bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Adaptations facilitating facultative oophagy in the gray rat snake, Elaphe obsoleta spiloides
Authors: Mullin Stephen J.
Published: April 2008

The gray rat snake (Elaphe obsoleta spiloides), a facultative oophagic colubrid species, exhibits a stereotyped behavior when ingesting quail eggs. The anterior third of the body is contracted in a forceful series of S-shaped curves, and, at the moment of shell rupture, the region of the body posterior to the egg is rapidly and laterally flexed into a U-shaped bend. The ventral aspect of hypapophyses in the cervical region can be palped along the roof of the dissected esophagus. Scalation along the throat and anterior neck regions is polymorphic, and scale rows are more numerous (increasing distensibility when swallowing eggs) than along areas posterior to the neck. Radiographs reveal that eggs may pass into the gut of large snakes without being cracked. Once the contents are extracted from the shell, it passes through the remainder of the gut, appearing in the feces with sides folded inward to form a narrow cylinder, tapered at both ends. Gray rat snakes appear to possess adaptations facilitating ingestion of bird eggs while not interfering with the potential to ingest other prey types.
Infecciones externas en una población natural de Podarcis bocagei: desarrollo estacional de la enfermedad e incidencia en la mortalidad, reproducción y crecimiento
Authors: Galán Pedro
Published: April 2008

n. Se ha estudiado la incidencia de infecciones externas en una población noroccidental ibérica del lacértido Podarcis bocagei. Estas infecciones llegaron a afectar al 20-30% de los individuos observados en el invierno de 1989-1990 y al 40-60% en el invierno 1990-1991. Los porcentajes de individuos afectados fueron mayores en los meses más lluviosos y fríos. No se encontraron diferencias en las tasas de recaptura entre los individuos afectados y no afectados, lo que parece indicar que estas afecciones no tienen un efecto directo detectable en las tasas de mortalidad. La presencia de esta enfermedad afectó a la reproducción: el 28% de las hembras adultas de talla grande (LCC > 55 mm) que habían estado infectadas, no participaron en el primer período de puestas, durante mayo, mientras que tan sólo el 2.2% de las no afectadas de la misma talla no se reprodujo en ese período. Los individuos jóvenes afectados mostraron tasas de crecimiento significativamente menores que los ejemplares de su misma edad no afectados. Por lo tanto, el efecto de estas infecciones sobre el éxito reproductor se manifiesta principalmente afectando a la participación en la reproducción de las hembras adultas y a las tasas de crecimiento de los individuos jóvenes.
Patterns of ossification in the skeleton of Liolaemus quilmes (Iguania: Tropiduridae)
Authors: Abdala Fernando , Lobo F. , Scrocchi G.
Published: April 2008

Observations of the cranial and postcranial development in Liolaemus quilmes were made. The general pattern of ossification in L. quilmes is similar to that of L. scapularis, but some sequences of ossification differ. In L. quilme, ossification of the postcranium begins early in development relative to the skull.
Pre-Spawning Behavior in the Gobiid Fish, Bathygobius Soporator
Authors: Tavolga William N.
Published: April 2008

The gobiid fish, Bathygobius soporator (Cuvier and Valenciennes), is a shallow water, tidal zone species with shelter-seeking, territorial habits. Males are particularly pugnacious toward each other, and exhibit a combat behavior which comprises a darkening of the coloration, fin erection, gaping, quivering, butting and biting. Prespawning behavior consists of (1) nest preparation, in which the male cleans out a shelter by fanning and scooping; (2) courtship - a light coloration with a blackened chin is exhibited by the male as he approaches a female and vibrates his body and tail; (3) nest entry - the female, if gravid, responds to the courtship by following the male and entering the nest. In spawning, the female extrudes adherent eggs on the inner surface of the nest, while the male releases sperm. After spawning, the male guards and fans the eggs for the 4 to 5 day incubation period. The establishment of a shelter and a territory by a male are necessary before coordinated pre-spawning behavior can take place. Females appear to exhibit less territoriality than males, and young males possess incompletely differentiated territorial, pre-spawning and spawning behavior patterns. In testing the reactions of resident males toward introduced animals, the tests had to be spaced in time sufficiently to avoid an overlapping of responses, because the reactions of the resident persist for some time after the removal of the intruder. The speed and type of reaction by the resident male could be influenced by rapid repetition of the tests. The first r e a c t i o n - c o m p l e x of the resident male toward an introduced animal comprises an approach to the intruder and, in many cases, is followed by or preceded by a color change. Frequently, especially with large males and gravid females as intruders, this reaction-complex shows a trend toward combat or courtship, respectively, before any activity on the part of the intruder. The responses of the introduced animals are varied but tend mostly toward retreat in small males and non-gravid females, combat in large males, and following in gravid females. The subsequent behavior of the resident shows a differentiation according to the sex, size and gonadal stage of the intruder. Combat is predominant towards large males, whereas courtship occurs toward gravid females. Sex discrimination by the resident male is variable, and the sensory cues involved are primarily behavioral in nature. It is thought that the intruding animal presents several visual cues (and possible non-visual ones), and these cues form a pattern which stimulates, channels and re-enforces, in that order, the behavior of the resident male.
Note On the Inheritance of Behavior Patterns for Food Selection and Cocoon Spinning in F 1 Hybrids of Callosamia Promethea x c. Angulifera
Authors: Haskins Caryl P. , Haskins Edna F.
Published: April 2008

A study has been made of the food habits and cocoon-spinning behavior of the F1 hybrids of two related species of Atticine moths, Callosamia promethea and C. angulifera. A total of 447 F1 progeny of the cross ♀ C. prornethea X ♂ C. angulifera was used, these having been secured by making use of the fact that cross-assembling between the species can be made to take place. Young larvae at hatching were uniformly indistinguishable phenotypically from first-instar larvae of C. angulifera. They were given the choice as food plants of Syringa vulgaris, Prunus serotina, Sassafras officinale, and Liriodendron tulipifera. The first two are normal food plants for C. promethea, the fourth for C. angulifera. The third is commonly used by both species. Of the 447, 239 chose L. tulipifera, 205 S. officinale, 2 P. serotina, and 1 S. vulgaris. Thus they resembled the male parent in food habits as well as in morphology.... At the time of spinning, the larva of C. promethea typically selects a single leaf and rolls it into a tube, stitching it lightly and also lining it with silk. The larva then leaves the tube and proceeds for some distance up the leaf petiole and the connecting stalk, coating both rather densely with silk. Thereafter it returns to the tube and completes the cocoon, which is thus firmly bound to the parent tree and adheres during the winter. The larva of C. angulifera behaves quite differently. It typically gathers several leaves into a group and fastens them together as a cover for the cocoon. The stalk-sheathing or "stemming" element of the behavior pattern is entirely absent, and the cocoon commonly falls to the ground when the leaves are shed. Unlike the food habit, in cocoon-spinning there was clear evidence that the inheritance of the behavior pattern was polygenic in character. Every grade of behavior was represented between complete stemming of the cocoon and total lack of it, with the majority of the population intermediate. This polygenic basis accords well with the results found for the cocoon-spinning habit in hybrids of Ephestia by CASPARI. Unfortunately both F2 and backcross ova proved uniformly inviable and it was not possible to carry the analysis further. A discussion is presented of a possible significance of this polygenic situation.
Genetic, Physiological, and Behavioral Background of Reproduction in the Rabbit
Authors: Sawin Paul B. , Petropolus Stephen F. , Denenberg Victor H. , Ross Sherman
Published: April 2008

The records of a number of female rabbits of races III, IIIc, X, and AcEp which had produced at least four litters were analyzed for correlations between scattering and cannibalism and five other measures of maternal behavior. These rabbits were classed as low newborn mortality mothers and the maternal behavior scores for their first successful litter were compared with the behavioral scores of high newborn mortality mothers (60 per cent mortality of complete litters) for their first successful litter. Only race IIIc showed any significant amount of scattering and cannibalism. In this race, correlational analyses of scattering and cannibalism against the five other measures of maternal behavior found that both were significantly related to nest quality and had weaker, though positive, correlations with time of nest building. Race IIIc does were only moderately consistent in their scattering or cannibalizing behavior over four litters and these variables were correlated .404. No differences were found between high and low newborn mortality mothers except for race AcEp, where the low mortality mothers were found to have significantly more interest in their young and to be better nurse-mothers than the high newborn mortality does. The findings from this study and a previous one (DENENBERG, et al., 1958) indicate that better nest quality, earlier time of nest building, greater percentage of live born young suckled on the first day, lack of scattering, and lack of cannibalism are inter-correlated. It was concluded that these characteristics can be classified as a "maternal care" complex which appears to be independent of a second group involving interest in young and aggressive protection.
Sound Production By the Cod (Gadus Callarias L.)
Authors: Brawn Vivien M.
Published: April 2008

Male and female cod greater than 37 cm. in total length were heard to produce a low grunting sound in captivity. The sound has a peak frequency of about 50 cycles per second, and a duration of about one fifth of a second. The swimbladder shows features which would increase its value as a sound producing organ if vibrated by the drumming muscles attached to it, but this drumming could not be produced by electrical stimulation of recently killed cod. Cod in captivity most frequently produced sounds in February and March associated with spawning and from September to November when the fish were very aggressive. Sounds associated with spawning increased in frequency after sunset but at other times of the year the sounds ceased at dusk. Grunting sounds made during the threat display of aggressive male and female cod were intimidating if produced within about six inches of the threatened fish. In the spawning season grunts were only made by the males and were used with aggressive behaviour to remove immature females and less vigorous males from the vicinity of dominant males. Grunts accompanied the courtship display of the male and stimulated the female to respond more adequately to the display and to swim upwards to spawn. Males mistakenly mounted by other males grunted and broke up the pairing. Sounds were produced by cod frightened by strange objects, when startled or when fleeing from aggressive cod or a natural predator (Conger conger). Severely frightened cod assumed a cryptic coloration, pressed down on the bottom and were silent even when strongly stimulated. Electrical stimulation of living cod caused some grunts, usually with signs of fear. Grunts accompanying choking were assumed to be involuntary. Aggression with the production of sounds was not used in competitive feeding but stimulation by food increased the frequency of aggressive behaviour after a short delay. Cod rarely grunted when stroked and did not produce sounds at temperatures below 4° C. Cod in a new environment were usually silent.
Observations Upon the Sexual Behaviour of the Domestic Cat (Felis Catus L.) Under Laboratory Conditions
Authors: Michael Richard P.
Published: April 2008

Detailed descriptions are given, based upon upwards of one thousand standardized Mating Tests, of the Patterns of Sexual Behaviour shown by the adult female cat. The changes observed in these patterns are described in terms of a Behaviour Cycle. The characteristics of the four distinct stages of this Cycle have been determined by studying the behaviour of thirty animals in response both to the coital activity of the male cat and to artificial sexual stimulation. The conspicuous external signs of the Cycle, together with the highly stereotyped pattern of Mating Behaviour which constitutes a sharp end-point for quantitative study, greatly facilitate the further investigation of sexual behaviour in this form. Nothing resembling oestrous or pro-oestrous behaviour was seen either in immature animals or in spayed adult females. Only behaviourally oestrous animals can be mated, and mating was never observed after removal of the ovaries during four hundred mating tests conducted with thirty animals over a period of fourteen months. It is concluded that the state of Sexual Receptivity in the female cat is strictly dependant upon the presence of ovarian hormone. Correlations are made between the behavioural patterns and the condition of the genital tract as revealed by vaginal smears; a highly significant association exists between the degree of vaginal cornification and the behavioural state at every stage of the oestrous cycle. Oestrous behaviour and mating continue throughout the period of vaginal oestrus. Mating behaviour in association with an anoestrous vaginal epithelium is a very rare occurrence in this form. The full organisation and development of the sexual reflexes in the female feline which result in the adoption of the full oestrous posture when stimulated artificially by vaginal probing is not necessarily associated with a state of sexual receptivity. It follows that the only certain criterion of Receptivity is a positive mating test conducted with an active male. Reasons have been given for putting forward the view that a central mechanism exists, underlying the development of the state of Receptivity, which requires a higher level of ovarian hormone for its activation than that required for the organisation of the segmental, postural reflexes. Attention has been drawn to the territory characteristics of the male as well as to spontaneously occurring distortions of sexual activity. Many of the aberrant patterns of sexual behaviour, which have been described in the literature as developing in brain-damaged animals, have been found to occur in unoperated animals simply as a result of laboratory conditioning and training.
The Effects of Cumulative Experience On Responses To Novel Objects in Young Isolation-Reared Chimpanzees
Authors: Menzel Emil W.
Published: April 2008

I. Reactions toward small novel objects were studied in two highly cautious isolation-reared chimpanzees. 2. In Experiment I the subjects were presented with 75 different objects. Grasping increased from near-zero-level to high levels, and stereotyped, autistic activities decreased over the 25 test days. At the close of the experiment the subjects spent most of their time in object-contact. This transition from caution to play was more rapid for objects preexposed 16 hrs vs completely novel objects, and for objects constructed of wood vs objects constructed of other materials. 3. Experiment 2 tested whether responsiveness would now be maintained at different levels by different classes of stimuli. It was found that the subjects would grasp a stuffed toy almost incessantly and stereotype infrequently; but with a wood block, grasping decreased and stereotypy increased across several daily trials. The latter decrease of grasping and increase of stereotypy can be interpreted as a "satiation effect". 4. Experiment 3 tested whether specific types of manipulatory reaction would now vary as a function of specific objects; the familiar stuffed toy and wood block were contrasted with three other, novel objects. It was found that behaviour patterns were somewhat different for each object; e.g., the familiar stuffed toy received the highest scores for grasping and draping, a novel stuffed toy received the highest score for hitting, and a novel wood block with holes drilled in it received the highest score for poking. 5. The "innate response" to novelty in these animals thus consisted of a protracted sequence of behaviour patterns, which was determined by interactions between the properties of stimuli and the subject's experience with the same or similar stimulus objects. 6. Over all three experiments, grasping and stereotypy were reciprocally related to each other. With simple objects such as wood blocks, both measures appeared to be curvilinear functions of experience.
Interference in Learning in Octopus Vulgaris
Authors: Parriss J.R.
Published: April 2008

1) Octopuses were trained to make two different visual discriminations, the one following the other. They were then re-trained on the first discrimination. 2) The shapes to be discriminated were chosen with regard to the ratio of their horizontal to vertical extents. For the first group of animals this ratio was greater than one for the positive figure and less than one for the negative figure in both discriminations. For the second group of animals this ratio was greater than one for the positive figure and les than one for the negative figure in the f i r s t discrimination and less than one for the positive figure, greater than one for the negative figure, in the s e c o n d discrimination. 3) The first group of animals showed improved scores during the re-learning of the first discrimination. The second group showed lower scores. The first group also learned the second discrimination better, and the second group worse, than a control group of animals trained under normal conditions. 4) These findings are discussed in relation to YOUNG'S histological description ot dendritic orientation in the optic lobe and SUTHERLAND'S theory of shape discrimination.
Responsiveness To Objects in Free-Ranging Japanese Monkeys
Authors: Menzel Emil W.
Published: April 2008

1. Responsiveness to inanimate objects was studied in feral M. fuscata by: (a) observing reactions to naturally occurring objects, (b) placing novel toys along paths and on rocks, and (c) presenting novel dolls in conjunction with food, as in a conflict test. 2. Spontaneous manipulation seemed less frequent and less persistent than in laboratory primates. Children accounted for a vast majority of such activity. The dominant modes of reaction to novel objects were cautious in nature, albeit avoidance was often impossible to observationally distinguish from indifference, especially in adult males. Emotional displays were rare, presumably because of Ss' ability to make spatial adjustments and thus control the effective intensity of stimulation. 3. The larger a doll, or the closer it was to a food kettle, the fewer and the farther the approaching monkeys. With time more Ss began to approach, but adaptation was slow. 4. The data were discussed in relation to problems of social behavior and instrumentation, and to the general problem of measuring responsiveness in the laboratory and the field.
A Qualitative Study of Courtship and Reproductive Behavior in the Pearl Gourami, Trig'Hogaster Leeri (Bleeker)
Authors: Hall Darrell D. , Miller Rudolph J.
Published: April 2008

An ethological study of courtship and reproductive behavior of the anabantoid fish, Trichogaster leeri (Bleeker), was conducted on 6 breeding pairs in aquaria. Sexual behavior in this species is characterized by stereotyped behaviors and a distinct temporal pattern of activities that presumably aids in species isolation. Data were taken on form and structural features of bubble-nests, colors of male and female, and behaviors occurring during daily or twice-daily 15-minute observation periods over a period of approximately one year. Spawning sequences usually last 2 to 5 hours in this species and are characterized by several different bout types (interactions between male and female), which may be initiated by either male or female. The major phases observed were: (1) prespawning preparatory phase (2) courtship phase (3) clasp (4) swimming inhibition (5) postspawning aggression and (6) interval between bouts. The prespawning phase in males is generally characterized by establishment of a nest-territory, development of breeding color, and elongation of dorsal and anal fin soft-rays. This phase in females is usually marked by increased abdominal plumpness and changes in color and body-markings. Strictly speaking, only the latter parts of this phase occur during spawnings. Spawning bouts (stages 2, 3, and 4 of the ethogram) comprise approximately 7% of all bouts and many of these do not follow an "ideal" pattern. Spawning bouts usually last 50-55 seconds with courtship requiring 12-15 seconds, the clasp about 25 seconds, swimming inhibition 2-5 seconds, and postspawning aggression 3-6 seconds. Female courtship butting precedes almost all spawnings and appears to release leading-to-the-nest, lateral spread display, and curving in sexually responsive males. Spawning bouts generally contain fewer female courtship butts than most other sexual bouts and a conspicuous difference exists between female courtship butting means in spawning and pseudospawning bouts. Although reproductive behavior in T. leeri is stereotyped, variation in form, sequence, and duration of components is evident. Flexibility and adaptability are common so that variation within certain limits may be tolerated and/or compensated for. Hyperaggressiveness, physiological condition, low sexual motivation, mechanical problems, and previous experience appear to be important factors in determining the success of sexual bouts in T. leeri. Reproductive color changes, body-marking changes, and sexual dimorphism provide visual stimuli that may aid in the synchronization of reproductive behavior.
The Effect of Hormone Treatment Upon the Duration of Incubation in the Bengalese Finch
Authors: Eisner Erica
Published: April 2008

Normal incubation behaviour, in particular its onset and termination, is discussed. The effects of treatment with prolactin, progesterone and oestrogen during the middle part of the incubation period are then described. While progesterone may interrupt incubation, oestrogen treatment tends to prolong this behaviour beyond the normal time of termination. It is suggested that oestrogen treatment stimulates prolactin secretion, and that prolactin plays an important role in maintaining incubation.
Ontogeny of the Orienting-Jump Response of the Rabbit
Authors: Fox M.W. , Apelbaum J.
Published: April 2008

The ontogeny of a defensive-threat posture of the adult rabbit, designated the orienting-jump response, was studied in New Zealand white rabbits from birth by stimulating one side of the body with a blunt probe. A number of components of this response were found to develop at different rates postnatally: oriented jump towards side of stimulation; hind limb thrust; vocalization; fore-limb stab; bite-attack; directed escape; striking ground with hind-limb (appel). It was shown therefore, that several components become incorporated during ontogeny into a complex species-specific response, which might, in the absence of ontogenetic evidence, be thought to be a simple fixed action pattern. It is hypothesized that the tendency to escape from and to orient towards a noxious stimulus (such as a predator) might contribute to the erratic zig-zag escape pattern in this species.
Individual Voice Production in Gannets
Authors: White Sheila J. , White R.E.C.
Published: April 2008

Landing calls of known individual male gannets were recorded over a period of a month. The calls were subsequently analyzed using a sonograph with an amplitude display attachment. Changes in the amplitude envelope in time appeared to be the only measure which readily exhibited consistent individual features. Each sequence of landing calls which was given on a single occasion was reduced by averaging to a single 'profile' or pattern of numbers. Three such profiles were obtained for each of 10 males. One of each male's profiles was set into a computer as one of 10 reference sources; the remaining profiles were tested against them. The matching procedure consisted in cross-correlating the sample profiles with the reference patterns and identifying the sample with the reference which gave the highest correlation. The identification was usually correct. The same procedure was repeated using progressively less information from the sounds to see how much of a sound was necessary for correct identification. It was found that sometimes as little as one quarter of the sound profile was sufficient. The limitations of the technique and the implications of the results are discussed.
Habituation of Conspecific Aggressive Responses in the Siamese Fighting Fish (Betta Splendens)
Authors: Peeke Harman V.S. , Peeke Shirley C.
Published: April 2008

Mature male Siamese fighting fish (Betta splendens) were presented with a conspecific male confined in a clear plastic tube for either 15 minutes per day for 20 days (group E 15) or 60 minutes per day for 5 days (group E 60). A third group was presented with this aggression eliciting conspecific male stimulus for 15 minutes on days 1 and 2 and again on days 19 and 20. This group (group C 15) was designed to control for post-stimulation waning of aggressive behaviors independent of constant stimulation and also to control for response decrement as a simple function of time. Two components of the aggressive display and frequency of biting were recorded. It was found that with groups E 15 and E 60 all aggressive behaviors habituated. In general, habituation was more rapid with the short stimulation periods than with the longer ones, although qualitative differences were also found and described. Comparisons of groups E 15 and C 15 showed that repeated daily exposures to the aggression eliciting stimulus were necessary to obtain habituation and that two days of 15 minute stimulation followed by 16 days of no stimulation did not result in response decrement on any of the measures recorded.
Observational Study of Behavior: Sampling Methods
Authors: Altmann Jeanne
Published: April 2008

Seven major types of sampling for observational studies of social behavior have been found in the literature. These methods differ considerably in their suitability for providing unbiased data of various kinds. Below is a summary of the major recommended uses of each technique: In this paper, I have tried to point out the major strengths and weaknesses of each sampling method. Some methods are intrinsically biased with respect to many variables, others to fewer. In choosing a sampling method the main question is whether the procedure results in a biased sample of the variables under study. A method can produce a biased sample directly, as a result of intrinsic bias with respect to a study variable, or secondarily due to some degree of dependence (correlation) between the study variable and a directly-biased variable. In order to choose a sampling technique, the observer needs to consider carefully the characteristics of behavior and social interactions that are relevant to the study population and the research questions at hand. In most studies one will not have adequate empirical knowledge of the dependencies between relevant variables. Under the circumstances, the observer should avoid intrinsic biases to whatever extent possible, in particular those that direcly affect the variables under study. Finally, it will often be possible to use more than one sampling method in a study. Such samples can be taken successively or, under favorable conditions, even concurrently. For example, we have found it possible to take Instantaneous Samples of the identities and distances of nearest neighbors of a focal individual at five or ten minute intervals during Focal-Animal (behavior) Samples on that individual. Often during Focal-Animal Sampling one can also record All Occurrences of Some Behaviors, for the whole social group, for categories of conspicuous behavior, such as predation, intergroup contact, drinking, and so on. The extent to which concurrent multiple sampling is feasible will depend very much on the behavior categories and rate of occurrence, the observational conditions, etc. Where feasible, such multiple sampling can greatly aid in the efficient use of research time.
Aggressive Behaviour in the Zebra Finch Taeniopygia GuttataI. Fighting Provoked By Male and Female Social Partners
Authors: Caryl Peter G.
Published: April 2008

In the domesticated Zebra Finch, unpaired males behaved sociably towards one another, but could be provoked to fight by the sight of a female nearby; the amount of fighting shown depended on the distance to the female. Qualitatively similar aggressive behaviour was provoked between males by the sight of a male, and between a male and female by the sight of another female. However, males were less effective than females in provoking fighting between females, and pair-bonded females were more effective than non-bonded females in provoking fighting in mixed or male dyads. Homosexual pair bonds had a similar effect to heterosexual ones in stimulating attacks on a male, but had not effect on aggressive behaviour towards a female. The aggressive behaviour seen could not be due to redirection of aggression, since the stimulus properties which were necessary to provoke attack on another individual were those relevant to sexual behaviour, and were different from those necessary to elicit attack on the individual itself. It is shown that in other cases of apparent redirection of aggression in sexual contexts, a similar conclusion can be drawn, indicating a link between the motivational systems controlling sexual and aggressive behaviour. Since stimuli from an individual may both sensitize a bird to respond aggressively to stimuli from other individuals, and elicit attack by the bird on the individual itself, a distinction between these modes of action (similar to TINBERGEN'S distinction between releasing and motivational effects) is necessary.
A Developmental Study of Interactions Between Young and Adult Guinea Pigs (Cavia Porcellus)
Authors: Berryman Julia C. , Fullerton Clare
Published: April 2008

Two studies examining the interactions between adults and young guinea pigs were reported. Both studies were of the same design, and consisted of a series of time-sampling observations of the social behaviour of a litter of young guinea pigs and their mother, housed in a single cage with either an adult virgin female (in the first experimental condition) or an adult male (in the second experimental condition). Daily observations were also made, after the infant animals had been removed from their cage for a few hours each day, on reintroducing them to the two adult guinea pigs. It was found that although infant animals interacted with the non-lactating adult, in particular the adult male, these social interactions tended to be unlike those between the young and their mother. Responses such as suckling and all other physical contact were directed predominantly to the mother, whereas near responses (remaining near an adult but not in contact with it) occurred more often in relation to the other adult. It was found that infants could distinguish the adults by distal cues, and in the reintroduction study the mother was preferred to the other cohabitant adult on all behavioural measures. It was suggested that infant animals may recognise classes of adults (for example, male, lactating female, non-lactating female) at a distance, but individuals may only be distinguished by proximal cues, since an earlier study has found that infants did not distinguish their mother from another lactating female at a distance. In general, no sex differences in behaviour were found in the infant animals. It was concluded that the infant guinea pig plays a somewhat larger part in enforcing mother-young interactions than was previously thought, and it was suggested that observations on a colony of guinea pigs would be of great value in further investigating this whole area of research.
Temporal Patterning of Grooming in Three Lines of Mice: Some Factors Influencing Control Levels of a Complex Behaviour
Authors: Northup L.R.
Published: April 2008

Temporal patterning of limb movements during grooming in mice was studied for the purpose of analyzing mechanisms of control of behaviour. Patterns of limb movement were determined from frame-by-frame analysis of grooming film taken at 32 or 64 frames per second under several different test situations. Grooming was filmed while mice were isolated in a 5 X 5 X 18 cm. chamber. The mice were (1) placed directly into the chamber from the home cage, or (2) put into the chamber after a one-minute forced swim, or (3) observed in the chamber after unilateral attachment of a weight to the right forelimb under light ether anaesthesia. Grooming was also filmed while mice were exploring a double T-maze. The cerebellar mutant mouse nr (nervous), and control littermates from three lines (inbred BALB, F2 (BALB X DBA)-hybrid, and the backcross of the F2-hybrid to BALB) were used as subjects. The effect of presence of the nr gene, strain differences, and test situation on grooming patterns was evaluated from film analysis. Parameters studied were: (1) trajectories of individual face-grooming limb movements, (2) sequential linkage of individual grooming movements, as measured by information analysis, (3) relative integrity and (4) patterns of connection of "unit patterns" consisting of observer-defined temporal clusters of individual face-grooming movements, and (5) the relative connectivity of face-grooming to body-grooming. Parameter (1) was evaluated only for the effect of the nr gene. Test situation had important effects on all other levels of control of face-grooming. Strain differences were most evident in parameter (5): hybrid mice linked face- and body-grooming together more often than did BALB mice. The nr gene had significant effects on individual stroke trajectories, and on the stability of unit patterns during grooming with a weighted limb. Stroke trajectories were more irregular, and pattern stability was weakened, in nr mice. The results of film study preclude analysis of control of face-grooming temporal patterns in terms of a first-order Markovian model. Also, neither a simple "reflex" peripheral control model nor a pure "central motor program" model are satisfactory explanations for control of temporal patterns of grooming. Peripheral feedback interacts in some unknown fashion with levels of organization, such as unit patterns, that are determined without direct reference to movement-to-movement linkages.
Sons and Lovers : the Functional Significance of Sexual Dichromism in a Fish, Neoheterandria Tridentiger (Garman)
Authors: McPhail J.D.
Published: April 2008

Male Neoheterandria tridentiger typically display a conspicuous, black mid-lateral spot under two conditions: as losers in fights, and when attempting to copulate with females. Mature females display this mid-lateral spot only as loscrs in fights. Juveniles display the spot continuously. Experimental and observational evidence suggests the mid-lateral spot inhibits agonistic behaviour in Neoheterandria. The spot apparently evolved as a juvenile species recognition mark and subsequently became an adult appeasement display.
Vocal Communication Between Laughing Gull Parents and Chicks
Authors: Beer C.G.
Published: April 2008

i. To playback of calls of one of their chicks and calls of a foreign chick, parent Laughing Gulls responded by orientation towards the sound, approach, and calling in reply. They showed no discrimination between calls of their own chick and calls of the foreign chick. Response to the playback waned during testing when all the parent's chicks were absent, but not when one was present. 2. When gulls were tested by having one of their own chicks and a foreign chick placed in covered boxes near the nest, they responded more to their own chick than to the foreigner. This appeared to be because their own chick called more than did the foreigner. The results were consistent with the possibility that individual recognition of the parent's voice by a chick causes the chick to behave in ways that tell the parent whether the chick belongs to it or not. 3. The parents' behaviour in response to chick calls in these two sets of tests differed between families of different ages in ways that exemplified the natural progression in patterns of parent-chick interactions, and suggested some speculation about the course of social development in this species.
Rape in the Lesser Snow Goose
Authors: Mineau Pierre , Cooke Fred
Published: April 2008

Rape attempts were found to be a consistent feature of Lesser Snow Goose biology. In the light of attendant male behaviour in response to a rape attempt on his mate as well as rapist behaviour and chronology of rapes relative to nesting, it is suggested that rape is part of the overall reproductive strategy of the male and therefore, evolutionarily relevant.
Male Singing Ability and Territory Integrity in Red-Winged Blackbirds (Ageliaus Phoeniceus)
Authors: Smith Douglas G.
Published: April 2008

During the breeding seasons of 1974 and 1976 three territorial male Red-winged Blackbirds were devocalized utilizing a technique which involved cutting the membrane of the interclavicular air sac. As a result, males were devocalized or muted for a period ranging between 14 and 21 days, after which time they regained their ability to sing typical song. One sham operated male and 10 "undisturbed" neighbouring residents served as control males. The frequency and length of intrusions by a devocalized male's neighbours increased markedly during a male's mute period. Sidling, a highly visual and apparently aggressive behavior, increased dramatically during the time a male was muted. After the experimental males regained their ability to sing species typical song they were successful in regaining territory boundaries which approached or exceeded the pre-operative dimension. It was concluded that 1) under the conditions of this study muted males were not as effective in excluding potential or actual intruders from their territories as when they could produce song; 2) visual dispalys (sidling) are utilized more frequently by devocalized males because of the persistence of intruding males on devocalized males' territories.
Temporal Variation in Male Copulatory Behaviour in the Solitary Bee Nomadopsis Puellae (Hymenoptera: Andrenidae)
Authors: Rutowski Ronald L. , Alcock John
Published: April 2008

1. Females of the solitary bee, Nomadopsis puellae, foraging for pollen at flowers will copulate with any male that can reach them but the duration of copulation is not constant over the daily foraging-mating period (which lasts from about 0900-1300). Early on, copulations are brief (usually less than 1 min). As the morning progresses, males tend not to release their mates spontaneously but remain in copula for as long as it takes a female to collect a full pollen load and return to her nest. In addition, late in the mating period males that have not secured a single female may begin to assault pairs in attempts to usurp a female from a copulating male. 2. We propose that males control the duration of mating in ways that reflect a change in the genetic gains associated with brief versus prolonged copulations over the course of the morning. We assume that sperm precedence occurs in this species and that females are more likely to oviposit at the end of the foraging period than at the beginning. If these assumptions are correct, guarding a mate through prolonged copulation could become increasingly advantageous as the mating period draws to a close each day. Given a high degree of competition for mates, a male that secured a female on her last trip of the morning could greatly improve the chance that his mate would use his sperm for fertilization if he prevented other males from reaching her until she was safely back inside her nest burrow. 3. An alternative hypothesis that the variation in copulation length is due to changes in the readiness of females to receive sperm from a male over the mating period is considered. Limited data suggest that females do not signal degrees of sperm receptivity to males. Males probably determine how long they will copulate, switching from the tactic of securing many short (unguarded) copulations to a few lengthy (guarded) matings in the course of a morning.
Behavioural Sequences and Strategies of Female Crab-Eating Monkeys, Macaca Fascicularis Raffles, 1821, During Group Formation Studies
Authors: Welker Christian , Lührmann Barbara , Meinel Werner
Published: April 2008

Through introductions, reintroductions and fusion experiments with fourteen adult Macaca fascicularis (one male, thirteen females) we were able to demonstrate the following: 1. During introductions the alpha male and the alpha female perform special functions, and this corresponds to their behaviour in the group. 2. The relationships between the alpha male and the newly introduced animal develop according to a fixed rule with different stages of integration. Stage 1, 'pursuit', is followed by stage 2, 'presenting', stage 3, 'mounting', stage 4, 'biting on the back' and finally stage 5, 'mutual allogrooming'. The same rule applies to dyadic relationships in the females-only group. 3. The alpha female bites the newly introduced animal right at the beginning of the introduction - before or after the male. 4. Among the females there appears to be a natural ranking of animals into high-ranking and low-ranking individuals. Later rank is additionally dependent on various factors, such as time of introduction and relations with other animals. 5. To attain a higher rank, females use certain strategies. Two of these were recognized as the principal ones: avoiding of agonistic altercations and establishment of mutual allogrooming relations with higher-ranking animals.
Post-Moult Behaviour in the Water-Stick Insect Ranatra Linearis
Authors: Cloarec Ann
Published: April 2008

The four hour period in Ranatra nymphs between moulting and cuticle darkening is characterized by particular foreleg movements: (i) slow opening and closing of claws (OCT); (ii) moving foreleg femur tips towards the head (B2F). Post-moult behaviour has been divided into three phases: phase 1, lasting about 25 min, claws usually closed, few OCT movements and few B2F movements occur; phase 2 with claws open and forelegs stretched out in front, lasts on average 25 min; during longer phase 3 (205 min on average) many OCT and B2F movements occur. Age does not influence the duration of phases. The number of OCT and B2F movements during phase 3 increases significantly with age. An environmental factor such as presence of potential prey can influence this behaviour. Phases 1 and 3 last longer in absence of prey items than in their presence. The rates of B2F and OCT movements during phase 3 are significantly higher in the presence of prey, for all instars.
Comparative Organization of Grooming Sequences in Adult and Young Sciurid Rodents
Authors: Ferron Jean , Lefebvre Louis
Published: April 2008

The present study is an attempt to link principles of organization of grooming sequences to environmental, ontogenetic and phylogenetic factors through a comparative study of five species of North American squirrels (Glaucomys sabrinus, Spermophilus columbianus, Spermophilus lateralis, Spermophilus richardsonii and Tamiasciurus hudsonicus) that occupy a variety of ecological niches and have different degrees of taxonomic relatedness and morphological similarity. Three measures of grooming organization are analysed: bout length distributions, transition structure and anatomical distribution. Grooming bout length distributions in both adult and young sciurids fit with the geometric model. Mean bout length varies between species and is possibly influenced by social and ecological factors such as disturbance by conspecifies and predator surveillance. Transition structure follows a cephalocaudal progression that appears to be characteristic of rodent grooming and could be phylogenetically very old. 'I'he degree of organization of the sequences, as measured by transition structure, seems to be related to average bout length. Postural facilitation can also be invoked to explain some of the transitions. No general rule emerges from the comparative analysis of transition structure. Ecology phylogeny and morphology influence anatomical distribution of grooming activity. The three Spermophilus spp. are similar in pattern. Tail size in T. hudsonicus and the possible use of echolocation in G. sabrinus favour more frequent care of the tail and head regions respectively in these species.
The Pattern of Behaviour of Rabbit Pups in the Nest
Authors: Hudson R. , Distel H.
Published: April 2008

Domestic rabbit pups (22 litters of 6 pups each) were raised in plexiglass nest boxes, and their behaviour was studied under various experimental conditions during the first 14 days of life. 1. Rabbit pups show a stereotyped pattern of behaviour closely associated with the once daily nursing visit of the doe until they start to leave the nest on day 13. 2. One to two hours before nursing pups group tightly together and become exposed from the nest material. In young litters these behaviours appear to improve access to the doe's belly and to shorten the time the doe spends in the nest. 3. Rabbit pups are unusual in that they display a vigorous burst of post-nursing activity, i.e. simultaneous urination followed by digging and burrowing around the nest. This activity is triggered by the nursing act and appears to contribute to thermoregulatory efficiency as an insulating cover is quickly regained. 4. Within about 30 minutes pups reaggregate and remain well covered until the next nursing time. 5. The anticipatory uncovering appears to represent a circadian rhythm, and not to be simply due to hunger, as demonstrated in isolated litters deprived of one nursing. 6. Presumably the less time wild does spend in the nursery burrow the less chance there is of predators trapping them or finding the young. The ability of the pups to anticipate the nursing and the their thermoregulatory self-sufficiency may contribute to shortening the time rabbit does must spend in the nest.