bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The structure of proteins
Authors: Papachristodoulou Despo , Snape Alison , Elliott William H. , Elliott Daphne C.
Published: September 2023

This chapter focuses on proteins, which are made up of one or more polypeptide chains constructed from 20 species of amino acids. The length and sequence of each polypeptide is specified by its gene. The chapter describes 20 different amino acids which are of differing sizes and degrees of hydrophobicity, hydrophilicity, and electrical charge. These present the possibility of a vast variety of different proteins. The primary structure is the linear amino acid sequence, while the secondary structure involves folding of the polypeptide backbone. The chapter explains that the main secondary structure motifs are the α helix and the β-pleated sheet, which are stabilized by hydrogen bonding. The tertiary structure involves the further folding of the secondary structure motifs into the three-dimensional form of the protein.
Principles of energy release from food
Authors: Papachristodoulou Despo , Snape Alison , Elliott William H. , Elliott Daphne C.
Published: September 2023

This chapter explores biological oxidation, which involves the removal and transfer of electrons to another acceptor molecule. It discusses biochemical systems which commonly involve the enzymatic removal of two hydrogen atoms from a metabolite molecule. In the cell a variety of electron/hydrogen carriers exist in the transfer of electrons to oxygen. The chapter considers nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) as an important carrier and a dinucleotide that contains the vitamin nicotinamide, which can accept two electrons and a hydrogen atom, to form NADH. Flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) is of similar structure but the accepting group is the vitamin riboflavin.
An alternative pathway of glucose oxidation: the pentose phosphate pathway
Authors: Papachristodoulou Despo , Snape Alison , Elliott William H. , Elliott Daphne C.
Published: September 2023

This chapter examines the pentose phosphate pathway, which is a pathway of glucose oxidation which does not generate adenosine triphosphate (ATP) nor oxidize a molecule of glucose completely. The chapter considers the pentose phosphate pathway as a versatile pathway that produces ribose-5-phosphate for nucleotide synthesis, supplies nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate hydrogen (NADPH) for fat synthesis and other reductive systems, and provides a route for the metabolism of surplus pentose sugars coming from the diet. The pathway has an oxidative section converting glucose-6-phosphate into ribose-5-phosphate and it produces NADPH. The chapter explores how the nonoxidative section manipulates ribose-5-phosphate according to the needs of the cell. If a cell requires equal amounts of ribose-5-phosphate and NADPH, only the oxidative section is required.
Synthesis of fat and related compounds
Authors: Papachristodoulou Despo , Snape Alison , Elliott William H. , Elliott Daphne C.
Published: September 2023

This chapter looks at fatty acid synthesis. This occurs in the cytosol using acetyl-Coenzyme A (CoA) as the starting substrate. The chapter refers to a multienzyme complex called palmitate synthase that produces palmitate from acetyl-CoA. Further lengthening of the palmitate is catalysed by a separate enzyme system on the cytosolic face of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). The acetyl-CoA from which fatty acids are synthesized and produced form pyruvate inside the mitochondrial matrix. The chapter mentions an adenosine triphosphate (ATP)-citrate lyase that releases acetyl-CoA and oxaloacetate, which depends on the hydrolysis of ATP that makes it irreversible. Malate is converted into pyruvate by the malic enzyme, which reduces nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP+) to NADPH in the process.
The genome
Authors: Papachristodoulou Despo , Snape Alison , Elliott William H. , Elliott Daphne C.
Published: September 2023

This chapter looks at DNA, which is a polynucleotide consisting of strands of deoxynucleotides linked by 5′→3′ phosphodiester links between the sugar residues. The chapter covers the four bases of DNA, which are A, T, G, and C. The DNA double helix consists of two antiparallel strands held together by complementary base pairing by hydrogen bonding between A and T, and G and C. The chapter discusses the bases in a double helix point to the inside of the molecule and the phosphate-sugar backbone to the outside, with the edges of the bases visible in the two grooves of the double helix. The bases themselves have flat hydrophobic faces and are stacked on one another.
Blood clotting, xenobiotic metabolism, and reactive oxygen species
Authors: Papachristodoulou Despo , Snape Alison , Elliott William H. , Elliott Daphne C.
Published: September 2023

This chapter describes a number of processes in the body which are essential protective devices against different hazards. It mentions blood clotting. This involves two separate pathways of proteolytic enzymes, which converge at active factor X. This process activates prothrombin to thrombin, a proteolytic enzyme that converts fibrinogen to fibrin. Fibrin is a fibrous complex that entraps blood cells into a soft clot, which is then stabilized by cross-link formation between the strands. The chapter looks at the pathway that is triggered by a wound exposing an abnormal surface, such as collagen. The shorter extrinsic pathway results from the release of a factor from damaged cells.
Molecular structure and bonding
Authors: Weller Mark , Rourke Jonathan , Overton Tina , Armstrong Fraser
Published: September 2023

This chapter examines the development of models of molecular structure in terms of the concepts of valence bond and molecular orbital theory. It reviews the methods for predicting the shapes of molecules. The discussion covers the Lewis structures, octet rule, and VSEPR model. The chapter introduces the concepts of bond order and correlations. Then, it looks at bond length, bond strength, and reaction enthalpies. Lastly, it explains the basic principles of catalysis, discussing energetics, catalytic cycles, catalytic efficiency and lifetime, selective catalysts, as well as homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysts. The chapter illustrates the importance of the interplay between qualitative models, experiments, and calculations.
Oxidation and reduction
Authors: Weller Mark , Rourke Jonathan , Overton Tina , Armstrong Fraser
Published: September 2023

This chapter explains oxidation: the removal of electrons from a species;, and reduction: the addition of electrons. It provides examples of redox chemistry and -develops concepts for understanding why oxidation and reduction reactions occur, considering mainly their thermodynamic aspects. The chapter discusses the procedures for analysing redox reactions in solution, explaining that the electrode potentials of electrochemically active species provide data that are useful for determining and understanding the stability of species and solubility of salts. Furthermore, it describes procedures for displaying trends in the stabilities of various oxidation states, including the influence of pH. Then it tackles the applications of this information to environmental chemistry, chemical analysis, and inorganic synthesis. The chapter ends with a thermodynamic examination of the conditions needed for some major industrial oxidation and reduction processes, particularly the extraction of metals from their ores and new applications in clean and efficient technologies.
Hydrogen
Authors: Weller Mark , Rourke Jonathan , Overton Tina , Armstrong Fraser
Published: September 2023

This chapter looks at hydrogen, the most abundant element in the universe and the tenth most abundant by mass on Earth. It discusses reactions of hydrogen species that are particularly interesting in terms of fundamental chemistry as well as important applications, including energy. The chapter describes how hydrogen is produced in the laboratory, on an industrial scale from fossil fuels, and on its possible production through increasing use of renewable resources in the future. It also tackles how hydrogen bonding stabilizes the structures of water and DNA. It then summarizes the synthesis and properties of binary compounds that range from volatile, molecular compounds to salt-like and metallic solids. Furthermore, the chapter considers how the hydrogen molecule is activated by binding to catalysts, the processes that can produce hydrogen from water using solar energy.
The Group 17 elements
Authors: Weller Mark , Rourke Jonathan , Overton Tina , Armstrong Fraser
Published: September 2023

This chapter focuses on the Group 17 elements: fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, and astatine which are known as the halogens, from the Greek for salt giver. The discussion highlights their systematic features and their compounds with oxygen and discusses the interhalogens. It explores the group's occurrence, recovery, and uses, and looks at the elements' molecular structure and properties. The chapter also tackles reactivity trends as well as pseudohalogens. Then, it examines the properties of fluorine compounds, interhalogens, and halogen oxides. Furthermore, the chapter discusses oxoacids and oxoanions, including the thermodynamic aspects and the trends in rates of oxoanion redox reactions. It also looks at the redox properties of individual oxidation states before finally examining fluorocarbons.
Green chemistry
Authors: Weller Mark , Rourke Jonathan , Overton Tina , Armstrong Fraser
Published: September 2023

This chapter introduces the concepts of green chemistry and highlights the important role that inorganic chemistry is playing in promoting environmentally sustainable technologies in the industry. Acknowledging that sustainable development has become the cultural, scientific, and technical imperative of the twenty first century, the chapter reviews the guiding principles around which green chemistry is practised. These principles cover issues from the efficiency of reactions, waste production, seeking alternate and safer solvents, to designing for less hazardous by-products and products and inherently safer processes. The discussion in this chapter also emphasizes the important role of some inorganic compounds in facilitating greener processes.
Haemopoietic Diseases 1: Leukaemias
Authors: Ryland Georgina , Blombery Piers
Published: September 2023

This chapter focuses on leukaemia. It defines leukaemia as the group of cancers characterized by an increased number of malignant haematopoietic cells in the peripheral blood and/or bone marrow. The chapter distinguishes between leukaemia and lymphoma, as well as between acute leukaemia and chronic leukaemia. It explores the role of genomics in leukaemia risk stratification in line with the implications for prognosis. Additionally, it considers how the principles of B-cell and T-cell cell receptor clonality analysis can be used to provide a diagnosis of malignancy. The chapter also notes various molecular methods for monitoring minimal residual disease in haematological malignancies.
Breast Cancer
Authors: Falzon Mary , Borg Elaine , Saetta Alexandra
Published: September 2023

This chapter focuses on breast cancer, which is the most commonly diagnosed cancer among women in the UK. The chapter distinguishes between two types of breast cancer: non-invasive breast cancer and invasive breast cancer. It explores the changes in how breast cancer is diagnosed and treated and highlights how the expression of hormone and HER2 receptors is linked to targeted therapy and increased survival. Additionally, the chapter notes the role of molecular profiling in the use of chemotherapy and the process of making informed treatment decisions. It also looks at why immunotherapy may be beneficial against triple-negative breast cancers that are difficult to treat with conventional therapies.
Prenatal and Neonatal Testing
Authors: Brasted-Pike Claire V. S.
Published: September 2023

This chapter explains prenatal and neonatal testing. It covers the established and developing techniques for taking prenatal and neonatal patient samples alongside their potential risks. The chapter then considers the major biochemical, protein-based, and DNA-based methods for analysing prenatal and neonatal patient samples. The chapter explores the possible prenatal and neonatal diagnoses of a range of genetic diseases and congenital conditions. It also includes the ethical considerations that are of great importance in the context of prenatal and neonatal testing, especially with regard to respecting a person's rights and beliefs. It particularly highlights the ethics of elective abortion and the relationship between prenatal testing and disability rights.
Distinguishable and indistinguishable particles
Authors: Maczek Andrew , Meijer Anthony
Published: September 2023

This chapter explains the feasible link between the molecular partition function (q) and the canonical partition function (Q) in terms of distinguishable and indistinguishable particles. It highlights that the accessibility of quantum states is reflected by the magnitude of q. Particles of different types or with solid states are referred to as intrinsically distinguishable, such as helium atoms. However, particles violating Heisenberg's uncertainty principle are intrinsically indistinguishable in that the particles' tracks cannot be followed with complete certainty through even the simplest of collisions. The chapter states that the accessibility of quantum states collapses dramatically at very low temperatures. This means that it might be necessary to drop Maxwell–Boltzmann statistics in favour of quantum statistics.
Stereochemistry and Drug Action
Authors: Anderson Rosaleen J. , Todd Adam , Ashton Mark , Molyneux Lauren
Published: September 2023

This chapter mentions the forms of common analgesic ibuprofen, which have mostly identical physical properties but have three-dimensional shapes that are different. The three-dimensional shape of biological molecules and drugs is profoundly important for their action. The chapter introduces the concepts of isomerism, structure, and shape, particularly with reference to the activity of drugs and relates strongly to hybridization and bonding. The chapter defines the term ‘isomerism’, which is used to describe the ways in which molecules can have identical compositions in terms of carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen. However, differences in their patterns of bonding or conformation may lead to dramatically different three-dimensional shapes. There are many drugs used in medicine which exhibit isomerism and it is essential to have a good understanding of this.
The Carbonyl Group and its Chemistry
Authors: Ingram Matthew
Published: September 2023

This chapter discusses the nature of the carbonyl group and the chemistry it can undergo. The chemistry of the carbonyl group can be found in lots of situations: in the body, in the environment, in manufacturing, and in pharmaceutical applications. At the heart of the chemistry of the carbonyl group is the carbonyl bond, a double bond comprising one σ and one π bond, which joins carbon and oxygen. The chapter points out the difference in electronegativity between carbon and oxygen, citing a dipole moment that exists between the two atoms. The carbonyl group is central to pharmaceutical chemistry and is present in many drug molecules and is present in many different types of compound.
Introduction to Aromatic Chemistry
Authors: Southern Mike
Published: September 2023

This chapter refers to aspirin, paracetamol, salbutamol, and chloramphenicol, which are members of a class of organic molecules known as aromatic compounds. The chemistry of aromatic compounds started with the discovery of benzene by Michael Faraday in 1825. The chapter recounts the precise structure of benzene, noting that it was not until 1865 that the correct structure was first described by August Kekulé. The chapter highlights the importance of aromatic chemistry, which was the driving force behind the dyestuff industry in the mid- to late 1800s. In the intervening years, aromatic compounds have been adopted by the pharmaceutical industry and feature heavily in lists of the best-selling drugs.
Nucleic Acids
Authors: White Alex , Evans Andrew
Published: September 2023

This chapter discusses the varied roles of molecules and the classes of cells that form the basis of all life. It presents information on the basic structure and functions of cells and considers the molecules involved in their structure and function. The chapter outlines the chemistry of nucleic acids, which are larger than most molecules and are often referred to as macromolecules. It then reviews the principles of chemistry that can be applied to the study of these molecules to help understand their functions in the cells of a human body. In addition, the involvement of nucleic acids in the genetic code is explored. The chapter covers how it is stored, used, protected, repaired, and passed from generation to generation.
Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism and Excretion
Authors: Rostron Chris
Published: September 2023

This chapter discusses the effectiveness of a drug on the physiological processes within the body, which is determined by its ability to enter the body, reach its intended target, and remain in the body for as long as is necessary for it to achieve its desired effect. It refers to drugs that are xenobiotics, which prevents them from entering the body and removes them when they do get inside the body. The chapter examines a vital part of drug design and development which is dedicated to overcoming or exploiting these mechanisms, known as the science of pharmacokinetics. This is commonly divided into absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion. The chapter provides an overview of the science of pharmacokinetics in order to explain the basic concepts.
Microbes as Agents of Infectious Disease
Authors: Scott Jon , Cameron Gus , Goodenough Anne , Hawkins Dawn , Koenig Jenny , Luck Martin , Papachristodoulou Despo , Snape Alison , Yeoman Kay , Goodwin Mark
Published: September 2023

This chapter considers microbes as agents of infectious disease. It discusses how a range of microbial pathogens from bacteria, fungi, and protozoa invade organisms and produce toxins. All plants are susceptible to disease, which can be caused by a range of different organisms, but fungi cause the most damage. Protozoan diseases impact billions of people globally and are typically associated with deprived areas and poor sanitation. The chapter then explains how plants can prevent infection from rots and wilts by the use of structural barriers and the production of toxins. It details the establishment of infection within the host, citing how parasites need nutrients to grow and reproduce.
Digestive System
Authors: Scott Jon , Cameron Gus , Goodenough Anne , Hawkins Dawn , Koenig Jenny , Luck Martin , Papachristodoulou Despo , Snape Alison , Yeoman Kay , Goodwin Mark
Published: September 2023

This chapter argues that the digestive system is one of the most important systems of the human body. The digestive system aims to break down complex molecules into smaller ones in an effort for them to be absorbed in the bloodstream to provide nutrients for the body. The digestive tract produces a range of enzymes that are responsible for the digestion of macronutrients. The chapter details the histology and regulation of the digestive tract with reference to its four main layers: mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa, and serosa. It shows how the nervous and endocrine systems contribute to the control of the digestive tract.
Reproduction and Development
Authors: Scott Jon , Cameron Gus , Goodenough Anne , Hawkins Dawn , Koenig Jenny , Luck Martin , Papachristodoulou Despo , Snape Alison , Yeoman Kay , Goodwin Mark
Published: September 2023

This chapter focuses on the reproduction and development of plants and animals. The continuity of life on Earth depends on organisms being able to reproduce successfully with their respective reproductive strategies which have evolved under pressure. The chapter looks at the process of reproduction and its nuances with sex. Every organism alive today is a descendant of a previous generation, with ancestors spanning back across the ages. The parameters of fecundity and fertility measure the reproductive performance of organisms at different levels. The chapter considers the advantages and disadvantages of asexual and sexual strategies for reproduction, acknowledging that organisms may alternate between strategies depending on the stage of their life cycles.
Fundamental Concepts
Authors: Scott Jon , Cameron Gus , Goodenough Anne , Hawkins Dawn , Koenig Jenny , Luck Martin , Papachristodoulou Despo , Snape Alison , Yeoman Kay , Goodwin Mark
Published: September 2023

This chapter expounds on the correlation between the concepts of ecology, evolution, species, and speciation. It explores how ecologists examine current relationships between species and the environment in which they live. The field of eco-evolutionary dynamics examines the interactions between the evolutionary change of individuals and ecological processes at population, community, and ecosystem levels. The chapter cites how living systems can be divided into levels of ecological complexity from the gene to the biosphere. It explains that evolutionary fitness, on the other hand, is the genetic contribution of one individual to the next generation relative to the other members of the population.
Muscle and Movement
Authors: Scott Jon , Cameron Gus , Goodenough Anne , Hawkins Dawn , Koenig Jenny , Luck Martin , Papachristodoulou Despo , Snape Alison , Yeoman Kay , Goodwin Mark
Published: September 2023

This chapter examines the structure and organization of skeletal muscle. Muscles range from the very small, high-precision muscles that control eyeball movements to the very powerful thigh muscles that power people in walking and running. Thus, muscle types are distinguishable based on their appearance under a microscope and the ability to voluntarily contract a muscle. Skeletal and cardiac muscles are identified as striated because of the ordered repeating arrangement of the contractile units within the cells. The chapter looks into the control and features of the motor system and how basal ganglia, cerebellum, and motor cortical areas play key roles in movement planning.
Exercise Physiology
Authors: Scott Jon , Cameron Gus , Goodenough Anne , Hawkins Dawn , Koenig Jenny , Luck Martin , Papachristodoulou Despo , Snape Alison , Yeoman Kay , Goodwin Mark
Published: September 2023

This chapter considers the effects of exercise on the cardiovascular and respiratory systems. During exercise, blood flow is redistributed to active tissue from other systems, which may affect their function. Thus, exercise physiology involves studying the effect of exercise, with or without the addition of other stressors, on systems, organs, and tissues. Moreover, understanding the effects of exercise on physiological function can result in strategies to enhance adaptation to an exercise stimulus and lead to further improvements in function. The chapter cites the critical significance of the regulation of blood pH via the integrated response of buffering systems, the respiratory system, and the renal system to ensure normal physiological function.
Chromosome segregation
Authors: Craig Nancy L , Green Rachel , Greider Carol , Storz Gisela , Wolberger Cynthia , Cohen-Fix Orna
Published: September 2023

This chapter assesses the mechanism and regulation of chromosome segregation in mitosis and meiosis of eukaryotes, as well as in bacteria. In all cases, chromosomes attach to a segregation apparatus, which separates the chromosomes to form two identical copies of the genome. The one overarching principle of chromosome segregation is that it must be accurate—cells must receive one, and only one, copy of each chromosome. Deviation from this rule will have dire consequences—an abnormal number of chromosomes can lead to severe cellular dysfunction or even cell death. Mitosis includes five main steps: prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. It concludes at cytokinesis, when the parent cell divides. Chromosomes are segregated by the spindle apparatus, a bipolar structure made of microtubules. Meanwhile, meiosis is the chromosome segregation process that generates gametes.
Regulation of transcription
Authors: Craig Nancy L , Green Rachel , Greider Carol , Storz Gisela , Wolberger Cynthia , Cohen-Fix Orna
Published: September 2023

This chapter describes the regulation of transcription. A variety of mechanisms are used to repress or activate transcription initiation in bacteria. Transcription can be repressed by blocking the binding of RNA polymerase (Trp repressor, cI). Transcription can be activated by recruiting the polymerase holoenzyme (CAP), stimulating open complex formation (CAP, NtrC), or altering the structure of promoter DNA (MerR). Meanwhile, eukaryotic genes are regulated by co-activator and co-repressor complexes, which are recruited to the DNA by sequence-specific DNA-binding proteins. These complexes typically contain enzymes that reposition nucleosomes or that add or remove post-translational modifications from histones and other transcription factors. The expression of some bacterial and eukaryotic genes is regulated by controlling transcription elongation or termination. The chapter then considers the concept of gene silencing.
Cellular responses to DNA damage
Authors: Craig Nancy L , Green Rachel , Greider Carol , Storz Gisela , Wolberger Cynthia , Cohen-Fix Orna
Published: September 2023

This chapter discusses cellular responses to DNA damage. The preservation of genetic information from one generation to the next requires the DNA sequence of the cell's genome to be maintained without alteration. Yet the integrity of the DNA sequence is under constant threat of damage as a result of errors in normal cellular processes such as DNA replication and transcription, and from reactive metabolites and environmental agents. Such DNA damage can result in changes in base sequence or even in chromosome structure. The effects of DNA damage are greatly reduced by specialized processes of DNA repair. This chapter looks at post-replication mismatch repair, repair of DNA damage by direct reversal, repair of DNA damage by base excision repair, nucleotide excision repair of bulky lesions, and translesion DNA synthesis. It also considers the DNA damage response in bacteria and in eukaryotes, and DNA damage and cell death in mammalian cells.
Electrochemistry
Authors: Browne Wesley R.
Published: September 2023

Electrochemistry starts by introducing the topic. It then looks at the electrochemical cell. The next chapter looks at potentials, interfaces, electrodes, and mass transport. There follows a chapter covering heterogeneous electron transfer and the Tafel equation. The chapter that follows by looking at dynamic electrochemical techniques. The text ends with a chapter on batteries, fuel cells, and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy.
Chemistry for the Biosciences
Authors: Crowe Jonathan , Bradshaw Tony
Published: September 2023

Chemistry for the Biosciences explores all of the essential chemical concepts that students of biology need to know and understand. It starts by looking at atoms as the foundations for life, and how chemical bonding brings together atoms to form molecules and compounds. It also considers the interactions that operate between molecules, and what the chemical and biological implications of these interactions are. After considering a range of quantitative concepts relevant to the study of biology – moles, concentrations, and dilutions – it discusses the molecular basis of organic chemistry by considering hydrocarbons and functional groups. The text moves on to consider isomerism, molecular shape and structure, and the structure and function of key biological macromolecules. After explaining why metals have an important role in biological systems, it goes on to explore what happens during chemical reactions, and introduces oxidation, and reduction. It then explores concepts from the field of physical chemistry that are vital our understanding of life: energy, equilibria, and kinetics. After exploring acids, bases and buffers and their importance to biological systems, it concludes with a review of how we can use chemical analysis to better understand biological molecules.
Hydrocarbons: the framework of life
Authors: Crowe Jonathan , Bradshaw Tony
Published: September 2023

This chapter introduces organic chemistry, the chemistry of carbon and carbon-containing compounds. Carbon has an important structural role in organic compounds because of its high valency. Organic compounds have a simple hydrocarbon framework, to which are attached more specialized groups of atoms. The chapter then looks at the three different types of hydrocarbon: alkanes, which contain only single carbon–carbon bonds; alkenes, which contain at least one double carbon–carbon bond; and alkynes, which contain at least one triple carbon–carbon bond. A special hydrocarbon group is the aryl group, which is derived from an aromatic hydrocarbon by the removal of one or more hydrogen atoms. Finally, the chapter explores the physical and chemical properties of the hydrocarbons.
Metals in biology: life beyond carbon
Authors: Crowe Jonathan , Bradshaw Tony
Published: September 2023

This chapter highlights the vital role metals play in making life possible—from enabling essential messages to be passed between cells, to enabling proteins to adopt the right structure and function in the way that they should. Metals exhibit metallic bonding, which gives them high electrical conductivity; metalloids exhibit characteristics that fall part-way between the metals and non-metals. The metals sodium and potassium are essential to the transmission of nerve impulses by neurons. Calcium (in the form of calcium phosphate) is also a key component of bones in which it is blended with the protein collagen. The chapter then assesses how metals contribute to the structure and function of proteins, looking at metalloproteins. It also considers metals in cell metabolism, identifying the role of metals in biochemical reactions and energy transduction, and of trace metals in biology.
Equilibria: how far do reactions go?
Authors: Crowe Jonathan , Bradshaw Tony
Published: September 2023

This chapter focuses on equilibrium reactions, which can proceed in both forward and reverse directions simultaneously. At equilibrium, the rates of the forward and back reactions are equal: they continue to proceed, but there is no overall change in the system—this is called dynamic equilibrium. The relative position of an equilibrium reaction when equilibrium has been reached is represented by an equilibrium constant. The chapter explains the reaction quotient, before looking at binding reactions and how they represent a type of equilibrium reaction. When an equilibrium is perturbed, the system acts to counteract the change so that a state of equilibrium is re-established. There are three key ways to perturb an equilibrium: by changing the concentration of species present, changing the temperature, or changing the pressure. Finally, the chapter considers the impact of free energy on chemical equilibria.
Academic integrity and avoiding plagiarism
Authors: Stuart Johnson , Jon Scott
Published: September 2023

This chapter explains academic integrity and plagiarism, which is a failure of academic integrity and is an increasing problem. It begins by defining in more detail what plagiarism is. It then looks at some of the reasons students give for plagiarizing in their work. The chapter then outlines a method to avoid plagiarism and highlights some of the many good reasons for doing so. It is important to note that, although most forms of plagiarism probably occur in the context of essays and practical reports, it is possible to plagiarize in any form of communication. As such, this chapter argues that the study skills required to help avoid plagiarism in writing are essential to success in every area of academic work.
Making yourself employable
Authors: Stuart Johnson , Jon Scott
Published: September 2023

This chapter offers advice on how to become employable. Becoming employable is a vital part of a degree. As such, it is essential to thinking about employability from the beginning of the degree, rather than at the end, so that the student can enhance employability as they go along. While getting a good degree is an important part of finding a good job, it represents only a fraction of what employers look for in potential candidates. Since employers can easily find out about a student’s academic qualifications, the selection process is weighted towards finding out the skills, experience, and attributes the student can offer an employer in addition to their academic qualifications. This chapter shows that gaining experience, making contact with employers, and selling their skills are essential elements for becoming more employable.
Organic molecules: shapes, sizes, and strain
Authors: Robinson Michael J.T.
Published: September 2023

This chapter defines organic stereochemistry as the study of the relationships between the three-dimensional structures and properties of organic molecules and compounds. The chapter sheds light on the
description
of the shapes of simple organic molecules, and the parameters (bond lengths and angles, torsion angles, and van der Waals radii) used to characterize them. The chapter then proceeds with methods for representing three-dimensional structures in two dimensions, which can be supplemented by molecular models and, increasingly, computer graphics. The chapter also displays an account of
explanations
of such shapes, which provides a framework for describing the ‘shapes’ of C atoms in transient species and of heteroatoms in organic compounds. Ultimately, the chapter briefly examines the symmetry of finite molecules, with special emphasis on chiral and achiral molecules. It then follows this up with a discussion on ‘strained’ organic molecules.
Electronic structure of atoms and the implications for magnetism
Authors: Orchard A. F.
Published: September 2023

This chapter reviews the properties of electron orbiting in atoms, which are determined though the solution of the appropriate Schrödinger wave equation. It examines the solution of the Schrödinger equation for the hydrogen atom wherein the position of the electron in relation to the nucleus is defined in terms of polar coordinates rather than cartesian. It also talks about the use of orbital approximation to separate radial and angular equations. Each electron is assumed to move in an average potential due to other electrons. The chapter discusses the use of polar coordinates for solving the wave equation for the angular motion, while cartesian coordinates provide better visualization of wave-functions. It explains how an electron displays orbital angular momentum about a specified axis when it has a degenerate partner.
Bonding
Authors: Winter Mark J. , Andrew John E.
Published: September 2023

This chapter examines bonding, which is a consequence of electrostatic interactions between positively charged nuclei and negatively charged electrons. The type of bonding that holds atoms together in a metal, such as iron, is called metallic bonding. Compounds such as salt (sodium chloride) consist of lattices of anions and cations held together via electrostatic forces—this is ionic bonding. Meanwhile, compounds such as oxygen and nitrogen, in the air that we breathe, are held together by shared-electron bonds—this is covalent bonding. Most compounds are best described as being somewhere between purely covalent and purely ionic in nature. The chapter then looks at the Lewis model of bonding, van der Waals forces, and the concept of the oxidation state.
p-Block elements
Authors: Winter Mark J. , Andrew John E.
Published: September 2023

This chapter assesses p-block elements, which are elements whose atoms have their last electron placed into a p subshell. They start with the Group 13 elements and conclude with the noble gas (Group 18) elements, at which point the final electron completes the p level. The chapter begins by explaining the trends across the periodic table: the p-block elements to the bottom left are metallic while those to the top right are non-metallic. A diagonal set of elements possess intermediate characteristics and are termed metalloids. The chapter then looks at ionic size and considers trends in the formulae of halides and oxides and in the properties of hydrides. It also studies the shapes of p-block molecules before detailing Group 13—18 elements. For p-block compounds, the Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) method uses a simple set of electron accounting rules to carry out the prediction of the shapes of molecules.
d-Block elements
Authors: Winter Mark J. , Andrew John E.
Published: September 2023

This chapter addresses the d block elements, which refers to the 30 elements contained in the 10 columns (3—12) in the periodic table. It includes the elements zinc, cadmium, and mercury, some properties of which it is logically appropriate to include in a discussion of transition metal chemistry. The term ‘transition metal’ is normally associated with those elements that possess a d sublevel that is partially filled with electrons in either its atom or a common oxidation state. Although d block metals are similar in many ways to those of the s and p-blocks, they have a much greater tendency to display variable oxidation states. The chapter then looks at transitional elements and coloured compounds, aqua complexes, and ligands. It also considers how standard electrode potentials may be used to predict the course of redox reactions, before studying catalytic action and outlining some important d block compounds.
The elementary reaction steps
Authors: Perkins John
Published: September 2023

This chapter analyzes the reactions of compounds that yield products which may be isolated and purified and involve radicals, outlining individual reaction steps in which the radicals may participate. It focuses on the variety of elementary unit steps, such as radical addition and atom-transfer. It also discusses essential unit steps with interactions between two radicals, such as halt chain reactions by giving non-radical products. The chapter describes the interaction of two radicals that form non-radical products. The chapter cites two possible processes: radical coupling and disproportionation. It examines the interaction between ethyl and methyl, noting that the term dimerisation is strictly restricted to the coupling of two identical radicals.
Factors influencing the chemical shift and coupling constants
Authors: Iggo Jonathan A. , Luzyanin Konstantin V.
Published: September 2023

This chapter surveys the chemical factors that influence the chemical shift and the magnitude of coupling constants. Shielding is influenced by the fields generated by circulation of ground state electrons around the nucleus (diamagnetic term) and by electrons mixed in from excited states (the paramagnetic term). The diamagnetic contribution is usually small and dominates for light elements, resulting in (usually) small chemical shift ranges for these elements. The paramagnetic term dominates for heavier elements and is often large, resulting in large chemical shift ranges for these elements. The chemical shift is influenced by many, often competing factors, including oxidation state, electronegativity, coordination number, and bonding to other atoms. Meanwhile, scalar coupling constants are influenced by similar factors and by geometric factors, particularly interbond and dihedral angles. If all other factors are kept constant, scalar couplings between different isotopes of the same elements scale with gyromagnetic ratio.
Polarization transfer and 2-D NMR spectroscopy
Authors: Iggo Jonathan A. , Luzyanin Konstantin V.
Published: September 2023

This chapter evaluates polarization transfer and 2-D NMR spectroscopy. Polarization transfer, the exchange of excitation between spins, can be used to establish connectivity through scalar coupling interactions, molecular conformation through the nuclear Overhauser effect, and to study exchange. There are many 2-D experiments available, of which the most useful to the inorganic chemist are: correlation spectroscopy (COSY), heteronuclear correlation spectroscopies (HMQC, HSQC, and HMBC), and nuclear Overhauser effect spectroscopy (NOESY and HOESY). Interpretation of 2-D spectra can at first seem challenging, but with a little practice, becomes straightforward in most cases. Meanwhile, hyperpolarization refers to techniques such as DNP, OPNMR, or use of para-hydrogen, in which highly polarized spins—i.e. spins in which the population difference between NMR energy levels has been greatly increased by some physical or chemical process—are introduced into the molecule before the NMR experiment, resulting in greatly enhanced NMR signals.
Foundations of Science Mathematics
Authors: Sivia D.S. , Rhodes J.L. , Rawlings S.G.
Published: September 2023

Foundations of Science Mathematics bridges the gap between school and university, and spans covers a large range of topics, from basic arithmetic and algebra to calculus, Fourier transforms, and elementary data analysis. Problems and worked solutions are presented in an informal and readable tutorial style, making the text accessible to the novice, while its concise nature ensures that it is a useful reference for the experienced professional. Mathematics plays a key part in every quantitative and theoretical study, and is taught to all science and engineering students to varying degrees at college and university level. This text spans a large range of topics, from basic arithmetic and algebra to calculus and Fourier transforms and bridges the gap between school and university. Other topics covered included are curves, graphs, differentiation, integration, trigonometry, vectors, matrices, linear integrals, data analysis, and Taylor series.
Taylor series
Authors: Sivia D.S. , Rhodes J.L. , Rawlings S.G.
Published: September 2023

This chapter focuses on the Taylor series. It points out that, Wwhen dealing with a complicated function, it can be useful to approximate the functionit with one of a simpler form. While the latter may not represent a complete and accurate description of the situation at hand, it frequently provides the only means of making analytical progress. There are many approximations that could be used, of course, but it is the one that captures the salient features that is most helpful. The chapter then looks at derivation of the Taylor series before providing some common examples. It also considers the radius of convergence, l’Hôpital’s rule, and the Newton-Raphson algorithm.
Complex numbers
Authors: Sivia D.S. , Rhodes J.L. , Rawlings S.G.
Published: September 2023

This chapter assesses complex numbers. It explains that Iif any number, integer or fraction, positive or negative, is multiplied by itself, then the result is always greater than, or equal to, zero. Although the construct of imaginary numbers appears arbitrary, complex numbers turn out to be very useful for tackling many real-life problems. The chapter then looks at basic algebra and complex numbers, before considering the Argand diagram, the imaginary exponential, and roots and logarithms. It also studies de Moivre's theorem and hyperbolic functions. The hyperbolic functions are related to the sines, cosines, and so on, of imaginary angles. The derivatives, and integrals, of hyperbolic functions are also readily ascertained by exploiting the convenient differential properties of the exponential function.
Vectors
Authors: Sivia D.S. , Rhodes J.L. , Rawlings S.G.
Published: September 2023

This chapter addresses vectors, which are defined by both a magnitude (or modulus), a positive number, normally with an associated unit, and a direction in space. Many physical quantities, such as position and velocity, are vectors which must be manipulated in slightly different ways to scalars like mass, length, and time. The chapter then looks at the Cartesian coordinate system, before considering the addition, subtraction, and scalar multiplication of vectors. It also studies scalar and vector products, as well as scalar triple and vector triple products. Finally, the chapter discusses polar coordinates, examining the two commonly used generalizations of the polar formulation when working in three dimensions.
Multiple integrals
Authors: Sivia D.S. , Rhodes J.L. , Rawlings S.G.
Published: September 2023

This chapter highlights multiple integrals. It begins by presenting a couple of physical examples of multiple integrals, including double integrals which can also be called surface integrals. As a concrete example of how to calculate multiple integrals, the chapter considers a very easy case, namely, working out the formula for the area of a right-angled triangle. This illustrates that (for a well-behaved function) the order of integration in a multiple integral does not matter, and that it can be interchanged. The chapter then looks at the choice of coordinates. Multiple integrals, like many other mathematical operations, become much simpler if they are formulated in a coordinate system which matches the geometry of the problem.
Development of the nervous system
Authors: Wolpert Lewis , Tickle Cheryll , Arias Alfonso Martinez , Lawrence Peter , Locke James
Published: September 2023

This chapter discusses the development of the nervous system. It recognizes the complexity of the nervous system in comparison to all the organ systems in the animal embryo. Moreover, the chapter mentions the divide between the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS). It explores the different types and connections of neurons. In addition, the chapter explains how the nervous system is superficially similar to other developmental systems, except that it involves the acquisition of individual cell identities. It looks into how neural activity plays a major role in refining connections, such as those between the eye and the brain.
Plant development
Authors: Wolpert Lewis , Tickle Cheryll , Arias Alfonso Martinez , Lawrence Peter , Locke James
Published: September 2023

This chapter explores the development of plants. It expounds on how a plant’s architecture is the result of patterns of oriented cell divisions with a combination of positional signals and intercellular communication. Moreover, the chapter discusses cytoplasmic channels interconnecting plant cells. It notes the regeneration of an isolated somatic cell, the presence of relatively rigid walls, and the absence of any cell migration as distinctive features of plant development. The chapter discusses the early stages of plant development, in which involving both asymmetric cell division and cell-cell interactions are involved in line with patterning the body plan and the specificity of the shoot and root meristems., Twhile these meristems give rise to all the organs of the plant: stems, leaves, flowers, and roots.
Inferring and estimating
Authors: Hawkins Dawn
Published: September 2023

This chapter examines general issues relating to inferential statistics. It begins by explaining the need for, and the role of, probability in inferential statistics. Inferential statistics are so named because they allow us to infer something about populations from samples. Knowing something about populations allows us to assess whether patterns apparent in samples are just a product of sample error or not. There are two main areas of inferential statistics: estimation and null hypothesis significance testing (NHST). In estimation, scientists use descriptive statistics (which describe samples) to estimate parameters (which describe populations). Meanwhile, scientists use NHST, such as a t-test, to decide whether the results have been obtained by chance alone. The chapter then describes the use, calculation, and reporting of standard error and confidence intervals of the mean before offering guidance on using errorplots to compare samples.