bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
FASB's nuclear decommissioning costs project may well have broad implications
Authors: Enoch Reginald , Pacter Paul
Published: July 2007

In mid‐1994, the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) embarked on a project to determine the appropriate accounting for the costs and obligations related to decommissioning nuclear power plants. The key question is whether a liability for nuclear decommissioning should be recognized and, if so, when.

Executives of electric utility companies have an obvious interest in this project. Understandably, however, a financial executive in another industry might say “It's not my issue”. But that's not necessarily so. The cost of decommissioning a nuclear power plant is one example of significant “exit” or “removal” costs that are incurred at the completion of long‐term projects or long‐lived facilities in numerous other industries. Any new FASB accounting and disclosure standards for decommissioning costs may well be extrapolated to the similar types of costs in other industries, either by the board itself or in practice.

Therefore, this article has two objectives: The first is to identify the issues and alternatives specifically related to companies'obligations for decommissioning nuclear facilities. The second objective is to identify analogous types of obligations for site restoration, removal, and similar exit costs in other industries to which new decommissioning accounting standards might be relevant.
New AcSEC requirements for disclosure of certain significant risks and uncertainties
Authors: Levine Marc H. , Fitzsimons Adrian P.
Published: July 2007

A new Statement of Position from the Accounting Standards Executive Committee of the AICPA requires some very specific additional disclosures. This article details what these disclosures are, and how to make them. [See also Nusbaum's and Weiss's discussion on page 133].
Accounting for derivatives—the FASB begins to move from disclosures to recognition and measurement
Authors: Munter Paul
Published: July 2007

In October 1994, the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) issued SFAS No. 119, Disclosure about Derivative Financial Instruments and Fair Value of Financial Instruments, as a part of its ongoing financial instruments deliberations. SFAS No. 119 draws on the disclosure requirements in SFAS No. 105, Disclosure of Information about Financial Instruments with Off‐Balance‐Sheet Risk and Financial Instruments with Concentrations of Credit Risk, and SFAS No. 107, Disclosures about Fair Value of Financial Instrumenta SFAS Nos. 105 and 107 established disclosure requirements for financial instruments.1 SFAS No. 119 expands these requirements to apply to derivative financial instruments as well.

The FASB is now in the process of developing recognition and measurement criteria for derivatives. One scenario would call for the recognition and measurement provisions to be based on the disclosure requirements found in SFAS No. 119. Thus, in this article, we first examine the provisions of SFAS No. 119 and then discuss the accounting provisions currently being debated by the FASB.
Pension reform legislation enacted with GATT trade package affects funding requirements
Authors: Davis Jeff , Young Gretchen
Published: July 2007

Changes to pension law contained in last year's GATT trade legislation may have a substantial impact on employers with underfunded pension plans. Many employers will face an increase in their annual funding requirements. Some may wish to consider accelerating contributions to these plans to avoid paying increased premiums to the Pension Benefit Guaranty Corporation (PBGC) as well as to avoid the need to notify participants that their plan is underfunded. All employers with defined benefit plans will need to modify the method by which they calculate lump sum distributions, both in terms of the minimum amounts they are required to pay and the maximum amounts they may pay within the limits of Section 415 of the Internal Revenue Code.
New transfer pricing IRS regulations and their business implications
Authors: Tang Roger Y. W.
Published: July 2007

Transfer pricing regulations in the United States and many other countries have changed over the last five years. In the United States, final regulations for Section 482 of the Internal Revenue Code were released on July 1, 1994. These regulations are effective for taxable years beginning after October 6, 1994. This article summarizes the transfer pricing methods allowable for sales and transfer of tangible and intangible property. The procedure for obtaining an advance pricing agreement is explained. The article also discusses management implications of those new transfer pricing regulations for business enterprises.
Accounting and reporting issues for “soft assets”
Authors: Munter Paul
Published: July 2007

Accounting for soft assets involves a lot of thorny issues. Customer lists, deferred advertising costs, noncompete covenants, software, and the like seem to invite subjectivity, but a spate of APB, opinions, AcSEC SOPs, and FASs new andoldare now available for clarification.
FASB draws strong criticism on derivatives exposure draft
Authors: Dolde Walter , Swieringa Robert J.
Published: July 2007

Reactions to the FASB's exposure draft on derivatives and hedging reflect strong criticism—and even outright opposition.
AcSEC's startup costs ED: No more assets
Authors: Noll Daniel J.
Published: July 2007

There has been no broad, authoritative guidance on accounting for startup costs. AcSEC's exposure draft SOP may change that.
The IASC financial instruments paper: A cause for concern?
Authors: Knutson Peter H.
Published: July 2007

The IASC has called for fair value accounting for financial assets and liabilities on both balance sheet and income statements. If adopted, U.S. CFOs will be forced to cope with the same dramatic changes, warns the author.
SEC increases disclosures about derivatives
Authors: Munter Paul
Published: July 2007

At best, a new FASB standard for accounting for derivatives won't be implemented for many months, so the SEC has decided companies must increase their disclosures about derivatives now. The author reviews how the extensive SEC release on the topic adds to the requirements of the old FAS 119 Standard.
A guide to the new FASB statement on derivatives and hedging
Authors: Royall Robert L. , Stone Craig
Published: July 2007

At long last, the FASB is issuing its controversial statement on accounting for derivatives and hedging activities. It is one of the most complex standards ever issued, and companies involved in derivatives and hedging activities should prepare to adopt it as soon as possible. The authors provide a comprehensive view of the new statement to help you do that.
Multiattribute signed orders
Authors: Fishburn Peter C.
Published: July 2007

A self‐reflecting signed order is a preference relation that compares relative likes and dislikes for items in a set X by jointly ordering X and a disjoint copy of X. If you would like Jones but not Smith appointed to a committee, and also think it more important to exclude Smith than include Jones, your self‐reflecting signed order records this information. We review basic representational theory for signed orders, then examine them when X is multiattributed. Axioms for additive measurement of multiattribute self‐reflecting signed orders are specified for several X‐structures.
Cone contraction method with visual interaction for multiple‐objective non‐linear programmes
Authors: Jaszkiewicz Andrzej , Slowinski Roman
Published: July 2007

We describe an interactive procedure, implemented on a PC, for solving multiple‐objective non‐linear programming (MONP) problems. The procedure is composed of two stages. The first stage consists of modelling decision maker's (DM's) preferences using a fuzzy outranking relation in a sample of non‐dominated points. The relation is then translated into a preference cone defining a subset of non‐dominated points of greatest interest to the DM. In the second stage the subset of non‐dominated points generated by the cone is scanned interactively. A graphical interface enables a visual interaction. The DM can either reduce directly the subset of non‐dominated points to be scanned or retract to the first stage and give finer preference information which results in contraction of the cone and reduction of the subset of non‐dominated points scanned in the second stage. Description of the procedure is followed by presentation of its application to a didactic MONP problem.
Lexicographic aggregation of semiorders
Authors: Pirlot Marc , Vincke Philippe
Published: July 2007

It is well known that the lexicographic aggregation of complete preorders gives a complete preorder. Unfortunately, this property is no longer true when the lexicographic rule is applied to semiorders. In this paper we study some ways of defining a lexicographic aggregation of semiorders and the properties of the resulting structures.
Dynamic multi‐criteria decision making
Authors: Kornbluth J. S. H.
Published: July 2007

Most medium‐and long‐term decision making in industry and government can be viewed as dynamic multi‐criteria decision making (MCDM), in which the decision makers are free to alter the emphasis placed on each objective in the light of developing circumstances. In this paper the problem of time‐dependent weights in MCDM is discussed and an analysis of empirical data associated with dynamic decision making is presented.
Transforming continuous utility into additive utility using kolmogorov's theorem
Authors: Sounderpandian Jayavel
Published: July 2007

For a multidimensional criteria space to have an additive utility function, the strong condition of independence among the co‐ordinates (also known as separability) must be satisfied. However, if we are allowed to transform the criteria space into another, then a theorem due to Kolmogorov implies that we can, even in the absence of independence, transform the space into one that has a continuous additive utility function. Since this transformation is complex, it has only theoretical significance. However, certain related results from neurocomputing theory are quite practical and signify that there exists some scope for neurocomputing in multi‐criteria decision analysis.
Aspiration/reservation‐based decision support—a step beyond goal programming
Authors: Ogryczak Wlodzimierz , Lahoda Steve
Published: July 2007

Real‐life decision problems are usually so complex that they cannot be modelled with a single objective function, thus creating a need for clear and efficient techniques for handling multiple criteria to support the decision process. A widely used technique and one commonly taught in general OR/MS courses is goal programming, which is clear and appealing. On the other hand, goal programming is strongly criticized by multiple‐criteria optimization specialists for its non‐compliance with the efficiency (Pareto‐optimality) principle. In this paper we show how the implementation techniques of goal programming can be used to model the reference point method and its extension, aspiration/reservation‐based decision support. Thereby we show a congruence between these approaches and suggest how the GP model with relaxation of some traditional assumptions can be extended to an efficient decision support technique meeting the efficiency principle and other standards of multiobjective optimization theory.
Cognitive validity in design of decision‐aiding techniques
Authors: Larichev O. I.
Published: July 2007

Issues of the cognitive validity of prescriptive decision‐aiding methods are discussed in this paper. In view of the difficulty of external validation, the focus is on internal validation of the user interface. The following criteria are applied to a variety of decision aid designs: (1) psychologically valid measurement of features impacted by the decision; (2) psychologically valid elicitation of decision maker's preferences incorporated into a decision rule which processes those features; (3) possibility of checking for decision maker's consistency; (4) possibility of providing him/her with an explanation of the aids findings.
Some results concerning the quality of vertex solutions found by a method for multiple‐objective linear programming
Authors: Breslawski Steven T. , Zionts Stanley
Published: July 2007

The Zionts‐Wallenius algorithm for multiple‐objective linear programming terminates with an extreme point solution that is locally but not necessary globally optimal. To find the globally optimal solution, a search along the facets of the solution space polyhedron may be required. In this paper we report the results of an experiment to determine how close the local and global optima are. We discuss the concept of closeness and propose one measure. Computer simulation is used to determine, in general, the quality of the solution found by the Zionts‐Wallenius method for two types of non‐linear utility functions. The merits of a search procedure are discussed in the context of the results.
The application of correspondence analysis to multiple‐criteria decision making
Authors: Cheung Yan‐Leung
Published: July 2007

The aim of this paper is to show how correspondence analysis can be a useful aid in multiple‐criteria decision making, particularly in the case of categorical criteria values. Under different types of input information, the technique is used to perform some preliminary analyses with a bonus of providing a simultaneous graphical representation of the alternatives and criteria. This picture can provide a better understanding of the structure of the two sets of variables to the decision maker before a decision is made.
A non‐linear multi‐criteria model for strategic fms selection decisions
Authors: Kuula Markku , Stam Antonie , Ranta Jukka
Published: July 2007

The strategic decision of selecting an optimal flexible manufacturing system (FMS) configuration is a complicated question which involves evaluating trade‐offs between a number of different, potentially conflicting criteria such as annual production volume, flexibility, production and investment costs and average throughput of the system. Recently, several structured multicriteria approaches have been proposed to aid management in the FMS selection process. While acknowledging the non‐linear nature of a number of the relationships in the model, notably between batch size and the number of batches produced of each part, these studies used linear simplifications to illustrate the decision dynamics of the problem. These linear models were shown to offer useful analytical tools in the FMS pre‐design process. Owing to the non‐linearities of the true relationships, however, the trade‐offs between the criteria could not fully be explored within the linear framework.

This paper builds on the two‐phase decision support framework proposed by Stam and Kuula (1991) and uses a modified non‐linear multi‐criteria formulation to solve the problem. The software used in the illustration can easily be implemented, is user‐interactive and menu‐driven. The methodology is applied to real data from a Finnish metal product company and the results are compared with those obtained in previous studies.
Aggregating preference rankings: An AHP‐based approach
Authors: Mobolurin Ayodele , Bryson Noel
Published: July 2007

The problem considered here involves the selection of an alternative by a group of decision makers in a context that involves the aggregating of votes from a preferential ballot. A popular approach for solving such problems is the well‐known weighting problem formulation. However, with such a formulation two issues become of critical importance: (a) the weights should reflect the decision‐making group's belief on the importance of each rank position and (b) the weights should accord each alternative a fair (if not its best) assessment. Many researchers have studied this problem and proposed various solution strategies. None of these strategies, however, appears to have adequately addressed both issues. The objective of this research is to develop a group decision‐making model that solves the problem in a manner that adequately addresses the two critical issues identified, as well as allows for sensitivity analysis and is fairly robust with respect to the various paradoxes identified in voting systems.
Multiple‐criteria decision aid: Some epistemological considerations
Authors: Munda Giuseppe
Published: July 2007

This paper attempts to analyse in a critical way some essential aspects of the multiple‐criteria decision aid (MCDA) methodology using modern epistemological instruments. Particular attention is paid to the problem of information precision and uncertainty and to the distinction considered essential between the concepts of choice and decision. Since it is maintained that the respect of subjectivity in decision aid is of fundamental importance, an analysis follows of the main approaches by which MCDA methods attempt to take the subjective component of the decision maker into account, indicating some characteristics which may be desirable in an MCDA model for this purpose.
Economic optimization by compromise programming: The joint production model
Authors: Ballestero Enrique , Romero Carlos
Published: July 2007

In a basic microeconomic model (joint production and consumer's utility curves) three key optima appear: the best technological mix, the maximum profit point and the consumer's utility optimum. Compromise analysis can help to clarify their connections. This paper and other recent research attempt to specify the conditions which guarantee that these three optima coincide. Thus compromise programming becomes a valuable surrogate of economic optimization.
Generating interior search directions for multiobjective linear programming
Authors: Arbel Ami , Oren Shmuel S.
Published: July 2007

A new multiobjective linear programming (MOLP) algorithm is presented. The algorithm uses a variant of Karmarkar's interior‐point algorithm known as theaffine‐scaling primal algorithm.Using this single‐objective algorithm, interior search directions are generated and used to provide an approximation to the gradient of the (implicitly known) utility function. The approximation is guided by assessing locally relevant preference information for the various interior directions through interaction with a decision maker (DM). The resulting algorithm is an interactive approach that makes its progress towards the solution through the interior of the constraints polytope.
A manifesto for the new MCDA era
Authors: French Simon
Published: July 2007

The following manifesto has been prepared by five prominent workers in the field of MCDA. We are currently preparing a special issue on the issues that they raise (see Call for Papers on p. 128). We invite you to contribute to the debate in that issue, either in the form of a paper or a letter to the Editor.
Resolution of dilemmas: A mathematical theory
Authors: Kostreva Michael M. , Polyashuk Marina V.
Published: July 2007

A mathematical formulation for a dilemma (i.e. a situation in which a very difficult choice between two alternatives must be made) is given. Multiple‐objective programming is assumed as the model for a single decision maker. It is shown that, in principle, any dilemma is resolvable. Furthermore, there is always more than one way in which to resolve a dilemma. Illustrative examples from non‐convex optimization are presented.
In search of cognitive equilibrium: Beauty, quality and harmony
Authors: Zeleny Milan
Published: July 2007

The field of MCDM should become significantly concerned about problems that are also qualitative, ‘messy’, fuzzy or not well‐defined—they abound in human systems. Dealing exclusively with quantitatively well‐defined problematique (the proverbial ‘finding the shortest path’) is part of the unidimensional legacy of OR/MS: it programmatically neglects attributes of beauty, quality, harmony, aesthetics, safety and reliability. Yet these are the criteria which are ardently sought after by modern humans, while being mostly ignored or neglected by modern technocrats.
Stepwise contouring of efficient criterion vectors for large‐scale MOLP
Authors: Choi Yong Sun , Kim Soung Hie
Published: July 2007

In this paper a new method of presenting the overall (focused) structure of the efficient criterion vectors (N) for large‐scale MOLP is proposed. The proposed algorithm ASEOV (approximation of the set of efficient objective vectors) determines the representative subset of N and ensures full coverage of N, with corresponding coverage precision indicated. ASEOV works in objective space directly and eliminates unnecessary computational effort at the collapsing extreme points of X, which are transformed to non‐extreme points in objective space. The Tchebycheff metric is employed to measure the coverage precision. ASEOV allows a decision maker (DM) to control the determination procedure by assessing the coverage allowance for each criterion. When the DM's preference is available, ASEOV can focus contouring on the subset of N which fits with the extracted preference. Combined with proper interactive methods, this focused contour over N can reduce the DM's burden, inconsistency or cognitive bias in assessing his preference from which to derive the final best‐compromise solution. An illustrative example is presented.
Decomposition of multivariate utility functions in non‐additive expected utility theory
Authors: Dyckerhoff Rainer
Published: July 2007

In expected utility many results have been derived that give necessary and/or sufficient conditions for a multivariate utility function to be decomposable into lower‐dimensional functions. In particular, multilinear, multiplicative and additive decompositions have been widely discussed. These utility functions can be more easily assessed in practical situations.

In this paper we present a theory of decomposition in the context of nonadditive expected utility such as anticipated utility or Choquet expected utility. We show that many of the results used in conventional expected utility carry over to these more general frameworks.

If preferences over lotteries depend only on the marginal probability distributions, then in expected utility the utility function is additively decomposable. We show that in anticipated utility the marginality condition implies not only that the utility function is additively decomposable but also that the distortion function is the identity function. We further demonstrate that a decision maker who is bivariate risk neutral has a utility function that is additively decomposable and a distortion function q for which q(½) = ½.
Choice functions in multistage optimization
Authors: Rubchinsky Alexander
Published: July 2007

This paper is devoted to the multistage optimization problem with a vector‐valued gain function. The notion of optimality is determined here by the choice function. The conditions for the choice function that guarantee the applicability and efficiency of dynamic programming are found.
Letter to the editor, Schools on Islands, a journal as a Ferry
Authors: Bots Pieter , Kok Matthijs , Lootsma Freerk , Roc Leo
Published: July 2007

In an electronic brainstorming session, experts and users of methods for multi‐criteria decision analysis discussed editorial policies for a journal which is confronted with the conflicts between isolated schools of thought. The present paper describes the session and highlights how experts in multi‐criteria decision analysis view the applications of their own methods on their own decision problems.
Rank disagreement: A comparison of multi‐criteria methodologies
Authors: Buede Dennis M. , Maxwell Daniel T.
Published: July 2007

A number of multi‐criteria decision support techniques have emerged in recent years that use varying computational approaches to arrive at the most desirable solution and thereby ‘recommend’ a course of action. Decision makers who use the results of this analytic work should be assured that the computational schemes used by their supporting analysts or decision support software produce the appropriate solutions. We conducted a series of simulation experiments that compared the top‐ranked options resulting from the computational algorithms that support Multi‐Attribute Value Theory (MAVT) and three methods that are reported in the literature that allow rank reversals, the change in rank order of two options when an unrelated option is added or deleted from the analysis: the Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP), Percentaging and the Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution (TOPSIS). We also included a Fuzzy algorithm proposed by Yager to gauge its consistency with the other algorithms, even though it is not subject to rank reversals. These experiments demonstrated that the MAVT and AHP techniques, when provided with the same decision outcome data, very often identify the same alternative as ‘best’. The other techniques are noticeably less consistent with MAVT, the Fuzzy algorithm being the least consistent. The situations under which the most frequent and significant differences occurred were dependent upon the method.

The results of our experiments indicate that other issues (e.g. the processes used for problem structuring and the elicitation of value weights) are likely to be of greater significance to problem outcome (based on our experience) than the choice between the computational algorithms of MAVT and AHP. The results cause us to be concerned about the use of the other methods.
Sensitivity analysis with interdependent criteria for multicriteria decision making: The case of soil pollution treatment
Authors: Van Herwijnen Marjan , Rietveld Piet , Thevenet Kelly , Tol Richard
Published: July 2007

This paper is focused on interdependences between criteria in multicriteria decision analyses. Such interdependences are usually ignored in sensitivity analyses. After a discussion on the nature of interdependences, methods are presented to deal with interdependences in the context of Monte Carlo experiments. These methods are applied in the context of soil pollution treatment alternatives. It is shown that ignoring interdependences may have a distorting effect on the results of sensitivity analysis on rankings of alternatives.
An adaptive approach for modelling multiattribute choice
Authors: Prave Rose Sebastianelli , Keith Ord J.
Published: July 2007

An adaptive approach for modelling individual‐level choice among multiattribute alternatives using the binary logit model is presented. The algorithm involves the collection of paired comparison data. In an effort to maximize the amount of information obtainable from each response, it is based on the experimental design criterion of D‐optimality. A simulation study indicates that the proposed algorithm outperforms other sequential selection approaches in terms of estimation accuracy and predictive efficiency under certain circumstances. The results appear to encourage the use of such an adaptive algorithm for individual‐level modelling in light of the potential reduction in data requirements without significant loss in predictive accuracy.
Multiple‐objective weighting factor auxiliary optimization problems
Authors: White D. J.
Published: July 2007

In this paper we consider the generation of efficient solutions using weighting factor, qth‐power approaches for some non‐convex auxiliary function optimization forms. Algorithms are given for finding e‐optimal solutions for these optimization problems.
Scale horizons in analytic hierarchies
Authors: Dodd F. J. , Donegan H. A. , McMaster T. B. M.
Published: July 2007

In the light of the many criticisms to which the analytic hierarchy process (AHP) of Saaty has been subjected, the authors have produced a refined version, the modified analytic hierarchy process. This paper develops further the ideas behind the modified process and illustrates with examples some of the difficulties in the AHP and their resolution.
Lessons for successful nonprofit governance
Authors: Drucker Peter F.
Published: July 2007

Boards of nonprofit organizations malfunction as often as they function effectively. As the best‐managed nonprofit organizations demonstrate, both the board and the executive are essential to the proper functioning of a nonprofit organization. These administrative organs must work as equal members of a team rather than one subordinate to the other. Moreover, the work of the executive and the board does not divide neatly into policy‐making versus execution of policy. Boards and executives must be involved in both functions and must coordinate their work accordingly. In a well‐functioning nonprofit organization, the executive will take responsibility for assuring that the governance function is properly organized and maintained.
Changing labor market patterns in the nonprofit and for‐profit sectors: Implications for nonprofit management
Authors: Preston Anne E.
Published: July 2007

A decade ago, women who chose to work in the nonprofit sector made relatively small monetary sacrifices. However, recent data point to a marked decline, during the 1980s, in the wages of women in the nonprofit sector relative to women in the for‐profit sector. This relative decline in wages is likely to lead to labor shortages in the nonprofit sector if nonprofit managers do not engage in active policies to attract new workers.
Attracting volunteers using buyer behavior concepts
Authors: Moyer Mel S.
Published: July 2007

This article considers six concepts employed in commercial marketing—individual psychological characteristics, lifestyle, interpersonal influence networks, opinion leaders, the family, and learning theory—and their usefulness to administrators of volunteer organizations. It then suggests some steps that voluntary organizations might follow to take advantage of these concepts.
Why do nonprofit managers accumulate surpluses, and how much do they accumulate?
Authors: Chang Cyril F. , Tuckman Howard P.
Published: July 2007

Most theories of nonprofit behavior assume that nonprofit managers run surpluses only temporarily and that managers choose a budget level equal to expected revenues. In reality, equity accumulations have intrinsic value to nonprofit managers, and equity balances of nonprofits do grow over time. The authors discuss the tax treatment of nonprofits under U.S. tax laws, present existing theories of nonprofit behavior, and consider the reasons a prudent nonprofit manager might wish to earn and retain surplus funds. Data from a 1983 national sample of nonprofits are used to show that a large majority of nonprofits earned surpluses in 1983, that surprisingly few nonprofits had surpluses close to the zero level, and that the size of a nonprofit's surplus was related to its equity and asset holdings.
The effective nonprofit executive: Leader of the board
Authors: Herman Robert D. , Heimovics Richard D.
Published: July 2007

Prescriptive approaches place the nonprofit board of directors at the hierarchical pinnacle of the organization's management structure. Empirical research finds this view incomplete at best. The results of an attribution study indicate that nonprofit chief executives are perceived as centrally responsible for outcomes. Given such centrality, what skills differentiate executives who are regarded as especially effective from others? This article describes research suggesting that more‐effective executives provide leadership for their boards. The implications for executive behavior are reviewed.
The propensity of governing boards to plan
Authors: Stone Melissa Middleton
Published: July 2007

This article examines the relationship between board characteristics and formal organizational planning in forty‐four nonprofit organizations. The study found that ongoing and beginning planners were more likely than those with no planning experience—or those that had abandoned planning after an initial experience with the process—to have well‐understood missions, boards that concentrated on higher‐level policy issues, and boards that had clear structures for decision making. The data suggest that a coalition consisting of top management and board members needs to exist if a move toward the formalization of organizational structures and processes is to be sustained.
Commercial ventures of religious organizations
Authors: La Barbera Priscilla Ann
Published: July 2007

Religious groups represent almost 40 percent of all U.S. nonprofits. An empirical study of 105 religious‐based commercial ventures suggests several conclusions and implications for practitioners and scholars. First, the earning of income is rarely the primary consideration or measure of success in the initiation and evolution of religious‐based nonprofit enterprise. The primary purpose of religious venturing is to achieve social and spiritual aims, such as evangelism, provision of membership services, or economic development. Second, the philosophy of the groups studied was more cooperative than competitive vis‐vis other nonprofit and for‐profit groups. Third, the study's findings on staff difficulties within nonprofit enterprise are consistent with those of other studies and underscore the importance of using volunteers strategically and of clearly defining how enterprise activities fit into the organization's mission. Fourth, a spiritual dimension distinguishes the operation of religious nonprofits, especially the Christian groups, from secular enterprise.
How nonprofits adapt to a stringent environment
Authors: McMurtry Steven L. , Netting F. Ellen , Kettner Peter M.
Published: July 2007

Results from a survey of nonprofit human service agencies in Arizona are presented. Most agencies reported steady or declining revenues, increased competition with other agencies, and rising demand for services from clients who cannot pay. The strategies used to adapt to these changes ranged from small‐scale productivity enhancements to responses involving a complete restructuring of the agency as well as cutbacks in client services. The discussion focuses on the implications of the results for the continued viability of these agencies and their ability to maintain their commitments to poor clients.
Enhancing nonprofit resources through barter
Authors: Reisman Arnold
Published: July 2007

This article discusses the objectives and formats that countertrade (barter) assumes as a means of expanding the financial and other resources of nonprofit institutions. Examples of the different types of agreements practiced by various types of institutions indicate the pervasiveness of the practice. The author calls for greater levels of institutional commitment to the proactive seeking and consummating of countertrade agreements.
Leadership challenges for human service administrators
Authors: McCauley Cynthia D. , Hughes Martha W.
Published: July 2007

This study addresses the challenges that human service administrators face in maintaining and moving their organizations forward. Twelve leadership challenge dimensions are identified, variations in these challenges across agencies and administrators are explored, and the implications of these findings for leadership development programs targeted at human service administrators are discussed.
Corporate funding of the arts in a turbulent environment
Authors: Useem Michael
Published: July 2007

Focusing on funding in culture and the arts, the author identifies a distinctive logic of company support for nonprofit organizations. Business giving is increasingly disciplined around company objectives, giving levels are driven by pretax earnings, and giving decisions are the province of managers who draw advice less from the arts community or public agencies than from other companies. At best, turbulence in government funding has modest effect on corporate support. In turn, change in corporate support has little impact on public backing. The separate logics of corporate and government support imply separate and distinctive long‐term development strategies for nonprofit organizations.
Religious fund‐raising: The theology of stewardship
Authors: Engdahl Richard L.
Published: July 2007

In funding their national and international ministries, many mainline denominations report a shrinking financial base as local members and congregations change from the traditional unified budget approach to a designated or second pocket giving approach. This article traces the history of this development, relates it to biblical concepts of stewardship, discusses its implications for both religious and secular endeavors, and raises questions that require additional research.
Incentive‐based management for nonprofit organizations
Authors: Nelsen William C.
Published: July 2007

Nonprofit organizations should consider using incentive‐based management programs so long as such programs are studied thoughtfully, implemented carefully, and closely tied to other important management practices. The article describes the experiences of one nonprofit organization, Citizens' Scholarship Foundation of America (CSFA), in successfully conducting a staff incentive program during the past several years. The author also reports briefly on the results of a recent survey among CSFA staff involved in the incentive plan, outlining the benefits of such a program in helping the organization to reach its objectives. Finally, the author addresses potential pitfalls to avoid in implementing an effective staff incentive program.
Career professional who volunteer: Should their motives be accepted or managed?
Authors: Puffer Sheila M.
Published: July 2007

Career professionals, such as business executives who devote their time and talents to committee work in voluntary organizations, are highly valued as volunteers. These professionals have a variety of motives for adding volunteer work to their demanding schedules. Should volunteer agency administrators accept and reward these motives indiscriminately, or should they try to mold them to conform to agency values? The answer, according to this study, is yes to both alternatives, depending on whether the aim is to improve these volunteers' attitudes or their performance.
Jane addams and hull house: Historical lessons on nonprofit leadership
Authors: Knight Louise Wilby
Published: July 2007

Jane Addams, founder and head of Hull House, a social settlement in Chicago at the turn of the century, offers an intriguing model of a nonhierarchical, value‐oriented manager and leader. As the head resident of a group of some twenty volunteer residents—the staff of the settlement—Addams created an organizational culture and structure that encouraged individual initiative and self‐governance. Addams herself taught by example the value of tolerance and the meaning of social democracy, the moral goals whose attainment she sought.
Redefining the board's role in fiscal planning
Authors: Carver John
Published: July 2007

Board approval of an operating budget, a traditional exercise of board authority, can trivialize board leadership and stultify managerial prerogatives. Considered within a new governance paradigm, conventional budget approval is not only unnecessary, but dysfunctional. This article argues that boards should proactively establish policy for financial planning and then require administrative budgeting throughout the year to meet the policy criteria. The result is that boards stay focused on the bigger issues, particularly program priorities and goals, leaving managers the authority to create and adjust budgets within policy boundaries.
Nonprofit organizations as franchise operations
Authors: Oster Sharon M.
Published: July 2007

This article examines the structural relationship between national nonprofit organizations and their local affiliates. For a substantial number of nonprofits, the national‐local relationship can be modeled as a franchise relationship. The author considers ways in which the franchise system serves to mitigate a number of the organizational and economic problems facing nonprofits. Finally, particular devices used by franchises are examined, focusing on the ways in which national organizations tax their local affiliates and the extent of territorial restrictions placed on local affiliates.
The strategic challenges of cooperation and competition in British Voluntary Organizations: Toward the next century
Authors: Wilson David C.
Published: July 2007

The interrelationships between public, private, and voluntary sectors in Britain have witnessed increasing levels of change in recent years. This article argues that there have recently been identifiable trends within the voluntary sector, namely, increased levels of competition between sectors, increased competition between voluntary organizations, and increased pressures toward professionalization in voluntary sector management and organization. Predominantly competitive strategies and modes of professionalization have often been borrowed uncritically from commercial “best practice” by voluntary organizations. Thompson's (1967) typology of strategies is used as a basis for proposing cooperation as an alternative to competition in the British voluntary sector.
Volunteers in feminist Organizations
Authors: Metzendorf Diane , Cnaan Ram A.
Published: July 2007

The use of women volunteers, a hotly debated issue among feminists in the 1970s, currently receives little attention, even in the literature. What few studies are available are often contradictory. These studies approach the issue of women volunteering from three main perspectives: (1) as a substitute for work, especially for married women, (2) as a stepping stone for reentry into the work force, or (3) as a form of exploitation. Two main groups of women volunteers are identified in the literature: middle‐ to upper‐class civic leaders and lower‐ to middle‐class service providers. In this article, we examine whether the use and management of women volunteers in feminist organizations is consistent with feminist ideology that opposes unpaid work by women. Our findings, based on a comprehensive study of fifteen feminist organizations, indicate that the use of volunteers is often contrary to feminist ideology. We conclude with a discussion of ways in which volunteer management in feminist organizations can be made more compatible with feminist ideology.
Administrators of volunteer services: Their needs for training and research
Authors: Brudney Jeffrey L.
Published: July 2007

Despite the importance of volunteer administrators to nonprofit and many government organizations, little systematic research has been focused on these officials. Using a large national survey of volunteer practitioners conducted in 1989‐1990, this article examines empirically several hypotheses concerning organizational support to meet administrator needs for continuing education. Using the survey responses, the article also elaborates the subjects recommended by the administrators for treatment in a basic seminar in volunteer management, in an advanced seminar, and in further research.
Funding uncertainty and nonprofit strategies in the 1980s
Authors: Bielefeld Wolfgang
Published: July 2007

The degree to which strategic action is related to changes in the perceived uncertainty of income from major types of funders was examined for a panel of nonprofit organizations. Uncertainty was found to be a pervasive phenomenon. Nonprofits in some parts of the sector reported increases in uncertainty over time, while those in other parts reported decreases. The use of new revenue, legitimation, or retrenchment strategies was associated with the reduction of uncertainty for some types of nonprofit organizations but not for others.
When the management is the message: Relating values to management practice in nonprofit organizations
Authors: Jeavons Thomas H.
Published: July 2007

The values‐expressive character of many private, nonprofit organizations is what distinguishes them from business and government organizations. The distinctive character of these organizations creates a special context for their management. This article examines the origins and development of private nonprofits in the religious realm and explores the implications of this character for management and for education of nonprofit managers.
Improving nonprofit management: What's new?
Authors: Hayes Frederick O'R.
Published: July 2007

The Nonprofit Organization: Essential Readings, edited by David L. Gies, J. Steven Ott, and Jay M. Shafritz. Pacific Grove, Calif.: Brooks/Cole, 1990. 402 pp., $23.50 paper.

A Nonprofit Organization Operating Manual: Planning for Survival and Growth, by Arnold J. Olenick and Philip Olenick. New York: Foundation Center, 1991. 484 pp., $29.95 paper.

Executive Leadership in Nonprofit Organizations: New Strategies for Shaping Executive‐Board Dynamics, by Robert D. Herman and Richard D. Heimovics. San Francisco: Jossey‐Bass, 1991. 173 pp., $22.95 cloth.

Quality Management in the Nonprofit World: Combining Compassion and Performance to Meet Client Needs and Improve Finances, by Larry W. Kennedy. San Francisco: Jossey‐Bass, 1991. 194 pp., $22.95 cloth.
From comparative advantage to damage control: Clarifying strategic issues using swot analysis
Authors: Kearns Kevin P.
Published: July 2007

The principal ingredient of strategic planning is SWOT analysis—the assessment of organizational strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats. SWOT can be either a powerful management tool or a superficial and even misleading exercise. Much depends on the care with which decision makers integrate their analyses of internal and external factors affecting the future of the organization. This article presents a simple yet powerful framework for identifying and clarifying four types of strategic issues facing nonprofit organizations.
The quality of employment in the nonprofit sector: An update on employee attitudes in nonprofits versus business and government
Authors: Mirvis Philip H.
Published: July 2007

Results from a survey of a national sample of 1,190 working adults update findings collected in 1977 (Mirvis and Hackett, 1983) on the characteristics and attitudes of people working in nonprofits. As in the earlier survey, it shows that people employed in the private nonprofit sector gain more satisfaction from their jobs than their counterparts in business and government and have more trust in their management. still, people working in nonprofits are just as concerned that their employers will “take advantage” of them and, in contrast to the 1977 survey, are no more psychologically committed to their organizations than are people in the other sectors.
Predictive models for annual fundraising and major gift fundraising
Authors: Lindahl Wesley E. , Winship Christopher
Published: July 2007

For most nonprofit organizations, the selection process for determining the best individual prospects for capital campaigns or annual fund drives are ad hoc and intuitive. Our research provides two statistical models developed from the alumni database at Northwestern University for both major gifts and annual fund prospects. One model predicts which individuals will give $100,000 or more over three years, the other, $1,000 or more. Our work provides a means of more efficiently selecting fundraising prospects. In our analysis, we combine geo‐demographic data with the internal data typically found in alumni databases. A metric is presented to test the viability of the models when compared to single‐criterion models. We show that past giving is the strongest single factor in predicting future giving. However, full models provide superior overall results.
Is governing board behavior cyclical?
Authors: Wood Miriam M.
Published: July 2007

An empirically derived model of cyclical board behavior holds that following a nonrecurring founding period, a board typically progresses through a sequence of three distinct operating phases and then experiences a crisis that initiates the whole sequence over again. During each cycle, board members become progressively less interested in the agency's mission and programs and more interested in the board's bureaucratic procedures and the agency's reputation for success in the community. Although the sequence of phases is predictable, the timing of them is not. As a conceptual framework, the model integrates the results of a variety of valuable, but otherwise unrelated, studies of governing board behavior. The cyclical model can also be used as a diagnostic tool that can enable a board member, executive director, consultant, foundation officer, or public funder to analyze quickly a particular board's perspective and potential.