bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Pathology of post‐kala‐azar dermal leishmaniasis: a light microscopical, immunohistochemical, and ultrastructural study of skin lesions and draining lymph nodes
Authors: Ismail Ahmed , Gadir A. Fattah A. , Theander Thor G. , Kharazmi Arsalan , El Hassan Ahmed M.
Published: August 2006

Background:  Whereas the clinical manifestations and treatment of post‐kala‐azar dermal leishmaniasis (PKDL) have been adequately described before, the pathology received little attention, particularly the African form of PKDL which shows some clinical differences from the disease in India. Therefore, our aim was to characterize the pathology and the immunohistopathology in PKDL lesions and correlate the histopathological findings with the clinical features of the disease.

Methods:  Biopsies of skin lesions were examined for histopathological changes in formalin‐fixed tissues and for cell phenotypes and adhesion molecules by immunohistochemistry.

Results:  The epidermis showed various changes in different combinations. The dermis was infiltrated by lymphocytes and macrophages, but plasma cells were scanty or absent. The majority of cells were CD3 T cells, with a preponderance of CD4 over CD8 cells. Degenerating basal keratinocytes expressed HLA‐DR, ICAM‐1 and Leishmania antigen and closely interacted with CD4 T cells. Regional lymph nodes showed hyperplasia of the B‐ and T‐cell zones.

Conclusions:  The inflammatory reaction in PKDL lesions is in response to Leishmania parasites and/or antigen. The majority of cells are CD4 T cells. Degeneration of the basal keratinocytes is probably due to the action of cytotoxic CD4 T cells interacting with leishmania‐expressing epidermal cells.
Reactivation of dormant cutaneous Leishmania infection in a kidney transplant patient
Authors: Mirzabeigi Marjan , Farooq Uzma , Baraniak Sean , Dowdy Lorraine , Ciancio Gaetano , Vincek Vladimir
Published: August 2006

Background:  Leishmaniasis is an infection caused by a protozoan parasite belonging to genus Leishmania and transmitted by the Phlebotomus sandfly. Clinical presentations of infection include visceral, cutaneous, and mucocutaneous forms. Leishmaniasis is endemic in Africa, Asia, Europe, South America, and southern part of North America. This infection is extremely rare in the US and is mostly found among travelers coming from endemic areas. Cases of cutaneous and visceral leishmaniasis have been reported in organ transplant recipients in endemic areas.

Case report:  We describe a case of cutaneous leishmaniasis in a kidney transplant patient, originally from Bolivia, who resides in the area known to be non‐endemic for leishmaniasis and who is known not to travel within or outside of the US after the transplantation.

Results:  Histologic examination of cutaneous lesion revealed extensive subcutaneous lymphohistiocytic inflammation with clusters of amastigote within histiocytes.

Conclusion:  To our knowledge, this is the first case of cutaneous leishmaniasis in a kidney transplant patient residing in the US in an area known to be non‐endemic for leishmaniasis, probably after reactivation of a previously dormant infection acquired outside of the US at least 9 months prior to developing clinical symptoms.
Narrow‐spectrum staining pattern of Pityrosporum*
Authors: Veerappan Ranjitha , Miller Lou Ellen , Sosinski Christina , Youngberg George A.
Published: August 2006

Background:  Broad‐spectrum fungal stains are used to detect fungal organisms, but narrow‐spectrum stains can assist in fungal differential diagnosis. These stains include mucicarmine and Fontana–Masson (FM) for Cryptococcus, Alcian Blue for Cryptococcus and Blastomyces, Congo Red for Blastomyces and Coccidioides, and Ziehl–Neelsen for some examples of Blastomyces and Histoplasma. Pityrosporum is increasingly being recognized as a pathogen capable of significant cutaneous and systemic infections, but the narrow‐spectrum staining pattern of Pityrosporum has not yet been systematically studied and reported.

Methods:  Paraffin‐embedded archival tissue from 10 skin biopsies containing Pityrosporum was stained with Alcian Blue, Congo Red, Ziehl–Neelsen acid‐fast stain, and FM stain. In addition to the 60‐min staining time, a modified FM stain with 15‐, 30‐, and 45‐min staining times was also performed.

Results:  All cases stained positive with Alcian Blue, Congo Red, and FM stains and negative with the Ziehl–Neelsen stain. The modified FM stain with the 15‐min staining time showed significant staining in more than 50% of the cases.

Discussion:  The narrow‐spectrum staining pattern of Pityrosporum distinguishes it from Cryptococcus, Blastomyces, Candida, Histoplasma, and Coccidioides.
Symplastic hemangioma: report of two cases
Authors: Goh Seng Geok Nicholas , Dayrit Johannes F. , Calonje Eduardo
Published: August 2006

Abstract:  Symplastic hemangioma is characterized by degenerative atypia of vascular smooth muscle and interstitial cells within a pre‐existing vascular lesion with minimal endothelial cell atypia. We describe an additional two cases of this distinctive but poorly recognized entity. On histology, both lesions revealed a cirsoid aneurysm‐type appearance with thick‐walled and variably dilated blood vessels. The vascular endothelial cells showed mild nuclear hyperchromasia with no multilayering or mitoses. The atypical cells, either located within the vascular smooth muscle wall or within the interstitium, were spindle or epithelioid with varying degrees of hyperchromasia, nuclear enlargement, pleomorphism, and multinucleation. Perivascular hemorrhage, vascular thrombosis, and focal papillary endothelial hyperplasia were uniformly present. The variably fibrous to edematous stroma showed hemosiderin deposits and a mononuclear inflammatory infiltrate. Clusters of adipocytes were present within the superficial dermis. Rare atypical mitoses and occasional bizarre lipoblast‐like stromal cells were identified in one tumor. Immunohistochemistry showed focal smooth muscle actin positivity in the pleomorphic cells of the vascular walls. CD68 and CD34 stained occasional stromal cells in the interstitial location. Both the cases showed no recurrence. The bizarre cytologic changes are interpreted as degenerative in nature and probably akin to that observed in ancient schwannoma and uterine symplastic leiomyoma.
Non‐bullous neutrophilic dermatosis: an uncommon dermatologic manifestation in patients with lupus erythematosus
Authors: Gleason Briana C. , Zembowicz Artur , Granter Scott R.
Published: August 2006

Background: Rare cases of a non‐bullous neutrophilic dermatosis occurring in patients with lupus erythematosus (LE) have been reported, often as the presenting manifestation of the disease.

Methods: We reviewed hematoxylin and eosin‐stained slides and obtained clinical information from four additional patients, two of whom had no prior history of LE.

Results: All patients were female, aged 16–59 (mean age 37). Clinically, the skin lesions were characterized by widely distributed pruritic papules and plaques. Three patients presented with systemic symptoms, including fever, arthritis and malaise. Histopathologic examination in all cases showed a superficial perivascular and interstitial neutrophilic infiltrate with leukocytoclasis. There was no evidence of vasculitis. Mild focal vacuolar change was a subtle feature seen only in the biopsies of the two patients with a prior history of LE.

Conclusions: It is important to consider LE in the differential diagnosis of non‐bullous neutrophilic dermatoses.
Detection of clonal rearrangement of T‐cell receptor genes in the diagnosis of primary cutaneous CD30+ lymphoproliferative disorders
Authors: Greisser Johannes , Palmedo Gabriele , Sander Christian , Kutzner Heinz , Kazakov Dmitry V. , Roos Malgorzata , Burg Günter , Kempf Werner
Published: August 2006

Background:  Detection of clonality has been reported to be a helpful tool in the diagnosis of cutaneous lymphomas. Monoclonal rearrangement of T‐cell receptor genes (TCR) was reported in fresh frozen tissue of lymphomatoid papulosis (LyP) and primary cutaneous anaplastic large‐cell lymphoma (ALCL), but the diagnostic value of T‐cell clonality in formalin‐fixed, paraffin‐embedded biopsies has so far not been assessed.

Methods:  Detection of clonal rearrangement of TCRγ genes by highly sensitive polymerase chain reaction‐based automated high‐resolution fragment analysis (AHRFA) in archival LyP (n = 18) and ALCL (n = 17) tissue.

Results:  Detection of clonality differed significantly among the histologic forms of LyP as well as between LyP and ALCL with clonality found in none of the 10 biopsies of LyP type A and B, in 4/8 (50%) of the LyP type C specimens, and in 11/17 (65%) of ALCL cases.

Conclusions:  T‐cell clonality can only be found in a minority (four of 18; 22%) of archival LyP specimens, even when employing a highly sensitive detection method and is thus of limited diagnostic value. Final diagnosis of LyP has to be based mainly on clinical, histologic, and immunohistochemical findings rather than on results of clonality studies.
Examination of bcl‐2 and p53 expressions and apoptotic index by TUNEL method in psoriasis
Authors: Gündüz Kamer , Demireli Peyker , Vatansever Seda , Inanir Isil
Published: August 2006

Background:  Psoriasis is characterised by hyperproliferation and by aberrant differentiation. Blockage of the normal apoptotic process is one of the factors implicated in the pathogenesis.

Objective:  To determine the apoptotic features by using TUNEL method and also bcl‐2 and p53 expressions in psoriatic epidermis.

Materials and methods:  Biopsies of 35 patients with psoriasis vulgaris and 14 normal skin were evaluated. Apoptotic cells were detected using the dUTP nick‐end labelling assay; bc1‐2 and p53 expressions were assessed by using immunohistochemical techniques. A semi‐quantitative grading system (HSCORE) was used for comparison.

Results:  Bcl‐2 was strongly expressed in basal keratinocytes of normal skin, while no expression was observed in 13 (37.2%) of the psoriatic samples and it was weakly expressed in the spinous cell layer of 22 (62.8%) samples. Moderate p53 expression was observed in the psoriasis group, while it was weak in the control. The percentage of TUNEL positive cells were significantly increased in the psoriasis group (65±2.30) when compared with the control (32.84±7.16).

Conclusion:  Apoptotic index besides bc1‐2 and p53 expressions in psoriasis differ from normal epidermis. Down‐regulation of bc1‐2 is consistent with the dynamics of psoriasis but increased TUNEL positive cells and p53 expression has not been fully elucidated yet.
Matrix metalloproteinases in the progression and regression of Kaposi’s sarcoma
Authors: Pantanowitz Liron , Dezube Bruce J. , Hernandez‐Barrantes Sonia , Tahan Steven R. , Dabbous Mustafa K.
Published: August 2006

Background:  Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are associated with Kaposi’s sarcoma (KS) tumorigenesis. To date, only a few MMPs have been studied in KS lesions. Their role in KS regression has not been investigated. The aim of this study was to evaluate the expression of multiple MMPs in developing and pharmacologically regressed KS lesions.

Methods:  Nine samples of acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS)‐related and classic cutaneous KS lesions at various histological stages were studied. Regressing KS lesions from three patients treated with systemic therapy were procured after one and two cycles of chemotherapy. Tissue sections from all specimens were immunostained using monoclonal antibodies to MMP‐1, MMP‐2, MMP‐3, MMP‐7, MMP‐9, MMP‐13, and MMP‐14.

Results:  KS lesional cells were immunoreactive for all MMPs, except MMP‐14. Admixed inflammatory cells were immunoreactive for MMP‐1, MMP‐2, MMP‐7, MMP‐9, and MMP‐13. The MMP immunoprofile in residual KS lesional cells was unaltered in regressed lesions. Increased extracellular matrix (ECM) and macrophage immunoreactivity for MMPs was identified in regressed specimens.

Conclusions:  These data show that developing KS lesional cells express collagenases (MMP‐1, MMP‐13), gelatinases (MMP‐2, MMP‐9), stromelysin‐1 (MMP‐3), and matrilysin (MMP‐7) but not the membrane‐type MMP‐14. This MMP expression profile is retained by residual KS cells and also expressed by infiltrating macrophages in regressed KS lesions.
Protein expression of melanocyte growth factors (bFGF, SCF) and their receptors (FGFR‐1, c‐kit) in nevi and melanoma
Authors: Giehl K. A. , Nägele U. , Volkenandt M. , Berking C.
Published: August 2006

Background:  Basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) and stem cell factor (SCF) are essential growth factors for melanocytes which carry the receptors FGFR‐1 for bFGF and c‐kit for SCF. Because both factors may be involved in melanoma development, the expression of bFGF/FGFR‐1 and SCF/c‐kit was investigated in melanocytic tumors of different progression stages.

Methods:  Fifty primary melanomas and 44 melanocytic nevi were analyzed for the expression of SCF, c‐kit, bFGF, and FGFR‐1 by immunohistochemistry.

Results:  In melanoma, SCF and c‐kit were expressed in 76 and 84%, respectively, and coexpressed in 66%. bFGF and FGFR‐1 were expressed in 45 and 86%, respectively, and coexpressed in 46%. In melanocytic nevi, SCF was expressed in 23% and c‐kit in 70% while coexpression was more common in dysplastic (39%) than non‐dysplastic subtypes (8%). bFGF and FGFR‐1 were expressed in 55 and 67%, respectively, while coexpression was found in 47% but varied considerably between different histological subtypes.

Conclusions:  SCF and c‐kit were frequently expressed by melanomas and dysplastic nevi suggesting an autocrine growth mechanism as described for bFGF. In both nevi and melanoma, c‐kit was almost exclusively found in the epidermis while bFGF was more common in the dermis. Thus the growth factor/receptor expression seems to depend on the cutaneous localization of the melanocytic tumors.
Cooperation of Phosphoinositides and BAR Domain Proteins in Endosomal Tubulation
Authors: Shinozaki‐Narikawa Naeko , Kodama Tatsuhiko , Shibasaki Yoshikazu
Published: August 2006

Phosphorylated derivatives of phosphatidylinositol (PtdIns) regulate many intracellular events, including vesicular trafficking and actin remodeling, by recruiting proteins to their sites of function. PtdIns(4,5)‐bisphosphate [PI(4,5)P2] and related phosphoinositides are mainly synthesized by type I PtdIns‐4‐phosphate 5‐kinases (PIP5Ks). We found that PIP5K induces endosomal tubules in COS‐7 cells. ADP‐ribosylation factor (ARF) 6 has been shown to act upstream of PIP5K and regulate endocytic transport and tubulation. ARF GAP with coiled‐coil, ankyrin repeat, and pleckstrin homology domains 1 (ACAP1) has guanosine triphosphatase‐activating protein (GAP) activity for ARF6. While there were few tubules induced by the expression of ACAP1 alone, numerous endosomal tubules were induced by coexpression of PIP5K and ACAP1. ACAP1 has a pleckstrin homology (PH) domain known to bind phosphoinositide and a Bin/amphiphysin/Rvs (BAR) domain that has been reported to detect membrane curvature. Truncated and point mutations in the ACAP1 BAR and PH domains revealed that both BAR and PH domains are required for tubulation. These results suggest that two ARF6 downstream molecules, PIP5K and ACAP1, function together in endosomal tubulation and that phosphoinositide levels may regulate endosomal dynamics.
Defective Intracellular Trafficking of Uromodulin Mutant Isoforms
Authors: Bernascone Ilenia , Vavassori Stefano , Di Pentima Alessio , Santambrogio Sara , Lamorte Giuseppe , Amoroso Antonio , Scolari Francesco , Ghiggeri Gian Marco , Casari Giorgio , Polishchuk Roman , Rampoldi Luca
Published: August 2006

Medullary cystic kidney disease/familial juvenile hyperuricemic nephropathy (MCKD/FJHN) are autosomal dominant renal disorders characterized by tubulo‐interstitial fibrosis, hyperuricemia and medullary cysts. They are caused by mutations in the gene encoding uromodulin, the most abundant protein in urine. Uromodulin (or Tamm–Horsfall protein) is a glycoprotein that is exclusively expressed by epithelial tubular cells of the thick ascending limb of Henle’s loop and distal convoluted tubule. To date, 37 different uromodulin mutations have been described in patients with MCKD/FJHN. Interestingly, 60% of them involve one of the 48 conserved cysteine residues. We have previously shown that cysteine‐affecting mutations could lead to partial endoplasmic reticulum (ER) retention. In this study, as a further step in understanding uromodulin biology in health and disease, we provide the first extensive study of intracellular trafficking and subcellular localization of wild‐type and mutant uromodulin isoforms. We analyzed a set of 12 different uromodulin mutations that were representative of the different kind of mutations identified so far by different experimental approaches (immunofluorescence, electron microscopy, biochemistry and in vivo imaging) in transiently transfected HEK293 and Madin–Darby canine kidney cells. We assessed protein processing in the secretory pathway and could demonstrate that although to different extent, all uromodulin mutations lead to defective ER to Golgi protein transport, suggesting a common pathogenetic mechanism in MCKD/FJHN.
Internationalization of Australian Family Businesses: A Managerial Capabilities Perspective
Authors: Graves Chris , Thomas Jill
Published: August 2006

Successful international expansion requires the managerial capabilities necessary to configure and leverage a firm's resources in the international marketplace. Because family firms can face unique challenges in building their managerial capabilities, the purpose of this study is to compare the managerial capabilities of family and nonfamily firms according to the degree of their internationalization. Using the most recently available longitudinal database of Australian small-to-medium-sized enterprises, the results of this study indicate that the managerial capabilities of family firms lag behind those of their nonfamily counterparts as they expand internationally, particularly at high levels of internationalization. The implications of the findings for research, policy, and practice are discussed.
Impact of Family Relationships on Attitudes of the Second Generation in Family Business
Authors: Lee Jean
Published: August 2006

This research is undertaken to examine the influence of family relationships on attitudes of the second generation working in their parents' family businesses. Two specific family variables are delineated: family cohesion and family adaptability. The outcome variables are organizational commitment, job satisfaction, life satisfaction, and propensity to leave. Relationships among outcome variables are also examined. A survey questionnaire is used as the research instrument. Results and implications of findings are discussed.
A Panel Study of Copreneurs in Business: Who Enters, Continues, and Exits?
Authors: Muske Glenn , Fitzgerald Margaret A.
Published: August 2006

Data from the 1997 and 2000 panels of the National Family Business Surveys were used to examine continuance in copreneurial business relationships. Three groups, copreneurs who continued as a team from 1997 to 2000, coprenpreneurs in 1997 who discontinued by 2000, and couples who became copreneurs between 1997 and 2000, were compared on various characteristics. Findings indicate that those starting copreneurial business relationships were more likely to be older, more educated, and running larger, more successful businesses. Those who discontinued the copreneurial business relationship during the three years of the survey had lower levels of education and success, both financially and in terms of number of people employed, than the other groups.
Promises, Promises: How Consumers Respond to Warranties in Internet Retailing
Authors: LWIN MAY O. , WILLIAMS JEROME D.
Published: August 2006

Past studies have shown that perceived risk is a critical determinant of purchase intention in non–store retailing contexts, including Internet retailing. Extant literature in physical retailing suggests that warranties can be a significant variable in reducing consumers’ perceived risk. We examine the role of Web site warranties in risk reduction and how warranty information interacts with retailer reputation and brand name as two other risk relievers in an online shopping environment. Results suggest that warranties can make a positive difference for online retailers with strong reputations with respect to perceived risk, perceived product quality, and purchase intentions. However, consumers are less influenced by warranty information when dealing with online retailers with weak reputations. For the other extrinsic cue, however, we find that warranty information does not have an effect when dealing with brand names, suggesting that a brand name’s impact on online risk reduction remains regardless of the presence of warranty information.
The Influence of Individual Factors on the Effectiveness of Message Content in Antismoking Advertisements Aimed at Adolescents
Authors: SMITH KAREN H. , STUTTS MARY ANN
Published: August 2006

Approximately five million children under the age of 18 will eventually die from smoking‐related disease. However, antismoking advertisements directed to adolescents appear to be reducing the prevalence of smoking among youth. The reported study extends prior research using an experiment over time (N= 565) to test the influence of individual factors (grade level, gender, and ethnicity) on the effectiveness of two types of message content in antismoking advertisements. Predictor variables from prior research, such as beliefs about smoking and family and peer smoking, were included as covariates in the analysis. As expected, effectiveness was influenced by individual factors. Long‐term health content was more effective among nonwhites, males, and high school students, while short‐term content appeared to work better among junior high males.
College Students’ Responses to Antismoking Messages: Denial, Defiance, and Other Boomerang Effects
Authors: WOLBURG JOYCE M.
Published: August 2006

Despite the success of antismoking campaigns that aim to prevent young teens from smoking, this qualitative study provides strong evidence that different initiatives are needed for college students, particularly those who already smoke. When asked for responses to current antismoking messages, nonsmokers generally championed the cause; however, smokers often responded with anger, defiance, denial, and other negative responses. Consumers who respond in this manner are not well served by existing strategies, and money used for such campaigns could be better spent. New strategies are offered in hopes that antismoking campaigns can communicate more effectively with one high‐risk group—college student smokers.
Toward a New Generation of Cross-Cultural Research
Authors: Matsumoto David , Yoo Seung Hee
Published: August 2006

In this article, we describe how cross-cultural research methodologies have evolved, with each phase of research addressing limitations of a previous one. We describe briefly the three previous phases and argue for embarking on a fourth phase that empirically establishes linkages between the active cultural ingredients hypothesized to cause between-country differences and the observed differences themselves. We discuss theoretical considerations and possible empirical methods to establish such linkages, and urge researchers to seriously consider incorporating these kinds of linkage studies in their programs of research.
Toward a Psychological Science for a Cultural Species
Authors: Heine Steven J. , Norenzayan Ara
Published: August 2006

Humans are a cultural species, and the study of human psychology benefits from attention to cultural influences. Cultural psychology's contributions to psychological science can largely be divided according to the two different stages of scientific inquiry. Stage 1 research seeks cultural differences and establishes the boundaries of psychological phenomena. Stage 2 research seeks underlying mechanisms of those cultural differences. The literatures regarding these two distinct stages are reviewed, and various methods for conducting Stage 2 research are discussed. The implications of culture-blind and multicultural psychologies for society and intergroup relations are also discussed.
Superpower Ethics: An Introduction
Authors: Nye Joseph S.
Published: August 2006

The first issue ofEthics & International Affairswas published in 1987, when the Cold War still dominated international affairs. It was appropriate at that time to launch the journal with an issue devoted in part to the theme “superpower ethics.” In his introduction to the topic Nye argues that the challenge of establishing an ethics for the United States and the Soviet Union is not met by any traditional Western system. Aristotle's “virtue,” Kant's “good intent,” and the “good result” of the consequentialists are inadequate to the task of determining right on the superpower playing field. In reference to this insufficiency, Nye sketches the arguments of the subsequent articles by Mazrui, Hassner, and Hoffman, each of whom offers an instructive picture of the state of superpower ethics.
Western European Dilemmas: Man, State, and History
Authors: Hassner Pierre
Published: August 2006

The European community holds a range of contradictory, changing, and evolving views of the United States and the Soviet Union. Hassner notes that the United States is seen both as an individualistic agent with a guilty conscience that intervenes irresponsibly and hypocritically, and as a model for resistance to oppression. The Soviet Union is also viewed antithetically, both condemned for totalitarianism and praised as more humanistic than the United States. Hassner sees these oppositions as reflecting the profound differences between the superpowers and indicating the challenge the United States and the Soviet Union face in establishing a common ethics.
The Rules of the Game
Authors: Hoffmann Stanley
Published: August 2006

International systems have historically come in two forms: those based on the balance of power and those of a revolutionary nature, including systems organized around bipolar competition. Hoffmann finds the world order of 1987 to contain both these systems and judges it both ambiguous and original. While the tension of these extremes can make the world appear “anarchical,” there are certain agreed upon rules by which the superpowers interact. These rules ultimately preserve order by embracing competition between the United States and the Soviet Union; superpower confrontation is prevented by each nation holding to their own ideals and sovereignty while embracing nuclear deterrence. Having revealed the rules of the superpower game, Hoffmann then subjects them to ethical judgment. Despite the historic duration of peace between superpowers that seems to have been sustained by these rules, Hoffmann finds them both ethically flawed and ultimately unstable. Turning to a brief consideration of United States foreign policy, he points to particular moral difficulties in U.S. stances and urges the development of superpower rules that are effective and ethical.
Is Democratic Theory for Export?
Authors: Barzun Jacques
Published: August 2006

A prominent feature of American political consciousness is a desire to propagate democracy throughout the world. In our enthusiasm to share what we enjoy, Jacques Barzun sees that little attention is paid to exactly what we are trying to distribute. Through a brief historical survey of democracy, he shows that our popular conception of the term does not correspond with any particular definition. U.S. democracy has no central text and is distinctly different, in theory and in practice, from the democracy of other states, both historical and contemporary. Democracy is an abstract ideal that is a function of time. Its present incarnation in the United States emphasizes freedom and equality through the means and language of specific personal rights. Barzun sees an internal tension in this formulation, one that ultimately threatens both freedom and equality if exported to the rest of the world.
Ethics and Etiquette of Third World Debt
Authors: Bauer Peter
Published: August 2006

Third World debt, seen as distant from the realm of international affairs and ethics, is often subject to abstract economic analysis. Peter Bauer argues that in fact the way in which debt is addressed by debtors and lenders is heavily politicized and should be subject to ethical considerations. Many Third World countries choose to prolong debt even though they are capable of repaying it; moreover, the methods of gauging and reporting current income are spurious and subject to manipulation by countries' trade policies. The ethical questionability of some Third World practices is matched by equally questionable activity in the West. Special interest groups' agendas and banks' eyes for profits influence economic policy in favor of Third World countries, further increasing their debt. Bauer's discussion of these issues of denial and permissiveness depicts Third World debt as a political transaction that wrongly escapes ethical judgement.
Living with Iran
Authors: Beeman William O.
Published: August 2006

In the past nine years the Islamic Republic of Iran has posed the most difficult of all foreign policy problems for the United States—a problem usually confronted by marriage counselors rather than diplomats, for Iran is the nation that the United States cannot live with and cannot live without.
Helsinki, Human Rights, and the Gorbachev Style
Authors: Korey William
Published: August 2006

Human rights is one of three issues addressed by the Helsinki Accord, alongside security and trade matters. In the mid-seventies the accord was greeted with enthusiasm by the Soviet Union, which saw it as a means to reduce the U.S. presence in Europe. The United States, which played a limited role in drafting the accord, feared it might result in a betrayal of the various nationalities of Eastern Europe by its tacit acceptance of Soviet territorial arrangements. Over the next ten years the human rights section of the accord would become a central point of contention between the superpowers. Korey traces the evolution of the dispute and discusses Gorbachev's uneven attempts to improve the Soviet Union's recognition of human rights.
Is There an Ethic to NATO?
Authors: Phillips Robert L.
Published: August 2006

The Soviet ruling class, thwarted in its expansionist aims and beset by economic ills, sought to enjoy the fruits of Western culture without risking war, by a policy of “Finlandization” or neutralization of Europe. Phillips, writing in 1987, maintains that NATO had as great a moral duty to check this political ambition as it had to check Soviet military aggression. He suggests ways to reaffirm the rule of law and the commitment to social justice and to build such values into Western foreign policy, rather than use them as public relations tinsel.
Three Scenarios for the World Economy
Authors: Aliber Robert Z.
Published: August 2006

Nineteen eighty-seven was a year of financial paradox. During the 1980s there was the strong perception that the Americans, the Europeans, and the Japanese were living well, contrasting with the accounting data that suggested the house of cards was about to fall. Three factors dominated the financial economy of 1987: the 25-percent drop in equity prices in mid-October, the apparent collapse of the U.S. dollar in the foreign exchange market, and the formal recognition by the major international banks that their losses on developing country loans would amount to at least $250 billion. The key question at the end of that year was whether the world economy was moving into a period of inflation or deflation. This essay identifies three possible scenarios. First, the decline in the foreign-exchange value of the U.S. dollar would lead to a rapid increase in U.S. net exports, an excessively large increase in demand for U.S. goods, and a run on the U.S. dollar, which would prompt more contractive monetary policies from the Federal Reserve and an increase in interest rates on U.S. dollars. Second, an increase in U.S. net exports would offset the decline in domestic spending from the smaller fiscal deficit and the less rapid growth of consumer spending. Interest rates on U.S. dollar assets would fall, which in turn would facilitate the expansion of income, and the U.S. fiscal deficit would automatically decline. Or, third, a second stock market meltdown might cause consumer and investment spending to decline more than the increase in net exports, resulting in a recession and a decline in the inflation rate and interest rates.
Ethics and Intervention
Authors: Smith Michael Joseph
Published: August 2006

The moral complexity surrounding intervention is influenced by a broad spectrum of both ethical and practical assumptions and considerations. “All these issues,” Smith writes, “affect one's ultimate position on intervention, and different assumptions lead, obviously, to different conclusions.” The bulk of this article is a useful survey of some of the key ethical issues of disagreement among contemporary authors who represent a variety of approaches to the subject: traditional and prudential realists, statists, cosmopolitans, ideologists. Smith's own view, clearly articulated in his concluding section, is what he labels “tempered nonintervention”: “a reaffirmation of the principle of nonintervention, tempered by the possibility of humanitarian intervention when undertaken with specific safeguards.”
Covert Intervention as a Moral Problem
Authors: Beitz Charles R.
Published: August 2006

Today's international community may well view covert action and democracy as mutually exclusive policies. This article examines the practice of covert action in American foreign policy in light of events of the mid-1970s and 1980s, focusing on the scandalous misuse of executive authority and lack of accountability associated with covert means. Often manipulative and sometimes anonymous, covert operations raise critical morality concerns in a democratic society. Whether “any form of accountability is likely to be sufficient to bring the unauthorized use of executive power under control” is the crucial issue to be addressed when examining the practicality of covert actions by the executive branch.
Public Policy, Secret Action
Authors: Colby William E.
Published: August 2006

Exploitation of the executive exercise of covert operations has presented a dilemma, but Colby maintains that even in peacetime a “democratic society must have and respect some secrets.” Does democracy, by its inherent nature, preclude the employment of covert action, even under exceptional conditions? Colby argues that the constitutional decision-making process is an ethical and legal one. In wartime, a “just” war is the goal, and the use of covert action must be evaluated by two essential criteria: self-defense and proportionality to the act requiring self-defense.
Closing the Fairness-Practice Gap
Authors: Keohane Robert O.
Published: August 2006

“My argument in this essay is that thefairness principlecan be justified on the basis of an ethical perspective that stresses the importance of consequences in judging human action, and that it has far-reaching implications not just for evaluating state policy but for the design of international institutions.” Keohane's utilitarian perspective seeks to establish generalizable principles of morality for a framework of normative moral rules by which to construct a foreign policy for international cooperation. The author argues that all governments are morally obliged to support international institutions that advocate crosscultural and global public goods to advance the fairness principle. The international community is bound by Western understandings of distributive justice, universal human rights, and indisputable national sovereignty.
Moral Minimums for Multinationals
Authors: Donaldson Thomas
Published: August 2006

Adam's Smith's invisible hand guiding market mechanisms toward moral conduct seems recklessly idealistic today, in light of forces that have dramatically skewed international free-market operations. Donaldson argues that major changes are necessary in the decision-making process as well as in the conduct of multinational corporations in order to exercise moral obligations and meet culture-specific needs of host countries. Donaldson proposes standards for international institutions by which to protect fairness and freedom, ownership of property, free speech, and minimum education and subsistence levels. “Are such changes in the decision-making process of multinational corporations likely or even possible?” he asks. With some reservations, the author is optimistic that a more ethical approach to market issues is workable.
Is Democracy an Ethical Standard?
Authors: Johnson James Turner
Published: August 2006

This article explores the Western cultural traditions of democracy and freedom which form a political ethic deeply rooted in the underlying philosophical and theological American heritage. Theories of Machiavelli, Montesqieu, and Niebuhr support the notion that the potential for virtue is found in all individuals, who, through their undeniable freedoms, responsibilities, and participation, have the capability to establish a political community based on democracy, justice, and respect for human rights. Virtue, justice, morality, ethics, freedom, and democracy are all necessary elements for establishing and maintaining the political community. Can history serve to uphold democracy as an ethical standard of governance? The author suggests that the basic and cross-temporal cornerstones of morality; the family and religion serve as “intermediate” social structures in attaining the central virtues of a moral democracy.
Marxism and Morality: Reflections on the Revolutions of 1989
Authors: Lukes Steven
Published: August 2006

Can the momentous events in Tianamen Square and the revolutionary changes in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe be seen as the inevitable triumph of one political ideology over another? Was there a political morality of “Official Communism”? The author identifies the features and framework within which Marxism endured, particularly as a promise of “political emancipation” whereby the individual would achieve “universal freedom” from capitalism and slavery through cooperation and struggle. Yet, ultimately, the pluralist-led events of 1989 demonstrated that protests were aimed at achieving justice, fairness, and identity in the name of the “people,” a refutation of oppression and the arbitrary allocation of resources and advantages by the nomenklatura. The author contends that the Marxist morality failed because it didnt deliver on its promises.
Monitoring Human Rights: Problems of Consistency
Authors: Howard Rhoda E.
Published: August 2006

The author highlights the different ways in which countries measure standards of human rights and social justice within their borders and in other countries. Rigorous reporting of internal human rights violations is crucial in monitoring and evaluating human rights conditions, according to Howard, even in such wealthy countries as the United States and Canada, where malnutrition and abuse of basic human rights also exist.
China's Sprouts of Democracy
Authors: Goldman Merle
Published: August 2006

A basic premise of Confucianism rests in the intellectuals' responsibility to speak out against an oppressive government. This tradition continued well into the Maoist era, along with “the mandate from heaven,” which provided an additional fundamental right of the people to dispose of an unfair leadership. Why was it not until the mid-1980s that the intellectuals, the “democratic elite” of China, initiated apublicdialogue on the necessity of “inalienable” rights in the Western sense? The reason may lie in the impact the events in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe had in inducing political reform in post-Mao China. The traditional Confucianist beliefs remained at the core of the emerging ideology. Despite Deng's crackdown in Tiananmen Square, the “sprouts” continue to reappear from time to time, and the author predicts that they will be stronger with each comeback.
Drawing the Line on Opprobrious Violence
Authors: Norton Augustus Richard
Published: August 2006

Deliberate and indiscriminate targeting of civilians, most particularly in a non-war environment, is an unjustifiable form of violence that can be defeated most effectively through multilateral efforts, according to Norton, and must not be fathomed as anything but pure and simple terrorism, which is not to be tolerated. The U.S. State Department's definition of terrorism is too ambiguous to allow delineation between what is permissible in time of war and in time of peace, and creates more controversy than consensus: one person's terrorist is another person's freedom fighter. Fortunately, fertile ground for the multilateral combating of terrorist activities and states promoting them (Lybia, Syria, Iran) was laid in 1989 with an unofficial U.S.-USSR agreement to exchange vital information to prevent such acts. The author places great hope in this new dialogue.
Moral Standards Under Pressure: The Israeli Army and the Intifada
Authors: Singer Max
Published: August 2006

“The PLO practice of hiding behind civilians has produced severe tests for the IDF [Israeli Defense Force].” Have Israeli soldiers abandoned their moral obligations in war during the time of Intifada? The moral code of the “purity” of arms (tohar haneshek) has served as an absolute standard for the Israeli Army since the creation of Israel. The author emphasizes that although televised beatings of Palestinian women and children have caused an outcry, it would be unrealistic to hold Israeli soldiers to the same moral standards given the political situation; hence the IDF cannot be criticized for having committed some immoral acts under the unique circumstances of the intifada. The Israeli Defense Force has not abandoned its tohar haneshek and has maintained its commitment to moral values in national and international behavior.
Moral Renewal: The Lessons of Eastern Europe
Authors: Nardin Terry
Published: August 2006

Nardin uses the Eastern European experience of the late 1980s and the works of Adam Michnik and Vaclav Havel to demonstrate the traditional cosmopolitan Kantian notion of morality in the “appeal to universal human values.” Nardin uses three major elements to argue the impossibility of such a concept: “the law of nature,” based on Stoic and Judeo-Christian foundation, focusing on reason and rationality of the individual rather than custom or divine authority; the uniqueness of various cultures challenging the universal “cosmopolitan” outlook on morality; and the differences among universal principles of morality relative to personal human experiences throughout time. Nardin concludes that the moral renewal in Eastern Europe is evidence that destructive consequences of moral diversity do not preclude a civil society once agreements on authoritative principles and laws are institutionalized. Each individual's own ethical conduct and internal moral guidance offer the basis for criticism and reform of law through membership in particular communities and common humanity.
Normative Prudence as a Tradition of Statecraft
Authors: Coll Alberto R.
Published: August 2006

Ethical dilemmas of international relations have led to two distinct principles of thought, as presented in this article. The Western tradition has generally advocated the distinct differences between politics and morality, though asserting that the former is grounded on the latter. The “normative prudence” school of Aristotle, Aquinas, Burke, and Niebuhr interlink a nation's morality and politics in an ethical and pragmatic statecraft of nations. Realists such as Thucydides, Machiavelli, and Hobbes, on the other hand, divorce the two, maintaining that “prudence” is the most vital element in the political realm. Realists argue that politics supersedes morality and is upheld through self-interest as the pure search for the truly good. Both views spotlight the individual citizen as the center of moral society yet differ on the importance of the means and ends of statecraft and political adroitness of leaders. Adhering to Aristotelian views, Coll clearly advocates the notion that “moral principles are ultimately realized only in specific acts which human beings choose to carry out.” The author cites Washington, Lincoln, and Churchill as examples of leaders whose moral wisdom in political reasoning led to remarkable statecraft explicitly derived from prudence.
Do International Ethics Matter? Humanitarian Politics in the Sudan
Authors: Weiss Thomas G. , Minear Larry
Published: August 2006

Weiss and Minear explore the problems associated with attempting to operationalize the evolving international humanitarian norm that civilians, regardless of location, are entitled to sustenance and medical assistance. In a host of recent civil wars in Africa, the attention of the international community has been drawn to the use of food deprivation by both governments and insurgents. The use of such deprivation has traditionally been part of the arsenals of warring factions, but the widespread and active mobilization of international public opinion against such tactics is relatively new. The authors argue that, while all historical situations are in some sense unique, Sudan is not so idiosyncratic that the lessons and the precedents cannot be replicated elsewhere to protect civilians caught between warring sides in civil wars.
The Decline of International Studies
Authors: Thompson Kenneth W.
Published: August 2006

In a recent report by Princeton's Woodrow Wilson School of International Affairs, “Education in U.S. Schools of International Affairs,” Princeton's former president Robert F. Goheen presents several crucial factors in the apparent decline of international studies in the U.S. The private sector, which at first demanded broadly-educated professionals, have recently shown little enthusiasm for students of international affairs. This has resulted in lack of funding and lack of interest in the field of international studies. This is paradoxical primarily because the students of international affairs undergo a multidiscplinary curriculum, facilitating their adaptation to practically any field of work following graduation, contrary to those students who have chosen a strict and narrow profession. Unfortunately, much of the fault, according to the report lies with the universities and the graduates themselves, who fail to articulate properly their comparative essential advantage in the broad field of their education. Thompson expounds on a more serious ramification of the decline in interest in international studies: the imminent failure to foresee future international crises. As the case of Iraq's growing power in the Middle East has demonstrated, the U.S. looked the other way, toward the developments in the former Soviet Union, and was not able to act in time to circumvent Iraq's aggression. With the world looking to the U.S. for strategic leadership in ethics and power, Americans cannot afford to deny American youth a strong foundation and education in international studies.
Normative Challenges in a Turbulent World
Authors: Rosenau James N.
Published: August 2006

Rosenau provides an overview of normative issues confronting us at the end of the twentieth century. He writes that the history of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries is the story of convergence around ever more encompassing political entities in order to preserve individual values in the context of collective needs and wants; but today the process of community building has been reversed. He concludes that today, the story is one of fragmentation, of people opting for individual and subgroup needs and wants, and neither citizens nor leaders have any experience in adapting their traditional values to the demands of subgroupism and the increasing ineffectiveness, even the breakup, of whole systems.