bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Differential Treatment of Children by Sex
Authors: Trapp Erin , Menken Jane
Published: September 2017

In nearly all populations, in the absence of special circumstances, the numbers of males and females are approximately equal; female advantage in life expectancy balances the slightly higher birth rate of boys. Cultural practices such as infanticide, differential feeding, and provision of health care by sex have, in some populations in the past, led to an unequal ratio of boys to girls and higher mortality and morbidity for girls compared to boys. The last two decades of the twentieth century have, however, seen a rapid convergence in the treatment of children by sex, particularly in the developed world. Despite improvements in the treatment of girls and women, inequalities still exist, most notably in developing countries in Asia and Africa.
Direct Action
Authors: Moore Kelly
Published: September 2017

Direct action is a method and a theory of stopping objectionable practices or creating more favorable conditions using immediately available means to obstruct another agent or organization from performing some objectionable practice. It is direct in the sense that users seek an immediate remedy for perceived ills, as opposed to indirect tactics such as electing representatives who promise to provide remedy at some later date. Direct action is usually undertaken by individuals and groups for three reasons: the group believes that the urgency of the problem requires immediate intervention; they believe that any other form of action is unlikely to solve the problem; they do not have rights to affect targets in any other way. Examples of direct action include vigils, blockades, wildcat strikes, demonstrations, the occupation of buildings and other spaces, the destruction of property, street parties and theater, encampments, and symbolic illegal activities, such as cutting one piece of wire from a fence surrounding a military base to protest war.
Disasters
Authors: Silver Hilary , Niznik Aaron
Published: September 2017

Disasters are sudden, unexpected, localized, rare, and acute events that disrupt the environment and the social structure and inflict substantial harm on individuals, groups, and property. They differ from accidents in the greater scale of their individual and collective impact; and they also differ from environmental hazards, which cause harm over longer periods of time. Roughly speaking, disasters cause a hundred or more deaths in a short period. The sociological study of disasters dates to the late 1940s, when governments sought to comprehend the damage of World War II and started planning for potential nuclear holocaust. First at the National Opinion Research Center (NORC) and later at the Disaster Research Center at Ohio State, sociologists drew upon experience from natural disasters. Over time, disaster scholars borrowed from other subfields in the discipline.
Disease, Social Causation
Authors: Young Joseph T.
Published: September 2017

Social causation of disease is defined as the origin of illness that results from social conditions and social interactions. This definition assumes that human biological factors are not the sole cause of disease. The definition further assumes that social factors such as socioeconomic status (SES), religion, and social networks have an effect on the level and severity of illness and mortality. The idea that social interaction and culture play parts in the causation of disease has been present in social thought since John Gaunt's discussion of the interaction between politics and mortality in 1662.
Disneyization
Authors: Bryman Alan
Published: September 2017

Disneyization refers to “the process by which
the principles
of the Disney theme parks are coming to dominate more and more sectors of American society as well as the rest of the world” (Bryman 2004: 1). The term was devised by Bryman (2004) to parallel George Ritzer's (1993) notion of McDonaldization and the definition is a deliberate adaptation of that concept. Disneyization does not refer to the spread of theme parks, though that is certainly happening, but to principles that the Disney theme parks exemplify. As such, Disneyization refers to the ways in which modern consumption opportunities in institutions as diverse as hotels, restaurants, shopping malls, and shops are increasingly infused with Disneyization.
Disneyization
Authors: Polesana Maria Angela
Published: September 2017

Disneyization is a term coined by Alan Bryman (1999), who had been influenced by the concept of
McDonaldization
introduced by George Ritzer (1993). This concept aims to explain how the values governing the actions of these two multinational corporations establish models and a set of processes that have influenced a wide range of companies and organizations around the world. Both represent revolutionary changes in consumer environment, which have a significant impact on consumer behaviour and social life. The Walt Disney Company, in particular, founded in 1923 by Walt Disney and his brother Roy, is a complex and branched global industrial system with the following business segments: media networks, studio entertainment, consumer products and interactive media, parks and resorts. The parks in particular are the expression of Walt Disney's ideology aimed at creating “the happiest place on earth” through the construction of worlds based on entertainment and spectacularization, theming, hybrid consumption, and simulation. These tools are used to promote the consumption of goods through enchantment and are governed by strict control mechanisms in order to prevent the entry of any undesirable element of reality which may disturb happiness and order.
Documentary
Authors: Goldson Annie
Published: September 2017

Documentary has existed as long as film itself. The one‐reel
actualités
produced by the Lumière brothers in 1895 and the more complex films that followed these early experiments – for example,
Nanook of the North
(directed by Flaherty, 1922) and
The Man with a Movie Camera
(directed by Vertov, 1929) – were distinguished by their sense of a “historical real,” the depiction of real people and events (Renov, 1986). This apparent ability to capture “reality” has continued to demarcate documentary from fiction; indeed the genre, with its intimate connection to the physical world, appeals by virtue of its truth claims, whether these exist at the level of fact or image. Documentary stimulates what Bill Nichols calls “epistephilia” or a “desire to know,” conveying an “informing logic, a persuasive rhetoric, or a moving poetics that promises information and knowledge, insight and awareness” (Nichols, 2001: 40). The film‐makers above, however, would hardly have known that they were making “documentary” at the time they were in production, as the genre had yet to be conceived.
Documentary Analysis
Authors: Prior Lindsay
Published: September 2017

To Max Weber, the written order formed an essential building block of that quintessential form of modern organizational life – bureaucracy. Many later sociologists also noted the importance of documents for structuring and facilitating human interaction. Despite this, documents in sociological studies tend to be somewhat taken for granted and more often than not used as a resource for research rather than as a topic in their own right. Indeed, in the frame of research methods, the use and manipulation of documents is often subsumed under the broader category of “unobtrusive” techniques. This is in strong contrast to the study and use of talk and of speech, which is often linked to tailor‐made styles of analysis such as conversation analysis.
Double Consciousness
Authors: Dennis Rutledge M.
Published: September 2017

When W. E. B. Du Bois introduced the concept of “double consciousness” in his literary and autobiographical masterpiece,
The Souls of Black Folk
(1903), the idea of doubleness was already a major motif in the literary works of Dostoevsky, Stevenson, Melville, Conrad, Poe, and Goethe. Likewise, the term had been addressed in the psychological and philosophical writings of Nietzsche, Dewey, and James. For both groups, the merger of doubleness and consciousness often suggested an irrational force and the emergence of a dual and split personality entombed in one physical body. The dual and split nature of this consciousness suggested that what was in play was the existence of a “true” and genuine self which could be contrasted to a self which was “false” and inauthentic. Du Bois's use of the term would incorporate many of the psychological and, by reference, sociological assumptions associated with the authors above.
Dramaturgy
Authors: Manning Peter Kirby
Published: September 2017

A dictionary definition of dramaturgy is “the art of theater, especially the writing of plays.” Roget'sThesauruslists it under drama (599.2) and gives the synonyms theatrics, histrionics, acting, play‐acting, melodramatics, stagecraft,mise en scène, and stage setting. This definition turns attention to the literal process of creating for others a scripted text for its presumed effects. In everyday life the metaphor has its limits and the world is not always a stage, or even dramatic. Most attempts at precise definition of dramaturgy fail because, while it is a powerful metaphor or way of seeing, the concept as employed surfaces differences in emphasis and style.
Dropping Out of School
Authors: McNeal Ralph B.
Published: September 2017

Dropping out of school in a post‐industrial society comes with many risks. In the United States, as with most industrialized societies, education is a key factor for predicting social mobility; dropping out clearly undermines one's prospects of moving up the socioeconomic ladder. Dropping out of high school is also accompanied by many other negative outcomes or consequences, including an increased propensity for subsequent criminal behavior, lower occupational and economic prospects, lower lifetime earnings, an increased likelihood of becoming a member of the underclass, lower levels of academic skills, and poorer levels of mental and physical health than non‐dropouts.
Drugs, Drug Abuse, and Drug Policy
Authors: Wincup Emma
Published: September 2017

The term “drug” has been both broadly and narrowly defined. At its simplest, it is reserved for substances which are prohibited under criminal law. Deploying this definition, the range of substances classified as drugs varies across time and across jurisdictions. However, typically, it refers to substances such as heroin, cocaine, ecstasy, and amphetamines. At the other extreme, more inclusive definitions of the term have been adopted. In addition to outlawed substances, in these instances, drugs can refer to alcohol and tobacco, plus substances such as solvents, prescribed medication, and over‐the‐counter remedies used illicitly. When developing policies, countries are most likely to utilize a narrow definition and focus attention on illegal drugs. However, the rapid development of so‐called “legal highs” (designed to mimic the effects of illegal drugs) now requires a more inclusive approach.
Drugs/Substance Use in Sport
Authors: Ritchie Ian
Published: September 2017

In theCommission of Inquiry into the Use of Drugs and Banned Practices Intended to Increase Athletic Performance(Dubin 1990), commissioned by the Canadian government in the aftermath of the infamous Ben Johnson drug scandal at the 1988 Seoul Summer Olympic Games, Chief Justice Charles Dubin stated that the problem of drug/substance use represented the single greatest moral crisis in high‐performance sport today. His statement was prescient in that there is probably no other issue that is seen by either the general public or authorities in major sport organizations to be a greater threat to the integrity of international sport than the use of banned drugs/substances. Certainly no other issue warrants the same commitment of resources and bureaucratic effort, especially since the creation of the World Anti‐Doping Agency in 1999, which now oversees anti‐doping efforts worldwide. The problem of drug use in sport also presents for sociologists and those in related academic disciplines in sports studies an opportunity to study the deviant subculture of drug use, the social and political dynamics of modern sport, and even more generally to explore the sociology of deviant behavior and the social construction of “normal” and “pathological” categories in a major sphere of social life.
Du Bois: “Talented Tenth”
Authors: Dennis Rutledge M.
Published: September 2017

At crucial moments in a people's history, the question “What is to be done?” is raised. Alongside this question, additional questions will follow, such as “Who will do it, when, and how?” When one explores such works as Plato's
Republic
, Machiavelli's
The Prince
, Comte's
Course in Positive Philosophy
, and Marx's
Communist Manifesto
, one is deeply aware of the sense of crisis expressed by the writers and the urgency with which they raised the questions posed above. One must therefore understand the responses to group or national crises and the urgency of responses to such crises before fully understanding W. E. B. Du Bois's own urgent response to the national crisis of race, and to the many ways in which the crisis was more pronounced and devastating to blacks.
Early Childhood
Authors: Romo Harriett
Published: September 2017

Early childhood includes infancy, preschool, and the early years of formal schooling. Sociologists are interested in early childhood for a number of reasons. The children in a society will continue the social organizations, values, and mores of that society. Moreover, the ways a society cares for and socializes its children tell much about the structure and nature of that society.
Early Childhood
Authors: Romo Harriett , Augustsson Sabina
Published: September 2017

Early childhood includes infancy, preschool, and the early years of formal schooling. Scholars are interested in early childhood for a number of reasons. The children in a society continue the social organizations, values, and mores of that society. Moreover, the ways a society cares for and socializes its children tell much about the structure and nature of that society. Ariès (1962) documented the ways in which views of childhood have changed over the past centuries in western society. He studied depictions of children in medieval art and other historical documents to show that the concept of childhood as it is recognized today has not always existed. In medieval times children were dressed and treated as little adults; thirteenth‐century artists portrayed children as sweet, innocent angels, quite different from adults; and sixteenth‐ and eighteenth‐century moralists argued that childhood was a period of immaturity when children must be trained and disciplined in preparation for adulthood. Although Ariès's work has been criticized for his generalizations, his analysis provided convincing evidence that children and childhood have been perceived differently in different time periods.
Ecofeminism
Authors: Sturgeon Noël
Published: September 2017

Ecofeminism refers to theories and political practices that make connections between feminisms and environmentalisms. Basically, ecofeminists claim that the oppression, inequality, and exploitation of certain groups (people of color, women, poor people, LGBT people, third world people, animals) are theoretically and structurally related to the degradation and overexploitation of the environment. Ecofeminism involves a double intervention: the claim that feminist issues need to be part of environmentalist agendas and analyses; and the claim that environmental issues need to be part of feminist agendas and analyses. Outside of this basic insight, there is little agreement over the specific character or mechanism of the connection between social inequalities and environmental problems.
Ecological Problems
Authors: Preisendörfer Peter , Diekmann Andreas
Published: September 2017

Although human beings have overused natural resources and local environments throughout history, today's ecological problems such as the greenhouse effect, the reduction of biodiversity, overfishing of the oceans, or shortages of clean drinking water are relatively recent phenomena. They started with the period of industrialization in the first half of the nineteenth century, and had their real takeoff after World War II. Serious warnings about impending global ecological disasters were first issued in the 1960s by scientists like Rachel Carson (1962), Paul Ehrlich (1968), Garrett Hardin (1968), and Dennis Meadows et al. (1972).
Ecological Problems
Authors: Preisendörfer Peter , Diekmann Andreas
Published: September 2017

Although human beings have overused natural resources throughout history, today's ecological problems are relatively recent phenomena. In addition to local environmental risks (such as noise and air pollution in metropolitan areas), global ecological problems (such as climate change and loss of biodiversity) in particular are urgent societal and political issues. This entry portrays the three areas of research in which environmental sociologists most actively contribute to the study of ecological problems: theories of the emergence of ecological problems; environmental attitudes and behavior of the general public; and environmental behavior of corporate actors (businesses, environmental movement organizations, and the state).
Ecological View of History
Authors: Befu Harumi
Published: September 2017

An ecological view of history has to do with how history is accounted for in relation to the ecological conditions in which civilization is situated. The Japanese have developed a unique approach to the understanding of this issue. The idea that ecology has an impact on culture and history and the philosophical underpinning of the particular Japanese approach have their history in the pre‐World War II era. A short review of the genealogy of this concept is called for.
Ecology and Economy
Authors: Frank David John
Published: September 2017

For sociologists, the consideration of ecology – and thus ecology's role in the economy – is relatively new to the agenda. In a semantic sense, this is necessarily the case. The word “ecology” and its apparatus of meaning only recently entered the vocabulary. But sociology's ecological turn is much more than the result of semantic invention. It embodies a profound shift in the institutionalized model of nature itself (Frank 1997).
Ecology and Economy
Authors: Frank David John
Published: September 2017

The ecology–economy relationship is relatively new to the social – and sociological – agendas. In a semantic sense, this is necessarily the case. The word “ecology” only recently entered the vernacular. But sociology's newfound awareness represents more than semantic innovation. It embodies basic shifts in the institutional context (Frank, 1997).
Economic Development
Authors: Beamish Thomas D. , Woolsey Biggart Nicole
Published: September 2017

Economic development studies are concerned with how societies have, could, and should pursue improvement in the quality and quantity of life for their inhabitants. Since the decades following World War II when development studies began and were implemented as policies, there has been neither consensus on how to pursue the goal of economic and social improvement nor unqualified improvement in the quality of life for most of the world's population. Nonetheless, the politically and socially important pursuit of economic development continues and involves academics, nation‐states, regional and international organizations, non‐governmental organizations, and philanthropic foundations.
Economic Sociology: Neoclassical Economic Perspective
Authors: Zafirovski Milan
Published: September 2017

Neoclassical economics is the stage and branch of economic science since the 1870s through the 1930s and beyond. It was mostly the product or sequel of what economists (Schumpeter, 1954) call the Copernican marginalist revolution in economic theory during the 1870s–1890s. Specifically, the crux of marginalism was a marginal utility theory of exchange value and its extensions (e.g., marginal–productivity principle of income distribution) in reaction and contrast to the labor–cost conception in classical political economy. The founders or pioneers of marginalism are commonly considered to be William Jevons (England), Carl Menger (Austria), and Leon Walras (Switzerland/France), who almost simultaneously in 1871–1874 “discovered” marginal utility value theory as a putative revolutionary alternative to its labor‐based versions in Smith, Ricardo, Mill, Marx, and others. (For instance, Jevons specifically attacked Ricardo and Mill's theories, prompting neoclassical economists like Alfred Marshall to rise in their partial defense.)
Economy, Religion and
Authors: McCleary Rachel M.
Published: September 2017

The modern study of religion and economics begins with Adam Smith'sAn Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations(1776). Smith applied his economic analysis to several aspects of religion that researchers since developed with quantitative research. Smith's fundamental contribution to the study of religion was that religious beliefs and activities are rational choices. As in commercial activity, people respond to religious costs and benefits in a predictable, observable manner. People choose a religion and the degree to which they participate and believe (if at all).
Economy (Sociological Approach)
Authors: Fararo Thomas J.
Published: September 2017

The general problem of how to conceptualize and explain the relations of the economy to wider contexts of human behavior has been one of the main themes of major theorists in the sociological tradition. In the classical phase of sociological thought, Marx, Weber, and Durkheim each treated the problem. In the writings of Marx, what has been called the base–superstructure model rests upon the concept of a mode of production that includes social relations of production and forces of production, corresponding approximately to economy and technology, respectively. Social classes consist of persons who occupy the same position in the social relations of production, such as lord and serf in the feudal mode of production and capitalist and wage laborer in the capitalist mode of production. The dominant class employs its power advantage to shape a superstructure consisting of non‐economic institutions along with a dominant ideology reflecting the interests of the ruling class. This model is associated with a theory of social change, as inThe Communist Manifesto, in which Marx and Engels analyze the historical dynamics of the rise and fall of capitalism in terms of revolutionary change involving conflicts between aristocrats, who represent the declining feudal mode of production, and the bourgeoisie, who in ushering in capitalism are also giving birth to their own “gravediggers,” the class of wage laborers.
Education
Authors: Strassmann Mueller Anna , Muller Chandra
Published: September 2017

Changes in developed economies and societies stemming from the Industrial Revolution have shifted responsibilities for the education of young people from the family and community to schools. Schools are now a major institution, educating the vast majority of children and youth in the developed world and functioning as a primary engine of change in developing countries. Although education brings about changes in society as a whole as well as in individuals, schools are also influenced by larger social forces. Sociological theories address these central roles that schools play in society from differing perspectives.
Education, Adult
Authors: Bills David B.
Published: September 2017

Perhaps because so much adult education takes place outside the boundaries of formal educational institutions, sociologists have devoted less scholarly attention to adult education than they have to most other kinds of schooling. There is little agreement on the boundaries of adult education and no clear consensus on a definition that specifies what is included and excluded. Even the terminology pertaining to adult education is inconsistent and shifting, as the range of terms used to refer to this broad and diverse category of education has included continuing, adult, further, recurrent, popular, second‐chance, educational extension, and lifelong learning (Kett 1994). One could add even more recent additions to this list of terms.
Education, Adult
Authors: Bills David B. , Kosyakova Yuliya
Published: September 2017

Adult education is an increasingly important component of the educational systems of many nations and comprises a growing share of the total volume of educational attainment. In this entry, various conceptualizations of adult education are discussed and its relationship to lifelong learning is explained. The increasing relevance of adult education for persistent patterns of social inequality is examined and some of the challenges and benefits in conducting comparative studies of adult education are indicated.
Education and Economy
Authors: Caputo Richard K.
Published: September 2017

The relation between education and economy is interdependent and reciprocal. Education is a form of human capital, an intangible form of accumulated capital stock, which includes level and dispersion of education as well as those of applied and basic research. It has many measurable forms, including years of aggregate schooling, rates of enrollment, public education expenditures, and levels, types, and use of on‐the‐job training programs. Economic activity is understood as economic growth, usually measured as changes in the size or rate of gross or per capita gross domestic output, and determinant of how much improvement will occur in a society's standard of living. Unlike business cycles, which reflect short‐term (< 10 years) aggregate fluctuations in output, incomes, and employment, economic growth is a long‐term concept, depending on past investments in physical capital like industrial plants and machinery, human capital, and the pace of technological innovation.
Educational and Occupational Attainment
Authors: Firestone Juanita M. , Harris Richard J.
Published: September 2017

Both educational and occupational attainments are important (and related) aspects of prestige differences in the United States as well as throughout the more developed and developing countries. Prestige is used as a measure of social status and therefore is a part of the broader social stratification system. Social status is viewed as a subjective concept, based on individuals’ perceptions about lifestyles. Most of us are aware of differences in lifestyles based on styles of clothing, types (and numbers) of automobiles, value and location of housing, and so on. The point is that differences in occupation and education combine to produce differences in income, which then allow individuals and families to live a certain lifestyle. We then attach differences in social value to the different lifestyles; some are awarded high standing in society, while others are deemed to have little or no value. These judgments are played out within the contexts of gender, race/ethnicity, and class, and have been remarkably constant over time (at least since 1947 in the US) and across a wide variety of countries.
Educational and Occupational Attainment
Authors: Harris Richard J. , Firestone Juanita M. , Cole Natalie M.
Published: September 2017

Educational and occupational attainments are important aspects of prestige differences in the United States as well as throughout the more developed and developing countries. Prestige is used as a measure of social status and therefore is a part of the broader social stratification system. Differences in occupation and education combine to produce differences in income, which in turn lead us to attach differences in social value to different lifestyles; some are awarded high standing in society, while others are deemed to have little or no value. These judgments are played out within the contexts of gender, race/ethnicity, and class, and have been remarkably constant over time (at least since 1947 in the United States) and across many countries.
Effect Sizes
Authors: Thompson Bruce
Published: September 2017

Sociologists historically have emphasized statistical significance testing as the
sine qua non
of empirical research. Statistical significance tests yield a
p
CALCULATED
value that estimates “the probability (0 to 1.0) of the sample statistics, given the sample size, and assuming the sample was derived from a population in which the null hypothesis (H
0
) is exactly true” (Thompson 1996).
Elder Abuse
Authors: Phillipson Chris
Published: September 2017

Recognition of abuse as a feature of older people's lives has been present in research and social policy for at least three decades. Mistreatment of elderly people has, however, had a much longer history. At worst, it has taken the form of outright persecution of those who, lacking resources of any kind, were thrown upon the mercy of their fellow citizens. At another level, mistreatment has been expressed through intergenerational tensions, for example during periods of economic recession as families struggle with the pressures arising from meeting the care needs of older as well as younger generations (Stearns 1986). At the same time, the meanings attached to, and the concerns expressed about, mistreatment of the old have varied from generation to generation. It is only very recently (in historical terms) that attempts have been made to translate a generalized concern about the suffering of the old into a more precisely defined concept of abuse. This transition has not been without difficulty, with complex issues raised about distinctions regarding the experience of abuse among different age groups, between various types of abuse, and the reasons for abusive behavior.
Elective Affinity
Authors: (Hans) Bakker J. I.
Published: September 2017

The term elective affinity is currently associated with Weber's thesis concerning modern capitalism. A key aspect concerns the linkage, attraction, or inner “affinity” between “the Protestant Ethic/Protestant sects” and the “spirit” of modern capitalism. The idea of an affinity could be indicated by any two factors seeming to go together – to be “connected.” Weber argues that there is an “inner affinity” (
innere Verwandtschaft
) between several things, especially between (1) a this‐worldly asceticism of sects (e.g., Quakers, Mennonites) and (2) the underlying “spirit” (
Geist
) of modern capitalism. Rather than hedonism, among Protestants there is an ascetic outlook, an estrangement from joy, as indicated by Benjamin Franklin's maxims.
Emic/Etic
Authors: Agar Michael
Published: September 2017

“Emic” and “etic” have become shorthand terms, especially in anthropology, for an “insider” versus an “outsider” view of a particular social world. For example, an outsider view of an economic exchange might hold that the seller's goal was to maximize profit. An insider view from people actually involved in the exchange might show that profit was only one of many concerns. Kinship ties, a long relationship history, previous social favors, earlier non‐cash trades, a desire to curry favor – such social threads in a relationship might result in an exchange that, to an outsider, would look “irrational,” while to an insider it would make perfect sense.
Emotion: Cultural Aspects
Authors: Barbalet Jack
Published: September 2017

The relationship between emotions and culture has been discussed ever since there was interest in what it means to be human, and since then that relationship has been contrastingly characterized as either inimical or reconcilable. Culture can be understood as the defining values, meanings, and thoughts of a local, national, or supranational community. When emotions are conceived in terms of psychological feelings and physical sensations, then they appear inimical to culture. This is because such a perspective suggests the involuntary nature and disorganizing consequence of emotions. The opposition between cognition as reason and emotion, implicit in this representation, is classically defended in Plato's critique of dramatic poetry in theRepublic, for instance. Plato's supposition that emotion is pleasure or pain dissociated from thought or knowledge was corrected, however, by Aristotle's more comprehensive appreciation of emotion as not merely physical but also cognitive, in which culture and emotions are reconciled.
Emotion: Cultural Aspects
Authors: Barbalet Jack
Published: September 2017

The relationship between emotions and culture has been discussed ever since there was interest in what it means to be human, and since then that relationship has been contrastingly characterized as either inimical or reconcilable. Culture can be understood as the defining values, meanings, and thoughts of a local, national, or supranational community. When emotions are conceived in terms of psychological feelings and physical sensations, then they appear inimical to culture. This is because such a perspective suggests the involuntary nature and disorganizing consequence of emotions. The opposition between cognition as reason and emotion, implicit in this representation, is classically defended in Plato's critique of dramatic poetry in the
Republic
. Plato's supposition that emotion is pleasure or pain dissociated from thought or knowledge was corrected, however, by Aristotle's more comprehensive appreciation of emotion as not merely physical but also cognitive, in which culture and emotions are reconciled.
Emotions and Economy
Authors: Pixley Jocelyn
Published: September 2017

Emotions and economy, according to orthodoxy, are as far apart as passions from rationality. Some classical sociologists removed emotion categories from modernity; for others, emotions are significant (Durkheim and Simmel), uniform “residues,” sentiments (Pareto), or ambiguously traditional (Weber). Economics, with honorable exceptions (like Adam Smith), associates emotions with irrationality. Economy is the home of instrumental rational action. This distinction is completely inconsistent with uncertainty.
Emotions and Social Movements
Authors: Yang Guobin , Pace Jonathan
Published: September 2017

The study of emotions in social movements and collective action has been a growing field for about two decades. It gained new momentum after 2011, with the global protest wave of the “Arab Spring” and Occupy Wall Street and the explosion of social media use in these protests. This entry begins with a general discussion of the social character of emotions and their manifestations in social movements. It then traces the historical background for the rise of a sociology of social movement emotions. Finally, it reviews important works that appeared before and after the “Arab Spring” and Occupy Wall Street movements and highlights new trends of research since 2011.
Encoding/Decoding
Authors: Procter James
Published: September 2017

The terms encoding and decoding are keywords within a theory of communication first developed by Stuart Hall (1973). This paper challenges the established, empirical theories of mass communications research, which assume media messages are relatively transparent and stable. Hall uses the terms encoding and decoding to demonstrate that the media message is neither transparent, nor dependent on the competence of individual receivers/viewers, but is in fact
systematically
distorted by the entire communication process.
Endogenous Development
Authors: Yoshino Kosaku
Published: September 2017

Endogenous development was presented as an alternative perspective on development that reconsidered modernization theory, which had until the 1960s been the dominant analytical paradigm of social change, especially in American sociology. From the late 1960s throughout the 1970s, criticisms were directed against modernization theory on the grounds that modernization was a West‐centric model and that as such it would not necessarily lead to industrial growth and fair distribution of social benefits in non‐western settings.
Enterprise
Authors: Martinelli Alberto
Published: September 2017

The sociological analysis of the enterprise focuses on the relationships between enterprises and their social environment (Martinelli & Smelser 1990), with specific regard to two major topics: the study of organizational models and social systems of production and the study of the context of entrepreneurship.
Environment and Urbanization
Authors: Clement Matthew Thomas
Published: September 2017

While sociologists have long recognized the biophysical dimensions of city life and urbanization (e.g., Catton, 1980), this discussion had been overshadowed by a concern with environmental change in rural areas. In the past two decades, however, attention has shifted; there have been several theoretical and empirical studies examining the links between urbanization, city life, and the natural environment (e.g., Čapek, 2010; Chew, 2001; Clement, 2010; Elliott and Clement, 2014; Elliott and Frickel, 2013; Ergas, 2010; Jorgenson, Rice, and Clark, 2010; McKinney, 2013; Taylor, 2009; Weinberg, Pellow, and Schnaiberg, 2000; Wachsmuth, 2012). In this research, there are two broad scopes for analysis, one that sees urbanization and cities as
drivers
of environmental change and another that sees cities as
sites
of environmental change. While the latter has a much longer lineage in sociology, we dedicate more space to review the former scope. Nevertheless, we also recognize that recent scholarship is arguing for a middle ground that synthesizes the two scopes; in this way, cities are seen as sites
and
drivers of environmental change (e.g., Elliott and Frickel, 2013; Wachsmuth, 2012).
Environmental Movements
Authors: Rootes Christopher
Published: September 2017

Environmental movements are networks of informal interactions that may include, as well as individuals and groups who have no organizational affiliation, organizations of varying degrees of formality that are engaged in collective action motivated by shared identity or concern about environmental issues. An environmental movement exists when organizations (and other, usually less formally organized, actors) are networked and engaged in collective action.
Epistemology
Authors: Schwandt Thomas A.
Published: September 2017

The Greek word for knowledge isepisteme. Epistemology is the study of the nature (theory) of knowledge and justification. Epistemology is the kind of philosophy (or the primary role assigned to philosophy) valued in the scientific view of the world. In the scientific worldview, significant emphasis is placed on providing evidence for our claims to know, and philosophy has the task of examining the logic and methods involved in questions ofhowwe know and what gives knowledge the property of being valid. The phrase “after epistemology” or “overcoming epistemology” as heard in philosophical circles is, in part, a reaction to restricting philosophy to epistemological concerns, to matters of knowing about knowing. The tradition of Continental philosophy (hermeneutics, existentialism, critical theory, phenomenology, etc.) that inspires much contemporary thinking in the social sciences expands the concern with knowing to knowing about being and doing. In other words, its concerns are not strictly epistemological but also metaphysical and aesthetic.
Essentialism and Constructionism
Authors: Plummer Ken
Published: September 2017

The debate over constructionism and essentialism is a longstanding philosophical argument, from Plato and Aristotle to contemporary debates over deconstruction in literary theory. Broadly and simply, essentialism suggests that qualities are inherent in objects of study, with little reference to contexts, ambiguities, and relativities. It is a “belief in the real, true essence of things” (Fuss 1989: xi). By contrast, constructionism (and its allied concept deconstruction, as put forward by Derrida) suggests qualities are always bound up with historically produced, contextually bound meanings or discourses. They are always open to change and never fixed. Many terms are allied antimonies such as absolutism and relativism, realism and interpretivism, and holism and methodological individualism. Other terms, such as humanism, can be used by either camp.
Ethnic Cleansing
Authors: Sekulic Dusko
Published: September 2017

The term ethnic cleansing refers to various policies of forcibly removing people of another ethnic group. At the more general level it can be understood as the expulsion of any $@#*^%#@#ldquo;undesirable$@#*^%#@#rdquor; population from a given territory not only due to its ethnicity but also as a result of its religion, or for political, ideological, or strategic considerations, or a combination of these characteristics.
Ethnic Cleansing
Authors: Duško Sekulić
Published: September 2017

The term ethnic cleansing refers to an organized campaign to forcibly transfer a specific ethnic population out of an area. The term ethnic cleansing started to be widely used in connection with the events associated with the dissolution of the Yugoslav state in the 1990s. Although the term is a recent invention it describes an age old practice. Forced resettlements, deportations, and bringing the population of a loyal group to replace the resettled ones can be found among states practicing territorial conquests and imperial expansion.
Ethnic Groups
Authors: Stone John , Piya Bhumika
Published: September 2017

Ethnic groups are fundamental units of social organization which consist of members who define themselves, or are defined, by a sense of common historical origins that may also include religious beliefs, a similar language, or a shared culture. Their continuity over time as distinct groups is achieved through the intergenerational transmission of culture, traditions, and institutions. Ethnic groups can be distinguished from kinship groups in as much as ties of kin arise largely from biological inheritance. The term is derived from the Greek word
ethnos
, which can be translated as a people or a nation. The sociologist Max Weber provided one of the most important modern definitions of ethnic groups as “human groups (other than kinship groups) which cherish a belief in their common origins of such a kind that it provides the basis for the creation of a community.”
Ethnography
Authors: Hammersley Martyn
Published: September 2017

Literally, ethnography means writing about people, or writing an account of the way of life of a particular people. In early anthropology, what was aimed at was a descriptive account that captured a distinctive culture. Initially, ethnography was contrasted with ethnology, which was concerned with the historical and comparative analysis of cultures based on ethnographic accounts, the latter often being produced by travelers and missionaries. Over time, the term ethnology has fallen out of favor, and ethnography has come to refer to a combination of theoretical interpretation of cultures and firsthand investigation carried out by anthropologists themselves. Moreover, the term has a double meaning, referring both to a form of research and to the product of that research: ethnography as a practice produces ethnographies. And, recently, a distinction has sometimes been drawn between doing ethnography and using ethnographic methods. This has been employed by some anthropologists in an attempt to mark off their own practice from what passes for ethnographic work within sociology and other areas (Wolcott 1999).
Eugenics
Authors: Abels Gabriele
Published: September 2017

The term eugenics is derived from the Greek
eugenes
(“good in birth” or “noble in heredity”). Eugenics refers to a set of ideas and activities aiming to improve the quality of the human race by deliberate selection of parents and their offspring. In contrast to Social Darwinism, which applies categories of evolutionary biology (survival of the fittest) to the social world, the key feature of eugenics is
deliberate
selection of the “genetically fit” and corresponding active policies. Eugenics relies on two strategies: (1) manipulation of heredity or breeding practices in order to produce “genetically superior” or “fit” people (“positive” eugenics), and (2) extermination of those considered “genetically inferior” (“negative” eugenics).
Evaluation
Authors: Sanders James R.
Published: September 2017

Evaluation is a systematic process of determining the merit or worth of some entity, which is commonly referred to as the evaluand (Scriven 1967, 1991). Evaluation, like research, is a form of disciplined inquiry (Cronbach $@#*^%#@#amp; Suppes 1969). As such, emphasis is placed on public examinations of arguments and inquiry methods, on discussion of limitations and margins of error in conclusions, and on adherence to generally accepted standards of practice, which include impartial, detailed, and unambiguous methods of inquiry. The systematic processes of evaluation and research can be compared on several dimensions. This conception of evaluation contrasted to research began with discussions of the emerging methodology of evaluation in the late 1960s, as described by Worthen and Sanders (1973).
Exhibitionism
Authors: Gough Brendan
Published: September 2017

Sexual exhibitionism is often regarded as “deviant,” both in commonsense discourse where (male) “flashers” are categorized as “perverts,” and in psychiatric discourse where terms denoting pathology (such as antisocial and obsessive compulsive) are applied. In the
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders‐IV
(DSM‐IV, American Psychiatric Association, 1994), exhibitionism is considered a paraphilia in which sexual fantasies and behaviors involve exposing one's genitals to a stranger. Diagnosis of exhibitionism is dependent on sexual fantasies and/or sexual behavior eliciting clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning.
Expertise, “Scientification,” and the Authority of Science
Authors: Turner Stephen
Published: September 2017

The problem of the role of experts in society may seem to be a topic marginal to the main concerns of sociology, but it is in fact deeply rooted in the sociological project itself. Sociologists and social thinkers have long been concerned with the problem of the role of knowledge in society. Certain Enlightenment thinkers, notably Turgot and Condorcet, believed that social progress depended on the advance of knowledge and the wider dispersion of knowledge in society. But Condorcet especially recognized that this idea had complex political implications. On the one hand, it required science, which for him included social science, to be supported by the state, yet retain independence or self‐governance in order to advance without political interference. On the other hand, he recognized that social advance required that the most enlightened be the rulers, and that this conflicted with the ideas of democracy and equality.
Extracurricular Activities
Authors: Mueller Anna S. , Shifrer Dara
Published: September 2017

Extracurricular activities are optional activities offered by the school that complement the academic curriculum and enhance the school's sense of community. Extracurriculars offer opportunities for leadership, travel, skill development, and social engagement and integration within the school. There is growing evidence that adolescents involved in extracurricular activities are generally happier and healthier than their uninvolved peers. In particular, research suggests that extracurricular participation positively influences adolescents' psychosocial development, problem and risk behaviors, relationship formation, and, perhaps most importantly, their academic achievement.
Economics
Authors: Reay Michael
Published: September 2017

Economics as a modern discipline focuses primarily on systems of money‐coordinated exchange and wage‐based production. Since the early twentieth century it has been dominated by the use of mathematical models and quantitative data to explore
markets
, i.e., the aggregate outcomes of individual actors' decisions to buy and sell various
commodities
.