bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Distribution of Lewis and Secretor polymorphisms and corresponding CA19‐9 antigen expression in a Chinese population
Authors: Guo Meng , Luo Guopei , Lu Renquan , Shi Weizhong , Cheng He , Lu Yu , Jin Kaizhou , Yang Chao , Wang Zhengshi , Long Jiang , Xu Jin , Ni Quanxing , Liu Chen , Yu Xianjun
Published: August 2017

The Lewis (FUT3) and Secretor (FUT2) genes, corresponding to secretion of Lewis ABO (H) histo‐blood group antigen CA19‐9, are highly polymorphic with differences between populations. In this study, the FUT3 and FUT2 genes in 316 Chinese participants were sequenced to detect polymorphisms, and the associated CA19‐9 antigen secretion was also measured. In total, 14 genotypes of FUT3 and 10 genotypes of FUT2 were verified. Le/Le, Le/le59,508 and Le/le59 were the main genotypes of FUT3 with frequencies of 53.2%, 10.7% and 3.5%, respectively. Se/Se, Se/se385 and se385/se385 were the main genotypes of FUT2, with frequencies of 21.4%, 18.6% and 16.2%, respectively. The alleles le1067 and le508 were found extensively in the Chinese population, and the frequency of allele se385 was shown to be higher than previously reported. Phenotype analysis revealed that 9.8% of individuals were the Lewis‐negative type and 22.5% were the secretor‐negative type. Combined phenotypes showed that 3.2% of participants were of ‘double‐negative’ phenotype (le, se) and 19.3% were of single dominant non‐secretor phenotype (Le, se). Serum Lewis antigen CA19‐9 levels were significantly different between subgroups and consistent with the defined phenotype. Our study revealed the unique distribution of Lewis and Secretor polymorphisms in a large Chinese population, and decoded the combined genotypes of the two CA19‐9‐related genes.
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Communication Science
Authors: Coronel Jason C. , Falk Emily B.
Published: August 2017

fMRI is a powerful approach for understanding and measuring cognitive processes and it can be used to test and generate new theories in the context of communication science. However, as we describe in greater detail throughout this entry, fMRI has both strengths and weaknesses. Using fMRI effectively requires knowing the types of questions it can answer and understanding its strengths and current limitations. The goal of this entry is to provide an introduction for understanding and using fMRI in the context of communication science.
Handshape in Sign Language Phonology
Authors: Brentari Diane
Published: August 2017

This chapter addresses the particular importance of the handshape parameter in sign language phonology, using evidence from a variety of sources: psycholinguistic and cross‐linguistic, as well as system‐internal evidence from phonological operations. The chapter is organized as follows. In §1, by way of introduction to this topic, some of the ways that handshape behaves differently in gesture and sign languages will be described. In §2, portions of basic handshape structure will be presented, the terms that will be used throughout the chapter will be defined, and some descriptive generalizations concerning handshape will be outlined. Further elaboration of the features of handshape is discussed in §3. A description on how handshape interacts with the other parameters of signs will be discussed in §4. In §5, several examples of the role of handshape at the grammatical interfaces will be described, and §6 will consist of some concluding remarks on the topic of handshape.
The Other Hand in Sign Language Phonology
Authors: Crasborn Onno
Published: August 2017

Signed languages used by Deaf communities use the visual channel for communication. Multiple articulators are involved in producing all phonological material, including the head (its rotation around all three axes), many if not all aspects of facial expression (including eye gaze), the position of the upper body, and of course the two hands. It is only slowly becoming clear how linguistic the use of some articulations, e.g. eye gaze, really is (Metzger 1998; Meurant 2008). For most articulators and their phonological representations in the lexicon, we still have a very limited view on their actual use across the sign languages of the world (Eccarius and Brentari 2007).
The Phoneme
Authors: Dresher B. Elan
Published: August 2017

The concept of the phoneme was central to the development of phonological theory. In the early twentieth century, phonological theory was all about the phoneme: how to define it, how to recognize it, how to discover it (see, for example, the articles selected for inclusion in Joos 1957 and Makkai 1972). The American structuralist term for phonology, phonemics, indicates to what extent the field was considered to be about the phoneme.
Distinctive Features
Authors: Mielke Jeff
Published: August 2017

Distinctive feature theory is an effort to identify the phonetic dimensions that are important for lexical contrasts and phonological patterns in human languages. The set of features and its explanatory role have both expanded over the years, with features being used to define not only the contrasts but the groupings of sounds involved in rules and phonotactic restrictions, as well as the changes involved in rules. Distinctive features have been used to account for a wide range of phonological phenomena, and this chapter overviews the incremental steps by which the feature model has changed, along with some of the evidence for these steps. An important point is that many of the steps involve non‐obvious connections, something that is harder to see in hindsight. Recognizing that these steps are not obvious is important in order to see the insights that have been made in the history of distinctive feature theory, and to see that these claims are associated with differing degrees of evidence, despite often being assumed to be correct.
The Representation of Clicks
Authors: Miller Amanda
Published: August 2017

Click consonants are a type of complex segment. Complex segments are defined as single segments that have two oral constrictions that are nearly simultaneous (Sagey 1990). Click consonants have an anterior constriction, which is either labial or coronal, and a posterior constriction, which is uvular in those Khoesan languages in which posterior place of clicks has been investigated with articulatory methods. The posterior place of clicks in Zulu starts out as velar in the closure, and releases at a uvular place of articulation. Clicks are unique in that they are produced with an ingressive lingual (also known as velaric) airstream mechanism, which is produced by trapping air between a lingual or linguo‐labial cavity formed between the two oral constrictions. The tongue moves, in different ways for different clicks, to expand this oral cavity and thus to rarefy, or decompress, the air within it. When the anterior constriction is released, air rushes in to make the characteristic popping sound. The lingual ingressive airstream differentiates clicks from pulmonic stop consonants, which are produced on an outward flow of air from the lungs, and from other complex segments, such as labial‐velars and labial‐coronals, which are produced using a pulmonic or glottalic airstream.
Vowel Height
Authors: Pulleyblank Douglas
Published: August 2017

While all languages have vowels, and all vowels can be described as having a height,
1
actually defining vowel height turns out to be a rather interesting problem (see also
chapter
19:
vowel place
). Consider the systems in (1).
The Phonology of Movement in Sign Language
Authors: Sandler Wendy
Published: August 2017

To watch a person communicating in a sign language is to observe a well‐coordinated, multi‐channel display of bodily motion. Most salient in this display is movement of the hands, which transmit lexical, morphological, and timing information. In coordination with the hands, motion of the mouth and lower face performs phonological, morphological, and gestural functions. Simultaneously, movement of the head and body provides a kind of prosodic shell to house the signing hands. Prominently embedded in this outer shell are the brows and eyes, whose movements provide intonation, the visual “tunes” of the message. The same physical articulators are all exploited by speakers as well, to augment the linguistically organized vocal–auditory signal.
1
But in sign language, it is these visually perceived actions that convey the linguistic signal itself, in a synchronized panoply of motion.
The Skeleton
Authors: Szigetvári Péter
Published: August 2017

Only theories of phonology that attach significance to representations of phonological objects and, in addition, subscribe to an autosegmental version of these representations face the question of what the phonological skeleton looks like. Therefore, this chapter presupposes an autosegmental view of phonological representations.
The Emergence of the Unmarked
Authors: Becker Michael , Potts Kathryn Flack
Published: August 2017

The term “The Emergence of the Unmarked” (TETU), originally coined by McCarthy and Prince (1994), refers to situations where some marked structure is generally allowed in a language, but banned in particular contexts; the complementary unmarked structure thus “emerges.” In Nuu‐chah‐nulth (Wakashan, referred to by McCarthy and Prince by its former name, Nootka), for example, syllables can generally have codas; reduplicants, however, are exceptional in that codas are banned. This results in words like [tʃi‐tʃm.s'iːħ] ‘hunting bear’ and [waːwaːs.tʃiɬ] ‘naming where’, in which unmarked (codaless) syllables emerge in reduplicants despite the presence of marked codas in bases.
Vowel Epenthesis
Authors: Hall Nancy
Published: August 2017

The term “vowel epenthesis” can refer to any process in which a vowel is added to an utterance. Beyond this simple description, however, vowel epenthesis processes vary enormously in their characteristics, and many aspects of their typology are still not well understood. Accordingly, the empirical focus of this chapter is on the heterogeneity of vowel epenthesis processes.
Deletion
Authors: Harris John
Published: August 2017

In language, we often come across situations where a morpheme shows up in two alternating phonological shapes, one of which contains a vowel or consonant segment that is missing from the other. For example, in Samoan the root meaning ‘twist’ has two alternants: [milos] and [milo]. The form ending in [s] is found before a vowel‐initial suffix (as in [milos‐ia] ‘be twisted’), while the form lacking the [s] is found when the root falls at the end of a word.
Final Devoicing and Final Laryngeal Neutralization
Authors: Iverson Gregory K. , Salmons Joseph C.
Published: August 2017

In this chapter, we survey a set of phenomena that have traditionally been given the simple rubric “final devoicing.” This name, however, clearly conflates a number of different phonological phenomena – deletion of other laryngeal features, even feature addition – and the relevant general pattern is better characterized as “final laryngeal neutralization.” Widely attested across the languages of the world, final laryngeal neutralization represents a prototypical positional merger of phonological contrasts. Nonetheless, the attested patterns vary along several dimensions; they provide challenges to current phonological frameworks, on the one hand, and allow good testing grounds for them, on the other. In particular, the topic is highly relevant to the ongoing debates over the relationship between universal grammar and language change in shaping sound systems, such as Blevins (2004, 2006)vs. Kiparsky (2006, 2008) (see alsochapter93:sound change).
Consonant Harmony in Child Language
Authors: Levelt Clara C.
Published: August 2017

Consonant harmony (CH) in child language production data has attracted a great deal of attention in the phonological literature. It has been defined as an “assimilation‐at‐a‐distance” process between consonants (Vihman 1978), in which consonants affect other, non‐adjacent consonants. The assimilating features in child language CH are mostly primary place of articulation features, like Labial and Dorsal, but cases where other features are involved have also been observed. Over time, several analyses of this phenomenon have been proposed in the literature, the nature of the analysis changing with the theoretical state of the art: a phonological rule (Smith 1973), autosegmental spreading (Menn 1978; McDonough and Myers 1991; Stemberger and Stoel‐Gammon 1991; Levelt 1994), a connectionist account (Berg and Schade 2000), and constraint interaction (Goad 1997; Pater and Werle 2003; Fikkert and Levelt 2008).
Rule Ordering
Authors: Mascaró Joan
Published: August 2017

The distributional properties of sound in natural languages are explained by appeal to a level of underlying structure in addition to the level of observed phonetic or surface representation (chapter1:underlying representations), and to a function that maps underlying representations into surface representations. This function has been conceived since the beginning of generative grammar as an ordered set of rules. In this chapter I will first introduce the main properties of rule ordering and the arguments for ordering rules (§1), and I will review various proposals to modify rule ordering in early generative phonology (§2), including cyclic ordering (§3). In §4 I discuss feeding, bleeding, and similar interactions in more detail, §5 discusses serial ordering and parallel approaches, and §6 draws some conclusions.
Long‐distance Assimilation of Consonants
Authors: Rose Sharon
Published: August 2017

There are numerous patterns in languages in which consonants assimilate at a distance for some acoustic or articulatory property. When vowels and consonants intervening between the assimilating consonants show no observable effect of the assimilating property, such patterns are labeled “consonant harmony.” Other terms such as “consonant agreement” have been used (Rose and Walker 2004) in order to distinguish them from cases of harmony involving both vowels and consonants, such as emphasis harmony (Shahin 2002;chapter25:pharyngeals) or nasal harmony (Walker 2000a;chapter78:nasal harmony). Consonant harmony has played a central role in debates concerning harmony patterns in general (Rose and Walker, forthcoming) with respect to several issues: locality of interaction, transparency or blocking in long‐distance assimilation, and directionality. In this chapter, the main typological patterns of consonant harmony are outlined, highlighting the challenges that the typology presents, including a discussion of harmony domains and directionality. Two main theoretical approaches to consonant harmony are then explored: analyses involvingspreadingan assimilating feature or extending a gesture across all segments within a string, and analyses advocating distinctcorrespondencerelationships between consonants independently of intervening segments. The role of contrast in determining harmony interaction is examined within both of these frameworks. Finally, experimental approaches to consonant harmony are discussed, showing how they shed light on the analysis of consonant harmony.
Lexical Phonology and the Lexical Syndrome
Authors: Kaisse Ellen M. , McMahon April
Published: August 2017

The theory of Lexical Phonology and Morphology (LPM) deals with the place of phonology within the larger grammar. It has much to say about the relation between morphology and phonology, and also provides a model for the integration of phonology with the material provided by syntax and the phrasing derived from syntax. It is also a theory of phonological typology, assigning one set of characteristics to processes that apply only within words (the lexical phonology) and another, complementary set to processes that apply within or between words (the post‐lexical phonology). The theory was first developed in the early 1980s by Kiparsky (1982) and his colleagues and students (especially Mohanan 1982, 1986) at MIT. It rapidly attracted a great deal of interest among phonologists because of the new tools it supplied for attacking recalcitrant problems, the set of intriguing questions it allowed a researcher to ask about any phenomenon, and the organic way it grew out of many of the major trends in phonology and morphology that had occupied linguists since the publication of Chomsky and Halle (1968). LPM was the basis for much of the synchronic and diachronic work, both descriptive and theoretical, that went on in phonology for a decade or more following its birth. Classical LPM was probably also the last model of phonology‐morphology interaction to enjoy a wide consensus (Noyer 2004). LPM remains influential today, in its legacy of ways of thinking about phonology and in new instantiations that marry it with Optimality Theory (Orgun 1996; Kiparsky 2000; Rubach 2000; Bermädez‐Otero, forthcoming; among many others). As is often the case with valuable but complex and inevitably imperfect theories, LPM did not simply collapse under its own weight. Rather, interest largely moved elsewhere. Starting in the early 1990s, many phonologists turned away from rules and derivations to Optimality Theory (OT). Until recently, most versions of OT have involved only one evaluative step – potential output candidates are evaluated simultaneously for their satisfaction of ranked constraints. The result of the large‐scale turn to OT was that most people stopped writing about and within LPM before consensus had been reached on what to do about the difficulties that had been encountered within it. It is certainly true that there was not much from Kiparsky's (1982) proposals that did not have some qualifications, exceptions, or caveats attached by the mid–1990s, but this is not, as we reconstruct it, the main reason one no longer hears so much about LPM. On the contrary, many phonologists continued to recognize advantages to the theory and to adopt pieces of its legacy.
Exceptionality
Authors: Wolf Matthew
Published: August 2017

The work of phonologists is, in part, to discover empirical generalizations about the sound shape of utterances in each of the world's languages, and to formulate theories which predict these generalizations. The “in part” comes from the mentalist stance of generative linguistics: its ultimate goal is not merely a theory which accounts for generalizations in surface data, but a theory that accounts for these data in the same way that native speakers' internalized grammars do. In a sense, then, generative analyses are not really theories of (corpus‐internal) linguistic data per se; they are theories of native speakers' tacit theories about those data – the grammars which speakers arrive at during language acquisition. In Chomsky's (1965) terms, generative linguistics aims at theories that possessexplanatory adequacy– the ability to account for how language acquisition occurs (and thus also for the knowledge resulting from acquisition) – and not merelyobservationaladequacy – the ability to correctly predict the grammatical or ungrammatical status, for the language in question, of any given form.
French Liaison
Authors: Cǒté Marie‐Hélène
Published: August 2017

Liaison is a type of external sandhi, one of several occurring at word boundaries in French. It corresponds to the pronunciation of a consonant (liaison consonant = LC) between two words, the second being vowel‐initial, in certain liaison‐triggering contexts. Liaison may apply categorically or variably, depending on the context. The data in (1) illustrate this process. The words preceding and following the LC are referred to respectively as Word1 and Word2; their canonical pronunciation in non‐liaison contexts, including in isolation, is indicated in the relevant columns. In (1b), for example, the wordsvousandallezare pronounced in isolation [vu] and [ale]; when the two words are concatenated, an intervening [z] surfaces. LCs are underlined in all examples for ease of identification.1
Reduplication in Sanskrit
Authors: Kennedy Robert
Published: August 2017

Sanskrit, a classical and liturgical language of India, has been central to the advancement of linguistic analysis in a number of respects. It is notable for the support it provides for the “Indo‐European hypothesis,” the theory advanced by scholars such as Sir William Jones, Thomas Young, and Franz Bopp that the Indic languages are descended, along with those of the Romance, Germanic, Celtic, Slavic, and myriad others, from a common ancestral proto‐language. Sanskrit has also been crucial to the development of autosegmental phonology and prosodic morphology, with its reduplicative system providing a wealth of illustrative data, such as syllable transfer effects (Steriade 1988) and the emergence of unmarked phonological structure (McCarthy and Prince 1994). The range of patterns also underscores the role of morphological conditioning in reduplication. This chapter provides an overview of reduplication in Sanskrit, portraying the range of formations, and their implications for modern theories of representation and derivation.
A
mis,
K
ingsley
Authors: Keulks Gavin
Published: August 2017

One of England's most popular, controversial, and versatile writers, Sir Kingsley Amis was born in London on April 16, 1922. From his earliest publication –
Bright November
(1947) – to the last during his lifetime –
The Biographer's Moustache
(1995) – Amis functioned as a moral barometer for the rapidly shifting mores of his time. His more than 40 books include 24 novels, seven editions of poetry, four short story collections, and hundreds of reviews and essays; and his opinions were often central to post‐World War II debates, ranging from university expansion and political correctness to the vitality of the comic and realistic novel.
A
mis,
M
artin
Authors: Keulks Gavin
Published: August 2017

Born on August 25, 1949, the second son of writer Kingsley Amis and wife Hilary, Martin Amis has long lived a life of literary celebrity. Spanning three and a half decades, 11 novels, seven works of non‐fiction, two short story collections, and nearly 400 reviews and essays, his career has been prolific, hugely profitable, and consistently controversial. His awards include the Somerset Maugham Award and the James Tait Black Memorial Prize for biography, and his work is routinely shortlisted for other awards, most notoriously the annual Man Booker Prize for Fiction. From the appearance of his first novel,
The Rachel Papers
(1973), to his most recent book,
The Second Plane: September 11: Terror and Boredom
(2008), Amis has inflamed some of the most incendiary debates of the contemporary era. His words have prompted new considerations of realism, feminism, politics, and culture, and his personal life has provided fodder for gossip and tabloid journalism. As is true of anyone whose life has careened into fame, such assessments have not always been cordial. They have, however, always been lively, always been edifying, and easily confirm Amis's status as one of England's most important living writers.
B
ainbridge,
B
eryl
Authors: Richter Virginia
Published: August 2017

Beryl Bainbridge's fiction centers on crisis, ranging from private incidents – teenage rebellion leading to incest or murder (
An Awfully Big Adventure
, 1989;
Harriet Said
, 1972), twisted love relationships (
Sweet William
, 1975), disintegrating families suddenly confronted with violence and death (The
Dressmaker
, 1973;
Injury Time
, 1977) – to highly public and even “national” disasters such as Robert F. Scott's doomed Antarctic expedition (
The Birthday Boys
, 1991) or the sinking of the
Titanic (Every Man for Himself
, 1996). Bainbridge's work can be divided into roughly two groups. The first, which includes most of her earlier fiction, draws on working‐class life in her native Liverpool. These texts are partly based on autobiographical experience, but they also incorporate historical characters transposed into the Bainbridge universe of stifling working‐class domesticity, such as Hitler in
Young Adolf
, depicted on a spurious visit to his relatives living in Liverpool in 1910. Bainbridge's interest in historical characters and events deepened in the second group of her novels, written mostly from the 1990s onwards and including, in addition to the books on Scott and the
Titanic, Master Georgie
(1998), set during the Crimean War, and
According to Queenie
(2001), about the relationship between Samuel Johnson and Hester Thrale, viewed through the eyes of Thrale's daughter Queenie. Her latest novel,
The Girl in the Polka Dot Dress
(2008), is the first to move beyond an exploration of Englishness and to turn to an American topic, the assassination of Robert Kennedy.
B
allard,
J
.
G
Authors: Groes Sebastian
Published: August 2017

J. G. Ballard could best be described as a visionary anthropologist whose fiction explores contemporary social trends by projecting them into extreme situations. From his reinvention of the science fiction genre in the early 1960s to his exploration of sexual perversion in
Crash
(1973) and his meditations on “meaningless” violence in the twenty‐first century, Ballard's idiosyncratic, often controversial, body of work is one of the most original and powerful to have emerged from the postwar period.
B
arker,
P
at
Authors: Whitehead Anne
Published: August 2017

Pat Barker's writing powerfully explores themes of trauma and recovery, and the violence that war has inflicted on individuals throughout the twentieth century is of central importance in her work. Barker addresses the effects of trauma in her novels through characters whose pasts have not been laid to rest, and ghosts appear throughout her fiction to indicate a disturbance of temporality. The history of twentieth‐century Britain represents for Barker a history of traumatic experience, which encompasses not only the two World Wars, and the Falkland, Gulf, and Northern Ireland conflicts, but also the long‐term effects of economic recession. In this context, the task of the novelist is to recover from this history the suffering of those whose lives have been marginalized by official, national narratives. Viewed in this light, Barker can be located as a leading voice among a number of contemporary British novelists, including Graham Swift, Ian McEwan, and Kazuo Ishiguro, whose writing explores the spec‐trality of history and the local impact of broader historical changes.
B
oyd,
W
illiam
Authors: Berberich Christine
Published: August 2017

One of Britain's most prolific and successful contemporary writers, William Boyd was born in Accra, Ghana, in 1952. His parents were Scottish expatriates, and Boyd grew up in the British expatriate communities of Ghana and Nigeria. At the age of 9, his parents sent him to attend Gordonstoun boarding school in Scotland. His education was completed with a diploma of French studies from the University of Nice, a BA and MA in English and philosophy from the UniversityofGlasgow, and studies toward aDPhil in English literature at Jesus College, Oxford. Between1980 and 1983, Boyd worked as alecturer in English literature and critical theory at St. Hilda's College, Oxford.
B
rookner,
A
nita
Authors: Hosmer Robert Ellis
Published: August 2017

Anita Brookner, born in London on July 16, 1928, the only child of middle‐class Polish Jews, was educated at James Allen's Girls' School, King's College, London, and the Courtauld Institute, and first made her mark as an art historian. She spent three postgraduate years in Paris, her only extended time out of Britain, researching her dissertation on Jean‐Baptiste Greuze. Her mentor, Anthony Blunt, himself a distinguished scholar of the work of Nicholas Poussin, encouraged her Francophile leanings. She ascended the academic ladder quickly, moving from the University of Reading (1959–64) to the Courtauld Institute, where she taught from 1964 until her retirement in 1988. Her tenure at the Courtauld was interrupted only by her appointment to the Slade Professorship at Cambridge (1967–8); she was the first woman to hold the position. Her distinguished work on eighteenth‐ and nineteenth‐century French artists, particularly Greuze, David, and Ingres, and her considerable talents as an instructor earned Brookner a first‐class reputation at the Courtauld and among generations of students, many of whom went on to hold major appointments at great museums and universities in the UK and abroad.
Censorship and the Novel
Authors: Parkes Adam
Published: August 2017

“All books now seem to me surrounded by a circle of invisible censors,” Virginia Woolf confided to her diary in August 1939 (1984, 229). Written on the eve of World War II, these words summon up an entire culture of censorship that shaped the context in which modern British novelists worked in the first half of the twentieth century. After the end of World War II in 1945, Britain saw widespread social and political changes, including the founding of the welfare state, the break‐up of the empire, mass immigration from former colonies, and a more liberal moral climate, which led to the relaxation of censorship laws. One significant literary result of these postwar developments was the new Obscene Publications Act of 1959, followed by the long‐awaited publication of D. H. Lawrence's novel
Lady Chatterley's Lover
after the celebrated trial of 1960 (preceded by a similar verdict in the US in 1959). Before these landmark events, however, novelists such as Lawrence, Joyce, and Woolf herself had labored under the threat of censorship not only by public officials but by editors, publishers, and printers who feared inciting government action or harbored their own moral or political objections to what they considered of fensive or obscene literature. Censorship was always in the air.
Children's and Young Adult Fiction
Authors: Mcgillis Roderick
Published: August 2017

Juliet Dusinberre's study of early modernism and its relation to nineteenth‐century children's literature,
Alice to the Lighthouse
(1987), argues that the experimentation in Lewis Carroll's “Alice” books informs a liberated literature for children that in turn informs much of the experimental sensibility we see in early modernist fiction by the likes of Woolf and Joyce. Of course, nineteenth‐century children's literature also paves the way for much of what we see in twentieth‐century writing for the young. The work of Lewis Carroll, George MacDonald, Charles Kingsley, Mary Molesworth, Oscar Wilde, and others paves the way for the new century. Two early twentieth‐century texts are particularly formative for what follows: Kenneth Grahame's
The Wind in the Willows
(1908) and E. Nesbit's
Five Children and It
(1902), both of which owe a debt to Carroll and MacDonald. Grahame's animal fantasy reinscribes themes of nostalgia and home and national politics that prepare the way for a range of novels from A. A. Milne's Winnie‐the‐Pooh books, to Arthur Ransome's “Swallows and Amazons” series, to Brian Jacques's long‐running Redwall series. On the other hand, Nesbit's reality‐tinged fantasy prepares for a whole range of books that look less nostalgically on the world of childhood. Nesbit offers preparation for time‐slip fantasy by the likes of Diane Wynne‐Jones and C. S. Lewis, the skewed historical romances of Joan Aiken, and also a wry reflection that results much later in a focus on the realities of childhood in what we now term “young adult fiction.”
C
oe,
J
onathan
Authors: Thurschwell Pamela
Published: August 2017

At their most accomplished, Jonathan Coe's novels deftly combine popular sensibility and avant garde panache, postmodern experimentation and nineteenth‐century storytelling, ferocious political rage with an apparent willingness to do anything for a laugh. His books are intricately plotted and have been labeled Dickensian, but owe at least as much to the digressive brilliance of eighteenth‐century authors such as Henry Fielding and Lawrence Sterne, who, like Coe, saw the interconnections between the absurd and the poignant. Perhaps Coe's greatest achievement to date is to have revitalized the nineteenth century “condition of England” novel for the twenty‐first century. Novels such as the marvelous
What a Carve Up!
(1994b) hit post‐Thatcherite England where it hurt, charting the breakdown of the postwar social democratic consensus in Britain and its effect on individual lives.
What a Carve Up!
is the story of one filthy‐rich and ruthless family, the Winshaws, who between them manipulate various aspects of 1990s Britain including politics, banking, battery farming, the National Health Service, the art world, the media, and the arms trade. Their stories are told by hapless writer Michael Owen who is engaged in writing an unauthorized biography of the Winshaws and whose personal sufferings and defeats are inextricably linked to the family. With its shifting time frame, intertextual references, and generic leaps from social realism to farce to horror,
What a Carve Up!
was memorably described by Terry Eagleton as “one of the few pieces of genuinely political Post‐Modern fiction around” (12).
Critical Theory and the Novel
Authors: Waugh Patricia
Published: August 2017

To try to draw together the broad constellation of practices known as “theory” and the loose aggregate of conventions constituting the genre of the novel is a complex business, but critical theory helped to shape the work of novelists since 1960, just as it helped to reshape a sense of the canonical histories of the novel as a genre. From the late 1960s, there was a pervasive rethinking of the very foundations and conditions of thought across all the disciplines of the humanities and social sciences. In this sense, the theoretical turn was general, but its manifestations and objects were diverse, varying in important ways from discipline to discipline, and from one cultural and national context to another. But as with the broader “theoretical turn” of the 1960s, the literary or critical theory that flourished across departments of Anglo‐American letters represented a revolt against positivist and empiricist assumptions in criticism. For poststructuralism, neo‐Marxism, psychoanalysis, and narrative theory were all depth models of knowledge that sought a reorientation toward the a priori as the search for underlying formal relations that might provide the conditions for grasping and expressing the phenomena of the world and of human experience.
Doyle, Roddy
Authors: Mccarthy Dermot
Published: August 2017

Roddy Doyle's career and reputation are closely associated with the “new Ireland” of the 1990s, but he has hardly been a cheerleader for the culture of consumption and indiscriminate development that his country's recent economic prosperity spawned. Doyle's writing engages Irish society and culture at a consistently oblique angle of reflection. His highly successful entertainments range from comic realism to historical farce and magic realism, nostalgia to satire, children's fiction, and memoir. Doyle's novels, plays, short stories, and screenplays have provoked a culture of denial to confront marital breakdown, spousal abuse, alcoholism, inner‐city poverty, social marginalization, and racism.
D
urrell,
L
awrence
Authors: Gifford James
Published: August 2017

Lawrence Durrell bridged high modernist and postmodern fiction. His primary contribution to twentieth‐century writing is his lush and experimental prose, which works in tandem with minimalist plots, carefully planned formal experimentation, and his revisions to the novel form. He is unique in British fiction for his peculiar position in between most major movements and for a style that contradicted predominant aesthetic tastes yet was popular and celebrated.
E
dwardian Fiction
Authors: Kaye Richard A.
Published: August 2017

Edwardian fiction remains one of the least critically explored and arguably the most contradictory of rubrics in the study of British literature. Although the chronological expanse of the category could not be clearer, falling between the death of Victoria in 1901 and the ascension to the throne of King George V in 1910, the term remains elusive. For many commentators Edwardian fiction is a murky interregnum between the robust heyday of Victorian fiction and the golden era of modernist innovation, a formally tame holdover and depreciation of Victorian realist values. Yet if one includes both realist and modernist texts, the range of achievement in British fiction in the decade and a half of the twentieth century is extraordinary, with early peaks represented by Joseph Conrad's
Lord Jim
(1900), Henry James's
The Sacred Fount
(1901), Rudyard Kipling's
Kim
(1901), and Samuel Butler's
The Way of All Flesh
(1903), the intervening years studded by major writing by E. M. Forster and May Sinclair as well as Galsworthy's multivolume
Forsyte Saga
, H. G. Wells's series of novels addressing sex and society, and Arnold Bennett's Five Towns trilogy, then concluding with Lawrence's
Sons and Lovers
(1913) – and if we follow most literary historians who extend Edwardian fiction until World War I – Virginia Woolf ‘s
The Voyage Out
(1915) and Ford Madox Ford's
The Good Soldier
(1915), the latter a selfconsciously metahistorical meditation on the waning days of the perfect Edwardian idyll and the first self‐consciously “Edwardian” fictional work. As if to signal the passing glory of rulingclass authority, this would be the last time in which a royal name leant itself to a period of British literature (although the post‐Edwardian term “Georgian” does identify a school of poetry).
Farrell,J.G.
Authors: Crane Ralph
Published: August 2017

James Gordon Farrell was born in Liverpool, England on January 25, 1935, and grew up in Lancashire and Ireland. He began writing at an early age, contributing to the school magazine while at Rossall School in Lancashire, and theOxford Opinionas an undergraduate at Brasenose College, Oxford.
F
ord,
F
ord
M
adox
Authors: Haslam Sara
Published: August 2017

Ford Madox Ford is known, in the main, for his two acknowledged masterpieces,
The Good Soldier
and the four novels that, together, make up
Parade's End: Some Do Not …, No More Parades, A Man Could Stand Up –
, and
Last Post. The Good Soldier
is counted among the classics of modernism. Rebecca West cited the “wonders of its technique” in her contemporary review. Students of the period read the novel at first for these wonders, contending with its quintessentially unreliable narrator, John Dowell, as well as his tale of social disintegration, sexual intrigue, and violent death. Anthony Burgess called
Parade's End
“the finest novel about the First World War.” Its perfectly weighted opening sentence introduces a text that is now familiar to many. Ford's oeuvre includes a further nearly 80 books, however, and spans a great range of genres. Born in 1873, Ford was first published in 1891. He wrote fiction, fairy tales, poetry, and biography at the start of his career, caught and inspired by an extraordinary combination of late nineteenth‐century influences. Most notably, this early work revealed a dedicated attention to his Pre‐Raphaelite beginnings; Ford's grandfather Ford Madox Brown illustrated his first publication, a fairy tale called
The Brown Owl
(1891), and Edward Burne‐Jones the later
The Queen Who Flew
(1894).
G
alsworthy,
J
ohn
Authors: Hargreaves Tracy
Published: August 2017

John Galsworthy owes what he termed his “passport … for the shores of permanence” (Marrot 497) to two trilogies,
The Forsyte Saga
(1922) and
A Modern Comedy
(1929). Through his Forsytes, Galsworthy observed the feuding dynamics of the intergenerational middle‐class family to explore and symbolize the cultural and moral dynamics of England from the late Victorian to the modern period (1886 to the late 1920s). Aesthetics, sexual desire, the location of home, and a number of class‐based issues percolate through the two trilogies, marking the boundaries of transitional cultural change.
G
ibbon,
L
ewis
G
rassic
Authors: Mcculloch Margery Palmer
Published: August 2017

Lewis Grassic Gibbon was the pen name adopted by James Leslie Mitchell for the Scottish fiction he published between
Sunset Song
in 1932 and his untimely death from peritonitis on February 7, 1935. He was born into a farming family in Aberdeenshire on February 13, 1901 and spent his childhood from the age of 8 in Arbuthnott in the neighboring Howe of the Mearns. He himself did not wish to work on the land, and left home to train as a journalist in Aberdeen. He had strong socialist commitments, and when sent to cover the formation of an Aberdeen soviet after the Russian Revolution in 1917, his enthusiasm resulted in him being (temporarily) elected to the new committee. Later, he again became involved with communist sympathizers when working in Glasgow. He left journalism in 1919 and joined the Royal Army Service Corps, serving in the Far East. When this engagement came to an end and employment opportunities in civilian life were few, he entered the Royal Air Force in a clerking capacity, eventually setting up home in Welwyn Garden City.
G
olding,
W
illiam
Authors: Mccarron Kevin
Published: August 2017

William Golding's literary career is clearly divisible into three distinct phases. The first of these begins with
Lord of the Flies
(1954),
The Inheritors
(1955),
Pincher Martin
(1956),
Free Fall
(1959) and ends with the publication of
The Spire
in 1964. The second phase incorporates thevolumeofessays
The Hot Gates
(1965), the novel
The Pyramid
(1967) and the three short stories collected as
The Scorpion God
(1971). With the exception of the collection of essays
AMovingTarget
(1982) and the travel book
An Egyptian Journey
(1985), the third phase comprises novels alone, beginning with the publication of
Darkness Visible
(1979). These were followed by
Rites of Passage
(1980),
The Paper Men
(1984),
Close Quarters
(1987),
Fire Down Below
(1989), and then the posthumously published
The Double Tongue
(1995).
G
unn,
N
eil
M
.
Authors: Mcculloch Margery Palmer
Published: August 2017

Neil M. Gunn was one of the writers associated with the Scottish literary revival in the post‐1918 period, initiated by the poet Hugh MacDiarmid and popularly known as the Scottish Renaissance. He was born on November 8, 1891 in Dunbeath, a small fishing and crofting village on the Caithness coast of northeast Scotland. One of a family of nine children, including seven sons, his early childhood was spent in Dunbeath until, at the age of 13, he was sent south to Galloway to live with his sister and her husband. Later he joined the Civil Service and spent several years in London and Edinburgh before returning to Caithness as an excise officer in 1922.
H
amilton,
P
atrick
Authors: Johnsen Rosemary Erickson
Published: August 2017

Patrick Hamilton, novelist and playwright, was an important voice of the interwar period. He shared the interest in leftist politics common to writers of the time, but he gave expression to a distinctive group of people on the margins of English society, eschewing coal miners and the middle classes alike to focus on those he called the “semi‐proletariat.” The enduring interest of Hamilton's novels resides in his distinctive prose style and in his characteristic settings of pubs, boarding houses, and cafes populated by lower‐middle‐class characters trying to maintain their respectability. Although he is perhaps most widely known for his stage plays
Rope
and
Gas Light
, Hamilton thought of himself primarily as a novelist. His fiction has enjoyed periodic bursts of renewed interest since his last novel, published in 1955; his place in the early twenty‐first century seems secure on three fronts: as a chronicler of lower‐middle‐class London, as a leftist novelist, and as an author with keen insights into the obsessive, often alcoholic, personality.
I
sherwood,
C
hristopher
Authors: Hopkins Chris
Published: August 2017

Christopher Isherwood was a significant twentieth‐century literary figure in his own right and as a member of the “Auden group.” In his association with this group, Isherwood is strongly linked to a particular literary period, the 1930s, and its concerns. However, his own career as a writer falls into two periods: his work of the 1930s and his work after his move to the United States in 1939. W. H. Auden also moved from England to America in 1939 and both he andIsherwood then replaced political commitment with religious belief. While Auden returned to the Anglican belief in which he had been brought up, Isherwood discovered the Hindu spiritual tradition of Vedanta, which influenced much of his American writing. Two themes do, however, run clearly through both of Isherwood's periods: his fascination with autobiography and the nature of the self, and a related desire to explore freely his identity as a homosexual.
Jewish Fiction
Authors: Stähler Axel
Published: August 2017

The beginning of the twenty‐first century has seen what has been described as a dazzling show of productivity in British Jewish fiction. Moreover, recent British Jewish writing appears to have developed a quality of its own which, to some extent, distinguishes it from its antecedents. The apologetic strain that has characterized much of the secular writing of British Jews since the early nineteenth century has given way largely to a new confidence which, in terms of postcolonial theory, has been called a form of writing back. Contemporary British Jewish writers are being credited with an “attitude” (Cheyette 1998) and their fiction is perceived to celebrate “the anarchic potential of the Jewish voice” (Weber 2007). There remains, however, a lingering doubt as to the reach and the resilience of this new‐found freedom; a sense of exclusion from the mainstream of British cultural life seems to prevail, even if perhaps only subliminally.
J
oyce,
J
ames
Authors: Norris Margot
Published: August 2017

James Joyce was born in Rathgar, a suburb of Dublin, Ireland, on February 2, 1882, and died in Zurich, Switzerland, on January 13, 1941. His father came from a well‐to‐do Cork family that invested him with the means and standing to consider himself “a gentleman.” A boisterous, entertaining character, he failed to develop a sustained career or profession. Joyce's mother was a cultured, even‐tempered woman whose efforts to maintain her family in middle‐class comfort and respectability were eroded by sustained pregnancies and debts that consumed her husband's legacy and drove the family into deeper and deeper poverty. Bythe time Joyce was 12 years old, the family had 10 surviving children, 11 mortgages, and no remaining property.
Kennedy,A. L.
Authors: Mitchell Kaye
Published: August 2017

Alison Kennedy was born in Dundee on October 22, 1965. While doing a BA in theater studies at Warwick University (1983–6), she began writing dramatic monologues and scripts, and she has since produced a diverse array of work to great critical acclaim and increasing commercial success. In addition to her novels and short stories, Kennedy has written two non‐fiction books (on bullfighting and the Powell and Pressburger filmThe Life and Death of Colonel Blimp);a play (TheAudition)for the Edinburgh Festival Fringe, and scripts for live performances (both theater/devised pieces and dance) and for film (Stella Does Tricks, 1998); and innumerable journalistic pieces on the arts and on politics. As well as receiving numerous prizes for her own work and being listed twice (1993 and 2003) as one ofGranta's “Best of Young British Novelists,” she has served as a judge of the Booker Prize, the Guardian First Book Prize, and the Orange Prize. Recently, she has collaborated with Scottish musicians for theBallads of the Bookalbum (2007) and has turned her hand to stand‐up comedy, doing one‐woman shows in comedy clubs in Edinburgh and Glasgow.