bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Extraction of oil from soybeans
Authors: Serrato A. Garcia
Published: March 2007

Modern processing plants extract soyabean oil by solvent liquid transfer. Soyabeans are cleaned, cracked, dehulled and conditioned into a thin flake before they enter the extractor. Extraction is by successive, countercurrent washes of hexane solvent. The extracted flakes are then carried by a sealed conveyor to be desolventized in enclosed vessels by application of jacket and sparge steam. Hexane is removed from the oil in rising film evaporators and with final vacuum distillation. Hexane is recovered from the meal and the oil in atmospheric condensers. The complete plant installation is explosion‐proof and all equipment is sealed and vapor‐proof. For a good operation, soyabeans must be clean, undamaged and at the correct moisture and temperature. Parameters of the process in the plant are: tonnage, hexane loss and energy usage. Oil quality is measured in terms of free fatty acids, absence of residual hexane and crude oil color. Meal quality is determined by residual oil, moisture, protein, urease activity protein solubility and mesh size in the finished product. Innovations at modern plants include degumming of the oil, lecithin drying and blending and production of soyabean meal with high protein solubility for human consumption.
Degumming, refining and bleaching soybean oil
Authors: Wiedermann L. H.
Published: March 2007

This subject deals with the removal of the fat‐soluble impurities from crude soybean oil. These impurities may be present in true solution or in a colloidal state; their effective removal is necessary to achieve quality standards for end‐use products. The processing step options for the removal of these impurities in any given situation are easily defined; the conditions and practices used, however, are the primary concern of this paper. International trading of soybean oil mandates the degumming step. The increased use of import/export soybean oil increases the importance of this processing practice. Pretreatment and effective contact time are the critical issues. Refining, as a specific process, deals primarily with free fatty acid removal, with or without simultaneous degumming as a single‐step operation. State‐of‐the‐art wet, chemical refining practices are described, and the current limitations and future opportunities for the physical refining of soybean oil are discussed. The importance of the bleaching step cannot be overstated and it should be noted that color reduction is only coincidentally achieved. The primary function of the bleaching process is to remove oxidative breakdown products, and the degree or level of treatment should be consistent with that objective. Underbleaching and thermal decolorization (deodorization) of soybean oil are misguided practices. Once “cleaned‐up” through adequate bleaching, an oil should be guarded against thermal/oxidative abuse.
Processing and utilization of by‐products from soy oil processing
Authors: Woerfel J. B.
Published: March 2007

Crude soybean oil contains a number of materials which must be removed to produce a neutral, bland‐flavored and light‐colored refined oil. While at times these materials may have been considered waste constituting a disposal problem, they are, in fact, valuable byproducts when efficiently recovered and processed. Methods of recovery and processing lecithin, soapstock and deodorizer distillate at the refinery level are reviewed. Process and analytical control are discussed. Some of the important end uses are listed.
Germination of soybeans and its modifying effects on the quality of full‐fat soy flour
Authors: Suberbie F. , Mendizábal D. , Mendizábal C.
Published: March 2007

Usually, full‐fat soy flour has some disadvantages in flavor, odor and stability. A soybean germination process was developed to improve the quality of full‐fat soy flour. Advantages of the process were evaluated determining protein dispersibility index (PDI), trypsin inhibitor (TI) and lipoxygenase activities, milling capacity, odor and flavor score during the different stages of the process. In the final stages of the process, a marked decrease in lipoxygenase and TI activities were observed. The PDI increased with germination time in unheated soybeans. Odor and flavor scores improved substantially. Milling capacity dropped as germination time was increased.
Methods for analysis of processed soya oil
Authors: Frankl G.
Published: March 2007

In a soybean oil processing plant, instrumental analysis plays an important role in monitoring the quality of oil produced. It is capable of providing analytical data with greater sensitivity, selectivity and efficiency than manual analysis. Some of the latest developments in instrumental methods are discussed with regard to their use in soybean oil analysis. Particular attention is paid to liquid chromatography, atomic absorption spectrophotometry, nuclear magnetic resonance and colorimetry. Relevant applications of each are given.
Fat levels in layer feeds
Authors: Reid B. L.
Published: March 2007

Supplemental fat, at levels up to 4–6% of the diet, has been shown to produce an “extra‐caloric effect” beyond explanation, on the basis of metabolizable energy (ME) contribution to the diet. In addition, during periods of high‐temperature stress (above 27 C mean daily temperature), consumption of ME above maintenance requirements decreases to an extent incompatible with economic production of eggs. The feeding of supplemental fat under these conditions to hens less than 50 weeks of age resulted in increased ME intakes and significant increases in egg production, egg weight, or both. This improved performance has been found to be associated with both the reduced heat increment of most diets when fat is added, and the effect on ME consumption. Fatty acid composition was not found to be related to improved performance.
Energy levels for broilers
Authors: Waldroup P. W.
Published: March 2007

One of the most important decisions to be made in feeding poultry is to determine the level of energy that will balance growth, carcass quality and efficiency of feed utilization with profitability of production. Strict adherence to measures of efficiency such as feed:gain ratios has caused many to overlook the potential benefits of modifying energy levels periodically to adjust to changes in price relationships among ingredients and in cost and quality of the finished product. It has been consistently shown that if an adequate quantity of essential nutrients is maintained in relationship to dietary energy, increasing levels of dietary energy for broilers results in a more rapid rate of gain and improvement in feed conversion efficiency. Controversy exists regarding the influence of dietary energy levels on carcass composition and quality, but in general, carcass fatness increases as dietary energy level increases. Selecting the optimum dietary energy level for broiler diets depends upon many factors, not all of which have been fully defined or quantitated. Higher energy levels may allow for more rapid gains or for a greater quantity of meat to be produced in a given time so that capital costs of housing, equipment and labor may be reduced. On the other hand, the ingredient and production costs of higher energy diets in contrast to diets of lower energy density may negate the benefits of improved performance.
Color, trypsin inhibitor and urease activity as it affects growth of broilers
Authors: McNaughton J. L.
Published: March 2007

In five experiments, the relationships among trypsin inhibitor contents, urease index and color in soybean meal (SBM), and the effects of those relationships on broiler chick performance were determined. Raw, solvent‐extracted SBM was dehydrated to 2% moisture; then 0, 4, 8, 12, or 16% moisture was added and autoclaved at 120 C in sealed containers from 0 to 135 min with 15‐min intervals. Urease and trypsin inhibitor contents decreased with either increasing moisture content or cooking time. With 16% added moisture, 30 min of cooking time was required to decrease urease index to an acceptable level, and 45 min was required to decrease trypsin inhibitor contents. Raw SBM autoclaved with less than 12% added moisture contained urease and trypsin‐inhibitor contents that were not considered undesirable, regardless of cooking time used. Increased moisture and cooking time resulted in decreased trypsin inhibitor and urease contents, increased broiler growth, improved feed efficiency and decreased pancreas hypertrophy. Commercial SBM, containing 12 ug trypsin inhibited per mg of protein (µ/mg), a tristimulus+α (redness) color value of +3.21, and a urease index of 0.19 ΔpH, was autoclaved for 0–25 min with 5‐min intervals to determine the effect of additional heat on broiler performance and SBM color. The commercial SBM, heated an additional 10 min, contained 1.77 µg trypgin inhibitor per mg of protein, a+a color value of +4.76, and urease index of 0.02 ΔpH. Broiler growth and feed efficiency were improved when the commercial SBM was heated an additional 10 min. Results of this study show that color is a good predictor of trypsin‐inhibitor content and broiler chick performance. Color may be used to predict underprocessing, adequate, and overprocessing of SBM; however, trypsin inhibitor and urease index do not show the effect of overprocessing.
Processing and product characteristics for textured soy flours, concentrates and isolates
Authors: Campbell M. F.
Published: March 2007

During the last 25 years, the development of processes to provide textural properties in soy proteins has greatly increased the market potential for soy protein products. Many different processes based on soy flour, concentrates and isolates have been developed. They have ranged from products to be used in extension of meats to meat analogs themselves. The real success of new processes is measured by their success in the commercial marketplace. The most successful products have been based on thermoplastic extrusion of soy flour. More recently, second generation products made by the thermoplastic extrusion of soy protein concentrates have been introduced. These products have less flavor, wider variety of functional characteristics and greatly reduced flatulence characteristics compared to textured soy flour products. This paper describes processes used to texturize soy proteins and characteristics of the various products. Product characteristics, functionally and economics are key factors in deciding which product to use in end‐product formulations. The wide variety of textured soy proteins available provides a product for each individual need.
Direct consumption of the soybean
Authors: Camacho J. L. , Bourges R. H. , Morales J. , Banafunzi N.
Published: March 2007

Efforts in some Latin American countries directed toward the use of soybeans as a primary source of proteins for human nutrition have especially focused attention on simple home‐level procedures such as the soaking and cooking of soybeans and the lime‐cooking of corn‐soybean mixtures. Data obtained with these two procedures indicate there is great potential in using soybeans directly in human feeding. Soaking soybeans in 0.25% NaHCO3 for 8 hr and cooking for 20 min decreases trypsin inhibitor activity more than 80%, and 40 min of cooking gives chewiness indexes similar to those of common beans with acceptable texture (10–20). The protein efficiency ratio (PER) of a mixture that was 50% soybeans and 50% common beans was 60% higher than that of common beans alone. Considering acceptability and functional characteristics of “masa” (dough) and “tortilla,” an optimum soybean level within the lime‐cooking procedure was found to be 16%. Green pods of soybean varieties adapted to the tropics, at 65 to 85 days of maturation, have the same nutrient content (dry basis) as mature soybeans, with a good quality protein and a good content of B complex vitamins.
Soybean products for feeding infants, children and adults under nutritional stress
Authors: Dutra de Oliveira J. E. , dos Santos J. E.
Published: March 2007

This review points out the good quality of well‐processed soya products. Normal infants, children and adults are able to utilize the protein and other nutrients present in the soya, when fed these products in amounts that will cover their needs. Under nutritional stress, such as in infant malnutrition, soya products such as soya‐milk have been shown to help in the children's recovery. Clinical and biochemical data show that their recovery is similar to that obtained with cow's milk. Milk‐ or lactose‐intolerant children and adults, who present a public health problem in some developing countries, could benefit from the high nutritive value and low cost of soy milk. Soya products have been shown to decrease cholesterol and other levels of blood lipids. Considering the availability of the several soya products in the market, this possibility has to be further explored. The utilization of soya products in preparing liquid formulas for oral or tube‐feeding opens new fields for the treatment of several diseases, insuring at the same time adequate nutrition for the patients. From a practical point of view, in spite of all that is known about soybeans and soybean products, its use as human food, even in countries where it is produced in large quantities, is very low. It seems that local governments are not aware of the importance of soya for the solution to their serious food and nutrition problems. What is known on the subject has to leave the laboratories, research centers and universities and be transferred as food for the mouths of the needy populations. This has to be understood as an urgent duty of national governments. There is no doubt that soya is the cheapest and one of the best‐quality foods available to help solve the present hunger problem of the world today.
World need for protein
Authors: Scrimshaw N. S.
Published: March 2007

On the basis of the 1973 FAO/WHO recommendations for average calorie requirements and safe protein allowances for healthy individuals, both calorie and protein intakes are generally deficient in the lower socioeconomic groups of developing countries, with calories apparently the more limiting in most cases. However, extensive data available since 1973 indicate that the 1973 protein allowances for healthy adults approximated the mean rather than the mean plus two standard deviations as intended. For those individuals in developing countries who are frequently unhealthy, requirements may be even higher. Children have considerably higher protein requirements for catch‐up growth following episodes of acute infection; failure to obtain sufficient protein appears to be a major factor in the pemanent stunting of such children. Requirements for dietary energy increase much less for catch‐up growth than requirements for protein. Comparing calorie intakes with international estimates of requirements has limited validity because of the human capacity to adjust to a decreased dietary energy intake by reducing physical activity. No comparable adaptation is known for low dietary protein intakes; instead, under the conditions responsible for limited food availability, protein requirements are likely to increase because of acute and chronic infections. Although differences in protein quality can be demonstrated by experimental animal and human studies in which protein intake is grossly deficient, little difference is detectable in studies where protein intake is at requirement levels. Thus, soy and other legume and oilseed protein sources can replace animal protein to any degree in human diets.
Nutritional role of soya protein for humans
Authors: Torún B. , Viteri F. E. , Young V. R.
Published: March 2007

This paper reviews the role played by soya protein in human nutrition on the basis of protein quality, energy and protein densities, and availability of trace minerals. The importance of supplementation with methionine was analyzed and it was concluded that there is little nutritional or public health justification for such supplementation when the intake of protein is adequate. The use of refatted soy products has good potential to increase the dietary concentrations of protein and energy, which may be particularly important for children in developing countries and for the elderly or other persons with limited dietary intakes and digestive capacity. Investigations based on chemical balance and on the use of stable isotopes indicate that the iron from soybean is well absorbed by humans, as are inorganic iron and zinc in the presence of soy protein. Soybeans and properly processed soy products have a good protein quality, and when fed in adequate amounts, they can satisfy the total nitrogen and essential amino acid needs of children and adults. Further research related to soy products should be directed mainly toward establishing their overall nutritional value as part of mixed diets or food systems, and not just assess their protein quality. Assessing the protein quality of soy products may be required when major processing modifications are made in the manufacture of soy products for human consumption.
Factors affecting the nutritional quality of soya products
Authors: Liener I. E.
Published: March 2007

The nutritional quality of soya products is determined not only by the quantity and availability of the amino acids which make up the protein of such products, but is also markedly affected by the processing conditions which are employed in their manufacture. The most important factor in this regard is the application of some form of heat treatment which serves to inactivate a number of naturally occurring constituents of the soybean. Although non‐toxic in the truest sense of the word, these are substances which can nevertheless elicit adverse physiological responses in animals, and, unless destroyed, can detract from the full nutritional potential of soya protein. The best known and certainly the most studied of these factors are the inhibitors of trypsin and chymotrypsin, enzymes which play a key role in the digestion of proteins in animals. These will be discussed with respect to their possible model of action in vivo, and an attempt will be made to evaluate their nutritional significance in man. Also present in soybeans are several other heat‐labile components whose physiological significance is less well understood. These include the phytohemagglutinins (lectins), goitrogens, antivitamins and phytates. Less sensitive to the destruction effects of heat are a number of factors which are capable of producing a wide variety of physiological responses in animals and include saponins, estrogens, oligosaccharides and allergens. Although present in readily detectable quantities, their effect on the nutritional quality of soya protein is questionable. Not to be overlooked is the fact that harsh processing conditions such as excessive heat treatment or extraction under alkaline conditions may lead to the destruction of economic importance at the present time, brief consideration will be given to the possible effects of germination and fermentation on the nutritive quality of the protein resulting from such treatments.
Regulatory approach of industrialized countries to accommodate use of soy protein
Authors: Cooper R. L.
Published: March 2007

Government bodies worldwide are moving toward accepting soy proteins in their food supplies. There is a trend toward food laws that allow countries to take advantage of unique nutritional, functional and economic benefits soy protein has to offer. This is a world precedent, soundly based on broad experiences and firmly backed by scientific research and development. There is no longer any need to postpone this important decision to allow soy protein in the food supply. The most critical question at this point should be: “What steps can be taken now to properly incorporate and take advantage of soy protein in the national food supply? Regulations recognizing the benefits of soy protein in the food system need not be complex. A reasonable approach to food legislation attempts: (a) to allow the production of properly labeled, safe, wholesome foods, recognizing new developments in modern food technology; (b) to ensure the nutritional value of foods; (c) to provide sufficient information and understanding to help the consumer make a wise purchase decision; and (d) to adopt controls as required to promote honesty and fair dealing in the marketplace.
Status on development of codex alimentarius standards for vegetable proteins
Authors: Tape N. W.
Published: March 2007

The Codex Alimentarius Commission was established in 1962 to implement the Joint FAO/WHO Food Standards Program. The purpose is to protect the health of consumers, ensure fair practices in food trade, promote coordination of food standards, and to draft, finalize, and publish standards. At the Twelfth Session of the Codex Alimentarius Commission in 1978, the establishment of a Codex Committee on Vegetable Proteins was accepted. The terms of reference for the Committee are “to elaborate definitions and worldwide standards for vegetable protein products deriving from soyabeans, cottonseed, groundnuts, cereals, and from other vegetable sources as they come into use for human consumption; and to elaborate guidelines on utilization of such vegetable protein products in the food supply system, on nutritional requirements and safety, on labeling, and other aspects as may seem appropriate.” The first meeting of the Codex Committee on Vegetable Proteins was held in Ottawa, November 1980. The Committee considered proposed international standards for vegetable protein flours, concentrates and isolates; reviewed draft guidelines for the use of vegetable proteins in foods; and considered labeling declarations concerning the use of vegetable proteins in other foods. In preparation for a second meeting of the Committee, a future program of work was established.
Soy protein in feeding the elderly
Authors: Cook D. A.
Published: March 2007

Protein needs of the elderly may be moderately higher than those of younger adults when expressed as a percentage of total calories. Most experts recommend an intake of ca. 0.8 g protein/kg/day or ca. 12–15% of the total calories. Soya protein appears to be as good as animal protein in meeting the amino acid and protein needs of adult humans when consumed in adequate quantities. Attention must be given to the appropriate heat treatment and processing of soybeans to inactivate non‐nutritional factors. The mineral and vitamin content of the diet should be monitored, because some of these nutrients may be altered or removed in the preparation of soya protein fractions or isolates for use in food products. Further research is needed to fully identify the nutritional requirements of the elderly, especially as affected by disease, trauma and drugs. In addition, nutrient interaction and bioavailability should be studied in foods which are processed by new techniques.
Significance of soya trypsin inhibitors in nutrition
Authors: Rackis J. J.
Published: March 2007

Although recent evidence clearly indicates that trypsin inhibitors (TI) and low protein digestibility are the major factors responsible for the pancreatic hypertrophic and growth inhibitory effects of raw soybeans, there was uncertainty regarding the biological threshold level of TI at which these biological effects occur. To obtain such data, dehulled defatted flakes (10% dietary protein) containing graded levels of TI were fed to weanling rats for 4 weeks in two feeding trials. Normal pancreas weights were obtained in rats fed samples in which only 54 to 68% of the original TI of raw soya flour was inactivated. In partially toasted flakes with a nitrogen digestibility value of 77%, the average tolerance level of dietary TI activity that did not cause pancreatic hypertrophy was calculated to be 385 mg TI/100 g diet. TI tolerance level at maximum nitrogen digestibility of 85%, which did not significantly lower weight gain and reduce protein efficiencey ratios, was 260 mg TI/100 g diet. Continuous ingestion of high levels of TI (459 mg TI/100 g diet) in a 20% protein diet for 215 days did not inhibit growth nor cause pancreatic hypertrophy when compared to rats fed toasted soya flour diets. Pancreatic hypertrophy that occurs in rats fed raw soya diets containing up to about 1300 mg TI/100 g diet for 35 days was reversed by switching the rats to control diets or to 30% toasted flour. In long‐term feeding studies, no pancreatic hypertrophy occurred in rats fed commercial edible‐grade soya flour, concentrate, or isolate from time of weaning to adulthood (ca. 300 to 330 days). TI content of the diets ranged from 178 to 310 mg/100 g diet. Microscopic examination of the pancreas revealed no abnormalities. Gross appearances of heart, kidney, spleen and liver were normal. In long‐term feeding, vitamin B‐12 supplements were needed to provide optimum growth and to maintain body weight. Results of numerous chemical analyses, relatively short‐term human tests and long‐term animal feeding studies indicate that with proper control of manufacturing processes, soya protein products can be produced that, in mixed diets, have protein nutritional value approaching that of animal protein.
Thermal properties of 2‐Oleodipalmitin and 2‐Elaidodipalmitin and some of their mixtures
Authors: Lovegren N. V. , Gray M. S. , Feuge R. O.
Published: March 2007

The polymorphism of 2‐oleodipalmitin (POP), 2‐elaidodipalmitin (PEP), and five of their mixtures was investigated by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). The heat of fusion (ΔHf), heat of crystallization (ΔHc), and heat of transition (ΔHt) were determined. Rapid conversion to higher polymorphs, partial melting during conversion, and the overlapping of polymorphic forms precluded accurate determination of some caloric values. Four of five previously identified polymorphs of POP and all four polymorphs of PEP were identified by DSC. Five POP: PEP mixtures containing 8, 16, 25, 50, and 75% PEP, respectively, were examined. The presence of PEP in POP increased the stability of the lower POP polymorphs and, in concentrations as low as 8%, also increased the conversion rate of the higher POP polymorphs. In these heating curves, POP forms 5, 4, and 3, and a higher melting fraction that consisted of higher polymorphs of POP, polymorphs of PEP, and probably mixed crystals were evident. The ΔHf values for the tempered mixtures are lower, and the ΔHc values for the mixtures are higher than the calculated values. Heating and cooling curves and calorimetric data tables for POP, PEP, and their five mixtures are included.
Composition of the neutral and phospholipid fractions from ginkgo nuts (Ginkgo biloba) and fatty acid composition of individual lipid classes
Authors: Urakami Chieko , Oka Sachiko , Han Jae Suk
Published: March 2007

The purified lipid fraction (1.26% on the wet weight basis) from the nuts ofGinkgo biloba was found to be 90.6% neutral lipids, 7.5% polar lipids, and a very small amount of glycolipids. Main fatty acids in the triglyceride fraction were oleic and linoleic acids, and those in the phospholipid fraction were palmitic acid in addition to these unsaturated acids. The enzymic hydrolysis of the triglyceride and individual phospholipid fractions showed that only the triglyceride and phosphatidylcholine fractions contained relatively large amounts of unsaturated acids in their β‐positions. The gas liquid chromatography‐mass spectrometric analysis of the fatty acids of the steroid ester fraction indicated the presence of lignoceric, cerotic, montanic, and melissic acids as well as a lactone and compounds suspected to be phenolic acids containing long chain diols.
Studies on the hypohalogenation of long chain α,β‐unsaturated acids
Authors: Ansari Ashfaque A. , Ahmad Fasih , Osman S. M.
Published: March 2007

As a result of hypohalogenation, a series oferythro 2(3)‐halo‐3(2)‐hydroxy derivatives of C16, C18 and C22 α, β‐unsaturated acids have been prepared. The structures of the individual isomers were established by chemical and spectral methods. The major products were shown to be 2‐halo‐3‐hydroxy alkanoic acids. Unlike internal halohydrins, the isomeric mixture of these derivatives of long chain α, β‐unsaturated acids was successfully resolved by column chromatography.
Antimicrobial properties of some mixed diesters of aliphatic diols
Authors: Bailey A. V. , Boudreaux G. J. , Sumrell G. , Novak A. F.
Published: March 2007

Twenty compounds, diesters of ethylene glycol, diethylene glycol, orcis‐2‐butene‐1,4‐diol, were screened for antimicrobial activity against a grampositive bacterium,Staphylococcus aureus; a gramnegative bacterium,Escherichia coli; a mold, eitherAspergillus flavus orA. species; and a yeast, eitherCandida albicans orTorula species. All of the compounds were inhibitory against two or more of the test organisms, and eight mixed diesters were inhibitory against all four types of organisms. Each of these eight compounds had a benzoate group at one ester function and an acyl group other than benzoyl, mostly fatty acyl groups of 12–22 carbons, at the other.
Study of rheological properties of margarine
Authors: Stern Petr , Cmolik Jiri
Published: March 2007

Margarines from the rheological point of view are thixotropic plastic semisolids that change their plastic character with changes in the portions of the fat and aqueous phases. Contrary to lard and shortening, the emulsions containing ca. 85 and 15% of the fat and aqueous phases, respectively, follow the Casson equation (similarly as butter), whereas those containing 40 and 60%, respectively, satisfy the Herschel‐Bulkley equation, which affects remarkably the way of evaluating experimental data. A new precise, and objective rheometrical method was developed for evaluating flow properties, which enables one to check quality and stability of margarines over a wide temperature interval just in the course of their production, and this may be helpful during the optimization of technology processes and standardization of product quality.
Protein and oil compositions of sesame seed
Authors: El Tinay A. H. , Khattab A. H. , Khidir M. O.
Published: March 2007

The range of protein in the oil‐free meal and oil in 20 exotic varieties of sesame ranged from 45.0 to 53.7% and 42.2 to 52.1%, respectively; while in 26 local varieties, the ranges were 45.0 to 60.0% and 41.3 to 49.6%. The fatty acid composition showed only small variability. The local types have higher linoleic acid and lower oleic acid amounts than those of the introduced varieties. The amino acid levels of oil‐free sesame meal prepared from both introduced and local varieties were examined. Nearly twofold variations in the limiting amino acids (lysine, isoleucine, methionine, threonine, and valine) were found. Utilization of these variations in amino acid composition should assist the development of sesame protein of improved quality.
Fatty acid composition of oils extracted from Canadian weed seeds
Authors: Daun J. K. , Tkachuk R.
Published: March 2007

The fatty acid composition of the diethyl ether extract from nine varieties of Canadian weed seeds is reported. Fatty acid compositions forRumex pseudonatronatus L. Borbus,Setaria viridis L. Beauv., andChenopodium album L. have not been previously reported.
Separation and determination of trace amounts of bacteriostats using a continuous distillation extraction apparatus
Authors: Goldstein M. M. , Graber M. B.
Published: March 2007

Methodology is described for the determination of very low levels (≥ 100 ng/ml) of triclocarban and triclosan in blood. The technique involves the use of a special continuous distillation extraction apparatus for separating these bacteriostats from blood in a relatively selective and automatic manner. In this procedure the triclosan distills intact, while the triclocarban is hydrolyzed, and the hydrolysis products are distilled and extracted. In addition to describing the apparatus, data are presented on the completeness of the extraction procedure and recoveries from fortified blood samples. Final measurements of the bacteriostats are accomplished by electron capture gas chromatography following appropriate derivative formation to enhance detection sensitivity.
Crystal structures of binary systems of saturated fatty acids
Authors: Frede E. , Precht D.
Published: March 2007

Data on crystal lattices of 13 different mixtures of the system palmitic acid:stearic acid (C16/C18) could be obtained by means of X‐ray and electron diffraction. The modification occurring in all concentrations was found to be in conformity with the known γ4‐ or C‐form of the pure components. It is characterized by the fact that, in mixtures with 95–60 mol % stearic acid, the shorter chained palmitic acid molecules may be incorporated in the crystal lattice of pure stearic acid without dimension c of the unit cell being changed. In concentration ranges of 50–20% C18‐molecules, one form of mixture which proves to be stable is characterized by constancy of nearly all unit cell parameters of various mixture ratios. From SP10 to SP0, the lattice constants of pure palmitic acid are mainly obtained. The occurrence of C18‐molecules of up to 10% in the unit cell of palmitic acid results in a slight decrease of the angle β by 1–2o and an enlargement of the distance to neighbored molecules.
Protein estimation in sesame seed and rapeseed flours and meals by a modified udy dye binding method
Authors: Medina Marjorie B. , Kleyn Dick H. , Swallow William H.
Published: March 2007

The Udy standard dye binding method (shaker mixing) employing Acid Orange 12 was improved through a series of single‐factor experiments designed to approximate the optimum combination of sample size, mixing period, particle size, drying conditions, shaker speed, and number of glass beads added for uniform mixing. The modified procedure yielded a higher recovery of protein and had high correlations with the Kjeldahl method, i.e., 0.991, 0.995, and 0.977 for sesame flour, rapeseed meal, and rapeseed flour, respectively. Mean values obtained by the Kjeldahl and modified dye binding methods from 12–17 analyses each on single lots of sesame flour, rapeseed meal, and rapeseed flour were 58.9% vs. 59.4% 36.1% vs. 36.0%, and 60.0% vs. 59.4%, respectively. A composite analysis of cereals, legumes, and oilseeds by the modified method had a high correlation (0.995) with Kjeldahl results.
Determination of sucrose polyesters by high performance gel permeation chromatography
Authors: Birch C. Grant , Crowe Fred E.
Published: March 2007

Sucrose polyester (SPE) in feces and diets is determined by freeze‐drying the samples, extracting with ethyl ether, and subjecting the extracts to high performance gel permeation chromatography with tetrahydrofuran as solvent. SPE elutes as a single peak before other components of the extract, and is quantitated by a refractive index detector. The relative standard deviation for samples containing 11–60% SPE (dry weight basis) is 2%. The SPE is a mixture of sucrose hexa‐, hepta‐, and octa‐esters with C16 and C18 fatty acids.
Thermal oxidation of mono‐unsaturated short chain fatty acids: I. ethyl 3‐hexenoate
Authors: Whitlock Carol B. , Nawar W. W.
Published: March 2007

Ethyl 3‐hexenoate was oxidized for 6 hr at 150 C. The “mor volatile” fraction was swept out of the oxidizing flask and into a cold trap. The “less volatile” products remaining in the oxidizing flask were isolated by direct injection onto a preparative‐scale gas chromatographic column followed by trapping in glass capillary tubes. The decomposition products were identified by gas chromatography, mass spectrometry, infrared spectrophotometry, and chemical derivatization. The major products included epoxy esters, unsaturated keto‐ and hydroxy‐esters, and dehydrodimers. Aldehydes, short chain esters, and ketones were produced less abundantly. No aldehyde esters were detected.
A rapid screening method for the aflatoxins and ochratoxin A
Authors: Holaday Charles E.
Published: March 2007

A rapid, economical minicolumn procedure for screening aflatoxins and ochratoxin A in a wide range of products is presented. The technique includes high speed blending of the sample with aqueous methanol, purification of the extract with a solution of zinc sulfate and phosphotungstic acid, partitioning in benzene, and minicolumn chromatography. Sensitivities of 4 ppb for the aflatoxins and 20 ppb for ochratoxin A could be achieved; and the simplicity of the method, which includes the use of disposable plastic and glass items, makes the method practical for field or in‐plant applications.
Oxidation of methyl formylstearate with molecular oxygen
Authors: Friedrich J. P.
Published: March 2007

Methyl formylstearate, containing soluble rhodium complex from rhodium‐catalyzed hydroformylation of methyl oleate, is oxidized in an emulsion to methyl carboxystearate. The reaction is carried out in a closed system at 20–25 C in the presence of either air or oxygen (1–3 atm). Conversion to methyl carboxystearate is 87–89% in 2–3 hr; when catalytic amounts of calcium acetate are present, 93–95% is converted. The principal byproduct of oxidation is methyl formyloxystearate, formation of which is suppressed by calcium acetate. Distillation of crude methyl carboxystearate yields a residue containing soluble rhodium (and calcium acetate if used), which after calcining in the presence of a refractory support produces an effective hydroformylation catalyst. Recovery and regeneration of this catalyst provide an economically feasible batch process for methyl carboxystearate.
Viscosity of multicomponent systems of normal fatty acids: Principle of congruence
Authors: Fernandez‐Martin F. , Montes F.
Published: March 2007

Dynamic viscosity coefficients are reported on n‐dodecanoic, n‐tetradecanoic, n‐hexadecanoic, and n‐octadecanoic acids and their binary systems at several temperatures from 70 to 90 C, and on their ternary and quaternary systems at 70 and 90 C. According to experimental data, liquid systems of normal fatty acids obey the “principle of congruence” in the sense that the viscosity of a mixture depends only on its average chain length.
Catalytic hydroformylation of unsaturated fatty derivatives with cobalt carbonyl
Authors: Frankel E. N.
Published: March 2007

Two cobalt‐carbonyl oxo processes were developed to prepare useful products in high yield from fatty derivatives. In one process, hydroformylation in the presence of MeOH at 120 C gives dimethyl acetal esters from either methyl oleate or oleic acid. In the other, a two‐step process, hydroformylation (120 C) followed by hydrogenation (180 C) gives better yields of hydroxymethyl esters from both mono‐ and polyunsaturated fatty substrates. Recycling the cobalt catalyst was demonstrated for the second process. The acetal and acetoxymethyl derivatives of the oxo products have utility as polyvinyl chloride plasticizers.
A study of the color stability of commercial oleic acid
Authors: Lin Sherman S. , Hsieh A. L. , Min David B. S. , Chang Stephen S.
Published: March 2007

Commercial oleic acid has a tendency to develop a dark color during heating. It has been found that this discoloration is partially due to oxidation and partially due to the presence of minor constituents. Their characterization as oxidized and polymerized fatty acids will be reported in a separate paper. The effects of the two factors are synergistic to each other and thus accentuate the darkening of the commercial oleic acid when it is heated under air. Removal of the minor constituents from commercial oleic acid by silicic acid treatment drastically improved its color stability. The generally acknowledged concept that the higher the polyunsaturated fatty acid content in the commercial oleic acid, the lower its color stability, is not correct. The color stability of commercial oleic acid is more predominantly dependent upon the content of minor constituents than that of polyunsaturated fatty acid.
A thiourea‐UV assay for total glucosinolate content in rapeseed meals
Authors: Wetter L. R. , Youngs C. G.
Published: March 2007

A rapid and sensitive method for the determination of the total glucosinolate content in rapeseed is described. The method is based on the specific UV absorbance of the thioureas and oxazolidine‐2‐thiones. Results obtained were confirmed by gas‐liquid chromatography. Recoveries varying from 94 to 103% were obtained for samples containing mixtures of isothiocyanate and oxazolidine‐2‐thione (a total of 0.25 to 0.78 mg per assay). The relative stadard deviation for rapeseed meals varied from 4 to 10% for the total glucosinolate content (expressed as 3‐butenylisothiocyanate) and depended on the size of sample taken. The relative standard deviation for oxazolidine‐2‐thione varied from 5 to 35% for the same meal. The lower limit of detection for rapeseed meal is of the order of 0.25 mg of 3‐butenylisothiocyanate per g.
Differential inhibitory effects of garlic‐derived organosulfur compounds on cholesterol biosynthesis in primary rat hepatocyte cultures
Authors: Gebhardt Rolf , Beck Halgund
Published: March 2007

Using primary rat hepatocyte cultures, the potency of several garlic‐derived organosulfur compounds to inhibit cholesterol biosynthesisin toto as well as at early and late steps of this metabolic pathway was compared. Concerning early steps, allicin significantly inhibited incorporation of [14C]acetate into nonsaponifiable neutral lipids already at concentrations as low as 10 µM, while diallyl disulfide and allyl mercaptan were effective above 100 µM only. Likewise, inhibition in response to the two vinyl‐dithiins started at 500 µM. If [14C]acetate was replaced by [14C]mevalonate, inhibition due to allicin, diallyl disulfide, and allyl mercaptan disappeared suggesting that HMGCoA‐reductase was the target of inhibition. In contrast, for the vinyl‐dithiins a stimulation of mevalonate incorporation was found. Concerning the late step, the potency to exert accumulation of lanosterol presumably by inhibiting lanosterol 14α‐demethylase decreased in the order allicin>diallyl disulfide>allyl mercaptan=1,3‐vinyl‐dithiin≫1,2‐vinyldithiin, the effect of the latter compound being close to zero. With respect to the total inhibition of [14C]acetate labeling of cholesterol, the half‐maximal effective concentration‐value of allicin was determined to be 17±2 µM compared to 64±7 µM for diallyl disulfide and to 450±20 µM for allyl mercaptan. Cytotoxicity as determined by the lactate dehydrogenase leakage assay was slightly higher for the two vinyl‐dithiins than for diallyl disulfide and allyl mercaptan, but was apparent only at concentrations higher than 10 mM and, consequently, was irrelevant for the effects described. These results demonstrate that different garlic‐derived organosulfur compounds interfere differently with cholesterol biosynthesis and, thus, may provoke multiple inhibition of this metabolic pathway in response to garlic consumption. The fact that allicin was the most effective inhibitor argues against the possibility that its degradation products, namely diallyl disulfide or allyl mercapatan, might mediate its effects, a possibility that might be true, however, in the case of the vinyl‐dithiins.
Biosynthesis of eicosapentaenoic acid in the microalgaPorphyridium cruentum. I: The use of externally supplied fatty acids
Authors: Shiran Devora , Khozin Inna , Heimer Yair M. , Cohen Zvi
Published: March 2007

The biosynthetic pathways of eicosapentaenoic acid (20:5n‐3) in microalgae, in general, and inPorphyridium cruentum, in particular, are not known. Some of the putative intermediates along the suggested pathways could not be detected probably due to their low endogenous level. In order to increase the endogenous levels of the intermediates, we provided various fatty acids in the growth medium. Exogenously supplied fatty acids were indeed incorporated into algal lipids and were further metabolized along the n‐6 and n‐3 pathways. In the n‐6 pathway, 18:2 was desaturated to 18:3n‐6, elongated to 20:3n‐6, and subsequently desaturated to 20:4n‐6 and then to 20:5n‐3. In the n‐3 pathway, 18:2 was first desaturated to 18:3n‐3 which was then sequentially converted, apparently by the same enzymatic sequence of the n‐6 pathway to 18:4n‐3, 20:4n‐3, and 20:5n‐3.
Preparation of fatty acid methyl esters from lipoprotein and macrophage lipid subclasses on thin‐layer plates
Authors: Sattler Wolfgang , Reicher Helga , Ramos Pilar , Panzenboeck Ute , Hayn Marianne , Esterbauer Hermann , Malle Ernst , Kostner Gerhard M.
Published: March 2007

A simple, accurate, and fast procedure for quantitative analysis of fatty acids (FA) in simple lipid subclasses from different biological specimens is presented. Lipid extracts of isolated plasma lipoproteins (very low, low, and high density lipoproteins; VLDL, LDL, and HDL, respectively) and permanent J774 mouse macrophages were fractionated into lipid subclasses by thin‐layer chromatography (TLC) on silica gel 60 plates. Bands comigrating with authentic lipid standards were scraped off under argon and subjected to direct,in situ transesterification with BF3/MeOH in the presence of the TLC adsorbent. Fatty acid methyl esters were subsequently quantitated by capillary gas chromatography. A comparison of the FA content present in total lipid extracts and in lipid subclasses separated by TLC revealed recoveries ranging from 93 (J774 cell extracts) to 99.7% (LDL). The method described is applicable for the measurement of FA in individual lipid subclasses and was successfully applied to quantitatively analyze the FA composition of the phospholipid, triacylglycerol, and cholesteryl ester fraction derived from VLDL, LDL, and HDL. In J774 lipid extracts, the FA composition of the phospholipid‐, monoacylglycerol‐, diacylglycerol‐, free fatty acid‐, triacylglycerol‐, and cholesteryl ester fraction was quantitated. In addition we have analyzed the time‐dependent loss of the major HDL polyunsaturated fatty acids (18:2, 20:4) in the phospholipid and cholesteryl ester fraction during copper‐dependent peroxidation of HDL. We have not encountered analytical problems concerning low FA recoveries from CE‐rich lipid extracts as indicated by almost quantitative recoveries of FA in LDL, HDL, and J774 extracts.
Analysis of triacylglycerols by silver‐ion high‐performance liquid chromatography‐atmospheric pressure chemical ionization mass spectrometry
Authors: Laakso Päivi , Voutilainen Päivi
Published: March 2007

Triacylglycerols of the seed oils rich in α‐ and/or γ‐linolenic acid moieties were separated by silver‐ion high‐performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) followed by on‐line atmospheric pressure chemical ionization‐mass spectrometric (APCI‐MS) detection. Mass spectra of most triacylglycerols exhibited abundant [M + H]+ and [M − RCO2]+ ions, which defined the molecular weight and the molecular association of fatty acyl residues of a triacylglycerol, respectively. Silver ions formed weaker complexes with triacylglycerols containing γ‐linolenic acid than with those containing α‐linolenic acid, i.e., the elution order of molecules wasXYTγ>XYTα’,XTγTα>XTαTα>, andTγTγTγ>TγTγTα>TγTαTα>TαTαTα, whereTα=α‐linolenic acid,Tγ=γ‐linolenic acid, andX, Y=fatty acids different from linolenic acid. Furthermore, silver‐ion HPLC resulted in partial separation within equally unsaturated triacylglycerols according to differences in the combined number of acyl carbons. Regioisomeric forms of triacylglycerols were not determined from the seed oil samples, although differences were measured with reference compounds in the relative abundances of [M − RCO2]+ ions formed by a loss of a fatty acyl residue from thesn‐2 position and thesn‐1/3 positions. Silverion HPLC/APCI‐MS provided valuable information for structure elucidation of seed oil triacylglycerols: 43 molecular species were identified from cloudberry seed oil, 39 from evening primrose oil, 79 from borage oil, 44 from alpine currant, and 56 from black currant seed oils. The quantitation requires to be studied further, especially in those cases where several molecular weight species of triacylglycerols eluted in a single chromatographic peak.