bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Historical Overview of Perpetrator Studies
Authors: Smeulers Alette
Published: March 2019

This chapter provides a historical overview of perpetrator studies. Starting with the Nuremberg Trials after the Second World War, the defendants were mainly studied by psychologists and psychiatrists. The contemporary predominant belief was that perpetrators of mass atrocities were mentally disturbed. Raul Hilberg’s book on the Holocaust, and Hannah Arendt’s on the trial of Adolf Eichmann, were turning points in our thinking. The new perspective saw perpetrators as ordinary people in extraordinary circumstances. Psychological experiments helped us to understand how ordinary people can be transformed into perpetrators, e.g. Milgram showed how his subjects felt compelled to obey orders from authorities, which they considered legitimate. In the 1990s, the debate between Browning and Goldhagen revolved around if the main causes of a person’s involvement in mass atrocities were situational or dispositional. The debate continues, but all scholars agree that the interaction between dispositional and situational factors is crucial. More recently, scholars have taken a broader approach to studying perpetrators; more case studies were included, new disciplines were used, new methodological approaches were taken, and the study of terrorism has developed into a separate field of expertise. The field of perpetrators studies is now a rapidly developing field of academic inquiry.
The Margins of Perpetration Role-Shifting in Genocide
Authors: Anderson Kjell
Published: March 2019

Individual actors in genocide are often divided up into a trichotomy of perpetrators, victims, and bystanders. Such an approach may be misleading in understanding genocide, where actors often shift between roles, or take on multiple roles. This chapter seeks to understand the complexity of individual action in genocide through presenting an alternative framework based on individual positionality (the position of individuals in relation to genocide), and agency (the capacity for individuals to act independently). It argues that positionality and agency interact to form a margin of discretion—the perceived range of choices available to an individual. It draws from the author’s interviews with perpetrators and victims of genocide and mass atrocities in several countries to illuminate the margins of perpetration—where individuals perpetrate while also occupying other roles. Changing roles in genocide often involves risks and rewards, which evolve throughout a genocide, as well as in the post-genocide period.
Nothing Must Remain
Authors: Fournet Caroline
Published: March 2019

An intrinsic and material consequence of mass violence is the corresponding mass production of human corpses. What the perpetrators subsequently do with these corpses varies greatly from one instance to another, and the rationale behind their choice and behaviour is not always clear. If establishing an infallible typology of the treatment of corpses of the victims by the perpetrators thus holds the risk of leading to erroneous extrapolations, the different modalities of treatment all seem to share one point: the use by the perpetrators of the corpses of their victims to make their crimes visible or, to the contrary, to hide them. Focusing on selected cases (Bosnia-Herzegovina, Rwanda, Argentina), this contribution explores how treatments of corpses as diverse as exhibition, mutilation, concealment, or destruction are seldom a random choice and reveal the perverse relationship between perpetrators, violence, and death; between what they show and what they hide.
Perpetrators on Trial
Authors: Buljubašić Mirza , Holá Barbora
Published: March 2019

Existing research on atrocity crimes perpetrators is predominantly theoretical and generic. Exploration of characteristics of individuals tried for their involvement in war crimes, crimes against humanity, and genocide might provide an empirical basis for a better understanding of the nature of international crimes and of criminal trials after atrocities. This chapter analyses defendant-related and crime-related characteristics of perpetrators tried by all courts in Bosnia and Herzegovina and by the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) following the armed conflict in the 1990s at the territory of former Yugoslavia. Based on original data, collected as of January 2016, it briefly examines perpetrators convicted of international crimes by domestic and international courts, and their socio-demographic and crime-related characteristics. In addition to enriching debates on perpetrators of international crimes, the results can serve as a basis for further discussions on transitional justice after atrocities in Bosnia, its scope, and merits.
Introduction
Authors: Coates D. Justin , Tognazzini Neal A.
Published: March 2019

In this brief introduction, the editors summarize the motivation for the coming together of these chapters—which is to celebrate the work and philosophical legacy of Gary Watson—as well as the content of each contribution. Michael McKenna builds on and systematizes several key elements of Watson’s views on agency and responsibility. Susan Wolf extends elements of Watson’s oeuvre, notably the relationship between the way agents are responsible for their actions and the kind of response licensed by those actions. Pamela Hieronymi goes on from Watson’s work to offer her own account of what blame’s about. R. Jay Wallace is also concerned with Watson’s overall conception of moral responsibility, understanding blame to be an incipient form of moral address. Michael Smith continues the theme, offering a possible theory of moral responsibility similarly grounded in the reactive emotions. T. M. Scanlon continues a debate that Scanlon and Watson have been having over the moral status of psychopaths. Jeanette Kennett argues that psychopaths are not accountable for their actions in the sense required for moral blameworthiness; and that psychopaths’ actions are not attributable to them so as to make them plausibly criminal. Antony Duff extends Watson’s work on moral responsibility to the domain of criminal responsibility. Gideon Yaffe seeks to better understand the prospects of Watson’s account of addiction. Gary Watson himself offers his current account of the distinction between the two faces of responsibility and thoughts on weakness of will and negligence. Finally, a 2016 interview of Watson by Sarah Buss is a wide-ranging and significant discussion of Gary’s personal history and philosophical development.
Living Wage
Authors: Marshall Shelley
Published: March 2019

In this groundbreaking book, Marshall presents a a regulatory plan for addressing poorly paid, precarious work in global supply chains. Aside from climate change, inequality and poverty remain the biggest crises of our age. While the top 1 per cent continues to make gains in their share of wealth, the number of low income people in precarious and insecure work is also increasing. In a unique approach that draws on legal sociology, political economy and regulatory studies, this book describes existing regulatory measures that have succeeded, but which have to date attracted little scholarly attention. It builds on these successful experiments to set out a vision for a new multi-level, international labour law that would increase minimum wages incrementally across all nations until they reach the level of a living wage.
Complementary or Functional Rival? Labour Regulation of Garment Industry Workers in Cambodia by Better Factories Cambodia
Authors: Marshall Shelley
Published: March 2019

Chapter 7 explores the formalisation of the Cambodian garment industry and the factors that have shaped and constrained the effectiveness of the combination of the US–Cambodia Bilateral Textile Agreement and the International Labour Organization’s Better Factories Project. Unlike the Mathadi Boards examined in Chapter 4, a great deal has been written about efforts to improve working standards in the Cambodian garment industry. The Chapter makes two important interventions in the already abundant literature on Better Factories Cambodia. Firstly, it focuses on the role of the trade agreement that led to the establishment of Better Factories Cambodia, as preferential treatment in trade played a critical part in encouraging investment in formal enterprises. It argues that trade incentives were just as important as the BFC in improving the labour standards of participating enterprises. Secondly, it examines the initiative in the context of Cambodia’s political economy showing how the Hun Sen government has used the initiative to its advantage and avoided investing in its own labour inspectorate. For this reason, the chapter asks whether Better Factories Cambodia has become a functional rival to the state labour inspectorate.
Conclusions
Authors: Marshall Shelley
Published: March 2019

This book has compared advances in the regulation of work, asking what can be learned for purposeful institutional change elsewhere in the world. Chapter 10 concludes by recapping the overlapping dynamics of informalization that reoccurred in the case study chapters. These include: mass migration and circulation of labour within countries and between countries; large scale macro-economic and institutional liberalization; integration of previously separate economic systems as socialist and capitalist systems were combined following the fall of the Eastern bloc and the opening to global trade; new ways of organizing production resulting in the vertical disintegration of productive units (firms) and the expansion of supply chains; the explosion of new, non-employment forms of work; the complexity and scale of production outstripping national labour regulation systems; and lack of transnational orchestration in labour regulation resulting in gaps in the scale of labour regulation. The book concludes by imagining a future in which action is not taken to promote a global living wage.
What Time Collects
Authors: Giles Paul
Published: March 2019

Arguing that one of the most negative consequences of modernism’s traditional designs has been the way they have tended to marginalize or exclude major writers on the basis of ideological assumptions that are never made explicit, this chapter reads Australian novelist Eleanor Dark and American fiction writer James T. Farrell alongside each other. Both writers interrogated conventional understandings of modernism as a phenomenon predicated upon a rhetoric of liberal progress. Instead, Dark and Farrell both seek aesthetically to track back into the past, and they both adduce in their different ways a collectivist understanding of society, one in which individualism is interwoven in complex ways with communal sympathies. Hence the complex fictions of both writers mediate a heterodox version of temporality, in which the recursive passage from present to past carries as much weight as the existential charge from present to future.
Epigenetic phenomena in fungi, plants and animals
Authors: Lucchesi John C.
Published: March 2019

DNA does not exist in pure form and is associated with a variety of proteins and RNA to form a complex referred to as chromatin. The individualization of cell types during development requires the differential activation of genes, a process that is initiated by the uneven distribution of morphogens such as transcription factors in the fertilized egg. The transcription of selected genes involves modifications of the proteins that are associated with the DNA and a remodeling of this association. These alterations do not modify the DNA sequence proper and are referred to as epigenetic modifications. Cell types are characterized by different distributions of epigenetic modifications and can be said to exhibit their own particular epigenome. As cells divide, they must transmit to their daughter cells the information necessary to maintain their particular distribution of active genes. This epigenetic memory may involve the transmission of transcription factors as well as the transmission of epigenetic modifications present in the parent cell’s chromatin.
Regulation of domains and whole chromosomes
Authors: Lucchesi John C.
Published: March 2019

Clusters of genes that encode similar products, such as the β‎-globin, the ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and the histone genes, are regulated in a coordinated fashion. An extreme case of coordinate regulation—dosage compensation—involves the genes present on the sex chromosomes. In Drosophila males, a complex (MSL) associates with the X chromosome where it enhances the activity of most X-linked genes. In Caenorhabditis, a complex (DCC) decreases the level of transcription of both X chromosomes in the XX hermaphrodite. In mammals, dosage compensation is achieved by the inactivation, early during development, of most X-linked genes on one of the two X chromosomes in females. In the mammalian embryo, X inactivation of either X chromosome is random and clonally inherited. The mechanism involves the synthesis of an RNA (Tsix) that protects one of the two Xs from inactivation, and of another RNA (Xist) that coats the other X chromosome and recruits histone- and DNA-modifying enzymes.
The nucleolus
Authors: Lucchesi John C.
Published: March 2019

The nucleolus forms at nucleolus organizer regions (NORs) that consist of clusters of repeated rRNA genes. Transcription of the rRNA genes and processing of the transcripts yields the three types of RNAs necessary for the biogenesis of ribosomes. Only subsets of the rRNA genes present in cells are transcribed. The linker histone H1 plays a specific role in the repression of inactive rRNA genes and in many of the other functions of the nucleolus. One of these functions is gene silencing—the nucleolus is surrounded by a zone of heterochromatin consisting of silenced rRNA gene arrays, DNA repeats that flank the centromeres and chromatin domains that include gene-poor, as well as silent, regions of the genome; any gene associating with this zone is subjected to repression. Other functions include the assembly of telomerase, the regulation of p53 stability and the synthesis of 5S and tRNAs whose genes form clusters in the nucleolus.
Aging, cellular senescence and cancer: the role of genomic instability, cellular homeostasis and telomeres
Authors: Lucchesi John C.
Published: March 2019

Aging hallmarks are causative factors of oncogenesis. Genomic instability results from the accumulation of errors that occur during DNA replication or from exposure to endogenous or environmental insults. The genome contains genes responsible for normal cell division and differentiation (oncogenes), and genes that regulate cell division and limit cell growth and proliferation (tumor suppressor genes). Over-expression of oncogenes or inactivation of tumor suppressors results in cancer. During aging, alterations in proteostasis result in the disruption of metabolic pathways that connect with environmental factors. Telomeres are terminal regions of chromosomes that protect the DNA from attack by exonucleases, prevent end-to-end fusions and prevent the shortening of the DNA molecules at each replication cycle. Using RNA as a template, telomerase synthesizes telomeric DNA. Telomerase is absent in most adult human tissues, resulting in a progressive shortening of all telomeres and causing cells to senesce. Cancer cells must activate telomerase to gain “immortality.”
Aging, cellular senescence and cancer: epigenetic alterations and nuclear remodeling
Authors: Lucchesi John C.
Published: March 2019

Epigenetic modifications correlated with aging and oncogenesis are changes in the pattern of DNA methylation and of histone modifications, and changes in the level of histone variants (H3.3, macroH2A, H2A.Z) and gene mutations. The sirtuins are a set of highly conserved protein deacetylases of particular significance to the aging process. Many cancer types are found to carry mutations in chromatin-modifying genes such as those encoding methyl or acetyl transferases, affecting the histone modifications of promoters and enhancers. The aging process and oncogenesis present a number of changes in the nuclear architecture. Mutations in the lamina-coding genes lead to premature aging syndromes. Mutations in remodeling complexes are found in different cancers. Modifications that affect the architectural protein binding sites at topologically associating domain (TAD) borders can cause the merging of neighboring TADs. The levels of short non-coding RNAs (sncRNAs) are altered in model organisms and are associated with cancer. Changes in the position of chromosome territories often occur in tumor cells. Nevertheless, cellular senescence, due mostly to the absence of telomerase, represents a mechanism of tumor suppression.
Developmental systems and their dysfunction
Authors: Lucchesi John C.
Published: March 2019

A specific function performed by the brain is learning—new information is stored as short-term memory by the activation of the transcription factor CREB, and as long-term memory by DNA methylation and demethylation of specific genes. Learning also involves a neuron-specific remodeling complex (BAF) and several micro RNAs (miRNAs) and long non-coding (lncRNAs). Rubinstein–Taybi, Rett or fragile X syndromes, as well as Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s or Huntington’s diseases, involve epigenetic alterations. Epigenetic misregulation occurs in cardiopathies such as Wolf–Hirschhorn and Kabuki syndromes. The innate immune system consists of cells that can destroy invading bacteria and virus-infected cells, and of circulating proteins that destroy pathogens. The adaptive immune system consists of macrophages and dendritic cells, T lymphocytes and B lymphocytes. Failure to recognize antigens as one’s own leads to autoimmune diseases such as systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Cells from RA and SLE patients exhibit changes in histone acetyl transferases, deacetylases and methyl transferases, and in miRNAs. Arginines can be converted to citrulline, and citrullinated proteins are considered as non-self by the immune system. RA is characterized by the presence of autoantibodies against citrullinated peptides.
The Politics of Immiserizing Growth: Mexico in Comparative Perspective
Authors: Teichman Judith
Published: March 2019

This chapter advances a political explanation of immiserizing growth in Mexico. It identifies five episodes of economic growth in modern Mexican history during which the Indigenous population benefitted less than the general population, did not see any improvement in its level of deprivation, or experienced worsening circumstances. The chapter argues that political exclusion and unequal inclusion were the driving forces behind a long path-dependent process that occurred in conjunction with an exclusionary ethno/cultural ideology. The political process that accounts for immiserization included state actions and inactions, such as exclusion from or unequal access to state resources and services. Such actions and inactions bolstered cultural and social mechanisms of marginalization. None of the pre-1980 economic development strategies pursued by the state gave serious attention to the interests and welfare of the Indigenous population. However, the arrival of neoliberal reform and economic globalization in the form of the North American Free Trade Agreement, with its vigorous encouragement of state withdrawal, set the stage for an unprecedented level of abandonment of Indigenous welfare as even the minimal supports of the earlier era were dismantled. A comparison with the South Korea reinforces the argument regarding the impact of long historical processes and the state in creating and reinforcing social exclusion during periods of economic growth.
Political Settlements and Immiserizing Growth Episodes
Authors: Sen Kunal
Published: March 2019

Economic growth in developing countries is an ‘episodic’ phenomenon, with countries undertaking discrete shifts from periods of low to periods of high growth and vice versa. Not all growth acceleration episodes lead to reductions in poverty, and there is wide variation in the relationship between growth and poverty across episodes of growth of the same magnitude or duration. This chapter shows that several cases of growth acceleration episodes may be defined as episodes of immiserizing growth, in that poverty either increases or remains roughly the same across the duration of these episodes. Similarly, the chapter shows that not all growth deceleration episodes lead to increases in poverty. A political economy explanation is presented for episodes of immiserizing growth, focusing on the nature of the political settlement, and in particular on the distribution of power. We find that settlements with dispersed vertical power can lessen the likelihood of immiserizing growth episodes. We also find that dispersed horizontal power is not necessarily conducive to pro-poor growth episodes.
Immiserizing Growth and Poverty Dynamics: An Assessment of Twelve Indian States
Authors: Diwakar Vidya , McKay Andy , Shepherd Andrew
Published: March 2019

This chapter reconsiders the extent to which recent impressive growth performance in India has been associated with poverty reduction, using data collected by the Indian Human Development Surveys, a panel survey conducted in 2004/5 and 2010/11. The panel nature of the survey allows us to link income growth to poverty dynamics, and in particular to movements into and out of poverty as well as chronic poverty. While the overall story in India over this period is one of impressive poverty reduction, the data also reveal some cases of immiserizing growth. This chapter seeks to understand the nature and factors underlying immiserizing growth for the state of Chhattisgarh.
Maria’s Paradox: Oil Extraction and the Misery of Missing Development Alternatives in the Ecuadorian Amazon
Authors: Arsel Murat , Pellegrini Lorenzo , Mena Carlos F.
Published: March 2019

Why do some residents of the Ecuadorian Amazon support the expansion of oil extraction in their communities even when they believe that the impact of extractive industries on their communities and families has been negative, environmentally as well as economically? Building on nearly a decade of participatory research in the region, this chapter contextualizes this paradoxical choice within Ecuador’s encounter with oil extraction, which has not only failed to deliver the anticipated economic miracle but also resulted in a variety of immiserizing effects, be they economic, cultural, or ecological. Caught between the state whose functions are governed by an ‘extractive imperative’ and the oil sector whose presence is overwhelming, indigenous and peasant communities have not scored meaningful gains either by protesting against these dominant actors or by engaging with the much vaunted but ultimately ineffective concept of buen vivir (living well). The chapter argues that immiserization in this context is best understood as the absence of meaningful pathways to socio-economic development which force the eponymous Maria to choose intensified extraction despite the sector’s pervasive negative impacts on her family and community.
Is Structural Transformation-led Economic Growth Immiserizing or Inclusive? The Case of Indonesia
Authors: Kim Kyunghoon , Sumner Andy , Yusuf Arief Anshory
Published: March 2019

This chapter discusses the relationship between the recent pattern of structural transformation in the Indonesian economy and poverty reduction. In the past two decades, Indonesia has become a service-centred economy while its manufacturing sector has ceased to act as the driver of structural transformation. Further, the manufacturing sector’s capacity to generate employment and to lead productivity growth has deteriorated compared to that during the two decades prior to the Asian financial crisis. Since the late 1990s, Indonesia has also experienced a slowdown in poverty reduction and a rapid increase in inequality. This chapter argues that Indonesia’s economic growth will struggle to be as dynamic as that during the high-growth period if the service sector in its current form continues to lead structural transformation. This is because Indonesia’s service subsectors with large employment absorptive capacity have low productivity compared to the industrial subsectors. Without recovering dynamism in structural transformation, Indonesia’s fight against poverty and inequality is expected to be difficult.
The Paradox of Persistent Poverty Amid High Growth: The Case of Nigeria
Authors: Dauda Rasaki Stephen
Published: March 2019

The literature about the poverty and growth nexus maintains that economic growth possesses the capacity to reduce poverty, and empirical findings generally support this view. However, the situation in Nigeria runs counter to this position, giving high and persistent poverty in the face of growth. This chapter assesses the paradox of persistent poverty amid high growth in Nigeria. It compares growth and poverty trends, and presents growth elasticities of poverty. It also suggests a number of explanations for the paradox, including jobless growth, high and rising inequality, inadequate public expenditure on social services, poor governance and corruption, overconcentration on the oil sector, and environmental degradation. The study therefore recommends that critical attention should be paid to measures such as promoting good governance, increasing public expenditure on social services, and diversifying the economy from its overdependence on oil.
Introduction
Authors: Davidson Michael
Published: March 2019

The introduction surveys the awkward meeting of modernism and the disabled body, summarizing the various ways in which disability is represented in modernist literature and art. The introduction also treats the formative role of disability in the aesthetic function itself insofar as ideas of autonomy require a contingent, vulnerable body on which to establish judgment. This sets the stage for a discussion of how modernist art and literature contribute to the disqualification of certain bodies, often using them as metaphors for cultural decay and social unrest. The role of eugenics, criminal photography, racial anatomy, and uplift during the Progressive Era contributed to invalidating certain bodies while reinforcing a normative national subject. The introduction also studies the connection between modernist aesthetic futurity (“Make it new!”) and the biofuturistic scenarios of medical science and genetic purification.
The Civic Moment in British Social Thought
Authors: Jones H. S.
Published: March 2019

This essay is a contribution to the conceptual history of citizenship at the time when it came to enjoy greater influence than before or since, the period of the advent of democratic politics following the Third Reform Act. It analyses the use of the language of citizenship in a range of intellectual contexts, from philosophical idealists through Anglican and nonconformist social reformers to the co-operative movement. In comparison with the continental European states, where citizenship carried strong connotations of political belonging and legal rights, in Britain citizenship was embedded in civil society and the city, and was bound up with ethical notions such as character and neighbourliness. Above all, it was a powerful tool in the conceptualization of the good society and of social reform.
Planning in Modern Britain
Authors: Harrison Brian
Published: March 2019

Human beings have always planned, but the meaning, methods, and purpose of planning have changed over time and with circumstance. Planning has been politicized ever more widely as the individual’s ‘personal’ planning has succumbed before, or been reinforced by, planning by the state at its local, national, and international levels. Secularization entails the utopia’s transfer from heaven to earth, and in this process nineteenth-century Chartist populism, liberal moralism, and conservative paternalism all played their part. In the twentieth century, both Labour and Conservative parties merged all three into a statist and interventionist programme accelerated by the interwar depression and by the post-war need to validate democracy in the face of the Soviet pretensions. The essay concludes by discussing the contrasting approaches to planning required in four areas of twentieth-century government: education, welfare, the economy, and the environment.
‘Socialist Realism’
Authors: Ritschel Daniel
Published: March 2019

Though it is often suggested that the Labour Party did not think seriously about socialist economic policy until after the debacle of 1931, there was in fact a remarkably sophisticated body of innovative economic thought on the left of the Party late in the 1920s. Fashioned by prominent left-wing intellectuals, including G. D. H. Cole, H. N. Brailsford, and John Strachey, their ideas anticipated many of the policies that were to define Labour economics over the next two decades, including a proto-Keynesian reflationary strategy for expansion of the slumping post-war economy, centralized economic planning in a ‘mixed’ system of public and private enterprise, and even a detailed outline of the public corporation as a model for the management of socialized industries. Their contributions failed to make an impact in 1929–31 mainly because of the inflexible resistance to all socialist advice by the MacDonald–Snowden leadership, and then their own unfortunate association with Mosley’s ill-fated rebellion in 1930–1. However, their ideas would influence the new generation of Labour economists among the New Fabians of the 1930s.
The Reluctant Planner
Authors: Moses Julia
Published: March 2019

T. H. Marshall’s claims that the twentieth century was the era of social rights, embodied in education and welfare policy, has found enduring favour with a wide variety of scholars and social commentators. To what extent, however, was his theory of citizenship and social rights a reflection of the specific moment in which he was writing? This chapter places T. H. Marshall’s concept of ‘citizenship’ within its historical context. Through examining his biography, this essay suggests that Marshall’s theory of citizenship was informed by an appreciation for continental, and especially German, conceptions of social policy, the role of the state, and the nature of community. Parsing this aspect of Marshall’s intellectual biography has important implications for our own understanding of British ideas about the purpose, structure, and scope of social policy during the formative middle decades of the twentieth century.
You Got an Ology?
Authors: Grimley Matthew
Published: March 2019

In the decades after the Second World War, sociology was a vogue subject in British universities, eclipsing more traditional disciplines such as history and political philosophy. New departments sprang up in the expanding universities. Academics in other subjects reacted in different ways, some embracing sociology in the hope that some of its cachet would rub off on them, others denouncing it for not being a real subject. By the 1970s, though, the fortunes of sociology were dramatically reversed, as radical sociologists clashed with their more empirical colleagues, and were blamed by the press for inciting student protest. The radical sociologist became a folk devil, epitomized by Malcolm Bradbury’s The History Man (1975), and was particularly demonized by the supporters of Margaret Thatcher. The Thatcher governments attempted to reduce sociology’s funding in higher education, but they found it harder to reverse its more diffusive influence over other disciplines and popular culture as a whole.
A New Governance
Authors: Bevir Mark
Published: March 2019

When governance refers to changes in the state, it refers to the apparent spread of markets, contracting out, networks, and joined-up government. This chapter initially focuses on the intellectual sources of the transformation of the state, highlighting the role of modernist social science, with its reliance on formal explanations based on either economic models or sociological correlations. The first wave of reform occurred as an economic modernism inspired marketization and the new public management. The second wave occurred as a sociological modernism inspired joined-up governance and networks. The second half of the chapter shifts the focus from the sources of the reforms to their impact on practices. It relies on a series of short ethnographic stories to illustrate the complex ways in which public servants juggle the competing demands of bureaucracies, markets, and networks.
Approaching the Lecture Room
Authors: Zimmerman Sarah
Published: March 2019

Public lectures on poetry became popular events in England in the first two decades of the nineteenth century. They joined a thriving lecture scene dominated by science lectures, and they were indebted to traditions of lecturing on elocution and on rhetoric and belles lettres. The public lecture is a crucial medium for the development of the modern category of “literature” because it highlights its debts to these traditions. The literary lecture was also crucially informed by the radical speaking cultures of the 1790s, and it thrived in anxious proximity to a burgeoning literary marketplace. New scholarly attention to the public lecture on literature has been sponsored by research in a number of disciplines, and critical approaches to the medium have been developed in an interdisciplinary conversation about how to treat historical speaking performances.
Coleridge the Lecturer, A Disappearing Act
Authors: Zimmerman Sarah
Published: March 2019

Coleridge set some of the key terms of Romantic-era literary lecturing in his responses to two historical pressures. He attempted to define himself as a literary lecturer against his former roles as a political speaker and Dissenting preacher. He also tried to distance himself from the pressures of the literary marketplace. He developed his key concept of the “willing suspension of disbelief” partly from a desire to persuade auditors to see him not as a paid performer, but rather as a “Poet-philosopher.” Some of his best-known critical arguments gain new meaning once they are understood as in part responses to the culture for which they were pitched. These include his readings of the character of Hamlet and the relationship of Romeo and Juliet.
Thomas Campbell, Scholar-Poet
Authors: Zimmerman Sarah
Published: March 2019

Among Romantic-era literary lecturers, Thomas Campbell had the distinction of having his own poetry treated by his primary competitors, Thelwall, Coleridge, and Hazlitt. Coleridge and Hazlitt attacked him in gendered critiques as the representative of a spurious popular poetry that pandered to the public, particularly women, and to periodical critics, thereby forfeiting lasting fame. As a literary lecturer Campbell performed the qualities that had made him an overnight success as a poet. Acculturated in Enlightenment Scotland, Campbell adhered to literary tradition and came to specialize in classical literature. He read aloud from polished scripts and presented himself appealingly in an effort to render his literary lessons accessible. He was willing to enter into a mutually beneficial exchange with auditors, especially the women whose patronage could advance his professional and social ambitions. He also viewed education as a viable means of reform in a counter-revolutionary era and launched a successful public campaign for a university in London.
Introduction
Authors: Attridge Derek
Published: March 2019

By way of introduction, the issue of a poem’s mode of existence is raised, and the centrality of the listener’s or reader’s experience is emphasized. Some of the difficulties of writing a history of that experience from archaic Greece to the English Renaissance are discussed: one of these is the paucity of evidence and the consequent debates among scholars; another is the porousness of the boundaries between poetry and drama, on the one hand, and poetry and music, on the other. Although verse was valued for a number of different qualities and effects throughout this period, its function as poetry is inseparable from its power to provide pleasure.
Homeric Greece: Courts and Singers
Authors: Attridge Derek
Published: March 2019

This chapter traces the pre-history of Western poetry as revealed in the two Homeric epics, which contain vivid representations of oral poets in archaic Greece performing epic poems to court audiences as well some other evocations of poetic song. By examining these representations, some conclusions are reached about the nature of the performances and the experience of the audiences. Although this verse was different in important ways from the poetry of later periods, notably in its association with music and the practice of composition-in-performance, the effects on hearers suggest a similar pleasurable response to its poetic art. The poems attributed to Hesiod from around the same time reveal a different performance context, that of the poetry competition, and imply a more sharply defined singer. The trope of the Muses in both poetic corpuses throws light on the role and perception of the poet-singer.
Ancient Rome: The Empire after Augustus
Authors: Attridge Derek
Published: March 2019

This chapter focuses on the institution of the recitatio, characteristic of late Augustan and post-Augustan Rome, whereby poets read out their unfinalized poetry for an audience to criticize before revising it for publication. The main source of evidence is the Letters of Pliny the Younger, who describes in some detail both the recitationes he organized in his own house and those he attended. Comments by other writers on recitationes are cited, both those in favour and those opposed, and the value of the institution to Roman poetry is considered. The symposium as a site for the reading of verse continues to be attested, and there is evidence for the continued inclusion of poetry contests in celebratory games. Other places where poetry might be found, such as walls and monuments, are reviewed.
Lyric, Romance, and Alliterative Verse in Fourteenth-Century England
Authors: Attridge Derek
Published: March 2019

Fourteenth-century Europe saw the spread of literacy and increasing numbers of educated laity, creating a large audience for poetry on the page. Dante in the Commedia, Petrarch, Machaut, and others testify to great sophistication in written poetry—though oral performance remained important. This chapter and those that follow concentrate on poetry in English, which eventually displaced French and Latin as the language of the court. Attention is given to the question whether Middle English romance was an oral or written form, and evidence for the widespread enjoyment of lyric poetry is assessed. The chapter considers the increasing importance of the large household as a venue for both performances of poetry and for private reading, and the alliterative poems that may have been produced in this context are discussed. Also in alliterative verse, but from a London base, was Langland’s poem Piers Plowman, which circulated widely in manuscript.
Chaucer, Gower, and Fifteenth-Century Poetry in English
Authors: Attridge Derek
Published: March 2019

By the end of the fourteenth century, a sizeable audience for poetry in English among the gentry and the commercial classes had emerged. Chaucer wrote for this readership, and his poetry shows a successful absorption of French and Italian models. This chapter scrutinizes his work for evidence of the manner in which it was performed and received. Throughout his oeuvre, Chaucer appeals to both hearers and readers, using images both of books and of oral performers. His invention of the English iambic pentameter made possible a fuller embodiment in verse of the speaking voice, unlike Gower, who chose to write his major work, Confessio Amantis, in strict tetrameters. In the fifteenth century, the changing pronunciation of English made writing in metre a challenge, as is evident in the work of Hoccleve and Lydgate. The chapter ends with a consideration of the Scottish poets Henryson, Dunbar, and Douglas.
Perception and Testimony as Data Providers
Authors: Floridi Luciano
Published: March 2019

The first part of this chapter articulates an answer in terms of a re-interpretation of perception and testimony as data providers rather than full-blown cases of knowledge. But then, if perception and testimony are correctly understood as data providers, how is one supposed (to apply this analysis in order) to understand the semantic value of the data provided by such processes? The second part of the chapter argues in favour of a constructionist hypothesis about how data may become meaningful for human cognitive agents through a process of repurposing of natural data/signals. The conclusion of the chapter is that, from a non-naturalistic, constructionist perspective, human agents are natural-born data hackers.
Informational Scepticism and the Logically Possible
Authors: Floridi Luciano
Published: March 2019

This chapter addresses the question: how do we know that the world really is as our informational constructs tell us it is?—the classic sceptical challenge. The chapter articulates and defends a twofold answer: either informational scepticism is radical (but epistemologically innocuous because redundant); or it is moderate (but epistemologically beneficial because useful). The first part of the chapter reconstructs a historical ‘renaissance of epistemology’ between the two world wars in light of the radical scepticism debate. The second part is entirely theoretical, seeking to solve the problem of radical scepticism. Once the problem has been established, Borel numbers are introduced as a convenient way to refer uniformly to (the data that individuate) different possible worlds. The Hamming distance between Borel numbers is adopted as a metric to calculate the distance between possible worlds. Radical and moderate informational scepticism are analysed using Borel numbers and Hamming distances to show that they are either harmless (extreme form) or fruitful (moderate form). Potential objections are dealt with in a separate section. The conclusion briefly discusses the Peircean nature of the overall approach.
Logical Fallacies as Bayesian Informational Shortcuts
Authors: Floridi Luciano
Published: March 2019

Information closure may help with the consistency of a database, so it is related to information quality. However, it cannot be used to expand such an information repository. For this, other forms of reasoning are needed. Bayesianism is often indicated as a classic means to upgrade a set of beliefs or indeed some bits of information, in the vocabulary of this book. Some other erroneous forms of reasoning, however, damage the same reservoir of information. Interestingly, the two dynamics are related. As argued in this chapter, the two best known formal logical fallacies, namely denying the antecedent (DA) and affirming the consequent (AC), are not just basic and simple errors, which prove human irrationality, but rather informational shortcuts, which may provide a quick and dirty (and therefore unsafe) way of extracting useful information from the same informational resources to which Alice already has access. And, in this sense, they can be shown to amount to degraded versions of Bayes’ theorem, once this is stripped of some of its probabilities. The less the probabilities count, the closer these fallacies become to a reasoning that is not only informationally useful but also logically valid.
Maker’s Knowledge, between A Priori and A Posteriori
Authors: Floridi Luciano
Published: March 2019

If Alice’s knowledge is the knowledge enjoyed by a maker how can this be qualified according to the three classic distinctions, which specify that truths can be necessary vs. contingent, analytic vs. synthetic, and a priori vs. a posteriori? This chapter argues that (a) we need to decouple a fourth distinction, namely informative vs. uninformative, from the previous three and, in particular, from its implicit association with analytic vs. synthetic and a priori vs. a posteriori; (b) such a decoupling facilitates, and is facilitated by, moving from a monoagent to a multiagent approach; (c) the decoupling and the multiagent approach enable a re-mapping of currently available positions in epistemology on these four dichotomies; (d) within such a re-mapping, two positions, capturing the nature of a witness’s knowledge and of a maker’s knowledge, can best be described as contingent, synthetic, a posteriori, and uninformative and as contingent, synthetic, weakly a priori (ab anteriori), and uninformative respectively.
Rights, Citizenship, and Society
Authors: Caldwell Peter C.
Published: March 2019

The social rule of law, or social Rechtsstaat, was a second key term used in the first decade of the Federal Republic of Germany to justify extensive state interventions into society, so long as they preserved individual freedoms. Individual freedoms—such as the right to free speech, the right to enter and exit contracts, and the right to own property—required some kind of social supplement to ensure real freedom, or so the term suggested. By cementing this principle in the Basic Law, the founders opened up a debate about the justification, nature, and extent of the welfare state. Some, like Ernst Forsthoff, rejected the entire discussion as non-sensical; others, like Wolfgang Abendroth, viewed the constitutional concept as a spur to social reform. While this debate took place among lawyers, its real significance lay in the way it articulated the relationship between social policy and democracy.
The Semantics of Social Security
Authors: Caldwell Peter C.
Published: March 2019

The West German pensions reform bill of 1957 was the product of a decade-long discussion among German experts about the need for a comprehensive reform of social policy, elder poverty, and adequate pensions in a period of economic expansion. The ultimate bill maintained the income-linked Bismarckian pensions system, but increased payouts and linked them to the overall level of production in society, with the result of dramatically increasing pension levels. Despite harsh criticisms from the right, who argued that the new pensions system would create inflation, deform democracy, and make citizens into domesticated animals, the reform was passed overwhelmingly, forming one of the essential pillars of the West German welfare state. The successful bill was the product of an expert discussion that crossed party lines and pointed toward a new political consensus on the welfare state.
From Solution to Problem
Authors: Caldwell Peter C.
Published: March 2019

The 1970s and 1980s saw two important changes in the West German discussion of the welfare state. First, global trade put direct economic pressure on expensive welfare states in the western world. Second, the social science discussion of the welfare state shifted to a language of systems, which no longer viewed the welfare state as a tool of state or society, but asked about how systems of social policy could have unintended consequences—how social solutions could pose their own problems. Young Marxists, breaking with the SPD, questioned the possibility of a welfare state that could aid workers under capitalism; conservative state theorists questioned whether democracy, with its demands for state solutions, could paralyze the state. The result was a more complex reading of how the modern word created complex challenges for individuals and states alike, especially well articulated in the work of Kaufmann and Luhmann.
The Danish Agendas Project
Authors: Green-Pedersen Christoffer , Mortensen Peter B.
Published: March 2019

The Danish Policy Agendas Project was initiated in 2002. This chapter presents the dataset included in the Danish Policy Agendas Project. The major time series cover parliamentary activities, party manifestos, radio news, and the council agendas of local governments. All important aspects of the Danish political system are thus covered. The chapter also presents one of the major findings of Danish project, namely the ability of the opposition to influence the party system agenda, here illustrated with reference to the issue of immigration.