bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Enterprise Networks
I
: Local Area Networks
Authors: Freeman Roger L.
Published: November 2003

We define an enterprise network
as a data network serving either government or industry which is dedicated almost exclusively to data communications
. It might be called a data network serving the office environment, thus the term
enterprise
(a business).

Enterprise networks can be placed in one of two categories: local area networks (LANs) and wide area networks (WANs). The IEEE defines a LAN as “a communication network to interconnect a variety of intelligent devices (e.g., personal computers, workstations, printers, file storage devices) that can transmit data over a limited area, typically within a facility.”
A WAN
is a data network covering a much greater expanse than its LAN counterpart and with a considerably different structure. This chapter deals with LANs.

The reader is introduced to the seven‐layer OSI (open systems interconnection) model developed by the International Standards Organization (ISO). Nearly every data communications technique invokes the OSI model. Some data systems fit nicely into the model, and they were developed around the model. Others, such as TCP/IP, have been force‐fit into the model. TCP/IP predates OSI by some five years. The model will have application in all subsequent chapters on data networks.

Wireless LANs are also reviewed. These are particularly attractive to IT managers when many office moves and changes are expected.

The final section of the chapter presents a brief overview of IEEE 802 MAC bridges.
Enterprise NetworksII: Wide Area Networks
Authors: Freeman Roger L.
Published: November 2003

Early data networks were based on point‐to‐point or multipoint topologies. They were often of a star structure with a central processing unit (CPU) at the star's hub. Terminals in this network were “dumb” terminals and relied on the CPU's processing power for nearly all network activity.

When the personal computer (PC) gained wide acceptance, distributed processing became the rule. As a result, data networks and data networking became much more complex. We now see complex multiple star, mesh, and tree like networks where many of the nodes have multiple inlets and outlets.

Data rates were based on the limitations of the analog network. In the period of the 2nd edition of this book, this roughly equated to 9600 bps. Today, it is common to have 56‐kbps access lines to a larger network where the basic channel data rate is 64 kbps. We can bring together these basic building blocks of 64 kbps to form aggregate channels of 128, 256, and 384 kbps up to 1.536 Mbps or 1.984 Mbps.

Data protocols instilled order out of contentious chaos in data network operation. These protocols, applying to wide area networks (WANs), are the principal thrust of the chapter. Most are based on shipping user data in packets or frames. We discuss the transport of user data in cells in Chapter 28.

Most packet networks are based on CCITT Rec.X.25. If we widen the definition of packet networks to include the transmission control protocol/internet protocol (TCP/IP), certainly X.25 will have a competitor. Both TCP/IP and X.25 have a comparatively high latency (latencyis the time it takes from initiation to completion of a data transaction). Frame relay was introduced in the same period. This is a comparatively low latency system.

This section provides design data and brief descriptions of wide area data networking as a whole with hypothetical reference circuits, the archetypical data link layer protocol, high‐level data link control (HDLC), X.25 and its companion, link access protocol B‐layer (LAPB), TCP/IP family of protocols, frame relay family of protocols, and a brief description of SMDS (switched multimegabit data service). Variants of LAPD are discussed in the frame relay section of this chapter.
Integrated Services Digital Networks (
ISDNs
)
Authors: Freeman Roger L.
Published: November 2003

Some say that ISDN arrived before its time. It was based on the premise that the majority of the local plant was copper‐based. It was and is, but the demand for bit rates in excess of ISDN's basic rate has caused certain other technologies to leap frog ISDN (e.g., xDSL, WLL, and ATM). Its acceptance in North America has not been overwhelming. The penetration in Europe is much greater.

On the other side of the coin, ISDN basic rate is showing slow but continuous growth in the United States. To play it down would be a gross error for a basic reference manual such as this text. The reader is advised that there are different flavors of ISDN. We present two: the ITU‐T version and the North American version set forth by ANSI and Bellcore.

ISDN was devised as a common standard for voice, data, and slow‐speed video. It is based on the 64‐kbps digital voice channel. Probably in the 1970s when the ISDN concept was initiated, it met those unifying requirements. Today, ATM certainly gets more to the essence of the matter of integrating voice, data, and video.

ISDN was designed to be compatible with the digital PSTN. This it is, provided that ITU‐T Signaling System No. 7 is implemented and operational in that network.
Broadband
ISDN
(
B
‐
ISDN
) and the Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
Authors: Freeman Roger L.
Published: November 2003

B‐ISDN
is modestly defined as a service or a system requiring transmission channels capable of supporting (transmission) rates greater than the primary rate (i.e., >1.544 or 2.048 Mbps) (CCITT Rec.
I.121
). ATM and B‐ISDN are designed to work together. ATM provides the underlying digital format; B‐ISDN supplies the necessary transmission facility.

The asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) is a compromise digital format with the design objective of transporting and routing voice, data, and image media. ATM standards have been and are being developed by three agencies: ANSI, ITU‐T, and the ATM Forum.

Conventional ISDN is now commonly called
narrow‐band ISDN
to distinguish it from B‐ISDN. Their basic objectives are similar: the capability of transporting and switching a wide range of media. The approach to reach the objectives is quite different.

There is also a notable similarity in the reference circuit model of each. Whereas in ISDN network elements such as NT1, NT2, TE, and TA appear; in B‐ISDN they are denominated B‐NT1, B‐NT2, B‐TE, and B‐TA. Signaling is handled differently in each technique.

One will note many operational similarities between ATM with frame relay and SMDS.

Narrowband ISDN was designed around the copper pair. In B‐ISDN, fiber‐optic transmission is the medium of choice. We hasten to add that there is no reason why copper pairs cannot be used to transport B‐ISDN signals at the lower data rates. This holds equally for various forms of radio transmission so long as the bandwidth (Hz), with the implied impairments such as group delay, can support the digital transmission rate.
Television Transmission
Authors: Freeman Roger L.
Published: November 2003

This chapter provides standards and functional data for the design of television transmission systems for point‐to‐point and point‐to‐multipoint transport networks. It also is a source of general design data for CATV systems. The chapter also covers conference television for enterprise networks. Point‐to‐point and point‐to‐multipoint networks include transmission media, such as line‐of‐sight microwave, coaxial cable, fiber‐optic cable systems and satellite transmission serving the broadcast and CATV communities. Also included in this group are STL (
studio‐to‐transmitter link
), CATV headend extension, security, and medical image type systems.

There have been three technical thrusts in the television that were considered for inclusion in this
Manual
: digital television, television compression, and high‐definition television (HDTV). We included a brief review of the first two and did not include HDTV because it is still in a formative developmental stage. It is just not catching on with the public.

A wide disparity exists between television transmission and broadcast standards around the world. These differences appear throughout the section. A letter code is used by the ITU‐R Organization to distinguish one from another. Typically the US, for example, is given the letter code M for its NTSC system. The appropriate code letter for each of the world's countries to indicate the system type in use supplied.
Availability, Reliability, and Maintainability
Authors: Freeman Roger L.
Published: November 2003

Availability
is the probability that a system will operate satisfactorily at any point in time, where time includes not only operating life but also active repair time and administrative and logistic time.

This chapter deals primarily with reliability. The reader should consult the following:

MIL‐HDBK‐472,
Maintainability Prediction for methods to predict MTTR

MIL‐STD‐471A,
Maintainability Verification/Demonstration/Evaluation
.

The information in this chapter consists of abstracts from the Appendices to MIL‐HDBK‐217C,
Reliability Prediction of Electronic Equipment
[Ref.
3
].

Reliability, as discussed in this chapter, deals only with reliability of equipment and entire systems. It does not deal with propagation reliability (preferred term is “time availability“) where there might be downtime due to fading or other propagation impairment. Here the theme is equipment failure or degradation. Obviously, such a failure or degradation will affect the system to which the equipment is a functional part.
Electromagnetic Compatibility
Authors: Freeman Roger L.
Published: November 2003

Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) has taken on new importance as the number of radiating devices (intentional and unintentional radiation) multiply. EMC has two aspects: emission and susceptibility.
Emission
refers to the unwanted electromagnetic energy a device generates and emits (radiates). It is often referred to as RFI or EMI.
Susceptibility
refers to the level of immunity of a device operating in a hostile environment (not in the military sense) of electromagnetic interference (both conducted and radiated) and power‐line transients.

Telecommunication systems and equipment must be designed to limit unwanted radiation and conducted interference, but they also must be designed to operate in a hostile radiation environment. With the advent of low‐level devices such as ICs, LSI, VLSI, and VHSIC (very high‐speed integrated circuits), susceptibility and emission requirements are even more stringent to prevent upset, damage, or degraded performance.

Among the most stringent specifications for EMC are those found in military systems. The basic document for these specifications is MIL‐STD‐461. Much of this chapter includes material taken from this specification. The chapter also contains FCC Part 15 regulations dealing with unintentional radiators. Such radiators (i.e., computers and other processors) are tending to corrupt our environment. It is this type of interference (noise) that is the source of much of the ingress noise on CATV systems. Ingress noise is covered.
Unit Conversions
Authors: Freeman Roger L.
Published: November 2003

This chapter provides data for conversion from one unit or unit system to another.

The chapter relates to all other chapters in the book which deal with measurement units or other types of units where conversion will be required from one unit system to another or to an equivalent unit (e.g., meters to feet).
Aircraft Control, Applications of Smart Structures
Authors: Schweiger Johannes
Published: November 2003

Probably the most famous photograph in aviation, depicts the first successful manned powered flight on 17 December 1903 by the Wright brothers. It also shows the first successful airplane that had an active structure. The Wright brothers' design must definitely be called smart in many aspects and design features. They were among the first pioneers in aviation who had realized that uncoupled control about all three vehicle axes was required. They had done systematic experimental aerodynamic research to achieve the maximum possible aerodynamic performance. And they had learned how to design and manufacture lightweight structures in their bicycle shop. Their solution for adequate roll control of the airplane, moreover, was more than one century ahead of the state of the art in aviation technology. No single airplane exists yet that uses a smart structural concept to control the flight of the vehicle. Only in recent years, after almost one century since the first successful powered flight, was it possible to design, build, and fly vehicles powered by the human body for the sole purpose of winning trophies.

For these reasons, the first successes in aviation were possible only by using design concepts for almost “rigid” surfaces and natural stability of the vehicles. Nevertheless, a major contribution to the success of the Wright brothers was their “Smart Structures” flight control system for the roll axis. They were among the first pioneers in aviation who had realized that uncoupled control about all three vehicle axes was required. They had done systematic experimental aerodynamic research to achieve maximum possible aerodynamic performance. They had a combustion engine that had sufficient energy density available “just in time,” and they had learned how to design and manufacture lightweight structures in their bicycle shop. This article discussed the use of smart materials for active structures aeroelasticity and structural concepts for aircraft control are taken into account.
Architecture
Authors: Addington D. Michelle , Schodek Daniel S.
Published: November 2003

An inextricable link has existed historically between a building's characteristics—form, appearance, and function—and the characteristics of the different materials that were available and suitable for construction. As exemplified by historical building traditions in stone and wood, early architects sought to understand intuitively the intrinsic physical behavior of commonly available materials to exploit their properties in designing and constructing buildings. Conversely, later innovations in the type and availability of materials strongly impacted the development of new architectural forms as architects began to respond to changing societal demands and new building functions emerged. This trend is illustrated by the development of steel in the nineteenth century and the related emergence of long‐span and high‐rise building forms. Today, architects are beginning to look forward to using the developments in smart materials to bring new solutions to long‐standing problems and also to exploit the potential of smart materials in developing new building functions, forms, and responses. The wide variety of smart materials available has great potential for use within the field, but, in this area, their applications remain only marginally explored.

This article outlines and discusses smart materials in conjunction with needs currently defined in architecture. In some cases, smart materials have been proposed as replacements for conventional materials, and in other cases, smart materials have been proposed for improving the functionality of standard building systems. All of these developments can be positioned into the third category titled “Smart materials”. The impact of incorporating these materials into standard architectural practice will be significant, particularly in regard to energy use and building performance, but far more interesting potentials derive from reconsidering smart materials as fundamental conceptual elements in design rather than only as mprovements to existing elements.

Several different smart materials would be involved in the development of this component, including sensors and actuators, electroluminescents or LEDS, and perhaps even shape‐memory alloys. A smart assembly would operate at the next level of functionality beyond the smart component. There are many “high‐tech” assemblies currently used in architecture. These assemblies integrate several types of components and technologies to achieve multiple functions. A smart assembly would be designed to manifest the same behaviors, but do so in the most strategic manner. Shading could be accomplished at the micron or molecular level by using smart materials, and thermal control could take place discretely and transiently by selective placement of phase change materials and thermoelectrics. The smart assembly would maximize functionality and minimize the number of components.
Biomimetic Electromagnetic Devices
Authors: Stone Morley O. , Naik Rajesh R.
Published: November 2003

Literally, the term
biomimetics
means to imitate life. Practically, biomimetics is an interdisciplinary effort aimed at understanding biological principles and then applying those principles to improve existing technology. This approach can mean changing a design to match a biological pattern, or it can mean actually using biological materials, for example, proteins, to improve performance. Biomimetics had its earliest and strongest footholds in materials science, and it is rapidly spreading to areas such as electromagnetic sensors and computer science.

The area of biomimetics covered in this article applies to sensing electromagnetic (EM) radiation. Volumes have been written regarding how higher organisms perceive visible light, and thus, this will be largely ignored here. Mostly, coverage is limited to biological sensing of EM radiation on either side of the visible, the ultraviolet, and the infrared. From a biological sensing perspective, spectral regions are defined as follows: near‐ultraviolet wavelengths (λ) from 200–400 nm and infrared wavelengths from 0.75–15 µm. Operationally, both the ultraviolet and infrared extend over larger wavelength intervals. This article outlines some of the electromagnetic detection/sensitive systems in biology.
Fiber Optics, Bragg Grating Sensors
Authors: Measures Raymond M.
Published: November 2003

The unique properties of fiber‐optic Bragg gratings are leading to many exciting applications in both the telecommunication and sensing fields. Afiber Bragg grating(FBG) is formed when a periodic variation of the index of refraction is created along a section of the core of the optical fiber by exposing the fiber to an interference pattern of intense UV‐laser light. The formation of permanent Bragg gratings in an optical fiber was first demonstrated in 1978 and results from the photosensitivity of the core of certain optical fibers. The special properties of FBGs that make them attractive as structural sensors are their very narrow reflection spectrum and the dependence of this reflection wavelength on the local strain state of the optical fiber. A broad review of FBGs has been provided, and comprehensive overviews of the application of FBGs to the telecommunication and structural sensing fields can be found in the recent books (3) and (4), respectively.
Gels
Authors: Lowman Anthony M. , Dziubla Thomas D.
Published: November 2003

Hydrogels are three‐dimensional, water‐swollen structures composed mainly of hydrophilic homopolymers or copolymers. They are rendered insoluble by chemical or physical cross‐links. The physical cross‐links can be entanglements, crystallites, or weak associations such as van der Waals forces or hydrogen bonds. Cross‐links provide the network structure and physical integrity. It is possible to design hydrogels whose swelling behavior depends on the external environment. During the last thirty years, there has been significant interest in the development and analysis of environmentally or physiologically responsive hydrogels.

Hydrogels are classified in a number of ways. They can be neutral or ionic based on the nature of the side groups. They can also be classified on the basis of network morphology as amorphous, semicrystalline, hydrogen‐bonded structures; supermolecular structures; and hydrocolloidal aggregates. Additionally, in terms of their network structures, hydrogels can be classified as macroporous, microporous, or nonporous. In this article, an overview of smart hydrogels and models that characterize the structure and properties of these materials are presented. Additionally, important contributions in this area and new synthetic methods that promise to lead to the development of exciting new structures for solutions to drug delivery problems are reviewed.
Intelligent Processing of Materials (IPM)
Authors: Güemes J. A. , Rodriguez‐Lence F. , Menendez J. M.
Published: November 2003

Intelligent materials processing (IMP) is achieved by the integration of on‐line sensors, process models, and adaptive control strategies. So formed, the system will be able to adjust the process parameters during production in response to changes in a material's state and thus to achieve the desired end‐use properties.

Metal welding is an example of this off‐line control procedure. To make the metal welding process “intelligent,” one would need to have sensors that not only control the electrodes' voltage and the welding speed—as is done in conventional processing—but also sensors that collect data continuously from the material in the molten area. A computer‐based model would be used to predict the final microstructure based on the values of the monitored variables and the control parameters' setting. The system then would predict how to modify the control parameters during the subsequent steps of the process in order to achieve the desired microstructure. Although technology has yet been able to produce such an “intelligent welding machine” to replace the skilled operator, despite the difficulties, this is an ongoing project of the Weld Process Sensing, Modeling, and Control program sponsored by NIST.

The simple welding example helps identify the two main issues that need to be addressed in order to implement “intelligent processing” in any material:

Availability of reliable sensors to monitor the process variables. The sensors must not disturb the processing environment.

Full understanding of the process, the interdependence among the process variables that can be sensed and the process parameters that can be controlled in order to achieve predictive capability in the new material.

It must be emphasized that “intelligent processing” is not the same as “automated processing,” but a step ahead.

The major benefit of intelligent processing is that this reduces the time spent in moving a design from the project desk into production.

The more ambitious focus of materials process research concerns the use of self‐directed computer‐aided systems to establish in‐situ self‐improvement of the design and control of materials processing.

The general points discussed here apply to any engineering material, and industrial examples may be found in every technological area, from polymers to metals, ceramics, and composites.
Microrobotics, Microdevices Based on Shape‐Memory Alloys
Authors: Bellouard Yves
Published: November 2003

For the past few years, consumer products such as computers, mobile phones, and cameras have drastically decreased in size and their functionalities have increased. In addition, mini‐invasive techniques in surgery have led to a growing need for small, highly reliable components that can go through arteries or veins. In general, there are nearly no highly technological products that do not benefit from miniaturization. However, one cannot simply scale down electrical or mechanical components from “macroscale” because physical forces do not scale down at the same amplitude. Therefore, the efficiency of actuators depends on their size. Consequently, there is a need for new actuating technologies adapted to the microworld that can replace usual actuators such as electromagnetic motors. Among these technologies, smart materials such as piezoceramics, magnetostrictive, electrostrictive, and shape‐memory materials are of particular interest. This article describes the use of shape‐memory alloys (SMA) for microengineering applications.

A brief description of SMA properties is given. Some usual design principles are addressed. A literature survey and a concept of monolithic microdevices concludes the article.
Microtubes
Authors: Hoffman Wesley P. , Wapner Phillip G.
Published: November 2003

Microtubes are very small diameter tubes (in the nanometer and micron range) that have very high aspect ratios and can be made from practically any material in any combination of cross‐sectional and axial shape desired. In smart structures, these microscopic tubes can function as sensors and actuators, as well as components of fluidic logic systems. In many technological fields, including smart structures, microtube technology enables fabricating components and devices that have, to date, been impossible to produce, offers a lower cost route for fabricating some current products, and provides the opportunity to miniaturize numerous components and devices that are currently in existence.

Microtubes appear to have almost universal application in areas as diverse as optics, electronics, medical technology, and microelectromechanical devices. The technology works equally well for high‐ and low‐temperature materials and appears feasible for all applications that have been conceived to date.

The advantage of microtube technology is that tubes can be fabricated inexpensively from practically any material in a variety of cross‐sectional and axial shapes in very precise diameters, compositions, and wall thicknesses of orders of magnitude smaller than is now possible. In contrast to the other micro‐ and nanotube technologies currently being developed, microtubes can be made from a greater range of materials in a greater range of lengths and diameters and far greater control over the cross‐sectional shape. These tubes will provide the opportunity to miniaturize (even to nanoscale dimensions) numerous products and devices that currently exist, as well as allowing the fabrication of innovative new products that have to date been impossible to produce.

Here allows presenting one application of microtube technology to new innovative products in greater detail.
Paints
Authors: Egusa Shigenori
Published: November 2003

Paints are used everywhere in an industrialized society. The most important functions of paints are protection and decoration of a substrate.

Smart paints are an innovative type of paint that has a sensor function as well as the protective and decorative functions of conventional paints. Smart paints can detect abnormal vibration of a structural material by monitoring the natural frequencies and mode shapes of the material. They can also detect damage generated in the material by monitoring the acoustic emission (AE) wave traveling from the damage location to the material surface. Vibration and AE can be monitored in real time, thus enabling health monitoring of the material even during operation.

Smart paints are used in large‐scale structures such as vehicles operated at high speeds, civil infrastructures of huge mass and volume, and special facilities that contain large amounts of petroleum, nuclear fuel, and explosive substances. Smart paints can possibly prevent a disaster by warning of abnormal vibration and damage generated in a structural material.

The frequency of health monitoring needed for structural materials increases steadily as age increases because the corrosion of steel and concrete progresses gradually during the service period of several decades. Smart paints can be applied to a structural material at any time before and after the construction of the structure, thus making health monitoring quite, easy even for a structure already in active service. Smart paints can make a significant contribution to increasing the service life of a structure, and consequently to saving natural resources.
Poly(p‐phenylenevinylene)
Authors: Wolf Michael O.
Published: November 2003

Poly(p‐phenylenevinylene) (PPV) and its derivatives are polymers that have been widely studied due to their potential applications in optoelectronic devices. PPV is a conjugated polymer whose backbone consists of alternating single and double bonds. Many conjugated polymers are known and exhibit remarkably high electrical conductivities when oxidatively or reductively doped. Much of the early research on PPV focused on the relatively disappointing properties of the doped material; however, interest in this material was reawakened in 1990 when it was discovered that films of undoped PPV could be used as the emitting layer in organic electroluminescent (EL) devices. This discovery stimulated intense research in the area, including many fundamental studies of the properties of PPV and its derivatives, and extensive academic and industrial interest in the applications of the materials.

This article provides an overview of the methods by which PPV and some of its derivatives may be prepared, the physical and electronic properties of these materials, and the applications that are being explored. Several excellent and comprehensive reviews which have been published on the synthesis, properties, and applications of PPV and these are noted.
Magnets, Organic/Polymer
Authors: Miller Joel S. , Epstein Arthur J.
Published: November 2003

Magnetism has enabled the development and exploitation of fundamental science, ranging from quantum mechanics, to probing condensed matter chemistry and physics, to materials science. The control of magnetism has resulted in the availability of low‐cost electricity and the use of electric motors, leading to the development of telecommunications devices (microphones, televisions, telephones, etc.), and to magnetic storage for computers. Magnets, due to their myriad properties, are suitable components in sensors and actuators, and hence they must be considered the key components in smart materials and systems of the future.

Magnetic materials known from time immemorial are comprised of either transition or rare‐earth metals, or their ions with spins residing in d‐ or f‐orbitals, respectively, such as Fe, CrO2, SmCo5, Co17Sm2, and Nd2Fe14B. These materials are prepared by high‐temperature metallurgical methods, and generally, they are brittle. In the late twentieth century many metal and ceramic materials were replaced with lightweight polymeric materials. The polymeric materials were designated primarily for structural materials, but examples also abound for electrically conducting and optical materials. More recently, new examples of magnetic materials have been reported. Undoubtedly, in this millennium there will be commercialization of these organic and polymeric magnets.
Polymers, Ferroelectric Liquid Crystalline Elastomers
Authors: Zentel Rudolf
Published: November 2003

Ferroelectric materials are a subclass of pyro‐ and piezoelectric materials. They are very rarely found in crystalline organic or polymeric materials because ferroelectric hysteresis requires enough molecular mobility to reorient molecular dipoles in space. So semicrystalline polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) is nearly the only known compound. On the contrary, ferroelectric behavior is very often observed in chiral liquid crystalline materials, both low molar mass and polymeric.

Ferroelectric LC‐elastomers represent an interesting class of material because they combine the ordering of liquid crystalline ferroelectric phases and the rubber elasticity of polymer networks. Switching of the electric polarization leads to deformation of the polymer network, equivalent to stretching a spring, and creates a stress in the network of polymer chains.

The interaction of mesogens and the network can be varied by using different topologies of net points: Crosslinking is carried out either within the siloxane sublayers (leading to fast switching elastomers) or between the siloxane sublayers (resulting in an elastomer that favors the ferroelectric switching state in which the cross‐linking reaction took place).

Because the orientation of the smectic phase couples to the polymer network, electromechanical measurements show a piezoelectric effect. Mechanical deformation leads to polarization or an external electric field to deformation of the sample. Applying the electric field parallel to the smectic layer structure leads to an extremly high electrostrictive strain of 4% in an electric field of only 1.5 MV/m.
Ship Health Monitoring
Authors: Kiddy Jason S. , Chen Peter C. , Ross Paul
Published: November 2003

Although ships have been sailing for hundreds of years, the field of ship health monitoring is relatively near. Two main forces have spurred the rise in the popularity and importance of ship health monitoring systems. First, reduced budgets and reduced manpower have resulted in smaller crew sizes and less routine maintenance. This reduced maintenance has brought into question the health of many ships, their components, and the ability to detect a problem quickly. Clearly, a failure aboard any vessel will bring a loss of revenue and productivity, if not worse. The second driver behind the growth of ship health monitoring systems is the decrease in the expense of computers and sensors coupled with an increase in their capabilities and the associated data processing algorithms. Until recently, an automated health monitoring system was either impossible to achieve or prohibitively expensive to install and maintain. Today, ship health monitoring systems are becoming increasingly more common as their capabilities are further demonstrated and understood by the maritime community. Nevertheless, many issues remain to be settled as technology improves, resulting in continuously expanding requrements. This article gives an overview of ship health monitoring and includes discussions of benefits dangers to ships Cargo effects on stress, differnt types of ships and their requirements, environmental issues, and systems in use.
Smart Perovskites
Authors: Wang Zhong L.
Published: November 2003

Perovskite and perovskite‐related structures are a class of smart materials. Perovskite‐structured materials have important applications in ferroelectricity, piezoelectricity, ferromagnetism, magnetoresistance, superconductivity, ionic conductivity, and dielectricity. Typical perovskite materials of technological importance are piezoelectric Pb(Zr, Ti)O3, electrostrictive Pb(Mg, Nb)O3, magnetoresistant (La,Ca)MnO3, and superconductive Y Ba2Cu3O7. Perovskite‐related materials are versatile matrices for generating transition‐ and rare‐earth metal oxides that exhibit a broad spectrum of properties and functions that are related to the following characteristics: (1) Nearly innumerable combinations of metal cations can be accommodated within perovskite‐related structural systems. (2) By reduction / reoxidation processes, nonstoichiometry (i.e., controlled amounts of ordered oxygen vacancies) can be introduced into the structure. In turn, high oxygen ion mobility or modified electronic and magnetic features can be implemented, and (3) the design of composite structural systems containing perovskite building units (perovskite slabs of different thicknesses) allows fine‐tuning electronic and magnetic properties.

This article focuses on the structure and structural evolution of perovskites and explores the intrinsic linkages among the members of the perovskite family. First, the “smart” properties of perovskites are introduced. Then, the intrinsic connection among the perovskites is explored. Finally, the analysis of mixed valences and oxygen deficiency is addressed.
Soil‐Ceramics (Earth), Self‐adjustment of Humidity and Temperature
Authors: Ishida Emile H.
Published: November 2003

Earth ceramics are hydrothermally solidified soil bodies that have been developed mainly for use as interior and exterior materials for housing. Generally, manufacture of industrial materials requires the use of refined raw materials. In the case of earth ceramics, a wide range of soils can be used for manufacture without extensive refining. Besides, since solidification is carried out at 150 to 200°C under saturated steam pressure, the energy required for solidification is relatively small. Therefore, the load imposed on the earth by the manufacturing of this material is kept very low. Earth ceramics possess excellent thermal insulation and self humidity control properties because the original nano‐pores of the soil remain in the bodies after solidification. Because of these properties, earth ceramics are effective in controlling the interior climate in dwellings, particularly in monsoon regions like Japan. It has been reported that in dwellings where earth ceramics were actually used as the floor material, the humidity control properties of the material allows comfortable and healthy living with almost no necessity for the use of air conditioners throughout the year and that the amount of energy consumed for living is reduced significantly.

The necessity of a new concept of manufacturing goods based on due consideration for humans and the earth, and the thinking behind the development of earth ceramics based on investigations of this concept, are described below. Examples of actual use of earth ceramics are also outlined.
Triboluminescence, Applications in Sensors
Authors: Fujita Koji , Tanaka Katsuhisa , Ishihara Tsuguo , Hirao Kazuyuki
Published: November 2003

Triboluminescence is the emission of photons caused by applying mechanical energy to a solid.

Triboluminescence (TL) has very long history. At present, it is known that nearly one‐half of all inorganic compounds and between one‐quarter to one‐third of all organic compounds exhibit TL. Spectroscopic examination and characterization of the emitted light are useful for determining the excited‐state origins of TL. The best general spectroscopic characteristics that can be expected from a crystal is that the TL is similar to photoluminescence (PL) at the same temperature. TL and PL spectra are expected to be identical if the sole effect of a fracture is a population of excited electronic states. The importance of perturbations to the crystal and/or the emitting centers caused by fracture is evidenced by the differences between PL and TL spectra. For instance, some crystals show TL at room temperature but do not exhibit PL at that temperature. More commonly, a triboluminescent crystal exhibits PL, but the TL spectrum contains features that are absent from the PL spectrum. These features may be emission bands that do not occur in the PL spectrum or changes in the relative intensities of bands in the TL spectrum compared to those in the PL spectrum.

A number of different mechanisms are required to account for the phenomenon of TL, although its details are still poorly understood. In this article, the mechanisms of different types of TL along with their spectroscopic experimental examples are given first. Then, experimental results on TL in inorganic crystals that contain rare‐earth ions are presented. Finally, the potential applications of TL are briefly described.
Ribotyping Methods for Assessment of in situ Microbial Community Structure
Authors: Stephen John R. , Kowalchuk George A.
Published: November 2003

PCR‐independent methods

PCR‐Dependent Methods
Algal Blooms—Impact on Drinking Water Treatment, Taste, and Odor Problems
Authors: Burlingame Gary A.
Published: November 2003

What are Algae?

Common Algae that Affect Drinking Water

What is a Bloom and Where Does it Occur?

Overview of Impacts from Algal Blooms

Overview of Treatment Processes Affected by Algae

Summary of Negative Impacts from Algae on Treatment

Taste and Odor of Drinking Water

Impacts Algae have on Taste and Odor

Impacts on Tap Water Consumers

Evidence of the Occurrence of Taste and Odor Problems

Overview of Control Options
Evolution of Metabolic Pathways for Degradation of Environmental Pollutants
Authors: van der Meer Jan Roelof
Published: November 2003

Adaptation and Environmental Pollution

Mechanisms for Genetic Change

Trends in Catabolic Pathway Evolution
Sulfate‐Reducing Bacteria: Environmental and Technological Aspects
Authors: Barton Larry L. , Plunkett Richard M.
Published: November 2003

Involvement of SRB in Biogeochemical Cycles

Distribution of Physiological Groups of Sulfate Reducers

Presence of Sulfate Reducers in Deep Subsurface

Activities of Sulfate Reducers in Biological Communities

Biogenic Hydrogen Sulfide Production

Applications of Sulfate‐Reducing Bacteria

The Role of Sulfate Reducers in Biocorrosion

Detection of Sulfate Reducers
Disinfection of Protozoan Parasites
Authors: Chauret Christian
Published: November 2003

Drinking Water Disinfection
Gallionella Ferruginea: An Iron‐Oxidizing and Stalk‐Forming Groundwater Bacterium
Authors: Pedersen Karsten , Hallbeck Lotta
Published: November 2003

History and Taxonomic Comments

Enrichment, Isolation, and Cultivation Procedures

Descriptive Characters

Ecology
Cryptosporidium: basic biology and epidemiology
Authors: Huffman Debra E.
Published: November 2003

Taxonomic Classification

Basic Biology

Reproduction

Clinical Aspects

Prevalence of Cryptosporidiosis in Humans

Occurrence in the Environment

Transmission
Igneous Rock Aquifers Microbial Communities
Authors: Pedersen Karsten
Published: November 2003

Exploration Methodology

Microbial Numbers in Deep Groundwater

Carbon‐Transformation Activities

Diversity and Phylogeny of Aquifer Communities

Hydrogen Dependency of Deep Microbial Communities
Aeromonas Hydrophila
Authors: Huys Geert , Swings Jean
Published: November 2003

Pathogenicity Aspects

Isolation and Enumeration ofAeromonas

Systematics

Occurrence ofAeromonasin the Environment
Psychrophilic Bacteria: Isolation and Characterization
Authors: Bowman John P.
Published: November 2003

Isolation of Psychrophiles

Determination of Cardinal Temperature Values
Radioactive Waste Disposal, Geomicrobiology of
Authors: West Julia M. , Mckinley Ian G.
Published: November 2003

Fundamentals of Radioactive Waste Disposal

Microbiology of Relevant Geologic Formations

The Near‐Field

The Far‐Field

Evaluating the Risk of Microbiological Effects

Into the Future

Acknowledgments
Airborne Toxigenic Molds
Authors: Jarvis Bruce B.
Published: November 2003

Mycotoxins

Airborne Fungal Spores

Mycotoxins in the Air

Stachybotrys chartarum—A Model?

The Future
Toxicity Testing in Wastewater Treatment Plants Using Microorganisms
Authors: Bitton Gabriel
Published: November 2003

Introduction

Survey of Microbiotests for Monitoring Toxicity in Wastewater Treatment Plants
Enzymes: Biotechnological Applications
Authors: Cherry Joel R. , Nedwin Glenn E. , Falholt Per
Published: November 2003

Industrial Enzyme Production

The Enzyme Market

Technical Enzymes

Food Enzymes

Feed Enzymes
Heterotrophic Bacteria as Indicators of Water Quality
Authors: Geldreich Edwin E.
Published: November 2003

Definition

Cultivation

Origins of the Heterotrophic Bacterial Flora

Health Concerns with Amplification in Water Supply

Colonization in Water Supply

Heterotrophic Bacteria: An Operational Indicator of Microbial Quality

Public Water Supplies: Treatment, Distribution, and Storage

Rural Water Supplies

Heterotrophic Bacteria in Alternative Water Supplies
Biofilms in Natural and Drinking Water Systems
Authors: Manz Werner , Szewzyk Ulrich , Lawrence John R.
Published: November 2003

Biofilm Components

Formation and Structure of Biofilms

Identification of Biofilm Bacteria

Assessment of Metabolic Activities

Community Interactions

Examples of Natural Biofilms
Fungi and Indoor Air
Authors: Johanning Eckardt , Ammann Harriet M.
Published: November 2003

Infections

Allergy

Hypersensitivity Pneumonitis (HP) and Organic Dust Toxic Syndrome (ODTS)

Inflammation and Irritation of the Airways

Mycotoxins

Microbial Volatile Organic Compounds (MVOCS)
Microsporidia: Basic Biology
Authors: Didier Elizabeth S. , Green Linda C.
Published: November 2003

Classification

Epidemiology and Clinical Disease
Biotrickling Filters for Air Pollution Control
Authors: Deshusses Marc A. , Cox Huub H. J.
Published: November 2003

Biotrickling Filtration Principle

Biotrickling Filter Performance

Biomass Growth in Biotrickling Filters

Biotrickling Filtration Costs

Case Studies
Activated Sludge—Sequencing Batch Reactors
Authors: Irvine R. L. , Wilderer P. A.
Published: November 2003

Background

The Concept

Design and Operation of SBR Plants

Sizing of SBRs

Experiences

Novel Applications for Biofilm and Slurry Systems
Freeze Drying: Preservations of Microorganisms by Freeze‐Drying
Authors: Crowe John H. , Crowe Lois M.
Published: November 2003

Lessons from Nature

The Role of Sugar Glasses in Stabilization

Trehalose has Unusual Solution Properties

Trehalose and Survival following Dehydration in Yeasts: A Case Study

Introducing Trehalose into Cells Artificially

There is More than One Way to Achieve Stability
Metal (
U
,
Fe
,
Mn
,
Hg
) Cycling
Authors: Moore Charles M. , DiChristina Thomas J.
Published: November 2003

Uranium Cycling

Iron Cycling

Manganese Cycling

Mercury Cycling
Toxicity Testing Using Micro‐Algae
Authors: Blaise Christian
Published: November 2003

Eutrophication Studies

Toxicity Studies

Interaction Studies

Phytotoxicity Testing Within an Integrated Battery of Biological Tests to Assess the Potential Hazard of Industrial Effluents

Testing Solid Media: An Algal Solid Phase Assay (ASPA) to Assess Freshwater Sediment Toxicity

Preserving Microalgae for Biological Testing

Acknowledgments
Trace Gases
Authors: Schimel Joshua
Published: November 2003

Microbes and the Atmosphere

Atmospheric Chemistry

Carbon Dioxide

Methane

Carbon Monoxide

Halogenated Hydrocarbons

Nitrogen Gases: Nitrous Oxide and Nitric Oxide

Sulfur Gases
Kinetics of Microbial Processes and Population Growth in Soil
Authors: Lipson David A. , Schmidt Steven K.
Published: November 2003

Soil Physical Factors

Biological Factors

Responses of Microbial Activity to Environmental Factors

Models of Microbial Growth and Substrate Use
Denitrification in the Marine Environment
Authors: Joye Samantha B.
Published: November 2003

Denitrification and the Marine Nitrogen Cycle

Denitrifying Bacteria

General Controls on Denitrification

Quantifying Denitrification Rates

Locations and Patterns of Denitrification Activity in the Marine Environment
Bioaerosols: Transport and Fate
Authors: Stites Frances L.
Published: November 2003

Transport

Fate
Halophiles: Aerobic Halophilic Microorganisms
Authors: Kamekura Masahiro
Published: November 2003

Definition of Halophilic Microorganisms

Hypersaline Environments

Halophilic Archaea

Halophilic Bacteria

Halophilic Eukarya

Ecological Aspects of Hypersaline Environments
Protozoa in Marine and Estuarine Waters
Authors: Caron David A. , Countway Peter D. , Lambert Sarah E. , Rose Julie M. , Schaffner Rebecca A.
Published: November 2003

Diversity of Protozoan Form and Function

Major Protozoan Taxa, Abundances, and Distributions

Ecological Roles of Protozoa
Aerobic Respiration, Principles of
Authors: Hosler Jonathan , Shapleigh James P.
Published: November 2003

Basic Functions of Aerobic Respiration

Components Involved in Aerobic Respiration and Their Function

Regulation of Aerobic Metabolism

Taxis Response to O2
Nuclear Waste Respository inYuccaMountain: Microbiological Aspects
Authors: Amy Penny S. , Haldeman Dana L.
Published: November 2003

The Repository

Yucca Mountain

Applied Microbiology

Future Studies
Amebas (Free‐Living) Causing Meningoencephalitis
Authors: Schuster F. L. , Visvesvara G. S.
Published: November 2003

Acanthamoebaspp.

AcanthamoebaGAE

AcanthamoebaKeratitis

Antimicrobial Therapy

Naegleria Fowleri

PAM Caused byN. fowleri

Balamuthia Mandrillaris

GAE Caused byB. mandrillaris
Eutrophication and Algae
Authors: Phlips Edward J.
Published: November 2003

Nutrient Concentrations, Trophic State, and Algal Biomass

Trophic State and Algal Community Structure

Factors that Affect the Relationship between Nutrient Concentration and Algal Abundance
Alkaliphiles: Alkaline Enzymes and their Applications
Authors: Horikoshi Koki
Published: November 2003

Genetic Maps of Chromosomal DNAs of AlkaliphilicBacillusStrains

Mechanisms of Cytoplasmic pH Regulation

Alkaline Enzymes

Starch‐Degrading Enzymes

Cellulases

Xylanases

Pectinases

Chitinases

Metabolites Produced by Alkaliphiles