bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Introduction
Authors: Mathes K. N.
Published: August 2009

For many years, insulating materials have been divided into several temperature classes based to a large extent on a broad definition of their composition, that is, organic, inorganic, combinations of organic and inorganic, etc. Service experience over many years has served generally to confirm the classifications and to establish the suggested temperature limits for each class. However, during the years the classes and the temperatures associated with them have in some cases become too restrictive in view of the rapid development of new insulating materials. It has therefore become increasingly apparent that insulating technology can no longer wait for the confirmation of heat stability by service experience alone. Test methods must be developed and accepted which also can serve as guides in this respect. This first ASTM Symposium on Temperature Stability of Electrical Insulating Materials is an important part of such effort. The papers, of course, represent only the opinion and experiences of the individual authors except where otherwise stated. Work is in progress to develop generally accepted standards for determining the thermal stability of insulating materials.
Measurement of Dielectric Properties at Temperatures up to 500 C
Authors: Scott A. H. , Ehrlich Paul , Richardson J. F.
Published: August 2009

A holder for dielectric specimens is described which can be used over a temperature range from room temperature to 500 C and over a frequency range from 102 to 107 cps. Provision is made for measuring the thermal expansion of the sample. The dielectric constant can be determined with a probable error not exceeding about 1 per cent and the dissipation factor with a probable error not exceeding about 0.0001 or 5 per cent, whichever is greater, for the lower frequencies and about 0.0015 or 5 per cent, whichever is greater, at 10 mc per sec. Illustrative data on boron nitride and alumina body are given.
Dielectric Measurements on Plastics at High Temperatures
Authors: Hazen Thomas
Published: August 2009

Data on the dielectric properties of several plastics over temperature ranges extending from 23 C upward to about 200 C or higher, depending upon material type, are presented, principally in graphical form. Wherever available, significant information concerning the effects of relatively long exposures to high temperatures are given. The types of materials covered include the following: (1) phenolic laminates and molding materials, (2) silicone glass-cloth laminates and mineral-filled molding materials, (3) polymonochlorotrifluoroethylene molding compounds and sheets, (4) polyester cast resins and glass-cloth laminates, and (5) epoxy cast resins. Testing methods and apparatus used at elevated temperatures for d-c measurements and for a-c measurements at frequencies between 60 cps and 10 mc per sec are described. Problems relating to electrodes and special measurement techniques at high temperatures are discussed.
The Deflected Beam—Film Rupture Test Applied to Sheet Insulation
Authors: Morgan H. I. , Mathes K. N.
Published: August 2009

Insulation in sheet form, such as paper, treated cloth, plastic, and pasted mica itself, must often serve as the primary dielectric in electrical equipment. Usually, such sheet insulation is either impregnated with an insulating liquid or with varnish or compound. In all but a few purely mechanical applications, sheet insulation must not develop cracks or discontinuities even where exposed to mechanical strains such as those imposed by vibration or differential thermal expansion. In low-voltage motor and generator insulation, cracks and discontinuities may not in themselves cause failure, but they may provide the means whereby moisture, dirt, and contaminants can enter to cause electrical failure. For many years, mandrel flexibility tests on the sheet insulating materials and oven aging or operational tests on coils and complete equipment have been used to evaluate sheet insulating materials as well as other insulating components.
Heat Aging Characteristics of Insulating Varnishes
Authors: Morgan H. I. , Mathes K. N.
Published: August 2009

Insulating varnish serves two important functions in the insulation system of electrical equipment: 1. Bonding together of wires and insulating components. 2. Protection against the entrance of moisture, dirt, or other contaminants. As the insulation system is exposed to operating or high ambient temperature, physical changes occur in the insulation for which changes in the insulating varnish are in part responsible. When the varnish no longer bonds together the insulation structure, or loses flexibility so that cracks and discontinuities develop, the system is subject to failure, mechanically or electrically. Many methods have been used to study the thermal degradation of insulating varnish. Some of these methods are indirect, such as loss in weight or changes in infrared spectra. Such methods give important insight into the mechanism of the aging process but seldom can be translated into functional significance. It is proposed, herein, to describe two methods for determining flexibility of aged insulating varnish: 1. The mandrel flexibility test. 2. A film rupture test making use of a deflected beam.
Effect of Elevated Temperature on Silicone Varnished Glass Fabric for Electrical Insulation
Authors: Anderson O. E.
Published: August 2009

One of the important tests included in the Society's Standard Methods of Testing Varnished Glass Fabrics and Varnished Glass Fabric Tapes Used for Electrical Insulation (D 902 - S3) is the test for the effect of elevated temperature. This particular test method, for varnished glass fabrics and tapes, was developed for the purpose of showing the ability of the varnished film to resist excessive impairment of its physical and electrical characteristics when the material is subjected to a specified oven temperature for a prescribed period of time in free air. Those members of the Society who actively participated in this work were well aware of the various end uses for varnished glass fabrics made of the numerous glass fabric constructions as well as the varied types of varnished coatings. Specifically, this paper will be confined to the tests on silicone varnished glass fabrics showing how it is affected by elevated temperatures. It will also describe the various other tests, including the conclusions relating to the merits for each of these particular methods of test, which were considered by the working group to determine the effect of thermal aging on this type of electrical insulation. The results of this work are clearly exemplified by the acceptance of this test method for many material specifications and standards for this material.
Ultrasonic Wave Propagation in Materials: A Guide to Theoretical Results
Authors: Gold Louis
Published: August 2009

Recently, there has been considerable progress in the direction of improved ultrasonic methods and techniques; the introduction of pulsed techniques and the associated radar variety of circuitry have made possible improved instrumentation for more effectively studying the interaction of ultrasonics with matter and also have afforded better means for the inspection and testing of materials. A vast amount of both published and unpublished literature has appeared on the rather broad subject of pulsed ultrasonics, the sources being so diverse that it is rather difficult to discern certain basic principles. It is one of the prime objectives of this article to provide for the reader some of the background information derived from theoretical analysis of ultrasonic wave behavior. The author hopes that this effort will effect a better appreciation of the applicability of ultrasonics and allow those actively affiliated with the field of inspection and testing to make increasingly effective use of the existing equipment and that of the immediate future. A thorough theoretical treatment of ultrasonic wave propagation would require an extensive excursion into the fields of acoustics, optics, elasticity, piezoelectricity, crystal physics, geophysics, electronics, etc. Since this is clearly beyond the domain of a dissertation of this sort, it is evident that a good deal of the material to be presented may require further amplification. It will remain for the reader to fill in the details to suit his own particular needs, and it is hoped that providing the essentials will facilitate this job. Also, since the treatment herein is non-mathematical, with emphasis on results rather than methods, a list of references is appended for the, use of those interested in the, specific methods and mathematics involved.
Ultrasonics in the Heavy Forging Industry
Authors: Hartley James C.
Published: August 2009

Because the heavy forging industry is one of the most logical fields for the application of non-destructive ultrasonic testing, this method has progressed rapidly and received widespread acceptance. The large masses of metal which are handled lend themselves well to this type of inspection. It is true, further, that forgings are employed where quality requirements are highest and stress conditions most critical. Ultrasonic inspection of such products is justified, not only as a final inspection standard, but also as a routine check during processing. One of the advantages of the ultrasonic inspection method is its ability to indicate the location and approximate magnitude of internal cracks or similar defects which might progress in service, or, acting as stress raisers, cause premature failure of the part. There should be little doubt that the ultrasonic method is entirely practical for such applications and can be employed not only in the investigation of forged steel sections, but for a number of other materials as well. Certain materials, among them the socalled super alloys used for high temperature service for gas turbines and jet engines, exhibit a marked tendency to change ultrasonic transmission dependent upon the degree of refinement of the structure. This fact is useful in determining whether or not satisfactory refinement by forging has been effected.
Ultrasonic Testing in Railroad Work
Authors: Hall E. D.
Published: August 2009

A little over three and one-half years ago, the Erie Railroad obtained the first of its “ultrasonic reflectoscopes” which at that time were called Supersonic Reflectoscopes made by Sperry Products, Inc. Since that time three additional machines have been obtained and others are on order. The machines were purchased at a time when considerable trouble was being experienced with locomotive driving axle breakage usually caused by fatigue cracks, but occasionally caused by progressive cracks resulting from overheating of journals. The importance of testing these parts was so great that the entire time available for using machines was spent in checking locomotive axles on steam engines until very recently when two broken axles on diesel freight locomotives made it advisable to find a means of checking diesel axles as well as steam engine axles. Since the instruments were tied up on this preferred work no experimental work has been done along other lines, and this report deals entirely with experiences in testing locomotive axles. The number of cracked and broken steam locomotive axles occurring in service and found in shops had caused considerable concern. While it is true that most failures occurred at slow speed resulting in a minimum of damage, still some failures did occur at high speed, and the damage resulting amounted to thousands of dollars.
Ultrasonic Testing of Bronze Forgings and Ingots
Authors: Piltch A.
Published: August 2009

The experience of the Naval Gun Factory in ultrasonic testing has been limited to the use of the Sperry Reflectoscope. The applications and findings with this instrument have, on the whole, been quite similar to those of many other users. The greatest value from the equipment has been obtained in the testing of forgings, particularly non-ferrous forgings to which other methods of examination are not well suited. for example, considerable use is made of aluminum bronze forgings containing from 8 to 12 per cent aluminum, heat treated to tensile strengths as high as 100,000 psi. From time to time, serious runs of defective forgings have occurred, forgings split down a central plane with the splits sometimes, but not always, extending to an outside surface. Fluorescent penetrant methods are, of course, of limited value in detecting such defects, and radiography frequently inapplicable because of the thicknesses involved and the directions of the defects. Since many of the forgings are of relatively uniform sections, in the range of 4 to 10 in. in thickness, they present an almost ideal application for the “Reflectoscope”, which has been used for checking them in this manner for over two years. Originally it was intended to use the instrument to determine the point in the manufacturing process at which major splits were formed, and with this in mind, the ingots were examined after casting and also the forgings made therefrom, both before and after heat treatment. Unfortunately, or perhaps fortunately, no major series of defects have occurred since the instrument was placed in use, possibly because the shops involved, knowing that this equipment was available and could point to specific operations, employed greater care in each step, such as watching melt composition, pouring temperature, forging temperature, etc., more closely. Out of the ingot examination has come one interesting application, that of determining the amount of cropping necessary to insure sound forging stock. Using a frequency of 1 mc., it is very simple to detect both the primary piping down the center of an ingot, which usually absorbs the signal completely, and secondary piping, which normally produces a reflection. The proper point for cropping can be located very accurately, permitting maximum utilization of material and eliminating exploratory cutting. At the same time, any other localized defective portions are also marked for removal from the ingot. Test forgings have been made from such localized defective portions, also proving defective in most cases, but not duplicating the serious splits we had encountered in the past. Although the cause of these defects has not yet been found, apparently a salutary effect has resulted.
The Measurement of Dynamic Modulus in Adhesive Joints at Ultrasonic Frequencies
Authors: Dietz A. G. H. , Closmann P. J. , Kavanagh G. M. , Rossen J. N.
Published: August 2009

A method has been developed to measure, nondestructively, the dynamic modulus of an adhesive in the bond. The dynamic modulus, E, is defined as the stress-to-strain ratio for sinusoidal displacements, and can be expressed as E=E1−iE2, where E1 is the ordinary Young's modulus and E2 is the viscous modulus representing dynamic losses in the material. Nolle and Westervelt have derived formulas for E1 and E2 of a thin adhesive layer joining two cylindrical bars end-to-end. The relations require a knowledge of the resonance properties of the cemented bar and a continuous bar of the same length and material. The equipment for obtaining the necessary resonance properties, the resonant frequency and half-power bandwidth, consists of three major parts: a driving system to set up longitudinal ultrasonic vibrations in the specimens, a detecting system to indicate the amplitude of vibrations, and a frequency measuring system. Measurements have been made on stainless steel bar specimens, cemented with a phenol-formaldehyde polyvinyl-butyral adhesive, which have been subjected to various heat treatments. The results of this study indicate that the measured dynamic modulus is useful for selecting from a group of treated specimens those which have deteriorated and have low tensile strength. The method described is applicable to cemented-bar specimens composed of other types of bars and adhesives, provided that certain conditions pertaining to the derivation of the formulas for the moduli are met. There is a possibility that similar principles can be used to measure the dynamic modulus of reed type specimens composed of sections of lap joint or laminate.
Introduction
Authors: Davis Evan A.
Published: August 2009

Since most of the creep and creeprupture tests from which design data on high-temperature alloys can be obtained are carried out in normal atmospheres and since most high-temperature materials are used in atmospheres of water vapor or some products of combustion, the design engineer must always be concerned with the effects of the environment upon the creep rate and the ductility of the material that he uses. It was with the hope of contributing to the understanding of these effects that the General Research Panel of the ASTM-ASME Joint Committee on Effect of Temperature on the Properties of Metals decided to sponsor this Symposium. It was felt that there must be data on oxidation and surface effects and on creep under controlled atmospheres that the panel could collect in one publication, and that by so doing, further work in this field would be stimulated. The solicitation of the panel brought in six manuscripts on oxidation and surface effects. It is the opinion of the chairman that the papers which make up this Symposium represent rather accurately the status of the problem of environment at the present time. Important and valuable work is being done in the field of surface reactions, but there is still a need for encouragement of creep testing under controlled atmospheres.
The Mechanical Properties of Wrought Phosphor Bronze Alloys
Authors: Gohn G. R. , Guerard J. P. , Freynik H. S.
Published: August 2009

This paper shows the effect of cold-working on the mechanical properties of a series of eight phosphor bronze alloys in the form of cold-rolled strip. The tin content of these alloys varied from 0.5 to 10 per cent. Each material was furnished in two conditions with different ready-to-finish grain sizes. Electrolytic tough pitch copper strip similarly treated is included to provide a base for evaluating the effectiveness of the tin additions. The mechanical properties—including tensile strength, proportional limit, yield strength at both 0.01 and 0.2 per cent offset, modulus of elasticity, elongation, bending fatigue characteristics at lifetimes ranging from 100,000 to 100,000,000 cycles, and the Rockwell hardness (B and 30T values)—are reported for six different tempers of each of the 18 materials. The tempers studied include annealed, half-hard, hard, extra-hard, spring and extra-spring. Data are also included on the 3, the 4, and the 5 per cent tin alloys to show the effect of a higher phosphorus content. The effect of a larger ready-to-finish grain size on the mechanical properties of the high phosphorus, 4 per cent tin alloy is discussed.
The Effect of Speed of Testing on Glass
Authors: Ritland H. N.
Published: August 2009

There are a number of time-dependent processes which occur in glass which affect testing procedures. In this review two of these processes of particular importance are discussed—the structural changes of importance at annealing temperatures and the surface effects giving rise to delayed fracture at ordinary temperatures. The experimental evidence, which indicates that this latter effect is caused by the slow growth of microscopic surface cracks, is also reviewed.
Stress-Strain Relationships in Yarns Subjected to Rapid Impact Loading
Authors: Schiefer Herbert F. , Smith Jack C. , McCrackin Frank L. , Stone Walter K.
Published: August 2009

Equipment is described for impact testing of yarns longitudinally and also transversely. The impact velocities range from 1000 to 10,000 ft per min. The corresponding rates of straining at impact range from 50,000 to 500,000 per cent per min for textile yarns. The impact events are recorded with a high-speed motion picture camera. Procedures are discussed for obtaining load-elongation curves for loading and for unloading of the specimen and for loading to rupture in a time interval of only a few milliseconds. Results are presented for a high-tenacity nylon yarn and for two high-tenacity regenerated cellulose yarns, Fortisan and X-36, when tested at rates of straining ranging from 1 to 400,000 per cent per min. The effects of rate of straining on the results are discussed.
Review of Data on Effect of Speed in Mechanical Testing of Concrete
Authors: McHenry Douglas , Shideler J. J.
Published: August 2009

The paper reviews current specifications on rate of loading of concrete and mortar test specimens and presents data from various sources on the effect of speed of testing on compressive strength, flexural strength, and modulus of elasticity of concrete. In general, higher rates of loading show higher strengths in compression and flexure; modulus of elasticity also appears to increase with loading rate, although most observers have attributed this effect to reduced creep during the test period. An annotated bibliography is included.
Methods for Reducing the Effect of Barometric Pressure in Measurement of Octane Number
Authors: Siegel Bruno R.
Published: August 2009

Knock ratings made by the ASTM Motor, Research, and Aviation methods are affected by barometric pressure. Earlier experiments made at the National Bureau of Standards (1, 2) established the magnitude of rating variations in the pressure range of 21.0 to 30.0 in. of mercury, and indicated that some means of resolving the effect of barometric pressure on octane rating was needed. As a result of the earlier findings, pressurized induction and exhaust systems were tested in the altitude-chamber tests herein reported. While these schemes apparently would solve the problem, they were also beset with mechanical and operating difficulties. This prompted a third series of altitude chamber tests, in which inlet temperature and compression ratio were adjusted in combination to produce more uniform compression temperature-density relationships regardless of barometric pressure. The final results are presented in the form of tables of empirically determined operating conditions that will lead to substantially the same octane number when operated at any atmospheric pressure between 21.0 and 30.5 in. of mercury absolute.
The Corrosion Behavior and Protective Value of Copper-Nickel-Chromium and Nickel-Chromium Coatings on Steel
Authors: Sample C. H.
Published: August 2009

In 1947, Subcommittee II of ASTM Committee B-8 on Electrodeposited Metallic Coatings initiated a program of atmospheric exposure tests, the primary objective of which was to determine the relative durability of decorative copper-nickel-chromium versus nickel-chromium coatings on steel of bumper bar grade. The original program, now referred to as Program No. 1, was supplemented by the subsequent exposure of two additional sets of plated panels currently designated as Programs Nos. 2 and 3. In addition, but not as an official part of any of the programs, three lots of panels consisting of 0.01-mil chromium on (1) buffed wrought “A” nickel, (2) buffed Watts nickel applied to wrought “A” nickel, and (3) “bright” nickel applied to the same material were placed on exposure for reference purposes at New York, about 1 yr after the start of the Program No. 1 exposure. Also about the same time, 5 panels of each of lots 1 and 3 above, were exposed at Kure Beach, N. C., for the same purpose. Inspection data for these panels have never been included in reports of the committee. While the panels of programs Nos. 1, 2, and 3 now appear to have served their usefulness insofar as providing additional information is concerned, a few lots of each program are still on the racks at some of the exposure sites. Reports on the progress of all of these tests, together with such conclusions as the committee felt were warranted at the time the reports were written have appeared in the Proceedings from time to time. In addition to these reports, H. A. Pray, then chairman of Subcommittee II, summarized the early results of the initial series of tests in a paper presented at the June, 1949, meeting of the Society of Automotive Engineers (1). The purpose of the present paper is to (a) summarize the objectives of the three programs and the conclusions which the committee has considered justified, (b) draw such additional conclusions as appear warranted in the opinion of the author, and (c) emphasize the importance of the rating system employed in such tests, especially in respect to reporting and interpreting inspection results. A few previously unpublished photographs of representative test panels are included for illustrative purposes.
Recommended Practices for Cleaning Prior to Electroplating
Authors: Spring S. , Lux G. A. , Saubestre E. , Kafarski H. , Racine R. J. , Rich P. J. , Frager M. , Spring S.
Published: August 2009

Metal must be clean to obtain good adherence of electroplate. Cleanliness of metals to be electroplated is of a higher order than that required for most other applications. Both oily matter and solid particles, which are particularly objectionable, must be removed. When present, oxide and scale must also be removed; the absence of gross quantities of these is assumed in this treatment. A common criterion of cleanliness is the absence of breaks in the water film remaining after rinsing. Observation is made after a short drainage period, for example, 30 sec. In addition to the high degree of cleanliness required, the necessity for maintaining brightness of buffed surfaces makes cleaning prior to electroplating most difficult and important. The electroplater can avoid poor plating, due to inadequate cleaning by cycles involving, in most cases: 1. Precleaning or solvent cleaning to remove the bulk of the soil. 2. Intermediate or alkaline cleaning, especially to remove oily matter. 3. Final electrocleaning, especially to remove the last traces of impacted solids and minor impurities. 4. Acid treatment and surface conditioning to remove small amounts of oxides formed during the cleaning process and to micro-etch the surface. While the division of steps is not always sharp, this permits discussion of these important stages in more detail. Surface conditioning, as by acid treatment, is not treated in detail because it is covered adequately in the ASTM Recommended Practices on preparation of specific metals for electroplating.
A Comparison of the Corrosion Behavior and Protective Value of Electrodeposited Zinc and Cadmium Coatings on Steel
Authors: Sample C. H. , Mendizza A. , Teel R. B.
Published: August 2009

Electrodeposited coatings of both zinc and cadmium are commonly used to prevent the rusting of steel parts exposed to the atmosphere. During the period of World War II the armed services and, particularly, the Navy Department were inclined to favor the use of cadmium for this purpose, as judged from their general specifications for that time. Because of the acute shortage of cadmium and cadmium plating facilities during World War II it was necessary to give serious consideration to the substitution of zinc wherever possible. This resulted in considerable controversy as to the relative merits of the two metals, particularly their protective value when applied in equal thicknesses. Previous work (1−3) had shown zinc coatings to be superior to cadmium coatings when exposed to industrial atmospheres. The tests of Blum, Strausser, and Brenner also showed zinc coatings to have somewhat longer protective life than cadmium coatings in mild, rural locations such as State College, Pa., and urban sites such as Washington, D. C. While only comparatively thin coatings were involved, it was concluded from this same work that the difference in protective value between the two kinds of coatings in marine locations was not significant. On the other hand, the results of many comparative salt spray tests had shown cadmium coatings to be markedly superior to zinc coatings under the particular conditions prevailing in a salt spray cabinet. Undoubtedly the results of these accelerated tests contributed in a large measure to the generally prevalent attitude favoring cadmium coatings in marine atmospheres. The work reported herein was undertaken to determine the relative protective value of zinc and cadmium coatings in a wide variety of environments including accelerated corrosion tests.
Evaluation of Phosphate Coating over Electrodeposited Zinc
Authors: Alexander Allen L.
Published: August 2009

Section E, on phosphate treatments, of Subcommittee V of ASTM Committee B-8, on Electrodeposited Metallic Coatings was organized for “the general purpose of studying phosphate coatings on zinc plate and suggesting means of evaluation.” This paper is based on two progress reports prepared for committee distribution. The results are significant, and inasmuch as substantial conclusions are justified, it seems appropriate to present the data now available. The properties of phosphate coatings judged to be of most interest are: (a) Adhesion of organic films. (b) Retardation of under-surface corrosion at points of rupture in organic film. (c) Resistance to accelerated and normal outdoor exposure. (d) Corollary to the foregoing, it is necessary (1) to establish an accurately reproducible method for determining the amount of phosphate on a zinc surface, and (2) to correlate the amount (weight) of phosphate coating with differences in the above properties. Information pertaining to (c) and (d) only is presented in this report. This is a continuing project, and the report is necessarily limited to a summation of progress to date.
Evaluation of Testing Methods for Supplementary Coatings
Authors: Harr R. E.
Published: August 2009

The purpose of this paper is to report progress in the development of improved specification tests for the evaluation of supplementary coatings and to discuss the results to date on the preliminary tests of such coatings exposed to several different environments. The coatings under investigation by Subcommittee V are phosphate coatings on electroplated zinc, chromate coatings on electroplated cadmium, and chromate coatings on electroplated zinc. It is expected that these investigations will result in the development of evaluation tests that will more accurately forecast service life than the currently used salt spray test.
Atmospheric Exposure of Electroplated Lead Coatings on Steel
Authors: DuRose A. H.
Published: August 2009

During World War II, due to a possible severe restriction in the supply of zinc, the War Metallurgy Committee of the National Research Council initiated work to determine under what conditions lead could be substituted for zinc. It is interesting to note that lead also became in short supply near the end of the war before the results of these tests could be put to use. Part of the work involved the preparation of a large number of panels coated with lead and other deposits for outdoor exposure. This was done in 1943 at Battelle Memorial Institute under the direction of H. A. Pray. The panels were exposed in early 1944 and the inspection and evaluation thereof taken over by ASTM Committee B-8 on Electrodeposited Metallic Coatings. The details of the plan of tests and the results have been previously reported.
High-Temperature Testing of Adhesives for Aircraft Structural Application
Authors: Battalora John R. , Pulsifer Donald E.
Published: August 2009

A means of high-temperature evaluation of adhesives has been established. From these evaluations usable design data are obtained. In this work it was felt that the following points were of utmost importance: 1. Intelligent use of adhesives requires basic design data. While the test data obtained in this report are applicable only to the test constructions used, by running a very few additional tests and extrapolating curves, they can probably be adapted to a large number of other constructions as well. 2. The limitations of the adhesive material should be firmly established, particularly in regard to elevated temperature. 3. It is necessary to evaluate the material in terms of the desired application, whether as a metal-to-metal bond or as a honeycomb core-to-face bond.
Effect of Dimensional Factors and Temperature on the Shear Strength of Aluminum Honeycomb
Authors: Plumtree W. G. , Cheorvas W.
Published: August 2009

This paper presents the results of beam tests made on honeycomb sandwiches fabricated with 3003-H19 aluminum expanded honeycomb, 7075-T6 clad aluminum facings, and Epon X adhesive, the core densities being varied from 2.3 to 8.1 Ib per cu ft, the core thicknesses from 1/4 to 1 in., the facing thicknesses from 0.016 to 0.091 in., the span lengths from 5.4 to 15 in., and the temperatures from room temperature to 260 F.
Sandwich in the Design of Helicopters
Authors: Stevens Jay M.
Published: August 2009

Helicopters are used extensively by the Departments of the Army, the Navy and the Air Force for such purposes as liaison, sea and land rescue, as aerial ambulances, for reconnaissance, and for the rapid movement of troops, supplies and equipment to critical areas. Commercial uses for helicopters include activities such as prospecting, crop dusting, aerial inspection and rescue, and short haul mail and passenger service. Helicopters are basically of two types: the single-rotor helicopter (Fig. 1) which has one main rotor mounted on the top of the fuselage, and the twin-rotor helicopter with two main rotors. The latter may be arranged mounted side by side (Fig. 2), coaxially one above the other on shafts that turn one inside the other (Fig. 3), or one behind the other on each end of the fuselage (Fig. 4). In the single-rotor helicopter, a small rotor is usually mounted on the tail assembly at right angles to the main rotor to counteract the torque and to facilitate control. In twin-rotor helicopters, the main rotors turn in opposite directions for the same reason. The diameter of main rotor systems ranges from a minimum of 13 ft for the Navy XRON-1. one-man helicopter to 82 ft for the Air Force YH-16 Transporter. In flight, the main rotor blades rotate at a wing tip speed approaching that of the speed of sound. The blades constantly change in pitch as they progress from a forward to a rear position and are subject to high bending and torsional loads with changes in speed and direction of flight. Because of the severe stresses imposed, early attempts to build all-metal main rotor blades by conventional means, such as bolting, riveting, and spot-welding, were abandoned because blades built in this fashion proved to have inadequate fatigue strength, aerodynamic smoothness, and durability.
Selection of Materials for Architectural Sandwich Panels
Authors: Parkinson Robert E.
Published: August 2009

Much of the work of ASTM Committee C-19 on structural sandwich constructions in the past has been devoted to the development of standard test methods for aircraft structural sandwiches. Architectural sandwiches are potentially a greater field than aircraft sandwiches, when one considers the square footage of sandwich material in a single large building. Standardization has been slower because of the greater variety of types of structures and materials and because only moderate strength is required in the present non-load-bearing applications. It is essential that the industry set adequate methods of controlling quality, as progress can be drastically retarded by the failure of a few poor quality panels. Within the past few years, increasing numbers of architects are specifying sandwich panels for curtain walls in offices, schools, and many types of commercial buildings. If this trend continues, as we think it will, the demand in the future will be tremendous.
Recent Developments in Sandwich Construction Including Heat-Resistant Materials
Authors: Steele Roger C. , Marshall Andrew C.
Published: August 2009

In reviewing recent developments in sandwich construction, the most noteworthy areas deserving consideration and comment would appear to be: 1. The much wider acceptance of sandwich by the airframe industry, resulting in greatly increased usage, particularly in primary structures; 2. The current trend toward the use of the stronger 5052 aluminum cores in place of the 3003 alloy core materials formerly used in most aluminum core sandwich, and 3. The widespread activity in developing (and adapting) new materials and techniques to meet the problems imposed by high temperatures. The fundamental advantages of lowdensity core sandwich structures such as strength, light weight, rigidity, smooth exteriors, fewer parts, and simplified fabrication have been generally known for many years; the much wider application of sandwich in the present era is due primarily to an increasing knowledge concerning the design, fabrication, strength, and reliability of sandwich parts. With a few exceptions, the early sandwich applications in aircraft were in general limited to such parts as flooring, equipment shelves, fuel cell support panels, table tops, access doors, and bulkheads; more recently we observe a widespread trend toward the use of sandwich construction in such parts as rudders, elevators, stabilizers, ailerons, trailing edges, flaps, wing tips, rotor blades, dive breaks, and including the wings, themselves, on both manned and unmanned vehicles. In many of these parts the core runs through from one exterior surface to the other, the core being tapered or contoured to the shape of the part. The appropriate use of internal doublers and laminated facing sheets eliminates the need for the more costly tapered skins which might otherwise be required in applications such as wings. In thicker parts, such as in the wings of the B-57 and B-58 military aircraft, the upper and lower wing surfaces are composed of separate sandwich panels approximately 1/2 in. thick and employ cores of constant thickness. There is a definite trend toward the use of 5052 aluminum honeycomb in place of the 3003 alloy, not only in new designs but also in many existing parts. 5052 honeycomb is not new, having been made as laboratory samples many years ago; it has only recently become a production material. The 5052 material is some 20 to 25 per cent stronger for the same density and may therefore be used either to increase strength at the same weight or to reduce the weight without sacrificing strength. The comparative strength properties of these two aluminum materials can be observed in Fig. 1 where the 5052 honeycomb displays a marked superiority at all temperatures up to 400 F. The 5052 material is expected to replace the 3003 alloy as the standard material for general use in aircraft.
Introduction
Authors: Garin P. V.
Published: August 2009

The American Society for Testing Materials and the railroad industry have enjoyed a relationship of mutual benefit for many years. In the case of certain individual railroads, this association has been for periods of over fifty years. Because of this close relationship, it was a particular pleasure to organize and assemble a series of technical papers on materials of major importance to the railroads for presentation at the Second Pacific Area National Meeting of the American Society for Testing Materials held in Los Angeles, Calif., on September 16 to 21, 1956. These papers were presented at two sessions and were devoted to the subjects of diesel fuel and cleaning materials. The papers contained in this symposium on railroad materials deal with the use of residual type fuels in railroad diesel locomotive engines. As the cost of fuel represents a major portion of the operating expense of these diesel engines, the utilization of less critical fuels in these engines without offsetting operational and maintenance problems is, of course, of vital interest to the railroads. The papers contained herein deal with research work conducted by railroads, petroleum companies, and engine builders into the use of residual type fuels in diesel engines, including experiments with a dual fuel system on locomotive diesel engines.
Laboratory Research on Burning No. 6 Residual Fuel in an 8 1/8 by 10 Opposed-Piston Diesel Engine
Authors: Beadle R. H.
Published: August 2009

The biggest single item of operating cost for diesel engines in the horsepower range used for locomotives, stationary power plants, and motor ships is fuel. A 4 cents per gallon decrease in fuel cost can reduce the fuel bill for operating a 2000-hp engine $15,000 to $20,000 per year. Consequently, burning inexpensive residual No. 6 fuel is extremely attractive. A research and development program to permit burning this grade of fuel in the Fairbanks, Morse & Co. 8 1/8 by 10 Opposed-Piston engine was undertaken in the fall of 1954. Because of the diversified application of this engine, a successful development would make available to heavy-duty diesel engine users in practically all fields the savings inherent in burning heavy fuel.
Railroad Cleaners and Cleaning Procedures
Authors: Ramsey J. L.
Published: August 2009

Railroads in the United States are doing a better “housekeeping” job than at any time in their history. This is not only evidenced in their shops, stations, and office buildings, but is even more strongly reflected in the appearance of their locomotives, passenger cars, freight cars, and even the lowly caboose.
Standardization of Railroad Cleaning Materials and Methods for Diesel Locomotives
Authors: Jursch C. F.
Published: August 2009

The railroad industry is a major user of cleaning materials. These range from heavy-duty caustic cleaners to acid and solvent cleaners. With the rapid change-over from steam to diesel power on the railroads, many new cleaning problems arose; and practices which had long been used with steam power are not effective on diesels. One of the outstanding problems in the cleaning of diesel locomotives has been the lack of standardization of materials, equipment, and methods. The materials first used as cleaners on the diesel locomotive were those which had been used on steam power. Not too often were the results satisfactory. This led to a condition of poor housekeeping, affecting the over-all appearance of diesel power as well as contributing to fire hazards and inefficient preventive maintenance.
Direct-Reading Spectrographic Control of Lubricating Oil Additive Manufacture
Authors: Rappold W. A. , Ramsay R. E.
Published: August 2009

Lubricating oil additives are chemical compounds that are added to lubricants to improve their performance. They do this by reducing wear, reducing breakdown of the lubricant, and keeping the engine's moving parts free of foreign matter. The additives are usually metallo-organic compounds containing such elements as calcium, barium, zinc, phosphorus, sulfur, and chlorine. The manufacture of the additive components and the blending of the finished additive are usually controlled by analysis for these key elements. Rapid and accurate analyses are essential during the preparation and blending of the components. In the past, the analyses were carried out by wet chemical methods and, later, with the faster emission spectrographic techniques. Still greater speed has now been achieved with the direct-reading spectrograph. X-ray fluorescence, which is applicable to some of the heavier elements, is a still newer approach to this problem. Chemical analyses require about 8 hr, the direct-reading spectrographic analyses about 1.5 hr elapsed time. This paper discusses the operation and performance of the direct-reading spectrograph, an Applied Research Laboratory quantometer, used in controlling the manufacture of lubricating oil additives at the Oronite Chemical Co.'s Oak Point, La., plant.
Sampling of Lubricating Oil from Diesel Locomotives
Authors: Simpson W. K.
Published: August 2009

On October 9, 1951, the chairman of Section E on Determination of Elements in Fuels, of Research Division III, ASTM Committee D-2, was discussing the general subject of spectrographic analysis of used diesel engine oil. In reviewing the problem, he stated that it was important to establish the metallic constituents that are present in used diesel engine oil, designate which of these elements are pertinent, determine what concentration range will be encountered, and establish what time element is to be involved and what accuracy and precision will be required. A discussion of the various industries that were interested in spectrographic analysis of used diesel engine oil indicated that the railroads were not only interested but were utilizing this technique. During the interim period preceding the February 4, 1952, meeting, various railroads, known to be employing spectrographic methods on used lubricating oil, were asked to submit their laboratory procedures and to attend the next meeting of Section E. During this meeting, informal reports were given by representatives of four railroads and two locomotive builders. The discussions covered the value of spectrographic analysis, the metals that were involved, and the possible concentration ranges which would be encountered. In June, 1952, it was decided that a subcommittee should be appointed to study existing sampling procedures and, if possible, to make recommendations on the proper sampling techniques to be employed on diesel engines operating in railroad service. In February, 1953, a three-man study group was appointed to survey the railroads on their interest in spectrographic analysis, and more particularly, on the method employed to obtain their samples. The subgroup developed a questionnaire which was mailed in April, 1953, to the Engineers of Test on 99 Class I railroads.
Methods for Spectrographic Analysis of Lubricating Oils
Authors: Bryan F. R.
Published: August 2009

For several years, a variety of spectrographic methods has been used by railroad and petroleum laboratories for the determination of wear metals in used diesel locomotive crankcase oils. These methods have, in general, met the needs of individual laboratories, since each method is fairly self-consistent and therefore useful in detecting any major change in the metal content of the lubricant. For the purpose of monitoring a particular locomotive over a period of time, apparently any one of numerous methods might be employed with satisfactory results. However, with the rapid adoption of spectrographic analysis of used oils, there came the inevitable necessity of comparing the results of one laboratory with another, and one method with another. Opposing methods were found to provide distinctly different absolute values within a given laboratory, and a single method could seldom be made to reproduce results from laboratory to laboratory. With this situation existing in early 1951, ASTM Committee D-2 on Petroleum Products was asked to investigate the possibility of standardizing spectrographic procedures for the analysis of used diesel locomotive crankcase oils. Within ASTM Committee D-2, the assignment falls under the jurisdiction of Research Division III on Elemental Analysis, and has become the major responsibility of Section J of Research Division III. Section J has a membership of approximately 40 representatives of petroleum, railroad, and locomotive manufacturing laboratories.