Teaching and Learning Guide for: Broadening the study of the Self: Integrating the Study of Personal Identity and Cultural Identity
Authors: Schwartz S. J. , Zamboanga B. L. , Weisskirch R. S. 
Published: March 2009

Author's Introduction

Our article outlines the need to bring together the literatures on personal and cultural identity – which have thus far been disconnected from one another. As one develops a sense of personal identity (e.g., goals, values, and beliefs), does one also develop a sense of cultural identity (e.g., how the individual and the group are prioritized, as well as attachment to and affiliation with one's ethnic, cultural, and national group)?

This question is becoming increasingly important as Western countries become more and more diverse and multicultural, and as the world becomes more and more international and global. Individuals of European descent in the United States, Canada, Western Europe, Australia, and New Zealand, for example, are no longer insulated from other cultural streams. A generation ago, White Americans, for example, held dominion over the United States and over what ‘American culture’ was. With the advent of mass immigration of ethnic and cultural minorities, as well as globalizing technologies such as email, video conferencing, instant messaging, and virtual chatrooms, we are no longer insulated by our borders. Each of us is a citizen of the world, and this is becoming truer and truer over time.

Thus, cultural identity and personal identity are increasingly likely to be related – and the ways in which they influence one another needs to be studied. How does my cultural position in my society (and in the world) influence who I am as a person? How do my cultural beliefs and worldviews influence my personal goals, values, and beliefs?

Author Recommends

Côté, James E., and Levine, Charles G. (2002). Identity formation, agency and culture: A social psychological synthesis. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

This book discusses personal identity within the context of culture, and it clearly sets the stage for a discussion of how personal identity is affected by cultural processes.

Arnett, Jeffrey Jensen. (2002). The psychology of globalization. American Psychologist, 57, 774–783.

This article discusses the ways in which globalization affects the personal and cultural identities of people around the world. In particular, the article stresses that individuals will be exposed to various cultural streams even if they never leave their countries of origin and do not come into direct contact with people from other parts of the world. The mass exportation of Western television programs, music, dress styles, fashion, and beliefs is leading people to ‘acculturate’ to Western values and behaviors.

Bosma, Harke A., and Kunnen, E. Saskia. (2001). Determinants and mechanisms in ego identity development: A review and synthesis. Developmental Review, 21, 39–66.

This article reviews the ways in which personal identity is developed in ‘individualist’ and ‘collectivist’ contexts. In more individualistic contexts, personal identity is developed through active exploration of different alternatives, commitment to one or more of these, and an in‐depth evaluation of the commitment that has been made. In more collectivistic contexts, personal identity is developed through identification with the goals, values, and beliefs of significant others.

This article was one of the first to address personal identity more broadly than through a Western lens.

Matsumoto, David. (2003). The discrepancy between consensual‐level culture and individual‐level culture. Culture and Psychology, 9, 89–95.

This article argues that individualism and collectivism (and related constructs such as independence and interdependence) operate differently at the between‐individual level than at the between‐culture level. When studying the interface between personal identity and cultural identity, only individual‐level conceptions of cultural identity should be used. National‐level differences in cultural identity constructs tend to be fairly small – suggesting that most of the differences are between individual people.

Schwartz, Seth J., Luyckx, Koen, and Vignoles, Vivian L. (editors, forthcoming). Handbook of identity theory and research. New York, NY: Springer.

This forthcoming handbook will consist of state‐of‐the‐art summaries and reviews from some of the leading identity scholars in the world. Chapters will focus on many different domains of identity, including personal and cultural identity but also including national, religious/spiritual, sexual, gender, social, and vocational identity. The book will be an important resource both for students and for professors interested in the field of identity.

Sample Syllabus

Please add all or a portion of a syllabus that might adopt your article and present it in a broader context to the classroom.

Eg. Topics for Lecture & Discussion

Week 1 – Overview (What is Identity)

Cote, James E. 1996. Sociological perspectives on identity formation: The culture‐identity link and identity capital. Journal of Adolescence. 19: 417–428.

A framework for understanding identity formation in an interdisciplinary fashion by addressing the relationship between culture and identity.

Grotevant, Harold D. 1987. Toward a process model of identity formation. Journal of Adolescent Research. 2: 203–222.

Proposes a model for conceptualizing identity formation that is developmental, contextual and life‐span in scope. Four major components are as follows: individual characteristics, contexts of development, identity process in specific domains, and interdependencies among the identity domains.

Weeks 2–4 Neo‐Eriksonian Identity Perspectives (Identity Status, Identity Style, Et Cetera)

Berzonsky, Michael D. 1989. Identity style: Conceptualization and measurement. Journal of Adolescent Research. 4: 268–282.

A conceptualization of three styles of personal problem solving and decision making – and information orientation that actively seeks and evaluates information, a normative orientation that focuses on internalized conventions, and a diffuse orientation that avoids action until affective cues dictate behavioral reactions. This study measures a validity of a self‐report measure of these styles.

Meeus, Wim. 1996. Toward a psychosocial analysis of adolescent identity: An evaluation of the epigenetic theory (Erikson) and the identity status model (Marcia). Hurrelmann, Klaus (Ed.); Hamilton, Stephen F (Ed). (1996). Social problems and social contexts in adolescence: Perspectives across boundaries. (pp. 83–104). xiv, 299 pp. Hawthorne, NY: Aldine de Gruyter.

This chapter discusses Erikson's identity theory and Marcia's identity status model, with application to adolescent identity. The author evaluates their empirical validity.

Weeks 5–7 Social Identity Perspectives

Worchel, Stephen; Morales, J. Francisco; Paez, Dario; Deschamps, Jean‐Claude (Eds.). 1998. Social identity: International perspectives. Social identity: International perspectives. xix, 263 pp. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.

This books brings together the latest empirical and theoretical findings in the field of social identity and social categorization. Many international contributors explore a range of psychosocial phenomena: inter‐group discrimination, influence, group polarization, collective behaviour, etc.

Tyler, Tom; Dawes, Robyn M. 1993. Fairness in groups: Comparing the self‐interest and social identity perspectives. In: Mellers, Barbara A; Baron, Jonathan (Eds.). Psychological perspectives on justice: Theory and applications. (pp. 87–108). x, 348 pp. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

This chapter addresses questions of fairness, egoism, justice, cooperation in social dilemmas and how the culture evaluates individual actions and social procedures in these terms. Can these attitudinal and behavioural constraints be explained in terms of egoistic incentives?

Postmes, Tom; Jetten, Jolanda (Eds.). 2006. Individuality and the group: Advances in social identity. Individuality and the group: Advances in social identity. vi, 286 pp. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.

Perspectives on social identity have been applied to a diverse array of topics and domains. This has prompted a re‐thinking of the relationship between personal identity and social identity. This book brings together an international selection of prominent researchers and the forefront of this development.

Week 8 Religious/Spiritual Identity

Griffith, Brian A; Griggs, Julie C. 2001. Religious identity status as a model to understand, assess, and interact with client spirituality. Counseling and Values. 46: 14–24.

Offers a conceptual framework for understanding, assessing and discussing spirituality and religion. A description of each religious identity status and a case study that illustrates the 4 categories presented.

King, Pamela Ebstyne. 2003. Religion and identity: The role of ideological, social, and spiritual contexts. Applied Developmental Science. 7: 197–204.

There is a positive relationship between religion and identity among adolescents. This paper presents a conceptual framework for identity exploration through ideological, social, and spiritual contexts.

Week 9 Ethnic/Cultural Identity

Arriagada, Paula Andrea. 2008. In search of an identity in young adulthood: Ethnic self‐identification among children of immigrants. Dissertation Abstracts International Section A: Humanities and Social Sciences. 68: 3162.

This paper addresses assimilation, as well as ethnic self‐identification of children of immigrants. It seeks to explain why adolescents change their identities as they enter young adulthood, as well as the actual pattern of change form one identity to another.

Schwartz, Seth J; Zamboanga, Byron L; Rodriguez, Liliana; Wang, Sherry C. 2007. The structure of cultural identity in an ethnically diverse sample of emerging adults. Basic and Applied Social Psychology. 29: 159–173.

This study examines the structure of cultural identity in the United States. Three dimensions of cultural identity emerge: American‐culture identity, heritage‐culture identity, and biculturalism.

Week 10 National Identity/Nationalism

Kelman, Herbert C. 1997. Nationalism, patriotism, and national identity: Social‐psychological dimensions. In: Bar‐Tal, Daniel; Staub, Ervin (Eds.). Patriotism: In the lives of individuals and nations. (pp. 165–189). xv, 336 pp. Chicago, IL: Nelson‐Hall Publishers.

This chapter examines the characteristics and assumptions of nationalist ideology and some of the social‐psychological forces that account for its strength and endurance. Personal acquisition of national identity is discusses.

Farnen, Russell F (Ed.). 1994. Nationalism, ethnicity, and identity: Cross national and comparative perspectives. Nationalism, ethnicity, and identity: Cross national and comparative perspectives. xiv, 538 pp. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers.

This book presents a collection of essays on the topics of nationalism, national identity, and ethnicity from cross‐national perspectives. Each expresses the considerable internal variations in both the incidence and description of these topics.

Week 11 Gender and Sexual Identity

Shively, Michael G; De Cecco, John P. 1993. Components of sexual identity. In: Garnets, Linda D; Kimmel, Douglas C (Eds.). Psychological perspectives on lesbian and gay male experiences. (pp. 80–88). xiv, 620 pp. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.

This chapter examines the four components of sexual identity: biological sex, gender identity, social sex‐role, and sexual orientation, as well as discussing theories about the development of each component and how they combine and conflict.

Denny, Dallas; Pittman, Cathy. 2007. Gender Identity: From Dualism to Diversity. In: Tepper, Mitchell S; Owens, Annette Fuglsang (Eds.). Sexual health Vol 1: Psychological foundations. (pp. 205–229). xvi, 399 pp. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers/Greenwood Publishing Group.

The chapter covers physical development of a fetus, the assignment of sex at birth, gender identity formation and gender roles. There is information on intersexuality and transsexualism, as well as discussion of the newly developed term ‘transgender’ and the community it defines.

Week 12 Moral/Civic Identity

Nasir, Na’ilah Suad; Kirshner, Ben. 2003. The cultural construction of moral and civic identities. Applied Developmental Science. 7: 138–147.

This article addresses the intertwining of moral identity and the social and cultural contexts. There is a review of existing research on moral identity, followed by questions for further research in this area and a three‐level framework with which to understand the influence of culture on moral identity formation.

Youniss, James; Yates, Miranda. 1999. Youth service and moral‐civic identity: A case for everyday morality. Educational Psychology Review. 11: 361–376.

This article reviews studies of moral development, then states a general framework for it and supports it with data points. Issues taken up are as follows: development of youth activism, relationships of respect with other people, moral‐political meaning of relationships, concept that morality flows from the person who formed these relationships, concept that morality is an essential part of identity.

Optional

Seminar/project idea

Please suggest an exercise to help bring the subject to life, appropriate either for undergraduate or graduate students (e.g. an assessment, a presentation, or other practical assignment).

Eg. What is My Identity, and Those of Others in My Life?

Each student will be asked to provide their own answers, as well as to interview two other people and provide answers on behalf of these people. The student will be asked to answer the following questions about themselves and the people they interview:

How does the person describe her/himself personally? What are her/his goals, values, and beliefs?

How does the person describe her/himself culturally? Does s/he seem to prioritize her/his own needs and desires over those of other people? If the person wanted one thing and her/his family wanted another, which would take priority?

How does the person describe her/himself spiritually or religiously? Does s/he affiliate with an organized faith? How does the person believe that s/he fits into the ‘grand scheme of things’? What is the person's conception of God/Higher Power, and how does this bear on the person's overall sense of self?

What does the person's career (or career goals, if s/he hasn't started on a career yet) mean to her or him? How central is career in this person's life? To what extent does the career represent this person's ‘life's work’? Is this a personally meaningful occupation, or is it just a job?

How does the person describe her/himself sexually and romantically? How central is that to her or his overall sense of self? How much does the person's partner (if s/he has one) contribute to her/his sense of identity?

How much does the person's nationality (American, Canadian, et cetera) and ethnicity (White, Black, Hispanic/Latino, Middle Eastern) mean to her/him? How central are these issues to her/his overall sense of self?

Describe the person's value and moral beliefs.

Now, how are all of these aspects of identity related? Do they seem to fit together into a coherent whole, or are they disjointed from one another? What is the ‘whole’ that these different aspects of identity create?