bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Active Mind
Authors: Zakaras Alex
Published: November 2023

Toward the end of the last chapter, I argued that domination threatens individuality. Anyone who endures the (nearly) unlimited power of another—be it a husband, an “oriental despot,” or a popular majority—is robbed of the capacity for self-authorship. I argued that this theft can take several forms: the powerless can be coerced outright or intimidated into conformity and obedience, or they can constrain themselves out of fear. Worse still, they can be socialized and manipulated into welcoming the conditions of their subjection. A well-designed democracy is, for Mill, a means of limiting and dividing power and thereby emancipating individuals from these several forms of domination.

I also suggested, however, that individuality was something more than an ideal of equality or non-domination. It has other, more positive elements. Conformity, though sometimes a consequence of domination, is, in other cases, simply a matter of habit or comfort. In fact, Mill holds that it is the human intellect’s natural point of repose. To succeed in living deliberately is to succeed, therefore, in overcoming some of the habits of mind that come easiest. In this chapter, I explore Mill’s account of the demands that individuality places on individuals. I focus especially on Mill’s conception of the “active mind,” which he thinks an integral part of individuality.
Individuality and Civic Virtue
Authors: Zakaras Alex
Published: November 2023

Two hundred years after his birth, John Stuart Mill’s interpreters still disagree about the extent of his commitment to democracy. Many maintain that he was a reluctant democrat, working subtly to insulate government from the vicissitudes of public opinion. These critics usually hold that Mill was, above all, a liberal who believed that personal liberties would always be too important to entrust fully to the demos. Others disagree sharply, insisting that Mill was a radical democrat, even by twenty-first-century standards, and that his ambition to justify broad new avenues for public participation was restrained only by his belief that the British public was not yet completely prepared (but would eventually be) for the fullest self-government.

Recent scholarship has strengthened this latter reading by clarifying the breadth of Mill’s participatory ideal: Mill wanted citizens to participate not only in national elections, not only in regular “conferences” between elected representatives and their constituents, but also in local government and adjudication, in volunteer militias and worker-owned cooperatives.
How the Copyright Wars Are Being Fought and Why
Authors: Patry William
Published: November 2023

Words matter. We use particular words because we want to convince others of our viewpoint. When the topic is copyright law, however, language is rarely employed to persuade, and most often to demonize. The intensity of the debates over copyright has reached the point where the term the “Copyright Wars” need not be explained; it is now part of our common cultural language. The term originated with those who regard enforcement actions by corporate copyright owners as an assault on consumers. One of those corporate copyright owners, Warner Music Group CEO Edgar Bronfman, Jr., acknowledged the aptness of the phrase in a 2007 speech, agreeing that the recording industry had “gone to war with consumers by denying them what they wanted and could otherwise find; as a result of course, consumers won.”2 What consumers supposedly won is unclear: in 2007, Mr. Bronfman’s and other record labels (through the Recording Industry Association of America) were still in the midst of suing tens of thousands of individuals.
The Role of Metaphors in Understanding
Authors: Patry William
Published: November 2023

Understanding one thing by associating it with another is integral to the way we learn. When we ask how a food we haven’t tried tastes, the answer is usually, “It tastes like …”1 These type of comparisons draw their power from the accuracy of the perceived similarities, even in the presence of dissimilarities: If we say pheasant tastes like chicken, we also know that a pheasant isn’t a chicken and won’t taste exactly like one either. But we do expect that pheasant will share certain taste characteristics with chicken but not with other meat, say beef.2
Metaphors and the Law
Authors: Patry William
Published: November 2023

The reputation of metaphors in the legal literature is mixed: Some judges delight in their usage. British jurist Lord Hoffman wrote in Designers Guild Ltd. v. Russell Williams (Textiles) Ltd.: “Copyright law protects foxes better than hedgehogs.”1 Judge Fysh later praised this metaphor with his own metaphor, describing Lord Hoffman’s remarks as a “sibylline observation.” (Scholars, less generously, have termed the observation “enigmatic.”3)
The Mythical Origins of Copyright and Three Favorite Copyright Metaphors
Authors: Patry William
Published: November 2023

Despite the constitutional basis for copyright in the United States as rooted in the objective of promoting learning, there are a number of different origin theories advanced for why we have copyright. No theory, however, commands majority agreement. The lack of an agreed-on foundational theory justifying copyright is a considerable embarrassment for advocates of such extra-constitutional theories. As Joanne Wright observed, origin stories are “narratives that do more than simply uncover beginnings; they authorize implicitly particular solutions.”3 Like historical writing, origin stories are an effort to influence the present and not to objectively unearth the past. In the case of copyright, Majid Yar asserts:
Property as Social Relationships
Authors: Patry William
Published: November 2023

Ben Franklin’s view was that “Private Property … is a Creature of Society, and is subject to the Calls of that Society, whenever its Necessities shall require it, even to the last Farthing.”1 Another Founding Father, Thomas Jefferson, wrote in 1813: “Stable ownership is the gift of social law, and is given late in the progress of society.”2 Jeremy Bentham wrote at about the same time as Jefferson, “there is no such thing as natural property[;] [property] is entirely the work of law Property and law are born together, and die
Why Classifying Copyright as Property Is Important in the Copyright Wars
Authors: Patry William
Published: November 2023

In the last chapter we explored the concept of property as social relations, rather than as dominion over things. At issue is not whether social relationships are the essence of property—they clearly are—but why are the interests of one social group favored over another? What social objective is being furthered by the decision to privilege one particular group? Also not at issue is whether to regulate, because all property constitutes regulation; the issue is “what kind of property system to create in the first place.”1 Property and regulation are not “mortal enemies. In fact, private property cannot exist without regulation.”2
Moral Panics, Folk Devils, and Fear as a Tactical Weapon
Authors: Patry William
Published: November 2023

The power of the concepts “thief” and “trespasser” is traceable to the fundamental negative associations they invoke. Thieves and trespassers are usually metaphoric, fictive creations (outside of course, people who actually do steal your wallet or enter your land without your permission and refuse to leave).They are also examples of moral panics. Moral panics in copyright are the flip side of the initial classification of copyright as property. The appellation thief or trespasser is meaningless without an owner of property from whom one can steal or commit trespass. In Daniel Defoe’s famous novel, did the cannibals care a hoot about Robinson Crusoe’s fenced-in habitation and cave? Hardly; to them, he was food, and if they had eaten him, they would not have taken over his created space; nor would it have prevented Crusoe from becoming an entrée if he had claimed a fee simple absolute over his living quarters and refused entry to the cannibals as trespassers. What good, then, is it to say you own property if there are no thieves or trespassers to do battle with? Copyright owners claiming status as property owners need to create conflict with others to create their status; the classical way in which such conflict is created is through moral panics.
Rethinking The Public In Lawyers’ Public Service: Strategic Philanthropy And The Bottom Line
Authors: Rhode Deborah L
Published: November 2023

In principle, the bar’s commitment to provide unpaid service “pro bono publico” implies concern for the public good. But in practice, pro bono has never been only about what is good for the public. It has also been about what is good for lawyers: what will enhance their reputation, experience, contacts, and relationships? Such concerns are not, of course, unique to this charitable context. And whether they matter is part of a longstanding debate about the meaning of altruism. Some branches of philosophy and economics deny the possibility of wholly disinterested behavior (Andreoni 1990: 1; Batson 1991:6; Cialdini et al. 1987:756; Loder 2001:467; Lerner 1982; Katz 2000:14). Their assumption is that all reasoned action is motivated by some self-interest: after all, why else would someone act? (Batson 1991:3–4; Mueller 1979:4; Gauthier 1986:1–20). On this view, when people attempt to benefit another, it is because they derive personal satisfaction from doing so. And from a societal standpoint, it scarcely matters. To borrow the philosopher Bernard Williams’s (1972:66) example, when a man gives money to famine relief, why should we care whether his motive is to enhance his standing with the Rotary Club? So too, what difference does it make if law firms volunteer time on civil rights cases less out of concern for social justice than out of a desire to improve their recruitment, reputation, training, and rankings in The American Lawyer? The point is to get their contributions.
Venezuela
Authors: Malumian Nicolas
Published: November 2023

In Venezuela, trusts are regulated by the Trust Act (Ley de Fideicomiso), whose entrance into force dates back to 1956 (Extraordinary Official Gazette No. 496 of August 17, 1956), but it has not been actively used until more recently. In fact in 1999, Turuhpial Cariello expressed that “the trust is one of the few bank contracts fully regulated in detail by our law, notwithstanding it is still practically unknown. If when lecturing I forget to say that the Trust Law that my students must purchase for the course dates back to 1956, many of them come back the following class without purchasing the law because they think that the bookseller tried to sell them an old and abrogated law.” Nevertheless, the same author explained that the situation described was changing: “[T]he financial institutions realized the exceptional flexibility of the trust for fulfilling private and social benefit purposes.” He also said that he envisioned a development of the trust for family needs, the development of the public sector trust for public works and services, and as collective schemes of investment. The author was right, as currently public sector trusts and so-called “social benefits trusts” (which will be addressed in detail at the end of this chapter), among others, are intensively used.
When WordStar Was King
Authors: Baron Dennis
Published: November 2023

Writing on clay was not the last word technology to drop off the screen. The market for parchment dried up in the late Middle Ages, and while papyrus continues to be sold as a souvenir in Egypt (Roemer 2007), paper has become the universal medium of choice for writing on soft and pliant surfaces, though thanks to computers those surfaces have become “hard copy.” Typewriters are quickly moving toward extinction, though they’re not dead yet. Although the machines have become increasingly rare in the United States, typewriters are still manufactured and sold around the world. But it is hardly a stretch to claim that sooner rather than later the people who are still typing will join the digital age and retire their machines in favor of the computer.
Writing on Screen
Authors: Baron Dennis
Published: November 2023

Are email, texting and instant messages destroying the English language, killing the art of conversation, and rupturing social relationships? How can I use email, texting, and IM to enhance my communications skills, cement business and personal relationships, and increase profitability, while at the same time protecting my privacy? The first question is often raised by alarmists who don’t trust digital texts and are anxious to find something wrong with the new technologies of com- munication, and its answer seems to be “No.” English survives, conversation thrives online as well as off, and on balance, digital communication seems to be enhancing human interaction, not detracting from it. The second ques- tion is more likely to be asked by those who want to trust the new media and are anxious to learn how it might be useful for them, while making sure these new ways of doing things with words won’t blow up in their faces. The answers to the second question are too complex to be rendered in a sound bite. But as we see in the chapters that follow, both questions reveal a lot about how digital communications are changing our lives and how we’re responding to those changes.
Trial and Punishment For Battlefield Misconduct
Authors: Corn Geoffrey S , Jensen Eric T
Published: November 2023

The terms war crime and terrorism share common connections: they both refer to the unjustified infliction of suffering, they both connote the victimization of the innocent, and they both trigger criminal sanction. But these two terms also differ in certain legally substantial ways. Perhaps the most important difference is the source of law that operates to condemn these crimes. War crimes are quintessential international law violations—crimes that are defined by international law and subject to criminal sanction either through international tribunals or domestic tribunals invoking the substance of international law. Terrorism, in contrast, although ostensibly universally condemned, is primarily the subject of domestic law, subject to criminal sanction as the result of domestic criminal prohibition.
The Price of Intrusion
Authors: O’Neill Philip D
Published: November 2023

The principle of intrusion to verify commitments of agreements arose in the post-World War II nuclear context. The fear of unfettered international nuclear trade raised the specter of weapons proliferation. Despite the almost immediate failure of the Baruch Plan’s embrace of U.N. control over nuclear energy, the desire to constrain peaceful use to prevent weaponization ultimately resulted in the creation of the International Atomic Energy Agency (“IAEA”). This agency, born of President Eisenhower’s “Atoms for Peace” proposal, serves a dual mandate: international oversight of the peaceful use of nuclear energy, and preventing diversion of fissile material for military use. The functional underpinnings for the IAEA reflect the crux of the American proposal—international verification of the commitment to peaceful use by member states.
The Legacy of Uncertainty
Authors: O’Neill Philip D
Published: November 2023

The practical objectives and needs of nuclear arms control verification are changing with the emergence of different threats. As a threshold matter, the scope of WMD arms control will have to be enlarged to meet new risks from sophisticated terrorists and rogues. But whereas the inability to verify had served for decades as a limitation on agreement, now enhanced means of verification—particularly cooperative models—could turn it into a facilitating factor. This is most likely in instances where the emerging threats are viewed as a risk held in common, so that multilateral political pressure effectively compels it. Through such cooperation, verification can be or may become more than adequate to meet the risks arising from nonparties to armscontrol regimes. The challenges will be experienced primarily in the interstices of these intersections.
The Senegalese Immigrants in Bari
Authors: Zinn Dorothy Louise
Published: November 2023

As anthropologist Renato Rosaldo has written, ‘No analysis of human action is complete unless it attends to people’s own notions of what they are doing.’ Unfortunately, research in the area of immigration has often neglected this dimension of study. This essay seeks to demonstrate how the use of the oral life-history of the immigrants themselves is one means by which this gap may begin to be filled. Through a study of the movement of Senegalese men to Bari, Italy, the analysis focuses attention on cultural aspects of international migration which have been overlooked.
Women in the Ivory Coast: The Intertwining of Memory and Gender
Authors: Schuerkens Ulrike
Published: November 2023

The consciousness and memory of women in French West Africa is characteristically constructed from a fusion of two very different sources: one which is autochthonous, and expresses the gender concepts typical of the pre-colonial period, and another, of French origin, which was first introduced at the start of this century. These two types of memory and social consciousness have interacted to produce other gender concepts. Anthropological and sociological studies have shown how this post-colonial interaction, combined with the ambiguities of women’s actual experience, has resulted in stereotypes, values, and norms whose origins are often difficult to trace. In the context in which African women have been confronted by the Western world’s images of femininity and expected to attain some aspects of this European model, their collective and individual memories necessarily select and attempt to realize some concepts from both sources and suppress others. Both their own attitudes and their immediate sources of influence in the press and local popular opinion reflect a constantly changing world of choices and symbiosis, collisions and ruptures.
Not Bad But Mad: The Discovery Of ‘Feeble-Mindedness’
Authors: Zedner Lucia
Published: November 2023

This book has traced a gradual, at times uneven, transition in explanations of and responses to crime. Beginning with the mid-nineteenth century, it opened with moralistic understandings of crime and quasi-religious attempts to reclaim the offender. It concludes with the rise of secular, ‘scientific’ explanations of deviance, which, in their turn, led to medically orientated attempts to replace punishment with treatment and containment. At the close of the nineteenth century, ‘feeble-mindedness’ came to be seen as a major social problem, a source of social dangerousness, and the causal link in a wide range of deviant behaviour. This chapter examines the campaign for and enactment of legislation which introduced policies intended to replace penal responses with provisions whose primary purpose was eugenic. Strikingly, as in the case of habitual inebriety, the majority of those labelled as feeble-minded were women. We will examine why psychiatric diagnoses were found to be particularly plausible in explaining female deviance and explore why the consequences of mental deficiency in women were seen to be infinitely greater than in men.
Medicine in the Second Half of the Twentieth Century
Authors: LOCK STEPHEN
Published: November 2023

Every age has its medical sceptics-shrewd commentators whose analysis questions or even refutes the paradigm of the totally triumphalist view of med icine. These range from Moliere through George Bernard Shaw to Ivan Illich. Yet perhaps in our own day none has been so influential (certainly within med ical circles) as Thomas McKeown, whose critiques of medicine in the 1970s rested not only on exceptional academic rigour, but also on an insider’s know ledge, given his position as Professor of Social Medicine at the University of Birmingham.
History of Universities
Authors: Spatz Nancy
Published: November 2023

Volume XIII of History of Universities contains the customary mix of learned articles, book reviews, conference reports, and bibliographical information, which makes this annual publication such an indispensable book for the historian of higher education. Its contributions range widely geographically, chronologically, and in subject matter. Volume XIII includes articles on town and gown relations in Dublin, nineteenth-century engineering students at Brunswick, and Cape Towners views on their university, and is, as always, a lively combination of original research and invaluable reference material.
Student Life and Sociability, 1860-1930: Comparative Reflections1
Authors: Jones H S
Published: November 2023

In an article published in 1978 Konrad Jarausch urged the need for comparative research into the role of universities in socialization.2 In the years since then the history of leisure has come of age as, for instance, social historians have begun to recognize that patterns of leisure activity have often been as important as work experience in defining workers’ identity. This interest in leisure has extended to the study of middle-class sociability, not least as part of the burgeoning interest in associational practices as an agent of bourgeois consciousness in nineteenth-century Europe. The study of students’ leisure activities has increasingly come to be recognized as an integral dimension of university history, but it has so far mainly taken the form of contributions to institutional histories which can lack breadth of perspective. In practice, comparative study of the sort Jarausch called for has not advanced far beyond some long-established (and largely unexplored) contrasts between the German tradition of Lebensfreiheit (freedom of lifestyle) and the collegiate tradition of Oxford, Cambridge, and some American East-Coast universities.
The Early Years of the Hebrew Technion in Haifa during the British Mandate (1924-1948), and of the University of Haifa (1963-1981) in the State of Israel: A Community Dilemmas Approach to Higher Education
Authors: Dror Yuval
Published: November 2023

This study compares two universities in the city of Haifa in the north of Israel: the Hebrew Technion, functioning since 1924, although planned in detail in 1902 and later to be the highest technological institution of the Jewish state – and the University of Haifa, founded in 1963 during the period when academic institutions in Israel spread out from the Hebrew University in Jerusalem. The article’s goals are: 1. To describe the main dilemmas of two case studies, an institute of technology and a liberal arts university in one city, Haifa. The comparison follows a short theoretical and historical background of their first decades in two different periods, respectively before and after the establishment of the state. We chart the main dilemmas of the academic institutions, which are tied to the national and regional processes, comparing relevant examples in one city and regional community.
The Probing of Disgrace
Authors: Murray Alexander
Published: November 2023

Most chronicles wrote ‘publicly about public figures’, and we have seen two reasons, one in the authors and one in the people they wrote about, why suicide should figure so little in their products. But other areas of historical writing were freer of these restraints. In some, the focus of a writer’s interest was close enough to the life of the lowly to record their images, and to do so in a quantity sufficient to raise the chances that their narrative would capture suicides from social levels below that of kings and dukes, levels, that is, where reputations were less protected by tabu. In others, a quasihistorical record is moved by its very rationale to examine real-life cases of suicide. In both areas of record, in one through an accident and in the other through its essence, the suicidal incidents are broadly of one kind: they attach to a man (all examples are male) who has risen to fame or consequence and is suddenly brought low by disgrace and punishment, immanent or actual.
Prehistoric and Roman Spain
Authors: Fear A T
Published: November 2023

Richard Ford’s statement that Spain is not one country but several, while now almost a cliche, bears repeating. The geography of the Iberian peninsula, like that of what is now modern Greece, breaks the area into distinct and separate regions. It is unsurprising therefore that ancient Spain presents us with a mosaic of diverse cultures. Language reflects this diversity perfectly: no fewer than five languages were spoken in the region. Unfortunately these continue to defy efforts at translation and hence our information comes solely from classical sources. These often have strong presuppositionsplain—dwellers are, for example, seen as necessarily more civilized than mountain-dwellers. We have no further material with which to interpret our archaeological data, and though these sources are thus invaluable, it is also important to remember that with them we see ancient Iberia through a glass darkly.
Flow and Ebb 1700–1833
Authors: Herr Richard
Published: November 2023

When Philip, duke of Anjou, accepted the realms of the Spanish monarchy bestowed on him by the will of Charles II, he had to defend his claim against the Habsburgs of Vienna, who could not brook the transfer of the main part of the family estate to the grandson of their arch-enemy Louis XIV. The leading elements of Castile rallied around Philip V, as the best hope to preserve intact the Spanish empire in Europe and America. Their counterparts in the Crown of Aragon originally accepted him, but when war began they transferred their allegiance to the pretender, the Archduke Charles, for they feared Philip would copy the absolutism of Louis XIV. Austria was joined in 1702 by Britain and the Netherlands and a year later Portugal, who feared a possible dynastic union of Spain and France.
The Intelligentsia and the Press
Authors: Gray Rosalind P
Published: November 2023

Chapter I has uncovered many of the visual stimuli available to Russian artists between 1820 and 1870. Of equal importance were the intellectual debates which were explored with such passion and commitment in Russia as a result of the rise of the intelligentsia in the 1820s and 1830s. This chapter will examine the developing thread of critical comment in Russian literature, and the matrix of social and political developments from which the intelligentsia’s doctrine of critical questioning stemmed. The discussion will then turn to the main forum in which the intelligentsia aired their views, the periodical press, focusing on those journals and newspapers which engaged most closely with the visual arts.
The Visitation of the Collège de Cluny, Paris, 1386
Authors: Sullivan Thomas
Published: November 2023

On April 30 and May 1, 1386, the prior of La Voûte-Chilhac, Maurinus de Monteclaio, concluded his visitation tour of the Cluniac province of France with an inquiry super statu et gubernatione of that Order’s house of studies in Paris, the Collège de Cluny.* Normal procedure in the Cluniac visitation system provided a battery of questions concerning the house to be visited, some of which could be answered by personal observation and some of which demanded interviews of those living in the house or near by. Armed with such a questionnaire, Maurinus de Monteclaio heard testimony from five witnesses—two members of the college itself and three priors of the Order of Cluny; his nine questions focused on the student personnel of the college and their sponsoring monasteries, the college’s reputation, and steps to be taken for the reformation of the college.
English Civic Universities and the Myth of Decline
Authors: Morse Elizabeth J
Published: November 2023

In his article, ‘Universities and Elites in Modern Britain’, R.D. Anderson argues persuasively in favour of new perspectives on the recent history of higher education in the British Isles. He warns against a too-trusting acceptance of the role of universities in the formation of professional elites and advocates an end to the assumption that all university development of any note took place along what has become known as the London-Oxford-Cambridge axis. In this piece, I shall argue that these perceptions are both a cause and a symptom of certain inequalities in the English system of higher education.
Britain and the Alliance
Authors: Carver Michael
Published: November 2023

Britain’s contribution to the North Atlantic Alliance has always been a key one, and never more so than in bringing it into existence. To Ernest Bevin, Foreign Secretary when negotiations with the Soviet Union over the future of Germany broke down in December 1947, goes the credit for taking the initiative in forming an association of the democratic countries of Western Europe with the US A and, possibly, the Dominions of the British Commonwealth. He saw some such association as essential in order to instil confidence into the countries of Western Europe that they could stand up to Communist pressure, whether direct from the Soviet Union or indirect from Communist parties within their own countries, backed by the former. The European Recovery Plan, initiated in June 1947 by the US Secretary of State, General George Marshall, had provided an economic pillar to support that confidence, following President Truman’s declaration on 12 March pledging US support for ‘free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressuresd’. Bevin’s notification to Marshall that Britain could no longer afford to carry the burden of military and financial support to Greece and Turkey had triggered this off and was perhaps a deliberate move by Bevin to draw the Cnited States back into involvement in European affairs.
Strategic Studies and the Problem of Power
Authors: Freedman Lawrence
Published: November 2023

‘The strategic approach’ is … one which takes account of the part played by force, or the threat of force in the international system. It is descriptive in so far as it analyses the extent to which political units have the capacity to use, or to threaten the use of armed force to impose their will on other units; whether to compel them to do some things, to deter them from doing others, or if need be to destroy them as independent communities altogether. It is prescriptive in so far as it recommends policies which will enable such units to operate m an international system which is subject to such conditions and constraints.
Concepts of Governance
Authors: Harriss Gerald
Published: November 2023

By 1461 Sir John Fortescue could present France and England as examples of absolute and mixed monarchy. Yet both drew on a common fund of European political thought and their political destinies over many centuries had inter-locked. Nor were these immutable forms. English governance rested on an unstable balance of theocratic (descending) and representational (ascending) authority which royal policy or political circumstances might at any time upset. This tension at the heart of the late medieval polity is best appreciated if we brieﬂy review the derivation of these opposing principles and how they were manifested in English constitutional practice.
The Local Polity
Authors: Harriss Gerald
Published: November 2023

In the preceding chapters the peerage and the gentry have been considered largely in isolation. Yet as major constituents of landed society, they displayed a continuum of wealth, exercised a complementary magistracy, and had a largely similar outlook. How did this society operate? What governed the relations of magnates and gentry? How was power distributed between them and for what was it used? Was the local polity stable and how could instability be corrected? How did local and national politics interconnect? There are no straightforward answers to these questions, partly because local conditions varied but more fundamentally because historians hold divergent views on how the local polity was organized. For some the shire was not merely an administrative unit but a political community with a historic identity and corporate existence. For others the magnate afﬁnity provided the only true political structure in local society, for it alone was able to mobilize effective power.1 I shall ﬁrst assess these two view-points; then explore the interaction of community and afﬁnity; thirdly, discuss the character of and remedies for instability; and ﬁnally examine the interaction of local and national politics and assess the political roles of magnates and gentry.
Agrarian Society
Authors: Harriss Gerald
Published: November 2023

Late medieval England exhibited inﬁnite variations in the use of the land, often within very localized areas. These were determined by the terrain and soil, economic location, and social and agrarian organization. I shall ﬁrst survey the broad diversity of its regions, even if the range of their micro-economies can only be hinted at. A distinction is usually drawn between upland and lowland economies. The former, relying on rough pasture and woodland with little and poor arable, was mainly dependent on livestock, notably sheep and pigs, with timber and mineral extraction providing an industrial element. Settlement was dispersed in isolated farms and hamlets, held by free tenants and worked in severalty.
The Institutional Church
Authors: Harriss Gerald
Published: November 2023

Ecclesia Anglicana was an integral part of both the Catholic Church and the English nation. All who lived within the realm owed allegiance to the king and spiritual obedience to the bishops and pope, and were subject to royal and ecclesiastical jurisdiction. That there was any incompatibility in this was inconceivable. The superiority of spiritual to temporal power had ceased to be a concept with any practical application. Since the twelfth century royal authority had achieved de facto independence, not as head of an autonomous secular state but by establishing itself as the Church’s protector. This had enabled it to arrogate to itself indistinct notions of sacrality and divine right which the Church was pre-pared to endorse through coronation. By the late Middle Ages the mutual recognition of the interdependence of Church and Crown provided the basis for harmony and cooperation.
Religion, Devotion, and Dissent
Authors: Harriss Gerald
Published: November 2023

In the last quarter of the fourteenth century the English Church faced a multiple crisis of authority. Schism in the papacy, talk in parliament of disendowment, and the emergence of heresy at both learned and popular levels threatened its structure and faith, so ﬁrmly established in the preceding century. Traditionally the Church had been identiﬁed with the priesthood, as the essential mediators of divine grace through the sacraments, with the laity in a subordinate and passive role. The thirteenth century had seen this consolidated and extended. The formulation of the doctrine of transubstantiation, the obligation of annual confession and communion for the laity, and the drive to enforce clerical celibacy reinforced the status of the clergy as a sacred and separate order. They were set new standards of morals and learning through the surveillance of archdeacons, visitations, and church courts, while the friars began the evangelization of the urban laity.
Introduction
Authors: Clark Jeffrey
Published: November 2023

Just as the road and travel provide an endless source of literary and cinematic metaphors for the transient and shape-shifting American condition, the road provides a core metaphor for the experience of many Highlanders with the ‘other’, especially through the projects of colonialism. A commonly heard expression is that a woman, through her marriage, creates ‘roads’ between groups for the exchange of wealth and assistance, and the metaphor has obvious relevance for imagining and directing change on the Melanesian Seaboard, as the title of Lawrence’s classic monograph, Road Belong Cargo, indicates.
Typologies of Anaphora
Authors: huang Yan
Published: November 2023

The overall aim of this book is twofold: first to provide an extensive overview of the major contemporary issues surrounding anaphora and to give a critical survey of the many and diverse contemporary approaches to the study of anaphora; secondly to offer original observations and analyses and in particular to advance the neo-Gricean pragmatic theory of anaphora as constructed in Huang (1987, 1989, 1991a, 1991b, 1994, 1995, 1997) and Levinson (1987, 1991). The term ‘anaphora’ is derived from the Greek word avmpopa which may mean ‘carrying back’. In contemporary linguistics, it is commonly used to refer to a relation between two linguistic elements, wherein the interpretation of one (called an anaphor) is in some way determined by the interpretation of the other (called an antecedent) (e.g. Lust 1986b, Wasow 1986, see also Huang 1994: 1). Linguistic elements that can be employed as an anaphor include gaps (or empty categories), pronouns, reflexives, names, and descriptions.
Syntactic Approaches to Anaphora
Authors: huang Yan
Published: November 2023

The ultimate goal of generative grammar is to provide an answer to what Chomsky (1981, 1982, 1986a, 1995) considers to be the fundamental problem of linguistics, namely, the logical problem of language acquisition, a special case of Plato’s problem. The answer provided by Chomsky is the innateness hypothesis-the argument that human beings are born equipped with some internal, unconscious knowledge of language, known as the language faculty. The initial state of the language faculty, being a component of the human mind/brain, is subject to a theory of Universal Grammar (UG) which pro vides a system of universal principles, a finite array of which are parameterized. It is through the interaction of the universal principles with the array of finitely valued parameters that both language universals and language variations which are actually observed can be accounted for (see e.g. Chomsky 1995).
Semantic Approaches to Anaphora
Authors: huang Yan
Published: November 2023

This chapter is largely concerned with semantic approaches to anaphora. One significant development in recent linguistic theorizing is that there has been an increasing involvement of syntactic theory in semantics and of semantic theory in syntax. Consequently, the sorting of data on the one hand, and analyses on the other, into syntactic and semantic has become a more difficult and less theory-neutral task (e.g. Larson et al. 1992). This is particularly true of (studies of) some linguistic phenomena such as VP-ellipsis. The organization of this chapter is as follows. Section 3.1. discusses a number of analyses of VP-ellipsis including the derived VP rule analysis by Sag (1976) and Williams (1977), the binding theory analysis by Kitagawa (1991), the dependency analysis by Fiengo and May (1994), and the equational analysis by Dalrymple, Shieber, and Pereira (1991). For ease of exposition, the discussion covers both syntactic and semantic approaches. Section 3.2. then reviews a few semantic accounts of binding and control. Finally, Section 3.3. considers the phenomenology of logophoricity, focusing on logophoric pronouns in African languages and logophoric, long-distance reflexives in East Asian languages.
An Outline of the Survey’s ICE Parsing Scheme
Authors: Buckley Justin
Published: November 2023

Another form of annotation applied to ICE-GB (the British component of the ICE corpus) was parsing, in which our aim was to analyse each of the utterances in the corpus according to their form, or category, and their function, and according to the relationships between their component parts. ICE-GB was initially parsed using the TOSCA automatic parser, which provided one or more analyses to be checked and selected manually. Most utterances were parsed in this way, but for those that could not be parsed by the TOSCA parser, a new parser was created at the Survey of English Usage (cf. Chapter 11). The Survey parser offers one analysis for each utterance, either a complete parse or a partial parse. ICETREE, a manual tree editor, was compiled at the Survey to cater for the analyses produced by the Survey parser. It is used to check and correct parses and to complete partial parses. Manual tree editing has given us the opportunity to introduce new parsing terms that enable us to complete the analysis of problematic constructions, or of constructions hitherto not catered for. The new scheme also applies to the Survey parser. The Survey parsing scheme is based on the TOSCA system, but differs from it in many respects. What follows is a general overview of the Survey parsing scheme, which includes many of the new terms introduced into the ICE parsing hierarchy.
Frequencies and FEIs
Authors: Moon Rosamund
Published: November 2023

In setting out what I learned about the distribution of FEIs from investigating a corpus, I want to emphasize again the limitations of the study in order to contextualize my findings. OHPC was an idiosyncratic corpus, but useful as a means to an end. My findings were intended to be benchmarking statistics; to provide some framework which could be used in further studies—for example, of different corpora, whether matched typologically or constructed from different kinds of text. Some cross-corpus comparisons are given in the last sections of this chapter. It is my contention that the general tenor of the distributions I observed are borne out by other corpora, and anomalies can be explained.
Discoursal Functions of FEIs
Authors: Moon Rosamund
Published: November 2023

The description and quantification of FEIs and their characteristics helps to define them in relation to the lexicon, but not in relation to discourse. An analysis of the worm turns in OHPC shows that it occurs 6 times, or once in every 3 million words, just above the significance threshold; that its clausal structure of fixed lexical subject and verb occurs in only 1% of predicate FEIs in the database; that it is metaphorical; and that while its lexical verbal process is material and denotes an event, its deep process is also relational as it implies an attribute. A look at the expression in context, however, suggests other aspects.
Introduction
Authors: Ramchand Gillian Catriona
Published: November 2023

It has long been recognised that a theory of semantics is probably not complete without either a characterisation of the different verb types that appear in language (Vendler 1967; Dowty 1979), or some classification of the argument types appearing with particular verbs (Belletti & Rizzi 1988; Jackendoff 1990). Within the syntactic tradition, lexical semanticists have made use of the notion of thematic relations {or 0-roles) as a classification of argument types ever since Fillmore (1968) and Gruber (1965). The idea behind many ‘strong’ thematic role theories is that a certain restricted set of role types exists, and that knowledge of the role types ‘assigned’ by a particular lexical verb allows us to predict core aspects of that verb’s syntactic behaviour. The kind of classification that results from syntacticians’ use of traditional 0-role labels employs categories such as ‘unaccusative’, ‘unergative’, ‘middle\ ‘active transitive’, and ‘experiencer’ verbs. However, despite the general acknowledgement of such classes in the literature, the traditional notions of 0-roles have remained notoriously vague and undecidable. Moreover, the syntacticians’ classes often seem totalJy unrelated to the formal semanticists’ categories of ‘state’, ‘activity’, ‘achievement’ and ‘accomplishment’ which result from a basically aspectual classification of events. It seems that in general, syntacticians have sought to make sense of the phenomenon of different verb types in terms of primitive argument types or roles, while the semanticists have classically seen the problem in terms of primitive aspectual verb phrase and sentential types.
Conclusion
Authors: Ramchand Gillian Catriona
Published: November 2023

In this book, I have been asking the following question: what, if any, are the systematic correspondences between syntactic structure and semantic interpretation in the domain of predicate-argument relationships? Specifically, I have taken to heart well-known data concerning the effect of nominal interpretation on aspectual semantics, pursuing the intuition that these facts are just the most obvious effects of a more pervasive and systematic interaction between the aspectual event structure of a predicate and its arguments. If the results of this research are correct, they suggest that in the construction of predicate-argument relationships, there is a deep structuring analogy with spatiality and path definition at work.
The Prototypical Characteristics of Semasiological Change
Authors: Geeraerts Dirk
Published: November 2023

IN the previous chapter, I identified four prototype-theoretical features of semasiological structures, and correlated each of those features with a descriptive hypothesis about the structural characteristics of semasiological changes.
Prototypical Polysemization and the Isomorphic Principle
Authors: Geeraerts Dirk
Published: November 2023

The functional classification of semantic changes that was presented in the previous chapter contains conflicting principles: as noted, the various realizations of the efficiency principle need not be in harmony with each other. This seems to apply particularly to the relationship between isomorphism as emanating from a structuralist conception of the lexicon, and prototypicality as emanating from a cognitive conception. To begin with, let us note that prototype semantics seems to imply that natural languages have a tendency to enhance the polysemic character of lexical items. At least, this is the case when the prototype-theoretical characteristics of lexical structures are considered at the level of word senses rather than at the referential level-see Section I .2 for the distinction. As a set of closely connected semantic nuances that are grouped together round a prototypical core, prototypical categories exploit their own polysemic potentialities; any nuance that can be incorporated into the category because of its resemblance to the prototype increases the polysemy of the item in question by raising the number of semantic variants grouped together round the prototypical core. That is to say, the flexibility of prototypically organized lexical items is to a large extent a mechanism of polysemization.
Lost Intuitions and Forgotten Intentions
Authors: Grosz Barbara J , Sidner Candace L
Published: November 2023

This chapter provides historical and intellectual context for the remaining chapters in this volume by summarizing the main goals of the original research on global focusing and centering. It then describes several un solved problems in the theory of centering which we consider the most important areas for future work. It argues in particular for additional empirical research, analysis of more complex types of discourse. and more detailed examination of the interaction of centering with other discourse processes at both the local and global levels.
Discourse Coherence and Shifting Centers in Japanese Texts
Authors: Iida Masayo
Published: November 2023

In languages such as Japanese, the use of zeros, unexpressed arguments of the verb, in utterances that shift the topic involves a risk that the meaning intended by the speaker may not be transparent to the hearer. However, this potentially undesirable conversational strategy often occurs in the course of naturally occurring discourse. In this chapter, I report on an empirical study of 250 utterances with zeros in twenty Japanese newspaper articles. Each utterance is analyzed in terms of centering transitions and the form in which centers are realized by referring expressions. I also examine lexical sub categorization information, and tense and aspect in order to test the hypothesis that the speaker expects the hearer to use this information in determining global discourse structure. I explain the occurrence of zerosin RETAIN and ROUGH-SHIFT centering transitions, by claiming that a zerocan only be used in these cases when the shift of centers is supported by contextual information such as lexical semantics, tense and aspect, and agreement features. I then propose an algorithm by which centering can incorporate these observations to integrate centering with global discourse structure.. and thus enhance its ability for non-local pronoun resolution.