bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Use of Statistics to Determine Precision of Test Methods
Authors: Youden W. J. , Cameron J. M.
Published: September 2009

Some recent studies of A.S.T.M. Method D 877 - 46 T2 for the Determination of the Dielectric Streng h of Insulating Oils provide a good illustration of the types of statistical problems encountered in the study of a test method.

These measurements are an example of a case of non-homogeneous measurements. An exposition is given of a method of taking repeated differences in a set of observations. By this statistical technique the errors of measurement may be isolated from the over-all dispersion which includes sampling and possibly other components. It is pointed out tha this may also be done by the analysis of variance technique. This latter technique is very useful in ascertaining whether data can be considered homogeneous.

Several proposed methods for making multiple measurements on a sample of oil are compared.
Effect of Heat Treatment and Structure Upon Creep Properties of Nimonic Alloys Between 750 and 950 C
Authors: Betteridge W. , Smith R. A.
Published: September 2009

Tests on nickel-chromium-cobalt alloys hardened with titanium and aluminum have shown that differences in the stress-rupture properties at 750 C, whether due to differences in content of hardening elements or to differences in heat treatment, are maintained at all temperatures up to 950 C.

Results are also presented for a cobalt-free alloy of comparable type. These show that the 100- and 300-hr rupture stresses decrease smoothly with increase of temperature up to 950 C. The absence of a discontinuity in the region of the temperature at which the hardening phase is completely soluble can be interpreted as showing that rupture strength is a consequence of both precipitation and solid-solution hardening.
Stress-Rupture Properties of Inconel 700 and Correlation on the Basis of Several Time-Temperature Parameters
Authors: Manson S. S. , Succop G.
Published: September 2009

The primary purpose of the present investigation was to determine the properties of Inconel 700, which appears promising for use at temperatures in the region of 1600 F; a simultaneous objective was to check the validity of various time-temperature parameters proposed in the literature for correlating hightemperature stress-rupture data.
Tension and Torsion Tests on Nimonic Alloys at High Temperatures
Authors: Ward E. D. , Tallis W. G.
Published: September 2009

In high-temperature engineering, despite the concentration of interest upon creep and stress-rupture testing, designers still make use of data provided by conventional short-time tension and torsion tests. Apparatus and test methods for both types of test, at temperatures up to 1000 C (1830 F), are described. Tension results are presented for the nickel-chromium-base alloys Nimonic 75 and Nimonic 80A and the nickel-chromium-cobalt-base alloys Nimonic 90 and Nimonic 95, together with torsion results for Nimonic 80A and Nimonic 90, the two alloys which have been most widely used in Great Britain for gas-turbine rotor blading.
Thermocouple Immersion Errors
Authors: Berry J. M. , Martin D. L.
Published: September 2009

An attempt has been made to distinguish between two types of “immersion” errors. The first type occurs when an inhomogeneous portion of a thermocouple (developed, perhaps, at the service temperature) is subjected to a temperature gradient. The second type of “immersion” error is related to conduction of heat to or from the hot junction of the thermocouple. Both of these “immersion” errors are directly related to the thermocouple material and its temperature surroundings. Poorly operating control and measuring systems will not cause these errors, nor will the best instrumentation reveal them.
Summary of Pyrometric Procedure Employed by one Company in Creep-Rupture Testing and an Analysis of Results Obtained
Authors: Leyda W. E.
Published: September 2009

Before discussing the pyrometric procedure practiced by the Babcock & Wilcox Co. in elevated temperature testing, it would be well to define the interests and the types of testing conducted at the Babcock & Wilcox Research Center. Most of the alloys under study are intended for use in superheater service with an estimated life of 20 to 25 yr. Since deformation is less important for these structural components than rupture life, the main emphasis in this 136-station high-temperature laboratory is on rupture testing. However, creep tests are also conducted on materials that have displayed satisfactory rupture characteristics. In determining basic curves, stress-rupture tests are conducted from 0 time to 10,000 hr, or longer, and for determining creep curves, the tests are conducted for a minimum time interval of 10,000 hr. The test temperatures for alloy development and for standard materials intended for superheater service fall in the range of 850 to 1500 F. This summary will include the procedure used for preparing thermocouples, the method of measuring temperature, the types of furnace controls employed, and an analysis of the resulting temperatures.
Vane In-Place Soil Shear Device Developed and Applied by Oregon State Highway Department
Authors: Hill William C.
Published: September 2009

A vane type, in-place, soil shear testing device has been built by the Construction Division of the Oregon State Highway Dept. and used since 1953 in investigating questionable embankment foundation areas along proposed projects. The development of the device and the technique of using it are discussed. A review is made of the correlation between “in-place” soil shear strengths and laboratory direct shear tests made on “undisturbed” soil samples.

The limitations and advantages of the vane device as a field tool in locating questionable foundation areas and depths in nongranular materials and determining their shear strengths for embankment design are discussed.
Recent Laboratory Evaluation of High-Temperature Strain Gages to 900 F
Authors: Day Emmett E.
Published: September 2009

With the growing necessity for measuring strain at elevated temperature, a great deal of work has been concentrated upon the development of a suitable gage for the purpose. This effort has mostly been toward changing the room temperature type gage to adapt it to high-temperature application by using suitable cements, grid backing, element materials and other changes. Several organizations have been active in this development work, and the result has been that a variety of types are available commercially for which many claims are made to success in obtaining desirable characteristics. Laboratory evaluation of six types of commercial gages has been the subject of this investigation which was carried on during the summer of 1957 in the Structures Test Laboratory of the Chance Vought Aircraft, Inc. The performance of the gages was studied in an effort to determine the following: (1) gage factor change with temperature; (2) zero shift with time at temperature; (3) indicated strain at temperature for gages wired to compensate each other for temperature; and (4) indicated strain at temperature for gages not wired to compensate each other. Attempts were made to arrive at a maximum operating temperature for which reliable results could be expected. The target temperature was 1200 F but, with the best setup available it was soon decided that 900 F was a practical upper limit for testing due to the large change in modulus of the beam material. As the temperature went higher, the strains had to be reduced to undesirable minimums to stay within the elastic range of the beam material.
Resistance Measurement of Ceramic-Type Strain-Gage Cements
Authors: Pitts J. W. , Buzzard E. , Moore D. G.
Published: September 2009

The resistivities of several commercial strain-gage cements and a number of experimental compositions were measured over the temperature range of 80 to 1800 F. Each cement specimen was placed between two cylindrical metal electrodes, allowed to air-dry, and then cured at 600 F. After curing, the specimen was heated to 1800 F at the rate of 15 F per min. Resistance measurements were made at 25 F intervals with a low-voltage d-c ohmmeter. After the specimen had cooled to room temperature, the breaking strength of the cement bond was evaluated in a bending test. The experimental cements were composed of high-purity, high-resistivity oxides as the bulk material, mixed with various reagents which appeared promising as bonding media. Several compositions were developed which had higher resistivities, in the 1200 to 1800 F temperatures range, than any of the commercial cements tested.
Development of High-Temperature Strain Gage Wire
Authors: Graft W. H.
Published: September 2009

The use of electrical strain gages at elevated temperatures (for the purposes of the present discussion, defined as those up to a maximum of 1600 F) involves a number of factors not normally present in conventional room temperature applications. Some of the additional considerations occasioned by the increased temperature of operation may be listed as (1) oxidation resistance of the gage material, (2) thermal coefficient of resistivity and expansion, (3) metallurgical stability, and (4) fabricability. In addition to these, an acceptable gage material should possess intrinsic high resistivity, usable strain sensitivity, compatibility with the mounting medium employed and reasonable resistance to the effects of creep and fatigue.
Bonding Agents for High-Temperature Strain Gages
Authors: Moore Dwight G.
Published: September 2009

The properties most desired of a cement for high-temperature gages are:

1. High electrical resistivity up to the maximum temperature of use,

2. Good adhesion to the substrate metal and to the strain-sensitive elements,

3. Accurate transmission of strains up to 1 per cent,

4. High resistance to flow under steady-state strains up to the maximum temperature of use,

5. Chemical inertness toward the alloy filament of the gage,

6. Thermal expansion that is approximately equal to that of the metal substrate,

7. Freedom from hygroscopic effects after curing,

8. Good working properties,

9. Long shelf life, and

10. Low curing temperature.
Elevated Temperature Strain-Gage Investigations at Grumman Aircraft Engineering Corporation
Authors: Stewart Robert J.
Published: September 2009

At Grumman Aircraft Engineering Corp., wire-resistance strain gages are used during flight-test studies of full-scale airplanes, in static- and drop-testing, and in model testing in the wind tunnel.
Bakelite Strain Gages for Temperatures Between −320 and 450 F.
Authors: Madsen Donald J.
Published: September 2009

The demand for aircraft to perform at higher speeds has created a need for test instrumentation that is reliable and accurate at the increased temperatures indicated by such air speeds. It is also desirable that instrumentation of the same type be adaptable for missile programs. Depending upon the propellant, temperatures of a missile structure also can go as low as −300 F, for example with liquid oxygen as a fuel constituent.
Investigation of Strain Gages for Long-Time Static Testing to 650 F
Authors: Yanowitz Herbert , Berman Irwin , Bleiweis Alfred
Published: September 2009

Results are presented of a series of tests on the performance of HT 600 wire strain gages, at elevated temperatures over long periods of time. These gages showed no zero shift at temperatures below 650 F in over 300 hr of testing. The gage-to-gage consistency in the apparent strain versus temperature curves was within ±150 microinches per in. to 600 F.
Accomplishments and Limitations of Solid State Theory
Authors: Brooks H.
Published: September 2009

This paper is an effort to bring up to date a portion of the material presented six years ago at a Conference at the Carnegie Institute of Technology and published as Chapter 3, under the same title, of the book “The Science of Engineering Materials,” edited by J. E. Goldman and published by John Wiley in 1957. The material presented here is necessarily highly selective as well as condensed, and is intended to serve as illustrative examples rather than as a comprehensive review. The interested reader is referred to a forthcoming study entitled “Perspectives in Materials Research,” prepared by a series of panels under the auspices of the National Research Council and to be published by the Government Printing Office. These studies will give a comprehensive view of the status of our theoretical understanding over a wide range of aspects of materials science.
The Influence of Surfaces on the Properties of Materials
Authors: Sinnott M. J.
Published: September 2009

Many of the properties that are of interest to engineers concerned with materials are controlled or influenced by the environment in which the material is to be used or to which it has been exposed during prior processing. These changes might be termed solid state phenomena since their effect is reflected in the properties of the solid, but they are basically of surface origin. This paper reviews the influences of surfaces, either internal or external, on some of the physical and chemical properties of materials.
Resistance to Creep Deformation and Fracture in Metals and Alloys
Authors: Garofalo F.
Published: September 2009

Various techniques employed in studying the factors controlling resistance to creep and creep rupture are reviewed and discussed. The primary modes of deformation that have been identified metallographically on specimen surfaces include coarse and fine slip and grain boundary shearing. More complex modes of deformation have also been found. Measurements of grain distortions well below the specimen surface indicate that grain boundary shearing may be more important than is indicated by surface studies.

Substructure formation is being studied by metallographic methods and by electron transmission and high-resolution X-ray techniques. The latter techniques are suitable for determining rearrangement of dislocations during creep. Initial observations indicate that dislocation pile-ups are probably not involved in the processes controlling primary and secondary creep.

Time laws of creep and dependence of transient and steady-state creep on stress and temperature are discussed briefly. Such information is necessary to isolate the prominent creep processes. Their strong temperature-dependence indicates that creep processes are thermally activated. The similarity between the activation energy for secondary creep and that for self-diffusion is pointed out and the dislocation models based on this fact are discussed. Some of these models postulate dislocation pile-ups which as yet have not been observed. Furthermore, the fact that creep is found at stresses very much lower than the static yield strength indicates that the development of extensive pile-ups is unlikely. Prominent creep processes may involve, therefore, the activation of dislocation sources rather than movement of loops of freshly generated dislocations.

The end of secondary creep may depend in some cases on grain boundary shearing and hence may be affected by precipitation in the boundaries. It is shown that rupture life is proportional to the time at the end of secondary creep. This relationship, which is not strongly dependent on stress and temperature, leads directly to the dependence of rupture life on minimum creep rate suggested by Grant and his co-workers. The interrelationship between intercrystalline crack initiation and grain boundary shearing is briefly discussed for both wedge-type and round-type cracks. Results that have been obtained on stainless steel suggest that for this material crack growth does not depend to any extent on vacancy condensation. In this material the intercrystalline cracks are predominantly of the wedge type.
Effects of Size and Shape on Fracture of Solids
Authors: Irwin G. R.
Published: September 2009

Those who have read Timoshenko’s “History of the Strength of Materials” (1) may recall the drawing (Fig. 1) from the notebook of Leonardo da Vinci which appears on one of the first pages. da Vinci used this apparatus to study the effect of specimen length on the strength of a supply of iron wire. He found short lengths to be stronger than long ones. These experiments done four and one-half centuries ago may well be the oldest recorded fracture tests.
Quenchable Effects of High-Temperature, High-Pressure Treatment on Nonmetallic Materials
Authors: Roy Rustum
Published: September 2009

The usefulness of high pressures in materials synthesis and tailor-making is considered in two different pressure ranges: below and above 10 kilobars.

Below 10 kilobars, high-pressure technology has made possible the controlled synthesis of special phases containing volatile components such as water, carbon dioxide, and oxygen, etc. Examples range from synthetic zeolites and micas to special valence state ferrimagnetics prepared under high oxygen pressures. High water pressure is also an excellent solvent for crystal growth and the most effective catalyst for attaining equilibrium in the subsolidus region of anhydrous nonmetallic systems.

Above 10 kilobars, a systematic crystal chemical approach to the synthesis of new materials has produced a large number of new high-pressure materials which can be retained under ambient conditions. These include a variety of simple oxides (e.g. B2O3, ZnO, SiO2, TiO2 PbO2) halides (BeF2, MnF2), semiconductors (silicon, germanium, etc.), ternary phases (a whole series of Ln3+PO4, Ln3+VO4, CaCO3, various garnets), noncrystalline dense glasses, etc.
The Mechanical Properties and Deformation Characteristics of Metals and Alloys Under Pressure
Authors: Pugh H. Ll. D.
Published: September 2009

The paper is concerned with the mechanical properties and the extrusion of materials under pressure up to about 200,000 psi. Apparatus is described for carrying out tension and torsion tests under pressure. Results are given and discussed on the effect of pressure on: the ductility of various materials, the correlation of the fracture stress obtained in tension and torsion tests under pressure, and on the variation with pressure of the ratio of the radii of the minimum cross section to that of the curvature at the neck. Typical stress-strain curves under pressure are given, as are some results on the effect of soaking at pressure on the atmospheric tensile properties.

Two applications of high pressure to the extrusion of metals are described: one, hydrostatic extrusion, in which a high-pressure liquid instead of a ram is used to extrude metals; the other, in which the metal is extruded into or against a hydrostatic pressure thus allowing the satisfactory extrusion of brittle metals. Results are given of the hydrostatic extrusion of a number of materials, and the mechanics of the process are discussed. The potential of the method for the extrusion of long billets is illustrated.
2-1 The Problems of Engineering Testing for Coldwelding
Authors: Hammel R. L.
Published: September 2009

These comments address the problems of testing for the potential failure modes of coldwelding. Increasingly complex mission requirements for space systems impose additional impetus to the understanding of materials behavior in relation to environmental influences since this concerns a great number of mechanical functions. These functions require some form of loadbearing contact, separation or translation between the faying surfaces.
2-4 Definition and Evaluation of Parameters Which Influence the Adhesion of Metals
Authors: Gilbreath William P.
Published: September 2009

The adhesion of metals is a complicated function of bulk and surface properties. Experiments, performed to define and evaluate the properties which influence the adhesive behavior of contacting bodies, showed that the interaction of the metal with its environment, the nature of any resulting contaminants formed on its surface, and certain mechanical properties (e.g., tensile strength, penetration hardness, and ductility) related to the plastic and elastic properties of the material were most important. To assess the influence of these properties, the adhesion of initially clean surfaces, generated by fracturing metals in an ultra-high vacuum, was monitored as a function of carefully controlled test parameters — material, gaseous environment, exposure time, load, contact time or load duration, temperature, and vibration.
2-5 Flight Reactor Materials Development, Self-Weld Studies
Authors: Kellogg L. G.
Published: September 2009

The nuclear reactor operating in space provides a unique environment which imposes one of the most stringent materials problems confronting the aerospace designer today. Environmental temperatures around the reactor control system range from 700 to 1300F, with radiation levels, per year, of 1019 nvt fast neutrons and gamma to 1013 rad. These conditions, combined with outer space vacuum below 10−7 torr, provide opportunity for contacting surfaces to “weld” together.
3-6 Production of Surface Electrostatic Charging on Dielectrics Cleaved in Vacuum: Theoretical
Authors: Grossman Jack J.
Published: September 2009

Ryan (this Conference) has observed the formation of considerable surface charging for silicates cleaved at 10−10 torr. This charging is stable, apparently non-uniform on a macroscopic scale, persists to 10−4 torr, and contributes significantly to the adhesion. Additional observations have been that the resultant force field is of such a nature that it can rotate the samples into alignment, and that while on some occasions the samples are attracted to any metal in the vicinity on other occasions there is no attraction. This paper considers mechanisms which could be responsible for this charging; in particular, the electronic structure of crystalline dislocations and non-uniform impurity distributions which produce charge mosaics.
Critical Evaluation of Existing Specifications for Polyisocyanurate (ISO) Foam Insulation Boards in Roofing Applications
Authors: Mukhopadhyaya Phalguni , Baskaran Bas , Normandin Nicole , Lackey John , Evoniak Sebastian
Published: September 2009

In North America, more than 50 % of low slope roofing applications uses faced rigid cellular polyisocyanurate (hereafter abbreviated as ISO) board as thermal insulation. Long-term performance of a roof assembly is critically dependent on the ISO characteristics during the service period in various environmental conditions. For this reason, the ASTM C 1289-02, “Standard Specification for Rigid Cellular Polyisocyanurate Thermal Insulation Board,” outlines the physical and thermal property requirements for the ISO boards. However, these requirements are based on the available knowledge, information, and consensus at the time of drafting and balloting of the ASTM standard. Nevertheless, the standard gets updated and revised when more credible data are available that solicits revisions of the current standard.This paper presents experimental results from an ongoing pilot research study that critically evaluates the ASTM C 1289-02 specification requirements for the ISO on three engineering properties: (1) dimensional stability, (2) thermal resistance, and (3) compressive strength. Preliminary results from this study reveal many unknown phenomena, particularly regarding the dimensional stability and compressive strength of ISO boards.
Remediating Basement Leaks
Authors: Henshell Justin
Published: September 2009

This paper discusses and reviews several of the more common causes of water infiltration into basements such as: failure of the waterproofing system, structural failure of the foundation or slab, and an increase in hydrostatic pressure. Recommendations are offered for alleviating water pressure by modifying above grade building components, altering topographical elements and the use of internal and external drains. Techniques are described for stopping water infiltration by applying negative side water-proofing materials, injecting grouts and chemicals in the soil around the foundation walls, under slabs, behind walls, and into leaking cracks and joints. The paper concludes with a review of the various materials and systems that are used for repairing leaking basements together with their pros and cons.
Investigation of the Effect of Heat on Specially Formulated Thermoplastic Polyolefin (TPO) Films by Thermogravimetry, Dynamic Mechanical Analysis, and Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy
Authors: Delgado Ana H. , Howell George , Ober Randy , Oliveira Paul E. , Peterson Arnold , Boon Richard , Paroli Ralph M.
Published: September 2009

To explore the use of chemical methods of analysis in investigating the performance of thermoplastic polyolefins (TPO), the ASTM D08.18 Subcommittee undertook a study to evaluate TPO films of known composition. These specially formulated films with varying amounts of stabilizers were heat-aged for up to 56 days according to ASTM D 6878-03 and then analyzed using dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA), thermogravimetry (TG), and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. These techniques were found to be useful in characterizing the effect of heat on the TPO films under study and it is believed that they could be used to evaluate actual TPO membranes. Please note that these are films and not roof membranes. The formulations used for the films could be modified for use in actual membranes.
Evaluation of the Rheological Properties and Master Curve Development for Bituminous Binders Used in Roofing
Authors: Rowe Geoffrey M. , Baumgardner Gaylon L.
Published: September 2009

As dynamic shear rheology (DSR) testing of asphalt binders is becoming the primary mode to evaluate asphalt binders worldwide, an understanding of the rheological performance of asphalt binders has become increasingly important. Such understanding of the basic principles of rheology is essential for those developing and applying specifications, as well as developers and producers of new and enhanced roofing binders. This paper discusses the determination of the complex shear (stiffness) modulus (G*) and phase angle (δ) of bituminous binders over a range of temperatures and frequencies when tested in harmonic sinusoidal oscillatory shear mode using a dynamic shear rheometer (DSR) with parallel plate test geometry where both plates are controlled at the same temperature. Rheological measurements and master curves for six different binders used in the manufacture of industrial roofing materials are presented. The data presented are results of testing of unaged and oven-aged binders to include a standard air blown binder, a catalytically air blown binder, and various modified bitumen binders.
Effect of Age and Experience on Lower Leg Fractures in Alpine Sports
Authors: Greenwald Richard M. , Laporte Jean-Dominique
Published: September 2009

The purpose of this study was to test the hypothesis that age and experience level significantly affect injury rates, and lower leg fracture injury rates in particular, in a sufficiently large Alpine sports population. An epidemiology study of skiing, snowboarding, and skiboarding injuries at three large ski resorts covered by the Médecins de Montagne epidemiology network in France was conducted for data collected during the 1998–2004 seasons. Medical injury diagnosis data at the mountain clinic were compiled along with demographic information about the injured skier and their equipment. The population at risk for each sport was determined by collecting control data in parking lot surveys and at the base of lifts using previously published methodologies. There was no significant change in overall injury rates over the seven years for any of the Alpine sports studied. Lower leg fractures and shoulder injuries dominate skiboard injuries, wrist fractures and shoulder injuries dominate snowboard injuries, and knee injuries continue to dominate skiing injuries. The overall rate of lower leg fractures in skiboarding was three to four times higher than in skiing. However, skiers less than 16 years old had approximately the same rate of lower leg fractures as skiboarders of similar age. Overall, beginners had a significantly higher injury rate for all major injury groups. Lower leg fractures occurred in beginner skiers at approximately the same rate as beginner skiboarders. Knee sprains occur much less frequently in skiboarders than skiers. These results demonstrate that while overall injury rates for a specific injury may be significantly different among Alpine sports, controlling for age and ability has a significant impact and must be accounted for when comparing injury rates.
Do Helmets Reduce Fatalities or Merely Alter the Patterns of Death?
Authors: Shealy Jasper E. , Johnson Robert J. , Ettlinger Carl F.
Published: September 2009

The use of helmets has been proposed as a means of reducing the incidence of fatality in skiing and snowboarding. This paper presents results that suggest that while helmets may be effective at preventing minor injuries, they have not been shown to reduce the overall incidence of fatality in skiing and snowboarding even though as many as 40 % of the population at risk are currently using helmets. The results indicate that the use of a helmet will indeed influence the primary cause of death, but perhaps not the ultimate outcome.
Injuries in Norwegian Ski Resorts the Winter Seasons of 2005 and 2006
Authors: Ekeland Arne , Rødven Andreas
Published: September 2009

A central ski patrol-based registration of skiing and boarding injuries was performed by the Norwegian Ski Lift Association during the winter seasons 2004/2005 and 2005/2006. Totals of 8130 injured skiers/boarders and 5.466 million skier/boarder days were recorded during the two seasons, giving an injury rate of 1.5 injured per 1000 skier/boarder days. Most of the injuries occurred during alpine skiing (58 %) and snowboarding (35 %), compared to telemark skiing (3 %) and skiboarding (4 %). Wrist injuries were common among injured snowboarders (26 %) compared to only 5 % each for the others (P<0.001). The knee was the main injury location in alpine skiers (24 %) compared to 23 % among skiboarders, 14 % among telemarkers and only 7 % among snowboarders (P<0.001). The percentage of knee injuries in females (28 %) was almost twice as high as for males (P<0.001), whereas shoulder injuries were twice as high in males (17 %) as in females (8 %) (P<0.001). As a percentage of all injuries, skiboarders suffered more fractures (34 %) than snowboarders (33 %), telemarkers (26 %), and alpine skiers (22 %) (P<0.001), but fracture of the lower leg was uncommon among snowboarders (1 %) and telemarkers (3 %) compared to alpine skiers (6 %) and skiboarders (13 %) (P<0.001). Lower leg fractures accounted for 4 % of the injured alpine skiers 20 years and older, 3 % for adolescents aged 13 – 19 years compared to 13 % for children 12 years and younger (P<0.001). Twenty percent of the skiers/boarders were injured in terrain parks. They suffered more fractures, head, and back injuries than those injured on groomed slopes (P<0.01). In conclusion, injured alpine skiers were most prone to knee injuries, and skiboarders to lower leg fractures. This fracture was still a common injury for children in these two disciplines. Injured snowboarders were most prone to suffer wrist injuries. The prevalence of knee injuries among females was almost twice that of males, whereas the reverse was observed for shoulder injuries.
Correlative Study into Injury Epidemiology, Use of Protective Equipment and Risk Taking Among Adolescent Participants in Alpine Snow Sports
Authors: Cooper Nadine
Published: September 2009

Risk-taking and sensation-seeking behaviors have been found to be common among those engaging in activities such as mountaineering, deep sea diving, skiing, and snowboarding, all of which may be considered relatively high-risk activities for accidental injury. Risk-taking behavioral characteristics have been identified as a possible explanation for the higher incidences of snowsport injuries. The numbers of children and adolescents participating in snow sports continues to rise in Australia. In the southern states of NSW and ACT, school snowsports racing entries since 2001 have increased by 204 %. An exploratory questionnaire was conducted during the 2006 winter season to investigate injury trends, sensation seeking and risk taking in the adolescent snowsport participation population. Sixty-six participants completed a questionnaire. The participants' ages ranged from 12–18 years old with the mean age of 14 years. Alpine skiing accounted for 68.2 % of the participants, snowboarding 21.2 %, and 10.6 % cross-country skiing. Of the 66 participants, 33 suffered injuries prior to the 2006 winter season, with 19 participants having sustained two or more injuries and one participant was injured ten times. There were a total of 72 injuries among the 66 participants. Of those injured, 62 % were injured while free skiing or snowboarding, 28 % during training, and 10 % while racing. The majority (74 %) of injuries were sustained while skiing with friends, 13 % skiing with family, and 13 % skiing alone. From these results there appears to be a direct correlation between risk-taking behavior and snowsport injuries.
Pediatric Head and Neck Injuries in Snow Sports: Evaluating the Influence of Helmets
Authors: Scher Irving , Richards Darrin , Carhart Michael , Thomas Reed , Hurlen Natalie , Lam Tack
Published: September 2009

The U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission reported in 1999 that head injuries represent approximately 14 % of all skiing and snowboarding injuries. Cadman and Macnab showed that children were twice as likely as other age groups to sustain injuries to the head, face, and neck. While helmets have been shown to reduce the overall number of head injuries for the pediatric population, some members of the skiing and medical communities have indicated that pediatric helmets may increase the likelihood of neck injuries. We conducted a two-part experimental study to examine the potential effects of pediatric helmets during severe collisions. In the first part of the study, we measured the speeds of 154 children on beginner and intermediate ski slopes. Across all locations at a resort, the average speed of the children was 18.7 kph (11.6 mph). In the second part of the study, we used an instrumented Hybrid-III 10-year-old anthropomorphic test device (ATD) to determine the head accelerations, neck loads, and chest deflection associated with two impact conditions: (1) inertial neck loading created during torso impacts into a rigid barrier and, (2) direct head contact and neck loading during skier-to-pole and skier-to-skier impacts. For these tests, the ATD was accelerated to the average observed speed of pediatric skiers and snowboarders. The data show that the use of a helmet did not increase the likelihood of severe neck injury during the inertial neck loading condition. The results of the direct head contact tests showed that compressive loads on the neck were reduced with helmet use, but always exceeded injury thresholds with or without a helmet. As expected, helmet use did reduce substantially the likelihood of severe brain injury in the skier-to-pole (by 47 %) and skier-to-skier (by 69 %) impacts by decreasing the linear accelerations, angular accelerations, and head injury criterion.
Head Kinematics During Experimental Snowboard Falls: Implications for Snow Helmet Standards
Authors: Richards Darrin , Carhart Michael , Scher Irving , Thomas Reed , Hurlen Natalie
Published: September 2009

A study by Nakaguchi and Tsutsumi [“Mechanisms of Snowboarding-Related Severe Head Injury: Shear Strain Induced by the Opposite-Edge Phenomenon,” J. Neurosurg, Vol. 97, 2002, pp. 542–548] showed that 68 % of all snowboarders' head injuries were associated with backward falls, with beginner and intermediate snowboarders constituting the majority of the injured. We previously fabricated a test apparatus that replicated the fall kinematics of a snowboarder during a back-edge trip. A Hybrid-III anthropomorphic test device (ATD) outfitted with a snowboard and snowboarding gear was accelerated to a typical intermediate snowboarder's speed (30.5 ± 1.5 kph) and tripped resulting in a backward fall that terminated in a head-to-slope impact. This test protocol produced repeatable fall kinematics under realistic on-slope conditions. In this study, we characterized the fall kinematics and quantified head velocity in order to evaluate the helmet energy management requirements associated with a back-edge trip. Digital highspeed video recorded at 500 frames per second was used to quantify the snowboarder's head kinematics: (i) prior to the trip; (ii) during trip phase; (iii) during free fall; and (iv) at ground impact. Translational energy of the ATD was rapidly converted to a combination of linear and angular energy during the trip phase. Although the speed of the ATD's center of gravity decreased during the trip phase, the test data showed the absolute speed of the head increased rapidly during the fall as a result of the body's induced angular rotation. The mean head velocity normal to the slope increased from approximately zero at fall initiation to as much as 37.1 kph during the fall (122 % of the initial velocity), and was 29.1 kph at snow contact (95 % of the initial velocity). Resultant head velocity peaked at 54.3 kph (178 % of the initial velocity), and was 38.2 kph at snow contact (125 % of the initial velocity). The data presented here may be useful for assessing drop height requirements for snow helmet evaluations.
A Novel Anti-Slip Pad for Improving Steering when Exiting a Ski Lift on a Snowboard
Authors: Böhm Harald , Souckova Milena , Hösl Matthias , Senner Veit
Published: September 2009

While using ski lifts, snowboarders take the rear foot out of the binding. Therefore, steering abilities of the board are reduced, which leads to falls, potentially followed by injuries. In the past, several kinds of anti-slip pads have been introduced to provide friction between the board and the boot of the free foot. The purpose of this study was to check the usability of a novel anti-slip pad, consisting of a commonly used rubber footprint and an additional rim providing vertical grip for the frontal toes. The optimal position of the rim, with respect to maximizing the connection between the free foot and snowboard while minimizing the dexterity required to properly place the free foot into the anti-slip position, was not known. Hence, three different rim positions were evaluated based on the user opinion of which pad provided better steering abilities. Forty snowboarders assigned to three different levels, i.e., beginner, advanced, and expert, were asked to perform a series of pairwise comparisons between three prototype anti-slip pads (each with a different rim position) and an anti-slip pad with no rim for both frontside and backside turns. They performed a pairwise comparison of two prototypes while exiting a ski lift simulator. Consistent results of the preferences were found for the beginners and advanced group in both backside and frontside turns. The expert's preferences were significantly inconsistent and were therefore not convincing. For beginners and advanced snowboarders, the novel rim on the anti-slip pad enhanced the perceived steering abilities during backside turns. For the frontside turns, the rim was only useful for the advanced group. The preferred rim orientation was perpendicular or slightly backward orient with respect to the direction of travel. As the rim was assessed to improve steering qualities, it could provide more safety during the use of lifts in snowboarding.
Development of Fast Dissolving Concentrated Gibberellin Water Soluble Granular Formulations
Authors: Devisetty Bala N. , Warrior Prem , Menendez Ricardo , Beach Mark , Heiman Daniel
Published: September 2009

Gibberellins, a major group of naturally occurring plant hormones, are diterpenoid acids, known to influence a range of plant developmental processes including stem elongation, germination, dormancy, flowering, sex expression, enzyme induction, fruit size and quality, and leaf and fruit senescence. Gibberellins are commercially produced by fermentation of natural fungus, Gibberella fujikuroi. The most commonly used Gibberellic acid, GA3, is primarily formulated as solutions (2 to 5 % in isopropyl alcohol, 10 % in methyl alcohol), as 5 to 20 % wettable or soluble powders, or both, as 3.1 % soluble granules or as 1 to 10-g effervescent tablets. The other frequently used gibberellins, GA4+7, are primarily formulated as 1 to 4 % solutions either in tetrahydrofurfuryl alcohol (THFA) or in propylene glycol. Of the solvents currently used, isopropyl alcohol and methyl alcohol offer severe disadvantages such as flammability, toxicity, and restrictions in manufacturing, packaging, labeling, transportation, and warehousing. The THFA used in some of the formulations is considered corrosive to the eye and skin. Low solubility of gibberellins in propylene glycol does not permit solution formulations with greater than 2 % wt/wt gibberellins. The powder formulations are not user friendly and require quite a long time to achieve true solubility of the active component in tank mixes. Due to low solubility and undesirable hydrolysis, it has not been possible to formulate gibberellins in aqueous systems. This paper will present formulation studies leading to the development of stable, high potency (GA3 at 40 % wt/wt and higher; GA4+7 at 10 % wt/wt and higher), dust free, instantly water wettable, dispersible, and soluble Gibberellin plant growth regulator granular formulations by low pressure extrusion methodology. Field biological efficacy studies on grapes showed concentrated water soluble granular formulation either equivalent or superior to the standard powder formulation.
Controlled Release Pellet Formulation
Authors: Houghton Richard
Published: September 2009

This paper is a general overview of a new controlled release formulation of imidacloprid in the form of an extruded pellet. This material delivers 50 g imidacloprid per kg of product. The formulation consists of a polymer/starch matrix which is partially biodegradable. The product consists of 2-mm-diam. spherical pellets and is available under the suSCon® trade name. This technology allows long term protection from canegrub damage with imidacloprid by controlling its release into the soil. After release from the pellets, imidacloprid acts on canegrubs in a number of ways, including: soil ingestion, soil contact and root ingestion. The pellet does not exhibit anti-feeding or repellency properties. Soil moisture appears to be the major factor controlling the release of the imidacloprid active ingredient. Under normal field conditions the pellet will release imidacloprid for 1.5–2 plus years. The pellet consistently increases cane and sugar yield in the plant and has shown to be beneficial against infestations in the first three crop cycles.
Microencapsulated Clomazone: Formulation Stability, Tank Mix Volatility, and Solvent Effects
Authors: Keifer David W. , Dexter Robin W. , Nicholson Paul , Pepper Robert F.
Published: September 2009

Clomazone is microencapsulated and sold in the U.S. as a dispersion in water, a capsule suspension (CS), under the name Command® 3ME herbicide. Our encapsulated formulation reduces the volatility of the active ingredient when it is applied to the soil surface in a typical agricultural spray use. The commercialized formulation was selected from among hundreds of encapsulated formulations for its ability to reliably control volatility. Many of the rejected formulations did not control volatility, and it was only through a careful optimization of the encapsulation process that we came to our selection. As part of our formulation development process, we developed a laboratory volatility assessment method for use in screening formulations. This method determined the volatility following a soil application and normalized the volatility of the encapsulated formulations to that of the older Command 4EC herbicide formulation. Our optimized formulation was introduced to the market in 1996 to control volatility. A sample of the first production batch of commercial clomazone 3CS formulation, which had been stored at room temperature and regularly assessed for ten years, continues to provide excellent control of volatility. This indicates that the capsules have remained intact and functional, and that the proportion of clomazone in the capsule, versus outside, has not changed as the formulation aged. When these capsules are diluted in water, some clomazone slowly diffuses out of the capsules. This release is limited by the water solubility of clomazone. Even for excessive residence times in the spray tank, the volatility from the soil surface increased only slightly and was well within the acceptable range, for dilutions used for agricultural spray application. Improper addition of solvents and surfactants to the formulation can provide a phase where the clomazone is soluble, and this solubility will extract clomazone from the capsules. Under these conditions the volatility of the product increased so that it was similar to an unencapsulated formulation. In contrast, addition of other herbicides or spray additives to the spray tank mix had little impact on the volatility.
New Solvents for Agriculture—A Theoretical Modeling Approach
Authors: Zhang Lei
Published: September 2009

Due to increasing environmental and regulatory concerns, many traditional solvents used in agricultural applications are currently under scrutiny. The agricultural industry needs to find alternative solvents that are environmentally friendly while continuing to deliver traditional solvent performance. A theoretical approach based on Hansen solubility parameters is described to screen potential new solvents using molecular modeling. In order to correlate theoretical data, experimental solubility data was developed for a number of agro active ingredients representing several different chemical classes. Experimental data results partially supported the theoretical approach used in this study. A trend was observed that can be used to select potential new solvents. A number of lead candidates were defined for further investigation.
Use of a Soil Surfactant with Fungicides for Control of Fairy Ring Disease in Turfgrass
Authors: Fidanza M. A. , Wong F. P. , Kostka S. J. , McDonald S. J.
Published: September 2009

Fairy ring is the common name for a complex disease of turf encompassing the appearance of mushrooms, circles of stimulated grass, or rings of damaged or dead turfgrass maintained for lawns, athletic fields, or golf courses. Type-I fairy ring is especially destructive due to the development of water repellent or hydrophobic soil conditions and the subsequent decline and damage to the existing turfgrass. Fairy ring management strategies, particularly the control or suppression of Type-I fairy ring symptoms, has been inconsistent in effectiveness. The objective of this field study was to evaluate the efficacy of fungicides recommended for fairy ring control when applied alone and with a soil surfactant. This research was conducted on cool-season turfgrass in California in 2005, and in Pennsylvania in 2006. The same treatments were applied at both locations. The four fungicide treatments were evaluated at 620 g active ingredient (a.i.) azoxystrobin∙ha−1, 9757 g a.i. flutolanil∙ha−1, 310 g a.i polyoxin-D∙ha−1, or 558 g a.i. pyraclostrobin∙ha−1. Each fungicide was applied alone and in a tank-mix combination with the modified alkylated polyol soil surfactant (100 % concentration) at 19 L product∙ha−1. All treatments were applied at two water carrier volumes of 814 and 1628∙ L∙ha−1. At both locations, Type-I fairy ring symptoms were noticeably reduced in plots treated with fungicides plus soil surfactant at either water carrier volume versus plots treated with fungicides alone applied at 814 L water carrier ha−1. Therefore, the consistently best overall treatment for the control or suppression of Type-I fairy ring symptoms was fungicides plus soil surfactant at either water carrier volume. The application of plant protection products at the lower water volume is preferred by turfgrass managers and practitioners; thus the utility of soil surfactants applied with fungicides is a useful strategy for the chemical control of fairy ring in turf.