bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Ideational Insurgency
Authors: Ucko David H.
Published: September 2022

This chapter explains the emergence and logic of ideational insurgency, which uses online spaces to organize, recruit and attack. The advantage of this approach is that it provides few physical targets that the state can strike. Social media also generates alternative realities that extend in-group loyalty even without in-person contact. Underlying each ensuing attack is a political competition for influence and control, spearheaded by an online counter-state spinning out of cyberspace and making itself known "in real life" (or IRL). In this manner, through intimidation and by altering the narrative, political and social change becomes possible. In tracing the evolution of this approach, the chapter begins with the dawn of a global internet in the mid-1990s and the early pioneers of ideational insurgency. The chapter then reviews the use of ideational insurgency by both ISIS and far-right violent extremists (the so-called "alt-right")--two movements whose ideological differences belie a shared approach. These case studies, and the underlying theory, are used to illustrate the serious challenges of ideational insurgency to societal stability, coherence and norms. Given the continued sophistication of online existence, there is reason to expect that the potency of the approach will grow.
Mind the Gap
Authors: Ucko David H.
Published: September 2022

In localized insurgency, the group fixes its struggle in areas where the state is weak or uninterested in control. This approach reduces the signature of the insurgent project and, therefore, the likelihood of a concerted military response. Instead, states double down on developed areas and leave the rest behind, or--at most--launch aggressive yet strictly palliative raids. This response is inauspicious, because it does not stem--and indeed accelerates--the fragmentary effects of the localized approach. This chapter considers policy options for states faced with localized insurgency. For rural struggles, it reviews the lessons from the Sri Lankan and Colombian counterinsurgency campaigns. For urban struggles, it reviews counter-gang operations in Rio de Janeiro, El Salvador, and Haiti, as well as operations launched in Sadr City, Iraq. In all instances, a key condition for success is the political will to fuse broken states and reintegrate lost populations. As this condition is so seldom met, the chapter considers alternative political orders to the Weberian ideal of a state. These arrangements emphasize political decentralization, informal governance and shared sovereignty, and may offer a more realistic, if still challenging, path to counter localized insurgency.
Dueling Narratives
Authors: Ucko David H.
Published: September 2022

The challenge of ideational insurgency is that it does not provide the state with a physical target, an aim for its response. De-territorialized, the insurgency spreads out like a mist, until it is everywhere. The result is not a cataclysmic defeat of the state, but more like a death by a thousand cuts, as societal norms and values shift to accommodate an increasingly unassailable force. This chapter presents options for state response. Three major categories of response are discussed--disruption through law enforcement; suppression through online censorship; and the fostering of individual and societal resilience, be it through counter-messaging, preventive interventions, or education on media and digital literacy. This chapter lays out these three approaches, pointing to the U.S. context and its targeting by both the ISIS and alt-right ideational insurgencies. The implications for state response are vast and touch upon freedom of speech, disinformation, trust, as well as societal cohesion and resilience. In turn, ideational challenges force a major rethink of what is meant by counterinsurgency.
An American Pathology
Authors: Zug Charles U.
Published: September 2022

This chapter concludes the book by suggesting that, paradoxically, an understanding of democratic politics that regards demagoguery as necessarily evil, as a practice to be castigated wherever it occurs and ultimately banished from the community, becomes the cause of the very thing it wishes to obliterate. Demagoguery is an American pathology, and we have become a community of demagogues because we claim to hate demagoguery.
Old and New Directions in the Study of State Repression
Authors: Davenport Christian , Appel Benjamin J.
Published: September 2022

Chapter 1 outlines in detail exactly where the near 30-year empirical exploration of state repressive behavior has gone. Specifically, we outline the predominant theoretical argument and then outline how well it is has done with regard to explaining the phenomenon that it set out to explain. The chapter maintains that not only has existing theory been somewhat unclear and underdeveloped but rigorous empirical work has not done that well in accounting for state repression. What follows is the identification of puzzles that remain within the literature and in an attempt to address these limitations, the chapter introduces the ‘juggernaut’ theory of repressive spells. This identifies the basic logic of why governments use state repression across the different phases of a spell. Such an argument provides insights into what most likely hinders or completely stops human rights violation.
Recurring Spells
Authors: Davenport Christian , Appel Benjamin J.
Published: September 2022

Chapter 6 provides the first empirical investigation of what (if anything) impacts the recurrence of a repressive spell. Again, the analysis identifies the influence of the standard variables employed within the literature. Following this, the chapter moves to explore those variables that emerge from the domestic context (i.e., those used by actors within the territory in question) and those variables that emerge from the international context (i.e., those used by actors outside of the territory in question). The big findings here include pacifying influences of electoral democratization, economic development and progovernment intervention but inflammatory influences of population as well as neutral military interventions. This reveals that there are different factors influencing distinct parts of the Death/Life repression cycle and that some factors that were believed to reduce state repression (such as intervention) have mixed influences depending upon the specific type of policy enacted. The chapter investigates what drives the variable/policy that wields the biggest impact on onset: political democratization. Chapter 6 ends with what has been learned about spell recurrence.
More than History Repeating Itself
Authors: Berridge Willow , Lynch Justin , Makawi Raga , de Waal Alex
Published: September 2022

This chapter puts today's uprising and transition in historical perspective, comparing its dynamics to those of the 1964 October Revolution and 1985 April Intifada. It identifies a core set of actors within the military and urban elites that have charted the course of a “conservative transition” in 1964, 1985, and 2018–2020. At the same time, it highlights several factors that may explain why the events of today are taking a different path to those of 1964 and 1985. Notably, these include the potential eclipse of Islamist politics, the shifting relationship between center and periphery, and the increasing significance of women's revolutionary roles.
A Revolution in Cyber Affairs?
Authors: Moore Daniel
Published: September 2022

There are several significant developments in computing, networks and information security that may affect the balance of offensive cyber operations (OCOs) over the coming years and decades. These changes are more likely to be evolutionary rather than revolutionary, by intensifying the existing characteristics of OCOs rather than altogether supplanting them. This chapter assesses the impact of artificial intelligence (AI), autonomous platforms and augmented and virtual reality (AR/VR) on OCOs by examining current development trajectories and their potential significance. These developments all demonstrate the increased reliance of human society on information networks and therefore represent potentially deepening vulnerabilities. Developments in artificial intelligence may both increase efficiency in scaled offensive operations while creating new vulnerable centers of gravity. Autonomous vehicles (drones)--and swarms thereof--may represent an increase in safe military lethality, but the complexity in controlling them remotely may similarly create an exploitable vulnerability. Considering the tendency of humanity to innovate first and worry about security later, there is significant need for continuous, active monitoring of these trends.
Elixir Sulfanilamide
Authors: Sharfstein Joshua M.
Published: September 2022

In the fall of 1937, patients began to die soon after consuming a new therapy called the Elixir Sulfanilamide. In response, the fledgling agency known as the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) jumped into action. The agency recovered the remaining 700 bottles and saved the lives of an estimated 4,000 Americans. The FDA also advocated for the landmark Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, which, among other major steps, authorized the FDA to establish the world’s first advance review for safety of medications. The story of the Elixir Sulfanilamide exemplifies how much in public health has been shaped by crisis. Strong preparation, a well-managed response, and astute legislative strategy made all the difference in turning crisis to opportunity. If, as Louis Pasteur has famously said, chance favors the prepared mind, then the story of the Elixir Sulfanilamide shows that crisis favors the prepared agency.
Thalidomide
Authors: Sharfstein Joshua M.
Published: September 2022

In 1962, the United States found itself transfixed by a crisis involving the medication thalidomide. Marketed widely in Europe for a variety of ailments, including nausea during pregnancy, thalidomide turned out to be a severe teratogen, causing thousands of severe birth defects in Germany alone. Yet as a result of diligence by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), thalidomide was never approved for marketing in the United States.). When the close call came to light, Congress responded by granting the agency new authority, including the unprecedented power to require medications to be proven effective before sale. A key to turning tragedy into progress was the decision to highlight the central role of the FDA reviewer Dr. Frances Oldham Kelsey in protecting the nation.
The Swine Flu of 1976
Authors: Sharfstein Joshua M.
Published: September 2022

Early in 1976, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention proposed and President Gerald Ford approved a plan to vaccinate the country against swine influenza, a new infection that had only recently appeared on a New Jersey army base. While agency leaders imagined themselves rising to the challenge of a crisis, mismanagement and poor communication led to a debacle for public health. Problems included logistical difficulties in manufacturing the vaccine, disputes with Congress, and the inability to revise the vaccination goal in light of the fact that the disease never returned. When people who were vaccinated fell ill with neurological complications, the vaccine effort ended, but not before causing grave damage to confidence in public health agencies.
Recognizing a Crisis
Authors: Sharfstein Joshua M.
Published: September 2022

The first order of business in crisis management is figuring out that there is a crisis. Once a brewing crisis is recognized, health officials can organize a coherent response, limit its impact, and even make an early pivot to achieve long-lasting change. Unfortunately, spotting a crisis early is far easier said than done. It’s the rare crisis that announces itself with a phone call 12 hours in advance. Most crises go unnoticed even as clues emerge, lost in the stream of the daily activity of an agency or hidden by biases, assumptions, and wishful thinking. To be successful, officials and their agencies should pursue a proactive strategy to identify crises early. There are three elements of effective crisis detection: spotting signals, pulling in data and assessing the situation, and developing a space and culture to put the pieces of the puzzle together.
Preventing the Next Crisis
Authors: Sharfstein Joshua M.
Published: September 2022

In a crisis and its aftermath, public health officials may have the opportunity to achieve lasting, positive reforms. There are three steps to such success. First, by responding swiftly and effectively to the immediate challenge, agencies establish credibility with key audiences. Second, at the right moment, backed by thoughtful analysis, leaders are able to provide a coherent explanation of what happened, revealing the need for further action to prevent the problem from recurring or growing worse. Third, officials jump into the fray to make the case for change. Successful advocacy can involve calling key decision-makers, working with journalists, writing op/eds, and developing alliances with key advocates in the public and private sectors.
The New Frontiers of Crime in South Africa
Authors: Ellis Stephen , Randrianja Solofo , Bayart Jean-François
Published: September 2022

This chapter describes crime in contemporary South Africa and traces its roots to Apartheid and the struggle against it. The Apartheid state made little attempt to police ordinary crime in black urban communities and townships consequently saw the growth of fearsome criminal gangs. By the late 1970s, both the ANC and the National Party recognised that these gangs could be their allies, and, in some cases, deliberately trained, armed, and encouraged them to foment disorder. When the ANC and National Party finally settled their differences, these groups' violent activities returned to being more overtly criminal, but in enhanced form. In addition, during the years of apartheid, the South African security forces were overwhelmingly focused on countering what they saw as the Soviet-backed threat of the ANC and SACP. This left them ill-prepared to cope with the massive growth in international cross-border criminality that accompanied the end of the Cold War.
Mind the Gap
Authors: Smeets Max
Published: September 2022

This chapter offers an historical overview of states' developments in the cyber realm using the definitions set out in the previous chapter. This chapter first discusses how countries have prioritized cyber policy over time, paying particular attention to the institutional developments in the offensive realm, and second highlight what we know about countries' offensive cyber activities. The chapter finds that over forty countries have publicly established a military cyber organization. However, the chapter also explains that relatively few countries have conducted cyber effect operations.
The Effect of Experience
Authors: Smeets Max
Published: September 2022

This chapter draws on business strategy literature's concept of experience curve effects, to analyze the components that could enhance effectiveness in offensive cyber capability development and deployment. Experience curves are based on the premise that the more often a task is performed, the more effectively the task will be completed. This chapter examines three components of experience effects: learning, scale and technology. The chapter explains that states can become more effective in capability development and deployment over time. Developers and operators can not only become better in writing code but also improve their communication skills. Infrastructure acquisition and use can benefit from scale advantages. And improvements in tooling can make various aspects of the cyber-attack process more effective. That said, the chapter also reveals that states face several obstacles to enhance their operational effectiveness in the cyber domain. Not least, organizations will continue to find it difficult to hire, train, and above all, retain qualified personnel.
Unintentional Interstate Capability Transfers
Authors: Smeets Max
Published: September 2022

This chapter discusses four forms of unintentional state-to-state transfer. First, unintentional transfer can result from the (successful) execution of offensive cyber operations, as the target or other actors can learn from the instance. Second, a state may directly or indirectly collect intelligence on a state's capability, and then integrate adversarial tooling or infrastructure in their own operations. Third, through leaking, hacking tools of (advanced) cyber actors may end up on the streets - and "picked up" by other actors. Fourth, government employees or other talent from one country might be hired by the military or intelligence agency of another government.
Elements of Our Hybrid Existence
Authors: Dix Alan , Gill Steve , Hare Jo , Ramduny-Ellis Devina
Published: September 2022

This chapter introduces the core elements of physicality that will form the structure of the central parts of the book: the body and physiology, material artefacts and design, space and spatial arrangement, and digital artefacts and virtual physicality. Humans have always shaped their lives and the world from stone and metal tools to steam and electrical machines; digital technology is in some ways just another step but it is also different in the way that it is both embedded everywhere and yet also has an almost numinous or ghost-like nature. This chapter explores how human–computer interaction and industrial design have emerged as separate disciplines and yet are now converging in the study of these hybrid digital devices with physical form.
Physicality of Things
Authors: Dix Alan , Gill Steve , Hare Jo , Ramduny-Ellis Devina
Published: September 2022

Newton's laws of motion are used to plan the course of missions to Mars and the braking efficiency of cars. However, well before we learn physics in school, we all have an understanding of the physical behaviour of objects around us. This chapter shows how we need to understand both: digital devices need to work within the physics of the world, but also be comprehensible. Simple rules of objects that are routinely broken in the digital world: a source of power, but potential confusion. We will use the magic world of fairy-tale to see how some properties, continuity of location in time and space and conservation of form, can in some circumstances be broken; but in others, conservation of number, are far more primitive and shocking when violated. Physical form is also critical for our emotional engagement with objects and may engage many senses, such as touch and sound, as well as visual form.
Hybrid Devices
Authors: Dix Alan , Gill Steve , Hare Jo , Ramduny-Ellis Devina
Published: September 2022

Many devices that surround us are hybrid, combining digital functionality and physical form. However, more than thirty years of user interface design sought to abstract physical devices into hardware-neutral events. This chapter shows how we must rethink design taking into account the details of physicality, whilst also learning the lessons that enabled software to flourish despite a wide and changing array of computers: from desktop PCs to mobile phones. Two long-standing design concerns are mapping, the way physical location and form of controls relates to their digital function; and feedback, which enables us to assess the correctness of our understanding of devices as well the impact of actions. One way to unpack the crucial properties of hybrid devices, is, paradoxically, to study them ‘unplugged’: first see how they afford physical manipulation and then understand the way this should connect to internal digital behaviour. Incidentally, this chapter shows how driving backwards is both hard and easy.
Physicality of Space
Authors: Dix Alan , Gill Steve , Hare Jo , Ramduny-Ellis Devina
Published: September 2022

This chapter discusses space and time, both so familiar that we hardly notice them and far more complex than we ever imagine. Mathematicians and physicists have tried to make sense of space: the coordinates of GPS appear to label even empty space, and Euclid imagined geometric shapes composed of infinitely thin lines: powerful abstractions, but problematic philosophically and practically. Euclid's space was flat, smooth, and without fracture, but the surface of the earth and WiFi connectedness break this simplifying image, creating problems and design opportunities. Size, speed, and even acceleration are often relative, a fact of physics, but also evident in our day-to-day lives, from snowflakes to circuit boards. Even the ground beneath our feet is not so solid. In following chapters we will see how many of these physical properties of space and time impact on the design of digitally augmented space, and indeed computation itself.
The Built Environment
Authors: Dix Alan , Gill Steve , Hare Jo , Ramduny-Ellis Devina
Published: September 2022

This chapter focuses on the relationships between the physical environment and the various digital informational augmentations that have been added to it over the years, increasing our understanding of space and perhaps time. Some of these layers are purely in the digital world: viewing streets or satellite views in Google maps. However, digital layers are also overlaying the physical world: viewing past times through augmented reality or hunting virtual Pokémon in the local park. Digital technology allows us to conquer distance and opens new forms of cultural experience. However, the same technologies that allow the world to be sensed and augmented through the Internet of Things, also open the door to surveillance and cyber-warfare. We are at a point when physical computing may degrade or enrich our humanity, the choice is ours to make.
Representation and Language
Authors: Dix Alan , Gill Steve , Hare Jo , Ramduny-Ellis Devina
Published: September 2022

This chapter looks at the nature of information: numinous, without intrinsic physical form itself, and yet only ever possible to transmit, communicate, or record through representation in physical media. Ideas are given legal protection in patents, but paradoxically only protected when recorded in that patent. The notions in our head need to be externalized in order to communicate to others or give rise to action. However, this is not mere transmission of existing notions in our heads but is a crucial part of crystallizing those notions and indeed enabling us to reflect upon our own thinking. Language is at the heart of this transformation of learning from imitation to oral, written and now digital culture, and yet the origins of language are themselves rooted in our physical existence and our innate abilities as meaning seekers to interpret one another and the world. Internalizing these processes of representation and interpretation is perhaps what makes us human.
Theory and Philosophy of Physicality
Authors: Dix Alan , Gill Steve , Hare Jo , Ramduny-Ellis Devina
Published: September 2022

Throughout this book many philosophical and theoretical threads have been encountered: from discussions of Heidegger and hammers to the nature of space and time, and the changing role of money. The book has shown how fundamental physics involves information, and how computation is intensely physical with attendant environmental implications. This chapter draws together a few points made throughout the book and summarizes them. The chapter begins with the way digital technology acts as a mirror to the nature of the material world, and by its similarities and differences reveals fresh insights about physicality. It then moves on to consider what it means to be human, embodied in a physical and now a digital environment. Finally it looks forward to the potential design future and the way all of society is being changed, and could be transformed, by a rich understanding of the interplay between our physical and digital existence.
Introduction
Authors: Dudai Ron
Published: September 2022

For Irish Republicans, informers occupy an almost mythical status. For centuries they have been blamed for setbacks in the struggle. James Joyce offered this explanation for the failure of Irish insurrections: ‘Simply because in Ireland, just at the crucial moment, an informer appears.’ Years after the 1998 Good Friday Agreement informers remain deeply hated figures; ‘I would rather be called a paedophile than an informer’, a former IRA member told the author. The ruthless killing of alleged informers became one of the IRA’s trademarks, yet this book, which uses the IRA as a case study to explore how underground groups deal with informers, argues that the IRA’s response to informers was far more complex than usually described, involving a wide range of forms and functions. This response included a variety of social control measures, was influenced and limited by the organisation’s political goals, served a wide range of aims beyond immediate security concerns and had widespread and long-term consequences. For example, the IRA often granted ‘amnesties’ to informers in order to expose them; ‘it’s like a strategy and counter-strategy and counter-counter-strategy, this whole tinker-tailor-soldier-spy world’, a former IRA leader explained. This introductory chapter presents the book’s research questions and demonstrates the gap in our current knowledge of the issues; provides a brief overview of the relevant literatures and explains the choice of the punishment and society perspective; details the sources for the study and the methods used; and provides an outline of the book’s chapters.
The IRA and Informers
Authors: Dudai Ron
Published: September 2022

Informing plays a central role in Irish Republican consciousness and history. Informers featured in numerous rebellions—foiling plots, facilitating arrests, assisting prosecutions, setting ambushes—and became a powerful weapon of the British state during the decades of the recent conflict. They were recruited from within the ranks of the IRA, as well as from its support networks and the communities where it was based; some volunteered their services yet most were blackmailed or tempted by British authorities. Informers have long been identified in the literature as a common target for violence and hostility, but this chapter provides a more complex and thicker account of rebel attitudes to informers, identifying three main themes. The first is fear: an instrumental rational response to the threat informers represent, with the specific dread generated by secrecy; as one ex-IRA member told the author, the fear was powerful because ‘you didn’t know who the informer is. A sinister figure out in the dark’. The second theme is a culturally embedded hatred of informers, who have been treated as ‘folk devils’, a situation described by one interviewee as ‘almost like the brand of Satan, the witch thing, it pushes you completely outside the pale’. Yet a third theme is normalisation—a grudging acceptance of informing as a ‘fact of life’ and an ‘occupational hazard’ of underground life, which has to be approached realistically and pragmatically. The complex and dynamic interactions between fear, loathing and normalisation shaped responses to informing during the Northern Ireland conflict and in its aftermath.
Underground Penality and Legitimation Work
Authors: Dudai Ron
Published: September 2022

Armed groups are often considered inherently illegitimate actors, and there is an assumption that their violence is uninhibited, especially when it comes to targeting suspected informers. And yet the IRA used courts-martial and what it deemed ‘due process’ in its pursuit of informers. Why would a ruthless organisation invest resources and incur risks to convey an image of legality and fairness? This chapter argues that considerations of legitimacy shape the punishment of informers by armed groups. Notwithstanding external perceptions—and at times, their own rhetoric—armed groups tend to care about their perceived legitimacy and reputation, and their survival often depends on community support. Alongside instrumental goals, rebel groups’ actions are affected by the need to abide by norms of behaviour, which are developed through their roots in society, political ideology or interaction with other actors. Punishing suspected informers is particularly challenging for the legitimation work of armed groups: as those targeted come from within the organisation or the community, rebels would be vulnerable to critique if the status of informer is deemed to be applied unfairly or punished excessively. There is thus demand for a higher level of ‘procedural’ legitimacy when dealing with suspected informers than when attacking enemy targets. The chapter explores the ‘performance of legality’ in the IRA’s pursuit of informers, and its roots in the imperative to retain legitimacy—both among its community base and within the group itself, where the leadership had to mete out punishment while maintaining unity and keeping the rank-and-file motivated.
Transitional Penality: Informers as Post-Conflict Enemies
Authors: Dudai Ron
Published: September 2022

What happens to attitudes to informers once the conflict is over and underground groups disband and enter politics? The Northern Ireland peace process involved a remarkable transformation of mainstream Republicans, ending the armed struggle and moving ‘from guns to government’, and working peacefully and at times amicably with their erstwhile enemies in Loyalist groups, Unionist parties and state agencies. Yet informers remain outcasts for Republicans, the unforgiven protagonists of the conflict; asked whether, years after the ceasefires, known past informers could go back to living in Republican areas, a former IRA leader told the author: ‘People would have too many axes to grind, and one of these axes would end up in the back of their head, in a dark night in a dark alley.’ This chapter analyses the causes and functions of the post-conflict animosity towards informers. It shows how betrayal from within—and the deception and personal duplicity it entails—generates hostility that can exceed those directed at the external enemy. But it also contends that maintaining informers as folk devils serve useful functions for former rebel movements seeking to sustain unity and maintain continuity in the face of the upheaval of transition. The figure of the informer is valuable in efforts to demand loyalty to the movement, silence unauthorised narratives, providing a fitting target for resentment within the post-conflict landscape, a ‘lightning rod’ for various frustrations, and a focal point for sustaining ethos and values. Informers can become, then, ‘useful enemies’, even after the conflict ends.
Reckoning with Punishment
Authors: Dudai Ron
Published: September 2022

Some of the last statements issued by the IRA before it was formally disbanded were dedicated to what may seem a peculiar priority: ‘exonerating’ several individuals the organisation has killed as informers during the conflict, and declaring them to have been wrongly accused. This has been part of a process involving truth-recovery, inquiries and apologies the organisation has carried out in relation to its past pursuit of informers. This chapter explains how accusations relating to their underground penality—where victims came from the group’s own constituency—can become an Achilles hill for rebel groups emerging from conflict, and how they can, in response, deploy mechanisms reminiscent of those states use in the context of transitional justice. The chapter explains how, once the peace process was underway, condemnations of its pursuit of informers—in particular of the ‘disappearance’ of alleged informers, most notably the 1972 killing and abduction of Jean McConville—have surfaced publicly, becoming one of the most problematic aspects of the Republican movement’s conflict legacy, especially as some of the critique came from within its cadres. The chapter then analyses inquiries and apologies that the IRA issued in response to these accusations, and argues that they involved a ‘performance of legality’, aiming to reaffirm the legitimacy of its past penal system, the norms against informing and the organisation’s status. The chapter also identifies several ways in which some of the rigid punitive attitudes towards informers and their families can soften in the post-conflict era, albeit mostly in private, haphazard, ways.
Reconceiving Federalism
Authors: Tierney Stephen
Published: September 2022

This chapter address definitional disagreement around federalism. It traces the main traditions that have informed federal theory: definitionalism, institutionalism, and behaviouralism—together categorised as empirical-instrumentalist accounts. It explores the history of each and concludes that none arrives at a satisfactory explanation of the essentially constitutional nature of federalism as a discrete order of rule. The chapter then turns to the political theory of federalism, discussing how the federal idea has largely been subsumed within normative theory, with federalism viewed through the lens of normative-instrumentalism. The chapter concludes that both normative-instrumentalist and empirical-instrumentalist approaches fail to locate federalism’s essential purpose firmly within constitutional theory, leaving a gap in our search for the federal contract as an essentially modern constitutional project. The chapter concludes that it is necessary to move beyond approaches founded in either political or moral instrumentalism in order to address federalism through the discipline of constitutional theory as a specific genus of constitutional government.
The Foundations of Federalism
Authors: Tierney Stephen
Published: September 2022

This chapter argues that the federal foundational act is a specific category of constitutional beginning, and that understanding the nature of this ‘federal moment’ and its path-defining potential is central to a broader appreciation of the discrete nature of federal constitutionalism. It further contends however that the specificity of the federal moment has largely been subsumed within one universalising theoretical account of constitutional foundations—‘monist constitutionalism’—and that the particular implications of the federal constitutional moment for the identity, purpose, and normative authority of the federal constitution therefore remain either underdeveloped or misunderstood. It is the task of this chapter to articulate the legal-normative distinctiveness of the federal moment and to explore the potential implications of this for how we must understand both federal authority and federal subjecthood as discrete areas of enquiry within modern constitutional theory.
Sovereignty and the Monist Constitution
Authors: Tierney Stephen
Published: September 2022

This chapter traces how the default monist account of constitutional sovereignty developed within modern constitutional theory. It outlines the emergence of the constitutional theory of sovereignty in the early modern period and explores the link between sovereignty, state, and nation in which the modern concept of constitutional sovereignty has been tied ineluctably to statehood. The chapter explores how one dominant story of constitutionalism emerged to support the consolidation of the modern state, linking the concepts of people and nation to the task of state-building through the constitutional instantiation of the ideology of nationhood. This multi-layered process of homogenisation has proved debilitating to popular sovereignty and to the dynamics of constitutional politics. The chapter argues that the link between the legitimacy and authority of a constitution derives from the subjects of that constitution. This in turn paves the way for a particularly radical rearticulation of the nature of constitutional authority within a federal setting, to be explored in Chapter 5.
Professionalism as a Quest for Dignity
Authors: McCann Leo
Published: September 2022

This final chapter provides a conclusion to the book, in which I argue that the professionalization drive has had some important beneficial effects in further developing and cementing the value of the paramedic as a trusted and respected role in society. It explores what professionalization has ‘achieved’ for paramedics, arguing that professionalization hasn’t managed to overcome many of ambulance work’s relentless challengesNevertheless, professionalization confers several important social and cultural markers of status and sets the groundwork and direction for the further expansion of clinical knowledge that paramedics can apply in the field. The chapter moves on to speculate about the future of the field of pre-hospital care and of the paramedics working within it. It argues that ambulance roles, even if they still face uphill battles to achieve dignity and formal recognition, will always be invested with considerable levels of informal value, and that the professionalization project has played important roles in sustaining and upgrading that value. Neoliberalism and managerialism create incentives for many occupations to become ‘new professions’ while at the same time potentially threatening all professions with degradation. In a world where working life can be increasingly meaningless and precarious, the paramedic role remains a rare one worthy of respect and admiration. The various features and meanings of ‘professionalism’ remain important resources through which paramedics can seek to defend and expand their dignity and the dignity of their patients.
The Parlance of Play
Authors: Stahlke Samantha , Mirza-Babaei Pejman
Published: September 2022

This chapter outlines general interaction design fundamentals, exploring the notion of interactivity, defining interaction in games, and discussing what contributes to the quality of a game’s interactions. It delivers a player-centric view of game interaction, looking at how in-game actions support players’ short- and long-term goals. Readers are presented with advice on how to think critically about game interactions, in assessing commercial games or their own work. As additional background, related fields are discussed briefly, alongside jobs in the games industry connected to interaction design. This chapter also introduces a model of game interaction as a cycle of communication between a game and its players, serving as a foundation for discussion throughout the rest of the book.
The Play’s the Thing
Authors: Stahlke Samantha , Mirza-Babaei Pejman
Published: September 2022

Telling a good story is challenging, but good storytelling in games is especially difficult due to their interactive nature, where player action needs to become part of the narrative. This chapter discusses how game stories can be made more meaningful through players’ interactions with characters, plot, and the world around them. Topics investigated include how players relate to the characters they control, what makes a character fun to interact with, and how to ensure players feel engaged in a game’s narrative. Preserving players’ (often illusory) sense of agency or free will is explored as a key factor in immersion and enjoyment of story elements. Designs to support this, such as branching narratives and player morality systems, are also covered in the chapter.
What Comes Next?
Authors: Stahlke Samantha , Mirza-Babaei Pejman
Published: September 2022

As in so many other fields, the future of game design is enticing material for speculation, with a shifting landscape bearing new technology, changing business models, and the application of games outside entertainment. This chapter looks at how these changes might shape the coming years of game development, reflecting on how games have already changed over the past few decades. Technological advances, such as new platforms and improved computing power, are explored as one potential avenue for change. Industry factors, like the rising success of indie developers, marketplace saturation, and changing monetization paradigms are also examined. Lastly, the social and creative power of games is discussed as a potential driving force behind the future of innovation in game design.
Endless Love
Authors: Marušić Berislav
Published: September 2022

This chapter puts forward the puzzle of endless love: In its self-consciousness, love is endless; yet how can we conceive of our love as endless, when, empirically, we know that it may not be so? The chapter then seeks to answer the puzzle by developing an account of the “inner temporality” of love. The inner temporality of a mental state is derived from the temporality of the object of that mental state. The inner temporality of love is the apprehension of an individual, and an individual is endless. In its self-consciousness, love is endless, because it is the apprehension of an individual. Moreover, what we empirically learn about love—its outer temporality—is consistent with its inner temporality. This is why in the case of love, unlike in the case of grief and anger, we are not stuck with double vision.
Economic Inequality and Poverty
Authors: Kakwani Nanak , Son Hyun H.
Published: September 2022

Over the past 50 years, economic inequality and poverty have become central to public debates. The literature on economic inequality and poverty has been vastly expanded to develop new methods and generate new applications. This book provides a rigorous analysis of inequality and poverty, focusing on how income inequality and poverty measurements have evolved in the past 50 years. It has also attempted to resolve some of the controversies. The book’s primary focus is on analyzing the relationships among individuals’ or households’ distributions of economic variables. These relationships are crucial in understanding various economic phenomena. The book has developed many new techniques and provided policy applications using those techniques. It has utilized household surveys to illustrate the applications of methods, showing how they can help draw evidence-based policy conclusions.
Welfare Ranking of Income Distributions
Authors: Kakwani Nanak , Son Hyun H.
Published: September 2022

This chapter is devoted to social welfare rankings of income distributions. There are two distinct issues in measuring social welfare. First is determining individuals’ economic welfare, informing which individual in society is better off or worse off than the other. The second issue is aggregating individuals’ welfare for the whole society. Both issues are essential to analyzing policies to reduce inequality and poverty. The chapter identifies four kinds of dominance that help to rank income distributions generated by alternative policies. It also links welfare ranking and stochastic dominance, commonly used in decision-making problems under uncertainty.
Measurement of Income Inequality
Authors: Kakwani Nanak , Son Hyun H.
Published: September 2022

While the Lorenz preference provided only a partial ordering of distributions, inequality literature has offered numerous inequality measures to obtain the complete income distribution ranking. A critical review of these measures is provided in this chapter, assessing them according to their social welfare implications. The chapter also offers many lemmas, providing practical methods of evaluating inequality measures. In the 1970s and 1980s, academic researchers focused on inequality and poverty measures. In 1990, the focus shifted to measuring polarization. The research on this issue began because of concerns among some economists about the shrinking of the middle class. This chapter develops new measures of polarization. It illustrates the application of these measures to Brazilian data. The chapter also demonstrates that the shrinking of the middle class has accompanied the rising inequality in China.
Poverty Measures
Authors: Kakwani Nanak , Son Hyun H.
Published: September 2022

Sen’s seminal paper, published in 1976, opened the door for developing many aggregate poverty measures. This chapter provides an extensive development of the aggregate poverty measures. It also has derived poverty social welfare functions that give positive weights to the poor (who have income less than or equal to the poverty line) and zero weights to the non-poor (who have income above the poverty line). The chapter shows that all poverty measures proposed in the literature have an implicit poverty social welfare function based on this weighting method. The chapter makes the vital contribution that Sen’s poverty measure and its variants are also decomposable and subgroup consistent. Using a Chinese empirical illustration, it has illustrated Sen’s poverty measure’s decomposability and subgroup consistency. Thus, this chapter has put to rest the controversies generated by the literature about the sub-consistency of Sen’s poverty index.
Negative Income Tax Plans
Authors: Kakwani Nanak , Son Hyun H.
Published: September 2022

The idea of negative income tax plans and guaranteed income schemes evolved in the 1960s. The objective of negative income tax proposals was to extend the income tax rates beyond zero to negative levels. Cash transfers to families were viewed as a negative income tax. Several negative income plans have been proposed. These plans have attractive features that consider the incomes of households and their needs based on their household composition. This chapter provides a rigorous evaluation of alternative negative income tax plans. The chapter develops a general framework incorporating all the well-known negative income tax plans proposed in the literature. Based on this framework, the chapter has developed methods of comparing the progressivity and redistribution effects of alternative negative income plans. The chapter also explores how different negative income tax plans redistribute income. In other words, it looks at how such tax plans impact post-tax income inequality. If they increase inequality, such plans should be deemed anti-poor. The chapter showed analytically that negative tax plans might increase income inequality under certain conditions. A striking result emerging from this analysis is that absolute and relative inequality concepts can give conflicting conclusions about their impact on post-tax income inequality
Economic Growth and Poverty
Authors: Kakwani Nanak , Son Hyun H.
Published: September 2022

This chapter attempts to answer the core question in development economics: whether economic growth can alone eliminate or reduce poverty or whether governments should also focus on poverty alleviation through policies that directly help the poor. The literature has attempted to answer this using cross-country regression models. This chapter has critically reviewed these models. The objective of this review has been to understand whether the literature provides the answer to the core question. Unfortunately, the literature on this issue has generated more heat than light. It has offered conflicting answers, making an informed policy difficult. This chapter attempts to resolve these contradictory issues, using household surveys, following the non-parametric approach to estimating poverty elasticity for individual countries. The chapter has derived the growth and inequality elasticity for several poverty measures calculated from the individual country’s household surveys. This chapter develops a discrete-time decomposition that quantifies the contributions of economic growth and change in inequality on growth in poverty. Thus, this decomposition helps the governments understand whether they pursue economic growth first and foremost or focus on poverty alleviation policies that directly benefit the poor. The chapter presents a case study for China to understand how much economic growth and inequality have played a role in the country’s unprecedented poverty reduction.