bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Criminal Law
Authors: Call Jack E.
Published: December 2015

Criminal law consists of those rules established by government authority that prohibit certain conduct and provide criminal penalties for the violation of those rules. All crimes consist of elements that must be proved by the prosecution (beyond a reasonable doubt). Criminal law also extends liability to persons who assist in the commission of crimes and to some acts – such as attempts, conspiracies, and solicitations – that fall short of completion of the crime. Criminal law recognizes certain defenses that can be asserted in order to justify or excuse behavior that would otherwise be considered a crime.
International Policing
Authors: Keeling Deborah G. , Rausch Cassandra C. , Masterson Justin A.
Published: December 2015

International policing is a form of law enforcement that involves international partnerships between police agencies and police officers, usually for the purpose of some form of professional exchange and/or assistance. These international policing initiatives generally take three forms: agency exchanges, bilateral agreements, and international programs and peacekeeping operations (Marenin, 1998). Two international agencies, Interpol and the United Nations, play a significant role in the promotion and institutionalization of international policing initiatives worldwide.
Crime and Punishment in
I
reland
Authors: Taylor Francis
Published: December 2015

Crime and punishment in Ireland must be set in its historical context. The history of crime in Ireland is inextricably linked to the often torturous relationship between Britain and Ireland. Punishment in Ireland has until recent times been focused on protest and disorder. The partition of Ireland at the beginning of the twentieth century saw the emergence of two district criminal justice systems but despite the differences contemporary crime rates throughout the island are similar and lower than Great Britain and most European countries. The academic study of crime in Ireland is extremely limited and many research gaps exist.
N
ational
I
nstitute of
J
ustice (
NIJ
)
Authors: Zgoba Kristen M.
Published: December 2015

The National Institute of Justice (NIJ) was created in 1969 has been involved in nearly every innovation in criminal justice research policy since its inception. NIJ research findings influenced the nature of criminal justice careers, the effects of sanctions, the ways technology can improve practice, the operations of the criminal justice system.
Jails
Authors: Santos Saskia Daniele
Published: December 2015

Jails are correctional institutions that are often centrally located in the county seat and are managed by a local law enforcement agency. Jail populations typically include offenders involved in various stages of the court process, offenders serving a sentence of less than one year, and offenders awaiting transfer to federal, state, or other authorities. There are over 3,000 jails in the United States housing over 700,000 inmates.
N
ational
I
ncident‐
B
ased
R
eporting
S
ystem (
NIBRS
)
Authors: Maddan Sean
Published: December 2015

The Uniform Crime Report (UCR), the nation's primary mechanism of measuring crime levels, has remained relatively unchanged since its inception in the 1920s. While there was little change in the summary collection procedures of the UCR, many believed that fundamental changes were necessary in order to cover more offenses, collect more details on criminal events, and overcome some of its deficiencies and limitations. In the 1980s the UCR Study Task Force completed a report that suggested nothing short of a complete overhaul to the UCR program, which was to focus from then on on incident‐based reporting. The result of this review was the National Incident‐Based Reporting System (NIBRS). The NIBRS was designed to collect more information than the preexisting UCR summary reporting system and to overcome the inherent problems associated with summary reporting. While data efforts under the NIBRS began in the early 1990s, to date the nation's law enforcement agencies have yet to universally adopt the incident‐based data collection program. This entry examines the implementation of the NIBRS in the United States and the problems that have plagued the program.
Crime and Punishment in
F
rance
Authors: Barthe Emmanuel P.
Published: December 2015

Crime and punishment in France is a growing social and political issue that is entrenched in a changing demographic landscape. Efforts to get tough on crime fail to address the growing need for social programs and a problem‐solving approach to crime and punishment problems. France is faced with the challenge of providing public safety but also addressing police and judicial abuses. Procedural safeguards and legal reforms are always being considered to reconcile these two important goals.
Treatment Programs
Authors: McIntyre, R. N.
Published: December 2015

While rooted in the Medical Model, treatment programs attempt to alleviate conditions that criminal offenders suffer from that lead to deviance and criminality. The underlying justification for treatment programs involves the notion that without proper intervention, criminals will continue to take part in criminal acts. Although many treatment programs exist, a tremendous focus has been on the development of community‐based treatment programs as a way to reduce prison and jail overcrowding. One promising community‐based treatment program is the Day Reporting Center (DRC). DRCs attempt to treat offenders in a holistic fashion to reduce substance use and crime while maintaining the offenders' social bonds to their families and the community.
Race and Policing
Authors: Gau Jacinta M.
Published: December 2015

Race and policing is a complex issue that entails not merely the race of a person with whom an officer has contact but, in addition, that person's gender, age, past experiences with police, and neighborhood of residence. There are several sources of police–minority friction, many of which involve conflicts between officers' beliefs about the best way to control crime and minority Americans' wishes to be free from police scrutiny. An important solution for improving relations and public safety in high‐crime, predominately minority neighborhoods lies in a combination of community policing and tough responses to acts of violence.
Community Policing
Authors: Jordan W. T. , Hawron John Mikael
Published: December 2015

Community policing encourages coproduction of safety and security through the cooperative efforts between police and citizens in a community or neighborhood. This philosophy of police work encourages cooperation between citizens and police to identify and solve crime‐related problems at the community and neighborhood level.
Infanticide
Authors: Van Horne Sheryl L.
Published: December 2015

Infanticide refers to the intentional killing of a child before his or her first birthday. Infanticide has occurred throughout history. Different countries approach infanticide differently; some countries consider infanticides as lesser offenses than murder for women who exhibit psychiatric disorders relating to childbirth. Parents tend to be the perpetrators in infanticides, and boys and girls are nearly equally likely to be the victims. Young, poor, single, underemployed women tend to be the perpetrators in infanticides of newborns less than one day old. In communities with restrictions on abortions, parental consent laws, parental involvement laws, and mandatory delay laws, the risk of child homicides increases.
Youth Violence
Authors: McGee Zina T.
Published: December 2015

Youth victimization is generally defined as violence and/or crimes perpetrated against youth. This definition can include physical assaults such as hitting, punching, and kicking, sexual assaults such as rape and molestation, and other crimes such as theft and bullying. Furthermore, youth victimization may be both direct (being the victim of violence or crime) or indirect (witnessing violence and crimes perpetrated against others). Research shows that youth between the ages of 12 and 17 have the highest rates of victimization for both crimes of violence and crimes of theft (Heavside, Rowand, Williams, & Farris, 1998).
Crime and Punishment in
K
orea, Republic of (
S
outh
K
orea)
Authors: Park MiRang
Published: December 2015

The Korean criminal justice system launched the Korean Sentencing Guidelines in 2009. The format of the Korean guidelines follows its United Kingdom counterpart rather than that of the United States. The purpose of this entry is twofold: (1) to explain the background of the Korean sentencing guidelines with the help of applications; and (2) to analyze the guidelines concerning the homicide group in Korea. According to the Korean sentencing guidelines, the homicide group is divided into five types, depending on motivation and seriousness. The data used in this paper were obtained from the prosecutorial guidelines system in Korea, and appropriate cases were selected to analyze the efficacy and predictability of the current model of the sentencing guidelines for homicide. Among 774 cases subjected to the application of the homicide sentencing guideline for 16 months in 2009 and 2010, only 157 that involved the single crime of murder were down‐selected. Also, ordinary least squares (OLS) regression was mainly employed. The study indicates that special mitigating factors – including provocation by victim, surrender, no willingness of punishment by victim's family, and rescuing the victim after the crime – caused disparity in the length of sentences. On the other hand, extralegal variables such as gender, education level, and age failed to show significance on sentencing disparity. Detailed findings and policy implications are discussed.
Self‐Control Theory
Authors: Nix Justin , Wolfe Scott
Published: December 2015

Gottfredson and Hirschi's (1990) general theory of crime – simply referred to as “self‐control theory” – has been one of the most influential individual‐level explanations of criminal behavior for almost 25 years. A lengthy roster of research studies has tested the core propositions of the theory, gaining many supporters along the way. At the same time, however, the broad scope of the theory and ability of low self‐control to account for all individuals' criminal activity has been the center of controversy. The purpose of this chapter is to explore self‐control theory's central propositions and review the state of empirical evidence regarding the framework.
Domestic Violence Courts
Authors: Grossi Elizabeth L.
Published: December 2015

Domestic violence courts are a type of specialized court created to address growing concerns throughout the social and criminal justice systems. These concerns relate to both the nature and extent of domestic violent and were developed to provide a comprehensive, substantive, and long‐term solution to the problem related to domestic violence
Alcohol Use and Crime
Authors: Agnich Laura E.
Published: December 2015

Throughout human history, alcohol use has been criminalized to varying degrees. Most notably, the Volstead Act prohibited the importation, manufacturing, sale, and transport of alcoholic beverages in the United States from 1920 to 1933. One factor driving alcohol regulation is the association between alcohol use and criminal offending. Alcohol use has been associated with violent and property crime, intimate partner violence, and sexual assault. The majority of incarcerated offenders had consumed alcohol prior to their arrest. Likewise, alcohol use has been associated with criminal victimization, and many victims and perpetrators of various crimes were both inebriated at the time of the criminal offense.s
Criminology
Authors: Swartz Kristin
Published: December 2015

The current entry traces the history of criminology since its inception. While the bulk of criminology has been grounded in sociology, the field is becoming more and more of an integrated one, with influences from psychology, biology, and economics. The entry offers an overview of the major schools of thought and attempts to provide context for the various turning points in criminology; it also attempts to suggest a potential direction for the future.
Uniform Crime Reports
Authors: Stogner John M.
Published: December 2015

For the majority of the last century, the Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) Program has been the leading source of crime statistics in the United States. The UCR data was first collected in 1930 and is published annually in a summary report entitledCrime in the United States. The FBI oversees data collection from the overwhelming majority of federal, state, local, and tribal law enforcement agencies and has expanded the program beyond the seven initially measured crimes to also assess arson, minor offenses, cargo theft, hate crimes, and violence against law enforcement officers. Though the UCR Program fails to quantify crimes unreported to police, it serves as a valuable tool in assessing major forms of crime, changes in crime rates/types over time, and law enforcement activity.
Prison Populations
Authors: Tewksbury Richard , Stickle Benjamin F.
Published: December 2015

The prison population in the United States has increased drastically in the last 30 years. This entry provides a brief examination of the historical and current trends in prison population through examination at the individual and system levels. Overcrowding, fiscal and social costs, demographics, and methods for influencing the population are discussed.
CompStat
Authors: Bond Brenda J. , Nehmens Angela J.
Published: December 2015

CompStat is a tool utilized by police leaders to monitor and direct the performance of police managers. CompStat was developed by a team of New York City Police Department (NYPD) commanders, led by Police Commissioner Bill Bratton. In an attempt to monitor performance and hold commanders accountable for crime, Bratton and his team began to “compare stats,” thus introducing performance measurement techniques into the police profession. CompStat developed into a routine meeting of police leaders and managers during which specified crime statistics and tactics were reviewed and discussed for the purpose of resource deployment and assessment. CompStat became a more sophisticated and analytical approach to the traditional “cops on dots” approach to crime fighting.
International Justice
Authors: Wiatrowski Michael D. , Vardalis James J. , Karatay Akin
Published: December 2015

The goal of international justice is to hold those who commit genocide, war crimes, and crimes against humanity accountable for their actions. International justice takes place in the failure of state justice systems to arrest and prosecute those individuals who perpetrate such horrendous crimes. A mere description of the International Criminal Court and the various tribunals is an inadequate explanation of why these horrendous crimes are committed and why states fail in their duty to protect their citizens. These crimes are not distributed equally throughout the world. They typically take place in failed states that have not made a transition to stability and democratic development and during civil intrastate conflicts. Democracy solves the fundamental drivers of genocide and crimes against humanity. These elements include inclusiveness, the rule of law, control of the security sector, control of corruption, reductions in inequality, and the valuation of human rights.
Crime and Punishment in
C
olombia
Authors: Vásquez Juan Carlos Ruiz
Published: December 2015

During the 1990s, Colombia was considered one of the most violent countries in the world. Banditry, communist guerrilla groups, right‐wing paramilitaries, drug cartels together with a sophisticated and versatile organized crime drew a violent landscape of murder. Although national homicide rate has fallen from 1995, Colombia remains a violent country. Scholars have tried to identify the causes of this entrenched and inveterate violence, without finding a definite answer. Practitioners have proposed few citizen security programs, often withering away and erratic, showing that there is no real policy with a strong leadership remaining. In contrast, the Colombian police force has played a pivotal role in dismantling numbers of delinquency networks and contributing to crime reduction.
Prisoners
Authors: Camacho Jocelyn
Published: December 2015

Technically, a prisoner is a person who is found guilty in the criminal justice system of committing a criminal offense and is held in custody at a correctional facility. While the definition of a prisoner holds true from the inception of government custody to the modern prison system, it is the purpose of the prison that has changed over the centuries. The purpose of modern‐day prison is a mixture of deterrence, incapacitation, rehabilitation, and retribution. While critics of the current criminal justice system would debate the purpose of the current system as being more retribution than a mixture, arguments of racial and economic bias dominate much of the current prison discourse. Moreover, it is the government's own policy changes that provide the most ammunition for the critics of the system. While imprisonment is used throughout the world as formal punishment, the more recent drug policies of the United States have recently come under much public scrutiny. Over the last three decades, the United States' war on drugs produced government policy changes that caused a dramatic increase in the prison population. While the increase itself is not necessarily at issue, it is the analysis of the new prison population that calls into question the criminal justice system's declaration of equality.
Motor Vehicle Theft
Authors: Roberts Aki , Block Steven
Published: December 2015

Criminologists have noted that motor vehicle theft (MVT) has been understudied by researchers by comparison to more serious crimes, which have received greater attention. This entry provides an overall definition of MVT, highlights regional differences and national time trends in MVT rates, and discusses different types of MVT, all based on the offender's motive (profit‐oriented, professional, or permanent MVT vs. nonprofit‐oriented, amateur, or temporary MVT, including joyriding). The entry also briefly mentions recent MVT studies in criminology and the theories and perspectives used to study this phenomenon.
Education and Crime
Authors: Osborne Dustin , Higgins George E.
Published: December 2015

This entry will take a brief look at a number of issues relating to the phenomenon. First, it will discuss the empirical support for the relationship between education and offending (both street‐level and white‐collar) and the theories that have been used to explain it. Second, it will discuss how demographics may serve to influence the level of the relationship, with specific attention given to race, gender, and age of the individual. A final section will relay how education is treated within research – commonly as a control variable – as well as potential policy implications that can be gleaned from the literature.
Zero‐Tolerance Policing
Authors: Fischer Michael
Published: December 2015

Zero‐tolerance policing (ZTP), developed from broken windows theory, holds that minor crime and other signs of social disorder when ignored will escalate. Early intervention through aggressive policing to stop misdemeanors and public order offenses will prevent and reduce felonies. The most prominent example of ZTP has been in William J. Bratton's NYPD Crime Control Model, which greatly enhanced use of field interrogations to increase intelligence, deter and apprehend offenders, and enhance the citizenry's sense of security. Timely and accurate intelligence is obtained through stop‐and‐frisk, interrogation, decentralization of command structure, rapid deployment of personnel and resources, agency cooperation, and COMSTAT. In 2013 New York City had 334 murders, down from 2,245 in 1990, an 85% reduction. Critics charge that ZTP does not fix broken windows. Instead it attacks poor and minority citizens by violating their rights and interfering with community policing while obfuscating the need for social justice.
Boot Camps
Authors: Cass Elizabeth
Published: December 2015

Over a 23‐year period between 1983 and 2006, the popularity of the use of military‐style boot camps as a correctional alternative rose and fell. The idea of military‐style programs as a mechanism for addressing the problems of wayward teenagers and troubled young men has a long history in American culture. This entry reviews the history and effectiveness of boot camps.
Crime and Punishment inIsrael
Authors: Beker Guy , Einat Tomer
Published: December 2015

The temporal context for understanding crime in Israel mostly relates to the intercorrelation between immigration and delinquency and revolves around the continuing effort of the Zionist movement to encourage Jewish immigration and settlement in Israel (“Aliyah”), as an attempt to establish the permanent Jewish character of the state. This effort resulted in several big waves of organized and private immigration of diaspora Jews from all across the globe since Israel's formation in 1948. Additionally, and in contrast to this state‐encouraged Jewish immigration, a relatively large and mostly illegal mass of non‐Jewish African immigrants has arrived in Israel from various African states since the beginning of the twenty‐first century. Confronting immigration, physical, cultural, and societal hardships, tackling the complexity of living in geographical and socioeconomical periphery, and facing suspicion, and sometimes hostility, these three immigration groups have presented a varied range and ratios of criminal activity patterns.

With regard to Israel's punitive philosophy and policy – the state of Israel is characterized by a complex penal system that seeks to achieve punitive equity between offenders and combines retributive, desert, deterrence, compensatory, and rehabilitative objectives. Paradoxically, however, the Israeli penal eclectic philosophies barely affected the sanctioning policy. Specifically, the percentage of offenders sanctioned to a prison sentence rose significantly and the percentage of criminals sentenced to community‐based sanctions remained stable or slightly declined. Thus, although the concept of developing and improving a system of alternative sanctions was accepted by many Israeli scholars and policy makers as a rational method of assigning resources, reducing crime rates, and rehabilitating as well as deterring offenders in less intrusive settings, it has not been well elaborated and executed.
Genocide
Authors: Rausch Cassandra C.
Published: December 2015

Genocide is a crime that defies human reasoning and has resulted in the deaths of millions. After the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide officially established “genocide” as an international crime, one can examine some notable instances of genocide within the twentieth century to observe how the definition of genocide can be met in different circumstances. Progress has been made in prosecuting those acts committed thus far, but future research looks to delve deeper into methods of prevention.
Crime and Punishment in
E
thiopia
Authors: Toggia Pietro
Published: December 2015

The formation of the modern Ethiopian criminal justice system began in the early twentieth century with judiciary reform, professional policing, jails, and the writing of the first imperial constitution. For hundreds of years the country's legal system was based on a compiled canonical law called the
Fitha Negest
(The Law of the Kings) and was widely used from the fifteenth century. For centuries there have also been (and still are) ethnic‐based customary laws and traditional dispute resolution practices in the country, especially for rural residents. The 1940s and 1950s were truly the decades marking the period for modernization of statutory criminal laws, policing, the judiciary, and prisons.
Medicine and Crime
Authors: Stogner John M.
Published: December 2015

Poor physical health and deviant behavior are closely linked constructs that share common causes and also have effects on each other. In consequence, the fields of medicine and criminal justice are more interrelated than they appear at first glance. Populations currently or recently under the supervision of correctional agencies are in particular need of improved access to quality health care. They also may serve as an outlet for monitoring health issues in marginalized groups that are otherwise hard to reach. Additionally, health issues affect the way each branch of the justice system operates. The following entry explores how one particular health issue, the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), has affected policing, courts, and corrections.
Ethics in Policing
Authors: Sellers Brian G.
Published: December 2015

Ethics is crucial to the role of policing in society, because law enforcement officers are given authority, power, and discretion by the state in order to perform their jobs. In addition, police are permitted the ability to use several forms of force and persuasion if they encounter resistance to their authority. Thus, there is always the potential for abuse and corruption when agents of the state are given coercive powers and considerable discretion in how they are used. Police crime, corruption, and abuse of power have multiple sources that include individual, institutional, and societal factors that promote various approaches to normative ethics.
Gambling
Authors: Griffiths Mark
Published: December 2015

Studies from various regions worldwide suggest an association between criminal activity and easily accessible gambling, yet, despite growth in the commercial gambling industry, relatively little is known about the nature, extent, or impact of gambling‐related crime. Gambling‐related crime tends to relate to four distinct types:
illegal gambling
(i.e., gambling activity that is counter to jurisdictional regulations and statutes, such as operating without a gambling license, cheating at play);
criminogenic problem gambling
(i.e., activities such as forgery, embezzlement, and fraud, typically committed by problem gamblers to support a gambling addiction);
gambling venue crime
(i.e., crimes that occur in and around gambling locations, such as loan sharking, money laundering, passing counterfeit currency, theft, assault, prostitution, and vandalism); and
family abuse
(i.e., victimization of family members caused by another family member's gambling involvement, such as domestic violence, child neglect, suicide, and home invasion). The two categories of most importance (criminogenic problem gambling and gambling venue crime) are examined.
Classification
Authors: Duwe Grant
Published: December 2015

Recidivism risk‐assessment instruments are often used within corrections for the purposes of classification, which involves assigning offenders to the appropriate types of custody, programming, and supervision. Over the past 50 years, correctional risk assessment has evolved from a reliance on clinical judgment to the use of more accurate instruments that examine static and dynamic factors to predict recidivism. Recent trends suggest that recidivism risk assessment may become more specialized in the future by producing jurisdiction‐specific instruments that are automated, predict multiple types of recidivism, and are tailored to specific offender populations at multiple points in the criminal justice process.
Political Science and Crime
Authors: Zabyelina Yuliya G.
Published: December 2015

The study of crime in political science may seem a misfit at first sight because crime has conventionally been the principal object of such disciplines as criminology and criminal justice. A closer look at political science scholarship, however, reveals a few tendencies that highlight the significance of research on crime as an area of interest for political scientists. Due to its theoretical vibrancy and methodological sophistication, political science scholarship has great potential to contribute to the cumulative body of knowledge about the nature of delinquency and society's varied responses to it.
Arson
Authors: Fritzon Katarina S. M.
Published: December 2015

Deliberate firesetting remains a concern for many communities. Compared to other types of criminal behavior, the psychological literature has been relatively underdeveloped. Recently, however, a number of important contributions have emerged, including a comprehensive multi‐factor theory, and several empirical papers reporting findings on risk factors associated with firesetting. Programs are available addressing fire education and awareness in children, and adult firesetting treatment programs have also been developed; however, these have yet to be formally evaluated.
Three Strikes Laws
Authors: Glenn Dawn
Published: December 2015

Three Strikes Laws are the response to political and public demands to mandate tougher sentencing policies for violent habitual offenders. These laws became known as the “Three Strikes and You're Out” policy, where a third felony offense results in a sentence ranging from 25 years to life without parole. Congress, as well as 24 states, enacted Three Strikes statutes to incapacitate recidivists deemed responsible for high crime rates. States like California have adjusted their statutes to further include violent offenders at their second felony offense to act as a deterrent. State statutes differ on which crimes are triggering offenses or strikes that lead to mandatory sentencing. Since 1994, the impact of these laws has become evident in the steps taken to combat the challenges resulting from mandatory sentences stressing the criminal justice system. Overall, the Three Strikes Laws have proven to be a symbolic attempt at a show of solidarity within the criminal justice system aimed at the dangerous class that threatens public safety.
Elder Abuse
Authors: Daly Jeanette M.
Published: December 2015

Elder abuse is an atrocity whose roots go back to the beginning of time and that has no boundaries or cultural constraints. Types of elder abuse include abandonment, emotional or psychological abuse, exploitation, neglect, and physical and sexual abuse. Elder abuse conjures images such as broken bones, burn marks, confinement, financial destruction, malnourishment, and physical restraints leading to nursing home or hospital admissions and even death. Elder abuse affects 1 in 10 persons in the United States, with many cases being unreported for fear of retaliation. The National Center on Elder Abuse supported by the Administration on Aging provides information and support for the nation. In 2010, a federal law, the Elder Justice Act, was passed to provide federal resources to prevent, detect, treat, understand, intervene in, and, where appropriate, prosecute elder abuse, neglect, and exploitation.
Crime and Punishment in South Africa
Authors: Sonnekus Eon F.
Published: December 2015

Crime and Punishment in South Africa is founded on the existence of the accepted common law crimes, South African statutory crimes, and criminal case law. The Criminal Procedure Act of 1977 covers an extensive field that regulates the criminal procedure in the country. Due to the high crime rate, the Criminal Law Amendment Act of 1997 and its successor, the Criminal Law Amendment Act of 2008, were adopted to provide for statutory prescribed minimum sentences for certain serious crimes. The Criminal Law Amendment Act of 2007 amended the common law substantially. The Child Justice Act of 2008 provides for a separate justice system for children. Since the adoption of the Constitution Act of 1996, South Africa became a constitutional state with a bill of rights that is adjudicated by iits high courts, its Supreme Court of Appeal, and its Constitutional Court.
Crime and Punishment inSpain
Authors: Linde Antonia
Published: December 2015

In the field of punishment, in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, thecorreccionalistadoctrine, developed in the framework of the positivist school of criminology, had a particular influence in Spain. This doctrine was represented in Spain by Pedro Dorado Montero and Concepción Arenal, who advocated the redemption of the offender. According to correctionalism, the purpose of punishment is to correct and reform the offender. Even though during Franco's dictatorship these practices disappeared from doctrines of punishment, during the political transition to democracy political projects on crime and justice based on ideas of rehabilitation prevailed. The enactment of the Spanish Constitution of 1978, of the Spanish Criminal Code of 1995, and of the Spanish Prison Law of 1979 instituted a system of penalties based on the principles of reeducation and social reintegration of the offender.
Sociology of Crime and Deviance
Authors: Torres Jose A.
Published: December 2015

The sociology of crime and deviance attempts to understand the ways in which society's institutions, groups, and individuals define, perform, and punish attitudes, behaviors, or conditions that are outside of its norms or laws. Theoretically, the sociological understanding of crime and deviance has refuted theological and biological explanations of crime and deviance in favor of positivist and constructionist explanations. To study crime and deviance, researchers use both quantitative and qualitative techniques.
Women and Policing
Authors: Kelley Andrea D. , Miller Susan L.
Published: December 2015

Women's roles in policing have changed significantly since first entering the field in the 1800s. Their roles reflect the times, from moral guardians to the protectors of women and children, to integrated community policing characterized by traditionally feminine traits that challenge the masculine ethos of policing. As one of the most male‐dominated and masculine professions, policing reinforces hegemonic masculinity and heteronormativity, potentially forcing women to choose between a policing identity and a gendered one, or to resist the differences between men and women in the profession.
Juvenile Justice
Authors: Meade Caitlyn
Published: December 2015

The juvenile justice system is a surprisingly new concept in the United States. From 1600 to 1898, juveniles were punished solely by the family, church, and local community in what is called the “pre‐juvenile courts era.” The first period of juvenile courts, 1899–1966, is referred to as the “juvenile courts era.” During this time, every state adopted a juvenile justice court system. The “juvenile rights era” began in 1967 when the Supreme Court decided that juveniles must be given certain procedural due process rights. During the “crime control era,” which began in 1980 and continues today, the courts shifted to resemble the adult criminal justice system. This revised system provides for harsher sentences and an increase in transfers from juvenile to adult court.
Labeling Theory
Authors: Saydjari Zara , Bunn Amy , Kosloski Anna E. , Bontrager Ryon Stephanie
Published: December 2015

Scholars across disciplines continue to try to explain the origins of criminality. Labeling theory surmises that individuals internalize negative labels cast by others, thus perpetuating negative, deviant, and/or criminal behavior. This theoretical perspective became popular in the 1960s and continues to be applied to understanding deviant and criminal behavior today. This entry covers the development of the perspective over time, contemporary research on the effects of negative labels such as “delinquent” or “ex‐con,” the resulting challenges that are posed during reintegration into society, and policies derived from labeling theory such as diversion and restorative justice.
Immigration and Customs Enforcement
Authors: Leyro Shirley P.
Published: December 2015

This entry provides a brief overview of Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE). The entry traces the history of ICE, describes the responsibilities of ICE, and concludes with some recent criticisms that have been directed toward ICE.
Crime and Punishment in theCaribbean
Authors: Joseph Janice
Published: December 2015

The Caribbean, which is located southeast of North America, east of Central America, and northwest of South America, is a region of the Americas consisting of the Caribbean Sea, its islands, and the surrounding coasts. Most islands at some point were, or still are, colonies of European nations. Crime has become one of the main challenges in the Caribbean and, although the region focuses on harsh punishment, the level of crime is increasing. To halt the increasing crime rates in the region, an approach that emphasizes crime prevention rather than the “get tough” approach is needed. This entry examines the nature of crime and punishment in the English‐speaking Caribbean region.
Research Methods
Authors: Sainato Vincenzo A.
Published: December 2015

Research methods are the tools of scientific inquiry. By
scientific
, we mean the systematic application of empirical analysis buttressed by logic. And by
empirical
, we mean phenomena that can be recorded in some fashion from what is measurable and observable phenomenon. The combination of logic and empiricism is what separate science from other modes of inquiry and research methods (or strategies) are a means to pursue scientific research. The purpose of this entry is twofold. First, to situate and contextualize these tools relative to the scientific mode of inquiry and objectives; without such a preamble, an entry on research methods would simply be a list of tools (surveys, etc.), briefly described, but without a true understanding; the second objective is to elaborate on the research methods, or strategies of inquiry, for the collection and analysis of data.
Assault
Authors: Luc Emily A. , Jennings Wesley G.
Published: December 2015

Assault is the intentional act of causing bodily harm, threatening bodily harm, or provoking unwanted physical contact. In contrast, sexual assault is generally considered as any type of sexual contact or behavior that occurs without the explicit consent of the party that is affected. While assault and sexual assault are very prominent crimes that should be researched further and have preventive measures taken, the rate of occurrence has declined. Nevertheless, there has been a recent (re)emergence in the literature of research devoted to investigations of the victim–offender overlap as it relates to these crimes. As such, this entry provides a brief review of these crimes informed by a victim–offender overlap perspective.
War Crimes and Military Justice
Authors: Jones Lenna
Published: December 2015

The US military may exercise its jurisdiction under four circumstances: military law, a military government, martial law, and the laws of war. Military law is the system of military justice governed by the Uniform Code of Military Justice (UCMJ), and the laws of war refer to what conduct is acceptable during armed conflicts. Military jurisdiction under the laws of war is distinct, and is embedded in the early Articles of War, international law, and customs. War crimes are violations of international humanitarian law that are subject to individual criminal responsibility. The US government does not recognize the International Criminal Court's (ICC) jurisdiction over its armed forces, making prosecution for war crimes committed by service members uncertain. The general article of the UCMJ allows for federal laws, such as the War Crimes Act, to be imported into the military justice system for trial by courts‐martial.
Rape and Other Sexual Assault
Authors: Spivak Andrew L.
Published: December 2015

Rape and sexual assault are crimes measured by official law enforcement and victim survey data, with variation in prevalence and correlates across different definitions and collection methods. While rape and sexual assault appear to be less common than other violent offenses such as robbery and aggravated assault, disagreement across victimization surveys has led to disparate estimates, from one‐third lifetime victimization to one‐eighth, and from annual victimization of 1.3 per 1,000 population to 6.9 per 1,000 population. Some assessments of rape and sexual assault of women in college have likewise been controversial. Victimization surveys indicate that slightly less than one‐tenth of victims are male, that victims are on average younger (mostly teens) than victims of other violent crimes, and that most victimizations involve offenders known to the victim – acquaintances and intimate partners. Theoretical scholarly discourse about rape and sexual assault has been largely comprised of debates between feminist and sociobiological perspectives.
Victims' Rights
Authors: Beldin Kerry
Published: December 2015

The role of the crime victim has changed throughout history. In recent American history, concerns have been raised about the crime victims' rights being overshadowed by the rights of defendants in criminal justice proceedings. Since the 1960s in the United States, efforts have been made to raise awareness of, and sensitivity to, the rights of crime victims. This has led to burgeoning rights as established by a variety of laws to support and protect crime victims in criminal justice proceedings.
Edge Ethnography
Authors: Mitchell Miller J.
Published: December 2015

Edge ethnography is a style of qualitative research that is primarily used in the study of crime and deviance. In criminology, edge ethnography is conducted in the tradition of naturalistic inquiry involving entrée to research settings and participation in subject group activities to enable collection of observation and dialogue data. Edge ethnographers employ either a rapport development or covert strategy by which to gain access to typically closed research settings and groups. Each approach seeks to conduct research within the context of the immediacy of crime and to minimize Hawthorne effects. Edge ethnography is thus well suited for the study of hidden populations and criminal subcultures that are beyond the reach of traditional research designs.
Crime and Punishment inCentralAmerica
Authors: Alda Erik
Published: December 2015

Central America is arguably the most violent region in the world. There is extensive research showing that multiple factors contribute to explain such high levels of violence. One critical factor is often neglected in empirical research in order to understand crime and violence: police performance. The importance of police and their performance together with original research on the efficiency of police forces in Central America are discussed.
Prisoners' Rights
Authors: Reingle Gonzalez Jennifer M.
Published: December 2015

The prisoners' rights movement has made tremendous progress in the provision of rights to inmates housed in jails and prisons since the 1970s. This chapter begins with a brief introduction to the history of prisoners' rights to present the modern movement to protect the rights of prisoners in light of the Eighth (protection against cruel and unusual punishments) and Fifth (due process) Amendments. In this entry, we discuss the nonlinearity of progress in the movement, as court decisions were rendered and partially retracted for decades. Today, although prisons are known for poor living conditions and unequal access to rehabilitative training programs, educational opportunities, and work release, prisoners are afforded far more rights when compared with only four decades ago. Overall, this entry focuses on the evolution of the prisoners' rights movement with respect to health and mental health care, the death penalty, and prisoners' reactions to violations of their rights: violence and riots.
European Court of Human Rights
Authors: Sainato Vincenzo A. , Jewell Paula
Published: December 2015

The European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) is an international court that considers cases pertaining to violations of the European Convention on Human Rights. Located in Strasbourg, France, its origins date back to 1959, but it became a full‐time court in 1998. The Court is overseen by the Council of Europe and consists of 47 member states, with the exceptions being Belarus and Kosovo. This entry reviews the ECHR in detail.
Drug Courts
Authors: Khey David N.
Published: December 2015

Over 25 years of innovation, drug courts have advanced alternatives to incarceration for eligible drug offenders across the United States. In addition, “problem‐solving courts” based on the drug court framework have flourished in many jurisdictions to serve individuals with more specific issues such as alcohol sobriety and driving under the influence, mental health disorders, juvenile drug use and abuse, and more. Each of these programs emphasizes judicial oversight, treatment, monitoring compliance with treatment, and the use of incentives and sanctions, as needed, to keep participants moving in a positive direction. As the US incarceration rate will continue to be one of the highest of postindustrialized countries far into the twenty‐first century, problem‐solving courts will remain popular to allow the criminal justice system viable alternatives to assist individuals driven to crime by their addiction, untreated mental illness, and more.
International Corrections
Authors: Byrne James
Published: December 2015

Over the last several decades, politicians in the United States and in several other countries have waged wars on drugs and wars on crime that have relied on a punishment‐based response to these problems, with a focus on the crime and not the individual and community context that shapes the life course of the offender. Given the documented failure of this crime‐centered and punishment‐focused response in these countries, it is not surprising that corrections policymakers have begun to look more closely at how leaders in other countries have approached – and attempted to solve – these same problems.

There is much to be learned from global knowledge exchange regarding best practices and new innovations in corrections and sentencing. By exploring how other governments in each global regiondefinecriminal and juvenile misbehavior,organize and administercrime prevention/crime control strategies to address these crime problems, andevaluatethe effectiveness of these corrections strategies, it is certainly possible that leaders will discover more efficient and effective approaches that can be applied in their own country.
Are Pressure Time Integral and Cumulative Plantar Stress Related to First Metatarsophalangeal Joint Pain? Results From a Community‐Based Study
Authors: Rao Smita , Douglas Gross K. , Niu Jingbo , Nevitt Michael C. , Lewis Cora E. , Torner James C. , Hietpas Jean , Felson David , Hillstrom Howard J.
Published: December 2015

Objective

To examine the relationship between plantar stress over a step, cumulative plantar stress over a day, and first metatarsophalangeal (MTP) joint pain among older adults.

Methods

Plantar stress and first MTP pain were assessed within the Multicenter Osteoarthritis Study. All included participants were asked if they had pain, aching, or stiffness at the first MTP joint on most days for the past 30 days. Pressure time integral (PTI) was quantified as participants walked on a pedobarograph, and mean steps per day were obtained using an accelerometer. Cumulative plantar stress was calculated as the product of regional PTI and mean steps per day. Quintiles of hallucal and second metatarsal PTI and cumulative plantar stress were generated. The relationship between predictors and the odds ratio of first MTP pain was assessed using a logistic regression model.

Results

Feet in the quintile with the lowest hallux PTI had 2.14 times increased odds of first MTP pain (95% confidence interval [95% CI] 1.42–3.25, P < 0.01). Feet in the quintile with the lowest second metatarsal PTI had 1.50 times increased odds of first MTP pain (95% CI 1.01–2.23, P = 0.042). Cumulative plantar stress was unassociated with first MTP pain.

Conclusion

Lower PTI was modestly associated with increased prevalence of frequent first MTP pain at both the hallux and second metatarsal. Lower plantar loading may indicate the presence of an antalgic gait strategy and may reflect an attempt at pain avoidance. The lack of association with cumulative plantar stress may suggest that patients do not limit their walking as a pain‐avoidance mechanism.