bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
DEVELOPMENT OF AN OPTIMAL OIL BOOM IN WAVES
Authors: Cho Il-Hyoung , Cho Byung-W.
Published: January 2013

The performance of an air-inflated oil boom, recently developed by the authors, is investigated for the purpose of designing an optimal shape. Well-designed oil booms should be able to follow the water surface closely and also maintain a vertical position in waves. A numerical method based on a linear potential theory is developed to predict the motion characteristics of oil boom in waves; the optimal configuration of the boom is determined based on numerical studies. Hamilton's principle is employed to derive the equations of motion of the float and the skirt. The equations of motion are formulated for the case in which the float and the skirt are connected by a hinge. The computational method is limited to a two-dimensional approximation. Through the parameter study of physical properties (draft, shape of boom, weight of chain, water plane area), we can decide the optimal shape of oil boom to produce minimum relative heave response in waves.
THE BRAER OIL SPILL
Authors: Perry Robin
Published: January 2013

The Braer oil spill caused little lasting damage to the environment. The reasons for this were the dispersability of the oil and the severe weather at the time of the spill. The bird population was relatively unscathed, and the principal economic effect was on the salmon farms in the affected area. Dispersants were used. This decision was a correct one, for, although the oil dispersed naturally, this was not known at the time. Lord Donaldson's report supported their use as the first line of defense in the UK. The command arrangements worked well, with good cooperation among all the agencies involved. Although media pressure was intense, it was generally handled very well.
EFFECT OF WAVES ON CONTAINMENT BOOM RESPONSE
Authors: Van Dyck Robert L. , Bruno Michael S.
Published: January 2013

A series of generic model booms were developed, built, and tested in the Stevens towing tank. Precise measurements were made of heave response to waves for catenary tows. Drag force was also measured. Test variables included model size, buoyancy I weight ratio, speed, wave size and gap/length ratio.
COAST GUARD VOSS/NOFI/FIOCS/SEA SLUG AT-SEA EVALUATION
Authors: Furey D. A. , Eisenberg K. C. , Etxegoien J. F.
Published: January 2013

At-sea evaluations of the Coast Guard Vessel of Opportunity Skimming System (CGVOSS), the Norwegian NOFIVEE Sweep and the Fully Integrated Oil Collection System (FIOCS) oil-recovery systems were conducted to determine their seaworthiness and handling and towing characteristics. Tests were conducted off the coast of Groton, Connecticut. Dynamic data were collected for information on the stability and performance of each system. The Canflex Sea Slug storage device was also tested to determine the performance of an expandable containment vessel under tow. The data shows that the CGVOSS performed well in low sea states and low speeds, the NOFI and FIOCS systems perform well in low and high sea states, and the Sea Slug is stable at low towing speeds.
CASE STUDIES OF STANDARDIZED TECHNIQUES TO DOCUMENT SHORELINE OILING CONDITIONS
Authors: Owens Edward H. , Sergy Gary A. , Michel Jacqueline
Published: January 2013

The concept of standard terms and definitions, forms or checklists, and sketches is intended as the foundation for a variety of field programs or surveys designed and tailored to meet specific goals. The idea of standardized assessment procedures has developed over recent years to meet the requirements of spill response managers and planners prior to shoreline cleanup or treatment. The approach has been adopted by Environment Canada and the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration as a primary technical support tool for oil spill response. This paper presents eight case studies that illustrate a range of applications.
A GENERAL MIGRATION MODEL FOR BIOLOGICAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT
Authors: Downing Keith
Published: January 2013

To develop a tool to quantify the potential biological impacts of oil spills in the Barents Sea marginal ice zone, a generalized migration model, driven by biological field data, was made to reproduce detailed movement patterns of individuals within a population. This model (MIGMOD) has been coupled to the natural resource impact model system to provide a complete set of working tools for environmental impact assessment.
OIL SPILL BIOREMEDIATION AGENTS—CANADIAN EFFICACY TEST PROTOCOLS
Authors: Blenkinsopp Sandra , Sergy Gary , Wang Zhendi , Fingas Mervin F. , Foght Julia , Westlake Donald W. S.
Published: January 2013

Thirteen commercial oil spill bioremediation agents (OSBAs) were tested over a two-year period during the development of a screening protocol designed to evaluate the hydrocarbon degradation efficacy of OSBAs under warm freshwater or cold marine water conditions. The OSBAs were added at the rate specified, to shaker flasks containing a standard test oil, nutrients if requested, and a defined medium. Standardized freshwater or marine microbial inocula were developed to act as internal controls for the screening protocol, that is, to ensure that conditions were suitable for oil biodegradation to occur in each test performed. After the incubation period, the oil was extracted and analyzed using gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) and gas chromatography with a flame ionization detector (GC/FID). The warm freshwater efficacy method exhibited good reproducibility but the cold marine test requires further refinement. The minimum acceptance standard for products tested under standard warm freshwater conditions is currently based on the product achieving GC-detectable total petroleum hydrocarbon (GCD-TPH), aliphatic, and aromatic reductions of 35, 30, and 10 percent, respectively, when compared with the weathered Alberta Sweet Mixed Blend (ASMB) source oil. These values may be adjusted with further experimental testing. Products with acceptable efficacy and toxicity results will be assumed to have good potential application in spill cleanup and will be identified as such to the spill response community.
IMMOBILIZATION TECHNIQUE FOR IN SITU BIODEGRADATION OF CRUDE OIL
Authors: Juwarkar Asha , Amin Aradhana , Oke Bharati , Khanna P.
Published: January 2013

An immobilization technique was developed and standardized for seeding oil spills with specific oil degrading microorganisms, fertilizing them with nitrogen- and phosphorus-containing salts and controlling the further spread of the oil spill. Thermocol was used as a carrier molecule on which nutrients as well as microbial cells were adsorbed.

Studies were carried out to correlate the amount of biodegradation to that of release of nitrogen and phosphorus adsorbed on the carrier molecule. The release of nutrients from the carrier molecule was slow: 76 percent of the crude oil was degraded in 3 days at nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations of 36.19 mg and 8.15 mg respectively as revealed by gas liquid chromatographic analysis. Without addition of nutrients, 62 percent of the crude oil was degraded in 9 days.
BIOREMEDIATION: RESULTS OF THE FIELD TRIALS OF LANDEVENNEC (FRANCE)
Authors: Merlin François-Xavier , Pinvidic Philippe , Chaumery Christian , Oudot Jean , Swannell Richard P. J. , Basseres Anne , Dalmazzone Christine , Ducreux Jean , Lee Kenneth , Reilly Tim
Published: January 2013

Results of studies performed all around the world on bioremediation techniques are not often comparable because they have been performed through different methodologies. To address this problem, several organizations have combined their efforts to define a common methodology to assess bioremediation techniques’ efficiency through field experiments.

To confirm the validity of this protocol, a 9 month experiment was performed on oiled plots on a sheltered estuarine beach in France. In this experiment, biodegradation efficiency was assessed though multiple analyses (chemical and microbiogical) including changes in chemical composition of the residual oil.
VESSEL RESPONSE PLANS: A TILE IN THE MOSAIC OF THE NATIONAL RESPONSE SYSTEM1
Authors: Smith Duane Michael
Published: January 2013

With the implementation of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 came the requirement for vessels to develop plans for responding to oil spills from their vessels. While some companies had such plans in the past, the National Response System did not formally recognize their existence. Individual vessel response plans must now be viewed as an integral part of the National Response System. All of the parties that could be involved in an oil spill response must begin to view themselves as one tile of many that make up the mosaic known as the National Response System.
DEVELOPMENT OF CULTURAL RESOURCES PROTECTION GUIDELINES FOR ALASKA'S ON-SCENE COORDINATORS
Authors: Bergmann Pamela
Published: January 2013

In recognition that oil spills and hazardous substance releases typically require response actions within the first 24 hours, the Alaska Regional Response Team (RRT) has developed draft Cultural Resources Protection Guidelines for Alaska to establish an emergency procedure for taking cultural resources into account during responses and to ensure that response actions comply with the National Historic Preservation Act. The draft guidelines were developed in consultation with the Alaska State Historic Preservation Officer and the Advisory Council on Historic Preservation. The mechanism for formally establishing the guidelines’ emergency procedures is a programmatic agreement, which will be signed by appropriate federal and state agencies’ historic preservation officials.
WORKER SAFETY AND TRAINING REQUIREMENTS IN THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT
Authors: Waldron Jonathan K.
Published: January 2013

The current worker safety requirements focus primarily on land-based hazardous waste disposal sites and emergency operations at land sites. It is often difficult to interpret the application of these requirements in the context of marine-related oil spill response operations. Overlapping governmental jurisdictions can cause problems associated with worker safety activities and suggestions relating to the application of safety requirements to persons who may become involved with a response effort are offered.
MEXUSPAC: MEXICO/U.S. PACIFIC REGIONAL RESPONSE COORDINATION TEAM1
Authors: Whiting Daniel
Published: January 2013

The Agreement of Cooperation Between the United States of America and the United Mexican States Regarding Pollution of the Marine Environment by Discharges of Hydrocarbons and other Hazardous Substances, signed in Mexico City in 1980, provides a framework for cooperation in response to pollution incidents that pose a threat to the waters of both countries. Under this agreement, MEXUSPAC organizes Mexican and U.S. response agencies to plan for and respond to pollution emergencies in the marine environment. The MEXUSPAC contingency plan designates the commandant of the Mexican Second Naval Zone and the chief of the U.S. Coast Guard 11th District Marine Safety Division as the MEXUSPAC Cochairmen, and defines on-scene commanders, joint operations centers, and communications protocols that would be needed to coordinate the response to pollution incidents affecting both countries.
FREQUENCY OF OIL SPILLS COMPARED TO EVERYDAY HAZARDS
Authors: Lowden George , Yoshioka Gary
Published: January 2013

Comparing the frequency of oil spills with other common hazards, many subjective values appear to lead the public to perceive oil spills and other environmental risks with greater concern than would seem to be warranted by the relative risk numbers.
OIL SPILL CONTINGENCY PLANNING IN THE LATIN AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
Authors: Moyano Juan Miguel , Brussoni Aldo Héctor
Published: January 2013

A questionnaire was circulated between ARPEL (Asistencia Recíproca Petrolera Empresarial Latinoamericana) member companies in which their capacity to confront an oil spill contingency on their shores, separately and collectively, is determined. The results show that a need exists for preparing sensitivity maps to be utilized in the contingency plans. It can be concluded from this study that the Latin American petroleum industry centered in ARPEL should orient itself toward regional cooperation that would strengthen institutional capacity and maximize the effectiveness of government-industry collaboration in handling emergency situations.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF BIOREMEDIATION FOR OIL SPILL CLEANUP IN COASTAL WETLANDS: PRODUCT IMPACTS AND BIOREMEDIATION POTENTIAL
Authors: Mendelssohn Irving A. , Lin Qianxin , Debusschere Karolien , Penland S. , Henry Charles B. , Overton Edward B. , Portier Ralph J. , Walsh Maude M. , Rabalais Nancy N.
Published: January 2013

Although bioremediation for oil spill cleanup has received considerable attention in recent years, its satisfactory use in the cleanup of oil spills in the wetland environment is still questionable and generally untested. We have initiated a multidisciplinary experimental program to evaluate the use of both microbial seeding and fertilizer as means of enhancing oil biodegradation in coastal salt marshes. We are utilizing controlled greenhouse experiments as well as field trials to test the efficacy and ecological safety of these enhanced biodegradation methodologies. This paper summarizes the overall scope of the study and presents some preliminary findings concerning marsh plant response to the bioremediation agents. We shall report on the results of the first year of this three-year investigation.

Sods of marsh (soil and vegetation intact), approximately 30 cm in diameter and 25 cm deep, collected from the inland zone of a Spartina alterniflora dominated salt marsh in south Louisiana were used in a greenhouse experiment to identify the effects on plant and soil responses of the following treatments, with and without oil: seeding product, fertilizer product, and control (no product). Mesocosms were sampled for petroleum hydrocarbon chemistry to identify and quantify the degree of oil biodegradation, soil microbial response to determine the effect of the bioremediation products on the microbial communities that are performing the oil biodegradation, soil chemistry to determine the effect of the bioremediation products (such as nutrients, soil reducing conditions, and soil toxins) on those factors that limit the growth of microbes and plants, and plant response to evaluate the effects of the oil and products on plant vigor and growth. This paper presents selected plant responses that demonstrated that the bioremediation products tested had no adverse impact on plant growth. Additionally, soil respiration was increased by fertilizer, but not microbial, application.
A COMPREHENSIVE APPROACH TO OIL SPILL AND HURRICANE IMPACTS
Authors: Debusschere Karolien , Lindstedt Dianne , Tao Qiang , Mendelssohn Irving A. , Lin Qianxin
Published: January 2013

The effects of a 1992 oil spill and hurricane on salt marsh recovery on a Louisiana barrier island was evaluated through a combination of landscape- and community-scale analyses. Landscape-scale analyses indicated that the hurricane had a profound effect on island land cover and morphology. The analyses indicated that the oil spill had minimal effect on island vegetation. The landscape analysis detected changes in vegetative cover in areas where oiling occurred in 1992. Field surveys identified additional small areas where oil had a negative effect on land cover. The community-scale analysis detected fine-scale vegetative responses to the spill.
EFFECTIVENESS OF OIL SPILL RECOVERY SYSTEMS
Authors: Watkins Robert L.
Published: January 2013

The measure of the effectiveness of an oil spill recovery system is the ability of the system to recover the most oil in the least time. Because of the rapid spreading and thinning of spilled oil, it is essential that oil recovery equipment be tested and rated using realistic oil encounter rates and spilled oil thicknesses. ASTM standards F631 and F808 define encounter rate (ER), throughput efficiency (TE), and oil recovery efficiency (ORE). Using these definitions and testing using realistic slick thicknesses, encounter rates, and environmental conditions makes ranking the effectiveness of oil spill recovery devices possible.
COST EFFECTIVE OIL SEEP REMEDIATION: SORBENT WASTE MINIMIZATION PILOT PROJECT
Authors: Andreasik John J. , Scambos John P.
Published: January 2013

Site evaluation resulted in the replacement of a passive sorbent system by floating oil stabilization with skimming to remove seeping petroleum products from navigable waterways. After one year, the following changes had occurred.Hazardous waste dropped from 135,000 to zero pounds per year.Two to three barrels per week of recycled oil containing less than 3 percent water were being produced.Long term liability inherent in landfill disposal of hazardous waste was eliminated.Remediation cost was reduced by 50 to 60 percent.

The success of this open-water project shows a high degree of applicability for thin-layer oil recovery in settling ponds, gravity separators, and stormwater processing
EXERCISE EVALUATION FOR INDUSTRY
Authors: Whelan Ann E. , Calovich Sheila M.
Published: January 2013

Exercises are evaluated as a test of the utility of a response plan, as a measure of the effectiveness of training, or as an indicator of the general level of preparedness at a facility. Without evaluation, the value of an exercise is weakened and, in some cases, lost. An evaluation document leads the evaluator to look at all of the components of an exercise, provides a competency standard for both government and industry, and provides a mechanism for feedback to players and planholders. The document can help the designers of an exercise to address a wide variety of issues or, alternatively, aim narrowly at specific issues.
EARTHQUAKES, OIL, AND WATER DON'T MIX
Authors: Bastin Eric W. , McElravy Eric P. , Ostendorf Martin J. , Mancini Eugene R.
Published: January 2013

The release of crude oil into a southern California river from an earthquake-related pipeline rupture resulted in an initial rise in TPH and total BTEX concentrations in the water column. No toxicity was observed in aquatic toxicity tests conducted with rainbow trout and threespine stickleback. Statistically significant differences noted in several of the indices of macroinvertebrate community structure at sites downstream from the oil entry location appeared to be due to confounding factors including the spill. The assessment of incident-related impacts was complicated by several earthquake-related phenomena.
EPHEMERAL DATA COLLECTION GUIDANCE MANUAL, WITH EMPHASIS ON OIL SPILL NRDAS
Authors: Robilliard Gordon A. , Boehm Paul D. , Amman Michael J.
Published: January 2013

The purpose of the guidance manual is to identify for first responders the basic methods for collecting, preserving, and documenting essential ephemeral samples and data that are needed for NRDA and general environmental assessment in oil spills. The manual assumes that first responders will have limited specialized experience, expertise, and equipment in environmental sampling. Ephemeral data and samples include (a) source oil and freshly spilled oil, (b) the spatial distribution and amount of oil on the water surface and on shorelines, (c) unoiled beach sediments, (d) oil in the water column in unoiled and oiled areas, and (e) selected unoiled intertidal organisms. The manual provides guidance on where, when, and how to collect each type of sample and data. The manual emphasizes the importance of documenting samples and data so that they can be used later to evaluate the environmental impacts of the spilled oil.
NORTHRIDGE, CALIFORNIA, EARTHQUAKE CRUDE OIL SPILL: EFFECTS ON THE BIRD COMMUNITY
Authors: Duffield Joan , Dearn Susan , Fischel Marion
Published: January 2013

Four months after the release of San Joaquin blended crude oil into the Santa Clara River, California, avian surveys were conducted to determine if there were any detectable effects on the bird community. Although mean avian abundance and species richness varied considerably within and between oiled and non-oiled areas, these differences appeared to be a function of habitat availability and heterogeneity rather than oil-related impacts. Overall, although there were some short-term impacts immediately following the spill, there were no determinable effects on the avian resources surveyed four months later.
SUBLETHAL INJURY TO RED MANGROVES TWO YEARS AFTER OILING1
Authors: Levings Sally C. , Garrity Stephen D. , Van Vleet Edward S. , Wetzel Dana L.
Published: January 2013

More than 300,000 gallons of refined petroleum products were discharged near the entrance to Tampa Bay, Florida on August 10, 1993. Floating slicks and sunken oil patty (no. 6 fuel oil) subsequently entered Boca Ciega Bay through John's Pass and washed or stranded on four mangrove keys inside the pass. Between one and two years after the spill, surviving red mangroves showed graded negative responses to oil in 4 of 4 measures of shoot growth and production. Sublethal, long-term effects of oil spills may be more common than reported, but detection requires detailed data on species-specific growth and production patterns with respect to oiling.
LABORATORY STUDIES OF THE PROPERTIES OF IN-SITU BURN RESIDUES
Authors: Buist Ian , Trudel Ken , Morrison Jake , Aurand Don
Published: January 2013

This study investigated the physical and chemical properties of the residue from in-situ burns of thick oil slicks. It involved burning small-diameter slicks of oil on water and analyzing the properties of the residues. The objective of the work was to identify the burn conditions that might produce residues that sink.

Eight oils were selected for the project: (1) Alaska North Slope crude; (2) Alberta Sweet Mixed Blend crude; (3) Arabian Heavy crude; (4) Arabian Light crude; (5) Bonny Light crude; (6) Iranian Heavy crude; (7) Mayan crude; and (8) automotive diesel. Burn tests were conducted on all eight oils when fresh and on two of the oils when weathered. Experiments involved burning slicks of three thicknesses (5, 10, and 15 cm) on saltwater at room temperature (15°C). Residue density, water content, pour point, and viscosity were measured. Samples of parent oils and burn residues were fractionated into three boiling point ranges, and each was analyzed to quantify total saturates, aromatics, resins, and asphaltenes.

The results showed that the residues from burns of thicker slicks of heavier crudes and weathered crudes may sink in fresh water or saltwater once they cool to ambient temperatures, whereas burn residues of lighter oils may not sink. Burn residues of all crudes were more dense than their parent oils and were solid or semisolid. Residue density was related to the density of the parent oil, the state of weathering, and slick thickness.

Chemical analysis showed that the burn residues were composed almost exclusively of the higher boiling point (HBP) fraction; virtually all of the lower boiling point fraction and almost all of the middle boiling point fraction had been removed. Most, but not all, of the HBP fraction, which included all of the asphaltenes and resins, was preserved in the burn residue. The in-situ burning process appears to be neither a pure equilibrium flash vaporization nor a pure batch distillation, but rather a process lying somewhere between the two ideals.

The results of the burns of automotive diesel contrasted strongly with those of crude oils. Diesel burns were far more efficient than those of crude oils, leaving only a few millimeters of residue regardless of the thickness of the original slick. The chemical composition of the residue and its properties were changed only slightly from those of the parent oil.

Research on the use of in-situ burning as a marine oil spill countermeasure has resulted in a rapidly growing acceptance of the technique as an option for spill cleanup. However, one area of concern with in-situ
FROM TRAINING TO TESTING: DETAILS OF AN AGGRESSIVE DRILL AND EXERCISE PROGRAM
Authors: McFarland Barry , Estes Kim
Published: January 2013

With 1997 comes a second triennial period of exercises following the implementation of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA 90). Exercises should now be performed in more of a testing environment than in a training environment. Aggressive exercises seek to test response plans and spill management teams rather than to provide opportunities for training. Aggressive exercises also require that one learn by taking risks and making mistakes. Consequently, for this aggressive style of drills and exercises to succeed, regulatory authorities must acknowledge risk taking when they are evaluating exercises. Though training will always be a focus, at least in some elements of response exercises, it should become more specific and compartmentalized while the remaining bulk of the response is being tested. Because aggressive exercises require full agency representation, joint exercises should be considered a way of reducing the number of industry-led drills while achieving credit for multiple plan holders.
INTENT TO SPILL: ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF OIL SPILLS CAUSED BY WAR, TERRORISM, VANDALISM, AND THEFT
Authors: Hosmer Alicia Watts , Stanton Colby E. , Beane Julie L.
Published: January 2013

It is commonly accepted that oil spills are unintended, unanticipated events due primarily to equipment failure or human error. Public perception generally attributes oils spills to accidents like groundings of transport vessels or ruptures of pipelines and tanks. Unfortunately, in reality there are a number of intended, anticipated events that result in oil spills that are equally, if not more, devastating to the environment. Most prominent among these events are war, terrorism, vandalism, and theft. This paper seeks to examine some of the oil spills caused by human intent, their impact on the environment, and how prevention and response planning can mitigate some of their consequences.
THE SEA EMPRESS INCIDENT: OVERVIEW AND RESPONSE AT SEA
Authors: Harris Chris
Published: January 2013

The oil tanker Sea Empress spilled more than 72,000 tons (23 million U.S. gallons) of crude oil when she grounded at Milford Haven, United Kingdom, on February 15, 1996. The response at sea by the U.K. government through the Coastguard Agency's Marine Pollution Control Unit involved aerial surveillance, the spraying of dispersants from aircraft, and the recovery of several thousand tons of oil from the sea surface. This paper by the overall commander presents an overview of the incident and the response operation at sea.
THE NET ENVIRONMENTAL BENEFIT OF A SUCCESSFUL DISPERSANT OPERATION AT THE SEA EMPRESS INCIDENT
Authors: Lunel Tim , Rusin Jan , Bailey Nick , Halliwell Chris , Davies Louise
Published: January 2013

The monitoring of oil concentrations in the water column during a dispersant operation carried out at the Sea Empress incident has clearly demonstrated that, although a monitoring program should not be viewed as a prerequisite to response (since the spill site may be too remote to allow monitoring to be set up for the start of the response operation), if monitoring is planned as part of the response, it enables operations to be executed efficiently.

The estimates put forward in this paper indicate that the targeted use of dispersants probably prevented 57,000 to 110,000 tons of emulsion from impacting the shoreline and potentially resulting in greatly increased impacts on sea birds, coastal waders, intertidal vertebrates and invertebrates, and amenity areas. The paper shows that these benefits outweighed the potential disadvantages associated with elevated oil concentrations in the water column.

The Sea Empress is the first incident that has been monitored in a timely fashion in sufficient detail. The monitoring program demonstrated that the use of dispersants resulted in a net environmental benefit at the Sea Empress incident.
NEW ZEALAND: “DOWN UNDER” OIL SPILL CONTINGENCY PLANNING1
Authors: Roosen John T.
Published: January 2013

New Zealand has embarked upon a new direction in marine oil spill prevention, preparedness, and response. The new direction was driven by a parliamentary review of the Marine Pollution Act that found New Zealand ill prepared to respond to a marine oil spill. The new program put together four key components that depended on government and industry cooperation in a user-pays environment. First, the Marine Pollution Act of 1974 was reformatted into a new Maritime Transport Act (MTA), which brought into focus broad policy guidelines. Second, Marine Protection Rules now provide detailed ongoing program information that changes with updates to industry practice and technology. Third, a Crown entity, the Maritime Safety Authority, was established as the main engine of change. Lastly, oil pollution response was redistributed from the central government into a four-tiered response mechanism. The tiers start with commercial facilities and ships, progress to regional government and then to the national government, and ultimately provide an avenue for international assistance.
TRAJECTORY PREDICTION FOR BARGE BUFFALO 292 SPILL
Authors: Lehr Bill , Simecek-Beatty Debra , Payton Debbie , Galt Jerry , Watabayashi Glen , Martin Robert D. , Solis Ruben
Published: January 2013

The oil spill trajectory prediction for the barge Buffalo 292 spill was provided by NOAA and TGLO. The bulk of the 5000 barrels of IFO 380 that was leaked moved rapidly through the Galveston Channel entrance and into the Gulf of Mexico as a result of a strong meteorological event. Because of the nature of the product, it was possible to track the resulting slicks for more than 3 weeks. Initially, the oil trailed east away from shore. Changing winds and currents moved the oil south and west, leading to sporadic impacts along the shore from east of Galveston to south of Corpus Christi. Trajectory forecasts were used to alert response personnel of impending beach impacts and to direct offshore skimming operations.

Real-time current and wind meters, oil-tracking drifters, visual overflights, and remote-sensing observations provided an unusual amount of calibrating data for trajectory forecasting. This fact, along with detailed analysis assisted by computer models, allowed for a surprisingly high degree of accuracy in trajectory prediction in spite of complex current and wind patterns and changing wind drift factors for the product as it weathered. In this paper, these favorable results are compared with results of an earlier spill in the region where fewer resources were available for trajectory analysis.
SHORELINE CLEANUP IN NORWAY: LESSONS LEARNED AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Authors: Guénette Chantal C. , Aasnes Linn , Folium Odd Arne
Published: January 2013

A summary of shoreline cleanup case studies in Norway is presented. Six spills, spanning more than two decades, are reviewed in terms of spill size, oil type, shoreline type, extent of oiling, cleanup techniques that were used, and lessons learned. This evaluation is based on situation reports, follow-up studies, and papers.

The lessons learned and recommendations for improving the current response practices are discussed in terms of recent advances regarding current state of knowledge in oil spill behavior and cleanup techniques. These issues are addressed with reference to the Norwegian Pollution Control Authority's stated aim to strengthen shoreline cleanup response capabilities in Norway.
BIOLOGICAL OPTIMIZATION OF HYDRAULIC CLEANING OF OILED COARSE-SEDIMENT BEACHES: PRELIMINARY RESULTS
Authors: Mauseth Gary , Erickson Gerald , Brocco Steven , Sergy Gary
Published: January 2013

This document summarizes the findings of a pilot study that was designed to determine biologically optimum cleaning parameters. The objectives of this ongoing study are (1) to determine the biological effects on intertidal biota associated with the use of hydraulic cleaning techniques, and (2) to develop data on environmentally optimum combinations of hydraulic cleaning parameters for use by oil spill responders. The laboratory/pilot scale phase of the project was conducted at the Bamfield Marine Station on Barkley Sound, British Columbia, in the fall of 1995. The hydraulic cleaning parameters examined were (1) water pressures ranging from deluge or minimal pressure to approximately 345 kPa (50 psi), (2) water temperatures ranging from ambient temperature to 80 C, and (3) nozzle angles of 45 degrees and 90 degrees to the substratum. Both oiled and unoiled trials were conducted. Treatment combinations of these parameters were delivered using a pressure washer connected to a constructed washing apparatus. The biological effects produced by the treatments were examined in attached organisms colonizing cobbles collected from a donor beach in Barkley Sound. Species tested included the algae Fucus spp. and Mastocarpus papillatus; the barnacles Chthamalus dalli and Balanus glandula; and limpets in the family Lottiidae. Among the main findings of the laboratory/pilot study were the following: (1) both mortalities and oil removal efficiencies were found to rise most rapidly from low to high levels between 40° and 60°C, and between 18.6 and 60 kPa (2.7 and 8.7 psi); (2) oiled trials were found to produce greater mortalities than unoiled trials; and (3) 90-degree nozzle angles were found to produce greater mortalities in some cases than 45-degree nozzle angles.
AN INTEGRATED APPROACH TO SHORELINE MAPPING FOR SPILL RESPONSE PLANNING IN CANADA
Authors: Percy Roger J. , LeBlanc Stephane R. , Owens Edward H.
Published: January 2013

One of Canada's national goals is to provide a consistent or standardized application of techniques for mapping, data collection, and data generation. This consistency is crucial if personnel are brought in from different regions during a drill or spill, since they can then become instantly familiar with the process and terminology. The same sets of standard terms and conditions are applied to prespill database development, sensitivity and prespill mapping, shoreline cleanup assessment technique (SCAT) data generation, and the response management decision process. This concept is very powerful because it provides a consistent terminology for the entire range of prespill planning, preparedness, and response activities.

This paper briefly describes the scope, objectives, and status of this mapping initiative and highlights recent developments in the effort to combine the full range of prespill activities, from data generation and decision development to sensitivity mapping. The scheme addresses the requirements of decision makers, planning managers, and operation managers. The program in place for Atlantic Canada integrates the following:A single pollution reporting and alerting system covering the four eastern Canadian provincesPartnerships in the environmental emergency field, particularly with respect to the provision of comprehensive environmental adviceEnvironment Canada's SCAT methodology in prespill data generationShoreline segmentationResponse management by objectivesEnvironment Canada's Sensitivity Mapping ProgramEnvironment Canada's Field Guides for the Documentation and the Protection and Treatment of Oiled Shorelines

The desktop mapping package and spill trends database that have been adapted provide an easy-to-use approach to the manipulation and display of the wide range of technical and support data and information stored in the databases. The databases, and therefore the maps, can be updated easily and quickly with new information as it becomes available. In this way response managers have access to a wide range of information that normally would be difficult to collate and present in map form, particularly under the pressures at the time of a response.
SINTEF/IKU OIL-WEATHERING MODEL: PREDICTING OILS' PROPERTIES AT SEA
Authors: Daling Per S. , Aamo Ole Morten , Lewis Alun , Strøm-Kristiansen Tove
Published: January 2013

This paper describes the empirical approach used in the development of the IKU oil-weathering model (IKU-OWM). Weathering data from field trials with experimental oil spills during the past 15 years have provided the basis for the algorithms used in the model. These data, combined with a standardized laboratory study of each specific oil, including a bench-scale (“stepwise”) weathering investigation, a chemical dispersibility investigation, and a meso-scale flume basin weathering investigation, form the basic input to the model.

The IKU-OWM has been extensively tested and verified with results from full-scale field trials with experimental oil slicks in the North Sea in 1994 and 1995. This paper presents the correlations between the oil-weathering values predicted by the model and the ground-truth data obtained from the field trials. To obtain reliable weathering predictions, it is essential to have good laboratory weathering data of specific oils. The IKU-OWM is now extensively used in Norway to predict the changes in oil properties due to weathering under user-specified conditions. Predictions provided by the IKU-OWM enable oil spill personnel to estimate the most appropriate “window of opportunity” for using chemical dispersants in various spill situations. Prespill scenario analysis with the IKU's oil spill contingency and response (OSCAR) model system, of which the IKU-OWM is one of several components, has become an important part of contingency plans and of contingency training of oil spill personnel at refineries, oil terminals, and offshore installations in Norway.
OIL SLICK CLASSIFICATION: A SYSTEM FOR THE CHARACTERIZATION AND DOCUMENTATION OF OIL SLICKS
Authors: Allen Alan A. , Dale Dean H.
Published: January 2013

This paper provides a classification system for describing and quantifying floating oil slicks. Simple, easy-to-remember descriptors and numerical values are used to establish standard terminology for the physical properties of an oil slick. Such terms and their numerical correlations are used to establish “codes” by which important descriptive parameters can be abbreviated. Such codes include oil type (i.e., groups I-V), oil geometry (i.e., area and shape), and oil condition (i.e., percent coverage, average thickness, nature of coverage, and percent emulsification). A brief sequence of such codes can provide a standardized “characterization” of an entire oil slick and any internal areas of significant difference. A unique surface distribution factor (SDF) is also provided for a broad range of possible volume/area relationships. Characterized by commonly observed slick geometry and condition factors, each surface distribution factor corresponds to an estimated “volume-per-unit-area” value. Combined with areal coverage rates (i.e., “area-per-unit-time” values) for various dynamic response systems, the SDF provides a rapid estimate of potential volume control rates for specific systems on a given slick. The classification scheme could simplify and standardize procedures used by observers during surface and aerial reconnaissance efforts; it could reduce the time and space needed to document such observations; and it could simplify verbal communications between spotter aircraft and vessels, between vessels, and between field operations and onshore/command groups.
PUBLIC AFFAIRS: BALANCING ON THE TIGHTROPE BETWEEN FULL DISCLOSURE AND AVOIDING FURTHER RISK
Authors: White Carolyn M.
Published: January 2013

It is widely acknowledged that public perception and its resulting pressure can drive response actions. Potentially responsible parties can take approaches to public affairs that range from the ostrich or “head in the sand” approach to the parrot or “squawk about everything” approach. This paper addresses why neither approach will ultimately benefit the responsible party. It outlines the types of potential legal pitfalls in statements to media that can either immediately or later lead to trouble for the responsible party and ways to avoid these pitfalls while still communicating openly and with credibility. Danger areas include admissions against interest, statements on which people adversely rely, inaccurate or inconsistent information, statements creating performance standards or unrealistic performance expectations, and statements that standing alone carry legal significance. The paper offers guidelines to media personnel (particularly spokespersons for potentially responsible parties) to promote credible communication while at the same time minimizing the legal risks associated with making public statements about a spill response.
COMMUNICATING THE RISKS OF AN OIL SPILL: WHY, WHEN, AND HOW?
Authors: Wilkerson Bob , Lauder Terry
Published: January 2013

To communicate the risks of an oil spill effectively, an organization needs to develop a comprehensive risk communications program that addresses exactly how to communicate before, during, and after an oil spill. Risk communications is a continuing process that should be incorporated into an organization's daily business routine because it addresses and responds to audiences’ specific concerns about a risk. By integrating all three major program components—education, community relations, and media relations—into an overall risk communications strategy, an organization can foster a continuing dialogue that can serve as the basis for resolving conflict with its various publics.

In risk communications, different people analyze and perceive risks in very different ways, based on the way they define the whole notion of risk. Any risk communications effort will be more successful if the organization understands what is driving the publics’ reactions. The best way to find this out is by listening to exactly what communities are trying to say.
THE REACH SENSITIVITY INDEX (RSI) FOR MAPPING RIVERS AND STREAMS
Authors: Hayes Miles O. , Michel Jacqueline , Montello Todd M.
Published: January 2013

Strategies for identifying and protecting sensitive inland areas under U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) management have focused on major rivers and have built on the Environmental Sensitivity Index (ESI) approach developed by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) for marine environments. A watershed approach has been refined and applied to smaller rivers and streams in the southeastern United States. Existing standardized river classification schemes did not adequately address oil spill response issues. Thus a new stream reach sensitivity scheme was developed, based on (1) the degree of difficulty anticipated for the containment and recovery of spilled oil, and (2) the sensitivity and vulnerability of associated wetlands. This scheme considered the following factors: navigability, water flow patterns, stream size, occurrence of suitable collection points inherent in the stream type, and channel leakage and bifurcation. A reach sensitivity index (RSI) was prototyped using streams in South Carolina, and then was applied to the Leaf River watershed in Mississippi. The RSI is on a scale of 1 to 10. The final atlas and digital product are maps at a scale of 1:100,000 showing the RSI, sensitive biological and human use resources, and potential access and collection points.
FAILURES IN DTCS'S PIPELINES WITH PRODUCT LOSS
Authors: Souza Edgard de Castro , Ribeiro Luiz Antonio
Published: January 2013

DTCS (Dutos e Terminais do Centro Oeste e São Paulo), an operational organ of PETROBRAS, is the organization responsible for the operation of a 2300-km-long pipeline system for the transportation of crude oil and hydrocarbons. Such a system, which is continually growing, has a representative history of leakage occurrences, particularly in its first years of operation.

Based on a statistical analysis of these occurrences in the pipeline system, the number of leakages was reduced in the last few years through actions taken to minimize them.

Criteria were established to define the proper moment for inspecting the pipelines with corrosion pigs, and other priority actions were also developed to reduce leakage occurrences. The data pertaining to occasional new leakage occurrences are analyzed every 6 months, and a report is issued proposing new actions or ratifying the existing ones.
MAJOR FIELD TEST EVALUATES A SHORELINE CLEANER TO SAVE OILED MARSH GRASS
Authors: Pezeshki S. R. , DeLaune R. D. , Jugsujinda A. , Canevari G. P. , Lessard R. R.
Published: January 2013

Extensive greenhouse studies using intact cores of marsh vegetation including Spartina alterniflora demonstrated the potential of a shoreline cleaner (Corexit 9580) to remove oil from plant canopy. Because of these positive results, a permit to conduct a full-scale field test was obtained by Louisiana State from regulatory agencies in June 1995. Field tests were conducted in a Louisiana marsh at a wildlife refuge in August 1995. The test site contained replicated 8 ft X 8 ft test plots that included the following treatments: oiled with South Louisiana crude oil, oiled and chemically cleaned after 2 days using Corexit 9580, and control. Significant initial reductions in plant stomatal conductance, transpiration, and CO2 fixation rates in response to the “oil” and “oil + Corexit 9580” treatments were noted, which were followed by substantial recovery in the “oil + Corexit 9580” treatment. Use of the cleaner improved the survival and regeneration capability of treated plots because of the low initial mortality rates and the rapid restoration of plant gas exchange activities. Plots treated with “oil + Corexit 9580” had a significantly greater number of live shoots throughout the measurement period in 1995. Biomass harvests conducted at the end of the 1995 growing season revealed that live biomass per unit area of marsh was significantly reduced under all treatments. The second harvest in 1996 indicated that live biomass had recovered to levels close to those of control plots. Our field studies demonstrated that oil can be removed using Corexit 9580 in the field without any detectable adverse effects on plants, In addition, the beneficial effects of Corexit 9580 in rapidly restoring plant transpiration pathways under field conditions was evident. However, plants under all treatments recovered, showing that Spartina alterniflora, given adequate time, can recover from oiling with South Louisiana crude. Additional studies using more stressful oil types such as Bunker C are needed to examine the effectiveness of Corexit 9580 in cleaning plant canopies under field conditions.
USING EXISTING DATA TO MAKE DECISIONS ABOUT CHEMICAL COUNTERMEASURE PRODUCTS
Authors: Walker Ann Hayward , Pond Robert G. , Kucklick Janet H.
Published: January 2013

The use of chemical countermeasure products (CCPs) (i.e., dispersants, herding agents, emulsion-treating agents, solidifiers, elasticity modifiers, and shoreline-cleaning agents) in treating oil spills has been hindered in the United States by the perceived lack of data or apparent conflicting data claims concerning their effectiveness and toxicity. Recognizing that important data exist, such as in the technical bulletins for the National Contingency Plan Product Schedule, an expert workshop was convened to achieve consensus on (1) the adequacy of existing effectiveness and toxicity data and (2) how best to interpret and use those data to enhance oil spill planning and response. Through a deliberative process, consensus was reached in three topic areas: environmental effects, effectiveness, and decision making. Discussions emphasized dispersants because considerable information is available on them, but other CCPs were considered. The following conclusions were reached: (1) there is a dispersed oil concentration threshold below which no ecological effects are expected in open marine waters; (2) there is a low probability that meaningful monitoring data will be available within the response period; (3) multiple applications should be encouraged; and (4) a recommended outline for a reference document on implementing dispersant prespill planning should be developed. This paper summarizes the conclusions in each of the topic areas, including the rationale for the experts consensus and prespill planning needs.