bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Incorporation of QD ensembles in separate confinement heterostructures for long wavelength emission
Authors: Aschenbrenner T. , Tessarek C. , Figge S. , Hommel D.
Published: February 2009

This paper deals with the incorporation of temperature‐sensitive InGaN quantum dot (QD) ensembles into separate confinement double heterostructures grown on free‐standing GaN substrates. The laser diode (LD) structures were processed as ridge waveguide devices. The emission wavelength in electroluminescence (EL) of the 3 fold QD layers is around 485 nm.

The structural quality and state of strain of the layers has been determined by high resolution X‐ray diffraction (HRXRD) measurements. Current‐voltage characteristics, light output power measurements and EL‐spectra demonstrate the good stability of the device. A comparable small blue shift was observed with increasing excitation current (© 2009 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)
Coulomb blockade effects in the electrical characteristics of mesoporous silicon
Authors: Borini Stefano , Boarino Luca , Amato Giampiero
Published: February 2009

We report on a study of the conductivity threshold voltage which is observed in the electrical characteristics of (100)‐oriented mesoporous silicon, when a particular measurement configuration is used. By varying the temperature and the atmosphere (i.e. presence of NO2 and NH3 gas), the evolution of the conductivity gap is observed, and the origin of the blockade effect is investigated. It is argued that the conductivity gap arises from positive charges trapped in nanoconstrictions, which inhibit, by Coulomb interaction, the hole current along the longitudinal direction (parallel to the sample surface), where silicon nanocrystals are poorly interconnected. (© 2009 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)
Prospects for a waveguide Raman amplifier in porous silicon at 1.5 μm
Authors: Sirleto Luigi , Ferrara Maria Antonietta , Rendina Ivo , Jalali B.
Published: February 2009

Recently, the possibility of light generation and/or amplification in silicon, based on Raman emission, has achieved significant results. However, limitations inherent to the physics of silicon have been pointed out, too. In order to overcome these limitations, a possible option is to consider low dimensional silicon. In this paper, an approach based on Raman scattering in porous silicon is investigated. First, we point out two significant advantages with respect to silicon: the broadening of the spontaneous Raman emission and the tuning of the Stokes shift. Then, we discuss about the prospect of Raman amplifier in porous silicon. Finally the design of a Raman amplifier in porous silicon waveguide is proposed. (© 2009 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)
Polymer nanopillars using self‐ordered nanoporous alumina templates
Authors: Palacios R. , Formentín P. , Ferré‐Borrull J. , Pallarés J. , Marsal L. F.
Published: February 2009

The fabrication of polymer nanostructures by replication process using self‐ordered nanoporous alumina with different pore depth and pore diameter as template is reported here. The method entails vacuum infiltration of a Poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) solution into the pores of the template, which was fabricated by using a two‐step anodization process in 0.3 M oxalic acid at 50 V and 15 °C. We have studied how the aspect ratio of the nanopores influence the PMMA nanopillars fabrication. (© 2009 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)
Porous silicon/polysilicon for improved sensitivity pressure sensors
Authors: Sujatha L. , Bhattacharya Enakshi
Published: February 2009

This paper describes the technique of improving the sensitivity of bulk micromachined silicon pressure sensors with judicious use of porous silicon (PS) and porous polysilicon (PPS). Since PS has a much lower Young's modulus than Si, pressure sensors with Si/PS composite membranes show higher sensitivity. The sensitivity also increases as the porosity of the PS layer increases. Further improvement in sensitivity can be achieved by replacing the conventional polysilicon piezoresistors with porous polysilicon ones. Though the composite membranes exhibit higher sensitivity, they suffer from higher offset voltage due to the stress developed by the formation of porous silicon. Pressure sensors with silicon membrane and porous polysilicon piezoresistors yield modest improvement in sensitivity without increase in offset voltage. A combination of porous polysilicon piezoresistors and composite membranes with microporous silicon gave the highest sensitivity value as well as the highest offset. (© 2009 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)
Carrier transport mechanisms in cathodically biased meso‐porous p+‐Si against solutions containing Fe2+ and Co2+ species
Authors: Hamadache Farida , Gelloz Bernard
Published: February 2009

This work reports on the use of the cyclic voltametry technique to study the electrochemical behavior of porous p+‐type silicon (PS) contacted by aqueous solutions containing Fe2+ and Co2+ electro‐actives species. Current‐potential (I‐V) measurements were performed on both flat and porous silicon substrates and different Fe2+ concentrations were considered. With flat Si, similar I‐V characteristic behaviors were obtained in 0.1 M Fe2+ and 0. 1 M Co2+ solutions, except that iron can be deposited from a potential more cathodic than cobalt. With porous Si, different I‐V characteristic behaviors were observed and a diffusion‐like current peak was detected in the presence of Fe2+ species. The observed current peak is located near the standard redox potential of iron. However, its intensity is lower than that of Fe2+ ions diffusion current peak and it does not increase as Fe2+ concentration increases. A three‐step carrier transport mechanism was proposed to show that the current peak could be attributed to iron nucleation on the pore walls via electroless deposition. Accordingly the difference observed in PS I‐V characteristics was attributed to the fact that electroless deposition on pore walls occurs at a potential for which the reduction of Co2+ ions is faster than that of Fe2+ ones and it can also occur at the pore bottom via electrodeposition. These results are used to explain the poor pore filling rate with iron, reported elsewhere. (© 2009 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)
Hybrid metal/silicon nanocomposite systems and their catalytic activity
Authors: Polisski Sergej , Goller Bernhard , Lapkin Alexei , Kovalev Dmitry
Published: February 2009

In this work we studied the reduction of metal salts and their mixtures on extended hydrogen‐terminated porous silicon surfaces. For these experiments we employed salts of Au, Ag, Pt and their mixtures. We show that the size and shape of resulting metal and metal alloy nanoparticles depends on the pore morphology. This has been confirmed by transmission electron microscopy measurements and plasmon resonance experiments. Finally we demonstrate catalytic activity of formed Pt nanoparticles in PSi matrix via monitoring the conversion of carbon monoxide. (© 2009 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)
Photoinduced fluorescence enhancement and energy transfer effects of quantum dots porous silicon
Authors: DeLouise Lisa A. , Ouyang Huimin
Published: February 2009

We investigate photoinduced fluorescence enhancement (PFE) and energy transfer effects of surfactant capped Cd/Se core and CdSe/ZnS core/shell quantum dots (QD) that emit at 630‐650 nm adsorbed in and onto porous silicon (PSi) single layer films and microcavity devices. Evidence is presented for fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) from the QD (emitter) to mesoPSi nanostructures (acceptor) that photoluminess between 650‐850 nm. We also observe a strong PFE of QD emission adsorbed into meso porous silicon (mesoPSi) under continuous irradiation with 532 nm excitation light. New insight into the mechanism of PFE is gleaned from studies of PSi pore size and surface chemistry including native, H2O2, UV‐ozone, and thermal oxides, and aminosilane coated thermal oxide mesoPSi. These treatments alter the photoluminescent characteristics of the mesoPSi and QD. The PFE effect on QD PL is largest on thermally oxidized microcavities. PFE is considerably weaker for CdSe QD adsorbed onto macroPSi, silicon wafer surfaces and especially for ZnS capped QD suggesting the PFE effect requires a close interaction of the QD core with oxidized substrate. It is plausible that mesoPSi (10‐20 nm dia) mediates a more intimate contact compared to macro or planar Si wafer. The PFE effect dynamically increases the QD PL by passivating nonradiative state through oxidation and possibly through increasing the lifetime of nonradiative trapped state by coupling to surface vibrations. (© 2009 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)
Adaptive modelling of dose–response relationships using smoothing splines
Authors: Kirby Simon , Colman Peter , Morris Mark
Published: February 2009

We consider the use of smoothing splines for the adaptive modelling of dose–response relationships. A smoothing spline is a nonparametric estimator of a function that is a compromise between the fit to the data and the degree of smoothness and thus provides a flexible way of modelling dose–response data. In conjunction with decision rules for which doses to continue with after an interim analysis, it can be used to give an adaptive way of modelling the relationship between dose and response. We fit smoothing splines using the generalized cross‐validation criterion for deciding on the degree of smoothness and we use estimated bootstrap percentiles of the predicted values for each dose to decide upon which doses to continue with after an interim analysis. We compare this approach with a corresponding adaptive analysis of variance approach based upon new simulations of the scenarios previously used by the PhRMA Working Group on Adaptive Dose‐Ranging Studies. The results obtained for the adaptive modelling of dose–response data using smoothing splines are mostly comparable with those previously obtained by the PhRMA Working Group for the Bayesian Normal Dynamic Linear model (GADA) procedure. These methods may be useful for carrying out adaptations, detecting dose–response relationships and identifying clinically relevant doses. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Nanotopographic characterization of spotted micro arrays on polyvinyl alcohol films by high‐resolution long‐range nanoprofiling
Authors: Thete Aniket R. , Gross G. Alexander , Hausotte Tino , Jäger Gerd , Dorozhovets Nataliya , Köhler J. Michael
Published: February 2009

The nanopositioning and nanomeasuring machine was applied for the nanotopographic characterization of polymer micro spot arrays of fluorimetric chemochips. Chemochips are arrays of fluorescence dyes in a hydrogel matrix with different response behaviors of chemical components determination of chemical and physico‐chemical properties of analytes by a pattern recognition approach. For the characterization and quality control of the spots, a nanometer resolution is needed over a scan range of several millimeters. This challenge could be met by use of a scanning probe sensor in connection with a laser interferometer controlled high‐precision positioning and measuring device. This way, topographic scans with the resolution of atomic force microscope could be achieved over these demandingly large ranges. The technique was used in order to determine the quality of thin film micro spots made from fluorescence dye solutions on preformed polymer films and also tested for characterization of monomolecular films in the form of micro spots. The nanotopographic measurements reflect the strong influence of solvent/matrix interaction, wetting, swelling and material transport during the application of picoliter droplets in the spotting process. The measurement clarifies the reason for the formation of roughness in the nanometer range by nano‐crystal formation in the upper part of polymer film and the rim formation of micro spots during solvent evaporation. The studies show the effect of application of different numbers of droplets in a dispensing series for spot formation and prove the high importance of polymer/solvent interaction for the quality of formed micro spots as well as for spot arrays of monomolecular films. SCANNING 31: 35–48, 2009. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Sequencing embedded multimodal representations in a writing to learn approach to the teaching of electricity
Authors: Hand Brian , Gunel Murat , Ulu Cuneyt
Published: February 2009

In the study of science topics especially in physics students are expected to move between different modes of representation when dealing with a particular concept as any science concept can be represented in several different modes. The difficulty for students is that they are often unable to move between these multi‐modal representations and thus struggle with having a rich conceptual understanding of the topic. In this study students are asked to explain their understandings of the topic through writing and embedding different modes of representation, text only, text plus math, and text plus graph. A pre‐post test design was used to compare performances of groups who used different modes in their writing during a three‐staged unit of electricity. While students' scores were not statistically different at the end of the first stage, at the end of the stage 2, students who were asked to embed mathematical representation in their letters to explain concepts of Faraday's Law of Induction had test scores that were significantly better than either of the other two conditions. At the end of the stage 3 there were several statistical mean differences noted supporting the pattern of the advantage of using embedded text plus mathematical representation in writings. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 46: 225–247, 2009
Public acceptance of offshore wind power projects in the USA
Authors: Firestone Jeremy , Kempton Willett , Krueger Andrew
Published: February 2009

Although a rich literature exists on public concern for the effect of land‐sited wind power structures on cultural landscapes and the benefits of community involvement in this issue, less is known about how society perceives sea‐based structures. Offshore wind power has existed for some time in Europe; in the USA, its development has been hampered by opponents of the Cape Wind project off of Massachusetts. At present, the developer of the proposed Cape Wind project and a second developer proposing a project off of Delaware each strive to erect the first offshore wind power project in the Americas. Here, we examine public opinion. We first provide background on the case studies, then a review of prior studies of support and opposition of wind power projects in order to place the mail surveys within the context of the wider literature. After detailing the methods employed, we analyse the results and provide insights into the similarities and dis‐similarities that are revealed in the data, with the intent of gaining a broader understanding of how individuals think about offshore wind power. The strikingly higher public support for offshore wind development in the mid‐Atlantic, and especially off Delaware, suggests the possibility of substantially higher US public acceptance of offshore wind power than previously anticipated. Moreover, when offshore wind power is seen as transformative, we find substantial support even for residents near the first developments—residents who thus inherently take more risk. Potentially increasing acceptance of wind power, we argue, portends the shape of things to come. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Synthesis and Crystal Structure of the First Thallium Hydrous Nesosilicate Tl4SiO4·0.5H2O
Authors: Britvin Sergey N. , Siidra Oleg I. , Krivovichev Sergey V. , Depmeier Wulf
Published: February 2009

Orange prismatic crystals of the first thallium hydrous nesosilicate Tl4SiO4·0.5H2O have been obtained by evaporation from aqueous solution. There are three symmetrically independent Tl+ cations and five symmetrically independent oxygen atoms in the structure of Tl4SiO4·0.5H2O. The O(4) and O(5) atoms belong to water molecules. Coordination polyhedra of the Tl+ cations are strongly distorted because of the stereoactive behavior of lone electron pairs. The structure of Tl4SiO4·0.5H2O contains sheets of SiO4 tetrahedra and Tl coordination polyhedra. The sheets have the composition [Tl3SiO4]– and are parallel to [100]. Within the sheets, SiO4 tetrahedra link to thallium polyhedra though common corners. The sheets are linked by dimers of face‐sharing Tl(3)O5 polyhedra, thus providing interconnection of the sheets into a framework. The framework has large elliptical channels occupied by water molecules (OW2) and electron pairs of Tl+ cations.The comparison with some other M+ (M = K, Ag, Tl) silicates is given.
Solvothermal Synthesis, Crystal Structure and Properties of the First Organic‐templated Holmium Sulfate [C2N2H10]3[Ho2(SO4)6·2H2O]
Authors: Zhou Wanli , Chen Qi , Zhu Dunru , Xu Yan
Published: February 2009

The first organic amine‐templated holmium sulfate [C2N2H10]3[Ho2(SO4)6·2H2O] (1) has been synthesized solvothermally and has been structurally characterized by single‐crystal X‐ray diffraction studies, IR spectroscopic, thermogravimetric (TG) and inductivity coupled plasma (ICP) measurements. Crystal analyses of compound 1 showed a novel inorganic layer constructed from the zigzag and helical [–Ho–O–S–O–]n chains, both of the chains are connected by μ‐2 SO42– groups to form 10‐membered rings. The solvent plays an important role during the formation of 1.
The U.S. and the emergence of flexible exchange rates: an analysis of foreign policy change
Authors: Odell John S.
Published: February 2009

International monetary arrangements in effect since the Bretton Woods conference of 1944 underwent major changes in the early 1970s, most notably from the norm and practice of “fixed” exchange rates to a new mixed regime in which major rates are now flexible. The outcome strongly reflected the external monetary behavior of the U.S. government, which changed dramatically with the “Nixon shocks” of August 1971 and again with a second devaluation of the dollar in February 1973. Since then the U.S. has officially advocated the once-heretical policy of exchange-rate flexibility.
Economic culture and foreign policy: the cognitive analysis of economic policy making
Authors: Rohrlich Paul Egon
Published: February 2009

Political scientists researching economic foreign policy have generally taken one of two analytic approaches. The first is based on realpolitik, the traditional application of “high” politics to the “low” politics of economics. This approach considers economics subordinate to politics. The concept of the national interest dominates; the pursuit of power—what enables the state to achieve its goals of security, welfare, and other societal values—is seen to underlie most actions. The study of foreign economic policy is thus an analysis of the distribution of power among states within the international system. By understanding a state's sources of strength and areas of vulnerability in relation to other states, the analyst will better understand the creation of foreign policy. Hans Morgenthau notes that while states may sometimes pursue economic policies for their own sake (in which case they should take little interest in their success), the more important economic policies they will favor are instruments of political power.Stephen Krasner views the state as an autonomously motivated actor, able to guide policy in pursuit of state priorities while resisting interest groups and ideologies. According to this “power theory”, the state tries to increase its economic competitiveness, ensure security of material needs, and promote its broad foreign-policy objectives. Economic policy is for the most part subordinate to and best explained by state priorities and prerogatives. Robert Tucker, Klaus Knorr, Robert Gilpin and others have also adopted this framework.
The emergence of cooperation: national epistemic communities and the international evolution of the idea of nuclear arms control
Authors: Adler Emanuel
Published: February 2009

An American epistemic community played a key role in creating the international shared understanding and practice of nuclear arms control. In the absence of nuclear war, leaders' expectations of nuclear war and of its control were affected by causal theories and abstract propositions and models which, given their “scientific” and technical nature, were developed by an epistemic community. This study, which emphasizes the roles played by epistemic communities in policy innovation and in the diffusion of understandings across nations and communities, analyzes how the theoretical and practical ideas of the arms control epistemic community became political expectations, were diffused to the Soviet Union, and were ultimately embodied in the 1972 antiballistic missile (ABM) arms control treaty. In contrast to those studies that have concentrated primarily on the workings of international epistemic communities, this study stresses the notion that domestically developed theoretical expectations, which were worked out by a national group of experts and selected by the American government as the basis for negotiations with the Soviets, became the seed of the ABM regime. Moreover, by suggesting that the arms control epistemic community was really an aggregation of several factions that shared common ground against various intellectual and policy rivals, this study sheds light on the question of how much coherence an epistemic community requires. The political selection of new conceptual understandings, followed by their retention and diffusion at national and international levels, suggests an evolutionary approach at odds with explanations of international change advanced by structural realism and approaches based on it.
Whalers, cetologists, environmentalists, and the international management of whaling
Authors: Peterson M. J.
Published: February 2009

Postwar management of whaling was marked by two major policy changes: the 1974 adoption of a more restrictive set of management procedures and the 1982 adoption of a moratorium on commercial whaling. In both cases, U.S. government efforts to ensure compliance with the International Whaling Commission (IWC) decisions were central to the outcome. Yet no government's choices can be understood without examining how decision makers were influenced by three nongovernmental groups—an economic interest group of whaling industry managers, an expert epistemic community of cetologists, and an issue-oriented lobbying coalition of environmentalists—which vied for influence nationally and transnationally. The epistemic community of cetologists shaped particular policy choices only in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Earlier, it was eclipsed by the industry managers and, later, by the environmentalists. However, it had sufficient continuing influence to limit the range of policy options and thereby prevent the adoption of the most consumptionist alternatives in the 1940s and 1950s and of the most preservationist ones in recent years.
Sanctions at bay? Hegemonic decline, multinational corporations, and U.S. economic sanctions since the pipeline case
Authors: Rodman Kenneth A.
Published: February 2009

One of the lessons drawn by many scholars from the 1982 U.S. sanctions against the Soviet-European gas pipeline was that the decline of American hegemony and the global spread of American business placed the overseas networks of U.S. multinational corporations beyond the control of the U.S. government for the purposes of economic sanctions. Through systematically examining three subsequent sanctions efforts (Nicaragua, Libya, and South Africa), this study qualifies the generalizability of this “lesson.” In none of the cases was the United States willing to incur alliance costs through applying extraterritorial controls, nor was it able to persuade American firms to substitute public preferences for private ones. Nonetheless, in each case, the U.S. government influenced corporate decision making by augmenting corporate perceptions of risk so that prudent business stategies reinforced diplomatic preferences.
The causal effects of ideas on policies
Authors: Yee Albert S.
Published: February 2009

Behavioral, institutional, and discursive analyses of the causal effects of ideas on policies present various difficulties. Meaning-oriented behavioralism is hampered by its reliance on statistical associations and quasi-experimentation to make causal claims. Ideational institutionalism avoids these problems by focusing on institutional causal mechanisms. However, these mechanisms suffer from other problems and need to be complemented by an analysis of ideational causal mechanisms of capacities. Broadly construed “discursive” approaches, meanwhile, present important analyses of these ideational capacities but unfortunately routinely neglect their causal effects on policies. These dilemmas suggest that ideational analysis can be enhanced if discursivists attend more closely to the causal effects of ideational factors, while behavioralists and institutionalists pay greater attention to interpretive understanding, intersubjective meanings, and discursive practices. In so doing, opposing analytical approaches might engage in fruitful dialogue, or at the very least raise the level of their “third debate.”
Prospects for a Future Whole World
Authors: de Seynes Philippe
Published: February 2009

The notion of the “world as a whole” is becoming increasingly prominent in the thinking and pronouncements of international prog-nosticators. Yet “globalism”, its functional expression, is a relatively new approach in the United Nations. In fact, it has hardly arrived. This statement is not paradoxical or even surprising. Globalism is not the same thing as internationalism as we have known it up to the present. There is more involved here than a matter of semantics. Traditional internationalism is derived from the dictates of political wisdom and a sense of human solidarity in a world of growing interdependence but of unlimited horizons opened up by tech nology. Globalism is associated today with the ambivalence of technology, its negative effects on the degradation of the environment, the destruction of ecological balances, the limited capacity of the biosphere, the possible depletion of natural resources, the population explosion, the finiteness of the planet, and perhaps even the finiteness of knowledge.
Hierarchical Regional Systems and the Politics of System Boundaries
Authors: Zimmerman William
Published: February 2009

A hierarchical regional system may be defined as a regional international system composed of a single Great Power and a number of relatively small states. This article attempts to clarify the conditions under which member states of a hierarchical regional system, including both the great-power regional hegemon and the relatively small powers, seek to influence the salience that boundaries have for such a system. Scholars and policymakers alike may use several criteria in defining the boundaries of a regional system: 1) A system may be delimited geographically; 2) marked discontinuities in transactional interchanges (language, trade patterns, communication flows) may serve to set it off from the general international system as may common membership in formal international organizations; 3) boundaries may similarly be established by emphasizing behavioral criteria, i.e., by identifying norms especially pertaining to conflict management and resolution which are specific to a group of states. Unless otherwise specified, I employ the last definition throughout this article.
Beyond asymmetry: critical notes on myself as a young man and on some other old friends
Authors: Hirschman Albert O.
Published: February 2009

One of the intellectual precursors of contemporary dependency theory is Albert O. Hirschman's National Power and the Structure of Foreign Trade (1945) which examined the political potential inherent in the foreign trade sector. By focusing on the asymmetries in economic relations among countries, and on the possible manipulation of these asymmetries, Hirschman described the structural bases of power and influence in the international system. Like modern dependency theory, so does National Power and the Structure of Foreign Trade suffer from a conceptual shortcoming: neither one takes up the issue of the countervailing, dialectical forces generated by these asymmetrical structural relations. A preponderance of objective capabilities may be countered by an asymmetry of opposing desires, as when the “weaker” nation desires its freedom from domination more than the “stronger” nation is bent on dominating it. Another dialectical force may be found in the imbalance between the attentions of any two countries with the stronger country's global involvement diluting its attention while the weaker country is able to concentrate its diplomatic skill on only one or a few salient partners. Thus, calculations based solely on economic power, i.e., on the ability to inflict punishment through economic means, are bound to be inadequate guides to the understanding of evolving relations.
Dependence and dependencia theory: notes toward precision of concept and argument
Authors: Duvall Raymond D.
Published: February 2009

The concept of dependence is used in several different scholarly traditions to refer to aspects of relational asymmetry in international and transnational relations. In three such traditions, dependence refers to three quite differentkindsof concepts with the result that possibilities are restricted for fruitful dialogue about dependence across these scholarly traditions of dependencia theory, systematic empiricism, and formal, analytical theory. To aggravate this problem of multiple “languages,” there are two basic conceptual notions generally associated with the termdependence. These two meanings have clearly distinct implications for the nature of a theory of dependence, the character of entities dependent on one another, and the assessment or measurement of dependence. Thus, if the “language” gap is to be bridged and fruitful dialogue is to occur among different scholarly traditions, attention must be directed to the basic conceptual meaning of dependence in each tradition. Dialogue between systematic empiricism and dependencia theory is possible if empiricists recognize the fundamentally historical and historicist character of the particular substance of dependencia theory. These principles are exemplified here.
Towards a Marxist theory of European integration
Authors: Cocks Peter
Published: February 2009

The significance of the European Communities (EC) remains obscure. The reason is that orthodox integration literature is fundamentally ahistorical: it fails to give an adequate account of the roots of modern European integration. And however admirable the project might be in itself, we cannot rectify the failure simply by chronicling the admittedly much ignored origins of the EC in the 1950s. For the EC is systematically connected to earlier cases of integration in Europe. Only by understanding the evolution of these integrational forms—from early modern Britain, to nineteenth century Germany, to contemporary Europe—can one begin to make sense of the EC. In brief, one must seek to understand the “present as history,” a task that few writers on regional integration have yet attempted, and none with any success.
Small states as aid donors
Authors: Hoadley J. Stephen
Published: February 2009

While debate continues on whether the foreign policies of small states are1 or are or not generically different from those of large states, little has been written explicitly about the association of size of donors with the quality of their foreign aid. This essay hypothesizes that the aid policies of small states will differ from those of large states in ways that may be measured empirically, just as Plischke, East, Sawyer, and Hermann have demonstrated with quantitative data that the general foreign policy behavior of small states varies significantly from that of large ones. More particularly, it is hypothesized that small states give higher quality aid, and give it relatively more generously, than large states. This hypothesis is grounded on general impressions—Sweden is widely acknowledged as a “good” donor and the United States an indifferent one—and on extrapolations from small state theory that will be sketched below.
Labor and hegemony: a critique
Authors: Douglas William A. , Godson Roy S.
Published: February 2009

Professor Robert Cox's “Labor and hegemony” in the Summer 1977 issue of International Organization includes one of the most sophisticated versions of the corporate unionist or “revisionist” description and explanation of American labor's foreign policy that has appeared to date. Nevertheless, it is inaccurate both as description and explanation, and like other attempts to use the corporate unionist approach, it is a misleading paradigm impeding research into the nature of labor's transnational involvements.
Pariah states and nuclear proliferation
Authors: Harkavy Robert E.
Published: February 2009

In recent years, a new international actor—the pariah state—has mounted the global stage. Although rough historical precedents may be discerned, the present international system appears to have produced a novel phenomenon, whereby some isolated small states, lacking assured and credible outside security support, find themselves unable to take advantage of traditional balance-of-power mechanisms. Taiwan, South Africa, and Israel fit this description best, South Korea less so; Pakistan and Chile are also candidates.

Insecurities about conventional arms sources and big-power support in crises involving national survival have driven pariahs to consideration of nuclear “equalizers,” notwithstanding dilemmas involving the viability of applicable nuclear strategic doctrines. There are also some indications of nascent interpariah security ties, perhaps nuclear ones. Although there are some prospects for amelioration of the situations of some pariahs—in part because of threats to go nuclear—serious impasses remain for U.S. and other major powers' policies.
India and Pakistan: nuclear rivals in South Asia
Authors: Marwah Onkar
Published: February 2009

The new international nuclear regime requires accession to fullscope safeguards and an acceptance of the formal restraints imposed by the London Nuclear Suppliers Group on the worldwide availability of sensitive nuclear technology, materials, and equipment. The underside of the nuclear market, however, consists of surreptitious transfers by suppliers to special recipient states. Pakistan has capitalized on the existence of such a market to acquire the means to make nuclear weapons. Though South Asia is likely to be the first region outside of the central strategic system to harbor nuclear-armed national rivals, the situation is manageable through the imposition of innovative institutionalized constraints on the region. Neutrally conceived, these constraints can be adapted for other regions facing nuclearization. In the long run, the imbalance of capabilities between India and Pakistan will manifest itself in the nuclear field as it has in others.
Some reflections on the “dove's dilemma”
Authors: Dunn Lewis A.
Published: February 2009

A new generation of advanced conventional arms developed during the late 1960s and 1970s, ranging from antitank guided missiles to scatterable land mines, promises to buttress the defensive capabilities of their possessors. Selective transfer of such new weapons in certain cases may be a useful nonproliferation tactic. However, the fungibility of selective arms transfers with other security related nonproliferation measures, and particularly with security guarantees, appears limited. Moreover, not only would that tactic have little impact on other compelling proliferation incentives, but it would incur important risks. Nonetheless, those risks may be less than the risks and costs of nuclear proliferation in conflict-prone regions. And they may be minimized by suitable policies. The dilemma of having to choose between so using arms transfers for nonproliferation purposes and continued pursuit of global conventional arms sales restraint has been overdrawn. In contrast with recent efforts to restrain the spread of nuclear weapons, efforts to foster multilateral conventional arms restraint have proved unavailing. Various factors explain that pattern of success and failure, not least of all the different international norms in the respective areas.
Rising mass incomes as a condition of capitalist growth: implications for the world economy
Authors: Elsenhans Hartmut
Published: February 2009

The rise of capitalism in Western Europe was based on rising mass incomes and a political power relationship favorable to the lower classes, which created opportunities for profitable investment. Nowhere in today's underdeveloped world did such conditions exist before the European expansion; nowhere were they created by the mere fact of integration into the capitalist world system. Thus the periphery has been ever more disadvantaged by its connection with the capitalist center. But the center could and can dispense withthe contribution of the periphery and, indeed, on occasion has done so. A planned restructuring of the productive apparatus and social reform in the Third World are both complex and contradictory processes. The working class in the North has to realize its interest in defending the masses of the Third World. It can do so by linking economic concessions in the North-South dialogue (raw material prices or access to markets) to social reform and the creation of a productive apparatus that permits the rise of mass incomes in the Third World.
Hegemonic stability theory and 19th century tariff levels in Europe
Authors: McKeown Timothy J.
Published: February 2009

Although the theory of hegemonic stability has attracted an impressive array of adherents, current formulations leave many conceptual issues unresolved. Existing formulations also fail to draw from the theory any implications concerning the process by which a hegemonic state creates and maintains a regime. As an example, Great Britain is generally agreed to have been hegemonic in the nineteenth century, but Britain's behavior was generally inconsistent with that implied by a theory of hegemonic stability. I advance an alternative set of explanations for changes in international tariff levels based on the notion of a “political business cycle.”
Cooperation Among Oil Exporting Countries with Special Reference to Arab Countries: a Political Economy Analysis
Authors: Mikdashi Zuhayr
Published: February 2009

The Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) will probably be remembered in history as an outstanding example of relatively successful intergovernmental cooperation among developing countries. OPEC's achievements in raising the oil export income of members appear remarkable in view of the deep sociopolitical divisions among them—occasionally verging on armed conflicts. Nevertheless, OPEC countries have managed not to let these conflicts wreck their common interest in obtaining substantially better terms from the international companies and from consumer countries. That OPEC countries could obtain better terms is not only the result of member solidarity but also of the relatively inelastic demand for petroleum. Another crucial factor favoring OPEC is that major consumer countries have been moderate in their drive to collectively countervail OPEC, except indirectly by allowing their international oil companies to join forces ostensibly in defense of consumers' interests. Major consumer countries have also declined so far to split forcefully the OPEC coalition. The continued existence of OPEC largely depends on (1) members' perception of gain outweighing sacrifices or frustrations of working together, and (2) the tolerance of major industrial importing countries.
Nordic Cooperation and High Politics
Authors: Ørvik Nils
Published: February 2009

The 1972 decision of the Norwegian people to reject admission to the European Community has raised some fresh questions about the Nordic countries and Nordic integration. Was the Norwegian decision a protest vote on mainly domestic grounds? Or was it a rejection of the whole structure, system, and ideology of the European Community—as having grown too bureaucratic, too self-centered, and too concerned about economic gains and trade and growth rates rather than about human values? Yet, if the Community was no longer an attractive alternative, what were Norway's other alternatives? The ocean-oriented, outgoing Norwegians could hardly have turned isolationists. Should we read the Norwegian referendum as a “yes” to Nordic cooperation rather than as a “no” to continental Europe? Whatever tipped the scales in Norway's 1972 referendum, the so-called Nordic alternative seems bound to become more prominent in Scandinavia, since Norway has reached a Swedish-modelled trade agreement with the European Community as a substitute for membership.
Neomercantilism and international economic stability
Authors: Guerrieri Paolo , Padoan Pier Carlo
Published: February 2009

In a recent paper, Barry Buzan disputes the widespread theory that associates a liberal international economic structure positively, and a mercantilist structure negatively, with international security. We do not take issue with Buzan's arguments on this point; rather we disagree with some of his assumptions concerning the relationship between mercantilistic policies and the international economic order. Those of Buzan's points that we question represent generally accepted views in the literature on mercantilism

Buzan's definition of mercantilism focuses essentially if not exclusively on protectionist trade policies. We prefer a more general definition based on Keynesian and post-Keynesian literature. By including the macroeconomic goals of neomercantilism, this definition accounts for a country's foreign economic policy.
The irony of state strength: comparative responses to the oil shocks in the 1970s
Authors: Ikenberry G. John
Published: February 2009

Like two gigantic waves, the oil shocks crested over the advanced industrial world during the 1970s. The relatively stable postwar petroleum regime, managed by the large oil firms and protected by American diplomatic and military strength, collapsed. In seven years crude oil prices, adjusted for inflation, increased more than 500 percent. A multitude of national security, economic, and political challenges confronted the advanced industrial states. But unlike war, where the threat is observable and lines of conflict quickly become apparent, the oil shocks cast up problems that were more insidious—problems of energy security, economic adjustment, and industrial competitiveness. These international dilemmas could be defined in various ways, and a host of policy responses could be brought to bear upon them.
The second face of hegemony: Britain's repeal of the Corn Laws and the American Walker Tariff of 1846
Authors: James Scott C. , Lake David A.
Published: February 2009

One challenge facing hegemonic stability theory is to specify the processes by which
hegemonic countries construct and maintain a liberal international economic order. Earlier studies have focused on direct coercion or ideological manipulation by the hegemon as a principal technique for manipulating the trade policies of other countries. This article explores a different “face” of hegemony. Specifically, we contend that by altering relative prices through the exercise of their international market power, hegemonic leaders influence the trade policy preferences of their foreign trading partners. We examine this argument in the case of the American Walker Tariff of 1846. American tariff liberalization was intimately related to Britain's repeal of its Corn Laws. In the antebellum United States, Northern protectionist and Southern free trade proclivities were fixed; Western grain growers held the balance of power. By allowing access to its lucrative grain market, Britain altered the economic and political incentives of Western agriculturalists and facilitated the emergence of the free trade coalition essential to the passage of the Walker Tariff.
The price of wealth: business and state in labor remittance and oil economies
Authors: Chaudhry Kiren Aziz
Published: February 2009

This article contrasts the effects of state-controlled oil revenues and privately controlled labor remittances on institutional development, state capacity, and businessgovernment relations in Saudi Arabia and the Yemen Arab Republic. These two countries represent extreme cases of dependence on external capital in deeply divided societies presided over by fragile, emerging bureaucracies. By tracing the two cases through a pattern of economic boom (1973-83) and recession (1983-87), the study demonstrates that the type, volume, and control of capital inflows decisively influence the relative development of the bureaucracy's extractive, distributive, and regulatory capacities and affect the ability of the state to respond to economic crisis. In both cases, external capital inflows precipitated the decline of extractive institutions. However, oil revenues and labor remittances had divergent effects on businessgovernment relations, and this circumscribed the state's ability to implement austerity programs during the recession. During the crisis, the Saudi government's efforts to cut subsidies to the private sector and to implement extractive policies were blocked by the state-sponsored merchant class. In contrast, the Yemeni government instituted a thoroughgoing austerity package that targeted the independent merchant class. In both cases, external capital inflows did not augment the efficacy of those that controlled them. These paradoxical outcomes are explained by tracing the different effects of oil revenues and labor remittances on the distribution of economic opportunity in the public and private sectors and the resulting effects on the regional, tribal, and sectarian composition of the bureaucracy and the commercial class.
Disciplining trade finance: the OECD Export Credit Arrangement
Authors: Moravcsik Andrew M.
Published: February 2009

The salience of tariffs, quotas, and other import restrictions in current discussions of trade policy obscures what may well become a more significant form of government intervention: subsidized export promotion. Over the past two decades, subsidized trade finance has been one of the most widely used instruments of export promotion. This article offers an historical description and a theoretical explanation for the success of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) Export Credit Arrangement, an international regime restricting the provision of subsidized trade finance. The explanation emphasizes three factors: the structure of government institutions, the relative power of states, and the functional value of information. More generally, the analysis demonstrates the inherent weaknesses of monocausal explanations of international cooperation and the advantages of explanations based on a conception of international cooperation as a multistage, process, each stage of which may be explained by a separate theory.
Is world politics evolutionary learning?
Authors: Modelski George
Published: February 2009

The claim is advanced for recognizing evolutionary learning as the generative principle of world politics. Immanuel Kant was the first to specify a “natural” process leading toward “perpetual peace.” The long cycle, seen as the process of structural change. is explained with the help of a Parsonian learning model and a social evolutionary model and is argued to be coupled with the Kantian process. The long cycle defines the agenda for change in the major institutional complexes of world politics and deepens our understanding of the conditions for the control of global war.