bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Transnationalism and cross‐border migration
Authors: Faist Thomas
Published: January 2013

“Transnational migration” and the broader term “transnationalism” entered the lexicon of migration studies in the early 1990s, over a century after earlier generations of migration researchers had introduced and made extensive use of the concept of assimilation. It did so in rather different circumstances, for whereas assimilation gained currency with relatively little reflection or debate at the moment that migration research was in its early formative period, transnational migration and transnationalism entered a well‐developed sociological subfield dealing with cross‐border movements and migrant incorporation. The concept has undergone substantial revision since its earliest formulations, the consequence of an often spirited dialogue (see Levitt & Jaworsky 2007). Over time, as populations from diverse cultural and language groups have migrated to new societies, debate around transnationalism in migration has concerned broader issues in the social sciences, such as shifting economic and political power in receiving countries, methodological nationalism and essentializing, often expressed through scrutiny, disdain, imprisonment, and expulsion of ethnocultural minority groups.
Transregionalism
Authors: Hoerder Dirk
Published: January 2013

Regions are discrete economic‐cultural spaces that influence people to depart their homes and contribute to the growth and expansion of extensive migration. Migration occurs in small, larger, or very large: micro‐, meso‐, and macro‐regions. While state borders are fixed – though such entrenched international territories date from arbitrary points in historical time – the boundaries of regions can be established empirically and continuously change over time. Regions reflect economic characteristics – mining or agricultural regions; linguistic specifics – French, German, or Italian‐language Swiss regions or, in India, the 14 major regional languages as well as hundreds of others; regional labor regimes – Russia's two different 19th‐century kinds of serfdom for example; or wholly different economic systems within one state – as in the United States, the southeastern plantation and the northeastern‐midwestern industrial and the western farming region; they may reflect distance to communication and markets – hinterlands versus nodes, peripheries versus cores. The frame of mind of migrants about their capabilities to enter jobs in specific economic sectors and labor markets is shaped by their regional socialization.
Turkey: migration 18th–20th century
Authors: Akgündüz Ahmet
Published: January 2013

For many centuries, Europe called the Ottoman empire “Turkey.” This applied to the registry of population movements to and from the Ottoman empire insofar as such registrations were made. The country's rulers and inhabitants, however, only took on the name Turkey (Türkiye) in 1923, upon proclamation of the republic in what is the country's present‐day territory. To keep consistent with contemporary historiographic usage, references to the period of the republic must thus be to “the Ottoman empire,” rather than to “Turkey.” Given how predominant forced migrations were from the beginning of the 18th century until the empire's demise, migration movements during the Ottoman period can be classified under the headings of forced or voluntary migrations, while, during the republic, the headings of external or internal migration are appropriate.
Turks in the Occident, medieval era
Authors: Küçükhüseyin Şevket
Published: January 2013

This article is primarily concerned with the migration of Turkish‐speaking Muslims to the Balkans during the Ottoman period. Due to the complexity of the topic the discussion is restricted to a synoptic overview.
Undocumented migration: an overview
Authors: Thouez Colleen
Published: January 2013

Undocumented migration, irregular migration, or “illegal” migration can be defined as movement that takes place outside the regulatory norms of the origin, transit, or destination country (IOM 2011). Globally, the International Labour Organization (ILO) estimates the number of undocumented migrants to be 15–30 million though this range is undoubtedly at the low end (ILO 2004). In the United States, it was estimated that there were 11 million undocumented migrants in 2008, down from 12.5 million in 2007 (Center for Immigration Studies). From 2000 to 2005, an estimated annual average of 500,000 undocumented migrants entered the United States, more than the average number of legal immigrants (Passel & Taylor 2010). There is very little available data disaggregated by sex and by age (IOM/CMS 2010a). As in other sub‐areas related to migration, it is useful to distinguish between stocks and flows of migrants.
Undocumented residents in the United States
Authors: Marrow Helen B.
Published: January 2013

One of the most significant trends in contemporary American immigration is the growth of what is called the “undocumented”, “unauthorized”, or “illegal” immigrant population. Although these terms carry distinct political connotations, in this essay all refer to a group of people who are residing in the United States but who are not US citizens, have not been admitted for permanent residence, and are not in a set of specific authorized temporary statuses permitting longer‐term residence and work. This is regardless of whether such people initially entered the United States unlawfully (what is called “entered without inspection” in official terminology) or lawfully using visas they later overstayed (“visa overstayers”). While some scholars argue that the term “unauthorized” is most accurate, since many undocumented immigrants do have “documents” even though they are not officially valid, the terms “undocumented” and “illegal” are also prevalent in American media, political, and everyday discourse.
United Kingdom, migration 1990s to present
Authors: Robinson David
Published: January 2013

Between 1997 and 2010 more than six million people migrated to the UK and annual net migration consistently topped 150,000 people per year. This “new migration” proved larger in scale and more diverse in nature than any previous migration to the UK. This article explores the drivers, experiences, and outcomes of this new era of migration.
United States: black immigrant economic competition
Authors: Adelman Robert M. , Willis Jordan W.
Published: January 2013

Since the founding of the United States, but especially beginning in the late 1800s, economic competition among immigrants and the native‐born has been sharply debated (see, e.g., Lieberson 1980; Portes & Rumbaut 1996). In fact, economic competition among groups – by race, ethnicity, nativity, religious affiliation, and the like – has been a theme of American‐style capitalism for some time. As the US economy has ebbed and flowed over the decades and centuries, hostility and anger, especially toward immigrants, have also changed along with unemployment rates and new occupational structures. In fact, the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 was passed, in part, because of whites’ concerns about the prospect of being replaced by immigrant Chinese workers in several low‐skilled industries (see Lee 2002). Additionally, the relationship between blacks and immigrants regarding economic competition – especially in terms of job competition – has become a key part of that debate in the last thirty years (see especially Lieberson 1980).
United States: gender and migration
Authors: Moloney Deirdre M.
Published: January 2013

Women constitute the majority of immigrants arriving in the United States, consistent with a broader global migration pattern in which females predominate. That worldwide trend is a fairly recent one, arising in part from the growth of the service economy over the past several decades (Hochchild & Ehrenreich 2002). Women's immigration to the United States began to increase earlier in the 20th century, as a result of family reunification provisions in the 1924 immigration act, as well as postwar immigration legislation – the War Brides Act of 1945, the McCarran–Walter Act of 1952, and later the Hart–Celler Act of 1965. The role of gender in the US immigration experience can be best understood through the lens of labor and family migration, and the way in which immigration policies shaped those patterns over time.
United States: Great Black migrations, 1900–70
Authors: Reich Steven A.
Published: January 2013

Although African Americans had been leaving the South since the days of slavery, it was not until the 20th century that they migrated on a massive scale to begin new lives in the industrial cities of the Northeast, Midwest, and Pacific Coast. As millions of African Americans left the region of their birth between 1900 and 1970, they contributed to the dramatic redistribution of the nation's black population and eventually shifted the center of African American social, economic, political, and cultural life from the rural South to the urban North and West. From Harlem to Watts, black migrants built new communities that anchored the growth of black business and capital, created new trends in black art, literature, and culture, and mobilized new forms of politics that proved critical to the grassroots assault on Jim Crow later in the 20th century.
United States: internal migration, immigrants and new destinations
Authors: Gurak Mary M. Kritz and Douglas T.
Published: January 2013

The study of who migrates and why, and where migrants settle has long been of interest to natural and social scientists, given that migrants have been ubiquitous throughout human history, leaving behind genetic as well as sociocultural markers as they populated the world (National Geographic/IBM 2011). In previous centuries, most human migrations were forced by natural catastrophes, wars, climate and ecological change, or political and ethnic conflict whereas today, particularly in advanced economies, they are voluntary and involve conscious choices regarding the costs and benefits of moving from one place to another. People make that calculation differently, however, depending on their demographic and socioeconomic characteristics, national origins, and places of residence. While some people migrate multiple times in their lifetimes, others never or seldom do so. Thus in order to assess migration causes and effects, it is instructive to look at individual and group differences in migration processes. US immigrants are a particularly interesting population in which to study migration differentials, given their diverse national, cultural, and socioeconomic origins, as well as their differing reasons for migrating to the United States and legal statuses. Other essays in this encyclopedia examine the extent and importance of heterogeneity in shaping who migrates to the United States and immigrants’ initial settlement patterns. This essay looks at how immigrants’ individual characteristics and national origins are shaping a relatively recent migration flow within the United States, namely the internal migration of immigrants to new destinations.
United States: labor markets and immigrant incorporation, new destinations, 1990s to present
Authors: López‐Sanders Laura
Published: January 2013

The patterns of Latino incorporation into labor markets in traditional immigrant destinations have been the focus of research on immigration for quite some time. Yet, less attention has been paid to the emergence of new immigrant labor markets and the process of labor‐market incorporation of immigrants in non‐traditional immigrant destinations – regions that, in recent history, have not had much experience of immigration. Given that one in every six workers in the United States is foreign‐born (US Bureau of Labor Statistics 2009), understanding how new immigrant labor markets develop, as well as their characteristics and the labor processes driving immigrant incorporation into these new economic contexts, can provide insight into the development of new immigrant destinations.
United States: migration, 1965 to present
Authors: Valiente‐Neighbours Jimiliz M.
Published: January 2013

Contemporary migration to the United States was certainly shaped by the 1965 Immigration and Nationality Act (Hart–Celler Act), which removed the country‐of‐origins quota system and instead established a preference system that emphasized immigrants’ skills and family reunification for US citizens. The emphasis on US immigration policies, however, which is often based on “gatekeeping” discourses, is inadequate explanation for the present‐day migration flows to the United States. Some scholars assert that the classical accounts for immigration, such as overpopulation, poverty, and economic stagnation in the sending countries, are no longer sufficient to explain contemporary migration flows (Sassen 1989; Zolberg 1999). Instead, US migration flows are complexly intertwined with economic needs at home as well as involvements abroad, such as colonization, wars, empire‐building and consequent military presence, and foreign investments that often result in economic devastation and displacement of people en masse. Additionally, attention to the role of race and racism in US nation‐building helps clarify why certain populations are let in or kept out.
Utopian communities
Authors: Halfacree Keith H.
Published: January 2013

Human migration has been predominantly understood as driven largely by economic considerations, from seeking to escape unemployment, to obtaining a better job, to seeking an escape from poverty in one's home country. However, as important as economic imperatives undoubtedly are, there are a range of other forces and considerations also implicated in migration behavior that can be equally, if not more, significant for particular people, in particular places, and at particular times (Halfacree 2004). These include, as this encyclopedia makes very clear, migration implicating a desire for a better quality of life.
Barbarian migrations (Völkerwanderung)
Authors: Pohl Walter
Published: January 2013

Völkerwanderung, migration of peoples, is a name coined in the 16th century for the period between about 375 and about 568 in which the Roman empire in the west was substituted by the “barbarian” kingdoms of the Goths, Vandals, Burgundians, Franks, Lombards, and others (Pohl 2002). The term still evokes ideas of tribes on the move, Huns and Germans who emerge from barbarian countries, raid Roman territories and destroy ancient civilization. Recent research indicates that these old views are at best simplifications for a complex process of immigration, integration, social and political change. But controversial debates are still going on about the extent and impact of “barbarian” migrations (Heather 2005; Ward‐Perkins 2005; Goffart 2006; Noble 2006; Pohl 2008).
War and migration
Authors: Knudsen Are John , Strand Arne , Paasche Erlend
Published: January 2013

The relationship between war(s) and migration is complicated by the fact that neither of the two are monolithic phenomena and the relationship between them is complex. Wars and other forms of violent conflict (state formation, genocide, etc.) involving state or non‐state actors produce refugees and other forced migrants, who may themselves also become national or transnational actors within the political economy of wars and other forms of violent conflict. Wars of different kinds (invasions, civil war, third‐party interventions) and of differing intensity may produce different migration trajectories and, in some cases, no migration at all but instead the opposite, involuntary immobility (Lubkemann 2008a). Displacement is often about massive humanitarian suffering and loss, but it can also be about coping, resilience, andemplacement in new localities (Malkki 1995a). And those who flee may be better or worse off than those who remain behind. The relationship between war and migration, then, is not as intuitive as it may seem at first glance.
Women, reproduction, and migration
Authors: Ndiaye Ndioro
Published: January 2013

According to the United Nation's 2008International Migrant Stock: The 2008 Revision(UN 2008),migrationis usually defined as the movement of people from one place to another temporarily, seasonally, or permanently, for a host of voluntary or involuntary reasons. This definition includes refugees and internally displaced persons. To distinguish between categories of migrants, the wordmigrantis usually restricted to those who move for voluntary reasons (internally or internationally), whilerefugeesandinternally displaced persons(IDPs) are those who move involuntarily (usually because of wars or other violent conflicts, but also because of human rights abuse). Accordingly, there are many reasons why people migrate, and in general, all the different reasons are either classified aspullfactors (reasons which make the destination country attractive) orpushfactors (reasons which make the country of origin unattractive). According to the United Nations, there are about 214 million migrants worldwide (IOM 2011).
World‐systems analysis
Authors: Kardulias Thomas D. Hall and P. Nick
Published: January 2013

Migration has been a key human response to environmental, cultural, social, political, and economic changes. We argue that there is a vital need for a long‐term, global perspective on migration. By long‐term we mean millennia. We use a world‐systems analysis (WSA) to examine how interactions between human societies have engendered population movements for millennia (Chase‐Dunn & Hall 1997; Chase‐Dunn & Babones 2006; Ritzer 2007). Furthermore, we argue that globalization is not a new phenomenon, but rather an extension of old processes, those of world‐system change. Indeed, globalization is often a short‐hand term for complex sets of relationships that include acculturation, assimilation, and economic interdependence and transformation, to name a few. We see a need to discuss migration within a world‐systemic context for several reasons. First, migration creates ripple effects that are felt over great distances as successive groups move and impinge on other already occupied territories. Second, migration patterns tend to be cyclical. Third, since the creation of the state around 3500BCE, boundaries, frontiers, and ethnic character have become critical identifiers. Vast increases in transportation efficiency have heightened the fluidity of boundaries and complicated the processes of ethnic identification. A world‐systems perspective facilitates a comprehensive view of past and current migration, and thus places modern issues in a historical context and discusses what is truly new in contemporary migrations.
Zionism, colonization, settlement, occupation
Authors: Kemp Adriana
Published: January 2013

Zionism, the movement for the national renaissance and political independence of the Jewish People in the Land of Israel (Eretz Yisrael/Palestine), brought together two major migratory dynamics taking place in different regions of the world in the wake of the 20th century, Europe and the Middle East, fatefully linking them till the present. The history of Zionism, both as a political project based onaliyah(literally “ascent,” Jewish immigration) and settlement in the Jew's historical homeland, and a co‐protagonist in the Palestinian–Israeli national struggle over the land, bears evidence to the fact that migrations are more than the simple outcome of individuals in search of better opportunities or their random movement in space. Rather, they lie at the intersection of complex processes that make the bulk of the history of human migration.
Indigenous migrations, Southeast Asia
Authors: Benjamin Geoffrey
Published: January 2013

Southeast Asia – and the Malay World in particular – is often characterized as the pathway through which the Indo‐Pacific region was originally populated. This idea has undoubtedly been influenced by the funnel‐like shape of the Malay Peninsula, through which ancient migrants supposedly poured from a heavily populated Asian mainland into a presumptively empty archipelago. One consequence has been the repeated assertion in the popular and semi‐scholarly literature since the 19th century that the region has witnessed successive racial “waves” (such as “Negrito,” “Proto‐Malay,” “Deutero‐Malay”) of north to south migration at intervals of several millennia. The claimed number of such waves has varied with the number of distinct “races” and “cultures” thought of as constituting the ethnically plural character of current Southeast Asian polities. On the basis of this “layer cake” approach, the present‐day ethnic and “racial” differences in the region are still often regarded as the unaltered and stratified residue of differential migrations that took place in prehistoric times – a view that continues to be presented in many of the textbooks studied in the region's schools and universities.
DREAM Act, citizenship, and mobilization
Authors: Nicholls Walter J.
Published: January 2013

The late 2000s marked an important shift in the immigrant rights movement. It was the period in which undocumented youths became an organized constituency and moved to assert their power within the general immigrant rights movement. Undocumented immigrants had long been represented by professional rights associations. These associations assumed critical roles in framing immigrants and their cause and representing them to the media, public, and politicians. They assumed this same role in advocating the passage of the Development, Relief and Education for Alien Minors (DREAM) Act, a piece of legislation that promised to provide undocumented college students a path to citizenship. Playing this role, rights associations produced a mobilizing frame that represented youths to the general public and created an infrastructure to form these youths into a relatively coherent group. These efforts provided undocumented youths with a sympathetic voice in the public sphere. However, as the youths gained the know‐how and skills to become talented social‐movement players in their own right, they criticized the strategic choices of leading associations and called into question their legitimacy to represent undocumented immigrants. This case provides key insights into three aspects of the contemporary immigrant rights movement in the United States: 1) how highly stigmatized undocumented immigrants transform themselves into legitimate political subjects; 2) how well‐established rights associations play strategic roles in “representing” undocumented immigrants in the public sphere; and 3) how the assumption of this leadership role introduces dissent between undocumented activists and professional advocacy groups.
Chinese migrant workers and primitive accumulation of capital
Authors: Kwong Peter
Published: January 2013

For the past 30 or so years, from 1978 to 2011, China has maintained an average annual growth rate of 9.5 percent to become the second‐largest economy in the world. It has now surpassed the United States as the world's largest exporter and manufacturer. In the process, it has been transformed from an agricultural society to a thriving manufacturing economy, with the share of nonagricultural employment increasing from 31 percent in 1980 to 60 percent in 2008.
Deportation: an overview
Authors: Drotbohm Heike
Published: January 2013

Deportation, as a practice of forced removal of unwanted individuals or groups of people from a given territory, has served throughout history as a key means of dividing insiders from outsiders, the wanted from the unwanted, the deserving from the undeserving. Just like other practices of expulsion and transfer of population groups, deportation has thus always been intrinsically tied to the establishment and preservation of boundaries of belonging and, ultimately, to the definition of citizenship. Different from exile and administrative removals, contemporary forms of deportation exclusively target noncitizens, who are returned by state force to their country of origin, some of whom – depending on the circumstances of deportation – are not eligible to re‐enter the country which deported them (“ban to return”).
Urbanization: ethnic and religious segregation
Authors: Peach Ceri
Published: January 2013

Concentrations of immigrants in neighborhoods which are denominated by the largest or longest established group are characteristic of many cities, particularly in large receiving countries. However, while such neighborhoods show many similarities, they may be produced by different processes and with different outcomes. Harlem and Little Italy in New York are different in kind, not just different in degree.
Culture and economics of migration
Authors: Scholl Brian
Published: January 2013

Migration may be defined as a temporary or permanent, forced or voluntary, spatial displacement of an individual or group from one location to another. It may involve movement across state borders (e.g. immigration/emigration) or be internal to a state or locale (e.g. urbanization). Migration may be prompted by any number of individual, family, or external considerations: economic (e.g. wage differentials between origin and destination), political (war, persecution), and so forth. Migration is not simply the act of movement from place to place. The study of migration relates to a series of decisions and outcomes. Individuals and households are faced with: amigrationdecision (should we migrate?) alocationdecision (where should we migrate to?), and arepatriationdecision (should we return to our point of origin?). There are numerous other subsidiary decisions involved, for example, how much to invest in skill development in either locale (Borjas 1999). Once migrants arrive at a new destination, individual expectations are manifested in terms of an actual wage, lifestyle, and quality of life that may or may not live up to expectations. Individuals arriving at a new locale are also confronted by issues ofintegrationandacculturation: adopting local languages, customs, values, codes of conduct, and modes of behavior.
Film and migration: globalization of national cinema
Authors: Vitali Valentina
Published: January 2013

Migration poses interesting challenges to ideas of national cinema. At the start of cinema the nationality of a film production company, of the films it made, and of their directors was not pertinent. The films of French companies Meliès, Gaumont, and Pathé circulated in the United States and elsewhere as indistinguishable from local produce. As Richard Abel 1999) has shown, “Frenchness” was foisted upon their films by US competitors as the latter sought to monopolize the market by defining it as a “national” one. If one implication of this is that there was a film industry in many countries well before there was a “national cinema,” here it is important to emphasize that the movement of people across film industries of different countries is, in cinema, the rule, not the exception. In recent years, co‐productions between two or more countries have led to the appearance of terms like “transnational cinema,” but the meaning of this and similar phrases vary greatly depending on the priorities of the particular historian who happens to use them. They can be misleading terms because their use can suppress the fact that films and their makers have moved across national borders since there was such a thing as cinema.
Remittance policies, early 21st‐century trends and assessments
Authors: Julca Alex
Published: January 2013

International remittances flows to developing countries have been estimated at US$351 billion in 2011, up 8 percent from 2010 and projected to reach US$414 billion by 2014. They represent over 70 percent of worldwide international remittances, which include flows to high‐income countries. However, downside risks persist due to slow growth in the United States and Europe and persistent unemployment which affects the employment prospects of immigrants. Volatile exchange rates and uncertainty in oil prices also cast a shadow on the prospects of remittance flows (Mohapatra et al. 2011).
4 Early Old World migrations ofHomo sapiens: human biology
Authors: Stoneking Mark , Harvati Katerina
Published: January 2013

This chapter presents the genetic and fossil evidence concerning the origins and earliest dispersals ofHomo sapiensacross the Old World. The authors begin by reviewing the evidence for an African origin ofHomo sapiens, and then consider the following questions: how many major dispersals of modern humans were there out of Africa, when did they occur, and by what routes?
7 The human colonization of Australia
Authors: Hiscock Peter
Published: January 2013

The colonization of Australia between 50 and 60 kya required a significant sea crossing in eastern Indonesia, and led to the development of one of the world's most remarkable hunter‐gatherer cultural traditions.
9 The human colonization of the Americas: population genetics
Authors: Southerton Simon G.
Published: January 2013

This chapter documents the genetic evidence for the colonization of the Americas, a topic already introduced archaeologically in chapter 8. On this occasion, the two chronologies (archaeological and genetic) appear to be in relatively good agreement.
10 Neolithic migrations: food production and population expansion
Authors: Bellwood Peter
Published: January 2013

This chapter introduces the development of food production amongst Holocene human societies and discusses the likely repercussions in terms of population growth and territorial expansion, as visible in the archaeological record. It leads into the following chapter, on the expansions of language families in prehistoric times.
11 Human migrations and the histories of major language families
Authors: Bellwood Peter
Published: January 2013

This chapter continues the theme of chapter 10, in this case with respect to the expansions of major language families as a result of the demographic increases and dispersals of Holocene human populations, especially, but not entirely, with agricultural (food‐producing) subsistence economies.
12 Sub‐Saharan Africa: linguistics
Authors: Ehret Christopher
Published: January 2013

This chapter deals with the developments and speaker migrations of the main language families of sub‐Saharan Africa, offering a chronology derived from linguistic considerations.
13 Sub‐Saharan Africa: archaeology
Authors: Robertshaw Peter
Published: January 2013

This chapter discusses human migrations south of the Sahara during the Holocene, focused mainly on pastoral populations in eastern Africa and the migrations of Bantu speakers during the past 3000 years. The dating provided by archaeology currently places these migrations more recently than that derived from linguistics.
14 Sub‐Saharan Africa: human genetics
Authors: Heyer Evelyne , Rocha Jorge
Published: January 2013

This chapter uses newly derived autosomal genetic data on African populations to propose a population history based on the distributions of eight different ancestral configurations, classified in terms of the linguistic families discussed in chapters 12 and 13
.
15 Levant and North Africa: Afroasiatic linguistic history
Authors: Blažek Václav
Published: January 2013

This chapter examines the linguistic history of the Afroasiatic language family that spans much of the Near East and North Africa. It extends further the discussions of North African population history in chapters 12 and 14, and favors an Asian rather than African ultimate source for the whole Afroasiatic family.
16 Levant and North Africa: archaeology
Authors: Gilbert Gregory P.
Published: January 2013

The Holocene prehistory of the Levant and Egypt incorporates both the origins of western Eurasian agriculture and subsequent agriculturalist expansions, as well as one of the world's oldest periods of state formation.
17 Anatolia and the Balkans: archaeology
Authors: Özdoǧan Mehmet
Published: January 2013

In recent years, the Anatolian peninsula (Turkey) has become very significant in debates about the homeland of the Indo‐European language family and about some fundamental developments in the Near Eastern Neolithic. This chapter discusses some of these archaeological developments, and examines the spread of Neolithic populations after 7000
BCE
from Anatolia into southeastern Europe.
18 Europe and western Asia: genetics and population history
Authors: Thomas Mark G. , Kivisild Toomas , Chikhi Lounes , Burger Joachim
Published: January 2013

This chapter examines the genetic history of Europe during the past 20,000 years, looking especially at postglacial recolonization and at the much‐debated issue of the origins of the Neolithic populations of the continent. The authors also discuss the different ways geneticists can approach population history, and comment on the importance of natural selection for genes that determine skin pigmentation and enhance the ability to digest the milk sugar lactose.
23 Northern and northeastern Asia: archaeology
Authors: Kuzmin Yaroslav V.
Published: January 2013

This chapter introduces the archaeological evidence for migrations in prehistoric Siberia and the adjacent regions of northern Asia. As such, it dovetails with chapters 22 and 24. Most movement can be detected from south to north or along latitudes, rather than from north to south.
24 Northeastern and Central Asia: “Altaic” linguistic history
Authors: Vovin Alexander
Published: January 2013

The “Altaic” languages form a major grouping in central and northeastern Asia that includes Turkish, Mongolian, Japanese, Tungusic, and Korean. Their histories of expansion appear mainly to have occurred within the past 2,500 years, but their cultural roots undoubtedly go far deeper in time.
25 Eastern Asia: Sino‐Tibetan linguistic history
Authors: LaPolla Randy J.
Published: January 2013

The Sino‐Tibetan language family enshrines the migratory histories of many East Asian populations, including the Chinese, Tibetans, and Burmese. Its history is intimately associated with Neolithic and Bronze Age developments in China itself, and today it is one of the major world language families in terms of population numbers.
26 Eastern Asia: archaeology
Authors: Chi Zhang , Hsiao‐chun Hung
Published: January 2013

This chapter examines the prehistory of migration in China from the Late Paleolithic onwards, with a focus on the Neolithic and the spreads of early agricultural societies from the Yangzi River and Yellow River basins, and regions in between. Some of these migrations contributed to the origins of many populations in Southeast Asia, to be considered in the following chapters.
30 South Asia: Dravidian linguistic history
Authors: Southworth Franklin C. , McAlpin David W.
Published: January 2013

The ancestral Dravidian languages, related to ancient Elamite of Iran, originated west of the Indus valley and probably spread through there into peninsular India during the 3rd millenniumBCE, the period of the Indus Valley civilization. Relationships between the Dravidian and Indo‐Aryan languages are also informative about Dravidian prehistory.
32 Trans‐Indian Ocean migration
Authors: Anderson Atholl
Published: January 2013

The Indian Ocean played an important role in contacts between Africa and Indonesia, including migration to Madagascar. Evidence for fully prehistoric migration directly across the ocean remains slight, and most such sailings appear to be confined to the past 2000 years.
34 Southeast Asian mainland: archaeology
Authors: Higham C. F. W.
Published: January 2013

The Holocene archaeology of mainland Southeast Asia records early retractions of hunter‐gatherers in the face of rising postglacial sea levels, followed by the movements of rice cultivators and, later on, traders from India and Chinese armies
.
35 Southeast Asian islands and Oceania: Austronesian linguistic history
Authors: Blust Robert
Published: January 2013

The Austronesian languages are distributed around more than half of the world's circumference and began their dispersal from Taiwan about 4,500 years ago. This became the greatest oceanic migration episode in history, spanning more than four thousand years until settlers eventually reached the far islands of Polynesia.
36 Southeast Asian islands: archaeology
Authors: Bellwood Peter
Published: January 2013

This chapter complements chapters 35 and 37 by examining the archaeological record related to the early millennia of Malayo‐Polynesian sea‐borne migration through island Southeast Asia and into western Oceania, between 4500 and 3000 years ago.
39 Oceania: Lapita migration
Authors: Spriggs Matthew
Published: January 2013

The Lapita cultural complex of island Melanesia and western Polynesia saw the initial human colonization of many Oceanic islands in the centuries around 1000BCE. Lapita laid the ancestral foundations for many subsequent Austronesian‐speaking peoples of Oceania, including Eastern Polynesians and many Micronesians.
40 Micronesian archaeology
Authors: Carson Mike T.
Published: January 2013

Micronesia forms a very widespread archipelago, mainly of atolls, in the northern tropical Pacific. Its prehistory witnessed migratory arrivals from at least three major directions: island Southeast Asia, Melanesia, and Polynesia.
42 Australia: linguistic history
Authors: McConvell Patrick
Published: January 2013

The Australian continent has been occupied by humans since 50 kya, but the Holocene seems to have been a dynamic period in terms of human movement, especially within the extensive Pama‐Nyungan language family. As in chapters 43 and 44, the record here is one of hunter‐gatherer migration.
43 North America: Na Dene/Athapaskan archaeology and linguistics
Authors: Matson R. G. , Magne M. P. R.
Published: January 2013

The Athapaskan languages, together with their relatives in Siberia, Alaska, and Pacific coastal Canada, record some intriguing episodes of long‐distance hunter‐gatherer migration during the late Holocene, culminating in the establishment of Apache and Navajo peoples in the southwestern United States.
44 North America: Eskimo‐Aleut linguistic history
Authors: Fortescue Michael
Published: January 2013

The Aleut and Eskimo migrations have spanned the past five thousand years, culminating in the Thule migration across Arctic Canada to Greenland that started about 1000CE. This chapter is complementary to the archaeological record which follows (chapter 45).
45 North America: Paleoeskimo and Inuit archaeology
Authors: Friesen T. Max
Published: January 2013

The Paleoeskimo and Thule migrations represented successive rapid colonizations of vast Arctic regions, in each case moving from west to east, about four thousand years apart. These migrations were made possible by complex technology aiding movement and survival in some of the coldest regions on earth.
47 Mesoamerica and the southwestern United States: linguistic history
Authors: Hill Jane H.
Published: January 2013

Mesoamerica witnessed one major linguistic dispersal in the late Holocene, that of the Uto‐Aztecans over large areas of Mexico and the western USA. Most other language families associated with maize cultivating farmers were constrained by each other in the narrow isthmian region of Mesoamerica, but the Otomanguean and Mayan populations clearly underwent considerable demographic growth.
48 Mesoamerica and the southwestern United States: archaeology
Authors: LeBlanc Steven A.
Published: January 2013

This chapter focuses on the migration of maize farmers and Uto‐Aztecan languages from Mesoamerica into the western United States, starting around 2000BCE. Alternative models are also discussed, but the case for migration is supported by a combination of archaeological and linguistic data.
49 Caribbean Islands: archaeology
Authors: Keegan William
Published: January 2013

The Caribbean islands received colonizing populations on many occasions after 5000
BCE
, and especially at about 500
BCE
, but contacts with adjacent mainland regions always continued. The main linguistic element present at Spanish contact was Arawak‐speaking, related to Amazonian Arawak populations

.
51 Amazonia: archaeology
Authors: Heckenberger Michael
Published: January 2013

This chapter complements chapter 50 and discusses the likely migration histories of the Tupí, Carib, Jê, and Arawak language families within the past three thousand years. It also describes the characteristic social features of the ethnolinguistic populations associated with these families.
52 Andes: linguistic history
Authors: Heggarty Paul , Beresford‐Jones David
Published: January 2013

This chapter focuses on the two major indigenous language families of the central Andes: Quechua and Aymara. The (pre)histories of their origins, expansions, divergence, and convergence are compared with the Andean archaeological record, considered in further detail also in the next chapter.
53 Andes: archaeology
Authors: Beresford‐Jones David , Heggarty Paul
Published: January 2013

The archaeology of the past five thousand years in the Central Andes bears witness to great mobility – driven, rather than hindered, by extraordinary topography.
Classification of the Degradation of Soft Sensor Models and Discussion on Adaptive Models
Authors: Kaneko Hiromasa , Funatsu Kimito
Published: January 2013

Soft sensors are used widely to estimate a process variable which is difficult to measure online. One of the crucial difficulties of soft sensors is that predictive accuracy drops due to changes of state of chemical plants. It is called as the degradation of soft sensor models. In this study, we attempted to classify this degradation of models in terms of changes in an explanatory variable and an objective variable, and the rapidity of the changes. Moreover, we discussed characteristics of adaptive soft sensor models, based on the classification results. By analyzing simulated data sets and a real industrial data set, we could obtain knowledge and information on appropriate adaptive models for each type of the degradation. © 2013 American Institute of Chemical Engineers AIChE J, 59: 2339–2347, 2013
Katalytische asymmetrische Synthese von Allylalkoholen und Allylalkohol‐Derivaten und deren Anwendung in der organischen Synthese
Authors: Lumbroso Alexandre , Cooke Michael L. , Breit Bernhard
Published: January 2013

Allylalkohole sind eine wichtige und überaus nützliche Klasse chiraler Bausteine für die organische Synthese. Dieser Aufsatz fasst die Vielzahl an Methoden zur katalytischen asymmetrischen Synthese von enantiomerenangereicherten Allylalkoholen zusammen. Diese umfassen die dynamische kinetische Racematspaltung (DKR/DYKAT), 1,2‐Additionen von Nucleophilen an Carbonylgruppen, allylische Substitutionen, Oxidationen von C‐H‐Bindungen, die Addition von O‐Nucleophilen an π‐Systeme, die Reduktion von ungesättigten Carbonylverbindungen und eine alternative Syntheseroute ausgehend von enantiomerenangereicherten Propargylalkoholen. Darüber hinaus wird der präparative Nutzen dieser katalytischen asymmetrischen Transformationen jeweils am Beispiel ihrer Anwendung in der Synthese komplexer Moleküle wie z. B. Naturstoffen oder potenzieller Therapeutika gezeigt.
How do mammalian transposons induce genetic variation? A conceptual framework
Authors: Akagi Keiko , Li Jingfeng , Symer David E.
Published: January 2013

In this essay, we discuss new insights into the wide‐ranging impacts of mammalian transposable elements (TE) on gene expression and function. Nearly half of each mammalian genome is comprised of these mobile, repetitive elements. While most TEs are ancient relics, certain classes can move from one chromosomal location to another even now. Indeed, striking recent data show that extensive transposition occurs not only in the germline over evolutionary time, but also in developing somatic tissues and particular human cancers. While occasional germline TE insertions may contribute to genetic variation, many other, similar TEs appear to have little or no impact on neighboring genes. However, the effects of somatic insertions on gene expression and function remain almost completely unknown. We present a conceptual framework to understand how the ages, allele frequencies, molecular structures, and especially the genomic context of mammalian TEs each can influence their various possible functional consequences.

Editor's suggested further reading in BioEssays Evolution of eukaryotic genome architecture: Insights from the study of a rapidly evolving metazoan, Oikopleura dioica Abstract
Systematic review and meta-analysis of the influence of circumferential resection margin involvement on survival in patients with operable oesophageal cancer
Authors: Chan D S Y , Reid T D , Howell I , Lewis W G
Published: January 2013

Background

The prognostic role and definition of circumferential resection margin (CRM) involvement in operable oesophageal cancer remain controversial. The College of American Pathologists (CAP) and Royal College of Pathologists (RCP) define CRM involvement as tumour found at the cut resection margin and within 1 mm of the cut margin respectively. This systematic review and meta-analysis was performed to determine the influence of CRM involvement on survival in operable oesophageal cancer.

Methods

PubMed, MEDLINE and the Cochrane Library (January 1990 to June 2012) were searched for studies correlating CRM involvement with 5-year mortality. Statistical analysis of dichotomous variables was performed using the odds ratio (OR) as the summary statistic.

Results

Fourteen studies involving 2433 patients with oesophageal cancer who had undergone potentially curative oesophagectomy were analysed. Rates of CRM involvement were 15·3 per cent (173 of 1133) and 36·5 per cent (889 of 2433) according to the CAP and RCP criteria respectively. Overall 5-year mortality rates were significantly higher in patients with CRM involvement compared with CRM-negative patients according to both CAP (OR 4·02, 95 per cent confidence interval (c.i.) 2·25 to 7·20; P < 0·001) and RCP (OR 2·52, 1·96 to 3·25; P < 0·001) criteria. CRM involvement between 0·1 and 1 mm was associated with a significantly higher 5-year mortality rate than CRM-negative status (involvement more than 1 mm from CRM) (OR 2·05, 95 per cent c.i. 1·41 to 2·99; P < 0·001).

Conclusion

CRM involvement is an important predictor of poor prognosis. CAP criteria differentiate a higher-risk group than RCP criteria, but overlook a patient group with similar poor outcomes.
Gene therapy with AAV2‐CDNF provides functional benefits in a rat model of Parkinson's disease
Authors: Bäck Susanne , Peränen Johan , Galli Emilia , Pulkkila Päivi , Lonka‐Nevalaita Liina , Tamminen Tuulia , Voutilainen Merja H. , Raasmaja Atso , Saarma Mart , Männistö Pekka T. , Tuominen Raimo K.
Published: January 2013

Cerebral dopamine neurotrophic factor (CDNF) protein has been shown to protect the nigrostriatal dopaminergic pathway when given as intrastriatal infusions in rat and mouse models of Parkinson's disease (PD). In this study, we assessed the neuroprotective effect of CDNF delivered with a recombinant adeno‐associated viral (AAV) serotype 2 vector in a rat 6‐hydroxydopamine (6‐OHDA) model of PD. AAV2 vectors encoding CDNF, glial cell line–derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF), or green fluorescent protein were injected into the rat striatum. Protein expression analysis showed that our AAV2 vector efficiently delivered the neurotrophic factor genes into the brain and gave rise to a long‐lasting expression of the proteins. Two weeks after AAV2 vector injection, 6‐OHDA was injected into the rat striatum, creating a progressive degeneration of the nigrostriatal dopaminergic system. Treatment with AAV2‐CDNF resulted in a marked decrease in amphetamine‐induced ipsilateral rotations while it provided only partial protection of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH)‐immunoreactive cells in the rat substantia nigra pars compacta and TH‐reactive fibers in the striatum. Results from this study provide additional evidence that CDNF can be considered a potential treatment of Parkinson's disease.