bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Phonological Processes
Authors: Mateus Maria Helena , d’Andrade Ernesto
Published: November 2023

In the previous chapters a difference has been established among phonological processes that are (a) morphologically conditioned, (b) conditioned by morphology and lexical marks in relation to prosody and (c) merely conditioned by prosodic factors. The former was described in Chapters 4 and 5. The two latter are discussed in the present chapter. Processes conditioned by inflectional and derivational morphology pertain to the lexical domain. Generally, these processes result from the application of word-formation rules; some of them, however, depend on idiosyncratic properties of the lexical items. As was mentioned in Chapters 4 and 5, such processes are common to both varieties of Portuguese, EP and BP.
Things Without the Mind—A Commentary upon Chapter Two of Strawson’s Individuals
Authors: Evans Gareth
Published: November 2023

What is the connection between the idea of an objective world and the idea of a spatial world? If someone has a conception of a world, something whose existence and operations are independent of his experience of it, must he thereby conceive of a system of spatial relations in which both he and the phenomena he experiences have a place? This question can be put another way.
Introduction
Authors: Lepage R B
Published: November 2023

This book addresses a crisis in human affairs, not by prescribing remedies but by attempting to increase understanding of its nature and some of its underlying causes. Our scope is limited in time and covers the second half of our century. We start from the 1953 Unesco statement which aimed at the promotion of vernacular literacy and we try to assess what has happened during the forty years since. We may begin by contrasting the climate of opinion in the 1950s with that in the 1990s.
Political and Economic Aspects of Vernacular Literacy
Authors: Lepage R B
Published: November 2023

We begin this chapter with a consideration of the problems of nationism and nationalism-that is, of the acts of identity and collective self-protection which have drawn together groups of people feeling they had a collective interest in combining, whether for genealogical or geographical or cultural or social reasons. These acts have frequently been exploited by providing a power base for political leaders, and linguistic identity, either indigenous to the group or imposed upon them, has become a political issue and weapon, so that the question of which language to employ for literacy in turn becomes an issue. It will be seen from the case histories then examined that such acts of identity sometimes run in harmony with, but frequently are in conflict with, questions of economic self-interest.
The Independence of Consciousness and Sensory Quality
Authors: Rosenthal David M
Published: November 2023

It is often held that all sensory mental states are conscious states, and that sensory quality cannot occur in states that are not conscious. Indeed, it may seem mysterious what it could be for a state to have sensory quality if that state is not a conscious state. Consciousness, on this view, is something like a mental light, without which sensory qualities simply cannot exist. When it comes to the qualities of our sensory states, to be is to be conscious, esse is percipi.
Consciousness and Its Expression
Authors: Rosenthal David M
Published: November 2023

Half a century ago it was often held that the emotions lack the intentional content that characterizes cognitive states. Logical empiricism had made popular the idea that certain sentences lack cognitive significance altogether and have only emotive meaning. Such sentences, it was held, simply express feelings, not cognitive states. And, since the content of speech acts reflects that of the mental states they express, if sentences that express emotions have no cognitive significance, those emotions themselves must lack the intentional content characteristic of propositional attitudes.
Unity of Consciousness and the Self
Authors: Rosenthal David M
Published: November 2023

One of the most central and important phenomena a theory of consciousness must explain is the sense of unity we have in respect of our conscious mental states. It seems that, for mental representations to be mine, they must, as Kant put it, “all belong to one self-consciousness” (KdR.V., B132). Indeed, it was just such mental unity to which Descartes appealed in Meditation VI in arguing for the real distinction between mind and body. Whereas the geometrical essence of body guarantees its divisibility, the unity of consciousness ensures that mind is indivisible.
Subject Pronouns and the Expletive Construction
Authors: Willis Dayid W E
Published: November 2023

In this chapter I investigate the development of preverbal subject pronouns, arguing that in the course of Middle Welsh they became clitics. This had repercussions for the whole pronominal system. and in particular for the expletive subject construction. It is suggested that phonological reduction of preverbal subject pronouns led to a number of exceptions to the verb-second rule. At first these exceptions could be incorporated into the peripheral grammar. In Chapter 6, I argue that these exceptions, along with other features of the grammar beyond the pronominal system. led to a switch in the V2-parameter and the innovation of VSO word order in Modem Welsh.
Introduction
Authors: Frede Michael
Published: November 2023

The Metaphysics as it has come down to us clearly is not a treatise written in one piece. It is a compilation of rather heterogeneous materials. How and when it came to have the form in which we now read it has been the object of much study. This study has shed a great deal of light on the question of the composition of the Metaphysics as a text without, though, entirely resolving it.
Fungu la kumi na moja Matamshi — Pronunciation
Authors: Maw Joan
Published: November 2023

The letters ny in Swahili represent a sound like that spelled gn in Italian signora or n in Spanish senor. The tongue is in the same position as for j in Swahili. We have met this sound in the word nyumba.
Fungu la kumi na saba Jamaa — The family Matamshi: Mkazo — Pronunciation: stress
Authors: Maw Joan
Published: November 2023

From this point on in the course, new vocabulary will be listed fotlowing the text, not preceding it. The learner should try to understand the text, guessing the meaning of the new words from the context as far as possible, before checking them below.
Fungu la kumi na tisa Kudanganywal — Cheated! Matamshi — Pronunciation
Authors: Maw Joan
Published: November 2023

You will have noticed the forms mna and hamna, as in mfukoni  hamna  machungwa In the bag there are no oranges’. Place nouns can be subjects of the ma copula, like any others. In Unit 13 we had kuna and hakuna  mahindi. We have also had pana in hapa  pana  starehe (unit 16), and in this text pana  starehe  zaidi  huko ‘there is more peace there’.
Fungu la ishirini na nne. Ugonjwa — Illness
Authors: Maw Joan
Published: November 2023

The meaning of a verb stem may be ‘reversed’ by the addition of an extension, usually —u—. There are not many examples of this extension, but it is operative for some very common verbs, e.g.
Fungu la ishirini na tano Kuazima na kuazimia — Borrowing and lending
Authors: Maw Joan
Published: November 2023

kalamu  ya  Joan means ‘Joan’s pencil (pen)’; to use a possessive pronoun plus a possessor is to emphasise the idea of possession. This might best be done in English by stress, ‘Joan’s pencil’, or by a different grammatical structure ‘that pencil of Joan’s’. So Toon in the second dialogue says:
Fungu la ishirini na tisa Kukata umeme — Electricity cut off
Authors: Maw Joan
Published: November 2023

The Swahili themselves have long been accustomed to town life, as is historically attested from outside sources. Many present—day towns are on ancient sites, and at least one long—abandoned town, Gedi, some 35 miles north of Mombasa, has been partly excavated and is well worth a visit. The remains of large mosques, a ‘palace’ and private houses built of coral with walls remaining to a considerable height can be seen.
Fungu la thelathini na mbili Ziara — A visit
Authors: Maw Joan
Published: November 2023

Relative clauses are of two kinds. The first kind, dealt with in Unit 27, serve to define the item to which they refer, are often called ‘defining’ relatives, and in Swahili are normally expressed by a relative affix to the verb. In the text in section I, Bibi Maw responds to Sh. Yahya’s question as to which branch of the Mazrui family she means by saying:
Parallels between Norninal and Verbal Projections
Authors: Hoekstra Teun
Published: November 2023

This chapter examines nominal structures in which of-insertion has taken place. It is argued that such structures involve movement of the predicate to the specifier of of, which is itself a complementizer in the nominal structure. The analysis is an extension of some of the proposals of Kayne (1994). The main argument in favour of the particular analysis is based on properties of infinitival nominalizations in Dutch. However, there is no reason why the analysis should be limited to of-insertion in these nominalizations, and it is therefore argued that the analysis extends to other nominal constructions, both basic noun and derived nominal constructions. I will then argue that an inversion analysis may shed light on an as yet ill-understood property of nominal constructions, viz. the fact that they are so limited in their argument structure possibilities when compared to verbal constructions.
Wh-Movement, Licensing, and the Locality of Feature Checking
Authors: Simpson Andrew
Published: November 2023

Chomsky (1995) suggests that the phenomenon of movement in language is a direct result of the existence of strict locality conditions on the licensing of dependencies referred to as feature-checking relations. If feature checking may only be effected when elements co-occur locally in Spec-head or head-adjoined configurations, then raising of a feature-bearing X˚/XP to a higher checking head will be necessary to establish such a relation. Where overt movement of an element with features to check is not attested, this Strict Locality Condition (SLC) forces one to assume that covert raising to a checking position must take place, resulting in a post-Spellout level of LF. The SLC thus in large part dictates the general architecture of the Minimalist model, with covert movement operations giving rise to a discrete syntactic level of LF and the further adoption of a global economy principle of Procrastinate, invoked to account for why covert/LP movement would always seem to be the preferred option for feature checking.
Summa Theologiae I
Authors: Kenny Anthony
Published: November 2023

In following the chronological order of St Thomas’ writings, we have now reached the time when he wrote the work through which most readers will have made their acquaintance with his theory of being, the Summa Theologiae. This massive work, of over two million words, is divided into three parts, of which the first, which is the most informative for our purposes, was written during the latter part of his period as regent master at the convent of Santa Sabina in Rome. In style, the Summa falls between the Summa contra Gentiles and the Disputed Questions: it is not a record of live scholastic disputation, but it is, like a disputation, divided into questions and articles, not into chapters. However, the multiple arguments for and against a particular thesis that introduce a genuine disputation are replaced by an introductory triad of difficulties against the position that Aquinas intends to take up in the body of the article. These objections are followed, usually, by a single, almost ceremonial, argument for the other side, beginning with the words ‘But on the other hand’ (sed contra) and usually consisting of the citation of an authoritative text. It is after this, in the main body of the article, that Aquinas sets out his own position with the reasons that support it. Each article then concludes with the solution of the difficulties set out in the introductory objections.
Conclusion: Twelve Types of Being
Authors: Kenny Anthony
Published: November 2023

At the end of our close study of the principal texts in which Aquinas addresses the topic of being, we are forced to conclude that it is not possible to extract from his writings a consistent and coherent theory. None the less, we have encountered, over and over again, examples of his extra-ordinary analytical ability as a philosopher, exercised above all in the skill with which he can draw distinctions in order to solve antinomies. We find, in fact, that, in the course of the texts we have considered, no less than twelve different senses of esse have been identified and contrasted with each other.
The New Alphabet
Authors: Lewis Geoffrey
Published: November 2023

Turkish writers on dil devrimi (language reform) do not usually deal with the change of alphabet, which for them is a separate topic, harf devrimi (letter reform). A brief account of it is given here for the sake of completeness, since the two reforms are obviously linked, arising as they did from the same frame of mind. The purpose of the change of alphabet was to break Turkey’s ties with the Islamic east and to facilitate communication domestically as well as with the Western world. One may imagine the difficulty of applying the Morse Code to telegraphing in Ottoman.
Reflections of Language Planning
Authors: Spolsky Bernard , Cooper Robert L
Published: November 2023

INTERGROUP conflict over scarce resources leads to the use of whatever ammunition lies at hand. Language is a potentially powerful missile, and language planning is the weapon through which that missile is fired. Language planning refers to deliberate efforts to influence the language behaviour of others. The promotion of Hebrew as an all-purpose vernacular in late nineteenth-century and early twentieth-century Palestine is a notable example. Other well-known instances include efforts to cleanse modern Turkish of Arabic and Persian loan words, the successive switches from Arabic to Latin to Cyrillic script for writing Turkic languages in Soviet Central Asia, the feminist campaign against sex-bias in language usage, the Arabicization movement in North Africa and the Sudan, and the American bilingual-education movement.
Bases for a New Approach
Authors: Spector Horacio
Published: November 2023

We have seen that in the context of a maximizing conception of practical rationality the recognition that positive freedom is a non-moral good leads the negative liberal fatally into the field of positive liberalism. This aspect of negative liberalism not only deprives it of its identity in the face of positive liberalism but disqualifies it from justifying pre-eminent negative rights, at least in the natural and straightforward shape that I expounded at the commencement of the previous chapter. One possible way of saving negative liberalism would be to present an argument purporting to prove that positive freedom is not a value on the same footing as negative freedom. But, since negative and positive freedom do not appear to be significantly distinguishable and negative freedom may even be considered a part of positive freedom, it seems inevitable to think that, if negative freedom and positive freedom are valuable, they are of similar importance. Once one is embarked on the task of justifying libertarianism on the basis of a distinctively liberal value, it seems to me futile to go on insisting that negative freedom, but not positive freedom, is valuable, or that positive freedom is less important than negative freedom.
Aristotle’S Treatment Of The Doctrine Of Parmenides
Authors: Kerferd George B
Published: November 2023

Perhaps the first question for consideration is whether generation is a fact or not. Earlier searchers after wisdom concerning reality differed both from the accounts which we are now offering and from one another. Some of them abolished generation and destruction completely. Nothing that is, they declare, is either generated or destroyed, it merely seems to us that it is so. Such were Melissus and Parmenides and their followers, and these men, although in other respects their doctrines are excellent, are not to be regarded as speaking from the point of view of natural science. For the existence of certain entities that are neither generated nor subject to any kind of change is a matter not for natural science but for a different and higher study.
Expository Proofs In Aristotle’S Syllogistic
Authors: Mignucci Mario
Published: November 2023

which exposition appears to be a perfectly admissible way of proving logical theses. Nowadays two interpretations seem to have a following among scholars. One is the Lukasiewicz interpretation, which has been considerably improved by Patzig. The other view is shared by a rather heterogeneous group of scholars, some of them pure logicians rather than historians of logic.
On A Book-Title By Chrysippus: ‘On The Fact That The Ancients Admitted Dialectic Along With Demonstrations’
Authors: Brunschwig Jacql’Es
Published: November 2023

Although sadly incomplete, the catalogue of book-titles by Chrysippus, at the end of Diogenes Laertius 7, is a fascinating document. Taken as a whole, it might feed endless meditations about the gaps in our information and the distortion of the picture which ancient times have left us to work with. Its detailed contents are no less exciting. Most of the titles listed are so precisely worded and described (with the number of books of the treatise, and often the name of an addressee) that they can hardly have any other source than Chrysippus himself. The same cannot be said of the carefully articulated order of the list; but this order, if perplexing in some respects, is fundamentally faithful to the original teaching method explicitly advocated by Chrysippus (more on this later), so that we can surmise that the list, if not made by him, was at least compiled and put into order by somebody who had some definite knowledge about his view of the matter.
The Harmonics Of Stoic Virtue
Authors: Long A
Published: November 2023

This technicality, one may suspect, is a rather laboured explanation of the longer formula. 'Living harmoniously' is perfectly intelligible grammatically and semantically, especially in light of the observation that those who live in conflict are unhappy. Still, harmony is a relational notion, and Zeno must have intended his formula to be understood accordingly. It implies that the life so characterized has an orderly structure, that its constituents are in agreement with one another and in agreement with everything else to which they are related.
Nouspathētikos In Later Greek Philosophy
Authors: Blumenthal Henry
Published: November 2023

In 1911 H. Kurfess obtained a doctorate from the University of Tübingen with a dissertation on the history of the interpretation of nous poiētikos and nous pathētikos .1 Notoriously the expression nous poiētikos never occurs in the text of Aristotle, but its derivation from De anim. 43o”rr-12 is an easy step, and when philosophers and commentators subsequently discuss it, we know what it is that they are talking about, even if its nature and status remained, and remain, controversial. Similarly nous pathētikos, or rather ho pathētikos nous, occurs only once in the pages of Aristotle, but appears often, if less frequently than nous poiētikos, in the texts of his successors and interpreters. In its case, however, though the expression occurs in Aristotle’s De anima, its reference is unclear. To aggravate matters, nous pathētikos quite often appears in his successors in contexts which seem to have nothing to do with the intellect.
‘Like breathing, only quieter’
Authors: Williams C J F
Published: November 2023

When Pamela tells me that white jasmine has a gorgeous scent, I know exactly what to do if I want to check that her information is correct: I first find a white jasmine that is in flower, and then take a good sniff. When she tells me that yellow jasmine hasn’t any scent, I do much the same. Perhaps I shall feel obliged to examine several yellow jasmine plants before I feel confident in claiming that I know from my own researches that yellow jasmine as a species has no scent; but sniffing, or inviting my friends to sniff, is undoubtedly the proper method of establishing these claims.
Being, Ontology, And Reality
Authors: Williams C J F
Published: November 2023

So far I have treated the words ‘be’ and ‘exist’ as though they were synonymous. Certainly it is often possible to substitute ‘exist’ for ‘be’ or vice versa in a sentence without altering the meaning of the sentence. Instead of ‘There are academics who own word processors’ one could just as well say ‘There exist academics who own word processors’, or with a little more adjustment ‘Academics who own word processors exist’.
When does Potentiality Count?
Authors: Hare R M
Published: November 2023

6.1 This paper started life as a comment on a highly original, provocative and clear paper by Michael Lockwood (1988). In it, he addressed the question, raised by the reports of the Warnock and of several other committees (7.7 ff., 8.4), of what it is morally legitimate to do, or to allow to be done, to embryos. After some criticism of other views, he gave his own solution. This is to find a point, or at least rough boundary in time, after which it becomes possible to say that the embryo or the foetus has interests, and therefore rights, and that therefore we have duties towards it. He finds this point at the stage at which the embryo develops an at least rudimentary brain. His argument can be summarized, I hope not too unfairly, as follows.
Prediction and Moral Appraisal
Authors: Hare R M
Published: November 2023

13.1 An apology is perhaps needed for writing a simple paper about the freedom of the will. There has been no lack of subtle and sophisticated writing on this subject in recent times; but most of the easy pieces about it are now quite old, and as a result the standard postures are often rehearsed by students in forms that make the problem appear either more intractable than it is, or more simple. Two of these postures, Determinism and its opposite Indeterminism or Libertarianism, are still thought by many to be locked in a conflict which philosophers have been unable to resolve; and it is also thought that the conflict is of great practical significance, so that, for example, important policy decisions about the punishment of offenders or the education of children hang upon its solution. But in fact I do not think that many of those who have come down decisively on one of what they think are the two sides of the so-called Tree will controversy’ have been caused thereby to alter their opinions on any important practical question—or if they have, they have lacked reason. For as soon as we ask, what an extreme determinist or an extreme libertarian would have to say about practical issues as a result of embracing their doctrines, both are faced with the same dilemma. Either they say that the consequences of their views are something so utterly absurd as to cast doubt on the seriousness of anybody who maintains them; or they say that the consequences are no different from what the rest of us think— in which case they are left, in spite of their alleged dispute, in substantial agreement with one another and with the ordinary man.
Why I am only a Demi-Vegetarian
Authors: Hare R M
Published: November 2023

Then, when we were sent up for eight months to work as coolies on the Burma Railway, we got very little food altogether, and suffered from a lot of all kinds of diseases owing to our debilitated state and the numerous infections that were going around. Between 20 and 40 per cent of the groups I was in died (I do not know the exact figure, but there is relevant information in Dunlop 1987). When we got back to Singapore, we had for the first time larger vegetable gardens, and grew sweet potatoes, of which we ate mainly the leaves, Ceylon or Malabar spinach, kangkong (a kind of water convolvulus), tapioca (or cassava), and small quantities of other vegetables.
Slovak Phonology: Background
Authors: Rubach Jerzy
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we give background information about Slovak phonology. After a general introduction in sections 2.1 and 2.2, we discuss the inventory of underlying segments in section 2.3, and then present an informal summary of the most important phonological rules. These rules are discussed in detail in later chapters, but it is necessary to introduce them briefly now since they form a closely knit system and a discussion of any one of them relies to a large extent on a knowledge of them all.
Melody-Skeleton Interaction: The Yers
Authors: Rubach Jerzy
Published: November 2023

The claim that the skeleton is a separate tier of representation from the melody is justified by the fact that the relationship between the skeleton and the melody need not be one-to-one (see 1.3). Thus, three-dimensional theory permits, among others, analyses that postulate floating melodies, that is, melody segments without associated X slots. In fact, it is to be expected that languages should make use of floating matrices. If it had been discovered that no language used this type of representation, the motivation for keeping the skeleton as a separate tier would have been weakened.
Skeleton-Syllable Interaction
Authors: Rubach Jerzy
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we look at the interaction between the skeletal and the syllabic tiers. On the descriptive side we deal with various lengthening and shortening rules. We conclude that these rules must be stated in terms of the relations between the X slots and the nucleus (N) and that they are independent of the melodic tier. This provides strong motivation for three-dimensional representations. We also demonstrate the superiority of Lexical Phonology over the traditional SPE paradigm. Evidence comes from the classic syndrome of behavior: derived-environment application, reference to lexical information, and cyclic derivation. The latter property is illustrated most clearly by the Rhythmic Law and its interaction with Yer Vocalization. The analysis shows how ordering paradoxes can be resolved and how lexical properties of rules can be derived from ordering, a result that can be obtained in the version of Lexical Phonology which assumes the sub theory of blocks of rules.
Postcyclic Rules
Authors: Rubach Jerzy
Published: November 2023

In this part we look at non-cyclic rules. Following Booij and Rubach (1987) a claim is made that non-cyclic rules are of two types: post cyclic and post lexical. The former are lexical; that is, they apply in the lexicon. It follows therefore that they apply only within the domain of words. The latter are outside the lexicon and hence they may apply to strings larger than words.
Conclusion
Authors: Rubach Jerzy
Published: November 2023

The aim of this book has been, on the one hand, to provide a comprehensive description of Slovak phonology in generative terms and, on the other hand, to investigate how Slovak can contribute to the theory of Lexical Phonology and the associated theory of auto segmental representations. In conclusion we wish to draw attention to some of the most salient results which are of significance for theoretical studies.
Language and Gender
Authors: Hellinger Marlis
Published: November 2023

Almost ten years after language and gender studies had been established as an academic discipline in the United States, the topic was taken up in Europe. In 1978, the 8th World Congress of Sociology held at Uppsala University (Sweden) featured a section on language and sex, and in the same year the debate on male and female language began in Germany (Trömel-Plötz 1978). In 1979, the first German international conference on ‘Sprache und Geschlecht’ was held at the University of Osnabriick, with Cheris K.ramarae, Muriel Schulz, and Dale Spender as influential participants (Andresen 1979). In 1980, the first German guidelines for the equal treatment of the sexes were published (Guentherodt et al. 1980), and with the publication of Das Deutsche als Männersprache (Pusch 1984) the topic was firmly established in German linguistics.
Stress and Intonation
Authors: Comrie Bernard , Stone Gerald , Polinsky Maria
Published: November 2023

Stress in Russian is free (i.e. can occur on any syllable in the word) and mobile (i.e. the position of stress can change in the inflection of a word, or between derivationally related words). The rules determining position of stress are complex (Zaliznjak 1967 151-75; 1985: 386–7), and the stress of many individual words and word-forms is seemingly idiosyncratic.
Sex, Gender, and the Status of Women
Authors: Comrie Bernard , Stone Gerald , Polinsky Maria
Published: November 2023

Traditionally, Russian has distinct masculine and feminine forms for nouns that can refer both to men and to women, in much the same way as it has separate masculine and feminine adjectives, the main difference being that with adjectives the distinction is shown by inflection (declension), whereas with nouns it is shown by derivation, the latter being less regular in formation.
Essays In Ethical Theory
Authors: Hare R M
Published: November 2023

In this volume, R. M. Hare has collected a number of essays which fill in the theoretical background of his thought and which together give an overall picture of his views on a variety of questions. Each essay is self-contained, and topics covered include the objectivity and rationality of moral thinking, the issue between the ethical realists and their opponents, the place in our moral thought of appeals to common convictions, and how to tell whether a feature of a situation is morally relevant. His central theme is the paradox that, if moral judgements were just statements of fact, relativism would be inescapable. We can treat moral thinking as a rational activity only because moral judgements are more than this.
Ontology in Ethics
Authors: Hare R M
Published: November 2023

THERE is a long-standing dispute between two main types of ethical theory, which, nevertheless, is not always stated in the same terms. It is the purpose of this paper to ask whether it matters in what terms we formulate it. I shall argue that one way of posing the issue has advantages over the others, if we want to get to the root of the matter. This is because all the others pose it in terms which, for want of clarity and other reasons, leave it undecidable unless in the end we have recourse to the preferred way. Here is a list of the formulations that I shall be considering, with, in brackets, indications of the type of distinction that each purports to be.
A Reductio ad Absurdum of Descriptivism
Authors: Hare R M
Published: November 2023

MOST moral philosophers are, I suppose, descriptivists of some sort; and most of those who become so (unlike John Mackie ( 1977), who was one of the few exceptions) do it because of a certain motivation. They have a deep desire to establish something that can be loosely described as the objectivity of moral judgements. And this desire in turn arises from a still deeper one, the desire to do one’s moral thinking in a rational way. The route from the desire for rationality via the desire for objectivity to descriptivism is a well trodden one; but it is nevertheless a primrose path; for, as we shall see, it leads those who follow it into one or another form of relativism, which .is precisely what these thinkers are trying to avoid. They can avoid it only by retracing their steps. This primrose path starts from the assumption that the only way to achieve rationality is to secure objectivity. This assumption might be acceptable, if only the word ‘objectivity’ had a clear and unambiguous meaning. But it notoriously has not. The primrose path is followed by those who take it as obvious that the only kind of objectivity is that provided by descriptivism. What this kind is we shall see in a moment.
Rawls’s Theory of Justice
Authors: Hare R M
Published: November 2023

ANY philosopher who, like John Rawls (1971), writes on justice or on any other subject in moral philosophy is likely to propound, or to give evidence of, views on one or more of the following topics: (1) Philosophical methodology—i.e. what philosophy is supposed to be doing and how it does it. Rawls expresses some views about this, which have determined the whole structure of his argument, and which therefore need careful inspection. (2) Ethical anarysis—i.e. the meanings of the moral words or the nature and logical properties of the moral concepts. Rawls says very little about these, and certainly does not treat them as fundamental to his inquiry (51/10).
Relevance
Authors: Hare R M
Published: November 2023

IN the mouths of many radicals, a piece of philosophical or other academic work is said to be relevant if it lends support to the speaker’s own political opinions. I shall not be using the word in that sense; nor even in the sense’in which I used it in the title of my inaugural lecture ‘The Practical Relevance of Philosophy’ (H 1971 b: 98), although I do think that what I am going to say has that kind of relevance, because it helps to sort out some practical issues of great importance.
The Idea of Development
Authors: Pivčević Edo
Published: November 2023

The idea of development is one of the most commonplace as well as the most powerful tools in our conceptual machinery, and it is not surprising that in various forms it has exercised a dominating influence on philosophical and scientific thinking alike. In what follows, l shall confine myself to examining whether and how this idea might be utilized to cast more light on the structure and the possibility of change. As my purpose is purely theoretical, I shall not comment on the various historical interpretations of this idea, except when necessary to illustrate my own argument.
Clarke on Divine Perfection and Freedom
Authors: Rowe William L
Published: November 2023

In contrast to Locke, who characterized freedom as the power to carry out the action that we choose (will) to do, leaving the choice (volition) itself to be causally necessitated by the agent’s motives, Clarke locates freedom squarely at the level of the choice to act or not act: ‘ … the essence of liberty consists in (a person’s) having a continual power of choosing whether he shall act or whether he shall forbear acting’ (D, 101). The implication of Clarke’s view is that freedom (liberty) would be impossible should a person’s choices be causally necessitated by his motives or desires. For if a person’s choice to act is causally necessitated by earlier states of his body or mind, then at the time of that choice it was not in the agent’s power to choose to not act. It is for Clarke a secondary matter whether the agent is able to carry out his choice. Of course, since God is omnipotent, his power to carry out the action he chooses to do is unlimited. But our question is whether God has it in his power to choose to refrain from following what he knows to be the best course of action. Should he lack that power, it follows from Clarke’s conception of freedom that God does not freely choose the best course of action. In fact, it would follow for Clarke that in this instance God is totally passive and not an agent at all.
Jonathan Edwards on Divine and Human Freedom
Authors: Rowe William L
Published: November 2023

A book on the topic of divine freedom must come to grips with the penetrating discussion of freedom, both human and divine, by Jonathan Edwards (1703–58), the greatest American philosophical theologian of the eighteenth century. In his day there was a struggle between two theological traditions: Calvinism and Arminianism. Calvinism, a movement originating with the work of John Calvin (1509–64), endeavored to reconcile our longings for freedom of the will with both the philosophical view of universal causation and the theological view of divine predestination. Arminianism, a view originating with the Dutch theologian Jacobus Arminius (1560–1609), advocated a stronger conception of human freedom than Calvinism allowed, a conception according to which a free agent has a power of willing and doing otherwise than he in fact does. Consequently, Arminianism denied universal causation and total divine predestination. It seemed clear to the Arminians, for example, that if some action of ours was causally necessitated by an unbroken chain of causes proceeding from the distant past, then at the time we performed that action it was not really up to us whether we would do that action or refrain from doing it.
Must God Create the Best World?
Authors: Rowe William L
Published: November 2023

Thus far we have supposed with Leibniz that among possible worlds there is one that is best. And we have argued that given God’s absolute perfection, he would of necessity create the best world. If the reasoning for this conclusion is correct, then in the matter of creating among possible worlds God cannot be free. However, as with many important philosophical arguments, the reasoning that has led us to the conclusion that God necessarily creates the best world has been challenged. And in this chapter we will consider an important challenge to this reasoning. Of course, one way of challenging the reasoning is to reject the initial claim that among possible worlds there is one that is best. Perhaps there is no best possible world. Instead, so the suggestion goes, there may be an infinite number of possible worlds ranked in order of goodness such that for any world there is a world better than it. We will discuss this challenge in the next chapter and consider the implications of the ‘no best world’ hypothesis for the existence of the theistic God. But the challenge to be discussed here is quite different. For it allows that there may be a best possible world, but maintains that even if there is a best world God would not need to create it. Instead, so the claim goes, he might create some good world that is considerably less good than the best world. But before examining this challenge it will be helpful to have a clearer idea of just what a possible world is, as well as a clearer idea of what it is for a possible world to be better than some other possible world.Up to this point we have assumed, what I believe is correct, that we all possess some rudimentary idea of what a possible world is and what it would be for one such world to be better than any other possible world.
Berkeley’s Puzzle
Authors: Campbell John
Published: November 2023

Berkeley famously claimed to be unable to conceive of existence unperceived, from which he famously concluded that existence unperceived is impossible. But say you, surely there is nothing easier than to imagine trees, for instance, in a park, or books existing in a closet, and nobody by to perceive them. I answer, you may so, there is no difficulty in it: but what is all this, I beseech you, more than framing in your mind certain ideas which you call books and trees, and at the same time omitting to frame the idea of anyone that may perceive them? But do you not yourself perceive or think of them all the while? This therefore is nothing to the purpose: it only shows you have the power of imagining or forming ideas in your mind; but it doth not shew that you can conceive it possible, the objects of your thought may exist without the mind: to make out this, it is necessary that you conceive them existing unconceived or unthought of, which is a manifest repugnancy.
The Character and Obligation of Natural Law According to Richard Cumberland
Authors: Haakonssen Knud
Published: November 2023

Richard Cumberland has had a mixed press, not only for the worth of his achievement, but also for the nature of his enterprise. During the past century he has commonly been seen as a proto-utilitarian;1 in the eighteenth century he was mostly viewed as a natural lawyer. A utilitarian he was not, proto or otherwise, as will become clear hereafter. He was a natural lawyer, but of a kind little appreciated in English scholarship and only by the way in German.

He is in fact an example of that combination of Liebesethik and Naturrecht which Werner Schneiders in particular has studied so carefully in connection with Thomasius. One reason why this has not been more widely appreciated is that Cumberland from an early stage was seen as the third man in the triumvirate of seventeenth-century founders of the “modern” school of natural law.
Introduction
Authors: Gow Peter
Published: November 2023

At the time of my fieldwork in the early 1980s, the Bajo Urubamba area was a relatively sleepy backwater of the Department of Ucayali, itself rather far from the power centres of Peru. But, geographically, the area is a nodal point in a complex network of lines of communication. In the headwaters of the Urubamba river itself is the city of Cuzco, while the neighbouring Tambo draws its waters from the Central Andes. Downstream to the north, the waters of this river flow into the Amazon mainstream, while to the east its tributaries rise in the same hills as the major rivers of western Brazil and northern Bolivia. Historically, the primary orientation of the inhabitants of the Bajo Urubamba has shifted from one axis of this network to another, without ever losing sight of the others. My research was undertaken during a period of primary orientation to the north, down-river along the Ucayali to the cities of Iquitos and Pucallpa. For over a century, the ties to the Andes and to the east have been quiescent, and their impact on local people muted. The three chapters of Part I explore the complex development of the riverine axis over the past century and a half, and its ramifications within the world-view of local people and their practical experiences.
Living and Dying
Authors: Gow Peter
Published: November 2023

There is an extensive literature on residence patterns in Amazonia, including considerable discussion of cases in which, like the case of the native communities of the Bajo Urubamba, there is no other residence rule than the injunction that people should live with all their kin. Riviere and Overing have discussed societies in the Guianas where the only residence “rule” is the injunction to reside with all one’s kin. Both writers have provided statistical analyses of which kin tend to live together for the societies they discuss and linked these to the political activities of leaders who build up settlements by attracting people to live with them (Rivière 1969: 104—40, 1984: 72—86, and Kaplan 1975: 88—123).
The Comunidad Nativa
Authors: Gow Peter
Published: November 2023

At the level of space, there is nothing which turns one of an infinity of possible sites along the course of the Bajo Urubamba river into a village site in preference to any other. Nor is there any moral discourse which turns one set of people related as kin, affines, or compadres into a community in preference to any other possible set. As noted in Part II, on the Bajo Urubamba, the relations between people and land and the relations they have with each other are conditioned by almost perpetual movement. The place of coresidence is a transient thing, soon to be abandoned and reclaimed by the forest. The set of coresidents is equally transient, continuously fragmented by death and abandonment. How, then, is the community given bounded form? Any discussion of residence, or relationship to locality in general, with native people will lead them to raise the institution of the Comunidad Nativa. Chapter 1 discussed the legal origins of the Comunidad Nativa, and the history of the application of this law in the Bajo Urubamba. My concern here is not with the formulation of this law, but with why it is of such importance to native people.
Conclusion: The Bajo Urubamba 1n Amazonian Perspective
Authors: Gow Peter
Published: November 2023

Overing has argued that underlying all the dissimilar social structures of Lowland South America is a single philosophy of society: ‘the universe exists, life exists, society exists only insofar as there is contact and proper mixing among things that are different from one another’ (Overing Kaplan 1981: 161). Her argument is persuasive, and its echoes ring around Amazonian cultures, with their deep concern with duality, reciprocity, and safe self and the dangerous other. Amazonian cultures become variations on this essential theme. Both Overing (Overing Kaplan 1981) and Viveiros de Castro (1986b) have argued for a unity underlying all indigenous Amazonian cultures, which replaces the evolutionism and culture area particularism of older comparative approaches. Viveiros de Castro, in particular, has pointed out that this unity is topological (1986b: 276): there is no basic element present or absent in each culture, but rather all these cultures are variants of a single structure of relations. No culture “has” this basic structure, for the structure exists in the transformational relations between them all. Overing and Viveiros de Castro have shown how this basic structure explains the similarities and differences between the GeBororo cultures of Central Brazil, the Tukanoan peoples of North West Amazonia, and Cariban-Piaroa cultures of the Guianas.
Coming Together in Jamnagar
Authors: Banks Marcus
Published: November 2023

This chapter expands the ethnography presented in the last chapter and prepares the main argument of the next-religious property as a focus of division for the Jamnagar Jains. In this chapter I concentrate on events-'functions' as they are known-which bring the Jamnagar Jains together; events which, like ritual, can be seen as a possible locus for that which makes the Jains Jain.
Which Way Forward? Ways of Believing in Leicester
Authors: Banks Marcus
Published: November 2023

In Chapter 4 I presented a puzzle that had struck me while I was working in Jamnagar-who OError! Hyperlink reference not valid. the various pieces of Jain property that were scattered throughout the city? To a large extent my interest in this issue had been brought from my earlier fieldwork in Leicester where a similar problem-though at a more abstract level-hovered over the Jain Centre, at least in my eyes. That is, in what sense was the Leicester Jain Centre 'owned' by the Leicester Jains? I have touched on this issue in Chapter 6 and discussed it in much greater detail elsewhere (Banks 1991).
Some Conclusions
Authors: Banks Marcus
Published: November 2023

In a work such as this, it would seem obvious that the conclusions should, at least in part, consist of a comparison between the Jains of Jamnagar and the Jains of Leicester.
Empirical Background
Authors: Hastrup Kirsten
Published: November 2023

THIS work considers an epoch in Icelandic history. In speaking of an epoch, we give an impression of coherence and unity, and it is important to remember that this sense of ‘wholeness’ is to some degree analytically arbitrary. I intend to use the term ‘epoch’ in contradistinction to the ‘period’ of the historian—using epoch as an ‘emic’ periodization, a lived experience of coherence and unity, in contrast to the ‘etic’ periods of the historian.1 In these terms, the comprehension of an epoch implies both that it can be seen as a systematic whole, and that this whole can be demonstrated to be of internal relevance.
The Environment
Authors: Hastrup Kirsten
Published: November 2023

AN environment can only be defined relative to something else whose environment it is. In this chapter we are still dealing with the human condition, and the environment under consideration is that of the Icelandic people, as seen from their point of view. Although the Icelanders lived in a space which obviously had certain objective physical characteristics, these did not in themselves constitute the environment; they were, rather, conceptually moulded by people, who thus defined the significant qualities of their space.