bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Antidemocratic Beliefs: A Survey and Some Explanations
Authors: Zellman Gail L.
Published: April 2010

This paper presents descriptive and analytic data about tolerance for civil liberties and dissent in the American public. Support for free speech and dissent in concrete situations is more limited than support for abstract principles, a gap explained in terms of dynamics of threat, value conflict, and cognitive dissociation. The large gap suggests that the relationship between support for abstract principles and behavior in real situations would be very tenuous. Socialization of tolerance and support for civil liberties over the life cycle is discussed, and it is concluded that few attempts are made to socialize Americans to be true civil libertarians.
Belief in Freedom of Speech and Press
Authors: Wilson W. Cody
Published: April 2010

Data regarding belief in freedom of speech and press collected in early 1970 in face‐to‐face interviews with 2486 respondents in a national probability sample of adults test several hypotheses derived from previous empirical research. The general findings were: (a) a minority of adults in the U.S. fully accept the principle of free speech and press; (b) belief in free speech and press is related to a variety of demographic variables; (c) people who label themselves as liberal, who are high consumers of written mass media, and who are more active in the political process are more likely to endorse freedom of speech and press; and (d) patterns of relationship between belief in freedom of speech and press and other social psychological and demographic variables are rather stable over time.
A Study of Student Perceptions of Civic Education
Authors: Richards Arlene K. , De Cecco John P.
Published: April 2010

Students' perceptions of high school governance are described and analyzed to provide a basis for comparing the ideals with the practice of civic education. Students' statements about actual incidents involving problems in high school governance are analyzed in terms of concepts from political science and psychology. Their statements are considered in terms of participation in decision making, dissent, due process, and equality. Their perceptions of other parties to the conflicts and of alternative resolutions to conflict are described. Implications for more effective civic education are given.
Social Policy Implications of the Inability to Predict Violence
Authors: Monahan John , Cummings Lesley
Published: April 2010

Much current social policy in the areas of mental health and criminal justice is based on the supposition that psychologists and psychiatrists can accurately predict those who will be physically violent to another. A review of the empirical literature, however, reveals that violence is vastly overpredicted, regardless of who is doing the predicting or how the predictions are made. This predictive inaccuracy has several immediate social policy implications: Indeterminate prison sentencing should be abolished, civil commitment and preventive detention should be substantially curtailed, and legal safeguards should be infused into early intervention programs.
Research Directions Suggested by the ACLU
Authors: Triandis Harry C.
Published: April 2010

Alan Reitman, Associate Executive Director of the American Civil Liberties Union, submitted a series of questions which the practitioners of civil liberties would like behavioral scientists to answer. Triandis translates these questions to researchable topics, reviews some of the literature relevant to each, and suggests the kinds of studies that need to be done in order to provide some answers.
On Justice as Equality
Authors: Sampson Edward E.
Published: April 2010

A critical reexamination of the equity theory conception of justice is presented; the alternative, justice as equality, is introduced and examined, utilizing both theoretical and empirical materials to develop the argument. The implications of these two alternate perspectives on justice are examined with emphasis on the sociohistorical roots and present support for what is presumably a psychological principle i.e., equity is the natural preferred state of human relationships. The role of social psychological research and theory in contributing to the existing system of support for the equity conception is noted, as is the potential value that derives from a serious consideration of conditions conducive to the alternative conception of relationships as based on equity.
An Attributional Analysis of Moral Judgments
Authors: Ross Michael , DiTecco Don
Published: April 2010

This paper analyzes the psychology of moral judgment from the framework of attribution theory. The relevance of perceptions of responsibility for moral evaluation is examined along with four specific factors proposed to influence the sophistication of responsibility attributions: specification, motivational biases, linguistic usage, and attributional context. In the final section, the role played by policing mechanisms in the maintenance of moral behavior is discussed.
The Justice of Need and the Activation of Humanitarian Norms
Authors: Schwartz Shalom
Published: April 2010

The distinctiveness of the justice of need and of humanitarian norms is examined and it is suggested that people do indeed sacrifice their own resources for the benefit of others without hope of external reward, motivated by internalized personal norms. A theoretical process leading from awareness of need through norm activation to overt behavior based on the justice of need is outlined, situational and personality determinants of the activation of personal humanitarian norms and of efforts to neutralize these norms and deflect the moral costs of violating them are explored, and the relationship between humanitarian and exchange norms is discussed.
Forums for Justice: A Cross‐Cultural Perspective
Authors: Nader Laura
Published: April 2010

There are persons in all human societies who have problems of debt, of theft, of infidelity, of employment, of falsification, of property. Some of these people seek to do something about their problems and in so doing use and even create forums for justice. Depending on their choice and use of forums, they may resolve the original problem or may cause it to escalate. Problems in achieving just solutions result from the dilemmas of legal pluralism, from professionalism, and from conditions of scarcity. Materials from a variety of societies ranging from simple to complex will be reviewed in order to raise fundamental issues about the direction and meaning of justice and law‐related phenomena.
Justice and the Jury
Authors: Brooks W. Neil , Doob Anthony N.
Published: April 2010

The jury has been described as serving one of two separate functions. It can be seen as an institution designed to ensure the accuracy of fact finding in the adjudication of disputes, applying to the facts of the dispute the law as given by the judge; or it can be seen as an institution which has the right to construe or ignore a relevant rule of law in a case in which its application would not be in accord with the notions of justice and fairness prevailing in the community. After a short review of some of the views taken on each of these sides, we consider the kinds of extra‐legal factors that appear to influence jury decisions.
You Can't Hack It Little Girl: A Discussion of the Covert Psychological Agenda of Modern Combat Training
Authors: Eisenhart R. Wayne
Published: April 2010

The psychological experiences of combat training may be understood as having three interlocking components: the acceptance of psychological control, the equation of masculine identity with military performance, and the equation of the entire military mission with raw agression. These processes produce individuals with a well‐honed emotional edge. The consequences both immediate and delayed of placing such individuals in a situation as ambiguous and frustrating as the Vietnam War are cause for grave concern.
Black‐White and American‐Vietnamese Relations among Soldiers in Vietnam
Authors: Fiman Byron G. , Borus Jonathan F. , Stanton M. Duncan
Published: April 2010

An anonymous questionnaire was administered to assess the attitudes and perceptions of 126 black and 359 white soldiers returned from Vietnam as to both black‐white and American‐Vietnamese relations within that country. Factor scores developed for each of these two areas served as the dependent variables. Overall, blacks, and especially younger blacks, held a more negative view of the racial climate than did whites. Black‐white relationships were reported to be better in Vietnam than in the U.S., especially among soldiers who served in actual combat. Blacks reported less negative attitudes toward the Vietnamese than did whites. Soldiers in combat (versus noncombat‐support) units perceived the American‐Vietnamese relationship more negatively.
National Loyalties and Amnesty: A Legal and Social Psychological Analysis
Authors: Loh Wallace D.
Published: April 2010

This essay discusses some of the legal doctrines and social psychological concepts relevant to amnesty. From statutes, precedents, and case law, it is argued that national loyalty is an important underlying policy consideration in amnesty. National loyalty can be operationalized in terms of attitudinal measures of national commitment. Questions of policy and research are raised concerning how different types of national commitment held by different war resisters might predispose their acceptance or rejection of an amnesty proposal.
Social Psychological Perspectives on Crime and Punishment
Authors: Pepitone Albert
Published: April 2010

This article addresses itself to the psychological basis of the legal system. The author examines attitudes toward crime and punishment and analyzes the psychological and cultural processes underlying them, with particular attention to the nonlegal or lay person (the observer). Questions of blame and causal responsibility, victim involvement, perceived seriousness of a violation, victim/offender relations, and motivations for punishment are considered. It is proposed that proto‐legal moral and ethical values function in normative fashion to determine the person's judgments of violations and reactions to offenders, and that the existence of these value sets has important implications for the legal system.
The Intergenerational Transmission of Marital Instability: Comparisons by Race and Sex
Authors: Pope Hallowell , Mueller Charles W.
Published: April 2010

The intergenerational transmission of marital instability was examined with the use of data from five surveys, four of them from national samples. Among blacks, whites, males, and females, respondents from parental homes that were disrupted by death or divorce during their childhood had higher rates of divorce or separation in their own first marriages. Except for black males, a greater transmission effect was found among respondents from childhood homes disrupted by divorce or separation rather than by death. Implications from the literature on sex‐role learning in children were examined by comparing the transmission effect for respondents who, after having their parental homes disrupted, were reared in households of different composition. The results indicated that the role model rationale for the transmission of marital instability must be elaborated before it can successfully account for the findings from existing national surveys.
In Conclusion: Threads in the Fabric
Authors: Levinger George , Moles Oliver C.
Published: April 2010

Aspects of American society conducive to separation, sources of strain between partners, beliefs and norms about marital permanence, and evidence as to dissolution‐precipitating events are examined in the light of the articles in the issue, employing the 4‐factor Kanter (and Jaffe) model. Needs and possible directions for future research and theory construction are discussed, with consideration given to social policy implications.
Symbolic Racism
Authors: McConahay John B. , Hough Joseph C.
Published: April 2010

Symbolic racism is the expression by suburban whites in terms of abstract ideological symbols and symbolic behaviors of the feeling that blacks are violating cherished values and making illegitimate demands for changes in the racial status quo. In this paper, the correlates of symbolic racism from a sample of seminary students and of voters in a Los Angeles suburb are presented. Measures of symbolic racism predicted voting preferences for a white incumbent over a black challenger in the 1969 Los Angeles mayoralty election, and symbolic racism was itself correlated negatively with sympathetic identification with the underdog and with education. It was positively correlated with Republican party identification and with measures of traditional or conventional religious and secular American values. Symbolic racism was not correlated with measures of occupation, income, tolerance of ambiguity, alienation, social rootlessness, self‐concept, or relative deprivation. It is proposed that symbolic racism rests upon antiblack racial socialization and conservative political and value socialization, and some speculations are offered to account for why symbolic racism has emerged at a time when traditional measures of racism indicate a decline in antiblack prejudice.
Dimensions of Racial Ideology: A Study of Urban Black Attitudes
Authors: Turner Castellano B. , Wilson William J.
Published: April 2010

Six dimensions of racial ideology were analyzed based on interview data from 1934 blacks in a northern city and a southern city. Blacks who favor separatism tend to be more alienated, fearful of race genocide, race conscious, and supportive of racial violence than those who endorse interracial cooperation. An orientation of suspiciousness, distrust, and estrangement toward white society was particularly evident in the sentiments of blacks who reside in a northern city, are under age 30, and have low socioeconomic status. Moreover, younger persons and males are substantially more in favor of racial violence than older persons and females. The view that less privileged blacks are more conservative in their assessment of race relations and the view that the depressed ghetto experience restricts their knowledge about and responses to racial subjugation are not upheld in this study.
Interpersonal Factors in Adolescent Television Use
Authors: Chaffee Steven H. , Tims Albert R.
Published: April 2010

An examination of some interpersonal factors related to adolescents' television viewing is presented, with particular emphasis on dimensions of communication in the family and with peers. Four specific viewing contexts are examined: with parents, with siblings, with friends, and alone. Perceptions of reality and violence are highest while viewing with parents; entertainment is associated more closely with viewing in other contexts. Examination of family communication patterns reveals that adolescents from socio‐oriented families tend to vary their viewing patterns more in the direction of their parents than do those in families where this orientation is weak. Analysis of peer communication patterns suggests that strong peer orientations are associated with conformity to peer viewing norms when viewing with friends. Measures of social learning suggest that it is greatest when the child is viewing with parents. The modifying effects of viewing are discussed and new methodologies encouraged for future research.
Politicians on TV: The Image Is the Message
Authors: Keating John P. , Latané Bibb
Published: April 2010

Potential political candidates gave live, televised, audio, or written presentations to individuals and groups under laboratory conditions. The more live and rich the medium, the more favorably the communicator was evaluated; but media were equally effective in generating agreement with the candidate's message. Groups judged candidates more favorably than individuals, but individuals showed more attitude change. The results provide mixed support for a new theory of social impact and have implications for application in political campaigns.
The Role of Social and Behavioral Science in Policymaking for Television
Authors: Comstock George
Published: April 2010

Social and behavioral science has the potential of playing a major role in policymaking for television, which involves such varied actors as the Federal Communications Commission, the Federal Trade Commission, the Congress, the public, and the television industry. In the regulatory sphere, it can provide critical evidence on the newly emerging issue of children and television advertising and can assist in evaluating regulatory effectiveness, future regulatory options, and industry practices where regulatory intervention might be appropriate. Its most significant role, however, is in the nonregulatory sphere, where the principal actor is the industry. It has had a major influence in regard to television violence and controversial “family viewing,” and it can further guide the industry by empirically testing the validity of the many self‐regulatory prohibitions applied to programming. It conceivably could also provide evidence that would help the industry present entertainment and public affairs broadcasting consistent with the public's needs, and in this area the greatest need at present is for research that would contribute to improving the service provided by national television news.
The Future of Pluralism
Authors: Triandis Harry C.
Published: April 2010

Psychological findings relevant to the concept of pluralism are examined in an attempt to increase understanding of a major social issue. Exchange theory's view of a good relationship as involving interactions consistent with expectations is applied to intergroup relations, particularly black‐white relations. Integration which is mere contact between two groups is held to be potentially counterproductive as a remedy for the inequality seen between blacks and whites, an inequality consequent to persisting exploitation by the majority of the minority group. A three‐pronged strategy to achieve additive multiculturalism, an essential step forward to a pluralist society, is advocated. The development of interdependence, appreciation, and the skills to interact intimately with persons from other cultures are the requirements laid down.
The Concept Privacy and Its Biological Basis
Authors: Klopfer Peter H. , Rubenstein Daniel I.
Published: April 2010

Privacy is viewed as a regulatory process that serves to selectively control access of external stimulation to one's self or the flow of information to others. It may be manifested by a physical separation or withdrawal from conspecifics. Privacy may also be manifested by actions that mislead potential competitors as to the motivational status or strength of the individual in question. The degree to which this occurs is often related to simple economic (cost/benefit) principles. But in each species the variables that define the cost/benefit equation may vary. Generalizations about privacy are thus unlikely to prove useful.
Privacy: A Hidden Variable in Experimental Social Psychology
Authors: Berscheid Ellen
Published: April 2010

The experimental social psychological literature addresses many issues that bear upon the behavioral antecedents and consequences of privacy. As illustrations, theory and research in the area of social facilitation are discussed; the implications and promise of the recent sociobiological orientation within psychology for an understanding of privacy are outlined; and a number of major traditional areas of social psychological interest, which have implications for privacy theory and research but which are often overlooked as privacy related, are considered. It is concluded that because behavioral questions and theoretical issues of privacy thread throughout social psychology, the development of theory and research directly focused upon privacy will enrich even well‐established areas of social psychological inquiry.
Privacy and Self‐Disclosure in Social Relationships
Authors: Derlega Valerian J. , Chaikin Alan L.
Published: April 2010

Privacy is viewed as a process of boundary regulation, controlling how much (or how little) contact an individual maintains with others. Self‐disclosure involves the verbal transmission of information. Adjustment of self‐disclosure outputs and inputs is boundary regulation; the extent of control one maintains over this exchange of information contributes to the amount of privacy one has in a social relationship. Regulation of interpersonal boundaries affects the kinds of relationships we maintain with others (as in friendships and power relationships). There also are implications for personality functioning. Reconceptualizing self‐disclosure as a form of boundary adjustment in the maintenance of privacy may provide a useful framework for integrating the self‐disclosure literature.
The Place of Architectural Factors in Behavioral Theories of Privacy
Authors: Archea John
Published: April 2010

Although much of the recent concern for privacy as a central issue in the study of interpersonal behavior has arisen within the area of environmental psychology, the environment presented in this literature tends to lack enduring properties which set it apart from the behavior to which it is presumably related. By contrast, a model of the environment is proposed which is sensitive to physical properties which are independent of normative and symbolic associations imposed by tradition. This model indicates how the selection of one's location and orientation within an architecturally bounded setting can affect both the acquisition of information about surrounding activities and the abilities of others to take notice of one's own behavior. Within this framework selective conspicuousness is suggested as the chief means of privacy regulation. Selective conspicuousness involves a trade off between the environmental and behavioral options available for concealing or disclosing information about oneself with the physical environment presenting certain initial conditions upon which behavior is contingent.
Privacy and Research with Human Beings
Authors: Kelman Herbert C.
Published: April 2010

Social and psychological research generates three kinds of concerns about invasion of participants' privacy: that public exposure of their views and actions may have damaging consequences for them; that the procedures used to elicit information may deprive them of control over their self‐presentation; and that the research may probe into areas that constitute their private space, overstepping the customary boundary between self and environment. The paper explores the psychological significance of preserving privacy in each of these three senses, the ways in which different kinds of research may threaten privacy in each case, the requirements for minimizing or counteracting such threats, and the conditions under which research representing a certain degree of invasion of privacy can nevertheless be justified.
A Cognitive Perspective on the Experience of Sexual Arousal
Authors: Rook Karen S. , Hammen Constance L.
Published: April 2010

Much of the important research in human sexual functioning has consisted of surveys and descriptions of sexual acts or analyses of the biological components of the sexual response. This paper presents an analysis of cognitive factors that affect the way in which physiological and interpersonal events are defined and experienced as sexual. Research and theory from current social psychological investigations of emotions are discussed, and the implications for understanding sexual arousal are highlighted. An analysis of specific cognitive events relevant to sexual arousal is presented, including topics such as labeling of physiological arousal, monitoring of sexual arousal cues, varieties and consequences of self‐observations, and the effects of expectations. The possiblities of gender and other individual differences are noted, and implications for understanding and treating sexual dysfunction are discussed.
Sexual Permissiveness, Sex‐Role Rigidity, and Violence across Cultures
Authors: McConahay Shirley A. , McConahay John B.
Published: April 2010

The possible relationships between sexual permissiveness, sex‐role rigidity, and violence at the societal level are examined. Two judges independently rank ordered the levels of sexual permissiveness of a random sample of 17 cultures chosen from the Human Relations Area Files. A second set of two judges rank ordered the rigidity of these cultures' sex roles, and a third set of judges rank ordered the cultures on their levels of intra‐ and extra‐communal violence. An attempt to rank order the degree of achieved masculinity content of the cultures' sex stereotypes failed because judges could not rank them reliably. Sexual permissiveness was uncorrelated with either sex‐role rigidity or violence, but sex‐role rigidity was highly correlated with violence. The results are interpreted as being incompatible with theories of sex and violence that stress a single physiological or instinctual factor. The results supported two‐factor theories which gave more emphasis to social learning principles than to physiological determinants.
Survey Researchers and Minority Communities
Authors: Weiss Carol H.
Published: April 2010

Directors of 194 survey research studies that had interviewed poor people between 1967 and 1972 provided information on their experiences. Significant proportions had contacted community leaders before beginning field work, had set up community advisory committees, and/or had hired “indigenous” interviewers. All of these procedures were meant primarily to forward the purposes of the study rather than to assist members of the local communities. Survey research has not tried hard to benefit poor people by allowing community members to help shape the design and interpretation of research, upgrading the job skills and employability of indigenous interviewers, or providing referrals or other services to survey respondents. Benefit to the poor will come through sensitive design of research in ways that avoid “blaming the victim” and that see social institutions equally as susceptible to change as are the responses of the poor, and through dissemination of the results of that research to government decision‐makers.
Social Context and Personal Need: A Study of Polish and Jewish Aged
Authors: Kahana Eva , Felton Barbara J.
Published: April 2010

The material history of a study of ethnic aged in their neighborhood context is described. As part of a larger study on service needs of older persons in a predominantly Polish and in a predominantly Jewish neighborhood, interviews were conducted with 402 older persons. Special problems and pitfalls to be dealt with in studying ethnic aged are discussed in terms of gaining access to respondents, instrumentation, and in terms of interpretation of data. Ethical issues in studying disadvantaged groups without providing services to them were of special concern. Findings indicated major service needs of urban aged in areas of housing, health, and financial needs. Similarities in service needs emerged despite cultural and life style differences in the two communities. Personal correlates of vulnerability among ethnic aged are reported.
Relating Academic Research to Community Concerns: A Case Study in Collaborative Effort
Authors: Bengtson Vern L. , Grigsby Eugene , Corry Elaine M. , Hruby Mary
Published: April 2010

This paper describes the process by which a group of minority community representatives became involved in decision‐making roles throughout five years of a multidisciplinary research project. Collaboration between community advocates and academic researchers has been rare but will become increasingly frequent, reflecting the changing nature of accountability in social science research. This paper reviews the goals of the interest groups involved and the processes by which conflicts were resolved. Suggestions are made for the consideration of social scientists who anticipate conducting community‐related research in the future.
Fieldwork in the Gay World: Issues in Phenomenological Research
Authors: Warren Carol A. B.
Published: April 2010

Field research in the gay world is shaped by two factors: the secrecy of many gay groups and the stigmatization both of gays and of researchers who study them. In the context of the stigmatization of gays, researchers must be particularly careful about the protection of respondents' identities. The literature on role playing in the field, entree, trust, and research bargains does not adequately portray the processual and problematic character of field work negotiations. Researchers cannot select and play a role, since others cast them into a variety of roles. Entree into public gay settings is easy; entree into more private arenas depends upon the establishment of interpersonal relationships. The major research bargain in informal relations is identical to that in everyday life; a mutual exchange of interest and interaction.
Nursing Homes for the Aged: The Human Consequences of Legislation‐shaped Environments
Authors: Wack Jeffrey , Rodin Judith
Published: April 2010

Current federal legislation has established nursing homes as part of the medical health‐care system rather than as community‐based institutions. The associated regulations allocate resources and provide services in a manner that emphasizes meeting the medical requirements of the individual, often at the expense of his social and psychological needs. Further, the quality of life that can be provided in nursing homes receiving public funds has been determined in large part by the kind of bureaucracy mandated by federal legislation and the supporting state standards of operations required for certification. The resulting organization constricts the range of options open to the individual in such settings, fostering psychological and economic dependency. Considerations for an alternative, person‐focused public policy are presented that would function to maintain a more optimal level of independence for the elderly.
Client Choice and Bureaucratic Accountability: Possibilities for Responsiveness in a Social Welfare Bureaucracy
Authors: Bush Malcolm , Gordon Andrew C.
Published: April 2010

In a period of increasing concern about the effectiveness and the cost of social welfare services, this paper discusses two strategies which might be thought to improve the relationship between the expected and the actual outcome of encounters with social service bureaucracies. They are client choice and bureaucratic accounting procedures. The discussion is based on data from a research project in the field of child welfare. The discussion about choice illustrates the issues of the conditions necessary for authentic choice, the limits of choice, and the corruptibility of choice. The discussion of accountability includes a description of the factors which thwart effective accounting and some suggestions for improving the process.
The Mother‐Child Dyad Revisited: Perceptions of Mothers and Children in Twentieth Century Child‐Rearing Manuals
Authors: Weiss Nancy Pottishman
Published: April 2010

While devoting substantial efforts to studying the impact of the mother‐child dyad on children's growth, development, and social and intellectual achievements, researchers under the umbrella of child development (psychologists, pediatricians, educators) have failed to explore the impact of rearing children on mothers' lives. This article examines child‐rearing manuals in America from 1913 to 1976 viewing the literature as mother‐rearing tracts which have as much to say about the lives of women as about the children for whom they are caring.
Attitudes toward Children's Rights: Nurturance or Self‐Determination?
Authors: Rogers Carl M. , Wrightsman Lawrence S.
Published: April 2010

This article describes the development of a classification schema consisting of two conceptual orientations toward the rights of children (nurturance and self‐determination) which cut across five different content areas. An attitudinal scale based on this schema was administered to 381 individuals representing both sexes and four different groups: high school students, undergraduate education majors, other undergraduates, and adults. High school students held significantly more positive attitudes toward the extension of self‐determination rights and significantly less positive attitudes toward the extension of nurturant rights to children than any other group. In addition, differences by sex were obtained toward extending nurturant rights, with females holding significantly more positive attitudes than males. Overall, respondents evidenced more positive attitudes toward the extension of nurturant than of self‐determination rights.
The Status of Children's Intellectual Rights
Authors: Bikson Tora K.
Published: April 2010

It is suggested that U.S. public education systematically denies children's intellectual rights, that the kinds of educational experiences to which they are subjected discourage curiosity, creativity, and active participatory (dialogic) learning, and that children are thereby being deprived of the right to be “autonomous inquirers in the community of inquirers.” In the case of lower status children there is, beyond suppression of desirable intellectual outcomes, the active promotion of adverse ones. More significantly for societal concerns, however, it seems apparent that for all children public schooling sanctions a conforming style of self‐presentation and a learning environment which does not and can not develop the kinds of competencies required of adults in a free society. Problems and impediments in the way of implementing change—educational reform focused on education—are noted.
Children's Rights in Assessment and School Placement
Authors: Keogh Barbara K. , Barkett Catherine J.
Published: April 2010

Litigation and legislation have redefined the role of the school relative to placement of children and the educational services provided them. The focus of this review is on three previously disenfranchised groups, the young, the handicapped, and the culturally different. Court cases as well as state and federal legislation which were instrumental in changing the decision‐making role of the schools are reviewed. Developments in children's rights relative to education are considered under three major issues: the right to education, including the right to appropriate education; nondiscriminatory testing and evaluation; and procedural protections. Implications of recent federal legislation, the Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975 (PL94–142), are outlined. The authors note that while PL94–142 is comprehensive, the manner of implementation is uncertain. The complexity of children's rights in assessment and placement is emphasized.
Social, Legal, and Political Responses to Ethical Issues in the Use of Children as Experimental Subjects
Authors: Frankel Mark S.
Published: April 2010

Given the cognitive and physiological differences between adults and children, research on children is essential for the development of diagnostic and therapeutic procedures aimed at childhood problems. But the use of children as experimental subjects raises serious ethical questions, at the center of which is the notion of “proxy consent.” After discussing the economic and social pressures which may impinge upon parental judgment in the experimental setting, the article reviews several divergent opinions on the ethics of child research. The remainder of the essay focuses on various strategies and mechanisms designed to regulate the conduct of human research and assesses those provisions concerning the use of children.
The Competence and Freedom of Children to Make Choices Regarding Participation in Research: A Statement
Authors: Ferguson Lucy Rau
Published: April 2010

The child is considered to be a person with the right of self‐determination. This statement holds that children should participate in research only under conditions of adequately informed consent, that parents must be fully informed about research procedures and purposes, but that parental consent is a sufficient condition only for infants or children without adequate capacity for informed choice. Children should receive complete explanations consonant with their level of understanding; guidelines are suggested for different age groups. Incomplete disclosure may be warranted if followed by adequate debriefing; however, deception is thought never to be justified. Special problems of invasion of privacy arising in naturalistic field studies are discussed. The intrinsic value of science is proposed both as justification and as motivation for children's participation as research subjects.
The Gay Movement and the Rights of Children
Authors: Morin Stephen F. , Schultz Stephen J.
Published: April 2010

Implications of the gay rights movement for the rights of children are examined from a developmental perspective which allows the rights issue to be refocused from one of children's rights to that of the rights of the adults that children become. Believing that a gay identity and life style is a positive option to which all adults have a right, we explore the developmental requirements for the growth of a positive gay identity. First, society and its institutions must stop trying to stamp out homosexuality through intervention programs which promote a negative (or homosexual) identity rather than a positive (gay) identity. Second, social systems must support and facilitate the development of a gay identity and life style, by informing children about the existence of gay‐identified adults and their life styles, by providing positive gay role models, and by allowing the opportunity for exploring gay feelings and life styles. The relationship between gay identity and sex‐role violation is discussed and its implications both for gay people and for the larger society are examined.
Reciprocal Rights and Responsibilities in Parent‐Child Relations
Authors: Baumrind Diana
Published: April 2010

It is objected that the positions taken by child liberators would add to the rights of children by increasing the responsibilities of their elders, and sacrifice the welfare of children to their presumed rights. To grant that children should have all the rights now possessed by adults contradicts four propositions which have gained wide popular and scientific support: (a) children undergo successive qualitative transformations requiring commensurate changes in social status as they pass from one stage of development to the next; (b) children are inferior to adults in the competencies required to survive independently and therefore require special protection; (c) self‐determination in adulthood is a product of maturation and not a gift bestowed by permissive caretakers; and (d) adult authority properly exercised in the early years is positively related to later independence. The ethically insupportable feature of the children's liberation movement is its failure to acknowledge that dependent status precludes possession of the full rights of the emancipated person. The principle of reciprocity in parent‐child relations is thereby rejected, and indeed, adults are expected to assume new duties so that children may exercise new rights.
Warning: The Male Sex Role May Be Dangerous to Your Health
Authors: Harrison James
Published: April 2010

The growing differential in life expectancy between men and women in the United States in the twentieth century is noted. Two explanatory perspectives are identified, the biogenetic and the psychosocial. The contemporary emerging analysis of the male role is related to the psychosocial perspective. Methodological problems in evaluating alternative perspectives are identified. Evidence for both views is examined, and it is concluded that the best available evidence confirms the psychosocial perspective that sex‐role socialization accounts for the larger part of men's shorter life expectancy.
Sports and Male Role Strain
Authors: Stein Peter J. , Hoffman Steven
Published: April 2010

The article provides an analysis of role strain experienced by a sample of athletes and nonathletes. Komarovsky's typology of role strain is applied to and further developed through our interview data. The modes of role strain experienced by athletes involved ambiguity of norms, decreasing internal and external rewards for role performance, structural insufficiency of resources, role conflict, overload of role obligations, and role‐intrinsic anxiety and physical damage. The nonathletes experienced role strain involving the incongruity between personality characteristics and the demands of the athletic role.
Military Socialization and Masculinity
Authors: Arkin William , Dobrofsky Lynne R.
Published: April 2010

An analysis of military indoctrination as a powerful adult socialization process is crucial to an understanding of adult male role definitions since a significant proportion of the male population has undergone the basic training experience. How the values and norms of masculinity are structured by and for the military and the ways in which they act as socializing agents are explored in a model of military socialization. Some attention is paid to the shift to the all‐volunteer armed force (AVAF) and the military as an occupation. The article demonstrates the type of socialization common to adult males vis‐à‐vis the operationalization of the prototype of masculinity.
Coming Out: Similarities and Differences for Lesbians and Gay Men
Authors: de Monteflores Carmen , Schultz Stephen J.
Published: April 2010

“Coming out” is the developmental process through which gay people recognize their sexual preferences and choose to integrate this knowledge into their personal and social lives. A number of experiences are critical in this process: the awareness of same‐sex attractions, first homosexual experience, coming out in the gay world, labeling oneself as gay or homosexual, coming out to friends, family, and co‐workers, and coming out publicly. Several areas of psychological theory relevant to the coming out process are discussed, including identity formation, self‐disclosure and self‐validation, and sex‐role socialization. In addition, differences are noted in the coming out experiences of men and women related to conformity to and violation of sex‐role expectations, as well as to political and legal issues.
Homosexual Labeling and the Male Role
Authors: Karr Rodney G.
Published: April 2010

This study attempted to experimentally isolate and determine the effects of the label “homosexual” upon the perceptions and behavior of the social audience toward men so labeled. Participants rated three different experimental confederates, each labeled homosexual in three groups and not labeled homosexual in three groups. Men were perceived as being significantly less masculine and less preferred as a fellow participant in any future experiment when they were labeled homosexual. The man responsible for the primary labeling of the homosexual was perceived as more masculine and more sociable when he labeled the homosexual than when he did not. Results are discussed in terms of the function of the fear of the homosexual label in maintaining the traditional male role.
Hospital Patient Behavior: Reactance, Helplessness, or Control?
Authors: Taylor Shelley E.
Published: April 2010

Hospitals are commonly regarded as unpleasant places to be. The reason is that, as a total institution, the hospital creates a depersonalizing environment that forces the patient to relinquish control over his or her daily existence. It is suggested that patients cope with depersonalizing loss of control by assuming “good patient” behavior or “bad patient” behavior. Predictions are offered as to who will show which behavior pattern under which circumstances. However, a review of these patterns suggests that some “good patients” may actually be in a state of anxious or depressed helplessness, whereas “bad patients” are exhibiting anger and reactance against the perceived arbitrary removal of freedoms. An analysis of the behavioral, cognitive, affective and physiological correlates of these patterns, as well as the behaviors they elicit in staff, suggests that both the “good patient” and the “bad patient” sustain health risks. It is argued that a more informed and participative role for the hospital patient can eliminate or offset many of these risks and actually improve the level of physical and psychological health in the hospital setting.
The Maltreatment of Children: A Review of Theories and Research
Authors: Sweet Jerry J. , Resick Patricia A.
Published: April 2010

This article reviews the literature pertaining to the causes of child maltreatment. The review discusses 68 articles from various disciplines and organizes them into four predominant theories; psychodynamic, social learning, social psychological, and sociological. Research evidence supporting each of the theories is described and critiqued.
The Psychological Consequences of Abuse for the Child
Authors: Kinard E. Milling
Published: April 2010

The consequences of child abuse for the emotional health and development of the child have been largely disregarded in theory, in practice, and in research. The few studies which have investigated this aspect of the child abuse problem report detrimental psychological consequences. These research findings combined with more general psychological theory and research on personality development provide a basis for predicting the psychological consequences of abuse for children. Documentation of deficits in the emotional development of abused children has important policy and practice implications for intervention and treatment.
Child Maltreatment Intervention: Directions and Issues
Authors: Resick Patricia A. , Sweet Jerry J.
Published: April 2010

This article begins with a brief review of various non‐medical intervention procedures for child maltreatment. Psychological intervention is reviewed in more depth, with an emphasis placed on those treatments which have been empirically evaluated. Finally, the article discusses methodological and ethical issues concerning outcome research on maltreatment intervention.
Post‐Divorce Family Relationships as Mediating Factors in the Consequences of Divorce for Children
Authors: Hess Robert D. , Camara Kathleen A.
Published: April 2010

In this study, the psychological structure of the family after divorce is seen as mediating the impact of divorce upon children. Divorce affects primary bonds with parents, presents challenges to conceptions of social reality, and creates stress which interferes with normal development. The effects of divorce upon child behavior (peer relations, stress, aggression, work effectiveness at school) were examined through two contrasting research strategies: 1) a comparison of the behavior of children in divorced and intact families, and 2) analysis of the association between family processes and child outcomes in intact and divorced families. Family processes examined were: (a) the affective relationships between the father and mother, (b) the affective relationships between the child and each parent separately, and (c) for divorced families, the amount of contact between child and non‐custodial parent. For divorced and intact groups combined, the relationships among family members appeared to be more potent influences on child behavior than was marital status. The negative effects of divorce were greatly mitigated when positive relationships with both parents were maintained. The child's relationship with the non‐custodial parent (father) was as important as the continuing relationship with the mother. Implications for research and for public policy are discussed.
Parental Reports of Children's Post‐Divorce Adjustment
Authors: Fulton Julie A.
Published: April 2010

Two years after the final decree, 560 divorced parents, fathers as well as mothers, were asked to assess the impact of the divorce on their children. Their responses to this question—as well as to other questions—seemed to divide into a “his” and “hers” perspective. Other variables having to do with the parents and their children, the marriage, the divorce and the changes necessitated by the divorce were analyzed in relation to these parental assessments. Factors associated with fathers' responses differed from those associated with mothers‘, but the majority of each group felt that their children had been negatively affected by the divorce.