bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Stages of Development in Poverty Program Neighborhood Action Committees
Authors: Zurcher Louis A.
Published: March 2006

As part of a larger study of a poverty intervention organization and social change, a team of participant observers attended, over a period of ig months, 174 meetings of 12 poverty program neighborhood action committees. Seven stages of committee development are conceptualized: I. Orientation, II. Catharsis, III. Focus, IV. Action, V. Limbo, VI. Testing, and VII. Purposive; and modal individual and group behaviors bracketed by each stage are described. The stages are discussed, with the theorist in mind, as they relate to the relatively few previous studies and typologies of developmental sequence in small groups. It is suggested that "Action" or "Social Change" Groups be considered entities for intensive theoretical and empirical inquiry. The stages are discussed, with the practitioner in mind, as they relate to the dynamics of a poverty intervention organization and to the "maximum feasible participation" of the poor. Particular attention is given to those poverty intervention organization practices which stimulated, thwarted, or reversed the sequential progress of neighborhood action committees through the stages of development.
The Interdisciplinary Research Team
Authors: Stone Anthony R.
Published: March 2006

The task-oriented interacting group known as the interdisciplinary research team is discussed within the theoretical framework of the primary-group Isecondary-group continuum. Primary-group patterns ("We" being the expression) are considered basic to effective team interactional productiveness. However, the secondary-group patterns ("I" being the expression) are considered essential developmentally in the process by which a grouping of competent researchers becomes a true group (i.e., approximating primary-group relationships) as well as important in maintaining the unit during periods of stress. Intrateam statuses, rewards, and complementary leadership and followership roles are seen as crucial to a team's survival and, when used appropriately, may compensate for inner as well as outside stress.
Applying Behavioral Science: Current Projects
Authors: Lake Dale G. , Ritvo Miriam R. , O'Brien Gregory M. ST. L.
Published: March 2006

This is the second in an annual series of articles reviewing activities, concepts, and research on planned change. The first review (Lake, 1968) focused upon concepts and research. This article will review activities which apply behavioral science knowledge to community development, mental health, health agencies, public school systems, higher education, product organizations, Peace Corps, and religious institutions.

Material for this article was collected through an informal survey sent to 300 persons known to pursue professional careers which involve the planning of change. The thoroughness of our description depends upon the amount and quality of materials received. The reviews are meant to be informative, not evaluative.

The reader will quickly recognize that most projects are multifaceted, employ many assumptions, and utilize many strategies of changing.
The Impact of an Organizational Development Program on Perceptions of Interpersonal, Group, and Organization Functioning
Authors: Zand Dale E. , Steele Fred I. , Zalkind Sheldon S.
Published: March 2006

There are two central tasks today in the ever-widening field of organizational development. One is the application of and experimentation with behavioral science knowledge and methods to improve process in different kinds of organizations.2 The second is to gather systematic data which will allow us to choose among alternatives and to sort out factors which seem to make a difference in the change process.3 In trying to contribute to the latter effort, this paper will present some of the findings of a study of an organization change effort in a large research and engineering company employing more than 2,000 persons and having five levels of authority represented in its managerial hierarchy.

The president was acquainted with both Managerial Grid laboratories and unstructured T-Group laboratories. About a year and a half before this research was started, the president and his vice presidents had been meeting periodically with behavioral science consultants. At these meetings interpersonal relationships among the top executives were analyzed. One outcome of these meetings was a decision that the vice presidents would attend stranger T Group laboratories. After the vice presidents had participated in these laboratories, they, with the concurrence of the president, decided to initiate an extensive organization change effort.
Improving Organizational Problem Solving in a School Faculty
Authors: Schmuck Richard A. , Runkel Philip J. , Langmeyer Daniel
Published: March 2006

The intervention detailed here was aimed at improving the flexible organizational problem solving of a junior high school faculty. It was pointed toward organizational development, not personal change. Even though the emotional reactions of faculty members were considered in designing the training events, our intervention remained fixed on organizational roles and norms and their interrelationships. We hoped to learn whether improved organizational functioning could be produced in a faculty by integrating group training in communication and problem solving with the normal business of the school. We began our intervention just prior to the academic year and returned intermittently until February.

Data evaluating the effects of the intervention support the claim that a number of salutary outcomes were at least partly due to the intervention. Movement in favorable directions occurred in a number of concrete, observable organizational changes, in verbally expressed attitudes about the principal and staff meetings, in the kinds of innovations reported, and in the changing organizational norms of the faculty. Strengths and weaknesses of the intervention are discussed.
Community Service Workers and Recipients: A Combined Middle Class Lower Class Workshop
Authors: Culver Charles M. , Dunham Frances , Edgerton J. Wilbert , Edgerton Marianna
Published: March 2006

A one-week workshop, focusing on the nature of the helping relationship, was attended by 36 community service workers, subprofessionals, and lower class recipients. The workshop format included both T Groups and a variety of more structured activities. The workshop was apparently an effective learning experience, as judged by the staff's appraisal and by the results of questionnaires and interviews obtained from the participants. Social class differences, while visible during the workshop, seemed to carry neither more nor less impact than other demographic characteristics. The conclusion is that an open exploration of the helping relationship wherein helper and recipient directly confront each other may have great learning value for both.
Newark: Community or Chaos
Authors: Duhl Leonard J. , Steetle Nancy Jo
Published: March 2006

This paper is an attempt to record the events and decisions surrounding the creation of the Medical College in Newark out of the seeds of the New Jersey College of Medicine and Dentistry. This issue, although often cited as an underlying cause of the Newark riots in July 1967, is also illustrative of what may happen constructively when the poor and the alienated confront the system with a series of demands. The Newark case indicates that the Model Cities Program, in conjunction with urban renewal and other federal programs, can be one of the mechanisms for increasing the competence of both City Hall and the ghetto to deal with the complex and interlocking problems of the neighborhood and the city. It offers insights into new levels of federal, local, and interagency coordination that can make agreement possible.

The confrontation between the poor citizens threatened with displacement and City Hall clearly showed that the "urban problem" is not only the sense of alienation felt in the ghetto community but also the capacity of a local government to solve its problems. If poverty is defined as the inability to command the events that affect one's life, both City Hall and the ghetto can be described as "poor."

This case study of the proposed relocation of a medical school begins with background sketches of Newark's politics, racial composition, health, education, and housing problems. There follows a survey of the chronology of events over a two-year period surrounding the site choice and acreage demands of the school in the face of ghetto area opposition. Interagency cooperation at federal, state, and local levels during the school's planning phases and application for funds is also depicted. The lessons of Newark are many. It is the intent of this paper to focus on a few acts from the urban drama.
Accelerating Laboratory Learning Through a Phase Progression Model for Trainer Intervention
Authors: Culbert Samuel A.
Published: March 2006

A T Group's capacity for learning need not emerge only at the group's "natural" pace, as trainers have so often assumed. Trainers can, and many do, use methodologies that accelerate a group's rate of learning. This paper describes one such methodology for accelerating a group's rate of learning: a phase progression model for trainer intervention.

What follows is an example of how the author-trainer experimented in systematically using his understanding of T-Group phenomena to conceptualize and to point to a sequence of phases which might be optimum for a particular group in accomplishing its learning objectives. This example also illustrates one relatively simple technique for shifting a group's focus from one issue, or phase of exploration,' to the next. Taken together, the sequence of phases and the technique for shifting from one phase to the next comprise essential elements of the "phase progression model." A more exhaustive explanation of all the elements included in this example and a discussion of how the model allows individual trainers to utilize their own preferred theories of trainer participation follow the example.
Group Dynamics Training and Improved Decision Making
Authors: Hall Jay , Williams Martha S.
Published: March 2006

The efficacy of laboratory training in group dynamics as a technique for modifying group processes in the direction of theoretically more effective practices was explored. Thirty groups trained in group dynamics were compared with 30 untrained groups with respect to their performance on the 12 Angry Men decision-making task. Within each of the trained and untrained samples three populations of decision-makers were studied (20 groups each of college, management, and neuropsychiatric subjects) in order to provide varying levels of substantive and procedural skills relative to the task. The groups within each population and trained/untrained conditions were evenly split between established entities and ad hoc assemblies. The data were analyzed according to both performance and process criteria. Trained groups consistently performed more effectively than untrained groups on measures of decision quality, utilization of superior resources, and creativity. No tradition effects were discernible, and only expected population differences were obtained. Several differences among covarying performance and process variables were identified for trained versus untrained groups.
Impact of Laboratory Training on Sociopolitical Ideology
Authors: Nadler Eugene B. , Fink Stephen L.
Published: March 2006

Do the essentially interpersonal lessons individuals learn which arise from the experience of small-group democracy in a training laboratory generalize to the more broadly theoretical issues of sociopolitical ideology? Related research and theory by others suggest an affirmative answer. In the present study, a before-after experimental design was utilized at a college training laboratory to gather more direct information. The results showed a highly significant shift in a democratic direction on each of four different scales measuring aspects of democratic attitudes; the shift was general and not specific to any scale subset. A secondary finding showed that there were individual differences in this change related to the participants' initial scale positions. The implications of these findings are discussed both from the standpoint of pragmatic engineering and from that of ethical values.
Organizational Development for Thornlea: A Communication Package and Some Results
Authors: Croft John C.
Published: March 2006

The author introduces his facilitative role in organizational development at Thornlea School' with the following two statements: "Most organizations have a structure that was designed to solve problems that no longer exist" but "I am less interested in inducing any particular change than I am in fostering and nourishing the conditions under which constructive change may occur." In one sense the author's work at Thornlea could be classed as in-service training, but as the case developed the training was found to be of a very different kind from that which school people are accustomed to or acquainted with. This case study begins with the assumptions and objectives of organizational development (OD) in general; proceeds to some background of a school which recently participated in a very brief taste of OD; presents some essential features of the communication package itself and some of the results; and concludes, of course, with some implications.
A Laboratory-Consultation Model for Organization Change
Authors: Dyer William G. , Maddocks Robert F. , Moffitt J. Weldon , Underwood William J.
Published: March 2006

Behavioral change agents engaged in management and organization development efforts recognize as crucial, solutions to the recurring problems of entry and transfer. The major feature of the project reported here and still under way is the attempt to optimize both entry methods and transfer activities by a single developmental approach which includes the unique feature of using laboratory training to build a consulting relationship between internal consultants and their operating managers in an industrial organization.

The essential elements of the total design included: (a) laboratory training as an initiating vehicle, (b) the use of internal Trainer-Consultants, (c) the use of data collection and feedback, and (d) a single management and organizational conceptual framework. A single framework was used to overlay prelaboratory, laboratory, and postlaboratory activity. Data about each of the 25 participating managers were collected from peers and subordinates prior to the laboratory. The laboratory allowed each manager to receive data from other participants, to receive data from back-home work peers and subordinates, to establish a working consulting relationship with internal consultants, and, with them, to begin to formulate a plan of action for back-home application.

Initial results from back-home application within the organization indicate that these design features have reduced the entry and transfer problems experienced in utilizing laboratory earnings in organization development. However, certain problems still exist in transfer of learning, namely: uneven skill on the part of the managers to implement laboratory learnings, some lack of skill on the part of the Trainer-Consultants to intervene effectively, and the existence of certain organization conditions that do not support change.
Personal Growth Laboratories: Toward an Alternative Culture
Authors: Shepard Herbert A.
Published: March 2006

Cultures are maintained through the operation of self-validating processes. Changing a culture requires interventions that invalidate old processes and conditions that facilitate the creation of new self-validating processes. The personal growth laboratory becomes a temporary system of new self-validating processes.
Laboratory Versus Lecture in Training Executives
Authors: Bolman Lee
Published: March 2006

Four different sessions of an educational program for business executives were studied to compare the differential effects of laboratory human relations (T-Group) training versus a lecture-discussion approach to interpersonal relations in organizations. Both types of programs produced equal change in participants' stated beliefs about effective interpersonal behavior. Laboratory training showed greater effects on participants' perceptions of themselves and on their behavior as analyzed from tape recordings of case discussion meetings. However, there was evidence that the participants had difficulty transferring learning from the T Group to other parts of the program and that there was considerable fade-out of the effects of the training.
System Intervention in a School-Community Conflict
Authors: Levin Gilbert , Stein David D.
Published: March 2006

During the New York City school strike of 1968, staff members of a community mental health center, along with members of a local community group, helped plan and execute a Forum* in school-community relations intended to channel existing conflicts toward the long-term benefit of the community the center serves. The significance of this report stems from several factors that are not typical of applied behavioral science interventions.

First, entry took place at the height of a community conflict situation, in the face of warnings from various parties to the conflict that the most constructive course was to do nothing.

Second, the relationship between a community mental health center and its catchment area differs in important respects from that involved in either the external or internal change-agent models, and thus limits action alternatives in such a crisis.

Third, turnout at the Forum was strikingly high and quite representative of the community population.

Fourth, the design of the Forum itself is of interest, since it altered successfully some of the chaotic aspects of the typical public meeting.
The Primacy of Trust as a Facilitator of Further Group Accomplishment
Authors: Friedlander Frank
Published: March 2006

The longitudinal study reported in this article focuses directly upon Gibb's (1964) model, in which the formation of trust is theorized to facilitate and, in part, to be a prerequisite to further group accomplishment. The author explores the impact of initial high and low levels of trust upon later group accomplishment in two sets of groups: one set which participated in organizational training laboratories, and one which did not. Results indicate that prelaboratory trust is a key predictor of eventual group accomplishment, although trust itself did not increase as a result of an isolated laboratory training experience. Furthermore, and as a function of training, the trainee's postlaboratory concept of trust merged with his concept of an effective group and an effective group meeting.
The Fifth Achievement
Authors: Blake Robert R. , Mouton Jane Srygley
Published: March 2006

Recognizing man's four achievements in dealing with differences among men, i.e., science, politics, hierarchy, and law, the authors foresee a fifth achievement by which men will ultimately be able to work out their differences. It will be the establishment of a problemsolving society in which its members can resolve differences through their own insight. Here presented is the Conflict Grid for use in evaluating good or bad ways for ending disputes as a vehicle for creative problem solving in the future and a basis for such a problem-solving society.
A Problem-Solving Workshop on Border Conflicts in Eastern Africa
Authors: Walton Richard E.
Published: March 2006

Six participants each from Somalia, Ethiopia, and Kenya met on neutral turf and participated in a two-week workshop to search for solutions to the border disputes between Somalia and her two neighbors. The workshop was a social invention based on ideas and techniques generated by the behavioral sciences. This pilot venture, admittedly a mixture of successes and failures, can provide the basis for improvement and extension of the concept. In particular, we can draw implications for the composition of participant groups, duration, location, and goals in organizing future workshops; and for the techniques, groupings, and pacing utilized during the workshop.
One from Two: Facilitating an Organizational Merger
Authors: Blumberg Arthur , Wiener William
Published: March 2006

Applied behavioral scientists spend most of their consulting time with single groups or organizations dealing with matters of communications, problem solving, organizational structure, interpersonal relations, and so forth. This paper focuses on the problems which develop when two organizations are joined to create one functioning unit.

There is a small but growing body of literature' that is concerned with merging organizations. Although the major emphasis of what is written is on financial matters, Kitching (1967) focuses on matters of management and organization, albeit not in great detail. His data indicated that in 8i per cent of the merger "failures" reported, reporting relationships were unclear and there was a tendency to change them often. He also suggests the necessity of having competent "managers of change" and of setting up unambiguous reporting relationships in the newly formed organizational structure.

The financial and economic components of mergers are part of a total mix of problems that includes such things as expectations about norm development, role changes, leadership style, decision-making processes, and goal orientation. It is with these factors that this paper is concerned. The format is that of a case study of a merger situation in which the writers were involved.
An Emergent Interuniversity Consortium for Educational Change
Authors: Luke Robert A. , Mial Dorothy
Published: March 2006

As behavioral scientists take an increasingly active role in planned change efforts with school systems, the need to develop our own skills of collaboration, resource sharing, and creating flexible work structures becomes paramount. No one individual or institution has all the necessary capabilities.

This report describes the development of an interuniversity consortium, COPED (Cooperative Project for Educational Development),1 designed to develop and test strategies for planned change in educational systems. To maximize the resources available to client systems, it was decided to involve five universities, each with specialized resources and interests. It was acknowledged from the beginning that considerable energy would have to be devoted to intraorganizational issues such as power and influence, membership concerns, institutional and individual needs for autonomy, and consultant-client relationships. What follows identifies the major organizational and interpersonal issues and describes how the consortium dealt with the issues of its own maintenance.
Achievement Motivation Training and Executive Advancement
Authors: Aronoff Joel , Litwin George H.
Published: March 2006

An experiment studying the process of motive acquisition was conducted with executives of a major American corporation. Each of 1u middle-level executives who were given a program designed to develop and strengthen their need for achievement was carefully matched with a comparable executive chosen to attend the corporation's executive development course during approximately the same period. In a two-year follow-up study, the participants in the achievement motivation training course had performed significantly better than their matched pairs, as measured by major changes in job level and salary.
Bethel Culture, 1969: Impressions of an Immigrant
Authors: Pagés Max
Published: March 2006

Some features of Bethel culture as seen by an "outsider" are reviewed. It is proposed that this culture alleviates basic personal and group anxieties by offering defensive satisfactions (love, closeness, the denial of conflict, mystical union). Strong social norms and the technical "designing" of the staff tend to maintain an artificially united "community," benevolently ruled. It is also suggested that Bethel culture serves to preserve American society from internal and external disruption.

The article concludes with comments on the need for analysis of the functions which training (and applied social science in general) performs for society and, via some discussion of how "foreigners" are treated at Bethel, examines the problems of building an international community of social scientists. Fourteen years had passed since I had been to Bethel, or anywhere else in the United States. So my one month's experience of being on the staff of two Human Relations Laboratories was a renewed contact both with Bethel and with the American culture.
The American Advisor Abroad
Authors: Bass Bernard M.
Published: March 2006

Mutual understanding of both the similarities and differences between an American and a host national counterpart is a key to effective utilization of the American advisor abroad. When both American and host know what to expect of each other, the American consultant's interpersonal competence, consulting skill, and technical knowledge can be brought to bear in a more effective manner than where misunderstandings of opinions, values, and ideology prevail.

A program is described which is building a bank of information about such similarities and differences. How knowledge of the data has relevance to relations between the American and the host national is discussed, along with educational procedures for disseminating such information to those who take on American advisory roles abroad.
Some Effects of Trainers on their T Groups
Authors: Bolman Lee
Published: March 2006

Relationships among certain dimensions of T-Group trainer behavior, members' reactions to the trainer, group climate, and participant learning were investigated through questionnaires administered to 118 participants and 20 trainers in a human relations laboratory held at Bethel, Maine, in the summer of 1966. As expected, trainer empathy and security were related to liking for the trainer and perceived member learning. Trainer affection was related to participants' liking for the trainer, but not to learning measures. Trainer tendencies to reward and punish were related to discomfort and tension, but not to learning. Unexpectedly, trainer openness showed little relationship to participant learning.
A Group Process Model for Problem Identification and Program Planning
Authors: Delbecq André L. , Van de Ven Andrew H.
Published: March 2006

This article sets forth a group process approach useful for practicing administrators charged with a program development task. More specifically, meeting formats are suggested for involving the following critical reference groups in successive phases of program development: (1) clients (consumers or users) and first-line staff, in problem exploration; (2) external resource people and internal specialists, in knowledge exploration; (3) key administrators and resource controllers, in priority development and local adaptation; (4) organizational staff, in program proposal building; and (5) all constituencies, in final approval and evaluation designs. The meeting formats were suggested by contemporary small-group theory; the sequencing of the involvement of reference groups came from studies of community planning.
The Job Corps: Proposals for Redesign
Authors: Duhl Leonard J. , Visotsky Harold M. , Brown Jonathan W.
Published: March 2006

This article delineates some alternate models for redesign of job Corps Centers located in both rural and urban settings. Significant observations, especially from the standpoint of mental health programs, based on interviews, documents, and site visits indicated the presence of communications difficulties and problems of mission and lack of shared social goals among and within the wide variety of existing Job Corps Centers. A series of alternate models for redesign is presented. For each model, the presuppositions, objectives, evaluation methods and outcomes, and a critique of feasibility and shortcomings are included.
Learning in Groups: A Comparison of Study Groups and T Groups
Authors: Klein Edward B. , Astrachan Boris M.
Published: March 2006

Two different theories and techniques of group training, the T Group and the study group, have been described as facilitating learning about behavior in the small-group setting. These approaches arise out of different traditions and tend to view the same behaviors from disparate perspectives. This paper focuses on a comparison of the two models, with special attention to the ways in which authority and peer relations are viewed. The need for theoretical and technical amalgamation to advance our understanding of group phenomena is stressed.
Trainer Style and Patterns of Group Development
Authors: Lundgren David C.
Published: March 2006

Developmental trends in two lo-man training groups were studied by checklist and rating scale techniques throughout a four-day laboratory. In one group, the trainers were inactive and nondirective at the outset. This elicited substantial negativism from the group, and an increasing confrontation of the trainers occurred over the next several sessions. As the challenge of the trainers grew, participants simultaneously showed increasing solidarity and openness with one another. After an apparent resolution of the authority crisis, the later sessions of this group were marked by high cohesiveness and productivity. In the second group, the trainers were relatively active and directive from the outset. While this approach resulted in an immediate encounter and more favorable initial attitudes between members and trainers, the succeeding sessions were characterized by low confrontation of the trainers. Moreover, this group subsequently showed significantly less solidarity, openness, and productivity than the first. The differences in the developmental patterns of the two T Groups are interpreted as consequences of the contrasting approaches of the trainers.
A Psychiatric Model for Intercession in Intergroup Conflict
Authors: Wedge Bryant
Published: March 2006

A therapeutic approach to intercession in intergroup conflict would involve establishing and institutionalizing linkages of communication and contact between the hostile parties. Such linkages create an "intersystem system" that tends to limit the vigor of hostile interaction. A process model for such intercession involves five distinct steps: (1) the intercessor establishes dialogue with each involved party; (2) particular interests of the parties are defined and complementary or mutual interests are identified; (3) members of the conflicting groups are brought together on neutral ground in the presence of neutral buffers; (,) limited cooperation toward achieving "partial superordinate goals" for selfinterested purposes is encouraged; and (5) the intercession is terminated as soon as communication concerning concrete and limited cooperative goals is established. Throughout this process the internal organization and outlook of each group are respected, and there is no attempt to challenge the boundaries or integrity of the group or its beliefs.

An experiment in phased intercession between the United States Embassy and the Revolutionary Youth Movement in the Dominican Republic during a period of estrangement and hostile interaction supported the principal hypothesis outlined above and demonstrates the practical possibility of global field experiments in scientific peace-making.
Toward Building New Work Relationships: An Action Design for a Critical Intervention
Authors: Golembiewski Robert T. , Carrigan Stokes B. , Mead Walter R. , Munzenrider Robert , Blumberg Arthur
Published: March 2006

This study has two central themes, both relevant to application of the behavioral sciences in "real-life situations." First, considerable psychological trauma can be generated by events such as the demotions reported here. Second, substantial evidence suggests that a learning design based on the laboratory approach can significantly moderate such trauma. Methodological problems prevent our assigning all observed effects to the learning design, but there is strong presumptive evidence that this action design is one way to apply in organizations the forces often observed in the development of the miniature societies that are T Groups.
Effect of Sensitivity Training on Tolerance For Dissonance
Authors: Holloman Charles R. , Hendrick Hal W.
Published: March 2006

The effect of sensitivity training on an individual's ability to tolerate attitude-discrepant behavior was explored. A group of college seniors (Group i, N = 45) used a traditional case discussion method throughout a semester course in leadership. A second group (Group 2, N 39) participated in sensitivity training half the semester before discussing cases. During the fourteenth week of the semester each S was asked to evaluate the leadership behavior described in an assigned case. Each S then was asked to write an essay advocating a position contrary to his initial judgment. Each S was subsequently asked to reevaluate the appropriateness of the leadership behavior described in the case. Ss in Group 1 changed their initial assessment to favor the advocacy position (p < .ooi) Group 2 Ss did not significantly alter their judgment. The study was later replicated with a comparison group (Group 3, N = 16) taught by the experimental group instructor using the teaching method employed in the original control group. Group 3 Ss significantly altered their posttest judgments (p< .ooi), indicating that the observed differences between Group 1 and Group 2 were not a result of the instructor variable.
Using Research To Guide an Organization Development Project
Authors: Culbert Samuel A.
Published: March 2006

This case study describes an OD project conducted within a district of religious communities. It shows how research was used to augment consultation and training and to bring to both consultants and management a more accurate perspective of the organization's problems. At a time of crisis, the district was focusing internally on issues of generation differences and skirting more fundamental issues of organization structure and purpose. The case includes (a) a discussion of the differences in problem-solving perspectives held by OD consultants and their clients, (b) a description of the specific consultant and client differences in the instance under study as well as the research and training design worked out to mediate between them, (c) a report on how research data were first analyzed to address questions raised at the beginning of the study, and then re-analyzed and used to suggest directions for future action and inquiry, and (d) a discussion of some generalizable lessons, derived from the case, for experimenting with change during times of organizational crisis.
The Trainerless Laboratory
Authors: Minturn Eric B. , Lansky Leonard M.
Published: March 2006

The depth and breadth of current laboratory training demand new models. As a way of meeting these demands, a trainerless laboratory model wherein the trainer never attends is presented. The discussion includes the advantages and disadvantages of the model, evidence for its effectiveness, and implications for the future of training.
Variants of Sensitivity Training and Encounter: Diversity or Fragmentation?
Authors: Lomranz Jacob , Lakin Martin , Schiffman Harold
Published: March 2006

Training and encounter groups are today markedly divergent, despite a common core of values at their inception. One hundred and thirty-eight experienced group leaders' responses to a questionnaire and interaction scenarios were evaluated in terms of preferred goals, values, interventions, and demographic indicators. A combination of factor analysis and multiple discriminant analysis yielded three distinct and highly interpretable groups: those concerned with learning, remediation (therapy), or expanded experiencing. The aim of each differs-social effectiveness, personality integration, or expressiveness. Intervention strategies differ accordingly: The learning-centered (A) trainer tries to highlight group and interpersonal conflicts rather than intraor interpersonal conflicts. The remedial (B) leader's closest referent is group psychotherapy. The expanded experiencing (C) type is more diffuse in purpose, but more concrete in modeling sensory awareness and expressiveness exercises. These positions are associated with corresponding social values.

The precision of the results confirms the impression of different practices, purposes, and processes in these three variants. The assumption that the helter-skelter proliferation of group practices overlies a number of ambiguities and contradictions in the aims and methods of the group movement has been refined. The three variants examined here appear to represent distinct ideological trends.
Development of an Organizational Change Role
Authors: Aram John D. , Stoner James A. F.
Published: March 2006

The experiences of nine U. S. business school graduates in organizations in Colombia, South America, were studied from the perspective of establishing and effecting organizational change roles. job continuation and satisfaction were related to congruity of initial expectations between the individual and his organization, and the individual's adaptive behavioral style. The absence of either condition led to job termination or extended dissatisfaction. Other conclusions relate to the dynamics of initial and subsequent personal approach or style, the conditions necessary for the most influential change role, and factors involved in expert and personal influence within the assistants' roles.
Potter Unearthed for the Consultant
Authors: Steele Fritz
Published: March 2006

This paper is an attempt to provide an exhausting survey of the work of one of our seminal interpersonal theorists, S. Potter. His writings are analyzed for their relevance to the consultant of today and to the consultant of yesterday. Correlational matrices showed many interesting things, but were deleted as being beyond our readership. Subsequent reports will include an analysis of variance of the variations in paragraph length in the present paper.
"Touch Me, Like Me": Testing an Encounter Group Assumption
Authors: Boderman Alvin , Freed Douglas W. , Kinnucan Mark T.
Published: March 2006

An experiment to test an encounter group assumption that touching increases interpersonal attraction was conducted. Twenty-one college women were randomly assigned to a touch or no-touch condition. In the touch condition the subject was paired with an experimental accomplice who joined her in three bogus ESP experiments, the last of which involved mutual touching for 11o seconds. The no-touch condition was identical, save touching. Subjects then evaluated the experimental accomplice on four dimensions. A comparison of total evaluation scores verified the hypothesis: subjects who touched the accomplice perceived her as a more attractive person than those who did not touch her.
Leader Orientation and T-Group Effectiveness
Authors: Sampson Edward E.
Published: March 2006

By extending Fiedler's conception of leader orientation, it was hypothesized that groups led by trainers oriented toward the group members most liked by their group are more effective-in terms of member satisfaction and achievement of group goals-than groups led by trainers oriented toward least-liked members of their group. This hypothesis was tested by comparing three T Groups whose leaders were oriented toward the "sociometric stars" in their group with three T Groups whose leaders were oriented toward the sociometric isolates. The hypothesis was supported by measures of member satisfaction with the group, achievement of group goals, and perceived group effectiveness in changing members' attitudes and behaviors. The mechanisms presumed to mediate between the leader's orientation and group effectiveness are discussed.
The One-Way/Two-Way Communication Exercise: Some Ghosts Laid to Rest
Authors: Tesch Frederick E. , Lansky Leonard M. , Lundgren David C.
Published: March 2006

The well-known one-way/two-way communication exercise was examined in terms of (1) criticisms frequently made by participants and (2) the original study from which it was derived. Each of 24 groups of 7-10 college students did both a one-way and a two-way communication, with the order of diagrams and the communication mode systematically varied. As predicted, there was no difference in difficulty between the two diagrams. Further, two-way communication was, as predicted, more accurate, more satisfying, and more time consuming than was one-way communication. Finally, there was no practice effect in moving from a oneto a two-way communication, but significant transfer occurred in the reversed condition. The results are discussed in terms of the quantity and quality of communication permitted by two-way as opposed to one-way communication.
Applying New Knowledge in the Back-Home Setting: A Study of Indian Managers' Adoptive Efforts
Authors: Baumgartel Howard , Jeanpierre Françoise
Published: March 2006

A major goal of the management education movement in developing nations is the introduction of advanced managerial technology and organizational practice throughout a nation's industry. The study reported here was designed to determine how several different factors influence the efforts of managers to apply, in their back-home job settings, knowledge gained in executive development programs. Data were obtained from a stratified random sample of 240 managers, representing a population of over 2,000 managers who participated in one of 17 management development programs. Straight-run data analysis indicates (1) what kinds of training programs are most likely to produce adoptive effort, (2) what kinds of managers are most likely to apply new knowledge, and (3) what kinds of organizational environments are most likely to facilitate such managerial effort. The study demonstrates the critical importance of organizational climate for the effective transfer of new technology and suggests that largescale organizational development effort must be concurrent with management training if maximum benefit is to be obtained.
Sanction: A Critical Element in Action Research
Authors: Clark Alfred W.
Published: March 2006

Analysis of this case study supports the view that broad-based and continuous sanction is critical in the practice of action research. An attempt was made to create the conditions for change in an organisation by helping its members develop a statement of their philosophy of management. This was intended to provide a shared basis for action. Sanction for the change in values was not, however, sufficiently established. Members sensed this, particularly as they were exposed to conflicting messages from powerful figures. For instance, words often implied approval whereas action implied otherwise. Caught in this double bind, pivotal members first vacillated then withdrew their participation and support. The practitioners' position became untenable and the programme collapsed.
Training Police in Family Crisis Intervention
Authors: Driscoll James M. , Meyer Robert G. , Schanie Charles F.
Published: March 2006

A program of family crisis intervention training for police, adapted from that implemented in New York City by Bard (1970), was conducted and evaluated. Twelve officers were given five to six hours of training, five days a week, for five weeks. Officers were then assigned to regular duties. Questionnaire responses from officers four months into the project indicated increased understanding of family problems, greater acceptance of them by citizens, heightened receptivity to their suggestions, a decrease in the use of force, and an increase in overall effectiveness. Telephone interviews showed that citizens dealt with by trained officers, as compared to those dealt with by untrained officers, reported greater rapport between themselves and officers, greater involvement of officers, more satisfaction with the intervention, and an increased regard for the police.
Urban Middle-Class Life Styles in Transition
Authors: Miller Paula Jean , Sjoberg Gideon
Published: March 2006

A theoretical framework for understanding the nature and changing character of life styles within the urban middle class is set forth. Although the emphasis is upon clarifying certain issues regarding life styles, many of our conclusions are the product of research being carried out in Austin, Texas.
Transition People and Alternate Services
Authors: Jaffe Dennis T.
Published: March 2006

A developmental model of personal growth toward an alternate culture is presented. Through participation in several small groups and communities which focus on building a new identity, an individual is seen as growing away from the dominant culture toward new values. The psychic costs of such a transition are suggested, and the need for alternate services to deal with the casualties of this cultural change process is described. The growth of such alternate services and the structural conflicts which emerge fromn the split organizational commitment to, ersonal growtJifor staff and help for clients are outlined. Some aspeterface of the alternate community with the dominant culture and their effects on the structure and commitment of the alternative group are also presented.
ONE: An Urban Community
Authors: Mosher Craig R.
Published: March 2006

ONE is an urban community of artists, crafts-people, and professionals living and working in a warehouse reconstructed by the participants. The community is characterized by the integration of working and living; sharing of tools, skills, and resources; utilization of industrial surplus; avoidance of hierarchies of authority and responsibility; decision making by consensus; measuring value in terms of energy rather than cash; an orientation to process rather than end goals; and an effort by participants to regain control over their lives by shaping their own physical, organizational, and social environments.
Innovative Governance Structures in Secondary Schools
Authors: Chesler Joan
Published: March 2006

This paper focuses on student power in six high schools with innovative governance structures. Following brief descriptions of these six schools, we examine structural aspects of their governance and find that a clear and comprehensive formal mechanism is most successful when supported by an open, active network of honest and respectful informal relationships. We also suggest that student power in governance is not possible without student power over classroom and instructional processes.

Various barriers to effective student participation are discussed: students' prior socialization to depend on adult authorities; their lack of political skill training; teachers' abdication of their responsibilities to teach and guide; their premature hands-off policy vis-a-vis student behavior in governance functions; and the creation by adults of school structures and processes most comfortable for adults and thus easier to dominate. Finally, we suggest that planning, training, evaluating, and sharing data are vital aspects of an ongoing school program in which students and adults participate with power.
Free-School Norms: A Case Study in External Influence on Internal Group Development
Authors: Shuter Robert
Published: March 2006

This paper examines the normative system of a free school and its effect on the development of small cohesive groups of free-school children. Since the small group is bound to its contemporaneous social field, it was hypothesized that the influence of the free school's humanistic norms on student group behavior should result in (a) empathetic understanding of deviants, (b) minimal pressures toward uniformity, and (c) humanistic norm development. It was found, however, that competition, interpersonal intolerance, and optimum pressures toward uniformity existed in the small cohesive, ftee-school group. It was discovered that the operant normative system of the free school was not consonant with the school's philosophy. The difficulty in operationalizing a humanistic alternative institution in a technocratic society is also discussed.