bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
THE MONETARY CONUNDRUM
Authors: Smith David
Published: January 2008

The broad money supply, sterling M3, has grown by 14.1 per cent (ie an annual rate of over 30 per cent) over the past six months. Over the same period the narrow money supply definition (M1) has increased by only 4.4 per cent, while the difference between the two money supply measures — broadly speaking, the interest bearing component of sterling M3 — has grown by no less than 23.1 percent. The real economy is showing all the signs of a severe monetary squeeze with stocks and imports falling rapidly, while the balance of payments and the exchange rate are exceptionally strong. Over the past six months, industrial production (excluding North Sea oil) has fallen by 7.9 per cent while wholesale prices have risen by only 4.2 per cent. Thus, there is a double conundrum: the sharply different growth trends in M1 and sterling M3, and the contrast between the explosive growth of sterling M3 and the subdued behaviour of the real economy.

One possible answer to this puzzle, spelt out in more detail in the following pages of this Forecast Release, is that the rate of interest being paid on the interest‐bearing component of sterling M3 is now abnormally high. Consequently, the asset demand for the interest‐bearing component of sterling M3 is exceptionally large, with the result that both the non‐interest‐bearing component of the money stock (ie M1) and the real economy are being squeezed Under these circumstances, the short‐run behaviour of sterling M3 may not be an entirely reliable guide to the behaviour of the real economy.
Economic Viewpoint:The Medium‐term Financial Strategy
Authors: BUDD ALAN , DICKS GEOFFREY
Published: January 2008

A medium‐term financial plan was proposed in the October 1977 Economic Outlook. The essential idea was that the government should show that its plans for public expenditure and revenue were consistent with the objective of reducing monetary growth and thereby the rate of inflation in the medium term. The Budget speech of March 26 introduced a Medium‐term Financial Strategy. (The word “Plan” is politically unacceptable.) This Viewpoint evaluates the strategy and considers some of the criticisms that have been made of it.
The Pound and the Punt: A Study in Exchange Rate Policy
Authors: BUDD ALAN , DICKS GEOFFREY
Published: January 2008

The rise in sterling during 1979 and 1980 was a remarkable and largely unexpected development While it has been accepted that the rise in the exchange rate played an important part in the reduction in the UK inflation rate during 1980 it has also been suggested that the appreciation of sterling was a major cause of the fall in output, particularly in the manufacturing sector.

In this Viewpoint we attempt to assess the effect of the rise in sterling on output and inflation by comparing the performance of the UK economy with that of the Irish Republic. As a member of the European Monetary System (EMS), Ireland shared the general depreciation of the European currencies against sterling. We suggest that the result has been a higher rate of inflation in Ireland than in the UK Also, although the Irish manufacturing sector avoided the UK's loss of competitiveness, the fall in manufacturing output in Ireland during 1980 was ‐ when allowance is made for a higher underlying rate of growth in Ireland ‐ comparable to that in the UK
The Rational Expectations Revolution*
Authors: BEGG DAVID
Published: January 2008

In the last decade there has been a major new development in economics – the Rational Expectations Revolution. Its supporters claim that it has permanently altered our whole approach to economics, particularly in the areas of policy‐making and forecasting. Its critics argue that it is based on wholly unrealistic ideas about the possible sophistication of individuals in making economic decisions. This Briefing Paper offers a preliminary assessment of the Rational Expectations Revolution and indicates areas in which current research is active.
Briefing Paper: What Economists can learn from Game Theory
Authors: LEVINE PAUL
Published: January 2008

Game theory is a branch of mathematics which analyses interdependent decision‐making. It attempts to explain how decision‐makers might take into account the likely response of others in formulating their own decisions. It has long been applied to microeconomics especially to the theory of the firm under oligopoly where the firm, in devising its pricing and production strategy, will take into account the likely reactions of other firms within the industry. More recently it has been appreciated that many situations in macroeconomics can be analysed in terms of game theory. For example, if one country introduces import controls, how will others react? If one country tries to control inflation by adopting a tough monetary policy, or tries to reflate, what will other countries do? How will exchange rate speculators respond to the government's announcement that it will not intervene in currency markets? Will they believe the government or will they adopt actions which will eventually force the government to intervene? How will markets respond if the government changes its macro‐economic strategy? In some cases the “players” are the government and the business community, in other cases one government may be playing against another. In this Briefing Paper we introduce some ideas and results from game theory and show how they can be applied to macroeonomics as well as microeconomics.
THE REAL WAGE GAP
Authors: Robinson Bill
Published: January 2008

Over the past year a gap has opened up between the growth of manufacturing productivity and that of real wages. This gap cannot persist indefinitely, but it can be closed in many different ways. The best that can happen is that wage settlements fall while output and productivity accelerate. The worst outcome would be continued stagnation of real output and no deceleration of wages, in which case the required productivity improvement would have to come about through renewed labour shedding. There are worrying signs that this has started to happen. An intermediate solution might involve a fall in the exchange rate, with some improvement in competitiveness boosting real output (so that UK producers get a larger share of buoyant consumer spending) and some rise in prices holding back real wages.

We continue to believe that the most likely outcome is a rise in output and a fall in the rate of wage settlements. In our June forecast this occurs despite a fall in the real exchange rate. In these circumstances we expect the growth of unit labour costs to fall back from its current high level so that the current 3 per cent inflation rate becomes a true “core” rate. But a moderate fall in the real exchange rate may prove hard to achieve, especially if the oil price continues to weaken. We therefore explore what would happen if the required depreciation happens more rapidly, so that interest rates have to remain high to prevent it getting out of control. In this case we would expect lower growth and higher inflation than we forecast in June.
The London Business School with Gower Publishing
Authors: Dicks Geoffrey , Robinson Bill
Published: January 2008

Output has stagnated in the main industrialised countries this year but we expect the benefits of lower oil prices to show up in rapid growth from now on. The present weakness in the world economy stems from tighter US fiscal policy and the oil price shock itself. These have combined to reduce domestic demand in the United States, and hence to cut the market for Japanese exports in particular, and also to reduce expenditure by energydependent countries and companies. A further factor is that, with prices of oil‐based products falling, there is an incentive to delay expenditure. We expect this impact effect of OPEC III to be short‐lived and to give way to its positive effects in the second half of this year. Specifically, we expect consumer spending to lead the recovery as real incomes will be boosted by the terms of trade gain from lower oil prices ‐ equivalent to 3 per cent of GNP in the OECD area as a whole. On the basis of oil prices holding at $15. we forecast OECD output growth of 3 per cent this year, rising to 41/2 per cent in 1987. Additionally, we expect lower oil prices to produce a significant reduction in world inflation. Zero growth of producer prices is forecast on average this year arid consumer price inflation is expected to fall to wards 2 per cent in the course of the year.
WORLD OUTLOOK
Authors: Breedon Francis , Scott Andrew
Published: January 2008

After six years of steadily rising OECD output, fears of a significant rise in world inflation are now increasing. In the last year there has been a slight pick‐up in inflation with producer prices up nearly d per cent. But prompt action by the Federal Reserve to raise interest rates before the presidential election appears to have damped inflationary expectations in the US and has given Japan and Germany an opportunity to tighten monetary policy without causing major currency fluctuations. It is also apparent that the other possible source of world inflation, commodity prices, is not a problem. OPEC over‐production has ensured that the oil price remains weak and other commodity prices appear to have stopped rising after a brief acceleration at the beginning of the year. Nevertheless the major imbalances in world trade are declining only slowly and without a change in fiscal policy in the major economies it is difficult to believe that minor changes in monetary policy will be sufficient if the process of adjustment begins to falter. Despite these risks, we take a sanguine view of world prospects. Tighter monetary policy should effect a slowdown in world growth next year (already indicated by recent developments, particularly in the US) and this should be sufficient to control inflation which we expect to peak at just under 5 per cent at the beginning of next year. From 1990 onwards we see steady growth accompanied by low inflation.
A COMPARISON OF THE MOLECULAR WEIGHTS OF THE PROTEINS
Authors: ADAIR G. S.
Published: January 2008

Applying a new method of calculation, it was found that the molecular weights of ten different proteins were in the neighbourhood of 66,700, a figure very much larger than any previous estimates.
ON THE ORIGIN OF THE POTENTIAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE INTERIOR AND EXTERIOR OF CELLS
Authors: HALDANE J. B. S.
Published: January 2008

The observed facts as to the permeability of cells to electrolytes account quantitatively for the injury potentials and hydrogen‐ion concentrations of tissues. These can be calculated from their chlorine and water contents.
UTRICULARIA
Authors: LLOYD. FRANCIS E.
Published: January 2008

The present status of our knowledge of the form and structure of the plant body in the genus Utricularia (incl. Biovularia and Pofypompholyx), apart from the formal morphological point of view, is briefly presented.

The account embraces (a) the period of embryological development, during which anatomical‐nutritional relations are prominent; a very peculiar feature is the abstriction of the root pole of the embryo by the endosperm; (b) the form of the rootless definitive embryo; and (c) its behaviour during germination, of which there are several types.

Then follow descriptions of the various biological forms of the so‐called leaf, stolon, tubers and resting buds.

The various forms of the trap (bladder) are described. While all have the same fundamental structure, the general form may be extremely simple in bearing no appendages, or may be equally complex in having numerous appendages of various kinds. The biological meaning of these is problematical.

The entrance mechanism of the trap is analysed and its mode of operation is shown. It is composed of two valves, the larger being the door, and the smaller being the velum, which overlies the edge of the larger. When the trap is set the door edge rests against an opposing surface of a ridge, the threshold, which impedes its swinging inwards, and in this position the door and the velum are mutually so adjusted as to be watertight. The setting of the trap is achieved by diffusion of water from its interior, a condition of unstable equilibrium being set up. The adjustment of the trap to this condition consists in the partial collapse of its side walls. Springing of the trap consists in disturbance of some sort of release mechanism consisting of bristles, larger or shorter trichomes, which thus distort the door, allowing the higher outer water pressure to swing it in. The entering water current carries in the prey if suitably placed.

Although ali the traps known are alike in principle of action, there is a considerable diversity of form and structure. The differences lie in the relative positions of the threshold and valves, and in the relative quantitative importance of their mutual thrusts. Such differences are expressed in an extended variety of form of every part.
MINOR ELEMENTS and PLANT GROWTH
Authors: BRENCHLEY WINIFRED E.
Published: January 2008

During recent years more work has been done on the practical value of minor elements than on their physiological function in the economy of the plant. There are still very few elements of which there is definite proof that traces are essential to growth.

The importance of boron in plant nutrition is firmly established. Large numbers of species are now known to suffer if the boron supply is insufficient and much commercial loss can be avoided by the judicious admixture of boron compounds with fertilizers. The value of Chilean nitrate is enhanced by its boron content. The part played by boron in the metabolism of the plant, however, still remains obscure.

With copper attention has been focused on the value of copper salts in rendering fertile peat, or other highly organic soils, where they are brought under the plough. ‘Reclamation disease’ can be prevented by small dressings of copper sulphate before sowing. There is little direct evidence that copper is actually essential to the plant, though the assumption is generally made from the weight of indirect proof.

Plants may play an important part as carriers of the iodine that is so necessary for animals and human beings, but owing to technical difficulties it has not been possible to establish whether or not iodine is equally necessary to the plants themselves.

The value of manganese as an ameliorating agent for certain plant diseases has become increasingly evident, grey speck of cereals, marsh spot of peas and certain chlorotic disorders yielding to applications of manganese salts to the soil or as sprays on the foliage. The plant composition may be affected by treatment. Toxicity due to excess manganese may be controlled to some extent by variations in light intensity.

Molybdenum in herbage is recognized as an important causal factor in some animal disorders as ‘teart’ disease. In plants excess produces characteristic morphological and cytological conditions, but there are indications that in some circumstances traces of the element may prove beneficial.

Selenium toxicity in plants can be controlled by the judicious use of sulphur on seleniferous soils. As the absorption of selenium is reduced in this way, the risk of poisoning for animals feeding on the herbage is also minimized. Little definite evidence of benefit to growth due to traces of the element is yet available.

Among other elements comparatively little is known as to whether any one or more may be essential for plant life.

Isolated instances, particularly with fungi, indicate that such possibilities exist, but much work remains to be done before any assumption in this connexion can be made. The weight of evidence, indirect if not direct, with boron, copper, manganese, and zinc goes to indicate that each of these may play a vital role in plant development, though the exact conditions required and the extent to which each element is essential still remain subjects for investigation.
BACTERIOPHAGE
Authors: BOYD J. S. K.
Published: January 2008

In the lysogenic bacterium the bacterial virus exists as prophage. It is composed of desoxyribosenucleic acid (DNA) and occupies a defined site on the bacterial chromosome.

Normally the prophage divides in harmony with the nucleus of the bacterium, so that lysogenesis is hereditary.

Occasionally the prophage reverts from symbiosis to virulence, and multiplies at the expense of its host, producing a brood of free phage particles. This is believed to occur when the prophage becomes detached from the chromosome.

Free phage particles may be temperate (capable of reproducing lysogenesis in a sensitive bacterium) or virulent (unable to produce lysogenesis and multiplying only at the expense of the doomed host). Temperate particles greatly outnumber virulent particles, which are in fact mutants. Reasons are given for believing that all virulent phages (such as the T series of coliphages) originate in this way.

Free phage particles have a characteristic tadpole‐like structure of varying proportions. The tail and the covering of the head are composed of protein, which has specific antigenic characters. The contents of the head consist of DNA.

The protein envelope and tail of the particle are chiefly mechanical in function. The tail adheres to the host bacterium and breaches its covering membrane. The contents of the head are then injected into the bacterium. They constitute the infective element.

A temperate phage may produce lysogenesis or may multiply in the same way as a virulent particle. Various factors facilitate or interfere with the establishment of lysogenesis. There is evidence to suggest that some temperate particles are specially endowed to produce lysogenesis, while others can undergo only productive development at the expense of the host.

Virulent particles multiply only by productive development. The infecting virus displaces the genetic apparatus of the bacterium and directs the bacterial enzymes to its own ends. The nucleic acid of the bacterium, augmented if necessary by newly synthesized material from the culture medium, is broken down to nucleotide level or lower, and resynthesized into viral DNA. Protein is synthesized separately. Ultimately both are assembled into mature particles.

Lysogenic bacteria are immune to the phage they produce, and to allied types. Occasional virulent mutants are exceptions to this rule.

In certain cases temperate phage particles transduce genetic characters from one bacterium to another.

Bacterial species (the classical example being Salmonella typhi) can be broken down into numerous ‘phage‐types’ by tests which exploit the hereditary immunity conferred by the various symbiotic phages. Alternatively, different races of a bacterial species can be recognized by isolating and identifying the symbiotic phage which they carry.
PATTERNS OF SPECIES DIVERSITY
Authors: MACARTHUR ROBERT H.
Published: January 2008

1. Species diversity is most simply measured by counting species. More complicated measures, which take into account the relative abundance of the species, have been derived from information theory or from parameters of statistical distributions fitted to the census data. The information theory formulae can also be used to measure habitat diversity and differences between communities or habitats. In this way, changes in the pattern of species diversity can be compared with changes in the environment.

2. Small or remote islands and islands with uniform topography have fewer species than large or complex islands or islands nearer the source of colonization. For birds and some orders of insects it appears that the rate of colonization of new species is virtually balanced by the rate of extinction, so that the number of species has reached equilibrium. For other organisms, such as mammals, and for all organisms on the most remote islands, this equilibrium has probably not been reached and further increases in the fauna may be expected. The comparison of impoverished island faunas with the mainland faunas whence they were derived shows the effect of relaxed competition.

3. Local variations in the species diversity of small uniform habitats can usually be predicted in terms of the structure and productivity of the habitat. Habitats of similar structure on islands and mainland often have similar species diversities; the impoverishment of the island is reflected in the fact that different habitats on the island have nearly the same species, while different habitats on the mainland have more different species. This is interpreted as evidence that uniform habitats are nearly saturated with species and that new species usually colonize by occupying different habitats from present species.

4. The theory of competition and the facts of character displacement indicate that there is a limiting similarity to species which co‐exist within a habitat. Species more similar than this limiting value must occupy different habitats. According to the theory, this limiting value should be less where productivity is high, where family size is low and where the seasons are relatively uniform. It should also be less for pursuing hunters than for species which search for stationary prey.

5. Total species diversities, from areas composed of many types of habitat, are usually, but not always, much greater in the tropics than in temperate regions. This is accomplished by a finer subdivision of habitats (habitat selection) more than by a marked increase in diversity within habitats. This total diversity may still be increasing and may have not reached saturation.
BIOCHEMICAL ADAPTATION AND LOSS OF GENETIC CAPACITY IN HELMINTH PARASITES
Authors: FAIRBAIRN DONALD
Published: January 2008

1. Adaptation and loss of genetic capacity differ chiefly in that adaptation is goal‐ directed whereas loss of genetic capacity is not. Given sufficient information about an individual organism and its environment, adaptations are recognizable without reference to historical events extending beyond a single generation. This is not true of loss of genetic capacity, which requires a preliminary judgement that genetic information now absent was present in ancestral organisms. Together, adaptation and loss of genetic capacity are the major contributors to overall reproductive fitness. Accidental selection is genetically associated with adaptation, but is not goal‐directed.

2. Adaptations arevariant or invariant; invariant adaptations comprising biochemical unity, and variant adaptations contributing to biochemical diversity. Variant adaptations may be either exploitive or epigenetic. Exploitive adaptations are a measure of thegenetic capacity for phenotypic response to an altered environment, which the individual may not in fact encounter. Epigenetic adaptations are more rigidly programmed and are responsive to altered environments only insofar as these are a constant feature of the life cycle.

3. Selected observations in the biochemistry of helminth parasites are examined with respect to their interpretation in terms of adaptation, loss of genetic capacity and accidental selection. Secure judgements concerning adaptation are often possible at the most general level, i.e. when the physicochemical properties of the environment, such as temperature or oxygen supply, are clearly defined. I t is more difficult to make judgements concerning the specific mechanisms used in achieving these goals. Conclusions concerning loss of genetic capacity require knowledge of the specific function through‐out the life cycle. In many cases loss of genetic capacity is only apparent, as the function appears in another part of the life cycle. Such apparent losses are in reality epigenetic adaptations. These concepts are helpful in interpreting past work and in devising new experiments.

4. Development in helminth parasites includes a pronounced capacity for the orderly release of information to be used in the next stage. As each stage may require a radically different environment, programming for it may lead to phenomena which are superficially puzzling, such as the existence of aerobic electron transport systems in a stage whose energy metabolism is fermentative. The concept of epigenetic adaptation is especially useful for interpreting such observations.

5. Although possible adaptations are most readily apparent in biochemically complex mechanisms, these mechanisms are an expression of the orderly effects of many different primary gene products which have not been much studied. There are indications that organisms possessing relatively complex life cycles may provide opportunities for relating primary gene products, such as isozymes, to their physiological functions.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE DURATION OF INTESTINAL PERMEABILITY TO MACROMOLECULES IN NEWBORN ANIMALS
Authors: PATT JOHN A.
Published: January 2008

1. In several species, partial, or even complete passive immunization of the offspring is achieved through maternal antibodies which are concentrated in the colostrum. Failure to obtain sufficient colostrum renders newborn farm animals highly susceptible to systemic and enteric infection with E. coli.

2. A significant number of colostrum‐fed calves nevertheless develop colisepticaemia and many of these animals are hypo‐ or even agammaglobulinaemic. A premature termination of intestinal ability to absorb colostral antibodies (closure) may be responsible for some of these cases.

3. Pharmacological doses of certain exogenous corticosteroids are capable of inducing premature closure in rats. It is not certain though whether exogenous corticosterone can induce precocious closure in rat pups or whether exogenous corticosteroids can induce closure in members of other mammalian orders. Corticosteroid levels, however, may influence the efficiency of immunoglobulin absorption. Attempts to delay closure with adrenal suppression in animals with short immunoabsorptive periods have not been effective.

4. In piglets, but not in puppies or calves, starvation can postpone closure for several hours and consumption of food may be necessary before closure can occur.

5. Closure in the rat and pig apparently takes place by different methods.
EFFECTS OF GREEN LIGHT ON BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS
Authors: KLEIN RICHARD M.
Published: January 2008

Green light (510–565 nm) constitutes a significant portion of the visible spectrum impinging on biological systems. It plays many different roles in the biochemistry, physiology and structure of plants and animals. In only a relatively small number of responses to green light is the photoreceptor known with certainty or even provisionally and in even fewer systems has the chain of events leading from perception to response been examined experimentally. This review provides a detailed view of those biological systems shown to respond to green light, an evaluation of possible photoreceptors and a review of the known and postulated mechanisms leading to the responses.
Globalization's Alternatives: Competing or Complementary Perspectives?
Authors: Glenn John
Published: January 2008

Recent writings on globalization have tended to argue that such economic interconnectedness is, in one way or another, geographically delimited. Three competing views appear in the literature, regionalization, triadization and the involutionist perspective. This article challenges the portrayal of these perspectives as competing conceptions and instead argues that each perspective furnishes us with a partial view of a larger process. In so doing, this paper revisits the involutionist perspective, arguing that, in relation to the developing countries’ relative share of world trade and investment shares, the use of the term ‘globalization’ should be questioned. Rather, in relation to trade, involution is a more apt description. However, in terms of FDI, stasis better describes the contemporary international economy. The article then examines the trade and investment patterns within the triad, corroborating earlier findings that each leg of the triad is increasingly trading more with their neighbours than with each other, but that inter-triad FDI is indeed increasing. Three main factors are presented in order to explain the contemporary patterns of trade and investment associated with involution, regionalization and triadization: product differentiation, vertical specialization and the continuing concentration on primary product production in much of the developing world.
Kaposi's Varicelliform Eruptions1
Authors: Alm Ingvar
Published: January 2008

An account is given of the symptomatology and therapy in five cases of Kaposi's varicelliform eruptions in infants between the ages of five and nine months. In one case bacteriologic and serologic studies showed the presence of Staphylococci, and resistance determinations showed that these bacteria were sensitive only to streptomycin. The patient rapidly became afebrile and there was a considerable improvement in his condition after administration of this drug.

Eruptions varicelliformes de Kaposi.

On relate la symptomatologie et la thérapeutique mise en oeuvre dans cinq cas d'éruptions varicelliformes de Kaposi, chez des enfants de 5 à 9 mois. Dans un de ces cas, les études bactériologiques et sérologiques montrhrènt la présence de staphylocoques, et les déterminations de résistance montrèrent que ces bacthéies n'étaient sensibles qu'à la streptomycine. Le patient devint rapidement afébrile, et il y eut une amélioration considerable de son état après administration de ce produit.

Kaposi's varicelliförmige Ausschläge.

Eine Darstellung der Symptomatologie und Therapie von fünf Fallen an Kaposi's varicellenförmigen Ausschlägen bei Säuglingen im Alter von 5–9 Monaten wird gegeben. In einem Fall zeigten die bakteriologischen und serologischen Untersuchungen das Vorhandensein von Staphylokokken. Bestimmungen der Resistenz zeigten, dass diese Bakterien nur auf Streptomycin empfindlich waren. Der Patient wurde sehr bald fieberfrei und nach Verabreichung dieser Medizin konnte man eine bedeutende Besserung in seinem Befinden konstatieren.

Sumario

Erupcióra varicelifome de Kaposi.

Se describe la sintomatologia y terapeutica de 5 casos de Erupción variceliforme de Kaposi en niños de 5 a 9 meses.

En un caso el estudio bacteriológico y serológico demostró la presencia de estafilococos, y las determinaciones de resistencia demostraron que estas baclerias eran solamente sensibles a la Estreptomicina. El enfermo, luego de la administración de esta droga se vuelve afebril y se comprueba una mejoria considerable de su condición.
Investigations into the Histamine Content of Umbilical Blood
Authors: PETTAY OSSI
Published: January 2008

The author has determined the histamine percentage of 25 umbilical blood plasmas. Ten normal adult plasmas served as control. On an average the histamine content of the umbilical plasmas was found to be two—three times higher than that of the normal plasmas. This difference is supposed to be due to lack of oxygen during birth.

L'auteur a déterminé le pourcentage d'histamine de 25 plasmas de sang ombilical. Les plasmas de 10 adultes normaux ont servi de contrôle. On a constaté qu'en moyenne le contenu d'histamine des plasmas ombilicaux était deux à trois fois plus élevé que celai des plasmas normaux. On suppose que la différence est due au manque d'oxygène pendant la naissance.

Bericht über Histamingehaltbestimmungen des Nabelschnurblutplasmas in 25 Fällen. Der Histamingehalt des Nabelschnurblutplasmas (25 Fälle) wurde mit den Werten von Plasmahistamin bei Erwachsenen (10 Fälle) verglichen und durchschnittlich 2—3 mal höher gefunden. Die Ursache ist wahrscheinlich ein Sauerstoffmangel während der Geburt.

El autor ha determinado el tanto por ciento de histamina de 25 plasmas de sangre umbilical. Los plasmas de 10 adultos normales han servido de control. Se ha comprobado que el contenido medio de histamina de los plasmas umbilicales era dos o tres veces mayor que el de los plasmas normales. Se supone que la difereneia se debe a falta de oxígeno durante el nacimiento.
Observations on the Development of the Hypophysial‐Portal System
Authors: NIEMINEVA KALEVI
Published: January 2008

The writer found that the hypophysial‐portal system is fully developed in human fetuses at term. About the middle of the fetal period, on the other hand, the capillary tufts essential to this system which penetrate from the sinusoids of the pars tuberalis into the region of the median eminence and the neural stalk are not demonstrable. As fetal life progresses the formation of these vessel tufts can be seen.

It is concluded that if the hypothalamus regulates the function of the pars distalis by neurovascular channels, this regulation begins as late as towards the end of the fetal period.

L'auteur a constaté que le système portal hypophysaire est entièrement développé chez les foetus humains à terme. Au milieu de la période foetale, d'autre part, les ramifications capillaires essentielles pour ce système, qui viennent des sinusoïdes de la pars tuberalis vers la région de l'éminence médiane et la tige nerveuse ne peuvent être mises en évidence. Au fur et à mesure que progresse la vie foetale, la formation de ces ramifications de vaisseaux peut être observée.

On conclut que si l'hypothalamus règle la fonction de la pars distalis par des canaux neurovasculaires, cette régulation ne commence que vers la fin de la période foetale.

Verfasser fand, dass das Hypophysen‐Portal‐System beim ausgetragenen Neugeborenen voll entwickelt ist. In der Mitte der foetalen Entwicklung dagegen sind die kapillären Verbindungen zwischen den Gefässen der Pars tuberalis und der mittleren Region, sowie dem Stiel nicht nachweisbar, was dagegen beim älteren Foetus der Pali ist. Es folgt daraus, falls die Funktion der Pars distalis vom Hypothalamus durch neurovaskuläre Verbindungen reguliert wird, dass dann diese Regulation erst am Ende der Foetalperiode anfängt.

El autor ha comprobado que el sistema portal de la hipófisis está enteramente desarrollado en los fetos humanos al final de la gestación. En medio del período fetal, por otra parte, las ramificaciones capilares esenciales de este sistema, que penetran de las sinusoides de la parte tuberal en la región de la eminencia media y el tronco nervioso, no pueden ser demostradas. La formación de estas ramificaciones de vasos puede ser observada a medida que progresa la vida fetal.

Se concluye que si el hipotálamo regula la función de la parte distal por dos canales neurovasculares, esta regulación no comienza más que hacia el fin del període fetal.
Respiratory Studies in Newborn Infants: I. Apparatus and Methods for Studies of Pulmonary Ventilation and the Mechanics of Breathing. Principles of Analysis in Mechanics of Breathing1
Authors: KARLBERG PETTER , CHERRY RUTH B. , ESCARDO FLORENCIO , KOCH GÜNTER
Published: January 2008

Apparatus and methods for studying the pulmonary ventilation and the mechanics of breathing in newborn infants are described. For volunie recording with long duration a body plethysmograph system is used; for short recording periods, a reverse plethysmograph system. For studies of the mechanics of breathing the intraesophageal pressure changes have been cycles. recorded simultaneously with the volume changes occurring during single respiratory cycles. The reprodcibility and calibration of the methods are explained. The set has been used in respiratory studies in the neonatal period, which will be published at a later date in this journal.

An outline of the principles of analysis of the mechanics of breathing and the different methods used for calculations
THE IMMUNOGLOBULIN DEVELOPMENT DURING THE FIRST YEAR OF LIFE
Authors: BERG TORSTEN
Published: January 2008

In 33 infants repeated blood samples were taken during the first year of life for determination of the different immunoglobulins. The infants were divided into groups according to their histories of infection. These groups were compared with each other and, as also was the series as a whole, with a series of children investigated previously from a Baby Welfare Centre (BWC). A distinct relationship was found between the infants' histories of infection and their immunoglobulin development. The history of infection appeared to be reflected predominantly in the serum concentrations of IgA and IgM, and to a lesser extent in their IgG levels. The initial IgG concentration appeared to be of little importance for the IgG development after the first weeks of life.

The infants who had the highest IgG levels at birth showed a significantly more rapid decrease in their IgG concentrations during the first 6 weeks of life than those with the lowest initial IgG levels. This finding may possibly indicate a later start of their own synthesis of IgG in infants who have a high serum concentration of maternal IgG at birth. The infants exhibited a very early capacity for IgM synthesis and the mean IgM curve rose steeply during the first two weeks of life, subsequently becoming flatter. The infants with recurrent infections of different kinds showed, on the average, twice as high IgM concentrations at the age of 1 year as the children in the previously reported BWC series.

The IgA development took place considerably more slowly than that of IgM, but at the age of 1 year the infants with recurrent infections had, however, on the average, more than twice as high IgA concentrations as the children in the BWC series. On comparing this longitudinally studied series of infants in its entirety with the previous BWC series, which can be regarded as selected from the point of view of infection, the former series was found to show a more rapid development of the IgG, IgA and IgM levels during the first year of life.
Role of the cAMP sensor Epac as a determinant of KATP channel ATP sensitivity in human pancreatic β‐cells and rat INS‐1 cells
Authors: Kang Guoxin , Leech Colin A. , Chepurny Oleg G. , Coetzee William A. , Holz George G.
Published: January 2008

Protein kinase A (PKA)‐independent actions of adenosine 3′,5′‐cyclic monophosphate (cAMP) are mediated by Epac, a cAMP sensor expressed in pancreatic β‐cells. Evidence that Epac might mediate the cAMP‐dependent inhibition of β‐cell ATP‐sensitive K+ channels (KATP) was provided by one prior study of human β‐cells and a rat insulin‐secreting cell line (INS‐1 cells) in which it was demonstrated that an Epac‐selective cAMP analogue (ESCA) inhibited a sulphonylurea‐sensitive K+ current measured under conditions of whole‐cell recording. Using excised patches of plasma membrane derived from human β‐cells and rat INS‐1 cells, we now report that 2′‐O‐Me‐cAMP, an ESCA that activates Epac but not PKA, sensitizes single KATP channels to the inhibitory effect of ATP, thereby reducing channel activity. In the presence of 2′‐O‐Me‐cAMP (50 μm), the dose–response relationship describing ATP‐dependent inhibition of KATP channel activity (NPo) is left‐shifted such that the concentration of ATP producing 50% inhibition (IC50) is reduced from 22 μm to 1 μm for human β‐cells, and from 14 μm to 4 μm for rat INS‐1 cells. Conversely, when patches are exposed to a fixed concentration of ATP (10 μm), the administration of 2′‐O‐Me‐cAMP inhibits channel activity in a dose‐dependent and reversible manner (IC50 12 μm for both cell types). A cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterase‐resistant ESCA (Sp‐8‐pCPT‐2′‐O‐Me‐cAMPS) also inhibits KATP channel activity, thereby demonstrating that the inhibitory actions of ESCAs reported here are unlikely to arise as a consequence of their hydrolysis to bioactive derivatives of adenosine. On the basis of such findings it is concluded that there exists in human β‐cells and rat INS‐1 cells a novel form of ion channel modulation in which the ATP sensitivity of KATP channels is regulated by Epac.
Carotid chemoreceptor modulation of sympathetic vasoconstrictor outflow during exercise in healthy humans
Authors: Stickland Michael K. , Morgan Barbara J. , Dempsey Jerome A.
Published: January 2008

Recently, we have shown that specific, transient carotid chemoreceptor (CC) inhibition in exercising dogs causes vasodilatation in limb muscle. The purpose of the present investigation was to determine if CC suppression reduces muscle sympathetic nerve activity (MSNA) in exercising humans. Healthy subjects (N= 7) breathed hyperoxic gas (FIO2∼1.0) for 60 s at rest and during rhythmic handgrip exercise (50% maximal voluntary contraction, 20 r.p.m.). Microneurography was used to record MSNA in the peroneal nerve. End‐tidal PCO2 was maintained at resting eupnoeic levels throughout and breathing rate was voluntarily fixed. Exercise increased heart rate (67 versus 77 beats min−1), mean blood pressure (81 versus 97 mmHg), MSNA burst frequency (28 versus 37 bursts min−1) and MSNA total minute activity (5.7 versus 9.3 units), but did not change blood lactate (0.7 versus 0.7 mm). Transient hyperoxia had no significant effect on MSNA at rest. In contrast, during exercise both MSNA burst frequency and total minute activity were significantly reduced with hyperoxia. MSNA burst frequency was reduced within 9–23 s of end‐tidal PO2 exceeding 250 mmHg. The average nadir in MSNA burst frequency and total minute activity was −28 ± 2% and −39 ± 7%, respectively, below steady state normoxic values. Blood pressure was unchanged with hyperoxia at rest or during exercise. CC stimulation with transient hypoxia increased MSNA with a similar time delay to that obtained with CC inhibition via hyperoxia. Consistent with previous animal work, these data indicate that the CC contributes to exercise‐induced increases in sympathetic vasoconstrictor outflow.
The regulation of dendritic arbor development and plasticity by glutamatergic synaptic input: a review of the synaptotrophic hypothesis
Authors: Cline Hollis , Haas Kurt
Published: January 2008

The synaptotropic hypothesis, which states that synaptic inputs control the elaboration of dendritic (and axonal) arbors was articulated by Vaughn in 1989. Today the role of synaptic inputs in controlling neuronal structural development remains an area of intense research activity. Several recent studies have applied modern molecular genetic, imaging and electrophysiological methods to this question and now provide strong evidence that maturation of excitatory synaptic inputs is required for the development of neuronal structure in the intact brain. Here we critically review data concerning the hypothesis with the expectation that understanding the circumstances when the data do and do not support the hypothesis will be most valuable. The synaptotrophic hypothesis contributes at both conceptual and mechanistic levels to our understanding of how relatively minor changes in levels or function of synaptic proteins may have profound effects on circuit development and plasticity.
Identification and Control of Chaos Using Fuzzy Clustering and Sliding Mode Control in Unmodeled Affine Dynamical Systems
Authors: Alasty Aria , Salarieh Hassan
Published: January 2008

In this paper, a combination of fuzzy clustering estimation and sliding mode control is used to control a chaotic system, which its mathematical model is unknown. It is assumed that the chaotic system has an affine form. At first, the nonlinear noninput part of the chaotic system is estimated by a fuzzy model, without using any input noise signal. Without loss of generality, it is assumed that chaotic behavior is appeared in the absence of input signal. In this case, the recurrent property of chaotic behavior is used for estimating its model. After constructing the fuzzy model, which estimates the noninput part of the chaotic system, control and on-line identification of the input-related section are applied. In this step, the system model will be estimated in normal form, such that the dynamic equations can be used in sliding mode control. Finally, the proposed technique is applied to a Lur’e-like dynamic system and the Lorenz system as two illustrative examples of chaotic systems. The simulation results verify the effectiveness of this approach in controlling an unknown chaotic system.
Model Order Reduction of 1D Diffusion Systems Via Residue Grouping
Authors: Smith Kandler A. , Rahn Christopher D. , Wang Chao-Yang
Published: January 2008

A model order reduction method is developed and applied to 1D diffusion systems with negative real eigenvalues. Spatially distributed residues are found either analytically (from a transcendental transfer function) or numerically (from a finite element or finite difference state space model), and residues with similar eigenvalues are grouped together to reduce the model order. Two examples are presented from a model of a lithium ion electrochemical cell. Reduced order grouped models are compared to full order models and models of the same order in which optimal eigenvalues and residues are found numerically. The grouped models give near-optimal performance with roughly 1∕20 the computation time of the full order models and require 1000–5000 times less CPU time for numerical identification compared to the optimization procedure.
Tracking Control of Hydraulic Actuators Using a LuGre Friction Model Compensation
Authors: Zeng Hairong , Sepehri Nariman
Published: January 2008

This paper addresses the tracking control of hydraulic actuators commonly used in many hydraulically actuated robotic systems. Dynamic model of the entire actuator incorporating highly nonlinear hydraulic functions and the LuGre dynamic friction model is used to arrive at a suitable controller. The controller is augmented with adaptation laws to compensate for parametric uncertainties in the actuator dynamics, hydraulic functions as well as friction with nonuniform force variations. Furthermore, an adaptive observer is used in the controller to avoid the use of acceleration measurement. Therefore, only measurements of displacement, velocity, and hydraulic line pressures are required for the implementation of the proposed controller. Stability and convergence of the control system are theoretically studied. Experimental results are presented verifying the effectiveness of the developed controller.
A Quadratic Numerical Scheme for Fractional Optimal Control Problems
Authors: Agrawal Om P.
Published: January 2008

This paper presents a quadratic numerical scheme for a class of fractional optimal control problems (FOCPs). The fractional derivative is described in the Caputo sense. The performance index of a FOCP is considered as a function of both the state and the control variables, and the dynamic constraints are expressed by a set of fractional differential equations. The calculus of variations, the Lagrange multiplier, and the formula for fractional integration by parts are used to obtain Euler–Lagrange equations for the FOCP. The formulation presented and the resulting equations are very similar to those that appear in the classical optimal control theory. Thus, the present formulation essentially extends the classical control theory to fractional dynamic systems. The formulation is used to derive the control equations for a quadratic linear fractional control problem. For a linear system, this method results into a set of linear simultaneous equations, which can be solved using a direct or an iterative scheme. Numerical results for a FOCP are presented to demonstrate the feasibility of the method. It is shown that the solutions converge as the number of grid points increases, and the solutions approach to classical solutions as the order of the fractional derivatives approach to 1. The formulation presented is simple and can be extended to other FOCPs.
Energy Conservation Simplified
Authors: Hecht Eugene
Published: January 2008

The standard formulation of energy conservation involves the subsidiary ideas of kinetic energy (KE), work (W), thermal energy, internal energy, and a half-dozen different kinds of potential energy (PE): elastic, chemical, nuclear, gravitational, and so forth. These quantities came to be recognized during the centuries over which the principle developed. The final conservation law, although rich in specificity, is fairly involved. More significantly, it obscures a fundamental underlying simplicity, which could only be appreciated post-relativity (1905). Energy is the scalar measure of physical change. Using the special theory it will be shown that there are only two all-encompassing classifications of energy—energy of rest and energy of motion—and that we can apply the idea of conservation of energy to all physical processes using only these two energy types as quantified by mass and KE.