bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Images of the Civil Religion
Authors: Viroli Maurizio
Published: November 2017

This chapter details the spread of republican religion. The concept of civil religion spread within republican cities' culture and customs through the treatises on government. But even more effective were the images that embodied those concepts. Whereas the concepts expounded in the treatises spoke first and foremost to reason, paintings struck the eyes, and from the eyes touched the passions. The rulers of republics were aware of the images' strength, especially when they were accompanied by clear words, written in large, legible characters, preferably in the vernacular. For this reason, rulers commissioned skilled artists to produce a great number of works explaining the principles of republican good government to the magistrates and citizens. The message conveyed by the walls of the city government's most important halls was at once political and religious. That is, their imagery taught people to view civic duties as if they were real religious duties—God's and Christ's commandments, not just human advice.
Republican and Monarchical Religion
Authors: Viroli Maurizio
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on republican and monarchical religion in late medieval Europe. Republican religion spread in a late medieval Europe dominated by monarchies that, from the thirteenth century on, had endowed themselves with a sacred dimension similar to that of the church. Jurists and political philosophers transferred the concept of corpus mysticum—intended to designate the church community as a body that cannot be seen by the eyes but can only be grasped by the intellect—to the state. Applied to the state, the concept of a mystical body referred mainly, but not exclusively, to the monarchy, where the king is at the head of the mystical-political body, just as Christ or his vicar on earth is at the head of the mystical body of the church. Thus, the main difference between the royal and the republican religion is that the former celebrates an individual mystical body—the king; the latter celebrates a collective mystical body—the republic.
Within the Soul
Authors: Viroli Maurizio
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers Machiavelli's thoughts about God and religion. In the last chapter of The Prince, he writes that Italy “prays God to send her someone who will redeem her.” In his private letters, Machiavelli speaks of God saving the innocent from the malice of men. He scoffs at hell and makes fun of those who believe in purgatory, indulgences, and masses on behalf of the souls of the dead. The favorite targets of his scorn are the pious souls who spend hours in prayer, and are constantly bustling off to Mass or church. He also has a cyclic vision of history; unlike the Christian conception, his notion does not foresee the final triumph of good over evil. Rather, he holds that human affairs are linked to the movement of the heavens.
Literature and Hymns of the Religion of Liberty
Authors: Viroli Maurizio
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers work of Alessandro Manzoni, who composed the poem and the novel that taught people to love liberty as a religious principle. In the ode “Marzo 1821” (March 1821), Manzoni directs the Italians toward a biblical God who listens to the invocation of the oppressed peoples. In Pentecoste, Manzoni writes of “living God” who operates in the world, supplying inspiration to a church that suffers, prays, and fights. In another work, Osservazioni sulla morale cattolica (Observations on Catholic morality), Manzoni affirms that the Christian religion requires courage to defend justice from the arrogance of the powerful.
Apostles and Martyrs
Authors: Viroli Maurizio
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers models of religiosity and martyrdom that inspired generous actions for one's country's republican religion. Silvio Pellico, for instance, discovered his faith in prison, although he was already convinced that if God existed another life also should exist as a reward for those who suffered unjustly. Guided by his vision of Christianity, Pellico decided to commit himself to teaching—in spite of the pretentious philosophy that claimed to be a substitute for religion. In his Ricordanze della mia vita, Luigi Settembrini describes the contrast between the prejudiced religiosity that dominated the life of the subjects of the Kingdom of Naples, and the religion of virtue and liberty that his father taught him, with reference to classical and Christian examples.
The Religion of Duty
Authors: Viroli Maurizio
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on Carlo and Nello Rosselli, witnesses of a religion of duty that was different from Croce's philosophical premises and political conclusions, yet identical to it in the central role played by the principle of moral liberty. They had been led to the religion of duty by their “uncle” Gaetano Salvemini. Although Salvemini was a fierce enemy of clericalism, superstition, bigotry, and the authoritarianism and conservatism of the Vatican, he defined himself as a religious man. Christ's teaching was, for Salvemini, the foundation of the moral faith that guided his life. Their mother, Amelia Pincherle Rosselli, was also was crucial to the moral and intellectual education of Carlo and Nello Rosselli. For her, they embraced a religiosity of devotion to the moral principle lived inwardly, to be practiced with absolute intransigence.
Leaving Life
Authors: Viroli Maurizio
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers the individuals who gave their life for the religion of liberty. Umberto Ceva is one example, among many others. Born in Pavia in 1900, he was a chemist and manager. As early as 1929, he joined Giustizia e Libertà. He was arrested in 1930 together with Ernesto Rossi and Riccardo Bauer. Fearful of breaking down under torture and jeopardizing his fellows, he committed suicide in the Regina Coeli prison. Lauro de Bosis was one of the first to use the phrase “religion of liberty.” Born in Rome in 1901, de Bosis grew up in an environment rich with fervid intellectual and cultural interests. A liberal and a monarchist, de Bosis became an antifascist starting with the march on Rome. In 1924, the Italian American society of New York invited him to the United States to give history, literature, and philosophy lectures, and in 1926 he lectured at Harvard.
Pagan Virtue, 1400–1700
Authors: Marenbon John
Published: November 2017

This chapter turns to the second aspect of the Problem of Paganism: virtue. The dominant view among scholastic theologians in the late thirteenth and fourteenth centuries was that pagans could be genuinely virtuous, although their virtues were not of the sort which could merit salvation. In the period after 1400, mainstream Catholic theologians in the scholastic tradition tended to take the same broad view as their predecessors, but reformulating it to take account of new opponents. By contrast, and surprisingly, writers more influenced by humanism were often more sceptical about pagan virtue, although they presented their doubts in sophisticated literary forms. From 1500, the newly discovered pagans of America presented another side to the problem of pagan virtue, overlooked by most mainstream writers on them, but noticed by Jean de Léry and probed by Montaigne. This chapter looks at each of these approaches in turn.
Alliance Problems, Signaling, and Escalation of Asian Conflict
Authors: Christensen Thomas J.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines two intrawar deterrence failures in Korea in late summer and fall 1950, both of which were related to alliance politics. It shows that lack of coordination and mistrust in the communist camp rendered the alliance incapable of sending clear and timely signals of resolve to the United States that might have deterred the Americans from crossing the 38th parallel in the crucial three weeks following Douglas MacArthur's successful Inchon landing. This same lack of coordination undercut communist efforts at coercive diplomacy. U.S. policies in the early weeks of the Korean War had a powerful impact on strategic thinking in the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China about the long-term implications of the military defeat of the North Korean communist regime and the unification of the Korean peninsula under a government friendly to the United States.
The Fall and Revival of Coercive Diplomacy: Security Partnerships and Sino-American Security Relations, 1972–2009
Authors: Christensen Thomas J.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines how, in the post-Cold War era, the United States' alignment with Taiwan and alliance with Japan again have figured prominently among issues affecting U.S.-China security relations. While they are far from being allies, the United States and the People's Republic of China (PRC) are not enemies either, but rather major economic partners who have also cooperated to some degree in addressing an increasing range of international problems. But there are still security tensions between the two sides over issues such as relations across the Taiwan Strait, and both nations practice coercive diplomacy toward the other, sometimes tacitly, sometimes less so. The chapter considers how the legacies of these Cold War alliances—particularly the U.S.–Taiwan relationship and the U.S.–Japan security treaty—have affected U.S.–China relations since the collapse of the Soviet Union.
Conclusion
Authors: Christensen Thomas J.
Published: November 2017

This chapter reviews the historical and theoretical lessons highlighted by the book. It shows how disorganization and discord in alliance politics has made the maintenance of peace through coercive diplomacy in Asia very difficult. It considers two separate sets of dynamics among enemy alliances that carry theoretically important lessons for the study of international relations. The first set of dynamics relate to alliance coordination, problems of burden-sharing within an alliance, and unclear signaling in an alliance's coercive diplomacy. The second set of dynamics involves potentially differential levels of devotion to specific revisionist conflicts. The chapter concludes with a discussion of other cases of alliance disunity and conflict escalation to which the theoretical approaches offered here might apply, including pan-Arabism and the Six Day War of 1967, the conflict between Israel and Palestine, and the global war on terror.
“That They May All Be One”
Authors: King Desmond S. , Smith Rogers M.
Published: November 2017

This chapter sketches the main points derived from the overall structure of American racial politics and why it matters. It looks into the policy challenges that racial inequalities pose in modern America, and considers a few clues about the political guidance needed to move further toward their resolution. The chapter then elaborates this volume's core concept of rival racial policy alliances. Finally, it explains how the subsequent chapters use the idea of alliances to analyze the evolution of American racial politics historically, and the ways today's racial alliances shape and often distort decision making across a wide range of modern policy arenas.
“That is the last speech he will ever make”
Authors: King Desmond S. , Smith Rogers M.
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses the formation of political alliances centered on differences over racial politics in antebellum America. Even before there was a Constitution, there were pro-slavery and anti-slavery alliances in the not-so-United States. Indeed, the Declaration of Independence, which embedded the rhetoric of human equality and inalienable rights into American political culture, still sought to justify tribal subjugation (by denouncing “merciless Indian Savages”) and to avoid criticism of chattel slavery (by editing out Jefferson's language attacking the slave trade). Throughout the antebellum era, pro-slavery forces retained great power, particularly in regard to the protection of slavery where it was already established. Moreover, the chapter considers how racial politics continued to shape American life—particularly for the disenfranchised people of color—during the period of transition after the Civil War.
“We of the North were thoroughly wrong”
Authors: King Desmond S. , Smith Rogers M.
Published: November 2017

This chapter talks about the complex patterns of racial alliances that emerged during the Jim Crow era. It shows that, shaped by the interactions of a wide range of groups, the patterns and practices of white supremacy during the Jim Crow years varied from state to state, town to town, even neighborhood to neighborhood, and shifted over time in differing ways in all these locales. Within this new era of American racial politics, diminished but determined racially egalitarian actors, groups, and institutions remained important players in American politics, and over time new ones emerged. From their own efforts, aided by changes in a range of domestic and international circumstances, they would gradually grow more powerful through the first two-thirds of the twentieth century, especially during and after World War II.
“To Elect one of Their Own”
Authors: King Desmond S. , Smith Rogers M.
Published: November 2017

This chapter turns to the problem of majority–minority districts. Such districts had long been under attack both by proponents of color-blind decision making and by many proponents of race-conscious approaches who regarded majority–minority districts as often operating to weaken, not to enhance, the political influence of nonwhites. These “strange bedfellow” critics are often considered counterparts to the “strange bedfellow” political proponents of majority–minority districts. Here, the chapter argues that there is evidence of efforts to foster such “strange bedfellow” coalitions. But they have generally failed, in part because political disputes over majority–minority districting have been extensively, indeed predominantly, shaped by the opposed modern racial alliances.
“We can take the people out of the slums, but we cannot take the slums out of the people”
Authors: King Desmond S. , Smith Rogers M.
Published: November 2017

This chapter analyzes the impact of the racial alliances and their ideologically opposed policy agendas, which has been decisive in shaping how the issues of criminal policy and immigration are framed and how support for them is mobilized. Plainly these issues would be debated even if racial alliances did not exist. Many voters and politicians have acted on them for reasons having nothing to do with racial policy commitments. But for many others, the racial implications of policies in these areas have been vital. Racial politics have infused these issues with a content and significance they would not otherwise have. Most important, on these issues as on many others, conflicts over their racial dimensions hamper the making of beneficial policies.
“Un Pouvoir Ordinaire”
Authors: Risse Mathias
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines shared membership in a state as a ground of justice. It proposes an account of immediacy and merges it with John Rawls' notion of reciprocity into an overall account of shared membership in a state as a ground of justice. To characterize shared membership in a state as a ground, the chapter explores the manner in which states are coercive. Coercion is characterized by two features. First, it creates conditions under which person P has no reasonable alternative but to do A. Second, coercion involves a threat: P has no reasonable alternative but to do A because otherwise the coercive agent seriously worsens P's circumstances. The chapter shows that there are principles of justice that apply within states, thus refuting globalism and nonrelationism since both hold that all such principles apply globally.
Internationalism versus Statism and Globalism
Authors: Risse Mathias
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines contemporary debates about statism and globalism. Statists need a necessary condition for justice to apply. They must tell us what it is about states that renders such principles applicable, and does so only in states. The quest for such a condition ends inconclusively. This result leads to a pluralist view of the grounds of justice. To use a distinction from the philosophy of science, the debate among versions of statism turns out to be a context of discovery for internationalism as a contender for a plausible theory of global justice. The chapter proceeds by discussing the most prominent version of globalism, the view defended by Charles Beitz, who argues that John Rawls' principles hold globally. To engage with Beitz, the chapter considers the merits of relationism and then suggests that Rawls' principles do not apply to the global order.
“But the Earth Abideth For Ever”
Authors: Risse Mathias
Published: November 2017

This chapter proposes a framework that makes it possible to consider future generations explicitly and presents two future-directed obligations of justice. It argues for a principle of intergenerational equality: each generation can be reasonably expected to leave a nondeclining stock of natural capital behind. It introduces an additional principle of justice relating to the distribution of the original resources and spaces of the earth across different generations of human beings. The chapter first examines Rahul Kumar's view that wronging consists of violations of legitimate expectations in relationships before discussing ways of characterizing our relationship with future generations that have nothing to do with the ownership approach. It then looks at the debate about sustainability and concludes with some reflections on what we can say about duties to future generations that share membership in a state.
Human Rights as Membership Rights in the Global Order
Authors: Risse Mathias
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers human rights as membership rights in the global order. Membership in the global order is a ground of justice because the political and economic arrangements in which we live generate demands of justice at the global level. Connecting this idea to human rights is to stress the moral relevance of global structures within which we can sensibly speak of membership rights. The chapter begins with a discussion of responsibility, emphasizing the idea that the addressee of human rights is the global order as such. It then explains what it means to hold rights within that order, rebutting the objection that there could be no plausible conception of human rights as membership rights in that order because there is no sense in which individuals hold such rights. The main reason for developing a conception of human rights in this chapter is to show what role human rights play in a theory of global justice.
Arguing for Human Rights
Authors: Risse Mathias
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines whether there is a human right to essential pharmaceuticals. It first considers the notion of an Intellectual Common by engaging with Hugo Grotius, and particularly whether his argument against private ownership of the seas can be applied to ideas. Freedom of the seas is no longer called for on Grotius's own terms. However, his reasoning in support of freedom of the seas bears not only on the atmosphere but also on a different domain, the domain of ideas. How people can exploit ideas economically is regulated by intellectual property law, which includes patents, copyrights, and trademarks. The chapter presents a general argument against the legitimacy of private intellectual property beyond compensation and incentive setting wherever intellectual property is regulated. It concludes by making the case for the relationship between human rights and vital medicines.
Justice and Trade
Authors: Risse Mathias
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines what justice requires for international trade. It considers two problems: first, what follows about trade from the human rights–oriented principles already discussed, and second, whether any new and distinct principles of justice arise out of the fact that we live in a world of multiple states where there is trade across borders. Trade theory supports free trade: barriers like tariffs and quotas obstruct mutually beneficial transactions. Countries should undo them, even unilaterally. The chapter first asks whether there are any independent principles of justice having to do with the distribution of gains and losses from trade, both among and within states. It then explores the question of subsidies and what arguments are available in support of those who ask their government for subsidies. It also explains how talk about justice maps into talk about fairness.
The Way We Live Now
Authors: Risse Mathias
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines several arguments that find fault with the way we live now, the system of states. It considers four strategies one may deploy to identify faults of the state system and to use the identified moral failings to reach the conclusion that there ought to be no system of states, and thus no global order. The chapter first describes the contingent nature of states before discussing the argument that what is morally problematic about the state system is the very existence of borders. It then analyzes the concern that the existence of borders is inconsistent with the value of freedom, liberal justice, or democracy. It also investigates the claim that the state system wrongfully harms the poor because developing countries would be much better off today had it not been for the emergence of a state system with its ensuing colonial ambitions.
Justice and Accountability
Authors: Risse Mathias
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines questions of justice and accountability by focusing on the World Trade Organization (WTO). More specifically, it considers whether a suitably reformed version of the WTO could help states fulfill their obligation to give an account of what they do to realize the various principles of justice, to the extent that those principles are concerned with or bear on trade. The chapter first provides some background information about the WTO before discussing what principles of justice apply to the WTO and what it should do in pursuit of justice. It then explains how states ought to account for their contributions to justice, for instance to fairness in trade, and how the WTO itself ought to give account. It concludes by suggesting that there is no justice-based rationale for a global development agency.
Crossing Borders
Authors: Gelderblom Oscar
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the role played by local magistrates in the governance of cross-border trade in Bruges, Antwerp, and Amsterdam. To organize cross-border transactions, international traders relied on relatives and friends who either traded on a commission basis or became their formal partners. Merchants instructed these foreign agents using extensive correspondence and keeping private accounts to monitor their operations. The chapter first considers the commission trade in Bruges, Antwerp, and Amsterdam, with particular emphasis on the writing of commenda contracts, before discussing the merchants' creation of specific purpose partnerships to limit their liability and their use of double-entry bookkeeping for their business. It shows that urban magistrates always lent support to the network-based trade of international merchants and promoted the central position of their own city in the European economy.
Refining Spinoza
Authors: Schwartz Daniel B.
Published: November 2017

This chapter probes the pioneering if only partial vindication of Spinoza by the Enlightenment philosopher Moses Mendelssohn (1729–1786), the first Jewish thinker for whom Spinoza served, both positively and negatively, as a point of reference—in his own eyes, and certainly in the eyes of others. In the history of the image of Spinoza, Mendelssohn looms large for several reasons. The first is his pioneering role in softening Spinoza's heretical reputation in German thought and thus aiding his integration into the canon of modern Western philosophy. However, near the end of his life, Mendelssohn defended Judaism by effectively rebutting Spinoza. Indeed, Mendelssohn furnished ammunition for friends and foes of Spinoza alike. His legacy was thus one of both reclamation and resistance.
From the Heights of Mount Scopus
Authors: Schwartz Daniel B.
Published: November 2017

This chapter contends that the issue of Spinoza's Jewish or even proto-Zionist credentials was only the surface of the debate over the appropriation of him for Jewish nationalism. It examines three contexts for the appropriation of Spinoza by Russian Zionist scholar and Hebrew literary critic, Yosef Klausner (1874–1958). The chapter begins by tracing the origins and early development of the Zionist recovery of Spinoza, focusing on the major trends and ideological frames in this reception to which Klausner was heir. It then turns to Klausner's own intellectual biography, focusing in particular on his conflicted feelings over the course a secularization of Hebrew culture should take. Finally, the chapter studies the shadow cast on Klausner's lifting of the herem (ban) on Spinoza by concomitant developments in the reception of Spinoza outside the realm of Jewish nationalism.
Hoplite Hell: How Hoplites Fought
Authors: Krentz Peter
Published: November 2017

This chapter takes aim at Victor Davis Hanson's The Western Way of War and its highly influential and popular conception of how hoplites fought. It critiques the orthodox view—especially the version of Hanson—concerning the actual weight of the hoplite panoply, which the chapter argues was far lighter than the traditional estimate of about seventy pounds. The chapter proposes a different interpretation of the various stages of hoplite battle, such as the hoplite charge into battle. In this view, the evidence supports neither the picture of a mass collision between armies nor the concept of a mass pushing of troops or the account of the othismos as a rugby scrum. Furthermore, this chapter contends that the phalanx did not consist exclusively of hoplites before Marathon. It suggests, however, that even in the fifth century hoplites never actually fought in a cohesive formation.
Frame, Focus, Visualization
Authors: Wells Peter S.
Published: November 2017

This chapter first discusses the concept of the frame and how it helps us to understand the visual patterning of space in late prehistoric Europe. Frames, whether they are wooden picture frames that hold paintings on museum walls or boundary ditches around prehistoric sites, perform the important function of establishing for the viewer the boundaries of that which is to be viewed. The frame tells the viewer what is inside and therefore to be considered and what is outside and therefore can be ignored. The things that prehistoric Europeans placed within frames, their foci of attention, can be understood as diagrams. The chapter then considers some of the visual patterns that persist from the Early Bronze Age through the Late Iron Age, before turning to the character of the changes that took place in ways of seeing in later prehistoric Europe.
Pottery
Authors: Wells Peter S.
Published: November 2017

This chapter analyzes the pottery of late prehistoric Europe. Jars, bowls, and cups were the three main categories of pottery vessels that were in use in the Early Bronze Age. Bowls and cups were decorated differently from jars, and their surfaces were finished differently. Jars are the only category that had a purposely roughened surface. Bowls and cups were polished smooth. And jars are the only category within which each individual vessel was distinguished from every other by the pattern of its ornament. From the latter fact, it is argued that jars in the Early and Middle Bronze Age were individualized in a way that bowls and cups were not; each was deliberately made different from all others in order that the household that owned it could mark it as its own, and perhaps even use it to display to others in the community that it had abundant stores of grain.
Status and Violence
Authors: Wells Peter S.
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on sword and scabbards. Swords were important visual objects, larger than most other objects in Bronze and Iron Age Europe, and their shape made them visually striking. Two parts of the sword were especially important in this regard. In the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age, the hilt and pommel were often the vehicles for elaborate eye-catching ornament. When a sword was in its scabbard, whether worn at the side of the bearer, hanging on a wall, or placed in the burial chamber, the only parts of the weapon that were visible were the handle and its end. During the Middle and Late Iron Age, the scabbard became especially important as a vehicle for decorative elaboration. Bronze and Early Iron Age scabbards were mostly made of wood, and we do not, therefore have much information about how they were decorated. From the end of the Early La Tène period on, however, swords were long, and scabbards of bronze and iron offered extensive rectangular surfaces for decoration.
Our Insatiable Desire for More Future
Authors: Michalski Krzysztof
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines what links the seemingly conflicting, or even mutually exclusive, concepts of eternity and passing, and Paradise and its loss. To life as a cup running over, to life as divinity humanized, to human life marked by the effort to move out beyond everything human, to life flooded in a sunlight that is not human—to this irreducible aspect of human life Nietzsche applies the term overman, and the chapter once again returns to the character of Zarathustra in examining this concept. The chapter then turns to next concept that Nietzsche uses to characterize life—the will to power: “Where I found the living, there I found will to power.”
Systematic versus Idiosyncratic Factors in Local Elections
Authors: Oliver J. Eric , Ha Shang E. , Callen Zachary
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the systematic factors behind local electoral results. Looking at data from over 7,000 different municipalities over a twenty-year time period, it appears that local elections are a curious mixture of the predictable and the idiosyncratic. They are predictable in that the majority of incumbents for local office either run unopposed or win reelection if they face challengers. This is consistent with the idea of managerial democracy: elections for local office should hinge on issues of custodial performance, and because incumbents get reelected at high rates, most are probably doing their jobs well enough to satisfy enough constituents or to dissuade any opponents. Identifying those instances when incumbents are likely to lose, however, turns out to be a very difficult task. Of the few identifiable trends, it appears that incumbent city council members are more likely to lose in places that are larger in size, greater in scope, and higher in bias. But the ability to predict the likelihood that any given incumbent is likely to lose, even when we know most political and social characteristics of a place, remains small.
Rethinking Local Democracy
Authors: Oliver J. Eric , Ha Shang E. , Callen Zachary
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers the managerial character of local democracy. It asks: Does managerial democracy inhibit or enhance the capacity of most Americans for meaningful self-governance? Who governs in a managerial democracy? In most places, local democracy is less about coalitions of property speculators and machine politicians establishing local fiefdoms or about marginalized groups, such as minorities or the poor, empowering themselves through civic activism. Rather, it is more about large portions of the electorate attaining relatively easy consensus over the general management of a limited number of government services and a greater stratification of different groups across municipal boundaries. Local democracy in suburban America is less about intramunicipal political struggle than it is about intermunicipal political exclusion. This situation creates a much more complicated picture of “who governs” America than what most existing research suggests.
Energy Transitions in the Twentieth Century
Authors: Paolo Malanima , Kander Astrid , Warde Paul
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines energy transitions in twentieth-century Europe. It begins with a discussion of the rise in energy consumption in the twentieth century and the breakthrough of oil and electricity. These developments display similarities and differences with the previous century, that of the first industrial revolution, where coal came to dominate the scene and released the economy from the constraints of the organic economy. As energy carriers, oil and electricity changed the relative positioning of European countries. The chapter proceeds by decomposing the energy consumption into the effects from population increase, income increase, and energy intensity changes. It also considers the new geography of energy supply, nuclear energy and other primary sources for electricity generation, drivers of carbon dioxide emissions, food consumption in the twentieth century, and higher quality of energy and higher efficiency in energy use.
Knowledge: Instrumental and Testimonial
Authors: Sosa Ernest
Published: November 2017

This chapter goes into how we know through our instruments and interlocutors. It offers a way of understanding such knowledge in line with performance-based virtue epistemology. Testimonial knowledge is a collaborative accomplishment involving one's informational sources across time. In order to constitute knowledge, a testimony-derived belief must be accurate, and must thereby manifest competence, which should not be thought to require that the most salient explanation of its being right must involve the individual competence manifested by the subject in holding that belief. The explanatorily salient factors will probably lie elsewhere; what mainly accounts for the belief's correctness will likely involve others and their cognitive accomplishments.
Tarski
Authors: Burgess Alexis G. , Burgess John P.
Published: November 2017

This chapter offers a simplified account of the most basic features of Alfred Tarski's model theory. Tarski foresaw important applications for a notion of truth in mathematics, but also saw that mathematicians were suspicious of that notion, and rightly so given the state of understanding of it circa 1930. In a series of papers in Polish, German, French, and English from the 1930s onward, Tarski attempted to rehabilitate the notion for use in mathematics, and his efforts had by the 1950s resulted in the creation of a branch of mathematical logic known as model theory. The chapter first considers Tarski's notion of truth, which he calls “semantic” truth, before discussing his views on object language and metalanguage, recursive versus direct definition of the truth predicate, and self-reference.
Realism
Authors: Burgess Alexis G. , Burgess John P.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines realist views about truth. Traditional realists would insist, against traditional idealists and pragmatists, that whether the proposition that snow is white is true depends on whether snow really is white, and not on whether the thought that it is fits comfortably with our other ideas or is convenient to adopt in practice. Deflationists cannot be accused of holding that the truth of the proposition depends on our comfort or convenience, but some realists complain that deflationism cannot account for a clear commonsense intuition according to which it is snow's being white that makes the proposition true—and not vice versa. The chapter first compares realism with deflationism before discussing correspondence theories, truthmaker theories, physicalism, utility, and normativity.
Antirealism
Authors: Burgess Alexis G. , Burgess John P.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines antirealism as well as the relations among truth-conditional semantics, verification-conditional semantics, and deflationism. Early in the last century there was a debate between two groups of mathematicians: classical mathematicians and mathematical intuitionists. The debate was usually perceived as being about the existence and nature of mathematical objects, and sometimes perceived as a revival or reincarnation of a traditional debate between “realists” and “conceptualists” over the existence and nature of universals. The mathematicians' differences over which existence proofs are acceptable stem from more fundamental differences over which logical inferences are acceptable. Michael Dummett has urged that not just the mathematical debate, but a whole range of debates over various forms of realism, should be reconfigured as a debate over the proper form for an account of meaning. The chapter considers the concepts of meaning and truth, compares Dummettianism with Davidsonianism and deflationism, and discusses holism and pluralism.
Introduction
Authors: Palacios-Huerta Ignacio
Published: November 2017

This introductory chapter provides an overview of the book's main theme. This book is an economics book with soccer is the common thread of all the chapters. But the nature of the relationship between economics and soccer studied here is not entirely obvious. Just as data involving stones and apples were useful in physics, data from soccer are useful for economics. Soccer replaces apples and stones, and economics replaces physics. Using data from soccer, this book attempts to obtain and present novel insights into human behavior. This difference is what distinguishes this book from other economics books and from other books on the study of sports.
Psychological Pressure on the Field and Elsewhere
Authors: Palacios-Huerta Ignacio
Published: November 2017

This chapter describes a novel behavioral bias not previously documented in a competitive situation: psychological pressure in a dynamic competitive environment arising from the state of the competition. Drawing on a data set comprising 1,001 penalty shoot-outs with 10,431 penalty kicks over the period 1970–2013, it collects information on the date of every shoot-out of every competition, the identity of the teams kicking first and second, the final outcome of the shoot-out, the outcomes of each of the kicks in the sequence, the geographical location of the game (that is, whether the game was played in a home ground, a visiting ground, or in a neutral field); and variables that measure the quality of the teams, such as their previous experience in shoot-outs, their official FIFA and UEFA rankings (for national teams), and the division, category, and standings (for club teams).
Fear Pitch
Authors: Palacios-Huerta Ignacio
Published: November 2017

This chapter compares the behavior of fans before and after games who were subject to acts of hooliganism, vandalism, or criminal damage, including those who experienced disturbances and violent confrontations among spectators. It examines model predictions, among these are that frequent consumers of soccer matches should respond less to acts of violence (hooliganism, vandalism, and criminal damage) than occasional consumers of football matches; that violence should have a differential effect across singles versus married individuals; that fans with greater cognitive ability should respond less to acts of violence, hooliganism, and vandalism than those with lower cognitive ability; and that the response to acts of violence, hooliganism, and vandalism should be lower in games that end after midnight than in games that end before midnight because of differences in media coverage.
Imperfect Institutionalization
Authors: Laurence Jonathan
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the second round of state–mosque relations that produced institutionalized Islam Councils. Interior ministries provided the first impetus to organize Islam as a “national” religion, and the government-led consultations established a variety of national councils between 1992 and 2006, from the Conseil français du culte musulman, to the Comisíon Islámica de España, to the Exécutif des musulmans de Belgique, to the Deutsche Islam Konferenz, to the Mosques and Imams National Advisory Board in Britain, to the Consulta per l'Islam italiano. These national processes are not identical: many place more weight on the role of Embassy Islam and foreign government representatives (e.g., Belgium, Germany, France, Spain), while others rely more heavily on handpicked local civil society organizations (e.g., Italy, United Kingdom).
The Partial Emancipation
Authors: Laurence Jonathan
Published: November 2017

This chapter addresses the achievements of state–mosque relations and the “incorporation” outcomes that can be measured so far. What is the stability and performance of Islam Councils across the countries? How have these policies conditioned integration outcomes and political moderation, and what impact do they have on the long-term prospects of Muslims' everyday integration in Europe? This chapter empirically traces the effects of European policy approaches and finds that they have had a dramatic effect on Muslim communities: their domestic orientation, their reformed organizational structures, their outspoken distancing from violence and radicalism, and their outward commitment to playing by the rules of the game. Host societies as well as Muslim community leaders—and the scope of their agendas—have been transformed by the experience of institutional integration.
High Liberalism
Authors: Tomasi John
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses high liberalism, starting with its conception of equality based on an equal sharing of material goods. Compared to the classical liberal ideal pursued by Americans, the European vision of liberal equality saw property rights not as guardians of equality but obstacles to its realization. This notion of property rights extends back at least to Jean-Jacques Rousseau. The chapter first considers the high liberalist views on property and equality, focusing on the arguments advanced by Rousseau, Karl Marx, and John Stuart Mill, before discussing the rise of social justice and the decline of economic liberty. It then examines John Rawls' idea of justice as fairness and the emergence of libertarianism as the leading philosophical alternative to high liberalism. It also explores the fundamental ideas of high liberals with regard to economic liberty and the role of the state in regulating economic affairs in pursuit of the distributional requirements of social justice.
Social Justicitis
Authors: Tomasi John
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines what it calls “social justicitis”—a strongly negative, even allergic, reaction to the ideal of social or distributive justice. Social justicitis is a malady from which many defenders of private economic liberty suffer. For libertarians, arguments on behalf of social justice may be as threatening as a bee sting is to some people. In the case of classical liberals, social justicitis arises as an adverse reaction to talk about social justice at the level of public policy. The chapter first considers the notion of distributional adequacy condition from the perspective of classical liberalism and libertarianism before discussing the arguments of classical liberals and libertarians regarding property and the poor. It also explores F. A. Hayek's critique of social justice and the implications of his theory of spontaneous order with respect to distributional ideals.
The Rules of Engagement
Authors: Berger Ben
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses the shortcomings of the term “civic engagement” and argues that it must be reconceptualized as its constituent parts: political, social, and moral engagement—concepts that are better equipped to clarify and enhance our discourse about making democracy work. It shows how and why the term “civic engagement” quickly rose to prominence, illustrating its meteoric rise and the confusion that accompanies its widespread use. It contends that civic engagement has remained popular, influential, and ultimately misleading, in part due to the word “engagement,” which entails a combination of activity and attention, an investment of energy and a consciousness of purpose. The chapter also distinguishes among political engagement, social engagement, and moral engagement—distinctions that tend to be neglected in civic engagement scholarship—and provides examples of each type. Finally, it differentiates among engagement undertaken at the local, national, and international level, each of which involves unique challenges, commitments, and rewards.
Political Engagement as Instrumental Good
Authors: Berger Ben
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines Alexis de Tocqueville's defense of political engagement as instrumental good. Tocqueville's insights on attention and energy and their importance for sustainable self-government comprise one of his more original—and overlooked—contributions to political theory. Tocqueville actually distinguishes between political and social engagement, explains why political attention and energy will probably founder in most liberal democracies, and proposes a number of avenues for resisting those tendencies. The chapter analyzes Tocqueville's views on political engagement and the obstacles it faces when citizens are free to invest their time and resources as they like. Drawing mostly from his book Democracy in America, the discussion focuses on his arguments regarding citizens' energies, individual and collective energy, the “doctrine of self-interest well understood,” political attention, township administration, and political and civil associations.
The Great Recoinage
Authors: Casson Douglas John
Published: November 2017

This introductory chapter discusses how John Locke remains important for contemporary liberal theory because he explains that the liberal subject is not simply an unencumbered, originating source of political legitimacy, but rather an uncertain, incomplete, and fragile achievement. Locke helps reconsider the type of intellectual cultivation necessary for sustaining meaningful commitments to liberty within the constraints of political order. By emphasizing the importance of a new type of probable judgment, Locke recoins a political vocabulary that enables citizens to agree on the terms of their relationship with the government and to hold that government accountable when it fails to live up to those terms. The point of Lockean reasonableness is not to eradicate disagreement, but to ensure a common vocabulary within which disagreement can take place.
Reworking Reasonableness
Authors: Casson Douglas John
Published: November 2017

This chapter demonstrates how Locke's gradual move away from his early political positions parallels his encounter with a new notion of reasonableness based on probable judgment. This shift took place as Locke became involved with a group of researchers surrounding Robert Boyle who were adopting a “new probability” linked to the evidential testimony of natural signs or nondemonstrable facts. Although their vocabulary grew from medieval notions of probability, these experimentalists unwittingly secularized practical rationality in a way that transformed scientific, religious, and political justification. This shift hinged on an assumption that evidence presented to the senses can be seen as a natural deliverance emanating from an ultimately inaccessible, yet divinely ordained structure of order.
Enacting Judgment
Authors: Casson Douglas John
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers how Locke's extensive attack on Robert Filmer in the First Treatise is just one part of his larger political project of recoining a language of probable judgment. The specific arguments that Filmer advances are not as threatening to Locke as Filmer's general appeal to a type of divine certainty based on Scripture. Locke is eager to show that Filmerian certainty is both rationally groundless and politically disastrous. His sustained effort to discredit the patriarchal defense of absolutism is part of an attempt to supplant Filmer's method of justification with a new vocabulary of judgment. By insisting on the distance between the mind of God and the minds of men, Locke can transform Filmer's appeal to divine providence into a call for active and industrious application of limited human faculties.