bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Some Fermentative Varieties of Bacillus Paratyphosus B
Authors: Warren S. H. , Iredale J. L. G.
Published: May 2009

A series of nine cases of paratyphoid fever due to infection with anaerogenic strains of B. paratyphosus B are recorded.

Biological examination of these strains shows no difference from the ordinary type of B. paratyphosus B except the inability to produce gas from any “sugar.”

Serologically these strains are identical with the aerogenic type of the organism.

These anaerogenic strains retain their inability to produce gas from “sugar” after subculture on artificial media for a considerable period, and cultivation on a number of different fluid media failed to restore the gas producing power.

In the organic salt fermentation test B. paratyphosus B gives a characteristic reaction which is also given by the anaerogenic strains.

The fermentative varieties of B. paratyphosus B defined by Kristensen and Bojlèn are definite and can be identified as a matter of practical routine, but the test is delicate and requires care in the preparation of the media and especially in the Bitter test.

The existence of these apparently stable fermentative varieties of B. paratyphosus B is likely to be of use in epidemiological investigations.

We wish to thank a number of people whose assistance has made it possible for us to carry out this work. Dr J. A. Charles, Medical Officer of Health, Newcastle-on-Tyne, for permission to publish these cases; Dr E. F. Dawson-Walker, Assistant M.O.H., for histories and specimens from the cases. Dr W. M. Scott for many cultures and other assistance.

Dr M. Kristensen, Copenhagen, Dr M. A. C. Buckell, Bradford, Dr P. L. Sutherland, Wakefield, for paratyphoid cultures and Dr J. W. H. Morrison, M.O.H., Blaydon-on-Tyne, for a number of specimens.
Anaerogenic Fermentation with Paratyphoid Bacilli
Authors: Warren S. H. , Iredale J. L. G.
Published: May 2009

1. Anaerogenic races ofB. paratyphosusB are stable in ordinary artificial culture.

2. Aerogenic variants of anaerogenic strains can be produced (though the anaerogenic strain persists) by growth in dextrose or mannitol with a relatively large amount of sodium formate. Such variants can then produce gas from all the other “sugars” fermentable byB. paratyphosusB.

3. Failure to produce gas from sugars by anaerogenic races is due to deficiency in the power of breaking down the formate produced in the first stage of fermentation.

4. A mixture of dextrose and formate in peptone water reveals the latent capacity for gas production in anaerogenic races ofB. paratyphosusB. This confirms the observations of Grey (1914, 1920, 1924).

Since this work was done, we have seen the paper of Pot and Tasman (1932) in which they succeed in isolating aerogenic variants from anaerogenic cultures ofB. paratyphosusB by continued cultivation in 2 per cent. calcium formate, in a somewhat similar manner as we have done with the mixture of dextrose and sodium formate.
The Cause of Convulsive Ergotism
Authors: Stockman Ralph
Published: May 2009

By feeding monkeys on healthy rye, wheat and other cereal and leguminous seeds convulsive and paralytic symptoms similar to those of convulsive ergotism in man can be produced.

Large amounts of cold-water extracts of the grains given to monkeys per os may cause the symptoms acutely, just as large meals of rye bread have occasionally been reported to do in man.

Salts of phytic acid and decomposition products from it, isolated from all these grains and given to monkeys by the stomach or hypodermically, occassion symptoms exactly similar to those caused by feeding the grains.

The occurrence of poisoning when these grains are consumed as food is partly a question of the quantity consumed and partly a question of the ability of the consumer to break down in the bowel the poisonous phytates and so render them innocuous. If they are not fully broken down they are absorbed and act as poisons to the nervouse system.

The pathological lesions in the nervous system of monkeys are the same as those which are described as occurring in convulsive ergotism in man.

Convulsive ergotism is not a “deficiency” disease, nor is it ergot disease, but is caused by poisons normally present in rye and other grains.
Typhoid Epidemic in Cork City, 1920
Authors: Saunders J. C.
Published: May 2009

1. That the epidemic was due to infection of the water supply is borne out by the following points:

(a) The explosive character of the outbreak as shown in Graph II which is characterised by a rapid rise to peak at the end of third week followed by a sharp fall and a gradual tailing off to the end of the epidemic.

(b) The widespread distribution of cases (see Map), no area supplied by water from the city having escaped.

(c) The rapid decline which followed the adoption of appropriate measures to deal with the water supply.

2. 255 persons in the city area (including the 12 military cases) were definitely affected (equivalent to a rate of 3·1 per 1000 of the population). As shown by the rise in the death-rate for the rural area it is apparent that a far greater number of persons were actually attacked.

3. The outbreak had its origin in a defective manhole in the Mental Hospital grounds whereby the sewage overflowed into a rubble drain and infected the water supply. This defect had existed for twenty-five years, and an epidemic in the hospital fifteen years previously established the reservoir from which infection was disseminated through the city.

4. The spread of typhoid was favoured by unsatisfactory arrangements for the filtration of the water supply. This is borne out by the endemic character of the disease prior to the installation of an effective filtration plant.

5. The institution of this plant was followed by an immediate reduction in the incidence of the disease until, as at the present time, water-borne typhoid has been practically eliminated.

6. The value of such a plant combined with chlorination and bacteriological examination has been shown.
Pulmonary Tuberculosis in Wales Between 1911 and 1931
Authors: Russell W. T. , Salmon G.
Published: May 2009

The importance of pulmonary tuberculosis as a cause of death in Wales has been the subject of much consideration. Many of the investigations, however, have been of a definitely local character, though this fact does not detract from their merit as is evinced by the work done by Wade, Bowen and the King Edward VII Welsh National Memorial Association. For a really comprehensive study we are indebted to the late Dr Brownlee. His contribution to the epidemiology of phthisis was unique in its suggestiveness. He postulated the theory that phthisis as a disease was, not an entity, but that it consisted of three types—“Young Adult,” “Middle Age,” and “ Old Age,” corresponding with separate strains of the infecting bacillus. According to his conception the great bulk of the phthisis deaths in Wales was due to early or late types of the disease. He reached this conclusion from a study of the pulmonary death-ratesof males between 1851 and 1870 in the registration districts of Wales.
Infection of the air of scarlet-fever wards with Streptococcus pyogenes
Authors: Brown W. A. , Allison V. D.
Published: May 2009

1. The air of four large scarlet-fever wards was found to contain large numbers of haemolytic streptococci, most of which could be identified serologically. In one ward the serological types identified were found to correspond the types infecting patients in the ward.

2. The degree of infection of the air with haemolytic streptococci showed considerable variation during the 24 hours. During the night, infection was absent or negligible, in the morning there was a steep rise followed by a slight fall in the degree of infection during the early afternoon. This variation is probably associated with the degree of air movement in the ward produced by the ward staff in the execution of their duties.

3. Haemolytic streptococci were widespread in the ward air and the serological types identified were not confined to the neighbourhood of patients infected with a particular type.

4. Though contact with infected hands, instruments, books, toys, etc., is probably of considerable importance in the transmission of infection with Strept. pyogenes, and though droplet transmission no doubt occurs as in other infections of the respiratory tract, yet the possibility of infection via the air cannot be dismissed, especially in multiple-bed wards in which patients infected with many different serological types of haemolytic streptococci are being nursed.
Reinfection as a cause of complications and relapses in scarlet fever wards
Authors: Allison V. D. , Brown W. A.
Published: May 2009

1. The term “reinfection” has been defined as the secondary infection of a scarlet fever patient during hospitalization withStr. pyogenesbelonging to a serologically different type from that producing the primary infection.

2. Of forty-seven scarlet fever patients nursed in a multiple-bed ward and swabbed twice weekly during their period of isolation, thirty-three (70.2 per cent) became reinfected with a serological type ofStr. pyogenesdifferent from that causing the primary disease.

3. In fifteen out of the thirty-three patients reinfected, the reinfection was “latent”, i.e. gave rise to no clinical signs, while in the remaining eighteen the reinfection was “manifest”, i.e. was accompanied by clinical signs or complications.

4. Patients nursed in cubicles or in a ward confined to infections with a single serological type did not show reinfection; their convalescence was progressive and there were no late complications.

5. The majority of complications occurring during the third week of hospitalization and subsequently, in multiple-bed wards devoted to scarlet fever, are due to reinfection.

6. Most reinfections occur during the third week in hospital at a time when patients are as a rule convalescent from their primary infection.

7. The most frequent mode of transmission of reinfection appears to be by direct contact of patient with patient.

8. Ten instances of “relapse” in scarlet fever (only three in the present series) are quoted; in all of them the patients were nursed in multiple-bed wards. In each instance the “relapse” coincided with the isolation of a fresh serological type ofStr. pyogenesfrom the throat, and must therefore be regarded as a second attack of scarlet fever.

9. The various systems of nursing patients in isolation hospitals are discussed and it is suggested that scarlet fever patients should be cubicle-nursed if possible. Failing this they should be nursed by the bed-isolation method in multiple-bed wards. By setting aside small wards it might be possible to keep together patients who are all infected by the same serological type ofStr. pyogenes; the number of such wards would vary with the number (usually three or four) of epidemic types current at the time.
The suprarenal glands in diphtheria
Authors: Maclean Alex.
Published: May 2009

In recent years, it has become apparent that lesions of the suprarenal glands occur more often in human disease than had formerly been suspected. The evident effect of such lesions is the production of profound general disturbances, which are seen in a chronic phase if the morbid process in the suprarenal tissue is slowly progressive, as, for example, in the ordinary case of Addison's disease, and in an acute phase if the lesion is of sudden onset, as in suprarenal haemorrhage, or if chronically diseased suprarenal tissue is subjected to sudden excessive demands, as in the critical stage of Addison's disease. In both phases, there is evidence to show that the best measures to employ in combating these disturbances, whether for prophylaxis or for therapy, consist of the administration to the patient of an extract of suprarenal cortex or, alternatively, of sodium chloride.
A new Salmonella type possessing a hitherto undescribed non-specific antigen
Authors: Edwards Philip R.
Published: May 2009

The designation, Newington, is proposed for those cultures ofS. anatumhaving the antigenic formula III XV:eh: 1, 4, 6. A new type, New Brunswick, is described which is represented by the formula III XV:lv: 1, 7 +. Attention is called to the inadequacy of the symbols currently employed in the representation of the non-specific antigens to express correctly the non-specific phases of the Nyborg and New Brunswick types.
Reversible neutralization by congo red of the anthracidal power of serum
Authors: Gordon J. , Wood N.
Published: May 2009

In earlier papers (Gordon, 1930) it was shown that congo red has an inactivating effect on serum complement, both haemolytic and bactericidal, and that this effect can be reversed by treating the serum and congo red mixture with charcoal, the charcoal removing the congo red and leaving the complement active again. A similar reversal of inactivation is obtained by using instead of the charcoal, heated serum (55° C. for 30 min.) or protein solutions. Later (Gordon, 1931), it was shown that congo red had an inactivating effect on the haemolysins of Streptococcus haemolyticus and B. welchii. The reversibility of this effect was not so easy to demonstrate as with complement. Charcoal had a destructive effect on the haemolysins and so could not be used. It was found, however, that when the concentration of congo red was just sufficient to neutralize the streptococcal haemolysin, the addition of cuprammonium artificial silk adsorbed the congo red and liberated the haemolysin. In the case of B. welchii this method of reversal was not suitable, as the artificial silk had a destructive effect on the haemolysin. Instead, reversibility was demonstrated by adding ox serum to the mixture of congo red and haemolysin. This brought about a redistribution of the congo red between the ox serum and the haemolysin and if the amount of congo red used had been only just sufficient to neutralize the haemolysin of B. welchii, then the haemolytic activity could again be demonstrated. Gordon and Robson (1933) showed that congo red interfered with the anaphylactic reaction tested both in vivo and in vitro, the guinea-pig uterus being used in the in vitro experiments, in which the inhibitory action of the dye was shown to be reversible. It was suggested that the congo red interfered with the entrance of antigen into the cell.
A simple tellurite-chocolate-agar medium for the typing and isolation of Corynebacterium diphtheriae
Authors: Neill G. A. W.
Published: May 2009

1. A simply made selective tellurite medium for the isolation of Corynebacterium diphtheriae and the identification of its types has been described.

2. The ingredients of this medium are easily obtained and can be stored for any length of time making the medium readily available at short notice.

3. Large or small quantities of the medium can be made with equal facility.

4. When grown on the medium, C. diphtheriae will produce colonies characteristic of its type, be it gravis, mitis or intermediate.

5. The appearance of the colonies has been described and has been shown to resemble closely, in the case of each type respectively, the appearances described by the Leeds workers (Anderson et al. (1931)) on their medium in the original papers.

6. The possibilities of the use of this medium for diagnostic routine swab examinations have been briefly referred to.
A Cheap and Efficient Medium for the Plate Count of Milk
Authors: Barkworth H. , Davis J. G.
Published: May 2009

The plate count is no longer considered the only test for the bacterial count of milk. There has recently been a tendency for the methylene-blue, or even the recently developed resazurin test, to displace the colony count as a measure of hygienic quality. Many workers, however, after experience with the dye reduction tests, have returned to the plate count, especially for advisory work, and consider that the new simple tests give inadequate information. Moreover, the plate count is still considered the best test for pasteurized milk. The questions of cost and availability of medium constituents, therefore, assume considerable importance in wartime.

Two media (Min. Health, 1937; Min. Agric. 1934) have received official recognition in England for routine plate counts of milk. Both media (yeastrel agar and milk agar) contain 0·5% peptone, so that a considerable amount can be used if a large number of samples is tested. A shortage of peptone has already been experienced and the price has increased by over 100%. Experiments were therefore undertaken to find an alternative satisfactory medium containing less peptone.
Diphtheria. The age incidence during epidemic years in London
Authors: Martin W. J.
Published: May 2009

Although the national statistics of the notifications of infectious diseases are defective with regard to age and sex, it has been established from the returns of London and other large towns that the mean age of attack from diphtheria has been increasing during the present century. The age shift has been from the pre-school to the school age. Several investigators have commented on the change in age incidence, Murphy (1907) reviewed the trend of mortality in London, and Chalmers (1913) the mortality of Scotland. Cheeseman, Martin & Russell (1939), as a result of an analysis of data kindly provided by the Medical Department of the London County Council, concluded that the change might be due to the decrease in size of family, especially in the more crowded districts. This would Jead to a decrease of morbidity at early ages and, as a consequence, a lower level of herd immunity at school ages, so that the epidemiological experience of the poorer districts would approximate to those of the middle-class districts. In this paper (pp. 188–9) reference was made to Turner's observation (1923) that both in London and Manchester the mean age of attack in epidemic years of scarlet fever was above the average, and it was shown that if the maximum weekly case rate of diphtheria in London (1897–1930) were correlated with the ratio of the number of cases at ages 0–4 to the number at 5–9, a significant negative value was reached. This finding was consistent with Turner's result, but it seemed of interest to apply a slightly more direct test by comparing years of heavy prevalence with adjacent years in which diphtheria was at a lower level.
Epidemiology of haemolytic streptococcal infection in relation to acute rheumatism: I. Haemolytic streptococcal epidemic and first appearance of rheumatism in a training centre
Authors: Green C. A.
Published: May 2009

1. The circumstances attending an outbreak of haemolytic streptococcal infection in a training centre, followed by acute rheumatism, are described.

2. The incidence of streptococcal infections in trained men and apprentices was 64 and 474 per 1000 respectively.

3. Of streptococcal infections 78·0% occurred in members of two younger classes of apprentices.

4. The eight cases of acute rheumatism were all in apprentices, seven cases being in the same two classes. All but one case had had tonsillitis or scarlatina during the epidemic.

5. The smallest percentage of post-epidemic Dick-positive reactors was found in the youngest class which had suffered most in the outbreak.
Comparative digestibility of wholemeal and white breads and the effect of the degree of fineness of grinding on the former
Authors: Macrae T. F. , Hutchinson J. C. D. , Irwin J. O. , Bacon J. S. D. , McDougall E. I.
Published: May 2009

1. Loaves were baked from three types of wheaten flour made from the same grist; a straight run white flour of 73% extraction, a finely ground wholemeal (100% extraction) and a medium ground wholemeal (100% extraction). Bread from each was consumed by six persons for periods of 11–12 days. The daily consumption was 530–630 g. dry weight of bread and, in addition, 37 g. margarine, 284 c.c. milk, 72 g. marmalade jelly and 284 c.c. of mild ale.

2. The total energy, nitrogen and fibre of the food consumed and of the faeces excreted over a period of 7 days were determined. Assuming that the foods other than bread were wholly digestible, the average percentage absorption of energy, nitrogen and fibre from the white bread was 96·1, 91·1, and 65·8 respectively; from the fine wholemeal bread it was 86·9, 85·3 and 14 respectively and from the coarser ground wholemeal 87·1, 85·7 and 9·7 respectively.

3. The nitrogen intake per 100 g. of the wholemeal bread eaten, was 2·91; of the white bread 2·70 g. This advantage was, however, neutralized by the greater amount of nitrogen lost in the faeces when wholemeal was taken, so that the average net gain of nitrogen to the body was 2·46 and 2·49 respectively per 100 g. dry weight of bread consumed.

4. The loss of 9% more of the energy of the bread in the faeces from wholemeal than from white bread is largely accounted for by the undigested cell envelopes and woody fibre in the bran. The greater utilization of the fibre of the white bread is in accordance with the observations of Rubner who showed that the cell membranes of the endosperm were of different composition from those of the bran cells and were more readily attacked by bacteria in the gut.

5. The range of individual variations in the utilization of the energy of the breads were: for white bread 95·4–96·8% and for wholemeal 85·4–88·7%. In the utilization of nitrogen these were: for white bread 88·2–94·1%, and for wholemeal 78·5–89·6%. The same subjects showed the better utilization of both energy and nitrogen.

6. The fineness of grinding of the wholemeal within the range used made no significant difference to the utilization of either energy or nitrogen.
Some new observations bearing on the nature of the pleuropneumonia-like organism known as L1 associated withStreptobacillus moniliformis
Authors: Klieneberger Emmy
Published: May 2009

The new data presented show that the life cycle of the L1 organism separated from cultures ofStreptobacillus moniliformiscorresponds in many respects to that of pleuropneumonia. It seems therefore justifiable to classify it with the group of pleuropneumonia-like organisms and not with the bacteria. Its peculiar life cycle, including the formation of elementary reproductive corpuscles, a process previously described for pleuropneumonia, but not occurring in bacteria, is regarded as strong evidence in favour of the conception thatStr. moniliformisis composed of two genetically different microbes, aStreptobacillusand the LI organism. Cross-absorption tests betweenStr. moniliformisand the LI organism have shown that these organisms possess different serological affinities.
Studies in immunization by a species antigen: I. Preparation of species antigen from pneumococci
Authors: Day H. B.
Published: May 2009

From pneumococci a species antigen can be obtained which on injection gives protection against pneumococci of different types.

Species antigen is a somatic constituent of pneumococci and can be obtained in solution free of protein. It may be of carbohydrate nature, but is not derived from the type-specific material.

The bodies of pneumococci contain another substance which on injection opposes species immunization. This opposition factor is closely associated with the protein content.

Inconstant results from injection of preparations containing species antigen are due to the presence of opposition factor in varying amount.

A high degree of species immunity can be secured by the use of species antigen freed from opposition factor.
Studies on air-borne virus infections: II. the killing of virus aerosols by ultra-violet radiation
Authors: Edward D. G. ff. , Lush Dora , Bourdillon R. B.
Published: May 2009

The experiments show that rapid and effective sterilization of atmospheres containing atomized particles of influenza and vaccinia viruses, and probably also of herpes simplex virus, can be obtained by ultra-violet radiation of wave-length 2537 A. At least 99 % and probably more of an aerosol of influenza virus was killed by exposure for 6 sec. at. a distance of 2 cm. from either a Hanovia lamp or a G.E.C. ‘Sterilamp’. These findings confirm the work of Wells and his associates who first demonstrated the susceptibility of this virus to ultra-violet radiation (Wells & Brown, 1936; Wells & Henle, 1941). At the same distance the ‘Sterilamp’ produced more than a 99 % kill of vaccinia virus with an exposure of 1 sec. and about a 90 % kill in 0·5 sec. The experiments with herpes were less satisfactory but suggested a similar sensitivity. These results support the view that ‘germicidal’ lamps are likely to be useful in reducing the infectivity of air contaminated with particles from persons suffering from virus infections of the respiratory tract.

We wish to acknowledge our indebtedness to the late Sir Patrick Laidlaw who, although his name does not appear as author, largely inspired the investigation and took an active part in it until his death.
A new non-mannite-fermenting dysentery organism of the Flexner group
Authors: Berger F. M.
Published: May 2009

From three patients suffering from gastro-enteritis, non-mannite-fermenting, dysentery-like organisms were isolated which showed marked serological relationship to X, Y and P119 strains of B. dysenteriae Flexner.

In carbohydrate peptone-water media the organism fermented glucose without production of gas. In Lemco broth, however, both acid and gas were produced from glucose. The only other carbohydrate which was fermented was saccharose, but fermentation was weak and occurred only when incubation was prolonged for several days.

The organism possesses the group antigen common to the whole Flexner group and also a new type specific antigen of its own. Therefore it must be regarded as a new, non-mannite-fermenting member of the Flexner group of dysentery organism.

This work was undertaken at the instigation of Prof. P. L. Sutherland, to whom I am indebted for assistance and advice in the preparation of this paper. My thanks are due to Mr S. J. Denyer, Chief Technician, who isolated the first strain and referred it for further examination. I also thank Mr Gordon Denton for technical assistance.

Subcultures of all three strains have been sent to the National Collection of Type Cultures in London. Samples of the specific antiserum may be obtained from this laboratory.
Rat control in a plague outbreak in Malta
Authors: Barnett S. A.
Published: May 2009

1. Methods of rat destruction devised in the United Kingdom during the war were applied to combat plague in Malta.

2. The species were Rattus norvegicus Berkenhout, and R. rattus L. The first is the more common and played an important part in carrying plague.

3. In the last 7 months of 1945, 75 cases of plague were diagnosed. In 1946, 5 cases occurred. A marked fall in the incidence of flea-borne (murine) typhus occurred in 1946.

4. Systematic rat destruction began at the end of August 1945. The method was prebaiting, followed by poisoning with baits and poisons of known efficacy and change of both bait and poison for follow-up treatments. For this purpose a large organization in which the Navy, Army and R.A.F. took part, as well as the Medical and Health Department, was set up under unified control. This made it possible for large blocks and areas to be treated as a whole and within a short space of time.

5. Evidence is given that the degree of clearance achieved by these methods was satisfactory. Comparison of the figures of baiting points visited in first and second baiting treatments suggests, in most instances, a satisfactory kill; this is confirmed by the fact that third treatments, when they were carried out, were found to be unnecessary. Reports from the public and house-to-house inquiry also suggest a very great reduction in rat population.

6. In January 1947, 9 tests for reinfestation were carried out in areas which had been treated between 6 and 17 months before. These tests indicated that few or no rats were present. It is therefore suggested that not only had a good initial clearance been achieved but that the effect was a lasting one.

The author is indebted to Mr W. McA. Gracie, Director of Infestation Control, who also visited Malta in 1945, for making possible the publication of this paper; to Dr A. C. Briffa, Deputy Chief Government Medical Officer, and Mr Paul Cauchi, Rodent Control Officer, for answering many involved questions by post and for carrying out tests of reinfestation; and to Mr A. H. Bathard, formerly officer in charge of the R.A.M.C. Sanitary Section, Malta, for help in analysing the records. Thanks are also due to A. G. Jenson, F.R.I.B.A., for drawing the map and the figures.
Studies on vaccinia haemagglutinin: II. Some immunological properties
Authors: Chu C. M.
Published: May 2009

1. Vaccinated rabbits develop serum anti-haemagglutinin after infection. The anti-haemagglutinin is not found to any appreciable titre in normal human and animal sera tested. It is present in the globulin fraction of rabbit serum and is stable at 70° C. for 30 min. but destroyed at 80° C. for 30 min.

2. Observations over a period of 6 months of variations in serum antibodies in vaccinated rabbits demonstrate that whereas the agglutinin, precipitin and complement-fixing antibody varied in parallel with each other, the anti-haemagglutinin varied independently and in general remained more or less steady throughout the period.

3. Some experimental observations of the haemagglutinin anti-haemagglutinin reaction are reported. The haemagglutinin inactivated by immune serum can be reactivated by boiling. Haemagglutinin adsorbed on to red cells can be eluted by subsequent addition of immune serum.

4. Failure to obtain complement fixation with the haemagglutinin anti-haemagglutinin system is recorded.

5. Vaccinia haemagglutinin is distinct from the L-S antigen.

6. By absorption test, it has been shown that the anti-haemagglutinin is a distinct antibody related neither to L or S antibodies nor to neutralizing antibody.

7. It is concluded that vaccinia haemagglutinin represents a new and distinct antigen occurring in a relatively large particulate state in vaccinia infected tissues. The possible theoretical implications of such findings are discussed.
The diagnostic value of the widal test in the inoculated
Authors: Mole R. H.
Published: May 2009

1. Evidence is given that in recently inoculated persons the Widal reaction, even when serial quantitative tests are done, has no practical value in the diagnosis of enteric fever. Conscription enlarges permanently the inoculated proportion of the whole population.

2. The diagnostic value of any particular titre depends not only on the relative frequencies with which this titre occurs in normal and infected individuals but also on the incidence of enteric fever in the population and on the fashionableness of the Widal test as a diagnostic aid.

3. It is emphasized that blood culture is a more reliable aid to diagnosis than the Widal test.
An outbreak of typhoid fever in the Middle East
Authors: Anderson E. S. , Richards H. G. H.
Published: May 2009

1. An outbreak of typhoid fever in a Royal Air Force camp in the Middle East is discussed.

2. A total of 110 cases occurred of which 105 are analysed. The case-fatality rate was 10%.

3. Of the 105 cases 59% gave a positive blood culture. The percentages of diagnostic isolations from stools and urine were small.

4. Clearance tests of stools and urine showed that 8.4% of patients excretedSalm. typhiduring convalescence.

5. Leucocyte counts during the first 2 weeks of the illness showed that only 30% of the patients had a count below 5000 per cu.mm.; 62% of these low figures were encountered in severe cases.

6. Autopsies on seven fatal cases showed considerable variability in the macroscopic appearance of the intestinal lesions.

7. Serological investigation confirmed that higher percentages of cases with low titres of O agglutinin were found in the severe and mild clinical groups, and that most O titres in the moderately severe cases exceeded 1:200.

8. Of the patients 52% showed Vi titres exceeding 1:20 during convalescence.

9. The significance of various findings is discussed.
The bacteriological interpretation of vaginal smears
Authors: Laughton Nancy
Published: May 2009

1. The genus Corynebacterium is common in the vagina. In direct smears forms with exaggerated curvature and staining Gram-negatively may easily be mistaken for vibrios.

2. Attention is drawn to the not infrequent presence of Gram-negative cocci in direct vaginal smears. From these cases Diplococcus crassus, a commensal member of the genus Neisseria, has been isolated. These cocci could be mistaken for gonococci.

3. An unusual organism seen in two direct smears from the vagina is described, and the suggestion is made that it may be Streptobacillus moniliformis.
The epizootic behaviour of mousepox (infectious ectromelia of mice): The course of events in long-continued epidemics
Authors: Fenner Frank
Published: May 2009

1. Two long-continued epidemics of mousepox were set up with different strains of the virus and maintained for 190 and 290 days respectively. Considerable differences were observed between the behaviour of the two strains of virus, the Moscow strain being much more virulent and more highly infective than the Hampstead strain.

2. The two strains of virus maintained their original characters through the experiments.

3. Life tables were constructed for both epidemics, specific and non-specific deaths being dealt with separately. They show that high and durable immunity follows recovery from infection.

4. Two mice which had recovered from infection were found to harbour small quantities of the virus in the lungs, and in one case in the spleen also, suggesting that chronic latent carriers of the virus may occur.
A simple method for the determination of bacterial sensitivity to sulphonamides by the use of blotting-paper disks
Authors: Evans R. J.
Published: May 2009

A description is given of a simple method of determining the sensitivity of bacteria to sulphonamides by means of impregnated blotting-paper disks applied to nutrient agar prepared from broth freed from sulphonamide antagonists by incubation with lysed horse red blood cells.

With organisms sensitive to the selected sulphonamide, a zone of inhibition of growth will occur, the diameter of which is related to the concentration of the sulphonamide necessary to inhibit growth. Sensitivity to several sulphonamides can be determined simultaneously.

The impregnated disks can be stored without loss of potency.
Feeding and breeding of laboratory animals: VIII. Breeding of guinea-pigs
Authors: Bruce H. M. , Parkes A. S.
Published: May 2009

Guinea-pigs are usually mated in permanent polygamous groups, one or more males with a large number of females, the young being harvested when ready to wean. This system is economical of labour, and is efficient in allowing of mating at post-partum oestrus and therefore of maximum reproductivity. There are, however, serious disadvantages; it is difficult to keep track of individual performance and difficult therefore to eliminate unproductive sows, the ancestry and exact age of the young are often unknown, and the conditions of rearing young among a crowd of adults are probably not ideal. These considerations suggest that, given high-grade breeding stock, the polygamous system is adequate, and probably inevitable, for the mass production of young for experimental purposes, but that it leaves much to be desired for the production of breeding stock. The obvious solution of this difficulty is to maintain a large polygamous and anonymous colony for mass breeding, and, quite separately, a small closely recorded colony to supply the breeding animals. A goodsow should produce at least 10 young per year in a life of 2 years. A demand of 10,000 animals per year, for experimental work, therefore requires a mass-breeding stock of 1000 sows, an annual replacement of 500 sows and a stock-breeding stock of 100 sows. According to our experience, about 2 hr. daily on the part of a trained technician would be required to maintain close recording of such a pilot stock and of its progeny to puberty (Bruce & Parkes, 1947b).
The warmth of floors—a physical study
Authors: Billington N. S.
Published: May 2009

It is commonly believed that a concrete floor feels cold, whereas a wood floor feels warm. It is not clear however, under what conditions this statement is supposed to be valid, if, in fact, it is true at all. Nevertheless, one supposes that it applies certainly to walking barefoot across the floor; and it is believed by many to apply also when shoes are worn. In common usage, however, no attempt is made to eliminate the factor of surface temperature.
On the tuberculin sensitivity of epithelial cells in vitro
Authors: Jacoby F. , Marks J.
Published: May 2009

Purified tuberculin in concentrations equivalent to 1x/20 standard Old Tuberculin had no apparent effect on the outgrowth in vitro of liver and kidney epithelium derived from sensitized guinea-pigs.

Acknowledgement is made with thanks to Miss Florence Taylor for technical assistance, and to Mr L. Jones for help with the microphotography.
The use of culture virus in the preparation of foot-and-mouth disease vaccine
Authors: Henderson W. M. , Galloway Ian A.
Published: May 2009

In three cattle vaccination experiments, with three strains of the virus of foot-and-mouth disease, it was shown that virus passaged in culture in cattle tongue epithelial tissue was as effective an antigen as virus passaged in cattle.

With two virus strains, the virus content of the culture at the peak of infectivity was about the same as that of vesicle epithelium from the tongues of reacting cattle. Variable and less satisfactory results were obtained with the third strain, but one culture passage yielded tissue of sufficiently high virus content for the preparation of vaccine of adequate potency.

No modification in the antigenic behaviour of the strains was detected as a result of passage in culture.

It is a pleasure to acknowledge the technical assistance given by Mr W. J. Brownsea.
Studies on the effect of staphyloccoccal culture filtrates on isolated rabbit gut
Authors: Kelsey J. C. , Hobbs Betty C.
Published: May 2009

1. When toxic filtrates derived from coagulase-positive staphylococci including twelve food-poisoning strains, thirty pyogenic strains of human and twelve of animal origin were applied to isolated rabbit gutin vitro, two characteristic responses were obtained, associated with the α- and β-lytic titres respectively, and abolished by the corresponding antisera. They were independent of the origin of the strains.

2. A non-specific response is also described which is thought to be due to the peptone in the medium.

3. No effect that could be attributed to enterotoxin, such as was reported by Anderson (1953), was observed and it is concluded that isolated rabbit gut is unlikely to prove a useful indicator of its presence.

We are indebted to Drs Mary Barber, J. M. Talbot, F. C. O. Valentine and H. Williams Smith for strains; to Dr R. E. O. Williams for strains and bacteriophage typing; to Prof. C. E. Dolman and Messrs Burroughs Wellcome for strains and antisera; to Mr F. Crisp of the Division of Experimental Biology, National Institute for Medical Research, Medical Research Council, for rabbit gut; and Dr H. O. Schild for continued interest and practical help.
The lysis ofBacterium coliby amino-acids
Authors: Gordon J. , Hall R. A. , Stickland L. H.
Published: May 2009

1. Straight-chain α-amino-acids are all equally effective in causing the lysis ofBact. coli.

2. Various modifications of this structure always result in a decrease of this lytic activity.

3. The optical isomers of α-amino-acids are equally effective in causing lysis.

4. There is a correlation between the lytic and the bactericidal powers of the amino-acids and their derivatives.
Cord-blood antistreptolysin-O level according to parity and social class as a possible index of familial streptococcal experience
Authors: Waters E. G. L. , Holborow E. J. , Johnson G. D. , Kelly R. J.
Published: May 2009

1. The A.S.O. titre of cord blood is about 1½ times that in the mother's blood taken 4 weeks before delivery.

2. The distribution of A.S.O. levels in cord bloods from multiparae with children at school is not significantly different from that in multiparae whose children are under school age, or in primiparae.

3. Among these groups, only primiparae show a significantly increased A.S.O. level in winter.

4. The distribution of A.S.O. levels among the five social classes defined by the Registrar-General's occupation code showed a significant trend towards higher levels in the lower social grades.

We wish to thank Mr D. M. W. Maxwell, F.R.C.S., F.R.C.O.G. and Miss D. Slade, S.R.N., S.C.M. at Taplow, and Professor J. C. McC. Browne, F.R.C.S., F.R.C.O.G., Dr W. Hayes, D.Sc., F.R.C.P.I. and Miss M. Tweedle, S.R.N., S.C.M. at Hammersmith Hospital for their kind help.
Studies on poliomyelitis virus. Concentration and purification of the virus
Authors: Polson A. , Hampton J. W. F.
Published: May 2009

For the purpose of determining the immunogenic potency of polio virus, relatively large amounts of concentrated virus material were prepared which had titres of the order of 1010 T.C.I.D.50 per ml. These were obtained by pervaporating large quantities of tissue culture fluid containing approximately 106.5 T.C.I.D.50 per ml.

We wish to acknowledge the valuable assistance received from Dr P. D. Winter and his staff, of the Poliomyelitis Research Foundation, in carrying out the tissue culture titrations of these materials.
The growthin vitroof vaccinia virus in chick embryo chorio-allantoic memberane, minced embryo and cell suspensions
Authors: Maitland H. B. , Magrath D. I.
Published: May 2009

The growth curve of rabbit skin-adapted vaccinia virus in the chick chorioallantoic membrane incubated in Hanks' solution showed a drop in titre of virus for about 10 hr. followed by growth. At least 25% of virus, sometimes more, remained infective. A similar fall in titre was observed in heated membranes in which the virus did not grow and this occurred also when membranes, either normal or heated, were infected and disintegrated before incubation.

The growth curve of virus in minced chick-embryo was similar to that in chorioallantoic membrane.

Virus in cell suspensions prepared from chick embryo and incubated in a nutrient medium showed only a small loss of infectivity before growth in some experiments and rarely dropped below 65–70 % of the original titre in others.

These results throw considerable doubt on the view that loss of infectivity preceding growth of vaccinia virus should be interpreted as an essential part of a growth cycle.
The memberane Piece Technique forin VitroInfectivity Titrations of Influenza Virus
Authors: Finter N. B. , Armitage P.
Published: May 2009

1. The membrane piece technique forin vitrotitrations of the infectivity of influenza virus is described. Rectangles of shell, about 8 × 25 mm., with the chorio-allantoic membrane still attached (membrane pieces) are cut from thirteenth-day fertile eggs. One piece in a test-tube with glucose-buffered salt solution forms an individual assay unit. Five or more tubes are inoculated with each virus dilution. After incubation at 37° C. for 72 hr., with agitation for the first 24 hr. the fluid in each tube is tested for haemagglutinins. From the results at each dilution, an estimate of the 50% membrane piece (MP50) infectivity titre is obtained.

2. Six hundred assay units, with pieces cut from twenty eggs, can be set up by two workers in 1 hr. and used for titration of between three and twenty-four individual virus preparations, depending on the reliability desired for the 50% end-point estimates.

3. With the D.S.P. and PR 8 strains of influenza A virus, the MP50titres parallel the EID50titres from egg titrations, but are eight times and twenty times lower, respectively. The MP50: EID50ratio is the same for various preparations of the same strain, including standard allantoic fluid and chorio-allantoic membrane virus, incomplete virus, and inactivated (heated) allantoic fluid virus. Preliminary experiments with Lee influenza B virus show that slightly different experimental conditions are required, and the MP50titres are about fifty times less than the EID50titres.

4. Consistent results have been obtained on titration of samples of the same virus preparation on a number of occasions over a period of several months.

5. A large number of membrane pieces can be used to test each virus dilution, and sampling variations in the MP50estimates thus made quite small. Statistical data on the reliability of a 50 % titration result, and on the minimum significant differences between two end-points, are given for different values ofn, the number of membrane pieces used to test each virus dilution, and ofd, the log dilution step.

We are grateful to Mr J. Collins for invaluable technical assistance, and also to Miss I. Allen for help with the computations.
Antibodies to influenza viruses in the sera of Nigerians
Authors: Isaacs A. , Busby D. , Law V. G.
Published: May 2009

Sera of Nigerians aged between 10 and 60 years were tested individually for their antibody to five strains of influenza A virus. The results showed a similar pattern to those which other investigators have found with sera collected in the U.S.A. and in this country. However, antibody to the swine and WS strains was found in younger individuals than was reported previously; and the distribution of antibody titres suggests that this represents antibody to minor antigens of more recent strains, rather than persistence of swine and WS viruses.

We should like to thank Dr C. H. Andrewes F.R.S. for his criticisms and Dr James S. Porterfield who sent the sera.
The liberation of cell-bound vaccinia virus by ultrasonic vibration
Authors: Macpherson I. A.
Published: May 2009

1. Ultrasonic vibration has been shown to be a highly effective means of releasing vaccinia virus from infected HeLa cells.

2. The titre of vaccinia virus obtained from a suspension of infected HeLa cells following ultrasonic vibration is closely similar to that obtained by rapid shaking of the suspension with glass beads. Since these methods are dissimilar in their disruptive action and the titres obtained are higher than those obtained by other methods, they are probably close to the maximum possible yield of virus from these cells.

3. Ultrasonic vibration and shaking with glass beads give higher yields of vaccinia virus from infected HeLa cells than grinding with sand, grinding in a glass TenBroeck tissue disintegrator and three cycles of freezing and thawing.

I am indebted to Prof. H. B. Maitland whose interest stimulated this work. I also wish to thank Dr J. C. N. Westwood for much helpful criticism and Mr R. F. W. Southey for his technical assistance.
Further studies in the mouse intra-oral inoculation technique
Authors: Epstein S. S. , Stratton K.
Published: May 2009

The immediate dispersal of a fluid delivered to anaesthetized mice by the intranasal and intra-oral techniques has been studied by means of a radio-active tracer method. The results clearly show that the intra-orally inoculated animal accepts a larger proportion of the total volume inoculated and that a significantly higher fraction of this reaches the lungs than in mice inoculated by the intra-nasal technique.

The authors would like to thank Dr I. Friedmann and Dr H. A. B. Simons for having made this work possible; also, Mr D. Arnott for a generous gift of labelled di-iodofluorescein, and Dr D. A. Osborn and Dr K. Weinbren for helpful suggestions.
Studies of the loss of viability of stored bacterial aerosols. II. Death rates of several non-pathogenic organisms in relation to biological and structural characteristics
Authors: Ferry Ronald M. , Brown William F. , Damon Edwin B.
Published: May 2009

For several decades bacteriologists and epidemiologists have been interested in the survival of micro-organisms in the airborne state. Studies by many investigators, recently summarized by Wells (1955), have produced data concerning certain aspects of bacterial survival or death, but the information has not generally sufficed to permit quantitative analysis when a fluid environment was changed in the airborne state.