bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Realist Representations of Particles
Authors: Chakravartty Anjan
Published: October 2021

While much debate about scientific realism concerns the issue of whether it is compatible with theory change over time, and certain forms of selective realism have been suggested with this in mind, this chapter considers a closely related challenge for realism: that of articulating how a theory should be interpreted at any given time. In a crucial respect the challenges posed by diachronic and synchronic interpretation are the same; in both cases, realists face an apparent dilemma. The thinner their interpretations, the easier realism is to defend, but at the cost of more substantial commitment. The more substantial their interpretations, the more difficult they are to defend. The chapter looks at this worry in the context of the Standard Model of particle physics. Examining some selective realist attempts at interpretation, it argues that realism is, in fact, compatible with different commitments on the spectrum of thinner to more substantial, thus mitigating the dilemma.
Living Well, Dying Well
Authors: Steenbakkers Piet
Published: October 2021

Spinoza’s philosophy is a celebration of life. It focuses on a human life worth living, embodied in his model of a fully rational human being. That notion has its roots in Plato’s idea, but Spinoza’s development of it starts from Cicero’s Timaeus. In this appropriation of the Platonic ideal there are significant parallels between Spinoza and Kant (some of them derived in both cases from Cicero and the Stoics), evincing a radical shift in philosophical thought about the notion of a life worth living. A recent emendation in the text of Spinoza’s Ethics (IV, appendix 5) brings out what he understands by this ideal. Spinoza explicitly rejects the long tradition according to which philosophy is a meditation on death. An entry about his own death in an anonymous contemporary notebook illustrates the interconnection between Spinoza’s philosophy, biography and reputation: a philosopher’s death may be construed as an argument for or against his or her philosophy.
Vitalism and the Metaphysics of Life
Authors: Wolfe Charles T.
Published: October 2021

I examine a series of definitions, defences and rejections of early modern vitalism. This yields a broad distinction between more or less metaphysically committed forms of vitalism. Given the plurivocity of the term, I suggest that we restrict the term ‘vitalist’ to thinkers who are actively concerned with the distinction between life and non-life (whether or not they substantialize this distinction), with special reference to the case of eighteenth-century Montpellier vitalism – where the term was first explicitly used. Further, I discuss the association of vitalism with a (potentially problematic) metaphysics of life as partly a polemical construct – which is internal to the process of defining projects and programs in life science, where one vital(istical)ly oriented author will, almost desperately, seek to brand a predecessor or a rival as a vitalist in order to legitimize her own apparently more ‘experimental’ brand of organicism. But perhaps metaphysics is endemic to vitalism?
Perceptions of Medieval Manuscripts
Authors: Treharne Elaine
Published: October 2021

Perceptions of Medieval Manuscripts takes as its starting point an understanding that a medieval book is a whole object at every point of its long history. As such, medieval books can be studied most profitably in a holistic manner as objects-in-the-world. This means readers might profitably account for all aspects of the manuscript in their observations, from the main texts that dominate the codex to the marginal notes, glosses, names, and interventions made through time. This holistic approach allows us to tell the story of the book’s life from the moment of its production to its use, collection, breaking-up, and digitization—all aspects of what can be termed ‘dynamic architextuality’. The ten chapters of this study include detailed readings of texts that explain the processes of manuscript manufacture and writing, taking in invisible components of the book that show the joy and delight clearly felt by producers and consumers. Chapters investigate the filling of manuscripts’ blank spaces, presenting some texts never examined before, and assessing how books were conceived and understood to function. Manuscripts’ heft and solidness can be seen, too, in the depictions of miniature books in medieval illustrations. Early manuscripts thus become archives and witnesses to individual and collective memories, best read as ‘relics of existence’, as Maurice Merleau-Ponty describes things. As such, it is urgent that practices fragmenting the manuscript through book-breaking or digital display are understood in the context of the book’s wholeness. Readers of this study will find chapters on multiple aspects of medieval bookness in the distant past, the present, and in the assurance of the future continuity of this most fascinating of cultural artefacts.
Tatian's Diatessaron
Authors: Barker James W.
Published: October 2021

In the late-second century, Tatian the Assyrian constructed a new Gospel by intricately harmonizing Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John. Tatian’s work became known as the Diatessaron, since it was derived “out of the four” eventually canonical Gospels. Although it circulated widely for centuries, the Diatessaron disappeared in antiquity. Nevertheless, numerous ancient and medieval Gospel harmonies survive in various languages. Some texts are altogether independent of the Diatessaron, while others are definitely related. Yet even Tatian’s known descendants differ in large and small ways, so attempts at reconstruction have proven confounding. This book forges a new path in Diatessaron studies. Covering the widest array of manuscript evidence to date, it reconstructs the ancient compositional practices and redactional tendencies by which Tatian wrote his Gospel. Then, by sorting every extant witness according to its narrative sequence, the macrostructure of Tatian’s Gospel becomes clear. Despite many shared agreements, there remain significant divergences between eastern and western witnesses. This book argues that the eastern ones preserve Tatian’s order, whereas the western texts descend from a fourth-century recension of the Diatessaron. Victor of Capua and his scribe used the recension to produce the Latin Codex Fuldensis in the sixth century. More controversially, the book offers new evidence that late medieval texts such as the Middle Dutch Stuttgart harmony independently preserve traces of the western recension. This study uncovers the composition, transmission, and reception history behind one of early Christianity’s most elusive texts.
Introduction
Authors: Kim Marie Seong-Hak
Published: October 2021

Historiography of early modern France has of late taken a definite social and cultural turn as scholars shied away from political and intellectual history. While the value of illuminating social life and practices is undisputable, examination of the sources of law, including legal texts and juristic writings, and of the role of the political authorities in creating the state legal hierarchy is indispensable before a theorization of interaction between law and society can be envisaged. How the legal system comprising various sources of law in early modern France functioned to meet the changing needs of society and also the growing institutional demands of the state presents an important question to historians and jurists alike. History of custom as law articulates the concept of custom and its relationship to royal sovereignty and provides a clear path to our understanding of the absolute monarchy. Literature on custom is now large enough that the literature itself is a proper subject of research.
The Reformation of Customs
Authors: Kim Marie Seong-Hak
Published: October 2021

A new phase of the royal campaigns began in the 1550s, this time focusing on reforming the customs that had already been compiled but proved incomplete or inadequate. The coutume of Paris, originally recorded in 1510, saw its reformation in 1580 under the supervision of Christophe de Thou. The royal commissioners tried to update the customs of various pays along the lines of evolving case law of the Parlement of Paris. Taking place in the popular assemblies of the three estates, the redaction and reformation of customs reaffirmed the legislative authority of the king, based on indivisible sovereignty which was vested in the king alone yet could be discharged, exercised, and administered in a consultative mode as he saw fit. This prepared the grounds for absolute monarchy. The royal enterprise pressed on through the worst of the religious wars. There was a close link between the yearning for national unity during the civil war and the rise of the notion of French law.
La Coutume and la Législation
Authors: Kim Marie Seong-Hak
Published: October 2021

The reformation of customs aimed to bring the sources of law under royal authority and improve judicial administration. Through this process, the king reaffirmed the primacy of legislation in both public and private law. This chapter examines major provisions of the Nouvelle coutume de Paris of 1580 and also looks at judicial cases that were argued at the Parlement of Paris based on the coutumes of other localities. The efforts to reform customs took place in tandem with legislative measures. Most edicts and ordinances inspired by Chancellor Michel de L’Hôpital dealt with public law and procedural matters, but they also covered key private law matters like succession and marital property. Customary law campaigns and legislative activities together represented the royal effort to ensure coherence in the legal system.
Bed Linen
Authors: Young Alasdair R.
Published: October 2021

This chapter takes up the largely neglected case of the EU’s anti-dumping duties on bed linen imports from India. This was the first EU trade defense decision successfully challenged before the WTO. It overturned a methodology that the EU (and others) had thought was permitted under WTO rules: “zeroing.” The EU had to adopt a new procedure to enable it to revisit trade defense decisions in the light of adverse rulings, which complicated the story. Nonetheless, the EU changed its policy swiftly and those changes were upheld as adequate by a compliance panel. Moreover, the EU extended the implications of the WTO rulings to countries that had not been party to the complaint. There was no sign of exporter mobilization or other participant expansion. Rather, trade policy officials, motivated by a desire to not encourage reciprocal abrogation and ultimately to challenge the anti-dumping practices of others, moved swiftly to change the EU’s policy.
Demonic Bodies
Authors: Wiebe Gregory D.
Published: October 2021

This chapter further investigates the question of demons and bodies, beginning with the traditional belief that demons have bodies of air which Augustine inherited from both Christians and philosophers. In Augustine’s philosophically rigorous reflections upon the nature of visions, he adopts a scripturally prescribed reticence to speculate about the causal origins of visions that makes it impossible to say that the demon’s aerial body is the means by which it appears to humans. In this way Augustine maintains a crucial ontological distinction between the demonic nature itself and the various miracles, possessions, and other phenomena by which it appears. An aerial body is not, strictly speaking, a historical body per se, and is instead a way of speaking about the unknowable methods by which demons do, in fact, appear among humans.
Institutions, Power, and Institutional Balance
Authors: Craig Paul
Published: October 2021

Institutional balance, as opposed to strict separation of powers, characterized the disposition of legislative and executive power in the EEC from the outset. The chapter is divided into four temporal periods. The initial period runs between the Rome Treaty and the Single European Act 1986 (SEA). The discussion begins with the initial disposition of institutional power in the Rome Treaty, and charts the way in which this shifted during the first thirty years. The second section covers the period between the SEA and the Nice Treaty, in which there was growing consensus in normative terms as to the appropriate disposition of primary legislative power, but continuing contestation as to power over secondary rule-making and the locus of executive authority. These tensions were readily apparent in the third period, which covers the Constitutional Treaty and the Lisbon Treaty. The fourth period runs from the advent of the Lisbon Treaty to the present. The EU has been beset by a series of crises, which had implications for the powers of the respective EU institutions and the institutional balance between them.
The Evolution of EU Human Rights Law
Authors: De Búrca Gráinne
Published: October 2021

Gráinne de Búrca’s chapter analyses the evolution of EU human rights law in three distinct periods. The first is the period prior to the creation of the European Communities, when the human rights provisions of the draft European Political Community Treaty and its background materials were drawn up in the early 1950s. The second covers the period from the disappearance of human rights matters from European Community discourse with the adoption of the EEC and Euratom Treaties in 1957, until their re-emergence through the 1970s and 1980s in judicial and political discourse. The third covers the ‘high constitutional’ period from the adoption of the Maastricht Treaty in 1992 until after the adoption of the Lisbon Treaty in 2010, and reflects on what has taken place in terms of the development of EU human rights law between the time of the Lisbon Treaty and today. The chapter highlights three principal differences between the framework envisaged in the 1950s and that which is in place today, focusing on today’s much more limited monitoring, review, and intervention role for the EU with regard to human rights protection within the Member States, the more distant relationship between the EU and the ECHR and their respective courts, and the uneven role for human rights in the EU’s internal as opposed to its external relations. The chapter concludes by reflecting on whether the EU’s current constitutional framework for human rights protection is fit for purpose as we enter the third decade of the millennium.
Consumer Policy
Authors: Weatherill Stephen
Published: October 2021

This chapter shows how and why consumer law and policy has developed in the European Union. It examines the contributions of the judicial and legislative institutions of the EU. It also explains the relevant changes made to the EU Treaties as they have been periodically revised. Consumer law is in part an application of EU internal market law, but it is also built on its own distinctive themes. These include consumer choice, transparency in the market, concern to protect the weaker party, and fairness. Consumer law also offers a helpful basis on which to assess the competing claims of maximum and minimum harmonization.
Geopolitical Fractures
Authors: Joshi Mahesh K. , Klein J.R.
Published: October 2021

Today’s world is in the midst of sorting out the difference between its national fervour and its international character. It continues to struggle with its sovereign borders and a workforce that has no borders. Nations scamper to maintain their self-sufficiency while their populations’ demand for consumer goods is beyond their capacity to supply. Societies and countries wrestle with basic inequities baked into their culture and political systems that benefit few and alienate many. Geopolitical practitioners grasp for a handle on the tsunami of technology in which they are drowning while their citizens with access to that very wave are increasingly disenchanted with the status quo. This chapter examines the power of ideologies to enthrone and alienate, empower and marginalize. It looks at the importance of words and how their rhetorical use can stimulate, propagate, manipulate, and potentially subjugate. It observes the alienation, mistrust, and inequity that expose violence and unrest.
Trust in a Splintered World
Authors: Joshi Mahesh K. , Klein J.R.
Published: October 2021

In the current environment, the wealthy are becoming wealthier while other people are experiencing declining wealth and lifestyles. There are issues of inequalities, terrorism, and climate change. There is a decline in trust in corporate and political leaders that impacts organizational power. In this constantly changing environment, the issue of leadership becomes the primary focus. In this fractured world leaders must be able to make trusted choices and understand the value of trust. Trust affects the way relationships work, the way organizations operate, the way that governments work, and the way the world operates. How countries, corporations, and individuals actually trust each other has a lot to do with how everything works. Trust makes the world go round.
Justice and Home Affairs
Authors: Garner Oliver
Published: October 2021

This chapter looks at the security chapter of the Trade and Cooperation Agreement (TCA). It explains that the TCA endeavoured to replicate several of the most effective instruments of the Area of Freedom, Security, and Justice (AFSJ). It also details how the TCA is adapted to the reality of the UK, now a third country outside the Schengen zone, refusing the jurisdiction of the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU). The chapter analyses the framework for cooperation in internal security and law enforcement that is based on coordination and subject to unilateral termination if one of the parties fails to respect commitments in human rights or good governance. It assesses the new EU-UK justice and home affairs cooperation and focuses on the substance of the specific areas of legal cooperation foreseen in the TCA.
Introduction
Authors: Jacob W. M.
Published: October 2021

This sets the scene for the study by identifying a narrative propounded by London church leaders and commentators from the 1830s onwards of decline in religious allegiance, defined in terms of attendance at places of worship, in the context of urbanization and industrialization. This was taken up and developed by most historians of religion for much of the twentieth century. However, following suggestive later-twentieth-century local studies of churches in London, and drawing on the resources and evidence of material culture, oral history, and social and economic history this study claims that when the evidence base for religiosity is broadened the narrative of decline in religiosity needs to be reappraised.
Women and Religion in Victorian London
Authors: Jacob W. M.
Published: October 2021

New opportunities emerged in churches for women as volunteer district visitors, Sunday school teachers, and for poor women to be trained and employed as Bible and parish women, Bible-nurses, and elementary school teachers which broadened the sphere of women’s activities beyond their homes to their parishes. Some women also formed religious communities, initially relieving poverty, provide nursing care and education for poor children. Growing awareness of wider social issues, particularly in relation to poverty, led some middle- and upper-class women, motivated by faith, to begin to develop activities in a wider sphere, including improving conditions in workhouses and hospitals, and establishing ‘settlements’ and pioneering systematic ‘social work’ methods. Some women also began to undertake public ministries, notably in the Salvation Army, but also leading informal congregations. Women were also generous contributors to religious-based projects. Building on these experiences, religiously motivated women stood for election to public office as London School Board members, guardians of the poor and London County Councillors. Succeeding chapters show that women also played a significant part in faith-motivated philanthropic and educational initiatives.
Person and Brain: Against Cerebrocentrism
Authors: Fuchs Thomas
Published: October 2021

Do we find what makes up a person in the brain? And, if one could transplant a brain, would that also transfer the person into a new organism? Advances in neuroscience have promoted an identification of person and brain that is incompatible with the reality of the human person. Persons are necessarily embodied, i.e., they show themselves, they act and express themselves through their bodies. We are persons to each other not as abstract minds, but as living, visible, and palpable beings. This view of the person also corresponds to the biological reality of the organism: the brain is not the locus of consciousness, but an organ of mediation for the relations of the conscious organism to the environment. As such, it is only the necessary, but by no means the sufficient condition for personal experience and behavior. It is not the brain, but the living person who feels, thinks, and acts.
The New Kid on the Block
Authors: Rohling Eelco J.
Published: October 2021

This chapter discusses the need for removal of excess greenhouse gases to meet the bounds to atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations as framed by the Paris Agreement in terms of a maximum of 2°C global warming and a recommended limit of 1.5°C. Effective measures for greenhouse gas removal, termed negative emissions, must include both removal of the gases from the atmosphere and their long-term to permanent storage. As the chapter explains, the challenge is so great that all reasonable ideas, concepts, and small-scale trials must be considered and scaled up rapidly and massively to demonstrate real-life potential, economic and environmental feasibility, and social acceptability. At the same time, any associated drawbacks need to be considered and dealt with. The required amount of carbon removal is so large that we will eventually need to end up with a broad portfolio of methods working in parallel.
The Behavioral Renaissance
Authors: Rohling Eelco J.
Published: October 2021

This chapter looks at what will be required to rebalance the radiative balance of climate at a societally acceptable level, around 1.5°C to at most 2°C warming according to the Paris Climate Agreement. The chapter outlines the complex portfolio of measures needed to achieve this: emissions reduction, new emissions avoidance, greenhouse gas removal, and potential solar radiation management. It also shows how the relative proportions of these four different classes of measures will need to be flexible through time, in response to different needs, such as a high need for emissions reduction today that may decline with time as emissions approach zero. Flexibility will also be needed in response to the emergence of new breakthroughs, challenges, cost limits, and economic and societal constraints. The chapter considers key parameters with respect to societal change and the roles of government, corporations, and consumers, and discusses routes for channeling discontent and litigation.
Value-Based Protest Slogans
Authors: Cherry Myisha
Published: October 2021

When bringing philosophical attention to bear on social movement slogans in general, philosophers have often focused on their communicative nature—particularly the hermeneutical failures that arise in discourse. Some of the most popular of these failures are illustrated in “All lives matter” retorts to “Black lives matter” pronouncements. Although highlighting and criticizing these failures provide much needed insight into social movement slogans as a communicative practice, in doing so, philosophers and slogan users risk placing too much importance on outgroup understandings. This emphasis is misguided because gaining such uptake is not required of particular slogans to perform their functions; indeed, it is an inherent risk of them. I show how such an emphasis can also be distracting to users. Since social movement slogans that express values are first and foremost for users, I argue for a shift in focus in what these slogans (such as “Black is beautiful” and the more recent “Black lives matter”) do for users, as well as what they demand from users and enable them to express. When slogans have done these things, regardless of uptake, we can say they have performed one of their key functions.
The Movement for Black Lives and the Language of Liberation
Authors: Olasov Ian
Published: October 2021

This chapter explores the content and strategy of the Movement for Black Lives (M4BL) by describing the speech that sustains and promotes the movement. It explicates the content of the movement through the protest chants and other communicative tools M4BL has borrowed from past black liberatory movements. After a brief discussion of some of the challenges facing the movement, it describes four more novel communicative tools associated with M4BL—the hashtag and slogan #BlackLivesMatter, videos of police violence, naming the dead, and stereotype engineering. Each of these tools helps address some challenge, and also bears on some questions of independent philosophical interest—how to remedy testimonial injustice, what it means to engineer a concept, what makes a mental state a moral attitude. It concludes with a brief discussion of the limitations of some of these tools.
Language Learning in Children Who Are Deaf and Hard of Hearing
Authors: Easterbrooks Susan R.
Published: October 2021

Language Learning in Children Who Are Deaf and Hard of Hearing: Theory to Classroom Practice is the long-awaited revision of the only textbook on primary language instruction written with classroom teachers of deaf and hard-of-hearing children in mind. It builds on the work of the previous version while providing access to the entire first version on a supplemental website. An important feature of this book is that it describes four real teachers and demonstrates the application of the concepts discussed with the children on their caseloads. Up-to-date chapters on theory of language learning, assessment, and evidence-based practice replace removed chapters. Chapters on English and American Sign Language structure and on the three major approaches (listening and spoken language, bilingual-bimodal instruction, and American Sign Language instruction) are updated. The chapters on teaching vocabulary and morphosyntax, how to ask and answer questions, and writing language objectives for individualized education plans are expanded. Specific examples of real cases are incorporated throughout the book. Finally, after a theoretical base of information on language instruction, many of the chapters provide language teachers with specific examples of how to answer the question: “What should I do on Monday?” The author avoids promoting one or another philosophy, presenting all and demonstrating the commonalities across classroom language instruction approaches for deaf and hard-of-hearing children.
Stereotyping and Effort Mobilization in Older Age
Authors: Czarnek Gabriela , Kossowska Małgorzata , Richter Michael
Published: October 2021

This chapter presents a framework that aims at explaining stereotyping in older age. Previous studies have shown that older adults are more prone to exhibiting stereotyping and prejudice toward many social groups, compared to young adults. However, the model in this chapter suggests that these age-related increases in stereotyping might be compensated for through self-involvement and the associated effort mobilization. In particular, the chapter posits that the effortful, piecemeal analysis of incoming information that results from self-involvement leads to decreased stereotyping among older adults. The chapter provides a literature review and presents empirical studies that support the model’s hypotheses as well as discuss ideas for further research on the topic.
Motivational Reserve
Authors: Forstmeier Simon , Verena Thoma Myriam , Maercker Andreas
Published: October 2021

Brain reserve (i.e., the ability of the brain to tolerate age- and disease-related changes in a way that cognitive function is still maintained) is assumed to be based on the lifelong training of various abilities. Motivational reserve (MR) is a form of brain reserve and can be defined as a set of motivational abilities that provide the individual with resilience to neuropathological damage. The first part of the chapter explains the term motivational processes and the model of MR and describes the measurement concept. The second part summarizes the results of several studies on the model of MR. For example, motivational abilities have been shown to be associated with a reduced risk of mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer disease (AD) in apolipoprotein E ɛ4 carriers, but not in noncarriers. Revealing the mechanisms underlying the association of motivational abilities and cognitive decline may lead to novel strategies for delaying the onset of AD symptoms.
Why Do Some Older Adults Avoid Memory Retrieval When Acquiring a New Skill?
Authors: Hertzog Christopher , Touron Dayna R.
Published: October 2021

Older adults are slower to acquire new cognitive skills requiring a shift from controlled (algorithmic) processing to automatic responding based on retrieving newly unitized information from memory. Research demonstrates that older adults’ delayed retrieval shift is a strategic avoidance of relying on memory when doing so would be successful, not just a function of age-related slowing in rates of associative learning. Older adults’ retrieval avoidance can be reduced by financial incentives to respond rapidly, recognition probes that demonstrate the accessibility of correct information, and other experimental manipulations. Item-level strategy reports show an exponential rise in retrieval strategy use with practice but not for all participants. A proportion of the older samples are retrieval strategy avoidant across the entire course of skill acquisition task practice. The chapter comments on the motivational nature of retrieval strategy avoidance and the possible practical consequences of a retrieval avoidance mode for older adults.
Adapting Algorithms on the Web to Deal With Cognitive Aging
Authors: Nielek Radoslaw , Pawlowska Justyna , Rydzewska Klara , Wierzbicki Adam
Published: October 2021

Until very recently, any age-related design adaptations were limited to the audiovisual layer of the application. The Internet relies vastly on algorithms, such as recommendation or trust management systems, that shape online experiences, but they have usually been designed to meet the needs of younger adults. Development teams composed mostly of young developers and fine-tuning based on behavioral data from systems (overwhelmingly used by younger adults) create substantial bias that harm the online experiences of older adults. This chapter shows consequences of cognitive aging for the design requirements of recommendation algorithms. Possible solutions utilizing heuristics developed by older adults to compensate for cognitive limitations are presented. Moreover, a method will be proposed to overcome scarcity of behavioral data coming from older adults for fine-tuning existing information and communications technology systems. The chapter will be summed up with a discussion of overlap between psychology of aging and computer science.
The Women Are Up to Something
Authors: Lipscomb Benjamin J.B.
Published: October 2021

This book tells two intertwined stories, centered on twentieth-century moral philosophers Elizabeth Anscombe, Mary Midgley, Philippa Foot, and Iris Murdoch. The first is the story of four friends who came up to Oxford together just before WWII. It is the story of their lives, loves, and intellectual preoccupations; it is a story about women trying to find a place in a man’s world of academic philosophy. The second story is about these friends’ shared philosophical project and their unintentional creation of a school of thought that challenged the dominant way of doing ethics. That dominant school of thought envisioned the world as empty, value-free matter, on which humans impose meaning. This outlook treated statements such as “this is good” as mere expressions of feeling or preference, reflecting no objective standards. It emphasized human freedom and demanded an unflinching recognition of the value-free world. The four friends diagnosed this moral philosophy as an impoverishing intellectual fad. This style of thought, they believed, obscured the realities of human nature and left people without the resources to make difficult moral choices or to confront evil. As an alternative, the women proposed a naturalistic ethics, reviving a line of thought running through Plato, Aristotle, and Aquinas, and enriched by modern biologists like Jane Goodall and Charles Darwin. The women proposed that there are, in fact, moral truths, based in facts about the distinctive nature of the human animal and what that animal needs to thrive.
Oil and Security
Authors: Colgan Jeff D.
Published: October 2021

Chapter 5 describes the second of the two main subsystems in modern oil politics, centered on military security and sovereignty. In the first half of the twentieth century, as oil became the preeminent military and economic commodity, powerful states sought control over global oil production. The identity of the principal external protector in the Middle East gradually changed from the United Kingdom to the United States as imperialism receded through decolonization. The US-Saudi oil-for-security deal served as a model for newly independent states like Kuwait. Some of those deals later ruptured, but many still exist and continue to shape dynamics in the Persian Gulf. Recognizing the stability of this second subsystem, in contrast to the major changes in the oil production subsystem, helps us better understand international order.
The Limits of Conversation
Authors: Srinivasan Amia
Published: October 2021

This commentary raises a series of questions for Philip Kitcher’s theory of moral progress. First, does the history of moral progress really challenge metaethical realism, as Kitcher claims—or the liberal fantasy that we are all equally equipped to get onto the moral truth? Second, is Kitcher’s theory really, as he claims, morally neutral—or does his notion of “ideal” deliberation smuggle in substantive normative claims? Both questions point toward a different way of reading Kitcher’s proposal: not as a metaethical theory of moral truth, but as a substantive, first-order procedure for achieving moral progress. But Kitcher’s proposal falsely presupposes that the history of moral progress has been a history of conversation, when in fact it has, in large part, been a history of power: the wielding of power by the dominant against the oppressed, and the eventual seizing of that power by the dominated.
Civil Rights and Catholic Mobilization
Authors: Chinnici Joseph P.
Published: October 2021

The renewal movements detailed in Chapter 2 converged with Catholic participation in the civil rights movement to precondition both the work of the bishops at the Council and the immediate reception of the Council’s teaching after 1965. The minutes and publications of the National Catholic Conference for Interracial Justice and its numerous affiliates indicate the impact of the civil rights activists in Greensboro, North Carolina, the Freedom Riders, and methods adopted from CORE. Participation by priests, nuns, and laity in direct action and protests supported racial justice and social change. A decisive and more universal turn occurred with participation in the National Conference on Religion and Race with its charter document, “An Appeal to Conscience.” Numerous follow-up conferences indicate a Catholic pilgrimage toward a new articulation in theology, structures, and social outreach for the local Church.
The Word in the World, 1964–1965
Authors: Chinnici Joseph P.
Published: October 2021

The centrality of scripture and the Church’s mission to identify with the world’s “joys . . . and griefs” furthered the teaching of Lumen Gentium and the “bridge” documents. The laity’s participation in the prophetic teaching of Christ joined the people of God with the social changes occurring in American society. Participants argued for the dignity of the person and a commitment to the alleviation of world poverty. A deductive methodology of doctrine clashed repeatedly with an inductive methodology focused on the “signs of the times.” Even as the Cold War inheritance shaped a cautious American approach to the condemnation of nuclear war, the leadership of Archbishop Dearden worked toward a new vision of marriage and the family. These distinct approaches and the convergence between conciliar language and social practice created tense relationships between the bishops and the laity’s reception of their teaching. Similar difficulties would run through the post-conciliar world.
History Matters
Authors: Zorina Khan B.
Published: October 2021

Debates about the “great divergence” within Europe fail to explain the more persistent divergence that resulted in US leadership in industry and technological innovations. Similarly, selective case studies of the post–World War II economy have given rise to claims that dirigiste linkages between the state, universities, and industry, or national innovation systems, are required for technological progress. Empirical analyses of extensive panel data and long-run patterns of innovation across countries suggest otherwise. France and England exhibited an institutional bias toward administered innovation systems, where key economic decisions were made by elites, the state, and other privileged groups. Such policies encouraged rent-seeking and the misallocation of resources and ultimately failed to engender sustained technological progress. By contrast, the US experience highlights the central role of its market-oriented patent system, in concert with flexible open-access adjacent institutions, in promoting economic growth and social welfare.
Invariance
Authors: Woodward James
Published: October 2021

This chapter explores the notion of invariance, which is of central normative importance in causal reasoning and is also central to its descriptive characterization, as shown in subsequent chapters. The invariance of a causal relationship has to do with the extent that it continues to be operative across various sorts of changes—in background conditions, changes in the distribution of initial conditions, and different micro-realizations of a cause, to describe just a few of the possibilities that are considered. Invariance is distinguished from exceptionlessness and needs to be understood against the background of our epistemic and calculational limitations.
Introduction
Authors: Grove Kevin G.
Published: October 2021

The introduction begins with how memory for Augustine gives expression to any coherent understanding of the self in time as well as how the self might encounter God. Though scholars have examined memory extensively in his treatises, particularly Confessions and the Trinity, these studies neglect that the greatest volume of memory language and musing in Augustine occurs in his preaching. The introduction sets out the book’s argument for how memory that is limitedly interiorizing is transformed in Augustine’s preaching into a communal work of the whole Christ. This new approach to memory intends to provide a renewed memory for Augustinian studies and a renewed Augustine for memory studies. For Augustinian studies, this includes debates about selfhood, interiority and exteriority, Augustine’s preaching, and the centrality of Christology to Augustine’s work. For memory studies broadly, the introduction explains how the book relates to phenomenologies of self in relation to God, theories of collectivity and political theology, ethics of remembering, forgetting, and forgiveness, and places Klee’s painting Angelus Novus in relation to Augustine’s Idithun the leaper as contrasting icons of memory. The introduction concludes with a brief outline of the chapters.
Preaching from the Whole
Authors: Grove Kevin G.
Published: October 2021

Chapter 2 shows how, in preaching, the self comes to be mediated by the whole Christ. The insight about memory and Christ from the Confessions grows into a full-fledged Christological reality wherein the “whole Christ” becomes a route to God. This chapter, especially by attention to exegesis and rhetorical tools in addition to his philosophical and theological interlocutors, shows the development of Augustine’s communal construct called the whole Christ, or totus Christus. The chapter tracks Augustine’s developing understanding of Christ’s mediation through the incarnation, passion, and ascension. In his mature preaching, Augustine describes ongoing Christological mediation as transfiguring human persons into Christ. Chapter 2 concludes the first part of the book, “The Beginning of Memory,” and sets up the method of the middle portion of the book.
Kant and the Law of War
Authors: Ripstein Arthur
Published: October 2021

The past two decades have seen renewed scholarly and popular interest in the law and morality of war. Positions that originated in the late Middle Ages through the seventeenth century have received more sophisticated philosophical elaboration. Although many contemporary writers draw on ideas that figure prominently in Kant’s moral philosophy, his explicit discussions of war have not been brought into their proper place within these discussions and debates. Kant argues that a special morality governs the permissible use of force because of war’s distinctive immorality. He characterizes war as barbaric, because in war, might makes right—which side prevails does not depend on who is in the right. The very thing that makes war wrongful also provides the appropriate standard for evaluating the conduct of war, and the only basis for law governing war.
National Defense
Authors: Ripstein Arthur
Published: October 2021

This chapter develops Kant’s argument that national defense is the only legitimate ground of going to war. It explains why there can be no procedure in the state of nature, and so why none of the grounds of war offered by the just war or regular war traditions are legitimate. It then explains why defensive force is permissible in the absence of legal institutions and how it must be conceived as preventing a wrong rather than either remedying one or punishing a wrongdoer. The focus on preventive force explains why questions of culpability or of the forfeiture of rights are not part of an acceptable characterization of national defense. The chapter concludes with an examination of the relation between this conception of the grounds of war and the other traditional ad bellum conditions, including proper authority, necessity, reasonable prospect of success, and proportionality.
The Roots of Global Health Inequity
Authors: Mukherjee Joia S.
Published: October 2021

This chapter outlines the historical roots of health inequities. It focuses on the African continent, where life expectancy is the shortest and health systems are weakest. The chapter describes the impoverishment of countries by colonial powers and the impact of this history on health care delivery. It reviews the development of the global human rights framework, the impact of African liberation struggles, and the challenges faced by newly liberated African governments to deliver health care through the public sector. The influence of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund’s neoliberal economic policies is also discussed. The chapter highlights the shift from the aspiration of “health for all” voiced at the Alma Ata Conference on Primary Health Care in 1978 to the more narrowly defined “selective primary health care.” Lastly, the chapter explains the challenges inherent in financing health in impoverished countries and how user fees became standard practice.
The Millennium Development Goals and Sustainable Development Goals
Authors: Mukherjee Joia S.
Published: October 2021

The turn of the 21th century and the movement for AIDS treatment access ushered in a spirit of international collaboration to improve the lives of the world’s most impoverished citizens. This chapter focuses on the international goals to that were set out in 2001: the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). They were agreed upon by all UN member states and focused on specific health targets, as well as reducing impoverishment and gender inequality. The MDGs sought to reduce women and children’s mortality, to treat AIDS, TB and malaria, and to reduce extreme hunger and poverty. Impoverished governments recognized that achieving these goals would require the rebuilding and strengthening of the public’s health systems. Yet, donor funds are often vertical—focusing on a specific disease. This chapter investigates how disease-specific programs can fragment health systems or, alternatively, can be leveraged to strengthen health care delivery. Finally, the chapter summarizes the successes and failures of the MDGs and the framework of the SDGs.
Global Health and the Global Burden of Disease
Authors: Mukherjee Joia S.
Published: October 2021

In this new era of global health in which delivering care has become a reality, it is important to understand the terms used to describe the health of populations, such as incidence, prevalence, morbidity, and mortality. As well as to be able to describe the concepts such as the burden of disease in a population, the quantity and impact of diseases that affect the health of populations, and the epidemiologic shifts within a society. This chapter reviews these key terms and concepts as well as the creation of the Global Burden of Disease (GBD) project, launched in 1990 at the World Health Organization. The GBD project measures and estimates the disease burden in countries on a regular basis. These data are critical to built health systems with sufficient inputs to address the entirety of the disease burden and achieve universal health coverage.
Understanding and Practicing Social Medicine
Authors: Mukherjee Joia S.
Published: October 2021

This chapter focuses on the social determinants of health. The phrase “social determinants of health” is used to describe the factors and forces in society that cause ill health and premature death. To achieve health equity, it is important to understand the impact of social determinants and work to mitigate their adverse health effects. The practice of social medicine uses a biosocial approach that merges biomedical science with social analysis to design programs that strive for health equity. Because of the historical and geopolitical forces that have shaped global inequities, social medicine and a biosocial approach are important in global health and health equity and are addressed in this chapter.
Universal versus Decentralized Politics
Authors: Kapoor Ilan , Zalloua Zahi
Published: October 2021

This chapter compares and contrasts a negative conception of universality with key critics of universalism—those who advocate for a decentralized politics. It outlines two strains of the latter. The first is informed by the linguistic/cultural turn, including postmodernism and radical democracy (as represented by Foucault and Lyotard, and Laclau and Mouffe, respectively). The second strain operates under the ontological/affective turn, including New Materialism (Latour, Bennett), queer theory (Edelman, Ahmed), decoloniality (Mignolo), and Deleuzism (Hardt and Negri). The chapter deploys workers’ struggles as a case study for examining their place in a universal politics.