bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Torture and truth in late antique martyrology
Authors: Grig Lucy
Published: January 2004

This article looks at descriptions of torture in hagiographical texts, analysing the significance of representations of violence and suffering in late antique Christian discourse. Seemingly redundant descriptions of torture in texts such as Prudentius's Peristephanon can be contextualized within a broader late antique concern with violence and pain. These descriptions should also be seen as playing a central role in constructing the power of the martyr, and that of his or her church. Close readings of several martyr acts show how the torture process (the quaestio) was rewritten to suit the needs of a new era: that of the Church Triumphant.
When documents are destroyed or lost: lay people and archives in the early Middle Ages
Authors: Brown Warren
Published: January 2004

In this paper, I discuss some largely unexplored evidence about lay archives in early medieval Europe. This evidence consists of a set of formulae from late Roman, Merovingian, and Carolingian Gaul, and from Carolingian Bavaria. According to these formulae, lay men and women in these regions from the sixth to the ninth centuries kept documents in private archivesbecause they regarded documents as vital to the security of their property holdings. The manuscripts in which the formulae survive indicate that lay people continued to keep archives throughout the ninth century and into the tenth. They also suggest, however, that by the end of the eighth century traditions about how lay people used and stored documents were being preserved and maintained to a large degree by churches and monasteries.
Review article: The dangers of polemic: Is ritual still an interesting topic of historical study?
Authors: Koziol Geoffrey
Published: January 2004

Philippe Buc, The Dangers of Ritual: Between Early Medieval Texts and Social Scientific Theory.

Gerd Althoff, Spielregeln der Politik im Mittelalter: Kommunikation in Frieden und Fehde.

Frans Theuws and Janet L. Nelson (eds). Rituals of Power from Late Antiquity to the Early Middle Ages.

Joëlle Rollo‐Koster (ed), Medieval and Early Modern Rituals: Formalized Behavior in Europe, China and Japan.
Review article: Playing by the rules: Conflict management in tenth and eleventh‐century Germany
Authors: Barrow Julia
Published: January 2004

Gerd Althoff, Spielregeln der Politik im Mittelalter: Kommunikation in Frieden und Fehde.
Cognitive factors in student nurses’ clinical problem solving
Authors: Cholowski Krystyna M. , Chan Lorna K. S.
Published: January 2004

Rationale, aims and objectives  The assumption that the acquisition and mastery of the nursing process alone is sufficient to explain problem‐solving performance has been challenged in recent literature. Researchers have argued that the quality of prior knowledge is a key component in explaining performance. In addition, motivational orientation and the quality of reasoning have been found to have different effects on performance in cognitive tasks. The aim of this study is to explore student nurses’ clinical problem solving based on a model consisting of their motivational orientation, prior knowledge, diagnostic reasoning and diagnostic solutions.

Methods  One hundred and thirty‐five second‐year nursing students completed the Study Process Questionnaire and the Causal Attribution Questionnaire prior to receiving five lectures on mental illness. A knowledge test and a clinical problem‐solving task provided measures of prior knowledge, quality of diagnostic reasoning, and the quality and comprehensiveness of nursing diagnosis. A correlational design using pairwise correlations, hierarchical regression and path analysis examined the relationships among these data.

Results and conclusions  The results indicated an important role for a belief in personal control, for the accessibility and structuring of prior knowledge, and the quality of diagnostic reasoning, in generating high quality and comprehensive nursing diagnoses. The findings suggest that all contributing components of clinical problem solving need to be addressed in nursing education.
Electronic Clinical Communications Implementation (ECCI) in Scotland: a mixed‐methods programme evaluation
Authors: Pagliari Claudia , Gilmour Mhairi , Sullivan Frank
Published: January 2004

Aims  The Electronic Clinical Communications Implementation programme aims to facilitate implementation of electronic systems for primary‐secondary care communication, focusing on laboratory results reporting, outpatient appointment booking, referral, discharge and clinic correspondence, and clinical e‐mail. This independent programme evaluation explored the processes and outcomes of implementation, barriers and facilitators to system adoption, and benefits and drawbacks for professional users. 

Methods  The mixed methods approach incorporated document review, surveys, stakeholder interviews, consensus exercises, and monthly recording of quantitative process and outcome  variables.

Results  Qualitative and survey work highlighted wide variation in the technologies and implementation approaches adopted. A consensus process was used to instigate a national minimum dataset. To date, implementation of laboratory results reporting has demonstrated the greatest success and electronic outpatient booking the least. A mixed‐format survey of users in clinical practice revealed a more detailed picture of behaviour and attitudes demonstrating that where systems are available and accepted they are utilized, while product usability, process complexity and user‐engagement methods  influence uptake.

Conclusions  The evaluation has demonstrated the difficulties faced when attempting to implement a multifaceted technological and behavioural change intervention on a national scale, but has also revealed unexpected benefits, including general improvements in Information Management & Technology capability across the Scottish health service.
Analysis of networks based on styrene and divinylbenzene containing iron anchored using variable pressure scanning electron microscopy
Authors: De Santa Maria L. C. , Leite M. C. A. M. , Costa M. A. S. , Ribeiro J. M. S. , Senna L. F. , Silva M. R.
Published: January 2004

There is great demand for the development of composite materials containing small metal or metal oxides particles, owing to their variable properties and wide application. However, microscopic evaluation of these materials using high‐vacuum scanning electron microscopy is difficult because the samples must undergo a series of preparation steps to reach a high image quality and to avoid becoming shrunk inside the microscope vacuum chamber. Thus, in this study, we used variable pressure scanning electron microscopy to evaluate the morphology and iron distribution on the surface of magnetic microspheres based on poly(styrene‐co‐divinylbenzene). These materials were obtained by suspension copolymerization of styrene and divinylbenzene in the presence of fine iron particles. Energy‐dispersive X‐rays were also used to analyse distribution of the iron particles. The results indicate that, under the conditions used, magnetic microspheres with a relatively narrow size distribution were formed. Moreover, the micrographs show that agglomerated iron particles appeared only on the microsphere surface.
Near‐field optical microscope observation of dye‐containing nano‐domains
Authors: Yamamoto N. , Mizokuro T. , Mochizuki H. , Horiuchi S. , Hayakawa T. , Hiraga T.
Published: January 2004

A novel method for forming dye‐containing nano‐domains in thin films using a polymer alloy system has been developed. The polymer alloy system (PS‐b‐PMMA), which consists of polystyrene (PS) and polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA), forms microphase separation in thin films. The film was treated using a previously reported technique under vacuum conditions, and an organic dye was selectively dispersed into the PS. Selective association of the dye (diarylethene; cis‐1, 2‐dicyano‐1, 2‐bis (2,4,5‐trimethyl‐3‐thienyl) ethene) with the PS nano‐domains was then observed, with both transmission electron microscopy and scanning near‐field optical microscopy with an absorption spectrum.
A new structure for enhanced transmission through a two‐dimensional metallic grating
Authors: Van Labeke D. , Baida F. I. , Vigoureux J.‐M.
Published: January 2004

The spectral response of metallic two‐dimensional periodic structures in which circular apertures are engraved has been extensively studied. We show that in such devices transmission can be highly enhanced by partially shutting the central parts of each aperture in order to make a periodic array of subwavelength coaxial structures.
Waveguiding through a two‐dimensional metallic photonic crystal
Authors: Baida F. I. , Van Labeke D. , Pagani Y. , Guizal B. , Al Naboulsi M.
Published: January 2004

We present a two‐dimensional (2D) finite‐difference time domain simulation of the propagation of light through linear and bent channels in metallic photonic crystals. We took as a starting point the Bozhevolnyi experiment, consisting of the scattering of surface plasmons by a 2D structure of finitely sized periodic gold dots arranged in a triangular lattice of 400‐nm period. We model injection and propagation of light through linear channels of different widths. We also study the behaviour of light in the presence of a 90° bent line defect made in the structure. We show that the confinement depends on the orientation of the input and output line defects. The two cases of ΓM and ΓK orientations are considered and a spectral study for five different wavelengths is carried out.
Quantification and visualization of anisotropy in trabecular bone
Authors: Ketcham R. A. , Ryan T. M.
Published: January 2004

A number of methods for measuring anisotropy in trabecular bone using high‐resolution X‐ray computed tomography exist, which give different answers but have not been compared in detail. In this study, we examine the mean‐intercept length (MIL), star volume distribution (SVD) and star length distribution (SLD) methods, their algorithmic implementation for three‐dimensional (3D) data, and how their results relate to each other. A uniform ordered sampling scheme for determining which orientations to sample during analysis enhances the reproducibility of anisotropy and principal component direction determinations, with no evident introduction of biasing. This scheme also facilitates the creation of a 3D rose diagram that can be used to gain additional insights from the data. The directed secant algorithm that is frequently used for traversing pixel and voxel grids for these calculations is prone to bias unless a previously unreported normalization is used. This normalization ameliorates the bias present when using cubic voxels, and also permits calculations on data sets in which the slice spacing is not equal to the pixel spacing. Overall, the three methods for quantification of anisotropy give broadly similar results, but there are systematic divergences that can be traced to their differences in data and processing, and which may impact on their relative utility in estimating mechanical properties. Although discussed in the context of computed tomography of trabecular bone, the methods described here may be applied to any 3D data set from which fabric information is desired.
Confocal laser scanning microscopy – an attractive tool for studying the uptake of xenobiotics into plant foliage
Authors: Liu Z.
Published: January 2004

The application of confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) to the study of xenobiotic uptake into plant foliage is explored in this paper. Three fluorescent dyes of low molecular weight and contrasting polarities (hydrophilic, moderately lipophilic and lipophilic) were selected to represent foliage‐applied pesticides. These model compounds were applied as droplets to the surfaces of various leaves and/or fruits according to the particular experiment. The transcuticular diffusion behaviour, the compartmentation into epidermal cells and the influence of a surfactant on the uptake of these fluorescent compounds were visualized by CLSM. Distinct differences in diffusion speed across the cuticle and distribution in cell compartments were found between different fluorescent compounds. The presence of a surfactant significantly accelerated the uptake of the moderately lipophilic dye into both thin‐ and thick‐cuticled leaves. The results are discussed in relation to the current knowledge on pesticide uptake and translocation. The advantages and limitations of this technique are highlighted.
Correlation‐based methods of automatic particle detection in electron microscopy images with smoothing by anisotropic diffusion
Authors: Nicholson W. V. , Malladi R.
Published: January 2004

Two methods of correlation‐based automatic particle detection in electron microscopy images are compared – computing a cross‐correlation function or a local correlation coefficient vs. azimuthally averaged reference projections (either from a model or from experimental particle images). The ability of smoothing images by anisotropic diffusion to improve the performance of particle detection is also considered. Anisotropic diffusion is an effective method of preprocessing that enhances the edges and overall shape of particles while reducing noise. It is found that anisotropic diffusion improves particle detection by a local correlation coefficient when projections from a high‐resolution reconstruction are used as references. When references from experimental particle images are used, a cross‐correlation function shows a more marked improvement in particle detection in images smoothed by anisotropic diffusion.
Magnetosomal matrix: ultrafine structure may template biomineralization of magnetosomes
Authors: Taylor A. P. , Barry J. C.
Published: January 2004

The organic matrix surrounding bullet‐shaped, cubo‐octahedral, D‐shaped, irregular arrowhead‐shaped, and truncated hexa‐octahedral magnetosomes was analysed in a variety of uncultured magnetotactic bacteria. The matrix was examined using low‐ (80 kV) and intermediate‐ (400 kV) voltage TEM. It encapsulated magnetosomes in dehydrated cells, ultraviolet‐B‐irradiated dehydrated cells and stained resin‐embedded fixed cells, so the apparent structure of the matrix does not appear to be an artefact of specimen preparation. High‐resolution images revealed lattice fringes in the matrix surrounding magnetite and greigite magnetosomes that were aligned with lattice fringes in the encapsulated magnetosomes. In all except one case, the lattice fringes had widths equal to or twice the width of the corresponding lattice fringes in the magnetosomes. The lattice fringes in the matrix were aligned with the {311}, {220}, {331}, {111} and {391} related lattice planes of magnetite and the {222} lattice plane of greigite. An unidentified material, possibly an iron hydroxide, was detected in two immature magnetosomes containing magnetite. The unidentified phase had a structure similar to that of the matrix as it contained {311}, {220} and {111} lattice fringes, which indicates that the matrix acts as a template for the spatially controlled biomineralization of the unidentified phase, which itself transforms into magnetite. The unidentified phase was thus called pre‐magnetite. The presence of the magnetosomal matrix explains all of the five properties of the biosignature of the magnetosomal chain proposed previously by Friedmann et al. and supports their claim that some of the magnetite particles in the carbonate globules in the Martian meteorite ALH84001 are biogenic. Two new morphologies of magnetite magnetosomes are also reported here (i.e. tooth‐shaped and hexa‐octahedral magnetosomes). Tooth‐shaped magnetite magnetosomes elongated in the [110] direction are reported, and are distinct from arrowhead‐shaped and bullet‐shaped magnetosomes. Elongation of magnetite magnetosomes in the [110] direction has not been reported previously. A Martian hexa‐octahedral magnetite particle was previously characterized by Thomas‐Keptra et al. and compared with truncated hexa‐octahedral magnetite magnetosomes. Hexa‐octahedral magnetite magnetosomes with the same morphology and similar sizes and axial ratios as those reported by Thomas‐Keptra et al. are characterized here. These observations support their claim that ALH84001 contains evidence for a past Martian biota.
Progress in near‐field photothermal infra‐red microspectroscopy
Authors: Hammiche A. , Bozec L. , Pollock H. M. , German M. , Reading M.
Published: January 2004

Near‐field photothermal Fourier transform infra‐red microspectroscopy, which utilizes atomic force microscopy (AFM)‐type temperature sensors, is being developed with the aim of achieving a spatial resolution higher than the diffraction limit. Here we report on a new implementation of the technique. Sensitivity of the technique is assessed by recording infra‐red spectra from small quantities of analytes and thin films. A photothermomechanical approach, which utilizes conventional AFM probes as temperature sensors, is also discussed based on preliminary results. Early indication suggests that the photothermal approach is more sensitive than the thermomechanical one.
The influence of modified cavity design and finishing techniques on the clinical performance of amalgam restorations: a 2‐year clinical study
Authors: Stratis S. , Bryant R. W.
Published: January 2004

Use of modified cavo‐surface angles (CSAs) and finishing techniques for amalgam restorations may influence the long term marginal fracture around these restorations. One operator placed 111 Tytin amalgam restorations in Class I and II preparations in the permanent teeth of 37 patients, each of whom received three restorations. One of these restorations was placed in a cavity prepared with a ‘traditional’ CSA and was finished more than 24 h after placement. Prepared cavities for the remaining two restorations for each patient were ‘modified’ with the aim of producing an occlusal CSA of 90–110°. One restoration was carved‐only and the other was finished more than 24 h after placement. Clinical evaluation of the restorations was carried out at baseline, 1 year and 2 years. At these times, the restorations were photographed and stone replicas were obtained from impressions taken at the cavity preparation stage to determine the cavo‐surface angles. Careful application of the modified cavity design provided a mean cavo‐surface angle of 109° whereas a ‘traditional’ cavity design provided a mean cavo‐surface angle of 126°. Using the Mahler photographic method of evaluation, a combination of modification of the occlusal cavo‐surface angle and finishing of the restoration was found to have an influence on the marginal fracture at 2 years. The clinical significance of these findings, with respect to the modified cavity design, is discussed.
The effect of prosthesis disinfection on salivary microbial levels
Authors: Mähönen K. , Virtanen K. , Larmas M.
Published: January 2004

The aim of this study was to evaluate how the soaking of dentures in a disinfection solution affects salivary microbe counts and stomatitis of partially dentate patients. Patients soaked their dentures for 4 weeks randomly both in a disinfection solution and in a placebo solution. Mutans streptococci, lactobacilli and yeast counts were measured before and after each test period and also the flow rate, buffer capacity and pH of saliva were registered. Disinfection decreased all microbe levels investigated, but only lactobacilli counts decreased significantly. Placebo treatment had either no effect on salivary microbe counts or they increased slightly. Disinfection caused some reduction of the mucosal inflamation under the denture base, but could not completely remove stomatitis during the 4‐week test period.
Characteristics of protrusive and lateral excursions of the mandible in children with the primary dentition
Authors: Hayasaki H. , Yamasaki Y. , Nishijima N. , Naruse K. , Nakata M.
Published: January 2004

This study characterizes the mandibular protrusive and lateral excursions of children with primary dentition. With use of a Selspot® system, the protrusive and lateral excursions of nine children with the primary dentition and nine adults with the permanent dentition were measured and compared. This system was able to analyse the simultaneous movements of multiple points on the mandible of a subject in three dimensions. Furthermore, the system proved appropriate for use in young children because of the small burden imposed on them during the measurements. Using this subject‐friendly system, the directions of the mandibular excursion for five reference points on the mandibular dental arch at each measurement distance (i.e. at 0.5 mm intervals) for three projected angles (frontal, sagittal and horizontal) were calculated. From the results it was found that the excursions of the primary dentition can move more horizontally and more forward with small descent compared with the permanent dentition. The underlying reason for these findings may be physiological growth, maturation, and adaptation of the occlusal function.
The effect of noble metals on the mechanical properties of dispersed phase dental amalgam
Authors: Mante F. K. , Chern‐Lin J. ‐H. , Mante M. O. , Greener E. H.
Published: January 2004

The effects of noble metals added as part of a Ag‐Cu dispersant on the compressive strength and creep of dental amalgams was determined. The Ag‐Cu eutectic used in high copper dispersant alloy L(0), was altered by adding 15 per cent by weight (wt%) of noble metal in place of Ag. In L(1) the noble metal was Pd. In L(2), Au and Pd were combined in equal proportions. In L(3), the noble metal content was Pd and Pt in equal proportions. A low copper lathe‐cut amalgam, Aristalloy® was used as the matrix. Amalgams S(0) and S(1) had the same composition as L(0) and L(1) except that the the low copper alloy matrix was Spheralloy®, a low copper spherical amalgam. The compressive strength and creep were measured according to American Dental Association specification No. 1 and the results analysed by
anova
. The addition of noble metals to the dispersant significantly lowered the 1‐h compressive strength of amalgams. Compared to the control amalgam L(0), the 24‐h compressive strength was increased for L(1) and L(2) but lowered for L(3). The ADA creep values were significantly lowered by addition of all combinations of noble metals. Reported microstructural changes such as an increase in unreacted particles, and a slowed setting reaction may account for the findings.
A comparative evaluation of mandibular finite element models with different lengths and elements for implant biomechanics
Authors: Teixeira E. R. , Sato Y. , Akagawa Y. , Shindoi N.
Published: January 2004

Further validity of finite element analysis (FEA) in implant biomechanics requires an increase of modelled range and mesh refinement, and a consequent increase in element number and calculation time. To develop a new method that allows a decrease of the modelled range and element number (along with less calculation time and less computer memory), 10 FEA models of the mandible with different mesio‐distal lengths and elements were constructed based on three‐dimensional graphic data of the bone structure around an osseointegrated implant. Analysis of stress distribution followed by 100 N loading with the fixation of the most external planes of the models indicated that a minimal bone length of 4.2 mm of the mesial and distal sides was acceptable for FEA representation. Moreover, unification of elements located far away from the implant surface did not affect stress distribution. These results suggest that it may be possible to develop a replica FEA implant model of the mandible with less range and fewer elements without altering stress distribution.
Effect of resin monomer composition on toothbrush wear resistance
Authors: Kawai K. , Iwami Y. , Ebisu S.
Published: January 2004

The purpose of this study was to compare the toothbrush abrasion resistance of seven different experimental resins which were made by changing the composition of resin monomers. The experimental resins were made by mixing four kinds of dental resin monomers (Bis‐GMA, UDMA, TMPT and TEGDMA), camphorquinone (1 wt%), dimethylaminoethyl methacrylate (2 wt%) and 2,6‐di‐tert‐butyl‐p‐cresol (0·05 wt%). The resin specimens were stored in air for 2 weeks, and then put on a toothbrush abrasion testing machine. After 100 000 strokes, the wear loss of each specimen was determined by weight change during the wear test. TMPT‐TEGDMA resin showed the most wear resistance, while Bis‐GMA‐ and UDMA‐based resins showed increased wear resistance with an increased content of TEGDMA. Also, a inverse relationship between the microhardness number and the amount of wear of the respective resins was confirmed.
A multilevel analysis of factors affecting the longevity of fixed partial dentures, retainers and abutments
Authors: Söderfeldt B. , Palmqvist S.
Published: January 2004

There is a methodological problem in analysis of data belonging to different hierarchical levels, e.g. patient, arch, and tooth. A method for multilevel modelling (MLM) that resolves this problem is available. This method which is presented in this article, was used to reanalyse previously published long‐term treatment results concerning the longevity of fixed partial dentures, retainers and abutments. The main results were consistent, indicating that no great faults were committed when using the conventional logistic regression method. There were, however, differences when calculating the combined risks for various situations. The conventional method was found to over‐ and underestimate probabilities of survival in different cases, compared to the MLM method. Especially when the most negative factors were combined, the conventional method had a tendency to underestimate the risk. For example, if an abutment had the combination ‘endodontically treated’;‘FPD placed by ‘another dentist’’;‘distal abutment’; and ‘marginal bone loss > 50%’; the probability of the tooth remaining after 18–23 years was only 20% according to the MLM method but 35% according to the conventional method. It was concluded that MLM is the method of choice for many situations in dental research where data belonging to different levels are to be analysed.
Gender difference in jaw pain induced by clenching
Authors: Plesh O. , Curtis D. A. , Hall L. J. , Miller A.
Published: January 2004

Seven normal male and seven normal female volunteers performed three types of biting exercises: an intermittent contraction at maximum voluntary bite force (MVBF) to pain intolerance; a ramp intermittent contraction starting at 10% MVBF and increasing 10% every 10 s; and a sustained biting at 100% MVBF to pain intolerance. The following measurements were made on the first and second days before exercise: a pre‐ and post‐exertional overall jaw pain level; maximum pain‐free jaw opening; bilateral masseter pressure pain threshold (PPT) and intolerance (PPI). The results showed that only females presented an increased overall pain level on the second day and a significant decrease in pain‐free jaw opening, but no significant decrease of PPT and PPI. These results suggest that females respond differently than males to exertional jaw pain, by increasing their pain response 24 h later.
The Inevitability of Genetic Enhancement Technologies
Authors: Baylis Françoise , Robert Jason Scott
Published: January 2004

We outline a number of ethical objections to genetic technologies aimed at enhancing human capacities and traits. We then argue that, despite the persuasiveness of some of these objections, they are insufficient to stop the development and use of genetic enhancement technologies. We contend that the inevitability of the technologies results from a particular guiding worldview of humans as masters of the human evolutionary future, and conclude that recognising this worldview points to new directions for ethical thinking about genetic enhancement technologies.
Coding and Consent: Moral Challenges of the Database Project in Iceland
Authors: Árnason Vilhjálmur
Published: January 2004

A major moral problem in relation to the deCODE genetics database project in Iceland is that the heavy emphasis placed on technical security of healthcare information has precluded discussion about the issue of consent for participation in the database. On the other hand, critics who have emphasised the issue of consent have most often demanded that informed consent for participation in research be obtained. While I think that individual consent is of major significance, I argue that this demand for informed consent is neither suitable nor desirable in this case. I distinguish between three aspects of the database and show that different types of consent are appropriate for each. In particular, I describe the idea of a written authorisation based on general information about the database as an alternative to informed consent and presumed consent in database research.
Papyrus, paper and paper making: a view of Kew's Economic Botany Collections
Authors: Prendergast Hew D. V.
Published: January 2004

The first overview is presented of the paper contents of Kew's Economic Botany Collections (EBC). There are more than 350 specimens of paper representing nearly 50 plant families and more than a hundred genera. The dominant families numerically – and each for different reasons – are the Moraceae, Gramineae, Thymelaeaceae and Cyperaceae, examples from which are highlighted. Some emphasis is given to the historical context and geographical origin of papers, and to the people who collected or donated them. It is suggested that one focus of a future collecting strategy for the EBC should be the sorts of plant products, including papers, that are under threat due to losses of cultural diversity or biological diversity, or both.
Questioning the Neutrality of Procedural Law: Internet Regulation in Europe through the Lenses of Bourdieu's Notion of Symbolic Capital
Authors: Sideri Katerina
Published: January 2004

Abstract:  The main question addressed in this article concerns the role of law in regulating the Internet in Europe, while the focus is on the European Commission in the process. The thesis advanced is that Bourdieu's notion of capital may offer a view radically different to understanding regulatory law as objective and neutral, and to conceiving action as being initiated to achieve certain policy outcomes. Based on the assumption that power is at the heart of action, the argument is that the European Commission is predominantly engaged in struggles to remain a crucial locus of governance and maximise its power as a major think‐tank. To follow this intuition, this article questions the extent to which decentralised regulatory techniques have been effective in weakening mechanisms of control, as power may now be exercised in novel and less visible ways and thus be misrecognised. Unravelling the processes that disguise the effects of power will be done by virtue of three case studies: Architectural solutions introduced in software by the industry with the aim to combat illegal copying, domain names allocation by the Internet Corporation of Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN), and content regulation in the context of the Safer Internet Action Plan.
Compensation for Damage Caused by Defective Drugs: European Private Law between Safety Requirements and Free‐Market Values
Authors: Arbour Marie‐Eve
Published: January 2004

Abstract:  Within the European Union, the success of private law harmonisation is based upon the fragile balance between legal integration and protection of national traditions. In this respect, a transversal analysis of the obligation of safety established by the Directive 374/85/CEE shows that harmonisation sometimes prevails over the potential protections granted to the victims of a damage caused by defective products. On the one hand, this reduction arises from the balance between objective and subjective criteria used in evaluating the defect as defined in the harmonised text. On the other hand, it results from problems of coordination between national laws and EC law remedies. This latter difficulty is illustrated by the 25 April 2002 European Court of Justice decisions on the French experience. The paradigmatic example of the pharmaceutical sector is a clear illustration of these tensions, since it heightens free‐market values at the same time as seeking to ensure compensation for breach of health and safety of consumers.
Immediate Effect of Community Law in the New Member States: Is there a Place for a Consistent Doctrine?
Authors: Kaleda Saulius Lukas
Published: January 2004

Abstract:  Extension of the acquis to the new Member States raises a number of questions relating to the temporal reach of Community rules. This paper examines a general doctrine underlying the solutions. It presents a classic intertemporal doctrine, which has influenced early jurisprudence of the European Court of Justice. Then, it comments upon the cases brought before the Court in the context of the 1995 enlargement, the entry into force of the EEA Agreement and also the Europe Agreements. These cases evidence substantial differences in the attitudes taken by the national courts, the Advocates General and the Court. One reason for divergence is that the line of reasoning adopted by the Court carries several interpretative difficulties characteristic of the classic doctrine. Secondly, controversies arise in the instances where the Court takes a proactive attitude, which is difficult to reconcile with the traditional scheme. It is argued that greater attention to the structure underlying the reasoning would help to strengthen justification of the Court's solutions and enhance their predictability. This is the more important, as the forthcoming accessions are likely to bring new disputes relating to the effects of Community law in time.
1968 Brussels Convention and EU Council Regulation No 44/2001: Jurisdiction in Consumer Contracts Concluded Online
Authors: Vasiljeva Ksenija
Published: January 2004

Abstract:  This paper addresses the issues on jurisdiction over consumer contracts concluded online in the Member States of the European Union through analysis of the 1968 Brussels Convention on Jurisdiction and the Enforcement of Judgments in Civil and Commercial Matters, which has been transformed into the Regulation recently. The changes brought by the Regulation to the régime of jurisdiction over consumer contracts in the European Union include the concept of the company ‘directing its activities towards particular Member State or States’ as a ground for a consumer to sue such a company in the country of his domicile. Since the list of criteria that could define the activity as directed to the particular Member State does not exist so far, the future effect of the Regulation remains unclear.
Risk factors and occurrence of rash in HIV‐positive patients not receiving nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor: data from a randomized study evaluating use of protease inhibitors in nucleoside‐experienced patients with very low CD4 levels (<50 cells/mμL)
Authors: Floridia M , Bucciardini R , Fragola V , Galluzzo CM , Giannini G , Pirillo MF , Amici R , Andreotti M , Ricciardulli D , Tomino C , Vella S ,   (for the ISS‐IP1 study group, listed in Appendix)
Published: January 2004

Background

Most of the studies evaluating rash in HIV‐positive patients have focused on nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTI), particularly nevirapine, and little is known about the occurrence of rash and the risk factors for its development in patients receiving regimens not based on NNRTI.

Methods We evaluated all cases of rash observed during a 48‐week randomized multicentre trial in 1251 nucleoside‐experienced patients who started treatment with protease inhibitors (ritonavir or indinavir) at CD4 counts below 50 cells/μL. Incidence rates for rash were calculated according to gender, clinical status, age, use of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART), Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia (PCP) prophylaxis and use of individual antiretroviral drugs at enrolment. Differences between groups defined according to the above characteristics were tested for statistical significance using the log‐rank test in a Kaplan‐Meier survival analysis. All factors that gave results in the univariate analyses below the significance level of 0.05 were included in a multivariate analysis using a Cox regression model.

Results During a follow‐up period of 9690 person‐months, 66 patients (5.3%) developed rash (0.68 events/100 person‐months). In the univariate analyses, risk of rash did not differ with trial treatment (indinavir or ritonavir), clinical status, PCP prophylaxis, or age. During follow‐up, rash was observed in 7.5% of enrolled women and in 4.5% of enrolled men (P=0.03). Serious rash occurred in 4.5% of enrolled women and in 1.6% of enrolled men (P=0.003). Use of HAART (P<0.001) and inclusion of zidovudine and of zalcitabine in the prescribed regimen (P=0.02) appeared to be associated with a lower risk of rash. In the multivariate analysis, the variables that remained significantly predictive of rash were gender (risk for women compared to men: 1.65, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.00–2.72, P=0.048) and use of a non‐HAART regimen (risk for non‐HAART patients compared to HAART: 2.73, 95% CI: 1.49–5.02, P=0.001).

Conclusions In our study, about 5% of HIV‐positive patients who started treatment with protease inhibitors at very low CD4 counts developed rash, generally in the first few weeks after treatment. Risk was significantly higher in women and in patients who did not receive a HAART regimen. Our data indicate that women have a higher risk of rash than men, also with regimens that do not include NNRTI.
A prospective, controlled study assessing the effect of lopinavir on amprenavir concentrations boosted by ritonavir
Authors: Mauss S , Scholten S , Wolf E , Berger F , Schmutz G , Jaeger H , Kurowski M , Rockstroh JK ,   [for the Klinische Arbeitsgruppe AIDS Deutschland (KAAD), Germany]
Published: January 2004

In a controlled, prospective study, the efficacy of ritonavir 200 mg twice daily (bid) in inhibiting the decrease of amprenavir plasma concentrations caused by co‐administration of lopinavir was assessed. Twelve HIV‐seropositive patients were enrolled, and nine patients completed the 28‐day study. At day 14, plasma concentrations of amprenavir 600 mg bid and ritonavir 200 mg bid were determined over 12 h. At day 15, lopinavir 400 mg bid was added. At day 28, plasma concentrations of amprenavir, ritonavir and lopinavir were assessed. Co‐administration of lopinavir was found to decrease the amprenavir concentration, determined as the median area under the curve over 12 h (AUC12), by 25% (AUC12 24.9 μg/h/mL vs. 18.5 μg/h/mL; P<0.01), despite the presence of ritonavir 200 mg bid. Eight participants discontinued the study regimen during the first 6 weeks because of adverse gastrointestinal events. In conclusion, gastrointestinal tolerance of a regimen containing an increased dose of ritonavir 200 mg bid was low, while the regimen did not prevent a decrease of amprenavir and possibly lopinavir plasma concentrations.
Treatment of primary HIV‐1 infection with nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor‐based therapy is effective and well tolerated
Authors: Portsmouth S , Imami N , Pires A , Stebbing J , Hand J , Nelson M , Gotch F , Gazzard BG
Published: January 2004

Objectives
Highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) has been advocated for the management of primary HIV‐1 infection. We investigated the use of a nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NNRTI)‐based regimen in this setting.

Methods
Twenty‐one antiretroviral‐naïve individuals with early HIV‐1 disease were treated with a combination of efavirenz and Combivir (GlaxoSmithKline, Uxbridge, Middlesex, UK). They were evaluated for immune and lymphocyte function by standard immunological assays.

Results
The median time to an undetectable HIV‐1 viral load was 12 weeks (range 4–36 weeks). CD4 and CD16/56 counts increased during treatment and CD8 counts decreased minimally. The main side‐effects observed were transient sleep disturbances (five patients). In addition, we observed a decrease in lymphocyte activation as assessed by CD38 surface expression.

Conclusions
This study demonstrates that primary HIV‐1 infection can be treated with NNRTI‐based HAART.
Determinants of long‐term highly active antiretroviral treatment efficacy
Authors: Manegold C , Thomas S , Jablonowski H , Chiwakata CB , Alwazzeh M , Adams O , Dietrich M , Häussinger D
Published: January 2004

Objectives Predictors of the efficacy of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) have been investigated in several studies. To increase current knowledge, the study aimed to acquire comprehensive data over an extended observation time, to obtain information on possible performance differences among individual drugs, and to identify factors with influence on the initial response to a HAART regimen and the sustainability of the response.

Methods The data were obtained from a prospective, single University Medical School HIV cohort. Clinical, laboratory, and treatment parameters for 475 patients were collected over 4.5 years. HAART efficacy was determined by analysis of variance and multivariate survival analysis.

Results The overall initial complete response (CR) (<500 HIV‐1 RNA copies/mL) was 76.3%. Use of indinavir [odds ratio (OR)=2.747, P=0.0009] and the number of new nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs) (OR=1.862, P=0.0017) were positively associated with CR, while initial peripheral blood HIV RNA concentration (OR=0.383, P<0.0001), use of saquinavir hard gel capsules (OR=0.531, P=0.0302), the number of successive HAART regimens (OR=0.631, P<0.0001), and the number of previously used NRTIs (OR=0.728, P=0.0081) were negatively associated with CR. Sustainability of CR was positively correlated with use of indinavir [hazard ratio of relapse (HR)=0.255, P<0.0001] and haemoglobin levels (HR=0.873, P=0.0124), but negatively correlated with initial HIV RNA concentration (HR=1.273, P=0.0003) and the number of previously used NRTIs (HR=1.587, P<0.0001). A higher number of consecutive HAART regimens was associated with a markedly reduced CR, but with only a slightly higher risk of relapse.

Conclusions The initial response to HAART, as well as long‐term efficacy, depends strongly on a few fundamental parameters that can easily be assessed in a clinical setting. There is a need for effective suppression of HIV replication over decades, and these factors should be considered early in treatment planning to identify patients with an unfavourable profile of risk factors for treatment failure.
Oral candidiasis and seborrheic dermatitis in HIV‐infected patients on highly active antiretroviral therapy
Authors: Dunic I , Vesic S , Jevtovic DJ
Published: January 2004

Background

Mucocutaneous manifestations such as oral candidiasis (OC) and seborrheic dermatitis (SD) are very common HIV‐related opportunistic events and are usually initial markers of immunodeficiency.

Aim

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) in the regression of HIV‐associated OC and SD.

Methods

In a prospective study, 120 HIV‐infected patients with OC and SD were divided into two groups: HAART‐treated patients (group 1, n=76) and non‐HAART‐treated patients (group 2, n=44). Non‐HAART‐treated patients were given antimicrobial therapy. Study subjects were matched for sex, age, risk, and stage of HIV infection. The results were analysed by χ2 test and the Kaplan‐Meier method.

Results

At baseline, OC was evident in 59 (77.7%) of the HAART‐treated patients and in 34 (77.3%) of the non‐HAART‐treated patients, while SD was present in 19 (25.0%) of the HAART‐treated patients and in 17 (38.6%) of the non‐HAART‐treated patients. After a median follow‐up period of 22 months, regression of OC and SD occurred in 49 (83.1%) and 16 (84.2%) of the HAART‐treated patients, respectively. In the control group, regression of OC and SD occurred in only five (14.7%) and seven (41.2%) patients, respectively, during the same period.

Conclusions

HAART showed greater efficacy than standard antimicrobial therapy for the treatment of OC and SD in HIV‐infected patients.
Reformative self‐control and discounting of reward value by delay or effort1
Authors: Sugiwaka Hiroko , Okouchi Hiroto
Published: January 2004

Abstract:  The relation between reformative self‐control and discounting of reward value by delay or effort was examined. Thirty‐two Japanese undergraduates were selected based on their scores on a standardized pencil and paper test of self‐control, the Redressive–Reformative Self‐Control Scale (Sugiwaka, 1995). The subjects indicated their preference (i) between a hypothetical 100 000 yen reward available with various delays and a certain reward of variable amount available immediately; or (ii) between a hypothetical 100 000 yen reward available with various efforts and a certain reward of variable amount available without effort. The discounting of delayed reward value was described well by a hyperbolic function proposed by Mazur (1987). The slopes of the delayed discounting curves were steeper for subjects who scored low on the Reformative Self‐Control Scale, which is a measure of reformative self‐control and a subscale of the Redressive–Reformative Self‐Control Scale. The discounting by effort was also described well by the hyperbolic function. The slopes of the effortful discounting curves did not correlate to those of the delayed discounting curves. The slopes were not systematically different across the groups of subjects with different scores on the reformative self‐control scale.
Multidimensional scaling of fragrances: A comparison between the verbal and non‐verbal methods of classifying fragrances1
Authors: Higuchi Takahiro , Shoji Ken , Hatayama Toshiteru
Published: January 2004

Abstract:  Higuchi, Shoji, and Hatayama (2002) selected nine sense‐descriptive adjectives (e.g., sweet, clear) to describe the olfactory properties of fragrances. In order to clarify the ability of these adjectives to classify fragrances, the present study used a non‐verbal sorting of fragrances that has been widely accepted in previous studies as a method of classifying fragrance. Interfragrance similarities obtained from the non‐verbal sorting were then compared with those obtained from the adjective rating based on a two‐dimensional spatial configuration of fragrances created by a multidimensional scaling (MDS) analysis. The similarities of the two MDS configurations, obtained from the verbal and non‐verbal sorting, were estimated by the correlation of interfragrance distances on the spatial configuration. The correlation coefficient was 0.61, indicating that the ability of the sense‐descriptive adjectives to classify fragrances is nearly the same as that of the non‐verbal sorting.
Effects of syntactic information on semantic access of ambiguous verbs in spoken language comprehension: Evidence from a cross‐modal priming experiment1
Authors: Tsuzuki Takashi , Uchida Teruhisa , Yukihiro Ryoji , Hisano Masaki , Tsuzuki Kazuyo
Published: January 2004

Abstract:   The aim of this study was to examine how syntactic information affects the semantic processing of ambiguous verbs in spoken Japanese. The effect of a postpositional particle on semantic access of an ambiguous verb at the end of the sentence was demonstrated in two kinds of sentences, S‐ga‐V sentences (subject, subjective postpositional particle, and ambiguous verb) and O‐wo‐V sentences (object, objective postpositional particle, and ambiguous verb). A cross‐modal priming method was used in which a target noun was presented visually in Kanji (Chinese) characters either one syllable before the end or immediately after the end of the ambiguous verb. Weak multiple priming occurred in the one‐syllable‐before condition, followed by selective access in the immediately after condition, but this multiple access was partially constrained by the preceding postpositional particle. A brief occurrence of multiple access and rapid transition to selective access were detected. Furthermore, objective particles were found to have stronger constraints on multiple access than on subjective particles. A connectionist model using a constraint‐based lexical approach was consistent with the experimental results.