bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Action of Light on Cellulose dyed with Vat Dyes
Authors: LANDOLT A.
Published: July 2010

The tendering activity of thirty–eight vat dyes has been examined by various tests, and an attempt made to discover from the constitutions of the dyes which substituents are responsible for tendering or non–tendering properties.

It is found that most of the anthraquinone–carbazole dyes tested are non–tendering. The tests on other groups of dyes show that certain substituents appear to exert a tendering influence and others a protective action. It seems that the simpler chemical compounds of the vat dye series have an inherent tendering action, which is repressed or enhanced by the nature and orientation of the substituents and the resulting configuration. It therefore seems unlikely that any general rule of tendering based on the chemical constitution of the dyes can be given.

A difficulty in estimating the relation of constitution to tendering is the impossibility of comparing dyes of different light absorption, since the light energy depends on the wavelength.

It is also found that both oxidation and reduction phenomena can be brought about by irradiating cotton dyed with vat dyes. This result confirms earlier suggestions that the tendering reaction may be caused by a succession of reducing and oxidising processes.
Photosensitisation of Polymerisation Reactions
Authors: WHYTE R. B. , MELVILLE H. W.
Published: July 2010

Some experiments in the photosensitisation of polymerisation of vinyl acetate and of methacrylic acid in aqueous solutions are described, the primary object being to investigate photochemical radical production in organic liquids and in aqueous solutions.
The Mechanism of the Photochemical Degradation of Textile Material
Authors: EGERTON G. S.
Published: July 2010

The photochemical degradation of textile materials is discussed under two main heads—

I. PHOTOLYTIC DEGRADATION WITH Short‐WAVE ULTRA‐VIOLET RADIATION‐ The degradation of cotton and other textile fibres with radiation of wavelength 2537 A. is not dependent upon the presence of oxygen in the surrounding atmosphere. In some cases (e. g. cotton and visoose rayon) the loss in strength in carbon dioxide or nitrogen is nearly as great as in oxygen; in other cases (e. g. nylon) there is greater degradation in oxygen, but still substantial degradation in carbon dioxide.

The effect of vat dyes on the rate of degradation of cotton is discussed. All the vat dyes examined were found to desensitise the photolytio degradation of cellulose. Dyes such as Caledon Yellow 5G and Cibanone Yellow R decreased the degradation of cotton in atmospheric air, dry oxygen, and inert gases.

II. PHOTOCHEMICAL OXIDATION WITH NEAR ULTRA‐VIOLET AND VISIBLE LIGHT‐ The photochemical degradation of cotton and other textile fibres by light transmitted through glass is increased by various dyes and pigments. The sensitising dyes may belong to the following classes‐ vat, acetate, direct cotton, basic, acid, and sulphur; the pigments include zinc oxide, zinc sulphide, and titanium dioxide. The degradation of the various textile fibres is dependent upon the presence of oxygen in the surrounding atmosphere and is negligible in its absence. The mechanism of the degradation is discussed, and the evidence for the suggestion that the degradation is due to oxidation of the fibre by activated oxygen and hydrogen peroxide is examined. Evidence is described which favours the belief that activated oxygen is a metastable form of molecular oxygen.
The Application of s‐Bisalkoxymethylureas (Dialkyl Ethers of Dimethylolurea) to Wool
Authors: Alexander P. , Carter D. , Earland C.
Published: July 2010

Condensates derived from dialkyl ethers of dimethylolurea have been applied to wool fabrio with a view to rendering it unshrinkable. Although the lower ethers are ineffective for this purpose, the condensate from the di‐n‐butyl ether makes fabric unshrinkable with a deposit of less than 10%. Fabric treated with this condensate possesses a greatly improved resistance to abrasion, and yarn an increased tensile strength. It is considered that resins derived from these ethers function by a “spot‐welding” mechanism, as do the melamine resins and anhydrooarboxyglycine.

We wish to thank Messrs. Wolsey Ltd. for permission to publish this paper.
Mothproofing
Authors: Moncrirff R.W.
Published: July 2010

R. W. Moncrieff
The Cellulose–Dye Complex
Authors: PRESTON J. M. , TSIEN P. C.
Published: July 2010

It is shown that an orientation factor can be derived from the dichroism of dyed fibres. Orientation factors, of certain regenerated cellulose fibres, derived by different methods are compared. Values are quoted for the orientation factors of the same fibres derived from polarised fluorescence, dichroism, birefringence, X–rays, and swelling anisotropy.
The Cuticle of Wool
Authors: GRALÉN ST.
Published: July 2010

Friction between wool fibres is smaller than friction between other fibres. This is explained by a thin fibre coating, the epicuticle, which was discovered by means of the electron microscope. The epicuticle is resistant to chlorine, acids, and enzymes. Alkaline treatment perforates it. The cuticle below the epiouticle consists of an intermediate layer, the exocuticle, and the scale substance proper, the endocuticle. The epicuticle prevents diffusion of large molecules, e. g. –those of dyes. The Allwörden reaction and staining tests for damage are explained by the existence of the epicuticle. It is easily damaged by mechanical treatments. Its removal gives an increase in fibre friction and thereby anti–felting properties. The importance of the frietional properties of fibres for spinning and wearing qualities is stressed.
The Application of Vat Dyes to Wool and Wool–Rayon Staple Mixtures
Authors: CHBBTHAM R. C.
Published: July 2010

It is well known that difficulties are encountered when vat dyes are applied to animal fibres by normal methods chiefly owing to the loss of tensile strength due to the fibres being attacked by the alkaline liquors. In addition, when animal fibres are found in admixture with cellulosic fibres, it is often desirable to obtain solid shades on both types of fibres with vat dyes. In this paper methods are suggested for achieving both these aims by incorporating Bodium metadisilicate in the alkaline reducing liquor, and then adding sodium bisulphate to reduce alkalinity and secure Bolidity of shade. The procedure may also be adopted for the dyeing of wool alone with all classes of vat dyes provided the leuco compound is sufficiently soluble.
Fixed Standards for Staining Assessment in Fastness Testing
Authors: Davies O. L. , Marney E.
Published: July 2010

A series of twenty‐four patterns, representing typical stains likely to be encountered in fastness testing, were assessed by 103 assessors, making 3192 assessments in all; each assessment was made with both the I.C.I, standards (nine hues) and the Munsell grey standards.

Statistical analysis of the results showed that the difference in reliability of the two scales was not of sufficient magnitude to be of practical importance. Although the two scales were developed independently, the differences between them are surprisingly small, and for all practical purposes the scales may be regarded as identical.
Developments in the Dyeing of Piece Goods with Vat Dyes
Authors: Haworth D. , Kilby W.
Published: July 2010

The trend in the development of the application of vat dyes to piece goods has been outlined. Whilst a survey of the whole field has been made, so far as is possible from the published literature, particular attention has been paid to the difficulties encountered in developing the Standfast molten‐metal machine as a bulk production unit.
The Yarn Producer's Problems in the Dyeing of Nylon
Authors: Palmer H. J.
Published: July 2010

The factors in the molecular structure of 66 nylon which control its dyeing properties are identified. Amine end‐group content and degree of order are shown experimentally to be the most important. Examples are given of the use of the experimental work in (a) the control and investigation of the nylon production process, and (b) the choice of dyes of good levelling and covering properties on nylon. On the basis of the latter a classification of anionic dyes is proposed.
The Reaction of Acrylonitrile with Macromolecular Hydroxy Substances I—A General Survey of the Reaction
Authors: MacGregor J. H.
Published: July 2010

The interaction of acrylonitrile with the reactive hydrogen atoms of the hydroxy groups of macro‐molecular organic substances such as cellulose, starch, and polyvinyl alcohol is described. It is shown that water‐insoluble (caustic alkali‐soluble), water‐soluble, and acetone‐soluble β‐cyanoethyl ethers are produced by modifying the molar amounts of acrylonitrile reacting with these macromolecular hydroxy substances. The properties of these partly and fully cyanoethylated ethers are reviewed and probable industrial applications suggested, with special reference to the textile field.

The nature of the rather complex reactions which occur when acrylonitrile reacts with aqueous solutions of these high polymers in the presence of a caustic alkali as catalyst is discussed and explained. The stepwise course of the alkaline hydrolysis of the β‐cyanoethyl ethers is also described.
The Reaction of Acrylonitrile with Macromolecular Hydroxy Substances II—The Production and Uses of Water‐insoluble, Alkali‐soluble Cyanoethyl Cellulose Ethers as Soluble Yarns
Authors: MacGbegor J. H. , Pugh C.
Published: July 2010

The conditions under which viscose and acrylonitrile react so that cyanoethyl cellulose yarns, which are insoluble in water but soluble in cold weak aqueous solutions of the caustic alkalis and quaternary ammonium hydroxides, can be spun, are outlined; the chemistry of the complex reaction is fully discussed. The usefulness of these cyanoethyl cellulose yarns as soluble reinforcing threads for twistless cotton fabrics and as substitutes for the draw‐thread in the continuous production of children's half and quarter hose composed of cotton and/or viscose rayon yarns is considered. Finally, a very brief account is given of the dyeing of these yarns with direct cotton dyes.
Some Aspects of the Drying and Heating of Textiles
Authors: Preston J. M. , Nimkar M. V. , Gundavda S. P.
Published: July 2010

Changes of the properties of fibres after various thermal treatments have been investigated, and it has been found that the amount of change depends on the moisture content and the temperature of treatment. Swelling, moisture absorption, and dye absorption decrease, whilst density increases, as a result of the thermal treatment.
A Study of the Polymerisation of Methacrylamide in Wool
Authors: Boardman N. K. , Lipson M.
Published: July 2010

Methacrylamide has been found to have little affinity for wool, the maximum absorption from a 4% solution being equivalent to only 2.6% of the weight of wool. Absorption, which is initially fast, reaches equilibrium in about 16 hr. and is directly proportional to the molarity of the solution, the activation energy for a 4% solution being 800 g.cal./mole. As pretreatment of the wool with alcoholic alkali increases the rate of absorption, the rate‐controlling process is probably diffusion through the fibre‐surface. Wool containing polymethacrylamide shows an increased absorption‐rate for monomer, the activation energy being 8000 g.cal./mole. Amounts of polymer considerably in excess of the maximum absorption of monomer can be formed in wool; to explain this, it is considered that there is a rapid replacement of monomer in the wool to compensate for that removed during polymerisation, and that this continues until polymerisation is terminated.
Some Aspects of the Drying and Heating of Textiles VII—The Stability of Thermal Modifications of Fibres in Subsequent Treatments
Authors: Preston J. M. , Gundavda S. P.
Published: July 2010

Reduced swelling produced by the steaming of fibres has been investigated for its stability. Samples of steamed fibres have boon given hot dilute‐acid and alkaline treatments. The reduced swelling of steamed viscose and cuprammonium fibres was found to bo reasonably stable to the treatments given to them.
Some Further Investigations into the Fading Rates of Monoazo Dyes
Authors: Atherton E. , Peters R. H.
Published: July 2010

The fading rates of a aeries of simple monoazo dyes have been investigated with a view to assessing the effect of substituent groups on light fastness. Work reported previously has been checked and extended by the inclusion of dyes with etectrophilic substituent groups. The linear relation between destruction efficiency and the Hammett δ value for the substituent group previously reported has been found to be slightly in error and has been modified accordingly. Possible reaction mechanisms are discussed.
Package Dyeing I—A Theoretical Model and its Relation to Technical Practice
Authors: Boulton J. , Crank J.
Published: July 2010

The general problem of package dyeing is outlined and a theoretical model is discussed in detail. This is the first step in an attempt to gain a fuller understanding of the basic processes operating within the package. The model is shown to lead to results which are in general agreement with observations from standard dyeing practice. The necessity of avoiding high exhaustion is confirmed by the model, and it is emphasised that level dyeing is most likely to be secured by rapid flow and low exhaustion. A number of ways in which the practical dyer may seek to produce uniformly dyed packages are examined critically from the point of view of their feasibility in commercial dyeing.
A Note on the Action of Nickelammonium Hydroxide on Proteins in General
Authors: Bell J. W. , Whewell C. S.
Published: July 2010

Nickelammonium hydroxide combines not only with wool, but also with feather keratin, hide powder, egg albumen, casein, and formalised casein. Some proteins dissolve yielding red solutions, from which metal‐containing complexes may be obtained by addition of ethyl alcohol. The nickel content of these complexes is high. Polyglycine is soluble in concentrated solutions of nickelammonium hydroxide.
Mélange or Vigoureux Printing
Authors: Buxtorf F. , Wiazmitinow A.
Published: July 2010

This paper describes the equipment and the methods used in the Vigoureux printing process for wool, rayon staple, and polyamide fibre slubbing.
The Flow Properties of Textile Printing Pastes
Authors: Debby R. L. , Higginbotham R. S.
Published: July 2010

The coslour pastes employed in the machine printing of textiles are rheologically complex fluids, the viscosity coefficient falling with increase in rate of shear or shearing stress. In order to relate the viscosity of a paste with the quality of the resulting print, it is essential that the measurements of apparent viscosity should be made at the operative shearing stresses. Sharpness of definition is shown to be controlled by the viscosity of the printing paste at a shearing stress of 4500 dynes/sq.cm., and levelness by the viscosity at low stresses of the order of 100 dynes/sq.cm. Viscosity ranges suitable for the printing of fine lines, pegs, and blotches are indicated. The amount of anomaly which can be tolerated in pastes intended for the printing of fine lines is greater than in those intended for the printing of pegs and blotches, where the conflicting requirements of levelness and definition have to be satisfied.
The Reduction of Vat Dyes in Printing Pastes
Authors: Marshall W. J. , Peters R. H.
Published: July 2010

The relation between the reduction properties of vat dyes measured under conditions akin to practice and their printing properties has been examined. Leuco potentials have been determined from electrometric titrations in aqueous solutions, and they have been found to govern the sensitivity of the dyes to the Formosul concentration.

Complementary to these measurements are those in which the reducing strengths of the pastes have been determined from the potentials developed at a platinum electrode. These results have been related to the leuco potentials of the dyes, and it has been shown that the maximum potentials reached are adequate to reduce all the dyes. Their duration, however, is short for the low concentrations of Formosul and long for the high concentrations. This is due to decomposition of the reducing agent in the presence of gum, and some decomposition rates are given.

The rates of reduction have been measured in print pastes using a model steamer. The times required for complete reduction cover a wide range, but for most dyes they are a substantial proportion of the time allowed for steaming, and must be considered when the printing efficiency of a dye is assessed.

Finally, provided the dye is completely reduced, the maximum fixation is determined by its affinity; rates of diffusion in the fibre, solubility of the leuco dye in the paste, and acid leuco formation do not appear to be important.
Thiourea Dioxide (Formamidinesulphinic Acid) A New Reducing Agent for Textile Printing
Authors: Krug P.
Published: July 2010

Thiourea dioxide, an oxidation product of thiourea, is a reducing agent which is stable both in solid form and in cold aqueous solution. It has a slight acidic reaction, and acquires full reducing power only when heated in aqueous solution to about 100°C. This paper briefly describes the chemistry of thiourea dioxide, and dealB with it as a reducing agent for vat dyes in the direct and discharge printing of cellulose acetate, silk, and wool. Owing to its acidic properties, these fibres can be printed with a minimum of degradation and great safety of production. The new reducing agent has been tried on a practical scale, and results of trials are demonstrated.
Observations on Textile Printing in the U.S.A.
Authors: Habel Otto
Published: July 2010

Textile printing in the U.S.A. is discussed with particular emphasis on the more recent developments. The paper deals in the main with machine and screen printing, but passing reference is made to hand block and spray printing.
The Combination of Wool with Acids
Authors: Peters L.
Published: July 2010

Conclusions drawn from experiments on the combination of keratin with mixtures of sulphuric and hydrochloric acids 1,5 are criticised. Inconsistencies in the data are corrected, and the results recalculated on this basis.

It is shown that the statistical test employed cannot be used to decide between rival theories, and the exact meaning to be attached to t‐values is illustrated by an example.

A critical examination is made of the assumptions which have to be made to test the Donnan and Gilbert‐.

Rideal theories, and the claim that these data favour the latter is rejected.
The Dyeing of Cellulose Acetate with Non‐ionic Dyes
Authors: Majury T. G.
Published: July 2010

Measurements of the rates of dyeing of five “model” dyes on cellulose secondary acetate and triacetate have been used to evaluate the apparent diffusion coefficients of the dyes. The coefficients are shown to have a twofold activation energy: one part is identifiable with the free energy of dyeing, and the other is attributable to mechanical obstruction of the diffusing dye by the body of the substrate. This suggests that a dye molecule penetrating cellulose acetate undergoes alternate absorption by the acetate and solution by the water, and that diffusion takes place in the aqueous phase.
Some Factors in the Measurement of Affinities of Vat Dyes for Cellulose
Authors: Peters R. H. , Simons J.
Published: July 2010

Isotherms have been obtained for the adsorption of Caledon Red BN and Caledon Red 5G by cuprammonium rayon yarn at 40c. in the presence of varying concentrations of sodium chloride and sodium hydroxide. It is shown that consistent values for the affinity of these dyes are obtained only when account is taken of the absorption of hydroxyl ions by the fibre. The use of the “equivalent chloride” ion concentration in calculating the affinity is discussed and shown to be satisfactory.
The Design and Construction of a Differential Refractometer for Measurements on Coloured Solutions
Authors: Atherton E. , Cowgill E.
Published: July 2010

A differential refractometer, suitable for the measurement of refractive indices of dyes, is described and some of its uses are indicated. The instrument is of the prism type, utilising a small spectrometer to provide monochromatic light. Refractive index values are obtained by means of a rotating mirror driven by a differential screw, which cancels the deviation conferred on the light beam by the dye solution.

Several advantages of the instrument for measurements in spectral regions of maximum absorpation are discussed.
A Study of Certain Natural Dyes II‐The Structure of the Metallic Lakes of the Brazilwood and Logwood Colouring Matters
Authors: Arshid F. M. , Connelly R. F. , Desai J. N. , Fulton R. G. , Giles C. H. , Kefalas J. C.
Published: July 2010

The lake‐forming reactions of the oxidised and reduced forms of the logwood and brazilwood colouring matters with the more important mordanting metals have been investigated. The oxidised forms appear to be the lake‐forming species, the o‐hydroxyquinone system of the molecule chelating with the mordanting metal atom; the leuco forms must first be oxidised by air or the mordanting salt before lake formation can take place. When a chromate or a dichromate is used as mordant, this is first reduced to the chromic cation, at the expense of the total destruction of some of the colouring matter, before lake formation occurs.

The logwood colouring matter, when treated with a chromium salt in solution or on the fibre, forms a deep blue 2: 1 (dye: metal) complex, which is preceded by a transient purple 1: 1 complex. Aluminium, cobalt, and (ferric) iron also form 2: 1 complexes, and copper appears to form a 1: 1 complex.

The lakes formed in substance are amorphous, infusible, and almost insoluble in all solvents. Exact characterisation of these bodies, which appear to be mixtures, is not practicable, but by a consideration of probable reaction sequences, in conjunction with the elementary analyses, a series of formulæ have been drawn up which are believed to represent their most probable constitutions. The development of insolubility is believed to be due to one or more of the following effects‐ mutual precipitation of cationic or anionic lakes by complex anions or cations respectively, formation of non‐ionic lakes, and the form of condensation polymerisation known as “olation“.

It is suggested that similar changes occur in the fibre during the normal mordanting and dyeing processes, and that parallel reaction sequences may take place in dyeing other forms of mordant dye.

The deep blue‐black logwood lake on the fibre is believed to be a mixture of an anionic complex, e.g. [hnCr(OH)2hn]‐ [Cr(OH)2H2O)4+, 4H2O with the derived olated body‐The iron lake is probably similar in constitution.

In addition to the action of the chelating groups, the phenolic groups not in the quinonoid nucleus of the colouring matter molecule appear to take part also in salt formation with cobalt or copper, but not with chromium or iron.
The Chemistry of Esters of Leuco Vat DyesndashI*
Authors: Ainsworth S. , Johnson A.
Published: July 2010

The oxidation, with acidic hydrogen peroxide, of the disulphurie esters of leuco antbraquinone‐2‐sulphonic acid and of leuco indigo‐5:7:5′:7′‐tetrasulphonic acid has been investigated. It has been shown that direct oxidation of the ester occurs and is mainly a univalent change, in which only one sulphate group is eliminated from the ester, leading to the formation of a relatively stable semiquinone derivative. Oxidation with nitrous acid has been examined briefly, and it has been shown that oxygen plays an important part.
The Mechanisms of some Reactions between N‐Halogenoamines and Wool*
Authors: Earland Christopher
Published: July 2010

It is shown that the reactions occurring between wool and N‐halogenoamines do not proceed by common mechanisms. Although these reactions are complex, it is concluded thatndash

(a) N‐Chlorourea diffuses into the fibre, where the chlorine produced by the equilibrium—

NH2·CO·NHCl+H++CI‐NH2·CO·NH2+Cl2

reacts with the keratin. This explains why the properties of the wool after reaction with N‐chlorourea differ from those of wool which has been treated with chlorine in acid solution, since under the latter conditions reaction proceeds from the outside to the interior of the fibre.

(b) It has been shown previously that N‐chlorosulphamic acid enters into reactions with wool in acid solution, although reactions that confer unshrinkability occur only in presence of chloride ions at high concentration. Kinetic studies indicate that the rate‐determining stop in these reactions is the ionexchange process that determines the rate of access of the N‐chlorosulphamic acid to the wool. The overall rate of the reactions occurring is accordingly reduced by increasing the concentration of anions, including chloride ions, in the solution. Examination of a number of anions, other than chloride, as possible promoters of the anti‐shrink reaction indicates that nitrate also is a promoter, though much less effective than chloride.

(c) The high concentrations of free bromine which are produced when solutions of N‐bromoacetamide and N‐bromosuccinimide react with wool show that these reactions are essentially brominations. In the initial stages direct reaction between the bromamines and wool is possible, the rate‐controlling factor being a diffusion process.
The Dyeing of Acetate Rayon with Disperse Dyes III‐The Influence of Dispersing Agents on the Rate of Dyeing
Authors: Bird C. L. , Harris Miss P. , Manchester F.
Published: July 2010

It is shown that the dispersing agents added to disperse dyebaths stabilise the dye suspension and act as restraining and retarding agents. With some dyes, especially at low temperatures, the normal retarding effect is reversed, probably owing to an increase in the rate of dissolution of crystalline particles of dye in presence of dispersing agent.
An Explanation of Dyeing Mechanisms in Terms of Non‐polar Bonding
Authors: Derbyshire A. N. , Peters R. H.
Published: July 2010

Inadequacies are demonstrated in previous attempts to explain dyeing mechanisms on the assumption of polar forces between dye and fibre. The important part played by non‐polar forces in adsorption phenomena generally is illustrated by examples. It is postulated that such forces are mainly responsible for dye‐fibre attachment and that in aqueous solution they occur between hydrophobic surfaces.

The relative importance of hydrophobic and hydrophilic properties in fibres is deduced from their moisture regain figures and is discussed in relation to fibre structure. The properties of dyes are then similarly considered. Thence the dyeing behaviour of each type of fibre is predicted from the postulate that dye substantivity is due to non‐polar forces. It is concluded that this assumption is sufficient to explain the methods adopted for dyeing different fibres and that it eliminates anomalies incapable of explanation on the assumption that dye‐fibre attachment is due to polar forces.
The Combination of Wool with Acids
Authors: Olofsson B.
Published: July 2010

In reply to criticism by L. Peters, comparisons between different methods of calculating and predicting equilibrium constants (pK) for exchange of Cl‐ and SO ions on wool are considered. The Gilbert‐Rideal theory accounts for the experimental value of pK=0.50‐1.00, whereas the Donnan theory does not. The influence of swelling volume and ionic volumes, the meaning of pK > 0, the relationship between thermodynamic potential and pH, and the influence of the ionic strength are also discussed, providing further justification for the use of the Gilbert‐Rideal theory. Thus the earlier conclusions of the author are in the main correct.
The Separation and Examination of Fibre Blends
Authors: LINDLEY F. W.
Published: July 2010

A flotation method of wide applicability for the separation of fibre blends has been developed. The method has been used for quantitative separations and in the examination of blends where information about the physical or chemical properties of the component fibres was required.
The Rates of Desorption of Level‐dyeing Acid Dyes from Wool
Authors: NICHOLLS C. H.
Published: July 2010

A study of the initial rates of desorption of level‐dyeing acid dyes from wool into sodium borate (borax) solution has indicated a linear relationship between the dye removed, expressed as a percentage of the total dye initially present, and the square root of the time. Activation energies of diffusion during desorption from wool have been determined for several dyes.

The effects of method of application of dye, nature of dye, and nature of substrate on rates of desorption of acid dyes from wool have been determined. It is shown that the rate of desorption is controlled by the relative magnitudes of the forces of repulsion between the charged fibre and the dye anion and the forces of attraction, such as van der Waals, hydrogen bonds, etc., between fibre and dye. Any fibre modifieation which results in an increase in the number of free acidic groups, such as dyeing at low pH values, acid chlorination. or peroxide bleaching, increases the rate of removal of dye by alkaline solution.
The Disperse Dyes — Their Development and Application
Authors: FOURNESS R. K.
Published: July 2010

The disperse dyes have come to be applied to a very large number and variety of fibres and have therefore achieved an importance which is probably greater than the weights used would suggest. They were the first type to be applied directly to a fibre from an insoluble suspension. Their preparation includes a process of particle size reduction and often subsequent drying, both in the presence of a dispersing agent. The mechanism of dyeing with them would seem to entail their passing from suspension through solution on to the fibre, to which they become attached by non‐polar forces.

The colouring matters used in the preparation of disperse dyes belong mainly to three chemical groups. The connection between dyeing and fastness properties on the one hand and chemical constitution on the other is in general indefinite. However, the best fastnesses are obtained by moving in the direction of greater molecular complexity, but this unfortunately is accompanied by a reduction in dyeing power. The introduction in recent years of the man‐made fibres has accelerated the development of new application methods, and these are assisting the dyer to utilise these more complex dyes. This tendency emphasises that the achievement of better fastness with disperse dyes will require, as with other dyeing classes, a close understanding between, and the combined efforts of, both those working on the elaboration of new dye structures and those whose interests lie in one or other aspects of dye application.
The Dyeing of Cellulose Acetate with Non‐ionic Dyes IIIndashDyeing from the Vapour Phase
Authors: Majury T. G.
Published: July 2010

A study has been made of the absorption from the vapour phase, by secondary cellulose acetate, of five model dyes. These are p‐nitroaniline, NN‐dimethyl‐p‐nitroaniline, azobenzene, p‐aminoazobenzene, and NN′‐dimethyl‐p‐aminoazobenzene. The amounts absorbed at equilibrium have been measured, and their dependence on the vapour pressure of the dyes and the temperature of the substrate has been established.

The vapour pressures of the dyes have been measured over a range of temperatures, those of azobenzene by manometry and the remainder by Knudsen's effusion method. The results together with the absorption data yield absorption isotherms from which are derived the isosteric heats of absorption of the dyes on cellulose acetate. The values, in the above order, are as followsndash21.2,–21.4,–17.8,–22.0, a22.7 kcal. /mole.

The vapour pressure data are also used to evaluate the heats of vaporisation or sublimation of the dyes. These heats are applied to aqueous dyeing data already published to derive the absolute heats of association of the dyes on cellulose acetate. The results are in substantial agreement with the heats of absorption of the vaporised dyes.

A brief study has been made of the absorption by, nylon and Terylene of vaporised azobenzene. The results for nylon yield a value for the heat of absorption of–18.0 kcal./mole. The results for Terylene are insufficiently complete for quantitative treatment.
Proceedings of the Society
Authors: Peters R. H. , Sumner H. H.
Published: July 2010

Certain blue anthraquinone acid dyes show colour changes when the dyed material is treated with acid, alkali, or salt. For eight dyes, these properties have been correlated with the changes which occur when these reagents are added to solutions of the dyes in water. Addition of acid to the dye solution gives a salt by reaction with amino groups in the dye. This results in a reduction of the intensity of the absorption band characteristic of the blue colour and produces one at shorter wavelengths. These changes have enabled the dissociation constants to be calculated, and the latter run parallel with results of acid treatment of dyed patterns. Alkali, on the other hand, reacts with any hydroxyl groups present, giving rise to a colour change. Here it is not possible to calculate the dissociation constants, but the spectral changes in solution agree with the colour changes on the fibre. Addition of salt to solutions of these dyes does not produce a wavelength change but merely a reduction in intensity, presumably due to aggregation. This effect is in agreement with the changes which occur on salt spotting. Another factor is that the salt solution may cause desorption of the dye from the fibre, and hence migration can occur. The susceptibility of a dyed fibre to salt spotting has been shown to parallel the ability of the dye to be desorbed as measured by the affinity of the dye for the fibre.
The Spectral Regions of Daylight which cause Fading
Authors: McLaren K.
Published: July 2010

Organic colouring matters are faded by absorbed ultraviolet and visible radiation up to a critical wavelength, above which radiation is non‐actinic even if strongly absorbed. This wavelength is generally related to the normal light fastness of the colouring matter, “normal” referring to the substrate for which it was originally developed, e.g. vat dyes on cotton, disperse dyes on acetate rayon. The critical wavelength decreases as the resistance to fading increases, being in the red when the light fastness is 1–2 (minimum) and in the blue when it is 6–8 (maximum); there are, however, some exceptions to this rule.

As long‐wave radiations preponderate in daylight and as the absorption bands are usually strongest in the visible spectrum, fugitive organic colouring matters are mainly faded by visible light, whilst those of high normal light fastness can in general be faded only by ultraviolet, violet, and blue light.

The differences between the composition of actinic radiation constituting daylight and that emitted by the enclosed carbon arc have been shown to be relatively unimportant as a possible source of gross anomalies in light fastness testing based on comparison with light fastness standards. These differences do, however, render meaningless any attempts to equate one hour's lamp exposure with so many hours' sunshine.
The Classification of Dyes by their Dyeing Characteristics
Authors: BEAL W.
Published: July 2010

The methods used for preparing classifications of dyes for application to wool and cotton are reviewed, and particular reference is made to the graphical representation of dyeing characteristics.
The Neutralisation of Acid‐treated Wool by Solutions of Sodium Carbonate
Authors: HARKER R. P.
Published: July 2010

Neutralisation of acid‐treated wool by solutions of sodium carbonate has been examined by measurgment of hydrogen‐ion concentrations. The effects of concentration, time, liquor ratio, and temperature on the equilibration process have been studied. A qualitative interpretation of results is given, and a quantitative treatment employing the Donnan theory of membrane equilibria has been examined.
Precise Measurement of Fading on a Time‐Intensity Basis
Authors: MUDD J. S.
Published: July 2010

Difficulties with B.S. 1006 are discussed, particularly with reference to its use for testing a wider range of materials than was originally intended. It is necessary to recognise as fading changes in appearance, resulting from the action of light, other than simple destruction of colour. The precise, if arbitrary, point at which a colour may be said to have faded can be determined by means of a combined chromaticity and luminance tolerance derived from measurements in C. I. E. terms. From a consideration of their spectral energy distributions, the artificial light sources in common use for fading tests could not be expected to give results comparable with those obtained with natural daylight, but the light from a xenon arc is shown to have a similar effect to daylight. A simple type of fading lamp is described using a 150‐watt xenon lamp. Since the light falling on a pattern can be maintained at constant intensity for a considerable time and the intensity can be accurately measured, the fastness to light of such a pattern can be precisely expressed in terms of the amount of light (in kilo‐ft.‐candle‐hr.) required to fade the pattern to a predetermined colour tolerance.
Some Observations on the Dyeing of Dicel and Tricel Yarns and Fabrics
Authors: OLPIN H. C. , WOOD J.
Published: July 2010

Full colours are obtainable on Dicel and Tricel with disperse, azoic, and developed dyes. A carrier technique, no longer considered necessary for Dicel, is valuable for Tricel, for which high‐temperature dyeing also can be used. Azoic combinations, applicable to both fibres by the concurrent technique, show variable resistance to permanent change of colour on ironing. Some combinations are substantially free from this trouble, but in all cases where it takes place it is associated with change in the degree of aggregation, which suggests redispersion of the dye aggregates in the fibre.

Developed navy blues and blacks are more satisfactory than direct dyeings, and 3‐hydroxy‐2‐naphthoic acid can be used as a developer for both navy blues and blacks on Tricel owing to its greater resistance to change in colour with alkali on that fibre.

Disperse dyes of the C. I. Disperse Blue 27 type are acidic, and their alkali‐metal salts are very vulnerable to destruction by light and by oxidising agents, which imposes restrictions on their usefulness on Dicel. On Tricel, however, where salt formation does not take place, these blues are quite safe for all purposes.
The Continuous Dyeing of Secondary Cellulose Acetate, Cellulose Triacetate, and Terylene Polyester Fibre by the Vapocol Process
Authors: Garrett D. A.
Published: July 2010

A continuous dyeing technique is described in which fabrics of secondary cellulose acetate, cellulose triacetate, and Terylene are padded with disperse dyes and, after being dried, are subsequently immersed in the saturated vapour of trichloroethylene for times up to 60 sec. to fix the dyes on the fibres. The exhaustion and the fastness properties of dyes fixed by this means on secondary cellulose acetate and cellulose triacetate fibres are at least equal to those obtained by conventional dyeing methods; dyeings on Terylene are limited to pale and medium depths on filament fabrics. The construction and the operation of a continuous plant handling 12‐in. wide fabrics at speeds up to 10 yd./min. are described. The process is suitable, without modification, for dyeing blends of these fibres with viscose rayon and cotton, making use of reactive dyes for the cellulosic component.
The Dyeing of Cellulose Acetate with Disperse Dyes: VII—A Comparison with their Solubility in Organic Solvents
Authors: Bird C. L.
Published: July 2010

The well known parallel between the solubility of disperse dyes in certain organic solvents and their suitability for dyeing secondary cellulose acetate has been examined. It is shown that, at room temperature, a close relationship is obtained only by using a solvent containing an appreciable amount of water, e.g. 20% aqueous diethylene glycol diacetate (DEGDA).
Unlevel Dyeing in Wool Velour Cloth
Authors: Parker F. J.
Published: July 2010

It has been found that mechanical abrasion can be a cause of unlevelness in the dyeing of woollen cloth with anthraquinonoid acid dyes.
A Study of the Physical State of Methylene Blue (C.I. Basic Blue 9) in Dyed Films and its Relation to light Fading Rates
Authors: Campbell D. S. E. , Giles C. H.
Published: July 2010

Methylene Blue in cast films of Cellofas A (ethylmethylcellulose) or cast or dyed films of gelatin is present as a mixture of molecularly dispersed and aggregated dye; this is indicated by the detection in the absorption spectra of the peaks of both forms (at ca. 6700 a. and 6200 A. respectively). When irradiated, the aggregated dye fades more slowly than the molecularly dispersed dye. Both forms are found to be present in the film during the actual dyeing operation. Disaggregating agents, viz. phenol, polyvinyl‐pyrrolidone, and urea, reduce the slope of the CF (“characteristic fading”) curve for the aggregated dye, indicating the production of a narrower range of sizes in the adsorbed micelles.
Adsorption of a Reactive Dye by Modified Celluloses
Authors: Daruwalla E. H. , Subramaniam P.
Published: July 2010

The equilibrium adsorption of commercial Procion Brilliant Red 2BS by acid‐modified cellulosie fibres and by standard cellulose altered by the specific action of different oxidising agents is studied. The equilibrium adsorption by all the fibres decreases rapidly in the initial stages of the action of acid, but tends to level off with further hydrolysis. The extent of the decrease depends mainly on the rate of removal of the hydrolysable fraction and the extent of crystallisation of the cellulose chains during the action of the acid. The reduction in dye uptake is more marked when primary alcoholic groups are converted into carboxyls than when secondary alcoholic groups are similarly oxidised.
Studies on Aminoanthraquinone Compounds I—Absorption Spectra in Solution and in the Solid State
Authors: Egerton G. S. , Roach A. G.
Published: July 2010

The ultraviolet and visible absorption spectra of six aminoanthraquinones have been determined in solution, on polymer films, and as solid deposits on quartz. The compounds were 1‐ and 2‐amino‐, 1:4‐ and 1:5‐diamino‐, 1:4:5‐triamino‐, and 1:4:5:8‐tetra‐amino‐anthraquinone. The solvents were ethyl and isopropyl alcohols, and transparent polymer films of nylon, N‐methoxymethylnylon, and secondary cellulose acetate were used. The effect of the solvent or substrate on the absorption spectrum and the problem of colour and chemical constitution in relation to the aminoanthraquinones have been discussed.
Organo‐tin Compounds as Textile Preservatives
Authors: Hueck H. J. , Luijten J. G. A.
Published: July 2010

The suitability of a number of organo‐tin compounds as preservatives for textiles has been investigated. The investigations comprise tests on the mothproofing and carpet‐beetleproofing of wool and on the rot‐proofing of jute and cotton. The tests have been combined with experiments on fastness to washing and with leaching experiments.
Recent Developments in the Application of Azoic Dyes*
Authors: Hückel M.
Published: July 2010

The paper is concerned with recent knowledge of impregnation with Naphtol AS and of coupling conditions. Influence of the type of alkali in the impregnation bath on the dyeings and on the rate‐of‐absorption curves of various coupling components is discussed. The chemistry of the coupling of azoic combinations on vegetable fibres is outlined, and practical aspects of the buffering of the developing baths are considered. The base printing style also is briefly described.
Symposium On “The Diazo Reaction Today”
Authors: Griess Peter , Boulton John
Published: July 2010

The Society held a One‐day Symposium in the Reynolds Hall of the Manchester College of Science and Technology on Friday, 26th Sept ember 1958, with the object of commemorating the Centenary of the Discovery of the Diazo Reaction by Peter Griess. The arrangements for the Symposium had been undertaken by the Manchester Section of the Society.
Relative Rates of Reduction of a Series of Azo Compounds
Authors: Warwick G. P.
Published: July 2010

The chemistry and the pharmacology of the nitrogen “mustards” are briefly summarised, and the importance of azo compounds in cancer research is indicated. The concept of “latent activity” is introduced, and special attention is devoted to thep‐phenylazo derivatives ofNN‐bischloroethylaniline as examples of such compounds used in the chemotherapy of cancer.

The literature concerning the rates of reduction of azo compounds is briefly reviewed. The rates of reduction of some derivatives of 4–NN‐bis‐2″‐chloroethylamino‐azobenzene with stannous chloride, hydrazine, and the xanthine—xanthine oxidase system are discussed in relation to the electronic character of ring substituents; attention is drawn to certain anomalous “ortho” effects. The rates of reduction are discussed also in relation to the observed tumour‐growth‐inhibiting properties of the compounds.
How much Research? A Critical Problem in the Manufacture of Textile Dyes
Authors: WHITE G. S. J.
Published: July 2010

A brief review of the history of synthetic dyestuffs manufacture reveals how important “ease of application” has been as a target for research. Resistance to washing and light is an historical part of the art and science of dyeing, and over the centuries has been absorbed by dyemakers into their essential testing and evaluation procedures. The main problem for the dye manufacturer now is the likelihood of reduced reward for speculative research.
The Mechanism of Dyeing with Procion Dyes I—The Mechanism of Alkali Adsorption by Cellulose*
Authors: Sumner H. H.
Published: July 2010

A brief historical survey is given of previous work on the mechanism of adsorption of alkali by cellulose, in which three possibilities are considered: adsorption, because the hydroxyl ion has affinity for cellulose, compound formation between alkali and cellulose, and neutralisation of the alkali by the cellulose acting as a weak acid. Using the third mechanism, a theoretical treatment involving the normal concepts of dyeing thermodynamics has been set out; it successfully predicts the amount of sodium hydroxide that will be adsorbed from alkaline baths by both viscose rayon and cotton. A discussion is given of the way in which this treatment enables affinities to be calculated for adsorption of dye from aqueous alkaline dyebaths; and it is also shown how the concept of ionised cellulose hydroxyl groups, produced by neutralisation of alkali by the fibre, provides a mechanism for dyeing with reactive dyes.

A brief historical survey is given of previous work on the mechanism of adsorption of alkali by cellulose, in which three possibilities are considered: adsorption, because the hydroxyl ion has affinity for cellulose, compound formation between alkali and cellulose, and neutralisation of the alkali by the cellulose acting as a weak acid. Using the third mechanism, a theoretical treatment involving the normal concepts of dyeing thermodynamics has been set out; it successfully predicts the amount of sodium hydroxide that will be adsorbed from alkaline baths by both viscose rayon and cotton. A discussion is given of the way in which this treatment enables affinities to be calculated for adsorption of dye from aqueous alkaline dyebaths; and it is also shown how the concept of ionised cellulose hydroxyl groups, produced by neutralisation of alkali by the fibre, provides a mechanism for dyeing with reactive dyes.