bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Road to Extinction Is Paved with Good Intentions
Authors: Finlayson Clive
Published: November 2023

AROUND half a million years ago a clan of people lived in some of the valleys of northern Spain, close to today’s cathedral city of Burgos. To all intents and purposes they were recognizably human. They were intelligent, tall, and well built: they averaged 1.75 metres in stature, weighed around 95 kilos, had brains of comparable size to ours, lived in social groups, and were probably able to speak. More than 5,000 human fossils belonging to at least 28 individuals have now been recovered in the Sima de losHuesos (the Pit of the Bones), a shaft within a cave in the hills of Atapuerca, and it has been estimated that they represent 90% of all the known human fossils from this period (Figure 3). ow did the bones get there? That is a question that remains cloaked in uncertainty and, like so many of prehistory’s enigmas, wrapped up in controversy. One group of scientists working here believe that the large numbers of human fossils, in the virtual absence of other animal remains except those of cave bears, is proof that this was not a place in which people sheltered and brought the animals that they had hunted. It was, instead, a place where they buried their dead, proof of the complexity of their behaviour and of self-awareness. The discovery, in 1998, of a beautifully-carved hand-axe among the human remains supposedly added weight to the argument as it suggested that this was a special implement that had formed part of the burial ritual. It was the only implement found in the pit and it was made of a red quartzite rock unknown in the caves of the area. The discoverers called it Excalibur. To me the logic behind the claim reveals the extent to which some scientists are prepared to romanticize and delude themselves, when all they have are glimpses of what must have been a complex past.
If Only ...
Authors: Finlayson Clive
Published: November 2023

WHEN I first got involved with our origins back in 1989, the gospel went something like this: anatomically modern humans, our ancestors, descended from a common ancestor— ‘mitochondrial Eve’—who had lived 200 thousand years ago in tropical Africa. They emerged from this home and conquered the world. It was beyond question that these moderns had replaced each and every other population of human on the planet as they swept across the land. To even consider the merits of the alternative, multiregional, model made you an instant heretic. Different versions tried to explain how the replacement happened. In its most extreme edition the story was fairly recently described as ‘the modern human race’s first and most successful deliberate campaign of genocide’. This may make great headline material but where is the evidence of such genocide? There is none, just as there is no evidence of any kind of Ancestor competitive superiority over any other people that they came across. We saw in Chapter 3 how Neanderthals and proto-Ancestors were both present in the Middle East at a similar time even though we could not be certain that they had met. What we do know is that the proto-Ancestors disappeared and the Neanderthals remained and that, in itself, should raise some alarm bells regarding their predicted superiority. Could this presumption of superiority be wrong The idea of a single origin of the Ancestors is not new. It dates to the 1950s and was revived in the 1970s under the term ‘Noah’s Ark’ hypothesis.
Ilion between Greece and Rome
Authors: Erskine Andrew
Published: November 2023

In 190 Be the Romans were about to pursue the defeated Antio-chos into Asia. C. Livius Salinator was taking the fleet to the Hellespont to prepare for the crossing of the land army under the command of the Scipio brothers. Landing at the so-called ‘Har-bour of the Achaians’ he ,vent to Ilion, where he offered sacrifice to Athena llias. This is the first recorded visit of a Roman to the ancestral home. Shortly afterwards the consul, L. Scipio, arriving with the army, also sacrificed to the goddess.
Understanding the Roman Nude
Authors: Hallett Christopher H
Published: November 2023

In the introduction to this book I noted that Roman nude portraits have in the past received surprisingly little attention. I also quoted a few choice descriptions of these works from earlier scholarship, in order to illustrate the strong antipathy generally felt towards these images by art historians. But the feeling that these portrait statues are somehow ‘problematic’, or ‘incongruous’, is not confined to specialists; it is experienced by expert and layman alike. To conclude the present study I would like to pose the question: ‘Why do these Roman nude portraits elicit such a powerful negative response from most modern viewers?’ As we shall see, these works violate some of modern western culture’s most deeply held beliefs of what is and what is not permissable in art—and especially in portraiture.
Maps, Gaps, and Traps
Authors: Gulick Robert Van
Published: November 2023

The explanatory gap metaphor occurs so often in the recent discussion of consciousness that we might easily lose sight of its metaphoric status, but we would be unwise to do so. Indeed, we would do well to step back and reflect a little about what points of view might lie behind it. The problem has been with us longer than the label. The problematic link between subjective mind and objective physical world has been front and centre stage since at least 1974, when Thomas Nagel famously asked us to imagine what it’s like to be a bat as a means of illustrating the subjective/ objective gulf. Nagel (1974) wrote, ‘At the present time the status of physical ism is similar to that which the hypothesis that matter is energy would have if uttered by a Presocratic philosopher.
Moments of Creation: Pregnancy and Parturition as Cosmological Idiom
Authors: Little Wood Roland
Published: November 2023

An explicit parallel between the human body and the religious cosmos is commonplace in the findings of comparative religion. Dreaming, excretion, pain, and bodily movement, for instance, have long been argued to make possible quite specific local categories as well as more general understandings of creation, causality and space, illness and agency.1 Without attributing ontological or epistemological primacy either to the biological body, or to the cosmic or social order, to bodily experience or to cultural practice, we can certainly note the individual deployment of novel idioms to figure the cosmic world which may, for instance, draw on
Structure and Process in the Corporate Village
Authors: Layton Robert
Published: November 2023

The patterns of daily life outlined in Ch. 1 are embedded in the durable social procedures described in this chapter. Despite the many similarities between Pellaport and other villages on the Plateau of Levier, there are significant differences among neighbouring villages. A historical perspective shows that village organization has changed, sometimes slowly, sometimes abruptly. This spatial and temporal variation raises interesting theoretical issues about the construction of social life. The British anthropologist Radcliffe-Brown argued the activities of individuals could be generalized as customs, and that customs were connected by the structure of social relations. Radcliffe-Brown hoped to demonstrate the scientific character of anthropology through the discovery of sociological laws predicting how customs would be related.
Agency and Structuration in the Evolution of Co-operation
Authors: Layton Robert
Published: November 2023

This chapter returns to the issues posed by the variable social organization of villages on the Plateau of Levier that were identified in Ch. 2 and discusses them in the light of the ideas developed in Chs. 3 to 6. It will try to identify the processes that guide the historical trajectory of a social system, to explain why villages on the plateau, in common with many other villages in the region of the Alps, have retained a more highly corporate structure and a denser web of interpersonal relations than have characterized English villages over the last two hundred years. Examples will be given of the way in which strategies drawn from the cultural repertoire have been implemented to cope with changing economic and social conditions.
On Generation and Corruption I. 2
Authors: Sedley David
Published: November 2023

This second chapter of GC has been widely discussed as evidence for the nature and inferential basis of Democritean atomism, and, not infrequently, for Aristotle’s own response to Democritus’ argument. Much less has been said about the chapter’s overall strategy. At the risk of seeming to perpetuate this imbalance, I shall read the chapter from the centre outwards. I aim to establish just how Democritus’ argument is presented and criticized, before moving on to Aristotle’s broader goals. Unlike the majority of earlier discussions, mine will not be concerned with the question whether authentically Democritean material can be recovered from the chapter. However, my findings would, if accepted, have significant consequences for those asking that question.
Simple Genesis and Prime Matter
Authors: Charles David
Published: November 2023

At the end of 1 3. 319a29-h5 Aristotle asks a series of questions. I shall begin with a translation, which is, at some points, controversial.1Someone may ask: is that which is not (without qualification) one of the contraries: e.g. earth or the heavy, while the other contrary (e.g. fire or the light) is what is’? Or is it rather that earth is also a case of being, while the matter of earth and fire are both alike what is not? Further, is the matter of each of these two different, for otherwise they would not come to be out of one another or out of contraries (for the contraries belong to fire, earth, water, and air)? Or is the matter of each of these in some way the same, and in another way different: for the thing, whatever it is, that underlies is the same, although it is not the same in being. That is enough on these topics.
A Note on Aristotle on Mixture
Authors: Cooper John M
Published: November 2023

For Aristotle mixtures are homoeomerous or ‘like-parted’ stuffs, and their ingredients are physically more basic like-parted stuffs. According to his account of the nature and composition of flesh, for example, any quantity of flesh is divisible indefinitely into parts that have the same nature as each other and as any expanse of flesh of which they are parts. Further, flesh and all the other naturally occurring mixtures are composed of all the simple bodies (fire, air, water, and earth), and each of these ingredients is similarly like-parted. When the right proportions of some quantities of fire, air, water, and earth are combined to form some flesh, he tells us, each of these acts on and is acted upon by the others so that their differences in terms of what are for him the basic elements, namely the fundamental opposed material qualities of hot and cold, wet and dry, are brought into a specific unity characteristic of flesh, in particular.
Against Equality of Opportunity
Authors: Cavanagh Matt
Published: November 2023

Against Equality of Opportunity deals with the ways in which opportunities - education, jobs and other things which affect how people get on in life - are distributed. Take jobs: should the best person always get the job? Or should everyone be given an equal 'life chance'? Or can we somehow combine these two ideas, saying that the best person should always get the job, but that everyone should have an equal chance to become the best? These seem to be the standard views, but this book argues that they are all flawed. We need to understand meritocracy for what it is - a technical rather than a moral ideal; and we need to accept that equality just isn't something we should be striving for at all in this area. We also need to rethink our approach to the related issue of discrimination. We tend to assume discrimination is wrong because it violates either meritocracy or equality, when in fact it is wrong for quite different reasons. In all these areas, then, Cavanagh aims to loosen the grip of established ways of thinking, in order that other ideas might find room to breathe. This is particularly important in the case of meritocracy, which after the recent conversion of the centre-left now dominates the debate more than ever. This book will be of interest to students and teachers of political philosophy, but ultimately it is aimed at anyone who cares about the fundamental values that lie behind the way society is organized. Though the argument is rigorous, it does not require a professional philosophical training to follow it.
Discrimination
Authors: Cavanagh Matt
Published: November 2023

At the end of Part 2 I suggested that while we often say that everyone should have an equal chance of getting a job, we might only mean that their chances shouldn’t depend on other people’s prejudices; in other words, we might only mean that they shouldn’t be discriminated against on the basis of things like race1 or sex. I pointed out that as an idea this is really quite different to that of equal chances; and therefore that we should try to keep the two ideas separate. But I also noted that keeping these ideas separate raises the question of what exactly is wrong with discriminating against people on the basis of things like race or sex, if not that it leaves them with unequal chances. The question of what exactly is wrong with discriminating against people on the basis of things like race or sex might seem like the kind of question only a philosopher would ask. Isn’t it enough that we know discrimination is wrong, never mind exactly why? I don’t think so. For one thing, there are different ways of discriminating on the basis of race or sex-different reasons why people do this. Some of these ways might be obviously wrong, others less so. Consider, for example, the kind of case where an employer discriminates against women not because he doesn’t like them, but because he genuinely thinks they tend to be less good at the job. Is this wrong? And if so, is it wrong in exactly the same way as it would be wrong for him to discriminate against women because he didn’t like them? We will have no way of answering such questions unless we have already thought about the ‘obvious’ question of why it is wrong to discriminate against certain kinds of people simply because you don’t like them.
Islands and Form-Identity
Authors: Merchant Jason
Published: November 2023

Having established that sluicing involves a CP and a null IP, I turn now to documenting a wide range of data that bears on the dual questions of where the wh-phrase in SpecCP has its origin site, and, concomitantly, how the null IP comes to be null. This chapter sets the stage for the discussion to come in Chapters 4 and 5 by defining the central novel puzzle of this book: I will present a body of evidence that suggests that the wh-phrase does not come to occupy SpecCP via movement, and an apparently contradictory body of evidence that suggests that the wh-phrase has moved from an origin site internal to the null IP. This evidence can be summarized as follows: sluicing appears not to respect islands, while the wh-phrase remnant in sluicing displays a language-specific regularity in grammatical form. The theoretical import of these empirical findings will be examined in detail in the following two chapters.
The Blowpipe Indians: Variations on the Theme of Blowpipe and Tube among the Yagua Indians of the Peruvian Amazon
Authors: Chaumeil Jean-Pierre
Published: November 2023

Thirty years ago, Peter Rivière (1969b) published an essay comparing two specialized objects, the blowpipe and the hair tube, found in several indigenous cultures of southern Guyana and northern Brazil, a region divided into savannah and forest. He observed that groups located in the north of this region possessed blowpipes but no hair tubes, while those in the south had hair tubes but no blowpipes. He showed that the complementary distribution of these two tubular objects reflected not so much the history or the mode of subsistence of these groups, but, rather, a broader set of ideas contained in their myths. Moreover, he proposed that the hollow tubes found in this cultural area should be interpreted as energy ‘transformers’ (they transform untamed, dangerous energy into controlled, socialized energy). According to this interpretation, the hollow tube is one of the means imagined by southern Guyana and northern Brazil indigenous societies to conceptualize dynamically the relationship between nature and culture.
Piercing Distinctions: Making and Remaking the Social Contract in the North-West Amazon
Authors: Chernela Janet
Published: November 2023

In an essay written in honour of his mentor, Peter Rivi ère recalls Evans-Pritchard’s definition of Nuer boundaries as the area beyond which feud becomes warfare (Rivi ère 1971a: 306; Evans-Pritchard 1940). The delineation brings into relief an essential fault line —the limit of moral commitment, beyond which there is no recourse to dispute. Nothing, that is, but warfare itself.
Finding One’s Body: Relationships between Cosmology and Work in North-West Amazonia
Authors: Griffiths Thomas
Published: November 2023

In the ethnology of indigenous Amazonian societies the theme of human work has normally been dealt with as part of the ethnographic analysis of the gendered division of labour in the domestic economy. The resulting literature has generated considerable discussion about how gendered work roles determine the relative status of women and men in Amerindian societies. As well as investigating gender issues relating to human labour, Amazonian anthropologists have explored the importance of cultural attitudes towards work in social organization, leadership, and political economy. Numerous studies evaluate the efficiency of labour in providing nutritional and material needs. Some monographs also include indigenous ideas about work as a lexical category encompassing specific types of activity and excluding others.
Conscious Awareness of Intention and of Action
Authors: Haggard Patrick
Published: November 2023

This conversation offers a good example of the problem of ‘efferent binding’. Efferent binding refers to the process of associating intentions with the actions or physical effects that they produce. Pooh cannot bind the physical action of shouting to his intention to shout. In this case, he is right to do so, because the shout was Piglet’s rather than his own, and he detects a mismatch. But normally, efferent binding proceeds straightforwardly and unconsciously: we have no difficulty in discriminating things we did from things we did not do. In this case it breaks down because an action occurred which might plausibly have been caused by Pooh’s intention, but in fact was not. Interestingly, the failure of efferent binding is worrying for Pooh, and appears to threaten the stability of his sense of self.
The Development of Young Children’s Action Control and Awareness
Authors: Frye Douglas , David Zelazo Philip
Published: November 2023

During the first half-dozen years of life, there are regular-and often remarkable-changes in children’s ability to control their own actions (see Zelazo et al., 1997, for a review). For example, consider the familiar game of ‘Simon Says’, in which players must listen to commands to perform simple actions but are required to carry out only those commands that are preceded by the phrase ‘Simon says’. Young children have a particularly difficult time complying with these instructions even though they seem to understand them. Usually, they perform all of the actions, including those they should ignore. Indeed, 4-year-olds may err on almost every occasion, and consistent success is typically only achieved by children several years older (Strommen, 1973).
The Development of Self-Consciousness
Authors: Lewis Michael
Published: November 2023

The concept of agency implies an active organism, one who desires, one who makes plans, carries out actions, and compares their actions to their desires. Such a concept of agency requires consciousness. There is little question that in adults, such conscious processes exist. The question is, from a developmental perspective when do they arise? In our work on the development of self-awareness, we have developed measures which are related to this concept. They include self-recognition, personal pronoun usage (me and mine), and pretend play.
Peter Kropotkin
Authors: Raphael D D
Published: November 2023

‘From each according to his ability, to each according to his needs.’ This maxim of social responsibility was first enunciated by Louis Blanc in 1839 and was taken up by Karl Marx in 1875. Neither of them thought it necessary to provide a theoretical grow1d for the principle of distribution according to need. They were concerned with the practical polemics of social reformers, not with abstract philosophy. Louis Blanc’s formulation arose from his criticism of Saint-Simon, who advocated, as socialist doctrine, the desert principle that the pay of workers should match the value of their contribution. Blanc thought that justice required instead ‘the law written by God’ in the human constitution:‘  à chacun  selon ses besoins, de charnn selon ses faculté s’;but he did not explain why the following of needs rather than desert is the God-given law of human nature. Karl Marx’s repetition of the maxim occurs, again as if obvious, in a passage where he distinguishes between a first and an eventual ‘higher’ phase of communism. If and when the latter is attained, ‘only then can the narrow horizon of bourgeois right be crossed in its entirety and society inscribe on its banners: “From each according to his ability, to each according to his needs!”‘
Zeal conquers all
Authors: Westwood J N
Published: November 2023

The three decades of Nicholas’s rule came to be regarded as a particularly dark period of Russian history. But even at its worst, in the last seven years of his life, most Russians accepted his way of doing things as quite appropriate for Russia. Strong tsars had always been preferred to weak tsars, and the state of the Empire was such that intensification of the autocratic system seemed just as viable a way forward as any other. But Nicholas, despite an almost maniacal attachment to the idea of duty and zeal, was only human; he insisted on having a finger in every pie but had only ten fingers like everybody else. Even if he had been adequately educated, he would have been unable to cope with the regimental-style system of rule which he evolved.
Russia in Asia
Authors: Westwood J N
Published: November 2023

Helped by its location on a river network, Muscovy had expanded over centuries. Under Peter the Great the growth continued, mainly in the north and west, and under Catherine it was towards the Black Sea. Because of the lack of natural frontiers, there was always an urge to expand one more stage, so as better to protect the most recently conquered zone. Alexander I had thought it necessary to conquer barren Finland from the Swedes simply to help protect St Petersburg.
The Empire’s last war
Authors: Westwood J N
Published: November 2023

The first care of the tsars was defence of the frontiers and of the autocratic regime within those frontiers. Under the last Romanovs, the Empire’s diplomacy usually compensated for the disparity between Russia’s claims as a great power and her actual economic potential. Alliances were made with suitable European powers, to ensure that Russia would have strong friends at times of crisis.

With the end of the Napoleonic wars, the expansion of Muscovy into territories held by weaker neighbours reached a natural conclusion in northern and central Europe. The absorption of Poland meant that there was no longer a buffer state separating Russia from Prussia. Finland had been acquired, and St Petersburg thereby made more defensible. But Russia still had aspirations, although no definite plans, in south-eastern Europe. A Russian presence at the Straits was still strongly desired, while racial and religious obsessions with the Balkans meant that this was an area in which policy might not always be rational. In Asia, expansion could continue at the expense of weak or fragmented neighbours.
The Great Patriotic War
Authors: Westwood J N
Published: November 2023

In its expansion from grand duchy to empire, Russia created for herself long frontiers that needed more military support than the economy could provide. One way of making this burden manageable was a good intelligence service, which might at least predict from which direction the next blow would fall. Over the centuries the Russians did develop great skills in maintaining intelligence networks abroad, initially as part of Russian diplomacy.
General Introduction
Authors: House Jim , Macmaster Neil
Published: November 2023

As darkness fell on the evening of 17 October 1961 Parisians queuing for cinemas, seated in cafés, or strolling the central boulevards were astonished by the unprecedented sight of tens of thousands of Algerian demonstrators marching in disciplined rank through the heart of the capital in protest against police repression. The surprise of bystanders arose from a number of causes: by the autumn of 1961 France had been engaged for seven years in a violent colonial war to crush the Algerian struggle for independence, yet here was the ‘enemy’, the supporters and militants of the Front de libération nationale (FLN), defiantly demonstrating en masse in the streets of the capital. Secondly, throughout the war the 180,000 Algerian migrants in the Paris region lived in squalid lodging houses and shanty-towns, ‘ghettoized’ or enclave zones in the industrial suburbs that were isolated from the chic boulevards of the centre and in which the inhabitants remained largely invisible to most Parisians.
The Demonstrations of 17 to 20 October 1961
Authors: House Jim , Macmaster Neil
Published: November 2023

During the mass Algerian demonstrations of October, and in the weeks following, it was an almost impossible task for any individual or organization, including FLN cadres, journalists, political activists, trade unionists, and social workers close to the action, to gain a clear picture of what had happened during the night of 17–18 October. During any large street demonstration a direct participant can only witness one restricted part of a large moving column and an observer in one location might well see a violent police clash that another, a few hundred yards distant, may be oblivious to. On 17 October this difficulty was compounded by the fact that the FLN organized a number of quite separate marches that converged on the city centre from many locations scattered throughout the Paris region.
The Political Crisis, 18 October to 1 December 1961
Authors: House Jim , Macmaster Neil
Published: November 2023

The initial response of the media and public opinion towards the events on the night of 17–18 October was one of uncertainty and confusion, in part because it was extremely difficult to gain even an approximate picture of what had happened. Acts of repression were spatially scattered throughout the city, making it difficult to form an overall picture, while journalists and photographers who approached the scenes of action were physically threatened and had rolls of film seized. The most revealing photographs that have survived were taken covertly, at considerable personal risk, by Élie Kagan and Georges Azenstarck, in the semi-dark and without flash (see Photo 7).
A Long Wave Goodbye?
Authors: Hendy David
Published: November 2023

In the early hours of Friday 16 October 1987 a severe storm swept across a great swathe of southern England, the worst to hit the region in more than 200 years. Wind speeds reached 140 km an hour, ripping whole roofs off houses, tearing down power cables, hurling telegraph poles, bricks, tiles, cars, motorbikes, and vans along streets. By daybreak, nineteen people had been killed, fifteen million trees uprooted, and nearly £1 billion worth of damage inflicted on property. For a while, the full impact of the storm remained hidden. ‘Most of us had a fair night ‘s sleep ‘, one writer recalled.
Sent Home to School: British Education, Status, and Returns Overseas
Authors: Buettner Elizabeth
Published: November 2023

Illustrating British-Indian children’s experiences after they were sent home entails entering the endlessly varied realm of middle-class schooling in the metropole. Once they left India, they either attended boarding schools of many descriptions or studied while living with their mothers, retired parents, other relatives, or non-familial guardians. Children’s education in Britain was not solely determined by their imperial background, and was equally moulded by their age, parents’ priorities and income, and especially gender.
From Somebodies to Nobodies: Returning Home to Britain and Perpetuating Overseas Connections
Authors: Buettner Elizabeth
Published: November 2023

For thousands of Britons who lived and worked in India in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, thoughts of home were never far away. Home meant their national homeland, Britain, or often more specifically England, Scotland, Ireland, or Wales. Attenuated though ties with Britain may have been after long periods spent overseas, a strong sense of personal connection commonly remained central to their lives and imaginations. This was true not only for transient British-Indians who periodically revisited Britain for schooling or on furlough, and planned ultimately to retire there; it also defined the identity of domiciled Europeans and Anglo-Indians who may never have seen the land their ancestors left.
‘Dr O’Shaughnessy appears to have made some experiments with charas’: Imperial Merchants, Victorian Science, and Hemp to 1842
Authors: Mills James H
Published: November 2023

The cannabis plant was a matter of sometimes pressing concern in British government circles from the sixteenth century onwards and by the eighteenth century it was an issue that exercised administrations both in London and across the empire. But the officials and departments that troubled themselves with hemp were not in the least bit interested in its intoxicating properties as their concern was with its fibres. The reason for this was that it was in this period that Britain was establishing itself as a maritime and imperial power. Rolt’s Dictionary of 1756 explained that hemp ‘is the foundation of several profitable manufactures; as sail cloth, ticking, sacking, cordage, twine and nets: therefore its culture ought to be encouraged, both in Great Britain and its northern colonies in America’. Postlethwayt’s Dictionary published ten years later was more dramatic: ‘our whole mercantile, as well as royal maritime power, depends on supplying ourselves with cordage’. Almost a hundred years later in 1844 it was declared that ‘the quantity of hemp used in Great Britain is enormous.
‘From the old records of the Ganja Supervisor’s Office’: Smuggling, Trade and Taxation in Nineteenth- Century British India
Authors: Mills James H
Published: November 2023

By the nineteenth century India was established as the main source of information for the British about the hemp plant and about medicinal and intoxicating preparations made from it. Yet hemp in India was not simply the source of information about cannabis substances for the British. It was also a source of income. The British were, after all, in India to make money. Before 1858 the British in India were employees of the East India Company that had traded spices, agricultural products, and luxury goods for profit since the seventeenth century. It had become militarized in the eighteenth century through wars with the French in India and because there was money to be made from hiring out soldiers as mercenaries to feuding local princes. As such, by 1757 its armies began to dominate large parts of India, and the company discovered that there was money to be made through taxation rather than trade. Dominating a region with an army means controlling its trading systems so taxation becomes both possible and profitable. By 1833 the East India Company had given up its old function as a trading company altogether and derived its profits solely from its role as an adminstration in charge of taxation.
Gender Transformations and the Question of Sexuality
Authors: Caine Barbara
Published: November 2023

Just as the Stracheys serve to illustrate broader trends in relation to education, marriage, and single life in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, so too one can see a reflection of these trends in their understanding of gender and their approaches to sexuality. Several of the Stracheys participated in the late nineteenth-century discussions about sexuality, arguing strongly for the need to understand it in new ways and to accept new codes of sexual behaviour. Indeed, the whole family serves to illustrate in an extremely concentrated form the changes in sexual behaviour and outlook that were the source of such anxiety in Britain.
A Feminist Family
Authors: Caine Barbara
Published: November 2023

Feminist activity and commitment was an important thing within the Strachey family, spanning almost a century and including both generations. Jane Strachey first took an interest in the movement for women’s suffrage in 1867 and the family’s involvement continued until Pippa Strachey resigned as ‘organizing secretary’ of several feminist groups in 1951. It was the question of women’s suffrage that was of greatest interest and importance, dominating Strachey family life and conversation in the decade or so before the First World War, where it jostled with imperial and artistic concerns.
Intentional Content and a Chomskian Linguistics
Authors: Rey Georges
Published: November 2023

Chomsky often presents his account of grammatical competence in what would appear to be the terms of a ‘computational representational theory of thought’ (CRTT), but it is not clear that what he intends involves either computations or representations in the sense in which most other theorists use those terms. Speciﬁcally, he has recently insisted that ‘“representation” is not to be understood relationally, as “representation of “ ‘, and that, indeed, the latter sort of intentional idiom has no place in any serious science.
Externalism and the Fregean Tradition
Authors: Brown Jessica
Published: November 2023

Two traditions dominate philosophical discussion of thought-content and its individuation. According to the externalist tradition, associated with Putnam and Burge, a subject’s thought-contents are partly individuated by her environment. By contrast, the Fregean tradition stresses that one component of thought-content is sense, or the mode of presentation of the objects or kinds thought about. Although some have assumed that these two traditions are incompatible, others have attempted to combine them in a single position.1
Serial Expertise and the Evolution of Language
Authors: Terrace H S
Published: November 2023

‘An army of monkeys strumming on typewriters writ[ing] all the books in the British Museum’ (Eddington 1928) is a well-known metaphor for an absurdly unlikely event. A similar point could be made, albeit less dramatically, about the vanishingly small likelihood of a monkey producing any linguistic sequence. Monkeys can, however, learn non-grammatical sequences. The goal of this chapter is to describe the remarkable expertise of monkeys to master non-linguistic sequences, and to indicate how a monkey’s serial expertise can broaden our understanding of the evolution of language.
The Slow Growth of Language in Children
Authors: Burling Robbins
Published: November 2023

A surprisingly broad consensus has grown among scholars who are interested in the origin of language that the ability to speak was a relatively recent and quite rapid development (e.g. Noble and Davidson 1996: 17). Hardly anyone would now go so far as to credit a single mutation for all syntax, as Bickerton once did (1990, 1998), and even Bickerton has moderated his earlier position (Bickerton 2000, Calvin and Bickerton 2000). Carstairs Mc Carthy has also proposed a scenario that allows for more than a single stage of syntax (1999, 2000). In spite of this, however, full syntax is still widely presumed to have come quite late (40,000 to 150,000 years ago) and, by the standards of most evolutionary change, very quickly. One support for the presumption of suddenness is the difficulty that some linguists have in imagining a partial syntax. Syntax is presumed to be not only incredibly complex, but highly interconnected. No part, it is sometimes believed, could exist without all the rest, and all its extraordinary complexities are seen as following from a few simple principles (e.g. Berwick 1998).
The Evolutionary Ancestry of Our Knowledge of Tools: From Percepts To Concepts
Authors: Hauser Marc D , Santos Laurie R
Published: November 2023

To primitive man each thing says what it is and what he ought to do with it… a fruit says ‘Eat me’; water says ‘Drink me’; thunder says ‘Fear me’.
Repression and Demoralization in the Working Class
Authors: Kershaw Ian
Published: November 2023

‘Workers’ and their families comprised 40.3 per cent of the Bavarian population according to the 1933 census. Seventy per cent of these workers were employed in ‘industry and crafts’, 15 per cent in agriculture, just under 12 per cent in trade and commerce, and 3 per cent in the public and private service sector. Industrial workers are our concern in this chapter. If not synonymous with ‘the working class’ as a whole, it was certainly this group which the Bavarian authorities implied when they spoke in their reports of ‘die Arbeiterschaft’.
The Factory: Fabricating the State
Authors: Alexander Catherine
Published: November 2023

In 1923, Nuri Omer Oglu (later to take the name of §eker or ‘Mr Sugar’) built the first Turkish sugar factory in U§ak, a small town to the west of Ankara. Technically, the factory was not a great success, initially failing to produce any sugar. Despite the urging of the German engineers contracted to build the factory, Nuri decided to place it too far from the source of water. ‘The scientists told me to place it near water,’ he later said somewhat plaintively to a journalist, ‘but I didn’t realize that meant the Menderes river.’ At another point he described himself as being resigned to the factory’s deficiencies, but not to his own negligence in failing to provide an adequate water supply. §eker’s choice of language to describe his failure suggests the particular significance of the factory to him, ‘If I could have done this,’ he said, ‘then I could submit myself to the mercy of God without any anxiety. ’ The building of public monuments and the bringing of water for communal benefit are characteristic acts of merit within Islam, most commonly realized in the construction of public fountains. In Nuri’s construction, the bringing of water to the factory has, in effect, been cast as such an act of merit.
The Sugar Contract
Authors: Alexander Catherine
Published: November 2023

The images used above by Ali bey, the agricultural director of the Erzurum factory, to describe the playing out of the Sugar Contract, draw at once on the materiality of dwelling and the weaving together of differing social orders. That there is difference in the first place is marked by his use of ‘the farmers’ and ‘us’; that the enactment of the Contract, the ‘rest of the walls of the house’, is ultimately an artefact produced by the conjoining of difference is made explicit throughout the description. The outcome is a house: a familiar and immediate material projection of shelter, joint endeavour, inferiority, and the family. As the next chapter explores, the employment of so material a metaphor for the Contract is not entirely fortuitous, but Ali bey uses the language both of physical substance and of process.
Talking about Privatization
Authors: Alexander Catherine
Published: November 2023

This chapter serves to conclude by peeling back some of the assumptions of the previous chapters. Privatization, for state officials, was essentially characterized as ‘what we, the state, are not’, a structural negation of the state’s modus operandi. But such a neat opposition was complicated first by the fact that ‘privatization’ really covers a whole complex of ownership and property issues, and second that many officials were also not what they said they were. Although in their own estimation they were state officials, it turned out that most factory officials were technically employed under contract to the Corporation, in effect, private employees (see Table 10.1). Rather, it was a sense of identification with the state, or indeed a lack of identification with the workers, that encouraged this construction.
A Disaster Foretold? The Spanish Defeat at Anual
Authors: Balfour Sebastian
Published: November 2023

The history of colonial campaigns is littered with military disasters suffered by the European powers. The British in particular were defeated several times at the end of the nineteenth century at the height of their expansionism in south and eastern Africa. They were routed in 1879 by the Zulu army at Isandhlwana. The Mahdi uprising in 1882 in Eastern Sudan led to the ten- month siege of British-held Khartoum and its fall in 1885 and the death of General Gordon and his soldiers. The Boers in South Africa inﬂicted defeat on the British army in 1881 and then during the Boer War of 1889–1902. For their part, the Italians suffered military defeat at the hands of the Ethiopians at Adowa in 1896, which led to the fall of a government and Italy’s abandonment of its aim to create a colonial empire in Abyssinia.
Lord Ripons Right-Hand Man in India 1880-1883
Authors: Owen Roger
Published: November 2023

Evelyn Baring spent the month of July r 880 in London before going off to Glenmazaran Lodge, near Inverness in the north of Scotland, for a holiday some time in early August. Edward Lear was back in London at the time and records in his diary that Baring visited him for an hour on July. Then follows the comment: ‘ I suppose no one could be more unchanging in 20 years than EB; even if he had no changes of position his remaining so would be remarkable-still more when his rise in life is considered.’
The First World War, the Dardanelles Commission, and Death 1914-1917
Authors: Owen Roger
Published: November 2023

In the early months of 1914 Lord Cromer came close to death. According to his daughter-in-law Ruby, he was suffering greatly, his digestive organs were not working, and one day he was heard to murmur, ‘ I feel as if I had severed my connection with one world without entering into communication with another.’ 1 Then, suddenly, his health improved, and by the summer he seemed to have obtained a new lease of life.
Conclusion: A Life in Government
Authors: Owen Roger
Published: November 2023

Horace Rumbold reports seeking out Lord Cromer in London in August 1901 to congratulate him on his earldom. His host, who was talking to somebody else, glared at him and asked him what he wanted. ‘ I only came to congratulate.’ ‘ That’ s all right,’ Cromer replied. ‘ Good-bye.’ 1 It is a typical story of Cramer’ s later Egyptian years. We are led to imagine a bulky, imperious, overly self-confident figure who seemed to enjoy his own reputation for brusqueness while only showing a more human side when at home in the small circle of family and close colleagues.
Introduction : Objective, Definitions, Method, and Some History
Authors: Cysouw Michael
Published: November 2023

The history of linguistic investigation is full of discoveries. One of those discoveries was made by a Spanish Dominican friar known by the name of Domingo de Santo Toma’s. By way of introduction, the story of his insight will be told here to illustrate the theme and the approach of the present investigation. In 1540, Domingo de Santo Tome’s set sail from Spain on his way to Peru. He belonged to a group of missionaries that were recruited by Francisco Martine’z Toscano to work in this newly discovered part of South America. At that moment, only seven years after the defeat of the Inca Empire by Francisco Pizarro, the journey to this new Spanish territory must have been full of perils and uncertainty. Yet, Domingo de Santo Toma’s survived the trip and managed to do his missionary work among the native people of Peru. His catechistic work made him an expert in the ‘lengua general’, the general language spoken in the region, nowadays referred to as Quechua. In 1555, after fifteen years of missionary work, Domingo de Santo Toma’s returned to Spain, determined to carry out much work. Among many other things, he had taken on the task of informing the authorities in Spain about the miserable situation of the native people of Peru. Further, he wanted to take care in person of the printing of his grammar-cum-dictionary of the Quechua language.
Introduction: Not So Ambiguous
Authors: Fegan Melissa
Published: November 2023

A history beset with such distracting problems, bristling with such thorny controversies, a history, above all, which has so much bearing upon that portion of history which has still to be born, ought, it may be said, to be approached in the gravest and most authoritative fashion possible, or else not approached at all.
Faction: The Historiography of the Great Famine
Authors: Fegan Melissa
Published: November 2023

Since the late 1980s, the Irish historical establishment, no doubt spurred by the impending 150th anniversary of the Great Famine, has been beating its collective breast about its apparent neglect of the tragic episode. Cormac Ó Gráda, who spearheaded this historiographical revival, noted the paradox and irony of this lacuna: Given the Irish propensity to be maudlin about the past, a continuous rush of research on the Irish Famine might be expected. It is, after all, the main event in modern Irish history, as important to Ireland as, say, the French Revolution to France or the First Industrial Revolution to England. Yet secondary references to the Famine are out of all proportion to the amount of fresh research published.
Reform, Conservation, and Adaptation: Sciences-Po, from the Popular Front to the Liberation
Authors: Nord Philip
Published: November 2023

EMILE Boutmy founded the Ecole Libre des Sciences Politiques in 1872. France had just experienced a cataclysmic military defeat, and Boutmy blamed the nation’s battlefield setbacks on failed political leadership. The Ecole libre, or Sciences Po as it came to be known, was intended to make good that failing, to incubate a new generation of public servants who would oversee France’s recovery to greatness.Sciences Po from the outset enjoyed the patronage of the nation’s liberal establishment. Hippolyte Taine delivered the school’s inaugural public address, and Albert Sorel, of the Academie Frarn;:aise, organized the first lesson. At Boutmy’s death in 1906, stewardship of Sciences Po passed to Anatole Leroy-Beaulieu, who was descended from a distinguished family with old ties to that stalwart of nineteenth-century French liberalism Frarn;:ois Guizot. Leroy-Beaulieu himself died in 1912 and was in turn succeeded by Eugene d’Eichthal, son of the Saint-Simonian Gustave d’Eichthal. The d’ Eichthal family, Jewish by origin, had long since converted to Christianity. Eugene understood the school’s mandate much as Boutmy himself had: the nurture of a governing class steeped in ‘une culture /ibera/e’, of an elite ‘worthy of the name’, as he phrased it in a commemorative essay which appeared in La Revue des deux mondes in 1927.
Comparative Desert
Authors: Kagan Shelly
Published: November 2023

An adequate theory of (moral) desert will need to include not only noncomparative principles, but comparative ones as well. Accordingly, my central concern in this paper will be to evaluate some candidates for the basic comparative principle.