bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The House of Commons
Authors: Brazier Rodney
Published: November 2023

The maximum life of a Parliament is five years from the day, fixed at the dissolution, on which it was summoned to meet after a general election.i Parliament would be dissolved automatically on the expiry of that time, but Parliament never ends in that way: it is, of course, dissolved by the Sovereign on the Prime Minister’s advice. Only five Parliaments since 1945 have been allowed by the Prime Minister to approach the maximum span allowed by law;2 six have been terminated after some four years.3 The Prime Minister will usually bring about a dissolution in good time before the maximum duration of Parliament and at the best moment as he can judge it for his party to win: this is an unfair advantage for him, but one which the Leaders of the opposition parties in the main hope to enjoy themselves one fine day.
The Concept Of Exclusive Rights
Authors: Buendia Sierra Jose Luis , Read Andrew
Published: November 2023

The study of the law relating to exclusive rights as governed by the EC Treaty (Treaty of Rome as amended, which will generally be referred to in this book as 'the Treaty') requires that this concept be defined at the outset. Surprisingly, to date this task has scarcely interested jurists. Those that have studied Article 86 (formerly Article 90) have devoted little time to defining this legal concept, per-haps considering that it was unproblematic.
Article 86(1) (Formerly Article 90(1)) In Conjunction With The Treaty Rules Addressed To Member States
Authors: Buendia Sierra Jose Luis , Read Andrew
Published: November 2023

Article 86(1) (formerly Article 90(1)) in conjunction with the Treaty rules directed at Member States produces two different legal effects. First, it reminds Member States that they also have to respect such rules when it is a question of measures which concern or whose beneficiaries are public or privileged undertakings.1 Secondly, Article 86(1) impedes Member States from evading their obligations by shielding behind the apparently independent behaviour of their public or privileged undertakings.
The Connection Between The Different Community Provisions Applicable To Exclusive Rights
Authors: Buendia Sierra Jose Luis , Read Andrew
Published: November 2023

Any jurist encountering Community law for the first time who expects to find a 7.02 sophisticated system in which the connections between and the limits of the different rules of the Treaty are easy to grasp is in for a rude awakening. Concepts such as lex superior and lex specialis are, if not totally unknown, of much less importance than in national law. As a result, the task of determining which Community rule applies to a specific case is often much more complicated than might be expected.
High Tide: Mandatory Sentences, 1995-7
Authors: Windlesham Lord
Published: November 2023

The Conservative Party Conference in 1995 was held at Blackpool. Each Autumn the party faithful assemble in large numbers at a seaside resort, Brighton being the preferred location in the South and Blackpool in the North of England, to participate in a familiar and comfortable ritual. This is the moment for constituency workers to hear, and maybe to meet, leading members of the Parliamentary party. For an unbroken sequence of sixteen years the Conservatives had been in power. As Prime Minister until November 1990, Margaret Thatcher, and John Major after her, had deployed all their rhetorical skills in making an uplifting appeal at the end of the conference to send the delegates back to their constituencies fortified to keep the Tory flame burning bright for another year. In such speeches it was the tone, the appeal to traditional values, and the style of leadership, rather than the detailed content of government policies, that was paramount. Other ministers also concentrated on raising the spirits of the audience, a favoured tactic being to pillory the policies of the Opposition parties.
Reforms in the Criminal Process II: The Defendants
Authors: Windlesham Lord
Published: November 2023

Before the Access to Justice Act 1999 the defence of persons suspected or accused of criminal offences rested upon a haphazard amalgam of procedural rules, privately paid legal advice and representation, and the public financing of lawyers in private practice. The procedural rules had been developed piecemeal, primarily to ensure fair trials for defendants in court, being supplemented by various common law or statutory protections at pre-trial stages. The Judges’ Rules, for instance, dating originally from 1906, were an early example of safeguards intended to protect persons being inter viewed by police officers from self-incrimination or oppression.
Bargaining over the transfer of proprietary research tools: is this market failing or emerging?
Authors: Eisenberg* Rebecca s.
Published: November 2023

As intellectual property claims proliferate in rapidly advancing fields of technology, new research paths often cross the boundaries of many prior patents. Without an exemption from infringement liability,1 subsequent inno vators need licenses from multiple predecessors to pursue such research pro jects. Whether this state of affairs promotes innovation or retards it is an empirical question of considerable complexity.
The Onward March Of Intellectual Property Rights And Remedies
Authors: jacob* Hon. Sir robin
Published: November 2023

So said Sir George Jessel, the Master of the Rolls in 1880.1 An English copy right owner was seeking an injunction against a dealer in pirate copies of his work. To establish liability it was necessary under the then law to prove that the dealer had knowledge that the copies in which he dealt were piratical. That was the court’s robust answer.
Academia And The Bench: Toward A More Productive Dialogue
Authors: Newman* Hon. Jon 0.
Published: November 2023

In thinking about intellectual property issues for 20 years as a federal appel late judge, particularly copyright issues that place in tension the claims of authors and of those who advocate a broad public domain, I have been struck by the gulf that often exists between scholars writing and thinking hard about these questions and judges obliged to decide discrete controversies. Judges are a considerable distance from the factual information that most scholars have at their fingertips, such as the arcana of computer technology, and most ofus are somewhat removed from the doctrinal familiarity of intellectual property scholars.
Intellectual Property In The Courts: The Role Of The Judge
Authors: Wood* Diane p.
Published: November 2023

Judges are not the principal architects of intellectual property, nor are they even the principal creators of intellectual property law. What, then, do judges have to add to discussions like those we have enjoyed throughout this sym posium? Skeptics, including some on the bench, might suggest that generalist judges are at best philosopher kings, who bring little value added to the table. And yet, there is no denying the importance of the role the judiciary plays in bringing to life the type of property known as ‘intellectual’. Self-help mea sures may suffice to keep trespassers away from Blackacre, but there are few substitutes for the courts if someone needs to prevent poaching of patent rights, trade secrets, copyrights, or other forms of intangible property rights. It is therefore helpful to understand how intellectual property rights are han dled in the courts, and how advances in understanding can be carried over from the academic world and the business world to the judiciary.
Symmetry In Graphs
Authors: Ball John , Welsh Dominic
Published: November 2023

Chapter 1 tells of how the Team of Four made use of symmetrical subgraphs in their theoretical method for the construction of perfect squares.
Antiarrhythmic action of drugs interacting with sodium channels
Authors: Tamargo J , Delpon E , Perez O , Valenzuela C
Published: November 2023

Cardiac cells display a complex action potential which is generated by a sequence of ionic movements across the cell membrane. In most cardiac cells (atrial and ventricular muscle, His-Purkinje system), the rapid depolarizing phase of the cardiac action potential which supports excitability and conduction velocity result from the rapid entry of Na+ ions through voltage-sensitive Na+ channels1--4 Na+ channels are characterized by voltage-dependent activation, rapid inactivation and high selectivity for Na+ ions over other monovalent cations.
Biophysics of voltage-dependent Ca2+ channels: gating kinetics and their modulation
Authors: Carbone E , Magnelli V , Pollo A , Carabelli V , Albillos, A , Zucker H
Published: November 2023

Voltage-dependent Ca2+ channels represent one of the membrane pathways through which cytoplasmic Ca2+ levels are effectively regulated. As the increase of intracellular Ca2+ represents the triggering event of many biological functions, the identification of Ca2+ channel subtypes and the characterization of their gating properties has become a crucial task for understanding the genesis of cell activities (Bean 1989; Tsien et al. 1991). Regulation of Ca2+ entry through voltage-activated Ca2+ channels may occur by varying the number of functioning channels, the constraints of ion permeation through open pores, or by affecting their gating characteristics.
Cingulofrontal Interactions And The Cingulate Motor Areas
Authors: Morecraft Robert J , Tanji Jun
Published: November 2023

The cingulate gyrus forms a prominent part of the medial wall of the cerebral cortex. In traditional terms, it is a major component of the limbic lobe and is uniquely characterized by its vast network of interconnections with other limbic cortices, as well as with a number of multimodal association regions throughout the neocortex. Originally viewed as functioning solely within the domain of olfaction (Broca 1878), our understanding of cingulate function has steadily grown from observations following isolated brain injury and neurosurgical treatments as well as from many neuroimaging, electrophysiological, and neuroanatomical advancements. Without question, interest in the functional role of the cingulate cortex has reached epic proportions in the field of neurobiology as the list of behavioral correlates is extensive, and includes critical roles in emotional expression, pain processing, cognitive control, and spatial memory to highlight a few (Vogt et al., 1992; Devinsky et al., 1995).In recent years, many neurocognitive studies employing a combination of neuropsychological and neuroimaging methodologies have convincingly and frequently activated the cingulate and prefrontal regions in a broad range of complex and challenging behavioral paradigms. In consideration of these findings, it is not surprising that even a casual review of the neuroanatomical literature dating back to studies employing degeneration tract tracing methods, which from the present perspective would have predicted this close functional relationship based upon the powerful interconnections that link these important higher order, association areas.
Pain Anticipation in the Cingulate Gyrus
Authors: Porro Carlo Adolfo , Lui Fausta
Published: November 2023

Our ability to anticipate the consequences of motor events, environmental stimuli, or decision processes is a fundamental aspect of consciousness and it offers unique adaptive advantages (Ingvar, 1985). Previous acquired knowledge, in combination with currently available information, provides the basis for understanding as to how we generate anticipatory responses. Anticipation is a highly complex condition where different factors such as attention, preparation and motivation, fear, or anxiety can come into play. Such mechanisms allow anticipatory adaptation and coping with neutral and emotional stimuli, thus influencing subsequent behavior (Lazarus, 1991; Posada et al., 2001). A description of current theories on anticipation is beyond the scope of this Chapter (for review, see Kirsch, 1999).Given its unique role at the interface of cognitive, affective, and motor functions as discussed in Chapters 5 and 8–13, the cingulate cortex is a likely substrate for anticipatory mechanisms. Indeed, physiological and functional imaging studies have disclosed the role of cingulate regions in different experimental models of anticipation. For instance, electrophysiological studies performed in non-human primates have shown anticipatory activity of anterior cingulate neurons during expectation of the visual cue triggering task onset, or during the delay period in delayed response tasks (Niki and Watanabe, 1976, 1979); anticipatory activity of different neurons could be related to orienting attention before stimulus onset, to a preparatory set for emitting appropriate behavioral responses, or to time estimation processes.
Hypnosis And Cingulate-Mediated Mechanisms Of Analgesia
Authors: Faymonville Marie-Elisabeth , Vogt Brent A , Maquet Pierre , Laureys Steven
Published: November 2023

Throughout the history of hypnosis, speculation about the basic nature and underlying causes of these phenomena has been full of controversies, conflicts and passion. Theories of hypnosis are generally divided into psychological and physiological theories. The psychological theories of hypnosis emphasize role definition, expectation, and subject motivation, while physiological theories emphasize the neural bases of hypnosis. Currently, there is an agreement that, in addition to the changes in external behavior, suggestions presented in a hypnotic context may give rise to changes in subjective experience. The disagreement has focused on the question whether reference to a specific internal state of the individual called the hypnotic state is necessary to describe or explain the objective and subjective changes associated with hypnosis. While some researchers postulated an altered state of consciousness, others caution that the evidence only supports a state of high suggestibility. Subjects in hypnosis reported vivid images, hallucinations in all sense modalities, amnesia, timelessness, detachment from the self and willingness to accept distortions of logic and reality. They experience a lack of initiative or willful movement. Hypnosis investigators have long sought specific physiological indicators of this state. Some of the first physiological responses to be studied were autonomic in nature such as heart rate, blood pressure, and galvanic skin responses (Jana, 1967; Tebecis & Provins, 1976; Ray et al., 2000). Much of the early research in this area was fuelled by investigators seeking to confirm that the identification of a specific physiologic indicator of hypnosis would lend support to the view that hypnosis is a state of consciousness distinct from other states, such as normal wakefulness or sleep and cortical electroencephalographic activity during hypnosis was thought to be unlike cortical activity during sleep (Gorton, 1949).
Altered Processing of Valence and Significance-Coded Information in the Psychopathic Cingulate Gyrus
Authors: Vogt Brent A , Lane Richard D
Published: November 2023

The official diagnostic classification system for mental disorders in the United States, DSM-IV, recognizes anti-social personality as a distinct entity. In contrast, psychopathy is not recognized as a distinct disorder. Both disorders involve behavioral impulsivity and actions that violate social norms and what distinguishes psychopathy from anti-social personality disorder is that the former includes a deficit in emotional responses to others and the latter does not. This deficit, like other behavioral disturbances involving emotion in psychiatric disorders (e.g., blunted affect in schizophrenia), is difficult for clinicians to rate reliably, which may account for its lack of inclusion in DSM-IV. However, recent empirical findings have advanced our understanding of the brain and behavioral basis of psychopathy and the associated emotional deficits and these abnormalities include alterations in the functioning of subregions of the cingulate gyrus as well as other areas. As such, these new findings advance our understanding of how the brain mediates emotional responses and how disruption of these functions may result in clinical conditions such as psychopathy. A deeper understanding of the brain basis of disorders of emotion regulation may ultimately contribute to the inclusion of their behavioral manifestations in the definition of these disorders.
The Contribution of Anterior Cingulate-Basal Ganglia Circuitry to Complex Behavior and Psychiatric Disorders
Authors: Middleton Frank A
Published: November 2023

The rostral cingulate cortex consists of at least three major functional domains, which subserve distinct but complementary roles in guiding behavior. Two of these domains exist as separate anatomical regions—the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), which is specialized for the processing of limbic, autonomic, and reward-related information, and the midcingulate cortex (MCC), which receives nociceptive inputs and engages in the regulation of movement via the cingulate motor areas (CMAs). The third cingulate domain is not anatomically distinct, but exists as a higher-order domain that integrates signals from prefrontal areas concerned with working memory and the signals to motor and premotor areas involved in motor outputs, and thus can be said to be involved in the selectiveguidance of behavior to achieve intended outcomes. In this sense, the third domain encompasses the most complex forms of behavior represented in cingulate cortex.At the cortical level, the involvement of the rostral cingulate cortex in both simple and complex behavior has been demonstrated in various functional imaging paradigms and even with intracortical stimulation and single unit recording. It is important to recognize, however, that such activations are dependant to a large extent on the anatomical connections that exist between the cingulate cortex and other cortical and subcortical regions.
Cingulate Cortex Seizures
Authors: Nadkarni Siddhartha , Devinsky Orrin
Published: November 2023

Epileptic seizures provide a complex contrast to lesions. Destructive lesions typically cause functional deficits. However, the activities of preserved cortical and subcortical areas, released from the influences of the destroyed or impaired tissue, can paradoxically cause focal hyperactivities. Seizures result from excessive synchronous neural discharges that can cause positive (hyperactive such as jerking) or negative (functional impairment such as weakness) changes. Lesions and seizures both provide valuable, but often not straight-forward, insights into brain function. While the correlation between disease and abnormal function is often easily made, the extrapolation from disease to normal function is much more tenuous. Hughling Jackson’s localization of focal motor seizures to primary motor cortex was a remarkable leap for neurology, but his localization of déjà vu, olfactory hallucinations, and dreamy states to the mesial temporal lobe was a larger jump (Jackson, 1931). He recognized in the dreamy states the dual nature of a seizure’s effects on mind. ‘There is not always loss, but there is, I believe, always, at least defect, of consciousness co-existing with over-consciousness (“dreamy state”)’. Just as motor seizures can be excitatory and cause clonic or tonic activity, seizures arising from limbic and associational cortices can cause positive or negative symptoms. When a seizure evokes fear, the paroxysmal occurrence of the emotion without an environmental context is readily identified by the patient.
Human Biology In A Small Cosmos
Authors: Alpers Michael P , Attenborough Robert D
Published: November 2023

The large island variously known to the outside world (the insiders had no name for it) as New Guinea (its coast and people apparently like those of Guinea in Africa) or Papua (the land of the fuzzy-haired people) has held a fascination for Europeans for over three hundred years. In the past hundred years or more-see, for example, reference to the Papuan Mission in Trollope (1861)-there has been continuous and slowly progressive contact between the outside world and the people of the large island as well as the inhabitants of the many other smaller islands of Melanesia; the people of the smaller islands include the Solomon Islanders, whose black skin gave the name to the region and the Melanesian people who inhabit it.
Physiological Adapt Ability In Papua New Guinea
Authors: Grahame Budd John Lourie , Ross Anderson H
Published: November 2023

The range of physiological responses in differing physical environments provides a challenging area of human biological research. Controversy has long existed regarding the contribution, if any, of inherited differences to observed variations in physiological function.
Pigbel
Authors: Lawrence Gregor
Published: November 2023

In Papua New Guinea (PNG) pigbel, or enteritis necroticans, is a fascinating disease of the highland areas of the country where it has been a major cause of death and morbidity in children after the first year of life (see Lawrence et al. 1979a; Davis 1984). The distribution of pigbel is more or less restricted to the highlands and in a worldwide sense it is only an endemic public health problem of enormous importance in PNG. Pigbel epidemiology shares some of the strangeness of the epidemiology of kuru (discussed by Alpers, Chapter 16). As in kuru, the pathogenesis is directly related to the social and behavioural characteristics of the people involved and to the biology of the causative organism, which in the case of pigbel is Clostridium perfringens (previously known as C. welchii) type C (CPC).
Social Change And The Emergence Of Degenerative Cardiovascular Disease In Papua New Guinea
Authors: Sinnett Peter F , Kevau Isi H , Tyson Daniel
Published: November 2023

The population of Papua New Guinea consists of peoples of diverse ethnic origins (Kirk, Chapter 8; Serjeantson et al., Chapter 9). The ethnic diversity of the population is matched by the environmental diversity of the land in which they live. Indeed the population of Papua New Guinea has adapted to this uniquely wide range of physical environments, which are described briefly by Allen (Chapter 2). Nevertheless, as Sinnett and Whyte (1981) have pointed out, the ethnic, environmental, and, indeed, cultural diversity found among traditional Papua New Guinea communities was matched by a significant homogeneity in their social and economic organization. While regional differences in the prevalence of infectious disease and malnutrition were largely explainable on the basis of genetic and environmental diversity, it was the overriding influence of their social and economic organization that restricted the range of disease to a pattern dominated by infectious conditions and nutritional deficiency and precluded the development of chronic degenerative diseases which are a feature of technically developed and urbanized communities.
Transition Fronts
Authors: Glass Irvine I , Sislian J P
Published: November 2023

The various shock-wave phenomena described in the previous section involve considerable spatial and time-dependent changes in velocity, density, pressure, and temperature in the continuum in which they take place and, therefore, they may be studied by the methods of nonstationary gas dynamics. The propagation of plane waves, and of cylindrical waves, or spherical waves in a duct with variable cross section is a special case of wave propagation. The analysis may be greatly simplified by the assumption of one-dimensional flow, whereby the flow properties are assumed to be uniform over any cross section and to vary only with the distance along the duct axis and also with time. However, in a real gas viscosity will cause a departure from this uniformity. Consequently, the onedimensional representation of real flows requires the use of appropriately defined average flow quantities at each cross section. In what follows, it will be assumed that the dynamic and thermodynamic variables describing the flow in the ducts are suitably averaged over a cross section and that they are functions of distance, r (along the duct axis), and time only.
Hydrodynamic Shock Tubes
Authors: Glass Irvine I , Sislian J P
Published: November 2023

The simple shock tube is well established as a facility for investigating numerous problems in the physical sciences. A similar method has been extended to the study of cylindrical and spherical shock waves and expansion waves in Chapter 8. The present chapter gives an explicit solution to the planar, hydrodynamic, shock-tube problem neglecting gravitational, viscous, and gas imperfection effects (see [1]). In this problem a high-pressure driver gas in a chamber is separated by a diaphragm, D, from a driven liquid in a channel (see Fig. 9.1). The chamber and channel are of uniform cross section (assumed infinite in length to avoid wave interactions), and mounted vertically, with the liquid below the diaphragm. When the diaphragm is ruptured at time t = 0, it is assumed that a classical shock-tube wave system is generated; that is, a shock wave moves into the liquid to compress it irreversibly, then a gas-liquid contact surface propagates into the channel containing the liquid, and an expansion wave moves into the chamber containing the high-pressure gas.
Dusty-Gas Shock Tubes
Authors: Glass Irvine I , Sislian J P
Published: November 2023

When a gas carries many solid particles, these particles significantly affect the flow by the transfer of momentum and heat from or to the gas. Shock waves propagating in such a dusty gas are characterized by a transition region orders thicker than that caused by viscosity and heat conduction in a pure gas. Across the transition front, the interaction of the gas and the particles leads to an equilibrium state of the mixture. The structure of stationary shock waves has been studied theoretically on the assumption that the formulae for the drag and the rate of heat transfer for a single spherical particle placed in a steady flow can still be applied to the motion of many particles contained in a dusty gas (see, for example, [1–4]).
Types Of Dc Linear Motor
Authors: Basak Amitava
Published: November 2023

Researchers in various countries, such as Japan, Germany, and the UK, have been working on direct-current (dc.) linear motors for the last 25 years. The basic principles of these motors are similar in essence; but they differ widely in their construction and performance. These two aspects are described in the following sections.
Applications
Authors: Basak Amitava
Published: November 2023

There are advantages in light and heavy industries in using linear rather than rotary motors for linear drives if the position and speed of these motors can be controlled precisely. Linear motors remove the necessity for gears, belts, etc., to transfer the rotary motion into linear motion. Thus they reduce the cost of the drive system, and also the space required for it. Direct-current linear motors offer an impressive combination of precision, power, and speed. They can produce a thrust of up to 1 kN, accelerate loads to speeds in excess of ms-1, and then position the loads to submicrometre accuracies. This type of motor is, however, not easily adaptable to a variety of application demands (as rotary motors are), since gearing is impracticable. Therefore, in most linear-drive applications, requirements such as stroke-length, linear-velocity, acceleration and deceleration level&, etc., need a motor which is uniquely designed for a particular application.
Diffraction
Authors: Brooker Geoffrey
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we introduce diffraction using the concept of Huygens secondary sources. At the same time, we take the attitude that the whole subject must be grounded on Maxwell’s equations. We do what we can at our level of treatment to make the connection, and look critically at the customary assumptions. The whole subject of diffraction is, of course, itself founded on an understanding of simple cases of interference, such as the Young slits. It is assumed that the reader has acquired this foundation from a more elementary treatment of optics.
Humanism and the lure of antiquity
Authors: Quillen Carol Everhart
Published: November 2023

Between the thirteenth and sixteenth centuries, a passion for antiquity profoundly shaped Italian cultural production. It first emerged clearly in the Veneto and Tuscany, in the works of Lovato <lei Lovati (1240-1309) and Geri d’Arezzo (b. mid thirteenth century), as a reaction against a rising pre-professional approach to education that stressed functional competence in Latin rather than the study of ancient authors. From there it spread among teachers, notaries, artists, and other educated people to become what later historians called the humanist movement. Jacob Burckhardt (1818-97), the founder of modern Renaissance studies, described humanism primarily as a movement to reproduce antiquity. Fourteenth- and fifteenth-century humanists accepted as ideals for their own time cultural standards that they found in the works of ancient Roman (and later Greek) authors. They sought, Burckhardt wrote, to know what the ancients knew, to write as the ancients wrote, to think and even to feel as the ancients thought and felt.
Governments and governance
Authors: Najemy John M
Published: November 2023

Renaissance Italy contained an array of governments. The South was a nominally unified kingdom, but sometimes functioned as a loose federation of noble baronies. In the centre, the papal state was a composite of cities and territories mostly governed by local lords and communes. Though popes made extravagant claims to universal temporal and spiritual authority, they could not even contain the R man nobility. The centre and north (Venice excepted) were officially part of the Holy Roman Empire, but by 1200 nearly every city was an independent commune. After 1300 republican government survived in Venice, Florence, Siena, Lucca, Perugia, and intermittently in Bologna and Genoa. But many communes were supplanted by lordships, or signorie, which first emerged as unofficial regimes of factional leaders and later gained legitimacy as hereditary dynasties: the Este in Ferrara, Visconti in Milan, Della Scala in Verona, Gonzaga in Mantua, Carrara in Padua, Montefeltro in Urbino, and a host of lesser ruling families, especially in the Romagna. By the fifteenth century most cities were absorbed into the territorial dominions of the emerging regional powers: Milan, Venice, Plorence, and the papal state.
Rural economy and society
Authors: Wickham Chris
Published: November 2023

Italy is not a coherent whole in socio-economic terms, and never has been. Its historical disunity reflects the extreme difficulty involved in even travelling from north to south along a long peninsula that is essentially created by a set of mountain ranges, the Apennines. Until the railways were built, by far the easiest way to travel long distances was by sea, with land routes only imposing themselves because the network of Italian cities was so important to most travellers that intermediate stops were as significant as final destinations. Land routes therefore shifted in importance as cities did; so, for instance, the Via Flaminia, the Roman consular road to Rome from the Adriatic (and thus Ravenna), declined in importance across the early Middle Ages, as did the Rome-Ravenna axis, whereas the new Via Francigena, from the cities of northern Tuscany, Lombardy, and, eventually, France, a pilgrim road to Rome and, increasingly, a commercial route, developed fast from the ninth century onwards.
The cities
Authors: Gelichi Sauro
Published: November 2023

The 1980s marked a turning point in research into the Italian cities of the early Middle Ages, providing us with new information on the building materials used and extending our knowledge of the layout and organization of public and private spaces. This turning point coincided with a renewed interest in urban archaeology, and hence with the initiation of a series of excavations on the sites of the ancient cities of the peninsula-both those which had been subsequently abandoned (for example, Luni near La Spezia) and those which continued to develop as urban settlements (Rome, Naples, Brescia, Pavia, and Verona).
Private charters
Authors: Langeli Attilio Bartoli
Published: November 2023

The written documents that we shall be concerned with in this chapter include all the forms of written texts that have survived from this period, particularly those whose function was to establish and provide evidence in forms acknowledged and recognizable as legal by alt whether compiled by public corporations or by private individuals. There were two fundamental types of documents depending on who produced them: one group comprised diplomas, liens, permits, and orders issued by a public, secular, or ecclesiastic authority, the other agreements, contracts, and other legal instruments drawn up on behalf of private individuals. ‘Public deeds’ included those documents that were issued by the authorities, who participated directly in their compilation and made their authorization evident through such devices as the affixing of a seal, the use of a particular style of handwriting, or the adopting of certain marks.
The Church as a Moral Community
Authors: Ward Keith
Published: November 2023

The Christian church accepts, with the other Abrahamic faiths, that God has a moral purpose for the created universe, and that human beings have the responsibility of forming a society which will enable that purpose to be realized. The Christian way is not one of individual release from bondage to the material world. It is a way of communal action to bring into actuality many of the potential sorts of value that the material world contains. There is a positive goal for creation, and that goal lies in the co-operative bringing about and enjoyment of many sorts of good things. The duty of a Christian is to co-operate with others and with the Creator in the actualization of goodness. It is to bring into being a community of justice, peace, kindness, and happiness.

Since human beings have largely created a society of injustice, war, cruelty, and misery, there is also a duty to oppose the forces that make for injustice and oppression, both in oneself and in others. Christian faith is not a way simply of inner union with God, which leaves conditions in the social world to go on in any old way. Admittedly some early Christians thought of the political world, the ‘world of the nations’, as doomed to judgment, and looked for a supernatural salvation from that judgment by the coming of Christ in glory. Even then, their hope was for a new society, a social world in which justice would flourish, even if that could only come about by supernatural intervention.’ Their concern was with justice and with the ending of injustice, even if they could see little hope of being able to do anything about it, in remote provinces of a militaristic Roman Empire.
Roots and Context of the Conflict of Laws Within the UK
Authors: Hood Kirsty J
Published: November 2023

In seeking to understand the operation of conflict rules within the UK, it is important to examine the historical roots of this field of law both in the period prior to the formation of the UK, and in its formative years. This allows us better to appreciate both the context of the development, and the later operation, of the conflict rules applying as between the various component parts of the UK.
Gendered Germany
Authors: Schaser Angelika
Published: November 2023

On 18 August 1896 — more than a quarter century after Imperial Germany was formally unified— the Reichstag finally legislated its first Civil Code (Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch). The code, which took effect in 1900, left little doubt that the gender order in twentieth-century Germany was based not just on a distinction but on a hierarchy between the sexes. While this hierarchy was endorsed in the political, economic, and legal arenas, the Civil Code’s paragraphs on marriage law were particularly revealing:

§ 1354. The husband is responsible for decisions in all matters affecting joint married life; in particular, he determines where the family is to reside.

The wife is not obliged to follow her husband’s decision if it represents an abuse of his rights.
The bourgeoisie and reform
Authors: Dickinson Edward Ross
Published: November 2023

In 1891 Wilhelm Baur, an important figure in the Inner Mission (the German national organization of the Protestant charities), used that organization’s journal to issue a troubling warning to his colleagues. The feverish pace of some conservative Christians’ charitable activities — what Baur called the ‘instrumentalization of Christian personalities for the common good’ — threatened to undermine ‘the intimacy and warmth of family life’ in their own homes, and thereby to become self-defeating in the long term. ‘Running around in the city while forgetting to sweep before one’s own door,’ he reflected, and ‘an associational life that deprived the house of mother or father in undue measure, would turn reason into nonsense and good deeds into a plague.
Political culture and democratization
Authors: Kühne Thomas
Published: November 2023

In March 1908, political trouble was brewing in the suburbs of Cologne. Elections to the Prussian state parliament (Landtag) were scheduled just three months hence, and the dominant party in the electoral district of Sieg-Mülheim-Wipperfürth, the Catholic Centre Party, faced the prospect of open rebellion in its ranks. This district lay on the east side of the Rhine River and had been a secure seat for the Centre since the mid-1870s, when the mobilization of Catholic voters during the Kulturkampf made it a ‘bomb-proof’ bastion of party support. (The district’s population was over 85 per cent Catholic.) Even though this district sent three representatives to the lower house of the Prussian Landtag, and even though its social profile was very heterogeneous, no other party stood a realistic chance of winning even one of those three mandates. Partly for this reason, in the spring of 1908 metal-workers in the city of Mülheim felt they deserved to have ‘one of their own’ in the Landtag — a true worker, not just a candidate who adhered to the Centre’s programme or promised to lobby for working-class interests. In fact, local workers had been voicing this demand for three years. How would the Centre’s nomination committee respond?
An Eighteenth-Century Prelude and a Sixteenth-Century Context
Authors: Grafton Anthony
Published: November 2023

On 20 October 1762 Edward Gibbon lay awake in bed, worrying about the Greek calendar. He had read the dissertation of M. de la Nauze on the Roman calendar during the previous year, but found himself ‘very ignorant’ of Greek practices. Ever meticulous, ever self possessed, he spent the next morning working through ‘a short, but very excellent, abstract of Mr. Dodwell’s book De cyclis, by the famous Dr. Halley’. He read it carefully, verifying the calculations, and at the end felt able to congratulate himself on having done ‘a very good morning’s work’ and gained ‘a very true notion of Meton’s Attic year’-though the Macedonian chronology still puzzled him. On the 23rd he reinforced his confidence in Dodwell’s system by computing the date of the battle of Arbela; and though he found the necessary calculations ‘tedious’, he was delighted by the result: 1 October 331 bc, the date of the battle, fell as it should on 25 Boedromion in the Greek reckoning. The Greek calendar seemed under control.
The Meaning of World History: Scaliger and the Theorists
Authors: Grafton Anthony
Published: November 2023

Sixteenth-century chronologers were usually grave and learned. But they also enjoyed what now seems a surprising degree of licence to innovate. Since Annius at least, modern scholars had rewritten all of political and cultural history in many mutually inconsistent ways. Any source could be supported or called into question, any nation from Sweden to Spain supplied on demand with a starring role in forgotten dramas that had once occupied centre stage in world history. No wonder, then, that the grand historical works of the period from 1550 to 1580 often have a carnivalesque flavour—an air of jubilance in overturning received opinions and overthrowing old authorities. Sweeping new versions of history, often highly charged with political and religious goals, were probably more prevalent—and often more impressive in their documentation—than merely informative compilations.
1580-1581: The Territory of the Chronologer (I): The Computus
Authors: Grafton Anthony
Published: November 2023

As he interpreted his first Oriental documents, Scaliger began systematically to explore the computistic literature to which they belonged. He must have used standard reference books, though these are necessarily hard to identify. One hint comes from the last section of his note on the colophon of his Arabic Gospels.
Travelling East: The Babylonian Calendar and its Progeny
Authors: Grafton Anthony
Published: November 2023

If you ask a Jew nowadays what the form of the original Hebrew year was, he will either think you are making fun of him, or call you insane to doubt that the lunar year was established by Adam himself. Nor will a Christian treat you any better. But in the next book Moses will speak for himself—and say thing which will give them licence to hold their tongues.
Dealing with the Jews: Rewriting a Tradition
Authors: Grafton Anthony
Published: November 2023

Establishing the Babylonian origins of the Jewish calendar did not, of course, amount to giving a definitive account of it. Scaliger dealt at length with its peculiar technical components—elements not, in his view, to be derived from an earlier source. And he elaborated some peculiar doctrines of his own in analysing and accounting for these.
The Historion synagoge and the Olympiad List: Greek Chronography Restored
Authors: Grafton Anthony
Published: November 2023

The late seventeenth century was a great age of criticism well applied: it saw Bentley athetize the letters of Phalaris, Simon resolve the Pentateuch into its original components, and Perizonius define the conditions of credibility for historical sources. But sometimes the criticism of the day was more rationalist than rational—as in the notorious case of Jean Hardouin, who used the numismatic evidence he knew so well to prove that Virgil never wrote the Aeneid.
Calendars Reconstructed Once More: Old Ideas and New Material in the lsagogici chronologiae canones
Authors: Grafton Anthony
Published: November 2023

The lsagogici canones begin with a massive, systematic treatment of the Greek, Jewish, Islamic, and Persian calendars that Scaliger had first reconstructed more than twenty years before in the De emendatione. These new versions of old calendars both presented Scaliger’s main results from the past and added new material and findings to them, and they reveal the impact of his recent studies in a variety of ways. They show him continuing to add new texts and information to his old stores, and even applying some of his new analytical methods to texts that bore on calendars. But they also show some striking continuities, in data and argument, with work he had done long before and in another country.
Epochs, Dynasties, and fides historica: Ancient Chronography in the Isagogici canones
Authors: Grafton Anthony
Published: November 2023

Book 1 of the Canones restated Scaliger’s earlier work on calendars, some of it solid but much of it wilful, in the apparently rigorous language of mathematical tables. On reconversion into, plain qualitative English, much of this material disappoints. Book 2, by contrast, looks more conventional, even traditional, than anything in any version of the De emendatione. Scaliger leads off with a list of 121 historical epochs, all of them assigned to specific Julian years and many to Julian days as well. He then offers lists of rulers: Egyptians, Chaldeans, Assyrians, Medes, Persians, Macedonians, Babylonians, Persians, Arabs, Caliphs of Baghdad and Damascus, Ottoman Sultans, Chinese, Trojans, Lydians, Mermnadae, Pergamese, Tyrians, Jews, Sicyonians, priests of Apollo Karneius, Argives, Mycenaeans, Athenians, Spartans, Corinthians, Macedonians, Latins, Aeneadae, Ostrogoths, Visigoths, Suevi, Lombards, Vandals, and Exarchs of Ravenna. The whole display fills 52 folio pages in the second edition of the Canones.
Illness, revolution, and war
Authors: Cannon John
Published: November 2023

The king’s pleasant and relatively undemanding way of life was shattered late in 1788 by the onset of a severe illness. Physically strong, abstemious in diet and conduct, taking regular exercise, George was often agitated by political diﬃculties, his opinions strongly held and frequently expressed with vigour. John Brooke and other historians have denied that there were any traces of derangement in his illness of 1765, though on 18 March George Grenville noted ‘the king’s countenance and manner a good deal estranged’ (W. J. Smith, 3.122). This may have been caused, or at least exacerbated, by the presence of Grenville him- self, whom the king disliked intensely.
Destined to be elusive
Authors: Stewart Bruce
Published: November 2023

James Augustine Aloysius Joyce (1882–1941), writer, was born at 41 Brighton Square, West Rathgar, Dublin, on 2 February 1882, the eldest surviving son of John Stanislaus Joyce (1849–1931) and his wife, Mary Jane (May) (1859–1903), daughter of John Murray and Margaret Theresa Murray. The Joyces were a Catholic middle-class family who had enjoyed moderate commercial prosperity in Cork and Dublin throughout the nineteenth century. The family was aligned on both sides with constitutional nationalism, although the Joyces were the more substantial property-owners and the more socially secure representatives of the emerging Catholic bourgeoisie.
‘I will let in fresh air’
Authors: Stewart Bruce
Published: November 2023

Having spent a year on the matriculation course of the Royal University of Ireland during 1898–9 Joyce entered University College, Dublin, as an undergraduate in October 1899, reading modern languages with Latin and logic as additional subjects. The reserved but self-possessed young man was acknowledged to be exceptional in both temperament and intellect by his peers. He was certainly the best-read student in his year, yet his examination results were invariably undistinguished and he emerged in 1902 with only a pass degree.
‘Work in Progress’
Authors: Stewart Bruce
Published: November 2023

In 1922 and 1923 Joyce’s health was again pre-carious. While Nora was in Ireland, following a period of domestic tension, he suffered an acute attack of iritis late in May 1922 and a physician observed him living in considerable squalor at rue de l’Université. On an endocrinologist’s recommendation all his teeth were extracted, and shortly afterwards he underwent a sphincterectomy on his left eye. But meanwhile Joyce showed signs of bestirring himself in new writing.
Unconscionability in property law: a fairy-tale ending?
Authors: Wtitt Gary
Published: November 2023

The tale of property law belongs to the science-fiction genre - it is part science, part fiction. In fact it is the ongoing story of efforts to supplant the fictions of law with the science of law. These efforts are keenly felt in connection with the idea of unconscionability. The most scientific approaches tell the story of equity in property law without resort to the idea of unconscionability. Sarah Worthington resort to the idea of exemplifies this approach in her monograph, Equity,1 and F W Maitland takes a similar approach in Equity: A Course ofLectures,2 in which he confines conscience to history.3 There are, however, commentators who approve an aspirational version of equity in which good conscience is a transcendent extra-legal value to which appeal can be made through the language of unconscionability with a view to developing the law along ‘better’ lines. Margaret Halliwell is representative of this approach. In her monograph Equity and Good Conscience she contends that ‘equity, or good conscience, operates as an anti-legal element via the judicial modification or supplementing of existing rules of law by reference to current conditions and circumstances’.