bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Molecules
Authors: Cox Lynne S. , Harris David A. , Pears Catherine J.
Published: September 2023

This chapter discusses molecules, starting with an explanation of bonds. Living organisms are made of up of organic molecules consisting mainly, though not exclusively, of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), and sulfur (S). These are held together by bonds which vary in strength and length. The chapter then looks at covalent bonds, ionic or electrostatic bonds, dipole–dipole interactions, hydrogen bonds, van der Waals forces, and the hydrophobic effect. It also considers proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates, before looking at DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid). DNA is the genetic material of most living organisms and it exists as a very long filamentous double helix. Meanwhile, RNA s a single-stranded polymer of ribonucleotides linked by phosphodiester bonds.
Cellular components
Authors: Cox Lynne S. , Harris David A. , Pears Catherine J.
Published: September 2023

This chapter examines cellular components, starting with membranes. Membranes are made up of lipid, protein, and carbohydrate, and form a hydrophobic barrier to allow compartmentalization. The plasma membrane separates the contents of a cell from its environment. The chapter then looks at the cytoskeleton and the nucleoskeleton. The cytoskeleton is composed of networks of different types of filaments which are present throughout the cell. They serve as communication lines for cellular traffic, to allow cell movement, to stabilize cell structure, and to protect from physical stress. Meanwhile, the nucleoskeleton is the structure underlying the organization of genomic DNA within the nucleus. The chapter also considers the cytosol, which is the aqueous material remaining after extraction of insoluble components by ultracentrifugation, as well as organelles.
Microbial and plant metabolism
Authors: Cox Lynne S. , Harris David A. , Pears Catherine J.
Published: September 2023

This chapter illustrates microbial and plant metabolism. Some important metabolic pathways are unique to microorganisms and plants. These include trapping of solar energy, and fixation of atmospheric nitrogen and carbon, so they are essential to (almost) all life. The chapter then looks at photosynthesis. Almost all the energy consumed by biological systems derives ultimately from solar energy trapped by photosynthesis carried out by green plants and photosynthetic bacteria. The chapter also considers nitrogen assimilation and ethanol production. Nitrogen fixation is carried out by some bacteria and blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) which catalyze reduction of N2 to ammonia (NH3). Meanwhile, ethanol is a highly reduced, two-carbon compound produced from glucose by some bacteria or fungi under anaerobic conditions. It is a commercially important product of fermentation by brewers' yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae.
Biochemical techniques
Authors: Cox Lynne S. , Harris David A. , Pears Catherine J.
Published: September 2023

This chapter reviews the different biochemical techniques. The experimental procedures by which biochemical information is obtained include molecular biological, immunological, biochemical, and biophysical techniques. Molecular biology techniques involve the analysis and manipulation of DNA, RNA, and protein. They include cloning genes/complementary DNAs; genomics/genome sequencing; gene therapy; and genetically modified (GM) crops. The chapter then looks at protein purification and analysis. It also considers immunological techniques, which exploit the high specificity and affinity of antibodies for their cognate antigen. They can be used simply to analyse the presence of a protein, examine post-translational modifications, probe protein–protein interactions, and interactions of protein with other macromolecules. Finally, the chapter studies biophysical techniques, which allow analysis of the structure and physical properties of biochemical macromolecules.
Biochemical Bases for Performance
Authors: MacDougall Duncan , Sale Digby
Published: September 2023

This chapter discusses adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which is the donor of the free energy that is used for muscle contraction, for the supporting ionic pumps that regulate muscle electrical activity, and for biosynthesis. It also talks about the molecule of ATP that is made up of a molecule of adenosine and consists of a purine base, a five-carbon sugar, and a chain of three phosphate groups. It also analyszes the phosphate groups that are attached by what are known as high-energy bonds, which means that considerable energy is required to produce the attaching reaction. The chapter points out that the formation of the high-energy bond is known as phosphorylation, while the breaking of the bond is known as hydrolysis. It details how adenosine diphosphate (ADP) is formed when a molecule of ATP is hydrolyzed and loses one of its phosphate groups.
Instrumental measurement techniques
Authors: Evans E. Hywel , Foulkes Mike E.
Published: September 2023

This chapter distinguishes between qualitative and quantitative analysis and explains the classification of different types of instrumental measurement techniques. It looks at the different requirements of an instrumental measurement technique for different types of samples and analyses a range of representative instrumental measurement techniques. It also determines an appropriate instrumental technique for making analytical measurements in a number of scenarios. The chapter determines the most appropriate measurement technique to use and the conditions to apply in order to generate the required basic data. It concentrates on basic principles and examples of a limited selection of instrumentation that are commonly encountered in most analytical laboratories.
Sampling error
Authors: Evans E. Hywel , Foulkes Mike E.
Published: September 2023

This chapter explores the importance of sampling error and how sample size can affect sampling error, including the calculation of the size and number of samples for a given sampling error. It reviews the use of sampling in a quantitative way to examine the concept of sampling error. It also highlights the seven major types of associated sampling error: fundamental error, grouping and segregation error, long-range heterogeneity error, periodic heterogeneity error, periodic heterogeneity error, increment extraction error, and preparation error. The chapter talks about the division of material heterogeneity into two classes that caused sampling errors: constitution heterogeneity and distribution heterogeneity. It explains how a total sampling error can be distributed into correct sampling errors and incorrect sampling errors.
Method validation and quality assurance
Authors: Evans E. Hywel , Foulkes Mike E.
Published: September 2023

This chapter explains the concept of method validation and the role of performance characteristics, including the calculation of the performance characteristics for analytical methods. It looks at the concepts of quality management and quality assurance with respect to analytical measurements. It also demonstrates how to plot Shewhart and moving range quality control charts and how to interpret them in terms of a quality assurance of an analytical method. The chapter describes an important part of method validation, emphasizing the generation of data that is used to determine if the performance characteristics of the method are satisfactory. It illustrates performance characteristics that need to be checked during method validation.
Studying cells: essential techniques
Authors: Knight Gavin
Published: September 2023

This chapter discusses the role technology plays in furthering our understanding of cells, with particular emphasis on those found in the human body. It begins by describing the historical aspects of cells and cell theory. It was not until the use of microscopy by Robert Hooke, curator of experiments at the Royal Society in London, that the composition of organisms and their fine structure was reported. Since the introduction of microscopy in 1595, huge technological advances have seen progress made, from the typical compound microscope to the assembly of small, powerful machines that help us visualize the ultrastructure of cells. The chapter then looks at cytometrics, cytogenetic analysis, and molecular biology.
Nerves: the cells of the central and peripheral nervous systems
Authors: King Rosalind , Mathias Richard
Published: September 2023

This chapter focuses on the cells that make up the structures of the nervous system, and looks at how they act together to facilitate all the functions of human life. The nervous system is often thought of as having two main components. The central nervous system (CNS) comprises the brain and spinal cord. From the CNS, nerve fibres project to the receptors and effectors in every other organ and tissue throughout the body, forming the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The chapter then describes the cells that make up the nervous system and their functions, looking at neurons and glial cells. It also explains the mechanisms of neuronal communication and outlines the arrangement and integration of the central and peripheral nervous systems.
Cells and microbial flora of the gastrointestinal tract
Authors: Nye Kathy
Published: September 2023

This chapter describes the cells and microbial flora of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. Around 10 billion human cells, which are replaced every three to four days, interact with an even greater number of microorganisms, a ratio of around one cell to ten microorganisms. This interaction is key to the proper development and functioning of the GI tract and the immune system, as well as to the assimilation and production of essential nutrients. However, scientists are only just beginning to understand the full extent of this vital, symbiotic relationship. The chapter considers these complex interactions, in health and disease, and how an understanding of these mechanisms may lead to improvements in health and the management of some types of illness.
Musculoskeletal system
Authors: Deen Suha
Published: September 2023

This chapter explores the skeletal system, including skeletal muscles, bones, and cartilage. The musculoskeletal system provides the body with mechanical support. It is composed of skeletal muscles, tendons, bones, joints, and ligaments, with all the different components working together as a unit. The main functional attribute of bone is its specialized extracellular matrix, which is hardened by the deposition of calcium, enabling it to function as a rigid lever, articulating with other bones through joints that are kept in relationship by ligaments. Bone also contains blood-forming marrow. Meanwhile, skeletal muscles act as contractile levers and are connected to bones by tendons. The chapter then describes the microscopic and ultrastructural features of muscle fibres, as well as the different types of ossification.
Vibrational spectroscopy
Authors: Weller Mark T. , Young Nigel A.
Published: September 2023

This chapter focuses on vibrational spectroscopy, which involves the excitation of the vibrational motion of atoms in molecules by electromagnetic radiation. This is used to characterize inorganic compounds as vibrational frequencies are characteristic of the functional groups present and the molecular shape of the material under study. These transitions are usually observed either by direct absorption of infrared radiation or by Raman scattering of higher energy radiation. The information obtained from infrared (IR) absorption or Raman scattering spectroscopy can be used in both a qualitative or quantitative fashion. Qualitative vibrational spectroscopy is used to determine quickly whether a molecule contains a specific functional group. Meanwhile, quantitative analysis of the spectra can provide information on the shape and symmetry of a molecule.
Magnetism
Authors: Weller Mark T. , Young Nigel A.
Published: September 2023

This chapter focuses on magnetism. Many transition metal and lanthanide compounds, and a few non-transition metal compounds, have unpaired electrons. This results in an associated magnetic moment which can be studied using magnetometry. Compounds are classified as diamagnetic if they are repelled by a magnetic field and paramagnetic if they are attracted by a magnetic field. The classic way of investigating the magnetic properties of a compound is to measure the weight of a sample with and without an applied magnetic field inside a Gouy balance. In a Faraday balance, a controllable magnetic field gradient is generated between two curved magnets rather than the simple inhomogeneous field that exists inside the Gouy balance. The chapter then considers the interpretation of magnetic moment and looks at cooperative magnetism.
Electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy
Authors: Weller Mark T. , Young Nigel A.
Published: September 2023

This chapter focuses on electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy, which is also known as electron spin resonance (ESR), and, more rarely, electron magnetic resonance (EMR) spectroscopy. EPR spectroscopy is a useful technique for characterizing compounds that contain unpaired electrons (paramagnetic species), such as materials containing the d- and f-block elements and main-group compounds that exist as radicals. It provides molecular structural information about the species present and can give a very detailed insight into the electronic structure. However, the key limitation of EPR spectroscopy is that the species under investigation must contain at least one unpaired electron. While there are numerous stable transition metal compounds with unpaired electrons, these are much less common in organic and main-group chemistry.
Osmotic and ionic regulation in aquatic animals
Authors: Butler Patrick J. , Brown J. Anne , Stephenson D. George , Speakman John R.
Published: September 2023

This chapter focuses on osmotic and ionic regulation in aquatic animals. The osmotic and ionic concentrations of aquatic environments and their variability have profound implications for the salt and water balance of animals living in these habitats. Some marine invertebrates regulate the concentration of particular ions in extracellular fluids. Meanwhile, most marine vertebrates have extracellular fluid osmolalities that are almost a third of seawater osmolality. Some marine vertebrates use organic osmolytes as osmotic ballast and are hyperosmotic or isosmotic to seawater. The chapter looks at hyperosmoregulation and ionoregulation of animals living in fresh water. Freshwater animals typically produce large volumes of dilute urine to maintain fluid balance. The chapter then considers osmoregulation in changing salinities, focusing on euryhaline species.
Immunoglobulins
Authors: Hall Angela , Scott Chris , Buckland Matthew
Published: September 2023

This chapter focuses on immunoglobulins which are regarded as key effector molecules in adaptive immunity with two identical heavy chains and two identical light template structures. It notes the production of monoclonal gammopathies via plasma cells' clonal expansion. The chapter adds how monoclonal gammopathies deliver a measure band on electrophoresis used to monitor the size and progress of the tumour. Meanwhile, immunoglobulins and fibrinogens may spontaneously precipitate below 37 °C and this can lead to the formation of cryofibrinogen. The chapter highlights the importance of IgG's intrathecal synthesis in terms of diagnosing multiple sclerosis. It explains the use of isoelectric focusing, enhanced by immunoblotting or immunofixation. This is necessary due to the low level of protein in cerebrospinal fluid.
Autoimmune kidney disease
Authors: Hall Angela , Scott Chris , Buckland Matthew
Published: September 2023

This chapter looks into autoimmune kidney diseases which could be divided between diseases associated with either antibodies to anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibodies (ANCA) or the glomerular basement membrane (GBM). The chapter notes vasculitis and its classifications, in terms of the following sizes: primary, secondary, and vessel. It points out that laboratory findings are necessary if we are to have direct diagnosis and treatment on ANCA-associated vasculitic syndromes, anti-GBM disease, and membranous nephropathy. In addition, the chapter refers to microscopic polyangiitis, granulomatosis with polyangiitis, eosiniphilic granulomatosis with polyangiitis, anti-GBM disease, and membranous nephropathy. The chapter notes the pathogenesis, treatment, and prognosis of renal related auto-antibodies as well. It explores the auto-antibodies in autoimmune kidney diseases.
Extracellular signals: hormones, cytokines and growth factors
Authors: Hancock John T.
Published: September 2023

This chapter concentrates on the release and detection of extracellular signalling molecules, such as hormones, cytokines, and growth factors. It argues that such molecules are often released some considerable distance from their point of action and generally have an effect over a relatively long time-scale with an unspecific transport to the site of action. The chapter then describes hormones as a diverse group of molecules, highlighting that they may be small and water-soluble peptides or lipophilic molecules. It also considers a diverse group of chemicals: plant hormones and a group of peptides—cytokines. Towards the end, the chapter explores the nature of growth factors—molecules involved in the regulation of growth and differentiation of cells. It also considers other extracellular signals like the pheromones, energy storage compound ATP, and a compound usually associated with intracellular signalling, cAMP.
Renal physiology
Authors: Kay Ian , Evans Gethin
Published: September 2023

This chapter reviews the vital role of the renal system in the human body, which is the production and elimination of urine. It describes nephron as the functional unit of the kidney that is responsible for the formation of urine and talks about blood plasma that is filtered within the nephrons and substances that are secreted and reabsorbed in the process of urine formation. It also examines the extent of water and sodium loss via urine. This is controlled by the actions of arginine vasopressin, aldosterone, and atrial natriuretic peptide. The chapter highlights the major role that the renal system plays in the regulation of the acid–base balance. It discusses the increase in blood pH that leads to an increase in the quantity of bicarbonate secreted in urine in order to return blood pH to normal.
The RNA-binding proteins
Authors: Elliott David , Ladomery Michael
Published: September 2023

This chapter details how RNA-binding proteins package RNA, protect RNA, organize RNA, and prepare RNA for post-transcriptional processes. It describes different kinds of RNA-binding and auxiliary domains that enable RNA-binding proteins to bind RNA in a versatile way. It also mentions hnRNP proteins, which are the first RNA-binding proteins to be studied in some detail. The chapter discusses the hnRNP proteins that package premRNA. These are involved in multiple post-transcriptional processes. Also, hnRNP proteins remain bound to messenger RNA in the cytoplasm in mRNP particles. The chapter covers the RNA recognition motif, which is a sequence of amino acids or a specific arrangement of secondary structure.
Regulated alternative splicing
Authors: Elliott David , Ladomery Michael
Published: September 2023

This chapter highlights alternative splicing, which increases the coding capacity of the genome by challenging the 'one gene-one protein' rule. It defines gene number paradox as the discrepancy between gene copy number and apparent complexity. It also explores how organisms use alternative splicing to expand the information content of their genomes by enabling multiple mRNAs and proteins to be made from each gene. The chapter talks about alternative exons that are variably included into mRNAs and occurs through alternative splicing. It clarifies that only a subset of exons is alternatively spliced, while other exons called constitutive exons are always included in mRNAs.
RNA editing
Authors: Elliott David , Ladomery Michael
Published: September 2023

This chapter discusses how open reading frames (ORFs) of some RNAs can be altered after transcription by RNA editing. The chapter highlights the important role RNA editing plays in keeping selfish DNA elements in the genome in check. It also mentions the significant role RNA editing plays in enabling tRNAs to translate mRNAs efficiently, which is a process that is conserved between bacteria and eukaryotes. The chapter explains how RNA editing changes the sequence of RNAs once they have already been transcribed. It analyses RNA editing through base modification that changes the chemical identity of nucleotides already present within the transcript.
Fluid and electrolyte disorders
Authors: James Tim
Published: September 2023

This chapter looks at fluid and electrolyte balance from the viewpoint of the clinical biochemistry laboratory; it considers the major causes of each abnormality that may be encountered and provides guidance on the accurate reporting of these parameters. The plasma electrolytes sodium and potassium are the most frequently requested investigations in most clinical biochemistry laboratories. Ion-selective electrodes (ISEs) are the main analytical technique used for analysis of sodium and potassium. Two distinct types of ISE, direct and indirect, are used to measure electrolyte concentrations and these may produce different results when used for specimens in which the total protein and/or lipid contents are increased. Poor collection and handling of clinical samples can adversely affect plasma potassium test results. Ultimately, serious disturbances to plasma electrolyte concentrations can be life threatening and rapid communication of abnormal test results by laboratory staff to clinical teams is essential.
Diabetes mellitus and hypoglycaemia
Authors: Yates Allen , Laing Ian
Published: September 2023

This chapter examines diabetes mellitus and hypoglycaemia. Diabetes mellitus is a consequence of the failure of glucose and lipid handling, two of the main energy sources for the body. This is precipitated by either a complete lack (type 1), or a defective action (type 2), of insulin. The release of insulin by endocrine β cells of the pancreatic islet is controlled by the integrated interplay of glucose, lipid, and incretins. Wide excursions in the blood glucose concentration are normally prevented by insulin and its counter-regulatory hormones glucagon, cortisol, adrenaline, and growth hormone. This balance is disrupted in diabetes. Long-term complications of diabetes, resulting from poor blood glucose control, are severely debilitating and include increased risk of heart attack and stroke, kidney disease, blindness, and limb amputations. The chapter then looks at the wide range of therapies and treatments for diabetes, including bariatric surgery.
Cycloaddition reactions
Authors: Ian Fleming
Published: September 2023

This chapter considers cycloadditions as the most useful of all pericyclic reactions in organic synthesis. It describes the wide range of known cycloadditions, identifies the conditions under which they take place, draws attention to their regio- and stereochemistry, and gives the simple rules for which of them take place and which do not. It also mentions the most important type of cycloaddition, the Diels–Alder reaction, which is essentially the reaction between butadiene and ethylene which form cyclohexene. The chapter talks about the carbonyl group, which is a substituent attached to the periphery that affects the rate but does not change the fundamental nature of the reaction. It refers to dipoles which react with alkenes or alkynes, or with heteroatom-containing double and triple bonds that form heterocyclic rings.
Electrocyclic reactions
Authors: Ian Fleming
Published: September 2023

This chapter deals with electrocyclic reactions, which are characterized by the creation of a ring from an open-chain conjugated system. It illustrates the σ-bond-forming across the ends of the conjugated system and the opening of a σ-bond with the creation of a longer conjugated system. It also reviews the first few members of the series of neutral polyenes: the equilibria between butadiene and cyclobutene, between hexadiene and cyclohexadiene, and between octatetraene and cyclooctatriene. The chapter discusses the strained ring of the cyclobutene that makes a reaction take place in the ring-opening sense. It mentions the butadiene component in o-quinodimethane that undergoes ring-closure to the cyclobutene and the cyclohexadiene component in the cycloheptatriene that undergoes ring-opening to give the hexatriene.
Sigmatropic rearrangements
Authors: Ian Fleming
Published: September 2023

This chapter discusses sigmatropic rearrangements that are defined by the movement of a σ-bond from one position to another. It describes one main family wherein a single group, or an atom, moves from one end of a conjugated system n atoms along to the other end. Rearrangements of this kind are labelled as [1,n] shifts. The migrating bond moves from C-1 to C-n along the conjugated system, and the ‘1’ comes from the fact that the bond remains attached to the same atom R. The chapter explains that pericyclic sigmatropic rearrangements are mostly shifts of hydrogen atoms, of which some have a total of (4n + 2) electrons involved and some (4n). It covers the differences between suprafacial and antarafacial [1,n] rearrangements before turning to rearrangements in which the bond moves m atoms along a conjugated system at the other end—the most important type of rearrangement of the [m,n] category.
Group transfer reactions
Authors: Ian Fleming
Published: September 2023

This chapter highlights common six-electron group transfer reactions, such as the broken π-bonds that allow the existing and new σ-bonds to complete a ring in the product. It emphasizes that the ene reaction is similar to the diene reaction but with only one double bond, while the metalla-ene reaction occurs when the atom transferred is a metal atom. It also describes the purely thermal aldol reaction of an enol and a ketone, which is identified as a hetero group transfer reaction. The chapter mentions how the ene reaction was proven to be particularly powerful in synthesis when carried out intramolecularly. It discusses the usual increase in rate for an intramolecular reaction that allows even unreactive partners like hydrocarbons to combine.
Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy
Authors: Duckett Simon , Gilbert Bruce , Cockett Martin
Published: September 2023

This chapter talks about the concept of nuclear spin, which focuses on nuclear magnetic moments and their study through nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. It uses the proton,1H, as the simplest example that illustrates how the phenomenon arises and describes the operation of a basic NMR spectrometer. It also describes a range of organic molecules that show how electronic effects of different substituent groups enable these to be recognized by the chemical shifts of the protons concerned, leading to the use of the technique as a diagnostic tool. The chapter analyses the occurrence of spin–spin splittings that demonstrate how neighbouring protons interact with each other. It discusses the development of Fourier transform instrumentation and its application to NMR spectroscopy and outlines the principles and uses of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in medically-related studies.
Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions of Carboxylic Acid Derivatives
Authors: Okusecyama Tadashi , Maskill Howard
Published: September 2023

This chapter concentrates on the interconversions of carboxylic acid derivatives, which generally take place by nucleophilic substitution via addition-elimination mechanisms. It first describes carboxylic acids which contain a carboxy functional group (a carbonyl with a hydroxy group attached) bonded to an alkyl residue. Carboxylic acid derivatives, on the other hand, are obtained by replacing the hydroxy with another group bonded through O, N, S, or halogen. This class of compounds includes esters (Y = OR'), anhydrides (Y = OCOR'), amides (Y = NR' 2), and acyl halides (Y = halogen). The chapter argues that all carboxylic acid derivatives can be converted back to carboxylic acids by hydrolysis. Next, the chapter considers relative reactivities of carboxylic acid derivatives and the acid-base catalysis.
Reactions of Carbonyl Compounds with Hydride Donors and Organometallic Reagents
Authors: Okusecyama Tadashi , Maskill Howard
Published: September 2023

This chapter examines the nucleophilicity of metal–hydrogen and metal–carbon reagents. It states that carbonyl compounds are electrophilic and react with nucleophiles. The nucleophiles involved in the reactions discussed in the previous chapter all had lone pairs and, in each case, the lone pair was the nucleophilic centre. Metal hydrides and organometallic compounds are a different type of nucleophile in which the nucleophilic site is the σ bonding pair of electrons of the M–H or M–C bond (M = metal). The chapter highlights that they are important reagents for reducing carbonyl compounds to alcohols, and synthesizing alcohols with new C–C bonds from carbonyl compounds. The chapter focuses on these reactions of the carbonyl group. It then considers the aspects of designing an organic synthesis, and functional group protection.
Regulatory framework
Authors: Hosey Geoff , Melfi Vicky , Pankhurst Sheila
Published: September 2023

This chapter focuses on the regulatory framework that zoos have to operate within. It gives a brief introduction on legislation, laws, and global regulations. The chapter also discusses the UK’s devolved zoo legislation. It discusses various items of zoo legislation such as the 1973 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) within the European Union (EU), the 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), and the International Air Transport Association’s Live Animal Regulations (LARs). Additionally, the chapter talks about the EU’s EC Zoos Directive, Balai Directive, Secretary of State’s Standards of Modern Zoo Practice (SSSMZP), and Zoo Licensing Act 1981. The chapter then gives an overview into zoo legislations outside Europe.
Small population management
Authors: Hosey Geoff , Melfi Vicky , Pankhurst Sheila
Published: September 2023

This chapter focuses on small population management. It starts by examining the concept behind reproductive biology and then discusses genetics and endocrinology. Next, the chapter look at various relationships between animals such as mating systems, breeding, and parenting, while exploring the issues and constraints on reproduction in captivity. It notes behaviour competence as a way to describe the ability of an animal to express appropriate behaviour in a given situation. It then explains the process of monitoring the reproductive status of animals in captivity by referencing invasive and non-invasive methods. It looks at the usage of reproductive technology to help with animal reproduction such as artificial insemination (AI), in vitro fertilization (IVF), and embryo transfer. Additionally, the chapter tackles how to manipulate the reproduction of exotic animals.
Conservation
Authors: Hosey Geoff , Melfi Vicky , Pankhurst Sheila
Published: September 2023

This chapter focuses on the concept of conservation in zoos. Conservation of endangered species is one of the major goals of accredited zoos. The chapter defines conservation biology as the study of methods for maintaining biodiversity. It highlights the role of zoos in the conservation of biodiversity by referencing maintenance of captive stocks, support for in situ conservation, education, and research. The chapter differentiates between ex situ and in situ conservations. It lists the frameworks for zoo conservation such as the World Zoo and Aquarium Conservation Strategy (WZACS). The chapter presents reintroduction as one of the key goals of the many captive management programmes.
Control of Gene Expression
Authors: Thomas Alison
Published: September 2023

This chapter studies the control of gene expression. The expression of most genes in prokaryotes and eukaryotes is regulated, i.e. genes are switched on and off according to a cell’s needs. This prevents cells’ resources being wasted. A low percentage of a cell’s genes, those that encode basic cellular functions, are expressed continually. In prokaryotes, changes in gene expression tend to be in response to environmental signals, while in eukaryotes, differential gene expression tends to be related to developmental stage. Gene expression can be regulated at various points between genotype and phenotype. In prokaryotes, most control mechanisms regulate the transcription of genes, while eukaryotes employ various translational as well as transcriptional control mechanisms.
DNA mutagenesis
Authors: Deacon Sarah E. , McPherson Michael J.
Published: September 2023

This chapter takes a closer look at DNA mutagenesis, an essential tool in modern biology. DNA mutagenesis helps elucidate significant insights about the regulation of gene expression, the structure-function relationship of DNA, RNA, and proteins, as well as molecular interactions, among others. The chapter focuses on two major classes of
in vitro
mutagenesis: site-directed mutagenesis, in which specific nucleotides within a DNA sequence are targeted, and random mutagenesis, in which mutations are usually introduced either through inducing errors during DNA replication or by recombination of related DNA sequences. It describes different
in vitro
methods for introducing mutations into a known DNA sequence. Furthermore, it lays down the advantages and disadvantages of each method, allowing the reader to appreciate and select an appropriate method for DNA mutations for a particular project.
Measuring protein–protein interactions: quantitative approaches
Authors: Avis Johanna M. , Nilapwar Sanjay
Published: September 2023

This chapter explains a variety of protocols used for quantitative measurement of protein-protein interactions, namely fluorescence titrations, isothermal titration microcalorimetry, and surface plasmon resonance. Quantitative analysis allows a better understanding of what guides one protein to interact with another, how persistent the resulting interaction is, and how it could be regulated. The chapter emphasizes that the abovementioned methods have different requirements with respect to protein quantity and quality. It provides guidance on which method to use in probing a particular protein interaction and explains how to interpret the data obtained after application ofn a method. It tackles how to determine binding constants, kinetic constants, and thermodynamic parameters.
Structural analysis of proteins: X-ray crystallography1, NMR2, AFM3, and CD spectroscopy4
Authors: Edwards1 Thomas , Pearson1 Arwen , Thompson2 Gary , Kalverda2 Arnout , Farrance3 Oliver , Brockwell3 David , Morgan4 Gareth
Published: September 2023

This chapter gives an overview of different techniques used to study the structure of proteins. These techniques can provide information such as size, conformation, protein-folding, interactions with other molecules, and changes in structure in response to changing environmental conditions. The chapter covers discussions on X-ray crystallography, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), and atomic force microscopy (AFM). It also describes circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopy, a technique used to study the secondary structure content of proteins, and how this changes when a protein unfolds or binds to another molecule. The chapter explains the basic principles behind these techniques and the types of information that each of these can provide.
Culturing mammalian cells
Authors: Pilkington Geoffrey J. , Birks Suzanne M. , Donovan Laura K.
Published: September 2023

This chapter takes a closer look at the method of cell culture which is widely used in different biological disciplines such as large-scale manufacturing of vaccines, antibodies, and therapeutic proteins, drug screening and development, and model systems. The chapter explains how cell cultures are obtained from tissue and how cell lines can be established using defined media and environmental conditions. Furthermore, it describes the basic components of growth media and introduces the procedure for subculturing cell lines. The chapter also lays down the applications of cell cultures and how these have contributed to the breakthroughs in modern medicine. Lastly, it tackles the ways in which cell cultures may be compromised and how these limitations can be overcome.
Histopathology in biomolecular research
Authors: Hung Noelyn , Slatter Tania
Published: September 2023

This chapter focuses on histopathology, the study of tissues affected by a disease. It provides an overview of the techniques and skills necessary to successfully handle and investigate human pathology samples. It also highlights the importance of ethical approval and informed consent of the donor prior to experimentation involving human tissue samples. The chapter progresses to explore the different ways in which tissues can be obtained from a patient such as an autopsy, surgical tissue resection, excision biopsy, and exfoliative biopsy. It also explains how samples are preserved. The chapter then tackles the frequently used techniques in visualizing abnormal and normal tissues and cells microscopically: histological staining, immunohistochemistry, and in situ hybridization. Moreover, the chapter discusses the importance of data obtained using these techniques in a range of settings including clinical, diagnostic, and research laboratories.
Mouse models in bioscience research
Authors: Corbett Brian , Chin Jeannie
Published: September 2023

This chapter looks at mouse models, which play a critical part in answering important questions in biological and biomedical research, especially in probing the role of genes
in vivo
. Mice are mammalian and have fundamental anatomy that is comparable to that of humans, making research in mouse models more easily translatable to human conditions. The chapter covers different types of genetic manipulation in mice, touching on the various types of genetically engineered mice such as transgenic, knockin, knockout, and conditional knockout mice, as well as mice with inducible or repressible gene expression. The chapter provides an overview of their applications in research and outlines key considerations in the use of each.
Molecular biology of the prokaryotes
Authors: Wang Qiuyu , Smith Chris , Davis Emma
Published: September 2023

This chapter details the growth of the cell during binary division and notes that this proceeds to a point that stimulates division, giving two daughter cells. This contrasts with eukaryotic cells which reproduce by mitosis or meiosis. The chapter cites bacteria like Escherichia coli that can replicate their chromosomal DNA every 40 minutes. Their cell division takes approximately 20 more minutes. It also talks about binary division in prokaryotes which can be divided into five stages: DNA replication, FtsZ ring formation, FtsZ ring constriction, septum formation, and cell separation. The chapter examines archaea which have circular chromosomes and chromosome replication that is bidirectional, noting that many other aspects of their molecular biology are more akin to that of eucarya than bacteria. It shows that gene expression is the activation of genes leading to the production of the RNA or protein molecules they encode.
Luminescence Spectroscopy
Authors: Granger Robert M. , Yochum Hank M. , Granger Jill N. , Sienerth Karl D. , Granger Robert M. , Yochum Hank M. , Granger Jill N. , Sienerth Karl D.
Published: September 2023

This chapter shows how luminescence spectroscopy is an important technique used in a wide range of applications, including food science, water quality, pharmaceuticals, nanotechnology, and biochemistry. It elaborates that luminescence is a broad term that encompasses two types of light emission: phosphorescence and fluorescence. It also mentions spectroscopic techniques which make use of luminescence that benefit from a very high signal-to-noise ratio. The chapter describes luminescence at its most basic level, which involves irradiating a sample with a wavelength of light that can cause electronic transitions to excited states, and then measuring emission from the sample at some other wavelength as electrons relax to a lower energy state. It includes bioluminescence, which is an emission of light due to a chemical reaction that produces a product in an excited electronic state.
Potentiometry and Probes
Authors: Granger Robert M. , Yochum Hank M. , Granger Jill N. , Sienerth Karl D. , Granger Robert M. , Yochum Hank M. , Granger Jill N. , Sienerth Karl D.
Published: September 2023

This chapter discusses some passive potentiometric probes that have been around for many years but are still very important tools in chemical analysis. It surveys important probes that have been recently developed and depend on active electrochemical methods to conduct a measurement. It also refers to passive probes that monitor the difference in electrical potential or voltage, which results from differences in the chemical nature of two solutions connected through a conductive barrier. The chapter reviews the function of a potentiometric probe in measuring the concentration of an analyte under varying conditions. It explains how a potentiometric probe passively measures the voltage difference between two electrodes, noting that the signal obtained from a potentiometric probe is the proportional change in potential as a function of the analyte concentration.
Spatial Ecology
Authors: Harvey Pough F. , Andrews Robin M. , Crump Martha L. , Savitzky Alan H. , Wells Kentwood D. , Brandley Matthew C.
Published: September 2023

This chapter highlights patterns of movement by amphibians and reptiles, including the use of limited home ranges for normal daily activities, territoriality, migration, and dispersal. This study of movement patterns and the associated use of habitats by animals comprises the field of spatial ecology. Animals move from one place to another for many reasons, but ultimately all movement is related to the acquisition of resources, including food and water, mates, basking or hibernation sites, nesting sites, and shelter—in short, anything required for survival and reproduction. Most animals move only when absolutely necessary, but species differ dramatically in how often and how far they move. Ultimately, patterns of movement affect, and are affected by, almost every other aspect of an animal’s biology, including its water and temperature relations, foraging ecology and energetics, mating system, responses to predators, and interactions with other species.
Genes, Genomics, and Molecular Biology
Authors: Mandadi Kranthi K. , Mirkov T. Erik
Published: September 2023

This chapter begins the consideration of the basic biology that is the foundation of crop-plant improvement by describing genetics, heredity, and molecular biology. The basics of DNA, RNA, and protein synthesis are necessary to an understanding of genes and how/when/where they are expressed; a crucial prerequisite for crop improvement. Gene expression encompasses all the steps from transcription of the DNA to the formation of the final protein. The chapter looks at mutations, which are the basis of polymorphism in the DNA, leading to polymorphism in the individuals of a population. Plant breeders are interested in understanding which polymorphism is associated with which trait. The chapter then highlights the importance of genome sequencing, bioinformatics, and gene editing technologies for plant biologists and breeders.
Converting Solar Energy into Crop Production
Authors: Ort Donald R. , Slattery Rebecca A. , Long Stephen P.
Published: September 2023

This chapter focuses on photosynthesis, which is the basis of all life on Earth. Crop plant growth and development are limited by photosynthesis, and so an understanding of the basic chemistry of this process is important to food production. Indeed, increasing food production may depend in part on our ability to make the biochemical processes of photosynthesis more efficient. The chapter begins by looking at how photosynthetic membranes convert light energy to chemical energy. In photosynthetic carbon metabolism, chemical energy is used to convert CO2 to carbohydrates. The chapter then considers how sucrose and other polysaccharides are exported to heterotrophic plant organs to provide energy for growth and storage. It also studies photoprotection and explores abiotic environmental factors which can limit photosynthetic efficiency and crop productivity.
The Domestication of Our Food Crops
Authors: Gepts Paul
Published: September 2023

This chapter assesses crop domestication, discussing how and where modern crops arose from wild plants. Wheat was domesticated in the Middle East, and domestication resulted in diploid (Einkorn), tetraploid (durum or pasta wheat), and hexaploid (bread wheat) varieties. Meanwhile, three varieties of rice — japonica, indica, and aus — were domesticated in different parts of Asia. The chapter then looks at the domestication of maize and beans, before considering how domestication has accelerated evolution because of selection pressures imposed by humans and farming techniques. Crop evolution has been marked by major genetic bottlenecks that follow domestication, dispersal to new regions, and scientific breeding programs. The result is decreased genetic diversity in most crops. The chapter also studies hybridization, polyploidy, and the sequencing of crop-plant genomes.
Biotic Challenges: Pests
Authors: Jander Georg
Published: September 2023

This chapter examines insects and nematode pests that consume or otherwise destroy plants. Farmers have multiple options for controlling pests: cultural practices, synthetic chemicals, natural genetic resistance, and biotechnology. Plants defend themselves with toxic and deterrent chemicals. Not only do they have constitutive defenses, but they also increase the production of defensive chemicals in response to herbivory. One option for pest control is integrated pest management (IPM). This process requires assessing pest density and then using environment-friendly interventions. Chemicals are only employed as a last resort, and only when the cost of application is lower than expected pest-related losses. The chapter then looks at insecticide sprays, both natural and synthetic.
Sustainable Food Production in the 21st Century
Authors: Chrispeels Maarten J.
Published: September 2023

This chapter discusses sustainable food production in the 21st century. Because virtually all available productive land is already being cultivated, the only way to significantly increase food production is through agricultural intensification: increasing the amount of crop produced per acre. Closing the yield gap, especially on smallholder farms, is essential to feeding humanity. Both breeding better crops through genetics and better agronomic practices are needed to close the yield gap. Research and education at all levels are also necessary. Moreover, all countries need to diminish the amount of food that is spoiled and otherwise wasted. Ultimately, creating a sustainable world will require decreasing the impact of agriculture on climate change.