bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Geotechnical Aspects of Deep Ocean Radioactive Waste Disposal
Authors: Freeman TJ
Published: March 2009

The methods that might be used to bury radioactive waste in the deep ocean, and their likely effect on the sediment barrier, have been the subject of an international research program performed during the last ten years. This paper reviews the geotechnical aspects of deep ocean disposal and discusses how far the research performed has gone towards providing the information needed to assess this form of disposal.

Considerable progress has been made during the course of the international program towards understanding the processes involved in the emplacement of heat generating waste (HGW) into the deep ocean bed and the subsequent interactions between the waste and the sediments. These processes do not appear to have a deleterious effect on the barrier properties of the sediments, and it is concluded that it is likely that HGW could be emplaced in the deep ocean in such a way that the seabed would provide an effective containment for the radionuclides. However, if it were decided to continue research on deep ocean disposal, considerable further effort would be needed to accurately quantify all these processes. Moreover, the extrapolation of the results of theoretical studies and laboratory simulations to the deep ocean is hindered by the lack of reliable geotechnical data for the sediments at the deep ocean study areas; for example, because no in-situ measurements have been made, shear strength data are limited to the depth of the longest cores (35 m) and their accuracy reduced by the indeterminate effects of sample disturbance.
Microfabric of Illitic Clays from the Pacific Deep-Sea Basin: Significance to High-Level Nuclear Waste Disposal
Authors: Burkett PJ , Bennett RH , Bryant WR
Published: March 2009

The microfabric of deep-sea illitic clays was investigated using electron microscopy in support of the In-Situ Heat Transfer Experiment (ISHTE) Simulation test (ISIMU) and the Subseabed Disposal Program (SDP), Sandia National Laboratories. ISHTE and the field exercises were designed to investigate the thermal, fluid, and mechanical response of the sediment to the emplacement of radioactive waste in the seabed. Clay fabric of an undisturbed core sample, designated RAMA, was compared to dredged, remolded, reconsolidated material in order to investigate the (1) effects of mechanical disturbances from sediment remolding and heater probe insertion and (2) effects of induced thermal gradients caused by heating of the sediment.

Aggregates of finely divided particulate material, having intra-voids, maintain structural integrity in spite of remolding in the laboratory. The surficial illitic clay can be reconstituted in the laboratory and be used for geotechnical simulation tests. Dredged sediment was remolded and reconsolidated to equivalent in-situ porosities by the Department of Ocean Engineering, URI, and used in the ISHTE simulation test. No differences in the microfabric significantly affecting the bulk physical properties were observed between remolded and undisturbed sediment. Samples in proximity to the heater probe revealed some slight preferential clay particle alignment probably caused by shearing stresses, which developed in the sediment during probe insertion. Heating of the sediment temperatures slightly below 300°C did not appear to have a significant effect on the fabric, with the exception of localized “quasi-expansion” and flow features observed in the microfabric in the near field.

Aggregates of finely divided particulate material, having intra-voids, maintain structural integrity in spite of remolding in the laboratory. The surficial illitic clay can be reconstituted in the laboratory and be used with confidence for simulation tests.
Surface Geophysical Investigations for Hazardous Waste Sites
Authors: Cummings D
Published: March 2009

Surface geophysical surveys provide regional and site-specific subsurface information for hazardous waste investigations. The surveys can be used: (1) during the reconnaissance phase of an investigation, (2) for obtaining detailed site-specific information, and (3) for monitoring purposes after detailed investigations have been completed.

The choice of the geophysical method used in a survey depends on: (1) a knowledge of the geologic and hydrologie conditions and (2) the type of contaminant and its suspected depth. The different methods measure different physical properties which can be interpreted as geologic features or, if the target is man-made, as cultural features. The ambiguity inherent in geophysical methods can be reduced by conducting two or more surveys that measure different physical properties.
Economic Considerations of Borehole Geophysics for Hazardous Waste Projects
Authors: Crowder RE , Irons LA , Yearsley EN
Published: March 2009

In environmental or hazardous waste investigations, simple homogenous subsurface geologic conditions have historically been assumed. In reality, heterogeneous conditions predominate. The costs of remediation and the consequences of incorrect remediation are increasing rapidly. These investigations often require the collection of extensive amounts of data to evaluate the problems sufficiently to recommend and execute appropriate remedial action.

Borehole geophysics can be used to obtain valuable data including information on geologic conditions and in-situ physical parameters in drill holes. The amount and benefit of this information is determined by the logging suite, borehole conditions, geologic parameters, interpreter experience, and application of current technology.

Typical costs for drilling and geophysical logging associated with different types of environmental investigations vary considerably. These costs are a function of the types and quantity of the desired data, whether the geophysical logging and analysis will be performed in-house or by an outside consultant, and the operational field environment.

Five case histories demonstrate the application of borehole geophysics to hazardous waste investigations and provide qualitative evidence as to its cost-effectiveness. The primary conclusions indicated by these case histories are that: (1) geophysical logs assist in well construction efforts; (2) borehole geophysical logs provide in-situ physical measurements not available from other methods; and (3) costs associated with borehole logging can be justified by consideration of the total cost of drilling, completion, and monitoring and the implications of inadequate understanding of the subsurface in a remediation program.
Estimating Water Quality from Geophysical Logs
Authors: Jorgensen DG
Published: March 2009

Borehole-geophysical logs can be used to obtain information on water quality and water chemistry. Water quality characteristics that normally are measured directly in waterfilled holes or wells include chloride, dissolved oxygen, pH, temperature, and conductivity. In-situ ground water may exist at some distance adjacent to the borehole, and estimates of water quality or water chemistry can be made by measuring the resistivity or specific electrical conductivity of the water in pore spaces. Most geophysical logs, however, are made in test holes filled with drilling fluid. In this environment, logs enabling estimates of water resistivity (Rw) are useful. Relations among Rw and dissolved solids, sodium chloride solutions, and temperature are well established for saline waters; for freshwater, however, the activities of other dissolved ions also need to be considered. The spontaneous potential (SP) is a function of activity of the mud filtrate and water resistivity and, thus, can be used to estimate Rw.

Two methods of estimating Rw are useful: the spontaneous potential (SP) method, which uses data from a spontaneous potential log and a resistivity log, and the cross-plot method, which uses log-derived porosity and resistivity-log data. The application of SP logs depends upon the water quality contrast between the water in the pores (Rw) and the mud filtrate on the borehole wall. Both methods estimate Rw to about a half order of magnitude. However, the accuracy of both methods can be greatly improved if additional data, such as a chemical analysis, can be correlated to a log.
Acoustic Waveform Logs and the In-Situ Measurement of Permeability—A Review
Authors: Burns DR
Published: March 2009

Full waveform acoustic logs are composed of two propagating head waves, the P and S waves, and two guided waves, the pseudo-Rayleigh and tube (Stoneley) waves. The measurement of P and S wave slowness provides information on the subsurface lithology as well as estimates of the in-situ dynamic compressibility and rigidity of those formations. Strong correlations exist between measured in-situ permeability and the slowness and attenuation of the tube wave. The tube wave slowness can provide a measure of permeability variations if corrections are made for any changes in the formation shear wave velocity and borehole radius, both of which also affect the tube wave slowness. The Biot model of wave propagation in a porous and permeable formation can be used to estimate absolute in-situ permeability values from tube wave attenuation measurements if all of the model parameters are accurately known. Permeability estimates obtained by using both of these methods on field data sets in two different lithologies are in good agreement with smoothed core permeability measurements. Because heavy drilling fluids are not used in most geotechnical boreholes, there is no mudcake buildup along the borehole wall, thereby removing one of the greatest causes of uncertainty in using tube waves to estimate in-situ permeability.
Practical Examples of Useful Algorithms in Computer-Aided Microscopy
Authors: Cole GS
Published: March 2009

The primary goal of computer-aided microscopy is to collect the best possible microscope image, manipulate this image into its accurate binary components of interest, and then analyze the binary structure from an analytical, statistical point-of-view.

Poor sample preparation, low feature contrast, or nonuniform lighting require that the operator enhance the image prior to performing the quantitative analysis. There are many transformations by which microscopists can interact with the computer to alter an image. Qualitative enhancement can be achieved through such algorithms as histogram stretching, contrast enhancement, image contouring and spatial filtering. These operations alter intensity values of particular pixels in an image. Operations which use spatial or geometric transformations allow the operator to interact with the image analyzer and quantitatively alter the image.

A selection of image processing techniques will be presented to describe the mathematical basis for gray level and binary image transformations in computer-aided microscopy. Examples from the materials sciences will be used to demonstrate how the various techniques are applied.
Recent Advances in Nondestructive Evaluation Made Possible by Novel Uses of Video Systems
Authors: Generazio ER , Roth DJ
Published: March 2009

Complex materials are being developed for use in future advanced aerospace systems. High-temperature materials have been targeted as a major area of materials development. The development of composites consisting of ceramic or metallic matrix, and ceramic fibers or whiskers is currently being aggressively pursued internationally. These advanced materials are difficult and costly to produce; however, their low density and high operating temperature range are needed for the next generation of advanced aerospace systems. These new materials represent a challenge to the nondestructive evaluation community.

Video imaging techniques not only enhance the nondestructive evaluation, but they are also required for proper evaluation of these advanced materials. Specific research examples are given, highlighting the impact that video systems have had on the nondestructive evaluation of ceramics. An image processing technique for computerized determination of grain and pore size distribution functions from microstructural images is discussed. The uses of video and computer systems for displaying, evaluating, and interpreting ultrasonic image data are presented.
Quantitative Image Analysis Methodology for High-Sulfur Calcium-Treated Steels
Authors: Hetzner DW
Published: March 2009

Alloy steels containing 0.020% sulfur or more and greater than 20 ppm oxygen are being calcium treated to improve machinability and enhance sulfide shape control. Although from a process control perspective, the success of calcium treating can be measured by the bulk calcium content of the steel, the chemical composition of the steel does not indicate how sulfide and oxide inclusions have been modified by calcium treating. Hence, to characterize an inclusion distribution in a heat of steel, quantitative metallographic techniques are required.

In an aluminum-killed, calcium-treated steel, the oxide inclusions are generally complex calcium-aluminates. Ideally, when a steel is calcium treated, as solidification progresses, the sulfides precipitate from the liquid steel on the solid oxides in the liquid. The net result is a (Ca,Mn)S inclusion that contains an encapsulated oxide. Some sulfides precipitate on fragmented dendrites in the liquid and do not contain oxide particles, hence free oxide inclusions are found in the steel.

Thus, there are four types of inclusions that may be present in calcium-treated steels: 1. Sulfides containing oxides; 2. Free sulfides, i.e. those, without oxides; 3. Free oxides; and 4. Encapsulated oxides.

In this paper, typical inclusion populations from a conventional and calcium-treated AISI 8620 steel are evaluated. Image analysis techniques and custom software that have been developed to separate the four types of inclusions based on reflectivity, “gray level”, are illustrated. Typical inclusion chemical analyses from both steel types are presented. The differences between such parameters as mean length, mean area, and mean roundness between the two steels as well as the four types of inclusions found in the calcium-treated steels are discussed. The changes in the inclusion length and area distributions are considered. The benefits of this methodology to properly characterize inclusion distributions in calcium-treated steels are discussed.
Grain Boundary Reconstruction for Grain Sizing
Authors: Friel JJ , Prestridge EB , Glazer F
Published: March 2009

Measuring ASTM grain size by automatic image analysis is often made difficult by the inability of the image analyzer to detect grain boundaries accurately. For this reason, a logic-based method for grain boundary reconstruction has been developed. ASTM G was measured at various grain sizes both before and after image processing. Automatic image analysis was used to measure the grain size on actual microstructures as well as on standard grain size charts that had grain boundaries intentionally removed. ASTM G was measured by both planimetric and intercept methods. The grain size calculated on the basis of area was much more sensitive to incomplete boundaries than was the calculation based on intercepts. Nevertheless, the software was able to restore the boundaries, and the correct grain size was calculated.

In addition to grain boundary reconstruction, software has been developed that uses artificial intelligence to detect twin boundaries so that they can be removed before grain size measurement. The software identifies twins at several levels of confidence for the user to select only those structures that are actually twins.
Quantitative Assessment of Segregation by Video Image Processing
Authors: Abbott TB , Brownrigg A
Published: March 2009

Continuously cast steel often exhibits a nonhomogeneous composition resulting from elemental segregation during solidification. Concentrated regions of phosphorus, carbon, sulfur, manganese and other elements can have detrimental effects on properties. At present, measurement of segregation is by subjective assessment of sulfur prints or chemical analysis of drillings. Detailed elemental distribution measurements require expensive and time consuming measurements using x-ray mapping facilities. This paper outlines a newly developed technique in which segregation patterns are determined by applying an etchant to produce selective darkening of phosphorus rich regions. A CCD video camera and computer are used to assess the etched sample and construct an approximate phosphorus distribution map. X-ray maps of phosphorus produced by a computer controlled electron microprobe are used to check the accuracy of the technique. Further processing techniques are applied to x-ray and etch maps to obtain measures of segregation.
Planar Morphology Characterization of Metal Matrix Composites
Authors: Boutin J , Baumer M
Published: March 2009

Dispersion and clustering of particles in metal matrix materials are evaluated by the “Law of the First Contact Point”, which is a function that uses morphological recursive dilations and erosions on an image analyzer. The technique is based on a fully automatic procedure that leads to an estimate of the mean boundary-to-boundary planar spacing between particles and to the mean diameter of inscribed circle to particle. Analysis has been performed on fourteen Duralcan composite alloys, and has permitted them to be classified according to their particle dispersion and clustering.
Evaluating Clustering of Second-Phase Particles
Authors: Vander Voort GF
Published: March 2009

Procedures for assessing the homogeneity of second-phase particle distributions were reviewed and some of these were used to assess the distribution of Sulfides in a free-machining stainless steel (transverse vs. longitudinal planes) and primary carbides in a superalloy. An image amendment procedure was shown to provide the best description of clustering with direct determination of the number of clusters per mm2, the number of particles per cluster, and the number or area fraction percentages of particles in clusters. All can be obtained as a function of the interparticle spacing. One can also determine the size of clusters and the distance between clusters, if desired. The theoretical nearest-neighbor spacing, nns, for a random Poisson distribution, based on NA, provides an upper limit for image dilation. Based on this work, a cluster should contain at least three particles with interparticle spacings less than the nns. Recommendations for further improvements to the method were made.
Image Analysis of Alpha Phase in Titanium Alloys
Authors: Grande JC
Published: March 2009

Metallographic and image analysis procedures have been developed to quantify stereological parameters of alpha phase microstructures in a titanium-6 aluminum-4 vanadium alloy. Metallographic etching conditions were optimized to yield acceptable and reproducible image contrast between the alpha phase and the matrix so that automatic image analysis could be performed. The automated image processing procedure which quantifies the stereological parameters of the alpha phase is described. Data from manual and image analysis methods were compared and showed good agreement. A Macintosh-based database is outlined which Integrates binary images of titanium microstructures with the corresponding titanium grade, heat treatment, and stereological parameters.
Estimation Of Pore Size In Aluminium Using The Disector, The Selector And Cavalieri's Principle
Authors: Karlsson LM , Cruz-Orive LM
Published: March 2009

Recent stereological methods are available for estimating the number and size of arbitrary particles or voids in a material very efficiently and in an unbiased manner, with the only assumption that particles must be identifiable on serial sections or confocal planes. However, applications of these methods have been published mainly in a biomedical context. The purpose of this paper is to emphasize the fact that stereology is sampling in 3D and its principles remain valid and applicable in no matter what context. As a working example we have chosen the pore population of a sand cast aluminium alloy. The implementation of some of the most relevant stereological tools, notably the disector and the selector, is thereby illustrated.
Relation of Fiber and Fiber Bundle Distribution to the Properties of Polymer/Glass Composites
Authors: Cole GS , Melotik DJ , Buckingham WF
Published: March 2009

A series of polymer/fiberglass composites were fabricated with different random glass mat reinforcement materials in a common resin matrix. Digital image analysis was used to characterize the structure in terms of the individual glass fibers, the fiber bundles (termed tows), and the distribution of the tows within the composite. Specialized grain reconstruction programs were used to characterize both intertow and tow dimensional attributes. The microstructural characteristics were then related to various mechanical properties of the different composite specimens, such as tensile strength and modulus (measured under shear and elastic conditions). Computer-aided-analysis microscopy can be shown to be important in correlating micro- and macrostructure to the measured properties of polymer/glass composite systems.
Evaluation of Overlaps in Fracture Surfaces
Authors: Underwood EE
Published: March 2009

A general treatment for the geometric analysis of fracture surfaces, with or without overlap, is presented. Stereological and fractographic measurements made on the SEM fractograph and/or the fracture profile are expressed in terms of total or apparent projections. In order to calculate the true values of features in the fracture surface, several new parameters — including overlap, roughness and projection parameters — are required. Parametric conversion equations relate the measured apparent projection to the true spatial values of features in the fracture surface. An example is provided that demonstrates how the measured quantities are manipulated to obtain the desired true feature values.
Applications of Fractals in Textural Analysis of Base Metal Ores
Authors: Smith MM , Petruk W
Published: March 2009

Image analysis techniques combined with fractal measurements were used to quantify textural patterns (size and shape) of minerals in base metal ores. The zinc mineral sphalerite is the mineral to be liberated through grinding and floatation. Pyrite (FeS2), however, because of its hardness, abundance, and control on grinding efficiencies was the mineral of interest. Pyrite textural patterns vary from isolated cubes (ten micrometres across) to clustered cubes, masses of pyrite separated by small veinlets of other minerals, to irregular or framboidal shapes. Quantitative analysis of these textural patterns by means of image analysis could prove useful in furthering the development of liberation models.

The images used in this study were generated by an image analyzer with input from a backscattered image. The image analysis routines were sequential erosion, dilation and perimeter measurements. Fractal analysis entailed generating a Richardson plot of the total field perimeter versus steplength (the pixel size of one erosion step). Studies with sequential erosion depicted a size entity of the ore that reflected the smallest size unit to which the pyrite could be ground. Sequential dilation revealed a spacing of the pyrite grains and, hence, the size of the more valuable interstitial sphalerite. Plots of the field perimeters with sequential erosion/dilation cycles revealed different “slopes” for the textural patterns of pyrite. Recasting the data to show the amount of roughness lost for each erosion/dilation lead to the “liberationgram” which indicates the amount of material lost to tailings when ground to a certain size.
Standardizing and Implementing Good Laboratory Practices
Authors: Britton PW
Published: March 2009

Subcommittee D19.02 is responsible for 10 existing standards and at least 8 standards under development. These standards can be grouped into the following categories: 1) generic good laboratory practices, 2) D19 technical policies and 3) types of waters. Subcommittee activities regarding good laboratory practices and technical policies are briefly discussed. One current effort, development of a standard for establishing the quality control section for a D19 test method, is discussed in detail.
Information Management in the Environmental Laboratory
Authors: Shackelford WM , Cline DM , Holland MG
Published: March 2009

The increasing workload in environmental laboratories and an increase in automation has brought about an increase in the complexity of data management systems for the laboratory. In many cases, the laboratory system is composed of incompatible parts that require much human intervention to establish communication. The integration of data management procedures and systems in the environmental laboratory is as yet an unrealized goal for those laboratories depending on off-the-shelf technology. This paper discusses efforts in the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency to bring about the integration of instruments, laboratory information management systems, and manual data handling procedures to achieve a coherent information management program for environmental laboratories.
The Projected Change in the Development of Specifications and Guides Describing Water Quality Over the Next Ten Years
Authors: Smith VC
Published: March 2009

The promulgation of specifications and guides describing different types of water quality will be expanded significantly during the next decade because of an increased emphasis on a need for limiting impurities in water. This includes water which is required for industrial and laboratory use, as well as an increase in the interest in the health effects of impurities in water and a requirement for the limitation of types of pollutants being discharged to waste. In the past the ASTM Subcommittee on specifications has been mainly interested in limiting the impurities in water to be used for specific laboratory or industrial purposes. Because of the importance of ASTM as a highly respected consensus standards organization, the subcommittee will be called upon to develop specifications and guides related to water, not only for the traditional limitations required by industrial users, but perhaps more importantly because of a need for guides for a limit on various impurities in industrial waste waters.

Because the users of the specifications and guides will come from all areas of industry, the development of the specifications will, of necessity, have to be flexible and will thus be classified as “Guides” in most all cases instead of as “Specifications”. By officially designating the physical and chemical characteristics of the various types of water as “Guides” instead of “Specifications”, the user of the guides will have some options available depending upon his particular circumstance and upon the terminology used in the guides. He will find the guides more useful than specifications which would provide a set of parameters which would be an entity etched in stone.

The guides to be developed during the 90's will be divided into various categories based upon the different scopes which will be drawn up to limit various impurities based upon the end industrial use, the health effects, and the environmental impact of the water being considered.
Nuclear Power Plant Water Quality in the 1990s -- An INPO Perspective
Authors: McGaffic VJ , Bishop WN
Published: March 2009

The decade of the 1980s saw the identification of many adverse chemistry conditions that, when recognized, resulted in dramatic improvement in water quality in the primary and secondary systems of nuclear power plants. Many of the chemistry program upgrades resulted from the need to improve system and component reliability. Severe problems were encountered in PWR steam generators such as denting, pitting, wastage, intergranular attack and stress corrosion cracking. Similarly, problems were observed in stress corrosion cracking of BWR recirculating piping. Turbine generator blade corrosion and cracking were noted in both types of power plants. Improvements were initiated by developing industry guidelines for chemistry, improving communications between utilities, and improved analytical capabilities. A comparison trend of power plant chemistry parameters is presented.
Long-Term Management of Hanford Site Single-Shell Tank Waste
Authors: Opitz BE , Owens KW , Hall VW
Published: March 2009

Since the 1940's, defense related nuclear waste has been stored in single-shell tanks (SST) on the Hanford Site. The radioactive components on the waste are regulated in accordance with the Atomic Energy Act. The hazardous components are regulated in accordance with the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act as implemented by the Washington State Dangerous Waste Regulations. This report provides a background of the SST waste and a description of the initial studies underway to characterize the material to provide information to support performance assessment studies and regulatory compliance while minimizing unnecessary radiation doses to workers.
HPGe Gamma Spectroscopy Measurement of Natural Radionuclides in Water with a Focus on Current Hardware and Software Technologies
Authors: Seymour RS , Cox JE
Published: March 2009

High-resolution gamma spectroscopy provides fast, accurate, non-destructive isotopic analysis of natural radionuclides in environmental samples. Larger-volume, high-purity germanium detectors with relative efficiencies over 100% and less than 2.0 keV FWHM resolution for the 1332- keV peak of 60Co provide improved peak-to-background performance, which translates directly into either better sensitivity in constant counting time or better throughput for a given sensitivity. Short length-to-diameter coaxial detectors also provide improved resolution and lower noise than planar geometries. These short coaxial detectors also provide benefits for unfolding multiple peak features at lower energies, including the 226Ra and 235U interference at 185 keV and excellent sensitivity for low-energy X and gamma rays. Modern analyzers that provide 16000 channels of data memory allow system conversion gains from 200 to 250 eV/channel to be used with large coaxial detectors which cover a working energy range from 3.2 to 4.0 MeV, respectively. Analytical software is capable of unfolding the most difficult multiplet region with about 10% accuracy and other regions with even smaller uncertainty. Results of deconvolution tests are presented. Practical considerations regarding the measurement of water using this technique are presented, including recommended peaks, spectral interferences, background interference, calibration considerations, photon attenuation, and equilibrium conditions.
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency Water Monitoring in the 1990s
Authors: Alford-Stevens AL , McKee GD
Published: March 2009

Since the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency was established 20 years ago, water monitoring capabilities have advanced dramatically. Technological advances have allowed development of standardized procedures using sophisticated computerized techniques in routine water monitoring. Continued research and development activities, however, are needed to develop new and improved techniques that are more rapid, more accurate, more precise, more sensitive but less costly than those available now. Planned future activities include more comprehensive and integrated monitoring programs through cooperative efforts of federal, state, and local government agencies.
Fourier Transform Mass Spectrometry for Analysis of Organic Mixtures
Authors: Laude DA , Hogan JD
Published: March 2009

Applications of Fourier Transform Mass Spectrometry (FTMS) as a high performance mass spectrometer are presented. Gas chromatography (GC/FTMS analysis of an unleaded gasoline provides, in addition to electron ionization spectra for mass spectral library search algorithms, low ppm error accurate mass measurement capabilities that deliver real time elemental analysis of each eluting component. Suspended trapping pulse sequences are also examined as a means to extend dynamic range in the trapped ion cell and lower detection limits. Laser desorption/ionization (LD/I) is examined as an alternative to LC/MS for extracting structural information from non-volatile or thermally labile organic materials in mixtures. A prominent ion representative of a component molecular weight is usually generated in LDI mass spectra which facilitates mixture analysis without prior separation.
A Gas Chromatography Detector Based on Chemiluminescence for the Determination of Pesticides
Authors: Johansen NG , Hutte RS , Legier MF
Published: March 2009

The application of a new sulfur-selective detector for the analysis of sulfur-containing pesticides using gas chromatography is described. The Sulfur Chemiluminescence Detector (SCD™) [Sievers Research, Inc.] offers significant advantages over existing sulfur-selective detectors including high sensitivity (< 5 pg S sec-1), a linear response over five orders of magnitude, high selectivity for sulfur compounds, an approximately equimolar response for sulfur compounds and no quenching of the sulfur signal due to co-elution of non-sulfur-containing species. This unique combination should provide a valuable new tool for the analysis of sulfur-containing pesticides and their degradation products in a wide range of samples including water, soils and food products.
The Role of Sediment-Trace Element Chemistry in Water-Quality Monitoring and the Need for Standard Analytical Methods
Authors: Horowitz AJ
Published: March 2009

Multiple linear regression models calculated from readily obtainable chemical and physical parameters can explain a high percentage (70% or greater) of observed sediment trace-element variance for Cu, Zn, Pb, Cr, Ni, Co, As, Sb, Se, and Hg. Almost all the factors used in the various models fall into the category of operational definitions (e.g., grain size, surface area, and geochemical substrates such as amorphous iron and manganese oxides). Thus, the concentrations and distributions used in the various models are operationally defined, and are subject to substantial change depending on the method used to determine them. Without standardized procedures, data from different sources are not comparable, and the utility and applicability of the various models would be questionable.
Electrodialysis is Meeting New Challenges
Authors: Allison RP
Published: March 2009

Concern for the environment and the need to conserve water are forcing change in the desalination industry. Users of brackish water desalination equipment are demanding minimum waste to conserve raw water supplies and recovery of wastewaters for industrial reuse by desalination processes is becoming common. Electrodialysis is meeting these challenges with improved membranes that have high efficiency, substantial resistance to oxidants and extreme resistance to organic fouling. These recent developments have led to the successful application of electrodialysis technology to demineralize cooling tower, refinery and other wastewaters as well as potable supplies at high water recoveries.
Industrial High Purity Water — A Market Overview
Authors: Slejko FL
Published: March 2009

Industrial water purification for high-tech process applications has been one of the few markets that have shown steady growth, without much recessionary interruptions, over the past four decades. This growth has not been rapid, but steady at approximately twice the GNP. Because of the slow, steady growth, and the fact that in 1990 the entire USA sales in this marketare only approximately $1.2–1.5 billion, the industrial high purity water market has not received the attention in the media, either popular or financial, that other industries have.

Nonetheless, the high purity water treatment industry remains poised to continue its growth over the next decade. The reason for this is that high-tech industries are employing advanced materials that are critically dependent on high purity water either for their manufacture or for use in a process. Water is a “critical” material that is an integral part of the manufacture and use of “advanced” materials. Steam electric power generation could not be done with today's efficiency and availability were it not for the high purity water used in the steam cycle. Micromanufacturing efficiencies for semiconductors, compact disks, and magnetic media are directly dependent on the purity of the water used as a rinsing material. Similarly, safe and reliable Pharmaceuticals could not be made available without sterile, pyrogen-free water.

Water will play an ever-increasing role in the manufacture and use of advanced materials in the future. Biotechnology, quenching of turbine forgings in delonized water, the use of ultrafiltered deionized water in the final rinsing of fluorinated polymer films, manufacture of new glass laminates, and the employment of 18.3-megohm-cm water in the production of graphite fibers are but a few of the new uses for high purity water that will expand the horizons for high purity water in the next decade.
Recent Developments and New Technologies for Microbiological Analyses of Water — An Overview
Authors: Hartman PA
Published: March 2009

None of the methods that are commonly used for routine determinations of the microbiological content of water are entirely satisfactory. Each method has one or more shortcomings, but the methods in use are the best that are currently available. Many new modifications and adaptations of old methods are being developed. A vast array of different techniques, based on innovative applications of biotechnology and often on sophisticated instrumentation, are becoming available. These developments will result in more rapid, sensitive, and/or accurate analyses, frequently at less cost to the analytical laboratory. The present status of some recently described analytical techniques will be discussed. Examples of applications will be cited. The need for more instrumentation and greater expertise in the performance of microbial water analyses will be discussed.
Methods for Virus Detection in Water
Authors: De Leon R , Sobsey MD
Published: March 2009

The analysis of viral pathogens in water is a major challenge due to the low levels of viruses in most samples, the technical complexity and poor recovery efficiency (sensitivity) of conventional methods, the need for cell cultures to detect infectious viruses, and the lengthy processing time and high costs of most procedures. Current research is directed at decreasing analytical time and costs, and finding alternatives to cell cultures for virus detection. We review improvements of and alternatives to conventional methods and the development, evaluation and application of new technologies, especially methods based on detection and amplification of viral nucleic acid (e.g., hybridization and polymerase chain reaction) and viral antigens (e.g., immunoenzymaticassays). The directions for future development, validation and application of these new methods are highlighted.
Monitoring Microbial Pathogens and Indicator Microorganisms in Water by Using the Polymerase Chain Reaction and Gene Probes
Authors: Atlas RM , Bej AK , McCarty S , DiCesare J , Haff L
Published: March 2009

A method using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and gene probes was developed for the detection of enteric pathogens and indicators of fecal contamination in waters. The method involves collection of cells from 100 mL water samples by filtration, lysis of cells, PCR amplification of regions of the lacZ and lamB genes and detection of the amplified target DNA by gene probes. Using lacZ as the target gene “total coliform bacteria” were detected. Using lamB as the target gene the fecal indicator Escherichia coliand the enteric pathogens Shigella and Salmonella were specifically detected. The sensitivity of detection was 1–5 viable target microorganisms per 100 mL sample and the test procedure takes only a few hours. Results with PCR-gene probe tests were found to be comparable to those of conventional plating and the Colilert procedures. The PCR-gene probe method for coliform detection can be used as an effective monitoring procedure for insuring the bacteriological quality of water supplies.
Evaluation of Rotavirus Test Kits for Possible Use with Environmental Samples
Authors: Dahling DR , Wright BA , Williams FP
Published: March 2009

Rotavirus is recognized as the major causative agent of viral gastroenteritis in young children. In the early 1970's, rotavirus particles infecting infants were first detected using electron microscopy (EM). Since then, the development of rotavirus detection methods that do not require an electron microscope has been the aim of many clinical and environmental research studies. Although some human rotaviruses have been successfully grown in various mammalian cell cultures, this has required special manipulations that make the process a complicated and time consuming effort. Other techniques such as immunofluorescence, nucleic acid hybridization, and electropherotyping have also been used for rotavirus detection. However, implementation of these techniques can require special expertise that may not be available to the routine clinical or environmental laboratory. Fortunately, a number of simplified rotavirus test kits are commercially available. These test kits come in two types: enzyme-1inkedimmunoassay (ELISA) and latex agglutination, both designed to test stool samples for rotavirus in the clinical laboratory. We have examined eight different kits for their effectiveness in testing environmental samples for rotaviruses. The sensitivity of the rotavirus test kits varied with the ELISA assay type exhibiting lower virus detectable levels than the latex agglutination type. Comparative testing with the SA-11 simian and Wa human rotavirus strains showed the sensitivity patterns of the kits remaining constant for both strains. The human strain was detected at a two-logs greater sensitivity than the simian strain. The most sensitive of the rotavirus kits detected the human strain at the limits of 102 PFU/mL based on a visual rating and at 101 using a spectrophotometric analytical procedure. No interference was observed in the kit's detection capability when applied in conjunction with procedures used for monitoring for viruses in water.
Detection of Human Enteroviruses Recovered from Water by the Streptavidin-Biotin/Nitrocellulose-Enzyme Immunoassay Procedure (SAB/NC-EIA)
Authors: Loh PC , Fujioka RS , Lau LS
Published: March 2009

The results of this study strongly indicate the practicability of using the streptavidin-biotin/nitrocellulose-enzymeimmunoassay (SAB/NC-EIA) procedure for the rapid and highly sensitive detection of recovered human enteroviruses from contaminated water. This procedure can serve as a valuable adjunct to infectivity procedures which are slow, highly complicated, and expensive. While cell culture assay can only detect the total amount of infectious virus, the SAB/NC-EIA method can detect the total amount of viral antigen present independent of its biological activity. If the water samples contain relatively larger amounts of viral antigen than infectious virus, the highly sensitive SAB/NC-EIA can be a valuable addition to viral-monitoring procedures. Other advantages are (a) because of its rapidity and sensitivity, the procedure can serve as an early-warning indicator of the presence of viral pathogens in all kinds of water; (b) the test is relatively easy to perform and the results can be read by visual observation, which eliminates the need for sophisticated instrumentation. Furthermore, quantitation of positive discs can be made by absorbance measurement made in an EIA plate reader or by analysis of transmission or reflectance densitometry; (c) lastly, the procedure can make the screening of viruses economical, reliable, sensitive, and rapid. This method would be convenient for microbiological laboratories with limited trained personnel and resources.
Evaluating the Relative Performance of ASTM Methods in the Laboratory and the Field
Authors: Hendrick MS , Jadamec JR
Published: March 2009

In order to establish legal responsibility for an oil spill and recover clean-up costs, the U.S. Coast Guard Oil Identification Laboratory compares spilled and suspected source oil samples using a multi-method approach based primarily on ASTM standards. This paper describes a computerized evaluation of whether improvements in technology and subsequent method development have improved the relative performance of the analytical methods. Artificial intelligence software capable of analyzing data bases containing qualitative as well as quantitative information was employed. Results of this on-going laboratory study indicate that the revised Gas Chromatography method performs better, relative to the Fluorescence, Infrared, High Performance Liquid Chromatographic and Thin Layer Chromatographic methods. A field study was conducted during the deployment of the Coast Guard Research and Development Center's Mobile Lab to Alaska where it was used to assist in assessing the environmental impact of the spilled EXXON VALDEZ oil. Over twelve hundred samples were analyzed and “fingerprinted” to determine if they were related to the spilled cargo oil. The rapid turn-around times required and a variety of operational, sampling and weathering problems presented difficulties not normally encountered in normal laboratory operation. The approach that proved to be highly successful included screening and fingerprinting samples with fluorescence techniques, including ASTM standard method D3650 for emission spectra as well as synchronous scanning techniques. Samples found to be similar to the EXXON VALDEZ cargo were analyzed by GC/MS techniques for confirmation. This approach met the rapid turn around times requested and demonstrated that a multi-method approach is the most efficient and reliable way to positively match a spilled oil to a common source.
Classification of Jet Fuels Using High Resolution Gas Chromatography and Pattern Recognition
Authors: Mayfield HT , Henley MV
Published: March 2009

This research has been aimed at the identification of unknown aviation fuel samples through gas chromatography and pattern recognition. Both neat fuels and their water-soluble fractions have been studied. The fuels studied include JP-4, JP-5, JP-7, JPTS, Jet-A, and aviation gasoline. High resolution gas Chromatographic profiles of the fuels and extracts of their water-soluble fractions have been collected and used to train computerized pattern recognition systems.
Expert Systems for Classification and Identification of Waterborne Petroleum Oils
Authors: Siddiqui KJ , Lidberg RL , Eastwood D , Gibson G
Published: March 2009

Expert systems are among the most fascinating application of computers which attempt to emulate human cognition and perceptual abilities. In the environmental field, expert systems have been used for spectral pattern recognition and have proven useful for classification and identification of waterborne petroleum oils.

This paper, after reviewing expert systems in general, describes a few successful attempts by the authors for classification of synchronous fluorescence spectra of petroleum oils. A typical scheme for developing an expert system for the classification and identification of petroleum oils is also presented. The scheme suggested uses pattern recognition and artificial intelligence (AI) for modeling expert knowledge and spectral processing. Using this model, an expert system called Spectral Expert system (SES) was designed. SES comprised of five primary components, fact gathering, knowledge/rule base, knowledge organization/learning, inference engine and expert/user interface. All these components were developed and integrated into a working system. The system is successfully used to classify several oil samples.