bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Race, Gender, and the Early PTA: Civic Engagement and Public Education, 1897–1924
Authors: Woyshner Christine
Published: January 2004

This article examines the origins of the National Parent-Teacher Association and questions its current image as a white, middle-class women's association. Founded as the National Congress of Mothers in 1897, the association was wedded to late-nineteenth century maternalist ideology that held that all women were united across race, class, and religion in their particular obligation to ensure the proper rearing of all children. The author considers this maternalism and its role in the development of the organization. First, she argues that the emphasis on woman-as-mother allowed for the rapid expansion of a national organization, which by 1920 created considerable tension between women volunteers and male school administrators. By the 1920s, male administrators succeeded in containing the influence of the PTA by employing a rhetorical strategy that separated fundraising from volunteers’ educational work. Then, the author investigates the NCM's racially inclusive policy, a central component of maternalist thinking unique for this era, and argues that it posed the greatest challenge to the organization. This historical study raises questions about the role of civic voluntary associations in public education in a democracy.
Testing the differential urbanisation model in Great Britain, 1901–91
Authors: Champion Tony
Published: January 2004

This paper tests the relevance of the differential urbanisation model for depicting the spatial urban development of Great Britain. Population change is studied for eight, mainly decade–long, periods from 1901 to 1991 using a version of the Centre for Urban and Regional Development Studies (CURDS) Functional Regions framework. Rates of population growth are calculated for a Britain–wide classification of settlements based on population size and for a six–fold typology based on status within the national urban hierarchy. The differential urbanisation model is then tested for Great Britain as a whole and for four broad regional divisions. The results suggest that the British urban system had very largely moved beyond the urbanisation stage by the beginning of the twentieth century and that counter–urbanisation was the prevailing pattern before mid century.
Differential urbanisation in Finland
Authors: Heikkilä Elli
Published: January 2004

The purpose of this paper is to examine the process of urbanisation in Finland over a long time span 1941–98 in the light of the theoretical model of differential urbanisation, at the same time testing the applicability of the latter to the Finnish situation. Urbanisation began in Finland relatively late by comparison with other European countries, but the process has taken place all the more rapidly. Urbanisation started out from large cities, and in the case of the capital, Helsinki, the early primate city stage began before 1940. Features of the stages outlined in the model are identifiable in the process of urbanisation as it has taken place in Finland. The urban system in Finland progressed in the mid 1970s to the small–sized city stage, when polarisation reversal came to an end and counter–urbanisation set in. The net migration balance of cities and towns became negative in 1977, i.e. they began to lose population to rural communes. This was the first real period of the clean break and it continued to the 1980s. In 1980 the net migration balance for large cities was positive but it changed back to negative in the beginning of the 1980s. Population concentration in the few large cities in Finland started again in the 1990s. Spatial differences in urbanisation are also observable at the local level which have been exemplified by the province of Uusimaa in Southern Finland, regional analyses for Southern and Southeastern Finland and Kainuu county in Northern Finland.
Differential urbanisation in South Africa – a further exploration
Authors: Geyer Hermanus S.
Published: January 2004

Work in the field of differential urbanisation in South Africa was first done in the late 1980s. The South African studies prompted further research in this field which subsequently led to the development of the differential urbanisation model. The model explains how groups of small towns, medium–sized cities and large metropolitan areas go through successive periods of fast and slow growth in a continuum of development that spans the evolution of urban systems in developed and developing countries. In this study an attempt was made to further test the relevancy of some elements of the model within the South African context. Looking at population redistribution trends from different angles, the study results show that the conclusion drawn during the first two studies, namely that the South African urban system seems to have approached the polarisation reversal phase of development during the 1980s was in fact correct. The study also shows that caution should be exercised when applying the model to actual case studies. The temporal model (graph) refers to an ideal situation where urban areas are evenly distributed in an area with relatively evenly distributed natural endowments. In real life it is important that local circumstances and the history of urban growth and decline in the growth patterns of groups of cities be carefully taken into account when the phase of development of an urban system is considered. In the South African situation, for instance, it appears that the country entered the polarisation reversal phase twice, once during the 1950s and again during the 1980s. It was found, however, that what appeared to be polarisation reversal in the 1950s can be interpreted as a particular form of urbanisation.
Urban and rural population change in Estonia: patterns of differentiated and undifferentiated urbanisation
Authors: Tammaru Tiit
Published: January 2004

A main postulate of the concept of differential urbanisation is the similarity of the process of urbanisation across countries of different social contexts, with towns going through a three–stage growth cycle – urbanisation, polarisation reversal and counter–urbanisation. The aim of this paper is to analyse whether the claims of the model hold true in Estonia. The main results of the analyses show that towns of different sizes have followed a similar or undifferentiated pattern of growth, which peaks in the immediate post–War decades and slows down thereafter. The major demarcation line runs rather between urban and rural areas. However, the stability of the rural population and a decrease of urban population growth rates led step by step towards population deconcentration or counter–urbanisation in Estonia, being fully evident in the 1990s. Immigration kept large cities growing during the Soviet period and emigration was the major factor in urban population losses in the 1990s.
Lessons Learned from Testing the Differential Urbanisation Model
Authors: Kontuly Thomas , Geyer Hermanus S.
Published: January 2004

This paper summarises the usefulness of the differential urbanisation model, to characterise regional urban development in terms of a temporal sequence of stages from urbanisation through polarisation reversal to counter–urbanisation, as revealed in nine empirical tests (Britain, Estonia, Finland, Western Germany, India, Italy, Russia, South Africa, and Turkey). First, results of the testing are summarised. Based on the results of these nine empirical tests, we attempt to answer the question ‘Did the differential urbanisation model fit reality?’ Also discussed are modifications to the model suggested during the course of empirical testing. Then directions for future testing and improvements to the model are suggested.
Rural Areas in the Netherlands
Authors: Haartsen Tialda , Huigen Paulus P.P. , Groote Peter
Published: January 2004

According to the OECD standard, there are no rural areas in the Netherlands. Nonetheless, debate continues about the future of the Dutch countryside. In order to explore how Dutch inhabitants think about rural areas a survey was conducted by the authors, focusing on two topics: the kind of associations respondents to the survey have with respect to rural areas; and where they think rural areas are located in the Netherlands. The analysis shows that respondents’ representations of rurality are mainly formed along visual–figurative dimensions. It was also found that such representations of the rural differ by age of the respondents. Whereas seniors in general have more socio–cultural representations, young people see the countryside mainly as an agricultural production zone.

With regard to the location of rural areas, respondents indicated that ‘genuine’ rural areas are to be found in the periphery of the country: the North. Opinions regarding the location of attractive and unattractive rural areas seem to differ between age groups.
Meeting the Needs of Pupils who are ‘Looked After’
Authors: Fletcher‐Campbell Felicity
Published: January 2004

Schools should never become complacent about the quality of care they offer their pupils. The situation described by Felicity Fletcher‐Campbell illustrates the need for careful review of how the needs of every group of pupils in a school are met. A small minority of pupils are ‘looked after’ by the local authority. Their educational experiences are frequently as negative and traumatic as their domestic experiences. Drawing on research recently completed by the National Foundation for Educational Research, this article describes ways in which schools can support pupils who are in the care system.
Leading Values and Casting Shadows: Moral Dimensions of School Leadership
Authors: Sullivan John
Published: January 2004

Gerard Egan describes the shadow side of management as all the important activities and arrangements that do not get identified, discussed and managed. John Sullivan argues that the image of ‘shadows’ is relevant to understanding some features of schools. The leadership role of heads is related to gaps between mission and practice and the ‘shadow’ side of organizations. Emphasis on mission could lead to the imposition of ethos. If heads are to avoid slipping into manipulation, it is suggested that they might usefully retrieve some insights from Aristotle, especially with regard to the art of rhetoric.
Personality Discovery: Personality Patterns in Teachers and Their Pupils
Authors: Hedges Patricia
Published: January 2004

Having provided an historical review of the development of theories of personality, this paper discusses the significant research that has been undertaken in this area. One example is Myers' work which is important both in terms of the original research and of the production of a questionnaire (type indicator) which has been used in over 40 countries. Using Jung's theory of psychological types and the more recent work of David Keirsey on temperaments, Patricia Hedges argues that there will be cases where a mismatch between teacher and pupil temperament will exist, with potentially serious consequences. The final section introduces a programme designed to increase self‐understanding, heighten awareness and ultimately lead to more satisfactory relationships and to more effective learning and teaching.
Should Spirituality be Taught in Post‐compulsory Education? Justifications for its Inclusion in the Further Education Curriculum
Authors: Tatarkowski Marilyn
Published: January 2004

Marilyn Tatarkowski points to Dearing's suggestion that all providers of education and training should take spiritual and moral issues into account in the design and delivery of the curriculum. In her own FE college she found that social science students were generally positive about the idea of a forum to discuss religious and spiritual issues, and that a high percentage of them had become more interested in this area since moving into HE. Having provided a detailed analysis of the concept of spiritual development, she ends by providing both a justification for the inclusion of spiritual development in the FE curriculum and some suggestions as to how this might be done.
Values: Roots or Fruits? Shifting the Emphasis in Values Education
Authors: Long Jonathan
Published: January 2004

Jonathan Long suggests that current interpretations of values education are dominated by a number of ideas that appear to make attempts to achieve clarity and consensus extremely difficult. He argues that ‘essential to the successful development and promotion of values in a secular state educational system is a shifting of emphasis which enables us to see the context as an opportunity rather than a problem’. He goes on to suggest that schools should focus on what he describes as the ‘roots’ of values. In his view, these roots involve the questions ‘What is it to be human?’ and ‘What counts as human flourishing?’. Thus, schools must engage with issues of identity and direction.
Institutional Choice and Policy Transfer: Reforming British and German Railway Regulation
Authors: Lodge Martin
Published: January 2004

The notions of “policy learning” and “policy transfer” have become increasingly influential in the public‐policy literature. By utilizing a comparative analysis of regulatory change in the railways in Britain and Germany, it is argued that an institutional approach adds to the understanding of “learning” and “transfer” processes, as well as explaining which institutions mattered as Britain and Germany adopted distinctively different regulatory regimes. The institutional approach points to the constraints involved in the selection of regulatory design ideas and, by assessing three institutional factors that structure relationships between the policy domain and its environments, suggests that in the case of railway privatization in Britain and Germany in the 1990s, it was the structure of the political‐administrative nexus that centrally shaped why particular policy options were selected while others were neglected.
Brussels between Bern and Berlin: Comparative Federalism Meets the European Union
Authors: Börzel Tanja A. , Hosli Madeleine O.
Published: January 2004

In the current debate on the future European order, the European Union (EU) is often described as an “emerging federation.” This article claims that federalism is not exclusively useful in deliberating about the future of the EU. Non‐statecentric conceptions of federalism provide a better understanding of the current structure and functioning of the European system of multilevel governance than most theories of European integration and international relations do. We combine political and economic perspectives of federalism to analyze the “balancing act” between effective political representation and efficient policy‐making in the EU. Drawing on the examples of Germany and Switzerland in particular, we argue that the increasing delegation of powers to the central EU level needs to be paralleled by strengthened patterns of fiscal federalism and an empowered representation of functional interests at the European level. Without such “rebalancing,” the current legitimacy problems of the EU are likely to intensify.
After the Public Interest Prevails: The Political Sustainability of Policy Reform
Authors: Patashnik Eric
Published: January 2004

The prevailing political science wisdom is that narrow interests regularly triumph over the general public. Yet the stunning passage of broad‐based policy reforms in the face of intense clientele opposition suggests that the U.S. political system has a greater capacity to serve diffuse interests than has often been thought. Some of the most provocative policy‐oriented political‐science research during the 1980s and 1990s examined how these surprising reform victories occurred. Unfortunately, general‐interest reforms do not always stick; reforms may be corrupted or reversed after their enactment. The long‐term sustainability of any given policy reform hinges on the successful reworking of political institutions and on the generation of positive policy‐feedback effects, especially the empowerment of social groups with a stake in the reform&s maintenance. This paper explores the postenactment dynamics of three canonical instances of general‐interest reform legislation: tax reform, agricultural subsidy reform, and airline deregulation. Only in the airline‐deregulation case has the self‐reinforcing dynamic required for political sustainability been unmistakably evident. For analysts and advocates of general‐interest reform measures alike, the clear lesson is to attend far more closely to what happens after reforms become law.
Leadership and Institutional Reform: Engineering Macroeconomic Policy Change in Australia
Authors: Goldfinch Shaun , Hart Paul ‘t
Published: January 2004

This article seeks to enhance the actor perspective on major policy reforms. It builds upon the literature on “policy entrepreneurs” and addresses its explanatory vagueness by specifying five hypotheses outlining the actions that proponents of major policy change need to take in order to be effective in forging departures from existing, path‐dependent policies and to overcome entrenched opposition to reforms. These hypotheses on “reformist political leadership” (after Blondel) are applied to the four attempts to reform key aspects of macroeconomic policy in Australia under the first two Labor governments led by Robert J. Hawke.
Interaction between States and Citizens in the Age of the Internet: “e‐Government” in the United States, Britain, and the European Union
Authors: Chadwick Andrew , May Christopher
Published: January 2004

We examine the origins of the recent shift towards “e‐government” in three cases: the United States, Britain, and the European Union. We set out three heuristic models of interaction between states and citizens that might underpin the practice of “e‐government.” Focusing on U.S., British, and European Union initiatives, we undertake a comparative analysis of the evolution of key policy statements on e‐government reform in national (and supranational) government. We conclude that the democratic potential of the Internet has been marginalized as a result of the ways in which government use of such technology has been framed since the early 1990s. An executive‐driven, “managerial” model of interaction has assumed dominance at the expense of “consultative” and “participatory” possibilities.
GDP Growth Accounting: A National Income Function Approach
Authors: Kohli Ulrich
Published: January 2004

In this paper, we provide a decomposition of GDP growth that is complete and exact for the translog national income function and for the Törnqvist index of real GDP. The contributions of changes in output quantities, factor prices and total factor productivity are identified. Special consideration is given to foreign trade, with imports treated as a negative output. Annual estimates for the United States are reported for the period 1948–98.
Multilateral Comparisons of Productivity, Terms‐of‐Trade and Factor Accumulation
Authors: Shiu Alice
Published: January 2004

This paper proposes a new approach for multilateral comparisons using index numbers. The new approach combines two recently‐proposed innovative techniques to examine differences among economies at various levels. The Minimum Spanning Tree algorithm, based on the idea of minimizing substitution bias of bilateral comparisons, provides a possible ordering for panel data. Making use of the suggested ordering, bilateral Törnqvist price and quantity indexes are calculated and multilateral indexes are obtained by chaining. An index‐number based approach is then used to decompose the differences in GDP at the bilateral level. Different sources that contribute to the differences in GDP are considered: productivity differences, terms of trade differences, factor endowments differences and domestic output price differences. The newly formed indexes are base‐invariant which provides strong support for using the technique for multilateral comparisons. An illustration of the technique using data from China and four OECD countries is included.
Improving Estimates of Inequality and Poverty from Urban China's Household Income and Expenditure Survey
Authors: Gibson John , Huang Jikun , Rozelle Scott
Published: January 2004

In urban China the Household Income and Expenditure Survey requires respondents to keep a daily expenditure diary for a full 12‐month period. This onerous reporting task makes it difficult to recruit respondents, compromising the sample. This article uses monthly expenditure data from two urban areas of China to see if data collection short‐cuts, such as extrapolating to annual totals from expenditure reports in only some months of the year, would harm the accuracy of annual expenditure, inequality and poverty estimates. Replacing 12‐month diaries with simple extrapolations from either one, two, four or six months would cause a sharp increase in estimates of annual inequality and poverty. This undermines international comparisons of inequality statistics because no country other than China uses such comprehensive 12‐month expenditure records. But a corrected form of extrapolation, based on correlations between the same household's expenditures in different months of the year, gives much smaller errors in estimates of inequality and poverty.
The Wealth Dynamics of Entrepreneurship for Black and White Families in the U.S.
Authors: Bradford William D.
Published: January 2004

Among black and white families, entrepreneurs hold disproportionately more wealth than workers. Black entrepreneurs hold a lower fraction of black family wealth than white entrepreneurs hold of white family wealth, because black families have a lower rate of entrepreneurship. Black and white entrepreneurs have more upward and less downward mobility in the wealth distribution than black and white workers, respectively. The black entrepreneurs and white entrepreneurs have similar upward mobility and black entrepreneurs less downward mobility in the wealth distribution. The entrepreneurs save at higher rates than workers, and the saving rates of black entrepreneurs and white entrepreneurs are not found to differ.
The SNA93 Values as a Consistent Framework for Productivity Measurement: Unsolved Issues
Authors: Aulin‐Ahmavaara Pirkko
Published: January 2004

The SNA93 as a source of a consistent set of values for productivity accounting is studied. In the valuation of intermediate inputs and outputs the main problems relate to the treatment of taxes and subsidies on products. In labor share the main problem is the separation of the labor compensation of the self‐employed. As to the value of capital input, the exact relationship between depreciation, efficiency decline and obsolescence is missing in the SNA93. All relevant assets are not allocated to industries. Treatment of the services of financial intermediaries is also problematic
The State of the Welfare State
Authors: Ryan Paul
Published: January 2004

Books reviewed in this article:

J.M Wildeboer Schut, J.C Vrooman and P.T de Beer, On Worlds of Welfare: Institutions and their Effects in Eleven Welfare States

Jørgen Goul Andersen and Per H Jensen, Changing Labour Markets, Welfare Policies and Citizenship
If Love Then Justice
Authors: Rimor Mordechai
Published: January 2004

Love belongs to the personal realm, while justice belongs to the public. Love originated evolutionarily in the subjective parent‐child relationship. Justice originated in the objective perception of our social relationships. Both concepts have deep roots in our feelings. Although justice and love are interdependent, love is a prerequisite to justice. Most of those who love would behave justly to their loved ones, but not vice versa. Laws and norms try unsuccessfully to enhance love among us. However, they would hardly attain justice. With love we do not need laws or armies. Justice would necessarily prevail, and much more. Intuitively and psychologically, love is more basic than justice for our existence. Research shows that in our pursuit of happiness, love plays a central role, while justice does not. For many, love is also a goal of our existence.

“The long demand for justice exhausts the love which nevertheless gave it birth.” (source unknown)
Outcome Expectations in Prolonged Conflicts: Perceptions of Sense of Control and Relative Deprivation
Authors: Moore Dahlia , Aweiss Salem
Published: January 2004

How do feelings of deprivation and a sense of control influence future expectations on the parts of Jews, Arabs, and Palestinians? We assumed that all non‐Jews, but especially Palestinians, are discriminated against in Israel and that awareness of discrimination may have two related effects. First, it may strengthen feelings of relative deprivation among members of the group being discriminated against. Second, awareness of discrimination may lower the sense of control among the disadvantaged, because their life experiences diminish their ability to exercise authority and influence in order to direct and regulate their choices. However, when analyzing expectations, previous studies focused either on relative deprivation or on sense of control, not on both. Assuming that the two are related, we included both to analyze outcome expectations. We also present an alternative approach to sense of control to include an expressive dimension of control in addition to the traditional instrumental dimension. As expected, the findings indicate that Palestinians have the strongest feelings of personal deprivation and the lowest future expectations. Jews feel the lowest personal deprivation and have the highest expectations.
Intergroup Dialogue for a Just and Diverse Democracy
Authors: Schoem David
Published: January 2004

If media attention is any indicator of public trends, then the mid‐ to late 1990s would have been the age of intergroup dialogue in the United States. But as one steps back from all the media attention, it is important to consider more carefully what is meant by the term “intergroup dialogue,” why this work is important for democracy, and in what ways it addresses issues of social justice. Intergroup dialogue is a positive and powerful process in which different groups come together from various walks of life to build a strong democracy. Democracy is a powerful but fragile political arrangement, requiring careful maintenance, regular nurturance, and continuing advancement and improvement in the areas of social justice and equality. This paper presents a framework for thinking conceptually and pragmatically about intergroup dialogue by (1) exploring the place of intergroup dialogue in creating a just and diverse democracy, (2) examining what does and does not constitute intergroup dialogue, and (3) discussing critical issues in approaches to intergroup dialogue.
Sustainable Development and Social Justice: Spatial Priorities and Mechanisms for Delivery
Authors: Roberts Peter
Published: January 2004

In most treatments of social justice, little consideration is given to spatial concerns. However, it is increasingly evident that spatial or territorial factors play a major role in determining life chances and in helping to deliver social inclusion. This paper considers the key theoretical issues that underpin the spatial dimension of social justice. From this, the paper progresses to examining the factors that have influenced the introduction of sociospatial development as a component part of the adoption of the sustainable development paradigm. Illustrations are provided of the outcome of this new model including the construction of the European Spatial Development Perspective and the introduction of Community Planning in Scotland. A final section looks forward to the wider adoption of a sociospatial approach to policy development and implementation.
Downsizing Survival: The Experience of Work and Organizational Commitment
Authors: Knudsen Hannah K. , Aaron Johnson J. , Martin Jack K. , Roman Paul M.
Published: January 2004

Although downsizing has become a common feature of American workplaces, the existing literature has focused on the effects of how downsizing is conducted, rather than considering how downsizing affects the experience of work for downsizing survivors. Using data from the 1997 National Employee Survey and structural modeling techniques, this study compares downsizing survivors and workers unaffected by downsizing on a variety of sociodemographic indicators, job characteristics, and organizational environment measures in order to explain the lower levels of organizational commitment among survivors. The model in which downsizing survival was directly and indirectly associated with commitment was generally supported. Survivors reported less commitment than unaffected workers. In addition, downsizing survival was positively associated with job‐related stress and negatively associated with perceived organizational support, which translated into survivors’ lower levels of commitment. This research suggests that organizations that downsize should consider ways to redesign work processes so as to reduce job‐related stress and should engage in organizational practices that demonstrate organizational support for surviving employees.
Working “Off the Books”: Patterns of Informal Market Participation within New York's East Village
Authors: Ann Snyder Karrie
Published: January 2004

Most research on the informal economy concentrates on how the informal economy operates at the international and regional levels along with the formal economy and the state. This article departs from current research on the informal economy by looking at how the informal economy operates within the lives of its participants. It considers how informal workers use informal work as both an economic and an identity resource. Informal workers create informal careers and informal work environments in accordance with financial and identity goals and needs. The intersection of informal work as an identity resource and as an economic resource creates a typology of informal market participation types. Among a group of self‐employed workers in New York City's East Village neighborhood, four patterns of informal market participation emerge: Entrepreneur, Occupier, Avocationalist, and Allowance Seeker.
From archetypes to reflective function
Authors: Knox Jean
Published: January 2004

Abstract: This paper challenges the view that mental contents can be innate and offers instead a developmental model in which mental contents emerge from the interaction of genes, brain and environment. Some key steps on this developmental pathway are traced, such as the formation of image schemas. The processes by which mental contents are evaluated and organized are described, notably those of perceptual analysis, representational re‐description and appraisal. Jung's concept of the transcendent function is seen to have certain crucial features in common with each of these processes. The emergence of the capacity to symbolize is explored in relation to these concepts and it is suggested that the pinnacle of this capacity is achieved in the emergence of reflective function, in which mind is represented to itself.
What are symbols symbols of? Situated action, mythological bootstrapping and the emergence of the Self
Authors: Hogenson George B.
Published: January 2004

Abstract: This paper addresses the question of how symbols should be understood in analytical psychology and psychoanalysis. The point of view examined focuses on the recent turn to more cognitive and developmental models in both disciplines and briefly reviews and critiques the evolutionary and cognitive arguments. The paper then presents an argument based on dynamic systems theory in which no pre‐existing template or structure for either mind or behaviour is assumed. Within the dynamic systems model the Self is viewed as an emergent phenomenon deriving from the dynamic patterns existing in a complex system that includes the physiological characteristics of the infant, the intentional attributions of the caregiver and the cultural or symbolic resources that constitute the environment. The symbol can then be seen as a discrete, and in important ways an autonomous, element in the dynamic system. Conclusions are drawn for further research into the nature of the symbol with implications for both theory and practice in analytical psychology and psychoanalysis.
The mind–brain relationship: the emergent self
Authors: Wilkinson Margaret
Published: January 2004

Abstract:  This paper explores the mind–brain relationship, using insights from contemporary neuroscience. It seeks to investigate how our brains become who we are, how subjective experience arises. In order to do this some explanation is given of the basic concepts of how the brain produces our subjective mental life. Current neuropsychological and neurobiological understanding of early brain development, memory, emotion and consciousness are explored. There is also an attempt at mapping the mind–brain‐self relationship from a uniquely Jungian perspective. Clinical material is included in order to show the relevance of these insights to our work in the consulting room, arguing the value of the affect‐regulating, relational aspects of the analytic dyad that forge new neural pathways through emotional connection. Such experience forms the emotional scaffolding necessary for the emergence of reflective function.
From aggressiveness to creativity
Authors: Mrevlje Gorazd V.
Published: January 2004

Abstract:  Psychology has a long tradition of considering human creativity as a distinct human characteristic and a special kind of human activity. After explaining the key motives for such an attitude, the author discusses those forms of healthy aggressiveness that stand out as necessary and constitutive elements of the creative process.

Taking the well‐known statement of C. G. Jung's ‘The person who does not build (create), will demolish and destroy’ as a starting point, the author compares the basic premises for understanding the process of human creativity, at the same time drawing on Freud's psychology of the individual and Jung's principle of the collective unconscious as well as his notion of ‘complexes’. In doing so, the author somewhat boldly paraphrases Jung's dictum: ‘In order to be creative, rather than just constructive, one must occasionally also destroy’.

With reference to Wallas, Taylor and Neumann (Wallas 1926; Taylor 1959; ;Neumann 2001), the author goes on to explore those concepts which help us to investigate the phenomenon of human creativity, drawing distinctions between emergent, expressive, productive, inventive and innovative creativity.

The second part of the article discusses the importance of intelligence, originality, nonconformity, subversiveness and free‐mindedness for the creative process of human beings. The author concludes with a further explanation of Erich Neumann's argument that human creativity cannot be understood solely as a result of sociogenetic factors, and argues that it is only by taking into consideration Jung's perception of creativity that a global ontological understanding of these processes can be achieved.
Non‐linear biological responses to environmental noise affect population extinction risk
Authors: Laakso Jouni , Kaitala Veijo , Ranta Esa
Published: January 2004

Non‐linearities are commonly observed in the responses of organisms to environment. They potentially modify the qualitative and quantitative properties of population dynamics. We studied how non‐linear responses to environment, or “noise filters”, influence population variability and extinction risk by introducing coloured noise to the growth rate in the Hassell single‐species model. The consequences of noise filtering were analysed by comparing the model dynamics with linearly filtered and non‐linearly filtered noise that have the same mean. Three biologically plausible filters we used: saturating, unimodal optimum type, and sigmoid responses.

Filtering can either decrease or increase population variability when compared to linear noise response. The effect of noise filtering on variability is most pronounced with stable population dynamics and the outcome depends on the filter type, population growth rate, and noise colour.

Non‐linear noise filtering predominantly increases extinction risks when population growth rate is low (R<5). As an exception, saturating filter has a window of decreased risk at very low growth rate and reddened environment. In the unstable range of the dynamics (15<R<25), the optimum and saturating type responses can decrease the extinction risk whereas the sigmoid response increases extinction risk. Noise filtering can also alter the route to extinction in slowly growing populations from slow to rapid decline towards extinction in optimum and saturating responses.

These results suggest that accounting for the non‐linear responses to environment should be considered when estimating extinction risks and population variability. Moreover, the non‐linear responses make noise colour a more important factor in these analyses.
Population dynamics and life history tactics of arthropods from Mediterranean‐type ecosystems
Authors: Stamou G. P. , Stamou G. V. , Papatheodorou E. M. , Argyropoulou M. D. , Tzafestas S. G.
Published: January 2004

The null hypothesis of this paper is that survival of arthropods under the severe Mediterranean conditions involves specific combinations of conservative and conformist traits. To test this hypothesis a modeling approach employing a Leslie‐type matrix model and a fuzzy systems technique for parameter estimation is developed and applied to a model species. The general conclusion is that the results of this paper add support to the null hypothesis, whereas specific conclusions are as follows: 1) matrix models merging demographic and physiological parameters are suitable tools for the simulation of population dynamics of arthropods and further for the discussion of the interplay among life history traits; 2) employing linguistic instead of arithmetic variables, fuzzy approaches allow for the formalization of incomplete and/or missing data exploiting expertise concerning related species; 3) in general, population dynamics of arthropods follow the seasonality of the Mediterranean climate; 4) the basic mechanism underlying skewing phenologies and stochastic equilibrium is identified with the type of temperature dependence of arthropod metabolic activity; 5) under optimal conditions an exponential trend is superimposed on seasonal population dynamics; 6) more realistic conditions involving large‐scale random oscillation in temperature in autumn and spring coupled with small‐scale temperature oscillation in summer and winter result in stochastic equilibrium; 7) moderate contamination of soil and medium‐scale oscillation in temperature result in stable temporal patterns; 8) a sensitivity analysis shows disproportional effect of different demographic parameters on population growth rate. Fecundity of young and middle‐aged adults is most important for the rate of population growth, whereas elder animals are considered an important pool for maintenance of the population.
Abundance and viability of fungal spores along a forestry gradient – responses to habitat loss and isolation?
Authors: Edman Mattias , Gustafsson Mårten , Stenlid Jan , Ericson Lars
Published: January 2004

Regional variation in spore deposition and viability was studied for two fungi, Fomitopsis rosea (Alb. & Schwein.: Fr.) P. Karst. and Phlebia centrifuga P. Karst., both confined to old‐growth spruce forests in the boreal zone. Seven regions in Sweden were studied along a north‐south transect in which the historical impact from forestry increases and the amount old forests decreases towards the south. The two southernmost regions were located outside the distribution border of the species. Spore deposition was measured species specifically as heterokaryotisation of homokaryotic mycelia growing on wood discs. There was a significant decline in spore deposition towards the south for both species. F. rosea deposited an average amount of 111 spores m−2 24 h−1 in the northernmost region compared to less than 1 spore in the four southernmost regions. The corresponding values for P. centrifuga were 27 spores m−2 24 h−1 in the north compared to less than 2 spores in the 4 southernmost regions. No deposition was found south of the distribution borders. The viability of spores from local populations within each region was measured as germination success on nutrient media. Individual fruiting bodies from large populations in the north generally produced spores with higher germinability than fruiting bodies from geographically isolated populations in the central and southern regions. However, there was a high variation among the southern populations. Our data suggest that some populations in mid‐ and south Sweden may suffer from negative genetic effects, possibly associated with fragmentation and loss of habitat. Thus, the combination of low spore deposition and low germinability of spores may be a threat to the long‐term persistence of F. rosea and P. centrifuga in southern Sweden. Several other species may experience the same situation, especially when considering the severe decline of dead wood in Swedish forests.
Immigration and local competition in herbaceous plant communities: a three‐year seed‐sowing experiment
Authors: Mouquet Nicolas , Leadley Paul , Mériguet Jacques , Loreau Michel
Published: January 2004

Understanding the relative roles of local and regional processes in determining local species diversity is now of strong relevance in basic ecology. To address this question, we have tested the influence of immigration on species diversity dynamics in a three‐year experiment using herbaceous plant communities. We manipulated the intensity of seed rain (i.e., immigration) and the relative contribution of each species to the seed rain. For each of three levels of intensity of immigration (seed rain), we considered three cases, in which immigration was either negatively correlated, positively correlated, or uncorrelated with local competitive ability. Our experiment illustrates how both immigration and local competition contribute to explaining species diversity in herbaceous plant communities. Communities were more diverse when they received more seeds and when immigration was inversely correlated or uncorrelated with local competitive ability. Only species of intermediate or low competitive ability responded positively to the seed‐addition treatment. Community‐level functional properties were not strongly modified by immigration: immigration treatments did not differ in total above‐ground biomass and plant cover, soil surface occupation was higher at high immigration intensities. A comparison of our results with theoretical models of plant community structure suggests that the mechanisms underlying the species dynamics in our communities were probably a mixture of colonization‐extinction and competitive weighted lottery.
Implications of mate search, mate choice and divorce rate for population dynamics of sexually reproducing species
Authors: Berec Luděk , Boukal David S.
Published: January 2004

In this paper we examine how the process of mate search, degree of mate choice and degree of mate fidelity may interact to affect long‐term population dynamics of sexually reproducing species. In particular, we address the following questions: are degree of mate choice and degree of mate fidelity correlated? How does mate search shape this relationship? How does longevity affect mating behaviour? To resolve these questions, we develop a spatially explicit, individual‐based model of a sexually reproducing population with single (i.e. unpaired) males, single females, and pairs as focal individuals. Both this model and its non‐spatial approximation give rise to the Allee effect due to lack of mating possibilities, and sufficiently small/sparse populations always go extinct. We quantify combinations of mate choice and divorce rate under which populations persist or go extinct even from high sizes. We thus show that there exist ecological constraints for possible (co)evolution of mate choice and pair maintenance behaviour. Our models also suggest that colonial species with active mate search strategy survive at higher divorce rates than less colonial animals that search for their mates randomly, and that long‐lived species sustain at higher degrees of mate choice and lower degrees of mate fidelity compared to the short‐lived ones. Connection of these findings to other theoretical results and some empirical observations is discussed.
Is the matrix really inhospitable? Vole runway distribution in an experimentally fragmented landscape
Authors: Cook William M. , Anderson Reuben M. , Schweiger E. William
Published: January 2004

Habitat fragmentation is a common feature of modern landscapes, with significant impacts on the population densities of and space use by animals. A frequent model system for studying these effects is that of voles (Microtusspp.) and other rodents in experimentally fragmented grasslands. Design of these study sites is motivated by landscape theory, and often assumes that the matrix between discrete experimental habitat patches is inhospitable to focal species. Our census ofM. ochrogasterrunways in an experimentally fragmented landscape in eastern Kansas indicates that voles make substantial use of the mowed matrix, and that such use increases with degree of habitat fragmentation. Census season (winter, summer) was also an important predictor of observed runway distributions. Our results suggest that voles may have home ranges that include multiple small fragments and also the intervening matrix, leading to overestimates of population density. While the assumption that the matrix is inhospitable in experimentally fragmented habitats may be justified in many cases, studies using the model system ofMicrotusspp. or ecologically similar rodents in grasslands should incorporate methods that account for use of the matrix.
Faced with a choice, sparrowhawks more often attack the more vulnerable prey group
Authors: Cresswell W. , Quinn J. L.
Published: January 2004

Whether predators always attack the most vulnerable prey or simply attack prey that exceeds a minimum vulnerability level is an important question to answer in furthering our understanding of predator and antipredation behaviour. Predators may attack any reasonably vulnerable prey rather than waste time identifying the most vulnerable prey, particularly when prey can respond quickly to alter their vulnerability in response to a predator. We tested whether sparrowhawks always choose to attack the group of prey that maximises their capture probability, or whether they simply attack any group above a minimum vulnerability. We modelled sparrowhawk attack success when hunting redshanks using data from three winters and found that probability of capture increased when group size or distance to predator‐concealing cover decreased. We then used this model to predict the relative vulnerability to capture of redshank groups occurring in pairs in a fourth winter and found that sparrowhawks attacked the most vulnerable prey group twice as often as not (66% n=59 pairs). When sparrowhawks attacked the less vulnerable group, there was no tendency for both groups to be particularly vulnerable or for the difference in the vulnerability between the two groups to be relatively small. This suggests that, while sparrowhawks do on average attack the most vulnerable group available, they consider other factors that affect vulnerability or that additional factors lead them to also attack opportunistically. This suggests that there will be selection for the predator to monitor a large number of prey individuals and groups and for prey to have the ability to monitor the behaviour of conspecifics in the same and different groups so that they can assess relative vulnerability.