bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Promoter selectivity control of Escherichia coli RNA polymerase by ionic strength: differential recognition of osmoregulated promoters by EσD and EσS holoenzymes
Authors: Ding Qingquan , Kusano Shuichi , Villarejo Merna , Ishihama Akira
Published: October 2006

Transcription in vitro of two osmoregulated promoters, for the Escherichia coli osmB and osmY genes, was analysed using two species of RNA polymerase holoenzyme reconstituted from purified core enzyme and either σD (σ70, the major σ in exponentially growing cells) or σS (σ38, the principal σ at stationary growth phase). Under conditions of low ionic strength, the osmB and osmY promoters were transcribed by both EσD and EσS. Addition of up to 400 mM potassium glutamate (K glutamate), mimicking the intracellular ionic conditions under hyper‐osmotic stress, specifically enhanced transcription at these promoters by EσS but inhibited that by EσD. At similar high concentrations of potassium chloride (KCI), however, initiation at both these promoters was virtually undetectable. These data suggest that the RNA polymerase, EσS, itself can sense osmotic stress by responding to changes in intracellular K glutamate concentrations and altering its promoter selectivity in order to recognize certain osmoregulated promoters.
The bgl1 gene of Trichoderma reesei QM 9414 encodes an extracellular, cellulose‐inducible β‐glucosidase involved in cellulase induction by sophorose
Authors: Mach Robert L. , Seiboth Bernhard , Myasnikov Andrey , Gonzalez Ramon , Strauss Josef , Harkki Anu M. , Kubicek Christian P.
Published: October 2006

We have investigated the effect of disruption of the bgl1‐(β‐glucosidase l‐encoding) gene of Trichoderma reesei on the formation of other β‐glucosidase activities and on the induction of cellulases. To this end the bgl1 locus was disrupted by insertion of the Aspergillus nidulans amdS (acetamidase‐encoding) gene. The bgl1‐disrupted strain did not produce the 75kDa extracellular β‐glucosidase on cellulose or lactose, but still formed β‐glucosidase activity on glucose, cellobiose, xylan or β‐1,3‐glucan, suggesting that the enzyme(s) exhibiting this β‐glucosidase activity is (are) not encoded by bgl1. The cellulose‐inducer sophorose induced the bgl1‐encoded β‐glucosidase, whereas the remaining β‐glucosidase activity was induced by methyl‐β‐D‐glucoside. The bgl1‐gene product was mainly secreted into the medium, whereas the other β‐glucosidase activity was mainly associated with the cells. A bgl1‐multicopy strain formed higher amounts of cellulases than the parent strain. Nonsaturating concentrations of sophorose efficiently induced cellobiohydrolase I formation in the bgl1‐multicopy strain, but less efficiently in the bgl1‐disrupted strain. The multicopy strain and the parent strain were comparably efficient at saturating sophorose concentrations. The β‐glucosidase inhibitor nojirimycin strongly inhibited induction in all strains. These data suggest that the bgl1‐encoded β‐glucosidase is not identical to the plasma‐membrane‐bound, constitutive, methyl‐β‐glucoside inducible β‐glucosidase, but represents an extracellular cellulose‐induced enzyme. Both enzymes contribute to rapid induction of cellulases by modifying the inducer sophorose.
Mutational analysis of the putative nucleic acid‐binding surface of the cold‐shock domain, CspB, revealed an essential role of aromatic and basic residues in binding of single‐stranded DNA containing the Y‐box motif
Authors: Schröder Katja , Graumann Peter , Schnuchel Arndt , Holak Tad A. , Marahiel Mohamed A.
Published: October 2006

The major cold‐shock protein of Bacillus subtilis, CspB, is a member of a protein family widespread among prokaryotes and eukaryotes that share the highly conserved cold‐shock domain (CSD). The CSD domain is involved in transcriptional and translational regulation and was shown to bind the Y‐box motif, a cis‐element that contains the core sequence ATTGG, with high affinity. The three‐dimensional structure of CspB, a prototype of this protein family, revealed that this hydrophilic CSD domain creates a surface rich in aromatic and basic amino acids that may act as the nucleic acid‐binding site. We have analysed the potential role of conserved aromatic and basic residues in nucleic acid binding by site‐directed mutagenesis. In gel retardation and ultraviolet cross‐linking experiments, the ability of CspB mutants to bind single‐stranded oligonucleotides (ssDNA) that contain the Y‐box motif was investigated. Single substitutions of three highly conserved phenylalanine residues (Phe‐15, Phe‐17, Phe‐27) by alanine and substitution of one histidine (His‐29) by glutamine, all located within the putative RNA‐binding sites RNP‐1 and RNP‐2, abolished the nucleic acid‐binding activity of CspB. Conservative substitutions of Phe‐15 to tyrosine (F15Y) showed a small increase in binding affinity, whereas separate replacement of Phe‐17 and Phe‐27 by tyrosine caused a reduction in binding activity. These and other substitutions including the conserved basic residues Lys‐7, Lys‐13 and Arg‐56 as well as the aromatic residues Trp‐8 and Phe‐30 strongly suggest that CspB uses the sidechains of these amino acids for specific interaction with nucleic acids. Ultraviolet cross‐linking experiments for CspB mutants with ssDNA supported the idea of specific CspB/nucleic acid interaction and indicated an essential role for the aromatic and basic residues in this binding. In addition, two‐dimensional nuclear magnetic resonance studies with F17A, K13Q, F15Y and F27Y revealed that the mutants have the same overall structure as the wild‐type CspB protein.
Differential effect of dsbA and dsbC mutations on extracellular enzyme secretion in Erwinia chrysanthemi
Authors: Shevchik Vladimir E. , Bortoli‐Gernnan Isabelle , Robert‐Baudouy Janine , Robinet Sandrine , Barras Frederic , Condemine Guy
Published: October 2006

An Erwinia chrysanthemi gene able to complement an Escherichia coli dsbA mutation has been cloned and sequenced. This gene codes for a periplasmic protein with disulphide isomerase activity that has 69% identity and 94% similarity with the E. coli DsbA protein. An E. chrysanthemi dsbA‐uidA fusion mutant has been constructed. dsbA expression seems to be constitutive. This mutant has multiple phenotypes resulting from the absence of disulphide bond formation in periplasmic and secreted proteins. Pectate lyases and the cellulase EGZ are rapidly degraded in the periplasm of the dsbA mutant. E. chrysanthemi synthesizes another periplasmic protein with disulphide isomerase activity, namely DsbC. The dsbC gene introduced on a multicopy plasmid in a dsbA mutant was only partially able to restore EGZ secretion, indicating that even if DsbA and DsbC possess disulphide oxydoreductase activity, they are not completely interchangeable. Moreover, pectate lyases expressed in an E. coli dsbA mutant were very instable but their stability was unaffected in a dsbC mutant. These results indicate that DsbA and DsbC could have different substrate specificities.
Restriction alleviation and modification enhancement by the Rac prophage of Escherichia coli K‐12
Authors: King Gareth , Murray Noreen E.
Published: October 2006

Bacteriophage λ. encodes an antirestriction function, Ral, which is able to modulate the activity of the Escherichia coli K‐12 restriction and modification system, EcoKl. Here we report the characterization of an analogous function, Lar, expressed by E. coli sbcA mutants and the hybrid phage λreverse. E. coli sbcA mutants and λ.reverse both express genes of the Rac prophage, and we have located the lar gene immediateiy downstream of recT in this element. The lar gene has been cloned in an expression plasmid, and a combination of site‐directed mutagenesis and labelling of plasmid‐encoded proteins has enabled us to identify a number of translational products of lar, the smallest of which is sufficient for restriction alleviation. Lar, like Ral, is able both to alleviate restriction and to enhance modification by Eco Kl. Lar, therefore, is functionally similar to Ral and the nucleotide sequences of their genes share 47% identity, indicating a common origin. A comparison of the predicted amino acid sequences of Lar and Ral shows only a 25% identity, but a few short regions do align and may indicate residues important for structure and/or function.
Molecular analysis of asmA, a locus identified as the suppressor of OmpF assembly mutants of Escherichia coli K‐12
Authors: Misra Rajeev , Miao Yun
Published: October 2006

We present the molecular characterization of the asmA gene, whose product is involved in the assembly of outer membrane proteins in Escherichia coli K‐12. The asmA locus was initially identified as a site for suppressor mutations of an assembly defective OmpF315. Our data suggest that these suppressor mutations either completely abolish or reduce asmA expression and can be complemented in trans by piasmid clones carrying asmA sequences. The recessive nature of asmA suppressor mutations suggests that the functional AsmA protein participates in Inhibiting the assembly of OmpF315 and other mutant OmpFs. As the assembly of wild‐type and parental OmpF proteins was not affected by asmA mutations, AsmA must provide an environment refractory only to the assembly of mutant OmpF proteins. However, we cannot completely rule out the possibility that AsmA plays a minor role in the assembly of wild‐type and parental OmpF in wild‐type cells. The presence of a putative signal sequence within the amino‐terminal sequence of AsmA suggests that it is either a periplasmic or an outer membrane protein. This predicted location of AsmA is compatible with its role in the assembly of outer membrane proteins.
Role of a potential endoplasmic reticulum retention sequence (RDEL) and the Golgi complex in the cytotonic activity of Escherichia coli heat‐labile enterotoxin
Authors: Cieplak Witold , Messer Ronald J. , Konkel Michael E. , Grant Christopher C. R.
Published: October 2006

Recent experimental evidence indicates that Escherichia coli heat‐labile enterotoxin and the closely related cholera toxin gain access to intracellular target substrates through a brefeldin A‐sensitive pathway that may involve retrograde transport through the Golgiendoplasmic reticulum network. The A subunits of both toxins possess a carboxy‐terminal tetrapeptide sequence (KDEL in cholera toxin and RDEL in the heat‐labile enterotoxins) that is known to mediate the retention of eukaryotic proteins in the endoplasmic reticulum. To investigate the potential role of the RDEL sequence in the toxic activity of the heat‐labile enterotoxin we constructed mutant analogues of the toxin containing single substitutions (RDGL and RDEV) or a reversed sequence (LEDR). The single substitutions had little effect on Chinese hamster ovary cell elongation or the ability to stimulate cAMP accumulation in Caco‐2 cells. Reversal of the sequence reduced the ability of the toxin to increase cAMP levels in Caco‐2 cells by approximately 60% and decreased the ability to elicit elongation of Chinese hamster ovary cells. The effects of the heat‐labile enterotoxin were not diminished in a mutant Chinese hamster ovary cell line (V.24.1) that belongs to the End4 complementation group and possesses a temperature‐sensitive block in secretion that correlates directly with the disappearance of the Golgi stacks. Collectively, these findings suggest that the brefeldin A‐sensitive process involved in intoxication by the heat‐labile enterotoxin does not involve RDEL‐dependent retrograde transport of the A subunit through the Golgi‐endoplasmic reticulum complex. The results are more consistent with a model of internalization involving translocation of the A subunit from an endosomal or a trans‐Golgi network compartment.
Trehalose metabolism in root nodules of the model legume Lotus japonicus in response to salt stress
Authors: López Miguel , Herrera‐Cervera Jose A. , Lluch Carmen , Tejera Noel A.
Published: November 2006

The effect of NaCl stress (50 mM) and validamycin A treatment (30 μM) on growth and nitrogen fixation of Lotus japonicus was investigated in plants cultured under symbiotic and hydroponics conditions for teen weeks (flowering stage). Validamycin A was used as a potent trehalase inhibitor, and was able to produce a five‐fold increase in the level of trehalose during salt treatment, concomitant with an enhance in biomass (20%) in salinized plants. Alterations of nodule metabolism related to some carbohydrates and some enzyme activities were also examined. The shoot and total plant dry weight were severely affected by saline conditions decreasing by 40% and only 15–20% in plant treated without or with validamycin A, respectively. Nitrogenase activity (E.C. 1.7.9.92) was inhibited almost 40% by salt stress and no effect of validamycin was observed. Based on these results, L. japonicus might be considered as a salt‐sensitive legume. In addition, the saline conditions also inhibited the enzyme activities of sucrose synthase (E.C. 2.4.1.13), alkaline invertase (E.C. 3.2.1.26) and trehalose‐phosphate synthetase (E.C. 2.4.1.15). The validamycin A treatment mainly decreased enzyme activities: sucrose synthase, trehalose‐phosphate phosphatase (E.C. 3.1.3.12) and trehalase (E.C. 3.2.1.28). On the other hand, a high concentration of the carbohydrates, starch, sucrose and glucose, seems not to be the mechanism induced in L. japonicus to protect nodules exposed to NaCl because all these sugars decreased in such conditions. Results of the present study support the possible role of trehalose as an osmoprotectant under salt stress.
HOW TO BEAT A SCEPTIC WITHOUT BEGGING THE QUESTION
Authors: Greco John
Published: October 2006

In this paper I offer a solution to scepticism about the world which neither embraces idealism, nor ends in a stalemate, nor begs the question against the sceptic. In the first part of the paper I explicate the sceptical argument and try to show why it has real force. In the next part of the paper I propose a version of the relevant possibilities approach to scepticism. The central claim of the proposed solution is that a sceptical possibility undermines knowledge only if the possibility is true in some close possible world. But since there is no reason to believe that I am deceived by an evil demon or that I am a brain in a vat in some close possible world, there is no reason to accept an essential premise of the sceptical argument, i.e. that the sceptical scenarios are relevant possibilities. Finally, I argue that the solution proposed does not embrace idealism, end in a stalemate, or beg the question.
THE FALSE PROMISES OF RISK ANALYSIS
Authors: Hansson Sven Ove
Published: October 2006

The relatively new discipline of risk analysis promises to provide objective guidance in some of the most controversial issues in modern high‐technology societies. Four conditions are discussed that must be satisfied for this promise to be fulfilled. Since none of these conditions is satisfied, risk analysis does not keep its promise. In its attempts to reduce genuinely political issues to technocratic calculations, it neglects many of the factors that should influence decisions on risk acceptance. A list of tentative guidelines is given for numerical decision support that encourages democratic decision‐making instead of trying to evade it.
ANTITHEISM: A REFLECTION
Authors: New Christopher
Published: October 2006

Why is there no sustained tradition of argument concerning the existence of a supreme (omniscient and omnipotent) being who is perfectly evil, as there is about one who is perfectly good? Arguments which are reflections of the ontological, cosmological and teleological arguments, and arguments based on personal experience or the occurrence of antimiracles (harmful events not explicable by science) could have provided at least as good grounds for belief in such a being (ie for antitheism) as their originals in fact provide for theism. An imaginary encyclopedia entry, in which fictional antitheistic arguments and thinkers are presented, illustrates this point. The reason for the nonexistence of a tradition of antitheism seems therefore to be that it is merely emotionally, not that it is rationally, less inviting than theism.
FREEDOM OF THE WILL AND MENTAL CONTENT
Authors: Gillett Grant
Published: October 2006

The idea of freedom of the will seems to conflict with the principle of causal efficacy implicit in many theories of mind. The conflict is normally resolved within a compatibilist view whereby the desires and beliefs of the agent, replete with a respectable if yet to be elucidated causal pedigree, are taken to be the basis of individual freedom. The present view is an alternative which erects mental content on a framework of rule following and then argues that rule‐following is conceptually distinct from causally produced activity. The normative aspect of rule‐following defies reduction to descriptive or dispositional terms. According to this view we cannot get beyond the agent as a self‐determining rational individual in formulating a theory of mind and action. The theory is neo‐Kantian in that it identifies rules or conceptions of laws as central in human thought. It, follows Wittgenstein's treatment of rule‐following and generates a plausible (but non‐causal) account of mental explanation and weakness of the will.
SLOTE'S SATISFICING CONSEQUENTIALISM
Authors: Mulgan Tim
Published: October 2006

The article discusses Michael Slote's Satisficing Consequentialism, which is the view that moral agents are not required to maximise the good, but merely to produce a sufficient amount of good. It is argued that Satisficing Consequentialism is not an acceptable alternative to Maximising Consequentialism. In particular, it is argued that Satisficing Consequentialism cannot be less demanding in practice than Maximising Consequentialism without also endorsing a wide range of clearly unacceptable actions. It is then argued that Slote's inability to provide adequate reasons for moral satisficing stems from a mistaken analogy between rationality and morals. The sense of ‘good enough’ which is relevant to morality is one which focusses on the effort an agent puts in, rather than on the outcome she produces. However, replacing outcomes with efforts would undermine Slote's Consequentialist project. Finally, it is suggested that similar problems will be faced by others who seek to construct essentially Consequentialist theories which are not unduly demanding.
SUPERVENIENCE AND MORAL REALISM
Authors: Shafer‐Landau Russ
Published: October 2006

Simon Blackburn has developed an interesting challenge to moral realism based on its alleged inability to account for supervenience relations between the moral and nonmoral. If supervenience holds, then any base property once giving rise to a supervening one must always do so. The realist accepts supervenience, but also (according to Blackburn) accepts the claim that nonmoral base properties do not necessitate the moral ones that supervene on them. This combination is thought deadly, because it leaves the realist without an explanation of why ethical supervenience should be true.

I offer three responses on behalf of the moral realist. The first rejects the need for explanation, arguing that supervenience should be understood as closely analogous to Leibniz's law, which, I argue, needs no defense. I next argue that ethical naturalism may be right, and if so, would provide an adequate response to Blackburn. Lastly, I show that the success of Blackburn's arguments implies a global antirealism, and so does not, as he claims, amount to a special problem for realism in ethics.
AKRASIA
Authors: Wilkerson T. E.
Published: October 2006

Aristotle's account of akrasia is unsatisfactory for a number of reasons. First, his account of the problem is coloured by a number of unattractive assumptions and preoccupations; second, his central claim, that akrasia involves a temporary displacement of knowledge, deals at best with only a small number of cases; third, he is wrong to suppose that the akrates is typically someone overwhelmed by passion. We need to follow Davidson in recognising that the central problem consists in a failure to convert intention into action. Any solution must involve a recognition that we are dealing with a range of very different kinds of case, which demand different kinds of treatment. For example sometimes agents are overtaken by passion; sometimes they coolly and calmly do the wrong thing; sometimes they are insincere; sometimes they are suffering from a weakness of will; sometimes they are guilty of some kind of self deception; and sometimes they may have difficulty in comparing the goods and evils available.
COGNITIVE CLOSURE AND THE LIMITS OF UNDERSTANDING
Authors: Sacks Mark
Published: October 2006

The paper begins by distinguishing between two ways of effecting the dissolution of a philosophical problem: reductive and philosophical. Of these, the former holds out deflationary prospects greater than those of the latter. Attention focuses specifically on McGinn's proposed dissolution of the mind‐body problem. Examination of his argument reveals that his naturalist dissolution involves traditional non‐naturalist constraints, in a way that counts against his deflationary conclusions. At best his treatment constitutes a philosophical, rather than a reductive dissolution. But there is reason to think that it might in fact constitute a mere relocation of what is, essentially, the same problem that it set out to dissolve.
DESCARTES AND THE DESTRUCTION OF THE ETERNAL TRUTHS
Authors: Cleve James
Published: October 2006

Descartes's view that the eternal truths of mathematics and logic have been established by God and depend on his will does not merely commit him (as some commentators have suggested) to denying that such truths are necessarily necessary; it abolishes their necessity altogether. For similar reasons, some contemporary views also unwittingly abolish necessity.
DOUGHNUTS AND DICKIE
Authors: Zangwill Nick
Published: October 2006

In this paper, I assess Dickie's institutional theory of art. I compare the earlier and later forms of the theory, and I point to various problems of detail with these accounts. I then proceed by arguing that Dickie's definition excludes Krispy Kreme doughnut boxes from possessing the status of being works of art, and it excludes those who made them from possessing the status of being artists. The intention is not to offer a counter example to Dickie's account. Rather, the complaint is that there could be no philosophical point or interest in a concept of art which excludes these doughnut boxes. The best way to see this is by contrast with a concept of art that includes them. Thus I outline what I call a ‘creative’ account. What we want is a concept of art which helps us understand a certain phenomenon in the world – the phenomenon that we call ‘art’. In this light, I argue that Dickie's institutional theory tells us nothing about why people want to make art and nothing about why they want to experience it. By contrast, the creative theory, which embraces both doughnut boxes and things in galleries, is more explanatory.
WHEN DEDUCTION LEADS TO BELIEF
Authors: Grimaltos Tobies , Hookway Christopher
Published: October 2006

The paper questions the common assumption that rational individuals believe all propositions which they know to be logical consequences of their other beliefs: although we must acknowledge the truth of a proposition which is a deductive consequence of our beliefs, we may not genuinely believe it. This conclusion is defended by arguing that some familiar counterexamples to the claim that knowledge is justified true belief fail because they involve propositions which are not really believed. Beliefs guide conduct or issue in assertion by answering questions which arise in the course of deliberation and conversation, but the troublesome cases present propositions which do not present the agent's answer to any question. The paper concludes by sketching the conditions under which the deductive consequences of our beliefs can be believed.1
DISPOSITIONS, BASES, OVERDETERMINATION AND IDENTITIES1
Authors: Mumford Stephen
Published: October 2006

In this paper I aim to make sense of our pre‐theoretic intuitions about dispositions by presenting an argument for the identity of a disposition with its putative categorical base. The various possible ontologies for dispositions are outlined. The possibility of an empirical proof of identity is dismissed. Instead an a priori argument for identity is adapted from arguments in the philosophy of mind. I argue that dispositions occupy, by analytic necessity, the same causal roles that categorical bases occupy contingently and that properties with identical causal roles are identical. The validity of the argument depends upon the possibility of overdetermination of disposition manifestations being rejected. ‘Ungrounded dispositions’ are dismissed as not genuine dispositions. Identity conditions for dispositions and categorical bases are outlined.
ARGUMENTS FROM CONCEIVABILITY1
Authors: Prudovsky Gad
Published: October 2006

What can be inferred from the fact that something is, or is not, conceivable? In this paper I argue, contrary to some deflationary remarks in recent literature, that arguments which use such facts as their starting point may have significant philosophical import. I use Strawson's results from the first chapter of Individuals in order to show that Galileo's arguments in favour of the distinction between primary and secondary qualities, which are based on premises concerning conceivability, should not be dismissed: they are the first step towards recognising an important conceptual truth.
DEDUCTIVE CLOSURE, SCEPTICISM AND THE PARADOXES OF CONFIRMATION1
Authors: Vahid Hamid
Published: October 2006

To undermine much of what we ordinarily claim to know, sceptics have often appealed to a principle (known as the principle of closure) according to which knowledge (justification) is closed under known entailment. In this paper after expounding the views of Stein, Klein and others, I shall argue that they all fail to take note of different contexts in which the principle of closure is applied. The relevance of the principle of closure for scepticism is then analyzed in the light of, what I call, the ‘infectious’ character of epistemic contexts. I shall also highlight the similarities in the behaviour of the concepts of justification and confirmation and appeal to certain solutions to the paradoxes of confirmation to provide a comprehensive account of the different instances of the principle of closure.
SENSATION, INTENTIONALITY, AND ANIMAL CONSCIOUSNESS: MALEBRANCHE'S THEORY OF THE MIND
Authors: Jolley Nicholas
Published: October 2006

In general, seventeenth‐century philosophers seem to have assumed that intentionality is an essential characteristic of our mental life. Malebranche is perhaps the only philosopher in the period who stands out clearly against the prevailing orthodoxy; he is committed to the thesis that there is a large class of mental items ‐ sensations ‐ which have no representational content. In this paper I argue that due attention to this fact makes it possible to mount at least a partial defence of his notorious doctrine of ‘the rainbow‐coloured soul’; Malebranche's doctrine is a striking anticipation of modern adverbial theories of sensation. I then argue that failure to appreciate the non‐intentional character of sensations for Malebranche vitiates one recent attempt to explain why he accepted the Cartesian doctrine of the beastmachine; in contrast to the Radners, I suggest that Malebranche has the philosophical resources to offer an interesting theory of animal consciousness, and that his failure to develop such a theory rests largely on his acceptance of certain theological arguments. The paper ends by speculating about how Malebranche's theological commitments may have encouraged him to adopt the philosophically important thesis that intentionality is not the mark of the mental.
PRACTICAL SOLUTIONS TO THE SURPRISE‐EXAMINATION PARADOX*
Authors: Weintraub Ruth
Published: October 2006

In this paper I consider the surprise examination paradox from a practical perspective, paying special attention to the communicative role of the teacher's promise to the students. This perspective, which places the promise within a practice, rather than viewing it in the abstract, imposes constraints on adequate solutions to the paradox. In the light of these constraints. I examine various solutions which have been offered, and suggest two of my own.
FELDMAN'S JUSTICIZED ACT UTILITARIANISM
Authors: Persson Ingmar
Published: October 2006

In Confrontations with the Reaper Fred Feldman puts forward puts forward an ethical theory called ‘justicized act utilitarianism’, JAU, according to which an act is morally right if and only if it maximizes universal justice level, i.e., brings it about that as many as possible get what they deserve. It is here argued that JAU is exposed to objections under the force of which it either loses its special emphasis on justice or its utilitarian character. It is also contended that, contrary to what Feldman suggests, JAU does not deal more plausibly with procreation and abortion than do more familiar forms of utilitarianism. Rather, it deals less plausibly at least with abortion, due to difficulties in the concept of desert.
IS NONDEFECTIVELY JUSTIFIED TRUE BELIEF KNOWLEDGE?
Authors: Jacquette Dale
Published: October 2006

The traditional conception of knowledge as justified true belief is refuted in two famous counterexamples by Edmund L. Gettier. Roderick M. Chisholm has attempted to rescue a version of the traditional conception by distinguishing between defective and nondefective kinds of justification, and redefining knowledge more specifically as nondefectively justified true belief. Chisholm's revised definition avoids Gettier's counterexamples, but goes too far in the opposite direction, imposing conditions that are too narrow and not jointly necessary for knowledge. Chisholm's definition excludes some claims that intuitively constitute genuine knowledge1 by entailing that if a true belief is invalidated as knowledge when defectively justified by a total body of evidence that also makes evident at least one false proposition, then no knowledge whatsoever can be supported by the same evidence. An alternative analysis of knowledge is proposed, according to which the potential loophole between the state of affairs that justifies belief in a proposition, and the state of affairs that makes the proposition true, permitted by the traditional concept of knowledge and discovered by Gettier's counterexamples, is closed by redefining knowledge as semantically‐epistemically evidentially relevant justified true belief.
Jointness In Production and Factor‐Price Equalization *
Authors: Jones Ronald W.
Published: October 2006

This paper argues that the presence of activities which yield outputs jointly does not damage the case for factor‐price equalization. the crucial condition for equalization is similar to that in the no‐joint production case: the number of common activities with independent input vectors that are actively used in both countries at least match the number of factors, and factor endowments lie sufficiently close. Indeed, joint production may increase the range of commodity prices for which factor prices are equalized by commodity trade.
The International Transmission of Tax Policies In A Dynamic World Economy*
Authors: Turnovsky Stephen J. , Bianconi Marcelo
Published: October 2006

The international transmission of tax shocks are analyzed in a two‐country infinite‐horizon representative agent framework. the viability of the tax regimes, arising from the arbitrage conditions characterizing equilibrium in a perfect world capital market, is emphasized. Conditions for both short‐run and long‐run viability are derived, and the two polar regimes of source‐based and residence‐based taxation are discussed. In general, the former is found more likely to satisfy the viability conditions than the latter. With equity financing, the long‐run viability of residence‐based taxation is likely to require the harmonization of tax and/or dividend policy. the main features of the dynamic adjustment paths following a tax increase are characterized.
Is World Trade Becoming More Regionalized?*
Authors: Anderson Kym , Norheim Hege
Published: October 2006

The rise in intraregional trade shares and the proliferation of regional trade agreements does not necessarily mean economies excluded from those agreements are harmed. Trade data show that the share of each region's GDP that is traded extraregionally has been growing steadily following its fall in the 1930s. That is, the rapid growth of OECD countries' trade among neighbors has been accompanied by (albeit somewhat less rapid) growth in extraregional trade. This does not constitute proof that regional agreements benefit outsiders, but it at least throws doubt on the opposite conclusion.
Exchange Rate Expectations and the Risk Premium: Tests For A Cross Section of 17 Currencies*
Authors: Frankel Jeffrey A. , Chinn Menzie D.
Published: October 2006

Survey data on a broad cross section of 17 currencies are used to determine whether the forward discount moves primarily in response to changes in expectations of depreciation, or in the risk premium. We find that, in contrast to earlier studies involving developed country exchange rates, variation in the risk premium is a quantitatively significant factor in movements of the forward discount. However, changes in expectations also have a substantial effect.
Commercial Policy Towards Multinational Corporations Under Imperfect Information*
Authors: Donnenfeld Shabtai
Published: October 2006

This paper examines host country government (HCG) commercial policy towards imports resulting from intrafirm trade conducted by a multinational corporation (MNC). the effectiveness of the HCG's commercial policy is impaired by its limited information about the MNC's cost of production. the commercial policy consists of restrictions on intrafirm transactions. We construct and characterize the optimal commercial policy under imperfect information and find that under imperfect information the optimal policy entails a distorted transfer price and a lower level of intrafirm trade relative to the full information case. Welfare implications of commercial policy under imperfect information are also examined.
How Useful Is an Ec‐Wide Monetary Aggregate As an Intermediate Target For Europe?*
Authors: Bayoumi Tamim A. , Kenen Peter B.
Published: October 2006

This paper looks at whether the aggregate ERM money supply has been a useful predictor of short‐term changes in inflation and growth, and of long‐term trends in price levels among the core ERM countries. the evidence suggests that over the period since 1987 the ERM money supply performs at least as well, and arguably better, than the individual nominal aggregates in predicting nominal aggregates such as inflation and the price level, while neither money supply is a good predictor of real activity.
Variable Specific Factors and the “X‐Efficiency Cost” of Protection *
Authors: Vousden Neil
Published: October 2006

This paper analyzes the effects of protection on X‐efficiency using a general equilibrium Ricardo‐Viner model with variable sector‐specific effort. As in earlier models, it is found that protection only reduces effort if the income effect is sufficiently strong. It is also shown that, provided the correct compensated import demand curve is used, all welfare effects attributable to changes in effort are captured in the standard “triangle” measure of deadweight loss. Moreover, any protection‐induced fall in effort will reduce the overall cost of protection, suggesting that policy‐induced “X‐inefficiency” may be beneficial.
Equilibrium Tariff Schedules In Commercial Policy Games Under Uncertainty
Authors: Laussel Didier , Soubeyran Antoine
Published: October 2006

Abstract A partial two country equilibrium model is built in which two different exogenous random shocks may occur. the governments simultaneously choose tariff functions relating their specific tariff to the level of an observable variable (volume of trade or international price). In the case of a “volume of trade shock” the Nash equilibria of this game are more protectionist the larger the possible trade swings and autarky is always an equilibrium outcome. In the case of a “terms of trade shock”, constant tariffs, at their Nash equilibrium in specific tariff levels are the only sensible equilibrium outcome.
Targeting the Exchange Rate Under Inflation*
Authors: Pessach Shula , Razin Assaf
Published: October 2006

The purpose of this paper is to implement empirically a variant of the new theory of exchange‐rate targeting, suitable for high‐inflation, small, open economies. We formulate an expectations‐induced relationship between the exchange rate and the fundamental, subject to random shocks and target‐zone constraints on rates of depreciation. the empirical analysis provides estimates for the key parameters of the exchange‐rate dynamic equation, and thereby identifies the unique roles played by policy variables and market fundamentals in foreign‐exchange markets.
Fiscal Policy, Expectations, and Exchange‐Rate Dynamics*
Authors: Levin Jay H.
Published: October 2006

This paper uses the sticky‐price monetary model to analyze the effects of fiscal policy on the exchange rate under alternative assumptions about exchange‐rate expectations. the use of different expectations mechanisms‐specifically the perfect‐foresight model and the popular models tested by Frankel and Froot: regressive, adaptive, and distributed‐lag‐is based on recent empirical evidence suggesting that exchange‐rate expectations may not be rational. the most surprising finding in the paper is that with adaptive and distributed‐lag expectations, fiscal expansion has no initial impact on the exchange rate, and the same may be true for regressive expectations.
Rent Sharing In the Multi‐Fibre Arrangement: Theory and Evidence From Us Apparel Imports From Hong Kong*
Authors: Krishna Kala , Erzan Refik , Tan Ling Hui
Published: October 2006

Available estimates of tariff equivalents and welfare costs of MFA quotas are based on the premise of perfect competition in both product and license markets, and the assumption that exporting countries receive all the scarcity rent. We test if US apparel imports from Hong Kong conform with this competitive model by looking at whether the license‐price‐inclusive Hong Kong price, adjusted for tariffs and transport costs, is equal to the US price. We deal with the homogeneous product case and correct for both aggregation and quality differences. We find that US importers seem to retain a substantial portion of the quota rents.
The Fallacy of Free Trade II
Authors: Batra Ravi
Published: October 2006

This paper argues that not a single proposition of the modern theory of free trade is upheld by the recent experience of the United States. Freer trade is supposed to raise GNP growth and productivity growth as well as the living standard. Until 1972, when the US was practically a closed economy with a trade/GNP ratio averaging a low of 12%, GNP growth was 3.8%, productivity growth was 2%, and real wages had been rising for 150 years. Since 1972, the trade/GNP ratio has been rising steadily, US GNP growth has been only 2.5%, productivity growth is below 1%, and real wages have been falling for over three‐quarters of the labor force.
Leaning Against the Wind: Do Central Banks Necessarily Lose?
Authors: Carlson John A. , Kim Insook
Published: October 2006

A leaning‐against‐the‐wind intervention that has only a temporary effect on the exchange rate and that is not too aggressive can be shown analytically to yield positive expected profits to a central bank even when the exchange‐rate process is nonstationary. These profits arise if there are some transitory shocks to the exchange rate. Furthermore, very aggressive intervention will yield positive expected profits eventually when there is a tendency for exchange rates to return to a long‐run equilibrium level.
Japanese Foreign Investment and the “Land Bubble”*
Authors: Werner Richard A.
Published: October 2006

The aim of this paper is to examine the determinants of Japanese net long‐term capital flows in the 1980s and early 1990s. A basic framework is proposed which takes account of Japan's so‐called land bubble by incorporating the interaction of land with the banking sector in a macroeconomic portfolio model of capital flows. Empirical evidence is supportive of the hypothesis that land‐related bank loans have been a major determinant of Japanese net long‐term foreign investment. the hypothesis of substitution between direct and indirect foreign investment also receives support, and areas of future research are mentioned.
The Differential‐Productivity Hypothesis and Purchasing‐Power Parties: Some New Evidence*
Authors: Heston Alan , Nuxoll Daniel A. , Summers Robert
Published: October 2006

The structure of prices of goods entering into international trade relative to those that do not plays a key role in the Balassa‐Samuelson explanation of why countries ‘exchange rates differ systematically from their currencies’ purchasing power. the B‐S analysis leads to the proposition that the tradable‐nontradable price difference is lower for rich countries than for poor. This paper examines the gap, using prices collected by the International Comparison Programme. A variety of regressions were run to see if indeed the difference between tradable and nontradable price parities moved with income in the way B‐S expected. They did.
The Behavior of Nontradable‐Goods Prices In Europe: Evidence and Interpretation*
Authors: De Gregorio José , Giovannini Alberto , Krueger Thomas H.
Published: October 2006

This paper examines the evolution of the relative price between tradable and nontradable goods in a group of European countries. A model of an open economy is used to analyze different factors that can account for an increase in the relative price of nontradable goods. These factors are (a) faster technological progress in the tradable goods sector, (b) demand shifts toward nontradable goods, and (c) real wage pressures. the relevance of these factors is analyzed empirically for France, Germany, Italy, Spain, and the United Kingdom.
The Dependent‐Economy Model With Both Traded and Nontraded Capital Goods*
Authors: Brock Philip L. , Turnovsky Stephen J.
Published: October 2006

Dynamic versions of the dependent‐economy model have been criticized for arbitrarily assuming that capital is either tradable or nontradable, and for choosing either the traded or nontraded sector to be capital intensive. Our model incorporates both types of capital and shows that the relative sectoral intensity of nontraded capital determines the dynamic adjustment of the relative price of nontradables. When the traded sector is intensive in nontraded capital, the saddlepath is flat. When the nontraded sector is intensive in nontraded capital, the saddlepath is negatively sloped. the relative sectoral intensity of traded capital primarily affects current‐account dynamics.
Dynamic Effects of Tariff Liberalization: an Intertemporal Cge Approach*
Authors: Keuschnigg Christian , Kohler Wilhelm
Published: October 2006

The paper presents a multisectoral CGE model with overlapping generations in which intertemporal optimization by households and firms determines savings and investment under perfect foresight. We calibrate the model to Austrian data and simulate a unilateral tariff liberalization scenario. We find that unilateral tariff reductions are expansionary in the long‐run but involve considerable diversity in sectoral adjustment. Foreign debt increases in the long‐run, causing an improvement in the trade balance. In terms of welfare, some old generations gain at the expense of young and future generations. Budgetary policies are shown to be crucial for several effects.
Share Ribs and Income Distribution*
Authors: Jones Ronald W. , Mitra Tapan
Published: October 2006

The connection between changes in commodity prices and the distribution of income is a question of active interest since the 1941 Stolper‐Samuelson Theorem. In higher dimensions results are obtained only if structure is imposed. Here we assume that each of n‐industries is alike in the shape of the profile (rib) of distributive factor shares with a permutation of factor numbering such that industry n is most intensive in factor n. Such a structure reveals either a strong version of the Stolper Samuelson Theorem or a Neighborhood oscillation pattern depending on the shape of the share ribs.
Quality‐Differentiated Inputs and Trade In Vertically Related Markets*
Authors: Skeath Susan
Published: October 2006

This paper presents an international trade model of vertically related markets with quality differentiation at the stage of the intermediate good. Domestic input producers are at a disadvantage relative to higher quality foreign suppliers in providing inputs to a domestic final‐good producer. the input producer may be driven out of the market unless policies enacted by the domestic government can encourage domestic final‐good firms to use the domestic input. Results show that multiple tariffs and direct production subsidies are the most beneficial policy options.
On Nations’ Size and Transportation Costs*
Authors: Shachmurove Yochanan , Spiegel Uriel
Published: October 2006

This paper develops a noncooperative Nash model in which a closed border is opened to trade between countries that differ in size and transportation costs. the paper suggests an explanation as to why economists have not convinced policymakers to lift all barriers to free trade. the questions we pose are: Who will gain as a result of opening the borders? Is free trade beneficial to the two parties involved? Do they both share equally in the fruits of free trade? Which country, large or small, benefits most? It is shown that free trade is not beneficial to both countries.
Trend Breaks and the Unit‐Root Hypothesis For Newly Industrializing and Newly Exporting Countries*
Authors: Alba Joseph D. , Papell David H.
Published: October 2006

We examine trend breaks and unit roots in aggregate and per capita real GDP for mine newly industrializing (NIC) and newly exporting (NEC) countries in east and southeast Asia. In 15 of the 18 cases, we reject the unit‐root hypothesis in favor of trend stationarity with breaks. Our findings allow us to trace the growth paths of these NICs and NECs. While the shifts are due to both external and internal factors, most of the breaks are country specific and can be partly attributed to changes in government policies.
Exchange‐Rate Pass‐Through With Intertemporal Linkages: Evidence At the Commodity Level
Authors: Parsley David C.
Published: October 2006

This paper argues that the stability of exchange‐rate pass‐through is not well tested in common econometric specifications of pass‐through equations. This is because (a) expected future exchange‐rate changes are an important omitted variable in these estimations, and (b) the use of aggregate data complicates inference. Commodity‐level estimates obtained from applying the Kalman filter are consistent with the apparent instability in aggregate pass‐through. Moreover, by comparing these estimates to actual exchange‐rate movements, the observed instability is found to be consistent with forward‐looking behavior as posited.
Results‐Oriented Trade Policy
Authors: Ethier Wilfred J. , Horn Henrik
Published: October 2006

We construct a model of economic policy determination by an executive who controls a domestic policy instrument and who can influence, but not completely control, the conduct of trade policy. The executive exploits a polictical linkage between the policies. These circumstances can motivate implementation of a results‐oriented trade policy by the government of a trading partner. We analyze the implications of such a policy under alternative situations.