bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Time course of cyclosporine and its metabolites in blood, liver and spleen of naive lewis rats: Comparison with preliminary data obtained in transplanted animals
Authors: Wacher Vincent J. , Liu Tao , Roberts John P. , Ascher Nancy L. , Benet Leslie Z.
Published: October 2006

The time course of intravenously administered cyclosporine (1mg kg−1) and its metabolites AM1, AM9, and AM1c were examined in the blood, liver, and spleen of naive Lewis rats. Cyclosporine concentration versus time data for all three tissues were qualitatively similar, following a biexponential modelC=Ae+Bewith maximum cylosporine concentrations reached at 1h. Whole‐blood cyclosporine clearance, terminal half‐life, mean residence time, steady state volume of distribution, and hepatic extraction ratio (calculated from blood data) were similar to previously reported results. Cyclosporine in the liver showed the largest area under the concentration—time curve, mean residence time, and disposition and terminal half‐lives. Spleen cyclosporine mean residence time and terminal half‐life were not significantly different from blood parameters. Metabolites AM1, AM9, and AM1c showed almost parallel time courses in all three tissues. The hydroxylated derivative AM9 was the major metabolite found in all tissues, with twofold greater levels in the liver compared to the blood and the spleen. Slightly less AM1 was found in the liver relative to blood and spleen, where it was present in equal amounts. AM1c levels in the liver were not different from those in the spleen and were greater than observed for blood. The results obtained above were reflected in preliminary studies using liver transplanted rats treated with multiple doses of cyclosporine. Both blood and liver biopsy levels of CyA, AM1, and AM9 post‐transplant showed twofold to fourfold decreases from day 3 (samples taken 4h post‐CyA‐dose) to day 7 (samples taken 24h post‐CyA‐dose) and concentrations were not significantly different from similarly sampled naive controls. More importantly, the metabolite/CyA ratios did not vary significantly between liver and blood in the two groups. For naive rats, and liver transplanted animals not undergoing rejection, changes in blood cyclosporine levels seem to predict variations in tissue concentrations.
Methodology for using oral dose pharmacokinetic data to select drugs for prolonged release formulations and validation of the method using simulated data
Authors: Zhou Mingxing , Notari Robert E.
Published: October 2006

A computer aided method for selecting drugs as potential candidates for oral prolonged release formulations has been previously published. In order to decide whether trial formulations were warranted, prolonged release dosing was simulated to find all release rates and doses producing successful regimens in every subject for whom clinical pharmacokinetic data were available. Intravenous dose data were required because the models and their parameter values could not be assessed with oral doses. The new method uses model independent equations derived from rapidly absorbed oral doses to simulate the administration of prolonged release formulations. Using these equations, repetitive oral dosing regimens were reiteratively simulated to search for all successful release rates and doses in every available subject. Results were validated by comparison to those obtained with the published method using theophylline and hypothetical drugs, which included examples of flip‐flop and vanishing exponentials. When the oral reference dose data were reliable, results were similar even when the model independent parameter values did not agree with those used to generate the oral reference dose data. Differences were observed only when the random errors in the oral reference dose data were large. If more than one model independent equation provided equivalent fits to the oral reference dose data, the final results were similar independent of which equation was employed.
Bioavailability of pseudoephedrine from controlled release formulations in the presence of guaifenesin in human volunteers
Authors: Pade Vaishali , Aluri Jagadeesh , Manning Linda , Stavchansky Salomon
Published: October 2006

A multiple‐dose bioequivalence study with six healthy human volunteers was conducted. The bioavailability of an experimental controlled release tablet containg pseudoephedrine was compared with a marketed controlled release pseudoephedrine capsule in a three‐way crossover study. Plasma samples, collected serially after oral drug administrtion, were analyzed for pseudoephedrine content using a specific HPLC method with UV detection. The bioavailability parameters, area under the concentration‐time curve (AUC), maximum plasma concentraton Cmax, and time to peak (Tmax) were obtained from the plasma concentraton—time data. Additionally, model independent pharmacokinetic parameters were estimated. Analysis of variance of the data revealed no statistically significant differences between the test and the reference formulation. The presence of guaifenesin in the sustained release tablet did not influence pseudoephedrine bioavailability. The relative bioavailability of the tablet dosage form with respect to the capsule was found to be 100.8%. Classical and Westlake 95% confidence limits as well as the two one‐sided t test, proposed by Schuirmann, and the Anderson—Hauck power analysis supported the inference that the two formulations demonstrated comparable bioavailability, even in the presence of guaifenesin.

Using a non‐linear regression program, it was found that the parmacokinetics of pseudoephedrine followed a simple one‐compartment disposition model with no lag time. Additionally, an in vitro—in vivo correlation, based on the estimation of cumulative relative fraction absorbed, was developed between the absorption of pseudoephedrine in humans and the in vitro dissolution time.
Evaluation of the effects of ambroxol on the ofloxacin concentrations in bronchial tissues in COPD patients with infectious exacerbation
Authors: Paganin Fabrice , Bouvet Oliver , Chanez Pascal , Fabre David , Galtier Marc , Godard Philippe , Michel Francois B. , Bressolle Françoise
Published: October 2006

Infectious excerbations of COPD are generally due to Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus speicies, and other Gram‐negative bacteria. Ofloxacin has potent activity against Gram‐negative species but is less effective against Gram‐positive species including Streptococcus pneumoniae. It has also been shown that the administration of ambroxol increases the concentration of some antibiotics in pulmonary tissues. The aim of the study was to determine whether ambroxol increases the bronchial tissue concentrations of ofloxacin to a level exceeding the MIC90 of the bacterial species less susceptible to ofloxacin. 24 patients with COPD were randomized in two groups. Drug regimens of ofloxacin alone (200 mg twice daily) or ofloxacin (200 mg twice daily) + ambroxol (30 mg thrice daily) were administered over 10d. A fibroscopy was performed on day 10 with bronchial biopsies and broncho‐alveolar lavage. At steady state, concentrations of drug in plasma and bronchial samples were assayed by HPLC with fluorometric detection. There was no significant difference in the bronchial levels of ofloxacin between the two groups; however, in alveolar cells, ofloxacin concentration was three times higher in the group with ambroxol. Ambroxol does not increase ofloxacin concentrations in bronchial tissue because high concentrations are already present in the lung.
Disposition and bioavailability of the β1‐adrenoceptor antagonist talinolol in man
Authors: Trausch Beate , Oertel R. , Richter K. , Gramatté T.
Published: October 2006

In an open randomized crossover study, the pharmacokinetics and bioavailability of the selective β1‐adrenoceptor antagonist talinolol (Cordanum®—Arzneimittelwerk Dresden GmbH, Germany) were investigated in twelve healthy volunteers (five female, seven male; three poor and nine extensive metabolizers of the debrisoquine hydroxylation phenotype) after intravenous infusion (30 mg) and oral administration (50 mg), respectively. Concentrations of talinolol and its metabolites were measured in serum and urine by HPLC or GC‐MS. At the end of infusion a peak serum concentration (Cmax) of 631 ± 95 ng mL−1 (mean ± SD) was observed. The area under the serum concentration‐time curve from zero to infinity (AUC0‐∞) was 1433 ± 153 ng h mL−1. The following parameters were estimated: terminal elimination half life (t1/2), 10.6 ± 3.3 h; mean residence time, 11.6 ± 3.1 h; volume of distribution, 3.3 ± 0.5 L kg−1; and total body clearance, 4.9 ± 0.6 mL min−1 kg−1. Within 36 h 52.8 ± 10.6% of the administered dose was recovered as unchanged talinolol and 0.33 ± 0.18% as hydroxylated talinolol metabolites in urine. After oral administration a Cmax of 168 ± 67 ng mL−1 was reached after 3.2 ± 0.8h. The AUC0‐∞ was 1321 ± 382 ng h mL−1. The t1/2 was 11.9 ± 2.4 h. 28.1 ± 6.8% of the dose or 55.0 ± 11.0% of the bioavailable talinolol was eliminated as unchanged talinolol and 0.26 ± 0.17% of the dose as hydroxylated metabolites by kidney. The absolute bioavailability of talinolol was 55 ± 15% (95% confidence interval, 36–69%). Talinolol does not undergo a relevant first‐pass metabolism, and its reduced bioavailability results from incomplete absorption. Talinolol disposition is not found to be altered in poor metabolizers of debrisoquine type.
Pharmacokinetics of amphotericin B in rats as a function of dose following constant‐rate intravenous infusion
Authors: Chow Hsiao‐Hui , Wu Yuhong , Mayersohn Michael
Published: October 2006

Amphotericin B (AmB) is widely used for the treatment of systemic mycoses. The current therapeutic regimens for this drug are complex and somewhat empirical, in part because of very limited information about the disposition kinetics of this agent. In this study, we examined the disposition kinetics of AmB as a function of dose and estimated clearance values using a steady state study design in an animal model. Groups of male Sprague‐Dawley rats were given diferent two‐step infusion regimens to achieve three different steady state concentrations (i.e., three different total infused doses). We observed no significant differences in systemic clearance among the three AmB doses studied. Similarly, only small differences were seen in volumes of distribution as a function of dose. However, renal clearance decreased significantly as the total infused dose was increased (0.76 ± 0.33, 0.86 ± 0.24, and 0.37 ± 0.04mL min−1 kg−1 for the lowmedium and high‐dose groups, respectively; p < 0.05). Signs of renal impairment were observed in the high‐dose group, as documented by decreased creatinine clearance. Dose‐dependent renal clearance may have ben due either to nephrotoxicity associated with the high dose of AmB and/or to saturation of an active secretion process. Furthermore, clearance values estimated from steady state conditions were similar to those from time‐averaged values (based on the estimation of area under the plasma concentration‐time profile). This suggests that clearance calculations from time‐averaged concentrations provide reasonable estimates, since steady state plasma concentrations could be reliably determined. However, the possibility that a true tissue steady state condition was not achieved with our study design cannot be ruled out. Further investigation is necessary to identify the renal excretion mechanisms of AmB and to reach steady state tissue concentration to confirm the estimation of systemic clearance.
The effect of caffeine on the pharmacokinetics of acetaminophen in man
Authors: Iqbal Nadeem , Ahmad Bashir , Janbaz Khalid Hussain , Gilani Anwar‐Ul Hassan , Niazi Sarfaraz Khan
Published: October 2006

The influence of caffeine (60 mg) was studied on the pharmacokinetic characteristics of acetaminophen (500 mg single dose) in ten healthy male human volunteers in a complete cross‐over design. A high‐performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) method was used to analyse serum drug concentrations. Caffeine caused a highly significant (p < 0.01) increase in AUC and AUMC, a significant (p < 0.05) increase in Cmax, and a significant (p < 0.05) decrease in clearance (Cl/F) of acetaminophen. We conclude that caffeine taken in doses commonly available commercially or in a cup of coffee can significantly potentiate the therapeutic potential of acetaminophen in man.
Influence of leucine on intestinal baclofen absorption as a model compound of neutral α‐aminoacids
Authors: Cercós‐Fortea T. , Polache A. , Nácher A. , Cejudo‐Ferragud E. , Casabó V. G. , Merino M.
Published: October 2006

The inhibitory effect of the essential α‐aminoacid L‐leucine on the intestinal absorption of the antispastic drug baclofen was examined by means of an in situ rat gut perfusion technique. When 0.5 mM baclofen solutions were perfused in the presence of increasing concentrations of the aminoacid (5–100 mM), the apparent absorption rate constant of the drug decreased as the initial leucine concentration increased. Higher leucine concentrations, however, did not completely abolish the absorption of the drug (at 100 mM of leucine, only 76% inhibition was observed). The interaction can be mathematically described as a complete competitive inhibition with a second component, K = 0.35 (±0.08)h−1, Ki = 0.25 (±0.09)mM, AIC= −97.02. In the light of some of the absorption features of the drug, however, the residual absorption of baclofen in the presence of high leucine concentrations should be attributed to another transport system not used by leucine.

Apparent parameters characterizing absorption of leucine in the presence of baclofen (0.5mM) were Vm=61.02 (±5.46)mM h−1; Km=8.04 (±0.89)mM, and AIC=62.25. The results indicate that baclofen and leucine share some carriers in the intestinal absorption processes. Since leucine is an essential dietary aminoacid, and therefore a normal food component, this finding could be relevant in preventing interactions that would lead to a reduced oral bioavailability during baclofen therapy.
Effects of sensory (teasing) exposure to food on oral propranolol bioavailability
Authors: Power John M. , Morgan Denis J. , McLean Allan J.
Published: October 2006

In order to further examine the mechanism of the increase in the plasma propranolol concentration versus time curve (AUC) caused by ingestion of propranolol with food, we administered R, S‐propranolol tablets (0.5mg kg−1) orally to healthy human volunteers and dogs in the presence and absence of sensory exposure to food without ingestion (teasing). Six healthy human volunteers were fasted on one occasion and on the other they were presented with an appetising meal, without eating it (teasing protocol). There was a strong trend to a greater propranolol AUC in the teasing protocol (139.54 mg mL−1 h−1 fasting, 178.105 mg mL−1 h−1 teasing; p=0.1), and time of peak concentration (tmax) was significantly prolonged (80.22min and 120.32 min, respectively; p<0.03). Further studies were carried out in dogs who received R‐propranolol (2 mg kg−1) as an oral solution by gavage tube on four different occasions: fasting, following intragastric administration of a high‐value liquid meal, following teasing with food in the animal house at normal feeding time (high‐intensity teasing), and following teasing with food at a time and place not associated with feeding (low‐intensity teasing). There were no significant differences in pharmacokinetic parameters between the fasting and intragastric food protocols. Low‐intensity teasing resulted in significantly lower AUC and peak concentration (Cmax) compared with fasting (p<0.05), confirming food effect patterns known to occur in dogs. High‐intensity teasing resulted in significantly greater AUC and Cmax compared with fasting (p<0.05), reproducing in dogs the increase in propranolol AUC known to occur with food ingestion in humans. These findings suggest that the mechanism of the ‘food effect’ may involve physiological responses to the sight and smell of food additional to mechanisms activated by ingestion.
Factors influencing the protein binding of azosemide using an equilibrium dialysis technique
Authors: Lee Sun H. , Lee Myung G.
Published: October 2006

Various factors most likely to influence the plasma protein binding of azosemide to 4% human serum albumin (HSA) were evaluated using equilibrium dialysis at the initial azosemide concentration of 10 μg mL−1. It took approximately 8h of incubation to reach an equilibrium between 4% HSA and isotonic phosphate buffer of pH 7.4 containing 3% dextran (the ‘buffer’) using a Spectra/Por 2 membrane (molecular weight cut‐off 12000–14000) in a water bath shaker kept at 37°C and a rate of 50 oscillations min−1. Azosemide was fairly stable both in 4% HSA and in the ‘buffer’ for up to 24h. The binding of azosemide to 4% HSA was constant (95.5 ± 0.142%) at azosemide concentrations ranging from 5 to 100 μg mL−1. However, the extent of binding was dependent on HSA concentration: the values were 88.4, 91.0, 92.2, 94.2, 94.9, 94.9, and 94.9% at albumin concentrations of 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6% respectively. The binding was also dependent on incubation temperature; the binding values were 97.0, 94.9, and 94.9% when incubated at 6, 28, and 37°C, respectively. The binding of azosemide was also influenced by buffers containing various chloride ion concentrations and buffer pHs. The binding values were 95.3, 94.9, and 93.6% for the chloride ion concentrations of 0, 0.249, and 0.546%, respectively, and the unbound values were 6.8, 5.1, 3.8, 3.4, and 3.3% for buffer pHs of 5.8, 6.4, 7.0, 7.4, and 8.0, respectively. The binding of azosemide was independent of the quantity of heparin (up to 40 UmL−1), AAG (up to 0.16%), sodium azide (NaN3, up to 5%), its metabolite, Ml (up to 10 μg mL−1), and anticoagulants (EDTA and citrate).
A population pharmacokinetic study of alminoprofen penetration into synovial fluid
Authors: Tod M. , Pobel C. , Le Gros V. , Louchahi K. , Petitjean O. , Brion N. , Garcia‐Mace J. L.
Published: October 2006

The pharmacokinetics of alminoprofen in plasma and synovial fluid (SF) at steady state (300 mg t.i.d.) was studied in 45 patients with knee effusion. Plasma and SF samples, one each per patient, were obtained. Six groups were made according to the time of sampling after ingestion of the 13th dose: 1h (n = 7), 2h (n = 7), 4h (n = 7), 6h (n = 10), 8h (n = 6), 12h (n = 8). A three‐compartment model was used to describe alminoprofen kinetics in plasma and SF, with two parameterizations, a ‘classical’ and a ‘physiological’ one. The non‐linear mixed effect model approach was used to estimate the mean and variance of the pharmacokinetic parameters. The mean ±SE of the estimates (coefficient of variation of interindividual variability as a percentage) were volume of distribution, 11.0 ± 1.711 (12%); elimination rate constant, 0.236 ± 0.025 h−1 (18%); absorption rate constant 2.80 ± 0.31 h−1 (464%), clearance of influx into SF, 0.29 ± 0.14 mL min−1; clearance of efflux into plasma, 0.56 ± 0.25 mL min−1. These two clearances were not significantly different, which indicates that passive diffusion occurs in both directions. The mean ±SD alminoprofen concentration versus time curve in plasma and SF at steady state was simulated and showed that the mean ±SD maximal concentration in SF was 8.1 ± 6.3 mg L−1 and was obtained 4h after dose administration.
Pharmacokinetic parameters of antipyrine in dog after hepatectomy
Authors: Galtier Marc , Briand Dominique , Pinguet Frederic , Gomeni Roberto , Fabre David , Bressolle Francoise
Published: October 2006

Pharmacokinetic studies with antipyrine were carried out on beagle dogs to determine the consequence of hepatectomy on hepatic drug metabolizing capacity, the rate of hepatic regeneration, and the possible beneficial effect of hepatocellular transplantation. The drug (250 mg) was administered by short IV infusion in three groups of dogs (first group, 65% hepatectomy; second group, 65% hepatectomy with hepatocyte transplantation; third group 80% hepatectomy). Pharmacokinetic parameters of antipyrine were evaluated before surgery and within 10 d after surgery. Blood samples were taken at frequent intervals after drug administration and antipyrine was assayed in plasma by a specific HPLC method with UV detection. Before surgery, the mean elimination half‐life was about 1.1 h and total clearance averaged 6 L h−1. In dogs with 65% hepatectomy, no statistical differences in pharmacokinetic parameters of antipyrine appeared before or after surgery. When 65% hepatectomy was associated with hepatocyte transplantation, a significant increase in elimination half‐life and a significant decrease in total clearance were observed. The same statistical differences in the pharmacokinetic parameters were observed in the group with 80% hepatectomy. Transplantation of isolated hepatocytes into the spleen did not correct hepatocellular insufficiency. In this study, numerous laboratory tests were performed. A significant correlation was found between serum albumin, cholesterol, factor V, ALAT, total bilirubin, and ratio of aminoacids and the pharmacokinetic parameters of antipyrine.
Protein binding of sotalol enantiomers in young and elderly human and rat serum using ultrafiltration
Authors: Carr Robert A. , Pasutto Franco M. , Lewanczuk Richard Z. , Foster Robert T.
Published: October 2006

The protein binding of sotalol (STL) enantiomers was evaluated using an ultrafiltration technique with serum from young (32±2 years, n=5) and elderly (73±6 years, n=5) male and female humans, and young (8 weeks, n=4) and elderly (60 weeks, n=3) male Sprague—Dawley rats. Serum samples were collected and immediately frozen at −20°C. Within 1 week, the serum samples were thawed at room temperature, and adjusted to pH 7.4 using 0.05 M phosphate buffer, pH 5.0. Aliquots were spiked with 250 ng mL−1 and 500 ng mL−1 of each STL enantiomer, placed in ultrafiltration sets (Microsep, 30K molecular weight cut‐off), capped, equilibrated to 37°C, and centrifuged at 1850g for 1.5h at 37°C. Aliquots of ultrafiltrate and unspun serum were analysed for STL enantiomer concentration using a stereospecific HPLC assay. In all groups, bound fraction was less than 7% for both STL enantiomers. There were no significant differences in bound fraction between groups, or between enantiomers. Adsorption of STL enantiomers to the ultrafiltration device and membrane, evaporative loss of serum samples during centrifugation, and protein concentration in each ultrafiltrate sample were all negligible. It is concluded that the binding of STL in human and rat serum at therapeutic concentrations and physiological temperature and pH is negligible and non‐stereoselective.
Enantioselective pharmacokinetics in animals of pazinaclone, a new isoindoline anxiolytic, and its active metabolite
Authors: Kondo Takahiro , Yoshida Kiyoshi , Yoshimura Yoshinobu , Tanayama Shigeharu
Published: October 2006

The enantioselective pharmacokinetics of a new anxiolytic, pazinaclone (DN‐2327), and its active metabolite, M‐II, were studied in animals. In rats and dogs given racemic pazinaclone intravenously, the total clearance and volume of distribution of (S)‐pazinaclone were lower than those of (R)‐pazinaclone, whereas the opposite results were obtained in monkeys. The differences in disposition were consistent with enantioselective protein binding, where the unbound fraction was greater for (R)‐pazinaclone than that for the (S)‐enantiomer in rats and dogs; the reverse was noted in monkeys. Lower clearance and distribution for (S)‐pazinaclone in rats and dogs, and for the (R)‐enantiomer in monkeys, resulted in comparable plasma profiles for the pazinaclone enantiomers and thereby those of the corresponding enantiomers of M‐II. The unbound clearance (CLu) of (S)‐pazinaclone was, however, greater than that of the antipode in rats and dogs and the CLu of each enantiomer was similar in monkeys. Thus, enantioselectivity in the kinetics of (S)‐ and (R)‐pazinaclone appears to reside largely in plasma binding differences and is unrelated to variations in intrinsic clearance. The first‐pass metabolism of (S)‐ and (R)‐pazinaclone on oral administration of the racemate was enantioselective, with respective bioavailabilities of 1.7 and 0.8% in rats, 10.4 and 1.9% in dogs, and 0 and 11.4% in monkeys. Therefore, the enantioselectivity was more pronounced after oral dosing.
The ratio of first to zeroth moments of the plasma profile of an oral drug undergoing first‐pass and linear reversible metabolism
Authors: Cheng Haiyung
Published: October 2006

Based on the convolution integral, equations have been drived for the ratio of the first to the zeroth moments of the plasma concentration—time curve (AUMC/AUC) parameters for a drug (p) undergoing first‐pass and reversible metabolism and its reversible metabolite (m). According to these equations, the AUMC/AUC of a drug administered orally and of its reversible metabolite can be related to the mean absorption times, the ratios of the fraction of the dose entering the systemic circulation to the bioavailability, the first‐time fractional conversion of each compound, and the AUMC/AUC ratios after intravenous administration of each compound. The proposed approach allows a more generalized derivation method for AUMC/AUC of a drug administered orally and undergoing first‐pass and reversible metabolism. It is also applicable to any other extravascular route.
Ars loquendi et ars tacendi
Authors: Schmidt Paul Gerhard
Published: October 2006

The monastic rule of Saint Benedict imposes silence in the chapel, dormitory and refectory. A monk who wishes to communicate in these places is permitted to use signs (signa loquendi) which are made with the hands. Ever since the 11 th century these signs have been assembled in lists for the use of novices. The size, composition and arrangement of the lists reflect the requirements and the spirituality of the individual monastic orders (Cluny, Order of St. Victor and Cistercians) and they are adapted to local conditions. The excessive use the Cistercians made of sign language was rejected and condemned by the other orders.
Rhetorik ‐ alte und neue Disziplin
Authors: Lachmann Renate
Published: October 2006

Plurifunctionality of rhetoric guaranteed its survival and promoted its renascence as modern discipline. There are four aspects of rhetoric to be pointed out: 1. rhetoric as the art of persuasive speech; 2. rhetoric as a doctrine (including its institutionalisation); 3. rhetoric as a descriptive apparatus; 4. rhetoric as a normative authority. The latter two aspects allow to define rhetoric as a secondary grammar and its function as that of a metatext. In the process by which a culture organizes itself the rhetorical text achieves the status of a metatext and thus comes into the same level as those texts through which a cultural system attempts to describe itself. Rhetoric describes and prescribes procedures for the construction of communicative forms and communicative situations in which speech is used for various purposes; that is, it takes on the task of making language functional. The dichotomous conception of language which rhetoric developed at its very beginning motivates the dichotomy between aesthetic (poetic) and practical functions of language. Rhetoric as a secondary system with normative claims and internalized (social and aesthetic) values becomes a decisive factor in the attempt of a culture to organize its lingual and communicative system, on the one had because of the deeply rooted dichotomy, on the other because of the tendency of rhetoric to build up a unified language with definite features and clear functions on the basis of the dichotomous scheme. Rhetoric as metatext, including its normative and descriptive functions, collapses in the 18th century, due to a new system of aesthetic values. The criticism of rhetoric is based on concepts of creativity and originality and a new evaluation of lingual questions. Thus the function of rhetoric as a stabilizing force is overthrown. The cultural context develops new decriptive systems with inherent normativity: stylistics, semantics, theory of literature, linguistic poetics, new (semiotic) rhetoric. The new disciplines retrace the path of rhetoric toward the stabilization of the unified language.
Ist die Kameralistik eine untergegangene Wissenschaft?
Authors: Bog Ingomar
Published: October 2006

Subject of this essay is the question [is kameralismus a lost science?] In contrast to the transformation of energy from one to other forms, once developed solutions of social, economic or political problems are capable to work again in other historical situations with similar circumstances. Although the possible number of combinations of those problems is very great, we argue that the whole assemble of feasable solutions is limited.

Kameralismus, which was a theoretical answer to particular historical problems in economy and society, has developed many important elements of modern economic thinking. With the purpose to increase the welfare of nations (societies) Kameralismus dealt with economic growth, full employment, stabilization of prices, economic freedom, a just distribution of incomes and economic security.

It would be a mistake to identify Kameralismus and Protektionismus, most kameralistic theorists submitted protectionism only as one agent to increase the welfare, pursuing a surplus in the balance of payments. A particular issue of Kameralismus was the problem of saving, credit and investment. In similar historical situations ‐ compared with the situation of the German Empire after the Thirty Years War ‐ for example after the First World War or in the Great Depression of the thirties, similar solutions and similar theoretical approaches have been discussed. Therefore it was no accident that J. M. Jeynes devoted his [General Theory] to the Kameralists. Even for many problems of the underdeveloped countries Kameralismus may prepare fruitful answers. So Kameralismus is still alive.
Astrophysik contra Astronomie
Authors: Krafft Fritz
Published: October 2006

[Astrophysics contra astronomy] means the displacement of astrometry and stellar astronomy as the main and solely conceded branches of astronomy by the new astrophysics. This displacement started with the introduction of spectroscopic and photometric methods of observation in astronomy founded by J. C. F. Zoellner and W. Huggins in the late 1850s. It was Zoellner, too, who gave the methodical and intrumental foundations of the new branch called consciously [Astrophysik] by him, because it gives insight into the [physical constitution] of the celestial bodies ‐ whereas the traditional astronomy (or: astrophysics according to the older meaning) had been studying only the motions of the stars and other celestial bodies and refusing searches for the [physical constitution] (named [physical astronomy], [physische Astronomie]) as speculations not being proper to a member of the guild of astronomers. Until the middle of the nineteenth century this guild was led by F. W. Bessel who (in the first half of this century) together with other members of his school brought forth the fundamental results of celestial mechanics and observational astronomy based on Newtonian physics (mechanics) extended to objects outside the solar system. Therefore already in the end of the 18th century, J. Chr. Lichtenberg had called astronomy the [paradigmatic] branch of all natural sciences; and therefore, Zoellner had to confirm the extension of the possibilities of experience (transmitted by the light of the celestial bodies) through the same methodical certainty. The new methods, however, made their way only tardily (especially in Germany), but later on, indeed, they pushed back the traditional branches of astronomy into the background ‐ resuscitated only by new astrophysical formulations of old questions previously refused by traditional astronomy.
Disziplinentwicklung und Wissenschaftstransfer ‐ Deutschsprachige Psychologen in der Emigration
Authors: Ash Mitchell G.
Published: October 2006

(Discipline development and the transfer of science ‐ German‐speaking psychologists in the emigration). In this essay recently developed ideas from the social history of science, in particular the notion that there are historically conditioned „national professional styles”︁ in science, are applied to the transfer of psychological theory ‐ and of scientific psychologists ‐ from German‐speaking lands to the United States before and after 1933. After an overview of the scope and structure of the emigration in psychology, an analysis of the transfer process is offered focusing upon Gestalt theory.
Von der Wissenschaftsverwaltung zur Wissenschaftspolitik. Friedrich Althoff (19. 2. 1839‐20. 10. 1908)
Authors: von Brocke Bernhard
Published: October 2006

Friedrich Althoff (1839–1908) was one of Germany's three great administrators of science and humanities between Wilhelm von Humboldt (1767–1835) and Carl Heinrich Becker (1886–1933). He was perhaps the most prominent representative of Prussian bureaucratic liberalism and the first eminent politician of culture or — in the words of W. H. Dawson — “the most enlightened but also the most dictatorial Minister of Education Prussia has ever had”. Althoff dominated the state administration of higher education in Prussia between 1882 and 1907, serving as Ministerial director over higher educational affairs under at least four ministers. The so‐called “Althoff system”, that he built pushed the development of German science and scholarship to a dominant position in the world, rationalized the universities and further subordinated them to state or ministerial policy through a rigid control of professional appointments, started the mobilization of private capital in support of German scientific hegemony (founding of Kaiser‐Wilhelm‐Gesellschaft), and put forward the Prussian tradition — ultimately an unsustainable one — of strong personal administration, by which Althoff systematically manipulated or overrode the very bureaucratic apparatus he had helped to create. On the other hand his policy defended academic freedom, patronized Catholic and Jewish scholars against reactionary university faculties as well as the so‐called Kathedersozialisten against the influences of big business and laissez‐faire capitalism. As a creator of german cultural foreign policy he paved the way for more international understanding and peace policy, an alternative to the war‐aims policy of Imperial Germany on the eve of the Great War.
Die “James Hall‐Sammlung” in Keyworth
Authors: Fritscher Bernhard
Published: October 2006

Toward the end of the 18th century, the Scottish geologist James Hall (1761–1832) carried out a series of experiments. They were designed to explore the genesis of rock formations in connection with the controversy between “neptunism” and “volcanism”. These experiments are documented in a museum collection that is located today in the British Geological Survey headquarters in Keyworth near Nottingham. The collection consists of ca. 250–300 individual items and includes samples of Hall's experiments and experimental equipment, as well as several of the original rock specimens that had belonged to him. This article provides a short description of that collection.
Über die Aufhänge‐ und Anzeigevorrichtung der ägyptischen Waage der Pharaonenzeit
Authors: Jenemann Hans R.
Published: October 2006

A number of different and partly contradictory interpretations about the suspension and the indicator system of the ancient Egyptian balance has been given so far. In this article previous explanations of these devices are presented and critically considered; at the same time the balance of the Egyptians is included in the complete evolution of this instrument. Based on original Egyptian colour drawings on papyrus taken from the Book of the Death and considering weighing techniques, it is stated that all interpretations given so far are not capable of providing a satisfactory explanation of the function of these devices.

The interpretation given already in 1888 by Sir Flinders Petrie comes closest to the real function of the indicator system: According to his assumption the device consisted of a solid pointer attached to the beam, in relation to which a plumbline was observed after the oscillations had stopped. This interpretation, however, has to be varied or to be complemented by taking into consideration the special drawing technique of the ancient Egyptians: Processes were drawn in a reproduction technique which consisted in the simultaneous combination of a top view and a side view. A new hypotheses about the function of the suspension and the indicator system of the ancient Egyptian balance is presented, which has the advantage of agreeing completely with the Egyptian drawing technique and which, in addition, ensures optimum precision of the weighing procedure.
“Alles ist Blatt”. Über Reichweite und Grenzen der naturwissenschaftlichen Sprache und Darstellungsmodelle Goethes
Authors: Pörksen Uwe
Published: October 2006

The essay will elaborate on the following aspects of the selected topic: 1) Goethe's scepticism of language: An apprehension of the almost unbridgeable gap between language and the world of objects constitutes the starting point in his approach to language. — 2) The paradoxical nature of the objective world: The paradoxical character of the realm of natural science is a second starting point: Goethe first attempts the logically ‘impossible’, namely to capture simultaneously that which at a higher level is identical and at the empirical level visibly distinct, that which is both static and changing, the uniformity of the kingdom of nature and its multiplicity; he proceeds to undertake a translation of this into a mode of representation accessible to the mind's eye. — 3) Goethe's scientific models of representation: Goethe's models, which graduate from variation of synonym through the exploitation of multifarious fields of imagery to the free juxtaposition of different text‐forms each providing its own perspective, serve to resolve the problems outlined in 1 and 2. Form is cognition, its value being not principally aesthetic but heuristic. 4) The scope and influence of Goethe's language: The product of Goethe's scientific efforts is a standard transparent language, both vivid and explanatory, capable of concisely delineating exceedingly complex circumstances and interactions. Even in some spheres of science its influence extended to the beginning of the twentieth century, facilitating the dialogue between disciplines. — 5) The limitations of this language: One of the clear limitations of this language shows itself to be its close adhension to visual perception: its dread both of abstraction, with its disregard of objective fields of reference, and of the formalised language of mathematics. — 6) The shadow of abstraction: Since the eighteenth century the world has lived in the increasingly dark shadow of an abstraction, which has assumed new dimensions in the laboratory‐like world of today. — 7) Distance to Goethe: From a present‐day persepective Goethe's science appears as distant legend.
Geschichte als leitende Orientierungswissenschaft im 19. Jahrhundert
Authors: Hübinger Gangolf
Published: October 2006

The nineteenth century has sometimes been dubbed “the age of historical science”, taking account of the hegemonic position occupied by historiography vis‐à‐vis the natural sciences and also its fellow humanities. The “historical method” was widely adopted by all kinds of Kulturwissenschaften. Moreover, public interest focussed on historiography to a quite exceptional degree since it combined scholarly inquiry and the purposes of general education and personal cultivation. Historiography reached the peak of its influence during the two decades leading up to the revolution of 1848. During this period, the ideas of historians on the national state, on the social order and on cultural affairs carried considerable weight. In the second half of the nineteenth century, historiography gradually lost its position of a “pilot discipline”. Sciences such as economics and sociology were better equipped to respond to the needs of German society in the age of industrialization.
Spezialisierung und Bildungsanspruch. Zur Geschichte der Technischen Hochschulen im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert
Authors: König Wolfgang
Published: October 2006

In the late 19th century at the “Technische Hochschulen” the understanding of “Wissenschaft” and “Bildung” changed considerably. During the 19th century the “Polytechnische Schulen” and “Technische Hochschulen” adopted the neo‐humanistic standards of “Bildung”, established by the universities and the “Humanistische Gymnasium”. At the end of the century they joined the “realistische Schulbewegung” which emphasized the value of mathematics and natural sciences, taking issue with the classical languages. At the same time, systematic experimentation was added to mathematics, natural sciences and technical experience to constitute the specific methodology of engineering sciences. Attempts to define specific technical elements of “Allgemein‐bildung” did not succeed as a result of the rapidly increasing differentiation and specialization of engineering sciences.
An der Schwelle zum Atomzeitalter. Die Vorgeschichte der Entdeckung der Kernspaltung im Dezember 1938
Authors: Krafft Fritz
Published: October 2006

On the Threshold of the Atomic Age: The History of the Discovery of Nuclear Fission in December 1938: ‐ Fifty years ago in mid‐December 1938, Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute of Chemistry discovered nuclear fission by demonstrating, using chemical methods, the presence of barium in the decay products of neutron‐irradiated uranium. This essay points out the constellation of conditions and prerequisites (Historischer Erfahrungsraum/“historical field of experience”) which led to the discovery of nuclear fission, and was constituted by specific components (“presentabilia”) both internal and external to science in general and to atomic research in particular. A decisive role was played by the constellation of the three members of the Berlin team and their personal situations under the political conditions of the 1930s. Further “presentabilia” were the institutional, instrumental and disciplinary conditions under which the team worked and the methods available to the individual members of the team. It was very important that some of the “presentabilia” were “not‐present” to the members of the team. In particular, after Meitner's departure from Berlin Hahn and Strassmann had no access to methods and tools for proving the presence of alpha rays; nothing was known of the existence of actinides; no cyclotron or other source of neutrons more productive than those already in use in Berlin, Paris and Rome was available; it was very important that Strassmann and Hahn were not convinced of the strong validity of the resonance process induced by thermal neutrons; etc.
Vom Denken in Analogien
Authors: Poser Hans
Published: October 2006

Analogy as a scientific method has been criticized during the last decades; only for heuristic purposes it has been accepted. On the other side especially proportional analogies have a long tradition in European thought since Plato and Aristotle, for, as Aristotle puts it, analogies allow a connection between different and unbridgeable ontological areas. As examples for such connections the analogia entis of Thomas of Aquino and the Kantian Analogies of Experience are discussed. They give us hints for a new view of analogies, which during the Middle Ages were not only of heuristic value, but were accepted as a proof: Analogies do not only produce hypotheses, moreover, they build up new views of the world, they are the background of paradigms, for they create structures by introducing similarities and proportions.
Zur Verwendung physiologischer Analogien bei der Entstehung der experimentellen Psychologie
Authors: Gundlach Horst
Published: October 2006

In the middle of the 19th century, a disfavourable attitude towards the use of analogies prevailed in physiology and in psychology. The emerging experimental psychology nonetheless turned to analogies, two of which are discussed: the attempt to elucidate the construct “sensation”, and reaction time measurement.
Lingua realis, lingua universalis und lingua cryptologica: Analogiebildungen bei den Universalsprachen des 16. und 17. Jahrhunderts
Authors: Strasser Gerhard F.
Published: October 2006

This historical analysis treats the formation of universal languages with the help of analogy in the 16th and 17th centuries. In the early part of the 16th century, abbot Johannes Trithemius suggested a universal language as an extension of a cryptographic system he had proposed. Trithemius's process suggests a triangular relationship among a lingua cryptologica, which stands at the root of his system, a lingua realis – an existing language (almost exclusively Latin) that served as a point of departure, and a lingua universalis, which was developed from that base. Trithemius's ideas remained, however, rather isolated for the balance of the 16th century since other scholars were preoccupied with the search for the lingua Adamica. It was not until Bacon and Descartes discussed the phenomenon of universal communication that new universal languages were proposed. The concept of analogy can be seen in a number of mid‐17th century written‐communication methods that were based on an existing language. After various Jesuits had devised preliminary systems, Athanasius Kircher, Johann Joachim Becher and the young Leibniz – all going back to Trithemius – began again with a lingua cryptologica, used a lingua realis (Latin) as an intermediary and reference language, and developed a lingua universalis as they understood it. All three universal languages could be expressed in a mathematical‐combinatorial system, which Becher transcended by proposing a graphic, binomial method purportedly even more universally acceptable than the simply numerical systems of transmission. In all these instances we are actually dealing with reverse analogies, for what had been conceived as a system of secret communication became adapted to a universal, written exchange, thereby differing substantially from such 19th century creations as Martin Schleyer's Volapük or Dr. Zamenhof's Esperanto, the only universal language that is widely used in our times.
Das erste zoologische Kompendium in der Zeit der Renaissance: Edward Wottons Schrift „Über die Differenzen der Tiere”︁
Authors: Bäumer Änne
Published: October 2006

The English physian Edward Wotton wrote the first zoological compendium in the time of the Renaissance. As a convinced representative of Renaissance‐Humanism Wotton strictly applied Aristotelian methodological principles to Aristotelian facts. In this way he tried to make Classical Antiquity complete; the Renaissance of ancient zoology is here tantamount to a new beginning. Wotton's achievement is in the first place to have provided a good summary of the whole of ancient zoological knowledge to which he added a few observations of his own. He carried through the Aristotelian concept of differentiation by many distinguishing features more strictly than Aristotle himself and all subsequent authors. In this way he attained the first zoological system, which influenced all later systematic attempts. The main Aristotelian groups are further subdivided and the Zoophyta are separated for the first time as an independent group. Wotton used a practical indexation method and got rid of an excess of detail in the text, adding critical annotations to each chapter. By means of the two indices, one of the names and the other of the parts of animal, Wotton tried to improve the precision of nomenclature and by this the identification of the objects under examination. His critical position on fabulous animals reveals his progressive mind.