bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A Prospective and Retrospective View of Pediatric Hematology/Oncology
Authors: Jankovic Momcilo , Masera Giuseppe
Published: November 2020

How does one help a family whose child has been diagnosed with a life-threatening illness? It is a deceptively simple question with complicated answers. This brief chapter is not meant to be a history of biopsychosocial pediatric oncology, and it does not cover every theme. The explosion of studies on children with cancer over these past decades (Pizzo & Poplack, 2001) renders a retrospective look formidable and subjective. The sole purpose of this retrospective examination into the earliest beginnings is to place into context some of the main themes that have appeared over the past years, so that they can serve as a foundation for our recommendations for future intervention and research in the field. That is our assigned task. Much of the review reflects personal respective experiences beginning in the late 1960s. The chapters that form this volume, written by many of the most experienced psychosocial researchers who have brought the field so far forward over these many years, are the state of the art, tell us where we have been most recently, and tell us in greater detail where we are at the moment. Where does our psychosocial history begin? What have we done these past many years to help the children and their families cope with the illness and its treatment? With due awareness of the subjectivity and inevitable unfairness of our venture, we undertake the task with due apologies for any omissions that may occur in this retrospective review. As we begin to look in some detail at the main themes formed over the past four decades, we place our review into the context of four preambles: a multidisciplinary and international effort; an alliance between physicians and parents; research and service; and a sharing of the research wealth with economically struggling countries. From the earliest years, the effort to care for the child with cancer has been multidisciplinary, multi-institutional, and international, involving a highly cooperative and collaborative effort of physicians, nurses, psychologists, social workers, and allied health care professionals working together across national borders.
Introduction
Authors: Minow Martha
Published: November 2020

Making sense of Brown v. Board of Education, decided the same year I was born, and understanding what it did and did not achieve have occupied me since I can remember. When the fiftieth anniversary of the ruling arrived, scholars and media pundits debated whether the case deserved its landmark status and whether it had delivered in any meaningful way on the promise of racial equality for African Americans—or if it instead was ineffectual or counterproductive. Those are important questions, and this book grapples with them. Yet largely missing from the public discussions was the enormous influence of Brown in schools beyond race. The Supreme Court’s embrace of the ideal of equal opportunity and its critique of the separate-but-equal approach to education transformed the treatment of immigrants, students learning English, girls, students with disabilities, and poor students in American schools; religion in schools; school choice; and social science evidence about schooling—and the story of these changes deserves telling. That is what this book aims to do, even as it tells of a mixed legacy of Brown in these other contexts while also tracing reverberations of Brown outside the United States. To tell these stories is to engage with public policy debates over separate versus mixed instruction in meeting the needs of varied kinds of students. Nested within larger disputes over the viability of the racial integration ideal, this effort also explores the emergence of Brown as a resource for enterprising and visionary reformers concerned with gender, disability, religion, and other topics. The legacies of Brown invite a look at the capacity of individuals to push and achieve change using law and social science; the histories are interconnected with social movements as well as unexpected consequences of resulting reforms. Chapter 1 offers an analysis of what this landmark U.S. Supreme Court case did and did not accomplish when it banned official racial segregation in public schools. I consider whether the lawyers’ goal ever was integration, defined to mean both the side-by-side instruction of students of different races and the creation of school communities with a sense of common purpose and membership bridging different identities, histories, and past opportunities.
Making Waves: Schooling and Disability, Sexual Orientation, Religion, and Economic Class
Authors: Minow Martha
Published: November 2020

The historic treatment of students with disabilities in many ways resembles racial segregation in schools. Brown’s influence in this field is clear but complicated. Also complicated are debates over equal treatment of students who identify as gay, lesbian, bisexual, or transgendered. Religious students—and religious schools—elicit further variations on the educational equality debate with consequences for social integration and intergroup relations. Compulsory education laws in the United States for many years exempted students with mental and physical disabilities, and many school systems excluded such students or assigned them to separate institutions well into the 1970s. Before Brown, court challenges to this treatment of students with disabilities failed either on the assumption that the child’s impairments made schooling inappropriate or that the presence of the child with disabilities would harm the best interests of other children and the school. Even schools set up for students with disabilities could exclude a student by asserting that the child’s limitations would prevent educational progress. During the 1920s, communities established separate schools for students who were blind, deaf, or severely retarded, and many schools established separate classrooms for students who were considered to be slow learners. Misclassifications assigning students to separate classrooms or schools was not uncommon, and especially affected students who were immigrants or members of minority groups. This process of segregating persons with disabilities often relegated such persons to squalid residential institutions and imposed forced sterilization, justified in terms set by the eugenics movement. Those children with disabilities who did receive services did so largely in classrooms or schools removed from their peers. Parent advocacy organizations and civil rights activists challenged these practices, often with explicit references to Brown v. Board of Education. Parents and educators pressed for both more funding and experiments placing students with disabilities in regular educational settings. Integration, also called “mainstreaming” and “inclusion,” became a central goal through litigation, legislation, and advocacy for individual students, but for some children, advocates also pursued specialized instruction in separate settings. Intertwined with failures in the treatment of students with disabilities was the problem of racially discriminatory treatment.
School Choice and Choice Schools: Resisting, Realizing, or Replacing Brown?
Authors: Minow Martha
Published: November 2020

To school desegregation activists in the 1960s, school choice plans represented one of a series of tactics of avoidance or obstruction. Yet choice programs became part of school desegregation remedies and then became initiatives for varied school reforms. Political alliances and clashes around the issue of school choice color public perceptions even more than the actual effects of school choice on students’ achievement or social integration. School choice can enable both self-segregation or student mixing across many lines of difference. As a tool of school reform, school choice continues to hold promise and risks for those seeking equality and integration within schools while enhancing pluralism and respect for differences in society as a whole. Yet some forms of school choice could undermine equality goals unless they are accompanied by direct efforts to maintain and enforce these goals. Widespread perceptions that American schools are failing have fueled a major nationwide movement for school reform since the early 1980s. At the forefront have been business leaders who—worried about American competitiveness and the qualifications of the workforce for jobs requiring increasing technical skills—have brought conceptions of competition and innovation to the school reform initiatives. Parents and teachers, seeking greater control of local schools, have also energized the movement. Challenging established school bureaucracies and political arrangements, these reformers have pushed for performance standards, voucher systems to promote competition and consumer choices, site-based management, and other opportunities for innovation at the level of the individual school rather than the district or statewide system. One of the key themes pursued by a range of parents, teachers, business leaders, and other advocates as a motor for reform is parental choice. This concept combines a market-style consumer sovereignty idea with notions of personal liberty. School choice stimulates competition among providers, as parents look for benchmarks for assessing quality. As a result, states and localities have initiated institutional innovations. These include magnet and pilot schools, which draw students from an entire district by offering a special focus. Vouchers permit poor students to use public funds to pay tuition in private schools.
Cokriging
Authors: Pawlowsky-Glahn Vera , Olea Richardo A.
Published: November 2020

The problem of estimation of a coregionalization of size q using cokriging will be discussed in this chapter. Cokriging—a multivariate extension of kriging—is the usual procedure applied to multivariate regionalized problems within the framework of geostatistics. Its fundament is a distribution-free, linear, unbiased estimator with minimum estimation variance, although the absence of constraints on the estimator is an implicit assumption that the multidimensional real space is the sample space of the variables under consideration. If a multivariate normal distribution can be assumed for the vector random function, then the simple kriging estimator is identical with the conditional expectation, given a sample of size N. See Journel (1977, pp. 576-577), Journel (1980, pp. 288-290), Cressie (1991, p. 110), and Diggle, Tawn, and Moyeed (1998, p. 300) for further details. This estimator is in general the best possible linear estimator, as it is unbiased and has minimum estimation variance, but it is not very robust in the face of strong departures from normality. Therefore, for the estimation of regionalized compositions other distributions must also be taken into consideration. Recall that compositions cannot follow a multivariate normal distribution by definition, their sample space being the simplex. Consequently, regionalized compositions in general cannot be modeled under explicit or implicit assumptions of multivariate Gaussian processes. Here only the multivariate lognormal and additive logistic normal distributions will be addressed. Besides the logarithmic and additive logratio transformations, others can be applied, such as the multivariate Box-Cox transformation, as stated by Andrews et al. (1971), Rayens and Srinivasan (1991), and Barcelo-Vidal (1996). Furthermore, distributions such as the multiplicative logistic normal distribution introduced by Aitchison (1986, p. 131) or the additive logistic skew-normal distribution defined by Azzalini and Dalla Valle (1996) can be investigated in a similar fashion. References to the literature for the fundamental principles of the theory discussed in this chapter were given in Chapter 2. Among those, special attention is drawn to the work of Myers (1982), where matrix formulation of cokriging was first presented and the properties included in the first section of this chapter were stated.
Brown as Landmark: An Assessment
Authors: Bell Derrick
Published: November 2020

Planning For The Future requires an accurate assessment of what Brown accomplished either directly and indirectly, and what it failed to do. Such a critique is difficult because Brown has become a legal land­mark, an American icon embraced as a symbol of the nation’s ability to condemn racial segregation and put the unhappy past behind us. Indeed, the Brown decision has become so sacrosanct in law and in the beliefs of most Americans that any critic is deemed wrongheaded, even a traitor to the cause. Certainly, few veterans of the efforts to implement Brown through the racial-balance model are objective about the obstacles they faced. A typical response when confronted with their meager progress might be: “Sure, school integration has not worked because real integration has not been tried.” And despite its short-lived effectiveness in desegregating public schools, no one will deny the statistics of improved performance by some of the minority students who attended desegregated schools and their often-positive anecdotes of achievements under fire. The general view remains that Brown was the primary force and provided a vital inspirational spark in the post–World War II civil rights movement. Defenders maintain that Brown served as an important encouragement for the Montgomery bus boycotters, and that it served as a key symbol of cultural advancement for the nation. Even my progres­sive law students accept the view that Brown achieved more than it did. When I shared my alternative Brown decision (see chapter 3) with my constitutional law class, most students resisted the notion that affirming and enforcing “separate but equal” would have led to more progress than occurred under Brown. Nonetheless, my New York University colleague Paulette Caldwell and I both teach against the view of Brown as the icon of equality. At a dinner honoring Professor Caldwell, one of her students, Stacie Hendrix, told the gathering that she had viewed Brown v. Board of Education as a symbolic victory intended to change the state of race relations in America.
Nature
Authors: Jenkins McKay
Published: November 2020

Not long ago, at the beginning of a course I was teaching on “The Literature of the Land,” I asked my undergraduate journalism students why they were having such a hard time thinking of things to write about. What, I wondered, was so hard about nature writing? A sophomore raised his hand. As often happens, the answer came back more succinct than I could have hoped. “It's hard writing about nature in Delaware,” he said, “because there is no nature in Delaware.” There was something emblematic in this comment, something that revealed the difficulty, at first blush, that young writers have in conjuring exactly what “nature writing” means. My first impulse was to list all the nearby “nature” out there that the student hadn't bothered to recognize: the Atlantic seashore, the Delaware and Chesapeake bays, the Appalachian Mountains on one hand; and DuPont chemical factories, massive landfills, and rampant suburban sprawl on the other. But instead I paused, and let the comment hang in the air for a moment. What, exactly, were we talking about? For the nonspecialist, “nature writing” can seem especially intimidating, since it seems, at first glance, to be a subject without human drama, without a narrative trajectory, without a beginning, a middle, and an end—as opposed to, say, writing about cops, or courts, or politics, or sports. It can seem overly technical, or ponderous, or misanthropic. It can seem abstract, even irrelevant, especially to urban audiences who think of “nature” as something they encounter on boutique holidays out west. Norman Maclean's A River Runs Through It, according to legend, was rejected by a New York publisher because “it had too many trees in it.” But it isn't “nature” that is lacking, in Delaware or anywhere else. It is imagination, or perspective, or a “way of seeing.” Granted, a place like Delaware is notably lacking in the 14,000-foot mountains, Arctic fjords, and equatorial rainforests that have come to represent “nature” for suburban Americans. But this is precisely why a place like Delaware turns out to be such a useful place to talk about nature writing.
Nonprofits
Authors: Blanchard Frank
Published: November 2020

The door swung wide open and a dozen faces turned my way. The interview was for a science education story, but now it felt like a surprise party and I was the guest of honor. I had never been greeted for an interview by so many people. Here was a crowd around a long table. At the head was a woman with a big smile welcoming me to Xavier University of Louisiana in New Orleans. My traveling companion, a consultant experienced in representing charities, private foundations, and other nonprofit organizations, took this in stride and spoke right up. He introduced us as representatives of the Howard Hughes Medical Institute in Bethesda, Maryland, which at the time was the nation's largest philanthropy, a $5.2 billion enterprise. The Institute had given this relatively small college, which led the nation in sending black students to medical school, a $1.8 million grant to support its undergraduate science program. Xavier, the only historically black Catholic university in the United States, was doing something extraordinary. We wanted to tell the story. As a science writer for the Institute, I had made arrangements to interview the faculty member who ran the program and a few participating students for anecdotes to enliven the story. I thought I had made this clear on the telephone weeks before the trip, but the program director had other ideas. She had built an itinerary that could have stood as a first-class defense of the grant. Faculty members, support staff, anyone who could bolster the case for funding was in the room. After meeting with the group, I was to speak with the university president and others, later I would have a chance to talk with students. It was going to be a long day. It was also going to be a waste of time. We were there to gather specific information for a news article. We were not there to monitor progress under the grant. We had no money to offer them, and we were in no position to cut their funding. Finally, as this began to sink in, the teachers headed back to their classrooms.
Black Gold: An Alchemist’s Guide to Petroleum
Authors: Gaines Susan M. , Eglinton Geoffrey , Rullkötter Jürgen
Published: November 2020

For many of us who studied and came of age in the last two decades of the twentieth century, there was nothing more prosaic, lacking in romance, and less worthy of our scientific curiosity than petroleum. The basic questions about its composition and origin had been answered, and it was no longer one of Nature’s secrets luring us to discovery, but rather the dull stuff of industry and business, money and technology. Some of us even imagined, naively, that we would witness the end of the age of fossil fuels: they were the bane of modern man, the source of pollution, environmental disaster, and climate change that threatened to disrupt ecosystems and civilizations around the entire globe. Finding new reserves, we reasoned, would only forestall the inevitable, or exacerbate the havoc. But when Jürgen joined Germany’s government-funded Institute of Petroleum and Organic Geochemistry in 1975, there was still a sense of mission in finding new reserves. The energy crisis of the early 1970s had created a heightened awareness of the value of fossil fuels and the need for conservation, but the accepted wisdom remained that oil was the key to the future and well-being of civilization. And the chemistry, it seems, was anything but banal—it was, in fact, leading not just to a better success rate in finding new reserves of oil, but also to a new understanding of life that no one had foreseen. Certainly for Geoff and the generations of organic chemists that came before him, the oils that occasionally seeped out of a crack in a rock, or came spouting out of the earth if one drilled a hole in the right place, were as intriguing as the life some said they came from. Liquid from a solid, organic from mineral, black or brown or dark red, it was as if blood were oozing from stone, an enigma that inspired inquiry from scientists long before it found its place among man’s most coveted commodities.
The Satisfiability Threshold Conjecture: Techniques Behind Upper Bound Improvements
Authors: Kirousis Lefteris M. , Stamatiou Lefteris M.
Published: November 2020

One of the most challenging problems in probability and complexity theory is to establish and determine the satisfiability threshold, or phase transition, for random 3-SAT instances: Boolean formulas consisting of clauses with exactly k literals. As the previous part of the volume has explored, empirical observations suggest that there exists a critical ratio of the number of clauses to the number of variables, such that almost all randomly generated formulas with a higher ratio are unsatisfiable while almost all randomly generated formulas with a lower ratio are satisfiable. The statement that such a crossover point really exists is called the satisfiability threshold conjecture. Experiments hint at such a direction, but as far as theoretical work is concerned, progress has been difficult. In an important advance, Friedgut [177] showed that the phase transition is a sharp one, though without proving that it takes place at a “fixed” ratio for large formulas. Otherwise, rigorous proofs have focused on providing successively better upper and lower bounds for the value of the (conjectured) threshold. In this chapter, our goal is to review the series of improvements of upper bounds for 3-SAT and the techniques leading to these. We give only a passing reference to the improvements of the lower bounds as they rely on significantly different techniques, one of which is discussed in the next chapter. Let ϕ be a random k-SAT formula constructed by selecting, uniformly and with replacement, ra clauses from the set of all possible clauses with k literals (no variable repetitions allowed within a clause) over n variables. It has been experimentally observed that as the numbers m, n of variables and clauses tend to infinity while the ratio or clause density m/n is fixed to a constant a, the property of satisfiability exhibits a phase transition. For the case of 3-SAT, when a is greater than a number that has been experimentally determined to be approximately α < 4.27, then almost all random 3-SAT formulas are unsatisfiable; that is, the fraction of unsatisfiable formulas tends to 1.
Why so little is being done about the catastrophic risks
Authors: Posner Richard A.
Published: November 2020

I have said that the dangers of catastrophe are growing. One reason is the rise of apocalyptic terrorism. Another, however—because many of the catastrophic risks are either created or amplified by science and technology—is the breakneck pace of scientific and technological advance. A clue to that pace is that between 1980 and 2000 the average annual growth rate of scientific and engineering employment in the United States was 4.9 percent, more than four times the overall employment growth rate. Growth in the number of scientific personnel of the other countries appears to have been slower, but still significant, though statistics are incomplete. Of particular significance is the fact that the cost of dangerous technologies, such as those of nuclear and biological warfare, and the level of skill required to employ them are falling, which is placing more of the technologies within reach of small nations, terrorist gangs, and even individual psychopaths. Yet, great as it is, the challenge of managing the catastrophic risks is receiving less attention than is lavished on social issues of far less intrinsic significance, such as race relations, whether homosexual marriage should be permitted, the size of the federal deficit, drug addiction, and child pornography. Not that these are trivial issues. But they do not involve potential extinction events or the modestly less cataclysmic variants of those events. So limited is systematic analysis of the catastrophic risks that there are no estimates of what percentage either of the federal government’s total annual research and development (R & D) expenditures (currently running at about $120 billion), or of its science and technology expenditures (that is, R & D minus the D), which are about half the total R & D budget, are devoted to protection against them. Not that R & D is the only expenditure category relevant to the catastrophic risks. But it is a very important one. We do know that federal spending on defense against the danger of terrorism involving chemical, biological, radiological, or nuclear weapons rose from $368 million in 2002 (plus $203 million in a supplemental appropriation) to more than $2 billion in 2003.
How to reduce the catastrophic risks
Authors: Posner Richard A.
Published: November 2020

I have said that the risk of catastrophe is growing because science and technology are advancing at breakneck speed. Oddly, this is a source of modest comfort. We do not know what the cumulative risk of disaster is today, but we know that it will be greater several decades from now, so there is time to prepare measures against the truly terrifying dangers that loom ahead. But we must begin. And the formulation and implementation of the necessary measures cannot be left to scientists, as we know. The role of law and the social sciences is crucial. The law, however, is making little contribution to the control of catastrophic risks. Likewise the social sciences, with the partial exception of economics, which has produced a significant scholarly literature on global warming. The legal profession may even be increasing the probability of catastrophe by exaggerating the cost to civil liberties of vigorous responses to threats of terrorism. Improvement in the response to catastrophic risks may require both institutional reforms and changes in specific policies, procedures, and doctrines. The legal system cannot deal effectively with scientifically and technologically difficult questions unless lawyers and judges—not all, but more than at present—are comfortable with such questions. Comfortable not in the sense of knowing the answers to difficult scientific questions or being able to engage in scientific reasoning, but in the sense in which most antitrust lawyers today, few of whom are also economists, are comfortable in dealing with the economic issues that arise in antitrust cases. They know some economics, they work with economists, they understand that economics drives many outcomes of antitrust litigation, and as a result they can administer—not perfectly but satisfactorily— an economically sophisticated system of antitrust law. Economics, however, although at least quasi-scientific in method and outlook, and increasingly mathematized, is easier for lawyers and judges to get comfortable with than the natural sciences are. Because it plays an important role in many fields of law, economics is taught in law schools, whether in special courses on economic analysis of law or more commonly as a component of substantive law courses, such as torts, antitrust, securities regulation, environmental law, and bankruptcy.
Etiology and Assessment
Authors: Harris James C.
Published: November 2020

Intellectual disability is a general term that describes intellectual capacity and adaptive functioning. There are many causes and many co-occurring conditions. To appreciate and respect the uniqueness of each individual and to choose appropriate interventions, it is critical that, if possible, the cause for intellectual disability be identified or the conditions that led to or sustain it be recognized. This chapter begins with an overview followed by an approach to understanding causation, a description of how etiology is determined, consideration of the neurobiological/environmental interface, a discussion of the evaluation process to determine causes and conditions related to diagnoses, and a discussion of risk factors. Intellectual disability is an intellectual, cognitive, and developmental disability that profoundly affects an individual’s functioning and adaptation to everyday life. Intellect refers to mental ability or capacity, the power of thought, and the ability to reason and solve problems. Mental capacity is distinguished from perception, emotions, and feelings. Intelligence refers to facility and quickness in understanding and problem solving. In intellectual disability, there is reduced mental capacity. Cognition refers to the use or handling of knowledge through mental activities associated with thinking, learning, and memory, which are necessary processes to acquire knowledge. In intellectual disability, there are cognitive disabilities that vary depending on the individual syndrome. The extent of intellectual disability varies among syndromes, and there may be variations within a syndrome. Both cognition and intellect are linked to cortical brain function. Intellectual disability is a developmental disability with onset during the developmental period. Thus, there are delays in meeting developmental mile stones in motor, fine motor, language, and psychosocial areas. Finally, there are difficulties in adaptive function and in the mastery of developmental tasks as a result of intellectual, cognitive, and developmental disabilities. A focus on the etiology of intellectual disability is needed for research, clinical, and administrative purposes. This chapter will review the multiple causes of intellectual disability, considering the interface between genetic, neurobiologic, and environmental factors and causation. It emphasizes the importance of a comprehensive evaluation and provides guidelines for conducting an evaluation. Associated mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders are discussed in chapter 6.
Tecumseh’s Legacy: The Enduring Enigma of the New Madrid Earthquakes
Authors: Hough Susan Elizabeth , Bilham Roger G.
Published: November 2020

Like any proper mystery, the tale of the New Madrid earthquakes begins on a note of intrigue. According to legend, the earthquakes were predicted—even prophesied—by the great Shawnee leader and statesman Tecumseh. Concerned over continued encroachment of white settlers onto Indian lands in the mid continent, Tecumseh traveled widely throughout the central United States in the early 1800s, striving to unite diverse tribes to stand against further land cessions. According to legend, Tecumseh told his mostly Creek followers at Tuckabatchee, Alabama, that he had proof of the Great Spirit’s wrath. The sign blazed across the heavens for all to see—the great comet of 1811, a dazzling and mysterious sight. As if to emphasize Tecumseh’s words, the comet grew in brilliance through October, dimming in the night time sky in November just as Tecumseh left Tuckabatchee for points northward. Also according to legend, Tecumseh’s speech at Tuckabatchee told of an even more dramatic sign yet to come. In an oration delivered to hundreds of listeners, the leader reportedly told the crowd, “You do not believe the Great Spirit has sent me. You shall know. I leave Tuckabatchee directly, and shall go straight to Detroit. When I arrive there, I will stamp on the ground with my foot and shake down every house in Tuckabatchee.” The Creeks counted the days until the one calculated to mark Tecumseh’s return, and on that day— December 16, 1811—the first of the great New Madrid earthquakes struck, destroying all of the houses in Tuckabatchee. Tecumseh’s Prophecy, as it has come to be known, strikes a chord with those inclined to see Spirit and earth as intertwined. But it can also capture the imagination of those who see phenomena such as earthquakes as the exclusive purview of science. What if Tecumseh’s Prophecy was born not of communication with the Great Spirit, but instead of an ability to recognize signs from the earth itself? According to the renowned English geologist Sir Charles Lyell, Native American oral traditions told of devastating earthquakes in the New Madrid region prior to 1811.
The Polysiloxanes
Authors: Mark James E. , Schaefer Dale W. , Lin Gui
Published: November 2020

Polysiloxanes are the most studied inorganic and semi-inorganic polymers because of their many medical and commercial uses. The Si-O backbone endows polysiloxanes with intriguing properties: the strength of the Si-O bond imparts considerable thermal stability, and the nature of the bonding imparts low surface free energy. Prostheses, artificial organs, objects for facial reconstruction, vitreous substitutes in the eyes, and tubing take advantage of the stability and pliability of polysiloxanes. Artificial skin, contact lenses, and drug delivery systems utilize their high permeability. Such biomedical applications have led to biocompatibility studies on the interactions of polysiloxanes with proteins, and there has been interest in modifying these materials to improve their suitability for general biomedical application. Polysiloxanes examines novel aspects of polysiloxane science and engineering, including properties, work in progress, and important unsolved problems. The volume, with ten comprehensive chapters, examines the history, preparation and analysis, synthesis, characterization, and applications of these polymeric materials.
Elastomeric Microfabricated Fluorescence-Activated Cell Sorters
Authors: Fu Anne Y. , Yokobayashi Yohei
Published: November 2020

This chapter describes the development of elastomeric microfabricated cell sorters that allow for high sensitivity, no cross contamination, and lower cost than any conventional fluorescence-activated cell sorting. The course of this development depends heavily on two key technologies that have advanced rapidly within the past decade: microfluidics and soft lithography. Sorting in the microfabricated cell sorter is accomplished via different means of microfluidic control. This confers several advantages over the conventional sorting of aerosol droplets: novel algorithms of sorting or cell manipulation can be accomplished, dispensing of reagents and biochemical reactions can occur immediately before or after the sorting event, completely enclosed fluidic devices allow for studies of biohazardous/infectious cells or particles in a safer environment, and integration of other technologies can be implemented into the cell sorter. In addition, because of the easy fabrication process and inexpensive materials used in soft lithography, this elastomeric microfabricated cell sorter is affordable to every research laboratory and can be disposable just as a gel in gel electrophoresis, which eliminates any cross contamination from previous runs. Because of the advent of soft lithography, many inexpensive, flexible, and microfabricated devices could be designed to replace flow chambers in conventional flow cytometers. Soft lithography is a micromachining technique that uses the process of rapid prototyping and replica molding to fabricate inexpensive elastomeric microfluidic devices with materials such as plastics and polymers. The elastomeric properties of plastics and polymers allow for an easy fabrication process and for cleaning for reuse or disposal. A variety of biological assays can also be carried out as a result of the chemical compatibilities of different plastic materials with different solvents. More accurate sorting of cells can be accomplished because the sorting region is at or immediately after the interrogation point. On-chip chemical processing of cells has been accomplished and can be observed at any spot on the chip before or after sorting. Time-course measurements of a single cell for kinetic studies can be implemented using novel sorting schemes. Furthermore, linear arrays of channels on a single chip, the multiplex system, may be simultaneously detected by an array of photomultiplier tubes (PMT) for multiple analysis of different channels.
Injection Molding
Authors: Han Chang Dae
Published: November 2020

Injection molding is one of the oldest polymer processing operations used to produce goods from thermoplastic polymers. Today, almost all commercial injection molding machines have a reciprocating single screw for softening (or melting) under heat a thermoplastic polymer, and polymer melt is then injected into an empty mold cavity, as schematically shown in Figure 8.1. In the injection molding operation, the mold is first closed and then a predetermined amount of polymer melt from the screw section is injected into an empty mold cavity. Pressure is maintained for some time after the mold cavity has been filled to permit the build-up of adequate pressure in the mold cavity. Cooling water is circulated through channels in the mold so as to keep the mold cavity walls at a temperature usually between room temperature and the softening (or melting) temperature of the polymer. Thus, the hot polymer begins to cool as it enters the mold cavity. When it is cooled to a state of sufficient rigidity, the mold is opened and the part is removed. Some of the important variables in the operation of an injection molding machine are: (1) pressure applied by the screw, (2) temperature profile of the screw section, (3) mold temperature, (4) the screw forward time, (5) the mold closed time, and (6) the mold open time. Relationships between these variables are very complicated. In general, one would like to know the pressure, temperature, and density of the polymer in the mold cavity as functions of time during and after the mold is filled. In principle, these quantities can be calculated, via a mathematical model, during the entire period of mold filling and subsequent cooling when information on the geometry of the mold cavity, the rheological properties of the polymer, the temperature at which the polymer enters the mold cavity, and the mold temperature is available. However, in practice it is not easy to develop a rigorous theory because of the geometrically complex shapes of mold cavities, the complex nature of mold filling patterns (i.e., jetting) at normal injection speeds of industrial practice, and the highly viscoelastic nature of polymer melts, which varies with temperature, pressure, and injection rate (i.e., shear rate in the runner).
Oxidation
Authors: Li Jie Jack , Limberakis Chris , Pflum Derek A.
Published: November 2020

Activated manganese dioxide (MnO2) reliably oxidizes acetylenic, allylic, and benzylic alcohols to aldehydes and ketones. Saturated primary and secondary alcohols are also oxidized, albeit more slowly. The two main concerns are the activity of the manganese dioxide and the slow filtration of salts after the reaction. Activated MnO2 is available commercially or may be prepared. To a solution of 15.3 g (37.5 mmol) of the alcohol in 150 mL of hexanes was added 60 g of activated MnO2. The reaction mixture was stirred at 22 °C overnight and filtered, and the solid residue was washed with 30% EtOAc in hexanes solution. The combined filtrates were dried (Na2SO4) and concentrated in vacuo. The residue was purified by chromatography on SiO2 (EtOAc:hexanes, 1:10) to give 13.7 g (90%) of the ketone as a colorless oil. Reference: Wipf, P.; Xu, W. J. Org. Chem. 1996, 61, 6556–6562. Chromium-based oxidations are reliable and well established, but the toxicity associated with chromium salts have meant that they are generally considered the second choice. For a review of chromium–amine complex oxidations, see Luzzio, F. A. Org. React. 1998, 53, 1-221. To a mixture of pyridinium chlorochromate (PCC 339 mg, 1.57 mmol), ammonium acetate (215 mg, 2.62 mmol), and 4 Å molecular sieves (610 mg) in CH2Cl2 (33 mL) was added a solution of the alcohol (208 mg, 1.05 mmol) in CH2Cl2 (14 mL) under argon at 0 °C over a period of 10 min. After the mixture had been stirred at room temperature for 3 h, diethyl ether (200 mL) was added and the mixture was filtered through a short pad of Florisil. The filtrate was washed successively with water (100 mL) and brine (100 mL), dried with Na2SO4, and concentrated. The residue was purified by chromatography on silica gel (hexane 70%, Et2O 30%) followed by distillation to give the aldehyde as a colorless oil (132 mg, 63%).
Reductions
Authors: Li Jie Jack , Limberakis Chris , Pflum Derek A.
Published: November 2020

The Barton deoxygenation (or Barton–McCombie deoxygenation) is a two-step reaction sequence for the reduction of an alcohol to an alkane. The alcohol is first converted to a methyl xanthate or thioimidazoyl carbamate. Then, the xanthate or thioimidazoyl carbamate is reduced with a tin hydride reagent under radical conditions to afford the alkane. Trialkylsilanes have also been used as the hydride source. Reviews: (a) McCombie, S. W. In Comprehensive Organic Synthesis; Trost, B. M.; Fleming, I., Eds.; Pergamon Press: Oxford, U. K., 1991; Vol. 8, Chapter 4.2: Reduction of Saturated Alcohols and Amines to Alkanes, pp. 818–824. (b) Crich, D.; Quintero, L. Chem. Rev. 1989, 89, 1413–1432. To a solution of the â-hydroxy-N-methyl-O-methylamide (0.272 g, 1.55 mol) in tetrahydrofuran (THF) (30 mL) were added carbon disulfide (6.75 mL, 112 mmol) and iodomethane (6.70 mL, 108 mmol) at 0 °C. The mixture was stirred at this temperature for 0.25 h, and then sodium hydride (60% suspension in mineral, 136.3 mg, 3.4 mmol) was added. After 20 min at 0 °C, the reaction was quenched by slow addition to 60 g of crushed ice. (Caution: hydrogen gas evolution!). The mixture was raised to room temperature and separated, and the aqueous layer was extracted with CH2Cl2 (4 × 15 mL). The combined organic extracts were dried (Na2SO4), concentrated in vacuo, and purified (SiO2, 5% EtOAc in hexanes) to afford 0.354 g (86%) of the xanthate. To a solution of the xanthate (2.95 g, 11.1 mmol) in toluene (100 mL) was added tributyltin hydride (15.2 mL, 56.6 mmol) and 2,2´-azobisisobutyronitrile (AIBN, 0.109 g, 0.664 mmol). The reaction mixture was then heated to reflux for 1 h. The mixture was cooled, concentrated in vacuo, and purified (SiO2, 100% hexanes to remove tin byproducts, followed by 10% EtOAc in hexanes to elute product) to afford 1.69 g (96%) of the N-methyl-O-methylamide.
Territoriality in American Law
Authors: Raustiala Kal
Published: November 2020

In 1899 the English writer Rudyard Kipling penned a poem entitled “The White Man’s Burden.” The phrase is now famous, though few probably know that Kipling was its author. Fewer still know the full title: “The White Man’s Burden: The United States and the Philippine Islands.” Kipling published the poem to implore the United States, which had just defeated Spain in a war, to assume control of Spain’s former colonies. By the end of the nineteenth century the United States had grown into an economic giant and had shown itself capable of vanquishing a once great European nation. Now, Kipling suggested, it was time to step into its natural role as an imperial power. His final verse made clear the stakes: . . . Take up the White Man’s burden— Have done with childish days— The lightly proferred laurel, The easy, ungrudged praise. Comes now, to search your manhood Through all the thankless years Cold, edged with dear-bought wisdom, The judgment of your peers! . . . Many Americans at the time agreed that victory in the Spanish-American War of 1898 demonstrated that the United States was now a world power of the first rank. Yet as the poem suggests, they were not entirely sure about ruling Spain’s former colonial islands. Even if the United States did follow the lead of other great powers and build an overseas empire, it was unclear exactly how its colonies should be governed. Were the islands acquired from Spain subject to the same laws as ordinary American territory, or could the United States rule offshore territories differently simply because they were offshore? In short, as contemporaries put the question, did the Constitution follow the flag? This debate consumed the American public and elites alike. It became a central theme in the 1900 presidential contest between Republican incumbent William McKinley and Democratic challenger William Jennings Bryan. The Democratic Party platform emphatically declared an anti-imperial stance: “We hold that the Constitution follows the flag, and denounce the doctrine that an Executive or Congress deriving their existence and their powers from the Constitution can exercise lawful authority beyond it or in violation of it . . . Imperialism abroad will lead quickly and inevitably to despotism at home.”
The Imperial Constitution
Authors: Raustiala Kal
Published: November 2020

On May 9, 1880, on an American ship named the Bullion docked in the harbor of Yokohama, Japan, John Ross stabbed his crewmate Robert Kelly to death with a knife. As was the common practice at the time for Westerners who committed crimes in Asia, Ross did not face trial for murder before local Japanese authorities, nor did Japanese law influence the outcome of the case in any way. Rather, Ross’s trial was conducted by Thomas van Buren, the local American consul in Kanagawa, Japan. The trial occurred under consular jurisdiction (described in chapter 1 in this volume), a form of extraterritoriality that was commonly asserted in the past by European great powers in states they deemed “uncivilized.” Japan, though soon to join the ranks of the civilized nations, was at the time of Robert Kelly’s death compelled to afford the Western powers a free hand in adjudicating the crimes of their countrymen within Japan. The American consular court in Kanagawa convicted John Ross of murder and sentenced him to death. Although Ross was in fact British, the court held that because he was a seaman on a U.S. vessel he was subject to the jurisdiction of the United States. Ross’s death sentence was ultimately commuted to life imprisonment by President Rutherford B. Hayes. Apparently unsatisfied, in 1890 Ross brought a challenge to his murder conviction that rose to the Supreme Court. In the late nineteenth century the connections of American citizens to foreign places and foreign markets were rising rapidly. Extraterritorial jurisdiction was a European practice of long standing, but it became much more significant and extensive in the late nineteenth century. Ross’s case directly raised the question of the legality of such jurisdiction, not in terms of international law (that was generally unquestioned at the time), but in terms of domestic law. His case thus implicated the extraterritorial reach of constitutional rights at a time when imperialism was undergoing a major resurgence and the United States was assuming a more prominent place in international affairs than ever before.