bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Introduction
Authors: Green Jessica F.
Published: November 2017

This book examines how the global environment is regulated and, in particular, the diversity of actors involved in addressing the problem of climate change. It considers the role of private actors, such as nongovernmental organizations and transnational networks, in global environmental politics. It shows that private actors are increasingly assuming duties normally associated with governments. They are taking on the role of regulators, as they create, implement, and enforce rules to manage global environmental problems. The book asks when and why private actors perform these regulatory roles. It cites three examples to demonstrate the diversity of private authority and the ways in which nonstate actors are serving as rule makers: the first deals with Walmart, the second is about the ruffed lemur, and the third relates to the Kyoto Protocol. The book distinguishes between two different types of private authority: delegated authority and entrepreneurial authority.
Agents of the State: A Century of Delegation in International Environmental Law
Authors: Green Jessica F.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines a century of multilateral environmental agreements (MEAs) for acts of delegation to international organizations and to private actors. Theories of delegation suggest looking to the state as the likely engine of private authority. With more governing to do, states are enlisting others to help them through the delegation of authority. Drawing on a random sample of 152 multilateral environmental treaties, sampled from all extant multilateral treaties from 1857 to 2002, the chapter asks how often states delegate to private actors, and for what tasks. It shows that delegated authority in MEAs is indeed on the rise but not as a percentage of total governance activities. Instead, there is an overall increase in the amount of governance by both public and private actors. The data also show that states prefer to delegate specific policy functions: monitoring and implementation.
Atmospheric Accountants: Entrepreneurial Authority and the Greenhouse Gas Protocol
Authors: Green Jessica F.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines a case of entrepreneurial authority in the climate change regime: the Greenhouse Gas Protocol. The protocol is a set of accounting standards to measure and report greenhouse gas emissions created by individual firms. These standards were created by two nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), the World Resources Institute (WRI) and the World Business Council on Sustainable Development (WBCSD), and have subsequently become one of the most widely accepted accounting methodologies for measuring and reporting emissions. The chapter explains how these NGOs were able to insert themselves into the policy process while the United States and European Union were arguing about an appropriate role for emissions trading. In particular, it considers the success of WRI and WBCSD in creating the de facto standard for GHG emissions accounting at the firm (or “corporate”) level.
The Path of Perdition
Authors: Lowrie Walter
Published: November 2017

This chapter describes a period in Kierkegaard's life he calls the “path to perdition.” This occurred in the middle of the year 1836, when Kierkegaard's chosen path in life (given his newly won independence) had led to a sharp decline and plunged him into a sense of despair. During this time he had begun taking an interest in Ahsverus, the Wandering Jew, who typifies despair. Recognizing that he was in despair, Kierkegaard would, at the suggestion of a mentor, turn to the study of irony, which he would later present for his master's degree in 1841. Alongside his despair, the chapter also explores Kierkegaard's aesthetic pursuits, including his explorations of sensuality and the “sexual fall.”
Groping His Way Back
Authors: Lowrie Walter
Published: November 2017

This chapter deals with the two-year period of Kierkegaard's grappling with his own despair, which lasted from May 1836 to 1838. Kierkegaard had held a desolate impression of these two years, in which he intimated that the “powerful religious impression of my childhood acquired a renewed power over [him]” after the death of his father, only now it was “softened by reflection.” Thus, in a sense these two years were a continuation of the events of the previous chapter, in which Kierkegaard was still on the “path to perdition.” This time, however, the chapter looks at how Kierkegaard spent these two years retracing it. This chapter also chronicles Kierkegaard's further engagements with philosophy during his time at the University.
Father and Son United
Authors: Lowrie Walter
Published: November 2017

This chapter chronicles Kierkegaard's reconciliation with his father as well as the latter's death, and Kierkegaard's impressions thereof. It recounts his final meeting with his father and how the latter had made a clean breast of his misconduct—which he had been able to recognize as having been the cause, in part, of Kierkegaard's own defection from Christianity. Thereafter the chapter explores Kierkegaard's various tributes to his father after their reconciliation and the latter's death. It also looks into Kierkegaard's mindset regarding his attitudes toward religion after the reconciliation, culminating in a religious, nigh-mystical experience of “indescribable joy” as well as his official return the Church.
Regina
Authors: Lowrie Walter
Published: November 2017

This chapter tells the story of Kierkegaard's ill-fated courtship with Regina Olsen. It deals with Kierkegaard's mindset at the time and how he had coped with the challenges to his fleeting romance. The chapter covers five distinct periods of the courtship as delineated by Kierkegaard himself—from the first few months of the engagement, during which time Kierkegaard had been especially chivalrous and charming to Olsen, to Kierkegaard's own attempt to break it off, by attempting to wean her from him by pretending that he was a scoundrel who had only been playing with her affections. To conclude, the chapter forms comparisons between Kierkegaard and Hamlet, and invites the reader to engage in a purifying, Aristotelian “pity” for this unfortunate chapter in Kierkegaard's life.
The Affair of the Corsair
Authors: Lowrie Walter
Published: November 2017

This chapter recounts “the affair of the Corsair.” The Corsair was a comic paper founded by Aaron Goldschmidt. It paid “a glittering honorarium” to disloyal servants for betraying the secrets of the home, and its real editors hid behind blackguards who were ready to suffer the penalties of the law for libel. All reputable men declared that it was a scandal which out to be abated—yet secretly read it with malicious enjoyment. Kierkegaard, they said, was the man to attack it, because he was so completely independent. And indeed Kierkegaard had done so, despite the respect Goldschmidt otherwise held for him—as the chapter shows, the affair might have been averted had both men spoken frankly with each other.
Metamorphosis
Authors: Lowrie Walter
Published: November 2017

This chapter begins the discussion of Kierkegaard's final years. Here, the chapter places him in the year 1848, which was a momentous year in European history as it gradually felt the effects of the French Revolution. This period marked Kierkegaard's most intense spiritual activity, which resulted in the production of some of his best works. Kierkegaard himself looks back on this year and remarks that 1848 “potentiated me…it broke me, that is to say, it broke me religiously, or, as I put it in my language, God had run me to a standstill.” Yet, as the chapter shows, Kierkegaard had already discounted the events of that year and transcended the political ideologies which were dominant in his day.
Kierkegaard's Works in English
Authors: Lowrie Walter
Published: November 2017

This chapter is a bibliography of Kierkegaard's works which have been translated in English, from the years 1843 to 1964. The list includes his major works, such as Either/Or, some of which have seen multiple editions over the course of over a century. It also includes selections and anthologies, most notably derived from his journals and miscellaneous writings. Most of his major works were published by Princeton University Press, though publishers from both sides of the Atlantic were able to produce translations of Kierkegaard's oeuvre. The chapter also briefly takes note of forthcoming editions of some of his translated works.
The Age of Garvey
Authors: Ewing Adam
Published: November 2017

Jamaican activist Marcus Garvey (1887–1940) organized the Universal Negro Improvement Association in Harlem in 1917. By the early 1920s, his program of African liberation and racial uplift had attracted millions of supporters, both in the United States and abroad. This book presents an expansive global history of the movement that came to be known as Garveyism. Offering a groundbreaking new interpretation of global black politics between the First and Second World Wars, this book charts Garveyism's emergence, its remarkable global transmission, and its influence in the responses among African descendants to white supremacy and colonial rule in Africa, the Caribbean, and the United States. Delving into the organizing work and political approach of Garvey and his followers, the book shows that Garveyism emerged from a rich tradition of pan-African politics that had established, by the First World War, lines of communication among black intellectuals on both sides of the Atlantic. Garvey's legacy was to reengineer this tradition as a vibrant and multifaceted mass politics. The book looks at the people who enabled Garveyism's global spread, including labor activists in the Caribbean and Central America, community organizers in the urban and rural United States, millennial religious revivalists in central and southern Africa, welfare associations and independent church activists in Malawi and Zambia, and an emerging generation of Kikuyu leadership in central Kenya. Moving away from the images of quixotic business schemes and repatriation efforts, the book demonstrates the consequences of Garveyism's international presence and provides a dynamic and unified framework for understanding the movement, during the interwar years and beyond.
The Tide of Preparation
Authors: Ewing Adam
Published: November 2017

This chapter shows how, during a period of limited political opportunities, in which African American activism was fraught with danger, Garveyites had built a massive political movement committed to modest aims at home, but premised on the notion that members were involved, in the words of a Garveyite from Tennessee, in a “world movement…which is now felt throbbing in every corner of the globe.” Here, the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) takes center stage, Garveyites continued to nurture alliances across the African diaspora and throughout the “colored” world, and they continued to imagine their often mundane local politics against the backdrop of world anticolonialism. By framing their political aims internationally, and by projecting their radical demands for African liberation forward into an undefined future, Garveyites sustained vibrant local communities of political activism amidst the decline of the national UNIA and the constraints of Jim Crow America.
Chinatown Offers Us a Lesson
Authors: Wu Ellen D.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines how a a national panic over a perceived escalation in youth criminality surfaced in the early 1940s, which was triggered by the social transformations of wartime. For Chinese in the United States, the issue of juvenile delinquency became an important means through which to stipulate their race and citizenship imperatives after World War II. Chinatown leaders adopted a bifurcated strategy that reflected the ongoing tension between sameness and difference under racial liberalism. In one direction, community managers argued that juvenile delinquency was as much a problem for the Chinese as for other Americans. They stressed their right to state resources to stamp out youth crime as equal and deserving members of the polity.
Consolidating the Monarchical State, 1921–1936
Authors: Dawisha Adeed
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses creation and consolidation of the Iraqi state from 1921 to 1936. The period of gestation for the Iraqi state, from conception to birth, was just under eleven months. While debates and policy conflicts within British policy-making circles over the future of Mesopotamia had raged for much longer, the arrival in October 1920 of Sir Percy Cox as the new High Commissioner of Iraq, tasked with ending direct British military rule and establishing an indigenous government, signaled British determined intent to create a state in the land of Mesopotamia. The form of the political system, namely a constitutional monarchy, took shape at the Cairo Conference in the spring of 1921, and the process was finally crowned with the enthronement of King Faysal on August 23, 1921. However, the effort to accumulate power, as well as to deny it to the other, caused significant tension between the King and the British High Commissioner.
The Uncertain Nation, 1921–1936
Authors: Dawisha Adeed
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses the efforts to create a nation out of Iraq's disparate communities. One of the most urgent and important tasks that was undertaken by the new Iraqi state was to mold disparate communities, divided by ethnicity, sect and tribe, lacking social and cultural connections, into one viable nation. This was no easy task for the King and his government. The state that the British assembled in 1921 had major fissures between Arab and Kurd, Sunni and Shi'ite. These fault lines overlapped with, and indeed were cemented by, the cultural and economic disparities that existed between the urban and rural areas. Of the rural population, much of which was abjectly poor and illiterate, 65 percent was Shi'ite and only 16 percent was Arab Sunni. These communal divisions would prove to be some of the most obstinate hurdles to social and political integration in Iraq during the first decade and a half of the country's life, and even beyond.
Nationalism and the Ethnosectarian Divide, 1936–1958
Authors: Dawisha Adeed
Published: November 2017

This chapter analyzes the growing divide between political elites in the wake of the military coup. In fact, the aftermath of the Bakr Sidqi coup can be seen as an effort by the out-group to move into the center not just politically, but ideationally as well. The ideational orientation of the new political order was immediately evident in the composition and policies of its political elite. The three pillars of the policy-making group were Sidqi (a Kurd), Sulayman (a Turkomen), and Abu al-Timman (a Shi'ite). The government's first statement to the Iraqi public focused almost exclusively on the country's problems, promising to foster national unity and overcome communal divisions. The government's policies aroused the ire of “Arab” nationalists who objected to the seemingly purposeful distancing of Iraq from what they considered to be its natural habitat.
The Decline of Statism and the Convergence of Political Alternatives
Authors: Rutherford Bruce K.
Published: November 2017

This chapter begins with a concise summary of the statist conception of political order that underlies Egypt's current autocratic regime. It then documents the economic contradictions that brought this order to the point of crisis in the early 1990s. In response to this crisis, the regime adopted reforms that enabled liberal constitutionalism and Islamic constitutionalism to broaden their influence and support. The analysis examines the growth of these two alternative views of constitutionalism through the actions of their most determined advocates: the de facto professional association for judges (the Judges' Club—Nadi al-Quda) and the Muslim Brotherhood. The analysis finds that political competition under Egypt's repressive regime has pushed advocates of liberal constitutionalism and Islamic constitutionalism toward common ground. Their political agendas converge in several areas, particularly with regard to key elements of liberalism such as constraints on state power, strengthening the rule of law, and protection of civil and political rights.
Rational Ritual
Authors: Chwe Michael Suk-Young
Published: November 2017

Why do Internet, financial service, and beer commercials dominate Super Bowl advertising? How do political ceremonies establish authority? Why does repetition characterize anthems and ritual speech? Why were circular forms favored for public festivals during the French Revolution? This book answers these questions using a single concept: common knowledge. Game theory shows that in order to coordinate its actions, a group of people must form “common knowledge.” Each person wants to participate only if others also participate. Members must have knowledge of each other, knowledge of that knowledge, knowledge of the knowledge of that knowledge, and so on. The book applies this insight to analyze a range of rituals across history and cultures. It shows that public ceremonies are powerful not simply because they transmit meaning from a central source to each audience member but because they let audience members know what other members know. For instance, people watching the Super Bowl know that many others are seeing precisely what they see and that those people know in turn that many others are also watching. This creates common knowledge, and advertisers selling products that depend on consensus are willing to pay large sums to gain access to it. Remarkably, a great variety of rituals and ceremonies, such as formal inaugurations, work in much the same way. By using a rational-choice argument to explain diverse cultural practices, the book argues for a close reciprocal relationship between the perspectives of rationality and culture. It illustrates how game theory can be applied to an unexpectedly broad spectrum of problems, while showing in an admirably clear way what game theory might hold for scholars in the social sciences and humanities who are not yet acquainted with it. A new afterword delves into new applications of common knowledge, both in the real world and in experiments, and considers how generating common knowledge has become easier in the digital age.
Introduction
Authors: Chwe Michael Suk-Young
Published: November 2017

This introductory chapter first sets out the book's main goal, which is to show that the concept of common knowledge has broad explanatory power; that common knowledge generation is an essential part of what public ritual “does”; and that the classic dichotomy between rationality and culture should be questioned. It then discusses coordination problems and offers some examples to illustrate how common knowledge is a useful everyday concept, part of the common sense meaning of “public,” and how common knowledge can to some degree be distinguished from “content” or “meaning.” The final section describes other contexts in which the concepts in the present study have been examined.
After Cloven Tongues of Fire: Ecumenical Protestantism and the Modern American Encounter with Diversity
Authors: Hollinger David A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter addresses the question of why “mainline” Protestant churches experienced a dramatic loss of numbers from the mid-1960s through the early twenty-first century, while the evangelical churches grew. It argues that evangelicals triumphed in the numbers game by continuing to espouse several ideas about race, gender, sexuality, nationality, and divinity that remained popular with the white public when these same ideas were abandoned by leaders of the mainline, ecumenical churches as no longer defensible. The chapter also considers the historical significance of ecumenical Protestantism for U.S. history since World War II. It argues that it facilitated an engagement with many aspects of a diverse modernity that millions of Americans would not have achieved without the support and guidance of the ecumenical churches.
Before and After Muhammad
Authors: Fowden Garth
Published: November 2017

Islam emerged amid flourishing Christian and Jewish cultures, yet students of antiquity and the Middle Ages mostly ignore it. Despite intensive study of late antiquity over the last fifty years, even generous definitions of this period have reached only the eighth century, whereas Islam did not mature sufficiently to compare with Christianity or rabbinic Judaism until the tenth century. This book suggests a new way of thinking about the historical relationship between the scriptural monotheisms, integrating Islam into European and West Asian history. The book identifies the whole of the First Millennium—from Augustus and Christ to the formation of a recognizably Islamic worldview by the time of the philosopher Avicenna—as the proper chronological unit of analysis for understanding the emergence and maturation of the three monotheistic faiths across Eurasia. It proposes not just a chronological expansion of late Antiquity but also an eastward shift in the geographical frame to embrace Iran. The book looks at Judaism, Christianity, and Islam alongside other important developments in Greek philosophy and Roman law, to reveal how the first millennium was bound together by diverse exegetical traditions that nurtured communities and often stimulated each other.
Space
Authors: Fowden Garth
Published: November 2017

This chapter contextualizes Islam's early history by proposing an eastward shift of emphasis. It revises the geographical framework; the Mediterranean world of the Greeks and Romans is replaced by the “Eurasian Hinge,” a triptych of regions with the Iranian plateau and the Eastern Mediterranean as its wings, and the “Mountain Arena” as its centerpiece. This geographical framework adopts the Eurasian perspective in its widest sense, from Japan or at least China to Britain, and makes Rome's eastern peripheries the center of one's world. The chapter argues that the “Eurasian Hinge” nourished two world empires no other could challenge and which, along with Christian Rome, spawned political and cultural “commonwealths” within the same frame: the Achaemenids with their continuator Alexander, and a millennium later the Islamic Caliphate of the Umayyads and Abbasids.
Exegetical Cultures 2
Authors: Fowden Garth
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines several other major learned or religious traditions that flourished during the First Millennium, with particular emphasis on their maturation through exegesis of and commentary on authoritative texts. It first considers Roman law, a tradition rooted in pre-First Millennium, non-monotheistic Antiquity, before discussing rabbinic Judaism, patristic Christianity, and Islam. The goal is to consolidate the argument that the First Millennium was the source not only of the three great texts that have most deeply molded Eurasian civilization (the Christian Bible, the Justinianic code, and the Qur'āan), but also of the exegetical traditions through which these often recalcitrant books were transformed into usable public doctrine.
Conclusions and Implications
Authors: Ahlquist John S. , Levi Margaret
Published: November 2017

This chapter pulls all the findings together and extends the reasoning to other circumstances, including the future of the International Longshore and Warehouse Union (ILWU) and Waterside Workers' Federation (WWF). It reflects on how organizational attempts to build (or restrict) a population's “community of fate” can have effects in state-building and in the politicization of ethnic or religious divisions. By uncovering the processes that account for why some unions go beyond economism when others do not, the chapter seeks to offer a more general explanation of the observed diversity among religious, political, and even nationalist groups. One reason for studying unions is that they face, in miniature, many of the same challenges and possibilities confronted by other stakeholder organizations, ranging from religious and nationalist groups to political parties to states and firms.
Introduction
Authors: Kaplow Louis
Published: November 2017

This chapter summarizes the book's main arguments. It sketches an overview of an analytical foundation for designing policy toward coordinated price elevation in oligopolistic industries, at the same time arguing for a straightforward approach to the issue. Systematic comparison with a more direct, functional approach reveals conventional means to be inferior and in important respects counterproductive in cases without smoking-gun evidence. In those settings, a direct approach dominates the conventionally favored communications-based prohibition in that the former targets situations that involve both greater social harm and less risk of chilling desirable behavior than those most likely to generate liability under the latter. The direct approach is also less difficult to administer, contrary to conventional wisdom.
Defining the Problem
Authors: Kaplow Louis
Published: November 2017

This chapter presents scenarios that illustrate the difficulty of defining agreement in a coherent fashion that successfully distinguishes pure interdependence (firms refrain from price cutting because of an expectation of retaliation derived from a shared appreciation of their circumstances)—deemed to be insufficient for liability—from classic cartels (firms meet secretly in hotel rooms to discuss prices and the consequences of cheating)—widely accepted to be more than sufficient. Of course, most legal categories give rise to line-drawing problems; it is notoriously difficult to distinguish similar shades of gray. The examples presented, however, are more corrosive because they demonstrate how hard it is to distinguish what many regard to be polar-opposite cases, analogous to black and white. The chapter also scrutinizes the concepts used in discussing horizontal agreements.
U.S. Lower Court Practice
Authors: Kaplow Louis
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines how the lower courts confront central legal questions that routinely arise in price-fixing and other horizontal-restraints cases in which the existence of an agreement is in dispute. In light of the discussion in the previous chapters, it is not surprising that the practice in lower courts is difficult to characterize—although some commentators nevertheless depict a substantially harmonious state of affairs. The problem begins with the frequent need to make inferences from circumstantial evidence, which all acknowledge to be necessary. As a consequence of the problem of defining agreement, it is difficult to know what one is trying to infer or how inferences can be made even when evidence of agreement appears to be fairly direct. Various seemingly clear rules, such as the demand for so-called plus factors, are unclear upon examination and cast serious doubt on the conventional view of the law.
Framework for Decision-Making
Authors: Kaplow Louis
Published: November 2017

This chapter presents a framework for assessing competition rules. An economic approach to limiting coordinated oligopolistic price elevation seeks to determine liability and apply sanctions based primarily on the deterrence benefits that result as well as any chilling of desirable behavior that may ensue, while also considering the expense of operating the regime. In assessing the cost of false positives, attention focuses on incidental negative behavioral effects, not on mistakes that are defined by reference to proxy legal standards and then given arbitrary weight. An example that will prove important involves imposing sanctions on firms that actually charged elevated oligopoly prices, the prospect of which deters such behavior. This outcome is favorable in terms of social welfare but under some legal standards would be deemed to be an undesirable error in cases in which the firms did not employ forbidden modes of communication.
Sanctions
Authors: Kaplow Louis
Published: November 2017

This chapter analyzes sanctions, concentrating primarily on deterrence. In many instances, reflecting current practice, the most important instruments are fines levied by government enforcers and, where permitted, damages collected by injured parties. If the probability of sanctions and their magnitude are sufficient, most coordinated price elevation will be deterred. A major challenge in setting monetary sanctions is determining the extent of price elevation. The measurement problem is conceptually the same whether price elevation was accomplished through secret meetings, mere recognition of interdependence, or in any other manner. The threat of imprisonment as well as fines assessed against individual actors can be a useful supplement, particularly in light of agency problems within firms. Injunctions are also considered. Although much academic commentary fixates on injunctive relief, it is not evident that it is important in controlling coordinated oligopoly pricing.
Communications-Based Prohibition
Authors: Kaplow Louis
Published: November 2017

This chapter begins by defining conventional prohibition in an operational fashion. As the earlier chapters have shown, this is a daunting task. Most views can be captured by supposing that the price-fixing prohibition is limited to certain sorts of interfirm communication, whether designated by mode, content, or otherwise. This formulation on its face seems problematic because it focuses not on whether the means employed in fact caused harm in a given case but rather on whether one versus another means was employed. Preliminary consideration of social welfare consequences suggests a negative assessment, for the distinction drawn has little relationship to welfare.
Detection of Prohibited Communications
Authors: Kaplow Louis
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers the communications-based prohibition, which requires demonstration of particular behavior that not only is hard to identify but also is not well correlated with high deterrence benefits and low chilling costs—indeed, in certain ranges, it may be negatively correlated with both. If one attempts to optimize the proof burdens (adjust the liability/no liability boundaries) under this circumscribed prohibition, one is led to reshape it into the direct approach. The chapter explains that, if one calibrates the burden of proof under the direct approach to find liability in the same number of situations as under the communications-based prohibition, then the direct approach dominates. The cases it targets involve both greater social danger and less risk of chilling desirable behavior than those most likely to generate liability under commentators' favored rule.
Conclusion
Authors: Kaplow Louis
Published: November 2017

This chapter links three arguments offered in favor of the traditional view to the foregoing analysis. One argument asserts a difficulty in attacking purely interdependent behavior because such would involve commanding firms to behave irrationally. Another objection is that making price elevation by oligopolists illegal is inconsistent with the legality of price elevation by monopolists. Third, it is argued that remedies, particularly injunctive relief, directed at price elevation are problematic because they amount to price regulation. The chapter analyzes each of these arguments in turn and provides counterpoints to these three claims. It also makes further arguments on the direct, economically based approach.
There Goes the Gayborhood?
Authors: Ghaziani Amin
Published: November 2017

Gay neighborhoods, like the legendary Castro District in San Francisco and New York's Greenwich Village, have long provided sexual minorities with safe havens in an often unsafe world. But as our society increasingly accepts gays and lesbians into the mainstream, are “gayborhoods” destined to disappear? This book provides an incisive look at the origins of these unique cultural enclaves, the reasons why they are changing today, and their prospects for the future. Drawing on a wealth of evidenc—including census data, opinion polls, hundreds of newspaper reports from across the United States, and more than 100 original interviews with residents in Chicago, one of the most paradigmatic cities in America—the book argues that political gains and societal acceptance are allowing gays and lesbians to imagine expansive possibilities for a life beyond the gayborhood. The dawn of a new post-gay era is altering the character and composition of existing enclaves across the country, but the spirit of integration can coexist alongside the celebration of differences in subtle and sometimes surprising ways. Exploring the intimate relationship between sexuality and the city, the book reveals how gayborhoods, like the cities that surround them, are organic and continually evolving places. Gayborhoods have nurtured sexual minorities throughout the twentieth century and, despite the unstoppable forces of flux, will remain resonant and revelatory features of urban life.
Beyond the Gayborhood
Authors: Ghaziani Amin
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines why the residential repertoire of gays and lesbians has changed in recent years. Drawing on a comprehensive archive of more than 600 media reports, it takes a look at those lesbian and gay residents who live in gayborhoods, those who once did but have since moved out, and those who reject them outright. Like all news reporting, and judging from some dramatic headlines, journalists who write about gayborhoods contend with their own preconceptions and drama. It is possible that they consciously or unconsciously interview residents whose proclamations of gayborhood demise make for a captivating pitch. The chapter uses the perspectives of the media to elucidate how the assimilation of sexual minorities is affecting where they choose to live, and how those decisions can change the significance of gayborhoods across the country. These perspectives offer important insights on the lived realities of urban change in America.
The Epoch of the Secular City
Authors: Cox Harvey
Published: November 2017

This introductory chapter provides a background of secularization, an epochal movement that marks a change in the way men grasp and understand their life together. Secularization is the loosening of the world from religious and quasi-religious understandings of itself, the dispelling of all closed world-views, and the breaking of all supernatural myths and sacred symbols. It represents what another observer has called the “defatalization of history,” the discovery by man that he has been left with the world on his hands, that he can no longer blame fortune or the furies for what he does with it. Secularization is man turning his attention away from worlds beyond and toward this world and this time. However, the forces of secularization have no serious interest in persecuting religion. Secularization simply bypasses and undercuts religion and goes on to other things.
The Shape of the Secular City
Authors: Cox Harvey
Published: November 2017

This chapter describes the shape of the secular city, illustrating two characteristic components of the social shape of the modern metropolis: anonymity and mobility. Not only are anonymity and mobility central. They are also the two features of the urban social system most frequently singled out for attack by both religious and nonreligious critics. The chapter demonstrates how both anonymity and mobility contribute to the sustenance of human life in the city rather than detracting from it, why they are indispensable modes of existence in the urban setting. It also shows why, from a theological perspective, anonymity and mobility may even produce a certain congruity with biblical faith that is never noticed by the religious rebukers of urbanization.
The Style of the Secular City
Authors: Cox Harvey
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on the style of the secular city, which springs in part from the societal shape provided by the anonymity and mobility discussed in the previous chapter. Two motifs in particular characterize the style of the secular city: pragmatism and profanity. Pragmatism refers to secular man's concern with the question “Will it work?” The secular man views the world not as a unified metaphysical system but as a series of problems and projects. Meanwhile, profanity refers to secular man's wholly terrestrial horizon, the disappearance of any supramundane reality defining his life. The secular man views the world not in terms of some other world but in terms of itself. Pragmatism and profanity, like anonymity and mobility, are not obstacles but avenues of access to the modern man. Pragmatism and profanity enable the urban man to discern certain elements of the Gospel which were hidden from more religious forebears.
Private Possessions and National Art
Authors: Pravilova Ekaterina
Published: November 2017

This chapter continues the discussion began in Chapter 4 on the appropriation of Russian icons and art. It shows that the ambitions of artists, preservationists, and archaeologists extended far and wide, encountering the resistance of private collectors and city authorities, landowners, and the imperial court. While dealing with the owners of artistic wealth and historical monuments, these zealots of the national patrimony also pursued various objectives. The chapter further shows that the notion of “public domain” remained quite blurred and implied no clear answer to the question of which objects of art and historical heritage should be nationalized, and where they should be placed to ensure their accessibility for the public and the preservation for future generations.
The Private Letters of National Literature
Authors: Pravilova Ekaterina
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses the issue of authorial rights and privacy. It considers Tolstoy, who represented a unique example of a writer who voluntarily doomed himself to the torture of private life devoid of privacy. During his lifetime, his family estate was turned into a museum; his every step and word were immediately recorded, transmitted by telegraph wires, and divulged by the press. His death was watched, commented on, and discussed in newspapers and on the street. The chapter asks, what is more valuable for society—to secure the personal rights of authors and their relatives or to satisfy the needs of science and public education? Finding the balance between these exigencies was at the center of the debates on copyright in the press and—when plans for the new law on copyright entered the legislative process—the Third State Duma, then followed by the State Council.
Epilogue
Authors: Pravilova Ekaterina
Published: November 2017

This epilogue provides a glimpse into the history of property rights and the fate of the idea of public property during the Soviet period. Quite characteristically, the idea of a public domain was rejected in 1917 and then enjoyed a short revival in the 1920s. Eventually, it proved to be incompatible with the socialist order. However, although they were inherently adverse to socialism, prerevolutionary projects to create a public domain very much anticipated the reforms later conducted by the Bolshevik government, including the expropriation of publicly important resources. The idea of the collective freedom of society proved to be both controversial and ambivalent, subject to opposing interpretations—one liberal, the other totalitarian.
Between Monopoly and Free Trade
Authors: Erikson Emily
Published: November 2017

The English East India Company was one of the most powerful and enduring organizations in history. This book locates the source of that success in the innovative policy by which the Company's Court of Directors granted employees the right to pursue their own commercial interests while in the firm's employment. Exploring trade network dynamics, decision-making processes, and ports and organizational context, the book demonstrates why the English East India Company was a dominant force in the expansion of trade between Europe and Asia, and it sheds light on the related problems of why England experienced rapid economic development and how the relationship between Europe and Asia shifted in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Although the Company held a monopoly on English overseas trade to Asia, the Court of Directors extended the right to trade in Asia to their employees, creating an unusual situation in which employees worked both for themselves and for the Company as overseas merchants. Building on the organizational infrastructure of the Company and the sophisticated commercial institutions of the markets of the East, employees constructed a cohesive internal network of peer communications that directed English trading ships during their voyages. This network integrated Company operations, encouraged innovation, and increased the Company's flexibility, adaptability, and responsiveness to local circumstance. The book highlights the dynamic potential of social networks in the early modern era.
Merchant Capitalism and the Great Transition
Authors: Erikson Emily
Published: November 2017

This chapter sets out the stakes of the book's argument, situating the English East India Company with respect to some of the larger processes of transition and change in the early modern period and the dawn of modernity in the nineteenth century. The issues addressed are large-scale macro-historical outcomes, such as economic development in the West, underdevelopment in Asia, growth in state capacity, the development of economic theory, and the emergence of new organizational forms. All are linked to and intertwine with the story of the English East India Company. In addition, these developments have at times been indirectly linked to the Industrial Revolution, which the chapter also briefly touches upon.
Cultures in Motion
Authors: Rodgers Daniel T.
Published: November 2017

This book examines the ways in which cultural practices that human communities have constructed have crossed the boundaries of place throughout history, disrupting social and cultural relations and keeping even spatially rooted cultures in motion. It consists of a collection of essays that offer stories of intrusion, translation, resistance, and adaptation. They chronicle histories of cultural motion where nothing stays the same, whether dance rhythms, alchemical formulas, practices of charity, feminist aspirations, medical techniques, sewing machines, or labor networks. The book explores how cultural practices moved across articulated space and relationships of power, creating the need for translation and the possibilities of radical misunderstandings. This introduction discusses how studies of empire and globalization have been the principal sources of the analytical language with which historians have undertaken to describe what happens wherever cultural practices intersect. It also provides an overview of the chapters that follow.
Musical Itinerancy in a World of Nations
Authors: Applegate Celia
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the world of the traveling musicians who produced European musical culture and haunted its literary imagination. Focusing on the history of musical itinerancy and travel, mainly in German-speaking Europe, it explores the ways in which Germans shaped and expressed their collective identity. The chapter investigates how traveling performers, often disparaged as rootless musical peddlers, carted new musical styles, forms, and techniques between local musical settings. It looks at the role of choral societies in nation building in the nineteenth century and large choral festivals that gave rise to new fields of rivalry and new forms of identity. It also discusses the lineaments of a new German cultural nationalism that were forged by the travels of musicians on the European landscape. Finally, it considers the literary products of musician writers that shed light on the question of how musicians fit in to an emergent national culture in Germany.
Creative Misunderstandings
Authors: Cook Harold J.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines how “creative misunderstandings” can travel by focusing on how Chinese medical ideas and practices were perceived in seventeenth-century Europe. It first considers one example of a European response to East Asian medical ideas: Sir John Floyer's advocacy for his new method of diagnosing disease from counting the beats of the pulse as well as his defense of Chinese medicine. It then discusses a number of texts and travels through which observations of Chinese sensing of the mo came into the ken of early modern medical innovators like Floyer. In particular, it analyzes Michel Boym's Clavis Medica ad Chinarum Doctrinam de Pulsibus and Andreas Cleyer's Specimen Medicinae Sinicaet. The chapter also looks at Floyer's translation and reinterpretation of passages from the Specimen that William Wotton had attacked in print, sparking a debate between the two men.
Transnational Feminism
Authors: Olcott Jocelyn
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines how the processes of translation spilled out during the International Women's Year (IWY) conference held in Mexico City in 1975. More specifically, it explains how the IWY fostered the creation of a new language of transnational feminism. It also considers three interrelated elements that played particularly critical roles in the unfolding history of the conference: how the conference came to be imagined as an event; the role of temporality in structuring that imagination; and how questions of representation and identification informed participants' conduct. The chapter highlights a key moment in the conference: the confrontation between North American feminism and Third World feminine Leftism, represented by Betty Friedan and Domitila Barrios de Chungara, respectively. It argues that the conference was not only a struggle for power and unity but also a struggle between globally gathered feminists for commensurability itself.
The Carter Era and the Collapse of Détente, 1977–80
Authors: Yarhi-Milo Keren
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses the relevant predictions of the alternative theses about how states should assess intentions by analyzing the case of the Carter administration during the period 1977–1980. Jimmy Carter began his time as president of the United States with great optimism about the USSR and was committed to improving the U.S.–Soviet relations. By the end of his tenure, however, Carter’s perceptions of the Soviet Union had changed and his policies emphasized competition over cooperation. The détente had collapsed. The chapter examines the Carter administration’s assessment of Soviet intentions, and more specifically the dramatic changes in U.S. perceptions of the Soviet Union, using the selective attention thesis, capabilities thesis, strategic military doctrine thesis, and behavior thesis. It considers whether key decision makers in the Carter administration engaged in intentions assessment attend to different indicators than the U.S. intelligence organizations.
US Decision Makers’ Perceptions of Soviet Intentions
Authors: Yarhi-Milo Keren
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the indicators used by U.S. President Jimmy Carter and two key decision makers in his administration, National Security Advisor Zbigniew Brzezinski and Secretary of State Cyrus Vance, to assess the intentions of the Soviet Union during the period 1977–1980. Using evidence from U.S. archives and interviews with former U.S. decision makers, it compares the predictions of the selective attention thesis, capabilities thesis, strategic military doctrine thesis, and behavior thesis. After discussing the U.S. decision makers’ stated beliefs about Soviet intentions, the chapter considers the reasoning they employed to justify their intentions assessments. It then describes the policies that individual decision makers advocated and those that the administration collectively adopted. It also explores whether decision makers advocated policies that were congruent with their stated beliefs about intentions and evaluate sthe impact of beliefs about intentions on U.S. foreign policy at the time.