bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Study on sedimentation stability of magnetorheological fluids based on different lubricant formulations
Authors: Zhibin Su , Yiping Luo , Ying Wang , Jiao Luo , Dongsheng Ji
Published: August 2020

Magnetorheological Fluids (MRFs) is rapidly emerging as a type of new fluid intelligence material that is controllable and low-energy consuming with high output and fast response. It has already received widespread attention from many international scholars. In this paper, the orthogonal test of MRFs configuration with six different types of lubricating additives (oleic acid, hydrogenated castor oil, teflon, boron nitride, molybdenum disulfide, graphite) is conducted to study the wettability, zero-field viscosity and yield stress of MRFs under different solid lubricants. According to the size of contact angle, the ability of anti-sedimentation stability of MRFs under different lubricants is compared. The zero-field viscosity of MRFs is tested by viscometer, and the strength of viscosity under the zero-field condition is compared. The yield stress is measured by a self-made yield stress device, and then the sedimentation stability characteristics of MRFs are analyzed. Finally, through the analysis and evaluation of experimental data, it is concluded that molybdenum disulfide as a lubricating additive can effectively improve the anti-sedimentation stability of MRFs, and the general rules of lubricating additives used in MRFs formulations with excellent performance are summarized.
High performance photodetectors using porous silicon-TiO2 heterostructure
Authors: Banerjee Debika , Asuo Ivy M , Pignolet Alain , Nechache Riad , Cloutier Sylvain G
Published: August 2020

In this study, a feasible approach for UV–vis photodetection using hybrid heterojunction by integrating porous silicon and TiO2 thin film is demonstrated. The photodetector demonstrates excellent photoresponse by three orders of magnitude enhancement and fast rise/decay time constants of 0.16/0.14 ms. Under small bias (1 V), the photodetector exhibits very high responsivity up to 40 A W−1 at 532 nm irradiation over a broadband wavelength range from 300–700 nm. The heterostructure geometry yields high-performance devices useful for many optoelectronic and biomedical applications.
The heat is on: towards the realization of non-cryogenic photonic quantum technologies
Authors: Holmes Mark J , Arakawa Yasuhiko
Published: August 2020

Solid-state devices capable of emitting single photons on demand are poised to allow the development of several photonic quantum technologies. Although high-performance devices have been reported in laboratory settings, the vast majority of experimental demonstrations performed to date have required the assistance of cryogenic cooling. In this perspective article we discuss the general progress and future challenges for the development of single photon emitters capable of operation at higher temperatures: negating the need for costly and cumbersome cryogenic cooling systems and their related vacuum requirements.
A review of digital cytometry methods: estimating the relative abundance of cell types in a bulk of cells
Authors: Le Trang , Aronow Rachel A , Kirshtein Arkadz , Shahriyari Leili
Published: August 2020

Due to the high cost of flow and mass cytometry, there has been a recent surge in the development of computational methods for estimating the relative distributions of cell types from the gene expression profile of a bulk of cells. Here, we review the five common ‘digital cytometry’ methods: deconvolution of RNA-Seq, cell-type identification by estimating relative subsets of RNA transcripts (CIBERSORT), CIBERSORTx, single sample gene set enrichment analysis and single-sample scoring of molecular phenotypes deconvolution method. The results show that CIBERSORTx B-mode, which uses batch correction to adjust the gene expression profile of the bulk of cells (‘mixture data’) to eliminate possible cross-platform variations between the mixture data and the gene expression data of single cells (‘signature matrix’), outperforms other methods, especially when signature matrix and mixture data come from different platforms. However, in our tests, CIBERSORTx S-mode, which uses batch correction for adjusting the signature matrix instead of mixture data, did not perform better than the original CIBERSORT method, which does not use any batch correction method. This result suggests the need for further investigations into how to utilize batch correction in deconvolution methods.
DataRemix: a universal data transformation for optimal inference from gene expression datasets
Authors: Mao Weiguang , Rahimikollu Javad , Hausler Ryan , Chikina Maria
Published: August 2020

Motivation

RNA-seq technology provides unprecedented power in the assessment of the transcription abundance and can be used to perform a variety of downstream tasks such as inference of gene-correlation network and eQTL discovery. However, raw gene expression values have to be normalized for nuisance biological variation and technical covariates, and different normalization strategies can lead to dramatically different results in the downstream study.

Results

We describe a generalization of singular value decomposition-based reconstruction for which the common techniques of whitening, rank-k approximation and removing the top k principal components are special cases. Our simple three-parameter transformation, DataRemix, can be tuned to reweigh the contribution of hidden factors and reveal otherwise hidden biological signals. In particular, we demonstrate that the method can effectively prioritize biological signals over noise without leveraging external dataset-specific knowledge, and can outperform normalization methods that make explicit use of known technical factors. We also show that DataRemix can be efficiently optimized via Thompson sampling approach, which makes it feasible for computationally expensive objectives such as eQTL analysis. Finally, we apply our method to the Religious Orders Study and Memory and Aging Project dataset, and we report what to our knowledge is the first replicable trans-eQTL effect in human brain.

Availabilityand implementation

DataRemix is an R package which is freely available at GitHub (https://github.com/wgmao/DataRemix).

Supplementary information

Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online.
KORP-PL: a coarse-grained knowledge-based scoring function for protein–ligand interactions
Authors: Kadukova Maria , Machado Karina dos Santos , Chacón Pablo , Grudinin Sergei
Published: August 2020

Motivation

Despite the progress made in studying protein–ligand interactions and the widespread application of docking and affinity prediction tools, improving their precision and efficiency still remains a challenge. Computational approaches based on the scoring of docking conformations with statistical potentials constitute a popular alternative to more accurate but costly physics-based thermodynamic sampling methods. In this context, a minimalist and fast sidechain-free knowledge-based potential with a high docking and screening power can be very useful when screening a big number of putative docking conformations.

Results

Here, we present a novel coarse-grained potential defined by a 3D joint probability distribution function that only depends on the pairwise orientation and position between protein backbone and ligand atoms. Despite its extreme simplicity, our approach yields very competitive results with the state-of-the-art scoring functions, especially in docking and screening tasks. For example, we observed a twofold improvement in the median 5% enrichment factor on the DUD-E benchmark compared to Autodock Vina results. Moreover, our results prove that a coarse sidechain-free potential is sufficient for a very successful docking pose prediction.

Availabilityand implementation

The standalone version of KORP-PL with the corresponding tests and benchmarks are available at https://team.inria.fr/nano-d/korp-pl/ and https://chaconlab.org/modeling/korp-pl.

Supplementary information

Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online.
Interim recruitment prediction for multi-center clinical trials
Authors: Urbas Szymon , Sherlock Chris , Metcalfe Paul
Published: August 2020

We introduce a general framework for monitoring, modeling, and predicting the recruitment to multi-center clinical trials. The work is motivated by overly optimistic and narrow prediction intervals produced by existing time-homogeneous recruitment models for multi-center recruitment. We first present two tests for detection of decay in recruitment rates, together with a power study. We then introduce a model based on the inhomogeneous Poisson process with monotonically decaying intensity, motivated by recruitment trends observed in oncology trials. The general form of the model permits adaptation to any parametric curve-shape. A general method for constructing sensible parameter priors is provided and Bayesian model averaging is used for making predictions which account for the uncertainty in both the parameters and the model. The validity of the method and its robustness to misspecification are tested using simulated datasets. The new methodology is then applied to oncology trial data, where we make interim accrual predictions, comparing them to those obtained by existing methods, and indicate where unexpected changes in the accrual pattern occur.
Lowering the risk of Parkinson’s disease with GLP-1 agonists and DPP4 inhibitors in type 2 diabetes
Authors: Bayram Ece , Litvan Irene
Published: August 2020

This scientific commentary refers to ‘Diabetes medications and risk of Parkinson’s disease: a cohort study of patients with diabetes’, by Brauer etal. (doi:10.1093/brain/awaa262).
Interactions Between Odorants and Glutathione Transferases in the Human Olfactory Cleft
Authors: Schwartz Mathieu , Menetrier Franck , Heydel Jean-Marie , Chavanne Evelyne , Faure Philippe , Labrousse Marc , Lirussi Frédéric , Canon Francis , Mannervik Bengt , Briand Loïc , Neiers Fabrice
Published: August 2020

Xenobiotic metabolizing enzymes and other proteins, including odorant-binding proteins located in the nasal epithelium and mucus, participate in a series of processes modulating the concentration of odorants in the environment of olfactory receptors (ORs) and finely impact odor perception. These enzymes and transporters are thought to participate in odorant degradation or transport. Odorant biotransformation results in 1) changes in the odorant quantity up to their clearance and the termination of signaling and 2) the formation of new odorant stimuli (metabolites). Enzymes, such as cytochrome P450 and glutathione transferases (GSTs), have been proposed to participate in odorant clearance in insects and mammals as odorant metabolizing enzymes. This study aims to explore the function of GSTs in human olfaction. Using immunohistochemical methods, GSTs were found to be localized in human tissues surrounding the olfactory epithelium. Then, the activity of 2 members of the GST family toward odorants was measured using heterologously expressed enzymes. The interactions/reactions with odorants were further characterized using a combination of enzymatic techniques. Furthermore, the structure of the complex between human GSTA1 and the glutathione conjugate of an odorant was determined by X-ray crystallography. Our results strongly suggest the role of human GSTs in the modulation of odorant availability to ORs in the peripheral olfactory process.
Clinical Practice Guidelines by the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA): 2020 Guideline on Diagnosis and Management of Babesiosis
Authors: Krause Peter J , Auwaerter Paul G , Bannuru Raveendhara R , Branda John A , Falck-Ytter Yngve T , Lantos Paul M , Lavergne Valéry , Meissner H Cody , Osani Mikala C , Rips Jane Glazer , Sood Sunil K , Vannier Edouard , Vaysbrot Elizaveta E , Wormser Gary P
Published: August 2020

The purpose of this guideline is to provide evidence-based guidance for the most effective strategies for the diagnosis and management of babesiosis. The diagnosis and treatment of co-infection with babesiosis and Lyme disease will be addressed in a separate Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA), American Academy of Neurology (AAN), and American College of Rheumatology (ACR) guideline [1]. Recommendations for the diagnosis and treatment of human granulocytic anaplasmosis can be found in the recent rickettsial disease guideline developed by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [2]. The target audience for the babesiosis guideline includes primary care physicians and specialists caring for this condition, such as infectious diseases specialists, emergency physicians, intensivists, internists, pediatricians, hematologists, and transfusion medicine specialists.
A Genome-wide Association Study Identifies SERPINB10, CRLF3, STX7, LAMP3, IFNG-AS1, and KRT80 As Risk Loci Contributing to Cutaneous Leishmaniasis in Brazil
Authors: Castellucci Léa C , Almeida Lucas , Cherlin Svetlana , Fakiola Michaela , Francis Richard W , Carvalho Edgar M , Santos da Hora Anadílton , do Lago Tainã Souza , Figueiredo Amanda B , Cavalcanti Clara M , Alves Natalia S , Morais Katia L P , Teixeira-Carvalho Andréa , Dutra Walderez O , Gollob Kenneth J , Cordell Heather J , Blackwell Jenefer M
Published: August 2020

Background

Our goal was to identify genetic risk factors for cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) caused by Leishmania braziliensis.

Methods

Genotyping 2066 CL cases and 2046 controls using Illumina HumanCoreExomeBeadChips provided data for 4 498 586 imputed single-nucleotide variants (SNVs). A genome-wide association study (GWAS) using linear mixed models took account of genetic diversity/ethnicity/admixture. Post-GWAS positional, expression quantitative trait locus (eQTL) and chromatin interaction mapping was performed in Functional Mapping and Annotation (FUMA). Transcriptional data were compared between lesions and normal skin, and cytokines measured using flow cytometry and Bioplex assay.

Results

Positional mapping identified 32 genomic loci associated with CL, none achieving genome-wide significance (P < 5 × 10−8). Lead SNVs at 23 loci occurred at protein coding or noncoding RNA genes, 15 with eQTLs for functionally relevant cells/tissues and/or showing differential expression in lesions. Of these, the 6 most plausible genetic risk loci were SERPINB10 (Pimputed_1000G = 2.67 × 10−6), CRLF3 (Pimputed_1000G = 5.12 × 10−6), STX7 (Pimputed_1000G = 6.06 × 10−6), KRT80 (Pimputed_1000G = 6.58 × 10−6), LAMP3 (Pimputed_1000G = 6.54 × 10−6), and IFNG-AS1 (Pimputed_1000G = 1.32 × 10−5). LAMP3 (Padjusted = 9.25 × 10−12; +6-fold), STX7 (Padjusted = 7.62 × 10−3; +1.3-fold), and CRLF3 (Padjusted = 9.19 × 10−9; +1.97-fold) were expressed more highly in CL biopsies compared to normal skin; KRT80 (Padjusted = 3.07 × 10−8; −3-fold) was lower. Multiple cis-eQTLs across SERPINB10 mapped to chromatin interaction regions of transcriptional/enhancer activity in neutrophils, monocytes, B cells, and hematopoietic stem cells. Those at IFNG-AS1 mapped to transcriptional/enhancer regions in T, natural killer, and B cells. The percentage of peripheral blood CD3+ T cells making antigen-specific interferon-γ differed significantly by IFNG-AS1 genotype.

Conclusions

This first GWAS for CL identified multiple genetic risk loci including a novel lead to understanding CL pathogenesis through regulation of interferon-γ by IFNG antisense RNA 1.
Droplets and Aerosols Generated by Singing and the Risk of Coronavirus Disease 2019 for Choirs
Authors: Bahl Prateek , de Silva Charitha , Bhattacharjee Shovon , Stone Haley , Doolan Con , Chughtai Abrar Ahmad , MacIntyre C Raina
Published: August 2020

Choral singing has become a major risk during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic due to high infection rates. Our visualization and velocimetry results reveal that the majority of droplets expelled during singing follow the ambient airflow pattern. These results point toward the possibility of COVID-19 spread by small airborne droplets during singing.
Non-invasive detection of exercise-induced cardiac conduction abnormalities in sudden cardiac death survivors in the inherited cardiac conditions
Authors: Leong Kevin Ming Wei , Ng Fu Siong , Shun-Shin Matthew J , Koa-Wing Michael , Qureshi Norman , Whinnett Zachary I , Linton Nick F , Lefroy David , Francis Darrel P , Harding Sian E , Davies D Wyn , Peter Nicholas S , Lim Phang Boon , Behr Elijah , Lambiase Pier D , Varnava Amanda , Kanagaratnam Prapa
Published: August 2020

Aims 

Rate adaptation of the action potential ensures spatial heterogeneities in conduction across the myocardium are minimized at different heart rates providing a protective mechanism against ventricular fibrillation (VF) and sudden cardiac death (SCD), which can be quantified by the ventricular conduction stability (V-CoS) test previously described. We tested the hypothesis that patients with a history of aborted SCD due to an underlying channelopathy or cardiomyopathy have a reduced capacity to maintain uniform activation following exercise.

Methods and results 

Sixty individuals, with (n = 28) and without (n = 32) previous aborted-SCD event underwent electro-cardiographic imaging recordings following exercise treadmill test. These included 25 Brugada syndrome, 13 hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, 12 idiopathic VF, and 10 healthy controls. Data were inputted into the V-CoS programme to calculate a V-CoS score that indicate the percentage of ventricle that showed no significant change in ventricular activation, with a lower score indicating the development of greater conduction heterogeneity. The SCD group, compared to those without, had a lower median (interquartile range) V-CoS score at peak exertion [92.8% (89.8–96.3%) vs. 97.3% (94.9–99.1%); P < 0.01] and 2 min into recovery [95.2% (91.1–97.2%) vs. 98.9% (96.9–99.5%); P < 0.01]. No significant difference was observable later into recovery at 5 or 10 min. Using the lowest median V-CoS scores obtained during the entire recovery period post-exertion, SCD survivors had a significantly lower score than those without for each of the different underlying aetiologies.

Conclusion 

Data from this pilot study demonstrate the potential use of this technique in risk stratification for the inherited cardiac conditions.
Drug-related medical hospital admissions during and after a period of head shop expansion
Authors: Smyth Bobby P , O’Farrell Anne , Cullen Walter
Published: August 2020

Background

New psychoactive substance (NPS) use can negatively impact health and may result in drug-related hospital admissions (DRHAs). Irish youth reported very high rates of NPS use by international standards, the most common being synthetic cannabinoids and cathinones. There was a rapid expansion in specialist shops, called head shops, selling NPS in 2010. Government responded to public protests about head shops by enacting legislation in May and August 2010 to end this trade. Many academics argued that such actions would prove futile. We sought to determine if changes in head shop activity coincided with changes in DRHA.

Methods

The national database on admissions to general hospitals hospital in-patient enquiry was examined focusing on young adults admitted from 2008 to 2012, and all emergency admissions with an International Classification of Diseases-10 diagnosis of mental disorder related to any drug (F11–F19) were identified. Joinpoint regression analysis was utilized to explore for the presence of trend changes in DRHA.

Results

Joinpoint regression analysis identified a significant downward trend change which occurred in June 2010 (95% CI February 2010 to January 2011). DRHA increased by 0.5% (95% CI 0.1–0.9) per month prior to this and then fell by 2.6% (95% CI −1.4 to −3.8) per month over the next 16 months.

Conclusions

Cessation of NPS sale by head shops coincided with a reversal in the upward trend of emergency hospital admissions related to drugs. Although correlation does not confirm causation, legislation which successfully curtails the commercial sale of NPS may result in reduced hospitalizations.
Couple relationship problems—a task for the general practitioner? A cross-sectional survey from Norway
Authors: Berge Siri Dalsmo , Meland Eivind , Brekke Mette , Bondevik Gunnar Tschudi , Thuen Frode , Mildestvedt Thomas
Published: August 2020

Background

A healthy couple relationship is a predictor of good health. There is a lack of knowledge about what role family and couples counselling should have in general practice.

Objectives

To identify the prevalence of patients who have talked, or want to talk, with their general practitioner (GP) about their couple relationship, to investigate what characterizes these patients and to explore whether they believe that couple relationship problems should be dealt with in general practice.

Methods

We conducted a cross-sectional survey in 70 general practices in Norway during spring 2019. A questionnaire was answered by 2178 consecutive patients (response rate 75%) in GP waiting rooms. Data were examined using frequencies and linear and logistic regression models.

Results

We included 2097 responses. Mean age was 49.0 years and 61.3% were women. One in four (25.0%) had already talked with their GP about couple relationship problems, while one in three (33.5%) wanted to talk with their GP about their couple relationship problems. These patients more frequently had experience of divorce, poor self-rated health, an opinion that their couple relationship had a significant impact on their health and lower couple relationship quality when adjusted for age, sex, present marital status and children living at home. We found that 46.4% of patients believed that GPs should be interested in their couple relationship problems.

Conclusion

Relationship problems are frequently addressed in general practice. GPs should be prepared to discuss this issue to facilitate help for couples earlier than they might otherwise expect.
Glacier retreat in the High Arctic: opportunity or threat for ectomycorrhizal diversity?
Authors: Botnen S S , Mundra S , Kauserud H , Eidesen P B
Published: August 2020

Climate change causes Arctic glaciers to retreat faster, exposing new areas for colonization. Several pioneer plants likely to colonize recent deglaciated, nutrient-poor areas depend on fungal partners for successful establishment. Little is known about general patterns or characteristics of facilitating fungal pioneers and how they vary with regional climate in the Arctic. The High Arctic Archipelago Svalbard represents an excellent study system to address these questions, as glaciers cover ∼60% of the land surface and recent estimations suggest at least 7% reduction of glacier area since 1960s. Roots of two ectomycorrhizal (ECM) plants (Salix polaris and Bistorta vivipara) were sampled in eight glacier forelands. Associated ECM fungi were assessed using DNA metabarcoding. About 25% of the diversity was unknown at family level, indicating presence of undescribed species. Seven genera dominated based on richness and abundance, but their relative importance varied with local factors. The genus Geopora showed surprisingly high richness and abundance, particularly in dry, nutrient-poor forelands. Such forelands will diminish along with increasing temperature and precipitation, and faster succession. Our results support a taxonomical shift in pioneer ECM diversity with climate change, and we are likely to lose unknown fungal diversity, without knowing their identity or ecological importance.
‘Bacterial Programmed Cell Death’: cellular altruism or genetic selfism?
Authors: Ramisetty Bhaskar Chandra Mohan , Sudhakari Pavithra Anantharaman
Published: August 2020

Cell-dependent propagation of the ‘self’ is the driver of all species, organisms and even genes. Conceivably, elimination of these entities is caused by cellular death. Then, how can genes that cause the death of the same cell evolve? Programmed cell death (PCD) is the gene-dependent self-inflicted death. In multicellular organisms, PCD of a cell confers fitness to the surviving rest of the organism, which thereby allows the selection of genes responsible for PCD. However, PCD in free-living bacteria is intriguing; the death of the cell is the death of the organism. How can such PCD genes be selected in unicellular organisms? The bacterial PCD in a population is proposed to confer fitness to the surviving kin in the form of sporulation, nutrition, infection-containment and matrix materials. While the cell-centred view leading to propositions of ‘altruism’ is enticing, the gene-centred view of ‘selfism’ is neglected. In this opinion piece, we reconceptualize the PCD propositions as genetic selfism (death due to loss/mutation of selfish genes) rather than cellular altruism (death for the conferment of fitness to kin). Within the scope and the available evidence, we opine that some of the PCD-like observations in bacteria seem to be the manifestation of genetic selfism by Restriction–Modification systems and Toxin–Antitoxin systems.
A good start in life is important—perinatal factors dictate early microbiota development and longer term maturation
Authors: Wang Shaopu , Egan Muireann , Ryan C Anthony , Boyaval Patrick , Dempsey Eugene M , Ross R Paul , Stanton Catherine
Published: August 2020

Maternal health status is vital for the development of the offspring of humans, including physiological health and psychological functions. The complex and diverse microbial ecosystem residing within humans contributes critically to these intergenerational impacts. Perinatal factors, including maternal nutrition, antibiotic use and maternal stress, alter the maternal gut microbiota during pregnancy, which can be transmitted to the offspring. In addition, gestational age at birth and mode of delivery are indicated frequently to modulate the acquisition and development of gut microbiota in early life. The early-life gut microbiota engages in a range of host biological processes, particularly immunity, cognitive neurodevelopment and metabolism. The perturbed early-life gut microbiota increases the risk for disease in early and later life, highlighting the importance of understanding relationships of perinatal factors with early-life microbial composition and functions. In this review, we present an overview of the crucial perinatal factors and summarise updated knowledge of early-life microbiota, as well as how the perinatal factors shape gut microbiota in short and long terms. We further discuss the clinical consequences of perturbations of early-life gut microbiota and potential therapeutic interventions with probiotics/live biotherapeutics.
Communicating Ideas and Emotions in the Long Sixteenth Century: The Spectacle of the Saints, their Relics and Souvenirs in the Northern Low Countries
Authors: Mostert Marco
Published: August 2020

In the long sixteenth century, knowledge about the saints was disseminated not only through hagiographical texts, be they in Latin or the vernacular, but also through visual images, both in churches and in (urban) secular public spaces, through souvenirs such as pilgrims’ badges, ephemeral printed texts in the vernacular, and printed images. Examples from the northern Low Countries of the various media that played a role in the veneration of the saints, more particularly those that were to be encountered by pilgrims at the feasts of these holy men and women, are presented, and, whenever possible, descriptions by contemporaries will be used. This allows the links between hagiography, via sermons and miracles, with the festive occasions on which saints and believers met, to be established.
Educational Benefits and Cognitive Health Life Expectancies: Racial/Ethnic, Nativity, and Gender Disparities
Authors: Garcia Marc A , Downer Brian , Chiu Chi-Tsun , Saenz Joseph L , Ortiz Kasim , Wong Rebeca
Published: August 2020

Background and Objectives

To examine racial/ethnic, nativity, and gender differences in the benefits of educational attainment on cognitive health life expectancies among older adults in the United States.

Research Design and Methods

We used data from the Health and Retirement Study (1998–2014) to estimate Sullivan-based life tables of cognitively healthy, cognitively impaired/no dementia, and dementia life expectancies by gender for older White, Black, U.S.-born Hispanic, and foreign-born Hispanic adults with less than high school, high school, and some college or more.

Results

White respondents lived a greater percentage of their remaining lives cognitively healthy than their minority Black or Hispanic counterparts, regardless of level of education. Among respondents with some college or more, versus less than high school, Black and U.S.-born Hispanic women exhibited the greatest increase (both 37 percentage points higher) in the proportion of total life expectancy spent cognitively healthy; whereas White women had the smallest increase (17 percentage points higher). For men, the difference between respondents with some college or more, versus less than high school, was greatest for Black men (35 percentage points higher) and was lowest for U.S.-born Hispanic men (21 percentage points higher).

Discussion and Implications

Our results provide evidence that the benefits of education on cognitive health life expectancies are largest for Black men and women and U.S.-born Hispanic women. The combination of extended longevity and rising prevalence of Alzheimer’s disease points to the need for understanding why certain individuals spend an extended period of their lives with poor cognitive health.
Issues in Political Theory
Authors: McKinnon Catriona , Jubb Robert , Tomlin Patrick
Published: August 2020

Issues in Political Theory provides an introduction to political theory and how it is applied to address the most important issues confronting the world today. It has a focus on real-world issues and includes case studies. The text examines important and influential areas of political theory. The text includes chapters on liberty, global poverty, sovereignty and borders, and the environment provide readers with fresh insight on important debates in political theory. Case studies in this text look at contemporary issues including same-sex marriage, racial inequality, sweatshop labour, and Brexit.
8. Multiculturalism
Authors: Mookherjee Monica
Published: August 2020

This chapter studies multiculturalism. The term ‘multiculturalism’ can refer to the fact of cultural diversity and may also describe the coexistence of different kinds of cultural group within a country. Multiculturalism emphasizes status, as well as economic inequalities. Thin multiculturalism views all cultural differences as disagreements between groups that agree on liberal values. This view may underestimate the extent of conflict between cultures. Meanwhile, thick multiculturalism appreciates that some cultural differences occur between liberals and non-liberals. While the solution to cultural conflicts in thick multiculturalism is often a modus vivendi, the question is whether this solution treats non-liberal minority cultures fairly. Defenders of cultural rights hold that governments should recognize that all citizens deserve equal opportunities for developing self-respect and autonomy. However, by respecting cultural rights, a government risks supporting injustice against individuals within groups.
9. Gender
Authors: Chambers Clare
Published: August 2020

This chapter discusses gender. Mainstream political theorists have often ignored the issue of gender difference, and so feminists have had to argue for its significance and importance. There are many varieties of feminism, just as there are many varieties of liberalism or egalitarianism. However, it is possible to identify three theses that all feminists support, in one form or another. These theses are the entrenchment of gender; the existence of patriarchy; and the need for change. A key theme of feminist theory has been the idea that it is vital to distinguish the terms ‘sex’ and ‘gender’. According to the distinction, ‘sex’ refers to biological differences and ‘gender’ refers to social differences. Feminists use philosophical and political methods that are common to other theories or campaigns, but there are some distinctively feminist methods, such as the Woman Question and consciousness raising.
4. Liberalism
Authors: Jackson Robert , Sørensen Georg , Møller Jørgen
Published: August 2020

This chapter examines the liberal tradition in international relations (IR). It first considers the basic liberal assumptions, including a positive view of human nature and the belief that IR can be cooperative rather than conflictual. In their conceptions of international cooperation, liberal theorists emphasize different features of world politics. The chapter explores the ideas associated with four strands of liberal thought, namely: sociological liberalism, interdependence liberalism, institutional liberalism, and republican liberalism. It also discusses the debate between proponents of liberalism and neorealism, and it identifies a general distinction between weak liberal theories that are close to neorealism and strong liberal theories that challenge neorealism. Finally, it reviews the liberal view of world order and the notion that there is a ‘dark’ side of democracy.
5. International Society
Authors: Jackson Robert , Sørensen Georg , Møller Jørgen
Published: August 2020

This chapter examines the International Society tradition of international relations (IR). International Society, also known as the ‘English School’, is an approach to world politics that places emphasis on international history, ideas, structures, institutions, and values. After providing an overview of International Society’s basic assumptions and claims, the chapter considers the three traditions associated with the leading ideas of the most outstanding classical theorists of IR such as Niccolò Machiavelli and Immanuel Kant: realism, rationalism, and revolutionism. It then explores International Society’s views regarding order and justice, world society, statecraft and responsibility, and humanitarian responsibility and war; as well as how International Society scholars have used a historical approach to understand earlier international systems and the development of international society. It also discusses several major criticisms against the International Society approach to IR and concludes with an overview of the current research agenda of International Society.
5. Peace Studies
Authors: Rogers Paul
Published: August 2020

This chapter discusses the origins and development of the field of peace studies after World War II, initially in relation to the East-West confrontation and the nuclear arms race. It examines how peace studies responded to the issues of socio-economic disparities and environmental constraints, such as climate change and poverty, that emerged in the 1970s. It also considers the evolution of peace studies as an interdisciplinary and problem-oriented field of study, often in the midst of controversy. In particular, it looks at a number of developments within peace studies, including a major interest in conflict prevention, conflict resolution, and peacekeeping. Finally, the chapter analyses the state of peace studies now and how it is relevant to the new security challenges facing the world.
13. Military Security
Authors: Sheehan Michael
Published: August 2020

This chapter discusses the continuing importance of military security, noting how International Relations has historically seen security almost entirely in terms of the military dimension. It first examines the impact of the broadening of the concept of security on approaches to the study of its military dimension before considering the key aspects of the traditional approach to military security and some of the most common ways in which states have sought to acquire it historically, such as war, alliances, and nuclear deterrence. The chapter then explores some of the difficulties in acquiring military security and how its pursuit can sometimes reduce, rather than increase, security. In particular, it analyses arms control as a means of achieving military security. Finally, it shows that military security remains an important field to study, even within a significantly broadened understanding of security as a multifaceted concept.
23. Energy Security
Authors: Raphael Sam , Stokes Doug
Published: August 2020

This chapter examines growing concerns over global energy security due to rising demand for fossil fuels by industrialized economies coupled with increasing uncertainties over future energy reserves. It considers the implications of increasing energy insecurity amongst the world’s major powers for international security by focusing on the politics of oil. After providing an overview of the problem of energy security, the chapter discusses the connection between energy security and International Relations theories such as liberalism, realism, and historical materialism. It then explores the link between energy security and human insecurity, and how the search for energy security by states in the global North affects the human security of communities in the oil-rich global South. The chapter concludes with an analysis of the role played by the United States in underpinning global energy security in the post-war era, and the impact that this has had for oil-rich regions.
25. Health and Security
Authors: Elbe Stefan
Published: August 2020

This chapter examines the impact of health on security. It first considers how health and human security are connected via diseases such as HIV/AIDS, malaria, and tuberculosis. In particular, it looks at health security, economic security, and food security. It then describes some recently emerging infectious diseases, such as SARS, influenza pandemic, and Ebola, that are now also recognized as threats to national security. It also discusses diseases that are known to pose narrower threats to bio-security within the context of international efforts to combat terrorism, focusing on disease-causing biological agents such as anthrax, smallpox, and plague. The chapter concludes by contrasting two different ways in which the health-security nexus can be understood. Two case studies are presented, one relating to the impact of HIV/AIDS on the South African National Defence Force, and the other relating to the Aum Shinrikyo cult’s Sarin nerve gas attacks in Tokyo.
28. After the Return to Theory: The Past, Present, and Future of Security Studies
Authors: Wæver Ole , Buzan Barry
Published: August 2020

This chapter reflects on the past and present of Security Studies, with a particular focus on the changing periods of theory production and practical problem solving. It begins by tracing the origins and institutional structure of Security Studies, noting that it started out as an American, think-tank based, interdisciplinary field and then became institutionalized as a part of a single discipline, International Relations (IR). Since the 1990s, the field has enjoyed a new period of high theory productivity, but largely in two separate clusters with the United States and Europe as centres of each. Among important developments during the so-called Golden Age of Security Studies were game theory and deterrence theory. The chapter proceeds by examining the stagnation of Security Studies before concluding with an assessment of future prospects and challenges facing the field, citing debates over issues such as human security and emerging non-Western approaches to IR.
5. The Causes of War and the Conditions of Peace
Authors: Garnett John , Baylis John
Published: August 2020

This chapter examines theories that explain the causes of war. It considers ideas advanced by political scientists, sociologists, biologists and philosophers, showing that different explanations of war give rise to different requirements or conditions for peace. After highlighting the difficulties in studying war, the chapter discusses human nature explanations of war, citing such factors as frustration, misperception, misunderstanding, miscalculation, and errors of judgement as well as the role of human collectives including factions, tribes, nations and states. It then describes the bargaining model of war before turning to inter-state wars, intra-state conflicts, and ethnic conflicts. It also explores the debate over whether ‘greed’ or ‘grievance’ are the main causes of civil wars. The chapter concludes that identifying a single cause appropriate to all wars is an exercise in futility and that a worldwide ‘just’ peace is unattainable.
7. Law, Politics, and the Use of Force
Authors: Morris Justin
Published: August 2020

This chapter examines the place of international law in international politics, with particular emphasis on whether legal constraint is effective in averting or limiting the use of force by states. It begins with a discussion of the efficacy of international law in regulating the behaviour of states, focusing on the so-called perception–reality gap in international law. It then considers various reasons why states obey the law, from fear of coercion to self-interest and perceptions of legitimacy. It also explores the role and status of breaches of international law in international politics as well as the functions of the two laws of armed conflict, namely, jus ad bellum and jus in bello. Finally, it analyses the apparent paradox of legal constraint on warfare in relation to power politics and the mitigatory effects of norms governing the conduct of war.
9. Intelligence and Strategy
Authors: George Roger Z.
Published: August 2020

This chapter examines the role of intelligence in the development and execution of strategy. It begins with a discussion of what intelligence is all about and how its utility has been viewed by strategists. In particular, it considers the different components of the ‘intelligence cycle’, namely, intelligence collection, intelligence analysis, and special intelligence missions that rest on effective counterintelligence and counterespionage. It then charts the history of US intelligence, from its use to support cold war strategies of containment and deterrence to its more recent support to US strategies for counterterrorism and counterinsurgency. It also reviews the challenges and causes of ‘strategic surprise’, citing a number of historical cases such as the September 11 terrorist attacks. The chapter concludes with an assessment of how the US intelligence community has performed since reforms were made in response to 9/11 and its focus on new threats posed by cyberwar and cyber-attacks.
10. Strategy and Defence Planning
Authors: Gray Colin S.
Published: August 2020

This chapter focuses on the importance of defence planning in the development and execution of strategy. It first provides an overview of the interrelationships between strategy, politics, and defence planning, noting that war and its warfare should always be subject to the discipline of politics. It then examines the challenges faced by defence planners, and more specifically how they must acknowledge the uncertainties arising in all possible military behaviour in the future. It also considers a range of approaches to defence planning, along with principles that should guide every defence plan. Three principles are highlighted: the ‘good enough’ rule; it is legitimate and sensible to accommodate change in continuity and continuity in change; and all defence planning is about politics. Finally, the chapter explains how history can be helpful or not helpful to defence planners.
17. The Rise of Cyberpower
Authors: Sheldon John B.
Published: August 2020

This chapter examines the impact of cyberpower on the conduct of war and what it means for the future of strategy and conflict. Cyberspace is a globally connected domain created by the rapid spread of information-communication technologies around the world. As a result, various actors, from individuals and small groups to non-state actors and governments, are now capable of launching cyber-attacks that present enormous challenges for strategists. The chapter first provides an overview of terms and definitions relating to cyberspace, cyberpower, and cyberwar before discussing the characteristics and attributes of cyberspace, cyberpower, and the infosphere. It then explains how cyberspace has emerged as a place of constant conflict, focusing on the problem of cyber security as well as the challenges and unknowns of cyber-attack. It concludes with an analysis of how cyberpower may trigger a twenty-first-century revolution in military affairs by reshaping international politics and altering the character of war.
3. The Cold War in the Middle East
Authors: Sluglett Peter , Payne Andrew
Published: August 2020

This chapter examines the effects of the Cold War upon the states of the Middle East. Although the region was not so profoundly affected as other parts of the world in terms of loss of life or major revolutionary upheaval, it is clear that the lack of democracy and many decades of distorted political development in the Middle East are in great part a legacy of the region's involvement at the interstices of Soviet and American foreign policy. After a brief discussion of early manifestations of USSR–US rivalry in Greece, Turkey, and Iran at the beginning of the Cold War, the chapter uses Iraq as a case study of the changing nature of the relations between a Middle Eastern state and both superpowers from the 1940s until the collapse of the Soviet Union.
4. The Middle East Since the Cold War: Movement without Progress
Authors: Korany Bahgat
Published: August 2020

This chapter focuses on the Middle East during the post-Cold-War era. It introduces some the key themes that have come to dominate contemporary international relations of the Middle East: oil; new and old conflicts; the impacts of globalization; and religio-politics. In considering the major security patterns and trends in the Middle East, one finds a number of enduring issues, such as the Arab–Israeli conflict and border disputes. At the same time, one can see elements of change, both within these conflicts and with the emergence of recent threats, such as Iranian nuclearization, with profound consequences for regional alliance structures. As old and new security issues mingle in the geopolitical order, events of the past few years reflect a region dominated by conflict clusters. It is no surprise then that the Middle East remains a highly militarized region.
17. Russia, China, and the Middle East
Authors: Dannreuther Roland
Published: August 2020

This chapter addresses the important relationships that are currently evolving between Russia, China, and the Middle East. Russia and China have emerged as increasingly powerful actors in the Middle East and their presence and influence in the region has grown significantly. While both states have had longstanding historical links with the region, the twenty-first-century panorama is a quite distinctive one, with new economic and geopolitical factors driving a return to Middle East and North Africa (MENA). In addition, significant Muslim populations in both countries add another dynamic to contemporary Russian and Chinese relations with MENA. The chapter then identifies the challenges this presents for the United States and the West, and how the states and peoples of the Middle East are responding to the resurgence of Russian and Chinese power in the region.
Abundance and localization of human UBE3A protein isoforms
Authors: Sirois Carissa L , Bloom Judy E , Fink James J , Gorka Dea , Keller Steffen , Germain Noelle D , Levine Eric S , Chamberlain Stormy J
Published: August 2020

Loss of UBE3A expression, a gene regulated by genomic imprinting, causes Angelman syndrome (AS), a rare neurodevelopmental disorder. The UBE3A gene encodes an E3 ubiquitin ligase with three known protein isoforms in humans. Studies in mouse suggest that the human isoforms may have differences in localization and neuronal function. A recent case study reported mild AS phenotypes in individuals lacking one specific isoform. Here we have used CRISPR/Cas9 to generate isogenic human embryonic stem cells (hESCs) that lack the individual protein isoforms. We demonstrate that isoform 1 accounts for the majority of UBE3A protein in hESCs and neurons. We also show that UBE3A predominantly localizes to the cytoplasm in both wild type and isoform-null cells. Finally, we show that neurons lacking isoform 1 display a less severe electrophysiological AS phenotype.