bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Voices of first responders :
Authors: Choong Yee-Yin , Buchanan Kerrianne , Dawkins Shan e , Prettyman Sandra Spickard
Published: September 2022

The Nationwide Public Safety Broadband Network (NPSBN) is being developed to provide a dedicated network for the use of first responders during incident response. A wave of new communication technologies compatible with the NPSBN is on the horizon, as major research and development efforts continue for these technologies. The National Institute of Standards and Technology's (NIST) Public Safety Communications Research (PSCR) Usability Team investigated the contexts in which first responders work, their experiences with incident response, and their problems with and needs for communication technology. The team conducted an exploratory, sequential, mixed-methods study to gather insights into the experiences and needs of first responders. The multi-phase study included in-depth interviews with 193 first responders in Phase 1, followed by a nationwide survey of 7 182 first responders in Phase 2. This report is the tenth volume published from this data and provides a holistic understanding of the usability of communication technology for first responders. It is unique in that it combines results from both Phase 1 and Phase 2 providing an integrated analysis of both the qualitative and quantitative data. This integration allowed us to develop overarching themes about the problems and needs of first responders, focusing specifically on the barriers and facilitators to the adoption and use of communication technology. In this report, we discuss how adoption and use of communication technology is impacted by first responders' experiences across three themes: technology trustworthiness, user autonomy, and frustration. Overarchingly, there is a lack of technology trustworthiness combined with low autonomy that often results in frustration for first responders. The development of trustworthy technology takes time and relies on first responders knowing that their input and experiences matter (i.e., having autonomy). The lack of trustworthiness and autonomy has an impact on the acceptance and adoption of new technology and the ability of first responders to accomplish their primary tasks. This work can be useful for the researchers, designers, and developers (R&D) community as it works to improve current and develop future communication technology for first responders. It can also aid administrators and decision makers (ADMs) in making purchasing decisions and developing policies related to communication technology for first responders in their departments.
Voices of First Responders:
Authors: Dawkins Shanee , Choong Yee-Yin , Buchanan Kerrianne , Spickard-Prettyman Sandra
Published: September 2022

The goal of the National Institute of Standards and Technology’s (NIST) Public Safety Communications Research (PSCR) program’s Usability Team was to provide guidance on the usability of public safety communication technology. Toward that end, the PSCR Usability Team collected and analyzed data related to the contexts in which first responders work and their experiences with communication technology. Data analysis of first responder needs for and problems with communication technology resulted in the development of six user-centered design guidelines. These guidelines serve as a set of best practices for technology developers working to develop and improve communication technology in the public safety domain. This Special Publication is primarily intended for designers, developers, vendors, and researchers of public safety communication technology, as well as for public safety administrators and decision-makers. It is one of four in a special Voices of First Responders mini-series highlighting the experiences of first responders with communication technology, including their needs for and problems with communication technology. The special mini-series focuses on four first responder disciplines: Communication Center & 9-1-1 Services (COMMS); Emergency Medical Services (EMS); Fire Service (FF); and Law Enforcement (LE). Each presents discipline-specific data supporting the six user-centered design guidelines. This publication in the special mini-series focuses specifically on first responders in Communication Center & 9-1-1 Services (COMMS). In this publication, each of the six user-centered guidelines are discussed, along with supporting data, to provide a succinct view for how to optimize the FF user experience with communication technology. The results presented here are not exhaustive or comprehensive but provide a high-level summary of findings. Additional information can be found in the previous nine volumes of the Voices of First Responders Series which are cited on the final page of this publication. Ultimately, the goal is to provide guidance for ensuring an optimal user experience with communication technology for first responders in FF.
Unilateral bullous pemphigoid in a hemiplegic patient
Authors: Belmourida Siham , Meziane Meriame , Ismaili Nadia , Benzekri Laila , Senouci Karima
Published: September 2022

Sir, Bullous pemphigoid (BP) is the most common autoimmune bullous dermatosis, mainly affecting the elderly. Its association with neurological diseases has been reported for several years in several studies, including with strokes. We report a new case of unilateral BP in a hemiplegic patient. A 78-year-old patient with a history of hypertensive and ischemic heart disease and ischemic stroke three years ago was admitted for pruriginous bullous dermatosis evolving for one month prior to admission. A general examination revealed right hemiplegia with facial involvement and aphasia. A dermatological examination found localized erosions on the paralyzed side of the body, without urticarial or bullous lesions. Nikolsky’s sign was absent and the rest of the clinical examination was without abnormality (Figs. 1a – 1c). A skin biopsy revealed a skin coating widely ulcerated on the surface without eosinophilic infiltrate. Indirect immunofluorescence was positive at 1260. The diagnosis of BP was retained and the patient was started on a strong local dermocorticoid with a good evolution and the disappearance of the lesions after two months.
GEOGRAPHY OF NEOLIBERALISM AND SPATIAL FIX
Authors: Mutabdžija Goran
Published: September 2022

This paper emphasizes the consequences of economic inequality, the roots of which lie at the heart of capitalism. It was explained by Marx (1867), and a modern interpretation was offered by Harvey (1982, 1985, 1987, 2013b) through the term spatial fix, which connects the development of capitalism and urbanization. In this global process, inequalities arise that can be illustrated numerically: the net worth of the world's 358 wealthiest people in 1996 was equal to the total income of the poorest, which makes up 45% of the world's population or 2.3 billion people. This fact of economic inequality, most convincingly written about by Piketty (2016) and Chancel (2020), became even more critical during the Covid-19 pandemic. The gap between the richest and the poorest widened. The period in which several significant changes in global economic policy took place was called neoliberalism (Harvey, 1989, 2013a; Dušanić, 2016) and led to the establishment of a new economic system that significantly determined the further directions of geography. Understanding these processes implies an interactive approach to their study because the capital/labor relationship defines the global framework for developing urbanization and demography, and thus geography (Mutabdžija, 2020, 2021).
Drugs and the FDA
Authors: Sekeres Mikkael A.
Published: September 2022

How the FDA was shaped by public health crises and patient advocacy, told against a background of the contentious hearings on the breast cancer drug Avastin.

Food and Drug Administration approval for COVID-19 vaccines and the controversial Alzheimer's drug Aduhelm made headlines, but few of us know much about how the agency does its work. Why is the FDA the ultimate US authority on a drug's safety and efficacy? In Drugs and the FDA, Mikkael Sekeres—a leading oncologist and former chair of the FDA's cancer drug advisory committee—tells the story of how the FDA became the most trusted regulatory agency in the world. It took a series of tragedies and health crises, as well as patient advocacy, for the government to take responsibility for ensuring the efficacy and safety of drugs and medical devices.

Before the FDA existed, drug makers could hawk any potion, claim treatment of any ailment, and make any promise on a label. But, throughout the twentieth century, the government was forced to take increasing action when children were poisoned by contaminated diphtheria and smallpox vaccines, an early antibiotic contained antifreeze, a drug prescribed for morning sickness in pregnancy caused babies to be born disfigured, and access to AIDS drugs was limited to a few clinical trials while thousands died. Sekeres describes all these events against the backdrop of the contentious 2011 hearings on the breast cancer drug Avastin, in which he participated as a panel member. The Avastin hearings, he says, put to the test a century of the FDA's evolution, demonstrating how its system of checks and balances works—or doesn't work.
What happens in the brain?
Authors: Smith Faye , Griffiths Timothy D
Published: September 2022

A new imaging method reveals previously undetected structural differences that may contribute to developmental language disorder.
Effect of Twelve Week Hypergravity Training on Sprinting Speed of the Cricketers
Authors: Sankar Ghosh Sandip , Roy Prosenjit , Biswas Raju , Biswas Biswajit
Published: September 2022

Background: Sprinting speed as a derivative of lower-body power is considered to be the most vital component of physical ability of the players. Traditional training methods fail to improve sprinting speed of the experienced players up to a certain limit that demands newer training means for further development of speed. Hypergravity Training (HT) has been identified as such a new type of training that was used by few researchers for the improvement of sprinting speed and power of the experienced rugby and soccer players. But it has still not been implemented on the cricketers for the development of sprinting speed. Objective: Therefore, the current randomized control trial was directed to assess the development of sprinting speed of the cricketers through the implementation of HT in comparison with the Normalgravity Training (NT) condition. Method: The present study was a quasi-experimental research work. One hundred and five (N=105) state cricketers were selected as subjects. The participants were split into three equal groups (n=35 each) viz. i) Normalgravity Training Group (NGTG), ii) Hypergravity Training Group (HGTG) iii) Control Group (CG). NGTG HGTG groups underwent the same exercise protocol for the periods of twelve weeks in normal hypergravity conditions respectively whereas CG was free from the training intervention. Sprinting speed of the cricketers was measured by a 30m run test. ANCOVA preceded by Tukey’s LSD test were performed for data analysis. Statistical significance was examined at p.05 level. Results: Significant F-value (F=61.122; p 0.001) was observed. Sprinting speed of both training groups (NGTG HGTG) improved significantly (Mean Diff=1.28 0.86; Critical Diff =0.41) in comparison to the CG. HGTG also differed significantly (Mean Diff =0.42; Critical Diff =0.41) when compared with NGTG in sprinting speed. Conclusions: The sprinting speed of HGTG improved better than NGTG. Therefore, HT is found as an effective training means for developing sprinting speed.
Homicides Involving American Indian and Alaska Native Individuals
Authors: McPherson Lori
Published: September 2022

This Viewpoint discusses homicide rates among American Indian and Alaska Native individuals and the importance of utilizing existing strategies tailored to the needs of American Indian and Alaska Native communities to prevent violence and reduce these rates.
Screening for Syphilis
Authors: Jin Jill
Published: September 2022

This JAMA Patient Page summarizes the US Preventive Services Task Force’s recent recommendations on screening for syphilis infection in adults and adolescents who are at increased risk for syphilis infection.
Screening for Syphilis Infection in Nonpregnant Adults and Adolescents
Authors: Henninger Michelle L. , Bean Sarah I. , Lin Jennifer S.
Published: September 2022

This systematic review to support the 2022 US Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement on screening for syphilis infection summarizes published evidence on the benefits and harms of screening for syphilis infection in asymptomatic, nonpregnant adults and adolescents at increased risk for syphilis infection.
Comparison of US Hospital Charity Care Policies Before vs After Onset of the COVID-19 Pandemic
Authors: Goodman Christopher , Flanigan Amber , Probst Janice C. , Bai Ge
Published: September 2022

Importance

Tax-exempt hospitals are required to provide charity care to maintain their tax-exempt status; charity care policies must be published online with clear eligibility criteria. Prior research has shown wide variability in charity care policy content; it is unknown how hospitals change their charity care policies over time.

Objective

To examine changes to tax-exempt hospital charity care policies before vs after the COVID-19 pandemic.

Design, Setting, and Participants

This cohort study used downloaded charity care policies from a geographically representative sample of 170 tax-exempt hospitals from December 1 to 31, 2019, and December 1 to 31, 2021, and categorized the policy changes made as more restrictive, more generous, indeterminate, minimal, or not updated.

Exposures

Onset of the COVID-19 pandemic.

Main Outcomes and Measures

The primary outcome was charity care policy content changes from 2019 to 2021. Also examined were the effects of hospital ownership type, state Medicaid expansion status, and hospital consolidation on policy changes.

Results

In this sample of 170 hospitals, 151 published documents available for comparison. Among these hospitals, 127 (84.1%) updated their charity care policies and 77 (51.0%) made substantial changes, with 242 distinct policy changes to categories such as income eligibility cutoffs, asset limitations, and service exclusions. Although the majority of hospitals expanded charity care (47 [31.1%]), a sizable minority restricted charity care (12 [7.9%]). Medicaid expansion during the study period and hospital consolidations were not associated with expansion of charity care; the largest merger in this sample led to reduced charity care at all 4 hospitals involved.

Conclusions and Relevance

Tax-exempt hospitals appear to have updated their policies with mostly positive changes during and after the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic; however, some hospitals restricted charity care in 2021 documents. Unpublicized or vague eligibility criteria may limit patients’ understanding of charity care policies and conceal the full extent of charity care policy changes over time. Policy makers should consider requiring greater transparency and simplification for hospital charity care policies to ensure adequate access to care for uninsured and underinsured patients.
Advocacy Networks
Authors: Bozzini Emanuela
Published: September 2022

Advocacy networks consist of individuals and organizations “who are bound together by shared values, a common discourse and dense exchange of information and services” to defend the causes of others and/or advance a cause in the public interest. They organize around campaigns on issues related to a common good, or the defense of rights, and they are thus characterized by a centrality of principled beliefs, normative ideas, and values.
Altruism and Social Movements
Authors: Passy Florence
Published: September 2022

What is altruism? Since the 1990s scholars have agreed to define altruism as acts that seek to increase another's welfare. Those acts are performed voluntarily without external constraints or coercion, with the intention of helping someone else, and without expecting any rewards. These are the four components of altruistic acts.
Biographical Availability
Authors: Beyerlein Kraig , Bergstrand Kelly
Published: September 2022

In the context of social activism, biographical availability refers to freedom from personal constraints that tend to increase the costs and risks of participation. Individuals who have spouses, partners, children, or less time‐flexible occupations are expected to be less willing and likely to participate in collective action because familial and occupational commitments can reduce the amount of time and energy available for activism and increase the risks associated with it. Theoretically, biographical availability should be more significant in cases of costly or risky social activism, with costs referring to the time, money, and energy requirements of participation and risk referring to the anticipated dangers of participation, such as physical harm or social, financial, and legal repercussions. For example, while signing petitions does not involve significant time away from work or children, participating in protest events does, and because this activity could result in arrest, there is potentially an additional risk for those who are employed or who are primary caregivers of children.
Biographical Consequences of Activism
Authors: Giugni Marco
Published: September 2022

Social and political movements have a wide range of effects. The biographical consequences of social movements are one of them. They can be defined as effects on the life course of individuals who have participated in movement activities, effects that are at least in part due to involvement in those activities. Other types of effects include political and cultural outcomes. Political consequences are those effects of movement activities that alter in some way the movements' political environment. Policy outcomes, a special category of political outcomes consisting of changes in legislation or other policy measures induced by social movements, are among the most often studied. Cultural outcomes are those effects of movement activities that alter in some way the movements' cultural environment. They are perhaps the most difficult to study empirically as they are not easily identified, they depend on a wide range of other actors and events, and often they make themselves felt only in the long run. In addition, one can also imagine the existence of that which some have called spillover effects, that is, effects of movements on each other.
Boycotts
Authors: Forno Francesca
Published: September 2022

In a boycott, one or more parties attempt to achieve certain goals by urging individuals to refrain from purchasing certain goods or using certain public services. Unlike other forms of action utilized by social movements, such as demonstrations and other unconventional activities, boycotts aim to activate the political agency embedded in consumption practices, by stimulating individuals to use marketplace means to achieve what may or may not be marketplace ends.
Bystander Publics
Authors: Couldry Nick
Published: September 2022

Bystander publics lack the long‐standing political motivation of the engaged publics of political parties or social movements, and so are important for different reasons, depending on one's direction of analysis. For those interested in expanded political agency, bystander publics are the standing reserve of political action, available for recruitment to parties and movements. For those concerned with apathy, bystander publics signal entropy in political systems: the temporarily mobilized lose interest and revert to the “bystander frame” which simply wants an end to conflict. These two contrasting scenarios make this difficult‐to‐define group of rich interest.
Charisma
Authors: Andreas Joel
Published: September 2022

Charisma was introduced as a social scientific concept by Max Weber, who used the term to identify one of three types of legitimate authority. In Weber's framework, bureaucratic (or legal‐rational) authority is based on respecting rational rules, traditional (or patriarchal) authority is based on following traditional ways, and charismatic authority is based on challenging existing rules and traditions. The first two, he wrote, are conservative in that they underpin existing institutions, while charismatic authority is revolutionary in that it challenges the legitimacy of existing institutions. Weber used social movements as examples of the power of charismatic authority and following his logic all social movements that challenge some aspect of the status quo must rely on charismatic authority.
Class Consciousness: The Marxist Conception
Authors: Crossley Nick
Published: September 2022

Within the Marxist tradition “class consciousness” refers to the awareness of itself as a class which the dominated class within capitalism, the proletariat, is predicted to arrive at, historically. When the proletariat become aware of themselves as a class and of their collective strength, Marx claims, they will rise up in revolution and overthrow their bourgeois masters.
Community Organizing (United States)
Authors: Swarts Heidi
Published: September 2022

Community organizing is the process of mobilizing people in the same geographic area to advocate for themselves in enduring organizations. While social movements are usually issue‐based, community organizing (CO) is geographic constituency‐based. It typically addresses multiple issues, such as housing, jobs, public safety, healthcare, and community reinvestment. While affluent communities organize also, the term generally refers to organizing residents of poor and working‐class communities into lasting organizations to gain power. Tactics vary from unruly disruption to more conventional methods of rewarding and punishing elected officials through mobilizing voters. While most social movements have geographically organized mobilization, “community organizing” has a more specific meaning. Likewise, while organizing disempowered individuals in communities has occurred worldwide, this entry focuses on the United States, where “community organizing” refers to specific traditions with US roots.
Decolonization and Social Movements
Authors: Boudreau Vince
Published: September 2022

In their influence on state and social structures, colonial processes established some of the basic parameters for the social movements that contested imperial rule, and for those that rose to confront the independent governments of the newly postcolonial world. For decades, the study of decolonization was mainly the purview of area specialists, who approached these events with the interdisciplinary inclinations of men and women wanting deeply to understand the specific dynamics of particular places. For theorists of social movements, decolonization and contention posed analytic puzzles, because such processes seldom followed the patterns inscribed by political reform movements on which most of the early literature was rooted. More recently, analysts have made more concerted efforts to think theoretically about contention in the colonial and postcolonial worlds, even as new theoretical developments, such as the Dynamics of Contention program, have provided new ways to approach these struggles.
Democratization and Democratic Transition
Authors: della Porta Donatella , Rossi Federico M.
Published: September 2022

Social movements are increasingly considered as relevant actors in theorizations about democracy. Recently, an empirical linkage between movements and democratization processes has also been established. On the one hand, many of the processes that cause democratization generally promote social movements and democratization itself further encourages people to form social movements. On the other, under certain conditions and in a more limited way, democratization is promoted by social movements themselves. When looking at the impact of movements on democracy, the evidence is, however, mixed. First, some social movements support democracy, but some do not. Second, their relevance in democratization processes is discussed: while a “populist” approach to democracy emphasizes participation from below, with movements as important actors in the creation of democratic public spheres, the “elitist” approach considers democratization as mainly a top‐down process.
Demography and Social Movements and Revolutions
Authors: Hosoki Ralph I.
Published: September 2022

With the demise of explanatory interest in strain and breakdown theories, the increasing emphases placed on opportunities (over threats), and the conceptualization of contentious actors as rational entities, contemporary studies on social movements and revolutions have largely undervalued systematic efforts to understand how socio‐demographic factors might affect the emergence and development of political contention. This entry provides a summary sketch of work examining and theorizing the role of such factors in relation to social movements and revolutions.
Dramaturgy and Social Movements
Authors: Benford Robert D.
Published: September 2022

Social movements are replete with drama. Indeed, some observers have suggested that social movements
are
dramas. Benford and Hunt define social movements as dramas in which protagonists and antagonists clash as they seek to affect audiences' interpretations of power relations in various institutional domains (e.g. religion, politics, economy, etc.). Drawing on Goffman's dramaturgical perspective in which the theater provides a metaphor for analyzing everyday life, social movement scholars have examined how movement activists construct and communicate grievances in a fashion that maximizes their potential impact on social change. Often that entails deploying dramatic tactics that capture the attention of media, targets of change, bystander publics, and potential recruits. The US civil rights movement, for example, consistently employed a variety of nonviolent direct action tactics, including lunch‐counter sit‐ins, boycotts, freedom rides, marches, and other forms of civil disobedience in defiant protest of racial segregation. As the civil rights leaders intended, many of these tactics elicited a violent response from their opponents. The movement's disruptive actions and the repressive actions of local authorities yielded dramatic news coverage and hence increased popular and political support for their cause.
Entrepreneurs, Movement
Authors: Staggenborg Suzanne
Published: September 2022

Social movement entrepreneurs frame issues, mobilize movements, and shape movement organizations and strategies. John McCarthy and Mayer Zald introduced the concept of a social movement entrepreneur in their seminal essays on resource mobilization theory. They argued that movement entrepreneurs take the initiative to organize movements and sometimes even manufacture grievances that aid mobilization. While resource mobilization theory links movement entrepreneurs to the professionalization of social movements, other approaches focus on moral entrepreneurs who provoke moral outrage. Scholars have examined the impacts of movement entrepreneurs in a wide range of movements and organizational contexts, including formal and informal organizations, e‐movements, and institutional settings.
Everyday Activism
Authors: Mansbridge Jane
Published: September 2022

Everyday activism is talk and action in everyday life that is not consciously coordinated with the actions of others but is (i) to some degree caused (inspired, encouraged) by a social movement and (ii) consciously intended to change others' ideas or behavior in directions advocated by the movement.
Frame Disputes
Authors: Benford Robert D.
Published: September 2022

Frame disputes refer to differences of opinion or preference regarding claims associated with framing activities that social movement actors fashion. Frame disputes are a pervasive dynamic within social movements, one of several contested discursive processes within the movement arena. The concept derives from Erving Goffman's observations in
Frame Analysis
that interpretations of what's going on in a particular circumstance are subject to disagreement. On such occasions “reality” must be negotiated. In the context of social movements, frame disputes erupt within a movement organization (
intra
‐organizational dispute) and/or between representatives of two or more SMOs within a social movement (
inter
organizational dispute). Frame disputes in the wider political arena, such as those that often arise between social movements and their opponents (e.g. countermovements, targets of change, media, etc.), have been referred to as “framing contests.” The focus of this entry is on interpretive and discursive disagreements that occur
within
a social movement.
Free Rider Problem
Authors: Oliver Pamela
Published: September 2022

A free rider is someone who gains the benefit of a collective or public good without contributing to the cost of its provision. The term was introduced to social scientists by Mancur Olson'sThe Logic of Collective Action, which argued that the problem of motivating collective action is equivalent to the problem of motivating private contributions to a public or shared good. Olson's use of the term is structural: a person is a free rider if they benefit from a public good without contributing to it, regardless of their awareness of the possibility of contributing. A more restricted meaning refers to conscious freeriding, in which a person prefers to benefit from the actions of others.
Grievances, Individual and Mobilizing
Authors: Snow David A.
Published: September 2022

When individuals collectively challenge authorities via social movements, they typically do so over matters about which they are deeply troubled, have considerable concern, and feel passionately. These troublesome matters or conditions, and the feelings associated with them – such as dissatisfaction, fear, indignation, resentment, and moral shock – can be thought of as grievances. They provide the primary motivational impetus for organizing social movement campaigns and for engaging in social movement activities. Although there are various sets of conditions that contribute to the emergence and operation of social movements – such as some degree of perceived political opportunity, organization, and resource acquisition, none of these factors is more important than the generation of mobilizing grievances. After all, it is difficult to imagine most individuals engaging in social movement activity without feeling deeply aggrieved about some condition that is regarded as contrary to the interests, rights, moral principles, or wellbeing of themselves or others. Consider the adherents of the pro‐choice and pro‐life movements, and of those advocating for and against same‐sex marriages in the United States or immigration and tighter border control throughout much of the developed world. Not only are the adherents of one movement deeply aggrieved by the prospect of the other movement achieving its goals, but their passions about their movement are often palpable and thus worn, metaphorically, on their sleeves. Certainly, other motivational factors – such as curiosity, the desire for approval, and peer pressure – may come into play when considering why people align themselves with a particular movement, but these usually are secondary and largely irrelevant in the absence of deeply felt grievances.
Identity Fields
Authors: Benford Robert D.
Published: September 2022

The term “identity fields” merges two influential social movement concepts: movement framing processes and collective identities. A fundamental and ubiquitous aspect of social movement framing processes involves the avowal and imputation of characteristics relevant to at least three generic sets of actors within the
multiorganizational field
that comprises a particular social movement arena: protagonists, antagonists, and audiences. Hunt, Benford, and Snow refer to the clustering of these socially constructed movement actor categories as
identity fields
. Identity fields are constructed throughout the life course of a social movement as its participants identify a problem and attribute blame or causality, as they seek to mobilize support for their cause by employing various frame alignment strategies, as they respond to criticisms and other attacks from countermovements, the media, and targets of change, and as they talk with one another to reflect on and redefine movement successes and failures.
Injustice Frames
Authors: Gamson† William A.
Published: September 2022

Students of social movements with different orientations share an emphasis on the importance of a strong injustice component in the political consciousness that supports collective action. The main challenge on this point comes from those who accept that a sense of grievance is necessary but argue that it is so ubiquitous that it lacks any explanatory value. But the view that grievances have little explanatory value, since it is so easy for leaders or organizations to link more elaborate worldviews with the sufferings of the “lower orders,” has not prevailed.
Institutionalization of Social Movements
Authors: Staggenborg Suzanne
Published: September 2022

Institutionalization refers to a variety of processes in social movements. Scholars often view movements as institutionalized when they appear to have become established interest groups that are formalized in structure and headed by professional leaders. The concept is also used to refer to movement goals as becoming more conservative or mainstream and to movement ideas and practices that have been adopted by established organizations and members of the general public. Scholars have also identified activists working within government agencies and other institutions as part of the process of institutionalization. Studies show how these different meanings of institutionalization are related to the origins, development, and outcomes of social movements.
Life History Research and Social Movements
Authors: Chewinski Max , Corrigall‐Brown Catherine
Published: September 2022

Life histories are people's histories. They amplify the voices of everyday actors by centering their experiences and interpretation of events. Researchers then carefully weave together these unique experiences with other data sources, including additional interviews, archival and/or documentary data, to construct life histories. Life history research is a useful technique in social movement studies because it develops a version of history that is situated in the lived experiences of those engaging in collective action, emphasizing the role everyday people play in shaping the course of world events. This technique allows researchers to generate rich and textured detail about social processes, understand the intersection between personal narratives and social structures, and focus on individual agency and social context. Life history research captures participant subjectivities while being aware of potential pitfalls such as generalizations and issues of memory recall. This entry examines what life history research is and when it is used. Through an examination of two social movement studies that employ these techniques, we assess the utility of these methods. The entry concludes by discussing potential problems associated with this methodology and offer ways to deal with these issues.
Outcomes, Cultural
Authors: Earl Jennifer
Published: September 2022

Whether and when social movements result in cultural, social, and/or political changes are important questions in social movement scholarship. However, with few exceptions, scholarship has often focused on political, versus cultural, outcomes, differed in its conceptualization of culture, and struggled to establish clear causal connections between social movement activity and cultural change. This entry examines why this may be the case and provides a brief summary of the literature.
Policing Protest
Authors: della Porta Donatella , Reiter Herbert
Published: September 2022

Relying mainly on protest as a means to put pressure upon decision‐makers, social movements challenge the power of the state to impose a monopoly on the use of legitimate force. Taking to the streets, often forcing their presence beyond the legal limits in order to get their voices heard, they directly interact with the police, who are supposed to control public order. In their interventions, the police force therefore has to realize an uneasy balance between the defense of state power through the implementation of law and order and the recognition of demonstration rights. The intervention of the police in the case of violations of law is additionally not automatic: in public order, many minor violations are tolerated in order to avoid major disorders. While sometimes the government gives specific orders (or at least sends signals) about the type of intervention required (or desired) at political demonstrations, the police enjoy broad margins of discretion, at different hierarchical levels, as most decisions are taken on the spot, and are determined by the assessment of the specific situation as well as by interactive dynamics.
Radicalism
Authors: Cross B. Remy
Published: September 2022

The term “radicalism,” as used within the milieu of political and social movements, can have several different usages. Primarily there are three ways of looking at it: as a process, as a practice, or as a set of beliefs. It is a process in the sense that radicalism, whatever its form, is rarely born whole cloth. Rather, it is usually a journey from a nonradical state toward a more radical state. The practice of radicalism is most commonly associated with a set of tactics and strategies that lie outside the bounds of accepted political or religious protest, often verging on illegality. Radical beliefs, or ideologies, typically hold that the potential for desirable change lies outside the realm of legitimate modes of challenge and expression within the targeted institutional arena.
Social Control Errors
Authors: Gamson† William A.
Published: September 2022

Social movements that are unhappy with the choices of authorities must be handled in some fashion. The most basic distinction in how authorities respond to movement pressure is between (i) changing their decisions and policies, and (ii) making some effort to control the social movement. The former response deals with the content of the unhappiness by modifying outcomes; the latter deals with controlling the source of the pressure for change. If social control is successful, there will be no need for outcome modification.
Social Movement Industry
Authors: McCarthy John D.
Published: September 2022

Individual social movement organizations (SMOs) play a significant role in mobilizing social movement activity and it is common for scholars to take the powerful analytic advantage of aggregating all of the SMOs that identify themselves with a particular social movement in their analyses. Such aggregates of SMOs have been termed social movement industries (SMIs), conceptualized as similar to the many industrial categories of firms that compose an economy. All SMIs in a nation make up the social movement sector (SMS). The size and structure of SMIs has been hypothesized to have important consequences for the likelihood of a social movement's success. Although the SMI designation has not gained the widespread usage of SMO, nevertheless, many analysts of social movements have more or less consciously adopted its fundamental insight and gone on to proliferate acronyms to conceptually bound an SMI, the organizational analogue of a social movement. These include, among many others, peace movement organizations (PMOs), environmental movement organizations (EMOs), and health social movement organizations (HSMOs).
State Building and Social Movements
Authors: Hanagan Michael P.
Published: September 2022

Since at least 1780, consolidating states have been providing an unusually fertile terrain for the development of social movements. Compared with other states, consolidating states are more contiguous, with better‐defined borders and also more centralized, with an increased monopoly over violence. They are better able to identify their population, to protect it, and to serve it (or exploit it) than other states. But the association between states and social movements was typically more complex. Between 1780 and the present, empires formed the major alternative to consolidating states and while social movements originally developed within consolidating states they spread almost worldwide, to land‐based empires, and to colonial empires. As they spread from consolidated states to empires, the tactics of social movements more or less retained their familiar form but profoundly changed their content. In our discussions of nineteenth‐ and twentieth‐century social movements, analysts often consider consolidating states as independent entities, but many consolidating states in the modern era were also metropoles, capitals of colonial empires. This entry looks at: (i) social movements in consolidating states, (ii) land‐based empires, and (iii) colonial states and empires.
World‐system and Social Movements
Authors: Schaeffer Robert K. , Dickinson Torry D.
Published: September 2022

The modern world‐system first took shape in Western Europe and the Americas between 1450 and 1650, the “long sixteenth century.” Indigenous anti‐colonial movements flourished during the early modern period, but self‐consciously anti‐systemic movements in Western Europe and the United States did not emerge until 1848, after powerful capitalists built steam‐powered industrial factories and states restricted democratic participation. Movements in the imperial core subsequently seized state power as a way to challenge the inequalities associated with the capitalist world‐system during the next 100 years. However, they found it much more difficult to reduce structural inequality or transform the system than they had imagined, which led to a new round of global protest in 1968. This time, movements directed their attacks not only at powerful capitalist states in the core but also against states where anti‐systemic movements, which had roots in the 1848 protests, had taken power.
Alinsky, Saul
Authors: Dillard Maria K.
Published: September 2022

Saul David Alinsky (30 January 1909–12 June 1972) was one of the most influential social reformers in post‐World War II US history. The legacy of his work and his writings are considered to be foundational to modern community organizing in the United States. Alinsky's ideas about organizing for change have come to be known as his own method. Alinsky is the author of
Reveille for Radicals
(1946), in which he details a political philosophy and methodology for radicalism, and
Rules for Radicals
(1971), in which he sets forth principles of community organizing through a call for revolution. Alinsky's contributions, particularly his work with the poor, have earned him international recognition and notoriety.
Amnesty International
Authors: Monforte Pierre
Published: September 2022

Amnesty International (AI) is probably the most important international nongovernmental organization acting for human rights. It was founded by a lawyer – Peter Benenson – in London in 1961, for the defense of the “forgotten prisoners” in Portugal and for freedom of expression. Soon, several national sections were created and the organization extended its activities to the fight against torture, disappearances, and the death penalty. Today, Amnesty International has 2.2 million members, supporters, and subscribers active in 150 countries. Its mission is the defense and promotion of “internationally recognized human rights.” It was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1977 for its international campaign against torture.
Black Power Movement (United States)
Authors: Yeritsian Gary , Bloom Joshua
Published: September 2022

The Black Power movement emerged in the mid‐1960s United States inspired by the victories of the civil rights movement and responding to its limitations. Civil rights mobilization had successfully pressured the federal government to dismantle
de jure
segregation, but was incapable of redressing persistent black ghettoization. Black Power activists sought to combat institutionalized racism characterized by poor‐quality education, a lack of jobs, political marginalization, and containment policing.
Christian Identity Movement
Authors: Aho James
Published: September 2022

The Christian Identity movement (CI) is the product of a marriage between various marginalized knowledges and British Israelism (BI). The betrothal was consummated in Southern California during the 1930s and 1940s by recently arrived Dust Bowl immigrants carrying with them evangelical Methodist/Baptist enthusiasms. While there are many CI congregations, the most notable is the Church of Jesus Christ Christian (Aryan Nations (AN)). When AN was headquartered in Idaho, it spawned a number of terrorist activities in the decades after the 1980s, most notably those of The Order. The Order was implicated in murders, robberies, armored car heists, and arsons. It ended in a fiery shootout with federal agents in 1985.
Culture Jamming
Authors: Wettergren Åsa
Published: September 2022

Culture jamming is a movement answering to the characteristics of contemporary movements suggested by, among others, Alberto Melucci. It concentrates on symbolic forms of protest and resistance, struggles for personal autonomy and diversity, and is active in a subsystem of a complex global society. Culture jammers are generally organized in networks of small friendship‐ and/or skill‐based groups, or individual “solo” activists. There is a shared cultural framing in the assessment that commercial media and culture support mega‐corporate interests and power by manipulating and subjugating a creative and freedom‐craving human nature, undermine democracy by making people politically disinterested, exploit limited social and natural resources, and colonize public space. The latter includes media space, to which access is largely governed by financial resources. In addition, the proliferation of unsubstantial commercial messages such as ads, commercials, and entertainment drowns the voice of politically engaged citizens.
Equal Rights Amendment (United States)
Authors: Mansbridge Jane
Published: September 2022

The movement for the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) to the constitution of the United States promoted a policy change central to the liberal branch of “second wave” feminism in the United States. That movement illustrates several dynamics, including those of abeyance structures, communicative distrust, the politics of contingency, the role of moral incentives in collective action problems, “deafness” in social movements, decision by accretion, participatory decentralization, and movement/countermovement interaction.
Free Speech Movement
Authors: Glass Pepper G.
Published: September 2022

The Free Speech movement (FSM) was a protest by students at the University of California, Berkeley, during the 1964–1965 academic year. The events, an early instance of 1960s student activism, were the first case of large‐scale unrest on a college campus.
Hunger Strikes
Authors: Siméant Johanna
Published: September 2022

A hunger strike can be defined as a public fast, combined with a claim aimed at confronting an adversary or an authority that is likely to satisfy this claim. Most of the time it endangers the health, and sometimes the life, of the hunger striker. British suffragettes and Irish nationalists are the two groups who had the most significant input into introducing hunger strikes within the repertoires of contention in modern nation‐states at the beginning of the twentieth century. Although the word appeared only in the nineteenth century, fasting as a form of protest has a longer history, either within the private sphere or in political matters. Significant precedents were the collective fasts of Virginia, Rhode Island, and Massachusetts performed against the United Kingdom before the American War of Independence.