bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF PIAGET'S THEORY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF NUMBER IN CHILDREN*
Authors: HOOD H. BLAIR
Published: April 2011

In spite of the great weight of theory and speculation they contain, Piaget's books are all founded essentially on experimental work with children, and the purpose of this study was to repeat some of the experiments which Piaget has outlined in the book on number. Piaget has been criticized for not stating the number of subjects who took part in a given experiment from which he has drawn a specific conclusion: for not giving precisely the age range of the subjects, and for not relating their performance to mental age as well as to the chronological age. The aim of this study therefore was to determine whether (a) a group of normal English speaking children, and (b) a sample of mentally retarded children and adults, would show the same general trends in development of pre‐number concepts as Piaget's subjects. The factors of mental and chronological age were also considered, as well as the relation of stage of development to ability in arithmetic.
PERCEPTUAL‐MOTOR TRANSFER IN IMBECILES: A SECOND SERIES OF EXPERIMENTS
Authors: CLARKE A. D. B. , COOKSON MARGARET
Published: April 2011

Earlier experiments tested a hypothesis derived from Hebb, that perceptual‐motor transfer would be negatively correlated with age in imbecile subjects of 9, 17 and 23 years. On four tasks this hypothesis was strongly confirmed, with the youngest showing massive transfer of training compared with the older subjects, and almost reaching adult level. The present series of experiments included tasks of greater complexity. An unexpected finding was that the younger subjects were able, after 6 months of non‐practice, to learn a more difficult sorting task more easily than the easier one 6 months earlier, thus showing the retention of learning set and improved perceptual and conceptual discrimination. Another experiment with the complex Minnesota formboards again showed greater transfer in children than in adults; here an initial average gap of 640 sec. between the performance of children and that of adults was narrowed to 45 sec. after 32 trials. Finally, after a year of non‐practice, adolescent and adult subjects were able to carry out a sorting task very much better than previously, indicating the long‐term effect of earlier learning. Implications for theory and practice are discussed.
PERIPHERAL VISION, REFRACTORINESS AND EYE MOVEMENTS IN FAST ORAL READING
Authors: POULTON E. C.
Published: April 2011

Naval ratings read typescript aloud through a window whose speed and size varied systematically in different trials. Eye movements were recorded electrically. Errors increased significantly as the window was reduced from a full line to five words, probably as a result of the tighter pacing and reduced peripheral vision. Regressions were unaffected. This is a serious criticism of reading films using windows to ‘improve’ the reading of adults.

Errors rose steeply to 40% as the time for which letters were exposed fell from 0·3 to 0·2 sec.; fixations did not increase in frequency. Thus in reading the visual system behaves like a single‐shot camera firing at not more than about five times per second.
BI‐POLAR AND UNIDIRECTIONAL SCALES
Authors: THOMPSON JOHN W.
Published: April 2011

By comparison with physics, the dynamic aspects of psychological measurement have not received sufficient attention. In psychology there is a need for categories that are fundamentally bi‐polar as well as for single unidirectional categories. The consequences are discussed (a) for the overall classification of scales, and (b) for the application of Guttman scaling techniques.
PREDICTING HYPNOTIZABILITY FROM THE MAUDSLEY PERSONALITY INVENTORY
Authors: HILGARD ERNEST R. , BENTLER P. M.
Published: April 2011

In an attempt to repeat the findings of Furneaux & Gibson, 142 undergraduate students at Stanford were hypnotized by the procedures of the Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale and a group adaptation of this scale. All subjects were also given the Maudsley Personality Inventory, including the Extraversion, Neuroticism, and Lie scales. When the subjects were subdivided into personality classifications according to the procedures of the Furneaux & Gibson study, significant differences between subgroups were found, but these were opposite to the significant differences found in the London study, ‘liars’ being below average in hypnotizability in England, and above in America, and, among the ‘honest’ subjects, Stable Extraverts and Neurotic Introverts being more hypnotizable than Neurotic Extraverts and Stable Introverts in England, less hypnotizable in America. Because of instability in successive samples in America, and some differences between English subsamples, it is suggested that elaborate hypotheses are not in order until there has been further replication both in England and America.

Correlations between scores on individual MPI scales and hypnotic susceptibility show a most unsatisfactory variation from sample to sample; hence the most acceptable conclusion must be that the MPI cannot yet be used as a predictor of susceptibility to hypnosis.
CLASSIFICATION AND QUANTITATIVE JUDGEMENT
Authors: TAJFEL HENRI , WILKES A. L.
Published: April 2011

The investigation is concerned with the effects on judgement of some relations between the manner in which stimuli of a series are classified and the magnitudes of the stimuli. It is shown that when the classification stands in a direct and predictable relation to a physical scale, the stimuli belonging to different classes are judged as farther apart on that scale than in an unclassified series. A classification which is not coherently related to the physical scale does not affect judgement in this manner.

There is also evidence in the results that, as a function of past experience with the classification, an increase occurs in the apparent differences between stimuli belonging to different classes, and in the apparent similarity of stimuli belonging to the same class.

The relevance of these findings to the general problem of stereotyping is discussed.
THE EFFECT OF IRRELEVANT CUES ON REVERSAL LEARNING IN THE RAT
Authors: MACKINTOSH N. J.
Published: April 2011

Twenty‐four rats were trained on a brightness discrimination, given 0 or 150 overtraining trials, and then reversed. For one group only one irrelevant cue (position) was present throughout the experiment. For the other two groups the reversal was learnt with orientation as a second irrelevant cue; in one case this cue had been present during original learning, in the other it had not. Where there were two irrelevant cues, overtraining was shown to have a greater facilitating effect on reversal than where there was only one—whether or not the second cue had been present in original learning.

The results are interpreted as suggesting that the effect of overtraining is to increase the probability that responses will be controlled during reversal by the relevant stimulus dimension.
PAIRED‐ASSOCIATE LEARNING AS A FUNCTION OF STIMULUS AND RESPONSE SATIATION*
Authors: KANUNGO R. , LAMBERT W. E.
Published: April 2011

Two experiments, one using highly meaningful pairs and the other using low meaningful pairs, were performed to determine the effects of stimulus and response satiation in paired‐associate learning. Results indicated that: (a) satiation treatment of highly meaningful words produces a decrease in their meaning, whereas similar treatment of low meaningful words does not produce significant semantic change; (b) with highly meaningful S‐R pairs, pre‐learning satiation of either the stimulus or the response words retards subsequent learning, whereas with low meaningful S—R pairs only stimulus satiation produces such retardation. Results are explained in terms of two factors involved in the satiation procedure: a meaning decrement and the development of a word‐word habit. The importance of these two factors for stimulus and response positions is discussed.
OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING IN MONKEYS AND APES
Authors: HALL K. R. L.
Published: April 2011

In natural groups of mammals, there is a variety of social influences which seem to inhibit or facilitate the expression of instinctive behaviour‐patterns, and indeed which contribute importantly to the form the repertoire of behaviour characteristic of the species takes. Such influences include what goes under the terms ‘social facilitation’ and ‘imitation’, as well as other terms such as ‘identification’ which imply a special affectional relationship.

From an analysis of the evidence about these influences on monkeys and apes, it is clear that negative experimental findings have often been due to the limitations of the experimental procedures, and that some of the positive findings are difficult to interpret or assess for validity because of deficient method. By and large, there is convincing observational evidence, chiefly from informal developmental and from field studies, that young monkeys and apes acquire certain basic feeding and avoidance habits chiefly by applying their exploratory tendencies to places and objects indicated in the behaviour of their mothers or others of the group.

Although, in terms of learning operations, it is unlikely that much more than stimulus‐enhancement or place discriminations is usually involved, a ‘new’ motor sequence almost never being in evidence, there is no doubt that the affectional situation of the participants is crucial as to whether a ‘demonstrator’ is attended to, closely approached, and ‘imitated’, or not. The nature of the affectional variables and their influence upon learning require extensive experimental study and analysis, and a comparison with related forms of early learning, such as imprinting, can then be made.
NEGATIVES: DENOTATION AND CONNOTATION
Authors: WASON P. C. , JONES SHEILA
Published: April 2011

The hypothesis was investigated that the connotations of the word ‘not’ affect the times taken to verify negative statements more than the function of this word as a logical constant. The task was to verify statements which asserted, or denied, that a given number was ‘even’. Two groups were used: an explicit group in which the statements were in English, and an implicit group in which neutral signs stood for assertion and denial, their functions being learned by discovering the conditions which made the statements true and false. The results showed that the difference between the response times to explicit affirmative and negative statements was significantly greater (P < 0·001) after practice than the corresponding difference for implicit statements. The introspections suggested, however, that the subjects' approach to the implicit statements was an important variable. Tentative evidence for two factors affecting the response times to negative statements was adduced.
VIGILANCE CONSIDERED AS A STATISTICAL DECISION
Authors: BROADBENT D. E. , GREGORY MARGARET
Published: April 2011

A number of experiments are described in which untrained subjects kept watch during long periods for inconspicuous signals. When they reported such a signal, they had to indicate their degree of confidence that the report was correct. By analysing the accuracy of reports in each category of confidence, it can be shown that they are quite inconsistent with the concept that stimuli are either definitely perceived or definitely fail to be detected, with no intermediate category. The results are more consistent with a model of perception as the outcome of a statistical decision made with more or less caution upon evidence contaminated by randomness.

Analysing the empirical data according to this model, neither the duration of a watch nor the presence of loud noise during visual experiments affect the degree of randomness in the evidence used for decision. Both factors do, however, affect the degree of caution with which the decision is made, and this may explain the failures of perception previously found in experiments upon prolonged watch and upon noise. Changes during the watch appear primarily, however, when the decision is being made cautiously (with few false detections) while the changes with noise appear rather as a lessening of the difference between cautious and risky behaviour. This divergence between the effects of noise and of prolonged work may explain the fact that experimental conditions which reveal effects of noise have not always in the past been those which are sensitive to effects of prolonged work.
MEMORY SPAN AND THE SKEWNESS OF THE SERIAL‐POSITION CURVE*
Authors: JENSEN ARTHUR R. , RODEN AUBREY
Published: April 2011

Three experiments were performed to test the hypothesis that the skewness of the serial‐position curve is determined, at least in part, by memory span. Expt. I showed that the degree of skewness of the serial‐position curve is positively related to the length of the subject's immediate memory span. Memory span for sequences of colour‐forms was determined for 47 subjects (university students). Eleven subjects with the highest span (HS) and 11 subjects with the lowest span (LS) were compared in the serial learning of a 9‐item list of colour forms. The HS group produced significantly more skewed serial position curves both for overt errors and for failures to respond than did the LS group. Expt. II investigated the effects of prolonged practice on serial learning. Three subjects each learned a different 9‐item list of colour‐forms every day for 4 weeks (20 days). Practice increased the ease of serial learning to the point that the entire list could be comprehended within the subjects' memory span. There was a corresponding increase in the skewness of the serial‐position curve as a function of amount of practice. Expt. III tested the hypothesis that a list of items for which subjects have a relatively long memory span would produce a more skewed serial‐position curve than would a list composed of items for which subjects have a relatively short memory span. Forty subjects each learned a 12‐item list of single letters (in a random order) and a 12‐item list of 3‐letter nonsense syllables. As predicted, the list composed of single letters produced a significantly more skewed serial‐position curve than did the list of nonsense syllables.
EASE OF CONDITIONING AND SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY FROM EXPERIMENTAL EXTINCTION*
Authors: FRANKS CYRIL M.
Published: April 2011

Thirty adult male volunteers were conditioned and extinguished in a classical eyeblink conditioning situation to the same criterion and tested 24 hours later for the pattern of spontaneous recovery (reminiscence) and re‐extinction. As predicted in terms of the decay of inhibition explanation of reminiscence phenomena, those subjects who required most reinforcements to attain the criterion of conditioning and least repetition of the conditioned stimulus to attain the criterion of extinction were also the subjects who showed greatest reminiscence. Certain limitations and possible applications of these findings are discussed.
THE EFFECT OF VIEWING CONDITIONS AND INSTRUCTIONS ON SHAPE JUDGEMENTS
Authors: LANDAUER A. A.
Published: April 2011

A study using different groups of naïve subjects in forty‐eight experimental conditions showed that instructions and viewing conditions significantly affected shape judgements. Apparent and ‘non‐directing’ instructions resulted in similar judgements which were as stable as judgements made by subjects who received objective (real shape) or projective (visual angle) instructions. Judgements given under apparent and non‐directing instructions tended to follow the visual angle expectation under reduced viewing conditions and under conditions of extreme slants. Under improved viewing conditions and with moderate slants they followed the real shape expectation.
CONSCIOUSNESS AND BEHAVIOURISM
Authors: KEEHN J. D.
Published: April 2011

It has been argued, especially recently by Burt, that behaviourism is untenable because the concept of consciousness cannot be denied. This argument is rejected because the functional behaviourism of B. F. Skinner not only does not reject consciousness but includes an account of how behaviour made to private, conscious, experience can be brought under public control. A simple example of how behaviour to private stimuli can be controlled through the use of collateral stimuli is described. Fuller accounts are available in the references given.
RATE OF PRESENTATION AND ORDER OF RECALL IN IMMEDIATE MEMORY
Authors: POSNER MICHAEL I.
Published: April 2011

University students attempted immediate recall of 8‐digit series presented aurally. When subjects were required to report the digits in their presented order, the fast presentation rate (96 digits per minute) was superior to the slow rate (30 per minute). When subjects were required to report the last four digits, before giving the first four digits, this improved performance at the slow rate but not at the fast rate. These data resolve previous conflicting results and tend to support a decay factor in immediate memory.
AN ANALYSIS OF THE PURSUIT ROTOR LEARNING OF CHRONIC PSYCHOTICS*
Authors: BROADHURST P. L. , BROADHURST ANNE
Published: April 2011

A sample of forty‐two chronic schizophrenics were randomly assigned to one of two groups given three sessions of either massed or spaced practice on a pursuit rotor, and a group of sixteen depressives were given massed practice only. The results suggest that there are differences between the learning curves of these groups when compared with those of normals. Notable among these differences is the absence of reminiscence after massed practice, and the failure of spaced practice to give the usual distinct superiority over massed. Statistical analysis of the data confirms the inferiority of the psychotics in respect of level of learning, but fails to show any other marked differences in the nature of the learning curves. The results are discussed primarily in the context of Hullian learning theory.
THE TITLES OF PAPERBACK BOOKS
Authors: BROWN W. P.
Published: April 2011

Ratings on Semantic Differential scales were used to assess the ‘connotative meaning’ of a set of book titles. Each book selected had been reissued in a paperback edition bearing a title different from the original title. Ratings of both titles were collected and compared. In most cases, the paperback titles were rated lower than the original titles on Evaluation and/or higher on Potency. The change of title is seen as an attempt to increase the ‘package appeal’ of the book, perhaps by enhancing its capacity to hold the attention of the prospective purchaser.
INTROJECTION: A FORM OF SOCIAL LEARNING*
Authors: ARGYLE MICHAEL
Published: April 2011

Evidence from previous studies is interpreted in terms of introjection as the learning of self‐reactions from the reaction of others. This is a form of learning which differs from others in that it is more permanent, generalizes to all situations, and exists in conflict with the rest of the personality.

A number of investigations are reported showing that introjection takes place for some children, but not others, particularly from the same‐sexed parent, and when there is a warm and dependent relationship.

Several attempts to explain introjection in simpler terms are considered; it is concluded that the most plausible accounts are that parents persuade and teach children to react to their own behaviour in certain ways, and that two‐person interaction may lead to fantasied anticipation of the other's reactions.
SEQUENTIAL ERRORS IN A TIME‐SHARING TASK
Authors: TUNE G. S.
Published: April 2011

An experiment is described in which subjects were required to maintain a set pattern of responses while simultaneously engaged in a monitoring task. The results showed that selective deterioration in performance took place which was demonstrable only by means of a sequential analysis of responses and not by a simple count of the errors made. The results are discussed in relation to a concept of performance decrement which proposes that ‘regression’ through the various levels at which a task is organized is a function of the capacity of short‐term memory.
RELATION BETWEEN PERCEPTUAL AND CONCEPTUAL OPERATIONS: NUMERICAL DISTANCE AND VISUAL EXTENT*
Authors: TEFT L. , WAPNER S. , WERNER H. , McFARLAND J. H.
Published: April 2011

This study deals with the problem of interaction of conceptual (number) and perceptual (extent) processes. The general hypothesis was tested that if an extent is demarcated by two numbers (from 1 to 9), the perception of extent varies depending on the numerical interval used. It was found that a visual extent demarcated by a smaller numerical interval appeared equal to a visual extent demarcated by a greater numerical interval when the former extent was physically smaller relative to the latter.
AN OBSERVED AGE DIFFERENCE IN RESPONSES TO A PERSONALITY INVENTORY
Authors: CRAIK F. I. M.
Published: April 2011

The two parts of the Heron Inventory give scores on two dimensions—emotional adjustment and sociability—which are held to be independent. However, results from a small sample study indicated that there was a strong positive association between the dimensions in a ‘young’ group but that no such relationship held in an ‘old’ group. This finding was confirmed for a group of 240 men ranging in age from 20 to 79. It was not confirmed in a similar group of 240 women.

In the male group, the result did not appear to be due to concomitant changes in non‐verbal intelligence; it was apparently not caused by an increased tendency of the older subjects to agree or disagree with the items; it did not seem to be due to a change in the meaning or relevance of the items to older subjects, nor did it seem to be due to a decrease in the reliability of older subjects' responses. The result did, however, appear to be related to degree of adjustment. Possible reasons for this finding are discussed.
BAUDOUIN ON JUNG
Authors: BURT CYRIL
Published: April 2011

Owing to his long and intimate friendship with Jung and his family Professor Baudouin has been able to throw a revealing light on many of the obscurer features in Jung's psychological theories. Their development, he believes, was largely the result of Jung's own personal problems and of certain emotional incidents in Jung's private life. In his survey of Jung's publications, and in tracing the progress of his ideas, Baudouin, unlike most previous commentators and reviewers, endeavours to bring out the special bearing of Jung's teaching, not so much on the problems of psychiatry and abnormal psychology, but on those of general psychology; and he has thus drawn attention to many neglected aspects of Jung's work.
IMPRINTING AND SHORT‐TERM RETENTION
Authors: SLUCKIN W. , TAYLOR K. F.
Published: April 2011

In the first of three experiments chicks imprinted to a moving object were found to discriminate between the original and new moving objects significantly better after an interval of some minutes than immediately after ‘training’. In the second experiment similarly imprinted chicks were tested for discrimination between the initial object and a strange one when these objects were stationary. In these circumstances discrimination tended to be rather poorer after a time interval than immediately after training. In the third experiment imprinted chicks were tested with the familiar object only for following, and not for discrimination, at different times after training. Following was found to improve after some separation from the object. This recovery from ‘drive satiation’ is thought to account for the reminiscence‐like phenomenon found in the first experiment.
EFFECTS OF SENSORY INPUT AND SENSORY DOMINANCE ON SEVERELY DISTURBED, AUTISTIC CHILDREN AND ON SUBNORMAL CONTROLS
Authors: HERMELIN BEATE , O'CONNOR N.
Published: April 2011

Sensory dominance in children differs with age, development and experience and may be a diagnostic differential in the case of autistic children. This hypothesis was explored in three experiments with autistic children, one concerned with sensory dominance, one with sense discrimination learning and one with the dynamics of this learning process. Imbecile children of the same performance I.Q. were used as controls.

The experiments showed that psychotic and control children responded most readily to light stimuli, but that this was followed by response to touch stimuli in the autistic children, and by response to sound stimuli in the controls. Differential rewarding resulted in dominance changes to the same extent in each group. However, autistic children did not learn to suppress a previously dominant stimulus orientation habit as quickly as the controls.
PERFORMANCE AND LEVEL OF ACTIVATION IN SCHIZOPHRENICS AND NORMALS
Authors: VENABLES P. H.
Published: April 2011

Four experiments are presented which provide evidence for a relationship between performance and indices of level of activation. This relationship takes the form of a number of equally spaced U's or V's rather than the single U which is expected from the literature. Mechanisms which might be responsible for producing this pattern of results are discussed.
THE SPIRAL MAZE
Authors: GIBSON H. B.
Published: April 2011

The writer discusses previous work on the use of psychomotor tests in the discrimination between normal subjects and subjects who are maladjusted or delinquent. A new test, the Spiral Maze, is described. Details of two experiments using the Spiral Maze are described: (a) contrasting a group of 22 young delinquent boys with 39 normal controls; and (b) testing 234 normal schoolboys aged 8–9 for whom teachers' ratings on ‘naughtiness’ were available.

It was found that: (i) the delinquent group were significantly different in their preference for speed at the expense of accuracy; (ii) there was a significant relationship between psychomotor scores and the categories of ‘naughty’, ‘average’ and ‘good’ which were derived from the teachers' behavioural ratings; (iii) although, as expected, ‘naughty’ boys predominated in the group which was quick and careless, this ‘naughty’ category also predominated in the slow and careless group.

The implications of these findings are discussed.
MAZE LEARNING AND VISUAL DISCRIMINATION IN THE WOOD ANT (FORMICA RUFA)
Authors: VOWLES D. M.
Published: April 2011

A technique is described for training ants in a T‐maze. The walls of the maze were covered with patterns which served as cues for the correct solution of the maze. These patterns were used to test the visual capabilities of the ant. It was found that ants would discriminate between vertical and horizontal stripes, and vertical and diagonal stripes, but not between diagonal stripes of opposite slope. In an experiment on generalization using vertical stripes of different widths, the ants appeared able to generalize satisfactorily. The implications of these experiments for insect pattern vision are discussed.
RECENCY IN TWO‐CHOICE GUESSING TASKS
Authors: DALE H. C. A.
Published: April 2011

It has been asserted that negative recency effects are found only in simple tasks where the alternatives remain constant from trial to trial. The experiments reported show that, with alternatives varying from trial to trial under conditions where a simple, obvious rule appears to exist relating the correct alternative to a clue, positive recency is found. But, under conditions where the choice lies between varying alternatives which come from two simple categories, negative recency predominates.
PATTERNS OF REACTION TIME RESPONSES
Authors: KERR MYFANWY , MINGAY ROSEMARY , ELITHORN ALICK
Published: April 2011

The reaction time responses of forty‐four subjects to paired stimuli separated by an interval of 100 msec. were analysed to test whether there was evidence for several distinct types of response patterns, and, if so, whether these patterns were associated with individual performances.

The analysis confirmed both these hypotheses, six main types of response being distinguishable and the response patterns being markedly different for different individuals.
CHANGES IN IMMEDIATE MEMORY WITH AGE
Authors: McGHIE ANDREW , CHAPMAN JAMES , LAWSON J. S.
Published: April 2011

A test allowing assessment of the differential changes in auditory and visual short‐term retention was given to groups of young, middle‐aged, and elderly adults. The results indicated that all subjects found it more difficult to handle visually, as opposed to aurally, presented information. The decline in visual retention was found to increase with age, this being most noticeable after the age of 60 years. The theoretical and practical consequences of these findings are briefly discussed.
SOME CONFIRMATORY RESULTS ON AGE DIFFERENCES IN MEMORY FOR SIMULTANEOUS STIMULATION
Authors: BROADBENT D. E. , GREGORY MARGARET
Published: April 2011

Two experiments were carried out to investigate further the relationship between age and immediate memory for two streams of material applied simultaneously to two sensory channels. The material was presented over ordinary television transmitters during programmes, viewers being requested to send in their responses. In both experiments the viewers saw three items and heard another three. In Expt. I all items were digits; in Expt. II both the visual and the spoken items consisted of letters and digits, the viewers being requested to order their responses either channel by channel or class by class. Both experiments showed a deterioration in performance with age which started earlier when the task required rapid alternation between the senses. Expt. II also allowed comparison between the two modes of recall: the eye–ear mode resulted in much superior performance.
THE TRANSFER OF POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE LEARNING BY NORMAL AND SEVERELY SUBNORMAL CHILDREN
Authors: BRYANT P. E.
Published: April 2011

An experiment was designed in which all the subjects learned the same initial task; half then learned a transfer task to which positive learning could be transferred, while the other half learned one to which negative learning could be transferred. It was found that severely subnormal subjects transferred negative learning more easily than positive learning, while normals showed the opposite pattern. It is suggested that this was due to the fact that the positive learning was specific and the negative learning relatively general.
THE EFFECT OF ATTENTION ON THE SLOPE OF GENERALIZATION GRADIENTS
Authors: MACKINTOSH N. J.
Published: April 2011

Forty‐eight rats were given 100 rewarded trials with a single rectangle, and were then tested for generalization between this first rectangle and another differing from it either in brightness or in orientation. Thirty‐two of the rats had received prior training either on a successive brightness or on orientation discrimination. The sixteen subjects who had received no prior training showed intermediate gradients of generalization. Of the pretrained subjects, those who were tested for generalization along the same dimension as their pretraining discrimination showed significantly steeper gradients, while those who were tested for generalization along the opposite dimension showed significantly less steep gradients.
VISUAL IMAGERY PRODUCED BY RHYTHMIC PHOTIC STIMULATION: PERSONALITY CORRELATES AND PHENOMENOLOGY
Authors: FREEDMAN SANFORD J. , MARKS PATRICIA A.
Published: April 2011

This study is concerned with relationships between descriptions of visual imagery produced by rhythmic photic stimulation and a number of personality tests. Individuals who manifested the ability to suspend their generalized reality‐orientation described more imagery; imagination and suggestibility also seemed to be important. Subjects' expectations about what they would see influenced their reports, although comprehension of the experimental design, fatigue and motivation were not relevant. The correlated personality variables indicate a close relationship with other types of visual imagery; the phenomenology fits a synthesized description of sensory deprivation, mescaline, and hypnagogic imagery.
MATCHING LOUDNESS AND VOCAL LEVEL: AN EXPERIMENT REQUIRING NO APPARATUS
Authors: IRWIN R. J. , MILLS A. WILLIAM
Published: April 2011

Both the loudness of a sound and the apparent magnitude of a self‐produced vocal response (autophonic response) can be described as power functions of sound pressure, although with different exponents. Two scales, one of loudness, the other of autophonic level, can therefore be specified as a function of the same sound pressures. Under these circumstances theory predicts that loudness should be proportional to the square root of apparent autophonic level. Two separate but similar classroom experiments were performed, in each of which one person made autophonic responses of six different magnitudes whose loudnesses were judged by the members of the class. The obtained exponents between the two scales so erected was 0·52 in one demonstration and 0·53 in the other, thus confirming the prediction. The experiments used no apparatus since the only specification of the stimulus required was that the sound pressure produced by one subject should be the same as that judged by another.
A THREE‐FACTOR THEORY OF REMINISCENCE
Authors: EYSENCK H. J.
Published: April 2011

A three‐factor theory of reminiscence is suggested, making use of the concepts of consolidation, reactive inhibition and conditioned inhibition. It is further suggested that the reminiscence phenomenon is highly task‐specific, in the sense that different tasks call differentially for the various processes hypothesized. Furthermore, it is suggested that differences in drive conditions, personality, fatigue, drug administration and many other variables impose definite limits to the replication of research findings, and that only specific studies of the influence of these variables, within a given theoretical context, can lead to a proper quantitative theory of reminiscence.
PERSONALITY AND THE INVERTED‐U RELATION
Authors: CORCORAN D. W. J.
Published: April 2011

Difficulties with the postulated inverted‐U relationship between performance and arousal are discussed, with emphasis upon individual differences in level of arousal. Predictions concerning the behaviour of highly aroused and less aroused subjects are made and tested in two experiments by relating changes in performance associated with increased and decreased levels of arousal to introversion score. Introverts behaved as highly aroused subjects were expected to and extraverts as less aroused subjects.
VARIETY OF BEHAVIOURS AND FREQUENCY OF RESPONDING DURING AVOIDANCE CONDITIONING
Authors: LYMAN BERNARD
Published: April 2011

Ten female goats were trained in avoidance flexion of the right forelimb. The subjects' qualitative and quantitative activity was recorded. When the first and last tenths of training were compared, there were significant increases in the overall frequency of responding during periods of conditional stimulus impingement and in the overall variety of behaviours, omitting flexion and emotional behaviours, during inter‐trial intervals. There were significant decreases in the variety of emotional behaviours during both signal periods and intervals, in the frequency of flexion responses during intervals, and in the frequency of emotional responses during signal periods. The data do not support the assertion that late in avoidance training the organism is quiescent and is mechanically emitting only the conditioned responses to the conditional stimulus.
THE EFFECT OF RATIO OF REINFORCEMENT ON PERFORMANCE IN SELECTIVE LEARNING BY CHILDREN
Authors: DAS J. P. , SAHU GEETA , PANDA T. P.
Published: April 2011

In the present study, children were required to switch out one of two lights on choice trials by pressing one of two available keys and to switch out the only light presented on forced trials. By appropriate variation of the two stimuli on forced trials, one of the keys was pressed twice as frequently as the other (Expts. I and II) and three times as frequently as the other (Expt. II). The results showed a gradual initial increment of choice for the more frequently reinforced key (Expt. I) followed by a decrement, and the point of maximum difference between the latency of response of the two keys exactly coincided with the highest point in the choice curve (Expt. I). Similar results for the choice behaviour were obtained in the 2:1 and 3:1 groups of Expt. II where both acquisition and reversal were studied. Reversal for the 3:1 group was fast. Results of Expt. I supported Spence's prediction.
THE INFLUENCE OF LANGUAGE AND EXPERIENCE ON DISCOVERY AND USE OF LOGICAL SYMBOLS*
Authors: FURTH HANS G. , YOUNISS JAMES
Published: April 2011

Two non‐verbal tasks of logical symbol use (SU) and of symbol discovery (SD) were devised. SU differentiated adults of higher and lower intelligence. Most pupils of chronological age (CA) 12 and older, but not younger, discovered the significance of the logical symbols in learning the paired associate task of SD. SD and SU were given to deaf subjects and to hearing subjects from a rural, lower‐class milieu. These experimental subjects (CA around 18) performed similarly to controls on SU, but did not attain the success of 12‐year‐old controls on SD. On the basis of these results it is proposed that stimulating past experience may be required for success on certain conceptual tasks which are of the discovery type and depend on the initiative of the subject, but that more structured tasks of logical reasoning are not adversely affected by restricted experience or linguistic deficiency.
THE RELATION BETWEEN ASSOCIATION NORMS AND WORD FREQUENCY
Authors: MATTHEWS W. A.
Published: April 2011

Words of varied frequency were presented to groups of fifty subjects for a 2 min continued‐association period. The mean number of associations (m values) given to the stimuli in different frequency categories failed to replicate a finding by Noble (1952a) whose data shows a positive relation between word frequency and m values. A possible mechanism is suggested by which these findings might be obtained and supporting analyses are presented.
EMOTIONAL INDICATORS IN WORD ASSOCIATION
Authors: BROWN W. P.
Published: April 2011

Long reaction‐times and other features of word‐association performance have been widely accepted as indicators of emotional disturbance in subjects, but the evidence for this interpretation is scant. Indeed, there is better evidence for the view that these features indicate associative difficulty of a typically non‐emotional kind. Separate analyses of the responses to thirty neutral and thirty emotional words made by 100 subjects confirmed the importance of associative difficulty in eliciting ‘emotional’ indicators. However, the emotionality of the stimulus also had this power to elicit indicators. Further, certain pairs of emotional indicators tended to co‐occur when the stimulus was emotional to an extent which was not found with neutral stimuli. The possibility of selecting emotional stimuli for particular subjects by reference to these critical pairs of indicators is discussed, but their infrequency presents something of an obstacle.
EFFECTS OF A SUBSIDIARY TASK ON SHORT‐TERM MEMORY
Authors: MURDOCK BENNET B.
Published: April 2011

If there is a limited‐capacity mechanism in STM then introducing a concurrent subsidiary task should adversely affect recall. Two experiments on free recall were conducted with card sorting as the subsidiary task. In the first experiment subjects dealt cards into one pile, into two piles by colour, or into four piles by suit while lists of common English words were being read. Subjects sorted cards only during presentation of the lists. As the subsidiary task became more demanding the number of words correctly recalled decreased. In the second experiment sorting by suit was combined with free recall, and the payoffs (relative importance of the two tasks) were varied. Performance on both the recall and the card sorting tasks deteriorated as the other task was stressed. Differences in recall could not easily be attributed to differences in original learning, and the results suggested that the subsidiary task interfered with rehearsal and/or decreased total presentation time for free recall.
TWO ARTISTS WITH PROTAN COLOUR VISION DEFECTS
Authors: PICKFORD R. W.
Published: April 2011

Two artists, one a protanope and the other protanomalous, were given tests of colour vision, including anomaloscope tests. Both knew that they had some kind of colour vision defect, but both considered that it had not affected their art to any extent. The protanomalous artist liked to make golden yellow, blue and red contrasts in his work, but he seldom used greens. The protanope usually made fawn, yellow, orange and blue harmonies, from which reds as seen by the normal eye were excluded, and he used greens where appropriate. Both artists may be said to have exploited contrasts and harmonies of colour which made their work acceptable to the normal as well as to themselves.
SKIN CONDUCTANCE CHANGE AND SENSORY DISCRIMINATION
Authors: CORTEEN R. S. , BLACKMAN A. R.
Published: April 2011

The relation between mean log. change in conductance and sensory discrimination was investigated. Highly significant relations were found with CFF and two‐point tactile thresholds. No significant relation was found with discrimination of a pure tone from background white noise. An attempt at explanation is offered in terms of a cortically controlled centre mediating a sensitizing or orienting response of which conductance change is a peripheral manifestation.
A SIMPLE LABORATORY DEMONSTRATION OF SUBCEPTION
Authors: MURCH GERALD M.
Published: April 2011

A simple, replicable demonstration of subception is described, using a discriminatory response as the independent variable. Stimuli were exposed to thirty‐six subjects in a tachistoscope until they were able to report the perception of a black line, appearing in the centre of a white field. The subjects were then asked to choose one of two geometrical figures from six pairings of four figures, each pair shown separately. The tachistoscope projections, presented in a counterbalanced design, consisted of one of the figures to be discriminated drawn in red, divided by a 3 cm black line. The black line, having a stronger contrast, was perceived before the red figure, defining the supraliminal and subliminal thresholds as the contrast relation between red and black lines. A significant tendency was found for selection of the projected figures, without verbal report of the subliminal stimulus. In a second part of the experiment one figure was to be chosen, after each projection, from the finite population of four figures; the results did not differ from chance expectation.

The use of a perceptual discriminatory response for the recovery of a subliminal stimulus was discussed, and the plausibility of a threshold for intensity relations was demonstrated.
SUTHERLAND'S TWO‐STAGE THEORY OF DISCRIMINATION LEARNING AND ITS EXPERIMENTAL SUPPORT
Authors: MATTHEWS W. A.
Published: April 2011

Sutherland's two stage theory of discrimination learning is briefly described. Three experiments on overtraining and its effects on reversal and non‐reversal shifts which were carried out by Mackintosh (1962, 1963a, b) and which are held to support this theoretical approach are discussed. The interpretation of these results is criticised in terms of possible differences between the nominal stimulus and the functional stimulus. Mackintosh assumes the identity of these two categories in his interpretations which are claimed to support Sutherland's formulations and to provide difficulties for other theoretical approaches. Control studies of a training and transfer type which might have indicated the effective stimulus were not carried out and, so it is argued, the experiments fail to provide unambiguous support for Sutherland's approach to discrimination learning problems. The identity of the mechanisms mediating transfer along a continuum and the effects of overtraining on reversal and non‐reversal shifts is questioned. The lack of compelling evidence to support the notion of sensory dimensional analysers is suggested. Reinterpretation is made in terms of generalizations from a range of learning experiments, and differences between the implications of this approach and that of Sutherland are indicated.
WORKING BACKWARD AND WORKING FORWARD IN PROBLEM‐SOLVING
Authors: ANTHONY W. S.
Published: April 2011

N.E. Miller (1959) and others have stressed the effectiveness and creativity of working backward in problem‐solving; but Newell, Shaw, & Simon (1962) argued that working backward is not inherently superior to working forward. An experiment is reported in which undergraduate subjects were set a series of route‐finding tasks in a maze‐situation modified to allow observation of working forward and working backward. The effectiveness of the two directions of work was controlled. The method and results of the experiment are discussed in relation to the views of the above‐named writers and others.
THE INFERENTIAL BASIS OF CONCEPT ATTAINMENT
Authors: WETHERICK N. E.
Published: April 2011

Three experiments are reported which investigated subjects' ability to make the kind of inference required in deriving a concept from positive or mixed positive and negative instances. Ability to make such inferences in a simple letter‐group situation (and without the application of time pressure) was found to correlate highly with non‐verbal intelligence. Three possible types of error are distinguished and it is shown that liability to one type increased with age even though the different age‐groups were matched on non‐verbal intelligence. An interpretation is suggested for this age difference.
RELATION BETWEEN SEMANTIC SATIATION AND VERBAL CONDITIONING
Authors: DAS J. P.
Published: April 2011

The relation between extent of semantic satiation and trials to learn two verbal conditioning tasks was investigated in a sample of thirty‐eight college students. Semantic satiation was measured by polarity‐difference scores between rating the words before and after a standard satiation treatment. Trials to reach criterion of learning were combined for the two verbal conditioning tests. The correlation between the satiation and verbal conditioning scores was r = −0·484; the mean satiation scores of the subjects, dichotomized at the median as fast and slow learners, were also significantly different. These results are consistent with the prediction that facility in verbal conditioning, like susceptibility to hypnosis, depends on resistance to semantic satiation. A subsidiary finding was a significant correlation, r = 0·42, between the two verbal conditioning test scores.
THE EFFECT OF SHORT PERIODS OF FOOD‐DEPRIVATION ON HUMAN PERFORMANCE
Authors: KENNEDY R. A. , KEENE A. G.
Published: April 2011

This study reports the effect of periods of food‐deprivation varying from 0 to 10 hr on human performance in two simple tasks. The argument is advanced that an interpretation of the results in terms of traditional Hullian multiplicative drive theory is unsatisfactory. A possible alternative to this approach is considered.
WIDTH OF TRANSFER AND TASK COMPLEXITY IN THE CONCEPTUAL LEARNING OF IMBECILES
Authors: CLARKE ANN M. , COOPER G. M. , HENNEY A. S.
Published: April 2011

This paper offers further evidence on the relation between task complexity and amount of transfer, using imbecile subjects. The main aim of the investigation was to determine whether transfer might occur between widely different tasks, requiring some degree of conceptual behaviour for their performance. The transfer task consisted of photographs of objects within five common categories; three different training tasks of varying complexity required the sorting of geometrical shapes. The two more complex of these training conditions resulted in considerable transfer on retest with the photographic material, and upon its subsequent direct acquisition. The simple geometric training gave results mid‐way between the former and those of a control group. Transfer between widely different tasks has thus been demonstrated and the possible implications for understanding of the development of conceptual abilities are briefly considered.