bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Islamist Activism in Turkey
Authors: Çınar Menderes
Published: July 2020

This chapter focuses on the emergence and development of Turkish Islamism since the transition to competitive politics in 1946 after a brief review of Islamism and secularism in the late Ottoman and early republican periods. It studies the history of Turkish Islamism in three stages: its crystallization into a distinct political party organization within right-wing milieus between 1946 and 1980; its expansion, pluralization and rise in a favorably changing domestic and international context between 1980 and 1998; and, after a setback, its hegemonic renewal at the expense of democracy and authoritarian rule by a populist leader between 1998 to the present. Thematically, the chapter addresses its durability, changing ideological characteristics, social basis, political strategies, and ideological alliances. It identifies several factors shaping the fortunes and characteristics of Turkish Islamism including its relatively secular nature and integration into the political processes, favorable modification of the parameters of state secularism in Turkey, economic transformations, and global intellectual and political trends revealing the defects of Turkish democracy and secularism.
Political Translation and Civic Translation Capacities for Democracy in Post-Migrant Societies
Authors: Doerr Nicole
Published: July 2020

Translation’s transformative potential has been studied by students of comparative literature, culture, gender, and social movements; but it has received less attention in theories of democracy. This contribution gives a survey of theories of translation, democratic dialogue, and social change drawing on migration and citizenship studies, gender and intersectionality, and research on political participation, transnational social movements, and diffusion. Based on an interdisciplinary conceptualization of translation in the literature, it first reviews existing political theories of democratic dialogue and deliberation. It then provides a sociological critique of democratic theories to explore how structural inequality creates conflict and “positional” misunderstandings within culturally diverse settings for civic participation and deliberation in globalized, unequal, and increasingly diverse societies and transnational publics. Finally, it reviews contemporary practices and radical democratic interventions used by migrants and activists, civic volunteer translators and interpreters, in order to address power inequality and diversity within contemporary democratic processes. By interpreting these grassroots democratic practices, the contribution of this chapter is to infuse democratic theory with timely sociological insights into the potential of activist “political” translations and comparative research on civic translation capacities. Political translation, distinct from conventional definitions of linguistic translation, is a disruptive and communicative practice for challenging power asymmetries and inequality in democratic processes or institutions. Based on cross-national empirical evidence, it discusses the benefits and challenges of political translation and civic translation capacities benefiting female asylum seekers and low–socioeconomic status groups who face structural barriers to access social and civic rights and education.
Terminological Resources for Geosciences Translation
Authors: Di Franco Sabina , Plini Paolo , Rapisardi Elena
Published: July 2020

Geosciences are part of a complex network of environmental disciplines of growing importance both for scientific purposes and for social issues. Researchers and geoscientists are called to engage with the public, not only to share their knowledge but also to persuade people and decisionmakers. The authors believe that language is the building block to start sharing and organizing knowledge, but language has its complexity and pitfalls, especially when translating from one language to another or from jargon to natural language. There is a growing need for precise, correct, and clear scientific and technological translation, starting from the meaning of specific terms to the structure of semantic relationships between terms of a certain knowledge domain. Terminology and terminological resources (thesauri, ontologies, and glossaries) dedicated to geosciences can help with these difficult tasks.
Accountability in Computer Systems
Authors: Kroll Joshua A.
Published: July 2020

This chapter addresses the relationship between AI systems and the concept of accountability. To understand accountability in the context of AI systems, one must begin by examining the various ways the term is used and the variety of concepts to which it is meant to refer. Accountability is often associated with transparency, the principle that systems and processes should be accessible to those affected through an understanding of their structure or function. For a computer system, this often means disclosure about the system’s existence, nature, and scope; scrutiny of its underlying data and reasoning approaches; and connection of the operative rules implemented by the system to the governing norms of its context. Transparency is a useful tool in the governance of computer systems, but only insofar as it serves accountability. There are other mechanisms available for building computer systems that support accountability of their creators and operators. Ultimately, accountability requires establishing answerability relationships that serve the interests of those affected by AI systems.
Responsibility and Artificial Intelligence
Authors: Dignum Virginia
Published: July 2020

This chapter explores the concept of responsibility in artificial intelligence (AI). Being fundamentally tools, AI systems are fully under the control and responsibility of their owners or users. However, their potential autonomy and capability to learn require that design considers accountability, responsibility, and transparency principles in an explicit and systematic manner. The main concern of Responsible AI is thus the identification of the relative responsibility of all actors involved in the design, development, deployment, and use of AI systems. Firstly, society must be prepared to take responsibility for AI impact. Secondly, Responsible AI implies the need for mechanisms that enable AI systems to act according to ethics and human values. Lastly, Responsible AI is about participation. It is necessary to understand how different people work with and live with AI technologies across cultures in order to develop frameworks for responsible AI.
The Ethics of the Ethics of AI
Authors: Powers Thomas M. , Ganascia Jean-Gabriel
Published: July 2020

This chapter discusses several challenges for doing the ethics of artificial intelligence (AI). The challenges fall into five major categories: conceptual ambiguities within philosophy and AI scholarship; the estimation of AI risks; implementing machine ethics; epistemic issues of scientific explanation and prediction in what can be called computational data science (CDS), which includes “big data” science; and oppositional versus systemic ethics approaches. The chapter then argues that these ethical problems are not likely to yield to the “common approaches” of applied ethics. Primarily due to the transformational nature of artificial intelligence within science, engineering, and human culture, novel approaches will be needed to address the ethics of AI in the future. Moreover, serious barriers to the formalization of ethics will be needed to overcome to implement ethics in AI.
Perspectives on Ethics of AI
Authors: Gunkel David J.
Published: July 2020

This chapter investigates the philosophical aspects of AI and ethics. As the world today becomes increasingly populated by intelligent, socially interactive artefacts—devices that are not just instruments of human action but designed to be a kind of social actor in their own right—people will need to grapple with challenging questions concerning the status and moral standing of these machinic others. In formulating responses to these questions, one can obviously deploy the standard properties approach. This method has considerable historical precedent behind it and constitutes what can be called the default setting for addressing questions concerning moral standing. Indeed, a good deal of the current work in moral machines, machine ethics, AI ethics, and the ethics of AI follow this procedure. However, this approach, for all its advantages, also has considerable difficulties. The chapter therefore proposes an alternative approach to addressing AI ethics and the ethics of AI that circumvents many of the problems encountered in the properties approach by arranging for an ethics that is relational, radically empirical, and altruistic. This other way of thinking is informed by and follows from recent innovations in moral philosophy.
AI and the Global South
Authors: Arun Chinmayi
Published: July 2020

This chapter details how AI affects, and will continue to affect, the Global South. The term “South” has a history connected with the “Third World” and has referred to countries that share postcolonial history and certain development goals. However, scholars have expanded and refined on it to include different kinds of marginal, disenfranchised populations such that the South is now a plural concept—there are Souths. The AI-related risks for Southern populations include concerns of discrimination, bias, oppression, exclusion, and bad design. These can be exacerbated in the context of vulnerable populations, especially those without access to human rights law or institutional remedies. The chapter then outlines these risks as well as the international human rights law that is applicable. It argues that a human rights–centric, inclusive, empowering context-driven approach is necessary.
Europe
Authors: Renda Andrea
Published: July 2020

This chapter assesses Europe’s efforts in developing a full-fledged strategy on the human and ethical implications of artificial intelligence (AI). The strong focus on ethics in the European Union’s AI strategy should be seen in the context of an overall strategy that aims at protecting citizens and civil society from abuses of digital technology but also as part of a competitiveness-oriented strategy aimed at raising the standards for access to Europe’s wealthy Single Market. In this context, one of the most peculiar steps in the European Union’s strategy was the creation of an independent High-Level Expert Group on AI (AI HLEG), accompanied by the launch of an AI Alliance, which quickly attracted several hundred participants. The AI HLEG, a multistakeholder group including fifty-two experts, was tasked with the definition of Ethics Guidelines as well as with the formulation of “Policy and Investment Recommendations.” With the advice of the AI HLEG, the European Commission put forward ethical guidelines for Trustworthy AI—which are now paving the way for a comprehensive, risk-based policy framework.
The Case for Ethical AI in the Military
Authors: Galliott Jai , Scholz Jason
Published: July 2020

This chapter addresses the military promise of artificial intelligence (AI), which is increasing along with advances in deep learning, neural networks, and robotics. The influence of AI will be felt across the full spectrum of armed conflict—from intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance through to the offensive and defensive employment of lethal force. This is to say that AI is less of a weapon than it is a military enabler, and yet the public still liken the notion of AI in the military context with killer robots, arising from the fears made public by numerous academic, business, and government leaders about the existential risk posed by an approaching singularity and the belief that AI could trigger the next world war. The chapter then considers what constitutes militarized “artificial intelligence”; the justifications for employing AI considering the limits of deep learning and the human role in alleged “black boxes”; the wider moral advantages, disadvantages, and risks of using AI in the military domain; and the potential implications for the way in which the armed forces plan, train, and fight. In doing so, it advances the concept of ethical AI as that which yields humanitarian benefits and differentiates between minimally and maximally just versions of said AI
AI Governance by Human Rights–Centered Design, Deliberation, and Oversight
Authors: Yeung Karen , Howes Andrew , Pogrebna Ganna
Published: July 2020

This chapter argues that international human rights standards offer the most promising basis for developing a coherent and universally recognized set of standards that can be applied to meet any of the normative concerns currently falling under the rubric of AI (artificial intelligence) ethics. It then outlines the core elements of a human rights–centered design, deliberation, and oversight approach to the governance of AI. This approach requires that human rights norms are systemically considered at every stage of system design, development, and deployment, drawing upon and adapting technical methods and techniques for safe software and system design, verification, testing, and auditing in order to ensure compliance with human rights norms. The regime must be mandated by law and relies critically on external oversight by independent, competent, and properly resourced regulatory authorities with appropriate powers of investigation and enforcement. However, this approach will not ensure the protection of all ethical values adversely implicated by AI, given that human rights norms do not comprehensively cover all values of societal concern. As such, a great deal more work needs to be done to develop techniques and methodologies that are robust—reliable yet practically implementable across a wide and diverse range of organizations involved in developing, building, and operating AI systems.
Robot Teaching, Pedagogy, and Policy
Authors: Zeide Elana
Published: July 2020

This chapter looks at the use of artificial intelligence (AI) in education, which immediately conjures the fantasy of robot teachers, as well as fears that robot teachers will replace their human counterparts. However, AI tools impact much more than instructional choices. Personalized learning systems take on a whole host of other educational roles as well, fundamentally reconfiguring education in the process. They not only perform the functions of robot teachers but also make pedagogical and policy decisions typically left to teachers and policymakers. Their design, affordances, analytical methods, and visualization dashboards construct a technological, computational, and statistical infrastructure that literally codifies what students learn, how they are assessed, and what standards they must meet. However, school procurement and implementation of these systems are rarely part of public discussion. If they are to remain relevant to the educational process itself, as opposed to just its packaging and context, schools and their stakeholders must be more proactive in demanding information from technology providers and setting internal protocols to ensure effective and consistent implementation. Those who choose to outsource instructional functions should do so with sufficient transparency mechanisms in place to ensure professional oversight guided by well-informed debate.
Linking Educators and Employers: Taxonomies, Rationales, and Barriers
Authors: Percy Christian , Kashefpakdel Elnaz
Published: July 2020

Despite their many overlaps and areas of common interest, the domains of education—particularly school-based education—and employment can seem far apart, with different structures, incentives, and experts. Policymakers and commentators have pointed to this distance as exacerbating economic and social issues, ranging from underemployment and unsatisfactory productivity to job satisfaction and social mobility. This chapter draws on examples from Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries of the diverse mechanisms proposed to narrow this distance in a new taxonomy established across seven aspects of the school-based education process: education policy, curriculum development, institutional management, curriculum delivery, non-curriculum skills development, career guidance, and graduation. The benefits and barriers to partnership working between employers and educators are discussed and linked to the debate regarding the need for state subsidy to support partnership working.
Assessing Trauma-Related Symptoms in Children and Adolescents
Authors: Hiller Rachel M. , Hitchcock Caitlin , Cobham Vanessa E.
Published: July 2020

If left untreated, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) can become chronic and significantly impact child and family functioning and general well-being. The first step to treating PTSD is to provide an assessment. This chapter provides an update on the evidence base for key measures for child and adolescent PTSD, including brief screening tools, symptom checklists, and diagnostic interviews. There is also a section specific to the more recently proposed preschool PTSD. Many of these tools are freely available, providing practitioners and services with relatively easily accessible evidence-based tools to best understand whether a young person may be experiencing elevated PTSD symptoms, ultimately informing the treatment approach to these young people.
The Epidemiology of PTSD Among Adults
Authors: Kessler Ronald C. , Benjet Corina , Bromet Evelyn J. , Rosellini Anthony J.
Published: July 2020

This chapter presents an overview of recent literature on the descriptive epidemiology of trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). It shows that trauma exposure is pervasive in the population, that the proportion of people who develop PTSD varies substantially by type of trauma as well as by a number of characteristics of the person exposed to the trauma, and that a substantial proportion of people who develop PTSD go on to have a chronic course of illness. The population burden of PTSD based on this combination of factors was recently estimated to be 77.7 lifetime person-years per 100 people in the population. Despite this high frequency coupled with the substantial distress and impairment caused by PTSD, only a minority of people with PTSD obtain treatment. The chapter discusses a number of potential targets for prevention and early intervention to reduce the population burden of PTSD.
The Right to Procreate and Assisted Reproductive Technologies in Europe
Authors: Jackson Emily
Published: July 2020

This chapter explores some of the themes identified in the previous chapter through a European and perhaps a particularly UK-orientated lens. It begins by considering some of the reasons for the different approaches to the regulation of reproduction within Europe. Second, the chapter looks at the role of rights and rights-based legal claims in relation to assisted reproductive technologies, concluding that they have played a relatively minor role. Third, compared with the United States, professional self-regulation and tort law are background considerations in many European countries, with detailed regulations more commonly found in statute and in the ‘soft law’ guidance and codes issued by regulators. Fourth, increasing numbers of people are engaging in cross-border reproductive care, not only within Europe but much further afield as well. Finally, although there is state funding for assisted conception services in many European countries, access tends to be limited, and hence there is a market in fertility treatment to a much greater extent than there is for most other medical procedures.
Privacy and Integrity of Medical Information
Authors: Hoffman Sharona , Herveg Jean
Published: July 2020

This chapter explores contemporary regulation of medical privacy in the United States and Europe and its challenges. The need for privacy is a fundamental human necessity. Privacy relates to human beings’ ability to maintain their dignity and avoid disclosure of information that might be deemed unpleasant. It is also associated with personal autonomy and informational self-determination. At the same time, however, some degree of data sharing is essential to the appropriate treatment of patients as well as to the proper functioning of society in general and the healthcare system in particular. Thus, privacy cannot be limitless. Hence, this chapter discusses regulatory strengths and shortcomings and highlights gaps in the law. It also suggests further safeguards that policy-makers should implement in order to protect patients and data subjects.
Time and Global Capitalism
Authors: Hope Wayne
Published: July 2020

This article cross-relates four epistemes of time (epochality, time reckoning, temporality, and coevalness) with four materializations of time (hegemony, conflict, crisis, and rupture). Understanding the terms within this framework allows us to depict global capitalism as epochally distinctive, riven by time conflicts, prone to recurring financial crises, and vulnerable to collective opposition. Time conflicts materialize across the areas of financialization and capital realization, worker exploitation and transnational supply chains, and the political economies of national and transnational state governance. Initially, these critical insights about the historicity and instability of global capitalism were obscured by the perpetual now-ness of corporate brand culture, 24/7 global television, and digital communication networks. Worldwide structural exclusions of the poor and their experiences of time were also obscured, a process the article defines as a “denial of coevalness.” With the 2008 financial crisis, the time conflicts of financialized capitalism became obviously unmanageable. National and transnational attempts to resolve the crisis simply reproduced the time conflicts of financialization. And structural exclusions of the global poor were further entrenched. However, these developments triggered a confluence of occupation movements, riots, protests, strike activity, and anti-austerity activism, raising the prospect of a sustained collective challenge to global capitalism.
Political Leadership in the American Presidency
Authors: Skowronek Stephen
Published: July 2020

The leaders of democratic states are time-bound agents of political change. They probe for breaks in complex institutional settings. This paper distinguishes four temporalities of presidential leadership in the United States: term, succession, sequence, and thickening. Each tells time differently, and each in its own way authorizes and constrains the interventions of incumbents. For example, presidents tend to be more effective politically before the “midterm” elections, and they tend to be more effective in inaugurating a new political sequence than in the follow-through. The politics of presidential leadership are thoroughly caught up in these intercurrent effects. Formally, presidents all lay claim to the same office with the same powers. But their political authority changes profoundly from moment to moment according to its temporal context.
Contractual Relationships among Artists, Record Labels, and Artist Management Companies in Japan
Authors: Ando Kazuhiro
Published: July 2020

Although Japan is the second largest music market in the world, the structure and practices of the music industry are little understood internationally. People overseas need to know how the music business works in Japan so that they can conduct business comfortably. The Japanese music industry has unique features in some respects. First, Japanese record labels remain heavily dependent on traditional physically packaged music although its profitability is much lower than that of digital distribution. Second, full-scale competition in the music copyright management business has just begun. While JASRAC monopolized this market for more than sixty years, the new entrant, NexTone has gradually increased the market share thanks to the frustration experienced by many music publishers and songwriters in their dealings with JASRAC. Third, the relationship between artists and artist management companies is more like an employer-employee relationship than a client-agent relationship. Artist management companies are fully invested in discovering, nurturing, and marketing young artists just the way big businesses handle their recruits. This chapter illuminates practices of the Japanese music industry for an international audience.
Women and Popular Politics in Twentieth-Century South Africa
Authors: Healy-Clancy Meghan
Published: July 2020

This chapter examines the history and historiography of women’s engagement in popular politics in twentieth-century South Africa. Over the first half of the century, women’s combination of marginality from male-dominated politics and centrality to social life made them critical to a range of grassroots movements. Feminist scholars have demonstrated how contending visions of nationalism aimed at transforming the state not only through moments of protest, but also by everyday transformations of social institutions. Women became central to both apartheid state-building and antiapartheid politics, often by organizing in ways that shared much with older forms of organization: most strikingly, they continued to mobilize as mothers. While women’s grassroots activism enabled the survival of the antiapartheid movement, an entrenched history of male leadership worked to women’s disadvantage in the democratic transition.
Indigenous Movements in Latin America
Authors: Rice Roberta
Published: July 2020

What do Indigenous movement struggles in Latin America teach us about reconciling individual and collective rights? How are competing conceptualizations of the environment and development being addressed by states in the region? How are these tensions and contradictions playing out within Indigenous territories? This chapter provides answers to these questions by reviewing the main concepts, findings, and tensions in the literature on contemporary Indigenous movements in Latin America. It examines processes of Indigenous dispossession and resurgence; the struggle for identity, territory and autonomy; and the push for plurinationality and decolonization. It also addresses efforts to incorporate Indigenous ways of knowing and being into governance structures as a way to rebuild Indigenous-state relations on a more just foundation. The chapter concludes by outlining an emerging research agenda in the areas of implementing free, prior, and informed consent regimes; addressing gender dynamics in Indigenous movements; and adopting intersectional approaches to studying Indigenous movements.
Gender and Work in Contemporary Latin America
Authors: de Casanova Erynn Masi
Published: July 2020

What are the most important patterns and trends in gender and work in Latin America? How does gender matter for people’s experiences of work? Drawing on evidence from recent research, this chapter addresses these questions. Women’s share of employment has increased substantially since the middle of the twentieth century, yet women workers confront several sources of inequality that limit paid employment’s potentially positive effects. Gender inequality in the labor force is maintained through occupational segregation, in which men and women are funneled into different jobs; through women’s greater probability to work in informal employment; and through the unequal share of unpaid work in the home. Tracing macro-level (regional and national) trends while also attending to experiences of workers, the chapter provides an overview of the major issues in the study of gender and work in Latin America today.
Medical Sociology in Latin America
Authors: Castro Roberto
Published: July 2020

This chapter outlines the development of the field of medical sociology in Latin America, showing its links to other fields (the medical field, the scientific-academic field, and the field of power). A controversy has arisen within the discipline regarding its object and includes the political agenda of social sciences in health and the relationship between social sciences, medicine, and public health. On the one hand, a relatively autonomous medical sociology has emerged, one nested in some universities and research centers, and thus remains foreign to the health sector. It is an endeavor that can reach a high level of theoretical, methodological, and critical development but has little impact on health policies. On the other hand, government public health institutions promote the development of a “domesticated” social science for instrumental purposes and without a significant critical potential. The exception to the rule is Brazil, where collective health has gained pre-eminence unparalleled in other countries of the region. The chapter concludes by describing how these “debates” are shaped by the stakeholders’ position in the field.
Morphosyntax in Literacy Acquisition Across Languages for Learners Who Are Deaf or Hard of Hearing
Authors: Cannon Joanna E. , Trussell Jessica W.
Published: July 2020

Examining the importance of morphosyntax comprehension in literacy acquisition across languages, this chapter will highlight the bilingual and bimodal advantages some deaf and hard-of-hearing (DHH) learners may possess. Since DHH readers may experience variations in hearing, language, and literacy levels, we examine the interplay of how they develop literacy skills. The complexity of the interplay among the components of reading and writing are considered along with the current research on morphosyntax interventions and assessments for this population of learners. Morphosyntax components that are historically challenging for DHH learners are discussed. Potentially promising practices across morphology and syntax are reviewed, as well as implementations for practice that include an informal assessment designed for DHH learners. Future research necessary to expand our knowledge of how morphology and syntax connect to text is included as a call to action in the quest to improve literacy outcomes for DHH readers.
Supporting School Readiness Skills and Home Literacy Environment in Young Children Who Are Deaf and Hard of Hearing
Authors: Wauters Loes , DesJardin Jean L. , Dirks Evelien
Published: July 2020

School readiness captures the skills, prior to formal schooling, that are necessary for children to achieve later academic and social-emotional success. Language and emergent literacy skills are important components of school readiness and lay the foundation for later reading skills. In this chapter, child (e.g., age of identification and enrollment in early intervention, hearing device use), family (e.g., socioeconomic status, parental beliefs), and home literacy environment (e.g., quantity and quality of shared book reading) factors will be presented as they directly relate to children’s development of school readiness skills. Implications are discussed for parents and professionals in early intervention about how interventions focused on parent–child interaction can contribute to language and emergent literacy skills.
The Role of Speechreading in Literacy Acquisition and Development of Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing Readers
Authors: Kyle Fiona Elizabeth
Published: July 2020

Historically, speechreading (silent lip-reading) is a skill typically associated with deaf or hard-of-hearing (DHH) people accessing spoken language. There is increasing research evidence that speechreading ability is important for reading development in DHH children, even in children who sign. This chapter will argue that DHH children who are good speech readers are good readers because speechreading provides visual access to spoken phonology, enabling them to develop phonological awareness skills. This chapter will explore the relationship between speechreading, reading, and phonological awareness in DHH children and consider whether it differs as a function of language preferences and type of amplification aid used. It will discuss the theoretical and practical implications of the role of speechreading in literacy acquisition with reference to potential reading remediation for DHH children.
Phonologically Based Interventions in Spoken Language and Sign Bilingual Settings
Authors: Trezek Beverly , Mayer Connie , Wang Ye
Published: July 2020

While evidence of phonologically related abilities among individuals who are deaf or hard of hearing (DHH) has been available for decades, educational interventions specifically aimed at teaching DHH learners these reading skills are relatively new. At times, these interventions have been considered controversial, particularly when implemented within a sign bilingual setting. Given the differing viewpoints historically associated with this topic, the chapter begins with a brief discussion of the various perspectives on reading instruction for DHH learners, followed by an overview of studies examining the impact of phonologically based interventions conducted in both spoken language and sign bilingual settings. The overall findings of the investigations are discussed in the broader framework of current reading and writing research, as well as in light of the changing context in the field of DHH education. Directions for future research are also explored.
Spelling: Why Explicit Instruction Is a Critical Component of Literacy Intervention for Children Who Are Deaf or Hard of Hearing
Authors: Grantham Heather
Published: July 2020

Spelling is an often-overlooked aspect of literacy, receiving less instructional time in classrooms than decoding, fluency, or reading comprehension skills. This chapter describes why spelling intervention—particularly explicit and systematic instruction—is necessary for successful overall reading development of students who are at risk for delay, specifically children who are deaf or hard of hearing (DHH). An overview of current research on spelling development in children who are deaf is presented, as well as what we know about the efficacy of spelling interventions in this and other populations. Based on this research, suggestions are made on how best to teach DHH children how to tackle the seemingly chaotic English orthographic system.
Bridging the Divide Between Research and Practice
Authors: Cawthon Stephanie W. , Easterbrooks Susan R.
Published: July 2020

In 1952, Lee Cronbach began identifying the fundamental challenges to conducting research in the real world with difficult-to-classify populations. He posited that “the highest function of research is to help us ask better questions in our next study” (Edwards & Cronbach, 1952, p. 59). Since that time, the fields of psychology, sociology, and education have struggled to identify the right questions to ask. This chapter suggests that the research community has fallen short of the mark because it continues to make one fatal flaw: It does not ask the practitioners who must implement research to guide us to the better questions. This chapter explores problems inherent in conducting research and suggests models that the new generation of researchers could explore to move from a trial-and-error design in the generation of research questions to a practitioner-prompted design. This discussion includes but is not limited to reflections on action research, implementation science, and practitioner-led research. This examination goes beyond the notion of evidence-based decision making to suggesting how research should be upended because the real needs of practitioners should provide the guidance for deciding what to study. Until we see such a paradigm shift, the resounding cry of “so what” will continue to be the response to the present “research from on high.”
Embodied Consciousness
Authors: Rowlands Mark
Published: July 2020

The question of whether consciousness is embodied has been vitiated by a failure to ask a more basic, and possibly obvious, question: what is the body? This chapter argues that the body you see in the mirror, the hands that you hold up in front of you, are instances of the body as object. But the body is more than the body as object. There is also the body as subject; the body as lived. You cannot see the lived body by looking in the mirror. The body as lived is that in virtue of which you see the body as object (and many other things also, of course). There is no question concerning whether consciousness is embodied in the lived body. Consciousness is the lived body; they are one and the same thing; the body as object has no trace of consciousness in it.
Paul and Feminism
Authors: Ehrensperger Kathy
Published: July 2020

Paul and feminism are an uneasy pair, but feminist interpretation has played a pioneering role in demonstrating the social location and cultural embeddedness of Paul and the Pauline literature. Feminist interpretations of Pauline texts can broadly be categorized as ‘thematic’ or ‘structural’. Thematic interpretations focus specifically on women’s issues and intend to uncover women’s hidden voices and unveil arguments and strategies by which women are kept silent, rendered invisible, or marginalized by dominating hierarchical power structures. In addition, Paul’s social location as a member of a marginalized people, the Jews, is here considered important in assessing the significance of his theologizing in light of feminist issues. Structural approaches investigate the rhetorical drive, the power dynamics, the terminology and metaphors in Pauline argumentation. The divergent images of Paul emerging from such diverse feminist approaches indicate that no one ‘true’ Pauline voice concerning the role of women or way of doing theology can be found, but a plurality of feminist interpretations has emerged.
Cosmology and Eschatology
Authors: Lang T. J.
Published: July 2020

The study of cosmology and eschatology in Paul is tied up with other, equally considerable, theological categories. But cosmology and eschatology are two particular threads of thought that tightly knit together. Eschatology is defined as the cosmology of the age to come and all traces of that age in the current age, the age in which ‘the End’ has begun to come to its end. Paul’s cosmology—his understanding of the current world, the world to come, and their relation—is determined by his eschatology. After discussing some of the interpretive issues involved with treating Paul’s cosmology and eschatology in a modern context, this chapter then explores various cartographies of the cosmos in ancient thought; that is, the ways in which the world was mapped by various Graeco-Roman, biblical, and other Jewish thinkers. Paul’s understanding of the world’s structure is then considered in light of his context. The chapter next investigates demographies of the cosmos in ancient thought; that is, Graeco-Roman, biblical, and other Jewish ways of conceiving the celestial population and the variety of its species. The Pauline data is again read in relation to this context. The chapter ends with Paul’s eschatology, or his thoughts about ‘the End’, including the events that precede it, the ‘Day’ itself, and the cosmos to come after Christ’s return. The conclusion thus further reflects on the interplay of cosmology and eschatology in Pauline thinking.
Communism in the Middle East and North Africa
Authors: Hanssen Jens
Published: July 2020

This chapter provides a critical analysis of a selection of Middle Eastern and North African communist parties since the interwar period and the emergence of Marxist-Leninist movements during the Arab Cold War. It focuses on the difficulties the parties faced in the changing national and international settings. Arabs were drawn to communism in the 1930s because of Soviet leadership in global antifascism. But the parties suffered from Stalin’s support for the partition of Palestine in 1947, especially in countries neighboring Israel, and from Soviet support for Arab military regimes during the Cold War. By the mid-1960s, communists no longer had a monopoly on revolutionary ideology as Palestinian-inspired national liberation movements began to vernacularize Marxism-Leninism.
Where the snails have no name: a molecular phylogeny of Raphitomidae (Neogastropoda: Conoidea) uncovers vast unexplored diversity in the deep seas of temperate southern and eastern Australia
Authors: Criscione Francesco , Hallan Anders , Puillandre Nicolas , Fedosov Alexander
Published: July 2020

Although raphitomid snails are a dominant component of gastropod communities in deep seas worldwide, their systematics is still largely tentative. We assembled the most complete sampling of Raphitomidae from south-eastern Australia to date. Based on morphological and molecular data from this material, we produced a robust phylogenetic framework and used it to delimit genera. For the focus area, our results show a large proportion of undescribed species- and genus-level taxa, 11 of which are formally described herein. We demonstrate that the examination of purely morphological characters rarely suffices for the purpose of accurate genus delimitation. As a result, some traditionally highly diverse raphitomid genera (such as Gymnobela) turn out to be artificial assemblages of several unrelated, mostly undescribed, genus-level lineages. Our data suggest that comparable configurations of shell and radular features, observed at the genus level, commonly do not reflect true phylogenetic relationships. However, our results are inconclusive as to whether homoplasy or conservatism are the drivers of this phenomenon. Accommodating for the inevitable sampling biases, south-eastern Australia appears as a possible hotspot for both raphitomid diversity and endemism, when compared with adjacent areas.
NEDOCS: is it really useful for detecting emergency department overcrowding today?
Authors: Ilhan Bugra , Kunt Mehmet Mahir , Damarsoy Filiz Froohari , Demir Mehmet Cihat , Aksu Nalan Metin
Published: July 2020

The Emergency Department (ED) overcrowding is an ongoing problem all over the world. The scoring systems are available for the detection of this problem. This study aims to test the applicability of the National Emergency Department Overcrowding Study (NEDOCS) scoring system, one of the scoring systems that evaluate the ED overcrowding.

In this prospective observational study, the survey was applied on on-duty doctors, nurses, paramedics, intern doctors, and ward persons working in a University Adult Emergency Department and agreed to participate in the study, between certain hours during the day and the NEDOCS score was calculated simultaneously. The demographic characteristics of the on-duty staff, overcrowding of ED, and the number of the on-duty staff members were recorded in the questionnaires.

During the study, 153 measurements were performed, and 3221 questionnaires were filled. The NEDOCS mean score was determined as 101.59 and the most reached result was “extremely busy but not overcrowded” (32%). The ED was rated mostly as “busy” (33.7%) by the on-duty staff. A significant difference was found between ED overcrowding and NEDOCS score. There is a significant difference between ED overcrowding and on-duty emergency nurse and intern doctor count.

The NEDOCS score is not suitable for evaluating ED overcrowding. Accurate determination of the ED overcrowding is very important to avoid the negative consequences of the ED overcrowding. Increasing emergency nurse and intern doctor count will decrease ED overcrowding. Also, there is an urgent need to constitute local hospitals and also public health policies to satisfy the increasingly ED's presentations.
The use of distributed random forest model to quantify risk predictors for tracheostomy requirements in septic patients
Authors: Rodrigues Lorena Aparecida de Brito , Lago Alessandra Fabiane , Menegueti Mayra Gonçalves , Farias Viviane Aparecida , Auxiliadora-Martins Maria , Ferez Marcus Antonio , Martinez Edson Zangiacomi , Basile-Filho Anibal
Published: July 2020

The search for early clinical risk factors in the intensive care setting may improve the outcome of critically ill patients.The objective of this retrospective study is to identify and quantify early predictors for patients who would require tracheostomy. Five hundred and forty four septic patients were divided in 2 groups: non-tracheostomized (NT) (n = 484) and tracheostomized (T) (n = 60). The patients consisted of 241 males (49.8%) in NT and 27 (45%) in T group, respectively (P = .4971). The median and interquartile range difference of age of NT group was of 72 years [59–82] and T of 75 [55.0–83.5] (P = .4687). The SAPS 3 for the group NTxT was 70 [55–85] and 85.5 [77–91] (P = .0001), the SOFA of 9 [6–13] and 12 [10–14] (P = .0002). The comparison of logistic regression analysis for predictors of non-tracheostomy and tracheostomy groups showed an adjusted odds ratio (OR) for SAPS 3 range between 74 and 87 of 18.14 (95%CI = 3.36–97.84) and between 88 and 116 of 27.77 (95%CI = 4.43–174.24) (P < .05). For SOFA, the adjusted OR between 10 and 13 was 12.23 (95%CI = 2.46–60.81) and between 14 and 20 was 8.45 (95%CI = 1.58–45.29) (P < .05). The need for blood transfusions and dialysis presented an OR of 2.74 (95%CI = 1.23–6.08) and 3.33 (95%CI = 1.43–7.73) (P < .05), respectively. Our data shows that SAPS 3 ≥ 74, SOFA ≥ 11, blood transfusions and the need for dialysis were independently associated and could be considered major predictors for tracheostomy requirements in septic patients.
Cytokine Registry In Stroke Patients (CRISP)
Authors: Farooqui Mudassir , Ikram Asad , Suriya Sajid , Saleem Sidra , Quadri Syed A. , Robinson Myranda , Ortega-Gutierrez Santiago , Qeadan Fares , Leira Enrique , Paul Surojit , Zafar Atif
Published: July 2020

Inflammation is an important pathophysiological process after an acute stroke (AS). Pro- and anti-inflammatory molecules (cytokines and interleukins) are the key players during this mechanism. Emerging evidence indicate that these molecules can serve as biomarkers of stroke progression and outcome and as novel therapeutics agents. The aim of this study is to explore the temporal changes in these molecules and validate them as biomarker of AS progression and neurological outcome.

The “Cytokine Registry In Stroke Patients (CRISP)” is a prospective cohort study of 600 AS patients presenting to the tertiary hospital with-in 24 h of the onset of symptoms. Plasma cytokines and interleukins will be collected at admission and 24 h after and will be measured using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) to evaluate the difference in their variation among different gender, race and ethnicity and their association with various neurological outcomes. The primary exposures are biological sex (male, female) and race/ethnicity. Confounding variables include age, vascular risk factors, infarct size, stroke onset to presentation time, and identified stroke etiologies. Matched controls will be used for the comparison and evaluation of the difference among gender and race/ethnicities.

CRISP is a prospective observational study that investigates the role and relationship of molecular biomarkers identifying specific and relevant targets pertinent for monitoring the progression and outcome in AS patients.

Trial Registration: The study is registered on ClinicalTrial.gov: https://clinicaltrials.gov/ (NCT03297827).