bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Metaphor, Embodied Realism, and Sacramental Truth
Authors: Shaver Stephen R.
Published: December 2021

This chapter and the next provide an introduction to the field of cognitive linguistics. This chapter focuses on core concepts including conceptual metaphor, metonymy, polysemy, and prototype theory (conceptual blending is explored in Chapter 3). Based on this overview, the author argues that language “means” not through referential correspondence to objective, observer-independent reality but by prompting for embodied simulation on the part of hearers and readers. Language, then, is true insofar as these simulations are apt to reality as experienced by embodied human beings. The chapter proposes that this epistemological perspective of “embodied realism” is congruent with the critical realism endorsed by many recent theologians and with a sacramental worldview in which the material world can be the arena for God’s self-communication.
Containment
Authors: Shaver Stephen R.
Published: December 2021

The second of three chapters exploring spatial imagery, Chapter 8 explores the motif of containment—the idea that Christ’s body and blood are “in” or “under” the bread and wine. The CONTAINER image schema has two significant entailments for eucharistic presence: transitivity (if A is in B and B is in C, A is in C) and concealment (something inside an opaque container cannot be seen). Transitivity enables Christians who take the eucharistic elements into their bodies to understand Jesus in turn to be inside them. Concealment facilitates reflection on the fact that the body and blood of Christ are not accessible to the senses. Roman Catholic and Lutheran traditions make significant use of containment imagery; Reformed and Eastern Orthodox traditions have been reticent but have been willing to use it on occasion. The chapter also gives specific attention to transubstantiation as a special combination of change and containment motifs.
Bringing the Repertoire Together
Authors: Shaver Stephen R.
Published: December 2021

This concluding chapter assembles the complete repertoire of proposed motifs—identity, representation, change, containment, and conduit—together with verbal affirmations for each. Summarizing conclusions from previous chapters, it describes each motif’s respective cognitive underpinnings and its distinctive entailments. It also proposes that divisions over practices such as the appropriate disposal of consecrated elements and the legitimacy of reservation and adoration have arisen from differences in these entailments and that a multiply metaphorical approach can help churches practice mutual forbearance and respect. Multiply metaphorical thinking provides access to otherwise inaccessible truths. No metaphor is the whole truth, and each unique, irreplaceable metaphor needs to be complemented and counterbalanced by others.
Vehicles of the Soul from Plato to Philoponus
Authors: Cox Simon
Published: December 2021

This chapter traces the prehistory of the subtle body, developing out of late antique Neoplatonic conceptions of the ochema-pneuma, “vehicles of the soul,” which bear souls from one incarnation to the next. It goes through the entire history of late antique Neoplatonism surveying how major thinkers engaged with and formulated ideas about these soul-bearing vehicles, from the mystical existentialism of Porphyry and Iamblichus (third century) to the detailed and philosophically sophisticated descriptions of Damascius and John Philoponus (sixth century). It ends with the ascendance of Christianity for which this notion was no longer useful, jettisoning the subtle body and sending the idea into a thousand-year slumber.
Oriental Origins
Authors: Cox Simon
Published: December 2021

This chapter shows how the subtle body concept as established by the Cambridge Platonists was carried forward in popular and literary domains and later used as a stock concept in the earliest English translations of Sanskrit texts. It takes the reader through the birth of Indology in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, tracing the subtle body concept through early translations of yoga and Sāṃkhya philosophy, focusing on how the authors posited historical connections between Neoplatonic and Hindu philosophies, laying the groundwork for future understandings of the subtle body as a concept spanning a great East-West divide.
The Wisdom of the Mahatmas
Authors: Cox Simon
Published: December 2021

This chapter begins with the early formation of academic Tibetology and examines how Tibet was folded into Europe’s nineteenth-century India-centric Orientalism. The chapter then moves on to the story of Helena Blavatsky and the foundation of the Theosophical Society in 1875, examining how the subtle body was portrayed in her books published in the 1870s and 1880s. It shows how her engagement with the subtle body—that is, her weaving together of Neoplatonic, Kabbalistic, Darwninan, German idealist, Transcendentalist, and Orientalist strands—significantly laid the groundwork for future permutations of the subtle body in both popular and academic arenas.
Two Ciceronian Traditions in the Aftermath of Machiavelli
Authors: Hawley Michael C.
Published: December 2021

This chapter examines two parallel tracks on which Cicero’s influence was set during the seventeenth century. On the one hand, new natural law philosophers, Hugo Grotius and Samuel von Pufendorf, sought to vindicate a political order based on Ciceronian natural law. But in doing so, they tended to diminish the role of the people as ultimately politically sovereign. At the same time, English republicans such as James Harrington and John Milton sought to reconcile Ciceronian and Machiavellian republicanism, while minimizing the place of natural law. In short, the two pillars of Cicero’s original republican formulation became bifurcated.
Commerce Department Controls on Exports of “Dual Use” and Lower-Level Military Goods, Software, and Technology
Authors: Hirschhorn Eric L. , Egan Brian J. , Krauland Edward J.
Published: December 2021

Chapter 1 covers U.S. government controls on exports, reexports, and transfers of “U.S.-origin” goods, software, and technology that are commercial, “dual-use” (i.e., having both civilian and military uses), and low-level military in nature. These are governed principally by the Export Control Reform Act of 2018 and the Export Administration Regulations (EAR), which are administered by the Commerce Department’s Bureau of Industry and Security. The chapter explains: what kinds of items are subject to the EAR; the various bases for the EAR’s restrictions; how to determine whether your product or technology is covered and, if so, whether you will need a license to export or reexport it; how to get a license if one is required; how to clear and document the actual export; and the potential penalties for violating the rules. The chapter also explains how the EAR relate to the regulatory regimes covered in other parts of the book.
SSD for R
Authors: Auerbach Charles , Zeitlin Wendy
Published: December 2021

Single-subject research designs have been used to build evidence to the effective treatment of problems across various disciplines, including social work, psychology, psychiatry, medicine, allied health fields, juvenile justice, and special education. This book serves as a guide for those desiring to conduct single-subject data analysis. The aim of this text is to introduce readers to the various functions available in SSD for R, a new, free, and innovative software package written in R, the robust open-source statistical programming language written by the book’s authors. SSD for R has the most comprehensive functionality specifically designed for the analysis of single-subject research data currently available. SSD for R has numerous graphing and charting functions to conduct robust visual analysis. Besides the ability to create simple line graphs, features are available to add mean, median, and standard deviation lines across phases to help better visualize change over time. Graphs can be annotated with text. SSD for R contains a wide variety of functions to conduct statistical analyses traditionally conducted with single-subject data. These include numerous descriptive statistics and effect size functions and tests of statistical significance, such as t tests, chi-squares, and the conservative dual criteria. Finally, SSD for R has the capability of analyzing group-level data. Readers are led step by step through the analytical process based on the characteristics of their data. Numerous examples and illustrations are provided to help readers understand the wide range of functions available in SSD for R and their application to data analysis and interpretation.
Introduction
Authors: Auerbach Charles
Published: December 2021

Single-subject research has historically had an important position in the areas of research and practice evaluation. With the current trend toward evidence-based practice, the emphasis in this chapter is on the demand for and reliance on this practice-based, evidence-building research design to increase in the future. SSD for R is a software package available to help researchers and practitioners analyze single-subject research data. This chapter describes the historical, current, and future uses of single-subject research and the contributions of these designs to both visual and statistical analysis. A brief review of software packages to handle this type of analysis is included in this chapter. Finally, an overview of the functionality of SSD for R is provided.
Statistical Tests of Type I Error
Authors: Auerbach Charles
Published: December 2021

This chapter covers tests of statistical significance that can be used to compare data across phases. These are used to determine whether observed outcomes are likely the result of an intervention or, more likely, the result of sampling error or chance. The purpose of a statistical test is to determine how likely it is that the analyst is making an incorrect decision by rejecting the null hypothesis, that there is no difference between compared phases, and accepting the alternative one, that true differences exist. A number of tests of significance are presented in this chapter: statistical process control charts (SPCs), proportion/frequency, chi-square, the conservative dual criteria (CDC), robust conservative dual criteria (RCDC), the t test, and analysis of variance (ANOVA). How and when to use each of these are also discussed, and examples are provided to illustrate each. The method for transforming autocorrelated data and merging data sets is discussed further in the context of utilizing transformed data sets to test of Type 1 error.
Environmental Biodynamics
Authors: Arora Manish , Curtin Paul , Curtin Austen , Austin Christine , Giuliani Alessandro , Birnbaum Linda S.
Published: December 2021

The book provides a new conceptual framework to explain the interaction of complex systems, specifically humans and their environment. It proposes that human physiology and the environment do not “connect” with each other in a direct, unidirectional manner, like a beaker pouring water into a cup. Rather, the authors propose the Biodynamic Interface Conjecture with the central axiom that complex systems cannot interact directly or exist in isolation due to temporally embedded functional interdependencies within and between systems. The authors propose that human physiology and the environment contribute to the formation of an interface, and by doing so they give rise to an intermediary that guides the interaction by letting some influences pass between the systems while restricting others. This proposition counters many structural approaches that assume that complex systems, such as the environment and humans, can transfer information directly between them while remaining discrete entities. Although developed for environmental health sciences, the conjecture has broader implications for the study of complex system interactions across various levels of organization, and the central role of time and temporal dynamics in system-to-system information exchange. This conjecture also argues against causal paradigms that (incorrectly) assume that systems are distinct entities interacting directly and ignore boundary conditions, and organizational levels, and complexity inherent in biological and environmental systems.
Moving Artistry
Authors: Pinzino Mary Ellen
Published: December 2021

Chapter 2 addresses the power of movement in the development of children’s artistry. It presents movement as the embodiment of children’s artistry, propelling the awakened musical mind to full body engagement. It addresses the importance of flowing movement and weighted movement in terms of both music development and choral artistry. It applies movement in the development of vocal technique and energy in singers and addresses movement in rehearsal and performance. It applies movement directly to the teaching of a new song, implementing ideas presented in this book up to this point. This chapter builds on concepts presented in Chapter 1, moving the foundations of artistry into sheer musicality in both the music classroom and children’s chorus. Insights gained from this chapter can be applied to singers of all ages and used with any methodology. Understandings from this chapter can lead to improving choral performance at all levels.
For Starters
Authors: Pinzino Mary Ellen
Published: December 2021

Etude 1 helps the teacher with getting started in giving voice to children’s artistry and provides materials for implementation in the music classroom and children’s chorus. It is designed to help the teacher reach and teach the musical mind. It provides songs and chants for tonal and rhythm narratives in the various tonalities and meters, with very short art songs that draw children deeper into tonality and into the choral art. This Etude can be directly applied to the music classroom or children’s chorus for activities, recordings, or warm-ups. This Etude is also designed for professional development, so the teacher can work independently with the various meters and tonalities as needed to develop greater competence and confidence in using them with children. The materials of this Etude can be used with singers of all ages.
Materialism from Hobbes to Locke
Authors: Duncan Stewart
Published: December 2021

Are human beings purely material creatures, or is there something else to them, an immaterial part that does some (or all) of the thinking, and might even be able to outlive the death of the body? This book is about how a series of seventeenth-century philosophers tried to answer that question. It begins by looking at the views of Thomas Hobbes, who developed a thoroughly materialist account of the human mind, and later of God as well. All this is in obvious contrast to the approach of his contemporary René Descartes. After examining Hobbes’s materialism, the book considers the views of three of his English critics: Henry More, Ralph Cudworth, and Margaret Cavendish. Both More and Cudworth thought Hobbes’s materialism radically inadequate to explain the workings of the world, while Cavendish developed a distinctive, anti-Hobbesian materialism of her own. The second half of the book focuses on the discussion of materialism in John Locke’s Essay Concerning Human Understanding, arguing that we can better understand Locke’s discussion if we see how and where he is responding to this earlier debate. At crucial points Locke draws on More and Cudworth to argue against Hobbes and other materialists. Nevertheless, Locke did a good deal to reveal how materialism was a genuinely possible view, by showing how one could develop a detailed account of the human mind without presuming it was an immaterial substance.
Persons, Situations, and Virtue Ethics
Authors: Doris John M.
Published: December 2021

This chapter is one of the initial contributions to philosophy’s virtue ethics-situationism debate, referencing psychology’s person-situation debate to argue that traditional conceptions of character and virtue in philosophical moral psychology are empirically inadequate. The chapter also examines the normative implications of this argument, defending a revisionary position: ethical thought would be best served by reduced reliance on traditional notions of character. This conjunction of empirical and normative theses later became known as character skepticism.
A Relational Moral Theory
Authors: Metz Thaddeus
Published: December 2021

A Relational Moral Theory provides a new answer to the long-standing question of what all morally right actions might have in common as distinct from wrong ones, by drawing on neglected resources from the Global South and especially the African philosophical tradition. The book points out that the principles of utility and of respect for autonomy, the two rivals that have dominated Western moral theory for about two centuries, share an individualist premise. Once that common assumption is replaced by a relational perspective that has been salient in African ethical thought, a different comprehensive principle focused on harmony or friendliness emerges, one that is shown to correct the blind spots of the Western principles and to have implications for a wide array of applied controversies that an international audience of moral philosophers, professional ethicists, and similar thinkers will find attractive.
Environmental Ethics
Authors: Metz Thaddeus
Published: December 2021

This chapter begins Part III, which argues that the relational moral theory of rightness as friendliness is a strong competitor to Western principles in many applied ethical contexts. Chapter 8 articulates and defends a novel, relational account of moral status, according to which an entity is owed moral consideration roughly to the degree that it is capable of being party to a communal relationship. One of its implications is that many animals have a moral status but not one as high as ours, which many readers will find attractive, but which utilitarianism and Kantianism cannot easily accommodate. Relational moral status also grounds a promising response to the ‘argument from marginal cases’ that animals have the same moral status as incapacitated humans: even if two beings have identical intrinsic properties, they can differ in the extent to which they can relate and hence differ in their degree of moral status.
Episodes of renewal (c. AD 90–110)
Authors: Perring Dominic
Published: December 2021

The pace of urban growth in London appears to have slowed in the period immediately after Agricola’s governorship. At the end of the first century, however, London’s port saw extensive repair and enlargement. Harbour improvements commenced c. AD 94–8, perhaps under Nerva’s administration. It is argued that these works were part of a wider programme of support for the annona, designed to secure the army’s support for the new political regime. These harbour works were resumed under Trajan, when improvements were also made to the hydraulic engineering represented by wells and water-lifting devices. Several baths were built or improved at around this time, some of which may have been attached to temple precincts near the borders of the settlement.
The great forum (c. AD 110–25)
Authors: Perring Dominic
Published: December 2021

This chapter summarizes evidence for the form, date, and use of the massive monumental forum complex that replaced London’s Flavian forum in the late first and early second century. Work probably started on this vast public building under Trajan, following soon after the new waterside quays were built, and after the successful conclusion of the first Dacian war. The complex was not completed, however, until the Hadrianic period, perhaps in preparation for Hadrian’s visit to Britain in AD 122. The forum’s role as the public focus of imperial ideology, and as a place for managing supplies and business affairs, is discussed.
Economy and supply
Authors: Perring Dominic
Published: December 2021

A review of the contribution that the study of London makes to our understanding of the ancient economy. It explores the economic impact of the large-scale movement of goods and supplies required to support military advance, and to meet the expectations of the unusually large garrison stationed in Britain. The underwriting of these food supplies can be treated as an early form of military annona, sharing characteristics with arrangements made for the feeding of larger cities. It is argued that London’s economy and port, revolved around the needs of annona supply embracing military and civilian consumers. The infrastructure developed to support the annona stimulated a wider trade in luxury imports, best evidenced by the pottery carried to and through London (such as Samian and amphorae). This long-distance supply is the most archaeologically evident aspect of London’s Roman economy. The use of coin is another, and this chapter reviews the use of small change within London’s internal economy and local taxes. Coin-based market economies may not have penetrated far into the surrounding countryside, where subsistence and peasant farming was allowed to persist and rent and tax could be obtained through sharecropping and other ‘in kind’ arrangements.
London at work
Authors: Perring Dominic
Published: December 2021

This chapter offers a detailed consideration of London’s labour market, exploring the high degree of seasonality that applied in a reconstruction of London’s Roman working year. The harbour relied on inputs of manual labour and ox-drawn haulage, serving the needs of dozens of vessels docked against the quays or beached on the river foreshore. Demand was intensive during the summer sailing season, but negligible in the winter. London’s construction industry was similarly labour-intensive and seasonal. These demands combined to present high levels of labour demand from spring to autumn, interrupted by slack winters of underemployment. Some needs may have been met by seasonal immigration from the countryside, but a lack of evidence for knowledge exchange between town and country suggests that this was not on a large scale. It is more likely that labour, perhaps including a relatively high proportion of slaves, was redirected into industry and craft production as stock was built up against spring needs. The chapter reviews the evidence for these shops and workshops, and for industrial production in and around Roman London. Particular emphasis is given to the importance of shipbuilding, and the demand this placed on supplies of timber and iron. Other industries to receive attention include potting, tanning and leatherworking, and glassmaking.
Antonine sophistication (c. AD 135–65)
Authors: Perring Dominic
Published: December 2021

This chapter describes how and why Antonine London came to be characterized by an architecture of domestic luxury. This was evidenced by large private houses laid out around several wings with porticoes, dining rooms, and heated private baths, and decorated with mosaic pavements and painted walls sometimes referencing Bacchic iconography. These designs materialized an educated paideia that drew on Hellenistic ideas, perhaps under the influence of the philosophies of the Second Sophistic. These ideas may have first found architectural expression in London in the Hadrianic period, but were more characteristic of the Antonine city. London’s wealth sustained a local demand for imported goods, whilst the waterfronts where these were landed were also busy at times of military campaigns. Several Romano-Celtic temples were built c. AD 165, including one dedicated to Mars Camulus. Imposing mausolea were built within walled cemeteries along the main road into town. These temples and tombs formed a monumental landscape adapted to the religious and funerary processions through the city.
Britannia Superior (c. AD 225–50)
Authors: Perring Dominic
Published: December 2021

This chapter explores further manifestations of wealth and power in and around early third-century London, particularly evident in the rise of mystery cults and new burial practices. It starts by reviewing evidence of the expansion of the presumed suburban villa and building of a bathhouse at Shadwell c. AD 228. This was perhaps occupied by an important government official linked to the coastal supply routes later developed into the forts of the Saxon shore. Several other villas and townhouses were refurbished at this time, when the temple of Mithras was built. These and other finds reported on here attest to the popularity of a diverse range of mystery and salvation cults, with a particularly wide repertoire of Bacchic motifs. London’s later Roman cemeteries expanded as inhumation gained in popularity, and cremation became a rarer rite. The chapter describes the archaeological evidence for these changed burial practices which can also be linked to the rise of soteriological belief systems that encouraged ideas of physical resurrection. The reasons for these changed mentalities are considered in the context of the history of the period.
The third-century ‘crisis’ (c. AD 250–70)
Authors: Perring Dominic
Published: December 2021

London’s port was abandoned in the mid-third century and its waterfront quays dismantled in changes that cast important new light on the problems of the third century. This chapter sets out the detail of the redundancy of London’s port and reviews arguments that might explain it. It does so by establishing a chronology that suggests that the port ceased to function effectively c. AD 255, and that the waterfront was crudely refashioned into a bank at some point in the 260s. This redundancy followed a rapid decline in the volume of goods being traded over longer-distances, and is argued to have been the consequence of a revised policy with regard to annona. The Thames may also have ceased to be tidal at this time, contributing to the redundancy of the port but not explaining the speed of its dereliction and destruction. Further light obtains from a study of the failure and abandonment of sites associated with Wealden iron production. An explanation is proposed: involving a loss of military manpower and naval capacity, possibly provoked by the epidemic of the 250s known as the plague of Cyprian and compounded by military failure and barbarian threat. Rome’s loss of control over its coastal waters and rising Frankish piracy at the time of the Gallic Empire might explain why ships ceased to dock at London’s quays, which were dismantled to defend the riverside.
Restoration (c. AD 270–85)
Authors: Perring Dominic
Published: December 2021

London’s late antique restoration was signalled by the construction of a monumental riverside wall, the renewal of luxurious town houses within town, and the development of new patterns of supply. Recent dendrochronological evidence indicates that the riverside wall was probably built in the late 270s, perhaps under Aurelian and then Probus following the collapse of the Gallic Empire. Contemporary fortifications were built at other sites in southern Britain in this assertion of a new language of imperial control. It is suggested that changed patterns of urban supply reflect on the administrative reforms that supported these defended sites. London’s revival may also have relied on new settlement, and recent studies of cemetery populations around the city indicate that some 20–40 per cent of the buried dead—admittedly from an extremely small sample—had arrived from elsewhere in the Roman Empire.
World Medievalism
Authors: D'Arcens Louise
Published: December 2021

World Medievalism: The Middle Ages in Modern Textual Culture explores the ways in which a range of modern textual cultures have continued to engage creatively with the medieval past in order to come to terms with the global present. Building its argument through four case studies—from the Middle East, France, Southeast Asia, and Indigenous Australia–it shows that to understand medievalism as a cultural idiom with global reach, we need to develop a more nuanced grasp of the different ways ‘the Middle Ages’ have come to signify beyond Europe as well as within a Europe that has been transformed by multiculturalism and the global economy. The book’s case studies are explored within a conceptual framework in which medievalism itself is formulated as ‘world-disclosing’—a transhistorical encounter that enables the modern subject to apprehend the past ‘world’ opened up in medieval and medievalist texts and objects. The book analyses the cultural and material conditions under which its texts are produced, disseminated, and received and examines literature alongside films, television programs, newspapers and journals, political tracts, as well as such material and artefactual texts as photographs, paintings, statues, buildings, rock art, and fossils. While the case studies feature distinctive localized forms of medievalism, taken together they reveal how imperial and global legacies have ensured that the medieval period continues to be perceived as a commonly held past that can be retrieved, reclaimed, or revived in response to the accelerated changes and uncertainties of global modernity.
The Name of the Hobbit
Authors: D'Arcens Louise
Published: December 2021

This chapter takes as its focus the collapsing of fantastic medievalism and palaeontology in the narratives surrounding the discovery of homo floresiensis, the petite hominin species which has been called ‘the hobbit’ since it was uncovered in a cave on the island of Flores in 2003. The chapter analyses how homo floresiensis came to be seen through the prism of the globally exported medievalist fantasy of J. R. R. Tolkien’s Middle Earth novels and their film adaptations. The medievalizing of the Flores hominin exposes the capacity for ‘the medieval’ to stand in for ‘deep time’ and the primeval past. The chapter also examines the racial politics underlying this episode, arguing that the framing of the Asian hominin within Tolkien-influenced medievalism constructs a limiting image of a globally conceived humanity. It reminds us that global medievalism has the potential to reinforce rather than unsettle the Eurocentric legacy of the Middle Ages in the modern world.
Introduction
Authors: Vasanthakumar Ashwini
Published: December 2021

This chapter introduces the aims of the book, and the perspective from which it approaches exile politics. It outlines the book’s two central claims. First, exiles have rights and responsibilities in their communities of origin and play a number of roles in the homeland—roles this book will outline. Second, in playing these roles, exile politics performs two corrective functions: it can repair defective political institutions at home, and mitigate the asymmetries of power and voice that characterize the transnational and international domains. The chapter situates this argument within existing scholarship and public discourse on migration and reflects on the normative methodology used.
Exiles as Witnesses
Authors: Vasanthakumar Ashwini
Published: December 2021

This chapter explores the role of witness testimony in exile politics. Drawing on the duty of assistance, it argues that exiles are capable bystanders uniquely positioned to assist those left behind. This duty often involves bearing witness to the suffering from which they have fled, alerting others—especially capable outsiders—in order to secure assistance. This chapter then considers three objections to imputing such a duty to exiles, who are victims of persecution. The chapter concludes by examining limits to the duty to assist, as well as the limits of testimony as a mode of providing assistance, given the challenges of reaching consensus, coordinating efforts, and navigating the asymmetries that characterize the transnational domain.
Exiles as Solidary Intermediaries
Authors: Vasanthakumar Ashwini
Published: December 2021

This chapter explores solidarity as a mode of collective action by which exiles ought to seek assistance. It applies Avery Kolers’s account of political solidarity, which is especially attentive to the asymmetries between those seeking assistance—solidary objects—and those providing assistance—solidary agents. In particular, Kolers’s requirement of deference addresses concerns about motivation, coordination, and asymmetry. I argue that, in order to realize this model of solidarity, a third category of actors—solidary intermediaries—is essential. I outline the requirements of acting as a solidary intermediary and assess how well exiles can meet these requirements. Drawing on the case study of Chilean exiles, I illustrate exiles’ role in enabling solidarity and the challenges they face in doing so.
Different Forms of the Historiography of Philosophy
Authors: Frede Michael
Published: December 2021

This chapter discusses the different forms of the historiography of philosophy. Among the large variety of projects and enterprises that are pursued under the heading ‘history of philosophy’ there are, in particular, three which deserve to be distinguished. These are ‘philosophical doxography’, ‘philosophical history of philosophy’, and ‘historical history of philosophy’. The conceptual or ideal difference between the three enterprises is clear enough if one looks at the history of the historiography of philosophy. Up to the end of the eighteenth century, concern with the history of philosophy is almost exclusively doxographical. But the assumptions on which the doxography of the seventeenth and the eighteenth centuries rests come to be questioned at the end of the eighteenth century, and their rejection gives rise, in the final decade of the eighteenth century, to the philosophical history of philosophy. This in turn rests on very strong philosophical assumptions concerning the history of philosophy. And so its principles come to be questioned in the first half of the nineteenth century. Nevertheless, all three enterprises continue to be pursued in one form or another. And for a variety of reasons, there is little awareness of their difference and they tend in actual practice to shade into each other and to be confused, though in principle they are quite different.
The Historian
Authors: Frede Michael
Published: December 2021

This chapter focuses on the historian of philosophy. There is a certain amount of historical evidence in the case of philosophy, mainly in the form of texts, or rather copies thereof, but also of inscriptions or even of archaeological remains. The historian has to collect this evidence, evaluate it, and reconstruct, on its basis, a history which is sufficiently supported by it to make it difficult, if not impossible, to think of an equally plausible, or even more plausible, account that fits the evidence as well. The difficulty is not only that it has become a matter of considerable controversy whether there actually is one characteristic way in which historians ought to go about their business and which way this may be. It also should give one pause for thought that, in fact, general historians do not write history of philosophy. This suggests that the historiography of philosophy is not just a matter of applying the historical method to a particular history. Clearly, the most important point here is that it takes some special competence to write the history of a discipline. Having the competence of a contemporary philosopher allows one to tell which arguments are acceptable and which are not.
The Delineation of the History of Philosophy
Authors: Frede Michael
Published: December 2021

This chapter assesses the proper delineation of the object of the study of the historian of philosophy, which has always been a problem, however one conceived of this study and whatever conception of philosophy one may have had. It considers how the historian can know what belongs to his history and what does not without presuming to know, without taking a position on the philosophical question, what philosophy is. One reason why this is an enormous subject is that the history of philosophy is but one aspect of general history, a strand of developments within general history, in any case so closely intertwined with other developments in general history, or with the development of other social factors, that in order to have a complete understanding of the history of philosophy one will also have to take into account all these connections and dependencies. The chapter deals with this problem by distinguishing between an internal and an external history of philosophy. The internal history of philosophy will be the history of philosophy accounted for, as far as this is possible in terms of purely philosophical considerations, rather than by factors and developments outside philosophy.
The History of Philosophy as a Discipline
Authors: Frede Michael
Published: December 2021

This chapter discusses the history of philosophy as a discipline. Part of the confusion not only as to what historians of philosophy try to do but also as to how they ought to go about doing it, seems to be due to a misleading ambiguity in the term ‘history of philosophy’. Historically, it has been used in two rather different ways, each of which corresponds to a very different tradition of treating the history of philosophy, both of which persist to the present day, but which tend to get conflated. From roughly the middle of the seventeenth century onwards, we find treatises with the title ‘History of Philosophy’. These treatises show themselves to stand in a much older tradition that goes back to antiquity; namely, the doxographical tradition. But towards the end of the eighteenth century, a very different tradition emerges. As opposed to their doxographical predecessors, histories which adopt a chronological disposition are written out of the conviction that the philosophical positions of the past are no longer worth considering philosophically, that they are out of date. If they are still worth considering at all, it is because they constitute the steps through which we historically arrived at our present philosophical position.
Doxographical, Philosophical, and Historical Forms of the History of Philosophy
Authors: Brittain Charles
Published: December 2021

This chapter examines the doxographical, philosophical, and historical forms of the history of philosophy. The aim of doxography is to reconstruct and present philosophical views or positions that have been proposed in the past and to do so in a way that makes clear the interest they may retain for contemporary philosophical discussions. However, the inadequacy of ancient doxographical writers seems so great that the term ‘doxography’ itself has acquired a pejorative connotation. The criticism is twofold: first, one has the feeling that the ancient doxographers did not have historical awareness or a sensitivity to history; second, one tends to associate doxography with a kind of philosophical failure. People then abandoned the assumption that the positions of the past retain their philosophical importance in the contemporary context. In its place, they began to suppose that the views of the past were only of interest as stages, even if necessary ones, of the evolution of thought. This sort of history represents the philosophical study of the history of philosophy. It is precisely this philosophical position which, towards the middle of the nineteenth century, provokes a reaction. But this reaction takes two very different forms. On the one hand, it gives rise to the historical study of the history of philosophy and, on the other, to a modern form of doxography.
Digital Accessibility and Intersectional Discrimination
Authors: Giannoumis G. Anthony , Skjerve Rannveig A.
Published: December 2021

Intersectional discrimination recognizes social disadvantages occurring at the nexus of multiple social identities. An intersectional perspective provides a powerful lens for examining states’ obligations to ensure access to information and communications technology (ICT) across disability, gender, and socioeconomic status. Intersectional barriers can include accessibility, cost and affordability, social exclusion and online aggression, and learning digital skills. Our findings have particular relevance for the Global South due to the close link between poverty and disability, growing general prevalence of poverty, and increasing income disparities between the Global South and Global North (Hickel, 2017; Moyo & Ferguson, 2009). Our findings also illustrate the complex relationships and the need for new policies and programs that take into account intersectionality when adopting ICT as a tool for sustainable development.
Three Questions of Methodology
Authors: Wight Martin
Published: December 2021

Wight composed this note to make clear three caveats about his exposition of three main traditions of thinking about international politics in Western societies since the sixteenth century (Realism, Rationalism, and Revolutionism). First, the sources considered include not only works by theorists and international lawyers, but also statements and policies of politicians. Second, it is imperative to avoid ‘the hypostatization of categories’—that is, ‘taking a classificatory system too seriously and too concretely’ and attributing objective reality to intellectual concepts. The views of specific thinkers are more valuable than generalizations about shared opinions in categories or claims of progress in philosophical understanding over the centuries. Third, the scholar’s role concerning value judgements in this effort to elucidate the three traditions consists of ‘exposition and comparison, not criticism in any sense of propounding theory’ for the critical assessment of the ideas expressed in these traditions.
Machiavellian Temptations: Methodological Warning
Authors: Wight Martin
Published: December 2021

Wight drafted this note in a further effort to elucidate key points about his analysis of the three main traditions of thinking about international relations in Western societies since the sixteenth century (Realism, Rationalism, and Revolutionism). First, he acknowledged that there have been causative factors other than ideas, such as pursuing power and status, meeting security requirements, and serving economic interests. The historical record suggests, however, that the philosophical views of influential decision-makers in the face of perceived necessity have coloured their policies and actions. Second, the argument that new technologies such as nuclear weapons and space rockets have made traditional themes of political philosophy obsolete is a ‘dehumanizing’ proposition; it overlooks the fact that human beings have devised these new capabilities and applied them to the pursuit of human priorities. Third, there may be a ‘preselected’ relevance of the three traditions: Kantian ideals may be most suited to private and personal affairs; Grotian philosophical principles may be most useful in the domestic politics of constitutional states; and Machiavellian approaches may be required in international politics.
The Balance of Power inThe World in March 1939
Authors: Wight Martin
Published: December 2021

This essay surveys the political fluidity and antagonism in the triangular relationship among the main power groupings in March 1939—the Soviet Union, the Axis Powers (Germany, Italy, and Japan), and the Western Powers (Britain and France above all). Rather than focusing on their military capabilities and combat options, the essay concentrates on the ideas expressed in each camp—in the Western Powers, interest in the rule of law and constitutionalism; in the Axis Powers, ambitions for territorial acquisitions and increased might; and in the Soviet Union, the Marxist-Leninist revolutionary vision. In conjunction with this three-cornered dialogue, the essay examines factors in addition to ideas that influenced decision-making, including greed, coercion, resentments, power pressures, national egoisms, dependence on allies, and perceived security imperatives. Three combinations were hypothetically possible: a Nazi–Soviet alliance, a Soviet–Western alliance, or a Nazi–Western alliance. In August 1939, Nazi Germany offered the Soviet Union a non-aggression pact that enabled Moscow to seize territories in Eastern Europe and to limit its immediate involvement in combat. Nazi Germany’s attack on the Soviet Union in June 1941 brought about a Soviet–Western alliance determined to defeat the Axis, despite the chasm between Soviet totalitarianism and Western democracy.
The Communist Theory of International Relations
Authors: Wight Martin
Published: December 2021

This essay analyses the distinctive effects of Marxist-Leninist ideology and Communist practice on states ruled by Communist parties and states with non-Communist or ‘bourgeois’ regimes. Communist regimes assert that they are historically destined to triumph over ‘capitalist’ and ‘imperialist’ governments. From 1917 to 1944, the Soviet Union was the sole Communist-governed state. Since 1944 there have been multiple Communist-ruled states. Such states generally have formal state-to-state relations in addition to Communist party-to-party relations. Non-Communist-ruled states may have oppositional relations with domestic and foreign Communist parties as well as formal relations with the foreign ministries of Communist-led states. The Communist Party of the Soviet Union has claimed that its decisions bind all Communist parties, but it has also accepted the primacy of a global gathering of Communist parties. Disputes among Communist parties over doctrine and interests that are theoretically congruent raise questions about the coherence of the ideology. Forming a Communist world-state to suppress national rivalries could offer a solution, but at the cost of abandoning national state sovereignties and the autonomy of specific Communist parties.
Gain, Fear and Glory
Authors: Wight Martin
Published: December 2021

This paper analyses the three causes of war identified by Thucydides and his most eminent translator, Thomas Hobbes. Looking beyond the circumstantial occasions through which wars begin, the chief motives of belligerents have been to pursue material gains, to respond to fears, and to obtain glory and prestige for a doctrine. Wight calls ‘simple Thucydidean fear … the prime motive in international politics’ because it involves ‘a rational apprehension of contingent evil’, not simply ‘some unreasoning emotion’. Wight discusses how fear may be a cause of preventive war, and he labels the great difficulty of building trust between former adversaries ‘the Hobbesian predicament’. Wight defines this predicament as follows: ‘communities of honest and decent men, when they have suffered a long series of mutual injuries, and have a rational apprehension each that its own existence is at stake, and when moreover they live in inescapable juxtaposition, cannot transpose themselves into an attitude of mutual trust’. He also explores the tension between freedom and necessity: the circumstances at hand may seem to be tractable, with choices available between possible decisions and their likely consequences; yet the factors leading to war may prove inescapable.