bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A Nest of Traitors!: What is Paranoia?
Authors: Freeman Daniel , Freeman Jason
Published: November 2020

November 5, 1611. London. At the court of James I, the king and his entourage settle down to enjoy the latest play by celebrated playwright William Shakespeare. The play in question is The Winter’s Tale, one of the clutch of so-called romances—along with Pericles, Cymbeline, and The Tempest—Shakespeare wrote before retiring back to Stratford, where he died in April 1616. Like Shakespeare’s other late plays, The Winter’s Tale offers a startling mixture of styles, oscillating wildly between pastoral comedy and intense psychological drama. It also includes a harrowing portrayal of extreme paranoia. Not that this could be guessed from the gentle opening of the play. Leontes, king of Sicily, is entertaining his childhood friend Polixenes, king of Bohemia. But having been away from home for nine months, Polixenes is anxious to return to Bohemia. Leontes pleads with him to stay, but Polixenes’ mind is made up. Or at least it is until Leontes asks his wife, Hermione, to speak to him. And though we might assume that Leontes will be overjoyed by Polixenes’ change of heart, what we see next couldn’t be more unexpected. Polixenes’ decision plunges Leontes into a savage spiral of paranoia. How was Hermione able to persuade his lifelong friend to stay in Sicily when his own efforts were futile? That’s simple: Hermione and Polixenes are lovers. Polixenes is the father of Hermione’s unborn child. And everyone except Leontes knows it: . . . They’re here with me already; whispering, rounding ‘Sicilia is a so-forth’ Tis far gone When I shall gust it last. . . . What starts off resembling a bizarre attack of jealousy soon develops into much more. Suddenly, and without a shred of evidence, Leontes suspects everyone of plotting against him—including his faithful subject Camillo, whose only crime is the attempt to defend Hermione: . . . What starts off resembling a bizarre attack of jealousy soon develops into much more. Suddenly, and without a shred of evidence, Leontes suspects everyone of plotting against him—including his faithful subject Camillo, whose only crime is the attempt to defend Hermione: . . .
Anxiety, Avatars, and Ink Spots: Paranoia and Emotions
Authors: Freeman Daniel , Freeman Jason
Published: November 2020

What causes paranoia? That’s a tough question to answer, and for at least a couple of reasons. For one thing, there’s no simple explanation. Paranoia, like so many psychological experiences, is the result of a complex interaction of numerous factors—as we’ll see over the course of the next three chapters. But there’s a bigger, more fundamental problem. How can we accurately and scientifically observe paranoid thinking? Paranoid thoughts don’t pop into our heads out of the blue. They’re generally our attempt to make sense of something we’ve experienced—perhaps a colleague ignored us at lunch or someone looked at us oddly on the bus. We can ask people about their paranoid thoughts, but how do we get at the truth of the situation? How do we even know for sure whether their thoughts are genuinely paranoid? Perhaps the colleague ignored us because our existing paranoia makes us reluctant to socialize. Or perhaps our fears are a legitimate response to a threatening situation. Maybe the guy on the bus really was looking for trouble. Any rigorous, scientific study of paranoia would need to expose a statistically significant number of people to exactly the same experience to see which of them reacted in a paranoid way. Once you had these data, you could start probing to see whether there was anything distinctive about the paranoid group. But how on earth can we arrange for hundreds of people to experience exactly the same everyday event in laboratory conditions? It’s impossible, right? Actually, there is a way, and it’s one we used in a groundbreaking recent experiment. That way is virtual reality. In the summer of 2006, we sent a leaflet to all households local to King’s College London. The leaflet announced a study of virtual reality at the college and invited people to participate. In the end we recruited 100 men and 100women of varying ages from 18 to 77, and from very diverse socioeconomic backgrounds. The mix, in fact, was pretty representative of the UK as a whole. We didn’t tell the volunteers that we were researching into paranoia until we’d completed the experiment.
Ancient pre-Columbian Peru, Bolivia and Mesoamerica
Authors: Ortloff Charles R.
Published: November 2020

Irrigation agriculture is a transformational technology used to secure high food yields from undeveloped lands. Specific to ancient South America, the Chimú Empire occupied the north coast of Peru from the Chillon to the Lambeyeque Valleys (Figure 1.1.1) from800 to 1450 CE (Late Intermediate Period (LIP)) and carried canal reclamation far beyond modern limits by applying hydraulics concepts unknown to Western science until the beginning of the 20th century. The narrative that follows examines hydraulic engineering and water management developments and strategies during the many centuries of agricultural development in the Chimú heartland of the Moche River Basin. The story examines how Chimú engineers and planners managed to greatly expand the agricultural output of valleys under their control by employing advanced canal irrigation technologies and the economic and political circumstances under which large-scale reclamation projects took place. The following time period conventions are used in the discussion that follow: Preceramic and Formative Period (3000–1800 BCE) Initial Period (IP) 1800–900 BCE Early Horizon (EH) 900–200 BCE Early Intermediate Period (EIP) 200 BCE–600 CE Middle Horizon (MH) 600–1000 CE Late Intermediate Period (LIP) 1000–1476 CE Late Horizon (LH) 1476–1534 CE. Chimú political power and state development was concentrated in Peruvian north coast valleys. Each valley contained an intermittent river supplied by seasonal rainfall runoff/glacial melt water from the adjacent eastern highlands. Over millennia, silts carried by the rivers from highland sources formed gently sloping alluvial valleys with fertile desert soils suitable for agriculture. An arid environment tied the Chimú economy to intravalley irrigation networks supplied from these rivers; these systems were supplemented by massive intervalley canals of great length that transported water between river valleys, thus opening vast stretches of intervalley lands to farming. The Chimú accomplishments and achievements in desert environment agricultural technologies brought canal-based water management and irrigation technology to its zenith among ancient South American civilizations, with practically all coastal cultivatable intervalley and intravalley lands reachable by canals brought under cultivation.
Temporal Trends in Disease Emergence and Re-emergence: World Regions, 1850–2006
Authors: Cliff A. D. , Smallman-Raynor M.R. , Haggett P. , Stroup D.F. , Thacker S.B.
Published: November 2020

In Chapters 4–8, we have examined a series of processes that, often working in combination, have served to precipitate the emergence and re-emergence of infectious and parasitic disease agents in the human population. In this chapter, we conclude our survey with an analysis of temporal trends in disease emergence and re-emergence since 1850. The discussion is informed by long-term shifts in the underlying causes of mortality encapsulated in Omran’s model of epidemiological transition (Section 1.4.1), paying particular attention to the manner in which sample infectious and parasitic diseases have waxed and waned at a variety of geographical scales from the global to the local over the last ∼150 years. Our choice of examples strikes a balance between coverage of geographical regions and epidemiological environments, and coverage of important diseases that we have not so far examined in detail. Our consideration is structured by geographical scale: (1) At the global level, we discuss three major human diseases that have undergone phases of rapid global expansion since 1850—plague, cholera, and HIV/AIDS (Section 9.2). (2) At the regional level, we examine twentieth-century trends in general infectious disease mortality in the advanced economies of Europe, North America, and the South Pacific, 1901–75, before looking at time sequences for sample emerging (Ebola–Marburg) and cyclically re-emerging (meningococcal) diseases in sub-Saharan Africa (Section 9.3). (3) At the national level, we use Hall’s (1993) data to establish the main trends in morbidity due to infectious diseases in Australia, 1917–91 (Section 9.4). (4) At the local level, we extend our examination of long-term disease trends in London, described for the pre-1850 period in Section 2.4, into the late twentieth century (Section 9.5). The chapter is concluded in Section 9.6. In this section, we examine long-term trends in three major human infectious diseases that have undergone phases of global expansion in the last 150 years: plague (Section 9.2.1); cholera (Section 9.2.2); and HIV/AIDS (Section 9.2.3).
Recovery of Nutrient Cycling and Ecosystem Properties Following Swidden Cultivation: Regional and Stand-Level Constraints
Authors: Lawrence Deborah , Foster David R.
Published: November 2020

The total area of agricultural systems in tropical Mexico increased by 64 per cent from 1977 to 1992—a mean annual deforestation rate of 1.9 per cent (Cairns et al. 2000). In all likelihood, this rate has continued for the past ten years. Dry tropical forest covers 8 per cent of Mexico and is subject to conversion for agricultural use (Trejo and Dirzo 2000). Because the southern Yucatán contains the largest contiguous block of dry tropical forest in Mexico and Central America, understanding the biogeochemical consequences of land-use change there is important for effective national and international conservation and development efforts. Over the past four decades the southern Yucatán peninsular region has undergone an increasing amount and intensity of land use (Chs. 3, 9, 10). These land uses, many focused on swidden practices, alter the structure and function of forested lands and often generate new feedbacks in terms of subsequent human use. Consequently, a major goal in assessing regional environmental change is to understand how biogeochemical processes respond to land-use change, emphasizing the potential of a human-dominated landscape to sustain continued human use. One of the greatest challenges in these studies is to untangle the effects of environmentally induced variation from, for example, climate, geology, or natural disturbance, from that induced by human activity. In the SYPR project the approach to this challenge has been to investigate variation in ecosystem processes in several study sites across the dominant environmental gradients while focusing on the influence of local, human-controlled factors within a given area. In the southern Yucatán peninsular region annual precipitation increases by more than 50 per cent over a distance of 120km. Median annual precipitation varies from about 900mm in the northern part of the study area to about 1,400mm in the southern part. This dramatic gradient overlies a seasonal pattern shared by all sites regardless of their total annual precipitation. Rainfall is highly variable, with a pronounced dry period lasting from four to six months, depending on latitude. The range in precipitation observed in the study area encompasses approximately 50 per cent of the variation in precipitation of dry tropical forests worldwide (Murphy and Lugo 1986).
Land Cover and Land Use: Classification and Change Analysis
Authors: Chowdhury Rinku Roy , Schneider Laura C.
Published: November 2020

Despite its international designation as a hotspot of biodiversity and tropical deforestation (Achard et al. 1988), the micro-scale land-cover mapping of southern Yucatán peninsular region remains surprisingly incomplete, hindering various kinds of research, including that proposed in the SYPR project. This chapter details the methodology for the thematic classification and change detection of land use and cover in the tropical sub-humid environment of the region. A hybrid approach using principal components and texture analyses of Landsat TM data enabled the distinction of land-cover classes at the local scale, including mature and secondary forest, savannas, and cropland/pasture. Results indicate that texture analysis increases the statistical separability of cover class signatures, the magnitude of improvement varying among pairs of land-cover classes. At a local level, the availability of exhaustive training site data over recent history (10–13 years) in a repository of highly detailed land-use sketch maps allows the distinction of greater numbers of land-cover classes, including three successional stages of vegetation. At the regional scale, finely detailed land-cover classes are aggregated for greater ability to generalize in a terrain wherein vegetation exhibits marked regional and seasonal variation in intra-class spectral properties. Post-classification change detection identifies the quantities and spatial pattern of major land-cover changes in a ten-year period in the region. Change analysis results indicate an average annual rate of deforestation of 0.4 per cent, with much regional variation and most change located at three subregional hotspots. Deforestation as well as successional regrowth is highest in a southern hotspot located in the newly colonized southern part of the region, an area where commercial chili production is large. The objectives of this chapter are to describe and evaluate: (1) an experimental methodology that iteratively combines three suites of image-processing techniques (PCA, texture transformation, and NDVI); (2) the statistical separability of distinct land-cover signatures; and (3) a post-classification change detection for the region from 1987 to 1997 in order to derive regional deforestation rates, and identify the spatial pattern of deforestation and secondary forest succession. Specifically, a region encompassing 18,700km2 (those land units completely within the defined region; Fig. 7.1) was mapped using a maximum likelihood supervised classification of lower-order principal components of Landsat TM imagery after tasseled-cap and texture transformations.
Southeast Asian Deltas
Authors: Woodroffe Colin D.
Published: November 2020

Deltas and estuaries are actively evolving suites of landforms formed where rivers meet the sea. Deltas are characteristically subaerial (and subaqueous) sediment wedges that protrude from the shoreline, whereas estuaries are typically tidally influenced lower parts of rivers in which the shoreline recedes inland. However, the individual distributaries of deltas, which may themselves be cuspate, exhibit estuarine characteristics, and it is convenient to use the term ‘deltaic–estuarine’ to describe river mouth tidal and alluvial plains. There are extensive low-lying coastal and deltaic–estuarine plains throughout Southeast Asia. These represent productive and relatively easily settled land, which has led to clearance of the natural vegetation of many of these plains for agriculture, silviculture, or settlement. Deltaic–estuarine plains are geologically young, responding to Late Quaternary sea-level and climatic fluctuations, and actively undergoing change in the modern landscape. Most have adopted their present form only in the past few thousand years, and are still active centres of deposition. Worldwide expansion of deltas occurred in the early to mid-Holocene as a result of deceleration of postglacial sea-level rise and the coincidence of sea level with extensive low-gradient shorelines (Stanley and Warne 1994). The formation of deltaic–estuarine plains in semi-arid areas may have been a catalyst for the appearance of civilizations based upon cultivation (Stanley and Warne 1993). Deltas in Southeast Asia, however, presented major challenges to pre-technical societies, as a result of their propensity to flood, poor access across the many bifurcating channels, and malaria, and were slower to be colonized (Büdel 1966). However, they have subsequently become important areas supporting large populations, particularly as a result of successful management of inundation for the cultivation of rice (van de Goor 1966). Overbank flooding is a prominent feature of most deltas and assures nutrient re-enrichment of fertile, but immature, soils supporting intensive farming. On the other hand, such flooding can also represent a major hazard, damaging property and in some cases resulting in loss of life. It is often controlled, or control over the extent of flooding is sought through engineering works.
The Urban Environment in Southeast Asia
Authors: Douglas Ian
Published: November 2020

As elsewhere, the major cities of Southeast Asia suffer from traffic congestion, air pollution, water supply shortages, garbage disposal inefficiencies, and sewage treatment inadequacies (Barrow 1981). Such problems are not confined to the capital cities and other centres of over a million population. They are prevalent, and often worse, in hundreds of smaller towns of a thousand to a million inhabitants. Most such urban centres have a large proportion of poor, ill-housed people who have difficulty in doing anything to improve their environment. At the same time, the bigger cities will also have some select, well-managed, often walled and gated, suburbs where the quality of housing and water and sanitation services is excellent. However, all social groups may be vulnerable to the air pollution and disease risks associated with a generally poor urban environment. Floods, landslides, and subsidence also do not distinguish the wealth or social status of their victims. These multiple, overlapping urban environmental problems are a response to a complex set of causes or drivers. The character of cities and towns in tropical Southeast Asia is driven in part by the types of human activity within and around them and in part by the environment in which they are situated. The hot and often humid climate has increasingly led to changes in house design from buildings with verandas and arcades designed to be cooled by natural air flows, to more boxlike structures dependent on air conditioning. The exhausts from the air conditioners inevitably add heat to the outside air, warming the immediate urban environment, often making the narrow streets of many cities hotter and more uncomfortable than they otherwise would be. The design and character of buildings are governed by environmental, aesthetic, functional, and cost considerations. In part building styles reflect the type of shelter needed and in part they make statements about their owners and the activities which go on inside them. It is the same with the settlement as a whole. A town or village has features that help it to cope with the natural environment around it, especially heavy rains and strong winds.
Conclusion
Authors: Gannon Anna
Published: November 2020

The ‘third way’ we have been following in this study of the coins has of necessity been a collection of ‘cameos’, often diachronic. Whilst this approach has allowed imagery and themes to be examined, understood, and placed firmly within the visual culture of the time, it has also provided firm foundations for addressing a number of issues posed at the beginning of the work, concerning sources, context, and meaning. We can now proceed to draw some conclusions, which will broadly cover artistic, numismatic, and historical questions. The study of the iconography of the early coinage has highlighted the eclectic use of a great variety of sources beyond those of purely numismatic derivation, and indicated that the particular choice of idiom was symptomatic of the change in the perceived function of the coins. Within the period, distinctions can be made between the earlier and later coinages. Although a desire to conform to monetary types respected on the Continent, including Visigothic and Byzantine issues, suggests that commercial credibility was important at the inception of Anglo-Saxon coinage, an analysis of the iconography expands this picture. Early independent Anglo-Saxon coinage (c.630–700) appears to be relatively conservative, modelled on Roman prototypes via Merovingian issues showing busts on the obverse, and reverses with crosses. The classical bust, on account of its charisma and tradition, was clearly felt to be an important part of the iconography, and was reproduced on the majority of issues. Unlike classical prototypes, however, it was rarely accompanied by identifying legends. When these occur, they are reproduced in an increasingly degenerated manner, until they turn into patterns, perhaps pseudo-magical. Inscriptions may have been superfluous in an illiterate society, or perhaps it might have been considered more beneficial for all concerned for the bust to represent ‘authority’ in general, rather than a particular person. It is interesting to notice runic and Latin characters coexisting, and perhaps even challenging each other. Rigold’s scheme of the various elements derived from the gold coinage which eventually conflated in Series A shows the creative use of disparate elements, insignia, attributes, and details which, as with other ‘barbarian’ coinages, were selectively copied, and sometimes replaced with native equivalents.
Environmental Aspects of the Atlantic Slave Trade and Caribbean Plantations
Authors: Beinart William , Hughes Lotte
Published: November 2020

The Atlantic world became Britain’s main early imperial arena in the seventeenth century. Subsequent to Ireland, North America and the Caribbean were the most important zones of British settler colonialism. At the northern limits of settlement, around the Atlantic coast, the St Lawrence River, the Great Lakes and on the shores of the Hudson Bay, cod fisheries and fur-trading networks were established in competition with the French. This intrusion, while it had profound effects on the indigenous population, was comparatively constrained. Secondly, British settlements were founded in colonial New England from 1620. Expanding agrarian communities, based largely on family farms, displaced Native Americans, while the ports thrived on trade and fisheries. In the hotter zones to the south, both in the Caribbean and on the mainland, slave plantations growing tropical products became central to British expansion. Following in Spanish footsteps, coastal Virginia was occupied in 1607 and various Caribbean islands were captured from the 1620s: Barbados in 1627, and Jamaica in 1655. The Atlantic plantation system was shaped in part by environment and disease. But these forces cannot be explored in isolation from European capital and consumption, or the balance of political power between societies in Europe, Africa, and America. An increase in European consumer demand for relatively few agricultural commodities—sugar, tobacco, cotton, and to a lesser extent ginger, coffee, indigo, arrowroot, nutmeg, and lime—drove plantation production and the slave trade. The possibility of providing these largely non-essential additions for British consumption arose from a ‘constellation’ of factors ‘welded in the seventeenth century’ and surviving until the mid-nineteenth century, aided by trade protectionism. This chapter analyses some of these factors and addresses the problem of how much weight can be given to environmental explanations. Plantations concentrated capital and large numbers of people in profoundly hierarchical institutions that occupied relatively little space in the newly emerging Atlantic order. In contrast to the extractive enterprise of the fur trade, this was a frontier of agricultural production, which required little involvement from indigenous people. On some islands, such as Barbados, Spanish intrusions had already decimated the Native American population before the British arrived; there was little resistance.
Objects found in disturbed volcanic deposit above Insula I 10
Authors: Allison Penelope M.
Published: November 2020

These objects were excavated before the plans of the houses were known. Excavations with no datum line mean that it is now impossible to find their original location. Dimensions: preserved diam.: 42 mm; thickness of lamina: c.0.5 mm. Description: Plano-convex bronze boss of fine lamina with incised concentric lines on a convex upper surface. Evidence of a rectangular cut near the edge. Incomplete. Present location: Pompeii Collection, CB (inv. no. 4142A). Discussion: The rectangular cut indicates that they are probably from a ring handle. See discussion on ring handles. Dimensions: diam.: 34 mm; h.: 11 mm; thickness of lamina: c.25 mm. Description: bronze boss, of broad-brimmed hat type. Present location: Pompeii Collection, CB (inv. no. 4142B). Discussion: Similar to cat. no. 242. See discussion on ring handles. Dimensions: preserved l.: 133 mm; max. l. of wing: 115 mm; h.: 63 mm; thickness of lamina: 5 mm. Description: Heavy hinge with triangular straps, three large central pivot plates and an iron pin. Ends of straps squared. Preserved open. Present location: Pompeii Collection, CB (inv. no. 4164). Discussion: Similar to cat. no. 241. See discussion on strap hinges. Dimensions: l.: 116 mm; h.: 19 mm; w.: 9 mm. Description: Bolt with a key pattern consisting of two squares, each made up of four triangular holes (one square broken). Remains of an L-shaped iron bar of rectangular section (preserved l.: 47 mm; section: c.10 mm × 7 mm) at one end of the bolt. Small bronze rod (preserved l.: 18 mm) of circular section (diam.: c.4 mm), possibly a tumbler. Present location: Pompeii Collection, CB (inv. no. 4155A). Discussion: Key pattern comparable to cat. no. 272. See discussion on locks and keys. Dimensions: l.: 74 mm; h.: 15 mm; w.: 17 mm. Description: bolt with a key pattern of five rhomboid holes arranged in two rows. Present location: Pompeii Collection, CB (inv. no. 4155B). Discussion: see discussion on locks and keys. Dimensions: preserved l.: 70 mm; h.: 29 mm; w.: 12 mm. Description: bolt with key pattern of five rhomboid holes arranged in two rows as on cat. no. 1986, but larger. Present location: Pompeii Collection, CB (inv. no. 4155C). Discussion: Similar to cat. no. 316. See discussion on locks and keys.
Global Networks and Local Societies: Cities in the Information Age
Authors: Castells Manuel
Published: November 2020

Cities are a major source of intellectual creativity and political engagement. We have not finished, and we will never finish, understanding the transformation of cities and the impact of this transformation on society and culture at large. The focus for this chapter is what I would call the great twenty-first century urban paradox—an urban world without cities. Let me try to explain first, and then go into the details of the analysis. I would say that cities have been throughout history sources of cultural creativity, technological innovation, material progress and political democratization. By bringing together people of multicultural origins and by establishing communication channels and systems of cooperation, cities have induced synergy from diversity, dynamic stability from competition, order from chaos. However, with the coming of the information age cities as specific social systems seem to be challenged by the related processes of globalization and informationalization. New communication technologies appear to supersede the functional need for spatial proximity as the basis for economic efficiency and personal interaction. The emergence of a global economy and of global communication systems subdue the local to the global, blurring social meaning and hampering political control traditionally exercised from and by localities. Flows seem to overwhelm places as human interaction increasingly relies on electronic communication networks. Therefore, cities as specific forms of social organization and cultural expression, materially rooted in spatially concentrated human settlements, could be made obsolete in the new technological environment. Yet, the paradox is that with the coming of the techno-economic system, urbanization— simply understood as spatial concentration—is in fact accelerated. We are reaching a predominantly urban world, which before 2005 will include for the first time in history at least 50 per cent of the planet’s population in cities. Core activities and a growing proportion of people are and will be concentrated in multimillion metropolitan regions. This pattern of social–spatial evolution could lead to what I call urbanization without cities. As, on the one hand, people concentrate in spatial settlements, at the same time suburban sprawl defuses people and activities in a very wide metropolitan span.
Expressions of the Elites
Authors: Hinton David A.
Published: November 2020

Because both Gildas and Bede wrote of mutual antipathy between Britons and Anglo-Saxons, it used to be thought self-evident that their hostility was expressed by the cultural differences that appear so obvious in the formers’ Christianity, Celtic speech, hillforts, and unfurnished graves, and the latters’ cremations, furnished inhumations, sunken-featured buildings, great squareheaded brooches, and the like. Different ideas about the adaptations that had to be made to meet changing circumstances have led to reappraisals of extreme positions about racial exclusiveness, however, and emphasis is now placed on the ways that people created new identities rather than on how they inherited one of two alternative dichotomies. The spread of furnished graves westwards and northwards in the second half of the sixth century could be taken as evidence of further waves of immigrants from the continent, but at least as likely is that existing populations were changing their practices as new conditions developed. In the west and north, the most visible change in the archaeological record after the middle of the sixth century is the disappearance of Mediterranean imported pottery from hillforts and other sites, replaced by southern French wares, implying that wine and olive oil shipped in wooden casks from the Loire valley and Bordeaux replaced Greek and African supplies sent in clay amphoras. As with the earlier bowls and dishes, the assumption is that much of the pottery was ‘associative’, sought after because it was seen as appropriate to use at feasts when luxuries were offered by a host. Unlike the earlier imports, however, in the seventh century there were also open-topped jars that seem to have been used as containers, presumably for dry goods as liquids would have slopped out. Some were used for cooking. The French seventh-century pottery, now called E-ware, is a little more often found than are the earlier wares; its absence from South Cadbury is good evidence that that site went out of use c.600, despite its former importance—a sign of the continued instability of the period. Just as none of the Mediterranean imported pottery had reached places far from the west coast, so too the French wares did not pass inland, or up the English Channel. Imports of glass have a broadly similar distribution, although dating is more difficult.
Volcanoes
Authors: Oppenheimer Clive , Pyle David
Published: November 2020

The historical record of Mediterranean volcanism is arguably the richest available for any region of the world. Documentary records date back to the Classical period, and archaeological records date back further still (Stothers and Rampino 1983; Chester et al. 2000). The Mediterranean is also home to some of the most famous, or indeed infamous, volcanoes on Earth, several of which still present major threats to society today (Kilburn and McGuire 2001; Chester et al. 2002; Guest et al. 2003). A number, for example Santorini, Etna, and Vesuvius, have menaced human populations since Antiquity, and the human response and risk perception today are strongly shaped by a culture, which itself owes much to the volcanic landscapes and eruptions (Chester et al. 2008). The science of volcanology was born, and has since flourished, in the cradle of the Mediterranean. It began, arguably, with the careful descriptions by Pliny the Younger of the AD 79 eruption of Vesuvius that buried Pompeii, and developed through the scientific investigations of Sir William Hamilton in the eighteenth century. The region was the playground of the pioneers of modern volcanological studies in the nineteenth century (e.g. Fouqué 1879), and today it boasts a number of state of the art volcano observatories such as that which monitors Vesuvius. Several volcanoes, eruption styles, geothermal manifestations, and rock types have inspired nomenclature now widely used within the volcanological community: plinian, vulcanian, and strombolian eruptions; low temperature gas emanations known as solfataras; rocks known as pantellerites. The very word ‘volcano’ comes from the Aeolian island Vulcano, where Vulcan’s forge was situated. The sea-filled crater of Santorini was one of the first volcanic ‘calderas’ to be described, by Ferdinand Fouqué in the 1870s. The Mediterranean basin tracks the geological suture between the African plate to the south, and the Eurasian tectonic plate to the north (Chapters 1, 13, and 16). Many regions along this suture have experienced volcanic activity within the past 10–20 Myr (million years), most of it related to the continuing process of subduction that has consumed the northern margin of the African plate.
Earthquakes
Authors: Stiros Stathis
Published: November 2020

Earthquakes have played a major role in the evolution of the Mediterranean landscape. They are the most important geohazard in the region and huge sums are invested annually in seismic monitoring, hazard zoning, and earthquake prediction, and in the design of earthquake-resistant buildings and infrastructure. Large earthquakes of magnitude >7.0 have been recorded across the region and the archaeological record shows that earthquakes have posed a major hazard to human settlements for thousands of years (Ambraseys 1971; Shaw et al. 2008; Bottari et al. 2009; Figure 16.1 and Table 16.1). The study of Mediterranean seismicity started about 2,400 years ago when the first earthquake catalogue was compiled in ancient Greece (Papazachos and Papazachou 1997; Guidoboni et al. 1994). This key development predated, by several centuries, the construction of the first seismograph in China (Bullen and Bolt 1985). Since these early developments a great deal of research has been carried out to improve our understanding of earthquakes and associated hazards in the Mediterranean region and to provide protection from them. Earthquake resistant buildings—such as houses with timber bracing—were introduced in Asia Minor in the seventeenth century (Kirikov 1992; Simopoulos 1984; Stiros 1995) and the first strict anti-seismic construction regulations were implemented on the island of Levkas, Greece, in the nineteenth century under British Rule (Stiros 1995). The first ‘modern’, regional-scale earthquake maps and catalogues were compiled as early as the middle of the nineteenth century (Mallet 1858). Despite this progress, the death toll from Mediterranean earthquakes is still high and earthquakes in the region continue to surprise geoscientists. For example, the diffuse pattern of seismicity that is especially characteristic characteristic of the eastern Mediterranean (Figure 16.2) is not easily reconciled with existing plate tectonic models, and many faults that are believed to demarcate plate boundaries (such as the Jordan Rift) are currently quiescent (Figure 16.3). Similarly, the 1995 Grevena-Kozani earthquake was a surprise for scientists, for it hit the heart of what was believed to be an aseismic region in northern Greece (Stiros 1998a). Furthermore, key aspects of the geodynamic background of the Mediterranean region remain a matter of debate.
Storms and Floods
Authors: Carmen Llasat María del
Published: November 2020

Floods are the most common natural hazard in the Mediterranean region and they result in the greatest economic losses. For regions such as eastern Spain, the south of France, Italy, and the west of the Balkan Peninsula, it can be argued that damaging floods are not infrequent and they can be considered a key component of the climatic and hydrological regime (Barnolas and Llasat 2007). The economic and social impacts of flooding are not just a function of the high frequency of large floods, but also of the vulnerability created by various human activities. In common with other parts of the Mediterranean, the regions listed above are characterized by widespread and intensive economic activity as well as high population densities—often in river valleys and on coastal plains—and this combination results in very significant losses following major flood events (Ruin et al. 2008). Floods and severe weather events affect all parts of the Mediterranean, but their frequency and impact are not homogeneous across the region. Between 1991 and 1995 the damage caused by floods in Mediterranean Europe amounted to €80 billion (Estrela et al. 2000). Table 18.1 shows the main flood events that have occurred in the European Mediterranean since 1990. Although high-magnitude wind storms are not as important as heavy rains and floods, they are considered to be the second most important meteorological hazard in the Mediterranean region because of their frequency and the damage caused both inland and to sea traffic. In addition to the wind storms produced by well-known winds such as the bora or sirocco, severe-weather events and storms produced by deep lows can affect the northern and southern parts of the Mediterranean basin. The most catastrophic wind storm in recent years was the November 2001 event that caused over 600 deaths in Algeria and four deaths—and damage put at over €37 million—in the Balearic Islands of Spain. The flooding and wind storms that occur in the Mediterranean and adjacent countries are intrinsically related to both Mediterranean meteorology itself and the marked cyclogenesis recorded in the region (Chapter 3).
Decolonizing the Colonial City
Authors: Clarke Colin
Published: November 2020

In this sequel to Kingston, Jamaica: Urban Development and Social Change, 1692 to 1962 (1975) Colin Clarke investigates the role of class, colour, race, and culture in the changing social stratification and spatial patterning of Kingston, Jamaica since independence in 1962. He also assesses the strains - created by the doubling of the population - on labour and housing markets, which are themselves important ingredients in urban social stratification. Special attention is also given to colour, class, and race segregation, to the formation of the Kingston ghetto, to the role of politics in the creation of zones of violence and drug trading in downtown Kingston, and to the contribution of the arts to the evolution of national culture. A special feature is the inclusion of multiple maps produced and compiled using GIS (geographical information systems). The book concludes with a comparison with the post-colonial urban problems of South Africa and Brazil, and an evalution of the de-colonization of Kingston.
Decolonization and the Politics of National Culture
Authors: Clarke Colin
Published: November 2020

The focus in this chapter shifts from the ghetto, politics, and violence in downtown Kingston (Ch. 5 and 6) to concentrate on the development of the plastic and performing arts during the last four decades of Jamaica’s decolonization and the first four decades after independence. Inevitably, it also concentrates on the experience and achievements of two generations of Jamaicans, who, with the help of a handful of Britishers during the 1920s and 1930s, laid the foundations for the flourishing of creole culture (the culture of the brown and black population) as national culture after 1962. However many of the themes that have previously been investigated— colonialism, race, pluralism, class, the ghetto, and politics resurface in this chapter and are bound into the argument. The chapter opens with a brief account of the late-colonial need to forge a national identity in Jamaica instead of relying on the imitative provincialism of white colonial culture. It then looks at the cultural complexity of Kingston, drawing brief attention to distinctions in family, religion, education, and especially language between the three principal social strata, in the lower two of which the modern arts movement has been embedded. The focus is subsequently placed on the plastic arts—sculpture, wood carving, pottery, and painting; poetry, and the novel; pantomime, dance, and plays. The final section concentrates on popular music and the creative role of the Rastafari movement in the development and diffusion of reggae, one of the quintessential expressions of Jamaican national culture. Here low-status black culture has been not only a national unifying focus for all (or almost all) sections of society, but also a vehicle for projecting a Jamaican black identity on to the international stage. However, reggae has been partially eclipsed by dance-hall (and slackness), and this has introduced renewed tensions between uptown and downtown. A major feature of Jamaican national culture (as it emerged around independence) is that it is creole, or local to Jamaica. However, it is also a plural culture, in that virtually all branches of the arts are divided into tutored and untutored versions: Cooper (1993) uses the terms ‘book’ and ‘long head’, reflecting the involvement of the middle and lower strata, respectively.
Late Industrialization and Technological Capabilities Building
Authors: Rock Michael T. , Angel David P.
Published: November 2020

How can governments and indigenous manufacturing firms in the rapidly industrializing economies of developing Asia take advantage of the opportunities afforded by the region’s openness to trade and investment and its late industrialization to insure that urban industfrial development is more environmentally sustainable? As was argued in Chapter 1, our initial entry point for addressing this question is an understanding of the dynamics of technological upgrading and industrial capability building within the region. We begin here in large part because improvements in the energy, materials, and pollution intensity of industrial activity are fundamentally (though clearly not exclusively) an issue of technological change, of developing, deploying, and using product and process technologies that are less polluting. In addition, we anticipate that lessons learned from the ways in which the East Asian NIEs achieved rapid technological catch-up will be transferable to the problem of improving the environmental performance of industries within the region and within other developing economies. Specifically, we consider the institutional conditions and types of policy interventions that supported technological upgrading of firms and industries among the East Asian NIEs. We begin with a review of what is known about industrial upgrading and technological catch-up as a development strategy, especially as practiced by the East Asian NIEs from the 1960s onwards. Our central conclusion is that institutions mattered. Through a review of existing studies, and through statistical analysis, we demonstrate that institutional effectiveness is a critical determinant of industrial competitiveness of developing economies. We also demonstrate that while there was no standard blueprint through which governmental institutions supported the work of firms, the institutional frameworks put in place within the East Asia NIEs were critical to their success in achieving rapid technology catch-up and industrial upgrading, and through these processes improved industrial competitiveness and industry-led economic growth. We begin, however, with the work of firms. Because most technological capabilities building requires effort, trial and error, and gaining tacit experience with particular technologies, it is primarily a task that only firms can undertake (Lall 1992: 166). As is now known, there are significant differences in the willingness of firms to undertake and succeed in these tasks.
Win–Win Environmental Intensity or Technique Effects and Technological Learning: Evidence from Siam City Cement
Authors: Rock Michael T. , Angel David P.
Published: November 2020

As we demonstrated in Chapter 5 and as a small, but rapidly growing, body of research suggests, developing countries appear to be able to achieve win–win technique effects—reductions in the energy, materials, water, and pollution intensities of industrial production—simply by opening their economies to trade, foreign investment, and foreign technology (Copeland and Taylor 2003; Dean 2002; Reppelin-Hill 1999; Hettige et al. 1997; Wheeler and Martin 1992; Birdsall and Wheeler 1992; Lucas et al. 1992). While extremely promising, none of this body of work allows for in-depth analysis of the strategies and processes used by individual firms that import newer, more efficient, and cleaner technologies to reduce environmental intensities. In effect, this literature tells us much about win–win outcomes, but it says little about how these outcomes are achieved. If the import, adoption, and use of technologies that reduce environmental intensities were a simple and relatively costless process, this would not be a major source of concern. But, as we demonstrated in Chapter 2, there is a large literature suggesting that, on the contrary, technological learning and upgrading is a complex, difficult, and lengthy process, often marked by failure, that requires firms to make heavy investments in learning and upgrading (Amsden 2003, 1989; Bell and Pavitt 1992; Dahlman et al. 1987; Hobday 1997; Kim 1997; Lall 1992; Nelson 1993; Kim and Nelson 2001; Wade 1990; and UNIDO 2002b) before they can reap the economic and environmental gains associated with shifts to more effcient technologies. The core research question to be addressed in this chapter then is the importance of firm-level learning for achieving the win–win technique effects—improvements in environmental intensities associated with the import and adoption of energy and pollution-efficient technologies. Because firm-level learning is industry specific, path dependent, and influenced by the openness of an economy to trade, investment, and foreign technology, we focus on the learning effects of intensities reduction in one firm, Siam City Cement Public Company Ltd. (SCCC), in one particularly ‘dirty’ and rapidly expanding developing country industry (cement) that is undergoing substantial technological modernization, global consolidation, and greening, in an economy, Thailand, that has historically been very open to trade, investment, and foreign technology (Pongpaichit 1980).
The Nature of the State
Authors: Whitehead Mark , Jones Rhys , Jones Martin
Published: November 2020

The twin categories of the state and nature collectively embody some of the most fundamental reference points around which our lives and thinking are organized. Despite their combined significance, however, the complex relationships that exist between modern states and nature remain under-theorized and are relatively unexplored. Through a detailed study of different sites, moments, and framing strategies The Nature of the State challenges the ways in which geographers and social scientists approach the study of state-nature relations. The authors analyse different instances of state-nature interaction from all over the world, considering the geo-politics of resource conflicts, the operation of natural history museums, the organizational practices of environmental departments and ministries, the regulation of genetic science, and contemporary forms of state intervention within issues of climate change. Introducing original research into the different institutional, spatial, and temporal strategies used by states to frame the natural world this book provides a critical overview of the latest political and ecological theories and addresses a wide range of pressing socio-environmental debates.