bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Dynamically triggered slip on a splay fault in the Mw 7.8, 2016 Kaikoura (New Zealand) earthquake
Authors: Hollingsworth James , Ye Lingling , Avouac Jean‐Philippe
Published: March 2017

We investigate the Mw 7.8, 2016 Kaikoura (New Zealand) earthquake by using optical satellite imagery and seismology to reveal the main features of the rupture process. Correlation of Landsat8 images reveals a 30–40 km surface rupture on the Kekerengu Fault and Jordan Thrust, with up to 12 m of right‐lateral slip. A previously unrecognized conjugate strike‐slip fault, the Papatea Fault, also slipped coseismically (3–4 m). The global centroid moment tensor (gCMT) centroid indicates both thrust and right‐lateral slip and is located ~100 km NE of the main shock epicenter. The significant non‐double‐couple component of the gCMT (25%) suggests that the main shock is not well represented by a single planar fault. Back projection of teleseismic P waves reveals two main bursts of seismic radiation: (1) at 10–20 s, near the main shock epicenter, and (2) at ~70 s, close to the observed surface ruptures. We determine a finite source kinematic model of the rupture from the inversion of seismic waveforms. We use two faults in our model, defined to match the observed slip on the Kekerengu Fault, and a deeper offshore fault with a lower dip angle to satisfy the long period seismological observations. We compute the equivalent moment tensor from our finite source model and find it to be remarkably consistent with the gCMT solution. Although little is known about the geometry of these faults at depth, if the Kekerengu Fault splays from the deeper thrust, then it provides a rare example where the contribution of slip on a splay fault can be clearly isolated in the seismological waveforms.
Formation of the Sun‐aligned arc region and the void (polar slot) under the null‐separator structure
Authors: Tanaka T. , Obara T. , Watanabe M. , Fujita S. , Ebihara Y. , Kataoka R.
Published: March 2017

From the global magnetosphere‐ionosphere coupling simulation, we examined the formation of the Sun‐aligned arc region and the void (polar slot) under the northward interplanetary magnetic field (IMF) with negative By condition. In the magnetospheric null‐separator structure, the separatrices generated from two null points and two separators divide the entire space into four types of magnetic region, i.e., the IMF, the northern open magnetic field, the southern open magnetic field, and the closed magnetic field. In the ionosphere, the Sun‐aligned arc region and the void are reproduced in the distributions of simulated plasma pressure and field‐aligned current. The outermost closed magnetic field lines on the boundary (separatrix) between the northern open magnetic field and the closed magnetic field are projected to the northern ionosphere at the boundary between the Sun‐aligned arc region and the void, both on the morning and evening sides. The magnetic field lines at the plasma sheet inner edge are projected to the equatorward boundary of the oval. Therefore, the Sun‐aligned arc region is on the closed magnetic field lines of the plasma sheet. In the plasma sheet, an inflated structure (bulge) is generated at the junction of the tilted plasma sheet in the far‐to‐middle tail and nontilted plasma sheet in the ring current region. In the Northern Hemisphere, the bulge is on the evening side wrapped by the outermost closed magnetic field lines that are connected to the northern evening ionosphere. This inflated structure (bulge) is associated with shear flows that cause the Sun‐aligned arc.
Failure characteristics of two porous sandstones subjected to true triaxial stresses: Applied through a novel loading path
Authors: Ma Xiaodong , Rudnicki John W. , Haimson Bezalel C.
Published: March 2017

We performed an extensive suite of true triaxial experiments in two porous sandstones, Bentheim (porosity ≈ 24%) and Coconino (17%). The experiments were conducted using a novel loading path, which maintains constant Lode angle (Θ) throughout the test. This path enabled the examination of the effects of Lode angle and mean stress on failure (σoct,f). Our tests covered σ3 magnitudes between 0 and 150 MPa and of Θ at −30° (axisymmetric extension), −16°, 0°, +11°, +21°, and +30° (axisymmetric compression). Test results revealed the respective contribution of each of the two stress invariants to failure stress, failure plane angle, and failure mode. In both sandstones, the shear stress required for failure increases with mean stress but decreases with Θ when shear failure mode dominates. However, the dependence of failure stress on mean stress and Θ is reversed when the compactive failure mode is in control. The compactive failure mode was evident in Bentheim sandstone when compaction bands were observed under high mean stress. The Coconino sandstone did not reach the compactive failure regime within the maximum confinement applied. The failure plane angle monotonically decreases with increasing mean stress and Θ. For Coconino sandstone, failure plane angle varies between 80° and 50° for σoct,f between 50 and 450 MPa whereas it drops to 0° as σoct,f, approaches 250 MPa in Bentheim sandstone. We employed the bifurcation theory to relate the stress conditions at failure to the development of failure planes. The theory is in qualitative agreement with the experimental data.
Self‐contained local broadband seismogeodetic early warning system: Detection and location
Authors: Goldberg D. E. , Bock Y.
Published: March 2017

Earthquake and local tsunami early warning is critical to mitigating adverse impacts of large‐magnitude earthquakes. An optimal system must rely on near‐source data to maximize warning time. To this end, we have developed a self‐contained seismogeodetic early warning system employing an optimal combination of high‐frequency information from strong‐motion accelerometers and low‐frequency information from collocated Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) instruments to estimate real‐time displacements and velocities. Like GNSS, and unlike broadband seismometers, seismogeodetic stations record the full waveform, including static offset, without clipping in the near‐field or saturating for large magnitude earthquakes. However, GNSS alone cannot provide a self‐contained system and requires an external seismic trigger. Seismogeodetic stations detect P wave arrivals with the same sensitivity as strong‐motion accelerometers and thus provide a stand‐alone system. We demonstrate the utility of near‐source seismogeodesy for event detection and location with analysis of the 2010 Mw7.2 El Mayor‐Cucapah, Baja, California and 2014 Mw6.0 Napa, California strike‐slip events, and the 2014 Mw8.2 Iquique, Chile subduction zone earthquake using observatory‐grade accelerometers and GPS data. We present lessons from the 2014 Mw4.0 Piedmont, California and 2016 Mw5.2 Borrego Springs, California earthquakes, recorded by our seismogeodetic system with Micro‐Electro Mechanical System (MEMS) accelerometers and GPS data and reanalyzed retrospectively. We conclude that our self‐contained seismogeodetic system is suitable for early warning for earthquakes of significance (>M5) using either observatory‐grade or MEMS accelerometers. Finally, we discuss the effect of network design on hypocenter location and suggest the deployment of additional seismogeodetic stations for the western U.S.
Large‐scale laboratory study of breaking wave hydrodynamics over a fixed bar
Authors: van der A Dominic A. , van der Zanden Joep , O'Donoghue Tom , Hurther David , Cáceres Iván , McLelland Stuart J. , Ribberink Jan S.
Published: March 2017

A large‐scale wave flume experiment has been carried out involving a T = 4 s regular wave with H = 0.85 m wave height plunging over a fixed barred beach profile. Velocity profiles were measured at 12 locations along the breaker bar using LDA and ADV. A strong undertow is generated reaching magnitudes of 0.8 m/s on the shoreward side of the breaker bar. A circulation pattern occurs between the breaking area and the inner surf zone. Time‐averaged turbulent kinetic energy (TKE) is largest in the breaking area on the shoreward side of the bar where the plunging jet penetrates the water column. At this location, and on the bar crest, TKE generated at the water surface in the breaking process reaches the bottom boundary layer. In the breaking area, TKE does not reduce to zero within a wave cycle which leads to a high level of “residual” turbulence and therefore lower temporal variation in TKE compared to previous studies of breaking waves on plane beach slopes. It is argued that this residual turbulence results from the breaker bar‐trough geometry, which enables larger length scales and time scales of breaking‐generated vortices and which enhances turbulence production within the water column compared to plane beaches. Transport of TKE is dominated by the undertow‐related flux, whereas the wave‐related and turbulent fluxes are approximately an order of magnitude smaller. Turbulence production and dissipation are largest in the breaker zone and of similar magnitude, but in the shoaling zone and inner surf zone production is negligible and dissipation dominates.
Assessment of western Indian Ocean SST bias of CMIP5 models
Authors: Fathrio Ibnu , Iizuka Satoshi , Manda Atsuyoshi , Kodama Yasu‐Masa , Ishida Sachinobu , Moteki Qoosaku , Yamada Hiroyuki , Tachibana Yoshihiro
Published: March 2017

The western Indian Ocean sea surface temperature (SST) is among the key factors that affect precipitation over India and East Africa. This study examined the western Indian Ocean SST biases among the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) models. It was found that the multimodel ensemble‐mean SST biases over the western equatorial Indian Ocean are warmer than the observations during the summer monsoon season. However, about half the models show positive SST biases, whereas negative ones in the other half. The models with warmer SST biases exhibit a pattern similar to the Indian Ocean Dipole, with stronger equatorial easterly wind biases during fall and a deeper thermocline in the western equatorial Indian Ocean. In the models with cooler SST biases, negative SST biases are observed over the entire tropical Indian Ocean throughout the year and the wind biases over the equatorial Indian Ocean are southeasterly during summer and fall. Heat budget analysis revealed the importance of ocean currents in forming the early summer development of SST biases over the western equatorial Indian Ocean. The formation of SST biases is related to surface current biases induced by the weaker biases of southwesterly monsoon winds and SST biases over the southwestern equatorial Indian Ocean, which are advected by the East African Coastal Currents. On the other hand, almost of all the CMIP5 models show prominent cold SST biases over the northern Arabian Sea during the premonsoon season. The SST biases are induced by excess surface cooling during the winter monsoon season.
Has China been exporting less particulate air pollution over the past decade?
Authors: Zhang Jianglong , Reid Jeffrey S. , Alfaro‐Contreras Ricardo , Xian Peng
Published: March 2017

Particulate matter (PM) pollution from China is transported eastward to Korea and Japan and has been suggested to influence surface air quality on the West Coast of the United States. However, remote sensing studies have been inconclusive as to recent trends in Chinese emissions and transport. We reconciled different passive remote sensing points of view and found that while aerosol optical thickness (AOT) as an indicator of particulate pollution has increased from the start of the observation period (2000) to 2006–2007 from the main Chinese coastal outflow regions, since then there has been a 10–20% decrease in AOT (with respect to 2007). Reductions were observed in spring, summer, and fall seasons. No improvement in exported PM pollution is found for the winter season.
Lysozyme
Authors: Imoto Taiji
Published: March 2017

Lysozymes are lytic enzymes that hydrolyse glycosidic bonds and are widely distributed in nature. They are categorised into five classes. Hen egg‐white lysozyme is the best characterised of all proteins and its reaction mechanism is explained in detail. As well as serving as a model protein for studying structure and function of proteins, its antibacterial, antiphlogistic and immune functional properties are exploited in medicines and food additives. Basic concepts of enzyme reaction mechanism, structure and function, protein chemistry and stability are described. Evolution and diversity in structure as well as the function of lysozyme as a digestive enzyme are also discussed. Methodologies in studying proteins are described in detail. A recent debate on the reaction mechanism of hen egg‐white lysozyme is also reviewed.

Key Concepts

Lysozyme is the first enzyme whose 3D structure was elucidated with X‐ray analysis and is the best‐characterised protein.

The ways to study and utilise proteins are described.

The enzyme reaction mechanism has been elucidated at the atomic level.

Lysozyme is a model protein for studying on structure and function of proteins.

The diversities in structure and function make lysozymes interesting.

A new challenging reaction mechanism for hen lysozyme has been proposed.

Lysozyme has an antibacterial action.

Lysozyme has applications in medicines and food additives.

Some lysozymes are digestive enzymes.
Conceptualisation of the Body in ‘Disability’
Authors: Edwards Steven D
Published: March 2017

According to a view derived from the philosopher Descartes, persons are composed of separable minds and bodies. It is claimed that modern medicine itself is strongly influenced by this Cartesian picture of the human person, and when it is applied to the phenomenon of disablement, this generates a specific conception of disability. Thus, when applied to physical disabilities, the Cartesian view implies that the internal, mental component of the person is unaffected by these; thus, it may be claimed that the real person is ‘housed’ or ‘imprisoned’ by their disabled body. In addition, when thinking about intellectual disabilities, the Cartesian view implies that although the body is intact, the mental component of the person is unable to ‘instruct’ the body correctly.

Key Concepts

Cartesian view of the person: human beings are composed of two distinct substances: a mental substance, or mind, and a physical substance, or body.

Cartesian conception of disability: a way of conceiving of disability which derives from the Cartesian view of the person.

Merleau‐Pontian view of the person: it is a mistake to think of persons as either wholly physical things or composed of distinct mental and physical parts. Rather, the person is a unity in which mental and physical aspects are inextricably intertwined.

Merleau‐Pontian conception of disability: a way of conceiving of disability which derives from the Merleau‐Pontian view of the person.
Biological Impacts of Climate Change
Authors: McCarty John P , Wolfenbarger L LaReesa , Wilson James A
Published: March 2017

Climate has far reaching impacts on biological systems. Survival and reproduction depend on how well adapted individuals are to local climate patterns. Climate change can disrupt the match between organisms and their local environment, reducing survival and reproduction and causing subsequent impacts on populations or species' distributions across geographic regions. Changes in climate may benefit some species and cause extinction for others. Cumulatively, it will alter biological communities and the functioning of ecosystems. Changes to ecosystem functions can in turn increase or decrease the rate of human‐driven climate change. In addition to effects of climate variables such as temperature and precipitation, plants may respond directly to rising concentrations of CO
2
, while aquatic species cope with changes in water chemistry as greenhouse gasses dissolve in water. The earth is already experiencing sufficient climate change to affect biological systems; well‐documented changes in plant and animal populations are related to recent climate change. Predicting future biological impacts of climate change remains a formidable challenge for science.

Key Concepts

Climate has a pervasive influence on individual plants and animals, populations, communities and entire ecosystems.

Changes in climate will have far reaching effects on all aspects of biology.

Climatic changes over the past several decades have already produced measurable changes in biological systems worldwide.

Species can respond to climate change by moving to areas where climate is favourable, by evolving and adapting to new environmental conditions, or, if climate changes too rapidly, by going extinct.

Analysing recent trends provides a certainty that changes will occur in biological systems valued by humans. Many of those changes will have negative impacts on human well‐being but there will be changes that will also benefit people.

Scientists try to predict how biological systems will change by analysing past changes in response to climate change, by conducting experiments and by constructing models.

Uncertainty in predictions of biological change comes both from uncertainty about the rate of future climate change and from uncertainty about the direct and indirect effects of climate change on biological systems.
Vitruvius and the Architectural Treatise in Early Modern Europe
Authors: Marder Tod A.
Published: March 2017

Vitruvius did more than anyone else to shape thinking about early modern architecture, yet, except specialists, few people are aware of the influence of his writings. As a result, many art historians believe his book was irrelevant to the understanding of both ancient and early modern architecture; others, however, believe that his treatise was profound, even fundamental to the history of the building arts. This chapter seeks to trace the impact of Vitruvius on Renaissance theory to about 1550, when the mutable strands of Vitruvius’ influence became canonized in literary contexts that assumed their own inertia. Renaissance architecture was the product of many impulses, and ideally none should be isolated from the others. This chapter traces one thread of the story that led to the construction of buildings we tend to characterize as Renaissance.
Architecture And Antique Sculpture In Early Modern Rome
Authors: Christian Kathleen
Published: March 2017

By the early sixteenth century in Rome, the display of antiquities in palace and villa architecture was widespread. Moving antiquities onto center stage, patrons appropriated for themselves the prestige of coordinated sculpture displays that had long been a part of civic and ecclesiastical architecture, as well as the symbolic values associated with “the antique.” Sculpture became an increasingly prominent element in the design of loggias, courtyards, and façades oriented toward the display of antique and pseudo‐antique objects. A variety of new solutions emerged, from sculpture courts, to arrangement of spolia in architect‐driven, ordered and planned schemes, to the full integration of sculpture and architecture in bold, inventive designs, such as the Villa Madama or the Palazzo Farnese. Experiments took place in elite commissions like these, as well as in painted versions of integrated sculpture displays, or evocations of literary descriptions of ornamented architecture. New approaches clarified sculpture's role in architectural design as a means of unifying and embellishing walls, adding new meanings and contexts to architectural space. The integration of antique sculpture and architecture in early modern Rome can be explored from multiple perspectives, taking account of its significant impact on architectural theory and practice.
What Drawings Did In Renaissance Italy
Authors: Brothers Cammy
Published: March 2017

In contrast to traditional approaches to architectural drawing, which see them as a key to the chronology of a building or the original appearance of an ancient monument, this essay centers on the broad range of functions drawings served in fifteenth‐ and sixteenth‐century Italy. It argues that drawings are not merely documents but also agents: of education, memory, thought, communication, and transmission. Through drawing, one can often see the evolution and transformation of an architect's understanding of ancient models and his approach to design. The creation and preservation of drawings allowed architects to build up an archive of their own ideas, to be utilized as needed for a range of projects. Even anonymous drawings could function as agents for the replication, variation, and circulation of ideas. Examination of the corpus of anonymous Renaissance architectural drawings reveals the way in which architectural ideas and forms circulated through the practice of copying both before and after the advent of the printed, illustrated book.
Theater And Architecture: Toward A Material History Of Renaissance Theater
Authors: Jarrard Alice
Published: March 2017

First as a legendary symbol of ancient culture, then as an experimental site for the display of architectural images, and finally as an enduring public monument, theater shaped ideas about architecture during the long Renaissance. This chapter tracks the material evolution of the theater, both as a space and as a privileged place for the display of marvelous architectural ideas. Starting on Italian soil, where the physical presence of antiquity gave powerful impetus to architects’ imaginations, it calls attention to how material substances – specifically, the use of paint, wood, and stucco – mediated architecture's meaning across Europe, and were integral to theater's modern reinvention.
Vaults and Domes: Statics as an Art
Authors: Bellini Federico
Published: March 2017

The impressive domed buildings of the early modern architecture may be understood only by assessing how their builders believed they might have stood, reconstructing the intuitive principles of statics of their times.

The modern type of domed churches, since the Brunelleschi's Sagrestia Vecchia, required some decades to be completely defined. The arrival point of the quattrocento researches was Bramante's first designs for St. Peter's (1506–07), which show the groundbreaking irregular octagonal plan, invented to carry the huge load of the Vatican “cupola.” The ideas about the dome of St. Peter's (contrived by Sangallo, Michelangelo and Della Porta) led in the middle of the seventeenth century to the great season of the baroque domed churches, most of all those by Borromini.

Just at the apogee of the Roman baroque, a new generation of French masters, such as François Mansart, entirely rethought the concept of domes: they devised multiple domes that would transform the internal space into an experience of bright surfaces, neglecting the Italian exhibition of structural firmness. After the brilliant works of Guarini, sensible to French innovations, the age of the great cupolas was eventually concluded by Wren's dome of St. Paul's, reaching the extreme limit of early modern architecture, beyond which the triangle geometry‐statics‐orders would have dissolved.
Medici Queens as Patrons in France
Authors: Frommel Sabine
Published: March 2017

Two queens, Catherine de’ Medici (1519–89) and Maria de’ Medici (1575–1642), played an important role in the evolution of architectural typology and language in France. Their destinies were not directly linked and their social situations were very different, but the unions they made responded to a political project to bring together France and Italy. As foreigners, both women had to fight against non‐acceptance, particularly in the case of Catherine because of the relatively recent nobility of her father's family, a fact that also hindered her patronage. Only after the tragic deaths of their husbands, Henri II and Henri IV respectively, did the two women commission important architectural projects that belonged to a well‐thought‐out program of propaganda that also embraced other artistic genres like painting, panegyrics, medals, and prints.
Baroque Spain: Architecture and Urbanism For a Universal Monarchy
Authors: Escobar Jesús
Published: March 2017

Around 1600, the Spanish Habsburg universal monarchy – the early modern equivalent of empire – had territorial holdings on four continents and a newly established metropolitan center in Madrid. It was a society profoundly shaped by cultural and economic exchange. With a focus on buildings and public spaces in two cities, Seville and Santiago de Compostela, this chapter explores the cosmopolitan nature of seventeenth‐century architecture and urbanism in Spain and the process of cultural exchange as people, books, and ideas about classical architecture came together – at times from distant parts of the empire – to give shape to new urban monuments.
Crossbreeding Cultures: Italian and Local, Elite and Popular. Building in Bohemia, 1490‐1720
Authors: Meyer Dirk De
Published: March 2017

From the moment Central‐European culture developed art history into an independent academic discipline, the early modern building yards of Prague and Bohemia were regarded primarily as local tributaries of an Italian, or eventually German, production, acquiring additional impurities the further away they were from the source of artistic genius. However, Prague society, with a population of artists so heterogeneous that the model of an autochthonous recipient is unsustainable, is a choice subject for the study of the sophisticated nature and techniques of artisticmétissage.

Confronting the clients' ambitions with their architects' backgrounds, this chapter shows how extraordinary forms developed in an area of religious fault lines and ethnical stratifications. The origins and particularities of some late‐baroque churches, for instance, reside in the intricate combination of ardentFormwillenand theological erudition, of Italianist baroque culture and local devotional practices. Their geometric complexities and apparent linguistic contradictions are the fruit of harsh ideological clashes and of the surprising ecclesiastical wit and the convoluted minds of abbots who, contemporaneously, often operate as real international entrepreneurs.

The resulting semantic riches have been tailored to the needs of a complex society and clientele: Modern in many ways, but still firmly rooted in pre‐Modern practices and traditions.
Laugier's Prototypal Hut, Soufflot's Sainte‐Geneviève, and the Enlightenment Theory of Representation
Authors: Levine Neil
Published: March 2017

The revolutionary concept of architectural representation based on the model of the primitive hut formulated by the young French Jesuit priest andamateurMarc‐Antoine Laugier (1713–69) is arguably the single most important contribution to modern architectural theory advanced in the Age of Enlightenment. Serving as the cornerstone of his argument for reforming contemporary architecture, Laugier's mimetic theory of representation appeared in 1753 in his anonymously publishedEssai sur l'architecture. It had a veritablesuccès de scandaleand was translated into English and German within a couple of years. In 1755 it appeared in a second French edition, this one including the name of the author and containing a number of illustrations. The most significant of these was the frontispiece, an extraordinary engraving that provided one of the boldest and most potent images ever produced of architectural representation as an imitation of nature. The primitive hut it depicted became the centerpiece around which much of the debate over modern architecture revolved during the succeeding two centuries.
Blenheim Palace (1705)
Authors: Hart Vaughan
Published: March 2017

No building of the first decade of the eighteenth century epitomized the spirit of its time more than Blenheim Palace. Built for a national hero by a grateful nation to celebrate a famous military victory, and designed by two of the leading architects of the age, Blenheim is unique in the long history of English country house building. From its start in 1705, just a year after the battle of Blenheim, it was both private house and national monument. Its principal architect, Sir John Vanbrugh, was assisted by Nicholas Hawksmoor, and both set about creating a fitting tribute to the Duke of Marlborough by drawing on contemporary ideas concerning heraldic display and the evocation of emotion through architecture.
Public Debate on Architecture in France
Authors: Wittman Richard
Published: March 2017

Western European society experienced a profound historical transformation during the eighteenth century, with the emergence of modern understandings of the public and the nature of publicness itself. For the first time, information networks, constituted mostly by an unprecedented multiplication of printed texts, became the most potent sector of the public sphere, in a sense that we now take for granted in our awareness that media coverage is how events attain “publicity.” Those in touch with this print culture became aware that there were many other readers like them who were reading the same texts, around the same time, and likely thinking similar things about them. With this shift, a modern sense of the claims of public opinion on common affairs began to take shape. As the most prestigious public art of representation, standing squarely at the intersection of space, publicity, politics, and culture, architecture occupied a unique place within these transformations. Architects, patrons, and governments found themselves compelled to translate the public meanings of their buildings into the new networks of information exchange by which the civic public sphere was now increasingly constituted. Inevitably, printing became the medium of this shift, with myriad consequences for architectural practice, reception, theory, and patronage, as well as for the understanding of architectural history. This chapter traces the most important of those consequences in French architecture between the foundation of the Royal Academy of Architecture in 1671 and the coming of the French Revolution in 1789.
Spectatorship in French Theater Architecture: Stage and Public Space
Authors: van Oostveldt Bram
Published: March 2017

Theater, as one of the oldest mass media, is often considered as the privileged place to discern the historically variable ways of how social identities are constructed and distributed. The social agency or performativity of theater is mostly studied from its representational aspects, focusing on the relation between what is performed on stage and the recipient of the performance, the spectator. However, it is equally important to include the place of performance as well. The location of the performance within the public space, its specific architecture and decorations, and its spatial structuring of the relation between performers and spectators, all contribute to theater's social agency. The importance of the performance place in the construction and distribution of social identities especially holds true for French eighteenth‐century architectural theory and practice. In a reaction to the dreadful spatial conditions of most French playhouses until deep in the eighteenth century, numerous architects and theorists proposed new ideas concerning theater architecture and the way they structured new modes of spectatorship.
St. Mary Le Strand (1724)
Authors: Hart Vaughan
Published: March 2017

St. Mary le Strand was conceived as part of the ambitious plan of 1711 for 50 new churches in London, of which the best known are Nicholas Hawkmoor's six. In the event, only 11 were fully commissioned. The original church on the Strand site had been demolished in Edward VI's reign. Hawksmoor, Thomas Archer, William Dickinson, James Gibbs, and Sir John Vanbrugh each drew up a design for the new church from around 1713. The church was eventually built to a design by Gibbs, after its approval in November 1714, with assistance from Hawksmoor.
The Office of The King's Works and Modernization of Architectural Patronage in England
Authors: Arciszewska Barbara
Published: March 2017

One of the most important institutions responsible for redefining the boundaries of eighteenth‐century patronage in British architecture was the Office of the King's Works. The Office was transformed in the early decades of the eighteenth century into a new instrument of professional interchange between the monarchy (no longer the king personally) and the evolving group of trained practitioners. The core of its business practices was shaped by the new bureaucracy, which at the time was considered one of the critical instruments of nascent modernity, its orderly procedures paralleling those of classicism itself. Eighteenth‐century British culture thus fostered a patronage and training system for architects diverging from the Continental model of professional development. Whereas the latter was defined by academic hierarchies, with their strict didactic practices and rituals, the architectural career in Britain was increasingly moderated by principles derived from bureaucratic organization and its quotidian regimes.
Denmark, Norway, and Sweden: The Flirtation With the French and Its Long‐Term Effects
Authors: Roding Juliette
Published: March 2017

In Denmark, foreign, in particular Dutch and Dutch‐trained, architects dominated the scene until the middle of the eighteenth century, but from the middle of the seventeenth century onward the Danish absolute kings started to send their court architects abroad for further education. This culminated in the establishment of the Royal Danish Academy (1754) after the French model, with the architect Nicolas‐Henri Jardin and the sculptor Jacques Saly as leading figures. In Sweden, as in Denmark, the activities of immigrant architects and artists extended well into the eighteenth century. In 1768 the Royal Academy of Fine Arts was established, followed in 1779 by a special School of Architecture. Thanks to King Gustav III's personal interest in art and architecture, the French painter, stage designer, and architect Louis‐Jean Deprez came to Sweden in 1784. It was the start of the typical Swedish neoclassicist “Gustavian Style”. In a European perspective it is striking that in the course of the eighteenth century, both in Denmark and Sweden a firm Beaux‐Arts tradition was established that would influence architectural practices and debates for more than two centuries.
The Académie Royale D'architecture (1671–1793)
Authors: Armstrong Christopher Drew
Published: March 2017

From 1671 to 1793, the Academy of Architecture existed under the direct authority of the French Royal Works Administration (theBâtiments du roi) and contributed to defining the image of the French monarchy during the reigns of Louis XIV, Louis XV, and Louis XVI. Created by Louis XIV's powerful chief minister, Jean‐Baptiste Colbert, the Academy served as a consultative body of leading professionals and included a school where aspiring young architects were exposed to the principles of classical design theory. When it was suppressed during the French Revolution, the Academy's membership comprised an outstanding array of figures whose work had contributed substantially to defining late‐eighteenth‐century neoclassicism and to reshaping Paris through numerous royal monuments and private buildings.
London, Parma, Dresden: Exposition, Competition, Exhibition
Authors: de la Ruffinière du Prey Pierre
Published: March 2017

In the period between 1700 and 1800, institutions devoted to cultivating the arts and sciences proliferated at an average of almost one a year. In addition to their time‐honored functions as places of conviviality, research, and free exchange of ideas, many European academies of the fine arts assumed an important teaching role. The goal of this chapter is to discuss three general principles—pillars you might call them—of eighteenth‐century architectural pedagogy using a different school of architecture to epitomize each. London's Royal Academy of Arts demonstrates the inspirational effect on student audiences of Professor Thomas Sandby's annual expositions on architecture, especially on account of the lecture diagrams with which he illustrated them. At Parma Academy the architecture competitions created a proving ground for a cross section of young and—in the case of 1780—international talents all vying for recognition and in the process revealing current artistic trends. Finally, and contemporaneously, Dresden Academy sheds light on the widespread practice of academic exhibitions: public, periodic, and often moneymaking forums in one of which the architect Friedrich August Krubsacius made a spectacular mark on the artistic scene with drawings of Varro's aviary, published here for the first time since they originally went on display.
Architectural Debate in Venice
Authors: Kantor‐Kazovsky Lola
Published: March 2017

To a visitor to Venice and the Veneto it may seem that the eighteenth‐century architects of the state (which included, along with the city of Venice, the important cultural centers of Padua, Verona, Vicenza, and Treviso) faithfully followed the great traditions set by architects of the past. But this is only partially true: scholars now think that Venice at the time should be credited precisely for its groundbreaking architectural thought, and for advocating a radical innovation of architectural language before the actual advent of modernism. The outcome of these fiery debates is barely perceptible in the real buildings because practicing architects usually had to accommodate themselves to public taste, which was often conservative. As the architect Giorgio Massari is said to have complained, “I know for sure that for every innovative project of mine, however based on reason, another one, imitating Palladio or Vignola, will be preferred. And who will support my family when I have no work?”
Margravial Opera House Bayreuth (1748)
Authors: van Oostveldt Bram
Published: March 2017

Together with Drottningholm Theater in Stockholm and the theater in Cesky Krumlow Castle in Bohemia, the Margravial Opera House in Bayreuth is one of the few remaining baroque theaters in Europe. Since 2012 it has been inscribed in the UNESCO World Heritage List. The opera house was commissioned in 1744 by Willhelmine of Prussia, Margravine of Brandenburg‐Bayreuth (1709–58) and inaugurated during the wedding festivities for her daughter, Elisabeth Frederike Sophie, and Duke Carl Eugene of Württemberg in September 1748. Wilhelmine got the idea for the opera house when her brother, Frederick II of Prussia, with whom she shared a love for opera, sent her the plans for the new Berlin opera, which opened in 1743. Supported by her husband, Friedrich von Brandenburg‐Bayreuth (1711–63), Wilhelmine was determined to give the small court of Bayreuth one of the most beautiful opera houses in Europe and to turn Bayreuth into a center of Italian operatic culture.
Measuring Classical Architecture
Authors: Papaioannou Amalia
Published: March 2017

The mathematician John Dee, by making architecture one of his 21 derivative mathematical arts, followed a well‐known Renaissance tradition that strove to disengage architecture from its medieval classification within the mechanical arts and to include it instead among the liberal arts. Mathematics had been the most obvious choice for association, not only because of the practical application of arithmetic, geometry, and perspective in the delineation and execution of architectural projects, but also because it elevated the art of building into a philosophical exercise, since proportional correspondences between the architectural members were thought to express Nature's universal laws. Within the realm of the eighteenth century's emphasis on science and method, and in the wake of important technological advances in the manufacture of instruments for measurement, the relationship between architecture and mathematics was reevaluated.
Zeitgeist, Style, andStimmung: Historiography of Architecture
Authors: Hvattum Mari
Published: March 2017

In the very first paragraph ofHistory of the Art of Antiquity(1764), Johann Joachim Winckelmann delivered a program statement for a new kind of art history: “The history of the art of antiquity that I have endeavoured to write is no mere narrative of the chronology and alterations of art, for I take history in the wider sense that it has in the Greek language and my intention is to provide asystem.” Merely describing artworks of the past no longer made sense, Winckelmann argued. Instead, one had to identify the laws that govern the making of art, examine the conditions under which it has been produced, and look at the way these conditions differed with time and place. Only then could a systematic understanding of art's and architecture's history emerge, as opposed to a mere assemblage of examples.
Somerset House (1776–1801)
Authors: Aymonino Adriano
Published: March 2017

This chapter examines Sir William Chambers’ transformation of Somerset House between 1776 and 1801, and his use of English Palladian architectural elements blended with contemporary Italian and French ones to create one of the most imposing administrative buildings built in England at that date.
Luscombe Castle (1799)
Authors: Macarthur John
Published: March 2017

Luscombe Castle, designed by Humphry Repton and John Nash in 1799, epitomizes a watershed moment in the history of architectural planning. The irregular form of the building was determined by views from the house, and by a logical interrelation of rooms and services. Point‐of‐view planning and functional analysis were to become precepts of modern architectural planning, and while these ideas developed across the century, Luscombe is a case where we can see these ideas consciously applied and interacting in the work of two of the most influential British designers of the late eighteenth century.
Outward Forms and Inward Spirit: The Recovery of Historical Church Architecture in the Nineteenth Century
Authors: Bann Stephen
Published: March 2017

This chapter considers a number of written accounts and visual representations of historic church architecture that originated in the nineteenth century. All the examples are drawn from France and England, and comparisons and contrasts between the two countries are emphasized. The argument is that, over this period, a particular focus came to be placed upon the experience of such historic buildings from within. The task of evoking these interiors through images and texts is seen as being tantamount to a spiritual exercise, in the case of Lamennais, though for the young Augustus Pugin the experience provoked an arousal of more troublesome sensations. A novelist like Balzac delighted in evoking the light that falls on the white walls of a village church. But toward the end of the century the French writer Pierre Loti was impelled to construct his own Gothic chamber as an integral part of his dwelling space. Though the visual enhancement of historic interiors can be detected in the early 1800s in the oils of painters such as Granet, it was new media like lithography, and eventually the photograph, that reinforced and popularized the vision of interiority through their special technical effects.
Ruskin and Victorian Gothic
Authors: Kite Stephen
Published: March 2017

The chapter examines the impact of the major cultural figure John Ruskin (1819–1900) on the character, aesthetics, and ethics of Victorian Gothic Revival architecture. It surveys three interrelated characteristics of the style of architecture known as “Ruskinian Gothic”: mass and shadow, polychromy and ornament, and changefulness. The mass and shadow section shows how the visionary art of J. M. W. Turner deepened Ruskin's sensibility to the drama of
chiaroscuro
(light and shade) in architecture. It indicates how Ruskin's
The Seven Lamps of Architecture
(1849) and
The Stones of Venice
(1851–53) were crucial in establishing mass, breadth, and dramatic shadow, as the characteristic expression of Victorian Gothic architecture from the 1850s. The section on polychromy and ornament then describes how these architects enlivened their muscular architectural forms with colors, materials, and motifs inspired by Ruskin's meditations on the marbled “incrustation” of medieval Venetian architecture, and the striated buildings of the Pisan Romanesque. The final section, on changefulness, stresses Ruskin's radical politico‐ethical ideas, showing how his challenge to free workmanship from the slavery of the machine led to the Arts and Crafts ideals represented by William Morris, and the free‐style architecture of Philip Webb and Norman Shaw.
Gothic Historiography: An Interdisciplinary Speculation
Authors: Macdonell Cameron A.
Published: March 2017

This chapter addresses the conditions of revivalism in nineteenth‐century British architecture. Specifically, it addresses the eschatological conditions of revivalism as a return from the dead and the question of haunting in Augustus Welby Northmore Pugin's British Gothic Revival church architecture. To do so, this chapter speculates on the interdisciplinarity of modern Gothic architecture and literature from the Georgian and Victorian eras of Britain, presenting three reasons why scholars of either architecture or literature (or both) have neglected the possibility of a relationship between Gothic literature and Gothic Revival architecture, especially in the buildings and books of Victorian Britain. Drawing on a theoretical discourse used in Gothic literary studies (i.e. the uncanny), this chapter presents an overlooked aspect of the uncanny: veiling human sensory experience from the awful presence of the divine. Pugin's obsession with chancel screens (and their relationship with the Mosaic separation between the holy and the holy of holies) opens the possibility of reading Pugin's mortal experience of Holy Communion as necessarily uncanny and, in the process, nuancing Pugin's negotiation of Gothic architecture as a structural principle and ornamental flourish.
The New Material‐Based Realism of Nineteenth‐Century Theory and Practice
Authors: Levine Neil
Published: March 2017

This chapter discusses the major shift in focus during the second quarter of the nineteenth century from an architecture of representation continuing the neoclassical tradition with its source in the Renaissance to a new modern architecture based on the material conditions of construction and program. The theory and practice of Augustus Welby Northmore Pugin and Henri Labrouste serve to illustrate the key index of change, the replacement of the idea of constructed decoration by that of decorated construction.
Domestic Architecture As a Mode of Separation
Authors: Adams Annmarie
Published: March 2017

A common image of the Victorian home tends toward being one of family togetherness, but it also functioned as a sophisticated mode of separation. A distinctive room arrangement separated householders by activity, age, social class, and gender. Rooms were closely associated with individual family members and became vehicles for husbands, wives, children, and servants to express family hierarchies. Hallways and stairways mediated particular forms of spatial togetherness, notably separating family members from live‐in servants. This was achieved through two separate circulation systems within the building, as well as especially scaled‐down rooms. The sheer scale of Victorian houses, the framing of the buildings by decorative landscapes, and house location (for example in suburbia) isolated the family from its neighbors and from the surrounding urban environment. Cues from hospital architects inspired ways to maximize fresh air in the middle‐class house, as a way to fight the spread of disease and to express awareness of scientific knowledge.