bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Novel multifunctional neuroprotective iron chelator‐monoamine oxidase inhibitor drugs for neurodegenerative diseases.In vivoselective brain monoamine oxidase inhibition and prevention of MPTP‐induced striatal dopamine depletion
Authors: Gal Shunit , Zheng Hailin , Fridkin Mati , Youdim Moussa B. H.
Published: September 2005

Several multifunctional iron chelators have been synthesized from hydroxyquinoline pharmacophore of the iron chelator, VK‐28, possessing the monoamine oxidase (MAO) and neuroprotectiveN‐propargylamine moiety. They have iron chelating potency similar to desferal. M30 is a potent irreversible rat brain mitochondrial MAO‐A and ‐B inhibitorin vitro(IC50, MAO‐A, 0.037 ± 0.02; MAO‐B, 0.057 ± 0.01). Acute (1–5 mg/kg) and chronic [5–10 mg/kg intraperitoneally (i.p.) or orally (p.o.) once daily for 14 days]in vivostudies have shown M30 to be a potent brain selective (striatum, hippocampus and cerebellum) MAO‐A and ‐B inhibitor. It has little effects on the enzyme activities of the liver and small intestine. Its N‐desmethylated derivative, M30A is significantly less active. Acute and chronic treatment with M30 results in increased levels of dopamine (DA), serotonin(5‐HT), noradrenaline (NA) and decreases in DOPAC (dihydroxyphenylacetic acid), HVA (homovanillic acid) and 5‐HIAA (5‐hydroxyindole acetic acid) as determined in striatum and hypothalamus. In the mouse MPTP (N‐methy‐4‐phenyl‐1,2,3,6‐tetrahydropyridine) model of Parkinson's disease (PD) it attenuates the DA depleting action of the neurotoxin and increases striatal levels of DA, 5‐HT and NA, while decreasing their metabolites. As DA is equally well metabolized by MAO‐A and ‐B, it is expected that M30 would have a greater DA neurotransmission potentiation in PD than selective MAO‐B inhibitors, for which it is being developed, as MAO‐B inhibitors do not alter brain dopamine.
Immobilization stress causes increases in tetrahydrobiopterin, dopamine, and neuromelanin and oxidative damage in the nigrostriatal system
Authors: Kim Sung Tae , Choi Ji Hyun , Chang Jin Woo , Kim Seong Who , Hwang Onyou
Published: September 2005

Oxidative stress is believed to contribute to the pathophysiology of Parkinson's disease, in which nigrostriatal dopaminergic (DA) neurons undergo degeneration. Identification of endogenous molecules that contribute to generation of oxidative stress and vulnerability of these cells is critical in understanding the etiology of this disease. Exposure to tetrahydrobiopterin (BH4), the obligatory cofactor for DA synthesis, was observed previously to cause oxidative damage in DA cells. To demonstrate the physiological relevance of this observation, we investigated whether an overproduction of BH4 and DA might actually occur in vivo, and, if it did, whether this might lead to oxidative damage to the nigrostriatal system. Immobilization stress (IMO) elevated BH4 and DA and their synthesizing enzymes, tyrosine hydroxylase and GTP cyclohydrolase I. This was accompanied by elevation of lipid peroxidation and protein‐bound quinone, and activities of antioxidant enzymes. These increases in the indices of oxidative stress appeared to be due to increased BH4 synthesis because they were abolished following administration of the BH4 synthesis inhibitor, 2,4‐diamino‐6‐hydroxy‐pyrimidine. IMO also caused accumulation of neuromelanin and degeneration of the nigrostriatal system. These results demonstrate that a severe stress can increase BH4 and DA and cause oxidative damages to the DA neurons in vivo, suggesting relevance to Parkinson's disease.
β‐Arrestin1 and β‐arrestin2 are differentially required for phosphorylation‐dependent and ‐independent internalization of δ‐opioid receptors
Authors: Zhang Xiaoqing , Wang Feifei , Chen Xiaoqing , Li Jiali , Xiang Bin , Zhang Yu‐Qiu , Li Bao‐Ming , Ma Lan
Published: September 2005

β‐Arrestins are key negative regulators and scaffolds of G protein‐coupled receptor (GPCR) signalling. β‐Arrestin1 and β‐arrestin2 preferentially bind to the phosphorylated GPCRs in response to agonist stimulation, resulting in receptor internalization and desensitization. The critical roles of GPCR kinases (GRKs)‐catalyzed receptor phosphorylation and interaction of β‐arrestins with the phosphorylated receptor in receptor internalization are well established. However, emerging evidence suggests that an agonist‐stimulated internalization mechanism that is independent of receptor phosphorylation may also be employed in some cases, although the molecular mechanism for the phosphorylation‐independent GPCR internalization is not clear. The current study investigated the role of receptor phosphorylation and the involvement of different β‐arrestin subtypes in agonist‐induced δ‐opioid receptor (DOR) internalization in HEK293 cells. Results from flow cytometry, fluorescence microscopy, and surface biotin labelling experiments showed that elimination of agonist‐induced DOR phosphorylation by mutation GRK binding or phosphorylation sites only partially blocked agonist‐induced receptor internalization, indicating the presence of an agonist‐induced, GRK‐independent mechanism for DOR internalization. Fluorescence and co‐immunoprecipitation studies indicated that both the wild‐type DOR and the phosphorylation‐deficient mutant receptor could bind and recruit β‐arrestin1 and β‐arrestin2 to the plasma membrane in an agonist‐stimulated manner. Furthermore, internalization of both the wild‐type and phosphorylation‐deficient receptors was increased by overexpression of either type of β‐arrestins and blocked by dominant‐negative mutants of β‐arrestin‐mediated internalization, demonstrating that both phosphorylation‐dependent and ‐independent internalization require β‐arrestin. Moreover, double‐stranded RNA‐mediated interference experiments showed that either β‐arrestin1 or β‐arrestin2 subtype‐specific RNAi only partially inhibited agonist‐induced internalization of the wild‐type DOR. However, agonist‐induced internalization of the phosphorylation‐deficient DOR was not affected by β‐arrestin1‐specific RNAi but was blocked by RNAi against β‐arrestin2 subtype. These data indicate that endogenous β‐arrestin1 functions exclusively in the phosphorylation‐dependent receptor internalization, whereas endogenous β‐arrestin2, but not β‐arrestin1, is required for the phosphorylation‐independent receptor internalization. These results thus provide the first evidence of different requirement for β‐arrestin isoforms in the agonist induced phosphorylation‐dependent and ‐independent GPCR internalization.
Double‐stranded RNA stimulates chemokine expression in microglia through vacuolar pH‐dependent activation of intracellular signaling pathways
Authors: Nakamichi Kazuo , Saiki Megumi , Sawada Makoto , Yamamuro Yutaka , Morimoto Kinjiro , Kurane Ichiro
Published: September 2005

During neurotropic virus infection, microglia act as a source of chemokines, thereby regulating the recruitment of peripheral leukocytes and the multicellular immune response within the CNS. Herein, we present a comprehensive study on the chemokine production by microglia in response to double‐stranded RNA (dsRNA), a conserved molecular pattern of virus infection. Transcriptional analyses of chemokine genes revealed that dsRNA strongly induces the expression of CXC chemokine ligand 10 (CXCL10) and CC chemokine ligand 5 (CCL5) in microglia. We also observed that the dsRNA stimulation triggered the activation of signaling pathways mediated by nuclear factor κB (NF‐κB) and mitogen‐activated protein kinases (MAPK), including extracellular signal‐regulated kinases 1 and 2 (ERK1/2), p38, and c‐Jun N‐terminal kinase (JNK). The microglial CXCL10 response to dsRNA was induced via NF‐κB, p38, and JNK pathways, whereas the dsRNA‐induced CCL5 production was dependent on JNK, but not on the other signal‐transducing molecules tested. In addition, the acidic environment of intracellular vesicles was required for the activation of cellular signaling in response to dsRNA. Taken together, these results suggest that the recognition of dsRNA structure selectively induces the CXCL10 and CCL5 responses in microglia through vacuolar pH‐dependent activation of NF‐κB and MAPK signaling pathways.
Profiling of neuropeptides released at the stomatogastric ganglion of the crab, Cancer borealis with mass spectrometry
Authors: Billimoria Cyrus P. , Li Lingjun , Marder Eve
Published: September 2005

Studies of release under physiological conditions provide more direct data about the identity of neuromodulatory signaling molecules than studies of tissue localization that cannot distinguish between processing precursors and biologically active neuropeptides. We have identified neuropeptides released by electrical stimulation of nerves that contain the axons of the modulatory projection neurons to the stomatogastric ganglion of the crab, Cancer borealis. Preparations were bathed in saline containing a cocktail of peptidase inhibitors to minimize peptide degradation. Both electrical stimulation of projection nerves and depolarization with high K+ saline were used to evoke release. Releasates were desalted and then identified by mass using MALDI–TOF (matrix‐assisted laser desorption/ionization–time‐of‐flight) mass spectrometry. Both previously known and novel peptides were detected. Subsequent to electrical stimulation proctolin, Cancer borealis tachykinin‐related peptide (CabTRP), FVNSRYa, carcinustatin‐8, allatostatin‐3 (AST‐3), red pigment concentrating hormone, NRNFLRFa, AST‐5, SGFYANRYa, TNRNFLRFa, AST‐9, orcomyotropin‐related peptide, corazonin, Ala13‐orcokinin, and Ser9‐Val13‐orcokinin were detected. Some of these were also detected after high K+ depolarization. Release was calcium dependent. In summary, we have shown release of the neuropeptides thought to play an important neuromodulatory role in the stomatogastric ganglion, as well as numerous other candidate neuromodulators that remain to be identified.
Mitochondria are involved in the neurogenic neuroprotection conferred by stimulation of cerebellar fastigial nucleus
Authors: Zhou Ping , Qian Liping , Zhou Theresa , Iadecola Costantino
Published: September 2005

Activation of neural pathways originating in the cerebellar fastigial nucleus (FN) protects the brain from the deleterious effects of cerebral ischemia and excitotoxicity, a phenomenon termed central neurogenic neuroprotection. The neuroprotection is, in part, mediated by suppression of apoptosis. We sought to determine whether FN stimulation exerts its anti‐apoptotic effect through mitochondrial mechanisms. Mitochondria were isolated from the cerebral cortex of rats in which the FN was stimulated for 1 h (100 μA; 1 s on/1 s off), 72 h earlier. Stimulation of the dentate nucleus (DN), a brain region that does not confer neuroprotection, served as control. Mitochondria isolated from FN‐stimulated rats exhibited a marked increase in their ability to sequester Ca2+ and an increased resistance to Ca2+‐induced membrane depolarization and depression in respiration. FN stimulation also leads to reduction in the release in cytochrome c, induced either by Ca2+ or the mitochondrial toxin mastoparan. Furthermore, in brain slices, FN stimulation reduced the staurosporine‐induced insertion of the pro‐apoptotic protein Bax into the mitochondria, a critical step in the mitochondrial mechanisms of apoptosis. Collectively, these results provide evidence that FN stimulation protects the mitochondria from dysfunction induced by Ca2+ loading, and inhibits mitochondrial pathways initiating apoptosis. These mitochondrial mechanisms are likely to play a role in the neuroprotection exerted by FN stimulation.
NMDA receptor activation modulates programmed cell death during early post‐natal retinal development: a BDNF‐dependent mechanism
Authors: Martins Rodrigo A. P. , Silveira Mariana S. , Curado Marco R. , Police Angela I. , Linden Rafael
Published: September 2005

Glutamate is a classical excitotoxin of the central nervous system (CNS), but extensive work demonstrates neuroprotective roles of this neurotransmitter in developing CNS. Mechanisms of glutamate‐mediated neuroprotection are still under scrutiny. In this study, we investigated mediators of glutamate‐induced neuroprotection, and tested whether this neurotransmitter controls programmed cell death in the developing retina. The protective effect of N‐methyl‐d‐aspartate (NMDA) upon differentiating cells of retinal explants was completely blocked by a neutralizing antibody to brain‐derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), but not by an antibody to neurotrophin‐4 (NT‐4). Consistently, chronic activation of NMDA receptor increased the expression of BDNF and trkB mRNA, as well as BDNF protein content, but did not change the content of NT‐4 mRNA in retinal tissue. Furthermore, we showed that in vivo inactivation of NMDA receptor by intraperitoneal injections of MK‐801 increased natural cell death of specific cell populations of the post‐natal retina. Our results show that chronic activation of NMDA receptors in vitro induces a BDNF‐dependent neuroprotective state in differentiating retinal cells, and that NMDA receptor activation controls programmed cell death of developing retinal neurons in vivo.
Selective loss of basal forebrain cholinergic neurons by 192 IgG‐saporin is associated with decreased phosphorylation of Ser9 glycogen synthase kinase‐3β
Authors: Hawkes C. , Jhamandas J. H. , Kar S.
Published: September 2005

Glycogen synthase kinase‐3β (GSK‐3β) is a multifunctional enzyme involved in a variety of biological events including development, glucose metabolism and cell death. Its activity is inhibited by phosphorylation of the Ser9 residue and up‐regulated by Tyr216 phosphorylation. Activated GSK‐3β increases phosphorylation of tau protein and induces cell death in a variety of cultured neurons, whereas phosphorylation of phosphatidylinositol‐3 (PI‐3) kinase‐dependent protein kinase B (Akt), which inhibits GSK‐3β activity, is one of the best characterized cell survival signaling pathways. In the present study, the cholinergic immunotoxin 192 IgG‐saporin was used to address the potential role of GSK‐3β in the degeneration of basal forebrain cholinergic neurons, which are preferentially vulnerable in Alzheimer's disease (AD) brain. GSK‐3β co‐localized with a subset of forebrain cholinergic neurons and loss of these neurons was accompanied by a transient decrease in PI‐3 kinase, phospho‐Ser473Akt and phospho‐Ser9GSK‐3β levels, as well as an increase in phospho‐tau levels, in the basal forebrain and hippocampus. Total Akt, GSK‐3β, tau and phospho‐Tyr216GSK‐3β levels were not significantly altered in these brain regions in animals treated with 192 IgG‐saporin. Systemic administration of the GSK‐3β inhibitor LiCl did not significantly affect cholinergic marker or phospho‐Ser9GSK‐3β levels in control rats but did preclude 192‐IgG saporin‐induced alterations in PI‐3 kinase/phospho‐Akt, phospho‐Ser9GSK‐3β and phospho‐tau levels, and also partly protected cholinergic neurons against the immunotoxin. These results provide the first evidence that increased GSK‐3β activity, via decreased Ser9 phosphorylation, can mediate, at least in part, 192‐IgG saporin‐induced in vivo degeneration of forebrain cholinergic neurons by enhancing tau phosphorylation. The partial protection of these neurons following inhibition of GSK‐3β kinase activity suggests a possible therapeutic role for GSK‐3β inhibitors in attenuating the loss of basal forebrain cholinergic neurons observed in AD.
Distinct spatio‐temporal expression of ABCA and ABCG transporters in the developing and adult mouse brain
Authors: Tachikawa Masanori , Watanabe Masahiko , Hori Satoko , Fukaya Masahiro , Ohtsuki Sumio , Asashima Tomoko , Terasaki Tetsuya
Published: September 2005

Using in situ hybridization for the mouse brain, we analyzed developmental changes in gene expression for the ATP‐binding cassette (ABC) transporter subfamilies ABCA1–4 and 7, and ABCG1, 2, 4, 5 and 8. In the embryonic brains, ABCA1 and A7 were highly expressed in the ventricular (or germinal) zone, whereas ABCA2, A3 and G4 were enriched in the mantle (or differentiating) zone. At the postnatal stages, ABCA1 was detected in both the gray and white matter and in the choroid plexus. On the other hand, ABCA2, A3 and A7 were distributed in the gray matter. In addition, marked up‐regulation of ABCA2 occurred in the white matter at 14 days‐of‐age when various myelin protein genes are known to be up‐regulated. In marked contrast, ABCA4 was selective to the choroid plexus throughout development. ABCG1 was expressed in both the gray and white matters, whereas ABCG4 was confined to the gray matter. ABCG2 was diffusely and weakly detected throughout the brain at all stages examined. Immunohistochemistry of ABCG2 showed its preferential expression on the luminal membrane of brain capillaries. Expression signals for ABCG5 and G8 were barely detected at any stages. The distinct spatio‐temporal expressions of individual ABCA and G transporters may reflect their distinct cellular expressions in the developing and adult brains, presumably, to regulate and maintain lipid homeostasis in the brain.
POPULATION POLICY RESEARCH AND POLITICAL SCIENCE
Authors: Dye Thomas R. , Caputo David A.
Published: September 2005

Our spacecraft called the Earth is reaching its capacity. Can we not invent a way to reduce our population growth to zero?… Every human institution … should set this as its prime task.

Lee A. DuBridge

The creation of a steady‐state world, which is at the same time a liveable one, is the most important and difficult problem mankind has ever faced.

Roger Revelle
LITERATURE REVIEW
Authors: Games Judson L.
Published: September 2005

M. Kenneth Bowler, The Nixon Guaranteed Income Praposal: Substance and Process in Policy Change

Bruce Ian Oppenheimer, Oil and the Congressional Process

Thomas R. Dye, The Politics of Equality

Randall B. Ripley, The Politics of Economic and Human Resource Development

Hawkins, Brett W., Politics and Urban Policies

Richard I. Hofferbert, The Study of Public Policy
SYMPOSIUM ON INTRODUCTORY TEXTBOOKS ON PUBLIC POLICY ANALYSIS
Authors: James Judson L.
Published: September 2005

WORLD POLICAL ECONOMY

Robert Gilpin, U.S. Power and the Multinational Corporation

Zuhayr Mikdashi, The International Politics of Natural Resources

Mason Willrich, Energy and World Politics

RECENT RELEVANT LITERATURE

J. Clarence Davies III and Barbara S. Davies, The Politics of Pollution

POLICY STUDIES PAPERS FROM NON‐POLITICAL SCIENCE CONVENTIONS

A BIBLIOGRAPHY OF POLICY STUDIES BOOKS
IV. LITERATURE REVIEW
Authors: James Judson L.
Published: September 2005

Literature reviewed in this article:

Robert Levine, Public Planning

Karen Davis, National Health Insurance: Benefits, Costs, and Consequences

Martha Derthick, Uncontrollable Spendinq for Social Services Grants

Sar A. Levitan and Joyce K. Zickler, The Quest for a Federal Manpower Partnership

Kettil Brun, Lynn Pan, and Ingemar Rexed, The Gentlemen's Club: International Control of Drugs and Alcohol

Richard L. Rachin and Eugene H. Czajkoski, Drug Abuse Control

Timothy H. Hannan, The Economics of Methadone Maintenance

Henry J. Aaron, Who Pays the Property‐Tax: A New View

George F. Break and Joseph A. Pechman, Federal Tax Reform, the Impossible Dream?

Robert K. Yin and Douglas Yates, Street‐Level Governments: Assessing Decentralization and Urban Services

David J. O'Brien, Neighborhood Organization and Interest Group Processes

James Q. Wilson, Thinking about Crime

W. Henry Lambright, Governinq Science and Technoloqy

James L. Sundquist, Dispersing Population: What America Can Learn from Europe
LITERATURE REVIEW
Authors: James Judson L.
Published: September 2005

REVIEW ESSAY ON FISCAL FEDERALISM

David A. Caputo and Richard L. Cole, eds., Revenue Sharing

Wallace E. Gates, ed., Financing the New Federalism: Revenue Sharing, Conditional Grants, and Taxation

REVIEWS ON EDUCATIONAL POLICY

Russell S. Harrison, Equality in Public School Finance

Florence Levinsohn and Benjamin Wright, eds., School Desegregation; Shadow and Substance

RECENT RELEVANT LITERATURE

Richard Rose, ed., The Dynamics of Public Policy: A Comparative Analysis

Richard Rose, Managing Presidential Objectives

Kneese, Allen V. and Charles L. Schultze, Pollution, Prices and Public Policy

Peter H. Rossi and Katharine C. Lyall, Reforming Public Welfare: A Critique of the Negative Income Tax Experiment

BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES

Michael Marien, Societal Directions and Alternatives: A Critical Guide to the Literature

ARTICLES IN POLICY JOURNALS

AN INTERDISCIPLINARY POLICY STUDIES BIBLIOGRAPHY
A Prolegomenon to Responsible Legislative Reform
Authors: Shaw L. Earl
Published: September 2005

When you're young it's easy to streak appeals across the sky like rockets. But as you get older you feel increasingly esponsible for those traveling the road your rocket lights. What if you've led them wrong? You grow wary of making reckless appeals, and a sense of responsibility must be tempered above all with analysis and reflection. Relentless analysis alone, not childish shouting, embodies the true appeals.1
LITERATURE REVIEW
Authors: James Judson L.
Published: September 2005

RECENT RELEVANT LITERATURE

Arnold J. Meltsner, Policy Analysis in the Bureaucracy

Louis Fisher, Presidential Spending Power

Morton H. Halperin, Jerry J. Herman, Robert L. Borosage and Christine M. Marwick, The Lawless State: The Crimes of the U.S. Intelligence Agencies

David Berlinski, On Systems Analysis; An Essay Concerning the Limitations of Some Mathematical Methods in Social. Political and Biological Sciences

Herbert E. Alexander, Financing Politics; Money, Elections and Political Reform

Robert J. Kalter and William A. Vogely, eds., Energy Supply and Government Policy

BOOK NOTES

Dale Mann, Policy Decision‐Making in Education: An Introduction to Calculation and Control

Joseph A. Pechman, Federal Tax Policy (3rd ed., Washington, B.C.: The Brookings Institution, 1977)

Kenneth M. Friedman and Stuart H. Rakoff, eds., Toward a National Health Policy

Angus Campbell, Philip E. Converse, and Willard L. Rodgers, The Quality of American Life; Perceptions, Evaluations/and Satisfactions

Philip M. Hauser, Social Statistics in Use

Allen H. Barton, et al., Decentralizing City Government

A POLICY STUDIES BIBLIOGRAPHY BY POLITICAL SCIENCE FIELDS
Regulatory Policy
Authors: James Judson L.
Published: September 2005

Paul W. MacAvoy, ed., Ford Administration Papers on Regulatory Reform

Paul W. MacAvoy, ed., Federal Energy Administration Regulation

Paul W. MacAvoy and John W. Snow, eds., Railroad Revitalization and Regulatory Reform

Paul W. MacAvoy and John W. Snow, eds., Regulation of Entry and Pricing in Truck Transportation

Paul W. MacAvoy, ed., Deregulation of Cable Television

Paul W. MacAvoy, ed., Federal‐State Regulation of the Pricing and Marketing of Insurance

Paul W. MacAvoy, ed., OSHA Safety Regulations
LIVING WITH THE LONG CYCLE TODAY
Authors: Kolodziej Edward A.
Published: September 2005

There is a need for a new rationale to guide American security policy, including arms control and disarmament. In light of fundamental changes in the external and internal environment, American security policy would appear to have to rest on the following four assumptions: (1) the multiplication of threats, allies, and adversaries; (2) the disparity between greater absolute military power at the disposal of the United States and greater relative impotence in wielding it to influence events abroad; (3) the globalization yet divisibility of American and international security, economic, and political regime interests; and (4) the persistence of divided domestic consensus as the shaky basis from which to project American military power to shape the international environment in ways congenial to often conflicting American preferences.
STRATEGIC THINKING OVER THE LONG CYCLE
Authors: Critchley W. Harriet
Published: September 2005

The changing international environment for U.S. strategic policy formation is causing progressive uncertainty about the adequacy of threat assessment concepts and procedures. The concept of “strategic value,” which plays a central role in decisions to use and control military force, is defined and elaborated in terms of three key elements–territory, worth and access. This classification allows for a more coherent analysis of the nature of “strategic threat” in the changing international environment. It also provides a more realistic approach for making choices among available policy options and available means of implementing security policy.
STABILIZING THE EUROPEAN THEATRE
Authors: Canby Steven L.
Published: September 2005

This article points out the shortcomings in the current NATO defense strategy. While the United States is striving to push for a more credible conventional defense, West Europeans still believe that an (American) nuclear response is the answer to any serious aggression. It is argued that the American doctrinal understanding of conventional warfare has become dated. Its mindset and approach remains that of 1917 on the ground, while its broader strategy is akin to that of Douhet. On the other hand, the Warsaw Pact strategy is much like Guderian's strategy of maneuver using fluid armored forces and the blitzkrieg. The paper argues that there are at least three distinct solutions for obtaining a true conventional defense in NATO and that these can be obtained at no additional cost. Finally the article notes that the present NATO Long‐Term Defense Program is expensive and largely irrelevant, and fails to address the real problem.
RE‐EXAMINING THE ABM MORATORIUM
Authors: Slater Jerome
Published: September 2005

The argument of this essay is that current U.S. strategic postures and weapons systems, based essentially on mutual assured destruction (MAD), are defective, in that they over‐deter and under‐defend. MAD provides far more than sufficient deterrence against deliberate, full‐scale nuclear war launched by the government of the Soviet Union, but provides little deterrence and no defense against the far more likely nuclear catastrophe of the future: an accidental, unauthorized, or third‐party missile attack. The proposed solution is the reintroduction of superpower ABM (anti‐ballistic missile) protection, on a limited, negotiated basis, which could provide defensive systems heavy enough to defend against light attacks but not heavy enough to defend against full‐scale superpower attacks (and thereby undermine deterrence).
COMMUNICATION AND INFORMATION DIMENSIONS OF ARMS CONTROL
Authors: Bobrow Davis B.
Published: September 2005

More than a decade of emphasis on arms control through agreed numerical ceilings on weapons by type has failed to create a safer world or slowed the trend toward the increasing number, sophistication, and proliferation of destructive capacities. Accordingly, it is past time for renewed and major attention to arms control through communication and information regimes–to C3/I, i.e., communications, command and control, and intelligence. Priorities and possibilities in three areas merit pursuit: within U.S. and allied forces; between adversaries; and for potential third party sources of guarantees, sanctions, and mediation.
PROCESS ISSUES IN AMERICAN SECURITY POLICY AND POLICY‐MAKING COORDINATING ARMS CONTROL STRATEGIES
Authors: Harkavy Robert
Published: September 2005

This study examines some apparent dilemmas and possible contradictions in U.S. policies spanning several of the most important arms control domains. The analysis is centered on the triangular relationship connecting nuclear non‐proliferation, SALT, and conventional arms transfers (CAT), with each analyzed as dependent and independent variables in relation to the others. Further such linkages are examined involving the Comprehensive Test Ban, Indian Ocean de‐militarization, and Mutual and Balanced Force Reductions (MBFR). The study questions, in particular, whether or not U.S. policies on SALT and CAT may prove counterproductive for efforts to halt nuclear proliferation. The linkage of American overseas basing access to several areas of arms control endeavor is also highlighted.
BUREAUCRATIC POLITICS AND CONGRESS’ ROLE IN WEAPONS DEVELOPMENT
Authors: Butterworth Robert Lyle
Published: September 2005

In 1975 Congress required that budgetary requests for selected defense programs be accompanied by a statement assessing their arms control effects. Implementation of this requirement has fallen far short of unqualified success, and several proposals for remedying its failures are now being discussed. If remedies are based on incomplete or faulty diagnoses of the requirement's failures, however, they could exacerbate its dysfunctional aspects. This article suggests that the requirement has been unsuccessful because of an inadequate appreciation both of the political dynamics of the bureaucratic process involved and of the objective problems of these arms control issues. The analysis presented here concentrates on the former and suggests that further legislative modifications to the requirement are unlikely to be fruitful.
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT OF ARMS
Authors: Reppy Judith
Published: September 2005

Military R&D is an important element in our national security, although advanced technology by itself does not insure military superiority. There is a large well‐funded program for military R&D in the U.S. Two kinds of questions are raised in connection with this program: the problem of optimizing the military effectiveness of the program through the allocation of resources among R&D projects and between R&D and other elements in the defense budget; and the problem of the long‐range effects of new weapons technology on international stability.
THE DEFENSE BUDGETARY PROCESS
Authors: Korb Lawrence J.
Published: September 2005

The purpose of the Defense Budget Process is to produce a force structure to support national security policy. To accomplish this task, the Department of Defense has designed a system built around planning, programming and budgeting and zero based budgeting. However, while these two systems help to marry policy and force structure, for several interrelated reasons the fit is far from perfect. These reasons include: resource constraints; inadequate guidance; length of the budget process; the size scope, controllability and impact of the defense budget; inadequate decision making methodology; past decisions; and domestic political constituencies.
CRITERIA FOR DEVELOPING ARMS CONTROL ACCORDS
Authors: Morgan Patrick M.
Published: September 2005

This paper offers a new definition of arms control and traces some of the implications of that definition. It also sets out a list of prerequisites for arms control, within the framework, the current and future prospects for arms control are briefly assessed, as are the fundamental limitations of arms control as a strategy for peace and security.
ASSESSING ARMS CONTROL MEASURES: THE HISTORICAL SETTING
Authors: Bloomfield Lincoln P.
Published: September 2005

The U.S. has since World War II followed a defense policy and strategy that combined traditional national approaches with features especially typical of American attitudes toward war and peace as well as force and power. The deep dilemmas of nuclear deterrence confront the U.S. with an inescapable dilemma, which in turn motivates an increasingly serious arms control policy.
USES OF GAME THEORY TO EXPLAIN THE SALT PROCESS
Authors: Picard Louis A.
Published: September 2005

Negotiations in international relations must be analyzed not only in terms of the substance of policy which is of relevance to the negotiating process, but also with regard to the negotiating process itself. This paper focuses on the negotiating process leading up to the SALT I agreements of 1972. Through the insights of game theory we can better understand the difficulties inherent in reaching accords in nuclear arms negotiations.
THE PROBLEM OF HIGH UNEMPLOYMENT: RESULT OF MUDDLED NATIONAL ECONOMIC POLICIES
Authors: Keyserling Leon H.
Published: September 2005

During 1953 through 1979 estimated, the U.S. economy has exhibited a roller‐coaster economic performance–six periods of inadequate upturn, stagnation, and recession, with a chronic rise in unemployment because each upturn at its peak has tended to leave us with more unemployment than the previous one. During the period as a whole, we have forfeited 7.1 trillion 1978 dollars in GNP and 80.8 million years of civilian employment opportunities, and consequently lost about 1.8 trillion dollars in public revenues at all levels, with severe neglect of national priorities, and chronically rising Federal Budget deficits. This sorry record is due primarily to reliance upon a “trade‐off” between unemployment and inflation. But empirical evidence for more than a quarter century has demonstrated that inflation rises as unused capabilities increase and vice versa. The annual inflation rate during the first half of 1979 exceeded 13 percent despite recession; it ranged from 1.6–3.0 percent during periods close to full employment. We now need thorough reconstruction of national economic policies, including abandonment of (1) the unemployment‐inflation “trade‐off,” (2) attempts to balance the federal budget at the expense of the economy and the people, (3) the prevalent monetary policy with soaring interest rates, and (4) excessive reliance on tax reductions in lieu of increased public outlays or investment. These changes would replace improvised and frequently conflicting national economic policies with comprehensive and coherent efforts. All this is in accord with the Humphrey‐Hawkins Full Employment and Balanced Growth Act of 1978
FULL EMPLOYMENT AS A POLICY ISSUE
Authors: Cinsburg Helen
Published: September 2005

Passage of the Humphrey‐Hawkins Full Employment and Balanced Growth Act of 1978 is the most recent step in the development of a national full employment policy. This article traces the origin of the legislative debate over full employment back to the 1940s, the only previous time that Congress gave serious consideration to full employment legislation. It analyzes the conflicting economic and political interests and philosophies that led to the defeat of the Full Employment Bill of 1945 and to passage of weaker legislation, the Employment Act of 1946, which dropped the commitment to full employment. The article then traces the contours of unemployment since World War II: recurrent recessions; significant unemployment between recessions; the unequal distribution of joblessness, hitting hardest at groups such as minorities, women, and youths; and growing urban and regional unemployment. Some of the hidden social, human and economic costs of unemployment are explored. So is the relationship between unemployment and crime, poverty, welfare, the urban crisis and inequality. Full employment reemerged as a major issue in the 1970s because of the impetus from groups whose unemployment problems persist between recessions. Coalitions of these groups pressed for a national policy to secure full employment for all groups. This led to passage of the Humphrey‐Hawkins Act. But the controversy over full employment has not ended. Attempts to implement the Act, the article concludes, may heighten underlying controversies over issues such as inflation, wage, price and profit controls, the environment, and job creation and may make full employment one of the leading domestic issues of the 1980s.
EQUAL EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITY AND THE CARTER ADMINISTRATION: AN ANALYSIS OF REORGANIZATION OPTIONS
Authors: Lamb Charles M.
Published: September 2005

Responding to his 1976 campaign pledge, President Carter has reorganized the federal government's enforcement of equal employment opportunity(EEO) laws. He has done so by shifting some EEO responsibilities from the Civil Service Commission and the Department of Labor to create a “Super‐EEOC”. This article examines why President Carter chose the EEO reorganization that he did from the standpoint of advantages and disadvantages. Also presented are alternative reform options that the President could have selected that would have involved increasing EEO coordination or reorganization entailing new legislation that would have gone far beyond the creation of a “Super‐EEOC.”
CLIENT GROUP ATTITUDES TOWARD ALTERNATIVE FORMS OF INDUSTRIAL SAFETY REGULATION*
Authors: McLean Robert A. , Schneck Ronald G.
Published: September 2005

A sample of local union officers was surveyed to determine the degree to which they supported the current approach to industrial safety regulation (the setting of safety standards under the Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970) as opposed to an alternative scheme (the imposition of an injury tax). Personal characteristics of the members of the sample were also obtained. These data were matched with the injury frequency rates of the industries in which the officers’ constituents were employed. Individuals surveyed tended to believe OSHA to have been an effective injury deterrent, although there were significant differences among groups within the sample. The establishment of safety standards was strongly supported as the “best” means to control industrial accidents.
THE POLITICAL ECONOMY OF WORKER PENSION FUNDS
Authors: Olson Laura Katz
Published: September 2005

Increasing concentration of economic power within the corporate sector, as well as the extent of corporate control by a few financial institutions such as commercial banks, have been subjects of intense scrutiny and debate in recent years. However, the role of private and public worker retirement trusts in providing power for institutional investors has not been adequately addressed. Pension fund assets, which were relatively inconsequential prior to 1960, and their investment in and share of total corporate equities minor, have grown to over $l410 billion by the end of 1977. In their analysis of and interest in public and private pension trusts, scholars, employers and even employees have tended to emphasize narrow economic issues such as investment performance. It is the central argument of this article that workers’ funds have become a major source of capital in the American economy, and as such have been used to help create and/or sustain practices that adversely impinge on workers themselves. It is argued that pension assets have contributed to: 1) the increasing power of financial institutions; 2) growth of corporate profits that only minimally benefit some pension plan participants; 3)capital shortages for 'socially useful’ investments; and 4)support of corporate enterprises that refuse basic worker demands including unionization itself. The study further suggests that the rapidly growing pension assets have the potential to serve‘the public interest’ as well as the needs of workers. Threat of withdrawal of funds from selected money managers and corporations, and utilization of share–holder voting rights to influence corporate policies can be potent weapons for organized labor. Since this is an exploratory analysis, the aim of the article is to gather, present and clarify basic information on worker pension trusts and to propose alternative avenues for future research in this critical area.
ADMINISTRATIVE REFORM: A VIEW FROM THE FIELD
Authors: Caiden Gerald E.
Published: September 2005

Recent studies of administrative reform reveal how underdeveloped still is the state of the art. Although improving, it suffers from serious limitations. Consequently, many reforms fail or fall below expectations. Available administrative tools have a decidedly authoritarian technocratic ring to them, enshrining values beloved to mandarins and social engineers but not necessarily acceptable to social democracies. Here, several current issues such as renewed interest, disputed definition and scope, contrasting approaches and lack of success, are surveyed together with suggestions for a new agenda.
Who Pays the Costs of Inflation?
Authors: Edmunds Stahrl W.
Published: September 2005

Inflation may be looked upon as a deferred consumption tax which reduces consumer purchasing power through high prices to compensate for earlier excess expansions of credit. A portion of this excess borrowing is by government to finance deficits. The inflation cost may then be compared by family–income class with the alternative income taxes needed to avoid inflation by eliminating the deficits. By this calculation for 1965–75, the inflation cost was highly regressive, with an effective rate of 17 percent on. families below $5,000, and 17 times greater than such families would have had to pay in income taxes. Meantime, the effective inflationary tax rate for wealthy families over $50,000 in income was a bonus, or tax rebate, of one percent.
Federal Influence and Urban Policy Entrepreneurship in the Local Prosecution of Economic Crime
Authors: Brintnall Michael A.
Published: September 2005

In the early 1970's a score of local prosecutors around the United States instituted programs to address the problem of white collar crime and consumer fraud. This article analyzes this process of innovation as a form of policy entrepreneurship. The article concludes with consideration of key questions addressing the sources, character, and consequences of local policy entrepreneurship and the character of federal influence.
History and Policy Studies
Authors: Yarwood Dean L. , Alexander Thomas B.
Published: September 2005

This article deals with actual and potential contributions of history to policy studies. Some historians have attempted to influence specific policies through their writings, others have held policy‐relevant positions in government agencies, while others have functioned in roles that have made them official preservers of our past. The authors discuss a number of ways in which history is relevant to policy studies‐among them, the conception of history as a policy laboratory, as a source for perspective about the development of current policies, as a source of theoretically interesting rare or unique occurrences, and as a repository of values to which appeals can be made to justify current and proposed policies. Historians are becoming aware of the need for alternative careers to teaching in universities and this has led them to seek an increase in the number of policy‐relevant positions for historians in government.
A Preamble to Family Policy: Issues of the Past and Present
Authors: Rice Robert M.
Published: September 2005

The subject of family appears appropriately related to social policy, since family functions interface with society so closely. Moreover, U.S. families have been changing rapidly enough in this decade to warrant new attention to policy development. Public and political interest in family policy has been growing. Yet, historical barriers to government targeting family issues for policy development abound. While some intellectual, organizational, and bureaucratic mobilization has occurred, producing broad family policy declarations, interest groups are in the process of positioning themselves differentially, and disagreement about the value of explicit family policy is on the increase. The author believes that family policy will develop slowly in the D.S., and that comprehensive and cohesive family policy can better be considered a goal rather than a readily implemented public activity.
The Use of Social Science in the Changing Role of the GAO
Authors: Staats Elmer B.
Published: September 2005

The profession of the government auditor has been, is, and will continue to be making adjustments in its traditional patterns of work. Society and its needs are changing, government is changing, and professional work in government‐in this case auditing‐also is changing. This article shows that the U.S. General Accounting Office is learning by experience how to audit government programs having economic and social purposes in order to find out how useful they really are. It reveals the interesting diversity of a GAO auditor's assignments, tells how GAO work is planned, discusses finer points of new auditor disciplines, traces the development of the GAO organization from the days of green eye‐shades to auditing by computer, and ends with a glimpse of new directions GAO services to the Congress may be expected to take.
EMPTY HOUSING SPACE: AN OVERLOOKED RESOURCE
Authors: Baer William C.
Published: September 2005

The nature of the housing problem in the United States has changed over the years while the posed solutions have not. Today the U.S. has both a surplus of housing and a shortage–the housing space is not effectively distributed. This article suggests the magnitude of underutilization of our housing space and discusses the federal and local policies which encourage over‐consumption and discourage voluntary redistribution. Some pertinent recent Supreme Court decisions are discussed.
TWO‐EARNER FAMILIES IN THE HOUSING MARKET
Authors: Roistacher Elizabeth A. , Young Janet Spratlin
Published: September 2005

The 1970's has been a period in which three trends have coincided: housing prices have been escalating, wives have continued to enter the labor force, and legislation prohibiting discrimination in mortgage markets on the basis of sex and marital status has been enacted. In this paper, we examine the role of the two‐earner family–one in which both husband and wife work–in the housing market of the 1970's, and the interrelation of this household type with other factors shaping the current high demand for housing. We also speculate on the role of the two‐earner family in the housing market of the 1980's. We conclude that two‐earner families are in a position to increase their housing outlays in the future, that the continued growth in the number of two‐earner families will add to future housing demand, but that many two‐earner families may be divorced couples of the future. This suggests that, while there will be a strong impact on single‐family home demand, there will also be some restructuring of demand toward rental housing and cooperative/condominium ownership.
LOW‐ AND MODERATE‐INCOME HOUSING IN THE SUBURBS: THE MASSACHUSETTS “ANTI‐SNOB ZONING” LAW EXPERIENCE
Authors: Krefetz Sharon Perlman
Published: September 2005

Can a state re‐assertion of power to override local exclusionary zoning practices “open up” the suburbs for low and moderate income households? Such an approach, tried in Massachusetts over the last ten years, has had some notable, though limited results. Some 14,000 units of LMIH have been proposed under the innovative provisions of the Massachusetts “Anti‐Snob Zoning” Law, but only about 3,600 have actually been built. The foremost factor limiting the impact of the law has been persistent resistance to it by suburbanites. While much suburban opposition undoubtably stems from racial prejudice and fears, some is based upon rational concern over the costs to local communities of providing services to the residents of subsidized housing. Offsetting these costs with state and/or federal subsidies could lower major barriers to the creation of more housing opportunities in the suburbs for low and moderate income persons.
THE SECTION 8 RENTAL ASSISTANCE PROGRAM: COSTS AND POLICY OPTIONS
Authors: Straszheim Mahlon R.
Published: September 2005

Housing benefits and income transfers realized by Section 8 program participants are examined. The distribution of benefits depends on income eligibility rules and the level of Fair Market Rents, the latter establishing an upper limit on the quality of housing available to households. By establishing Fair Market Rents for an entire urban area, program regulations tend to exclude the poor from better quality neighborhoods. Subsidy costs for newly constructed units are twice as high as for existing units. Income eligibility rules are such that many more households are eligible than can be supported, creating difficult problems of horizontal equity. Lowering Fair Market Rents or raising the required share of tenant's income paid in rent would tend to reduce these horizontal equity problems.