bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Mode number calculations of ULF field‐line resonances using ground magnetometers and THEMIS measurements
Authors: Sarris T. E. , Li X. , Liu W. , Argyriadis E. , Boudouridis A. , Ergun R.
Published: November 2013

Using multiple pairs of International Monitor for Auroral Geomagnetic Effects ground magnetometers together with simultaneous measurements from two of the Time History of Events and Macroscale Interactions during Substorms (THEMIS) spacecraft constellation, when they were flying over the magnetometers in magnetic conjunction and in close azimuthal separation, we are able to calculate the phase differences of Ultra Low Frequency Field‐Line Resonances, and, through that, their azimuthal mode number, wavelength and propagation characteristics. A cross‐wavelet technique is applied, that exposes the times and frequencies of common power between time series from azimuthally aligned magnetometers in space or on the ground, yielding their relative phase. Using the amplitude ratio and phase differences between ground stations with similar longitudes that are separated in latitude, a correction to the mode number calculation is demonstrated, accounting for the phase differences that arise from the L shell separation of the THEMIS probes.
Observations of nitric oxide in the Antarctic middle atmosphere during recurrent geomagnetic storms
Authors: Newnham David A. , Espy Patrick J. , Clilverd Mark A. , Rodger Craig J. , Seppälä Annika , Maxfield David J. , Hartogh Paul , Straub Corinne , Holmén Kim , Horne Richard B.
Published: November 2013

We report ground‐based measurements of the polar middle atmosphere made using a 230–250 GHz passive microwave radiometer deployed at Troll station (72°01′S 02°32′E, L shell of L = 4.8), Antarctica. Our observations show enhanced mesospheric nitric oxide (NO) volume mixing ratio (VMR) during a series of small recurrent geomagnetic storms in the 2008 austral winter, reaching 1.2 ppmv on day 200 (18 July). The Lomb normalized periodogram of the NO VMR time series averaged over 65‐80 km for days 130 to 220 of 2008 (9 May to 7 August) shows a peak exceeding the 95% confidence limit at 25.8 days, close to the synodic rotation period for low‐latitude solar coronal holes. The highest correlations between the radiometer NO VMR data and trapped and quasi‐trapped electron count rates for L = 3.5‐5.5 from the Polar Orbiting Environment Satellites 90° telescope are for the >30 keV (90e1) channel (rmax = 0.56, lag time of 5.1 days) and >100 keV (90e2) channel (rmax = 0.57, lag time of 4.4 days). Maximum correlation between NO VMR and the >700 keV (90P6) channel data is lower but lag times are close to zero. Superposed epoch analyses for the eight most significant geomagnetic storm periods and three Carrington rotations (2070‐2072) within the 90 day observation period indicate that significant NO abundance observed at 65‐80 km in the Antarctic mesosphere may be produced directly by >200 keV electron precipitation or originate from a source at higher altitudes, e.g., production by >30 keV electrons followed by downward transport.
Saturn's magnetospheric planetary period oscillations, neutral atmosphere circulation, and thunderstorm activity: Implications, or otherwise, for physical links
Authors: Cowley S. W. H. , Provan G.
Published: November 2013

Suggestions that the planetary period oscillations (PPOs) observed in Saturn's magnetosphere may be driven or influenced by neutral atmospheric perturbations motivate an exploratory comparison of PPO rotation periods with available tropospheric and stratospheric determinations. Nonpolar atmospheric rotation periods occupy the range ~10.2–10.7 h associated with the latitudinal jet structure, are similar north and south, and are independent of season, while PPO periods lie in a narrower partly overlapping range ~10.6–10.8 h, are persistently shorter north than south, and undergo a seasonal cycle. In this cycle, widely separated north‐south PPO periods during southern summer converge across equinox to values lying within the atmospheric west jet band, remaining well‐separated from east jet periods. Closest convergence occurred 1 year post equinox, contemporaneously with the switch in seasonal thunderstorm activity from Southern to Northern Hemispheres. Since most large‐scale atmospheric phenomena are related to the west jets, rotating with closely similar periods, they also rotate with periods close to the PPOs under post equinoctial conditions but not otherwise. Specifically, post equinox northern PPOs rotate with a period close to the southern thunderstorms, as well as the north polar spot and hexagon features, while the post equinox southern PPOs rotate with a period close to the pre‐equinox northern “string of pearls” and the first colocated post equinox northern thunderstorm, the Great White Spot event. However, even under these conditions, no consistent correspondences in period are found at a detailed level, which taken together with the lack of correspondence at other times does not suggest a direct physical link exists between these phenomena.
Temporal variability of the meridional overturning circulation at 34.5°S: Results from two pilot boundary arrays in the South Atlantic
Authors: Meinen Christopher S. , Speich Sabrina , Perez Renellys C. , Dong Shenfu , Piola Alberto R. , Garzoli Silvia L. , Baringer Molly O. , Gladyshev Sergey , Campos Edmo J. D.
Published: November 2013

Data from two boundary arrays deployed along 34.5°S are combined to produce the first continuous in situ time series observations of the basin‐wide meridional overturning circulation (MOC) in the South Atlantic. Daily estimates of the MOC between March 2009 and December 2010 range between 3 Sv and 39 Sv (1 Sv = 106 m3 s−1) after a 10 day low‐pass filter is applied. Much of the variability in this ∼20 month record occurs at periods shorter than 100 days. Approximately two‐thirds of the MOC variability is due to changes in the geostrophic (baroclinic plus barotropic) volume transport, with the remainder associated with the direct wind‐forced Ekman transport. When low‐pass filtered to match previously published analyses in the North Atlantic, the observed temporal standard deviation at 34.5°S matches or somewhat exceeds that observed by time series observations at 16°N, 26.5°N, and 41°N. For periods shorter than 20 days the basin‐wide MOC variations are most strongly influenced by Ekman flows, while at periods between 20 and 90 days the geostrophic flows tend to exert slightly more control over the total transport variability of the MOC. The geostrophic shear variations are roughly equally controlled by density variations on the western and eastern boundaries at all time scales captured in the record. The observed time‐mean MOC vertical structure and temporal variability agree well with the limited independent observations available for confirmation.
Characteristics of positive cloud‐to‐ground lightning in Da Hinggan Ling forest region at relatively high latitude, northeastern China
Authors: Qie Xiushu , Wang Zhichao , Wang Dongfang , Liu Mingyuan
Published: November 2013

In 2009 and 2010, a multistation network of fast and slow antennas was installed on the edge of a relatively high latitude forest region in Da Hinggan Ling (50.4°N, 124.1°E) of northeastern China. The documented 185 positive cloud‐to‐ground (CG) flashes containing 196 return strokes were analyzed in the paper. It was found that 71.89% of the positive CG flashes contained continuing current. The average duration of continuing current was short with an arithmetic mean value of 33.29 ms and a geometric mean value of 16.74 ms; only one continuing current lasted longer than 150 ms, probably because of the small size of the storm cell in this relatively high latitude region. The vast majority (94.59%) of positive CG flashes was characterized by a single stroke, and the average number of stroke per flash is 1.06. The average charge transferred by positive stroke and continuing current, based upon the analysis of five flashes with well‐documented simultaneous measurements of more than five stations, was +5.2 C from a height of 6.0 km (above ground) and +10.2 C from a height of 6.4 km, respectively. The charge moment for +CG strokes ranged from +13.7 C km to +55.9 C km, while that for continuing current ranged from +29.0 C km to +96.9 C km, respectively. The preliminary breakdown process in positive CG flashes can be classified into three types, namely type S (same), type D (different), and type C (chaotic) according to the disparities in the initial polarity of bipolar pulses from the return stroke, which account for 62.92%, 23.60%, and 13.48%, respectively. According to the electric field waveforms indicative (or not indicative) of intracloud (IC) discharge, positive CG flashes are classified into four types, i.e., ordinary positive CG flash (63.78%), hybrid +CG‐IC flash (21.08%), hybrid IC‐+CG flash (5.41%), and hybrid IC‐+CG‐IC flash (9.73%). About 15.14% of the recorded positive CG flashes were byproduct of IC lightning discharge.
The expected performance of cloud optical and microphysical properties derived from Suomi NPP VIIRS day/night band lunar reflectance
Authors: Walther Andi , Heidinger Andrew K. , Miller Steven
Published: November 2013

The day/night band channel of the Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) instrument on board Suomi‐National Polar Partnership (S‐NPP) is a visible/near‐infrared sensor (500–900 nm band pass) capable of measuring extremely low magnitudes of light, down to the levels of reflected moonlight and beyond. Whereas similar measurement capabilities have existed on predecessor sensors (principally, the Defense Meteorological Satellite Program), the day/night band offers the first calibrated radiance measurements, and as a result, it is the first opportunity to apply moonlight measurements to the problem of retrieving nocturnal cloud optical properties. Daytime retrievals of cloud properties such as top height, optical thickness, cloud top particle size, and water content, have been conducted routinely from an assortment of operational and research grade optical sensors for decades. These observations are providing a satellite‐based global data record of increasing relevance to climate change monitoring (where clouds are thought to play an integral feedback role). The lack of a complete diurnal record of such key parameters presents an important shortfall of these records. Here we present the adaption of the daytime cloud optical and microphysical properties algorithm, which derives cloud optical thickness and effective radius from reflected sunlight to lunar reflectance. The new algorithm is referred to nighttime lunar cloud optical and microphysical properties. Day/night consistency of optical depth is shown through global analysis for one complete day of VIIRS data. Limitations of the retrieval of effective radius are discussed.
CGILS: Results from the first phase of an international project to understand the physical mechanisms of low cloud feedbacks in single column models
Authors: Zhang Minghua , Bretherton Christopher S. , Blossey Peter N. , Austin Phillip H. , Bacmeister Julio T. , Bony Sandrine , Brient Florent , Cheedela Suvarchal K. , Cheng Anning , Del Genio Anthony D. , De Roode Stephan R. , Endo Satoshi , Franklin Charmaine N. , Golaz Jean‐Christophe , Hannay Cecile , Heus Thijs , Isotta Francesco Alessandro , Dufresne Jean‐Louis , Kang In‐Sik , Kawai Hideaki , Köhler Martin , Larson Vincent E. , Liu Yangang , Lock Adrian P. , Lohmann Ulrike , Khairoutdinov Marat F. , Molod Andrea M. , Neggers Roel A. J. , Rasch Philip , Sandu Irina , Senkbeil Ryan , Siebesma A. Pier , Siegenthaler‐Le Drian Colombe , Stevens Bjorn , Suarez Max J. , Xu Kuan‐Man , von Salzen Knut , Webb Mark J. , Wolf Audrey , Zhao Ming
Published: November 2013

CGILS—the CFMIP‐GASS Intercomparison of Large Eddy Models (LESs) and single column models (SCMs)—investigates the mechanisms of cloud feedback in SCMs and LESs under idealized climate change perturbation. This paper describes the CGILS results from 15 SCMs and 8 LES models. Three cloud regimes over the subtropical oceans are studied: shallow cumulus, cumulus under stratocumulus, and well‐mixed coastal stratus/stratocumulus. In the stratocumulus and coastal stratus regimes, SCMs without activated shallow convection generally simulated negative cloud feedbacks, while models with active shallow convection generally simulated positive cloud feedbacks. In the shallow cumulus alone regime, this relationship is less clear, likely due to the changes in cloud depth, lateral mixing, and precipitation or a combination of them. The majority of LES models simulated negative cloud feedback in the well‐mixed coastal stratus/stratocumulus regime, and positive feedback in the shallow cumulus and stratocumulus regime. A general framework is provided to interpret SCM results: in a warmer climate, the moistening rate of the cloudy layer associated with the surface‐based turbulence parameterization is enhanced; together with weaker large‐scale subsidence, it causes negative cloud feedback. In contrast, in the warmer climate, the drying rate associated with the shallow convection scheme is enhanced. This causes positive cloud feedback. These mechanisms are summarized as the “NESTS” negative cloud feedback and the “SCOPE” positive cloud feedback (Negative feedback from Surface Turbulence under weaker Subsidence—Shallow Convection PositivE feedback) with the net cloud feedback depending on how the two opposing effects counteract each other. The LES results are consistent with these interpretations.
AssessingEnglishinSouth America
Authors: Scaramucci Matilde , Boffi Adriana
Published: November 2013

This chapter presents a brief state‐of‐the‐art description of English language teaching and assessment in South America, placing special focus on Brazil and Argentina. There is reference to developments in Uruguay, Chile, and Colombia. The chapter focuses on the status of the English language in the official education network—taking into consideration the goals and approaches at each of the levels of the educational systems—as well as on assessment practices in public and private schools. There are great challenges for the democratization of quality English teaching, and the role of assessment is vital in this process. In order to overcome the challenges identified, there is a need to raise teachers’ awareness of the role and power of assessment in general practices and to implement measures in order to increase the level of proficiency among teachers and the quality of their education.
Language Assessment for Court Translators and Interpreters
Authors: Armstrong Piers
Published: November 2013

This chapter provides an overview of the work of legal interpreters and translators and of the broader professional context, and then surveys qualification instruments, including testing. It describes typical courtroom terminology and registers, and the three main interpreting modes used—consecutive, simultaneous, and sight. It outlines the methodological peculiarities of legal interpreting in relation to other interpreting fields, notes the philosophical dilemma posed by the reality gap between jurisprudential principles and the actual performance of interpreters, and reviews the applicability of prominent translation theory models to the legal domain. It surveys modes of professional qualification from various countries, noting both procedural diversity and the importance of historical circumstances and sociocultural frames. It explores the scientific literature on interpreter and translator competences and on relevant testing methodology, and it describes several existing tests. The appendices provide artifacts from three tests.
The Influence of Ethics in Language Assessment
Authors: Spolsky Bernard
Published: November 2013

To understand the varying influence of ethical considerations on language testing, it helps to note the weight assigned to each of the participants involved, namely the test user (usually also owner), the test writer (usually paid by the owner), and the test taker. Each has different interests: The user wants the most efficient way of assigning an interpretable score to test takers and is not constrained by considerations of fairness; the writer is a professional dependent on the test for employment; and the test taker, while personally concerned with fairness, is seldom powerful enough to expect attention to such claims. Historically, political power determined whose interest was dominant. For example, the imperial Chinese examination ignored the desires of the candidates, being satisfied to identify a tiny elite deserving of appointment to office; a similar approach governed tests for the Indian Civil Service or the Prussian magistracy in the 19th century. The high rewards of these tests established the 19th‐century status of testing and its spread to the English and American educational systems. While some mocked and others regretted the growing power of tests, test makers argued successfully in the early 20th century for their effectiveness, ignoring the evidence of those who had argued for the “inevitable uncertainty” of tests and choosing to develop psychometrics as a method of reducing uncertainty rather then paying attention to the uses and misuses of tests. As language tests became ever more powerful in the later 20th century, a number of professional testers insisted on the development and publication of ethical standards, but absence of enforcement procedures and continuing public belief in the infallibility of tests works against attempts to apply ethics.
Using Test‐Wiseness Strategy Research in Task Development
Authors: Cohen Andrew D.
Published: November 2013

This chapter takes a close look at just what strategic competence means with regard to language assessment. The approach taken here is to break down strategic competence into strategies that might contribute construct‐relevant variance to test results, namely language strategies and test‐management strategies, and strategies that in contrast are likely to produce construct‐irrelevant variance. The chapter begins by briefly defining language strategies and distinguishing them from test‐taking strategies. Then findings from the research literature are provided, challenges for researchers are highlighted, and future directions suggested that aim to ensure that respondents' language skills are actually being assessed. The ultimate challenge is to fashion items and tasks that cannot be responded to easily by means of test‐wiseness strategies aimed at bypassing reasoned and informed means of producing responses.
Assessing
Swahili
Authors: Thompson Katrina Daly
Published: November 2013

Swahili is a second language for the majority of its users both within East Africa and beyond, creating a great need for adequate teaching, learning, and assessment resources. Outside of Africa, it is the most widely taught African language. While Swahili has been assessed through standardized tests within East Africa for decades, only recently have those involved in teaching Swahili as a foreign language begun developing standardized tests for Swahili assessment. Different assessments used in East Africa and the USA, as well as existing challenges and needs, are considered in this chapter.
AssessingFinnish
Authors: Tarnanen Mirja , Aalto Eija
Published: November 2013

This chapter provides an overview of assessing Finnish as a second language in Finland. Finland has two national languages, Finnish (majority language) and Swedish, as specified in the Constitution; thus Finnish is studied as a second language by both Swedish‐speaking citizens and immigrants. Since the early 2000s, an increase in the number of immigrants has affected language education at all educational levels. In this chapter, the language situation and current language policy trends in Finland are described in terms of legislation and arrangement of education. Furthermore, assessment culture and practices in schools, colleges, and adult education are examined and the implementation of the proficiency scale based on the Common European Framework is discussed. As Finland is not a very test‐oriented country, assessment practices are illustrated mainly through the results of a survey carried out in the upper secondary school and through textbooks and teachers' guides. Also, the three national test systems are introduced and their role in education is discussed. Finally, future challenges in teaching and assessing Finnish as a second language are examined in terms of promoting language education and supporting language learners in achieving their goals in society.
Assessing Responses to Literature
Authors: Beach Richard
Published: November 2013

This chapter examines research on issues of validity and reliability in assessment of students’ literary responses associated with their experiential transaction with a literary text. It describes the uses of summative assessment of learning literary responses as well as formative assessment for fostering learning of literary responses. It posits that effective summative assessment of literary responses involves open‐ended writing tasks or uses of student‐generated portfolios based on students’ written responses over time in lieu of multiple choice items, while at the same time taking into account the influence of differences in language proficiency, requiring development of prompts and tasks designed to accommodate for variations in language proficiency. It posits that effective formative assessment of oral literary responses involves facilitation of classroom or online discussions whereby students can generate ample responses for teachers to assess based on shared criteria or rubrics that can also be used to foster students’ self‐assessing of their discussion responses. And, to provide effective formative assessment of students’ written literary responses, it recommends creating engaging, open‐ended writing assignments with clearly specified criteria for defining effective interpretations so that teachers can provide descriptive feedback through individual conferences, written comments, or audio recordings to foster student self‐assessing and revision of their writing, as well as training peers to provide feedback.
Assessing
English
in
Southeast Asia
Authors: Todd Richard Watson , Shih Chih‐Min
Published: November 2013

The 10 countries of Southeast Asia fall into two groups in terms of general levels of English proficiency. In six of the countries (Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam), English is a foreign language and ratings of general English proficiency, such as scores on international tests, are low. These countries fall into the Expanding Circle of English. The other four countries (Brunei, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Singapore), which fall in the Outer Circle of English, have English either as an official language or as a de facto language for certain purposes, and general English proficiency ratings in those countries are much higher. Nearly all of the Southeast Asian countries have heavily test‐oriented education systems with regular national level exams, but the ways of assessing English in the two groups of countries differ markedly. In the Expanding Circle countries, high stakes exams are nearly exclusively multiple choice, a practice that has a major influence on other tests and on teaching and learning. In Thailand, for instance, all national level English exams, including the influential university entrance exam, are exclusively multiple choice, a pattern reflected in school tests that, on average, comprise 90% multiple choice. These assessment practices have negative washback effects, meaning that English education in Thailand focuses on language knowledge, not on language use. The high stakes exams in Outer Circle countries, on the other hand, use a range of item types with open‐ended test items prevalent. The Malaysian University Entrance Test, for example, includes cloze items, essays, and oral presentations. The broader, more progressive assessment approaches in the Outer Circle countries are most clearly illustrated by the implementation of holistic assessment in primary schools in Singapore. Holistic assessment, aiming to develop the whole child, and including assessment for learning, consists of numerous small assessments, such as role plays and show‐and‐tell activities, which are teacher‐, peer‐, and self‐assessed. Assessment practices in the Outer Circle countries, in contrast to those in the EFL countries, promote language use over language knowledge.
AssessingHakka,Southern Min, andTaiwaneseIndigenous Languages
Authors: Wu Jessica R. W.
Published: November 2013

Taiwan is a multilingual and multiethnic country, which is composed of four major ethnic groups: the Taiwanese (Southern Min speakers), mainlanders, Hakka, and indigenous peoples (speakers of Austronesian languages). However, due to the compulsory “national language policy” implemented in Taiwan in the 1950s, the native languages were quickly diluted by the national language, Mandarin. Not until the dramatic political and socioeconomic changes of the late 1980s did the native languages experience a revival. In order to preserve and promote these languages effectively, and to meet the need for qualified L1 teachers, the Taiwan government has implemented new testing and assessment procedures to measure L1 proficiency. Now in Taiwan public tests of the four major native languages are administered regularly and are gradually gaining in importance. The chapter starts with a historical overview of the status of L1s in Taiwan, then describes current teaching and testing practices of these languages. In anticipating future assessment of L1 in Taiwan, the chapter addresses some pressing issues emerging from the implementation of L1 testing and assessment in Taiwan.
Large‐Scale Assessment
Authors: Fox Janna
Published: November 2013

Large‐scale language assessment affects the lives of millions of test takers every year. As a means of achieving fairness in large‐scale tests and testing practices, language testers have traditionally focused on uniformity and technical quality, and large‐scale language assessment has increasingly been associated with political, bureaucratic, or accountability agendas. However, some scholars suggest that it can serve pedagogic and learning purposes as well. More recently, considerations of large‐scale language assessment have been shaped by a more critical view of the contexts in which it occurs and of the sociopolitical motives it serves.
Spoken Discourse
Authors: Lazaraton Anne
Published: November 2013

When second or foreign language (L2) learners take a speaking proficiency test, their scores are really the only outcome in which they are interested, especially in high stakes assessment contexts—where a sufficient score is necessary for university admission, citizenship, or employment. So it has been with language testers: the emphasis on test scores (or ratings, as they are likely to be in speaking assessment) leads to the primary concern about score as well as rater reliability—the degree to which a rater is consistent over time, across language samples, and with other raters. More recently, however, attention has shifted to issues of test validity, which considers the processes by which test scores lead to inferences about their meaning. This is increasingly the case for L2 speaking tests, where investigation of the process of speaking assessment has become almost as important as questions about outcome scores. Two primary questions underlie the emphasis on test process: first, how can the language that is produced in a speaking test be characterized? Second, how can careful analyses of that language lead to improvements in test design and rating processes? To answer these questions, the analysis of spoken discourse has become a key strand of research in the language assessment community.

The chapter begins with a definition of discourse and discourse analysis; subsequent sections present facts about the nature of spoken discourse in both monologic and interactive contexts and empirical findings on the co‐construction of discourse in the speaking assessment process involving test takers, interviewers, and peers. The chapter concludes with a look at the challenges facing spoken discourse analysts and future directions in L2 speaking assessment, including the impact of digital technologies and large‐scale language corpora, the systematic development of rating scales, and the importance of formative, classroom‐based assessment in understanding the nature of L2 speaking proficiency.
Assessing Translation
Authors: House Juliane
Published: November 2013

This chapter provides, first, a review of different approaches to translation, including psychosocial approaches and text‐ and discourse‐oriented ones. Second, a linguistic model of translation assessment is presented, featuring the following components: the critical notions of equivalence and “meaning” in translation; a theoretical distinction between two fundamental types of translation and between a translation and a version; and the construct of a “cultural filter.” Third, some recent developments in testing translation quality are discussed; and finally, a distinction between linguistic analysis and social evaluation, of crucial importance in translation assessment, is made.
Writing Items and Tasks
Authors: Schedl Mary , Malloy Jeanne
Published: November 2013

This chapter examines the craft of item and task writing as it relates to validity and fairness in the design of test questions and tasks. Numerous examples of selected response items are provided and discussed in light of mistakes that novice item writers make. Examples of flawed items with poor statistical properties are provided and likely reasons for poor performance are discussed. Subsequent revisions to these items were made and the items were re‐pretested. Improved statistics after re‐pretesting are provided for comparison. In addition to examining a constructed response item before and after revision, various aspects of scoring, including rubric development and rater training, are considered.
AssessingPortuguese
Authors: Back Michele
Published: November 2013

This chapter reviews the assessment of Portuguese as a foreign, second, and heritage language, emphasizing its role as a growing world language and the characteristics of its two standard varieties (European and Brazilian) and nonstandard varieties (regional Brazilian, African, and Asian).

After a brief linguistic history and description, the methods and content of the most popular standardized tests for Portuguese—the Portuguese government's CAPLE and the Brazilian government's CELPE‐Bras are compared and contrasted. This analysis incorporates the learning environments provided by the Instituto Camões and the Centros de Estudos Brasileiros—who administer the CAPLE and CELPE‐Bras, respectively—as well as the different proficiency levels determined by performance on these exams. US‐based learning environments and methods of assessment are also addressed.

The second part of the chapter looks at special assessment issues in Portuguese, taking as a point of departure the CAPLE and CELPE‐Bras to examine the challenges of assessing a language with two distinct standard varieties against the backdrop of distinct learner goals and the sociolinguistics of nonstandard Portuguese. Finally, two unique and growing populations of Portuguese learners—Spanish speakers and heritage speakers—are discussed, particularly regarding what types of assessment might be relevant for these learners.
Assessing
Armenian
Authors: Gasparyan Rubina , Halajyan Mirtsa
Published: November 2013

The aim of this chapter is to provide an objective account of the current situation of testing Armenian as the native language in schools, colleges, and workplaces in Armenia. Issues such as the quality, the objectives, and the challenges of Armenian language tests are addressed. First, the chapter focuses on the peculiarities of Armenian in terms of phonology/graphology, vocabulary, morphology, and syntax, since these peculiarities play an important role in decisions about the type of test. Then a brief history of testing Armenian is introduced, in order to give a picture of the testing practice and experience of Armenian as L1. The reasons for the reforms in the field of testing and assessment are explained. The chapter also discusses the challenges of developing the Unified School Leaving and University Entrance test of Armenian in terms of test design and development of test techniques. The discussion is based on research conducted by the Center for Assessment and Testing of the Republic of Armenia.
Dynamic Assessment in the Classroom
Authors: Poehner Matthew E.
Published: November 2013

Mediation is the term proposed by L. S. Vygotsky in his
Sociocultural Theory of Mind
that accounts for the development of human mental abilities. Specifically, Vygotsky explained that while other animals interact with their environments in a direct manner, humans relate to the world through a process that is mediated by others in our social environment and by artifacts available in our culture. In schooling, a high premium is typically placed on instructional materials as well as interactions with peers and with the teacher, and communicative second language (L2) classrooms are certainly no exception. However, external forms of mediation are prohibited during most assessments, rendering them distinct from other forms of classroom activity. Dynamic assessment (DA) breaks with this convention, arguing instead that important diagnostic information about individuals’ abilities is obtained through analysis of their response to mediation. DA thus advocates cooperative interaction between teachers and learners, with the result that assessments continue to function as instructional opportunities. This chapter explores mediation as it is realized and elaborated in L2 DA. As illustrated through analysis of an L2 DA interaction, it is argued that effective mediation should be developmentally relevant when learners are engaged in what they cannot do independently and should also be systematic, becoming only as explicit as necessary to guide learners during the activity.
Assessing
Farsi
Authors: Farhady Hossein , Tavassoli Kobra
Published: November 2013

Farsi (Persian or Parsi) has been the only official and educational language in Iran for a long time. Although varieties of Farsi are spoken in Afghanistan and Tajikistan, it is only in Iran that a systematic approach has been developed regarding teaching and assessing it. The Ministry of Education directs both teaching and assessing Farsi through a unified central system at all levels of schooling. However, despite its geopolitical popularity, not much has been published on Iran's educational system. Therefore, the purpose of this chapter is to present and evaluate the status of teaching and assessing Farsi as the first language in Iran. To this end, a brief description of the linguistic features of the Farsi language is provided, followed by a summary of government policies on teaching and assessing Farsi. Then the status of assessing Farsi is described by examining the tests administered at different educational levels. Finally, challenges that stakeholders face in assessing Farsi in Iran are discussed and some solutions suggested.
Administration, Scoring, and Reporting Scores
Authors: Huhta Ari
Published: November 2013

This chapter covers administration, scoring, and reporting scores from language tests and examinations. Procedures typically used in major language examinations and small‐scale classroom testing and assessment are both covered. It is argued that the administration, scoring, and reporting procedures are highly dependent on the purpose and stakes of the assessment. Selected national and international guidelines of good practice are reviewed to see what they have to say about these phases of the assessment process, and examples are given on how, for example, high stakes certification and achievement tests differ from teacher‐based formative and diagnostic tests.

The review considers how the skill tested impacts on how a test is administered and scored: In particular, testing of speaking and writing differ in many ways from testing comprehension. Also, the medium of assessment has a considerable effect, as modern information and communications technology (ICT) can radically change not only test administration but also scoring and reporting. ICT enables immediate reporting of results, more detailed feedback, and even automated scoring of performances.

An account is given of the research pertaining to administering, scoring, and reporting scores of language tests. Studies on test administration are not common except for types of testing where it is intertwined with the test format, such as in computerized testing, which is often compared with paper‐based testing, and in oral testing, where factors related to the setting, participants, and so forth have been studied. Scoring procedures have received considerable attention from researchers, especially when speaking and writing are concerned, and an outline and selected finding from these studies are presented. Reporting scores appears to be the least studied area, but even there some research into, for example, the meaningfulness of different reporting formats exists, and this is briefly described.
Assessing
Māori
Indigenous Language Learners
Authors: Rau Cath
Published: November 2013

In Aotearoa/New Zealand, educational policy and ensuing initiatives have increasingly focused on accelerating student achievement in literacy and numeracy, particularly for Māori learners in both English medium and Māori medium settings, creating a tension with broader expectations on how (Māori) linguistic and cultural regeneration should be achieved. In 2010, national standards were introduced for year 1 to 8 students in English medium amidst (lingering) controversy and in 2011 for students in Māori medium classrooms. Unlike international examples where national standards exist, the Aotearoa/New Zealand example requires teachers to make judgments about student achievement in relation to national expectations based on multiple sources of information (as opposed to performance on a single test). This creates both challenge and opportunity for educators in Māori medium settings where, to date, the development and promulgation of assessments (and assessment practices) has been largely ad hoc and spasmodic.

This chapter describes and comments on the various Māori language schooling options catering for year 1 to 8 students in Aotearoa/New Zealand's educational landscape; how the Māori medium sector has responded to the increasing need for standardized assessments; Ministry of Education policy that emphasizes and gives expression to the right of Māori to enjoy educational success as Māori; the development of national standards for Māori medium settings; challenges and opportunities created for Māori medium education by the current environment; and onsiderations for continuing improvement to meet achievement expectations and challenge pervading deficit theorizing about Māori learners. The chapter also profiles two well‐established Māori language schools whose students are experiencing success as Māori in their second language (i.e., Māori) as well as in the English language, despite the fact that, compared to their counterparts in English medium classrooms, formal English language instruction occurs in the later years of schooling.
New Media in Language Assessments
Authors: Gruba Paul
Published: November 2013

New media and technologies, including digital videos, wikis, and podcasts, are now the cornerstones of innovative second and foreign language programs, yet their integration into classroom assessment and test development continues to lag. For language assessment specialists, the global increase in the frequency and sophistication of technology use demands a proactive response to a range of fundamental considerations. After establishing the foundations of test task design, this chapter looks at emerging trends in the use of educational technologies that include social networking, functional convergence, and wireless mobility. The chapter then turns to issues in the use of new technologies within the context of classroom assessment, with regard to institutional resources, professional development, and educational policies. A third section shifts the focus to language test development to consider construct definitions, test practicality and security, and the potential for washback in language education. The conclusion proposes an agenda to spur the development and integration of new technologies into test task design.
AssessingSinhala
Authors: Abeywickrama Priyanvada , Mendis Dushyanthi
Published: November 2013

Sinhala or Sinhalese, an Indo‐European language, is spoken by about 13 million people in Sri Lanka. It is the mother tongue of the Sinhalese people, who are the largest ethnic group in the country. Sinhala, along with Tamil, is both a national and official language of the country, while English is a link language. Similar to many South Asian languages, Sinhala has distinctive diglossia; the literary and spoken languages differ in many aspects, the most important difference being vocabulary and the lack of inflected verb forms in spoken Sinhala. The written language, which uses more words of Sanskrit origin, is used in all forms of literary texts and in formal oral communication such as public speeches, television and radio news, etc., whereas the spoken language is more colloquial and used in everyday communication. The Ministry of Education (grades K‐13) directs the formulation and implementation of policies related to education in the country. The learning and assessment of Sinhala includes both language and literature. In K‐13, while summative assessment practices are used in the evaluation of learning, formative assessment practices are commonly used to give students feedback on learning. In recent years, classroom‐based assessment practices that are more informal have become widespread in the educational philosophy of the country, as evidenced in syllabi and teacher instruction manuals. In terms of employment, competency in both Sinhala and Tamil is required for government jobs. Competency can be shown by either passing Sinhala and Tamil at the GCE O‐ level exam or by passing the Department of Official Languages' special competence exam. While there is much progress in assessment practices there is still a great need for teacher education in assessment and evaluation of learning, especially of language, and for more in‐service training and workshops in creating tests for assessing language learning.
Written Discourse
Authors: Plakans Lia
Published: November 2013

Writing has held a long‐standing position in language testing, initially to assess grammar and translation, but evolving into a useful measure of communicative competence. Researchers have explored various approaches to analyze writing in assessment to answer questions about validity, reliability, and language proficiency. This chapter details text‐based measures of written discourse that break language into complexity, accuracy, and fluency as well as organization, coherence, cohesion, and development, with example studies for illustration. These measures provide closer inspection of written language by focusing on components of the construct of writing.
Differential Item and Testlet Functioning Analysis
Authors: Jiao Hong , Chen Ying‐Fang
Published: November 2013

Test fairness is a critical issue for any intended test use. When a test is fair, none of the examinee groups should be favored or disadvantaged. Differential item functioning (DIF) or differential testlet functioning (DTF) across subgroups of examinee population may not indicate bias, but should flag up the need for further scrutiny of the item content for any potential item bias. This chapter presents the statistical methods for DIF and DTF analysis as a tool for identifying potentially biased items in language assessment. The focus is on introducing the idea of latent differential functioning analyses in language assessments. The chapter starts with a review of the conventional DIF and DTF analysis methods based on manifest grouping variables. The necessity of latent differential functioning analysis, which borrows strength from both item response theory (IRT) and latent class analysis, is elaborated. An empirical example is used to illustrate different approaches to differential functioning analyses. The chapter ends with a discussion related to challenges and future research for DIF and DTF analyses in language assessments.
Assessing
English
in
Australia
and
New Zealand
Authors: Hill Kathryn , Erlam Rosemary
Published: November 2013

This chapter provides an overview of English as a second (ESL) or foreign language (EFL) assessment in Australia and New Zealand in the areas of immigration and settlement, education, and professional accreditation (for teachers and health professionals) respectively. The chapter covers English language requirements for visas or entry to courses, diagnostic assessment, assessment of achievement, and assessment for accreditation purposes. It includes brief descriptions of the relevant assessment procedures (with references to any associated research). The list includes IELTS, CAE, PTE, TOEFL, APIEL, ISLPR, OET, PEAT, ISLPR, and CPE. The chapter concludes by noting the use of a small number of tests for an increasing range of purposes.
Self‐Assessment in the Classroom
Authors: Oscarson Mats
Published: November 2013

This chapter contributes a theory‐based but practically oriented introduction to the subject of student self‐assessment in language education. It begins with a discussion of the early development of learner‐oriented assessment and its functional relationship to cooperative needs analysis, to feedback on learning, and to the evolution of language assessment generally. It then goes on to provide a review of research, with a focus on the inherent validity and practical significance of assessments which rely on students’ evaluation of their own work and its outcomes. The general trend of research results is indicated. A more practically oriented part of the chapter illustrates concrete self‐assessment techniques and materials and shows ways in which they have been used for practical ends, both in empirical work and in everyday language learning and evaluation contexts. Accounts of methodological procedures and reviews of experiences are given which may help interested readers develop their own ideas for work in this field, if they wish to make plans for apposite assessment activities and possible materials production. Finally, comments are made on the status self‐assessment has achieved as a learner‐centered evaluative activity in the classroom. Its further development is considered, with special emphasis on topics of importance in further research and development work.