bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Characterization of an unexpected snowfall event in Iqaluit, Nunavut, and surrounding area during the Storm Studies in the Arctic field project
Authors: Fargey S. , Henson W. , Hanesiak J. , Goodson R.
Published: April 2014

Small accumulation precipitation events are critical for the high‐latitude hydrological cycle. They contribute to more than 50% of total accumulation in the area and occur at a greater frequency than high‐accumulation events. Despite their importance, the processes controlling them have not been investigated in sufficient detail. This study characterizes an unexpected high‐latitude snowfall event at Iqaluit, Nunavut, and surrounding area during the Storm Studies in the Arctic field project. High‐resolution data collected, from both ground based and airborne Doppler radar, along with upper air and surface observations, provided the basis for analysis of the conditions that led to the event and offer some insight as to why it was not well forecast by the Canadian operational model. Several factors worked in concert to produce this event. Low‐level convection and upslope processes were important in cloud and precipitation generation over the orography upstream. When combined with additional lift from the passing of a weak trough, cloud and precipitation production were enhanced, allowing these features to penetrate over the terrain and resulted in precipitation at Iqaluit. Analysis of the global environmental multiscale limited area model (2.5 km resolution) suggests that upstream convection and upslope processes were affected by model errors. As a consequence, precipitation onset was delayed, and the total accumulation was 50% lower than the observations. Results indicate that the complexity of precipitation events in the region represents a significant challenge for predicting and modeling and understanding their role in the region's hydrological cycle.
A comprehensive evaluation of precipitation simulations over China based on CMIP5 multimodel ensemble projections
Authors: Chen Liang , Frauenfeld Oliver W.
Published: April 2014

Precipitation variability has great economic, social, and environmental impacts across the globe, and in particular in China. This paper evaluates the historical precipitation variability based on 20 general circulation models from the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 5 (CMIP5) archive over the 20th century relative to two observational data sets and quantifies CMIP5 improvements over CMIP3. Multimodel ensemble means and individual models are assessed. Three future emission scenarios are used (representative concentration pathways (RCP) 8.5, RCP 4.5, and RCP 2.6), and 21st century CMIP5 estimates are put into context based on the 20th century biases. We find that CMIP5 models can reproduce the spatial pattern of precipitation over China during the 20th century, which represents an improvement over CMIP3. However, the models overestimate the magnitude of seasonal and annual precipitation in most regions of China, especially along the eastern edge of the Tibetan Plateau, and underestimate summer precipitation over southeastern China. For China as a whole, CMIP5's overestimation of annual precipitation is greater than CMIP3, which can be traced back to a greater underestimation of summer precipitation in CMIP3. There is a large spread among individual models, with the greatest uncertainties in simulating summer precipitation. Trends and correlations also suggest a better agreement of CMIP5 with observations than CMIP3. Throughout the 20th century, both the observations and models show an increasing trend in precipitation over parts of northwestern China and a decreasing trend over the Tibetan Plateau. There is poor agreement in precipitation trends over the southeast and northeast regions. In general, multimodel means cannot capture the amplitude of observed multidecadal precipitation variability. In the 21st century, precipitation is generally projected to increase across all of China under all three scenarios. RCP 8.5 exhibits the largest significant trend at a rate of +1.5 mm/yr, corresponding to 16% precipitation increase by the end of the century. The RCP 2.6 scenario shows the smallest increases, at +0.5 mm/yr (6%) by 2100. The greatest increases are projected to occur over the Tibetan Plateau and eastern China in summer, suggesting an altered monsoonal circulation in the future. However, due to the uncertainties in CMIP5, future precipitation projections should be interpreted with caution.
Comparison of 240 ka long organic carbon and carbonate records along a depth transect in the Timor Sea: Primary signals versus preservation changes
Authors: Liu Wei , Baudin François , Moreno Eva , Dewilde Fabien , Caillon Nicolas , Fang Nianqiao , Bassinot Franck
Published: April 2014

Total organic carbon (TOC) and calcium carbonate (CaCO3) records from different water depths in the Timor Sea (NE Indian Ocean) are compared in order to better reconstruct past changes in pelagic productivity, highlight the impact of preservation at depth, and unravel the interplay of organic carbon and carbonate sedimentation. New data are presented for core MD01‐2376 located at 2376 m depth. These results are compared, over the last 240 ka, with published data on two neighboring cores (MD01‐2378, 1783 m and MD98‐2166, 3875 m). TOC fluctuations show strong glacial/interglacial variations and Milankovitch‐type oscillations (i.e., dominant frequencies centered on the 100, 41, and 23 ka bands), with an enrichment during cold periods that reflects an increase in primary productivity as well as a lesser decomposition of organic matter with depth. During interglacials, TOC values are lower and show a stronger gradient with depth of deposition than during glacials. This suggests an overall better ventilation of deepwater masses and a steeper vertical gradient in the oxygen content, possibly associated to the upward extension of the oxygen‐rich deep waters relative to the glacial situation. Temporal fluctuations in the CaCO3 records do not show such a glacial‐interglacial pattern but reveal precession‐ and obliquity‐related oscillations. Fluctuations in the 19–23 ka bands are only observed in the shallowest core, while fluctuations in the 41 ka band are clearly expressed in the two deepest cores, suggesting that this signal is more directly related to changes in carbonate preservation at the seafloor.
Holocene tropical western Indian Ocean sea surface temperatures in covariation with climatic changes in the Indonesian region
Authors: Kuhnert Henning , Kuhlmann Holger , Mohtadi Mahyar , Meggers Helge , Baumann Karl‐Heinz , Pätzold Jürgen
Published: April 2014

The sea surface temperature (SST) of the tropical Indian Ocean is a major component of global climate teleconnections. While the Holocene SST history is documented for regions affected by the Indian and Arabian monsoons, data from the near‐equatorial western Indian Ocean are sparse. Reconstructing past zonal and meridional SST gradients requires additional information on past temperatures from the western boundary current region. We present a unique record of Holocene SST and thermocline depth variations in the tropical western Indian Ocean as documented in foraminiferal Mg/Ca ratios and δ18O from a sediment core off northern Tanzania. For Mg/Ca and thermocline δ18O, most variance is concentrated in the centennial to bicentennial periodicity band. On the millennial time scale, an early to mid‐Holocene (~7.8–5.6 ka) warm phase is followed by a temperature drop by up to 2°C, leading to a mid‐Holocene cool interval (5.6–4.2 ka). The shift is accompanied by an initial reduction in the difference between surface and thermocline foraminiferal δ18O, consistent with the thickening of the mixed layer and suggestions of a strengthened Walker circulation. However, we cannot confirm the expected enhanced zonal SST gradient, as the cooling of similar magnitude had previously been found in SSTs from the upwelling region off Sumatra and in Flores air temperatures. The SST pattern probably reflects the tropical Indian Ocean expression of a large‐scale climate anomaly rather than a positive Indian Ocean Dipole‐like mean state.
Obama administration outlines new strategy for wildfire season
Authors: Wendel JoAnna
Published: April 2014

As the wildfire season approaches, the Obama administration has released its new National Cohesive Wildland Fire Management Strategy, developed by federal, state, tribal, and community partners. The strategy outlines new approaches to maintain healthy ‘landscapes, prepare communities for the fire season, and better address the nation's fire threats. “Through more strategic coordination with local communities the National Cohesive Strategy will help us better protect 46 million homes in 70,000 communities from catastrophic wildfires,” U.S. Agriculture Secretary Tom Vilsack said.
Plan to mitigate infrastructure development released
Authors: Wendel JoAnna
Published: April 2014

Secretary of the Interior Sally Jewell released a new strategy on 10 April 2014 to advance landscape‐scale, science‐based management of America's public lands and wildlife. The strategy will implement mitigation policies and practices at the Department of the Interior that can encourage infrastructure development while protecting natural and cultural resources.
The Expanding Utility of Laser Spectroscopy
Authors: Keim Richard F. , Kendall Carol , Jefferson Anne
Published: April 2014

Laser spectroscopy for analysis of stable isotopes is a rapidly emerging technology with the potential to enable new scientific investigations in hydrology and biogeochemistry. The two basic advantages of laser spectroscopy over mass spectrometry—lower instrument cost and ease of use—mean more laboratories can obtain the capability. Portability of instruments allows field deployment with online analysis of large numbers of samples outside the laboratory. However, the novelty of laser spectroscopy for isotope applications means there is little collective experience, so its strengths and limitations are not as well understood as those of mass spectrometry.
Make an Even Bigger Impact in 2014!
Authors: Howard Claire
Published: April 2014

Each year, AGU members and donors go above and beyond, providing the essential funding necessary for AGU to reach its goals and promote new programming for our members and the scientific community.
Heinz‐Wolfram Kasemir: His Collected Works
Authors: Schultz Colin
Published: April 2014

The story of Heinz‐Wolfram Kasemir's scientific research is the not‐uncommon tale of a researcher forced to the fringes for pushing hypotheses that ran against the grain. In the AGU monograph Heinz‐Wolfram Kasemir: His Collected Works, Vladislav Mazur and Lothar Ruhnke pull together all of Kasemir's published works, some of them translated from German, in one place for the first time. In this interview, Vladislav Mazur shares with Eos a look into Kasemir's life and work, the science of atmospheric electricity and lightning, and an insider perspective on how science changes course.
Mountain forests' root growth stabilize atmospheric CO2
Authors: Wendel JoAnna
Published: April 2014

Throughout Earth's history, carbon dioxide (CO2 ) has been released and sequestered from the atmosphere in cycles that profoundly influence global climate. One of the processes depleting the atmosphere of CO2 is silicate rock weathering—chemical reactions that eventually combine atmospheric CO2 with calcium or magnesium and remove it from the atmosphere.
Verifying intercalibration of solar proton sensors
Authors: Balcerak Ernie
Published: April 2014

Energetic protons emitted in bursts from the Sun pose a potential hazard for spacecraft, satellites, humans in space, and aircraft at high latitudes. Researchers have now verified that a set of sensors used to measure solar proton events are correctly intercalibrated to provide early warning of the events.
New algorithm to improve earthquake early warning systems
Authors: Schultz Colin
Published: April 2014

When a fault line ruptures, seismic waves race out from the earthquake epicenter. Compressional seismic waves, known as primary (P) waves, travel fastest. Shear waves—secondary (S) waves—travel more slowly but are the source of the bulk of earthquake‐induced damage. Using the opportunity afforded by the difference in travel times between these two types of waves, researchers have begun to design and implement earthquake early warning systems.
Hot Pliocene climate explained by ozone and aerosol emissions
Authors: Wendel JoAnna
Published: April 2014

The Pliocene (5.3 to 2.5 million years ago) is an extensively studied epoch because its hot, wet climate can serve as a possible analog for what might happen if today's atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2 ) concentrations rise unchecked. During the Pliocene, the two main factors believed to influence the climate—atmospheric CO2 concentrations and the geographic position of the continents—were nearly identical to modern times. But climate scientists have long puzzled over why the Pliocene's global temperatures were so much warmer than Earth's preindustrial climate.
Impact of the sea surface temperature rise on storm‐track clouds in global nonhydrostatic aqua planet simulations
Authors: Kodama C. , Iga S. , Satoh M.
Published: April 2014

Aqua planet experiments were conducted to investigate storm‐track cloud change due to sea surface temperature (SST) rise. Fourteen kilometer mesh global nonhydrostatic model was employed with an explicit cloud microphysical process, and the model output data were composited to the cyclone center. Both the column‐integrated liquid and ice cloud contents are significantly increased around the cyclone center due to the SST rise. The occurrence of low‐level liquid clouds becomes more frequent not only near the cyclone center but also for all of the higher latitudes, which cannot be seen in low‐resolution models. This as well as thicker liquid clouds enhances shortwave cooling. Upper level ice clouds occur more frequently on the east side of the cyclone center, and they partly offset the enhanced shortwave cooling through longwave warming. These results may imply an importance of the cloud‐scale process with cloud microphysics on the storm‐track clouds and their radiative forcing.
Microphysics of clouds and rain over the Western Ghat
Authors: Konwar Mahen , Das S. K. , Deshpande S. M. , Chakravarty K. , Goswami B. N.
Published: April 2014

In an attempt to unravel the interactions between cloud microphysics and dynamics that make shallow clouds precipitate heavily in this region, some unique observations of rain and cloud microphysical parameters are presented here from two stations, Pune and Mahabaleshwar, one each on the lee and windward sides, respectively, of the Western Ghat (WG) mountains in peninsular India. To elucidate rain microphysics, we used the raindrop size distribution (DSD) by fitting three parameter Gamma functions to the observed raindrop spectra. Over Pune, during stratiform rain with bright band (BB) at 0°C isotherm; concave upward DSD shapes are observed below the BB which becomes concave downward at lower altitudes. It is due to breakup process of large raindrops which increases drop concentration at midsizes suggesting coalescence, collision, and breakup processes. Both slope and intercept parameters of Gamma DSD decrease during no BB condition as altitudes decrease, signifying collision and coalescence processes. Over Mahabaleshwar, bimodal and monomodal DSD are observed during light and heavy rainfall, respectively. With shallow storm heights, small raindrops mainly contribute to both types of rainfall. The DSDs are parameterized, and their radar reflectivity factor‐rainfall intensity relationships are evaluated suggesting the dominance of collision‐coalescence processes. Aircraft measurements of orographic clouds over the WG suggest interaction of cloud mass with the ambient updraft speed. The orographically forced updrafts foster rapid condensational growth of cloud droplets triggering coalescence process within few hundred meters of cloud depth. Hence, these clouds are dynamically forced to produce precipitation over the WG.
Debt crisis
Authors: Orr Martin
Published: April 2014

A debt crisis occurs when an organization finds itself unable to service its debt and is at risk of default on its loans. When a nation is unable to service its public debt, this is referred to as a sovereign debt crisis. Debt crises may lead to contagion, in which those holding the debt in turn find themselves at risk of default to their creditors. In a neoliberal financial system, dominated by Western control of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank, contagion has led to several sovereign debt crises with global impact.
Livestock and Meat Industries
Authors: Maclachlan Ian
Published: April 2014

Domestic livestock (defined broadly to include bovines such as cattle and buffalo, swine, horses, sheep, goats, camelids, and poultry) are found in every world region where they may function as draft animals providing a source of primary motive power or as a source of animal products including meat, blood, egg, and dairy foods for human consumption; pharmaceuticals; leather, wool, and feathers; and meat, bone, and blood meal for use as fertilizer and animal feed. The global spread of domestic livestock, mainly from the Old World to the New, began as a component of colonial policies to establish self‐sustaining settlements in the Americas, Australasia, and South Africa. Facilitated by technological changes in transportation and food preservation, livestock production and meat marketing attained global scope by the late nineteenth century. Rapid growth in meat and dairy product consumption in the late twentieth century and into the twenty‐first century has fueled the globalization of the production and trade of livestock and meat products.
Anti‐Security
Authors: Manolov Martin V. , Rigakos George S.
Published: April 2014

Anti‐Security is a political project seeking to foster critical theoretical and empirical interventions into existing
security
discourses. An edited book by the same title (Neocleous & Rigakos 2011) helped coalesce an emerging strand of radical scholarship under the theme in 2011. An active Anti‐Security studies group organized workshops and a recent stream at the European Group for the Study of Deviance and Social Control in 2012. Anti‐Security is purportedly not a theory or a framework, but a discursive space where critical scholars and activists can discuss security without creating more security intelligence. According to its proponents, it is a space where security is not taken for granted, or is not seen as a positive end in itself. Anti‐Security thus offers the flexibility for anyone from any disciplinary frame interested in a materialist critique of security to contribute to the project (Manolov 2012). The main purpose of the Anti‐Security project is to stimulate a coherent and penetrating way of destabilizing the dominant security discourse, to provide an opening for resuscitating security's own inherent contradictions, and to make those transparent.
Battle of Seattle
Authors: Bornstein Avram
Published: April 2014

In the “Battle of Seattle” tens of thousands of demonstrators took to the streets of that city to oppose the “Millennium Round” of trade talks of the World Trade Organization (WTO) starting November 30, 1999. The talks ended in failure partly because of the protests, but largely because of opposition within the meetings from governments opposed to backroom deals made between the United States, Canada, the European Union, and Japan (Smith 2002: 208).
Cuban missile crisis
Authors: Scott Len
Published: April 2014

The Cuban missile crisis of 1962 is widely seen as the nearest we have come to nuclear war and indeed the extinction of humankind. Thirteen days elapsed between October 16, when President Kennedy learned of Soviet nuclear missiles in Cuba able to strike the United States, and October 28, when Premier Khrushchev publicly announced their withdrawal. In Moscow the crisis was known as the Caribbean crisis while in Havana it was called the October crisis. These reflect different perspectives and understandings of causes and responsibilities for events. “Thirteen Days” is how many portray the crisis.
Environmental change
Authors: Rhomberg Markus , Stehr Nico
Published: April 2014

Many contemporary environmental issues such as climate change represent global as well as regional phenomena. However, throughout much of history, human impact on the natural environment had only local or regional reach. In the past, the impact of nature on societies was considerable. For many historians, philosophers, geographers, and economists, the natural circumstances (for example, climatic conditions) shaped in an almost fate‐like manner the existential conditions of humankind. The perspective of geographical determinism is a major representative of such a view (e.g., Huntington 2003). More recently, geographical determinism has fallen into disrepute because at least with the onset of industrial society it became possible to write human history as the history of its emancipation from natural variability and change. Significant populations of humans now live in all climatic zones of the world. Technological innovations (e.g., air conditioning, building design, crop varieties) and cultural innovations (e.g., patterns of socializing, diet), which at times evolved quickly or at other times more slowly, represent capacities adaptive to a range of climatic conditions. Cultural change has opened more of the world to human habitation.
Feminism
Authors: Vandenberg Allison
Published: April 2014

Feminism refers to social and political movements and organizations advocating equality between men and women. Indeed, because feminism has taken many forms, it is perhaps more accurate to think in terms offeminisms. This entry addresses the emergence of feminist practices and ideologies, focusing mainly on the events, achievements, and scholarship of feminists in Europe and North America. Common goals in feminist movements include suffrage (the right to vote), improvements to women's education, financial parity with men, and critiques of patriarchal social structures that subordinate women to men.
Applications of Endoperoxides derived from Acenes and Singlet Oxygen
Authors: FUDICKAR WERNER , LINKER TORSTEN
Published: April 2014

Under simple conditions of aerobic irradiation, acenes can undergo an oxygenation to endoperoxides (EPOs). Mechanistic studies disclosed that this reaction can proceed either along a concerted or an ionic stepwise pathway, strongly controlled by peripheral substituents. For many acenes the process is either thermally or photochemically reversible and oxygen is released either in its ground or excited state. Evidence was found that some EPOs reconvert along a concerted pathway and others along a stepwise path with radical intermediates. Thus, the yields of released singlet oxygen (
1
O
2
) and the amount of decomposition products vary. Highly reversible formations of acene EPOs found applications as photochromic systems and as the basis to generate erasable two‐dimensional pattern structures into thin films on surfaces. Irreversible reactions were applied to release “caged” molecules from an acene based photolinker and to initiate polymerizations either from cationic or radical precursors. More recently, EPOs of diarylanthracenes were employed as stages of molecular rotary switches. Due to the rapid formation of acene EPOs, probes were designed to detect
1
O
2
with high sensitivity. Many acenes suit as carriers of singlet oxygen
via
EPOs and special emphasis is devoted to water soluble systems used in biologic media. EPOs were encapsulated into hosts like cyclodextrines, proteins or rotaxanes as well. These systems exhibit interesting properties in terms of molecular recognition. Due to the convenient and reversible formation of acene EPOs and their release of
1
O
2
, many applications towards surface patterning or antitumor therapy might emerge during the next years.
Steer‐by‐Wire, Potential, and Challenges
Authors: Eckstein Lutz , Hesse Lars , Klein Michael
Published: April 2014

Steer‐by‐wire systems have a long tradition in research and development, going back to the 1950s whenGMpresented a Chevrolet Impala controlled by a sidestick and a second research vehicle, which was autonomously following a specially prepared highway. Nearly every vehicle manufacturer and also some suppliers carried out extensive research on steer‐by‐wire systems, but even today every series road vehicle has a mechanical connection between the steering control and the steering system.

The basic idea regarding steer‐by‐wire is to replace the mechanical link between the operating device and the steering system by an electronic communication, as stated by the termwire. The key motivation can be seen in similar advantages compared to aviation, where fly‐by‐wire is standard on many aircrafts today, giving maximum flexibility regarding:

the functional relationship between operating device and steering system with respect to vehicle dynamics,

the architecture of the vehicle also aiming at advantages in production and modularity, and

the design of the operating device itself and the ergonomics of the operator's working place.

Depending on the specific design goals, this flexibility can be used in order to enhance functionality and performance, automation, ergonomics, safety, and production efficiency.

Progress in automation and control, decreasing costs of electrical components and electronics and a strong increase in the diversification of vehicle concepts and individualization will stimulate research and development on steer‐by‐wire systems and their market introduction within the next 10–20 years.
Advanced Batteries for Vehicle Applications
Authors: Burke Andrew F.
Published: April 2014

This chapter is concerned with the research and development on advanced batteries for plug‐in electric vehicles in the next 10–20 years. The primary motivation for the development of the advanced batteries is to permit the design of electric vehicles having ranges comparable to conventionalICEvehicles—300–500 miles. By advanced batteries are meant cell chemistries having energy densities significantly higher than those presently available. These chemistries include (i) lithium‐ion cells using layered–layered composites of metal oxides in the cathode, mixtures of carbon and silicone in the anode, and advanced electrolytes permitting cell voltages of 4.5–5 V and (ii) metal–air cells utilizing zinc or lithium in the anode and an air cathode. It is expected that some of the new lithium chemistries will be the first of the advanced battery technologies to be marketed in the next 5–10 years. The metal–air batteries are much further in the future and likely will be required to approach the 300–500‐mile range goal.

Spreadsheet models of cells using the various chemistries were developed to calculate their energy densities and power capability. In the case of the advanced lithium‐ion chemistries, it was found that the largest improvements in cell performance will result from significant increases in cathode charge capacity mAh/g and increases in the cathode voltage. The model results for the advanced lithium‐ion cells indicate that energy densities of 350–400 and 750–800 Wh/kg (unpackaged) are possible at power capabilities suitable for vehicle applications. With improvements in plug‐in vehicle design (lower weight and energy consumption‐Wh/mi), the advanced lithium batteries could be used in 250–300‐mile range vehicles.

Zinc–air and lithium–air cells were also modeled to project their performance. Both metal–air systems were modeled using an aqueous electrolyte (KOH) and a carbon/catalyst air cathode. In the case of the zinc–air cells, the projected energy densities were 500–600 Wh/kg and 2000–2400 Wh/L (unpackaged) depending on the discharge time and air cathode current density assumed. The power capability of the Zn–air cells was relatively low in the range of 150–300 Wh/kg. The projected energy densities of the lithium–air cells were 2000–3000 Wh/kg and 2000–2500 Wh/L (unpackaged) depending on the resistance (Ohm‐cm2) assumed for the anode protective film and the current density of the air cathode. In all cases for the lithium–air calculations, it was assumed that large reductions in the present high resistance of the anode protective film would occur in the future. The power capability of the lithium–air cells with the improved protective film was 1000–1500 W/kg, which was much higher than that for the Zn–air cells. The higher power capability of the Li–air cells is primarily due to their higher cell voltage.
All‐Wheel Drive Hybrid System
Authors: Sato Eiji
Published: April 2014

The drivetrain layout of an all‐wheel drive (
AWD
) hybrid electric vehicle (
HEV
) system differs from a mechanical
AWD
system and in the same way there are a number of alternative arrangements.

It can be simply constructed by mounting a traction motor at the opposite end of a two‐wheel drive system (
2WD
), without the need for a propeller shaft.

However, there are difficulties in control between the front and rear motors, especially when shifting between
2WD
and
AWD
, and during distribution of braking force between the front and the rear.

This chapter describes the construction and control specific to this particular
AWD
hybrid system configuration.
Axle Systems
Authors: Palazzolo Joseph
Published: April 2014

Traditional passenger cars and light trucks utilize an axle system to drive the wheels. The axle system includes the final drive gear reduction and a differential. The differential is a torque splitting device that allows two wheels to be driven from a single source, whereas the final drive gear reduction translates the power perpendicular from the input axis to the output axis. The specific details and methodology for axle construction are reviewed in this chapter. This review includes independent versus beam‐style axles, wheel‐end configurations, hypoid gearing, bearing considerations, and, lastly, manufacturing considerations.
Supercharging
Authors: Streeter Scot , Swartzlander Matt
Published: April 2014

The goal of this document is to describe the design and application considerations for a modern mechanically driven supercharger for an internal combustion engine. This includes the consideration of the drive system, internal component design, mechanical energy transfer through the device, and the air handling aspects of the device. This includes the requirements for rotor timing, air control events, rotor design, the power couplings, lubrication requirements, and port design. Consideration is given throughout the discussion on the optimal design configuration for the goal of the highest efficient device and application. The discussion continues on engine matching, FEAD considerations, and single and compound boosting configurations. Critical system considerations like bypass design are considered and discussed. Efficiency optimization is a topic of discussion in the test as well as performance tailoring for a particular application. The discussion concludes with a review of end application optimization and emissions impact with the technology.
Fundamental Combustion Modes
Authors: Matthews Ronald D.
Published: April 2014

This chapter provides essential background information regarding the combustion processes in spark ignition engines, diesel engines, and engines that are under development worldwide employing various forms of low temperature combustion [e.g., homogeneous charge compression ignition (HCCI), controlled autoignition (CAI), premixed charge compression ignition (PCCI)]. These three types of engines are characterized by three different dominant modes of combustion: premixed flames, diffusion flames, and volumetric energy release. These three modes of combustion are covered in sufficient detail so that the reader should have the background knowledge that allows understanding of the combustion processes in the chapters that discuss these types of engines in depth.
Solving Combustion Chemistry in Engine Simulations
Authors: Peters Norbert , Pitsch Heinz
Published: April 2014

Models suited for the prediction of chemical effects in spark‐ignition (SI) and compression‐ignition (CI) engines are presented. Starting from one‐step global kinetics, the role of chemistry for the understanding of ignition phenomena is illustrated. However, as only detailed elementary kinetics provide a reliable basis for predictions, methods for the reduction of large chemical mechanisms and their tabulation are outlined. An example for the systematic reduction by using steady‐state analysis is presented. This leads to a relatively small number of global steps, each of which governs a rate‐determining time scale of the entire chain process. For SI engines, effects of chemistry are discussed for spark models, turbulent flame propagation, and knock models. For the case of CI engines, the direct integration model, the characteristic time model, and the representative interactive flamelet (RIF) model and their use in engine simulations are presented.
Fuel Introduction
Authors: Reitz Rolf , Pickett Lyle , Trujillo Mario
Published: April 2014

This chapter reviews the fundamental processes involved in the introduction of fuels into the engine. Spray nozzles commonly used in engine applications are summarized, together with fuel introduction strategies ranging from classical carburetor intake manifold fuel introduction to modern port fuel injection (PFI) fuel injectors. Issues relevant for direct in‐cylinder fuel introduction spark‐ignition and diesel engines are also reviewed. The effects of air entrainment on spray penetration and vaporization, together with injector nozzle, injection timing and fuel effects on combustion, oil dilution, and engine wear are also discussed. In addition, the effect of fuel spray interaction with in‐cylinder airflows is discussed. Current models of fundamental spray processes in engines are reviewed, including models for atomization, drop breakup, drop collision and coalescence, vaporization, drag and deformation, turbulent diffusion, and spray/wall impingement processes. This chapter concludes with a discussion of new computational tools that are currently under development for improved understanding of spray processes.
Fundamentals
Authors: Musculus Mark P.B. , Pickett Lyle M. , Kaiser Sebastian A.
Published: April 2014

Fundamental details of the spatial and/or temporal evolution of in‐cylinder processes of internal combustion engines may be gained from various optical diagnostics. Application of optical diagnostics requires experimental facilities with optical access, appropriate light detection instrumentation, and potentially external light sources and delivery optics. Three types of optical facilities that recreate engine‐relevant high pressure, high temperature conditions are reviewed here: engines, rapid compression machines, and pressurized high temperature spray or premixed fuel–air chambers. In addition, several of the more commonly applied optical diagnostic techniques that can detect combustion‐generated light emission, attenuation and scattering of light from external sources, and artificially generated emission, including laser‐induced processes, are also briefly reviewed.
Communication of Electric Vehicles
Authors: Rehtanz Christian , Horenkamp Willi , Rolink Johannes
Published: April 2014

Several governments in the world have set ambitious goal of launching around one million electric vehicles (EVs) on roads by 2020. However, it can only reach this goal if it acts early to facilitate the integration of EVs into the electricity supply system and tomorrow's smart grid. This entails both economic and technical challenges. On the technical front, a suitable charging infrastructure is needed that consists of charging points at home, work, and public or quasi‐public places. Vehicle charging must not impair supply quality, supply reliability, or grid stability, either. The new infrastructure will have to support charge management and energy billing, but can also provide value‐added and ancillary services as long as data can be exchanged between the stakeholders.
Road Traffic and Travel Information
Authors: Bolte Fritz
Published: April 2014

Road Traffic and Travel Information, in some publications “Real‐Time Traffic Information,” (RTTI) stands for all information that drivers need to plan their journeys, carry them out, and reach their destinations safely and in time. In this context, the focus is on road traffic although extension onto other transport modes such as rail and air could be advisable. Intermodality would be a useful complement to exploit all possible transport facilities. The limitation on road transport is due to better explain existing RTTI systems, their possibilities and problems, and emerging new developments.

This report deals with static, semidynamic and dynamic types of information: how can they be obtained, collected, verified, and distributed to all interested actors such as road operators, fleet operators, information services, and drivers as end users.

Historic developments in information services have led to different actors being seen, in European and non‐European countries, pursuing different and sometimes competing interests. As a result, various topologies of RTTI systems exist. “Interoperability” is needed at least in the interface to the driver. This is a political requirement owed to the targets to improve traffic safety, minimize transport costs and negative effects on environmental conditions, and to alleviate them to increase trans‐border mobility and traffic. Safety‐relevant RTTI should be accessed by drivers as end‐users without additional costs, as required by European Directives.

This chapter compiles important results recently published from different sources.
ITSecurity for Communicating Automotive Systems
Authors: Friederici Florian , Grote Rafael , Radusch Ilja
Published: April 2014

This chapter gives an overview on information technology security for automotive systems, with the emphasis on intelligent transportation systems (ITS). The common terms of security engineering are introduced and the methodologies for security design and analysis are described. A general consideration of system and communications security under different viewpoints is made. Additionally, tools and standards for secure communication are described. Finally, a discussion of threats and countermeasures forITSconcludes the chapter.
Driver Distraction
Authors: Bengler Klaus
Published: April 2014

The car driver can be supported in a remarkable way by additional information inside and outside the vehicle. Navigation, route guidance, and traffic message systems are only selected examples. In addition, comfort and infotainment systems increase the car's functionality. This must not lead to increased driver distraction but should make driving easier, more efficient, and safer. According to this, guidelines and standards were published that address the development of ergonomically optimized in‐vehicle human–machine interaction (HMI) and the assessment of driver distraction using digital human models or experimental procedures. A stringent application of this knowledge and methodology will help to avoid negative side effects while introducing additional information and functionality to a complex environment.
ChassisECU(Vehicle Dynamics,ABS)
Authors: Abe Yasuhiro , Kato Toshihisa , Takemoto Shinya , Okano Takahiro
Published: April 2014

Vehicles are equipped with brake control systems such as antilock brake system (ABS), traction control system (TCS), and electronic stability control (ESC) in an effort to improve active safety. A brake control system is composed of various sensors, an electronic control unit (ECU), and an actuator. This chapter will describe the various components of the brake system and how they affect theABS,TCS,ESCsystem, and regenerative braking.
Series–Parallel Hybrid Electric Vehicles
Authors: Van Mierlo Joeri , Hegazy Omar , Smekens Jelle , De Cauwer Cedric
Published: April 2014

The state of the art of the series–parallel hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) is presented. In this chapter, a comprehensive review on their powertrains and power management strategy is provided. Moreover, this chapter presents the different transmission systems (such as torque coupling and speed coupling). These transmission systems can be classified into continuous variable transmissions (CVTs) and electric variable transmissions (EVTs). The different operating modes are described in detail. In addition, the benefits and the drawbacks of the series–parallelHEVsare presented.
Telecommunications
Authors: Kuraoka Hiroaki
Published: April 2014

There are three main categories of wireless communication used in vehicles. The first category is communication for inside the vehicle. The second category is short‐range wireless communication with targets outside the vehicle, which is used for electronic toll collection (
ETC
) and the like. The third is broadband wireless communication, such as the one used for mobile telephone networks. Each of these categories uses dedicated communication technologies, and the frequencies and communication protocols adopted also differ depending on the conditions in the destination country and the strategy of the communication provider. However, the services realized by communication are similar throughout the world. This chapter describes some examples of the automotive services that use wireless communication.
Junction Blocks Simplify and Decrease Networks When Matched to
ECU
and Wire Harness
Authors: Sugimura Takezo , Sugimoto Kaoru , Tsuyuki Mamichi
Published: April 2014

In recent years, the electronic control system has become more intelligent and advanced to make cars safer, more comfortable, and environmentally friendly. This chapter describes the transition of automotive electronics and then describes the increase in the use of
ECUs
, the history of wire harnesses, and networks between
ECUs
. It describes the transition in the number of
ECUs
and the related problems of the increased use of wire harnesses. Next, a prediction of their future is explored. In addition,
LAN
history is described and the standardization of in‐vehicle
LANs
,
LAN
structure, and the next generation of standard
LAN
.
Adaptive Restraint Systems: Toward Integral Safety
Authors: Kompass Klaus , Gruber Christian , Domsch Christian , Schweigert Manfred , Kates Ronald
Published: April 2014

Vehicle safety has already achieved a very high level of performance. The risk of serious injury or mortality in traffic accidents has been steadily decreasing in recent years despite increasing exposure (mileage driven), primarily because of the development of passive safety systems. On the other hand, it is evident that further development of passive safety is reaching a point of diminishing returns, although some weak points still can be identified based on our comprehensive knowledge of passive safety development. However, classical methods may not suffice to further improve passive safety. This chapter describes the potential and the limits of adaptive safety systems for preconditioning the vehicle and the occupants before an accident. In the following, the achievable protective performance is illustrated using several examples; methods for reliable and comprehensive assessment of the protective sequence of integral safety systems under laboratory conditions are elucidated.
A Longitudinal Examination of Overgeneral Memory and Psychopathology in Children Following Recent Trauma Exposure
Authors: Hitchcock Caitlin , Nixon Reginald David Vandervord , Weber Nathan
Published: April 2014

This study represents the first longitudinal examination of the trajectory of overgeneral memory (OGM) in children and how this relates to psychopathology immediately after trauma exposure. We recruited fifty 7‐ to 17‐year‐olds who had experienced an accidental injury that resulted in hospital admission. Assessment of psychological symptoms, OGM and cognitive processes proposed to drive OGM was completed at three points over a 6‐month period post‐trauma. We found that OGM was not related to depressive symptoms and that time since trauma exposure moderated the relationship between post‐traumatic stress disorder symptoms and OGM. Although no relationship was found in the first 3 months following trauma, OGM was protective against post‐traumatic stress disorder symptoms at 6 months post‐trauma. Despite models of OGM (e.g. Williams et al., ) emphasising the role of rumination and executive control in explaining OGM, we found no evidence that they were related to OGM. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Association of Knee Injuries With Accelerated Knee Osteoarthritis Progression: Data From the Osteoarthritis Initiative
Authors: Driban Jeffrey B. , Eaton Charles B. , Lo Grace H. , Ward Robert J. , Lu Bing , McAlindon Timothy E.
Published: April 2014

Objective

We aimed to evaluate whether a recent knee injury was associated with accelerated knee osteoarthritis (OA) progression.

Methods

In the Osteoarthritis Initiative, we studied participants free of knee OA on their baseline radiographs (Kellgren/Lawrence [K/L] <2). We compared 3 groups as follows: 1) individuals with accelerated progression of knee OA: defined as having at least 1 knee that progressed to end‐stage knee OA (K/L grade 3 or 4) within 48 months, 2) common knee OA progression: at least 1 knee increased in radiographic scoring within 48 months (excluding those defined as accelerated knee OA), and 3) no knee OA: no change in K/L grade in either knee. At baseline, participants were asked if their knees had ever been injured, and at each annual visit they were asked about injuries during the prior 12 months. We used multinomial logistic regressions to determine whether a new knee injury was associated with the outcome of accelerated knee OA or common knee OA progression, after adjusting for age, sex, body mass index, static knee malalignment, and systolic blood pressure.

Results

A knee injury during the total observation period was associated with accelerated knee OA progression (n = 54; odds ratio [OR] 3.14) but not common knee OA progression (n = 187; OR 1.08). Furthermore, a more recent knee injury (within a year of the outcome) was associated with accelerated (OR 8.46) and common knee OA progression (OR 3.12).

Conclusion

Recent knee injuries are associated with accelerated knee OA. Most concerning is that certain injuries may be associated with a rapid cascade toward joint failure in less than 1 year.
Trends in Prescription of Opioids From 2003–2009 in Persons With Knee Osteoarthritis
Authors: Wright Elizabeth A. , Katz Jeffrey N. , Abrams Stanley , Solomon Daniel H. , Losina Elena
Published: April 2014

Objective

Osteoarthritis (OA) of the knee is a painful condition affecting ∼13% of persons ages >65 years. We sought to examine whether the use of opioids in older persons with OA has increased over the past decade and what patient characteristics may correlate with their use.

Methods

We assembled national cohorts of individuals with knee OA using data from the 2003, 2006, and 2009 waves of the Medicare Current Beneficiary Survey. The survey data contained information on demographics, health status, and prescribed medications linked to Medicare claims. We used multivariate logistic regression to establish whether opioid use changed over time and to identify factors associated with greater opioid use. The outcome was defined as receiving ≥1 opioid prescription in the study year.

Results

The mean age and sex were similar across years (77 years and 69% women, respectively). There was a significant increase in opioid prescribing between 2003 and 2009, with 31% of patients receiving opioids in 2003, 39% in 2006, and 40% in 2009 (odds ratio [OR] 1.5, 95% confidence interval [95% CI] 1.1–2.0 for 2006 and 2009 compared with 2003). Independent correlates of opioid use across time periods included female sex (OR 1.5, 95% CI 1.2–2.0), functional limitation (OR 2.1, 95% CI 1.6–2.7), poor self‐reported health status (OR 1.6, 95% CI 1.2–2.0), chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (OR 1.4, 95% CI 1.0–1.8), and musculoskeletal disease besides OA (OR 1.9, 95% CI 1.2–2.8).

Conclusion

As the prevalence and incidence of knee OA continues to increase, the public health impact of greater opioid use should be monitored carefully.