bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Network Models of Innovation and Knowledge Diffusion
Authors: Cowan Robin
Published: November 2023

Much of modern microeconomics is built from the starting point of the perfectly competitive market. In this model, there are an infinite number of agents - buyers and sellers, none of whom has the power to influence the price by his actions. The good is well defined, indeed it is perfectly standardized. And any interactions agents have is mediated by the market. That is, all transactions are anonymous, in the sense that the identities of buyer and seller are unimportant. Effectively, the seller sells ‘to the market ‘ and the buyer buys ‘from the market ‘. This follows from the standardization of the good, and the fact that the market imposes a very strong discipline on prices. Implicit here is one (or both) of two assumptions.
‘Old Economy ‘ Inputs for ‘New Economy ‘ Outcomes: Cluster Formation in the New Silicon Valleys
Authors: Bresnahan Timothy , Gambardella Alfonso , Saxenian Annalee
Published: November 2023

This chapter discusses the sources of success in regional clusters of entrepreneurship and innovation like Silicon Valley. It draws from the results of a two-year research project carried out by a large international and interdisciplinary team. The project has looked at how different forces, including public policy, business strategy, and institutions at regional and national level have combined to encourage the emergence, growth, and maintenance of clusters, and how they might achieve the level of positive feedback and ongoing success of Silicon Valley itself. Our viewpoint has been comparative. We have used both in-depth case studies and statistical methods to analyse examples of early, preliminary, and partially successful development of regional clusters in information and communications technology (ICT), inside and outside the United States.
Degrees of Freedom: Rethinking the Institutional Analysis of Economic Change
Authors: Hancke Bob , Goyer Michel
Published: November 2023

No self-respecting economist, political scientist, or sociologist today ignores the importance of institutions. In standard economics, institutional analysis has found a central place: endogenous growth theory, transaction costs economics, as well as the new economics of organization imply an active incorporation of institutions into theory; and since the seminal article by March and Olsen (1984), even hard core behavioural political science has been forced to come to terms with the structuring effect of institutions, while game-theoretic approaches in political science underscore the role of institutions in shaping outcome sets.
Change In Coordinated Market Economies: The Case Of Nokia And Finland
Authors: Moen Eli , Lilja Kari
Published: November 2023

In the late 1990s, Nokia became a global leader in mobile telephones, and Finland one of the most ‘technology developed’ countries in the world. The success of both Nokia and Finland has startled the surrounding world; Nokia for having overtaken the well-established Motorola and Ericsson, and Finland for having been ranked above the United States, the vanguard of the ‘new economy’, in terms of competitiveness and future dynamics. The stories of Nokia and Finland are conspicuous due to their point of departure and the abrupt nature of their technological-economic change. Until the early 1990s, Finland appeared to outside observers as a typical raw-material-based economy due to the dominant position of the forest industry, and Nokia was known to consumers for its rubber products.
Modelling National Business Systems and the Civilizing Process
Authors: Kristensen Peer Hull
Published: November 2023

During the last couple of decades the comparative study of national business systems has gradually compiled material allowing us to see that neither the social space occupied by the capitalist enterprise in different societies nor its nature as a social entity is given by its universal function as an agency in the market or as an expression of class relations in the capitalist mode of production.
Towards an international public interest rule? Human rights and international copyright law
Authors: Suthersanen Uma
Published: November 2023

Contextualizing Technology (2) Human rights: from citizenry and Knowledge as a Human values to corporate values 5.21 Rights Issue 5.01 (3) Copyright: from the 1886 author to the 1996 entrepreneur 5.23 Justifying Copyright within an Developing an international Utilitarian approach 5.Q7 Why discuss international copyright law in the context of international human rights regimes, and vice versa? Historically, both human rights and copyright were national concerns. Nevertheless, the need for an increased influence of international human rights policy within the international and national copyright regimes is undeniable for several reasons.
From Oral Disputation to Written Text: the Transformation of the Dissertation in Early Modern Europe
Authors: Chang Ku-ming (Kevin)
Published: November 2023

What we identify today as the dissertation is a text written by a degree candidate and viva voce defended before a group of people (the candid– ate’s examination committee or the community of his university). Its form is straightforward: a text, and its authorship certain: a degree candidate. Likewise, its use is clear: the acquirement of a degree, in most cases a Ph.D. While the length and quality of the dissertation may vary, the doctoral dissertation is supposed to make an original contribution to human knowledge. Such is the format of the dissertation that seems to be taken for granted today.
Introduction
Authors: Hill Jonathan
Published: November 2023

Since the second half of the twentieth century it has been acknowledged that there are significant practical and legal obstacles confronting consumers who seek redress for defective goods or substandard services. There is a considerable body of evidence to suggest that, in a significant proportion of cases, consumers do not obtain satisfactory outcomes to their complaints. One of the major weaknesses of many contemporary legal systems is that they fail to provide effective mechanisms for the vindication of consumers’ contractual rights. The problems which consumers face in domestic cases are substantial; such problems are significantly greater in the cross-border context.
Dispute-Resolution Agreements
Authors: Hill Jonathan
Published: November 2023

As a general rule, the principle of party autonomy permits contracting parties to determine the content of their bargain according to their wishes. Failure to comply with a freely entered agreement is a civil wrong; courts uphold such agreements either by ordering contracting parties to act in accordance with the terms of the agreement or by awarding damages for breach. The application of the principle of party autonomy in the field of cross-border contracts means that courts should normally enforce dispute- resolution agreements: ‘Today the freedom of the parties to an international contract to choose . . . the forum, judicial or arbitral, for the settlement of their disputes is almost universally acknowledged.
The Promotion of Alternative Dispute Resolution in Europe
Authors: Hill Jonathan
Published: November 2023

Over the course of the last decade, there has been quite a lot of work undertaken at the European level to promote the use of ADR (including ODR) for disputes arising from b2c contracts:

The growing interest by the European Commission in ODR is motivated by the need to enhance consumers’ rights of access to justice through effective means of cross border dispute resolution at a low cost and by the need to ensure a fair balance between the different interests in the internal market . . .
Alternative Dispute Resolution and Online Dispute Resolution
Authors: Hill Jonathan
Published: November 2023

In the field of ADR, different legal systems have adopted different institutional solutions—although it should be noted that, in many countries (even in Europe), ADR is not at all common or widespread. Within Europe there are several different models. For instance, the Nordic model (and the similar model to be found in the Baltic states) is mainly based on public complaints boards, established and financed by the state. In Denmark, for example, there are consumer complaints boards for various sectors of the economy (such as the building, travel, insurance, and tourism industries).
Consumers’ Substantive Rights and Choice of Law
Authors: Hill Jonathan
Published: November 2023

One of the objectives of consumer law is to find an appropriate balance between the rights of consumers and suppliers. The superior economic power of suppliers means that consumer contracts are invariably contracts of adhesion which are offered to consumers on a ‘take it or leave it’ basis. Such contracts are, obviously, drafted to reflect the interests of suppliers and can impose contractual terms which favour the supplier and fail to give effect to consumers reasonable expectations;
Conclusions
Authors: Hill Jonathan
Published: November 2023

Each of the earlier chapters contains some conclusions on specific topics considered in this work and it is not intended to repeat them all in this final chapter. However, there are several broad themes which should be emphasized by way of conclusion.

The problem with cross-border litigation as a solution to consumer disputes is that, although consumers in general know that civil courts exist and that they are available for the resolution of legal disputes, the litigation process is intimidating, time-consuming, potentially expensive, and generally not well-adapted to the resolution of the low-value disputes that typically arise from consumer contracts. Although this problem can impact on suppliers as well as consumers, difficulties surrounding access to justice are more likely to affect consumers for several reasons.
Venturing Beyond
Authors: Wolfson Elliot R
Published: November 2023

Are mysticism and morality compatible or at odds with one another? If mystical experience embraces a form of non-dual consciousness, then in such a state of mind, the regulative dichotomy so basic to ethical discretion would seemingly be transcended and the very foundation for ethical decisions undermined. Venturing Beyond - Law and Morality in Kabbalistic Mysticism is an investigation of the relationship of the mystical and moral as it is expressed in the particular tradition of Jewish mysticism known as the Kabbalah. The particular themes discussed include the denigration of the non-Jew as the ontic other in kabbalistic anthropology and the eschatological crossing of that boundary anticipated in the instituition of religious conversion; the overcoming of the distinction between good and evil in the mystical experience of the underlying unity of all things; divine suffering and the ideal of spiritual poverty as the foundation for transmoral ethics and hypernomian lawfulness.
Trends
Authors: Benjamin Joanna
Published: November 2023

It was seen in this part that the fundamental effect of all categories of simple financial position is the same, but that their judicial and regulatory treatment differs. Financial institutions react to these facts in interesting ways. This section will consider in turn: innovative uses of traditional contract categories; structuring; the rise of derivatives; and the dangers of each of the foregoing.
Security
Authors: Benjamin Joanna
Published: November 2023

Credit risk is the risk of non-payment of debts or non-performance of other obligations. The chief cause of such default is insolvency. As explained in section 1.2.3, the business of banks and other financial institutions is, essentially the assumption of risk (including credit risk) with a view to profi t. A bank that avoided credit risk would immediately go out of business.
Market Forces In Financial Law And Regulation
Authors: Benjamin Joanna
Published: November 2023

‘Markets are comprised of patterns of entry into and tend to lower prices. But it is important to remember that ‘[m]arkets work but not always and not perfectly.’ With the rise of electronic trading, the historic association between markets and physical venues has long been anachronistic. New patterns of trading have challenged the traditional deﬁnitions of regulatable markets the traditional.
The Promise of Management Control Systems for Innovation and Strategic Change
Authors: Davila Tony
Published: November 2023

This chapter proposes a framework for analysing the different roles that formal management control systems (MCS) may play in managing various types of innovation, and, the effect that these innovations have on changes in business strategy. Traditionally, MCS have been associated with mechanistic organizations (Burns and Stalker 1961), where their purpose was to reduce variety and implement standardization as portrayed in the cybernetic model (Ashby 1960; Anthony 1965). Accordingly, they were frequently perceived as a hindrance to any innovation and change effort in the organization.
Statutory History of Financial Assistance—Companies Acts 1928–1980
Authors: Roberts Catherine
Published: November 2023

A legislative prohibition on the provision of financial assistance by a company for the acquisition of its shares has been on the statute book since the Companies Act 1928. The statutory prohibition on financial assistance has been re-enacted in successive Acts of Parliament governing companies. Over the years, this has been added to and reformulated in order to meet changing circumstances. In more recent times, cogent arguments have been made in favour of radical reform of the prohibition, especially insofar as it applies to solvent private companies. Notwithstanding the changes to the general prohibition that have taken place, the aim and purpose of the prohibition remains what it always was originally. This is succinctly described in the words of Arden LJ in the important case of Robert Chaston v SWP Group plc .
The Prohibition on Financial Assistance
Authors: Roberts Catherine
Published: November 2023

The legislative provisions setting out the prohibition on financial assistance are notoriously difficult to interpret, and as a result there is much uncertainty in this area of the law. It is generally accepted that the prohibition on a company providing financial assistance for the acquisition of its own shares or shares in its holding company is an area of company law that causes many problems in corporate transactions. Financial assistance issues can arise in a number of diverse situations, such as the buy-back of shares, where a subsidiary wishes to lend to its parent the purchase price or provide security for a loan to its parent; a takeover, in which the target wishes to agree to pay the bidder a break fee if a rival bid is successful; or an auction sale, where the vendor wants to make available a due diligence report that has been paid for by the target. In previous chapters the scope and nature of the prohibition on a company giving financial assistance for the acquisition of its shares have been examined. The application of the prohibition is considered in this chapter.
The Consequences of a Breach of Section 151 of the Companies Act 1985
Authors: Roberts Catherine
Published: November 2023

A breach of section 151 of the Companies Act 1985 is a serious matter as criminal sanctions are imposed by the legislation. If a company acts in breach of the prohibition set out in section 151 of the 1985 Act, it is liable to a fine. In addition, every officer of the company who is in default is liable on conviction on indictment to a term of imprisonment not exceeding two years or a fine, or both. On summary conviction of an errant officer of a company that has broken the prohibition, that person is liable to imprisonment for a period not exceeding six months or a fine not exceeding the statutory maximum, or both. An officer of a company is defined in section 744 of the 1985 Act as including a director, manager, or secretary. The word ‘director’ is defined in section 741 of the 1985 Act and has an all-embracing definition of persons who occupy the position of director irrespective of the title that is conferred upon that person. In certain circumstances, the knowledge of an officer can be imputed to the company.
Case Law Concerning Financial Assistance
Authors: Roberts Catherine
Published: November 2023

It is unsurprising that the complex issue of financial assistance has come before the courts on many occasions. In this chapter some of the most significant cases are summarized. However, this chapter is not a substitute for consulting the full reports of the cases and it is important to remember that in every situation questions of financial assistance will turn on their own specific facts.
Introduction
Authors: Grey Christopher , Willmott Hugh
Published: November 2023

There seems something perverse in producing a Reader of critical work. For the very notion of a Reader entails assumptions that, from a critical perspective, appear questionable. The selection of contributions implies the existence of an underlying field with a clear and settled identity and set of boundaries which are then mapped by the Reader. In these terms, Critical Management Studies (CMS) looks like an unpromising candidate for a Reader. As a newly emergent area or genre that has yet to ‘ settle’ in this way, so there is considerable room for debating its scope as well as its distinctive or most illustrious works.
Tightening the Iron Cage: Concertive Control in Self-Managing Teams
Authors: Barker James R
Published: November 2023

In this paper, I provide an ethnographic account of how an organization’s control system evolved in response to a managerial change from hierarchical, bureaucratic control to concertive control in the form of self-managing teams. The study investigates how the organization’s members developed a system of value-based normative rules that controlled their actions more powerfully and completely than the former system. I describe the organization and its members and provide a detailed account of the dynamics that emerged as concertive control became manifest through the members’ interactions.
Studying Managerial Work: A Critique and a Proposal
Authors: Willmott Hugh
Published: November 2023

A striking point about empirical studies of managerial work in capitalist enterprise is their disregard for its institutional formation and significance. In general, the institutional conditioning and consequences of managerial work is either bracketed, taken for granted, or treated as an independent variable. The purpose of this article is to highlight the hiatus between ‘behavioural’ and ‘institutional’ accounts of managerial work and to suggest a means of over- coming this dualism between ‘action’ and ‘system’ (Giddens 1976; 1979; 1984). More specifically, the paper focuses upon the neglect of institutional analysis in behavioural studies of management practice.
Abstract Ethics, Embodied Ethics: The Strange Marriage of Foucault and Positivism in Labour Process Theory
Authors: Wray-Bliss Edward
Published: November 2023

‘When we write about the experiences of a group to which we do not belong, we should think about the ethics of our action, considering whether or not our work will be used to reinforce and perpetuate domination.’ (bell hooks 1989 : 43) .This paper is an exploration and critique of the ethics and effects of our actions as academics and researchers engaged in critical management studies. I draw upon Foucauldian ethical commitments and the example of the ‘Manchester School’s’ labour process theory (LPT) to illustrate and contextualize my discussion. In using the Manchester school’s LPT as an example, it is not my intention for this work to be read as either singling out particular authors for specific criticism, or as a contribution to the ‘divide’ between ‘Foucauldian’ and ‘Marxist’ LPT organizational studies.
Asylum And Human Rights Appeals Handbook
Authors: Kotzeva Anna , Murray Lucy , QC Robin Tam
Published: November 2023

The Asylum and Immigration (Treatment of Claimants etc) Act 2004 substantially revised the immigration appeal system, with the previous two-tier system being fused into the new Asylum and Immigration Tribunal. Where a party wishes to challenge a decision of the Tribunal, they must show it has made an ‘error of law’ in order to access a new review procedure. Subsequent appeal rights to the Court of Appeal are dependent on the exhaustion of these new remedies. The complexity of the legislation, and the strict new time limits, can present practitioners with real practical challenges. This new handbook applies substantive asylum and human rights law to the difficult practical problems encountered by practitioners in the wake of the new legislation. Key areas covered include challenges to credibility and document authenticity, disputed nationality cases, Article 3 cases based on medical grounds, and certified cases. The text covers all relevant law, practice, and procedure in a user-friendly format, and has been designed to enable best practice within the time limits of the new appellate regime. Features include tables and checklists to simplify complex legislative provisions, such as routes of appeal and review; model pleadings and skeleton arguments; and Practice Notes in each chapter, to provide an at-a-glance summary of key practical problems. In addition, extensive reference is made throughout the text to relevant current Home Office policies, such as those relating to humanitarian and discretionary leave. Written by experienced practitioners, Asylum and Human Rights Appeals Handbook is an up-to-date and comprehensive reference tool for all lawyers and advisers who prepare appeal cases and appear before the Asylum and Immigration Tribunal.
The Fsa ‘S Control of Money Laundering
Authors: Russen Jonathan
Published: November 2023

As with the law relating to market abuse (Chapter 6), consideration of the substantive provisions of the secondary legislation and rules designed to prevent money laundering is essential to a proper understanding of the FSA ‘s role as market regulator. Those provisions not only provide the basis of the FSA ‘s right to prosecute for a relevant money laundering offence (see Chapters 2 and 4), but they are also material to its powers of investigation (Chapter 3) and civil enforcement (Chapter 5) in so far as they stem from the breach of a relevant requirement. As will be seen below, the FSA itself has reporting obligations as a ‘supervisory authority ‘ under the Money Laundering Regulations 2003. The fourth of the regulatory objectives of the FSA identified in the Introduction to this book, and which emerges from section 2 of the FSMA, is ‘the reduction of financial crime ‘.
Practice and Procedure
Authors: Russen Jonathan
Published: November 2023

This chapter is designed to provide an understanding of the manner in which the FSA exercises its own regulatory powers (as opposed to making applications in civil proceedings of the kind explained in Chapter 5) and to highlight the options open to any firm affected by their exercise. However, because the FSA ‘s first role as regulator of any firm emerges at the stage of the firm ‘s application for Part IV permission, and because the permission process may involve the same procedure of issuing notices as applies in the case of its enforcement powers, it is proposed first to examine the procedure by which an application for Part IV permission is made and entertained.
Excursus IX: The Testament of Moses
Authors: Ashton John
Published: November 2023

The notes are confined (a) to points relevant to the preceding discussion; (b) to the elucidation of obscurities arising from the single, corrupt Latin manuscript containing a translation from a Greek text which according to some scholars was itself derived from a Hebrew or Aramaic original. Any significant divergences from the Latin will be pointed out.
Passion And Resurrection
Authors: Ashton John
Published: November 2023

The passion and resurrection of Christ lie at the heart of Christianity. They belong, and belong integrally, to the Gospels. In a famous phrase (which he himself regarded as ‘somewhat provocative’) Martin Ka¨hler suggested that the Gospels might be called ‘passion narratives with extended introductions’; however true of the other three, this is certainly not true of the Fourth. No one who had given the matter any thought would claim that the first seventeen chapters of the Gospel, or even the first ten, are nothing more than an introduction or overture to what follows. Where John is concerned the problem is the other way round: Ernst Ka¨semann has gone so far as to say that the passion narrative was more an embarrassment to the evangelist than the natural conclusion of his work: it is an appendix or postscript tacked on to the body of the Gospel—less a coda properly so-called than a reverberation that continues to resound after the work itself has come to an end. We shall see that Ka¨semann’s arguments have a certain force; a similar case, to my mind even more persuasive, can be made for the superfluousness of the resurrection stories in chapter 20.
Symmetry and group representation theory
Authors: Henderson B , Imbusch G F
Published: November 2023

Symmetry is a common everyday feature in the physical world, Our modern cities are often laid down on a rectilinear grid, and the buildings thereon possess external features related to one another in a regular manner. If we can catch and observe a snowflake we will find that it displays sixfold rotational symmetry, whereas a ball-bearing looks much the same no matter how it is rotated. The property of any object which shows how its appearance behaves under translations, reflections, rotations, etc., is said to be its symmetry. However, it is not simply the external forms of everyday objects which display symmetry. The physical properties of quantum systems depend as much on spatial arrangements of the components as on their chemical composition. Crystals have a high degree of internal symmetry which may be exhibited in their external shapes. The symmetry properties of crystals are described in terms of a number of operators-inversion, rotation, reflection, and translation operators, all being required in the more general case. Translational symmetry requires that the energy eigenfunctions must be classified by the so-called Bloch waves, useful in the description of electron transport behaviour of crystals. Finite molecules do not possess such periodic structure, and we need only consider local operators e.g. inversion, reflection, and rotation, when discussing their symmetry. Isolated active centres are also sensitive only to this restricted set of operators; we are concerned only with the local symmetry of the centre and its environment.
Cost Of Upbringing Cases
Authors: Cameron Cecily , QC Elizabeth-Anne Gumbel
Published: November 2023

Cost of upbringing claims are claims arising out of negligent medical treatment which has resulted in the birth of a child who with competent care would not have been born. The claimant is the parent of the child. The loss claimed is the expense of bringing up a child that the claimant would not have had to care for in the absence of negligent treatment. Whether a parent should be entitled to recover for the cost of the upbringing of a child has always been a controversial issue.
The Kirkwood-Buff theory of solutions
Authors: Ben-Naim Arieh
Published: November 2023

The Kirkwood–Buff (KB) theory is the most important theory of solutions. This chapter is therefore central to the entire book. We devote this chapter to derive the main results of this theory. We start with some general historical comments. Then we derive the main results, almost exactly as Kirkwood and Buff did, only more slowly and in more detail, adding occasionally a comment of clarification that was missing in the original publication. We first derive the results for any multicomponent system, and thereafter specialize to the case of two-components system. In section 4, we present the inversion of the KB theory, which has turned a potentially useful theory into an actually useful, general and powerful tool for investigating solutions on a molecular level. Three-component systems and some comments on the application of the KB theory to electrolyte solutions are discussed in the last sections. The Kirkwood–Buff (KB) theory of solutions was published in 1951. In the original paper, Kirkwood and Buff derived some new relationships between thermodynamic quantities and molecular distribution functions for multicomponent systems in the T, V, μ ensemble. One of these is a generalization of the compressibility equation for the one-component system (section 3.5) to multicomponent systems. As we have noted in section 3.5, there is no obvious or straightforward way to generalize the compressibility equation even though we fully grasp the meaning and the origin of each of the terms in the equation. The same is true for the equation for the derivative of the chemical potential with respect to the density.
Deviations from ideal solutions
Authors: Ben-Naim Arieh
Published: November 2023

In the previous chapter, we described three types of ideal solution, and the conditions under which these behaviors are attained. In this chapter, we discuss deviations from these three types of ideality. The nature of the deviation from ideality is different for each case. The first is due to turning on the interactions in the system. The second arises when the components do not subscribe to the condition of similarity. The third is due to increasing the solute density (the solute being that component which is very diluted in the system). The deviations from ideality can be expressed either as activity coefficients or as excess functions. Care must be exercised both in notation and in the interpretation of these activity coefficients or the excess functions. Failure to do so is a major source of confusion and erroneous statements regarding these quantities. As before, we treat only two-component systems of A’s and B’s. The generalization to multicomponent systems is quite straightforward.
New Zealand
Authors: Steel Jeremy
Published: November 2023

Note: This chapter was completed for publication on 3 June 2008 on the basis of materials available at that date, and before all proposals arising from certain significant Government-led reviews of the law were finalized. Reserve Bank of New Zealand: The central bank. Its functions are: to formulate and implement monetary policy so as to achieve and maintain price stability; to promote the maintenance of a sound and efflcient financial system; and to meet the currency needs of the public. The Reserve Bank of New Zealand’s responsibilities include: the registration and prudential supervision of banks; the oversight of payment systems; being lender of last resort; and the maintenance and management of New Zealand’s foreign exchange reserves.
Israel
Authors: Ross Timothy N
Published: November 2023

The Bank of Israel, established pursuant to the Bank of Israel Ordinance, regulates and supervises the Israeli banking system. The primary function of the Bank of Israel is to direct and manage the currency, credit, and banking system in Israel. The supervisory responsibilities of the Bank of Israel are performed by the Supervisor of Banks who is appointed by the Governor of the Bank of Israel.
Lebanon
Authors: Ross Timothy N
Published: November 2023

Concerning securities, the regulatory authority is the Beirut Stock Exchange (BSE) which is the only exchange for listing and trading securities in Lebanon and which is a public institution governed by the Exchange by-laws that have been established by virtue of decree No. 4808 dated 29 January 1982 asamended by virtue of decree No. 4729, dated 30 March 1988, and amended by virtue of decree No. 7667 dated 16 December 1995.
Oman
Authors: Ross Timothy N
Published: November 2023

The Central Bank of Oman (CBO) is the body responsible for regulating banking activity in Oman. The Capital Market Authority (CMA) is the body responsible for regulating securities and insurance activities in Oman What are the principal regulatory authorities that regulate banking, insurance, and securities activities? The Central Bank of Oman (CBO) is the body responsible for regulating banking activity in Oman. The Capital Market Authority (CMA) is the body responsible for regulating securities and insurance activities in Oman.
Saudi Arabia
Authors: Ross Timothy N
Published: November 2023

The Saudi Arabian Monetary Agency (SAMA) regulates all banking and insurance activities in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (the Kingdom). The Capital Markets Authority (CMA) regulates securities activities in the Kingdom and is charged with regulating and developing the capital markets sector in the Kingdom. For further details on SAMA and the CMA, please see the text below at Banking Sector, Capital Markets Sector, and the Insurance Sector.
Pattern and Purpose
Authors: Bradley Richard
Published: November 2023

This contains two key notions, aesthetics and semantics, each of which can be considered in relation to prehistoric archaeology. It is unfortunate that both these concepts have proved to be controversial. 1996 saw the publication of an unusual book, Key Debates in Anthropology, which recorded the proceedings of a series of annual meetings held at the University of Manchester (Ingold ed. 1996).
Medicines Legislation
Authors: Rogers Simon
Published: November 2023

The research, manufacture, marketing, distribution, and promotion of medicinal products is governed by European Community legislation. In the United Kingdom, medicines are regulated, and the Community legislation implemented, by the Medicines Act 1968 and various regulations and orders made under that Act and the European Communities Act 1972.
The Regulatory Process: Pharmacovigilance in Practice
Authors: Warren Dr John
Published: November 2023

The safety of medicines is an area of increasing legal complexity and interest. The stakes are high. It has been estimated that after being on the market for five years, with some 80 million prescriptions, the arthritis drug Vioxx might have caused between 88,000 and 139,000 heart attacks and strokes, a third of which may have been fatal. This considerable human cost led the manufacturer, Merck, to withdraw Vioxx from the market in September 2004.
Civil Law Liability
Authors: Mulcahy Leigh-Ann
Published: November 2023

This chapter addresses various issues which arise in relation to civil liability (in the sense of civil actions for damages) associated with the regulation and use of medicines. Such issues include liability to those injured as a result of defective medicines, the principles of causation applicable to this context, the potential liability of regulators of medicines, and, topically in light of the disastrous clinical trial of the drug TGN1412 at a facility at Northwick Park Hospital in March 2006,1 liability for clinical trials and research.
Making the World Safe
Authors: McCulloch Jock , Tweedale Geoffrey
Published: November 2023

The global asbestos industry was born in the second half of the nineteenth century. The first modern mines, which were in Italy’s alpine valleys, began production in the 1850s and for twenty years they enjoyed a monopoly supplying fibre to a small manufacturing market in Western Europe. In 1876, large chrysotile deposits were discovered at Thetford, in Canada. Two years later mining began and from the turn of the century Canada was the world’s largest producer of chrysotile or white asbestos, a position it maintained for almost a hundred years. South Africa supplied virtually all of the worlds blue and brown asbestos (crocidolite and amosite).
The Challenge of Mesothelioma and Irving J. Selikoff
Authors: McCulloch Jock , Tweedale Geoffrey
Published: November 2023

The discovery of mesothelioma and the publication of the South African work in the British medical press in 1960 had little discernible impact on the asbestos industry—at least, as regards world production of the mineral. In the 1960s, the leading companies like Johns-Manville (whose profits as shown in Figure 2.1 continued to rise through the 1960s) were still ‘rich, sassy, and riding high’. Between 1960 and about 1980, world production of asbestos was untrammelled and it entered its fastest period of growth.
Don’t Disturb the Dog: Asbestos in the Environment
Authors: McCulloch Jock , Tweedale Geoffrey
Published: November 2023

In 1980, Dr Irving Selikoff gave a talk in California. He told his audience that ten years earlier a thirty-year-old New Yorker, Simon Beers, had consulted him at Mount Sinai Hospital because of a pain in his chest. Selikoff discovered that Beers had been born on Ross Street in Brooklyn, moved to Wilson Street, and after marrying at 16 had started work at Macy’s. A biopsy showed that Beers was suffering from pleural mesothelioma. Selikoff recalled: ‘The diagnosis was clear, because on the [disease] site was the kind of asbestos that tended to be used in shipyards.
Consociation and its critics: Northern Ireland after the Belfast Agreement
Authors: McGarry John , O’Leary Brendan
Published: November 2023

Divided polities everywhere are faced with the two broad democratic choices outlined in this volume. They may choose integration, which involves the construction of a single public identity through the promotion of individual rights; social mixing in schools, residential neighborhoods, and workplaces; and political institutions that favor political appeals across ethnic communities. Integration comes in different varieties, depending on whether it is informed by republicanism, liberalism, or socialism.
Some Quasi-Behavioural Arguments For Environmental Taxation
Authors: Hsu* Shi-Ling
Published: November 2023

For decades, economists have advocated for the adoption of environmental taxes to reduce pollution at the lowest social cost. This campaign has succeeded in Europe, where a wide variety of environmental taxes are in effect, but failed in North America, where environmental taxes are rare.1 Economists have failed to persuade North American policy-makers to make any significant policy use of environmental taxes.2 This chapter presents three arguments that draw upon the behaviouralist and organizational literatures, and augment the economic arguments proffered thus far in favour of environmental taxes. Taken together, the old and new arguments provide a compelling case for the wider adoption of environmental taxes, and a more critical assessment of the traditional North American approach—a technology-oriented, ‘command-and-control’ approach to environmental regulation.
Pesticide Reducing Instruments— An Interdisciplinary Analysis Of Effectiveness And Optimality
Authors: Jacobsen1 Lars-Bo , Jensen2 Jørgen D , Hauch3 Jens , Topping4 Chris J , Andersen5 Martin
Published: November 2023

For decades the concerns about the impact of modern agriculture’s use of pesticides have been one of the most debated environmental issues in many developed countries. The use of pesticides has contributed on a large scale to increased production and lower product prices. However, this usage is associated with a number of negative environmental consequences. There is a risk that pesticides will pollute water resources (drinking water and groundwater resources). Pesticide usage is also expected to have a negative impact on the level of biodiversity as well as possible negative health effects. In Denmark, the agricultural sector accounts for 80 per cent of the total pesticide usage in Denmark. Several action plans have aimed at reducing the use of pesticides. The first was introduced in 1986 with the specific target of cutting both the pesticide treatment frequency index (TFI)6 and quantity of active sub-stance used by 50 per cent. An evaluation of the plan concluded that treatment frequency was unchanged while active substance was reduced by 36 per cent, but this was mostly due to the introduction of new low dosage products. Therefore, a pesticide tax was introduced in 1996 and subsequently doubled in 1998, resulting in a value tax of approximately 50 per cent of the wholesale value. In 1999, a multidisciplinary committee analysed legal, health, and cost issues related to pesticide usage (Bichel Committee, 1999), including impact assessment of radical reductions in the use of pesticides. The work of the Bichel Committee led to the Pesticide Action Plan II in 2000,7 with the aim of reducing the TFI to below 2.0 by 2002 (from 2.45 in 1999).
Targeting Financiers: Can Voluntary Codes Of Conduct For The Investment And Financing Sectors Achieve Environmental And Sustainability Objectives?
Authors: Miles* Kate
Published: November 2023

The emergence of voluntary codes of environmental corporate conduct is a fascinating phenomenon. There have been discernible shifts in corporate behaviour over the last decade towards accommodating public concerns at the role of multinational corporations in socially and environmentally harmful practices.1 Along with the integration of corporate social responsibility programmes and the establishment of ethical investment funds, the development of voluntary codes of conduct has been a strategic response by the business community to pressure from an increasingly demanding environmentally-aware public.2 Some of the most significant recent initiatives at the international level have involved the financing and investment sectors, with the launching of the Equator Principles in 2003 and the Principles for Responsible Investment in 2006. This chapter examines the implementation record of these voluntary codes of conduct, considers their implications for international law, and asks the question: can such instruments achieve environmental and sustainability objectives? The argument put forward in this analysis is that voluntary codes for the financing sector are making a positive impact in a number of ways, through the rejection or modification of environmentally damaging projects, the raising of environmental awareness among the financing sector, the encouragement of shifts in corporate culture, the harmonization of lending standards, and in contributing to a global culture in which it is increasingly difficult to engage in socially and environmentally damaging practices without repercussions for the corporation.
What is Nanoscience?
Authors: Lindsay S M
Published: November 2023

Nanoscience is about the phenomena that occur in systems with nanometer dimensions. Some of the unique aspects of nanosystems arise solely from the tiny size of the systems. Nano is about as small as it gets in the world of regular chemistry, materials science, and biology. The diameter of a hydrogen atom is about one-tenth of a nanometer, so the nanometer scale is the very smallest scale on which we might consider building machines on the basis of the principles we learn from everyday mechanics, using the 1000 or so hydrogen atoms we could pack into a cube of size 1 nm 1 nm 1 nm. If this is all that there was to nanoscience, it would still be remarkable because of the incredible difference in scale between the nano world and the regular macroscopic world around us. In 1959, Richard Feynman gave a talk to the American Physical Society in which he laid out some of the consequences of measuring and manipulating materials at the nanoscale. This talk, “There is plenty of room at the bottom,” is reproduced in its entirety in Appendix B. It does a far better job than ever I could of laying out the consequences of a technology that allows us to carry out routine manipulations of materials at the nanoscale and if you have not already read it, you should interrupt this introduction to read it now.
Nanobiology
Authors: Lindsay S M
Published: November 2023

This chapter outlines some of the ideas of modern molecular biology, focusing on the role of fluctuations in the small systems that comprise the building blocks of life. One measurement aspect of nanobiology—single molecule measurements—was dealt with in Chapter 4. We begin with a brief description of natural selection as the central driving force in biology. We go on to describe some of the components of modern molecular biology, getting a glimpse into the role of random processes when we discuss the remarkable phenomenon of gene splicing. We examine the role of structural fluctuations in enzyme catalysis, and go on to discuss biological energy and molecular motors, phenomena that rely upon fluctuation-driven electron transfer reactions. Finally, we examine the role of fluctuations in gene expression in the development of whole organisms. We use the immune system as an example of a biological process in which random assembly of its components is essential. We end that discussion with a brief look at the role of random gene splicing in the development of neural networks, and ultimately, possibly, in the development of the mind itself. Readers unfamiliar with molecular biology might find the glossary in Appendix L useful.
Zeeman and Lorentz – A First Glimpse at the Electron (1896)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund
Published: November 2023

In 1896 a young Dutch physicist, Pieter Zeeman , submitted a paper to the Royal Academy of Sciences in Amsterdam [1]. In the introductory paragraph he writes: Several years ago … it occurred to me whether the light of a flame if submitted to the action of magnetism would perhaps undergo any change.
Nernst and the Third Theorem of Thermodynamics (1905)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund
Published: November 2023

Walther Nernst [1] belongs to the small group of scientists, who, in the twentieth century, excelled in both experiment and theory. In 1905 he postulated his new heat law, a theorem in thermodynamics, i.e., in classical physics. It turned out soon, however, that there is a close relation between that theorem and quantum theory. When Nernst discovered his heat law he had just become professor of physical chemistry at the University of Berlin. He had moved there from Göttingen where he had held the same position. Being particularly successful in applying the laws of thermodynamics to chemical and electrochemical reactions he was one of the founders of his field. Generations of students and young researchers grew up with his textbook Theoretical Chemistry, From the Point of View of Avogadro’s Rule and of Thermodynamics [2]. He had also made an invention by which he had become a wealthy man. His electric lamp, the Nernst lamp, produced bright white light. Unlike the light bulb of Edison it glowed in normal air and needed no vacuum.
Jean Perrin and Molecular Reality (1909)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund
Published: November 2023

By the end of the nineteenth century, the existence of atoms and molecules was accepted by most scientists. However, atoms were still invisible to the human eye and remained so for decades. It was Perrin [1,2], who, through careful experiments and quantitative analysis of visible phenomena, not only overcame the resistance of the last doubting scientists but also convinced the general public of, as he called it, ‘la réalité moleculaire’.
Bragg Scattering
Authors: Brandt Siegmund
Published: November 2023

One day at the end of 1885 William Henry Bragg [1], a twenty-three year old mathematician who had graduated the previous year, was on his way to attend a lecture in Cambridge. He met the lecturer, J. J. Thomson, in King’s Parade and they talked about a vacant professorship in Australia. Bragg was advised by Thomson to apply and shortly afterwards got the position since the electors of the new professor in the distant colony did their work in London. Later Bragg wrote [1]: I was Professor of Mathematics and Physics. I had never learnt any of the latter, nor worked at the Cavendish except for a couple of terms after I had taken my degree, it was supposed by the electors that I would probably pick up enough as I went along to perform my duties at the Adelaide University …
Structuring data, part 1
Authors: Heijden Hans Van Der
Published: November 2023

In any managerial situation we can assume that there is some understanding of what it is that needs to be managed: employees, budgets, customers, production processes, and so on. We would say that these are the entities of our particular management domain. When we design information systems to support the management of these entities, we must first seek to obtain a more precise understanding of them. The techniques that allow us to do so are the focus of this chapter and the next.