bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Selecting system architecture: What a single industrial experiment can tell us about the traps to avoid when choosing selection criteria
Authors: Moullec Marie-Lise , Jankovic Marija , Eckert Claudia
Published: July 2016

Decisions related to system architecture are difficult because of fuzziness and lack of information combined with often-conflicting objectives. We organized an industrial workshop with the objective of choosing 5 out of 800 architectures. The first step, the identification of selection criteria, proved to be the greatest challenge. As a result, designers selected system architectures that did not satisfy them without being able to explain why. It appeared that most of the difficulties faced by the designers came from the criteria used for architecture selection. This study aims to identify what made the selection criteria difficult to use. The audio recordings of the workshop were transcribed and analyzed in order to identify the obstacles related to the definition and the use of selection criteria. The analysis highlights two issues: the interdisciplinarity of system architecture makes criteria interdependent and the lack of information makes it impossible to define an exhaustive set of criteria. Finally, this study provides recommendations for selecting appropriate selection criteria and insights for future selection support tools dedicated to system architecture design.
Antennal Sensilla and Sexual Dimorphism of the Parasitoid Trichospilus pupivorus (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae)
Authors: Silva Isabel Moreira da , Pereira Kleber de Sousa , Spranghers Thomas , Zanuncio José Cola , Serrão José Eduardo
Published: July 2016

Sensory structures (sensilla) of insects are present in high number in the antennae are important for perceiving environmental cues. Thus, sensilla play an important role in the localization, discrimination, and acceptance of a possible host by parasitoid insects. The sensilla, classified according to their shape, size, and distribution, may also show sexual dimorphism in insects. The types and distribution of antennal sensilla in female and male parasitoid Trichospilus pupivorus (Ferriere, 1930) (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) were evaluated. T. pupivorus females had longer antennae than males. Both males and females have ten sensilla types with higher abundance of placoid sensilla in females, which suggest a possible functional dimorphism.
Characterization and target genes of nine human PRD-like homeobox domain genes expressed exclusively in early embryos
Authors: Madissoon Elo , Jouhilahti Eeva-Mari , Vesterlund Liselotte , Töhönen Virpi , Krjutškov Kaarel , Petropoulos Sophie , Einarsdottir Elisabet , Linnarsson Sten , Lanner Fredrik , Månsson Robert , Hovatta Outi , Bürglin Thomas R. , Katayama Shintaro , Kere Juha
Published: July 2016

PAIRED (PRD)-like homeobox genes belong to a class of predicted transcription factor genes. Several of these PRD-like homeobox genes have been predicted in silico from genomic sequence but until recently had no evidence of transcript expression. We found recently that nine PRD-like homeobox genes, ARGFX, CPHX1, CPHX2, DPRX, DUXA, DUXB, NOBOX, TPRX1 and TPRX2, were expressed in human preimplantation embryos. In the current study we characterized these PRD-like homeobox genes in depth and studied their functions as transcription factors. We cloned multiple transcript variants from human embryos and showed that the expression of these genes is specific to embryos and pluripotent stem cells. Overexpression of the genes in human embryonic stem cells confirmed their roles as transcription factors as either activators (CPHX1, CPHX2, ARGFX) or repressors (DPRX, DUXA, TPRX2) with distinct targets that could be explained by the amino acid sequence in homeodomain. Some PRD-like homeodomain transcription factors had high concordance of target genes and showed enrichment for both developmentally important gene sets and a 36 bp DNA recognition motif implicated in Embryo Genome Activation (EGA). Our data implicate a role for these previously uncharacterized PRD-like homeodomain proteins in the regulation of human embryo genome activation and preimplantation embryo development.
New paradigms for understanding and step changes in treating active and chronic, persistent apicomplexan infections
Authors: McPhillie Martin , Zhou Ying , El Bissati Kamal , Dubey Jitender , Lorenzi Hernan , Capper Michael , Lukens Amanda K , Hickman Mark , Muench Stephen , Verma Shiv Kumar , Weber Christopher R. , Wheeler Kelsey , Gordon James , Sanders Justin , Moulton Hong , Wang Kai , Kim Taek-Kyun , He Yuqing , Santos Tatiana , Woods Stuart , Lee Patty , Donkin David , Kim Eric , Fraczek Laura , Lykins Joseph , Esaa Farida , Alibana-Clouser Fatima , Dovgin Sarah , Weiss Louis , Brasseur Gael , Wirth Dyann , Kent Michael , Hood Leroy , Meunieur Brigitte , Roberts Craig W. , Hasnain S. Samar , Antonyuk Svetlana V. , Fishwick Colin , McLeod Rima
Published: July 2016

Toxoplasma gondii, the most common parasitic infection of human brain and eye, persists across lifetimes, can progressively damage sight, and is currently incurable. New, curative medicines are needed urgently. Herein, we develop novel models to facilitate drug development: EGS strain T. gondii forms cysts in vitro that induce oocysts in cats, the gold standard criterion for cysts. These cysts highly express cytochrome b. Using these models, we envisioned, and then created, novel 4-(1H)-quinolone scaffolds that target the cytochrome bc1 complex Qi site, of which, a substituted 5,6,7,8-tetrahydroquinolin-4-one inhibits active infection (IC50, 30 nM) and cysts (IC50, 4 μM) in vitro, and in vivo (25 mg/kg), and drug resistant Plasmodium falciparum (IC50, <30 nM), with clinically relevant synergy. Mutant yeast and co-crystallographic studies demonstrate binding to the bc1 complex Qi site. Our results have direct impact on improving outcomes for those with toxoplasmosis, malaria, and ~2 billion persons chronically infected with encysted bradyzoites.
RNAi-mediated knockdown of the voltage gated sodium ion channel TcNav causes mortality in Tribolium castaneum
Authors: Abd El Halim Hesham M. , Alshukri Baida M. H. , Ahmad Munawar S. , Nakasu Erich Y. T. , Awwad Mohammed H. , Salama Elham M. , Gatehouse Angharad M. R. , Edwards Martin G.
Published: July 2016

The voltage-gated sodium ion channel (VGSC) belongs to the largest superfamily of ion channels. Since VGSCs play key roles in physiological processes they are major targets for effective insecticides. RNA interference (RNAi) is widely used to analyse gene function, but recently, it has shown potential to contribute to novel strategies for selectively controlling agricultural insect pests. The current study evaluates the delivery of dsRNA targeted to the sodium ion channel paralytic A (TcNav) gene in Tribolium castaneum as a viable means of controlling this insect pest. Delivery of TcNav dsRNA caused severe developmental arrest with larval mortalities up to 73% post injection of dsRNA. Injected larvae showed significant (p < 0.05) knockdown in gene expression between 30–60%. Expression was also significantly (p < 0.05) reduced in pupae following injection causing 30% and 42% knockdown for early and late pupal stages, respectively. Oral delivery of dsRNA caused dose-dependant mortalities of between 19 and 51.34%; this was accompanied by significant (p < 0.05) knockdown in gene expression following 3 days of continuous feeding. The majority of larvae injected with, or fed, dsRNA died during the final larval stage prior to pupation. This work provides evidence of a viable RNAi-based strategy for insect control.
Over-expression of DNA-PKcs in renal cell carcinoma regulates mTORC2 activation, HIF-2α expression and cell proliferation
Authors: Zheng Bing , Mao Jia-Hui , Li Xiao-Qing , Qian Lin , Zhu Hua , Gu Dong-hua , Pan Xiao-dong
Published: July 2016

Here, we demonstrated that DNA-PKcs is over-expressed in multiple human renal cell carcinoma (RCC) tissues and in primary/established human RCCs. Pharmacological or genetic inhibition of DNA-PKcs suppressed proliferation of RCC cells. DNA-PKcs was in the complex of mTOR and SIN1, mediating mTORC2 activation and HIF-2α expression in RCC cells. Inhibiting or silencing DNA-PKcs suppressed AKT Ser-473 phosphorylation and HIF-2α expression. In vivo, DNA-PKcs knockdown or oral administration of the DNA-PKcs inhibitor NU-7441 inhibited AKT Ser-473 phosphorylation, HIF-2α expression and 786-0 RCC xenograft growth in nude mice. We showed that miRNA-101 level was decreased in RCC tissues/cells, which could be responsible for DNA-PKcs overexpression and DNA-PKcs mediated oncogenic actions in RCC cells. We show that DNA-PKcs over-expression regulates mTORC2-AKT activation, HIF-2α expression and RCC cell proliferation.
Two-stage association study to identify the genetic susceptibility of a novel common variant of rs2075290 in ZPR1 to type 2 diabetes
Authors: Guan Fanglin , Niu Yu , Zhang Tianxiao , Liu Songfang , Ma Lei , Qi Ting , Feng Jia , Zuo Hong , Li Guohong , Liu Xufeng , Wang Shujin
Published: July 2016

The SNP of rs964184 in ZPR1 has recently been associated with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) in Japanese individuals. To comprehensively investigate the association of common variants in ZPR1 with T2DM in Han Chinese individuals, we designed a two-stage case-control study of 3,505 T2DM patients and 6,911 unrelated healthy Han Chinese individuals. A total of 24 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were genotyped and single-SNP association, imputation and gender-specific association analyses were performed. To increase the coverage of genetic markers, we implemented imputation techniques to extend the number of tested makers to 280. A novel SNP, rs2075290 and the previously reported SNP, rs964184, were significantly associated with T2DM in the two independent datasets and individuals harboring the CC genotype of rs2075290 and GG genotype of rs964184 exhibited higher levels of fasting plasma glucose (FPG) and blood hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) than individuals of other genotypes. Additionally, haplotype analyses indicated that two haplotype blocks containing rs2075290 or rs964184 were also significantly associated with T2DM. In summary, these results suggest that ZPR1 plays an important role in the etiology of T2DM and this gene might be involved in abnormal glucose metabolism.
Tracking Cancer Genetic Evolution using OncoTrack
Authors: Talukder Asoke K. , Agarwal Mahima , Buetow Kenneth H. , Denèfle Patrice P.
Published: July 2016

It is difficult for existing methods to quantify, and track the constant evolution of cancers due to high heterogeneity of mutations. However, structural variations associated with nucleotide number changes show repeatable patterns in localized regions of the genome. Here we introduce SPKMG, which generalizes nucleotide number based properties of genes, in statistical terms, at the genome-wide scale. It is measured from the normalized amount of aligned NGS reads in exonic regions of a gene. SPKMG values are calculated within OncoTrack. SPKMG values being continuous numeric variables provide a statistical metric to track DNA level changes. We show that SPKMG measures of cancer DNA show a normative pattern at the genome-wide scale. The analysis leads to the discovery of core cancer genes and also provides novel dynamic insights into the stage of cancer, including cancer development, progression, and metastasis. This technique will allow exome data to also be used for quantitative LOH/CNV analysis for tracking tumour progression and evolution with a higher efficiency.
Serotype IV Streptococcus agalactiae ST-452 has arisen from large genomic recombination events between CC23 and the hypervirulent CC17 lineages
Authors: Campisi Edmondo , Rinaudo C. Daniela , Donati Claudio , Barucco Mara , Torricelli Giulia , Edwards Morven S. , Baker Carol J. , Margarit Imma , Rosini Roberto
Published: July 2016

Streptococcus agalactiae (Group B Streptococcus, GBS) causes life-threatening infections in newborns and adults with chronic medical conditions. Serotype IV strains are emerging both among carriers and as cause of invasive disease and recent studies revealed two main Sequence Types (STs), ST-452 and ST-459 assigned to Clonal Complexes CC23 and CC1, respectively. Whole genome sequencing of 70 type IV GBS and subsequent phylogenetic analysis elucidated the localization of type IV isolates in a SNP-based phylogenetic tree and suggested that ST-452 could have originated through genetic recombination. SNPs density analysis of the core genome confirmed that the founder strain of this lineage originated from a single large horizontal gene transfer event between CC23 and the hypervirulent CC17. Indeed, ST-452 genomes are composed by two parts that are nearly identical to corresponding regions in ST-24 (CC23) and ST-291 (CC17). Chromosome mapping of the major GBS virulence factors showed that ST-452 strains have an intermediate yet unique profile among CC23 and CC17 strains. We described unreported large recombination events, involving the cps IV operon and resulting in the expansion of serotype IV to CC23. This work sheds further light on the evolution of GBS providing new insights on the recent emergence of serotype IV.
Association of Inter-arm Blood Pressure Difference with Asymptomatic Intracranial and Extracranial Arterial Stenosis in Hypertension Patients
Authors: Wang Yan , Zhang Jin , Qian Yuesheng , Tang Xiaofeng , Ling Huawei , Chen Kemin , Li Yan , Gao Pingjin , Zhu Dingliang
Published: July 2016

Inter-arm blood pressure (BP) difference has been associated with ischemic stroke. Local atherosclerosis of stroke differ among vulnerable individuals, whereas intracranial arterial stenosis (ICAS) is more frequently affected Asians and extracranial arterial stenosis (ECAS) is more prevalent among whites. We hereby sought to explore the association of inter-arm BP difference with ICAS and ECAS in stroke-free hypertensive patients in Chinese population. All the 885 subjects were evaluated of ICAS and ECAS through computerized tomographic angiography. Both arm BP was measured simultaneously by Vascular Profiler-1000 device. In the continuous study, ICAS was significantly associated with age, male, average brachial SBP, diabetes, anti-hypertensive treatment and inter-arm DBP difference. ECAS was associated with age, inter-arm SBP and LDL. In the categorical study, subjects with the top quartile of inter-arm DBP difference (≥4 mmHg) showed significantly higher risk of ICAS (OR = 2.109; 95% CI, 1.24–3.587). And the participants with the top quartile of inter-arm SBP difference (≥6 mmHg) showed significantly higher risk of ECAS (OR = 2.288; 95% CI, 1.309–3.998). In conclusion, we reported a diverse association of inter-arm SBP/DBP difference with the ICAS/ECAS. Inter-arm DBP difference might be the early symbol of ICAS in Chinese population, which need further verification in long-term cohort study.
Four-Dimensional (4D) Printing in Consumer Applications
Authors: Loh Xian Jun
Published: July 2016

Modern manufacturing primarily utilizes direct assembly techniques, limiting the possibility of error correction or instant modification of a structure. There is a growing need to program physical materials to build themselves. Adaptive materials are programmable physical or biological materials which possess shape changing properties or can be made to have simple logic responses. There are computer programs that allow the design of nano-robots that self-assemble into functional structures for drug delivery applications. There is immense potential in having disorganized fragments form an ordered construct through physical interactions. However, these are only self-assembly at the smallest scale, typically at the nanoscale. The answer to customizable macrostructures is in additive manufacturing, or 3D printing. 3D printing has been around for almost 30 years now and is starting to filter into the public arena. The main challenges are that 3D printers have been too inefficient, inaccessible, and slow. Cost is also a significant factor in the adoption of this technology. 3D printing has the potential to transform and disrupt the manufacturing landscape as well as our lives. 4D printing seeks to use multi-functional materials in 3D printing so that the printed structure has multiple response capabilities and is able to self-assemble at the macroscale. In this chapter, I will analyze the early promise of this technology as well as highlight potential challenges that adopters could face.
Nanoparticle Safety in Cosmetics
Authors: Tan Su Hui , Loh Xian Jun
Published: July 2016

Nanoparticles have occupied a significant role in a wide spectrum of applications around us. Their prevalence is attributed to the fact that nanoparticles exhibit many novel properties compared with bulk materials. However, this promising technology often raises societal concerns about human safety during and after exposure. This chapter aims to provide insights into the health risks of nanoparticle exposure. Due to the growing market of cosmetics, this review also highlights the common nanoparticles or nanomaterials used and their toxicity studies. Yet, the toxicity of the nanoparticles and nanomaterials remains debatable. More investigations need to be done in order to come up with a universally accepted conclusion. Although safety regulations are put in place to protect the well-being of consumers, workers and the environment, limitations still exist.
Assessing the performance of the MM/PBSA and MM/GBSA methods. 6. Capability to predict protein–protein binding free energies and re-rank binding poses generated by protein–protein docking
Authors: Chen Fu , Liu Hui , Sun Huiyong , Pan Peichen , Li Youyong , Li Dan , Hou Tingjun
Published: July 2016

Understanding protein–protein interactions (PPIs) is quite important to elucidate crucial biological processes and even design compounds that interfere with PPIs with pharmaceutical significance.
Natural products and their derivatives as tRNA synthetase inhibitors and antimicrobial agents
Authors: Cochrane R. V. K. , Norquay A. K. , Vederas J. C.
Published: July 2016

The tRNA synthetase enzymes are promising targets for development of therapeutic agents against infections by parasitic protozoans (e.g.malaria), fungi and yeast, as well as bacteria resistant to current antibiotics.
Rational design of sandwich-like exfoliated nickel hydroxide–carbon nanotubes as a novel electrode for supercapacitors
Authors: He Yang , Zhu Huimin , Liu Qi , Liu Jingyuan , Zhang Hongsen , Li Rumin , Li Zhanshuang , Wang Jun
Published: July 2016

A composite of nickel hydroxide–carbon nanotubes (Ni(OH)2–CNTs) was successfully fabricated as an electrode material for supercapacitors.
Synthesis and characterization of novel 4-phenyl-pyridine unit based alkaline anion exchange membranes
Authors: Lu Di , Wen Lele , Xue Lixin
Published: July 2016

A series of 1,2-dimethylimidazolium functionalized poly(arylene ether sulfone)s containing 4-phenyl-pyridine units in the main chain (DIm-PPYPAES) with high ionic conductivity were firstly synthesized as anion exchange membranes (AEMs) in this work.
In situ crosslinked PVA–PEI polymer binder for long-cycle silicon anodes in Li-ion batteries
Authors: Liu Zhen , Han Shaojie , Xu Chong , Luo Yuwen , Peng Na , Qin Chenyang , Zhou Mingjiong , Wang Wenqin , Chen Liwei , Okada Shigeto
Published: July 2016

A novel polymer binder, synthesized via in situ thermal cross-linking of water-soluble polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and poly(ethylene imine) (PEI) precursor, is applied as a functional network binder to enhance the electrochemical performance of a silicon anode.
Heterogeneous recyclable nano-CeO2 catalyst: efficient and eco-friendly synthesis of novel fused triazolo and tetrazolo pyrimidine derivatives in aqueous medium
Authors: Suresh Lingala , Vijay Kumar P. Sagar , Vinodkumar T. , Chandramouli G. V. P.
Published: July 2016

A ceria nanocatalyst was used for the one-pot, multicomponent condensation reaction of benzoylacetonitrile, aromatic aldehydes and 5-amino-triazole/tetrazole proceeding via C–C and C–N bond formation to deliver triazolo/tetrazolo[1,5-a]pyrimidines.
Atomic investigation on reversible lithium storage in amorphous silicon oxycarbide as a high power anode material
Authors: Liao Ningbo , Zheng Beirong , Zhang Miao , Xue Wei
Published: July 2016

The formation of LixO and LiySi makes a major contribution to the capacity of amorphous SiCO.
A new class of epitaxial porphyrin metal–organic framework thin films with extremely high photocarrier generation efficiency: promising materials for all-solid-state solar cells
Authors: Liu Jinxuan , Zhou Wencai , Liu Jianxi , Fujimori Yamato , Higashino Tomohiro , Imahori Hiroshi , Jiang Xue , Zhao Jijun , Sakurai Tsuneaki , Hattori Yusuke , Matsuda Wakana , Seki Shu , Garlapati Suresh Kumar , Dasgupta Subho , Redel Engelbert , Sun Licheng , Wöll Christof
Published: July 2016

A new class of epitaxial porphyrin metal–organic framework thin films were fabricated and demonstrated to be promising materials for all-solid-state solar cells.
Adaptive segmentation for multi‐view stereo
Authors: Khuboni Ray , Naidoo Bashan
Published: July 2016

This study presents an adaptive segmentation method for pre‐processing input data to the patch‐based multi‐view stereo algorithm. A specially developed greyscale transformation is applied to the input image data, thus redefining the intensity histogram. The Nelder–Mead simplex method is used to adaptively locate an optimised segmentation threshold point in the modified histogram. The transformed input image is then segmented using the acquired threshold value, into foreground and background data. The segmentation information acquired is applied to the initial feature extraction and the cyclic patch‐expansion procedure to constrain the reconstruction to a three‐dimensional visibility space that excludes background artefacts. The method is targeted at segmenting out potentially disruptive data and is able to realise a reduction in cumulative error of the reconstruction process and thus improve the final reconstruction. With this method, the authors obtain results that are relatively similar to the original patch‐based method, but with reduced time and space complexity.
LEs based framework for transient instability prediction and mitigation using PMU data
Authors: Rashidi Mehran , Farjah Ebrahim
Published: July 2016

This study presents a Lyapunov exponent (LE)‐based framework for transient instability prediction and mitigation using wide area measurement systems data. For transient instability prediction, maximum LEs calculated using post‐fault voltage magnitudes are used as input features to support vector machines to predict the transient stability status. To ensure that the proposed transient instability prediction approach does not rely on full network observability and is effective even if limited numbers of phasor measurement units (PMUs) are installed across large power grids, an optimal PMU placement from the transient stability point of view is also proposed. The robustness of the proposed instability prediction scheme is verified with respect to network topology change and measurement errors. For transient instability mitigation, an LE‐based controlled islanding scheme is proposed. The proposed controlled islanding scheme determines the coherent generators, identifies proper load buses that should remain inside each group of coherent generators, specifies the boundary circuits and finally partitions the system into different islands while placing the coherent generators in the same island, maintaining connectivity inside islands and minimising the generation–load imbalance of islands.
sBWT: memory efficient implementation of the hardware-acceleration-friendly Schindler transform for the fast biological sequence mapping
Authors: Chang Chia-Hua , Chou Min-Te , Wu Yi-Chung , Hong Ting-Wei , Li Yun-Lung , Yang Chia-Hsiang , Hung Jui-Hung
Published: July 2016

Motivation: The Full-text index in Minute space (FM-index) derived from the Burrows–Wheeler transform (BWT) is broadly used for fast string matching in large genomes or a huge set of sequencing reads. Several graphic processing unit (GPU) accelerated aligners based on the FM-index have been proposed recently; however, the construction of the index is still handled by central processing unit (CPU), only parallelized in data level (e.g. by performing blockwise suffix sorting in GPU), or not scalable for large genomes.

Results: To fulfill the need for a more practical, hardware-parallelizable indexing and matching approach, we herein propose sBWT based on a BWT variant (i.e. Schindler transform) that can be built with highly simplified hardware-acceleration-friendly algorithms and still suffices accurate and fast string matching in repetitive references. In our tests, the implementation achieves significant speedups in indexing and searching compared with other BWT-based tools and can be applied to a variety of domains.

Availability and implementation: sBWT is implemented in C ++ with CPU-only and GPU-accelerated versions. sBWT is open-source software and is available at http://jhhung.github.io/sBWT/

Supplementary information:  Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online.

Contact:  chyee@ntu.edu.tw or jhhung@nctu.edu.tw (also juihunghung@gmail.com)
Estimating evolutionary rates using time-structured data: a general comparison of phylogenetic methods
Authors: Duchêne Sebastián , Geoghegan Jemma L. , Holmes Edward C. , Ho Simon Y.W.
Published: July 2016

Motivation: In rapidly evolving pathogens, including viruses and some bacteria, genetic change can accumulate over short time-frames. Accordingly, their sampling times can be used to calibrate molecular clocks, allowing estimation of evolutionary rates. Methods for estimating rates from time-structured data vary in how they treat phylogenetic uncertainty and rate variation among lineages. We compiled 81 virus data sets and estimated nucleotide substitution rates using root-to-tip regression, least-squares dating and Bayesian inference.

Results: Although estimates from these three methods were often congruent, this largely relied on the choice of clock model. In particular, relaxed-clock models tended to produce higher rate estimates than methods that assume constant rates. Discrepancies in rate estimates were also associated with high among-lineage rate variation, and phylogenetic and temporal clustering. These results provide insights into the factors that affect the reliability of rate estimates from time-structured sequence data, emphasizing the importance of clock-model testing.

Contact:  sduchene@unimelb.edu.au or garzonsebastian@hotmail.com

Supplementary information:  Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online.
The International Maritime Organization
Authors: Chircop Aldo
Published: July 2016

The International Maritime Organization (IMO) is an intergovernmental organization with special competence in matters relating to navigation and shipping. It also plays a critical role in the international law of the sea. This chapter discusses the purposes, functions, and governance structure of the IMO; and the functions of the IMO in the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (LOSC).
Science and the International Regulation of Marine Pollution
Authors: Kirk Elizabeth
Published: July 2016

This chapter considers the approaches taken by international regimes to address marine pollution. It identifies similarities and differences in approaches across time and different sources of pollution, the degree to which they follow an adaptive management approach, and the role of science in decision-making. It begins with an overview of the historical development of the law. It then discusses the current regime, covering general obligations and certain source-specific obligations. The final section contains conclusions and a discussion of current and future issues.
The South China Sea
Authors: Zou Keyuan
Published: July 2016

This chapter assesses the legal regime of the South China Sea. It first discusses legal issues concerning the South China Sea, including sovereignty and territorial disputes, maritime disputes, the controversy over China's ‘U-shaped’ line, and the relation between conventional rights deriving from the UN Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (LOSC) and historic rights embodied in international customary law. It then considers the applicable international law in the South China Sea including the LOSC and regional arrangements such as the 2002 Declaration on the Conduct of Parties in the South China Sea. The final section considers the latest developments in the South China Sea including the Philippines v China case. It discusses the possibility of cooperation in the region between or amongst claimants as well as between ASEAN and China through feasible means, such as joint development, joint management of fishery resources, common responsibilities for the protection of the marine environment and cooperation in non-traditional security issues.
North-East Atlantic and the North Sea
Authors: Long Ronán
Published: July 2016

This chapter assesses the legal regime of the North-East Atlantic and the North Sea. It begins by discussing some of the geographical, economic, environmental, strategic, and geo-political factors that are shaping the very distinctive regional regimes that give effect to the basic principles, as well as to many of the substantive provisions embodied in the UN Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (LOSC) and related agreements. It provides a summary of the various maritime jurisdictional zones and boundaries claimed by the twelve coastal States that make-up the region: Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Iceland, Ireland, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, and the UK. This is followed by a description of some of the principal regional bodies responsible for formulating and implementing various aspects of the law of the sea, including the regional seas environmental body, the EU and several fisheries management organizations.
The Indian Ocean and the Law of the Sea
Authors: Oude Elferink Alex
Published: July 2016

This chapter assesses the implementation of the law of the sea in the Indian Ocean. It begins by providing a definition and general description of the Indian Ocean. It then discusses maritime zones and boundaries and regional and subregional cooperation. The practice of Indian Ocean coastal States generally shows a large measure of consistency with the UN Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (LOSC) as regards the extent of maritime zones. A considerable divergence from the LOSC exists in the case of straight baselines, whereas in the case of archipelagic baselines there is conformity to the Convention, suggesting that the numerical controls contained in Article 47 have been more effective.
Changing Jus Cogens Through State Practice? The Case of the Prohibition of the Use of Force and its Exceptions
Authors: Orakhelashvili Alexander
Published: July 2016

This chapter examines how international law treats state practice on the actual or claimed exceptions to and derogations from the peremptory prohibition of the use of force. It looks at attempts to fragment or alter the content of Article 2(4) of the UN Charter which prohibits the use of force, from the Cold War period to the post-Cold-War period. The discussion begins by assessing the nature and relevance of state practice before turning to the rules of jus cogens and the way in which they interact with state practice. More specifically, the chapter analyses the question of whether the conflict between state practice and jus cogens goes to derogation from, or modification of, jus cogens norms. Finally, it considers the argument against the jus cogens status of the prohibition of the use of force and the implications of the strict requirement of uniformity inherent in jus cogens and its non-derogability.
Outsourcing the Use of Force
Authors: Blokker Niels
Published: July 2016

This chapter discusses developments in operations authorized by the UN Security Council in the context of the rules governing use of force in international relations. It considers three elements surrounding criticism of the carte blanche nature of Resolution 678 authorizing the use of ‘all necessary means’ against Iraq following its invasion of Kuwait. First, the authorization has no time limit; secondly, it has an extremely broad mandate; thirdly, coalition forces were asked ‘to keep the Security Council regularly informed’. The chapter examines whether the trend towards more Security Council control of authorized operations has persisted. It analyses elements of the authorization resolutions adopted by the Council between 2000 and 2012 and their implications for potential UN responsibility. It argues that operational decision-making is outsourced to implementing states or international organizations but that there are cases when the UN may be held responsible for wrongful acts committed by the authorized operation.
The Use of Force in United Nations Peacekeeping Operations
Authors: Sheeran Scott
Published: July 2016

This chapter focuses on the nature, scope, and legitimacy of the use of force by UN peacekeeping operations within the framework of international law. Before clarifying the legal authority of UN peacekeepers to use force, it considers the historical and conceptual foundations and development of the use of force in UN peacekeeping. It then outlines the normative framework for use of force, including the categorization and legal bases for use of force under international law, and its relation to the jus ad bellum. The chapter also discusses the ‘basic principles’ of UN peacekeeping, namely consent of the main parties to the conflict, impartiality, and non-use of force except in self-defence, along with the goals of protecting civilians and responding to violations of international human rights law. Finally, it analyses the operational and practical challenges that arise due to the legal problems resulting from the use of force by UN peacekeepers.
Action Against Host States of Terrorist Groups
Authors: Moir Lindsay
Published: July 2016

This chapter examines the problems that could arise when a state invokes self-defence to justify action against terrorist groups in another state. It first considers indirect armed attack against armed groups and the controversy surrounding the use of self-defence where armed groups are controlled by a foreign state, with particular reference to the International Court of Justice (ICJ) jurisprudence. It then discusses the possibility that an armed attack could occur, permitting a forcible response in the context of international law, without attribution to a state by citing the Nicaragua case in which the ICJ pronounced that self-defence is permissible against a host state in effective control of an armed group. The chapter also looks at the case of Afghanistan and its relationship to Al Qaeda as an example of a state’s claims of self-defence against terrorism.
‘Humanitarian Intervention’
Authors: Rodley Nigel S.
Published: July 2016

This chapter examines whether so-called humanitarian intervention is a lawful exception to the international law prohibiting use of force when rescuing populations from widespread grave human rights violations, without UN Security Council authorization under Chapter VII. It considers what type or level of human rights violation or abuse justifies ‘humanitarian intervention’ if it were permitted, with reference to the R2P categories of genocide, ethnic cleansing, war crimes, and crimes against humanity. It discusses the UN Charter provisions and state practice on the prohibition on use of force, and criteria used to determine the legality of action deemed humanitarian intervention. The chapter describes tests that an intervention would have to pass and would be applicable to mitigate culpability, including gravity of the situation, political neutrality, the circumstances of the Security Council’s inability to act, and principles of necessity and proportionality. It argues that there is no humanitarian exception to the prohibition of the use of force in international law.
Hot Pursuit
Authors: Gilmore Bill
Published: July 2016

This chapter examines the doctrine of ‘hot pursuit’ used by the state to exercise its coercive powers beyond national territory for law enforcement purposes. It discusses hot pursuit by sea, land, and air in the context of international law, particularly with respect to self-defence and reprisal. Whilst hot pursuit is well recognized in the customary international law of the sea, it has yet to achieve that form of normative recognition in relation to pursuit on land or by air. The chapter considers the debate over hot pursuit as a legal justification for cross-border military incursions independent of the right of self-defence and describes the concept of extended constructive presence before concluding with an analysis of hot pursuit in a use of force context.
The Implications of the Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction for the Prohibition of the Use of Force
Authors: Joyner Daniel
Published: July 2016

This chapter examines the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction (WMD) between states and non-state actors and its implications for international law governing the use of force. It considers whether WMD proliferation and changes in security realities have brought a crisis in international law on the use of force and discusses the use of pre-emptive force for preventing states and non-state actors ‘of concern’ from developing and using WMD. It analyses the shift in the policy positions of the US and other relatively powerful states, from more multilateral and diplomacy-based ‘non-proliferation’ to increased emphasis on proactive and often unilateral or small-coalition-based ‘counterproliferation’. It looks at concerns that several states will be emboldened to apply the doctrine of counterproliferation-oriented pre-emption to their regional conflicts. Finally, it evaluates proposals to reform the provisions and procedures of the UN Charter system for regulating the use of force, including the law on self-defence.
The Relationship between Jus Ad Bellum and Jus In Bello
Authors: Keichiro Okimoto
Published: July 2016

This chapter discusses the relationship between jus ad bellum (international law regulating the resort to force) and jus in bello (law of armed conflict). It examines state practice, international decisions, and expert opinions to determine how the relationship has been addressed in practice. The chapter considers the question of whether jus in bello applies equally to the unlawful and lawful parties to an armed conflict before turning to the legal implications of the cumulative requirements of the law of self-defence and international humanitarian law (IHL) imposed on a use of force in self-defence. Finally, it considers the legal implications of the concurrent application of Chapter VII of the UN Charter and IHL with respect to use authorized under Chapter VII.
Aggregating Survey Data to Estimate Subnational Public Opinion
Authors: Brace Paul
Published: July 2016

Public opinion’s role in shaping governmental actions is a central concern of democracy, yet the absence of systematic state-level survey data has inhibited analyses of public opinion at the subnational level. This essay traces the evolution of studies of public opinion at that level, first reviewing studies using surrogates derived from demographic variables. It next considers methodologies that develop state-level opinion from aggregated national samples. Finally, it discusses recent efforts to develop state-level opinion measures using post-sample stratification integrating limited survey data with demographic variables. There is evidence of significant cross-sectional and temporal variation in public opinion and policy across and within the states. Research on subnational public opinion once hinged on assumptions about opinion surrogates, but is now based on abundant and progressively rigorous opinion data. These studies reveal that public opinion plays an enormous role in subnational politics, with effects varying across issues, contexts, and conditions.
Musical Grammar
Authors: Gjerdingen Robert O.
Published: July 2016

This article discusses musical grammar and the factors that shape it, including the psychological abilities and constraints that determine what humans can learn, remember, and reproduce. It illustrates the notion of musical grammar by imagining how music works and is explained in a fictional world—the land of Bijou. Bijouan music has similarities to an artificial music used in a recent empirical study of how listeners can learn a musical grammar through repeated exposure to an initially unfamiliar type of music. The article examines the laws of harmony, the principle of chordal inversion, the many meanings of musical grammar, the operations of syntax, and the importance of memory before concluding with a description of how musical grammar was taught in the conservatories of eighteenth- and nineteenth-century Europe.
Communities of Practice and Situated Learning in Health Care
Authors: Nicolini Davide , Scarbrough Harry , Gracheva Julia
Published: July 2016

In this chapter we examine the origins, nature and practical implications of the idea of “community of practice”. We argue that the concept has been used both to illuminate the challenges of creating a “learning culture” in health care and to establish initiatives promote knowledge transfer and sharing. After clarifying some of the key concepts under discussion, the chapter illustrates the general features of this broad family of interventions, discusses their characteristics and summarizes their key success factors. It also shows how the ideas of community of practice and situated learning have been applied in diverse ways by health care organizations and funders, how theses ways of knowing and learning have been inserted into the established institutional order, and the mixed, but sometimes promising, outcomes which have flowed from them.
Accountability in Health Care
Authors: Byrkeflot Haldor , Vrangbaek Karsten
Published: July 2016

The debate on accountability within the public sector has been lively in the past decade. Significant progress has been made in developing conceptual frameworks and typologies for characterizing different features and functions of accountability. However, there is a lack of sector specific adjustment of such frameworks. In this chapter we present a framework for analyzing accountability within health care. The chapter makes use of the concept of “accountability regime” to signify the combination of different accountability forms, directions and functions at any given point in time. We show that reforms can introduce new forms of accountability, change existing accountability relations or change the relative importance of different accountability forms. They may also change the dominant direction and shift the balance between different functions of accountability. The chapter further suggests that developments in accountability regimes are best analyzed with a combination of top-down and bottom up perspectives and that there is a need to develop research strategies to support this aim.
Pharmaceuticals, Money, and the Health Care Organizational Field
Authors: Lipworth Wendy
Published: July 2016

Using an institutional theory framework, this chapter discusses the place of the pharmaceutical industry within the health care organizational field, and the wide-ranging effects the industry has on the other organizations in the field. It then provides a snapshot of the discourse that has emerged about the pharmaceutical industry, and about commercialization and marketization of the health care more generally. This paints a picture of deep ambivalence toward the pharmaceutical industry, both within and between stakeholder groups. The chapter ends with an effort to explain this ambivalence as the effect of competing institutional logics. This, in turn, points to some suggestions as to how the pharmaceutical industry might be better accommodated within the health care organizational field, without losing sight of the need for ongoing critique of industry behavior.
Interprofessional Interactions and their Impact on Professional Boundaries
Authors: Fitzgerald Louise
Published: July 2016

Previous debates on the system of professions predominantly focused on medicine or a single profession. This chapter argues for an examination of the interactions between differing professions/occupations as an alternative approach to analyzing shifting professional boundaries. The chapter explores empirical data on professional interactions across the entire system from the medical profession to unqualified assistants. Two core themes emerge—firstly, minimal role blurring between doctors and nurses, but more substantive workplace blurring between nurses and health care assistants (HCAs); and secondly, significant role merging between doctors and managers with the gradual, variable development of an elite of medical managers. This chapter argues professional interactions are revealing. They illuminate the extent of autonomy of individual professions; and one discovers novel issues of power, professional control and accountability.
Unique Ethical Challenges for Psychiatric Practice
Authors: Radden Jennifer
Published: July 2016

Some features that collectively serve to distinguish psychiatry as a unique social and medical practice impose distinctive ethical challenges for practitioners. Challenges discussed are: (1) those associated with data protection and obligations around confidentiality; (2) those resulting from the practitioner’s expertize over core societal values; (3) those engendered by the controversy surrounding psychiatric practice; (4) dilemmas arising from dual roles, particularly when they are imposed by judicial and public safety institutions; and finally (5) those associated with visions of a post-psychiatry world put forward by critics of present day practices. In each of these ways, the ethical demands borne by the practitioner in psychiatry are distinctive and beyond the ordinary, in part as the result of a multiplier effect among the factors involved. Some challenges involve ethical dilemmas, others call for particular moral strengths (or character virtues), or extra obligations in practitioners; yet others place the practitioner in situations of ethical vulnerability.
The “Corporate Contract” Today
Authors: Klausner Michael
Published: July 2016

This chapter examines the theoretical and empirical validity of the “contractarian” theory of corporate governance Beginning with an overview of the contractarian theory and its conceptualization of the relationship between managers and shareholders of a public company, it explains how the theoretical assumptions of the contractarian theory have turned out to be invalid and how the empirical predictions of the theory have not been borne out. The process by which “corporate contracts” develop do not fit the neoclassical model of atomistic competition. As a result, the customization and innovation that the contractarian theory predicts do not occur—either at the IPO stage or at the “midstream” stage when companies are publicly traded.
External and Internal Asset Partitioning
Authors: Hansmann Henry , Squire Richard
Published: July 2016

This chapter analyzes the economic consequences of external and internal asset partitioning, and it considers implications of this analysis for creditor remedies. External partitioning refers to the legal boundaries between business firms and their equity investors, while internal partitioning refers to the legal boundaries within corporate groups. The chapter begins by cataloguing the benefits and costs of corporate partitioning; it then employs this catalogue to analyze the relative economics of external and internal partitioning. Non-partitioning functions of subsidiaries are also identified. The chapter then considers whether cost-benefit analysis predicts how courts actually apply de-partitioning remedies, with particular emphasis on veil piercing and enterprise liability. The chapter concludes by arguing that courts should employ the distinction between external and internal partitioning when applying creditor remedies that disregard corporate partitions, and it identifies factors—in addition to whether a partition is internal or external—that courts should consider when deciding whether to de-partition.