bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Promoting Helping Behavior in Cooperative Small Groups in Middle School Mathematics
Authors: Webb Noreen M. , Farivar Sydney
Published: March 2008

This study compared the effects on achievement and verbal interaction of two instructional programs designed to teach students how to work effectively in small groups: cooperative learning with instruction and practice in basic communication skills and academic helping skills (experimental condition) and cooperative learning with instruction and practice in basic communications skills only (comparison condition). Six 7th-grade general mathematics classes (n = 166) were randomly assigned to instructional condition. After preparation for group work, students worked in peer-directed small groups on a 4-week unit on operations with fractions. Results showed that Latino and African-American students gave and received more elaborated help, and showed higher achievement, in the experimental condition than in the comparison condition. Differences between instructional conditions were greater for one teacher than for the other. Reasons for these differences are discussed. No significant differences between conditions, in verbal interaction or achievement, appeared for white students.
Teacher Efficacy: A Study of Construct Dimensions
Authors: Guskey Thomas R. , Passaro Perry D.
Published: March 2008

This study examined the structure of a construct generally labeled teacher efficacy. A sample of 342 prospective and experienced teachers was administered an efficacy questionnaire adapted from the research of Gibson and Dembo (1984) . Factor analytic procedures with varimax rotation were used to generate a two-factor solution that accounted for 32 % of the variance in scale scores. Contrary to previous research, these factors corresponded not to a personal versus teaching efficacy distinction, but instead to a simpler internal versus external distinction, similar to locus-of-control measures of causal attribution. Implications of these findings for past and future research involving this construct are discussed.
Common, Delinquent, and Special: On the Formalization of Common Schooling in the American States
Authors: Richardson John G.
Published: March 2008

This article proposes that the formalization of common schooling in the American states derives from the sequence of institutional formation beginning with the state asylum, moving to the reformatory, and then moving to compulsory attendance. The analysis of this sequence broadens the conception of American education and demonstrates that it is composed of three worlds: the common, the delinquent, and the special. Although distinguished by their separate institutional settings, the enactment of compulsory attendance linked each world through the criteria that regulated access to the common school. From the early 19th century, these institutional linkages demonstrate an integration of delinquent and exceptional youth within public education. The midcentury formalization of special education categories is one contemporary outcome, inverting the original organization and purpose of common schooling.
Impact of Self-Regulatory Influences on Writing Course Attainment
Authors: Zimmerman Barry J. , Bandura Albert
Published: March 2008

The role of self-efficacy beliefs concerning the academic attainment and regulation of writing, academic goals, and self-standards on writing course achievement was studied with college freshman using path analysis. These self-regulatory variables were measured at the beginning of a writing course and related to final course grades. Students’ verbal scholastic aptitude and level of instruction were also included in the analysis. Perceptions of self-efficacy for writing influenced both perceived academic self-efficacy and personal standards for the quality of writing considered self-satisfying. High personal standards and perceived academic self-efficacy, in turn, fostered adoption of goals for mastering writing skills. Neither level of writing instruction nor verbal aptitude had any direct link to course grades. Verbal aptitude affected writing course outcomes only indirectly by its influence on personal standards. Perceived academic self-efficacy influenced writing grade attainments both directly and through its impact on personal goal setting. These paths of influence were interpreted in terms of a social cognitive theory of academic self-regulation.
Three Children, Two Languages, and Strategic Reading: Case Studies in Bilingual/Monolingual Reading
Authors: Jiménez Robert T. , García Georgia Earnest , Pearson P. David
Published: March 2008

The major goal of this article was to describe and understand the cognitive and metacognitive knowledge of a proficient bilingual reader who was Latina. This was accomplished by comparing her reading processes and strategies with those of a marginally proficient bilingual reader and a proficient monolingual reader. Data collection processes included prompted and unprompted think-alouds, interviews, text retellings, a prior knowledge measure, and a questionnaire. All student participants read one narrative and two expository texts in English, and the two bilingual students also read a comparable set of Spanish texts. Qualitative analysis revealed four key dimensions that distinguished the proficient bilingual reader’s performance from those of the other two readers: How she navigated unknown vocabulary in both languages, how she viewed the purpose of reading, how she interacted with text, and how she took advantage of her bilingualism. It was concluded that explicit knowledge of the relationship between Spanish and English can facilitate bilingual students’ reading comprehension, that unknown vocabulary was an obstacle to reading comprehension for the two bilingual readers, that reading expertise and bilingualism visibly affected the reading comprehension of the bilingual students, and that the cultural and linguistic familiarity of the reading passages created a qualitatively different experience of or the proficient monolingual reader.
Raising Expectations in Schooling: Obstacles and Opportunities for Change
Authors: Weinstein Rhona S. , Madison Sybil M. , Kuklinski Margaret R.
Published: March 2008

Given the gap in research on applied expectancy interventions, this study examined perceived obstacles encountered by a collaborative team of teachers, administrators, and researchers in raising expectations for ninth graders at risk for failure in an inner city high school. Qualitative analysis of narrative records of team meetings over 2 years revealed perceived constraints emanating from deficits in students, pessimism about efficacy and fears about exposing vulnerability in teachers, and lack of support for collaborative action and for mixed-ability teaching in the school. Over time, collaboration enabled participants to challenge these beliefs, thereby opening the door for disconfirming evidence. Teachers took increasing responsibility for reframing obstacles so that positive changes were made in practices and policies that increased learning opportunities for students. The findings illustrate that preventive action must move beyond the teacher-student dyad to include an understanding of the context in which expectations for students, teachers, and schooling are embedded.
A Test of the Internal/External Frame of Reference Model at Different Levels of Math and Verbal Self-Perception
Authors: Skaalvik Einar M. , Rankin Richard J.
Published: March 2008

In this study, predictive relations were examined between math and verbal achievement and several different measures of motivation. The sample consisted of 348 sixth grade and 325 ninth grade Norwegian students. Motivation variables of self-concept, self-perceived aptitude, and self-perceived ability to learn within each domain were highly correlated and used as indicators to define math and verbal latent variables labeled general math and verbal self-perceptions . Subscales measuring self-perceived math and verbal skills were used to define another set of math and verbal latent variables labeled specific math and verbal self-perceptions. Both general and specific math and verbal self-perceptions were strongly related to corresponding achievement. Predictions from Marsh’s internal/external frame of reference model were confirmed for math and verbal general self-perceptions but not for specific self-perceptions. General self-perceptions strongly affected intrinsic motivation, self-perceived effort, and anxiety in the respective domains, whereas specific self-perceptions did not. The pattern of results was quite similar for the two grade levels.
Assessing Classroom Learning: How Students Use Their Knowledge and Experience to Answer Classroom Achievement Test Questions in Science and Social Studies
Authors: Nuthall Graham , Alton-Lee Adrienne
Published: March 2008

Three observational studies of student learning from classroom experience in science and social studies in elementary and middle school classrooms were carried out. Immediately after the administration of the short-term and long-term (12 months) achievement tests, selected students were asked to describe how they answered each item and to recall relevant learning experiences. Students reported basing their answers on recall of classroom learning experiences for 30%–50% of the items and deducing the answers from related experience and knowledge for 15%–24%. Item-answering processes were affected by length of time between learning and test administration, the nature of the topic studied, the students’ background knowledge, type of learning experience, and involvement in classroom activities. A model is described that explains how students use their multilayered episodic and semantic memory for relevant learning experiences and related knowledge to answer achievement test items. Item content and structure defines the domain within which students apply complex metacognitive, retrieval, deduction, and knowledge construction skills.
The Impact of Subject Matter on Curricular Activity: An Analysis of Five Academic Subjects
Authors: Stodolsky Susan S. , Grossman Pamela L.
Published: March 2008

This article tests a framework connecting features of subject matter with curricular activities among high school teachers of five academic subjects. Using survey responses, it compares the conceptions of subject matter (defined, static, sequential) and curricular activities (coordination, coverage, consensus on content, standardization, course rotation, etc.) of English, social studies, science, math, and foreign language teachers from 16 high schools. Teachers differ in their perceptions of their subjects as defined, sequential, and static. For example, math and foreign language teachers score higher on those features than other teachers. In turn, certain curricular activities seem to differ depending on subject features. For example, in sequential subjects, teachers report more coordination with colleagues and more press for coverage of content than in less sequential subjects. Implications for research and policy are presented.
Students’ Help Seeking During Problem Solving: Effects of Grade, Goal, and Prior Achievement
Authors: Newman Richard S. , Schwager Mahna T.
Published: March 2008

We investigated the types of help that students request while solving math problems under the tutelage of an adult. One hundred eighteen third and sixth graders, classified as high, medium, and low math achievers and working under one of two academic goal conditions (i.e., either learning or performance goals), were asked to solve inductive reasoning problems. Students were encouraged to request whatever information they felt they needed. We found that sixth graders, in comparison with third graders, were more likely to ask for process-related hints and less likely simply to ask for the answer or express a vague lack of understanding. Students given learning goals, in comparison with those given performance goals, were more likely to request confirmation of an answer and less likely to show maladaptive patterns of questioning. Performance goals had a strong, detrimental effect on the number of problems that low achievers solved. Relations among goals, prior math achievement, help seeking, and problem-solving performance were examined.
Learning Written Storybook Language in School: A Comparison of Low-SES Children in Skills-Based and Whole Language Classrooms
Authors: Purcell-Gates Victoria , McIntyre Ellen , Freppon Penny A.
Published: March 2008

This study examined three data sets from previous studies to determine if children who begin kindergarten with significantly less implicit linguistic knowledge of books, as compared to well-read-to kindergartners, acquire this knowledge through experience with books in kindergarten and first grade. Further, the impact of instructional method on acquisition of this linguistic knowledge was examined by comparing children who experienced skills-based beginning literacy instruction to those who participated in whole language classrooms. Results show that all of the children who began school with low levels of knowledge of written syntax and vocabulary catch up to the well-read-to children’s baseline kindergarten scores on this dimension by the end of first grade. In addition, those children in whole language classes with increased levels of storybook readings, book discussions, and opportunities to explore books and to write, as compared to the skill-based curriculums, showed significantly greater growth in their knowledge of written language and more extensive breadth of knowledge of written linguistic features.
The Effects of Recess Timing on Children’s Playground and Classroom Behaviors
Authors: Pellegrini A. D. , Huberty Patti Davis , Jones Ithel
Published: March 2008

Three field experiments were conducted to determine the effects of different recess timing regimens on children’s classroom and recess behaviors. Experiment 1 involved children in Grades K, 2, and 4. The timing of their recess was experimentally varied by 30 minutes. Students’ classroom behavior before and after recess was observed as was their outdoor recess behavior. Children’s prerecess inattention varied as a function of deprivation duration. Further, children, but especially boys, were more socially interactive on the playground following the long deprivation, compared to the short deprivation. Recess behaviors did not relate significantly to postrecess inattention. However, inattention rates were higher before recess than after. Experiment 2 utilized a similar paradigm with a sample of second and fourth graders from the same school. Experiment 2, generally, replicated results from Experiment 1. In Experiment 3, which utilized a replication sample design, children s recess was also manipulated, but the recess period was indoors. Results of the two samples replicated each other and the preceding experiments. Results are discussed in terms of play deprivation theory and massed versus distributed practice.
Learning From School Restructuring
Authors: Peterson Penelope L. , McCartney Sarah J. , Elmore Richard F.
Published: March 2008

We analyzed cases of restructuring experiments in three elementary schools, each with ethnically diverse populations, located in large urban school districts in different parts of the United States. Over 2 years, we gathered data on views and classroom writing practices of two teachers in each school through on-site interviews and observations. We also interviewed the principal and other support personnel. We found that these three schools did successfully restructure; changes included new student grouping patterns, new ways of allocating time for subject matter, teachers meeting together as a whole school or in teams, and access to new ideas through professional development opportunities. Through close analyses of teachers’ classroom practices, we learned that changing teachers’ practice is primarily a problem of learning, not a problem of organization. While school structures can provide opportunities for learning new practices, the structures, by themselves, do not cause the learning to occur.
Efficacy Beliefs of Newly Hired Teachers in Urban Schools
Authors: Chester Mitchell D. , Beaudin Barbara Q.
Published: March 2008

This study explores the relationships between change in self-efficacy beliefs, teacher characteristics, and school practices for newly hired teachers in urban schools. Earlier research concluded that the self-efficacy beliefs of beginning teachers typically decline over the course of the first year. The findings of the current study suggest that the decline is not universal. Beliefs are mediated by the teacher’s age and prior experience and by school practices such as opportunities for new teachers to collaborate with colleagues, supervisor attention to instruction, and the level of resources available in the school. Implications of the effects of school practices and teacher characteristics on the induction year experience are discussed.
The Big Picture: An Inquiry Into the Motivations of African-American Teacher Education Students to Be or Not to Be Teachers
Authors: Shaw Carla Cooper
Published: March 2008

The current study investigates the motivations of African Americans with regard to precollege teaching as a career. The study’s participants are one female and one male Afican American, both of whom had strongly considered pursuing secondary certification at the graduate level but decided instead to pursue doctorates in order to teach at the college level. The study, which extended over the course of nearly a year, is narrative life history and as such situates the lives of the individual participants within broader societal and cultural contexts. This article presents condensed versions of Vera’s and Van’s life stories from childhood up until they decided to forego precollege teaching. Their reasons for initially considering and ultimately deciding against teaching are discussed, as are their views about the reasons for the scarcity of African Americans entering teaching. The article continues with an interpretation of the study’s findings in light of relevant research and theory. Finally, building on this interpretation, a tentative explanation of possible attractions and deterrents to teaching for African Americans is developed. Central to this explanation are reinterpretations of Lortie’s (1975) themes of service and continuation and the addition of a new theme: social, political, and historical forces which may operate at an individual, psychological level.
When Shared Decision Making Works: A 3-Year Longitudinal Study
Authors: Johnson Margaret J. , Pajares Frank
Published: March 2008

Shared decision making (SDM) has been touted as a promising avenue to school improvement. This study traced the implementation of an SDM project in a large, public, secondary school during the course of 3 years. Questions guiding the interpretation of data focused on factors that supported and constrained SDM and on its effect on the school’s culture. The factors that enhanced the SDM process were the confidence stakeholders had in themselves and in other members of the school community, availability of necessary resources, creation of democratic rules and procedures, early and concrete accomplishments, and the support of the principal. Factors that constrained the process were the need for additional resources, resistance to democratic reform, a lack of experience with group decision making, and the teachers’ perception of lack of district support. Interpretation of results centered on the extent to which SDM resulted in changes in teacher beliefs and attitudes, the breaking down of barriers of authority and of isolation, the emergence of new school leaders, and the redefinition of leadership within the school community. Findings were interpreted using W. Foster’s critical model (1986b) of school leadership and J. Habermas’s conception (1979) of the ideal speech situation.
Teachers’ Professional Community in Restructuring Schools
Authors: Louis Karen Seashore , Marks Helen M. , Kruse Sharon
Published: March 2008

Professional community among teachers, the subject of a number of recent major studies, is regarded as an ingredient that may contribute to the improvement of schools. The research reported in this article is grounded in the assumption that how teachers interact with each other outside of their classrooms may be critical to the effects of restructuring on students. The analysis focuses on the type of professional community that occurs within a school and investigates both the organizational factors that facilitate its development and its consequences for teachers’ sense of responsibility for student learning. The findings suggest that wide variation in professional community exists between schools, much of which is attributable to both structural features and human resources characteristics, as well as school level. Implications for current school reform efforts are discussed.
The Impact of a Cooperative or Individualistic Context on the Effectiveness of Conflict Resolution Training
Authors: Stevahn Laurie , Johnson David W. , Johnson Roger T. , Real Don
Published: March 2008

The effectiveness of a conflict resolution program was examined in a rural K–8 public school in Ontario, Canada. Participants were 111 students in two seventh- and two eighth-grade classes. The two independent variables were (a) the presence versus the absence of the integration of conflict resolution training into an academic English literature unit and (b) cooperative versus individualistic learning. Three issues were investigated. The first issue was whether the conflict resolution training was effective. The second issue was the impact of context on the effectiveness of the training program. The third issue was the impact of the training program on academic achievement.
Peer-Assisted Learning Strategies: Making Classrooms More Responsive to Diversity
Authors: Fuchs Douglas , Fuchs Lynn S. , Mathes Patricia G. , Simmons Deborah C.
Published: March 2008

The primary focus of this study was to determine the effectiveness of a classwide peer tutoring program in reading for three learner types: low achievers with and without disabilities and average achievers. Twelve schools, stratified on student achievement and family income, were assigned randomly to experimental and control groups. Twenty teachers implemented the peer tutoring program for 15 weeks; 20 did not implement it. In each of the 40 classrooms, data were collected systematically on three students representing the three learner types. Pre- and posttreatment reading achievement data were collected on three measures of the Comprehensive Reading Assessment Battery. Findings indicated that, irrespective of type of measure and type of learner, students in peer tutoring classrooms demonstrated greater reading progress. Implications for policymaking are discussed.
The Continuing Decline in Asian American Teachers
Authors: Rong Xue Lan , Preissle Judith
Published: March 2008

The disparity between proportions of Asian American teachers and Asian American students in U.S. elementary and secondary schools has increased, Asian student enrollment having doubled every decade since 1970. As a case example in the composition of the U.S. teaching force, this study focuses on the differing patterns and causes of shortages of minority teachers across varying groups; understanding these differences may contribute to more effective but varied educational policies for recruiting and retaining Asian American and other minority teachers. Using social-demographic data from the U.S. Bureau of the Census and information from the U.S. Department of Education and existing research literature, this study compared the decennial census data of 1990 with 1970 and 1980 data to analyze shortages by U.S. geographic location, Asian nationality, gender, grade level, and immigration status. Causes of shortages are linked to traditional patterns of recruitment in proposing policy recommendations for increasing the number of Asian Americans in teaching.
Improve: A Multidimensional Method For Teaching Mathematics in Heterogeneous Classrooms
Authors: Mevarech Zemira R. , Kramarski Bracha
Published: March 2008

The purpose of the present research was to design an innovative instructional method for teaching mathematics in heterogeneous classrooms (with no tracking) and to investigate its effects on students’ mathematics achievement. The method is based on current theories in social cognition and metacognition. It consists of three interdependent components: metacognitive activities, peer interaction, and systematic provision of feedback-corrective-enrichment. The method is called IMPROVE, the acronym of which represents all the teaching steps that constitute the method: Introducing the new concepts, Metacognitive questioning, Practicing, Reviewing and reducing difficulties, Obtaining mastery, Verification, and Enrichment. The research includes two studies, both implemented in seventh grades: One focused on in-depth analyses of students’ information processing under the different learning conditions (N = 247), and one investigated the development of students’ mathematical reasoning over a full academic year (N = 265). Results of both studies showed that IMPROVE students significantly outperformed the nontreatment control groups on various measures of mathematics achievement. The theoretical and practical implications of the research are discussed.
Effects of Task-Focused Goals on Low-Achieving Students With and Without Learning Disabilities
Authors: Fuchs Lynn S. , Fuchs Douglas , Karns Kathy , Hamlett Carol L. , Katzaroff Michelle , Dutka Suzanne
Published: March 2008

We examined effects of a task-focused goals treatment (TFG) in mathematics on low-achieving students with and without disabilities. We randomly assigned 40 classrooms to (a) TFG (which incorporated self-referenced assessment feedback, SRAF), (b) SRAF, and (c) contrast (neither TFG nor SRAF). We measured student perceptions of TFG, the difficulty and variety of learning topics, mathematics learning, effort, and intrinsic motivation. TFG students reported enjoying and benefiting from TFG, chose more challenging and a greater variety of learning topics, and increased their effort differentially. Increased effort, however, was associated with greater learning only for low achievers in TFG without learning disabilities, and we found no effects on intrinsic motivation.
Dispositions Toward (Collective) Struggle and Educational Resilience in the Inner City: A Case Analysis of Six African-American High School Students
Authors: O’Connor Carla
Published: March 2008

For more than 20 years, researchers have shown that the recognition of a limited opportunity structure on the part of marginal youth circumscribes their optimism toward the future and hence increases their likelihood of disengaging from school. This article, however, focuses on six, low-income, African-American adolescents who expected to realize their ambitions and were high achieving, all the while articulating an acute recognition of how race and class (and, in two cases, gender) operated to constrain the life chances of people like themselves. These students’ familiarity with struggle, including collective struggle, was the only biographical factor which distinguished them from the other respondents in the larger project of which they were a part. Thus, in contrast to the findings of some, their knowledge of struggle did not curtail their academic success but may have contributed to their sense of human agency and facilitated their academic motivation. Because this knowledge derived from their interaction with significant others, this article also maintains that the meanings that arise from immediate experiences and discourses are essential for understanding the diverse ways by which marginal people interpret and respond to their subjugation.
Stress, Coping Strategies, and Psychological Distress Among Secondary School Teachers in Hong Kong
Authors: Chan David W.
Published: March 2008

The relationships among teacher stressors, active and passive coping strategies, and psychological distress were investigated in a sample of 412 Chinese secondary school teachers in Hong Kong. A direct effect, or stress-distress, model and a mediational, or stress-coping, model were postulated and tested with structural equation modeling procedures. For comparison, a direct-and-mediational model and a moderated effect model were also fitted to the data. The results indicated that the mediational model with coping strategies mediating the effects of stressors on psychological distress represented an adequate fit to the data. Implications for the role of active and passive coping strategies in mitigating the effects of stressors on psychological distress and for teacher stress management are discussed.
Cooperative Learning: Prevalence, Conceptualizations, and the Relation Between Research and Practice
Authors: Antil Laurence R. , Jenkins Joseph R. , Wayne Susan K. , Vadasy Patricia F.
Published: March 2008

This study examined the prevalence, conceptualization, and form of cooperative learning used by elementary school teachers. Responding to a survey, 93% of teachers (n = 85) from six elementary schools in two districts indicated they used cooperative learning. In interviews with a subset of those teachers (n = 21), all indicated having daily cooperative lessons in several subjects. The majority of teachers subscribed to cooperative learning to achieve both academic and social learning goals, structured tasks for positive interdependence, and taught students skills for working in small groups. When we applied criteria for cooperative learning derived from the research literature, few teachers were employing recognized forms of this practice, primarily because they did not tie individual accountability to group goals. Implications for communication between researcher-developers and teachers are discussed.
Underachievement Among Spatially Gifted Students
Authors: Gohm Carol L. , Humphreys Lloyd G. , Yao Grace
Published: March 2008

High school students gifted in spatial ability were selected from a large national probability sample and compared to those gifted in mathematical ability. The groups were compared on multiple measures, including a range of cognitive tests, organizational participation, hobbies, extracurricular reading, coursework, study habits, grades, occupational and academic intentions, guidance received, and family/home environment. Results indicate that, relative to the students gifted in mathematics, the students high in spatial ability were not fully utilizing their academic capabilities, had interests that were less compatible with traditional coursework, received less college guidance from school personnel, were less motivated by the education experience, and aspired to, and achieved, lower levels of academic and occupational success.
Similarities and Differences in Domain-Specific and Global Self-Evaluations of Learning-Disabled, Behaviorally Disordered, and Normally Achieving Adolescents
Authors: Harter Susan , Whitesell Nancy R. , Junkin Loretta J.
Published: March 2008

Similarities and differences in the domain-specific and global self-evaluations of 235 normally achieving, 118 learning-disabled, and 70 behaviorally disordered adolescents were documented. Factor analysis revealed eight discrete self-concept domains for each group. The importance of success in each domain was similar for each group, as were processes predicting level of self-worth. Consistent with W. James’ (1892) formulation, students with high self-worth evaluated themselves positively in domains of importance, whereas students with low self-worth reported much less favorable self-evaluations. Moreover, those with high self worth were better able to discount areas of weakness than were those with low self-worth. Correlations between specific domains deemed important and self-worth were also very similar across groups. Differences among groups involved the level of scores in that learning-disabled and behaviorally disordered students reported lower cognitive competence and peer likability than did normally achieving students. Behaviorally disordered students also reported more negative perceptions of their conduct. Both special education groups evidenced more negative self-worth with greater discrepancies between importance and negative self-evaluations, particularly in domains salient to the difficulties related to their educational status. Discussion focuses on the examination of group similarities and differences as well as within-group processes.
The Career Plans of Science-Talented Rural Adolescent Girls
Authors: Jacobs Janis E. , Finken Laura L. , Griffin Nancy Lindsley , Wright Janet D.
Published: March 2008

Relations between parent attitudes, intrinsic value of science, peer support, available activities, and preference for future science careers were examined for science-talented, rural, adolescent females. Two hundred and twenty 9th-12th-grade girls and their mothers responded to questionnaires about science courses, plans for future courses and college majors, perceptions of the girls’ abilities in science, and numerous supports and deterrents for continued interest in science areas. Current intrinsic interest in science was most strongly related to preferring a science career, but previous experiences with science (measured by grade in school, science GPA, friends’ support for science, and extracurricular science activities) and socializers’ attitudes (measured by mothers’ perceptions of the value of science for women and of their daughters’ abilities) were also related. The discussion highlights the importance of providing activities and other supports to maintain girls’ interests in science in a rural environment.
Research News And Comment: The WWW and Classroom Research: What Path Should We Take?
Authors: Windschitl Mark
Published: March 2008

Educators have developed many special classroom activities and collaborative projects based on the use of the World Wide Web. Critical attention to these initiatives is merited given the limited amount of substantive classroom research on learning derived from these projects. The vast majority of published work is descriptive of technology implementation in classrooms or tends to be intuitive analyses of what works and what doesn't work with students. The literature stops short of asking critical questions such as, “Are these practices helping students, and, if so, how?” or, “How is the introduction of this technology changing pedagogical practices?” I argue for a stronger research focus on aspects of learning and teaching as influenced by the use of the WWW and begin by describing salient characteristics of the Web regarding these issues. I also discuss three topics that can support a number of meaningful research questions about Web-supported learning: using the Web for student inquiry, student communication via the Web, and the potential for qualitative research perspectives to elucidate issues of Web-based learning.
Linguistic Interdependence and the Educational Development of Bilingual Children
Authors: Cummins James
Published: March 2008

The central thesis of this paper is that a cognitively and academically beneficial form of bilingualism can be achieved only on the basis of adequately developed first language (L1) skills. Two hypotheses are formulated and combined to arrive at this position. The “developmental interdependence” hypothesis proposes that the development of competence in a second language (L2) is partially a function of the type of competence already developed in L1 at the time when intensive exposure to L2 begins. The “threshold” hypothesis proposes that there may be threshold levels of linguistic competence which a bilingual child must attain both in order to avoid cognitive disadvantages and allow the potentially beneficial aspects of bilingualism to influence his cognitive and academic functioning. These hypotheses are integrated into a model of bilingual education in which educational outcomes are explained as a function of the interaction between background, child input and educational treatment factors. It is suggested that many evaluations of bilingual education programs have produced uninterpretable data because they have failed to incorporate the possibility of these interactions into their research designs.
Does Answering Higher-Level Questions While Reading Facilitate Productive Learning?
Authors: Andre Thomas
Published: March 2008

The paper is concerned with the effects of asking students questions at different levels of cognitive complexity during learning. The first section reviewed research on levels of questions. It was shown that higher level questions can have facilitative effects on both reproductive and productive knowledge, but that the conditions under which such facilitation occurs are not well understood. The second section outlines an information processing model of human cognition that can account for question level effects and that serves to integrate previous research on question level and to provide direction for future research in this area.
An Analysis of Frameworks for Research on Innovation and Change in Higher Education
Authors: Dill David D. , Friedman Charles P.
Published: March 2008

This paper seeks to facilitate research on the processes of innovation and change in higher education, an area of scholarly endeavor which is attracting much interest of late. To meet this goal, a conceptual distinction is first drawn between the broad process of organizational change and the more specific processes of purposive change and innovation. Then, a typology of four research frameworks relevant to innovation and change is presented and illustrated through exemplary studies in the field of higher education. Using techniques of causal modeling, a prototypic flowgraph is constructed to capture the major features of each framework. Flowgraphs are cast in terms of posited relationships between generic variables which can be operationalized to suit the particular needs and setting of a given study. The authors further suggest that the most productive research on change and innovation in higher education will be based on sound theoretical reasoning employing combinations of the four frameworks. They argue that the specificity inherent in causal modeling can clarify important conceptual issues and thereby promote more informative investigation.
Differential Diagnosis—Prescriptive Teaching: A Critical Appraisal
Authors: Arter Judith A. , Jenkins Joseph R.
Published: March 2008

The dominant instructional model within special education, Differential Diagnosis-Prescriptive Teaching, involves the assessment of psycholinguistic and perceptual motor abilities that are presumed necessary for learning basic academic skills. Based on the differential pattern of ability strengths and weaknesses resulting from this assessment, individual remedial prescriptions are prescribed. In this article six assumptions underlying this model are identified. Also presented is a comprehensive review of research related to each assumption. The findings seriously challenge the model’s validity and suggest that continued advocacy of the model cannot be justified. Children do not appear to profit from current applications of Differential Diagnosis-Prescriptive Teaching.
Recent Research on Visual Mnemonics: Historical Roots and Educational Fruits
Authors: Higbee Kenneth L.
Published: March 2008

A few empirical studies of mnemonics were conducted in the late 1800’s and early 1900’s. Then, very little research was done until the 1960’s, when a revived research interest in mnemonics accompanied the return of cognitive processes as a legitimate area of research. Virtually all of the experimental research on mnemonics has been conducted since 1965, and most of that since 1970. Research on visual-imagery mnemonic techniques in the 1970’s is compared with research in the late 1800’s and early 1900’s, showing that the roots of much “recent” research can be traced back at least a century. Finally, some of the fruits yielded by recent research on mnemonics, in terms of practical implications for education, are described.
The Role of Elaboration in the Comprehension and Retention of Prose: A Critical Review
Authors: Reder Lynne M.
Published: March 2008

A review is given of recent research done in the area of prose comprehension, broadly defined. Research in the areas of educational psychology, psychology, and artificial intelligence is represented, although no pretense is made that this review is complete. This review discusses work concerned with factors that affect amount of recall, with representations of text structures, and with use of world knowledge to aid comprehension. The need for more information processing models of comprehension is stressed and an argument is made for the importance of elaboration to comprehension and retention.
Educational Planning: A Review and a Plea
Authors: Inbar Dan E.
Published: March 2008

This article reviews some basic trends and developments of educational planning activities in the last two decades. Almost inevitably, the question arises: “Educational planning—‘Quo Vadis’?” Is it possible to lay down groundwork for the development of a theory of educational planning which will have practical bearing? Using a cross analysis of various classifications of educational planning activities and some basic theoretical assumptions about the inherent aspects of the educational process, a conceptual frame of reference has been developed here. This frame serves a multiple purpose. It enables a more systematic review, on the one hand, and forecasts some basic components for future theoretical and practical development, on the other hand.
Summarizing Research: A Case Study
Authors: Ladas Harold
Published: March 2008

Interest in research summarization is rising. Most summaries have focused on methodological weaknesses and contradictory evidence. The standard has been “beyond a reasonable doubt” and the verdict “little or nothing is known and more research is needed.” Applying a case study method to the research on note taking from lectures, this zpaper illustrates a different approach using a preponderance of the evidence as the standard. The intended audience is the consumer of educational research. Results show more evidence in favor of taking notes than had been recognized. Reasons for doubting excessively pessimistic conclusions of research reviews are given.
Conceptual Matching Models and Interactional Research in Education
Authors: Miller Alan
Published: March 2008

In recent years, considerable attention has focused on student-environment interactions in classroom settings. Numerous attempts have been made to depict the processes involved, often in terms of attribute-treatment interactions (ATI’s). Opinions differ about the net result of these efforts. On the one hand, there are those who note that few ATI’s have been reliably demonstrated, and point to inadequacies in both the theory and method being used. In contrast, there is a body of opinion which asserts that adequate theory and method already exist, within the framework of Conceptual Systems Theory (CST), and that there is sufficient empirical evidence to support this view. The purpose of this paper is to evaluate the latter contention by undertaking a critical evaluation of both the theory and the educational research carried out within its framework. A number of theoretical problems are raised which, however, do not appear to detract from the overall framework but merely point to areas that need development and to pitfalls that can be avoided by the prospective researcher. An evaluation of experimental design issues leads to the development of an index of design adequacy which is used to rank studies. The majority of studies reviewed exhibit numerous design problems with a reasonable degree of adequacy being apparent only in a small group of “superior” studies. Thus, the consistent support afforded theoretical expectations by the majority of studies needs to be viewed with caution, although greater confidence can be placed in the substantial support for the matching model provided by the better studies. It is noted that the Conceptual System matching model has yet to be adequately tested under genuinely pedagogic conditions and that this is especially true of the developmental match. The paper ends with a discussion of the theoretical and practical issues that face the researcher who may wish to undertake such a test, and it is concluded that the theory offers a promising framework for interactional research in education.
Open Classrooms: Has the Term Outlived its Usefulness?
Authors: Marshall Hermine H.
Published: March 2008

Recent reviews of the research on the effectiveness of open eduction continue to reveal the inconclusive nature of the results despite refinements in the methodology of research synthesis. Among the unacknowledged deficiencies in research syntheses that may contribute to the lack of clear-cut findings are the failure to consider discrepancies between the classification of open classrooms and the actual implementation of open education in these classrooms. These discrepancies derive from differences between classrooms in (a) the degree of implementation, and (b) the areas or component dimensions in which openness has been implemented. Evidence is presented that indicates that reliance on the current methods of assessing the implementation of classroom openness is inadequate. Investigating the relationships between the component dimensions of classroom structure and particular outcome variables is suggested as a potential strategy for yielding more meaningful results.
Toward A Multilevel Perspective on the Allocation of Educational Resources
Authors: Monk David H.
Published: March 2008

This review draws attention to the mutually reinforcing tendencies of analysts to neglect the study of how resources are allocated within schools and classrooms and to presume that decision makers at less centralized levels of the educational system react passively to resource allocation decisions made at more centralized levels. The purpose of the review is to demonstrate the importance of (a) striking a better balance between the level of attention given to resource allocation practices at macro compared to microlevels of decision making, and (b) learning more about the ways in which resource allocation decisions made at one level affect resource allocation practices at other levels of the educational system. The argument is supported by a detailed critique of exemplary studies drawn from the literature dealing with issues of equity and efficiency in the allocation of educational resources. Policy implications are given explicit attention throughout the review.
A Meta-Analysis of Experimental Research on Teacher Questioning Behavior
Authors: Redfield Doris L. , Rousseau Elaine Waldman
Published: March 2008

The meta-analytic technique was used to synthesize experimental research findings on the relationship between level of teacher questioning and student achievement. Twenty studies on teachers’ use of “higher” and “lower” cognitive questions were reviewed. Higher cognitive questions require pupils to manipulate information to create and support a response; lower cognitive questions call for verbatim recall or recognition of factual information. Effect sizes were computed to investigate the impact of program monitoring, experimental validity, and level of teacher questioning. Results show that gains in achievement can be expected when higher cognitive questions assume a predominant role during classroom instruction.