bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Dislocations and Grain Boundaries
Authors: Ketterson J. B.
Published: December 2016

In addition to the point defects discussed in Chapter 40, crystal lattices may contain another class of defects known as dislocations. Unlike some point defects which may be produced by thermal equilibrium processes, the presence of dislocations generally involves the past history of the crystal. Specifically, exposing the crystal to various external stresses (above some threshold value) will introduce dislocations. In addition, since a crystal grows faster in the presence of dislocations these will present unless the crystal is grown from a dislocation-free seed and at a very slow rate. This chapter begins by describing the two fundamental dislocations: the edge dislocation and the screw dislocation. It then discusses the continuum elasticity theory of the isolated screw dislocation and the continuum elasticity theory of the isolated edge dislocation. Sample problems are also provided at the end of the chapter.
Electrical Transport in Highly Disordered Media: Localization/Interaction Effects
Authors: Ketterson J. B.
Published: December 2016

The previous discussions of electrical transport, either semi-classically, via the Boltzmann transport equation, as in Chapter 19, or more quantum mechanically, as is in Chapter 42, generally fail as the effects of scattering increase and as the temperature approaches absolute zero. This is especially true in one or two dimensions, as one approximates experimentally with a long wire or a thin sheet. In particular, experiments show that the resistance of highly disordered materials that appear metallic at high temperatures increases as the temperature is lowered, as opposed to settling down to a constant, characteristic of the residual resistance regime. This increase may occur slowly, as in metals with high concentrations of impurities, so-called dirty metals; here it is called weak localization. Alternatively it may rise much more dramatically, as in a highly doped semiconductor (that at higher temperatures might mimic a metal) where it is called strong localization. Before discussing some theoretical techniques that have been developed to model these behaviours, this chapter presents some experimental examples, beginning with a doped semiconductor example of strong localization.
Magnetic Impurities and their Interactions: The Anderson Model, the Kondo Effect, and the RKKY Interaction
Authors: Ketterson J. B.
Published: December 2016

Studies show that transition and rare earth atoms may have a net magnetic moment when dissolved in various host metals. However, such moments do not always form, and the conditions for their existence are somewhat subtle. Of course isolated atoms can have a moment, and the issue here is under what circumstances this impurity moment can survive in the host metal when the interaction with the conduction electrons is taken into account, with the latter thought of as host atom s–p shells broadened out into bands in forming the metallic state. The simplest case is where the metal contains only a single impurity atom which interacts with a sea of free electrons. Since it forms the basis for other phenomena and is a component of subsequent theories for strongly correlated systems, this chapter begins with an extended discussion of this model. It then provides solutions in the mean field approximation. The remainder of the chapter covers the s–d exchange model, the Kondo effect, the RKKY interaction, and a system known as a spin glass. Sample problems are also provided at the end of the chapter.
High Temperature Superconductors
Authors: Ketterson J. B.
Published: December 2016

This chapter begins by describing the discovery of cuprate superconductors. In 1986 Bednorz and Müller discovered a material with a composition La2−x3+Bax+2Cu+2O4 (referred to as 214 for short) and a transition temperature of approximately 35 K. The 214 discovery was followed by the observation of a superconducting transition above 90 K in a compound now known to be YBa2Cu3O7−δ (123 or YBCO). Subsequent work showed that the 214 and 123 compounds were members of a large family of copper-based, cuprate, superconductors; however they are similar in that they all contain CuO2 planes. The remainder of the chapter discusses the phenomenology of cuprate superconductors, the electronic structure of cuprates, model Hamiltonians, doping, determining the Fermi surface in cuprates, Josephson coupled layered systems, the kinds of vortex matter states encountered in high temperature superconductors and associated phase diagrams, non-cuprate high temperature superconductors, and the historical evolution of superconducting transition temperatures.
Artificially Structured and Patterned Materials; Surfaces and Interfaces
Authors: Ketterson J. B.
Published: December 2016

Techniques have been developed for growing materials under controlled but non-equilibrium conditions. One category is the artificially layered materials which can be formed by exposing some substrate to alternating incoming mass fluxes from two (or more) sources, which sequentially deposit on that substrate. Such structures may be prepared as an individual layer buried in an otherwise uniform second constituent, or as systems consisting of multiple layers both periodic and non-periodic. Furthermore, the constituents may be chosen from the same or different materials categories including: metals, superconductors, semiconductors, insulators, ferromagnets and antiferromagnets, and ferroelectrics and piezoelectrics. This chapter discusses the following: artificial superlattices, multi-layer semiconductors, quantum wells and minibands, multiple wells and superlattices, metallic multilayers, spin tunneling, spin torque oscillators, surface states, atoms at a free surface, calculating surface and interface electronic properties, the chemical potential, the work function, and electron affinity. Sample problems are also provided at the end of the chapter.
The Quantum Hall Effects
Authors: Ketterson J. B.
Published: December 2016

This chapter first analyses the integer quantum Hall effect, covering an electron in two dimensions in a magnetic field; a two-dimensional electron gas in a magnetic field; motion under orthogonal electric and magnetic fields; the quantization of the Hall voltage; an electron in two dimensions in a magnetic field; edge states; and localized states. The chapter then turns to the fractional quantum Hall effect, discussing a semi-empirical accounting for observed filling fractions; many-body ground states for non-interacting electrons in the lowest Landau level; adding flux tubes to the non-interacting many-body ground state wave function; and trial ground states for the fractional quantum Hall effect. Sample problems are also provided at the end of the chapter.
Graphene, Carbon Nanotubes, and Fullerenes
Authors: Ketterson J. B.
Published: December 2016

This chapter considers the electrical and optical properties of different forms of carbon (i.e., carbon nanotubes, fullerenes, and graphene) as well as their existing and potential applications. It begins with a discussion of the electronic structure of graphene, which may be pictured as a single cleaved plane of graphite (supported from its perimeter or on some substrate). From a conceptual point of view, it is the simplest of the alternative forms of carbon structures. The remainder of the chapter discusses graphene multilayers; the band structure of graphene from angle resolved photo-emission spectoscopy (ARPES); graphene in a magnetic field; The quantum Hall effect in graphene; and single-walled nanotubes. Sample problems are also provided at the end of the chapter.
Regression analysis: Fixed effects models
Authors: Biørn Erik , Biørn Erik , Biørn Erik
Published: December 2016

This chapter discusses linear regression models with intercepts differing between individuals and/or periods. These differences, representing unobserved spatial and temporal heterogeneity, are represented by fixed parameters. The first part considers models with only fixed individual-specific heterogeneity, the second part also time-specific heterogeneity. Several applications of Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) are considered. The chapter also introduces the reader to algebra for Kronecker-products.
Regression analysis with heterogeneous coefficients
Authors: Biørn Erik , Biørn Erik , Biørn Erik
Published: December 2016

This chapter focuses on models and methods for panel data where both coefficients and disturbance variances vary between individuals. Both fixed and random coefficients are considered, and estimation by Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) and Generalized Least Squares (GLS) are explained. Coefficient prediction in the random coefficient case is discussed. Estimation in the fixed coefficient case is contrasted with coefficient prediction in the random coefficient case.
Latent heterogeneity correlated with regressors
Authors: Biørn Erik , Biørn Erik , Biørn Erik
Published: December 2016

This chapter explains problems for regression analysis created by correlation between latent heterogeneity and specified regressors and discusses ways of resolving them. The extension considered in this chapter exploits the potential of panel data to address nuisance variables problems, in particular for time-invariant explanatory variables. Essential elements in the procedures are instrumental variables and elements of GLS. The Hausman–Taylor type of specifications, with extensions, an order condition for identification, and applications of the Hausman specification test are discussed.
Measurement errors
Authors: Biørn Erik , Biørn Erik
Published: December 2016

A main objective of the chapter is to demonstrate how measurement error problems which are non-tractable in cross-section data can be overcome when (balanced) panel data are available. Transformations (including differences) recommended to eliminate fixed effects, can, in measurement error situations, magnify the relative noise–signal variation. The anatomy of the problems is illustrated by contrasting ‘disaggregate’ and ‘aggregate’ estimators. Ways of combining inconsistent estimators to obtain consistency is discussed. The contrast between N- and T-consistency is elaborated. Models with one error-ridden regressor, estimated by simple instrumental variable (IV) procedures, and multi-regressor generalizations estimated by the Generalized Method of Moments (GMM) are discussed. Testing of orthogonality conditions by Sargan–Hansen procedures is considered.
Analysis of discrete response
Authors: Biørn Erik , Biørn Erik , Biørn Erik
Published: December 2016

The chapter considers modelling of qualitative responses, represented by binary variables, in panel data contexts. Continuous latent variables, which may sometimes be given utility interpretations, may be underlying the responses observed. Identification problems are discussed. The focus is on logit-models for binary responses with unobserved individual heterogeneity (fixed or random) and ML estimation. A conditional ML procedure for the binomial fixed effects logit model, ensuring consistent slope coefficient estimation in short panels, is explained. Briefly discussed are also probit models and logit generalizations allowing for more than two possible responses.
Panel data with systematic unbalance
Authors: Biørn Erik , Biørn Erik , Biørn Erik
Published: December 2016

The chapter relates to, and extends parts of, Chapters 9 and 10. In focus are observation (selection) rules and systematically unbalanced panel data. The unbalance may follow from the sampling process, which often involves endogenous variables, violates ‘classical’ assumptions in regression analysis and makes the observations distorted by the data generating process. Core concepts are censoring and truncation. Truncated normal and binormal distributions therefore are essential. A specific question addressed is which kind of biases arise when the observation rules are neglected in estimation. Estimation, by OLS and ML is considered, partly with examples.
The Predominance of the Fulvii
Authors: Syme Ronald
Published: December 2016

This paper provides a study of the influential role played by the Fulvii in the late third century bc and the first half of the second century bc and of their political alliances. Special attention is given to the members of the gens Flavia that held the consulship in this period, and the connections that they formed with sectors of the patrician order. A general view is put forward: the Fulvii were a dominant presence in the political life of the Republic at various crucial junctions until the Gracchan period, and that the role of Q. Fulvius Flaccus in the conquest of Capua played a crucial role in establishing their prestige.
The Politics of the Marcii
Authors: Syme Ronald
Published: December 2016

The paper provides a discussion of the place of the Marcii in the political history of the mid-Republic and in the power set-up of the Roman nobility at the time. Special emphasis is placed on their connections with the so-called ‘Fulvio-Claudian group’, as well as their later connections with the Marian faction. Their prominence within the plebeian order is stressed. The remarkable figure of Q. Marcius Philippus (cos. 186, 169 BC) receives considerable attention, as well as the other branch of the gens, the Marcii Censorini. The discussion ends with the consulship of L. Marcius Philippus (cos. 38 BC), who was the last member of the gens to hold that office.
The Speech for Roscius of Ameria
Authors: Syme Ronald
Published: December 2016

This paper provides a study of Cicero’s speech in defence of Sextus Roscius from Ameria, focusing on the background of the prosecution, the chronology of the case, and its link with the wider political context of the time in which it was given, especially the Sullan settlement and the proscriptions. Special attention is given to the role that the Metelli played in the background of the case, notably through their connection with the Roscii. The political and social position of the freedman Chrysogonus in the case and the strategies through which Cicero represents it in the speech also receive close discussion.
M. Aemilius Lepidus (cos. 78 bc)
Authors: Syme Ronald
Published: December 2016

A discussion of the political ambitions and strategy of M. Aemilius Lepidus and of his involvement in the Italian revolt of 78–77, as well as of his previous connection with Sulla. Some specific themes are singled out within a general account of the period. Special attention is given to the early stages of his career, his position in the Civil War, his connection with Norba, and his standing within the context of the nobility in the Sullan period. Close consideration is given to the evidence of Sallust’s Oratio Lepidi and its place within the wider narrative and interpretative framework of the Historiae.
Satellites of Sulla
Authors: Syme Ronald
Published: December 2016

This paper provides a discussion of the evidence for Sulla’s closest associates in the years following his victory in the Civil War, with special emphasis on passages of Sallust’s Histories. The freedmen Tarula and Scirtus receive special attention, as well as the identity and background of Vettius Picens and the scribe Cornelius. This leads to some wider remarks on the historiographical and narrative strategies pursued by Sallust in his most ambitious work. The political career of Mam. Aemilius Lepidus Livianus is also surveyed in detail, within a reassessment of the background of the consular elections for 78 and 77 BC.
The Unspeakable Fufidius
Authors: Syme Ronald
Published: December 2016

This paper provides a discussion of the evidence for the life and career of L. Fufidius, a centurion who is singled out by some sources as a crucial figure in Sulla’s inner circle in the aftermath of the Civil War. Close consideration is given to the assessment that Sallust provides of this individual in the Histories. Fufidius’s association with Arpinum is discussed, as well as the epigraphical evidence for Fufidii in other communities in Central Italy.
Rome and Arpinum
Authors: Syme Ronald
Published: December 2016

This paper provides a brief overview of the ties between the elite of Arpinum and Rome. The links between the Marii, the Gratidii, and the Tullii are explored, and the integration of some municipal notables in the Roman elite receives detailed consideration. The position of the Fufidii, the Caesii, and the Fadii is also discussed, chiefly on the basis of epigraphical evidence from Arpinum and other Italian communities.
The Consular Elections, 70–66 bc
Authors: Syme Ronald
Published: December 2016

This paper provides a discussion of the consular elections between 70 and 66 bc, their backgrounds and outcomes, and the known candidates, and their wider political repercussions. Its central contention is that the elections of 66 must be understood against the background of the development of the post-Sullan oligarchy, and notably with the political context of 70 BC. The known candidates that stood for election to the consulship in this period and their political careers receive close attention in this context. The relevance of the elections of 66 BC to the later political developments (notably the conspiracy of Catiline) is also brought out in this connection.
Catilina’s Three Marriages
Authors: Syme Ronald
Published: December 2016

This paper provides a prosopographical study of the evidence for Catiline’s marriages and their political implications. The identities of Catiline’s wifes receive close consideration, as well as the likely chronology of the three marriages. Marriages are regarded as important political operations in their own right. The background of Catiline’s third wife, Aurelia Orestilla, receives especially close attention. The evidence shows that she was in control of a considerable fortune, hence correcting Sallust’s emphasis on her beauty.
Crassus, Catilina, and the Vestal Virgins
Authors: Syme Ronald
Published: December 2016

This paper provides a detailed discussion of the fragmentary evidence for the scandals in which Catiline, Crassus, and the Vestal Virgins were implicated in the years preceding the conspiracy of Catiline. The family backgrounds of the Vestals that were implicated in the case receive close consideration, as well as the consequences of the case for the political career and standing of Crassus. Some speculation is offered about the identities of the prosecutors. Their motives are identified with the aim to launch an attack on sectors of the Sullan faction.
P. Sulla (cos. cand. 66 bc)
Authors: Syme Ronald
Published: December 2016

An overview of the life and career of P. Sulla, nephew of the Dictator and client of Cicero in a major criminal case. His position within the Roman nobility, the extent of his debt to his distinguished relative, the connection with Pompey, his election to the consulship, and his prosecution receive close attention, as well as his involvement in the Civil War and his relationship with Cicero and Sallust. The careers of his descendants are also surveyed.
The Gay Sempronia
Authors: Syme Ronald
Published: December 2016

This paper provides a study of the identity of Sempronia, the noblewoman that plays a distinctive role in Sallust’s account of the conspiracy of Catilina. The reasons for Sallust’s interest in this character are explored, and are discussed against the background of the political role of the Sempronii in the late Republican period. Various hypotheses are canvassed on the family background of Sempronia, as well as on the identity of her descendants and the political role that they may have played in Sallust’s time. Some discussion is also devoted to the character of another noblewoman in Catiline’s War, Fulvia, and her possible connection with Sempronia.
The End of the Fulvii
Authors: Syme Ronald
Published: December 2016

The paper provides a discussion of the process that led to the disappearance of the Fulvii from the Roman political elite in the late Republican period. Special attention is given to the remarkable figure of Fulvia, the wife of Mark Antony, who stands right at the end of the history of the gens. A number of lesser figures and the role that they played in the late Republican period also receive some discussion, as well as the evidence for the involvement of Fulvii in the conspiracy of Catilina.
Caesar as Pontifex Maximus
Authors: Syme Ronald
Published: December 2016

This paper discusses of Caesar’s tenure of the priesthood of pontifex maximus and its place in the development of his political career. The circumstances that led to his election to that important office receive close consideration, as well as the evidence for Caesar’s fulfilment of his priestly duties. Some general remarks are offered on the role of public priesthoods in the Roman Republic, on the significance of the highest pontificate, and on the interaction between the religious and political domains. A comparison is developed between Caesar’s use of his priesthood and the precedent set by Sulla in the same domain.
Nicolaus of Damascus XXVIII and XXXI
Authors: Syme Ronald
Published: December 2016

This study discusses two passages of Nicolaus of Damascus on Octavian’s early career and the circle of friends and associates that supported him at the time. A critical view of the value of Nicolaus’s evidence is put forward, partly building on the earlier work of E. Schwartz, and a number of prosopographical proposals on the identifications of the individuals mentioned in these passages are put forward, with varying degrees of confidence. Some suggestions are made on their geographical origins. The absence of Salvidienus from Nicolaus’s account receives especially close discussion and is explained with Salvidienus’s eventual fall from grace with Octavian.
Bibliographical Addenda
Authors: Syme Ronald
Published: December 2016

A set of bibliographical addenda to the papers, compiled by the editor.
Towards Non-Being
Authors: Priest Graham
Published: December 2016

Towards Non-Being presents an account of the semantics of intentional verbs such as ‘believes’, ‘fears’, ‘seeks’, and ‘imagines’. It tackles problems concerning intentional states which are often brushed under the carpet, such as their failure to be closed under deducibility. Drawing on the noneist work of the late Richard Routley (Sylvan), the book proceeds in terms of objects that may be existent or non-existent, at worlds that may either be possible or impossible. Since Russell, non-existent objects have had a bad press in Western philosophy. The book mounts a full-scale defenc ... More Towards Non-Being presents an account of the semantics of intentional verbs such as ‘believes’, ‘fears’, ‘seeks’, and ‘imagines’. It tackles problems concerning intentional states which are often brushed under the carpet, such as their failure to be closed under deducibility. Drawing on the noneist work of the late Richard Routley (Sylvan), the book proceeds in terms of objects that may be existent or non-existent, at worlds that may either be possible or impossible. Since Russell, non-existent objects have had a bad press in Western philosophy. The book mounts a full-scale defence, and in the process, offers an account of both fictional and mathematical objects as non-existent. The second edition adds 10 new chapters to the original eight. These further develop the ideas of the first edition, reply to critics, and explore new areas of relevance. Towards Non-Being presents an account of the semantics of intentional verbs such as ‘believes’, ‘fears’, ‘seeks’, and ‘imagines’. It tackles problems concerning intentional states which are often brushed under the carpet, such as their failure to be closed under deducibility. Drawing on the noneist work of the late Richard Routley (Sylvan), the book proceeds in terms of objects that may be existent or non-existent, at worlds that may either be possible or impossible. Since Russell, non-existent objects have had a bad press in Western philosophy. The book mounts a full-scale defence, and in the process, offers an account of both fictional and mathematical objects as non-existent.
Identity
Authors: Priest Graham
Published: December 2016

Chapter 2 provides the semantics for identity in the context of intentional operators. The key feature of the semantics is the failure of substitutivity of identicals in intentional contexts. This is used to provide a solution to the Hooded Man and similar paradoxes.
Lost in Translation
Authors: Priest Graham
Published: December 2016

Chapter 10 revisits the topic raised in chapter 7, of the existence of a putative translation manual between a noneist vocabulary and a vocabulary in which the particular quantifier is existentially loaded. It argues that there is no such translation; but even if there were, this does not undercut noneism.
Creating Non-Existents
Authors: Priest Graham
Published: December 2016

Chapter 14 explores an anti-realist version of noneism, where what non-existent objects are present in the domain of discourse supervenes on the properties of existent objects. This gives rise to a variable-domain semantics, the implications of which are explored. A coda discusses Crane’s The Objects of Thought.
Self-Deception
Authors: Priest Graham
Published: December 2016

Chapter 16 proposes an analysis of self-deception. Self-deceived states (and not just their contents) are contradictory states. The model’s ramifications are explored, and it is related to the neighborhood semantics of chapter 15.
Introduction
Authors: Barker Hannah
Published: December 2016

The Introduction presents the main themes of the book—including families, business, religion, gender, and generation—and provides a précis of each chapter. It describes the importance of trade to the fast-growing towns of north-west England during the period of the Industrial Revolution, and the meanings of the terms ‘Industrial Revolution’ and ‘tradesmen’ (and women). It examines the nature of urban social structures during the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, and the place of those ‘in trade’ within such hierarchies, providing new insights into the lives of ordinary men and women.
Wealth-Holding and Investment
Authors: Barker Hannah , Ishizu Mina
Published: December 2016

This chapter explores how traders managed and invested their wealth by examining their wills. Businesses and real estate tended to constitute their most valuable possessions, which might suggest an aversion to risk among those in trade. However, this seems likely to have been the result of pragmatism, based on rates of return and the paucity of other forms of investment. As other possibilities became more accessible to the trading classes from the 1790s, they began to impact on their investing practices. In Liverpool, we also see evidence that traders invested in shipping. Individuals and families showed flexibility in the face of changing economic contexts, at the same time as they considered the best way to negotiate their own family resources and setbacks. Such practices reveal often quite sophisticated attitudes towards investment and risk, and also meant that specific directions made in wills were often ignored.
Cooperation, Duty, and Love
Authors: Barker Hannah
Published: December 2016

This chapter explores the emotional life of families and suggests that familial relations were not governed solely or largely by duty and self-interest. An examination of the personal testimonies of men and women in trade reveals the extent to which close family members were bound together by emotional attachments, and, in particular, by love. This was most evident in relationships between spouses, and between parents and their children, though it was also apparent among siblings and other family members, including those related by marriage rather than by blood. Romantic love between courting and married couples also appears to have been accompanied by a desire for emotional and spiritual comfort.
Home, Business, and Household
Authors: Barker Hannah , Hamlett Jane
Published: December 2016

This chapter examines the buildings occupied by trading households, where the commercial and the domestic continued to coexist under the same roof throughout the period of the Industrial Revolution. It explores the numbers of individuals who lived and worked together in these households, the structures and internal layouts of the houses that they occupied, and the possible uses of the different rooms within them, as suggested by practices of room naming and the material objects listed in inventories. A variety of households are described, in terms of the number of people that constituted them, and the amount of physical space that they occupied. Maintaining a differentiation between living and commercial space was something that appears to have been generally attempted, although not always realized, which renders notions of sharply delineated public and private space problematic in the context of those in trade.
Conclusion
Authors: Barker Hannah
Published: December 2016

The conclusion summarizes the main findings of the book, and explores the reasons why tradesmen and women appear to have been overlooked by historians. The lack of attention can be explained in part by their tendency not to leave a significant mark on the historical record. In addition, the failure of shopkeepers and small-scale manufacturers to excite subsequent scholars more interested in those obvious motors of social and economic change—the working classes and the wealthier middle classes—is not entirely surprising. Yet, without traders, the urban landscape in Britain during the Industrial Revolution would have been completely different.
A Few Bases of Descriptive and Physical Oceanography
Authors: Roy-Barman Matthieu , Jeandel Catherine
Published: December 2016

By transporting chemical elements, the ocean circulation is essential to marine geochemistry. The distribution of seawater temperature, salinity and density is used to describe the ocean stratification (mixed layer, thermocline and deep waters) and the main water masses. The balance of the forces (pressure, Coriolis force, gravity and shear stress) acting on a water parcel is used to derive the large-scale ocean circulation. The wind forcing results in the Ekman drift and the Ekman pumping. Dips and bumps at the ocean surface (dynamic topography) create geostrophic currents such as the Gulf Stream. The intensification of the western boundary currents is due to the change of the Coriolis force with latitude. The thermocline ventilation and the occurrence of shadow zone is explained. The equatorial circulation is particular because there is no Coriolis force at the Equator. The thermohaline circulation is introduced briefly.
Stable Isotopes
Authors: Roy-Barman Matthieu , Jeandel Catherine
Published: December 2016

Stable isotopes provide traceability throughout the ocean. The isotopes of a given chemical element have the same electronic structure and the same chemical behavior but slightly different weights. Therefore, slight variations of their relative abundance occur in nature because the atom diffusion speed and the atom bond strength in molecules are mass-dependent. This leads to shifts of the isotopic ratios between reactants and products during physical, chemical and biological processes. These isotopic fractionations are typically of the order of a few ppm. Light elements such as H, O, C, N, S and Si are most prone to these effects. Their stable isotopes provide signatures used to label the provenance of water and organic matter, to determine the extent of reactions or as isotopic thermometers. Recently developed “non-traditional” isotopes of transition metals, mass-independent fractionations and clumped isotopes are also presented. Fractionation and mixing equations are established and applied to ocean processes.
Radioactive and Radiogenic Isotopes
Authors: Roy-Barman Matthieu , Jeandel Catherine
Published: December 2016

Radioactive and radiogenic isotopes are chronometers and source tracers in the ocean. A radioactive isotope of a given element has a constant probability per unit time (the time constant) to decay into a radiogenic isotope of another element. Long-lived isotopes (e.g., 87Rb, 147Sm, 238U, 235U) decay throughout Earth’s life, so the abundance of the radiogenic isotope that they produce (e.g., 87Sr, 143Nd, 206Pb, 207Pb) varies with the geological history of the rock that bears them and provides source signatures (e.g., 87Sr/86Sr tracing continental versus hydrothermal inputs, 143Nd/142Nd tracing water mass and particle origins and transports, 206Pb/207Pb tracing contaminant inputs) when they are released in the ocean. Short-lived isotopes are produced by spallation reactions in the atmosphere (10Be, 14C), during the U and Th radioactive decay chains (230Th, 222Rn, 226Ra) and by anthropogenic nuclear activity (14C, 226Pu). These isotopes are chronometers used to determine rates (sedimentation rate with 230Th, circulation rate with 14C and 3H).
Box Models
Authors: Roy-Barman Matthieu , Jeandel Catherine
Published: December 2016

A box model provides a simple and quantitative description of a tracer in the ocean. The ocean (or a part of the ocean) is described as a reservoir with a homogeneous tracer concentration. The tracer is fed by inflow and source terms and removed by outflow and sink terms. The conservation equation provides the balance between these fluxes and determines the evolution of the system: steady state if inputs balance outputs or transient state otherwise. The transient evolution of a tracer is considered for both constant and exponential forcings and applied to anthropogenic tracers. Each tracer is characterized by its residence time which is a consequence of its chemical/biological behavior and of the water residence time. Box models are used to determine ocean rates with isotopic tracers.
CO2 Exchanges between the Ocean and the Atmosphere
Authors: Roy-Barman Matthieu , Jeandel Catherine
Published: December 2016

The global carbon cycle is strongly controlled by the ocean because it is the largest carbon reservoir at the Earth surface and it absorbs 25% of the anthropogenic CO2 emissions. The net ocean–atmosphere CO2 flux is controlled by a thermodynamic pump (CO2 solubility is higher when water get colder) and a biological pump (photosynthesis consumes CO2). Hence carbon is transferred from the surface ocean to the deep ocean by downwelling of cold and dense waters and by sinking of dead organic matter. In the surface ocean, the average dissolved CO2 concentration increases at the same rate than the atmospheric CO2. The buffering effect of carbonate system chemical equilibria amplifies carbon storage and reduces the lowering of the pH also called acidification. Elemental and isotopic tracers show that anthropic CO2 has invaded the thermocline and has started spreading in the deep Atlantic ocean with NADW and AABW.
Thermohaline Circulation
Authors: Roy-Barman Matthieu , Jeandel Catherine
Published: December 2016

The thermohaline circulation transports heat, salt and chemical elements through the deep ocean. At high latitudes, cooling and salting of surface water produce dense waters that sink in the deep ocean. North Atlantic Deep Water is formed in the Arctic Seas and Antarctic Bottom water is produced around Antarctica. It triggers the thermohaline circulation that flushes the deep ocean on a time scale of ∼900 y as indicated by the radioactive decay of 14C. Anthropogenic tracers mark the inflow of newly (< 60 y) formed deep waters. 14C-transient tracer comparison highlights water recirculation in the deep basins. The closure of the thermohaline circulation requires the upwelling of deep waters to the ocean surface. In the deep basins upwelling is enhanced by current flowing over rough topographies. The bottleneck of the thermocline is passed in the Southern Ocean where steep isopycnal surfaces connect the deep and the surface ocean.
Growth and condition in harp seals: evidence of density-dependent and density-independent influences
Authors: Hammill M. O. , Sauvé C.
Published: December 2016

Life history theory predicts that resource competition increases as a population increases, leading to changes in life history traits such as growth, survival, and reproduction. The Northwest Atlantic (NWA) harp seal population has increased from a low of 1.1 million animals in 1971 to over 7 million animals in 2014. Given this 7-fold increase in abundance, we hypothesized that density-dependent regulation might be reflected by changes in body growth. Gompertz curves fitted to size at age data for harp seals collected in the Gulf of St Lawrence over a 40 year period show a decline in female asymptotic length and mass. Body mass and condition were negatively related to reproductive rates the previous year, while a quadratic relationship (‘inverse u’) was observed between body measures and the ratio of the March:April first year ice cover, a measure of ice breakup. Condition was also negatively related to January ice cover. At high densities, reproduction is likely to be relatively more expensive for Northwest Atlantic harp seals, underlining the importance of females being able to access high energy food during the winter foraging period to build-up condition prior to pupping. A complex relationship between condition and the timing of ice-breakup likely reflects the influence of the timing of ice retreat on food resources and hence female ability to rebuild energy stores prior to moulting.
Estimating efficiency of survey and commercial trawl gears from comparisons of catch-ratios
Authors: Walker Nicola D. , Maxwell David L. , Le Quesne Will J. F. , Jennings Simon
Published: December 2016

Assumptions about gear efficiency and catchability influence estimates of abundance, mortality, reference points and catch potential. Despite the need to better quantify fishing effects on some target species and on many non-target species taken as bycatch, there are few gear efficiency estimates for some of the most widely deployed towed fishing gears in the northeast Atlantic. Here, we develop a method that applies generalised additive models to catch-at-length data from trawl surveys and a commercial catch and discard monitoring program in the North Sea to estimate catch-ratios. We then rescale these catch-ratios and fit relationships to estimate gear efficiency. When catches of individuals by species were too low to enable species-specific estimates, gear efficiency was estimated for species-groups. Gear efficiency (and associated uncertainty) at length was ultimately estimated for 75 species, seven species-groups and for up to six types of trawl gear per species or species-group. Results are illustrated for dab (Limanda limanda), grey gurnard (Eutrigula gurnardus) and thornback ray (Raja clavata), two common non-target species and a depleted elasmobranch. All estimates of gear efficiency and uncertainty, by length, species, species-group and gear, are made available in a supplementary data file.
Queer Frontiers in Medicine: A Structural Competency Approach
Authors: Donald Cameron A. , DasGupta Sayantani , Metzl Jonathan M. , Eckstrand Kristen L.
Published: December 2016

In 2014, the Association of American Medical Colleges (AAMC) published a report proposing qualifiers of competence to guide medical educators towards training physicians to appropriately care for individuals who are or may be lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender (LGBT); gender nonconforming (GNC); and/or born with differences in sex development (DSD). These qualifiers provide content and context to an existing framework heavily used in competency-based medical education, emphasizing individual and interpersonal abilities to enhance care delivered to individuals identifying as LGBT, GNC, and/or born with DSD. However, systemic and societal forces including health insurance, implicit bias, and legal protections significantly impact the health of these communities. The concept of structural competency proposes that it is necessary to consider these larger forces contributing to and sustaining disease and health in order to fully address identity-based health needs. Competing competency frameworks for addressing diversity may be counterproductive to the ultimate goal of improving health outcomes among diverse communities. In this article, frameworks are reconciled by proposing structural competency as one approach for teaching identity-based health-related competencies that can be feasibly implemented for medical educators seeking to comply with the AAMC’s recommendations. This article aims to “queer”—or to open up—possibilities in medical education in an effort to ultimately support the provision of equitable and responsible health care to people who are LGBT, GNC, and/or born with DSD through the use of innovative frameworks and teaching materials.
Trends in net survival from breast cancer in six European Latin countries: results from the SUDCAN population-based study
Authors: Crocetti Emanuele , Roche Laurent , Buzzoni Carlotta , di Costanzo Francesco , Molinié Florence , Caldarella Adele
Published: December 2016

Survival from breast cancer (BC) is influenced by the timeliness of diagnosis and appropriateness of treatment, and may constitute a measure of the global effectiveness of a healthcare system. As the healthcare systems of several European Latin countries have some similarities, the search for differences in cancer survival may provide interesting information on the efficacy of these systems. The SUDCAN study is a collaboration between the Group for Epidemiology and Cancer Registration in Latin language countries (GRELL) and EUROCARE. BC data from six countries (Belgium, France, Italy, Portugal, Spain, and Switzerland) were extracted from the EUROCARE-5 database. First, we focus on 1- and 5-year age-standardized net survival (NS) from BC by country over the 2000–2004 period. Then, trends in NS over the 1989–2004 period and changes in the pattern of cancer excess mortality rate (EMR) up to 5 years after diagnosis were examined using a multivariate EMR model. There were little differences in age-standardized NS from BC. Over the 2000–2004 period, the 5-year survival ranged between 82 (Spain, Belgium, and Portugal) and 86% (France). There was an increase in age-standardized survival between 1989 and 2004 at 1 year as well as at 5 years. This increase was observed at all ages and in all countries. There was a decrease in the cancer EMR both immediately after diagnosis and by the second and third year of follow-up. There were only minor differences in survival from BC between European Latin countries. The general improvement in NS is presumably because of advances in early cancer diagnosis and improvements in treatment.
Trends in net survival from colon cancer in six European Latin countries: results from the SUDCAN population-based study
Authors: Faivre Jean , Bossard Nadine , Jooste Valérie
Published: December 2016

Colon cancer represents a major public health issue. The aim of the SUDCAN collaborative study was to compare the net survival from colon cancer between six European Latin countries (Belgium, France, Italy, Portugal, Spain, and Switzerland) and provide trends in net survival and dynamics of the excess mortality rates up to 5 years after diagnosis. The data were extracted from the EUROCARE-5 database. First, net survival was studied over the 2000–2004 period using the Pohar-Perme estimator. For trend analyses, the study period was specific to each country. Results were reported from 1992 to 2004 in France, Italy, Spain, and Switzerland and from 2000 to 2004 in Belgium and Portugal. These analyses were carried out using a flexible excess rate modeling strategy. There were few differences between countries in age-standardized net survivals (2000–2004). During the 2000–2004 period, the 5-year net survival ranged between 57 (Spain and Portugal) and 61% (Belgium and Switzerland). The age-standardized survival at 1 and 5 years after diagnosis increased between 1992 and 2004. This increase was observed at ages 60 and 70, but was less marked at 80. This increase was linked to a marked decrease in the excess mortality rate between 1992 and 2004 until 18 months after diagnosis. Beyond this period, the decrease in the excess mortality rates among countries was modest and nearly the same whatever the year of diagnosis. There were minor differences in survival after colon cancer between European Latin countries. A considerable improvement in the 5-year net survival was observed in all countries, but the gain was mainly limited to the first 18 months after diagnosis. Further improvements are expected through the implementation of mass screening programs.
Trends in net survival from liver cancer in six European Latin countries: results from the SUDCAN population-based study
Authors: Ferretti Stefano , Bossard Nadine , Binder-Fouchard Florence , Faivre Jean , Bordoni Andrea , Biavati Patrizia , Frassoldati Antonio
Published: December 2016

Liver cancer represents a major clinical challenge. The aim of the SUDCAN collaborative study was to compare the net survival from liver cancer between six European Latin countries (Belgium, France, Italy, Portugal, Spain and Switzerland) and provide trends in net survival and dynamics of excess mortality rates (EMRs) up to 5 years after diagnosis. The data were extracted from the EUROCARE-5 database. First, net survival was studied over the period 2000–2004 using the Pohar-Perme estimator. For trend analyses, the study period was specific to each country. Results are reported from 1992 to 2004 in France, Italy, Spain and Switzerland and from 2000 to 2004 in Belgium and Portugal. These trend analyses were carried out using a flexible excess-rate modeling strategy. There were little differences between the six countries in the 5-year age-standardized net survival (2000–2004): it ranged from 13% (France and Portugal) to 16% (Belgium). An increase in the net age-standardized survival was observed in all countries between 1992 and 2004, both at 1 year and at 5 years (the highest in Spain, the lowest in France). Generally, patients aged 60 years showed the highest increase. There was a progressive decrease in EMR over the 5-year- period following diagnosis. The study confirmed the poor prognosis of liver cancer. Innovative treatments might improve the prognosis as well as preventive screening of cirrhotic patients with good liver function. Efforts are also needed to improve registration practices.
Trends in net survival from 15 cancers in six European Latin countries: the SUDCAN population-based study material
Authors: Crocetti Emanuele , Bossard Nadine , Uhry Zoe , Roche Laurent , Rossi Silvia , Capocaccia Riccardo , Faivre Jean
Published: December 2016

The aim of the SUDCAN collaborative study was to compare the net survival from 15 cancers diagnosed in 2000–2004 in six European Latin countries and provide trends in net survival and dynamics of excess mortality rates up to 5 years after diagnosis from 1992 to 2004 in France, Italy, Spain, and Switzerland, and from 2000 to 2004 in Belgium and Portugal. This paper presents a detailed description of the data analyzed and quality indicators. Incident cases from Belgium, France, Italy, Portugal, Spain, and Switzerland were retrieved from 56 general or specialized population-based cancer registries that participated in the EUROCARE-5 database. Fifteen cancer sites were analyzed. The data were checked according to the EUROCARE protocol. The percentages of excluded cases, cases based on death-certificate only, cases lost to follow-up at 5 years after diagnosis, and the proportions of microscopically verified cases were evaluated across countries and cancer sites. Data exclusions for major flaws were negligible. Cases based on death-certificate only were quite rare, except for some poor-prognosis cancers in some countries. The site-specific proportions of microscopically verified cases were generally high, but slightly lower in Italy than elsewhere. The percentage of cases lost to follow-up at 5 years after diagnosis was generally low. The net survival analyses in 2000–2004 included 873 314 tumors, whereas trend analyses included 1 426 004 tumors. The quality of the data analyzed was generally good. In fact, the analyzed data have been already checked and accepted for EUROCARE-5. However, slight differences in quality indexes, for some cancers, should be kept in mind in the interpretation of survival comparisons across countries.