bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
State and Local Fiscal Institutions in Recession and Recovery
Authors: Gordon Tracy M.
Published: February 2013

This article analyzes the recent budget challenges that have prompted examination of the role of state and fiscal institutions such as balanced budget rules, tax and expenditure limits, debt restriction, and “rainy-day,” or budget stabilization, funds. Some commentators argue that stronger fiscal rules could have helped avert the 2008–2011 (and, still continuing) state and local budget crises. Others contend that rules already in force have exacerbated the budgetary effects of the Great Recession and that continuing with them as currently structured will not only make more difficult fiscal recovery but will also undermine the traditional role of the states in the federal system. California's demonstration of how such institutions can take a state from fiscal health and stability to near bankruptcy is a dramatic case, especially for those critics who are currently making the argument that institutions can lead to particularly severe unintended consequences. In contrast, as this article notes, legislatively imposed institutions, if well designed, can lead to increased public and social accountability.
State Tax Administration: Seven Problems in Search of a Solution
Authors: Hamilton Billy
Published: February 2013

Steady periods of budget surpluses can hide, and effectively defer attention being given to, systemic problems that only a fiscal squeeze can reveal. This is the situation that this article addresses. For the past quarter century, state tax administration has largely operated smoothly. But a problem with largely uninterrupted growth is that those processes that worked from year to year in the “good times” are not necessarily reliable for the “bad times.” Thus, the Great Recession did not as much create new problems for state tax administration as it exposed the challenges that already confronted the profession and now need attention. Taking a cue from the “tax gap” literature that administrators and academics often talk about, the article identifies seven major gaps that pose significant challenges to tax administration as the states address (or at least ought to address) in the postrecession years ahead.
Revenue Estimation
Authors: Francis Norton
Published: February 2013

This article poses three questions: Where did the forecasting models go wrong? Who's to blame for the forecast errors? and How can [state and local] revenue estimation improve? To answer all three, the article starts out with a look at just how severe the 2007–2009 recession was, and then empirically examines how five common features of revenue-estimating models were affected by the second longest business-cycle contraction of the past eighty years. The Great Recession (eighteen months, peak to trough) was the most severe decline of any recession since the Great Depression of 1929–1933 (which lasted forty-three months). The article carefully works through each of the key indicators that a state revenue estimator watches, and it demonstrates that not only was the Great Recession dramatically deep (the last time all six major indicators contracted was 1948–1949, and even that was of shorter duration) but also that it has been very different than prior recessions.
Providing and Financing K–12 Education
Authors: Kenyon Daphne A.
Published: February 2013

In terms of the history of the US federal system, the intervention of the courts in K-12 education is relatively recent. This article explains that the basis for going to court, which in nearly all cases is based on state and not US constitutional grounds, has changed from lawsuits based on equity and equal protection to that of the now more-frequent set of adequacy lawsuits that put a greater emphasis on education outcomes. The article then turns to the topic of how public education is financed. Recognizing the differences among the states, it examines the split among governments in how they provide school revenues. It next discusses current and future challenges for the delivery of education services and finance. The article concludes that even with elementary and secondary education becoming more essential for national growth and competitiveness, fiscal pressures make it difficult to be optimistic about the future of education.
The Social Safety Net, Health Care, and the Great Recession
Authors: Gais Thomas L. , Boyd Donald , Dadayan Lucy
Published: February 2013

Safety net programs are those that assist people who have great difficulty in meeting basic needs such as food, clothing, shelter, and medical care, and those who have been unable to find work. These difficulties can result from age, illness, or disability, or they can be caused by events such as economic recession or natural disasters. The scope is huge as are the dollars involved. Overall, in 2008, federal, state, and local government spending on safety net programs (other than Social Security and Medicare) amounted to almost $700 billion, which equaled nearly 5 percent of the United States' GDP. Two out of three dollars of this total were financed by the federal government, while the remaining one-third ($235 billion) was supported by state and local government revenues.
Financial Markets and State and Local Governments
Authors: Petersen John E. , Ciccarone Richard
Published: February 2013

Subnational governments are important players in the financial markets, both as issuers of debt securities that pay for infrastructure and as investors that invest funds in the private markets to meet their cash management and employee retirement system needs. The financial markets changed dramatically in the late 2000s and these changes affected the state and local sector. After a discussion of the aggregate balance sheet of state and local governments, this article gives a brief reprise of the financial-market developments in the early 2000s and the subsequent meltdowns of 2007 and 2008, which affected state and local governments. As was true with the entire economy, the financial system debacle was followed by a widespread downturn in activity and this had a disproportionate impact on state and local government revenues. The financial stresses growing from the Great Recession led to major changes in the municipal bond market.
Accomplishing State Budget Policy and Process Reforms
Authors: Lav Iris J.
Published: February 2013

This article tackles the issue of comprehensive state budget reform. With structural deficits rampant, reform is needed to maintain the current level of programs that states and localities now provide, but cannot support over time with current revenue policies. Recent “reforms” have mainly focused on cutting both spending and taxes. Nonetheless, it is believed that people want their services and will vote to pay for them, if given that option. The article notes that there have been very few successful state tax reforms in recent years. But modernization of tax systems is needed to alleviate structural deficits. Part of the problem is institutional myopia: improved multiyear budgeting can warn policymakers when proposed actions are likely to create budget problems over the long term.
Fiscal Austerity and the Future of Federalism
Authors: Penner Rudolph G.
Published: February 2013

Fiscal relationships among the federal and state and local governments will change significantly in the future. This article documents that the federal government is saddled with unsustainable tax and spending policies, and the changes that are necessary to restore fiscal stability are far larger than anything that has been experienced since World War II. State and local governments, beset with their own structural issues, will have to adjust to and share in a new world of fiscal austerity. The deepest domestic federal spending problems lie with Social Security, Medicare, and Medicaid. All three entitlement programs are growing faster than the economy and tax revenues can provide.
Achieving Fiscal Sustainability for State and Local Governments
Authors: Ward Robert B.
Published: February 2013

Over the last decade, observers of state and local finances have been alarmed over an emerging picture of long-term, structural imbalances. This article examines the concept of fiscal sustainability in several formulations and explains that it essentially means limiting expenditure commitments to those that can be met by available revenue streams. It investigates why fiscal sustainability in actual practice, however it might be measured in theory, has fallen into disrepair. The usual lineup of budget-busting culprits is next examined, with the proliferation of entitlement programs standing at the head of the line. Over the past four decades, state and local budget increases reflected the strength of the economy during an unprecedented run of prosperity. Meanwhile, the array of entitlement programs that drove spending was increasingly shaped by political, demographic, and institutional forces, each with its own clientele of beneficiaries. That has made adjustments more difficult when revenues do not keep pace with spending patterns.
Community Associations at Middle Age: Considering the Options
Authors: Nelson Robert H.
Published: February 2013

This article surveys what has been a leading development for American housing and local governance of the past half century: the meteoric rise of community associations. These quasi-government organizations usually are created by land developers and, as the new communities are developed, they evolve into self-governing entities owned by the homeowners and provide an extensive array of local services. In 2010 there were more than three hundred thousand community associations, which housed more than 60 million Americans, or 20 percent of the US population. (This is in contrast to the approximately ninety thousand local governments in the United States.) The growth of these associations has been rapid: between 1980 and 2000, half of the new housing in the United States was built and organized under the private governance of a community association. Most of that growth occurred in the sunny and sandy regions of the West and the South.
Adolescent Parenting: Risk and Protective Factors in the Context of Poverty
Authors: Grau Josefina M. , Wilson Kathryn S. , Smith Erin N. , Castellanos Patricia , Duran Petra A.
Published: February 2013

Adolescent birthrates in the United States are much higher than those in other developed countries, and the majority of adolescents who become mothers come from impoverished backgrounds. Not surprisingly, they experience significant adjustment difficulties, and both their own and their children's developmental outcomes are often compromised. In this chapter, we review the adolescent parenting literature with the goal of uncovering the unique patterns of factors that may enable young mothers to parent successfully despite their disadvantaged conditions. We start with a description of the historic trends in birthrates and the socioeconomic and demographic characteristics of adolescent mothers in the United States, to provide the context in which they are parenting their children. We then review the literature on factors related to their parenting behaviors and the developmental outcomes of their children, including individual, familial, sociodemographic and cultural risk and protective factors. Finally, we conclude and provide future directions for research in the field.
Poverty, Stress, and Autonomic Reactivity
Authors: Alkon Abbey , Wolff Brian , Boyce W. Thomas
Published: February 2013

This chapter discusses the relations between childhood adversity and autonomic nervous system measures. It begins with a discussion on poverty and adverse experiences early in life and then reviews autonomic nervous system (ANS) measures of children's basal and stress responses, the history of the ANS field, and ANS methodological developments. Two important theories about ANS are discussed: (1) biological embedding and how early experiences can fundamentally alter ANS regulation, and (2) biological sensitivity to context, which explains how children's psychobiological responses differ based on the child's exposure to adversity. Lastly, there is a summary of studies of early childhood on ANS as a mediator or moderator of the relations between poverty-related adverse conditions and mental or physical health. This chapter concludes with a discussion of future directions to address methodological gaps in the literature examining associations among poverty-related stress and adversity, ANS dysregulation, and physical and mental health outcomes.
Children Living in Rural Poverty: The Role of Chaos in Early Development
Authors: Vernon-Feagans Lynne , Garrett-Peters Patricia , De Marco Allison , Bratsch-Hines Mary
Published: February 2013

Children who live in poor rural communities have a somewhat different context for development from urban children. Rural in comparison to urban communities have higher poverty rates; greater isolation from key services, such as schools and health care; and parents have more service related jobs with nonstandard work schedules. These factors are associated with poverty but also can add additional stress on rural family life that can contribute to more chaotic living conditions for young children, including disorganization, instability, and unpredictability. This chapter reviews the literature and presents data to support the view that chaos in rural communities may be greater than in urban areas and may be a particularly important mediator of the relationship between poverty and children's development. Data are presented from the Family Life Project to further support the link between poverty, chaos, and children's early development.
Interventions for Low-Income Families: Sesame Workshop's Educational Outreach and the Healthy Habits for Life Initiative
Authors: Cohen David , Truglio Rosemarie , Kotler Jennifer A. , Betancourt Jeanette
Published: February 2013

Sesame Street, produced by Sesame Workshop, is the longest-running children's television program in the United States. The Educational Outreach department at Sesame Workshop develops materials to serve families in need through public service initiatives that reach children and those who care for them. These initiatives are developed through partnerships and unique relationships with local, state, and national organizations. In this chapter we focus on Sesame Workshop's health initiatives that serve low-income families. One such initiative, Healthy Habits for Life (HHFL) provides tools and ideas to families, children, and child care providers to establish lifelong habits that support healthy lifestyles and good nutrition. Evaluations of the impact of HHFL on low-income caregivers and young children help measure the effectiveness of these materials.
Future Directions in Research on Children and Poverty
Authors: King Rosalind
Published: February 2013

This concluding article summarizes the parts of this book in detail. It states that one of the conclusions of this book is that there remains gaps in the understanding of basic mechanisms and processes. There is also room further to extend and refine current interventions. The various areas where these interventions should be extended and refined are outlined in the article.
Writing Materials in the Ancient World
Authors: Bülow-Jacobsen Adam
Published: February 2013

Paper did not exist in the ancient Mediterranean world. Instead, people wrote on an enormous variety of other materials. While almost every substance imaginable has been used as writing material at one time or another, this article focuses on the common ones. First, it considers papyrus since the overwhelming majority of ancient texts are written on this material. It discusses parchment, ostraca, and wooden tablets which receive considerable attention. It also discusses linen (e.g., mummy bandages) and stone (mainly Coptic limestone ostraca inscribed with ink). Looking at Coptic documentary texts, which extend past the end of antiquity, ostraca are the most important medium (47.5%), while papyrus is second (40.5%). Limestone accounts for 10.5%, while skin (leather/parchment), paper, and wood represent less than 1% each.
The History of the Discipline
Authors: Keenan James G.
Published: February 2013

This article suggests that a strong case can be made for dating the beginning of papyrology to 1752, the year in which papyri were first discovered at Herculaneum. Nevertheless, perhaps because papyrology came to be associated with Egypt and related documents, not Italy and philosophical texts, papyrologists came to identify 1788 as marking the beginning of their discipline. In that year Danish classicist Niels Iversen Schow published a Greek papyrus that recorded a series of receipts for work performed in 193 ce on the irrigation dikes in the Fayyum district of Egypt. The credit for the first modern edition of an integrated series of papyri goes to Amedeo Angelo Maria Peyron. An enormous boost to papyrology is owed to the discoveries of Bernard P. Grenfell and Arthur S. Hunt. The rest of this article considers papyrus cartels and international organizations.
Greek and Latin Writing in the Papyri
Authors: Cavallo Guglielmo
Published: February 2013

This article briefly sets forth some methodological considerations in the history of Greek and Latin writing in the papyri. The writing exercises attested in papyri, ostraca, and tablets offer many examples of training at various levels. The distinction that emerges from them is thus not between documentary and literary hands but between cursive and semicursive writing styles, in which the greater or lesser velocity of the ductus modifies the traces and forms of the letters, and regular or rather calligraphic handwritings. Starting with the fourth century, manuscripts preserved in libraries begin to be available alongside those found in archaeological excavations. Paleographical evidence can emerge from the comparison of dated or datable documentary writing and undated literary hands.
Education in the Papyri
Authors: Cribiqre Raffaella
Published: February 2013

This article focuses on Greek education during the roughly ten centuries between the conquest of Egypt by Alexander of Macedon and the Arab conquest. Egypt has offered a large quantity of educational material that permits us to glimpse the everyday, unexceptional practices of schooling and to observe certain details. This educational material is extant on papyrus, ostraca, wooden and waxed tablets, and, more rarely, parchment. The recent discovery in Alexandria of eighteen or more classrooms (auditoria) used in late antiquity for higher education is tantalizing. In this case, the literary tradition converges with the archaeological findings to spotlight a formal school setting used by grammarians, sophists, and teachers of philosophy. There are three divisions of levels of schooling: basic reading, writing, and numeracy; grammatical and orthographical knowledge of the language; and perfecting oral and written expression.
The Multilingual Environment of Persian and Ptolemaic Egypt: Egyptian, Aramaic, and Greek Documentation
Authors: Thompson Dorothy J.
Published: February 2013

This article considers the extent to which the surviving documentation from the five-hundred-year period from Cambyses to Cleopatra allows us to investigate and reconstruct the changing contexts of language use and linguistic practices. It looks primarily at the main languages of the papyrological documentation such as Egyptian (demotic script), Aramaic, and Greek. It also considers Phoenician, Carian, Latin, and other languages. It examines who used which language and in what contexts, how widespread bilingualism may have been in different periods of non-Egyptian rule, how far Aramaic under the Persians and later, following Alexander's conquest, Greek took on the role of prestige languages, and, in contrast, which areas were linguistically unaffected by foreign conquest.
The Multilingual Environment of Late Antique Egypt: Greek, Latin, Coptic, and Persian Documentation
Authors: Fournet Jean-Luc
Published: February 2013

This article considers three languages—Coptic, Latin, and Pehlevi—all of which were widely spoken and written in Egypt in the fourth to seventh centuries, analyzing their use and interaction with Greek, which remained the official language and is by far the most abundantly documented. Each of these languages poses in a distinctive way the problem of multilingualism or of multiliteracy and presents a nuanced picture, ranging from a nearly total and deliberate absence of bilingualism to a deep bilingualism (where the relationship between the languages tends to reverse itself), passing by way of diglossia.
Identity Theft
Authors: Copes Heith , Vieraitis Lynne M.
Published: February 2013

This article provides an overview about identity theft. It elaborates the uncertainty and difficulties in defining the crime. It describes patterns and incidences of identity theft and mentions the primary sources of data that illuminates the extent and costs of this crime. It discusses those who are victimized by the crime and those who engage in it. This article offers two theoretical explanations for the reasons for committing identity theft by offenders. It details the common techniques used to locate information and convert it into cash or goods. Policy ideas, including existing legislation directed towards identity theft prevention, and the policy implications of current knowledge about identity theft are also discussed. Finally, the article outlines the need for future research to understand the crime of identity theft and thus increase the likelihood that policy makers and law enforcement are effective in reducing this crime.
Human Smuggling and Human Trafficking
Authors: Kleemans Edward R.
Published: February 2013

Human smuggling and human trafficking are phenomena that require different policy responses. This article summarizes data, figures, and patterns concerning human smuggling and human trafficking. In practice, the two different phenomena may be intertwined. Human smuggling basically involves mutual consent between illegal immigrants, their families, and smugglers. In combating human trafficking, involuntary prostitution, helping victims, and prosecuting offenders are key issues. A much discussed element in forced prostitution is the involvement of criminal groups and organized crime. This article is devoted to policy measures and interventions and highlights research priorities for the coming decade. An important area for research is the method by which different prostitution and enforcement policies affect the opportunities and restrictions of various parties: clients, owners, operators, pimps, and prostitutes.
Chronology and Terminology
Authors: Manning Sturt W.
Published: February 2013

This article argues that scholarship that is concerned with the discovery, creation, and interpretation of Aegean prehistory has, throughout its history, been intimately associated with the allocation and categorization of time. Chronology has become framework and constraint, friend and problem. How one chooses to see the framework entirely creates prehistory. The early nineteenth-century ad concept of the Three Age system developed from Christian Thomsen's reorganization of the National Museum of Denmark and its ideas of evolutionary progression became the standard in most European prehistory. A quest to create some sort of structure and to bring order to a couple of millennia of calendar time has, over the course of the later nineteenth through the early twenty-first centuries ad thus come to create an incredibly rich, dense, ad hoc, and arcane system for describing and demarcating the time frame of the Aegean Bronze Age.
Neolithic Antecedents
Authors: Tomkins Peter
Published: February 2013

This article claims that at the turn of the twentieth century, excavations beneath Bronze Age strata at Dimini and Sesklo in Thessaly and Knossos on Crete revealed an earlier epoch of human occupation, characterized by stone tools, handmade pottery, and the bones of domesticated animals. Termed Neolithic period by analogy with other European regions, it was immediately clear that this was a phase of village-dwelling farmers, the Aegean's first agricultural society. In what has become a modern origin myth for Western society, the development of agriculture and sedentism was viewed as an escape from the impasse of savagery—a revolutionary beginning in the development of modernity, albeit one eclipsed in modern significance by the urban revolution and the emergence of civilization in the Bronze Age.
Mainland Greece
Authors: Forsén Jeannette
Published: February 2013

This article traces the geographical scope of mainland Greece bordered by Albania, the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, and Bulgaria to the north and the Cyclades and Crete to the south. The period is the Early Bronze Age, or Early Helladic (EH) denoting the mainland, during the time span between the preceding Final Neolithic period and the ensuing Middle Bronze Age. In close to ninety years of archaeology on mainland Greece, little has altered Carl Blegen's main outline of the EH period. Admittedly, the historical conclusions were modified since Blegen believed that a dramatic and complete cultural break could be seen at the end of the EH III period, whereas John Caskey reached the conclusion that a notable break in southern Greece occurred between EH II and EH III, while a second break took place in central Greece at the end of EH III.
Trade
Authors: Burns Bryan E.
Published: February 2013

Trade necessarily includes a spectrum of activities that are often difficult to distinguish from one another, based on surviving artifacts and corollary evidence. This article presents specific cases of Aegean trade and exchange with these possibilities in mind, aiming not only to describe general trends and economic implications of exchange but also to emphasize the importance of trade for the functioning of social and political structures. Andrew Sherratt and Susan Sherratt have taken a similar tack by calling attention to the importance of demand and “conspicuous consumption” within the societies taking part in Mediterranean exchange. In reaching this final step, though, local production is not only stimulated by external trade but also often restructured, as new social institutions become necessary to control increased production and circulation.
Mycenaean Seals and Sealings
Authors: Younger John G.
Published: February 2013

After the introduction of a sealing system from the Near East into southern Greece in the Early Helladic period and the destruction of that culture, there is no demonstrable sign that seals were used on the Greek mainland until the sudden appearance of seals in the Mycenae Shaft Graves at the end of the Middle Helladic period. After the Shaft Grave period, seals are known on the Greek mainland, but there is almost no evidence that seals are being carved there. A stone mold for a gold ring found in a tomb at Eleusis constitutes the slim evidence for the making of seals Greece. Perhaps almost all seals used on the Greek mainland in the Late Bronze were made in Crete. After the fall of Knossos, Mycenaeans produced the Mainland Popular group, a series of beads in soft stones and glass that look like seals but were (almost) never used administratively.
Materials and Industries
Authors: Evely Doniert
Published: February 2013

Greece is adequately endowed with stones (non-precious), clays, timber, and plant products; metals are somewhat more localized, indeed effectively lacking in Crete. Overseas contacts, thus, were always crucial; “trade networks” catered to the material needs in the more complex societies and developed periods but arguably existed in less centralized forms long before. The roots of such procurement and the fundamentals of all crafts utilizing local products reach down into the Neolithic period; the utilization of obsidian is a clear case, but, as is becoming ever more apparent, so is metalworking. The factors behind increased use and acquisition/dissemination of materials, skills, and knowledge have varied. The later Minoan “colonies” on the Asia Minor coastline could have tapped into the resources of the hinterland or existing trade routes—the lack of a translator knowing “Minoan” is referred to in the tin trade. The same root cause is true for Mycenaean contacts with Italy.
Northern Aegean
Authors: Andreou Stelios
Published: February 2013

The northern Aegean communities were dynamic partakers of the cultural processes that transformed southeast Europe and the Aegean during the Neolithic period until the end of the fifth millennium. During the third millennium, however, the dramatic developments in settlement organization, elaboration of material culture, technological advancement, and exchange caused the focus of changes to shift to the south and east. This article concentrates on the regions of the north, which present the strongest evidence for contacts with the cultural developments in the Aegean during the Bronze Age. These include the islands of Thasos and Samothrace, coastal Thrace, the coastal plains of central and southern Macedonia, and the peninsula of Chalkidiki. The discussion also focuses on parts of the inland basins of eastern, central, and western Macedonia and leaves out northern Macedonia, which remained outside the reach of significant Aegean influences.
Dodecanese
Authors: Marketou Toula
Published: February 2013

The elongated island of Kos, located in the narrow sea lane between the Dodecanese and Asia Minor, is one of the more fertile and better-watered islands of the Aegean. These factors determined its cultural development in prehistoric and historic times. Jar burials and a rounded built tomb were excavated in the wider area of Asklepieion, at Asklupi, as well as in the nearby territory of the present-day Hippokrateion Foundation. The most prominent burial was discovered at Mesaria. Within this jar burial, apart from the pottery, was a hoard of metal objects. This evidence strongly suggests a dispersed settlement pattern on low hills, where the settlements controlled substantial pieces of arable land bordered by streams in the middle of the island. It is remarkable, however, that during this period, which saw the rapid development of metallurgy, precious metal objects—mainly daggers—accumulated in burials, a fact that definitely points to the presence of an affluent society.
Some methodological issues related to corpus-based investigations of recent syntactic changes in English
Authors: Davies Mark
Published: February 2013

This article focuses on “observing recent change” in the English language. It includes sections that deal with syntactic changes that have taken place primarily in the past half-century or so, whereas others can be traced to the 1800s. In all cases, the changes are still underway and exhibit interesting genre-based and stylistically-based variation in contemporary English. This introduction discusses methodological issues, paying special attention to the types of corpora and text archives that can provide us with the most useful data for looking at recent change in English. It first looks at large text collections such as Google, Google Books, and large text archives. It then examines “structured” corpora and considers the question of size—especially the way in which large corpora like the Corpus of Historical American English provide insight that might not be available otherwise. Also covered in the discussion are “monitor corpora,” an example of which is the Corpus of Contemporary American English.
Forms of early mass communication: The religious domain
Authors: Rütten Tanja
Published: February 2013

“Early mass communication” is generally believed to be a phenomenon of the Early Modern period. In the religious domain, the kind of mass communication found in pamphlets and newspapers has obvious predecessors. One example is the Late Middle English cycle sermon, which provides a form of mass communication before the advent of print but has so far received little attention from scholars. This article looks at late medieval cycle sermons from the perspective of mass communication. It first introduces the various settings, audiences and purposes of such sermons, linking individual cases of sermonizing to the centrally designed doctrinal program upon which they were contingent. It then describes prominent linguistic features such as discourse structures, text functions, interactive properties, and aspects of performativity. The article concludes by demonstrating how sermon discourse was adopted as a textual scheme by early pamphleteers and shows that the advent of the new print technology in Early Modern English is more a “catalyst” than an “architect” of mass communication.
English in Ireland: A complex case study
Authors: Crowley Tony
Published: February 2013

This article investigates English in Ireland in order to identify the factors involved in the relationship between language and social change, based on the idea that a linguistic change is a social change and social change is always embedded in language. This unique example of linguistic and social change has been shaped by colonialism and the responses to it. Nevertheless, a discussion of the Irish case will allow for an assessment of the complexity of the linguistic situation in Ireland, as well as the identification of factors which may have a key role in other cases of linguistic change such as legal prescription and proscription, economics and cultural hegemony. The article examines Irish polyglossia, the Gaelicization of the invaders and the eclipse of the English language between 1200 and 1537, and policy and practice with respect to Anglicization in 1537–1800. It also looks at the demise of the Irish language and the consolidation, spread, and hegemony of English between 1800 and 1922.
Language contact in the Scandinavian period
Authors: Lutz Angelika
Published: February 2013

Scholars of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, most of whom were interested in lexical differences between Old English (OE) and later stages of the language, had made a twofold distinction between “Saxon” (consisting of OE and early Middle English) and “English” (which covers later Middle English and Modern English). This distinction, which can be related to language contact in a straightforward manner, reflects the marked lexical influence of French as a consequence of the Norman conquest and the eventual adoption of the English language by the French-speaking ruling classes. Old English differs from continental Old Saxon in a number of non-trivial ways. Some of these differences are mostly structural ones and can be attributed to the substratal influence of Insular Celtic. Other differences, mainly lexical ones, can be explained by Old Norse influence. This article shows that the lexical influences of Old Norse were essentially similar to the later influences of Old French, namely superstratal. Therefore, the French-dominated later period of English appears to have been preceded by a Scandinavian period.
Code-switching in English of the Middle Ages
Authors: Pahta Päivi
Published: February 2013

Throughout its history, English has had extensive contact with other languages, and the impact of these various contacts on the lexicon is a popular topic among researchers of the history of English. Most studies on contact-induced change in earlier English have been undertaken in the context of lexical borrowing. As linguistic phenomena concerning multilingualism in present-day speech communities, along with the processes of language change, continue to draw interest, language historians have also begun to reevaluate the notion of contact and its implications from new perspectives. A recently thematized language contact phenomenon is code-switching, which refers to the alternating use of units from two or more participating linguistic systems within a communicative event. A multitude of extant writings from the Middle Ages shows different types of mixture. This article explores the formal and functional characteristics of code-switching in such texts, considering the practice of code-switching in the multilingual context of medieval England, and as a source of new lexicon in the English language.
Second language varieties of English
Authors: Sharma Devyani
Published: February 2013

In postcolonial regions, English is widely used as a second language (L2). Some L2 varieties in postcolonial regions (e.g. Tanzania, India) and contiguous regions (e.g. Nepal, Sri Lanka) are currently undergoing indigenization without significantly displacing local languages and lingua francas, while others (e.g. Singapore) are starting to shift towards greater numbers of native speakers, moving closer to the native end of a continuum of language shift. This article examines the historical development of L2 varieties of the English language and the social, historical, and linguistic factors that account for their distinctive characteristics. The focus is on societal indigenization in situations of English as a Second Language rather than English as a Foreign Language. The discussion draws parallels between the impact of adult L2 use on language change in contemporary postcolonial Englishes and L2-driven change in the history of English in Britain and the United States.
The drift of English toward invariable word order from a typological and Germanic perspective
Authors: Hawkins John A.
Published: February 2013

This article looks at Edward Sapir’s notion of ‘drift’ in the history of the English language and examines drifts from the perspective of John A. Hawkins’ Performance-Grammar Correspondence Hypothesis (PGCH). According to the PGCH the preferred word orders selected by users in languages with word order freedom are those that are grammaticalized in languages with less freedom and with more fixed and basic orderings. Languages with different verb positions are also predicted by the PGCH to have numerous different correlating properties. In the context of historical change, the PGCH provides a set of principles that are argued to have shaped the evolution of new conventions of grammar as languages change over time. What seem like unrelated changes in the history of English, currently reflected in contrasts between English and German, are examined from this language processing perspective. Many of these changes and contrasts involve greater ambiguity or vagueness in surface forms, both in the lexicon and in the syntax, and a tolerance for temporary ambiguities in performance resulting from the new basic verb position of Middle and Modern English.
Cycles and continua: On unidirectionality and gradualness in language change
Authors: Bermúdez-Otero Ricardo , Trousdale Graeme
Published: February 2013

The history of English exhibits numerous instances of changes that proceed along crosslinguistically recurrent pathways, notably the life cycle of phonological processes and grammaticalization clines. These pathways of change bear striking resemblances to each other: both are predominantly unidirectional, and both produce ‘layering’ effects in which old and new patterns come to coexist in the synchronic grammar. We provide English examples of key stages in the life cycle of phonological processes, including the rise of new gradient processes of phonetic implementation, their stabilization as categorical phonological rules, and the narrowing of their morphosyntactic domains. Understanding this life cycle enables us to rethink classic problems, such as the history of word-final prevocalic consonants. We also examine the grammaticalization cycles in the development of grammatical words, clitics and affixes in English, and the micro-steps involved in the creation of new grammatical constructions. As with the discussion of phonological change, we explore continua (within and between morphosyntactic categories), and directionality, and show how such rethinking is relevant for our understanding of classic problems in the history of English morphosyntax, such as the development of markers of negation, and the s-genitive. The parallels between phonological and morphosyntactic change which we address suggest new ways of thinking about the nature of grammatical change.
Quantitative evidence for a feature-based account of grammaticalization in English: Jespersen's Cycle
Authors: Wallage Phillip
Published: February 2013

A new post-verbal negative marker ‘not’ emerges in early English through a process of grammaticalization. The grammaticalization of new sentential scope negative markers often results from cyclic change, as described by Jespersen (1917), and well attested crosslinguistically. In early English, this change involves 3 stages. In the first stage negation is marked by a pre-verbal particle ne. In the second stage, negation is bipartite: the pre-verbal particle ne is supplemented by the word not postverbally. In the third stage, the pre-verbal particle ne disappears, leaving post-verbal not as the sole marker of sentential negation. I argue that many previous accounts of this change do not adequately model the distribution of each stage within data from the Penn-Helsinki Parsed Corpus of Middle English. Quantitative analysis of these corpus data indicate that we should distinguish two forms of ne during the change. Using recent Minimalist syntactic frameworks, a suitable distinction is made in terms of morphosyntactic features. Therefore, I argue that competition between two morphosyntactically distinct forms of ne plays a central role in the grammaticalization of the sentential negative not in English.
Toward a unified theory of chain shifting
Authors: Dinkin Aaron J.
Published: February 2013

Chain shifts offer important insights into the phonological history of the English language—from the prehistoric chain shift of Grimm’s Law that separates the Germanic languages from the rest of Indo-European, to the Great Vowel Shift (GVS) that is widely assumed to define the boundary between Middle English and Early Modern English. A chain shift refers to a set of phonetic changes that affect a group of phonemes so that as one phoneme moves in phonetic space, another phoneme moves toward the phonetic position abandoned by the first; a third may take over the original position of the second, and (perhaps) so on. The GVS is the phenomenon or set of phenomena whereby the Middle English long monophthongs became the upgliding diphthongs of present-day English. This article focuses on a modern parallel for the GVS, a major apparent chain shift currently underway involving at least five phonemes: the Northern Cities Shift.
The interaction between syntax, information structure, and prosody in word order change
Authors: Hinterhölzl Roland , van Kemenade Ans
Published: February 2013

This article explores the role of information structure (IS), syntax, and prosody in accounting for word order variation and change in the history of the English language. First discussing the theoretical problems involved in the study of the interaction between these components of grammar, it goes on to embed changes in the history of English in a wider picture of developments in the Germanic languages. Word order variation is similar in Old English and Old High German, but the two languages subsequently diverge into different directions. This article therefore compares the major word order changes of English, namely the loss of OV-orders and the loss of V2 in (non-negative) declarative clauses, with the generalization of V2 and the loss of VO-orders in the history of German. It argues for considering IS to be part of grammar, and it fosters the functionalist approach to the interaction between grammar and pragmatics, albeit from a formal syntactic perspective.
Sonic Hospitality: Migration, Community, and Music
Authors: Phelan Helen
Published: February 2013

This article explores the impact of human migration on the formation, negotiation, and contestation of community and music. In particular, it examines migration patterns in the Republic of Ireland. The first section provides a context for contemporary migration by surveying migration patterns over the last thirty years. The second section explores the impact of migration on community and introduces the concept of sonic hospitality. The final section examines the links between migration and knowledge transfer, with particular reference to tacit, embodied knowledge and its implications for teaching and learning in a multicultural context.
Driving Forward Technology's Imprint on Music Education
Authors: Savage Jonathan
Published: February 2013

This article examines the challenges of establishing principles for educational change. It draws upon key principles from the Beyond Current Horizons research project. These principles were based on a review of the fields of futures research and educational futures, theoretical gains from social studies of technology, and insights from educational philosophy. It argues that these principles provide good foundations for re-imagining the use of technology in music education.
Commentary Critical Reflections and Future Action
Authors: McPherson Gary E. , Welch Graham F.
Published: February 2013

This article presents an overview of Section 7 of the Oxford Handbook of Music Education, Volume 2, which comprises 25 commentaries from established scholars and music educators who were invited to provide a personal, critical insight on a topic or issue that they cared deeply about and which they believed deserved to be aired within an international setting.
Preparation, Perseverance, and Performance in Music: Views from a Program of Educational Psychology Research
Authors: Martin Andrew J.
Published: February 2013

This article discusses five directions that have the potential to contribute to research, education, and practice in music education. These are (1) integrative and multidimensional motivation; (2) buoyancy and resilience; (3) adaptability; (4) personal bests; and (5) interpersonal relationships.
Make Research, Not War: Methodologies and Music Education Research
Authors: Sims Wendy L.
Published: February 2013

This article argues that music education researchers need not define nor divide themselves by the types of research they choose to do. They should defend their choices only with respect to how well they address research questions, and not against some abstract set of presumed “nonbelievers.” They need not “take sides,” set up “camps,” or hurl salvos at those whose research pursuits are different from their own, but rather attempt to understand the differences, and respect and value them.
The Preparation of Music Teacher Educators: A Critical Link
Authors: Teachout David J.
Published: February 2013

This article discusses the “ecosystem” within music education that defines teacher education, and reminds educators of their obligation to give music education students the tools needed for them to supersede current practices. It argues that music education is encased in a “closed-loop” system, where teachers teach how they were taught; and where opportunities for transformative change rarely occur within teacher education programs. Breaking this cycle is a key to developing more effective music educators who can question past practices and deal with current and future realities.