bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Mechanistic analysis of temperature-dependent current conduction through thin tunnel oxide in n+-polySi/SiO2/n+-Si structures
Authors: Samanta Piyas
Published: September 2017

We present a detailed investigation on temperature-dependent current conduction through thin tunnel oxides grown on degenerately doped n-type silicon (n+-Si) under positive bias (VG) on heavily doped n-type polycrystalline silicon (n+-polySi) gate in metal-oxide-semiconductor devices. The leakage current measured between 298 and 573 K and at oxide fields ranging from 6 to 10 MV/cm is primarily attributed to Poole-Frenkel (PF) emission of trapped electrons from the neutral electron traps located in the silicon dioxide (SiO2) band gap in addition to Fowler-Nordheim (FN) tunneling of electrons from n+-Si acting as the drain node in FLOating gate Tunnel OXide Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory devices. Process-induced neutral electron traps are located at 0.18 eV and 0.9 eV below the SiO2 conduction band. Throughout the temperature range studied here, PF emission current IPF dominates FN electron tunneling current IFN at oxide electric fields Eox between 6 and 10 MV/cm. A physics based new analytical formula has been developed for FN tunneling of electrons from the accumulation layer of degenerate semiconductors at a wide range of temperatures incorporating the image force barrier rounding effect. FN tunneling has been formulated in the framework of Wentzel-Kramers-Brilloiun taking into account the correction factor due to abrupt variation of the energy barrier at the cathode/oxide interface. The effect of interfacial and near-interfacial trapped-oxide charges on FN tunneling has also been investigated in detail at positive VG. The mechanism of leakage current conduction through SiO2 films plays a crucial role in simulation of time-dependent dielectric breakdown of the memory devices and to precisely predict the normal operating field or applied floating gate (FG) voltage for lifetime projection of the devices. In addition, we present theoretical results showing the effect of drain doping concentration on the FG leakage current.
Acceptor evolution in Na-implanted a-plane bulk ZnO revealed by photoluminescence
Authors: He Haiping , Zhu Ying , Lei Meng , Ye Zhizhen
Published: September 2017

Knowledge of acceptors is critical to the understanding of the p-type doping mechanism of ZnO. Here, we report the influence of annealing temperature and polarity on the acceptor formation in Na-implanted a-plane ZnO bulk crystals, which has been studied by low temperature photoluminescence spectroscopy. The formation of a Na acceptor is evidenced by the acceptor bound exciton emission around 3.35 eV, which depends strongly on the annealing temperature. Unlike the reported results in ZnO thin films, the conditions for Na acceptor formation are harsher in nonpolar ZnO than in the polar one. The acceptors gradually transform into donors when the annealing temperature is elevated or when the crystals are aged, thus calling for effective control over the stability.
Critical phase transitions during ablation of atrial fibrillation
Authors: Iravanian Shahriar , Langberg Jonathan J.
Published: September 2017

Atrial fibrillation (AF) is the most common sustained cardiac arrhythmia with significant morbidity and mortality. Pharmacological agents are not very effective in the management of AF. Therefore, ablation procedures have become the mainstay of AF management. The irregular and seemingly chaotic atrial activity in AF is caused by one or more meandering spiral waves. Previously, we have shown the presence of sudden rhythm organization during ablation of persistent AF. We hypothesize that the observed transitions from a disorganized to an organized rhythm is a critical phase transition. Here, we explore this hypothesis by simulating ablation in an anatomically-correct 3D AF model. In 722 out of 2160 simulated ablation, at least one sudden transition from AF to an organized rhythm (flutter) was noted (33%). They were marked by a sudden decrease in the cycle length entropy and increase in the mean cycle length. At the same time, the number of reentrant wavelets decreased from 2.99 ± 0.06 in AF to 1.76 ± 0.05 during flutter, and the correlation length scale increased from 13.3 ± 1.0 mm to 196.5 ± 86.6 mm (both P < 0.0001). These findings are consistent with the hypothesis that transitions from AF to an anatomical flutter behave as phase transitions in complex non-equilibrium dynamical systems with flutter acting as an absorbing state. Clinically, the facilitation of phase transition should be considered a novel mechanism of ablation and may help to design effective ablation strategies.
Shocking of metallic glass to induce microstructure heterogeneity: A molecular dynamics study
Authors: Ma Chi , Wang Guo-Xiang , Ye Chang , Dong Yalin
Published: September 2017

Surface severe plastic deformation (SSPD) has been demonstrated to improve the ductility of metallic glass. The physical interpretation, however, remains on the phenomenological level. In this study, a molecular dynamics (MD) simulation is carried out to elucidate the molecular mechanisms underlying the improvement in ductility. MD simulation reveals that shock waves resulting from SSPD can induce pre-deformed atoms, which are randomly embedded in the matrix of the metallic glass. The pre-deformed atoms have similar stress distribution and short-order structure as the matrix atoms, but with a larger atomic volume. When subjected to tensile or compressive stress, more shear bands are promoted by the pre-deformed atoms in the shock-treated sample as compared to the untreated one. The randomly distributed shear bands were found to experience more interactions, which delayed the catastrophic fracture, leading to increased ductility.
Effect of Cu solubility on electromigration in Sn(Cu) micro joint
Authors: Lin E. J. , Tang Y. K. , Hsu Y. C. , Tseng H. W. , Liu C. Y.
Published: September 2017

The present work investigated the effect of in-situ Cu solubility on electromigration behavior in the current-stressed Cu/Sn/Cu microjoint. Firstly, we deduced that the in-situ Cu solubility in a current-stressed Cu/Sn/Cu microjoint can be determined by the magnitude relationship between the dissolution Cu flux and the electromigration Cu flux in the current-stressed Sn matrix. And, the in-situ Cu solubility in the current-stressed Sn solder matrix governs the electromigration-induced failure modes of the microCu/Sn/Cu solder joints. If the dissolution Cu flux is larger than the electromigration Cu flux, the equilibrium Cu solubility can be maintained in the Sn solder matrix, and the electromigration of the Sn host atoms can be retarded. Thus, no electromigration-induced voids could occur in the Sn solder matrix. Only electromigration-induced Cu-pad consumption could be observed at the cathode Sn/Cu interface under this condition. On the other hand, if the dissolution Cu flux is smaller than the electromigration Cu flux, the Cu solute in the Sn matrix phase is depleted by the electromigration Cu flux. Then, the Sn host atoms would electromigrate toward the anode side. Void formation occurs in the Sn matrix phase near the cathode interface.Using the magnitude relationship between the dissolution Cu flux and the electromigration Cu flux, the boundary parameters (critical temperatures and current densities) defining the electromigration-induced failure modes can be obtained. With the obtained boundary parameters, an electromigration-induced failure diagram is constructed, which can distinguish and predict the electromigration-induced failure modes (void formation and Cu-pad consumption) in the microCu/Sn/Cu solder joint.
A perturbation theory approach to the stability of the Pais-Uhlenbeck oscillator
Authors: Avendaño-Camacho M. , Vallejo J. A. , Vorobiev Yu.
Published: September 2017

We present a detailed analysis of the orbital stability of the Pais-Uhlenbeck oscillator, using Lie-Deprit series and Hamiltonian normal form theories. In particular, we explicitly describe the reduced phase space for this Hamiltonian system and give a proof for the existence of stable orbits for a certain class of self-interaction, found numerically in previous studies, by using singular symplectic reduction.
Compact OAM microscope for edge enhancement of biomedical and object samples
Authors: Gozali Richard , Nguyen Thien-An , Bendau Ethan , Alfano Robert R.
Published: September 2017

The production of orbital angular momentum (OAM) by using a q-plate, which functions as an electrically tunable spatial frequency filter, provides a simple and efficient method of edge contrast in biological and medical sample imaging for histological evaluation of tissue, smears, and PAP smears. An instrument producing OAM, such as a q-plate, situated at the Fourier plane of a 4f lens system, similar to the use of a high-pass spatial filter, allows the passage of high spatial frequencies and enables the production of an image with highly illuminated edges contrasted against a dark background for both opaque and transparent objects. Compared with ordinary spiral phase plates and spatial light modulators, the q-plate has the added advantage of electric control and tunability.
Mechanical anisotropy and strain-tailored band structures of pentagonal boron nitride monolayers
Authors: Pang Qiaotong , Liu Lizhao , Zhao Jijun
Published: September 2017

Employing density functional theory calculations, mechanical and electronic properties of stable penta-B2N4 and penta-B3N3 monolayers are investigated. The different mechanical parameters obtained along different tensile directions suggest both the penta-B2N4 and penta-B3N3 demonstrate mechanical anisotropy. Moreover, due to the lower space group symmetry of penta-B3N3, its anisotropy is more prominent than that of the penta-B2N4. It was found that both the penta-B2N4 and penta-B3N3 are fast to fracture along the direction R1 due to the small fracture strain, but hard to be stretched because of the large Young's modulus. Generally, penta-B2N4 shows better mechanical properties than those of penta-B3N3 in terms of Young's modulus and intrinsic strength. Besides, under the tensile strain, penta-B2N4 keeps its metallicity, but the band gap of penta-B3N3 can be effectively tailored, even inducing a transition from the direct to indirect band gap or transition from the semiconductor to metal. Further analysis of partial charge densities indicates breaking of B–N bonds is the main cause for the band gap enlargement, and similarly, formation of B–N bonds is the reason for the semiconductor-to-metal transition of penta-B3N3.
Note: A high-energy-density Tesla-type pulse generator with novel insulating oil
Authors: Liu Sheng , Su Jiancang , Fan Xuliang
Published: September 2017

A 10-GW high-energy-density Tesla-type pulse generator is developed with an improved insulating liquid based on a modified Tesla pulser—TPG700, of which the pulse forming line (PFL) is filled with novel insulating oil instead of transformer oil. Properties of insulating oil determining the stored energy density of the PFL are analyzed, and a criterion for appropriate oil is proposed. Midel 7131 is chosen as an application example. The results of insulating property experiment under tens-of-microsecond pulse charging demonstrate that the insulation capability of Midel 7131 is better than that of KI45X transformer oil. The application test in Tesla pulser TPG700 shows that the output power is increased to 10.5 GW with Midel 7131. The output energy density of TPG700 increases for about 60% with Midel 7131.
Two-dimensional InSe as a potential thermoelectric material
Authors: Hung Nguyen T. , Nugraha Ahmad R. T. , Saito Riichiro
Published: September 2017

Thermoelectric properties of monolayer indium selenide (InSe) are investigated by using Boltzmann transport theory and first-principles calculations as a function of Fermi energy and crystal orientation. We find that the maximum power factor of p-type (n-type) monolayer InSe can be as large as 0.049 (0.043) W/K2m at 300 K in the armchair direction. The excellent thermoelectric performance of monolayer InSe is attributed to both its Seebeck coefficient and electrical conductivity. The large Seebeck coefficient originates from the moderate (about 2 eV) bandgap of monolayer InSe as an indirect gap semiconductor, while its large electrical conductivity is due to its unique two-dimensional density of states (DOS), which consists of an almost constant DOS near the conduction band bottom and a sharp peak near the valence band top.
Note: A high-frequency signal generator based on direct digital synthesizer and field-programmable gate array
Authors: Du Yuanbo , Li Wenbing , Ge Yapeng , Li Hui , Deng Ke , Lu Zehuang
Published: September 2017

A high-frequency signal generator based on direct digital synthesizer (DDS) and field-programmable gate array (FPGA) is presented. The FPGA provides the controlling time sequence for the DDS, which has a highest output frequency of 1.4 GHz and a frequency resolution of 190 pHz. At an output frequency of 1.2 GHz, the measured phase noise, including the contribution of the reference clock, is −65 dBc/Hz@1 Hz, while the intrinsic phase noise is −82 dBc/Hz@1 Hz. Time delay of the DDS is measured to be less than 150 ns. The signal generator is used to drive an acousto-optic modulator, and the rise time due to the whole link is 24 ns. The developed signal generator can be used in many precision measurement experiments in the fields of atomic, molecular, and optical physics.
A thermodynamic theory of granular material endures
Authors: Smart Ashley G.
Published: September 2017

Theorists have tested what seemed like an untestable conjecture: that all the possible arrangements of grains in a packing are equally probable.
Ground spices to stabilise lamb burgers made of lower- or higher-value carcass cuts
Authors: Cózar Almudena , Rubio Noemí , Vergara Herminia
Published: September 2017

The effect of adding powdered spices (sage, garlic or clove) on the pH, cooking yield (CY), cooking loss (CL), diameter reduction (DR), shear force (SF), colour coordinates, microbial concentration and lipid oxidation (LO) in two types of lamb burger (made with leg (L) or with leg + neck + breast meat (LNB)) was assessed over a 6-day period. The addition of powdered spices (sage, garlic or clove) did not affect the physico-chemical parameters or the microorganism count. LO values increased (P < 0.001) in burgers spiced with garlic or non-spiced (control) burgers in both formulations (L and LNB). However, sage or clove stabilised LO values during the storage period. In general, L burgers presented higher CY but lower CL, DR, SF and colour-coordinate values than did LNB burgers. Types of lamb burger (L or LNB) affected the total viable count at 6 days of storage (P < 0.001) and Pseudomonas spp. at 0 and 3 days of storage (P < 0.001), with L samples showing higher values than the LNB ones. LO did not vary with the type of meat used.
Private sex workers’ engagement with sexual health services: an online survey
Authors: Thng C. , Blackledge E. , McIver R. , Smith L. Watchirs , McNulty A.
Published: September 2017

This study examined where private sex workers (PSW) present for sexual health services, disclosure, services received, and their satisfaction with care. An online anonymous survey was conducted via SurveyMonkey (surveymonkey.com). Among the 53 participants, 42% attended a sexual health clinic, 24% attended a general practitioner (GP) and 34% attended both. Participants attending GPs were less likely to be offered a throat swab and opportunities for cervical screening, contraception and vaccination were often missed in both service models. Participants attending GPs were less likely to disclose sex work and were less satisfied. Better awareness of the sexual health needs of PSWs is important in GP services.
Retaining HIV-positive patients in HIV care: a personalised approach for those at risk of loss to follow-up at an inner city sexual health service
Authors: Healey Loretta , O'Connor Catherine C.
Published: September 2017

In 2013 a personalised approach to follow-up of HIV patients who had withdrawn from HIV care was taken at RPA Sexual Health, a Sydney metropolitan sexual health service. HIV patients were telephoned, sent text messages, emailed and sent letters multiple times where applicable. With this intervention 20 of 23 people who had withdrawn from HIV care re-engaged. Since that time, active follow-up of all people diagnosed with HIV has resulted in only 2% of HIV patients at RPA Sexual Health being lost to follow-up.
MicroRNA-34ainduces transdifferentiation of glioma stem cells into vascular endothelial cells by targeting Notch pathway
Authors: Jin Zaishun , Zhan Tao , Tao Jing , Xu Biao , Zheng Huizhe , Cheng Yongxia , Yan Bin , Wang Hongwei , Lu Guoqiang , Lin Ying , Guo Sufen
Published: September 2017

The function of microRNA-34a (miR-34a) in transdifferentiation of glioma stem cells (GSCs) into vascular endothelial cells (VECs) was explored by focusing on Notch ligand Delta-like 1 (Dll1). MiR-34a mimics was transfected into CD133 + glioma cell U251. The angiogenesis feature of miR-34a transfected U251 cells was investigated and the expressions of CD31, CD34, Vwf, Notch 1, and Dll1 were quantified. Length of branching vessel-like structures in the miR-34a transfected U251 cells was significantly higher than control cells. The VEC feature of miR-34a overexpressed U251 cells was further confirmed by the expressions of CD31, CD34, and vWF. Transfection of miR-34a decreased the expression of Notch 1 and Dll1. Furthermore, the miR-34a overexpression-enhanced tube formation of GSCs was suppressed when the decreased expression of Dll1 was restored. The current study highlighted the potential of miR-34a as an inducer in GSCs’ transdifferentiation into VECs by targeting Dll1.
Acute cardiorespiratory, perceptual and enjoyment responses to high‐intensity interval exercise in adolescents
Authors: Malik Adam A. , Williams Craig A. , Bond Bert , Weston Kathryn L. , Barker Alan R.
Published: September 2017

This study aimed to examine adolescents’ acute cardiorespiratory and perceptual responses during high‐intensity interval exercise (HIIE) and enjoyment responses following HIIE and work‐matched continuous moderate intensity exercise (CMIE). Fifty‐four 12‐ to 15‐year olds (27 boys) completed 8 × 1‐min cycling at 90% peak power with 75‐s recovery (HIIE) and at 90% of the gas exchange threshold (CMIE). Absolute oxygen uptake (), percentage of maximal (%), heart rate (HR), percentage of maximal HR (%HRmax) and ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) were collected during HIIE. Enjoyment was measured using the physical activity enjoyment scale (PACES) following HIIE and CMIE. Boys elicited higher absolute during HIIE work (p < .01, effect size (ES) > 1.22) and recovery (p < .02, ES > 0.51) intervals but lower % during HIIE recovery intervals compared to girls (p < .01, ES > 0.67). No sex differences in HR and %HRmax were evident during HIIE and 48 participants attained ≥90% HRmax. Boys produced higher RPE at intervals 6 (p = .004, ES = 1.00) and 8 (p = .003, ES = 1.00) during HIIE. PACES was higher after HIIE compared with CMIE (p = .003, ES = 0.58). Items from PACES “I got something out of it”, “It's very exciting” and “It gives me a strong feeling of success” were higher after HIIE (all p < .01, ES > 0.32). The items “I feel bored” and “It's not at all interesting” were higher after CMIE (all p < .01, ES > 0.46). HIIE elicits a maximal cardiorespiratory response in most adolescents. Greater enjoyment after HIIE was due to elevated feelings of reward, excitement and success and may serve as a strategy to promote health in youth.
Vps13-Mcp1 interact at vacuole–mitochondria interfaces and bypass ER–mitochondria contact sites
Authors: John Peter Arun T. , Herrmann Beatrice , Antunes Diana , Rapaport Doron , Dimmer Kai Stefan , Kornmann Benoît
Published: September 2017

Membrane contact sites between endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and mitochondria, mediated by the ER–mitochondria encounter structure (ERMES) complex, are critical for mitochondrial homeostasis and cell growth. Defects in ERMES can, however, be bypassed by point mutations in the endosomal protein Vps13 or by overexpression of the mitochondrial protein Mcp1. How this bypass operates remains unclear. Here we show that the mitochondrial outer membrane protein Mcp1 functions in the same pathway as Vps13 by recruiting it to mitochondria and promoting its association to vacuole–mitochondria contacts. Our findings support a model in which Mcp1 and Vps13 work as functional effectors of vacuole–mitochondria contact sites, while tethering is mediated by other factors, including Vps39. Tethered and functionally active vacuole–mitochondria interfaces then compensate for the loss of ERMES-mediated ER–mitochondria contact sites.
CCFold: rapid and accurate prediction of coiled-coil structures and application to modelling intermediate filaments
Authors: Guzenko Dmytro , Strelkov Sergei V
Published: September 2017

Motivation

Accurate molecular structure of the protein dimer representing the elementary building block of intermediate filaments (IFs) is essential towards the understanding of the filament assembly, rationalizing their mechanical properties and explaining the effect of disease-related IF mutations. The dimer contains a ∼300-residue long α-helical coiled coil which cannot be assessed by either direct experimental structure determination or modelling using standard approaches. At the same time, coiled coils are well-represented in structural databases.

Results

Here we present CCFold, a generally applicable threading-based algorithm which produces coiled-coil models from protein sequence only. The algorithm is based on a statistical analysis of experimentally determined structures and can handle any hydrophobic repeat patterns in addition to the most common heptads. We demonstrate that CCFold outperforms general-purpose computational folding in terms of accuracy, while being faster by orders of magnitude. By combining the CCFold algorithm and Rosetta folding we generate representative dimer models for all IF protein classes.

Availability and implementation

The source code is freely available at https://github.com/biocryst/IF; a web server to run the program is at http://pharm.kuleuven.be/Biocrystallography/cc.

Supplementary information

Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online.
Dugong: a Docker image, based on Ubuntu Linux, focused on reproducibility and replicability for bioinformatics analyses
Authors: Menegidio Fabiano B , Jabes Daniela L , Costa de Oliveira Regina , Nunes Luiz R
Published: September 2017

This manuscript introduces and describes Dugong, a Docker image based on Ubuntu 16.04, which automates installation of more than 3500 bioinformatics tools (along with their respective libraries and dependencies), in alternative computational environments. The software operates through a user-friendly XFCE4 graphic interface that allows software management and installation by users not fully familiarized with the Linux command line and provides the Jupyter Notebook to assist in the delivery and exchange of consistent and reproducible protocols and results across laboratories, assisting in the development of open science projects.

Availability and implementation

Source code and instructions for local installation are available at https://github.com/DugongBioinformatics, under the MIT open source license.
LightDock: a new multi-scale approach to protein–protein docking
Authors: Jiménez-García Brian , Roel-Touris Jorge , Romero-Durana Miguel , Vidal Miquel , Jiménez-González Daniel , Fernández-Recio Juan
Published: September 2017

Motivation

Computational prediction of protein–protein complex structure by docking can provide structural and mechanistic insights for protein interactions of biomedical interest. However, current methods struggle with difficult cases, such as those involving flexible proteins, low-affinity complexes or transient interactions. A major challenge is how to efficiently sample the structural and energetic landscape of the association at different resolution levels, given that each scoring function is often highly coupled to a specific type of search method. Thus, new methodologies capable of accommodating multi-scale conformational flexibility and scoring are strongly needed.

Results

We describe here a new multi-scale protein–protein docking methodology, LightDock, capable of accommodating conformational flexibility and a variety of scoring functions at different resolution levels. Implicit use of normal modes during the search and atomic/coarse-grained combined scoring functions yielded improved predictive results with respect to state-of-the-art rigid-body docking, especially in flexible cases.

Availability and implementation

The source code of the software and installation instructions are available for download at https://life.bsc.es/pid/lightdock/.

Supplementary information

Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online.
5. Finding Answers
Authors: Halperin Sandra , Heath Oliver
Published: September 2017

This chapter shows how to develop an answer to a particular research question. It first considers the requirements and components of an answer to a research question before discussing the role of ‘theory’ in social science research, what a ‘theoretical framework’ is, and what a hypothesis is. It then explores the three components of a hypothesis: an independent variable, a dependent variable, and a proposition (a statement about the relationship between the variables). It also looks at the different types of hypotheses and how they guide various kinds of research. It also explains why conceptual and operational definitions of key terms are important and how they are formulated. Finally, it offers suggestions on how to answer normative questions.
14. Textual Analysis
Authors: Halperin Sandra , Heath Oliver
Published: September 2017

This chapter discusses the principles of textual analysis as a means of gathering information and evidence in political research. Textual analysis has generated strong interest as a research method not only in Politics and International Relations, but also throughout the social sciences. In political research, two forms of textual analysis have become particularly prominent: discourse analysis and content analysis. The chapter examines discourse analysis and content analysis and explains the use of documents, archival sources, and historical writing as data. It considers the distinction between discourse analysis and content analysis, as well as the differences between qualitative and quantitative content analysis. It also describes the procedures that are involved in both quantitative and qualitative content analysis.
Introduction to Politics
Authors: Garner Robert , Ferdinand Peter , Lawson Stephanie
Published: September 2017

Combining theory, comparative politics, and international relations, Introduction to Politics provides an introduction to the subject. It covers both comparative politics and international relations, and contextualises this material with a wide range of international examples. The text takes a balanced approached to the subject, serving as a strong foundation for further study. The material is explored in an accessible way for introductory study, but takes an analytical approach which encourages more critical study and debate. Topics range from political power and authority to democracy, political obligation, freedom, justice, political parties, institutions and states, and global political economy.
2. Political Power, Authority, and the State
Authors: Garner Robert
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines the notion of power in relation to authority and the state. Power and authority are central concepts in politics. Politics is about competing interests and values, and this requires knowing something about power, since those who have power over others can determine which interests and values will be adopted by political decision-makers. The chapter first considers the link between power and authority before discussing the classic threefold typology of authority proposed by Max Weber: traditional authority, charismatic authority, and legal–rational authority. It then explores some conceptual questions about power; for example, whether it is the same as force, or whether it must be exercised deliberately. It also evaluates the methodological problems inherent in the measurement of power, particularly in relation to the different theories of the state such as pluralism, elitism, and Marxism.
9. Votes, Elections, Legislatures, and Legislators
Authors: Ferdinand Peter
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines some of the central issues associated with voting and electoral systems, along with the functions of legislatures. It begins by discussing the two paradoxes of voting. First, the huge number of citizens in any modern state means that no individual's vote is likely to make the difference between two or more choices, making it potentially ‘irrational’ for any individual to bother to vote at all. Yet votes make democracy possible. The second voting paradox concerns the difficulty of relying upon votes to determine the objective preferences of the public. The chapter proceeds by considering measures that aim to establish quotas to increase gender equality in legislative recruitment. It also describes different types of legislatures and the internal structure of legislatures. Finally, it analyses trends in the backgrounds of legislators in various countries, specifically focusing upon the criticism that they constitute a ‘political class’.
10. Political Parties
Authors: Ferdinand Peter
Published: September 2017

This chapter deals with political parties: why they emerged, how they can be classified, what functions they perform, how they interact, and what challenges they are facing today. One of the paradoxes about democracies is that there is almost a unanimous consensus about the indispensability of political parties. On the other hand, the benefits of being a member of a political party are bound to be minuscule compared to the costs of membership. Thus it is irrational for people to join parties. They should only form (small) interest groups. The chapter first provides a historical background on the development of political parties before discussing their functions, such as legitimation of the political system, structuring the popular vote, and formulation of public policy. It then considers different types of political parties as well as the characteristics of party systems and concludes with an analysis of the problems facing political parties today.
Introduction to International Relations
Authors: Jackson Robert , Sørensen Georg
Published: September 2017

Introduction to International Relations provides a concise introduction to the principal international relations theories, and explores how theory can be used to analyse contemporary issues. Readers are introduced to the most important theories, encompassing both classical and contemporary approaches and debates. Throughout the text, the chapters encourage readers to consider the strengths and weaknesses of the theories presented, and the major points of contention between them. In so doing, the text helps the reader to build a clear understanding of how major theoretical debates link up with each other, and how the structure of the discipline of international relations is established. The book places a strong emphasis throughout on the relationship between theory and practice, carefully explaining how theories organise and shape our view of the world. Topics include realism, liberalism, International Society, International Political Economy, social constructivism, post-positivism in international relations, and foreign policy. A chapter is dedicated to key global issues and how theory can be used as a tool to analyse and interpret these issues. The text is accompanied by an Online Resource Centre, which includes: short case studies, review questions, annotated web links, and a flashcard glossary.
13. Normative International Relations Theory
Authors: Erskine Toni
Published: September 2017

This chapter deals with normative international relations theory, a field of study that relies on a variety of approaches and theories to explore moral expectations, decisions, and dilemmas in world politics. Normative IR theory has adopted — and adapted — conceptual categories such as communitarianism and cosmopolitanism from political theory. It also borrows from moral philosophy to designate different types of ethical reasoning, such as deontology and consequentialism. The chapter begins with an overview of the history, influences, and some of the categories that normative IR theory brings to the study of international relations. It then examines the ways in which normative IR theory engages with the hidden ethical assumptions of a range of IR approaches. It also considers the case of civilian deaths during the 2003 Iraq war in relation to the the just war tradition, and more specifically to the idea that soldiers have duties to exercise restraint in war.
14. Political Democracy and State Repression
Authors: Davenport Christian
Published: September 2017

This chapter explores the relationship between political democracy and state repression. Afer providing an overview of the democracy–repression link, it considers what research has been conducted on the topic and also what has been ignored. It uses the United States and its treatment of African Americans as an example of how existing research in this field should change, as well as to emphasize the importance of disaggregation (regarding institutions, actors, and actions). The chapter concludes by suggesting directions for future research. It argues that researchers need to improve the way in which they think about the relationship between democracy and repression, and that they need to modify how they gather information about democracy and repression.
6. Actors, structures, and foreign policy analysis
Authors: Carlsnaes Walter
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines how actors and structures make foreign policy an extremely complicated field of study and how, in view of this complexity, these actors and structures have been treated in the literature on foreign policy analysis. It first provides a historical background on the field of foreign policy before discussing the role of actors and structures in ‘process’ and ‘policy’ approaches to foreign policy. In particular, it describes approaches to foreign policy based on a structural perspective, namely: realism, neoliberal institutionalism, and social constructivism. It then considers evaluates approaches from an actor-based perspective: cognitive and psychological approaches, bureaucratic politics approach, new liberalism, and interpretative actor perspective. The chapter also looks at the agency–structure problem and asks whether an integrated framework is feasible before concluding with a recommendation of how to resolve the former in terms of a constructive answer to the latter.
20. Australia and global climate change
Authors: McDonald Matt
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines Australia’s engagement with the international politics of global climate change. It first provides an overview of the problem of global climate change and its likely effects, focusing on key complexities and dilemmas regarding climate change, and the evolution of the climate change regime through the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) process. It then considers key drivers of climate diplomacy, from the ideology and foreign policy perspectives of different governments to the role of public opinion and the ebb and flow of international cooperation. It shows that Australia’s changing approach to climate change cooperation underscores the profound challenges for the climate change regime.
4. The Causes of War and the Conditions of Peace
Authors: Garnett John , Baylis John
Published: September 2017

Introduction 67

The Study of War 68

Human Nature Explanations of War 72

Wars ‘Within’ and ‘Beyond’ States 78

Conclusion 81

Scholarship dealing with the causes of war is voluminous and multidisciplinary. This chapter describes and explains theories that have been advanced by biologists, philosophers, political scientists, and sociologists about why wars occur. It groups their ideas into categories and shows how different explanations of war give rise to different requirements or conditions for peace. It is argued that it is useful to make distinctions between immediate and underlying causes of war. The chapter pays particular attention to explanations of war based on human nature and instinct, but it also considers those psychological theories that emphasize misperception and frustration as causes of aggression. The ideas of those who find the causes of war in human collectives—states, tribes, and ethnic groups—and those who favour ‘systemic’ rather than ‘unit’ explanations are also described. The chapter also looks at the debate between ‘greed’ and ‘grievance’ as a cause of civil wars....
19. A New Agenda for Security and Strategy?
Authors: Wirtz James J.
Published: September 2017

This chapter explores a range of issues that have not been included traditionally in national security agendas or considered to be within the purview of strategy. It offers a utilitarian assessment of environmental, resource, and population issues to determine whether there is a new agenda for security and strategy. It also considers the demographics of global politics by focusing on the issue of population growth, commons issues such as the tragedy of the commons, and how military action can result in direct environmental damage. Finally, it examines the spread of infectious diseases including HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, malaria, hepatitis B and C, influenza and respiratory infections, diarrhoeal diseases, and measles. The chapter argues that countries are beginning to exhibit sensitivities and vulnerabilities to issues of low politics.
2. The Sophists
Authors: Nicholson Peter
Published: September 2017

This chapter deals with the Sophists, a new kind of professional intellectual and teacher in ancient Greece who debated fundamental questions concerning human life, and particularly morality and politics. The Sophists were an important element in the major intellectual awakening, or enlightenment, in roughly the second half of the fifth century BCE. The chapter first provides a biographical background on three Sophists — Protagoras, Thrasymachus, and Antiphon — before analysing their political ideas on justice, noting the range of diffrent opinions and how they all differ from Plato. The discussion focuses on Protagoras' notion of the politics of the community, Thrasymachus' emphasis on the politics of the individual, and Antiphon's claim that justice is a convention opposed to nature. The chapter also explains how Plato sought to reconcile the conflicts of interest between the community and the individual which the Sophists highlighted.
8. Aquinas
Authors: Canning Joseph
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines St Thomas Aquinas' political ideas. Aquinas combined Aristotelian ideas with Christian concepts, distinguishing between the natural and supernatural orders, and attributing inherent validity to the natural order, including political life. His theory of law linked, through reason, the eternal law of God, natural law, human positive law, and divine law. According to Aquinas, government's justification was its purpose — securing the common good. He favoured limited monarchy in a mixed constitution. The chapter first provides a short biography of Aquinas before discussing his views on natural and supernatural orders, government, tyranny, and temporal and spiritual power. It concludes with an assessment of Aquinas' contribution to political thought in the area of just war theory.
18. The Federalist
Authors: Ball Terence
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines The Federalist's defence of the newly drafted US Constitution of 1787 and compares its arguments with those of the Antifederalists. The Federalist is a collection of newspaper columns written between October 1787 and May 1788 in support of the proposed Constitution. Its three authors — Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay — wrote under the pseudonym Publius. The chapter first provides a short biography of the authors of The Federalist before discussing a key theme to which Federalists and Antifederalists returned repeatedly: whether the system of government constituted by the new constitution was ‘republican’ or not. It also considers the arguments of both camps about the size and extent of this republic, its system of representation, the sources of civic corruption and virtue, whether a standing army is preferable to a citizen militia, and whether a republic requires a Bill of Rights to protect its citizens' liberties.
19. Wollstonecraft
Authors: Pateman Carole
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines Mary Wollstonecraft's political thought. Wollstonecraft advances the argument that the private and public are interrelated and that God has given reason to both sexes. Among her ideas: ‘natural’ qualities, including masculinity and femininity, are socially constructed; reason and virtue require cultivation; private and public virtue demands non-sexually differentiated principles and standards, and freedom, equal rights, and political representation for women and men; tyranny in private, especially in marriage, undermines political virtue and active citizenship; education must be reformed, marriage transformed into an equal relationship between loving friends, and wives must have economic independence. After providing a short biography of Wollstonecraft, the chapter analyses her views on nature, sentiment, reason, men's rights and women's freedom, private virtue, and public order. It shows how Wollstonecraft's insights challenge standard conceptions of democracy.
22. J. S. Mill on Liberty
Authors: Kelly Paul
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines John Stuart Mill's views on liberty. It first provides a short biography of Mill before discussing his revision of psychological hedonism in light of accusations by Thomas Carlyle, and Samuel Taylor Coleridge and his followers, that Mill's hedonistic naturalism is no better than a philosophy for ‘swine’. Mill addressed this charge by drawing a categorical distinction between higher and lower pleasures. The chapter also considers the equally problematic attempt to derive Mill's liberty principle from an act-utilitarian moral philosophy as well as the claim that Mill's religion of humanity involves a form of moral and philosophical coercion as great as anything he challenges. It concludes with an analysis of Mill's Considerations on Representative Government and shows that its defence of constitutional democracy reflects his philosophical liberalism.
1. Introduction
Authors: Cini Michelle , Borragán Nieves Pérez-Solórzano
Published: September 2017

This volume introduces the reader to European Union politics. It traces the historical evolution of the European Community from 1945 to early 2012. and examines theoretical and conceptual approaches that have been put forward to explain European integration and EU politics. It also takes an in-depth look at various European institutions such as the European Commission, the European Council, the European Parliament, and the Court of Justice. It also considers a sample of European policies, such as external economic policy, foreign policy, social policy, and policies on freedom, security, and justice. This introductory chapter explains what the EU is, why it was set up, what it does, who can join, who pays, and what role citizens play in the EU. It concludes with an overview of the chapters that follow.
3. From the Constitutional Treaty to the Treaty of Lisbon and Beyond
Authors: Church Clive , Phinnemore David
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines the origins, evolution, and implementation of the Treaty of Lisbon. It begins by tracing the origins of the Constitutional Treaty (CT) — and in turn the Lisbon Treaty — to the ‘Future of Europe’ debate started by the Nice European Council in 2000 and furthered by the Laeken Declaration that was adopted a year later. It then considers the 2004 Intergovernmental Conference and its attempts to produce a slightly amended text, along with efforts to establish a streamlined and more democratic European Union. It also discusses the key debates in European integration and the rejection of the CT that led to the adoption of the Lisbon Treaty. Finally, it analyses the main elements of the Lisbon Treaty as well as its significance and implementation. The chapter highlights various calls for treaty reform to provide the EU with the necessary competences and improve the institutional framework for economic governance.
6. Theorizing the European Union after Integration Theory
Authors: Rosamond Ben
Published: September 2017

This chapter considers recent theoretical work on the European Union in the context of three analytical pathways that depart from the classical debate: comparative political science, a revitalized international relations (IR), and ‘critical theory’. It first outlines the limits of the classical debate before discussing the three pathways and two additional ones beyond integration theory: governance and normative political theory. It then examines the contribution to EU studies of comparative political science in general and new institutionalist political science in particular, the emergence of social constructivist approaches to the EU, and IR's contribution to the theorization of EU external action. It also reviews approaches from the subfield of international political economy and how IR theories might be brought back into EU studies. The chapter shows that the EU continues to raise significant questions about the nature of authority, statehood, and the organization of the international system.
18. The Single Market
Authors: Egan Michelle
Published: September 2017

This chapter focuses on the evolution of the single market project, from its original conception in the 1950s, beginning with the Rome Treaty and ending with the Single Market Act I and II. It first considers market integration in historical perspective before discussing the role of the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU) in promoting market access, the balance between different economic ideals, and the regulatory strategies used to foster market integration. It then analyses the importance of the single market in promoting competitiveness and growth, along with the politics of neoliberalism and the ‘1992 Programme’. It also explores the politics of regulated capitalism and whether the single market contributes to globalization. It concludes by explaining how both traditional international relations theories of integration and newer approaches in comparative politics and international relations can be used to shed light on the governance of the single market.
23. Environmental Policy
Authors: Benson David , Jordan Andrew
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines the European Union's environmental policy. The EU has developed a variety of policies and institutions dedicated to environmental protection and sustainable development. Environmental concerns have consequently shifted from being a marginal aspect of the European integration process to one that generate relatively strong political support from citizens. The chapter begins with a discussion of four perspectives for comprehending the evolution of EU environmental policy. one of which is to explore the content of the EU's environmental action programmes (EAPs). It then considers three interacting dynamics of policy-making in the environmental sector: Europeanization, internationalization, and cross-sectoral policy integration. It also reflects on challenges that EU environmental policy-makers are likely to face in the future.