bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
It’s (just) Chemistry, Stupid! Or Not?
Authors: Varela Justo Corti
Published: February 2017

This section aims to update readers on decisions related to marketing products of modern biotechnology (e.g., GMOs, animal clones) at EU level and on national measures concerning their production. Special attention is devoted to problems of competence between Member States and the EU in regulating biotechnology issues; the institutional dynamics of decision making regarding products derived frommodern biotechnology; the relationship between the EFSA and the EU institutions on green biotech-related issues; the evolution of EU regulatory framework and of national attitudes towards the risks and benefits of biotechnology derived products and their production. This section will also delve into the interaction between the EU legislation and WTO law regarding advances in the application of biotechnology within the agri–food value chain.
Provisional Findings by EFSA on the Safety of Caffeine and the Possible Implications on Caffeine Health Claims and Energy Drinks
Authors: Salas Blanca , Simões Bruno G.
Published: February 2017

This section aims at updating readers on the latest developments of risk-related aspects of food law at the EU level, giving information on legislation and case law on various matters, such as food safety, new diseases, animal health and welfare and food labelling.
Consumers May be Misled Despite the List of Ingredients Being Displayed on the Packaging of a Foodstuff
Authors: Ruiz Cairo Elisabet
Published: February 2017

Case C-195/14, Teek anne ECLI:EU:C:2015:361, not yet published

The labelling of a foodstuff must not mislead the consumer by giving the impression that a particular ingredient is present, even though it is not in fact present. The list of ingredients may, even though correct and comprehensive, not be capable of correcting sufficiently the consumer's erroneous or misleading impression that stems from such labelling (official headnote)
TTIP Regulatory Cooperation
Authors: Herwig Alexia
Published: February 2017

The leaked TTIP documents reveal that the EU and US are discussing the introduction of a detailed set of procedural requirements for the adoption of regulatory measures. Default provisions are set forth in the chapter on regulatory cooperation, applicable to goods and services. More specific provisions are being negotiated in the chapters on technical barriers to trade and on sanitary and phytosanitary measures. If they conflict with the regulatory cooperation chapter, they prevail.

This article analyses the regulatory cooperation chapter insofar as it pertains to trade in goods but to the exclusion of SPS matters and anything provided in the TBT chapter itself. The questions this article examines are to what extent the TTIP proposals expand upon the obligations the two parties have already taken on under WTO law and to what extent the resulting regulatory coordination is consistent withWTO law. It will be shown that the US proposals on procedure may constrain substantive regulatory discretion beyond what applies under the GATT and TBT Agreement of the WTO. It will alsobe shown that the needs to conduct trade impact assessments and a detailed explanation of the necessity of measures anticipate a legal challenge to necessity and will provide information of much use to complainants in meeting their burden of proof.
Autonomous Intelligent Systems as Creative Agents under the EU framework for Intellectual Property
Authors: Cock Buning Madeleine de
Published: February 2017

Recent advancement in technology in the domain of Autonomous Intelligent Systems (AIS) shall eventually lead to autonomous technology that can perceive, learn, decide and create without any human intervention. Already now there are robots that create better versions of robots and computer programmes that produce other computer programmes. Although the ability to create is a quality that has traditionally been considered a human capacity, the sudden increase in the level of complexity of such systems as well as their learning abilities, shall ultimately render human intervention in the process of creation redundant. This makes the need to address creative agents and the challenges they bring ever more evident. This contribution assesses the output of AIS as Creative Agents and its relation to the EU framework for Intellectual Property.
The Politics of Robot Autonomy
Authors: Burri Thomas
Published: February 2017

The autonomy robots enjoy is understood in different ways. On the one hand, a technical understanding of autonomy is firmly anchored in the present and concerned with what can be achieved now by means of code and programming; on the other hand, a philosophical understanding of robot autonomy looks into the future and tries to anticipate how robots will evolve in the years to come. The two understandings are at odds at times, occasionally they even clash. However, not one of them is necessarily truer than the other. Each is driven by certain real-life factors; each rests on its own justification. This article discusses these two “views of robot autonomy” in depth and witnesses them at work at two of the most relevant events of robotics in recent times, namely the Darpa Robotics Challenge, which took place in California in June 2015, and the ongoing process to address lethal autonomous weapons in humanitarian Geneva, which is spurred on by a “Campaign to Stop Killer Robots”.
Regulatory Intervention beyond the Law: Towards a Typology of the Extra–Legal Frontier
Authors: Kasdorp Aute
Published: February 2017

Regulators can avert corporate behaviour that inflicts risks on society, but is nevertheless compliant with the law. Such regulatory interventions beyond the law evoke contentious questions about their objects, legitimacy, methods, and the norms employed. No framework yet exists to analyse these questions in conjunction. Therefore, this paper proposes a typology of the extralegal frontier. The typology is based on a range of discretionary attitudes of regulators towards their enforcement mandate. This range comprises four types of regulators, with an increasingly extensive attitude: Law Enforcer, Legislative Agent, Social Broker, and Public Architect. The typology integrates diffuse scholarly insights into a coherent framework, which offers regulators and their stakeholders a starting point for reflection on interventions beyond the law.
Towards a Regulatory Cycle? The Use of Evaluative Information in Impact Assessments and Ex–post Evaluations in the European Union
Authors: Golen Thomas van , Voorst Stijn van
Published: February 2017

As a part of its Better Regulation agenda, the European Commission increasingly stresses the link between different types of regulatory evaluations. Predictions made by Impact Assessments (IAs) could be verified during ex–post legislative evaluations, while ex–post evaluations in turn could recommend amendments to be studied in future IAs. This article combines a dataset of 309 ex–post legislative evaluations (2000-2014) and a dataset of 225 IAs of legislative updates (2003-2014) to show how many ex–post evaluations of the Commission use IAs and vice versa. This way, it explores if the Commission's rhetoric of a ‘regulatory cycle’ holds up in practice. Building on the literature of evaluation use, we formulate the hypotheses that the timeliness, quality and focus of the IAs and evaluations are key explanations for use. Our results show that so far only ten ex–post evaluations have used IAs of EU legislation, while thirty three IAs have used ex–post legislative evaluations. Using Fuzzy set Qualitative Comparative Analysis, we find that timeliness is a necessary condition of the use of ex–post evaluations by IAs, suggesting that for the regulatory cycle to function properly, it is crucial to complete an ex–post evaluation before an IA is launched. Future research could repeat our analysis for evaluations of non–regulatory activities or study the causal mechanisms behind our findings.
The “Eco–leather” Claim: The Urgent Need for a Mandatory Labelling System for Leather Products at EU Level
Authors: Fratini Alessandra , Bottino Mariacristina
Published: February 2017

Leather is one of the most efficient, natural and renewable resource, a unique and highly versatile material which contributes to the quality of everyday life and has done so for centuries. Due to its resilience, comfort and beauty, leather has played an important role since the beginning of times in satisfying man's clothing and decorative needs. Technically speaking, leather is a fundamental output of the leather tanning industry. Tanneries recover the hides and skins that are discarded by-products of the food industry producing meat for human consumption and convert them into leather, a stable material with a wide range of applications in downstream sectors of the consumer goods industry. Footwear, garment, furniture, automotive and leather goods industries are the most important outlets for EU tanners’ production. More specifically, the footwear Directive provides a definition of “leather”, which reserves the use of the word and its synonyms to products resulting from the processing of animal remains that retain the natural structure of the fibres undamaged.
Between Politics and Expertise: An Italian Perspective on Constitutional Law and Scientific Legitimacy
Authors: Morvillo Marta
Published: February 2017

The dialectic between the technically (or scientifically) possible and the legally possible, which is implied in decision-making in conditions of uncertainty, raises crucial issues from a constitutional perspective. In particular, the emergence of a new factor of legitimacy – which could be envisaged as a form of “scientific legitimacy” – can be detected and needs to be integrated within the constitutional discourse.

Through an overview of the case law of the Italian Constitutional court, the paper aims at highlighting the possible approaches to the need of a deeper integration of technical and scientific knowledge within the public decision-making processes, in an attempt to strike a balance capable of avoiding the two extremes of scientifically weak decisions on one hand, and of “technical deference” to experts on the other.
Mediators and Moderators of Normative Reductionism: Towards a Testimonial Approach to Expertise in Legal Inquiry
Authors: Roy Suryapratim
Published: February 2017

There has been an increasing interest in making legal decision-making and scholarship scientific or inter-disciplinary, without there being any interrogation of how or why this should be done. This has resulted in polarised views of the importance of science on one hand, and the primacy of democracy on the other. Such polarisation is not helpful primarily because both ‘science’ and ‘democracy’ remain unintelligible to those who do not have access to the particular epistemology that supports their usage. In this article, I seek to reconceptualise the conflict between democracy and science as the association of legal decision-makers and scholars with expert inquiry. I further conceptualise such association as a process that involves normative reductionism of testimonial exchange. Despite a claim to ‘a culture of justification’ in legal systems such as the European Union, the process of normative reductionism is essentially arbitrary. I seek to articulate a framework where this process may be approached in a disciplined manner, concentrating on the role of mediation and moderation of expert knowledge.
ESMA Inspecting: The Implications for Judicial Control under Shared Enforcement
Authors: Rijsbergen Marloes van , Scholten Miroslava
Published: February 2017

The European Securities and Markets Authority (ESMA) has received considerable academic attention for its newly acquired regulatory powers and the issues of legitimacy and controls concerning its far-reaching powers. ESMA's supervisory tasks are not less impressive but they are underinvestigated. In light of the recent English judgment on the exercise of ESMA's inspection powers in the UK, this article focuses on the question of judicial control over inspection power of ESMA. It shows that judicial control has been established in principle. However, the existing legal framework based on different national procedures allows ESMA escaping judicial control by chance or on purpose. This article argues for the necessity of addressing the identified controlling gap by, for instance, eliminating the differences or conditioning inspection-related discretion and promoting judicial cooperation. Since EU and national enforcement powers have become increasingly shared, the system of control cannot remain completely separated, as it is the case today. How the EU supervisor is to be controlled should not be up to the EU supervisor to choose.
Taxing and Marketing Restrictions of “Foods High in Fat, Salt or Sugar” in the EU
Authors: Vergano Paolo R. , Ferrer Blanca Salas
Published: February 2017

According to the World Health Organization (hereinafter, WHO), 38 million people die each year as a consequence of non-communicable diseases (hereinafter, NCDs). NCDs are mainly caused by diet-related factors, but also by physical inactivity and abuse of certain substances. In particular, overweight and obesity reportedly affect more than 10% of men and 14% of women globally and kill as many as 2.8 million people every year.
Tax Exemption, Moral Reservation, and Regulatory Incentivisation
Authors: Brownsword Roger
Published: February 2017

This paper focuses on those parts of the regulatory environment that are designed to encourage scientific and technological innovation. Patent law is the obvious example; but tax law can also signal encouragement for particular activities. The key question is whether regulators will, or should, withhold tax incentives where there are some, but not universal, moral reservations about an innovation. In order to earth this question, three recent cases at the ECJ, two involving the controversial practice of cord-blood banking, are examined. Insofar as these cases offer any evidence of the prevailing regulatory approach, it seems to be similar to that found in patent law – that is, moral reservations do not count against the applicability of a tax exemption so long as they are not universally recognised.
Controlling the Most Dangerous Branchfrom Afar: Multilayered Counter-Terrorist Policies and the European Judiciary
Authors: Eckes Christina
Published: February 2017

Counter-terrorist sanctions against private individuals adopted by the EU and by the UN are an exceptionally illustrative example of the executive’s power grasp, where the dangers of counter-terrorist policies and of externalized rulemaking have mutually reinforced each other. This article (re-)considers the role of the judiciary in the face of extreme exercise of externalized executive powers, demonstrates that multilayered governance has extended the powers of courts, shows that the justified exercise of judicial power has led the EU institutions and the Member States into a self-inflicted catch-22, and makes an argument that the extended powers of the executive and of the judiciary should be contained and guided by a principled choice of the constituent power. Constitutional law should require the judiciary to take a substantive approach to multilayered governance that reflects the principle of separation of powers.
A Non-Dumping Producer Might Be Exempt from the Antidumping Duties in EU Expiry Review
Authors: Jiang Dong
Published: February 2017

The test of EU antidumping expiry review is the likely continuation or recurrence of the dumping. In this case, the General Court (Second Chamber) of the Court of Justice of the European Union found that the European Council made manifest assessment errors of facts in using the continuation test to extend antidumping duties on the non-dumping applicant. However, due to the high discretion of the Council and the Court in making antidumping decisions, it is not a rigid rule that the non-dumping producers shall be exempt from the duties in the expiry review.
Transparency Regulation in Financial Markets – Moving into the Surveillance Age?
Authors: Chiu Iris H-Y
Published: February 2017

In the wake of the global financial crisis, the trajectory of legal reforms is likely to turn towards more transparency regulation. This article argues that transparency regulation will take on a new role of surveillance as intelligence and data mining expand in the wholesale financial sector, supporting the creation of designated systemic risk oversight regulators.

The role of market discipline, which has been acknowledged to be weak leading up to the financial crisis, is likely to be eclipsed by a more technocratic governance in the financial sector. In this article, however, concerns are raised about the expansion of technocratic surveillance and whether financial sector participants would internalise the discipline of regulatory control. Certain endemic features of the financial sector will pose challenges for financial regulation even in the surveillance age.
Sharing Energy
Authors: Butenko Anna
Published: February 2017

The sharing economy has become a reality in many sectors, including energy. Energy consumers are increasingly able and willing not only to produce their own energy and thus become prosumers, but also to sell this energy on the local or national energy market along with ‘traditional’ energy market players. Thus, the role of prosumers is de facto extended as to include the parallel roles of consumers, producers, suppliers and traders. Against this background, this article inquires whether it is possible for prosumers to share energy under the current Dutch regulatory framework. This question has been evaluated from the theoretical perspective of the regulatory disconnection between innovation and regulation.
Will Chemical Packages be the only Future for Biotechnology? Why the Bayer-Monsanto Merger Could be a Good Opportunity to Put Things in the Right Place
Authors: Varela Justo Corti
Published: February 2017

This section aims to update readers on decisions related to marketing products of modern biotechnology (e.g., GMOs, animal clones) at EU level and on national measures concerning their production. Special attention is devoted to problems of competence between Member States and the EU in regulating biotechnology issues; the institutional dynamics of decision making regarding products derived from modern biotechnology; the relationship between the EFSA and the EU institutions on green biotech-related issues; the evolution of EU regulatory framework and of national attitudes towards the risks and benefits of biotechnology derived products and their production. This section will also delve into the interaction between the EU legislation and WTO law regarding advances in the application of biotechnology within the agri-food value chain.
Regulating Sustainability Claims on Seafood - EU Ecolabel, Unfair Commercial Practices Directive or Seafood Information Requirements?
Authors: Schebesta Hanna
Published: February 2017

In February 2016, the Feasibility Report on options for an EU ecolabel scheme for fishery and aquaculture products was published. The study did not make a strong case for the introduction of a seafood EU Ecolabel and it is unlikely that the European Commission will pursue this policy option. We argue that sustainability information on seafood should not be framed through the EU Ecolabel debate. The more pressing issue concerns self-declared sustainability claims on seafood products. As a possible solution, we propose to address these by re-invigorating the labelling rules on seafood information in the Regulation on the Common Organisation of the Markets in Fishery and Aquaculture Products.
The Trade Law Consequences of “Brexit”
Authors: Vergano Paolo R. , Dolle Tobias
Published: February 2017

This section highlights the interface between international trade and investment law and municipal and international risk regulation. It is meant to cover cases and other legal developments in WTO law (SPS, TBT and TRIPS Agreements and the general exceptions in both GATT 1994 and GATS), bilateral investment treaty arbitration and other free trade agreements such as NAFTA. Pertinent developments in international standardization bodies recognized by the SPS and TBT Agreement are also covered.
The CJEU Assesses Another Minimum Pricing Measure Without Properly Contextualising it
Authors: Bartlett Oliver
Published: February 2017

Case C-221/15 Criminal proceedings against Etablissements Fr. Colruyt NV [2016] ECLI:EU:C: 2016:704
New Transnational Governance and the Changing Composition of Regulatory Pluralism in Southeast Asia
Authors: Gillespie John
Published: February 2017

Over the past three decades, Transnational Production Regimes (TPRs) have become the main source of technical and regulatory knowledge for Southeast Asia corporations. Typically TPRs transfer knowledge from lead firms located in the industrial North to supplier firms located in Southeast Asia. Regulatory knowledge transferred through TPRs largely bypasses Southeast Asian laws and legal institutions to directly influence the behavior of supplier firms. Although socio-economic studies show that TPRs are responsible for generating much wealth creation in the region, they hardly register in the socio-legal literature. Drawing on ethnographic studies conducted in Vietnam, this paper will attempt to explain why different types of TPRs produce different regulatory responses in Vietnamese firms. Preliminary findings suggest differences in the way that regulatory knowledge transmitted through Northeast Asian and Euro-American TPRs is absorbed and integrated into the organisational fabric of Vietnamese firms. They also shed light on two well-documented phenomena in Vietnam. In conclusion the paper will argue that TPRs displace state commercial laws and are partially responsible for the slow progress of conventional law and development projects in changing regulatory practices. It will contend that the different kinds of TPRs generate regulatory pluralism and the uneven application of state law in different business sectors.
The Conceptualisation of Pro Bono in Singapore
Authors: Whalen-Bridge Helena
Published: February 2017

“Pro bono” is a familiar phrase in North American jurisdictions that generally refers to a lawyer’s provision of free legal services to indigent persons. The phrase “pro bono” has also come to imply a particular approach to a lawyer’s relationship to indigent persons, one that stresses the obligatory as opposed to the charitable nature of the services provided. To what extent has this phrase, and its conceptualisation of a lawyer’s role, been used in Asian jurisdictions? This article examines how one Asian jurisdiction, Singapore, conceptualises a lawyer’s relationship to indigent persons by examining newspaper usage of phrases describing legal services for indigent persons. The article argues that changes in usage over time, from free legal services and legal aid to inclusion of pro bono, coupled with increased discussions of access to justice, represent a shift to a more obligatory concept of indigent legal services. An obligatory conceptualisation potentially exerts greater pressure on lawyers to provide indigent legal services, but can also exert pressure to revise the historical lack of broad-based government funded criminal legal aid in Singapore.
Controlling Shareholders: Issues and Challenges for Shareholders’ Empowerment in Directors’ Remuneration in Corporate Malaysia
Authors: Rachagan Shanthy , Mohd Sulaiman Aiman Nariman
Published: February 2017

Current reform concerning directors’ remuneration relies on improving legal rules and self-regulation to minimise expropriation of minority shareholders. These have prominently focussed on empowering shareholders. Nonetheless, it is unclear as to the extent these reform proposals are compatible within the concentrated shareholding structure. Some of the reforms taking place in developed countries are suited for dispersed shareholding structure and thus transplanting them to emerging economies with concentrated shareholders may be ineffective. Malaysia poses an interesting case study, especially to countries with similar ownership structure as the concentrated shareholding structure raises different agency problems. The issue of protection of minority shareholder rights and the prevention of abuse of the controlling power by paying excessive remuneration to the executives is therefore a subject of due consideration in Malaysia and countries with similar shareholding structures. This article recommends that Malaysia and other emerging countries look into encouraging limited shareholder empowerment in tandem with laws.
Stresses in Airscrews due to Varying Engine Torque
Authors: Case John
Published: February 2017

Since the driving torque exerted by the engine is a periodic function of the time, the speed of rotation must also be periodic, which implies that the airscrew must be subjected to inertia stresses as well as to the stresses due to air forces and centrifugal forces. In the case of engines having six or more cylinders these inertia stresses will not in general be important as the cyclic variations of torque will be comparatively small. But with engines having two or three cylinders these stresses must be considered, for.it will readily be seen that the bending moment due to inertia forces is such as to increase the stresses due to the air load.
Helicopters
Authors: Case John
Published: February 2017

The present article is an account of some calculations on helicopters.

Airscrews have been calculated for different conditions according to two theories: (1) the multiplane interference theory; (2) Glauert's vortex theor). According to both there should be no difficulty in designing a screw to give a good lift at a reasonable rate of climb, and the ceiling should also be quite good. When we consider the speed of falling, with the screws free-wheeling, the two theories give widely different results, and the practicability of the helicopter depends largely upon this question being settled. Simple airscrew theory shows that at least moderate speeds should be obtainable by inclining the airscrew axis. For many reasons it seems desirable that the screws should have at least four blades; gyroscopic couples on the whole machine are eliminated; the forces are widely fluctuating during forward motion with only two blades; the stability derivatives and equations are simplified; but the aerodynamic efficiency will be impaired. In general the stability equation is of the tenth degree, and the lateral and longitudinal stabilities are not separable when the machine, in a state of steady motion in a straight line, receives an asymmetrical disturbance.

The following notes are the results of an attempt to investigate the theoretical possibilities of the helicopter, and generally to develop some branches of the theory of helicopters. In this country extremely little work on the subject seems to have been published, and the only experiments I have been able to find are those given in the Report of the Advisory Committee for 1917-18 (Vol. II.). Several articles have appeared in “ L'Aérophile ” from time to time, notably by Lamé, Touissaint and Margoulis, and some experimental work has been done by Eiffel. But it is extremely difficult to find adequate experimental results with which to compare any theory ; for instance it is very rare to find results of tests on airscrews working under helicopteral conditions, and also the aerodynamic data of the aerofoil sections used. In the matter of stability I do not know of any experimental work at all.

I shall give first the results of my investigations into airscrews for helicopters, and then proceed to the consideration of the dynamics of helicopter flight and the development of the stability equations.
Stability Calculations in the Process of Design
Authors: North John D.
Published: February 2017

It cannot fail to be a subject for remark that in spite of the very large amount of work which has been done in this country on the subject of formal stability calculations, these calculations do not form a part of routine design of the majority of aircraft firms, nor are they used by the Air Ministry as a standard process of checking the aerodynamical qualities of an aeroplane. I use the term “ formal ” stability calculations to cover the solutions of the equations of motion of an aeroplane in rectilinear flight developed from Bryan's work.
Sockets for Wire Cables
Authors: Scoble Walter A.
Published: February 2017

An earlier article dealt with so many matters in connection with wire cables that it was possible to pay but scant attention to sockets. A socket is a neat, light and convenient form of end connection for a cable. It is widely employed in general practice, but its use in connection with aircraft appears to have been confined to airships. The photograph shows different types and sizes of sockets viewed in several directions.
The Stability of Aeroplanes
Authors: Bairstow Leonard
Published: February 2017

The problems which arise in the course of a study of aeroplane stability are of considerable complexity as compared with those confronting engineers in other branches of locomotion. Ocean–going vessels provide another instance of the motion of a solid body in a fluid and their stability is clearly one of vital importance. Naval architects have consequently studied the subject and calculations are made for the stability of each new design of ship. The process is so well known and so well founded that it surprises no one that a newly launched vessel remains on an even keel. One instance, not connected with British shipbuilding, serves to remind designers of the serious consequences of faulty calculation. The disaster relates to a ship which was launched fully engined, etc., and which turned turtle and sank within a few minutes of launching.

The type of stability which the naval architect needs to calculate most carefully is that which is concerned with the security of the ship when rolling.
On the Flight of Pterodactyls
Authors: Hankin E. H. , Watson D. M. S.
Published: February 2017

I t is perhaps unfortunate, from the point of view of aviators, that the extinct flying reptiles known as “pterodactyls” or “pterosauria” no longer exist. There can be no doubt, that in the case of the more highly evolved members of the group the organisation was more specialised for flight than that of any other animal of which we have knowledge. Other flying animals can walk, run, or swim, besides fly. But in the case of the higher pterodactyls their structure is such that it is difficult to understand how they can have had any other means of progression than flying. With a body little larger than that of a cat they had a span of wing asserted in some cases to have reached 21 feet or more.
Testing Aircraft to Destruction
Authors: Douglas WM. D.
Published: February 2017

Necessity for strength tests to supplement calculations and to check the assumptions on which the calculations are based. Historical outline. Examples of certain types of defect which are revealed by strength, test.

Assumed aerodynamic conditions. Approximations reproduced by test loading. Methods of support during test. Measurements, testing routine and technique.

The usual tests are described:—Flight test, C P . forward; Flight test, C P . back; Nose dive test; Tests of auxiliary and controlling surfaces; Ailerons, elevators and rudder; Tailplane and fins; Fuselage, down load, side load, torsion ; Undercarriage, discussion of stresses which may arise during landing, pointing out presence of frictional horizontal force causing rotational acceleration of the wheels; Static tests of undercarriages, dropping tests; General description of rib tests.

Description of shot bags and general principles of load application with a view to efficiency and safety.
“Researches on the Normal Air Resistance = K.”
Authors: Lilienthal Gustav
Published: February 2017

Some years ago, during my stay in Rio de Janeiro, I busied myself during spare time in determining the value of the normal pressure (by means of a plane mounted on a rotary arm) in such a way that no disturbing induced air current could arise.

For this purpose I had at my disposal a room 12 metres square by 8 metres high. I employed an apparatus by which a rotating arm 9 metres long described a quadrant or quarter circle. The test surface was 0.25 square metres in size. Since the surface traversed the quarter circle only once it encountered only still air. Uniform motion was controlled by the curve described by a vibrating spring on the end of which was fastened a small paint brush with colour. The spring was fastened one meter from the turning centre and vibrated over a paper spread on a measuring table. (Figures 1 and 2, not reproduced.)

The results were however not reliable enough on account of the shortness of the observations and the small size of the room. After my return to Germany, in the spring of 1913, I therefore undertook new experiments on a larger scale. Through the kindness of the director of the South–West Electricity Works, there was placed at my disposal a large empty machinery hall in Schöneberg of 32 metres clear width, 60 metres long and 15 metres high.
The Fan Dynamometer
Authors: Lawrence Hodgson J.
Published: February 2017

The investigation described below was undertaken in order to obtain a more accurate knowledge than can be obtained from any published results as to how the resisting torque due to the blades of a fan dynamometer varies with their shape and size, with the diameter of the fan, and with the density of the fluid in which the blades rotate.
Fluid Resistance on Bodies of Approximately Streamline Form
Authors: Pannell J. R.
Published: February 2017

The resistance offered by bodies to motion through fluids has for many years been a problem of the first importance, and one which has received a correspondingly large degree of attention both from scientific investigators and those commercially interested in the subject. A considerable amount of mathematical investigation has been carried out; but a detailed study of fluid motion has only proved possible in the case of a perfect fluid, i.e., one in which viscosity is not present. Assumptions have been made as to the quantities upon which the motion of the fluid and the body depends, and formulæ have been prepared expressing the laws connecting force and speed for dynamically similar bodies.

In the present note attention will be directed chiefly to the case where the only properties of the fluid upon which the motion depends are the viscosity and density, though brief mention may be made of instances where the acceleration due to gravity is also important.
Mechanical Flight
Authors: Moy Thomas
Published: February 2017

The soap bubble and the projectile illustrate the two opposite extremes of mechanical flight.

The two greatest hindrances to the solution of this problem have always been the balloon and the screw propeller.

People pick up this and that old device, and fancy that a merely new combination will answer their purpose. The balloon is one such device, having one chief function— that of flotation. Balloon troubles and risks are so well-known to every member of this Society that they need no description. The very obvious schoolboy device of elongating the bulb and driving it end-on with a screw propeller has only resulted in the attainment of a feeble speed, not hitherto exceeding 10 miles an hour in a dead calm.
Report on Experiments
Authors: Moore R. F.
Published: February 2017

The two chief methods proposed by inventors for obtaining aerial flight are by means of aeroplanes or aerocurves, driven by screw propellers, and by wings worked as in nature.

Which of these designs will practically be best it is difficult to say. It can only be by actually trying the two methods that their merits can be compared. It may be that wings are the best, as they move a larger weight of air with less velocity than a screw propeller. The slip may on this account be less.

It may be that wings are the best, as they move a larger weight of air with less velocity than a screw propeller. The slip may on this account be less.
The Measurement of Air Velocity and Pressure
Authors: Zahm A. F.
Published: February 2017

For general service in aërodynamic experimentation two kinds of anemometer may be useful, one measuring air velocity, the other air pressure. Sometimes the velocity alone is required; again the pressure, either static or impactual, is mainly to be determined.

In either case an accurate and faithful instrument is most desirable. Of course the impact can be calculated from the velocity, and vice versa, providing all the data are at hand for computing the density of the moving fluid. But when many exact determinations have to be made, it is well to evade such calculations by choosing the appropriate anemometer; that is to say, a velocity instrument for measuring velocity, and a pressure instrument for measuring pressure, or impact. One thereby saves much labour, and avoids tho errors that may result from misreading the elements of density.
The German Aluminium Balloon
Authors: Moedebeck
Published: February 2017

In most circles, particularly amongst technical aeronauts, the opinion is widespread that the adherents of construction of aerostatical dirigible balloons are on a false track, and that their objects are fundamentally different from those who seek to solve the problem of flight by purely dynamical means. The great resistance of the air which the balloon has to overcome, and the unfavourableness of such a form of construction, is generally put forward as .an insurmountable obstacle.

The balloon, as all must allow, his already gained a recognized position, and has become useful for military and scientific purposes, whilst the dynamical flying machine has proved that, with such modern technical ingenuity of construction as has been created by Maxim, and is represented by the first flying machine to carry three persons, anything may be expected of it in the future.

This belief in the future of the dynamical aerial machine is shared rightly by all aeronauts, but the development of it can only proceed (in the opinion of all practical and experienced balloonists) through the aerostatical balloon. The latter is an inevitable step in the evolution of aerial navigation.
Flight, and how Birds get a Rise out of the Wind when Soaring
Authors: Davidson G. L. O.
Published: February 2017

This question has been so much discussed within the last few years, and so many are daily observing and studying the flight of every specimen of bird, that it is somewhat astonishing to me I have not yet come across any mention of the method which to my mind accounts for all the wonderful, and, to other theories, apparently impossible results of the ways of an eagle in air. I should be very glad to hear what objections can be raised to my explanation of how soaring is accomplished by any or all of the numerous writers and thinkers whose marvellous mathematical calculations enable them to account for some of the manoeuvres of birds to their own satisfaction. I have not yet seen any description of a theory which claims to account for every movement of all birds, but it must be admitted if any theory falls short of that, it cannot be correct; whilst if it fulfils that condition it cannot be very far wrong.
The Aëronautical Competitions at the St. Louis Exhibition
Authors: Baden-Powell B.
Published: February 2017

Having only quite lately got back from the World's Fair Exposition at St. Louis, I feel that some short account of what has been going on there will not be out of place. Our Society was well represented there. Colonel Capper and Mr. Walter Eeid both took a prominent part in the meetings of the Aëronautic Conference, and also on the jury in the Kite Competition. It seems very unfortunate that we have not more interesting results to record. The Administration offered numerous large prizes in hopes of attracting inventors and being able to show some startling novelties. But these were not forthcoming. It is with much regret that I feel bound now to refer to this method of offering prizes.
On Kites, Kite Flying, and Aëroplanes
Authors: Dines W. H.
Published: February 2017

At the present time kites are used to obtain information about the temperature and humidity of the air above us, and efforts are being made to construct a flying machine capable of carrying one or more persons.

At first sight it might appear as though there were no relation between these two matters, but they are, in reality, very closely connected. The kite is held by a string or wire, and the wind passing over the kite supports it and at the same time causes it to exert an upward pull upon the wire. To fly a kite in the ordinary way the first requisite is sufficient wind, but if the lower end of the string to which the kite is attached can be moved forward with sufficient rapidity, by fastening it, for example, to a fast steamer or motor car, the kite can be flown when there is no wind.
The Work of the International Commission for Scientific Aëronautics
Authors: Hergesell M. H.
Published: February 2017

Since the report which I laid before the last meeting of the Permanent Council at, St. Petersbourg, the work of the International Commission for Scientific Aëronautics has been continued on a more extended scale.

In this paper I propose to speak principally of the work of the Commission.

But it will be impossible for me to avoid speaking also of the work carried on by our members outside the direct work of the Commission, and I hope at some future time they will themselves communicate detailed results of these their independent investigations.

So far, the Commission has met twice, and has shaped its work on the advantageous base of these direct interchanges of thought.
Captive Balloon Photography
Authors: Brewer Griffith
Published: February 2017

No one can reasonably deny that panoramic views taken from a moderate height give the best idea of the general features of a town or other locality. When we visit a new district we naturally mount a prominent hill or other point of vantage, and so obtain an impression of the surroundings; and the photographer takes his camera as high as he can to enable the lens to receive the view. Far more extended views are enjoyed by those who indulge in balloon ascents, and photographs taken from the cars of balloons are occasionally secured, and give those who stay at home some idea of the ground as seen by the aëronaut.
How Birds Fly
Authors: Hugo T. N.
Published: February 2017

How birds fly, and what is the force employed to sustain and propel them, has been so often discussed that most would think the subject exhaustively explained and thoroughly understood. Yet it is doubtful whether such is the case, seeing that many now are inclined to ascribe the phenonemena of forward flight to the curvature of the surface of the wing. Another view, and a nearly opposite one, is this, that the wing's chief function is that of sustaining, and has but slight propelling property, and what propelling power the curvature of the under surface endows the wing with, is exerted in giving a forward course to the wing itself in its descent; this is the view that will be sought to be worked out in this paper.
The Shape of Navigable Balloons
Authors: Bruce Eric Stuart
Published: February 2017

Is the navigable balloon worth improving? That is a question which is frequently asked by the general public. Now there are many of us who, with reason, feel convinced that the ultimate future solution of the problem of aërial navigation will be found to be in the body heavier than air—the aëroplane— and some will doubtless say that it is waste of time to endeavour to improve what appears only capable of improvement within only finite limits, that all our united efforts should be directed to the system which, when certain first principles are successfully applied, will not display those boundary lines to further progress which seem so apparent in the case of navigable balloons.
Balloons for Geographical Research
Authors: Baden-Powell
Published: February 2017

Many difficulties beset explorers in wild countries. Much time has to be devoted to the journey; transport of supplies, hostility of natives, progress through jungles, marshes, and rivers impede the traveller. Long sojourns and hard work in hot and unhealthy climates, or extreme cold, all present great difficulties. There is, however, one high road which leads unobstructed to all parts — the air. An aeronaut, seated in the car of a balloon, floats along above all impediments and obstructions, travelling day and night at the speed of the wind, and with an extensive view of all the country below. But there are two practical difficulties to be overcome. First, the ordinary free balloon must travel wherever the wind chooses to take it, and that may be in any but the desired direction; secondly, no free balloon has as yet ever remained up longer than a day or two.
Aeroplane Experiments
Authors: Hakgrave L.
Published: February 2017

Since the paper on the possibility of soaring in horizontal wind was read, no efforts have been spared to determine the essential features of curved surfaces that are of any practical utility to aeronautics, and the model shown in Fig. 1 embodies what is known to date. The poles and horizontal cord have been found a most useful method of experimenting ; indeed, it may safely be said that without them the trifling amount of available wind would have been quite inadequate to find out anything new. As suggestions to those who wish to advance this matter rapidly, it may be stated that the wind near the ground is comparable to the surf on the sea shore, which all will admit is not suitable for testing the sailing capacity of yachts or boats. To utilize wind from all directions, a platform of wire netting should be placed in a situation like the top of the shearlegs on Garden Island.
Notes on a Bird-like Flying Machine
Authors: Hutchinson F. W. H.
Published: February 2017

To those who have not given attention to the structure of a bird's wing the following rough description may be of interest. The wing of a bird may be regarded as having two portions: (1) that part to the outer side of the wrist joint. The main feathers of this portion are usually about ten in number, and are known as the primary feathers. (2) That part of the inner side of the wrist joint which may be called the body of the wing. The main feathers of this portion vary according to the length of wing.

(a) A salient characteristic of a bird's wing as a whole is the comparatively rigid and heavy anterior edge and the light yielding elastic posterior margin.
On Flapping Flight of Aeroplanes
Authors: Fitz–Gerald Maurice F.
Published: February 2017

It has been long known, principally through experiments on soaring, that a large, if not by far the largest, part of the supporting force obtained by birds in regular flight, is probably furnished by upward air pressure on their wings, regarded as planes moving horizontally, with their surfaces slightly inclined to the direction of motion.

Langley's “Experiments on Aero–dynamics” furnish some numerical data for estimating the power required to sustain an aeroplane of given weight, propelled horizontally by a known force, and he applies these to the determination of the problem whether this could be effected by screw propellers, analogous to those of a ship, actuated by machinery of existing type.
The Aëromobile
Authors: Webb C. F.
Published: February 2017

This machine, called by its inventor the Aëromobile, is designed, to accomplish gliding flight by the aid of propellers, to carry one man, and to manœuvre on or near the ground, before free flight is attempted, in order that its practicability may be thoroughly tested.

Theoretically, the fundamental principle upon which the practicability of the invention is based, is the determination by experiment of the exact relation existing between speed, supporting area, and weight, in order that, any two of the three being constant, the other may be varied in such a way that the result in a machine of this description shall always be equilibrium.