bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Origins of Life
Authors: Goodenough Ursula
Published: November 2023

Every religion has an account of the origins of life. Most familiar to Western traditions is Genesis 1, a spare, poetic account of the six days of creation. The Pueblo Indians tell of a primordial home beneath a lake where humans, gods, and animals lived together while the earth above was still soft and “unripe.” The Kagaba Indians describe a female Supreme Deity: “the mother of our songs, the mother of all our seed, bore us in the beginning of things.… She is the mother of the thunder, the mother of the streams, the mother of trees and of all things.” Certain Hindu teachings speak of the Brahmanda, the cosmic egg from which all creatures came forth. The Yaruro of Venezuala tell of the water serpent Puana who created the world, his brother Itciai, the jaguar, who created water, and their sister, Kuma, wife of the Sun, who made the Yaruro people.
How Life Works
Authors: Goodenough Ursula
Published: November 2023

Even well into this century, even after it was clear that life works through myriads of chemical reactions and that the information needed to organize this chemistry is encoded in DNA molecules, there were scientists who continued to believe that there was “something else” about living systems, an elanvital, a vital force. Although scientists no longer invoke such a force—we are convinced that life emerges from biochemistry—the sense that there is “something else” about life is so widespread, so deeply rooted, that it almost seems instinctive.
How Evolution Works
Authors: Goodenough Ursula
Published: November 2023

Life, we can now say, is getting something to happen against the odds and remembering how to do it. The something that happens is biochemistry and biophysics, the odds are beat by intricate concatenations of shape fits and shape changes, and the memory is encoded in genes and their promoters. We read the notes, we hear the emergent chords and harmonies, and we marvel at the emergent musical experience.
The Evolution of Biodiversity
Authors: Goodenough Ursula
Published: November 2023

Our description of how evolution works could apply to any planet in any solar system, any galaxy. Once there’s a self-sustaining biochemical system that can replicate its own instructions, then any changes in the instructions that allow more copies of the system to be produced will become more prevalent. If ours were a perfectly uniform planet with a totally homogeneous environment, it would presumably come to be inhabited by a single kind of organism, maximally adapted to such a habitat, beavering away at its self-replication.
Awareness
Authors: Goodenough Ursula
Published: November 2023

A locus of human pride is our sense that we possess the capacity for a special kind of awareness, often called consciousness or self-awareness, that distinguishes us from the “dumb creatures” over which we have been assured we “have dominion.”
Emotions and Meaning
Authors: Goodenough Ursula
Published: November 2023

Organisms usually attach a value to the things they perceive—this is good, that is bad—which, in complex animals, is experienced via neural and hormonal emotional systems.
Sexuality
Authors: Goodenough Ursula
Published: November 2023

Sex, as we have seen, has everything to do with the adaptive strategy of eukaryotic organisms, and it generates the seminal necessity to nurture offspring. But sex generates another important consequence as well: Gametes carrying haploid genomes must, at each generation, fertilize other gametes to create new diploid organisms.
Multicellularity and Death
Authors: Goodenough Ursula
Published: November 2023

Many kinds of sexual algae and fungi are singlecelled. Each cell/organism is either a haploid male or a haploid female, and each has two options: it can replicate and divide and replicate and divide to generate millions of identical copies (a mitotic clone) of itself, or else it can recognize and fuse with a cell of the opposite sex to produce a diploid zygote. The zygote switches on genetic programs that allow it to form a protective spore coat around itself and go into dormancy. And then, when circumstances are favorable, the spore undergoes meiosis and releases haploid male and female organisms that are pink/blue mixtures of their parents, and these again either cycle mitotically or else mate with one another.
Edward Elgar
Authors: Steinberg Michael
Published: November 2023

Using some sketches he had made in 1898, Elgar began The Dream of Gerontius in 1899, completed the work in vocal score on 6 June that year, and finished the full score on 3 August. The first performance took place at the Birmingham Festival on 3 October 1900: Hans Richter conducted, and the soloists were Marie Brema, Edward Lloyd, and Harry Plunket Greene.
Gabriel Fauré
Authors: Steinberg Michael
Published: November 2023

In 1877, Fauré wrote a Libera me for baritone and organ; this, orchestrated, was eventually incorporated into the Requiem and is thus the earliest music in that work. In 1887–1888, Fauré composed what he called “a little Requiem” in five movements: Introit and Kyrie, Sanctus, “Pie Jesu,” Agnus Dei, and “In Paradisum,” but not including the old Libera me. This was first performed on 16 January 1888 under the composer’s direction in one of the grandest and most unattractive churches in Paris, La Madeleine. The occasion was what is listed in the church records as a “first-class funeral” service for a certain M. La Soufaché, an architect. Fauré conducted, and the treble soloist was Louis Aubert, who went on to study with Fauré and became quite a good composer himself. The Requiem’s first hearing that was not part of a service occurred at the Madeleine on 4 May 1888, but the composer asked the friends whom he had invited not “to sit together lest it begin to look like a PERFORMANCE!!!” In 1889, Fauré added the “Hostias” portion of the Offertory, and in 1890 he expanded .
George Frideric Handel
Authors: Steinberg Michael
Published: November 2023

Handel composed Messiah in twenty-four days in the late summer of 1741, beginning on 22 August and completing its three parts respectively on 28 August, 6 September, and 14 September. A small part of what enabled him to work at such speed was his habit of creative borrowing from his own earlier scores—and sometimes, though not here, from those of others. Handel tried out a few numbers in rehearsal in Chester on his way to Ireland in November 1741, then led the work in a public rehearsal on 9 April 1742 at Neale’s Music Hall in Fishamble Street, Dublin, and in its official premiere on 13 April. He thought Neale’s Hall “a charming room” in which “the Musick sounds delightfully.” The soloists at the first performance included three singers Handel had brought with him from London, the soprano Christina Maria Avoglio (or Avolio) and Mr. and Mrs. Maclaine (an organist and his wife); Susanna Maria Cibber, who took the alto numbers; and James Baily, William Lambe, Joseph Ward, John Hill, and John Mason, all members of the choirs at Dublin’s Christ Church or Saint Patrick’s Cathedral or both. The concertmaster, whom Handel credited with the excellent string playing, was Matthew Dubourg, Master and Composer of State Music in Ireland.
Roger Sessions
Authors: Steinberg Michael
Published: November 2023

When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom’d, commissioned by the University of California at Berkeley in celebration of its centenary in 1964, was completed on 2 January 1970. Sessions dedicated the score to the memory of Martin Luther King, Jr., and Robert F. Kennedy, both assassinated in 1968. The first performance was given on 23 May 1971 at Berkeley with Michael Senturia conducting, with the University Symphony Orchestra, the University Chorus, the Repertory Chorus, and soloists Helene Joseph, Stephanie Friedman, and Allen Shearer.
Michael Tippett
Authors: Steinberg Michael
Published: November 2023

Tippett began A Child of Our Time on 4 September 1939, the day after England entered the war, and completed the score in 1942. The first performance was given at the Adelphi Theatre, London, on 19 March 1944. Walter Goehr conducted the London Region Civil Defence Choir, the Morley College Choir, and the London Philharmonic, and the soloists were Joan Cross, Margaret McArthur, Peter Pears, and Roderick Lloyd.
Ralph Vaughan Williams
Authors: Steinberg Michael
Published: November 2023

Vaughan Williams tells us that “the first sketches for this work (namely, parts of the Scherzo and slow movement) were made in 1903, and it was gradually worked out during the next seven years.” Most of the concentrated writing was done in 1908–1909. While in gestation, A Sea Symphony had several other titles, the first of them Songs of the Sea, already used by Vaughan Williams’s teacher Sir Charles Villiers Stanford, and another being The Ocean Symphony. It was first performed at the Leeds Festival under the direction of the composer on his thirty-eighth birthday, 12 October 1910. The orchestra and chorus were those of the Leeds Festival, and the soloists were Cicely Gleeson-White and Campbell McInnes. Stanford, in his last year as the Festival’s principal conductor, led the rest of the program, which consisted of Strauss’s Don Juan and Rachmaninoff playing his own Piano Concerto No. 2. Among the violinists in the orchestra that year was the composer Frank Bridge. Several details of the Sea Symphony were revised in 1918. In the 1918 score, Vaughan Williams indicates that each movement may be performed on its own, though I cannot imagine that this would be effective except for the Scherzo. The dedication is to R. L. W., the composer’s cousin and close friend, Ralph Wedgwood.
William Walton
Authors: Steinberg Michael
Published: November 2023

In August 1929, Walton, Constant Lambert, and Victor Hely Hutchinson were each commissioned by the BBC, then rapidly expanding its musical presence, to compose a work for “small chorus, small orchestra not exceeding fifteen, and soloist.” At the suggestion of his friend Osbert Sitwell, Walton took Belshazzar as his subject and asked Sitwell to prepare the libretto for him. Drawing on the book of Daniel, Psalms 81 and 137, Revelation, and Isaiah, Sitwell did so in December 1929, and Walton, staying with Sitwell at Amalflbegan work on the music in January 1930. From May to December he suffered a severe case of writer’s block—”perched” on the word gold, he said, “unable to move either to right or left or up or down”—but was at last able to complete the score in the spring of 1931.1 By this time it had long been Sir Thomas Beecham, the festival director, assigned the work to Malcolm Sargent, who conducted the premiere at the Leeds Town Hall on 8 October 1931, with the Leeds Festival Choir, the London Symphony, and Dennis Noble as soloist. In 1948, Walton revised the orchestration extensively, making a few small compositional changes at the same time; this version was also introduced by Sargent—by then Sir Malcolm—in London, again with Noble as soloist.
Moral Relativism versus Moral Absolutism
Authors: Cook John W
Published: November 2023

When we try to think about philosophical issues, it often happens that we end in confusion and frustration or become embroiled in futile partisan de­ bates. The best way to avoid such unhappy endings is to make sure that we are free of misconceptions at the beginning of our inquiries.
Further Misconceptions about Moral Relativism
Authors: Cook John W
Published: November 2023

In recent decades discussions of moral relativism have tended to ignore the concerns that led anthropologists in the early years of this century to attach great importance to this doctrine. Recent discussions have focused, instead, on what relativism purports to tell us about the nature of morality. Such discussions are of general philosophical interest, but by ignoring the special concerns of anthropologists they have given rise to some misguided criticisms of moral relativism. In this chapter I will first show that these criticisms miss the mark and will then explain why anthropologists have defended relativism so vigorously.
Boas’s Criticisms of Cultural Evolutionism
Authors: Cook John W
Published: November 2023

A premise essential to evolutionism is that preliterate peoples are extremely conservative, wedded to tradition, shackled by taboos. Is this premise open to criticism? Evidently not. Most anthropologists, whatever theories they may hold, agree that there is overwhelming evidence of such conservatism. On this score, then, the evolutionists’ theory is not vulnerable to criticism. Boas nevertheless found reason to take issue with it. He criticized two aspects of the theory: the attempt to demonstrate that there is a common, innate human mind and the claim that in every instance of cultural change the change is always from a more primitive to a more advanced stage of culture. Let us consider this latter aspect first.
Relativism and Ethnocentrism
Authors: Cook John W
Published: November 2023

Those who claim that relativism is essential to the proper conduct of anthropology argue as follows: (i) Ethnocentrism is a hazard that anthropologists must scrupulously avoid. (ii) The way to be permanently on guard against this hazard is to embrace relativism. (iii) Boas demonstrated anthropology’s need of relativism. (iv) He did this by demonstrating that evolutionist theories of culture resulted from the ethnocentrism of those who de­ vised these theories.
Pulling the Strands Together
Authors: Cook John W
Published: November 2023

It is time to retrace our steps in order to survey the path we have followed through the preceding chapters. Relativists tell us that their view of morality is supported by observations anthropologists have made in their study of many different cultures. If this were true, it should be easy to discover how they became moral relativists.
Westermarck’s Concession and the Philosophical Argument for Relativism
Authors: Cook John W
Published: November 2023

We have reached a transition point at which the anthropologist’s version of the problem must give way to the philosopher’s. We have seen that relativists take the view that the “analysis of moral concepts” is properly a job for anthropologists, rather than philosophers, for only the former have a sufficient knowledge of the ethnographic research that shows morality to be relative.
The Geographical Scale of Speciation
Authors: Levin Donald A
Published: November 2023

Speciation must occur within a spatial context. A geographically circumscribed assemblage of individuals diverges from another such assemblage and acquires, through selection and genetic drift, the attributes that render it a new species. That assemblage may range from a single population to a large group of populations. The manner in which species and speciation are studied and how phylogenies and biogeographies are interpreted depends on the geographical unit (or scale) of speciation.
Differentiation and the Breakdown of Species Unity
Authors: Levin Donald A
Published: November 2023

An expanding neospecies moves across landscape patches to which it is adapted. Populations give rise to others that share their phenotypic and genetic attributes, thereby rendering the neospecies a unified, cohesive phenotypic entity.
The Decline and Demise of Species
Authors: Levin Donald A
Published: November 2023

As discussed by Gaston (1994), trajectory (1) seems unlikely because the collapse in total population size does not impact range size. Trajectory (2) may be common when species face continuous habitat loss, but where persisting habitat patches retain their original character. Trajectory (3) may reflect range erosion due to habitat loss coupled with the degradation of the remaining habitat. Trajectory (4) may result when those areas in which a species achieves higher densities are differentially preserved.
Do Events Recur?
Authors: Brandl Johannes L
Published: November 2023

The idea that events can happen more than once is a familiar one. We often regret that something happened again (e.g., an accident at Kennedy airport) or we are surprised to see things happen again (e.g., the Jazz beating the Lakers four times in a row). But can we take this way of speaking literally? Do events recur in the strict sense of this term? This is the question I want to discuss.
History of Subarachnoid Hemorrhage
Authors: Weir Bryce
Published: November 2023

A stroke is a loss of brain function caused by structural vascular disease. It usually excludes loss of function from epilepsy, trauma, transient hypotension, infection, metabolic disorder, neoplasm, peripheral ocular and vestibular disorder, degeneration, and psychiatric disease. A subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) is excess blood in the subarachnoid space, which can be caused by a large variety of pathologies. For instance, blood can enter the subarachnoid space from vessels within the subarachnoid space, from vessels in the brain that bleed through the cortex into the subarachnoid space, from vessels in the ventricles or on the ventricular surfaces, and from vessels in the dura or subdural space, which cause bleeding that ruptures through the outer arachnoid layer.
Epidemiology and Associated Disease States
Authors: Weir Bryce
Published: November 2023

An aneurysm is a dilatation on a blood vessel,1 usually an artery. Many different types of aneurysms affect the nervous system (Table 3-1). The most common type is a saccular or ovoid protrusion attached by a small neck to the artery of origin, historically called a “berry.” Ruptured aneurysms account for most cases of subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH), and the incidence of aneurysmal SAH is directly related to age. Aneurysmal rupture is extremely uncommon in infancy, becoming steadily less so during aging. For this reason the term “congenital” applied to aneurysms is a misnomer.
Therapeutic Aspects of Sah: Endovascular
Authors: Weir Bryce
Published: November 2023

The concept of obliterating an aneurysm during the same catheterization that establishes the diagnosis has intrinsic appeal. Endovascular placement of coils or stents might be a rapid, safe, and inexpensive way of curing aneurysms. Luessenhop and Velasquez first attempted such treatment for an aneurysm in 1964, placing a Silastic sphere attached to a suture. The attempt ended in failure, but it was the pioneering effort.
Dolly Mice
Authors: McLaren Anne
Published: November 2023

Dolly the cloned sheep was derived by nuclear transfer to an enucleated oocyte, using a nucleus from a cell culture grown from mammary gland tissue taken from a 6-year-old pregnant ewe. Doubts expressed by a few scientists as to the provenance of the progenitor nucleus have recently been allayed by microsatellite analysis and DNA fingerprinting of Dolly’s DNA and that of the donor ewe. Dolly herself appears healthy and sociable, with no reported signs of premature aging. She has given birth to six lambs conceived by entirely conventional means.
The Comparative Architecture of Silks, Fibrous Proteins, and Their Encoding Genes in Insects and Spiders
Authors: Riekel C
Published: November 2023

Evolvability is the capacity of the genome to produce new genotypes (Kirschner and Gerhard 1998). Whether gene changes and new interactions result in adaptive change depends on how tightly the genotype is mapped onto an organismal phenotype (Wagner and Altenberg 1996). One of the most direct genotype-phenotype maps is that charting the relationship between the molecular genetic organization of the silk gene and the molecular organization and function of silk proteins. As in venoms, plant and defense compounds, and proteinaceous flower pigments, the gene product is used externally in a way that is easily measured.
Insect Spatial Vision Is a Potential Selective Factor on the Evolution of Silk Achromatic Properties and Web Architecture
Authors: Lehrer M
Published: November 2023

When judging the possible role of natural selection in the evolution of the properties of spider silks, one must think not only of the silks, but also of the visual capacities of the spiders ‘ prey, the insects. Put simply, why do some insects fly into spider webs whereas others are clearly able to avoid them? To investigate this question, we consider the insects ‘ responses to both spatial and chromatic parameters of webs and silks. In the present chapter, we will focus on the insects ‘ spatial vision and the spatial parameters of webs. The insects ‘ color vision and the chromatic parameters of silks will be dealt with in chapter 5.

All insects possess so-called compound eyes; so called because they are made up of a complex array of tiny units called ommatidia (facets; figure 4.1). Depending on the insect species, the compound eye contains between several dozens and 10,000 ommatidia, each between 10 and 40 µm in diameter.
Insect Learning Capacity Is a Potential Selective Factor in the Evolution of Silk Color and the Decorative Silk Patterns Spun by Spiders
Authors: Craig Catherine L
Published: November 2023

The two previous chapters have discussed the spatial and chromatic visual capacities of insects, to outline how—or if at all—these capacities might have acted as a selective force on the evolution of silks. The previous findings suggest two pathways through which insects may have affected silk evolution. One pathway results in the evolution of silks that are either cryptic against their background or invisible to insects; the second pathway results in silks that display some spatial or chromatic parameters that attract insects to the web. At first sight, web attractivity appears to be advantageous to the spider by increasing the probability of prey capture. However, it might have the opposite effect if the prey are armed with a learning capacity equal to that demonstrated for several insect species in behavioral experiments. An insect that has been attracted by a web and intercepted will be badly punished. If the insect succeeds to struggle free, then the memory of the annoying experience might cause it to avoid webs in the future. This avoidance behavior would select against the evolution of visible webs and favor the evolution of cryptic webs.
Inter-Gland Competition for Amino Acids and the ATP Costs of Silk Synthesis
Authors: Craig Catherine L
Published: November 2023

Silks are induced, highly expressed proteins that are secreted and used externally by insects and spiders. The numbers of ways in which silks are used and the ease of obtaining resources necessary to synthesize them affect the metabolic cost of silk and hence the evolution of the arthropods that produce them. For example, the silk systems of ancestral, nonaraneomorph spiders are limited and different silk proteins seem to be used nonspecifically (see chapter 3). Nonaraneomorph foraging systems are also limited, as is the metabolic efficiency of ancestral spiders (two pairs of book lungs, no tracheae). In contrast, the metabolic systems of Araneoidea are more efficient (one pair of book lungs, tracheae) and their silk systems and foraging behaviors appropriately complex. The single pair of silk glands of herbivorous moth larvae makes them seem relatively simple compared to those of the araneomorphs. Just prior to metamorphosis, however, the volume of silk that moths produce is enormous. Such striking differences in the diversity of silk systems, the volume of silk produced and the life histories of silk producers (that is, herbivores versus predators, hemimetabolous versus holometabolous development) suggest that the evolution and complexity of silk secretion systems may well be correlated with the abundance and predictability of available resources.
The Dissolution Of The Problem Of The Elenchos
Authors: Benson Hugh H
Published: November 2023

In Plato’s Apology, Socrates describes his distinctive practice, his elenchos, which he believes is primarily responsible for his indictment and subsequent death. Both here and in Plato’s other early dialogues he testifies to a structure of aims or goals of his elenchos, whose centerpiece is the testing of knowledge, wisdom, or expertise of individuals who have some claim to it. In the same dialogues he also testifies to a number of constraints on his elenchos that make it quite unlikely that Socrates could justifiably believe that his method tested his interlocutors’ claim to knowledge, wisdom, or expertise by establishing the truth or falsehood of their beliefs. Rather these constraints appear to require that all that Socrates could justifiably believe is that an individual elenchos tested the interlocutors’ knowledge, wisdom, or expertise by establishing the consistency or inconsistency of their beliefs. But before we can conclude from this anything about Socrates’ epistemological views we need to examine how Socrates thinks that individual elenctic arguments test his interlocutors’ claim to knowledge, wisdom, or expertise. To this task I turn in this chapter.
The Priority Of Definitional Knowledge
Authors: Benson Hugh H
Published: November 2023

According to this tradition. Socrates maintained that he could not know that virtue is teachable if he failed to know what virtue is, nor could Euthyphro know that prosecuting his father for murder is pious if he failed to know what piety is. In fact. it was so commonplace to attribute this principle to Socrates that Peter Geach. who in an influential essay (1966) found the principle to be both intellectually and morally disreputable. dubbed it the Socratic fallacy.
Knowledge, Virtue, And Other Problems
Authors: Benson Hugh H
Published: November 2023

The Socratic model of knowledge I have proposed faces a number of serious challenges. First, two sets of passages, those in which Socrates avows knowledge and those in which he claims to be virtuous, appear to be at odds with the robust model of knowledge I have uncovered. Second, various absurd or dubious consequences appear to attend this model of knowledge, consequences that it would be implausible to suppose Socrates could have missed or would have endured. In this chapter, I respond to these challenges. While some of these have more force than others, in the end I hope to have weakened their force sufficiently so that the model of Socratic knowledge I have uncovered can be said to be the most plausible overall interpretation of the texts. Indeed, in the case of the latter challenges—what might be thought of as philosophical challenges—rather than raising difficulties for my interpretation of Socratic knowledge, they serve to confirm it. The epistemological work of two of Socrates’ immediate philosophical successors, Plato and Aristotle, can plausibly be understood as an attempt to avoid the absurd or dubious consequences without abandoning Socrates’ model of knowledge. Unfortunately. in this book I can offer this only as a plausible conjecture. To do more would require a complete account of Platonic and Aristotelian epistemology. But if the conjecture is correct, it indicates that Plato and Aristotle understood Socrates’ model of knowledge along similar lines to those I have proposed.
Conclusion: Meno, The Slave-Boy, And Plato
Authors: Benson Hugh H
Published: November 2023

The Meno has long been viewed as a transitional dialogue; while traces of the philosophy of the early dialogues remain, traces of the views of the middle dialogues begin to emerge.1 Understanding the Meno as transitional is, in part, a consequence of Plato’s more self-conscious attention to epistemological matters. In particular, it is a consequence of his introduction of the theory of recollection. The theory of recollection appears to be introduced in the Meno for the first time as a solution to an epistemological problem arising out of the earlier Socratic dialogues, and yet the theory lacks the metaphysical sophistication it has in later dialogues like the Phaedo.
Introduction
Authors: Rees Helen
Published: November 2023

In spring 1989 I took an exploratory field trip to Yunnan Province, an ethnically diverse and spectacularly scenic area of southwest China. In early May I joined several other foreign students and tourists on a bumpy twenty-hour bustrip from Kunming, the provincial capital, to Lijiang, a county in the northwest of the province (see Figure 1.1). Known for its mountainous terrain (see Figure 1.2), the unspoiled traditional architecture of its county seat (see Figure 1.3), and the unusual culture of the local inhabitants, the Naxi ethnic minority (pronounced Na-shee in Mandarin Chinese), Lijiang had been opened to foreigners in 1985. By 1989 it was attracting several dozen foreign tourists a week, and a number of local ventures, especially restaurants, were beginning to cater to them.
Ethnic Minorities and the Chinese State
Authors: Rees Helen
Published: November 2023

The musical experience of the Naxi in the twentieth century has been shaped by disparate factors, one of the most important of which has been their position as an ethnic minority within the Chinese state. This chapter outlines the history of minority-state interaction in the southwest, and concludes by examining Communist policy toward minority performing arts—a vital subtext underlying many events in Lijiang in the post-1949 period.
The Wider World Comes to Ljjiang: The Musical Impact
Authors: Rees Helen
Published: November 2023

For most of its existence, Lijiang’s Dongjing music had little observable impact outside its own county: for all its high profile within its home territory, it seldom traveled farther afield. Although a German university professor made a wax cylinder recording in 1935, and He Yi’an of the Dayan Town Dongjing association recorded a few pieces as flute solos while on a business trip to Kunming in 1947, these appear to have been isolated events that left no lasting impression on the wider world (Track 1996: 49, 64). The same is true of other musical genres: while there was certainly interethnic and intercounty diffusion of songs, dances, and religious musics, they seem to have retained a purely local importance. Though mentioned briefly in county gazetteers and other local literature, in the pre-Communist era none of these musics achieved even regional renown, let alone national fame.
Breathing During Wakefulness and Sleep
Authors: Aldrich Michaels.
Published: November 2023

The study of breathing during sleep is important for several reasons. First, of all the organ functions of the body, breathing is unique in that it is under voluntary as well as automatic control. Although little volitional control can be exerted over cardiac, renal, gastrointestinal, and endocrinologic activity, breathing can easily be increased, decreased, or modulated voluntarily, which permits singing, talking, whispering, and breath holding. Voluntary systems, how ever, are operative only during wakeful ness; with the onset of sleep, control of breathing becomes entirely involuntary. Second, breathing is more vulnerable than other major organ functions to the physiologic changes that occur with sleep. Third, disorders associated with disturbed breathing during sleep are both frequent and severe, and they often have serious complications. Sleep disorders associated with breathing disturbances are discussed in Chapters 13 and 14.
Insomnia
Authors: Aldrich Michaels.
Published: November 2023

Shakespeare, whose many references to poor sleep suggest that he may have suffered from insomnia, recognized that psychic conflict could lead to insomnia, as with Hamlet: “Sir, in my heart there was a kind of fighting that would not let me sleep.”
Parasomnias
Authors: Aldrich Michaels.
Published: November 2023

Parasomnias are disorders in which undesirable physical and mental phenomena occur mainly or exclusively during sleep.1 They differ from the dyssomnias in that insomnia and daytime sleepiness are not the primary complaints; rather, the com plaint is related to the undesirable phenomena. Central nervous system (CNS) activation, with skeletal muscle activity and signs of autonomic arousal, occurs with many of the parasomnias. Physical phenomena may include visceral contractions, jerks or twitches of the extremities, thrashing, shouts and screams, posturing, walking or running, and complex automatisms. Mental phenomena may include thoughts, dreams, images, and emotions.
Sleep Disorders in Dementias and Related Degenerative Diseases
Authors: Aldrich Michaels.
Published: November 2023

Degenerative disorders of the central nervous system (CNS) may disrupt sleep in a number of ways (Table 18-1), determined partly by the regions of the brain that degenerate. In some disorders, such as Parkinson’s disease and progressive supranuclear palsy, sleep disturbance is a virtually universal symptom; in others, such as Huntington’s disease, sleep com plaints are less common.
Photoemission from organic molecular crystals
Authors: Pope Martin , Swenberg Charlese E
Published: November 2023

The electrons that are ejected from a solid subsequent to the absorption of highenergy light contain considerable information about the static energy level structure of the solid and the density of states at these energies. In addition, photoemission that is produced as a result of bimolecular reactions between two excited states (of which at least one is mobile) inside the solid constitutes a new and powerful method not only for elucidating static energy levels but also for studying the dynamic properties of excitons, free and trapped carriers, and other transient species. Kinetically bimolecular photoemission was discovered by Pope, Kallmannn, and Giachino (1965) and is referred to as the double-quantum external photoelectric effect (DQEPE). The energy released in the bimolecular reaction can be determined from the kinetic energy of the emitted electron, and the details of the kinetics can be determined from the light-intensity dependence of the process.
Miscellaneous systems
Authors: Pope Martin , Swenberg Charlese E
Published: November 2023

It is a difficult task to discuss the electronic properties of all the interesting organic compounds that have been studied recently and at the same time maintain the modest proportions of this book. Accordingly, in this last chapter, some personal choices were made, influenced chiefly by the growing importance of polymeric systems. Single-crystal studies were favored whenever appropriate. The systems chosen include a dye, a pigment, a polymer with an unsaturated backbone, a polymer with a saturated backbone and aromatic pendant groups, a polymer donoracceptor system of great practical interest, and, finally, a liquid. In addition to the intrinsic interest of the compounds chosen, some useful by-products have been realized. Thus, the phthalocyanines provide a good example of the thermal generation of carriers, while the polymers and liquids serve as a jumping-off point for the discussion of amorphous systems and percolation.
Electronic processes in polydiacetylene (PDA)
Authors: Pope Martin , Swenberg Charlese E
Published: November 2023

The treatment of polydiacetylenes (PDA) in Chapter VI is extensive. Not mentioned there are the triplet exciton and possible polaron states. The relation between the optical band gap and the valence to conduction band transition remained to be clarified. In addition, there is the question of the carrier mobility, which has remained controversial. The energy-level structure of PDA-TS (PTS in Chapter VI) is also not fully outlined. The following discussion will deal with these and other features, starting with the singlet exciton, which, unlike the exciton in anthracene, is short-lived and nonfluorescent.
Carrier transport
Authors: Pope Martin , Swenberg Charlese E
Published: November 2023

The past few years have witnessed major advances in the theory of carrier transport in polymeric materials and molecular crystals. One can divide these materials into four distinct groups depending on their microscopic properties and then in turn on their different optical and transport properties (Borsenberger et al. 1996): Molecularly doped polymers and molecular crystals Polymers with chromophoric pendant groups (e.g., poly(N-vinylcarbazole).
Space-charge and emission-limited currents
Authors: Pope Martin , Swenberg Charlese E
Published: November 2023

The phenomenology of current flow in homogeneous semiconducting solids is independent of the constitution of the system. Under conditions of thermal equilibrium, the required data include the dielectric constant, the density of free carriers, the effective mobility of these carriers, the electric field, and the electric field dependence of these parameters. In semiconductors, current can be limited by the accumulation of space charge (space-charge-limited current) (SCLC) or by the inability of the contact to supply this current (emission-limited current) (ELC). Space-charge-limited currents are the maximum that can flow in the semiconducting solid and have been discussed in Chapter II.
Organic magnets (0 M)
Authors: Pope Martin , Swenberg Charlese E
Published: November 2023

Magnetic materials are technologically indispensable, with annual sales larger than that of semiconductors. Applications of magnetics find their way into telecommunications technology, energy storage, safety equipment, information storage devices, and a variety of medical instruments. At present organic magnets do not rival the inorganic variety in magnetization. However, there are potentialities in organic magnets that are absent in the inorganic systems, such as flexibility, transparency, thin-film-forming ability, and low density that will insure the organic materials some important niche in technology.
Introduction
Authors: Heffernan William C , Kleinig John
Published: November 2023

What is the connection between social justice and criminal justice? The terms “social justice” and “criminal justice” are themselves so contested that one must pause, before considering the relationship between them, to think carefully about what they mean. Each term can be said to pose a question. In speaking of social justice, one asks about the requisites of a justly constituted society; in speaking of criminal justice, one asks about the basis of just punishment. Given everyday usage, though, each term can also be said to provide an answer to the question it poses. References to social justice usually include an assumption that a society can be just only if it has undertaken redistributive steps to insure fairness in wealth holdings--if not equality in holdings, then at least satisfaction of its members’ basic needs. References to criminal justice tend to be based on the assumption that punishment can be just only if it is based on retributive principles. These specific conceptions of social and criminal justice are, of course, open to challenge.
Art and Religion
Authors: Louden Robert B
Published: November 2023

The chief texts to be examined in this chapter are Kant’s Critique of Judgment (1790) and Religion Within the Boundaries of Mere Reason (1793). Both of these works are quite different from the Kantian lecture materials on education and anthropology examined in previous chapters in that they: (1) were published by Kant himself, (2) are mature works of the critical period, and (3) are intended primarily as contributions to his project of critical philosophy rather than that of popular, applied philosophy. Additionally, there is much more secondary literature on Kant’s aesthetics and religion than there is on his pedagogy and anthropology, and some of the former does cast considerable light on a variety of Kantian moral themes, for example, the role of feeling in relation to morality.1 However, to my knowledge, no one has yet analyzed Kant’s aesthetics or religion from the particular perspective of impure ethics. The fields of art and religion are treated together in this chapter primarily because (1) they address similar issues in empirical ethics and (2) neither domain on its own makes quite as direct or as large a contribution to the second part of ethics as do those domains explored in other chapters. The first four sections treat art, while the final two sections concern religion.
Peter The Great’s Mysterious Jars: Bow To Pickle A Human Head and Other Great Achievements The Scientific Revolution
Authors: Asma Stephen T
Published: November 2023

A Few Weeks Later I was on the trail again. I had learned a tremendous amount about the techniques, the history, and the philosophy behind taxidermy, but I had not yet gained an understanding of “wet” specimen preparation. I now understood the basics of a dry preparation such as Fama, but my mind returned to Peter the Great’s disturbing jars. Recall the czar’s strange display of the decapitated lovers. It turns out that Peter’s pickling of his paramour’s pate was a very early application of some new preserving technology.

This time my curiosity had brought me from Chicago to London. My wife, Heidi, and I took the tube from our hotel in South Kensington to the Holborn stop, and we made our way down Kingsway on a brilliant June morning. We eventually found ourselves in the lush greenery of Lincoln’s Inn Fields.

The park, entered through a large mock Tudor archway, was quite calm compared to the bustle of Kingsway’s business district. Wigged barristers hurried to and from their offices, lawyers arrived to play tennis during their lunch break, and homeless men slept off hangovers on nearby benches. Strangely enough, this bucolic park was employed as a public execution site in the seventeenth century.
Drama In The Diorama: The Confederation & Art and Science
Authors: Asma Stephen T
Published: November 2023

The Museums That We’ve Studied throughout this journey reveal the tremendous diversity of goals and motives for collecting and displaying elements of the natural world. Yet underneath all these various constructions of nature, there has been a continuous dialogue between image-making activities and knowledge-producing activities. Unlike texts, natural history museums are inherently aesthetic representations of science in particular and conceptual ideas in general. The fact that a roulette wheel at the Field could touch the central nerves of our deep metaphysical convictions is an indication of a museum’s epistemic potential. After spending long stretches in many natural history museums, one begins to see that a display’s potential for education and transformation is largely a function of its artistic, nondiscursive character. Three-dimensional representations of nature (dioramas), two-dimensional and three-dimensional representations of concepts (such as the roulette wheel), and visual images generally are not just candy coatings on the real educational process of textual information transmission. This chapter explores how and why visual communication works on museum visitors. And this requires an examination of the more general issue of how images themselves can be pedagogical, an issue that extends from da Vinci’s anatomy drawings to the latest video edutainment technology. These issues lead to a survey of some of the most recent trends in museology, followed by some reflections on the museum at the millennium.
The Facts About Rheumatoid Arthrits (Ra)
Authors: Koehn Cheryl , Palmer Taysha , Esdaile John
Published: November 2023

The PLAN TO WIN begins with arming yourself with knowledge about RA. Understanding what a diagnosis of RA means, recognizing symptoms, knowing how they affect your joints and internal organs, and exploring the causes of RA, all provide you with the information you need to make sense of what is happening in your body. Knowing these facts will enable you to have informed discussions with your rheumatologist (a physician specializing in arthritis detection and treatment) and other members of your health care team, and help you make sound decisions about all aspects of your treatment plan. By learning as much as possible about RA, you can gain a sense of control over the disease, and ultimately, achieve optimal health. It may take several readings of this chapter
Your Health Care Team
Authors: Koehn Cheryl , Palmer Taysha , Esdaile John
Published: November 2023

That doesn't mean, of course, you must face this fight alone. There are all kinds of experienced and dedicated health care professionals ready to help you on your quest for achieving wellness. Ultimately, however, you are in the best position to decide who is on your health care team, and the goals of your treatment plan. After all, only you know what factors are most important to your own health and happiness. Perhaps, for example, you consider pain relief to be your most important goal in the short term, but in the long term, it's important to you to be able to play sports again, or work full-time in a particular occupation. Or maybe your short-term goal is to be able to do daily tasks without having to ask for help, while in the long term, you hope to have a baby. Whatever your individual desires, becoming clear about them will help you decide what help you need and who should provide it.
Medications
Authors: Koehn Cheryl , Palmer Taysha , Esdaile John
Published: November 2023

Today, there is unanimity amongst rheumatologists worldwide that for persons with even mild RA, medication therapy forms an essential part of their treatment plan. However, for you—the person with RA—making the decision to include medication therapy can be difficult. Arming yourself with information on available medications will help you to make informed decisions about which one (or which combination) you should include in your treatment plan. Knowing what medications are commonly used; how they work; what their potential benefits and possible side effects are; how they are taken; and what they cost—all are factors to consider before making your decision
Relationships and Sexuality
Authors: Koehn Cheryl , Palmer Taysha , Esdaile John
Published: November 2023

Being in relationships is a basic part of being human—so much so, that we often take them completely for granted. Whether we're single or married, work at home or at an outside job, are highly social or more inwardly focused, we all depend on others to help us make sense of our lives, share companionship and laughter, and give and receive much-needed love and support during times of struggle. Relationships have cycles and a rhythm of their own, ups and downs brought on by events in our own lives or those of others. These events can be internal (such as coping with depression, or dealing with the onset of RA), or external (job changes, moving, childbirth, loss of a loved one). These stressors affect many aspects of our day-to-day lives, including the way we interact with others—and, often, the way others interact with us. We might become irritable, for instance, or seem to suddenly look at the world through new eyes and emerge with a whole different set of priorities— and this can cause reactions in others. As you may have discovered already, the onset of RA can be just such a life event.
Surgery
Authors: Koehn Cheryl , Palmer Taysha , Esdaile John
Published: November 2023

Since surgery is far from being a certainty for people with RA, it seemed appropriate to reserve this chapter in the PLAN TO WIN as one of the last. In fact, if your disease is well controlled by the other components of your treatment plan (medication, exercise, physical and occupational therapy, mind-body work, among others), you may never need surgery to help manage the consequences of RA. However, for those with long-standing moderate to severe disease dealing with the hardship of daily pain or loss of joint use and disability in their life, surgery could be a saving grace.