bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Employment Discrimination
Authors: Anderson Amanda J. , Membere Ashley A. , Sabat Isaac E. , King Eden B.
Published: December 2015

Employment discrimination based on race, ethnicity, and nationality remains prevalent in many countries. Formal and interpersonal discrimination have a variety of negative individual and organizational consequences including employee attitudes, employee performance, and financial implications for the organization. Multiple strategies can be used to prevent or reduce the likelihood of discrimination, including establishing clear policies and holding employees accountable, diversity training programs, and maintaining nondiscriminatory selection and compensation systems. Areas for future research on employment discrimination related to race, ethnicity, and nationality are discussed.
Chinese Consumption Patterns
Authors: Zhang Weiwei
Published: December 2015

Chinese consumption patterns have experienced radical change over time. During Mao's era, the Chinese government controlled consumption and Chinese people were encouraged to save their money. But, after the opening‐up policy, China experienced a “consumer revolution” and materialistic ideologies emerged. There are several theories that attempt to explore the mechanisms that drive people to buy. One is the production‐oriented critique of consumer culture. This approach argues that the cultural industries use the media to control consumers' behavior. Another theoretical model argues that consumption structures social differences. Besides these two theories, scholars also argue that the Chinese indigenous concept of “face” drives Chinese people to buy more than they need. Although influenced by global consumerism, Chinese traditional culture gives the Chinese a different set of resources, diverting China from a totally westernized consumer culture.
African Diasporas inCanada
Authors: Creese Gillian
Published: December 2015

African slaves arrived in the French and British colonies that would become Canada in the early seventeenth century. Black Loyalists followed during the American Revolution and the war of 1812, joined by slaves fleeing the United States through the underground railway. After confederation Canada adopted immigration policies that privileged “white” European settlers, and those of African descent were deemed “unsuitable.” Migration from diverse African countries, and African‐descent migration from the Caribbean, grew after the point system was implemented in 1967, and today each accounts for about 12 percent of new immigrants to Canada. Many struggle to attain a sense of belonging in Canada. So long as a white “imagined community” remains at the heart of Canadian multiculturalism and while pejorative representations of “blackness” dominate American popular culture, the long history of African diasporas in Canada, and their multiethnic diversity, will continue to be rendered largely invisible.
Social Movements, Nonviolent
Authors: Schock Kurt
Published: December 2015

Nonviolent social movements rely primarily upon methods of nonviolent action—collective political acts that do not involve violence or the threat of violence against opponents or bystanders—to challenge authority and promote social change. From the late eighteenth century onward nonviolent resistance has been a component of numerous struggles for national liberation or autonomy including in the United States, Hungary, India, and Ghana, as well as more recent nationalist struggles against the Soviet Union. Nonviolent resistance was also a significant component of the US civil rights movement, which challenged overt racial discrimination in the US South.
X
,
M
alcolm (1925–65)
Authors: Terrill Robert E.
Published: December 2015

Malcolm X was one of the most significant orators of the twentieth century. He was a Muslim, a black nationalist, and a fierce advocate of racial equality. The interplay between his oratory and his biography reveals a restless evolution, from petty criminal to key spokesperson for Elijah Muhammad's Nation of Islam to influential global race leader.
N
eo‐
N
azi Movement in the Twenty‐First Century
Authors: Sela‐Shayovitz Revital
Published: December 2015

This entry discusses neo‐Nazi ideology and the social processes that led to the renewal of the neo‐Nazi movement in the twenty‐first century. Furthermore, the entry analyzes the factors that have contributed to the wide expansion of the neo‐Nazi movement around the globe. Finally, it discusses what makes the younger generation join the neo‐Nazi movement.
J
ahn,
F
riedrich
L
udwig (1778–1852)
Authors: Leerssen Joep
Published: December 2015

The German national activist Friedrich Ludwig Jahn created modern gymnastics around 1810. He did so as part of a fervently anti‐French nationalism and saw athletic training as a physical regeneration program for the nation and a preparation for military discipline. Thus he stands at the origin of sporting gymnastics, physical education in schools, and the use of sports organizations for purposes of nationalist mobilization.
Lenin (1870–1924),Stalin (1878–1953), and Nationalism
Authors: Van Ree Erik
Published: December 2015

Lenin and Stalin did not accept the classical nationalist view of the nation‐state as the most desirable form of state, but they recognized the nation as a significant political, economic, and cultural reality. The Soviet Union was organized as a federation of nations. Though the individual republics received some real power, the Moscow center monopolized the most important decisions. Both men acknowledged the right of Soviet nations to their own languages, cultures, and cadres, and Stalin developed articulate policies around this principle after Lenin's death. But national development became ever more restricted by Soviet state patriotism and russocentrism, leading to mass murder, ethnic cleansing, and xenophobic anticosmopolitanism. Though the Soviets established their hegemony after the war, the Eastern European states were not annexed to the USSR. The Communist International accepted the revolutionary potential of nationalism in the colonial world. Stalin gave a prominent role to the patriotic factor in international communist policies.
Project Management in a Multicultural Setting
Authors: Mäkilouko Marko
Published: December 2015

The challenges in multicultural project work are, at face value, similar to those of any project work. They are a question of time, resources, finances, and quality. The “iron triangle” cannot, however, solve the challenges posed by the human resources in the project. In addition, the personnel selected into such projects must be able to accept, tolerate, and adapt to values far different from their own. The solution offered to practicing project managers in all studies over twenty years of research is improved cultural understanding. Each culture is, of course, different and each culture requires an understanding of its own. A project manager, therefore, needs versatile cultural understanding.
UNESCO
Statements on Race
Authors: Banton Michael
Published: December 2015

In 1948 the United Nations asked the United Nations Educational, Social and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) to disseminate facts relevant to racial prejudice. UNESCO convened four meetings of experts—in 1950, 1951, 1964, and 1967—that issued statements on various aspects of the matter. Then, in 1978, the General Conference of UNESCO, consisting of representatives of all member states, adopted by acclamation a “Declaration on Race and Racial Prejudice.”
International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination
Authors: Banton Michael
Published: December 2015

The International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (ICERD) came into force in 1970. It takes the form of an interstate treaty. By the end of 2012, 175 of the United Nations' 193 member states had become parties to it. The ICERD's application has been developed in ways not anticipated by those who drafted it. Nongovernmental organizations increasingly use the examination of state reports as an opportunity to publicize alternative views.
China, Pastoralists in
Authors: Kreutzmann Hermann
Published: December 2015

The final settlement of all nomads has been envisaged by the Chinese government in May 2013. This seems to be the last step in a sequence of revolutionary and modernization efforts in order to transform the social organization and livelihoods of pastoralists in China. Shortly after the Chinese Revolution collectivization marked a first significant hiatus in pastoral practices. After Deng Xiaoping's reforms to modernize the country several steps have been taken to privatize pastoral activities. In recent years resettlement programs within the campaign of the “Great Development of the West” have been instrumental in a further significant change of rural livelihoods.
WorldBank, theInternationalMonetaryFund, and Neoliberalism
Authors: Karjanen David
Published: December 2015

The World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) are arguably the two most influential international global economic institutions. Since World War II, both have been central to restricting the global economic system, including trade, economic development, debt service, and macroeconomic policy. Since the 1980s, concerns about these organizations' policies have been raised. Critics lament the harshness of structural adjustment and conditionalities—policy changes required by the World Bank and IMF—which are seen to reflect neoliberal political and economic philosophies and the interests of lenders, rather than the broader goals of human and economic development. This approach views states, regulations, and taxation as anathema to good economic functioning and encourages deregulation, reduced taxation and tariffs, and the privatization of the public sector, as well as cuts to basic services such as health, education, and welfare programs. Criticism has led to some reforms and scholarly debate, but the central concerns around debt in developing countries, poverty, unfair trade, and drastically cut public services remain.
Israel, Ethnicity in
Authors: Herzog Hanna
Published: December 2015

In public discourse in Israel, and in many research studies, the term ethnicity is assigned to the differences between Jews whose countries of origin was Europe and the United States (Ashkenazim) and Jews originating from Muslim countries (Mizrahim). Palestinian citizens of Israel are perceived as a national minority. Within Jewish society, the social boundaries and meaning of ethnicity have been negotiated and changed over the years. The political arena has been the most important domain that shaped ethnicity and the focus of struggles over its significance. However, the social carriers of ethnic identity have also been changed. From being regarded as a marginal stigmatized group, the Mizrahim developed alternative social definitions of their identity, challenging the dominant perception of the meaning of their group membership and the definition of what it is to be Israeli.
Transylvania
Authors: Veres Valér
Published: December 2015

Transylvania, which is today a province of Romania, is an ethnically mixed territory, inhabited by a majority of Romanians, with Hungarian and German minorities. The history of the region is based on the diverse nation‐building processes of the main ethnic groups. In the nineteenth century, Transylvanian Hungarians engaged in a pan‐Hungarian movement, while Transylvanian Romanians became conscious of their belonging to the pan‐Romanian community. Between World War I and World War II, and in a different form under the subsequent communist dictatorship, Romanian nationalism was mainly oriented towards the assimilation of Transylvanian Hungarians. In contemporary Romania, political nationalism is mainly seen in the actions of extremist political parties. The ethnic basis of social cohesion is evident in both the public and private discourse of Transylvanian Romanians and Hungarians. However, Transylvanian Hungarians are integrated into the Romanian political system but at the same time they maintain their specific Hungarian identity. As a result interethnic relations have improved.
Purity, Racial
Authors: Chiyoko King‐O'riain Rebecca
Published: December 2015

Racial purity is defined as existing of only one racial background and not being racially mixed. This entry defines racial purity, traces it through modern western historical thought, and then provides some examples.
Internet Vigilantism andChinese Nationalism
Authors: Kurt Herold David
Published: December 2015

Internet vigilantism in China exhibits strong nationalistic characteristics, despite mainly being aimed at government officials. Ad‐hoc online mobs are targeting corrupt or otherwise problematic officials as well as ordinary citizens the mob classifies as misbehaving, with the approval of government authorities. This serves to reinforce the official Communist Party line that government officials operate under the supervision of ordinary citizens, while it also encourages citizens to trust the central government. The Internet users in turn reward the cooperation of the authorities with an unwillingness to criticize the Chinese system of government as such, or the rule of the Communist Party, while also being fiercely nationalist and defensive whenever China is criticized by outsiders.
Ethnicity, Concepts of
Authors: Zagefka Hanna
Published: December 2015

An ethnicity is a collective that has a shared common name, a shared myth of common descent, shared historical memories, one or more differentiating elements of common culture, an association with a specific “homeland,” and a sense of solidarity for significant sectors of the population. A subjective sense of being a group—that is, subjective identification with the group by its members—is essential. These necessary and sufficient markers of ethnicity might be developed to varying degrees of strength for different groups, but they will all be present to some degree. Ethnicity is a construct rather than a primordial phenomenon. Nonetheless, ethnicity is
subjectively experienced
as an objective reality by those who subscribe to an ethnic category.
Hereditarianism
Authors: Mehler Barry
Published: December 2015

Hereditarianism is the belief that a substantial part of both group and individual differences in human behavioral traits are caused by genetic differences. The opposite of hereditarianism is environmentalism or behaviorism, the belief that environment plays a dominant role in the formation of individual and group differences in behavioral traits. Francis Galton is often cited as the father of the hereditarian position. John B. Watson is usually associated with originating the behaviorist position. Hereditarianism has often been linked to eugenics and racism and the term “hereditarian” is largely outdated. While the debate still continues in muted form, a consensus regarding the gene–environment interaction and a growing appreciation of the complexity of phenotypic development has changed the nature of the debate.
C
hinese
A
mericans
Authors: Fernando Shanti
Published: December 2015

There are more than four million Chinese Americans in the United States. Their achievements as an ethnic group have led to them being dubbed a “model minority” but that belies the fact that this successful integration has been hard won. Early Chinese immigrants faced harsh conditions of poverty and discrimination and legal measures that served to prevent their immigration and flourishing. Chinese Americans reacted to anti‐Chinese sentiment and the anti‐Chinese movement of the late 1800s by creating community groups and advocacy organizations to help support their community and to advocate for their rights. These organizations continue today alongside many new groups and pan‐ethnic Asian Pacific American groups that help to support this growing ethnic community and advocate for issues of importance such as equity and political representation and provide leadership to the Chinese and Asian Pacific American community.
Ethnic Stratification within Organizations
Authors: Thiel Darren
Published: December 2015

Ethnic stratification within organizations implies the differential ordering of ethnic or national groups into particular segments or “strata” of a single social organization, usually signaling a form of ethnic inequality whereby some ethnic groups occupy more advantageous strata than others. Social organizations represent the overt coordination of the activity of a number of people in the interest of achieving specific objectives. Examples of organizations include corporations, sports teams, social movements, trade unions, political parties, and whole nations. Organizations become ethnically stratified through how they select and generate membership and how they organize people internally, and these features are underpinned by three main social processes: differential access to and recognition of qualifications and credentials; the categorical assumptions of organizational gatekeepers and systems; and forms of social closure that result from ethnically bound social networks.
Z
oot
S
uit
R
iots
Authors: Griswold Del Castillo Richard
Published: December 2015

Beginning in June 1943, for more than a week, hundreds of soldiers and sailors on leave in Los Angeles, California went on a rampage hunting down young Mexicans who were dressed in the zoot suit, beating them, and stripping them of their clothes. The Zoot Suit Riot was due to persistent fears about the pachucos, americanized Mexican youth, who had been vilified in the press following the Sleepy Lagoon case in 1942. The police and military authorities did little to respond to the violence. News of the riot tarnished the image of the United States in Latin America and provided propaganda for Axis propagandists. Some in the United States identified persistent economic and cultural discrimination as the root causes of the riot, thus causing new concerns about Mexican American youth.
Black Marxism
Authors: Thomas Darryl C.
Published: December 2015

In the late nineteenth century black diasporic intellectuals began to interrogate western Marxism, particularly its international discourse, theory of class formation, historical materialist analysis, methods of critical inquiry, and radical politics. Their engagement with Marxism and socialist theory, however, has prevented neither conflicts nor the development of new theoretical explorations and divisions. Through Cedric J. Robinson's archeological dig we can see how black intellectuals have probed “classical” Marxism and its failures: its economic reductionism; its simplistic understanding of peasant politics; its misunderstanding of the role of racism in the development and trajectory of the capitalist world system; and its dismissal of political struggles outside of the Global North metropolitan regions. For writers such as W. E. B. Du Bois, Richard Wright, Franz Fanon, and C. L. R. James, western Marxism has failed to account for the racial character of capitalism or to provide a historical narrative of blacks' emancipatory politics.
C
zechs
Authors: Trnka Susanna
Published: December 2015

The Czech nation was born out of a nineteenth‐ and early twentieth‐century “national revival” movement (
národní obrození
) whose proponents portrayed themselves as “awakening” long dormant, primordial Czech identities that had been suppressed through centuries of foreign rule. Two hundred years later, the revivalists' efforts continue to inspire national sentiment but the political–economic, social, and cultural contexts out of which national identities are produced, both in Europe and more globally, have radically changed. Contemporary Czech nationhood is formulated in response to historically new phenomena, such as the legacies of state socialism and the Czech Republic's membership in the European Union, in addition to addressing more enduring concerns over the importance of the Czech language and territorial sovereignty.
Communism and Nationalism
Authors: Lovell David W.
Published: December 2015

Communism and nationalism are two important ideas in the history of political thought. Both have connected social ideals with political movements. Both have contributed enormously to the shape of the contemporary world, since both underlie the major political struggles and aspirations of the past two centuries. 1848 was the revolutionary high point of nationalism in Europe; 1917 was the revolutionary high point of communism. Though fundamentally incompatible, the two have intersected, interacted, and cooperated during this period. Both began in Europe but have spread throughout the world. Nationalism has been the more successful of the two: its assumptions and claims, though resisted in specific instances, have become generally uncontested and accepted and form the background to everyday politics. Communists often proclaimed their project as the culmination of history. Nationalism itself (as distinct from particular nationalisms) has had no similar self‐conscious ambition; yet our modern world is the age of nationalism.
Identity Politics/Relational Politics
Authors: Wasson Leslie
Published: December 2015

The subject of identity politics rests within a set of related concepts, such as the distribution of social power, social location and status, and a stratified system in which these interpersonal resources may be valued and used for purposes of individual or group advantage over other individuals or groups. Groups in a stratified system—that is, a social system with a ranked structure of positions—may contend for advantage among themselves. Each group may seek to use group‐level resources in addition to individual characteristics to secure a better or stronger position vis‐à‐vis the members of other groups in the social tapestry. This may not be a result of actual conspiracy: often, people acting in their own perceived self‐interest serve the mutual desires of others in a similar social position.
G
eorgia
Authors: Tarkhan‐Mouravi George
Published: December 2015

Georgia is an independent post‐Soviet country in the South Caucasus, with a population of about 4.5 million squeezed between Russia's North Caucasus and Turkey; its other neighbors are Armenia and Azerbaijan. Millennia of history of Georgia's statehood were marred by continuous wars and invasions and by prolonged periods of domination imposed by its bigger neighbors—Turkey, Iran, and Russia. Georgia finally reestablished its independence in 1991, after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, and has experienced difficult decades marked by civil unrest, secessionist conflicts, and a brief war with Russia in August 2008. Currently on its path of democratic transformation, Georgia possesses a semi‐parliamentary political system, and in October 2012, for the first time in recent history, Georgia changed its government through the constitutional process of parliamentary elections. Georgia is also unique for its rich cultural heritage and impressive cultural, ethnic, confessional, and linguistic diversity.
Globalization and Global Justice
Authors: Hassoun Nicole , Tucker Sechrest E.
Published: December 2015

As globalization shrinks distance and increases international interdependence, it raises an important question about global distributive justice: how does increasing social, political, and economic integration influence the way benefits and burdens generated by our shared lives should be dispersed? That is, what impact (if any) should the growth of global economic and political institutions have on our understanding of what we owe others? The way we answer this question determines how we should respond to everything from countries' disproportionate contribution to climate change to the sale of countries' natural resources.
Music and Nationalism
Authors: Bohlman Philip V.
Published: December 2015

Music has represented the nation throughout modern history, but especially since the eighteenth‐century Enlightenment, when Johann Gottfried Herder began to refer to songs associated with modern nation‐states asVolkslieder(folk songs). Music represents the nation by containing either national or nationalist traits; the former employ a nation's internal cultural markers, the latter emphasize contested areas and populations through external cultural markers. Music and nationalism interact to form many genres at numerous socioeconomic levels: folk music, art music, sacred music, popular music—all can be mobilized in the name of the nation. Music had a considerable affective presence in the narration of national histories, as these became more global through the nineteenth century and the postcolonial era during the twentieth. In the twenty‐first century, music and nationalism have a considerable presence in the lives of most people worldwide, mediating the mobility of population groups across national borders and the ideologies conveyed in national popular musics.
Language
Authors: García Ofelia
Published: December 2015

The relationship between language, ethnic identity, nationalism, and race has been defined differently at different historical periods and for diverse purposes. This entry analyzes the construction of those unidirectional links from the time of the German Romantics as a way to consolidate power. In the twenty‐first century, scholars have questioned the construction of that link, and even the meaning of the word “language” itself. Taking up language as a social practice enmeshed in ideology, this entry reviews how this understanding of language practices or “languaging” affects the relationship between language and ethnicity, nationalism, and race.
Identity, Social‐Psychological Aspects of
Authors: Jaspal Rusi
Published: December 2015

Nowhere is the concept of identity more relevant than in the domains of “race,” ethnicity, and nation, given that these social categories can gain particular social and psychological traction when they are construed as forms of self‐definition. This entry provides a brief overview of the social identity approach and then focuses specifically upon the contribution of identity process theory to the social psychology of identity. It is argued that an integrative theory such as identity process theory is necessary for a holistic understanding of the antecedents and consequences of identity in relation to “race,” ethnicity, and nationalism.
Modernism
Authors: Levenson Michael H.
Published: December 2015

The constellation of aesthetic movements we know as “modernist” emerged in the last third of the nineteenth century and came to great cultural visibility in the period between 1910 and 1930. The work of writers and artists coincided with a period of vigorous nationalism, competitive imperialism, and new forms of race consciousness. The materials of race, ethnicity, and nation entered the work of the modernists from the earliest stages; the oppositional character of the new art encouraged distance from dominant forms of nationalism and imperialism. But modernist work often remained complicit with conventions or racial and ethnic hierarchy. The history of modernism, unfolding over many decades, exhibited a great variety of attitudes on these questions. A time of social abstention was succeeded, after the war, by a period of active engagement. More than a decisive cultural episode, modernism makes a case study of relationships between artistic form and social urgency.
War, Impact of Ethnic Politics on
Authors: Cederman Lars‐Erik
Published: December 2015

Rather than being a direct consequence of ethnic diversity, war is caused by ethnic politics when the principles of nationalism are violated. This happens when ethnic groups attempt to leave multiethnic states or when several ethnic groups perceive themselves as a national unit seeking unification. Irredentism combines these two cases. In this way, ethnic nationalism contributes to destabilizing the balance of power, but it also increases mobilization and the intensity of interstate warfare. Similarly, civil wars to a large extent result from a mismatch between ethnic and political borders. In particular, ethnic groups that are excluded from political power and economically disadvantaged are more likely to experience internal conflict than other groups.
Ingroups and Outgroups
Authors: Bernstein Michael J.
Published: December 2015

Humans benefit from living in groups, and this results in social organization consisting of ingroups and outgroups. Ingroups are the groups to which individuals both belong and psychologically identify, while outgroups are those to which individuals do not belong or identify. Categorizations based on ingroup–outgroup distinctions have a profound impact on social interactions, including aspects of prejudice, reward allocation, stereotyping, and group conflict. Various explanations are discussed for the pervasiveness of ingroup–outgroup categorizations.
U
krainians
Authors: Stebelsky Ihor
Published: December 2015

Ukrainians are an East Slavic people that gained a nation‐state only in the twentieth century. Since they lacked lasting premodern statehood and lost their elites to Poland or Russia, their nation building was belated and difficult. Previous ethnonyms for Ukrainians were Rusyns (Ruthenians) and Little Russians—names derived from the corresponding medieval territorial entities. In time they were subordinated to other crowns, and loyalties and identities became hierarchical. Only with the advent of nationalism and a switch to exclusive identity did the modern ethnonym become popular.
Back to
A
frica Movement
Authors: Ewing Adam
Published: December 2015

The desire to return to Africa has remained a persistent theme in the social and political imagination of Africans and their descendants who were forcibly removed from the continent. This impulse and its organizational outlets can be traced from the founding of the West African colonies of Sierra Leone in 1787 and Liberia in 1819, and in the emigrationist movements of Paul Cuffe, Martin Delany, Chief Alfred Sam, Marcus Garvey, and others. Although Back to Africa movements have subsided in recent decades, the impulse to return to the African “homeland” persists, as is vividly illustrated in “roots” tourism in Ghana.
African Diaspora
Authors: Ewing Adam
Published: December 2015

The concept of “African diaspora” has been used as a framework for exploring the existence of people of African descent—both forced and unforced—across the Americas, Europe, Asia, and Africa. Though often devoted to the pursuit of African cultural “survivals,” recently attention has been more often directed to the ways in which diasporic identities have emerged among black subjects who seek and claim a particular connection to Africa or to each other. The diasporic theme has also been associated with social and cultural movements like the Harlem Renaissance, negritude, and the Black Power movement. But the concept of diaspora is unique in that it also draws attention to the participation of communities in transnational identity formation. And, for all its emphasis on the transcendence of state power, diasporic practice remains very much embedded within both intra‐ and intercommunity power relations.
Westernization
Authors: Hafez Kai , Grüne Anne
Published: December 2015

The concept of “westernization” describes the formative influence of western powers on political, economic, social, and cultural conditions in Asia, Africa, and Latin America. It is mainly used in the prevailing sense of
cultural westernization
, with reference to the persistent intellectual, creative, and habit‐forming impact of the west on the rest of the world, even after formal decolonization. Proponents welcome the modernizing effects of westernization, critics consider it a form of hegemonic “cultural imperialism.” Although westernization can be substantiated through quantitative data regarding imports and exports, postcolonial studies in particular have qualified the real effects of “western” culture on the rest of the world.
Bonaparte, Napoleon (Napoleon I) (1769–1821)
Authors: Crosby‐Arnold Margaret
Published: December 2015

Napoleon Bonaparte remains one of the most adored and infamous figures in the history of the modern world. He was an officer in the French army who, in his early career, distinguished himself in victories in the French Revolutionary Wars between 1793 and 1799. Following a coup d'etat on November 9, 1799, he became first consul under the new regime of the consulate and later established a dictatorship. In 1802 he was declared consul for life, and, in May 1804, he was declared Emperor of the French, titled Napoleon I, and proclaimed a hereditary monarch. He introduced a sweeping series of new codes, laws, and decrees, including a civil code, the Code Napoleon. Between 1803 and 1815, he brutally prosecuted the Napoleonic Wars and occupied most of continental Europe. France became a racial state as “whiteness” became a prerequisite for French identity and ethnic populations were stripped of citizenship and civil rights.
Banality of Evil
Authors: Fry Karin
Published: December 2015

Hannah Arendt developed the concept of the “banality of evil” during her coverage of the 1961 Adolf Eichmann trial in Jerusalem for
The New Yorker
magazine. Rather than portraying evil as monstrous and demonic, Arendt emphasized how totalitarian society encouraged evil acts based on thoughtlessness and lack of judgment. Her concept produced sustained controversy but continues to be referenced to explain instances of evil committed with extreme thoughtlessness.
Irredentism
Authors: Baird Ian G.
Published: December 2015

Irredentism refers to any position advocating that a nation‐state should—on the basis of ethnic, cultural, geographical, or historical connections—annex territory that is controlled by, or is within the national boundaries of, another country. The term originates from Italy, whereItalia irredenta(“unredeemed Italy”) was used to refer to territories at least partially inhabited by ethnic Italians but under the control of the Austro‐Hungarian empire during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.
Germany
Authors: Ulbricht Christian
Published: December 2015

Germany is a country of immigration, a fact that was officially denied by the state for a long period of time. The way in which the nation was able to perpetuate the fiction of being a nonimmigration country when in actual fact millions of immigrants had settled there is something specific to the character of Germany. Debate and politics successfully established the view that immigrants are culturally different, are competitors for scarce goods, and abuse the social welfare system. In 2000 the situation changed and Germany no longer coupled state membership with an ethnocultural understanding of the nation. From 1913 the citizenship law had legally defined membership in terms of language, culture, and ancestry. However, because of the manner in which this law characterizes the German nation and its identity, the country has had to reinvent itself more often and more fundamentally than any of its neighbors.
Schools, Magnet
Authors: Tyler Alison C. , Frankenberg Erica
Published: December 2015

Magnet schools are public elementary and secondary schools with special educational programs that attract students from across an entire district or multiple districts. Magnet schools were originally designed to promote integration through family choice, by drawing white and middle‐class students into urban schools with unique offerings rather than seeing them leave for nearby suburban schools. Today, desegregation is no longer emphasized as heavily. However, over four thousand magnet schools continue to serve over 2.5 million students across the United States.
PuertoRico
Authors: Venator‐Santiago Charles R.
Published: December 2015

Between 1898 and 1901, the United States developed a new territorial law and policy to rule annexed territories primarily inhabited by nonwhite populations. The new territorial laws and policy enabled the US government to selectively govern annexed territories such as Puerto Rico as foreign localities within a domestic or constitutional format. However, lawmakers and policymakers in the United States invoked this territorial status to selectively curtail the extension of constitutional rights and protections to Puerto Ricans, a precondition for equality within the US polity. Since 1898, the United States has governed Puerto Rico as a separate and unequal territory within its polity.
Professional Socialization in Organizations and Ethnicity
Authors: Atewologun Doyin
Published: December 2015

Professional socialization is the process through which individuals acquire and learn the norms required to function as accepted members of an occupational or organizational group. The “ideal professional” is, however, a culturally biased concept, often associated with being white, male, heterosexual, and middle class. For outsiders, this disparity leads to barriers to fitting in and identifying with a profession or organization. Research on professional socialization and diversity originally focused on women's challenges in highly masculine professions. Current research examines a wider range of groups. Compared to women who counter stereotypically feminine attributes, ethnic minority professionals encounter widely varying stereotypes such as being too modest for some groups or being too aggressive for others, which hinder socialization. Organizations can facilitate ethnic minority socialization by standardizing informal micro‐practices that reinforce exclusion, for instance by encouraging more regular spontaneous feedback and by supporting the development of social ties across and within social groups.
Latinidad and Consumer Culture
Authors: Peñaloza Lisa , Chávez Christopher
Published: December 2015

Latinidad refers to Native American, European, black, and Asian peoples in Latin America, the United States, and the Caribbean as well the Mediterranean and a few Southeast Asian nations, such as the Philippines. In the context of consumer culture, Latinidad faces both opportunities and challenges as market transformations privilege some aspects of identity and culture at the expense of others. Furthermore, as transnational corporations have become increasingly important conduits for global flows, there has been an incentive to cultivate a global Latina/o market encompassing the United States and Central and South America, which includes over five hundred million persons. Despite these corporate overtures, consumer discourses create the illusion of participation while obscuring economic, social, and political inequalities still faced by many constituents of Latinidad.
Globalization, Cultural Dimensions
Authors: Robertson Roland
Published: December 2015

Consideration of global culture involves a departure from conventional treatments of culture in the social sciences. A leading problematic is the issue of the relationship between homogeneity and heterogeneity, although current thinking veers strongly toward the latter. Particular attention is paid here to images of the world, as well as to the dyadic relationships between societies. Running through this entry are the motifs of glocalization and temporary capitalism.
Consociationalism (Consociational Democracy)
Authors: Andeweg Rudy B.
Published: December 2015

Consociationalism refers to power sharing by political elites in deeply divided societies as a means to achieve or maintain a stable democracy. As a theory, it grew out of case studies of a number of European countries with peaceful democratic rule despite deep social cleavages; and it is mainly associated with the work of political scientist Arend Lijphart. Similar power‐sharing arrangements were subsequently discovered in other countries across the globe. Consociationalism is also advocated as the best option for countries facing severe subcultural conflict. However, its applicability to different types of conflict, and in particular to ethnic conflict, is debated, as is the differential viability of different forms of power sharing (joint power or divided power).
Recognition
Authors: Chriss James J.
Published: December 2015

The course of human history has registered a slow and inexorable transition from fear of the other to thoughtful reflection on the worth of the other. This opening up of humanistic sentiment across a growing diversity of human groupings beginning with the Enlightenment has culminated more recently in a politics of recognition. This is the project of making claims against a state that allegedly has denied full participation in society because of debilitating identities, whether related to race, gender, sexual orientation, and other factors. Such recognition claims are identity projects that emerge and develop very much like the dialectical movement posited by Hegel—that is, from thesis to antithesis to synthesis. This strand of idealism is opposed to the Kantian strain, which holds hope for a future global solidarity where difference dissolves into the notion of a universal humanity.
E
thiopia
Authors: Aalen Lovise
Published: December 2015

Due to an early state‐building and a noncolonized past, the political mobilization of ethnicity in Ethiopia differs from the general pattern in colonized and decolonized Africa. The Amhara culture, which includes the Orthodox Christian faith and the Amharic language, has constituted the core identity of the Ethiopian state. The incorporation of non‐Amhara into the state at the end of the nineteenth century created a legacy of forceful assimilation and resistance, contributing to the mobilization of ethnic identities against the center. This mobilization was essential in the coups against the last emperor, Haile Selassie, in 1974, and against the military Marxist regime in 1991, and provided the rationale for the ethnic‐based federal system introduced after 1991.
Black Middle Class in the
U
nited
S
tates
Authors: Marsh Kris , Ray Rashawn , Brown Joey
Published: December 2015

The social science literature suggests that middle class status, with all that it promises, is precarious for those blacks who have achieved it and remains out of reach for many others in the United States. As members of a minority group, middle‐class blacks face historical and persistent marginalization, discrimination, and racism; consequently, their experience differs from that of the white middle class. Scholars struggle to decide who should actually be considered middle class. Studies dedicated to defining and describing the black middle class confirm that inequities persist between blacks and whites in the United States despite the dismantling of legal structures that discriminate against blacks.
Nkrumah,Kwame (1909–72)
Authors: Nimako Kwame
Published: December 2015

Kwame Nkrumah was a highly influential African intellectual and nationalist, specifically because of the ideas he generated and the institutionalization of his ideas. He engaged in the difficult task of reversing decades of colonial indoctrination and violence by emphasizing African unity since colonial rule rested on violence and divide‐and‐rule tactics. Many of his actions and adopted symbols were central to his theme of reshaping Africa. Nkrumah renamed the Gold Coast to Ghana; many other African countries followed this tradition when they too became independent. In addition, Nkrumah made pan‐Africanism one of his highest priorities, moving it to Africa by holding the First Conference of Independent African States and the All‐African Peoples' Conference in Accra in 1958. These initiatives gave birth to the formation of the Organisation of African Unity, now the African Union.
Eugenics
Authors: Bucur Maria
Published: December 2015

The “good birth” theory of improving humanity
through
selective reproduction developed in the late nineteenth century, first in Great Britain and France, and subsequently more broadly in Europe and throughout the world. This theory and the policies it advocated became especially popular during the 1930s, but came under severe criticism when the Nazis used them to justify inhumane methods such as sterilizing individuals with disabilities or the “final solution.” By 1945 eugenics was discredited as Nazi pseudo‐science, though some eugenicists continued to work on improving the “biological capital” by other names. Even today, interest in controlling the future of humanity by manipulating heredity is still alive, while any identification with eugenics is avoided.
Social Distance
Authors: Karakayali Nedim
Published: December 2015

The main idea behind the concept of social distance is that any given social relationship involves elements of “nearness” and “distance.” There is, however, a diversity of ways in which distance is conceptualized as a sociological notion. Most notably, social researchers emphasize the affective (how members of a group feel about “others”), normative (how “us” is distinguished from “them”), interactive (how long and how often people interact with each other) and cultural–habitual (to what extent groups share similar traits) dimensions of social distance. How these different dimensions interact with each other and with other (especially spatial) types of distance is one of the salient areas of research. It is widely noted that, as interactions with “strangers” intensify, norms distinguishing “us” from “them” become increasingly problematic in modern societies, giving way to both more tolerant and xenophobic attitudes. Social distance will remain a significant area of research for contemporary scholars.
U
nited
S
tates v.
B
hagat
S
ingh
T
hind
Authors: Smith Rogers M.
Published: December 2015

United States v. Thind
(1923) resolved decades‐old disputes by holding that a high‐caste Sikh borne in northwest India, though “Caucasian” according to some racial typologies, was not “white” within the meaning of US naturalization statutes. He therefore could not become a US citizen. Along with
Takao Ozawa v. United States
(1922), which held that a long‐resident Japanese man who was conceded to be “well qualified by character and education for citizenship” still could not be naturalized,
Thind
made clear that no East Asians, South Asians, or other aliens who were not “white” within “the understanding of the common man” could gain citizenship (261 US 214). Racial restrictions on naturalization, which dated back to the first Naturalization Act in 1790, would not be fully repudiated until the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952.
C
ox,
O
liver
C
romwell (1901–74)
Authors: Austin Andrew
Published: December 2015

Oliver Cromwell Cox is widely regarded as one of the most important theorists of race relations in the United States. Yet, despite authoring half a dozen scholarly books and more than forty scholarly articles, he remains an enigma. This entry is a review of his major ideas, along with a brief biographical sketch.
Military, Racial Inequality in theUS
Authors: Erik Ray Victor
Published: December 2015

This brief survey examines some of the major empirical research on race in the US military. Though the military is considered by many scholars to be a model of positive race relations, the history of race relations in the military is one of conflict and conciliation mirroring changes in the broader society.
D
ouglass,
F
rederick (1818–95)
Authors: Buccola Nicholas
Published: December 2015

Frederick Douglass was born into slavery in 1818. In 1838, he escaped from slavery and rose to become one of the leading orators, editors, and authors within the American abolitionist movement. Over the course of his lifetime, he authored three widely read autobiographies, published hundreds of essays, delivered thousands of speeches, served as an adviser to several presidents, and was recognized as the leading civil rights advocate in the United States and around the world.
S
muts,
J
an
C
hristian (1870–1950)
Authors: Kochanek Joseph
Published: December 2015

J. C. Smuts served as prime minister of South Africa and as general in both the Boer and British Armies and was one of the figures responsible for creating the League of Nations. Typically seen as responsible for the mandates system of the League, he was also the author of
Holism and Evolution
.