bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Assessment of the economic impact of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome on swine production in the United States
Authors: Neumann Eric J. , Kliebenstein James B. , Johnson Colin D. , Mabry John W. , Bush Eric J. , Seitzinger Ann H. , Green Alice L. , Zimmerman Jeffrey J.
Published: December 2005

Objective—To estimate the annual cost of infections
attributable to porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome
(PRRS) virus to US swine producers.

Design—Economic analysis.

Sample Population—Data on the health and productivity
of PRRS-affected and PRRS-unaffected breeding
herds and growing-pig populations were collected
from a convenience sample of swine farms in the
midwestern United States.

Procedure—Health and productivity variables of
PRRS-affected and PRRS-unaffected swine farms
were analyzed to estimate the impact of PRRS on
specific farms. National estimates of PRRS incidence
were then used to determine the annual economic
impact of PRRS on US swine producers.

Results—PRRS affected breeding herds and growing-pig
populations as measured by a decrease in reproductive
health, an increase in deaths, and reductions
in the rate and efficiency of growth. Total annual economic
impact of these effects on US swine producers
was estimated at $66.75 million in breeding herds and
$493.57 million in growing-pig populations.

Conclusions and Clinical Relevance—PRRS imposes
a substantial financial burden on US swine producers
and causes approximately $560.32 million in
losses each year. By comparison, prior to eradication,
annual losses attributable to classical swine fever
(hog cholera) and pseudorabies were estimated at
$364.09 million and $36.27 million, respectively
(adjusted on the basis of year 2004 dollars). Current
PRRS control strategies are not predictably successful;
thus, PRRS-associated losses will continue into
the future. Research to improve our understanding of
ecologic and epidemiologic characteristics of the
PRRS virus and technologic advances (vaccines and
diagnostic tests) to prevent clinical effects are warranted.
(J Am Vet Med Assoc 2005;227:385–392)
Survival times in dogs with severe subvalvular aortic stenosis treated with balloon valvuloplasty or atenolol
Authors: Meurs Kathryn M. , Lehmkuhl Linda B. , Bonagura John D.
Published: December 2005

Objective—To determine survival times in dogs with severe subvalvular aortic stenosis (SAS) treated by means of balloon valvuloplasty or with atenolol, a β-adrenoceptor blocking drug.

Design—Prospective study.

Animals—38 dogs < 24 months old with severe SAS (peak systolic pressure gradient ≥ 80 mm Hg).

Procedure—10 dogs underwent balloon valvuloplasty and were reexamined 6 weeks later to determine the feasibility of the procedure. The remaining 28 dogs were randomly assigned to undergo balloon valvuloplasty (n = 15) or to be treated with atenolol long term (13) and were reexamined annually for 9 years or until the time of death.

Results—For the first 10 dogs, mean pressure gradient 6 weeks after balloon valvuloplasty (mean ± SD, 119 ± 32.6 mm Hg) was significantly decreased, compared with mean baseline pressure gradient (167 ± 40.1 mm Hg). Median survival time for dogs that underwent balloon valvuloplasty (55 months) was not significantly different from median survival time for dogs treated with atenolol (56 months).

Conclusions and Clinical Relevance—Results suggest that balloon valvuloplasty can result in a significant decrease in the peak systolic pressure gradient in dogs with severe SAS, at least for the short term. No clear benefit in survival times was seen for dogs that underwent balloon valvuloplasty versus dogs that were treated with atenolol. (J Am Vet Med Assoc2005;227:420–424)
Signs of neurologic dysfunction in dogs with central versus peripheral vestibular disease
Authors: Troxel Mark T. , Drobatz Kenneth J. , Vite Charles H.
Published: December 2005

Objective—To determine the frequency of specific
signs of neurologic dysfunction in dogs with central
vestibular disease (CVD) or peripheral vestibular disease
(PVD) and whether the degree of head tilt, rate of
nystagmus, and number of beats of postrotatory nystagmus
can be used to help distinguish CVD from PVD.

Design—Prospective clinical study.

Animals—40 client-owned dogs with vestibular system
dysfunction.

Procedure—A standard neurologic examination was
performed, along with an expanded vestibular system
examination that assessed the degree of head tilt,
rate of nystagmus, and number of beats of postrotatory
nystagmus.

Results—Dogs with CVD were significantly more
likely to be nonambulatory than were dogs with
PVD. Dogs with PVD were significantly more likely
to veer or lean in 1 direction and to have resting nystagmus
than were dogs with CVD. Median rate of
resting nystagmus was significantly higher for dogs
with PVD, but no significant differences between
groups were detected in regard to presence or
degree of head tilt, presence of positional ventral
strabismus, and number of beats of postrotatory
nystagmus.

Conclusions and Clinical Relevance—Results
suggest that nonambulatory tetraparesis is significantly
more common in dogs with CVD and veering
and leaning are significantly more common in dogs
with PVD. Although neither the degree of head tilt
nor the number of beats of postrotatory nystagmus
could be used to distinguish CVD from PVD, rate of
resting nystagmus may be useful in distinguishing
the 2 conditions. (J Am Vet Med Assoc 2005;227:
570–574)
Assessment of infectious organisms associated with chronic rhinosinusitis in cats
Authors: Johnson Lynelle R. , Foley Janet E. , De Cock Hilde E. V. , Clarke Heather E. , Maggs David J.
Published: December 2005

Objective–To determine detection rates for feline herpesvirus type 1 (FHV-1),Mycoplasmaspp, fungi, and bacteria in flush samples and biopsy specimens from the nasal cavities of cats with and without chronic rhinosinusitis (CRS).

Design–Prospective study.

Animals–10 CRS-affected cats and 7 cats without signs of respiratory tract disease.

Procedures–Nasal flush samples and biopsy specimens were collected from all cats for bacterial (aerobic and anaerobic), fungal, and mycoplasmal cultures; additional biopsy specimens were collected for virus isolation and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay (to detect FHV-1 DNA).

Results–Aerobic bacteria were detected in flush samples from 5 of 7 control cats; culture of flush samples from CRS-affected cats yielded aerobic bacteria (9/10 cats), anaerobic bacteria (3/10), andMycoplasmaspp (2/10). No fungal organisms were isolated from any cat. Potential pathogens were isolated significantly more often from CRS-affected cats than from control cats. Bacterial culture of biopsy specimens yielded aerobic bacteria (2/7 control cats and 4/10 CRS-affected cats) and anaerobic bacteria (2/10 CRS-affected cats). Although FHV-1 was not detected in nasal biopsy specimens from control or CRS-affected cats, FHV-1 DNA was detected via PCR assay in specimens from 4 of 7 control cats and 3 of 10 CRS-affected cats.

Conclusions and Clinical Relevance–Compared with findings in control cats, anaerobic bacteria,Mycoplasmaspp, and a variety of potentially pathogenic organisms were detected more commonly in samples from cats with CRS. In both groups, FHV-1 was detected via PCR assay as a nonviable organism or in noncultivable amounts. (J Am Vet Med Assoc2005;227:579–585)
Use of hinged transarticular external fixation for adjunctive joint stabilization in dogs and cats: 14 cases (1999–2003)
Authors: Jaeger Gayle H. , Wosar Marc A. , Marcellin-Little Denis J. , Lascelles B. Duncan X.
Published: December 2005

Objectives—To describe placement of hinged transarticular external fixation (HTEF) frames and evaluate their ability to protect the primary repair of unstable joints while allowing joint mobility in dogs and cats.

Design—Retrospective study.

Animals—8 cats and 6 dogs.

Procedure—HTEF frames were composed of metal or epoxy connecting rods and a hinge. Measurements of range of motion of affected and contralateral joints and radiographs were made after fixator application and removal.

Results—9 animals (4 cats and 5 dogs) had tarsal and 5 (4 cats and 1 dog) had stifle joint injuries. Treatment duration ranged from 45 to 100 days (median, 57 days). Ranges of motion in affected stifle and tarsal joints were 57% and 72% of control while HTEF was in place and 79% and 84% of control after frame removal. Complications were encountered in 3 cats and 2 dogs and included breakage of pins and connecting rods, hinge loosening, and failure at the hinge-epoxy interface.

Conclusions and Clinical Relevance—HTEF in animals with traumatic joint instability provided adjunctive joint stabilization during healing and protection of the primary repair and maintained joint motion during healing, resulting in early weight bearing of the affected limb. (J Am Vet Med Assoc2005;227:586–591)
Effects of animal position and number of repeated measurements on selected two-dimensional and M-mode echocardiographic variables in healthy dogs
Authors: Chetboul Valerie , Tidholm Anna , Nicolle Audrey , Sampedrano Carolina Carlos , Gouni Vassiliki , Pouchelon Jean-Louis , Lefebvre Hervé P. , Concordet Didier
Published: December 2005

Objective—To evaluate the effects of positioning and number of repeated measurements on intra- and interobserver variability of echocardiographic measurements in dogs.

Design—Prospective study.

Animals—4 healthy dogs.

Procedure—Each observer performed 24 examinations, separately assessing each dog 6 nonconsecutive times (3 times with the dog in lateral recumbency and 3 with the dog in a standing position). Variables evaluated included M-mode measurements of left ventricular end-diastolic and left ventricular endsystolic diameters, left ventricular free-wall thickness in diastole and systole, interventricular septal thickness in diastole and systole, left ventricular shortening fraction, and 2-dimensional measurements of the left atrial diameter-to-aortic diameter ratio.

Results—All coefficients of variation (range, 3.4% to 26.6%) were similar between operators and positions and were < 15% for 27 of 32 values. For both operators, repeatability of the measurements was better for left ventricular end-systolic diameter, left ventricular free-wall thickness in diastole, left ventricular freewall thickness in systole, and the left atrial diameterto- aortic diameter in the standing position, and similar for both positions for shortening fraction and left ventricular end-diastolic diameter. No effect of cardiac cycle was observed.

Conclusions and Clinical Relevance—Within-day variability of conventional echocardiography performed with the dog in the standing position was at least as good as that obtained with the dog in lateral recumbency for most measured variables. Single measurements of each variable may be sufficient for trained observers examining dogs that do not have an arrhythmia. The standing position should be used, particularly for stressed or dyspneic dogs. (J Am Vet Med Assoc2005;227:743–747)
Evaluation of oral rabies vaccination programs for control of rabies epizootics in coyotes and gray foxes: 1995–2003
Authors: Sidwa Thomas J. , Wilson Pamela J. , Moore Guy M. , Oertli Ernest H. , Hicks Bradley N. , Rohde Rodney E. , Johnston David H.
Published: December 2005

Objective—To evaluate the effectiveness of intervention efforts to halt 2 wildlife rabies epizootics from 1995 through 2003, including 9 oral rabies vaccination campaigns for coyotes and 8 oral rabies vaccination campaigns for gray foxes.

Design—Retrospective study.

Animals—98 coyotes during prevaccination surveillance and 963 coyotes and 104 nontarget animals during postvaccination surveillance in south Texas, and 699 gray foxes and 561 nontarget animals during postvaccination surveillance in west-central Texas.

Procedures—A recombinant-virus oral rabies vaccine in edible baits was distributed by aircraft for consumption by coyotes and gray foxes. Bait acceptance was monitored by use of microscopic analysis of tetracycline biomarker in upper canine teeth and associated bone structures in animals collected for surveillance. Serologic responses were monitored by testing sera for rabies virus–neutralizing antibodies by use of the rapid fluorescent focus inhibition test. The incidence of rabies in the distribution area was recorded via active and passive surveillance activities; tracking of rabies virus variants in confirmed rabid animals was used to determine the number and type of rabies cases before and after distributions of the vaccine.

Results—The expansion of both epizootics was halted as a result of the vaccine bait program. The number of laboratory-confirmed rabid animals attributable to the domestic dog-coyote rabies virus variant in south Texas declined to 0, whereas the number of laboratory- confirmed rabid animals attributable to the Texas fox rabies virus variant in west-central Texas decreased.

Conclusions and Clinical Relevance—Data indicated that oral rabies vaccination resulted in protective immunity in a sufficient percentage of the target wildlife population to preclude propagation of the disease and provided an effective means of controlling rabies in these species. (J Am Vet Med Assoc2005;227:785–792)
Effect of postoperative analgesic protocol on limb function following onychectomy in cats
Authors: Romans Cory W. , Gordon Wanda J. , Robinson Duane A. , Evans Richard , Conzemius Michael G.
Published: December 2005

Objective—To evaluate the analgesic effects of topical administration of bupivacaine, IM administration of butorphanol, and transdermal administration of fentanyl in cats undergoing onychectomy.

Design—Prospective study.

Animals—27 healthy adult cats.

Procedure—Cats were randomly assigned to 1 of 3 treatment groups, and unilateral (left forefoot) onychectomy was performed. Gait analysis was performed before and 1, 2, 3, and 12 days after surgery. All forces were expressed as a percentage of the cat's body weight.

Results—On day 2, peak vertical force (PVF) was significantly decreased in cats treated with bupivacaine, compared with cats treated with butorphanol or fentanyl. The ratio of left forelimb PVF to PVF of the other 3 limbs was significantly lower on day 2 in cats treated with bupivacaine than in cats treated with fentanyl. No significant differences in vertical impulse (VI) were found between groups on any day. Values for PVF, VI, and the PVF ratio increased progressively following surgery. However, for all 3 groups, values were still significantly decreased, compared with baseline values, 12 days after surgery.

Conclusions and Clinical Relevance—Results suggest that limb function following onychectomy is significantly better in cats treated with fentanyl transdermally or butorphanol IM than in cats treated with bupivacaine topically. Regardless of the analgesic regimen, limb function was still significantly reduced 12 days after surgery, suggesting that long-term analgesic treatment should be considered for cats undergoing onychectomy. Irrigation of the surgical incisions with bupivacaine prior to wound closure cannot be recommended as the sole method for providing postoperative analgesia in cats undergoing onychectomy. (J Am Vet Med Assoc2005;227:89–93)
Duration, complications, stress, and pain of open ovariohysterectomy versus a simple method of laparoscopic-assisted ovariohysterectomy in dogs
Authors: Devitt Chad M. , Cox Ray E. , Hailey Jim J.
Published: December 2005

Objective—To describe a simple method of laparoscopic-assisted ovariohysterectomy (LAOHE) and compare duration of surgery, complications, measures of surgical stress, and postoperative pain with open ovariohysterectomy (OHE) in dogs.

Design—Randomized, prospective clinical trial.

Animals—20 healthy sexually intact female dogs weighing > 10 kg (22 lb).

Procedures—Dogs were randomly allocated to receive conventional OHE or LAOHE. Intraoperative complications, anesthetic complications, total anesthesia time, and total surgery time were recorded. Serum cortisol and glucose concentrations, temperature, heart rate, and respiratory rate were measured preoperatively and 1, 2, 4, 6, 12, and 24 hours postoperatively. Pain scores were assigned by a nonblinded observer at 1, 2, 4, 6, 12, and 24 hours postoperatively. Duration of surgery, pain scores, objective measures of surgical stress, anesthetic complications, and surgical complications were compared between OHE and LAOHE.

Results—Age, weight, PCV, and duration of surgery did not differ between treatment groups. Nine of 10 dogs in the OHE group required additional pain medication on the basis of pain scores, whereas none of the dogs in the LAOHE group did. Blood glucose concentrations were significantly increased from preoperative concentrations in the OHE group at 1, 2, 4, and 6 hours postoperatively and at 1 hour postoperatively in the LAOHE group. Cortisol concentrations were significantly increased at 1 and 2 hours postoperatively in the OHE group.

Conclusions and Clinical Relevance—LAOHE caused less pain and surgical stress than OHE and may be more appropriate for an outpatient setting. (J Am Vet Med Assoc2005;227:921–927)
Isolation of Staphylococcus schleiferi from healthy dogs and dogs with otitis, pyoderma, or both
Authors: May Elizabeth R. , Hnilica Keith A. , Frank Linda A. , Jones Rebekah D. , Bemis David A.
Published: December 2005

Objective—To determine the frequency of isolation and susceptibility patterns ofStaphylococcus schleiferifrom healthy dogs and dogs with otitis, pyoderma, or both that had or had not received antimicrobial treatment.

Design—Prospective study.

Animals—50 dogs.

Procedure—Dogs were allocated to 1 of 4 groups: healthy dogs (n = 13), dogs without otitis but with pyoderma (10), dogs with otitis but without pyoderma (11), and dogs with otitis and pyoderma (16). Bacteriologic culture of ear swab specimens was performed in all dogs. Bacteriologic culture of skin swab specimens was also performed in dogs with concurrent pyoderma. Isolates were identified asS schleiferisubspschleiferiorS schleiferisubspcoagulansonthe basis of growth and biochemical characteristics.

Results—S schleiferiwas not isolated from any dogs with pyoderma only.Staphylococcus schleiferisubspschleiferiwas isolated from the ears of 2 healthy dogs, and the skin and ears of 2 dogs and the skin of 1 dog with otitis and pyoderma.Staphylococcus schleiferisubspcoagulanswas isolated from the ears of 3 dogs with otitis only, and the ears of 6 dogs and the skin of 2 dogs with otitis and pyoderma. One of theS schleiferisubspschleiferiisolates from ears, 2 of theS schleiferisubsp coagulansisolates from ears, and 1 of theS schleiferisubspcoagulansisolates from the skin were resistant to methicillin. One methicillin-resistant isolate from the ears and 1 from the skin were also resistant to fluoroquinolones.

Conclusions and Clinical Relevance—S schleiferisubsp schleiferiwas detected in healthy dogs and dogs with otitis and pyoderma. Methicillin-resistant and -susceptibleS schleiferisubsp schleiferi andS schleiferisubsp coagulans were detected as the predominant organisms in dogs with otitis. (J Am Vet Med Assoc2005;227:928–931)
Outcome of accelerated radiotherapy alone or accelerated radiotherapy followed by exenteration of the nasal cavity in dogs with intranasal neoplasia: 53 cases (1990–2002)
Authors: Adams William M. , Bjorling Dale E. , McAnulty Jonathan F. , Green Eric M. , Forrest Lisa J. , Vail David M.
Published: December 2005

Objective—To compare long-term results of radiotherapy alone versus radiotherapy followed by exenteration of the nasal cavity in dogs with malignant intranasal neoplasia.

Design—Retrospective study.

Animals—53 dogs with malignant intranasal neoplasia.

Procedure—All dogs underwent radiotherapy consisting of administration of 10 fractions of 4.2 Gy each on consecutive weekdays. For dogs in the surgery group (n = 13), follow-up computed tomography was performed, and dogs were scheduled for surgery if persistent or recurrent tumor was seen.

Results—Perioperative complications for dogs that underwent surgery included hemorrhage requiring transfusion (2 dogs) and subcutaneous emphysema (8). Rhinitis and osteomyelitis-osteonecrosis occurred significantly more frequently in dogs in the radiotherapy and surgery group (9 and 4 dogs, respectively) than in dogs in the radiotherapy-only group (4 and 3 dogs, respectively). Two- and 3-year survival rates were 44% and 24%, respectively, for dogs in the radiotherapy group and 69% and 58%, respectively, for dogs in the surgery group. Overall median survival time for dogs in the radiotherapy and surgery group (47.7 months) was significantly longer than time for dogs in the radiotherapy-only group (19.7 months).

Conclusions and Clinical Relevance—Results suggest that exenteration of the nasal cavity significantly prolongs survival time in dogs with intranasal neoplasia that have undergone radiotherapy. Exenteration after radiotherapy may increase the risk of chronic complications. (J Am Vet Med Assoc2005;227:936–941)
Efficacy of Saccharomyces boulardii for treatment of horses with acute enterocolitis
Authors: Desrochers Anne M. , Dolente Brett A. , Roy Marie-France , Boston Raymond , Carlisle Sharon
Published: December 2005

Objective—To evaluate the viability ofSaccharomyces boulardiiafter PO administration in clinically normal horses and its efficacy as a treatment for horses with acute enterocolitis.

Design—Prospective study.

Animals—5 clinically normal horses and 14 horses with acute enterocolitis.

Procedure—Feces were collected from 5 clinically normal horses and submitted for microbial culture for 2 days prior to administration of a lyophilized form ofS boulardii(25 or 50 g, PO, q 12 h) for 10 days. Feces were collected for microbial culture 5 and 10 days after treament initiation and 10 days after treatment was discontinued. Fourteen horses with acute enterocolitis were randomly allocated to receive a placebo orS boulardii(25 g), PO, every 12 hours for 14 days.

Results—S boulardiiwas not detected in feces of clinically normal horses. After administration, yeast survived within the gastroinestinal tract but did not permanently colonize it. In horses with acute enterocolitis, the severity and duration of gastrointestinal tract disease during hospitalization were significantly decreased in horses receivingS boulardii, compared with horses receiving the placebo.

Conclusions and Clinical Relevance—Administration ofS boulardiimay help decrease the severity and duration of clinical signs in horses with acute enterocolitis. (J Am Vet Med Assoc2005;227:954–959)
Soar
Authors: Ritter Frank E
Published: December 2005

Soar is a unified theory of cognition, and a cognitive architecture, realized as a production system, a type of expert system. It is designed to model human behaviour on multiple levels.
Computability and Computational Complexity
Authors: Doyle Patrick
Published: December 2005

Processes that can be specified precisely can be formalized as algorithms. The theory of algorithm analysis determines important properties of these algorithms, such as the resources they consume, and the theory of computational complexity categorizes the problems these processes solve according to those properties, revealing the fundamental limitations of computation.
Real‐Valued Mathematical Tools for Cognitive Modeling
Authors: Oja Erkki
Published: December 2005

Many cognitive models use continuous mathematical formalisms like optimization in vector spaces by gradient descent, multivariate probability distributions, and data compression by coding.
Situated Cognition
Authors: O'Connor Kevin , Glenberg Arthur M
Published: December 2005

Theories of situated cognition maintain that intelligent human action has evolved within and is shaped by and adapted to the specific forms of activity within which it occurs, and that cognition must therefore be understood and studied as an aspect of embodied practical activity.
Reasoning under Uncertainty
Authors: Díez Francisco J , Druzdzel Marek J
Published: December 2005

Most artificial intelligence applications, especially expert systems, have to reason and make decisions based on uncertain data and uncertain models. For this reason, several methods have been proposed for reasoning with different kinds of uncertainty.
Production Systems and Rule‐Based Inference
Authors: Jones Gary , Ritter Frank E
Published: December 2005

Production systems are computer programs that reason using production rules. They have been used to create expert systems and models of human behavior.
Cognitive Processing through the Interaction of Many Agents
Authors: Jones Chris , Matarić Maja , Werger Barry
Published: December 2005

A collection of interacting autonomous entities, called ‘agents’, may be capable of creating complex cognitive processes and behaviors, which could not be achieved by a single agent, without the need for outside centralized coordination or control.
Connectionism
Authors: Feldman Jerome A , Shastri Lokendra
Published: December 2005

Science must eventually explain how the properties of the brain determine cognitive behavior. Connectionist approaches to cognitive science are based on the belief that our present understanding of neural and brain physiology should guide cognitive research.
Markov Decision Processes, Learning of
Authors: Murphy Kevin P
Published: December 2005

Markov models are probabilistic models of dynamical systems, which can be used to predict the future and the consequences of one's actions.
Skill Acquisition: Models
Authors: Johnson Todd R , Wang Hongbin , Zhang Jiajie
Published: December 2005

Skill acquisition is the process whereby a learner progresses from slow, deliberate, memory‐intensive, error‐prone performance on a task, to rapid, automatic, near‐error‐free performance. The process applies to activities ranging from simple perceptual–motor tasks, such as pushing a button whenever a light comes on or shifting gears in a car, to complex cognitive tasks, such as playing chess or diagnosing diseases.
Problem Solving
Authors: Lovett Marsha C
Published: December 2005

Problem solving is the analysis and transformation of information towards a specific goal. This goal may be more or less well‐defined; it may be directly attainable or require some insight; and the solution may rely on a large or small body of domain‐specific knowledge.
Concept Learning and Categorization: Models
Authors: Kruschke John K
Published: December 2005

Category learning involves generalizing from one learned case to another in appropriate ways. Models of category learning have been based on various representations, including exemplars, prototypes, rules, and hybrids thereof.
Neural Behavior: Mathematical Models
Authors: Ermentrout Bard
Published: December 2005

Neuronal networks are systems of counted equations meant to approximate the connectivity and function of biological neurons.
Expert Systems
Authors: Medsker Larry R , Schulte Theodor W
Published: December 2005

Expert systems are specialized computer programs that capture the knowledge of human experts. Problems are solved by retrieving knowledge and performing automated logical reasoning.
SHRDLU
Authors: Ward Nigel
Published: December 2005

SHRDLU was an integrated artificial intelligence system which could make plans and carry on simple conversations about a set of blocks on a table.
Semantic Networks
Authors: Sowa John F
Published: December 2005

A semantic network is a graphic notation for representing knowledge in patterns of interconnected nodes and arcs.
Vision, High‐Level
Authors: Cutzu Florin
Published: December 2005

The main functions of high‐level vision are the recognition and categorization of visual objects and navigation guidance.
Natural Language Processing, Statistical Approaches to
Authors: Manning Christopher D
Published: December 2005

Statistical approaches to natural language processing use large text corpora to allow rapid, robust, and accurate handling of the ambiguities in human languages.
Language Learning, Computational Models of
Authors: Gasser Michael
Published: December 2005

Computational models of language acquisition range from symbolic approaches based on linguistic theory and relying on built‐in (innate) constraints to statistical and connectionist approaches relying only on general‐purpose learning mechanisms.
Reasoning about Time
Authors: Terenziani Paolo
Published: December 2005

Reasoning about time is a fundamental task in many ‘intelligent’ activities. From the standpoint of artificial intelligence, it includes representing and making inferences about the dynamic phenomena of the world, change, persistence and temporal constraints between activities.
Classifier Systems
Authors: Booker Lashon B
Published: December 2005

A classifier system is a parallel, message‐passing, rule‐based system designed to learn and use internal models of complex environments. Classifier systems are useful to cognitive modelers because they build representations that have both connectionist and symbolic qualities.
Cognitive Development, Computational Models of
Authors: Mareschal Denis
Published: December 2005

Computational models of cognitive development are formal models of the information processing, and changes in information processing, that take place during cognitive development. They are generally implemented as running computer simulations. They are tools for exploring mechanisms of transition (development) from one level of competence to the next during the course of cognitive development.
Philosophy of Mind
Authors: Rey Georges
Published: December 2005

The philosophy of mind is concerned with general questions about the nature of mental phenomena, such as thoughts, feelings, perceptions, consciousness, and sensory experience. Philosophers generally ask these questions where it is not clear how an empirical investigation might settle them.
Dualism
Authors: Robb David
Published: December 2005

Dualism is the view that the mental and the physical are distinct and mutually irreducible.
Emergence
Authors: Stephan Achim
Published: December 2005

In ordinary language, to ‘emerge’ means to ‘appear’ or ‘come into view’; but the technical use of the term is associated with features such as novelty, irreducibility, and unpredictability. The basic idea of emergence is that as systems become increasingly complex during evolution, some of them may exhibit novel properties that are neither predictable nor explainable on the basis of the laws governing the behavior of the systems' parts. Thus, complex wholes can come to have properties that are not reducible to the properties and relations of their constituents.
Reduction
Authors: Richardson Robert C
Published: December 2005

Reduction is a relation between two theories, in which one captures or explains the other, usually with some gain in precision or scope. Reduction may involve theories at the same level of organization or at different levels of organization; and reduction may involve one theory explaining another theory or only its empirical domain. Empirical, historical, and methodological issues confront reductionism.
Multiple Realizability
Authors: Bickle John
Published: December 2005

Multiple realizability, the claim that a type of mental state is implemented in a variety of distinct types of physical states, is the central premise in the most influential criticism of mind‐to‐brain reductionist programs. But the validity of this argument is under increasing scrutiny, based both on examples from more mature branches of science and on specific developments in the cognitive and brain sciences.
Eliminativism
Authors: Ramsey William
Published: December 2005

Eliminativism is the radical thesis that the common‐sense conception of the mind is deeply mistaken and that certain mental states posited by it do not exist.
Folk Psychology
Authors: Nichols Shaun
Published: December 2005

Folk psychology is the body of information people have about the mind. It is often regarded as the basis for our capacity to attribute mental states and to predict and explain actions.
Intentional Stance
Authors: Ross Don
Published: December 2005

The intentional stance is an attitude to the place of mind and psychology in the world that allows a real scientific role for such concepts as beliefs and desires without forcing us to suppose that they have literal physical (or nonphysical) correlates in people's heads.
Externalism
Authors: Wilson Robert A
Published: December 2005

Externalism is the view in the philosophy of mind that an individual's social or physical environment is partly determinative or constitutive of that individual's mental states.
Mental Content, Causal Theories of
Authors: Wallis Charles
Published: December 2005

Theories of mental content seek to explain how mental states are about the world. Causal theories of mind propose to understand mental content in terms of the causal relationships between brain states and the world.
Mental Content, Teleological Theories of
Authors: Millikan Ruth Garrett
Published: December 2005

Teleological theories of mental content explain how emptiness and falseness can occur in thought. These defects are due to failure of the representation‐producing devices to do the jobs they were designed to do. Teleological theories always rest on prior theories of what the jobs of mental representations are and of what their producers are.
Mental Content, Nonconceptual
Authors: Bermúdez Jose Luis
Published: December 2005

It has long been thought that the ways in which a creature can represent the world are determined by its conceptual capacities. Advocates of nonconceptual content have challenged this by suggesting that some mental states can represent the world even though the bearer of those mental states does not possess the concepts required to specify their content.
Concepts, Philosophical Issues About
Authors: Prinz Jesse
Published: December 2005

Concepts are generally defined as representations that allow us to think about properties or categories. Philosophers have debated the nature of these representations and the cognitive functions that they serve.
Direct Reference
Authors: Braun David
Published: December 2005

The theory of direct reference says that the meaning of a proper name (such as ‘Mark Twain’) or indexical (such as ‘he’) is just its referent.
Consciousness, Philosophical Issues About
Authors: Block Ned
Published: December 2005

There are many problems of consciousness, but the most significant of them is: how is it possible to explain consciousness in terms of its neural basis?
Explanatory Gap
Authors: Levine Joseph
Published: December 2005

The explanatory gap concerns the problem of explaining the qualitative character of conscious experience by reference to underlying physical and computational processes.
Consciousness and Higher‐Order Thought
Authors: Rosenthal David M
Published: December 2005

The higher‐order‐thought hypothesis is a proposed explanation of what it is for a mental state to be a conscious state and hence of how conscious mental states differ from mental states that are not conscious.
Self, Philosophical Issues about
Authors: Gallagher Shaun
Published: December 2005

Multiple concepts of the self present a variety of philosophical problems, including questions about ontological and epistemological status, relations between self and consciousness, self‐consciousness, memory, and body. These issues are related to the question of determining the proper methodological approach to the self.
Symbol Systems
Authors: Anderson Michael L , Perlis Donald R
Published: December 2005

A symbol is a pattern (for example, of physical marks, or electromagnetic energy) that denotes, designates, or otherwise has meaning. The notion that intelligence requires the use and manipulation of symbols, and that humans are therefore symbol systems, has been very influential in artificial intelligence.
Perception, Philosophical Issues about
Authors: Clark Austen
Published: December 2005

Three major philosophical issues that have arisen from the scientific study of perceptual processes: the variations and limitations of representational systems, the localization of perceptual function in neural tissue, and the relations to verbal outputs of people introspecting.
Pain, Philosophical Issues about
Authors: Hardcastle Valerie Gray
Published: December 2005

There is no consistent philosophical view concerning the nature of pain, how to understand it, or what an understanding of pain might mean for philosophy of mind.
Blindsight
Authors: Kentridge Robert W
Published: December 2005

Patients with damage to primary visual cortex or its afferents report that they are blind in the area of the visual field corresponding to this damage. Blindsight refers to the ability demonstrated by some of these patients to perform a variety of visual tasks despite denying awareness of the stimuli to which they are responding – a dissociation between performance and consciousness.
Philosophy of Science
Authors: Mandik Pete , Bechtel William
Published: December 2005

Philosophy of science concerns the principles and processes of scientific explanation, including both processes of confirmation and of discovery.
Aesthetics
Authors: Levinson Jerrold
Published: December 2005

Aesthetics is that branch of philosophy devoted to conceptual and theoretical inquiry into art and aesthetic experience.
Hume,David
Authors: Biro John
Published: December 2005

In his ‘science of man’, Hume set out to construct a complete account of the workings of the human mind, in many ways anticipating the aims, questions, and even some of the answers, of modern cognitive science.
Inverted Spectrum
Authors: Nida‐Rümelin Martine
Published: December 2005

If person A sees as green what person B sees as red, and person A sees as red what person B sees as green, and if some other simple conditions are met, A is said to have an inverted spectrum with respect to B.
Self‐Consciousness
Authors: Bermúdez Jose Luis
Published: December 2005

Self‐consciousness is deeply implicated in many aspects of cognition. To be self‐conscious is to be aware of oneself through information that one cannot fail to recognize is about oneself.
Lexicon
Authors: Pustejovsky James
Published: December 2005

The lexicon of a grammar must provide a systematic and efficient way of encoding information about the words in a language.
Morphology
Authors: Anderson Stephen R
Published: December 2005

Morphology, in linguistics, is the study of the forms of words, and the ways in which words are related to other words of the same language. Formal differences among words serve a variety of purposes, from the creation of new lexical items to the indication of grammatical structure.
Categorial Grammar and Formal Semantics
Authors: Moortgat Michael
Published: December 2005

Categorial grammar is a lexicalized grammar formalism based on logical type theory. A categorial lexicon assigns one or more types to the atomic elements of a language; the assembly of form and meaning is accounted for in terms of the rules of inference for these types, seen as formulae of a grammar logic. Cross‐linguistic variation results from extending the invariant core of the grammar logic with facilities for structural reasoning.
Spatial Language
Authors: Levinson Stephen C
Published: December 2005

The study of spatial language is concerned with the systematic properties of spatial descriptions in natural languages, that is, the description of where things are, or the description of moving bodies.
Intonation
Authors: Jun Sun‐Ah
Published: December 2005

Intonation is the melody of a sentence or a phrase. It marks a grouping of words or the prominence relations among words, and reflects the syntactic structure and the semantic and pragmatic meaning of a sentence.
Phonological Processes
Authors: Archangeli Diana
Published: December 2005

Phonological processes are the patterns that are found in the sound sequences that occur in individual human languages. Languages limit which sounds are used; they also limit the permissible sequences of these sounds. These phonological processes, or regular restrictions on sound sequences, generalize both within and across languages.
Language and Brain
Authors: Garrett Merrill F
Published: December 2005

The major structural features of language systems are systematically reflected in specialized neural systems of the human brain. Evidence for this conclusion derives from patterns of language breakdown and from physical measures of brain activity made during normal language use.
Articulation: Dynamic Models of Motor Planning
Authors: Munhall Kevin G
Published: December 2005

The complex muscular system of the human vocal tract changes states rapidly and flexibly during fluent speech. The planning and control system responsible for this remarkable behavior must coordinate the spatial and temporal aspects of movement for a large number of independent articulators. Current models suggest that detailed representation of vocal tract movements and the acoustic consequences of those movements is required.
Production‐Comprehension Interface
Authors: Ferreira Victor S
Published: December 2005

Many features of spoken language, from the nature of child‐directed speech to audience design effects, reflect a sensitivity in language production to the needs and strategies of language comprehension. These adjustments, sometimes deliberate, sometimes automatic, ensure successful communication.
Language Production, Incremental
Authors: Wheeldon Linda R , Meyer Antje S , Smith Mark
Published: December 2005

Incrementality concerns the processing stages of linguistic output: conceptual structure, lexical selection, and generation of grammatical and phonological structure, and suggests that these processes can to an extent run in parallel to aid the speed and fluency of speech production.
Morphological Processing
Authors: Baayen R Harald , Schreuder Robert
Published: December 2005

Words with internal morphological structure are processed differently in the mental lexicon than monomorphemic words, both in language comprehension and in speech production. How morphological structure is represented in the brain is hotly disputed. Dissociations between the processing of regular and irregular complex words on the one hand, and gradient morphological phenomena on the other, are key issues in the debate between single and dual route approaches, and between symbolic and connectionist approaches.
Phonological Encoding of Words
Authors: Meyer Antje S , Wheeldon Linda R
Published: December 2005

During phonological encoding of a word the speaker retrieves the word's sound form. It consists of two representational tiers: an ordered set of segments and a metrical representation capturing the word's syllable structure and stress pattern.
Sentence Processing: Mechanisms
Authors: Schlesewsky Matthias , Friederici Angela D
Published: December 2005

Mechanisms of sentence processing during language comprehension are described on the basis of behavioral and electrophysiological evidence. The major principle underlying human parsing mechanisms is the principle of simplicity, which leads the parser to construct the simplest syntactic structure whenever possible.
Speech Error Models of Language Production
Authors: Stemberger Joseph P
Published: December 2005

Some models of language production use speech errors (malfunctions of language processing) as evidence for the organization of the language system.
Syntactic Encoding and Syntactic Choice
Authors: O'Seaghdha Padraig G
Published: December 2005

Syntactic encoding creates a representation intermediate between a nonlinguistic conceptual level and a subsequent phonological level containing word forms. Lexical selection contributes to construction of a syntactic frame. Syntactic persistence, a form of implicit memory, suggests that syntactic structure is partly isolable from content. The relation between conceptual and syntactic formulation is a crucial question that is ripe for further exploration.
Semantics, Acquisition of
Authors: Clark Robin , Wagner Laura
Published: December 2005

Semantic acquisition concerns the problems of learning word meanings, of learning how language marks time and temporal relations, and of learning the interpretation of quantified expressions.
Statistical Methods
Authors: Abney Steven
Published: December 2005

‘Statistical methods’ refers here specifically to statistical methods in computational linguistics. This represents a new body of practice in computational linguistics that has become standard since the 1990s.
Sign Language
Authors: Lillo‐Martin Diane C
Published: December 2005

Practitioners of sign languages use movements of their hands, face, and body for communicating what language speakers convey using their mouth, tongue, and vocal chords. The natural sign languages of Deaf communities have the properties of human language, including grammatical structure at the phonological, morphological, and syntactic levels.
Consciousness and Attention
Authors: DiGirolamo Gregory J , Griffin Harry J
Published: December 2005

The concepts of consciousness and attention have been used in many ways and the processes that constitute them are not well agreed upon. Attention may be considered as an agency for bringing a stimulus into conscious awareness.
Consciousness, Stream of
Authors: Natsoulas Thomas
Published: December 2005

Except for time‐gaps, when the stream comes to a stop and then starts again, a stream of consciousness is constituted, from the Jamesian perspective, of tightly adjacent states of consciousness occurring very briefly one at a time. Unless a second such stream flows in the individual simultaneously, his or her conscious mental life at any instant consists entirely of one integral state of consciousness that typically possesses many intrinsic features.
Temporal Cortex
Authors: Murray Elisabeth A
Published: December 2005

The temporal cortex is named for the portion of the cranial bone under which it lies. In human and macaque brains, the temporal cortex lies beneath the lateral sulcus and consists of three main parts: the superior temporal cortex, the inferior temporal cortex, and the paralimbic cortex.
Cerebral Commissures
Authors: Witelson Sandra F , Kigar Debra L , Walter Alison
Published: December 2005

The cerebral commissures house the fibers that interconnect the two hemispheres of the brain. The main fiber tract, namely the corpus callosum, varies greatly in size in the human brain. Factors such as sex of the individual and chronological age affect its size. Relationships exist between callosal size, degree of functional asymmetry and cognitive ability. The callosum may play a crucial role in the experience of conscious unity.
Brain Asymmetry
Authors: Galaburda Albert M , Rosen Glenn D
Published: December 2005

The two cerebral hemispheres are specialized for different functions. The discovery of anatomic asymmetries in the brain has given new light to our understanding of the cognitive differences between the left and right hemispheres.
Alzheimer Disease
Authors: Kensinger Elizabeth A , Corkin Suzanne
Published: December 2005

Alzheimer disease is the leading cause of dementia among older adults. It results in neurochemical and neuroanatomical brain changes that cause increasing cognitive dysfunction.
Parkinson Disease
Authors: Rakitin Brian C , Stern Yaakov
Published: December 2005

Parkinson disease is a neurodegenerative disorder resulting in the loss of dopamine‐producing neurons and disruption of basal ganglia‐dependent motor and cognitive function.
Apraxia
Authors: Peters Michael
Published: December 2005

Apraxias are movement disorders that cannot be attributed to primary motor problems such as paralysis or weakness, or to mental incompetence. Apraxias manifest in the failure to perform, accurately and smoothly, simple or complex movements. In studying apraxias we learn much about purposive motor behavior in general.
Aphasia
Authors: Hillis Argye Elizabeth , Caramazza Alfonso
Published: December 2005

Aphasia is impairment of language caused by brain damage. The term may be restricted to acquired disorders of language caused by focal brain lesions such as stroke, or more broadly applied to developmental language disorders or impairments due to diffuse brain damage such as head trauma or dementia.