bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Rise of OPEC
Authors: Colgan Jeff D.
Published: October 2021

Chapter 3 follows the rise of OPEC from 1960 to 1974. It explains how the Anglo-American oil companies known as the Seven Sisters lost control of the world’s oil production. These firms and their governments held the pre-OPEC order together by using both the threat of punishments (quasi-imperial power) and strategic benefits (market incentives). Racism and social hierarchy buttressed those relationships. Eventually, dissatisfied policymakers like Abdullah Tariki of Saudi Arabia and Juan Pablo Pérez Alfonzo of Venezuela created OPEC. They sought an economic sequel to decolonization. They cooperated effectively to shift the structure of the global oil market. A wave of nationalizations gave petrostates decision-making authority and the majority of the industry’s profits.
Method in Moral Inquiry
Authors: Kitcher Philip
Published: October 2021

This chapter introduces the concept of pragmatic (non-goal-directed) progress and presents the proposed method for understanding problems of exclusion. It contrasts the pragmatist approach with that of scholars like Derek Parfit, Thomas Nagel, and T. M. Scanlon, who emphasize moral truth and (tacitly or explicitly) take progress to be the discovery of moral truths. The chapter argues that this conception is both incomplete and epistemologically problematic. The main work, however, is to show how to give substance to the notion of a moral problem and to describe procedures for addressing the case of exclusion, in which “the cries of the wounded” go unheard.
Account for the Future, not Just the Past
Authors: Hill Alice C.
Published: October 2021

This chapter maps the essential terrain for understanding climate risk: the future will no longer resemble the past. To avoid the collective failure of imagination that currently impedes efforts to address climate risks, decision makers, be they political or business leaders, should confront a never-before-experienced reality, namely that the globe’s climate has begun to move beyond its stable boundaries. A growing set of climate tools and services allow humans to identify and understand the looming future risks. Employing these tools to plan for climate change on a regional, national, and local scale, as well as within the private sector, will allow communities to build awareness and identify fresh approaches for adapting to the new climate reality. All of the planning in the world, however, will not ensure success when leaders lack the understanding, the will, or the skill to turn scientific information and plans into concrete action. As the fumbled response to the COVID-19 crisis in the United States revealed, leadership matters when it comes to global crises, like pandemics and climate change.
Rage in Work Clothes
Authors: Cherry Myisha
Published: October 2021

Chapter 3 moves from the theme of making value claims to motivating positive action. It gives an account of why Lordean rage is motivational and asks how it can fuel positive action. Through a brief engagement with cognitive science and social psychology, the text suggests that the fuel of Lordean rage’s motivation includes eagerness, self-belief, and optimism. Historical examples of freedom fighters Sojourner Truth, Ida B. Wells, and even Martin Luther King Jr. are provided as people whose angry antiracist actions were ignited by this fuel. Given the nature of Lordean rage, the chapter also explains why Lordean rage is more likely to motivate the outraged to engage in positive action than the other anger varieties discussed in Chapter 1. This chapter ends by responding to counterarguments against anger’s productivity and argues that Lordean rage is compatible and complementary with positive emotions like love and need not be replaced by them.
Building Your Own Boat
Authors: Prasad Monica
Published: October 2021

If despite all the objections one remains committed to problem-solving, this chapter gives some basic advice about creating the infrastructure for a career in problem-solving sociology when this infrastructure does not already exist. Solving a problem is going to require devoting a career to it. The main principles in building a problem-solving career are, first, to remember that there are many different kinds of problem-solving paths (inside the academy, in government, think tanks, on the internet, in the streets); second, to find like-minded colleagues and collaborators; and third, to chart one’s course by keeping the next step and the end goal in mind, even if the path in between is unclear.
Introduction to Marcion
Authors: Litwa M. David
Published: October 2021

This brief introduction to Marcion of Pontus includes his life, education, scriptures, teachings, disciples, and the ancient sources helpful for understanding him. Marcion distinguished the Jewish creator from the good and true deity revealed in and through Jesus Christ. His conception of an evil creator—that good character cannot come from evil actions—was not supported by the majority of Roman presbyters. Marcion thus organized his own ecclesial movement in Rome, where he began an ambitious mission to establish his form of Christianity in other parts of the empire. His church movement lasted several centuries, notably in the eastern Mediterranean. Marcion did not so much separate the Law (“Old Testament”) and the gospel (“New Testament”) as distinguish between two superhuman entities, with two opposing characters, competing for the hearts and minds of human beings.
The Causal Revolution in Epistemology
Authors: Talbott William J.
Published: October 2021

In Chapter 4, the author describes an important challenge to the Proof Paradigm in the 20th century, the causal paradigm. He identifies Gettier as the main catalyst for the causal revolution and traces the development of the causal paradigm in the work of Goldman, Dretske, and Nozick. The author argues that the causal revolution drew attention to an important element in epistemic rationality, which he illustrates with the example of Beauregard, the white supremacist. But he argues that causal-reliabilist theories cannot provide a complete account of epistemic justification or rationality. This motivates the author to develop his own distinctive theory of epistemic rationality. The chapter ends with an Afterword in which he illustrates the continuing influence of Hume’s epistemology in Lewis’s theory of counterfactuals.
Who Decides?
Authors: Sutton Jeffrey S.
Published: October 2021

The earlier book, 51 Imperfect Solutions, told stories about specific state and federal individual constitutional rights, and explained two benefits of American federalism: how two sources of constitutional protection for liberty and property rights could be valuable to individual freedom and how the state courts could be useful laboratories of innovation when it comes to the development of national constitutional rights. This book tells the other half of the story. Instead of focusing on state constitutional individual rights, it focuses on state constitutional structure. Everything in law and politics, including individual rights, eventually comes back to divisions of power and the evergreen question: Who decides? The goal of this book is to tell the structure side of the story and to identify the shifting balances of power revealed when one accounts for American constitutional law as opposed to just federal constitutional law. Who Decides? contains three main parts—one each on the judicial, executive, and legislative branches—as well as stand-alone chapters on home-rule issues raised by local governments and the benefits and burdens raised by the ease of amending state constitutions. A theme in the book is the increasingly stark divide between the ever-more-democratic nature of state governments and the ever-less-democratic nature of the federal government over time.
Umpiring and Gerrymandering
Authors: Sutton Jeffrey S.
Published: October 2021

In the United States, the growth of judicial power started as a way to curb over-reaching, sometimes corrupt, state legislatures and manifested itself in allowing the judicial branch, as opposed to the other branches, to resolve more disputes over contracts, property, debts, and other distinctly nineteenth-century problems. For the last seventy-five years or so, however, something else has propelled its influence: the growth of constitutional review at the federal level, the power to invalidate state and federal civil laws and executive branch actions as well as state and federal criminal prosecutions. This chapter discusses what has become an acutely American dilemma, a fear that the courts will do too little in enforcing constitutional rights and a fear they will do too much. It considers the problems posed in each direction and the risks of politicizing the federal courts if they become the exclusive source of identifying constitutional individual and structural rights.
Judicial Review
Authors: Sutton Jeffrey S.
Published: October 2021

The conventional account of judicial review starts with a US Supreme Court case, Marbury v. Madison. But judicial review in truth starts with the state courts and the state constitutions, not the US Supreme Court and the US Constitution. Before the US Constitution existed, the state courts established American judicial review and were the first courts to wrestle with the complexities of exercising it. Judicial review also is foremost a structural story, not an individual-rights story. The delegation of power to the judiciary to decide the meaning of our constitutions laid the groundwork for the growth in power of American courts—especially the federal courts, which have become the go-to answer for so many who-decides questions in American government over the last seventy-five years. This chapter begins a search for insights in resolving the dilemma of judicial review by looking at how the state courts innovated the concept and the ways they initially practiced it. It shows that the early state courts were deferential to the democratic branches of government. They rarely invalidated state laws and did so only when these laws violated a clear constitutional rule. That approach offers lessons for federal and state courts alike.
Are You a Territorial Judge or a Territorial Lawyer?
Authors: Sutton Jeffrey S.
Published: October 2021

This chapter looks at a later phase of state court history, one that necessarily concerns a different group of state courts but ultimately relates to all of them. Unlike the states that first entered the Union, most of the other states experienced a different pre-statehood status, usually as a territory of the United States. That status and the political experiences that went with it fed populist and distrust-of-government attitudes that fueled the growth of judicial elections, and helped to lay the political groundwork for popular constitutional initiatives that began in the early 1900s. Just as judicial elections were primarily a phenomenon of the states that began as territories, so the same would be true of popular initiatives. Why, the chapter asks, did the local-control preferences that prompted the territories to seek statehood not carry over into lasting local-control preferences in interpreting their own constitutions? The chapter promotes the use of the federal and state courts in judicial review, particularly when it comes to difficult-to-define American constitutional rights.
Local Governments
Authors: Sutton Jeffrey S.
Published: October 2021

The US Constitution never mentions “city,” “county,” or “township,” not even “local” or “municipal” governments. It concerns itself only with sovereign entities. Because local governments “cannot claim to be sovereigns” and because whatever power a local government has tends to flow from its state, that sounds like the end of the matter. But local governments still exercise sovereign powers, including law enforcement, eminent domain, education, taxing, zoning, and other indispensable “attributes of sovereignty.” Even if the US Constitution does not mention cities by name and even if cities cannot claim sovereign status, the federal charter still has ample consequences for municipal governments. This chapter takes vertical separation of powers one step further, to federalism within federalism. It explains the division of powers between state and local governments and chronicles disputes that have arisen between them. If, in modern America, like-minded people increasingly gravitate to similar states, the same is true within states, whether in cities, suburbs, or rural areas. Home rule and other local allocations of power sometimes allow people in these communities to express their distinct political preferences and live under them, too.
Amending Constitutions to Meet Changing Circumstances
Authors: Sutton Jeffrey S.
Published: October 2021

This chapter addresses the ultimate recourse of liberty, the freedom to change. Having ratified the structure and rights in our fifty-one constitutions, the people retained authority to alter them. Allowing citizens to amend their constitutions was contentious from the beginning. Thomas Jefferson insisted that all constitutions should provide each generation with an opportunity to choose its own form of government. James Madison, on the other hand, held the view that a readily amendable constitution would undermine stability. America ultimately adopted both views. In juxtaposition to the near-impossible amendment process at the federal level, the people easily may amend their state constitutions, usually with a 51% vote, often by citizen-initiated petitions. The differences between these models for change raise the possibility of state lending and federal borrowing in some instances and power-checking, freedom-securing separation in others.
Theories of Causation
Authors: Woodward James
Published: October 2021

This chapter is a critical discussion of some standard accounts of causation in the philosophical literature with brief forays into related literature in psychology and machine learning. Accounts discussed include regularity, counterfactual, interventionist, and geometrical mechanical theories. The use of directed graphs and structural equations to model causal relationships and the contrast between model-based and model-free approaches is also discussed. It is argued that model-based frameworks do a better job of representing causal relationships than frameworks that merely represent regularities or associations. The limitations of causal process theories even in capturing mechanical phenomena is also highlighted. This sets up a framework for subsequent discussion.
Choosing the Future
Authors: Mossberger Karen , Tolbert Caroline J. , LaCombe Scott J.
Published: October 2021

COVID-19 laid bare a persistent “digital divide” in both urban and rural communities at a time when access to education, work, health care, food, and government services relied on use of broadband or high-speed internet. A lifeline during the pandemic, broadband use is a fundamental resource for the future of opportunity in communities. Prior work has examined impacts for broadband infrastructure, but that indicates little about the extent to which local populations can afford and use the technology. With new data on broadband subscriptions from 2000 to 2017 and comprehensive analysis for states, counties, metros, cities, and neighborhoods, the authors argue that broadband use in the population is a form of digital human capital; like education, broadband use benefits communities as well as individuals. The evidence is compelling, with data over time that supports broadband’s causal impact across all types of communities, for economic prosperity, growth, income, employment, and policy innovation. Yet there are urban neighborhoods and rural counties where as little as one-quarter of the population has a broadband subscription, even when mobile is included. As “smart” cities and communities are built, employing artificial intelligence and the Internet of Things; as economies and jobs continue to experience rapid change; and as more information and services migrate online, it is communities with widespread broadband use that will be best positioned for inclusive innovation, with the digital human capital to thrive.
Universal Politics
Authors: Kapoor Ilan , Zalloua Zahi
Published: October 2021

This book claims that there is a negativity at the core of all social articulations that provides the basis for a universal politics. Drawing principally on the work of Slavoj Žižek, the book suggests that the social is punctured by an impossibility—an incompletion—that, rather than serving as a barrier to politics, lays a foundation for shared struggle. The book thus argues for a negative universality, rooted not in a positive element (e.g., identity-based politics) but a discordant one, so that under our current global capitalist system, solidarity is to be forged on the basis of social antagonism (i.e., shared experiences of exploitation and marginalization). Such a conception of shared struggle avoids the trap of both a neocolonial universalism (e.g., the rights of white men parading as universal rights) and the narrow particularism of identity-based politics. Most importantly, it foregrounds the struggles of the systematically dispossessed and excluded (the permanently unemployed, migrants, refugees, sweatshop laborers, etc.), who stand as symptom of our global capitalist order. The book compares “negative universality” with four competing contemporary versions of universalism—conservative, liberal, postcolonial, and Marxist. It also brings “negative universality” into dialogue with present-day critics of universalism—postmodernists, post-Marxists, queer theorists, decolonial pluriversalists, and new materialists. Finally, it examines what a universal politics might look like today in the context of such key global sites of struggle as climate change, the refugee crisis, the Palestinian question, Black Lives Matter, #MeToo, political Islam, workers’ struggles, the Bolivian state under Morales, the European Union, and Covid-19.
Reshaping Platform-Driven Digital Markets
Authors: Mazzucato Mariana , Entsminger Josh , Kattel Rainer
Published: October 2021

The market size and strength of the major digital platform companies has invited international concern about how such firms should best be regulated to serve the interests of wider society, with a particular emphasis on the need for new antitrust legislation. Using a normative innovation systems approach, this chapter investigates how current antitrust models may insufficiently address the value-extracting features of existing data-intensive and platform-oriented industry behaviour and business models. To do so, it employs the concept of economic rents to investigate how digital platforms create and extract value. Two forms of rent are elaborated: ‘network monopoly rents’ and ‘algorithmic rents’. By identifying such rents more precisely, policymakers and researchers can better direct regulatory investigations, as well as broader industrial and innovation policy approaches, to shape the features of platform-driven digital markets.
Enabling Community-Owned Platforms
Authors: Schneider Nathan
Published: October 2021

At a time when regulators are seeking new responses to the dilemmas of world-spanning digital platforms, forms of community ownership such as cooperatives and trusts offer attractive benefits for workers and other users. Yet if economic democracy is to provide a counterweight to investor ownership in the online economy, it will require an appropriate policy framework. This chapter argues that such a framework can come from radically generalizing and expanding on pre-digital successes in local and industry-specific policies from various countries and contexts—including policies for incorporation, financing, and coordination. Policy should use community ownership not just to solve specific problems but also as a universal means of organizing innovation. It should also seek to repair past injustices to communities marginalized through underinvestment. Community ownership could thereby become at least as available to the online economy as investor ownership has been.
Reason as Organism
Authors: Ypi Lea
Published: October 2021

This chapter offers an interpretation of the relation between ideas and ends of reason rooted in the analogy between system and organism that Kant invokes in the Architectonic. Focusing in particular on Kant’s theory of the ‘germs’ to explain the development of organic beings, it reveals the links between the first Critique and Kant’s early philosophy of biology, particularly the writings on the concept of human race. The chapter shows how the function of the principle of purposiveness in the Critique of Pure Reason is connected to an idea of purposiveness as design, and linked to a preformist theory of development inspired by Leibniz and Bonnet. The comparison between the Architectonic and other writings of the same period—especially Kant’s essay on universal history—is useful to ground Kant’s remarks on the importance of a purposive conception of history to his requirements of systematic unity in the Architectonic.
The Deduction of Transcendental Ideas
Authors: Ypi Lea
Published: October 2021

This chapter develops the distinction between purposiveness as design and purposiveness as normativity in light of the transcendental deduction of ideas. It focuses in particular on the link between ideas and the assumption of a purposive order of nature, and on the implications of the latter for the physico-theological proof of the existence of God. Focusing on Kant’s arguments in the Dialectic of Pure Reason and in the lectures on the philosophy of religion held around the same period, the chapter shows how Kant’s assessment of physico-theology combines his reluctance to fully endorse Hume’s critique of purposiveness, with his scepticism concerning Wolff’s attempt to revive Leibnizian theodicy. The chapter concludes that although Kant criticizes the validity of the physico-theological proof, his remarks on the theme remain ambiguous given the practical interest of reason, and the role the concept of God plays for the latter.
The Kingdom of Ends
Authors: Ypi Lea
Published: October 2021

This chapter continues to probe Kant’s claim that systematic unity can be found in the practical use of reason, despite the absent justification of a transcendental concept of freedom. It turns to the analysis of the highest good as the synthesis of virtue and happiness, and to the assumption of purposiveness as design on which the idea of nature as a system of ends is grounded. Physico-theology resurfaces when Kant argues that the demands of reason in its practical use prove the reality of a purposive order of nature without which reason could not promote its essential ends in the natural world. The architectonic unity of the system is thus given by the final end of practical reason that, as Kant argues in the Architectonic, guarantees a passage from the realm of nature to that of freedom, validating the physico-theological proof of the existence of God.
Conclusion
Authors: Ypi Lea
Published: October 2021

The conclusion explains why the price for the architectonic unity of the initially separate systems of nature and freedom is a transcendental theology which implicitly commits reason to metaphysical assumptions about the order of nature which its critical part has explicitly ruled out. This is useful to understand why Kant later retracted the defence of physico-theology and converted it to ethical theology in the Critique of the Power of Judgment, a text where the problem of purposiveness is carefully distinguished from the use of ideas, and where we find a separate faculty responsible for the use of purposive principles: the faculty of judgment. Understanding the demand for systematic unity and its execution in the Architectonic of Pure Reason is crucial to make sense both of how that project developed in the first Critique, and of the need to return to a reconfiguration of the system in subsequent works.
Judgement in the Service of the Will: Mach and Jerusalem
Authors: Textor Mark
Published: October 2021

Mach et al. argued that judging is biologically useful because it makes a new object familiar to us. This suggests that (atomic) judgements need to have at least two terms. Jerusalem’s Die Urteilsfunktion defended the two-term view against Brentano. Jerusalem aimed to refute Brentano’s view of judgement and replace it with one in line with Voluntarism. Jerusalem’s slogan is that judgement has (at least) two terms; it is a mental relation between two things. In this chapter I will first work through Mach’s conception of judgement and then go on to reconstruct Jerusalem’s arguments against Brentano. Later Schlick takes up Jerusalem’s suggestion and uses it to argue that every judgement must have at least two terms.
Motivation
Authors: Broome John
Published: October 2021

This chapter develops a scheme for the explanation of rational action. It start from a scheme that may be attributed to Thomas Nagel in The Possibility of Altruism, and develop it step by step to arrive at a sharper and more accurate scheme. The development includes a progressive refinement of the notion of motivation. It ends by explaining the role of reasoning within the scheme. Nagel explains rational action in terms of reasons. He deliberately declines to distinguish motivating reasons from normative reasons; reasons both justify and motivate actions. But they motivate action only through the agent’s judgements about reasons, which more accurately are her judgements about what she ought to do. This paper identifies another pattern of motivation, which is instrumental reasoning.
Reasoning with preferences?
Authors: Broome John
Published: October 2021

In reasoning, you proceed by following a rule from premise-attitudes to a conclusion-attitude. Types of reasoning can be classified by the nature of the attitudes involved. In theoretical reasoning, the conclusion-attitude is a belief; in practical reasoning it is an intention. Is there also a type of reasoning whose conclusion-attitude is a preference? This paper investigates this question. First it clarifies the notion of preference, identifying a core notion of preference as a sort of comparative desire. It concludes that there may indeed be reasoning with preferences of this sort. However, it is hard to distinguish reasoning with preferences from theoretical reasoning with beliefs that have a particular sort of content—specifically a belief that one thing is better than another. So the conclusion is not clear.
Searching for a Place
Authors: Sillars Stuart
Published: October 2021

Books about the English countryside adopt different ways of introducing the post-War generation to places that were either previously unknown or long forgotten. In the process, they presented locations in images working together with words to present the experience responding to them, rather than preparing readers to see them. Important works here are Hammerton’s Wonderful Britain, H. V. Morton’s In Search of England. S. P. B. Mais’s Let’s Get Out Here, and books published by the Great Western and other railway companies exploited the freedom offered by cheap rail travel. Many of these approach the narrative techniques of popular illustrated novels in presenting journeys and the emotions they generate, following the model begun in Wilkie Collins’s 1851 book on Cornwall, Rambles beyond Railways.
Magazines for All
Authors: Sillars Stuart
Published: October 2021

A major source of information and entertainment was the illustrated magazine, of which The Graphic and the Illustrated London News were the most popular. The first was the least innovative, with rigid layout and brief captions barely related to its illustrations. The Illustrated London News had a wider scope, in its Christmas 1930 number including colour images of paintings, and illustrated fiction, yet its presentation was still moderately rigid. Picture Post, begun in 1938 brought words and images together through skilful layout and imaginative photography, attracting readers with a greater variety of social, political and artistic articles. Its use of images without borders gave energy lacking in the earlier magazines. It used these features to satirise some ministers and praise others, and attacked Government policies, including unemployment and early-war censorship. Yet many of its visual techniques were adopted by Government in its publications of the war years.
Introduction
Authors: Dougan Michael
Published: October 2021

This chapter introduces the context of Brexit by providing a brief overview of the political tensions that characterized the UK’s membership of the EU right from the time of its accession in 1973. The chapter goes on to summarize some of the main approaches identified by scholars to help explain why and how Leave narrowly defeated Remain in the 2016 referendum, and discusses how different political actors then sought to interpret the outcome of the popular vote to leave the Union—including what Brexit should mean for the future EU–UK relationship. This introduction then provides a detailed summary of the remaining chapters of the book.
Article 50 TEU: The Quest for an Orderly Withdrawal and the Possibility of Alternative Denouements
Authors: Dougan Michael
Published: October 2021

This chapter sets out the basic constitutional framework, under EU law, governing the withdrawal of a Member State. Article 50 of the Treaty on European Union recognizes the sovereign right of any State to leave the EU and sets out a process for agreeing the terms of an orderly departure. But Brexit also required the EU and the UK to undertake extensive internal preparations, to ensure their own legal systems were ready for the UK’s departure. Moreover, Article 50 itself is drafted in only brief and sketchy terms, leaving many important decisions about Brexit to be worked out in practice. And EU law allows for other final outcomes to the withdrawal process—including a ‘no deal Brexit’; or the UK’s right to ‘revoke and remain’ under the Wightman ruling.
Framing the Article 50 TEU Negotiations and Agreeing the First Withdrawal Package
Authors: Dougan Michael
Published: October 2021

This chapter examines the most important of the decisions relating to Brexit under Article 50 TEU: those concerning the basic scope, sequence and timing of EU–UK negotiations; which in turn determined the working agenda for the entire Brexit talks. After negotiations finally commenced in June 2017, Brexit talks were marked by several key milestones, e.g. Theresa May’s ‘Florence Speech’ in September 2017; the Joint EU–UK Report of December 2017; and the UK’s ‘Chequers Plan’ of July 2018. In November 2018, the European Council and the UK Government reached political agreement on a draft Withdrawal Package—which then had to be approved by their respective domestic institutions.
Rejection, Revision, and Approval of the Withdrawal Package
Authors: Dougan Michael
Published: October 2021

This chapter explores the process by which the UK Government led by Theresa May sought but ultimately failed to secure parliamentary approval for its proposed Withdrawal Package in accordance with section 13 of the European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018. Those efforts foundered largely upon controversies surrounding the ‘backstop’ for avoiding a ‘hard border’ between Ireland and Northern Ireland. When Boris Johnson took over as Prime Minister, he insisted upon renegotiating the terms of Brexit with the EU—resulting in a revised Withdrawal Package, containing a new ‘Irish border plan’ and foreseeing a more distant future EU–UK relationship. That Withdrawal Package was approved by the EU and UK institutions and provided the legal basis for UK departure from the EU on 31 January 2020.
Fundamentals
Authors: Hutchings Jeffrey A.
Published: October 2021

Life-history theory provides an overarching framework for understanding the evolution of traits such as age and size at maturity, offspring number and offspring size, and reproductive effort. The chapter begins with a brief history of life-history theory and ends with a primer of basic population growth models. The history of life-history research mirrors that of evolution by natural selection. In the nineteenth century, the field focused on life stages and life cycles. The work by Darwin and Mendel created novel theoretical frameworks for interpreting biological variability, one of which led to Fisher’s redefinition of a life history in the 1930s. His work provided the theoretical and mathematical constructs for the key assumption of life-history evolution: natural selection favours those genotypes whose age-specific schedules of survival (lx) and fecundity (bx) generate the highest maximum per capita rate of increase (rmax) relative to other genotypes in the same population. Cole, Fisher’s leading disciple, was at the forefront of a subsequent slew of quantitative life-history models that populated the literature through the remainder of the twentieth century. Many of these models were ultimately based on fundamental elements of population growth articulated by mathematicians such as Lotka.
Diseases of the nervous system
Authors: Benedetti Fabrizio
Published: October 2021

This chapter is dedicated to motor disorders, first and foremost Parkinson’s disease, the area together with pain where most of the knowledge about the mechanisms of the placebo effect comes from. The placebo effect in Parkinson’s disease is mediated by dopamine release in the striatum and is associated with changes in activity of neurons in the subthalamic nucleus, substantia nigra pars reticulata, and motor thalamus. Deceptive verbal instructions about changes in drug dosage can affect the pharmacological effect of levodopa in the treatment of Parkinson’s disease. The therapeutic effects of deep brain stimulation are powerfully modulated by placebos. Migraine is another disease of the nervous system that shows very high rates of improvement in patients who received placebo, although the mechanisms are little understood. Other neurological diseases, like epilepsy, show improvements in placebo groups, but the mechanisms are not known.
Denmark: Traditions and Practices
Authors: Weller Patrick , Grube Dennis C. , Rhodes R. A. W.
Published: October 2021

Danish cabinet government is founded on consensus, a multi-party coalition government with a negotiative style of decision making, where changes are small and there are few ideological divisions within the polity. It has a system of ministerial government, with ministers meeting in cabinet. However, the core business was normally undertaken in two cabinet committees: the Coordination Committee, chaired by the prime minister, and the Economic Committee, chaired by the minister of finance, traditionally from the same party as the prime minister. These two, assisted by the heads of their departments, sit at the centre of government, but they can act only with the support of the committees they chair which contain the leaders, or senior representatives, of other parties in the coalitions. This duopoly was the key for a long time, although under a minority Social Democrat government since 2019, the dynamics are changing.
Switzerland: Traditions and Practices
Authors: Weller Patrick , Grube Dennis C. , Rhodes R. A. W.
Published: October 2021

The Federal Council is the executive government in Switzerland. The membership of the council has remained at seven since 1849; they are elected by the Federal Assembly and, by an agreed ‘magic formula’, represent the four largest parties in the assembly. There is no coalition agreement; the federal councillors must reach agreement on items as they arise. The portfolios are allocated by agreement among the seven, not distributed by the head of government. The president serves for a year and the position rotates around the councillors. Presidents have no actual authority beyond chairing the council meeting. Decisions are determined if necessary by a vote of the seven members. The councillors must explain decisions to the parliament where they will interact with their party members, but they are not accountable because they cannot be removed by parliamentary vote. By tradition, the councillors will determine how long they stay and when they will leave. Switzerland has a strong plebiscitary tradition and acts of the parliament can be put to the voters whenever there is demand.
The Material Dimension
Authors: Briggs Andrew , Reiss Michael J.
Published: October 2021

The relationship between human flourishing and the satisfaction of material needs is not straightforward. Once people have more than can be bought in the US for about forty thousand dollars a year, more money doesn’t on average result in greater happiness. There are many accounts of people who win a lottery and end up saying that they wish they hadn’t. Nevertheless, the most important factors affecting the average national measure of happiness are (in descending order): GDP per head; the extent of social support (having someone to count on in times of trouble); how many years of healthy life the average citizen can expect to live; freedom to make life choices; generosity (recent donations made); and trust (perceived absence of corruption in government and business). People with severe disabilities may report a good quality of life despite being socially isolated or having major difficulties in activities of daily living.
Purpose
Authors: Briggs Andrew , Reiss Michael J.
Published: October 2021

Purpose can be understood in various ways. For Aristotle, purpose is the ‘final cause’ of a phenomenon, its end. Does the Universe have a purpose? It certainly has a history and a direction, and Arthur Eddington coined the phrase ‘time’s arrow’ to indicate its direction. The fine-tuning that the Universe manifests has given rise to various interpretations of the anthropic effect. For biologists, even the simplest organisms seem to manifest purpose, although they cannot act intentionally. Humans (setting aside very young children and those who are severely mentally incapacitated) can act intentionally and can make choices. Someone with a firm religious conviction may see the purpose of their life as responding appropriately to what they believe God is calling them to do.
The Disarray of Macedon
Authors: Waterfield Robin
Published: October 2021

In the less than fifty years between Alexander the Great’s death and Antigonus’s gaining the throne in 276, Macedon had twelve rulers. This chapter charts these decades of chaos, while interleaving details of Antigonus’s immediate family and his early years. Alexander was replaced by a dual kingship of his half-brother Philip III, and his infant son Alexander IV. Olympias, Alexander the Great’s mother and the guardian of Alexander IV, briefly seized the throne, killing Philip III in the process. She was ousted by the military might of Cassander and put to death. Cassander imprisoned Alexander IV and later had him killed. Cassander ruled from 316 to 297, but on his death chaos returned, ultimately enabling Demetrius Poliorcetes, the father of Antigonus, to seize the throne. Demetrius was expelled in 287 and Macedon was divided between Lysimachus of Thrace and Pyrrhus of Epirus. Lysimachus drove Pyrrhus out of his half of the country, but was defeated in battle and killed by Seleucus, the ruler of Asia. Seleucus was assassinated by Ptolemy Ceraunus, who thereby gained the Macedonian throne. But Ptolemy bungled his response to a massive invasion of Celts, and lost his life in the process. Macedon descended into anarchy.
The Democratic Spirit of Athens
Authors: Waterfield Robin
Published: October 2021

Athens was the leader, along with the Aetolians, of the Greeks’ first resistance to Macedon after Alexander the Great’s death, the Lamian War. But the Greeks lost. In this chapter I trace the gradual weakening of Athenian democratic structures in the subsequent decades. Democracy came and went. It was replaced successively by an oligarchy, by a regime of a Macedonian puppet ruler called Demetrius of Phalerum, by the tyranny of Lachares, and by the increasingly autocratic moves of Demetrius Poliorcetes in those periods when he had control of the city. But between these non-democratic stretches, the Athenians always restored democracy – most famously in 286 by armed rebellion, when they had the support of Egyptian troops. The return of democracy was always heralded with great enthusiasm, but in fact over the decades democratic structures were gradually undermined, not least by the increasing control wealthy members of society had over the administration. I also cover the importance of garrisons for Macedonian control of Athens and other Greek states.
The Empire of the Ptolemies
Authors: Waterfield Robin
Published: October 2021

By the end of the 280s, there were three major players in the eastern Mediterranean: Antigonus in Macedon, Antiochus I in Asia, and the Ptolemies in Egypt. Antigonus and Antiochus came to an agreement, leaving the Ptolemies as Antigonus’s main enemy. They had already expanded far beyond Egypt. Even much of the coastline of Asia Minor was in their hands, and they consistently demonstrated their hostility toward Macedon. I set the background to this hostility with the intervention of Ptolemy I in Greek affairs in 309, and show how a more restricted policy of interference was followed by Ptolemy II. I discuss Ptolemy II’s marriage to his full sister, Arsinoe II, and his subsequent deification of himself and Arsinoe as the Sibling Deities. I show how this became a major plank in his propaganda attempt to portray Egyptian rule as the inevitable destination for all Greeks everywhere, and how this message was reinforced by a festival Ptolemy put on in the late 270s, the most elaborate and expensive the Mediterranean world had ever seen, and by the famous Museum of Alexandria with its library, supposed to hold all Greek literature that had ever been written.
Political Stability
Authors: Calvo-Gonzalez Oscar
Published: October 2021

While the Cold War provided an impetus for greater political stability, it is also the case that many internal factors helped buttress the stability of the Spanish polity in the decades after 1950. The legacy from the Civil War and the subsequent brutal repression, the coalition nature of the Franco dictatorship and the co-opting of elites into the regime all played a role in producing a more stable regime than over the previous century and a half. Above all, Franco demonstrated that he was bent on being dictator for life, thus forcing the use of violence if anyone wanted to oust him. The domestic opposition was ultimately unprepared to use force against Franco, out of fear of reprisal or because they feared that it could bring the country into yet another Civil War. It was ultimately this asymmetry that helps to explain why the long history of pronunciamientos was altered. If Francoism was the unintended consequence of the rebel uprising, stability was the unintended consequence of Francoism.
What We Owe Each Other, Epistemologically Speaking
Authors: Goldberg Sanford C.
Published: October 2021

The aim of this chapter is to articulate and defend a particular role for ethico-political values in social epistemology research. After describing a research program for social epistemology, it goes on to argue that by the lights of this research program, there is an important role to be played by ethico-political values in knowledge communities, and (correspondingly) an important role in social epistemological research in describing the values inhering in particular knowledge communities. It concludes by noting how, even as it expands its focus beyond the traditional one to include descriptions of our “knowledge practices,” this sort of project relates to some of the core questions that have been pursued by traditional epistemology.
Epistemic Extendedness, Testimony, and the Epistemology of Instrument-Based Belief
Authors: Goldberg Sanford C.
Published: October 2021

This chapter explores how our dependence on others in testimony differs from our reliance on instruments. The key difference lies in the presumption of responsibility in play when we depend on others’ say-so. In this respect, at least, there appears to be something epistemically distinctive about relying on another epistemic agent. The aim of the chapter is to develop this point in a way that captures the sort of reliance that the author takes to be at issue when we take the word of another speaker. This reliance reflects our dependence on the speaker as an epistemic agent in her own right; and the burden of the present proposal is to argue that this fact ought to be accommodated within any adequate epistemology of testimony.
Funding for Partnership
Authors: Rayner Cynthia , Bonnici François
Published: October 2021

Funders of systems work are best positioned to play a supporting actor role: seeding, nurturing, and propagating systems work through their funding processes and activities. To play this role, funders can use the same systems work principles as their grantees and partner organizations, while at the same time committing to a learning journey with their grantees. Funders must also analyze the power that they bring into the relationship and actively work in partnership to redistribute this power to organizations and primary actors. When funding is a partnership built on trust, it facilitates a process of unlearning and relearning, with power reconfigured toward those with lived experience and deep immersion in the context of social problems. Many “traditional” funder activities are then co-created or even ceded to organizations and primary actors as trust becomes a key component of the relationship.
The Principles and Practices in Action
Authors: Rayner Cynthia , Bonnici François
Published: October 2021

This book asks a rather simple but bold question: “How do organizations create systemic social change?” This question is growing in importance, becoming part of the strategic conversation for all types of organizations, not just those specifically focused on social change. Business leaders, politicians, educators, employees, and parents are grappling with the realization that complex social change can rapidly impact their everyday lives. As frustration at the slow pace of change grows, and the world’s wicked problems—such as inequality, climate change and racial justice—proliferate, people are increasingly recognizing that we need to find ways to tackle the root causes of these issues rather than just addressing the symptoms. In the face of these challenges, it is easy to default to our more traditional views of leadership and problem-solving, which celebrate an us-versus-them mentality, top-down decision-making, and aggressive power stances. Systems work—with its focus on the process of change including our day-to-day actions and relationships—may feel counterintuitive in this rapidly emerging future. Yet, as the authors’ research has shown, the future is demanding a different kind of leadership, one that emphasizes the ways we work as much as the outcomes we pursue.
How Institutions Influence the Appointment of Women to High Courts
Authors: Escobar-Lemmon Maria C. , Hoekstra Valerie J. , Kang Alice J. , Kittilson Miki Caul
Published: October 2021

Chapter 5 sets out the formal and informal institutions that, collectively, comprise the selection process for the highest courts in five countries (Canada, Colombia, Ireland, South Africa, and the United States). Limiting the focus to formal rules of selection overlooks informal institutions (norms and practices) that constrain and enable the choices of selectors. Selection often rests on identifying a list of potential nominees based on informal networks, which have historically been composed of men. Across country cases, gendered networks and gendered ideas about qualifications often act as filters to hinder the appointment of women. When selectors or their key advisors decide to do so, they can disrupt reliance on these traditional networks by looking beyond the usual suspects as they draw up their shortlists. The chapter also illuminates the contexts in which electoral accountability and incentives matter. When selectors perceive electoral benefit from selecting a woman, and can be held accountable by their electorate, they are more likely to do so. In the context of pressure to select a woman, judicial nominating commissions and affirmative legal language can also increase women’s representation.