bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Focus on Form and Meaning: Perspectives of Developing Teachers and Action‐Based Research
Authors: Zéphir Flore
Published: January 2009

ABSTRACT  This article argues against a unidirectional model of foreign language learning whereby only theories and hypotheses generated from second language acquisition (SLA) research influence language teaching and classroom practices. To the contrary, research generated from classroom settings should help shape classroom practices and SLA theories. To further the debate, the perspectives of practitioners who ‐ unlike theoreticians ‐ assume the bulk of language instruction (be it at the secondary or postsecondary level) are introduced. By raising the “silent voices” of developing practitioners ‐ and taking their views into account as emprical data ‐ new light can be shone on the central question of focus on form versus focus on meaning. Furthermore, it is argued that action‐based research, with practitioners involved in the data collection process, is a viable option for obtaining both the qualitative and quantitative information needed to make any kind of foreign language education model useful. Finally, several research questions that constitute fertile ground for investigation by developing (and actual) teachers, and which address their needs directly, are presented.
Attrition of Foreign Language Teachers: Workplace Realities
Authors: Wilkerson Carol
Published: January 2009

ABSTRACT  Little has been published about the attrition rates of foreign language teachers. Most extant research quantifies demographic information, such as gender or age, but not the reasons teachers leave. This study reveals that foreign language teachers leave the classroom if they are unable to cope with unexpected workplace realities, often as a result of having spent little time in the field prior to full‐time teaching.
Culture and the Ethnographic Interview in Foreign Language Teacher Development
Authors: Allen Linda Quinn
Published: January 2009

ABSTRACT  In order to design and implement foreign language instruction that integrates culture with language, teachers must first have a deep understanding of the target culture and an awareness of their own culturally conditioned and individually formed beliefs, attitudes, and values. This article presents the ethnographic interview as a strategy in foreign language teacher development. Excerpts from preservice teachers' reports on an ethnographic interview assignment provide evidence that the process of conducting the interview facilitates the development of the requisite understanding and awareness.
Advanced Undergraduate French Composition: Problems and Solutions
Authors: Calvez Daniel J.
Published: January 2009

ABSTRACT  This article presents the results of a study undertaken to determine the number and nature of the problems encountered by advanced undergraduate students in a French composition course. It was hoped that, after identifying the problems, explanations could be found for the frequency and repetition of students' errors. The primary objective was to use the study findings to modify the approach or content of the course. A secondary and broader objective was to further the development of the methodology used at the beginning and intermediate levels of the study of French. This report explains why the study was undertaken, how it was conducted, what the quantitative results were, and what conclusions were reached.
Learner Accuracy and Learner Performance: The Quest for a Link
Authors: Renou Janet M.
Published: January 2009

Abstract: This paper presents the results of an exploratory study on advanced‐level French second language learners' metalinguistic awareness. Specifically, we examined learner performance in carrying out three steps of a written and oral grammatically judgment test. First, subjects' ability to identify and correct an error, and to provide the rule, which the correction entailed, was examined according to group membership (communicative or grammar), types of errors, and mode of presentation. In a second phase of the analysis, judgment ability was compared with specific aspects of L2 proficiency. Results show significant differences between the groups in their ability to provide the rule that the correction entailed. Furthermore, significant differences in judgment ability were found depending on whether the item was presented in the written or oral mode. Generally, little difference was found in levels of L2 proficiency between subjects who could correct the error and provide the rule in comparison with those who were only able to correct the error.
Turning Professional: Content‐Based Communication and the Evolution of a Cross‐Cultural Language Curriculum
Authors: Hoecherl‐Alden Gisela
Published: January 2009

Abstract: The fact that nine out of ten students drop out of language classes between the elementary and advanced levels demonstrates the need for addressing the traditional division of language and content courses prevailing in most modem language departments. Furthermore, the increasing demand for professional language classes makes it necessary to adjust the overall undergraduate program so that these courses fit meaningfully into the mainly humanities‐oriented curriculum. If students are to bridge the gap between form and meaning, courses need to move from communicative training at the elementary level through an intermediate stage that combines communicative and content‐based instruction. Finally, training students successfully for future careers in a global economy means that courses cannot focus only on content and form, but also must include a thorough development of cultural awareness. Applying ethnographic intercultural training methods to the language classroom ensures that the students attain not only linguistic but also cultural proficiency. The course structure presented in this paper demonstrates that professional school students can be trained alongside humanities majors by making minor but far‐reaching adjustments to the elementary and intermediate language program, and without placing undue constraints on departmental resources.
Student Motivation to Learn English as a Foreign Language
Authors: Shaaban Kassim A. , Ghaith Ghazi
Published: January 2009

Abstract: This study examined the motivation of 180 university‐bound Lebanese students to learn English as a foreign language (EFL). Data were gathered through administering a modified version of the motivation scale developed by Wen (1997). The findings revealed that integrative motivation, effort, valence, expectancy, and self‐estimation of ability were internally related determinants of motivation for learning EFL. Instrumental motivation was found to be related to integrative motivation and valence only. The findings also revealed that female students were more motivated than their male counterparts. Similarly, level II proficiency students were more motivated than were level III students. However, the findings did not show a significant effect on motivation related to either students' first foreign language or university major.
The Role of Homework in Foreign Language Learning
Authors: Wallinger Linda M.
Published: January 2009

Abstract: The purpose of this study was to examine the role of homework in foreign language instruction and learning. The study was conducted through questionnaires, interviews, and quantitative analysis of the amount of homework that foreign language teachers assigned their students. Special attention was given to whether or not homework expectations varied according to the type of schedule that was used for instruction.

The study results indicated that foreign language teachers at all levels felt strongly that homework is essential to language teaching and learning. However, the quantity of homework expected in French 1 classes did not vary significantly according to the schedule used for instruction. Most teachers assigned homework as a means for students to practice material that had already been taught in class. Homework in lower‐level classes consisted primarily of rote exercises, whereas homework assignments in upper‐level classes allowed students to integrate and apply the language skills they were learning. However, few teachers did more than simply check that the home‐work was done, placing little emphasis on whether or not the homework had been completed correctly. There was little evidence to indicate that homework either contributed to or detracted from the language‐learning process.
Spanish Literacy and the Academic Success of Latino High School Students: Codeswitching as a Classroom Resource1
Authors: Nichols Patricia C. , Colon Manuel
Published: January 2009

Abstract:Bilingual Latino high school students who studied Spanish as an academic subject demonstrated a heightened awareness of how to use their two languages as complementary resources in school and professional settings. A case study traces one student's literacy development in Spanish over four years and her ability to use it as a resource in her development of academicEnglishin a college setting. Analysis of videotaped classroom presentations illustrates how an instructor's acceptance of student codeswitching, along with his selective use of codeswitching in his own interaction with students, created an academic environment that validated students' home language patterns but at the same time maintained Spanish as the classroom norm. Students' performance on national Spanish language tests, as well as their enrollment in college preparatory classes, suggest areas for further research on high school retention and preparation for postsecondary education.
Anxiety and Reading Comprehension in Spanish as a Foreign Language
Authors: Sellers Vanisa D.
Published: January 2009

Abstract: This study explored the relationship between language anxiety and reading in Spanish. The issues addressed were: (1) the effect of language anxiety on the reading comprehension and recall of university‐level language students and (2) the effect of language anxiety on the reading process itself. A total of 89 participants, all students in two different levels of Spanish at a large university, took part in the study. Two inventories assessed two different anxiety levels: the Reading Anxiety Scale and the Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale. Also, an instrument called the Cognitive Interference Questionnaire was used to assess the number of off‐task thoughts of each participant while reading. The reading comprehension assessment measures consisted of a written recall protocol and a multiple‐choice test. The results indicated that more highly anxious students (those with high scores on both anxiety inventories) tended to recall less passage content than did those participants who claimed to experience minimal anxiety. For the type of information recalled, the relationships between anxiety and recall were less systematic. Reading anxiety affected the number of important (“High”) pausal units recalled, whereas foreign language classroom anxiety affected the number of supporting (“Mid”) pausal units recalled. In both cases, highly anxious learners recalled fewer pausal units. In contrast, neither reading anxiety nor foreign language classroom anxiety affected significantly the recall of unimportant (“Low”) pausal units. Results from the analysis of data from the Cognitive Interference Questionnaire indicated that highly anxious students tended to experience more off‐task, interfering thoughts than their less‐anxious counterparts.
Second Language Reading Research on Passage Content and Gender: Challenges for the Intermediate‐Level Curriculum
Authors: Brantmeier Cindy
Published: January 2009

Abstract: Second language (L2)reading research has shown that content schemata significantly influence comprehension. Howevel, a careful examination of available studies reveals disparities among research methods and procedures, thus making it difficult to formulate theories for re‐examining the intermediate‐level course, where the reading of lengthy, authentic texts begins. To complicate matters further, females begin to outnumber males at the intermediate level, and this gap widens at the advanced levels (Chavez, 2001). This article — through a careful review of the relevant literature — shows that much of the L2 reading process at the intermediate level remains unexplained. Finally, a call for more research at the intermediate level that examines key variables, such as passage content and gender, is made.
Mexican Managers' Perceptions of Cultural Competence
Authors: Grosse Christine Uber
Published: January 2009

Abstract: The Standards for Foreign Language Learning set interconnected goal areas of communication, cultures, connections, comparisons, and communities. Information from this research project will help foreign language instructors and cross‐cultural trainers gain a better understanding of the types of cultural knowledge needed by business people, specifically in Mexico but with applicability throughout Latin America and in other parts of the world. In this study, 47 global managers in Mexico identify what their US. counterparts should know about Mexican culture to do business effectively. In some respects, U.S. and Mexican cultures are almost direct opposites. The most striking differences cited relate to the following five areas: building business relationships; attitudes toward time; family and religious values; communication patterns; and government‐business relations. An understanding of these basic cultural differences will help U.S. managers and business and language students work more effectively with Mexican associates.
Understanding Learner‐Centered Instruction from the PersDective of Multiple Intelligences
Authors: Haley Marjorie Hall
Published: January 2009

Abstract: This article describes a pilot study that investigated applications of the Theory of Multiple Intelligences (MI)to shape and inform teaching practices and instructional strategies. The purpose of the study was to identify, document, and promote effective real‐world applications of MI theory in foreign and second language classrooms. Results indicated that teachers were profoundly affected by these approaches: They felt that their teaching experienced a shift in paradigm to a more learner‐centered classroom; they were once again energized and enthusiastic about their pedagogy; and they felt that they were able to reach more students. Students demonstrated keen interest in MI concepts and showed positive responses to the increased variety of instructional strategies used in their foreign language/ESL classrooms. For the pilot study, student achievement data are inconclusive. Phase 11 of the MI study will attempt to collect more detailed data related to classroom performance and student achievement. An unanticipated outcome of this research project was the positive impact it had on student attitudes and motivation to learn.
The Effect of Instructional Conditions on Students' Vocabulary Retention
Authors: Kitajima Ryu
Published: January 2009

Abstract: This is a case study of vocabulary learning in Japanese for five students under two different instructional conditions. Instruction under both conditions was accomplished orally and interactively. Under one condition (the “output” condition), students initiated talking about video scenes using target words in groups of two to three students. Under the other condition (the “input‐dominant” condition), vocabulary activities were conducted primarily through the instructor, questions about video scenes. The author examines whether output activities facilitated the retention of words more efficiently than input‐dominant activities, which require students to comprehend questions involving target words but do not encourage them to use the words in communication. Data were collected at three points during one semester: one month, two months, and two and one‐half months after the initial exposure to the target words. A comprehension measure shows that the students retained more words from the output condition than they did from the input‐dominant condition two months after the initial exposures. Furthermore, the results show that two and one‐half months after the initial exposures, although there was no difference between the two conditions with respect to contextual appropriateness of word usage, students used more words studied under the output condition than under the input‐dominant condition. These results suggest that output‐focused activities help students encode surface‐level forms into memory better than input‐dominant learning activities.
Building Community and Posting Projects: Creating “Student Pages” in Web‐Based and Web‐Enhanced Courses
Authors: McGee Laura G.
Published: January 2009

Abstract: The author presents pedagogical arguments for integrating web‐based student pages into intermediate‐ and upper‐level foreign language courses. She shows how web‐based student pages used for community‐building activities and the presentation of culture projects contribute to meeting the five C's — Communication, Cultures, Connections, Comparisons, and Communities — as they are outlined in the 1996 ACTFL Standards for Foreign Language Learning. Based on the author's experience with web‐based student pages in an online German course, this article offers models that can be applied in both web‐based and web‐enhanced foreign language courses.
Characteristics of EFL Readers' Summary Writing: A Study with Korean University Students
Authors: Kim Sung‐Ae
Published: January 2009

Abstract: This study reports part of the findings of a study of Korean EFL students' skill in summarizing an English text. The participants were 70 freshmen who were assumed to possess the typical Korean EFL students' characteristics related to summary writing. The two English texts employed were expository texts taken from a college‐level ESL reading book. One of the texts (i.e., Text A)was assumed to be easier than the other (i.e., Text B). Data gathered from two summaries were analyzed in terms of the content idea units included in the summary, the idea units on four importance levels, use of three summarization rules (i.e., deletion, selection, and transformation), and accuracy. According to the results, the participants in this study were sensitive, though not fully, to importance. The most frequently used rule was the deletion rule, and the least frequently used rule was the transformation rule. Analysis of data also revealed that text difficulty can affect the summary writer's behavior Changes in the writers' behaviors due to text difficulty were noted in the proportion of content idea units included in the summary, the use of selection and transformation rules, and in the accuracy rate, but not in the use of the deletion rule or total rule use. Results indicate that Korean EFL students do not possess effective summarization skills and are in need of appropriate instruction and practice to improve these skills.
Exploring Literary Responses in an EFL Classroom
Authors: Liaw Meei‐Ling
Published: January 2009

Absteact.This study looks into a group of Taiwanese university students' responses to five American short stories. A reader‐response approach to teaching English reading was adopted in a class of non‐English‐majoring freshmen. The student's response journals were analyzed and the students were interviewed. Analysis of the journals reveals that the students went beyond mere comprehension of the texts and actively constructed meaning through complex transactions with the texts. Interviews confirmed students' positive reactions to the use of the reader‐response approach in learning English as a Foreign Language (EFL). It is argued that literature, if taught in a response‐based manner, need not be only a vehicle for language teaching but also a form of cultural understanding that enhances the experience of reading in a foreign language.
Whole Language in a Foreign Language Class: From Theory to Practice
Authors: Schwarzer David
Published: January 2009

Absteact.Theoretical perspectives from related disciplines such as early childhood education, bilingual education, and English as a second language education can be valuable in a foreign language education context. This article presents eight philosophical principles needed for implementing a whole language philosophy in a foreign language class and a description of the author's whole language foreign language class (WLFLC) as a practical example. The article outlines the three basic components needed to establish a WLFLC: (1) the classroom setting; (2) the resource books used in the class; and (3) the schedule of instructional activities for the class. The author also presents a description of four major activities used in this WLFLC: (1) language projects; (2) reading children's literature in the foreign language; (3) dialogue journal writing; and (4) portfolio assessment. General conclusions about implementing a whole language philosophy in a foreign language class are provided.
Toward Responsive Beginning Language Curricula
Authors: Oukada Larbi
Published: January 2009

Abstract:This article proposes, on the basis of a host of curricular factors, a stratification of foreign language programs in U.S. institutions of higher learning into two graded and curricularly distinctive phases. An initial phase, the general education phase, would be comprised predominantly of nonmajors who enroll in beginning language courses with the premeditated purpose of satisfying a language requirement or investing on their own a modest amount of credit hours to explore or study a second language. A subsequent phase, the professional phase, would begin with courses intended for prospective majors and minors who are customarily predisposed to commit enough time to reach the necessary proficiency level required for their professional goal.

This curricular distinction serves to underscore the particular situation and the particular mission of the general education phase and to propose a particular curricular model, the Indiana Model. This model provides, within the current and autonomous structure of the American educational system, a mechanism for selecting, prioritizing, and structuring the most responsive objectives for general‐education foreign language teaching.
The Effects of Differences in Point of View on the Story Production of Japanese EFL Students
Authors: Kamimura Taeko , Oi Kyoko
Published: January 2009

Abstract:This study examines how differences in point of view influence the story production of Japanese EFL students with different levels of English proficiency. Japanese college EFL students wrote two narrative stories based on the same series of pictures, one in the first‐person perspective and the other in the third‐person perspective. The sample writings were analyzed quantitatively and qualitatively in relation to the students' levels of English proficiency. The results showed that when the perspective was shifted from the first to the third person, the low‐proficiency students' writings became poorer in quantity and quality, whereas the high‐proficiency students' narratives exhibited no decrease in quantity and a slight decline in quality. On the other hand, when the perspective was switched from the third to the first person, the students' writings showed both quantitative and qualitative development, and this development was more clearly observed in the stories of those with high English proficiency.
Processing of Cohesive Ties by EFL Arab College Students
Authors: Al‐Jarf Reima Sado
Published: January 2009

Abstract:Fifty‐nine EFL college students took a cohesion test in which they identified four types of cohesive ties in a reading text. Incorrect responses were analyzed. It was found that substitution was the most difficult to process, followed by reference and ellipsis, whereas conjunction was the easiest. In resolving the cohesion relationships, the students used the following faulty strategies: An anaphor was associated with the closest noun whether intersentential or intrasentential. When preceded by two potential antecedents, an anaphor was associated with the farther antecedent if it was salient or more familiar; an anaphor was associated with a synonym. In addition, the students matched an anaphor with a word that was identical in pronunciation or punctuation. It was found that cohesion anomalies were caused by poor linguistic competence, especially poor syntactic and semantic awareness, and poor or inaccurate knowledge of the cohesion rules.
Exploring Daily Grading as a Form of Assessment in a College‐Level Japanese Language Classroom
Authors: Choi Seonghee , Samimy Keiko K.
Published: January 2009

ABSTRACT: Methods of evaluation affect learning in multiple and varied ways. The current distinction between testing and assessment invokes issues about which alternatives for evaluation are available and how they are applied in language classrooms. To explore a daily grading system as a form of assessment, this study surveyed 16 teachers and 90 students in college‐level Japanese language classrooms where daily grading is practiced. The results showed that both teachers and students had positive beliefs about daily grading. It was also found that students had moderate anxiety levels when their performances were graded daily. In addition, the study revealed several areas of concern about daily grading. To use daily grading successfully as a language‐learning assessment tool, appropriate and ongoing teacher training is recommended.
“My theory is intact; however”: Reflections on Teaching Spanish to Fifth Graders
Authors: Brooks Frank B.
Published: January 2009

ABSTRACT: In this article, an experienced foreign language methods instructor presents his “private story” about teaching Spanish to fifth‐graders as part of an elementary school's afternoon enrichment program. For the author, this one‐semester experience was transformative, causing him to reconsider the nature of what he now considers to be the rather sanitized foreign language methods courses in undergraduate teacher‐preparation programs. He discusses some ways he intends to alter his approach to the foreign language methods course, at the same time raising questions and making observations about classroom practices. For example, how can teachers acknowledge and explore the “messiness” of classroom life to their students' benefit? What does the odd and sometimes exasperating way that students “play” with language suggest in terms of classroom teaching approach? Professionally made foreign language training videos can lead to false expectations, even frustration. Visuals, hands‐on objects, and realia, although important, can lead to problematic classroom behaviors if teachers are not prepared to react to them. Student verbal and nonverbal reactions to what teachers do need to be understood (is it Simply that they don't want to learn?). Moreover, teachers need other teachers with whom they can express their frustrations and work collaboratively on language‐learning issues.
Changing Perspectives in Foreign Language Education: Where Do We Come from? Where Are We Going?
Authors: Schulz Renate A.
Published: January 2009

ABSTRACT: New beginnings, such as the start of a new century — not to mention a new millennium — lead to reflection on our professional past and possible future. This article reminisces about the “good old days” in foreign language education and assesses changes that have taken place in language teaching since the 1960s. Using questions posed originally by Brecht (2001) regarding the future of foreign language education in the United States, the author offers her own perspectives and adds additional questions and issues the profession will have to deal with successfully to guarantee a valued place for foreign languages in our schools and postsecondary institutions.
The Challenges and Successes of Developing a Literacy Community in a Minority Language in Western Canada: An Action Research Study
Authors: Bilash Olenka S. E.
Published: January 2009

ABSTRACT: This article describes a community action research study in the spirit of Carr and Kemmis (1983) and Elliot (1991). Language leaders in the Ukrainian community undertook a complex literacy initiative to investigate and improve Ukrainian‐English bilingualism/biliteracy in Western Canada and throughout the diaspora. In the context of the long‐term absence of research funding for developing and maintaining literacy in nonmajority or nonofficial languages, this article documents project activities over several years, presents the findings of student/teacher needs assessments, shares the approach to reading preferred by participating teachers, and reveals some of the transformations teachers experienced in their own thinking about bilingualism and biliteracy as a result of their involvement in this initiative.
Youth and the Study of Foreign Language: An Investigation of Attitudes
Authors: Cortés Kristin Hull
Published: January 2009

ABSTRACT: This study was undertaken to assess the attitudes of elementary and middle school students toward foreign language (FL) study. A questionnaire, designed to measure student attitudes toward FL study and perceived parental support, was administered to 209 youth in grades three through eight, in two different school populations within the San Francisco Bay Area. The results of t‐tests show that students with home languages other than English demonstrated more positive attitudes toward FL and a higher degree of perceived parental support for their FL program than did students whose home language was English. There were no gender differences found on the total attitude score. However, a difference between the two school populations emerged, with students at School 1 scoring significantly higher on the attitude scale and reporting more parent support than students at School 2. The implications of the study are discussed and suggestions for future research are provided.
Reviewing Reading: Recommendations versus Reality
Authors: Gascoigne Carolyn
Published: January 2009

ABSTRACT: To determine whether the fruit of research in Second Language Acquisition (SLA) is having an actual affect on students, this article reviews developments in the treatment of second language (L2) reading, revisits recommendations stemming from these developments, and evaluates evidence of the recommendations in recently published college French textbooks. The reviews demonstrate that the profession (textbook authors, publishers, and consumers) has been slow to accept and embrace the findings and recommendations of SLA research.
Guidelines for Foreign Language Lesson Planning
Authors: Rifkin Benjamin
Published: January 2009

Abstract: In 1982, Knop provided beginning teaching assistants with a “recipe” for planning foreign language lessons; James revisited this effort in 1992. In this article, lesson planning is examined again in light of recent years' research and discussion of foreign language learning and teaching. The background discussion aims to give beginning teachers a sense of the recent history of the teaching of foreign languages in North America and the theoretical foundation of the communicative approach to foreign language teaching. The article also provides practical guidelines for the design of daily lesson plans that integrate culturally contextualized accuracy and fluency activities (for a broad range of skills and in a range of modes) with strategy‐based instruction for the communicative curriculum.
Teacher Educators as Students: A University Shares its Faculty ESOL Professional Development Model
Authors: Verkler Karen W.
Published: January 2009

Abstract: In 1990, the Florida Department of Education was sued by several minority organizations for neglecting the needs of students of ESOL (English for Speakers of Other Languages). Subsequently, legislation mandated that teachers of ESOL students must complete extensive training. Thus, beginning in 1991, school districts were required to provide staff development to most of their teachers. In 1996, this responsibility was transferred to Florida colleges of education. Unfortunately, most teacher educators lacked expertise in ESOL strategies. To address this issue, the colleges of education created various professional development models, one of which was implemented at a large, metropolitan university in Central Florida. The model, eclectic in nature, provided the flexibility in delivery that the faculty required and serves as a model for faculty professional development at all levels of instruction.
The Analysis of Oral Self‐Correction as a Window into the Development of Past Time Reference in Spanish
Authors: Camps Joaquim
Published: January 2009

Abstract:This study explored how beginning learners of Spanish develop the ability to use preterit and imperfect past tense forms, by analyzing the self‐correction behavior they exhibited in their oral production. Each of 15 participants produced five narratives during their second semester of instruction, which were analyzed for the features learners focused their attention on when they attempted to self‐correct. The results showed that the frequency of errors in the verb forms they used, the rate of self‐correction, and the success of those corrections, varied depending on the feature analyzed. It seems that learners may be able to focus different degrees of attention on features such as person and number on the one hand, and features such as tense and aspect on the other.
Accurate Learning of Word Usage: Differentiating Semantically Similar Words
Authors: Adachi Takanori
Published: January 2009

Abstract: Learning the accurate usage of L2 words is often very difficult, especially when the L2 is genealogically distant from the learner's L1. Learners of Japanese, for example, may find it difficult to comprehend that the Japanese verb meaning “to close” (tojiru) in the phrase “close your eyes” cannot he used in “close the door,” in which “shimeru” is the correct verb. Although learners eventually may grasp this requirement, it would be more helpful if they could learn this and similar distinctions when they are first encountered. This study sought to determine optimal conditions for learning accurate word usage from limited exposure to exemplars. The results indicated that having varied type exemplars that show clear distinctions among semantically similar words promotes accuracy of usage, as measured by learners' ability to extend a word's core meaning to more abstract or metaphorical meanings.
To Err Is Human: A Reminder to Teachers of Language‐Anxious Students
Authors: Gregersen Tammy S.
Published: January 2009

ABSTRACT: This interview study examined the reactions of anxious and nonanxious foreign language learners to their own errors. Native Spanish‐speaking students were videotaped twice: first as they took part in an English‐language conversation with the researcher and then as they watched themselves in the taped interview. An analysis of the participants' English interactions and responses to their own oral performances indicated that anxious and nonanxious students differed in their ability to recognize their errors and in their reactions to making errors. Specifically, anxious learners made more errors, corrected themselves and codeswitched more frequently, overestimated the number of errors that they made, and recognized fewer errors in a stimulated recall situation. The implications for choosing error‐correction techniques are discussed.
Beyond Linguistic Knowledge: Individual Differences in Second Language Reading
Authors: Brantmeier Cindy
Published: January 2009

ABSTRACT: Reading in a second language (L2) is a dynamic process that involves the interplay of complex factors. This study investigated the effects of readers' gender, topic familiarity, enjoyment, and interest on second language reading. During two different class periods, 86 learners of intermediate Spanish at the university level completed: (1) a reading passage (a different passage each day), (2) a written recall comprehension task, and (3) a questionnaire. The reading passages were taken from authentic short stories often used for this level of language instruction. The findings suggested that in addition to linguistic factors that impede successful reading comprehension, other variables such as gender, passage content, and topic familiarity may increase the L2 reader's burden. Enjoyment and interest mattered little at this level of instruction. The predicted variables did not completely explain the gender differences in reading comprehension of the intermediate‐level passage topics; however, the study results indicated that when using authentic texts, instructors should incorporate prereading activities that activate learners' existing knowledge.
A Qualitative Assessment of a Foreign Language Whole Language Class
Authors: Schwarzer David
Published: January 2009

ABSTRACT: This study had two goals: (1) to provide insights on how to assess a Whole‐Language Foreign Language Class (WLFLC), and (2) to field test qualitative research methods for a WLFLC. The setting was a Hebrew‐language class based on eight established principles of WLFLCs. The class was assessed through the analysis of formal semistructured interviews with four students; students' reflective midterm papers and final class evaluations (from their portfolios); and the teacher/researcher's reflective journal, which included field notes and anecdotal records. Three themes emerged: (1) tensions between teacher‐and student‐centered instruction; (2) tensions between negotiated and predetermined curricula; and (3) becoming part of a multicultural/multilingual community.

When the class started in August it was a new experiment for you as well for us, and there were a lot of expectations and misunderstandings in your class and with you. Sometimes people didn't understand what your objectives were, and along with that, they did not have the maturity to just take “the ball in their court,” to take the responsibility to themselves. In the beginning of the second semester there were a lot of changes, good changes, because there was a little more of a structure. I think that it was probably a good adjustment and most clearly defined for people what was going on in the class. Although that took time to evolve. I feel like [we] have come together in a good way.

—Assessment made by William, a student in a whole language Hebrew class
Role of Text Structure Awareness in the Recall of Expository Discourse
Authors: Ghaith Ghazi M. , Harkouss Samar A.
Published: January 2009

ABSTRACT:This study examined the role of text structure awareness in the recall of information of four expository text types: description/collection, comparison/contrast, cause/effect, and problem/solution. One hundred nine university‐bound students of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) participated in the study. Data collection and analysis focused on the participants' written recalls of information organized into the text structures under investigation. The results revealed that the participants were most aware of the comparison/contrast, less aware of the problem/solution, and least aware of the description/collection and cause/effect structures. Furthermore, the results showed that text structure awareness was positively related to recall of information across all text types studied. However, the results did not indicate a statistically significant difference between high‐and low‐proficiency readers in their awareness of various text structures at the p < .05 alpha level. Recommendations for further research are made.
A Cross‐Cultural Survey of Students' Expectations of Foreign Language Teachers
Authors: Banno Eri
Published: January 2009

Abstract: This study investigates university students' expectations of foreign language teachers cross‐culturally. One hundred ten Japanese, 98 American, and 105 Chinese college students chose five important qualities in good foreign language teachers from a list. Chi‐square statistics and the Spearman rank‐order correlation coefficient were used for the analyses. A statistically significant difference was found for some qualities. The results indicate that the students of all groups placed importance on some qualities, such as “explain clearly” and “approachable,” and that Japanese and Chinese students had some similar expectations in foreign language teachers. Chinese participants placed more importance on pronunciation than did Japanese and Americans. Americans valued creative and patient teachers more than Japanese students did, whereas Japanese valued entertaining, impartial, open‐minded, and reliable teachers more than Americans.
Stereotyping in the Representation of Narrative Texts Through Visual Reformulations
Authors: Porto Melina
Published: January 2009

Abstract: This study investigated the process of stereotyping in the representation of the content of narrative texts through visual reformulations. Two hundred nineteen visual reformulations produced in response to three narrative texts about Christmas celebrations were analyzed (one in Spanish, the subjects' native tongue, and two in English as a foreign language). Subjects were Argentine college students (prospective teachers and translators of English, Caucasian, mostly female, middle‐class) between 19 and 21 years of age enrolled in English Language II at the National University of La Plata in Argentina. Stereotypes in the visual reformulations were classified into two large groups: those corresponding to the native culture and those referring to the target (alien) culture. Stereotypes were further classified into three categories of reference: main characters (personality and/or physical appearance), the Christmas celebration itself, and the storyline. A selection of typical visual reformulations is analyzed here. In general, the visual reformulations did not sufficiently capture the cultural content of the texts and embodied a superficial approach plagued with stereotypes. The students' perceptions of otherness were limited to what was exotic or exciting and did not reflect genuine efforts to become familiar with what was strange. The study thus revealed the learners' inability to transcend their cultural biases and points to an urgent need to address stereotypes in the classroom.
The Role of Explicit Instruction in ESL/EFL Reading
Authors: Shen Hwei‐Jiun
Published: January 2009

Abstract: Implicit and explicit instruction recently have become influential forces in reading instruction, revealing conflicting perceptions of how best to foster reading ability. Rooted in the progressive movement of the early 1900s, implicit instruction underscores learners' free choices, as evident in whole language. Explicit instruction, rooted in cognitive psychology, emphasizes learners' metacognition. This paper examines the existing literature regarding both approaches to first language (L1) instruction at the word level, text level, and sentence level. The discussion is expanded to the role of explicit instruction in reading English as a second language or foreign language (ESL/EFL), including its role at the word level in EFL reading in Taiwan, the Republic of China. It is suggested that explicit instruction be considered a necessary tool for ESL/EFL reading instruction.
Reliability and the ACTFL Oral Proficiency Interview: Reporting Indices of Interrater Consistency and Agreement for 19 Languages
Authors: Surface Eric A. , Dierdorff Erich C.
Published: January 2009

Abstract: The reliability of the ACTFL Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI) has not been reported since ACTFL revised its speaking proficiency guidelines in 1999. Reliability data for assessments should be reported periodically to provide users with enough information to evaluate the psychometric characteristics of the assessment. This study provided the most comprehensive analysis of ACTFL OPI reliability to date, reporting interrater consistency and agreement data for 19 different languages. Overall, the interrater reliability of the ACTFL OPI was found to be very high. These results demonstrate the importance of using an OPI assessment program that has a well‐designed interview process, a well‐articulated set of criteria for proficiency determination, a solid rater training program, and an experienced cadre of testers. Based on the data reported, educators and employers who use the ACTFL OPI can expect reliable results and use the scores generated from the testing process with increased confidence. Recommendations for future research are discussed.
Oral Proficiency Testing in the Real World: Answers to Frequently Asked Questions
Authors: Swender Elvira
Published: January 2009

Abstract: The ACTFL Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI) is used to assess the ability of individuals to use language for real‐world purposes. Today, OPIs are used by academic institutions, government agencies, and private corporations for many purposes: academic placement, student assessment, program evaluation, professional certification, hiring, and promotional qualification. Through Language Testing International (LTI), the exclusive ACTFL testing office, ACTFL conducts, rates, and archives 8,000 to 10,000 oral proficiency interviews each year. This article addresses questions that are frequently asked by educators, test takers, employers, certification boards, and others who require information about an individual's level of oral proficiency.

The frequently asked questions (FAQs) addressed in this article are (1) Does taking an OPI over the phone produce a different rating than a face‐to‐face interview? (2) Are there differences in testing performance from one testing occasion to another when there is no significant opportunity for learning or forgetting between the two tests? (3) How proficient are today's foreign language undergraduate majors? (4) What minimum levels of proficiency are required in the workplace?

The answers to questions 1 and 2 are based on the results of an ACTFL‐sponsored testing project that compared face‐to‐face with telephonic interviews. The findings indicated that there is no significant difference in the ratings assigned using face‐to‐face versus telephone test administration. The data from the same study indicated that comparable results are obtained in test/retest situations. Questions 3 and 4 are answered using data from the ACTFL Test Archives. The majority of undergraduate language majors have achieved proficiency levels that cluster around the Intermediate‐High/Advanced‐Low border. Different jobs require different levels of proficiency. Charts are provided to summarize the findings.
Cohesion and Coherence Strategies in Paragraph‐Length and Extended Discourse in Japanese Oral Proficiency Interviews
Authors: Watanabe Suwako
Published: January 2009

Abstract: This study focused on Japanese linguistic features that contribute to producing the paragraph‐length and extended connected discourse that is expected at the Advanced and Superior levels in ACTFL oral proficiency interviews (OPIs). From 15 Japanese OPIs at the Intermediate‐High through Superior levels, 3,062 predicates were identified. Frequent use of embedded syntactic constructions, such as sentence modifiers and embedded interrogative and quotative constructions (˜(t)te iu), contributed to the integration of more predicates, resulting in extended discourse at the Superior level. To link clauses, gerunds and adversative clausal particles were more prevalent than sentence‐initial connectives. Adversative clausal particles and quotative constructions played an important role in signaling the meaning of the utterance in relation to the entire discourse. A qualitative analysis revealed that appropriate use of cohesive and coherence devices affected the degree of cohesiveness and coherence of discourse. The implications for Japanese language pedagogy and OPI are significant.