bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
M
eyer,
A
dolf (1866–1950)
Authors: Muller René J.
Published: January 2015

Adolf Meyer (1866–1950) was the most influential psychiatrist of his time in North America—until his concept of mental illness and its treatment was superseded first by Freud's psychoanalysis, then by biological psychiatry. By putting a patient's freedom front and center, and construing most mental illness as a misuse of freedom that wounds both mind and body, Meyer sought to overcome the limitations he believed our Cartesian heritage had placed on understanding the thoughts, emotions, and actions of those who are mentally ill. His psychobiology was an attempt to characterize the ultimately inseparable psychological and biological changes that are part and parcel of pathologically altered mental states.
Structured versus Semistructured versus Unstructured Interviews
Authors: Mueller Anne E. , Segal Daniel L.
Published: January 2015

The clinical diagnostic interview is used in the mental health field to help clinicians assign reliable and valid psychiatric diagnoses. This diagnostic process has significant applications in both clinical and research settings. Clinical interviews vary with respect to how much structure they have, ranging from completely unstructured to completely structured. This entry reviews three types of clinical diagnostic interview (unstructured, semistructured, and fully structured interviews) and discusses the strengths and weaknesses of each. The entry also includes a brief review of popular semistructured and structured diagnostic interviews for clinical and personality disorders.
Client‐Centered Therapy
Authors: Erekson David M. , Lambert Michael J.
Published: January 2015

Developed in the 1940s by the American psychologist Carl Rogers (1902–87), client‐centered psychotherapy is focused on the client taking responsibility for discoveries and decisions in psychotherapy while the therapist creates an optimal growth environment through genuineness, empathy, and unconditional positive regard. Client‐centered theory posits that each individual's experience is divided into a conscious self‐concept and an organismic self, or who one believes one should be and who one truly is, respectively. In an optimal change environment, clients find congruency between these two and shift from being guided by external frameworks to being guided by inner experiences. Client‐centered psychotherapy is supported by research as efficacious and has been provided to children and adults for a broad range of problems and diagnoses.
Somatic Symptom and Related Disorders/Somatoform Disorders
Authors: Bledowski Jozef , Levenson James
Published: January 2015

The
DSM‐5
somatic symptom and related disorders category refers to a spectrum of psychological conditions, which primarily manifest with physical symptoms that are associated with abnormal thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. In previous editions of the
DSM
, analogous conditions were referred to as somatoform disorders and required that associated physical symptoms could not be entirely accounted for by an underlying medical condition, another psychiatric condition, or the effects of a substance. Prior to the publication of the
DSM‐5
, the psychiatric diagnostic classification system listed seven somatoform disorders, which were somatization disorder, undifferentiated somatoform disorder, conversion disorder, pain disorder, hypochondriasis, body dysmorphic disorder, and somatoform disorder, not otherwise specified. Somatization disorder was the flagship diagnosis in this category. With the advent of
DSM‐5
, somatization disorder, undifferentiated somatoform disorder, most of pain disorder, and hypochondriasis were combined and redefined as somatic symptom disorder, and the focus of the diagnostic criteria was changed.
Risk Assessment/Violence Prediction, Sexual Offenders
Authors: Jeglic Elizabeth L.
Published: January 2015

Sex offender risk assessment and violence prediction have evolved over the past two decades due to a need to effectively manage sex offenders and protect public safety. The two main types of sex offender risk assessment are clinical and actuarial. Actuarial methods have been shown to be more effective in predicting both sexual and violent recidivism among this population. Although numerous actuarial instruments have been developed, only a few, such as the revised Minnesota Sex Offender Screening Tool (MnSOST‐R) and the Static‐99, have received sufficient empirical support to be utilized in sex offender decision making.
Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (
REBT
)
Authors: David Daniel
Published: January 2015

Rational emotive behavior therapy (
REBT
) was the first form of cognitive behavioral therapy founded by the American psychologist Albert Ellis. According to the
ABC
model of
REBT
, the impact of various activating events (e.g., the death of a close relative; A) on various psychological consequences (C) is mediated by cognitive processes (cognitions/beliefs; B).
REBT
focuses on specific cognitions, namely rational and irrational beliefs. Rational beliefs are logically, empirically, and/or pragmatically supported, and generate functional consequences (e.g., functional feelings, adaptive behaviors). Irrational beliefs are illogical, nonempirical, and/or nonpragmatic, and generate dysfunctional consequences (e.g., dysfunctional feelings, maladaptive behaviors).
REBT
has been tested in hundreds of studies and summarized in various meta‐analyses/reviews, which support the main ideas of the original theory and the general efficacy/effectiveness of practice, but also invalidate some proposals of the original model.
REBT
supports a progressive research program and innovative practice in the clinical field.
Panic Disorder
Authors: Bunaciu Liviu , Feldner Matthew T.
Published: January 2015

Panic disorder (
PD
) has been well studied over the last four decades. This entry provides an overview of the presenting features and clinical correlates of
PD
, and it reviews the primary psychobiological risk factors associated with this condition. Following a discussion of prominent existing models of etiology and maintenance, a review of assessment methods and empirically supported pharmacological and psychological treatments of
PD
is presented.
Computerized Psychotherapy
Authors: Andersson Gerhard
Published: January 2015

Computerized psychotherapy can take many forms, including stand‐alone programs, virtual reality programs, cognitive bias modification, and different types of internet‐delivered psychotherapy. Of these, internet‐based cognitive behavioral therapy (ICBT) is the most well‐investigated format. There have been more than 60 controlled studies on ICBT, and it has been shown that when guidance is provided, ICBT can be as effective as face‐to‐face psychotherapy. A therapeutic alliance is formed in ICBT with the internet therapist, but it is unclear if specific therapist skills are needed or if administrative support is enough. Guided ICBT has been developed and tested for a range of problems, including anxiety disorders, mood disorders, and health problems such as chronic pain. Challenges faced include negative attitudes towards computerized psychotherapy and dissemination.
High‐Risk Designs
Authors: Alloy Lauren B. , Boland Elaine M.
Published: January 2015

High‐risk designs are considered one of the most powerful methods for testing hypotheses about vulnerabilities, risk factors, and potential causal processes involved in various forms of psychopathology. There are two specific types of high‐risk designs: genetic high‐risk designs and behavioral high‐risk designs, which became more prevalent in the psychological community following early landmark studies in the realms of schizophrenia and mood disorders research. High‐risk designs continue to be a popular methodological choice for studies of stress‐diathesis models of the etiology and course of many psychological disorders. High‐risk designs can generate more specific information about predictors of illness onset and course, and allow for the examination of potential moderating variables that may serve to protect some participants from developing the disorder.
Homework in Psychotherapy
Authors: Petrik Alexandra M. , Kazantzis Nikolaos
Published: January 2015

Homework in psychotherapy is defined as between‐session tasks or activities that provide therapeutic benefit for the client. Homework is used extensively across a broad range of therapeutic approaches and for a large number of client presentations. The role of homework varies among psychotherapies, playing a more central role in some approaches than others (e.g., cognitive behavioral therapy). Empirical evidence supports the benefits of homework in promoting positive symptom change and increasing client functioning. Some of the important elements identified within this area of research include homework adherence and homework quality. Methodological considerations and implications for clinical practice and training are discussed.
Criminal Profiling
Authors: Turvey Brent E.
Published: January 2015

Criminal profiling refers to any means of inferring the traits of individuals responsible for committing criminal acts. Professionals involved in the practice of criminal profiling have historically included behavioral scientists, social scientists, forensic scientists and criminal investigators. Generally, profiling methods tend to be either inductive/nomothetic or deductive/idiographic. Nomothetic methods include diagnostic evaluations, criminal investigative analysis, and to a lesser extent investigative psychology. Idiographic methods include only behavioral evidence analysis. When applied to unsolved cases, some of these methods have been used to help identify criminals, narrow suspect lists, assist with case linkage, develop leads, and design investigative strategies. In court, criminal profilers are often quite limited. They commonly testify on subjects related to their analysis, such as victimology, motive, modus operandi, and case linkage. However, direct opinions about the profile of an offender are often considered unreliable and therefore inadmissible as evidence.
Drug Abuse Resistance Education (D.A.R.E.)
Authors: Hanson David J.
Published: January 2015

Drug Abuse Resistance Education (D.A.R.E.) is an in‐school drug education program created in 1983 by the Los Angeles Police Department, with assistance from the local school district. The program, taught by uniformed police officers, was later modified to include the topics of anger management, conflict resolution, and violence reduction. It is now used in about 75% of the school districts in the United States and in 43 other countries. Major developments in the rapid growth of D.A.R.E. are described, followed by a review of evaluation research findings, virtually all of which are negative and sometimes indicate that the program has been counterproductive in efforts to reduce drug use. For this reason a new curriculum, “Keepin' it
REAL
,” has been developed and implemented. However, this program needs to be tested systematically before conclusions about its effectiveness can be drawn.
Child Sexual Abuse Accommodation Syndrome
Authors: Malloy Lindsay C. , Mugno Allison P.
Published: January 2015

Child sexual abuse accommodation syndrome is a theory of children's reactions to sexual abuse. It describes the process by which some children disclose sexual abuse and the factors that may affect children's willingness to disclose and maintain allegations of sexual abuse over time. It includes the following five components: (a) secrecy; (b) helplessness; (c) entrapment and accommodation; (d) delayed, conflicted, and unconvincing disclosure; and (e) retraction. Considerable controversy exists regarding the theory, and it has been the focus of much debate in the psychological and legal fields. Debate has focused on three main issues: (a) whether the model can be used accurately to diagnose sexual abuse, (b) the appropriate use of the model in legal contexts, and (c) whether there is empirical support for child sexual abuse accommodation syndrome.
Obsessive–Compulsive Disorder
Authors: McGuire Joseph F. , Crawford Erika A. , Storch Eric A.
Published: January 2015

Obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD) is a neuropsychiatric condition affecting 1–2% of children and adults. It is characterized by the presence of obsessions and compulsions that cause impairment and/or distress. This entry provides an overview of the phenomenology, diagnostic history, etiology, clinical presentation, assessment, and treatment ofOCD. Innovative developments and future directions forOCDresearch are briefly discussed.
Functional Analysis
Authors: Haynes Stephen N. , O'Brien William H.
Published: January 2015

The functional analysis is strongly associated with the behavioral assessment and behavior analysis paradigms. It is often defined as the identification of variables that influence a person's behavior through systematic and repeated manipulation of proximal antecedent and consequent events while observing concomitant changes in the target behavior, for the purpose of guiding intervention strategies. The functional analysis has also been operationalized as a strategy for clinical case formulation. This entry describes the development of the functional analysis, its basic tenets and conceptual foundations, and methods of obtaining information about functional relations that are part of the functional analysis. The entry also provides examples of its clinical applications.
Moral Treatment
Authors: Charland Louis C.
Published: January 2015

Moral treatment refers to a psychological approach to treating mental disorder that arose across Europe and North America around the turn of the eighteenth century. It is mostly associated with the French physician Philippe Pinel (1745–1826) and the English Quaker philanthropist William Tuke (1732–1819). Pinel and Tuke each independently developed their own distinct models of the once popular therapy known as moral treatment. Although moral treatment is often considered to have been a successful therapy in its early years, it was eventually replaced by custodial care on a mass scale and became a travesty of its earlier self.
Exposure‐Based Therapies
Authors: Abramowitz Jonathan S. , Fabricant Laura E. , Jacoby Ryan J.
Published: January 2015

Exposure therapy is a set of psychological treatment procedures designed to reduce pathological fear in individuals with anxiety problems. This entry provides an overview of the history, goals, implementation, and uses of exposure‐based therapies, along with a discussion of the empirical evidence regarding their effectiveness and efficacy. The entry also discusses the use of exposure‐based therapies for specific anxiety disorders.
Cohort Sequential Designs (Convergence Analysis)
Authors: Warner Schaie K.
Published: January 2015

A general developmental model is described with the components of age, cohort, and time‐of‐measurement (period). Two of these components are always confounded in the simple developmental designs of cross‐sectional, longitudinal, and time lag approaches. More complex sequential designs are then presented which allow estimation of each separate effect and their interaction. The cohort sequential design allows separation of age and cohort effects. The time sequential design allows separation of age and time‐of‐measurement (period) effects. The cross sequential design allows separation of cohort and time‐of‐measurement (period) effects. It is also pointed out that use of a mixed model approach to test convergence hypothesis that ignores random effects will result in the underestimation of within‐subject effects and overestimation of between‐subject effects. Examples of properly analyzed convergence analyses approaches are identified.
DSM

Workgroup Structure and Process
Authors: Widiger Thomas , Glover Natalie
Published: January 2015

The American Psychiatric Association's
Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders
(

DSM

) provides the authoritative list of what are considered to be mental disorders. The

DSM

is an exceedingly powerful document, impacting many important social, forensic, clinical, and other professional decisions. The development of this manual is then an enormous responsibility. Presented herein is a brief history of the development of all prior and current editions of the

DSM

(with a particular emphasis on

DSM‐IV

and

DSM
‐5

), followed by a discussion of the major issues and concerns that arguably should be considered in its development, including personnel selection, critical review, criteria for revision, field trials, and risk–benefit analysis.
Cyclothymic Disorder
Authors: Van Meter Anna R. , Youngstrom Eric A.
Published: January 2015

Cyclothymic disorder is a subtype of bipolar disorder characterized by a chronic and debilitating course of disordered mood. Though epidemiological studies suggest that cyclothymic disorder may be the most prevalent bipolar subtype, it has been largely neglected in research and rarely diagnosed clinically. Symptom overlap with temperament and personality types further limits knowledge about cyclothymic disorder. It may be a diathesis for bipolar disorder I or II, in which case cyclothymic disorder could offer an opportunity to intervene and prevent escalation of mood disturbance. Research including cyclothymic disorder will aid accurate diagnosis and effective treatment of the full spectrum of bipolar disorder, and inform about the developmental trajectory of mood disorders.
Circumplex Models
Authors: Gurtman Michael B.
Published: January 2015

Circumplex, or circular, models are structural models popular in personality and clinical psychology. Such models assume that the variables defining a particular individual difference domain (e.g., interpersonal traits, core affect, human values) can best be represented as a circle—an array of variables with a circular form. The interpersonal circumplex (of interpersonal traits, problems, and related constructs) is the most developed of these models, and has led to a variety of circumplex‐based measures. Assessment data derived from circumplex measures are structured in ways that suggest certain preferred approaches to analysis and interpretation. Applications of the model to assessment, diagnosis, and psychopathology continue to evolve and be refined.
Rumination Disorder
Authors: Luiselli James K.
Published: January 2015

This entry describes the clinical presentation, diagnostic criteria, and etiology of rumination disorder among infants, children, and people who have intellectual and developmental disabilities, as well as youth and adults in the general population. Several psychological treatments for rumination disorder are described based on published research and empirically supported practices.
Spectrum Model
Authors: Boyle Lauren H. , Smith Gregory T.
Published: January 2015

When one refers to a spectrum of psychopathology, one refers to a set of conditions that are both related, in the sense of sharing a common cause and some common symptoms, and also separate, in the sense that they also have different symptoms from one another that, presumably, arise from nonshared causes. Frequently, disorders on a spectrum vary in their degree of severity. Common examples include the schizophrenia spectrum, which includes disorders ranging in severity from what is called schizotypal personality disorder to the psychotic disorder of schizophrenia; and the autism spectrum, which includes Asperger's disorder together with the typically more disruptive autism. There is a long history of spectrum models in clinical psychology. These models are praised because they provide linkages across degrees of severity, in contrast to purely categorical description of psychopathology in which gradations of severity are not represented. They are also criticized by researchers who contend that, in reality, there typically are not separate conditions, but rather simply degrees of severity within dimensions of dysfunction.
Family Therapies
Authors: Davis Sean D. , Dattilio Frank M. , Gonzalez Armando
Published: January 2015

Rooted in systems theory, family therapy is a branch of psychotherapy that seeks to shift the focus of therapy away from the individual towards reshaping patterns of interactions within relationships. As the field of family therapy continued to evolve over the past half century empirical support has emerged suggesting its effectiveness in treating multiple problems including eating disorders, substance abuse, and conduct disorders. This entry provides a basic description of the key tenets within some of the pioneering (structural therapy and Bowen therapy), postmodern (narrative therapy and solution‐focused therapy), and contemporary therapy models (cognitive behavioral therapy, functional family therapy, and multidimensional family therapy) used to treat family systems.
Prescription Privileges Debate
Authors: Heiby Elaine M.
Published: January 2015

Since the mid 1980s, clinical psychology has been debating whether to expand its scope of practice to include the functions of independently prescribing physicians throughout the United States and of advanced nurse practitioners in 14 states. The debate has focused primarily on what constitutes adequate medical training for licensed psychologists given their undergraduate and doctoral training lack courses in premedical sciences and medicine. The American Psychological Association proposes less than two years of postdoctoral training for prescription privileges, also referred to as prescriptive authority andRxP. In contrast, psychiatrists complete 10 years and psychiatric advanced nurse practitioners 6 years of premedical and medical training. There has been little progress in the pursuit ofRxP. From 1995 to May 2014, over 173 bills have been submitted to legislatures and only three were signed into law (Territory of Guam, New Mexico, and Louisiana). The effects of these laws upon consumer safety are unknown.
Parent–Child Interaction Therapy (
PCIT
)
Authors: Norman Cheryl McNeil, Meredith , Wallace Nancy
Published: January 2015

Parent–Child Interaction Therapy (
PCIT
) is an empirically supported treatment for young children with behavioral and emotional problems. Unique components of
PCIT
are discussed and detailed descriptions are provided for the two phases of
PCIT
, child‐directed interaction (
CDI
) and parent‐directed interaction (
PDI
). Research findings on the efficacy of
PCIT
for treatment of behavior problems associated with a range of mental health disorders and medical conditions are presented. Research is also presented on the efficacy of
PCIT
with diverse populations and the effectiveness of
PCIT
in community mental health settings. Finally, directions for future research are suggested.
Clinical Interview
Authors: Sommers‐Flanagan John , Abeje Zeleke Waganesh , Hood Meredith H. E.
Published: January 2015

The clinical interview is foundational to psychological or mental health treatment. It involves a professional relationship between a mental health provider and a patient or client and is used across all major mental health treatment disciplines. Although defined differently by different authors, the clinical interview includes an informed consent process and has as its primary goals (a) initiation of a therapeutic alliance, (b) assessment or diagnostic data collection, (c) case formulation, and/or (d) implementation of a psychological intervention. This entry includes information about the history/evolution of clinical interviewing, an outline of the typical interview process or structure, distinctions between unstructured, semistructured, and structured interviews, and contemporary developments (i.e., the science of clinical interviewing, techniques as relational acts, and cultural adaptations). The future of the clinical interview as a central method for initiating psychotherapy or counseling is bright.
Kinship Care
Authors: Roehl Amy , Strozier Anne
Published: January 2015

Kinship care has a long tradition in our country but has grown in recent years due to the recognition that children do best when living with family members. Although this recognition is widespread, funding and support for these families is lacking. Greater research is needed about this important family style, as is advocacy for increased support for kinship caregivers.
Schizophrenia
Authors: McNally Kieran
Published: January 2015

Schizophrenia refers to a constellation of debilitating mental symptoms, such as delusions, disorganized speech, and hallucinations, which characteristically emerge in young adulthood and are challenging to treat. The concept of schizophrenia has changed greatly since its inception, yet continues to be both important and problematic.
Informed Consent, Psychotherapy
Authors: Pomerantz Andrew M.
Published: January 2015

Informed consent to psychotherapy involves a capable prospective client voluntarily choosing to enter treatment after he or she has been informed about the treatment by the therapist. Although informed consent to psychotherapy is an ethical obligation, it is also an opportunity for clinical benefit. It provides the therapist the chance to educate the client and correct any misconceptions; and it can also facilitate a strong, healthy, collaborative therapeutic alliance, widely considered a cornerstone of successful therapy. Variation exists in what information is provided, how the procedure takes place (e.g., written form and oral discussion), and when it happens. Increasingly, informed consent to psychotherapy is recognized as an ongoing process, with various types of information being covered at various points in the therapy process, rather than as a static, single event.
BipolarIIDisorder
Authors: Alloy Lauren B. , Molz Adams Ashleigh R.
Published: January 2015

BipolarIIdisorder is categorized as a “softer” bipolar spectrum disorder, characterized by the history of at least one hypomanic and one major depressive episode. Lifetime prevalence in epidemiological studies varies from 0.4% to 2%. BipolarII, although “softer” than bipolar I disorder, has been shown to be more highly associated with suicide attempts and completion, perhaps because its course is weighted toward depressive episodes. Behavioral approach system and social rhythms theories, both of which have accrued convincing evidence, provide promising causal models for bipolarIIdisorder, as they do for other bipolar spectrum conditions. Treatment for bipolarIIdisorder involves mood stabilizers with or without adjunctive selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and psychotherapies.
Mediators versus Moderators, Conceptual Distinction
Authors: Westfall Jacob , Judd Charles M.
Published: January 2015

Given a causal hypothesis that one variable
X
affects another
Y
, the question of mediation refers to the mechanism that produces that causal affect. A meditational analysis is conducted by identifying plausible mediating variables (
M
) and controlling for these statistically. The question of moderation is whether a causal effect differs in magnitude as a function of some third variable. A moderation analysis is conducted by examining if the effect of
X
on
Y
depends on a moderator (
M
) such that there is a statistical interaction between
X
and
M
.
Body Dysmorphic Disorder
Authors: Rasmussen Jessica , Wilhelm Sabine
Published: January 2015

Body dysmorphic disorder (
BDD
) is a persistent and impairing preoccupation with a perceived defect or flaw in physical appearance that is not observable or appears slight to others. Individuals with
BDD
are focused on specific aspects of their appearance (e.g., skin, face, and hair) and engage in repetitive, ritualistic behaviors (e.g., mirror checking, excessive grooming, and surgery seeking) to hide or improve the perceived flaw.
BDD
can cause significant psychosocial and occupational impairment, as well as severe emotional distress.
BDD
is a common disorder and is associated with high rates of suicidal ideation or suicide attempts. Recent advances in the understanding of
BDD
have led to the development of evidence‐based treatments for the disorder. First‐line treatments include cognitive behavioral therapy and psychopharmacology (e.g., serotonin reuptake inhibitors [
SRIs
]).
Agoraphobia
Authors: Milosevic Irena , McCabe Randi E.
Published: January 2015

Agoraphobia is an impairing mental disorder characterized by fear and avoidance of situations where escape might be difficult or where help might not be available in the event of panic‐like, incapacitating, or embarrassing symptoms. The median age of onset for agoraphobia is 20, and risk factors for its development include the presence of panic disorder and phobias, female gender, and younger age. Common comorbidities include anxiety, trauma‐related, depressive, substance use, and somatoform disorders. Genetics, personality traits, cognitive factors, and learning processes contribute to the etiology of the disorder. When left untreated, agoraphobia has a chronic and unremitting course. Empirically supported treatments of agoraphobia include cognitive behavioral therapy and pharmacotherapy.
Battered‐Child Syndrome
Authors: Carter Sherrie Bourg
Published: January 2015

Battered‐child syndrome is a clinical condition diagnosed in children who are found to have serious, nonaccidental physical injuries, generally caused by a parent or adult caretaker. The diagnosis is most commonly made by a pediatrician, emergency room doctor, child protection team physician, or forensic nurse practitioner after a thorough medical examination. Common symptoms include bone fractures, internal bleeding or trauma, head injuries, cuts, burns, bite marks, choke marks, bruising (particularly those in the shape of a hand, fist, or belt), lash marks, cigarette burns, and/or black eyes for which there are no reasonable explanations. Therefore, interviews with the adults caring for the child around the time of the injuries are often a critical component of the overall assessment. In some cases, X‐rays, scans, or other types of imaging are used to substantiate the diagnosis.
Association of Consulting Psychologists (
ACP
)
Authors: Farreras Ingrid G.
Published: January 2015

The Association of Consulting Psychologists (
ACP
) was the second professional organization to represent applied interests. Although the American Association of Clinical Psychologists had been establishment in 1917 as the first organization to represent clinical psychologists, it dissolved in 1919 in favor of the creation of the American Psychological Association's (
APA
) first section, the Clinical Section (renamed “Division” after the 1945 reorganization). The
APA
Clinical Section, however, did not meet the needs of clinical psychologists. The
ACP
, reorganized in 1930 from the 1921 New York State Association of Consulting Psychologists, addressed early professionalization issues such as professional standards, requirements for postgraduate training, certification and licensure issues, membership requirements, and codes of ethics. It eventually merged with other regional associations to form the American Association for Applied Psychology in 1937.
Human Figure Drawings
Authors: Taylor Whitney D. , Lee Catherine M.
Published: January 2015

Despite controversy, human figure drawings (HFDs) remain popular projective tools in clinical practice. Proponents believe that these techniques provide access to unconscious thoughts and experiences that the examinee would otherwise be unable or unwilling to share. Critics note that these techniques lack the standardization, reliability, validity, and normative data needed to be considered psychological tests. The history and development of HFDs are described. Psychometric evidence is reviewed, followed by an examination of current practices. Although HFDs may serve as a rapport‐building strategy for clients with limited verbal ability, no scientific evidence justifies their use in clinical assessment.
Burnout
Authors: Leiter Michael P. , Maslach Christina , Frame Kelly
Published: January 2015

Burnoutrefers to the emotional depletion and loss of motivation that result from prolonged exposure to chronic emotional and interpersonal stressors on the job. The Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI) is one of the most widely accepted scales and is composed of the three dimensions of exhaustion, cynicism, and inefficacy. With more than 35 years of research and a solid theoretical foundation, researchers in this field are increasingly dedicating themselves to the development of effective and lasting interventions to reduce job burnout. Successful interventions include the consideration of the individual within the context of the workplace. New research focuses on job engagement, the opposite of burnout, which might suggest effective solutions for alleviating or preventing burnout.
Counseling Psychology
Authors: Banyasz Alissa M. , Baker David B.
Published: January 2015

Counseling psychology is a specialty within professional psychology with roots in the vocational guidance movement. This specialty is viewed as an integration of twentieth‐century developments in vocational guidance, psychological testing, and psychotherapy. Counseling psychologists work as academicians, practitioners, organizational consultants, and social justice advocates. Counseling psychology is distinguished from other specialties by its focus on human strengths, multiculturalism, and social justice.
Reminiscence/Life Review Therapy
Authors: Hyams Adriana , Scogin Forrest
Published: January 2015

Reminiscence and life review therapies were initially conceptualized by Robert Butler (1927–2010), who drew from Erik Erikson's developmental challenge of ego integrity versus despair. Other theorists' conceptualizations are also presented. Discussed in this entry are approaches and considerations for conducting these therapies, professionals who use them, and settings in which they are carried out. Research has found that they increase socialization, self‐esteem, mood, life satisfaction, and quality of life. However, other studies have shown little evidence of improvement. Possible sources of the mixed empirical findings are discussed. Longitudinal research is needed to establish beneficial and negative aspects of the therapies and any long‐term effects.
Interpersonal Circumplex
Authors: Pincus Aaron L.
Published: January 2015

The interpersonal circumplex (IPC) is an empirically derived and validated structural model of interpersonal functioning at multiple levels that serves as a key conceptual map for the contemporary interpersonal paradigm in clinical psychology. Through 60 years of interpersonal theory and research, the IPC has evolved into a metastructure based on the constructs of agency and communion with integrative implications for all aspects of clinical science and practice. The IPC provides a comprehensive system to view and understand the whole person via individual differences, psychological processes, and relational dynamics.
Achenbach System of Empirically Based Assessment (
ASEBA
)
Authors: Achenbach Thomas M.
Published: January 2015

Achenbach System of Empirically Based Assessment (
ASEBA
) instruments obtain and compare reports and ratings from multiple informants to assess the behavioral, emotional, and social problems and adaptive functioning of people from age 1½ to 90+ years. With translations in 90 languages,
ASEBA
instruments have multicultural norms with which to evaluate scores in relation to norms for many societies. Over 8,000 publications report use of the
ASEBA
in 80 societies and cultures.
ASEBA
scales include adaptive functioning, competence, empirically derived syndromes,

DSM

‐oriented scales, internalizing, externalizing, and total problems.
ASEBA
instruments facilitate family‐based assessment by providing parallel scale scores for parent and child problems. Practitioners can show each parent the profiles scored from their self‐ratings and their partner's ratings of them, as well as profiles scored from their own ratings, teacher ratings, and self‐ratings of their child.
Antidepressants
Authors: Epstein‐Lubow Gary , Kohn Robert
Published: January 2015

Antidepressant medications are used to treat major depressive disorder and other conditions, including anxiety disorders. Many medications have been used to treat depression; the most common prescriptions currently are the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. The evidence base standard for antidepressant efficacy is the randomized controlled trial. Adverse side effects are commonly, but not always, associated with antidepressant use. Caution should be used when starting a new antidepressant, particularly in children and young adults when the U.S. Food and Drug Administration warns against such use. Antidepressants can be effective treatments when administered alone or in combination with psychotherapy. Caution should be used when stopping antidepressant treatment, due to risk for discontinuation syndrome or recurrence of depressive symptoms.
Probation
Authors: Louden Jennifer Eno , Manchak Sarah M. , Kang Tamara
Published: January 2015

Probation is a sentence disposition in the criminal justice system where offenders are supervised in the community by probation officers. Although there has been much debate in the field about the best approaches for supervising probationers, the most effective practices are those guided by the complementary principles of
risk–need–responsivity
and
core correctional practices
. Agencies vary in the extent to which they adhere to these principles, especially when supervising clinically relevant populations. This entry reviews historical and current practices in probation, with particular attention paid to practices for offenders with mental health and substance abuse problems.
Capital Sentencing
Authors: Wood Mary E. , Salekin Karen L.
Published: January 2015

Since the reinstatement of the death penalty in 1976, the U.S. Supreme Court has made several decisions that have highlighted the importance of individualized sentencing procedures. These landmark decisions have created a distinct role for clinical psychologists who conduct capital‐sentencing evaluations. This entry describes the history of the death penalty through the lens of these landmark decisions and ends with a discussion on mitigating factors through a developmental psychopathology perspective.
Sequential Analysis
Authors: Bakeman Roger
Published: January 2015

Sequential analysis attempts to detect patterns and temporal associations among observed behaviors and is more a data analytic toolbox than one particular technique. It requires the sort of sequential categorical data that result from behavioral observation when trained observers, often working from video records, assign predefined codes to either events or successive time intervals. Using a code‐unit grid to represent sequential data facilitates sequential analysis; columns are untimed events, intervals, or time units reflecting the precision used to record time. Characterizing observer agreement with kappa (Cohen's or variants) may require application of a sequence‐alignment algorithm. Basic contingency indexes are the odds ratio and the related Yule's
Q
. When insufficient tallies require pooling individual cases, log‐linear analysis may be needed to characterize group differences. Computing kappa, basic descriptive statistics, and contingency indexes is facilitated by the code‐unit grid, whose columns serve as computational units.
Braid, James (1795–1860)
Authors: Tisdale John
Published: January 2015

James Braid (1795–1860) was a surgeon who coined the term
hypnotism
. Born in Scotland, he later moved to Manchester, England, where he witnessed demonstrations by the Swiss mesmerist Charles Lafontaine. Although skeptical of mesmerism, at one demonstration Braid suspected that a participant was not faking. He began a series of experiments on friends and family and discovered that he could induce the trance state by instructing them to stare at a fixed point, which caused paralysis of muscles in the eyelids. This focus on the eyes gave him reason to believe that the phenomenon was a kind of nervous sleep, as is reflected in the title of his most famous work,
Neurypnology
, an abbreviation of
neuro‐hypnology
. Through subsequent experiments, he realized that the fixation of attention is sufficient for induction. His use of the word
monoideism
reflects this theoretical change. However, the word
hypnotism
stuck.
Generalized Anxiety Disorder
Authors: Llera Sandra J. , Newman Michelle G.
Published: January 2015

Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) is characterized as a disorder of excessive worry that is experienced as uncontrollable, chronic, and leading to significant impairments. Historically,GADhas been the least clearly defined of the anxiety disorders, which has led to problems with clinical conceptualization and diagnostic reliability. Much research has been conducted to clarify the nature, etiology, and maintaining mechanisms ofGAD. This entry reviews current conceptualizations ofGAD, including underlying genetic, environmental, interpersonal, cognitive, emotional, and neurobiological factors that may lead to or maintain pathological worry symptoms. Research suggests that emotional hyperreactivity and emotional contrast avoidance may reinforce worry patterns. Current treatments, including pharmacotherapy and cognitive behavioral therapy, are also presented, and areas for future research are discussed.
Child Witnesses
Authors: Segovia Daisy A. , Crossman Angela
Published: January 2015

The number of children appearing as witnesses or victims of crime is increasing at an alarming rate. Historically, child witnesses lacked credibility because it was feared that they were especially vulnerable to suggestion. Recent research shows, however, that children can be highly accurate witnesses, although their memory and event reporting skills improve and suggestibility decreases with age. Use of effective and developmentally appropriate interview protocols with child witnesses can improve the quality and credibility of their event reports. Witnessing or being a crime victim can be traumatic for child witnesses, as can participation in legal settings. Alternative testimonial procedures seem to reduce children's stress and facilitate more accurate testimony, protect defendants' rights, and help to achieve better long‐term outcomes for child witnesses.
Bentler,PeterM. (b. 1938)
Authors: Harlow Lisa L.
Published: January 2015

Peter Martin Bentler (b. 1938) had his roots in clinical psychology, earning his doctorate in that field in 1964 at Stanford University. The nature and focus of his work have been multifaceted, embracing and informing the substantive fields of personality, health, sexual behavior, substance use, and developmental psychology, and then moving largely to quantitative psychology, particularly with respect to structural equation modeling.
Reification
Authors: Banzato Claudio E. M.
Published: January 2015

Reification is the conversion of an abstract concept into a thing. It is a category mistake that involves misplaced concreteness. Reification affects the way we construct our view of the world and so may have real consequences. The diagnosis of mental disorders exemplifies the risks of reification.
Practice Directorate,
APA
Authors: Newman Russ
Published: January 2015

The
APA
Practice Directorate is the organizational arm of the American Psychological Association (
APA
) that is responsible for advocating on behalf of practicing psychologists, assuring access by the public to psychological services, and recommending
APA
policy, standards, and guidelines for quality service delivery. The directorate has relied on state and federal advocacy, use of the courts and regulatory agencies, public education, and efforts to affect the health‐care marketplace to promote practitioner interests. Key advocacy initiatives have included recognizing psychologists in Medicare, independent practice in hospitals, stopping abusive mental health practices, advocating prescription privileges for psychologists, and achieving mental health parity.
Adjudicative Process
Authors: Klotzle Rebecca Gray
Published: January 2015

The term adjudicative process refers to a means of resolving disputes when two or more adversaries cannot reach agreement on their own. In an adjudicative process, adversaries—through arguments and evidence—are given an opportunity to present their sides to an impartial third party. After hearing both parties, the third‐party judge makes a reasoned decision, which is binding on all parties.
Conduct Disorder
Authors: Tempel Ashley B. , Herschell Amy D. , Kolko David
Published: January 2015

Conduct disorder is a disruptive behavioral disorder characterized by the ongoing violation of rules and basic rights of others. It is delineated into two subcategories, childhood‐onset type and adolescent‐onset type, which differ in associated features and developmental trajectories. Conduct‐related symptoms make up the majority of child referrals to mental health services. The prevalence of conduct disorder and the pervasive nature of symptoms seen across systems (e.g., education, mental health, and juvenile justice) require resources and can lead to large costs. Numerous environmental, family, and individual characteristics have been associated with conduct disorder; these include poverty, familial disruption, impulsivity, and juvenile delinquency. Theoretical models (e.g., the social learning model and the developmental propensity model) have been proposed to explain the development of conduct disorder and the presence of specific conduct‐related behaviors. Several behavioral parent‐training and multimodal family‐based treatment models are considered evidence‐based interventions for treating youth with conduct disorder.
Emotionally Focused Therapy (
EFT
)
Authors: Fitzgerald J. , Johnson S. M. , Thomas J.
Published: January 2015

Emotionally focused therapy (
EFT
) is an empirically based therapy for individuals, couples and families, which has been developed from humanistic‐experiential models of psychotherapy. In this approach, emotion is regarded as a source of meaning and direction and people are regarded as capable of self‐determination with an innate tendency to grow. Individuals, supported by an empathic relationship with the therapist, are helped to access deeper emotional experience and to explore blocks to engaging with problems in functional ways. Research suggests that
EFT
for individuals with depression may be as effective as cognitive behavioral therapy. Attachment theory has guided the development of
EFT
with couples, emphasizing the need for partners to be accessible and responsive to each other to build a secure emotional bond. The
EFT
couples therapist works with both intrapsychic and interpersonal processes to assist partners to change their interactional positions and to access and disclose deeper emotional experience and attachment needs.
Lie Detection
Authors: Mandelbaum Jason , Crossman Angela
Published: January 2015

Although humans have attempted to foil liars for thousands of years, lie detection rates remain relatively close to chance, even among presumed experts. Techniques have commonly relied on observation of nonverbal (e.g., microexpressions) and/or verbal cues (e.g., Statement Validity Assessment), and physiologically based responses, such as use of the polygraph. Other techniques, such as neuropsychological tests, can facilitate clinicians' efforts to detect malingering; however, the tests are not diagnostic of deception because, as with most lie‐detection techniques, their results are not unique or specific to deception. More modern techniques focus on brain‐based lie detection, but successful lie detection remains elusive. Most promising are techniques aimed at increasing the cognitive load for liars, creating enhanced cues to their deception and leading to higher rates of lie detection.