bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Conceptualizing Comparative International Law
Authors: Roberts Anthea , Stephan Paul B. , Verdier Pierre-Hugues , Versteeg Mila
Published: January 2018

Comparative international law utilizes insights and methods from comparative law in order to identify, analyze, and explain similarities and differences in how international law is understood, interpreted, applied, and approached by different national and international actors. Although such approaches find important antecedents in earlier scholarship, distinct attention to “comparative international law” has grown in recent years, particularly in light of changes in geopolitical power. This introductory chapter explains what we mean by comparative international law, examines how one might find and analyze similarities and differences, sets out a number of hypotheses that have been suggested for explaining similarities and differences, and considers some of the normative challenges and implications of this field.
Case Law in Russian Approaches to International Law
Authors: Mälksoo Lauri
Published: January 2018

In her comparative study on the use of case law in international law textbooks, Anthea Roberts demonstrates a number of structural differences between textbooks in different countries. This chapter further explores the Russian situation and asks whether Roberts’s comparative findings regarding Russian international law textbooks reflect the dominant approach in Russian international law scholarship, and whether they also reflect a distinct approach in Russian state practice. It then discusses what might explain both Russian scholarly and governmental approaches and, finally, what international lawyers can learn from this practice in the context of comparative international law. Cautiousness about case law and international courts has historically been characteristic of the Russian approach to international law. The main method used in this chapter is a historical one, because only the history of international law and its ideas can teach us how concrete legal-political circumstances in a country have come into being.
Build Financial Capability for All
Authors: Huang Jin , Sherraden Margaret S. , Despard Mathieu R. , Rothwell David , Friedline Terri , Doran Joanna , Zurlo Karen A. , Birkenmaier Julie , Callahan Christine , McKinney Robin
Published: January 2018

Nearly half of all American households are financially insecure, without adequate savings to meet basic living expenses for three months. We can significantly reduce economic hardship and the debilitating effects of poverty by adopting social policies that bolster lifelong income generation and safe retirement accounts; expand workforce training and re-training; and provide financial literacy and access to quality affordable financial services.
Units of measurement, dimensions, and dimensional analysis
Authors: Escudier Marcel
Published: January 2018

In this chapter the crucial role of units and dimensions in the analysis of any problem involving physical quantities is explained. The International System of Units (SI) is introduced. The major advantage of collecting the physical quantities, which are included in either a theoretical analysis or an experiment, into non-dimensional groups is shown to be a reduction in the number of quantities which need to be considered separately. This process, known as dimensional analysis, is based upon the principle of dimensional homogeneity. Buckingham’s Π theorem is introduced as a method for determining the number of non-dimensional groups (the Π’s) corresponding with a set of dimensional quantities and their dimensions. A systematic and simple procedure for identifying these groups is the sequential elimination of dimensions. The scale-up from a model to a geometrically similar full-size version is shown to require dynamic similarity. The definitions and names of the non-dimensional groups most frequently encountered in fluid mechanics have been introduced and their physical significance explained.
Bernoulli’s equation
Authors: Escudier Marcel
Published: January 2018

In this chapter Newton’s second law of motion is used to derive Euler’s equation for the flow of an inviscid fluid along a streamline. For a fluid of constant density ρ Euler’s equation can be integrated to yield Bernoulli’s equation: p + ρgz′ + ρV2 = p T which shows that the sum of the static pressure p, the hydrostatic pressure ρgz and the dynamic pressure ρV2/2 is equal to the total pressure p T. The combination p + ρV2/2 is an important quantity known as the stagnation pressure. Each of the terms on the left-hand side of Bernoulli’s equation can be regarded as representing different forms of mechanical energy and also equivalent to the hydrostatic pressure due to a vertical column of liquid. The dynamic pressure can be thought of as measuring the intensity or strength of a flow and is frequently combined with other fluid and flow properties to produce non-dimensional (or dimensionless) numbers which characterise various aspects of fluid motion.
Compressible pipe flow
Authors: Escudier Marcel
Published: January 2018

In this chapter gas flow through pipes is analysed, taking account of compressibility and either friction or heat exchange with the fluid. It is shown that in all cases the key parameter is the Mach number. The analyses are based upon the conservation laws for mass, momentum, and energy, together with an equation of state. So that significant results can be achieved, the flowing fluid is treated as a perfect gas, and the flow as one dimensional. Adiabatic pipe flow with wall friction is termed Fanno flow. Frictionless pipe flow with heat transfer is termed Rayleigh flow. It is found that both flows, and also isothermal pipe flow with wall friction, can be limited by choking.
Laminar boundary layers
Authors: Escudier Marcel
Published: January 2018

This chapter starts by introducing the concept of a boundary layer and the associated boundary-layer approximations. The laminar boundary-layer equations are then derived from the Navier-Stokes equations. The assumption of velocity-profile similarity is shown to reduce the partial differential boundary-layer equations to ordinary differential equations. The results of numerical solutions to these equations are discussed: Blasius’ equation, for zero-pressure gradient, and the Falkner-Skan equation for wedge flows. Von Kármán’s momentum-integral equation is derived and used to obtain useful results for the zero-pressure-gradient boundary layer. Pohlhausen’s quartic-profile method is then discussed, followed by the approximate method of Thwaites. The chapter concludes with a qualitative account of the way in which aerodynamic lift is generated.
Bonobo baby dominance: Did female defense of offspring lead to reduced male aggression?
Authors: Walker Kara , Hare Brian
Published: January 2018

The dominance style of bonobos presents an evolutionary puzzle. Bonobos are not male dominant but female bonobos do not show traits typical of female-dominant species. This chapter proposes the offspring dominance hypothesis (ODH) as a potential solution. ODH suggests the social system of bonobos evolved as a defence against infanticide and is not due to pressure to monopolize resources. Females that prevented aggression towards offspring and preferred mating with less aggressive males were most successful. Supporting ODH, during observations at Lola ya Bonobo Sanctuary it was found that: 1) adult male bonobos are rarely aggressive towards offspring with mothers, 2) some mother-reared juvenile bonobos attain rank higher than adult males and 3) mother-reared offspring often socially interact with adult males without their mothers nearby. These preliminary findings provide initial support that the bonobo social system evolved due to fitness advantages of effectively protecting offspring against consequences of male aggression. Le style de dominance des bonobos présente un puzzle évolutionnaire. Les bonobos ne sont pas dominés par les mâles mais les bonobos femelles ne montrent pas les traits caractéristiques d’une espèce dominée par femelles. On propose l’hypothèse de dominance de progéniture (ODH) comme une solution potentielle. La ODH suggère que le système social des bonobos a évolué en défense contre l’infanticide et pas sous pression pour la monopolisation des ressources. Les femelles qui préviennent l’agression vers leur progéniture et leur préférence d’accouplement avec des mâles moins agressives étaient très efficaces. À l’appui de la ODH on a trouvé pendant nos observations à Lola ya Bonobo Sanctuary que: 1) les mâles adultes bonobos agressent rarement vers les bébés avec mères, 2) quelques adolescents bonobos qui furent élevés par leurs mères atteignent un rang plus haut que les mâles adultes et 3) la progéniture élevée par la mère interagissent avec avec d’adultes mâles sans la présence de leur mère. Ces trouvailles préliminaires donnent appuie à l’hypothèse que le système social des bonobos a évolué par les avantages corporelles de la protection de la progéniture contre les conséquences de l’agression mâle.
Heavenly Numbers
Authors: Cullen Christopher
Published: January 2018

This book is a history of the development of mathematical astronomy in China, from the late third century BCE, to the early third century CE—a period often referred to as ‘early imperial China’. It narrates the changes in ways of understanding the movements of the heavens and the heavenly bodies that took place during those four and a half centuries, and tells the stories of the institutions and individuals involved in those changes. It gives clear explanations of technical practice in observation, instrumentation and calculation, and the steady accumulation of data over many years—but it centres on the activity of the individual human beings who observed the heavens, recorded what they saw, and made calculations to analyse and eventually make predictions about the motions of the celestial bodies. It is these individuals, their observations, their calculations and the words they left to us that provide the narrative thread that runs through this work. Throughout the book, the author gives clear translations of original material that allow the reader direct access to what the people in this book said about themselves and what they tried to do. This book is designed to be accessible to a broad readership interested in the history of science, the history of China and the comparative history of ancient cultures, while still being useful to specialists in the history of astronomy.
John Bull, Sister Peg, and Anglo-Scottish Relations in the Eighteenth Century
Authors: Raffe Alasdair
Published: January 2018

This chapter analyses John Arbuthnot’s The History of John Bull (1712), an allegorical satire of the War of the Spanish Succession. As well as introducing the figure of John Bull, who became a recognizable symbol of the English people, Arbuthnot featured Bull’s sister Peg, who represents Scotland. With these characters, Arbuthnot provided an insightful interpretation of the passage of the Anglo-Scottish Union. The chapter goes on to discuss the many eighteenth-century imitators of Arbuthnot’s satire. Few featured Sister Peg or commented on Scotland’s place in the Union. The main exceptions were works by Scots, notably Adam Ferguson’s History of the Proceedings in the Case of Margaret, Commonly called Peg (1761), and other literary works and visual satires of the early 1760s, a time of intense Anglo-Scottish rivalries.
Socializing Early Skills for Remembering Through Parent–Child Conversations During and After Events
Authors: Haden Catherine A. , Marcus Maria , Jant Erin
Published: January 2018

In this chapter, we provide an overview of how conversations children have with their parents about events—both as they unfold and after they have occurred—can affect children’s memory for personal experiences. We begin with a discussion of the ways parents reminisce with their children about past experiences and the implications of individual differences in reminiscing styles for children’s developing event and autobiographical memory skills. Then we turn to consider how parent–child conversations as events unfold can influence understanding, encoding, and subsequent remembering. We conclude by drawing attention to potential multiplicative effects of different types of event talk for children’s learning and remembering, and how parent–child conversations during and after events may support children’s deliberate memory skills.
Memory Conformity Following Collaborative Remembering
Authors: Gabbert Fiona , Wheeler Rebecca
Published: January 2018

Despite natural differences in the way individuals initially remember the same encoded event, research shows that when people discuss their memories they can influence each other such that their subsequent individual memory reports become similar. This phenomenon is referred to as “memory conformity.” It can occur because people accept, and later report, information that is suggested to them in the course of the discussion. In the interest of both theoretical and applied implications, researchers have investigated factors that can increase and decrease the memory conformity effect. This chapter presents methodological approaches to investigating memory conformity, typical research findings, and current theoretical explanations that help account for the phenomenon.
Collaborative Remembering and Reminiscence in Older Adults
Authors: Henkel Linda A. , Kris Alison
Published: January 2018

This chapter explores the ways in which remembering alone or with others shapes what older adults remember and what they forget, and how such memory activities impact their mental health and well-being. Two related but largely separate bodies of research on older adults are examined, one using a primarily laboratory approach to understand how and when collaborative remembering helps or hinders memory, and the other using descriptive and correlational studies about the functions and values of reminiscing and sharing one’s personal memories with other people. We examine the use and value of reminiscence in healthy community-dwelling older adults, as well as in older adults with some degree of cognitive impairment living in long-term care nursing facilities.
Collaborative Processes in Neuropsychological Interviews
Authors: McVittie Chris , McKinlay Andy
Published: January 2018

Acts of remembering are often social events and not entirely internal matters. Yet typically neuropsychological interviews are treated as a means of assessing cognitive abilities and impairments of the individual patient with little attention paid to the context within which the patient produces or fails to produce an act of remembering. Using discourse analysis, we examine data from interviews with patients diagnosed as having two forms of memory impairment, namely dense amnesia and momentary confabulation. Outcomes of memory failure on the tasks set are seen to be joint achievements of interviewers and interviewees. Interviewers are not passive in these encounters but active participants. Their contributions, along with patients’ descriptions and other interactional elements, comprise collaborative processes in neuropsychological interviews.
Culture in Collaborative Remembering
Authors: Wang Qi
Published: January 2018

This chapter outlines a cultural dynamic model of the constructive process of cultural influences on collaborative remembering. The text applies the model to analyze two kinds of collaborative remembering: one takes place in the most intimate and immediate social context of family where parents and children share memories together; the other takes place in a remote, metaphysical space where autobiographical writers tell their stories to a potentially infinite and yet anonymous audience. The analysis illuminates the dynamic process in which culture shapes the function and accessibility and, further, the style and content of collaborative remembering of personal and vicarious experiences. The consequences of different modes of collaborative remembering for personal memory are then further discussed.
Forensic Applications of Social Memory Research
Authors: Paterson Helen , Monds Lauren
Published: January 2018

Within the legal system an assumption exists that witness testimonies should be independent of one another; however the evidence suggests that this is frequently not the case. Witnesses commonly discuss the event with each other. It is important to determine the effects of cowitness information on the validity of eyewitness testimony. It is generally recognized that discussion between witnesses can be detrimental; the possibility of false information (or information that the participant never saw) entering recall is a key concern. We review the prevalence of cowitness discussion, legal opinions about cowitness discussion, and finally experimental research investigating the effects of discussion on eyewitness memory. We also provide some suggestions of how to prevent cowitness discussion and contamination of testimony.
Collaborative Remembering in Dementia: A Focus on Joint Activities
Authors: Hydén Lars-Christer , Forsblad Mattias
Published: January 2018

In this chapter we consider collaborative remembering and joint activates in everyday life in the case of people living with dementia. First, we review past research of practices that scaffolds the participation of persons with dementia in everyday chores under different stages of dementia diseases. We do so by suggesting three analytical types of scaffolding: when the scaffolding practices (i) frame the activity, (ii) guide actions, or (iii) are part of repair activities. Second, we review two aspects of collaborative remembering that are especially important in the case of dementia: training of scaffolding practices, and the sustaining and presentation of identities through collaborative storytelling. Finally, theoretical and methodological tendencies of the research field are summarized and future research needs are formulated.
Inference to the Best Explanation
Authors: Khalifa Kareem , Millson Jared , Risjord Mark
Published: January 2018

Many epistemologists take Inference to the Best Explanation (IBE) to be “fundamental.” For instance, Lycan (1988, 128) writes that “all justified reasoning is fundamentally explanatory reasoning.” Conee and Feldman (2008, 97) concur: “fundamental epistemic principles are principles of best explanation.” Call them fundamentalists. They assert that nothing deeper could justify IBE, as is typically assumed of rules of deductive inference, such as modus ponens. We will argue that the (explanatory) pluralism adopted by the leading theorists of the best explanation—philosophers of science—undermines fundamentalism. Section 1 clarifies fundamentalism’s key tenets. Section 2 presents pluralism’s challenge to fundamentalism. Section 3 considers a potential fundamentalist reply to this challenge. Sections 4 through 6 canvass the leading candidates for developing this fundamentalist reply, showing each to be unsatisfactory.
Hassidic Idealism
Authors: Lebens Samuel
Published: January 2018

Hassidic idealism is the view that the world and everything in it (even you and I) exist only in the mind of God. To be is to be part of God’s dream, or the story that God is telling. This chapter argues that Hassidic idealism, coupled with an understanding of the philosophy and semantics of fiction, allows us to generate a distinctive solution to ‘the problem with sefirot.’ The sefirot are the attributes of God, as the Kabbalistic tradition understands them. The problem with the sefirot is that, as they are classically understood, belief in them seems to collapse into polytheism. The problem is analogous to certain problems facing the Christian belief in the Trinity. This chapter proposes an original Hassidic solution to this problem that relies upon various insights about fictions within fictions, and fictions that include their authors as a character.
Buddhist Idealism
Authors: Finnigan Bronwyn
Published: January 2018

This chapter surveys some of the most influential Buddhist arguments in defense of idealism. It begins by clarifying the central theses under dispute and rationally reconstructs arguments from four major Buddhist figures in defense of some or all of these theses. It engages arguments from Vasubandhu’s Viṃśikā and Triṃśikā; Dignāga’s Ālambanaparīkṣā; the sahopalambhaniyama inference developed by Dharmakīrti; and Xuanzang’s logical argument. It aims to clarify what is being argued and motivate these arguments in terms of their presuppositions. These presuppositions range from views about the nature of mind and metaphysics to epistemology and logic. By making this context explicit, this chapter introduces central ideas in Buddhist philosophy and suggests ways in which they were mobilized in support of an idealist conclusion.
Idealism, or Something Near Enough
Authors: Schneider Susan
Published: January 2018

This chapter develops a critique of physicalism based on the mathematical nature of physics. Drawing from an earlier paper of the author’s, it urges that physicalists need to locate a physicalistically kosher account of the nature of mathematical entities, because fundamental theories in physics are highly mathematical and abstract. At first it may seem that there are many theories in philosophy of mathematics that the physicalist could turn to. But it is argued that the physicalist cannot appeal to Platonism. Further, many of the leading nominalist approaches are mind-dependent; others raise direction of explanation worries for the physicalist for other reasons. After discarding physicalism, the chapter employs an account of mathematical entities that embraces the mind-dependence of fundamental physical entities, and leads to a form of non-physicalist monism. ‘protomentalism.’
Categorical Quantum Mechanics I: Causal Quantum Processes
Authors: Coecke Bob , Kissinger Aleks
Published: January 2018

We derive the category-theoretic backbone of quantum theory from a process ontology. More specifically, we treat quantum theory as a theory of systems, processes, and their interactions. We first present a general theory of diagrams, and in particular, of string diagrams, and discuss why diagrams are a very natural starting point for developing scientific theories. Then we define process theories, and define a very general notion of quantum type. We show how our process ontology enables us to assert causality, that is, compatibility of quantum theory and relativity theory, prove the no-signalling theorem, provide a new elegant derivation of the no-broadcasting theorem, unitarity of evolution, and Stinespring dilation, all for any `quantum' type in a general class of process theories.
The Bornean carnivore community: lessons from a little-known guild
Authors: Ross Joanna , Hearn Andrew J. , Macdonald David W.
Published: January 2018

Niche differentiation reduces competition between species and modifies predation risk such that species coexistence is promoted. Temporal partitioning is a type of niche differentiation that has only relatively recently been specifically investigated. In this chapter, data from 515 camera trap stations from Sabah, Malaysian Borneo is used to describe the presence, habitat associations and activity patterns of Bornean carnivores and to investigate temporal partitioning between species. Primary and old logged forest were the most species rich sites and small forest fragments and oil palm plantations supported the fewest species. Species’ activity patterns within families were more similar than those between families. Only the masked palm civet and sun bear showed variation in activity among habitats. Considering the species as rough trophic groups rather than families revealed that each group contained both diurnal and nocturnal species, which presumably helps to promote coexistence between the musteloids and other species in each group.
Control of an invasive species: the American mink in Great Britain
Authors: Fraser Elaine J. , Harrington Lauren A. , Macdonald David W. , Lambin Xavier
Published: January 2018

American mink, native to North America, have been transported around the world for fur farming – inevitably some individuals escaped, and they now occur in the wild across Eurasia and in South America, where they have had devastating impacts on native prey and competitors. This chapter gives an overview of a research project focusing on mink management in the north of Scotland, UK. It assesses, first, how mink have spread across Scotland, and, specifically, to what extent habitat suitability and food availability has influenced the current distribution of mink. It then considers how we might use knowledge of population structure across the landscape to target control efforts, and, finally, whether volunteers can play a useful role in mink control in this area. The chapter is concluded with a discussion of what we might learn from this Scottish case study with respect to the wider issue of invasive American mink elsewhere.
European mink: restoration attempts for a species on the brink of extinction
Authors: Maran Tiit , Põdra Madis , Harrington Lauren A. , Macdonald David W.
Published: January 2018

European mink were once widespread across Eurasia, but now exist only in small isolated populations in parts of their former range. A number of factors likely contributed to the decline but direct inter-specific aggression from non-native American mink has been key. This chapter reviews restoration efforts for this species undertaken over the past 17 years on the (American mink-free) Estonian Island of Hiiumaa (where captive-bred European mink have been released in an attempt to create an island sanctuary) and in Spain (one of the few European countries were a viable population of European mink may persist). It discusses some of the challenges association with reintroduction efforts, including the potential role of personality types, and reviews the status of European mink in Spain, focusing on the threat associated with the current expansion of American mink there and the urgent need for conservation action.
Meline mastery of meteorological mayhem: the effects of climate changeability on European badger population dynamics
Authors: Newman Chris , Buesching Christina D. , Macdonald David W.
Published: January 2018

Adaptation to climatic conditions is a major ecological and evolutionary driver. Long-term study of European badger population dynamics in Oxfordshire reveals that rainfall and temperature patterns affect food (principally earthworm) availability, energy expended in thermoregulation, and activity patterns, with badgers able to seek refuge in their setts. Cubs prove especially vulnerable to harsh weather conditions, where drought and food shortages exacerbate the severity of pandemic juvenile coccidial parasite infections. Crucially, weather variability, rather than just warming trends, stresses badgers, by destabilising their bioclimatic niche. Summer droughts cause mortality, even driving genetic selection; and while milder winters generally benefit badgers, less time spent in torpor leads to more road casualties. Similar effects also operate over a wide spatial scale in Ireland, impacting regional badger densities and bodyweights. That even an adaptable, generalist musteloid is so variously susceptible to weather conditions highlights how climate change places many species and ecosystems at risk.
Competition and coexistence in sympatric skunks
Authors: Hass Christine C. , Dragoo Jerry W.
Published: January 2018

Ecological niches of three species of skunks (Mephitidae: Conepatus leuconotus, Mephitis mephitis, M. macroura) in and near their overlap zone in the American Southwest were studied to determine if competition may be limiting distribution of these species. A species distribution model developed in MaxEnt was used to identify suitable habitat for each species, from which contact zones for each species pair were identified. Principal components derived from habitat and climate variables inside and outside of contact zones for each species, and between species pairs within the contact zone were then compared. Species differed in environmental space inside and outside of contact zones, but species pairs did not differ within contact zones, indicating no evidence of competitive exclusion, and possible niche convergence at a broad spatial scale
Introduction: Seventy Years of Calorimetry
Authors: Wigmans Richard
Published: January 2018

The history of calorimetry is described, starting with the small scintillating crystals that were used as nuclear gamma ray detectors, to the multi-ton instruments that form the heart of modern experiments at colliding-beam accelerators. The different experimental techniques that are used for generating signals are reviewed.
Instrumental Aspects
Authors: Wigmans Richard
Published: January 2018

This chapter deals with the practical aspects of designing, building and operating calorimeters. These aspects concern the structure of the detector (longitudinal and lateral segmentation, projective towers, hermeticity of 4π devices), the readout of calorimeters based on detection of either light or charge signals, the operation in a magnetic field or at high luminosity, and the effects of radiation damage and how to deal with these. Also discussed are procedures for handling the signals, and using these to create triggers that may be used to select events of interest. Auxiliary equipment that may make such triggers more selective (preshower detectors, shower max detectors, etc.) is described as well.
The main reef builders and space occupiers
Authors: Sheppard Charles R. C. , Davy Simon K. , Pilling Graham M. , Graham Nicholas A. J.
Published: January 2018

Corals are the main reef builders on tropical reefs. They make their own substrate, much of which remains as consolidated rock, the remainder becoming broken down to form extensive sediment beds. Soft corals, sea fans and sponges are other major occupiers of substrate but deposit only minimal quantities of rock. All are important ecological components of coral reefs, although the greatest biodiversity of macrofauna are found amongst the fish, cryptic invertebrates and microorganisms. Amongst the algae, the microalgae symbiotic with corals are of key importance in the nutrition of the reef, but macroalgae are generally scarce on healthy reefs, partly due to grazing. Some algae generate large quantities of limestone and assist in reef construction. Growth and reduction by bioerosion are generally closely balanced in a healthy reef, and reef growth depends, of course, on growth exceeding erosion by a small margin.
Motion in Grattius
Authors: Hutchinson G. O.
Published: January 2018

This chapter views motion as an important component to this as well as to other didactic poems. The presentation of hunting itself is less astir with lively motion than might have been expected, especially in light of its potential for exciting narrative; rather, verbal networks connect hunting with wider worlds, and a larger ethical and pragmatic vision is conveyed. Humans interact not just with animals but also with the divine and with the forces of disease; hierarchies and power struggles are involved. Yet for all the expansion of the poem’s universe, the purposeful and rational ethos of Grattius’ poem is embedded in its treatment of the primary subject matter.
The English People at War in the Age of Henry VIII
Authors: Gunn Steven
Published: January 2018

Henry VIII fought many wars, against the French and Scots, against rebels in England and the Gaelic lords of Ireland, even against his traditional allies in the Low Countries. But how much did they really affect his subjects? And what role did Henry’s reign play in the long-term transformation of England’s military capabilities? This book searches for the answers to these questions in parish and borough account books, wills and memoirs, buildings and paintings, letters from Henry’s captains, and the notes readers wrote in their printed history books. It looks back from Henry’s reign to that of his grandfather, Edward IV, who in 1475 invaded France in the afterglow of the Hundred Years War, and forwards to that of Henry’s daughter Elizabeth, who was trying by the 1570s to shape a trained militia and a powerful navy to defend England in a Europe increasingly polarized by religion. War, it shows, marked Henry’s England at every turn: in the news and prophecies people discussed, in the money towns and villages spent on armour, guns, fortifications, and warning beacons, in the way noblemen used their power. War disturbed economic life, made men buy weapons and learn how to use them, and shaped people’s attitudes to the king and to national history. War mobilized a high proportion of the English population and conditioned their relationships with the French and Scots, the Welsh and the Irish. War should be recognized as one of the defining features of life in the England of Henry VIII.
The Pleasures and Punishments of Roman Error
Authors: Wyke Maria
Published: January 2018

Early cinema, this chapter argues, struggled to balance the competing claims of moral purpose and entertainment where the legacy of Roman error was concerned. At the same time, cinema also sought to redefine and outperform other modes of classical reception (such as theatre, opera, painting, and the novel). Through a close examination of the French film Héliogabale, ou l’orgie romaine (Elagabalus, or the Roman Orgy), this chapter reveals how this dynamic plays out in the case of the boy-ruler viewed by tradition as the worst of Roman emperors. While the film’s concluding punishment of the emperor by a virile praetorian guard evokes contemporary French discourses of regeneration out of national decline, The Roman Orgy also displays an internal conflict in lingering pleasurably over Elagabalus’s transgressions. In this, its central character becomes device for cinematic mise-en-abyme, a technique that reflects the broader cultural debate over cinema in France.
The Law of Maritime Blockade
Authors: Drew Phillip
Published: January 2018

Although benign by appearance, Maritime Blockade can, in the right circumstances, be a devastating method of warfare, capable of bringing a country’s economy to its knees and causing mass suffering and starvation amongst its civilian population. In spite of its potentially deadly nature, maritime blockade remains one of the most unregulated and misunderstood forms of modern warfare. This holds particularly true in regards to the laws surrounding humanitarian requirements of civilian populations subjected to blockade operations. The Law of Maritime Blockade: Past, Present, and Future is an examination of the development and practice of the law of blockade over the past four centuries. Using examples from history, it describes the humanitarian impact of blockade, and provides analysis as to why this method of warfare has proven so difficult to regulate. Concluding that the current law of maritime blockade lacks a common framework or understanding, particularly in the context of non-international armed conflict, it suggests that the customary status of blockade law is dubious. In response, it offers model guidelines that provide the foundation for standardized rules designed to support the operational requirements of the belligerent parties whilst addressing the humanitarian requirements of affected civilian populations.
Milton's Complex Words
Authors: Hammond Paul
Published: January 2018

Every major poet or philosopher develops his own distinctive semantic field around those terms which matter most to him, or which contribute most profoundly to the imagined world of a particular work. The aim of this book is to explore the specific meanings which Milton develops around key words in Paradise Lost. Some of these are theological or philosophical terms (e.g. ‘evil’, ‘grace’, ‘reason’); others are words which shape the imagined world of the poem (e.g. ‘dark’, ‘fall’, ‘within’); yet others are small words or even prefixes which subtly move the argument in new directions (‘if’, ‘not’, ‘re-’). Milton seems to expect his readers to be alert to the special semantic field which he creates around such words, often by infusing them with biblical and literary connotations, and activating their etymological roots; alert also to the patterns created by the repetition of such words, and particularly to their diverse use (and often their blatant misuse) by different characters. To understand the migrations and malleability of key words is part of the education of Milton’s reader.
Fall
Authors: Hammond Paul
Published: January 2018

This chapter explores the meanings of ‘fall’ in Paradise Lost. The chapter analyses the diverse uses of the term, exploring particularly the ways in which different characters understand and use the idea in different ways, some of which the poem invites us to correct. The exploration of this idea therefore forms part of the education of Milton’s reader.
Fancy and Reason
Authors: Hammond Paul
Published: January 2018

This chapter explores the meanings of ‘fancy’ and ‘reason’ in Paradise Lost. The chapter analyses the diverse uses of the term, exploring particularly the ways in which different characters understand and use the idea in different ways, some of which the poem invites us to correct. The exploration of this idea therefore forms part of the education of Milton’s reader.
Hope
Authors: Hammond Paul
Published: January 2018

This chapter explores the meanings of ‘hope’ in Paradise Lost. The chapter analyses the diverse uses of the term, exploring particularly the ways in which different characters understand and use the idea in different ways, some of which the poem invites us to correct. The exploration of this idea therefore forms part of the education of Milton’s reader.
Love
Authors: Hammond Paul
Published: January 2018

This chapter explores the meanings of ‘love’ in Paradise Lost. The chapter analyses the diverse uses of the term, exploring particularly the ways in which different characters understand and use the idea in different ways, some of which the poem invites us to correct. The exploration of this idea therefore forms part of the education of Milton’s reader.
Remedies in BRICS Countries
Authors: Avdasheva Svetlana , Radchenko Tatiana
Published: January 2018

Within the group of BRICS, China, Russia, and South Africa use conduct remedies more often than developed jurisdictions. Remedies are applied under merger approval or as an outcome of investigation of anticompetitive conducts. Effects of conduct remedies on companies’ decisions and market performance still need explanation. This chapter explains the use of conduct remedies, with special emphasis on Russia, by the specific position of BRICS in international division of labor, which allows the large companies, and first of all domestic ones, to discriminate customers in BRICS home markets, vis-à-vis international customers. Together with positive effects on domestic customers, competition economics predicts the possibility of negative effects of remedies on the managerial decisions within the target company. Under some circumstances, remedies may even weaken competition in the global product markets.
Global Health Governance in International Society
Authors: Youde Jeremy
Published: January 2018

In the 1980s, health was a marginal issue on the international political agenda, and it barely figured into donor states’ foreign aid allocation. Within a generation, health had developed a robust set of governance structures that drove significant global political action, incorporated a wide range of actors, and received increasing levels of funding. What explains this dramatic change over such a short period of time? Drawing on the English School of international relations theory, this book argues that global health has emerged as a secondary institution within international society. Rather than being a side issue, global health now occupies an important role. Addressing global health issues—financially, organizationally, and politically—is part of how actors demonstrate their willingness and ability to help realize their moral responsibility and obligation to others. In this way, it demonstrates how global health governance has emerged, grown, and persisted—even in the face of global economic challenges and inadequate responses to particular health crises. The argument also shows how English School conceptions of international society would benefit from expanding their analytical gaze to address international economic issues and incorporate non-state actors. The book begins by building a case for using the English School to understand the role of global health governance before looking at global health governance’s place in international society through case studies about the growth of development assistance for health, the international response to the Ebola outbreak, and China’s role within the global health governance framework.
May a Government Mandate more Comprehensive Health Insurance than Citizens want for Themselves?
Authors: Voorhoeve Alex
Published: January 2018

This chapter critically examines a common liberal egalitarian view about the justification for, and proper content of, mandatory health insurance. This view holds that a mandate is justified as the best way to ensure that those in poor health gain health insurance on equitable terms. It also holds that a government should mandate what a representative prudent individual would purchase for themselves if they were placed in fair conditions of choice. The chapter argues that this common justification for a mandate is incomplete. A further reason for mandated insurance is that it helps secure social egalitarian public goods that would be underprovided if insurance were optional. It also argues that rather than mandating what a representative individual would choose for themselves, we should design the mandatory package by appealing to a pluralistic egalitarian view, which cares about improving people’s well-being, reducing unfair inequality, and maintaining egalitarian social relations.
A Securitization Scheme for Resolving Europe’s Problem Loans
Authors: Bruno Brunella , Lusignani Giuseppe , Onado Marco
Published: January 2018

This chapter proposes a comprehensive, pan-European way of addressing the issue of non-performing exposures. We contend that securitization is the most effective way for banks to sell the bulk of their troubled loans. To this end, we propose a numerical example to describe the main characteristics of a common scheme of securitization to be applied at the European level. Such a scheme, as a European blueprint for implementation at the national level, is meant to attract funds from a wide array of investors, with a public support compatible with the current rules on state aid.
Athens and Apocalypse: Writing History in Soviet Russia
Authors: Kozlov Denis
Published: January 2018

This chapter traces the early emergence of official Marxist historiography in the USSR under the leadership of M. N. Pokrovskii, and its 1930s’ Stalinization. The late 1930s had a formative impact on the Soviet historical profession. It was then that the official academic culture of research and teaching took shape, definitive scholarly works and textbooks were published, and important subterranean intellectual currents emerged. These years also ineradicably affected historians’ lives, thoughts, and memories. They marked the peak of mass arrests and executions, when history professors and students disappeared overnight without trace. Moreover, in the late 1930s, the Soviet historical profession was going through a conservative shift, under Joseph Stalin’s close supervision. Instead of theorizing, students were to study history in chronological sequence, learning names, dates, and events. The chapter then examines the further development of history-writing in the post-war era, before the Soviet experiment came to an abrupt end in the early 1990s.
A Unified Mechanistic Account of Teleological Functions for Psychology and Neuroscience
Authors: Maley Corey J. , Piccinini Gualtiero
Published: January 2018

Functions play an important explanatory role in both psychology and neuroscience. Any effort to integrate psychology and neuroscience must provide an account of functions and how they explain in psychology and neuroscience. Yet the ontological foundations for function attributions and functional explanation remain unsettled. In this chapter, we contribute to an integrated science of cognition and behavior by offering a unified account of the teleological functions of multi-level mechanisms. The account applies to both biological traits and artifacts. Teleological functions are stable causal contributions towards the goals of organisms belonging to a reference class within a biological population. The paradigmatic goals of organisms are survival and inclusive fitness, although organisms may have additional goals. Truthmakers for claims about teleological functions are non-teleological features of the world.
Early activation of the p42/p44MAPK pathway mediates adenosine‐induced nitric oxide production in human endothelial cells: a novel calcium‐insensitive mechanism
Authors: Wyatt Amanda W. , Steinert Joern R. , Wheeler‐Jones Caroline P. D. , Morgan Anthony J. , Sugden David , Pearson Jeremy D. , Sobrevia Luis , Mann Giovanni E.
Published: January 2018

Adenosine is released from the myocardium, endothelial cells, and skeletal muscle in ischemia and is an important regulator of coronary blood flow. We have already shown that acute (2 min) activation of A2a purinoceptors stimulates NO production in human fetal umbilical vein endothelial cells (1) and now report a key role for p42/p44 mitogen‐activated protein kinases (p42/p44MAPK) in the regulation of the L‐arginine‐nitric oxide (NO) signaling pathway. Expression of mRNA for the A2a‐, A2b‐, and A3‐adenosine receptor subtypes was abundant whereas A1‐adenosine receptor mRNA levels were negligible. Activation of A2a purinoceptors by adenosine (10 fM) or the A2a receptor agonist CGS21680 (100 nM) resulted in an increase in L‐arginine transport and NO release that was not mediated by changes in intracellular Ca2+, pH, or cAMP. Stimulation of endothelial cells with adenosine was associated with a membrane hyperpolarization and phosphorylation of p42/p44MAPK. L‐NAME abolished the adenosine‐induced hyperpolarization and stimulation of L‐arginine transport whereas sodium nitroprusside activated an outward potassium current. Genistein (10 fM) and PD98059 (10 fM), an inhibitor of MAPK kinase 1/2 (MEK1/2), inhibited adenosine‐stimulated L‐arginine transport, NO production, and phosphorylation of p42/p44MAPK. We found no evidence for activation of eNOS via the serine/threonine kinase Akt/ PKB (protein kinase B) in adenosine‐stimulated cells. Our results provide the first evidence that adenosine stimulates the endothelial cell L‐arginine‐NO pathway in aCa2+‐insensitive manner involving p42/p44MAPK, with release of NO leading to a membrane hyperpolarization and activation of L‐arginine transport.—Wyatt, A. W., Steinert, J. R., Wheeler‐Jones, C. P. D., Morgan, A. J., Sugden, D., Pearson, J. D., Sobrevia, L., Mann, G. E. Early activation of the p42/p44MAPK pathway mediates adenosine‐induced nitric oxide production in human endothelial cells: a novel calcium‐insensitive mechanism. FASEB J. 16, 1584–1594 (2002)