bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Causality between Money and Prices: Evidence from
Pakistan
Authors: Husain Fazal , Mahmood Tariq
Published: August 2018

The relationship between money and prices has been a debated
issue among economic schools of thought particularly between the
Monetarists and the Keynesians. The monetarists claim that changes in
money stocks cause changes in price levels. In other words, the
direction of causation runs from money to prices implying that prices
can be controlled through money supply. The keynesians, on the other
hand, argue that money is important but is not responsible for changes
in price levels. Instead, structural factors play important role
suggesting that money supply is not an effective instrument to control
price changes. The causal relationship between money and prices has been
extensively tested in various countries. For example, Brillembourg and
Khan (1979) examined this relationship in USA. Using Sims procedure for
the period 1870-1975, they found unidirectional causality running from
money to prices. Similar directions of causation are reported by Lee and
Li (1983) and Ramachandran and Kamaiah (1992) who investigated the
causal relationship in Singapore and India respectively. On the other
hand, Aghevli and Khan (1978), while investigating the causal
relationship in Brazil, Columbia, the Dominican Republic, and Thailand,
found bidirectional causality between money and prices in these
countries.
Maize in the Rainfed Areas of Pakistan: An Analysis for
Production Sustainability
Authors: Abbas Kalbe , Javed Habib Iqbal , Chughtai Sajjad-ur-rehman
Published: August 2018

The turning issue in agriculture of this era is sustainability
and self reliance. There are several definitions of sustainability
described by various scientists. Broadly, it means that the improvement
in agriculture should be long lasting in view of changing environmental
and socio-economic conditions. The high yielding technology available
today is not fully adopted because of high cost and changing price
structure of the important inputs. Under the present circumstances, the
need arises to tailor the production practices according to the need of
the farmers for long-term adoption. Sustainable agricultural systems are
those that rely on lower inputs of energy and agricultural chemicals to
achieve long-term productivity and environmental compatibility. However,
Balanos (1998) concludes that the low input systems are low in
productivity. Firebaugh (1990) mentioned the proposals given by J.F.
Pars and colleagues that the ultimate target of the farmers in
sustainable agriculture is to increase productivity and profitability.
He also added that we should get benefit from germplasm which can
survive over a long period of time.
1998 Census: The Results and Implications
Authors: Khan Akhtar Hssan
Published: August 2018

The 1998 Census was the fifth nation-wide census to be held in
Pakistan. The earlier censuses were held in 1951, 1961, 1972, and 1981.
It was the British colonial administrators who started the tradition of
holding nation-wide decennial censuses in the year beginning with digit
1. Regular censuses were held in British India from 1881 to 1941.
Pakistan continued with this tradition and conducted its national
censuses in 1951 and 1961. The 1971 census was postponed due to civil
war leading to the separation of East Pakistan. But it was promptly held
in the following year in 1972. The 1981 census was held on time in March
1981, preceded by the Housing Census in December 1980. The present
author was the Census Commissioner at that time.
Globalisation, Technology, and Asian Economic Growth
Authors: Naseem S. M.
Published: August 2018

Although globalisation is by no means a recent phenomenon,1
its new wave has raised a number of questions-both about its supposed
benefits and its alleged adverse consequences. Rather than exploring the
wider ramifications of globalisation, this paper will confine its
purview to the question of technology development and dissemination in
the context of globalisation as it has affected the development of Asian
economies in the last few decades. In particular, the paper will focus
on the somewhat dazzling performance of the East Asian economies in the
last three decades and their equally sharp and unforeseen downturn in
the past two years, which has raised serious doubts first• about the
replicability and later about the robustness of the East Asian
development experience. Although the palpable cause of the current East
Asian crisis has generally been situated in the increasing complexity
and fragility of the global financial system, many prescient
international economists had attributed it to the weakness of the
technological underpinnings of East Asian growth [Krugman (1994)]. The
East Asian crisis has also raised a lively controversy concerning the
impact and desirability of selective micro-economic interventions by
national governments, which have often been oversimplified under the
rubric of 'crony capitalism'. While the debate on which causes
contributed most to the sudden down-turn in the growth of the East Asian
economies remains inconclusive, there seems considerable validity in the
conjecture that their future growth prospects will depend on their
ability not only to master current technologies, but also to
significantly further their technological prowess through R and D and
scientific achievement. Although the infmediate trigger of the present
crisis in East Asia may have been the turmoil in their financial
markets, the underlying problems in the real economy, which have so far
received insufficient attention, stem largely from their incommensurate
technological development.
Power Sector Development in Pakistan and Economic Policy
Issues
Authors: Khan Muhammad Iqbal
Published: August 2018

A study of power sector development in Pakistan is like other
essential infrastructure and basic social overhead facilities. The
provision of electricity is a pre condition for the advancement of other
services to accelerate economic development. Of the total consumption,
households is 41 percent, agriculture 15 percent; industry 27 percent;
others 12 percent includes railway traction.
Technological Capability Building in South Korea: Some Lessons
for Pakistan
Authors: Ansari Javed A. , Khan Rafique A.
Published: August 2018

Recent economic upheavals raise important questions about the
nature of the transformation that has taken place in the East Asian
economics. Are these economics really catching up with the West? Is
there growth process sustainable? Or will they suffer the type of
systemic disintegration experienced by the East European countries
during the 1990s—Paul Krugman (1994) and Young (1994) had demonstrated
similarities in the East Asian and East European growth paths some time
ago. Technological upgrading is an important element in the development
of a sustainable growth strategy. This paper seeks to describe policies
and initiatives taken by the South Korean government to stimulate
technological learning during 1960-1990—the decades during which the
South Korean economy achieved a “miraculous” transformation. The
description relics mainly on Korean sources and is based on our own
field research in that country. Section one describes the technological
learning processes and Section Two presents a discussion of the policies
that facilitated this learning. Section Three briefly addresses the
question: Did this type of technological learning make a contribution
towards enhancing the sustainability of Korean development processes?
The concluding section briefly reflects on the lessons that seem
relevant for Pakistan.
Restoration of Soil Health for Achieving Sustainable Growth in
Agriculture
Authors: Ahmadl Bashir , Ahmad Munir , Gill Zulfiqar Ahmad
Published: August 2018

Total geographical area of Pakistan is 79.61 million hectares
(m.ha.). Area under cultivation is 21.59 m.ha.; of which, only 5.34
m.ha. (i.e., 25 percent) is free from soil limitations and is fit for
intensive agriculture [Mian and Mirza (1993)]. The remaining
agricultural lands have various types of problems including formation of
slow permeability, water logging, salinity and sodicity, and wind and
water erosion. Thus, on an average, three out of four hectares of
cultivated land in Pakistan are in poor health. This in turn is causing
temporary or permanent decline in the productive capacity of the land.
Therefore, poor soil health is posing serious threat to the sustainable
growth of agriculture. The most important on-farm effects of land are
summarised in Table 1.
Farzana Naqvi. Energy, Economy and Equity Interactions in a CGE Model for Pakistan. Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing Company, 1997. Hardbound. Price not given. xxii+290 pages.
Authors: Hina Nazli
Published: August 2018

Modernisation of the agricultural, industrial and household sectors causes the demand for energy to increase more rapidly than its supply. In countries that aim to modernise quickly a heavy investment is required to redress this imbalance. That is why in countries such as Pakistan, the energy has remained on the top of the agenda of loan negotiation with international donor agencies. Energy serves as both a final consumption good and as an essential intermediate input in the production of goods. Thus any change in the price of energy at both these levels affects consumption as well as production and that, in turn, can cause changes in the prices of all other commodities. A change in the prices of exportables affects their demand in foreign markets and any change in the prices of import-competing and nontraded goods affects their demand at home. The net effects of all these changes can be measured in terms of the effects on real GDP, balance of trade, and government revenue. And, because any change in commodity prices exerts a negative impact on real consumption of households; the formulation of a comprehensive energy policy requires a framework that can take the immense complexity of the linkages of all the sectors of the economy into consideration. In the book under review, Dr Farzana Naqvi, argues that the issues of energy pricing can not be examined in isolation and presents a general equilibrium framework to address the complex issues related to energy, economy and equity.
Shirley A. White et al. The Art of Facilitating Participation: Realising the Power of Grassroots Communication. New Delhi: Sage Publications, 1999. Indian Rs 250.00. 367 pages.
Authors: Atiq-ur- Rehman
Published: August 2018

Participatory development has gained considerable recognition and popularity in recent years as conventional approaches have been unable to tackle the widening disparities between scarce resources and endless needs and shorten the rich-poor gap. Their failure is traced to lack of participation of the beneficiaries. Shirley A. White, the editor of this volume, has used contributions from a number of authors who describe their experience in facilitating participation through its major components. The book is divided into three parts: the Art of Activation, the Art of Technique, and the Art of Building Community. The experiences of the authors are in a variety of areas—from facilitation to synergising participation, from catalyst communication to participatory rural communication appraisal, from participatory research to the participatory action research, from participatory rural appraisal to participatory learning, from the use of statistics in participatory development to use of the Internet and community radio in rural development, from role of women in agriculture to children in participatory research and so on. The book also tells a number of success and failure stories across the continents under world organisations like the USAID, UNDP, FAO, UNICEF, WHO, UNESCO, SIDA and others.
Investment, Hysteresis, and Layers of Techniques: A Case Study of
Agricultural Manufacturing Machinery in Multan Division
Authors: Azid Toseef , Noor Muhammad Akbar
Published: August 2018

The behaviour of firms is still a little understood matter.
Why one firm or industry is investing more than the other or what makes
a firm enter or exit from the market, what are the psychological factors
that go to make a choice of this kind are questions that have not been
answered satisfactorily. Concepts like irreversibility, uncertainty,
investment, and the value of waiting are very much there in the
literature, e.g., McDonald and Siegel (1985, 1986); Nickell (1974);
Schmalensee (1972); Hartman (1972); Henry (1974) and LAM (1989) and
others. But the psychology of decision-making on the face of losses has
not received much attention in the literature. That the Economic
Hysteresis1 and Layers of Techniques2, developed by Professor A. Dixit
and Professor P. N. Mathur respectively tackle. The former is discussed
by Pindyck (1988, 1991, 1992) and Dixit (1989, 1989a, 1991, 1992); while
Mathur (1977, 1989, 1990); Law and Azid (1993); Azid and Ghosh (1998)
and Rashid (1989,1989a) have discussed the latter.
The Response of Karachi Stock Exchange to Nuclear
Detonation
Authors: Javed Attiya Y. , Ahmed Ayaz
Published: August 2018

Stock markets are highly reactive to internal and external
developments. News of major events take no time to impact, the Stock
Exchange that quite often serves as a barometer of the good and bad for
the market. The importance of particular events and their effect on the
stock market has been a subject of study in financial literature. Such
studies attempt to assess the extent to which stock markets’ performance
stray’s from the normal around the time of the occurrence of subject
events. The stock market crash in the USA of October 1987 and related
crash in the Far East later in January 1998 led to several studies of
the event.
Conceptual Framework for Growth Triangles
Authors: Aynul Hasan M.
Published: August 2018

In recent years, while the significance of regional trade and
trading blocs within Asia region (AFTA, APEC, ASEAN, SAARC, EAEC, etc.)
has gained considerable interest among the policy-makers and researchers
alike, tangible accomplishments, in terms of enhanced economic
cooperation and trade liberalisation among the trading blocs, are still
muted [Thant et al. (1998), p. 23]. Several reasons and problems have
been cited for the limited success of these formal trading blocs,
particularly in the Asia region, namely:
Pakistani Bureaucracy: Crisis of Governance and Prospects of
Reform
Authors: Shafqat Saeed
Published: August 2018

This paper is divided into three parts. The first part
provides an overview of literature on how the role and assessment of
bureaucracy in the Third World in general and Pakistan in particular has
undergone change. The second part examines the changing socioeconomic
profile and corresponding attitudinal changes if any, in Pakistan’s
bureaucracy. The third part provides guidelines for possible reform in
Pakistan’s federal bureaucracy.
Uso prolongado de benzodiacepinas en el paciente anciano
Authors: Domínguez-Cantero Marcelo
Published: August 2018

Las sociedades americanas y europeas de geriatría avalan la retirada de benzodiacepinas en pacientes ancianos tratados de forma prolongada, ya que su uso se asocia a trastornos del equilibrio, caídas, sedación y confusión. En nuestro estudio describimos el uso de benzodiacepinas en pacientes mayores de 65 años. Se seleccionó a la población atendida en un centro de salud urbano. Se definió como tratamiento prolongado aquellos con una duración superior a seis meses. Los datos se obtuvieron del sistema de información de tarjeta sanitaria facilitados por la comunidad autónoma. Se identificaron los pacientes mayores de 65 años tratados con benzodiacepinas a partir de los datos de facturación electrónica de las recetas de éstos fármacos dispensados en oficinas de farmacia durante el periodo enero-septiembre de 2016. De los 19399 pacientes atendidos en este centro, 6766 tenían una edad mayor de 65 años. El 92.8% de los pacientes con más de 65 años estaban tratados con benzodiazepinas.1263 realizaban un uso prolongado de benzodiacepinas, 92.18% del total. La práctica habitual difiere de las recomendaciones sobre un uso limitado de benzodiacepinas de forma prolongada en pacientes ancianos. Lormetazepan, lorazepam y alprazolam son las benzodiacepinas más prescritas. Pueden priorizarse estas benzodiacepinas a la hora de iniciar programas de desprescripción de benzodiacepinas en la población y proponer otras alternativas no farmacológicas para tratar el insomnio en ancianos.
Perbedaan Kadar Glukosa Darah pada Plasma Edta dan Serum dengan Penundaan Pemeriksaan
Authors: Apriani Apriani , Umami Alfita
Published: August 2018

Abstract: Differences Of Blood Glucose Conditions In Plasma Edta And Serum With Delay Inspection. Blood glucose examination in the laboratory is used to determine blood glucose levels in the body. The delay in the examination can cause a decrease in blood glucose levels, so the results obtained do not match the actual state of the body. This study aims to determine the difference between blood glucose levels in EDTA (Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid) and serum plasma samples that are directly examined and delayed for two hours. This research was conducted using experimental observation method that is an observation of clinical laboratory by measuring blood glucose level using photometer and GOD-PAP (glucose oxidase) method. The statistical test was performed using Z test for two free samples. The results of serum and plasma blood glucose examination in this study showed an average value of glucose levels with EDTA plasma directly examined 89.18 mg/ dl delayed 86.60 mg/ dl and serum directly examined 92.20 mg/ dl delayed 89, 54 mg/ dl. Decreased blood glucose levels delayed two hours in plasma 2.9%, serum 2.7%. The data concluded that there was no significant difference between blood glucose levels using EDTA and serum plasma samples.Abstrak: Perbedaan Kadar Glukosa Darah Pada Plasma Edta Dan Serum Dengan Penundaan Pemeriksaan. Pemeriksaan glukosa darah di Laboratorium digunakan untuk mengetahui kadar glukosa darah di dalam tubuh. Penundaan waktu pemeriksaan dapat menyebabkan penurunan kadar glukosa darah, sehingga hasil yang didapat tidak sesuai dengan keadaan tubuh yang sebenarnya. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui perbedaan antara kadar glukosa darah pada sampel plasma EDTA (Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid) dan serum yang langsung diperiksa dan ditunda selama dua jam. Penelitian ini dilakukan menggunakan metode observasi eksperimental yaitu pengamatan laboratorium klinik dengan mengukur kadar glukosa darah menggunakan fotometer dan metode GOD-PAP (Glukosa Oksidase). Uji statistik dilakukan dengan menggunakan uji Z untuk dua sampel bebas. Hasil pemeriksaan kadar glukosa darah serum dan plasma dalam penelitian ini menunjukan nilai rata-rata kadar glukosa dengan plasma EDTA yang langsung diperiksa 89,18 mg/dl ditunda 86,60 mg/dl dan serum yang langsung diperiksa 92,20 mg/dl ditunda 89,54 mg/dl. Penurunan kadar glukosa darah yang ditunda dua jam pada plasma 2,9%, serum 2,7%. Data tersebut menyimpulkan bahwa tidak ada perbedaan yang signifikan  kadar glukosa darah pada serum dan plasma antara yang ditunda dengan yang langsung diperiksa.
Pengolahan Limbah Cair Tahu Untuk Menurunkan Kadar TSS Dan BOD
Authors: Pradana Tedy Dian , Suharno Suharno , Apriansyah Apriansyah
Published: August 2018

Abstract: Tofu Liquid Waste Processing System Using Aeration And Filtrasi To Lower Levels Of TSS And BOD . The level of TSS and BOD of tofu wastewater in tofu industry in Tebas Subdistrict has exceeded the standard, is TSS = 1320 mg/L in NAB = 200 mg/L and BOD = 161 mg/L in NAB = 150 mg/L. The industrial liquid waste of tofu contains organic substances 40% -60% protein, 25% -50% carbohydrate, 10% fat and other suspended solids in nature can undergo physical, chemical and biological changes that will produce toxic substances. The purpose of this study in to know effectiveness of liquid waste processing know with aeration and filtration process to lower TSS and BOD levels in tofu wastewater. This research is Quasi Experimental with design One Group Pretest-Posttest.. The research sample is 24 samples with 6 repetitions. Statistical test used Paired Sample T-Test with 95% cofidence level. The test results showed the effectiveness of significant decrease in TSS and BOD levels before treatment was given after treatment with aeration and filtration with TSS (p=0,000 <α=0,05) and BOD p=0,000 <α=0.05).Abstrak: Pengolahan Limbah Cair Tahu Untuk Menurunkan Kadar TSS Dan BOD. Kadar TSS dan BOD limbah cair tahu di industri rumah tangga tahu di Kecematan Tebas sudah melebihi standar, yaitu  TSS = 1320 mg/L dengan NAB = 200 mg/L dan BOD = 161 mg/L dengan NAB = 150 mg/L. Limbah cair industri tahu mengandung zat-zat organik yaitu protein 40%-60%, karbohidrat 25%-50%, lemak 10% dan padatan tersuspensi lainnya yang di alam dapat mengalami perubahan fisika, kimia dan hayati yang akan menghasilkan zat toksik. Tujuan penelitian ini adalah untuk mengetahui efektifitas pengolahan limbah cair tahu menggunakan sistem aerasi dan filtrasi untuk menurunkan kadar TSS dan BOD pada limbah cair tahu. Penelitian ini menggunakan rancangan Quasi Eksperimental dengan model One Group Pretest-Posttest. Sampel penelitian sebanyak 24 sampel dengan 6 kali pengulangan. Uji statistik yang digunakan Paired Sample T-test dengan tingkat kepercayaan 95%. Hasil uji menunjukan adanya efektifitas penurunan kadar TSS dan BOD yang signifikan sebelum diberikan perlakuan dengan sesudah diberi perlakuan aerasi dan filtrasi dengan hasil TSS yaitu (p=0,000 < α=0,05) dan BOD (p=0,000 < α=0,05).
Name changes and visions of ”a new Jew” in the Helsinki Jewish community
Authors: Ekholm Laura Katarina , Muir Simo
Published: August 2018

This article discusses an organized name-change process that occurred in the 1930s in the Jewish community of Helsinki. Between 1933 and 1944 in approximately one fifth of the Helsinki Jewish families (c. 16 %) someone had their family name changed. We argue that the name changes served two purposes: on the one hand they made life easier in the new nation state. It was part of a broader process where tens of thousands of Finns translated and changed their Swedish names to Finnish ones. On the other hand, the changed family names offered a new kind of Jewish identity. The name-changing process of the Helsinki Jews opens a window onto the study of nationalism, antisemitism, identity politics and visions of a Jewish future from the Finnish perspective.
Transnational Ashkenaz: Yiddish culture after the Holocaust
Authors: Schwarz Jan
Published: August 2018

After the Holocaust’s near complete destruction of European Yiddish cultural centres, the Yiddish language was largely viewed as a remnant of the past, tragically eradicated in its prime. This article reveals that, on the contrary, for two and a half decades following the Holocaust Yiddish culture was in dynamic flux. Yiddish writers and cultural organisations maintained a staggering level of activity in fostering publications and performances, collecting archival and historical materials, and launching young literary talents. This article provides a cultural historical map of a Yiddish transnational network that derived its unity from the common purpose of commemorating and bearing witness to the destruction of the Jewish heartland in Central and Eastern Europe.
The problem of fatalism
Authors: Ringgren Helmer
Published: August 2018

Since in most languages the words for 'destiny' are rather ambiguous, it is necessary to make it clear from the outset what we mean when referring to a man's destiny. As has already emerged, there are two English words that should be taken into consideration, "destiny" and "fate". According to the Oxford dictionary, "destiny" means (1) That which is destined or fated to happen. (2) That which is destined to happen to a particular person, country, institution, etc.; (one's) appointed lot or fortune. (3) What in the course of events will become, or has become, of a person or thing. (4) The power or agency by which events are unalterably predetermined. The word 'fate' is analyzed as having approximately the same shades of meaning, although in a different order.
Islamic fatalism
Authors: Ringgren Helmer
Published: August 2018

The author sketches the historical background, then the teaching of the Koran, and finally, the development of the typical Islamic fatalism. The fatalism of Islam has to be viewed against the background of the ideas of pre-Islamic Arabia. Unfortunately, there is no other evidence from this epoch that a few poems on a very restricted range of topics which have been able to survive Islamic censure. The conventional and stereotyped character of these poems makes it difficult to decide to what extent they reflect commonly accepted views or the ideas of a certain group. In any case, they present a picture of the pagan Arab which is extremely idealized and formed after a rigid pattern. Historically speaking, Islamic 'fatalism' is the result of a combination of pre-Islamic fatalism and Muhammad's belief in God's omnipotence. From another point of view it is an interpretation of destiny that expresses man's feeling of total dependence, not on an impersonal power or universal order, but on an omnipotent God.
Instances of belief in fate in South India
Authors: Diehl Carl
Published: August 2018

Man's life is predetermined by Karma. The deeds of an earlier existence bear their fruits in the present life. That is why the poor man is poor and the rich is happy with his wealth and good fortune. One man is born a brahman and another spends his days as a pariah. The law of Karma has spread in the wake of Buddhism all over the Indian continent and far beyond, whereas its complement and presupposition Samsara for the most part appears as an intellectual conception with little foundation in popular belief. But Karma is not blind. On the contrary it is absolutely just, and for that very reason inescapable. This is, however, modified in so far as good deeds are both possible and profitable. The fatal consequences of the Karma of previous births end with this span of existence. Life hereafter will depend on the fruits of accumulated Karma here and now.
The transformations of the concept of fate in literature
Authors: Bröndsted Mogens
Published: August 2018

In the course of time the literary idea of fate has been subject to a series of transformations which may also be of some interest from the point of view of comparative religion. The primary point of departure is man's dualistic experience of coming up against an exterior power stronger than himself, which thwarts his actions and intentions. This is supposedly the basic element in all primitive religion: the observation of an external power which decisively controls human life. The first phase, then, is religious, whether this power is conceived to be a plurality of spirits or deities or—most primitive of all, according to a recent trend in comparative religion—as a single 'high god'.
The problems of syncretism
Authors: Ringgren Helmer
Published: August 2018

That which happens when two religions meet is obviously different from case to case. It is possible for two "organized" religions to exist side by side for centuries without any exchange taking place. But otherwise, we are obviously moving along a continuum, the one pole of which is the repression of one of the two religions, the other a complete fusion of them. From another point of view, the results of syncretism may be grouped according to the degree in which the foreign elements are felt as essential or less essential. On this broad definition, the topic before us is vast. As a matter of fact few religions are totally "pure" or homogeneous and free from elements of syncretism or traces of an encounter with other religions.
Syncretism in Nordic folk medicine: critical periods during pregnancy
Authors: Weiser-Aall Lily
Published: August 2018

This article explores the traditions concerning the critical periods during pregnancy when the foetus is exposed to the risk of suffering serious injuries. There is a good deal of such traditions in more recent Nordic and European folklore. But these popular conceptions have merely been recorded without having ever been investigated as to their provenance. In studies of various details in recent Nordic tradition it is possible to establish a striking correspondence between, on the one hand, folk tradition and, on the other, learned publications and popular accounts in books on healing and midwifery. This actualizes an interest to investigate the beliefs about critical periods by a comparison with the theories of the learned tradition.
Replacement or substitution in the meeting of religions
Authors: Diehl Carl
Published: August 2018

This paper provides an investigation of the meeting of Religions. Such a meeting may result in a perpetual existence side by side with no mutual contact or influence perceptible. Examples are easily found, Christians, Muslims and Hindus have lived side by side in India for centuries with little or no contact. Individually they may meet and even be mutually present at religious functions but officially and through 'office-bearers' there was no contact except as attempts at replacement. Another example may be taken from Spain where Christianity and Islam lived for centuries together. Whereas the cultural history of Spain is exhibiting a rich array of products of art, literature and thinking as a result of mutual influence there is hardly any manifestation of religious exchange as far as the organized forms of Christianity and Islam are concerned. Geographical boundaries are not decisive in spite of the popular way of dividing the earth in Christian and non-Christian countries, Buddhist countries and others. Not even the political border lines drawn on principle between "daral Islam,that is extending the mundane area of Islamic control", and the rest of the world is absolute. People of different faiths live side by side without meeting one another as far as their religious experience is concerned.
Old and New Testament figures in Mandaean version
Authors: Segelberg Eric
Published: August 2018

The religion which is commonly called the Mandaean is certainly a most complex entity. There is no standardized doctrine. Neither anthropology, cosmogony nor soteriology have reached that stage of doctrinal clarity which in the West is regarded as desirable. In all these fields of doctrine there are a number of important differences, e.g. as regards such an essential doctrine as the kind or degree of dualism. But however great the doctrinal freedom has been, it has not been too great to prevent Mandaeism from being incorporated into the great flock of Gnostic systems. Some basic features of Mandaean history are known and we are aware to some extent of the components making up the system. Obviously there is a large proportion of biblical, especially Old Testament material, but equally obvious are the Iranian influences. The latter seem to be partly derived from the West, together with the Old Testament and Jewish traditions, and partly incorporated in the tradition when the Mandaeans or Protomandaeans had already settled east of the river Jordan and in Mesopotamia.
IV. A hidden philosophy
Authors: Wikman Karl
Published: August 2018

This part deals with the life history, religious and philosophical interests of botanist Carl Linnæus.
Evocatio deorum: some notes on the Romanization of Etruria
Authors: Bruun Patrick
Published: August 2018

Evocatio deorum is an institution known in antiquity in the Roman and in the Hettite religions. It has therefore been regarded as part of the common Indo-European heritage. It is uncertain towhat extent the Etruscans had inaugurated the evocatio in their world of religious practices. Suggestions that the Etruscans transmitted the institution of the evocatio to Italy and Rome have been taken to prove the Asiatic origin of the Tyrrhenoi. In this context, however, these theories are of little interest. Basically evocatio is a kind of vow. In a trial of strength between two opposing armies, most frequently in the course of a siege, the Roman commander (because evocatio in our sources appears as a Roman institution, the subject, the agent is always a Roman) invokes the assistance of the tutelary god of the besieged, in fact evokes him urging him to desert his people and promising him a sacred precinct, temple, cult and devotion in Rome. Evocatio is a precaution, or a weapon against the enemies of the Roman.
The role of the icon in Byzantine piety
Authors: Rydén Lennart
Published: August 2018

There is a history of doctrinal controversies settled by the six ecumenical councils, from Nicaea (325) to Constantinople (680). It appears that he who makes a picture of a man and calls the man in the picture "Christ" is guilty of heresy. For either he thinks that he can circumscribe Christ's divine nature together with His human and so confuses Christ's two natures, which is monophysitism, or he says that he only wants to make a picture of Christ's flesh. But, in so doing, he gives the flesh of Christ a separate existence and adds a fourth person to the Trinity, and this is Nestorianism. The pictures of Christ that the painters produce are false pictures. What, then, constitutes a true image of Christ? This question was answered by Christ Himself on the eve of His passion, when He took bread, blessed it and said, "This is my body," and distributed wine and said, "This is my blood." The bread and wine that pass from the realm of the common to that of the holy through the blessing of the priest constitute the only true image of the body of Christ. This image does not have the form of man and therefore does not provoke idolatrous practices. It is further pointed out that there is no prayer that could transform the icons from mere matter into something holy. The pictures of the Virgin, the saints and the prophets do not offer the doctrinal dilemma which makes the picture of Christ unacceptable. Yet they must be rejected. The craft of idol-making, which makes what is not present seem to be present, was invented by the pagans, as they had no hope of resurrection.
Literary symbols and religious belief
Authors: Linnér Sven
Published: August 2018

Characteristic of the modern situation is the lack of any distinction between the languages of belief and non-belief. Thus, over a wide area, a believer on the one hand may use symbols which are in no way recognisable as specifically Christian, and may do so even when he wishes to portray experiences of a profoundly religious character; as reader, he can also recognise such experiences in the symbolism of the non-believer. A non-believer, on the other hand, may use Christian symbols without enabling us to attribute to him any conversion to faith. How then is one to describe the difference between believing and expressing a belief one does not share? The essential difference should be seen as resting in the attitude towards the truth of the symbol or statement of belief. In addition, at least as far as the Christian faith is concerned, there is also a moral obligation which is a consequence of faith. Furthermore, there is the sense of communion with those who embrace the same faith.
The Siberian Shaman’s technique of ecstasy
Authors: Siikala Anna-Leena
Published: August 2018

Changes in the field of observation and body image, attenuated grasp of reality and self-control, which may lead to identification with authority in the case of the shaman with supranormal powers, are all identifying features of shamanic ecstasy. It also appears that some of the basic elements of the shamanic tradition can be explained on the basis of typical marks of identification of altered states of consciousness. A sense of depersonalization and transcendence may in itself act as an impetus to cosmic journey fantasies. Without doubt, such feelings are at the very heart of the tradition containing the schism between mind and body. Thus, by placing the shamanic technique of ecstasy beside parallel modes of behaviour, possibly of different cultural background, we discover the guide lines for analysing its basic psychophysical properties. When studying a phenomenon such as shamanism, where the method of inducing trance is marked by the occurrence of certain common features and whose culturally-bound meaning and social function are, broadly speaking, uniform, we may assume that despite individual variation the basic mechanism of the technique of ecstasy may be delineated. What, then, is the ideal process of the shamanic trance technique? What factors exert particular pressure on the behaviour of the shaman? Shamanic practice differ from other means of attaining ecstasy with its emphasis on the ritual role-taking technique aimed at the supranormal counter-roles, the "spirit-helpers". The shaman's generalized reality orientation is cut off by means of suitable ritual requisites, the extinguishing of the lights and the noise of intensified drumming. Its place is taken by special orientation, a world created by the shamanic tradition, fantasies of supranormal beings and their dwelling places. The shaman actualises one spirit role after another according to a set pattern.
The Noajdie and his ecstasy: a contribution to the discussion
Authors: Bäckman Louise
Published: August 2018

It is obvious that the trance state of the noajdie (the Saami shaman) and his supposed abilities to discover hidden and unknown things have fascinated the neighbours of the Saamis ever since the first contacts were established. The view of the Saamis as the wizards (trollkarlar) has been dominant in the history of the Saamis from time immemorial right up to the present day, a history that has been written for example by the Scandinavians. From the Viking sagas, we know that a noajdie had an aura of sorcery, and that the "Finns", meaning the Saamis were in general looked upon as skilled in the arts of magic. In the historical sources, as well as in the archives, there are also documents from the time of the colonization of the Saami area, in which amazement at, and dread of, Saami sorcery is profoundly expressed by the intruders.
The Tacziya ecstasy as political expression
Authors: Hjärpe Jan
Published: August 2018

Ta'ziya, "consolation", has become the Shi technical term for the liturgical mourning and commemoration of the martyred Imams, particularly the ritual lamentation for the death of Husayn, celebrated formerly often in the form of passion plays in which the heart is the drama of Kerbela, but in which in addition the whole of human history is viewed sub specie Kerbelae. Nowadays the celebration is first and foremost in the form of processions (in our Western mass media called "demonstrations"), enga ing huge masses of people in emotion-evokingbehaviour, also including processions to the cemetery. For the contents of the classical Shi'i passion plays and their performance, and for the theological interpretation of the sacrifice of Husayn and the other martyrs, we refer the reader to the available literature on the subject. The Ta`ziya of Husayn falls in the month of Muharram, with its culmination on the 10th day (ruz-i katl, "the day of the murder"), the Ashara' festival, and is followed up by the mourning ceremony on the 40th day (naziarba' in) from the 'Ashura' (20th day of Safar). It is important to note the immense impact of the Ta'ziya on the emotions of the participant masses, emotions aroused by several means. We have here the suggestive sentimentality of the speeches held by the Mullas, dwelling on the tribulations and sufferings of Husayn and his family and followers, on the cruelty and baseness of his enemies, and on the courage of the 72 noble-hearted martyrs of Kerbela. In the processions, the emotions are aroused by the rhythmical repetition of formulae expressing mourning for the martyrs and hatred of their murderers. Many of the participants are dressed in shrouds, many wear chains, ropes and scourges, and the lamentations are accompanied by self-flagellation of the naked backs. People beat their breasts, some have put earth on their heads. Women weep, bewailing the pains of Husayn and the 72.
Ecstasy and mysticism
Authors: Hof Hans
Published: August 2018

Phenomena such as ecstasy and mysticism display both psychological and physical features. The purpose of this paper is finding and understanding the structures in human consciousness which characterise the experience of certain kinds of ecstasy. The context in which this task is performed is an outline of fundamental changes in consciousness brought about by those methods of meditation which, under optimal conditions, give rise to mystical experience.. What makes ecstasy ecstasy or mysticism mysticism is their psychologically describable features and not the physical ones. How does one go about an experimental investigation of phenomena whose main features are to be found in subjective experience? How can one find intersubjective criteria? A useful approach in obtaining an answer to these questions is shown by the experiences afforded us through the so called "meditation". By drawing a map of the changes in a person's self-experience that can be effected by a body-centered technique of meditation, the structures of consciousness that are characteristic of ecstatic and mystical experiences can be identified. This method can be considered as a phenomenological investigation of consciousness-related phenomena. Absolute ecstasy means the experience of a state of consciousness which, it is claimed, is able to cause experience of a synthesis of a transcendent and a non-transcendent dimension of reality. It is easy to realise that a necessary condition for an understanding of statements claiming experience of a synthesis between transcendence and immanence is the psychological understanding of the state of consciousness in which the claimed experience of the synthesis was made. It is only in the context of a psychological understanding of the state of consciousness which is called absolute nothingness that the mystics' claims of a synthesis or an integrated unity of empirical reality and what transcends it becomes meaningful.
Cultural- and traditional-ecological perspectives in Saami religion
Authors: Fjellström Phebe
Published: August 2018

The period of Christmas peace, established by the Hälsinge law, was a firmly established custom in the Nordic countries going back to the official Christmas celebrations laid down by the Catholic church at Tours in 867. Christmas Eve was respected as a day of fasting and "no meat was eaten", beliefs about Christmas folk were common in western Scandinavia and Celtic areas, –the Catholic celebrations of the twelve days of Christmas—the period of Christmas peace—was linked with these beliefs and the sacrificial rite took place relatively close to the tent with a sacrificial dish shaped like a boat complete with sail and oars being hung up in a tree, probably a tall tree so that the Christmas folk could reach it on their wanderings through the air. This last that-clause does not seem to have any Catholic connections but rather pre-Christian ones. An analysis of these different phenomena can perhaps provide us with examples of parallel phenomena in Saami materials.
The Saami shamanic drum in Rome
Authors: Pentikäinen Juha
Published: August 2018

What is the history of the drum, which once arrived from the Saami area in northernmost Europe to the collections of an Italian museum, L. Pigorini museum? At the moment, it is the only Saami drum the existence of which is certain in Italy. Saami drums were probably popular objects of export in the 17th and 18th centuries. Missionaries and explorers brought dozens of drums from various parts of Lappmark to be sold and shipped to the private collections of noblemen and other interested people all over Continental Europe. Some of these drums later on found their way to the museums, many became lost or are still somewhere, to be traced by future investigations of local museums and private collections. There clearly has been a special interest towards the most northern corner of the European continent in the Mediterranean countries, particularly in Italy. The correspondence and other descriptions bear evidence about shamanism as the most illuminating and appealing manifestation of the ancient culture and religion of the exotic people living behind the circumpolar zone at the edge of the universe.
Schamanentrachten in Sibirien
Authors: Lönnqvist Bo
Published: August 2018

The article deals with Shamanic folk costumes originating among the Sami populations of Siberia, analyzing their forms and functions as well as age and historical background.
Opening address at the Symposium on Encounters between Religions in Old Nordic Times and on Cultic Place-Names, arranged by the Donner Institute 19-21 August 1987
Authors: Edsman Carl-Martin
Published: August 2018

This paper broadly discusses the topics presented at the symposium.
Agricola's Ukko in the light of archaeology: a chronological and interpretative study of ancient Finnish religion
Authors: Salo Unto
Published: August 2018

No written sources of ancient Finnish religion have been preserved from the pre-Christian period. Study of the subject is thus based on later historical data, folk poetry and other recorded national traditions, supplemented by etymology and onomastics. A valuable basis for study is provided by the verses of Mikael Agricola in the preface to his Psalms of David from 1551. Here Agricola lists the gods of Karelia and Häme. He admittedly subjects them to Christian censure, but he is also in these verses the first systematizer and the first theologian of our ancient religion. He created twin Olympuses of the old religion, two anthropomorphic god-worlds, the sub-structure of which includes the worship of spirits, animals and the dead. From the point of view of archaeology, Agricola's Ukko, 'old man', is one of the most interesting figures in ancient religion. According to Agricola, Ukko was (only) a Karelian god, but scholars have long considered that he was referring to the universally feared Ukko, Ukkonen, the god of thunder, who would have fitted equally well among the gods of Häme (Tavastland).
The study of the Christianization of the Nordic countries: some reflections
Authors: Finnestad Ragnhild
Published: August 2018

The focus of this paper is some problems that appear in the study of the transition from old Norse religion to Christianity, which requires further reflection. The problems may be said to arise from the need for clearer and more pragmatic definitions of analytical categories and, also, for more precise explications of the object of study. One of the most popular concerns of the study has been to ask whether a particular idea or custom or value is "Christian" or "old Norse". Often the question tacitly, but evidently, presupposes that "Christianity" and "old Norse religion" refer to well-defined sets of ideas, customs, and values, fixed within their respective systems. But, in the first place, Christianity did not come as a homogeneous entity to the North, but as differing versions. There are grounds for presuming that "old Norse" religion displayed a heterogeneous picture, as well. Secondly, no living religion is fixed, but is continually changing. Among the most influential factors in this dynamic process are what a religion adopts from other religions, and in this respect Christianity and old Norse religion have influenced each other over a long period of time, a fact which complicates the question of identity.
Pilgrimage = Transformation Journey
Authors: Gothóni René
Published: August 2018

During the two past decades, scholars in religious studies and social anthropology have frequently reconsidered Turner's theoretical model of pilgrimage. A pilgrimage is the outer manifestation of an inner journey, often referred to as an allegory of the soul's journey to God. Thus it is cosmologically meaningful. The height of the journey is the arrival at the pilgrimage centre and the encounter with the divine. There the pilgrim perceives the gap between what he should be (according to the religious tradition) a what he really is, i.e. he suddenly realizes the discrepancy between the precept and the practice. This experience is the very essence of a pilgrimage, because what has been experienced cannot become unexperienced, what has been seen cannot become unseen, what has been realized cannot become unrealized.