bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Experimental evidence for chick discrimination without recognition in a brood parasite host
Authors: Grim Tomáš
Published: December 2006

Recognition is considered a critical basis for discriminatory behaviours in animals. Theoretically, recognition and discrimination of parasitic chicks are not predicted to evolve in hosts of brood parasitic birds that evict nest-mates. Yet, an earlier study showed that host reed warblers (
Acrocephalus scirpaceus
) of an evicting parasite, the common cuckoo (
Cuculus canorus
), can avoid the costs of prolonged care for unrelated young by deserting the cuckoo chick before it fledges. Desertion was not based on specific recognition of the parasite because hosts accept any chick cross-fostered into their nests. Thus, the mechanism of this adaptive host response remains enigmatic. Here, I show experimentally that the cue triggering this ‘discrimination without recognition’ behaviour is the duration of parental care. Neither the intensity of brood care nor the presence of a single-chick in the nest could explain desertions. Hosts responded similarly to foreign chicks, whether heterospecific or experimental conspecifics. The proposed mechanism of discrimination strikingly differs from those found in other parasite–host systems because hosts do not need an internal recognition template of the parasite's appearance to effectively discriminate. Thus, host defences against parasitic chicks may be based upon mechanisms qualitatively different from those operating against parasitic eggs. I also demonstrate that this discriminatory mechanism is non-costly in terms of recognition errors. Comparative data strongly suggest that parasites cannot counter-evolve any adaptation to mitigate effects of this host defence. These findings have crucial implications for the process and end-result of host–parasite arms races and our understanding of the cognitive basis of discriminatory mechanisms in general.
Unexpected heterozygosity in an island mouflon population founded by a single pair of individuals
Authors: Kaeuffer Renaud , Coltman David W , Chapuis Jean-Louis , Pontier Dominique , Réale Denis
Published: December 2006

In population and conservation genetics, there is an overwhelming body of evidence that genetic diversity is lost over time in small populations. This idea has been supported by comparative studies showing that small populations have lower diversity than large populations. However, longitudinal studies reporting a decline in genetic diversity throughout the whole history of a given wild population are much less common. Here, we analysed changes in heterozygosity over time in an insular mouflon (Ovis aries) population founded by two individuals in 1957 and located on one of the most isolated locations in the world: the Kerguelen Sub-Antarctic archipelago. Heterozygosity measured using 25 microsatellite markers has actually increased over 46 years since the introduction, and exceeds the range predicted by neutral genetic models and stochastic simulations. Given the complete isolation of the population and the short period of time since the introduction, changes in genetic variation cannot be attributed to mutation or migration. Several lines of evidence suggest that the increase in heterozygosity with time may be attributable to selection. This study shows the importance of longitudinal genetic surveys for understanding the mechanisms that regulate genetic diversity in wild populations.
A new time-scale for ray-finned fish evolution
Authors: Hurley Imogen A , Mueller Rachel Lockridge , Dunn Katherine A , Schmidt Eric J , Friedman Matt , Ho Robert K , Prince Victoria E , Yang Ziheng , Thomas Mark G , Coates Michael I
Published: December 2006

The Actinopterygii (ray-finned fishes) is the largest and most diverse vertebrate group, but little is agreed about the timing of its early evolution. Estimates using mitochondrial genomic data suggest that the major actinopterygian clades are much older than divergence dates implied by fossils. Here, the timing of the evolutionary origins of these clades is reinvestigated using morphological, and nuclear and mitochondrial genetic data. Results indicate that existing fossil-based estimates of the age of the crown-group Neopterygii, including the teleosts,Lepisosteus(gar) andAmia(bowfin), are at least 40 Myr too young. We present new palaeontological evidence that the neopterygian crown radiation is a Palaeozoic event, and demonstrate that conflicts between molecular and morphological data for the age of the Neopterygii result, in part, from missing fossil data. Although our molecular data also provide an older age estimate for the teleost crown, this range extension remains unsupported by the fossil evidence. Nuclear data from all relevant clades are used to demonstrate that the actinopterygian whole-genome duplication event is teleost-specific. While the date estimate of this event overlaps the probable range of the teleost stem group, a correlation between the genome duplication and the large-scale pattern of actinopterygian phylogeny remains elusive.
Drop or fly? Negative genetic correlation between death-feigning intensity and flying ability as alternative anti-predator strategies
Authors: Ohno Tatsunori , Miyatake Takahisa
Published: December 2006

A prey animal may have the alternative of flying away or feigning death when it encounters predators. These alternatives have a genetic base as anti-predator strategies in the adzuki bean beetle,
Callosobruchus chinensis
. A negative genetic correlation between death-feigning intensity and flying ability was found in
C. chinensis
, i.e. lower flying ability is genetically connected to escaping by dropping from a perch and then feigning death, whereas higher flying ability does not correspond to death-feigning behaviour. Two bidirectional artificial selections for death-feigning duration and flying ability were conducted independently in
C. chinensis
. The strains selected for shorter (longer) duration of death-feigning had higher (lower) flying ability, while the strains selected for lower (higher) flying ability showed longer (shorter) duration of death-feigning. When the two traits were compared in 21 populations of
C. chinensis
derived from different geographical regions, a significant negative correlation was found between death-feigning intensity and flying ability. Based on these results, the choice between alternative escaping behaviours in animals is discussed from two points of view: phenotypic plasticity, an individual with two tactics; and pleiotropic genetic correlation, different individuals with opposite strategies.
Tameness and stress physiology in a predator-naive island species confronted with novel predation threat
Authors: Rödl Thomas , Berger Silke , Michael Romero L , Wikelski Martin
Published: December 2006

Tame behaviour, i.e. low wariness, in terrestrial island species is often attributed to low predation pressure. However, we know little about its physiological control and its flexibility in the face of predator introductions. Marine iguanas (
Amblyrhynchus cristatus
) on the Galápagos Islands are a good model to study the physiological correlates of low wariness. They have lived virtually without predation for 5–15 Myr until some populations were first confronted with feral cats and dogs some 150 years ago. We tested whether and to what extent marine iguanas can adjust their behaviour and endocrine stress response to novel predation threats. Here, we show that a corticosterone stress response to experimental chasing is absent in naive animals, but is quickly restored with experience. Initially, low wariness also increases with experience, but remains an order of magnitude too low to allow successful escape from introduced predators. Our data suggest that the ability of marine iguanas to cope with predator introductions is limited by narrow reaction norms for behavioural wariness rather than by constraints in the underlying physiological stress system. In general, we predict that island endemics show flexible physiological stress responses but are restricted by narrow behavioural plasticity.
How to make an autonomous robot as a partner with humans: design approach versus emergent approach
Authors: Fujita M
Published: December 2006

In this paper, we discuss what factors are important to realize an autonomous robot as a partner with humans. We believe that it is important to interact with people without boring them, using verbal and non-verbal communication channels. We have already developed autonomous robots such as AIBO and QRIO, whose behaviours are manually programmed and designed. We realized, however, that this design approach has limitations; therefore we propose a new approach,intelligence dynamics, where interacting in a real-world environment using embodiment is considered very important. There are pioneering works related to this approach from brain science, cognitive science, robotics and artificial intelligence. We assert that it is important to study the emergence of entire sets of autonomous behaviours and present our approach towards this goal.
Dissecting functional roles of p53 N‐terminal transactivation domains by microarray expression analysis
Authors: Ohki Rieko , Kawase Tatsuya , Ohta Tsutomu , Ichikawa Hitoshi , Taya Yoichi
Published: December 2006

The p53 protein exerts its tumor suppressive function mainly by acting as a transcription activator. Two transactivation domains (TADs) located at the amino‐terminus of p53 are required for transcription activation, and the activity of TADs is tightly regulated by post‐translational modifications, such as phosphorylation. We attempted to dissect the functions of the two TADs and phosphorylation within the TADs by analyzing p53 target genes induced by full‐length p53 (FL‐p53), N‐terminally deleted p53 isoform lacking the first TAD (Δ1stTAD) and p53 carrying point mutations at all serine residues within the two TADs (TAD‐S/A). By performing a comprehensive survey by employing microarray expression analysis, the induction of target genes by FL‐p53, Δ1stTAD and TAD‐S/A was analyzed. All p53s showed different target gene induction patterns, suggesting the importance of the two TADs and phosphorylation within the TADs in target gene induction. Although Δ1stTAD showed a marked decrease in the ability to induce genes induced by FL‐p53, Δ1stTAD induced many apoptosis‐related genes that were not induced by FL‐p53, suggesting the roles of these Δ1stTAD‐induced genes in Δ1stTAD‐dependent apoptosis. Approximately 80% of genes induced by FL‐p53 were not induced by TAD‐S/A, including 29 previously reported p53 target genes such as Hdm2 and Bax, emphasizing the importance of phosphorylation within the TADs. These results demonstrate the significance of the regulation and differential roles of the N‐terminal TADs in p53 transcriptional activity. (Cancer Sci 2007; 98: 189–200)
Effectiveness of nursing‐led inpatient care for patients with post‐acute health care needs: secondary data analysis from a programme of randomized controlled trials
Authors: Harris Ruth , Wilson‐Barnett Jenifer , Griffiths Peter
Published: December 2006

Objectives  To determine whether transfer to a nursing‐led inpatient unit (NLIU) prior to discharge from hospital can improve clinical outcome and reduce length of stay and readmission rate for medically stable post‐acute patients assessed as requiring inpatient care.

Method  Retrospective secondary data analysis of individual patient data (n = 471) from a programme of three, purposefully replicated, pragmatic randomized controlled trials. Patients were referred to the NLIU by their consultant (attending doctor/surgeon) for nursing‐led subacute/post‐acute care and randomly allocated to a treatment group for planned transfer to the NLIU for the remainder of their hospital stay or to a control group for traditional consultant‐led care in acute wards. Outcome measures were physical function (Barthel Index), length of stay, discharge destination, mortality, psychological well‐being (General Health Questionnaire‐12), health‐related distress (Nottingham Health Profile Distress Index), incidence of complications and readmission within 7, 28, 90 and 180 days.

Results  Patients allocated to the NLIU showed greater improvement in physical function (P < 0.001) and were more likely to be discharged to live independently in the community than controls [odds ratio (OR) = 0.42, P = 0.001] although they spent longer in hospital (P = 0.003). They showed greater improvement in psychological well‐being (P = 0.001) and health‐related distress (P = 0.025) and a lower incidence of pressure ulcers (OR = 0.33, P = 0.011).

Conclusion  Transfer to a NLIU can have a beneficial effect on outcomes of care for post‐acute patients with complex health and social needs although length of stay is longer. This study strengthens the evidence of effectiveness of the NLIU model of care and provides evidence of effectiveness of post‐acute and subacute models of care.
Use of hair tubes to survey for shrews: new methods for identification and quantification of abundance
Authors: POCOCK MICHAEL J. O. , JENNINGS NANCY
Published: December 2006

Accurate and sensitive survey and monitoring methods are needed for shrews. We present a new design of hair tube and a new, simple method of species identification from multivariate analysis of four parameters measured from shrew guard hairs using a binocular microscope with incident light.

Multivariate analysis of these parameters measured from hairs of known identity showed that they can be used to identify hair to the species level with 85% accuracy.

We compared our indices of abundance from hair tubes (the hair tube index) with those from live trapping in 40 field margins. Capture‐mark‐recapture methods showed that capture rate did not vary systematically across sites, so that number of individuals captured was used as an index of abundance.

The hair tube index showed a significant association with the number of individuals captured for Sorex araneus and Neomys fodiens. The lack of a significant association for Sorex minutus may be because hair tubes are more sensitive in detecting this species than live trapping.

Hair tubes have additional advantages over live trapping, since they do not require frequent checking, are much lighter and cheaper than live traps, and no licence is required for their use in the UK. We therefore recommend consideration of their use in future surveys and monitoring studies of shrews. We provide an equation so that other researchers can use our multivariate method.
Volunteer surveys as a means of inferring trends in garden mammal populations
Authors: TOMS MICHAEL P. , NEWSON STUART E.
Published: December 2006

Habitats associated with humans, and gardens in particular, may prove to be important for populations of certain mammal species. However, means for measuring change in these populations are lacking.

This paper uses power analyses to examine the potential for mammal observation data, gathered through an extensive volunteer‐based survey of garden birds, to provide measures of population change within garden habitats at both national and regional levels.

Analyses show that this survey protocol has sufficient power to detect a decline in presence of between 5% and 40% at the national level for 20 of the 24 species included in this study. These results demonstrate that data from volunteer surveys allow the annual monitoring of garden use by a range of mammal species within Britain, and highlight the wider potential of such schemes worldwide.
Downregulation of high‐isoelectric‐point extracellular superoxide dismutase mediates alterations in the metabolism of reactive oxygen species and developmental disturbances in hybrid aspen
Authors: Srivastava Vaibhav , Schinkel Helga , Witzell Johanna , Hertzberg Magnus , Torp Mikaela , Srivastava Manoj Kumar , Karpinska Barbara , Melzer Michael , Wingsle Gunnar
Published: December 2006

Transgenic hybrid aspen (Populus tremula L. × P. tremuloides Michx.) plants expressing a high‐isoelectric‐point superoxide dismutase (hipI‐SOD) gene in antisense orientation were generated to investigate its function. Immunolocalization studies showed the enzyme to be localized extracellularly, in the secondary cell wall of xylem vessels and phloem fibers. The antisense lines of hipI‐SOD exhibited a distinct phenotype; growth rate was reduced, stems were thinner and leaves smaller than in wild‐type (WT) plants. The abundance of hipI‐SOD was reduced in the bark and xylem of plants from these antisense lines. The vascular tissue of transgenic lines became lignified earlier than in WT plants and also showed an increased accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Xylem fibers and vessels were shorter and thinner in the transgenic lines than in WT plants. The total phenolic content was enhanced in the antisense lines. Furthermore, microarray analysis indicated that several enzymes involved in cell signaling, lignin biosynthesis and stress responses were upregulated in apical vascular tissues of transgenic plants. The upregulation of selected genes involved in lignin biosynthesis was also verified by real‐time PCR. The results suggest that, in the transgenic plants, a premature transition into maturation occurs and the process is discussed in terms of the effects of increased accumulation of ROS due to reduced expression of hipI‐SOD during development and differentiation.
Anticandidial activity of some essential oils of a mega biodiversity hotspot in India
Authors: Dutta B. K. , Karmakar S. , Naglot A. , Aich J. C. , Begam M.
Published: December 2006

Six essential oils viz. Eucalyptus citriodora, Cymbopogon citratus, Callistemon lanceolatus, Cinnamomum camphora, Citrus limon, Tagetes petula, as well as two standard antibiotics, miconazole and clotrimazole, were tested in vitro for their anticandidial activity. All these essential oils exhibited higher activity than the two synthetic antibiotics. Highest zone of inhibition was recorded in E. citriodora (8.50 mm μl−1) followed by C. lanceolatus (5.63 mm μl−1) establishing their promising anticandidial potential.
Amphotericin B deoxycholate (d‐AMB) use in cases with febrile neutropenia and fungal infections: lower toxicity with suitable premedication
Authors: Oto Ozgur Akin , Paydas Semra , Disel Umut , Yavuz Sinan , Seydaoglu Gulsah
Published: December 2006

In spite of the development of new antifungal drugs, amphotericin B deoxycholate (d‐AMB) remains the gold standard in the treatment of severe fungal infections in immunosuppressed hosts. However, d‐AMB is a toxic drug, the most important dose‐limiting toxicities being nephrotoxicity and infusion‐related allergic reactions. Lipid and liposomal formulations of d‐AMB have relatively lower toxicity and are considered alternative choices. However, the routine use of these formulations is limited by their higher cost. Using retrospective analysis, we explored the incidence of nephrotoxicity and allergic reactions requiring the cessation of conventional d‐AMB in 113 cases treated with the drug. In contrast to knowledge in the relevant literature, we did not detect significant toxicity, which would have required discontinuation of the d‐AMB treatment. Mean serum creatinine levels were 0.72 ± 0.25 and 0.84 ± 0.31 mg dl−1 before and after therapy, respectively. Although the difference between creatinine levels before and after d‐AMB is statistically significant, the creatinine level increased twofold in only eight cases. Mean serum potassium levels were 3.8 ± 0.54 and 3.6 ± 0.7 mmol l−1 before and after d‐AMB respectively. Potassium levels below 3 mmol l−1 were found in 7 and 17 cases before and after d‐AMB respectively. Potassium levels were statistically lower in cases with fungal mucositis. Severe infusion‐related allergic reactions were observed in three cases. Antihistamine and corticosteroid were added to the treatment in these cases. With these findings, we can conclude that d‐AMB is a tolerable, low cost drug which can be safely used provided there is suitable premedication and monitoring of blood urea nitrogen, serum potassium and magnesium levels.
Serial neurochemical measurement of cerebrospinal fluid during the human sexual response cycle
Authors: Krüger Tillmann H. C. , Schiffer Boris , Eikermann Matthias , Haake Philip , Gizewski Elke , Schedlowski Manfred
Published: December 2006

Recent studies examining the neuroendocrine response pattern underlying the human sexual response cycle revealed transient activation of the sympathoadrenal system and a substantial, long‐lasting increase in plasma prolactin concentrations following orgasm in men and women. Prolactin has been discussed as being part of a feedback mechanism that signals centers in the central nervous system, such as the dopaminergic system controlling sexual arousal. To further elucidate the central role of neuropeptides, biogenic monoamines and neurotransmitters in human sexual behavior, a serial cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)‐sampling technique was implemented using a previously established experimental paradigm for sexual activity in a laboratory setting. In parallel with peripheral endocrine measures, lumbar CSF was drawn via an indwelling spinal catheter during the sexual response cycle in 10 healthy males and 10 age‐matched controls, and analysed for prolactin, oxytocin, biogenic monoamines and/or their metabolites as well as inhibitory and excitatory neurotransmitter concentrations. Parallel to raised peripheral sympathetic activity, norepinephrine also increased in CSF during audiovisual, masturbation‐induced sexual arousal and orgasm, and remained elevated for the remainder of the session (F4,72 = 8.79, P = 0.000). In contrast, none of the other measures, in particular prolactin and dopamine or its metabolites, reflected significant alteration. In conclusion, the human sexual response cycle is characterized by an increase in sympathetic activity in plasma and CSF, and by pronounced secretion of plasma prolactin after orgasm. However, alterations in dopaminergic or peptidergic activity are not found in lumbar CSF, possibly due to local and restricted release in diencephalic and mesencephalic brain regions.
Calprotectin in microglia from frontal cortex is up‐regulated in schizophrenia: evidence for an inflammatory process?
Authors: Foster Russell , Kandanearatchi Apsara , Beasley Claire , Williams Brenda , Khan Nadeem , Fagerhol Magne K. , Everall Ian P.
Published: December 2006

Schizophrenia is associated with a number of pathological changes, including alterations in levels of specific proteins. Calprotectin is a novel 36 kDa calcium‐binding protein of the S100 family and appears to be a nonspecific marker of inflammation. Calprotectin has not previously been investigated in brain tissue. Samples of post‐mortem brain tissue from Brodmann area 9 were obtained from prefrontal cortex from subjects with schizophrenia, bipolar affective disorder, major depression, and from controls. Calprotectin levels were determined by ELISA. To determine cellular localization, immunocytochemical and fluorescent double‐labelling analyses were performed. Exogenous calprotectin was added to retinoic acid‐differentiated human SH‐SY5Y neuroblastoma cell cultures in order to investigate mechanisms of action of calprotectin. Calprotectin was detectable in all samples, and mean levels were noted to be highest in schizophrenic brains (P < 0.05) and lowest in controls. Levels were intermediate in bipolar affective disorder and major depression. Exogenous calprotectin appeared to induce dendritic extension in SH‐SY5Y cell culture in a dose‐dependent manner. Calprotectin was found to be localized to microglia. These findings suggest that increased levels of calprotecitn in the brain may reflect inflammatory processes, which play a role in the pathogenesis of major psychiatric disorders. Furthermore, calprotectin may influence dendritic plasticity.
Role of the calcium modulated cyclases in the development of the retinal projections
Authors: Nicol Xavier , Bennis Mohammed , Ishikawa Yoshihiro , Chan Guy C.‐K. , Repérant Jacques , Storm Daniel R. , Gaspar Patricia
Published: December 2006

Transmembrane isoforms of adenylate cyclases (AC) integrate a wide variety of extracellular signals from neurotransmitters to morphogens and can also regulate cAMP production in response to calcium entry. Based on observations in the barrelless mouse strain, the Adcy1 gene (AC1) was involved in the segregation of binocular retinal inputs. To determine the potential role of other AC isoforms we localized the Adcy genes in the visual centres during development, using in situ hybridization. Six different AC subtypes were found in the developing retinal ganglion cell layer (RGC; AC1, AC2, AC3, AC5, AC8, and AC9), and three AC subtypes were expressed in the central brain targets, the dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus (AC1 and AC8), the ventral lateral geniculate nucleus (AC2 and AC8) and the superior colliculus (AC1, AC2, AC8). Using a genetic approach we tested the role of the calcium modulated cyclases AC1, AC5 and AC8 for the segregation retinal fibres. Ipsilateral retinal axons remained exuberant in the AC1–/– mice, with overlapping retinal projections from both eyes in the superior colliculus and the visual thalamus. These abnormalities were similar to those of barrelless mouse mutants. No abnormalities were detectable in the AC5–/– or the AC8–/– mice. Similar abnormalities were noted in the single AC1–/– and the AC1/AC8 double‐knockout mice (DKO). Thus, only AC1 is required for the maturation of the retinal axon terminals whereas AC5 and AC8 are not needed. The specificity of AC1′s action is linked to its cellular localization in the RGCs and to its distinctive functional profile, compared with the other cyclases expressed in the same cells.
Homeostatic plasticity during alcohol exposure promotes enlargement of dendritic spines
Authors: Carpenter‐Hyland Ezekiel P. , Chandler L. Judson
Published: December 2006

Modifications of the size, shape and number of dendritic spines is thought to be an important component of activity‐dependent changes of neuronal circuits, and may play an important role in the plasticity of drug addiction. The present study examined whether homeostatic increases in synaptic N‐methyl‐d‐aspartate (NMDA) receptors in response to chronic ethanol exposure is associated with corresponding morphological changes in dendritic spines. Prolonged exposure of rat hippocampal cultures to either the NMDA receptor antagonist d(–)‐2‐amino‐5‐phosphono‐pentanoic acid or to ethanol increased punctate staining of F‐actin and the postsynaptic density protein‐95 (PSD‐95). The increase in dendritic F‐actin occurred only with clusters that co‐localized with PSD‐95 clusters, indicating that these actin structures likely represent dendritic spines. The ethanol‐induced increases in PSD‐95 and F‐actin clusters were activity‐dependent and reversible. Finally, inhibition of protein palmitoylation prevented ethanol‐induced increases in synaptic NMDA receptor clustering and F‐actin without altering the basal clustering of either F‐actin or PSD‐95. These observations support a model in which chronic ethanol exposure induces homeostatic increases of NR2B‐containing NMDA receptors and PSD‐95 to the postsynaptic density. This in turn may provide a scaffolding platform for the subsequent recruitment of actin signaling cascades that alter actin cycling and promote spine enlargement.
Trade and Financial Integration in East Asia: Effects on Co‐movements
Authors: Shin Kwanho , Sohn Chan‐Hyun
Published: December 2006

In this paper we explore three important areas where deeper trade and financial integration in East Asia can influence: (1) business cycle co‐movements in the region, (2) the extent of risk sharing across countries and (3) price co‐movements across countries. We find evidence that trade integration enhances co‐movements of output but not of consumption across countries. Especially the fact that trade integration does not raise co‐movements of consumption as much as that of output is interpreted as trade integration does not improve the extent of risk sharing. Co‐movements of price arise most significantly as trade integration deepens, lowering the border effects and allowing better opportunities for resource reallocation across countries. In contrast, financial integration demonstrates much weaker evidence of enhancing co‐movements across countries. Deeper financial integration improves price co‐movements weakly but does not enhance output or consumption co‐movements at all. However, since the current level of financial integration in East Asia is quite low, our evidence is too early to firmly determine the role of financial integration.
AMU Deviation Indicators for Coordinated Exchange Rate Policies in East Asia and their Relationships with Effective Exchange Rates
Authors: Ogawa Eiji , Shimizu Junko
Published: December 2006

After the Asian currency crisis in 1997, the monetary authorities of East Asian countries have been strengthening their regional monetary cooperation. In this paper, we propose a deviation measurement for coordinated exchange rate policies in East Asia to enhance the monetary authorities’ surveillance process for their regional monetary cooperation. We calculate an Asian Monetary Unit (AMU) as a weighted average of East Asian currencies following the method used to calculate the European Currency Unit (ECU). Also, we calculate AMU Deviation Indicators which show how much each of the East Asian currencies deviates from a hypothetical benchmark rate in terms of the AMU. Furthermore, we investigate relationships between the AMU Deviation Indicators and the effective exchange rates, which mean international price competitiveness in terms of international trade. We found strong relationships between the AMU Deviation Indicators and the effective exchange rates except for some currencies. The results suggest that monitoring the AMU Deviation Indicator will be useful for the monetary authorities’ surveillance in East Asia in order to stabilise their effective exchange rate or price competitiveness among the East Asian countries.
Exchange Rate Pass‐through and Currency Invoicing: Implications for Monetary Integration in East Asia
Authors: Parsons Craig R. , Sato Kiyotaka
Published: December 2006

Exporter's price‐setting behaviour and currency invoicing play a key role in the literature on the new open‐economy macroeconomics. This paper estimates exchange rate pass‐through coefficients for the exports of four ASEAN countries: Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines and Thailand. In addition, previous estimates of pass‐through as well as invoicing behaviour in East Asia are discussed in the context of regional integration. The new pass‐through coefficients are estimated under two alternate specifications for up to 34 goods for each of the four ASEAN countries destined for up to 13 major markets. The results suggest: (a) little pass‐through is occurring in Southeast Asia and (b) this lack of pass‐through is more likely attributable to the fact that they are small countries in a relatively integrated market, rather than evidence of pricing to market. The implications for regional monetary integration of this apparently low degree of pass‐through are detailed.
EDITORIAL: RETHINKING ASSISTANCE FOR AFRICA
Authors: Collier Paul
Published: December 2006

Africa is currently a fragile mess. So was Europe in 1945. The USA supported Europe through security, trade and governance policies that complemented aid. Africa needs the same co‐ordinated approach from Europe now.
THE 364 ECONOMISTS AND THE 1981 BUDGET: AN EXAMINATION OF THE EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE
Authors: Congdon Tim
Published: December 2006

Earlier this year we passed the 25th anniversary of the letter to The Times from 364 economists protesting about government economic policy in general and the 1981 Budget in particular. In a recent publication, Stephen Nickell, then a member of the Monetary Policy Committee of the Bank of England, defended the letter. This article contends that Nickell's argument was wrong. This is not merely a matter of historical interest, it is important that the issues are understood if mistakes are not to be made in economic policy in the future.
EMPLOYMENT PROTECTION LEGISLATION AND THE GROWTH OF THE SERVICE SECTOR IN THE EUROPEAN UNION
Authors: Zientara Piotr
Published: December 2006

In modern developed economies it is the service sector that generates jobs. In Anglo‐Saxon economies, where employment protection legislation is low and unions comparatively weak, services account for three‐quarters of income and four‐fifths of jobs. Yet in France, Germany and Italy, where the reverse is true, the service sector accounts for much less of the economy in terms of income and jobs. This article shows that employment protection legislation – defended by trade unions still dominating manufacturing in continental Europe – results in higher unemployment rates and also negatively affects the growth of services.
THE TROUBLE WITH FINAL SALARY PENSION SCHEMES
Authors: Silver Nick
Published: December 2006

The decline in final salary pension schemes (FSS) is a result of increasing costs caused in part by legislative interference. In this paper it is argued that FSS have always been detrimental to the economy. In a misguided attempt to save FSS, the government risks bankrupting large sections of the British corporate sector. Other policy measures could allow greater flexibility for trustees of pension schemes and remove counter‐productive legislation and encourage innovative market‐based solutions to pensions problems.
AIRLINE TICKET TAXES: INNOVATION OR IDIOCY?
Authors: Hård af Segerstad Anna
Published: December 2006

The French President Jacques Chirac has proposed an airline ticket tax to finance international efforts to reduce poverty. This article describes how the proposal came about and examines the benefits and drawbacks of this method of helping the poor. It is concluded that the tax is more of a stunt to ensure Mr Chirac's place in the history books than a genuinely innovative method of financing the elimination of poverty.
The digestive process of the dinoflagellate, Oxyrrhis marina Dujardin, feeding on the chlorophyte, Dunaliella primolecta Butcher: a combined study of ultrastructure and free amino acids
Authors: ÖPIK H. , FLYNN K. J.
Published: December 2006

The digestive process of Oxyrrhis marina Dujardin feeding on Dunaliella primolecta Butcher commences with the capture of the phototroph, perhaps involving trichocysts which restrain the prey, followed by engulfing by a membrane that appears to originate from near the fiagella pit of the O. marina. The prey, still within the capture membrane, enters the O. marina and is digested over a period estimated to be of the order of 12‐24h. During digestion the prey first becomes more electron dense and the contents coagulate. Later the prey becomes less distinct and disintegrates; by this stage remains from several prey may be enclosed within one vacuole. Small O. marina, captured by large prey‐depleted O. marina, suffer the same fate. Absence of any correlation between changes in intracellular amino acids and digestion of prey probably resulted from each O. marina containing several prey at various stages of digestion. However, the value of the glutamine/glutamate (Gln/Glu) ratio remained at around 0‐3, whilst the population changed from one dominated by N‐replete D. primolecta to one dominated by prey‐replete O. marina, N‐deplete D. primolecta and prey‐deplete O. marina both have Gln/Glu of < 0.1. The Gln/Glu ratio may therefore be of use in assessing the nutrient status of heterotrophic microflagellates.
SUBCELLULAR DISTRIBUTION OF B6 VITAMERS IN CEREBRAL CORTEX
Authors: Loo Y. H. , Mack K.
Published: December 2006

Abstract— The distribution of B6 vitamers in subcellular fractions of cerebral cortex was examined. No pyridoxine and only traces of pyridoxamine could be detected in cerebral cortex. Significant quantities of pyridoxal were found in the cytoplasmic fraction. No vitamin B6 was detected in the subcellular fractions carrying microsomes, myelin, vesicles, and small membranes settling above the 1‐0 M‐sucrose gradient. Pyridoxamine phosphate was the predominant form of vitamin B6 in cerebral cortex of mature rats and guinea pigs, being present in almost twice the concentration of pyridoxal phosphate. More of the latter compound was present in the cytoplasm than in the mitochondria. In contrast, pyridoxamine phosphate was compartmentalized in extraterminal and intraterminal mitochondria. Of especial interest was the finding that there was a significant amount of pyridoxamine phosphate attached to the presynaptic membrane and a small but detectable amount in the fraction containing postsynaptic membranes.
ISOLATION OF [3H]ACETYLCHOLINE POOLS BY SUBCELLULAR FRACTIONATION OF CEREBRAL CORTEX SLICES INCUBATED WITH [3H]CHOLINE
Authors: Richter Judith A. , Marchbanks R. M.
Published: December 2006

Abstract— Subcellular fractions were isolated from tissue incubated in [3H]choline with or without the addition of 33 mM‐KCl. Radioactive and bioassayable ACh were measured in the synaptosomes, synaptosomal cytoplasm and in the vesicles. After incubation with KCI the vesicles, as isolated, contained ACh of a lower specific activity than the cytoplasmic ACh. Therefore the vesicle fraction as isolated does not represent the source of the high specific activity ACh released upon K+ stimulation. However the vesicle fraction is heterogeneous. Most of the bioassayable ACh but little of the radioactive ACh in the vesicles passed through iso‐osmotic Sephadex columns. These results raise the question of the existence of vesicles which contain highly radioactive ACh but which lose it during their isolation by current methods. Different possible forms of heterogeneity are discussed.
BRAIN RECOVERY FROM ESSENTIAL FATTY ACID DEFICIENCY IN DEVELOPING RATS 1
Authors: White H. B. , Galli C. , Paoletti R.
Published: December 2006

Abstract— Rats were supplied from before birth with an essential fatty acid (EFA) deficient, a control, or an EFA deficient‐control combination diet for various periods up to 6 months.

It was found that EFA deficiency resulted in brain weights decreased in comparison with control values throughout development. The brain weight/body weight relationship, however, expressed by Donaldson's equation was generally maintained in animals fed either totally deficient or control diets. Animals deficient even during the brain's most actively growing period were able to recover completely on restoration of the control diet for a sufficiently long period.

Fatty acid alterations in brain ethanolamine phosphoglyceride (EPG) during EFA deficiency were extensive. Acids of the ω6 family (18:2, 20:2, 20:3, 20:4, 22:3, 22:4 but not 22:5) were reduced from control figures. In the w9 family 20:3 and 22:3 were especially elevated whereas 22:6 ω3 levels were similar to those of the controls, finally decreasing only after a lengthy period of EFA deprivation. Mean unsaturation contents, as expressed by the proposed unsaturation index notation (Ulmol) agreed closely in EPG fatty acids of deficient and control rats at a particular age. On substitution of the control for the deficient diet the ω6 family rebounded in a manner such that values for 20:4, 22:4, and 22:5 exceeded comparable figures in control animals. Concomitantly the ω9 family receded below control levels, and ω3 acids remained or returned to normal. This overadjustment in ω6 and ω9 families continued even after a prolonged period on the control diet.
THE DETERMINATION OF PICOMOLE AMOUNTS OF ACETYLCHOLINE IN MAMMALIAN BRAIN
Authors: Goldberg A. M. , McCaman R. E.
Published: December 2006

Abstract— In any assay for the determination of acetylcholine based on the conversion of choline to a product, the immediate problem is the removal of endogenous choline. Other published enzymatic assays have taken advantage of electrophoresis to accomplish this goal. In the assay to be described, this is accomplished by the enzymatic phosphorylation of endogenous choline by choline kinase. Once this reaction is complete, endogenous acetylcholine is simultaneously hydrolysed and then phosphorylated with [32P]ATP. The labelled product [32P]phosphorylcholine is separated from the labelled substrate by precipitation of the ATP and further separation is accomplished on microcolumns of ion exchange resin. Using this methodology, picomole amounts of acetylcholine, derived from tissue, can be measured.
THE MEASUREMENT OF THE INORGANIC PHOSPHATE CONTENT OF BRAIN IN THE PRESENCE OF BONE FRAGMENTS
Authors: Hawkins R. A. , Nielsen R. C. , Veech R. L.
Published: December 2006

Abstract— –A method is described by which inorganic phosphate may be extracted from brain when bone fragments are present. Inorganic phosphate is extracted into 80% methanol and this does not hydrolyse phosphate esters of brain or dissolve bone. The inorganic phosphate content of brain was 217 μmol/g in both fed and 24 h starved rats.
THE SYNTHESIS OF ACETYLCHOLINE BY THE OLIVOCOCHLEAR BUNDLE
Authors: Jasser A. , Guth P. S.
Published: December 2006

Abstract— Choline acetyltransferase (ChAc; EC 2.3.1.6) was assayed in the membranous cochlea and in the eighth cranial nerve (both the vestibular and cochlear components) from the point where it leaves the brain stem to the internal auditory meatus of the cat. To determine the contribution of the efferent innervation of the cochlea to this enzymatic activity both eighth nerves and both membranous cochleae were assayed at 17–29 days following section of the right, crossed and uncrossed olivo‐cochlear bundles (OCB) in the cat. The lesion was produced along the right sulcus limitans on the floor of the fourth ventricle. The left eighth nerves and cochleae served as controls in the ChAc assay. There was a significant decrease in ChAc activity in the right cochlea and eighth nerve after OCB section and degeneration. The mean activity of ChAc in the right cochleae of the 6 operated cats was 15 ± 7 μg of ACh formed. h−1 (g wet wt. of tissue) −1 in comparison to the rate of all the intact cochleae of 156 ± 38 μg of ACh formed. h−1. (g of tissue)−1, a statistically significant difference (P < 0005). The mean activity of ChAc in the right eighth nerves of the cats with OCB lesions was 30 ± 8 n‐g of ACh formed. h−1. (g of tissue)−1in comparison to 91 ± 19 fig of ACh formed . h−1. (g of tissue)−1 found for intact eighth nerves. This difference was also significant (P < 0005). Thus, section and degeneration of the crossed and uncrossed OCB reduce the activity of ChAc in the eighth nerve and membranous cochlea. This finding provides support for the hypothesis suggesting the cholinergic nature of olivo‐cochlear transmission.
DIPHTHERIA TOXIN INHIBITS THE SYNTHESIS OF MYELIN PROTEOLIPID AND BASIC PROTEINS BY PERIPHERAL NERVE IN VITRO1,2
Authors: Pleasure D. E. , Feldmann B. , Prockop D. J.
Published: December 2006

Abstract— Diphtheria toxin (DT) did not produce measurable degradation of myelin proteins or sulphatide in sciatic nerves of chick embryos after incubation in vitro for 4 h. In contrast, DT inhibited the in vitro incorporation of L‐[U‐14C]leucine into myelin proteins by the nerves after a delay of 1 h. Separation of the myelin proteins by SDS‐polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis indicated that the synthesis of Wolfgram proteins and proteins not entering the gel was inhibited by 21–22 per cent, whereas synthesis of myelin proteolipid and basic proteins was inhibited by 79–88 per cent. Incorporation of 35SO4 into myelin [35S]sulphatide was also inhibited by DT after a delay of 2 h. The inhibition of [35S]sulpha‐tide incorporation into myelin caused by DT differed from that observed with puromycin in that it did not depend on depletion of an intracellular transport lipoprotein. Instead, the inhibition seemed to be secondary to the decreased synthesis of myelin proteolipid and basic proteins.
KINETICS OF CHOLINE ACETYLTRANSFERASES (EC 2.3.1.6) FROM HUMAN AND OTHER MAMMALIAN CENTRAL AND PERIPHERAL NERVOUS TISSUES
Authors: White Helen L. , Wu Joyce Chen
Published: December 2006

Abstract— Choline acetyltransferase (EC 2.3.1.6) was partially purified from human caudate nucleus and putamen, human sciatic nerve, rabbit and rat brain, and rabbit sciatic nerve. Kinetic constants were determined under the same conditions for all six extracts. Extrapolated Km values were between 6.6 and 18 μM for acetyl‐CoA and between 0.4 and 1.2 mM for choline. Product inhibition patterns indicated that ChAc from both central and peripheral nervous tissues of man and the rabbit obeys a Theorell‐Chance mechanism. Kinetic parameters suggest a possible influence on ACh synthesis of the in vivo concentration ratio, CoA/acetyl‐CoA.
LEVEL AND AMINO ACID ACCEPTOR ACTIVITY OF MOUSE BRAIN tRNA DURING NEURAL DEVELOPMENT
Authors: Johnson T. C. , Chou L.
Published: December 2006

Abstract— The level of tRNA in mouse brain tissue was measured at various stages of postnatal development. The amount of tRNA per unit of brain wet weight was little, if at all, altered during the first 22 days after birth and decreased by 26 and 32 per cent by 56 days and maturity, respectively. On a DNA or cellular basis, there was no maturation‐dependent decrease in tRNA content. The total amino acid acceptor activity of tRNA for seven different amino acids was measured during neural development. There were considerable differences in the tRNA acceptor activities of individual amino acids within an age group; however on a DNA basis, there was little difference between tRNA preparations obtained from newborn and adult mouse brain tissue. The in vivo levels of aminoacylated‐tRNA for the seven amino acids of interest, were measured in brain tissue of 1–, 9–, 34, 70–day‐old and adult (over 9 months old) mice. Alterations in tRNA level, total tRNA acceptor activity, for each amino acid, and the levels of in uivo aminoacylation of tRNA were shown to be independent of developmental alterations in brain amino acid pool sizes. The results are discussed with regard to the availability of cellular amino acids for translational events during early mammalian brain development.
SUBCELLULAR DISTRIBUTION OF ISOCITRATE DEHYDROGENASES IN NEONATAL AND ADULT MOUSE BRAIN
Authors: Loverde A. W. , Lehrer G. M.
Published: December 2006

Abstract— The activity and subcellular distribution of NADP‐ and NAD‐isocitrate de‐hydrogenases (ICDH) (EC 1.1.1.42 and 1.1.1.41, respectively) in brains of adult and newborn mice have been determined. In the adult, NAD‐ICDH activity in whole brain homogeantes was 1–17 mol/kg wet wt of brain/h (MKH), whereas the NADP‐ICDH activity was 0.223 MKH. In the newborn, the activity of the NAD‐dependent enzyme was only 0.246 MKH, whereas the NADP‐dependent enzyme activity was 1.23 MKH. At both ages, 66 per cent of the NADP‐ICDH activity was in the cytosol, less than 10 per cent was in the purified mitochondrial fraction and the remainder was in the crude synaptosomal fraction. Less than 10 per cent of the NAD‐ICDH activity was in the cytosol in both the newborn and adult, whereas 50 per cent was in the purified mitochondrial fraction. The crude synaptosomal fraction from the newborn and adult brains contained 28 and 22 per cent, respectively, of the total NAD‐ICDH activity. The activities of these enzymes in the cytosol and mitochondria were compared with those of succinate dehydrogenase and with three other enzymes which utilize the product, 2‐oxoglutarate, as substrate. The relationship of the isocitrate dehydrogenases to the metabolism of adult and newborn brain is discussed.