: November 2023

All motions that can be attributed to the action of a steady gravitational field upon variations of density in a fluid may be called convective motions and thus almost all the kinetic energy of the earth's atmosphere and oceans and the bulk of that of the many fluid systems in the known unverse results from convection; other fluid motions are attributable to tidal and electrodynamic forces. In the atmospheric sciences, however, one generally uses a more restricted definition of convection which encompasses only a class of relatively small-scale, thermally direct circulations which result from the action of gravity upon an unstable vertical distribution of mass, with “vertical” taken to mean “along the gravitational vector.” (We make an exception in the case of slantwise convection, which is driven by gravitational and centrifugal accelerations, though the underlying physics is the same.) This restricted definition, which will be used throughout this course, excludes the many motion systems that result from differential heating in the horizontal, including simple Hadley circulations and sea breezes, as well as circulations that arise as a result of unstable distributions of vorticity. Due to the geometry of the atmosphere of the earth, this distinction between “convective” and “nonconvective” motions is rendered less academic, as the former is generally highly turbulent, whereas the' latter can often be regarded as laminar except near boundaries. The strong influence of an entire spectrum of smaller scale motions on most forms of convection helps make this phenomenon among the most perplexing in the atmospheric sciences, while the question of the interaction of convection with circulations of larger scale has proven every bit as challenging. It is fair to say that since Archimedes' time, man's understanding of convection and related phenomena has progressed surprisingly slowly.
Global Convection:the Rayleigh-Benard Problem and
Dry Convective Boundary Layers
Authors: Emanuel Kerry A
Published: November 2023

While many important characteristics of convection are illuminated by examining the behavior of turbulent convection over highly localized sources of buoyancy, convection in geophysical fluids almost always originates from buoyancy sources distributed over areas that are large compared to the depth of the convecting layer. It is a natural step, therefore, to now examine the behavior of a fluid when the heat source, rather than being confined to a point, is distributed over a large area. In this case the entire fluid is engaged in convective overturning and the convection is thus of a global rather than a local character.
Graphical Techniques
Authors: Emanuel Kerry A
Published: November 2023

The stability characteristics and thermodynamic properties of convective clouds and of convecting atmospheres are most easily seen by making plots of the thermodynamic variables. Various thermodynamic transformations can also be easily calculated using thermodynamic diagrams, avoiding the often tedious calculations necessary in moist thermodynamics.
Stratocumulus And Trade-Cumulus Boundary Layers
Authors: Emanuel Kerry A
Published: November 2023

In Chapter 3 we explored the properties of dry convective boundary layers that form when there is a positive buoyancy flux from the surface. Under a variety of conditions, such boundary layers become deep and/or moist enough that clouds form within them. When this happens, the properties of the boundary layer are strongly altered by the latent heat released and absorbed when water changes phase and by the very strong effect of clouds on radiative transfer. In this chapter we explore the properties of boundary layers strongly influenced by clouds that are shallow enough that little precipitation is formed.

Boundary layers with clouds may be classified into four groups, illustrated in Figure 13.1: foggy layers, cloud-topped mixed layers, trade­ cumulus layers, and elevated stratocumulus/mixed trade cumulus-strato­cumulus layers. These are discussed in the following sections.

Fog is defined as cloud in contact with the surface. For the present purposes, we exclude from this definition cloud in contact with hills or mountains.

Over land, fog may form at night as a consequence of radiative cooling of the surface. Heat is lost from the air radiatively and diffused downward into the surface by wind-induced turbulence. If the air near the ground is cooled to its dew-point temperature, condensation occurs, first near the ground and later at higher altitudes. Initially, the fog is thickest near the surface, with the cloud-water content falling off rapidly with altitude. If it does not achieve a thickness greater than a few meters by sunrise, it will remain in this state until absorption of sunlight by the surface and by the cloud itself raises the temperature enough to evaporate the cloud. Thin fog of this kind is not convective, because the cooling occurs from below.
Interaction Of Convection With Large-Scale Flows
Authors: Emanuel Kerry A
Published: November 2023

In regions experiencing deep convection, the convective clouds affect the entire depth of the troposphere and serve to link the boundary layer with the rest of the atmosphere. It is important to understand how the convective clouds collectively affect the thermodynamic and kinematic structure of the atmosphere, and how they respond to and affect large-scale circulations such as tropical waves. An important and largely unsolved problem is the control of atmospheric water vapor by deep convection. The water vapor itself, as well as the stratiform clouds that are closely associated with it, has a strong influence on radiative transfer and therefore on the earth's climate.

In the following sections, we develop relations for the ensemble effects of cumulus clouds on atmospheric temperature, water vapor, and momen­ tum and use them together with sounding data to make inferences about atmospheric convection. Finally, we explore the nature of the interaction of convection with atmospheric circulation systems.
Cumulus Representation In Numerical Models
Authors: Emanuel Kerry A
Published: November 2023

Numerical simulation has become an important means of investigating the nature of atmospheric phenomena and of forecasting weather. We have seen in Chapter 10 and elsewhere the power of this technique when applied intelligently to the investigation of the dynamics of convection.

Many occasions arise in which the phenomena of interest are not convective clouds per se, but larger-scale circulations that may depend intimately on the collective effects of cumulus convection. At the small-scale end of this spectrum are hurricanes, which are rotationally balanced circulations with dynamic scales somewhat larger than those of convective clouds (except perhaps in the vicinity of the eye), while the general circulation of the atmosphere is an example at the largest scale. For relatively small-scale circulations, such as hurricanes, it has become possible to simultaneously resolve the hurricane circulation and individual convective clouds, although the latter are only crudely simulated. The advent of adaptive grid techniques, in which finer grids are locally and interactively enmeshed in the large-scale grid, where the dynamics itself calls for it, may make it possible to simulate even larger-scale circulations while still resolving the convection.

Yet many larger-scale models are not capable of resolving cumulus clouds. Climate models, which must simulate atmospheric and ocean circulations over the entire globe for periods of many years or decades, are very far from being able to resolve individual clouds. As we shall soon demonstrate, even if clouds could be resolved, the microphysical processes within clouds would remain as a strong influence on climate through their control of atmospheric water vapor.
Aerospace Capital of the World: Los Angeles Takes Off
Authors: Markusen Ann , Hall Peter , Campbell Scott , Deitrick Sabina
Published: November 2023

The approach to Los Angeles International Airport offers one of the world’s most spectacular urban panoramas. And the best place from which to enjoy it, for the dedicated student of cities, is by the airplane’s left window. As the plane swoops down over the ocean, the Santa Monica Mountains in the foreground, there appear the movie stars’ homes of Beverly Hills, an apparently endless march of offices and penthouses down Wilshire Boulevard, the famous “Hollywood” sign on the hillside, and the unmistakable juke-box record stack of the Capitol Records tower. This is the L.A. everyone knows: the capital of movies and television, glitz and glamour, kitsch and schmaltz. Then, as the plane dips toward the right into a giant U-turn, the traveler sees a second L.A.: downtown, marked by the memorable outline of city hall and the huge skyscrapers of Bunker Hill.
The Power of Broadcast Debates
Authors: Jamieson Kathleen Hall , Birdsell David S
Published: November 2023

The general election debates of 1988 face two challenges in their efforts to attract viewers. The unprecedented number of debates in the 1988 primaries devalued debate as an activity. From a special event, worthy of unique attention, debates slipped to being a routine part of life, of no special note. Additionally, past debates have fallen below the lofty expectations the press set for them. None of the debates have been “Great.”
Testing the Theory of Descent
Authors: Penny David , Hendy Michael D , Steel Michael A
Published: November 2023

If it could be demonstrated that any complex organ existed which could not possibly have been formed by numerous, successive, slight modifications, my theory would absolutely break down (Darwin, 1859: 189).The comment of Popper (1976:168) that “Darwinism is not a testable scientific theory, but a metaphysical research program-apossible framework for testable scientific theories” is sometimes used to question the scientific status of evolutionary theory.
Dynamics of Discourse: Literacy and the Construction of Knowledge
Authors: Chang-Wells Gen Ling M , Wells Gordon
Published: November 2023

Work in both child language and cognitive development concurs in seeing the child as a meaning maker(Bower, 1974; R. Brown, 1973;Bruner, 1983; Newson, 1978; Wells, 1985). The linguistic repertoire the child builds and the expanding mental model of the world that he or she inhabits are the results of the child’s constructive effort, achieved through a progressive and cumulative process of hypothesis formation, testing, and modification. Moreover, what is true of learning during the preschool years seems to continue to be true of later learning, even during adulthood. Each new step in the constructive process results from a transaction in which what is already known is brought to bear on new information, creating new meaning and enhancing understanding and control.
Vygotsky, Hymes, and Bakhtin: From Word to Utterance and Voice
Authors: Cazden Courtney B
Published: November 2023

At the end of a course on “classroom discourse” at the Harvard Graduate School of Education, Martha Demientieff, a Native Alaskan, introduced her take-home examination with this self-reflection on her own language use: As I began work on this assignment, I thought of the name of the course and thought I had to use the word “discourse.” The word felt like an intruder in my mind displacing my word “talk.” I could not organize my thoughts around it. It was like a pebble thrown into a still pond disturbing the smooth water. It makes all the other words in my mind out of sync. When I realized that I was using too much time agonizing over how to write the paper, I sat down and tried to analyze my problem. I realized that in time I will own the word and feel comfortable using it, but until that time my own words were legitimate. Contrary to some views that exposure to the dominant culture gives one an advantage in learning, in my opinion it is the ownership of words that gives one confidence. I must want the word, enjoy the word and use the word to own it. When the new word becomes synonymous in my head as well as externally, then I can think with it. I laugh now at my discovery but realize that without it, I would still be inhibited about my writing. [March 1988] The course Demientieff had taken was primarily about one of the ways in which mind, according to Vygotsky, is socially constituted: through the internalization and transformation of social interactions. The problem she faced, and analyzed so perceptively, is that mind is also, according to Vygot sky, socially constituted in a second way: through mediation via semiotic systems, notably language, that are themselves the expressions of sociohistorical processes.
Commentary Interface between Sociocultural and Psychological Aspects of Cognition
Authors: Serpell Robert
Published: November 2023

The mental act of knowing is a personal condition, a relationship between an individual and some aspect of the world. As Wittgenstein (1958) succeeded in demonstrating to the satisfaction of many, however, it cannot be considered a private condition, isolated from the rest of society. What we mean when we say that someone knows something has to do with regularities in his or her speech and other observable behavior. Cognition is a dimension of experience we infer from consistency in the ways in which people behave toward one another. The knowledge of one person is therefore, by definition, accessible to others, and many of society’s institutions are based on the premise that knowledge is shared. No laws, or schools, or libraries would make any sense in the absence of this premise. No communication could take place.
Principles of Neural Development
Authors: Spreen Otfried , Risser Anthony H , Edgell Dorothy
Published: November 2023

This chapter is devoted to theoretical issues, basic principles, and approaches to the study of nervous system development. First, we discuss the role of the developmental neuropsychologist in understanding nervous system development, emphasizing difficulties that arise both in research and in practice when an attempt is made to correlate neuroanatomy and behavior. Then two basic approaches to the study of nervous system development-gross and microscopic-are presented. Finally, the role of specific neural elements in the building of the central nervous system is discussed in detail.The first major difficulty in understanding the relationship between human an atomical and behavioral development arises from the variety of different approaches used to study essentially the same subject matter (Birch 1974). Re search fields have tended to become isolated, each growing so highly specialized that adequate communication with other disciplines is difficult. This often hap pens when different species are used for research. For several good reasons, developmental neurobiologists frequently use rats in their studies, which limits generalizations to humans or other primates. We do not know, with regard to general principles, what inferences for humans can be made from animal re search. Developmental sequences necessary for survival are different for other species.
Cognitive Development in Relation to the Development of the Nervous System
Authors: Spreen Otfried , Risser Anthony H , Edgell Dorothy
Published: November 2023

Although the morphological and functional development of the nervous system described in the previous chapters shows some gross correlations with motor and sensory development in the newborn and infant, cognitive development has less clear-cut relationships. In fact, studies of cognitive and brain development have proceeded largely independently of each other, and only recently have investigators tried to establish some tenuous relations between them. In this chapter, we describe briefly some of the current models of cognitive development in infancy and early childhood as a basis for the later discussion of cognitive (Chapter 28) and other defects and attempt to outline relations between brain and cognitive development. Since many of the topics in this field have yet to be investigated in a neuropsychological context, and others are discussed separately in this book (e.g., sensation and perception in Chapters 3, 25 and 26 and language in Chapter 27), the present discussion focuses on elements of cognitive development of interest to neuropsychologists.
Disconnection Syndromes
Authors: Spreen Otfried , Risser Anthony H , Edgell Dorothy
Published: November 2023

Just as damage to a cortical region can lead to behavioral disturbances, so can lesions of connections between cortical regions. A disconnection syndrome is defined anatomically as “the effects of lesions of association pathways, either those which lie exclusively within a cerebral hemisphere or those which join the two halves of the brain” (Geschwind 1965, p. 242). Thus, a disconnection syndrome is the result of a lesion of either cortical association fibers, which connect cortical regions within a hemisphere, or of commissural-interhemispheric fibers, which connect similar regions across the two hemispheres. The behavioral effects of such disconnections are relatively predictable when they occur after brain damage in adults.The early history of the concept of disconnection syndromes has been reviewed by Dimond (1972), Gazzaniga (1970), Geschwind (1965, 1970, 1975), and Joynt (1974). Carl Wernicke (1874) introduced this concept when he predicted that an aphasic syndrome (conduction aphasia) could result from the disconnection of the sensory speech zone from the motor speech area by a single lesion in the left hemisphere. Dejerine (1892) first described definite symptoms resulting from a lesion of a commissural system, the corpus callosum, when he presented a case of alexia (loss of the ability to read) without agraphia (loss of the ability to write).
Chromosomal and Genetic Disorders
Authors: Spreen Otfried , Risser Anthony H , Edgell Dorothy
Published: November 2023

This chapter deals with two major forms of disorders that are often loosely described as genetic but that differ greatly in origin: (1) inherited disorders, i.e., disorders involving genetic transmission, and (2) chromosomal disorders, i.e., defective formation of the genetic material itself. Inherited disorders are presumed to be carried by certain genes or combinations of genes and are primarily disorders of metabolism (C in the AAMD system). Chromosomal dis orders (AAMD catego:ry A) form a distinct group of defects of the chromosomal configuration (karyotype), which are clearly recognizable in the laborato:ry and result from unknown or suspected environmental influences. The two groups overlap since some chromosomal defects may be inherited.Both inherited and chromosomal disorders are part of the “genetic load” (Frazer 1962), which has several components: (1) the spontaneous mutation of genes and/or chromosomes (i.e., the extent to which a population is impaired because of recurrent mutations); (2) genetic incompatibility between the par ents, which results in reduced fitness or disorder in the child; and (3) genes predisposing to a certain disorder already present in the population that are combined in sexual reproduction. Hence, the genetic load for defects is present in the population-as part of its genetic variability-and cannot be eliminated entirely. “We can only strive to keep it to a minimum; the ideal homozygote will never be found” (Frazer 1962).
Prematurity and Low Birth Weight
Authors: Spreen Otfried , Risser Anthony H , Edgell Dorothy
Published: November 2023

The questions of prematurity and low birth weight and the implications for later development are consistent with the theme of risk and vulnerability discussed throughout the book. This chapter deals with the assessment of preterm and low-birth-weight infants, major risk factors associated with these conditions, and the long-term outcome of prematurity and low birth weight.One of the earliest definitions of prematurity was provided by the World Health Organization in 1949: a birth weight of 2500 g or less became the single criterion for prematurity. Two considerations seemed to influence this decision. First, birth weight is easily measured and universally noted in records, whereas gestational age, the other main index of prematurity, is more difficult to deter mine (Kopp and Parmelee 1979). Second, mortality and morbidity rates are highest for infants of low birth weight. Premature infants defined according to birth weight, however, constitute a heterogeneous group that includes those with congenital abnormalities, those born of mothers with small stature, those born early with weight appropriate for age, and infants born early who are clearly undernourished for age (Drillien 1964). When it became accepted that not all neonates of 2500 g or less at birth are premature, the designation low birth weight (LBW) was applied to them instead.
Infections
Authors: Spreen Otfried , Risser Anthony H , Edgell Dorothy
Published: November 2023

Infectious organisms and intoxicants (to be discussed in Chapter 15) are two groups of more than 800 teratogenic agents that can cause structural or functional deviations in development. An annotated catalog of the complete list of agents is provided by Shepard (1975). For a detailed discussion the reader is referred to Johnson and Kochlar (1983). This chapter provides an introduction to the topic and a more detailed description of the effects of HIY, rubella, and cytomegalovirus infections, and of meningitis as examples of pre- and postnatal infections that have been studied more extensively.Infections affecting the CNS may be caused by bacteria, viruses, rickettsiae, fungi, protozoa, and helminths (Johnson 1982). During the prenatal period, only those infectious agents that cross the placenta are of importance to the developing fetus. The clinical effects of severe prenatal infection have been known for a long time: severe retardation, convulsions, chorioretinitis (inflammation of the layer of eye tissue carrying blood vessels and the retina), and micro- or hydrocephaly. More recently, the production of IgM, one of the immunoglobulins, has been used as an indicator of whether an infection occurred during the prenatal period. IgM does not cross the placenta, but is produced by the fetus in response to infection and therefore can be used to survey the frequency of prenatal infection.
Motor, Sensorimotor, and Praxis Disorders
Authors: Spreen Otfried , Risser Anthony H , Edgell Dorothy
Published: November 2023

Human behavior and all activity of the CNS can ultimately be expressed only by means of muscle actions guided by the sensory systems. In this chapter, we provide a description of the gross motor disorders, the fine motor disorders, and the more complex disorders associated with the motor system, i.e., sensorimotor disorders and the apraxias. The motor system was described in Chapter 3.Cerebral palsy (CP) is a general term referring to the full variety of motor disorders after lesions at any level of motor control except those secondary to mental retardation or caused by progressive diseases. Anoxic episodes (Chapter 17) and prematurity (Chapter 13) are important considerations. A first description was published by Little (1862, Denhoff and Robinault 1960), whose paper led to general acceptance of the origin of the disorder (also described as Little’s disease). Although the term originally referred only to disorders of the cerebrum, lesions at other levels are frequently included. Since the cause and type of impairment are not specified in the term, it is currently used only in the generic sense. A division into pyramidal (spastic), extrapyramidal (rigid, athetoid, or ataxic), mixed, and dystonic type of CP is frequently made.
Auditory Disorders
Authors: Spreen Otfried , Risser Anthony H , Edgell Dorothy
Published: November 2023

The auditory system in lower mammals primarily seives as a protective sense and is reflexive. The reflex action is controlled and coordinated by various centers in the brainstem (Barr 1972). The human cortex has larger association areas for storage and processing of information arriving from the sensory organs, which allows differential recognition, interpretation, and association of sounds with meanings. Most importantly, an intact auditory system permits the reception, sorting, and codifying of speech and thus verbal communication with others.Auditory processing may be divided into levels of functioning, each potentially influencing the others (Wood 1975). These functional levels include the ability to (1) detect auditory stimuli; (2) attend, both in terms of reflex action to sound and in terms of conscious focusing on the content and source of incoming stim uli; (3) discriminate between sounds and distinguish characteristics of sounds, such as frequency, intensity, and temporal sequence; (4) identify sounds previously heard so that meaning may be associated with them; (5) comprehend sounds by sorting and integrating them with other information in order to store and retain information; and (6) retrieve and restore the sounds for the formation of appropriate responses.
Introduction
Authors: Mayers David
Published: November 2023

This book has two overarching aims. The first is to make a contribution to understanding the formation and execution of U.S. policy toward the Soviet Union. The book takes as its point of reference the diplomatic mission in Moscow and tells the history of official Americans residing there. These included distinguished interpreters of the Soviet scene, some of whom played vital roles in policymaking, particularly Charles Bohlen, W. Averell Harriman, George Kennan, Jack Matlock, and Llewellyn Thompson. In their different ways, figures such as William Bullitt and Joseph Davies were also significant.
Fragile Coalition
Authors: Mayers David
Published: November 2023

Like Europe’s wars against Napoleonic France, four successive coalitions arose against Hitler’s Germany. The original one, led by Britain and France, ended in catastrophe in June 1940 with the fall of Paris and the establishment of a puppet regime at Vichy. The second coalition featured the British Empire and Commonwealth in cooperation with small states (Greece and Yugoslavia) whose ability to contribute to German defeat was negligible; this effort also ended in failure. The third coalition emerged in June 1941, when Hitler’s armies invaded Russia. British and Red forces were thereby joined in common cause, consummated May 1942 with the signing of a twenty-year Anglo-Soviet treaty. Neutral in name only before the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and subsequent German declaration of war, the United States played the pivotal role in the fourth coalition, with which this chapter is concerned. This partnership, variously labeled the Grand Alliance or (more accurately) the Strange Alliance, was subject to the stresses and ambiguities that have marked collaborative effort by great powers since time immemorial. Its turbulent career confirmed Trotsky’s cynical but apt observation: “An ally has to be watched just like an enemy.” To think otherwise, Stalin and Churchill would have concurred-Roosevelt, too, in his vague way-required a suspension of prudence.
Controlled Rivalry
Authors: Mayers David
Published: November 2023

The future is an unknown country, admittedly. Yet the recent past is only slightly less mysterious. Its rough shape can be apprehended, but its distinctive texture is obscure, to say nothing of the framework of meaning to which it might plausibly belong. Absence of perspective and the stealthy intervention of partisanship make hazardous the writing of contemporary history, defined here as since the Cuban missile crisis. From the standpoint of traditionalists, contemporary history, with its melange of anecdotes and deceptive familiarity, lacks respectability. Added to these problems is another equally insuperable to the production of sturdy interpretation: the inaccessibility of most primary materials. Given the unripened quality of historical data and heavy reliance on conjecture, claims of judgment are thus (usually) more tentative in evaluating the events of one’s own time than those distant. Narrative in this case relies on the vocabulary of qualification. To paraphrase Paul Valery’s aphorism, scholarship here is not finished. It is abandoned. Each subsection in this chapter corresponds to what future historians will regard as identifiable moments in Soviet-U.S. affairs, deserving of separate and full treatment. However impressionistic and synoptic the following, it nevertheless shows that the pattern underlying the history of diplomats in Moscow during the pre-Brezhnev era continued afterward. On both sides of the Brezhnev divide, America’s Soviet policy benefited when the embassy was in competent hands. Conversely, it suffered when the mission was sacrificed to political expediency or ignored by Washington or its assets otherwise squandered.
lntrogression and Its Consequences in Plants
Authors: Rieseberg Loren H , Wendel Jonathan F
Published: November 2023

The role of introgression in plant evolution has been the subject of considerable discussion since the publication of Anderson ‘s influential monograph, Introgressive Hybridization (Anderson, 1949). Anderson promoted the view, since widely held by botanists, that interspecific transfer of genes is a potent evolutionary force. He suggested that “the raw material for evolution brought about by introgression must greatly exceed the new genes produced directly by mutation” (1949, p. 102) and reasoned, as have many subsequent authors, that the resulting increases in genetic diversity and number of genetic combinations promote the development or acquisition of novel adaptations (Anderson, 1949, 1953; Stebbins, 1959; Rattenbury, 1962; Lewontin and Birch, 1966; Raven, 1976; Grant, 1981). In contrast to this “adaptationist” perspective, others have accorded little evolutionary significance to introgression, suggesting instead that it should be considered a primarily local phenomenon with only transient effects, a kind of” evolutionary noise” (Barber and Jackson, 1957; Randolph et al., 1967; Wagner, 1969, 1970; Hardin, 1975). One of the vociferous doubters of a significant role of hybridization in plant evolution was Wagner (1969, p. 785), who commented that the “ultimate contributions made by hybrids must be very small or negligible.”
Nature of Selection in the Northern Flicker Hybrid Zone and Its Implications for Speciation Theory
Authors: Moore Williams. , Price Jeff T
Published: November 2023

Hybrid zones are regions of steep genotypic transition between populations that have reached a level of divergence comparable to that between “good” species. Remarkably, however, hybrid zones appear to be equilibrium configurations where the parental populations (whether they are called species, subspecies, or races) retain their taxonomic identity and integrity even though reproductive isolation is incomplete or, in many instances, wholly lacking. Although species definitions remain very much in contention (Mayr, 1957, 1987; Ehrlich, 1961; Sokal and Crovello, 1970; Mishler and Donoghue, 1982; Cracraft, 1983; Ghiselin, 1987; McKitrick and Zink, 1988; Endler, 1989; Templeton, 1989; Moor , 1990), we think there would be unanimity that an essential property of a species is that there is uniformity of genotype within the species and a discontinuity between the genotype of one species and that of another. In other words, genotypic variance within a species is low compared to the variance between species. Reproductive isolation, of course, would enforce this essential property of species, but the sustained cohesion (sensu Templeton, 1989) of the hybridizing taxa and the abrupt discontinuity of genotype seen across hybrid zones imply that forces more fundamental than reproductive isolation are involved in speciation. Hybrid zones pro vide natural experimental systems where modern genetic analysis can be applied to discern the forces that drive the origin of species.
Systems and Synapses of Emotional Memory
Authors: Ledoux Joseph E
Published: November 2023

One of the great challenges, and promises, of modern neuroscience is to understand the neural basis of memory. Recent work emphasizes that memory is a multifaceted psychological process and that the neuroanatomical organization of memory is correspondingly diverse and complex (e.g., Mishkin, 1982; Squire, 1987; Thompson, 1986; Weinberger, McGaugh & Lynch, 1985). Thus, brain lesions that eliminate the ability to remember certain kinds of information leave intact the ability to remember other things. This is dramatically illustrated by a classic case from the human amnesia literature reported by Claparede (1911). The patient, suffering with anterograde amnesia, was unable to recall the details of events experienced only moments earlier. Once, Claparede concealed a pin in his hand and stuck the patient. Henceforth, the patient refused to shake Claparede’s hand but could not provide any explanation for her avoidance behavior. The injury to the patient’s brain seriously compromised her ability to consciously recollect life’s experiences but her ability to store information about the affective significance of the same experiences and respond adaptively on the basis of the stored information was preserved. Conscious recollections, sometimes referred to as declarative memories (Squire, 1987), are often treated as the sine qua non of memory. However, conscious recollections are only one aspect of memory. We will not understand “memory” until its many facets have been elucidated.
The Third Chamber Model: A Review and Defense
Authors: Stone Alec
Published: November 2023

The study and understanding of the political behavior and impact of the Constitutional Council is infirmed by the fact that the body’s deliberations and votes are formally secret, and by a scholarly tradition which is formalist, restrictive in scope, and ideologically committed. Consequently, perspectives and methods developed and employed by political scientists in studies of courts and their impact on political systems elsewhere cannot be or have not been applied to the French case. Study of the Council’s behavior instead overwhelmingly consists of traditional doctrinal work and in efforts at institutional legitimation. Part II of this book shows that one fruitful alternative to legalism and to polemics is to focus on the Council’s role in the legislative process. By doing so, the institution’s concrete impact can be observed and measured. Indeed, political scientists can and ought to conceive of the Council as a third legislative chamber. I do not mean by this that constitutional judges necessarily desire lawmaking powers or that they make law according to the same criteria as do parliamentarians. It is to assert, at the very least, that abstract, a priori constitutional review and the evolution of French constitutional politics have combined to bestow upon the Council legislative powers. These powers it uses all of the time.
The Anti-Federalists and Civic Virtue
Authors: Sinopoli Richard C
Published: November 2023

Characterizing differences between Federalists and Anti-Federalists either in terms of social background or political doctrines has been an enterprise wrought with controversy in American historiography. There has been a pronounced absence of consensus as to how to understand the Anti-Federalist opposition to the Constitution. Are we to view this debate, for all its rhetorical fire, along the lines of the controversies between political parties in established polities? In such controversies, there is much disagreement over policy, while there is substantial consensus over principles, which keeps the policy debate in moderate bounds. Or do the two sides in the founding debates offer competing conceptions of political regimes with inclusive conceptions of human nature, society, and government? This type of conflict is generally associated with revolutionary situations.
Tripartism
Authors: Ayres Ian , Braithwaite John
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we argue that features of regulatory encounters that foster the evolution of cooperation also encourage the evolution of capture and corruption. Solutions to the problems of capture and corruption-limiting discretion, multiple-industry rather than single-industry agency jurisdiction, and rotating personnel-inhibit the evolution of cooperation. Tripartism empowering public interest groups-is advanced as a way to solve this policy dilemma. A game-theoretic analysis of capture and tripartism is juxtaposed against an empowerment theory of republican tripartism. Surprisingly, both formulations lead to the conclusion that some forms of capture are desirable. The strengths from converging the weaknesses of these two formulations show how certain forms of tripartism might prevent harmful capture, identify and encourage efficient capture, enhance the attainment of regulatory goals, and strengthen democracy. Although the case we make for tripartism is purely theoretical and general in its application to all domains of business regulation, our conclusion is a call for praxis to flesh out the contexts in which the theory is true and false.
Invention in the Industrial Research Laboratory: Individual Act or Collective Process?
Authors: Hounshell David A
Published: November 2023

The primary question this chapter explores is whether invention in the industrial research laboratory is an individual act or a collective process. The chapter also addresses the issue of whether the inventive act occurs in a discrete moment or in a more continuous process. These questions will be examined by focusing on the “inventions” of one particular industrial laboratory, the Pioneering Research Lab oratory of the Du Pont Company’s Textile Fibers Department in the period 1928 to 1968. Even in 1928 when this laboratory was established, the diversified, decentralized Du Pont Company had at least a dozen research laboratories; by 1968, the Textile Fibers Department alone had half a dozen laboratories, including four in the Wilmington, Delaware, area and others in Waynesboro, Virginia, and Kinston, North Carolina. The Pioneering Research Laboratory’s mission was to do just what its name implied-to conduct longer term and more basic research and to invent new products and processes within the Textile Fibers Department’s areas of business. This laboratory was extraordinarily productive during this period, especially after 1941, and therefore it provides an excellent vehicle through which to explore the inventing mind. Readers should compare and contrast this chapter’s analysis, which reflects the work of an historian of technology, with that of Dr. Paul Morgan (Chapter 10), who was one of the Pioneering Research Laboratory’s distinguished chemists during a good part of the period under consideration and who is rightfully to be considered an important inventor of the twentieth century.