bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Procedure Modeling and Performance Prediction for Navy Surface Ship Consoles
Authors: Osga Glenn A.
Published: January 2012

Very little human performance data has been collected for current navy shipboard consoles. This project identified a source of user behavioral data through the reduction and analysis of data captured with the Aegis shipboard data extraction programs. The data was used to construct a preliminary human performance database for a combat team. This database was used as input to a procedural network model, providing an analysis tool which allows task construction and performance prediction without the difficulty associated with acquiring ship or land-based combat system time. The database and models are currently being evaluated for their predictive validity.
Tactical Symbology for Visual Displays: The Standardization Process
Authors: Seamster Thomas , Baker Clifford , Andrews Phillip J.
Published: January 2012

The objective of this effort is to identify and resolve some of the human factors issues of tactical symbology in the context of high resolution color raster displays such as those for upcoming navy workstations. The focus of this presentation is the establishment of evaluation criteria and the use of empirical data in that evaluation process. A pilot test was devised and administered to provide data in determining the relative effectiveness of three alternative tactical symbol sets that had been developed by members of an international standards group. This paper discusses the methods and results of this pilot test, and based on those results, an experiment was developed to further test the competing symbol sets. Results of the experiment are presented in the context of naval tactical symbol sets.
The Systems Approach to Command Center Prototyping
Authors: Hansen Mark D. , Klinkel Rich
Published: January 2012

This paper presents the systems approach to designing command centers. This is done by integrating all related disciplines into command center prototyping activities for computer-based system design. Central to this approach is an integrated laboratory environment. Our laboratory is a Command Center Laboratory (CCL). This laboratory is a powerful engineering resource that merges formal systems engineering methodology with rapid prototyping capabilities. System prototyping activities span the design and development process of complex system design. Included is a discussion of the laboratory facilities and roles necessary to accomplish this approach. Finally, we discuss how the laboratory aids all system engineering disciplines in implementing the systems approach to command center prototyping.
Subjective Workload Assessment during 48 Continuous Hours of LOS-F-H Operations
Authors: Hill Susan G. , Byers James C. , Zaklad Allen L. , Christ Richard E.
Published: January 2012

Two operator workload (OWL) subjective rating scales were used to obtain judgments of workload during 48 hours of operation. The Task Load Index (TLX) and Overall Workload (OW) scales were administered to two crews during 48-hour operations. A 16-item symptoms ratings scale was also administered to investigate motion sickness and other physical ailments. Results indicated that workload increases across time. Factor analysis on the symptoms found three significant: (1) Heat; (2) Eyestrain/Headache; and (3) Allergy/Dust. Regression analyses suggest that OWL scores can be described as a combination of hour into mission and job being performed. These findings are discussed in the context of a methodology for assessing OWL.
PATS: A New Generation Psychophysiological Test Battery
Authors: Wilson Glenn F. , Oliver Celia G.
Published: January 2012

This paper describes the development of a new generation of psychophysiological test battery to replace our first battery, the Neuropsychological Workload Test Battery (NWTB). The new battery, the Psychophysiological Assessment Test System (PATS), has a much improved user interface, expanded capabilities for use in simulator facilities, enhanced data reduction and management capabilities, and includes the ability to do statistical analysis.
Indeterminacy and System Performance Measurements
Authors: Meister David
Published: January 2012

A model of system performance is presented whose elements permit more meaningful measurement of system performance.
A Methodology for the Test Design and Evaluation of Human Whole-Body Vibration in Ground Vehicle Systems
Authors: Haas Ellen C.
Published: January 2012

To date, testing and evaluation of whole-body vibration in ground vehicle systems have not always fully utilized appropriate experimental design methodology, applicable statistical tests, or relevant criteria. A test design and evaluation methodology was developed to eliminate these oversights. This methodology uses inferential statistics, questionnaires, and a comparison of vibration data with representative mission scenarios. The methodology was employed in the evaluation of two alternative tracked ground vehicle designs. The independent variables were track type, terrain, vehicle speed, and crew position. The dependent variables were International Standards Organization (ISO) 2631 whole-body vibration exposure limit times at the lateral, transverse, and vertical axes. Two different multivariate analyses of variance (MANOVAs) performed on the exposure limit data indicated that all main effects, as well as several interactions, were significant (p < .01). A comparison of exposure limits to a representative mission scenario indicated that both track types would exceed ISO 2631 exposure, comfort, and fatigue limits during expected travel over cross-country terrain. Crew questionnaires also indicated crew discomfort when exposed to this type of terrain. The experiment demonstrated that the procedure was useful in helping to determine the extent that vehicle vibration permits the performance of the vehicle mission, within limits dictated by safety, efficiency, and comfort.
Computer-Aided Checklist for Human Engineering
Authors: Taylor Bruce H. , Courtright John F. , Acton William H. , Fox Marcia L.
Published: January 2012

Military Standard 1472C is the prevailing standard for human engineering in military systems, possessing literally thousands of design criteria. The breadth and detail of these criteria often prove to be impediments to their effective application. This paper describes a prototype software tool, the Computer-Aided Checklist for Human Engineering (CACHE), designed to automate the generation, administration, and analysis of human engineering compliance checklists.
Using Content Analysis as an Interface Design Tool
Authors: Cocklin Tom
Published: January 2012

As a precursor to functional analysis, a content analysis was done to guide improvements for the interface design of a printed circuit board design system. Content analysis, as a design tool, requires users to judge the usefulness of task information and then prioritize it based on one or more specified attributes. For this application, content analysis was completed using 11 judges experienced in printed circuit board layout. All judges were asked to work within the context of a particular printed circuit board example. Two attributes, task relevance and order, were considered by judges as they sorted tasks. An inter-rater reliability check was performed and one judge was eliminated from further analysis. From the remaining pool of 10 judges, 32 tasks central to the activity of board layout were discovered. A model was built using cluster analysis and MDS algorithms which was based on relevant tasks, task order and task concurrence. The model was then compared to the current menu structure of a mature design layout interface and recommendations for interface modifications were made. Notes on using content analysis to do interface design and evaluation as well as recommendations for further use are discussed.
Deriving Performance Measures for Team Tasks: Evaluating a Methodology
Authors: Hogan Joyce , Neubauer Rainer M. , Salas Eduardo
Published: January 2012

This study investigates the usefulness of existing performance measures for evaluating the outcome effectiveness of team tasks. It describes a method to identify the measures most appropriate for evaluating training on different types of tasks and under different performance conditions. Six prototype team tasks served as rating stimuli that were used to evaluate 15 objective and 23 subjective team performance measures. Raters (N=33) assessed the usefulness of these performance measures for evaluating performance on each team task under three different scenarios. These scenarios asked how useful the measure would be for: (1) evaluating the performance of teams that want to improve and develop skills; (2) evaluating the performance of teams that have learned the task and need to maintain performance; and (3) helping a consultant to appraise the performance of the team. Results indicated reliable panel ratings; factor analyses of each objective and subjective performance measure correlation matrix revealed five-factor solutions for each domain, and these solutions were consistent across tasks and scenarios. Performance rating means varied significantly by task type, but generally were consistent across scenarios. The ratings are sensitive to task type and can be used systematically to specify relevant dimensions of team evaluation.
Characteristics of an Embedded Training Authoring System: Lessons Learned
Authors: Kincaid J. Peter , Miles Daniel , Carlson Lisa R.
Published: January 2012

This paper summarizes lessons learned from several projects related to embedded training (ET) and describes functional characteristics of an embedded training authoring system. Both desired and mandatory features of an ET authoring system are discussed for several applications. The relationship between embedded training and paperless technical manuals is also discussed as are engineering constraints imposed by the host system.
Evaluation of Decision Aids for Training Device Design
Authors: Gibbons Stephen , Singer Michael J
Published: January 2012

Newly developed cost and training effectiveness models are being used by training developers to control costs and to insure systematic training device design. The problem for the user is how to select the appropriate design aid. Unfortunatly, there are no quick objective methods on which to base this selection. The selection decision for a particular application can be made based on three issues. The first issue is how the design aid addresses device instructional and fidelity features. The second issue is how the design aid formalizes the device design decision process. The third issue is to compare the systems on their ease of implementation. Two decision aids are analytically evaluated on their approach to training device design: OSBATS (Optimization of Simulation Based Training Systems), which is in prototype development, and ASTAR (Automated Simulator Test and Assessment Routine), which is ready to be fielded. These decision aids are based on differing theoretical approaches to formalizing training device design. OSBATS's taxonomy of fidelity features relates instructional features to individual tasks. OSBATS contains a tradeoff function which uses historical cost and benefit values for individual features. It uses large amounts of detailed information to drive its algorithms. ASTAR is a management tool which organizes the diverse interests of a design group to address design issues. ASTAR obtains judgments about instructional approach and device similarity for each training objective. ASTAR facilitates communication between members of a design team and insures a consensus on the issues.
Data Collection in Support of the Design of Training Devices
Authors: Singer Michael J. , Willis Ruth P.
Published: January 2012

A major problem in training device design is specifying the appropriate level of fidelity and required instructional features for learning. This research effort was designed to acquire detailed information about tasks and training device fidelity features. The standard method for developing information about task and fidelity relationships has been to conduct research into training methods using varying degrees of fidelity, or to extrapolate from evaluations of training programs based on newly developed training devices. The rotary-wing operations domain was selected as the basis for gathering detailed relationship data. A Training Device Fidelity analysis was conducted on many of the devices at the Army Aviation School at Ft. Rucker. A survey was then developed that crossed the tasks being trained on the AH-64 CWEPT (Cockpit, Weapons, and Emergency Procedures Trainer) and the UH-1 CPT (Cockpit Procedures Trainer) with the device characteristics present on those training devices. The survey was administered to instructors using the training devices. The survey responses were categorized, and the consensus results are being used in developing expert system rules. The conclusion drawn is that adequate data can be collected using surveys to generate experience-based (versus opinion-based or device evaluation-based) rules for determining necessary and sufficient fidelity aspects for training devices. The method can be used in any training domain that requires training devices, where guidance is inferential and opinion-based, and where those devices are costly and/or need to be very effective.
Training Transfer in a Tank Gunnery Training System
Authors: Turnage Janet J. , Bliss James P.
Published: January 2012

Three tank gunnery trainers were studied to determine learning transfer over repeated trails. Devices included the TOPGUN trainer, a part-task, reduced-fidelity tank gunnery trainer; the Videodisk Gunnery Trainer (VIGS), another part-task, limited-fidelity trainer; and the Conduct-of-Fire Trainer (COFT), a full-fidelity trainer. The objective was to determine the degree of gunnery skills transfer between the part-task gunnery trainers and the full-fidelity simulator. COFT criterion performances were examined for two pretraining groups (either TOPGUN first, then VIGS, or VIGS first, then TOPGUN) and a control group in order to determine which pretraining sequence leads to better performance. Each training group, composed of 20 subjects, received two multiple-mission engagement trials on four consecutive days (2 VIGS-2 TOPGUN, or vice versa) before COFT transfer. Results showed significant Group and Trial effects for transfer between TOPGUN and VIGS and significant transfer to COFT performance regardless of the prior sequence of training.
Advancing the Mind/Machine Interface: Qualitative Simulations, Hypertext, and Natural Language Processing
Authors: Psotka Joseph
Published: January 2012

Advanced technologies, including artificial intelligence (Al), hypertext, and natural language processing (NLP), are transforming the Mind/Machine Interface. This presentation focuses on two large development projects underway that use these technologies in unique ways. Their use is guided by the three natural means of communication between people: saying, coaching, and showing; as metaphors for using advanced technology interfaces. The two projects are aimed at developing job and training aids for the Army. The most complete example is the Maintenance Aid Computer for HAWK–Intelligent Institutional Instructor (MACH-III). This is the largest and most successful implementation of an ITS to date (Psotka, Massey, and Mutter, 1988). MACH-III was developed by Bolt, Beranek, and Newman (BBN), to provide training in organizational maintenance of the main radar of the HAWK air defense guided missile system. Its core is a huge qualitative simulation of the radar. The complexity of the simulation and the troubleshooting problem space demand a unique hypertext interface, whose structure and function are only beginning to be understood. Some preliminary evaluation results from the U.S. Army Air Defense Artillery School (USAADASCH), Ft. Bliss, Texas are beginning to show its effectiveness. The other project, Building Robust Dual Grammar Exercisers (BRIDGE), will begin to explore the architextual structure of hypertext systems within the context of advanced technologies for military machine translation and military foreign language training. From this perspective, hypertext is a bridging technology that links the existing strengths of qualitative simulations with the future power of natural language processing.
Developing an Its in a Corporate Setting
Authors: Dews Shelly
Published: January 2012

Grace is an intelligent tutoring system (ITS) that will be used to teach programming in Cobol to about 300 NYNEX Service Company employees a year. It is the first ITS to be built by an industry laboratory for use within that industry. Grace has been a successful development project primarily because of the focus on usefulness and the use of iterative design. This paper describes Grace as a case study of finding a place for an ITS, ensuring that the users find it useful, and using prototype-evaluate cycles.
The Usability of Intelligent Tutoring Systems
Authors: Gray Wayne D. , Burns Bart , Schooler Lael
Published: January 2012

Grace, the NYNEX COBOL tutor, is being built in a corporate environment following the philosophy of iterative design and test. Grace and the student interact in a mixed-initiative dialogue. Grace's side of the dialogue is controlled by a simulation based upon the ACT* theory of cognitive skill acquisition (Anderson, 1983, 1987b). This simulation is theory-driven and largely, but not completely, embodied in a production system architecture. The student-tutor dialogue is mediated by an interface whose design is empirically driven and embodied in a multi-media system of windows, text, hypertext, mouse gestures, menus, node selections, typing-in, and so. Construction of the simulation and the tutor interface are being tested and revised through a series of user trials. The trials are conducted at one of the sites at which the tutor will be used. Students participating in the trial are from the same population as our target audience.
Discriminability of Color Symbols through PLZT Goggles
Authors: Kuperman Gilbert G. , Wilson Denise L. , Crawford Robyn
Published: January 2012

A symbol recognition experiment was conducted, with and without PLZT goggles to determine how far apart in color space symbol and background colors must be in order for the symbols to be reliably recognized. Spectral transmittance data showed a reduction of approximately 78 percent in display luminances to the operator wearing PLZT goggles, which was almost uniform across the visual spectrum. All chromaticities, over the entire CRT display gamut, were found to shift markedly toward green when measured through the goggles. This shift was as much as 0.064 1976 UCS units (for fully saturated blue). No criterion shift (beta) was found between the goggle/no goggle conditions. The measure of sensitivity (d') was significantly reduced (from 3.788, without goggles, to 2.910, while wearing the goggles. The probability of hits also decreased significantly (from 0.945 to 0.863) and the probability of false alarms increased significantly (from 0.044 to 0.109) between the no goggle and PLZT cases (all p < 0.05). The effects of the PLZT goggles on the symbol recognition task were lessened as the symbol-to-background chromaticity distance was increased. These results support the development of specialized color display symbol sets in workplaces where PLZT flashblindness protection is worn by the operator.
Detection and Recognition of Multiple Visual Signals in Noise
Authors: Elvers Greg C. , Sorkin Robert D.
Published: January 2012

This experiment tested a detection theory model of visual signal detection and recognition. The task employed a visual display consisting of analog gauges arranged in a horizontal line. The signals to be detected and identified were three unique patterns of gauge values embedded in noise. After viewing the display the observers either reported that any of the signals had occurred (1-of-m signal detection) or specified which of the signals (if any) had occurred (1-of-m signal recognition-detection). The results indicated that performance on 1-of-m recognition and detection tasks can be predicted from performance on the component single-signal detection tasks.
Spatial Awareness with a Helmet-Mounted Display
Authors: Venturino Michael , Kunze Richard J.
Published: January 2012

Two experiments were conducted to determine the human's ability to acquire and memorize the spatial locations of stimulus targets using a helmet-mounted display. The experimental task was a two-phase search and replace task in which the size of the field-of-view (FOV) on the helmet-mounted display and the memory load (number of targets) were manipulated. In Experiment 1, all stimulus targets were removed after the search phase. In Experiment 2, only the three stimulus targets to be replaced were removed, leaving the subjects with some contextual information regarding the overall pattern of targets. Results of both experiments showed that: 1) search time increased significantly as the size of the FOV became smaller, and 2) subjects' ability to replace a stimulus target in its original location in space was adversely affected by increases in memory load. These results indicate that the size of the FOV affects one's ability to acquire spatial information of one's surroundings, but once this information has been mapped into spatial memory, humans can use that information independently of the size of their “window” to the world. However, subjects' spatial memory has some limitations, since the ability to remember precise locations becomes poorer as the amount of information to remember increases. The effects of additional context provided in Experiment 2 resulted in a slight increase in the precision with which subjects could remember specific target locations. The results of these studies have implications in two areas: human spatial cognition, and the design of helmet-mounted displays.
Visual Direction as a Metric of Virtual Space
Authors: Ellis Stephen R. , Smith Stephen , Hacisalihzade Selim
Published: January 2012

Two experiments examine the abilities of 10 subjects to visualize directions shown on a perspective display. Subjects indicated their perceived directions by adjusting a head-mounted cursor to correspond to the direction depicted on the display. This task is required of telerobotic operators who use map-like pictures of their workspace to determine the direction of objects seen by direct view. Results show significant open-loop, judgement biases that may be composed of errors arising from misinterpretation of the map geometry and overestimation of gaze direction.
Target Detection, Rifle Marksmanship, and Mood during Three Hours of Simulated Sentry Duty
Authors: Johnson Richard F. , McMenemy Donna J.
Published: January 2012

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of sentry duty time on the soldier's speed of detection of visually presented targets, his ability to hit targets (rifle marksmanship), and his mood. Prior to the test day, each of eight subjects was given five days of training on the Weaponeer Rifle Marksmanship Simulator and was familiarized with the targets to be presented during testing. The test session lasted three hours, during which time the subject assumed a standing foxhole position and monitored the target scene of the Weaponeer. The Weaponeer M16A1 modified rifle lay next to the subject at chest height. When a pop-up target appeared, the subject pressed a telegraph key, lifted the rifle, aimed, and fired at the target. Speed of target detection was measured in terms of the time required by the subject to press the telegraph key in response to the presentation of the target. Marksmanship was measured in terms of number of targets hit. Target detection time and rifle marksmanship were averaged every 30 minutes. At the end of the test session, the subject completed the Profile of Mood States rating scale. The results showed that target detection time deteriorated with time on sentry duty; impairments were not evident within the first hour but were clearly evident by 1.5 hours. Marksmanship remained constant over time; soldiers were just as accurate in hitting the targets at the end of the 3 hours of sentry duty as they were at the beginning. Whereas the soldier's predominant mood during baseline practice sessions was one of vigor, during sentry duty the predominant mood was one of fatigue. The results of this study suggest that sentry duty performance may be optimized if it is limited to one hour or less.
Effects of Auxillary Load on Vigilance Performance in a Simulated Work Environment
Authors: Warm Joel S. , Rosa Roger R. , Colligan Michael J.
Published: January 2012

The effects of extra-task demands and long hours of work on the performance of simultaneous (comparative judgment) and successive (absolute judgment) type vigilance tasks were assessed in a simulated work environment. For three consecutive 12 hour days, subjects engaged in four 1-hour vigilance sessions interspersed with work at a heavy-load (20 codes/rain) or a light-load (10 codes/min) data entry task. For both types of vigilance tasks, performance efficiency varied inversely with the auxilary workload confronting the subjects. In addition, the quality of vigilance performance improved over the work week in the context of the light auxilary workload and declined in the context of the heavy load. Subjects reported becoming more drowsy, strained and fatigued and experienced more somatic complaints over the work day and the work week. These mood effects were maximal with the successive task and a heavy auxiliary workload, suggesting that in order to maintain performance standards in the successive task, subjects expended more processing resources which led to a greater cost in fatigue and strain.
Inflexibility in Selecting the Optical Basis for Perceiving Speed
Authors: Awe Cynthia A. , Johnson Walter W. , Schmitz Fred
Published: January 2012

Five subjects participated in an experiment designed to test if people could selectively attend to either edge rate (frequency of passing texture units) or flow rate (optical velocity of texture units) as the optical basis for controlling their own forward speed. Subjects continued to use edge rate as the basis for controlling forward speed, even when instructed to use flow rate and given feedback about their success in using it. The results are interpreted as evidence of inflexibility in selectively attending to information for self-speed.
Problem Solving by Multiple Experts in a Distributed Diagnostic Context
Authors: Hoecker Douglas G.
Published: January 2012

This paper outlines results, both behavioral and methodological, of a pilot study whose objective was to develop a method for learning why experienced technicians' diagnoses of a supposedly self-diagnostic avionics system appeared to be false at rates approaching 50%, and for recommending actions to improve diagnostic performance. In this context, the cost of falsely removing a replaceable avionics module was high: thorough testing of a false ‘pull’ typically would require the better part of a day for a skilled specialist using costly test equipment, only to conclude: ‘re-tests ok’.

Fifteen subject-matter experts solved three problems concerning avionics diagnosis in a counterbalanced experimental design. Results from analysis of scored verbal protocols suggest a multiplicity of problem-solving strategies used both across as well as within individuals. They also suggest that an important factor in developing a problem-specific diagnostic strategy is the user's estimate of cost for obtaining the needed data; often the cost is estimated to be too high, and the data are foregone, even when they are believed to be available ‘somewhere in the system’. Thus, problem-solvers appeared to knowingly engage in risky decision-making behavior that reflected compromises among conflicting goals. Another result was methodological: the ‘leveraged expert’ approach to scenario-driven problem solving provides rich data and useful insights into dealing with multiple experts in a problem domain.
The Army Operator Workload (OWL) Program: Review and Prospects
Authors: Christ Richar E. , Zaklad Allen L. , Bittner Alvah C. , Hill Susan G. , Linton Paul M.
Published: January 2012

The Operator Workload (OWL) Program is a just-completed, three-year, basic and applied research effort sponsored by the Army Research Institute (ARI). As part of the Army's research thrust into workload, the OWL Program was directed to establish guidance for the assessment of OWL associated with the operation of Army systems. Its intent was to identify and integrate the most relevant of workload research into a set of practicable workload assessment methods for Army developers, and then apply and validate these methods on selected Army systems. Lessons learned from OWL studies of these systems formed the basis for guidance for Army system developers. This paper overviews the objectives, the accomplishments, and the future prospects of the OWL Program.
Generic Workload Ratings of a Mobile Air Defense System (LOS-F-H)
Authors: Bittner Alvah C. , Byers James C. , Hill Susan G. , Zaklad Allen L. , Christ Richard E.
Published: January 2012

Operator workload (OWL) scales were used to obtain ratings of generic mission scenarios and tasks for a mobile air defense missile system (LOS-F-H) following a candidate-selection field evaluation. NASA TLX, SWAT, Overall Workload (OW), and the Modified Cooper-Harper (MCH) ratings were obtained from both crew and Subject Matter Experts (SMEs). Jackknife factor analysis revealed the presence of only a single “OWL” factor for both crew and SMEs (explaining 75.9% and 82.6% of the respective total variances) and indicated a significant ( p < 0.00005) ordering of the mean factor loadings: TLX (0.924) was significantly greater than OW (0.905) and MCH (0.904), which were greater than SWAT (0.778). Subsequent analysis of OWL factor scores indicated that the crew and SMEs yielded essentially equivalent evaluations of OWL for the system variables investigated. This analysis also indicated that the highest levels of OWL were obtained for the track-to-intercept task during dual Rotary-Wing (RW) and Fixed-Wing (FW) attacks, although the ID/IFF task during a dual RW attack was almost as high. These findings are discussed in the context of a methodology for assessing OWL.
Objective and Subjective Assessment of Image Recognition
Authors: McClumpha A. J. , Selcon S. J.
Published: January 2012

This paper describes two studies which used objective and subjective assessments to quantify the effect of target degradation on observers' recognition ability. ‘Noise’ inherent in a digital infra-red line scan system can result in a static line-to-line variation (pixel jitter) over the displayed imagery. The amount of target degradation is dependent upon both the amplitude and frequency of the pixel jitter. The results showed that, firstly, if an image is affected by pixel jitter, even with an amplitude of only 1 pixels, a significant interference in target recognition performance occurs. Secondly, the results from the subjective scaling mirrored closely the error data and therefore imply that this rating scale, may have widespread utility in target acquisition studies. Finally, the effect of pixel jitter appears to be robust. The effect was found not to be specific to a particular type of imagery and is, therefore, likely to generalise to other types of target and other imaging systems. The implication of these results for user-system specification is discussed.
Predictive Utility of an Objective Measure of Situation Awareness
Authors: Endsley Mica R.
Published: January 2012

Situation awareness (SA) can generally be defined as the pilot's mental model of the world around him. The ability of the pilot to maintain situation awareness has been recognized in the pilot community as crucial to mission success and survivability. Little empirical work has been done to explore this construct, however, as measurement techniques have been lacking. The Situation Awareness Global Assessment Technique (SAGAT) was developed and validated as an objective measure of a pilot's situation awareness to meet this need. An investigation of the relationship between situation awareness and performance was conducted using SAGAT. The study evaluated the utility of situation awareness in a manned fighter sweep tactical mission using experienced pilot subjects. A total of 90 trials were conducted. The results support the importance of situation awareness for mission effectiveness. Blue Team subjects were almost twice as likely to later kill an aircraft when they had SA of that aircraft, as measured by SAGAT, than when they did not. The effect of rules of engagement, mission scenario, aircraft and weapons systems on the relationship between SA and performance is discussed.
Planning and Scheduling in Flight Workload Management
Authors: Raby Mireille , Wickens Christopher D.
Published: January 2012

A closed loop adaptive model for workload has been proposed by Hart and Wickens (1990) in which planning and scheduling activities contribute to the increase or diminution of workload the operator may experience. Of relevance to this model is people's ability to estimate how much time they need to complete a task, their ability to prioritize the tasks to be performed, and their ability to schedule those tasks on time. Thirty pilots flew three ILS approaches under different levels of workload. The data indicates that the increase in workload affected flight performance as well as the planning and scheduling of tasks with different levels of prioritization. This level of prioritization closely approximated the flight instructor's and the subjects' subjective ratings of the degree of importance of each task. It is also suggested that overconfidence in time estimation may depend on the task involved. Finally, the data is discussed in terms of its implication to a closed loop adaptive model of workload.
Airborne Early Warning and Color-Coding
Authors: Ricard G. L.
Published: January 2012

This study examined improvements to airborne early warning possible by color-coding information into the current surveillance radar system of the E-2C aircraft. It used man-in-the-loop simulation to examine performance in a taxing but realistic, war-alert scenario, and a number of measures of operator performance were taken that showed differences between color and monochrome operation. A set of nine functions was selected for color-coding, and a scheme was developed to code their information into colors for the operator's main display. Both operational Navy and Grumman E-2C operators were tested under color and monochrome conditions and the results strongly favor operation with color. Operators remained more aware of the tactical situation, organized better defenses of their task force, and reduced threats to the fleet better with the color-coded display. Non-redundant color-coding should be considered for any complex tactical task where performance can be expected to improve if more information is displayed - particularly in cases where operators' manipulation of controls can be reduced and their decision making can be made less dependent on memory.
Color Coding and Size Enhancements of Switch Symbol Critical Features
Authors: Barthelemy Kristen K. , Mazur Kim M. , Reising John M.
Published: January 2012

The purpose of these two studies was to evaluate recognition performance of symbols on programmable switches using different critical feature enhancement techniques. Based on previous studies, it was assumed that subjects were processing the meaning of the symbols at a holistic level. Enhancing a critical feature (the specific part of the symbol which makes it most identifiable) was proposed as a method for creating a more unique symbol, thereby improving recognition performance. Color coding and size enhancement of the critical feature were evaluated to determine if either technique improved symbol recognition performance. In the first study the size enhancement was between 60–75% in total number of pixels for the critical feature. The amount of size enhancement was limited by the display surface area. In the second study, a new method of size enhancement was utilized whereby the longest axis of the critical feature was increased by 0.10 of an inch. In this study, there was no display surface constraint. In both studies color coding of the critical feature was also evaluated. The results of the first study indicated that only the color coding technique was significant. In the second study, both color coding and size enhancement were significant. It was concluded that in the first study the way in which the size enhancement was applied to the critical feature (an increase in total surface area) was not sufficient to achieve a unique symbol, so it did not improve the subject's recognition ability; however, in the second study, size enhancing the longest axis was sufficient to result in a performance payoff.
Perception of Safety Hazards across the Adult Life-Span
Authors: Smith David B. D. , Watzke James R.
Published: January 2012

We conducted a survey to study the risk perception and assessment of safety hazards as a function of age. The survey asked subjects (N=200) to answer a 25 item survey about their feelings, experience and knowledge concerning specific (falls, burns, and medication) and general safety hazards. Results of an ANOVA, contrast and principle component analysis each supported the conclusion that the perception and evaluation of risk plays an increasingly important role in safety behavior and hazard avoidance as people age. These results are consistent with previous work on cautiousness as a personality trait in older people, and indicate this cautiousness begins in the middle years of life. The principle components analysis indicated a core of 12 items from the original 25 that have a distinct age-risk-safety structure. This may have potential as a profile useful in research and clinical contexts for predicting and intervening with persons at high risk for accidents.
Age-Related Slowing, S-R Compatibility, and Stages of Information Processing
Authors: Diggles-Buckles Virginia , Vercruyssen Max
Published: January 2012

Previous work in this laboratory (Vercruyssen, Carlton & Diggles-Buckles, 1989) has found that older individuals are at a disproportional disadvantage when stimulus-response (S-R) compatibility relationships are made more difficult. When stimulus quality and S-R compatibility were manipulated, age interacted with the S-R manipulation, suggesting in an additive factors framework that the locus of age-related slowing was the response selection stage. In that study S-R compatibility was manipulated by changing the S-R spatial map as well as changing the environment (subjects were required to cross their arms). The present study attempted to tease apart factors that might be contributing to that age x S-R compatibility relationship by using S-R maps of simple, moderate, and high difficulty as one factor and the arm position (crossed or uncrossed, a test of the Simon effect, Simon, Sly & Vilapakkam, 1981) as a different factor. In addition, stimulus quality was manipulated as a factor in this 4 factor design: age x stimulus quality x S-R map x arm position. Results revealed that both factors, S-R compatibility and arm position interacted with age. The conclusion from an additive factors perspective is that the stages of decision making (S-R compatibility) and response preparation (arm position) show age-dependent slowing whereas the stimulus encoding stage (stimulus quality) does not.
Identifying the Learning Capabilities of Older Adults: Associative and Priority Learning
Authors: Rogers Wendy A. , Fisk Arthur D. , Giambra Leonard M. , Rosenberg Edwin H.
Published: January 2012

Effective search performance is determined by two important factors: memory load and display load. Memory load factors can be reduced by “associative learning” where memory-set elements become unitized and the stimuli are compared as a “category” rather than serially. Display-load effects can be reduced by target-distractor differentiation, a process referred to as “priority learning”. In this paper we describe a three-phased experiment conducted to examine how those factors affected search performance for young and old subjects (mean ages, 24 and 71). Subjects were first trained in two varied mapping (VM) conditions (Phase 1): (1) Associative - allowed unitization of the stimulus sets; (2) Nonassociative - inhibited unitization. In Phase 1 all subjects unitized the associative sets thus implying maintenance of associative learning. In Phase 2, the stimuli were consistently mapped (CM) thus allowing the opportunity for priority learning. Following CM training young adults' performance was qualitatively superior to old adults'. In Phase 3, the CM target and distractor roles were reversed to assess the strength of CM learning. The attention-capturing strength (a measure of priority learning) was age-dependent with young adults showing greater effects. The results demonstrate that age differences in perceptual learning are primarily a function of a disruption in priority learning.
Effects of Speech Intelligibility among Bradley Fighting Vehicle Crew Members: Simnet Performance and Subjective Workload
Authors: Whitaker Leslie A. , Peters Leslie , Garinther Georges
Published: January 2012

Speech communication among crew members in military vehicles suffers from several sources which interfere with speech intelligibility. The effects of intelligibility were studied in the SIMNET Training facility at Ft. Benning, G.A. Twelve Bradley-qualified, three-man crews were tested on a series of navigation and gunnery exercises. A repeated measures design was used to test five levels (0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100%) of speech intelligibility. In each 10–minute exercise, the Commander used a map and mission statements to direct his crew on a 1.5 to 2.0 km course. Four check points had to be reached and one or three target vehicles destroyed. Subjective Workload Assessment Technique (SWAT) measurements were taken after each exercise. The level of speech intelligibility affected mission success and SWAT results. The impact of intelligibility was found even at the first drop in speech intelligibility (100% to 75%). We concluded that performance and operational success are adversely affected by poor speech communication. Remedial measures to radios, headsets, vehicular insulation, and hearing protection can improve speech intelligibility in these vehicles and, hence, improve performance.
User acceptance and preference for advanced voice services features and dialogue styles
Authors: Deffner Gerhard , Melder Karl
Published: January 2012

The experiment evaluates several alternatives for the design of user dialogues of a telephone system which integrates advanced features to accelerate access to telephone services and also Spoken Speed Dial, Call Answering and Call Delivery. In the experiment, subjects placed phone calls and relayed pieces of information. The dialogue they then encountered presented them with experimental variations of dialogue styles and provided an opportunity to use the Spoken Speed Dial feature. Subjects made 16 call attempts in the first phase of the experiment, and their preferences for dialogue features were recorded between trial blocks and at the end of the experiment. In a second phase, subjects were the recipients of Call Delivery of various types. The results show clear preference for verbal prompts, the usability of Spoken Speed Dial, conflicting attitudes towards the extra step of recording the recipient's name in Call Answering, and a preferred mode of Call Delivery.
Towards Usable Icon Sets: A Case Study from Telecommunications Engineering
Authors: Bellcore Aita Salasoo
Published: January 2012

Converging experimental tasks were used to address the development of usable interactive icon sets for telecommunications network applications. Naming and matching addressed the individual informativeness value of an icon, with naming reflecting natural context response biases and familiarity contributions more than matching. Naming also allowed intrusions to be identified early. Preference ratings simulated user behavior with iconic menus, and provided discriminability data that could help to select icons where naming and matching revealed only failures. Issues resolved and revealed during this work are discussed.
Understanding Handwriting Recognition from the User's Perspective
Authors: Wolf Catherine G.
Published: January 2012

As an input technique, handwriting recognition offers benefits in ease of use, but poses special problems for the user when a recognition error occurs. When a recognition error occurs, the user is often surprised since the misrecognized character often looks acceptable to him/her. In contrast, when a typing error occurs with a keyboard interface, the user immediately understands what has happened. The purpose of this study was: 1. to gain insight into what people think when a recognition error occurs, and 2. to discover whether a simple monochrome display of a user's handwriting prototypes would provide information which could be used to improve recognition accuracy. Such a display might serve as a point of reference for understanding and avoiding recognition errors. The results of the study suggested that a display of handwriting prototypes can be used by people to improve recognition accuracy. The study also found that in a large percentage of instances, people do not have any insight into the cause of a recognition error. Some possible causes for this predicament and some possible remedies are discussed in the paper.
A Comparison of Four Input Devices for the Macintosh Interface
Authors: Han Sung H. , Jorna Gerard C. , Miller Richard H. , Tan Kay C.
Published: January 2012

Numerous computer input devices have been designed and evaluated in the last decade. In most evaluations, simple pointing and tracking tasks were used that do not adequately represent todays' computer tasks. The following research evaluated four input devices with respect to usability and preference issues. The UnMouse©, the Turbo© mouse, and the Felix© mouse were compared with the Apple Macintosh® Mouse on four different types of task: tracking (point-and-click), desktop manipulation (e.g., point, click, and drag), word processing, and graphics generation. Users expressed preferences for the devices in terms of lower-arm fatigue, precision of control, and comfort of movement. Results indicate that the Macintosh Mouse and the Felix device were quicker and preferred over the other devices.
Design Issues for Graphical Unix User Interfaces
Authors: Doane Stephanie M. , Polson Peter G. , Kintsch Walter
Published: January 2012

This paper discusses important usability issues that impact the future development of graphical user interfaces for UNIX. UNIX provides a user with the capability to combine basic commands using input/output redirection to create new commands to perform more complex tasks. The new graphical interfaces do not directly aid composing commands. However, it takes more than five years of experience to begin to be able to fluently compose new, complex commands. This paper describes a methodology which focuses attention on the problems that must be solved in order for these core features of UNIX to be accessible to individuals with one to five years of experience.
Knowledge Acquisition Techniques: A Case Study in the Development of a Knowledge-Based System for Document Retrieval
Authors: Shute Steven J. , Smith Philip J.
Published: January 2012

A case study is presented describing and illustrating the use of a number of knowledge acquisition techniques for the development of a knowledge-based system. The system developed is a computerized intermediary to assist in searches of bibliographic databases. Particular emphasis is placed on a discussion of the use a conceptual model to guide in the design and analysis of an empirical study of the expertise used by human search intermediaries. The framework provided by this model made it possible to conduct a rigorous analysis of discourses that were recorded as human intermediaries assisted information seekers.