bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Industry Payments in Cardiology: A Cross-sectional Analysis of Open Payments Data
Authors: Jaiswal Dev , Checketts Jake X. , Vassar Matt
Published: November 2018

Background

The goal of Open Payments and the Physician Payments Sunshine Act is to foster transparency and accountability to help stakeholders better understand financial ties between physicians and teaching hospitals and the pharmaceutical and medical device industries.

Objective

To evaluate the nature of industry relationships among cardiologists using the Open Payments database.

Methods

The authors used the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services Open Payments data for calendar year 2015 to evaluate the financial relationship between cardiologists and medical industries (manufacturers of medications, devices, biologics, and medical supplies). The database used in this specific investigation included general payments reported for 2015. Payments were broken down by totals, type, company, and range.

Results

In the 2015 calendar year, 81,977 payments were made to 12,078 cardiologists, amounting to $13,906,167.43. The minimum payment made to a cardiologist was $1.16 and the maximum, $2,805,825. The most frequent category was $11 to $50, with 53,722 payments made (65.5%), followed by less than $10, with 12,307 payments made (15.0%).

Conclusion

Payments to cardiologists were highly variable. Additional studies regarding the effects of these payments may be warranted.
Exodus From the Classroom: Student Perceptions, Lecture Capture Technology, and the Inception of On-Demand Preclinical Medical Education
Authors: Ikonne Uzoma , Campbell Anna M. , Whelihan Kate E. , Bay Ralph C. , Lewis Joy H.
Published: November 2018

Context

Some medical educators have noted a decline in classroom attendance. Understanding student preferences for content delivery and the relationship between student attendance and learning outcomes may enhance curricular design and best practices for technology-supported learning.

Objective

To measure the attendance of first-year osteopathic medical students, evaluate the relationship between classroom attendance and aggregate mean course grades, and characterize factors that influence attendance decisions when recorded lectures are available.

Methods

In nonmandatory class sessions during the 2015-2016 academic year, student attendance data were collected using audience response technology and were linked to course grades. Pearson product moment and partial correlations, controlling for Medical College Admissions Test scores, were calculated to quantify the relationship between classroom attendance and aggregate mean course grades. Students were surveyed to characterize factors influencing attendance decisions and compare the perceived convenience, efficiency, and effectiveness of classroom attendance vs lecture capture technology. The preferred modality for receiving didactic content was assessed, and open-ended questions were included about the advantages or disadvantages of lecture capture, classroom attendance, and podcasts. Responses were analyzed using open and axial coding.

Results

A 78% reduction in first-year student classroom attendance was measured from the beginning to the end of the academic year (P<.001). The correlation between classroom attendance and aggregate mean course grades (r=0.17; P=.29) and the partial correlation between them after controlling for admission test scores (r=0.18; P=.08) were not significant, except in the Neuromusculoskeletal A course (r=0.22; P=.027). Students regarded lecture capture recordings as more convenient, efficient, and effective than classroom attendance, and podcasting was the preferred method of content delivery. Major themes associated with the open-ended questions were effective or ineffective time management, enhanced interaction, learning advantages or challenges, and positive or negative content characteristics.

Conclusion

First-year classroom attendance decreased significantly during the academic year, but the authors found no significant relationship between attendance and aggregate mean course grades. Students regarded lecture capture recordings as a practical alternative to attending class; however, podcasts were the preferred modality for receiving didactic content. These findings may help in developing learning-centered curricula at colleges of osteopathic medicine.
Braincase and endocranial anatomy of two thalattosuchian crocodylomorphs and their relevance in understanding their adaptations to the marine environment
Authors: Herrera Yanina , Leardi Juan Martín , Fernández Marta S.
Published: November 2018

Thalattosuchians are a group of Mesozoic crocodylomorphs known from aquatic deposits of the Early Jurassic–Early Cretaceous that comprises two main lineages of almost exclusively marine forms, Teleosauridae and Metriorhynchoidea. Teleosaurids were found in shallow marine, brackish and freshwater deposits, and have been characterized as semiaquatic near-shore forms, whereas metriorhynchids are a lineage of fully pelagic forms, supported by a large set of morphological characters of the skull and postcranial anatomy. Recent contributions on Thalattosuchia have been focused on the study of the endocranial anatomy. This newly available information provides novel evidence to suggest adaptations on the neuroanatomy, senses organs, vasculature, and behavioral evolution of these crocodylomorphs. However, is still not clear if the major morphological differences between teleosaurids and metriorhynchids were also mirrored by changes in the braincase and endocranial anatomy. Based on X-ray CT scanning and digital endocast reconstructions we describe the braincase and endocranial anatomy of two well-preserved specimens of Thalattosuchia, the semiaquatic teleosauridSteneosaurus bollensisand the pelagic metriorhynchidCricosaurus araucanensis. We propose that some morphological traits, such as: an enlarged foramen for the internal carotid artery, a carotid foramen ventral to the occipital condyle, a single CN XII foramen, absence of brain flexures, well-developed cephalic vascular system, lack of subtympanic foramina and the reduction of the paratympanic sinus system, are distinctive features of Thalattosuchia. It has been previously suggested that the enlarged foramen for the internal carotid artery, the absence of brain flexures, and the hypertrophied cephalic vascular system were synapomorphies of Metriorhynchidae; however, new information revealed that all of these features were already established at the base of Thalattosuchia and might have been exapted later on their evolutionary history. Also, we recognized some differences within Thalattosuchia that previously have not been received attention or even were overlooked (e.g., circular/bilobate trigeminal foramen, single/double CN XII foramen, separation of the cranioquadrate canal from the external otic aperture, absence/presence of lateral pharyngeal foramen). The functional significances of these traits are still unclear. Extending the sampling to other Thalattosuchia will help to test the timing of acquisition and distribution of these morphological modifications among the whole lineage. Also comparison with extant marine tetrapods (including physiological information) will be crucial to understand if some (and/or which) of the morphological peculiarities of thalattosuchian braincases are products of directional natural selection resulting in a fully adaptation to a nektonic life style.
Air Pollution
Authors: Turner Simon
Published: November 2018

Air pollution and human industrial activity are inextricably linked. Early human‐generated atmospheric contaminants were released through the combustion of fuels for heating, cooking, and manufacturing. Industrial air pollution episodes likely first occurred during early metal‐ore processing, as a result of the high‐temperature combustion of fuels, the transformation of metal ores, and an atmospheric discharge of waste. Evidence of increased mortality as a direct consequence of early air pollution is limited, owing to other confounding pathological factors. The Industrial Revolution led to the modern concept of air pollution as a result of the release of gases and particulates from the combustion of fossil fuels in populated areas. Scientific understanding and technological and social changes reduced some impacts of nineteenth–twentieth‐century air pollution, but the global population growth and the continued reliance on fossil fuels have allowed air pollution to endure and grow.
Archaeoentomology
Authors: Smith David
Published: November 2018

The range of insects used in archaeoentomology is discussed, along with the discipline's broad aims. Sampling, extraction, and the depositional histories of insect remains in the archaeological record are outlined. The common methods of identification, quantification, and analysis are reviewed and future prospects for the discipline explored.
Archaeological Fieldwork
Authors: Brittain Marcus W. R.
Published: November 2018

Integral to the practice and identity of archaeology, fieldwork is practical research conducted in the context of a site or a landscape. Throughout the history of the discipline, the primary function of fieldwork was the recovery and collection of data for off‐site analysis and interpretation. The relationship between fieldwork and analysis has grown in its complexity and detail, and the merits of innovations in methodological creativity and experimentation contribute significantly to the depth of archaeological narratives. More recent philosophical contributions focus on the relationship of theory to practice, and argue that interpretation is something carried out during, not after, fieldwork. They also highlight that fieldwork is materially constituted, which, in addition to the sociopolitical context through which fieldwork is conducted, may in different ways contribute to the identification of archaeological data as well as define the social value of archaeology more generally.
Archaeoseismology
Authors: Sintubin Manuel
Published: November 2018

Archaeoseismology is the study of earthquakes from evidence in the archaeological record. It is one of the disciplines that belong to the broad research field of earthquake sciences, all sharing a common goal, that is, to reconstruct the earthquake history within a region with the purpose of assessing the seismic hazard and mitigating the seismic risk. In earthquake sciences, archaeoseismology occupies a unique position, bridging the gap between instrumental and historical seismology on the one side, and paleoseismology and earthquake geology on the other. The early development of archaeoseismology occurred within archaeological investigations, provoking skepticism within the community of earthquake scientists, who questioned whether cultural material data could reliably serve as earthquake indicators at all. In recent years, a clear shift towards more quantitative and multidisciplinary approaches has definitively boosted the reliability of archaeoseismological evidence in seismic‐hazard studies.
Argon–Argon Dating
Authors: Nomade Sébastien
Published: November 2018

Argon–argon dating is a radioisotopic method based on the natural, spontaneous radioactive decay of an isotope of potassium,
40
K, at a known rate to produce an isotope of argon,
40
Ar. This method is one of the most versatile, precise and accurate of all radioisotopic dating tools applied to volcanic materials. Over the last 25 years it has been regarded as the benchmark to constrain the temporal framework in volcanic areas for the evolution of fauna, flora, and hominids during the Pliocene and Pleistocene periods. This entry is not an exhaustive treatment of the Ar–Ar dating method, but provides a general view of the method and gives examples of its application to archaeology.
Artificial Intelligence
Authors: Barceló Juan A.
Published: November 2018

“Artificial” intelligence is not just a discourse about robots. It is about understanding the nature of cognition using computers as experimental devices. Therefore, it deals with the nature of inferential mechanisms, and the particular way computer programs allow us to produce inferences. Computer scientists are exploring this subject and there are many algorithms and programs for knowledge expansion through iterative and recursive revision. Artificial intelligence offers us methods and techniques to explain archaeological data. Although statistical reasoning is still giving its support to all these methods, it is not classical statistical inference. Artificial intelligence paradigms differ from usual classification and clustering methods, in that they: (1) are robust in the presence of noise; (2) are flexible as to the statistical types that can be combined; (3) are able to work with feature (attribute) spaces of very high dimensionality; (4) can be based on nonlinear and nonmonotonic assumptions; (5) require less training data; and (6) make fewer prior assumptions about data distributions and model parameters.
Augmented Reality
Authors: Eve Stuart
Published: November 2018

Augmented reality (AR) is a way of merging digitally created content with the real world. Commonly, this involves overlaying context‐specific information onto a live video feed from a mobile phone or tablet. AR has been used within archaeology to augment extra information into museum displays, to present a view of a virtually reconstructed building when visiting an archaeological site, or to create a location‐aware application such as an audio guide. AR technology is currently at an early stage, but it has massive potential for changing the way that archaeologists and tourists interact with archaeological sites and artifacts.
B
arley,
R
ye, and
O
ats
Authors: McClatchie Meriel
Published: November 2018

Barley, rye, and oats are cereals that have a long history of cultivation. They began to be grown primarily for their carbohydrate‐rich and storable grains. There is also archaeological evidence for use of their chaff and straw. Barley was one of the first crops to be domesticated, more than 10,000 years ago in the Fertile Crescent. Barley then spread and began to be farmed in many regions during the Neolithic. Although rye was a relatively early domesticate, it was not until late prehistory that it started to become a significant crop. Domestication of oat occurred much later than barley and rye, probably in later prehistoric Europe. Even before domestication, wild ancestors of these cereals were gathered for use in food products. While these crops are likely to have emerged as human foods primarily, they are now important ingredients in animal feeds and many other products.
Cements, Mortars, Binders
Authors: Gillot Céline , Coutelas Arnaud
Published: November 2018

Cements, mortars, and binders form an important class of building materials. They consist of adhesive and cohesive materials that can be used for a variety of construction purposes, including uniting other materials, providing protective surface finishes, and forming decorative elements. Prior to the industrial revolution and the emergence of commercial cement‐based products, mortars were prepared using raw materials essentially derived from locally available resources. Mud, gypsum, and lime were the most common substances employed as binding material; and, judging from the archaeological evidence, builders have quickly controlled their processing and discovered ways to improve their performance and increase their longevity.
Chert, Silex, and Obsidian Sourcing
Authors: Burke Adrian L.
Published: November 2018

Archaeological scientists use various instruments in the laboratory to analyze the chemical and physical make‐up of artifacts such as tools and decorative objects that are made out of chert, silex, and obsidian. The identification of the geologic and geographic source of these rocks allows the archaeologist to reconstruct the territories exploited by groups in the past, and to study the trade and exchange networks that existed among different societies.
Disaster Archaeology
Authors: Egan Rachel , Sheets Payson
Published: November 2018

Scholarly interest in disasters can be attributed to their ability to produce an array of dramatic impacts and responses. As disasters have gained attention, notably within anthropology and archaeology, our understanding of these events has become considerably more nuanced. Instead of the early cause‐and‐effect scenarios, disasters are now recognized as multidimensional processes that unfold over various geographic, sociocultural, and temporal time spans. Disasters produce not only negative consequences but also create opportunities for innovation.
Estimating Adult Age: Transition Analysis
Authors: Boldsen Jesper L. , Milner George R.
Published: November 2018

Transition analysis is a statistical technique designed to provide unbiased age estimates for adults. It does not produce the age‐mimicry effect that plagues other aging methods, and it provides individualized age intervals for each skeleton. Presently, it is based on the pubic symphysis, sacroiliac joint, and cranial sutures. It can be expanded to include other parts of the skeleton and younger individuals.
Estimating Subadult Age: Dental Development and Eruption
Authors: Wright Lori E. , Hoffmeister Kristin K.
Published: November 2018

The development and emergence of teeth is the most commonly used and most accurate method for estimating the age at death of subadult skeletal remains. Early dental aging standards developed from the study of deceased children and X‐rays of living children continue to be used today, although there are reasons to suspect the accuracy of these methods. A new standard, based on archaeological and modern children from London, appears to be more accurate. Histological study of incremental features in tooth enamel can also be used to pinpoint age for incompletely formed teeth.
Ethnoarchaeology
Authors: Cunningham Jerimy J.
Published: November 2018

Ethnoarchaeology is a subfield of archaeology that uses ethnographic methods to explore relations between human action and material patterns. Its primary role is to develop and assess the various forms of ethnographic analogy that archaeologists use to understand material patterns in the archaeological record. While it is most closely associated with the emergence of the New Archaeology in the United States and its desire for middle‐range theories, Anglo‐American ethnoarchaeology also includes cultural historical and post‐processual approaches. Outside of the Anglo‐American tradition, the use of ethnographic research to expand the background knowledge archaeologists use to interpret the past is widespread and includes well‐established Francophone, Chinese, and Latin American traditions.
Ethnography and Qualitative Methods in the Field
Authors: Novotny Claire , Dedrick Maia
Published: November 2018

Ethnographic and qualitative methods are integral to archaeological understandings of the past. They form the basis of archaeological pursuits including ethnoarchaeology, community archaeology, and participatory research. Qualitative methods also include reflexive practice in archaeological research. This entry introduces the history of qualitative methods in the discipline and explains diverse ethnographic and qualitative methods with selected examples of their use in archaeological research.
Paper
Authors: Wagner Barbara
Published: November 2018

Paper is a product made of cellulose fibers connected together to form a flat sheet. Raw materials for production include variable plant tissues from wood, cotton, hemp, esparto grass, sugar cane bagasse, or bamboo; nowadays also recycled paper is used. This entry provides a basic overview of the history of paper. Paper is also regarded as a support for precious objects: printed books, manuscripts, drawings, oil paintings and watercolors, gouache, pastels, graphics, collages, photographs, newspapers, and other documents. The durability of all these objects is determined by the time of existence of paper and depends on its resistance to different environmental conditions; therefore some basic information about the chemistry of cellulose is given.
Field Survey
Authors: Banning Edward B.
Published: November 2018

Field survey involves a suite of methods and strategies by which archaeologists search for sites or artifacts, investigate ancient landscapes and settlement or land‐use systems, and assess the risk that modern development will have negative impacts on significant archaeological heritage. Modern field survey employs visual observation by fieldwalkers as well as many subsurface, aerial, and space‐based methods to accomplish this.
Genomics: Ancient
Authors: Snow Meradeth H.
Published: November 2018

Despite the relatively recent advent of ancient DNA (aDNA) studies, insight into human and nonhuman genomes has provided a wealth of information and a unique window into the past. Genomics itself is the study of the whole genetic information an individual carries and allows for studying the ancestry of an individual beyond just maternal or paternal relationships. Additionally, this growing field of study provides an avenue for learning about human migration, natural selection, and many other topics. This brief overview discusses the sources of aDNA, the development of whole genome level studies, some of the field's main difficulties, and examples of how we now apply genomic data.
Geomorphological Survey
Authors: Hill Christopher L.
Published: November 2018

The geomorphological survey is a valuable field method in archaeology because it provides a means to study the evolution of landscapes, and to interpret environmental contexts and depositional processes. The objectives of a geomorphological survey include: documenting landforms within a landscape; inferring the processes that have led to their formation; and evaluating the long‐term changes in the landscape. The geomorphologic survey is thus focused on process and product; it is concerned with inferring the dynamics of landscape change as reflected in sediments, stratigraphic sequences, and landforms at a variety of spatial and temporal scales. The results of a geomorphic survey are essential to the successful interpretation of the archaeological record, providing the opportunity to examine and gain a clearer understanding of the natural and human (anthropic) processes that contributed to the evolution of the landscape.
Glass Color
Authors: Möncke Doris
Published: November 2018

Different physical effects produce color in glasses. Absorption phenomena are the most common and include plasmon‐resonance of metallic nanoparticles (ruby glasses) and band gap transitions of microdispersed semiconductors (CdSe in cutoff glasses), as well as electronic transitions of valence electrons of dissolved polyvalent ions (transition metal or rare earth ions). Here, the color and coloring intensity depend on the ions' valence and coordination. In glazes or glass mosaic
tesserae
, colored microcrystalline pigments such as Naples yellow (Pb
2
Sb
2
O
7
) can also act as chromophores, though materials doped by crystalline chromophores usually lose their transparency. Certain dopants also show photoluminescence and emit colored light and can thus be detected by excitation in the ultraviolet (UV) to visible wavelength region. Most of these colorants and opacifiers occur not only in glasses but also in glass mosaic
tesserae
, glazes, or enamels.
GPS
(
G
lobal
P
ositioning
S
ystem)
Authors: Chapman Henry
Published: November 2018

Arguably, the use of satellite positioning systems such as the global positioning system (GPS) has made one of the greatest impacts on field archaeology in recent years. The capacity to provide absolute positions at different levels of precision has clear value to what is essentially a spatial discipline. However, the greatest advances are being made in the ways in which systems such as GPS can be integrated with other types of equipment, from geophysics and mobile geographic information systems (GIS) to mobile devices such as smartphones. This entry outlines how satellite positioning systems work and highlights some of the ways in which these technologies are impacting upon archaeology.
Ground‐Penetrating Radar
Authors: Conyers Lawrence B.
Published: November 2018

Ground‐penetrating radar is an archaeological method for studying complex volumes of ground containing archaeological materials and associated geological units in three‐dimensions. This is accomplished by the transmission of radar waves from a surface antenna, into the ground, reflected from buried interfaces back to the surface where they are recorded, processed, and displayed. The GPR images produced can be two‐dimensional profiles, horizontal or undulating amplitude maps displayed in map view, or renderings of volumes of reflections. When radar travel times are converted to depth in the ground, realistic images of important buried features are obtained.
Heritage and Landscapes
Authors: Kluiving Sjoerd J.
Published: November 2018

Landscape is experienced and conceived of in many different ways, which may conflict with the appreciation that people have for the idea of landscape as heritage. In order to contribute to this discussion, this entry brings three examples from northwest Europe. The three case studies illustrate mono‐, inter‐, and transdisciplinary regional project descriptions that depart from a “natural” landscape perspective. Landscape as heritage is discussed both as a natural and as a culturally induced phenomenon, for example, in conditions of drowning, and from solutions offered by designers as well as from an application for an aspiring UNESCO geopark. Acceptance of landscape as heritage by a wider audience in the future may give people a sense of pride and facilitate a sustainable transition in the Anthropocene or Holocene.
Heritage and Nationalism
Authors: Nikolaou Polina
Published: November 2018

Heritage is a contingent social and cultural process that has been used extensively in the construction and legitimization of nations. Heritage discourse, by attributing specific cultural significance to material remains, creates a homogenizing version of national history. This approach to the past is used to support or contest claims over territorial sovereignty from particular ethnic groups.
Heritage and Policy
Authors: Vos Claske
Published: November 2018

Heritage represents the material—and, recently, also the immaterial—culture of past societies that survives in the present and the process through which this culture is reevaluated and reused in contemporary settings. Already in the nineteenth century, when the notion of heritage emerged, it was engrained in the policy making of governments and used as an instrument to foster historical consciousness. Nowadays a wide range of institutions, organizations, and international bodies invest in the preservation and presentation of heritage, which has become a versatile medium for social, cultural, and political recognition and claims for rights, as well as a source of exchange and economic development. Additionally, heritage has become increasingly tied to supranational understandings and claims made by international actors such as UNESCO and the EU. As the state's role in daily life has grown, heritage policy has become increasingly developed and formalized in order to achieve a variety of policy objectives.
Heritage Business and Marketing
Authors: Dore Christopher D. , Aitchison Kenneth
Published: November 2018

Over one generation of professional practice, archaeology has become a service delivered by the private sector. Traditional sources of grant and benefactor funding have declined in importance as archaeological funds. A private marketplace driven by legal compliance now provides the vast majority of archaeological financing. While heritage practitioners are still motivated by their professional values, the ability to successfully run for‐profit business that return both stakeholder and shareholder value is now a prerequisite for fulfilling these professional values. To gain business and marketing knowledge, some universities and private businesses are beginning to offer business education and training to heritage professionals. Archaeologists must have an understanding of the marketing process in order to compete in a for‐profit marketplace, attract funding for research projects, and sell the services they can provide.
Heritage Ethics
Authors: Ireland Tracy
Published: November 2018

Heritage ethics concerns both the codes and principles that frame accepted practices in the field of heritage and a much broader set of debates and philosophical concerns around the legal, moral, and social implications of heritage. Heritage ethics has developed from a set of concerns focused on the stewardship of cultural materials and standards of professional practice to a contemporary focus on human rights and on how heritage is imbricated in the politics of social justice.
INAA
and Material Analysis
Authors: Yellin Joseph
Published: November 2018

Instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA) is a method for determining the elemental composition of material in a manner that requires no chemical preparation or treatment of the material to be analyzed. The method is based on gamma‐ray spectroscopy following neutron activation. Major contributions to archaeology and prehistory have been made by provenance studies based on INAA.
Infant Feeding
Authors: Prowse Tracy L.
Published: November 2018

The study of infant feeding in past human populations is an important area of investigation, as patterns of breastfeeding and weaning have long‐term consequences on growth, health, and survivorship. Prior to using biochemical techniques, weaning was inferred through osteological indicators of stress. Since the 1990s, there has been an increase in the use of stable isotopes to investigate the timing of breastfeeding and weaning. The stable isotopes of nitrogen and carbon in bone collagen are commonly used to investigate these patterns; however, uncertainties over bone turnover rates and the time required to register dietary shifts, along with biases created by analyzing nonsurvivors, have raised questions about the validity of using isotope data from subadult bone. Recent methodological developments focus on serial sampling of teeth to overcome some of these biases by studying infant and young child feeding in individuals who survived to adulthood.
Interpretation
Authors: Tonner Philip
Published: November 2018

This entry outlines the concept of interpretation in archaeology. It does so by surveying a variety of approaches to the problem of interpretation taken by archaeologists, including those representative of culture history approaches, processual approaches, and the collection of approaches associated with post‐processual or interpretive archaeology. The entry ends by outlining where the concept of interpretation is in contemporary archaeological theory.
Lidar Data Visualization and Processing
Authors: Kokalj Žiga , Oštir Krištof
Published: November 2018

Light detection and ranging (LiDAR) data processing for archaeological purposes converts raw point clouds into products that support archaeological investigation and can be more readily manipulated. The practice comprises the following tasks: automated classification of returns; manual editing and enhancement; quality control; generation of products; and visualization for feature detection and interpretation. Specific qualities of different classification and rasterization algorithms, and relief visualization techniques strongly influence the archaeological interpretation of LiDAR‐derived elevation models. The role of the data manipulator is crucial in providing information that is best fitted for the intended use.
Magnetic Susceptibility
Authors: Alva‐Valdivia Luis M. , Agarwal A. , Cruz‐y‐Cruz T.
Published: November 2018

Magnetic susceptibility is an extremely sensitive indicator of the magnetic minerals present in rock, archaeological artifacts, and environmental samples, because any slight variation in magnetic mineralogy is usually reflected by a profound change in susceptibility. Recently, the temperature variation of magnetic susceptibility monitoring has been very useful to: (1) identify the type and chemical composition of ferromagnetic minerals based on their characteristic temperatures (e.g., Curie temperature, Verwey transition); (2) resolve the ferromagnetic versus paramagnetic contribution to magnetic susceptibility; and (3) evaluate alteration during thermal events. Furthermore, dependence of magnetic susceptibility on frequencies is indicative of the possible presence of ultrafine magnetic particles in rocks, ceramics, and soils, which, in turn, may be interpreted in terms of genesis or environmental changes.
Material Entanglement
Authors: Hodder Ian
Published: November 2018

This entry explores the numerous ways that the notion of entanglement has been used in the sciences in order to show the broad basis of the study of material entanglement in archaeology and related disciplines. Different definitions of material entanglement in archaeology are discussed and examples provided of application, for example to the origins of agriculture. Methods such as tanglegrams and concepts such as path dependency are described. Material entanglement approaches involve situating human beings within complex and contradictory sets of dependencies between humans and things. Material entanglement is a metaphor that tries to capture the contradictory messiness of the heterogeneous flows and counter‐flows that produce, enchain, and encompass entities (humans, animals, things, ideas, social institutions).
Material Symbols
Authors: Preucel Robert W.
Published: November 2018

Material symbols are the primary physical expression of human sociality. They play key roles in communication and social interaction. They have a tangible, material existence that allows them to convey information over time and space. Material symbols are often contrasted with immaterial symbols, such as words, that have a temporality defined by the duration of verbal performances. Material symbols together with language constitute social resources for the mediation of social practices.
Microchemical Tests in Conservation
Authors: Odegaard Nancy
Published: November 2018

Microchemical characterization testing is a broad term that applies to sensitive and selective procedures based on chemical reactions whereby the use of a drop of test solution or reagent is the essential step in providing some identification for the presence of a particular element or compound. There are a variety of contexts for testing in archaeology because historic objects and prehistoric artifacts recovered by excavation are useful in the interpretation of past human behavior. Qualitative information can be extracted from the material of the artifact itself or from materials physically associated with the artifact, including accretions or deposits that may explain aspects of the surrounding environment. This entry discusses the use of microchemical testing as an alternative when analytical instrumentation or the expertise of a chemist is not available or feasible.
Ancient Mortars and Plasters
Authors: Miriello Domenico
Published: November 2018

Mortars and plasters are complex artificial stone materials, whose improvement and diffusion has been strongly influenced by the birth of pyrotechnology. Their chemical, mineralogical, and petrographic composition depends on the locally available raw materials and on the technological know‐how of the workers who produced them. An in‐depth study of ancient mortars and plasters can help archaeologists to solve various issues such as the provenance of the raw materials from which they were produced and the identification of the construction phases of ancient architectural structures. Several kinds of raw material were used for making ancient mortars and plasters: various types of rocks, which were required for producing aggregates and binders; and organic materials, which were sometimes added to the mixture as additives. Their compositional characterization requires a multianalytical approach, which must include optical microscopy (OM) under transmitted polarized light.
Digital Media in Archaeology
Authors: Wendrich Willeke
Published: November 2018

From its early beginnings, archaeology has made use of multiple media to record and present information. The use of photographs, drawings, maps, plans, elevations, and video, originally characterized as “multimedia,” still is an important part of printed publications in book form or in journals. The digital turn in archaeology potentially enables the full integration of the different media used to gather or express information, interpretation, and knowledge. This also marks a change from thinking of distinct media, to considering any output, be this visual, quantitative, or qualitative, as information or data. The termmultimediais therefore increasingly understood asdigital media. The promise of hybrid publications, consisting of a printed book or article with digital online components, and fully digital online publications, is that it makes maximum use of digitally born data. Problems with digital recording are that it comes in many shapes and often makes use of proprietary soft‐ or hardware. Furthermore, the long‐term preservation of digital data (be these databases, photographs, video, geographic information systems (GIS), or three‐dimensional (3D) scanning point clouds) is still uncertain. Despite these problems, the use of digital media will only increase and can be expected to expand into a larger role of 3D recording, reconstructions, data presentations, and virtual reality applications.
Neural Networks
Authors: López Ana J. , Ramil Alberto
Published: November 2018

Recently, the field of archaeology has seen an increasing use of artificial neural networks (ANNs). ANNs are adaptive computational algorithms inspired by the structure and functioning of the human brain, which are able to learn by generalization from a set of training data. Their success in the field of archaeology comes from their ability to model complex processes, intrinsically nonlinear, and from their flexibility to adapt to different applications, in general related to classification, prediction, or identification problems in almost any scientific area. The most widely used models among ANNs have been the multilayer perceptron (MLP) and self‐organizing maps (SOM). Their applications are mainly included in two wide research areas: the location of geographic areas with high archaeological potential, and the classification of archaeological materials or sites. In both cases, a number of examples in the scientific literature confirm the success of
ANNs
and show them as a promising tool for other archaeological problems.
Neutron Imaging and Tomography in Conservation
Authors: Payne Emma
Published: November 2018

Neutron imaging is a radiographic technique that can be conducted in both 2D and 3D (tomography). A neutron beam is directed toward an object; the extent to which the beam is attenuated enables information concerning the object's internal structure to be gathered. The technique can be useful for conservators, providing a nondestructive, noninvasive means of investigating the composition and structural integrity of an object. Neutron imaging can be used, for instance, to detect structural flaws, soluble salts, metal corrosion, and the degree to which a consolidant has penetrated an object. It forms a useful complement to X‐ray radiography: unlike X‐rays, which interact with an atom's electron cloud, neutrons interact with the atom's nucleus. Materials that are relatively opaque to X‐rays, such as dense metals, are often easily penetrated by neutrons, and vice versa. Neutron imaging can, however, cause objects to become radioactive and facilities remain relatively scarce.
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)
Authors: Baias Maria
Published: November 2018

Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) is an outstanding technique widely used in chemistry, biology, medicine, and materials science by measuring NMR parameters like chemical shift, nuclear spin relaxation, diffusion coefficients, dipolar couplings, and quadrupolar parameters. NMR can be applied for studying solution and solid‐state samples in high and low magnetic fields. Major breakthroughs in the area of portable NMR sensors enable the noninvasive investigation of precious objects that must remain intact during the experiments.
Synchrotron‐Based
X
‐Ray Analytical Techniques and Materials Analysis
Authors: Bertrand Loïc
Published: November 2018

Synchrotron facilities provide access to photon‐based methods to analyze the composition and properties of matter. Synchrotron radiation sources, coupled to spectroscopy and imaging instruments, are exploited in several dozens of experimental modalities, from the far infrared to the hard X‐ray range. Synchrotron‐based analytical techniques complement laboratory‐based instrumentation in terms of advanced elemental, speciation, molecular, structural, textural, and morphological analysis of materials. The development of various methods of imagery is particularly suited to the heterogeneous and chemically complex character of the materials encountered in the field of archaeological sciences.
Tephra and Volcanic Ash Analysis
Authors: Newton Anthony J.
Published: November 2018

Tephrochronology is the use of volcanic ash layers to provide a chronological framework that can be applied in a range of disciplines, from volcanology to archaeology. Tephra layers form isochrons that mark a moment in time (the time of deposition). Reliable dates (radiometric, historical or ice core) can be “transferred” to any location where a particular tephra isochron is found, providing an independent check of other dating methods. Tephra isochrons can also connect the different locations where they are found and, in particular, archaeological sites with the wider paleolandscape. The identification of tephra layers invisible to the naked eye (cryptotephrochronology) has expanded the reach of tephrochronology to more distal areas downwind of the major volcanically active regions, enabling global correlations and connections.
Thermoluminescence
Authors: Martini M. , Sibilia E.
Published: November 2018

Thermoluminescence (TL) allows the dating of archaeological materials (specifically pottery) by measuring the light emitted by their mineral constituents like quartz and feldspars. This emission of light occurs when ceramic aliquots are heated in the laboratory to high temperature (400–500 °C) under controlled conditions. The intensity of the emitted light is proportional to the time elapsed since the firing in the kiln. This entry aims to acquaint the reader with the physical principles and procedures of TL dating, underlining the potentials and limitations of the technique. The main application fields and a few case studies are also briefly described.
Use of Biological Collections
Authors: Nesbitt Mark , Fairnell Eva
Published: November 2018

The accurate identification of biological remains from archaeological sites (“ecofacts”) is underpinned by comparison to specimens of known identity. Comparative material exists in natural history museums and in specialist reference collections in archaeological laboratories. Their scope includes seeds, pollen, phytoliths, wood and vegetative anatomy, animal bones, teeth and antlers, animal hair and skin, shells, and insects. These collections are used for morphological and anatomical comparison and, increasingly, for DNA and isotopes. Fieldwork to collect fresh material requires careful planning, including attention to permits and ethical aspects; reference material can also be obtained by gift or exchange from other collections. A variety of storage methods are used for reference material, appropriate to its format. Databasing to current standards is an important component of collection management that also enables pooling of data for distributed collections.
Visualization of Soil Resistance Data
Authors: Cheetham Paul N.
Published: November 2018

Soil resistance data are initially recorded as numerical values that cannot be easily analyzed as lists or tables and therefore need to be converted into visual representations in order for us to discover patterns that may represent archaeological phenomena. Since the first hand‐recorded and hand‐plotted surveys, there has been a continuous improvement in ways of visualizing such data and in applying data‐correction and image‐processing techniques to improve their visual representation. Currently, the processing and visualization of routine resistance surveys is well understood and reasonably standardized. However, it is in the field of data fusion, where resistance data are combined with other geophysical, geochemical, and other scientific datasets, that the frontier of research lays.
X
‐Radiography and Ceramics
Authors: Berg Ina
Published: November 2018

This entry summarizes the history, theory, and practice of ceramics X‐radiography before exploring the two most common uses of this technique in greater detail: identification of forming techniques and characterization of clay fabrics. While research has focused on pottery, X‐radiography can in principle be applied to any object made of clay, such as figurines, bricks, and drainage pipes, to foster a greater understanding.
X‐Ray Radiography and Material Analysis
Authors: López Mariel Alejandra
Published: November 2018

Use of X‐rays for the analysis of archaeological objects constructed with different materials began more than a century ago. Nevertheless, it was only during the last half of the twentieth century that this technique began to be used more systematically, especially with human and animal bone remains, as well as with ceramic and metallic objects. Considered as one of the least invasive or destructive techniques, radiography has been preferably used as a diagnostic tool to detect constructive techniques not visible to the naked eye, as well as defects and other morphological and structural characteristics of the materials constituting archaeological objects.
The importance of impulsivity and attention switching deficits in perpetrators convicted for intimate partner violence
Authors: Romero‐Martínez Ángel , Lila Marisol , Moya‐Albiol Luis
Published: November 2018

It has been stated that Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) increases the likelihood of risky behavior such as intimate partner violence (IPV), but the cognitive mechanisms that facilitate or underlie these types of behavior remain unexplained. In this regard, several authors have established that impulsivity and inattentive symptoms might affect basic processes such as emotional decoding and set‐shifting abilities, which are important processes for emotional and behavioral regulation. Hence, these symptoms entail a reduction in sensitivity to key contextual stimuli. Accordingly, the main aim of this study was to examine the involvement of impulsivity (assessed by self‐reports) and attention switching impairments (assessed with the Attention Switching Task; AST), as well as the associations between these cognitive processes in facial emotion decoding (assessed by the eyes test) and cognitive flexibility impairments (measured by the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, WCST) in a sample of IPV perpetrators (n = 89; mean age = 40) and a control group matched on socio‐demographic characteristics (n = 39; mean age = 41). IPV perpetrators had higher trait impulsivity and greater attention switching costs than controls. Moreover, differences were also found between groups in facial expression decoding and WCST performance, with IPV perpetrators showing lower Eyes Test and WCST scores. Mainly, we observed that the ability to recognize facial expressions was poorer when individuals showed high impulsivity in both groups, but this association was only explained by deficits in attention switching in IPV perpetrators. Our research reinforces the importance of impulsivity and inattentive symptoms as targets for specific cognitive rehabilitation interventions designed to prevent the long‐term IPV risk of recidivism.