bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Article 4(5). Pseudonymisation
Authors: Tosoni Luca
Published: March 2021

Article 6(4)(e) (Compatibility of processing purposes); Article 9(2)(j) (Processing of special categories of personal data) (see also recital 75); Article 25(1) (Data protection by design and by default) (see also recital 78); Article 32(1)(a) (Security of processing); Article 33(1) (Notification of personal data breach to supervisory authority) (see also recital 85); Article 40(2)(d) (Codes of conduct); Article 89(1) (Safeguards and derogations relating to processing for archiving purposes, scientific or historical research purposes or statistical purposes).
Article 4(12). Personal data breach
Authors: Tosoni Luca
Published: March 2021

A personal data breach may, if not addressed in an appropriate and timely manner, result in physical, material or non-material damage to natural persons such as loss of control over their personal data or limitation of their rights, discrimination, identity theft or fraud, financial loss, unauthorised reversal of pseudonymisation, damage to reputation, loss of confidentiality of personal data protected by professional secrecy or any other significant economic or social disadvantage to the natural person concerned.
Article 4(14). Biometric data
Authors: Bygrave Lee A , Tosoni Luca
Published: March 2021

Article 4(1) (Definition of ‘personal data’) (see too recital 26); Article 4(13) (Definition of ‘genetic data’) (see too recital 34); Article 4(15) (Definition of ‘data concerning health’) (see also recital 35); Article 9(1) (Special categories of personal data); Article 22(4) (Automated individual decision-making, including profiling) (see also recital 71); Article 35(3)(b) (Data protection impact assessment) (see too recital 91).
Article 14 Information to be provided where personal data have not been obtained from the data subject
Authors: Zanfir-Fortuna Gabriela
Published: March 2021

Article 5(1) (Principle of fairness, lawfulness and transparency); Article 12 (Transparent information, communication and modalities for the exercise of the rights of the data subject); Article 14 (Information to be provided where personal data have not been obtained from the data subject); Article 15 (Right of access by the data subject); Article 23 (Restrictions); Article 34 (Communication of a personal data breach to the data subject).
Article 28 Processor
Authors: Millard Christopher , Kamarinou Dimitra
Published: March 2021

Article 4(8) (Definitions); Article 29 (Processing under the authority of the controller or processor); Article 30 (Records of processing activities) (see also recitals 13 and 82); Article 79 (Right to an effective judicial remedy against a controller or processor) (see also recital 145); Article 82 (Right to compensation and liability) (see also recitals 146–147).
Article 38 Position of the data protection officer
Authors: Rigaudias Cecilia Alvarez , Spina Alessandro
Published: March 2021

Article 13(1)(b) (Information to be provided where personal data are collected from the data subject) (see too recitals 60–61); Article 14(1)(b) (Information to be provided where personal data have not been obtained from the data subject) (see too recital 61); Article 30 (Records of processing activities) (see too recital 82); Article 33 (Notification of a personal data breach to the supervisory authority) (see too recital 85); Article 35 (Data protection impact assessment) (see too recitals 90–91); Article 36 (Prior consultation) (see too recital 94); Article 37 (Designation of the Data Protection Officer) (see too recital 97); Article 39 (Tasks of the data protection officer) (see too recitals 77 and 97); Article 47 (Binding corporate rules) (see too recital 108); Article 52(1) (Independence of supervisory authorities) (see too recitals 117–118 and 120–121); Article 57 (Tasks of supervisory authorities) (see too recital 122); Article 69 (Independence of the EDPB) (see too recital 139).
Article 46 Transfers subject to appropriate safeguards
Authors: Kuner Christopher
Published: March 2021

Recital 6; Article 15(2) (Right to access information about appropriate safeguards pursuant to Article 46); Article 44 (General principles for transfers); Article 58(3)(g)–(h) (Powers of supervisory authorities to adopt standard contractual clauses and authorise contractual clauses); Article 64(1)(d)(e) (Opinion of the Board regarding determination of standard data protection clauses and authorisation of contractual clauses).
Article 72 Procedure
Authors: Docksey Christopher
Published: March 2021

Article 64 (Opinion of the Board) (see too recital 136); Article 65 (Dispute resolution by the Board) (see too recital 136); Article 66 (Urgency procedure) (see too recital 137); Article 68 (European Data Protection Board) (see too recital 139); Article 69 (Independence) (see too recital 139); Article 70 (Tasks of the Board) (see too recital 139); Article 71 (Reports); Article 73 (Chair) (see too recital 139); Article 74 (Tasks of the chair); Article 75 (Secretariat) (see too recital 140); Article 76 (Confidentiality).
Article 90 Obligations of secrecy
Authors: Svanberg Christian Wiese
Published: March 2021

Article 9(3) (Processing of special categories of personal data); Article 25 (Data protection by design and by default) (see too recital 75); Article 33 (Notification of a personal data breach to the supervisory authority) (see too recital 85); Article 54(2) (Rules on the establishment of the supervisory authority); Article 58(1) (Investigatory powers) (see too recital 129).
Article 95 Relationship with Directive 2002/58/EC
Authors: de Oliveira Piedade Costa
Published: March 2021

This Regulation shall not impose additional obligations on natural or legal persons in relation to processing in connection with the provision of publicly available electronic communications services in public communication networks in the Union in relation to matters for which they are subject to specific obligations with the same objective set out in Directive 2002/58/EC.
Crisis, Reform, and Constitutionalization
Authors: Craig Paul
Published: March 2021

The previous chapter considered the history and typology of EU administration. The present chapter focuses on the impact of resignation of the Santer Commission, which had profound significance for EU administration, and the controls to which it was subject. The resignation received front-page attention in the press, proof for those minded to believe it of the malaise which had long existed within that organization. Its downfall was prompted by the First Report of the Committee of Independent Experts. This was followed in quick succession by reforms instituted by Romano Prodi as the new President of the Commission, by the Committee of Independent Experts’ Second Report, by the White Paper on reform of the Commission and implementation of these reforms. An understanding of these developments is crucial in order to appreciate the current pattern of EU administration. This chapter will chart these developments leading to administrative reform, including the Financial Regulation, which established a constitutional framework for Union administration of the kind that had not existed hitherto. Subsequent chapters will analyse the provisions contained therein as they relate to different types of EU administration.
Rights
Authors: Craig Paul
Published: March 2021

The Lisbon Treaty rendered the Charter of Fundamental Rights legally binding, thereby resolving an issue that had been left open since the Charter was initially drafted almost a decade earlier. The discussion begins with a brief account of the evolution of fundamental rights in the EC, followed by the genesis and drafting of the Charter. The status accorded to the Charter in the Lisbon Treaty is examined, as is the EU’s obligation to accede to the ECHR.
English Trust Law Principles
Authors: Ashdown Michael
Published: March 2021

This chapter is concerned with the internal dimension of the trust: with the persons (whether individuals or corporations) who perform the roles it requires to function, the duties and powers of the trustees, and the jurisdiction of the court (in England and Wales) to supervise the execution of the trust and to resolve difficulties which arise.
Rights to Information
Authors: Kempster Steven
Published: March 2021

This chapter covers the rights of a beneficiary to call for information relating to a trust. Information will usually be in written form but need not necessarily be so at the time it is requested.
Alternative Dispute Resolution
Authors: Rogers Beverly-Ann
Published: March 2021

There are a range of different processes, known as alternative dispute resolution (‘ADR’), available to assist in the resolution of trust disputes: arbitration, mediation, early neutral evaluation, and expert determination. To different degrees they offer the parties greater control over both the process and the outcome of the dispute compared to a court process with adversarial argument and a judicial decision imposed at the end.
Liechtenstein
Authors: Wenaweser Stefan
Published: March 2021

Liechtenstein is the only continental European country to have adopted and codified the common law trust. The Liechtenstein trust (‘Treuhänderschaft’) was codified in 1926 in the Law on Persons and Companies (‘PGR’) with clear inspiration from the English Trustee Act 1925. Some English common law rules have been enacted (eg the equitable rules on tracing (‘Spurfolge’; Art 912 (3) PGR, § 30 TrUG). In 1928 the Law regarding Trust Enterprises (abbreviated as ‘TrUG’) was passed. This law was modelled on the so-called Massachusetts Business Trust and inserted in the PGR as Art 932a and consists of 170 paragraphs.
The Concept of a Meeting and Quorum
Authors: Kosmin Leslie , Roberts Catherine
Published: March 2021

The need to hold a meeting will arise in many different and diverse situations. All meetings are subject to procedural rules and regulations of the particular institution that has convened the meeting. The reason why there are rules and regulations is so that the participants at a duly convened meeting can transact business in a lawful manner and so that they will be able to debate and discuss issues in an orderly fashion. This book is concerned with the meetings of solvent companies that are registered and incorporated under the statutory provisions regulating companies. The reason for the requirement for meetings under the Companies Act 2006 (CA 2006) is so that the members can attend either in person or by proxy in order to debate and vote on matters affecting the affairs of a company. There are a number of procedures, some that are derived from the common law and others that are the creation of statute, that have to be observed in order for a meeting of a company to transact business in a lawful and regular manner.
Circulars to Members and Members’ Statements
Authors: Kosmin Leslie , Roberts Catherine
Published: March 2021

Very often when a meeting of members of a company is convened the notice of the meeting will be accompanied by a circular that is addressed to all of the members. Such a circular for distribution to members will be prepared by the board of directors, usually in consultation with relevant appropriate professional advisers. The purpose of sending a circular to members is to appraise them of the reason for, and purpose of, the resolutions that are proposed to be considered at the forth-coming general meeting, and to provide pertinent information to shareholders in order to enable them to take an informed decision as to whether or not to attend the meeting and as to how they will cast their votes. A board of directors must ensure that a circular to members contains an accurate summary of all of the relevant information relating to the proposals upon which the members have been asked to vote at the forthcoming general meeting. In the context of a public listed company, it is to be noted that the Listing Rules of the Financial Conduct Authority require that when the holders of listed equity shares are sent a notice of meeting which includes any
The Role of the Chairman
Authors: Kosmin Leslie , Roberts Catherine
Published: March 2021

For there to be an effective general meeting of members of a company someone has to perform the role of chairman and be appointed to that position. The appointment of a chairman is an indispensable part of any meeting. In the absence of a person exercising procedural control over the affairs of the general meeting it may be unable to proceed to transact business in an orderly manner. At a shareholders’ meeting that person is often the chairman of the board of directors of the particular company but this is not always the case. The chairman is the person who conducts the meeting and leads it through the business on the agenda which is to be transacted. A vast array of skills are required in order to discharge this important role in an efficient and effective manner. In carrying out this task the chairman must have regard not only to the interests and concerns of the majority present but also the rights of the minorities.
Resolutions and Amendments
Authors: Kosmin Leslie , Roberts Catherine
Published: March 2021

This chapter considers the different types of resolutions that may be considered either at a company meeting or, in the case of a private company, by written resolution. Shareholders make their decisions by the passing of resolutions. Such resolutions take various forms, the type of which depends upon the size of the required majority for the resolution to be treated as effective. The form and content of company resolutions is now determined by the provisions of CA 2006. Each of these new statutory requirements will be considered in this chapter. In addition, this chapter examines the procedures that must be followed if it is desired to amend a draft resolution before it is voted upon at a general meeting. As will be seen, for special resolutions the possibilities for amendment are much restricted.
Informal Decisions and the Duomatic Principle
Authors: Kosmin Leslie , Roberts Catherine
Published: March 2021

For more than 100 years the courts in England and in the Commonwealth have recognized an alternative but legally effective method of decision-making by companies, namely decisions taken with the informal but unanimous assent of the shareholders. The principle has been derived from the recognition by the courts that in practice many companies, and in particular, small private companies, frequently fail to comply with or disregard the statutory requirements for formal meetings of shareholders in the conduct of their affairs. The principle, which has been designed to assist in the functioning of companies, is often known as the Duomatic principle having been restated in clear terms by Buckley J (as he then was) in Re Duomatic Ltd in 1969.
Minutes of Meetings of Directors
Authors: Kosmin Leslie , Roberts Catherine
Published: March 2021

The keeping of accurate records of meetings is a fundamental requirement for the efficient management of any institution. As has been discussed in Chapter 17, concerning minutes of shareholders’ meetings, it is important to note that minutes are not a verbatim transcript of the proceedings of a particular meeting, but an accurate record in summary form of what has been debated and decided. In general, minutes of directors’ meetings will record what has been resolved upon, but there may be occasions when the minutes of a board meeting need to record the reasons for a particular decision or the main points arising from a discussion. Where directors of a public listed company have concerns about the way in which that company is being managed or the operation of the board or about a course of action being proposed by the board, the UK Corporate Governance Code requires that directors should ensure that their concerns are recorded in the board minutes if they cannot be resolved. As a matter of practice, directors must appreciate that they may be called to account for their conduct and stewardship of the company’s affairs at any stage, and especially if the company becomes insolvent or
Algeria
Authors: Schneider Marius , Ferguson Vanessa
Published: March 2021

Algeria is located in the Maghreb region in North-West Africa. It borders the Mediterranean Sea, Tunisia, Libya, Morocco, Mauritania, Mali, Niger, and Western Sahara. It has an area of 2,381,741 square kilometres (km) making it the tenth-largest country in the world and the largest in Africa. More than four-fifths of the country is desert. Algeria’s population was of 41.3 million in 2017. Most of the inhabitants live in the northern urban areas, where Algiers, Oran, and Constantine, the major cities, are found. Algiers, the most populous city is also the capital. It is a megapolis of more than 6 million inhabitants, making it the largest urban area in the Maghreb. Oran is the second biggest town in Algeria. The weekend comprises Friday and Saturday since 2009. The dinar is the monetary currency of Algeria (DZD).
Congo (Republic of)
Authors: Schneider Marius , Ferguson Vanessa
Published: March 2021

The Republic of the Congo, also known as Congo-Brazzaville, is found in Central Africa. It is bordered by Gabon, Cameroon, the Central African Republic, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and the enclave of Cabinda, which belongs to Angola. Its population of 5.12 million in 2016 over a territory of 342,000 square kilometres (km) makes it one of the least densely populated country in Africa. The population is highly urbanized with more than half of the population living in the two largest cities, Brazzaville and Pointe Noire. The capital and largest city is Brazzaville. The official language of the Congo is French, but the Constitution also recognizes Lingala and Kituba as national vernacular languages. The currency used is the Central African franc (CFA).
Malawi
Authors: Schneider Marius , Ferguson Vanessa
Published: March 2021

Malawi is a landlocked country located within south-east Africa, surrounded by Mozambique, Zambia, and Tanzania, with an area of 118,484 square kilometres (km) for a population of 18.62 million (2017). The capital of Malawi is Lilongwe. With an estimated population of 821,000 it is one of the largest cities in the country. The working week is from Monday to Friday, with business hours running from 0800 until 1700, with a one-hour lunch break. The currency used in Malawi is known as the Malawian kwacha (MWK).
Morocco
Authors: Schneider Marius , Ferguson Vanessa
Published: March 2021

Morocco is located in the Maghreb region in north-west Africa. It borders the Atlantic Ocean, the Mediterranean Sea, Algeria, and Mauritania. It has an area of 710,850 square kilometres (km) with a population of 35.7 million in 2017. Morocco claims the areas of Ceuta, Melilla, and Peñn de Vélez de la Gomera, which are all currently under Spanish jurisdiction. The capital of Morocco is Rabat, while its largest city is Casablanca. The working week is from Monday to Fridays from 0900 to 1700. Most businesses close for lunch for two hours from noon except during the month of Ramadan, when they remain open at midday but close earlier in the afternoon. The currency of Morocco is the Moroccan dirham (MAD).
Zambia
Authors: Schneider Marius , Ferguson Vanessa
Published: March 2021

Zambia, an independent Republic and landlocked country in south-central Africa, is surrounded by Angola, Zaire, Tanzania, Malawi, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Botswana, and Namibia. Zambia has a total area of 752,618 square kilometres (km) and an estimated population of 17.09 million (2017). The country’s capital and largest city is Lusaka with an estimated population of 1.8 million. Normal working hours in government and private sector offices are from 0800 to 1300 and 1400 to 1700 between Monday and Friday. The monetary unit is the kwacha (ZMW).
Online Judging
Authors: Susskind Richard
Published: March 2021

The most controversial and, for some, the defining feature of the first generation of online courts is that judges hear arguments and evidence, come to their decisions, and then make these determinations known to the parties and to the world at large without setting foot in a physical courtroom. This comes about if parties are unable to dispose of their dispute on Tiers 1 or 2. They then progress to Tier 3, the home of ‘online judging’.
India (‘.in’)
Authors: Anand Pravin
Published: March 2021

The Trade Marks Act 1999 came into force on 15 September 2003. Complying with most of the requirements of the Trade-Related Aspects of the Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) Agreement, the new Act eliminates many of the difficulties faced by trademark owners and practitioners under the earlier Trade and Merchandise Marks Act (of 1958).
Israel (‘.il’)
Authors: Shankman Ellen B
Published: March 2021

In Israel, trademarks are governed by both legislation and by common law. Rights are created by the first to file or use within the jurisdiction. Registration is not mandatory to establish rights in a trademark, and there are no compulsory registration provisions. However, there are substantial benefits to seeking trademark registration in Israel. The Israel Trade Marks Ordinance (New Version) 5732-1972 (Trademarks Ordinance) governs the rules under which trademarks are registered. Proof of use is not required to obtain registration in Israel, although there are provisions for cancellation of trademarks for non-use.
Russian Federation (‘.ru’ and ‘.рф’)
Authors: Kobiako von Gamm Iouri , Gulyaeva Natalia
Published: March 2021

To date, the Russian legislature has not adopted any specific statutory provisions on domain law, and therefore conflicts arising from domain names containing third-party trademarks are governed by international treaties and Russian civil and competition law regulations. The existing substantive provisions of both intellectual property (IP) and procedural law offer protection to the holders of Russian and foreign IP rights, and thus there is currently no perceived immediate need for new legislation.
Company Voluntary Arrangements Compared with Schemes
Authors: O’Dea Geoff , Long Julian , Smyth Alexandra
Published: March 2021

Company Voluntary Arrangements (CVAs) were introduced following the publication of the Cork Report, and consideration of its recommendations after complaints were made about the scheme process, particularly in respect of the need to obtain approval from each class under a scheme and the difficulties associated with determining them. A CVA is an insolvency proceeding under Part I of the Insolvency Act 1986 (although most of the content of the law is set out in the Insolvency Rules 1986 (the ‘IR’)) and it is listed as an insolvency proceeding for the purposes of Article 2(a) (and Annex A) of the Insolvency Regulation.
National Report for the Czech Republic
Authors: Richter Tomáš
Published: March 2021

If there is one area in the new Czech insolvency law that truly does not work well, it must be the rules on the treatment of contracts. Accordingly, this national report might be used as a warning against the kind of problems and inefficiencies that an ill-conceived set of rules on an important sub-topic may create, even within an otherwise reasonably progressive insolvency code.
National Report for the Republic of Korea (South Korea)
Authors: Oh Soogeun , Song Heejong
Published: March 2021

The treatment of executory contracts in rehabilitation proceedings is governed under articles 119 to 124 of the Debtors Rehabilitation and Bankruptcy Act (the DRBA). With respect to bankruptcy proceedings articles 335 to 342 of the DRBA apply. In both rehabilitation proceedings and bankruptcy proceedings, the DRBA vests the receiver or the bankruptcy trustee with the power to assume or reject executory contracts. An executory contract is described as ‘a bilateral contract that has not been fully performed by both the debtor and the counterparty at the commencement of the insolvency proceeding’, and the law provides only for the situation where both parties are required to fulfil their obligations. If the contract is fully performed by the debtor, general insolvency rules apply whereby the receiver or bankruptcy trustee can demand performance or damages from the counterparty in default.
The Liability in Negligence of Persons Other than Producers
Authors: Fairgrieve Duncan , Goldberg Richard
Published: March 2021

Although this book is concerned primarily with the contractual liability of sellers of goods and with the liability in tort of manufacturers, we include here reference to other persons who may incur liability for defective products. The contractual liability of persons other than sellers has already been noted. Persons other than manufacturers who may incur liability in tort include retailers and persons who hire out or provide services involving the use of a product; donors and gratuitous bailors; wholesalers and importers; those who repair, service, recondition, assemble, install, or carry out work on a product; and probably also such persons or bodies as inspectors, engineers, testing agencies, and endorsers or certifiers of safety or quality. Finally, reference is made to the position of building contractors and builder-vendors. The discussion generally assumes that the claimant is suing in respect of personal injury or perhaps property damage, rather than economic loss simpliciter.
Civil Sanctions and Proceedings
Authors: Annette Kur , Senftleben Martin
Published: March 2021

Trade mark conflicts as well as matters pertaining to validity and registration of marks can be dealt with in opposition or cancellation proceedings before the registration authorities and in subsequent appeals. The rules governing those proceedings were presented in Chapters 10 and 11. This chapter deals with civil law litigation conducted before the ordinary courts, while briefly also addressing the relationship of administrative procedures with the system of civil court litigation (section 13.1.2) and the coordination of administrative and civil proceedings in the European Union Trade Mark (EUTM) framework (section 13.2.3.2).
Criminal Sanctions
Authors: Annette Kur , Senftleben Martin
Published: March 2021

In addition to civil law, trade mark infringements—like intellectual property infringements in general—are regularly subject to penal sanctions imposed in criminal procedures. The legal instruments available in such procedures are typically stronger than those available under civil law. Thus, the police and/or the public prosecutor usually have greater powers regarding inspection and seizure of infringing materials and documents; second, the financial sanctions imposed are not limited by the amount of actual damage suffered or even by the gains made. In appropriate cases they can go beyond those sums and thus become a real punishment. The deterring effect is even stronger in cases of personal imprisonment of the infringer, or regarding other sanctions like confiscation of business equipment or closing down of the infringer’s business.
Obtaining a Granted Patent
Authors: Grubb Philip W , Thomsen Peter R , Hoxie Tom , Wright Gordon
Published: March 2021

This chapter discusses the procedure for filing a patent application at the European Patent Office (EPO). EPO procedure is governed by certain basic principles. No decisions may be made unless the parties have had the opportunity to comment and oral proceedings must be held if at least one party so requests. In the absence of specific provisions, the EPO shall take into account the principles of procedural law generally recognized in the contracting state. When the applicant is faced with a possible loss of rights, for example as result of an adverse decision by the EPO, he (almost) always has the possibility to recover his position. An adverse decision may also be appealed, and if the applicant has failed to act in time, options to recover include: extensions and grace periods, where provided; further processing under the European Patent Convention (EPC); restoration of rights; and requesting an appealable decision.
Pharmaceutical Inventions
Authors: Grubb Philip W , Thomsen Peter R , Hoxie Tom , Wright Gordon
Published: March 2021

This chapter considers the law governing the patentability of pharmaceutical inventions, including new chemical entities, pharmaceutical compositions, and dosage regimes. Provisions in the UK Patents Act 1977 and the European Patent Convention (EPC) exclude from patentability ‘methods for treatment of the human or animal body by surgery or therapy and diagnostic methods practised on the human or animal body’, although this does not prevent a substance or composition from being patentable for use in any of these methods. Under the EPC, such methods were excluded by being defined as not industrially applicable; the new approach introduced by EPC 2000 is more logical and also clarifies the patentability of further medical uses. Novel compounds that have a pharmaceutical utility are patentable per se in all countries that have implemented the TRIPs Agreement.
The Patent Practitioner and His Functions
Authors: Grubb Philip W , Thomsen Peter R , Hoxie Tom , Wright Gordon
Published: March 2021

This chapter focuses on patent practitioners and their functions. Patent practitioners are persons whose profession is to draft and prosecute patent applications, and to advise generally about patent matters. They may be employed by companies or be in private practice, and they may, in different countries, have different types of qualification. Basically, however, their job is to help inventors obtain valid patents for their inventions. In order to do this, patent practitioners must have both scientific and legal training, so that they can understand both the technical background of the invention, and the patent law and practice of at least their own country. The chapter discusses the patent profession in the UK, US, and other countries; training and certification for European patent attorneys, patent practitioners in private and industrial practice, and the job of the patent practitioner.
Inventorship, Ownership, and Compensation
Authors: Grubb Philip W , Thomsen Peter R , Hoxie Tom , Wright Gordon
Published: March 2021

This chapter considers the law governing inventorship, ownership, and compensation. It first discusses inventorship in the UK, the US, and the European Patent Office. It then looks at the issue of ownership of the rights in an invention, covering common law provisions, contracts of employment, statute law in the UK, statute law in Germany, and academic inventions. This is followed by a discussion of compensation for employee-inventors in the UK, Germany, and other countries. The remainder of the chapter explains the right to apply for a patent and to be granted a patent, co-ownership of patents, disputes over the correct ownership of an invention, and the recordal and transfer of ownership.
Education
Authors: Fairgrieve Duncan , Squires QC Dan
Published: March 2021

It has long been established that schools owe a duty to look after the physical health and safety of their pupils. The duty imposed on schools has since been extended to taking care of the ‘educational needs’ of pupils. This has led to the imposition of liability in cases of ‘educational negligence’. These cases have tended to involve a failure to diagnose and treat learning difficulties, though the courts have made clear that schools are under a general duty to ensure that reasonable care is taken in the provision of education. As Lord Browne-Wilkinson noted in X v Bedfordshire County Council, ‘the education of the pupil is the very purpose for which the child goes to the school’ and the school thus has a duty to ensure that the child’s educational needs are met, and not just that he or she is physically safe while at school.
The gut microbiome in subclinical atherosclerosis: a population-based multiphenotype analysis
Authors: Zhu Sibo , Xu Kelin , Jiang Yanfeng , Zhu Chengkai , Suo Chen , Cui Mei , Wang Yingzhe , Yuan Ziyu , Xue Jiangli , Wang Jiucun , Zhang Tiejun , Zhao Genming , Ye Weimin , Huang Tingting , Lu Ming , Tian Weizhong , Jin Li , Chen Xingdong
Published: March 2021

Objectives

An altered microbiota, which can be described quantitatively, has been identified as playing a pivotal role in host vascular physiology, and it may contribute to various diseases. The aim of this study was to better understand the role of the gut microbiota in vascular physiology in a subclinical elderly population, and to investigate how lifestyle affects the composition of host gut microbiota to further impact the pathogenesis of vascular diseases.

Methods

We performed a population-based faecal metagenomic study over 569 elderly asymptomatic subclinical individuals in rural China. An association network was built based on clinical measurements and detailed epidemiologic questionnaires, including blood chemistry, arterial stiffness, carotid ultrasonography, and metagenomic datasets.

Results

By analyzing the breadth, depth and impact of each node of the association network, we found carotid arterial atherosclerosis indices, including intima-media thickness (IMT), were essential in the network, and were significantly associated with living habits, socio-economic status, and diet. Using mediation analysis, we found that higher frequency of eating fresh fruits and vegetables, and more exercise significantly reduced carotid atherosclerosis in terms of IMT, peak systolic velocity and end-diastolic velocity values through the mediation of Alistepes, Oligella and Prevotella. Gut microbes explained 16.5% of the mediation effect of lifestyle on the pathogenesis of carotid atherosclerosis. After adjustment, Faecalicatena [odds ratio (OR) = 0.12 ∼0.65] was shown to be protective against the formation of carotid atherosclerosis, independently, while Libanicoccus (OR = 1.46 ∼4.20 ) was associated with increased carotid arterial IMT. KEGG/KO Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes/ KEGG Orthology (KEGG/KO) analyses revealed a loss of anti-inflammation function in IMT subjects.

Conclusion

Our study revealed a Chinese population–wide phenotype–metagenomic association network and a mediation effect of gut microbiota on carotid artery atherosclerosis, hinting at potential therapeutic and preventive uses for microbiota in vascular diseases.
A behavioral economics perspective on the COVID-19 vaccine amid public mistrust
Authors: Saleska Jessica Londeree , Choi Kristen R
Published: March 2021

The COVID-19 vaccine development, testing, and approval processes have moved forward with unprecedented speed in 2020. Although several vaccine candidates have shown promising results in clinical trials, resulting in expedited approval for public use from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, recent polls suggest that Americans strongly distrust the vaccine and its approval process. This mistrust stems from both the unusual speed of vaccine development and reports about side effects. This article applies insights from behavioral economics to consider how the general public may make decisions around whether or not to receive a future COVID-19 vaccine in a context of frequent side effects and preexisting mistrust.

Three common cognitive biases shown to influence human decision-making under a behavioral economics framework are considered: confirmation bias, negativity bias, and optimism bias. Applying a behavioral economics framework to COVID-19 vaccine decision-making can elucidate potential barriers to vaccine uptake and points of intervention for clinicians and public health professionals.
Whole-Genome Sequence of Diaporthe citri Isolate NFHF-8-4, the Causal Agent of Citrus Melanose
Authors: Liu Xiang-Yu , Chaisiri Chingchai , Lin Yang , Yin Wei-Xiao , Luo Chao-Xi
Published: March 2021

Diaporthe species are the causal agents of melanose, stem-end rot, and gummosis diseases of citrus. D. citri is the predominant species on different citrus varieties. These diseases exceedingly reduce quality and marketability of fresh fruits. Melanose on fruits especially causes massive economic losses. The infection mechanisms of D. citri are still unclear and the genome sequence of D. citri has not been released. In order to systemically explore the interaction between citrus and D. citri, we sequenced the whole-genome of D. citri NFHF-8-4, which was isolated from a sample with melanose in Jiangxi Province. The NFHF-8-4 genome sequence will provide valuable information for studying the development process, infection process, and resistance to fungicides mechanisms in D. citri.

[Formula: see text] Copyright © 2021 The Author(s). This is an open access article distributed under the CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 International license .
A Linear Regression Model for the Prediction of Rice Sheath Blight Field Resistance
Authors: Zeng Yuxiang , Dong Junjie , Ji Zhijuan , Yang Changdeng , Liang Yan
Published: March 2021

Rice sheath blight (SB) disease is a global issue that causes great yield losses each year. To explore whether SB field resistance can be predicted, 273 rice genotypes were inoculated and evaluated for SB field resistance across nine environments from 2012 to 2019 to identify loci associated with SB resistance by association mapping. A total of 80 significant marker–trait associations were detected in nine environments, among which six loci (D130B, D230A, D304B, D309, D427A, and RM409) were repeatedly detected in at least two environments. A linear regression model for predicting SB lesion length was developed using genotypic data of these six loci and SB field resistance data of the 273 rice genotypes: y = 34.44 – 0.56x, where y is the predicted value of lesion length, and x is the total genotypic value of the six loci. A recombinant inbred line (RIL) population consisting of 219 lines that was grown in six environments (from 2013 to 2018) for evaluation of SB field resistance was used to check the prediction accuracy of the prediction model. The average absolute error between the predicted lesion length and real lesion length for the RIL population was 6.67 cm. The absolute errors between predicted and real lesion lengths were <6 cm for 51.22% of the lines and <9 cm for 71.22% of the lines. An SB visual rating prediction model was also developed, and the average absolute error between the predicted visual rating and real visual rating for the RIL population was 0.94. These results indicated that the rice SB lesion length can be predicted by the development of a linear regression model using both genotypic and phenotypic data.
Scoping Review of Therapeutic Strategies for Keloids and Hypertrophic Scars
Authors: Anderson Jaclyn B. , Foglio Aaron , Harrant Alex B. , Huang Christene A. , Hultman C. Scott , Mathes David W. , Chong Tae W.
Published: March 2021

Background:

Keloids are an abnormal proliferation of scars that can involve large areas of tissue beyond the original injury site. Hypertrophic scars are similar clinically, but do not exceed the original scar limits. These scarring abnormalities can cause noxious symptoms such as pain, tenderness, itching, and ulcerations. The aim of this review is to discuss current therapies for both types of abnormal scarring, and to determine if guidelines can be provided for excisional treatment with adjuvant therapies versus non-excisional methods.

Methods:

A systematic literature search was performed through the Web of Science database. The search revolved around keywords such as “keloid,” “hypertrophic scars,” and “treatment.” Articles were reviewed and screened for inclusion and exclusion criteria. The review focuses on an analysis and summarization of randomized control trials regarding keloid or hypertrophic scar treatments.

Results:

The original searches produced 1161 and 1275 articles for keloid and hypertrophic scars, respectively. In total, 316 duplicates were found. After accounting for 2014–2019 publication time, 655 keloid and 893 hypertrophic scar articles were reviewed. This resulted in 15 articles that pertained to treatment and randomized control trials.

Conclusions:

Keloids and hypertrophic scars present a clinical challenge. Based on qualitative review of recurrence, neither excision plus adjuvant therapy or nonsurgical treatments can be recommended preferentially at this time. More research is needed to determine if recurrence rate bias exists between the treatment regimens, as excisional treatment plus adjuvant therapy is reserved for refractory scars.
Psychological complications of Cushing's syndrome
Authors: Santos Alicia , Webb Susan M. , Resmini Eugenia
Published: March 2021

Purpose of review

The aim of this article is to review and discuss recent evidence of psychological complications in Cushing's syndrome.

Recent findings

Recent research has described the presence of depression, anxiety, posttraumatic stress disorder, mania, bipolar disorder and psychotic symptoms in patients with Cushing's syndrome. Furthermore, the perspective of patients’ partners has also been emphasized.

Recent literature highlights the importance of screening for psychological alterations in Cushing's syndrome, as these alterations can be present in many patients, having a high impact in daily life. Depression is a very common symptom, although in rare cases, patients can also present mania or psychosis. Some studies highlight the importance of screening for organic disease (including Cushing's syndrome) in patients with unexpected or first onset psychiatric symptoms. Finally, the perspective of the patients’ partners makes it clear that the partners can also suffer due to the disease of the patient. Intervention programmes involving patient's partners could be helpful to improve both patient and partner wellbeing.
Violence in Psychiatric Settings
Authors: Rolin Stephanie A. , Lawrence Ryan E. , Dixon Lisa B. , Appelbaum Paul S.
Published: March 2021

Violence is a serious concern in the psychiatric inpatient and emergency setting. Much of the research on victims of inpatient violence has focused on identifying and supporting staff who are at risk of being victimized when working in psychiatric settings. This article presents an analysis of 72 patients who were targeted during incidents of patient-on-patient physical aggression in hospital-based psychiatric settings (both inpatient and emergency) from 2014 to 2018. Results suggest that patients who are at risk of being targeted by another patient while in the hospital tend to be younger, are more likely to be male, and present with manic symptoms and recent cannabis use. These variables have all been identified as risk factors for perpetration of violence by patients with mental illness. This study adds to a literature demonstrating a consistent overlap between individuals with mental illness who are victimized and those who initiate violence.
Establishment of Isolation and Noncongregate Hotels During COVID-19 and Symptom Evolution Among People Experiencing Homelessness—Atlanta, Georgia, 2020
Authors: Montgomery Martha P. , Paulin Heather N. , Morris Asher , Cotton Afrika , Speers Austin , Boyd Andrew T. , Buff Ann M. , Mathews Darlene , Wells Alyssa , Marchman Cathryn , Gaffga Nicholas , Bamrah Morris Sapna , Cavanaugh Sean S.
Published: March 2021

Context:

Local agencies across the United States have identified public health isolation sites for individuals with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) who are not able to isolate in residence.

Program:

We describe logistics of establishing and operating isolation and noncongregate hotels for COVID-19 mitigation and use the isolation hotel as an opportunity to understand COVID-19 symptom evolution among people experiencing homelessness (PEH).

Implementation:

Multiple agencies in Atlanta, Georgia, established an isolation hotel for PEH with COVID-19 and noncongregate hotel for PEH without COVID-19 but at risk of severe illness. PEH were referred to the isolation hotel through proactive, community-based testing and hospital-based testing. Daily symptoms were recorded prospectively. Disposition location was recorded for all clients.

Evaluation:

During April 10 to September 1, 2020, 181 isolation hotel clients (77 community referrals; 104 hospital referrals) were admitted a median 3 days after testing. Overall, 32% of community referrals and 7% of hospital referrals became symptomatic after testing positive; 83% of isolation hotel clients reported symptoms at some point; 93% completed isolation. Among 302 noncongregate hotel clients, median stay was 18 weeks; 61% were discharged to permanent housing or had a permanent housing discharge plan.

Discussion:

Overall, a high proportion of PEH completed isolation at the hotel, suggesting a high level of acceptability. Many PEH with COVID-19 diagnosed in the community developed symptoms after testing, indicating that proactive, community-based testing can facilitate early isolation. Noncongregate hotels can be a useful COVID-19 community mitigation strategy by bridging PEH at risk of severe illness to permanent housing.
College Students' Experiences of Race-Related Bias or Hatred in Their Lifetimes and COVID-19 Era
Authors: Shah Gulzar H. , Rochani Haresh D. , Telfair Joseph , Ayangunna Elizabeth , Skuraton Gemma
Published: March 2021

Objective:

The primary aim of this study was to investigate whether students in minority race categories are more likely to experience race-related bias and hatred in their lifetime and since the onset of COVID-19, after controlling the effect of demographic and other variables.

Methods:

This quantitative study used primary data from the survey of 1249 college students at one of the universities in Georgia during April and May 2020. We performed multinomial logistic regression, computing 2 models for the 2 ordinal dependent variables concerning students' experience of race-related bias and hatred—(a) during their lifetime and (b) since the onset of COVID-19 in March 2020—both measured as “never,” “rarely,” “sometimes,” and “fairly often or very often.”

Results:

During their lifetime, 47.5% of students had experienced some level of bias or hatred, ranging from “rarely” to “very often.” Since the onset of COVID-19 on March 2 in Georgia, in a short period of 1 to 2 months, 17.6% of students reported experiencing race-related bias or hatred. Univariate statistics revealed substantial differences in race-related bias and hatred by race, experienced during students' lifetime as well as since the onset of COVID-19. Results of multinomial logistic regression showed that the odds of having experienced bias or hatred during their lifetime were significantly higher (P < .05) for the Black students than for White students (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] = 75.8, for very often or often vs never; AOR = 42 for sometimes vs never). Compared with White students, the odds of hatred and bias were also significantly higher for students who were Asian, multiple races, or another non-White race. The odds of having experienced race-related bias and hatred since the onset of COVID-19 were also higher for Black Asian, multiple races, and other non-White students.

Conclusions:

This study adds critical scientific evidence about variation in the perception of bias and hatred that should draw policy attention to race-related issues experienced by college students in the United States.
Validation of 3-Minute Nutrition Screening-Paediatric (Paediatric 3-MinNS) for Hospitalized Children
Authors: Yeo Pei Sien , Boey Christopher Chiong Meng , Lim Su Lin , Abdul Majid Hazreen
Published: March 2021

Nutrition screening in pediatric hospitals is not a common practice in many countries. This study validated the 3-Minute Nutrition Screening-Paediatric (Paediatric 3-MinNS) with Screening Tool for the Assessment of Malnutrition in Paediatrics (STAMP), anthropometric measures, biochemical parameters, and dietary assessment. This cross-sectional study included 165 patients aged 2 to 12 years admitted as pediatric patients to the University Malaya Medical Centre. The tool identified 26.1% of patients as being at high risk of malnutrition. The findings suggest that Paediatric 3-MinNS offers a valid and reliable screening tool for early recognition of children at risk of malnutrition.