bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Karyological and cytogenetic features of conifers in arboretums and parklands
Authors: Sedel'nikova T. S. , Pimenov A. V. , Muratova E. N.
Published: November 2020

Aim. The study of karyological and cytogenetic features of conifers growing under conditions of introduction and increased recreational pressure, to identify biodiversity and solve the problems of population and environmental genetics of representatives of this group of plants. Methods. Classical chromosome research methods with staining with acetohematoxylin were used. Results. In species, forms, and cultivars of conifers from the Pinaceae and Cupressaceae families growing in arboretums and parklands, as well as being components of green spaces in settlements of different geographical regions, variability of chromosome numbers (mixoploidy), the appearance of B chromosomes, high occurrence, and a wide range of chromosomal and meiotic anomalies are discovered. Conclusions. Karyological and cytogenetic studies have shown the presence of karyotypic polymorphism and an increase in the number of various disorders of mitosis and meiosis in conifers when introduced under growing conditions in recreational areas. Keywords: conifers, introduction, chromosome number, chromosomal rearrangements, meiosis disorders.
Reproduction and endoreduplication in Drosophila melanogaster Meig. when influenced by lead nitrate
Authors: Strashnyuk V. Yu. , Taglina O. V.
Published: November 2020

Aim. The purpose of investigation was to study the reproductive ability and polyteny degree of chromosomes in Drosophila melanogaster Meig. under the influence of various concentrations of lead nitrate. Methods. Canton-S wild-type strain was used as the material. Flies developed on standard sugar-yeast medium, to which in the experiment lead nitrate was added in concentrations of 0.1, 1, and 10 mg/ml. The reproductive ability of the strain was evaluated by the number of adult offspring. The polyteny degree of chromosomes was studied on squashed preparations of larva salivary glands stained with acetoorsein by cytomorphometry. The preparations were obtained at late 3rd instar. Results. The number of adult offsprings decreased when lead nitrate was added to the nutrient medium: at a concentration of 0.1 mg/ml – by 22.8 %, at 1 mg/ml – by 38.9 %. A concentration of 10 mg/ml was lethal. Males showed greater sensitivity to the drug compared to females. The degree of polyteny of chromosomes in the salivary glands of larvae decreased on average by 5.0–6.5 %. Conclusions. Lead nitrate causes a significant, dose-dependent decrease in the reproductive ability of fruit flies and has a toxic effect on Drosophila cells, inhibiting the process of endoreduplication. Keywords: Drosophila melanogaster Meig., heavy metals, fecundity, giant chromosomes, polyteny.
Changeability in the pattern of white marking on a leaf of Trifolium repens L. is a bioindicator of presence in soil of agricultural lands of nitrate nitrogen and heavy metals
Authors: Toryanik V. M. , Mironets L. P.
Published: November 2020

Aim. Conduct research between the variability of the pattern of white marking on a leaf of Trifolium repens L. and the content of nitrate nitrogen and heavy metals in soil of hayfield and pasture. Methods. Collection of leafs was carried out in 2019 during the period of mass flowering of plant. Identification of drawings of white marking on a leaf was carried out according to the method of IT. Paponova and P.Ya. Schwartzman, using the tables of J. L. Briubecker. Soils were tested for nitrate nitrogen and heavy metals in accordance with recommended methods. Results. In the total sample of T. repens L. collected from territories of the hayfield and pasture, detected 8 phenotypes, formed by a series of 7 alleles of gen V. In the sample from the territory of the hayfield, the phenotype O was most often found, in the sample from the territory of the pasture - the phenotypes of AH and C, much more often than in the territory of the hayfields – the phenotype of the BHC. In the hayfield, the frequency of «wild» phenotypes was higher, in the grassland – «mutant» phenotypes. In each of the studied territories unique phenotypes were detected: on the territory of hayfield – phenotype C in the form of a four-leaf, on the territory of the pasture – phenotypes of BHB and E. Pasture soil had a significantly higher content of nitrate nitrogen (almost 4 times), Fe (almost 2.5 times), Mn (1.6 times), Zn (2.4 times), Cu (1.8 times), Pb (more than 2 times) and Cd (more than 2 times) compared to soil of hayfield. Conclusions. A correlation was found between the frequency of T. repens phenotypes detected in the pattern of white markings on the leave and the presence in soil of hayfield and pasture of nitric nitrogen and heavy metals. However, it should be evaluated with caution, as the relationship between these indicators is although probable, but requires further investigation.

Keywords: Trifolium repens L., white marking on a leaf, bioindicator, soil, nitrate nitrogen, heavy metals.
Studies on Physio-Chemical Properties of Value Added Herbal Papaya (Carica papaya L.) Candy
Authors: Jahnavi Konche , Mishra Saket
Published: November 2020

A field experiment was conducted during year 2019-2020 at the Post Harvest Laboratory of Horticulture Department, Naini Agricultural Institute, Sam Higginbottom University of Agriculture, Technology & Sciences, Prayagraj to study “Studies on physio-chemical properties of value added herbal papaya (Carica papaya L.) candy”. The experiment was conducted in Randomized Block Design with ten treatments, replicated thrice. Total number of treatments were ten viz. (T0 (Control)- 70% sugar), (T1-Raw papaya + 70% sugar + 0.5% tulsi),( T2 -Raw papaya + 70% sugar + 1.0% tulsi), (T3 -Raw papaya + 70% sugar +1.5% tulsi), (T4 -Raw papaya + 70% sugar + 0.5% cardamom), (T5 -Raw papaya + 70 % sugar + 1.0% cardamom), (T6 -Raw papaya + 70 % sugar + 1.5% cardamom), (T7 -Raw papaya + 70% sugar + 0.5% lemon grass), (T8 -Raw papaya + 70% sugar + 1.0% lemon grass) and (T9 -Raw papaya +70% sugar + 1.5% lemon grass). The treatment T6 (Raw papaya + 70 % sugar + 1.5% cardamom) was found superior in respect of parameters like total soluble solids (85.78 °Brix), Titrable acidity (1.29), PH (5.05), flavour score (9.00), taste score (9.00) and overall acceptability score (8.50). Benfit-cost Ratio was found highest (1.64) in the treatments (T1 - Raw papaya + 70% sugar + 0.5% tulsi), (T2 - Raw papaya + 70% sugar + 1.0% tulsi), (T3 - Raw papaya + 70% sugar +1.5% tulsi) and (T7 -Raw papaya + 70% sugar + 0.5% lemon grass).
Potential of Various Organic Nutrient Management Practices for Augmenting the Growth, Yield Attributes and Yield of Finger Millet [Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn]
Authors: Mahapatra Sweta Shikta , Sunitha N. , Ramu Y. Reddi , Rahman F. H.
Published: November 2020

A field experiment was carried out during kharif, 2016 on sandy loam soils of dry land farm of S.V. Agricultural College, Tirupati, Acharya N.G. Ranga Agricultural University. The experiment was laid out in randomized block design with three replications. There were eight treatments viz., control (T1), 100% RDF (60:30:30 kg ha-1 N:P2O5:K2O) (T2), 100% N through farm yard manure (FYM) (T3), 100% N through FYM + seedling treatment with biofertilizers (Azospirillum+ PSB) (T4), Seedling treatment with beejamruta + soil application of jeevamruta @ 500 l ha-1 just after transplanting and at every 10 days interval upto 15 days before harvest (T5), Seedling treatment with beejamruta + foliar application of panchagavya @ 3% foliar spray at every 10 days interval up to 15 days before harvest (T6), T3 + T5 (T7) and T3+ T6 (T8). The test variety of finger millet was ‘Vakula’. The growth and yield attributing parameters i.e., plant height, leaf area index, number of tillers m-2 and dry matter production at harvest, number of productive tillers m-2 and ear weight, yield and economics of finger millet crop were found to be significantly influenced by various sources of nutrients. In conclusion, the investigation revealed that higher grain yield of finger millet as well as economic returns could be realized with 100% recommended dose of nutrients through fertilizers. Among the various organic sources of nutrients tried, 100% N through FYM + seedling treatment with beejamruta + soil application of jeevamruta @ 500 l ha-1 just after transplanting and at every 10 days interval up to 15 days before harvest (T7) was proved to be the most promising integrated organic nutrient management practice for higher yield, economics of finger millet along with maintenance of soil biological activity as well as fertility for the sustenance of soil ecology in the present domain of study.
Efficacious Response of Maize (Zea mays L.) Growth and Soil Changes to Phousphorous and Zinc Applications on Chromic Luvisols in North-Eastern Part of Nigeria
Authors: Abdullahi Maryam , Sadiq Abdulqadir Abubakar , Bello Abubakar
Published: November 2020

The study aimed to study the efficacious response of maize growth and soil changes to phosphorous and zinc application on chromic luvisols in North-eastern part of Nigeria conducted at Teaching and Research Farm of School of Agriculture and Agricultural Technology, Modibbo Adama University, Yola during 2018 and 2019 cropping seasons. Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) was used in the experiment to test the various levels of P and Zn applications on TZL composite white improved variety of maize. Four levels of phosphorus (0, 10, 20 and 30 kg Pha-1) and three levels of zinc (0, 5 and 10 Zn ha-1) were applied on experimental plots of 4.5m x 5m replicated three times. Data obtained on the growth parameters and soil properties were measured and analyzed using ANOVA statistical package. Result indicate that the soil was predominantly sandy loam, organic matter (mean =0.92 gkg-1), total N (mean = 0.35 gkg-1) Available phosphorous (mean = 8.6 mgkg-1) Zinc (mean = 7.25 mgkg-1) and exchangeable cations (means= Ca2+ =0.26 cmolkg-1, Mg2+ =0.27 cmolkg-1, K+ =1.83, Na+ =0.85 cmolkg-1) and CEC = 5.32 respectively. The effects of P and Zn did not show any significant difference on plants height in both years of experimentation except at harvest where main effect of P showed slightly taller plants at  30 kg Pha-1 level in 2018 (202.11 cm) and 2019 (206.11 cm). Generally the mean values of plant heights at various P levels are higher than that at the Zn levels. Similarly, there were no significant differences in the leaf area, however, highest mean values of 236.1 cm2 and 227.6 cm2 was observed at 30 kg Pha-1 and 10 kg Znha-1 in both 2018 and 2019 cropping years. while Leaf Area Index shows highest values of 2.98 cm2 and 2.54 cm2 observed at 30 kg Pha-1 and 10 kg Znha-1 and interaction effects was significant P = (0.05) in both years respectively. Available P in soil after the harvest of 2018 the available P was significantly affected. Highest mean values of P content were 13.14 mgkg-1 and 14.97 mgkg-1 in 2018 and 2019 with 30kg Pha-1. Also, there was significant difference in the main effect of the Zinc treatments on available Zn in the soil in 2019 where the highest mean value of 4.03 mgkg-1 was recorded at 0 kg Zn ha-1. Therefore, application of 30 kg P ha-1 and 10 kg Zn ha-1 as evidenced to maintain the soil nutrients and thus should be employed for sustainable maize production in the area.
Biosynthesis of Hydroxy Citric Acid Mediated Zinc Nanoparticles and Its Antioxidant and Cytotoxic Activity
Authors: Shankar S. Barani , Arivarasu Lakshminarayanan , Rajeshkumar S.
Published: November 2020

Aim: To evaluate biosynthesis of hydroxy citric acid mediated zinc nanoparticle and its antioxidant and cytotoxic activity

Introduction: Hydroxy citric acid is a chemical that is found in fruit rinds of Garcinia cambogia, Garcinia indica, and Garcinia atroviridis. Hydroxy citric acid is used to improve exercise performance and weight loss. Hydroxy citric acid can cause nausea, digestive tract discomfort, and headache when used short-term. Long-term safety is unknown.Zinc oxide nanoparticles are nanoparticles of zinc oxide that have diameters less than 100 nanometers. Zinc nanoparticles have a large surface area relative to their size and high catalytic activity. The exact physical and chemical properties of zinc oxide nanoparticles depend on the different ways they are synthesized. zinc oxide nanoparticles have also been shown to exhibit strong protein adsorption properties, which can be used to modulate cytotoxicity, metabolism or other cellular responses.

Materials and Methods: Evaluation of anti-oxidant was done by DPPH activity and evaluation of cytotoxic activity was done by brine shrimp lethality assay. Colour changes was noted in evaluation of cytotoxic activity

Results: The antioxidant activity was exhibited well at higher doses when compared to standard, but there was only 40% of cytotoxicity achieved which indicates its potential.Cytotoxic activity reveals that the drug showed a very good result at a concentration of  25 ul it showed a 40% of lethality thereby showing  that Hydroxycitric acid medicated zinc oxide nanoparticles shows a potent activity when compared to that with the standard.

Conclusion: The study concludes that hydroxy citric acid shows good antioxidant and cytotoxic activity.
Bakhtin, Mikhail
Authors: Khor Su Yin
Published: November 2020

Mikhail Mikhailovich Bakhtin (1895–1975) was a Russian philosopher whose work heavily influenced philosophy, language, and literary criticism. He completed his studies in 1918 and graduated from St. Petersburg State University. After graduating, he worked as a high school teacher in Nevel, and it was in Nevel where the first Bakhtinian Circle was formed. Many of his ideas were developed during this time in the group. Much of Bakhtin's work has continued to inspire the work of other scholars in related fields, such as anthropology, psychology, and literary criticism. Regarding language, influential concepts include dialogism, chronotopes, and heteroglossia. Although the concept of dialogism first centered on written work and the relationship between authors and readers, it was developed and applied to language. Essentially, the idea of language being dialogic comes from the belief that language is dynamic and not static. It constantly evolves as speakers interact with others and is shaped by the context and environment.
Benveniste, Émile
Authors: Stanlaw James
Published: November 2020

Émile Benveniste (1902–1976) was one of the most influential Indo‐Europeanists of the twentieth century, bringing in many key insights from semiotics and structuralism to this previously highly philological discipline. Though writing mostly in French, he also anticipated several critical notions in English‐language linguistics, including Chomsky's critique of behaviorism and theories of denotation and pragmatics (such as deixis and indexicality).
Boas, Franz
Authors: Stanlaw James
Published: November 2020

Simply put, Franz Boas (1858–1942) was the founder of American anthropology, and insured that linguistics would be a co‐equal partner in the new fledgling discipline. He was also instrumental in the growth and development of American structuralist linguistics. Most anthropologists working in North America today tacitly follow the axioms of the Boasian “Americanist” school, whether acknowledged or not.
Body, in Interaction
Authors: Bouissac Paul
Published: November 2020

From arctic to tropical climates, on land and sea, the human body must meet numerous challenges, both physical and social, to survive and reproduce in an environment defined by the laws of gravity and evolution. As a social organism, the human primate develops and matures through a dense net of interactions with other humans and animals. The evolution of tool making provided the body with extensions that helped humans to successfully mediate these interactions in all sensorial modalities that have evolved as adaptations to its physical, biological, and social environments. Bipedal mobility, brachiation, and manual dexterity led to a range of adaptive behaviors including balance management, self‐care, and proximal and distal bodily interactions that have been regulated by various cultural constraints and have generated a rich gestural and lexical repertory. Technological advances keep expanding the interactive power of the human body.
Censorship
Authors: Larson Jonathan L.
Published: November 2020

Censorship is generally understood as formal restrictions, in some way endorsed or supported by the state, on expressive acts that are perceived as threats to public order. Modern discourses against censorship tend to be informed by an Enlightenment and liberal tradition of viewing free speech as both a human right and integral to just governance. However, every society regulates communicative or expressive acts in a variety of ways, including many that are neither institutional nor subject to discussion. A linguistic anthropological approach to censorship engages with different communities ideas about the nature and function of transgressive acts, studies the multidimensional nature of communication to understand the effects of these acts in different contexts, and analyzes contradictions and biases in awareness to advocate for the linguistically marginalized.
Chronotope
Authors: Perrino Sabina
Published: November 2020

Originally proposed by Bakhtin as a way to analyze the entwined temporal and spatial dimensions of novelistic discourse, the notion of chronotope has been used in linguistic anthropology to study the complexity of temporal and spatial relationships in a vast array of discursive practices. While initially scholars tended to examine time and space as separate aspects of sociocultural life, research inspired by Bakhtin's chronotope has allowed linguistic anthropologists and sociolinguists to explore spatiotemporal configurations and to consider the role these conjunctures play in structuring social and discursive life.
Control
Authors: Hodge Bob
Published: November 2020

“Control” is a modality of power mediated by language. “Control” as a linear form of power emerged in the fourteenth century. It now expresses an ideology or fantasy of linear efficacy, whereas “power” after Michel Foucault is recognized as inherently complex and non‐linear. Power and control are mainly emphasized in social theories on the left, influenced by Marxism and Foucault, which critique power as complex and all‐pervasive in social life. Outside the social sciences, cybernetics provides influential ideas on power and control and a theoretical basis for a proliferation of new technologies of control. It critiques linear control models, showing that in isolation these produce chaos and loss of control. Most forms of linguistics do not foreground power and control. Critical discourse analysis is currently the main branch of linguistics to theorize and analyze the role of language in struggles over power and control.
Correctness, Incorrectness, and Correction
Authors: Das Sonia N.
Published: November 2020

Correction refers to the elimination of variation and labeling of perceived errors in grammatical forms, linguistic styles, and communicative acts. Cast in moralistic and polarizing terms such as “proper” or “improper,” “pure” or “corrupted,” “intelligible” or “unintelligible,” “face‐saving” or “face‐threatening,” “standard” or “non‐standard,” and “appropriate” or “inappropriate,” each token of these unmarked–marked pairs iconically indexes the presumed essence of a language user and community. The linguistic and semiotic ideologies that animate these signs through moral narratives also broadly articulate with nationalist, multicultural, or revitalization movements and pervade the institutional domains of science, religion, education, commerce, and law. As a human universal and sociocultural construct, thus, claims and acts of correctness/incorrectness/correction are as ubiquitous as they are contingent and contestable. Anthropologists and other language scholars who analyze the forms, practices, and ideologies of correction advance discussions of language and power by drawing on theories and methods in conversation analysis, language socialization, discourse analysis, sociolinguistics, and applied linguistics. This entry explores studies of language standardization, conversational repair, and didactic feedback to underline the need for historical inquiry and comparative analysis to discern the interplay between corrective strategy and ideology in the social valuation of erroneous forms.
Dialect: Age
Authors: Bowie David
Published: November 2020

Age is a widely used variable in linguistic research, and is usually treated as a simple chronological measure of time since birth. However, upon closer examination age turns out to be a much more complex variable than that, because two individuals with the same chronological age are very likely to have experienced events affecting their use of language differently, even if they are otherwise matched for social factors. In addition, long‐standing assumptions about the stability of linguistic production across the lifespan are not always well founded. This means that researchers need to treat age with care if they wish to use it to best effect in their analyses of individual and community linguistic behavior.
Diglossia
Authors: Tsiplakou Stavroula
Published: November 2020

This entry provides an overview of the concept of diglossia in the sociolinguistic literature of the last six decades. It presents the trajectory from the original Fergusonian definition, which assumed a particular hierarchical relation between related varieties, to approaches which assume diglossic configurations in situations of bilingualism or plurilingualism as well as in standard‐with‐dialects constellations. The problematization of diglossia as a meaningful theoretical concept in the light of recent developments in sociolinguistics is discussed.
Double Articulation
Authors: Wier Thomas R.
Published: November 2020

Double articulation refers to the property of human languages in which meaningful words are composed of meaningless sounds. This entry surveys what it is, how it differs from other properties like arbitrariness and productivity, whether it is a true human universal, and its evolutionary origins.
Feminism and Language
Authors: Kramer Elise
Published: November 2020

Linguistic change has been one of the major feminist projects of the past 60 years, and the relationship between language and gender has been a fruitful topic of study for linguistic anthropologists and sociolinguists. There are three dimensions of language that feminists have focused on: gender neutral language; representations of women and men built into languages; and ensuring that powerful language is equally accessible to men and women. Feminists have faced considerable backlash for their focus on language, and have been attacked as “politically correct” censors.
Grice, H. Paul
Authors: Khor Su Yin
Published: November 2020

Herbert Paul Grice (1913–1988) was a British philosopher, educated at Corpus Christi College, Oxford. He held several appointments at various institutions, such as Oxford, before becoming professor of philosophy at the University of California at Berkeley in 1967. His work has heavily influenced the field of philosophy of language.

He is best known for his groundbreaking work on
meaning
, and
theory of implicature,
particularly the
Cooperative Principle
and
Conversation Maxims
. Specifically, the distinction between meaning and use of an utterance is critical as the semantic meaning should be considered as separate from its pragmatic meaning, thus, interlocuters must cooperate and mutually accept each other's roles in order to be understood in a particular way. The principles are divided into four central maxims.
Heteroglossia
Authors: SturtzSreetharan Cindi
Published: November 2020

Heteroglossia is a concept which is fundamentally concerned with two central but seemingly contradictory aspects of language: its fixedness (e.g. script, lexicon, grammar system) and its inherent variability due to the ways in which context can add to, subtract from, and alter the meaning of the language produced (spoken, signed, written). Thus, all language is said to have multiple possible voices and interpretations. Context is always at work and must be given attention to understand the array of possible meanings present in any given text.
Hockett, Charles
Authors: Stanlaw James
Published: November 2020

Charles Hockett (1916–2000) was an influential mid‐twentieth century linguistic anthropologist, and was a vocal critic of Chomsky's transformational‐generative paradigm. He continues to be widely known for his “design features” proposal, which attempted to differentiate human language and animal communication systems.
Idiom
Authors: Feeney William
Published: November 2020

Linguists have traditionally defined idioms as multiword expressions whose meanings are non‐compositional, indicating that the meaning of an idiomatic expression differs from what might be expected from a combination of the words that make up the expression. The focus on compositionality in relation to idiomatic expressions followed in large part from an analytic focus on language as an autonomous system comprised of lexicon and grammar. Research on idiomatic expressions has increasingly shifted analytic attention away from idioms, as a selected class of expressions characterized by non‐compositionality, toward idiomaticity, as a prevalent feature of language more generally. As linguistic anthropologists generally approach language through a framework that does not restrict meaning to denotational code, interest in idiomatic expressions largely focuses on regularities in linguistic practice, emphasizing the ways that the uneven distribution of linguistic resources entail socially consequential effects.
International Auxiliary Languages
Authors: Gobbo Federico
Published: November 2020

International auxiliary languages (IALs) are languages consciously planned for enabling communication between speakers having different native tongues on an equal footing. They are the most developed area of interlinguistics, the science of languages that are constructed or planned on purpose. The term “auxiliary” refers to the fact that IALs are intended to be used as second languages only. In general, IALs are supported by people who are dissatisfied of the use of national languages – like English or French – in international settings, so they promote the use of a “neutral” tool. For IAL supporters, “neutral” means that they are not bound to any specific ethnicity. The most successful IAL ever is Esperanto, which succeeded to gather a community of practice without substantial interruption, for over a century. Today, IALs are enjoying renewed attention thanks to the internet, especially social media and Wikipedia, which have provided them with a new visibility to the general public.
Language and Creativity: Introduction
Authors: Stanlaw James
Published: November 2020

Language‐and‐creativity covers an almost infinite number of subjects. Some language activities or events are publically recognized as such, and the language at that time is expected to be stylized and creative in certain prescribed ways. However, linguistic creativity is not just an extraordinary property of extraordinary people, but is an ordinary property of ordinary people. Simply put, individuals are highly creative and when interacting together with others are even more so. Three examples are discussed.
Language and Creativity: Proverbs
Authors: Barajas E. Domínguez
Published: November 2020

This entry provides an overview of the study of proverbs as a creative form of linguistic expression. It establishes that paremiology, the field of study devoted to proverbs, and sociocognitive theory have revealed the complex relationship between proverbs as linguistic artifacts, as social tools, and as conceptual vehicles that enable linguistic communication in succinct and engaging ways. The sources referenced convey how the creative dimensions of proverbs are explained on the basis of universal cognitive phenomena and on the basis of particular sociocultural uses.
Language and Education
Authors: LaDousa Chaise
Published: November 2020

Anthropologists have found in language and education a relationship particularly important in the study of inequality and its reproduction. They have shown that interactional patterns in many communities, especially stigmatized and underserved ones, differ from those found in most classrooms. More recently, anthropologists have explored the intersection of language and education in contexts characterized by postcolonialism, indigeneity, minority language activism, and the practices of youth in and out of schools.
Language and Humor
Authors: Dickinson Jennifer
Published: November 2020

A general definition of the humorous is anything that elicits laughter or evokes amusement; some definitions also presuppose intentionality in the creation of humorous moments. Drawing from theoretical and descriptive foundations in folklore, linguistics, sociology, psychology, and anthropology, linguistic anthropological approaches have highlighted humorous language as the outcome of complex interactions in which participants must gauge intentions and interpretive frameworks, coordinate understanding, and manage social and linguistic responses. This entry covers key approaches to humor; types of language play, including language games, and joking as part of social relations. It begins with a summary of several influential theories of humor, including a review of some linguistic anthropological approaches to joking in context and anthropological study of so‐called “joking relationships.” A discussion of types of language play and language games follows, with the final section focused on linguistic anthropological studies of the social effects of joking.
Language, The Internet, and Digital Communication
Authors: Johnson Amy , Jones Graham
Published: November 2020

Following the global proliferation of technologies of digital communication, linguistic anthropologists have investigated the associated signifying practices. Such practices intimately intertwine with sociotechnical systems: devices and programming architecture are designed to support particular communicative practices, and communicative practices are shaped by devices and architecture. Prominent linguistic anthropological approaches to digital communication include theories of literacy, media worlds, language ideology, and the ethnography of speaking paradigm. Linguistic anthropology's distinctive contributions in this area originate in its prioritizing language as an expressive resource and its commitment to a holistic ethnographic approach. In the future, in addition to tracking responses to technological changes, linguistic anthropologists will take up a number of overarching concerns, such as the role of corporate and state actors in digital communication and the increasing prevalence of machines as interlocutors and social actors.
Language Planning
Authors: Pérez‐Milans Miguel
Published: November 2020

This entry traces the development of language planning as a field of inquiry in intersection with disciplinary shifts within linguistic anthropology. It focuses on the emergence of early language planning work, with attention to its conceptualization as a modern developmental model during the colonization and decolonization processes of the 1960s, as well as to subsequent criticisms and their impact on the rise of critical and ethnographic approaches during the 1990s. It also pays attention to existing controversies vis‐à‐vis a more recent semiotic turn in linguistic anthropology. The entry ends with a discussion of work in progress and future directions that articulate more fully the points of connection between ethnographic, critical, and semiotic approaches to language planning, under the shifting economic conditions of the contemporary world.
Language Socialization
Authors: Garrett Paul B.
Published: November 2020

Language socialization is the developmental process through which a child or other novice (of any age, such as an adult immigrant) acquires the ability to use language and other communicative resources in culturally appropriate and socially effective ways. Language socialization researchers study the ways in which novices learn to use language and other communicative resources in the culturally specific ways that enable them to participate meaningfully in everyday social life, in all its diversity and complexity. At the same time, they also seek to understand the broader sociocultural and sociohistorical contexts within which this multidimensional developmental process occurs, from local to global levels of analysis.
Linguistic Diversity and Plurality in Oceania and the Pacific
Authors: Mawyer Alexander
Published: November 2020

Oceania is a region of enormous geographical, environmental, social, and cultural contrasts. Among the world's most linguistically diverse regions, its rich history of anthropological and linguistic‐anthropological research includes communities with relatively well‐documented languages and others that are insufficiently documented. Transformational processes of missionization, colonialism, demographic shift, democratization, globalization and neoliberal reorderings, diasporic flows, resource extraction, environmental and ecological degradation, and climate change have all been linked to complex processes of language shift, loss, and vitalization.
Linguistic Relativity
Authors: O'Neill Sean
Published: November 2020

The principle of linguistic relativity holds that humans everywhere construct compelling social realities by means of the stock expressions found in everyday language – including everything from grammar and vocabulary to narrative structures. Language is the key variable here, whether one considers the 6000 languages spoken around the planet or the many dialects and specialized registers within these tongues. As language shifts, so do our perceptions of reality, including how we respond to these pervasive symbolic constructions – acting upon them as if they are real, rather than as mere interpretations (or even misinterpretations). The critical insight is that we are all under the spell of language, whether or not we know it. This entry reviews the long‐standing philosophical insights that led to the development of the so‐called Sapir‐Whorf Hypothesis, an inspiring anthropological reformulation of an old philosophical insight about the influence of language on the mind – and, by extension, social interaction.
Malinowski, Bronisław
Authors: Stanlaw James
Published: November 2020

Bronisław Malinowski (1884–1942) was one of the early founders of fieldwork methodology and linguistic anthropology. He continues to be remembered for his seminal idea that meaning in language derives from social context and various modes of social interaction.
Nominal Classification Systems
Authors: Aikhenvald Alexandra Y.
Published: November 2020

Almost all languages of the world have nominal classification devices in their grammar. The most widespread are linguistic genders (also referred to as noun classes) – grammatical classes of nouns based on core semantic properties such as sex (female and male), animacy, humanness, and also shape and size. The choice of a gender (or noun class) may not be semantically transparent. Classifiers of several types are a further means for categorizing nominals. Numeral classifiers – the most widely represented type – categorize the nominal in terms of its inherent nature, animacy, shape, and form, and occur next to a numeral or a quantifier. Numeral classifiers divide into sortal and mensural. Noun classifiers accompany a noun and categorize it in terms of its inherent properties. Possessive classifiers categorize a noun with a possessive construction. Or the nature of the nominal can be reflected in a classifier on the verb, or a suppletive classificatory verb. Each type of nominal classification devices has its preferred semantic parameters. Nominal classification systems tend to reflect social relationships. Grammatical gender is prone to reflect the stereotypes associated with social gender – the social implications and norms associated with being a man, or a woman, or a further gender category.
Vološinov, Valentin
Authors: Stanlaw James
Published: November 2020

Valentin Vološinov (Volonsinov, Voloshinov; 1895–1936) was a Soviet‐era linguist and literary critic who made lasting contributions attempting to merge semiotics (and its subjectivism) with Marxism (and its materialism).
Writing and Writing Systems: Introduction
Authors: Stanlaw James
Published: November 2020

Writing is very new in human history. But “writing” itself is actually hard to define. Any definition of writing will be arbitrary because there will always be some who claim that writing is any system of graphic symbols that conveys
some
thought, while others say writing must be a set of symbols that can convey
all
thought. Basso argues for an ethnography of writing, one element in a more encompassing field of inquiry which embraces the totality of human communication.
Hill, Jane
Authors: Stanlaw James
Published: November 2020

Jane Hill (1939–2018) was one of the most renowned linguistic anthropologists working in the last quarter of the twentieth century and the first decades of the twenty‐first. Few areas of linguistic anthropology have not felt her presence. Through her research agenda and leadership roles, she influenced a generation of young scholars, making them examine the ideological underpinnings of language use.
1D Organic Micro/Nanostructures for Photonics
Authors: Shi Ying‐Li , Wang Xue‐Dong
Published: November 2020

1D organic micro/nanostructures (OMNSs) based on π‐conjugated molecules are considered to be suitable candidates as photonic units due to their unique photophysical advantages over traditional ones in low‐temperature solution‐processed approach, tunable emission color, the built‐in cavity for optical confinement, and so forth. These inherent characteristics of OMNSs make them have broad application prospects in photonics devices, such as nanolasers, optical waveguides, and optical logical gates. In this review, the recent processes of OMNSs in terms of light generation, light confinement, and propagation are introduced, separately. Some representative works of OMNSs are discussed in the direction of optical modulation and processing. However, huge challenges still remain before the OMNSs are actually used as components of optical circuits in the photonics chips. The summary and the expectations are presented for the future development of 1D organic micro/nanostructures photonics.
Transparent and Flexible Inorganic Perovskite Photonic Artificial Synapses with Dual‐Mode Operation
Authors: Yang Lin , Singh Mriganka , Shen Shin‐Wei , Chih Ke‐Yun , Liu Shun‐Wei , Wu Chih‐I , Chu Chih‐Wei , Lin Hao‐Wu
Published: November 2020

With the rapid development of artificial intelligence, the simulation of the human brain for neuromorphic computing has demonstrated unprecedented progress. Photonic artificial synapses are strongly desirable owing to their higher neuron selectivity, lower crosstalk, wavelength multiplexing capabilities, and low operating power compared to their electric counterparts. This study demonstrates a highly transparent and flexible artificial synapse with a two‐terminal architecture that emulates photonic synaptic functionalities. This optically triggered artificial synapse exhibits clear synaptic characteristics such as paired‐pulse facilitation, short/long‐term memory, and synaptic behavior analogous to that of the iris in the human eye. Ultraviolet light illumination‐induced neuromorphic characteristics exhibited by the synapse are attributed to carrier trapping and detrapping in the SnO2 nanoparticles and CsPbCl3 perovskite interface. Moreover, the ability to detect deep red light without changes in synaptic behavior indicates the potential for dual‐mode operation. This study establishes a novel two‐terminal architecture for highly transparent and flexible photonic artificial synapse that can help facilitate higher integration density of transparent 3D stacking memristors, and make it possible to approach optical learning, memory, computing, and visual recognition.
Engineering Aptamer Switches for Multifunctional Stimulus‐Responsive Nanosystems
Authors: Rangel Alexandra E. , Hariri Amani A. , Eisenstein Michael , Soh H. Tom
Published: November 2020

Although RNA and DNA are best known for their capacity to encode biological information, it has become increasingly clear over the past few decades that these biomolecules are also capable of performing other complex functions, such as molecular recognition (e.g., aptamers) and catalysis (e.g., ribozymes). Building on these foundations, researchers have begun to exploit the predictable base‐pairing properties of RNA and DNA in order to utilize nucleic acids as functional materials that can undergo a molecular “switching” process, performing complex functions such as signaling or controlled payload release in response to external stimuli including light, pH, ligand‐binding and other microenvironmental cues. Although this field is still in its infancy, these efforts offer exciting potential for the development of biologically based “smart materials”. Herein, ongoing progress in the use of nucleic acids as an externally controllable switching material is reviewed. The diverse range of mechanisms that can trigger a stimulus response, and strategies for engineering those functionalities into nucleic acid materials are explored. Finally, recent progress is discussed in incorporating aptamer switches into more complex synthetic nucleic acid‐based nanostructures and functionalized smart materials.
SURMOF Devices Based on Heteroepitaxial Architectures with White‐Light Emission and Luminescent Thermal‐Dependent Performance
Authors: Chen Dong‐Hui , Sedykh Alexander E. , Gomez Germán E. , Neumeier Beatrice Lilli , Santos Jaciara C. C. , Gvilava Vasily , Maile Ruben , Feldmann Claus , WÖll Christof , Janiak Christoph , Müller‐Buschbaum Klaus , Redel Engelbert
Published: November 2020

A new set of Ln‐MOF (lanthanide‐metal‐organic framework) thin films, known as Ln‐SURMOFs (surface‐supported MOFs), is fabricated with a layer‐by‐layer, in order to generate solid‐state white‐lighting devices. A three‐component approach is carried out for a rational combination of red, green, and blue (RGB) emitting Eu3+, Tb3+, and Gd3+ containing layers in order to achieve white‐light emission. The Ln‐SURMOFs are fully characterized by powder X‐ray diffraction, infrared reflection–absorption spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and photoluminescence spectroscopy (excitation‐emission and chromaticity determination according to Commission International de l'Eclairage, CIE). The devices show CIE x,y coordinates of almost ideal white light (0.331, 0.329), as well as a correlated color temperature of 5570 K. Besides, the temperature dependent performance of the RGB‐SURMOFs is studied at room temperature and at 77 K.
Ultrahigh Sensitive Carbon‐Based Conducting Rubbers for Flexible and Wearable Human–Machine Intelligence Sensing
Authors: Ajeev Arya , Javaregowda Bharathkumar H. , Ali Ashik , Modak Mrudul , Patil Shreya , Khatua Saumyakanta , Ramadoss Marimuthu , Kothavade Premkumar Anil , Arulraj Arul Kashmir
Published: November 2020

The wearable strain sensors with multifunctional applications can fuel the rapid development of human–machine intelligence for various sectors like healthcare, soft robotics, and Internet of Things applications. However, achieving the low‐cost and mass production of wearable sensors with ultra‐high performance remains challenging. Herein, a simple, cost‐effective, and scalable methodology to fabricate the flexible and highly sensitive strain sensors using carbon black and latex rubbers (LR) is presented. The LR‐based strain sensor demonstrates excellent flexibility, fast response (≈600 ms), ultra‐high sensitivity (maximum gauge factor of 1.2 × 104 at 250% strain), and long‐term stability over 1000 cycles. The LR‐based strain sensors are sensitive to monitor subtle human motions such as heart pulse rate and voice recognition along with high‐strain human joint operations. Additionally, the sensing mechanism of LR bands is investigated by surface topographies and electromechanical response under various strained/unstrained conditions. Further, a smart glove‐based sensor module made of LR strain bands with an Arduino reader for the human–machine intelligence device for non‐verbal communication in military applications is demonstrated.
Enabling High‐Speed Computing with Electromagnetic Pulse Switching
Authors: Yakovlev Alex , Pacheco‐Peña Victor
Published: November 2020

Communication and transfer of information from one block to another within a system is fundamental for high‐speed and efficient computing. Herein, a simple approach for computing, without using conventional electrical charge/discharge‐based primitive operations, in which information is represented in electromagnetic energy steps travelling in sections of transmission lines, is proposed. These steps are formed by transverse electromagnetic (TEM) square pulses with a polarity representing the values of Boolean variables. Logical operations between variables are realized at the crossing point of inter‐connected transmission lines by exploiting the known laws of reflection and transmission of TEM waves allowing power division and/or recombination. A series and parallel configurations for at‐will square pulse manipulation are discussed, offering new possibilities for future electromagnetic pulse‐based computing systems.
Design of 3D Oxide–Metal Hybrid Metamaterial for Tailorable Light–Matter Interactions in Visible and Near‐Infrared Region
Authors: Zhang Di , Lu Ping , Misra Shikhar , Wissel Ashley , He Zihao , Qi Zhimin , Gao Xingyao , Sun Xing , Liu Juncheng , Lu Juanjuan , Zhang Xinghang , Wang Haiyan
Published: November 2020

Dielectric–metallic hybrid metamaterials exhibit extraordinary optical properties due to the light–matter interactions at the dielectric–metallic interfaces. The ability in precision control of the light–matter interactions in nanoscale is key to tailor the optical properties of hybrid metamaterials. In this work, a complex 3D framework of multilayered self‐assembled BaTiO3(BTO)‐Au hybrid thin films is demonstrated with such precision control of the light–matter interaction in nanoscale. Unique “bamboo‐like” Au nanostructures are formed via the bilayer and trilayer stacking of BTO‐Au hybrid layers with interlayers of SrTiO3, CeO2, or MgO. Different film strain states introduced by the three interlayers result in variable diameter and density of Au nanopillars. Both simulated and experimental optical data demonstrate the localized surface plasmon resonance change and hyperbolic dispersion wavelength shift in visible to near‐infrared because of the effective tuning of the Au nanopillar aspect ratio and free electron density. The highly tunable optical properties along with the ferroelectric behavior and thermal robustness of the 3D hybrid film enable it to be a great candidate for multifunctional applications. This study demonstrates a unique 3D approach for precision optical property tuning and combined functionalities in oxide–metal metamaterial systems toward future integrated photonic and electronic devices.