In COVID-19 health messaging, loss framing increases anxiety with little-to-no concomitant benefits: Experimental evidence from 84 countries
Authors: Dorison Charles , Lerner Jennifer Susan , Heller Blake H. , Rothman Alexander , Kawachi Ichiro I. , Wang Ke , Rees Vaughan W. , Gill Brian P. , Gibbs Nancy , Ebersole Charles R. , Vally Zahir , Tajchman Zuzanna Jagoda , Zsido Andras N. , Zrimsek Miha , Chen Zhang , Ziano Ignazio , Gialitaki Zoi , Ceary Chris , Lin Yijun , Kunisato Yoshihiko , Yamada Yuki , Xiao Qinyu , Jiang Xiaoming , Du Yinkai , Yao Xiaohui , Wilson John Paul , Cyrus-Lai Wilson , Leal Wlliam Alexander Jimenez , Law Wilbert , Collins W. Matthew , Richard Karley , Vranka Marek Albert , Ankushev Vladislav , Schei Vidar , Križanić Valerija , Kadreva Veselina Hristova , Adoric Vera Cubela , Tran Ulrich S. , Yeung Siu Kit , Hassan Widad , Houston Ralph , Machin Tony , Lima Tiago J. S. , Ostermann Thomas , Frizzo Thomas , Sverdrup Therese E , House Thea , Gill Tripat , Fedotov Maksim , Paltrow Tamar , Jernsäther Teodor , Koptjevskaja-Tamm Maria , Hostler Tom , Ishii Tatsunori , Szaszi Barnabas , Adamus Sylwia , Suter Lilian , Habib Sumaiya , Studzinska Anna , Stojanovska Dragana , Janssen Steve M. J. , Stieger Stefan , Schulenberg Stefan E. , Tatachari Srinivasan , Azouaghe Soufian , Sorokowski Piotr , Sorokowska Agnieszka , Song Xin , Lewis Savannah C , Sinkolova Sladjana , Grigoryev Dmitry , Daches Shimrit , Geniole Shawn , Vračar Selena , Massoni Sébastien , Zorjan Saša , Sarioguz Eylül , Morales-Izquierdo Sara , Alves Sara Gouveia , Pöntinen Sara Johanna , Solas Sara Álvarez , Ordóñez-Riaño Santiago , Očovaj Sanja Batić , Onie Sandersan , Lins Samuel , Çoksan Sami , Sacakli Asli , Geiger Sandra Jeanette , s.fmodares@yahoo.com  , Walczak Radoslaw B. , Betlehem Ruben , Vilar Roosevelt , Doekemeijer Roos Arwen , Cárcamo Rodrigo , Ross Robert M , McCarthy Randy J. , Ballantyne Tonia , Westgate Erin Corwin , Afhami Reza , Ren Dongning , Monteiro Renan P. , Reips Ulf-Dietrich , Reggev Niv , Calin-Jageman Robert , Pourafshari Razieh , Oliveira Raquel , Nedelcheva-Datsova Mina , Rahal Rima-Maria , Ribeiro Rafael Ramos , Radtke Theda , Searston Rachel A , Habte Redeate , Zdybek Przemysław , Chen Sau-Chin , Wajanatinpart Piyaorn , Maturan Princess Lovella Gonzales , Perillo Jennifer Torkildson , Ruiz-Fernandez Susana , Isager Peder Mortvedt , Kačmár Pavol , Macapagal Paulo Manuel Labalan , Szwed Paulina , Hanel Paul H. P. , Forbes Paul , Arriaga Patricia , Paris Bastien , Papachristopoulos Konstantinos , Correa Pablo , Kácha Ondřej , Bernardo Olivia , Campos Olatz , Bravo Olalla Niño , Galindo-Caballero Oscar J. , Ogbonnaya Chisom , Bialobrzeska Olga , Kiselnikova Natalya , Simonovic Nicolle , Cohen Noga , Nock Nora L , Johannes Niklas , Albayrak-Aydemir Nihan , Say Nicolas , Neubauer Andreas B. , Torunsky Nathan , Van Doren Natalia , Sunami Nami , Rachev Nikolay R. , Majeed Nadyanna M. , Schmidt Nadya-Daniela , Nadif Khaoula , Corral-Frías Nadia Saraí , Ouherrou Nihal , Pantazi Myrto , Lucas Marc Yancy , Vasilev Martin R. , Ortiz Maria Victoria , Butt Muhammad Mussaffa , Kabir Muhib , Muda Rafał , del Carmen Maria , Sirota Mirsolav , Seehuus Martin , Parzuchowski Michal , Toro Mónica , Hricova Monika , Marszalek Magdalena , Karekla Maria , Mioni Giovanna , Bosma Minke , Westerlund Minja , Vdovic Milica , Bialek Michal , Silan Miguel Alejandro A. , Anne Michele , Misiak Michał , Alarcon Monica , Gugliandolo Maria Cristina , Grinberg Maurice , Capizzi Mariagrazia , Espinoza Barría Mauricio F , Kurfali Merve A. , Mensink Michael Craig , Harutyunyan Mikayel , Khosla Meetu , Dunn Megan , Korbmacher Max , Adamkovic Matus , Ribeiro Matheus Fernando Felix , Terskova Maria , Hruška Matej , Martončik Marcel , Voracek Martin , Čadek Martin , Frías-Armenta Martha , Kowal Marta , Topor Marta , Roczniewska Marta , Oosterlinck Marlies , Braun Kohlová Markéta , Paruzel-Czachura Mariola , Romanova Marina , Papadatou-Pastou Marietta , Lund Maria Louise , Antoniadi Maria , Jones Marc , Ortiz Manuel S , Manavalan Mathi , Muminov Abdumalik , Kossowska Małgorzata , Friedemann Maja , Wielgus Magdalena , Varella Marco Antonio Correa , Colloff Melissa Fay , Bradford Maria , Vaughn Leigh Ann , Eudave Luis , Vieira Luc , Pineda Lina Maria Sanabria , Calderón Pérez Laura , Lazarevic Ljiljana B. , Jaremka Lisa M , Smit Eline Suzanne , Kushnir Elizaveta , Anton-Boicuk Lisa , Coelho Gabriel Lins Holanda , Ahlgren Lina , Levitan Carmel , Micheli Leticia , Volz Leonhard , Stojanovska Marija , Boucher Leanne , Samojlenko Lara , Delgado Grey Javela , Kaliska Lada , Warmelink Lara , Rojas-Berscia Luis Miguel , Yu Karen , Wachowicz Jakub , Desai Kermeka , Barzykowski Krystian , Kozma Luca , Evans Kortnee , Kirgizova Komila , EMMANUEL AGESIN BAMIKOLE , Koehn Monica A , Wolfe Kelly , Korobova Tatiana , Morris Katherine Laura , Klevjer Kristoffer , van Schie Kevin , Vezirian Kevin , Damnjanović Kaja , Thommesen Katrine Krabbe , Schmidt Kathleen , Filip Katarzyna , Grzech Karolina , Hoyer Karlijn , Moon Karis , Rana Kafeel , Janjić Kristina , Suchow Jordan W , Kielińska Julita , Vásquez Julio Cruz , Beitner Julia , Vargas-Nieto Juan Camilo , Roxas Jose Carlos T , Taber Jennifer M , Urriago-Rayo Joan , Pavlacic Jeffrey Michael , Bavolar Jozef , Soto Jose Angel , Olofsson Jonas , Vilsmeier Johannes K , Messerschmidt Johanna , Czamanski-Cohen Johanna , Boudesseul Jordane , Lee Jeong Min , Kamburidis Julia , Joy-Gaba Jennifer Alana , Zickfeld Janis , Miranda Jacob Francisco , Verharen Jeroen , Hristova Evgeniya , Beshears Julie , Đorđević Jasna Milošević , Bosch Jasmijn , Valentova Jaroslava Varella , Antfolk Jan , Berkessel Jana , Schrötter Jana , Urban Jan , Röer Jan Philipp , Norton James O'Reily , Rojas Jaime Silva , Pickering Jade Samantha , Vintr Jáchym , Uttley Jim , Kunst Jonas R. , Ndukaihe Izuchukwu Lawrence Gabriel , Iyer Aishwarya , Vilares Iris , Ivanov Aleksandr , Ropovik Ivan , Sula Isabela , Sarieva Irena , Metin-Orta irem , Prusova Irina , Pinto Isabel Rocha , Bozdoc Andreea Ioana , Almeida Inês A. T. , Pit Ilse L. , Dalgar Ilker , Zakharov Ilya , ARINZE Azuka Ikechukwu , Ihaya Keiko , Stephen Ian D , Gjoneska Biljana , Brohmer Hilmar , Flowe Heather D , Godbersen Hendrik , Kocalar Halil Emre , Hedgebeth Mattie V , Chuan-Peng Hu , Sharifian MohammadHasan , Manley Harry , Akkas Handan , Hajdu Nandor , Azab Habiba , Kaminski Gwenael , Nilsonne Gustav , Anjum Gulnaz , Travaglino Giovanni A. , Feldman Gilad , Pfuhl Gerit , Czarnek Gabriela , Marcu Gabriela Mariana , Hofer Gabriela , Baník Gabriel , Adetula Gabriel Agboola , Bijlstra Gijsbert , Verbruggen Frederick , Kung Franki Y. H. , Foroni Francesco , Singer Gage Anthony , Muchembled Fany , Azevedo Flavio , Mosannenzadeh Farnaz , Marinova Evelina , Štrukelj Eva , Zahra Etebari , Baskin Ernest , Garcia Elkin Oswaldo Luis , Musser Erica D. , van Steenkiste I M M , Bradshaw Emma L , Ahn El Rim , Pronizius Ekaterina , Jackson Emily A. , Manunta Efisio , Agadullina Elena , Šakan Dušana , Dursun Pinar , Dujols Olivier , Dubrov Dmitrii , Willis Megan , Tümer Murat , Beaudry Jennifer L , Popović Dora , Dunleavy Daniel J. , Djamai Ikhlas , Krupić Dino , Paredes Dora Isabel Herrera , Vega Diego , Du Hongfei , Mola Débora , Davis William E. , Holford Dawn Liu , Lewis David M. G. , Vaidis David C. , Hausman Ozery Daphna , Zambrano Danilo , Storage Daniel , Sousa Daniela , Alvarez Daniela Serrato , Dalla Rosa Anna , Krupić Dajana , Marko Dafne , Moreau David , Reeck Crystal , Correia Rita , Whitt Cassie Marie , Lamm Claus , Singh Solorzano Claudio , von Bastian Claudia Christina , Sutherland Clare , Overkott Clara S. R. , Aberson Chris , Wang Chunhui , Karashiali Christiana , Noone Chris , Chiu Faith , Picciocchi Chiara , KARAARSLAN CEMRE , Cellini Nicola , Esteban Serna Celia , Reyna Cecilia , Batres Carlota , Li Ranran , Grano Caterina , Carpentier Joelle , Tamnes Christian K. , Fu Cynthia H.Y. , Ishkhanyan Byurakn , Bylinina Lisa , Jaeger Bastian , Bundt Carsten , Allred Tara Bulut , Vermote Branko , Bokkour Ahmed , Bogatyreva Natalia , Chopik William J. , Antazo Benedict Guzman , Behzadnia Behzad , Becker Maja , Cocco Beatrice , Chou Wei-Lun , Hubená Barbora , Zuro Barbara , Aczel Balazs , Baklanova Ekaterina , Bai Hui , Balci Busra Bahar , Babincak Peter , Dixson Barnaby , Mokady Aviv , Kappes Heather Barry , Atari Mohammad , Szala Anna , Szabelska Anna , ARUTA JOHN JAMIR BENZON R. , Domurat Artur , Arinze Nwadiogo Chisom , Modena Arianna , Adıgüzel Arca , Monajem Arash , ARABI Kanza AIT EL , Özdoğru Asil Ali , Torres Adriana Olaya , Theodoropoulou Andriana , Jurković Anita Penić , Kassianos Angelos P. , Findor Andrej , Hartanto Andree , Landry Anais Thibault , Ferreira Ana , Santos Anabela Caetano , DE LA ROSA GOMEZ ANABEL , Gourdon-Kanhukamwe Amélie , Luxon Alexandria , Todsen Anna Louise , KARABABA Alper , Janak Allison , Bran Alexandre , Tullett Alexa Mary , Kuzminska Anna O. , Krafnick Anthony James , Urooj Anum , Khaoudi Ahmed , Ahmed Afroja , Groyecka-Bernard Agata , Askelund Adrian Dahl , Adetula Adeyemi , Belaus Anabel , CHARYATE Abdelilah , Wichman Aaron Lee , Stoyanova Alina , Greenburgh Anna , Thomas Andrew G. , Arvanitis Alexios , Forscher Patrick S. , Mallik Peter Robert , Primbs Maximilian , Miller Jeremy K. , Moshontz Hannah , Urry Heather L. , IJzerman Hans , Basnight-Brown Dana M. , Chartier Christopher R. , Buchanan Erin Michelle , Coles Nicholas Alvaro , Sievers Erin 
Published: April 2020

The COVID-19 pandemic (and its aftermath) highlights a critical need to communicate health information effectively to the global public. Given that subtle differences in information framing can have meaningful effects on behavior, behavioral science research highlights a pressing question: Is it more effective to frame COVID-19 health messages in terms of potential losses (e.g., “If you do not practice these steps, you can endanger yourself and others”) or potential gains (e.g., “If you practice these steps, you can protect yourself and others”)? Collecting data in 48 languages from 15,929 participants in 84 countries, we experimentally tested the effects of message framing on COVID-19-related judgments, intentions, and feelings. Loss- (vs. gain-) framed messages increased self-reported anxiety among participants cross-nationally with little-to-no impact on policy attitudes, behavioral intentions, or information seeking relevant to pandemic risks. These results were consistent across 84 countries, three variations of the message framing wording, and 560 data processing and analytic choices. Thus, results provide an empirical answer to a global communication question and highlight the emotional toll of loss-framed messages. Critically, this work demonstrates the importance of considering unintended affective consequences when evaluating nudge-style interventions.