bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Exploiting the Missing Link
Authors: Candland Douglas Keith
Published: November 2023

If There exists a Mental Ladder that separates animal forms in terms of their abilities to think, remember, feel, solve problems, and the like, might there not be like separations to be found within species? Indeed, might not the individual members of a species be separable in terms of their mental capacities? If such distinctions can be made reliably, might they not be correlated with some other factors, especially genetic ones, for, after all, are not such capacities determined or at least limited by genes? Just as Itard set out to test theories of the intellect current during his times with Victor and Singh to worry about the education of the soul during his times, so Witmer’s Psychological Clinic was testing a nascent theory to be found at the turn of this century in the United States-namely, that U.S.-style democracy, when appropriately arranged and applied, was capable of giving each human being the degree and kind of education suitable to that child’s talent and ability. It was an audacious and a daring idea, for it argued tacitly that the effect of genetic variation was unrelated to class. Or, to press the point, that class status was unrelated to ability. Witmer did not develop the intellectual and political ran1ifications of this view, at least not in the journal he founded and edited, The Psychological Clinic. By his actions, however, he did demonstrate his view that mental ability could be measured in such a way that each human being could be offered an educational process that utilized her or his abilities, regardless of the wealth and social background of the parents. Hear Witmer make the point:
Raising Human Babies with Chimps: Donald, Gua, and Viki
Authors: Candland Douglas Keith
Published: November 2023

Then OTI ON that we human beings ought to be able to communicate with the apes, and they with us, is recorded at least since Samuel Pepys described in his diary his visit to the docks of London to see an ape freshly arrived. In our own times, as we have already observed, the wish to communicate with the apes is illustrated by Garner’s recording primate sounds on the then newly invented phonograph in order to observe how the animals responded to the played-back sounds. Later, in West Africa, he had the idea of training chimpanzees to “talk” by forming, with his hands, their mouth into words in four languages. Witmer noted the chimpanzee Peter’s inability to talk and accepted the anthropological view of the day that the inability was due to a cerebral lack of the motor ability needed to produce sounds. The notion that animals might communicate with human beings was also popular in a certain genre of English literature-for example, in the stories regarding Tarzan’s ability to communicate with animals and by the animal companions of Dr.Dolittle, whose language he could understand.
What Feral Children and Clever Animals Tell Us
Authors: Candland Douglas Keith
Published: November 2023

Each Of Our minds knows it is alone in a universe it creates; yet in our attempts to communicate, among ourselves and other species, we reveal a struggle to know other minds, to overcome the isolation of our own mind. This book is a chronicle of some attempts to grasp the workings of other minds. If the concept of death and the ability to make tools are not what distinguishes human beings from other beings, perhaps what does is the quest to understand the minds of others. It is a human belief that, through language, we can both transfer the contents of our mind to another and come to experience the contents of the minds of others. The exan1ples reported in this book are among the more elaborate attempts to do so. Each attempt is prompted by a wish common to all of us, by our everyday concern to discover what goes on in the mind of another. The question is not whether we communicate. Of course, we do: your signs and gestures tell me much about your feelings, emotions, and intentions. But they do not tell me as much as I would like to know, so I find myself constantly searching for ways to discover the nature of your intentions and your meanings. I guess these only through my own private world, as has been documented by the accounts contained in this book. I can understand your mind only through the filters of my mind, for my mind is both the coder and decoder of your communications.
Chemical Equilibrium And Kinetics
Authors: Sposito Garrison
Published: November 2023

Soils are multicomponent, multiphase, open systems that sustain a myriad of interconnected chemical reactions, including those involving the soil biota. The multiphase nature of soil derives from its being a porous material whose void spaces contain air and aqueous solution. The solid matrix (which itself is multiphase), soil air, and soil solution-each is a mixture of reactive chemical compounds-hence the multicomponent nature of soil. Transformations among these compounds can be driven by flows of matter and energy to and from the vicinal atmosphere, biosphere, and hydrosphere. These external flows, as well as the chemical composition of soil, vary in both space and time over a broad range of scales.

The complexity of soil notwithstanding, the principal features of its chemical behavior can be understood on the basis of well-established principles and methods for the description of reactions in aqueous systems. Reactions that occur exclusively in the gaseous phase or the solid matrix of soil less often control its chemical behavior than reactions involving the aqueous phase. The basic terminology associated with the latter chemical reactions will be reviewed in the present chapter to provide an initial context for the discussion of equilibria and kinetics to follow.
Do Older Children and Adults Create Imaginary Companions?
Authors: Taylor Marjorie
Published: November 2023

Jimmy Stewart’s portrayal of a gentle adult who had an imaginary rabbit friend in the movie Harvey is the sort of example that comes to mind when we consider the possibility of adults having imaginary companions. But Elwood Dowd was not a run-of-the-mill adult. He would have been unusual even if he had refrained from talking to a giant invisible rabbit while walking down the main street of his town. Despite his age, Elwood’s naive personality and sheltered existence (unmarried, unemployed, living with his sister) made him more like a child than a grownup. Harvey was a source of concern and embarrassment for Elwood’s family and led others to gossip about him behind his back.
Fantasy in the Lives of Children and Adults
Authors: Taylor Marjorie
Published: November 2023

Normally developing children start to show clear evidence of their growing imaginations when they begin to pretend in the second year of life. For some, pretend play quickly becomes one of the dominant activities of their waking hours. How wonderful that this capacity is available so early on to help children process life events, achieve mastery of their emotions, enrich their social understanding, and develop their communication abilities.
The Military Budget and the Management of Defense Resources
Authors: Blechman Barry M
Published: November 2023

For the first fifteen to twenty years following World War II, only a few members of Congress had any serious impact on the nation's defense posture. The chairman of the House Defense Appropriations Subcommittee in particular, along with the few others charged with responsibility for defense appropriations, was able to influence the distribution of defense resources in significant ways. According to contemporary accounts, Congressman George H. Mahon, a Democrat from the 19th District in Texas, was the critical figure. He chaired the House subcommittee for nearly thirty years (1949-1978), during which time he scrubbed the budget vigorously, not only seeking to uncover in-efficiencies in the management of defense resources, but also questioning the basic rationale and justification for a variety of weapon programs.
War Powers
Authors: Blechman Barry M
Published: November 2023

The pattern, by now, should be clear. In each of the four dimensions of defense policy examined thus far-defense budget making, arms control, arms sales, and covert operations-the balance between the branches has shifted toward the Congress. The Reagan revolution (counterrevolution, really) failed; the procedures and institutions created by the Congress in the 1970s not only held but were reinforced. In the 1980s even more than the 1970s, the Congress has been a primary participant in the defense policymaking process, acting to curb and sometimes to reverse administration initiatives, and, on occasion, to initiate the general direction as well as the specific detail of U.S. policy.
Reappraising the Congressional Role in Defense Policy
Authors: Blechman Barry M
Published: November 2023

The typical executive branch view of the congressional role in defense policy is epitomized by a story told about the 1968 Pueblo crisis by John P. Roche, who served in the LBJ White House as special consultant to President Johnson. The Pueblo was a U.S. Navy “environmental research“ ship that was attacked by gunboats and aircraft while carrying out an electronic espionage mission in international waters off the coast of North Korea. Virtually unarmed, the ship surrendered after a very brief exchange and was taken to a North Korean port, where its crew was held for nearly a year. International humiliation compounded the other serious negative effects for the United States, specifically that highly sensitive, secret cryptographic equipment and procedures had been compromised. The Pueblo incident, coming just before the Tet Offensive-the turning point in the Vietnam War contributed significantly to the nation’s increasing malaise and subsequently to President Johnson’s decision not to seek reelection.
Building Network Learning Algorithms from Hebbian Synapses
Authors: Sejnowski Terrence J , Tesauro Gerald
Published: November 2023

In 1949 Donald Hebb published The Organization of Behavior, in which he introduced several hypotheses about the neural substrate of learning and memory, including the Hebb learning rule, or Hebb synapse. We now have solid physiological evidence, verified in several laboratories, that long-term potentiation (LTP) in some parts of the mammalian hippocampus follows the Hebb rule (Brown, Ganong, Kariss, Keenan, & Kelso, 1989; Kelso, Ganong, & Brown, 1986; Levy, Brassel, & Moore, 1983; McNaughton, Douglas, & Goddard, 1978; McNaughton & Morris, 1987; Wigstrom and Gustafsson, 1985). The Hebb rule and variations on it have also served as the starting point for the study of information storage in simplified “neural network” models (Hopfield & Tank, 1986; Kohonen, 1984; Rumelhart & McClelland, 1986; Sejnowski, 1981). Many types of networks have been studied-networks with random connectivity, networks with layers, networks with feedback between layers, and a wide variety of local patterns of connectivity. Even the simplest network model has complexities that are difficult to analyze.
Neopatriarchy: Concept and Reality
Authors: Sharabi Hisham
Published: November 2023

As with all interpretive key-concepts, the category of neopatriarchy runs the risk of reductionism: whether or not I shall succeed in escaping this risk, partially or fully, will soon be come evident. It would be helpful at the outset to make clear what I intend by the term neopatriarchy. As I shall use the term in this essay, I have in mind a concept with several aspects and several uses, each determined by its context: an analytical category, an ideal type or model, an interpretive principle, a formal theory. The concept refers equally to macrostructures (society, the state, the economy) and to microstructures (the family or the individual personality).
What Is To Be Done?
Authors: Sharabi Hisham
Published: November 2023

It is true, liberation can never be a fix. This is the hard lesson the last Arab generation has, over the past thirty years, learned and suffered. Fundamentalists now invoke the same cataclysmic vision of redemption as did the defeated secular nationalist and leftist ideologists. Earlier I held out the hope that a fundamentalist revolution might, by bringing down the structure of neopatriarchy, contribute to radical change. Such a possibility can have no basis in reality. For even if fundamentalism were to gain the upper hand in some Arab country or countries, what guarantee is there that it would bring about any basic change in the existing neopatriarchal structure? The likelihood rather is that with a fundamentalist victory, the essence of neopatriarchal society would survive.
Phonology, Semantics, and Lexical Semantics
Authors: Nadeau Stephen E , Kendall Diane L
Published: November 2023

Phonology involves the structure and systematic patterning of sounds in language (Akmajian et al., 1984; Nadeau, 2001). Semantics involves the representation of meaning. The linkage of meaning to phonology (“lexical semantics”) instantiates words. In this chapter, we will rely heavily on evidence from the study of acquired language disorders, but also from studies of slip-of-the-tongue data (“spoonerisms”) in normal subjects, and investigations in experimental and computational psychology to elucidate the neurology of phonology, semantics, and lexical semantics.
Discrete Dynamical Modeling
Authors: Sandefur James T
Published: November 2023

This book presents an introduction to the wide range of techniques and applications for dynamic mathematical modeling that are useful in studying systemic change over time. The author expertly explains how the key to studying change is to determine a relationship between occurring events and events that transpire in the near future. Mathematical modeling of such cause-and-effect relationships can often lead to accurate predictions of events that occur farther in the future. Sandefur’s approach uses many examples from algebra--such as factoring, exponentials and logarithms--and includes many interesting applications, such as amortization of loans, balances in savings accounts, growth of populations, optimal harvesting strategies, genetic selection and mutation, and economic models. This book will be invaluable to students seeking to apply dynamic modeling to any field in which change is observed, and will encourage them to develop a different way of thinking about the world of mathematics.
Neurobehavioral Disorders of Awareness and their Relevance to Schizophrenia
Authors: Barr William B
Published: November 2023

Clinicians working in neurological settings have long observed that patients with acquired brain dysfunction may exhibit a range of peculiar disturbances of awareness and insight. Some patients may vehemently deny the presence of severe neurological symptoms while others may develop false beliefs about their immediate environment or those around them. Some of these behaviors have such a bizarre quality that patients may be erroneously diagnosed with a psychotic disorder until the results of a complete neurological workup reveal the presence of an acute brain disturbance. The purpose of this chapter is to describe a number of these unusual neurological conditions and discuss their relevance to our understanding of alterations in awareness and insight in schizophrenia. This chapter is written from a neurobehavioral perspective. A strong emphasis is placed on case descriptions and research coming from the neurological literature. The first section will include a review of the literature on various neurological syndromes affecting awareness. The term syndrome is used loosely in this context to refer to a combination of signs or symptoms that enables one to make inferences about pathological mechanisms underlying the behavior (Benton, 1977). Anosognosia is a term that is often used to describe a syndrome where a patient exhibits unawareness of the presence of a particular neurological disorder or a specific symptom.
Violent Behavior by Individuals with Serious Mental Illness The Role of Treatment Compliance and Insight
Authors: Torrey E Fuller
Published: November 2023

The perception of an association between violent behavior and serious mental illness is a major cause of stigma affecting individuals with these disorders. Advocates attempting to decrease stigma frequently claim that seriously mentally ill individuals are no more violent than the general population. Studies bearing on this question are reviewed in this chapter. As shall be seen, this review reveals that although the vast majority of seriously mentally ill individuals are not more dangerous than the general population, recent studies suggest that a subgroup is more dangerous. Noncompliance with medication and substance abuse are common in this subgroup, indicating that these factors may be important predictors of future violence. Relevant to the focus of this chapter are data that indicate that poor insight into mental disorder is strongly associated with non-compliance, and denial is a common feature of substance abuse. The role poor insight may play in the prediction of violence is discussed after a review of existing literature on violence in the seriously mentally ill. Until the problem of dangerousness among this subgroup of patients is understood, it will be difficult to substantially decrease stigma against individuals with these illnesses.
The Vanishing Climatic Role of Dimethyl Sulfide
Authors: Charlson R J
Published: November 2023

Among the factors that influence the heat balance of the globe, the amount, location, and microphysical properties of aerosol particles and water clouds pose some of the largest uncertainties for forecasting future climate change. Of the key microphysical properties of aerosols, the scattering of shortwave (solar) radiation and the concentration of cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) are of particular interest to chemists because most scattering particles and CCN are produced in the atmosphere through chemical reactions of reactive gases. Of these gases, dimethyl sulfide (OMS) produced by marine phytoplankton is of singular importance because it appears to dominate the natural CCN production over the oceans, which cover about two-thirds of the area of the globe.
CO2-Climate Feedbacks: Aspects of Detection
Authors: Enting I G
Published: November 2023

The IPCC (1990) report includes a number of projections of CO2 concentrations resulting from various possible CO2 release scenarios. A common feature of these projections is the assumption that the processes determining atmospheric CO2 levels remain unchanged. In particular, various possible feedbacks between CO2 and climate are neglected. This approximation is probably adequate for short-term projections. However, some study of feedback processes is necessary for longer-term studies and even for defining what is actually short-term versus long-term (see also Broecker 1987).
“Born in His Majesty’s Dominions”
Authors: Winch Julie
Published: November 2023

When James Forten was born on September, 1766, in his family’s modest home on Third near Walnut in the section of Philadelphia known as Dock Ward, probably no one outside his immediate family bothered to take note of the event. And yet the birth was significant, not just because of who James Forten would become, but because of what he represented. He belonged to the fourth generation of his family to live in British North America and the third to be born in the colony of Pennsylvania. The Fortens (or Fortunes, as the name often appeared in the early records) were colonists of long standing. Most of their neighbors were immigrants or the children of immigrants. Later in life, James Forten would take great pride in pointing out that his family had lived in Pennsylvania since the days of William Penn. However, when they looked at him, what most white Philadelphians saw was not the scion of an old and deservedly proud family, but an “African.”
“A Gentleman of the Pave”
Authors: Winch Julie
Published: November 2023

Trying To Put virtually any aspect ofJames Forten’s business career into perspective is like trying to assemble a jigsaw puzzle with many of the most important pieces missing and only a vague sense of what the finished picture should look like. The paper trail is woefully inadequate. The records of the firm ofJames Forren and Sons were presumably destroyed when the sail loft was sold. The family carefully preserved personal correspondence—there is a touching account in his granddaughter’s journal of her poring over his letters and reflecting on the high regard in which he was held—but receipts, ledgers, rent books, and so forth were most likely consigned to the kitchen fire or the sail loft stove.

Regrettable though the loss of Forten’s business papers is, some pieces of the puzzle have survived. There are the records of some of his customers. There are stray letters that people found worth keeping for one reason or another. One recipient noted on the back of a letter that he had kept it as a curiosity because “it was from a Negro-man; -a Negro-gentleman, I may say. He was in possession of a fortune made by his own industry.”
Sanity and Madness: Conventional and Unconventional Narratives of Emotional Life
Authors: Sarbin Theodore R , Keen Ernest
Published: November 2023

Our strategy is, first, to clarify the terms in our title, and then to offer a justification for employing the narrative as the overarching concept for conduct conventionally identified as “emotional” and also for conduct that is frequently identified with labels drawn from various psychopathological lexicons.
The Role of Anxiety in Psychopathology
Authors: McReynolds Paul
Published: November 2023

Of all the emotional states that the human species is susceptible to, the most ubiquitous, with respect to the range of psychopathologies, is anxiety. This is true in the sense that, first, severe anxiety, in any of several manifestations, is itself severely disabling, and second, that certain disorders are traced, in conventional theory, to attempts of the individual to avoid or to attenuate anxiety, or to the breakdown of such efforts. Anxiety, then, is implicated in a wide variety of behavior disorders, and plays a unique theoretical role in attempts to explain many disorders.
The Role of Emotion in the Psychopathology and Treatment of the Anxiety Disorders
Authors: Rathus Jill H , Sanderson William C
Published: November 2023

The focus of this chapter is on the role of the emotion of anxiety in the development and treatment of anxiety disorders. First, we highlight the significance of anxiety from an evolutionary perspective, portraying anxiety symptoms in terms of their adaptive roles. Specifically, we discuss the impact of anxiety on moment to moment functioning, outline the response systems involved in the emotion of anxiety, and differentiate various manifestations of anxiety. In the second part of this chapter we discuss the psychopathological manifestations of anxiety-the anxiety disorders. We postulate a specific function for each of the essential features of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed.; hereinafter DSM-IV; American Psychiatric Association, 1994) anxiety disorders, taking the perspective that each anxiety disorder represents an exaggerated form of an adaptive mechanism. Finally, we conclude with a discussion of the theory and process of anxiety reduction.
Social Learning and Emotional Education: Emotional Expression and Communication in Behaviorally Disordered Children and Schizophrenic Patients
Authors: Buck Ross , Goldman Cheryl K , Easton Caroline J , Smith Nanciann Norelli
Published: November 2023

This chapter presents a model of the role of emotional expression and communication that seeks to explain how normal emotional development can go awry, contributing to emotional disregulation and to psychopathology; and a measurement procedure—the slide-viewing technique—that arguably provides reliable, valid, and efficient measures of emotional expression and communication that can be applied to psychiatric patients. We begin by presenting the general viewpoint and formally defining basic terms.
Reconstructing Population History Using PCR-Restriction Site Data
Authors: Georgiadis Nicholas
Published: November 2023

Many recent advances in genetic technology have had almost instantaneous applications to conservation, as this volume attests. Examples include a growing variety of genetic markers, accessible with the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), that are suitable for forensic detection, and the definition of systematically inclusive “units” for conservation at population and species levels (Morin et al., 1994, Moritz 1994, Volgler and de Salle, 1994). While many of these markers are informative in the sense that their presence or absence is diagnostic, or that degrees of phenetic similarity can be derived from the combined use of multiple markers, relatively few provide genealogically informative data in the sense that phylogenetic (as opposed to phenetic) relationships can be reconstructed for sets of alleles. Data that are suited to the derivation of genealogies include DNA sequence and restriction site data, but not isozyme, restriction fragment, minisatellite, microsatellite or random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) data.
Functional Organization of the Auditory Pathways
Authors: Rouiller Eric M
Published: November 2023

Neurons of the spiral ganglion contact the hair cells of the cochlea through their peripheral processes (dendrites) and send their axons centrally to the cochlear nucleus in the brainstem. Together, these axons constitute the auditory nerve (AN). The acoustic information (mechanical energy) is transformed in the cochlea by a transduction process into bioelectrical energy in the receptor potentials of hair cells. The depolarization of hair cells leads to an increase of neurotransmitter release, eliciting graded generator potentials at the dendrite of primary auditory neurons. If these potentials reach the firing threshold, they generate action potentials along AN fibers. The temporal sequence and spatial distribution of action potentials in the populations of AN fibers code the physical properties of sounds, information that is transferred to the central auditory pathways.
E
Authors: Bunson Margaret
Published: November 2023

Ebers Papyrus one of the longest papyri from ancient Egypt, dating to the reign of amenhotep i of the 18th Dynasty (1525–1504 b.c.). The Ebers Papyrus is a medical text, measuring 65 feet, with 108 separate pages. The document is one of the modern world’s major sources of information concerning the medical knowledge and techniques of Egypt’s priest-physicians. These medical practitioners gained a considerable reputation throughout the ancient world.
S
Authors: Bunson Margaret
Published: November 2023

Sabaf an official of the 1st Dynasty, serving in the reign of qa’a, (c. 2760 b.c.). Sabaf was a counselor of the court, given special recognition as the king’s companion. His mortuary stela, discovered at abydos, lists his ranks and honors. (See friends of the king.)
T
Authors: Bunson Margaret
Published: November 2023

Tabuba (or Tabubna) an ancient Egyptian literary character, supposedly the daughter of a Bastite priest in the reign of ramesses ii (1290–1224 b.c.) of the 19th Dynasty. She was beautiful enough to ensnare a royal prince but then subjected him to unspeakable torments. (See tale of prince setna.)
G
Authors: Bunson Matthew
Published: November 2023

GABINIUS, AULUS (d. 48 B.c.) Legate, tribune and consul in 58 B.c., and a loyal supporter of POMPEY. Gabinius proposed in 67 B.c. that Pompey should receive greater powers to crush the pirates so common in the Mediterranean region. From 66 to 63 B.c. he served as a legate of Pompey and in 58 secured for himself a consulship, aiding CLODIUS in the exile of CICERO. In 57, Gabinius was given the powerful governorship of Syria, where he ruled effectively until 54. The supremacy of Jerusalem was ended when Gabinius broke apart the Jewish territories into five districts, with equal capitals at Jerusalem, Amathus, Jericho, Sepphoris and Gazara. He next aided the Parthian claimant MITHRIDATES III of Parthia in his battle with his brother Orodes, but soon turned to restore PTOLEMY XII AULETES to the Egyptian throne. Ptolemy promised a rich reward for Gabinius’ aid, and the governor marched into the Egyptian kingdom and forced the inhabitants to take back the ruler that they had just expelled. In 55 B.c., Gabinius refused to step down from office in favor of a legate of CRASSUS, one of the triumvirs, and soon came under attack from opponents in Rome. His administration in Syria had earned him enemies, and the bribe supposedly paid him by Ptolemy made him liable for trial on the charge of MAIESTAS, or treason. Pompey demanded that he be defended by Cicero, his enemy. Gabinius was initially acquitted of the charges but was convicted and exiled in 54. At the outbreak of the CIVIL WAR Gabinius found a new patron in Julius CAESAR, who gave him command over land forces. Gabinius took control of Salonae, holding it against the Pompeians for some time. He was killed in 48 B.C., in a plague that ravaged the city.
I
Authors: Bunson Matthew
Published: November 2023

IAMBLICHUS (c. 250-319/325 A.D.) Neoplatonic philosopher and theurgist; one of the most noted writers md pseudo-mystics of his time. He was born in Coele5yria to a family of Chalcis. Porphyry influenced his education at Rome, where he developed a knowledge of Neoplatonism, a subject that he later taught, perhaps at Apamea. Iamblichus earned his fame as both a writer and .a mystic. His extant works include a Life of Pythagoras (Vita Pythagorae),a defense of magic (de Mysteriis),several mathematical treaties, a book on rhetoric, and Protrepticus,using other authors. He is reported to have written commentaries on Plato and Aristotle (not extant) and a work on the oracles of Chaldea. As a mystic, Iamblichus supposedly possessed the power to perform miracles and to levitate. He displayed an interest in theurgy (supernatural Jr divine intervention in human affairs), ritualistic magic md ceremony. He differed with Porphyry in his disdain for Plotinus and his Neoplatonism. IAZYGES Tribe of Sarmatians who settled on the Danube frontier and had dealings with Rome from the 1st century A.O. They were probably among the first of the 5armatians to advance from their original homes around the Sea of Azov, being driven westward through southern Russia along the Dnieper. After several migrations the Iazyges reached the area along the Danube and the Theiss, where the plains afforded room and the surrounding mountains defense. The Iazyges were counted among the client states of the Roman Empire from the time of the Flavians into the 3rd century, with a number of incidents proving that imperial control was not always effective. During Domitian’s wars with Dacia, the Sarmatians joined their Germanic neighbors in raids followed by a full-scale invasion of Pannonia in 92. They defeated the local legion, the XXI Rapax, and required the personal efforts of the emperor in order to be subdued.
J
Authors: Bunson Matthew
Published: November 2023

JAMES THE APOSTLE (d. 62 A.D.) Known to his contemporaries as James, the brother of Jesus; one of the 01-iginal Apostles. With Peter, James played an instrumenh1l role in the organization of the early Christian movement in JERUSALEM, serving as the head of the community u 1til his murder by the Sanhedrin in 62 A.D. He was probably stoned to death. JANUS The Roman god of doorways, beginnings, the p2,st and the future. Janus was an original Roman creation, not taken from any other pantheon. According to tradition, he was established in Rome by King Numa, who also built the so-called Temple of Janus. In times of war the temple gates were opened, and closed only when there was peace throughout the Roman world. So rare was this occurrence (Livy wrote that up until Augustus’ own day it h,1ppened only three times) that commemorative coins were issued with the head of Janus imprinted upon them. Janus’ visage normally showed two heads (Janus bifrons),one looking forward and the other behind. Such was the god’s function in Rome. He was invoked even before Jupiter to protect the beginning of all endeavors. A festival took place 011 New Year’s Day in which people gave gifts and coins of Janus to welcome another year. The first entire month of the calendar was under his auspices. An association with the past and the future made him the god of doorways. See also GODS AND GODDESSES OF ROME.
L
Authors: Bunson Matthew
Published: November 2023

LABEO, MARCUS ANTISTIUS (c. 54 B.c.-10/11 A.D.) One of the earliest of the Roman JURISTS; lived during the Augustan age (27 B.c.-14 A.D.). Trained by Ciolro and Ciceronian legalist C. Trebatius Testa, he was ,considered one of the finest legal minds in Rome, despite his firm Republicanism. Labeo became a rival of the other great jurist, G. Ateius Capito, opposing his monarchist tendencies. Augustus, who disliked both Labeo’s politics and his sharp wit, passed him over and granted Capito a consulship. Capito thus possessed greater social prominence than his senior, although Labeo was always considered his equal. Labeo authored some 400 books, including an early commentary on the Edicts. Always ready with a quick retort, he placed the name of Lepidus, the e:c-triumvir, on a list for the Senate. When Augustus threatened him with a charge of perjury, Labeo responded: “What have I done wrong by naming to the Senate one whom you allowed to remain High Priest?” Later, it was proposed that the senators should protect Augustus a,; a special guard, to which Labeo replied: “As for me, I snore, and thus should not sleep at Augustus’ chamber d:oor.” LABIENUS, QUINTUS (d. c. 39 B.c.) Son of Titus LABIENUS, who followed his father in opposition to Julius Caesar and in joining Cassius and Brutus, the LIBERATORS. He acted as an envoy for them to King ORODES II of PARTHIA, developing a rapport with the monarch. In 42 B.C., i,.hen the Republican cause was annihilated at the battle of Philippi, Labienus fled to Parthia, offering his services to Orodes. Two years later, Labienus returned to Roman territory but at the head of the Parthian army, invading SYRIA and PALESTINE. He captured Apamea and most of the Syrian cities, except for Tyre, subjugated Judaea, carried off the ethnarch Hyrcanus, and installed the Jewish daimant Antigones on the throne. His seizure of Cilicia was his military crowning achievement; but he had considerable influence on Jewish history.
0
Authors: Bunson Matthew
Published: November 2023

OBODAS (d. 9 B.c.) King of NABATAEA in the later years of the 1st century B.C. The successor of King Malachus, Obodas inherited a country absorbed into the Roman Empire. In 25 B.C., Obodas aided Aelius Gallus in his attempted conquest of Arabia by sending a force of 1,000 men to act as auxiliaries. His demise may have been the result of poison, administered by his vizier. OCTAVIA (d. 11 B.c.) Sister of Octavian (AUGUSTUS) and one of the most popular women in Roman history. Octavia was the daughter of OCTAVIUS and Atia, the mother of Octavian. At an early age she married the CONSUL (50 B.c.) Gaius Marcellus, by whom she had three children: a son, MARCELLUS, and two daughters. This union was endangered by Julius Caesar’s offering her to POMPEY THE GREAT as a political unifier and then terminated by her husband’s death sometime around 40 B.C. To cement the alliance between Octavian and Marc ANTONY, Octavia wed the general in 40 and bore him two daughters, the two Antonias, before Marc Antony became enamored of CLEOPATRA. In 32 B.c. he renounced the marriage completely. Octavia, very much respected by Rome, was seen as a victim of Antony’s ambition. After Antony’s defeat and death, Octavia remained loyal to his memory. She cared for all of his children, her own and those of his previous wife FULVIA and of Cleopatra. She lived as a Roman matron, much aggrieved by the death of her son Marcellus in 23 B.c.
X
Authors: Bunson Matthew
Published: November 2023

XANTHUS Ancient, chief city of the province of LYCIA, near the mouth of the XANTHUS RIVER; besieged in 42 B.C. by Marcus BRUTUS, who wished to exact from the Lycians tribute for his war with ANTONY and Octavian (AUGUSTUS). The proud Lycians refused him, killed themselves and burned down the city. Marc Antony subsequently exempted the impoverished Lycians from TAXATION and invited them to rebuild Xanthus. They apparently refused. XANTHUS RIVER The most important river in the province of LYCIA; rose in the Taurus Mountains and cut its way across the country to the south. Because of its size and location, the Xanthus was used as part of the waterborne trade system of ROME. XENOPHON (fl. 1st century A.D.) Imperial physician to Emperor CLAUDIUS in the last years of his reign (c. 5354 A.O.). Xenophon was originally from Cos (Kos), where his family was held in high esteem. As a gift to him in 53, Claudius granted a special IMMUNITAS (tax exemption) to the entire island. TACITUS (1) wrote that Xenophon had been bought by AGRIPPINA and was part of the murder of Claudius in 54. When the poisoned mushrooms failed to bring about the emperor’s death, Xenophon was summoned to use a feather dipped in poison to ensure that Claudius died rapidly.
Introduction
Authors: Tomasello Michael , Call Josep
Published: November 2023

The Western intellectual tradition was created by people living on a continent with no other indigenous primates. It is therefore not surprising that for more than 2,000 years Western philosophers characterized human beings as utterly different from all other animals, especially with regard to their mental capacities. If Europe had been generously populated by nonhuman primates during this time-if Aristotle and Descartes had encountered chimpanzees and capuchin monkeys routinely on their daily rounds-the belief that humans are the only rational animals might not be so deeply entrenched in our philosophical heritage. Indeed, it was not until the nineteenth century that this bio logical elitism began to lose its grip on the European world view, as the public became familiar both with nonhuman primates in zoological gardens and with Darwin’s (1859, 1871, 1872) theories of the evolutionary continuity between humans and other animal species.
Enhancing the Research Base
Authors: leggon cheryl b.
Published: November 2023

On the individual level, data on the participation of individuals from underrepresented indigenous minority groups (e.g., African American, Native American, Puerto Rican, Mexican American/Chicano) in the science and engineering (S/E) labor force should be disaggregated by gender and class. Disaggregating the data by gender facilitates comparisons between genders with in racial/ethnic groups as well as comparisons within genders between racial/ethnic groups. Differences with in racial/ethnic groups can be as great as differences between racial/ethnic groups ( Leggon 1987, 1991). IV!i nori ty women tend to be snubs med either under the category “minority” or “female.” Just as we cannot generalize from data on (and the experiences of) white women to those of women of color, we cannot generalize from data on (and experiences of) men of color to those of women of color (Sokoloff 1992).
Policy Perspectives
Authors: Chubin Daryl E
Published: November 2023

As a policy practitioner and commentator, I predictably will not join the chorus advocating more research. No doubt research is needed. But who are we attempting to convince through academic studies of the “pipeline” and those who aspire to a career in science? Indeed, reading between the lines of Shirley Vining Brown’s extensive references, we learn that not only have market forces failed to attract underrepresented groups to science (which we have all known for quite a while), but they have also failed to draw researchers to study the origins and prevailing conditions of this underrepresentation. It remains a situation for which we all bear some responsibility.
Too Many People
Authors: Baron Jonathan
Published: November 2023

The world now has close to 6 billion people. Within the lifetime of today ‘s children, the number will double or perhaps triple, depending on how quickly birth rates decline, and then it will level off. Most of the new people will be in countries that are now poor. Many people are concerned about whether the world can handle this increase. They worry about many things, which I enumerate here. Food. Food production has so far kept up with population growth. We have some cause for concern, though. The amount of fish available per person has been declining for years. The growth of cities and industrial parks is using up farmland throughout the world. Even if the raw amount of protein and calories per person is maintained, it is likely that changes in diet will continue to result from population growth and stress on resources, just as various fish species once cheap and plentiful have now become delicacies. The fact that the price of the substitutes will be comparable to what is replaced—which to some implies that value is maintained—does not mean that the substitutes are just as good. This is a recurring theme. Many of the effects of population growth will not be disastrous. We will just see that many things that we now take for granted will be increasingly expensive, and we will learn to make do with other things.
S
Authors: Sacks David
Published: November 2023

Salamis (1) Inshore island in the northern Saronic Gulf, in central Greece. Salamis’ eastern side is separated from the coast of ATTICA by a curved channel less than a mile wide in the narrows, and it was there that the crucial sea battle of the PERSIAN WARS was fought in late summer of 480 B.c., after the invading army of the Persian king XERXES had overrun northern and central Greece. The allied Greek victory at Salamis broke the Persian navy and stopped the invasion, opening the way for the Greeks’ final land-victory, at PLATAEA, the following summer.
T
Authors: Sacks David
Published: November 2023

talent Large monetary unit, equivalent to a certain weight (Greek: talanton) of SILVER, usually about 58 pounds. The talent measure was in use well before the beginnings of Greek COINAGE (circa 595 B.c.), and no talent coin existed. In ATHENS in the 400s to 300s B.c., a talent was considered equivalent to 6,000 of the silver coins known as drachmae.
Local Estimation: Accounting for Secondary Information
Authors: Goovaerts Pierre
Published: November 2023

Direct measurements of the primary attribute of interest are often supplemented by secondary information originating from other related categorical or continuous attributes. The estimation generally improves when this additional and usually denser information is taken into consideration, particularly when the primary data are sparse or poorly correlated in space.

Section 6.1 presents three kriging algorithms to incorporate exhaustively sampled secondary data: kriging within strata, simple kriging with varying local means, and kriging with an external drift.
European American
Authors: Leeming David , Page Jake
Published: November 2023

As the Native Americans centuries earlier had brought religious traditions from Central Asia to their new lands, the Europeans who arrived in North America in significant numbers in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries brought their religious traditions with them. But the traditions of some groups of Native Americans had evolved from their Central Asian origins over a period of several thousand years in America, and their mythology changed, too, becoming inextricably connected to the landscapes, flora, and fauna of the Americas, whereas European mythology has changed much less because of the much shorter time period since their arrival only several hundred years ago.
Native American
Authors: Leeming David , Page Jake
Published: November 2023

Monsters-nearly always large and vicious, often composite in nature-play a role in many Native American mythologies. Burr Woman lodges herself in the backs of heroes and refuses to let go. Cliff Ogre kicks people off cliffs. The Winter Dances of several Northwest Coast tribes are based on myths of cannibal monsters. The Iroquois have several monsters, including ogres and man-eating females. The Algonkian of the Northeast make much of the windigo syndrome.
Conclusion
Authors: Leeming David , Page Jake
Published: November 2023

A journey through American myth and legend leaves us with the sense that we are, as a whole, a very young culture made up of many old cultures attempting to make sense of this New World and our place as a nation in it. The United States has come into its own as a world power in what might be called a non mythological age. Further more, it is commonly understood that the great juggernaut of modern science leaves little room for myth, and certainly none for the creation of new myth. But this understanding is not altogether accurate.
The Limits of Reform: 1965–1970
Authors: Opdycke Sandra
Published: November 2023

We have observed Bellevue’s responsiveness to the pressures from its immediate environment—from its patients, its neighborhood, and its workers. Between 1965 and 1970 Bellevue also found itself responding to two events of broader scope: the first was the launching of Medicare and Medicaid; the second was the upheaval within the public hospital system that culminated in the creation of the New York City Health & Hospitals Corporation. Each of these two health-reform initiatives was expected to improve Bellevue’s fortunes dramatically; neither of them did so. Exploring the reasons why sheds light on the programs themselves; it also illuminates an important chapter in the evolution of New York’s public hospital system.

The federal government’s Medicare/Medicaid program and the municipal government’s Health & Hospitals Corporation (HHC) were both inspired by a recognition that some social groups were receiving less good health care than others. Each of these initiatives was intended to rectify that imbalance. But besides having certain common origins and goals, the two programs had a common limitation: both were shaped by a profound reluctance to interfere with the autonomy of private health providers. Despite government’s growing role in paying for private care, these programs placed little pressure on private hospitals to adapt their services to public priorities. This shared characteristic facilitated the launching of the two initiatives, but it also caused problems that would reveal themselves with increasing clarity in the years ahead.
Crystal Eastman (1881-1928)
Authors: Cook Blanche Wiesen
Published: November 2023

Crystal Eastman was born on June 25, 1881, in Marlborough, Massachusetts. She graduated with a B.A. from Vassar in 1903, an M.A. in sociology from Columbia in 1904, and, in 1907, an LL.B. from New York University Law School. She was appointed member and secretary of the New York State Employer’s Liability Commission from 1909 to 1911.
Prolegomenon To A General Biology
Authors: Kauffman Stuart A
Published: November 2023

Lecturing in Dublin, one of the twentieth century’s most famous physicists set the stage of contemporary biology during the war-heavy year of 1944. Given Erwin Schrodinger’s towering reputation as the discoverer of the Schrodinger equation, the fundamental formulation of quantum mechanics, his public lectures and subsequent book were bound to draw high attention. But no one, not even Schrodinger himself, was likely to have foreseen the consequences. Schrodinger’s What Is Life? is credited with inspiring a generation of physicists and biologists to seek the fundamental character of living systems.
The Origins Of Life
Authors: Kauffman Stuart A
Published: November 2023

Startling Progress in understanding the potential routes to the origins of life on earth, and potentially anywhere in the cosmos, is now being made. There has been a “standard theory:’ which may still be true, and there have been several alternative views seen, but rather dimly, by the larger scholarly community. One among these may be emerging as the most plausible general picture of how life may assemble itself from simpler molecular constituents. On the other hand, no theory is yet established for the general conditions underlying the emergence of life from nonlife.