bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A Merger of Categories
Authors: Lilly M. Stephen
Published: February 2009

This article examines the background and current status o f attempts to define the term “learning disabilities,” and concludes that resolution of the problem by continued search for a consummate definition of LD is unrealistic. An alternate procedure is outlined: The focus is on description of essential school problems which lead to referral, and determination through a staffing conference whether the problems require special education services. A merger of the categories of learning disabilities, emotional disturbance (as represented by behavior disorders in the schools), and educable mental retardation is proposed, and an experimental state reimbursement system for special education services based on such a merger is outlined.
Identifying Decision-Making Policies in the Diagnosis of Learning Disabilities
Authors: Beatty James R.
Published: February 2009

Lack of agreement on the definition of learning disabilities and on optimal diagnostic procedures has left many LD diagnosticians without consistent decision-making policies for distinguishing between LD children and normal learners. Judgment Analysis (JAN) is a statistical method which can be employed to help identify the policies upon which practitioners base their diagnostic decisions. The technique assists in the analysis of individual policies, identifying the diagnostic variables employed, and the weights assigned them in the diagnostic process. Such a procedure also locates individuals with similar policies and makes possible analysis of policy subgroups as well as inter-group comparisons, allowing for increased precision and consistency in Judgments. The technique also seems to have value for pre-service, inservice, and research training programs. Through the use of JAN, evaluators would have an opportunity to examine their policies and the policies of others, while learning what is needed to function effectively as a diagnostician for LD children.
Response of Adolescents with Minimal Brain Dysfunction to Methylphenidate
Authors: Lerer Robert J. , Lerer M. Pamela
Published: February 2009

Sixteen of 27 adolescents with minimal brain dysfunction showed subjective and objective evidence of improvement following a 60-day trial of methylphenidate (Ritalin). Positive objective changes were demonstrated in these patients by improvement in behavior as recorded by parents and teachers completing the Conners' Abbreviated Teacher Rating Scale, by improvement in performance on the Bender-Gestalt Test, and by improvement in academic achievement. Subjective improvement included increased ability to attend and to concentrate and decreased symptoms of anxiety and nervousness. No specific parameters were identified retrospectively which could have been of value in predicting which adolescents with minimal brain dysfunction were more likely to exhibit positive responses to methylphenidate therapy. These findings demonstrate that a trial of methylphenidate therapy may prove helpful for underachieving adolescents with a documented history of hyperactivity.
Language Bias in Tests
Authors: Grill J. Jeffrey , Bartel Nettle R.
Published: February 2009

The Grammatic Closure subtest of the Illinois Test of Psycholinguistic Abilities (ITPA) was examined to determine the extent to which an alleged bias exists against speakers of nonstandard English. A total of 23 of the 33 subtest items was identified as potentially high-risk for dialect speakers. Data collected from 38 black and 38 white children were analyzed for error responses; for 11 of the high-risk items, responses that were appropriate in nonstandard English accounted for 52–100% of all errors. The authors conclude that this subtest is inappropriate for use as a diagnostic instrument with children who use nonstandard English, even infrequently.
Hyperactivity
Authors: Block Gerald H.
Published: February 2009

Most research on hyperactivity views the problem as either organic or emotional in nature, originating exclusively within the child or his immediate home environment. By comparison, little research has taken into account the effect on this problem of the tremendous cultural changes which have occurred in the last century. A number of such cultural (and environmental) studies are reviewed, and a new direction for further research on hyperactivity is suggested.
The Reading Counselor
Authors: Martin Jean Zetterlund
Published: February 2009

This paper describes the role of the reading counselor as it has been developed in practice with learning disabled and emotionally disturbed children. It describes a method of teaching with a therapeutic approach based on the importance of the relationship between teacher and pupil, both to change the pupil's reading skills and increase his self-esteem.
Reading and Spelling in Good and Poor Readers
Authors: Camp Bonnie W. , Dolcourt Jack L
Published: February 2009

To more easily distinguish patterns of reading and spelling errors, two parallel, standardized reading and spelling forms were designed, based on Boder's work 1971, 1973. They were used in a large metropolitan elementary school to test two groups of children: a normal sample of 34 children from regular fifth-grade classes, and a sample of 18 fourth- to sixth-grade children previously diagnosed as retarded readers. Reliability and validity were examined. The correlation between parallel forms given to the normal sample was 0.96, and correlations with the Wide Range Achievement Test for the combined samples was 0.95. Criteria were established to differentiate between normal, dyseidetic, dysphonetic, and alexic patterns. The two samples were combined to determine the frequency with which these patterns occurred in High, Average and Low readers. Boder's atypical patterns were significantly more common in Average and Low readers.
Characteristics of Familial and Nonfamilial Disabled Readers
Authors: Rugel Robert P. , Mitchell Annette
Published: February 2009

This study attempts to define more clearly the subgroups of learning disabled children. The vigilance performance, skin conductance level and behavioral ratings of children categorized according to family history of reading problems were evaluated. Behavioral ratings and skin conductance levels show significant differences. The results suggest that distinct subgroups of disabled readers exist, and research based on heterogeneous samples may be misleading.
Sex, Age, Behavior, and School Subject as Determinants of Report of Learning Problems
Authors: Caplan Paula J.
Published: February 2009

College students were asked to establish priorities for assigning tutorial help to children failing in school. They were to rate the children on the basis of various combinations of sex, age, kind of behavior problem, and subject of school difficulty. The variables selected for top priority were boys, the older child, acting-out behavior, and difficulty in reading. Variables of lowest priority were girls, the younger child, withdrawn behavior, and difficulty in arithmetic. The child's sex interacted with type of behavior in such a way that withdrawn boys and acting-out girls — both deviations from the norm — were considered to need more help than children whose behavior conformed to the norm for their sex.
Hyperkinesis in the Classroom
Authors: Weissenburger Fred E. , Loney Jan
Published: February 2009

This study examines the efficacy of behavior modification in treating hyperkinetic children. Direct observation of the behavior of the teacher in relation to the subject, a cohort, an average, and a model student was conducted. Between this initial test and a posttest, the teacher was evaluated and encouraged to increase the number of approving encounters with the students. The results of a posttest reveal improved positive behaviors for all four boys in two of three cases. In the third case, the postintervention observation was carried out with a student teacher. Because of the change of teachers from pre- to post-intervention observation, the expected increase in positive behavior was not observed.
Grade Repetition
Authors: Donofrio Anthony F.
Published: February 2009

Many factors are involved in producing a child with learning difficulties. These factors and their clusters are considered in this paper with regard to their effect on the ability to learn. Finally, some recommendations for prevention and rehabilitation are offered.
Goal Setting and Reactions to Success and Failure in Children with Learning Disabilities
Authors: Robbins Rochelle L. , Harway Norman I.
Published: February 2009

The mixed experiences of children with learning disabilities (LD) — success in some tasks and failure in areas of deficit — should result in greater variability in their goal setting and in reactions to success and failure. A group of 8- to 11-year-old boys with LD was compared with a control group on the Rotter level-of-aspiration task as well as under conditions of experimentally induced failure and success. The children diagnosed as having a learning disability were significantly more variable in goal-setting patterns and thus less systematic in their reactions to their previous performance in the task. A second hypothesis, that the LD child will respond less appropriately to experimentally induced experiences of success and failure than the normal learner, is not supported. LD children showed decreased variability of performance during the success-induced condition, as did the control group. Findings suggest positive feedback might help LD children become more systematic in setting their aspirations relative to performance.
Kinetic Family Drawings by Children with Perceptual-motor Delays
Authors: Raskin Larry M. , Pitcher-Baker Georgia
Published: February 2009

Kinetic Family Drawings (KFDs) from 50 kindergarten and first-grade children with perceptual-motor delays are compared with those done by 50 children of the same age without such delays. Each child was asked to make a drawing of his family, including himself, with everyone doing something. All drawings were scored on criteria developed by Burns and Kaufman, and by Koppitz: isolation-rejection, body concerns, and sibling rivalry. The KFDs of children with delayed development showed more of these indicators than did the control group's KFDs. A further analysis of the results suggests that isolation-rejection and body concerns differentiate the children who show delayed development from those who do not. Rivalry is not a significant discriminator. KFDs provide important clinical information for the diagnosis and treatment of the problems of young children.
Psychoactive Medication and Learning Disabilities
Authors: Eatonr Marie , Sells Clifford J. , Lucas Betty
Published: February 2009

A seven-year-old emotionally disturbed boy with some features of the hyperkinetic syndrome was placed on a double-blind placebo control program to assess the effects of psychoactive medications (Ritalin and Dexedrine) on academic and social behaviors. Academic and social behaviors were generally improved with medication, but the beneficial effects varied depending upon the specific drug, dosage, and time of day. Some adverse side effects were noted with specific drug dosages. The importance of careful monitoring of children treated with psychoactive medications is stressed.
The Role of Art in Developing and Evaluating Cognitive Skills
Authors: Silver Rawley A. , Lavin Claire
Published: February 2009

Eleven graduate students who had registered for an elective course in art therapy worked under supervision with 11 unselected learning-impaired children. They used special art techniques designed to develop and evaluate ability to order, perceive, associate, and represent components. After 10 weekly one-hour art periods, the children showed significant gains in concepts of space, order, and class, as measured by pre- and post-tests designed for the study.
Recategorized WISC-R Scores of Learning Disabled Children
Authors: Smith Monte D. , Coleman J. Michael , Dokecki Paul R. , Davis Earl E.
Published: February 2009

This study assesses the utility of Bannatyne's recategorization of subtest scaled scores on the WISC-R (Wechsler 1974). The WISC-R was administered to 208 school-verified learning disabled (LD) children. The obtained subtest scaled scores were recategorized in the manner suggested by Bannatyne (1974) into Spatial, Conceptual, Sequential, and Acquired Knowledge categories. The mean Spatial score was significantly greater than the mean Conceptual score, which, in turn, exceeded the Sequential and Acquired Knowledge scores. The total sample was also subdivided Into high and low IQ subgroups to determine if the Spatiaf>Con-ceptual>Sequential pattern was affected by or independent of the level of intellectual functioning. Relatively high and low IQ subgroups exhibited similar patterns of recategorized scores. The relationship did not hold true, however, when the recategorized scores of children who obtained Full Scale IQs of 75 or less (N=26) were examined. The implications for educational practice and future research are discussed in a final section.
The Visual “Confusability” of High-frequency Words
Authors: Allington Richard L.
Published: February 2009

This study examines the visual “confusability” of selected high-frequency words. Beginning readers were presented 120 words in a match-to-sample task in an attempt to provide data on the relative discriminability of each. The results indicate these young subjects had mastered this task to a high level of proficiency. Nevertheless, selected words accounted for a majority of the confusions. The implications for teachers of beginning readers are discussed.
Two Steps Toward Improving Learning for Students with (and without) “Learning Problems”
Authors: Adelman Howard , Taylor Linda
Published: February 2009

Rather than being viewed as a reflection of a disorder within the person, most problems in learning and behavior are seen as a reaction to settings which do not deal effectively with the person's motivational and developmental status. In particular, many facets of school settings are seen as “set-ups” and are characterized by reactive rather than active solutions to problems and programs. From this perspective, the discussion focuses on what motivates a student to approach or avoid learning activities in school. Specifically, it emphasizes the need (1) to establish an environment which can optimize the match between the learning situation and the learner's current developmental and motivational status, and (2) to develop a mutually satisfying learning agreement or contract. Through a discussion of such concepts, the authors suggest ways in which teachers can facilitate learning, engender an atmosphere of mutual respect between school professionals and students, and participate in a process which allows each person to reclaim her power and deal with others as equals.
Working Together
Authors: Keogh Barbara
Published: February 2009

Acquiring new knowledge has historically been one of man's continued interests. The cost and difficulties encountered are enormous, especially when studying low incidence phenomena. Understanding learning disabilities has been especially difficult because we lack established procedures for studying educational and psychological deviance. In this guest editorial, Dr. Keogh addresses one of the most critical methodological problems in learning disability research: the absence of a cooperative relationship between the researcher in the laboratory and the practitioner in the field. —G.M.S.
The Federal Role in Learning Disabilities
Authors: McDaniels Garry
Published: February 2009

This is the first in a series of interviews intended to provide perspectives on learning disabilities from the vantage point of persons in positions important to the future of the field. This first interview is with Dr. Garry McDaniels, Director of the Division of Innovation and Development for the Bureau of Education for the Handicapped, USOE. The Bureau of Education for the Handicapped is responsible for administering federal funds for handicapped children through one of three major divisions: Innovation and Development, Aid to States, and Personnel Preparation. The primary utilization of learning disability funds, which derive from the Learning Disability Act of 1969 (which was Incorporated into the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1970), has been through programs under Dr. McDaniels' Division of innovation and Development. The learning disability Child Service Demonstration Centers, the Leadership Training Institute in Learning Disabilities (currently the National Learning Disability Assistance Project — NaLDAP), and the new learning disability research institutes have all been funded through the Division of Development and Innovation. — G.M.S.
Affective Education and the Learning Disabled Student
Authors: Shelton Marian N.
Published: February 2009

Professionals in the field of learning disabilities have developed an extensive list of characteristics to describe the population. Among them there can usually be found some reference to poor self-concept or some statement referring to inadequate social or emotional development. A variety of teaching techniques and programs has been developed to ameliorate the various academic difficulties of learning disabled children. Considerably less attention has been given to the development of programs or techniques to enhance the social and emotional development of the learning disabled.

This month, a guest writer, Marian Shelton, PhD, shares our column and focuses on six components necessary for planning a successful program for affective education. Following her contribution, the editors examine four programs and materials designed to enhance the self-concept and general social and emotional growth in children. Though none of the materials reviewed in this column were developed specifically for the learning disabled population, all can easily be adapted for use with children with a wide variety of learning and behavior problems. — C.V.E., B.W.
Response Strategies and Stimulus Salience with Learning Disabled and Mentally Retarded Children on a Short-term Memory Task
Authors: Swanson H. Lee
Published: February 2009

This study utilizes a sophisticated research paradigm to investigate whether three-dimensional items (objects) are easier to remember than two-dimensional items (pictures). As previous research found three-dimensional stimuli more salient among educable mentally retarded children, the possibility exists that the differential salience of three-dimensional stimuli might even be greater among the learning disabled. Though, as the author points out, the number of subjects is small, the finding that objects facilitate recall by learning disabled children even more than the third dimension does for mentally retarded children has potential implications for teachers. — G.M.S.
Outerdirectedness as a Function of Success and Failure in Educationally Handicapped Boys
Authors: MacMillan Donald L. , Cauffiel Shelley R.
Published: February 2009

We lack sufficient knowledge regarding the specific effects of academic failure on the performance strategies of learning disabled children. Considerable research concerning mentally retarded children who have experienced failure has shown that their work may be more characterized by “outerdirectedness” than “distractability,” the latter term being more typically applied to the learning disabled. Outerdirectedness represents a motivational style of problem solving in which the child uses external cues rather than relying on his own cognitive resources. While the study presented is somewhat inconclusive, perhaps owing to the fact that different learning disabled children adopt different coping styles, the concept of outerdirectedness is an important one for teachers and one which needs further research among children who are learning disabled. — G.M.S.
Teaching Approach for Developing Nonverbal Communication Skills in Students with Social Perception Deficits
Authors: Minskoff Esther H.
Published: February 2009

Social perception deficits are viewed as the most serious of all types of learning disabilities and yet little attention has been given to remediating such deficits. In Part 1 of this two-part article an approach for ameliorating such disabilities based on task analysis and diagnosis and prescription is described. Nonverbal communication skills are task analyzed into step-by-step sequences with a four-stage teaching approach: discrimination of specific social cues, understanding of the social meanings of such cues, appropriate usage of such cues, and application of such cues to actual social problems.

In Part 1, teaching activities based on this four-stage approach are given for the nonverbal communication areas of kinesics, or body language. In Part 2, teaching activities for these educationally less familiar nonverbal communication areas will be described: proxemics, or the use of space; vocalics, or the use of prosodic, paralinguistic, and nonlinguistic features; and artifactual cues such as cosmetics and clothing.
A Peer-Tutored, Instructional Management Program in Computational Mathematics for Incarcerated, Learning Disabled Juvenile Delinquents
Authors: Kane Bruce J. , Alley Gordon R.
Published: February 2009

This study examined the feasibility of an instructional management program for learning disabled, incarcerated youths. It compared peer tutors and learning disabilities teachers as implementers of a computational mathematics program for incarcerated, learning disabled juvenile delinquents. Thirty-eight learning disabled juvenile delinquents ranging in age from 12 to 17 years and ranging in grade from seventh to eleventh were instructed for eight weeks. The instructional management of learning disabled, juvenile delinquents using peer tutors was found to be a workable alternative when individualizing a computational mathematics program for these students.
Using Psychological Assessment in Structural Family Therapy
Authors: Fulmer Richard H. , Cohen Susan , Monaco Gail
Published: February 2009

In the family therapy of children with academic problems, a psychological evaluation is often indicated. Reporting the results of this evaluation to the family is seen as an integral part of the ongoing therapeutic process. The way in which results are communicated should be influenced by the therapist's assessment of the family's dynamics. This paper examines several issues in this process and suggests techniques to enhance the therapeutic effectiveness of such feedback. Two case studies illustrating the use and effect of the psychological consultant in ongoing family therapy are presented.
Clinical Syndromes Among the Learning Disabled
Authors: Mather Nancy
Published: February 2009

As a field matures, it fine tunes its knowledge. The earliest literature in learning disabilities consistently described such youngsters in terms of short attention span, perceptual problems, memory disorders and, of course, the resultant unacceptable behavior. The field is growing up and my Syracuse colleague, Larry Lewandowski, has created from the literature clinical—etiological subtype categories that complement our traditional empirical classifications. The reader should find good food for thought here.—Burton Blatt, EdD, Associate Editor.
When Academic Assistance Is Not Enough
Authors: Price Lynda A. , Johnson Janis M. , Evelo Sheryl
Published: February 2009

This article focuses on an answer to a critical question for adolescents and adults with learning disabilities: How can professionals assist students with learning disabilities who have psychosocial issues that appear to be affecting their academic progress and life adjustment? Inherent in this inquiry are other, equally important issues, such as: How do learning disabilities service providers know when to involve other service providers? What are the steps in referring a student for further assistance with different mental health issues? When are team interventions necessary? How are team interventions conducted in either secondary or postsecondary settings? How should learning disabilities service providers establish the boundaries of their professional expertise and/or responsibilities to adequately meet the needs of individuals with learning disabilities? This article illustrates answers to these questions by providing examples of interventions and case studies from two federally funded research/demonstration projects at the University of Minnesota: the Learning Disabilities Transition Project and Project Extra. The authors describe theoretical models for mental health services that address the psychosocial issues frequently encountered in academic or vocational settings. Recommendations are also included that discuss how the models can be personalized to fit the reader's home institution or agency.
The Road Not Taken
Authors: Spear-Swerling Louise , Sternberg Robert J.
Published: February 2009

This article describes a theoretical model of reading disability that integrates a wide range of research findings in cognitive psychology, reading, and education across the age and grade span. The model shows how reading disability relates to normal reading acquisition, and includes four possible patterns of reading disability: nonalphabetic readers, compensatory readers, nonautomatic readers, and readers delayed in the acquisition of word-recognition skills. We compare our model to the models of other investigators and argue that our model is especially useful to practitioners. Finally, we discuss some of the educational implications of the model.
The Effects of Early Bilateral Otitis Media with Effusion on Educational Attainment
Authors: Peters Sylvia A. F. , Grievink Eefje H. , van Bon Wim H.J. , Schilder Anne G. M.
Published: February 2009

The relationship between long-lasting, bilateral otitis media with effusion (OME) between the ages of 2 and 4 and educational attainment, in particular, reading and spelling ability at 7 years of age, was studied in a prospective cohort study of 946 children. After selection, three groups were distinguished: 151 children with long-lasting, bilateral OME at preschool age, 37 preschool children treated with ventilation tubes, and 82 children with no history of OME at that age. Early bilateral OME was found to affect spelling ability, but not reading ability, at 7 years. The effects of OME did not appear to increase with the number of observations of OME. Also, recurrent hearing loss did not have more detrimental effects than continuous hearing loss. Effects of treatment with ventilation tubes were not found. Only the teachers' ratings of writing ability indicated a slight advantage of treatment with ventilation tubes. In conclusion, the educational consequences of early OME appear to be very small.
Children's Preference for Authentic versus Arranged Versions of World Music Recordings
Authors: Demorest Steven M. , Schultz Sara J. M.
Published: February 2009

In two separate studies, we examined fifth graders' preference for authentic and arranged versions of world music recordings, the relationship of those preference ratings to familiarity, and teachers' ability to predict student preferences. In the first study, intact classes of fifth-grade students were randomly assigned to an authentic or arranged listening condition and indicated their familiarity and preference for the same 19 world music songs on a 6-point Likert scale. Teachers of the students in the study attempted to predict their students' preference and familiarity ratings for those same 19 recordings. In the second study, students heard both versions of each song side by side and were asked to first choose the version they preferred, then indicate strength of preference and familiarity. Results of both studies indicated that familiarity with a world music song is positively related to student preference for that song. Subjects in the first study did not differ significantly in the magnitude of their preference ratings between authentic or arranged conditions, whereas subjects in the second study overwhelmingly preferred arranged versions in head-to-head comparisons. Teachers' predictions of preference and familiarity ratings were significantly related to student ratings, though tended to be significantly higher.

July 1, 2004

October 20, 2004.
Elsie Shawe, Music Supervisor in St. Paul, Minnesota (1898–1933)
Authors: Howe Sondra Wieland
Published: February 2009

Elsie Shawe (1866–1962), supervisor of music in St. Paul, Minnesota, for thirty-five years, is an example of a music supervisor in the United States who was active in the formative years of the Music Supervisors National Conference (MSNC). Although she is cited only briefly in national accounts, there is a substantial amount of material on her career in local archives. In the St. Paul Public Schools, Shawe supervised classroom teachers, organized the school music curriculum, and conducted performances in the community. She served as a church organist and choir director in St. Paul and was president of the Minnesota Music Teachers Association. At the national level, Shawe was an officer of the NEA Department of Music Education and a member of the board of directors of the MSNC. Through her committee work, Shawe promoted the standardization of patriotic national songs.

May 5, 2004

November 10, 2004.
Gender and Participation in High School and College Instrumental Jazz Ensembles
Authors: McKeage Kathleen M.
Published: February 2009

This study is an examination of the relationship between gender and participation in high school and college instrumental jazz ensembles. Student demographic and attitudinal information was collected using the researcher-designed Instrumental Jazz Participation Survey (IJPS). Undergraduate college band students ( N=628) representing 15 programs offering degrees in music education were surveyed. Gender and jazz ensemble participation were found to be related at both levels; 52% of women and 80% of men surveyed reported playing jazz in high school, and 14% of women and 50% of men played in college. The results indicated that attitudes toward participation are influenced by both gender and jazz experience. Women and men were found to differ in their stated reasons for quitting jazz. Women's decisions to discontinue were affected by primary instrument selection, institutional obstacles that narrow participation options, feeling more comfortable in traditional ensembles, and an inability to connect jazz participation to career aspirations.

April 21, 2004

October 1, 2004.
Preservice String Teachers' Lesson-Planning Processes
Authors: Schmidt Margaret
Published: February 2009

This yearlong qualitative study is an examination of 10 undergraduate preservice teachers' lesson planning for the classes and/or individual lessons they taught in a university string project. Data analysis revealed that these preservice teachers held differing views of lesson planning from each other and from their supervisor. Five themes emerged: (a) concerns about knowing how to begin to plan, (b) difficulty identifying what the children needed to learn, (c) the prominence of decisions made on the fly, (d) comparisons of thinking about teaching and planning with actual written plans, and (e) limited transfer of in-class experiences to teaching in the project. Suggestions for teacher educators include acknowledging the complex nonlinear relationship between planning skills, teaching experience, and professional knowledge; structuring guided experiences with a variety of lesson planning formats (e.g., written, mental, verbal); and maximizing opportunities for preservice teachers to reflect on connections between their experiences as students and as teachers.

September 22, 2004

December 10, 2004.
Preservice and Experienced Teachers' Lesson Plans for Beginning Instrumentalists
Authors: Brittin Ruth V.
Published: February 2009

Preservice and experienced teachers ( N=58, from 7 universities) wrote lesson plans for a hypothetical beginning band lesson, using one page from a band method book as source material. Lesson plans were analyzed for word count, level of detail, and for strategies that appeared most frequently. Experienced teachers used fewer words than undergraduates but revealed the same number of strategies and level of detail, on average. There were institutional differences in the variety of strategies incorporated, indicating certain institutions may value a wider range of strategies and activities in beginning band classes. Participants also compared their written plans to a published lesson plan and rated their familiarity with various approaches, giving another view on strategies considered most common. Familiarity ratings were similar when comparing preservice and experienced teachers and when comparing institutions. Degrees of prevalence of specific strategies, such as decontextualization of material, repetition, and modeling are discussed.

May 7, 2004

January 18, 2005.
Comparisons of Higher-Order Thinking Skills among Prospective Freshmen and Upper-Level Preservice Music Education Majors
Authors: Sheldon Deborah A. , DeNardo Gregory
Published: February 2009

High school students aspiring to become music educators ( N=116) and upper-level music education majors ( N=130) took part in this investigation comparing higher-order thinking skills in an observation analysis task. We used certain procedures from previous investigations (Sheldon & DeNardo, 2004; Standley & Madsen, 1991). Upperclassmen demonstrated greater higher-order thinking skills, measured by success in providing descriptive and inferential statements in an observation task, compared to prospective freshmen. This outcome is consistent with those of prior studies (Sheldon & DeNardo, 2004; Standley & Madsen, 1991) and suggests that the continued development of higher-order thinking skills among prospective music educators can be cultivated within an undergraduate music education degree program. When entrance examination variables of prospective freshmen were analyzed for relationships, few strong correlations were found.

February 27, 2004

December 14, 2004.
A Comparison of Successful and Unsuccessful Strategies in Individual Sight-Singing Preparation and Performance
Authors: Killian Janice N. , Henry Michele L.
Published: February 2009

High school singers ( N=198) individually sang two melodies from notation, with and without a 30-second practice opportunity. Overall accuracy scores were significantly higher with preparation time. The less accurate singers, however, did not benefit from practice time. Analysis of videoed tests indicated that high scorers tonicized (vocally established the key), used hand signs, sang out loud during practice, physically kept the beat, and finished practicing the melody within 30 seconds significantly more frequently than did low scorers during practice. Similar strategies were used during performance, with the addition of tonicizing before singing. Sight-singing system used made no significant difference. Characteristics appearing significantly more often among high scorers included: region/state choir, private voice or piano lessons, playing an instrument, membership in instrumental ensemble, sight-singing individually outside class, and director giving individual sight-singing tests. Results are discussed in terms of strategies for teaching individual sight-singing and recommended areas of future research.

August 11, 2004

January 18, 2005.
Effects of Free versus Directed Listening on Duration of Individual Music Listening by Prekindergarten Children
Authors: Sims Wendy L.
Published: February 2009

Preschool children's listening time responses to free versus directed listening activities were compared. For the free condition, children were instructed just to “listen as long as you would like.” The directed condition was a written task designed to focus attention on specific aspects of the music and give children something concrete to do while listening — again, for as long as the children chose to participate. Children listened individually with headphones, as one of the free-choice activities available in their preschool classroom. Each child listened to two classical music examples under both conditions. As a group, children did not listen significantly longer when presented with a specific task to complete while listening. Children's listening times varied widely from one another, including some children who listened longer than might generally be expected for this age.

October 28, 2004

January 3, 2005.
Learning to Perform Benjamin Britten's Rejoice in the Lamb
Authors: Silvey Philip E.
Published: February 2009

The purpose of this research was to examine the way three high school students perceived and experienced a choral composition they were learning to perform. This case study, conducted over a period of five months, chronicled the experiences and perceptions of three students from a large midwestern high school mixed choir as they learned to perform the extended choral composition Rejoice in the Lamb by Benjamin Britten. Three categories of experience (found to correlate with three philosophical forms of knowledge) emerged through data analysis: (1) impression (prepositional knowledge), (2) construction (procedural knowledge), and (3) understanding (acquaintance knowledge). Participants generally experienced these knowledge forms progressively, but also shifted between them idiosyncratically. Singers tended to focus on the technical skills needed to perform the music with accuracy. Deeper levels of understanding were contingent on each participant's personal history, openness, and effort in relation to the composition.

July 8, 2004

May 4, 2005.
Relations among Motivation, Performance Achievement, and Music Experience Variables in Secondary Instrumental Music Students
Authors: Schmidt Charles P.
Published: February 2009

The purpose of this study was to (1) reexamine academic achievement motivation orientations within the context of instrumental music, and (2) examine relations among achievement motivation orientations, self-concept in instrumental music, and attitude to band in relation to teachers' ratings of performance achievement and effort, and students' grade level, gender, instrument, self-reported practice time, and selected music experience variables. Participants ( N= 300) were band students (Grades 7-12) in four school districts. Data were gathered concerning students' (a) motivation orientations (mastery, intrinsic, individual, cooperative, ego, competitive, approach success, avoid failure), self-concept, and commitment to band; (b) instrument, grade level and gender, practice time per week, and experience in private lessons, solo festival, and all-county band; and (c) performance achievement and effort as rated by their teachers. Results indicated that ratings of performance and effort were most strongly correlated with self-concept and intrinsic motivation, respectively. Practice time was most strongly correlated with intrinsic motivation. Factor analysis revealed three factors of motivation: Learning/Task Orientation, Performance/Ego Orientation, and Individual Orientation. The factors essentially replicated those found in a general academic achievement setting. Learning/Task Orientation was positively correlated with practice time, ratings of performance and effort, solo festival and private-lesson experience, and grade level. Performance/Ego Orientation was negatively correlated with grade level and solo festival ratings. Individual Orientation scores were positively correlated with ratings of performance and effort and solo festival ratings. Differences by gender and instrument group were nonsignificant.

October 11, 2004

March 20, 2005.
Effects of Excerpt Tempo and Duration on Musicians' Ratings of High-Level Piano Performances
Authors: Wapnick Joel , Ryan Charlene , Campbell Louise , Deek Patricia , Lemire Renata , Darrow Alice-Ann
Published: February 2009

The purpose of this study was to determine how judgments of solo performances recorded at an international piano competition might be affected by excerpt duration (20 versus 60 seconds) and tempo (slow versus fast). Musicians rated performances on six test items. Results indicated that piano majors rated slow excerpts higher than they rated fast excerpts, and that they rated slow excerpts higher than nonpiano majors rated either slow or fast excerpts; undergraduates rated long excerpts the same as or slightly higher than they did short excerpts, but graduate students and faculty rated long excerpts markedly higher than short excerpts; and undergraduate piano majors rated performances lower than did undergraduate nonpiano majors, but graduate piano majors and faculty rated performances higher than did graduate/faculty nonpiano majors. Also, accuracy items correlated with each other more highly than they did with other items, and judge ratings were higher for accuracy items than they were for other items. Finally, judge consistency was shown to be related to excerpt duration, excerpt tempo, instrumental major, and level of education. Results generally show that ratings taken after 60 seconds differed from ratings taken after 20 seconds, and that ratings provided evidence that judges were able to distinguish between different test items.

November 23, 2004

April 27, 2005.
Selected Influences on Solo and Small-Ensemble Festival Ratings
Authors: Bergee Martin J. , McWhirter Jamila L.
Published: February 2009

With this study, we replicated and extended the work of Bergee and Platt (2003). Analyzing ratings outcomes of 7,355 small-ensemble and solo events from two consecutive midwestern state festivals (2001 and 2002), Bergee and Platt found statistically significant differences in the main effects of time of day, type of event (solo/ensemble), and school size. In the replication phase of the present study, we used their procedures to analyze data from the 2003 festival ( N=3,853), finding significant differences in the same three main effects and also performing medium (vocal/instrumental). In both studies, the type of event by performing medium interaction was significant. The extension phase consisted of applying logistic regression techniques to the fitting of a theoretical model of prediction. Two variables were added to the original four-geographical location and district level of expenditure per average daily attendance. All main effects except geographical location (eliminated owing to high collinearity), plus the type of event by performing medium interaction, emerged as strong predictors of ratings outcomes. Afternoon scheduling, entering from a large, relatively high-expenditure school, and performing as a vocalist and a soloist significantly predicted the highest rating.

January 18, 2005

March 15, 2005.
The Effect of Music Instruction on Phonemic Awareness in Beginning Readers
Authors: Gromko Joyce Eastlund
Published: February 2009

The purpose of this study was to determine whether music instruction was related to significant gains in the development of young children's phonemic awareness, particularly in their phoneme-segmentation fluency. Beginning in January 2004 and continuing through the end of April 2004, each of four intact classrooms of kindergarten children ( n= 43) from one elementary school were taught music by one of four advanced music-methods students from a nearby university. Kindergarten children ( n= 60) at a second elementary school served as the control group. An analysis of the data revealed that kindergarten children who received 4 months of music instruction showed significantly greater gains in development of their phoneme segmentation fluency when compared to children who did not receive music instruction, t=−3.52, df= 101, p= .001. The results support a near-transfer hypothesis that active music-making and the association of sound with developmentally appropriate symbols may develop cognitive processes similar to those needed for segmentation of a spoken word into its phonemes.

December 14, 2004

August 1, 2005
Effect of Music Training and Musical Complexity on Focus of Attention to Melody or Harmony
Authors: Williams Lindsey R.
Published: February 2009

The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationships between music training and musical complexity and focus of attention to melody or harmony. Participants ( N= 192) were divided into four groups: university jazz majors ( n= 64), other university music majors ( n= 64), high school instrumentalists ( n= 32), and junior high instrumentalists ( n= 32). The musical complexity variable consisted of four levels of melodic complexity and four levels of harmonic complexity each paired for a total of 16 possible combinations all heard by each participant. Each trial consisted of a melodic complexity/harmonic complexity pairing performed by the same performer on jazz piano. Subjects indicated their overall perceived focus of attention for melody or harmony either during or immediately after they listened. A four-factor ANOVA was conducted with two between-subjects factors (order and music-training groups) and two within-subjects factors (melodic complexity and harmonic complexity). Significant differences were found for focus of attention for both melodic complexity and harmonic complexity. Significant interactions occurred between music training and focus of attention. Overall, data showed that as music training increases, so does harmonic focus of attention.

March 11, 2005

October 4, 2005
The Effect of Cooperative Listening Exercises on the Critical Listening Skills of College Music-Appreciation Students
Authors: Smialek Thomas , Boburka Renee Reiter
Published: February 2009

The authors investigated the effectiveness of cooperative listening exercises in developing critical music-listening skills in nonmusic majors. Subjects were college freshmen and sophomores enrolled in Introduction to Western Music. Control-group subjects attended classes taught exclusively in lecture format. Two experimental groups participated in four 50-minute group-listening exercises. Experimental Group 2 engaged in five additional group-analysis exercises, comparing known and unfamiliar musical styles. The consistent use of cooperative-listening exercises proved to be more effective in developing subjects' critical listening skills than either lecture-demonstration or occasional group work. On final exams, Experimental Group 2 scored significantly better than the other groups on identifications of texture, compositional genre, and musical style. To be most effective, group work needs to be implemented on a regular basis — for both the introduction of new material and for its review or application.

March 31, 2006

April 22, 2006
The Effect of Instrumental Music Participation and Socioeconomic Status on Ohio Fourth-, Sixth-, and Ninth-Grade Proficiency Test Performance
Authors: Fitzpatrick Kate R.
Published: February 2009

This study is a comparison of the Ohio Proficiency Test (OPT) results of instrumental music students and their noninstrumental classmates according to socioeconomic status (SES) over time. Subjects ( N= 15,431) were students in the Columbus Public Schools in Ohio, whose fourth-, sixth-, and ninth-grade OPT results were compared with others of like SES on the subjects of citizenship, math, science, and reading. Results show that instrumental students outperformed noninstrumental students in every subject and at every grade level. Instrumental students at both levels of SES held higher scores than their noninstrumental classmates from the fourth grade, suggesting that instrumental music programs attract higher scorers from the outset of instruction. Results also show a pattern of increased achievement by lower SES instrumental students, who surpassed their higher SES noninstrumental classmates by the ninth grade in all subjects.

September 15, 2005

March 20, 2006