bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Small States and The Regime of The Archipelago
Authors: Kamalu Ngozi Caleb
Published: July 2017

This article examines the attitudes of “small states” in the formulation of principles which govern the conduct and behaviour of archipelagic states. In other words, it attempts to clarify the rules guiding the definition of the archipelagos in terms of their expected norms of behaviour regarding their national sovereignty, national interest, national defenses and security, given the uniqueness of their geopolitical realities. For the purposes of this research, “small states” constitute a constellation of Island States in the developing world, namely Fiji, Indonesia, Mauritius and the Philippines that have contributed significantly to the establishment of the regime of the archipelago.

The research draws extensively from international experiences, contexts and precedents established by the decision of the International Court of Justice whose case serves as a frame of reference on which to test the legitimacy and application of international law principles on the problems and concepts of the archipelago.

The study concludes that indigenous requirements and practical needs established on the basis of historic rights determine the attitude of the archipelagos on their territorial claims.

Finally, the investigation found that on basic uncompromising issues and matters of national sovereignty and survival, customary practices take precedent over rules of International Law.
Pour développer des actions locales : laisser s'exprimer le talent de chacun à l'intérieur d'un cadre stratégique
Authors: Coruble Gérard , Vandoorne Chantal
Published: July 2017

Le Programme Régional Santé des Enfants et des Jeunes en Provence Alpes Côte d'Azur (PRSJ) élaboré entre mars 1998 et mai 1999 est caractérisé par son ampleur et sa complexité. Il constitue bien plus un cadre stratégique pour l'action qu'un programme opérationnel. Sa mise en œuvre a été adaptée aux niveaux d'intervention avec, d'une part, des outils à dimension régionale à mettre au service des modalités d'intervention des professionnels et, d'autre part, le développement d'une approche par territoire fondée sur la création de réseaux. Les évaluations montrent que les acteurs ont perçu positivement le cadre offert par le PRSJ et s'en sont saisi. Ils ont exprimé leurs capacités créatives avec plus de spontanéité dans les réseaux à visée thérapeutique que dans les réseaux visant à répondre à plusieurs déterminants de santé pour lesquels un soutien initial local était nécessaire. Les collectivités locales apparaissent comme des lieux privilégiés de diffusion et de continuité des objectifs du PRSJ. Le cadre stratégique offert par le PRSJ a bien permis aux acteurs locaux d'exprimer leur talent. Cette modalité, élaborée en conciliant d'une part, la rigueur de la démarche de programmation avec les réalités des acteurs de terrain et d'autre part, les fondements épidémiologiques avec une intervention socio-géographique, est pertinente. Des éléments renforçant le cadre ont été mis en évidence pour permettre d'aller au-delà des jalons explicites fournis par les orientations du programme.
The complexity of the discussion on effectiveness and evidence in health promotion practices
Authors: Bodstein Regina
Published: July 2017

This article discusses an evaluation framework based on an understanding of the constitutive elements and multi-strategic characteristics of health promotion (HP) programs. Health promotion presents an ongoing challenge for traditional evaluation frameworks (Rootman et al., 2001; Potvin, 2006; Barnes et al., 2003) when it redefines its actions as empowerment, community participation, local development, health literacy and intersectorial activities for the purpose of reducing inequalities for individuals, organizations, and public policies (Kickbush, 1994). This challenge also applies to the discussion on effectiveness of HP practice; what is at stake is the knowledge about how health promotion actions generate changes and outcomes. In short, this article proposes to discuss this redefined HP perspective and identify its usefulness in terms of the debate on effectiveness and evidence of HP in Brazil. (Promotion & Education, 2007, Supplement (1): pp 16-20)
A Call for Judicial Activism
Authors: Svantesson Dan Jerker B.
Published: July 2017

In most regards, the recent judgment in Gammasonics Institute for Medical Research Pty Ltd v Comrad Medical Systems Pty Ltd [2010] NSWSC 267 (‘the Gammasonics case’) is rather uninteresting. In fact, taken at face value, the only interesting aspect of the case is that it contains a discussion of one significant legal question: that is, under what circumstances can software be classed as ‘goods’? That is no doubt an important question, not least as such a classification may determine whether a buyer of software is entitled to rely on the terms implied under the various state Sale of Goods Acts.
Questions Related to a Research Intervention Carried out with Female and Male Public School Workers
Authors: Brito Jussara , Neves Mary Yale , Athayde Milton
Published: July 2017

This article presents a health intervention-research project done with workers in Brazilian public schools. Health, as we understand it, is linked both to the way in which we live and to our capacity to change that way of life. We emphasize the critical importance of initiating dialogue between research professionals and workers (co-investigators) in order to understand and transform work situations. We highlight the effects of debates about gender relations that led to work transformations. Such debates made it easier for workers and researchers to understand that men and women experience job requirements differently. We found that some staff favored reproduction of a sexually differentiated school system. These debates also allowed male and female workers to make their family members aware of difficulties in their work, unknown to society in general. We considered how to expand this research process, including examples of how the work was transformed.
Factors Influencing Renal Distribution of Antibiotics a Key to Therapy of Pyelonephritis
Authors: Romankiewicz John A.
Published: July 2017

Pyelonephritis is often considered a benign disease, yet in some studies as high as 35 percent of the cases progressed to severe renal disease. Treatment failures occur because of relapse of infection, emergence of secondary infecting organisms, re-infection and the development of antibiotic resistance. In addition, inadequate renal tissue concentrations of antibiotics account for a majority of treatment failures. The factors which influence diffusion of antibiotics into renal tissues are discussed. The importance of renal medullary tissue levels of antibiotics is emphasized, as well as the influence that protein binding, non-ionic diffusion and the state of hydration have on these levels. Distribution kinetics of sulfisoxazole, ampicillin, tetracyclines, cephalosporins, nalidixic acid, nitrofurantoin, gentamicin, carbenicillin indanyl sodium, sulfamethoxazole and trimethoprim as they relate to the treatment of pyelonephritis are also presented.
Impact of a Clinical Pharmacist's Emphasis on Patient Communication on the Patient's Attitude toward Pharmacy
Authors: Norwood G. Joseph
Published: July 2017

This study sought to determine if the provision of a clinical pharmacist with increased patient communication to a given population would result in that population having a subsequent improvement in its attitude toward pharmacy. A before and after experimental-control group (pretest-posttest) research design with randomization was employed. Questionnaires were mailed to 200 families in the control and experimental rural towns the day the model practice with increased patient communication opened. Identical questionnaires were again mailed to pretest respondents after the practice had been in operation for approximately one- and two-year periods. Analysis of covariance revealed that consumers in the town exposed to increased patient communication experienced an improvement in attitude toward pharmacy which was significantly greater than that experienced by consumers in the control town which retained traditional pharmacy services during the same time period. The final posttest measurement indicated that consumers in the experimental town had an attitude level significantly higher than consumers in the control town. Relatively strong support is given to the hypothesis that increased patient communication about drug therapy can result in improved consumer attitudes toward pharmacy.
Therapeutic Aerosol Delivery during Mechanical Ventilation
Authors: Coleman Denise M , Kelly H William , Mcwilliams Bennie C , Pérez Annette , Perreault Marc M
Published: July 2017

Objective

To provide an overview of aerosol drug delivery during mechanical ventilation in the pediatric and adult populations.

Data Sources

Published articles and abstracts identified in a MEDLINE search (1984–July 1994) were reviewed.

Study Selection

All articles and abstracts found, including review articles, in vivo and in vitro studies, case reports, and case series pertaining to issues involving aerosol delivery during mechanical ventilation, were reviewed. No predetermined selection criteria were used to exclude studies.

Data Extraction

Percent delivery of the starting dose to either the patients or the various in vitro lung models, as well as each variable possibly affecting delivery for each study, were tabulated for each study reviewed.

Data Synthesis

The delivery of therapeutic aerosols to endotracheally intubated and mechanically ventilated patients presents a unique challenge for healthcare providers. Delivery can be affected by the diameter of the endotracheal tube and ventilator circuitry, type of ventilator, ventilator modes, type of delivery device, and how the delivery device is operated and introduced into the ventilator circuitry. The drug being aerosolized may behave differently from one delivery system to another. The proper operation of each device requires attention to positioning in the ventilator circuit as well as the mode of ventilation.

Conclusions

No apparent advantage exists for metered-dose inhalers with a large-volume adapter over jet nebulizers, as each method of delivery is capable of similar efficiency (5–15%). Sufficient attention to detail, including the use of an efficient nebulizer and/or adapter and proper placement and operating method, is required to provide optimal delivery. For bronchodilator administration, careful monitoring of outcomes will provide the most optimal dosing schedule.
Achilles Tendon Lengthening by Triple Hemisection in Adult
Authors: Lee Woo-Chun , Ko Han-Suk
Published: July 2017

Background: The purpose of this study was to investigate the adequate distance between hemisections to prevent complete rupture in a triple hemisection Achilles tendon lengthening. Methods: Achilles tendon lengthenings by open triple hemisection were done in 18 patients (25 ankles) with spastic paralysis and were followed for more than 1 year. Results: There was a significant correlation between the sum of the gaps (partial thickness defects) after sliding and the amount of corrected angles. When the distal gap was regarded as 1, the ratio of the distal gap to the middle gap to the proximal gap was 1:1.3 (range 0.8 to 3.3):1.6 (range 0.8 to 4.0), and the ratio of the distal connecting portion to the proximal portion was 2.1 (range 0.3 to 8.8):1.9 (range 0 to 8.3). There were marked differences of this ratio in individual cases. There were no complete ruptures. There were two recurrences at the last followup. Conclusion: When the angle of correction is more than 30 degrees, there is a risk of complete rupture even though the distance between the hemisections are more than 4 cm.
Tensile Engagement of the Peri-Ankle Ligaments in Stance Phase
Authors: Tochigi Yuki , Rudert M. James , Amendola Annunziato , Brown Thomas D. , Saltzman Charles L.
Published: July 2017

Background: Development of reconstructive operative procedures to restore normal ankle kinematics after injury requires an understanding of the biomechanics of the ankle during gait. The contribution of the peri-ankle ligaments to ankle motion control is not yet well understood. Knowledge of the tensile engagement of the peri-ankle ligaments during stance phase is necessary to achieve physiologic motion patterns. Methods: Eleven fresh-frozen cadaver ankles were subjected to a dynamic loading sequence simulating the stance phase of normal level gait. Simultaneously, ligament strain was continuously monitored in the anterior talofibular, calcaneofibular, and posterior talofibular ligaments, as well as in the anterior, middle, and posterior superficial deltoid ligaments. Eight of these specimens underwent further quasi-static range-of-motion testing, where ligament tension recruitment was assessed at 30 degrees plantarflexion and 30 degrees dorsiflexion. Results: In the dynamic loading tests, none of the ligaments monitored showed a reproducible strain pattern indicating a role in ankle stabilization. However, in the extended range-of-motion tests, most ligaments were taut in plantarflexion or dorsiflexion. Conclusions: A consistent combination of individual ligament strain patterns that principally control ankle motion was not identified; none of the ligaments studied were reproducibly recruited to be a primary stabilizing structure. The peri-ankle ligaments are likely to be secondary restraining structures that serve to resist motion to avoid extreme positions. Stance phase ankle motion appears to be primarily controlled by articular congruity, not by peri-ankle ligament tension.
Shock Absorption During Forefoot Running and its Relationship to Medial Longitudinal Arch Height
Authors: Lees Adrian , Lake Mark , Klenerman Leslie
Published: July 2017

Background: Overuse injuries to the lower extremity have often been connected with the repetitive loading of the foot and in particular its ability to absorb shock. The shock absorbing ability of the foot is thought to relate to its structure, particularly the height of the medial longitudinal arch. The purpose of this study was to investigate the shock absorption characteristics of the foot in forefoot running as measured by the dynamic load rate of the vertical ground reaction forces during the early stages of ground contact and to relate these characteristics to the height of the medial longitudinal arch. Methods: Eighteen normal athletic adult volunteers were used as subjects and all had clinically normal feet. An Arch Index was computed from lateral radiographs taken with the foot in a full weightbearing position. Dynamic load rate was computed as the first differential of the vertical force as measured by a Kistler force platform. Each subject performed ten trials of running at a speed of 3 m.s−1 using forefoot running style. Results: The dynamic load rate showed three definite peaks (mean 93, 18, and 16 kNs−1 respectively), and two intervening troughs (mean 18 and 3 kNs−1 respectively), showing that the process of shock absorption was one that was progressive over the foot loading phase. The time at which these features occurred indicated a consistency in process of shock absorption. However, none of the force peaks or load rate peaks correlated with the Arch Index. Conclusion: It was concluded that the structure of the foot as characterized by the Arch Index, was not the major factor in determining the way in which force is transmitted to the musculoskeletal system in forefoot running. These findings support the concept that the height of the arch, although a commonly used clinical descriptor of foot type does not appear to be important in defining the functional capacity of the foot in action.
The Role of Hamstring Tightness in Plantar Fasciitis
Authors: Harty James , Soffe Karen , O'Toole Gary , Stephens Michael M.
Published: July 2017

Background: Plantar fasciitis is a repetitive microtrauma overload injury of the attachment of the plantar fascia at the inferior aspect of the calcaneus. Several etiological factors have been implicated in the development of plantar fasciitis; however, the role of hamstring tightness has not been evaluated. Methods: Fifteen volunteers (mean age 32.6 ± 4.7 years) were prospectively analyzed for differences in forefoot loading using a Don-Joy brace (dj Orthopedics, Vista, CA) applied to each knee simultaneously. The brace was locked at varying degrees of knee flexion (0 degrees, 20 degrees, and 40 degrees). Their mean popliteal angle was 6.5 degrees. Fifteen patients (mean age 40 ± 16.5 years) with a diagnosis of chronic plantar fasciitis were similarly analyzed on the pedobarograph. These patients also had their hamstring tightness evaluated by measuring the popliteal angle. The mean popliteal angle was 23 degrees. Results: Increasing the angle of flexion from 0 to 20 degrees at the knee joint led to a statistically significant increase in pressure in the forefoot phase by an average of 0.08 K/cm2s ( p < 0.05). An increase from 20 to 40 degrees led to increased forefoot phase pressure of 0.08 kg/cm2s ( p < 0.05). The percentage of time spent in contact phase decreased from 35.37% to 30.87% to 26.37% with increasing flexion ( p < 0.05). However there was an inverse increase in the time spent in the forefoot phase 46.6% to 55.6 to 61.25% with increasing degrees of flexion ( p < 0.05). Conclusion: The results indicate that an increase in hamstring tightness may induce prolonged forefoot loading and through the windlass mechanism be a factor that increases repetitive injury to the plantar fascia.
Operator Workloads and Mill Performance Effects Due to Design Changes
Authors: Ong Chee-Seng , Buck James R.
Published: July 2017

One of the more difficult ergonomics problems is determining the operator workloads and the total mill or shop performance resulting from design changes in the operation. Man/machine simulation and experiments with this simulation provide an aiding technique for ergonomic designers. This technique is demonstrated in the case of steel making in the Basic Oxygen Furnace Shop and the Rolling Mill. Modeling with the latest version of SAINT is shown. Experiments are illustrated for different modes of operation, added or deleted equipment, and new technologies in order to find mill and shop performance and the effect of workloads on particular jobs. Experimental strategies and implications are discussed.
Baseball Volume, Weight and Pitching Distance: Their Effects on “Little-Leaguer” Pitching Accuracy
Authors: Duncan J. R. , McKemie M. S. , Sexton D. J. , Harrison D. R.
Published: July 2017

Three levels of baseball volume (21.2, 22.2, and 23.2 cm circumference) and three levels of baseball weight (71, 113.5, and 156 gm) were evaluated at three pitching distances (11.0, 13.7, and 16.5 m) to determine how these parameters affect “Little-Leaguer” pitching accuracy. Eighteen boys between the ages of 12 and 15 were randomly assigned to one of three groups (six boys per pitching distance) and threw each of the nine baseballs three times. Pitching accuracy, measured by the percentage of throws within a specified strike zone and by the distance each throw was from the target center, was affected by the main effects of pitching distance and baseball weight, and by interactions among pitching distance, baseball weight and volume. Although shortening the pitching distance produced the greatest increase in accuracy for this age group, accuracy was also significantly improved by reducing the weight of the ball by approximately 42 gms.
Fenestration and Energy Conservation
Authors: Collins Belinda , Rubin A.
Published: July 2017

A previous review of the literature on the psychological requirements for windows indicated the desirability of a view out, daylight, sunshine, and spaciousness as the primary benefits of windows to people in buildings. Although the desire for these window benefits may be, at times, incompatible with the need for energy conservation, recent computer calculations at the National Bureau of Standards (NBS) indicate the feasibility of window management as a means of energy conservation. Window management is defined as the use of thermal shutters on winter nights, ventian blinds on summer days, and/or daylight. These calculations, however, assume that the window system is used optimally, and do not examine actual window management practices. These practices were, however, examined in a study at NBS in which Venetian blind use was evaluated for six low-rise office buildings having two orientations. Blind usage patterns were examined by photographing the building facades before and after experimentally changing blind position in three seasons. Blind positioning did not change noticeably from day to day but that of south-facing windows was significantly different from that of north-facing windows. The feasibility of relying on window management by altering Venetian blind position is discussed.
A Theoretical Structure for Personnel Subsystem Measurement
Authors: Meister D.
Published: July 2017

Differences between controlled laboratory experimentation and measurement of personnel performance in functioning man-machine systems are contrasted. Types of non-laboratory performance measurement are described.
Human Performance Variability in Accident Causation
Authors: Robinson Gordon H. , Jacobson Thomas R.
Published: July 2017

The argument is presented that we too often label human acts which lead to accidents as idiosyncratic rather than as part of the normal variability in expected performance and that this tendency impedes progress in understanding causation. Some choice reaction time data is examined in terms of variability as related to skill, work session length, alcohol stress, sleep deprivation and compatibility. Analytic distributions are examined as to their possible applicability and properties of their far right tails.
Identification of Steady Burning Red Lamps as Tail or Stop Signal in Night Driving
Authors: Troell George M. , Hoffmeister David H. , Bhise Vivek D.
Published: July 2017

A three phase investigation was conducted to assess the probabilities of identifying steady burning red signals as tail or stop lamps as a function of their intensity and size and the driver's adaptation brightness.
Alcohol Effects on Driver Risk Taking
Authors: Allen R. Wade , Schwartz Stephen H.
Published: July 2017

This paper reviews selected results from past driving simulator studies. The driving tasks include steering regulation against wind/road disturbances, speed control on curves, and decision making in a signal light situation. A common alcohol impairment mechanism is found in each of these situations, namely increased driver variability. The driver's risk exposure also increases with alcohol impairment and is extremely sensitive to performance variability changes. It is hypothesized that drivers are not generally aware of risk exposure, even under alcohol-impaired conditions. Countermeasure approaches to driver impairment are also discussed.
A Proposed Plan of Home Safety for the Older Adult
Authors: Browning Helene Ward , Saran Chitaranjan
Published: July 2017

10.7% of Americans are 65 years or older and account for 24% of disabling injuries. Physiological changes associated with aging and relatively higher frequency of home accidents involving the aged suggest home modification which can reduce the frequency and severity of these injuries. This paper suggests some such modifications by exploring the background of the problem, discussing the existing safety features of newer and older houses, and proposing safety education programs for the adults.
The Use of the Fatal Accident Reporting System (FARS) in Evaluating Characteristics of Virginia Traffic Fatalities
Authors: Mitchell Deborah , Lynn Cheryl
Published: July 2017

Highway safety studies often involve a review of accident reports in order to determine those factors involved in traffic accidents. While this is a popular approach, It often entails problems resulting from incomplete information, contradictions in the available data, and difficulties in compiling information from various sources. For these reasons, the Fatal Accident Reporting System, a computerized data base, was chosen for use in evaluating the characteristics of Virginia traffic fatalities.

In particular, the Fatal Accident Reporting System (FARS) was applied to investigate the reason for the increase in traffic fatalities in Virginia in 1977 and determining their characteristics. Using data from the FARS, fatal traffic accidents in Virginia during 1976 and 1977 were compared by examining demographic characteristics of the accidents such as day of week, type of road, kind of location, and the age and sex of the drivers involved. The data were examined according to three categories; 1) accident, 2) vehicle/driver, and 3) person.

It was found, however, that for all levels of factors, some data were unusable because of problems in format, insufficient information, and apparent inconsistencies in coding. The system was not found to be easily accessible and was also comparativly expensive. For these reasons, it was concluded that use of the Fatal Accident Reporting System does not appear to be the best method of evaluating characteristics of Virginia traffic fatalities.
The Importance of Providing Stereoscopic Vision in Training for Nap-of-the-Earth (NOE) Flight
Authors: Erwin Donald E.
Published: July 2017

Nap-of-the-earth (NOE) flight in Army tactical helicopter operations necessitates high speed visual-motor coordinations in order to avoid obstacles in the flight path while making maximal use of the terrain for cover and concealment from enemy air defense weapon systems. The development of simulators for training pilots in NOE flight involves the design of visual display systems which provide all the important optical information available in actual flight. At the present time, however, there is insufficient information on the role of stereopsis in NOE flight to determine whether fully binocular displays must be designed into training simulators.

This paper describes results from two preliminary studies which examined the importance of binocular disparity for the perception of three-dimensional layout of the terrain in NOE flight. In the first experiment, it was determined that stereoscopic movies taken from the cockpit of a helicopter in NOE flight produce more compelling impressions of three-dimensionality than a non-disparate bioptic display. The results of the second experiment show that simple reaction times for detection of three-dimensionality in static binocular displays were substantially longer than for detection of fusibility of otherwise identical bioptic displays. Additionally, it was found that detection of fusibility required much more time than detection of a light flash.

These results are interpreted as inconclusive with respect to the desirability of stereoptic displays for NOE flight training simulators, and a program of further research needed to settle this issue is discussed.
Embedded Training: The Team Component
Authors: Baker James D.
Published: July 2017

With several efforts currently underway in the Army to develop and field tactical data systems, it is likely that there will be a considerable data processing capability at the tactical unit level during the 1980 time frame. During peacetime, the conduct of tactical operations may not fully utilize this capability. A potential secondary role for these systems, when they are not required for tactical operations, is that of supporting unit and individual training requirements.
Human Factors Design Practices for Nuclear Power Plant Control Rooms
Authors: Parsons Stuart O. , Eckert Sharen K. , Seminara Joseph L.
Published: July 2017

Twenty nuclear power plant control room designers were interviewed to determine the design process, design constraints and the use and availability of Human Factors engineering information. Findings and conclusions are presented as well as a brief comparison with Meister's study of aerospace engineers.
Personnel Qualifications for Mobile Offshore Drilling Unit Operations
Authors: Paramore B. , Jones D. T.
Published: July 2017

This paper is based on a study performed to delineate the personnel training and qualification needs for the operations of mobile offshore drilling units (MODUs). These units are used in exploratory drilling for petroleum resources in offshore lands. The study involved a systems task analysis, backed up by a field survey, conducted with government and industry cooperation. A data base was created consisting of structured task descriptions of MODU operations and the skills and knowledge needed to perform each task. The training and experience implications of each task were then considered in relation to the typical MODU personnel organization, personnel sources and characteristics, and the history and trends in personnel selection and training in offshore industry.
The Effect of Lighting and Low Power Magnification on Inspection Performance
Authors: Wei Wen-Kuo , Konz Stephan
Published: July 2017

Ten subjects tried to identify c's (defects) in a matrix of o's (good items) with five letter sizes, three magnification levels (none, 2***X and 4X) and three illumination levels (1100, 2200 and 4400 lux). Using time as the criterion, when the target gap was larger than 2.S min of arc, no magnification was best; below 2.5, 4X was best. Time was 43.9 s for 1100 lux, 41.2 for 2200 lux and 39.9 for 4400 lux. Using errors as a criterion, no magnification was best for gaps larger than 2.5 min of arc; below 2.5, 4X was best. Illumination had no effect on errors.
The Effects of Prediction, Quickening, Frequency Separation, and Percent of Pursuit in Perspective Displays for Low-Visibility Landing
Authors: Jensen Richard S.
Published: July 2017

Pictorial realism has long been considered necessary in aircraft landing displays because it makes effective use of man's superior perceptual capabilities. A serious limitation to pictorially realistic two-dimensional displays is that they must be magnified to provide distance cues equivalent to those provided in scenes viewed directly. This paper presents a rationale for applying some well known concepts including prediction, quickening, frequency separation, and percent of pursuit, to the development of forward-looking cockpit displays for low-visibility curved approach and landing tasks that may permit a compromise of the magnification principle. The development of such a display system provides a unique context for the systematic study of the interrelationships among these display concepts with a high potential for scientific and applied payoffs.
Maintenance Training and Simulation: Design Processes and Evaluation Criteria
Authors: Brock John F.
Published: July 2017

There is general agreement among instructional designers that training people to maintain complex systems has unique characteristics not found in other training endeavors. These unique characteristics stem from the kind of cognitive and psychophysical tasks which must be performed by the system maintainer. This paper discusses the uniqueness required of maintenance training systems and sets out a model for designing such systems. Examples from basic and advanced maintenance training systems are presented with a discussion of how and why particular instructional strategies were selected. Alternative strategy selection techniques are discussed.

A review of current simulation techniques for training maintenance tasks is presented in the context of general design considerations for maintenance training. Computer-based systems are compared along dimensions of cost, reliability, modifiability, hands-on capability, safety, and student performance data.

A concurrent problem in maintenance training is the determination of whether a training system is, in fact, functioning efficiently and effectively. Efficiency and effectiveness are defined and a model for measuring each is proposed. A section of the paper addresses the economic issues in the evaluation of training.
Effects of Information Processing Requirements on Reaction Time of the Eye
Authors: Nelson Christine L. , London Robert M. , Robinson Gordon H.
Published: July 2017

This experiment measured eye reaction time as a function of presence or absence of a central control task, type of command, and knowledge of target direction prior to command. It was found that eye reaction time was greater when a subject was involved in a central tracking task than when he was not; it was greater when the command was symbolic than when it was spatial; and it was longer when the target direction was unknown prior to command. These variables also interacted, so that the effect of unknown target direction was greater with a symbolic command.

Results of this experiment also showed that subjects sometimes used an initial compensatory pattern of eye-head movements. There were large inter-subject differences, but use of compensation generally increased with complexity of centrally located information which required processing.

It thus appears that reaction time of the eye responds to information processing variables in a manner similar to other motor response systems.
Performance Time as Effected by Choice Uncertainity and Index of Difficulty
Authors: Raouf A. , Tsui J.
Published: July 2017

Applications of Index of Difficulty (I.D.) developed by Fitts are well documented in the literature. The effect of Choice Uncertainity (H)on ‘reach.’ type of elements has also been investigated as well. The unit of measurement used for H and I.D. is the same i.e. bit. There are many instances where a worker is required to perform a task involving I.D. and H. To study the effect of I.D. and H on performance time in a Combined Manual and Decision Task involving ‘move’ and ‘positioning’ a set of experiments were conducted. Twenty subjects, ten male and ten female, were tested. Each subject performed under six I.D. levels and four H levels. To avoid confusion I.D. was measured in IBITS. (I.D. = log2 2A/W IBITS) I.D. and H were found to significant variables effecting performance time. Sex of the subjects was not found to be a significant variable. A linear prediction model for estimating performance time for tasks involving I.D. and H i.e. move and positioning has been developed.
Effects of Input and Output Predictions on Manual Control Performance
Authors: Kvålseth Tarald O.
Published: July 2017

This study analyzed the possible effects of providing the human operator with either input or output predictions during digital control tasks. The output predictions were generated by a method somewhat related to the fast-time model predictions used for time-continuous control systems, while the input predictions were of a statistical nature. The results indicated that output predictions tended to enhance the control performance, especially for subjects with no previous digital control experience. However, the input predictions did not have any significant effects on the performance during either the pursuit or the compensatory control mode.
Manual Lifting—A Problem for Ergonomics
Authors: Ayoub M. M. , Grasley C.
Published: July 2017

The application of safety concepts in the industrial environment has gained momentum especially in the area of manual materials handling. Manual materials handling is a priority concern due to the high percentage of industrial injuries that result from such tasks. Industry needs an approach to establish human lifting capability in order to properly design jobs within these capacities. With the assumption that there is a relationship between an individual's lifting capacity and his/her injury potential, methods for determining maximum permissable weight of lift are reviewed. With these accomplishments in mind, the future work to be accomplished by the ergonomics community is forecast.
Human Error and the Legal Process
Authors: Miller C. O.
Published: July 2017

Human performance is intrinsic to the philosophies, policies and process by which society is governed. Thus society establishes performance requirements and effects punishment or other sanctions if such, standards are not met. This paper examines human error as delineated or otherwise encountered by human factors specialists and then in the context of our legal system. Human Factors and the Law meet in the courtroom, especially in accident litigation. A serious deficiency exists in the investigation of human error accidents which poses a continuing threat to both effective accident prevention and improved social justice.
Legibility Criteria in Design and Selection of Data Displays for Group Viewing
Authors: Shurtleff D. , Wuersch W.
Published: July 2017

This study proposes a methodology and legibility criteria for use in the design and selection of group display systems for new and existing command and control facilities. The methodology and criteria are based upon objective human performance data derived from studies in which key display parameters were related to observers' ability to identify displayed data.
Effect of Compatibility of S-R Mapping on Reactions toward the Stimulus Source
Authors: Simon J. Richard , Sly Paul E. , Vilapakkam Sivakumar
Published: July 2017

The purpose of this research was to gain a better understanding of some of the factors which affect the speed of translating information from a visual display into an appropriate control action. The research focused on the concept of “logical recoding” proposed originally by Hedge and Marsh (1975) to explain the results of their study concerning the effect of an irrelevant directional cue (location of a stimulus) on choice reaction time to a relevant symbolic cue (color of the stimulus). Their subjects pressed a green or red key located on the left and right in response to the onset of a green or red stimulus presented in either a left or right window. When subjects were instructed to press the key which was the same color as the stimulus, they reacted faster when the location of the stimulus and response corresponded than when they did not. Hedge and Marsh used the label “Simon effect” to refer to this finding (Simon, 1969; Simon, 1970). The interesting aspect of the Hedge and Marsh findings was that when subjects were instructed to press the alternate colored key, reactions were faster when the location of the stimulus and response key did not correspond than when they corresponded. In other words, reversing the compatibility of S-R mapping produced a reversal of the Simon effect. Hedge and Marsh explained this reversal in terms of logical recoding; i.e., they proposed that with incompatible S-R mapping instructions, subjects recoded the irrelevant location cue as well as the relevant symbolic cue, thus causing them to respond faster on the side opposite the location of the stimulus.
Human Operator Performance in Computer-Based Message Switching Systems: A Case Study
Authors: Mitchell-Bishop V.
Published: July 2017

Twenty-four network control operators were observed executing monitor and control tasks involving large-scale remote networks. The networks are associated with six message switching systems. The operators tasks involved responding to software generated alarm messages, and invoke network changes via a command language, to regulate input/output traffic flow. Data were collected using activity analysis sampling, command language analysis, and error analysis in order to obtain statistics on the following factors: operator work load, alarm volume per hour, operator response time per alarm, system acknowledgement time, error type and frequency.

The results indicated that the alarm volume required an operator response time of 90 seconds, which overloaded the operators. Recommendations to allocate to the software additional monitor and control tasks, and to modify the software interfaces, reducing the alarm volume, were implemented. The results of a second experiment, conducted to measure the effects of the software changes, identified a substantial improvement in operator performance, a reduction in operator workload, errors, and alarm volume. These findings led to the confirmation of several human factors principles applicable to interface design.
Perceiving Real World Scenes: The Role of a Prior Glance
Authors: Teitelbaum Richard C. , Biederman Irving
Published: July 2017

When does prior familiarity with a scene facilitate its processing? Subjects performed a scene-comprehension task in which they attempted to detect the incongruity in the relationship between an object and its real-world scene context. In 100 msec, presentations of line drawings of such scenes, objects could be in a normal location or else inappropriately positioned (e.g., a fire hydrant on top of a mailbox), sized (e.g., the hydrant looking larger than a truck) or appearing to float in air. The results from two experiments provide approximate boundary conditions under which prior familiarity with a specific scene will facilitate subsequent perceptual processing of that scene. Neither priming with a verbal label nor repeated 100 msec non-consecutive exposures were found to improve subsequent perceptual processing, but a single 500 msec, visual prime of the background itself was effective.
Planning and Designing Direction-Finding Systems
Authors: Selfridge Katherine M.
Published: July 2017

A sign system is not merely a collection of separate signs, each with its separate purpose; but a system with several purposes: to guide and direct; to identify; to inform and instruct; and to contribute to a consistent beauty of the environment.

The graphic designers' jobs in designing good sign systems are to understand how people read, perceive, and respond to signs. They need to know about the results of human factor psychology. Psychologists should in turn understand what graphic designers have to consider and what they do, so as to improve the communication between them.
An Integrated Approach to the Design of Personnel Systems
Authors: Blanchard Robert E.
Published: July 2017

Better use of decreasing personnel resources at affordable costs requires the application of the total personnel system concept. Interfaces among the various system elements must be appraised jointly from a cost tradeoff standpoint. In response to the need for a personnel systems design framework, the Integrated Personnel Systems Approach (IPSA) was devised which includes a tradeoff analysis model. IPSA was used to evolve a personnel system concept called EPICS, Enlisted Personnel Individualized Career System. It is recommended that an approach like IPSA be employed along with increased sensitivity to the personnel system viewpoint within professional and organizational communities in order that our available personnel resources may be employed more effectively.
Job Design as Part of the Navy Enlisted Personnel Individualized Career System
Authors: Price Harold E.
Published: July 2017

The Navy, faced with the prospect of decreasing personnel availability, lower entry-level skills, and increased training costs has decided to develop and evaluate a personnel system concept with innovative technical manuals (Job Performance Aids) as the principal means for obtaining early and productive personnel performance. Significant features of this new concept are: (1) innovative job performance aids (JPA's) to guide minimally trained personnel in productive work, (2) deferred, front-end formal training, and (3) accounting for and individualizing the long-term aspects of the personnel system, such as job structures, career paths, performance appraisal, and advancement. The process of defining JPA-based jobs and integrating them into a total personnel system is referred to as a job design process.

Total job design will be accomplished in several phases. First, the tasks necessary to operate and maintain a system will be clustered into work units called positions. A position is comprised of tasks which have some commonality of system factors and are homogenous with respect to personnel skill and knowledge demands. Positions are then arrayed in dependent sequences and ordered according to skill demands. Next, position competency requirements will be determined. A determination will then be made as to how position performance competency can be achieved, particularly through the use of innovative JPA's. The third phase is to combine positions into jobs which meet system performance objectives and result in both productive personnel performance and job satisfaction. The final phase of the job design process is to design career patterns which will provide for increased performance development through utilization of more advanced JPAs, additional job-oriented training, and continual performance assessment and advancement.

The eventual product of the EPICS job design process will be a complete personnel system which emphasizes the use of JPA's or technical manuals, includes complementary training, and ensures a complete career potential for individuals who are both motivated and capable of job-oriented performance.
Job Performance Aids Research and Technology Base for Integrated Personnel Systems
Authors: Booher Harold R.
Published: July 2017

Over 20 years of research data on JPAs suggested that job performance aiding technology offered major potential in personnel performance increments and cost avoidance throughout the personnel, training, and maintenance communities. More than 100 JPA candidates were known to exist for selection into an integrated personnel system. This paper describes the results of a comprehensive survey of JPA systems and techniques, the organizational JPA technology for application toward an integrated personnel system, and schema utilized in achieving optimal utilization of the state-of-the art JPA technology.
Automated Job Performance Aids for Technical Information Systems
Authors: Frazier Thomas W.
Published: July 2017

This paper describes the need for new-technology solutions to information support for trainees, operators, and maintenance technicians, relative to combat readiness and systems availability problems. Data automation technology in various forms will be required to provide optimal solutions to problems for which hard-copy technical information approaches are limiting progress in usability at this time. An automated training/aiding system is discussed, which can allow highly interactive system solutions to technical data usability.
Effects of 48 Hours of Continuous Work and Sleep Loss on Work Performance of Males and Females
Authors: Miller Sarah J. , Coates Glynn D. , Kirby Raymond H.
Published: July 2017

The effects of extended periods of sleep loss and continuous work on complex human performance in male subjects have been fairly well documented (cf., Alluisi, Coates, & Morgan, 1977; Morgan, Brown, & Alluisi, 1974; Morgan, Brown, Coates, & Alluisi, 1974). However, similar data are unavailable for the female worker. Further, the results of these previous studies have indicated that, for male subjects, the underlying circadian rhythm interacts with the effects of sleep loss and continuous work (Alluisi, et al., 1977). If it can be assumed that the interactive effects of the circadian rhythm are due in part to an underlying physiological cycle, it is reasonable to hypothesize that similar interactive effects would be observed in systematic investigations of the effects of 48 hours of sleep loss and continuous work at various points of the menstrual cycle in females. The purposes of the present series of investigations were, therefore, twofold: (1) To determine the effects of 48 hours of continuous work and sleep loss on complex human performance in female subjects with a goal of providing direct comparisons of male and female performances under identical conditions, and (2) To determine the effects of the menstrual cycle, if any, as it interacts with the effects of sleep loss and continuous work.