bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
6. Hearsay evidence
Authors: Spencer Maureen , Spencer John
Published: September 2022

This chapter, which focuses on hearsay evidence and its relationship to confessions, first considers the rule against hearsay and its application to out-of-court statements of witnesses in civil and criminal cases. It then looks at statements, both oral and written, and gestures, as well as the admissibility of hearsay in criminal proceedings under the Criminal Justice Act (CJA) 2003 and, in outline, in civil proceedings under the Civil Evidence Act (CEA) 1995. The survival of some common law rules on hearsay is discussed. The chapter also explains the legal distinction between first-hand (what X told Y) and multiple hearsay (what X told Y who told Z). It concludes by discussing the landmark decisions under Art 6(3)(d) of the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR).
7. Competence, compellability, and special measures
Authors: Spencer Maureen , Spencer John
Published: September 2022

This chapter focuses on the competence and compellability of witnesses in criminal and, in outline, in civil trials. It explains the main criminal law exceptions in relation to competence and universal compellability. It gives details on the complex and controversial position under s80 of the Police and Criminal Evidence Act (PACE) 1984. The chapter outlines the special measures directions (SMDs) available under the Youth Justice and Criminal Evidence Act (YJCAE) 1999 for vulnerable non-defendant witnesses in criminal trials. The more limited measures for vulnerable defendants are outlined, in particular the use of intermediaries. The chapter concludes with an outline of the Criminal Evidence (Witness Anonymity) Act 2008.
1. Introduction: proprietary rights
Authors: Sayles Victoria
Published: September 2022

Each Concentrate revision guide is packed with essential information, key cases, revision tips, exam Q&As, and more. Concentrates show you what to expect in a law exam, what examiners are looking for, and how to achieve extra marks. This chapter discusses proprietary rights. These govern people’s ability to use and enjoy both land they physically possess and land physically possessed by others. Whilst technically all land is owned by the Crown, holding an estate in land, and in particular a freehold estate that gives one rights to possess, enjoy, and use the land forever, is tantamount to actual ownership. The other type of proprietary right is an interest in land. Whilst an estate gives one a slice of time to use and enjoy land one physically possesses, an interest gives the right to use and enjoy land physically possessed by another. Proprietary rights can be either legal or equitable in status.
10. Co-ownership
Authors: Sayles Victoria
Published: September 2022

Each Concentrate revision guide is packed with essential information, key cases, revision tips, exam Q&As, and more. Concentrates show you what to expect in a law exam, what examiners are looking for, and how to achieve extra marks. This chapter discusses the co-ownership of property. Co-owned property is where two or more people are entitled to possess and enjoy the property at the same time. Today, there are two types of co-ownership: a joint tenancy and a tenancy in common. Co-owned property is held on trust and, since the Trusts of Land and Appointment of Trustees Act 1996 (TLATA), this is generally a trust of land. Legal title can only be held as a joint tenancy, by a maximum of four people. Equitable title can be held as a joint tenancy or a tenancy in common by an unlimited number of people. A joint tenancy in equity, but not at law, can be severed to create a tenancy in common. Disputes between co-owners may be dealt with by making an application to court. Where a co-owner becomes bankrupt, the trustee in bankruptcy must make an application to court to request a sale of the co-owned property.
4. Property Division on Divorce
Authors: Morgan Polly
Published: September 2022

At the end of a marriage or civil partnership, it is necessary to consider the practical and financial arrangements for the parties’ future: how they will share the value of the house(s), the pensions, and the savings and investments; who pays the debts; who gets personal belongings and furniture; and who has what income to live on. The law will only give effect to agreements that are objectively fair. If the parties cannot agree on a fair settlement, then courts have the power to impose a settlement on them by making a ‘financial remedy’ order in whatever terms it thinks are objectively fair. This power does not apply to unmarried couples. This chapter looks at what the court can do, the legal principles and practicalities that govern property redistribution, and some contentious issues and problems that may arise in financial remedy practice.
5. Property Division on the Breakdown of Non-Matrimonial Relationships
Authors: Barr Warren
Published: September 2022

The family home is the key property asset that most family members will own in their lifetimes. However, many people living together in a home do not give any real thought to whether the property is owned between them, or what would happen if they separated. This chapter explores the reasons why cohabitants do not often think through their entitlements to the property, and why the law has been slow to provide redress to them. It considers the rules applicable to the application of trusts and proprietary estoppel to aid cohabitants, as well as critiques them. It also examines the practical impact of the remedies provided by outlining what happens when property is to be sold. Finally, it considers the many attempts at law reform and why they have, to date, failed to reach the statute books.
9. Private Child Law
Authors: Newnham Annika
Published: September 2022

This chapter looks at the law used to resolve disputes about where children should live, who they should have contact with, or other disputes about issues like a choice of school or a child’s religion. The Children Act 1989 is the main piece of legislation and its first principle in section 1(1) is that disputes must be decided by focusing on what will be best for the child. The majority of such disputes are between two parents, but they can also involve relatives. The court has to look at any alleged risks such as domestic abuse or parental neglect, and balance these against the benefits that spending time with a parent can bring to children.
11. Adoption and Special Guardianship
Authors: Doughty Julie
Published: September 2022

Adoption and special guardianship are two options to provide secure family homes for children who have been made subject to care orders and cannot return to their parents. The legal processes for adoption are complex and designed to meet children’s welfare needs while respecting the rights of adults. However, adoption is controversial, especially when courts override birth parents’ objections. Children often require ongoing support because of their experiences in early life and potential issues of post-placement contact with birth families. Fixed boundaries between state intervention and private family life in adoption can no longer be assumed.
3. An introduction to the law of agency
Authors: Baskind Eric , Osborne Greg , Roach Lee
Published: September 2022

This chapter discusses the law of agency, which is a complex, subtle, and often misunderstood subject. Understanding it is, however, important, especially given the extent to which it can affect commercial and other areas of the law. It has also been established that, for many businesses, the use of agents is invaluable, and significant areas of commercial activity could not continue without the existence of agency. Several basic foundation issues relating to the law of agency, such as the sources of agency law and the various types of agent that exist, are discussed here. The chapter begins by determining the legal meaning of ‘agency’. Unfortunately, whilst many definitions of agency exist, the concept is ‘notoriously slippery and difficult to define’, according to Bowstead and Reynolds. The chapter also looks at the various forms of agent, including the development of the commercial agent.
9. Termination of agency
Authors: Baskind Eric , Osborne Greg , Roach Lee
Published: September 2022

This chapter discusses the various methods by which the authority of an agent can be terminated according to the law of agency. Numerous such methods exist, but they can be loosely organized into two distinct categories: first, termination by an act of the parties; second, termination by operation of the law. An agent’s authority may be terminated by the act of one or both of the parties. It should be noted that, whilst the acts discussed in the chapter will usually terminate the agent’s actual authority, the facts of the case might lead the court to conclude that the agent still has apparent authority to act on behalf of the principal.
11. The transfer of property and risk
Authors: Baskind Eric , Osborne Greg , Roach Lee
Published: September 2022

This chapter discusses the transfer of property between seller and buyer, and considers the passing of risk. The general rule about risk is that unless the parties have otherwise agreed, risk passes with property, although the position is different when the buyer deals as consumer. With regard to payment, unless otherwise agreed, the seller may only sue the buyer for the price once property in the goods has passed, and, if either the seller or the buyer becomes insolvent, then the rights of the other non-insolvent party may depend on whether or not property in the goods has passed to the buyer. Furthermore, although subject to a number of exceptions, unless the buyer has acquired ownership in the goods, he cannot transfer that ownership to another party.
12. The transfer of title by a non-owner
Authors: Baskind Eric , Osborne Greg , Roach Lee
Published: September 2022

This chapter considers the various circumstances in which a buyer may become the owner of the goods, notwithstanding that the seller is neither the owner of them, nor sold them with the owner’s consent. In the chapter, disputes concern not the seller but the owner of the goods and the buyer. The chapter presents a case that provides an example of the sort of problems which can arise in such disputes. A common theme in these types of cases is dishonesty, whereby the court will have to decide which of two innocent parties should suffer due to the dishonesty of another. This can arise in many different situations, such as where an innocent buyer buys goods from a seller who turns out to have stolen them or where a person obtains goods on hire purchase and dishonestly sells them before they have been paid for.
19. An introduction to international sales and documentation
Authors: Baskind Eric , Osborne Greg , Roach Lee
Published: September 2022

This chapter identifies what amounts to an international sale, discusses the ways in which the nature of the law of international sales of goods differs from domestic sales, and explores how documents are used to deal with some of the legal risks associated with contracts involving international deliveries. It then looks at a typical international sale in outline, before focusing in detail on how the bill of lading, perhaps the most characteristic document used in international sales, operates. In this way the chapter introduces the concept of the documentary sale, where the mechanics of the completion of a sale is effected by delivery of documents both by the seller, with documents relating to the goods, and by the buyer, with documents representing payment.
20. International trade terms
Authors: Baskind Eric , Osborne Greg , Roach Lee
Published: September 2022

This chapter begins with an introduction to trade terms, before discussing in detail Fob and Cif contracts at common law, with a specific focus on the passing of property and risk in the goods, It concludes with a look at the attempts by the International Chamber of Commerce to standardize and clarify the meaning of these terms. Trade terms provide a mechanism whereby buyers and sellers of goods can conveniently express their intentions. Typically, so far as the parties are concerned, the key issue is the allocation of the cost of transportation of the goods from the seller to the buyer, but to the lawyer, more important are the issues of when risk and property in the goods pass, and when delivery is made.
24. Documentary payments
Authors: Baskind Eric , Osborne Greg , Roach Lee
Published: September 2022

This chapter is divided into two main parts. First, it aims to provide an introduction to the concept of an important piece of property called an instrument, principally by focusing on one specific example: the bill of exchange. Second, the chapter considers a bank payment mechanism called the letter of credit, especially in conjunction with bills of exchange. Bills of exchange, of which cheques are a particular type, although declining in importance in domestic sales, remain important in international sales. While bills of exchange are not the only instruments, and letters of credit are not the only mechanism supporting the financing of international trade, focusing on these two important commercial documents makes it possible to obtain a good understanding of the types of legal issues involved in documentary payments.
25. Security interests in property
Authors: Baskind Eric , Osborne Greg , Roach Lee
Published: September 2022

This chapter is concerned with limited rights over property that enable a person who is owed a personal obligation by someone with ownership of an asset to exercise powers over that asset, should the personal obligation not be fulfilled. These limited rights are known as ‘security interests’—their effect is to provide additional remedies in the event of breach of the personal obligation and so make performance more secure. The chapter deals first with possessory securities like pledges and liens where the person taking the security has physical or constructive possession of the secured assets. It then goes on to consider non-possessory securities like mortgages and charges, showing the differences between the two and considering both fixed and floating charges.
Additional Chapter Principles of Insurance Law
Authors: Baskind Eric , Osborne Greg , Roach Lee
Published: September 2022

Put broadly, insurance is a contractual process whereby risk is transferred from a person who might incur a loss to an insurer. Whilst insurance law is at root merely an example of applied contract, in fact it has some unique characteristics and practices and a terminology all of its own. In this chapter we will consider the key characteristics of insurance law. After examining the meaning of insurance, including the concepts of indemnity and insurable interest in liability and property insurance, we move to the structure of insurance policies. The ways the courts have interpreted insurance wordings and insurance warranties, conditions precedent, and basis of the contract clauses are dealt with before the extensive reforms wrought by the Insurance Act 2015 are introduced. Insurance policies, even so-called all risks policies, do not cover all causes of loss which an insured might suffer, so the concept of causation in insurance is particularly important and this is dealt with next. The chapter closes by reviewing insurance claims, including the effect of fraudulent claims, how the level of disclosure expected of an insured is far higher than in a non-insurance context, and how these issues have been the subject of substantial reform under the newInsurance Act.
1. Introduction
Authors: Roach Lee
Published: September 2022

This introductory chapter provides an overview of the aims of company law and governance. Company law should hold companies and directors to account, be flexible enough to respond to novel and evolving practices, provide certainty, promote transparency, help to avoid misalignment of interests, promote corporate efficiency, and help avoid corporate disaster. The chapter then looks at other key important business structures. Other than companies, the principal business structures are the sole proprietorship, the partnership, and the limited liability partnership. A sole proprietorship is a sole individual carrying on some form of business activity on their own account. Meanwhile, two or more persons who wish to engage in business together can form an ordinary partnership. Finally, limited liability partnerships were created to provide suitable business structures for large, professional firms. In many respects, limited liability partnerships resemble companies.
10. Directors’ duties I: duties of performance
Authors: Roach Lee
Published: September 2022

This chapter studies the codification of the director’s duties, how breach of duty can be avoided, and the duties in ss 171–74 of the Companies Act 2006 (CA 2006). Sections 171–74 of the CA 2006 provide that a director is under a duty to act in accordance with the company’s constitution; a duty to act in a way that would promote the success of the company; a duty to exercise independent judgement; and a duty to exercise reasonable skill, care, and diligence. Ultimately, the standard expected under s 174 is that of a reasonably diligent person with the general knowledge, skill, and experience that the director has. Meanwhile, a breach of duty may be avoided if the breach is approved or authorized, ratified under s 239, or if the court relieves the director of liability under s 1157.
12. Vacation of office and disqualification
Authors: Roach Lee
Published: September 2022

This chapter looks at the various ways in which a director can cease to be a director: resignation; vacation of office in accordance with the articles; retirement by rotation; removal; and disqualification. A director can resign at any time by giving notice to the company, which must accept their resignation. A company’s articles can specify what circumstances will cause a director to vacate office, as well as requiring its directors to periodically vacate office and, if they so wish, seek re-election. Section 168 of the Companies Act 2006 (CA 2006) provides that a director can be removed from office by a company passing an ordinary resolution at a meeting. Meanwhile, under the Company Directors Disqualification Act 1986, a director can be disqualified from acting as a director, either by the court imposing a disqualification order or by the Secretary of State accepting a disqualification undertaking from the director in question.
12. The creation of agency and the agent’s authority
Authors: Baskind Eric
Published: September 2022

Each Concentrate revision guide is packed with essential information, key cases, revision tips, exam Q&As, and more. Concentrates show you what to expect in a law exam, what examiners are looking for, and how to achieve extra marks. This chapter focuses on the creation of agency and its three main parties: the agent, the principal, and the third party. The primary purpose of the agent is to bring the principal and the third party into direct contractual relations, with the principal taking on the rights and liabilities created by the contracts, provided the agent had authority to act. The chapter looks at several kinds of agent’s authority, including actual authority, apparent authority, and usual authority, and also considers agency of necessity as well as cases where the principal may ratify a transaction.
6. Freedom from Torture and Inhuman and Degrading Treatment
Authors: Foster Dr Steve
Published: September 2022

The Concentrate Questions and Answers series offers the best preparation for tackling exam questions. Each book includes typical questions, diagram answer plans, caution advice, suggested answers, illustrative diagrams and flowcharts, and advice on gaining extra marks. Concentrate Q&A Human Rights & Civil Liberties offers expert advice on what to expect from your human rights and civil liberties exam, how best to prepare, and guidance on what examiners are really looking for. Written by experienced examiners, it provides: clear commentary with each question and answer; bullet point and diagram answer plans; tips to make your answer really stand out from the crowd; and further reading suggestions at the end of every chapter. The book should help you to: identify typical law exam questions; structure a first-class answer; avoid common mistakes; show the examiner what you know; all making your answer stand out from the crowd. This chapter covers the area of torture and inhuman and degrading treatment, including the meaning of those terms and the application of this protection in the context of prisoners’ rights and deportation.
10. Freedom of Expression
Authors: Foster Dr Steve
Published: September 2022

The Concentrate Questions and Answers series offers the best preparation for tackling exam questions. Each book includes typical questions, diagram answer plans, caution advice, suggested answers, illustrative diagrams and flowcharts, and advice on gaining extra marks. Concentrate Q&A Human Rights & Civil Liberties offers expert advice on what to expect from your human rights and civil liberties exam, how best to prepare, and guidance on what examiners are really looking for. Written by experienced examiners, it provides: clear commentary with each question and answer; bullet point and diagram answer plans; tips to make your answer really stand out from the crowd; and further reading suggestions at the end of every chapter. The book should help you to: identify typical law exam questions; structure a first-class answer; avoid common mistakes; show the examiner what you know; all making your answer stand out from the crowd. This chapter covers freedom of speech and expression, including the scope of free speech and expression, its protection in domestic law and under the ECHR, and its application to areas such as public order, national security contempt of court, press freedom, and defamation law.
12. Skills for Success in Coursework Assessments
Authors: Foster Dr Steve
Published: September 2022

The Concentrate Questions and Answers series offers the best preparation for tackling exam questions. Each book includes typical questions, diagram answer plans, caution advice, suggested answers, illustrative diagrams and flowcharts, and advice on gaining extra marks. Concentrate Q&A Human Rights & Civil Liberties offers expert advice on what to expect from your human rights and civil liberties exam, how best to prepare, and guidance on what examiners are really looking for. Written by experienced examiners, it provides: clear commentary with each question and answer; bullet point and diagram answer plans; tips to make your answer really stand out from the crowd; and further reading suggestions at the end of every chapter. The book should help you to: identify typical law exam questions; structure a first-class answer; avoid common mistakes; show the examiner what you know; all making your answer stand out from the crowd. This chapter covers the skills required from students when completing assessments, including how to achieve success and high marks. It highlights the approach that needs to be taken when writing coursework in this legal area. The need for logical structured answers is also stressed. A coursework example question, with accompanying answer guidance, is also available.
6. Family Property
Authors: Gaffney-Rhys Ruth
Published: September 2022

The Concentrate Questions and Answers series offers the best preparation for tackling exam and assignment questions. Each book includes key debates, typical questions, diagram answer plans, suggested answers, author commentary, and tips to gain extra marks. This chapter focuses on family property, both real and personal, the difference between legal and beneficial ownership of real property, and ownership of personal property in bank accounts. The rights arising from cohabitation are also discussed and compared to rights arising from marriage. The first question is a problem question concerning an unmarried couple who have separated, whilst the second is an essay question on property registered in joint names.
14. Bribery and Money Laundering
Authors: Horder Jeremy
Published: September 2022

This chapter provides a guide to the offences of bribery under the Bribery Act 2010, and to criminal offences of money laundering contrary to the Proceeds of Crime Act 2002. The chapter is focused on corporate activity in relation to these crimes, and builds on the analysis provided in Chapter 11. There is no doubting the financial significance of these crimes. The European Union Parliament has estimated that corruption costs the EU between €179 and €990 billion each year. The Home Office estimates that the impact of money laundering on the UK economy is likely to exceed £90 billion.
3. Factors Influencing the Selection of an ADR Option
Authors: Blake Susan , Browne Julie , Sime Stuart
Published: September 2022

This chapter identifies the factors influencing the selection of an alternative dispute resolution (ADR) option. A lawyer has a general professional duty to give legal advice on ADR options, and there are identifiable points in a case and in litigation where this is particularly important. It is good practice to have a coherent strategy as regards potential use of ADR to resolve a dispute. There are many factors that may be relevant to the use of ADR, and to which form of ADR is most appropriate, including cost, the nature of the dispute, and the objectives of the parties. It is important to select the ones relevant to each case. The chapter then considers the various concerns which may be expressed in relation to ADR, as well as the various ways to encourage a reluctant opponent to use ADR.
12. Preparing for Negotiation
Authors: Blake Susan , Browne Julie , Sime Stuart
Published: September 2022

This chapter details the process of preparing for negotiation. The purpose of a negotiation is to get the best possible outcome for the client, so planning should be based on a careful identification and prioritization of the client's objectives. Context is very important and relatest o the implications of the stage the case has reached. The lawyer should identify the issues that need to be negotiated, and analyse the facts, evidence, and law to put together persuasive arguments on each issue. They should evaluate their case carefully to plan potential concessions, demands, and offers, so that they are clear what they want to get on each issue, and what the possible fallback positions are. The chapter also considers the importance of planning a best alternative to a negotiated agreement (BATNA) and worst alternative to a negotiated agreement (WATNA) to provide a context for assessing offers and the possible overall outcome of the negotiation.
15. Preparation for the Mediation
Authors: Blake Susan , Browne Julie , Sime Stuart
Published: September 2022

This chapter identifies the procedures of preparing for mediation. If the parties to the dispute have appointed lawyers, then the lawyers will undertake most of the preparatory work that is required for a mediation. A lawyer will often be required to describe what happens in the mediation process, select and agree the appointment of a suitable mediator, agree the terms of the mediation agreement, and locate and book (if necessary) the venue for the mediation. They are also required to sort out preliminary ground rules for the mediation with the mediator and the other parties such as the documents that need to be prepared and (if necessary) exchanged, decide whether expert evidence should be sought on any issue in advance of the mediation, and who should attend the mediation on behalf of each party. The lawyer who is instructed to attend the mediation will also need to prepare thoroughly for it and this will include consideration of the negotiating strategy and tactics they will employ during the mediation.
16. The Mediation Process
Authors: Blake Susan , Browne Julie , Sime Stuart
Published: September 2022

This chapter discusses the mediation process, which is flexible and can be tailored to the needs of the parties. When the mediation begins and ends can often only be ascertained by examining the intention of the parties from the facts and circumstances of the case. A typical mediation will go through four stages: opening, exploratory, bargaining, and settlement. It will take place in a mixture of joint open meetings and private separate meetings of the parties. First, the opening statement by the parties should be addressed to the other side. The mediator will then help the parties to work through deadlock in the bargaining phase. Ultimately, the advocate in mediation should harness the mediator's skills and work with the mediator to further their client's interests.
19. International Mediation
Authors: Blake Susan , Browne Julie , Sime Stuart
Published: September 2022

This chapter evaluates international mediation. Mediation is particularly effective as an alternative dispute resolution (ADR) process for resolving international disputes because it enables linguistic and cultural differences to be managed and respected to a greater extent than is possible in court proceedings. Moreover, it avoids complex arguments about which court has jurisdiction to determine the dispute and which system of law applies to the dispute. The chapter then looks at the EU Directive on mediation in civil and commercial matters, which sets minimum standards for mediation in EU countries. The United Kingdom has implemented the Directive by adding to the suspension of the operation of the limitation period while the parties are attempting mediation in a cross-border dispute, and providing for mediation settlement agreements in such disputes to be made orders of the court for ease of enforcement by enabling parties to apply for a Mediation Settlement Enforcement Order (MSEO).
22. Early Neutral Evaluation
Authors: Blake Susan , Browne Julie , Sime Stuart
Published: September 2022

This chapter describes early neutral evaluation (ENE), which is a non-binding assessment and evaluation of the facts, evidence, and/or the legal merits of an issue in the case or of the case as a whole. It is usually undertaken by the parties jointly, although in some cases it can be undertaken at the request of one party only in relation to their own case. The parties will usually appoint a neutral third party to evaluate the facts, evidence, and law in relation to the issue or case and provide an opinion on the merits. This differs from mediation, which is essentially a facilitative process. ENE is an advisory and evaluative process. It can take place within the court system, in which case the evaluation is usually carried out by a judge. Ultimately, ENE assists the parties to negotiate a settlement by direct negotiations or in mediation.
23. Recording Settlement
Authors: Blake Susan , Browne Julie , Sime Stuart
Published: September 2022

This chapter explores the process of recording a settlement, which is the final part of the alternative dispute resolution (ADR) process. It is essential that all the issues between the parties are covered in a settlement agreement. If particular issues are deliberately left out of the agreement, or are left for further agreement, this should be made clear. The normal rules of contract law must also be adhered to, or the settlement will not be binding. While oral agreements are usually binding, the risk of misunderstandings means that it is invariably best practice to record the agreement in writing. The chapter then looks at the different methods of recording settlement agreements, including exchange of letters, contract or deed, interim order, consent order, and Tomlin order. Ultimately, when drawing up the agreement, it is important not to overlook how any existing proceedings are to be dealt with and on how the costs are to be paid.
25. Construction Industry Adjudication
Authors: Blake Susan , Browne Julie , Sime Stuart
Published: September 2022

This chapter looks at the process of adjudication in construction industry disputes. Adjudication resembles arbitration, in that it produces a decision on the dispute, but one that is only of a temporary nature. The process involves an adjudicator reaching a decision very swiftly (only 28 days after appointment), with the idea being to get a decision on how much a contractor should be paid, potentially followed by a full-blown investigation through the courts or in a formal arbitration if either party does not agree with the adjudicator's decision. The underlying policy is ‘pay now, argue later’. An adjudication award is binding, but is not registrable as a judgment, unlike an award in arbitration. Instead, enforcement is through suing on the adjudicator's decision, often followed by the entry of judgment in default or an application for summary judgment.
29. International Arbitration
Authors: Blake Susan , Browne Julie , Sime Stuart
Published: September 2022

This chapter focuses on international arbitration, which broadly covers any reference to arbitration involving parties in different states. International arbitration is most frequently met in the shipping, construction and engineering, oil and gas industries, and also in disputes involving insurance, banking, and financial services. Different systems of law may govern the substantive contract, the agreement to arbitrate, and the procedural law of an arbitration. Ideally the parties will have reached express agreement on the system(s) of law governing each of these areas. If there is no express agreement on the system of law, it will be determined from all the circumstances. The chapter then considers a range of possible challenges to the jurisdiction of a tribunal, as well as several different ways in which a challenge to the tribunal's jurisdiction can be brought. It also looks at the International Chamber of Commerce (ICC) arbitration rules and the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL) Model Law on International Arbitration.
30. Arbitration Awards and Orders
Authors: Blake Susan , Browne Julie , Sime Stuart
Published: September 2022

This chapter assesses four different types of awards and orders that are available to arbitrators. Procedural orders provide procedural directions and measures designed to preserve evidence or the subject-matter of the dispute (conservatory measures) while an arbitration is proceeding. Meanwhile, interim awards and awards on different issues dispose of one or more of the substantive issues in the arbitration, leaving the other issues to be decided later. Final awards dispose of the arbitration, while costs awards provide for the payment of the costs incurred in the arbitration between the parties. Usually, once an order or award is made, it is binding on the parties. Most sets of institutional arbitral rules include provision for parties making suggestions for the correction of clerical mistakes in orders and awards. Lawyers also need to advise their clients on the meaning and effect of the tribunal's decision, and where there is further work to be done, to take the client's instructions on the next steps.
3. Corporate Activity and Legal Liability
Authors: Worthington Sarah , Agnew Sinéad
Published: September 2022

This chapter discusses how the company acts as a legal person. It covers: contractual liability; corporate capacity; agency and authority in corporate contracting; contracts and the execution of documents; pre-incorporation contracts; corporate gifts; tort liability; criminal liability; whether and in what circumstances knowledge should be imputed to a company or other corporate body; and when attribution can be denied by the company.
5. The Board of Directors as an Organ of the Company
Authors: Worthington Sarah , Agnew Sinéad
Published: September 2022

This chapter discusses: members’ rights and duties under the Companies Act 2006 and the company’s constitution; the problems in dividing power between the company’s members and directors, and the consequences of that division; the rules of interpretation that apply to constitutional documents; the practical exercise of the decision-making powers given to members, including the formalities of meetings and the possibility of informal agreements; the legal constraints on the exercise of power by shareholders; and the enforcement of the constitution by the members, and their potential use of shareholders’ agreements to achieve what they cannot achieve via the articles.
7. Directors’ Duties
Authors: Worthington Sarah , Agnew Sinéad
Published: September 2022

This chapter discusses the scope of corporate governance as a means of mitigating the ‘agency problems’ arising from centralised management. It covers: the Financial Reporting Council and the UK Corporate Governance Code and its extension to other companies; the Stewardship Code for listed companies and further related governance codes; narrative reporting forms; the role of the company secretary; directors’ service contracts; the remuneration of directors; and statutory reforms to deal with directors’ remuneration.
10. Shares
Authors: Worthington Sarah , Agnew Sinéad
Published: September 2022

This chapter discusses the duties and liabilities of the company’s auditors. These duties derive from contract, tort and statute.
13. Raising Debt Capital: Borrowing, Debentures and Charges
Authors: Worthington Sarah , Agnew Sinéad
Published: September 2022

This chapter discusses the rules which govern distribution of the company’s assets to its shareholders and the rules which ensure that a company’s legal capital is maintained in the company’s hands. It covers: controls over a company’s distribution of capital; permitted reductions of capital; redemptions and repurchases of shares; financial assistance by a company for the acquisition of its own shares; and dividend distributions.
2. Employment status
Authors: Russell Roseanne
Published: September 2022

The Q&A series offer the best preparation for tackling exam questions. Each book includes typical questions, bullet-pointed answer plans and suggested answers, author commentary, and illustrative diagrams and flowcharts. This chapter presents sample exam questions about employment status. Through a mixture of problem questions and essays, students are guided through some of the key issues on the topic of employment status including definitions of employee and worker, the common law tests for determining whether a contract of employment exists, and discussion on the changing nature of the labour market including the gig economy. Students are also introduced to the current key debates in the area and provided with suggestions for additional reading for those who want to take things further.
11. Statutory rights regulating the employment relationship
Authors: Russell Roseanne
Published: September 2022

The Q&A series offer the best preparation for tackling exam questions. Each book includes typical questions, bullet-pointed answer plans and suggested answers, author commentary, and illustrative diagrams and flowcharts. This chapter presents sample exam questions about statutory rights regulating the employment relationship. Through a mixture of problem questions and essays, students are guided through some of the key issues on the topic of statutory rights including protections regarding working time such as the right to annual leave and rest breaks, whistle-blowing, and rights regarding lay-offs. Students are also introduced to the current key debates in the area and provided with suggestions for additional reading for those who want to take things further.
1. History
Authors: Bates Ed
Published: September 2022

This chapter traces the historical development of the concept of human rights and their status in international law. It first discusses human rights on the domestic plane, focusing on the key developments since the late eighteenth century, and then examines international law from the perspective of human rights over the period up to the Second World War. Finally, the chapter considers the efforts to create a universal system of human rights protection in the 1940s, culminating with the proclamation of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948.
8. Equality and Non-Discrimination
Authors: Moeckli Daniel
Published: September 2022

The principle of equality and non-discrimination has gained a prominent status in virtually every liberal democratic state as well as in international law. However, what this fundamental rule entails in practice is difficult to establish. The challenge is to give substance to the abstract notion of equality by translating it into concrete legal formulations that clarify which forms of unequal treatment are legitimate because they are based on morally acceptable criteria and which ones are wrongful. This chapter explains how this challenge has been addressed in international human rights law. It first discusses the meaning of equality and non-discrimination and gives an overview of the different norms guaranteeing equality and non-discrimination in international human rights law, followed by an explanation of the concepts of direct and indirect discrimination. The chapter then considers the requirements for a difference in treatment to be justified under international human rights law and sets out the various obligations that the right to equality imposes on states, in particular their duty to take positive action to ensure everyone can enjoy that right.
19. United Nations
Authors: Connors Jane , Shah Sangeeta
Published: September 2022

This chapter examines the work of the United Nations in the field of human rights. Particular attention is given to the Human Rights Council and its special procedures, as well as the treaty bodies that consider progress in the implementation of UN human rights treaties. In addition, the roles of the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, the General Assembly, Security Council, Secretary-General, and International Court of Justice are considered.
20. Regional Protection
Authors: Çalı Başak
Published: September 2022

This chapter discusses regional systems of human rights protection by surveying the human rights standards adopted and institutions created to interpret and enforce human rights in different regions. The central focus of the chapter is the convergences and divergences between regional human rights systems in standard settings and institutional mechanisms, in particular, when compared to standards and institutions in place at the level of the United Nations. The chapter concludes with a discussion of future prospects for interactions between regional human rights systems, in particular, in the light of developments undertaken by the League of Arab States and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations.
27. International Refugee Law
Authors: Edwards Alice
Published: September 2022

This chapter examines the relationship between international refugee law and international human rights law. It first explains the purpose and scope of international refugee law. It then identifies the five fundamental elements of the Refugee Convention, and discusses other important parameters of international refugee law more broadly. The chapter then explores the relationship at the macro level. It analyses specific aspects of refugee law—namely, the definition of a refugee, the prohibition of refoulement, refugee rights, and the ending of refugee status and solutions—and how international human rights law informs them. Through this approach the chapter tackles several modern challenges such as rescue at sea, climate-related refoulement, and border closures of the Covid-19 pandemic.
28. Non-State Actors
Authors: Clapham Andrew
Published: September 2022

It is increasingly recognized that human rights law has to address the challenge posed by non-state actors. This chapter starts with a reflection on how the term ‘non-state actor’ is used and why it is appropriate to look at the contemporary impact of non-state actors on the enjoyment of human rights. It then recalls the positive obligations of states to protect those within their jurisdiction and elsewhere from abuses by non-state actors and how states provide for redress at the national level. In the next part, it considers the human rights obligations of different non-state actors: international organizations, corporations, and armed non-state actors.
30. Poverty
Authors: Marks Stephen P
Published: September 2022

This chapter, which addresses the challenge posed by poverty to human rights protection, first explains the meaning of ‘poverty’ and explores its relationship to human rights, development, and social justice. It also considers the context of globalization, and then illustrates the ways in which human rights concerns diverge from those of development and poverty reduction. The chapter examines how economists think about poverty and human rights, and analyses the thinking of governors of central banks and ministers of finance. Next, it addresses the convergence between human rights and anti-poverty agendas, beginning with some economic thinking that is congruent with human rights, and then turns to policies aiming to combat poverty using human rights tools.
32. Pandemics
Authors: Abraham Meghna
Published: September 2022

The COVID-19 pandemic has exposed the difficulties that states face when responding to public health emergencies. This chapter explores obligations under human rights law and health law treaties to prepare and prevent pandemics and the reasons that states have failed to meet these obligations. Next, it considers the challenges of responding to a pandemic and the difficulties of striking an appropriate balance between protection of life and health and enjoyment of other rights. Finally, the scope of the obligation to provide international assistance in the form of vaccines and other medical resources is discussed.
8. Classification of terms
Authors: Atkins Ruth
Published: September 2022

This chapter distinguishes conditions, warranties, and innominate terms in relation to the different consequences of their breach; the availability, or not, of the right to terminate for breach. It identifies the test for determining which classification applies to a particular term, relating it to the benefits and drawbacks of the condition and the innominate term categorizations: certainty/inflexibility in relation to conditions and flexibility/certainty in relation to innominate terms. The development of the innominate term approach in Hong Kong Fir is explored. The significance of the objective intention of the parties at the time the contract was made is examined with reference to key cases, such as Bunge v Tradax and Ark Shipping v Silverburn Shipping.
12. Mistake
Authors: Atkins Ruth
Published: September 2022

This chapter deals with mistake. First it looks at mistake in relation to the agreement, exploring the relevance of the identity and attributes distinction and its application in case law including the important decision of the House of Lords in Shogun Finance Ltd v Hudson. The equitable jurisdiction of the courts permits a more flexible approach and this is explored. The equitable remedy of rectification and the implications of the decision in FSHC Holdings v GLAS Trust are also considered. Second, the chapter explores mistake relating to questions of performability, often referred to as common mistake. In a situation where both parties share the same misapprehension about an underlying fact, this could constitute a mistake as to the existence, or a mistake as to the quality, of the subject matter. The significance of the leading case of Great Peace Shipping Ltd and its influence on the scope of common mistake is dealt with. The possibility of a document being signed by mistake is also addressed.