bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Some lessons of the Windscale inquiry
Authors: Gummett Dr. Philip.
Published: May 2007

. This article reviews the context in which British Nuclear Fuels Ltd. applied in 1977 for outline planning permission for a plant to reprocess spent uranium oxide fuel at the Windscale Works in Cumbria. It summarizes the report of Mr Justice Parker, the inspector who was appointed to conduct a public inquiry into the proposal, and examines Parliamentary and press responses to the report. Finally, it draws certain lessons from the issue, including the need to keep options open in complex technological decisions, the need for better access to information, and the need for better procedures for evaluating proposals of this type.
White collar unions in R & D: some UK experience
Authors: Gunz Hugh
Published: May 2007

A survey of 34 UK R & D organizations found that over 60% recognized unions at some level. Many had negotiated full bargaining agreements for particular groups of staff. Although unions came in for plenty of criticism, on the whole organizations which had recognized unions felt far less negatively about them than those which had not. The former were sometimes able to point to specific benefits they had gained from dealing with white collar unions.
Organizational structures in the R & D sphere
Authors: Jermakowicz Wtadystaw
Published: May 2007

Integration of R & D and production activities poses a major managerial problem, which arises because of fundamental differences in the nature of the two kinds of activity, requiring distinctly different management systems. A study of 100 teams of both types showed marked differences between the two in the organizational climate leading to maximum effectiveness. A taxonomy of organizational types, integrating the two activities in a spectrum of ways, is described. A study conducted among Polish electrical engineering enterprises showed that project‐type organizations produced products with the greatest degree of originality (measured on the Kesselring scale), while matrix organizations introduced the greatest number of new products into the organizational system. A venture team concept, combining features of both organizational types, is proposed as a means for capitalizing on the good points of each.
A revolution in creative thinking
Authors: Loeser Franz
Published: May 2007

It is usually held that creative thinking is carried out by way of intuition, whose largely uncontrollable and unpredictable nature leads to the assumption that it is essentially not a logical process. A framework is presented which challenges this view, analysing creative thinking as the outcome of ten logical phases. By examining the logical operation of each phase and formalizing their logical relations, adequate heuristic programmes can be devised which, if supplemented with suitable mathematical models, open the way to simulating logical phases of creative thinking on the computer. An understanding of the logical laws of creative thinking has the potential to create a revolution in human thought, with far‐reaching consequences for productive activity, and hence for the nature of society.
Professional tensions in science and technology: the case of the Colleges of Advanced Technology
Authors: Price G. L.
Published: May 2007

Two possible patterns for the organization of advanced technological education can be detected in Britain since 1945. The dominant assumption links training closely to fundamental advances in the sciences, and centralizes teaching at a small number of specialist institutions. The influence of such a policy is seen in the decisions which limited the numbers of Colleges of Advanced Technology in 1956, and in the continuing pressure from science advisory circles for the establishment of a few high‐level training centres. The alternative pattern seeks to respond to the diverse range of industrial demands at local level in a decentralized system of technological training whose goals and standards are readily influenced by the technical and manpower demands of neighbouring industry. Neglect of this alternative can be explained from persistent trends in British professional organization, but the economic consequences may well be momentous.
An analysis of R&D objectives in Indian manufacturing companies
Authors: Krishnaswamy K. N. , Kamala G. V.
Published: May 2007

The need for R&D has been well recognized by the manufacturing companies in India, but it is felt that R&D has not been generally effective in having a marked impact on the growth of their business. One of the reasons for this could be discrepancies in their R&D objectives. This paper presents the results of an empirical study of the R&D objectives of a few manufacturing companies in India viewed against the background of their environments. The analysis points to the discrepancies observed in R&D objectives and hints at suitable corrective measures.
Some recent methodologies in futures studies: A personal view
Authors: Holroyd P.
Published: May 2007

Everyone wishes to know what the future holds; to understand the problems ahead so that they may be able to effectively manage possible future adverse events. This need to know and to understand the future is no less real now than it has ever been, and this is particularly true of groups, organizations and institutions, which, in a world of considerable flux, feel particularly vulnerable if they are not aware of the vital forces at work affecting their own fortunes.

Consequently, a number of attempts have been made in the recent past to develop ways to become better informed about particular futures for specific needs. These improvements in ways of looking at the future will inevitably continue to develop. Organizational plans will become increasingly dependent upon such studies, and management, particularly R&D management, will need to be able to judge the value of such studies carried out on its behalf just as informed management attempts to assess, for example, the value of economic, market, manpower or raw materials forecasts.

The intended purpose of this paper is to reduce some of the ‘futures studies’ mystique and to provide management with a feel for what can be done now as a result of forward thinking.

That is, the intention is:

—to introduce the concept of a futures study (why forecast?);

—to suggest what it should encompass (what to ask for);

—to describe some of the more useful methods together with suggested advantages and disadvantages (what are the tools?);

—to recommend the type of analysis of a futures study which generates maximum effectiveness in the planning process.

It is worth repeating that the emphasis in this paper is placed upon the use to which a good futures study can be put, if effectively commissioned, analysed and implemented.
Technology transfer planning
Authors: Dembo V.
Published: May 2007

This paper describes a process of technology transfer planning evolved in a government research establishment to help get research results adopted by government, professions and industry. The process involves close co‐operation between the research team and specialists in communications and marketing to plan and undertake an active application campaign. The essential ingredients of a campaign are described and several practical examples quoted. Since employment of technology transfer planning should be reflected in improved return on research investment the process, although evolved in a government research organization, may be of wider interest.
Activity of a ‘Soft Science Group’ in Mitsubishi Electric Corp.
Authors: Yanagishita Kazuo , Tanimitsu Taro , Kobayashi Tetsuo
Published: May 2007

‘Soft Science’ is defined by the Science and Technology Agency of the Japanese Government as a new methodology to forecast, plan. control and evaluate. This paper describes the activities of the Soft Science Group (SSG) which has been established in the Mitsubishi Electric Corporation. SSG presently consists of 13 members and has issued in excess of 300 reports in 5 years. Its basic activities are concerned with setting new research themes, information exchange meetings, and work on specific projects involving also engineers seconded from operating divisions. The paper summarizes these activities and presents a case example of planning a new product which has already been developed and commercialized.
Problems and lessons of Japanese technology policy
Authors: Eto Hajime
Published: May 2007

Statistics on Japanese R & D reveal various problems of policy and implementation. Some difficulties of Japanese technological development and possibilities for overcoming them are discussed. Among others a fundamental problem is the generation of technology with less reliance on Western support. The relationship between the need for self‐generated technology and the fact of excessive reliance on technology imports is discussed in regard to superiority, inferiority and appropriateness of Japanese technology. Innovation in the Japanese automobile and iron and steel industries is characterized as integrative or combinatory innovation associated with managerial innovation. The conditions under which integrative innovation is effective are identified, and these conditions are expected to be valid for many other sectors. Finally, the mechanism of government–industry cooperation in Japan is identified as an informational control system in contrast to the financial control system in Western countries, and the major medium of control by the Japanese government is identified as technological forecasting information.

These characteristics of Japanese technology management can be held up as valuable lessons for other countries given certain conditions which are expected to hold in many fields.
Technology development in developing countries: The case of a private R & D institution in Brazil
Authors: Trindade Sergio C.
Published: May 2007

Research Development (RD) is concerned with the conversion of inventions (i.e. new ideas) into innovations (i.e. new products, processes and services in the market‐place). Empirical evidence indicates that the rate of success of RD is small. In the innovation chain of events the scientific or technical accomplishment is but one link, a necessary but not sufficient condition of success. Often the market is the decisive factor.

Many research and development organizations (R & DOs), especially those funded privately, allocate their resources with a strong orientation towards satisfying perceived market needs. If this incentive persists during the R & D work the RD effort will probably be much facilitated.

In the light of the above concepts, the Brazilian R & D and RD experiences are reviewed with practical examples and emphasis on the efforts of Centro de Tecnologia Promon—CTP (Promon Technology Center). CTP works on non‐conventional energy, industrial process development and telecommunication product development.

The experience reported is not intended to serve as a general solution to R & D or RD problems in the developing world. The purpose is rather to suggest alternative pathways and to point out the importance of a diversified approach to the tough task of closing the innovation loop.
Determination of the research of computer‐based technologies for urban traffic systems some experiences in project organisation and management
Authors: Bents Dietrich E. , Horsmann Werner B.
Published: May 2007

Abstract

Research and development activities concerning urban traffic systems are the subject of a long‐standing program at the German Federal Ministry of Research and Technology. A fairly recent field of investigation is the deployment of computer‐based technologies in urban traffic situations. The German Federal Ministry of Research and Technology has sponsored a study to determine a comprehensive middle‐term research‐program for these technologies.

The study contained the following steps of investigation:

(1) Determining possible areas of deployment for computer‐based technologies.

(2) Selecting deployment areas from those generated.

(3) For the deployment areas selected, deriving the required research activities, coordinating and consolidating them into a research program.

Because of the comprehensive nature of urban traffic the know‐how and results from many and diverse scientific disciplines had to be incorporated into the study.

As the study has significant real‐life consequences for the direction and funding of urban traffic research by the Federal Ministry of Research and Technology it had to be ensured that its outcomes were operational.

To arrive at an operational research program, the study required inputs from areas, in addition to the scientific disciplines:

(a) politics (traffic policies in general, research and funding strategies etc.)

(b) industries (manufacturers of vehicles, electronic parts etc.) and traffic operating authorities.

Some experiences gained in managing the project are reported in this paper. They pertain to the study described. Hopefully, they can be put to use in some other projects of comparable structure and objectives.
The technical logic of research and development programs
Authors: Lane H. W. , Beddows R. G. , Lawrence P. R.
Published: May 2007

During a study of nine major research programs at the National Institutes of Health (NIH) and Bell Laboratories the standard terminology for describing the stages of research and development was found to be of limited value [1], It was necessary to look behind terms such as ‘basic’ or ‘applied’ to uncover the important characteristics of the research task itself. This article presents a new perspective on the R & D process developed during this research. The framework is described and used to analyze and compare the performance of two of the programs—Bell's Millimeter Waveguide Program and NIH's Artificial Heart Program.
Successful new product development—An international comparative study
Authors: Parkinson S. T.
Published: May 2007

Abstract. This paper reports on the results of a study of new product development processes in the British and West German machine tool industries. Differences in the product development processes between the two national industries are used to explain the relative trading performance of each industry in international markets in recent years.
Financing a central research laboratory: A tool of R & D subsidy policy
Authors: Horesh R. , Kamin J. Y.
Published: May 2007

Abstract. In this paper we discuss two major issues of financing a central research laboratory.

First, the decision faced by the firm or the division whether to invest in its own laboratory or to rent compatible central laboratory services. The second issue is the price that a central laboratory should charge for renting out its facilities.

Under the assumptions that a laboratory can serve a large number of users over a long period of time and thus diversify the risk of liquidation better than a single firm or division, we show that, under uncertainty, the rent for the central laboratory assets is less than the price that a firm is willing to pay for its usage. This surplus has interesting policy implications for the diversified firm that operates a central R & D laboratory for the use of its divisions and may wish to establish a transfer price system. Moreover, if the government finances a central laboratory to service industrial firms and it follows a policy of subsidizing industrial R & D, the surplus may be given to the user of the laboratory as a direct subsidy.
Literature indexing systems for corporate R & D strategy: a case‐study in the pharmaceutical industry
Authors: Steck R. , Cox J. S. G. , Hagemeyer F. W.
Published: May 2007

Abstract. Information retrieval systems in R & D laboratories are normally used to provide information about the state of the art in fields of corporate interest and to help to solve day‐to‐day problems. The authors show that such systems can also be used as a tool for planning by R & D managers, corporate planners and others involved in evaluating and setting strategic objectives for the firm. Their approach is to use the Science Citation Index to ascertain the specific institutional setting and geographical locations of researchers in whom material published by the subject firm excited a ‘resonance’.

In their study they used the publications lists covering a five‐year period provided by two West German companies. They point out that it is possible not only to assess the scientific standing of the R & D laboratory but also to get early warning of spin‐offs into hitherto unrecognized fields, to identify ‘markets’ for the profitable exchange of information and to locate complementary sources of expertise.
An investigation into the managerial roles and career paths of gatekeepers and project supervisors in a major R & D facility
Authors: Katz R. , Tushman M.
Published: May 2007

This study investigates the role of gatekeepers in the transfer of information within a single R&D location by comparing directly the performance of project groups with and without gatekeepers. The results show that gatekeepers performed a linking role only for projects performing tasks that were ‘locally‐oriented’ while ‘universally‐oriented’ tasks were most effectively linked to external areas by direct project member communication. Gatekeepers also appear to facilitate external communication by their locally‐oriented project colleagues. A follow‐up study five years later showed that almost all gatekeeping project leaders had been promoted up the managerial ladder; in contrast, one half of the non‐gatekeeping project leaders had ascended the technical ladder. This implies that higher managerial levels demand strong interpersonal as well as technical skills.
Ranking of extension alternatives of R & D projects
Authors: Haran E. N.
Published: May 2007

This article describes a planning tool which can help the decision maker both during the early stages of project evaluation and later, when selecting extension alternatives. An algebraic expression is derived for ranking the alternatives by their mission probability, error, cost and project duration. A definite order can be established, even if the calculations are based on rather rough estimates or only on educated guesses. The process is elucidated by means of an example.
Technological Aspects of Project Selection
Authors: Horesh Reuven , Raz Baruch
Published: May 2007

ABSTRACT Project selection is a process fraught with uncertainties. Technological uncertainty is one of the major contributors to the total risk and its reduction has been a subject of many attempts to provide the decision maker with better decision material.

In the following paper, we summarise three cases representing different technological contents of technology transfer projects. The possible technological changes and the sensitivity of project profitability to them is presented and analysed.

A methodological approach involving convolution of the technological risk into a conventional economical project analysis has been developed and is evaluated in this paper. In particular, the aspect of trimming the analysis procedure into an efficient routine is discussed.
Project selection in a small university R&D laboratory
Authors: Mehrez A. , Mossery S. , Sinuany‐Stern Z.
Published: May 2007

Abstract: The case study presented in this paper deals with the problem of selecting interrelated R & D projects in a small university R & D laboratory under constrained resources. A constrained optimization model was used, applying a multiattribute utility approach.
The impact of technical characteristics on export activity: a study of small and medium‐sized UK electronics firms
Authors: Ong C. H. , Pearson A. W.
Published: May 2007

Abstract: A study of eighty‐eight small and medium sized electronics firms in the UK was undertaken in an attempt to investigate the impact of technical characteristics on their export involvement. The results show that high exporting firms in the sample were distinguished from the low exporters by certain key technical characteristics. Among these, the presence of in‐house R&D capability emerged as the strongest feature. But the results also show that high exporting is associated with more than strong technical capability, and in particular a positive orientation towards export market, especially during the project selection and R&D stages, needs to be present.
The new product process: an empirically‐based classification scheme
Authors: Cooper Robert G.
Published: May 2007

New product successd is largely determined by the way a firm conceives, develops and commercializes a new product—the new product process. Traditionally, the new product process is portrayed as proceeding in an orderly, stepwise fashion from product idea to launch. This article reports the results of a research study whose purpose was to uncover what actually occurs during the new product process. Fifty‐eight case histories were obtained from industrial product firms, and their process flow charts analyzed using a novel comparison method. No two projects were found to follow the identical process, and seven distinct types of processes were identified. Several of the processes were found to yield generally inferior results. The “best’ process, in terms of success versus failure and overall program performance, featured a balance between marketing oriented and technically oriented activities, and was characterized by a large number of varied steps in the process.
Age structure shifts in Research & Development (R&D): Some statistical evidence and an integrative approach to link behavioural aspects of individual and group age in collaborative R&D
Authors: Gerpott Torsten , Domsch Michel
Published: May 2007

Since empirical material concerning the age structure of industrial R&D organizations is scarce an attempt is made to present some statistical evidence in support of the wide‐spread notion of a shift toward a higher median age in R&D laboratories during the past years. Then, on an individual level of analysis the results of an extensive review of existing empirical research on the covariation of individual age and scientific performance are summarized in brief. On a group level of analysis research relating age of collaborative R&D groups (i.e., average length of time group members had worked together in a particular group) to group performance is discussed. To integrate the contradictory findings of prior research two analytic concepts are introduced, namely the discrimination of different situations of collaboration and the identification of two basic functions of interactions in collaborative R&D. Based upon these concepts an integrative approach to account for time‐related performance patterns on an individual and group level of analysis is laid out. Finally, possibilities of a diagnostic application of the suggested concepts are indicated.
Modelling the dynamics of decision‐making for emerging medical technologies
Authors: Finkelstein S. N. , Homer J. B. , Sondik E. J.
Published: May 2007

There has been considerable interest in systematic methods for technology assessment that can be used to evaluate the social impact of medical practices. Policy‐makers have been attracted to these methods because they offer a capability to logically and systematically analyze a decision. Assessing newly “emerging” technologies proves most difficult because practitioners' perceptions of their clinical effectiveness are continually changing. We propose and illustrate a mathematical model framework which, when simulated by computer, could serve as a tool to help analyze future consequences of hypothetical alternative public policies for emerging medical technologies.
The Role of the Interaction between the User and the Manufacturer in Medical Equipment Innovation
Authors: Shaw Brian
Published: May 2007

It has been empirically observed that ‘under‐standing user need’ and ‘good internal and external communications’ are factors which discriminate strongly between commercially successful industrial product and process innovations and those that fail. The research reported in this paper examines how the innovating firm achieves desirable levels of these factors through multiple and continuous interaction with the user throughout the innovation process.

In the sample of thirty‐four medical equipment innovations from eleven companies, twenty six (76 per cent) were developed through multiple and continuous interaction, resulting in twenty two (65 per cent) of these being successful.

There appear to be two major reasons for this high level of interaction: (1) the requirement that any equipment that is to be potentially introduced into clinical use first needs clinical assessment and trial; and (2) the ‘state of the art’ clinical and diagnostic knowledge resides in the user. A special relationship is, therefore, needed between the clinical advisory and trial team on the one hand and the manufacturer on the other.

The introduction to this paper reviews the findings of other work in the examination of the role of the user in the innovation process. Details of the sample, the methods of sample selection and classification of the data follow in section 2. The results of the research are summarised in section 3. These detail the nature of the medical equipment innovation process, identifying in particular the high level of interaction between the user, intermediaries and the manufacturer, resulting in good communications and understanding of user need. Section 4 attempts to determine the significance of these results for the effective management of innovation and suggest areas for further research.
Developing ‘Expert Systems’: Contributions from decision support systems and judgment analysis techniques
Authors: O'Brien W. R.
Published: May 2007

In considering the application of expert systems to the practice of R&D management, an age‐old conflict continues to plague those who would be innovators—proper consideration of the need to evaluate information both systematically and intuitively. Operations researchers/management scientists can, and often do, find that the results of their arduous efforts to develop sophisticated models, algorithms, and statistical validation techniques are less than satisfactory to decision‐makers. The reason, they are told, is that their systematic approach did not, and could not, give proper weight to the incommensurables.

This paper discusses the concept that significant contributions could be made to lessen the occurrence of this dilemma by combining judgment analysis techniques with appropriately designed decision support systems. Current levels of performance/price ratios for computing systems are such that meaningful research can be undertaken to test the validity of this hypothesis. A research design is outlined and some recommendations presented toward that end.
A Role for Knowledge Engineering in R&D
Authors: Baker A. G.
Published: May 2007

The author distinguishes information from knowledge: information is notes, details, evidence, etc., knowledge is general laws, theories, understanding. Information Engineering (IE) is the provision of knowledge in usable form. Artificial Intelligence (Al) is the construction of computer systems that exhibit signs of intelligence. He asserts that Al has already provided methodologies that have advanced both IE and KE. The result is that IE and KE are now in the position to act as the pencil, paper and report material for R&D.

Working knowledge of the languages is easily acquired and some useful empty shells are available, though the latter need more variety. Existing systems tend to be crude and may not address the right issues, e.g. emphasising probability rather than the risks associated with actions. Nevertheless the available tools are good enough to build useful expert systems for R&D.

The potential of KE in education is being missed. In the author's opinion all university students should be taught to use the basic tools of knowledge engineering and apply them to their own disciplines.
Management of R&D for reduction of technological delay: a strategic viewpoint
Authors: Pelc Karol I.
Published: May 2007

The establishment and effective use of R&D potential is considered as a way to reduction of technological delay. On the basis of analysis of alternative starting positions of a follower on the technological scene the adequate trajectories for technological pursuit are drawn. Five strategies are indicated as the most typical ones. Illustration is given for respective strategies of pursuit based on S‐shaped performance development within given technological generation. Conditions and limitations are indicated in order to adapt general analysis to the practice of a company willing to overcome the technological gap and/or reduce the existing delay.
Managing for Creativity: back to basics in R&D
Authors: Glassman E.
Published: May 2007

The author addresses the question of how to train R&D managers to encourage scientists to work more creatively. His studies of the preferences of R&D scientists show that they actually enjoy creating. He asserts that in the interests of increasing enjoyment the role of managers is to remove blocks to creativity, such as negative criticism, lack of time, lack of resources and lack of freedom. On the other hand too much freedom can attenuate the creative urge and the manager must be prepared to offer guidance and supportive consultation.

To help R&D managers towards an appropriate management style the author has devised and run creativity workshops structured around a new model that combines features of some well‐known srtuational leadership models. He gives examples of how leadership styles can be adapted to address the problem of developing and leading self‐directed and responsible subordinates.
Current and Future Uses of the Computer: Industrial R&D in the United States
Authors: Porter Alan L. , Rossini Frederick A.
Published: May 2007

This study of 158 organizations sought to depict current uses of computers in R&D. A survey of senior R&D management by the Industrial Research Institute identifies a number of salient features. Routine computer use is becoming a characteristic of scientists, engineers, and managers. Yet characteristics of usage differ markedly by size of R&D unit and by line of business. Moreover, patterns of responses suggest on‐going changes toward the time when R&D will be strongly coloured by the context of an integrated, intelligent computer environment. This implies new roles and skill requirements for R&D managers, professionals, and support staff.
Organizational structure and R&D efficiency
Authors: Link Albert N. , Zmud Robert W.
Published: May 2007

This paper compares innovative efficiency as proxied by a measure of R&D efficiency, between firms with organic and mechanistic R&D organizational structures. The results of the study support the hypotheses that organic structures experience greater efficiency in basic research, process‐related R&D and long‐term R&D activities than do mechanistic structures.
Bibliometric Techniques for Monitoring Performance in Technologically Oriented Research: The Case of Integrated Optics
Authors: Hicks Diana , Martin Ben R. , Irvine John
Published: May 2007

This paper outlines a low‐cost manual‐scanning approach for monitoring national and organi‐ zational research performance using a range of publication and citation indicators. We present the results of a case‐study on integrated optics, a subfield of optical physics with potential industrial importance in that it may lead to the development of optical analogues of integrated circuits. It is argued that the assessment approach adopted may be of value in R&D management and strategic planning for both companies and government research‐funding agencies.
Firm and industry characteristics influencing publications of scientists in large American companies
Authors: Halperin Michael R. , Chakrabarti Alok K.
Published: May 2007

This study examines the relationship between the volume of scientific and technical publications (papers) produced by industrial scientists, and the characteristics of the corporations in which they work. Specifically, the study examines 1. the relationship between several key financial characteristics of U. S. industrial firms and the production of scientific papers; 2. the relationship between the amount of scientific papers published by industrial scientists and the publication of patents; 3. the relationship between the quality of the scientists employed by U. S. industrial firms and the firms' output of papers and patents. Data from 225 U. S. corporations were collected for the years 1975 through 1983. The corporations chosen for the study all have a history of consistent R and D expenditure. There is a substantial correlation between patenting and the publication of scientific papers although controlling for the size of the corporation reduces the correlation. Large firms, as measured by their annual sales, produce proportionately fewer scientific papers than do small firms. The number of elite scientists in a corporation is more highly correlated with the publication of scientific papers than with patenting.
The optimal degree of diversification in ‘high‐tech’ firms*
Authors: Plaut Steven E. , Ilan Yael
Published: May 2007

The literature on innovation and investment contains two contradictory strands. One emphasizes investment diversification as a form of risk reduction. The other emphasizes specialization as a way to exploit economies of scale and learning effects. The literature is surveyed and a simple model of optimal specialization is developed to clarify the issue. Comparative static results are presented.
Comparative perspectives on research dynamics and performance: A view from the periphery
Authors: Stolte‐Heiskanen Veronica
Published: May 2007

The author takes a global look at the entire world of R and D, dividing it into the Centre (the large countries of the developed world) and the Periphery (small developed countries and the Third World). Her objective is to help to formulate a programme of studies to make R and D carried out in the Periphery more relevant to its needs.

Her view is that (a) too many past studies of R and D productivity have been carried out by the Centre on the Centre and (b) too much effort has been expended on measuring outputs and too little on the inputs that could be controlled to produce more output. In the paper she looks at the three major clusters of controllable input factors that could influence R and D productivity. The clusters considered are those pertaining to research groups, the ‘atoms’ of R and D (size, age, composition, management style and task diversity), to the institutional setting (organizational form, institutional goals etc.) and to the general socio‐cultural environment of the country concerned. In each case she questions whether their effects on productivity, mainly derived from studies of R and D at the Centre is likely to apply in the same way to R and D carried out at the Periphery.

The author remarks that the factors listed in the paper are not exhaustive and in any case their interrelationships would also need to be discovered. The paper contains a large number of so far unanswered questions about input/ output relations in the context of the periphery that could provide starting points for research.
Instruments of adjustment in recession: The case of R and D personnel
Authors: Sullivan T. , Hogge B.
Published: May 2007

This paper examines the implications for the management of the stock of labour under recession conditions. First a labour market model which contrasts that model with a ‘normal’ commodity market is developed. A central feature of a labour market model is that it is characterised by wage fix‐employment flex policies due in no small part to the ‘peculiarities’ of the commodity labour. Secondly, we examine how following falls in revenues, wages and employment are brought back into alignment with product market conditions. We find that policies on the management of labour under these conditions are product market driven but with attention being paid to both objective business variables, such as markets, products, revenues, labour costs and productivity and more subjective elements such as the firm's ‘reputation’ as a ‘good’ employer. These two possibly conflicting elements are reconciled by policies using ‘instruments of adjustment’ to reduce and restructure the labour stock while holding wage levels relatively fixed.
Information and Communication Behaviour of Women Space Technologists
Authors: Sridhar M. S.
Published: May 2007

The author has carried out a survey to inquire into the information and communication behaviour of men and women space technologists in India. Members of a population of about 800, of whom about 70 were women, were questioned about their information seeking and transmission activities. The survey showed that on almost all aspects, including time spent on collecting information, number of contacts outside the organization, consultations with library staff, dependence on informal sources of information and so on, there were not significant differences between the sexes. The only important differences were that women used formal sources such as library documentation and consulted internal sources of information more than did men, and were much less likely to be gatekeepers. But women space technologists appeared to have low information potential in the sociometric analysis of informal contacts of the respondents as they were less likely to be chosen for discussion, advice and information by respondents than were men space technologists.
R&D professionals' reactions to the career plateau: Mediating effects of supervisory behaviours and job characteristics
Authors: Gerpott Torsten J. , Domsch Michel
Published: May 2007

A career plateau is defined as that point in a person's career which represents a cessation of both lateral and upward movement between jobs. The present study elaborates the idea that a fuller understanding of individual reactions to the career plateau can be achieved by considering supervisory behaviours and job characteristics as variables transmitting the influence of career plateauing to behavioural and attitudinal reaction measures. It is suggested that supervisors invest less attention and resources in plateaued employees and that plateaued employees are assigned to jobs with less motivating potential. Analyses of questionnaire data from 618 R&D professionals in 11 large West German firms show that there are significant differences between plateaued R&D professionals (i. e. those subjects with at least 10 years of job tenure) and a nonplateaued comparison group (i. e. respondents with not more than 6 years of job tenure) controlling for age as a potential confounding influence. Specifically, plateaued R&D professionals indicate less working hours, to be less satisfied with their career and their work, to be less involved in their work, and they tend to produce less publications and patents per year of company tenure. Furthermore, considerable differences are found between one's immediate supervisor's behaviours (e. g. provision of job‐related performance feedback) reported by plateaued professionals and their non‐plateaued counterparts. However, even after controlling the mediating effects of supervisory behaviours and job characteristics variables plateauing still had a small, but significant detrimental effect on 3 out of 6 reaction measures. Implications are outlined for organizational career management activities.
Models for developing managers
Authors: Sutton David C.
Published: May 2007

A key requirement for a top manager—whether from a scientific/technical background or from a commercial/administrative background—is the ability to appreciate and integrate the contributions that can be made by all the disciplines and viewpoints around the boardroom table.

It is no more difficult for a scientist to appreciate the perspectives of, say, production or marketing people than it is for them to appreciate those of the scientist. A great deal of general management development theory and practice is therefore equally applicable to the needs of those entering the domain of management from technical and scientific disciplines as it is to those arriving from the commercial, industrial and financial spheres.

The purpose of this paper is to outline a set of theoretical sources which have been found to assist managers and technical personnel to address cross‐cultural issues within and between organisations.
The development of the concept of communication competence to evaluate industrial firms' performance in cross‐cultural interactions
Authors: Hoiden Nigel J.
Published: May 2007

In today's world industrial firms strive to achieve technical closeness in a multiplicity of cross‐cultural environments. As yet, the management sciences appear not to have created concepts and procedures that have both heuristic merit and the potential to serve as a practical tool for describing and facilitating cross‐cultural communication at the personal and organizational levels. This paper, drawing on the detailed evidence of five industrial firms' interactions (buying, selling, conducting market research and technical fact‐finding) in and with France, the U. S. S. R., and Japan, will advance the concept of communication competence, an organizational capacity to interpret, and anticipate changes in, foreign sociocultural environments (Holden's Ph. D thesis, January 1986). It will be demonstrated that the concept of communication competence can be developed as a multi‐dimensional device for assessing firms' capacities to sustain technical closeness and making evaluative comparisons of their performance.
Product Recycle patterns for new industrial products
Authors: Easingwood Christopher J.
Published: May 2007

A diffusion model that is capable of tracking very different diffusion paths is presented. Based on this model, nine different diffusion classes are proposed. Actual data for a number of products confirm that the full flexibility of the proposed approach is necessary. That is, most classes are represented by at least one product. Possible explanations of class member‐ship are proposed. More work is needed to confirm/refute these explanations.
International management of R&D: The Swedish Experience
Authors: Håkanson Lars , Zander Udo
Published: May 2007

This paper summarizes the results of in‐depth case studies of international R&D management in four Swedish multinational corporations. The results suggest that foreign volumes and shares of R&D expenditures are rapidly increasing. Through a rapidly increasing number of foreign acquisitions, foreign R&D laboratories have been added. As part of international rationalization of production, foreign units have been given global product mandates with responsibility both for manufacturing and R&D. In maturing foreign subsidiaries, routine technical activities have often evolved into proper R&D. Tight labour market conditions for engineers in Sweden have made it increasingly necessary to exploit existing technical capacity, regardless of location.

Concurrently, companies face new pressures for international coordination and control of R&D. Coordination is required to reduce product differentiation, to facilitate technology transfer and to ensure the technical and market compatibility of products and components developed at different locations but sold as part of total systems. Drawing on the experience in the four investigated companies, the paper discusses how systems and procedures can be developed to meet the need for coordinated international R&D management.
A Dutch test with the NewProd‐Model
Authors: Bronnenberg J. J. A. M. , Van Engelen M. L.
Published: May 2007

The paper contains a report of a test of Cooper's NewProd model for predicting success and failure of product development projects. Based on Canadian data, the model has been shown to make predictions which are 84% correct. Having reservations on the reliability and validity of the model on theoretical grounds, we set out to test it using data collected in the Netherlands.

Following Cooper's methodology, we selected 19 projects, which had already been marketed and of which 9 were clearcut successes and 10 clearcut failures. We also studied 9 additional projects, which had not yet been commercialised, as the basis for a future a priori test. The projects were given a product score according to Cooper's criteria, and predictions compared with the actual experience. Eightyfour percent were correctly classified, as in Cooper's work. From a practical point of view however the variance was too large to allow the predictions from NewProd to be used with confidence to predict outcomes unless they are clearcut.

We believe that the drawback of the methodology is that the product score is a simple combination of the various factors involved. No allowance is made for the possibility that one factor alone might be responsible for failure. We have therefore introduced the concept of a threshold value for each factor. A project for which any factor falls below this value will be deemed a failure. Based on a very limited sample of 19 cases an improvement of reliability was made to 95% of 18 out of 19 products correctly classified. The NewProd concept so modified is being applied to the sample of 9 as yet uncompleted projects, and its predictions will eventually be compared with actual outcomes.
R&D Project Selection Strategy: an empirical study in Spain
Authors: Sanchez Angel Martinez
Published: May 2007

The author has investigated the role played by project selection methods in defining a firm's technology strategy, as exemplified by a sample of innovative companies in Spain. The information was collected by a combination of questionnaire and interview with key personnel.

The author was able to classify strategies into four groups: (1) a planning strategy, essentially a negotiation comprising top‐down and bottom‐up elements; (2) an economic strategy in which a large number of economic criteria set in advance by top management are used to evaluate projects; (3) a market strategy in which R&D is seen more or less as an adjunct to the Marketing function, which defines the products needed and negotiates the programme with top management; (4) a technical strategy, used in circumstances in which technological innovation is essential and in which, therefore, economic factors take a subsidiary place.

The author's data show that in companies operating a planning strategy project selection methods of various, perhaps ad hoc kinds play a key role in reaching a company consensus. For those using an economic strategy the selection criteria are predetermined and selection methods inflexible. In the case of the market strategy, evaluation methods are used solely to help to rank projects prior to selection. Firms employing the technical strategy clearly base their decisions purely on the technical merit of the various projects put up for implementation.

The paper includes information on the types of selection method used, broken down by company size and other similar criteria, and comparisons with practice in the USA, France and some other countries.