bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Epistemology
Authors: Helm Paul
Published: February 2021

For Edwards, epistemology went hand in hand with metaphysics, both intellectually and biographically, from his teenage years. The philosophical influences were Locke and Berkeley, and Malebranche as well with his Calvinistic emphasis on divine sovereignty, considered as an activity that was both transcendent, in God’s upholding of all reality, and his disclosure of himself in a wide range of sources, in his divine revelation in Scripture, in the experience of the effects of the new birth of his elect, and in his scientist’s interest in the flora and fauna of his New England environment. True knowledge of divine revelation was supernatural, through the imparting of divine light immediately to the soul in the possession of what he called a ‘new sense’. Beside those mentioned, he was influenced by St. Augustine and by the Puritan John Owen.
The Future Boardgame
Authors: Andersson Jenny
Published: February 2021

This chapter charts the development of the Future boardgame as a means to demonstrate the subtle combination of representations of science and narratives of imagination and storytelling in constructions of futures. In advocating the study of material histories of the future (as to opposed to studying the cultural history of future visions), this chapter identifies the central role of the future as artefact. Future artefacts, it concludes, are a central way of analysing repertoires of futures-making between scienticity and imagination, and they also provide important stories of circulation and exchange.
Nineteen Eighty-Four in the British Telephone System
Authors: Ward Jacob
Published: February 2021

This chapter explores science fiction, computer simulation, and Thatcherism in the long-range and business planning departments of the British Post Office’s Telecommunications Division and its successor, British Telecom, as Margaret Thatcher’s Conservative government transferred telecommunications from public monopoly, run by the Post Office, to liberalized corporation, run by British Telecom. Ward charts the negotiations between simulated and literary utopias and dystopias, analysing managerial representations of information technology’s transformative power. Managers understood computer simulations as interactive futures, bringing techno-moral changes of predictive markets and emancipatory electronics from the future to the present. They dismissed the dystopias of H. G. Wells and George Orwell as outdated, in contrast to the computer’s predictive power, but in doing so, these managers tacitly accepted the ‘hypersurveillant’ power of computer simulation, where customers could be simulated and surveilled ahead of time. Ward thus highlights digital utopianism’s contradictory values of deregulation, personal freedom, and technological planning.
Preservation as Futures-Making Practices
Authors: Harrison Rodney
Published: February 2021

This essay takes the practices of biobanking as a case study in order to redefine and reframe current assumptions about the role, practices, and orientation of heritage. While it is conventional to think about conservation or preservation as a series of practical fields oriented towards preserving and managing what remains of biological and cultural diversity from the past, it is perhaps less often the case that we reflect on the role of heritage in assembling and making futures, despite ubiquitous claims that the aim of such procedures is the preservation of objects, places, and practices for future generations. This essay probes these future orientations to demonstrate that conservation is a series of activities which are intimately concerned with assembling, building, and designing future worlds, and to argue that heritage might be productively reframed as ‘worlding’ or ‘future-making’ practices.
Concepts of Future Generations
Authors: Nordblad Julia
Published: February 2021

This chapter examines how the relationship between present and future generations has been articulated and envisaged in four discussions on climate change and global environmental crises from the late 1980s onward. Nordblad exemplifies how the very concept of future generations harbours disparate and sometimes conflicting views over the extent future generations can be known, and the political, economic, and ethical complexities embedded in constructions of the relationship between present and future generations. She explores climate economics with its presumptions about substitutable and transgenerational values; Pope Francis’s encyclical on the environment, which describes future generations as a call for moral regeneration; the Brundtland Report, which emphasizes solidarity in the allocation of common resources; and the academic discussion on the non-identity problem, posing our relation to future generations as a moral and political enigma.
Life as Algorithm
Authors: Amadae S. M.
Published: February 2021

This chapter uncovers the complex negotiations for authority in various representations about futures of life which have been advanced by different branches of the sciences, and have culminated in the emerging concept of life as algorithm. It charts the historical shifts in expertise and representations of life, from naturalists, to mathematical modellers, and specialists in computation, and argues that physicists, game theorists, and economists now take a leading role in explaining and projecting futures of life. The chapter identifies Richard Dawkins and Max Tegmark at the forefront of the concept of life as algorithm: the first inspired by game theory as a means to study evolution; the second proposing that a materialist basis of life could place humans and artificial intelligence on an equal footing. Through close reading of their respective texts, the chapter demonstrates that both thinkers consider life as an algorithm programmed to achieve success in survival and reproduction.
Christology
Authors: Long D. Stephen
Published: February 2021

This chapter traces the development of Reinhold Niebuhr’s Christology through the course of his writings, arguing that his later work showed a fuller engagement with Christology. It then situates his Christology within a five-fold dogmatics based on (1) the doctrine of the incarnation; (2) Jesus’ life and mission; (3) his betrayal, arrest, and crucifixion; (4) his resurrection and ascension; (5) his promised return. Reinhold Niebuhr’s Christology has received diverse evaluations. Although some of that diversity is noted, this chapter is not primarily interested in resolving the conflicting assessments. Instead, it aims to offer a comprehensive interpretation of his Christological thought as a whole.
Responsibility
Authors: Schweiker William
Published: February 2021

This chapter explores the importance of moral responsibility in Reinhold Niebuhr’s thought, which in turn allows the reader to interpret his work within the wider compass of Christian humanism. While Niebuhr’s ethics never showcased the concept of responsibility in the way other thinkers did during his time, he nevertheless insisted that the moral capability of responsibility is basic to human dignity. Utilizing the distinction Max Weber made between two forms of ethics, the chapter suggests that moral responsibility constitutes the ‘form’, rather than the ‘norm’, of Niebuhr’s anthropological project. Niebuhr’s project can be seen as an attempt to retrieve the lost insights of the Reformation regarding sin and grace within the historical condition of modern life initiated by the Renaissance. This orientation in Niebuhr’s work bears some of the features of Christian humanism. The final section discusses how Niebuhr’s theological and ethical vision can contribute to Christian thinking in our time.
Tragedy and Irony
Authors: Morris Daniel A.
Published: February 2021

This chapter analyses Reinhold Niebuhr’s concepts of tragedy and irony. It explains how he defined these terms and identifies their place in his theological framework. Niebuhr identified the themes of tragedy and irony in his reflection on human nature, the crucifixion, and moral concepts such as sin, love, and justice. The chapter also explores his use of the terms within the context of twentieth-century global and domestic politics, highlighting his commentary on the Cold War, capitalism, and democracy in the United States. The chapter concludes by suggesting that the political tragedies and ironies Niebuhr identified are still with us today and that his concepts can be used to pursue the goals of his feminist, black, and Latinx critics.
Family, Sexuality, and Society
Authors: Miles Rebekah
Published: February 2021

Contrary to established wisdom, Niebuhr’s reflections on intimate relationships of family and sexual partnerships reveal as much about his anthropology as do his reflections on large social groups. As Niebuhr’s thought matured, we find not a bifurcation of public and private, as is often argued, but a continuum, with similar problems facing all human groups from the smallest to the largest. Niebuhr reflections on intimate relationships also illustrate the way he came to affirm a fully social model of the self and a balance between realism and idealism in all communities. Niebuhr’s thought, especially his understanding of the social and free self in society, is a springboard to a visionary Christian Realism, relevant for ethical reflection on many current topics including same-gender marriage, gender fluidity, and gender roles within families.
Karl Barth
Authors: Mauldin Joshua
Published: February 2021

Reinhold Niebuhr and Karl Barth lived remarkably parallel lives. Both became disillusioned with the nineteenth-century Protestant liberalism they had inherited, but they took their departure from liberalism in different directions. Niebuhr’s focus on social ethics gave him an interest in the ethical implications of Barth’s theology, but Barth’s approach to dogmatics led him to be less interested in Niebuhr’s approach to ethics and apologetic theology. Commentators have often assumed that Niebuhr and Barth were engaged in answering a common question, such that we could adjudicate who was right and who was wrong, but the relationship between their projects is more complicated. Niebuhr focused on immanent criticism of the dogmas of a secular age, seeking to demonstrate how these ways of thinking could not sufficiently account for the challenges and aspirations of human nature and destiny. Eschewing this apologetic approach, Barth pursued the task of dogmatics as a human response to God’s revelation and as an ongoing test of the Church’s proclamation. Niebuhr and Barth were engaged in differing projects, which because of their distinct goals, can be seen as complementary.
The Classic Arguments for Free Speech 1644–1927
Authors: Blasi Vincent
Published: February 2021

This chapter examines the classic arguments for freedom of speech. It traces the first comprehensive argument for freedom of speech as a limiting principle of government to John Milton’s Areopagitica, a polemic against censorship by a requirement of prior licensing in which Milton develops an argument for the pursuit of truth through exposure to false and heretical ideas rather than the passive reception of orthodoxy. Despite Milton’s belief in the advancement of understanding through free inquiry, he was far from liberal in the modern sense of that term and he did not, for instance, extend the tolerance he advocated to Catholic religious texts. The chapter then assesses what James Madison had to say about the role of public opinion as a crucial element in the creation of political authority and the preservation of rights, and considers Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr’s opinions about the freedom of speech. It also looks at how the celebrated federal judge Learned Hand conceives of the freedom of speech as a majority-creating procedure rather than an individual right, while Justice Louis Brandeis understood the freedom of speech to be an individual liberty important as such but especially important for its contribution to democratic character. Ultimately, the most widely-read of the classic arguments for free speech is that developed by John Stuart Mill in his Essay On Liberty.
Religious Speech
Authors: Bhatia Gautam
Published: February 2021

This chapter examines religious speech, and the tensions between religion and freedom of expression. As a wide-ranging system of moral beliefs and commitments, religion, by its very nature, assigns to the freedom of expression a particular place in its hierarchical order of values. In non-theocratic States, this may clash with the (higher) normative value accorded to the freedom of expression under the secular order. Religious claims themselves will often be made from within the constitutional system: that is, the State’s own constitutional commitment to protect religious freedom will be invoked to argue that, in certain domains, the secular order must defer to religion’s hierarchy of values. This may include the subordination of religious expression to revealed religious truth. Disputes will often also involve contestation over a constellation of other constitutional norms, such as the commitment to maintaining diversity and pluralism, the right to equality and cultural dissent, and not least, the imperatives of public order. Consequently, such disputes raise a host of complex issues. The State’s adjudicatory authorities must decide whether to attempt an accommodation between the conflicting claims of religion and free speech, or privilege one over the other. The chapter then discusses the role of religion in censorship.
Freedom of Expression in the Workplace
Authors: Estlund Cynthia
Published: February 2021

This chapter addresses the implications for democratic government of employment-based limitations on freedom of speech. The workplace is a distinctive expressive domain because the ‘censor’ and the speaker are typically bound together by an employment contract that affords the former a large measure of hierarchical control over the latter. The employer, having hired the employee to do a job, has legitimate interests in regulating some employee speech. The employee, for their part, is typically dependent on the employer for their livelihood, and vulnerable to the employer’s overreaching beyond those legitimate interests. Those features of the employment relationship give rise to a distinct set of questions about the value and limits of free speech in the workplace setting, public or private. The chapter then focuses on how US law, primarily constitutional law but also non-constitutional law, has dealt with those questions. While the US law governing freedom of expression in the workplace is unique in some ways, the problems it deals with will arise in any society that both recognizes the value of freedom of expression and channels labour into the production of goods and services largely through the institution of employment.
Freedom of Media
Authors: Grimm Dieter
Published: February 2021

This chapter explains that in a number of jurisdictions, freedom of media is treated as a subset of freedom of speech. It is speech amplified by technical means such as print or electromagnetic waves. Like freedom of speech, it is conceived as an individual right of the speaker. It is also regarded as a right of the owners of media, even if they do not speak themselves, because they may determine what is published and what is not. However, freedom of media should be regarded as a distinct right. Both rights share the quality of communicative rights, but they refer to different types of communication, individual communication and mass communication. When the early constitutions were adopted, no other means of mass communication than the press existed. Younger constitutions mention broadcasting, but did not foresee the emergence of television; even very recent constitutions remain silent regarding the internet. However, only an extremely crude textualist or originalist would conclude that media not explicitly mentioned in the constitution are not protected against government intrusion. ‘Press’ is a subcategory of the broader notion of ‘media of mass communication’ and thus open for the inclusion of newly emerging media without a constitutional amendment being necessary.
Pornography
Authors: West Caroline
Published: February 2021

This chapter discusses pornography, which is often defended on the basis of freedom of speech or expression. Even if some pornography is not just offensive but actively harmful, it is speech; and, as such, enjoys the special protections generally extended to speech in liberal societies. In the United States, pornography even enjoys legal protection under the free speech clause of the First Amendment of the US Constitution. The chapter then critically examines the traditional free speech defence of pornography, as well as prominent feminist arguments for legal regulation of some pornography, before turning to consider a surprising but increasingly influential free speech-based line of argument against pornography. In discussing these matters, the primary focus will be on general issues of political morality, rather than questions of legal interpretation.
Economic Perspectives on Free Speech
Authors: Hemel Daniel
Published: February 2021

This chapter explores the potential for economic analysis to illuminate freedom of speech. For early scholars of law and economics, the similarities and differences between the metaphorical marketplace for ideas and literal markets for goods and services were subjects of much attention. The chapter then argues that information economics has the potential to explain failures in the ‘marketplace of ideas’. Just as information asymmetry in the market for goods and services allows low quality goods and services to drive high quality goods and services out of the marketplace, there is reason to think that ‘bad speech’ will tend to drive out the ‘good’. For good information to compete in the market, readers and listeners must be able to tell the difference between good and bad information—an idea with particular resonance in the age of ‘fake news’, and with potential implications for the design of free-speech laws.
Freedom of Speech and Public Reason
Authors: Sadurski Wojciech
Published: February 2021

This chapter addresses the salience of the Rawlsian idea of public reason for freedom of speech. It applies a philosophical template of Public Reason to a typically legal issue: what motivations for speech restrictions render the restriction legitimate under the Public Reason criterion, and what motivations taint the law as illegitimate, because they are non-endorsable by reasonable persons to whom they apply. Traces of this pattern of argument can be found in several legal systems: in the United States, Germany, New Zealand, and Australia, when they grapple with constitutionality of restrictions on freedom of speech, and choose the motive path (rather than the effects path) of scrutiny. The most typical pattern of argument is the one which disfavours content-oriented restrictions, as compared to content-neutral restrictions. This distinction offers attractive avenues of argument when it is viewed in the context of legislative motives, and how they fare under a general principle of Public Reason. The chapter then establishes that viewpoint restrictions and subject-matter restrictions—two subcategories of a broader genus of content-based restrictions of freedom of speech—correspond to two perceived wrongful motivations in regulating speech: intolerance and paternalism.
South West and Central Asia
Authors: Karlsson Anastasia , Güneş Güliz , Rahmani Hamed , Jun Sun-Ah
Published: February 2021

This chapter covers prosodic features of languages across Southwestern, Central, and Northern Asia. One representative language from each of the four main language families is passed in review, Turkish (Turkic), Mongolian (Mongolic), Persian (Indo-European), and Georgian (Kartvelian). Owing to a lack of descriptive coverage of the prosody of languages in Central Asia, no comprehensive surveys are provided. The discussion focuses on the word and sentence prosodic structures of each of the four languages, with occasional brief excursions to related languages. The languages in this area are mainly non-tonal, while contrastive lexical stress is rare across the area, and may be controversial or marginal where it was reported earlier. Vowel harmony is pervasive in Mongolic and Turkic. In all four cases, the discussion includes the expression of focus, whether in the word order or the prosody. A final section is devoted to the intonational expression of interrogativity and related meanings.
Southern Europe
Authors: D’Imperio Mariapaola , Gili Fivela Barbara , Baltazani Mary , Post Brechtje , Vella Alexandra
Published: February 2021

This chapter reviews the prosodic systems and intonational phonology of a group of Southern European languages: Italian, French, Greek, and Maltese. It describes their stress, phrasing, rhythm, and intonational phonology, with particular attention to phonologically informed experimental work. In the case of Italian, given the lack of a spoken standard (which is only used by professional speakers) and the descriptions of quite a number of varieties (e.g. Bari, Florence, Naples, Palermo, Pisa, and Rome, inter alia), this review highlights common prosodic and phrasing features first, and subsequently covers any definable variety-specific intonational features. For French, the survey focuses on hexagonal French, while Athenian Greek is the representative variety for Greek, with some excursions into regional varieties. For Maltese, the chapter only focuses on its standard.
Asian Pacific Rim
Authors: Jun Sun-Ah , Kubozono Haruo
Published: February 2021

This chapter describes the prosodic systems of Japanese and Korean, the two major languages spoken in the Asian Pacific Rim. It covers both lexical and post-lexical prosody of these languages, with the main focus on word accent and intonation. As for word accent, Japanese and Korean both exhibit various pitch accent systems ranging from those with multiple accent patterns to those in which pitch plays no distinctive role at the lexical level. The intonation systems of these two languages are also diverse, ranging from those with purely phrasal or boundary tones to those where intonational tones are constrained by lexical pitch accent patterns. However, both languages have an accentual phrase as the smallest prosodic unit defined by intonation. Similarities and differences between the prosodic systems of these two languages, including various regional dialects in each language, are analysed in the framework of the autosegmental-metrical model of intonational phonology.
Austronesia
Authors: Himmelmann Nikolaus P. , Kaufman Daniel
Published: February 2021

While the Austronesian family is large, the main focus of this chapter is on the languages of the Philippines and Indonesia as very little is known about other parts of the family. In the languages analysed to date, intonational targets are often anchored to the edges rather than to metrically strong syllables, most intonational phrases ending with a major pitch excursion within a two- or three-syllable window. These languages often also lack evidence for word-based prominence (lexical stress), but in Philippine languages vowel length distinctions are phonemic and mobile, which is cross-linguistically unusual. Deviating from this general picture, languages in the southern half of Sulawesi and possibly further east tend to show word-based prominence on the penultimate syllable, with significant variation as to which clitics enter into the stress window. Lexical tone is only attested in small subgroups scattered across the area and generally due to language contact.
Prosody in Infant- and Child-Directed Speech
Authors: Soderstrom Melanie , Bortfeld Heather
Published: February 2021

This chapter covers theoretical frameworks and experimental findings showing that young infants are sensitive to language prosody prenatally and can use it to learn about the lexical and morphosyntactic features of their native language(s). Specifically, the chapter first summarizes how prosody relates to the lexicon and the grammar in different languages. It then reviews empirical evidence about prosodic perception in infants. Subsequently, it shows how this early sensitivity to prosody facilitates language learning. Three areas are discussed. First, the chapter presents evidence showing that infants can use their knowledge of lexical stress to constrain word learning. Second, the chapter argues that infants use prosody to learn about basic word order. Third, the chapter shows that infants can use prosody to constrain syntactic analysis and thus word learning. The chapter concludes by discussing the theoretical implications of the reviewed findings and by highlighting open questions.
Prosody in Second Language Teaching
Authors: Chun Dorothy M. , Levis John M.
Published: February 2021

Teaching and learning second language (L2) prosody attracted attention from early theorists before becoming disconnected from linguistic theory. Now, theoretical and pedagogical attention are both seen as aspects of L2 teaching, especially in regard to how prosody affects how listeners understand the speech of L2 learners. This chapter discusses how prosody affects the comprehensibility and intelligibility of L2 speech. It suggests ways in which prosody training is effective in improving perception and production. Instruction in prosody has been based on theories relating to the perception and production of segmentals, indicating a need for greater attention to L2 prosody in its own right. Finally, the chapter discusses teaching different types of prosodic features, including attention to both low-tech and high-tech tools. The future of L2 prosody teaching is wide open, and attention to instructional approaches must address the importance of L1–L2 (mis)matches and principles tied to L2 acquisition.
Visual Prosody Across Cultures
Authors: Swerts Marc , Krahmer Emiel
Published: February 2021

Communication partners not only exchange information through the auditory channel but also use a wide range of visual cues, such as facial expressions, eye gaze, hand gestures, and other types of body language. The latter set of features can be subsumed under the term ‘visual prosody’. Visual cues have been shown to be communicatively relevant, as they not only help to improve speech intelligibility, especially in noisy conditions, but can also signal information that is not expressed through the words or the syntactic structure of an utterance. This chapter examines how visual prosody can be put to use to highlight specific communicative functions, and how such cues relate to auditory forms of prosody. It also presents results of comparative analyses of visual prosody to shed light on resemblances and differences in how it is being exploited in different cultures.
Prosody in Children with Atypical Development
Authors: Paul Rhea , Simmons Elizabeth Schoen , Mahshie James
Published: February 2021

Atypicalities of communication development are among the most common developmental disabilities. As an aspect of communication, prosody is frequently affected in children with atypical development, sometimes as one concomitant of a primary disorder and, in rarer cases, as a prominent feature of the communication profile. This chapter reviews four developmental disorders in which prosody is frequently impaired: autism spectrum disorder, developmental language disorder, cerebral palsy, and hearing loss. Brief descriptions of the impact of each of these disorders on communicative function will be presented. Effects on prosody, including prevalence of prosodic dysfunction within each disorder and the perceptual and acoustic characteristics of the associated prosodic deficits, will be explored. Strategies for assessing and treating prosodic deficits in current clinical use will be outlined. Discussion will focus on potential a etiologies for the observed prosodic deficits, using data from behavioural, genetic, neuroimaging, and electrophysiologic studies, as well as the interpretation of findings on prosodic atypicalities in light of current linguistic, psycholinguistic, and neurolinguistic understanding of language function. Recommendations for further research on the characteristics, assessment, and treatment of prosodic disorders in developmental disabilities will be provided.
Phonetic Correlates of Word and Sentence Stress
Authors: van Heuven Vincent J. , Turk Alice
Published: February 2021

This chapter reviews the acoustic correlates and perceptual cues of linguistic stress at the word and sentence level, mainly in English and other Germanic languages. A first theme is whether word and sentence stress can be ordered monotonically along the same phonetic scale, rather than involving different acoustic parameters and perceptual dimensions. Other topics are the phonetic reflexes of the Alternation Principle (‘NoClash’) and of changes in information structure as well as the effect of sentence stress on the temporal organization of words and phrases. The work on non-Germanic languages raises the issue of the weighting of stress correlates and its possible interaction with language-specific structure. Two hypotheses are evaluated: (i) languages will mark the difference between stressed and unstressed syllables more forcefully as word stress location is less predictable and (ii) a stress correlate will be less important if it is involved elsewhere in the phonology of the language.
Phonetic Variation in Tone and Intonation Systems
Authors: Barnes Jonathan , Mixdorff Hansjörg , Niebuhr Oliver
Published: February 2021

This chapter reviews commonly recurring tendencies in the phonetic realization of tones, both in intonation and in lexical tone systems. It discusses local interactions between tonal targets, such as tonal coarticulation, dissimilatory H-raising, and rightward target displacement. Non-coarticulatory patterns include globally oriented patterns such as declination, look-ahead upstep, and final lowering as well as interactions between tone and the segmental skeleton, such as segmental anchoring, timing adjustments based on syllable structure or segmental features, and patterns of duration-driven truncation and compression of tone melodies. The chapter also considers morphosyntactically, pragmatically, and metalinguistically conditioned hyperarticulation effects arising from prominence or the Lombard effect. Lastly, it discusses issues relating to contour shape, such as the convexity or concavity of f0 movements, plateau versus sharp peak shapes for f0 maxima, and the propensity for L tones to be accompanied by a falling or dipping f0.
The Pentateuch
Authors: Büchner Dirk
Published: February 2021

The impetus behind the translation of the Pentateuch likely emanated from a well-educated sector of the Jewish community, whose members were not unfamiliar with the Hebrew original. The translation’s language style adheres closely enough to Semitic syntax and idiom to suggest that the original’s words were never expected to be lost from view. Being the first undertaking of its kind, the translated Pentateuch is filled with renderings that speak of a spontaneous, creative procedure in which various strategies were attempted. The extent to which the Greek Pentateuch would have functioned as a theological guide for Hellenistic Judaism is not clear. Some parts do exhibit interpretive shifts, while others simply defy being counted as Torah in Greek. The Greek Pentateuch was known to later translators who depended in varying degrees upon its vocabulary.
Ezekiel
Authors: Hauspie Katrin
Published: February 2021

The twentieth century was most important for the study of Greek Ezekiel, starting with the pioneering work of Thackeray which set the tone for further research. He launched the multiple-translator theory, which tended to dominate research on Ezekiel for decades. He also isolated Ezek. 36:23c–38 as a separate unit from the surrounding text, which later seemed corroborated by the omission of this pericope in Papyrus 967. The more the century progressed, the more Greek Ezekiel generated renewed scholarly interest, owing largely to the publication of Papyrus 967: the authenticity of nomina sacra gained new interest, the minuses and transposition in this papyrus seriously raised the question of a variant literary edition, the messianic tendencies in the Septuagint version needed to be reassessed. Crucial and still an ongoing question in the research of the Septuagint of Ezekiel is the issue of distinguishing the Vorlage from the translator’s contributions. Skopostheorie, focusing on the goals of the translator, has opened new venues of research, as evidenced in Ezekiel chs. 40–8.
The Constantinople Pentateuch and Medieval Jewish Use of Greek Biblical Texts
Authors: Krivoruchko Julia G.
Published: February 2021

The Late Antique period was characterized both by textual plurality of the Hebrew Bible and numerous concomitantly circulating translations of the Scripture into Greek. Scholars tend to agree that with increasing standardization of the Hebrew Bible and the emergence of the Masoretic Text (MT), editorial activity in the field of Greek translations concentrated on creating the versions that were closer to Hebrew. Numerous attempts have been undertaken to establish whether the emergence of new versions caused older ones to be forgotten; which of the Greek translations continued to enjoy popularity among the Greek-speaking Jews in post-Hellenistic times; and what was the ultimate fate of these translations. The present chapter surveys the afterlife of Greek biblical texts in Byzantine and medieval Jewish communities.
The Septuagint in the Latin World
Authors: Graves Michael
Published: February 2021

Greek Old Testament texts were being translated into Latin by the second century ce, with a complete Old Latin version extant by the third century. Tertullian was aware of Latin translations but typically consulted the Greek directly. The Old Latin version underwent revisions and textual diversification in the third and fourth centuries, reflecting updates in style and adjustments based on evolving Greek texts. In 391–405 Jerome produced his Latin translations based on the Hebrew. Although he doubted the inspiration of the LXX and promoted the hebraica veritas, Jerome never ceased commenting on the LXX and sometimes acknowledged its traditional ecclesial status. In contrast, Augustine consistently affirmed the inspiration of the LXX, although he eventually recognized the value of the Hebrew. Over time the Old Latin version steadily lost ground to Jerome’s Hebrew version, although elements of the LXX were preserved in Latin through the deuterocanonical books and Jerome’s Gallican Psalter.
Modern Translations of the Septuagint
Authors: Bons Eberhard
Published: February 2021

The chapter presents the current situation of translations of the Septuagint in European languages. The focus lies on the following projects: La Bible d’Alexandrie, the New English Translation of the Septuagint, Septuaginta Deutsch, La Biblia griega—Septuaginta, La Bibbia dei Settanta. The first section addresses general features of these translations, the second section deals with methodological decisions underlying the translations, the third focuses on specific problems of translating the Septuagint (Hebraisms, Greek of Ptolemaic Egypt, difficult expressions). Finally, the fourth section touches upon notes and comments on Septuagint translations.
Joshua and Judges
Authors: Fernández Marcos Natalio
Published: February 2021

These two books are treated in the same chapter: they are contiguous in both Jewish and Christian collections, and LXX Joshua provides two extra verses that form a ‘bridge’ to Judges. Though their Septuagintal forms are dissimilar textually, they each present particular challenges to editors. LXX Joshua is shorter than the Hebrew MT, while LXX Judges displays a very different text in the two main codices, Vaticanus and Alexandrinus. In both cases it is very difficult to determine what the original Greek translations would have looked like. The section on Joshua describes the present state of the question concerning the structure, language, and translation technique of the book. The conclusion indicates the most promising directions of the research, namely the analysis of the language in comparison with the other books of the Septuagint and with the history of the Greek language; the study of the Antiochian text in Joshua; the relationship between the Masoretic Text and the Greek text as well as between textual and literary criticism. The section on Judges classifies and describes the textual groups of Judges, including the present state of the question. Some of the most promising directions of research are the production of a critical edition of Judges in the Göttingen series maior; the analysis of the Antiochian text; the translation technique of the Old Greek and the relationship between the Masoretic Text and the different groups of Greek manuscripts, especially the groups A and B.
Illustrated Manuscripts of the Septuagint
Authors: Kominko Maja
Published: February 2021

The chapter provides a brief overview of illustrated Greek manuscripts of the Bible, starting from Late Antiquity until the end of the Byzantine Empire. It outlines different, often conflicting, hypotheses on the origins, development, and transmission of the illustrative cycles in Byzantine Bibles. The material is organized according to the diverse biblical textual units preserved in illustrated Byzantine manuscripts. The chapter traces connections between codices, and continuity in the use of pictorial vocabulary. At the same time, it flags diverse approaches to illustrating the biblical text, from literal illustrations through to highly symbolic visual exegesis.
Manuscripts, Papyri, and Epigraphy
Authors: Theophilos Michael P.
Published: February 2021

This chapter explores issues concerned with both the classification and incorporation of papyrological and epigraphic material relating to the LXX, as well as the question of how this material has and should be used in critical discussions of relevant LXX texts. Papyrological discussion is focused on the Rylands Greek Papyrus 458, Papyrus Fouad 266, select Oxyrhynchus materials, and the Berlin Genesis. Epigraphic discussion of select material specifically highlights the value of the geographical demarcation they inherently provide. Avenues for further research are highlighted as 1) definition of an LXX quotation, 2) the continued need for work on the considerable unpublished material, and 3) methodological clarity on what constitutes material evidence as being classified as ‘Jewish’, ‘Christian’, or other.
Geochemical and O–C–Sr–Nd Isotopic Constraints on the Petrogenetic Link between Aillikites and Carbonatites in the Tarim Large Igneous Province
Authors: Wang Changhong , Zhang Zhaochong , Giuliani Andrea , Cheng Zhiguo , Liu Bingxiang , Kong Weiliang
Published: February 2021

Aillikites are carbonate-rich ultramafic lamprophyres often associated with carbonatites. Despite their common field relationships, the petrogenetic links, if any, between aillikites and carbonatites remain controversial. To address this question, this study reports the results of a detailed geochemical and isotopic examination of the Permian Wajilitag aillikites in the northwestern Tarim large igneous province, including bulk-rock major- and trace-element and Sr–Nd isotope compositions, olivine major- and trace-element and (in situ secondary ion mass spectrometry) oxygen isotope compositions, oxygen isotope data for clinopyroxene separates, and bulk-carbonate C–O isotopic analyses. Olivine in the aillikites occurs in two textural types: (1) microcrysts, 0·3–5 mm; (2) macrocrysts, 0·5–2·5 cm. The microcrysts exhibit well-defined linear correlations between Fo (79–89) and minor and trace elements (e.g. Ni = 1304–3764 μg g–1 and Mn = 1363–3042 μg g–1). In contrast, the olivine macrocrysts show low Fo (79–81), Ni (5·3–442 μg g–1) and Ca (477–1018 μg g–1) and very high Mn (3418–5123 μg g–1) contents, and are displaced from the compositional trend of the microcrysts. The microcrysts are phenocrysts crystallized from the host aillikite magmas. Conversely, the lack of mantle-derived xenoliths in these aillikites suggests that the macrocrysts probably represent cognate crystals (i.e. antecrysts) that formed from earlier, evolved aillikite melts. Olivine phenocrysts in the more primitive aillikite dykes (Dyke 1) have relatively higher Fo (Fo82–89) and mantle-like oxygen isotope values, whereas those in the more evolved dykes (Dykes 2 and 3) exhibit lower Fo (Fo79–86) and oxygen isotope values that trend toward lower than mantle δ18O values. The decreasing δ13C values of carbonate from Dyke 1 to Dykes 2 and 3, coupled with the indistinguishable Sr–Nd isotopes of these dykes, suggest that the low δ18O values of olivine phenocrysts in Dykes 2 and 3 resulted from carbonate melt/fluid exsolution from a common progenitor melt. These lines of evidence combined with the overlapping emplacement ages and Sr–Nd isotope compositions of the aillikites and carbonatites in this area suggest that these exsolved carbonate melts probably contributed to the formation of the Tarim carbonatites, thus supporting a close petrogenetic relationship between aillikites and carbonatites.
State transitions and photosystems spatially resolved in individual cells of the cyanobacteriumSynechococcus elongatus
Authors: Bhatti Ahmad Farhan , Kirilovsky Diana , van Amerongen Herbert , Wientjes Emilie
Published: February 2021

State transitions are a low-light acclimation response through which the excitation of Photosystem I (PSI) and Photosystem II (PSII) is balanced; however, our understanding of this process in cyanobacteria remains poor. Here, picosecond fluorescence kinetics was recorded for the cyanobacterium Synechococcus elongatus using fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM), both upon chlorophyll a and phycobilisome (PBS) excitation. Fluorescence kinetics of single cells obtained using FLIM were compared with those of ensembles of cells obtained with time-resolved fluorescence spectroscopy. The global distribution of PSI and PSII and PBSs was mapped making use of their fluorescence kinetics. Both radial and lateral heterogeneity were found in the distribution of the photosystems. State transitions were studied at the level of single cells. FLIM results show that PSII quenching occurs in all cells, irrespective of their state (I or II). In S. elongatus cells, this quenching is enhanced in State II. Furthermore, the decrease of PSII fluorescence in State II was homogeneous throughout the cells, despite the inhomogeneous PSI/PSII ratio. Finally, some disconnected PBSs were resolved in most State II cells. Taken together our data show that PSI is enriched in the inner thylakoid, while state transitions occur homogeneously throughout the cell.
Should COVID-19 patients >75 years be Ventilated? An Outcome Study
Authors: Raheja H , Chukwuka N , Agarwal C , Sharma D , Munoz-Martinez A , Fogel J , Khalid M , Hashmi A T , Ehrlich S , Waheed M A , Siddiqui S , de Brito Gomes B A , Aslam A , Merino Gualan C J , Aftab I , Tiwari A , Singh S , Pouching K , Somal N , Shani J , Rojas-Marte G
Published: February 2021

Background

Elderly patients with COVID-19 disease are at increased risk for adverse outcomes. Current data regarding disease characteristics and outcomes in this population are limited.

Aim

To delineate the adverse factors associated with outcomes of COVID-19 patients ≥75 years of age.

Design

Retrospective cohort study.

Methods

Patients were classified into mild/moderate, severe/very severe and critical disease (intubated) based on oxygen requirements. The primary outcome was in-hospital mortality.

Results

A total of 355 patients aged ≥75 years hospitalized with COVID-19 between 19 March and 25 April 2020 were included.Mean age was 84.3 years. One-third of the patients developed critical disease. Mean length of stay was 7.10 days. Vasopressors were required in 27%, with the highest frequency in the critical disease group (74.1%). Overall mortality was 57.2%, with a significant difference between severity groups (mild/moderate disease: 17.4%, severe/very severe disease: 71.3%, critical disease: 94.9%, P < 0.001).Increased age, dementia, and severe/very severe and critical disease groups were independently associated with increased odds for mortality while diarrhea was associated with decreased odds for mortality (OR: 0.12, 95% CI: 0.02–0.60, P < 0.05). None of the cardiovascular comorbidities were significantly associated with mortality.

Conclusion

Age and dementia are associated with increased odds for mortality in patients ≥75 years of age hospitalized with COVID-19. Those who require intubation have the greatest odds for mortality. Diarrhea as a presenting symptom was associated with lower odds for mortality.
Sub-setting systemic lupus erythematosus by combined molecular phenotypes defines divergent populations in two phase III randomized trials
Authors: Petri Michelle , Watts Steven D , Higgs Richard E , Linnik Matthew D
Published: February 2021

Objectives

Heterogeneity of SLE patients in clinical trials remains a challenge for developing new therapies. This study used a combinatorial analysis of four molecular biomarkers to define key sources of heterogeneity.

Methods

Combinations of IFN (high/low), anti-dsDNA (+/−) and C3 and C4 (low/normal) were used to subset n = 1747 patients from two randomized phase III trials. A dichotomous classification scheme defined SLE (+) as: IFN (high), anti-dsDNA (+), C3 (low) and/or C4 (low). SLE (−) required all of the following: IFN (low), anti-dsDNA (−), C3 (normal) and C4 (normal). Additional analyses subset the data further by IFN, anti-dsDNA and complement.

Results

The trials enrolled n = 2262 patients of which n = 1747 patients had data for IFN, anti-dsDNA, C3 and C4 at baseline. There were n = 247 patients in the SLE (−) population and n = 1500 patients in the SLE (+) population. The SLE (−) population had more mucocutaneous and musculoskeletal disease at baseline, while SLE (+) had more haematological, renal and vascular involvement. There was lower concomitant medication use in the SLE (−) population for corticosteroids and immunosuppressants, except for MTX. Time to severe flare was significantly longer in SLE (−) vs SLE (+) (P < 0.0001) and SRI-4 response rate was significantly lower in SLE (−) vs SLE (+) (P = 0.00016). The USA had more SLE (−) patients (22%) than Mexico/Central America/South America (10%), Europe (7%) and the rest of the world (5%).

Conclusion

Combinatorial analysis of four molecular biomarkers revealed subsets of SLE patients that discriminated by disease manifestations, concomitant medication use, geography, time to severe flare and SRI-4 response. These data may be useful for designing clinical trials and identifying subsets of patients for analysis.