bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Supporting Human-Robot Teams in Social Dynamicism: an overview of the Metaphoric Inference Framework
Authors: Morrow Patricia Bockelman , Fiore Stephen M.
Published: October 2012

Metaphoric classification of social interaction in human-robot teams can provide a useful frame for directing robot-human engagement while assisting the robot in sense-making of dynamic world behaviors. This paper describe a framework built from principles of embodiment to show how members of teams are not separated from their world, but make sense and interact in a world via a continuous (rather than causal) flow of engagement facilitated by two forms of perception. In this context, we distinguish between direct and reflective perception, arguing that agents socially engage via these modalities of perception through body, language, and context. We then argue that these forms of perception can direct the use of metaphors. The metaphors, in turn, act as classification frames for robot social intelligence using established human schemas.
Communicating and Distorting Risks with Graphs: An Eye-Tracking Study
Authors: Woller-Carter Margo M. , Okan Yasmina , Cokely Edward T. , Garcia-Retamero Rocio
Published: October 2012

Graphs can represent complex information in accessible ways. Unfortunately, many graphs are poorly designed and lead to errors in judgment and decision-making. Here, we examine the influence of distorted graphs used by advertisers and major news organizations to communicate risks. Results indicated that the distorted graphs were associated with large judgment errors and that cognitive abilities (e.g., numeracy, graph literacy, cognitive reflection) predicted differences in error rates. Eye-tracking results revealed a strong link between elaborative information search and stimuli-memory, which mediated the ability-judgment relationship. Discussion focuses on cognitive mechanisms (e.g., elaborative encoding), implications for HFES graph design guidelines, and emerging opportunities for personalized decision support.
Best Practices for the Effective Implementation of Telerounding
Authors: Heyne Kyle , Lazzara Elizabeth , Keebler Joseph , Benishek Lauren , Salas Eduardo
Published: October 2012

The research base for telemedicine is expanding with nearly the voracity that the implementation of tele-medicine systems has. Telerounding is one specific subset of telemedicine where a team of physicians will gather in a specific location and use a telepresence robot to perform their day to day rounding procedures. This type of telemedicine is fairly new, and thus is lacking a solid research base to guide the implementation and usage of such a system. This paper is an initial attempt at a comprehensive list of best practices for such a system and is based off of current telemedicine literature as well as the experience of the authors.
Care Managers’ Challenges in Using Multiple Health IT Applications
Authors: Alyousef Bashar , Carayon Pascale , Hoonakker Peter , Hundt Ann Schoofs , Cartmill Randi , Tomcavage Janet , Salek Doreen , Hassol Andrea , Chaundy Kimberly , Younkin Jim , Walker James
Published: October 2012

While care managers use multiple health IT applications to coordinate patient care across transitions of care, they experience challenges posed by these multiple health IT applications. We used a macroergonomic framework (i.e. the work system model), and conducted interviews and observations of care managers (inpatient, outpatient, transition of care) and a web-based survey to assess these challenges. The challenges were related to the care managers’ work system: technologies and tools (e.g., poor interface design of health IT), organization (e.g., no access to some health IT applications), and tasks (e.g., duplicate documentation). Care managers consider the following as major barriers: transferring patient-related information between multiple applications, finding correct information for medication reconciliation and other patient information (e.g., patient’s psychosocial background), and duplicate documentation and data entry. The next phase of the research focuses on how care managers deal with challenges posed by multiple health IT applications to perform their job of coordinating patient care across transitions of care.
Acceptability of Evacuation Instruction Fire Warnings
Authors: Taylor Jesseca R. I. , Wogalter Michael S.
Published: October 2012

The present research examined a set of fire warning statements that could be used to facilitate evacuation of a multi-story building by manipulating the statements’ wording and order. Participants ( N = 105) evaluated how acceptable each of 13 statements would be in a fire emergency. Manipulated in the statements were two types of components: (a) 3 levels of egress immediacy: “exit now,” “exit immediately,” or none, and (b) 3 levels of egress directives: “use stairs,” “do not use elevator,” or none. Results showed that participants rated statements containing egress-immediacy and egress-directive components higher than statements without those components. There were no significant differences between the two egress immediacy components or between the two egress directives. An additional component order manipulation showed no effects. Implications and suggestions for future research on warning statement composition are discussed.
Human Factors Issues Associated with Teaching Over a Virtual World
Authors: Rice Valerie , Alfred Petra , Villarreal Jessica , Jeter Angela , Boykin Gary
Published: October 2012

Second Life (SL) is one of the most popular Virtual Worlds (VW) available on the web, with over 15 million registered accounts and over 50,000 registered users online at any given time (de Freitas, 2008). A number of universities offer classes taught via VWs, however little information is available on the human factors issues associated with teaching and learning via a VW. This paper is a practice-oriented analysis of information gathered during a pilot test of didactic and behavioral training offered over SL, using Mindfulness Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) as a test case. Results indicate that human factors issues including social, communication, and technological concerns impact class interactions and feelings of trust. Participants report gaining didactic knowledge, a willingness to recommend VW training to others, and being open to future training via a VW. Recommendations to modify in-person training for VW use include targeted, early education of class members to potential differences in VW training, alteration of teaching strategies, and use and upkeep of technologies.
Visually induced motion sickness and presence in videogames: The role of sound
Authors: Keshavarz Behrang , Hecht Heiko
Published: October 2012

Visually induced motion sickness (VIMS) is a well-known phenomenon in virtual environments, simulators, and videogames. We conducted an experiment to analyze the role of sound on the severity of VIMS and the feeling of presence in videogames. Thirty-two subjects first watched a pre-recorded sequence of the game “Mirrors Edge” and then played the game actively. Game-play sound was activated for half of the participants. VIMS was measured via the Simulator Sickness Questionnaire and the Fast Motion Sickness Scale, presence was captured using the Presence Questionnaire. Results showed severe VIMS in all participants during the passive video session, whereas active-play revealed only moderate VIMS. However, in both conditions sound turned out to have no effect, neither on the severity of VIMS nor on the amount of presence. We found a moderate negative correlation between VIMS and presence. The results indicate that sound is less important than often thought.
Enhancing Speed Perception in Virtual Environments Through Training
Authors: Hill John D. , Salzman Jonathan A.
Published: October 2012

The objective of this study is to determine the extent to which training can improve the speed perception of drivers in simulated environments. Seventy-two participants completed one of two driving simulator studies involving following a lead vehicle travelling at an unknown speed. Twenty-four subjects completed a training exercise to provide feedback at various speeds. The drivers who completed these short training exercises provided significantly better speed estimates without the aid of the speedometer during the driving trial. Given the close relationship between vehicle speed and many of the performance measures used in driving simulator studies, there may be a strong benefit in taking time to acclimate study participants to the how various speeds appear in a simulated environment. This can be done in a very short period of time, even as part of common procedures to acclimate the driver to the simulated environment.
Display type effects in military operational tasks using Unmanned Vehicle (UV) video images: Comparison between color and B/W video feeds
Authors: Minkov Yaniv , Ophir-Arbelle Ronny , Oron-Gilad Tal
Published: October 2012

The increased use of unmanned vehicles (UVs) in military environments requires development of guidelines to enable maximal compatibility between those technologies and users’ needs. Specifically, the way video feeds are delivered to dismounted soldiers may affect the utility of such information. This work follows previous studies on the type (e.g., size) of displays required by dismounted soldiers to process video feed from UVs in a variety of operational situations. Sixteen former infantry soldiers with no experience using UV video feed participated. Three display types were examined using color or B/W video feeds in three different operational tasks (identification, orientation and movement detection). Performance and subjective data were collected. Results showed some effects for display type, no significant effect for feed color and an interaction for display type and feed color only in response time.
Investigating Collaborative Behaviors on Interactive Tabletop Displays in Complex Task Environments
Authors: Yuan Xiaochen , Shum Joseph , Langer Kimberly , Hancock Mark , Histon Jonathan
Published: October 2012

A two-player, collaborative digital tabletop testbed has been developed in order to study collaborative behaviors of human operators in complex task environments such as Air Traffic Control. The game provides a means of examining interaction techniques designed to foster collaboration, and support natural communication strategies between operators in these complex environments. This paper describes key requirements for the testbed and how those requirements were met in a first version of the testbed. Finally, lessons learned from initial evaluations of its application to studying handoffs and coordination between players on an interactive tabletop display in a simulated ATC environment is presented.
Intuitiveness of Symbol Features for Air Traffic Management
Authors: Ngo Mary Kim , Vu Kim-Phuong L. , Thorpe Elaine , Battiste Vernol , Strybel Thomas Z.
Published: October 2012

We present the results of two online surveys asking participants to indicate what type of air traffic information might be conveyed by a number of symbols and symbol features (color, fill, text, and shape). The results of this initial study suggest that the well-developed concepts of ownership, altitude, and trajectory are readily associated with certain symbol features, while the relatively novel concept of equipage was not clearly associated with any specific symbol feature.
Age Differences in Simple and Procedural Reaction Time Among Healthy Military Personnel
Authors: Alfred Petra E. , Rice Valerie J.
Published: October 2012

Knowledge of cognitive processing changes among adults is important as it can impact their work and home functioning. However, basic cognitive changes due to aging among healthy working adults are either not as well documented or focus on adults over 60 years of age. The purpose of this study was to examine the performance of younger (age 21-38) and older (age 39-58) military personnel on the Automated Neuropsychological Assessment Metric (ANAM) tests of simple and procedural reaction time. Descriptive statistics including correlation analyses were used to examine the data. Independent samples t-tests were used to compare the groups. Linear regression was used to predict age based on the three reaction time tests. Results of the correlation analyses failed to find a significant relationship between age and reaction time (p > .05). Results of the t-tests failed to find significant mean differences between younger and older participants (p > .05). Results of the linear regression analyses failed to find significance for predicting age based on the selected reaction time measures (p > .05). These results appear to support findings that age-related differences in reaction time do not occur during less complex reaction time tasks.
Investigation into the Functional Mobility Difference between Obese and Non-Obese Elderly
Authors: Wu Xuefang , Yeoh Han T , Soangra Rahul , Lockhart Thurmon E
Published: October 2012

Obese aging population is increasing in the United States, and obese elderly experience fall twice as frequent as their lean counterparts. However, the mechanisms of older obese adults fall are still not clear. It is not known whether the obese elderly has more functional mobility impairments than their lean counterparts, and consequently have increased risks of falls. It was hypothesized that obese elderly have more functional mobility impairments compared with their healthy weight counterparts. Six lean and six obese community-dwelling elderly participated in the study. “Timed up & go” test was used to quantify the functional mobility for both lean and obese elderly. Stopwatch and custom-made inertial measurement units were used to obtain the temporal and kinematic parameters. The results showed that there is no significant difference in overall time to complete the “timed up & go” task, but significant difference in anterior posterior acceleration, time to reach the peak extension angular velocity from initiation and double support time between lean and obese groups of participants. Therefore, we concluded that older obese adults have some functional mobility impairments compared with their lean counterparts but the completion time of the “timed up & go” test may not be able to differentiate these individuals. Our results also suggested that obese elderly might have more muscular impairments than their healthy weight counterparts, which can result in higher fall risks. Future studies are warranted to investigate the mechanisms of increased fall risks among obese elderly.
Augmented Emotion and its Remote Embodiment: The Importance of Design from Fiction to Reality
Authors: Schaefer Kristin E. , Cook Jacquelyn G. , Adams Jeffrey K. , Bell Jonathan , Sanders Tracy L. , Hancock P. A.
Published: October 2012

In this work, we address the under-emphasized need for attention to the emotional dynamics involved in human-robot interaction. This becomes more prominent as robots continue to transition from a tool-based role to a role of a teammate or companion. A theoretical review of robotic design through both current technology and fictional media provides a foundation for understanding domains in which the remote embodiment of human emotions can be used. Current and prior research is discussed, as well as limitations and necessities. Recommendations are established for an initial Best Practices approach that can provide optimal benefits to the user with regard to design implementation.
Measuring workload using a combination of electroencephalography and near infrared spectroscopy
Authors: Coffey Emily B.J. , Brouwer Anne-Marie , van Erp Jan B.F.
Published: October 2012

The ability to continuously monitor workload in a real-world environment would have important implications for the offline design of human machine interfaces as well as the real-time improvement of interaction between humans and machines. We explored the usefulness of features derived from electroencephalography (EEG) spectra, near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) hemoglobin concentration, and their combination, under data acquisition and processing conditions that could be applied to real-time usage. We simultaneously recorded from eight EEG and three NIRS channels during different workload conditions of the N-back task (N = 0, 1, 2). EEG and NIRS data were classified independently, and in combination. EEG could be used to reliably classify workload condition for most subjects and NIRS for half of them. NIRS tended to contribute to classification accuracy when combined with EEG in some subjects. We discuss implications and future directions.
Integrating Principles of Environmental Sustainability into Human Factors Education: A Recommendation
Authors: Paz Melissa , Sellers Brittany C. , Fiore Stephen M. , Richards Lindsey
Published: October 2012

Environmental problems continue to increase and a variety of scholarly disciplines are working to address sustainability through the study of engineering design and human behavior. However, the human factors and ergonomics community of scholars has yet to become a force in research related to environmental issues and solving environmental problems. We argue that the next generation of scientists and engineers in human factors must be educated to understand how they can address current and future problems in environmental sustainability. In this paper we outline the beginnings of a set of topics that can inform the development of such an educational program.
Range of Motion and Reaches of Warfighters in Body Armor
Authors: Mitchell K. Blake
Published: October 2012

To better understand the performance impact of body armor on U.S. military Warfighters, NSRDEC conducted an evaluation examining the range of motion of 67 Soldiers. Four configurations were assessed: duty uniform only and duty uniform with three different body armor protection levels (BAPLs). Sixteen (16) measurements were collected using standard and modified methods. Test participants were dressed in their best fitting size body armor and performed a variety of mission relevant movements. Test participants repeated each movement three times, and a mean was calculated for data analysis. Significant differences were seen between the BAPLs across the movements and within each movement. Follow up analysis has shown significant differences between the duty uniform alone and the three BAPLs for most of the movements. Design modifications of the armor could reduce the performance degradation caused by wearing the body armor, thereby improving mission performance and reducing fatigue in Warfighters.
The Relationship Between Trust and Usability in Systems
Authors: Acemyan Claudia Ziegler , Kortum Philip
Published: October 2012

There is a large body of literature on trust, which focuses on interpersonal relationships. In recent years the scope of this research has expanded, as some studies have begun to explore trust between people and systems. Trust in these systems is critical, because if someone does not trust a system they will not use it. Another factor that heavily influences system use is usability, which has been extensively studied in human factors research. The goal of the research presented here was to expand the current understanding of usability by exploring its relationship to trust in two contexts: (1) popular consumer products that people can choose to use and (2) voting systems that citizens must use if they participate in an election. In the first context the relationship between usability and trust was explored across fourteen popular consumer products. In the second, the manner in which trust changed across three paper-ballot voting methods, each characterized by a different level of usability, was examined. In both studies it was found that the more usable systems were also the more trusted systems. At the same time, the relationship between the two factors differed in each context, implying other variables likely influenced it.
The Need to Examine Culture in Health Technology
Authors: Perchonok Jennifer , Montague Enid
Published: October 2012

Culture influences how healthcare is received, what is considered to be a health problem, how symptoms are expressed, who should provide treatment, and what type of treatment should be provided. Culturally-informed health technology can result in higher adoption rates and can mitigate access barriers facing culturally diverse populations. Unfortunately, culture is not often considered in the design of health technology. Three design considerations are suggested as high-level guidelines for the development of culturally-informed health technology. First, designers should conduct formative research, which includes methods such as focus groups, interviews with key informants, surveys, and field notes, in the early phases of design. Second, health technology designers should choose an appropriate type of technology for the intended population. Third, designers should consider culture when deciding how to present the information. For instance, the information should be presented in the correct language, at the correct educational level, and by someone of a similar culture to the end user. A model is presented to illustrate a potential process of designing culturally-informed health Information Technology. Future research should investigate potential relationships, health consumer culture, and design needs.
The Effects of a Weighted Wrist Mounted Device on Marksmanship
Authors: Ysebaert Stephanie , Finomore Victor , Burnet Gregory , Ritter Jill
Published: October 2012

The modern Warfighter is faced with many unique challenges on today’s battlefields. He needs to be equipped with technology that delivers information and awareness in order to make better decisions and overcome those challenges. An example of this technology is mobile computing devices which offer many advantages as well as some potential limitations, such as interfering with shooting ability. In this study, the effects of a weighted wrist mount device on marksmanship were studied, while subjects performed varying levels of physical activity in a repeated measure designed experiment. Twelve military subjects were tested wearing four different weights and completing four levels of physical fitness while shooting at simulated targets. The number of physical fitness intervals proved to have a significant effect on shooting accuracy and precision, while weight of the wrist device did not. Although there are limitations to a controlled environment experiment, the insights gained are a springboard for future work to find a practical weight threshold of wrist mounted devices.
Examining User Preferences in Interacting with Touchscreen Devices
Authors: Toy Kevin J. , Peres S. Camille , David Tasha Y. , Nery Angelene , Phillips Ronald G.
Published: October 2012

The introduction of touchscreen technology has remarkably changed how people interact with their devices. Users may adopt different methods of input depending on the type of device they are interacting with and the type of task being performed. In the present study, we collected data on users’ preferences with regards to interface interaction, device position, and posture, while performing various tasks with four different touch screen devices: a touchscreen desktop, laptop, iPad or iPod Touch. Results indicated that users prefer touch over traditional input devices when performing more interactive tasks (ex: drawing, gaming). We also observed that the device position adopted by users may promote suboptimal flexion angles of the torso, neck and wrists. The information gleaned from this study contributes to the limited body of knowledge on the ergonomic implications of touch screen devices.
A First Look at Identifying Strategies People Use in Making Predictions about Task Demand
Authors: Sublette M.A. , Carswell C.M. , Seidelman W.
Published: October 2012

As shopping from online retailers continues to increase, designers need to be aware of the strategies consumers are using to predict the ease-of-use of products based on appearance. The following study investigates the influence of task type (stimulus-response compatibility task, target-acquisition task, perceptual-search task) on these strategies. The results suggest that for abstract tasks (motor and search), participants are relying on elements in or interactions with the actual stimulus such as the predicted time to complete the task and the number of items in the stimulus. However for tasks that are more concrete (using a stove), participants rely on their past experiences and familiarity with the task to predict task difficulty.
Sonification Discriminability and Perceived Urgency
Authors: Giang Wayne , Burns Catherine M.
Published: October 2012

Sonifications are auditory displays that can help operators monitor safety critical data. However, there are very few guidelines that describe the design of effective sonifications. Two parameters that may impact the effectiveness of a sonification are discriminability and perceived urgency. We designed and evaluated four sonifications which varied timbre and the presence of a redundant pulse rate mapping using measures based on discriminability and perceived urgency. Our results show that participants were faster in detecting changes in a simple pure-tone timbre when compared to a more complex but natural sounding propeller engine timbre. Perceived urgency was heavily influenced by the presence of a redundant pulse rate mapping that changed the tempo of the sonification. When the redundant mapping was present, participants rated that the sonification sounded more urgent than when the mapping was absent. Further examination of how context influences discriminability and perceived urgency can extend the findings of this study.
Perceived Urgency Scaling in Tactile Alerts
Authors: Pratt Stephanie M. , Lewis Bridget A. , Peñaranda B. N. , Roberts Daniel M. , Gonzalez Christian , Baldwin Carryl L.
Published: October 2012

Tactile vibrations are potentially useful in a variety of environments to communicate information to visually and auditorily overloaded people. However, since vibrotactile signals must come into physical contact with the skin, they may also be perceived as highly urgent and annoying. The current study examined whether scalable levels of perceived urgency could be obtained with tactile signals by measuring the relationship between changes in vibrotactile pulse rate and ratings of urgency and annoyance. In two separate experiments, changes in pulse rate resulted in changes in ratings of perceived urgency with faster pulse rates being perceived as more urgent. Importantly, in both studies pulse rate had a greater impact on perceived urgency than it did on annoyance suggesting that scalable levels of urgency can be achieved without similarly annoying operators. Results are discussed in terms of their implications for multimodal display design.
Equating Perceived Urgency Across Auditory, Visual, and Tactile Signals
Authors: Lewis Bridget A. , Baldwin Carryl L.
Published: October 2012

Determining the most effective modality to use to draw an operator’s attention to a specific situation has been a topic of recent interest. Making this determination requires ensuring that the signals being compared have been equated for saliency and perceived urgency. We conducted an experiment to examine how perceptions of urgency and annoyance change with changes in physical parameters across auditory, visual, and tactile modalities. While urgency ratings in the low, medium, and high range were found in each modality, parameters such as interpulse interval had a greater impact on perceived urgency than annoyance in the auditory and tactile modality, while having relatively little impact in the visual modality. Results can be used to facilitate the design of alerts and warnings with pre-specified urgency levels while minimizing annoyance and have implications for both research and interface design.
Spatial Multisensory Cueing to Support Visual Target-Acquisition Performance
Authors: Mateo Julio C. , Simpson Brian D. , Gilkey Robert H. , Iyer Nandini , Brungart Douglas S.
Published: October 2012

The impact of spatial multisensory cues on target-acquisition performance was examined. Response times (RTs) obtained in the absence of spatial cues were compared to those obtained when tactile, auditory, or audiotactile cues indicated the target location. Visual scene complexity was manipulated by varying the number of visual distractors present. The results indicated that all these spatial cues effectively reduced RTs. The benefit of cueing was greater when more distractors were present and when targets were presented from more eccentric locations. Although the benefit was greatest for conditions containing auditory cues, tactile cues alone had a large benefit. No apparent advantage of audiotactile cues over auditory cues was observed, suggesting that the auditory cues provided sufficient information to support performance. Future research will explore whether audiotactile cues are more helpful when the auditory cues are degraded (e.g., when presented in noisy environments or in generic virtual auditory displays).
The Influence of Visual Aids on Detecting Early and Late Decelerations in Maternal-Fetal Heart Rate Patterns
Authors: Kennedy Rebecca A. , Anderson-Montoya Brittany L. , Scerbo Mark W. , Prytz Erik , Belfore Lee A. , Abuhamad Alfred Z. , Davis Stephen S. , Chauhan Suneet P.
Published: October 2012

The present study examined how well individuals could differentiate between two different types of signals (early and late decels) in maternal-fetal heart rate tracings with and without the use of a visual aid. Twenty-one undergraduates twice viewed 80 simulated images under four different signal-to-noise (S/N) ratios. Further, the late decels were delayed in 4-sec increments. In one block of trials, the images were presented without a visual aid, and in the other block a visual aid consisting of a large turquoise crosshair was overlaid on the images. The results indicated that lower S/N ratios and shorter onset delays made signals more difficult to distinguish. However, overall levels of accuracy were significantly higher when the visual aid was present. These results provide initial evidence that utilizing visual aids can enhance the ability to detect critical signals in maternal-fetal heart rate patterns.
Steering Performance and Dynamic Complexity in a Simulated Underground Mining Vehicle
Authors: Cloete Steven , Zupanc Christine , Burgess-Limerick Robin , Wallis Guy
Published: October 2012

Research concerning the visuomotor control of steering suggests that some steering systems used in underground shuttle cars are not optimal. This research compared the performance of two groups of participants steering with a joystick interface through a simulated underground mine environment. The joystick employed either first-order or second-order control of heading. Results indicated poorer performance with second-order steering dynamics in the early stages of the experiment, which generally did not improve to levels observed in the first-order group. Poorer overall performance suggests that equipment manufacturers should reconsider the use of second-order steering dynamics in their vehicle designs. Alternately, simulation-based training technologies may have the potential to safely accelerate individual attainment of competence in the use of second-order steering systems.
Augmented Reality – Implications toward Virtual Reality, Human Perception and Performance
Authors: Grier R.A. , Thiruvengada H. , Ellis S.R. , Havig P. , Hale K.S. , Hollands J. G.
Published: October 2012

Augmented reality (AR) is defined as “a live direct or an indirect view of a physical, real-world environment whose elements are augmented by computer-generated sensory input, such as sound, graphics or GPS data.” It is not uncommon to come face-to-face with smart devices that are equipped with multiple embedded sensory inputs such as mega pixel camera, microphones, speakers, high definition (e.g. Retina) displays, 3D displays, holographic displays and pico-projection technologies. Such technology has enabled application designers and developers to package information succinctly and efficiently without loss of clarity. Recently, AR applications (e.g. iPhone World Lens, Google goggles) have drawn mainstream attention. The military also has programs that represent a leap forward (e.g. DARPA Sandblaster program). These advances in AR have been influenced by developments in variety of technologies including low cost of advanced processors, light weight displays, ubiquitous computing afforded by omnipresent devices such as smart phones, tablets, etc. However, there are currently no human factors standards to aid the development. These technologies have great potential to enhance our abilities, but there is also the risk that they represent an annoyance or a significant safety risk. Specifically, improper system lag, reliability, display design (e.g., clutter or resolution) could lead to errors. The goal of this session is to discuss what research is needed to define these standards. It is likely that there is no one set of standards, but developing a framework for these standards will go a long way towards bridging the research-application gap.
Conduction Equivalency Ratios: A Means for Comparing the Frequency Response of Bone and Air Conduction Auditory Displays
Authors: Patrick Rafael , Kring Jason , McBride Maranda , Letowski Tomasz
Published: October 2012

Soldiers in today’s military operate in environments where noise can make verbal communication and auditory awareness of incoming danger very difficult. Due to advances in technology and the development of bone-conduction (BC) communication systems, soldiers are now able to communicate via two-way radio without surrendering their ability to perceive surrounding events. However, despite rapid advancements in the application of BC systems, very little is known in regards to the perceived equivalency between the two modes of hearing. To better understand how BC technology can be utilized, this study sought to determine the relationship between spectral content of bone and air conducted sound using conduction equivalency ratios (CERs), whereby CER is defined as the difference in sound intensity levels between equally loud signals transmitted in both conduction modes.
Eye Tracking Metrics: A Toolbox for Assessing the Effects of Clutter on Attention Allocation
Authors: Moacdieh Nadine M. , Sarter Nadine B.
Published: October 2012

Display clutter is a problem that affects operators in various data-rich environments. Clutter measurement techniques such as image processing and performance measures can provide an estimate of clutter but are largely not suited to tracing the effects of clutter on the dynamic allocation of attention. Eye tracking is a promising process-oriented tool that can help assess in real-time the attentional costs associated with the different aspects of clutter. In this experiment, we investigated which of a number of eye tracking metrics in the literature are sensitive to clutter. Twenty-two participants were asked to look for a target in static and dynamic images that were classified as either high or low in clutter. Response time and error rate were recorded, and an eye tracker was used to compute the identified eye tracking metrics. Results showed that, in both the static and dynamic conditions, a large number of eye tracking metrics were significantly affected by an increase in clutter. This suggests that eye tracking can be used to supplement other clutter measurement techniques by providing information about dynamic attention allocation.
“Cognitive Efficiency” in Display Media: A First Investigation of Basic Signal Dimensions
Authors: Yang Shiyan , Shukla Karan , Ferris Thomas K.
Published: October 2012

In many work domains, such as aviation cockpits and hospital operation rooms, data overload can result when a human operator is unable to make efficient use of his/her limited cognitive resources in processing task-relevant data. One way to address this problem is to design displays that communicate data in a mentally economical way, either by increasing the information content, or decreasing the demand on cognitive resources. This paper introduces a metric – “Cognitive Efficiency” (CE) – expressed as a ratio of display informativeness to resource demand, which can be used to compare the effectiveness of various display types for a given task environment. The present study explored CE ratios for basic visual and auditory displays modulated by either the intensity or spectral properties (e.g., hue, pitch) of the light/sound signal. Among other findings, the results showed that visual displays are more efficient than auditory displays when more information content is present, and spectral modulation is more efficient than intensity modulation. Interesting differences are highlighted between CE ratios that use subjective (NASA-TLX) and those that use physiological (EEG) workload measures. The findings have implications for the study of human information processing, display design, and the development of metrics for display effectiveness.
Up or Down: Directional Stimulus-Response Compatibility and Natural Scrolling
Authors: Chen Jing , Proctor Robert W.
Published: October 2012

The settings of scrolling direction (e.g., whether scrolling up or down to move the display content up) on current computer operating systems are discrepant, which may impair users’ performance and user experience. To evaluate the alternatives, we conducted two experiments. In Experiment 1, we simulated the way people read and scroll on a computer by asking participants to press the up-arrow or down-arrow key to scroll the screen. In Experiment 2, we eliminated the scrolling component by including only a location-judgment task. We examined directional stimulus-response compatibility in the scrolling task and the location-judgment task. Results showed that responses were facilitated when the control direction was compatible with the display content movement direction. This finding is consonant with the Mac OS X Lion operating system, which defines the default scrolling direction as “move content in the direction of finger movement.” We recommend that other systems adopt this directional compatible mapping.
Are Two Hands (from Different People) Better than One? Transfer between Unimanual, Bimanual, and Intermanual Coordination Modes
Authors: Crites Michael J. , Gorman Jamie C.
Published: October 2012

We report an experiment investigating transfer effects between unimanual (one-handed), bimanual (two-handed), and intermanual (different peoples’ hands) coordination modes. From an information-based perspective, coordination at the individual level should positively transfer to coordination at the interpersonal level, and vise versa. From a constraint-based perspective, simpler coordination tasks (e.g., at the individual level) should positively transfer to a more complex one (e.g., at the interpersonal level), but not vise versa. Participants drove a teleoperated rover using different manual coordination modes in a within-subjects design, and their speed was measured. The resulting pattern of transfer effects across coordination modes is better accounted for by a constraint-based explanation. However, those transfer effects disappear rapidly with practice. The current results lead us to conclude that team motor skills are not immediately transferable to individual motor skills.
Using Fitts’ Law for a 3D Pointing Task on a 2D Display: Effects of Depth and Vantage Point
Authors: Prytz Erik , Montano Michael , Scerbo Mark W.
Published: October 2012

Laparoscopic surgery requires surgeons to make judgments about three-dimensional movements using a two-dimensional display. This arrangement reduces the available visual feedback information, such as certain depth cues. The current study used Fitts’ (1954) law to examine the relationship between psychomotor movement time, target size and target distance for a psychomotor pointing task using a laparoscopic instrument in three-dimensional space projected on a two-dimensional display from different vantage points. Analyses demonstrate an effect for depth of target on accuracy, internal consistency and movement time. The results demonstrate that Fitts’ law can be utilized to detect differences in conditions when a three-dimensional task must be completed with the visual feedback presented on a two-dimensional display. No reliable results of vantage point were found. Thus, the location of a two-dimensional display may not be critical for the type of laparoscopic pointing tasks examined in the present study.
Direct Perception-Action Coupling: A Neo-Gibsonian Model for Critical Human-Machine Interactions under Stress
Authors: Rahman Moin
Published: October 2012

The cognitive capacities of a human agent are significantly impoverished when operating under severe temporal and emotional stress. Currently, human-machine interaction under these circumstances is being informed by classical cognitive models, which treat the human agent as having a repertoire of undiminished cognitive capacities consisting of semantic, symbolic, and inferential reasoning abilities. Such an approach is unsuited when an agent’s mental capacities are reduced to simple perception-action mechanisms, due to functional decortication, under severe stress. Gibson’s direct perception provides a partial answer to this problem. This paper attempts to provide a more robust answer by putting direct perception under the light of recent advances made in human-machine interaction design and theory, neurosciences and embodied cognition. This resulted in the development of a model for human-machine interaction called Direct Perception-Action Coupling (DPAC). This model can be applied to inform the design of critical human-machine interactions that need to be flawlessly performed, often times under stress, to prevent catastrophic outcomes.
Effects of Friend vs. Foe Discrimination Training in Action Video Games
Authors: Brown Christopher , May Robert , Nyman Jeremiah , Palmer Evan
Published: October 2012

Action video games have received intensive study because they improve players’ visual attention and perception abilities more than other types of video games. However, experimenters’ ability to attribute visual functioning improvements to particular action video game components has been hampered due to the use of non-action video games as controls. Here, we employ a newly developed, tightly controlled experimental paradigm in which two groups of participants trained in two versions of the same custom video game world. One version contained both friends and foes and the other contained foes only. A third group of participants served as a no-training control. People trained for two hours in friend vs. foe discrimination showed several modest improvements in their visual skills, including a significant increase in attentional filtering and a marginal decrease in flanker interference. This experimental design establishes that friend vs. foe discrimination per se led to the observed visual improvements.
Effects of Different Types of Variable Priority and Adaptive Training on Skill Acquisition in Dual Verbal-Spatial Working Memory Tasks
Authors: McKendrick Ryan , Parasuraman Raja
Published: October 2012

The effects of two variable priority (or emphasis change) training paradigms (with 3 or 5 levels of emphasis) and an adaptive training paradigm on skill acquisition in dual verbal-spatial working memory tasks were examined. Competing hypotheses of the cognitive mechanisms of variable priority training were evaluated. All three training groups showed improved performance over a control group on the verbal working memory task. Only the variable priority groups showed an improvement over time relative to the control group in the spatial working memory task. The results support the hypothesis that variable priority training forces trainees to focus not only on easy tasks, but also on harder tasks, yielding more balanced task performance and higher levels of skill development. No evidence was found that variable priority training leads to the discovery of an optimal attention allocation strategy, or more efficient adaptation to changing task demands.
A comparison of subjective and physiological workload assessment techniques during a 3-dimensional audio vigilance task
Authors: Shaw Tyler H. , Satterfield Kelly , Ramirez Raul , Finomore Victor
Published: October 2012

The shift from platform-centric to network-centric warfare will require the use of sophisticated collaborative and communication technologies that can enhance shared situation awareness, thus improving military capabilities. However, the communication-intensive environment related with the use of these technologies may impose a high degree of mental workload as it is typical for operators to monitor and transmit on eight or more simultaneous channels. A net-centric communication management suite called Multi-Modal Communication (MMC) has been developed that offers a 3-dimensional spatial audio feature that can enhance the intelligibility of critical messages, but the workload associated with its use has not been thoroughly investigated. Twenty-two operators were assigned to monitor for the presence of critical phrases during a 40-min vigilance session with 6 different communicators in either a 3d spatial audio condition or a monaural radio condition. Cerebral blood flow velocity, a new index of mental workload, was measured during task performance and compared with a subjective measure of workload, the NASA-TLX. Results showed that there was a significant vigilance decrement over time, but that overall detection probability was higher in the 3d spatial audio than in the monaural radio condition. CBFV declined significantly over time, and a three way hemisphere x periods x presentation mode interaction revealed that CBFV was elevated during performance with monaural radio, but the decrement was most pronounced in the left hemisphere for the spatial audio task. Workload ratings from the NASA-TLX were insensitive to the differences in workload for the two task types. Results are interpreted in terms of a resource model of vigilance, and cerebral lateralization of vigilance and the potential limitations of subjective rating scales are discussed.
Redundancy Gains in Communication Tasks: A Comparison of Auditory, Visual, and Redundant Auditory-Visual Information Presentation on NextGen Flight Decks
Authors: Lu Sara A. , Wickens Christopher D. , Sarter Nadine B. , Thomas Lisa C. , Nikolic Mark I. , Sebok Angelia
Published: October 2012

The redundant presentation of information in more than one sensory channel has traditionally been assumed to benefit performance. However, a recent meta-analysis suggests that redundancy gains may depend on task type and a number of moderator variables. The present study examined the effectiveness of visual, auditory, and redundant auditory-visual information presentation under high and low workload in the context of a mid-fidelity NextGen flight simulation with experienced airline pilots as participants. Overall, for two types of communication tasks – data link and ATIS – faster responses were observed for redundant displays, compared to vision and audition alone. No significant benefit of redundancy was found for accuracy due to a ceiling effect and workload did not mediate redundancy effects. The findings from this research add to the knowledge base in multimodal and redundant information processing and can inform modality choices in the design of displays for complex, data-rich domains.