bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Condorcet and the conflict of values
Authors: Rothschild Emma
Published: June 2009

Condorcet has been seen since the 1790s as the embodiment of the cold, rational Enlightenment. The paper explores his writings on economic policy, voting, and public instruction, and suggests different views both of Condorcet and of the Enlightenment. Condorcet was concerned with individual diversity; he was opposed to proto-utilitarian theories; he considered individual independence, which he described as the characteristic liberty of the moderns, to be of central political importance; and he opposed the imposition of universal and eternal principles. His efforts to reconcile the universality of some values with the diversity of individual opinions are of continuing interest. He emphasizes the institutions of civilized or constitutional conflict, recognizes conflicts or inconsistencies within individuals, and sees moral sentiments as the foundation of universal values. His difficulties call into question some familiar distinctions, for example between French, German, and English/Scottish thought, and between the Enlightenment and the ‘counter-Enlightenment’. There is substantial continuity, it is suggested, between Condorcet's criticism of the economic ideas of the 1760s (of Tocqueville's ‘first’ French revolution) and the liberal thought of the early nineteenth century.
Wolsey's Foreign Policy: The Conferences at Calais and Bruges Reconsidered
Authors: Gwyn Peter
Published: June 2009

On 2 August 1521 Wolsey arrived at Calais to preside over a conference the ostensible purpose of which was to put an end to fighting that had broken out earlier in the year, fighting which had increasingly involved French and imperial forces. When, nearly four months later, the conference broke up, the fighting still continued. Clearly Wolsey had been unsuccessful in bringing about peace, but he did not return to England empty-handed. On 24 November a treaty had been signed committing England to a declaration of war against France, at least by March 1523. This treaty, and especially the fact that its terms had to all intents and purposes been settled at Wolsey's meeting with the emperor at Bruges less than a fortnight after his arrival at Calais, has led many historians to suspect that Wolsey had never been very serious about his role as peacemaker. Not, however, all. In his biography of Henry VIII, J. J. Scarisbrick has argued most powerfully that at Calais Wolsey worked very hard to reconcile Francis I and the emperor, and, indeed he sees his activities there as crucial evidence that ‘Wolsey's policy was a peace policy and for about fifteen years he struggled to make it work’. The main purpose of this article will be to argue that, at least as far as the events of 1521 are concerned, this thesis cannot be sustained. Instead, it will be shown that Wolsey's main aim in 1521 was to bring about the alliance with the emperor.
The Origins of the Petition of Right Reconsidered
Authors: Guy J. A.
Published: June 2009

Whatever their differing interpretations of the prehistory of the Civil War, historians of early Stuart England have long recognized the unsolved problems raised by the parliament of 1628. Did Charles I abuse the legal procedures of King's Bench in the five knights’ case in order to defy the spirit of English ‘due process’ legislation? In starting the chain of events which led to the petition, who were the innovators? Why did the house of commons pass resolutions which were an absolute denial of Charles I's right of discretionary imprisonment in any circumstances? And why did M.P.s endure the ugliest parliamentary scenes before 1640 in their desire to secure an explanatory document in the spirit of their resolutions? In view of the wealth of literature on the petition, it is perhaps surprising that these issues have never been satisfactorily addressed.
Pasteurised Milk for Cheddar Cheese-Making. I: A Preliminary Chemical Investigation
Authors: Moir George M.
Published: June 2009

1. With a view to a chemical study of the ripening of cheese made from raw and from pasteurised milk, two sets of three loaf Cheddar cheese were made from clean milk and from market milk respectively, so that in each set there was one cheese made from raw milk, one from milk flash-pasteurised at 165° F., and one from milk flash-pasteurised at 185° F.

2. Analyses of the whey drawn from each cheese showed a tendency, especially with market milk of lower hygienic quality, for pasteurisation to cause more of the soluble milk proteins to be incorporated in the cheese.

3. When acidity developed rapidly in the whey after cutting, the resulting cheese was depleted of a proportion of its mineral constituents.

4. The cheese made from pasteurised milk developed a bitter flavour, which was very pronounced in those made from the milk heated to the higher temperature.

5. The chemical analyses showed that in both sets, pasteurisation reduced the quantity of ultimate decomposition products which were formed during the process of ripening.

The experiments recorded here were carried out at the National Institute for Research in Dairying, Shinfield, Reading. The author desires to express his appreciation of the facilities which have been placed at his disposal and of the interest that has been taken in the work by various members of the staff, in particular by Miss D. V. Dearden (who was responsible for the making of the cheese), Capt. J. Golding, and Dr R. Stenhouse Williams. Acknowledgment is also due to Prof. Wm Riddet, Dairy Research Institute, New Zealand, who suggested the desirability of an investigation of this nature.
A Review of Undulant Fever
Authors: Mills J.
Published: June 2009

The story of our knowledge concerning the causes of undulant fever depends upon a study of three separate diseases, namely, Malta fever, abortion in cattle and undulant fever itself, which were not supposed to be related one to another. As time has passed, however, a very close relationship between these diseases has been found to exist.
12. The Mineral Requirements of Dairy Cattle
Authors: Crichton J. A.
Published: June 2009

The most important fact brought out by a review of the present position of our knowledge of mineral metabolism and the mineral requirements in the dairy cow is, that, in spite of the amount of work which has been done on the subject, our information is exceedingly scanty. We know that deficiency of calcium or phosphorus may affect rate of growth, milk yield, breeding capacity, and in all probability susceptibility to certain diseases. We know also that even on what are counted good rations, depletion of the tissues, especially of calcium, in heavy milking cows during lactation is common. In some districts deficiency of iodine causes pathological conditions, and it is common knowledge based on practical observations that even on pasture there is liable to be a deficiency of chlorine. With regard to the possibility of deficiencies of other mineral elements and the effect of such deficiencies on the health and milk production of cows, we have not yet even begun to accumulate knowledge. It is thus impossible to make a final pronouncement with regard to any of the main problems. We need many more data on the metabolism of minerals in the lactating animal and on feeding experiments of long duration with rations of different mineral content. Such information as we have, however, suggests that the subject is one of great potential practical importance, and that if the necessary information were available it might be applied to the more economical production of milk, both by increasing milk yield and by reducing mortality from disease.

With regard to the information we do possess, much of it is not immediately applicable in practice because the data have been accumulated with diets and under conditions which have no parallel in practice. The following conclusions sum up in a general way the practical bearing of our present knowledge.
26. The Effect of Night on Milk Production
Authors: Campbell K. W. D.
Published: June 2009

Curves are produced to show the proportions between morning and evening yield of milk, yield of fat, and fat per cent, in the case of individual cows milked alternatively at 6 a.m. and 9 p.m. and again at 6·30 a.m. and 3·30 p.m. In each case the intervals between milkings were 15 and 9 hours.

It is seen that when the 15-hour interval is between night and morning milkings as specified, a bigger proportion of milk is produced at the morning milking than is produced at night when the same interval is between morning and night milkings. The curves and Tables I and II show that this is quite clearly the case with the six cows in the trial.

It is apparent that, as far as winter conditions are concerned, night itself, or factors operating at night tend to high milk production of low fat content.
28. The Autoxidation of Butterfat: II. Comparison of Tests for Detecting Oxidation Changes
Authors: Briggs Lindsay Heathcote
Published: June 2009

In Part I(1) the influence of a number of factors on the autoxidation of butterfat was investigated. It was considered of interest, however, to study the oxidation itself more fully to gain some idea of the changes taking place, and also to study certain reactions for detecting such changes.

In tallowy butter as the result of oxidation, the following differences in properties can be observed: (1) the amount of unsaturated compounds is decreased; (2) the peroxide content is increased; (3) the amount of free acid is increased; (4) the colour is bleached. Secondary changes occur simultaneously and result in the formation of aldehydes, ketones, etc.
60. Discoloration in New Zealand Cheddar Cheese. Muddy, Pink and Bleached Defects. I. Bacteriological Investigations
Authors: Morgan G. F. V.
Published: June 2009

During the past two years, discoloration, owing to its prevalence in Cheddar cheese, has been the subject of much investigation by the New Zealand Dairy Division, and in the present paper are incorporated details of the observations made in this laboratory and in cheese stores in New Zealand and England, together with short reports on the same subject from English laboratories.

To avoid confusion it must be emphasised that the defects dealt with are “bleached,” “pink” and “muddy” discolorations only. The observations do not apply to “black spot” (due to lead or other metallic contamination), nor to “red spots” (due to faulty annatto), nor to “acid cut” bleaching which seems to follow the outline of the original pieces of curd. Muddy or dark discoloration occurs in white and in coloured cheese, but the bleaching and pink discoloration dealt with here are confined to coloured cheese.
67. The Nutritive Value of Proteins for Milk Production. II. A Comparison of the Proteins of Blood Meal, Pea Meal, Decorticated Earth-Nut Cake, and a Mixture of Decorticated Earth-Nut Cake and Flaked Maize
Authors: Morris Samuel , Wright Norman C.
Published: June 2009

The results of the present experiments and of those reported in the previous paper(1) may be summarised as follows:

1. When minimal quantities of protein are fed in the production rations of milking cows, a deficiency of either lysine or tryptophane will lead to a marked reduction in milk yield. There is, however, some evidence of the storage of reserve N, which can be utilised when the food protein is inadequate.

2. The feeding of a lysine- or tryptophane-deficient ration causes a marked increase in urinary N, indicating a poor utilisation of food protein. On the other hand, the feeding of a ration containing adequate quantities of these essential amino acids reduces the urinary N, indicating efficient protein utilisation.

3. The utilisation of body tissue in an attempt to maintain normal milk production on a deficient protein ration is shown by the high creatine excretion. The fact that the S: N ratio of the excess sulphur and nitrogen excreted during the deficient protein periods approximates that of body tissue (circa 1: 15·7) confirms this conclusion.
122. The Function of Pepsin and Rennet in the Ripening of Cheddar Cheese
Authors: Sherwood I. R.
Published: June 2009

The coagulating enzymes employed in the manufacture of Cheddar cheese were varied in the following ways:

(1) Pepsin was substituted for rennet; two samples of somewhat different proteolytic action were used.

(2) The proportion of rennet normally employed for coagulating the milkwas doubled.

The use of pepsin resulted in cheeses in which the extent of protein degradationwas considerably smaller than in rennet control cheeses. The type of nitrogen partition observed was influenced to some extent by the proteolyticaction characteristic of the particular enzyme employed. The use of an increase dproportion of rennet led to the anticipated greater extent of protein breakdown, the type of nitrogen partition not being appreciably affected. Nodirect correlation was observed between the commercial quality of these cheeses and the extent or type of protein degradation which occurred.
132. The Nutritive Value of Proteins for Milk Production
Authors: Morris Samuel , Wright Norman C. , Fowler Alexander B.
Published: June 2009

1. As regards their nutritive value for milk production, the proteins of spring grass are markedly superior to those of autumn grass. This is shown not only from a study of milk yield, but from the increased excretion of N and S in the urine, the increased creatine excretion, and the lower biological value given by autumn grass.

2. A study of the N and S metabolism of cows receiving fresh and artificially dried grass fails to reveal any significant differences in the nutritive value as a result of artificial drying. There are no significant differences between the biological values of the proteins of fresh and of artificially dried autumn grass. A comparison of the mean biological values of the proteins of fresh and of artificially dried spring grass indicates that the latter has an inferior value for milk production, but the differences largely disappear when the biological values are calculated to a common standard.
146. The heat denaturation of albumin and globulin in milk. II. Denaturation and degradation of protein at temperatures of 75–120° C
Authors: Rowland Samuel J.
Published: June 2009

1. The denaturation of albumin and globulin took place rapidly in samples of milk heated at temperatures of 75°C. and above, and was complete in approximately 60, 30, 10–15, and 5–10 min. at 80, 90, 95, and 100°C. respectively.

2. There was no change in the non-protein nitrogen content of milk on heating at temperatures up to 100°C.; on continued heating at 95 and 100°C. extremely small amounts of proteose were produced by hydrolysis of protein.

3. In milk heated at 115 and 120°C. the denaturation of albumin and globulin was followed by appreciable hydrolysis of protein, which resulted in considerable increases in the proteose and in the non-protein nitrogen contents.
160. Lactic bacteria in relation to cheese flavour. I
Authors: Sherwood I. R.
Published: June 2009

Various strains of lactobacilli isolated from Cheddar cheese were added to the milk employed in cheese manufacture. Different strains of these organisms were found to impart specifically characteristic flavours to the cheese. The range of flavours developed included both desirable and objectionable types, many of which are commonly encountered in commercial cheese, e.g. “pleasant aromatic”, “diacetyl-like”, “metallic”, “bitter”, “unclean” and “fermented”.

The inoculation of cheese-milk with natural mixtures of lactobacilli from mature cheeses led almost always to the development of unclean “fermented” flavours. The causative strains of lactobacilli were isolated and shown to be of frequent occurrence in normal mature cheeses but under ordinary circumstances the actual numbers of these bacilli present in most cheeses were too small to spoil the flavour.
162. The rheology of cheese, butter and other milk products. (The measurement of “body” and “texture”)
Authors: Davis J. G.
Published: June 2009

Rheology is denned as the science of the deformation of matter. It includes the study of all deformations, recoverable (elastic) and non-recoverable (plastic). In this paper cheese is primarily considered although the fundamental principles apply to all materials.

The elastic and plastic properties of cheese exercise a great influence in the ripening processes and the incidence of faults. Although much progress has been made in the bacteriological and chemical investigations of cheese ripening, little fundamental work on the nature of and the factors controlling the physical properties of curd and cheese has been carried out.
173. The effect of commercial sterilization on the nutritive value of milk. III. Effect on the vitamin A and carotene content of milk
Authors: Gillam A. E. , Henry K. M. , Kon S. K. , White P.
Published: June 2009

1. The vitamin A and carotene content of raw milk have been compared with that of milk from the same bulk after it had been commercially sterilized.

2. For this purpose the fat was obtained by ether extraction from eleven samples of raw milk and from eleven corresponding samples of sterilized milk. As the sterilized milk had been previously homogenized it was not possible to churn it.

3. The vitamin A and carotene content was estimated by colorimetric (Lovibond tintometer) and by spectrophotometric tests.

3. The vitamin A and carotene content was estimated by colorimetric (Lovibond tintometer) and by spectrophotometric tests.

4. The results showed that the efiect of the heat treatment was negligible, neither method demonstrating a loss in vitamin A, while for carotene only the colorimetric method indicated a loss of about 2 %.

5. The vitamin A and carotene contents of sterilized milk were not decreased after storage for several weeks in a cool dark place.
183. Errors involved in the estimation of the lactation yield of protein according to the intervals between sampling
Authors: Azarme E.
Published: June 2009

Variations in protein yield of a cow are due to changes both in her yield of milk and in the percentage of protein in her milk. If it were possible to have, for each day of lactation, figures for the yield of milk and its percentage of protein, the estimation of lactation yield of protein would be easy, but in practice this is not possible since the determination of protein in milk is a long and laborious process.
188. The effect of commercial sterilization on the nutritive value of milk. V. The effect of commercial sterilization on the vitamin C of milk
Authors: Henry K. M. , Kon S. K.
Published: June 2009

1. Fifteen samples of raw and fifteen samples of commercially sterilized milk from the same bulk were analysed for vitamin C by the chemical method (titration with dichlorophenol-indophenol).

2. The raw milk contained on an average 1·83 mg./100 ml. of total (reduced and reversibly oxidized) ascorbic acid. The corresponding figure for sterilized milk was 1·03 mg./100 ml., a loss of 43% of the original value.

3. Storage of the sterilized milk for a period of 4·6 weeks resulted in a further reduction equivalent to about 30%.
195. Urea as a protein substitute in the diet of young cattle
Authors: Bartlett S. , Cotton A. G.
Published: June 2009

1. A 142-day feeding experiment with twenty-one dairy heifers aged 7–17 months is described.

2. The addition of 0·127 lb. per animal per day of urea to a diet supplying a limited amount of protein resulted in an extra daily live-weight increase of 0·24 lb. per day. This increase was statistically significant and the animals appear therefore to have utilized the urea nitrogen in their metabolism.

3. Animals receiving the same quantity of additional nitrogen in the form of protein showed slightly better live-weight gains than those receiving the urea; although the difference was not significant it seems probable that the protein was a more efficient nitrogen supplement than urea.
203. An apparatus for measuring the elastic and plastic properties of cheese curd
Authors: Blair G. W. Scott
Published: June 2009

An apparatus is described for measuring the elastic and plastic deformations of cheese curd under a compressive load at the time when it is ready for cutting. A figure inversely proportional to shear modulus can be obtained with considerable accuracy, and is believed to serve as the best single criterion of “firmness” in deciding the optimum time to cut the curd.
212. Studies in mastitis. IV. Mastitis in relation to the methylene blue reduction test
Authors: McClemont J. , Davis J. G.
Published: June 2009

The adoption of the methylene blue test as an official method of grading milk in England makes this subject one of considerable importance. The predominating factor in this, as in other tests, is the condition of storage (time and temperature) of the sample. If mastitis affects the methylene blue reduction time of milk the factors responsible may be any or all of the following:

(1) The mastitis organisms themselves.

(2) Other organisms present (secondary invaders).

(3) Body cells, e.g. the so-called leucocytes of milk and also blood cells.

(4) Chemical changes in the milk as the result of the mastitis.

A related aspect is the value of the methylene blue test on single cow or quarter samples as a test for mastitis.
215. The value of indirect methods for the detection of mastitis
Authors: Rowland S. J. , Zein-El-Dine M.
Published: June 2009

The following indirect tests for the detection of subclinical mastitis were applied, under bacteriological control, to a series of milk samples from the individual quarters of cows in full milk: presence of clots, reaction to bromcresol-purple, reaction to brom-thymol-blue, amount and character of centrifuge deposit, catalase content, chloride content, casein number and solids-not-fat content.

These tests detected 12, 61, 14, 55, 49, 77, 91, and 63% respectively of the infected quarters, and diagnosed 0, 16, 0, 3, 34, 0, 8, and 9% of the uninfected quarters as infected.

For each indirect test the mean square contingency was calculated as a measure of agreement between it and the direct bacteriological method. The tests were placed in the descending order of their value for diagnosis thus: casein number, chloride content, centrifuge deposit, solids-not-fat content, brom-cresol-purple reaction, brom-thymol-blue reaction, presence of clots, catalase content.
234. Bacteriophage-organism relationships in the group of lactic streptococci
Authors: Whitehead H. R. , Hunter G. J. E.
Published: June 2009

The methods used for isolation and purification of bacteriophages active against lactic streptococci are described. An account is given of the relationships between nine apparently distinct phage races and eleven strains of lactic streptococci. The phages show a tendency towards strain specificity but there are some races which attack up to four different strains. Resistant strains usually arise on continued incubation of lysed cultures. Cross-resistance tests, in those cases where two or more phages act on one strain of streptococci, indicate that the relationships between the phages do not follow any simple rule.
236. The bacterial flora of New Zealand Cheddar cheese
Authors: Sherwood I. R.
Published: June 2009

Of the lactic acid bacteria isolated, 720 strains from thirty-six typical Cheddar cheeses have been classified. The dominant organism in New Zealand cheese has been shown to beSbm. plantarum. Sbm. caseioccurs much less frequently, while betabacteria and betacocci are found in still smaller numbers. Betabacteria tend to replaceSbm. plantarumin the final stage of cheeseripening. The flora of good quality cheese has been found to consist mainly of one or two varieties ofSbm. plantarum, often associated with Sbm. casei or a small proportion of betabacteria. In poor-quality cheese a larger number of types of lactic acid bacteria frequently occur. A simple routine method is described for distinguishing the different groups present in cheese.

The effects which different strains of lactobacilli and betacocci produce in cheese have been correlated with their biochemical characteristics.Sbm. caseiin general appears to be beneficial to cheese quality. The strains ofSbm. plantarumisolated have been grouped in four varieties, mainly on the basis of sugar reactions; one variety has been shown to be beneficial to cheese quality, another variety has very little apparent effect, while the remaining two varieties produce serious defects—bad flavours, discoloration and, occasionally, open texture. The same defects are produced by most strains of betabacteria and betacocci when present in large numbers.

The biochemical characteristics of the lactobacilli studied have shown a more regular gradation fromSbm. caseithroughSbm. plantarumtoBbm. breve(the only species ofBetabacteriumisolated) than is indicated from the generally accepted systems of classification.
241. Kay and Graham's phosphatase test: (a) Modifications in technique (b) Effect of bacterial growth
Authors: Neave F. K.
Published: June 2009

1. By the use of sodium hexametaphosphate it is possible to eliminate the final filtration in the phosphatase test, and thus appreciably to shorten the time required for the test.

2. It is necessary to avoid direct sunlight during that part of the test in which Folin's reagent is in use. Other minor precautions are mentioned in the paper.

3. The pH. of the milk samples tested was found to vary naturally before pasteurization from pH 6·5 to 6·9 without affecting the validity of the test.

4. The test is also unaffected by the presence in milk of bacteria which produce reducing substances or which hydrolyse the substrate (sodium phenyl phosphate) unless the organisms are present in very large numbers.
243. Factors affecting the solubility of milk powders. IV. The influence of speed and duration of stirring on solubility, with a description of a rapid method for solubility determinations
Authors: Howat G. R. , Smith J. A. B. , Waite R. , Wright N. C.
Published: June 2009

1. The effects of alterations in the duration and speed of stirring on the apparent solubility of milk powders have been investigated. It is concluded that 30 sec. shaking of the powder reconstituted in a 10 % mixture is sufficient to dissolve the truly soluble portion of the dried milk, but that the protein which has become denatured during the drying process tends to pass into solution with increasing speed and duration of stirring.

2. A rapid method for estimating the solubility of milk powders on a total solids basis involving only 1 min. shaking is described and discussed.

3. The sediment method frequently used in industry as a guide to the solubility of dried milks is compared with the rapid method described in the present paper. At higher solubilities the sediment volume may serve as a guide to small changes in solubility, but in the lower solubility ranges its usefulness is very limited. It is shown that the washing of the sediment with one or more changes of water merely introduces additional errors into this method of solubility determination.
252. The effect of commercial pasteurization and sterilization on the vitamin B1 and riboflavin content of milk as measured by chemical methods
Authors: Houston J. , Kon S. K. , Thompson S. Y.
Published: June 2009

1. Fluorimetric tests applied to commercially pasteurized and commercially sterilized milk showed that in the former some 10% and in the latter up to 50% of vitamin B1 was destroyed in the course of the heat treatment.

2. Riboflavin withstood both treatments without loss.

3. These findings are in satisfactory agreement with the results of earlier biological tests.
285. Studies on experimental teat and mammary development and lactation in the goat
Authors: Folley S. J. , Watson Helen M. Scott , Bottomley A. C.
Published: June 2009

1. Observations on five animals indicate that the teats of immature castrated male goats grow isometrically. Less extensive data on three animals allow of the tentative conclusion that the same is true of immature normal males. In the male goat therefore teat growth appears to be uninfluenced by the testes.

2. Administration of diethylstilboestrol or its dipropionate to normal or castrated immature male goats causes the teats to grow allometrically for a time.

3. No externally visible udder growth occurred even when oestrogen treatment was prolonged for periods of over a year and was supplemented by progesterone or ethinyltestosterone. Whole mounts of glands from treated animals indicated that some mammary growth had occurred. In two cases microscopic examination showed the presence of alveoli. No explanation can be offered of the failure to develop the udder in the male goat experimentally.

4. Endocrine activity of the ovary as evidenced by a change from isometric to allometric teat growth often manifests itself in the young female goat at an early age. In one case allometric teat growth was in progress at 41 days of age. During the allometric phase the data agree with the simple allometric law.

5. During the rutting season following its birth, teat growth ceases completely in the female goat; allometric growth is resumed when the rutting season ends. It therefore appears that the corpus luteum inhibits teat growth.

6. Administration of diethylstilboestrol or its dipropionate (by inunction of the udder region) causes, in the virgin female, an increase in the rate of teat growth accompanied by udder growth.
293. Bacteriological aspects of the manufacture of spray-dried milk and whey powders, including some observations concerning moisture content and solubility
Authors: Crossley E. L. , Johnson W. A.
Published: June 2009

1. A bacteriological study was made of the commercial operation over a period of 4½ years of two Kestner evaporating and spray-drying plants, handling a fairly good and a very poor milk supply respectively. Processes investigated comprised handling of raw milk, pasteurization, climbing film evaporation, handling of evaporated milk, and spray drying. Data were also obtained showing the influence of variations during processing on the moisture content and solubility of powders. Separated milk, full-cream milk, and whey were handled.

2. The general bacterial flora of spray-dried powders and the influence of individual manufacturing processes, packing and storage were studied and possible control methods suggested. Data showing the extent of both hourly and seasonal variations were also obtained.

3. A method of bacteriological analysis is described which gave reasonably good agreement between different workers.

4. Examination of 671 powder samples showed a wide variation in individual plate counts from 200 to 19,500,000 per g. The flora on standard milk agar at 37° C. was of a specialized type and comprised comparatively few species. Thermoduric streptococci of the ‘enterococcus’ and ‘viridans’ groups predominated,Str. duransandStr. thermophilusbeing the commonest species; in addition, five species of micrococci, probably non-thermoduric, also occurred commonly. Aerobic spore-forming bacilli and threeAchromobacterspecies were found regularly, but their numbers were not of practical importance. Spore-forming anaerobic bacilli were present in 14% of powder samples, probably in very small numbers, and were most frequent during the winter months.

5. Coliform organisms were rarely found in 1 ml. of reconstituted milk, but were isolated from 25% of powder samples when 20 ml. of reconstituted milk was examined; coliforms occurred most frequently during the winter months. False positives due to anaerobes were common, especially in stored powders, and confirmatory tests of presumptive positives were essential. Examination of 198 coliform strains from powders and 164 strains from raw milk showed thatcolitypes occurred less frequently in the powders, whilstaerogenes-cloacaetypes, particularlycloacae, were more frequent. 48·5% of the powder strains were heat resistant, as compared with 2·2% of the raw-milk strains. It was shown that the coliform flora of powder was partly due to plant contamination by heat-resistant strains, although some non-heat-resistant strains could survive spray drying. It seemed possible that coli types were less resistant to drying thanaerogenes-cloacae.
304. The gas-packing and storage of milk powder
Authors: Lea C. H. , Moran T. , Smith J. A. B.
Published: June 2009

The following summary of the effect of increasing quantities of oxygen in producing ‘off’ flavour in gas-packed full-cream milk powder during storage for long periods has been based on observations made in the present series of experiments, supplemented to some extent by results from later work on the gas storage of spray-dried powder which is not here reported in detail.

(a) Full-cream powders stored in the presence of up to 0.01 ml. of oxygen per g. of powder kept very well at both normal and high temperatures. This figure corresponds to 1 % of oxygen (after completion of desorption) in the free-space gas of a can of spraydried powder packed to a bulk density of 0.55 g./ml., or to 0.5 % of oxygen in a can of roller powder packed to a bulk density of 0.35 g./ml. Tallowiness was never definitely detected under such conditions, and there seems to be little or no advantage to be gained, at least so far as palatability is concerned, by improving on this figure. An atmosphere containing not more than 0.01 ml. of oxygen per g. of powder can therefore be considered an ideal pack for milk powder.
338. The ferric thiocyanate method of estimating peroxide in the fat of butter, milk and dried milk
Authors: Loftus Hills G. , Thiel C. C.
Published: June 2009

The ferric thiocyanate method of estimating peroxide in fats has been modified to give greater sensitivity and greater stability of the reagent. As the 96% acetone used by Chapman & McFarlane (3)and Lips et al.(4) only dissolves about 0.5% butterfat, the sensitivity of the test was increased by using, as solvent, the mixture of benzene and methanol used by Bolland et al. (6) in the determination of rubber peroxides, which dissolves at least 10% butterfat. Instead of using a prepared reagent which gradually deteriorates, the ferrous salt and thiocyanate are added in aqueous solution during the test, and, moreover, ferrous salts appear to be more stable in this solvent than in acetone. The modified method is sufficiently sensitive to measure the peroxide value of the fat of freshly drawn milk and has been applied to the study of the first stages of oxidation in milk, butter and whole-milk powder.
343. Studies of the Biological Value of the Proteins (Nitrogen) of Dried Skim Milk: Value As An Addition to Bread; Tests With Young and Olderrats; Effects of Storage
Authors: Henry Kathleen M. , Rowland S. J.
Published: June 2009

1. A sample of roller-dried skim-milk powder, found to possess the very low biological value of 55.2, supplemented slightly but definitely the proteins of national wheatmeal bread when it supplied 23% of the total nitrogen. No such effect was observed with another sample of milk with a biological value of 71.1 when it supplied 17 % of the total nitrogen, or with a further sample of milk with a biological value of 81.3 when added to bread at a 6 % level supplying about 15 % of the total nitrogen. On the first two occasions the biological value for two different samples of national wheatmeal bread was 48.9 and 55.0 respectively for young rats; for the same rats when mature the values were 55.8 and 64.6. No differences attributable to age were found with milk. Baking did not affect the biological value of the proteins of the milk added to the flour.

2. The biological value of a sample of spray.dried skim milk declined from a value of 88.5, observed 18 months after manufacture, to 71.1 some 36 months later. The true digestibility remained unchanged.

3. Commercial samples of spray.dried and roller.dried skim milk of good quality, and of over.neutralized and overheated roller.dried skim milk, yielded biological values of 78.6, 80.9, 78.2 and 76.2 respectively and true digestibilities of 90.5, 90.1, 89.4 and 88.8 respectively.
344. A Note on Certain Vitamins of Sow's Colostrum
Authors: Braude R.
Published: June 2009

1. Eighteen samples of colostrum obtained from Large White sows during parturition were examined for total solids, fat, vitamin A, vitamin B^ riboflavin and vitamin C.

2. The mean values and ranges for the total solids (fourteen samples) and fat (fifteen samples) were 23.9% (20.6–27.2%) and 3.4% (1.7–5.8%) respectively.

3. The mean vitamin A content of eighteen samples was 247 i.u./100 ml. with a range of 103.462 i.u./lOO ml., or 89 i.u./g. fat with a range of 42–137 i.u./g. fat. No β-.carotene was detected in any of the samples.

4. The mean vitamin B1 content of seventeen samples was 145 /µg./100 ml. with a range of 81.260 µg./100 ml.

5. The mean riboflavin content of sixteen samples was 45.6 µg./100 ml. with a range of 21–78 µg./100 ml.

6. The mean ascorbic acid content of seventeen samples was 23.8 mg./100ml. with a range of 12–36 mg./100 ml.
361. Reactions of Jersey calves to hot atmospheres
Authors: Riek R. F. , Lee Douglas H. K.
Published: June 2009

Four grade Jersey calves were exposed for 7 hr. twice a week to each of several atmospheres having dry-bulb temperatures ranging from 85 to 110° F. and absolute humidities ranging from 6 to 16 gr./cu.ft. The following reactions were studied: rectal temperature; pulse rate; respiratory rate; respiratory volume; evaporative loss; calcium, phosphate, sugar and erythrocyte composition of the blood; behaviour.

Rectal temperatures rose rapidly to a higher level than was shown by cows under similar conditions, but maintained a steady equilibrium thereafter, except under the most severe conditions.

Respiratory rate responses resembled those of rectal temperature, the difference from those of cows being even more striking.

Humidity had relatively less effect upon the rectal temperature and respiratory rate responses of calves than of cows.

Pulse rate and tidal respiratory volumes were relatively unaffected, but minute respiratory volumes rose.

Evaporative loss per unit body weight resembled that of cows, except that humidity again had less effect. Pulmonary ventilation was inadequate to account for the observed losses.

Behavioural changes resembled those of the cows but weakness of the hind limbs was observed at rectal temperatures above 106° F. Blood calcium, phosphate, sugar and erythrocyte levels were not essentially affected.

Possible explanations for the lower thermal tolerance of calves, as compared with cows, are considered.
367. Bacterial growth in reconstituted spray-dried milk
Authors: Higginbottom Constance
Published: June 2009

1. Over 200 samples of spray-dried milks from eight British plants have been examined for total and spore counts, numbers of β-haemolytic colonies and for moulds, yeasts and conliform bacteria.

2. The mean count and standard deviation range for total and spore count are reported. No β-haemolytic colonies other than those due to spore-forming bacilli were detected.

3. After ageing the reconstituted milk for 24 hr. at 15–5° C. the mean count (37° C.) was unchanged; at 22° C. the increase was 2000-fold and at 37° C. the milk had clotted within this time.

4. The predominating organisms in a random selection of the reconstituted milks are described, both for the fresh milk and after ageing at 15·5 and 22° C. A marked increase i n spore-forming bacilli was noted at 22° C.

5. The relation of the flora of reconstituted milk to its food-poisoning potentialities is briefly discussed.
369. Determination of the free amino-nitrogen of casein and of fresh and deteriorated milk protein by the Van Slyke method
Authors: Lea C. H.
Published: June 2009

The reaction of casein and of fresh and deteriorated milk protein with nitrous acid has been followed at constant temperature for 4 hr. in the manometric apparatus of Van Slyke, and simplified procedures suggested whereby the method can be utilized for investigation of the deterioration of the protein of separated milk powder during storage.

Technical assistance in this work was given by Mr L. J. Parr: The work was carried out as part of the programme of the Food Investigation Board of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research.
371. The properties of New Zealand butters and butterfats I. Iodine, reichert and saponification values and softening points of monthly samples of butterfats from nine commercial factories over four years
Authors: Cox G. A. , McDowall F. H.
Published: June 2009

Iodine values, Reichert values, saponification values and softening points of butterfats from butters collected at monthly intervals over a period of 4 years from 9 factories representative of the main butter-producing districts in New Zealand were determined. The trend of variation of any one property throughout the season was remarkably uniform, both for different factories in the one season, and for any one property in the four seasons. Weighted monthly average iodine values, Reichert values, saponification values and softening points for the butterfat from all factories over 4 years were 36.7 (33.8–40.2), 30.4 (25.5–32.3), 229.5 (225.5–232.7) and 33.1 (32.2–33.7) respectively. The minimum iodine value occurred in midsummer, i.e. at the season of the year when maximum values are reported for northern hemisphere butters. The iodine values for South Island butterfats diverged markedly from those for the North Island butterfats during the winter, i.e. at the time when turnips are fed to cows in the South. In spite of these lower iodine values, the softening points of the South Island butterfats were lower throughout the year.
388. The colorimetric determination of lactic acid in milk and milk products
Authors: Davidson J.
Published: June 2009

A method is described for the colorimetric determination of lactic acid in milk and unsweetened milk products. The protein and lactose is removed after precipitation with copper sulphate and calcium hydroxide at 45° C, the lactic acid in an aliquot of the filtrate is oxidized to acetaldehyde in sulphuric acid in the presence of copper sulphate, a purple colour is developed withp–hydroxydiphenyl, and the colour intensity is measured in a photoelectric absorptiometer or other suitable instrument.

Recoveries of from 96 to 103%, averaging 100%, were obtained when 20–400 mg. lactic acid/100 ml. were added to fresh milk.

The proposed method has an advantage over existing methods in the ease and speed with which large numbers of determinations can be carried out simultaneously whilst retaining the essential accuracy.
397. A burette for rapid checking of Gerber butyrometers
Authors: Dolby R. M.
Published: June 2009

The burette is provided with a long capillary jet which can pass down the graduated tube of the butyrometer into the bulb. Splashing of mercury and inclusion of air bubbles are thus avoided. To reduce the overall height, the jet is connected to the burette by an S-shaped tube. The butyrometer is carried on a support which can slide vertically.
408. Udder infections in the ‘dry period’. I
Authors: Neave F. K. , Dodd F. H. , Henriques Ettie
Published: June 2009

In a herd averaging forty-five to fifty cows in milk, large numbers of infections occurred during the dry period and over half of these developed during the first 3 weeks after the final milking-out of the udder. About 50% of the infections persisted and a like percentage of these produced clinical symptoms within the first 2 weeks of calving, half of them caused by staphylococci.
410. The oxidation of ascorbic acid in dairy products
Authors: Allan J. E.
Published: June 2009

1. The determination of ascorbic acid in butter by the usual macrotitration method was found to be impossible because this substance rapidly became oxidized while the butter was being melted, so that only about half could be recovered.

2. A simple micro-titration procedure enabled more reliable results to be obtained, but the loss of ascorbic acid from smaller samples could not be reduced below about 10% under the most favourable conditions.

3. Kinetic experiments have been carried out on butter serum and buttermilk to which ascorbic acid had been added, and from the results it has been deduced that the oxidation of ascorbic acid takes place by three distinct concomitant reactions: one catalysed by the original copper, one catalysed by added copper, and one catalysed by added ferric iron.

4. It has been calculated that in an unsalted butter of normal metallic content half the ascorbic acid would be oxidized in about 12 hr. at cold storage temperature ( – 13° C). At this temperature, 0·1 p.p.m. of added copper is about twenty times as effective a catalyst as 1·0 p.p.m. of added iron. At room temperature the corresponding half-oxidation time would be about 2 hr., and here 0·1 p.p.m. of added copper is about four times as active as 1·0 p.p.m. of added iron. In salted butter the inhibitory effect of the chloride ion would increase these times somewhat.

5. The chemical state in which copper and iron exist in milk and related products has been discussed, especially in relation to the kinetic results obtained.
413. The growth requirements of lactobacilli in relation to cheese flavour development
Authors: Hunter G. J. E.
Published: June 2009

An attempt was made to devise a medium for the growth of lactobacilli which would simulate the nutritive conditions existing in ripening cheddar cheese. The basal medium finally used contained soluble digestion products of casein (formed by the action of rennet), lactose, lactate and phosphate. This medium gave a fair, but not a very heavy growth of flavour-producing lactobacilli isolated from cheddar cheese, and it was evidently deficient in growth-promoting power as compared with some media used in the laboratory. Additions of potassium and manganese salts to the casein digest medium gave a significant increase in growth. Potassium had the effect of off-setting the inhibition caused by the presence of an excess of sodium salts such as are normally present in cheese. The implications of the results in cheese ripening and their possible application in cheese manufacture are discussed.
435. Keeping quality and raw-milk grading: II. The effect of storage on the results of keeping quality and dye tests
Authors: Eddison R. T. , Kempthorne O. , Hosking Zena , Barkworth H. , Cox C. P. , Rowlands A.
Published: June 2009

1. The experiments described in this part of the report were designed to obtain information about the effect of time and temperature of pre-test storage on test results and, in particular, about the possibility of a practical method of compensating test results to eliminate or minimize their dependence on the time and temperature of pre-test storage.

2. Four separate experiments were planned and carried out in three widely separated areas in England and Wales. Samples of morning milk, brought to the laboratory with the minimum of delay, were divided into a series of subsamples which were subsequently stored at controlled temperatures ranging from 3 to 24°C, and at shade atmospheric temperature, for periods ranging from 7 to 30 hr. before examination by one or more of the following tests: keeping quality at 18, 22 and 24° C. using clot-on-boiling (C.O.B.), and precipitation with 68% alcohol (A.P.T.) or 50% alcohol; methylene-blue test at 37–5° C. and at 18, 22 or 24° C. The results for the different tests were the times to end-point after transfer from the storage to the incubation baths.