bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Flagellates of benthic communities: characteristics and methods of study
Authors: Alongi Daniel M
Published: November 2023

Flagellates are numerically and functionally important in most benthic habitats. Abundances of large (>20 µm) flagellates in sediments range from 10to 10’’ cells cm-3and of micro flagellates (<20 µm) from 10to 10cells cm-3 The most common heterotrophs are dinoflagellates, bodonids, euglenids, and a variety of organisms of unclear phylogenetic origin. Most problems relating to their study concern efficient extraction and enumeration techniques. Heterotrophic flagellates are estimated to consume a small fraction of daily bacterial production in sediments. Flagellates consume other foods, such as microalgae, organic detritus, and other protists. Amensalistic and mutualistic interactions between flagellates and larger members of the benthic community may be common, enhanced by mucus secretions, biogenic structures, and the locomotory activities of invertebrates. These aspects of their ecology will remain inadequately studied until methodological and taxonomic difficulties are surmounted.
The Measurement of Biodiversity and the Politics of Implementation
Authors: Heywood V H
Published: November 2023

The reason for failure on the part of many agencies and governments to recognize biodiversity as a serious issue stems from the difficulties of defining it so that it can be applied to real problems of management, regulation, and monitoring. Biodiversity is viewed differently by community ecologists, park managers, plant breeders, population geneticists, agriculturalists, conservation biologists, and taxonomists. This is not a weakness provided that no one group insists on pre-eminence of their sectoral interest: on the contrary, having broad constituency strengthens both the concept and the likelihood of support. On the other hand it is critical for biodiversity conservation to appreciate that different objectives will require the use of different measures. This paper will examine some of the problems.in defining biodiversity at its various levels. It is conventional to consider biodiversity at ecosystem, species, and genetic levels-although an alternative approach recognizes compositional, structural, and functional biodiversity, each encompassing multiple levels of organization. The problems of measuring biodiversity at each of the three main levels are discussed particularly with respect to the difficulties of measuring taxonomic diversity and its application to conservation. It will be argued that to achieve many of the declared conservation objectives, a multiple level strategy of measuring biodiversity is required.
On What We Should Save: the Role of Culture in Determining Conservation Targets
Authors: Norton Bryan G
Published: November 2023

This paper examines the role of culture in the protection of biological diversity. The present situation exists that while a few commentators question the urgency sometimes asserted for biodiversity protection, at the same time there is no organized, scientifically respectable, and political influential group that advocates destruction of species, nor suggests that we do nothing. The cultural basis of this enquiry is, that whilst it is not seriously questioned that there is an incumbent moral obligation for us to sustain biological diversity for the benefit of future generations, we still have to find the rationale for consensus and to articulate it in a specific and operational manner.
The Use of Phytogeographic Data for Conservation Planning
Authors: Prance G T
Published: November 2023

Patterns of plant distributions in the New World tropics as derived from Flora Neotropica are described using a variety of mapping techniques. Examples of some ways in which phytogeographic data can contribute to conservation, particularly in Brazil, are given. Sixteen per cent of all described taxa are widely distributed whilst the remainder show restricted and/or disjunct patterns. Endemism is common in widespread families and prevalent in rain forests. The major phytochoria are described and particularly areas of endemism as these are prime targets for biological reserves.
Emiliania huxleyi as a key to biosphere-geosphere interactions
Authors: Westbroek Peter , Van Hinte Jane. , Brummer Geert-Jan , Veldhuis Marcel , Brownlee Colin , Green J C , Harris Roger , Heimdal Berit Riddervold
Published: November 2023

Cells of Emiliania huxleyi are surrounded by ‘coccoliths’, minute, elegant scales of calcium carbonate. In all the oceans, particularly at mid-latitudes, this species forms gigantic blooms, readily visualized by satellite imagery. Coccolith-bearing organisms, of which E. huxleyi is by far the most abundant representative, are major contributors to the ocean floor limestone sediments, and this in turn is the largest long-term sink of inorganic carbon on earth. In addition to coccoliths and organic carbon, E. huxleyi blooms emit vast amounts of dimethyl sulfide (DMS), a gas which, on oxidation, is a dominant source of cloud nuclei. The profusion of E. huxleyi and its intimate involvement with the global biogeochemical cycles of both carbon and sulfur make it a key component of the greenhouse effect (CO2), natural acid rain, and albedo regulation.
Systems of pastoral and agricultural production in eastern Sudan
Authors: Sørbø G M
Published: November 2023

Eastern Sudan is defined for the purposes of this chapter as the country lying to the east of the Blue Nile and to the north of the line of permanent villages and regular cultivation that runs approximately from Sennar through Gedaref to the valley of the Settit River. To the north it includes the whole of the Red Sea Hills area as far as the Egyptian frontier. In administrative terms, the whole of Red Sea Province and the major part of Kassala Province are included.
Toxin
Authors: Lax Alistair J
Published: November 2023

What do the following have in common: the promise of Botox as the key to everlasting youthful looks; E. coli O157 hamburger disease; a mysterious illness which killed 35 heroin users in 2000; and the assassination by poisoned umbrella-tip of a Bulgarian dissident in the 1970s? The answer is that all of these are caused by toxins, the powerful biological poisons released by bacteria and some plants. In Toxin, Alistair Lax reveals the panoply of ways in which bacterial toxins overcome the defences of our cells. He explains how they work, how they are so successful in causing major diseases, the terrible human impact they have had, and how apparently ‘new’ diseases arise from them. He also discusses how we can combat toxins, and how we can harness their actions for beneficial purposes. Enlivened by the very human story of the persistence, rivalries, and insights from which modern microbiology grew, Toxin is the first widely accessible account of this exciting and important topic.
Understanding
Authors: Lax Alistair J
Published: November 2023

There are hundreds of different bacterial protein toxins. Early attempts to classify them relied on looking at the types of diseases that they caused. The neurotoxins (that caused problems linked to the nervous system) included botulinum and tetanus, but also diphtheria, which can induce nerve damage. Enterotoxins were those that caused enteritis, for example diarrhoea. Nowadays it is more common to catalogue toxins depending on how they work, although the older classification is still of use. Luckily toxins fall into just three main groups, so it is necessary only to grasp three general concepts. Each type of toxin can be likened to a different type of military campaign. Some toxins attack like a battalion of tanks, some (like diphtheria) hit behind the enemy front line to disable supply lines, while others still are more devious and attack vital communication systems to cause confusion and disarray.
Belief and Instinct in Hume’s First Enquiry
Authors: Bell Martin
Published: November 2023

At the end of Part i of Section V of the Enquiry concerning Human Understanding Hume arrives at a conclusion about belief. This is an outcome of his investigation of probable reasoning, a central theme around which much of the work revolves. The sections which follow, about necessary connexion, liberty and necessity, miracles, divine providence, and scepticism, all depend on the arguments of Sections IV and V Part i. After stating the conclusion, Hume goes on in Section V Part ii to some ‘farther researches’ about the nature and causes of belief. But these further enquiries, we are told, are not needed for understanding subsequent arguments, and can be omitted by readers who have no taste for ‘the abstract sciences’ (E 47).
Lessons from aviation simulation
Authors: Page Ray
Published: November 2023

Simulation is now a multi-million dollar industry with applications spread over a vast number of training and analytical areas. While those involved with simulation readily identify its origins from the flight simulator, there is little concept of the efforts made by the world airlines to introduce standards and testing criteria, which provided the credibility and acceptance for the use of simulation as a training tool.
Thoughts on Rhythm
Authors: Scruton Roger
Published: November 2023

Perceptual information must be assembled into comprehensible units if it is to guide us around the world. This is as true of the ear as of the eye; hence Gestalt principles operate in the auditory as in the visual sphere, though applied to temporal rather than spatial configurations (Bregman 1990; Gelfand 1998). Some philosophers might wish to speak of a ‘nonconceptual’ or ‘preconceptual’ unity in the auditory Gestalt — even of a nonconceptual content (Peacocke 1983: Ch.3). For the unities and wholes that we hear are, in the first instance, presented under no description. When, for example, a regular sequence of scale steps is interrupted by noises that mask individual pitches, we hear a continuous sequence, interrupted by foreground noise, rather than discontinuous sections of a scale.
In Defense of Musical Representation: Music, Representation, and the Hybrid Arts
Authors: Kivy Peter
Published: November 2023

The importance of Marx Wartofsky’s contribution to our understanding of visual representation hardly needs advertisement, being well known to all his admirers. It is in the spirit of that work, although not, obviously, as a direct contribution to it, that I offer some brief remarks on the problem of musical representation.
Treatment options before IVF
Authors: Davies Melanie , Webber Lisa , Overton Caroline
Published: November 2023

The publicity given to IVF in magazines and television programmes gives the impression that IVF is the only form of fertility treatment. However, many couples can become pregnant with simpler treatment. A good clinic will investigate each couple carefully and give advice according to their individual circumstances. In general, it is best to start with the simplest effective treatment, and if this does not succeed, to proceed to the more complex techniques of IVF.
Problems with ovulation and polycystic ovary syndrome
Authors: Davies Melanie , Webber Lisa , Overton Caroline
Published: November 2023

Anovulation means that you are either not releasing eggs (ovulating) or only releasing eggs sometimes. If you are not ovulating, periods are often irregular and there may be long gaps between them, perhaps lasting for 2 months or more. Alternatively, periods may occur more frequently than every 26 days. The period itself may be very light, perhaps little more than spotting of blood, lasting only a day or so. Another pattern sometimes seen is that the period may be very prolonged and last for more than 2 weeks.
Ovulation induction
Authors: Davies Melanie , Webber Lisa , Overton Caroline
Published: November 2023

Ovulation induction (OI), as the term suggests, is treatment for anovulation. Strictly speaking, OI is not actually a form of assisted reproduction as it is simply aiming to mimic the normal activity of the ovary, thereby allowing spontaneous pregnancy. There are various different treatment options for inducing ovulation, depending on the underlying problem. However, the aim of ovulation induction is always the same—to allow the release of one egg per treatment cycle.
In vitro fertilization (including ICSI and IVM)
Authors: Davies Melanie , Webber Lisa , Overton Caroline
Published: November 2023

IVF stands for in vitro fertilization—joining the egg and sperm outside the body. It is often called ‘test-tube baby’ treatment. The first test-tube baby, Louise Brown, was born in Britain in 1978. This followed years of preparatory work by gynaecologist Patrick Steptoe and scientist Robert Edwards, who pioneered IVF despite opposition from the medical and scientific establishment and criticism that it was unethical to ‘create’ human life. However, over the last 30 years, IVF has become so successful and such a common form of treatment that at least one in 100 pregnancies in the UK are conceived this way. About 10 000 IVF babies have been born in the UK.
Adoption
Authors: Davies Melanie , Webber Lisa , Overton Caroline
Published: November 2023

There are very few absolute requirements for the adopter, although a criminal record involving offences against children would exclude an individual from adopting a child. The interests of the child are always paramount, which includes finding a suitable placement within the minimal amount of time. The Adoption and Children Act 2002 has removed some of the previous restrictions for prospective adopters with the aim of enlarging the potential pool of adults who can provide a child with a loving and stable home.
Ecumenical Expressivism: The Best of Both Worlds?
Authors: Ridge Michael
Published: November 2023

Michael Smith ‘s thesis is about evaluative judgments, but he could just as easily be talking about normative judgments— judgments about reasons for action and judgments about what one ought to do. Indeed, on T. M. Scanlon ‘s intriguing ‘buck-passing ‘ account of evaluative judgment, evaluative judgment just is normative judgment in disguise. In what sense are normative judgments Janus-faced, though? In some respects, they seem like ordinary beliefs. We call them ‘beliefs ‘, as when we say things like, ‘Britney believes that she ought to spend more time at the tanning salon. ‘ We classify them as true or false. We sometimes think they constitute knowledge. They figure in apparently rational inferences. In other respects, though, normative judgments seem more like desires. Normative judgment is practical; it reliably guides action. Changes in normative view reliably track changes in motivation. We question the sincerity of someone who claims that she really ought to do something but shows no signs whatsoever of being motivated to do it, feel bad about not doing it, etc. Failure to act on one ‘s all things considered normative judgment is irrational. This contrasts with acting contrary to what one believes is required by merely conventional norms like those of etiquette.
Value and Autonomy in Kantian Ethics
Authors: Johnson Robert N
Published: November 2023

Kantian ethics can at times appear to defend the position that there is a unique sort of value that plays a foundational role in morality. For instance, Kant ‘s most well-known work in ethics, the Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals, begins by trying to establish that a good will is good ‘without qualification ‘ and then ends with a first statement of the fundamental principle that divides right from wrong, the Categorical Imperative. This presentation can make it seem as if Kant believes the authority carried by the Categorical Imperative is somehow supposed to be grounded in the value of a good will. Again, the humanity formulation of the Categorical Imperative, the formulation that tells us we must respect the humanity in ourselves and others by treating it as an end in itself, appears to allude to a special value possessed by some feature of persons, their humanity, and then explain the authority of moral obligation by way of that value. This extolling of the value of humanity and the dramatic refrain about the unique value of a good will both appear to portray Kant as telling us that moral reasoning consists of taking notice of the peculiar value that they possess which demands that we adjust our deliberation and actions in light of them. We appear to be told that the good will and humanity are bits of metaphysical glitter, jewels carrying their value around with them, and that this unique glitter is source of the authority of moral obligation.
Representation and Content in Some (Actual) Theories of Perception
Authors: Hatfield Gary
Published: November 2023

Philosophers of psychology have examined the use and legitimacy of such notions as “representation,” “content,” “computation,” and “inference” within a scientific psychology. While the resulting assessments have varied widely— from outright rejection of some or all of these notions (P. M. Churchland 1981; P. S. Churchland 1980; Stich 1983) to full vindication of their use (Fodor 1975; Pylyshyn 1984)— there has been agreement on the considerations deemed relevant for making an assessment.
Natural Language Syntax
Authors: Culicover Peter W
Published: November 2023

In this book, Peter Culicover introduces the analysis of natural language within the broader question of how language works - of how people use languages to configure words and morphemes in order to express meanings. He focuses both on the syntactic and morphosyntactic devices that languages use, and on the conceptual structures that correspond to particular aspects of linguistic form. He seeks to explain linguistic forms and in the process to show how these correspond with meanings. The book’s clear, step-by-step exposition is presented within the Simpler Syntax framework whose development has been led by the author and Ray Jackendoff over the last fifteen years. This integrates syntactic theory with the representation of conceptual structure and casts fresh light on the interface between syntax and semantics. It also enables elegant and economical analyses of natural language phenomena without recourse to such abstract devices as functional heads and uniform binary branching. Peter Culicover opens his account with an overview of the nature of language and the aims of its analysis. He then divides the book into parts devoted to syntactic categories, syntactic structure and argument structure, argument realization, unbounded dependencies, and clausal structure. He provides exercises, problems, and suggestions for further reading throughout the book.
Inflammatory bowel disease
Authors: Langmead Louise , Irving Peter
Published: November 2023

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), which includes ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease, affects 1 person in every 400 in the UK. Between 6,000 and 12,000 new cases of colitis are diagnosed every year, and research shows that the number of people with Crohn's disease has been rising steadily. While there are numerous volumes covering the management of IBD aimed at clinicians and several volumes focusing on either ulcerative colitis or Crohn's disease for patients, there are few volumes covering the full spectrum of IBD for patients, families and carers. This patient-centred guide covers all aspects of IBD including common symptoms, tests used to make a diagnosis, treatment and overall management of the condition. Providing up-to-date factual information, it is easy to read and allows quick access to key facts and helpful advice. With consideration given to new developments in the understanding and treatment of inflammation of the bowel, including complementary and alternative therapies, this book will help to improve the overall quality of life for all those affected by this chronic disease.
Who looks after people with inflammatory bowel disease?
Authors: Langmead Louise , Irving Peter
Published: November 2023

There will be many professionals involved in your care during the diagnosis and treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). The approach to care for IBD patients usually (and should) takes the form of a multidisciplinary team.
Surgery for inflammatory bowel disease
Authors: Langmead Louise , Irving Peter
Published: November 2023

Ideally, surgery is performed electively. In other words, the surgery is planned and discussed in advance, the patient is admitted to hospital shortly before the operation and the surgery is performed on a predetermined date. However, sometimes surgery needs to be performed urgently (in other words within a few days) or as an emergency (within a few hours). Urgent or emergent operations are performed because delaying them would potentially endanger the patient ‘s health or even threaten their life.
Future and unproven treatments
Authors: Langmead Louise , Irving Peter
Published: November 2023

There is a constant stream of new treatments being developed for ulcerative colitis (UC) and Crohn ‘s disease. These include new drugs, drugs that exist already for treatment of other conditions, new medical devices, and other novel ideas, like swallowing parasites! Before treatments become widely available and are accepted by the medical world, and before governments and health insurers will pay for them, they have to be proven effective and safe in properly designed and executed clinical trials. This is for several reasons.
What causes psoriatic arthritis
Authors: Gladman Dafna D , Chandran Vinod
Published: November 2023

Psoriatic arthritis is a complex disease. There are genetic, environmental, and immunological factors involved in the onset and progression of psoriatic arthritis (Fig. 4.1, p. 26). In this chapter, we have made an attempt to describe our understanding of these factors.
Clinical features of psoriatic arthritis
Authors: Gladman Dafna D , Chandran Vinod
Published: November 2023

Psoriatic arthritis is defined as inflammatory arthritis associated with psoriasis, usually negative for rheumatoid factor. This statement essentially summarizes the clinical features of the psoriatic arthritis. The primary clinical feature is inflammatory arthritis; inflammatory arthritis presents with pain, swelling, stiffness, redness, and often reduction in mobility.
Radiological features of psoriatic arthritis
Authors: Gladman Dafna D , Chandran Vinod
Published: November 2023

Imaging is an important tool in the assessment of patients with psoriatic arthritis. Imaging complements clinical assessment and helps in confirming the diagnosis as well as in determining the severity of psoriatic arthritis. The various modalities used in assessment of psoriatic arthritis include radiology (X-rays), ultrasound, computed tomography scan (CT scan), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and bone scan. The characteristic features of psoriatic arthritis seen with these radiological techniques are described here.
Non-drug therapy
Authors: Gladman Dafna D , Chandran Vinod
Published: November 2023

As with all chronic rheumatic conditions, treatment of psoriatic arthritis involves care by a multidisciplinary team. Although pharmacotherapy with drugs is the cornerstone of treatment of inflammatory arthritis such as psoriatic arthritis, non-drug therapy also plays a valuable role. Comprehensive care of a patient with psoriatic arthritis requires integrated drug and non-drug therapies and educational intervention. Non-drug therapy chiefly includes education, and physical and occupational therapy.
Drug therapy
Authors: Gladman Dafna D , Chandran Vinod
Published: November 2023

Pharmacotherapy or drug therapy is the cornerstone of management of psoriatic arthritis. Drug therapy depends on the severity and stage of the arthritis and the severity of skin disease. Patients should ideally be under the care of a team of health professionals comprising rheumatologists, dermatologists, physiotherapists, and occupational therapists. However, if the primary problem is skin disease and the arthritis is mild, the subject may be managed by a dermatologist after a complete assessment by a rheumatologist. Periodic assessment by a rheumatologist in such cases would be ideal. On the other hand, if the primary problem is joint disease, the rheumatologist should primarily manage the patient, with the dermatologist confirming the diagnosis of psoriasis and providing input if skin disease remains poorly controlled.
Validity, Paradox, and the Ideal of Deductive Logic
Authors: Hofweber Thomas
Published: November 2023

There are three basic ingredients that together give rise to the semantic paradoxes, and correspondingly there are three basic strategies for a straightforward solution to them. The first ingredient is a logic, like classical logic. This we can simply take as a set of inference rules associated with certain logically special expressions. The second is a truth predicate, or something like it, and some rules or schemas that are associated with it, say introduction and elimination rules, or the Tarski schema. The third ingredient is some other expressive resources that allow one to formulate one of the trouble inducing sentences, like the liar sentence, or the Curry conditional. Once we have these three we can derive contradictions and anything whatsoever using only the rules we have, with the help of the problematic sentences.
Pleasure’ S Pyrrhic Victory: An Intellectualist Reading Of The Philebus
Authors: Butler J Eric
Published: November 2023

scholars often suggest that in his late dialogues Plato becomes something like what Søren Kierkegaard calls the knight of infinite resignation. There is some ideal—be it rule by philosopher-king or the life of pure intellection—which is unattainable; as things stand, we are stuck with some second-best. The Stranger’s conclusion in the Statesman might be delivered with a sigh:
The Assimilation Of Sense To Sense-Object In Aristotle
Authors: Lorenz Hendrik
Published: November 2023

Aristotle holds that acts of sense-perception crucially involve some kind of assimilation of the perceiver to the relevant sense object say, a red flag, or a fragrant lavender bush. It has for some time been highly controversial how he conceives of this kind of assimilation. According to some scholars, what he has in mind is an alteration or change in quality whereby the perceiver’s sense-organ in a straightforward way takes on the perceptible quality of the object that is being perceived. According to others, such assimilation just is becoming aware of the perceptible quality in question. On this view, the likeness between perceiver and sense-object in the act of perception depends on the fact that the perceptible form of the sense-object has in a certain way come to be present in the perceiver’s sense-organ.
No One Errs Willingly: The Meaning of Socratic Intellectualism
Authors: Segvic Heda
Published: November 2023

The Western philosophical tradition is deeply indebted to the figure of Socrates. The question ‘How should one live?’ has rightly been called ‘the Socratic question’. Socrates’ method of cross examining his interlocutors has often been seen as a paradigmatic form of philosophical enquiry, and his own life as an epitome of the philosophical life. What philosophers and non-philosophers alike have often found disappointing in Socrates is his intellectualism. A prominent complaint about Socratic intellectualism has been memorably recorded by Alexander Nehamas: ‘And George Grote both expressed the consensus of the ages and set the stage for modern
Some Logical Problems in Metaphysics Gamma
Authors: Wedin Michael v.
Published: November 2023

Metaphysics I’ 4 opens with a reference to persons who (a) say (cpaai) that it is possible for the same thing to be and not to be and (b) hold things to be the case in just this way (v1roAaµ,(3avELV oihw,).1 Certain of the writers on nature are said to ‘make use of this thesis’ (xpwvrni Tl(J :\6yqi). The thesis in question is presumably (a), and so (b) probably adverts to specific claims that violate the principle of non-contradiction, claims of the sort Heraclitus and others are alleged to have made. Aristotle will have none of this, of course, and in I’ 4 he proceeds to hammer such views. So it might seem that the sole object of Aristotle’s attention is defence of the principle of non-contradiction (PNC) itself. This would be hardly surprising in the light of its vaunted status in the corpus as a whole. But in Metaphysics I’ he is, I believe, chiefly concerned
Plato on Knowledge and Forms
Authors: Fine Gail
Published: November 2023

Plato on Knowledge and Forms brings together a set of connected essays by Gail Fine, in her main area of research since the late 1970s: Plato’s metaphysics and epistemology. She discusses central issues in Plato’s metaphysics and epistemology, issues concerning the nature and extent of knowledge, and its relation to perception, sensibles, and forms; and issues concerning the nature of forms, such as whether they are universals or particulars, separate or immanent, and whether they are causes. A specially written introduction draws together the themes of the volume, which will reward the attention of anyone interested in Plato or in ancient metaphysics and epistemology.
Akrasia in the Republic: Does Plato Change his Mind?
Authors: Carone Gahriela Roxana
Published: November 2023

The topic of ‘weakness of will’, or akrasia, has aroused a great deal of discussion in recent years, among both contemporary philosophers and interpreters of Plato, who identify the Socratic position in the Protagoras as an explicit denial that such a phenomenon actually occurs. Yet it seems to be a commonplac<‘ even among the most renowned contemporary scholars to attribute to Plato, particularly in the Republic, a radical departure from the Socratic position expressed in the Protagoras.
Montgomery Belgion
Authors: Harding Jason
Published: November 2023

In May 1996, Tom Paulin ‘turned’ on T. S. Eliot. The occasion was a review-article championing Anthony Julius’s controversial study T. S. Eliot, Anti-Semitism, and Literary Form; a work that sought to demonstrate that anti-Semitism was inseparable from, indeed constitutive of, Eliot’s art. The centrepiece of Paulin’s attack, published in the London Review of Books, was an apparently anonymous review of The Yellow Spot: The Outlawing of Half a Million Human Beings, a book publicizing the persecution of German Jews, which appeared among the Criterion’s ‘Shorter Notices’ in July 1936. In a lengthy discussion of the notice, Julius commented: ‘The review crawls with impatient distaste, wilfully refusing to do its subject justice.’
Past the Linguistic Turn?
Authors: Williamson Timothy
Published: November 2023

‘The linguistic turn’ has subsequently become a standard vague phrase for a diffuse event—some regard it as the event—in twentieth-century philosophy, one not con- fined to signed-up linguistic philosophers in Rorty’s sense. For those who took the turn, language was somehow the central theme of philosophy. There is an increasingly widespread sense that the linguistic turn is past. In this essay I ask how far the turn has been, or should be, reversed. Ayer traced his views back ultimately to the empiricism of Berkeley and Hume (1936: 11). His contrast between definitions of words and descriptions of objects is, roughly, the linguistic analogue of Hume’s contrast between relations of ideas and matters of fact.
Introduction
Authors: Schofield Malcolm
Published: November 2023

Is Plato our contemporary? Well, yes and no. When he philosophized about politics, he was thinking of the long-vanished Greek polis or ‘city-state’ of ancient Athens and Sparta. Democracy for him meant the direct participation of all adult male citizens in the decision-making processes of the popular assembly and the courts of justice, not the representative systems of today. The intensity of his obsession with political rhetoric as an inbred democratic disease is intelligible only against the background of an interpretation of fifthcentury Athenian imperialism and its downfall in the Peloponnesian War that he probably borrowed (not without twists of his own) from the historian Thucydides.
Problematizing Democracy
Authors: Schofield Malcolm
Published: November 2023

On 28 August 2005 the Iraqi parliament finally approved a new constitution, after months of negotiation and debate. It failed to win the support of Sunni representatives; Arab nations feared for the security of the region; and many political commentators foresaw a future grimmer than the grim present. President Bush, on the other hand, congratulated the Iraqi people on a further step in the transition from dictatorship to democracy. He commented on the freedoms of expression and association and on other liberties recognized in the document. And he spoke of a free people finding self-expression at the ballot box under freely enacted laws. In short, he summoned a whole battery of polarities.
The Rule of Knowledge
Authors: Schofield Malcolm
Published: November 2023

‘Understanding the world in which we live’ , wrote John Dunn in 1992, ‘requires an extravagantly complicated division of cognitive labour—perhaps a more complicated division than human beings are capable of creating, and certainly one far more complicated and trustworthy than they have yet contrived to create.’ The experience of the intervening years has only served to confirm the assessment. The global scale of the challenges to understanding—whether we think of the economic system, or climate change, or terrorism—is apparent in every news bulletin every day of the week. Getting that understanding and putting it to effective use is a political necessity of increasing urgency.
Politics and Paradox in Seneca’s De Beneficiis
Authors: Inwood Brad
Published: November 2023

By the standards of any contemporary western political culture, ancient societies, both Greek and Roman, were strikingly hierarchical. Only in the programmatic dreams of the most wild- eyed reformers could we expect to find an ideological commitment to general social equality. Of course, the notion that there should be equality of political rights among those fortunate enough to be classed as full citizens was somewhat commoner. But what we might call the ‘real world’ of social relations was based on dramatic differences in status, power, and wealth, which few if any could seriously imagine challenging. From the fourth century bc onwards political and social thinkers were reflectively aware of the important role played in such a society by the doing of ‘good deeds’, services or gifts to other members of society for which some sort of return, even if only the expression of gratitude, was normally expected.
The Will in Seneca
Authors: Inwood Brad
Published: November 2023

There are few words in the philosophical lexicon so slippery as ‘will’. In an attempt to track a history of the idea of will, the most we have going for us is a widely agreed upon lexical correspondence. In modern European languages, so far as I know, we can at least pick out counterparts: will, volonte´, volonta`, Wille. Push it back a bit further and you arguably add the Latin voluntas. But as almost everyone agrees, you cannot push this lexical correspondence back to ancient Greek, where neither boule¯sisnor prohairesis, neither dianoianor any other term quite does the job.
Against Zoos
Authors: Jamieson Dale
Published: November 2023

We can start with a rough-and-ready definition of zoos: they are public parks which display animals, primarily for the purposes of recreation or education. Although large collections of animals were maintained in antiquity, they were not zoos in this sense. Typically these ancient collections were not exhibited in public parks, or they were maintained for purposes other than recreation or education. The Romans, for example, kept animals in order to have living fodder for the games. Their enthusiasm for the games was so great that even the first tigers brought to Rome, gifts to Caesar Augustus from an Indian ruler, ended up in the arena. The emperor Trajan staged 123 consecutive days of games in order to celebrate his conquest of Dacia. Eleven thousand animals were slaughtered, including lions, tigers, elephants, rhinoceroses, hippopotami, giraffes, bulls, stags, crocodiles, and serpents.
Real Traits, Real Functions?
Authors: Allen Colin
Published: November 2023

In the extensive literature on what it means for a biological trait to have a function, philosophers and biologists have given the notion of function star billing. They have paid little attention to the notion of trait appearing in the supporting role. My goal in this chapter is to turn the spotlight onto this fundamental notion and demonstrate that we lack and need an analysis of trait. I use ‘analysis’ here with a broad meaning that encompasses traditional conceptual analysis, theoretical definition, and other ways of specifying meaning.
Types of Traits: The Importance of Functional Homologues
Authors: Neander Karen
Published: November 2023

Philosophers have long believed that biology is richly endowed with functional categories. The idea has been that a heart counts as a heart because it is for pumping blood and eyes count as eyes because they are for seeing, and so on. More generally, on the traditional view, the traits of organisms are often classified into types at least in part on the basis of their biological function. This view, which extends as far back as Aristotle, has long been entrenched in contemporary philosophy of biology (see e.g. Beckner 1959: 112–18). Indeed, it is still the accepted wisdom in philosophy more generally.
Accentuation in Old Attic, Later Attic, and Attic
Authors: Probert Philomen
Published: November 2023

This remark comes from the scholia in a tenth-century manuscript of the Iliad, Venetus A; as with many of the scholia to the Iliaddealing with prosody, its source is the grammarian Herodian writing in the second century adand himself making use of earlier, Hellenistic, works on accentuation. We are told that the word πηρóν (nominative πηρóσ) ‘disabled’ is accented one way in Homer (πηρóν) but another way in Attic (πηρóν). A question that arises from this passage, and from others like it, is that of the Hellenistic and post-Hellenistic grammarians’ sources of knowledge about Homeric accentuation. This question has been discussed since the early nineteenth century and still deserves attention, but it is not the subject of the present essay. Instead we shall consider a different, perhaps less immediately obvious, question: what is meant here by ‘Attic’? The language of Plato, or perhaps Menander? If so, how would Herodian have known how Plato or Menander accented a word? Or does the term refer to the speech of some contemporaries of Herodian?
The Word-Order Pattern magna cum laude in Latin and Sabellian
Authors: Clackson James
Published: November 2023

In Latin phrases of the type magna cum laude‘with great praise’ the adposition, here cum, splits the two elements of a nominal phrase, here magnaand laude. In Oscan and Umbrian the same word-order pattern occurs, and many scholars have commented on the similarity. Hofmann and Szantyr (1965: 216), for example, directly compare the Latin order with the following Umbrian phrases (from the Iguvine Tables, as are all Umbrian citations in this paper):
Old English ma†elian, mœlan, m¤œlan
Authors: Ringe Don
Published: November 2023

Anyone familiar with formulaic oral poetry1can hardly avoid the suspicion that these three verbs are etymologically a single lexical item which has somehow been split, either in the poetic tradition or in the transmission of the texts. In this paper I shall investigate that hypothesis and show that there must be some truth in it, but that the whole truth is more complex. The distribution of the verbs in verse did result from the manipulation of formulae, but all three verbs employed were linguistically ‘real’ at some point in the history of OE. They did not, however, all originate at the same time or in the same way.
The Stoics’ Account Of The Cognitive Impression
Authors: Reed Baron
Published: November 2023

According to the story we have from Cicero’s Academica, Zeno, the founder of the Stoic school, began by defining the cognitive impression as one that is ‘impressed and sealed and moulded from a real object, in conformity with its reality’.1 Arcesilaus, the Academic Sceptic, then asked Zeno if this could be so even if a true impression ‘was of exactly the same form as a false one’-that is, would an impression count as cognitive if one could have, for example, a dream that was of exactly the same form? Zeno said no, a cognitive impression could not be of such a kind that ‘one proceeding from a non-existent thing could be of the same form’. Arcesilaus and the other Academics agreed with this, but then concluded that there could not be any cognitive impressions. It is the dispute over this claim, Cicero tells us, that ‘is the one argument that has held the field down to the present day’ (Cic. Acad. 2. 78).
Stoic Metaphysics at Rome
Authors: Sedley David
Published: November 2023

Probably the shortest, and certainly one of the most intriguing, of the numerous fragments of ancient philosophy to turn up in modern times is Poxy 3649.1 All that the sands of Egypt have preserved of this second– third-century ad scroll is its end title: What the content of Cornutus’ On properties book II was can be a matter of little more than speculation. This is a pity, because the topic was almost certainly metaphysical, and metaphysics is by no means a familiar aspect of the Stoicism that has come down to us from the Roman period. Cornets himself, on the other hand, is a well-documented figure from the imperial Stoa, even if his one surviving work, the allegorizing Survey of the Greek Theological Tradition, is far less often studied, discussed, or cited than the predominantly ethical writings of Seneca, Epictetus, and Marcus Aurelius, or even those of the less well-known Musonius Rufus. Born in Libya, teacher at Rome of the poets Lucan and Persius (the latter of whom bequeathed to him his complete collection of the works of Chrysippus), and exiled by Nero in the 60s ad, Cornets published extensively in both Greek and Latin.
The Discriminating Capacity of the Soul in Aristotle’s Theory of Learning
Authors: Haas Frans A J De
Published: November 2023

Richard Sorabji, who has inspired and fostered my philosophical work and career for many years, has remarked that among ancient philosophers, Aristotle most expanded perceptual content to compensate for the denial of reason and belief to animals.1 He has also claimed that Aristotle introduced the idea that perception is a kind of discriminating as part of his attempt to distinguish belief from perception.2 I offer this essay to Richard as a set of further considerations concerning the significance of discrimination in Aristotle, both perceptual and intellectual.
Competing Readings of Stoic Emotions
Authors: Gill Christopher
Published: November 2023

One of the most stimulating and rewarding features of my scholarly life has been a long-running debate with Richard Sorabji about the Stoic theory of the emotions. This debate took place in and around papers given by both of us in various contexts (including the Institute of Classical Studies and a conference in Helsinki on the emotions).1 It included long conversations examining certain key texts and exchanges of letters. Our differences on this topic have run deep and continue to do so. But, certainly on Richard’s side, this debate was always conducted in a spirit of open-minded enquiry and a humane concern both for the truth and for participants in the search for this—a spirit that is wholly characteristic of him.
Were Zeno and Chrysippus at Odds in Analysing Emotion?
Authors: Price A W
Published: November 2023

It is my loss to have coincided with Richard Sorabji in London for only a few years. The memories that I most treasure are of a unique style of seminar. Each occasion opened with the circulation of a generous handout of generally unfamiliar texts and translations. Richard would then invite us to think on our feet as he led us through them, not directing us how to read them, not pressing upon us some new and newly distorting interpretation, but recruiting us as volunteers in a voyage of shared discovery. His self-restraint and encouragement of others generated discussions as exhilarating and collaborative as any that I have known.
Architectures and Information Structure Inventory
Authors: Erteschik-Shir Nomi
Published: November 2023

One of the connections between information structure and syntax that is best known is the propensity for languages to order given, old, or topical information before new or focused information, and linguists from a variety of linguistic schools have attempted accounts of this phenomenon. Although the phenomenon is well established, it has not been a simple task to account for it. One reason is the fact that this is only a tendency: New information can, under certain circumstances, precede old information, and the cross-linguistic circumstances in which this occurs are rather evasive. Another reason this phenomenon is hard to explain is that linguists find it hard to agree on the concepts involved in the generalization: What exactly is a topic, and what exactly is a focus? Sections 1 and 2 are dedicated to these two concepts and it is concluded that topic and focus are the only information structure primitives needed to account for all information structure phenomena. Section 3 demonstrates that topic and focus interact and the theory of f(ocus)-structure which is based on this interaction is introduced. Next, various conceptions of how information structure fits into the architecture of grammar are examined (section 4). The chapter concludes with a section on information structure methodology (section 5).
On What There are
Authors: Shoemaker Sydney
Published: November 2023

Philosophers, and I suspect only philosophers, know about grue - the property (if that is what it is) that something has just in case it is green and examined before 2010 AD or blue and not so examined. Nelson Goodman introduced the predicate “grue” in order to raise an important problem about induction. But my concern here is not with the philosophy of induction; I am interested in grue only as an example of a fishy property. There are lots of other examples. Properties that are arbitrary disjunctions of ordinary properties, like being red or weighing thirty pounds, will strike most people as fishy. So also will such properties as being 50 miles south of a burning barn and having once been touched by the drummer of a rock band. So also will properties like
Simone de Beauvoir: A Woman Philosopher in the Context of her Generation
Authors: Imbert Claude , Grosholz E
Published: November 2023

There are many ways of commemorating The Second Sex,fifty years after its publication. Since then, each generation has given it a new pertinence, increasing its long-range influence in the course of a debate which is nowhere near being over. I would like to contribute to that discussion by evoking the philosophical context in which the book first defined its intent. How was Simone de Beauvoir able to confront philosophicallya question excluded by the very nature of the principles and positions in terms of which philosophy had traditionally justified itself? From this conflict stems a difficulty inherent in the project of The Second Sexwhich must not be forgotten if one is to do even minimal justice to the book.
Meaning What We Say: The Politics of Theory’ and the Responsibility of Intellectuals
Authors: Moi Toril
Published: November 2023

‘The desire for a theory that guarantees political radicalism and, idea1ly, political effectiveness, has been strong in recent years’, Jonathan Culler writes. As a feminist literary critic and theorist I know what he means, for I belong precise]y to the group of intellectuals for whom the question of the ‘politics of theory’ has been a cause of concern for a long time. Radical theorists often ask themselves whether the writing they do, which tends to be specialized and fairly abstract, really makes a political difference. Whenever I think about this I feel comforted by the thought that someintellectual works, at least, have had tremendous impact.