bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Strip Around the World
Authors: Frankel Noralee
Published: November 2023

Sweden’s nude bathing surprised Gypsy. “I guess I’m more easily shocked than the average person,” she told a local interviewer, who thought she was joking. Ten-year-old Erik surpassed his mother’s punch line by adding, “The YMCA or the YWCA is the only place you can do that in America.” Aspects of the European trip challenged Gypsy, but most audiences reacted favorably to the old routines. Throughout Europe, Gypsy created a variation of her carnival show. Four women, usually recruited from the host country, in fishnet stockings and strategically placed sequins sauntered onstage with a well-dressed Gypsy. Slowly, Gypsy stripped her clothing: a pink ermine coat; a dress laden with rhinestones, furs, and jewels. “Thus loaded,” she joked, “it would certainly be difficult to run for a bus.” She placed her extensive wardrobe on the other women. By the end of the act, Gypsy wore only a few leaves that, as one reporter pointed out, “had the autumnal tendency to fall.” After a few changings of the seasons in London, the County Council intervened, causing Gypsy to be “more painstaking in applying the spirit gum which keeps the leaves from slipping.”
Immortality in Book and Song
Authors: Frankel Noralee
Published: November 2023

It’s here, Papa, it’s here! Girls, the letter is here!’ Mother closed the front door and stood with her back pressed against it. She let the other letters fall to the floor, holding the important one to her chest. ‘Oh, please,’ she murmured, ‘please, God, make it good news.’ “ Had the girls been accepted as a vaudeville act? So begins Act I, chapter 3 of Gypsy’s autobiography, Gypsy: A Memoir, which Gypsy wrote in three acts as if it were a stage play. It was published in 1957. Gypsy told such a compelling story about her childhood that her book ends with Gypsy still in her twenties.

Before Gypsy decided to write mysteries, she had attempted and failed at a memoir. She worried that her witticisms about her experiences might not be funny. In the 1940s, she composed shorter articles about her childhood for the New Yorker and Harper’s. Ten years later she protested, “It’s not the time for it. Not yet.” Autobiographies “always seem so final,” she reflected. Besides, “I’ve been too busy living it to be writing it.”
Aging Gracefully in Public
Authors: Frankel Noralee
Published: November 2023

In 1961, Gypsy bought a seventeen-room mansion situated on two acres at 1240 Cerrocrest Drive in Beverly Hills. She paid $63,500 for it and was convinced that she had made a good buy. Built in the 1920s on one of the highest sites in the city, the house was some seventy-five feet above the street and was reached by steep steps. Gypsy wisely built a retaining wall and placed tall cypresses in front. She chose the house in California because she adored its breathtaking view at night and the spaciousness inside. She teasingly referred to it as “early Sunset Boulevard”—a self-conscious parody of the movie about a reclusive former silent film actress’s inability to cope with her aging.

But the house required a great deal of remodeling to make it livable. She knew she had her work cut out for her to transform the place into her home. She hired ironworkers, plumbers, and gardeners and an interior designer, Jane Ashley. Even as she labored to give it her own style, she found the setting relaxing. Outside, Gypsy puttered relentlessly and with great satisfaction in her garden, which contained a small moat stocked with fish. Inside, she cleaned to the point of bleeding knuckles and broken fingernails.
Diagnosis and Evaluation of Patients With Seizures
Authors: Asadi-Pooya Ali A , Sperling Michael R
Published: November 2023

Approximately 10% of the general population will experience at least one seizure within their lifetimes in most Western countries, and even higher rates are observed in developing countries. However, less than one-third of these individuals go on to develop epilepsy, which is characterized by recurring seizures. Epilepsy may be due to genetic causes (inherited trait to have seizures), brain tumors, infections (meningitis or encephalitis), brain trauma, stroke, developmental anomalies (e.g., cortical dysplasia), malformations (tuberous sclerosis, neuroﬁbromatosis), vascular malformations (arteriovenous malformations), and other causes. In at least half of individuals who suffer from epilepsy, no cause can be ascertained.
Antiepileptic Drugs in Patients With Cardiovascular Disorders
Authors: Asadi-Pooya Ali A , Sperling Michael R
Published: November 2023

Selection of the appropriate antiepileptic therapy should be guided by the recognition that some patients have multiple comorbidities and receive multiple medications. Patients with cardiovascular disorders are usually on antihypertensive, anticoagulant, or cardiac drugs, which may have signiﬁcant interactions with antiepileptic drugs (AEDs). In addition, AEDs may have adverse effects on cardiovascular system (Drug Facts and Comparisons, 2007). The major class of interaction is between AEDs that induce or inhibit the cytochrome P-450 enzyme system and cardiovascular medications that are metabolized by these enzymes. Therefore, it is best to avoid enzymealtering AEDs if possible.
Antiepileptic Drugs in Patients With History of Drug-Induced Cutaneous Eruptions
Authors: Asadi-Pooya Ali A , Sperling Michael R
Published: November 2023

Drug-induced rashes are the most common type of idiosyncratic reaction due to the use of antiepileptic drugs (AEDs). The most common presentation is a maculopapular or erythematous pruritic rash appearing within 4 weeks of initiating therapy with a new AED. Systemic symptoms are usually absent, although fever may occur. The rash usually disappears within several days of discontinuing the drug. Other therapeutic measures are rarely needed, although diphenhydramine may help suppress itching and a brief course of steroids may be helpful for severe rash, particularly when fever is present. Occasionally, the rash can be severe and present as erythema multiforme, Stevens-Johnson syndrome, or toxic epidermal necrolysis (Lyell syndrome) (Asconapé, 2002; Alvestad et al., 2007).
Investing For Change
Authors: Landier Augustin , Nair Vinay B
Published: November 2023

The socially conscious citizen is uneasy today, as globalization seems to grind social standards ever lower, driving companies to search abroad for the lowest labor costs and forcing governments to reduce safety regulations to attract them. In this scenario, workers earn less, the environment suffers, tax revenues for health care and other social necessities fall lower and lower. Investing for Change shows that these citizens can change the globalized world in the direction of many common values by being a socially conscious investor. How can one invest according to one’s values? Will it change the way companies act? In Investing for Change, Augustin Landier and Vinay B. Nair argue that in fact globalization, by lowering boundaries through instantaneous communications and providing individuals greater choices, is helping create a shared concern for many issues around the planet. No longer are such humanitarian concerns as workplace safety, environmental standards, health care, and child-labor protections limited to isolated nations in the developed world. This development gives Responsible Investing valuable practical force. After all, the authors write, companies should not be expected to put profits second, nor should investors be expected to pay a price to express their values. As the numbers of socially conscious investors rise--and as global pressure increases--companies will compete to maximize their appeal to these investors. Most exciting, the authors point to a new generation of financial products, based on the techniques of hedge funds, which will eliminate the cost of responsible investing. The world is changing--and it can change for the better, faster, with market-tested tools that promise real financial results. Categorizing investors in illuminating groups of Yellow, Blue, and Red, and drawing on the latest research and deep experience in asset management, Landier and Nair show how responsible investing can truly come into its own.
Can SRI Achieve Change?
Authors: Landier Augustin , Nair Vinay B
Published: November 2023

When many cities, states, colleges, faith-based groups, and pension funds throughout the United States began removing their investments from companies operating in South Africa, due to their opposition to apartheid, the decline in investment eventually forced a group of businesses, representing 75% of South African employers, to draft a charter calling for an end to apartheid. While efforts by socially responsible investors alone did not bring an end to apartheid, they did focus persuasive international pressure on the South African business community.
21St-Century Issues
Authors: O’Neill Philip D
Published: November 2023

The invasions of Afghanistan and Iraq engendered a series of substantive and process-related legal developments. As the U.S. military and intelligence establishments grapple to meet new threats through refined structural and deployment practices, the legal consequences of those changes are just beginning to play out. In some instances, as with detention practices, the new legal implications arise against a fairly well-developed legal framework, with the difficulty primarily resulting from a principled legacy of nation-state conflicts trying to address sub-state, crossborder asymmetric warfare. In other instances, systemic changes with legal process implications arise from restructuring resources to meet changes in circumstances, as well as to remedy prior disconnects with security implications, as with the sharing of intelligence among involved agencies. In this Chapter the principal issues encountered thus far in fighting the wars of this century are explored; namely: (i) intelligence; (ii) military organization; (iii) detention; and (iv) terror finance
Theoretical Considerations
Authors: Ribstein Larry E
Published: November 2023

This chapter introduces the specific issues concerning the uncorporation and frames them theoretically. The chapter’s goal is to provide an understanding of the concept of the uncorporation in the general context of the functions of economic firms, the legal constructs known as business associations, and the processes that drive the evolution of these structures.
The Evolution Of The Modern Uncorporation
Authors: Ribstein Larry E
Published: November 2023

Chapters 4 and 5 traced the corporation’s rise to embrace both the large firms that arguably fit into the corporate mold and the closely held firms that do not. Lawmakers could channel firms into the corporate form (where they could be regulated and taxed) by blocking alternative routes to corporate features, particularly including limited liability.
Why Vietnam
Authors: Brewer Susan A
Published: November 2023

From the beginning, government leaders found it hard to explain to the American people why U.S. troops fought in Vietnam. As historian Marilyn Young observed, America’s war in Southeast Asia was “war as performance.” U.S. leaders feared that failure to prevent Vietnam from going communist would damage America’s image of strength considered to be vital in the stand-off with the Soviet Union. Policymakers relied on the Cold War official narrative to justify U.S. involvement. Their purpose, they said, was to contain the spread of communism from North Vietnam to U.S.-backed South Vietnam. As in the Korean War, “good Asians” fought with Americans against “bad Asians,” who followed the doctrines of Moscow and Beijing.
The Death-Strewn Slope
Authors: Desjardin Thomas A
Published: November 2023

Most of the afternoon on July 2 the 20th remained safely nestled between the other regiments of the Fifth Corps along the Granite School-house Road. The First, Eleventh, and Twelfth Corps occupied the ground around them. Aware of his own shortcomings as a military commander, Joshua Chamberlain fretted over the apparent lack of information or strategy that seemed to consume the army around him. “But what much more impressed my mind,” he later wrote, “was the great calm, the uncertainty of overture, and seeming lack of tactical plan for the tremendous issue. We were aware that other troops were coming up, on one side and the other; but we had no means of knowing or judging which side would take the offensive and which the defensive or where the battle would begin.”
Pro Bono As An Elite Strategy In Early Lawyer Careers
Authors: Dinovitzer Ronit , Garth Bryant G
Published: November 2023

The conventional argument for pro bono legal service—heard from the organized bar and scholars alike—is that lawyers have a moral obligation to perform such service. Pointing to the large unmet need for legal services, scholars argue that members of the bar must be enlisted as part of a moral commitment to serve people who otherwise cannot afford legal assistance (Rhode 2005). Others build a parallel argument that lawyers are obligated to provide pro bono legal services because of the monopoly they are granted over the provision of legal services (Christensen 1981; Sossin 2008). In other words, in order to sustain the legitimacy of the bar’s monopoly, lawyers must demonstrate a commitment to access to justice for disadvantaged individuals. From this vantage point, the goal is to encourage more lawyers to provide more pro bono services.
The Role Of Volunteer Lawyers In Challenging The Conditions Of A Local Housing Crisis In Buffalo, Ny
Authors: Gocker James Clarke
Published: November 2023

The organization and delivery of pro bono legal services has become increasingly institutionalized over the last quarter-century in jurisdictions across the United States. During this time, according to Cummings (2004), an intricate network of professional, private commercial and nonprofit, and public-sector legal organizations has emerged and set out to construct a “centralized and streamlined” pro bono system. The implications of organized pro bono’s emergence and institutionalization deserve more nuanced scholarly attention than has been given. Little is known, for instance, about how these changes affect the consciousness and actions of legal practitioners around issues of pro bono service. According to Cummings (2004:6), organized pro bono inculcates a set of “values and practices that have become deeply ingrained as part of the culture of legal professionalism, defining how lawyers understand their role in making legal services available to poor and underrepresented groups.”
Introduction
Authors: O’Reilly Prof. James T
Published: November 2023

This book is different. Law libraries have shelves full of books on defining crimes, detecting crimes, and conducting criminal jury trials. This book takes a different perspective. This book assumes that misconduct has occurred, and that society wishes to exact some penalty from the malefactors. But society cannot imprison a legal fiction, a corporation, and so the punishment that society can obtain will take other forms that are studied in this book. Corporations cannot be shackled by irons, or shot by firing squad, but they can be subjected to monitoring and debarment and several forms of starvation including fines, disgorgement, receivership, etc.
Constitutional Considerations
Authors: Hanlon James Patrick
Published: November 2023

Government investigations of corporate misconduct are radically different from civil litigation. Not only are the pace quicker and the stakes higher, but constitutional issues that usually do not apply in the context of civil litigation must always be considered and may be outcome determinative. For example, the government recently investigated accounting firm KPMG’s potential involvement in creating and marketing allegedly fraudulent tax shelters. KPMG cooperated with the government’s investigation and numerous former KPMG partners and employees were charged with federal crimes. A federal district court ultimately dismissed some of the indictments that had
Corporate Integrity Agreements
Authors: Reilly Jamest. O ‘ , Hanlon James patrick , Hall Ralph F , Jackson Steven L . , Lewis Erin Reilly
Published: November 2023

This chapter deals with a complex and evolving means of punishing corporate misconduct, the relatively recent creation called the Corporate Integrity Agreement. A company with a significant compliance issue faces legal risks from several fronts. First, it is at risk from civil or criminal actions brought by the U.S. Department of Justice and U.S. Attorney’s Offices. Next, it must be concerned about private litigants asserting either private causes of action (such as product liability suits or shareholder actions) or acting as private attorneys general (where permitted). Increasingly, there is the third risk of a federal administrative agency bringing or threatening a stand-alone (but often coordinated) enforcement action. These administrative agency actions often are resolved through a settlement agreement with that agency. These administrative agency settlements can impose substantial obligations on the company and must be addressed with great care.
Command Responsibility and Accountability
Authors: Hansen Victor M
Published: November 2023

The doctrine of command responsibility is the cornerstone Law of Armed Conflict (“LOAC”) compliance mechanism. It is derived from the expectation that the LOAC is only as effective as the military commanders entrusted with the responsibility to ensure that their subordinates understand and respect this law. By imposing liability on commanders for subordinates’ misconduct that the commanders were capable of preventing, suppressing, and punishing, the law incentivizes the discharge of command responsibility in a manner that fosters a climate of respect and compliance with the LOAC. The essence of this doctrine lies in its scope of liability. Based on the lessons of history, international law evolved to expand a commander’s liability beyond the traditional notions of principal and accomplice liability to a broader theory of derivative liability. As a result, commanders may be responsible not only for the LOAC violations they committed or ordered, but also for violations that could have been averted if they had discharged their responsibilities effectively by preventing violations they knew or should have known would occur. While this scope of liability may be expansive when compared to those applicable in peacetime, it has
In Search of Safe Haven Exile, Immigration, and Identity
Authors: Jaksic Iván
Published: November 2023

It was 11 September 1976, when friends drove me to Santiago’s international airport. I had a one-way ticket to the United States, and a valid passport with a visa. But September was one week before the scheduled start of my mandatory two-year military service. I had been. expelled from the University of Chile by officials appointed by the military regime of Augusto Pinochet, and my part-time job as a secondary school teacher was in jeopardy. My mentor at the Department of Philosophy was in prison and I was expecting the same fate for myself. My choices were either to leave the country or stay and be drafted, something I did not want to do under the current conditions of Chile.
Identity, Racism, and Multiculturalism
Authors: Wilton Janis
Published: November 2023

In 1903 the editorial in a small rural newspaper in northern New South Wales, Australia, railed against Chinese storekeepers in the region: We are opposed to Chinese and other coloured aliens in every shape and form. As believers in the policy of protection, we contend that foreign goods should be excluded; and with them, foreign labor of the cheap and undesirable class.
Gendered Moments and lnscripted Memories :Girlhood in Twentieth-century Chinese Autobiography
Authors: Croll Elisabeth J
Published: November 2023

Much has been written about the Confucian rhetoric of gender difference and hierarchy, but little about its treatment of childhood socialization and experiences. In China there were few recorded experiences of childhood, much less of girlhood, until the publication throughout the twentieth century of a number of female life stories, mostly written during the early decades of this century. Narrated during times of rapid and radical social change and by unusual women, mostly literate and advantaged, they document a dawning recognition that not only were there gender-differentiated norms and behavioural expectations, but female lives were to be substantially and increasingly different from those of brothers or other males of family or neighbourhood. Reflecting this burgeoning consciousness, these women reconstructed narratives around a precise selection of remembered moments which gendered their experiences and memories of childhood and documented the journey from girlhood to womanhood. Indeed the terms ‘daughter’, ‘journey’, and ‘memory’ frequently appear in the titles and subtitles of their life stories. I What is particularly interesting about these narratives, which are written and published in disparate places and times, is that the female narrators quite independently have recalled so many of the same moments, commonly identifying them as pivotal to their experience of girlhood.
The Rage of Christian Economics 1800–1840
Authors: Hilton Boyd
Published: November 2023

Evangelical economics was part of something wider and more vague which may be called ‘Christian economics’, and Christian economics was a reaction against-but also part of-the great vogue for political economy during the first half of the nineteenth century. It should therefore not be confused with the tradition of thought which repudiated political economy as a mode of inquiry improper in itself. The latter often borrowed from Christian precept but was really romantic, high Tory, and anti-utilitarian.
Profit and Prophecy: Evangelical Attitudes to Business
Authors: Hilton Boyd
Published: November 2023

It might be supposed that the well-to-do stressed the ‘rigours of mercy’ and the ‘need to be cruel to be kind’ simply in order to keep the poor in their place, but it can be said in extenuation that they often adopted a similar approach to their own position in the economy. In an age of enormous money-making and intense religiosity, the rich were sorely troubled by Christ’s injunctions as to the ‘spiritual superiority of the poor’, his frequent allusion to ‘the perils of wealth, and the difficulties it interposes in the way of salvation’. Working-men might be animals, ‘upon a level with the beasts that perish’,2 their mortal souls and temporal prospects alike threatened by the sin of copulation, but the upper classes felt them-selves to be standing in far graver spiritual danger from a sin every bit as mortal—speculation
The Mind of Economic Man
Authors: Hilton Boyd
Published: November 2023

Its critics were generally agreed that technical political economy was too abstract and theoretical, but, in demanding that it become more ‘inductive’ or empirical, different critics meant different things. As we have seen, there was a Cambridge school which bewailed the shortage of information as to how economic man actually behaves. ‘To obtain consequences from principles is Deduction; to obtain general truths from particular facts is Induction’, pronounced Whewell,2 as he encouraged Jones to accumulate particular facts that would refute the Ricardian theory of rent. Oxford critics, on the other hand, and indeed most Christian economists, were less concerned with factual observation than with the psychological premisses of human behaviour.
The Labour Government 1945-1951
Authors: Clegg Hugh Armstrong
Published: November 2023

The growth of British trade union membership which had begun in 1934 continued during the war to a peak of 8.17 million in 1943 (40.4 per cent of the labour force). Thereafter there was a pause with the beginning of the run-down in the production of armaments, but growth resumed in 1945 when the total rose to 8.80 million (43.0 per cent). By 1951 it had risen to 9.53 million (45.0 per cent). Apart from a marginal rise in the following year, that figure of union density was not matched again until 1970. By comparison, from 19u to 1918 growth had been from 3.13 million to 6.46 million, and the peak came in 1920, with 8.25 million, followed by a long decline to 4.35 million in 1933. Not all trade unionists were members of unions affiliated to the Trades Union Congress. In 1945 affiliated membership was 6.58 million; by 1951 the figure was 7.83 million. The proportion of British trade union members affiliated to Congress therefore rose from less than three-quarters in 1945 to well over four-fifths in 1951. This increase was mainly due to the repeal in 1946 of the Trade Disputes and Trade Unions Act of 1927 which had prevented Civil Service unions from affiliating to Congress. The authority of Congress was thereby enhanced, although the Civil Service unions had paid attention to Congress opinions and decisions even while they were debarred from membership.
Nurses and Ancillaries in the Christian Era
Authors: Summers Anne
Published: November 2023

The nurse in the historical context frequently eludes discovery or definition. The term nursing is susceptible to multiple meanings, including suckling and childminding; the nurse’s contemporary role is easily confused with that of the doctor or paramedic. Nevertheless, there is widespread understanding of the meaning of nursing care in sickness. At its best it involves attending to all the needs of a permanently or temporarily disabled patient: administering food and drink as well as medicaments; keeping the sick person’s body at a comfortable temperature by attention to clothing, bedding, and ventilation. It involves keeping the patient and everything around him or her clean: bodily evacuations must be seen to, laundry taken care of, floors, walls, and furniture scrubbed as necessary. The patient must be treated as the subject as well as the object of the treatment, and helped to keep quiet, calm, and as cheerful as pos sible. Accurate medical observations, by eye or by instrument, of physical or behavioural reactions to diet and therapy, must be made and reported. The patient must be nursed for as long as the illness continues, regardless of out come.
Children in Hospital
Authors: Walker-smith J A
Published: November 2023

Britain lagged behind the rest ofEurope in the provision ofhospital care for children. When the Hospital for Sick Children in Great Ormond Street was opened in 1852, Dr Charles West, the inspiration behind its establishment, stated that neither in London nor throughout the whole of the British Empire was there a single hospital exclusively devoted to the reception of children, nor, with occasional exceptions, were children admitted to the numerous large (voluntary) general hospitals. This was because from the time they had first been established in the eighteenth century, the voluntary hospitals had devised rules on what kinds of patients should be excluded from in-patient care. Thus the voluntary hospitals refused admission to ‘women big with child’, cases of’the itch’, ‘the pox’, consumption, fevers, and incurable cases, and also children unless they required a surgical operation or had suffered an accidental injury. Although some of these rules were relaxed in the first half of the nineteenth century, the rules which excluded children were still applied. Sick children with medical complaints were not admitted.
Medicine and the Mind
Authors: Neve Michael
Published: November 2023

Faced with such an enormous subject as the history of medical writings and practice on the mind, the student may be tempted, almost for convenience, to turn that history into a history of psychiatry. This temptation will be all the more attractive since this is what many psychiatrists, acting as historians, have done when turning their attention to the subject. As a result, this part of the history ofWestern medicine can end up as a form of endless retrospective diagnosis, with the proper contextualization of events and interpretations being sacrificed to the psychiatric categories employed by contemporary med ical practitioners. The vital historical point about psychiatry is that it is a recent medical specialism (though many would dispute even that description) with a remarkable lack of consensus as to what clinical models actually explain the behaviours and beliefs under examination. The best psychiatries and the best histories of psychiatry share a common sense that this is only one among many approaches to the mysteries of medicine and the mind, and that the historical record clearly shows this.
Unofficial and Unorthodox Medicine
Authors: Pelling Margaret
Published: November 2023

THE scene is late seventeenth-century London, near Tower Bridge. John Wilmot, second Earl of Rochester, satirist, poet, and libertine, having dis graced himself at court by over-indulgence in horseplay with his friends, has disguised himself as ‘the noble Dr Alexander Bendo’, Italian mountebank, apparently with entire success. Dressed in an old overgrown green gown lyned through with exotick furrs of diverse colours, an antique Cap, a great Reverend Beard, and a Magnificent false Medal sett round with glittering Pearl, rubies, and Dia monds of the same Cognation, hung about his Neck in a Massy Gold like Chaine of Princes mettle, which the King of Cyprus (you must know) had given him for doing a signal Cure upon his darling Daughter the Princess Aloephangina, who was painted in a Banner ...
Francesco de’ Vieri (1524-1591) and his Teaching at the University of Pisa*
Authors: Gibba Alessandra
Published: November 2023

Francesco de’ Vieri, known as Verino secondo, was born in Florence in 1524, the son of Giovan Battista. His grandfather was a philosopher at the University of Pisa and a lecturer at the Accademia Fiorentina. Although very little is known of Francesco the younger’s training, we can assume that he went to the University of Pisa, like many Florentines of his time, and that he was a pupil of his grandfather. His Aristotelian training was combined with a steady interest in Platonism which led him to create an independent chair in Platonism at the University of Pisa.
The University Town as a Lieu de Mémoire: Student Identity and Manifestations at the University of Helsinki, 1828-1990
Authors: Kolbe Laura
Published: November 2023

In recent years research into the university and the town has provoked great interest among historians specializing in the history of academic life. Traditionally university history, particularly relating to the medieval period, has either concentrated on the founding of the institution or has been an analysis of scholarship. The emphasis has been on describing the inner ‘development’ of different research disciplines. The socio-historical aspect, which aims to analyse the multitude of connections between the university and society, has received less attention. In practice, though, the physical, intellectual, and cultural ties of the university to the town and its inhabitants have been a central part of its history. This relationship, with its social, cultural, and political dimensions, has to a large degree determined how the ‘spirit’ (Geist), the educational ideal (Bi/dung) and the scientific life of the university have been construed at different points in history. These factors, which begin to take shape at the very founding of the university, provide the framework for a certain local academic tradition and cultural interpretation. Such factors are evidenced either directly or indirectly in the life of the university and in the way that it perceives itself.
The University of Birmingham and the Industrial Spirit: Reasons for the Local Support of Joseph Chamberlain’s Campaign to Found the University, 1897-1900
Authors: Drummond Diane K
Published: November 2023

On 1 July 1898 a highly public campaign was launched in Birmingham. Calling on members of all classes of the city’s population for their support, Birmingham’s most famous member of parliament and statesman, Joseph Chamberlain, appealed for £250,000 to be raised in order to ‘place a university in the middle of a great industrial and manufacturing population’ . In seizing this initiative, Chamberlain made special and direct call to the men of industry and commerce in both Birmingham and the nearby Black Country, identifying their utilitarian educational needs.
The Reticence Broken
Authors: Murray Alexander
Published: November 2023

The investigation has nevertheless gone far enough to identify a strategy for their recovery. By deliberately placing each case of the few whose record has survived these 600 years in the context of the document which reveals it, the modern student can judge its relation to the larger reality in the background, a reality for the most part irrecoverable. No arithmetic is implied there. Arithmetical problems about medieval suicide rates will be addressed later. All that isimplied is that an incident which enters a record does so for a special set of reasons, and that it is only in full consciousness of these that the historian’s necromancy can have its effect, and bring back the dead to life. Precisely because suicides are only caught ‘fleeing the camera’, that is to say, it matters, case by case, to know the make and position of the camera they are fleeing from.
Collections and Patronage
Authors: Gray Rosalind P
Published: November 2023

Until the eighteenth century the Russians had not been great art collectors. There were some notable collections of gold and silver artefacts, and some of the aristocratic dynasties confirmed the purity of their lineage with handsome portraits of their ancestors, but there was no tradition of private picture galleries. This state of affairs was to change in 1697, when Peter the Great (r. 1682-1725) first went abroad, to Amsterdam, at the time one of the thriving trade centres of Europe. The Tsar, then in the fifteenth year of his reign, had already shown a strong proclivity for Western culture and society, and while he was in Holland he manifested an interest in European painting. After their artistic renaissance of the seventeenth century, the Dutch were avid picture collectors, and Peter attended several art auctions and saw first-class works in the Town Hall and in private collections. Inspired, he invested in a few marine paintings, which reflected his passion for all things nautical.
Who knew What and When? The French Army Mutinies and the British Decision to Launch the Third Battle of Ypres
Authors: French David
Published: November 2023

In 1914 Britain went to war to prevent Germany establishing her hegemony over Western and Central Europe. The Asquith government believed that they could do this if the Navy controlled the oceans and if Britain gave economic and financial assistance to her continental allies. But the success of ‘the British way in warfare’ was dependent upon the willingness of France and Russia to fight the armies of the Central Powers to a standstill without significant British military assistance. By the autumn of 1915 it was apparent that neither ally was willing or able to do so alone. Between August 1915 and April 1916 the Asquith coalition reluctantly accepted the need for a major British continental commitment. British participation in the battle of the Somme was the first instalment of the price Britain had to pay to hold the Entente alliance together and prevent one or more of her allies from accepting German blandishments for a separate peace.
Continuity and Change in Soviet Strategic Thought
Authors: Mackintosh Malcolm
Published: November 2023

This chapter considers the nature of Soviet strategic thought, its continuity and its change, primarily since the Second World War and during the period of transition from the massive ground–air operations of the Soviet–German campaign of that war into the nuclear age. The essay seeks to trace the course of that evolution, strongly influenced as it was by Russian historical and Soviet experience, and tries to assess, in particular, the impact of the new Soviet leadership of Mikhail Gorbachev on Soviet strategic thinking—even if the fast-moving events of recent years in this field inevitably give the study something of an interim character.
Universities, Scholasticism, and the Origins of the German Reformation
Authors: McLaughlin R Emmet
Published: November 2023

In what must be seen as a welcome development, recent studies of the German Reformation have moved away from the traditional focus upon the individual Reformers and their theologies to a concern for the ‘common man ‘ and the political, economic, and social forces of the age. While this new social history has undoubtedly both expanded the scope of Reformation historiography and deepened understanding of the volatile elements fuelling change in the era, certain aspects of human experience and certain sectors of German society have suffered relative neglect. Specifically, religion per se and the educated elites have not yet been integrated into the new regnant vision of the German Reformation. That religion should have become marginal to the understanding of the Reformation might appear paradoxical, but it is in fact quite logical since it is the marxist analysis of society in which economic distinctions are constitutive of social and political reality that informs most of the current scholarship. This is an approach which is ideologically and methodologically ‘colour blind ‘ to religion as an autonomous sphere of human experience and action. There have been recent exceptions, primarily the work of Robert Scribner, that suggest that the study of the Reformation may be entering a new phase in this regard.Scribner has made good use of the findings of anthropologists to recapture a sense of pre-modern religion, particularly with regard to its ritual dimension. It will be intriguing to see whether these insights can be successfully accommodated by the earlier social historical scholarship.
The Relationship between the University and the City of 45 Louvain in the Fifteenth Century
Authors: De Maesschalck Edward
Published: November 2023

Medieval universities were founded and developed in existing cities. They relied on safety within the city walls, could use the infrastructure of streets and buildings, and profit from the material advantages brought by trade and industry. For the rest, they wished to lead their own lives, organize their own jurisdiction, be exempt from all kinds of duties and taxes and in general retain clerical privileges and acquire new ones. Inevitably, this led to conflicts which usually were settled to the advantage of the universities. In their opposition to local authorities the universities often had powerful friends at their disposal: the pope, the bishop, the king, parliament, etc. The ultimate sanction for forcing a city to its knees was secessio which frequently signified the starting signal for the founding of a new university in another town. This constant tension and occasional bloody struggle between city and university finally produced a modus vivendi which differed from area to area. In the English universities of Oxford and Cambridge the town in the long run was completely dominated by the university, to such an extent that ‘the burghers lived henceforth in their own town almost as the helots or subjects of a conquering people ‘. It never came to such a pass in Louvain.
The Politics of Professorial Appointment at Leiden, 1709*
Authors: Ultee Maarten
Published: November 2023

In mid-January 1709, Petrus Hotton, Professor of Botany in the medical faculty of Leiden University, died. On February 18, after a remarkably brief interval, the Curators of the University and Burgemeesters of Leiden appointed Herman Boerhaave as Hotton ‘s successor. In time the appointment appeared fully justified, as Boerhaave became one of the greatest medical teachers of the age. He gave his inaugural lecture on March 20, and soon acquired an international reputation, attracting many foreign students to Leiden. Boerhaave showed an almost superhuman capacity for work. He lectured four to five hours a day, four days a week; he treated patients, took care of the botanic garden, and served as vicechancellor of the university in 1714 and 1730. In 1715 he proposed to revive clinical teaching of medicine; in 1718 he added the professorship of chemistry to his duties. Only in 1729 did he resign from the chairs of botany and chemistry, while keeping the professorship of theory of medicine until his death in 1738. Admiring students, biographers, and historians of medicine have agreed that his influence was great in his own university and at Edinburgh and Vienna, the leading medical schools of the later eighteenth century.
Opposition and Ambivalence
Authors: MacDonald Michael , Murphy Terence R
Published: November 2023

The prevailing attitude to self-destruction in sixteenth- and seven teenth-century England, it must be emphasized, was profoundly hostile. Punishment of suicide was unprecedented and unparalleled in severity. And yet like an astrological conjunction this unity of attitude and action was temporary, a coincidence of views that were moving in different and sometimes opposed directions. Both at the local level, among village communities, and at the national level, among the educated elite, it is possible to detect signs of ambivalence about the punishment of suicide that appeared even as attitudes and responses were hardening. Literary critics and cultural historians influenced by poststructuralist thought have taught us to be sensitive to the ways in which texts tend to subvert themselves. They imply their own negations, and in the awareness of opposition one finds the key to deconstructing them. Very few social historians have found the poststructuralist programme an attractive one, and we do not propose to advance it here. But it is helpful to think of cultural change in terms of oppositions and subversions, for beliefs and the behaviour that expresses them are dynamic and unstable entities. The prevailing hostility to suicide in early modern England was the result of political and religious changes that were themselves the product of a highly complex set of events and forces. The centralization of the state and the Protestant Reformation had consequences no one could have intended or predicted. They also generated tensions that moderated their course and content, limiting the reach of the crown’s power and frustrating the attempt to impose religious unity.
The Revival of Lenienry
Authors: MacDonald Michael , Murphy Terence R
Published: November 2023

Attitudes to suicide changed profoundly in the century and a half following the English Revolution. Judicial and ecclesiastical severity gave way to official leniency and public sympathy for most people who killed themselves. This transformation was a complex phenomenon. The views of particular classes and groups altered at different times and for different reasons; the actions of officials and institutions did not simply reflect public opinion. The signs of change were apparent even before the Restoration. Freed temporarily from crown supervision during the civil war, juries began to return higher numbers of non compos mentis and ambiguous verdicts, and although the governments of the 1650s reestablished the effectiveness of King’s Bench, its challenges did not halt the upward trend in acquittals. John Donne’s Biathanatos was belatedly published in 1647, after censorship had collapsed. The trend toward more lenient responses and more liberal attitudes to suicide accelerated after 1660. By the last three decades of the eighteenth century,/e/o de se verdicts had become as rare as non compos mentis ones had been two centuries earlier. And although there were persistent calls to retain the old punishments and protests against tolerance, the weight of lay opinion swung back against severity. Classical philosophy and medical science, which had been the basis for dissenting opinions in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, dominated Georgian thinking about suicide. Radical defenses of self-killing were published and widely read; admiration for classical suicides became more general and more unapologetic than ever before; upper-class laymen came to regard suicide as a rational choice or a medical calamity.
Motives for Suicide
Authors: MacDonald Michael , Murphy Terence R
Published: November 2023

Contemporaries had clear notions about the kinds of behaviour and moods that preceded suicide and the sorts of people who were more or less likely to commit it, however broad and imprecise the folk psychology of suicide may have been. They also had definite ideas about the motives that moved men and women to slay themselves. And just as juries were unlikely to find an ambiguous death a suicide without evidence that it fitted the psychological profile they associated with self-slayers, so they were highly unlikely to return a suicide verdict without evidence of a plausible motive. When they tried to explain why people killed themselves, observers typically mentioned calamities that might befall anyone. Their conception of the stresses that shattered the psychological well-being of men and women was grounded on their own frustrations and disappointments and on widely held beliefs about the sources of unhappiness. It was the mirror image of the vision of an ideal life in early modern society. To sustain their social positions and navigate through the uncertainties they encountered, people relied on a shared set of beliefs about security and danger, about the actions and events that promoted their well-being or destroyed it. The commonly accepted motives for suicide marked out dangerous passages in the social world, like the legends on old maps warning of hostile peoples and perilous seas.
Income Distribution, Capital Accumulation, and Inter-Generational Transfers in a Discrete-Time Model
Authors: Baranzini Mauro
Published: November 2023

As pointed out in the previous chapter the idea of the introduction of some micro-foundations (as the life-cycle hypothesis) in the traditional two-class model of distribution is somewhat recent and has drawn increasing but scattered attention in the literature. Britto (1972), in a short note, has confined his analysis to demonstrating that in a two-class life-cycle growth model, in equilibrium, the saving/income ratio of the ‘pure rentiers’ is always greater than the saving/income ratio of the workers, who derive their income from work and accumulated life-cycle savings. (This outcome will, inter alia, be confirmed by our analysis.) The first Part of Bevan’s unpublished work (1974) is surely much more appealing and comprehensive, although the main purpose of his analysis falls outside the traditional two-class framework since he focuses on the case where the caste assumption is relaxed.
Main Conclusions and Perspectives for Further Enquiry
Authors: Baranzini Mauro
Published: November 2023

The aim of this last chapter is essentially threefold. First of all we want to give an assessment of the methodology used for seeking answers to the questions outlined in Chapter 1. Secondly, and this will be the main theme of this chapter, we want to draw together and assess the main conclusions of the research programme and to point out the implications of the results obtained by providing an economic and possibly historical interpretation. Thirdly and finally, we shall try to make some suggestions for an extension of the research programme, since we are well aware of the incompleteness of the answers that we have provided and of the necessity to explore alternative and more sophisticated grounds of study. We shall fuse these three objectives in the present and following three sections, since they are closely connected with one another.