bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Lukan Aversion to Humps and Hollows: The Case of Acts 11.27–12.25
Authors: LONGENECKER BRUCE W.
Published: May 2004

Rhetoricians of the ancient world make reference to a technique useful for signalling that a transition is being made from one text unit to another. Ancient texts spanning centuries and provenance testify to the utility of this technique, not least texts of the NT. In this essay, four Lukan examples of this technique are cited, focusing particularly on what is perhaps the most intriguing of them: Acts 11.27–12.25. After demonstrating the way in which this passage is animated by the transition technique under consideration, the structural implications of these Lukan transitions are discussed in relation to the narrative of the Acts of the Apostles.
Leseanweisungen in Briefen als Mittel der Gestaltung von Beziehungen (1 Thess 5.27)
Authors: OESTREICH BERNHARD
Published: May 2004

Zunächst ist die Leseanweisung in 1 Thess 5.27 an die gerichtet, die den Brief als erste in die Hand bekamen und für seine Verlesung in der Gemeindeversammlung verantwortlich waren. Aber es erhebt sich die Frage, was diese Anweisung, die ja Teil des Textes ist, den alle hören, für die gesamte Gemeinde bedeutete. Diese Studie schlägt folgende Erklärung vor: Die Zuhörer sollten durch die Leseanweisung erkennen, dass der Brief zwischen ihnen keine Differenzen hervorrufen sollte. Alle sollten die gleichen Informationen und die gleiche Unmittelbarkeit zum Apostel haben. Dadurch gestaltet die Leseanweisung das Verhältnis der Gemeindeglieder zum Apostel und untereinander. Das Ziel ist die Einigkeit der Gläubigen. Der Vergleich mit Kol 4.16 und außerbiblischen Briefen bestätigt diese Deutung.
An isoenzyme survey ofTrypanosoma bruceis.l. from the Central African subregion: population structure, taxonomic and epidemiological considerations
Authors: NJIOKOU F. , NKININ S. W. , GRÉBAUT P. , PENCHENIER L. , BARNABÉ C. , TIBAYRENC M. , HERDER S.
Published: May 2004

In order to improve our knowledge about the taxonomic status and the population structure of the causative agent of Human African Trypanosomiasis in the Central African subregion, 169 newly isolated stocks, of which 16 came from pigs, and 5 reference stocks, were characterized by multilocus enzyme electrophoresis, for 17 genetic loci. We identified 22 different isoenzyme profiles or zymodemes, many of which showed limited differences between them. These zymodemes were equated to multilocus genotypes. UPGMA dendrograms revealed one main group:Trypanosoma brucei gambiensegroup I and 3T. brucei‘non-gambiense’ stocks.T. b. gambiensegroup I zymodemes were very homogenous, grouping all the human stocks and 31% of the pig stocks. Two main zymodemes (Z1 and Z3) grouping 74% of the stocks were found in different remote countries. The genetic distances were relatively high inT. brucei‘non-gambiense’ zymodemes, regrouping 69% of pig stocks. The analysis of linkage disequilibrium was in favour of a predominantly clonal population structure. This was supported by the ubiquitous occurrence of the main zymodemes, suggesting genetic stability in time and space of this parasite's natural clones. However, in some cases an epidemic population structure could not be ruled out. Our study also suggested that the domestic pig was a probable reservoir host forT. b. gambiensegroup I in Cameroon.
Effects of meteorological factors on epidemic malaria in Ethiopia: a statistical modelling approach based on theoretical reasoning
Authors: ABEKU T. A. , DE VLAS S. J. , BORSBOOM G. J. J. M. , TADEGE A. , GEBREYESUS Y. , GEBREYOHANNES H. , ALAMIREW D. , SEIFU A. , NAGELKERKE N. J. D. , HABBEMA J. D. F.
Published: May 2004

This study was conducted to quantify the association between meteorological variables and incidence of Plasmodium falciparum in areas with unstable malaria transmission in Ethiopia. We used morbidity data pertaining to microscopically confirmed cases reported from 35 sites throughout Ethiopia over a period of approximately 6–7 years. A model was developed reflecting biological relationships between meteorological and morbidity variables. A model that included rainfall 2 and 3 months earlier, mean minimum temperature of the previous month and P. falciparum case incidence during the previous month was fitted to morbidity data from the various areas. The model produced similar percentages of over-estimation (19·7% of predictions exceeded twice the observed values) and under-estimation (18·6% were less than half the observed values). Inclusion of maximum temperature did not improve the model. The model performed better in areas with relatively high or low incidence (>85% of the total variance explained) than those with moderate incidence (55–85% of the total variance explained). The study indicated that a dynamic immunity mechanism is needed in a prediction model. The potential usefulness and drawbacks of the modelling approach in studying the weather–malaria relationship are discussed, including a need for mechanisms that can adequately handle temporal variations in immunity to malaria.
Parasite biodiversity and its determinants in coastal marine teleost fishes of Brazil
Authors: LUQUE J. L. , MOUILLOT D. , POULIN R.
Published: May 2004

Recent studies of the forces behind the diversification of parasite assemblages have shed light on many aspects of parasite biodiversity. By using only parasite species richness as their measure of diversity, however, previous investigations have ignored the relatedness among parasite species and the taxonomic structure of the assemblages, which contain much information about their evolutionary origins. Here, we performed a comparative analysis across 50 species of fish from the coast of Brazil; we evaluated the effects of several host traits (body size, social behaviour, feeding habits, preference for benthicvs. pelagic habitats, depth range, and ability to enter brackish waters) on the diversity of their assemblages of metazoan parasites. As measures of diversity, we used parasite species richness, as well as the average taxonomic distinctness of the assemblage and its variance; the latter measures are based on the average taxonomic distance between any two parasite species in an assemblage. Unlike parasite species richness, taxonomic distinctness was unaffected by the number of host individuals examined per species. Fish body length proved to be the main predictor of parasite species richness, even when controlling for the confounding influences of host phylogeny and sampling effort, although it did not correlate with measures of parasite taxonomic distinctness. Predatory fish also had higher parasite species richness than planktivores, but this trend could not be confirmed using phylogenetically independent contrasts between host taxa. The main host feature associated with the taxonomic diversity of parasites was schooling behaviour, with schooling fish having more taxonomically diverse parasite assemblages than those of their non-schooling relatives. When focusing on endoparasite species only, both predatory feeding habits and a broad depth range were associated with the taxonomic distinctness of parasites. Our results suggest that certain host traits (i.e. body size) determine how many parasite species a host can accumulate over evolutionary time, whereas different host features influence the processes causing the taxonomic diversification of parasite assemblages.
A single step duplex PCR to distinguishEntamoeba histolyticafromEntamoeba dispar
Authors: FREITAS M. A. R. , VIANNA E. N. , MARTINS A. S. , SILVA E. F. , PESQUERO J. L. , GOMES M. A.
Published: May 2004

In this study, a single-step duplex polymerase chain reaction procedure was developed for rapid, specific and sensitive identification ofEntamoeba histolyticaand for its diagnostic differentiation fromE. dispar. Specific oligonucleotide primers were combined for the amplification of a cysteine proteinase 5 gene target sequence of 242 bp, present only inE. histolytica. Additionally, another oligonucleotide primer pair for both theE. histolyticaandE. disparactin gene target of 300 bp was designed to amplify only from amoebae DNA. The PCR developed was specific and efficiently identified and differentiated these parasites from each other in either cultured parasites or from stool material.
Cell differentiation and infectivity ofLeishmania mexicanaare inhibited in a strain resistant to an ABC-transporter blocker
Authors: SILVA N. , CAMACHO N. , FIGARELLA K. , PONTE-SUCRE A.
Published: May 2004

We analysed whether markers of cell differentiation and infectivity differed when compared to the parental sensitive strain [NR(Gs)] in anin vitroselectedLeishmaniastrain [NR(Gr)] resistant to Glibenclamide®, an ATP-binding-cassette (ABC)-transporter blocker. The data show that the cell body area was larger in NR(Gr) compared to NR(Gs) and that functional characters associated with an infective metacyclic phenotype, such as resistance to the lytic effect of the alternative complement pathway and expression of the Meta-1 protein, were reduced. The infectivity of NR(Gr) to J774.1 macrophages was also significantly reduced. These results suggest that resistance inLeishmaniaagainst Glibenclamide®, a general blocker of P-glycoproteins, could produce functional modifications that may be relevant forLeishmaniadifferentiation, infectivity and survival.
An ontology for context-aware pervasive computing environments
Authors: CHEN HARRY , FININ TIM , JOSHI ANUPAM
Published: May 2004

This document describes COBRA-ONT, an ontology for supporting pervasive context-aware systems. COBRA-ONT, expressed in the Web Ontology Language OWL, is a collection of ontologies for describing places, agents and events and their associated properties in an intelligent meeting-room domain. This ontology is developed as a part of the Context Broker Architecture (CoBrA), a broker-centric agent architecture that provides knowledge sharing, context reasoning and privacy protection supports for pervasive context-aware systems. We also describe an inference engine for reasoning with information expressed using the COBRA-ONT ontology and the ongoing research in using the DAML-Time ontology for context reasoning.
Using DAML+OIL to classify intrusive behaviours
Authors: UNDERCOFFER JEFFREY , JOSHI ANUPAM , FININ TIM , PINKSTON JOHN
Published: May 2004

We have produced an ontology specifying a model of computer attack. Our ontology is based upon an analysis of over 4000 classes of computer intrusions and their corresponding attack strategies and is categorised according to system component targeted, means of attack, consequence of attack and location of attacker. We argue that any taxonomic characteristics used to define a computer attack be limited in scope to those features that are observable and measurable at the target of the attack. We present our model as a target-centric ontology that is to be refined and expanded over time. We state the benefits of forgoing dependence upon taxonomies in favour of ontologies for the classification of computer attacks and intrusions. We have specified our ontology using the DARPA Agent Markup Language+Ontology Inference Layer and have prototyped it using DAMLJessKB. We present our model as a target-centric ontology and illustrate the benefits of utilising an ontology in lieu of a taxonomy, by presenting a use-case scenario of a distributed intrusion detection system.
Turning Peasants into Modern Chinese Citizens: “Population Quality” Discourse, Demographic Transition and Primary Education
Authors: Murphy Rachel
Published: May 2004

The all-embracing discourse of population quality (suzhi) is put to work through rural primary schools in ways that help state institutions implement policies such as accelerating demographic transition, restructuring the education system, professionalizing labour markets, promoting agricultural skills training, instituting economic liberalism and carrying out patriotic education. Suzhi discourse facilitates policy implementation in four ways. First, it imbues disparate policies with seeming coherence. Secondly, by articulating a diverse set of policies through suzhi discourse, including state retreat from welfare provisioning, state institutions can be seen to be working to improve people's well-being. Thirdly, in making people responsible for raising their own quality, the need to improve suzhi is an explanation and a prescription when individuals are adversely affected by policies. Finally, suzhi discourse encourages individuals to regulate their conduct in accordance with the political drift of society. By enfolding suzhi norms into identity formation, the education system shapes each individual's ongoing process of “becoming” in ways that parallel the nation's modernization, thereby reducing the costs of policy enforcement.
Rethinking the Taiwanese Developmental State
Authors: Wu Yongping
Published: May 2004

The uniqueness of Taiwan's industrialization is that small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) had been the major contributors to exports. What has been responsible for the success of the SMEs? How far and in what ways did the state contribute to their success: can it be attributed to the government's industrial policy? The statist account of Taiwan's development, a dominant approach to explain its economic growth, is weak in answering these questions. This article argues that the existence of a unique industrial structure was key in the explanation of Taiwan's SME-led exports. The industrial structure was basically a consequence of the state's political strategies that determined its public policy towards the private sector. It argues that the market rather than industrial policy was the explanation of the industrial success of SMEs; the economic bureaucracy was a world of politics rather than a range of monolithic institutions; and strongman tactics rather than institutions were the source of state steering capacity and were responsible for the success of industrial policy. It concludes that Taiwan's development was a “politically inspired industrial success” rather than a state-led development.
Export Expansion in the People's Republic of China since 1978: A Case Study of the Pearl River Delta
Authors: Loo Becky P. Y.
Published: May 2004

Against the background of a complex and evolving statistical system, this article addresses three crucial issues in the understanding of the rapid export expansion of China in general and the Pearl River Delta in particular. First, the export orientation of the Pearl River Delta is critically assessed. The gradual emergence of export-oriented firms in the region and their spatial clustering around Hong Kong are highlighted. Secondly, the structural dimension of export expansion in the region is examined. Foreign-invested enterprises were found to be the “engine of growth.” Lastly, an analysis of the spatial dimension of the foreign-invested enterprises' export component reveals that the juridical status and geographical locations of exporting firms are complementary in providing a better understanding of export expansion in China since 1978.
State, Collectivism and Worker Privilege: A Study of Urban Health Insurance Reform
Authors: Duckett Jane
Published: May 2004

Since 1998, the central government has focused its attention on social security. Among other things, it has created a ministry for social security, pressed for the extension of health and unemployment insurance to larger numbers of the urban working population, and increased spending. Does this mean that the party-state is rebuilding the eroded urban social security system and re-asserting its role in ensuring collective provision? Do recent initiatives repair or damage the interests of urban workers? This article examines these questions through a study of urban health insurance reform. It argues the state has taken over from work units the responsibility for health insurance, that collectivism has been partially preserved through redistributory “risk-pooling” systems, and that the party-state is moving away from its traditional state enterprise-centred working-class base and widening participation to include workers in the private and rural industrial sectors. However, continued prioritization of economic growth means that the party-state's role is limited, while collectivist provision is restricted to the non-agricultural working population. In practice, government officials and workers in successful state enterprises are still the most likely to be insured.
Taxation without Representation in Contemporary Rural China. By Thomas P. Bernstein and Xiaobo Lü. [Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003. xviii+282 pp. £50.00; $70.00. ISBN 0-521-81318-2.]
Authors: Li Lianjiang
Published: May 2004

Bernstein and Lü present a powerful argument that the problem of “peasant burdens” cannot be resolved unless rural taxpayers are included as fully-fledged polity members whose interests are represented in both policy making and policy implementation. They do so by addressing two important puzzles. In chapters two to four, the authors examine the paradoxical combination of light central taxation and onerous local extraction that has haunted rural China for centuries. They attribute this problem to two major institutional tensions. One is that Chinese peasants remain essentially subjects without political rights vis-à-vis the state (p. 38); the other is that subordinates in the bureaucracy have no right to disagree and negotiate with their superiors (pp. 41–42, 91–95). The authors show that these long-standing facts of life induce local officials to increase levies and taxes while the central state works hard but often fruitlessly to contain these same burdens (p. 90, pp. 109–114). In the end, all three parties involved in rural taxation lose out. The centre suffers because the public loses confidence in its ability to control local officials (pp. 51–56); local officials see their popular support drain away when they try to meet their “unfunded mandates,” such as compulsory basic education (p. 56, p. 88); peasants, especially the poorer ones, lose most, as they not only lose a substantial portion of their income but are also often bullied or subjected to physical force by enforcers of unlawful extraction (pp. 60–61; 78–80).
The Reluctant Dragon: Crisis Cycles in Chinese Foreign Economic Policy. By Lawrence C. Reardon. [Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press, 2002. 355 pp. £34.50. ISBN 0-295-8121-0.]
Authors: Zweig David
Published: May 2004

According to Lawrence Reardon, most Western scholarship on PRC foreign economic policy before 1978 painted the entire period as one highlighted by Maoist autarky. In fact, argues Reardon in this conceptually framed and empirically rich book, from 1949 to 1979 China's foreign trade policy actually shifted back and forth in a cyclical pattern between “semi-autarky” and an “import substitution industrialization” (ISI) strategy. These were the two dominant, but competing, elite visions of how to attain the uniformly accepted goal of “self-reliance.” The two coalitions who held these views also disagreed about the motivational strategy the state should employ, with the semi-autarkists favouring a normative/mobilizational strategy, while the ISI coalition preferred a remunerative/administrative one. The driving force of the cyclical shifts were economic crises that triggered reassessments of the ongoing policy position by the competing elite group, who used problems in the extant development strategy to undermine the legitimacy of its opponents and their policy. The new dominant coalition then proposed its program, which eventually
faced a crisis, ending the cycle of the policy process.
Birth Control in China 1949–2000: Population Policy and Demographic Development. By Thomas Scharping. [London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2003. 406 pp. $95.00. ISBN 0-7007-1154-6.]
Authors: Kallgren Joyce K.
Published: May 2004

Despite the need for and importance of a book on birth control, the obstacles to a successful volume are daunting and have, until this publication, served to limit the possibility of a thorough-going analysis. The reasons are numerous. Since 1949 there have been a series of policies initiated and then set aside. Every policy seems to have had some exceptions, sometimes written and observable, on other occasions intuited from reports in newspapers and interviews. Though the diversity of the country is well recognized, understanding how it plays out in actual policy trends is much harder to assess. Until the past decade, detailed information has often been scarce and demographic indicators have been viewed with some suspicion. It is against this background that Thomas Scharping, with a lengthy and distinguished record of research, has written a study designed to fill this gap in our knowledge of Chinese development. The English version reviewed here draws on his revised 1995 German-language volume.
Private Life under Socialism: Love, Intimacy, and Family Change in a Chinese Village, 1949–1999. By Yunxiang Yan. [Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2003. xvi+289 pp. Hard cover $55.00, ISBN 0-8047-3309-0; paperback $19.95, ISBN 0-8047-4456-4.]
Authors: Pieke Frank N.
Published: May 2004

When Yunxiang Yan's first book, The Flow of Gifts, was published in 1996 it was immediately clear that a new leading scholar of contemporary Chinese society had entered the scene. Yan's second book Private Life under Socialism richly delivers on the promise of his first. This new book is, in fact, very much a companion volume to The Flow of Gifts. Together, they constitute a uniquely rich ethnography of the intimate details of social life as lived and experienced in the village where Yan himself spent 15 years of his life before becoming an anthropologist. Both books draw on the same strengths of the author. The first and most obvious is his unprecedented access to and intimate understanding of his former village of residence. However, what makes for truly great ethnography here is Yan's almost uncanny ability to present often quite complex and challenging arguments in a deceptively simple and understated fashion, making the book both a major contribution to scholarship and an ideal reading assignment for students.

The subject matter of the book is adequately covered by the title Private Life under Socialism. Broadly speaking, the book asks how the ways Chinese villagers perceive sexuality and romance, find their partners, marry, exercise rights over family property, establish independent families and care for the aged have changed during the reform period. In this context, other crucial issues in contemporary China are discussed: the increased wealth and consumerism, the emergence of a youth culture and employment opportunities outside the village, changes in gender roles, and the impact of government policies on private life, all of which already are the subject of a rich literature. It is a therefore a testimony to Yan's skills as an anthropologist and a writer that he manages to shed fresh light on all of these topics in almost every paragraph of this book.
Hong Kong Cinema: Coloniser, Motherland and Self. By Yingchi Chu. [London and New York: RoutledgeCurzon, 2002. xxi+184 pp. £55.00. ISBN 0-7007-1746-3.]
Authors: Fu Poshek
Published: May 2004

The recent success of Jackie Chan, Chow Yun-fat, Jet Li, Wong Kar-wai, and John Woo in reaching a global audience, along with the enormous changes in Hong Kong since the early 1990s, has attracted a lot of critical attention to Hong Kong cinema around the world. Beginning with Stephen Teo's Hong Kong Cinema (1997) and David Bordwell's Planet Hong Kong (2000), scholarship on the cinema of Hong Kong – whether from the perspective of cultural identity, global culture, film history, or film art – has greatly expanded. Australian scholar Yingchi Chu's book, Hong Kong Cinema: Coloniser, Motherland and Self, contributes to this growing trend.

Hong Kong Cinema is a brief but ambitious book. In less than 150 pages, it tries to map out the entire history of the cinema, from the 1910s to developments after the 1997 takeover. The book draws on a provocative conceptual framework to provide a sweeping overview of Hong Kong cinema and offers some fascinating observations on the industry. However, the book needs further revisions to bring out its rich potential.
Theoretical implications of segment neutrality in nasal harmony
Authors: Piggott G. L.
Published: May 2004

In nasal harmony systems, any major consonant class (excluding laryngeal glides) may fail to undergo nasalisation. This paper proposes to derive the neutrality of stops, fricatives, liquids and glides from the satisfaction of a special set of faithfulness constraints; each member of the set commands the presence of a particular segment class in a consonant inventory. The analysis requires that the constraint commanding the presence of stops be active in every grammar and invariably take precedence over the demands of nasal harmony. The explanation of stop neutrality forces a rethinking of the nature of constraints and how they interact. The paper argues that the constraints regulating the cross-linguistic manifestation of segment neutrality are either universal grammatical features (i.e. principles) or language-specific choices (i.e. parameters of variation). It also postulates that constraint interaction is regulated by a set of metaconditions that determine ordering; constraint ranking is not random.
Conflicts between traditional pastoralism and conservation of Himalayan ibex (Capra sibirica) in the Trans‐Himalayan mountains
Authors: Bagchi Sumanta , Mishra Charudutt , Bhatnagar Y. V.
Published: May 2004

There is recent evidence to suggest that domestic livestock deplete the density and diversity of wild herbivores in the cold deserts of the Trans‐Himalaya by imposing resource limitations. To ascertain the degree and nature of threats faced by Himalayan ibex (Capra sibirica) from seven livestock species, we studied their resource use patterns over space, habitat and food dimensions in the pastures of Pin Valley National Park in the Spiti region of the Indian Himalaya. Species diet profiles were obtained by direct observations. We assessed the similarity in habitat use and diets of ibex and livestock using Non‐Metric Multidimensional Scaling. We estimated the influence of the spatial distribution of livestock on habitat and diet choice of ibex by examining their co‐occurrence patterns in cells overlaid on the pastures. The observed co‐occurrence of ibex and livestock in cells was compared with null‐models generated through Monte Carlo simulations. The results suggest that goats and sheep impose resource limitations on ibex and exclude them from certain pastures. In the remaining suitable habitat, ibex share forage with horses. Ibex remained relatively unaffected by other livestock such as yaks, donkeys and cattle. However, most livestock removed large amounts of forage from the pastures (nearly 250 kg of dry matter/day by certain species), thereby reducing forage availability for ibex. Pertinent conservation issues are discussed in the light of multiple‐use of parks and current socio‐economic transitions in the region, which call for integrating social and ecological feedback into management planning.
A second outbreak of rabies in African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) in Madikwe Game Reserve, South Africa, demonstrating the efficacy of vaccination against natural rabies challenge
Authors: Hofmeyr Markus , Hofmeyr Declan , Nel Louis , Bingham John
Published: May 2004

An outbreak of rabies in a pack of endangered wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) in the Madikwe Game Reserve, South Africa, is described. The outbreak, which occurred in early 2000, was the second outbreak of rabies in wild dogs followed their re‐introduction to the Reserve in 1995. The outbreak resulted in the death or disappearance of 10 out of 12 eight‐month‐old pups. Gene sequence analysis indicates that the virus is distinct from that of the previous, 1997, outbreak, although it falls within the same group as other canid isolates from northern South Africa. Since jackals (Canis mesomelas) are the principal host species of rabies in the area and domestic dogs do not occur in the Reserve, it is assumed that the jackal cycle was the source of the infection. Whereas the pups had not been vaccinated, the five adults, all of which survived, had each been vaccinated by the parenteral route at least twice and each had significant rabies serum neutralising antibodies. This indicates that multiple vaccination against rabies is effective in protecting wild dogs against challenge. Our findings extend previous observations that indicated failure of protection against rabies with single parenteral vaccinations in African wild dogs.
Ecological correlates of the threat of extinction in Neotropical bird species
Authors: Gage G. S. , Brooke M. de L. , Symonds M. R. E. , Wege D.
Published: May 2004

Predicting the threat of extinction aids efficient distribution of conservation resources. This paper utilises a comparative macroecological approach to investigate the threat of extinction in Neotropical birds. Data on ecological variables for 1708 species are analysed using stepwise regression to produce minimum adequate models, first using raw species values and then using independent contrasts (to control for phylogenetic effects). The models differ, suggesting phylogeny has significant effects. The raw species analysis reveals that number of zoogeographical regions occupied, elevational range and utilisation of specialised microhabitats were negatively associated with threat, while minimum elevation and body mass were positively associated, whereas the independent contrasts analysis only identifies zoogeographical regions as important. Confining the analysis to the 582 species restricted to a single zoogeographical region reveals elevational range and number of habitats occupied to be negatively correlated with threat whether the analysis is based on the raw data or on independent contrasts. Analysis of four contrasting zoogeographical regions highlights regional variation in the models. In two Andean regions the threat of extinction declines as the elevation range across which the species occurs increases. In the presence of substantial human populations on high Andean plateaus, a species with a greater elevational range may be more likely to persist at some (relatively) unsettled altitudes. In Central South America, the strongest predictor of threat is minimum elevation of occurrence: species with a lower minimum are less threatened. The minimum elevation result suggests that lowland species experiencing an ecological limit to their minimum elevation (min. elevation >0 m) may be more at risk than those not experiencing such a limit (min. elevation = 0 m). Finally, in southern Amazonia, where there is little altitudinal variation, the only weak predictors of threat are body size, larger species being more threatened, and number of habitats, species occupying more habitats being less threatened. These contrasting results emphasise the importance of undertaking extinction risk analyses at an appropriate geographical scale. Since the models explained only a low percentage of total variance in the data, the effects of human‐mediated habitat disturbance across a wide range of habitats may be important.
Genetic variability and population structure among wild Baird's tapirs
Authors: Norton James E. , Ashley Mary V.
Published: May 2004

Baird's tapir, Tapirus bairdii, is an endangered, large, Central American mammal whose shy behaviour, solitary social structure and preference for deep tropical forests make it difficult to study using traditional field biology techniques. Despite great concern regarding its conservation status, very little is known about its population structure, mating system or dispersal patterns, information needed for designing appropriate management plans. Molecular genetic approaches can be of use in obtaining such information. In this study, we developed six polymorphic microsatellite genetic markers from genomic libraries of T. bairdii and T. terrestris. Using these markers, we completed the first assessment of genetic variability and population genetic structure in Baird's tapirs. Populations from southern Costa Rica and southern Panama were found to have low levels of genetic variability (allelic content, heterozygosity) but no indication of a recent population bottleneck. Bayesian and standard (F‐statistic) analyses of genotype data indicate that the southern Costa Rican and southern Panamanian populations of Baird's tapirs were connected by some (at least one migrant per generation) gene flow prior to the destruction of intermittent habitat. These results indicate that the connection of these two populations by a MesoAmerican Biological Corridor (MBC) would be appropriate.
SIX1 mutations cause branchio-oto-renal syndrome by disruption of EYA1–SIX1–DNA complexes
Authors: Ruf Rainer G. , Xu Pin-Xian , Silvius Derek , Otto Edgar A. , Beekmann Frank , Muerb Ulla T. , Kumar Shrawan , Neuhaus Thomas J. , Kemper Markus J. , Raymond Richard M. , Brophy Patrick D. , Berkman Jennifer , Gattas Michael , Hyland Valentine , Ruf Eva-Maria , Schwartz Charles , Chang Eugene H. , Smith Richard J. H. , Stratakis Constantine A. , Weil Dominique , Petit Christine , Hildebrandt Friedhelm
Published: May 2004

Urinary tract malformations constitute the most frequent cause of chronic renal failure in the first two decades of life. Branchio-otic (BO) syndrome is an autosomal dominant developmental disorder characterized by hearing loss. In branchio-oto-renal (BOR) syndrome, malformations of the kidney or urinary tract are associated. Haploinsufficiency for the human geneEYA1, a homologue of theDrosophilageneeyes absent(eya), causes BOR and BO syndromes. We recently mapped a locus for BOR/BO syndrome (BOS3) to human chromosome 14q23.1. Within the 33-megabase critical genetic interval, we located theSIX1,SIX4, andSIX6genes, which act within a genetic network ofEYAandPAXgenes to regulate organogenesis. These genes, therefore, represented excellent candidate genes forBOS3. By direct sequencing of exons, we identified three differentSIX1mutations in four BOR/BO kindreds, thus identifyingSIX1as a gene causing BOR and BO syndromes. To elucidate how these mutations cause disease, we analyzed the functional role of theseSIX1mutations with respect to protein–protein and protein–DNA interactions. We demonstrate that all three mutations are crucial for Eya1–Six1 interaction, and the two mutations within the homeodomain region are essential for specific Six1–DNA binding. Identification ofSIX1mutations as causing BOR/BO offers insights into the molecular basis of otic and renal developmental diseases in humans.
Genetic variation in cancer predisposition: Mutational decay of a robust genetic control network
Authors: Frank Steven A.
Published: May 2004

A computational model of cancer progression is used to study how mutations in genes that control tumor initiation and progression accumulate in populations. The model assumes that cancer occurs only after a cell lineage has progressed through a series of stages. The greater the number of stages, the more strongly the individual is protected against cancer. It is shown that an extra stage initially improves the survival of individuals by decreasing mortality from cancer. However, the additional buffering by an extra stage reduces the impact of any single hereditary mutation and therefore allows the accumulation of more nonlethal mutations in the population. Extra stages thereby lead to the evolution of partially decreased cancer mortality and significantly increased genetic predisposition to disease in the population as a whole. In general, the model illustrates how all robust control networks allow the accumulation of deleterious mutations. An increase in the number of buffering components leads to significant mutational decay in the protection provided by each buffering component and increased genetic predisposition to disease. An extra buffering component's net contribution to survival and reproduction is often small.
Synthetic studies of roquefortine C: Synthesis of isoroquefortine C and a heterocycle
Authors: Richard David J. , Schiavi Bruno , Joullié Madeleine M.
Published: May 2004

The syntheses of isoroquefortine C and a related heterocycle were achieved by implementation of both intra- and intermolecular vinyl amidation reactions. These accomplishments represent a significant advance in the use of these strategies in the generation of complex molecules.
Cytosolic protein concentration is the primary volume signal for swelling-induced [K-Cl] cotransport in dog red cells.
Authors: Colclasure G C , Parker J C
Published: May 2004

Chloride-dependent K transport ([K-Cl] cotransport) in dog red cells is activated by cell swelling. Whether the volume signal is generated by a change in cell configuration or by the dilution of some cytosolic constituent is not known. To differentiate between these two alternatives we prepared resealed ghosts that, compared with intact red cells, had the same surface area and similar hemoglobin concentration, but a greatly diminished volume. Swelling-induced [K-Cl] cotransport was activated in the ghosts at a volume (20 fl) well below the activation volume for intact cells (70 fl), but at a similar hemoglobin concentration (30-35 g dry solids per 100 g wet weight). Ghosts made to contain 40% albumin and 60% hemoglobin showed activation of [K-Cl] cotransport at a concentration of cell solids similar to intact cells or ghosts containing only hemoglobin. [K-Cl] cotransport in the resealed ghosts became quiescent at a dry solid concentration close to that at which shrinkage-induced Na/H exchange became activated. These results support the notion that the primary volume sensor in dog red cells is cytosolic protein concentration. We speculate that macromolecular crowding is the mechanism by which cells initiate responses to volume perturbation.
Properties of cyclic nucleotide-gated channels mediating olfactory transduction. Activation, selectivity, and blockage.
Authors: Frings S , Lynch J W , Lindemann B
Published: May 2004

Cyclic nucleotide-gated channels (cng channels) in the sensory membrane of olfactory receptor cells, activated after the odorant-induced increase of cytosolic cAMP concentration, conduct the receptor current that elicits electrical excitation of the receptor neurons. We investigated properties of cng channels from frog and rat using inside-out and outside-out membrane patches excised from isolated olfactory receptor cells. Channels were activated by cAMP and cGMP with activation constants of 2.5-4.0 microM for cAMP and 1.0-1.8 for cGMP. Hill coefficients of dose-response curves were 1.4-1.8, indicating cooperativity of ligand binding. Selectivity for monovalent alkali cations and the Na/Li mole-fraction behavior identified the channel as a nonselective cation channel, having a cation-binding site of high field strength in the pore. Cytosolic pH effects suggest the presence of an additional titratable group which, when protonated, inhibits the cAMP-induced current with an apparent pK of 5.0-5.2. The pH effects were not voltage dependent. Several blockers of Ca2+ channels also blocked olfactory cng channels. Amiloride, D 600, and diltiazem inhibited the cAMP-induced current from the cytosolic side. Inhibition constants were voltage dependent with values of, respectively, 0.1, 0.3, and 1 mM at -60 mV, and 0.03, 0.02, and 0.2 mM at +60 mV. Our results suggest functional similarity between frog and rat cng channels, as well as marked differences to cng channels from photoreceptors and other tissues.
Chemical properties of the divalent cation binding site on potassium channels.
Authors: Spires S , Begenisich T
Published: May 2004

The actions of divalent cations on voltage-gated ion channels suggest that these cations bind to specific sites and directly influence gating kinetics. We have examined some chemical properties of the external divalent cation binding sites on neuronal potassium channels. Patch clamp techniques were used to measure the electrophysiological properties of these channels and Zn ions were used to probe the divalent cation binding site. The channel activation kinetics were greatly (three- to fourfold) slowed by low (2-5 mM) concentrations of Zn; deactivation kinetics were only slightly affected. These effects of Zn were inhibited by low solution pH in a manner consistent with competition between Zn and H ions for a single site. The apparent inhibitory pK for this site was near 7.2. Treatment of the neurons with specific amino acid reagents implicated amino, but no histidyl or sulfhydryl, residues in divalent cation binding.
The human erythrocyte anion transport protein, band 3. Characterization of exofacial alkaline titratable groups involved in anion binding/translocation.
Authors: Bjerrum P J
Published: May 2004

Chloride self-exchange across the human erythrocyte membrane at alkaline extracellular pH (pHO) and constant neutral intracellular pH (pH(i)) can be described by an exofacial deprotonatable reciprocating anion binding site model. The conversion of the transport system from the neutral to the alkaline state is related to deprotonation of a positively charged ionic strength- and substrate-sensitive group. In the absence of substrate ions ([ClO] = 0) the group has a pK of approximately 9.4 at constant high ionic strength (equivalent to approximately 150 mM KCl) and a pK of approximately 8.7 at approximately zero ionic strength. The alkaline ping-pong system (examined at constant high ionic strength) demonstrates outward recruitment of the binding sites with an asymmetry factor of approximately 0.2, as compared with the inward recruitment of the transport system at neutral pHO with an asymmetry factor of approximately 10. The intrinsic half-saturation constant for chloride binding, with [Cli] = [Clo], increased from approximately 30 mM at neutral to approximately 110 mM at alkaline pHO. The maximal transport rate was a factor of approximately 1.7 higher at alkaline pHO. This increase explains the stimulation of anion transport, the "modifier hump," observed at alkaline pHO. The translocation of anions at alkaline pHO was inhibited by deprotonation of another substrate-sensitive group with an intrinsic pK of approximately 11.3. This group together with the group with a pK of approximately 9.4 appear to form the essential part of the exofacial anion binding site. The effect of extracellular iodide inhibition on chloride transport as a function of pHO could, moreover, be simulated if three extracellular iodide binding constants were included in the model: namely, a competitive intrinsic iodide binding constant of approximately 1 mM in the neutral state, a self-inhibitor binding constant of approximately 120 mM in the neutral state, and a competitive intrinsic binding constant of approximately 38 mM in the alkaline state.
Lactic acid secretion by human neutrophils. Evidence for an H+ + lactate- cotransport system.
Authors: Simchowitz L , Textor J A
Published: May 2004

The pathway by which L-lactate (Lac) crosses the plasma membrane of isolated human neutrophils was investigated. The influx of [14C]Lac from a 2 mM Lac, 145 mM Cl-, 5.6 mM glucose medium was approximately 1.5 meq/liter of cell water.min and was sensitive to the organomercurial agent mersalyl (apparent Ki approximately 20 microM), to alpha-cyano-4-hydroxycinnamate (CHC), the classical inhibitor of monocarboxylate transport in mitochondria, and to UK-5099 (apparent Ki approximately 40 microM), a more potent analogue of CHC. Transport was also strongly blocked (greater than 80%) by 1 mM of either 3,5-diiodosalicylic acid, MK-473 (an indanyloxyacetate derivative), or diphenyl-amine-2-carboxylate, and by 0.4 mM pentachlorophenol, but not by 1 mM ethacrynic acid, furosemide, or the disulfonic stilbenes SITS or H2DIDS. One-way [14C]Lac efflux from steady-state cells amounted to approximately 6 meq/liter.min and was likewise affected by the agents listed above. Influx, which was membrane potential insensitive and Na+ independent, displayed a strong pH dependence: extracellular acidification enhanced uptake while alkalinization inhibited the process (pK' approximately 5.7 at 2 mM external Lac). The rate of [14C]Lac influx was a saturable function of external Lac, the Km being approximately 7 mM. Steady-state cells exhibited an intracellular Lac content of approximately 5 mM and secreted lactic acid into the bathing medium a a rate of approximately 4 meq/liter.min. Secretion was completely suppressed by 1 mM mersalyl which inactivates the carrier, leading to an internal accumulation of Lac. That the Lac carrier truly mediates an H+ + Lac- cotransport (or formally equivalent Lac-/OH- exchange) was documented by pH-stat techniques wherein an alkalinization of poorly buffered medium could be detected upon the addition of Lac; these pH changes were sensitive to mersalyl. Thus, the Lac carrier of neutrophils possesses several features in common with other monocarboxylate transport systems in erythrocytes and epithelia.
Gating of O2-sensitive K+ channels of arterial chemoreceptor cells and kinetic modifications induced by low PO2.
Authors: Ganfornina M D , López-Barneo J
Published: May 2004

We have studied the kinetic properties of the O2-sensitive K+ channels (KO2 channels) of dissociated glomus cells from rabbit carotid bodies exposed to variable O2 tension (PO2). Experiments were done using single-channel and whole-cell recording techniques. The major gating properties of KO2 channels in excised membrane patches can be explained by a minimal kinetic scheme that includes several closed states (C0 to C4), an open state (O), and two inactivated states (I0 and I1). At negative membrane potentials most channels are distributed between the left-most closed states (C0 and C1), but membrane depolarization displaces the equilibrium toward the open state. After opening, channels undergo reversible transitions to a short-living closed state (C4). These transitions configure a burst, which terminates by channels either returning to a closed state in the activation pathway (C3) or entering a reversible inactivated conformation (I0). Burst duration increases with membrane depolarization. During a maintained depolarization, KO2 channels make several bursts before ending at a nonreversible, absorbing, inactivated state (I1). On moderate depolarizations, KO2 channels inactivate very often from a closed state. Exposure to low PO2 reversibly induces an increase in the first latency, a decrease in the number of bursts per trace, and a higher occurrence of closed-state inactivation. The open state and the transitions to adjacent closed or inactivated states seem to be unaltered by hypoxia. Thus, at low PO2 the number of channels that open in response to a depolarization decreases, and those channels that follow the activation pathway open more slowly and inactivate faster. At the macroscopic level, these changes are paralleled by a reduction in the peak current amplitude, slowing down of the activation kinetics, and acceleration of the inactivation time course. The effects of low PO2 can be explained by assuming that under this condition the closed state C0 is stabilized and the transitions to the absorbing inactivated state I1 are favored. The fact that hypoxia modifies kinetically defined conformational states of the channels suggests that O2 levels determine the structure of specific domains of the KO2 channel molecule. These results help to understand the molecular mechanisms underlying the enhancement of the excitability of glomus cells in response to hypoxia.