bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Doctrinal Contest II
Authors: Walter Ryan
Published: September 2021

This chapter continues the study of the doctrinal contest between Malthus and Ricardo by turning to the central topic of rent. Ricardo’s treatment of rent in his Principles developed the account that he had earlier established in his Essay on Profits by combining it with his theory of value. So armed, Ricardo could intensify his attack on the landlord class as parasitic on the nation’s wealth. At the same time, Smith and Malthus were subjected to doctrinal correction. Malthus’s reply drew on the formidable resources of natural theology to portray rent as a dispensation from God, while he simultaneously characterized Ricardo as a reckless theorist whose doctrines could endanger political harmony. Once again, what at first sight appears to have been a dry doctrinal contest was in fact an intensely political and ethical confrontation.
Conclusion
Authors: Walter Ryan
Published: September 2021

This Conclusion closes the study by summarizing the account of political economy that has been developed, which is intended to replace the standard accounts of ‘classical political economy’. The premise motivating this alternative account is that it is unacceptable to simply assume that classical political economy existed. By studying the major controversies of the period, the forms of argument active in them, and the reception of Smith’s Wealth of Nations in the doctrinal contests between Malthus and Ricardo, it was not possible to support the claim that such a unity existed. Instead, the evidence suggests that political economy was an ill-defined staging ground for contests spilling out of parliamentary debate. This is why the vast majority of texts represent attempts to supervene on policy. These texts—including those by Malthus and Ricardo—were almost always produced using ready-to-hand concepts and instruments. That is, political economy was constructed with great freedom, without intellectual specialization, and in dialogue with the controversies of the day. Moreover, it did not possess its own vocabulary or methods and was even construed as a species of political metaphysics of the same type thought to have caused the French Revolution. In such a context, theoretical speculation concerning commercial life was neither a prestigious nor an accepted form of behaviour, and both Malthus and Ricardo went to elaborate lengths to justify ‘theory’. This circumstance represents a major discontinuity between their time and ours.
Classical Mereology
Authors: Cotnoir A. J. , Varzi Achille C.
Published: September 2021

The aim of this chapter is to provide a comprehensive introduction to classical mereology. It examines this theory by providing a clear and perspicuousaxiom system that isolates several important elements of any mereological theory. The chapter examines, algebraic, and set-theoretic models of classical mereology, sketching proofs of their equivalence. The new axiom system facilitates algebraic comparisons, showing that models of these axioms are complete Boolean algebras without a bottom element. Then set-theoretic models are presented, and are shown to satisfy the axioms. The chapter explains the important relationship between models and powersets, and the role of Stone’s Representation Theorem in this connection. Finally, a number of significant rival axiom systems using different mereological primitives are introduced.
Composition
Authors: Cotnoir A. J. , Varzi Achille C.
Published: September 2021

This chapter explores the philosophical and formal issues surrounding mereological composition. It carefully examines the difference between three main types of fusion: algebraic joins, Leśniewski sums, and Goodman fusions. It also examines different views about their conditions of existence (the so-called ‘special composition question’), including the controversial doctrines of mereological universalism, nihilism, and restricted theories of composition. Next it considers whether fusions are unique and how this impacts extensionality, including presenting a detailed analysis of the thesis known as ‘composition as identity’. A number of ‘structural’ conceptions of composition (and related algebraic principles) are then examined. Finally, parallel to questions about a null object, atomism, and ‘atomless gunk’, the existence of a universal object and the ideas of ‘worldless junk’, and coatomism are considered.
Taking Plurals at Face Value
Authors: Florio Salvatore , Linnebo Øystein
Published: September 2021

Plural logic is a logical system in which plural terms and predicates figure as primitive expressions alongside the singular resources of ordinary first-order logic. The philosophical significance of this system depends on two of its alleged features: being pure logic and providing more expressive power than first-order logic. This chapter first introduces the language and axioms of plural logic and then analyzes this logic’s main philosophical applications in metaphysics, philosophy of mathematics, and semantics.
The Refutation of Singularism?
Authors: Florio Salvatore , Linnebo Øystein
Published: September 2021

Traditional analyses of plurals tended to eliminate plural expressions in favor of singular ones. These “singularist” analyses have recently faced many objections, which are intended to provide indirect support for the alternative analysis provided by plural logic. This chapter evaluates four such objections and concludes that they are less compelling than is often assumed. This conclusion is borne out by a close examination of various plural versions of Cantor’s theorem.
Theoretical Background: The Inclusion of Disabled People
Authors: de Beco Gauthier
Published: September 2021

This chapter starts by challenging the view of independence in legal theory. It goes on to assess social contract theory, in particular Rawls’s Theory of Justice, as well as criticisms of this theory put forward regarding disability. The aim is not only to expose the vacuum in political theory as well as the failure to offer disabled people equal moral consideration but also to examine what are the possible ways forward. The chapter therefore explores how theories of justice other than the social contract theory can be used in order to determine what is needed for including disabled people. It discusses two such theories, namely capabilities and recognition theories, and investigates both their limits and their potential in making them of benefit to all disabled people. It also proposes a combination of those theories so as to gear them towards the objectives of the CRPD.
Inclusive Education: A Hidden Priority
Authors: de Beco Gauthier
Published: September 2021

This chapter examines the right to inclusive education. It explains how the CRPD has incorporated the goal of inclusive education into international human rights law and what it expects from States Parties for the realisation of the right to inclusive education. It subsequently explores the Convention’s new emphasis on the right to education while looking at the measures to be adopted in order to achieve inclusive education. It continues by examining the renewed commitment to inclusiveness with regard to education in the field of international human rights law. The chapter upholds that inclusive education is universal and that the right to inclusive education applies to all children alike even if it has disability-specific aspects. It finally investigates what this right actually means for education systems as well as the remaining challenges in its implementation.
Intellectual Property, Human Rights, and Methodological Reflections
Authors: Yu Peter K.
Published: September 2021

This chapter reflects on the methodological choices one could make in the area of intellectual property and human rights. Drawing on the author’s prior works on the development of a human rights framework for intellectual property, the chapter explores three methodological choices: (1) the choice between a positivist and philosophical conception of human rights; (2) the choice between historical and evolutive interpretations of human rights instruments; and (3) the choice of developing a layered hierarchical structure to systematically analyse the myriad human rights interests involved and their interplay. The chapter’s focus on these choices not only highlights the strengths and limitations of each methodological approach, but also provides first-hand insights into how researchers select their methods and approaches.
The Relevance of Criminal Law in Intellectual Property Law Research
Authors: Sharma Ajay K , Dube Dipa
Published: September 2021

Intellectual property (IP) law protects the private rights of owners, while criminal law secures the public interests, for harm to the society. In the present technology-driven society, magnitude of IP violations, particularly, in the form of counterfeiting, etc. affect the interests of the general public, calling for the application of criminal law to ensure stringent IP protection. The intersection of IP and criminal law remains controversial, yet significant, as it is in the interest of those in the field to examine the provisions beyond the scope of private right regime, as a public policy that can have a direct impact on public interests. This chapter analyses the intersection of criminal law and IP through a blend of exploratory and analytical methods. First, the authors situate the criminal law discussion in the domain of IP rights and examine how far the elements of crime may be identified in IP violations. Second, the concept of economic crimes as distinct from conventional crimes is discussed. In this regard, the laws of India, the United Kingdom (UK), and the United States (US) are examined, along with the most recent international developments, to show the trend towards criminal enforcement as the best possible protection for legitimate businesses and consumers. The chapter leaves much scope for future work whereby a balanced response to counter IP violations may be designed to benefit innovation and development.
Intellectual Property Law and Geography
Authors: Trimble Marketa
Published: September 2021

Geography contributes knowledge and novel perspectives to other fields, including law in general and intellectual property (IP) law in particular. This chapter explores ‘law and geography’ as a research prism through which scholars examine the interactions of findings in law and geography to study the confluence of geographical, legal, and myriad other social phenomena. The chapter reviews the history of ‘law and geography’ and delineates its contours while highlighting the differences between ‘geography in law’ and ‘law in geography’. It identifies examples of the research prism in IP law research and concludes that, regrettably, research in ‘law and geography’ in the strict sense remains rare, including in ‘IP law and geography’.
A Post-Colonial Framework for Researching Intellectual Property History
Authors: Birnhack Michael
Published: September 2021

Most of the literature on intellectual property (IP) legal history focuses on Western IP norms and ideas, especially British, American, and former British colonies. This chapter adds critical questions, in the context of imperialism and colonialism, namely, a post-colonial view of IP. As the Empires of the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century, especially the British Empire, extended their global reach, they applied their own IP law in the new territories they controlled. They did so mostly for their own benefit. Thus far, most IP history was told from the colonizers’ perspective. This chapter argues for the inclusion of the colonized perspective and offers a conceptual research framework. Colonial IP lies at the intersection of: (1) a critical approach to legal transplants that views it as a process and interaction of foreign law and local laws and norms; (2) applied in a colonial setting; and (3) taking into account IP’s unique features. This framework offers a critical stance that is aware of the multiplicity of voices, and builds on lessons from the study of law and society about gaps between the law in the books and the law in practice, about the social construction of the law, and the powers at stake. It enables us to be sceptical of the official history and is a post-colonial approach to IP. Along the discussion, I provide some examples, mostly from copyright and trademark law in Mandate Palestine (1922–1948).
Intellectual Property and Semiotics: The Signs of the Times
Authors: Tan David
Published: September 2021

Cultural perspectives on law are a growing part of contemporary legal scholarship and, in particular, semiotics has been argued in interdisciplinary legal scholarship on intellectual property (IP) to be helpful in illuminating some of the intractable issues encountered in the laws governing copyright, trademarks, and the right of publicity. Semiotics seeks to understand the operation of a given system or process by observing the function of signification, expression, representation, and communication. Famous trademarks, well-known copyrighted works, and celebrity personalities can function like Barthesian myths with universal ideological codings that are recognized globally, enabling them to be read as polysemous texts that invite playful semiotic recodings and post-structural disruptions. The invocation of semiotics in the study of IP signs is intimately intertwined with the freedom of speech. Semiotic readings of IP signs invite us to enter a world of possibilities that explore a more nuanced interpretation of legal doctrine and legislative provisions.
Critical Race Theory as Intellectual Property Methodology
Authors: Vats Anjali , Keller Deidré A.
Published: September 2021

This chapter considers how the guiding principles of Critical Race Theory (CRT) can inform the study of race in the context of intellectual property (IP) law. The first part of the chapter traces the origins and tenets of CRT. It then explores the interdisciplinary movement’s core methods, which are aimed at centring race and racism as objects of study. The second part of the chapter turns to the origins, tenets, and methods of Critical Race Intellectual Property, which we define as an interdisciplinary movement of scholars connected by their focus on the racial and colonial non-neutrality of intellectual property law using principles informed by CRT. The chapter concludes with an examination of two books about India and intellectual property law through which researchers can understand how existing scholarship can more deeply engage with questions of race.
Divergent Methodological Approaches to Intellectual Property in Mixed Jurisdiction Countries
Authors: Azmi Ida Madieha Abdul Ghani
Published: September 2021

For more than three decades, researchers examining intellectual property (IP) from Shari’ah perspectives adopted a variety of methodologies to determine the legitimacy of intellectual property rights, its subject matter, beneficiaries, and the scope of the exclusive rights. At times, more than one methodology is adopted to give a broader perspective of the enquiry. The adoption of a multiplicity of tools is not surprising as traditional fiqh scholars often relied on a variety of tools to extract reasoning from the primary sources of the Shari’ah, i.e. Quran and Sunnah. These research methodologies range from the traditional fiqhi approach developed since early days of Muslim scholarship. In recent times, Muslim scholars have moved to more contemporary approaches, for example maqasid (higher objectives of the Shari’ah) or developmental approach to examining the perimeters of intellectual property right, particularly when strong private rights may impinge public interest. This chapter examines the divergent methodological approaches adopted by these researchers and questions whether these approaches can be adopted to examine beyond the legitimacy in these scope of intellectual property rights.
Specificity
Authors: Schmid-Hempel Paul
Published: September 2021

infect a number of host species. This host range is given by an ecological filter (the possibility of encounter) and a physiological one (the capacity of establishing an infection). Host ranges typically are right-skewed, with most parasites infecting only a few, but few infecting very many hosts. There is no universally valid hypothesis that explains host range. However, a number of factors contribute to host range, such as geographical range, phylogenetic distance, host predictability, and parasite virulence. Specificity and cross-reactivity of immune defences are important mechanisms. Moreover, immune memory is based on specificity; transgenerational immune priming protects offspring when parents have already been exposed to the same or similar parasites.
Host–parasite co-evolution
Authors: Schmid-Hempel Paul
Published: September 2021

Macroevolutionary patterns concern phylogenies of hosts and their parasites. From those, co-speciation occurs; but host switching is a common evolutionary process and more likely when hosts are close phylogenetically and geographical ranges overlap. Microevolutionary processes refer to allele frequency changes within population. In arms races, traits of hosts and parasites evolve in one direction in response to selection by the other party. With selective sweeps, advantageous alleles rapidly spread in host or parasite population and can become fixed. With antagonistic negative frequency-dependent fluctuations (Red Queen dynamics) genetic polymorphism in populations can be maintained, even through speciation events. A Red Queen co-evolutionary process can favour sexual over asexual reproduction and maintain meiotic recombination despite its other disadvantages (two-fold cost of sex). Local adaptation of host and parasites exist in various combinations; the relative migration rates of the two parties, embedded in a geographical mosaic, are important for this process.
The s-cobordism Theorem, the Sphere Embedding Theorem, and the Poincaré Conjecture
Authors: Orson Patrick , Powell Mark , Ray Arunima
Published: September 2021

The s-cobordism theorem, the sphere embedding theorem, and the Poincaré conjecture comprise three key consequences of the disc embedding theorem. The chapter begins by explaining in detail how to use the disc embedding theorem to prove the 5-dimensional s-cobordism theorem and the sphere embedding theorem. The sphere embedding theorem is the output from the disc embedding theorem that one wants in many situations. A version of the Poincaré conjecture is proven, specifically that every smooth homotopy 4-sphere is homeomorphic to the 4-sphere. All the results proved in this chapter are category losing; that is, they require smooth input but only produce homeomorphisms.
Introduction
Authors: Wüthrich Christian , Le Bihan Baptiste , Huggett Nick
Published: September 2021

Quantum gravity offers a fertile ground for philosophical work, particularly through its suggestion that spacetime may not be fundamental but merely a derivative structure. As such, theories of quantum gravity stand in a long tradition of physical theories with deep implications for the nature of space and time, and indeed the fundamental structure of our material world. This Introduction summarizes the contributions to this collection by structuring them around three themes. The first group of chapters analyses various aspects of the search of lost spacetime in quantum gravity. The second group studies metaphysical and epistemological aspects of the emergence in play in quantum gravity. The third group widens the investigations to several key methodological challenges arising in the context of quantum gravity.
Taking Up Superspace
Authors: Menon Tushar
Published: September 2021

Supersymmetry (SUSY) is a proposed symmetry between bosons and fermions. The structure of the space of SUSY generators is such that the distinction between internal and spacetime symmetries is blurred. As a result, there are two viable candidates for the spacetime setting for a flat supersymmetric field theory—Minkowski spacetime and superspace, an extension of Minkowski spacetime to include (at least) four new dimensions, coordinatized by ‘supernumbers’, i.e. numbers with nontrivial commutation properties. This chapter argues for two theses: first, that one standard set of arguments, related to universality of symmetry behaviour, that motivate a particular choice of spacetime structure in familiar spacetime theories motivates the choice of superspace as the appropriate spacetime for SUSY field theories; and second, that the metaphysical utility of the concept of spacetime requires more than just the satisfaction of this universality condition; in supersymmetric theories, the spacetime concept is not as useful as in special relativity.
The Measurement Problem for Emergent Spacetime in Loop Quantum Gravity
Authors: Healey Richard
Published: September 2021

Any quantum theory of gravity faces the measurement problem. Carlo Rovelli sees his relational interpretation as offering a solution to this problem when applied to his favored loop quantum gravity (LQG). I examine the prospects of Rovelli’s relationalism in LQG. In LQG it is not clear what physical systems there are at a fundamental level with no spacetime. But implementing Rovelli’s relational interpretation in the context of LQG requires an account of interaction and a model of observer systems whose relational states represent determinate outcomes. Even if no such account is forthcoming at a fundamental level in LQG, it might still be available in a limit at which spacetime has emerged. But to use this account effectively to address the measurement problem, it would be necessary to reconcile the observer-relativity of measurement outcomes with a basic norm of scientific objectivity.
Motion Sickness
Authors: Chowdhury Debasish Roy , Keane John
Published: September 2021

This chapter focuses on India’s public transport system. If cities are democratic laboratories that nurture free and equal motion, then India fails the test every day. In Mumbai, for example, up to sixteen people can find themselves packed into a one-square-metre space inside a carriage during peak hours as Indian Railways fails to provide enough trains and coaches to the financial capital’s arterial rail network. Travelling like animals, risking their lives for livelihood, has been the lot of Mumbai’s daily commuters for as long as they can remember. Away from the cities, where 70 per cent of India lives, the picture is even bleaker, with virtually no state-run public transport system—buses or trains. The daily indignities and inconveniences of travelling prevents citizens from freely accessing goods, services, and social networks that are key to the pursuit of their chosen life strategies. By hindering everyday mobility, hazardous and insufficient transport options have the anti-democratic effect of perpetuating social inequities and dispersing communities into isolated silos that prevent collective assembly, deliberation, and action. Other than dilapidated or non-existent public transport systems, elitist policies, and poor government oversight hinder movement—and democracy—in various other ways.
Writing on the Wall
Authors: Chowdhury Debasish Roy , Keane John
Published: September 2021

This chapter assesses India’s education system. Making adequate provision for education, enabling people to pursue better economic opportunities and lead a dignified life, widening their social horizons, and nurturing their sense of worldly wonder, are among the most basic responsibilities of any democracy. India’s dismal and inequal education system sharply contrasts with the other big economies of Asia. Particularly telling is the way the goal of providing ‘free and compulsory education for all children’ within ten years of the adoption of the 1949 Constitution took fifty-two years to become a fundamental right. It took six more years before the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education (RTE) Act became actionable law, that too after a protracted movement for universal education by social activists. The result of this feet-dragging is that India is now home to 313 million illiterate people, or 40 per cent of the world’s unlettered population. Since the introduction of neoliberal reforms in the early 1990s, the state has progressively retreated from the field of education, widening the gulf between the population segments with and without access to education. If the state’s failure to provide equal access to elementary education sets this disparity in motion, it is entrenched firmly by the increasingly important role of private capital in higher education. The result: an anti-democratic reproduction of traditional patterns of economic disparities and restricted social mobility.
Elective Despotism
Authors: Chowdhury Debasish Roy , Keane John
Published: September 2021

This chapter highlights India’s elective despotism. It begins by explaining ‘resort politics’. This is the Indian ritual of herding away lawmakers like rustled sheep to secure places, usually hotels and holiday resorts, to ‘protect’ them from rival parties. This usually occurs when no one party or alliance of multiple parties has a clear majority in the legislature. At such moments, lawmakers are bought for billions of rupees and promises of high office by the highest bidder. If electoral democracy is disfigured by criminality, organized violence, and chremacracy, ‘resort politics’ marks the final stage of its decadence. As parties and legislatures kowtow to political bosses and executive supremacy, the drift towards what Thomas Jefferson first called ‘elective despotism’—elected governments that concentrate power in a few cunning and bossy hands—is unmistakable. The legislatures in effect rubber-stamp executive decisions. Governments cease to be answerable to Parliament.
Justice Defiled
Authors: Chowdhury Debasish Roy , Keane John
Published: September 2021

India’s criminal justice system is seen to be so broken that even the dysfunctional and corrupt police force is reckoned to have a better shot at ensuring justice than the courts. Given the speed at which rape cases—or all cases, for that matter—crawl through a clogged and corrupted legal system, the chances of swift justice are non-existent. The decaying and sluggish court system ensures that India has one of the world’s highest rates of ‘undertrials’, or people awaiting trial and sentencing in prison. A clogged and corrupted court system hastens the breakdown of the social foundations of Indian democracy. Ultimately, the infirmities of the Indian judiciary violate the spirit and substance of the rule of law, the principle that legal institutions and written laws should have the practical effect of curbing and balancing the ambitions of the powerful, and those seeking power over others. According to that principle, rule of law is the cure for despotism. What India now has, however, is ‘rule through law’, a system in which law is weaponized as an instrument of power and control by elected despots, thanks to a slow and servile judiciary
Bad News
Authors: Chowdhury Debasish Roy , Keane John
Published: September 2021

This chapter examines Indian media. Communications scholars have long argued that media sets the agenda for public opinion, first by drawing the attention of citizens to a particular issue, and then by defining it by means of comprehensible media ‘frames’ that act as cognitive shortcuts to understand issues. As in other so-called democracies, journalists working within India’s mainstream media are engaged 24/7 in framing narratives, making them indispensable for any government. Anti-Muslim messaging, generally subtle, has been the default media frame ever since the Hindu nationalist Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) came to power in 2014. This coincided with the coming of communicative abundance, the profusion of new communication networks and technologies, and rapidly changing media consumption habits. Secretive organizations frame sophisticated misinformation campaigns to spread fake news and false claims through social media. In such a media environment marked by features common to despotisms like Vietnam, Iran, and Russia, where independent journalism is all but dead, self-censorship and toad-eating are rife.
Remaking the People
Authors: Chowdhury Debasish Roy , Keane John
Published: September 2021

This chapter explains how a democracy weakened by damaged social foundations and corrupted governing institutions breeds despotism. The governing party machine, in the hands of a big boss leader, stirs up talk of ‘democracy’ and ‘the people’. It neuters the courts and other power-monitoring institutions and turns them into empty shells. Demagogic talk of ‘democracy’ and the need for firm rule backed by ‘the people’ grows louder, and more militant. Elections become rowdy plebiscites. Rumours, exaggerations, and bullshit are spread by its loyal media organs. The signature tactic is stirring up trouble about who counts as ‘the people’. Elections are turned upside down, they become an exercise in electing an alternative people, a ‘true’ and ‘pure’ people rid of misfits and miscreants. The government votes in the people. India is pushing in a similar direction, with the country’s 200 million Muslim citizens as the ‘non-people’ that strongman Narendra Modi’s Hindu nationalist party seeks to disempower. They are the prime targets of verbal insults, institutional discrimination, police inaction, political propaganda, and street-level thuggery. But the country’s intrinsic plurality and a well-entrenched democratic culture remain a powerful bulwark against centralized state power.
Redistribution and Income-Tax Reform
Authors: O'Donoghue Cathal
Published: September 2021

One of the most significant determinants of the level of redistribution or the capacity to change inequality within a tax-benefit system is the structure of the taxation system. In this chapter, we add income taxation and social-insurance contributions to the analysis of social transfers in the previous chapter. The chapter describes the theoretical structure of personal income taxes and introduces the concept of joint taxation. The chapter also addresses a methodological issue common to many microsimulation models and the creation of their base datasets, namely the inversion of data from net to gross. From a validation point of view, concepts associated with using external validation sources are introduced. From a measurement point of view, measures that aim to quantify the degree of progressivity and redistribution in tax systems are described. A redistributive analysis of a theoretical tax system, and the implications of a joint taxation system, is then undertaken.
A New Era?
Authors: Ozavci Ozan
Published: September 2021

During the Congress of Vienna of 1814–15, a new international order was established in Europe in order to prevent Europe from returning back to the horrors of the general war. This chapter questions wherein this new order the Ottoman Empire was placed, and whether the beginning of a new era in Europe necessarily meant the same for the Ottoman world. It does so with a fresh focus on the negotiations between the Powers and the Ottoman Empire over the ‘Eastern Question’ during the Congress of Vienna, the ‘Greek crisis’ of the 1820s, and the Navarino intervention of 1827, when the joint Russian, British, and French fleets destroyed the Ottoman navy.
Old Enemies
Authors: Ozavci Ozan
Published: September 2021

Intra-elite rivalries were among the major relational dynamics of the Eastern Question in the nineteenth century. Yet few of them rested on personal acrimonies and grudges, and endured through time and circumstances in the same manner as the rivalry between Mehmed Ali Pașa of Egypt, and the Ottoman grand admiral Hüsrev Pașa. Tracing the previously unrecorded nuances of the story of the two men, this chapter demonstrates the links between the Greek crisis (1821–32), the French invasion of Algiers (1830), and the empire-wide civil war between Cairo and Istanbul that struck the Ottoman world (1832–41) and swiftly became a transimperial quandary. It questions how personal rivalries could drive an entire empire into a civil war. Or was there more at stake here? By addressing these questions, the chapter documents the origins of one of the most infamous episodes of the Eastern Question.
Return of the Ashes
Authors: Ozavci Ozan
Published: September 2021

The so-called second Eastern Crisis of 1839–41 came to an end with an intervention in Ottoman Syria on the part of the Quadruple Alliance (Austria, Britain, Prussia, and Russia) and the Ottoman Empire. Yet the intervention saw a fierce opposition from France and Mehmed Ali Pașa of Egypt, under whose control Syria was at the time. This chapter explains why and how Russia gave up her privileged position in Istanbul and agreed upon the 1840 intervention, and why France objected to the idea of Great Power intervention in the Ottoman world. It concludes by highlighting the intricate policies adopted by the Quadruple Alliance and the Sublime Porte to corner the French and Mehmed Ali. The latter two were indeed diplomatically persuaded in the end and even came to review their discourses over the ‘Eastern Question’.
Electromagnetism: microscopic and macroscopic fields
Authors: Brooker Geoffrey
Published: September 2021

“Electromagnetism: microscopic and macroscopic fields” discusses how “microscopic” fields (on an atomic or nuclear scale of sizes) relate to the everyday “macroscopic” fields. This is achieved by averaging the fields over an intermediate scale of distances. A fully satisfactory averaging is implemented by “truncating” the Fourier components of the field, but heuristic reasoning is a helpful aid to understanding.
Vector theorems
Authors: Brooker Geoffrey
Published: September 2021

Unlike the others, this chapter makes little claim to originality. Rather, it conveys an attitude and a notation that supports several later chapters. Vector theorems are linked to tensors and tensor notation. Tensor notation is helpful for obtaining new vector relations. Relations are obtained that are used later in this book.
Transmission lines, the universe and everything
Authors: Brooker Geoffrey
Published: September 2021

“Transmission lines, the universe and everything” deals with one-dimensional waves incident on a boundary and there partly reflected or transmitted. All such wave–boundary systems are mathematically isomorphic. The transmission line is used as the paradigm for them all, and supplies helpful terminology, such as impedance matching.
Successive approximation; perturbation theory in quantum mechanics
Authors: Brooker Geoffrey
Published: September 2021

“Successive approximation; perturbation theory in quantum mechanics” introduces a toolbox for handling successive-approximation problems in any context. An iterative procedure is presented with examples. Newton's approximation is also an iterative procedure, but often other methods are better. Perturbation theory is presented, organized as an application of the toolbox.
The Boltzmann distribution and molecular gases
Authors: Brooker Geoffrey
Published: September 2021

“The Boltzmann distribution and molecular gases” explains why an “ordinary” gas has its molecules Boltzmann-distributed. The most concentrated Fermi–Dirac gas, helium 3 at its boiling point, is still in a “dilute limit”, dilute enough to be approximately Boltzmann. Similarly, the most concentrated Bose–Einstein gas, helium 4 at its boiling point, is also approximately Boltzmann.
The chemical potential for a semiconductor
Authors: Brooker Geoffrey
Published: September 2021

“The chemical potential for a semiconductor” deals with the way in which the chemical potential (Fermi level) of a semiconductor is affected: by the densities of states in the bands; by temperature; and by doping. The electron–hole product is usually independent of doping but sensitive to temperature. The chemical potential is worked out numerically for an example case, and is shown to be most sensitive to doping.
Article 3—Text and Data Mining for the Purposes of Scientific Research
Authors: Rosati Eleonora
Published: September 2021

This chapter focuses on the laws about text and data mining for scientific researchstipulated under Article 3 of the Directive 2019/790 or copyright directive of the Digital Single Market in Europe. It examines the legislation that require Member States to provide an exception for reproductions and extractions made by research organisations and cultural heritage institutions on text and data mining of works or other subject matter for the purposes of scientific research. It also stresses that copies of works or other subject matter on text and data mining will be stored with an appropriate level of security and retained for the purposes of scientific research. The chapter talks about rightholders, which are allowed to apply measures to ensure the security and integrity of the networks and databases. It mentions Member States that encourage rightholders, research organisations, and cultural heritage institutions to define commonly agreed best practices concerning the application of the obligation and measures on text and data mining.
Article 4—Exception or Limitation for Text and Data Mining
Authors: Rosati Eleonora
Published: September 2021

This chapter focuses on Article 4 of Directive 2019/790, the European copyright directive, which require Member States to provide for an exception or limitation for reproductions and extractions of works and other subject matter for the purposes of text and data mining. It talks about digital technologies that permit new types of uses that are not clearly covered by the existing Union rules on exceptions and limitations in the fields of research, innovation, education, and preservation of cultural heritage. It also describes the optional nature of exceptions and limitations that could negatively impact the functioning of the internal market. The chapter discusses the exceptions and limitations provided in Directive 2019/790 that seek to achieve a fair balance between the rights and interests of authors, other rightholders, and users. It clarifies that text and data mining can be carried out in relation to mere facts or data that are not protected by copyright.
Article 5—Use of Works and Other Subject Matter in Digital and Cross-Border Teaching Activities
Authors: Rosati Eleonora
Published: September 2021

This chapter analyzes Article 5 of Directive 2019/790, copyright directive of the Digital Single Market in Europe. It discusses the use of works and other subject matter for the sole purpose of illustration for teaching through secure electronic environments that occur solely in the Member State where the educational establishment is founded. It also mentions the task of Member States to provide fair compensation for rightholders for the use of their works or other subject matter. The chapter explores the exceptions and limitations outlined in Directive 2019/790, which seek to achieve a fair balance between the rights and interests of authors, other rightholders, and users. It cites the protection of technological measures established in Directive 2001/29/EC that remains essential to ensure the protection and the effective exercise of the rights granted to authors and to other rightholders under the Union law.
Article 6—Preservation of Cultural Heritage
Authors: Rosati Eleonora
Published: September 2021

This chapter discusses Article 6 of Directive 2019/790 regarding the copyright in Europe, which allows cultural heritage institutions to make copies of any works or other subject matter in any format or medium for the purposes of preservation. It examines the mandate on Member States to permit cultural heritage institutions to reproduce works and other subject matter to address technological obsolescence or the degradation of original supports. It also refers to the acts of reproduction undertaken by cultural heritage institutions that are subject to the authorisation of rightholders. The chapter looks at the statute that permit cultural heritage institutions that do not have the technical means or expertise to request the assistance of other cultural institutions and other third parties to preserve their collections. It clarifies the consideration of works and other subject matter to be permanent in the collection of a cultural heritage institution.
Article 10—Publicity Measures
Authors: Rosati Eleonora
Published: September 2021

This chapter refers to Article 10 of Directive 2019/790 regarding copyright in Europe, which outlines provisions on publicity measures. It talks about Member States that are tasked to ensure that information from cultural heritage institutions, collective management organisations, or relevant public authorities is made permanently, easily, and effectively accessible on a public single online portal. It also clarifies that the portal will be established and managed by the European Union Intellectual Property Office in accordance with Regulation (EU) No 386/2012. The chapter discusses additional appropriate publicity measures that should be taken by Member States regarding the ability of collective management organisations to license works or other subject matter. It suggests that the awareness of rightholders could be raised in other Member States or third countries and covered by publicity measures.
Article 18—Principle of Appropriate and Proportionate Remuneration
Authors: Rosati Eleonora
Published: September 2021

This discusses Article 18 of the European copyright directive, Directive 2019/790, which sets forth the principle of appropriate and proportionate remuneration. It instructs Member States to ensure that authors and performers are entitled to receive appropriate and proportionate remuneration their exclusive rights are licensed or transferred for the exploitation of their works or other subject matter. It also highlights the liberty of Member States to use different mechanisms and take into account the principle of contractual freedom and a fair balance of rights and interests. The chapter clarifies that authors and performers tend to be in the weaker contractual position when they grant a licence or transfer their rights for the purposes of exploitation in return for remuneration. It explains how protection does not arise where the contractual counterpart acts as an end user and does not exploit the work or performance itself.
Article 20—Contract Adjustment Mechanism
Authors: Rosati Eleonora
Published: September 2021

This chapter focuses on Article 20 of Directive 2019/790, order on copyright in the Digital Single Market in Europe, which analyzes the contract adjustment mechanism. It reviews the rights of authors and performers or their representatives in claiming additional, appropriate, and fair remuneration from the party with whom they entered into a contract for the exploitation of their rights in the absence of an applicable collective bargaining agreement. It also points out that authors and performers tend to be in the weaker contractual position when they grant a licence or transfer their rights for the purposes of exploitation in return for remuneration. The chapter analyzes certain contracts for the exploitation of rights harmonised at Union level that are of long duration. It talks about a remuneration adjustment mechanism that should be provided for cases where the remuneration originally agreed under a licence or a transfer of rights becomes disproportionately low.
Article 25—Relationship with Exceptions and Limitations Provided for in Other Directives
Authors: Rosati Eleonora
Published: September 2021

This chapter analyzes the relationship with exceptions and limitations provided for in other directives, which is stipulated in Article 25 of Directive 2019/790, a European copyright order. It talks about Member States that may adopt or maintain in force broader provisions that are compatible with certain exceptions and limitations. It also cites Directive 96/9/EC regarding the legal protection of databases. The chapter mentions Directive 2001/29/EC of on the harmonisation of certain aspects of copyright and related rights in the information society. It points out the task of Member States to implement legislation that are consistent with Directive 96/9/EC and Directive 2001/29/EC.
Writing and Pre-Writing in Early Archaic Methone and Eretria
Authors: Thomas Rosalind
Published: September 2021

This chapter concentrates on the important collections of early graffiti and non-alphabetic marks recently published from Methone and Eretria, and dating to the late eighth and early seventh centuries. It picks up Jeffery's emphasis on the materiality of writing, examining their placing on the whole pot or sherd, and it asks what these new graffiti contribute to our views about the spread of the early alphabet. It makes particular use of the graffiti which are not alphabetic, but which seem from placing and appearance to be engaged in a similar form of marking and communication to the obviously alphabetic marks. It argues that these early graffiti do not show the alphabet as necessarily trying to recreate sound or speech, but do show why there was such an impetus to take over the alphabet. In Methone and Eretria we see the 'seed bed' for the rapid spread of the alphabet.
Regions within Regions
Authors: Whitley James
Published: September 2021

Archaic Crete has always provided a useful counterweight to Athenocentric views of how early Greece developed. This paper's focus is on Crete's epigraphic habits. It proposes that there is a deep-seated connexion between these and other features of its material culture-its austerity, and apparent lack of interest in narrative art. It goes on to compare epigraphic habits in Western, Central, and Eastern Crete. It concentrates on inscriptions from the three known Archaic political communities in Eastern Crete: Azoria, Praisos, and Itanos. They differ as much from each other as they do from the pattern to be found in Central Crete. Insofar as there is an East Cretan pattern, however, it seems in part to relate to a greater interest in figurative art than was the case in Central Crete. Whether this relates to linguistic differences, which seemed to have required modifications to the Cretan epichoric script, is also discussed.
New Archaic Inscriptions
Authors: Matthaiou Angelos P.
Published: September 2021

Many Archaic inscriptions have been found since the revision of L. H. Jeffery's Local Scripts in 1990. This chapter presents a selection of some 50 new Attic Archaic inscriptions and some 25 from the Attic-Ionic islands and the Doric islands of the Cyclades. The implications of the new finds for our knowledge of scripts, dialects, vocabulary, topography, and religion are drawn out. The remarkable early evidence for extensive literacy among shepherds and goatherds in Archaic Attica, and the early dedications in both Attic and Boeotian dialect and script from the sanctuary of Zeus on Mt Parnes, are particular highlights.
Etruria between the Iron Age and Orientalizing Period and the Adoption of Alphabetic Writing
Authors: Benelli Enrico , Naso Alessandro
Published: September 2021

This chapter combines a cultural approach (Naso) with a philological (Benelli) one to examine the emergence of Etruscan alphabetic writing in the eighth century bc. Naso outlines changes in settlement patterns and major social transformations in Etruria in this period, largely to be connected with maritime trade and openness to the broader Mediterranean world. Benelli focuses on the mechanism through which the new idea was taken up. He notes that epigraphy is by no means a necessary and immediate consequence of the adoption of writing skills. The oldest Etruscan inscriptions provide evidence of a system of gift exchange amongst the newly forming aristocracy which was strongly tied up with ritualized friendship between kinship groups and peer groups. It is within this milieu that alphabetic writing was articulated and disseminated. All forms of Etruscan letters can be traced back to Euboean prototypes, with the possible exception of the so-called san.