bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Postmodern Feminist Psychology
Authors: Lazard Lisa , McAvoy Jean M. , Capdevila Rose
Published: April 2016

Whilst the discipline of psychology has an indigenous critical and feminist tradition, postmodern feminist approaches have developed from, as well as alongside, the broader philosophical and theoretical critiques generated initially in other disciplines. The focus of postmodern feminist work in psychology is on the construction of gender and relations of power. It seeks to unpack the discursive practices that create the grand narratives of mainstream psychological work. By rejecting the possibility of universal objective truths, postmodern feminist psychology can ask questions about the operation of gendered power relations and how these become played out in and through knowledge.
Images of Gender and Sexuality in
S
outhern
A
frica
Authors: Bošković Aleksandar
Published: April 2016

Images of gender and sexuality in Southern Africa are important markers of gender relations, but they also reflect prevailing historical, political, and cultural circumstances. In this entry, they are examined in three contexts: (1) symbolizing the “primeval” or “original” sexuality of all humanity; (2) symbolizing Africans as different and potentially promiscuous sexual others; and (3) using bodies and body imagery as powerful symbols for social and cultural purposes. The first context is centered on the imagery of the Bushmen or San as members of “an original affluent society,” as well as on the story of Sara Baartman, who was exhibited in London and Paris in the early nineteenth century as “The Hottentot Venus.” The second aspect concentrates on colonial representations, primarily of African women, and the whole mythologizing of “native” (African) alleged promiscuity by colonial photographers. The third aspect is reflected in the representations dealing with health and social issues, especially when it comes to the prevalence of
HIV
infection. Dealing with sexual violence is also crucial, as it represents one of the more obvious forms of gender inequality. Representations in the media tend to objectify and essentialize African women, such as in the Land Rover advertisement in 2000.
Feminism inNortheastAsia
Authors: Molony Barbara
Published: April 2016

Feminism in Northeast Asia (Japan, Korea, and China) has been intertwined with nationalism and the construction of gender by both the state and activists seeking a role in the modern state since the late nineteenth century. At the same time, Asian feminists were also closely tied to transnational feminist organizations such as the Woman's Christian Temperance Union, Women's International League for Peace and Freedom, and the Young Women's Christian Association before World War II. Those groups offered inspiration to Asian women's rights advocates and, in some cases, gave them a platform to influence ideas and discourses when it was difficult to do so in their home countries.
Female Genital Cutting
Authors: Sardi Lauren M. , Maldonado Priscilla Marie
Published: April 2016

Female genital cutting is a term that encompasses a variety of procedures performed on female genitalia globally. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), which utilizes the term female genital mutilation/cutting, there are currently over 91 million girls and women in Africa alone who have been genitally cut or mutilated, and over 3 million girls are at risk of being cut or mutilated each year. The WHO also has the most extensive classification of types of female genital mutilation/cutting, which range from clitoridectomy and excision (Types I and II) to infibulation (Type III) and other procedures (Type IV). There are various reasons that such procedures are performed. Such reasons include the control of female sexuality for cleanliness, appearance, purity, and chastity before marriage or to become marriageable within one's culture. Female genital cutting or mutilation is also performed for religious reasons, although there are no religious mandates for such procedures.
Economic Determinism
Authors: Holgersson Ulrika
Published: April 2016

Economic determinism is a theoretical concept primarily associated with Karl Marx. The point of departure is thus his elaboration of a materialist conception of history. Fundamental to this is the notion of economic production transforming through history, following a certain set of phases, each characterizing different systems of society. In this connection Marx uses the metaphor of base–superstructure, according to which, in every society, politics, religion, and spiritual life are determined by the mode of production of material life. Since the death of Marx the base–superstructure model has been subject to a debate centered on the issue of economic determinism. In an attempt to organize these commentators, we can reflect on their views of the relation between base and superstructure as positions on a sliding scale. At one end are proponents of an understanding of the relation between economy and culture as rather automatic, mechanical, and unilateral. At the other end, culture is understood as decidedly independent. In between, we find perspectives that imply some kind of interplay. A critique that transcends the scale, however, is the one known as post‐Marxism. Another important strand of criticism of economic determinism can be derived from feminism.
Age of Consent in Historical and International Perspective
Authors: Hubbard Thomas K.
Published: April 2016

The controlling concept behind “age of consent” or “statutory rape” laws is the assumption that young people below a certain age have insufficient judgment, psychological maturity, or powers of resistance to be able to give informed consent to sexual intimacy with another person. That so many young persons choose to explore their sexuality at ages below the legally mandated minimums problematizes the laws' effectiveness and wisdom in the eyes of many critics. Scholars of gender and sexuality are actively involved in the debates, weighing the utility of these laws for agendas of child protection versus the repressive effects of the laws in privileging parental or state control over adolescents' sexual self‐determination and bodily autonomy. Although contemporary age of consent legislation does not distinguish on the basis of a young person's gender, this indifference was not the case historically.
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (
CEDAW
)
Authors: Cole Wade M.
Published: April 2016

The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1979, is one of 10 core UN human rights instruments. Often described as a bill of rights for women, CEDAW's 30 articles enshrine a series of civil, political, economic, and social rights for women. Among other things, the Convention recognizes the full equality of women and men under the law and proscribes discrimination against women in education, employment, political participation, healthcare, and economic life. Nearly 97 percent of the world's countries are party to the Convention; only a handful of states, including Iran, Somalia, Sudan, and the United States, have not ratified. Women in countries that belong to CEDAW enjoy higher literacy rates, greater participation in the economy, and more representation in parliament than do their counterparts in non‐ratifying countries. CEDAW membership is also associated with greater access to primary and secondary education for girls, increased government support for contraceptive access, and a larger share of women in public employment.
Androgyny
Authors: Nowak Kristine L. , Denes Amanda
Published: April 2016

Androgyny has both biological and psychological meanings and has been defined as a third category of gender for a person who is neither clearly male nor female. Biological androgyny is associated with intersex, which is a broad term that encompasses many medical diagnoses, but generally refers to individuals whose bodies do not clearly fall into the biological categories of male and female, including individuals born with both male and female genitalia, also called hermaphroditic. Psychological androgyny is the inability to identify one as either masculine or feminine, either because a person exists in the center of the continuum between masculinity and femininity, has an absence of either masculinity or femininity, or the presence of both. Moving beyond the definition of androgyny, there is debate about how to reliably measure and test it. Different measurement instruments are discussed as well as the potential for computer‐mediated interactions and visualization techniques to further explore aspects of gender while controlling for other factors.
Feminism,
I
slamic
Authors: Moghissi Haideh
Published: April 2016

Women in almost every Muslim society have placed issues of women's rights firmly at the heart of politics in their societies. Through their resistance against Islamist gender politics, women‐centered secular, religious, and/or non‐religious perspectives and activities have introduced a new dynamism into debates over religion and secularism and separation of state and faith. This has also inspired some feminist scholars in the field to identify these activists as Islamic feminists. This entry provides a background to the popularity of the term and the arguments of two sides of the debate over the potential of Islamic feminism as a culturally appropriate frame for feminist activism in Muslim‐majority countries.
Third World Women
Authors: Harcourt Wendy
Published: April 2016

The term “third world women” is a highly contested one, particularly in feminist and postcolonial studies. This entry looks at the debates around the term, specifically in relation to discussions on sexuality with the deepening understanding of gender power relations and sexuality in postcolonial and recent gender and development discourse.
Feminist Art Practice
Authors: Boylan Alexis L.
Published: April 2016

Feminist art practice is the attempt, by both artists and audiences, to articulate political and social spaces for feminisms through art. This practice is not defined by a specific aesthetic or form and there need not be agreement by artist or audience about what constitutes feminism or art. Instead, feminist art practice is defined by the intention and/or the potential to produce social, political, personal, and creative reflection on women, gender, and power through art.
Ladyboys
Authors: Käng Dredge Byung'chu
Published: April 2016

Ladyboy refers to transgender women. The partners of ladyboys are heterosexually identified men. The term is used primarily in Thailand and the Philippines, and is most commonly associated with beauty pageants, tourism, and sex work. Thus, the label can have negative connotations and should be used with care. Although there is high tolerance for ladyboys, they continue to face discrimination and structural impediments to their life opportunities.
Monogamy, Biological Perspectives on
Authors: Barash David P.
Published: April 2016

Monogamy is a particular type of association found among sexually reproducing species. It is characterized by the kind and duration of social bond, as well as by the variance in reproductive success of males and females. Although relatively rare in the animal world, there are certain circumstances that convey an evolutionary payoff to monogamy, whether social or sexual, or both.
W
icca
Authors: Jones Rene A. , Klostermann Keith
Published: April 2016

Wicca is a nature‐based religion, which is often misunderstood. Its founder, Gerald Gardner, established the religion in 1949. It influenced the sexual and women's rights movements and is one of the fastest growing religions in the United States.
Pro‐Life Movement in the
U
nited
S
tates
Authors: Williams Daniel K.
Published: April 2016

The pro‐life movement, a grassroots campaign to restrict or prohibit abortion in public law, has been an active participant in American politics since
Roe v. Wade
(1973), and has also had an international influence, especially in Catholic countries. Pro‐lifers have passed restrictions on abortion in many states and have won several Supreme Court cases. Although pro‐life activists have not yet been able to pass an anti‐abortion constitutional amendment or reverse
Roe v. Wade
, they have created thousands of crisis pregnancy centers to provide alternatives to abortion, and their actions may have helped reduce the abortion rate in the United States.
Refugees and Refugee Camps
Authors: Bartolomei Linda
Published: April 2016

While all refugees face risks, human rights abuses and privations during conflict and displacement, refugee women and girls face particular risks of sexual and other forms of gender‐related violence and discrimination. This chapter draws on some of the key academic and policy literature to explore gendered risks for women and girls in the context of refugee camps. Common risks for refugee women and girls are described and the intersections between displacement, gender, identity, power and lack of citizenship in the camp context are briefly explored. It concludes with a brief caution against framing understandings of violence in refugee contexts as having purely cultural origins and highlights the importance of the active engagement of refugee women and refugee communities in identifying problems and finding solutions.
UN
Decade for Women
Authors: Chaban Stephanie
Published: April 2016

Regarded as a significant institutional forum for the international women's movement to meet and further develop their agendas, the United Nations Decade for Women (the Decade) took place from 1975–1985 and began with the International Women's Year (1975). A succession of world conferences followed: the World Conference of the International Women's Year in Mexico City (1975), the World Conference of the United Nations Decade for Women: Equality, Development and Peace in Copenhagen (1980) and the World Conference to Review and Appraise the Achievements of the United Decade for Women: Equality, Development and Peace in Nairobi (1985). The Conferences centrally placed women's issues in the international arena and provided a forum for women's voices and opportunities for women to share their oppression, network, and strategize globally.
Status of Women Reports
Authors: Rimmer Susan Harris
Published: April 2016

Nation‐states since 1946 have considered the “status of women” within the UN system. Nations and now non‐governmental organizations provide public evidence of certain standards and datasets about the lives of their female citizens on a periodic basis in both global, regional, and national forums.
Environmental Justice
Authors: Adamson Joni
Published: April 2016

The environmental justice (EJ) movement is generally recognized as having originated in the United States in the 1980s. Today, women around the world are playing a major role in the movement as they work for an “intergenerational justice” that would ensure cleaner, safer homes, communities, playgrounds, gardens, rivers, forests, and oceans. They are calling attention to the ways in which gender discrimination and violence, toxic spills, mountaintop coal removal, and sea level rise are connected to social and environmental inequities that are leading to growing numbers of displaced “environmental refugees.”
Population Control and Population Policy
Authors: Wirtz Elizabeth
Published: April 2016

Population control is the practice of artificially altering the demographic composition of a given populace through policies targeting fertility, emigration, and/or immigration. Recently, population control has come to refer to efforts to curtail global population growth. Some argue that population growth is a major contributor to issues like environmental degradation, resource scarcity, and poverty, and thus population growth needs to be curtailed. Conversely, others argue that there is a dearth of data to substantiate these claims and that such intense focus on reducing population growth detracts from the genuine causes of the aforementioned issues and can lead to human rights abuses. Further research is needed to interrogate the causes and effects of population dynamics.
Sodomy Law in Comparative Perspective
Authors: Asal Victor , Sommer Udi
Published: April 2016

This entry on sodomy laws in comparative perspective provides a comparative overview of the current state of sodomy laws cross‐nationally and then delves into the factors that are likely to make a state more or less likely to have such a law. It highlights the massive positive changes that have taken place while illustrating that there are many countries where consensual same‐sex relations can result in imprisonment or death. It then discusses how and why current religious states and states with the Common Law are more likely to have laws that criminalize homosexuality.
Misogyny
Authors: Ussher Jane M.
Published: April 2016

Misogyny is defined as hatred of women or girls, expressed as disgust, intolerance or entrenched prejudice, serving to legitimate women's oppression. It is manifested through religious and cultural beliefs which represent women as dangerous, defiled, or polluting; hostile folklore and jokes; the sexualization and objectification of women through art, film, literature, the mass media and pornography; hostility towards women in positions of power; sexual violence and domestic despotism; female genital surgery and foot‐binding; and the visceral horror held towards women's secretions, including menstrual taboos and phobias. Misogyny damages the physical and mental health of women, putting them at a disadvantage throughout their lives and stifling the development of their societies. There are many psychological explanations for misogyny, including men's envy of women's capacity to reproduce; castration anxiety leading to fear of menstrual blood; frustration‐aggression, resulting from unfulfilled sexual desires for women; and psychic imbalance resulting from men's dependency on women, combined with regressed fear and longing of being physically consumed. Misogyny also serves to maintain women's position as the “second sex,” which benefits men financially, politically, and socially. Misogyny underpins gendered power imbalances in patriarchal society, and thus whilst patriarchy prevails, so will misogyny.
Amazons,Dahomey
Authors: Gailey Christine Ward
Published: April 2016

The only standing army in the precolonial kingdom of Dahomey in West Africa was a regiment of approximately 4,000 women. These “Dahomey Amazons” were women conscripted for life from local kin communities and symbolically married to the king. The circumstances of their recruitment and lives as women warriors exemplify transformations of gender and kinship in state formation, especially the extension of claims over local women's reproductive lives by an emerging ruling class.
Sex‐Related Difference Research
Authors: Budge Stephanie L. , Snyder Kate E.
Published: April 2016

This entry has three main purposes: to present theories related to sex differences research; to critique research focusing on sex differences; and to offer recommendations. Sex differences research often conceptualizes sex and gender interchangeably, confounding two distinct constructs. This entry addresses how theories of essentialism and social constructionism interact to influence how researchers study sex and gender. Research that focuses on sex differences is critiqued specifically in relation to the fields of medicine and psychology. The gender similarities hypothesis, differences in kind, and differences in degree are discussed. Finally, four recommendations are made: researchers should (1) consider sex and gender differences as separate questions, (2) assess sex and gender multidimensionally, (3) consider the gender similarities hypothesis, and (4) use an interactionist approach.
Capitalist Patriarchy
Authors: Hart Mechthild
Published: April 2016

The term “capitalist patriarchy” implies a close relationship between “capitalism” and “patriarchy,” with patriarchy nevertheless the primary system of oppression, or at least the primary focus of a particular writer at a particular time. Depending on the writer's theoretical framework and historical understanding of the origins of either system of oppression, patriarchy may be considered a “pre‐capitalist” form of social relations whose function under capitalism needs to be understood, or as the overarching system of oppression, with capitalism only its latest expression.
Sex‐Radical Feminists
Authors: Peluso Natalie M.
Published: April 2016

Sex‐radical feminism, also known as pro‐sex feminism, is one of many strains of modern feminist thought. Sex‐radical feminists are often defined in opposition to radical feminists. Some key themes present within sex‐radical feminist work include an emphasis on the importance of sexual pleasure, the reclaiming of “outlaw” identities such as “slut” and “whore,” and the potential for female empowerment through sex.
Romantic Friendship
Authors: Diggs Marylynne
Published: April 2016

The term “romantic friendship” is used in historical and literary research to denote intimate relationships between same‐sex partners during those eras when such relationships were viewed as socially acceptable for men or women. Romantic friendship is an important concept in historical and literary scholarship, one that emerged in response to early gay and lesbian studies, was later challenged by queer theory, and has seen a renaissance in recent years.
Non‐Violence
Authors: Costain Anne N. , Costain W. Douglas
Published: April 2016

Non‐violent tactics are prevalent in many historically consequential social movements, especially those dealing with sex, gender, colonialism, and race. Gandhian political thought has influenced numerous movements with its rationale for non‐violence as an ethical and effective form of resistance. Political movements extending from woman suffrage to current pressure for greater democratic processes in Asia invoke its justifications within their own cultural contexts. Despite its prevalence, debate continues over whether non‐violence works as well as violence in bringing about lasting change. Gender plays an important role in this discussion because of the persistent global gender gap between women's and men's attitudes and support for non‐violence as a political tactic.
Sexology and Psychological Sex Research
Authors: Rowland David L. , Pinkston Devin M. , Reed Holly M.
Published: April 2016

Sexology, a discipline that has evolved over the past 150 years, refers to the scientific study of sexuality. Academically, sexology spans the physical, biological, psychological/behavioral, and social sciences and typically includes the study of human sexual attitudes, interests, behaviors, development, problems, and aberrations. Today, sexology enjoys a position of respect in higher education in most nations – represented by academic departments, faculty appointments, majors and minors, undergraduate and graduate degrees, congresses, and a host of journals. In this entry, we present a brief history of sexology as well as select topics of interest, including psychosexual development, sexual and gender identity, sexual health, sexual response, and sexual problems as represented by the sexual dysfunctions and the paraphilias. For each topic, a brief description is provided, along with contemporary thought, developments, and issues surrounding the particular topic of study.
Woman‐Centeredness
Authors: Giarratano Gloria
Published: April 2016

Woman‐centeredness is ideology for societal or institutional transformation aimed to liberate women and put women at the center. This transformation occurs through consciousness raising and education of women and the disruption of usual power structures to change services, environments, or products so they center on the needs and advancement of women. The decentering of patriarchal power gives women control to make decisions and creates environments centered on women's perspectives. Woman‐centeredness is explicitly demonstrated in the women's health movement. Childbirth and women's health activists use women‐centeredness ideology as the framework to change healthcare practices and develop healthcare delivery systems that center on women, and share power and decision‐making with women.
Feminist Sex Wars
Authors: Showden Carisa R.
Published: April 2016

The phrase “feminist sex wars” refers to debates among feminists about ways in which both sexual orientation and sexual practices can contribute to either domination or liberation. Although the sex wars over lesbianism in the feminist movement have been largely resolved, arguments over pornography, prostitution, and sexual practices such as BDSM are still fairly active. Contemporary feminist sex wars are being waged most fiercely between abolitionist, anti‐pornography feminists and so‐called “pro‐sex” or “sex‐positive” feminists, who are often aligned with queer theorists and third‐wave feminists. These groups disagree about whether sexual practices are separate from sexual identities, and about the relationship between prostitution, pornography, and human trafficking.
Gender, Politics, and the State in theUnitedStates andCanada
Authors: Thomas Sue , Tolley Erin
Published: April 2016

The history of the relationships among gender, politics, and the state are similar, although not identical, in the United States and Canada. This essay discusses women's enfranchisement, the three stages of the women's movement for political equality, women's policy foci and successes, and levels of political representation in the context of the governmental structures of the two nations.
Sexuopharmaceuticals
Authors: Vares Tiina
Published: April 2016

The development of sexuopharmaceuticals (medications designed to improve or maintain sexual function) is a recent phenomenon. This entry discusses the rise of erectile dysfunction (ED) and female sexual dysfunction (FSD) and pharmaceutical treatments for these. This is located in a broader context of biomedicalization of sexuality and a move to “positive aging.” Given that there is currently no FDA‐approved pharmaceutical for FSD, an overview of social scientific research on Viagra and erectile dysfunction, informed by a critical engagement with biomedicalization and positive aging, is provided. This includes Viagra marketing and the experiences of male Viagra users and their partners.
Gender, Politics, and the State in
A
boriginal
A
ustralia and
T
orres
S
trait
I
slands
Authors: Dudgeon Pat
Published: April 2016

Reclaiming and reconstructing gender roles and re‐establishing the status and position of Indigenous Australian women continues to be a significant part of future Indigenous developments. While acknowledging that the processes of colonization have distorted and diminished women's leadership roles, strong Aboriginal women have actively shaped Indigenous communities and politics. Aboriginal women are challenging and voicing new ways to reclaim and reconstruct their identities as culturally located and to free themselves from colonial interpretations.
Emotional Abuse of Women
Authors: Davis Keith E. , Allen Christopher T.
Published: April 2016

Emotional abuse can be conceptualized as any set of activities design to humiliate or otherwise reduce the standing of another person. Broadly, emotional abuse results from interactions that remove people from a place of value and restrict their freedom. Existing literature suggests that these three components – degradation, control, and credible threat – constitute the core components of emotional abuse. Recently, the study of these factors has been expanded to include assessment of the emotional and or behavioral impact of ostensibly abusive behaviors. More systematic research is needed to identify the presence and nature of any differences in women's and men's experiences of emotional abuse. Finally, while available data indicate both short‐ and long‐term consequences of emotional abuse, prevention and treatment efforts specifically targeting this form of abuse are in their infancy. Treatments for related types of abuse are discussed.
Structural Adjustment
Authors: Berik Günseli
Published: April 2016

Structural adjustment refers to the process of restructuring national economies using a standard package of policies that emphasizes the market as the main mechanism for the allocation of economic resources. Structural adjustment programs (SAPs) have been a key contributor to economic globalization from the 1980s onwards as they have been widely implemented in rich, transition, and poor countries alike. Feminist researchers showed that SAPs tend to have disproportionate adverse impacts on women, particularly among low‐income groups, as they increase women's unpaid workload and constrain the options for securing livelihoods. Feminist critiques of SAPs have contributed to the development of alternative macroeconomic policies for broadly shared development.
Feminism inSoutheastAsia
Authors: Molony Barbara
Published: April 2016

Most feminisms in the diverse countries of Southeast Asia initially developed in the context of nationalism. The roles of women in feminist nationalism were both symbolic – women were constructed as representing the imagined community of the longed‐for independent nation – and active – real women played roles in feminist and nationalist movements. In the post‐independence period, women's movements have continued to flourish.
LGBT
Activism in
S
outheast
A
sia
Authors: Das Arpita , Sharma Alankaar
Published: April 2016

LGBT activism in the 11 countries of Southeast Asia, although not homogeneous, has resisted oppression and promoted rights of the diverse sexual orientation and gender identity (SOGI) minorities within the region and globally. Some of the major focus areas of LGBT activism have been elimination of punitive and unjust laws, especially sodomy laws; enactment of anti‐discriminatory laws; depathologization of SOGI minorities while advocating for better health services for them; and bringing attention to and celebrating the SOGI diversity in the region, including native SOGI communities. Highlighting and including concerns and rights of SOGI minorities in universal, regional, and national human rights instruments and mechanisms has been another important focus area for LGBT activism while also engaging with other rights‐based activist groups for addressing intersectional issues.
Womanism
Authors: Johnson Kimberly P.
Published: April 2016

Womanism is a liberation movement that originated as a result of feminism's racial divide and the gender divide of The Civil Rights Movement. The practices and ideologies of womanism work toward dismantling the hegemonic power structures that continue to oppress those who are marginalized. Womanism broadens the goal of the Women's Liberation Movement and even reaches beyond the African‐American female to give voice to all who are silenced (male and female – within the United States, Africa, and the African diaspora) and to liberate all who are oppressed. This liberation movement promotes freedom from economic, political, social, and religious oppression worldwide. Womanist activism is expressed through womanist literature, womanist theology, womanist preaching, womanist discourse, womanist epistemology, and womanist ethics.
Disease Symptoms, Gender Differences in
Authors: Senanayake Lakshmen
Published: April 2016

Although biological differences between men and women lead to differentials in symptoms, prevalence, and health outcomes of diseases, they rarely act alone but often with gender acting as a social determinant interacting with other determinants of health. Gender also has important implications in response to symptoms and receiving care in terms of decision‐making, access to resources and services which in turn affects one's health. Gender stereotyping has an impact on the perception of symptoms and the individual's health‐seeking behavior. Impact of gender in disease is seen clearly when considering conditions such as coronary vascular disease, migraine, HIV infection, road traffic accidents, and mental health issues. Gender has a significant role in shaping the interphase between provider and patient, both in terms of the quality of care given by the provider, and as perceived by the patient. Gender has a profound and consistent impact on many diseases by way of symptoms, management, and patient compliance which needs to be recognized.
Queer Performance
Authors: Krell Elias
Published: April 2016

Queer performance signals a wide array of events, including musical theater, opera, performance art, dance, theater, film, and video art, that depict alternative identities and modes of life. A term that gained popularity in the 1990s, “queer” can signal deviation from cultural expectations, especially with regard to sex, gender, and sexuality, but also with other vectors of difference such as race, class, nation, and ability. Queer performance can be a synonym for gay and lesbian art, and can also be understood more widely as staged or everyday acts that unsettle political, social, and/or aesthetic norms around gender and sexuality. Queer performance thus paradoxically signals both gay and/or lesbian art and those that critique mainstream gay and lesbian aesthetics and politics.
Reproductive Justice and Reproductive Rights in the
U
nited
S
tates
Authors: Luna Zakiya
Published: April 2016

A myriad of social and economic institutions, legal structures, and identities both enable and constrain reproductive experiences. Reproductive health, reproductive rights, and reproductive justice are related concepts that together describe the range of sites, forms of struggle, and goals within the broader reproductive movements. The terms point to how reproductive politics has been engaged in the United States and, to some degree, globally. The entry highlights some key historical approaches, legal cases, and social movement activity.
Medicine and Medicalization
Authors: Waggoner Miranda R.
Published: April 2016

Medicalization, now a familiar term in social science and medicine, refers to the process by which a non‐medical problem comes to be treated as a medical one. Much literature on medicalization comes from feminist studies of the medicalization of gendered bodies. Topics such as the medicalization of infertility, homosexuality, premenstrual syndrome, pregnancy, childbirth, menopause, sexual dysfunction, or sexual identity, among many others, have animated the medicalization literature for decades, offering an analytic window into how gender, the body, and sexuality are viewed in both society and medicine. Given that recent studies indicate that medicalized phenomena continue to proliferate, future studies of medicalization that take sexuality, reproduction, and embodiment as key analytic lenses into medicalization processes will yield ongoing and vital insights into the relationship between gender, society, and medicine.
Gender as Institution
Authors: Birch Jessica E.
Published: April 2016

Gender as institution is a relatively recent theoretical innovation. The paradigm of gender as institution integrates social construction theory, gender performativity theory, and symbolic interactionism into a multidimensional understanding of gender as a system of stratification with a historical basis that acts on multiple levels to create, perpetuate, and justify gender inequality.
Nazi Persecution of Homosexuals
Authors: Jensen Erik
Published: April 2016

Nazi Germany convicted about 50,000 men of homosexual acts, sending nearly 10,000 of them to concentration camps, where between 5000 and 7000 of them died from starvation, abuse, overwork, disease, and shooting. The Nazis aimed to eliminate homosexuality within the German people through a variegated policy that included lengthy imprisonment, brutally hard labor, coerced castrations, dangerous hormone treatments, and physical abuse. The persecution varied in intensity over time and focused almost entirely on homosexual men. Even those who escaped detection lived in fear, and most survivors died without any postwar acknowledgment of their suffering.
Beauty Industry
Authors: Kwan Samantha
Published: April 2016

Every society has cultural ideals that define physical attractiveness. For example, today the feminine beauty ideal in the United States is taut and slender. In contrast, in some West African countries, the feminine beauty ideal is voluptuous and heavy set. Where beauty ideals come from is open to debate. On the one hand, some evolutionary psychologists argue that desirable characteristics, such as large breasts in women and broad shoulders in men, signify reproductive potential and the ability to protect offspring. On other hand, some sociologists argue that beauty ideals are socially constructed, that is, they are by‐products of humans and social institutions such as the mass media. A social constructionist argument maintains that the beauty industry plays a key role in creating these ideals.
Hostile Work Environment in the
U
nited
S
tates
Authors: Gates Trevor G.
Published: April 2016

A hostile work environment refers to workplace harassment behavior that is so pervasive that it impacts an employee's ability to do her or his job. An environment that is hostile usually results from unwelcome behavior of co‐workers, supervisors, clients, or others with whom the worker has contact. In order to be considered a hostile work environment that is actionable under the law, the behavior must be egregious, intimidating, and offensive to the individual and would be equally egregious, intimidating, and offensive to other people who are similarly situated as the affected employee. Additionally, the behavior must be so severe that it impacts the employee's ability to carry out the daily functions of her or his position.
Genetics Testing and Screening
Authors: Borry Pascal
Published: April 2016

Sex selection for medical purposes in order to avoid the transmission of an X‐linked condition to a next generation is a widely accepted procedure. In contrast, sex selection for non‐medical reasons has been the focus of huge policy debate.
Patriarchy
Authors: Levy Donald P.
Published: April 2016

Patriarchy is a social structure that serves to promote the power and privilege of the male ruling class. Patriarchy impacts individuals in a variety of domains, including the state, the culture, the family system, and individual identity. Patriarchy's impact is not limited to female identified individuals, but individuals of all gender identities.
Taboo
Authors: Allan Keith
Published: April 2016

Taboo is described and some kinds of taboo are illustrated along with ample evidence of taboo violation. Genital mutilation is discussed to contrast the non‐taboo status of male genital mutilation with the Western taboo against female genital mutilation. The entry demonstrates that taboo refers to a proscription of behavior for a specifiable community at a specifiable time in specifiable contexts. For behavior to be proscribed it must be perceived as in some way harmful to an individual and their community.
Women in Non‐Traditional Work Fields
Authors: Price Vivian
Published: April 2016

Among the ways women try to raise their standard of living is by entering non‐traditional occupations, jobs from which they have long been excluded or marginalized for reasons of culture, discrimination, contract, or law. They have been attracted to these jobs in part because male‐dominated employment generally pays better than female‐dominated jobs. Comparing the concept “non‐traditional” internationally and historically raises important paradoxes about the social construction of work.
K
insey Scale
Authors: Quinan Christine L.
Published: April 2016

The Kinsey Scale of Sexual Behavior was first developed in 1948 to show how sexuality cannot be framed as purely heterosexual or homosexual but is instead a continuum based on a number of factors, including behavior, desire, and fantasy. Also known as the Heterosexual‐Homosexual Rating Scale, Alfred Kinsey and colleagues created the seven‐point spectrum (0 to 6) to account for research findings based on more than 11,000 in‐depth interviews. Kinsey's research was quite radical for its time, as it formally acknowledged the range and variability of sexual orientation, showing that it is not fixed or static.
Victimization
Authors: Nagy Victoria M.
Published: April 2016

Victimization is defined as the process of becoming a victim. Victimization can take many forms and generally is different for men compared to women. Women are more likely to be victims of sexual violence and child sexual abuse, whereas men are more likely to be victims of assault and murder. Perpetrators against men and women, however, overwhelmingly tend to be men. The power dynamic between victim and perpetrator is often a very important factor in victimization.
Reproductive Choice
Authors: Griffiths Danielle , Harris John
Published: April 2016

Gender selection denotes both the autonomy to decide whether or not to have children as well as the freedom to control one's own reproductive capacity. When individuals are restricted in their ability to reproduce due to infertility, or reproduce in ways of their own choosing, such autonomy is constrained and questions arise about how far they should be able to access artificial reproductive technologies (ARTs) to attempt to overcome such constraint. As types and use of ARTs proliferate such questions are becoming ever more pertinent. Liberal democracies have to justify limitations on freedom. Purported restrictions cannot simply invoke unease about unnaturalness or transgression of certain traditional boundaries, rather there must be evidence and adequate argument to show that they point to serious and real dangers to others and/or society. Lacking such evidence and argument there is scant justification to constrain procreative liberty in this area.
Sects and Cults
Authors: Richardson James T.
Published: April 2016

This entry briefly describes the historical development and meaning of the concepts sect and cult, and discusses ways in which meaning of the terms has been expanded and evolved in a more negative direction, especially for the term cult. Ways in which sect and cult organizational forms change is also discussed, along with how such groups might evolve into other forms. The role of gender and sexuality in sects and cults is also briefly discussed.
Feminism, Material
Authors: Hekman Susan
Published: April 2016

Material feminism is an approach to the construction of knowledge that emerged in the late twentieth century. It provides a counter to the extreme social constructionism that dominated feminist discussions in the 1980s and 1990s. Unlike the social constructionists, material feminists emphasize the role of the material in the construction of knowledge. The approach is particularly strong in feminist discussions of science and studies of the body.
Women's and Feminist Activism inSoutheastAsia
Authors: Bong Sharon A.
Published: April 2016

Women's/feminist activism in Southeast Asia offers a critical relativism standpoint and praxis that embraces both the universalism of women's human rights and the particularities of cultures and religions, to realize gender equality and gender equity more effectively. In doing so, it re‐imagines the global vision and practice of women's human rights. Women's activism as feminist is consonant with the genesis of women‐centered activism sustained by campaigns against violence against women. Women's activism as feminist is dissonant with the ethos of some women's NGOs who eschew self‐identification with feminism as a western ideology and foreign practice to Asian values. These tensions are fittingly framed within a feminist postcolonial theorizing that privileges not only gender but also ethnicity, class, cultures and religions as analytical categories in making sense of gender inequality and gender inequity. The future direction of women's/feminist activism lies in the complementary sexuality rights activism following the Yogyakarta Principles.
Female Farming Systems
Authors: Ransom Elizabeth , Wright Wynne , Bain Carmen
Published: April 2016

Female farming systems draws attention to women's (re)productive roles in agriculture, with particular attention to questions of power, equity, and empowerment. Female farming systems as an organizing concept highlights what was a surprisingly neglected field of study until the 1970s and provides insights into the gendered nature of agriculture. In the past and the present the term “farmer” presumes a male identity. Globally, women have often been marginalized from farming by denying them access to the material resources needed for success such as land, labor, and capital. Due to a variety of reasons there is a feminization of agriculture underway, and therefore, it remains important to focus on questions of equity and empowerment for women engaged in agriculture. Although originally solely focused on women in low‐income countries, female farming systems is now used to think about the varied activities of female food producers in both low‐ and high‐income countries.
Gender, Politics, and the State, and theMāori
Authors: Houkamau Carla
Published: April 2016

A diversity of perspectives and wide variety of cultural and social features characterize Māori society and there is no one consensus view held by Māori in relation to gender roles, political orientations, or Māori/government (or state) relations. Both Māori women and men have shared in the struggle to assert Māori resistance to colonial encroachment and one gender cannot be elevated over the other. Moreover, Māori views and perspectives on the different roles of Māori men and women are contested and differ tribally and between individuals. This entry describes aspects of precolonial Māori society that shaped traditional values and discusses key sociohistorical factors shaping gender roles among Māori. A focus on the contribution of Māori women to Māori development and advancement is offered. The relationship between Māori identity, culture, and the New Zealand government (or state) is highlighted throughout.
Anti‐Miscegenation Laws
Authors: Kitch Sally L.
Published: April 2016

Anti‐miscegenation (racial mixing) laws have been enacted around the world throughout history. In mainland British colonies and the United States such laws regulated marriages between persons of different races, primarily between blacks and whites, from 1634 to 1967, when the Supreme Court declared them an unconstitutional mechanism for maintaining white supremacy inLoving v. Virginia. That decision exposed the faulty legal reasoning that exempted interracial marriages from the usual protections provided to marriage and citizenship on the grounds that miscegenation was illicit. British New World island colonies did not enact anti‐miscegenation laws, but they did regulate the rights of mixed‐race progeny. Often overlooked in discussions of these and other anti‐miscegenation laws and policies are their inherent gender biases and their protection of white male prerogatives as a keystone of the doctrine of white supremacy.
Feminist Perspectives on Whiteness
Authors: Bailey Lucy E.
Published: April 2016

Interdisciplinary feminist perspectives of whiteness have developed since the 1970s and shifted over time as new conceptions of whiteness and new racial processes have unfolded. Feminist scholars have analyzed whiteness as a socially constructed category rather than a biological reality and considered its multidimensional expressions and its effects on embodied beings. Key feminist contributions to the investigation of whiteness have included both expanding the concept of whiteness beyond a masculine subject and the concept of intersectionality, which refers to the multiple and intersecting aspects of identity and oppression that shape people's lives. Although feminist scholars have offered salient critiques about the limits of whiteness studies as an anti‐racist endeavor, new approaches for conceptualizing and investigating whiteness emerge through postcolonial, indigenous, and transnational lenses.