bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The kynurenine metabolic pathway in the eye: studies on 3‐hydroxykynurenine, a putative cataractogenic compound
Authors: Chiarugi Alberto , Rapizzi Emilio , Moroni Fulvio , Moroni Flavio
Published: July 2002

The rabbit lens has an elevated content of 3‐hydroxykynurenine (3OHKYN) in spite of a very low activity of the enzymes leading to its synthesis. The iris/ciliary body, on the contrary, has very high activity of 3OHKYN synthesizing enzymes but a content of 3OHKYN lower than that of the lens. These observations suggest that 3OHKYN is formed in the iris/ciliary body, released into the aqueous humor and then taken up into the lens where it may be used for the synthesis of UV filtering products. An excessive accumulation of 3OHKYN in the lens has been associated with cataract formation. We found that available selective inhibitors of kynurenine hydroxylase reduced 3OHKYN synthesis in both the lens and the iris/ciliary body.
Temperature‐dependent interaction of thermo‐sensitive polymer‐modified liposomes with CV1 cells
Authors: Kono Kenji , Nakai Ryoichi , Morimoto Keiji , Takagishi Toru
Published: July 2002

Egg yolk phosphatidylcholine liposomes modified with a copolymer of N‐acryloylpyrrolidine and N‐isopropylacrylamide having a lower critical solution temperature at ca. 40°C were prepared and an effect of temperature on their interaction with CV1 cells was investigated. The unmodified liposomes were taken up by the cells approximately to the same extent after 3 h incubation at 37 and 42°C. In contrast, uptake of the polymer‐modified liposomes by CV1 cells decreased slightly at 37°C but increased greatly at 42°C, compared to the unmodified liposomes. Proliferation of the cells was partly prohibited by the incubation with the unmodified liposomes encapsulating methotrexate at 37 and 42°C. The treatment with the polymer‐modified liposomes containing methotrexate at 37°C hardly effected the cell growth. However, the treatment at 42°C inhibited the cell growth completely. It is considered that the highly hydrated polymer chains attached to the liposome surface suppressed the liposome‐cell interaction below the lower critical solution temperature of the polymer but the dehydrated polymer chains enhanced the interaction above this temperature. Because interaction of the polymer‐modified liposomes with cells can be controlled by the ambient temperature, these liposomes may have potential usefulness as efficient site‐specific drug delivery systems.
Induction of apoptosis in macrophages by cationic liposomes
Authors: Aramaki Yukihiko , Takano Shuhei , Tsuchiya Seishi
Published: July 2002

The effects of liposomes on apoptosis in macrophages were evaluated from DNA content and DNA fragmentation. Cationic liposomes composed of different kinds of cationic lipids induced apoptosis in mouse splenic macrophages and the macrophage‐like cell line, RAW264.7 cells. Generation of reactive oxygen radicals from macrophages treated with cationic liposomes was detected using flow cytometry, and further apoptosis was inhibited by the addition of oxidant scavenger, N‐acetylcysteine. From these findings, the production of reactive oxygen species may be important in the regulation of apoptosis induced by cationic liposomes.
Expression of chimeric P450 genes encoding flavonoid‐3′,5′‐hydroxylase in transgenic tobacco and petunia plants1
Authors: Shimada Yukihisa , Nakano-Shimada Ritsuko , Ohbayashi Masaya , Okinaka Yasushi , Kiyokawa Shigeto , Kikuchi Yasuhiro
Published: July 2002

Flavonoid‐3′,5′‐hydroxylase (F3′5′H), a member of the cytochrome P450 family, is the key enzyme in the synthesis of 3′,5′‐hydroxylated anthocyanins, which are generally required for blue or purple flowers. A full‐length cDNA, TG1, was isolated from prairie gentian by heterologous hybridization with a petunia cDNA, AK14, which encodes F3′5′H. To investigate the in vivo function of TG1 and AK14, they were subcloned into a plant expression vector and expressed under the control of the CaMV35S promoter in transgenic tobacco or petunia, both of which originally lack the enzyme. Transgenic petunia plants had a dramatic change in flower color from pink to magenta with a high content of 3′,5′‐hydroxylated anthocyanins. In contrast, transgenic tobacco plants had minimal color change with at most 35% 3′,5′‐hydroxylated anthocyanin content. These results indicate that the products of TG1 and AK14 have F3′5′H activity in planta and that interspecific gene transfer alters anthocyanin pigment synthesis. The difference in apparent F3′5′H activity between tobacco and petunia is discussed.
Isolation of a glycosylated form of the chicken eggshell protein ovocleidin and determination of the glycosylation site. Alternative glycosylation/phosphorylation at an N‐glycosylation sequon
Authors: Mann Karlheinz
Published: July 2002

Ovocleidin, a major protein of the avian eggshell calcified layer, occurs in the eggshell soluble organic matrix in at least two forms. The major form is a phosphoprotein with two phosphorylated serines (OC‐17) which was sequenced recently. A minor form is a glycosylated protein with identical sequence and only one phosphorylated serine (OC‐23). The site of glycosylation is Asn59, the only asparagine in the amino acid sequence contained in the N‐glycosylation site consensus sequence, N‐A‐S. Ser61, which is part of this site, is phosphorylated in OC‐17 but not in OC‐23 indicating that the two modifications are mutually exclusive. This is the first example of alternative glycosylation/phosphorylation occurring at an N‐glycosylation site.
The CREC family, a novel family of multiple EF‐hand, low‐affinity Ca2+‐binding proteins localised to the secretory pathway of mammalian cells
Authors: Honoré Bent , Vorum Henrik
Published: July 2002

The CREC family consists of a number of recently discovered multiple (up to seven) EF‐hand proteins that localise to the secretory pathway of mammalian cells. At present, the family includes reticulocalbin, ERC‐55/TCBP‐49/E6BP, Cab45, calumenin and crocalbin/CBP‐50. Similar proteins are found in quite diverse invertebrate organisms such as DCB‐45 and SCF in Drosophila melanogaster, SCF in Bombyx mori, CCB‐39 in Caenorhabditis elegans and Pfs40/PfERC in Plasmodium falciparum. The Ca2+ affinity is rather low with dissociation constants around 10−4–10−3 M. The proteins may participate in Ca2+‐regulated activities. Recent evidence has been obtained that some CREC family members are involved in pathological activities such as malignant cell transformation, mediation of the toxic effects of snake venom toxins and putative participation in amyloid formation.
Configurations of low‐contact services
Authors: Verma Rohit , Young Scott T.
Published: July 2002

This study uses a cluster analysis procedure to develop a classification model of low‐contact services based on seven operations objectives. The effectiveness of the classification scheme is tested by demonstrating the link between the objectives, competitive priorities, and performance. This study also identifies eight underlying factors of competitive priorities in low‐contact services. Furthermore, discriminant analysis on competitive priority dimensions shows that low‐contact services consist of multiple groups and therefore should not be lumped into one group in any analysis scheme.
Type I and type III procollagen gene expressions in the early phase of ligament healing in rabbits: an in situ hybridization study
Authors: Sakai Hiroya , Koibuchi Noriyuki , Ohtake Hideki , Tamai Kazuya , Fukui Naoshi , Oda Hiromi , Saotome Koichi
Published: July 2002

The purpose of this study is to observe type I and type III procollagen gene expressions in the healing ligament using in situ hybridization histochemistry. The rabbit medial collateral ligaments were incised and harvested at 3, 7, 14, and 28 days postoperatively. The healing ligament showed increased expression of both procollagen genes through this period compared with the unoperated ligament. The peak expression level was observed at 7 or 14 days for type I and at 7 days for type III, respectively. The strongest expression of both genes was detected in the scar tissue created between the ends of the old ligament. Although type III procollagen gene expression was observed almost only in the newly created scar tissue, type I procollagen gene was expressed not only in the scar tissue, but also at the ends of the previously normal ligament. These results suggest that type I collagen synthesis begins shortly after ligament injury and occurs at the ends of the injured ligament as well as in the scar tissue, and that type III collagen is largely synthesized in the scar tissue around one week after injury but continues being synthesized for at least four weeks after injury. © 2001 Orthopaedic Research Society. Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Fatigue of cortical bone under combined axial‐torsional loading
Authors: Vashishth D. , Tanner K. E. , Bonfield W.
Published: July 2002

The influence of torsional loading on the fatigue life of cortical bone was investigated by conducting in vitro testing. Fatigue tests were conducted on cylindrical dumbbell bovine cortical bone specimens in an environmental chamber under axial loading, torsional loading and various combinations of axial‐torsional loading where the phase relationship and relative magnitudes of axial and torsional loadings were systematically varied. It was found that the superposition of torque on axial loading reduced the fatigue life of cortical bone. The reduction in fatigue life was significant when the maximum shear stress was greater than 59% of the maximum normal stress. The magnitude of reduction in the fatigue life of bone at low as well as high levels of axial loading depended on the magnitude of torsional loading, but was independent of the phase angle by which the torsional loading lagged the axial loading. Furthermore, oblique fracture profiles, characteristic of torsion‐induced failure, were observed for combined axial‐torsional load cases. Based on these results, it is suggested that torsional loading plays a significant role in determining the fatigue life of cortical bone. © 2001 Orthopaedic Research Society. Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
The effect of aging on distraction osteogenesis in the rat
Authors: Aronson J. , Gao G. G. , Shen X. C. , McLaren S. G. , Skinner R. A. , Badger T. M. , Lumpkin C. K.
Published: July 2002

The effect of age on bone formation in the limb lengthening model of distraction osteogenesis (DO) was investigated in two studies using Sprague—Dawley (SD) rats from two colonies at various ages (CAMM: 9 vs 24 months, Harlan: 4 vs 24 months). External fixators were placed on the right tibiae of 30 male SD rats (20 CAMM, 10 Harlan) and mid‐diaphyseal osteotomies were performed. Distraction was performed at 0.2 mm bid for 20 days (CAMM) or 14 days (Harlan). The experimental (DO) and control (contra‐lateral) tibiae were removed for high‐resolution radiography and decalcified histology. Videomicroscopy was used to quantitate radiodensity, histology (matrix type) and relative areas of cell proliferation, which was identified by proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) immunochemistry. Both studies demonstrated an age‐related decrease in the percent mineralized bone (radiodensity) in the distraction gap (CAMM 9 vs 24 months: 68% vs 51%, P < 0.003; Harlan 4 vs 24 months: 95% vs 36%, P < 0.001) and no significant colony or distraction time‐specific difference was seen between the two colonies of 24‐month‐old rats. Histology was performed on the Harlan rats. The DO gaps in the 24‐month‐old rats demonstrated less endosteal new bone compared to the 4‐month‐old rats (P < 0.01), but equivalent periosteal new bone. In 4‐month‐old rats, PCNA‐immunostained cells were organized along the primary matrix front (where the first deposition of osteoid occurs) extending across both periosteal and endosteal surfaces. In 24‐month‐old rats, PCNA + cells were organized in zones along the periosteal new bone fronts only and irregularly scattered throughout the endosteal gap within a fibrovascular non‐ossifying matrix. These results indicate that 24‐month‐old rats have a relative deficit in endosteal bone formation which may not be related to cell proliferation but rather to cell organization. This model reflects the clinical situation where radiographic findings in older patients demonstrate significant delays in mineralization during DO. We believe this model of DO in aged rats presents unique in vivo opportunities to test hypotheses concerning (1) the effects of aging on bone repair, (2) the effects of pharmacological agents on bone repair in a geriatric setting, and (3) to study the mechanisms underlying DO. © 2001 Orthopaedic Research Society. Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Addiction and its reward process through polymorphisms of the D2dopamine receptor gene: a review
Authors: Noble E.P.
Published: July 2002

Since 1990, association studies have amassed strong evidence implicating the D2dopamine receptor (DRD2) gene in alcoholism. Specifically, theTaql A minor (A1) allele of the DRD2 gene has been associated with alcoholism. The DRD2 gene has also been found to be involved in other substance use disorders including cocaine, nicotine and opioid dependence, and obesity. Beyond association studies, pharmacologic studies have shown reduced brain D2dopamine receptor numbers in A1+allele carriers (A1A1 and A1A2 genotypes) compared to A1–allele carriers (A2A2 genotype). Through a number of other approaches, different phenotypes have also been identified in subjects with the A1+and A1–alleles. These include metabolic, neurophysiological, neuropsychological, personality, stress and treatment studies. It is hypothesized that in an effort to compensate for deficiencies in the dopaminergic system, substance abusers may seek to stimulate the mesocorticolimbic circuits of the brain, long thought to be important in behavioral reward and reinforcement. In effect, one form of the DRD2 gene, the A1 allele, renders the dopaminergic system inefficient and rewards substance abuse that increases brain dopamine levels.
Two-year outcome in first-episode psychosis treated according to an integrated model. Is immediate neuroleptisation always needed?
Authors: Lehtinen V. , Aaltonen J. , Koffert T. , Räkköläinen V. , Syvälahti E.
Published: July 2002

In this multicentre study the two-year outcome of two groups of consecutive patients (total N = 106) with first-episode functional non-affective psychosis, both treated according to the ‘need-specific Finnish model’, which stresses teamwork, patient and family participation and basic psychotherapeutic attitudes, was compared. No alternative treatment facilities were available in the study sites. The two study groups differed in the use of neuroleptics: three of the sites (the experimental group) used a minimal neuroleptic regime whilst the other three (the control group) used neuroleptics according to the usual practice. Total time spent in hospital, occurrence of psychotic symptoms during the last follow-up year, employment, GAS score and the Grip on Life assessment were used as outcome measures. In the experimental group 42.9% of the patients did not receive neuroleptics at all during the whole two-year period, while the corresponding proportion in the control group was 5.9%. The overall outcome of the whole group could be seen as rather favourable. The main result was that the outcome of the experimental group was equal or even somewhat better than that of the control group, also after controlling for age, gender and diagnosis. This indicates that an integrated approach, stressing intensive psychosocial measures, is recommended in the treatment of acute first-episode psychosis.
Quality of life assessment: the World Health Organization
perspective
Authors: Saxena S , Orley J ,   WHOQOL
                        Group
Published: July 2002

Assessment of quality of life (QoL) and use of this information towards
improvement of health care services is an important area of activity of the
World Health Organization (WHO). This paper briefly discusses the conceptual
basis and the methodology used in WHO's Quality of Life Project (WHOQOL). It
describes the simultaneous development of instruments in widely different
cultures to assess subjective QoL. Use of these instruments in the field of
clinical trials with psychotropics is highlighted.
Changing patterns of mental health care in Greece (1984–1996)
Authors: Madianos M.G. , Tsiantis J. , Zacharakis C.
Published: July 2002

Greece joined the European Community in 1981 and, three years later, the Commission of the European Communities provided financial and technical assistance under EEC Regulation 815/84 for the modernisation of the traditional psychiatric care system, with the emphasis on decentralisation of mental health services and the development of community-based services, as well as on deinstutionalization of long-stay patients and improvement of conditions in public mental hospitals. Over the last 11 years, the implementation of the EEC Reg. 815/84 programme contributed to a significant shift towards extramural care and rehabilitation. The role of the large mental hospitals has gradually been diminished and a large number of long-stay patients have been deinstitutionalised. It is commonly accepted that the EEC-funded psychiatric reform programme, despite inadequacies and constraints, had an impact on the changing mental health scene in Greece.
Dysphoric subjective response to neuroleptics in schizophrenia: relationship to extrapyramidal side effects and symptomatology
Authors: Gervin M. , Browne S. , Garavan J. , Roe M. , Larkin C. , O'Callaghan E.
Published: July 2002

Objective:

Subjective reports of dysphoric responses to neuroleptic medication are common in clinical practice. However, cognitive and affective side effects of neuroleptic medications are difficult to differentiate from the symptoms of schizophrenia. We sought to elucidate the relative contribution of extrapyramidal side effects and symptomatology to dysphoric response.

Method:

Fifty clinically stable outpatients with schizophrenia attending a rehabilitation centre were assessed for extrapyramidal side effects and symptomatology before completing the drug attitude inventory (DAI).

Results:

Presence of extrapyramidal side effects, found in 28 patients (Z = −1.99, p = 0.05), and severity of negative symptoms (r = −0.47, p = 0.001) were independently associated with dysphoric response, explaining a significant proportion of the variance (R = 0.53, R2 = 25.2%, F = 9.27, df = 2, p = 0.0004).

Conclusions:

Patients who report a dysphoric response which they associate with neuroleptic medications have more extrapyramidal side effects and more severe negative symptoms. While these responses may be part of the negative symptoms of the illness or due to other factors such as depression, we raise the possibility that they may be clinically indistinguishable from, and be a subjective measure of, the so-called ‘neuroleptic-induced deficit syndrome’.
Elevated serum levels of soluble interleukin‐2 receptor, neopterin and β‐2‐microglobulin in idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy: relation to disease severity and autoimmune pathogenesis
Authors: Caforio Alida L.P. , Goldman Jonathan H. , Baig Mirza K. , Mahon Niall J. , Haven Aldwyn J. , Souberbielle Bernard E. , Holt David W. , Dalgleish Angus G. , McKenna William J.
Published: July 2002

Background:

It has not been assessed whether high levels of soluble interleukin 2 receptor (sIL‐2R), neopterin and β‐2 microglobulin in idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy reflect heart failure severity and/or an active autoimmune process. The aim of this study was to relate serum levels of these markers to clinical and autoimmune features.

Methods:

We studied 60 patients with idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy, 67 controls with ischemic heart failure and 34 normals.

Results:

Abnormal levels of sIL‐2R, but not of neopterin and β‐2 microglobulin, were more frequent in idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy than in ischemic patients (35% vs. 16%; P ‐ 0.02) or in normals (35% vs. 12%, P ‐ 0.01); mean sIL‐2R levels were, however, similar in idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy and ischemic heart failure (842 ± 75 vs. 762 ± 93 U/ml, P ‐ NS). In idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy abnormal levels of sIL‐2R were associated with lower peak oxygen consumption (P ‐ 0.008), higher neopterin and HLA class II expression in the myocardium (P ‐ 0.02), but were unrelated to cardiac autoantibody status or titer. In addition, abnormal levels of neopterin were associated with adverse prognosis and higher β‐2 microglobulin; abnormal levels of β‐2 microglobulin with lower echocardiographic percent fractional shortening, higher sIL‐2R and higher neopterin.

Conclusions:

There is no convincing evidence that abnormal sIL‐2R, neopterin and/or β‐2 microglobulin are disease‐specific markers of idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. The lack of association with cardiac autoantibodies suggests that these abnormalities are mainly related to heart failure severity rather than autoimmune pathogenesis. In keeping with this view, high levels of sIL‐2R, neopterin and/or β‐2 microglobulin identified a subset of idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy patients with advanced disease and poor prognosis.
Agency in Second Language Acquisition
Authors: Yashima Tomoko , Fukui Haruna
Published: December 2020

The concept of learner agency has long played a significant role in SLA research. This entry examines the conceptual development of agency mainly from (a) sociocultural and (b) poststructuralist and critical perspectives, both of which influenced the social turn in SLA. Unlike psychological research, which emphasizes learner characteristics, including motivation, with agency regarded as an individual property, agency is viewed here as socially structured and embedded in social contexts. From the sociocultural perspective, agency is never a property of an individual but a relationship constantly co‐constructed and renegotiated with those around the individual and with society. Another important historical development influencing the view of agency in SLA is poststructuralism, alongside the critical theories that followed. Bourdieu's and Giddens's theories, for example, provide a framework for viewing agency in L2 learners by emphasizing the dialectic of social structure and agentive action. Critical theories also supply lenses through which to examine those sociopolitical discourses that produce power differences. Researchers also focus on individuals' agency not only in resisting imposed identities but also in making choices and changing the course of their life. Thus viewed, agency is not a property of free, sovereign individuals but the capacity to create new ways of being through learning an L2. Empirical research into agency in L2 learning and teaching has accumulated since the social turn, reflecting growing interest among SLA researchers in the social and complex nature of agency.
Identities and Language Teaching in Classrooms
Authors: Dagenais Diane
Published: December 2020

This entry examines how social theories inspired by poststructuralism have framed a large body of research on identities in language classrooms over the last few decades. In this work, identity construction has been conceptualized as a dynamic process and site of struggle situated in relations of power. According to this lens, learners take on identities in relation to ideologies circulating in classrooms and society. Studies based on these perspectives have shown how language policies and classroom practices that recognize multilingualism offer students of varied origins opportunities to be positioned and take up identities as learners who have access to valued linguistic resources and multiple forms of expression. A range of pedagogical innovations has emerged internationally to support students' diverse identities, build on community language practices and facilitate the development of multilingual and multimodal literacies and some examples of these projects are provided here. This entry also describes how applied linguists have recently started exploring theories of the sociomaterial to expand the theoretical landscape in the field. They are moving beyond analyses of the social as they explore the unstable relationships formed by materials, social activity, and discursive production, which combine in unpredictable ways and shape identities in classrooms. In this scholarship identities are understood as processes of becoming that emerge at the conjuncture of multiple things, such as social interactions, ideologies, emotions, bodily sensations, physical objects, nature, and other vibrant matter.
Innovation in Language Teaching and Learning
Authors: Wedell Martin , Grassick Laura
Published: December 2020

In recent decades English has become a core curriculum subject within state education systems worldwide. National policy makers in different countries have often based their school English curriculum goals and recommended teaching approaches on ideas about language and language education borrowed from English‐speaking countries. Such goals and approaches represent innovations in the many contexts where they challenge existing educational norms and practices. Those researching innovation within applied linguistics are increasingly aware of the complexity of implementation. Early innovation research in both general and language education tended to focus on the establishment of coherent innovation management systems. Examples of unsuccessful innovation have led to a growing realization that implementers' (not only teachers but also school leaders, educational administrators, and teacher educators) experiences of change strongly influence whether and how implementation occurs. Future research is needed to explore how implementers' experiences and relationships influence implementation capacity, in order to clarify the implementation conditions required to enable context‐appropriate innovation goals and the teaching approaches that they promote to become visible in school classrooms.
Multicompetence
Authors: Cook Vivian
Published: December 2020

Multicompetence is defined as “the overall system of a mind or a community that uses more than one language.” It can be approached through three premises: (a) multicompetence concerns the total system for all languages (L1, L2, LN) in a single mind or community and their interrelationships; (b) multicompetence does not depend on the monolingual native speaker; (3) multicompetence affects the whole mind, that is, all language and cognitive systems, rather than language alone. It has important consequences for second language acquisition methodology because of its avoidance of research questions and techniques involving explicit or implicit comparisons with native speakers. It highlights the many cognitive differences of the second language user from the monolingual speaker. The implications for language teaching are setting the goal as successful second language use, exploiting the first language in the classroom and seeing non‐native speaker teachers as role models for students.
Multilingualism and the Internet
Authors: Leppänen Sirpa , Peuronen Saija
Published: December 2020

The topic of multilingualism and the Internet is important today due to globalization and the heterogeneous language practices that occur in online communication. The fact that the Internet is a central and meaningful forum for language use and communication for a growing number of individuals globally poses a challenge for language studies. Research is needed to describe and explain the ways in which Internet users select their language of communication and make use of multilingual resources in their online activities. Based on previous studies of multilingualism on the Internet, two basic research orientations can be identified: Macrosociolinguistic research of language choice and diversity assesses the amount and types of linguistic diversity online. Research on multilingual language practices investigates the specific multilingual practices, preferences, and policies of Internet users, the motivations behind their language choices, and the functions and meanings of their language choices in specific Internet contexts. An understanding of the multilingual language use on the Internet has direct implications for issues in applied linguistics such as the study of heteroglossia, language learning, language education, and language policy.
Russification in the Soviet and Post‐Soviet Era
Authors: Rannut Mart
Published: December 2020

Russification is a form of linguistic imperialism, referring to both official and covert ethnic and language policies which were implemented by the Russian authorities during the time of the tsarist empire and the Soviet Union, and continue to be implemented by the contemporary Russian Federation. The term comprises two different notions, one applied for domestic, the other for international purposes. The domestic application denotes forcible imposition of the Russian language and culture at the expense of the native language. Russia is a multiethnic country, and Moscow‐encouraged immigration of Russian speakers into non‐Russian areas together with the creation of a Russian language‐medium environment aims at a subtractive language shift from non‐Russian to Russian and absorption of a Russian mind‐set. The international aspect refers to both legitimate Russian language and culture promotion and the associated positive attitudes toward Russian; but it also involves the imposition of unequal relations between Russia and the post‐Soviet countries with regard to the economy and energy—raw materials, oil and gas—and security threats and overt military actions of various kind (in Ukraine, Georgia, Moldova [Transnistria], etc.). These are traded for concessions concerning national policies and for a privileged position for the Russian language and its speakers—the “co‐countrymen” (
so‐otechestvenniki
) policy.
Task‐Based Language Assessment
Authors: Choi YunDeok
Published: December 2020

Task‐based language assessment (TBLA) focuses on measuring examinees' language use rather than an abstract construct of linguistic knowledge. Task‐based assessments elicit relevant performance from test takers using tasks that are recognizable as relevant to educational and professional contexts. This entry provides a basic overview of TBLA, focusing on the intended test interpretations and advantages of using tasks as a basis for assessment. It also discusses current applications of TBLA in and out of classroom contexts as well as theoretical and practical issues in TBLA and suggestions for addressing the challenges.
Magnetic Actuation Methods in Bio/Soft Robotics
Authors: Ebrahimi Nafiseh , Bi Chenghao , Cappelleri David J. , Ciuti Gastone , Conn Andrew T. , Faivre Damien , Habibi Neda , Hošovský Alexander , Iacovacci Veronica , Khalil Islam S. M. , Magdanz Veronika , Misra Sarthak , Pawashe Chytra , Rashidifar Rasoul , Soto‐Rodriguez Paul Eduardo David , Fekete Zoltan , Jafari Amir
Published: December 2020

In recent years, magnetism has gained an enormous amount of interest among researchers for actuating different sizes and types of bio/soft robots, which can be via an electromagnetic‐coil system, or a system of moving permanent magnets. Different actuation strategies are used in robots with magnetic actuation having a number of advantages in possible realization of microscale robots such as bioinspired microrobots, tetherless microrobots, cellular microrobots, or even normal size soft robots such as electromagnetic soft robots and medical robots. This review provides a summary of recent research in magnetically actuated bio/soft robots, discussing fabrication processes and actuation methods together with relevant applications in biomedical area and discusses future prospects of this way of actuation for possible improvements in performance of different types of bio/soft robots.
Degradable and Fully Recyclable Dynamic Thermoset Elastomer for 3D‐Printed Wearable Electronics
Authors: Guo Yifan , Chen Shuo , Sun Lijie , Yang Lei , Zhang Luzhi , Lou Jiaming , You Zhengwei
Published: December 2020

Wearable electronics have become an important part of daily lives. However, its rapid development results in the problem of electronic waste (e‐waste). Consequently, recyclable materials suitable for wearable electronics are highly sought after. In this study, a conductive recyclable composite (PFBC) is designed based on a dynamic covalently cross‐linked elastomer and hierarchical hybrid nanofillers. The PFBC shows excellent wide‐ranging properties including processability, elasticity, conductivity, and stability, which are superior to previous materials used for recyclable electronics, and exhibits outstanding mechanical properties and environmental tolerance including high temperature, high humidity, brine, and ethanol owing to its covalent cross‐linking. Reversible dissociation of Diels–Alder networks allows for convenient processing and recycling. After three recycles, the toughness of the PFBC remained at 10.1 MJ m−3, which is conspicuous among the reported recyclable electronic materials. Three types of PFBC‐based wearable electronics including a triboelectric nanogenerator, a capacitive pressure sensor, and a flexible keyboard, are successfully 3D printed with excellent performance. The PFBC possessed both recyclability and degradability, the combination of which provides a new way to reduce e‐waste. This is the first work to recycle electronics using direct 3D printing and presents promising new design principles and materials for wearable electronics.
Heterostructured Polymer‐Infiltrated Nanoparticle Films with Cavities via Capillary Rise Infiltration
Authors: Kim Baekmin Q. , Qiang Yiwei , Turner Kevin T. , Choi Siyoung Q. , Lee Daeyeon
Published: December 2020

Polymer‐infiltrated nanoparticle films (PINFs) that have high volume fractions (>50 vol%) of nanoparticles (NPs) possess enhanced properties making them ideal for various applications. Capillary rise infiltration (CaRI) of polymer and solvent‐driven infiltration of polymer (SIP) into pre‐assembled NP films have emerged as versatile approaches to fabricate PINFs. Although these methods are ideal for fabricating PINFs with homogenous structure, several applications including separations, and photonic/optical coatings would benefit from a method that enables scalable manufacturing of heterostructured (i.e., films with variation in structural properties such as porosity, composition, refractive indices, etc.) PINFs. In this work, a new technique is developed for fabricating heterostructured PINFs with cavities based on CaRI. A bilayer composed of densely packed inorganic NP layer atop polymer NP layer is thermally annealed above the glass transition temperature of the polymer NP, which induces CaRI of the polymer into the interstices of the inorganic NP layer. Exploiting the difference in the sizes of the two particles, heterostructured double stack PINFs composed of a PINF and a layer with large cavities are produced at a moderate temperature (<200 °C). Using these heterostructured PINFs, Bragg reflectors that can detect the presence of wetting agents in water are fabricated.
Electromagnetic Interference Shielding Properties of BaCo2Fe16O27 Nanoplatelets and RGO Reinforced PVDF Polymer Composite Flexible Films
Authors: Anand S. , Pauline S.
Published: December 2020

The electromagnetic Interference (EMI) shielding effectiveness of W‐Type barium hexaferrite (BaCo2Fe16O27) and reduced graphene oxide (RGO) nanofillers reinforced poly(vinylidenefluoride) (PVDF) polymer composite films are reported. Two different amounts of BaCo2Fe16O27 (10 wt% and 30 wt%) nanofillers and fixed amount of RGO (10 wt%) are loaded in PVDF matrix by solvent casting in order to fabricate the multifunctional PVDF/RGO/BaCo2Fe16O27 composite films. The synthesized samples are investigated using various instruments including X‐ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier‐transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), Raman spectroscopy, high resolution scanning electron microscopy (HRSEM), energy dispersive X‐ray spectroscopy (EDX), X‐ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and vibrating sample magnetometer (VSM) analysis. The microwave properties of PVDF/RGO/BaCo2Fe16O27 composites are tested with vector network analyser (VNA) in 8–12 GHz frequency (X‐Band). The possible mechanism of EMI shielding is investigated from the analysis of complex permittivity and permeability.The resultant flexible films exhibit desirable EMI SE of 35.94 dB at 11.8 GHz for the 10 wt% of BaCo2Fe16O27 addition in PVDF composite for a very small thickness of 0.2 mm. The combination of high dielectric loss ( tanδε = 1.63) and magnetic loss (tanδμ = 0.26) contributes to high absorption of 29.85 dB (>99% attenuation) dominated over reflection. Thus, the simple and cost‐effective fabrication of ultrathin and flexible PVDF/RGO/BaCo2Fe16O27 composite film with low filler content has a great potential as suppresser in electromagnetic fields.
Molecular‐Level Encapsulation Strategy: Host–Guest‐Inclusion‐Complex‐Derived Carbon‐Encapsulated Nanocomposites for High Performance Lithium‐Ion Storage
Authors: Li Lina , Wang Kun , Pei Jian , Qin Zhongzheng , Hu Yongyuan , Dong Qi , Chen Gang
Published: December 2020

The carbon encapsulation in a pomegranate manner effectively avoids inner‐active pulverization and perfectly provides electronic transmission network during lithiation and delithiation for high performance lithium‐ion batteries. Carbon‐encapsulated homogeneous nanocomposites derived from host–guest inclusion are first realized based on molecular‐level encapsulating of β‐cyclodextrin. On the basis of this unique arrangement, lamellar nanosheet anodes are further prepared using a freeze‐drying method for favoring Li‐ion migration. As results of this design, large reversible capacity, high rate capability, and excellent cycling stability are achieved simultaneously. This host–guest encapsulation at the molecular scale offers a new and effective way for the development of carbon encapsulation electrode materials.
Tin Telluride Quantum Dots as a Novel Saturable Absorber for Q‐Switching and Mode Locking in Fiber Lasers
Authors: Ahmed Safayet , Qiao Junpeng , Cheng Ping Kwong , Saleque Ahmed Mortuza , Hossain Mohammad Ismail , Zeng Long‐Hui , Zhao Jia , Qarony Wayesh , Tsang Yuen Hong
Published: December 2020

Tin telluride (SnTe) quantum dots (QDs) have attracted considerable interest in the optoelectronic field owing to their favorable properties over conventional QDs, such as a relatively large Bohr radius (95 nm) and low toxicity level. However, till date, the nonlinear optical properties and ultrafast photonics applications of SnTe QDs have remained unexplored. In this study, SnTe QDs with an average diameter of 74 nm (smaller than the Bohr radius of SnTe) are fabricated via a liquid‐phase exfoliation method. Consequently, the nonlinear saturable absorption properties of such SnTe QDs are explored by realizing a modulation depth of 2.2% and saturable intensity of 1.67 GW cm−2. The prepared QDs are then used as saturable absorber (SA) in the erbium‐doped fiber laser ring cavity system. Moreover, Q‐switched and mode‐locked laser pulses with a pulse width of 1.81 µs and 691 fs are generated, respectively. Harmonic mode‐locking with a high repetition rate of 62.1 MHz (fifth order) is experimentally realized. This is the first demonstration, to the authors’ knowledge, of using SnTe QDs‐SA for generating ultrafast laser pulses along with high‐repetition‐rate harmonic mode‐locking pulses. Therefore, this study will establish a new research scope for SnTe QDs in ultrafast photonics, nonlinear photonics, frequency combs, and optical communications.
Rhodium‐Catalyzed Regioselective 3‐Fluoroallylic Cyanation
Authors: Middel Christoph , Zygalski Lukas , Meinecke Jannick , Koert Ulrich
Published: December 2020

A rhodium catalyzed allylic cyanation of 3‐fluoroallylic trifluoroacetates with TMSCN and a bulky phosphite ligand gives 3‐fluoroallylic nitriles with a good substrate scope and high Z/E‐selectivity. For dialkylated substrates the fluorine substituent controls the regioselectivity in favor of the distal product. For the stereoselectivity of the allylic cyanation selected scalemic substrates showed inversion of the stereocenter and some or no stereoerosion.

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Wood‐Inspired Cement with High Strength and Multifunctionality
Authors: Wang Faheng , Du Yuanbo , Jiao Da , Zhang Jian , Zhang Yuan , Liu Zengqian , Zhang Zhefeng
Published: December 2020

Taking lessons from nature offers an increasing promise toward improved performance in man‐made materials. Here new cement materials with unidirectionally porous architectures are developed by replicating the designs of natural wood using a simplified ice‐templating technique in light of the retention of ice‐templated architectures by utilizing the self‐hardening nature of cement. The wood‐like cement exhibits higher strengths at equal densities than other porous cement‐based materials along with unique multifunctional properties, including effective thermal insulation at the transverse profile, controllable water permeability along the vertical direction, and the easy adjustment to be water repulsive by hydrophobic treatment. The strengths are quantitatively interpreted by discerning the effects of differing types of pores using an equivalent element approach. The simultaneous achievement of high strength and multifunctionality makes the wood‐like cement promising for applications as new building materials, and verifies the effectiveness of wood‐mimetic designs in creating new high‐performance materials. The simple fabrication procedure by omitting the freeze‐drying treatment can also promote a better efficiency of ice‐templating technique for the mass production in engineering and may be extended to other material systems.
Ultrabright NIR‐II Emissive Polymer Dots for Metastatic Ovarian Cancer Detection
Authors: Zhou Xiaobo , Liu Qiyu , Yuan Wei , Li Zhenhua , Xu Yuliang , Feng Wei , Xu Congjian , Li Fuyou
Published: December 2020

Intraoperative diagnosis of metastatic tumors is of significant importance to the treatment of ovarian cancer. NIR‐II fluorescence imaging holds great promise for facile detection of tumor in situ with high sensitivity and resolution. Herein, a kind of NIR‐II fluorescent polymer dots (NIR‐II Pdots) with high brightness is developed for real‐time detection of metastatic ovarian cancer via NIR‐II fluorescence imaging. The NIR‐II Pdots are constructed via the self‐assembly of NIR‐II emissive aggregation induced emission luminogens (NIR‐II AIEgens) and poly (styrene)‐graft‐poly(ethylene glycol) in water. Such NIR‐II Pdots show very high fluorophore contents of nearly 30% and high quantum yield of 5.4% at emission maximum near 1020 nm. Further modification of the NIR‐II Pdots with targeting peptides yields NIR‐II Pdots‐GnRH, which can afford enhanced affinity of NIR‐II Pdots to ovarian cancer. Upon intravenous injection of the NIR‐II Pdots, whole‐body organs and vessels, peritoneal and lymphatic metastases of ovarian cancer are clearly visualized by NIR‐II fluorescence imaging. Under the guidance of NIR‐II fluorescence imaging, the metastatic foci with the diameter down to ≈2 mm can be facilely eliminated. The results indicate preclinical potential value of the NIR‐II Pdots for metastatic ovarian cancer detection.
Sequential Modulations of Tumor Vasculature and Stromal Barriers Augment the Active Targeting Efficacy of Antibody‐Modified Nanophotosensitizer in Desmoplastic Ovarian Carcinoma
Authors: Yan Yue , Chen Binlong , Wang Zenghui , Yin Qingqing , Wang Yaoqi , Wan Fangjie , Mo Yulin , Xu Bo , Zhang Qiang , Wang Siling , Wang Yiguang
Published: December 2020

Active‐targeted nanoparticles are attractive carriers due to their potentials to facilitate specific delivery of drugs into tumor cells while sparing normal cells. However, the therapeutic outcomes of active‐targeted nanomedicines are hampered by the multiple physiological barriers in the tumor microenvironment (TME). Herein, an epidermal growth factor receptor‐targeted ultra‐pH‐sensitive nanophotosensitizer is fabricated, and the regulation of the TME to augment the active targeting ability and therapeutic efficacy is pinpointed. The results reveal that tumor vasculature normalization with thalidomide indiscriminately enhance the tumor accumulation of passive and active targeted nanoparticles, both of which are sequestered in the stromal bed of tumor mass. Whereas, photoablation of stromal cells located in perivascular regions significantly improves the accessibility of antibody‐modified nanophotosensitizer to receptor‐overexpressed cancer cells. After sequential regulation of TME, the antitumor efficacy of antibody‐modified nanophotosensitizer is drastically enhanced through synergistic enhancements of tumor accumulation and cancer cell accessibility of active‐targeted nanoparticles. The study offers deep insights about the intratumoral barriers that hinder the active‐targeted nanoparticles delivery, and provides a basis for developing more effective strategies to accelerate the clinical translation of active‐targeted nanomedicines.
Soil health conditions under cotton production in North Carolina
Authors: Franzluebbers Alan J.
Published: December 2020

Soil organic carbon (SOC) and N fractions are considered important indicators of soil health due to their multifunctional roles in storing and supplying nutrients, enhancing soil physical properties, and feeding soil biological activity and plant nutrition. Soil health condition from 120 fields under cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) cultivation in North Carolina was assessed from soil analyses associated with a survey of historical management. Surface residue was collected, and soil was sampled at 0‐to‐10‐cm, 10‐to‐30‐cm, and 30‐to‐60‐cm depths. Soil properties varied by physiographic region of Piedmont, Coastal Plain, and Flatwoods. Conservation tillage was the dominant form of cotton cultivation, but many farms used inversion tillage for other crops in the rotation sequence. Soil‐test biological activity averaged 138 and 92 mg kg−1 3 d−1 under continuous conservation tillage and frequent tillage, respectively, in the surface 10‐cm depth (p < .001), and the tillage effect persisted into the 10‐to‐30‐cm depth (44 and 37 mg kg−1 3 d−1, p < .05). Cover cropping and animal manure had fewer and smaller effects on soil properties. History of animal manure application elevated (p < .05) soil‐test P (229 vs. 179 g m−3), Cu (4.3 vs. 1.6 g m−3), and Zn (10.0 vs. 4.0 g m−3). Intermittent tillage in the rotation sequence was the largest impediment to sustained SOC, total soil N accumulation, and soil microbial properties. This assessment illustrated positive soil health condition from farmer adoption of conservation tillage, but further improvements will be possible only with more continuous practice of conservation approaches.
The migration and preservation of six Norwegian municipality record‐keeping systems: Lessons learned
Authors: Soedring Thomas , Borlund Pia , Helfert Markus
Published: December 2020

This article presents a rare insight into the migration of municipality record‐keeping databases. The migration of a database for preservation purposes poses several challenges. In particular, our findings show that relevant issues are file‐format heterogeneity, collection volume, time and database structure evolution, and deviation from the governing standard. This article presents and discusses how such issues interfere with an organization's ability to undertake a migration, for preservation purposes, of records from a relational database. The case study at hand concerns six Norwegian municipality record‐keeping databases covering a period from 1999 to 2012. The findings are presented with a discussion on how these issues manifest themselves as a problem for long‐term preservation. The results discussed here may help an organization and Information Systems (IS) manager to establish a best practice when undertaking a migration project and enable them to avoid some of the pitfalls that were discovered during this project.