bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Germanic Tradition of Comparative Administrative Law
Authors: Sommermann Karl-Peter
Published: December 2020

This chapter turns to the Germanic tradition of comparative administrative law (CAL). It shows that, although the diversification of epistemic and practical interests of comparative public law can be perceived as a phenomenon associated with the processes of Europeanization and globalization, a look back into legal history reveals that essential elements of modern comparative law can already be seen much earlier. In the Germanic tradition, as in the traditions of other European countries, comparative approaches to public law in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries are of special interest. It was then that rationalism and, later, legal positivism gave rise to the first forms of ‘universalist’ and ‘culturalist’ approaches to legal comparison. While universalist approaches focus on generic legal and institutional problems of political communities and, therefore, look for common solutions, culturalist approaches emphasize the historical and cultural imprint of the law and consequently remain suspicious of universal solutions.
Democracy and Authoritarianism
Authors: Ramraj Victor V.
Published: December 2020

This chapter seeks to understand the relevance of democracy and authoritarianism to administrative law, but also to challenge the bivalent framing of these ideas that the title of this chapter implies. It therefore explores these questions first, by providing a general overview of democracy and authoritarianism as political ideas and a discussion of their contested nature, both in theory and practice. Second, the chapter considers the nature of the relationship between democratic and authoritarian regimes and both the rule of law and administrative law theory. Third, it considers three examples of tensions in the practice of administrative law that pull in democratic and authoritarian directions. Specifically, this chapter considers emergency powers and national security, evidence-based policy and public consultation, and transnational regulation and governance. In so doing, it challenges the bivalent framing of the assumption that political regimes and legal practices are either authoritarian or democratic or even shades of one or the other.
Rule-making Regimes in the Modern State
Authors: Stack Kevin M.
Published: December 2020

This chapter contrasts rule-making regimes in the UK and the US with the aim of isolating a set of principles that explain the differences in their respective regimes, suggesting a basic typology for further comparative analysis. It first charts the development of the current rule-making regimes in the UK and US by addressing the constitutional status of rule-making, the drafting of regulations, processes for engaging the public in rule-making, legislative scrutiny, judicial scrutiny, and the interpretation of regulations. The chapter then argues that the best explanation relies on structural features of these legal systems. The consolidation of power in the UK makes UK secondary legislation issued by those ministers more a convenience than threat to Parliament or constitutional principles. In the US, deliberation, participatory processes, technical expertise, and heightened judicial scrutiny must substitute for the direct political accountability of rule-makers in the UK.
Implementation
Authors: Scott Colin
Published: December 2020

This chapter discusses implementation—a key concept in the language of public policy as a field both of practice and of scholarship. The focus here is on the first-level implementation of administrative decisions and actions. The chapter aims to pitch the analysis at a level of generality such that it captures key questions and trends relating to implementation across contemporary public administration within the member states of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). But the analysis has the potential to illuminate the core functions involved in implementation and the variety in how those functions are executed in terms of levels of government, actors, and modes across any system of government. The chapter concludes with an assessment of the role both of proactive and reactive modes of accountability and oversight in supporting legitimate and effective street level implementation.
Administrative Procedure
Authors: Barnes Javier
Published: December 2020

This chapter concerns administrative procedure—the rules governing the process of decision-making. ‘Administrative procedure’ ultimately refers to a how governmental organizations actually conduct business and manage responsibilities. Today there are a bewilderingly large and diverse number of administrative procedures. Whilst the first general administrative procedure acts (APAs) focused on the so-called ‘administrative act’ (typically a unilateral decision made by public bodies), their reach progressively broadened as the responsibilities of the executive branch and public administrations grew. APAs branched out to deal with other legal acts, such as rules and regulations, agreements under public law, guidelines and administrative guidance, as well as setting general principles to which administrative activities would be subject.
Legality
Authors: Craig Paul
Published: December 2020

This chapter is concerned with the concept of legality, and its role in administrative law. Here, six views of the role of legality are examined. The first two views are foundational, albeit in different senses. Thus, the chapter begins with consideration as to how far legality may be conceived as foundational in the sense of being the meta-precept for administrative law doctrine. The third, fourth, and fifth views of the cathedral consider the way in which legality is deployed by way of contradistinction to other administrative law concepts, with implications for the structure of administrative law doctrine and the intensity of review. The respective distinctions are between legality and rationality, legality and the merits, and legality and policy. These dichotomies are explicated and subjected to critical scrutiny. The sixth and final role played by legality is as a distinct head of judicial review, as evidenced by the principle of legality, which exists in some common law legal systems, and is concerned with the way in which legislation that infringes fundamental rights will be interpreted. The principle is analysed, as is the rationale for the ascription of the nomenclature ‘legality’.
The Chinese Tradition
Authors: Chen Albert H. Y.
Published: December 2020

This chapter discusses comparative administrative law (CAL) in China. It begins with the introduction and reception of Japanese administrative law in China in the late Qing Dynasty. The chapter then surveys the study of comparative law and the influence of foreign law on the development of Chinese administrative law in the Republic of China era and after the establishment of the People’s Republic of China. Major developments in Chinese administrative law in both the Republican era and the Communist era are also briefly outlined as the context of administrative law scholarship. The chapter shows that the story of the study of comparative and foreign administrative law in modern China is very closely intertwined with the story of the development of Chinese administrative law itself.
Facticity
Authors: Daly Paul
Published: December 2020

This chapter analyses, from a comparative perspective, the law of judicial review of administrative action as it relates to factual error. The analyses is conducted in four common law jurisdictions (Australia, Canada, England and Wales, and Ireland), which have a ‘filial relationship’ as part of the common law tradition of controlling administrative action through the ordinary courts. The chapter outlines the traditional approach to judicial review of factual error in the four jurisdictions, characterized by limited judicial oversight of issues of fact. Next, the chapter describes the recent evolution in the law of judicial review of factual error. Although the evolutionary path has not led to the same destination in each jurisdiction, there has been increased judicial willingness to examine alleged factual errors in judicial review proceedings. However, the factors which have influenced the evolution of the law are different in each jurisdiction.
Reasonableness and Proportionality
Authors: Mathews Jud
Published: December 2020

This chapter focuses on two canonical approaches to reviewing administrative choices: reasonableness and proportionality. Both are addressed squarely to the merits of the agency’s choice, but the two are sometimes supposed to occupy opposite ends of the judicial scrutiny spectrum, with reasonableness being understood as a deferential standard, and proportionality as an intensive form of scrutiny. The chapter first surveys reasonableness review, focusing on the traditional Wednesbury approach and how it has responded to the challenges that have beset it. Next, the chapter addresses proportionality review. It then examines an American approach to controlling discretion in order to motivate the comparison between reasonableness and proportionality.
The Common Real-Life Reference Point Methodology—Or
Authors: Dotan Yoav
Published: December 2020

This chapter reviews the conceptual and methodological difficulties in the field of comparative administrative law. It seeks to present a new and different conceptual and practical tool for the study of comparative administrative law (CAL). This suggested methodology is based on using a common real-life reference point such as McDonald’s branches, and testing the ways in which various legal regimes apply to them in each and every different legal system. The chapter first presents the various difficulties and fallacies of current CAL research. It then demonstrates the proposed methodology and discusses its potential, as well as some constraints and problems that should be taken into account. The chapter concludes by inviting the community of comparative public lawyers to join the project of mapping the field of CAL and developing a new common legal language that would enable everyone to benefit from comparative legal research.
A Middle Eastern Tradition
Authors: Mallat Chibli
Published: December 2020

This chapter describes the Middle Eastern tradition of administrative law. It probes three comparative routes and pays particular attention to the religious legacy. In a religiously-bent twenty-first century worldwide, the religious imprint provides a distinct character to Middle Eastern law, including administrative law. From a template marked by the historical dominance of Islam derives a perceptible division between the Middle East’s personal-religious law and Western-style territorial law. This unique trait of the region comes from the place of religion as a referential system, either in its juristic tradition (halakha in Israel, shariʻa in several countries), or when religion operates to provide the citizen with a constitutional identity. Considering this key role of religion and sect in the Middle East, the reconstruction in scholarship of a proto-religious tradition of Islamic administrative law is important. At the centre of the classical tradition of administrative review stands the eponymic court (or council) known as Diwan al-Mazalim. The three Middle Eastern countries discussed in modern administrative law are Egypt, Lebanon, and Saudi Arabia.
Ethics in Couple and Family Psychotherapy
Authors: Schaer Marcel , Steinlin Célia
Published: December 2020

In couple and family therapy, the focus is on relationships, interactions, and the dynamics within the system. The therapist should strive to maintain a balanced and trustful relationship with all members of the system, and at the same time do justice to their individual wishes and perspectives. Couples and families usually present themselves with conflicts of interest that they have failed to resolve. Dealing with conflicts of interest is therefore an important element of couple and family therapy. The existing ethical guidelines, defined by psychological professional associations and medical ethics experts, are not specific enough at representing the complexities which family and couple therapists are confronted with. As an alternative to the ethical guidelines, Beauchamp and Childress (2008) have worked out general ethical principles: respect for autonomy, nonmaleficence, beneficence, and justice. In this chapter, a number of ethical problems in couple and family therapy are discussed against the backdrop of these principles. Problems in family and couple therapy can be addressed based on the question who of the system members carries more blame and who can execute more control. Four models of help, i.e., the medical model, the compensatory model, the enlightenment model, and the moral model, are presented with regard to this question. Finally, it is argued that ethical issues in couple and family therapy are relational and context-dependent. They must therefore be resolved in the encounter with each other.
The History and Ethics of the Therapeutic Relationship
Authors: Koch Ulrich , Cratsley Kelso
Published: December 2020

This chapter reviews past and present debates about the therapeutic relationship in order to draw out the ethical implications of relational practices in psychotherapy. The therapeutic relationship has been understood differently across psychotherapeutic approaches, with each tradition responding to the attendant ethical challenges in distinctive ways. Aside from practitioners’ theoretical and practical commitments, the therapeutic relationship has also been, and continues to be, shaped by broader societal influences. The chapter discusses the shifting ethical implications of relational practices, then, as situated in their theoretical and historical contexts. The historical variability of concerns raised by the therapeutic relationship requires continued ethical analysis in order to confront the diversity and complexity of contemporary clinical practice.
The Modernist Picture Book in three Dimensions
Authors: Trumpener Katie
Published: December 2020

This chapter explores the way modernist picture books reconceive three-dimensionality, and hence the book as object. Around 1900, a Europe-wide vogue for picture books (Gertrud Caspari, Andre Hellé) in which toys come to life overlapped with new enthusiasm for building block play (H. G. Wells and E. Nesbit advocate the construction of “little worlds”), toy-centered ballets, and the explorations of movement and perspective enabled by the advent first of cinema, and then of cubism. The essay also discusses 1920s and 1930s constructivist, cubist, and De Stijl picture books by Lou Loeber, Nathalie Parain, Alexander Rodchenko, and Varvara Stepanova in relationship to the emergence, in schools and art schools, of new art pedagogies centered on paper crafts, a new sense of the picture book itself as a template for future art-making, and of child readers as fledgling artists in their own right.
“Reading” The Book at Exhibitions of Contemporary Global Art
Authors: Sigrídur Arnar Anna
Published: December 2020

This chapter examines sculptural bookworks in the arena of contemporary global art. This genre has presented critics with unique hermeneutic challenges because as sculptural objects or installation environments, they typically defy one of the fundamental features of the codex: sequentiality of pages and by extension, normative reading. By presenting several case studies from perennial international exhibitions such as documenta (in Kassel, Germany) and the Venice Biennale, I consider hybrid models of “reading” bookworks that acknowledge the inherently social nature of books as migratory objects, rather than as static artworks on display. As Leah Price demonstrates, books aren’t always read as texts, but rather as participants in rituals of social exchange that “broker or buffer” relations between people. Similarly, many contemporary artists define books as dynamic vehicles that circulate between varied audiences and historical contexts, thereby accumulating, dismantling, and generating multiple meanings, formats, and identities along the way.
In the Library
Authors: Frampton Stephanie Ann
Published: December 2020

This chapter argues that the natural habitat of most books is not as solitary objects of contemplation and study, but as “social animals” on bookshelves, in store windows, and in the library. In seeking out this unfinished story about the character of books, we are led to consider their roles in human relationships. Turning to one of the most intimate moments in the ancient history of reading, where, in the opening of Cicero’s Topica, the author invites his friend Trebatius into his library, what unfolds is a story about the complex use of books in the negotiation of elite sociality at a moment of extreme political crisis following the death of Caesar. Like the best of books, Cicero’s text shows its reader what is unfinished about all of them: pointing her back to her fellow readers, to civic dialogue and learned friendship, and ultimately out of the library.
Institutional Forme
Authors: Knight Jeffrey Todd
Published: December 2020

This chapter explores prospects for a reenergized history of the book amid the recent turn to a capacious formalism in literary studies that encompasses the sociopolitical reverberations of “form” in the traditional, aesthetic sense. The chapter argues that a key opening for book historians is the new formalists’ emphasis on the organizing power of institutions, something that book history implicitly engages in the course of its work but that literary criticism too often ignores or treats with hostility. Rereading D. F. McKenzie’s paradigm-setting proposals for a research program in the history of the book and using as a case-study that most literary of institutions, the library, I advocate a turn away from the field’s particularist mantra, “forms effect meaning,” toward McKenzie’s forgotten parallel claim that a sociology of texts “alerts us to the roles of institutions, and their own complex structures, in affecting the forms of social discourse, past and present.”
An Indigenous Pipe Bibliography
Authors: Wigginton Caroline
Published: December 2020

Bibliographies help scholars find books, but are typically organized according to Eurocentric collection and publication practices. This essay explores the unfinished work of bibliography in finding Indigenous books by taking one subgenre—printed illustrations of Indigenous pipes from the seventeenth-, eighteenth-, and nineteenth centuries—and considering methods and effects of various Native-centric enumerative strategies. Pipe illustrations are a suitable subject for new bibliographic methods because European print culture firmly associated America’s Indigenous peoples with tobacco and tobacco pipes, and they are prevalent in colonialist imagery. Illustrations document real and representative pipes, and they abound as either the principal subjects or essential elements of diplomatic, ethnographic, and similar images. Indigenous pipe illustrations provide a rich test case for a bibliographic experiment that helps produce new ideas about where books have been and are, and thereby shift our sense of the relationships between colonization, Indigenous agencies, and print technologies.
Books in Videogames
Authors: Hammond Adam
Published: December 2020

This chapter argues that books and videogames, frequently presented as rival media, have much to teach us about one another. It does so by analyzing representations of books in videogames, focusing on a pair of games, Myst and Gone Home, that present competing allegories. Myst has been read as allegorizing the printed book’s obsolescence and impending replacement by videogames, while Gone Home diminished its differences from printed forms, presenting itself in allegorical alliance with photocopied zines. Working through these allegories, this chapter argues that books and videogames resist these games’ attempts to collapse the two media into one or to position them as alternatives. Indeed, simulations of physical codices in videogames can help us to understand the differences between these two media as neither absolute nor trivial. By bringing into relief their respective materialities, in particular, these simulations reveal books and videogames as distinct but mutually illuminating.
Indexed
Authors: Buurma Rachel Sagner
Published: December 2020

The index in the modern, printed book can seem secondary, supplementary, and belated today—especially if we are reading the book in electronic form. But its past seems newly relevant as we work to construct continuous histories of the last few centuries of information management. Recent scholarly work on the book index often emphasizes it as form of totalizing information control that seeks to fend off information overload. But turning to the nineteenth-century theories and practices of Henry Wheatley, Charles Reade, John Todd, and the Dodgson family (Lewis Carroll and his sisters) reveals an idea of the index as extensible and connective. This extensible index renders the book unfinished, connecting it to places, persons, and things beyond its pages. To trace its history, we must grapple with the consequences of computation’s conceptual and literal remaking of the print index.
The Date-Stamped Book
Authors: Stauffer Andrew M.
Published: December 2020

Books as objects traverse numerous chronological horizons and fitfully bear evidence of that traversal. Most printed books are explicitly marked with their years of publication, but many accumulate other dates—inscribed, stamped, pasted, or printed—that attest to their complex temporalities, their multiple mooring points along a timeline. When we study a book from a previous era, when are we? The heterochronic, open-ended book surfaces the temporal instabilities of identity. Date-stamped books give us evidence of reading practices and bookish engagements of that era, even as the marks challenge us in their laconic numeracy. Surveying various examples in which books have been annotated, augmented, or otherwise marked with dates, this chapter meditates on personal memories intertwined with poems and the date-marking by which books became souvenirs and witnesses. Such copies help us see more clearly the rich, unfinished lives of books and of ourselves.
How the Virgin Lost her Book
Authors: Crain Patricia
Published: December 2020

Traditionally pictured with a book in late medieval and Renaissance art, the Virgin Annunciate no longer reads in many nineteenth-century Annunciations. This chapter considers the fleshy materiality of the manuscript codex in the early works before turning to the book’s absence in the later ones. Mary’s lost book indexes the desacralized book in the period of the codex’s mass-culture ubiquity and widespread women’s literacy. Modern paintings of women readers and other self-possessed solitary women often share an Annunciation-like aura, offering other vehicles than the divine for transcendence. By contrast to these self-composed women sitters, Virgins of nineteenth-century Annunciations often seem over-shadowed, as Luke’s Gospel says, or just overwhelmed.
Indigenous People and the Written Word
Authors: Kesler Linc
Published: December 2020

The regimes of thought, culture, and political organization based in European literacy have been part of the destruction of many Indigenous societies. Their emergence in Europe was often disruptive, but the effects for Indigenous people in the context of colonial dominance and control were more cataclysmic. Indigenous communities continue to define new paths in literacy and electronic communications while attempting to limit damage to traditional systems. The current functions and future prospects of books for Indigenous peoples are shaped by the ways in which this past informs—and intrudes into—the present. Recent events in Canada, such as the documentation of the abuses of the Indian residential school system and testimony given in landmark court cases, provide ways of understanding what the culture of books continues to mean for Indigenous communities, what shapes their responses, and what now emerge as opportunities for future forms of Indigenous agency.
Insides and Outsides
Authors: Campagnolo Alberto
Published: December 2020

Because of the prominence of book covers, the history of bookbindings has long been synonymous with the history of bookbinding decoration. These “outsides” of books carry plentiful information, but so do their often-ignored “insides,” since bookbinding structures and materials changed with time and geography. Beautiful decorations catch the eyes of many, but binding structures can also be read as full of historical information. New technologies make old books available in an unprecedented manner, but in configurations that have mostly ignored their original forms: complete book digitization requires more than photographs and transcriptions. The digital now offers new possibilities: books can be presented in the manner of the cubist painter, offering their outsides and insides concurrently. Through digital means, books as objects can begin to be read more wholly, leading to a better understanding of the big picture of the history of the book.
The Exuvial Book
Authors: Scott-Warren Jason
Published: December 2020

In his posthumously published study Art and Agency, the anthropologist Alfred Gell sets out the idea of distributed personhood, according to which we are present, not just in our bodies, but also in the remnants we leave in the wider environment, our “exuviae” or sloughed skins. This chapter explores the implications of this notion of identity for our understanding of the codex. Taking up Genette’s concept of the paratext, it shifts our attention away from the “peritext,” the layers of framing attached to the book, and towards the “epitext,” the frames that exist beyond the book’s bounds. It goes on to show how Gell’s analysis, in licensing the idea that a text might be more powerfully present at its most distant verge than it can be in itself, can illuminate figurations of agency in texts by Thomas Nashe, John Donne, and Andrew Marvell.
The Book as Fearful Thing
Authors: Fielding Penny , Lynch Deidre
Published: December 2020

Some books seem to have the power to possess their readers. This chapter traces the figure of this fearfully empowered book in eighteenth- and nineteenth-century contexts, when such books challenged more familiar celebrations of literacy and of the press’s power to disseminate enlightenment. Using a concept of “magic materiality,” taking our cue from legends conflating the printer Johann Faust with the sorcerer Dr Faustus, we explore the association, in Scottish gothic novels especially, of printed books with fearsome potency and political danger. In Walter Scott’s The Monastery, we show, a “black book” with an eerie life of its own represents both a Protestant Bible and a book of spells. Finally, we consider a historical episode shaped by this literary phenomenon, demonstrating how over the course of the 1793 sedition trials in Edinburgh, copies of Thomas Paine’s Rights of Man came to resemble the magic books of the era’s supernatural fiction.
Tangible Burns
Authors: Carlson Julia S.
Published: December 2020

The publication in 1786 of both Robert Burns’s Poems, Chiefly in the Scottish Dialect and Valentin Haüy’s Essai sur l’education des enfans-aveugles, the world’s first book printed in raised letters to be read by the hands, demonstrates the diversity of the eighteenth-century printed book. While the poems and songs of the Scottish Bard disrupted the hegemony of standard printed English, their oral-auditory effects would not be made accessible to blind and low-vision readers in Britain for one hundred years, only after suspicions of the revolutionary-era French technology had lapsed and the Protestant control of printing and education for the blind had ceased. I investigate the tactual and hermeneutic discipline by which Scottish reformers sought to assimilate the blind to an Anglophone community represented by the common Roman alphabet, and the passing of this physically, imaginatively, and linguistically restrictive regime by the embossing of Burns’s poems in the more tangible Braille code.
State-Owned Multinational Enterprises
Authors: Estrin Saul , Li Jing , Shapiro Daniel M.
Published: December 2020

The emergence and importance of state-owned multinational enterprises (SOMNEs) has generated considerable academic and policy interest. Previous ideas around the fact that these MNEs do not possess the necessary resources and capabilities to compete with privately-owned international market players are challenged. The purpose of this chapter is to examine the theoretical perspectives and empirical evidence related to SOMNEs and to identify potential future research directions. In particular, the chapter discusses the boundary conditions that can limit what is often referred to as “the liability of stateness,” with particular reference to hybrid forms of ownership and political and institutional arrangements that exist in emerging markets. The analysis of the current evidence leads us to consider the possibility that, while some SOMNEs have become commercially competitive, other SOMNEs may have emerged with the primary purpose of extending state interests abroad.
Dynamics of Operation Modes
Authors: Benito Gabriel R. G. , Petersen Bent , Welch Lawrence S.
Published: December 2020

This chapter takes stock of fifty years of research on mode dynamics—that is, the decisions to switch and add operation modes in a foreign country—as a central international business strategy phenomenon. Numerous studies have advanced knowledge about the various forms of mode dynamics and their underlying drivers, especially regarding mode switches. However, this review of the research also reveals that understanding of the phenomenon of mode additions needs further development. The chapter proposes a theoretical framework for understanding mode additions and provides the example of modularization as an illustration of a mechanism that may help improve the cost–benefit balance of mode switches and additions.
Digitalization and its Strategic Implications for the Multinational Enterprise
Authors: Ozcan Pinar , Yakis-Douglas Basak
Published: December 2020

We have a diverse set of descriptions referred to as the “fourth industrial revolution”, Industry 4.0, or the “digital” or “new economy”, indicating that there is a seismic shift under way. Due to digital transformation arising from the combined effect of several digital technologies including IoT, 5G, cloud, blockchain, big data and artificial intelligence, companies today are being transformed, and for many, this transformation comes in ways that they have not experienced before. This may mean that firms entering new markets with digital technologies may be less dependent on mediators and be able to control the delivery of their products or services, while new entrants are likely to gain advantages from exploiting digital platforms. The chapter lays out how the classic principles of international competitive strategy are transformed in today’s markets due to digitalization and provides suggestions in terms of how firms, and particularly multinational enterprises (MNEs), can respond to these transformations.
Corporate Social Responsibility, Irresponsibility, and the Multinational Enterprise Environment
Authors: Nardella Giulio , Brammer Stephen
Published: December 2020

The conversation around the corporate social responsibility (CSR) and corporate social irresponsibility (CSI) of firms has flourished—yet perhaps surprisingly, outside of the international business (IB) strategy discipline. This chapter introduces CSR/CSI as a “grand challenge” with potential to advance the IB strategy agenda. The chapter proposes that there is much to be gained by introducing ideas from IB strategy to understand the relationship between the multinational enterprise (MNE) and CSR/CSI. Major perspectives on, and interconnectedness between, CSR and CSI are articulated. The chapter traces common themes such as the role played by the business context, paying particular attention to location and regulatory institutions in the character and management of CSR/CSI. The chapter concludes with an agenda for future CSR/CSI research in the field of IB strategy that addresses some existing knowledge gaps around the influence of the MNE on its environment.
Global value Chain Governance
Authors: Goerzen Anthony , Van Assche Ari
Published: December 2020

The drivers of economic globalization are leading many firms to disaggregate and redistribute their operations by outsourcing and offshoring. The result of the process is to create global value chains (GVCs) that are a collection of loosely affiliated, spatially distributed firms engaged in bringing products from raw materials to end use. A key insight from previous research is that GVCs are typically orchestrated by multinational enterprises (MNEs) given their control over key markets or critical technologies. Yet, very little is known about the emerging phenomenon in which MNEs appear to control production along the GVC without ownership of those assets. This is an important issue as consumers, regulators, and civil society are holding flagship MNEs increasingly responsible for behavior and performance along their entire GVC. This chapter analyzes GVC governance to highlight the fact that MNEs often require specific types of capabilities that relate to the context of their industry and the GVC in which they are embedded. The dynamic capabilities approach is extended to explore the ways and means of GVC governance by lead MNEs to shed new light on the contextual differences that influence the resources and capabilities required to improve GVC performance.
Introduction
Authors: Mellahi Kamel , Meyer Klaus , Narula Rajneesh , Surdu Irina , Verbeke Alain
Published: December 2020

International business strategy is a field where theory continuously seeks to meet business practice. Increasingly, scholars of international business strategy are concerned with the uncertainties and complexities of international operations, especially when firms commit significant resources to foreign markets. Over time, multinational enterprises have evolved in order to manage the challenges in their environments. The contributions in this volume address key remaining challenges and opportunities for the modern multinational enterprise. These contributions include refinements of traditional ideas about the role of firm-specific and country-specific advantages as well as new knowledge around how the heterogeneity observed in international business strategic behavior stems from the size, origin, governance and other characteristics of the firm. Further, we invite the reader to explore new dimensions of international business strategy, in order to understand the strategic implications of digitalization or the increased social pressure placed on MNEs to “do the right thing” and manage international operations responsibly, in ever changing social, economic and institutional environments. Each chapter provides insightful future research directions and implications for management and policy. This collection is a complete Handbook of International Business Strategy that should serve as a knowledge repository for scholars and managers alike.
A Review of International Entry Mode Research
Authors: Zapkau Florian B. , Schwens Christian , Brouthers Keith D.
Published: December 2020

International entry mode research continues to be an important focus for managers and academic researchers. When Brouthers and Hennart (2007) reviewed this emerging area of research they made a number of recommendations about how the field could be advanced. This chapter reviews the entry mode research that has been published in academic journals since 2007 and examines how these studies have addressed the issues raised. Specifically, it reviews whether (1) prevalent theories have been deepened, (2) new and different theories have gained traction, (3) new and different methodologies were applied, and (4) a better understanding of the link between mode choice and performance exists. Based on our review which builds on the findings of Brouthers and Hennart (2007), the chapter provides new guidance to help researchers understand what remains to be investigated in this important research area.
Multi-Theoretical Approaches to Studying International Business Strategy
Authors: Tsang Eric W. K.
Published: December 2020

This chapter discusses the adoption of a multi-theoretical approach to studying international business (IB) strategy. It first defines the meaning of theory and distinguishes it from related concepts, such as paradigm and model. Although integrating theories is often regarded as providing a more comprehensive understanding of a phenomenon, multi-theoretical studies are not common for a number of reasons. Taking a critical realist perspective, the chapter discusses the functions of using more than one theory in empirical research. The arguments are supported by examples drawn from the IB strategy literature, particularly published empirical papers. Most importantly, the chapter offers suggestions about promoting and conducting multi-theoretical research.
Settlement archaeology and the contextualization of domestic artefacts
Authors: Shaw Ian
Published: December 2020

This chapter explores the study of Egyptian settlements and the characteristic range of domestic architecture and artefacts found within living spaces and urban contexts. It will focus on the changing approaches to the material culture of sedentism, urbanism, and use of domestic artefacts in Egypt over the last 150 years. The main section, discussing settlement archaeology in Egypt, aims both to provide a summary of progress to date and to highlight areas of the topic that are neglected, controversial, or disputed. The final section discusses artefacts that derive from ancient Egyptian domestic contexts, with specific emphasis on the study of patterns of production and consumption and the physical locations in which these activities took place.
Seals and scarabs
Authors: Schulz Regine
Published: December 2020

Sealing and stamping was an important part of Egypt’s daily life. Royal and official institutional seals played a significant role in the administration of the state and in the hierarchical system. Seals of individual officials, private persons, and families not only marked personal property, but could define the position of the owner in the society, as well. Besides such real seals, amulet seals and pseudo-seals exist, which have no administrative function and were not made for sealing. Egyptian seal-devices are divided into two main types: cylinder and stamp seals. The Egyptians used cylinder seals since the Predynastic period; they were particularly popular during the Old Kingdom for royal, administrative, and private use. Stamp seals were developed in the late Old Kingdom. They have either a geometrical or a figurative top, and a flat bottom, which is inscribed, figuratively decorated, or ornamented with patterns. Figurative seals are either zoomorphic or anthropomorphic, and usually depict icons, such as heads or full figures; they also display motifs, particularly figurative pairs or small groups. The most famous figurative type was the scarab and scarab-related parallel types with oval bases, such as scaraboids (with figurative, regularly curved, non-scarab back) and cowroids (with cowry shell shaped back). Special scarab types with specific functions emerged over time, for example, heart scarabs, winged scarabs, or pectorals with scarab centrepiece.
Statuary
Authors: Price Campbell
Published: December 2020

Pharaonic statues strongly appeal to modern aesthetic sensibilities. In ancient times, they were a vitally important physical medium that enabled the eternal participation of gods, kings, and non-royal individuals in rituals. This chapter considers the reception of Egyptian statue forms from antiquity to the modern world, through processes of acquisition, excavation, and display. Major Egyptological publications and interpretations of preserved sculptures are reviewed, with a focus on typologies and statues as the subject of rituals. An overview is given of materials and the importance of the role of the craftsman in creating a statue. The forms and functions of divine, royal, and non-royal statues are addressed in turn. A variety of texts describe the ritual function of statues, not least inscriptions on sculptures themselves; these are an important indication of the role of statues in context.
Relief sculpture
Authors: McClain J. Brett
Published: December 2020

Relief sculpture was one of the primary methods used to decorate structures and objects from the Predynastic period through to the end of pharaonic civilization. Relief decoration might be raised, incised, or a combination of both formats. The techniques of carving in relief, as well as the fundamental canonical principles of two-dimensional representation, were fully developed by the end of the Old Kingdom and were generally maintained, though with significant stylistic variations, during all subsequent eras of ancient Egyptian history. These techniques and the chronological development of relief sculpture as a medium are summarized here.
Africa south of Egypt
Authors: Morkot Robert
Published: December 2020

Scholarly attitudes to the regions south of Egypt have changed significantly in recent decades. Despite this, the terminology of the first archaeologists persists as do some ideas about cultural and political development. Although much recent excavation has added considerably to our knowledge of cultures, their development, and range, some historical issues remain unresolved. Survey in the western deserts has revealed much about climatic changes and settlement patterns, and also challenged ideas about Egyptian activities remote from the Nile Valley.
The Aegean
Authors: Phillips Jacke
Published: December 2020

Aegeanists rather than Egyptologists have investigated Bronze Age Egypto-Aegean relations. Although a few Egyptologists consider these issues in considerable depth, a general lack of communication still exists between the disciplines. Two issues dominate research and debate: cross-cultural chronology and dating, and consideration of the imported goods and tangible/intangible influence of one civilization upon the other. Less controversial is the issue of contact routes and means, with visible remains and intangible cultural norms. This chapter concerns only Egypt and the Aegean, but they cannot be isolated from developments throughout the East Mediterranean world. All median cultures (and others interacting with them) must also be considered in any discussion. This chapter concentrates mostly on developments since 1990, when Bernal’s Black Athena volumes and the ensuing reaction undoubtedly re-stimulated interest in the subject.
Egyptology and cognate disciplines
Authors: Wengrow David
Published: December 2020

Egyptology has been described as a discipline ‘tortured by its own source material’. As a field of study, Egyptology depends on archaeological fieldwork as a primary source of data. Yet its theoretical concerns often derive from fields such as literary studies and art history, which assume certain categories of knowledge that are often lacking, or only obliquely attested, for ancient Egypt. This chapter explores these tensions in the development of Egyptology from the decipherment of hieroglyphs to the present day. It is argued that the disciplinary orientation of Egyptology can be usefully considered in terms of its changing relationship to the world of objects, and in terms of its orientation to questions of translation, broadly conceived.
The Early Dynastic Period
Authors: Morenz Ludwig D.
Published: December 2020

The Early Dynastic Period is seen as a formative phase influencing the character and shape of Egyptian culture for millennia to come. The sacro-political concept of ‘unification of the two lands’ had the effect of mythologizing transition from a system of city states with an already widely homogeneous material culture into a kind of territorial state under one divine king (Narmer) at the end of the fourth millennium bc. This set the stage for the developments in iconography, archaeology of media and sociology of knowledge that are discussed in this chapter. A formalization of iconographic tradition building on ‘iconems’ (specifically shaped pictorial motives) was connected to the sphere of rulership from the earliest periods. Additionally, the developing need for an invention of new iconographic conventions to construct and visualize a unified Egyptian identity (as well as the concept of the divine dual king) culminated in the creation of monumental art and ceremonial objects as ‘semiophors’ (‘carriers of meaning’). Like iconography, the new medium of pictorial-phonetic writing served power and articulated governmental knowledge of the elite. As a state-wide standardized system of notation and expression, phonetic writing also provided an indispensable prerequisite to organize and administer a unified territory of this size.
The Ptolemaic and Roman periods
Authors: Ismail Khaled Essam
Published: December 2020

This chapter aims to highlight some of the key issues concerning the interpretation of historical and cultural sources for Egypt during the Ptolemaic and Roman periods, from Alexander’s arrival until the establishment of Christianity. The coverage includes religion, material culture and the distinctive relationship between Egypt and the Roman Empire, and there is some discussion of the long neglect of excavations at Ptolemaic and Roman sites in past years. Key data highlighted in this chapter include the primary Ptolemaic and Roman languages and texts ((hieroglyphic, demotic, Greek and Latin), as well as the archaeology and history of major sites such as Alexandria, Memphis and Naukratis.
National administration
Authors: Grajetzki Wolfram
Published: December 2020

This chapter explores the notion of a ‘national administration’ in Egypt, from the Early Dynastic Period to the Late Period, by discussing a range of textual sources and other written forms known in tombs and temples. These studies suggest that from the beginning of writing in Egypt around 3000 bc, some form of administrative structure is visible. The supply of food and other resources for the royal palace seems to have been the main concern of the administration in most periods of ancient Egyptian history. In the Fourth Dynasty the vizier became the head of the administration. He controlled legal matters, the scribal offices and was, in the Old Kingdom, also often in charge of the pyramid building. In the New Kingdom the office was divided into two, one vizier had an office in Memphis and other one in Thebes. Other important offices at the royal court were officials in charge of the treasury, those with the granaries and officials in charge of royal domains. The Old Kingdom administration seems to be a rather loose system where the king appointed officials when needed. The Middle and New Kingdom administration shows more fixed structures.
Local administration
Authors: Eyre Christopher J.
Published: December 2020

Pharaonic Egypt, although ideologically homogenous, was never administered by an efficient or impersonal central bureaucracy. The ecology of the Nile meant that communications were erratic. Individual settlements often physically and socially isolated. Central government was small, its penetration through the country uneven, and based largely on visits by court emissaries, not local offices of central government. Local elites controlled the individual nomes. The political cycles of Egyptian history are marked by variation in their explicit declarations of personal dependence on the king. But in the face-to-face society of Egypt, rooted in local patron–client relationships, it was local headmen who mediated between the populace and the hierarchies of administration.