bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Clinical Pharmacology, Clinical Efficacy, and Behavioral Toxicity of Alprazolam: A Review of the Literature
Authors: Verster Joris C. , Volkerts Edmund R.
Published: August 2010

Alprazolam is a benzodiazepine derivative that is currently used in the treatment of generalized anxiety, panic attacks with or without agoraphobia, and depression. Alprazolam has a fast onset of symptom relief (within the first week); it is unlikely to produce dependency or abuse. No tolerance to its therapeutic effect has been reported. At discontinuation of alprazolam treatment, withdrawal and rebound symptoms are common. Hence, alprazolam discontinuation must be tapered.

An exhaustive review of the literature showed that alprazolam is significantly superior to placebo, and is at least equally effective in the relief of symptoms as tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs), such as imipramine. However, although alprazolam and imipramine are significantly more effective than placebo in the treatment of panic attacks, Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs) appear to be superior to either of the two drugs. Therefore, alprazolam is recommended as a second line treatment option, when SSRIs are not effective or well tolerated.

In addition to its therapeutic effects, alprazolam produces adverse effects, such as drowsiness and sedation. Since alprazolam is widely used, many clinical studies investigated its cognitive and psychomotor effects. It is evident from these studies that alprazolam may impair performance in a variety of skills in healthy volunteers as well as in patients. Since the majority of alprazolam users are outpatients, this behavioral impairment limits the safe use of alprazolam in patients routinely engaged in potentially dangerous daily activities, such as driving a car.
A Review of Pharmacology of NCS‐382, a Putative Antagonist of γ‐Hydroxybutyric Acid (GHB) Receptor
Authors: Castelli M. Paola , Pibiri Fabio , Carboni Giovanni , Piras A. Paola
Published: August 2010

γ‐Hydroxybutyric acid (GHB), a naturally occurring metabolite of γ‐aminobutyric acid (GABA), has been postulated to act as a specific agonist of GHB receptors and as well as a weak GABABreceptor agonist. To date, 6,7,8,9‐tetrahydro‐5‐hydroxy‐5H‐benzo‐cyclohept‐6‐ylideneacetic acid (NCS‐382), a semirigid compound structurally related to GHB, is the only compound reported to be an antagonist of the GHB receptor sites. In this article we review thein vivoandin vitropharmacological properties of NCS‐382 and its interaction with GHB and GABABreceptors. Binding studies have demonstrated that NCS‐382 is a stereoselective ligand for GHB‐binding sites, with both, the high and the low component of population, showing the same distribution of GHB receptors. Indeed, this compound did not display affinity for GABAA, GABAB, or any other known receptors, while conflicting data have been reported as to its selective antagonist action at GHB receptor. Only a few studies have shown that NCS‐382 antagonizes GHB‐induced effect, but a re‐evaluation of all data reported in the literature suggests that the antagonistic effect of this compound could be due to an indirect action at GABABreceptors. As revealed by several behavioral studies, NCS‐382 fails to antagonize GHB discriminative stimuli, GHB‐induced inhibition of locomotor activity and ataxia or suppression of operant responses. Moreover, it is capable of either eliciting qualitatively similar effects to those of GHB or enhancing some actions of GHB. In addition, the NCS‐382‐sensitive electrophysiological effects of endogenous and exogenous GHB observedin vivohave not been completely replicatedin vitro.The only electrophysiological action of GHB antagonizedin vitroby NCS‐382 required a previous blockade of GABABreceptors. We concluded that NCS‐382 is a good ligand but not a selective antagonist for GHB receptor.
The Use of 4‐Aminopyridine (Fampridine) in Demyelinating Disorders
Authors: Hayes Keith C.
Published: August 2010

4‐Aminopyridine (4‐AP or fampridine) is a potassium channel‐blocking agent that has been shown to restore conduction in focally demyelinated axons. A sustained‐release matrix tablet form of 4‐AP (fampridine‐SR) is currently undergoing multicenter clinical trials in patients with multiple sclerosis or chronic spinal cord injury. This review describes the pharmacology and mechanisms of action of 4‐AP, its pharmacokinetics in human subjects, and the outcomes of clinical trials employing either immediate‐release or sustained‐release formulations of the drug. The randomized clinical trials that have been completed to date indicate that K+channel blockade may prove to be a useful strategy for ameliorating central conduction deficits due to demyelination. Diverse neurological gains have been reported for both motor and sensory domains. At the present time, however, the clinical trials have not provided sufficiently robust or definitive evidence of efficacy to gain regulatory approval for the symptomatic management of patients with either multiple sclerosis or spinal cord injury.
Cotinine, a Neuroactive Metabolite of Nicotine: Potential for Treating Disorders of Impaired Cognition
Authors: Terry Alvin V. , Hernandez Caterina M. , Hohnadel Elizabeth J. , Bouchard Kristy P. , Buccafusco Jerry J.
Published: August 2010

The pharmacological effects of the tobacco‐derived alkaloid nicotine have been widely studied in humans and animals for decades. However, relatively little attention has been given to the potential actions of its major metabolite, cotinine. After nicotine consumption the duration of cotinine's presence in blood and brain greatly exceeds that of nicotine. Therefore, cotinine could mediate the more protracted pharmacological effects of nicotine. The studies described in this report were thus designed to further investigate certain neuropharmacological actions of cotinine. Behavioral tests (e.g., delayed matching‐to‐sample) were conducted in aged rhesus monkeys to assess the effects of cotinine on working memory and attention. In rats a prepulse inhibition (PPI) procedure was used to assess the effects of the compound on auditory gating — a method for predicting the potential antipsychotic properties of drugs. Cotinine exhibited significant effectiveness in these tasks. The drug was also cytoprotective in differentiated PC‐12 cells with a potency equivalent to that of nicotine. The effects of chronic cotinine treatment on the expression of nicotinic and muscarinic acetylcholine receptors in rat brain were measured by [125I]epibatidine, [125I]α‐bungarotoxin ([125I]BTX), [3H]pirenzepine ([3H]PRZ), and [3H]AFDX‐384 ([3H]AFX) autoradiography. Unlike nicotine, cotinine failed to upregulate the expression of brain nicotinic receptors. Based on its relative safety in man, cotinine should prove useful in the treatment of diseases of impaired cognition and behavior without exhibiting the toxicity usually attributed to nicotine.
Pharmacological Properties, Central Nervous System Effects, and Potential Therapeutic Applications of Atipamezole, a Selective α2‐Adrenoceptor Antagonist
Authors: Pertovaara Antti , Haapalinna Antti , Sirviö Jouni , Virtanen Raimo
Published: August 2010

Atipamezole is an α2‐adrenoceptor antagonist with an imidazole structure. Receptor binding studies indicate that its affinity for α2‐adrenoceptors and its α2/α1selectivity ratio are considerably higher than those of yohimbine, the prototype α2‐adrenoceptor antagonist. Atipamezole is not selective for subtypes of α2‐adrenoceptors. Unlike many other α2‐adrenoceptor antagonists, it has negligible affinity for 5‐HT1Aand I2bindings sites. Atipamezole is rapidly absorbed and distributed from the periphery to the central nervous system. In humans, atipamezole at doses up to 30 mg/subject produced no cardiovascular or subjective side effects, while at a high dose (100 mg/subject) it produced subjective symptoms, such as motor restlessness, and an increase in blood pressure. Atipamezole rapidly reverses sedation/anesthesia induced by α2‐adrenoceptor agonists. Due to this property, atipamezole is commonly used by veterinarians to awaken animals from sedation/anesthesia induced by α2‐adrenoceptor agonists alone or in combination with various anesthetics. Atipamezole increased sexual activity in rats and monkeys. In animals with sustained nociception, atipamezole increased pain‐related responses by blocking the noradrenergic feedback inhibition of pain. In tests assessing cognitive functions, atipamezole at low doses has beneficial effects on alertness, selective attention, planning, learning, and recall in experimental animals, but not necessarily on short‐term working memory. At higher doses atipamezole impaired performance in tests of cognitive functions, probably due to noradrenergic overactivity. Recent experimental animal studies suggest that atipamezole might have beneficial effects in the recovery from brain damage and might potentiate the anti‐Parkinsonian effects of dopaminergic drugs. In phase I studies atipamezole has been well tolerated by human subjects.
KTX 0101: A Potential Metabolic Approach to Cytoprotection in Major Surgery and Neurological Disorders
Authors: Smith Sharon L. , Heal David J. , Martin Keith F.
Published: August 2010

KTX 0101 is the sodium salt of the physiological ketone, D‐β‐hydroxybutyrate (βOHB). This neuroprotectant, which has recently successfully completed clinical Phase IA evaluation, is being developed as an intravenous infusion fluid to prevent the cognitive deficits caused by ischemic foci in the brain during cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) surgery. KTX 0101 maintains cellular viability under conditions of physiological stress by acting as a “superfuel” for efficient ATP production in the brain and peripheral tissues. Unlike glucose, this ketone does not require phosphorylation before entering the TCA cycle, thereby sparing vital ATP stores. Although no reliable models of CPB‐induced ischemia exist, KTX 0101 is powerfully cytoprotectant under the more severe ischemic conditions of global and focal cerebral ischemia, cardiac ischemia and lung hemorrhage. Neuroprotection has been demonstrated by reductions in infarct volume, edema, markers of apoptosis and functional impairment. One significant difference between KTX 0101 and other potential neuroprotectants in development is that βOHB is a component of human metabolic physiology which exploits the body's own neuroprotective mechanisms. KTX 0101 also protects hippocampal organotypic cultures against early and delayed cell death in anin vitromodel ofstatus epilepticus, indicating that acute KTX 0101 intervention in this condition could help prevent the development of epileptiform foci, a key mechanism in the etiology of intractable epilepsy. In models of chronic neurodegenerative disorders, KTX 0101 protects neurons against damage caused by dopaminergic neurotoxins and by the fragment of β‐amyloid, Aβ1–42, implying possible therapeutic applications for ketogenic strategies in treating Parkinson's and Alzheimer's diseases. Major obstacles to the use of KTX 0101 for long term therapy in chronic disorders, e.g., Parkinson's and Alzheimer's diseases, are the sodium loading problem and the need to administer it in relatively large amounts because of its rapid mitochondrial metabolism. These issues are being addressed by designing and synthesizing orally bioavailable multimers of βOHB with improved pharmacokinetics.
Mildronate: An Antiischemic Drug for Neurological Indications
Authors: Sjakste Nikolajs , Gutcaits Aleksandrs , Kalvinsh Ivars
Published: August 2010

Mildronate (3‐(2,2,2‐trimethylhydrazinium)propionate; MET‐88; meldonium, quaterine) is an antiischemic drug developed at the Latvian Institute of Organic Synthesis. Mildronate was designed to inhibit carnitine biosynthesis in order to prevent accumulation of cytotoxic intermediate products of fatty acid β‐oxidation in ischemic tissues and to block this highly oxygen‐consuming process. Mildronate is efficient in the treatment of heart ischemia and its consequences. Extensive evaluation of pharmacological activities of mildronate revealed its beneficial effect on cerebral circulation disorders and central nervous system (CNS) functions. The drug is used in neurological clinics for the treatment of brain circulation disorders. It appears to improve patients' mood; they become more active, their motor dysfunction decreases, and asthenia, dizziness and nausea become less pronounced. Since the brain does not utilize fatty acids as fuel other mechanisms of action of mildronate in CNS should be considered. Several reports indicate the possible existence of an alternative, non‐carnitine dependent mechanism of action of mildronate. Our recent findings suggest that CNS effects of mildronate could be mediated by stimulation of the nitric oxide production in the vascular endothelium by modification of the γ‐butyrobetaine and its esters pools. It is hypothesized that mildronate may increase the formation of the γ‐butyrobetaine esters. The latter are potent cholinomimetics and may activate eNOS via acetylcholine receptors or specific γ‐butyrobetaine ester receptors. This article summarizes known pharmacological effects of mildronate, its pharmacokinetics, toxicology, as well as the proposed mechanisms of action.
Molecular genetic analysis of the BRCA2 tumor suppressor gene region in cutaneous squamous cell carcinomas
Authors: Gray Sarah E. , Kay Elaine , Leader Mary , Mabruk Mohamed
Published: August 2010

Background:  Germ line mutations of the BRCA2 tumor suppressor gene with subsequent loss of the remaining wild‐type BRCA2 allele have been identified in up to 35% of familial breast cancer cases. A high frequency of allelic loss at the BRCA2 gene locus has also been reported in a variety of sporadic epithelial tumors including oesophageal squamous cell carcinomas (SCC), and sporadic head and neck SCC.

Aim:  The present study aimed to examine the integrity of the BRCA2 gene in cutaneous SCC.

Materials and methods:  Allelic imbalance/loss of heterozygosity (AI/LOH) was examined in 22 histologically confirmed cutaneous SCC at two microsatellite markers, D13S260 (centromeric to the BRCA2 gene) and D13S267 (telomeric to the BRCA2 gene). Immunohistochemical analysis of BRCA2 protein expression was also examined in the cutaneous SCC.

Results:  AI/LOH at the D13S260 locus was found in eight of the 19 informative SCC, and AI/LOH at the D13S267 locus was found in 12 of the 18 informative SCC. Seven SCC showed allelic loss at both markers, and six SCC showed retention of heterozygosity at both markers. Expression of BRCA2 protein was only detected in six of the normal epidermises and three of the 21 SCC examined.

Conclusion:  AI/LOH of the BRCA2 gene region was found to be common in the cutaneous SCC.
Proteolysis of Pseudomonas exotoxin A within hepatic endosomes by cathepsins B and D produces fragments displaying in vitro ADP‐ribosylating and apoptotic effects
Authors: El Hage Tatiana , Lorin Séverine , Decottignies Paulette , Djavaheri‐Mergny Mojgan , Authier François
Published: August 2010

To assess Pseudomonas exotoxin A (ETA) compartmentalization, processing and cytotoxicity in vivo, we have studied the fate of internalized ETA with the use of the in vivo rodent liver model following toxin administration, cell‐free hepatic endosomes, and pure in vitro protease assays. ETA taken up into rat liver in vivo was rapidly associated with plasma membranes (5–30 min), internalized within endosomes (15–60 min), and later translocated into the cytosolic compartment (30–90 min). Coincident with endocytosis of intact ETA, in vivo association of the catalytic ETA‐A subunit and low molecular mass ETA‐A fragments was observed in the endosomal apparatus. After an in vitro proteolytic assay with an endosomal lysate and pure proteases, the ETA‐degrading activity was attributed to the luminal species of endosomal acidic cathepsins B and D, with the major cleavages generated in vitro occurring mainly within domain III of ETA‐A. Cell‐free endosomes preloaded in vivo with ETA intraluminally processed and extraluminally released intact ETA and ETA‐A in vitro in a pH‐dependent and ATP‐dependent manner. Rat hepatic cells underwent in vivo intrinsic apoptosis at a late stage of ETA infection, as assessed by the mitochondrial release of cytochrome c, caspase‐9 and caspase‐3 activation, and DNA fragmentation. In an in vitro assay, intact ETA induced ADP‐ribosylation of EF‐2 and mitochondrial release of cytochrome c, with the former effect being efficiently increased by a cathepsin B/cathepsin D pretreatment. The data show a novel processing pathway for internalized ETA, involving cathepsins B and D, resulting in the production of ETA fragments that may participate in cytotoxicity and mitochondrial dysfunction.
Staphylococcus aureus elongation factor G – structure and analysis of a target for fusidic acid
Authors: Chen Yang , Koripella Ravi Kiran , Sanyal Suparna , Selmer Maria
Published: August 2010

Fusidic acid (FA) is a bacteriostatic antibiotic that locks elongation factor G (EF‐G) on the ribosome in a post‐translocational state. It is used clinically against Gram‐positive bacteria such as pathogenic strains of Staphylococcus aureus, but no structural information has been available for EF‐G from these species. We have solved the apo crystal structure of EF‐G from S. aureus to 1.9 Å resolution. This structure shows a dramatically different overall conformation from previous structures of EF‐G, although the individual domains are highly similar. Between the different structures of free or ribosome‐bound EF‐G, domains III–V move relative to domains I–II, resulting in a displacement of the tip of domain IV relative to domain G. In S. aureus EF‐G, this displacement is about 25 Å relative to structures of Thermus thermophilus EF‐G in a direction perpendicular to that in previous observations. Part of the switch I region (residues 46–56) is ordered in a helix, and has a distinct conformation as compared with structures of EF‐Tu in the GDP and GTP states. Also, the switch II region shows a new conformation, which, as in other structures of free EF‐G, is incompatible with FA binding. We have analysed and discussed all known fusA‐based fusidic acid resistance mutations in the light of the new structure of EF‐G from S. aureus, and a recent structure of T. thermophilus EF‐G in complex with the 70S ribosome with fusidic acid [Gao YG et al. (2009) Science326, 694–699]. The mutations can be classified as affecting FA binding, EF‐G–ribosome interactions, EF‐G conformation, and EF‐G stability.
Mouse cytosolic sulfotransferase SULT2B1b interacts with cytoskeletal proteins via a proline/serine‐rich C‐terminus
Authors: Kurogi Katsuhisa , Sakakibara Yoichi , Kamemoto Yosuke , Takahashi Saki , Yasuda Shin , Liu Ming‐Cheh , Suiko Masahito
Published: August 2010

Cytosolic sulfotransferase (SULT) SULT2B1b had previously been characterized as a cholesterol sulfotransferase. Like human SULT2B1, mouse SULT2B1b contains a unique, 31 amino acid C‐terminal sequence with a proline/serine‐rich region, which is not found in members of other SULT families. To gain insight into the functional relevance of this proline/serine‐rich region, we constructed a truncated mouse SULT2B1b lacking the 31 C‐terminal amino acids, and compared it with the wild‐type enzyme. Enzymatic characterization indicated that the catalytic activity was not significantly affected by the absence of those C‐terminal residues. GlutathioneS‐transferase pulldown assays showed that several proteins interacted with mouse SULT2B1b specifically through this C‐terminal proline/serine‐rich region. Peptide mass fingerprinting revealed that of the five SULT2B1b‐binding proteins analyzed, three were cytoskeletal proteins and two were cytoskeleton‐binding molecular chaperones. Furthermore, wild‐type mouse SULT2B1b, but not the truncated enzyme, was associated with the cytoskeleton in experiments with a cytoskeleton‐stabilizing buffer. Collectively, these results suggested that the unique, extended proline/serine‐rich C‐terminus of mouse SULT2B1b is important for its interaction with cytoskeletal proteins. Such an interaction may allow the enzyme to move along microfilaments such as actin filaments, and catalyze the sulfation of hydroxysteroids, such as cholesterol and pregnenolone, at specific intracellular locations.

Structured digital abstract

 MINT‐7975854:Sult2B1b(uniprotkb:O35400)physically interacts(MI:0914) withMyosin‐Ic(uniprotkb:Q9WTI7),Alpha‐actinin‐1(uniprotkb:Q7TPR4),Alpha‐actinin‐4(uniprotkb:P57780),HSP 90‐beta(uniprotkb:P11499),Hsc70,(uniprotkb:P63017),Beta‐actin(uniprotkb:P60710) andGamma‐actin(uniprotkb:P63260) bypull down(MI:0096)
From Refugees to Forced Migration: The UNHCR and Human Security
Authors: Adelman Howard
Published: August 2010

Within UNHCR, there has been a shift in the emphasis on the meaning of protection. Protection of refugees is now primarily defined as security of refugees and refugee operations rather than in terms of the legal asylum process. The article examines the significance of UNHCR placing the refugee issue within both the larger context of forced migration as well as within the context of human security. The paper clarifies and documents a current and general focus of forced migration that includes the internally displaced as well as refugees and offers a framework for comprehending and dealing with the refugee problem that has shifted focus to the security dimension.
The Need for Military Intervention in Humanitarian Emergencies
Authors: Sanderson John M.
Published: August 2010

I have been a keen student of international intervention since long before my command of the United Nations forces in Cambodia. My military career has spanned much of the Cold War years and has taken me to places like Malaysia during the period of confrontation over its formation, Vietnam, Europe at the height of the strategy of Mutually Assured Destruction, and most of Southeast Asia. I was an instructor at the British Army Staff College at the time of the establishment of UNIFIL – the United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon – a serious aberration in the determinedly passive international peacekeeping approach to that time. The earlier intervention in the Congo in the 1960s seemed to have warned the UN off anything forceful in disrupted states, leaving it to former colonial powers to extract themselves from their former areas of engagement with as much saving grace as they could muster. Many of them did not do this very well.
The International Refugee Regime(s): The End of the Cold War Matters
Authors: Keely Charles B.
Published: August 2010

The purpose of this note is to present a schematic narrative and analysis of the development of the international response to refugees by states during the Cold War. The analysis focuses on the period from the statute creating the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees and the Convention on the Status of Refugees, both in 1951, through the end of the Cold War. The note supplements the analysis contained in an earlier theoretical article published in this journal in 1996 entitled “How Nation-States Create and Respond to Refugee Flows” (Keely, 1996). The views differ sharply from conventional wisdom but provide a better understanding of and an explanation for some contemporary difficulties regarding refugee and asylum policy, especially in the industrial countries, but also more generally globally.
The Marital Status of Recent Mexican Immigrants in the United States in 1980 and 1990
Authors: Dávila Alberto , Mora Marie T.
Published: August 2010

Using Public Use Microdata Samples, we analyze the temporal marriage patterns of recent Mexican immigrants in the United States, and relate these patterns to socioeconomic and political events, such as U.S. immigration reform, increasing returns to skill, and rising incentives for unattached Mexicans to migrate during the 1980s. Our findings indicate that recent Mexican immigrants (particularly men) were less likely to be married within five years of migrating in 1990 than their counterparts had been in 1980. An empirical extension further suggests that the relative endogamy odds among Mexican immigrants who migrated to the United States by 1980 increased during the next decade. Such demographic changes may affect policies involving issues such as education, welfare and retirement.
Rural Out-migration in the Drought Prone Areas of Ethiopia: A Multilevel Analysis
Authors: Ezra Markos , Kiros Gebre-Egziabher
Published: August 2010

This article presents a multilevel analysis of rural out-migration in Ethiopia over the 1984–1994 period. Using a recent household survey carried out in the drought prone rural areas of Ethiopia, discrete-time hazard models are used to examine the impact of individual, household and community factors on migration. Incorporating a life-course and the “new economics of migration” perspectives, our findings suggest that rural out-migration in these areas can be viewed as a function of individual, household and community characteristics. We find that mobility of people for schooling in the impoverished rural communities is minimal. Migration of both sexes was possible mainly through marriage, although females tend to depart their residences more than males. Our findings also reveal substantial period effects on out-migration trends.
Moderators of Stress in Salvadoran Refugees: The Role of Social and Personal Resources
Authors: Young Marta Y.
Published: August 2010

Refugee research has tended to focus exclusively on the mental health consequences of migration with little attention being devoted to factors that facilitate adjustment. Recently, several cross-cultural researchers have suggested that the growing literature on moderators of stress may elucidate why some migrants experience adverse effects whereas others remain relatively unscathed. This study examines the moderating effects of social and personal resources on the relationship between stress and subjective well-being in 60 recently-arrived and 60 established Salvadoran refugees in Canada. The participants completed a questionnaire that included scales pertaining to stress (life events, hassles, migration-related events), resources (social support, locus of control, self-esteem) and well-being (quality of life, life satisfaction). Varying results were found for both groups. For Recent Refugees, personal resources were found to moderate migration stress. In particular, locus of control buffered the relationships between migration stress and quality of life and life satisfaction, whereas self-esteem buffered the migration stress-quality of life relation. For Established Refugees, social support and self-esteem moderated the relationship between life events and life satisfaction. In addition, social support buffered the effects of hassles on quality of life. The findings underscore the relevance of integrating more firmly the study of refugee adjustment with current developments in stress research.
Immigrants' Propensity to Self-Employment: Evidence from Canada
Authors: Li Peter S.
Published: August 2010

Despite the appeal of the “enclave thesis” and the “blocked mobility thesis,” there are other relevant factors that help to explain why some immigrants engage in self-employment. Using the Longitudinal Immigration Data Base in Canada for 1980 to 1995, this study identifies characteristics of immigrants that yield a higher or lower propensity to self-employment. Descriptive statistics show that immigrants often use self-employment to supplement employment income and that the intensity and extensity of self-employment vary among immigrant entry cohorts, depending on gender, the year of immigration, and duration of stay in Canada. A logistic model predicting self-employment indicates that arrival in better economic years, longer residence in Canada, higher educational levels, older immigrants, and immigrants selected for human capital have higher odds of self-employment. These findings suggest that even though immigrants may be attracted or driven to self-employment, better-equipped immigrants are more inclined to engage in self-employment.
The Impact of Temporary Labor Migration on Mexican Children's Educational Aspirations and Performance
Authors: Kandel William , Kao Grace
Published: August 2010

This article examines how temporary U.S. labor migration by family members and by students affects the educational aspirations and performance of those same students growing up in Mexican migrant communities. Labor migration affects these children in two ways. First it brings remitted U.S. earnings into the household which allows parents to provide more education for their children and reduce the need for children's labor. Higher incomes are also associated with numerous factors that improve the general well-being of children, as reflected in various indicators including higher school grades. Labor migration also has negative impacts on children. In addition to family stress and behavioral problems with adolescents due to parental and sibling absence, migration provides an example of an alternative route to economic mobility. Children growing up in migrant households have access to information and social networks that reduce their likelihood of migration failure should they choose this alternative to the Mexican labor market. We analyze a unique data set from a stratified random sample of 7600 grammar, junior high, and high school-level students in a state capital, a large town, and 25 rural communities in a Mexican migrant-sending state. We find that high levels of U.S. migration are associated with lower aspirations to attend a university at all academic levels. We find, however, a positive relationship between U.S. migration and grades. We conclude that while U.S. migration provides financial benefits that allow children to continue schooling and perform well, it may also reduce the motivation to attain above-average years of schooling.
The Significance of the September 11, 2001 Terrorist Attacks for United States-Bound Migration in the Western Hemisphere
Authors: Mitchell Christopher
Published: August 2010

The economic and political effects of the September 11 terrorist attacks weakened Latin American and Caribbean economies, reduced employment among Western Hemisphere immigrants living in the United States, and hindered new migrants' access to U.S. territory. Thus, the 9/11 events probably increased long-term motivations for northward migration in the hemisphere, while discouraging and postponing international population movement in the short run. In addition, the terrorist assaults dealt a sharp setback to a promising dialogue on immigration policies between the United States and Mexico. Those discussions had appeared to herald constructive new policies towards migration into the U.S. from Mexico and possibly other nations in the hemisphere.

A series of significant international migrant flows in South and Central America and in the Caribbean, not involving the United States, are unfortunately beyond the scope of this brief essay. I will first describe the consequences of the September 11 assaults for U.S.-bound migration in the hemisphere, before turning to consider future social, economic and policy paths.
The Causes and Consequences of Albanian Emigration during Transition: Evidence from Micro Data
Authors: Kule Dhori , Mançellari Ahmet , Papapanagos Harry , Qirici Stefan , Sanfey Peter
Published: August 2010

This note reports the results of a field survey of individuals and firms in Albania, carried out during 1998. The surveys were designed to analyze the size, causes and consequences of emigration from Albania during the 1990s. Our results show that emigrants are motivated mainly by the ease of access of neighboring countries and by the prospect of high financial returns. Although most emigrants worked illegally and had part-time, low-skilled jobs, the majority found the overall experience positive, and the skills and earnings abroad have contributed to setting up businesses on return. These results have important policy implications for both EU countries and other transition countries in the region.
The Ties that Heal: Guatemalan Immigrant Women's Networks and Medical Treatment
Authors: Menjívar Cecilia
Published: August 2010

Using participant observation and in-depth interviews with ladina and indigenous Guatemalan immigrant women, this article examines the intricate social networks - both local and transnational - through which these immigrants obtain treatment for their own and their families' illnesses. Although Guatemalan women also relied on ties with friends, families and acquaintances to obtain a cure in their country, these ties acquire more significance within the broader U.S. politicoeconomic context that restricts their medical choices. Under these conditions, these women's informal networks become key in putting within reach a variety of treatments that include prescription drugs (obtained over the counter) and “traditional” medicines, which are acquired both locally and from contacts back home. Giving and receiving help through these social networks, however, is a negotiated process punctuated by disillusions, tension, and frustration as much as by cohesiveness and support.
Migration between States and Markets
Authors: Martiniello Marco
Published: August 2010

Liège has always been a city of passage, of migration, of intercultural encounters. Due to its location at the core of Europe and to its economic and industrial structure, Liège has for decades attracted immigrants. In the nineteenth century, migrants were coming mainly from Flanders, which at the time was an underdeveloped rural area. In the interwar period, many migrants from Poland and other Eastern European countries settled in the region. Right after the Second World War, the mining industry needed an additional labor force. It came from Italy and later from Morocco and other countries. Nowadays, refugees and asylum-seekers from Africa and Asia live in the city and in the region. Liège is a multicultural, multiethnic and multiracial society with a long tradition of integration and toleration. Of course, Liège is no paradise. In this changing city, there are serious social and economic problems that sometimes find an expression in the field of ethnicity. But, contrary to other Belgian cities, racist and fascist political parties do not play a significant role in local politics.
Assimilation, Ethnic Competition, and Ethnic Identities of U.S.-Born Persons of Mexican Origin
Authors: Ono Hiromi
Published: August 2010

Processes governing the ethnic identification of second and later generations of Mexican immigrant descendants are explored empirically using the Latino National Political Survey, 1989–1990. With multinomial logit regressions, I test hypotheses based on three contrasting perspectives, namely, that ethnic identification, or identification other than “American,” arises directly from: a) cultural continuity and a lower level of assimilation; b) an experience of ethnic competition; and c) both processes. The results from the LNPS support the view that both processes are at work. For example, consistent with the presence of an assimilation process, the chance of “Mexican” identification (as opposed to “American” identification) declines to half in the third generation and to one tenth in the fourth and later generations, relative to the chance in the second generation. Consistent with the presence of an ethnic competition process, (perceived) experience of discrimination doubles the respondents chance of “Mexican” identification. Also, a level rise in the darkness of skin color is associated with a 60 percent increase in the chance of Mexican identification.
A Long Loop: Transmigration of Korean Women in Japan
Authors: Ryang Sonia
Published: August 2010

Focusing on new women immigrants/migrants from Korea to Japan in recent years, this article explores the form of transmigratory practice of U-turnees, who have past experiences of having lived in Japan or been born there prior to the end of Japan's colonial rule in 1945 and returned to Japan around the year 1989 when the South Korean government lifted the restriction of overseas travel for its citizens. I suggest through mini life histories of five women that their lives can best be understood in terms of ongoing engagement with more than one nation-state as home. On this basis, I argue that what might look like a chaotic swirl of new immigrants/migrants is in fact not based on the discovery of a brave new world, but firmly based on family history and configurated by state-to-state relations.
The Cost of Not Being Christian: Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims in Britain and Canada
Authors: Model Suzanne , Lin Lang
Published: August 2010

This article compares foreign born Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims to native born white Christians on four economic outcomes in two nations: Britain and Canada. For Canada, our data come from the 1991 Census, for Britain from the Fourth National Survey of Ethnic Minorities (1994). Theory and research lead us to predict that, ceteris paribus, non-Christians will fare better in Canada on three of the four outcomes. In the main, however, this expectation does not hold up. Compared to their British counterparts, Canada's Muslims fare less well on labor force participation and Canada's Hindus and Sikhs less well on unemployment. Compared to their Canadian counterparts, British Muslims fare less well on unemployment. On occupation and earnings, we detect no cross-national differences. To explain the paucity of cross-national disparities, we draw on Reitz's argument that Canada's reputation as an attractive immigrant destination has been exaggerated. To explain the few differences we do find, we emphasize cross-national differences in religious discrimination and our inability to control adequately for differences in sending countries.
Mexican Workers and U.S. Agriculture: The Revolving Door
Authors: Martin Philip
Published: August 2010

Western U.S. agriculture is an industry that has shaped and been shaped by a peculiar labor policy: seasonal workers were outsiders who looked to agriculture for jobs, not careers. They did not plan to remain farm workers, and the industry and community in which they worked and lived did not see them as long-term settlers. The immigration and integration policy, in effect, was to recruit new workers willing to accommodate themselves to seasonal employment, and to avoid their integration in agricultural areas. Thus, for most immigrant workers, economic mobility required geographic mobility. However, the major policy issue is not how to enhance the upward mobility of immigrant farm workers and their children; it is how U.S. agriculture should gain access to immigrant farm workers.
The Decline of Barriers to Immigrant Economic and Political Rights in the American States: 1977–2001
Authors: Plascencia Luis F. B. , Freeman Gary P. , Setzler Mark
Published: August 2010

State governments exercise significant powers to regulate the economic and social activities of resident aliens. We review the laws of the six leading states of immigrant settlement regulating access of noncitizens to 23 occupations, updating existing studies from 1946–77. Citizenship requirements for these occupations have plummeted, a change we attribute to federal court decisions, advisory opinions of state attorneys general, and state legislative and administrative action. There are numerous additional citizenship requirements in the statutes of the six states, although these appear to be poorly enforced. The authority of states to regulate their political communities is the most important remaining constitutionally valid basis of citizenship requirements. States define their political community broadly, leading to questionable exclusions of noncitizens from important activities.
Citizenship Rights and Repatriation of Refugees
Authors: Kibreab Gaim
Published: August 2010

This article examines the relationship between access to or lack of access to citizenship rights in countries of asylum and the propensity of refugees to return. It hypothesizes that in situations where refugees enjoy civil, social and economic citizenship rights in the context of favorable structural factors — relatively secure employment, self-employment, social services such as housing, schools, health care and social security – the importance of repatriation may diminish as a viable option. In North America, Western Europe, Australia and New Zealand, where refugees are able to enjoy rights of citizenship with definite prospects for becoming citizens (through naturalization) or denizens through acquisition of permanent status, and where favorable structural factors provide for the enjoyment of a decent standard of living, they tend to remain regardless of whether the conditions that prompted displacement are eliminated. The policy environments and the structural factors for refugees sheltering in Less Developed Countries (LDCs) are the antithesis of those refugees in Developed Countries (DCs). As a result, millions of refugees in the South have been ‘voting with their feet’ homewards to recoup citizenship rights which they lost in connection with displacement and which they have been unable to achieve in exile.
Documenting and Explaining the Persistence of Homeland Politics among Germany's Turks
Authors: Ögelman Nedim
Published: August 2010

This article examines the development of Germany's Turkish organizations since 1961. These have failed to mobilize Germany's Turks around shared ethnocultural grievances against the host society. A transnational political opportunity structure, a contextual framework involving host and sending countries, entices distinct actors leading Germany's Turkish organizations to focus on homeland differences instead of common interests. In this transnational context, actors – whom I will label political migrants — influence immigrant community cohesion by using associations to pursue goals rooted in the homeland or host country. When a sending country generates contentious political migrants in an ethnoculturally dissimilar, homogeneous democracy and the hosts fail to incorporate the foreigners, infighting focused on the homeland is likely to preoccupy the immigrant community.
Migrant Membership as an Instituted Process: Transnationalization, the State and the Extra-Territorial Conduct of Mexican Politics
Authors: Smith Robert C.
Published: August 2010

How should we conceptualize membership, citizenship and political community in a world where migrants and their home states increasingly maintain and cultivate their formal and informal ties? This study analyzes the extra-territorial conduct of Mexican politics and the emergence of new migrant membership practices and relations between migrants and home states. Standard globalist, transnationalist or citizenship theories cannot properly contextualize and analyze such practices. I propose that we rethink the concept of membership in a political community not only as a Marshallian status granted by states, but also as an instituted process embedded within four other institutions and processes: home state domestic politics; the home state's relationship to the world system; a semi-autonomous transnational civil society created in part by migration; and the context of reception of migrants in the United States. A main conclusion is that the state itself plays a key role in creating transnational political action by migrants and new migrant membership practices. The article draws on printed sources and interviews and ethnography done since 1990.
The Effects of Recent Welfare and Immigration Reforms on Immigrants’ Access to Health Care
Authors: Hagan Jacqueline , Rodriguez Nestor , Capps Randy , Kabiri Nika
Published: August 2010

This study investigates the impact of the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act and the Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act, both passed in 1996, on the use of health-care services in immigrant communities in five Texas counties. The study presents findings of interviews with public agency officials, directors of community-based organizations, and members of 500 households during two research phases, 1997–1998 and 1998–1999. In the household sample, 20 percent of U.S. citizens and 30 percent of legal permanent residents who reported having received Medicaid during the five years before they were interviewed also reported losing the coverage during the past year. Some lost coverage because of welfare reform restrictions on noncitizen eligibility or because of changes in income or household size, but many eligible immigrants also withdrew from Medicaid “voluntarily.”
Disciplinary Agendas and Analytic Strategies of Research on Immigrant Transnationalism: Challenges of Interdisciplinary Knowledge
Authors: Morawska Ewa
Published: August 2010

To be successful, an interdisciplinary approach to the study of immigration and transnationalism should begin by making different disciplinary languages about this phenomenon informed by mutual understanding of the conceptual frameworks, epistemological assumptions, and explanatory strategies used in research in particular academic fields. Drawing on studies in anthropology, sociology, history, and political science, I review here these taken-for-granted assumptions about “what is knowable and how” that underlie research on immigration and transnationalism in these disciplines. In conclusion, I suggest some avenues for mutual education in different disciplinary approaches and the epistemic gains derived therefrom.
“Transnational” Socio-Cultural Systems and Ethnographic Research: Views from an Extended Field Site
Authors: Olwig Karen Fog
Published: August 2010

This article discusses a widespread pattern of migratory moves that is often overlooked in contemporary research on transnational migration. Transnational theory has successfully highlighted the significance of migrants’ attachments to people and places transcending the confines of nation-states. By emphasizing, a priori, the national, this theory tends to overlook the full complexity and meaning of migrants’ extra-local socio-cultural relations. Through an ethnographic study of dispersed family networks of Caribbean origin, I explore the wide range of migration practices in which differing actors engage and the nature of the sociocultural systems that emerge as migrants move between places.
The Second Generation in Europe
Authors: Crul Maurice , Vermeulen Hans
Published: August 2010

The study of integration processes has now reached a crucial stage in most Western European countries with the emergence of the second generation. The oldest children born to postwar immigrants on European soil have recently entered the job market, and we can now investigate their performance in both education and employment. This opens a unique opportunity to compare the situations of second generation migrants across countries. Ostensibly the children all have the same starting position, being born in the country of settlement. The intriguing question is how differences between immigrant groups, and also differences in national contexts, work to the benefit or detriment of the second generation. We discuss the first issue briefly, confining ourselves here to Turkish and Moroccan immigrants. In addressing the issue of national contexts, we focus primarily on policies and practices rather than on broad-reaching national integration models. We examine in detail the integration process itself in the context of vital institutional arrangements such as the education system and the mechanisms for transition to the labor market. How do such arrangements differ between countries, and how do they affect the outcomes for the second generation?