bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Frontal Assessment Battery Does Not Differentiate Frontotemporal Dementia from Alzheimer’s Disease
Authors: Castiglioni Stefania , Pelati Oriana , Zuffi Marta , Somalvico Francesco , Marino Lorenza , Tentorio Tiziana , Franceschi Massimo
Published: May 2006

Background: An early differentiation of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) from frontotemporal dementia (FTD) is important, since these conditions are essentially different regarding prognosis and therapeutical approach. Until now, no single test is available which allows a reliable differentiation. The Frontal Assessment Battery (FAB) has been found to have good reliability in identifying an executive deficit in frontal syndromes and in extrapyramidal disorders. The ability of the FAB to distinguish AD from FTD in mildly demented patients is less clearly assessed. Methods: We compared FAB scores in a consecutive series of 33 FTD (frontal variant) and 85 AD patients. Results: FAB global scores in the two groups were very similar, also when considering only mildly demented subgroups [Mini Mental State Examination (MMSE) score ≧20; 20 FTD and 38 AD patients]. Considering FAB subscores, only the ‘go-no go’ subtest showed a significant difference, reflecting a poorer inhibitory motor control in AD patients. FAB scores in the two groups of patients correlated with global cognitive decline (MMSE), and with executive and visuospatial test scores, showing good concurrent validity. Conclusion: The FAB does not differentiate patients with AD from those with FTD, like all other executive tests. However, it may be useful in the examination of executive function in AD, FTD and several other pathological conditions.
The Specter of the Golem: The Quest for Safer Encaustic Painting Practice in the Age of OSHA
Authors: Whitson Natalie Shifrin
Published: May 2006

The author's use of the mil-lennia-old, multi-dimensional en-caustic painting technique, which uses hot colored wax as a paint-ing medium, led her to the literary and artistic concept of the golem, which she sees as a metaphor for the appropriate use of technol-ogy. This, in turn, prompted the author to learn more about en-caustic from an industrial-hygiene perspective. Owing to the com-mendable handling characteristics of encaustic, many painters after using it never go back to using oil or acrylic paints; however, the act of heating wax creates airborne substances that can cause long-term health effects to artists who do not take common-sense pre-cautions. This article offers infor-mation to help artists set up safer encaustic/conventional painting studios. The author also intro-duces encaustic's long history, describes various encaustic tech-niques and lists permanent pig-ments that are generally safer than other professionally ac-cepted materials.
Multidimensional Scaling for Evolutionary Algorithms— Visualization of the Path through Search Space and Solution Space Using Sammon Mapping
Authors: Pohlheim Hartmut
Published: May 2006

Multidimensional scaling as a technique for the presentation of high-dimensional data with standard visualization techniques is presented. The technique used is often known as Sammon mapping. We explain the mathematical foundations of multidimensional scaling and its robust calculation. We also demonstrate the use of this technique in the area of evolutionary algorithms. First, we present the visualization of the path through the search space of the best individuals during an optimization run. We then apply multidimensional scaling to the comparison of multiple runs regarding the variables of individuals and multi-criteria objective values (path through the solution space).
Issues in Auditory Display
Authors: Eldridge Alice
Published: May 2006

Auditory displays have been successfully deployed to assist data visualization in many areas, but have as yet received little attention in the field of artificial life. This article presents an overview of existing design approaches to auditory display and highlights some of the key issues that are of practical relevance to the use of auditory displays in artificial life research. Examples from recent experiments are used to illustrate the importance of considering factors such as data characteristics, data-display mappings, perceptual interactions within and between display modalities, and user experience and training in designing new visualization tools. It is concluded that while further research is needed to develop generic design principles for auditory display, this should not stand in the way of exploration of bespoke designs for specific applications.
Visualizing Evolutionary Dynamics of Self-Replicators: A Graph-Based Approach
Authors: Salzberg Chris , Antony Antony , Sayama Hiroki
Published: May 2006

We present a general approach for evaluating and visualizing evolutionary dynamics of self-replicators using a graph-based representation for genealogy. Through a transformation from the space of species and mutations to the space of nodes and links, evolutionary dynamics are understood as a flow in graph space. A formalism is introduced to quantify such genealogical flows in terms of the complete history of localized evolutionary events recorded at the finest level of detail. Represented in a multidimensional viewing space, collective dynamical properties of an evolving genealogy are characterized in the form of aggregate flows. We demonstrate the effectiveness of this approach by using it to compare the evolutionary exploration behavior of self-replicating loops under two different environmental settings.
How Do Global Credit-Rating Agencies Rate Firms from Developing Countries?
Authors: Ferri Giovanni , Liu Li-Gang
Published: May 2006

This paper examines the information content of firm ratings. We disentangle the relative contribution to firms' ratings of sovereign risks and of the individual firms' performance indicators employed by rating agencies. We reach three conclusions. First, the contribution of sovereign risk to firm ratings is high in developing countries but is negligible in developed countries. Second, even after controlling for the “country ceiling effect” (i.e., the constraint put on the private firms' rating by the rating of the country in which the firms operate), the information content of ratings for firms in developing countries is much smaller than for firms in developed countries. Third, cross-country indicators of information quality help explain these discrepancies, but they do not entirely account for them.
The Stabilization of an Open Economy with Capital Controls: An Analysis Using Malaysian Data
Authors: Yoshino Naoyuki , Kaji Sahoko , Ibuka Yoko
Published: May 2006

The purpose of this paper is to analyze the effectiveness of capital controls and fixed exchange rates in improving economic welfare. We apply Malaysian data to our theoretical model and derive the following results for the period of our estimation. High exchange rate volatility negatively affects Malaysian net exports and real GDP. By stabilizing the exchange rate and recovering monetary policy autonomy, capital controls and fixed exchange rates can lead to lower values of loss functions. This beneficial effect is stronger, the more open the Malaysian economy.
On Alternatives to Aggressive Demand Policies to Revitalize the Japanese Economy
Authors: Nishimura Kiyohiko G. , Saito Makoto
Published: May 2006

This paper claims that a scarcity of profitable private investment opportunities starting in the early 1990s or even earlier is a fundamental cause of Japan's prolonged economic stagnation during the 1990s and early 2000s. It presents evidence that the economy has been largely at a private equilibrium (i.e., at its optimum for the physical and human capital Japan has inherited from the past), rather than in a disequilibrium constrained by the binding zero bound of nominal interest rates and/or widespread liquidity constraints. Consequently, aggressive aggregate demand policies, particularly zero nominal interest rates coupled with aggressive quantity easing, are ineffective means for escaping from Japan's current economic stagnation and deflation. Reflation policies based on money financing alone are unlikely to solve the problem because of their strong distributional side effects and limited effects on employment and output. The paper concludes that although exchange rate policies are more promising than other aggregate demand policies, their political feasibility is questionable, and aggregate demand policies are unlikely to be effective without new structural initiatives to increase investment. Although the Japanese economy is at a private equilibrium, it is far from its social optimum. Socially desirable investment opportunities have not been exploited fully in Japan, mainly because most of them are unprofitable for the private sector. Socially oriented investment trusts are proposed as one way to encourage such investment.
ASEAN-China Economic Competition and Free Trade Area
Authors: Yue Chia Siow
Published: May 2006

The economic rise of China is having wide-ranging repercussions in ASEAN and the rest of the world. ASEAN perceives both threat and opportunity from China's economic success: the threat arises from the size and rapid growth of China's economy and the competition for export markets and foreign direct investment; the opportunity arises from possible increases in both exports to China's rapidly growing market and Chinese investment in ASEAN enterprises. ASEAN has embarked on deeper and faster integration toward an ASEAN Economic Community to meet these challenges and is simultaneously engaged in several ASEAN+1 initiatives to further improve its economic efficiency and market access. This paper explores the increasing competition and cooperation between ASEAN and China.
The Impact of Intergovernmental Transfers in the Japanese Local Government Fiscal System
Authors: Shirai Sayuri
Published: May 2006

Since the 1990s, a decline in local revenue caused by sluggish economic growth and an increased tendency for local governments to implement expansionary fiscal policies on behalf of Japan's central government have given rise to a growing gap between autonomous revenue and total expenditure. This has caused a rapid increase in various intergovernmental transfers, particularly to lowincome local governments, leading to excessive and unproductive spending. Within a cash-based settlement accounting system, the fiscal positions of low-income prefectures have become superior to those of high-income ones, giving the impression that the former are fiscally sounder than the latter. Decentralization initiatives should take these problems of the existing system into account.
WordNet Nouns: Classes and Instances
Authors: Miller George A. , Hristea Florentina
Published: May 2006

WordNet, a lexical database for English that is extensively used by computational linguists, has not previously distinguished hyponyms that are classes from hyponyms that are instances. This note describes an attempt to draw that distinction and proposes a simple way to incorporate the results into future versions of WordNet.
Evaluating WordNet-based Measures of Lexical Semantic Relatedness
Authors: Budanitsky Alexander , Hirst Graeme
Published: May 2006

The quantification of lexical semantic relatedness has many applications in NLP, and many different measures have been proposed. We evaluate five of these measures, all of which use WordNet as their central resource, by comparing their performance in detecting and correcting real-word spelling errors. An information-content-based measure proposed by Jiang and Conrath is found superior to those proposed by Hirst and St-Onge, Leacock and Chodorow, Lin, and Resnik. In addition, we explain why distributional similarity is not an adequate proxy for lexical semantic relatedness.
Finite-State Registered Automata for Non-Concatenative Morphology
Authors: Cohen-Sygal Yael , Wintner Shuly
Published: May 2006

We introduce finite-state registered automata (FSRAs), a new computational device within the framework of finite-state technology, specifically tailored for implementing non-concatenative morphological processes. This model extends and augments existing finite-state techniques, which are presently not optimized for describing this kind of phenomena. We first define the model and discuss its mathematical and computational properties. Then, we provide an extended regular language whose expressions denote FSRAs. Finally, we exemplify the utility of the model by providing several examples of complex morphological and phonological phenomena, which are elegantly implemented with FSRAs.
Comparative literature in question
Authors: Yu Pauline
Published: May 2006

Comparative literature is at once a subject of study, a general approach to literature, a series of specific methods of literary history, a return to a medieval way of thought, a methodological credo for the day, an administrative annoyance, a new wrinkle in university organization, a recherché academic pursuit, a recognition that even the humanities have a role to play in the affairs of the world, close-held by a cabal, invitingly open to all. …
Playing in the War Zone
Authors: Bailey Brett
Published: May 2006

Finding himself in the midst of political upheaval surrounding Jean-Bertrand Aristide's fall from power in Haiti, Bailey saw in the violence a great need for the kind of healing and empowering that social theatre can bring.
Holy Body:
Authors: Jones Amelia
Published: May 2006

Expanding on Ron Athey's legacy of exposing the holiness of his body in body art performances, and on Julianna Snapper's training as an opera singer, Judas Cradle evokes relations of desire, connection, and repulsion. Holy Body takes off from the queer ethics proffered by Judas Cradle through a rapturous and sometimes pained interpretive hysteria directed toward affirming the erotic ethics implicit in the piece.
Performa/(Re)Performa
Authors: Cesare T. Nikki , Joy Jenn
Published: May 2006

Newly commissioned pieces from Performa05 raise questions about shifting modes of transmission and witness in the staging of performance and visual art, also key concerns considered in response to Seven Easy Pieces, 2005, Marina Abramovic's (re)performance of seminal works by Vito Acconci, Bruce Nauman, Joseph Beuys, VALIE EXPORT, and Gina Pane.
Is There a Nativity Gap? New Evidence on the Academic Performance of Immigrant Students
Authors: Schwartz Amy Ellen , Stiefel Leanna
Published: May 2006

Public schools across the United States are educating an increasing number and diversity of immigrant students. Unfortunately, little is known about their performance relative to native-born students and the extent to which the “nativity gap” might be explained by school and demographic characteristics. This article takes a step toward filling that void using data from New York City where 17 percent of elementary and middle school students are immigrants. We explore disparities in performance between foreign-born and native-born students on reading and math tests in three ways—using levels (unadjusted scores), “value-added” scores (adjusted for prior performance), and an education production function. While unadjusted levels and value-added measures often indicate superior performance among immigrants, disparities are substantially explained by student and school characteristics. Further, while the nativity gap differs for students from different world regions, disparities are considerably diminished in fully specified models. We conclude with implications for urban schools in the United States.
How Changes in Entry Requirements Alter the Teacher Workforce and Affect Student Achievement
Authors: Boyd Donald , Grossman Pamela , Lankford Hamilton , Loeb Susanna , Wyckoff James
Published: May 2006

We are in the midst of what amounts to a national experiment in how best to attract, prepare, and retain teachers, particularly for high-poverty urban schools. Using data on students and teachers in grades 3–8, this study assesses the effects of pathways into teaching in New York City on the teacher workforce and on student achievement. We ask whether teachers who enter through new routes, with reduced coursework prior to teaching, are more or less effective at improving student achievement. When compared to teachers who completed a university-based teacher education program, teachers with reduced coursework prior to entry often provide smaller initial gains in both mathematics and English language arts. Most differences disappear as the cohort matures, and many of the differences are not large in magnitude, typically 2 to 5 percent of a standard deviation. The variation in effectiveness within pathways is far greater than the average differences between pathways.
An Orthogonal Multi-objective Evolutionary Algorithm for Multi-objective Optimization Problems with Constraints
Authors: Zeng Sanyou Y. , Kang Lishan S. , Ding Lixin X.
Published: May 2006

In this paper, an orthogonal multi-objective evolutionary algorithm (OMOEA) is proposed for multi-objective optimization problems (MOPs) with constraints. Firstly, these constraints are taken into account when determining Pareto dominance. As a result, a strict partial-ordered relation is obtained, and feasibility is not considered later in the selection process. Then, the orthogonal design and the statistical optimal method are generalized to MOPs, and a new type of multi-objective evolutionary algorithm (MOEA) is constructed. In this framework, an original niche evolves first, and splits into a group of sub-niches. Then every sub-niche repeats the above process. Due to the uniformity of the search, the optimality of the statistics, and the exponential increase of the splitting frequency of the niches, OMOEA uses a deterministic search without blindness or stochasticity. It can soon yield a large set of solutions which converges to the Pareto-optimal set with high precision and uniform distribution. We take six test problems designed by Deb, Zitzler et al., and an engineering problem (W) with constraints provided by Ray et al. to test the new technique. The numerical experiments show that our algorithm is superior to other MOGAS and MOEAs, such as FFGA, NSGAII, SPEA2, and so on, in terms of the precision, quantity and distribution of solutions. Notably, for the engineering problem W, it finds the Pareto-optimal set, which was previously unknown.
Rule Fitness and Pathology in Learning Classifier Systems
Authors: Kovacs Tim
Published: May 2006

It has long been known that in some relatively simple reinforcement learning tasks traditional strength-based classifier systems will adapt poorly and show poor generalisation. In contrast, the more recent accuracy-based XCS, appears both to adapt and generalise well. In this work, we attribute the difference to what we call strong over general and fit over general rules. We begin by developing a taxonomy of rule types and considering the conditions under which they may occur. In order to do so an extreme simplification of the classifier system is made, which forces us toward qualitative rather than quantitative analysis. We begin with the basics, considering definitions for correct and incorrect actions, and then correct, incorrect, and overgeneral rules for both strength and accuracy-based fitness. The concept of strong overgeneral rules, which we claim are the Achilles' heel of strength-based classifier systems, are then analysed. It is shown that strong overgenerals depend on what we call biases in the reward function (or, in sequential tasks, the value function). We distinguish between strong and fit overgeneral rules, and show that although strong overgenerals are fit in a strength-based system called SB-XCS, they are not in XCS. Next we show how to design fit overgeneral rules for XCS (but not SB-XCS), by introducing biases in the variance of the reward function, and thus that each system has its own weakness. Finally, we give some consideration to the prevalence of reward and variance function bias, and note that non-trivial sequential tasks have highly biased value functions.
Runtime Analysis of the (μ + 1) EA on Simple Pseudo-Boolean Functions
Authors: Witt Carsten
Published: May 2006

Although Evolutionary Algorithms (EAs) have been successfully applied to optimization in discrete search spaces, theoretical developments remain weak, in particular for population-based EAs. This paper presents a first rigorous analysis of the (μ + 1) EA on pseudo-Boolean functions. Using three well-known example functions fromthe analysis of the (1 + 1) EA, we derive bounds on the expected runtime and success probability. For two of these functions, upper and lower bounds on the expected runtime are tight, and on all three functions, the (μ + 1) EA is never more efficient than the (1 + 1) EA. Moreover, all lower bounds growwith μ. On a more complicated function, however, a small increase of μ provably decreases the expected runtime drastically.

This paper develops a newproof technique that bounds the runtime of the (μ + 1) EA. It investigates the stochastic process for creating family trees of individuals; the depth of these trees is bounded. Thereby, the progress of the population towards the optimum is captured. This new technique is general enough to be applied to other population-based EAs.
An Extension of Geiringer's Theorem for a Wide Class of Evolutionary Search Algorithms
Authors: Mitavskiy Boris , Rowe Jonathan
Published: May 2006

The frequency with which various elements of the search space of a given evolutionary algorithm are sampled is affected by the family of recombination (reproduction) operators. The original Geiringer theorem tells us the limiting frequency of occurrence of a given individual under repeated application of crossover alone for the classical genetic algorithm. Recently, Geiringer's theorem has been generalized to include the case of linear GP with homologous crossover (which can also be thought of as a variable length GA). In the current paper we prove a general theorem which tells us that under rather mild conditions on a given evolutionary algorithm, call it A, the stationary distribution of a certain Markov chain of populations in the absence of selection is unique and uniform. This theorem not only implies the already existing versions of Geiringer's theorem, but also provides a recipe of how to obtain similar facts for a rather wide class of evolutionary algorithms. The techniques which are used to prove this theorem involve a classical fact about random walks on a group and may allow us to compute and/or estimate the eigenvalues of the corresponding Markov transition matrix which is directly related to the rate of convergence towards the unique limiting distribution.
Three—Not Two—Major Environmental Counternarratives to Globalization
Authors: Roe Emery , Eeten Michel J.G. van
Published: May 2006

Opposition to globalization by environmentalists tends to fall into two camps: a so-called “green” counternarrative and an “ecological” one. The green counter-narrative assumes that we have already witnessed sufficient harm done to the environment due to globalization and thus prescribes taking action now to oppose further globalizing forces. It is confident in its knowledge about the causes of environmental degradation as they relate to globalization and certain in its wholesale opposition to globalization. In contrast, the ecological counter-narrative is less certain about globalization's record of environmental harm but worries about future threats given the scale and intensity of globalization's increasing reach. Rather than call for immediate action and wholesale opposition, it seeks further research to identify—and specific policy initiatives to avoid— potentially massive but as yet unknown effects of globalization on the environment. Policy analysts opposing globalization are caught between the counter-narratives and often subscribe to elements of each. The challenge is to find another, more compelling counternarrative in which real-time environmental harm can be treated more seriously than it is in either of the two primary counterparts.
Does Bureaucracy Really Matter? The Authority of Intergovernmental Treaty Secretariats in Global Environmental Politics
Authors: Bauer Steffen
Published: May 2006

Although a number of scholars acknowledge the relevance of intergovernmental bureaucracies in world politics, International Relations research still lacks theoretical distinction and empirical scrutiny in understanding their influence in the international arena. In this article I explore the role of intergovernmental treaty secretariats as authoritative bureaucratic actors in global environmental politics. I employ organizational theories and sociological institutionalism for comparative qualitative case study research that traces variances at the outcome level of two environmental treaty secretariats, the secretariats to the Vienna Convention and the Montreal Protocol (“Ozone Secretariat”) and the UN Convention to Combat Desertification (“Desertification Secretariat”). While the organizational design of both secretariats is similar, their institutional histories and outcomes differ markedly. Looking for possible explanations for these differences I focus on the activities of both secretariats and how they relate to the authority they enjoy vis-à-vis the parties they serve.
The Rearguard of Modernity: Environmental Skepticism as a Struggle of Citizenship
Authors: Jacques Peter
Published: May 2006

Environmental skepticism denies the reality and importance of mainstream global environmental problems. However, its most important challenges are in its civic claims which receive much less attention. These civic claims defend the basis of ethical authority of the dominant social paradigm. The article explains how political values determine what skeptics count as a problem. One such value described is “deep anthropocentrism,” or the attempt to split human society from non-human nature and reject ecology as a legitimate field of ethical concern. This bias frames what skeptics consider legitimate knowledge. The paper then argues that the contemporary conservative countermovement has marshaled environmental skepticism to function as a rearguard for a maladaptive set of core values that resist public efforts to address global environmental sustainability. As such, the paper normatively argues that environmental skepticism is a significant threat to efforts to achieve sustainability faced by human societies in a globalizing world.
Institutional Interaction in Global Environmental Governance: The Case of the Cartagena Protocol and the World Trade Organization
Authors: Oberthür Sebastian , Gehring Thomas
Published: May 2006

The competitive quest of the Cartagena Protocol and the WTO for authority to regulate international trade in genetically modified organisms (GMOs) exemplifies a typical interaction between international institutions with diverging objectives. This article first develops a conceptual framework for the analysis of institutional interaction that emphasizes disaggregation of complex interaction situations into separate cases of clearly directed inter-institutional influence. These cases can follow different causal mechanisms. Second, applying this framework to the interaction between the Cartagena Protocol and the WTO reveals that existing commitments have driven parties toward a step-wise delimitation of the institutions' jurisdictions. Although the WTO acquired a firstmover advantage by structuring the regulatory field, the Cartagena Protocol showed surprising strength in exploiting the remaining room for maneuver. The structure of international governance thus steers institutions with differing objectives toward a jurisdictional balance that, while reflecting existing power relations, limits the potential for conflict and frames available policy choices.
The Making of Global Environmental Norms: Endangered Species Protection
Authors: Epstein Charlotte
Published: May 2006

Endangered species protection represents one of the most enduring paradigms of global environmental governance. From a localized concept rooted in North American conceptions of nature, it evolved over the first half of the 20th century into a norm shaping inter-state behavior. This article analyzes the making of endangered species protection as the first global environmental norm, within a broadly constructivist framework. The central concern is how the “making of” the norm impacted its becoming; and how it continues to determine the current orientation of global environmental policy-making. Three enduring legacies are explored. First, the norm was essentially “made in the North” and for the North. A genealogy of the norm thus brings into sharp relief the North-South tensions that have developed as the norm was extended onto a global level. Second, the article highlights the divide between conservationists and preservationists, which continues to plague much policy-making today, as it leads to conflicting visions of global environmental well-being. In a genealogical perspective, this split appears constitutive of the norm itself, and no closer to being resolved. Third, the article examines the targeted single-species approach that was first ushered in by the norm, and has become entrenched as a template for global environmental policy-making at large. There the article asks whether the norm has in fact precluded the passage to more comprehensive, ecosystemic approaches in the making of global environmental policies. Throughout the discussion the whaling issue takes center stage, because of its role in the emergence of the norm, and because of the way it continues to capture recent developments in global environmental politics.
Winning with Allies: The Strategic Value of the Afghan Model
Authors: Andres Richard B. , Wills Craig , Griffith Thomas E.
Published: May 2006

When the war in Afghanistan ended in 2002, the country was largely governed by Afghans. This result came about because, rather than inserting thousands of troops into the country, the United States fought the war using a new type of military operation that relied on special forces, airpower, and Afghan allies. In the operation, approximately fifty U.S. special forces personnel accomplished what planners had believed would require 50,000 U.S. ground troops. In the wake of the war, military planners largely dismissed the Afghan model as unworkable elsewhere. The performance of the model in Afghanistan and later in Iraq, however, illustrates that the traditional military's pessimism toward this method is unwarranted. The Afghan model vastly improves U.S. leverage in coercive diplomacy and war because it requires few U.S. ground troops and facilitates the transition to stability and democracy by empowering indigenous allies.
Allies, Airpower, and Modern Warfare: The Afghan Model in Afghanistan and Iraq
Authors: Biddle Stephen D.
Published: May 2006

The Afghan model of warfare uses indigenous allies to replace American conventional ground troops by exploiting U.S. airpower and small numbers of American special operations forces. Some argue that this model is widely applicable, enabling a major restructuring of the U.S. military and considerable freedom for American military intervention. An assessment of such claims in light of recent combat experience in Afghanistan and Iraq, however, finds the model's applicability to be more limited. Where U.S. allies have had skills and motivation comparable to their enemies', the Afghan model has proven extremely lethal even without U.S. conventional ground forces. But where U.S. allies have lacked these skills, they have proven unable to exploit the potential of American airpower. The model can thus be a powerful tool, but one with important preconditions for its use—and these preconditions limit its potential to transform U.S. force structure or defense policy.
Deterring Terrorism: It Can Be Done
Authors: Trager Robert F. , Zagorcheva Dessislava P.
Published: May 2006

Many scholars and policymakers argue that deterrence strategies have no significant role to play in counterterrorism. The case against deterrence rests on three pillars: terrorists are irrational; they value their political ends far above anything deterring states could hold at risk; and they are impossible tofind. Each pillar is either incorrect or its implications for deterrence have been misunderstood. Under certain conditions, deterrence is preferable to the use of force. Analysis of the structure of terrorist networks and the processes that produce attacks, as well as the multiple objectives of terrorist organizations, suggests that some deterrence strategies are more effective than those of the past. In particular, many terrorist groups and elements of terrorist support networks can likely be deterred from cooperating with the most threatening terrorist groups, such as al-Qaida. Although the use of force against multiple groups creates common interests among them, an appropriate deterrence strategy could fracture global terrorist networks. The current policy of the U.S. and Philippine governments toward the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF) and the Abu Sayyaf Group illustrates the potential of this approach and the risks of using force. Not only can groups such as the MILF be deterred from cooperating with al-Qaida, they may even be coerced into providing local intelligence on operatives linked to it.
Response to “France and the German Question, 1945–1955,” by Michael Creswell and Marc Trachtenberg
Authors: Hitchcock William I.
Published: May 2006

Three scholars offer separate responses to the article by Michael Creswell and Marc Trachtenberg. The responses include some common points, but they diverge sharply in other respects. The first two respondents generally agree with the conclusions reached by Creswell and Trachtenberg, but one of them believes that the article goes too far (in its contention that France's anxiety about the Soviet Union eclipsed its concerns about Germany), whereas the other argues that the article does not go far enough in showing how the United States adapted its policy to accommodate French leaders. The second respondent also questions whether Creswell and Trachtenberg have added anything new to the latest “revisionist” works on French-German relations in the first decade of Cold War. The third respondent, unlike the first two, rejects the main thrust of the article by Creswell and Trachtenberg and seeks to defend the traditional view that France was very reluctant to go along with U.S. and British policies on the German question. This respondent also questions whether Creswell and Trachtenberg have focused on the most appropriate sources of evidence.
The Aldo Moro Murder Case in Retrospect
Authors: Drake Richard
Published: May 2006

On 16 March 1978, the Marxist-Leninist Red Brigades kidnapped Aldo Moro, Italy's paramount political figure of the time. The Italian government steadfastly refused to negotiate with the Red Brigades for Moro's life, and on 9 May the terrorists executed him. Conspiracy theories based on the logic of Cold War politics and involving accusations against subversive elements in the Italian government and the secret services of foreign governments, particularly the United States and Israel, quickly surfaced. These theories gained wide currency among the Italian public despite overwhelming evidence that the Red Brigades bore exclusive responsibility for the crime. This article surveys some of the recent literature on what is still an extremely controversial subject in Italy.
The Cold War Origins of the U.S. Central Command
Authors: Odom William E.
Published: May 2006

During the Carter administration the Middle East and Southwest Asia became a third major theater in the Cold War struggle along with Europe and the Far East. Initially, President Jimmy Carter tried to remove this region from the Cold War competition, but the collapse of the shah's regime in Iran prompted Carter to reverse course and to build a “Persian Gulf security framework” that later allowed the United States to deal with three wars and many smaller clashes. The interagency process implementing this dramatic change was rent with clashes of departmental interests. The State Department and the military services resisted the structural changes they would later need to confront not only the Soviet threat but also intraregional conflicts. Moreover, the Reagan administration, after forcing the Joint Chiefs of Staff to make the Central Command formal, actually slowed the process of its growth, leaving it far from ready to embark on the Gulf War in 1990–1991.
Going Organic: Converting Patagonia's Cotton Product Line
Authors: Chouinard Yvon , Brown Michael S.
Published: May 2006

The integration of industrial ecology principles into a business may mean significant changes in its customary activities. In this article, we present a case study of a decision by Patagonia, a manufacturer and distributor of clothing and gear for outdoor sports, to use only organically grown cotton for our cotton products as of spring I996.We describe the history of our efforts to reduce our environmental impacts, the relationship between understanding the life‐cycle impacts of garments in general and cotton in particular onour decision, and the changes required throughout the company to implement the decision. Although initial salesof the organic cotton products have met or exceeded expectations, most customers continue to buy our productsfor traditional reasons: quality, fit, styling, and brand. Westruggle to change consumer perceptions about the environmental significance of their purchases and influencemajor apparel manufacturers to make a similar switch. Our experience suggests, first, that consumers and industryneed to understand the principles of industrial ecology and, second, that environmental improvements must be integrated into all aspects of operations (e.g., marketing). Anunexpected benefit of the decision was an increase in our knowledge about the garment life cycle, which in turn improves our ability to develop new fabrics when off‐the‐shelf products do not meet our needs. Much remains to bedone, howevel; to reduce impacts associated with other aspects Of our products and corporate activities.
Life‐Cycle Assessment: Constraints on Moving from Inventory to Impact Assessment
Authors: Owens J. W.
Published: May 2006

Life‐cycle assessment (LCA) is a technique for systematically analyzing a product from cradle‐to‐grave, that is, from resource extraction through manufacture and use to disposal. LCA is a mixed or hybrid analytical system. An inventory phase analyzes system inputs of energy and materials along with outputs of emissions and wastes throughout life cycle, usually as quantitative mass loadings. An impact assessment phase then examines these loadings in light of potential environmental issues using a mixed spectrum of qualitative and quantitative methods. The constraints imposed by inventory's loss of spatial, temporal, dose‐response, and threshold information raise concerns about the accuracy of impact assessment. The degree of constraint varies widely according to the environmental issue in question and models used to extrapolate the inventory data. LCA results may have limited value in two areas: (I) local and/ortransient biophysical processes and (2) issues involving biological parameters, such as biodiversity, habitat alteration, and toxicity. The end result is that impact assessment does not measure actual effects or impacts, nor does it calculate the likelihood of an effect or risk Rather, LCA impact assessment results are largely directional environmental indicaton. The accuracy and usefulness of indicators need to be assessed individually and in a circumstance‐specific manner prior to decision making. This limits LCAs usefulness as the sole basis for comprehensive assessments and the comparisons of alternatives. In conclusion, LCA may identify potential issues from a systemwide perspective, but more‐focused assessments using other analytical techniques are often necessary to resolve the issues.
Clean Recycling of Lead‐Acid Batteries for Electric Vehicles: A Reply to Socolow and Thomas
Authors: Lave Lester B. , Hendrickson Chris T. , McMichael Francis C.
Published: May 2006

This article is stimulated by the analysis of Socolow and Thomas in the first issue of this journal. Our work showed that a lead‐acid battery‐powered electric vehicle (Ev) would result in more lead being discharged into the environment than a comparable car burning leaded gasoline. Five hundred thousand EVs would lead to a 20% increase in lead use in the United States, and presumably a comparable 20% increase in lead discharges.

The Socolow‐Thomas analysis asserts: (I) choosing not to pursue technology that uses toxic materials will unduly constrain the research and development (R&D) in advanced vehicles and limit the options likely to emerge from that research; (2) we do not do a full risk assessment of the lead discharges from lead smelting, battery making and recycling; and (3) in response to regulation the industry might devise a “clean recycling” system.

We doubt the wisdom of increasing R&D on lead batteries because introducing large quantities of lead into cars will pose health risks. The possibility of clean recycling in the future is not an adequate basis for mandating EVs. Proponents of EVs should prove there is no harm to the environment Regulators should not require EVs until there is a reasonable showing of environmental benefit and that the requirement is cost‐effective in reducing ozone.
The Grand Objectives: A Framework for Prioritized Grouping of Environmental Concerns in Life‐Cycle Assessment
Authors: Graedev Thomas E.
Published: May 2006

The goal of life‐cycle assessment (LCA) is to conduct an inventory of the flows of materials and energy attributable to an industrial product and then to calculate the impacts of those flows on the environment, over the entire product life cycle from premanufacture to end of 1ife. A related technique, streamlined life‐cycle assessment (SLCA), attempts to preserve the breadth of perspective in that approach while performing assessments more efficiently. A common failing of both techniques is that recommendations for actions to improve the environmental responsibility of products have rarely been related in an intellectually rigorous fashion to the environmental concerns they purport to ameliorate. In this article l propose that a framework for the way in which these relationships can be established is by a decision‐making process that begins with the “grand objectives,” the common consensus of the vital goals for the maintenance and improvement of life on Earth. The grand objectives lead to the identification of crucial environmental concerns, and those, in turn, to determining societal activities that need to be examined. Actions related to those activities can then be designed to contribute to the achievement of the grand objectives. If and when such a consensus is established, LCAs and SLCAs can be undertaken with confidence that the actions they recommend will serve broad societal goals.
Dynamics of Material and Energy Use in U.S. Pulp and Paper Manufacturing
Authors: Ruth Matthias , Harrington Thomas
Published: May 2006

This article presents a dynamic computer model of US. pulp and paper production to facilitate organization of diverse industry data and to investigate the industry's likely material and energy use in the future. A set of probable scenarios of growth in paper and paperboard production, wastepaper utilization rates, and diffusion of technologies within the industry is used to assess the realm of material and energy use profiles for the period 1988‐2020.

Several conclusions emerge from this study. First, stabilizing or reducing total energy consumption in pulp and paper production, in combination with moderate production growth, quires that future annual increases in energy efficiency must be almost twice as high as the efficiency improvements achieved for the period 1972‐1992. Second, to maintain or increase the industry's use of biomass fuels depends on one or a combination of different approaches, such as rapid dissemination of energy‐saving technology or reduction in the rate of growth of wastepaper utilization. Third, increased wastepaper utilization rates lead to a significant replacement of pulpwood by recycled fiber. Yet toyal pulpwood consumption continues to increase to satisr) the requirements of increased paper and paperboard produdion, even under the assumption that the wastepaper utilization rate passes 50% and wastepaper utilization triples by the year 2020
A Life‐Cycle Approach to Purchasing and Using Environmentally Preferable Paper
Authors: Blum Lauren , Denison Richard A. , Ruston John F.
Published: May 2006

The PaperTask Force, a group of major U.S. paper purchasers convened by the Environmental Defense Fund (EDF), recently completed a life cycle‐based study of various grades of paper that examined a broad range of economic, functional, and especially environmental issue. This 28‐month effort culminated in the release of a final report and recommendations intended to educate paper purchasers about the consequences of their paper purchasing decisions. The report also provides actionable steps that can be taken to increase the purchase and use of environmentally preferable paper; defined as paper that reduces environmental impacts while meeting business needs. The technical basis for the PaperTask Force recommendations is an analysis of environmental impacts associated with the entire life cycle of several major grades of paper; reaching literally from the forest to the 1andfill. The Task Force's findings and recommendations cover each of the major areas of opportunity to lessen the environmental impacts of using paper: reduction in paper use; paper recycling and buying recycled paper: forest management; and pulp and paper manufacturing. journal of Industrial Ecology I5 paper recycling
Mars, Materials, and Three Morality Plays: Materials Flows and Environmental Policy
Authors: Rejeski David
Published: May 2006

Although industrial ecology represents a captivating metaphor and rich repertoire of analytical tools, its impact on environmental policy has been marginal at best. This article examines the insights provided by the studies of three common materials in the US. economy‐lead, arsenic, and silver‐and the abilrty of such studies to illuminate some larger and looming challenges for future environmental policy. Three specific challenges are explored: the flow of materials across national borders, the increasing embodiment of emissions in products, and the dangers of unchallenged assumptions about the drivers of material flows. The article argues that industrial ecology can inform public policy but that it is time for the practitioners of industrial ecology, an applied science, to apply it in the often messy world of environmental policymaking.
A Process Chaining Approach toward Product Design for Environment
Authors: Sheng Paul , Worhach Paul
Published: May 2006

This article presents an approach toward product design for environment (DfE) at the level that integrates environmental hazard analysis with models of transformation processes. As a complementary analysis tool to life‐cycle assessment (LCA), this method would support detailed design decisions through modeling of a “process chain” for a subset of the product's life cycle. The building blocks for this approach are a set of unit process models that can convert process and design parameters into estimates for energy utilization, production scrap, and ancillary waste flows. These values for quantity of environmental releases can be integrated using a multicriiteria environmental hazard evaluation methodology that can estimate the “qualrty” of environmental releases. Finally, the waste information can be used to support a design model that can link design parameters to material, process, and operational parameter selection. A case study illustrating printed circuit board (PCB) assembly is presented to show process chain implementation in manufacturing applications.