bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Preaching the Elizabethan Settlement
Authors: Hunt Arnold
Published: February 2013

This article examines some of the sermons that were preached in the first ten years of Elizabeth's reign. It provides a survey of the arguments that were used in defence of the Elizabethan settlement and studies what these sermons have to say on the activity of preaching. It also studies the construction of the Elizabethan settlement after Elizabeth's accession in November 1558 and the success of the preaching campaign in support of the settlement.
Preaching and Parliament, 1640–1659
Authors: Webster Tom
Published: February 2013

This article shows the role of sermons in politics. It emphasises that sermons were always political, and discusses the sermons that were delivered to parliamentary fasts from 1640 to 1659. It considers the shifts in patronage and personnel, as well as the devotional and theological content of the sermons.
The Political Sermon in an Age of Party Strife, 1700–1720: Contributions to the Conflict
Authors: Ihalainen Pasi
Published: February 2013

This article analyses the ways the English party-political conflict was conducted in the pulpit. It examines English political preaching using the perspective of the broader West European tradition of delivering political sermons in political forums and on relevant national occasions. It then outlines the state of research on party-political conflict and its reflection in Anglican preaching. Finally, the article studies the political content of two distinctive and controversial sermons.
Participatory Action Research and Archaeology
Authors: McGhee Fred L.
Published: February 2013

Participatory Action Research (PAR) refers to a research methodology that aims to transform communities for the better, and in which positive social change is an explicit goal. This article explains the concept of PAR and situates its use within the archaeology practice, which is located primarily within the private sector, sometimes referred to as ‘Cultural Resource Management’ (CRM). It also illustrates a short case study to highlight how PAR operated (with mixed success) in one particular CRM project. Finally, the article states that efforts to integrate PAR into CRM practice can at last introduce some degree of reflexivity into private sector archaeology discourse, similar to long-standing ruminations about the role of the researcher and the politics of fieldwork that have been occurring in cultural anthropology and other disciplines for some time.
Crm Archaeology
Authors: Praetzellis Adrian
Published: February 2013

This article focuses on community resource management (CRM) archaeology in California. It explores the question of what CRM archaeology is and how it emerged. While the academic archaeologist is generally concerned only with not violating the law – such as getting the right permits to do their research – the CRM archaeologist helps others comply. CRM archaeology is the process by which these legal requirements are met. It involves using traditional archaeological methods to identify and evaluate sites as well as understanding what a project proponent has to do in order to satisfy the law. Managing archaeological resources more often involves helping to preserve them in place than digging them up, and sometimes requires standing by and seeing them destroyed. Following this, the study describes how the field's antecedents have affected its structure and highlights the benefits it has brought.
Archive Archaeology
Authors: Swain Hedley
Published: February 2013

Archaeological archives are the cumulative finds, records, and associated data that result from a piece of archaeological fieldwork. This article deals almost entirely with the very specific circumstances of archives in the UK and primarily English museums. Archives should represent a prime research and heritage asset; and yet historically they have been under-resourced and underused. Efficient transfer of archives from fieldworker to repository and subsequent curation relies on close and clear working relationships between the museum or repository and the archaeologists working in their collecting areas. Debates about archaeological archives, which should be focusing on their value and use, are instead dominated by discussion of their sheer quantity and the storage and curation challenge this poses. The collecting areas for archives have particular importance. A more strategic approach by museum authorities to provide LAARC-type resource centres for material of real value would appear to remain the only logical way forward.
Archaeological Communities and Languages
Authors: Kristiansen Kristian
Published: February 2013

The recent expansion of the heritage sector is linked to developments of infrastructure, leading to developer-funded rescue archaeology, and cultural tourism, which shifted the public presentation of the past from museums to monuments in the landscape. This article sets out to critically analyse effects this has had on archaeological communities and research, which have become predominantly local and monolingual. These changes are linked to wider changes in society under postmodernism, known in archaeology as post-processualism. The heritage sector is bound to reflect these changes due to its ideological role as protector and manager of national heritage throughout the world. While this development has undoubtedly opened new doors to interpretation and public presentation, this article focuses on some of its unintended consequences. These changes are traced through time in an analysis of heritage terminology, followed by an analysis of the language of citations in international journals in some large and smaller countries in Europe.
Public Education in Archaeology in North America
Authors: Kehoe Alice Beck
Published: February 2013

Education is a Good Thing in bourgeois culture, the instrument of state hegemony. The contrast between ‘historical archaeology’, intended for a viewing public, and ‘prehistoric archaeology’ lies in the goal of answering questions about cultural evolution and aboriginal culture sequences. Discussions about ‘public education in archaeology’ easily overlook its beginning and continuing role in presentations of historical sites. Public education in archaeology is multifarious. Its formal beginning in America was the 1879 founding of the Archaeological Institute of America. The Society for American Archaeology and its sister, the Canadian Archaeological Association, remain the principal organizations for professional archaeologists in North America. Their primary responsibility is to their members' professional standing and employment, entailing encouraging the expansion of work opportunities for archaeologists.
Inclusive, Accessible, Archaeology
Authors: Phillips Tim , Gilchrist Roberta
Published: February 2013

Archaeology, especially fieldwork, has long been seen as the preserve of young, fit, and healthy people. It has experienced a rise in interest amongst the general public that has led to an increased interest in visiting historical sites and people wishing to study and work in archaeology and other areas of the heritage industry. This creates areas of potential tension between the demands of the discipline and the demands of the legislation. This article describes how archaeology as a discipline has engaged with these wider social developments and the tensions that are involved. It considers the changes that are taking place in the agencies involved in public archaeology, the commercial firms which employ archaeologists, and the educational institutions that teach archaeology in the UK. An extended case study of archaeological fieldwork training in higher education is presented as one approach to enabling disabled persons in archaeology.
Health Systems in Low- and Middle-Income Countries
Authors: Mills Anne
Published: February 2013

This article focuses on the limited attention paid to the economic dimensions of low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) health systems relative to those of high-income countries, and the restricted evidence base. The aim is to provide an economic analysis of LMIC health systems and policy implications, and to interpret the relevance to LMIC settings. It analyzes the economic dimensions of health systems in LMIC, including how they differ from those of high-income countries. It helps to identify distinctive characteristics of low- and middle-income countries that affect the policy recommendations that can be derived from the application of economic thinking to their health systems. Finally, it discusses the key areas of debate that remain unresolved.
Socioeconomic Status and Health: Dimensions and Mechanisms
Authors: Cutler David M. , Lleras-Muney Adriana , Vogl Tom
Published: February 2013

This article reviews the past two decades of research on the SES–health gradient, with a focus on how the mechanisms linking health to each of the dimensions of SES diverge and coincide. It discusses the concept of SES in four domains, namely, education, financial resources, rank, and race and ethnicity. It lays some basic facts about the SES-health gradient and gives a detailed description of each of these socioeconomic correlates of health. This article further examines education and financial resources and concentrates on conceptual approaches that view the individual in isolation. It focuses on the interplay between the individual and society and links between occupation and health. It then summarizes the evidence on racial and ethnic differences in health and provides some concluding remarks.
Determinants of Health in Childhood
Authors: Baker Michael , Stabile Mark
Published: February 2013

This article reviews the empirical studies to examine the validity of the notion that health in childhood has both short-term and longer-term economic consequences, and that childhood health is itself a function of a broader set of policies, investment decisions and parental choices, and a function of parental health stock and economic background. Economic research on the relationship between child mental health and economic outcomes is discussed in three categories. The article also includes the role that maternal behavior plays in the development of child health and behavior. It further examines the relationship between maternal substance abuse and child mental health as measured by a behavioral problems index. This article describes the determinants and role of investments in child health on later outcomes. It also identifies some priorities for future research.
Public-Sector Health Care Financing
Authors: Blomqvist Åke
Published: February 2013

This article discusses the share of expenses that should be covered by the public plan and looks at how those revenues should be raised. It deals with a fundamental issue that must be addressed in a system where government takes a major role in health care financing. This issue is about the relative importance of the public plan and private payments as sources of funding. Another related issue is how the revenue to pay for public spending on health care should be raised. The article discusses financing through general revenue and compares it with various forms of social insurance. A related issue is the financing of health care for the elderly in a social insurance system. The third fundamental question, finally, concerns the way money should be spent. The article discusses the nature of the contracts between providers and the public plan.
Health Care Cost Growth
Authors: Chernew Michael E. , May Dustin
Published: February 2013

Health care cost growth is among the most important issues facing the United States and other developed countries. This article describes the rapid growth in expenditure in most developed countries, and discusses the factors that have driven this growth, such as population aging, general economic growth, and the adoption and use of new medical technologies. The public financing aspect of health care spending adds an additional dimension to assessing the impact of rapid health care cost growth. The article considers a range of strategies for slowing cost growth, including economic evaluation of technologies. Most health care systems employ some method of cost sharing as a means to reduce health care utilization. This article also discusses managed care plans that integrate the financing and delivery of care. However, as costs grow, pressures to control spending will grow and distributional issues will become even more salient.
User Charges
Authors: Schokkaert Erik , Van de Voorde Carine
Published: February 2013

This article considers the use of user charges or co-payments in both developed and developing countries. It discusses a fundamental tension between controlling moral hazard and assuring access to needed services, especially amongst the very poor. This article focuses on public systems and only refers to empirical results for private insurers. It gives a brief overview of the importance of out-of pocket payments in the world and discusses the allocative effects of user charges, their implementation as a revenue-raising mechanism, and their effects on equity. It also discusses the quantitative information derived from various surveys. Finally, there is a deviation on two related phenomena: informal (even illegal) payments to providers and extra (or balance) billing, i.e. charging additional fees on top of the official fee schedule that is used for reimbursement. These raise same issues as user charges in general.
Insurance and the Demand for Medical Care
Authors: Pauly Mark V.
Published: February 2013

Insurance coverage affects the use and cost of medical care, and so potentially can play a role in assuring that spending comes closer to the optimum. This article describes the implications of third party financing, whether public or private. The key issue is that—in the absence of direct user payment for services—there is an incentive for inefficient moral hazard, or excess use of services. This article uses the voluntary insurance purchasing model to frame the discussion of demand effects because that is the model used extensively in the literature. It later raises the alternative social goals model and also uses this to interpret insurance effects on demand. This discussion implies that consumers will demand the most generous insurance coverage against types of care or types of illnesses for which demand responsiveness is low, the probability of illness is low, and the cost of treatment is high.
Physician Agency and Payment for Primary Medical Care
Authors: McGuire Thomas G.
Published: February 2013

The purpose of this article is to consider the implications of the theoretical and empirical literature on physician behavior and the payment for the design of a payment system to finance a medical home. It states that an analysis of physician behavior implies primary care physicians should be paid by a combination of an enrollment-based prospective payment, and fees related to procedures. As in many areas of health economics designing such a system involves issues of moral hazard and adverse selection. This article is concerned with the moral hazard component: designing a payment system to convey appropriate incentives to supply care. It makes some preliminary comments on the implications for dealing with selection in the upfront enrollment payment associated with the medical home.
Health System Productivity
Authors: Triplett Jack E.
Published: February 2013

This article considers approaches to tracking changes in the productivity of a health care system over time. Economists generally believe that measured productivity growth in the sector is biased downward because of difficulties in measuring medical care output accurately and also that measurement errors are pervasive in some of the inputs. This article discusses the most essential tasks of getting the data right in all productivity measurement. It also discusses some of the economic implications of the fact that medical care, though it is demanded to improve health, does not, by itself, produce health. It considers an alternative concept for medical care output and necessity to separate trends in medical care expenditures into trends in quantities of treatments and prices or costs of treatments. Improving the database for the analysis of medical care productivity deserves high priority because vital questions of health care policy demand exactly the same data.
The Methods of Cost-Effectiveness Analysis to Inform Decisions about the Use of Health Care Interventions and Programs
Authors: Walker Simon , Sculpher Mark , Drummond Michael
Published: February 2013

Health care systems exhibit their features and nuances that impose constraints on the appropriate way to analyze interventions and make decisions about their implementation. This article seeks to explain the theoretical foundations of these methods and their implementation in practice. It focuses on a budget constrained health care sector, where implementing a new technology with additional costs will result in other health care services being displaced hence forgoing health improvement elsewhere. It is intended to provide grounding in the policy motivation for economic evaluation and the underlying normative issues in undertaking studies. The article further develops the key elements of undertaking economic evaluation in practice. It outlines a simple scenario regarding the comparison of chemotherapy treatments for breast cancer. This example helps to illustrate some of the conceptual issues raised in this article. The approaches that have been taken to quantify outcomes and costs from health care interventions are also discussed.
Health Utility Measurement
Authors: Rowen Donna , Brazier John
Published: February 2013

Measuring and valuing health is a major component of economic evaluation, meaning that health utility measurement has been growing in popularity in recent years due to the increasing demand for health state values in economic models and evaluations. The main issues in health utility measurement are how to describe health states, how to value the health state description and whose values should be used. This article briefly outlines these main issues and then focuses on recent methodological developments in health utility measurement. It assesses the current state of health utility measurement and discusses the question of assessment of a health state to be used in economic evaluation. The discussion whether experience utility should be used rather than conventional preference-based utility raises important issues about perspective and the role of various factors.
Concepts of Equity and Fairness in Health and Health Care
Authors: Olsen Jan Abel
Published: February 2013

This article describes the various concepts of equity and fairness that have been developed by economists in health and health care. It begins with a background framework on the principal causes of inequalities in health and health care. It is concerned with equity issues and theories of distributive justice being integrated into health economic models. The discussion of “paradigm of the health frontier” brings equity and efficiency together. It enquires what the key question of equality in terms of stream of health is and is concerned with the equality of opportunities or equality of outcomes. This issue is strongly related to the intricate issue of “personal responsibility.” The renewed interest in the literature on the distinction between equality of opportunity and equality of outcomes, as well as in the notion of responsibility, represents an attempt to clarify the reasons why one type of inequality can be labeled fair, while another be unfair. Finally, the article draws some implications.
Measuring inequality and Inequity in Health and Health Care
Authors: Doorslaer Eddy Van , Van Ourti Tom
Published: February 2013

This article examines the measurement of the success of the redistributive function describing strategies used for measuring the inequality of the outcomes of a health care system in terms of the use of care. The discussion of inequalities can be divided into health, health care, and health care payments. This article is concerned with the association between income, on the one hand, and health and health care, on the other. It further discusses the potential underlying causal pathways of this association. It explains in detail that a significant association or causal effect is a necessary but not sufficient condition for the presence of inequalities. Finally, it reviews the economics approaches of measuring socioeconomic inequalities in health and health care that are applied in the empirical literature. The measurement tools developed and used by health economists to analyze socioeconomic inequalities in health and health care are also discussed.
Health Economics and Policy: the Challenges of Proselytizing
Authors: Maynard Alan , Bloor Karen
Published: February 2013

This article surveys the successes and lacunae of the health economics research endeavor. It points to the key role that funding agencies have in directing research attention towards particular domains, but argues that the discipline has in recent years become more balanced in seeking to offer policy advice on most of the important elements of the health system. Health economics has some notable successes in influencing public policy for the good, for example in the design of payment mechanisms, the measurement of performance, and the assessment of health technology. The article mentions the importance of proselytizing to ensure continued research funding and continued improvements in the efficient delivery of population health care. This overview highlights a number of success stories from health economics, but also areas where there is a need to continue to develop and improve the evidence base. The trademarks of economics and measurement will continue to facilitate improved efficiency, equity, and macroeconomic expenditure control in future.
Tort
Authors: Goldberg John C. P.
Published: February 2013

Twentieth-century tort scholarship has been dominated by the Holmesian conception of tort law as accident law, and accident law as a form of regulatory law. American and Commonwealth judges, however, have never fully accepted it. Moreover, in the last twenty-five years, some tort scholars have sought to revitalize the older common law conception of tort as a law of personal redress for mistreatment by others. For reasons examined in this article, this debate between the regulatory and redress models of tort has largely played itself out as a debate over the proper characterization of one particular tort, namely, the tort of negligence.
Property
Authors: Heller Michael A.
Published: February 2013

This article argues that despite its seeming disintegration, property is more vibrant than ever — it is a field that has focused on understanding the formal and informal institutions by which society channels decision-making for scarce resources. Many exciting recent innovations in property theory have arisen through dialogue between US and Commonwealth scholars and legislatures. The article is organized as follows. The first part explains the focus on analytic property theory, which is posed in distinction to a jurisprudential approach. The second part introduces the familiar division of ownership into a trilogy of ideal types: private, commons, and state. The next three parts use this trilogy to show how defining, integrating, and constructing these ideal types can lead to useful innovation in property theory. In sum, property theory scholarship seems to work cyclically — reasoning from real-world contests over scarce resources, to analytic tools that translate these struggles into useful conceptual terms, to jurisprudential debates regarding the rightness of resulting allocations, to practical politics that implement one property regime or another, and then back to new on-the-ground struggles.
Equity Property and Obligation
Authors: Worthington Sarah
Published: February 2013

Equitable property, especially as illustrated in the trust, and equitable obligations, especially fiduciary obligations, are without precise civil law counterparts. This ought to have marked these areas out as prime candidates for innovative and inventive common law and comparative scholarship. Instead, even at the turn of the century, modern equity scholarship is still overwhelmingly devoted to doctrinal analysis that seeks simply to define and understand these equitable concepts. The legal concepts underpinning equitable property and equitable obligation are difficult, and proper definition is important to coherent development of the law's practices. This article discusses the following: ideas of equitable property, fiduciary law scholarship, and the common law-equity divide.
The Nature and Functions of the State
Authors: Taggart Michael
Published: February 2013

For much of last century it was taken for granted in many countries that it was the duty of the State to care for its citizens ‘from cradle to grave’: to provide education, pensions, medical services, and public utilities, and to hold out a safety net for the less fortunate so that they had food, shelter, and the other necessaries of life. Since the late 1970s, however, these functions of the State have been put in question by the worldwide march towards privatization. The privatization movement was said to be a response to budget deficits and mounting public debt, perceived inefficiencies in government operations, and a loss of faith in the ability of governments in the developed world to meet the expectations of their citizenry of an ever-increasing standard of living. This article discusses the influence of economic theory on the privatization movement; the impact of changes in the economy (namely, the privatization movement) on law, particularly legal scholarship; the meaning of privatization; the public/private law divide; and privatization in the UK; corporatization and public sector reforms; deregulation; and contracting out.
Review of Executive Action
Authors: Cane Peter
Published: February 2013

This article is about accountability for public decision-making. It has three main sections. The first develops two themes: that mainstream administrative law scholarship is mainly concerned with the legitimacy of the administrative process; and that the preoccupations of scholars are partly a function of the constitutional, legal, and political landscape in which administrative law operates. The second section explores the ways in which administrative law scholarship has been affected by trends in legal scholarship more generally. The third section discusses government tort liability in the wider context of the distinction between public law and private law.
Criminal law
Authors: Horder Jeremy
Published: February 2013

Scholars coming afresh to the study of criminal law are indeed fortunate. Over the last twenty years, important and sophisticated new theoretical approaches have evolved, and much new theoretical life has been breathed into more traditional approaches, to their mutual benefit. This article attempts to convey a flavour of these developments, with a different overarching theme: over-ambition and (all-too-often) under-achievement on the part of those who believe the task of ‘theory’ is to give very detailed and definite shape to the ‘universalizable’ part of the criminal law. It may be possible to devise a set of simplified and general universalizable maxims of criminal liability, to which all States could be urged to adhere in their criminal codes and case law. Beyond the formulation of such simplified maxims, however, richness and diversity in criminal law theory should go hand in hand with richness and diversity in criminal law doctrine. Whatever the strength of the case for, say, a uniform commercial law code, the belief that there needs to be a uniform criminal code is founded on theoretical error as well as political naivety.
The Welfare State
Authors: Wikeley Nick
Published: February 2013

The social security function of the Welfare State was quintessentially the product of (and a response to) the pressures generated by the development of mass democracies in the advanced economies of the early part of the twentieth century. However, with a handful of notable exceptions, it is only in the last forty years that serious legal scholarship on the modern Welfare State has emerged. Relatively little had been written on the subject prior to 1960 and most of that corpus of work was fundamentally descriptive rather than analytical in nature. This article explores the nature, direction, and future of such scholarship and accordingly has three main sections. The first outlines the development of legal scholarship since 1960 on the principles and operation of the main arm of the Welfare State, namely income maintenance systems, and how that scholarship reflects national welfare structures. The second explores the central themes in that scholarship, and the third highlights the principal issues for future research in this field.
Families
Authors: Dewar John
Published: February 2013

Family law is largely an aggregation of instrumental legislation, designed to achieve specific social and political purposes. Unlike disciplines that take a legal concept as its starting-point — such as contract, trust, or restitution — family law tends to be more than usually susceptible to shifts in politics and social behaviour, and the complex interplay between the two. This means that a dominant theme of family law scholarship has been that of change and transformation. This article offers a brief history of these transformations in family law, and describes how change has been described and analysed. This historical narrative provides a framework for a discussion of the debates that have characterized the discipline in the latter part of the twentieth century.
Competition
Authors: Gerber David J.
Published: February 2013

This article examines key aspects of competition-law scholarship in the United States and Europe. It first reviews EU and US competition-law scholarship separately. For each system, it looks at the context and dimensions of scholarship, then at debates and issues regarding goals and methods, and finally at conflicts and controversies in specific substantive areas. It concludes by looking at how globalization may, and perhaps should, influence the future development of competition-law scholarship.
Consumers
Authors: Thain Gerald
Published: February 2013

Consumer law, while now an established field, remains very much in flux, subject to shifting not only with the political winds but also with the willingness of individuals to identify themselves as consumers subject to economic abuse from sellers unless laws and rules to protect consumers are established and regularly implemented or enforced. This article discusses the following: pre-purchase issues, the First Amendment and advertising regulation, unfair practices and the consumer, consumer credit, post-purchase issues.
Legislation and Rule-Making
Authors: Baldwin Robert
Published: February 2013

Governments seek to influence behaviour by employing a variety of rule types. These range from formal statutes to rules made under delegated powers to the most informal of administrative prescriptions. These different kinds of rules, in turn, are reinforced with very different responses — from penal threats to administrative sanctions, to mere exhortations. Such variety in rule use has long attracted the attention of legal scholars who have sought to explain and justify rule-making practices, to evaluate processes as well as to explore the implications of choosing different strategies of rule use. This article looks at developing scholarly debates clustered around three themes: explaining choices between rule types; issues of legitimation surrounding governmentally produced rules; and the challenge of making rules that are attuned to new modes of government. Particular attention is then paid to a number of rule-making issues that are likely to be prominent in forthcoming scholarly and policy concerns.
Civil Processes
Authors: Resnik Judith
Published: February 2013

This article charts and analyzes the shifts in civil processes during the twentieth century by examining sequences of reformation and critique during which calls have been made for more, for less, and for different forms of process. It begins by contrasting different modes of process and by exploring the increasingly diverse paradigms of conflicts, which have prompted choices about what kind of process to provide for which kinds of disputes. Through examples from the United States, England, and Wales, the article examines aspirations for and the critiques of civil processes, which are, in turn, embedded in debates about substantive liability rules, the role of and the market for lawyers, empirical effects, and political conceptions of the utility and propriety of regulation.
Criminal Process
Authors: Roach Kent
Published: February 2013

This article discusses the origins of the criminal process approach, models of the criminal process, the evolution of criminal process scholarship, contemporary criminal process scholarship, and the future of criminal process scholarship. Criminal process scholarship will survive as an inevitable by-product of the need to understand criminal justice in all its complexities. Nevertheless, it will not thrive without some significant changes. It must first regain its sense of identity through scholarship that examines the entire criminal process. There is also a need to develop new theories or models of the criminal process, both to focus criminal process scholarship and to make sense of its expanded vision.
A Transnational Concept of Law
Authors: Glenn H. Patrick
Published: February 2013

Most of the legal theory of the last four centuries, in the Western world, has been state-centred. It has justified the existence of states, facilitated their expansion, conceptualized their sources and structures, sought to resolve their conflicts, and developed their law. The state has even been taken, in much of this writing, as the exclusive source of law. There are indications, however, that this theoretical preoccupation with state structures, state institutions, and state laws may now be in decline. This would be a significant development, a historical shift in emphasis in the conceptualization of Western law. It would not, however, mean the end of states or of state law, but rather their contextualization. States and state law would exist in a larger field of normativity. This would entail recognition of a wider range of sources of law and a wider range of relations between laws and between peoples. To attempt to understand these processes, and the extent of their progression, this article examines what we know, or think we know, of the relations between law and the state, before turning to current efforts to develop a transnational concept of law.
Legal Education
Authors: Bell John S.
Published: February 2013

It is important to distinguish education from training. Training is concerned with providing a person with the knowledge and skills required to undertake a specific and immediate task. It is focused and utilitarian. Education is concerned with enabling an individual to understand and reflect upon knowledge and processes and to be able to act in a critical and responsible manner. It is concerned with critical self-awareness. The two are, in reality, on a spectrum between doing and being. They are also located in the spectrum between short-term and long-term development. This article deals with legal education, specifically the purposes of legal education and the methods of supporting student learning.
Syntax
Authors: Kaplan Ronald M.
Published: February 2013

This article introduces some of the phenomena that theories of natural language syntax aim to explain. It briefly discusses a few of the formal approaches to syntax that have figured prominently in computational research and implementation. The fundamental problem of syntax is to characterize the relation between semantic predicate-argument relations and the superficial word and phrase configurations by which a language expresses them. The major task of syntactic theory is to define an explicit notation for writing grammars. This article details a framework called transformational grammar that combines a context-free phrase-structure grammar with another component of transformations that specify how trees of a given form can be transformed into other trees in a systematic way. Finally, it mentions briefly two syntactic systems that are of linguistic and computational interest, namely, generalized phrase structure grammar and tree-adjoining grammars.
Discourse
Authors: Ramsay Allan
Published: February 2013

When people use language, they produce and exchange sequences of connected sentences. This article provides an overview of the devices that can be used to organize extended discourses. It also gives a detailed description of discourse level phenomena and incremental interpretation. It explores the various devices (choices of words and word order, forms of reference, use of explicit links) that are used to indicate the structure of an extended discourse and to explain the relationships between its parts, in other words to see how a discourse is broken into segments and how such segments are organized. It deals with the issues involved in identifying and relating the notion that discourses consisting of more than a single sentence are composed of related segments are not contentious, where there is much less agreement.
Pragmatics and Dialogue
Authors: Leech Geoffrey
Published: February 2013

This article introduces the linguistic subdiscipline of pragmatics and shows how this is being applied to the development of spoken dialogue systems — currently perhaps the most important applications area for computational pragmatics. It traces the history of pragmatics from its philosophical roots, and outlines some key notions of theoretical pragmatics — speech acts, illocutionary force, the cooperative principle and relevance. It then discusses the application of pragmatics to dialogue modelling, especially the development of spoken dialogue systems intended to interact with human beings in task-oriented scenarios such as providing travel information and shows how and why computational pragmatics differs from ‘linguistic’ pragmatics, and how pragmatics contributes to the computational analysis of dialogues. One major illustration of this is the application of speech act theory in the analysis and synthesis of service interactions in terms of dialogue acts.
Speech Recognition
Authors: Lamel Lori , Gauvain Jean-Luc
Published: February 2013

Speech recognition is concerned with converting the speech waveform, an acoustic signal, into a sequence of words. Today's approaches are based on a statistical modellization of the speech signal. This article provides an overview of the main topics addressed in speech recognition, which are, acoustic-phonetic modelling, lexical representation, language modelling, decoding, and model adaptation. Language models are used in speech recognition to estimate the probability of word sequences. The main components of a generic speech recognition system are, main knowledge sources, feature analysis, and acoustic and language models, which are estimated in a training phase, and the decoder. The focus of this article is on methods used in state-of-the-art speaker-independent, large-vocabulary continuous speech recognition (LVCSR). Primary application areas for such technology are dictation, spoken language dialogue, and transcription for information archival and retrieval systems. Finally, this article discusses issues and directions of future research.
Evaluation
Authors: Hirschman Lynette , Mani Inderjeet
Published: February 2013

The commercial success of natural language (NL) technology has raised the technical criticality of evaluation. Choices of evaluation methods depend on software life cycles, typically charting four stages — research, advance prototype, operational prototype, and product. At the prototype stage, embedded evaluation can prove helpful. Analysis components can be loose grouped viz., segmentation, tagging, extracting information, and document threading. Output technologies such as text summarization can be evaluated in terms of intrinsic and extrinsic measures, the former checking for quality and informativeness and the latter, for efficiency and acceptability, in some tasks. ‘Post edit measures’ commonly used in machine translation, determine the amount of correction required to obtain a desirable output. Evaluation of interactive systems typically evaluates the system and the user as one team and deploys subject variability, which runs enough subjects to obtain statistical validity hence, incurring substantial costs. Evaluation being a social activity, creates a community for internal technical comparison, via shared evaluation criteria.
Corpus Linguistics
Authors: McEnery Tony
Published: February 2013

Corpus data have emerged as the raw data/benchmark for several NLP applications. Corpus is described as a large body of linguistic evidence composed of attested language use. It may be contrasted against sentences constructed from metalinguist reflection upon language use, rather than as a result of communication in context. Corpus can be both spoken and written. It can be categorized as follows: monolingual, representing one language; comparable, using multiple monolingual corpora to create a comparative framework; parallel corpora, wherein, corpus of one language is considered, and the data obtained, is translated in other languages. The choice of corpus depends on the research question/the chosen application. Adding linguistic information can enhance a corpus. Analysts, human or mechanical, or a combination achieves annotation. The modern computerized corpus has been in vogue only since the 1940s. Ever since, the volume of corpus banks have risen steadily and assumed an increasingly multilingual nature.
Machine Translation: Latest Developments
Authors: Somers Harold
Published: February 2013

This article attempts to locate MT (machine translation) in the contemporary context, while identifying its recent trends and themes. The 1990s were marked by the growing clout of empirical approaches, using increasingly available amounts of raw data in the form of parallel corpora. An appropriate instance is statistical MT, depending on bilingual corpus, but wherein, the translation depends on statistical modeling of the word order of target language and of source-target word equivalences. Example-based MT involves matching inputs against actual databases and identifying close matches. Successful MT, especially when attempting translation into languages marking gender of pronouns, those that have zero-anaphora contents, interpretation of anaphora assumes paramountcy. Regarding spoken-language MTs, coupling speech-to-text front-end and text-to-speech, the other way, is inadequate other than rigidly formal languages. More versatile operations such as dealing with dialogues, would involve greater complexities.
Colonies and Colonization
Authors: De Angelis Franco
Published: February 2013

This article suggests that the study of colonies and colonization needs to be situated within wider Mediterranean and Near Eastern contexts and to throw off its parochial conception of Greek history. However, a wider geographical range is not enough by itself to bring the study of ancient colonization out of its current ‘crisis’. Scholars should be rethinking the very terminology they employ, including such words as ‘colonization’, and they ought to evaluate how modern colonialism and capitalism have shaped the understanding of the ancient phenomena conventionally described as ‘colonization’. Such a revaluation would lead not just to a more rigorous analysis of ancient colonization but also to a broader, and more nuanced, consideration of modern empires.
Greece and Rome
Authors: Whitmarsh Tim
Published: February 2013

Looking mainly on the literature of the Roman Empire, this article examines the kinds of Hellenisms practised by Romans and other non-Greeks. It claims that not all Hellenisms were centred on fifth-century Athens and that some looked for inspiration to archaic Greece. While Hellenism on the part of Greek writers could be interpreted as anti-Romanism, few Greek texts of the empire offer unambiguous criticism of Rome. People may find both pro-Roman and anti-Roman sentiments in an author, and it is not easy to prove that an author always adopts a particular stance on Rome. If elite Romans themselves championed Hellenism as a cultural legacy, and if Greeks also deployed it to articulate a variety of subject positions in the empire, it appears critically more productive to see Hellenism as one of several modes of interaction available to the colonizers and the colonized during Roman imperial domination over Greece.
The Greek Heritage in Islam
Authors: Strohmaier Gotthard
Published: February 2013

This article discusses the attempts of Muslim intellectuals to forge a kind of synthesis between Greek philosophy and Islamic thought, attempts that have parallels in the Christian and Judaic traditions. Classical Muslim culture remained a vibrant and pluralistic phenomenon that often conceived of Greek thought and learning as an indigenous tradition, and as a legitimate precursor to Islamic scholarship.
Ideologies of Hellenism
Authors: Canfora Luciano
Published: February 2013

Turning to the examples of Demosthenes and Alexander, this article looks at the ideological uses of Hellenism, not only in the general sense of the word, but also in Droysen's sense of Hellenismus (referring to the historical epoch that runs from Alexander the Great to Augustus, now loosely termed the ‘Hellenistic era’ in English). The reviews of Werner Jaeger's study of Demosthenes were symptomatic of wider currents in the history of European thought and politics. Thus, Jaeger's book was condemned by National Socialists and Fascists, who favoured Droysen's conception of a world historical figure, and who therefore strongly praised men such as Alexander the Great and Philip over Demosthenes and his ‘dubious’ politics.
Coming of Age, Peer Groups, and Rites of Passage
Authors: Calame Claude
Published: February 2013

In comparing the symposium to a Männerbund (brotherhood), this article reflects on its role as a backdrop to the discourse of social ‘initiation’ in a broader discussion of ‘rites of passage’ – rituals that more or less explicitly sacramentalize and define the development of the individual as a social being in ancient Greece, as in other societies. It discusses the rites of passage for groups of adolescents, initiation processes for young people, choral education for young girls, and narrative logic and aetiology.
Sexuality and Gender
Authors: McClure Laura
Published: February 2013

In discussing sexual identity, this article focuses on specific issues in understanding how individuals could be constructed as sexual beings. The ancient Greeks themselves had no specific or overarching terms for either gender or sexuality, yet distinctions based on biological sex were deeply embedded in the linguistic, cognitive, political, and social structures of their society at all periods. Just as biological sex precedes sexuality in many accounts, so men were thought to come into being before women in Greek mythology. Meanwhile, the sexual practices of the ancient Greeks attracted the attention of scholars much earlier than questions about the status and position of Greek women.