bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Detention before Trial and Civil Detention of Dangerous Individuals
Authors: Merkel Grischa
Published: February 2019

This chapter focuses on issues surrounding the pretrial detention and civil detention of dangerous individuals. It first considers the legal principles of the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) and their interpretations by the European Court of Human Rights before discussing international regulations on pretrial detention such as those provided by the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR). It then examines two major decisions made by the European Court of Human Rights concerning the question of which actions can be deemed a deprivation of liberty. It also looks at pretrial detention based on reasonable suspicion of the commission of a crime and goes on to explain the principle of proportionality underpinning the civil detention of dangerous individuals. The chapter concludes with an analysis of three different ways legal procedures can be affected by charges of terrorism.
Empirical Approaches to Criminal Procedure
Authors: Hodgson Jacqueline , Mou Yu
Published: February 2019

This chapter discusses empirical approaches to criminal procedure, focusing on three broad and recurring themes that reflect the complex nature of the criminal justice system as a social institution: legal culture, discretion, and policy. It first considers criminal justice in the context of its sociopolitical culture, taking into account the place of legal and occupational cultures and the ways that they influence criminal justice law and practice. It also looks at culture as rhetoric before reviewing studies that explore some routine criminal justice practices, particularly how criminal justice institutions, such as the police and the prosecution, exercise discretion, and factors that affect a jury’s decision-making. Finally, it examines the relationship between law and policy, and more specifically how public policies (such as austerity) impact criminal justice practices, and how empirical research on law has contributed to evidence-based policy.
Comparative Assessment of Sentencing Laws, Practices, and Trends
Authors: Hörnle Tatjana
Published: February 2019

This chapter offers a comparative analysis of sentencing laws, practices, and trends in various jurisdictions. It first provides an overview of the theoretical foundations of sentencing, focusing on single-rationale models, mixed models, and hybrid models; prevention-based sentencing such as rehabilitation; desert-based sentencing; and whether sentencing without certainty is about the question of guilt. It then examines the framework for sentencing and sentencing procedures in different legal systems, with particular emphasis on who decides on sentencing rules and outcomes in individual cases. Four types of decision-makers (legislatures, sentencing commissions, sentencing judges, and agencies that decide about parole) are considered, along with sole responsibility versus mixed responsibility models. The article concludes by exploring the overall sentence severity or punitiveness of legal systems and assessing future prospects for sentencing.
The European Convention on Human Rights and the European Court of Human Rights as Guardians of Fair Criminal Proceedings in Europe
Authors: Weisser Bettina
Published: February 2019

This chapter discusses the role of the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) and the European Court of Human Rights (the Court) in safeguarding fair criminal proceedings in Europe. In particular, it analyzes the procedure-related guarantee of a fair trial and its various implications as they are laid down in Article 6 ECHR and shaped by the case law of the Court. The chapter first provides an overview of the general procedural guarantees under Article 6, section 1, focusing on the independence and impartiality of the tribunal, right to a fair hearing (equality of arms, the right to remain silent and the privilege against self-incrimination, entrapment), public hearing, and hearing within a reasonable time. It then considers procedural rights in criminal proceedings under sections 2 and 3 of Article 6, along with the presumption of innocence under section 2 and specifically listed minimum rights in criminal proceedings under section 3.
The Place of the Prosecutor in Common Law and Civil Law Jurisdictions
Authors: Ligeti Katalin
Published: February 2019

This chapter focuses on the place of the public prosecutor in common law and civil law jurisdictions. It first describes the institutional positioning of public prosecutors, particularly vis-à-vis the executive power, before discussing their role and powers in regard to the pretrial phase. It then considers the increasing tendency to entrust the public prosecutor with quasi-judicial sanctioning powers in the context of out-of-court procedures (“prosecutorial adjudication”). It also examines the role of specialized law enforcement authorities in the exercise of investigative and prosecutorial functions, coercive measures and the need for judicial authorization, and prosecutorial discretion and alternatives to trial proceedings. Finally, it explains how independence, centralization and decentralization, legality and opportunity of prosecution, and the alternatives to trial proceedings have been translated to the supranational design of the European Public Prosecutor’s Office (EPPO).
Beyond Belief?
Authors: Hollar Julie
Published: February 2019

This chapter analyzes the expansion of same-sex marriage around the world, its causes and its consequences. It argues that the domestic and transnational factors shaping a country’s adoption of same-sex marriage depend crucially on both time and place, encompassing the domestic and the transnational. It further suggests that the effects of same-sex marriage are likewise context-dependent, in most cases producing mixed results for LGBTQ people and movements. Incorporating cases outside of western Europe and the United States, this study urges a broader lens and a new focus on the short-term and long-term political effects of pursuing marriage equality.
Rhetorical Questions as Indirect Assertions
Authors: Reimer Marga
Published: February 2019

This chapter explores, defends and develops the implications of the view that rhetorical questions are often used to make assertions, albeit indirectly. After introducing the phenomenon through a variety of examples, reflecting on the philosophical significance of that phenomenon and defining several key terms, the author explains why she regards rhetorical questions as models of indirect assertion. She then presents and informally analyzes a lengthy passage from the neuroethics literature involving a series indirect assertions made by way of rhetorical questions. This is followed by a trio of arguments in defense of that analysis. These arguments involve appeals to: punctuation, “asserogatives” (questions asked indirectly by making assertions), the lying/misleading distinction, ontological parsimony, and Gricean methodology. In the conclusion section, she draws attention to, and briefly remarks on, a host of questions raised by the proposed view—questions which would need to be addressed in a more fully developed and defended account of rhetorical questions as indirect assertions.
Assertion and Modality
Authors: Cariani Fabrizio
Published: February 2019

This essay is an opinionated exploration of the constraints that modal discourse imposes on the theory of assertion. Primary focus is on the question whether modal discourse challenges the traditional view that all assertions have propositional content. This question is tackled largely with reference to discourse involving epistemic modals, although connections and parallels with deontic modals and conditionals are noted along the way. The essay also discusses the impact of the idiosincrasies of modal discourse on the theory of assertion. The first topic in this thread is whether the relevant fragment of modal discourse is subject to some of the norms of assertion that are ordinarily invoked for nonmodal discourse. The second topic is whether theories of assertion that focus on the effects of assertions on context must be viewed as fundamentally disjunctive in order to capture the distinctions between modal and nonmodal assertion.
The Norm of Assertion and Blame
Authors: Brown Jessica
Published: February 2019

One of the most popular suggestions for the norm of assertion is the knowledge norm: one is in a good enough epistemic position to assert that p if and only if one knows that p. In the face of intuitive counterexamples to the norm, defenders have responded by appealing to the distinction between whether one conforms to a norm and whether one is blameworthy: one can violate a norm and yet be blameless or conform to it but nonetheless be blameworthy. Furthermore, some suggest that it’s futile to search for a norm such that whether one conforms to the norm aligns with whether one is blameless. They appeal to the failure of luminosity to defend the pessimistic conclusion that, for any norm whatsoever, the notions of norm conformity and being blameworthy can come apart. In this paper, the author assesses this defense of the knowledge norm of assertion. She criticizes the argument from the failure of luminosity to the pessimistic conclusion and argues that there is no easy way to reformulate it successfully. The discussion of the pessimistic conclusion distinguishes a variety of different explanations of how norm conformity can come apart from whether one is blameless, and the limitations of these explanations. Thus, it also provides some guidance on when it is reasonable to defend the knowledge norm of assertion against counterexample by appeal to the distinction between norm conformity and whether one is blameless.
Assertion and the Declarative Mood
Authors: Jary Mark
Published: February 2019

This chapter argues that assertion is fundamentally linguistic, in that it is a practice that can exist only in a speech community that has a linguistic form specified for the performance of assertions, that is, a declarative mood marker. Such a conception is required in order to distinguish assertion from other content-conveying linguistic acts, such as presupposition and implicature. The declarative mood also plays an information-structure role, but this can be separated from its role as an indicator of illocutionary force. Finally, while in human natural languages the declarative is a sentential mood, consideration of imaginary languages lacking the category of sentence shows that the declarative need not be sentential.
Social Identity and Assertion
Authors: Johnson Casey Rebecca
Published: February 2019

This article details three threads of philosophical work that focus on and illuminate the differences that social identity makes to an agent’s ability to use assertion. These threads include the literature on testimonial injustice, the literature on illocutionary silencing, and the literature on extracted speech and epistemic exploitation. Testimonial injustice occurs when an agent is unfairly restricted in her ability to transmit knowledge by testifying (typically by using an assertion). Illocutionary silencing occurs when an agent is kept from successfully making a speech act like an assertion at all. Speech is extracted when a speaker’s speech is unjustly elicited or when her speech is used to perpetuate injustice against her. This can also constitute epistemic exploitation, which occurs when a marginalized speaker is compelled, through social manipulation, to provide a privileged person with knowledge. Epistemic exploitation often occurs through compelled assertion. In each of these cases, social identity makes a difference to a speaker’s ability to use assertion to her own ends.
The Baroque as a Literary Concept
Authors: Ibbett Katherine , More Anna
Published: February 2019

The usefulness of the label “baroque” as a literary concept has been fiercely contested ever since Wölfflin first applied a term usually imagined in terms of the visual arts to literature. We will question how different traditions of literary scholarship have imagined and redrawn that relation between form and ideology, and how they have embraced, rejected, or hybridized the baroque as a label. How has the concept enabled or thwarted a comparative work thinking beyond national literary tradition? We turn to two case studies in order to find out what the concept of the literary baroque has allowed in different traditions: in France, where the early modern period has often been defined in terms of a particularly French classicism; and in Latin America, where the style became a proxy for American innovation within European traditions.
Is There a Baroque Style of Preaching in Early Modern France?
Authors: Régent-Susini Anne , Susini Laurent
Published: February 2019

Preaching in the baroque period, though often neglected by researchers, is a literary field that assumed renewed importance in the Catholic Church following the Council of Trent. Looking carefully at examples from the French repertory of sermons, this chapter describes several stylistic variants, ranging from austere simplicity to vivid appeals to the hearers’ imagination. The pulpit borrowed from the theater as well as from recently rediscovered Greek novels, but the florid style of the early seventeenth century was followed by a simpler one that is sometimes described as neoclassical.
The Weberian City, Civil Society, and Turkish Social Thought
Authors: Sunar Lutfi
Published: February 2019

Concepts of civil society and despotism played a fundamental role in Western interpretations of modern society, defined as a civilization, through construction of the “other.” On the one hand, modern social forms were explained through the concept of civil society and related notions of citizenship; on the other, premodern and non-Western societies were described as static and archaic through the concept of despotism. In the case of Weber’s work, demonstrating the uniqueness of the West was fundamental to his treatment of cities and citizenship. He relied on analyses of the birth and rise of the institutions and social structure of cities in the West to explain the development of modern capitalism. In this context his theory of patrimonialism gained acceptance within contemporary Turkish social science. Based on Weberian ideas, some historians and sociologists argued that Ottoman society had a despotic structure with an absence of civil society. According to this view, the “middle class” found in Western societies did not develop in Turkish society, and this absence became an obstacle to modernization. An alternative view held that this perspective resulted from a misinterpretation of the context of the Weberian approach, which was developed basically in order to explain Western modernity. However, these views were not designed to explain Ottoman society or to analyze contemporary problems and suggest appropriate solutions to the problems of civil society today.
Law and the Development of Capitalism
Authors: Ford Laura R.
Published: February 2019

The relationship between law and capitalism was of central interest to Max Weber. His legal training sensitized Weber from the beginning of his scholarly career to the social and historical significance of law, a sensitivity that was reflected in his wide-ranging studies of capitalism. This chapter focuses on the linkages between law and capitalism that Weber elucidates in Economy and Society and in other works ranging from his dissertation and habilitation to his writings on financial exchanges. It concentrates on Weber’s writings about commercial law and modern finance capitalism, showing how these reflect the broader picture that he paints of the developmental trajectory of occidental law and, in turn, the development of modern, rational capitalism. The discussion also focuses attention on jurists as the culture-carriers of an intellectual tradition, who formulated a new commercial law for merchants and industrial guilds. This would become the legal basis for modern market finance capitalism. In helping to build a new Ordnung for modern capitalism, jurists were formulators of a type of this-worldly salvation system, one that Weber both admired and regretted.
Plebiscitary Politics and the Threats to Legality
Authors: Härpfer Claudius
Published: February 2019

In recent times we find many plebiscitary acts that seek to democratically legitimize political processes in any direction. They have in common that they interrupt the normal routine of representative democracies to a certain degree and create an extra-daily state of affairs, which entails not only direct but also indirect consequences. The text attempts to systematize some of these mechanisms from a Weberian perspective using Brexit as an example. After a brief overview of Weber’s short-term politically inspired statements on plebiscitary democracy, the text systematizes Weber’s understanding of the state as a bureaucratic apparatus that requires any kind of leader to be controlled. Subsequently, the text discusses the relationship between domination, legality, and rationality in order to finally point out the danger of erosion of truth and legality through the emergence of competing consensus communities in the face of competing conceptions of order.
Weberian Social Theory
Authors: Schroeder Ralph
Published: February 2019

This chapter gives an account of Weber’s concept of rationalization and how it has been used by subsequent social thinkers. The argument of the chapter is that rationalization is a central thread in Weber’s thought, and it explicates his ideas about how this process works in the realms of culture, the economy, and politics. It also discusses some thinkers who have made use of his ideas, including Ernest Gellner, Randall Collins, and Michael Mann. In Weber’s time, a major debate was about the rise and distinctiveness of the West. More recently, the debate has shifted to the causes and consequences of globalization. The final part of the chapter locates Weberian ideas about rationalization, and its limits, in this larger debate.
The Regulation of Reproduction and Best Interests Analysis
Authors: Cohen I. Glenn
Published: February 2019

In its 1972 decision in Eisenstadt v. Baird, the US Supreme Court announced that: “it is the right of the individual, married or single, to be free from unwarranted governmental intrusion into matters so fundamentally affecting a person as the decision whether to bear or beget a child.” But, in fact, both within and outside the United States, this firm-sounding principle has often been honored in the breach. Both as to coital and assisted reproduction, but particularly the latter, the state has asserted significant control over reproductive decision-making. This chapter details various forms of reproductive regulation prevalent today in a variety of areas including: Sterilization, abstinence education, surrogacy, sperm and egg “donor” anonymity and paternity, insurance funding, cloning, and mitochondrial replacement therapy. More conceptually, it divides state regulation of reproduction along the axes of attempts to influence whether, when, with whom, and how we reproduce and the means by which the state intervenes. Finally, it examines variations on child welfare justifications the state has or might offer for such reproductive regulation, and raises some questions about those justifications.
Children’s Participation in Decisions about Parenting Arrangements
Authors: Parkinson Patrick , Cashmore Judith
Published: February 2019

This chapter explores the different ways that children can participate in custody and child protection cases. It is not only articulate older children and young people who ought to have an input into decisions. Children can “speak” in a variety of ways, and not only through words. To allow them to participate effectively, adults need to assist them through “scaffolding” their participation. Hearing the voice of the child also involves dilemmas. Children may not want to be involved for a variety of different reasons, some of which they may not feel free to disclose. The chapter concludes by offering four principles about how to hear from children in cases involving parenting arrangements.
The Past, Present, and Future of Race-Conscious Policies for Addressing Racial Segregation in K–12 Schools
Authors: Sikes Chloe Latham , Garces Liliana M.
Published: February 2019

Schools in America today face challenges similar to those over sixty years ago. Thought to be remedied by the landmark decision in Brown v. Board of Education (1954), racial and ethnic segregation, inequitable public funding and resources, and disparate educational outcomes by race and ethnicity continue to plague schools throughout the country. This chapter traces the major legal developments from Brown to the present that implicated race-conscious policies in K–12 schools intended to address racial and ethnic segregation. By reviewing the past, present, and future directions of race consciousness in school assignment, choice, and access policies, the authors argue that colorblind or “race-neutral” legal approaches to entrenched racism and social stratification have caused American schools to continue to miss the mark set by Brown. Due to shifts in the composition of the U.S. Supreme Court and a decreasing socially explicit acknowledgment of the salience of racism and racial discrimination, racial harms have become increasingly difficult to litigate. The Court’s decision in Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1 (2007) further restricted the use of race in school segregation remedies, and set the present legal context of addressing racial discrimination and segregation in race-neutral terms that perpetuate rather than ameliorate segregation. The future of race consciousness in school assignment policies depends upon a thorough examination of historical precedent and a strategic sense of the current legal and political landscape of racial segregation. We must look backward in order to anticipate the pressing yet familiar challenges of racial segregation in schools.
American Folk Art and Crafts
Authors: Dewhurst C. Kurt , MacDowell Marsha
Published: February 2019

This chapter addresses the wide range of folk art and crafts related to the study of those who make, use, and find meaning in the handmade object in America. The definitions of folk, popular, visionary, outsider, and fine arts have long been challenged and reassessed by scholarly and public communities, communities that sometimes but not always overlap. Debates have raged over the boundaries between art and craft, the viability of the handmade traditional object in the digital, postmodern age, and the discernible distinctive aesthetic characteristics of this body of American expressive culture. This chapter presents a flexible, interdisciplinary perspective on defining folk art and craft in America. It also offers avenues for folk art and craft scholarship such as relationships of aging, human rights, migration, sexuality and gender, and health to the study of folk artists and their communities, and encourages building on the legacy of material culture scholarship from the collections and research of museums and governmental agencies in addition to higher education institutions.
Human Genetics of Pain
Authors: Cox James J. , Kurth Ingo , Woods C. Geoffrey
Published: February 2019

Inherited pain disorders are typically rare in the general population. However, in the postgenomic era, single-gene mutations for numerous human Mendelian pain disorders have been described owing to advances in sequencing technology and improvements in pain phenotyping. This article describes the history, phenotype, gene mutations, and molecular/cellular pathology of painless and painful inherited monogenic disorders. The study of these disorders has led to the identification of key genes that are needed for the normal development or function of nociceptive neurons. Genes that are covered include ATL1, ATL3, DNMT1, DST, ELP1, FLVCR1, KIF1A, NGF, NTRK1, PRDM12, RETREG1, SCN9A, SCN10A, SCN11A, SPTLC1, SPTLC2, TRPA1, WNK1, and ZFHX2. The study of some Mendelian disorders of pain sensing has the potential to lead to new classes of analgesic drugs.
The Measurement of Pain in the Laboratory Rodent
Authors: Mogil Jeffrey S.
Published: February 2019

The current translational crisis, in which apparently rapidly expanding genetic, molecular, and cellular knowledge has not resulted in novel clinical therapies, has forced preclinical pain researchers to question the algesiometric status quo. One hypothesized cause of poor translation is the limited external validity of the reflexive withdrawals to evoking stimuli that represent the ubiquitous dependent measures of pain at the present time. As a response, new techniques have been developed and are increasingly being incorporated into pain studies. This comprehensive review examines the subjects, assays, and measures used in preclinical pain research, as well as the need for and implementation of newly described measures of spontaneous, ongoing chronic pain.
Standard Setting and International Peer Review
Authors: Pal Leslie A.
Published: February 2019

The OECD, established in 1961 and now consisting of thirty-six member states, has unique features as an intergovernmental and transnational actor because it is neither a lending nor a treaty organization. It relies primarily on knowledge production, standard-setting, and monitoring techniques, such as comparative data, and most prominently, peer review. The chapter begins with a sketch of the organization’s highly intricate structure of committees, centres, boards, forums, working groups, and networks (over 250 such specialized bodies), and the supporting secretariat of directorates. Complementing this complex internal structure is an equally complex array of global engagements with other international actors through partnerships, forums, and networks. The OECD’s influence arises from its unmatched capacity to produce credible knowledge, define key policy concepts, and promote standards (through a variety of different types of international decisions, conventions, and recommendations). Its signature compliance and monitoring technique is peer review.
International Political Economy
Authors: Woo J. J. , Higgott Richard
Published: February 2019

In the aftermath of the global financial crisis (GFC), there has been much soul-searching in economics and those areas of the policy sciences that concern themselves with the study of finance and the economy. The purpose of this chapter is to look at international political economy (IPE) and (global) public policy (GPP) as areas of inquiry undergoing processes of transition in the wake of the GFC and ask how they might demonstrate greater policy influence. We suggest that there are important lessons that IPE can learn from GPP, in order to ensure its relevance in global policy debates. We highlight the relevance of three public policy tools that may benefit IPE: policy complexity; behavioural approaches; and strategic foresight.
Regionalization and Transregional policies
Authors: van Langenhove Luk , Gatev Ivaylo
Published: February 2019

The focus of this chapter is the regional dimension of the provision of public goods. It is argued that next to states, regions at the sub- and supranational levels are increasingly playing a role in the provision of public goods. This in turn opens up spaces for transregional policies and for networks of actors that operate at the intersection of different spaces. First, the phenomenon of regionalization as multi-level governance will be introduced. Second, the rise of regions as providers of public goods will be discussed. Third, an overview of theoretical approaches to regionalism. will be presented And fourth, some empirical examples of transregional public policies will be provided. The main conclusion of the chapter is that there is a growing governance space for public goods at the transregional level. That space is increasingly occupied by networks of actors, rather than by single actors, who compete to set the terms of public goods provision.
Filling the Gap
Authors: Jeong Bok , Suk Kim Pan
Published: February 2019

The gap between the demand and supply in global public administration and policy higher education is the focus of this chapter. The number of Masters of Public Administration or Masters of Public Policy (MPA/MPP) programme accreditation entities, professional networks of schools in public administration and policy, and curricula of Global MPA/MPP programmes has significantly increased. Global MPA/MPP programmes are evaluated as having synergy effects with existing MPA/MPP programmes because a comprehensive and individually tailored curriculum can be provided in a more effective manner (that is, economies of scope). Given the tasks of adapting to globalization and coping with budget constraints, a more innovative approach to the study of policy and administrative practices will be needed in the changing landscape of public and international affairs education.
Heads of International Organizations
Authors: Yi-Chong Xu , Weller Patrick
Published: February 2019

Heads of international organizations (IOs) personify their organization. They are often the only public figures from their organizations who are widely recognized. This chapter seeks to identify the ways that directors-general can exercise their influence. The first section examines the qualities that potential directors-general might require, the way that they reach their positions, and the implications those (s)electoral procedures have for IO leaders. The second section analyses three roles that all heads of IOs play: as managers of diverse multilateral organizations that are sometimes scattered around the globe; as diplomats who represent their organizations in international arenas; and as politicians who must work with member states in the organization. The chapter concludes that how heads of IOs balance these three roles often shape the outcomes of their organizations. They nonetheless operate within constraints. The nature of IO leadership must be contingent, depending on agency and opportunity.
The Role of Large Management Consultancy Firms in Global Public Policy
Authors: Morgan Glenn , Sturdy Andrew , Frenkel Michael
Published: February 2019

The formation of global public policy takes place in diverse fields, populated by a range of different actors. One important, but neglected group is large management consultancy firms. This chapter examines why and how such firms have been able to exercise influence over global public policy. Emphasis is placed on their reputational power, the organizational structures which enable them to use and develop expertise, and the importance of their social networks amongst other elite actors. The chapter illustrates these themes through a case study of the REDD Initiative sponsored by the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change. It concludes by outlining a research agenda which focuses on the power of consultancies in this arena, but also recognizes the limits to this power.
State Fragility, International Development Policy, and Global Responses
Authors: Brinkerhoff Derick
Published: February 2019

This chapter focuses on international development policy responses to fragile and failed states. It offers an historical overview of four generations of responses, examines how state fragility has been defined and measured, discusses the politics of the fragile states label, and summarizes current understandings of how states cycle in and out of fragility. The analysis identifies transnational and country-specific factors that place states at risk. The chapter considers pathways that can reduce fragility, noting the limitations of liberal state-building blueprints, and examines the promise of politically informed policy frames that incorporate country context and the agency of local actors. Given the complexity and uncertainty associated with state fragility, coherent global policy responses will remain difficult to achieve.
Exploring work Orientations and Cultural Accounts of Work
Authors: Boova Laura , Pratt Michael G. , Lepisto Douglas A.
Published: February 2019

Work orientations and cultural accounts of work are important dimensions of the meaningful work literature. This chapter addresses the question of what makes work worth doing, arguing that accounts of meaningfulness should be more closely based in societal culture and the dominant work orientations manifest in varying cultural settings. It differentiates between a “realization” perspective on meaningful work which emphasizes need fulfillment, and a “justification” perspective which involves the ability to account for one’s work as worthy. This is particularly relevant for understanding how culture influences meaningful work through fostering orientations that promote a sense of meaningfulness. Culture can “push” individuals by promoting specific cultural values and beliefs, or alternatively enable individuals to “pull” particular perspectives from a range of options. Individuals can also create a shift in cultural meanings at the collective level. Some important unanswered questions about meaningful work are identified, to guide future researchers in the field.
Callings
Authors: Duffy Ryan D. , England Jessica W. , Dik Bryan J.
Published: February 2019

This chapter connects the literatures on callings and meaningful work. It examines the meaningful nature of calling by separating the idea of perceiving a calling from actually living one. It is argued that callings, whether prompted from within the person or externally, underpin meaningful engagement with work at the social or personal level because they provide people with purpose. Those who pursue a calling are shown to experience more meaningful outcomes such as well-being and work satisfaction, but are exposed to the “dark side” of callings too often manifest in workaholism, burnout, and exploitation. Those who perceive a calling, but who choose not to pursue it, can access sources of life meaning through job crafting opportunities but also through workplace interventions, such as critical consciousness training, that may empower them to enact their perceived calling and thus more easily find meaning in work.
Fostering the Human Spirit
Authors: May Douglas R. , Chen Jiatian , Schwoerer Catherine E. , Deeg Matthew D.
Published: February 2019

This chapter introduces a positive ethical framework for supporting the experience of meaningfulness at work. Three specific virtues are conceptually linked to meaningfulness (humanity, courage, and transcendence) and a number of character strengths that these encompass (such as morality, gratitude, and spirituality). It is argued that experiencing meaningfulness is more likely to result in the experience of positive emotions, contributing to a positive ethical culture at work and producing a “virtuous upwards spiral” of positive agency. Positive emotions attract more support and facilitate positive social relations inside and outside the workplace. Evidence about the links between meaningfulness and volunteering are explored in turn to consider what organizations might do to foster positive work culture. The chapter recognizes the potential for conflict and paradox between virtues and character strengths. However, even paradoxes and conflicts of this kind can generate positive experiences.
Dignity and Meaningful Work
Authors: Bowie Norman E.
Published: February 2019

The central importance of dignity for meaningful work justifies an obligation to provide meaningful work. This is because people have intrinsic worth as “dignity beyond price” and also because, through meaningful work, people experience themselves as dignified persons. In the Kantian formulation, people have dignity because they have the capacity for autonomy and self-government, and therefore can be held to be responsible. This chapter takes dignity to be based on such universal characteristics, and argues that since meaningful work is a route to dignity then we must pay attention to the ways in which we can ameliorate struggles to experience our dignity in work. The normative characteristics of work designed to promote rational capacities include freedom to choose and to exercise autonomy, and conditions for independence such as sufficient pay. Management practices are highlighted which meet such normative conditions. Examples include open book management, recruitment, training, and participatory practices.
Work Through a Gender Lens
Authors: Hofmeister Heather
Published: February 2019

This chapter argues that the definition of work, and its meaningfulness potential, broaden when using a gender perspective. The historical legacy of gender differentiation in work results in blindness to activities that are “work” and to gender inequality within kinds of work. An inclusive definition of “work” would be activities or thoughts that affirm life and growth, imagine or create the future, or abate or delay death and decay. At least nineteen types of work are identified: formal paid work; informal paid work; crowdwork; unpaid on-call or overtime work; networking; volunteering; political advocacy; informal helping; caregiving; emotion work; kinkeeping work; housework; consumer work; archival work; hired work on the self; aesthetic work; self-branding; self-care; and slavery. A gender-sensitive definition of meaningful work would be activities that are consciously experienced as aligned with deeply held values, taking into consideration that values and gender norms that can influence values are socially constructed.
Direct Participation and Meaningful Work
Authors: Gallie Duncan
Published: February 2019

In this chapter, two aspects of the meaningful work context are considered: task discretion and organizational participation. It argues that these provide opportunities for values associated with meaningful work to be realized at both an intrinsic and instrumental level. Drawing on both theoretical arguments and empirical evidence, the chapter explores the extent to which meaningful work values are realized in both domains. Two types of direct participation are found to be complementary: task discretion is particularly important for increasing the scope for informal learning, while organizational participation is a stronger lever for securing higher levels of training provision. The chapter presents substantial evidence that participation in decision-making, both at the level of the work task and in wider organizational decisions, is an essential precondition of meaningful work.
Meaningful Work and Freedom
Authors: Breen Keith
Published: February 2019

One value invoked in arguments for taking meaningful work seriously as an ethical aspiration, and for rearranging our working practices to accommodate this aspiration, is that of individual freedom. This appeal typically takes three forms. The first, drawing from an Aristotelian ideal of human flourishing, appeals to freedom conceived as self-realization. The second centers on freedom understood in the sense of personal autonomy or self-determination. The third appeals to freedom conceived as non-domination, which is deemed a precondition for enjoying self-realization and self-determination in work. These freedom-based claims for institutionalizing and maintaining meaningful work are compelling both in normative and empirical terms. Moreover, they are in no way undermined by counterclaims to the effect that meaningful work is not an appropriate public policy concern or that the ideals of self-realization and autonomy can be harnessed to legitimize exploitative work arrangements.
Is Expertise All in the Mind?
Authors: Baber Chris
Published: February 2019

In this chapter, theories that explore the relationship between action and performance are reviewed. These theories ask whether our cognitive activity depends on “internal representations” or whether it can be explained by our interaction with the world around us. In other words, rather than projecting a model of the world outwards in order to plan and guide our actions, these approaches see physical interaction with the world as a form of cognitive activity. In other words, the focus of cognition is less about using mental representation and more about perception–action coupling between us and our world. The conclusion is that this points to an account of expertise which sees it as a matter of sensitivity to environmental constraints and opportunities, together with the ability to focus on optimal parameters in a given situation. The chapter consider ways in which such sensitivity could be probed through field study and interview with experts.
Studying Expert Behavior in Sociotechnical Systems
Authors: Salmon Paul M. , Stanton Neville A. , Walker Guy H. , Read Gemma J. M.
Published: February 2019

Hierarchical task analysis (HTA), arguably the most popular task analysis method of all time, provides a useful approach for describing expert behavior and the factors influencing it. Its utility is enhanced by the fact that there are various ergonomics analysis methods that build on HTA outputs to provide in-depth analyses of behavior. This chapter provides an overview of HTA and its origins, followed by practical guidance on how to apply the method. Two rail level crossing case study applications are presented. These are used to showcase how HTA can be used to describe and analyze both behavior at the sharp end (i.e., at the rail level crossing itself) as well as the behavior of overall sociotechnical systems (i.e., the behavior of the overall rail level crossing “system”). In closing, the main strengths and weakness of HTA are discussed.
The Classic Expertise Approach and Its Evolution
Authors: Gobet Fernand
Published: February 2019

This chapter reviews the “classic expertise approach,” which is defined as the research line starting with Simon and Chase’s (1973) chunking theory, culminating in the early 1980s, and dominating expertise research until the 1990s. After briefly reviewing early research (e.g., Binet, 1894b; De Groot, 1946), an overview of the key experimental and theoretical results obtained with this approach is provided. The chapter also discusses influential theories stemming from the classic approach, such as long-term working memory (Ericsson & Kintsch, 1995), EPAM-IV (Richman, Staszewski, & Simon, 1995) and template theory (Gobet & Simon, 1996). The discussion highlights the defining research methods and theoretical assumptions of this approach. Directions of research for the future are discussed, based on the characteristics that made the classic approach highly successful.
Expertise in Intelligence Analysis
Authors: Jenkins Michael P. , Pfautz Jonathan D.
Published: February 2019

To conduct an intelligence analysis (IA), analysts perform multiple perceptual and cognitive tasks to understand the past, present, and/or future states of some real-world environment or situation, often employing abductive reasoning due to the significant degree of uncertainty characterizing the domains analysts operate in and the substantive problems they operate on. Although the tasks and cognitive processes that analysts carry out have remained relatively unchanged over the past half-century, research on the challenges, complexities, and constraints that make analyst sensemaking performance difficult has evolved, providing a better understanding of the key characteristics that define expertise in this field. This chapter highlights the unique characteristics of expert IA practitioners, compared to other domains. It highlights a range of past research characterizing the domain, from both a workflow perspective and an information processing perspective. Applying these characterizations, the chapter then highlights elements of expert behaviors that emerge throughout the IA process, and the implications of these elements on emerging research directions and the design of new assistive technologies to augment intelligence analysts executing modern and next generation IA.
Teamwork in Spaceflight Operations
Authors: Fischer Ute , Mosier Kathleen
Published: February 2019

Human spaceflight is a multiteam effort requiring the coordination and collaboration not only of individuals within a team (mission control or space crew) but importantly also between teams. In this chapter, the strategies and procedures these expert teams have established to ensure common task and team models, and to facilitate their communication and joint performance, will be discussed. The chapter also includes a discussion of the component teams of the mission control/space crew multiteam system, highlighting important features of their (intra)teamwork. The teamwork challenges of future long-duration space exploration are discussed, as are ongoing efforts and research needs to address them.
Macrocognitive Models of Expertise
Authors: Hutton Robert J. B.
Published: February 2019

The purpose of this chapter is to provide a brief understanding of macrocognition, some of its theoretical and methodological underpinnings, and three examples of macrocognitive models: the recognition-primed decision model, the data–frame model of sensemaking, and the flexecution model of replanning and adaptation. These models are presented to provide the reader with a sense of the character of macrocognitive models, their purpose, and the current evidence which underpins each model. Macrocognitive models are models of experienced, often expert performers, and have been developed primarily from the study of decision making and cognitive work in naturalistic settings, as opposed to well-controlled laboratory experiments. They describe how people manage uncertainty and complexity in the world of work. The limitations and applications of these models are also illustrated in order to provide a future-oriented perspective on how the models might be improved and how they might be applied to support more effective cognitive work and more resilient work systems.
Livelihoods and Mobility in the Border Regions of Ethiopia
Authors: Hammond Laura
Published: February 2019

Ethiopia’s borderlands are key sites of population mobility and migration. Not only do these areas host most of the 800,000 refugees who have entered Ethiopia from neighbouring countries, they also are home to populations whose movements are heavily influenced by the livelihoods, trade, environment, and border management regimes working in their areas. These systems create opportunities for, and blockages to, movement within borderlands and across the country’s borders. This chapter analyses the social, political, and economic influences on mobility decisions in the border regions of Ethiopia. It considers the ways that these decisions are undertaken differently according to gender, youth, and wealth group, given the different resources and constraints that people face at individual and group levels. The chapter also considers the ways in which shocks—including natural hazards, violence, political turmoil, or economic pressure—impact upon livelihood systems and influence mobility decisions.
Poverty and Inequality in Ethiopia, 1995/6–2015/16
Authors: Araya Mesele , Woldehana Tassew
Published: February 2019

This chapter looks at trends in poverty and inequality at national and regional levels in Ethiopia during the period 1995/6–2015/16. The data indicate that poverty in Ethiopia has shown a substantial decline over this period, with the share of population living under the national absolute poverty line reduced from almost one in two Ethiopians in 1995/6 to about one in four in 2015/16. Results from growth–inequality poverty decomposition indicate that the declines in the absolute poverty rates are accounted for by changes in the rate of economic growth rather than by distribution of wealth. While Ethiopia still has a low level of income inequality, the upward trend in the Gini coefficient from 0.29 in 1995/6 to almost 0.33 in 2015/16 may constrain the scope for further poverty reduction, suggesting a need for policies that consider growth and redistribution at the same time.