bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Office and Industrial
Authors: Thrall Grant Ian
Published: November 2020

A developer needs advice on the market for commercial space, including office and industrial properties. An owner of a commercial building needs to determine how much to charge for leased space, how much to sell the property for, or how much the property can be refinanced for. A purchaser needs to determine if market conditions support purchasing commercial space, or renting, and at what price. The real estate market analyst is responsible for the creation and assembly of information to guide such decisions. A background overview of real estate market analysis for the product categories of office and industrial projects is presented. The hedonic approach hypothesizes that a variety of phenomena contribute in one way or another to determining market rent. In a hedonic model, office or industrial property rent or occupancy rate may be the dependent variable of a regression equation, as explained in chapter 4. The phenomena that are hypothesized to cause the value of the dependent variable are the independent variables of the regression equation. Some examples of independent variables that have been hypothesized and examined in hedonic models as to their contribution to determining office market rent are listed below: . . . Terms of lease (Glascock et al. 1990). Architectural design (Hough and Kratz 1983) Building characteristics (Vandell and Lane 1989) Access to white collar employment (Clapp 1980) Local property tax rates (Wheaton 1984) Status and prestige (Archer 1981; Archer et al. 1990) Agglomeration—benefits of high geographic concentrations of specialized office establishments for specific kinds of industry (Gad 1979; Kroll 1984) Spillovers from close geographic proximity (Clapp et al. 1992). . . . Hedonic models might also include dummy variables as independent variables to represent the presence of some characteristic or phenomenon. The dummy variables have an assigned the value of 1.0 to denote the occurrence of some characteristic and 0.0 to denote its absence. An expectation must be developed by the analyst on how markets and submarkets differ in their rents, vacancy rates, and absorption rates and what their trend is expected to be.
Porous Media Flows
Authors: Furbish David Jon
Published: November 2020

So far our treatment of fluid motions has not emphasized the behavior of fluids residing within porous geological materials. Let us now turn to this topic and, in doing so, make use of our insight regarding purely fluid flows. The general topic of fluid behavior within porous geological materials is an extensive one, forming the heart of such fields as groundwater hydrology, soils physics, and petroleum-reservoir dynamics. In addition, this topic is an essential ingredient in studies concerning the physical and chemical evolution of sedimentary basins, and the dynamics of accretionary prisms at convergent plate margins. In view of the breadth of these topics, the objective of this chapter is to introduce essential ingredients of fluid flow and transport within porous materials that are common to these topics. Our first task is to examine the physical basis of Darcy’s law, and to generalize this law to a form that can be used with an arbitrary orientation of the working coordinate system relative to the intrinsic coordinates of a geological unit that are associated with its anisotropic properties. We will likewise examine the basis of transport of solutes and heat in porous materials. We will then develop the equations of motion for the general case of saturated flow in a deformable medium. In this regard, several of the Example Problems highlight interactions between flow and strain of geological materials during loading, because this interaction bears on many geological processes. Examples include consolidation of sediments during loading, and responses of aquifers to loading by oceanic and Earth tides, and seismic stresses. We will concentrate on the description of diffuse flows within the interstitial pores of granular materials, as opposed to flows within materials containing dual, or multiple, pore systems such as karstic media, or media containing both interstitial and fracture porosities. We will consider unsaturated, as well as saturated, conditions. For simplicity, the subscript h is omitted from the notation of quantities such as specific discharge q and hydraulic conductivity K.
The Adaptivity of Multiplicity
Authors: Siegler Robert S.
Published: November 2020

By itself, cognitive variability would be an interesting curio, but no more. What makes it important is the potential it offers for adapting to task and situational demands. Realizing this potential, however, requires wise choices among the available alternatives. If children know two strategies—one faster, the other more accurate—they will benefit only if they choose the faster strategy when speed is most important and choose the more accurate when accuracy is. Choosing randomly will yield worse performance than always using the approach that on average yields the best outcome. Thus, the higher the quality of choices among alternative approaches, the greater the benefits of cognitive variability. How well do children choose? The conclusions of developmental psychologists have tended to emphasize the negative. Those interested in metacognition have focused on findings that children who have been taught new strategies often do not use them when they later are free to choose (e.g, Ghatala, Levin, Pressley, & Goodwin, 1986; Keeney, Cannizo, & Flavell, 1967; Paris & Lindauer, 1982; Williams & Goulet, 1975). Those interested in decision making have focused on situations in which children choose alternatives with lower expected values over ones with higher values (Byrnes & McClenny, 1994; Klayman, 1985). Those interested in planning have focused on situations in which children who have heard the virtues of planning extolled nonetheless fail to plan (Friedman, Scholnick, & Cocking, 1987). Those interested in scientific reasoning have emphasized cases in which children who have discovered advanced experimentation strategies nonetheless continue to choose less advanced ones (Kuhn, Amsel, & O’Laughlin 1988). These and related findings have led to generally negative conclusions about children’s ability to choose wisely among alternative ways of thinking. To cite two examples: . . . Children do not monitor well and often fail to make appropriate executive decisions.
A New Agenda for Cognitive Development
Authors: Siegler Robert S.
Published: November 2020

My goal in writing this book is to change the agenda of the field of cognitive development. In particular, I want to promote greater attention to the question that I believe is inherently at the core of the field: How do changes in children’s thinking occur? Focusing on change may not sound like a radical departure from current practice, but I believe it is. It will require reformulation of our basic assumptions about children’s thinking, the kinds of questions we ask about it, our methods for studying it, the mechanisms we propose to explain it, and the basic metaphors that underlie our thinking about it. That modifications of all of these types are being proposed as a package is no accident. Just as existing approaches have directed our attention away from the change process, so may new ones lead us to focus squarely on it. This concluding chapter summarizes the kinds of changes in assumptions, questions, methods, mechanisms, and metaphors that I think are needed. My initial decision to write this book was motivated by a growing discomfort with the large gap between the inherent mission of the field—to understand changes in children’s thinking—and most of what we actually have been studying. As I thought about the problem, I came to the conclusion that existing assumptions, methods, and theories acted in a mutually supportive way to make what we typically do seem essential, and to make doing otherwise—that is, studying change directly—seem impossible. Even approaches that proclaimed themselves to be radical departures from traditional theories maintained many fundamental assumptions of those theories. An increasing body of empirical evidence, however, indicates that some of the assumptions are wrong and that the way in which they are wrong has led us to ignore fundamental aspects of development. In this section, I describe prevailing assumptions regarding variability, choice, and change, and propose alternatives that seem more consistent with empirical data and more useful for increasing our understanding of how changes occur.
Population Theory: Academia's Stepchild
Authors: Hardin Garrett
Published: November 2020

"Every year Malthus is proven wrong and is buried—only to spring to life again before the year is out. If he is so wrong, why can't we forget him? If he is right, how does he happen to be so fertile a subject for criticism?" I wrote those words in the 1960s in an introduction to an anthology of essays on population. How naive I was! I supposed that the voices that were then sounding the alarm about population growth would at last get the public's attention. And so they did for about a decade during which environmentalists made common cause with populationists. But some of the most influential of the environmental activists viewed population as a dangerous and unwanted diversion from what they conceived to be humanity's true problems. Their stifling of public concern for population problems was reinforced during the Reagan years by self-styled "supply-side economists." Soon the predominent population message broadcast by both the political left and the political right was "Not to worry!" In 1968 ZPG, Inc., was founded to promote zero population growth as an ideal both for the United States and for the world. Its membership was confined mostly to 350 chapters on college campuses. Twenty-one years later, in 1989, the number had shrunk to just nine. Though Paul Ehrlich's The Population Bomb was a bestseller in 1968, worrying about population growth did not become a growth industry. Malthusians saw population growth as a "root cause" of inflation, unemployment, pollution, congestion, unwanted immigration, influxes of heartrending refugees, trade wars, drug wars, and terrorism. Each of these pathologies has many causes; anti-Malthusians belittled population. Common economic experience made it hard to believe that a population gain of 2 to 4 percent per year (which characterizes poor countries) could be serious; the less than one percent annual growth rate found in rich countries seemed even more trifling. Students of population, however, pointed out that the average gain in world population during the past million years has been less than 0.002 percent per year. That "small" rate of increase, operating over a million years, has produced our present five billion people, not a "small" number by any standard. When it comes to rates of increase that are continued indefinitely, no rate that exceeds zero by the most minute amount can be regarded as small.
Generating the Future
Authors: Hardin Garrett
Published: November 2020

An enduring problem of social life is what to do about the future. Can we predict it? Can we control it? How much sacrifice are we willing to make in the present for the promise of a better future? The questions are harrowing, and agreement comes hard. The year 1921 was a time of famine in some parts of the newly formed Soviet Union. An American journalist, visiting a refugee camp on the Volga, reported that almost half of the people had died of starvation. Noticing some sacks of grain stacked on an adjacent field, he asked the patriarch of the refugee community why the people did not simply overpower the lone soldier guarding the grain and help themselves. The patriarch impatiently explained that the seed was being saved for next season's planting. "We do not steal from the future," he said. It would be too much to claim that only the human animal is capable of imagining what is yet to come, but it is difficult to believe that any other animal can have so keen an appreciation of the demands of the future. Alfred Korbzybski (1879- 1950) called man "the time-binding animal." Binding the future to the present makes sense only if understandable mechanisms connect the two. This understanding was notably missing in the writings of the anarchist-journalist William Godwin. Unlike Malthus, he could make no sense of the fluctuations of human numbers. "Population," he said, "if we consider it historically, appears to be a fitful principle, operating intermittedly and by starts. This is the great mystery of the subject.. .. One of the first ideas that will occur to a reflecting mind is, that the cause of these irregularities cannot be of itself of regular and uniform operation. It cannot be [as Malthus says] 'the numbers of mankind at all times pressing hard against the limits of the means of subsistence.'" Rather than trying to see how appearances might be reconciled with natural laws, Godwin simply said there were no natural laws. His proposal to replace law with "fhfulness" led one of his critics to comment: "Perhaps Godwin was simply carrying his dislike of law one step farther. Having applied it to politics (1793) and to style (1797), he now applied it to nature (1820). He deliberately placed a whole army of facts out of the range of science."
Fundamentals of Composite Elastic Properties
Authors: Chimenti Dale , Rokhlin Stanislav , Nagy Peter
Published: November 2020

In this chapter, we review the mechanical behavior of composites considered from a macroscopic perspective, i.e., the microscopic heterogeneity of the material is ignored in this treatment. Our objective is to provide an overview of the basic composite constitutive behavior and to set the notation for the subsequent chapters. To establish this framework, we draw on concepts from continuum mechanics and elasticity, both of which are also covered by specialized books on these topics. The results in this chapter are important for us because they provide the theoretical framework for all the elastic wave phenomena we describe in detail in the subsequent chapters. Stress in a solid body is measured in force per unit area; there are normal stresses, acting along a normal to the infinitesimal element of the area, and shear (tangential) stresses, acting in the plane of the element. Let us assume that an infinitesimal traction force dT acts on an infinitesimal surface element dA = ndA, where n denotes the normal unit vector of the surface element. In index notation, the stress tensor is then defined through . . . dTi = σijdAj. (1.1) . . . The sign convention for the stress tensor in a Cartesian coordinate system is shown in Fig. 1.1. The choice of coordinate system is arbitrary, but for the sake of simplicity and concreteness, let us develop the relationships in a Cartesian system. They can all be generalized at a later time. Only the stress components acting on the surface elements with positive normal vectors are shown for clarity. On the surface elements with negative normal vectors, the stress directions are opposite. Conventionally, the first index indicates the normal of the surface the stress component is acting upon and the second index indicates the direction of the resulting traction force (however, we will show shortly that equilibrium conditions require that the stress tensor be symmetric, therefore the order of the indices is only of academic importance). For example, σ11 is the normal stress acting on the x2, x3 plane in the x1 direction, σ12 is the shear stress acting on the same plane in the x2 direction, and so forth.
Waves in Periodically Layered Composites
Authors: Chimenti Dale , Rokhlin Stanislav , Nagy Peter
Published: November 2020

Composite materials, unless they are quite thin, often include periodic layering, where laminated plates composed of alternating uniaxial plies in two or more directions result in more evenly distributed in-plane stiffness. The oriented plies can generally be reduced to a unit cell geometry which repeats throughout the laminate and is composed of sublayers each having highly directional in-plane stiffness, but identical out-of-plane properties. As the transverse isotropy of a uniaxial fibrous ply derives from the geometry of the two-phase material, composite laminates of these plies will have microscopic elastic stiffness tensors which change only in the plane of the laminate, as we saw in Chapter 1. The elastic properties normal to the laminate surface remain unchanged from ply to ply. In this chapter we take up the subject of waves in periodically layered plates. Unusual guided wave dispersion effects have been observed experimentally in periodically layered plates. Shull et al. found, for guided waves polarized in the vertical plane in plates of alternating aluminum and aramid–epoxy composites, that dispersion never scales with the frequency–thickness product, as it would in homogeneous isotropic, or layered transversely isotropic, plates. Instead, grouping of the mode curves has been observed. In an attempt to understand this behavior in terms of periodic layering, Auld et al. have analyzed the simpler case of SH wave propagation in periodically layered plates and have demonstrated that these observed phenomena can be attributed to the pass band and stop band structure caused by the periodic layering. In this section, we will show that Floquet modes play a critical role in the behavior of guided waves in plates that are periodically layered. To analyze the problem, we apply an extension of the stiffness matrix method of the previous chapter. Floquet modes, which are the characteristic modes for the infinite periodically layered medium, can be thought of as the analogy—in a periodically layered medium—to the quasilongitudinal and quasishear modes for the infinite homogeneous medium. On the topic of infinite periodic media, many calculations, both approximate and exact, have been performed to model elastic wave propagation in this important class of structures.
Classical Approximation
Authors: Kowalski Marek A. , Sikorski Krzystof A. , Stenger Frank
Published: November 2020

In this chapter we acquaint the reader with the theory of approximation of elements of normed spaces by elements of their finite dimensional subspaces. The theory of best approximation was originated between 1850 and 1860 by Chebyshev. His results and ideas have been extended and complemented in the 20th century by other eminent mathematicians, such as Bernstein, Jackson, and Kolmogorov. Initially, we present the classical theory of best approximation in the setting of normed spaces. Next, we discuss best approximation in unitary (inner product) spaces, and we present several practically important examples. Finally, we give a reasonably complete presentation of best uniform approximation, along with examples, the Remez algorithm, and including converse theorems about best approximation. The goal of this section is to present some general results on approximation in normed spaces.
Splines
Authors: Kowalski Marek A. , Sikorski Krzystof A. , Stenger Frank
Published: November 2020

Spline functions are important approximation tools in numerous applications for which high degree polynomial methods perform poorly, such as in computer graphics and geometric modelling, as well as for various engineering problems—especially those involving graphing of numerical solutions and noisy data. Algorithms based on spline functions enjoy minimal approximation errors in wide classes of problems and minimal complexity bounds. In this Chapter we provide a brief introduction to basic classes of polynomial splines, B-Splines, and abstract splines. Further study of spline algorithms as applied to linear problems is outlined in Chapter 7. In this section we define polynomial spline functions, exhibit their interpolatory properties, and construct algorithms to compute them. It turns out that these splines provide interpolating curves that do not exhibit the large oscillations associated with high degree interpolatory polynomials. This is why they find applications in univariate curve matching in computer graphics.
Explicit Sinc-Like Methods
Authors: Kowalski Marek A. , Sikorski Krzystof A. , Stenger Frank
Published: November 2020

In this section we derive several methods of approximation using the function values {f(kh)}∞k=- ∞ . We present a family of simple rational functions, which make possible the explicit and arbitrarily accurate rational approximation of the filter, the step (Heaviside) and the impulse (delta) functions. The chief advantage of these methods is that they make it possible to write down a simple and explicit rational approximation corresponding to any desired accuracy. Also, the three families of approximations are very simply connected with one another—the filter being related to the Heaviside via an elementary transformation, and the impulse being the derivative of the Heaviside. Thus, these methods make it possible for us to approximate generalized functions. In this section we discuss various methods, some of which are new, for approximating a function f ( t ) using the values f(0), f(±h), f(±2h), . .., where h > 0.
Recursive Enumerability and Recursivity
Authors: Smullyan Raymond M
Published: November 2020

Having proved that Peano Arithmetic is incomplete, we can ask another question about the system. Is there any algorithm (mechanical procedure) by which we can determine which sentences are provable in the system and which are not? This brings us to the subject of recursive function theory, to which we now turn. we are denning a relation (or set) to be r.e. (recursively enumerable) iff it is Σ1, and to be recursive iff it and its complement are r.e. An equivalent definition of recursive enumerability is represent ability in some finitely axiomatizable system (as we will prove). Many other characterizations of recursive enumerability and recursivity can be found in the literature (cf., e.g., Kleene [1952], Turing [1936], Post [1944], Smullyan [1961], Markov [1961]), but the Σ1-characterization fits in best with the overall plan of this volume. The fact that so many different and independently formulated definitions turn out to be equivalent adds support to a thesis proposed by Church—namely that any function that is effectively calculable in the intuitive sense is a recursive function. Interesting discussions of Church’s thesis can be found in Kleene [1952] and Rogers [1967]. In this chapter, we establish a few basic properties of recursive enumerability that will be needed in just about all the chapters that follow. §1. Some Closure Properties. It will be convenient to regard sets as special cases of relations (sets are thus relations of one argument or relations of degree 1). It will be convenient to use the l-notation “λx1,...,xn : (...)”, read “the set of all n-tuples (x1,..., xn) such that (...)”. For example, for any relation λ(x1, x2, x3), the relation λx1x2x3: R(x2 x2, x3) is the set of all triples (x1,x2,x3) (of natural numbers) such that R(x2,x2,x1) holds. we sometimes write “x: (. . . )” for “λx: ( . . . ) ”.
Relationships between Stress and Strain
Authors: Erman Burak , Mark James E.
Published: November 2020

In the first section of this chapter, the relationships between the Helmholtz free energy, the stress tensor, and the deformation tensor are given for uniaxial stress. These relations follow from the general discussion of stress and strain given in appendix C, and the notation and approach closely follow the classic treatment of Flory. The detailed forms of the stress-strain relations in simple tension (or compression) are given in the remaining sections of the chapter for the (1) phantom network, (2) affine network, (3) constrained-junction model, and (4) slip-link model. Results of theory are then compared with experiment. The effects of swelling on the stress-strain relations are also included in the discussion. It is to be noted that the stress-strain relations in this chapter are obtained by treating the swollen networks as closed systems. The conditions for such systems are fulfilled if solvent does not move in and out of the network during deformation. A network swollen with a nonvolatile solvent and subject to simple tension in air is an example of a closed system. The same network at swelling equilibrium and subjected to compression will exude some of the solvent under increased internal pressure, and is therefore not a closed system. For semiopen systems, such as those under compression, or, in general, networks stressed while immersed in solvent, a more general thermodynamic treatment is required. This situation will be taken up in the following chapter.
Segmental Orientation
Authors: Erman Burak , Mark James E.
Published: November 2020

Segmental or molecular orientation refers to the anisotropic distribution of chain-segment orientations in space, due to the orienting effect of some external agent. In the case of uniaxially stretched rubbery networks, which will be the focus of this chapter, segmental orientation results from the distortion of the configurations of network chains when the network is macroscopically deformed. In the undistorted state, the orientations of chain segments are random, and hence the network is isotropic because the chain may undertake all possible configurations, without any bias. In the other hypothetically extreme case of infinite degree of stretching of the network, segments align exclusively along the direction of stretch. The mathematical description of segmental orientation at all levels of macroscopic deformation is the focus of this chapter. Segmental orientation in rubbery networks differs distinctly from that in crystalline or glassy polymers. Whereas the chains in glassy or crystalline solids are fully or partly frozen, those in an elastomeric network have the full freedom to go from one configuration to another, subject to the constraints imposed by the network connectivity. The orientation at the segmental level in glassy or crystalline networks is mostly induced by intermolecular coupling between closely packed neighboring molecules, while in the rubbery network intramolecular conformational distributions predominantly determine the degree of segmental orientation. The first section of this chapter describes the state of molecular deformation. In section 11.2, the simple theory of segmental orientation is outlined, followed by the more detailed treatment of Nagai and Flory. The chapter concludes with a discussion of infrared spectroscopy and the birefringence technique for measuring segmental orientation. For uniaxial deformation, the deformation tensor λ takes the form λ = diag(λ, λ-1/2, λ-1/2), where diag represents the diagonal of a square matrix, and λ is the ratio of the stretched length of the rubbery sample to its undeformed reference length. The first element along the diagonal of the matrix represents the extension ratio along the direction of stretch, which may be conveniently identified as the X axis of a laboratory-fixed frame XYZ. The other two elements refer to the deformation along two lateral directions, Y and Z.
1986
Authors: Anastos Milton V.
Published: November 2020

I began my academic career most inauspiciously by being detained after school in the first grade. My offense was that, when called upon to read, I could never find the point at which my predecessor in the reading lesson had left off. Then I aggravated the situation by a similar failure after school. I do not now recall how many times I had to submit to this humiliation. Nor can I understand why I did not have the wit to point out in my defense that I had learned to read with ease long before entering the first grade. My trouble was that, as soon as the class started to read about the enthralling adventures of Jack and Jill, Fannie and her apple, the house that Jack built, and the rest, I raced on excitedly to the end of the tale, so as to discover for myself how these noble characters had made out in their perilous confrontation with the universe. Consequently, when my turn came to read, I was completely lost and had no idea of what part of the story had been left to me. As I ponder this lugubrious chapter in my history, I cannot remember how I explained my ignominy to my mother. She was a generous and kindly lady, who, however, was altogether intolerant of academic derelictions on the part of her offspring. Had she known of the undeserved suffering I had been undergoing, she would have stormed upon my schoolhouse and torn the place apart—brick by brick. So much, then, for my agonies in the first grade. But at least I was never left back in kindergarten. This ignominious fate, candor compels me to point out, overtook my dear wife, Rosemary Park, that peerless college president and vice-chancellor of UCLA. Despite her virtuosity in such kindergarten exercises as weaving—over one, under one; over two, under two, etc.—that poor girl got stuck in kindergarten for two years.
1990
Authors: Kristeller Paul Oskar
Published: November 2020

I welcome this opportunity to pay my personal tribute to Charles Homer Haskins, a great American scholar and historian whose work I have always admired, whose contributions are still valid and worth reading many decades after his death, and whom I consider a worthy guide and model for all present and future practitioners of historical scholarship. This honor comes to me quite unexpected, and even as a surprise, for my background is foreign and untypical (though I have lived in this country for over half a century); the subject that interests me most, the history of Western philosophy and thought, has become increasingly unfashionable, and has been called irrelevant and useless, elitist and Eurocentric, and even undemocratic (perhaps I could make it more palatable by calling it the study of interconceptual space); and my method, which tries to combine the philosophical interpretation of original texts with the pertinent skills of history and philology, and of their auxiliary disciplines such as diplomatics and chronology, palaeography and bibliography, is now considered hopelessly traditional and even antiquated, as I have been told more than once by foundation officials, administrators and colleagues, reviewers and critics. This occasion prompts me to say a few words that reflect my experience and my opinions, and I apologize in case they displease some of my listeners. I have been exposed over the years to many words and thoughts that displease me, and I might claim for once my right to the freedom of speech. I do not think that I am unwilling to stand corrected when some of my statements are refuted by solid facts or arguments, and I am quite ready to admit that there are many areas and problems that lie outside my special field of interest and that deserve to be explored by other scholars. I also admit that my advanced age may make me obtuse and unresponsive to certain new subjects or methods that may turn out to be perfectly legitimate.
Bimodal Plasma Sheet Flow
Authors: Kennel Charles F.
Published: November 2020

How does the plasma sheet respond to the complex pattern of waves coming over the poles from bursty magnetopause reconnection events, or to the vortices and other irregular perturbations coming around the flanks of the magnetosphere in the low-latitude boundary layer? It is probably too much to expect that the complex input from the dayside will sort itself out into a steady flow on the nightside, but there has been a seductive hope that, on a statistical basis, the observations of the plasma sheet could be rationalized using steady convection thinking. This hope depends on the belief that the average magnetic field configuration in the plasma sheet actually is compatible with steady convection. The first doubts on this score were raised by Erickson and Wolf (1980), and were subsequently elaborated by Tsyganenko (1982), Birn and Schindler (1983), and Liu and Hill (1985); the“plasma sheet pressure paradox” they posed is the subject of Section 9.2. Theoretical arguments are one thing, measurements are another; the truly important issue is whether the real plasma sheet manifests steady flow. Several groups have searched large data sets to see whether the statistically averaged flow in the central plasma sheet resembles the flow predicted by the steady convection model. This effort has led to a growing but still incomplete comprehension of the statistical properties of plasma sheet transport. Results obtained using ensembles of data acquired by ISEE 1 and AMPTE/IRM will be reviewed in Section 9.3. The unusual distribution of bulk flow velocities suggests that the plasma sheet flow is bimodal, alternating between a predominant irregular low-speed state and an infrequently occurring state of high-speed earthward flow. In search of steady plasma sheet flow, one could also look into substormfree periods of stable solar wind properties. One of the best such studies, in which great care was taken to find periods of exceptionally stable solar wind and geomagnetic conditions, is reviewed in Section 9.4. Even this study found highly irregular and bursty flow.
On The Relation Between Convection And Substorms
Authors: Kennel Charles F.
Published: November 2020

Why after 30 years of research have we not settled the relationship between substorms and convection? Why after 30 years are there still substantially different, competing models of substorm onset? Why has the progression from phenomenological to fully quantitative understanding not occurred? Answers to such questions will probably only become clear in retrospect, after the transition to quantitative understanding has taken place; in the meantime, we can only express our individual views. In our view, there have been three central difficulties. Contradictory pictures of plasma sheet transport have been able to flourish side-by-side because this fundamentally unsteady and highly spatially structured system was and is undersampled. As a result, people can still argue about when and where tail reconnection occurs in the substorm sequence, and other issues equally fundamental. Moreover, it is still not possible to connect the substorm onset in the auroral ionosphere to an event in space. For one thing, there is the timing problem: Waves communicate events’ existence across the magnetosphere and to the auroral ionosphere within a minute or two. We are only beginning to study the magnetoionosphere system globally with the required time resolution, and until we do so, there will be a “chicken and egg” problem. Finally, two key measurements are missing. No plasma sheet signatures of auroral arcs have been identified, so we do not know when a spacecraft is connected to a potential auroral onset region. We do not yet have an accepted ionospheric diagnostic of plasma sheet reconnection and the plasmoid formation; there is no auroral data display that illustrates at a glance the relationship of plasma sheet events to the onset and expansion of the substorm. Despite all this, there is real cause for optimism. The sheer magnitude of the observational effort and the volume and diversity of the results produced over the years have finally enabled us to perceive how complex the behavior of the magnetosphere really is. As our perceptions have evolved, we have designed multi-instrument, multi-spacecraft studies of ever-increasing comprehensiveness, articulation, and resolution, which further clarified our perceptions. All this effort is beginning to pay off.
The Use of GIS to Measure Spatial Patterns of Ethnic Firms in the Los Angeles Garment Industry
Authors: Arnold Christopher G. , Appelbaum Richard P.
Published: November 2020

The purpose of this chapter is to describe the methodology and present some initial results in our efforts to understand the role of spatial organization in ethnic economies of the Los Angeles garment industry. Our research goal was to provide a spatial dimension to our database in order to test theories maintaining that space is a critical component of economic transactions. To this end, we created analytical grids of various resolutions using three GIS functions: address matching, polygon generation, and identity overlay. The grids were then transformed into matrices and tested for spatial autocorrelations using Statistical Analysis System (SAS) routines proposed by Griffith (1992). The following section presents brief arguments for the importance of space from the perspectives of industrial district and ethnic economy theories. The third section describes the research site and data sources. The fourth section outlines the analytical concerns of spatial autocorrelation and the modifiable areal unit problem (MAUP), which leads to a discussion of the relevant GIS operations in the fifth section. The sixth section presents spatial autocorrelation measures that show a direct relationship between spatial concentration and economic success in the Los Angeles garment district. The concluding section summarizes the importance of GIS as an analytical tool. Both industrial district and ethnic economy perspectives are based on assumptions about the importance of space. Business economists and geographers show that arrangements within spatially concentrated, tightly integrated industrial districts are critical to globally competitive industries, rapid information flow, lowered transaction costs, and increased control over production, permitting quick and flexible responses to changing market demands (Scott and Mattingly 1989; Piore and Sable 1884; Storper and Walker 1992; Storper and Christopherson 1987). In particular, Porter (1990)—a Harvard Business School economist and member of former President Reagan’s Council on Competitiveness— emphasizes that geographic concentration increases local competition as well as fostering such “emotional factors” as trust, pride, and bragging rights. Spatial concentration, while less prominent in discussions of ethnic economies, remains an underlying factor in providing a venue for the exchange of cultural capital.
Empirical and Methodological Problems in Developing a GIS Database for Yanomanö Tribesmen Located in Remote Areas
Authors: McGwire Ken , Chagnon Napoleon A.
Published: November 2020

For almost thirty years Chagnon has been studying the settlement patterns of a large cluster of remote Yanomamö communities in southern Venezuela, documenting population growth, mortality patterns, fissioning, dispersal, and pioneering of adjacent virgin areas of tropical forest. Approximately fifteen villages, with a current (1992) population of about 2000 individuals, have been studied. During a period of some 150 years, members of these communities have cleared and subsequently abandoned approximately five hundred sites whose geographical locations are very poorly known. In 1990 and 1991, Charles Brewer Carías, a Venezuelan naturalist, joined Chagnon in this research effort. Recent field research has resulted in geographic and demographic data suggesting that long-term warfare patterns may be contests over the apparently more desirable lowland areas, where economic activities are less costly in terms of energy and resources are more abundant or easier to obtain. Periodic village movements, provoked by hostilities with neighbors, require that relatively large lowland areas must be controlled so that groups can move around within them and maintain maximum distance from enemy groups. To do this, lowland villages must grow large and politically bellicose. When they fission, usually at a size of about 150 to 200 people, some of the resulting smaller groups are driven out and take refuge in more rugged but economically less productive highland terrain, where they adopt a less bellicose political stance toward their neighbors. Rates of mortality due to warfare, frequencies of abduction of women from neighbors, and other sociodemographic attributes distinguish highland from lowland communities in the overall area (Chagnon 1992). Geographic information systems are considered effective methods for organizing and analyzing the variety of spatial information required to test such hypotheses of relationships between environment and social processes. A GIS-based approach would allow maps of parameters relating to resource distribution and environmental characteristics to be compared to a rich and growing record of field observations. Analysis based on GIS would support data management requirements by allowing accurate identification and positioning of cultural and environmental features within a consistent map base.
A Time to Rend, A Time to Sew: New Perspectives on Northern Anasazi Sociopolitical Development in Late Prehistory
Authors: West Carla Van , Kohler Timothy A.
Published: November 2020

Slightly before A.D. 1300, the Four Corners area of the North American Southwest was abandoned by prehistoric agriculturists. By that time, populations had undergone three major cycles of aggregation into large settlements, first constructing relatively large “public” facilities and then redispersing. The reasons for the final abandonment of this area, as well as for the earlier collapse of the Chacoan-related system of the mid-1100s, are classic areas of archaeological inquiry. Recently, the earliest cycle of village formation and dispersal, in the A.D. 800s, has come under increased scrutiny as well (Orcutt et al. 1990; Wilshusen 1991). In this paper we reexamine these phenomena by posing a simple but fundamental question: Under what conditions will farmers find it in their own best interest to share the food they produce? Whatever the particular features of these cycles of aggregation and dispersion, we suggest that periods of increasing complexity in the fabric of sociopolitical organization—which involve the growth of settlements, elaboration of social roles and networks, and heightened cooperation in building, hunting, and exchange—are constructed on top of reliable systems of food sharing beyond that expected among close kin. Such resource pooling has the effect of reducing the impact of variability in agricultural production in an area where great unpredictability surrounds the growing of food. Our thinking about how to approach these systems of food sharing has been influenced by recent analyses of sharing among hunter-foragers (e.g., Kaplan and Hill 1985; Smith 1988) and by current discussions of risk and uncertainty in behavioral ecology and microeconomics (Clark 1990; Stephens 1990). This study focuses on an area in southwestern Colorado about 3 5 km north of the New Mexico border and immediately east of the Utah state line. Notable landmarks include the northward bend of the Dolores River on the northeast, the escarpment of the Mesa Verde in the southeast, and the commanding presence of a volcanic laccolith—Sleeping Ute Mountain—on the south.
An Analysis of Late-Horizon Settlement Patterns in the Teotihuacan-Temascalapa Basins: A Location-Allocation and GIS-Based Approach
Authors: Ruggles Amy J. , Church Richard L.
Published: November 2020

The general interest of linking GIS capabilities and location-allocation (L-A) techniques to investigate certain spatial problems should be evident. The techniques and the technology are often complementary. A GIS can provide, manage, and display data that L-A models require; in turn, L-A models can enhance GIS analytic capabilities. This combination of information management and analysis should have wide appeal. The technique and technology may be especially wellmatched when one considers many of the special requirements of archaeological applications of L-A models. We intend to investigate and illustrate the value of such a combined approach though the example of a regional settlement analysis of the Late Horizon Basin of Mexico. Geographic information systems are increasingly common in archaeology. Their ability to manage, store, manipulate, and present spatial data is of real value, since the spatial relationship between objects is often an archaeological artifact in its own right. Space is central to both archaeological data (Spaulding 1960; Savage 1990a) and theory (Green 1990). Although GIS may not always offer intrinsically new and different manipulations or analyses of the data, they can make certain techniques easier to apply. There is a wide spectrum of GIS-based modeling applications in archaeology (Allen 1990; Savage 1990a). The anchors of this spectrum range from the use of GIS in the public sector in cultural resource management settings to more research-oriented applications. The strongest development of GIS-based archaeological modeling is probably in the former context. Models developed here are predominantly what Warren (1990) identifies as “inductive” predictive models where patterns in the empirical observations are recognized, usually using statistical methods or probability models. This type of application is usually identified with “site location” modeling (Savage 1990a). As defined, these models do not predict the probable locations of individual sites but rather calculate the probability that a geographic area will contain a site, given its environmental characteristics (Carmichael 1990: 218). The primary role of GIS in many of these applications is to manage and integrate spatial information and feed it to some exterior model.
Case Studies in Drug Delivery
Authors: Saltzman W. Mark
Published: November 2020

This chapter illustrates the concepts presented throughout the book through the examination of three different clinical scenarios in which new methods for drug delivery are needed. Many agents cannot be administered orally because of poor absorption from the intestinal tract into the blood, yet they are rapidly eliminated once they enter the blood stream. Section 10.1 describes a controlled delivery system that produces prolonged levels of such an antiviral agent in the blood. The brain is protected from changes in blood chemistry by the blood-brain barrier; this natural defense mechanism makes drug delivery to the brain difficult. Section 10.2 describes one method for achieving prolonged concentrations of an active agent within a region of the brain. Finally, some agents are active on the skin or mucosal surfaces but must be present for long periods. Section 10.3 presents a method for prolonging the residence time of macromolecules on a mucosal surface. The three problems incorporate both aspects of the drug delivery challenge: design of methods or materials for introducing drugs into the body and optimization of the design to integrate the delivery system with the body’s natural mechanisms for distributing and eliminating foreign agents. Viral diseases are a significant cause of disability and death. Many deadly viral diseases—such as smallpox and polio—are now under control, due largely to the development of protective vaccines, but vaccines for certain viral illnesses have been difficult to develop. The development of an AIDS vaccine has been a priority among biomedical research efforts since the mid-1980s; tremendous energy and resources have been invested in this pursuit, but clinical progress towards a vaccine has been slow. On the other hand, antiviral therapies have had a significant impact on the clinical care of AIDS patients, particularly since multi-drug regimens targeting the retroviral reverse transcriptase and protease enzymes were developed in the late 1990s. However, many patients cannot tolerate aggressive antiviral therapy and development of drug-resistant viral strains is a persistent problem. Therefore, the search for alternative methods for blocking retroviral infections continues.
Postscript
Authors: Saltzman W. Mark
Published: November 2020

Drug delivery—like other technologies—is a result of scientific inquiry, a natural collaboration between discovery and invention. This spirit is obvious in drug therapy: it links Harvey’s inquiry into the circulatory system with intravenous injections, the molecular biology of receptors to targeted drug delivery systems. We must invent to discover, and discover to invent. Trail-marking has great benefits, but also perils; being shown a direction can make it more difficult to leave the pathway. It is my hope that you will have found something here that engages you, a flash that persuades you off the path and into the forest.