bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Conclusion
Authors: Atwal Priya
Published: January 2021

This short concluding chapter reflects on the book’s key themes and arguments about the nature of the rise and fall of the Sikh Empire and its ruling family. It contextualises this short-lived kingdom within an evaluation of the creative and dynamic period in which they rose to power and were ambitiously able to project themselves into an innovative class of royal elites. It reinforces a central argument of the book: that monarchies and royalty deserve greater attention and scrutiny from modern historians, since their lived experiences and socio-political impacts clearly belie more Whiggish narratives about their supposedly declining importance during the nineteenth and even twentieth centuries.
International Humanitarian Law and Its Application in Outer Space
Authors: Steer Cassandra , Stephens Dale
Published: January 2021

International humanitarian law (IHL) is applicable in outer space as a matter of international law, yet there are some challenges when it comes to specific principles and rules. The kinds of weapons that have been and might be used in space are discussed, as well as the ways in which space assets are used with respect to conflicts on Earth. An analysis then follows of the core principles of IHL and how they apply in space: the principles of distinction, proportionality, and precaution in attack. While it is imperative that States recognize the applicability of IHL to all their activities in space that involve conflicts on Earth and/or in space, care must be taken in weighing the traditional principles and their application to this new domain. As the technology that increases warfighting capability advances, so does the imperative to understand the applicable legal framework for the use of such technology.
Diplomacy
Authors: Meyer Paul
Published: January 2021

A disturbing trend in the contemporary approaches of States to space security has been the decline in diplomacy and the consideration of diplomatic options to achieve national security goals. The official characterization of outer space as “congested, contested and competitive” has ignored the legacy and potential for “cooperation” in this unique if vulnerable realm. The authority of the foundational Outer Space Treaty of 1967, with its stipulation that space is to be used for “peaceful purposes,” is being eroded by neglect and unilateral assertions that space is a domain for “warfighting.” The champions of space peace will have to become as active as the exponents of space war if a benign environment for space operations is to be preserved for future generations.
In Pursuit of Security and Influence
Authors: Shama Nael , Hassan Islam
Published: January 2021

Chapter 8 focuses on the United Arab Emirates (UAE), led by Mohamed bin Zayed, and its newly assertive power projection strategy that includes establishment naval and military bases on the Red Sea, in the chokepoints of the Bab al-Mandab one of the most important global shipping lanes and the Gulf of Aden and its littoral territory—the arid nations of Djibouti, Eritrea, and Somalia to achieve dual geostrategic and economic goals including the acquisition of operational and management rights over ports and economic zones. The theoretical framework used in this chapter to asses foreign policy change employs simultaneous levels of inquiry taking into account regional and systemic effects, domestic influences, and the role of leadership adding to the literature on international relations and the Middle East in two distinct ways (1) by addressing understudied theoretical questions concerning foreign policy change in small states and (2) exploring the nature and motivations of the emerging trend of securitizing waterspace and shipping lanes in the Middle East.
Conclusion
Authors: King Marcus DuBois
Published: January 2021

Chapter 9 summarizes the volume asserting that the chapters herein provide compelling evidence that alters our conceptualization of hydropolitics in the Middle East. Understanding that the regional power structure, always in flux, is changing significantly today the authors offer critical insights into the future of water conflict, often in the context of growing water inequalities both between nations and within the nations themselves of the type that were a critical factor in the incitement of wide-scale unrest across the region, including the Arab Spring uprisings of 2011 and the Syrian civil war. The chapter amplifies the authors’ arguments concluding that, without decisive international agreements over water sharing, dam construction, and improvements in national water governance policy, the world will face a future of dangerous growth in inequalities across the Middle East, and their attendant consequences in the form of insecurity and more conflict.
Taiwan: Democracy, Technology, and Civil Society
Authors: Chang Wen-Chen , Lin Chun-Yuan
Published: January 2021

This chapter analyzes Taiwan’s legal and policy responses to the Covid-19 pandemic. Given Taiwan’s geographical proximity and close economic ties with China, the initial epicentre of coronavirus, it was estimated to be hit hard by the global pandemic. Yet, defying these predictions, Taiwan maintained a considerably low number of confirmed cases and exhibited no sign of community spread. Taiwan’s near-miraculous achievement in controlling the Covid-19 pandemic proved that a democracy can successfully contain the spread of the virus. What this global pandemic reveals is that only a more transparent and responsive government can effectively deal with a public health crisis and other than legal rules, government capacity, the strength of the science and technology sector, and the vitality of civil society and local community are equally—if not more—important in forging a collective effort.
Spread of Information versus Spread of Virus
Authors: Wu Guoguang
Published: January 2021

This chapter investigates how three Chinese societies—namely, China, Taiwan, and Hong Kong—in their different performances during the first months of the Covid-19 crisis, have revealed how the free or unfree flow of information via mass media and social media critically affects a society’s ability to fight the pandemic. The initial outbreak of SARS-CoV-2 in China is to a great extent attributed to the harsh and often effective governmental censorship of media communication. In contrast, both Taiwan, as a democratic society with a high degree of free flow of information, and Hong Kong, where citizens have residual freedoms—primarily freedom to information—have achieved remarkable effectiveness in containing the spread of Covid-19 in their jurisdictions. Instead of attempting to provide a comprehensive study of the three jurisdictions, this chapter provides a snapshot of the early days of the Covid-19 pandemic in the three cases and serves as a starting point for future research. It also critically reflects on the experience of societies at or near the epicentre of the global crisis in a way that highlights, from a political science perspective, the relevance of information flow to human ability in fighting pandemics and its lessons for the governance of public health emergencies.
Pandemics and Emergency Powers in Asia
Authors: Ramraj Victor V. , Thiruvengadam Arun K.
Published: January 2021

This chapter looks at emergency powers under Covid-19 in Asia. The ancient Roman model of dictatorship suggests that any legal framework for responding to an emergency has two components: dealing effectively with the threat and preventing abuse. How can these goals best be secured in a pandemic? Within the first few months of the Covid-19 pandemic, it become readily apparent that it posed two kinds of threat. First, it posed a mortal threat to individual and public health arising from a deadly virus that could be transmitted relatively easily through everyday social activities. Second, the efforts of governments to contain its spread inevitably led to a secondary danger as social and economic life was shuttered—the danger of social and political unrest. The chapter considers two dimensions of the governmental response: the formal legal structure under which that response operates and the dynamics of expertise, trust, and responsiveness to feedback that it potentially fosters—or inhibits. It argues that the goal of returning to normal is best served when these two dimensions—the legal framework and the expertise-feedback dynamic—are aligned to enable the society to respond effectively and fairly.
Nationalism, Consolidation, and Rationalization in the Aviation Industry
Authors: Lee Jae Woon , Dy Michelle
Published: January 2021

This chapter details how governments, especially in Asia, have supported the airline industry during the Covid-19 crisis. The Covid-19 pandemic has taken a tremendous toll on the global economy, and the airline industry was hit hard by the global crisis. Although the airline industry has always been vulnerable to external shocks such as wars, disease outbreaks, and the 9/11 terrorist attacks, none of them has affected the airline industry to the degree of Covid-19. Indeed, the steep decline in air travel in the early stages of the pandemic, followed by the progressive closure of borders in early 2020, presented the airline industry with an unprecedented existential threat. The chapter then analyzes how Covid-19 changed and will continue to change the industry, outlining three key mega-trends: nationalization, consolidation, and rationalization.
Reset or Revert in the New Climate Normal
Authors: Ghaleigh Navraj Singh , Burrows Louise
Published: January 2021

This chapter argues that ambitious climate action should be central to the “new normal” in Asia and that law has an important role in delivering it. From the perspective of climate change policy and law, the Covid-19 catastrophe offers the slim possibility that the world will “build back better,” restoring societies and economies along climate-friendly lines. This approach—resetting—envisages national stimulus packages and allied actions of central banks and financial regulators which are oriented toward economic growth and net-zero emission pathways in the months and years following Covid-19. The alternative narrative—reversion—identifies a recovery trajectory in which policies that are supportive of carbon-intensive pathways push the Paris Agreement targets further out of reach. Components of such recovery packages include unconditional bailouts for the fossil fuel sector and conventional mobility. The chapter then explores the tension between these two approaches in the immediate response to Covid-19, focussing on the coal sector as an emblematic variable in climate change debates.
Southeast Asian Workers in a Just-in-Time Pandemic
Authors: Lansdowne Helen , Lawson James
Published: January 2021

This chapter looks at the modern just-in-time (JIT) economy, a novel economic context for producing goods—and facilitating pandemics. It examines points where the global economy, Covid-19, and Southeast Asian labour interact. These intersections reveal some important truths both about the JIT economy and about more general consequences of the mobility of humans and their “fellow-travellers.” Southeast Asian workers, whether labouring as migrant workers in Singapore, Malaysia, and Thailand or labouring at home, supply relatively cheap wares for the world. Many experience confined living and working conditions, where disease transmission can accelerate. The chapter then considers some Southeast Asian workers’ experiences in production, care, and transport. It concludes with the often-forgotten material connectedness of humans to other plants and animals. Either inter-species disruption and sudden new interconnections will diminish, or they will pose ongoing challenges to this just-in-time world.
Philosophy and Me
Authors: Edgington Dorothy
Published: January 2021

This chapter is an autobiographical piece, confined, largely, to the role of philosophy in Dorothy Edgington’s life. It sketches Edgington’s rather tortuous route into the subject, her time as a student, her subsequent career in London and Oxford, and also some of the visiting positions in other parts of the world that turned out to be significant for her. On some of her favourite topics—conditionals, probability, vagueness, knowability—she writes of how her interest in them arose, how it developed, and of some of the philosophers who have influenced her most, especially Ernest Adams, Jonathan Bennett, and Michael Dummett.
Grammar Matters
Authors: Iatridou Sabine
Published: January 2021

This chapter explores a number of grammatical properties that conditionals display, with one of its main goals being to show that grammatical form matters: different syntactic expressions of conditionality come with a different range of possible meanings. It also argues that we should not identify the semantic notion ‘conditionals’ with the syntactic expression if p, q. The syntactic construction if p, q is merely one of several syntactic paths that lead to a conditional semantics. The grammatical expression of conditionality determines the range of meanings possible. Overly narrowing conditional semantics to only one syntactic construction makes it harder to identify where each of the elements of meaning originates.
The Epistemic Use of ‘Ought’
Authors: Hawthorne John
Published: January 2021

A good deal of Dorothy Edgington’s work has involved fruitful applications of the probability calculus to philosophical subject matters—notably, conditionals and vagueness. This chapter forms part of a project of exploring the relevance of probability to various epistemic phenomena, including knowledge and epistemic modality. Its focus here is on certain epistemic uses of ‘ought’ and ‘should’. The chapter argues against flat-footed ways of grounding those concepts in the ideology of probability, although it makes room for certain other, less reductive, structural relationships between the two. The discussion involves various idealizations and simplifications. Nevertheless, it argues that flattened ordering sources are a useful tool for developing a broadly Kratzer-style treatment of least some uses of ‘ought’.
Undercutting Defeat and Edgington’s Burglar
Authors: Sturgeon Scott
Published: January 2021

Defeasible reasons are normally thought of as mental states of some kind. In the verbal tradition, at least, reputable philosophers sometimes react to this fact as if the whole idea of a defeasible reason is based on some kind of conceptual confusion or category mistake. Their idea, basically, is that the English word ‘reason’ already has a meaning which rules out mental states as part of its extension. For this reason they see the idea of mental states as reasons as itself utter confusion. This chapter does four things. It lays out an orthodox position on reasons and defeaters. Then it argues that the position just sketched is mistaken about ‘undercutting’ defeaters. Then it explains an unpublished thought experiment by Dorothy Edgington. And then it uses that thought experiment to ground a new approach to undercutting defeaters.
Hysteresis Hypotheses
Authors: Hájek Alan
Published: January 2021

This chapter assimilates the Sorites Paradox and the Preface Paradox, drawing parallels between reasoning with uncertainty and reasoning with vague concepts (a theme that Dorothy Edgington has explored). It discusses experiments in which subjects are taken along soritical series of coloured patches, displaying so-called reverse hysteresis in their responses. The chapter offers an explanation of why reverse hysteresis is rational there. It presents a variant of the Preface Paradox—the Progressive Preface Paradox—that is analogous to the Sorites Paradox and its associated experiments, and it offers an analogous explanation of why reverse hysteresis is again rational. The explanation’s central idea is that ‘belief’ is context-dependent.
Verities and Truth-values
Authors: Jones Nicholas K.
Published: January 2021

This chapter discusses Edgington’s probabilistic, degree-theoretic semantics for vagueness. After describing Edgington’s semantics, her suggestion that it and classical semantics provide non-competing descriptions of a single phenomenon is examined. It is argued that the suggestion should be rejected because classical semantics is incompatible with plausible principles about the relationship between the two frameworks. Edgington also argues that the many degrees assigned to sentences in her semantics are not new truth-values. It is argued that these arguments presuppose a certain non-semantic conception of truth. Although Edgington’s arguments do force a distinction between two theoretical roles typically associated with the notion of truth, one properly semantic and one merely expressive, they do not preclude identification of the many degrees of her probabilistic formalism with new truth-values in the semantic sense.
Introduction
Authors: Garnett George
Published: January 2021

The Introduction provides an overview of the argument of the whole volume. It concludes by anticipating how the first volume will connect with the second volume.
The Audiences for English History in the Early Twelfth Century
Authors: Garnett George
Published: January 2021

Chapter 2 attempts to establish who the audience was for the sudden spate of books on the history of England, and about English saints, which appeared from the beginning of the twelfth century. The audience is shown to have been mainly but not exclusively monastic and clerical. There is extensive discussion of the circumstances in which books were read and listened to. Suggestions are made about lay audiences, particularly in the case of Gaimar’s (French) vernacular history of the English, and also about the influence of the lay experience on clerical authors. Geoffrey of Monmouth’s parody of the new genre of historical writing is considered in depth.
The Excavation, Reconstruction, and Fabrication of Old English Law in the Twelfth Century
Authors: Garnett George
Published: January 2021

Chapter 3 examines the attempt, parallel with the writing of English history, to preserve and fabricate mainly in Latin pre-Conquest English royal law codes—codes which William I and his successors were said to have endorsed. The first of these compilations of Old English law translated into Latin, dating from the very beginning of the twelfth century, was Quadripartitus. There were also many others, including Tripartita, the Leges Henrici, and the Leges Edwardi Confessoris. The chapter shows that many of these are preserved in manuscripts which also include contemporary works of history; others—most notably for the rest of this book, the codex which ended up sequentially in the hands of Archbishop Matthew Parker and of Sir Edward Coke (BL MS. Add. 49366)—were purely legal. It demonstrates that these authentic and apocryphal collections did not become obsolete with the establishment of new common law procedures in Henry II’s reign, but continued to be treated as foundational of English law. The watchword in this case too was continuity with the pre-Conquest past.
The Conquest in Later Medieval English Law I
Authors: Garnett George
Published: January 2021

Chapter 6 begins by demonstrating how the compilations of Old English royal law codes underpinned the great thirteenth-century conspectus of common law known as Bracton. It traces them, and the theme of the Conquest, through subsequent thirteenth-century books of English jurisprudence—specifically Britton, Fleta, and the Mirror of Justices. It examines the role of historical material, particularly ancient charters and Domesday Book, in forensic practice in the thirteenth century and later. There are two particular foci: ‘ancient demesne’ cases, and the Quo warranto inquest, on both of which this discussion throws new light. Much use is made of the recent substantial edition of thirteenth-century Law Reports.
The Conquest in Later Medieval English Law II
Authors: Garnett George
Published: January 2021

Chapter 7 begins with the resurrection in Edward II’s reign of the London Collection of the Leges Anglorum, which had first been composed in John’s reign. They were commissioned by Andrew Horn, Chamberlain of the city. More recent works were appended to the Collection, including the Mirror of Justices. The role of this rejuvenated Collection in the politics of the reign is examined, with particular reference to the new clauses of the coronation oath devised in 1308. Items in the Collection are linked with the Modus tenendi parliamentum of 1320-1The chapter then pursues the Conquest as a point of reference through records of later medieval forensic practice, particularly as recorded in the Year Books, and the great works of later medieval jurisprudence. Those of Sir John Fortescue are shown to be exceptional, in that he continued to be explicit about viewing English law in a broad historical perspective, which he showed had traversed the Conquest. Thomas Littleton’s Tenures, Anthony Fitzherbert’s Abridgement, and Year Book cases are adduced as evidence of more conventional, less historically attuned attitudes. The chapter concludes with a consideration of two jurisprudential works of the 1530s—St German’s Dialogue between Doctor and Student and Starkey’s Dialogue between Pole and Lupset—and the sudden interest of government propagandists in the London Collection of the Leges Anglorum, as evidenced by compendium of historical precedent known as Collectanea satis copiosa.
The Printing of Twelfth-Century English Historiography, and the Integration of Law with History
Authors: Garnett George
Published: January 2021

Chapter 10 opens with the first printing in the 1590s of several of the great works of twelfth-century English historical writing: Lord William Howard’s edition of John of Worcester (1592); and Henry Savile’s of William of Malmesbury, Henry of Huntingdon, Roger of Howden, and (purporting to be twelfth-century) Pseudo-Ingulf’s Historia Croylandensis (1596). It then proceeds to the editing and publication of works of Norman historiography which encompassed the Conquest: William of Jumièges, William of Poitiers, and Orderic Vitalis. It pays a great deal of attention to William Camden and Robert Cotton. The chapter culminates with a discussion of John Selden’s edition of Eadmer’s Historia novorum. This is shown to combine the two strands of antiquarian interest examined in preceding chapters: medieval historical writing, and medieval law. In terms both of choice of text and focus of editorial attention, it reveals that by the reign of James VI and I, the Conquest had again become the key issue in English medieval history. The chapter also discusses chorographical history as espoused by William Lambarde and William Camden, and the beginnings of scholarly investigation of Domesday Book. It ends by looking forward to the central role which controversy about the Conquest would play in political arguments of the seventeenth century.
Rome, Ravenna, and Venice, 750-1000
Authors: West-Harling Veronica
Published: January 2021

The richest and most politically complex regions in Italy in the earliest Middle Ages were the Byzantine sections of the peninsula, thanks to their links with the most coherent early medieval state, the Byzantine Empire. This comparative study of the histories of Rome, Ravenna, and Venice arises from their unifying element: their common Byzantine past, since all three escaped being incorporated into the Lombard kingdom in the late seventh and early eighth centuries. By 750, however, their political links with the Byzantine Empire were irrevocably severed, except in the case of Venice. Thus, after 750, and in the ninth and tenth centuries, did these cities remain socially and culturally heirs of Byzantium in their political structures, social organization, material culture, ideological frame of reference, and representation of identity? Did they become part of the Western political and ideological framework of Italy: Frankish Carolingian in the ninth, and German Ottonian in the tenth, centuries? This book attempts to identify and analyse the ways in which each of these cities preserved the continuity of structures of the late antique and Byzantine cultural and social world; or in which they adapted each and every element available in Italy to their own needs, at various times, and in various ways. It does so through a story which encompasses the main contemporary narratives, the documentary evidence, recent archaeological discoveries, and discussions on art history, and it follows the markers of status and identity through titles, names, ethnic groups, liturgy and ritual, foundation myths, representations, symbols, and topographies of power
Bands and Photons in III-V Semiconductor Quantum Structures
Authors: Vurgaftman Igor , Lumb Matthew P. , Meyer Jerry R.
Published: January 2021

Semiconductor quantum structures are at the core of many photonic devices such as lasers, photodetectors, solar cells etc. To appreciate why they are such a good fit to these devices, we must understand the basic features of their band structure and how they interact with incident light. This book takes the reader from the very basics of III-V semiconductors (some preparation in quantum mechanics and electromagnetism is helpful) and shows how seemingly obscure results such as detailed forms of the Hamiltonian, optical transition strengths, and recombination mechanisms follow. The reader does not need to consult other references to fully understand the material, although a few handpicked sources are listed for those who would like to deepen their knowledge further. Connections to the properties of novel materials such as graphene and transition metal dichalcogenides are pointed out, to help prepare the reader for contributing at the forefront of research. The book also supplies a complete, up-to-date database of the band parameters that enter into the calculations, along with tables of optical constants and interpolation schemes for alloys. From these foundations, the book goes on to derive the characteristics of photonic semiconductor devices (with a focus on the mid-infrared) using the same principles of building all concepts from the ground up, explaining all derivations in detail, giving quantitative examples, and laying out dimensional arguments whenever they can help the reader’s understanding. A substantial fraction of the material in this book has not appeared in print anywhere else, including journal publications.
Binary Compound Semiconductors
Authors: Igor Vurgaftman
Published: January 2021

To apply the band structure models discussed in Part I (extended to structures with quantum confinement in Part III and applied to photonic devices in Part IV), a reliable set of input parameters is necessary. The chapter overviews the literature related to these parameters that has appeared since our published reviews. It also recommends specific values for all of them, including the dependence on temperature and alloy composition. If reliable experimental reports are available, they are used preferentially in the recommendations. Otherwise, it falls back to extrapolations from the existing data and theoretical estimates to fill in the gaps. It starts by reviewing and tabulating band parameters for the III–V compound semiconductors GaAs, AlAs, InAs, GaSb, AlSb, InSb, GaP, AlP, InP, GaN, AlN, and InN. The parameters include energy gaps, electron and hole mass parameters, deformation potentials, elastic constants, band offsets, and their temperature dependences.
Basics of Envelope-Function Theory
Authors: Igor Vurgaftman
Published: January 2021

The chapter shows how the bulk theory described in Part I can be generalized within the envelope-function framework to model the band structure of layered materials with quantum confinement of carriers such as quantum wells or superlattices. In practice, the approach amounts to substituting derivatives for wavevector components in suitably chosen Hamiltonians as well as augmenting them with interface terms. It also discusses the spin splitting of the states of the quantum structures that arises from structural and intrinsic asymmetries.
Interband Semiconductor Lasers and LEDs
Authors: Igor Vurgaftman
Published: January 2021

This chapter discusses the operation of conventional diode lasers based on quantum wells and quantum dots as a function of emission wavelength. The recombination processes that control the threshold current density of the devices are described in detail, including recombination at defects, radiative, and Auger recombination. The high-speed modulation and spectral characteristics of semiconductor lasers are also discussed. It continues by illustrating why interband cascade lasers can outperform diode lasers at mid-infrared wavelengths and describing their design and operating characteristics in detail. On the short-wavelength side of the spectrum, the nitride lasers and the factors that limit their performance are discussed. In addition to lasers, the principles underlying light-emitting diodes (LEDs) are outlined, and the proposed mechanisms for improving the extraction of the light from high-index semiconductor materials are described. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the performance of semiconductor optical amplifiers designed to amplify a weak input signal.
Movement-based approaches
Authors: Chaves Rui P. , Putnam Michael T.
Published: January 2021

This chapter discusses how the Minimalist Program (MP) strives to model unbounded dependency constructions and island constraints, and discusses the empirical, theoretical and cognitive status of syntactic displacement (movement), as formalized in terms of Internal Merge. At the present time, modelling filler-gap dependencies via movement faces significant theoretical and empirical issues. There is no parsimonious account of successive cyclic movement in the MP because of the Triggering Problem, nor of convergent and cumulative filler-gap dependencies. Other problems concern island phenomena, which have been argued to follow from core architectural economy constraints, but which make incorrect predictions not only about islands, but also about unbounded dependency constructions more generally. Finally, the MP has also been difficult to reconcile with extant psycholinguistic evidence about language processing. All recent attempts to make the MP consistent with incremental sentence processing adopt phrase-structural information, and abandon movement altogether.
Cycles and Subsystems
Authors: Haughton Tim , Deegan-Krause Kevin
Published: January 2021

Most accounts of the emergence of new parties are episodic, but to understand the rise and breakthrough of new parties in Central Europe requires an understanding of the links between party death and party birth, between one cohort of new parties and the next. Parties proclaiming their novelty, anti-corruption appeals, and the celebrity of their leader usually do not survive for long. Their death creates space for a newer party to emerge and break through. This chapter illustrates the dynamic in terms of a new party subsystem. Tracing the movement of voters from one election to the next offers clear evidence that once voters have chosen a new party in one election, they are more likely to choose a newer party in the subsequent election. Computer simulations help to illustrate the dynamics of new party emergence and gauge the impact of specific factors in explaining new party emergence.
Slovenia Is Everywhere? How New Party Subsystems and Cycles Extend Worldwide
Authors: Haughton Tim , Deegan-Krause Kevin
Published: January 2021

Many of the patterns of party politics we have witnessed in Central Europe are also in evidence in other regions of the world. From Iceland to Israel, from Greece, and Guatemala, and in countries as diverse as Peru and Japan, new parties and politicians have broken through, and some old, seemingly well-established, parties have lost significant levels of support or collapsed altogether. The emergence of new parties in many countries across the globe follow the patterns of their predecessors in Central Europe, with thin organization, celebrity leaders and appeals based on anti-corruption, and newness itself. Many of these new parties have also exhibited short shelf-lives, living fast and dying young, creating space and a voting base for a subsequent wave of new parties.
Wartime Relations
Authors: Röger Maren
Published: January 2021

During the Second World War, all contact between German soldiers and Polish women — considered an “inferior race” — was officially banned. Sexual encounters frequently took place, however. Some were consensual, while others were characterised by brutal violence, and women often sold their bodies as a means of survival. The army and SS constructed purpose-built brothels for their soldiers, but also banned and frequently punished loving relationships. This book gives a powerful account of these encounters and describes the actions of the army and the SS in regulating relations between soldiers and civilian women. The book provides new and important insights into everyday life during the occupation, Nazi racial policy, and the fates of the women involved.
Introduction
Authors: Röger Maren
Published: January 2021

This introductory chapter provides an overview of the regulation of intimate interactions between the German army —as well as the police and the SS — and the local residents in Polish territory, following the invasion of Poland in September of 1939. The ban on the contact with Poles was based on their lower status in the Nazi racial hierarchy. During the “Third Reich”, the German nation was generally thought of as a biological-racial unit — a racial or ethnic body that has to be kept free of foreign and “inferior” racial influences. This book determines the meaning of this hierarchy for sexual encounters between German occupiers and Polish women, Jewish and Non-Jewish. There was a broad spectrum of sexual contact between German men and local women in the Polish territories: firstly, commercial contacts, i.e. both the occupier-controlled prostitution system and clandestine sex work; secondly, consensual contact, that is the (strictly-speaking banned) German–Polish wartime relationships, entered into varyingly voluntarily; and thirdly, forced contacts and sexual violence, such as rapes and assaults committed by German occupiers. By analyzing these sexual contacts, the book contributes to several fields of research, including the histories of everyday life and of violence during the German occupation, and expands knowledge of racial and ethnic policies.
Interactive Spaces in Times of Racial Segregation
Authors: Röger Maren
Published: January 2021

This chapter assesses how German occupiers and Polish men and women interacted during times of racial segregation. Curiosity, a thirst for adventure, and specific offers gave rise to observable intimate relationships, especially in the first weeks and months of the German occupation. One measure intended to curb contact between German and locals was physical separation by the German racial thinking. However, in everyday life and in some places, the segregation between groups was enforced less strictly than the regulations demanded. Instead, the German men's need for female company was an open secret, and was, to some extent, tolerated by both military and civilian authorities. Most couples who had intimate relationships lasting for longer periods got to know each other at work, however. This was the most logical and least dangerous space for interaction because men and women met here daily anyway, meaning that neither side would attract suspicion. Contact with local women could also arise from military or professional duties: police and customs officers got to know women during questioning and arrests. Sexual barter transactions, and also sexual blackmail, could develop from such encounters.
Disciplinary Measures
Authors: Röger Maren
Published: January 2021

This chapter explores the disciplinary measures against fraternizing women. Women's sexual behaviour was linked to ideas of national honour; patriotic opinion-makers classified intimate relationships with the German occupiers as a betrayal of the nation. As such, moralistic appeals to women were made throughout the German occupation. These appeals to women form part of the general work of public education carried out by the Polish Underground. Another level of action taken by the Underground was to spy on women with German boyfriends. Espionage would be followed by a forceful warning and one of the options open to the Polish executive of the Underground in cases of repeated contravention was the practice of shaving heads as an honour punishment. This penalty was well-enough known to be feared by Polish women: short hair stigmatized them for months. The Polish Underground also made use of other physical punishments, such as beatings and the death penalty. The chapter then looks at the disciplinary measures taken by Nazi authorities, including forced prostitution
Sexual Violence before the Police and in Court
Authors: Röger Maren
Published: January 2021

This chapter analyzes how police and court dealt with sexual violence in the occupied territories. It explains that only certain crimes on the broad spectrum of sexual forms of violence were followed up during the German occupation, and that many victims did not dare to report the assaults on their own. The chapter identifies the various authorities responsible for investigating and trying sexual violence, and presents the range of punishments for German men – from admonishments to incarceration or being sent to the eastern front. The chapter then considers how the German police acted towards women complainants whom they judged on a moral level.
Epilogue
Authors: Röger Maren
Published: January 2021

This epilogue discusses the ongoing consequences of wartime rape, wartime encounters and prostitution in postwar Poland and Germany. Numerous victims of rape and forced prostitution would continue to suffer from the assaults, often for decades. Likewise, for many of the Polish women who had variously consensual relationships with German men during the occupation, the war continued after the German retreat. Some of them were subjected to honour punishments, or threatened with social ostracism after the war. Ultimately, the German men and Polish women alike took their experiences of commercial, consensual, and forced contact into their existing or future marriages and families.
Freedom in Religion, Freedom in the State
Authors: Künkler Mirjam
Published: January 2021

This article provides an overview of Böckenförde’s writings on issues of religion, ethos, and the Catholic Church in relation to law, democracy, and the state. It presents Böckenförde as an inner-Catholic critic, who attempted to persuade Catholicism that one’s own freedom can be defended only as part of the general freedom. This was finally achieved, at least dogmatically according to Böckenförde, with the Declaration of Religious Freedom at the end of the Second Vatican Council. The article lays out how Böckenförde sees the role of religion and natural law in secular democracy, namely as one informing the citizens’ ethos. Democracy cannot survive in the long term unless it is carried out by people who consider themselves part of the same demos and work towards a shared democratic culture. The article includes information on his intellectual biography, a periodization of his academic writings in seven phases from 1957 to 2012, a discussion of some of his core arguments as an inner-Catholic critic, a reflection on the cover images he chose for the two volumes, and closes with concluding remarks on Böckenförde’s view of religion in democracy compared to other theorists of democracy and secularism.
German Catholicism in 1933
Authors: Böckenförde Ernst-Wolfgang , Künkler Mirjam , Stein Tine
Published: January 2021

Böckenförde examines here why almost the entire leadership of organized Catholicism in Germany, that is both of the Church organization and Catholic societal associations, became complicitous in and sometimes actively helped Hitler amend the constitution and dismantle the democratic state. Böckenförde identifies three main reasons for this sudden transformation: the legacy of the Prussian Culture War (Kulturkampf), the dominance of natural law in Catholic thought, and the inherent anti-liberalism of the Catholic magisterium. Since the Kulturkampf, Catholic citizens felt alienated from the state, chose to withdraw into “inner emigration” and rallied around matters of personal faith, issues internal to the Church, and questions of religious schooling, each of which had a strong connection to natural law and—although specifically Catholic concerns—were equated in their minds with the public good. The Concordat between the Vatican and the Nazi regime in July 1933 promised the Catholic leadership the possibility of achieving the kind of autonomy they had sought for decades, in exchange for officially accepting the new Nazi order. As Böckenförde dryly diagnoses, in the minds of Catholic leaders the preservation of the democratic order carried no weight by comparison. Additionally, leading Catholics attached great hopes to the new Reich, expecting that it would revive the old Christian-Catholic, anti-enlightenment and ‘organic’ alternative to the modern, individualist, and secular state. Written in 1961, the article was the first in-depth historiographic study of Catholic complicity in the rise of the Nazi regime and caused a lasting public controversy, which ultimately vindicated Böckenförde’s account.
Böckenförde on the Secular State and Secular Law
Authors: Künkler Mirjam , Stein Tine
Published: January 2021

Part II brings together four articles dealing with aspects of the secularity of the modern state. It opens with one of Böckenförde’s most widely cited articles—translated into seven languages—‘The Rise of the State as a Process of Secularization’ published in 1967, in which he lays out the emergence of the modern state as a process of emancipation from the influence of religious authority that occurred in three distinct stages. Although less well-known internationally, the second article included here is no less important in Böckenförde’s intellectual development. It deals with ‘The Fundamental Right of Freedom of Conscience’ (1970), which Böckenförde regards as the cornerstone of the religiously neutral modern state and as the cardinal individual liberty, from which all others spring. In the third article, ‘Remarks on the Relationship between State and Religion in Hegel’, written in 1982, Böckenförde reviews Hegel’s major writings on questions of religion and the state to guide him in his own quest for the ‘inner regulatory forces’ and the binding ethos that keep democratic societies together. The interest in this binding ethos and the Hegelian notion of freedom places the article in a direct line with Böckenförde’s 1967 secularization essay as well as his 1978 article on ‘The State as an Ethical State’ (included in volume I). In the fourth article in this part, ‘The Secularized State: Its Character, Justification, and Problems in the Twenty-first Century’ of 2007, Böckenförde returns to the core ideas of the 1967 secularization essay fifty years later, asking what is the secular state, and how can it deal with a plurality of worldviews? Böckenförde lays out the cornerstones of his views on the desirable relationship between religion and state in contemporary democracy by juxtaposing his concept of ‘open encompassing neutrality’ vis-à-vis that of ‘distancing neutrality’, of which he regards the French laïcist model as paradigmatic. The latter ‘tends towards consigning and confining religion to the private and private-social sphere’ and prioritizes the freedom ...
Political Theory and Political Theology
Authors: Böckenförde Ernst-Wolfgang , Künkler Mirjam , Stein Tine
Published: January 2021

In this article, Böckenförde tries to determine the proper means of conducting political theology. After dismissing juridical political theology in the vein of Carl Schmitt as not so much theological but rather sociological in its discussion of how original theological terms such as ‘sovereignty’ were transposed to the state, people, or government, he turns to two other models: Böckenförde sees a shift away from classical institutional political theology à la Augustine, which explores what Christianity has to say about a state’s status, legitimation, and structure, to what he calls appellative political theology. Immediately concerned with action, the latter manifests itself inter alia as liberation theology and tends to run the risk of dissolving into theologically justified, and ultimately arbitrary, politics. As an alternative model, Böckenförde extols the political theology of Pope John Paul II. By focusing on the words of Jesus and the Gospel and other topics that appear ‘nonpolitical’ at first glance, the pope makes the case for dignity, liberty, and the purpose of man, taking the side of the weak and rejecting violence. In Böckenförde’s view, such a political theology is not about to be rendered obsolete by modernity. Since politics is essentially concerned with relations between individuals and groups, religion cannot avoid being drawn into the political field and raise its voice there as well.
Reflections on a Theology of Modern Secular Law [1999]
Authors: Böckenförde Ernst-Wolfgang , Künkler Mirjam , Stein Tine
Published: January 2021

The classic Catholic conception of natural law did not distinguish between morality and law. As such, it increasingly diverged from political thought outside the Church in sixteenth-century Europe, where positive law began to be conceptualized as a means to enable the coexistence of people with different beliefs. Building on Vatican II, when the congruence of morality and law in Catholic thought was ultimately broken, Böckenförde develops an argument in favour of secular law that can be comprehensible from a theological, Catholic perspective. Crucial for such a project is the Christian understanding of human dignity and of the human condition as affected by sin. Böckenförde points to the resurrection of the dead, which implies that not all elements of injustice have to be dealt with in this world. He also points to the historical contextuality of revelation, suggesting that Biblical mores must be understood as historically embedded. This perspective leads Böckenförde to argue that every human being should be recognized as a dignified legal subject and that one must move away from the Aristotelian goal of the good life, since secular law cannot guarantee more than a minimum of ethical social behaviour. Rather, while taking sin seriously, the Church should recognize that law cannot demand from people actions that are not accomplishable. Böckenförde notes that Catholics in general have begun to move closer to the position of Luther, who held that positive law must occupy a middle ground between the ambitions of divine law and the realities of human nature.