bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Regional/areal reconnaissance and investigation of candidate areas/sites
Authors: Kiersch George A.
Published: April 2015

The importance of regional/areal geoscience investigations for data critical to selecting candidate areas/sites for engineering works and for related supplies of natural materials is frequently overlooked. Project sponsors have commonly restricted the efforts of the exploration team to only the area near an initially selected candidate site, and sometimes this attitude persists during the planning and design phases (discussed in Chapters 19 and 20, this volume). This limited approach disregards the potential importance of much relevant geological information, because sites rarely conform to a preconceived interpretation. In many cases, an understanding of neotectonic conditions, geomorphic history, and active regional geologic processes can prove more advantageous to an engineering objective than restricted, detailed knowledge of a single site (Fig. 1). A very early example of this occurred during a reconnaissance for the proposed Roundout Valley tunnel alignment for New York Board of Water Supply in 1906. C. P. Berkey recalled (Sanborn, 1950, p. 46), “consultant W. O. Crosby left the party and drove far beyond the line of tunnel; on his return Crosby understood the geology of the site better than anyone could from a mere inspection of the alignment, and it was a good practical lesson in reconnaissance technique.”

Several examples of how an inadequate understanding of areal geology subsequently affected project design are given in case histories cited herein and in Chapters 19, 20, and 23, this volume. Moreover, regional/areal geological investigations have been utilized with increasing effectiveness as one basis for the most economic and effective approach to selecting suitable locations for engineering works (Fig. 1).
Construction geology; As-built conditions
Authors: Keaton Jeffrey R.
Published: April 2015

Most of the historic milestones in engineering geology resulted from the construction of important, large-scale projects, as described in Kiersch (this volume, Chapter 1). The construction phase of a project follows final design and precedes operation and maintenance. Careful documentation of geologic conditions exposed in significant excavations and modification of designs to cope with “changed conditions” are routine elements of major construction projects such as dams, tunnels, power plants, and highways. Unless required by a local ordinance, as-built geological mapping on smaller projects, such as industrial developments and residential subdivisions, usually is not requested by a project owner. However, the increasing attention to economic considerations and the contemporary legal atmosphere are contributing to the expanded use of geological documentation during construction on smaller projects. Roberts (1973, p. 145) analyzed more than a thousand project reports and case histories and concluded that “the comparatively small investment required to obtain a foundation ‘as-built’ report provides a very substantial return.” He notes that preparation of foundation “as-built” reports assures: (1) the owner received what was paid for; (2) the design engineer that construction was in accordance with design assumptions, or any modifications necessary were made in a timely and economical manner; and (3) a record is provided to guide any subsequent structural modifications, remedial treatment of failures, or design of nearby new construction.

The initial involvement of geologists on construction projects most likely occurred in response to problems or failures caused by an inability of the engineer’s conservatism or “factor of safety” to compensate for the geologic conditions, which at most sites are unique and cannot necessarily be treated as a random variable with some average value.
Failures of engineering works
Authors: James Laurence B. , Kiersch George A.
Published: April 2015

During the twentieth century, remarkable changes have transpired in the attitudes of engineers and related specialists toward the importance and relevance of geological input into the success of most engineering works. During the early decades it was difficult to determine whether it was negligence or an inadequacy of geologists that resulted in failure to convey the pertinent data needed by engineers and associated professionals to quantify the geologic setting and features. All too often the geologist was prone to a lofty, scientific style of report or oral presentation that was foreign to the intended user. We (the authors) were introduced to this situation early in our careers. One prominent project engineer caustically informed one of us (LB J), “Engineers are not interested in a classification of rocks as ‘herbiverous or car-niverous,’ but rather with the physical evaluation of geological conditions and a prediction of the potential effects of areal-site conditions on the safety and performance of project.”

In a similar thrust, dam-builder H. F. Bahmeier (personal communication, 1936) counselled the other (GAK) with, “Professor Berkey is my preferred consultant because he is the only geologist I can understand.”

Unfortunately, past misunderstandings frequently created schisms and polarized the two disciplines. In extreme instances, some project engineers minimized the importance of adequate geological investigations or scorned the data and recommendations of geologists as of little practical value. Sadly, some of the resulting engineering works ultimately experienced difficulties and/or failure due to the geologic conditions, such as the Baldwin Hills and Vaiont Reservoirs, and the Malpasset and Teton Dams. Fortunately, today a mutual interdisciplinary respect exists for the importance of mature, field-experienced geological input for engineering purposes.
Modern practice, training, and academic endeavors 1940s to 1980s
Authors: Kiersch George A.
Published: April 2015

World War II and the stress of war-time economics from 1940 to 1945 placed new demands on all phases of industry. These elements of change, combined with the effects of postwar economic expansion, were manifested in many geology-related problems. For example, (1) the need for increased supplies of industrial water in some coastal areas led to an excessive drawdown of the ground-water level and allowed sea-water encroachment; (2) construction of the Alaskan Highway in early 1940s for defense of territory led to an in-depth realization of the permafrost phenomenon and its impact on construction in arctic terrain; (3) the need for large underground storage and bombproof military facilities by the mid-1940s led to pioneering research in rock mechanics and the dynamic stress phenomenon of large-scale explosions (McCutchen, 1949; Kiersch, 1951); (4) the demands for terrain analysis to serve military actions resulted in several new aerial exploration and interpretive techniques that were later available for civil projects; and (5) more recently, geology was a major factor and was investigated extensively during the planning and construction of the Alaskan pipeline in the 1960s and 1970s (Pewe, Chapter 14, this volume).

The large reservoirs built in the 1920s and 1930s increased sediment-filling to the status of a serious geological problem; then, ironically, the cleansed reservoir water created leakage problems downstream in the very canals that were formerly self-sealed by the natural silt. Each difficulty ultimately provided an improved state of knowledge and progress in engineering geology.

By the 1950s, international interest was keen on a distinction between an artificial, underground nuclear explosion (test) signal and a natural seismic event; the “detectability of seismic signals” became the focus of major seismological research by the U.S. Air Force and experiments by the Terrestrial Sciences Laboratory (Haskell, 1957).
Errors of geologic judgment and the impact on engineering works
Authors: Kiersch George A. , James Laurence B.
Published: April 2015

Many of the more common causes of physical failures or serious remedial problems of engineering works are related to the construction or operation and maintenance phases of a project and involve either controversies or errors of geologic judgment. Mistakes and misunderstandings that impact on a project, including an incorrect design, may be due to any of several causes, such as a misinterpretation of available geological facts, inadequate factual background data, or misunderstanding, misjudgment, or poor forecasting of the geolpgic changes that occur with time and/or operation. Frequently the errors of judgment committed are related to the cost/benefit and/or calculated-risk evaluations of a project, as discussed later in this chapter.

Many faulty interpretations of areal and site-specific geologic conditions have been traced to a lack of input by mature, field-experienced geologists. Even more frequently the errors are a function of insufficient funds for adequate investigations. Management is often under pressure to expedite the investigative stage of the project; in a few instances, site assessment has been attempted by inexperienced individuals or non-geologists, as in the case of the St. Francis dam failure (Chapter 22, this volume). On rare occasions, accusations have claimed incompetence or intentional misinterpretation of the geologic environs for self-serving purposes. However, the authors are unaware of any such instance of fraudulent practice by a professional geologist.

Judgment plays a particularly important role in the planning stage of most major engineering works; for example, in comparing alternative sites for structures or determining routes for aqueducts or highways. Errors of judgment during planning may lead to design problems or result in a failure to achieve the maximum potential benefits from the project.
Geoarchaeological studies of the Beaver River Sandstone, northeastern Alberta
Authors: Fenton Mark M. , Ives John W.
Published: April 2015

Geological techniques can aid in solving problems of the definition, recognition, source, and distribution patterns of lithic materials found in archaeological sites. We apply the principals of stratigraphy, historical geology, and petrology to our study of the Beaver River Sandstone. The approach is generally applicable to archaeological lithic material with sources situated in any sedimentary terrain.

One of the most striking aspects of the archaeological record for the study area, the Athabasca Oil Sands deposit north of Fort McMurray, Alberta, is the almost complete prehistoric reliance upon a single kind of raw lithic material, which we named the “Beaver River Sandstone.” Prior to our work, an extraordinarily broad range of geologic ages and origins were suggested for this rock type, with little or no supporting data. Also, knowledge of the sources and cultural dispersal of this raw material were vital to understanding the prehistoric socioeconomic variability in the region. Therefore, our primary objectives were, for the Beaver River Sandstone: (1) to develop a clear, geologically significant definition, (2) to establish criteria for recognition of this material, and (3) to map the distribution of potential sources of this sandstone available to early inhabitants. The secondary objective was to establish criteria needed to distinguish this sandtone from superficially similar rock types known to be present in the study area.
Environmental factors affecting prehistoric shellfish utilization; Grape Island, Boston Harbor, Massachusetts
Authors: Jones J. Richard , Fisher John J.
Published: April 2015

In 1974, Braun suggested that environmental changes influenced prehistoric shellfish utilization along the southern New England coast. This was based principally on an evaluation of mollusk data from midden horizons around Boston Harbor, Massachusetts, and secondarily on literature derived from a variety of sources relevant to Northeast coastal environments.

From his analysis, Braun (1974) concludes that utilization of particular shellfish species in New England coastal waters changed with the climate and was not directly related to cultural preference, as implied by Ritchie (1969). As a result of the cooling climate, the warmer water mollusk assemblage (oysterquahog) became a less viable food resource by the middle Woodland period (ca. 1,800 to 1,600 yr BP). After this, there was a marked increase in the utilization of the cooler water mollusk species (soft shell clam-blue mussel).

Snow (1980, 1981) also supports the concept that cultural adaptation in a coastal environment occurs when physical factors change. He notes that the availability of shellfish species is determined by environmental conditions in a particular area, which in turn limit human exploitation of certain shellfish assemblages (Snow, 1980, 1981). Although controversy exists regarding the direct causal relationship between climate and cultural subsistence change (Dincause, 1981), Wendland and Bryson (1974) demonstrated a strong correlation between inferred climatic variation and worldwide cultural adaptation.

Lightfoot (1985) and Erlandson (1988) recently elaborated on the relationship between shellfish utilization and coastal site strategies. Both also suggest that adaptation and site selection appears to be, in part, related to changing environmental conditions rather
Prospecting for submerged archaeological sites on the continental shelf; Southern mid-Atlantic Bight of North America
Authors: Hoyt William H. , Kraft John C. , Chrzastowski Michael J.
Published: April 2015

Humans are fascinated with the proposition that there are artifacts of ancient civilizations below sea level. The question arises, “How feasible is it for twentieth and twenty-first century humans to find extensive remains of ancient civilizations that were submerged by the Holocene rise in sea level?“

The interest of society in marine archaeology and treasure hunting surged in recent years as a result of several spectacular discoveries. Among these were the 1972 discovery of the U.S.S. Montitor off Cape Hatteras (oldest iron-clad warship), the H.M.S. De Braak off Cape Henlopen (a British warship purported to be carrying as much as $500 million worth of booty), and the H.M.S. Titanic off the Canadian Maritime Provinces. Although these are not prehistoric finds, they raised public support for archaeological research in general.

In this chapter we synthesize the state-of-the-art of paleogeography of known prehistoric archaeological sites in the coastal zone, as well as those that presumably lie on the submerged portion of the continental shelf of North America's mid-Atlantic Bight (Fig. 1). In the Americas, according to Deetz (1988), "prehistoric"refers to any material remains prior to A.D. 1492. On the peninsula of Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia (Delmarva), Thomas (1974) defined prehistoric periods approximately as cited in Table 1. Where necessary, this approximate period nomenclature for early humans in the area is used.

Coastal and shallow-marine archaeological sites are reported from around the world (Edwards and Emery, 1977; Fleming, 1983; Kraft and others, 1983b, 1985). An additional site is described here and related
Depositional history of an archaeologically dated flood plain, Haw River, North Carolina
Authors: Larsen Curtis E. , Schuldenrein Joseph
Published: April 2015

Geological studies of flood plains are a major concern in archaeological research (Larsen, 1982; Anderson and Schuldenrein, 1985; Brakenridge, 1984; Ferring, 1986; Waters, 1988). An interest in the process of flood-plain development has been stimulated by the abundance of stratified sites in such settings and by the utility of cultural-geologic successions that link past human and environmental events.

The genesis of flood-plain deposits that preserve archaeological evidence is complicated by both human occupation and natural alluvial events and processes. Deposits with archaeological associations may obscure natural flood-plain stratification, while alluvial events can re-sort artifacts and alter spatial distributions of prehistoric activities. Soil formation and flood-plain erosion may change or destroy portions of the archaeological record even more. Still, a comprehensive appreciation of site-formation processes that includes familiarity with flood processes, soil formation processes, the nature of riverine occupations, and the range of disturbances affecting deposits can result in a reasonable reconstruction of the occupational landscapes.

In the temperate Holocene environments of the southeastern U.S. Piedmont, the primary rivers served as settlement pathways for prehistoric peoples up through the period of European contact. Based on evidence from throughout the region, adaptive strategies changed through time, even though the affinity for riverine settlement persisted (Coe, 1964; Claggett and Cable, 1982; Ward 1983). Many of the key drainages preserve discontinuous records of occupation for much of the Holocene. As a result, the cultural sequences preserved in the alluvium of the main drainageways provide excellent opportunities for integrating the Holocene landscape and occupational histories
Geoarchaeology of the Cummins site on the beach of proglacial Lake Minong, Lake Superior Basin, Canada
Authors: Julig P. J. , McAndrews J. H. , Mahaney William C.
Published: April 2015

Paleoindian sites (approximately 7,500 to 11,500 B.P.) on “raised beach terraces” and “strandlines” in the Great Lakes region are a well-documented aspect of early settlement patterns. In the lower Great Lakes region of Ontario, research on the early (fluted-point) cultures (approximately 9,500 to 11,500 B.P.) has been particularly productive over the past two decades, with survey and excavations concentrated on proglacial Lake Algonquin strandlines (Deller, 1976; Storck, 1982, 1984). Radiometrically dated materials from these beaches were used to establish maximum geological dates for Lake Algonquin strandlines; for sites along the north shore of Lake Ontario there are bracketing geological dates (Roberts, 1984).

In the northwestern Lake Superior Basin there is a similar pattern of numerous late Paleoindian (Piano) sites of the Lakehead Paleoindian complex (Fox, 1975, 1980; Dawson, 1983; Julig, 1984,1988) found on or near beaches of an earlier, deeper stage of Lake Superior: Lake Minong (Fig. 1). Prehistoric groups often favored shorelines for settlement sites due to their high biological productivity (and subsistence resources), as well as a ready supply of fresh water. Along the north shore of the upper Great Lakes there are regional loci of Paleoindian sites at coastal locations where there was also abundant lithic material for stonetool manufacture. Several such loci of large coastal quarry/workshop sites, surrounded by numerous smaller sites, include the Cummins site and the Lakehead Paleoindian Complex in the northwestern Lake Superior Basin (Fox, 1975; Julig, 1988), and the Sheguiandah and George Lake Complex of sites in northern Lake Huron (Lee, 1954,1955
The mineralogy of Wyandotte Cave aragonite, Indiana, and its archaeological significance
Authors: Tankersley Kenneth B. , Munson Cheryl Ann , Munson Patrick J. , Shaffer Nelson R. , Leininger R. K.
Published: April 2015

Wyandotte Cave (Figs. 1,2) is a large limestone cave system in southern Indiana. From archaeological investigations in the cave, we know that several of the aragonite formations were quarried by prehistoric people. We also know, based on examination of curated collections, that some artifacts recovered from prehistoric archaeological sites in eastern North America are made from materials similar to the Wyandotte Cave aragonite. In this chapter the mineralogical and chemical characteristics of speleothem aragonite from Wyandotte Cave and other locales are described. Some of the characteristics of Wyandotte aragonite are distinctive, and therefore can serve as "fingerprints." When these are found in artifacts they are evidence that the source of the raw material was Wyandotte Cave, Indiana.
Geoarchaeology of the Kansas River basin, central Great Plains
Authors: Johnson William C. , Logan Brad
Published: April 2015

the Kansas River basin, largely related to water-resource projects, the quantity of archaeologic and geomorphic data available has tripled. Through an integration of both types of information, we are now able to achieve a basinwide perspective of basin archaeology and geomorphology. Moreover, given the geographic range of the basin, from its headwaters in the semiarid High Plains to the more mesic lower portion of the basin in the deciduous forest-tallgrass prairie mosaic, the Kansas River drainage is an ideal laboratory for tracking the influence of a broad range of environmental variables on prehistoric human adaptations. Our purpose is to articulate (1) the relations among prehistoric groups of this large drainage basin based on the distribution of archaeological evidence; and (2) the relation between the archaeological evidence and ongoing geomorphic processes, particularly erosion and deposition, that affect their preservation, distribution, and detection.

In recent years archaeologists have recognized that the preserved record of past cultural activities is evidence of—with variable degrees of accuracy—both the articulation of human groups and their environment and the effects of post-occupational processes on the material remains of those activities (SchifFer, 1976; Binford, 1977, 1981; Binford and Bertram, 1977; Wood and Johnson, 1978). The data base is not inherited in pristine condition, however; the archaeological record is an imperfect mirror of past cultural activities that formed vulnerable, “fossil” configurations, which in turn are frequently flawed by a variety of postdepositional processes, cultural and natural in origin. These must be recognized, and the extent of their influence on
The archaeological geology of the Calico site, Mojave Desert, California
Authors: Shlemon Roy J. , Budinger Fred E.
Published: April 2015

One of the most famous and yet controversial archaeological sites in North America is the Calico site, located in the central Mojave Desert of California (Fig. 1). The Calico site has evidence, albeit controversial, for the presence of early man some 200,000 years ago, far earlier than any site in North America presently wholly accepted by the archaeological community, and almost as old as recent discoveries in South America (de Lumley and others, 1988).

The controversy generally centers on two issues: (1) the authenticity of the artifacts, and (2) the age of the deposits (Haynes, 1973; Bryan, 1978; Taylor and Payen, 1979; Meighan, 1983). At present, more than 11,000 inferred stone tools and flakes have been recovered, mainly from 7- to 10-m-deep master pits. The Calico site was apparently a quarry utilized because of the local presence of high-quality knappable chert and chalcedony (Budinger and Simpson, 1985). Despite ongoing debate, many archaeologists believe that the lithic specimens are tools and flakes of human manufacture, rather than fortuitously created, natural "geofacts" (see, for example, discussions in Leakey and others, 1968, 1970; Schuiling, 1972, 1979; Haynes, 1973; Taylor and Payen, 1979; Carter, 1980; Gruhn and Young, 1980; Patterson, 1983; Patterson and others, 1989; Budinger, 1983; Budinger and Simpson, 1985; West, 1983).

New World archaeologists would more likely accept Calico as an archaeological site if the age of the artifact-bearing beds were on the order of 20,000 or 30,000 years old, rather than 200,000 years or older, as shown by recent soil-stratigraphic and
Holocene landscapes of the San Juan Basin, New Mexico; Geomorphic, climatic, and cultural dynamics
Authors: Hall Stephen A.
Published: April 2015

Landscapes are a blend of physical, biotic, and human interactions through time. The arid landscape of the San Juan Basin in northwestern New Mexico has undergone significant alterations in geomorphology, climate, and human occupation during the past 10,000 years as shown by sequences of eolian and fluvial deposition and erosion, soil development, pollen and plant macrofossils, and numerous archaeological studies; this information contributes to one of the goals of geoarchaeology, the determination of the relation between the physical-biotic environment and the activities of humans. This chapter examines the evidence for Holocene environments and their relationships to the archaeological record in the San Juan Basin.

The San Juan is both a structural and a topographic basin located at the southeastern comer of the Colorado Plateau in San Juan, Rio Arriba, and McKinley counties, northwestern New Mexico (Fassett and Hinds, 1971). The climatically arid basin is drained primarily by the Chaco River and its tributaries, which head in the east along the Continental Divide at an altitude of 2,300 m. The southern, western, and northern margins of the basin are bounded by the Mt. Taylor-Zuni, Chuska-Lukachukai, and San Juan mountains, respectively (Fig. 1). The modern vegetation at altitudes above 2,750 m in these ranges is a sprucefir forest with ponderosa pine and Douglas fir; at lower altitudes, pinyon pine and juniper woodlands occur. Below about 2,100 m, pinyon-juniper and juniper woodlands disappear, except along some escarpments, and the vegetation becomes a treeless shrub grassland (Wright and others, 1973). Mean annual temperatures within
Late Pleistocene and Holocene pedogenic and environmental trends at archaeological sites in plains and mountain areas of Colorado and Wyoming
Authors: Reider Richard G.
Published: April 2015

Bryan and Albritton (1943) were among the first to demonstrate the use of soil morphology, genesis, and stratigraphy in interpretation of archaeological sites for purposes of understanding climatic change and conditions at time of site occupation. This was an outgrowth of Bryan's pioneering work in studies at the Lindenmeier site (Fig. 1) in Colorado (Bryan and Ray, 1940) and cave sites, such as Sandia and Ventana Caves in New Mexico and Arizona (Bryan, 1941a, 1950). Judson (1953) did similar work at the San Jon site in New Mexico as did Hack (1942) in the Hopi Buttes area of Arizona. At the Horner site (Fig. 1) in Wyoming (Jepsen, 1953; Frison and Todd, 1987), Judson (1950) and Schullinger (1951) interpreted conditions based on stratigraphy, and Moss (1951) and Hack (1943) duplicated this at the Finley site (Fig. 1), also in Wyoming, while giving attention to soil morphology and climatic interpretation. Leopold and Miller (1954) recognized the recurrence of an Altithermal caliche or paleosol in alluvial sediments in Wyoming. Similar to Bryan (1941b), Haynes recognized soils in sediments throughout the West and Southwest, concluding that there was regularity in stream cutting and filling. In Wyoming, Haynes and Grey (1965) correlated events at the Sister's Hill site (Fig. 1) with the Leopold and Miller (1954) model and with patterns recognized elsewhere, especially in Arizona (Haynes, 1968). Later, Irwin-Williams and others (1973) identified a calcareous pedogenic unit at the Hell Gap site (Fig. 1) in Wyoming, and Benedict (1973, 1981,1985) and Benedict and Olson
Microstratigraphic analysis of sediments and soils; Wasden archaeological site, eastern Snake River Plain, Idaho
Authors: Moody Ula L. , Dort Wakefield
Published: April 2015

Information about former environments of an archaeological site traditionally is acquired through interpretation of cultural materials and of associated faunal and floral remains. A synthesis based on data from these sources can be augmented by investigation of sediments and soils present at the site or in the immediate vicinity. The composition and structure of both sediments and the soils developed in them are products of geologic and pedologic processes that are influenced in varying degrees by aspects of local environmental controls. Therefore, the greater the detail of observations acquired through study of a sequence of sediments and soils, the more that becomes known about the environmental changes through time at a specific locality.

In this chapter we seek to increase knowledge of paleoenvironments that affected an archaeological site in southeastern Idaho. The chapter is specifically designed to illustrate to those unfamiliar with microstratigraphic analysis of sediments and soils some of the data that may be applied to geoarchaeological interpretations, as well as to outline the methodology used to acquire those data. We obtained and interpreted field observations and laboratory analyses separately, then tested our conclusions by integrating the two sets.
A regional application of tephrochronology in Alaska
Authors: Dixon E. James , Smith George S.
Published: April 2015

The first section of this chapter is a review highlighting some of the important trends and developments that occurred during the past century in the application of geomorphic and stratigraphic principles and techniques in Alaska archaeology. It compliments Thorson's (this volume) review of geological problems and contexts applicable to many Alaskan archaeological sites by providing the historic context that led to contemporary application of geological principles and techniques to archaeological research in Alaska. The review is followed by a regional example used to illustrate a contemporary application of tephrochronology for the Middle Susitna River Project. From it, we see both the utility and limitations of tephrochronology for the establishment of a broad local cultural chronologic framework, and how such a framework can be used to interpret prehistory.
Applications of molluscan microgrowth analysis to geoarchaeology; A case study from Costa Rica
Authors: Pallant Eric
Published: April 2015

For more than 2,500 years, pre-Columbian Americans subsisted in part on marine fauna. The refuse, largely molluscan, was discarded in large heaps or mounds known as shell middens. Today, shell middens are found on both the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of most of the New World. Studies of shell middens have been undertaken to assess the degree of prehistoric dependence on molluscs as a food supply, the nutritional value of the molluscs, the size of the human population that might have been sustained by the shells in a midden, and the seasonality of human habitations (Borgogno and Linares, 1980; Coutts, 1970, 1975; Coutts and Higham, 1971; Ham and Irvine, 1975; Karp, 1970; Kenney, 1980; Lange, 1971,1978; Matykiewicz, 1978; Moreau, 1979, 1980; Robinson, 1979; Stark and Voorhies, 1978; Turpin, 1978).

From recent studies of the microgrowth patterns in marine molluscs, researchers showed that some bivalves record important environmental information such as variations in marine temperature, storm events, and the length of seasons. As a result, information from shell-midden analyses regarding changes in microenvironmental conditions through time can be used to accurately determine (1) the season a certain type of mollusc was harvested, (2) the seasonality of an occupation, (3) the age of the harvested mollusc, and (4) whether a clam was harvested while alive for food, or perhaps dead for use of its shell as jewelry (Koike, 1979, 1980). As molluscs recovered from shell middens preserve a record of their ontogeny, inferences about paleoenvironmental conditions can also be made.
Native copper sources of artifact copper in pre-Columbian North America
Authors: Rapp George , Henrickson Eiler , Allert James
Published: April 2015

Archaeological and anthropological interest in the sources of North American artifact copper center on trade relations and network systems. If exchange networks are to be accurately modeled, positive identification of source areas is vital. We know that North American copper technology began in preceramic times. Quimby (1960) considers the center of its development as the Upper Great Lakes Region.

Utilitarian copper artifacts in the archaeologic record appear initially about 5,500 yr BP. Halsey (1983) describes the distribution of these "Old Copper Culture" artifacts. This culture flourished in eastern Wisconsin and the western Upper Peninsula of Michigan, but artifacts attributable to it are found as far away as the Dakotas and Quebec. Interestingly, few are found in Illinois, Indiana, or Ohio.

The Archaeometry Laboratory at the University of Minnesota has been involved in the location and trace-element "fingerprinting" of North American native copper deposits for nearly two decades (Rapp and others, 1980, 1984). This chapter summarizes significant geologic occurrences and possible sources of prehistoric native copper north of the Rio Grande River. Our voluminous trace-element data are being published elsewhere.

The earliest accounts of Europeans who came into contact with the pre-Columbian inhabitants of North America noted that the indigenous peoples used copper, primarily for decorative purposes (Vastokas, 1970). In the early to middle seventeenth century, explorers became interested in tracing the source of the copper. Griffin (1961a) and Vastokas (1970) describe the early historical accounts of tracing copper to the Lake Superior district.
New archaeometallurgical perspectives on the Old Copper industry of North America
Authors: Vernon William W.
Published: April 2015

Thousands of copper artifacts have been found in the Great Lakes region, most of which are attributed to the Old Copper industry, a Late Archaic Indian manifestation characterized by dominantly utilitarian artifacts with distinctive typologies. This industry had a geographic center in Wisconsin, with secondary centers in Michigan, Minnesota, and Ontario. Native copper used by the Old Copper Indians was obtained from the Lake Superior region by mining surface deposits, such as those on Isle Royale in Lake Superior and on the Keweenaw Peninsula in Upper Michigan, and by collecting nuggets, cobbles, and larger pieces from glacial-till deposits. Mining, in the sense of the Old Copper Indians, consisted of digging open pits beside a ledge of copperbearing rock and pounding with stone mauls to loosen the rock from the copper. Some charcoal deposits are evidence that the rock was possibly also fractured by heating and dousing with water. Copper axes, chisels, and wedges for working the copper into portable pieces have been found, and the bulk of the metal most likely was transported to workshops and villages for fabrication, use, and trade. Comprehensive accounts of the role of copper in the prehistory of the Lake Superior region are given in Griffin (1961).

Artifacts fabricated from Lake Superior region copper occur as surface finds, in caches, and in burials, commonly associated with a chipped-stone complex. Dispersal of the artifacts was widespread in eastern North America and emanated from the Great Lakes area along shores and major waterways (see Fogel, 1963).
The early occupations of the Glacial Lake Agassiz basin in Manitoba; 11,500 to 7,700 B.P.
Authors: Buchner A. P. , Pettipas L. F.
Published: April 2015

Glacial Lake Agassiz was undeniably one of the most imposing physiographic features of the early postglacial landscape in the American midcontinent (Fig. 1). While all three of the recognized Paleoindian “traditions” (Clovis, Folsom, and Piano) are known in Manitoba, the frequency and distribution of the fluted point complexes (that is, Clovis and Folsom) differ radically from those that came after. This is primarily due to the fluctuating levels of the lake and the nature of the evolving macro- and microenvironments surrounding its basin. The chronology of Lake Agassiz (Clayton and Moran, 1982) is correlative with the broad sweep of Paleoindian prehistory and is divided into three major phases. The Lockhart Phase (roughly 11,500 to 11,000 B.P.) coincides with the Herman, Norcross, Tintah, and early Campbell subphases of the lake. This was followed by the lowlevel Moorhead Phase (ca. 11,000 to 10,000 B.P.) and finally by a return to high levels and subsequent demise during the Emerson Phase (approximately 10,000 to 7,700 B.P.). These closely coincide with the Clovis, Folsom, and Piano periods of Paleoindian prehistory (Fig. 2).
Archaeological stratigraphy
Authors: Stein Julie K.
Published: April 2015

Archaeologists have utilized stratigraphy to represent temporal relations for over a century, but not until Gasche and Tunca (1983) published their Guide to Archaeostratigraphic Classification and Terminology was attention drawn to the fact that archaeologists were not rigorous in the systematization of archaeological strata. Geologists compiled stratigraphic guides during the last century in response to the need " . . . for uniform standard and common procedures in defining and classifying formal rock bodies, their fossils, and the time spans represented by them" (NACOSN, 1983, p. 847). In these guides the language used to denote rock units and their spatial and temporal relations is formalized.

Gasche and Tunca (1983) and other archaeologists believe that the terminology of archaeological stratigraphy used in describing archaeological sediments and their spatial and temporal relations also needs to be formalized. They argue that stratigraphic descriptions of archaeological sites are imprecise, and that descriptions are confused with interpretations. Following the example of geologists, these archaeologists propose a clarifying set of rules for terminology and classification for archaeological stratigraphy. The purpose of the Gasche and Tunca's guide is to ". . . facilitate and even to stimulate the exchange and correlation of all information produced from archaeological sites. . . and to establish a cross-referencing system, which would be as objective as possible . . . and that would eliminate the ambiguities brought about by an arbitrary language." (Gasche and Tunca, 1983, p. 325). They presented their guide as a proposal to the archaeological community for consideration.
Stable isotope geochemistry applied to archaeology
Authors: Herz Norman
Published: April 2015

Isotopic ratios of elements in natural materials on the earth were either constant in time and space or varied subsequently as a result of radioactive decay or geochemical fractionation. Information about elements that vary in isotopic abundances in different samples, as well as the reasons for these variations, help to resolve many geological and archaeological problems. For example, radioactive decay is used to establish absolute dating clocks; for archaeology, the most useful systems are the 14C, Ar, and Udisequilibrium series. Further, variations in isotopic ratios of the stable elements H, C, O, N, S, Sr, and Pb are used to solve problems of provenance, paleoenvironments, and paleodiets. Isotopic fractionation of light elements by physical, chemical, and biological processes is controlled by the thermodynamic properties determined by atomic weight and electronic configuration. Thermodynamic properties of molecules that are mass and temperature dependent include energy, which increases with decreasing temperature, and vibrational frequency, which varies inversely in proportion to the square root of the reduced mass.

Measurable isotopic separation is generally restricted to the lighter elements—that is, with atomic weights less than 40. Because isotopic fractionation is mass dependent, the separation is greater for elements with the greater mass difference between isotopes. Thus, the greatest separation is expected for hydrogen (mass 1) as opposed to deuterium (mass 2) when compared to other light elements that commonly have isotopic differences closer to 10 percent. Thus, the lighter isotopes have higher vibrational energy, and their chemical bonds are more easily broken. The different reactivity
Some uses for the magnetic properties of materials in archaeological sites
Authors: Tarling D. H.
Published: April 2015

Most substances, including those found in an archaeological context, contain iron-oxide impurities, even if only in minute quantities, and so have detectable magnetic properties. These, coupled with improved instrumentation for measuring rock magnetism (palaeomagnetism), mean that the magnetic properties of archaeological materials can be measured easily, quickly, and cheaply. Unless reheating is involved, virtually all forms of magnetic analysis can be undertaken without any effect on any other properties. Magnetic measurements can be used for a variety of archaeological purposes, of which dating is the best known and will be discussed only briefly.

Less well-known uses include restoring the original shapes of the objects or structures, determining the sources of artifacts, determining past heating temperatures, evaluating different manufacturing technologies, and evaluating local environments. Where examples are unreferenced, they are from unpublished reports by the author, commonly in conjunction with postgraduate students.
Archaeological geology of sites in western and northwestern Canada
Authors: Bobrowsky Peter T. , Catto Norm R. , Brink Jack W. , Spurling Brian E. , Gibson Terry H. , Rutter Nathaniel W.
Published: April 2015

The region of western and northwestern Canada encompasses the provinces of Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta, British Columbia, and Yukon Territory, for a total of approximately 3,400,000 km2. Much of the region, especially in the boreal forest, is presently uninhabited and essentially undeveloped. Access to many areas is either limited or cost prohibitive. Difficulties of discovery and excavation of the archaeological sites exceeds normal research constraints, especially when dealing with such natural phenomena as intensive wind deflation and collapsed stratigraphy in the southern prairies, or frost heaving and frozen ground in permafrost conditions of the north. Despite these problems, however, study of the approximately 50,000 prehistoric and historic archaeological sites presently on record with various agencies in the region has permitted a geoarchaeological synthesis.

Western and northwestern Canada is unique from a Quaternary geological perspective. Recurrent glaciations from Laurentide, Cordilleran, and Montane sources imprinted deposits and landforms upon an already complex topography encompassing fluvially dissected prairies and rugged mountainous peaks several thousand meters high. The erosive and depositional events that accompanied the various glacial and nonglacial episodes determined where prehistoric man could live, affected the state of preservation for such behavior, and continues to influence all research endeavors toward understanding this prehistoric past.

We provide a review of the archaeological geology of western and northwestern Canada. Our discussion is summarized under five primary headings: (1) “Geological framework”; (2) “Archaeological geology of prairie and foothill sites”; (3) “Archaeological geology of boreal forest sites”; (4) “Archaeological geology of Yukon sites”; and (5) “Archaeological geology
Tectonic evolution of the central U.S. Cordillera
Authors: Saleeby J. B. , Speed R. C. , Blake M. C.
Published: April 2015

The evolution of the North American continent and adjacent ocean basins in the central Cordillera of the western United States in Phanerozoic time was governed by three sequential tectonic regimes. The first included the creation of a passive margin during the latest Proterozoic to Early Cambrian (Stewart, 1976) and the removal of an unknown amount of sialic crust from the western margin of the continent. The second regime maintained a passive continental margin of western North America from Middle Cambrian to Triassic time, but permitted collisions of outboard terranes with the sialic margin in Mississippian and Permian-Triassic time (Speed, 1982; Dickinson and others, 1983). Since Triassic time, western North America, adjacent oceanic plates, and intervening microplates and other tectonic packets have existed in a regime of active margin tectonics (Hamilton, 1969; Coney and others, 1980; Saleeby, 1983; Saleeby and Busby-Spera, 1992) driven mainly by eastward subduction of oceanic lithosphere. This third and currently operating regime has been marked by diverse phenomena including subduction of oceanic lithosphere below the continent and phases of highly oblique convergence and suture-zone or intra-arc spreading, ridge-trench collision, growth of a continental arc, major foreland contraction and extension, and the accretion of displaced terranes to the sialic edge.

Corridors C1 and C2 of the Ocean-Continent Transect Program traverse all essential elements of the transition from Pacific plate oceanic crust to cratonal North America that have resulted from these three tectonic regimes. Figure 1 shows the locations of the corridors in relation to the major tectonic elements
Continent-ocean transitions in western North America between latitudes 46 and 56 degrees
Authors: Monger J.W.H. , Clowes R. M. , Cowan D. S. , Potter C. J. , Price R. A. , Yorath C. J.
Published: April 2015

This chapter is intended to supplement rather than reproduce material presented in Transects B-1, B-2, and B-3 and their accompanying texts, although some overlap is unavoidable, particularly in summary descriptions of major lithological and structural packages that form the crust of this segment of the Cordillera. The chapter discusses results of recent studies by COCORP within the east-central part of the corridor of transect B-3A, and by LITHOPROBE within the corridors of B-2 and B-3A on and west of Vancouver Island and between B-2 and B-3 A in the east-central Cordillera (Fig. 1). The new results confirm the general principles on which the transects were constructed but constrain depths and attitudes of major lithological packages and structures and provide insights into processes within deeper parts of the crust.

Transects B-1, B-2, and B-3 lie in the segment of the Cordillera that includes the southern half of British Columbia and Alberta in Canada, and Washington, northern Idaho, and Montana in the United States (Fig. 1). Each transect emphasizes a somewhat different aspect of Cordilleran geology. Transect B-1 (Yorath and others, 1985c) extends through a region between latitudes 51°N and 56°N and longitudes 126°W to 133°W. It exploits relatively abundant data in the offshore region to illustrate complex interactions near the plate junction between the Explorer (northern subplate of the Juan de Fuca Plate), Pacific, and North American plates and extends eastward across the granitic and high-grade metamorphic terrane of the Coast Mountains to terminate in the volcanogenic and sedimentary terranes of
Continent-ocean transition in Alaska
Authors: Moore Thomas E. , Grantz Arthur , Roeske Sarah M.
Published: April 2015

Alaska is the eastern, subaerial part of a large subcontinent of distinctive tectonic character that serves as an isthmus between nuclear North America, with its fringing belt of allochthonous terranes, and the accreted terranes and volcanic belts that constitute northeastern Russia. Physiographically, this subcontinent, which we name Denalia, is a bulge in the continental platform in the vicinity of Alaska, the Chukotsk Peninsula, and the broad continental shelf of the Bering Sea. The bulge is convex to the south and is bounded on the east and west by constrictions in the width of the continental platform and on the north and south by the edge of the continental shelf (Fig. 1). Tectonically, Denalia is characterized by geologic youthfulness and complexity, an abundance of convergent and transcurrent faults, and absence of autochthonous cratonic rocks. It contains a profusion of lithotectonic terranes of diverse origin and age that were emplaced in late Mesozoic and Cenozoic time. In addition, it includes the superimposed Cenozoic Aleutian arc and subduction zone and the Queen Charlotte-Fairweather transform fault system. Parts of Denalia were created by pre-middle Mesozoic tectonic events, but these took place elsewhere, before the affected rocks were tectonically transported and incorporated into the landmass of Denalia. Except for a small area in the Porcupine Plateau region along the Alaska-Yukon boundary, the only Precambrian rocks that have been recognized in the subcontinent are in tectonically emplaced fragments, the largest of which is the Arctic Alaska terrane in the Brooks Range, Arctic Foothills, and Arctic Foothills