bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Oxygen isotope composition of phloem sap in relation to leaf water in Ricinus communis
Authors: Cernusak Lucas A. , Wong S. Chin , Farquhar Graham D.
Published: October 2003

We measured the oxygen isotope composition of both the water and dry matter components of phloem sap exported from photosynthesising Ricinus communis L. leaves. The 18O / 16O composition of exported dry matter matched almost exactly that expected for equilibrium with average lamina leaf water (leaf water exclusive of water associated with primary veins) with an isotope effect of αo=1.027, where αo=Ro / Rw , and Ro and Rw are 18O / 16O of organic molecules and water, respectively. Average lamina leaf water was enriched by 14–22‰ compared with source water under our experimental conditions, and depleted by 4–7‰, compared with evaporative site water. This showed that it is the average lamina leaf water 18O / 16O signal that is exported from photosynthesising leaves rather than a signal more closely related to that of evaporative site water or source water. Additionally, we found that water exported in phloem sap from photosynthesising leaves was enriched compared with source water; the mean phloem water enrichment observed for leaf petioles was 4.0 ± 1.5‰ (mean ± 1 s.d., n = 27). Phloem water collected from stem bases was also enriched compared with source water. However, the enrichment was approximately 0.8 times that observed for leaf petioles, suggesting some mixing between enriched phloem water and unenriched xylem water occurred during translocation. Results validated the assumption that organic molecules exported from photosynthesising leaves are enriched by 27‰ compared with average lamina leaf water. Furthermore, results suggest that the potential influence of enriched phloem water should be considered when interpreting the 18O / 16O signatures of plant organic material and plant cellulose.
Role of the pleckstrin homology domain of PLCγ1 in its interaction with the insulin receptor
Authors: Kwon Yong-Kook , Jang Hyeung-Jin , Kole Sutapa , He Hua-Jun , Bernier Michel
Published: October 2003

A thiol-reactive membrane-associated protein (TRAP) binds covalently to the cytoplasmic domain of the human insulin receptor (IR) β-subunit when cells are treated with the homobifunctional cross-linker reagent 1,6-bismaleimidohexane. Here, TRAP was found to be phospholipase C γ1 (PLCγ1) by mass spectrometry analysis. PLCγ1 associated with the IR both in cultured cell lines and in a primary culture of rat hepatocytes. Insulin increased PLCγ1 tyrosine phosphorylation at Tyr-783 and its colocalization with the IR in punctated structures enriched in cortical actin at the dorsal plasma membrane. This association was found to be independent of PLCγ1 Src homology 2 domains, and instead required the pleckstrin homology (PH)–EF-hand domain. Expression of the PH–EF construct blocked endogenous PLCγ1 binding to the IR and inhibited insulin-dependent phosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), but not AKT. Silencing PLCγ1 expression using small interfering RNA markedly reduced insulin-dependent MAPK regulation in HepG2 cells. Conversely, reconstitution of PLCγ1 in PLCγ1−/− fibroblasts improved MAPK activation by insulin. Our results show that PLCγ1 is a thiol-reactive protein whose association with the IR could contribute to the activation of MAPK signaling by insulin.
Akt activation disrupts mammary acinar architecture and enhances proliferation in an mTOR-dependent manner
Authors: Debnath Jayanta , Walker Stephanie J. , Brugge Joan S.
Published: October 2003

Activation of the serine/threonine kinase Akt/PKB positively impacts on three cellular processes relevant to tumor progression: proliferation, survival, and cell size/growth. Using a three-dimensional culture model of MCF-10A mammary cells, we have examined how Akt influences the morphogenesis of polarized epithelial structures. Activation of a conditionally active variant of Akt elicits large, misshapen structures, which primarily arise from the combined effects of Akt on proliferation and cell size. Importantly, Akt activation amplifies proliferation during the early stages of morphogenesis, but cannot overcome signals suppressing proliferation in late-stage cultures. Akt also cooperates with oncoproteins such as cyclin D1 or HPV E7 to promote proliferation and morphogenesis in the absence of growth factors. Pharmacological inhibition of the Akt effector, mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), with rapamycin prevents the morphological disruption elicited by Akt activation, including its effect on cell size and number, and the cooperative effect of Akt on oncogene-driven proliferation, indicating that mTOR function is required for the multiple biological effects of Akt activation during morphogenesis.
Loss of keratin 6 (K6) proteins reveals a function for intermediate filaments during wound repair
Authors: Wong Pauline , Coulombe Pierre A.
Published: October 2003

The ability to heal wounds is vital to all organisms. In mammalian tissues, alterations in intermediate filament (IF) gene expression represent an early reaction of cells surviving injury. We investigated the role of keratin IFs during the epithelialization of skin wounds using a keratin 6α and 6β (K6α/K6β)-null mouse model. In skin explant culture, null keratinocytes exhibit an enhanced epithelialization potential due to increased migration. The extent of the phenotype is strain dependent, and is accompanied by alterations in keratin IF and F-actin organization. However, in wounded skin in vivo, null keratinocytes rupture as they attempt to migrate under the blood clot. Fragility of the K6α/K6β-null epidermis is confirmed when applying trauma to chemically treated skin. We propose that the alterations in IF gene expression after tissue injury foster a compromise between the need to display the cellular pliability necessary for timely migration and the requirement for resilience sufficient to withstand the rigors of a wound site.
NAADP mobilizes Ca2+ from a thapsigargin-sensitive store in the nuclear envelope by activating ryanodine receptors
Authors: Gerasimenko Julia V. , Maruyama Yoshio , Yano Kojiro , Dolman Nick J. , Tepikin Alexei V. , Petersen Ole H. , Gerasimenko Oleg V.
Published: October 2003

Ca2+ release from the envelope of isolated pancreatic acinar nuclei could be activated by nicotinic acid adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NAADP) as well as by inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3) and cyclic ADP-ribose (cADPR). Each of these agents reduced the Ca2+ concentration inside the nuclear envelope, and this was associated with a transient rise in the nucleoplasmic Ca2+ concentration. NAADP released Ca2+ from the same thapsigargin-sensitive pool as IP3. The NAADP action was specific because, for example, nicotineamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate was ineffective. The Ca2+ release was unaffected by procedures interfering with acidic organelles (bafilomycin, brefeldin, and nigericin). Ryanodine blocked the Ca2+-releasing effects of NAADP, cADPR, and caffeine, but not IP3. Ruthenium red also blocked the NAADP-elicited Ca2+ release. IP3 receptor blockade did not inhibit the Ca2+ release elicited by NAADP or cADPR. The nuclear envelope contains ryanodine and IP3 receptors that can be activated separately and independently; the ryanodine receptors by either NAADP or cADPR, and the IP3 receptors by IP3.
Partial sums of hypergeometric series of unit argument
Authors: Bühring Wolfgang
Published: October 2003

The asymptotic behaviour of partial sums of generalized hypergeometric series of unit argument is investigated.
Topologically mixing hypercyclic operators
Authors: Costakis George , Sambarino Martín
Published: October 2003

Let

X
X

be a separable Fréchet space. We prove that a linear operator

T
:
X
→
X

T:X\to X

satisfying a special case of the Hypercyclicity Criterion is topologically mixing, i.e. for any given open sets

U
,
V

U,V

there exists a positive integer

N
N

such that

T
n

(
U
)
∩
V
≠
∅

T^n(U)\cap V\neq \emptyset

for any

n
≥
N
.

n\ge N.

We also characterize those weighted backward shift operators that are topologically mixing.
On the error term in an asymptotic formula for the symmetric square 𝐿-function
Authors: Lau Yuk-Kam
Published: October 2003

Recently Wu proved that for all primes

q
q

,
\[
<mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="sigma-summation Underscript f Endscripts upper L left-parenthesis 1 comma sym squared f right-parenthesis equals StartFraction pi Superscript 4 Baseline Over 432 EndFraction q plus upper O left-parenthesis q Superscript 27 slash 28 Baseline log Superscript upper B Baseline q right-parenthesis">

∑

f

L
(
1
,

sym

2

f
)
=

π
4

432

q
+
O
(

q

27

/

28

log
B

⁡
q
)

\sum _{f} L(1, \mbox {sym}^2f) =\frac {\pi ^4}{432}q +O(q^{27/28}\log ^B q)

\]
where

f
f

runs over all normalized newforms of weight 2 and level

q
q

. Here we show that

27

/

28

27/28

can be replaced by

9

/

10

9/10

.
Maximal elements in noncompact spaces with application to equilibria
Authors: Chang Shiow-Yu
Published: October 2003

A new maximal theorem for

L
S

L_S

-majorized correspondences in noncompact spaces is presented and applied to obtain an equilibrium existence theorem for noncompact abstract economies. The corresponding results of Borglin and Keiding (1976), Yannelis and Prabhakar (1983), Ding and Tan (1993), Yuan and Tarafdar (1996), and Ding and Yuan (1998) are generalized by our results.
An existence theorem of harmonic functions with polynomial growth
Authors: Ding Yu
Published: October 2003

We prove the existence of nonconstant harmonic functions with polynomial growth on manifolds with nonnegative Ricci curvature, Euclidean volume growth and unique tangent cone at infinity.
On the harmonic Hopf construction
Authors: Gastel Andreas
Published: October 2003

The harmonic Hopf construction is an equivariant ansatz for harmonic maps between Euclidean spheres. We prove existence of solutions in the case that has been open. Moreover, we show that the harmonic Hopf construction on every bi-eigenmap with at least one large eigenvalue has a countable family of solutions (if it has one).
Minimal 2-complexes and the D(2)-problem
Authors: Johnson F.
Published: October 2003

We show that when

n
≥
5

n\geq 5

there is a minimal algebraic

2
2

-complex over the quaternion group

Q
(

2
n

)

Q(2^n)

which is not homotopy equivalent to the Cayley complex of the standard minimal presentation. This raises the possibility that Wall’s D(2)-property might fail for

Q
(

2
n

)

Q(2^n)

.
Remark on the strong unique continuation property for parabolic operators
Authors: Alessandrini Giovanni , Vessella Sergio
Published: October 2003

We consider solutions

u
=
u
(
x
,
t
)

u = u(x,t)

, in a neighbourhood of

(
x
,
t
)
=
(
0
,
0
)

(x,t) =(0,0)

, to a parabolic differential equation with variable coefficients depending on space and time variables. We assume that the coefficients in the principal part are Lipschitz continuous and that those in the lower order terms are bounded. We prove that, if

u
(
⋅
,
0
)

u( \cdot ,0)

vanishes of infinite order at

x
=
0

x=0

, then

u
(
⋅
,
0
)
≡
0

u( \cdot ,0) \equiv 0

.
Uniqueness of exceptional singular quartics
Authors: Chandler Karen
Published: October 2003

We prove that given a general collection

Γ
\Gamma

of 14 points of

P

4

=

P

K

4

\mathbb {P}^4=\mathbb {P}^4_\mathcal {K}

(

K

\mathcal {K}

an infinite field) there is a unique quartic hypersurface that is singular on

Γ
\Gamma

. This completes the solution to the open problem of the dimension of a linear system of hypersurfaces of

P

n

\mathbb {P}^n

that are singular on a collection of general points.
On the tangent spaces of Chow groups of certain projective hypersurfaces
Authors: Ching Avery
Published: October 2003

In this paper, the Chow groups of projective hypersurfaces are studied. We will prove that if the degree of the hypersurface is sufficiently high, its Chow group is “small” in the sense that its formal tangent space vanishes. Then, we will give an example in which the formal tangent space is infinite dimensional.
A philosophy for the modelling of realistic nonlinear systems
Authors: Howlett Phil , Torokhti Anatoli , Pearce Charles
Published: October 2003

A nonlinear dynamical system is modelled as a nonlinear mapping from a set of input signals into a corresponding set of output signals. Each signal is specified by a set of real number parameters, but such sets may be uncountably infinite. For numerical simulation of the system each signal must be represented by a finite parameter set and the mapping must be defined by a finite arithmetical process. Nevertheless the numerical simulation should be a good approximation to the mathematical model. We discuss the representation of realistic dynamical systems and establish a stable approximation theorem for numerical simulation of such systems.
Minimal spanning trees
Authors: Schmerl James
Published: October 2003

The main result is that a recursive weighted graph having a minimal spanning tree has a minimal spanning tree that is

Δ
2
0

\Delta ^0_2

. This leads to a proof of the failure of a conjecture of Clote and Hirst (1998) concerning Reverse Mathematics and minimal spanning trees.
The energy of signed measures
Authors: Hare Kathryn , Roginskaya Maria
Published: October 2003

We generalize the concept of energy to complex measures of finite variation. We show that although the energy dimension of a measure can exceed that of its total variation, it is always less than the Hausdorff dimension of the measure. As an application we prove a variant of the uncertainty principle.
Characterization of aDrosophilaCentrosome Protein CP309 That Shares Homology with Kendrin and CG-NAP
Authors: Kawaguchi Shin-ichi , Zheng Yixian
Published: October 2003

The centrosome in animal cells provides a major microtubule-nucleating site that regulates the microtubule cytoskeleton temporally and spatially throughout the cell cycle. We report the identification in Drosophila melanogaster of a large coiled-coil centrosome protein that can bind to calmodulin. Biochemical studies reveal that this novel Drosophila centrosome protein, centrosome protein of 309 kDa (CP309), cofractionates with the γ-tubulin ring complex and the centrosome-complementing activity. We show that CP309 is required for microtubule nucleation mediated by centrosomes and that it interacts with the γ-tubulin small complex. These findings suggest that the microtubule-nucleating activity of the centrosome requires the function of CP309.
Components of U3 snoRNA-containing Complexes Shuttle between Nuclei and the Cytoplasm and Differentially Localize in Nucleoli: Implications for Assembly and Function
Authors: Leary Daniel J. , Terns Michael P. , Huang Sui
Published: October 2003

U3 small nucleolar RNA (snoRNA) and associated proteins are required for the processing of preribosomal RNA (pre-rRNA) and assembly of preribosomes. There are two major U3 snoRNA-containing complexes. The monoparticle contains U3 snoRNA and the core Box C/D snoRNA-associated proteins and an early preribosome-associated complex contains the monoparticle and additional factors that we refer to as preribosome-associated proteins. To address how and where the U3 snoRNA-containing preribosome assembles and how these processes are temporally and spatially regulated, we have examined the dynamics and distribution of human U3 complex-associated components in cells with active or inactive transcription of rDNA. We found that U3 complex-associated proteins shuttle between the nucleus and the cytoplasm independent of the synthesis and export of preribosomal particles, suggesting that the shuttling of these proteins may either provide opportunities for their regulation, or contribute to or modulate ribosome export. In addition, monoparticle and preribosome associated components predominantly localize to different nucleolar substructures, fibrillar components, and granular components, respectively, in active nucleoli, and partition separately into the two components during nucleolar segregation induced by inhibition of pol I transcription. Although the predominant localizations of these two sets of factors differ, there are significant areas of overlap that may represent the sites where they reside as a single complex. These results are consistent with a model in which U3 monoparticles associate with the fibrillar components of nucleoli and bind pre-rRNA during transcription, triggering recruitment of preribosome-associated proteins to assemble the complex necessary for pre-rRNA processing.
Induction ofS. cerevisiaeFilamentous Differentiation by Slowed DNA Synthesis Involves Mec1, Rad53 and Swe1 Checkpoint Proteins
Authors: Jiang Yi Wei , Kang Christopher Minkyu
Published: October 2003

A key question in eukaryotic differentiation is whether there are common regulators or biochemical events that are required for diverse types of differentiation or whether there is a core mechanism for differentiation. The unicellular model organism Saccharomyces cerevisiae undergoes filamentous differentiation in response to environmental cues. Because conserved cell cycle regulators, the mitotic cyclin-dependent kinase Clb2/Cdc28, and its inhibitor Swe1 were found to be involved in both nitrogen starvation- and short chain alcohol-induced filamentous differentiation, they were identified as components of the core mechanism for filamentous differentiation. We report here that slowed DNA synthesis also induces yeast filamentous differentiation through conserved checkpoint proteins Mec1 and Rad53. Swe1 and Clb2 are also involved in this form of differentiation, and the core status of Swe1/Clb2/Cdc28 in the mechanism of filamentous differentiation has therefore been confirmed. Because the cAMP and filamentous growth mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways that mediate nitrogen starvation-induced filamentous differentiation are not required for slowed DNA synthesis-induced filamentous growth, they can therefore be excluded from the core mechanism. More significantly, slowed DNA synthesis also induces differentiation in mammalian cancer cells, and such stimulus conservation may indicate that the core mechanism for yeast filamentous differentiation is conserved in mammalian differentiation.
TheCaenorhabditis elegansMicrotubule-severing Complex MEI-1/MEI-2 Katanin Interacts Differently with Two Superficially Redundant β-Tubulin Isotypes
Authors: Lu Chenggang , Srayko Martin , Mains Paul E.
Published: October 2003

The microtubule-severing protein complex katanin is required for a variety of important microtubule-base morphological changes in both animals and plants. Caenorhabditis elegans katanin is encoded by the mei-1 and mei-2 genes and is required for oocyte meiotic spindle formation and must be inactivated before the first mitotic cleavage. We identified a mutation, sb26, in the tbb-2 β-tubulin gene that partially inhibits MEI-1/MEI-2 activity: sb26 rescues lethality caused by ectopic MEI-1/MEI-2 expression during mitosis, and sb26 increases meiotic defects in a genetic background where MEI-1/MEI-2 activity is lower than normal. sb26 does not interfere with MEI-1/MEI-2 microtubule localization, suggesting that this mutation likely interferes with severing. Tubulin deletion alleles and RNA-mediated interference revealed that TBB-2 and the other germline enriched β-tubulin isotype, TBB-1, are redundant for embryonic viability. However, limiting MEI-1/MEI-2 activity in these experiments revealed that MEI-1/MEI-2 preferentially interacts with TBB-2–containing microtubules. Our results demonstrate that these two superficially redundant β-tubulin isotypes have functionally distinct roles in vivo.
Interactions between Centromere Complexes inSaccharomyces cerevisiae
Authors: Nekrasov Vladimir S. , Smith Melanie A. , Peak-Chew Sew , Kilmartin John V.
Published: October 2003

We have purified two new complexes from Saccharomyces cerevisiae, one containing the centromere component Mtw1p together with Nnf1p, Nsl1p, and Dsn1p, which we call the Mtw1p complex, and the other containing Spc105p and Ydr532p, which we call the Spc105p complex. Further purifications using Dsn1p tagged with protein A show, in addition to the other components of the Mtw1p complex, the two components of the Spc105p complex and the four components of the previously described Ndc80p complex, suggesting that all three complexes are closely associated. Fluorescence microscopy and immunoelectron microscopy show that Nnf1p, Nsl1p, Dsn1p, Spc105p, and Ydr532p all localize to the nuclear side of the spindle pole body and along short spindles. Chromatin immunoprecipitation assays show that all five proteins are associated with centromere DNA. Homologues of Nsl1p and Spc105p in Schizosaccharomyces pombe also localize to the centromere. Temperature-sensitive mutations of Nsl1p, Dsn1p, and Spc105p all cause defects in chromosome segregation. Synthetic-lethal interactions are found between temperature-sensitive mutations in proteins from all three complexes, in agreement with their close physical association. These results show an increasingly complex structure for the S. cerevisiae centromere and a probable conservation of structure between parts of the centromeres of S. cerevisiae and S. pombe.
The eps8 Family of Proteins Links Growth Factor Stimulation to Actin Reorganization Generating Functional Redundancy in the Ras/Rac Pathway
Authors: Offenhäuser Nina , Borgonovo Alessandro , Disanza Andrea , Romano Pascale , Ponzanelli Isabella , Iannolo Gioacchin , Di Fiore Pier Paolo , Scita Giorgio
Published: October 2003

Sos-1, a guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF), eps8 and Abi1, two signaling proteins, and the lipid kinase phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3-K), assemble in a multimolecular complex required for Rac activation leading to actin cytoskeletal remodeling. Consistently, eps8 –/– fibroblasts fail to form membrane ruffles in response to growth factor stimulation. Surprisingly, eps8 null mice are healthy, fertile, and display no overt phenotype, suggesting the existence of functional redundancy within this pathway. Here, we describe the identification and characterization of a family of eps8-related proteins, comprising three novel gene products, named eps8L1, eps8L2, and eps8L3. Eps8Ls display collinear topology and 27–42% identity to eps8. Similarly to eps8, eps8Ls interact with Abi1 and Sos-1; however, only eps8L1 and eps8L2 activate the Rac-GEF activity of Sos-1, and bind to actin in vivo. Consistently, eps8L1 and eps8L2, but not eps8L3, localize to PDGF-induced, F-actin–rich ruffles and restore receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK)-mediated actin remodeling when expressed in eps8 –/– fibroblasts. Thus, the eps8Ls define a novel family of proteins responsible for functional redundancy in the RTK-activated signaling pathway leading to actin remodeling. Finally, the patterns of expression of eps8 and eps8L2 in mice are remarkably overlapping, thus providing a likely explanation for the lack of overt phenotype in eps8 null mice.
Capacity of the Golgi Apparatus for Biogenesis from the Endoplasmic Reticulum
Authors: Puri Sapna , Linstedt Adam D.
Published: October 2003

It is unclear whether the mammalian Golgi apparatus can form de novo from the ER or whether it requires a preassembled Golgi matrix. As a test, we assayed Golgi reassembly after forced redistribution of Golgi matrix proteins into the ER. Two conditions were used. In one, ER redistribution was achieved using a combination of brefeldin A (BFA) to cause Golgi collapse and H89 to block ER export. Unlike brefeldin A alone, which leaves matrix proteins in relatively large remnant structures outside the ER, the addition of H89 to BFA-treated cells caused ER accumulation of all Golgi markers tested. In the other, clofibrate treatment induced ER redistribution of matrix and nonmatrix proteins. Significantly, Golgi reassembly after either treatment was robust, implying that the Golgi has the capacity to form de novo from the ER. Furthermore, matrix proteins reemerged from the ER with faster ER exit rates. This, together with the sensitivity of BFA remnants to ER export blockade, suggests that presence of matrix proteins in BFA remnants is due to cycling via the ER and preferential ER export rather than their stable assembly in a matrix outside the ER. In summary, the Golgi apparatus appears capable of efficient self-assembly.
Mhr1p-dependent Concatemeric Mitochondrial DNA Formation for Generating Yeast Mitochondrial Homoplasmic Cells
Authors: Ling Feng , Shibata Takehiko
Published: October 2003

Mitochondria carry many copies of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), but mt-alleles quickly segregate during mitotic growth through unknown mechanisms. Consequently, all mtDNA copies are often genetically homogeneous within each individual (“homoplasmic”). Our previous study suggested that tandem multimers (“concatemers”) formed mainly by the Mhr1p (a yeast nuclear gene-encoded mtDNA-recombination protein)-dependent pathway are required for mtDNA partitioning into buds with concomitant monomerization. The transmission of a few randomly selected clones (as concatemers) of mtDNA into buds is a possible mechanism to establish homoplasmy. The current study provides evidence for this hypothesis as follows: the overexpression of MHR1 accelerates mt-allele-segregation in growing heteroplasmic zygotes, and mhr1-1 (recombination-deficient) causes its delay. The mt-allele-segregation rate correlates with the abundance of concatemers, which depends on Mhr1p. In G1-arrested cells, concatemeric mtDNA was labeled by [14C]thymidine at a much higher density than monomers, indicating concatemers as the immediate products of mtDNA replication, most likely in a rolling circle mode. After releasing the G1 arrest in the absence of [14C]thymidine, the monomers as the major species in growing buds of dividing cells bear a similar density of14C as the concatemers in the mother cells, indicating that the concatemers in mother cells are the precursors of the monomers in buds.
Introduction
Authors: Brown Archie
Published: October 2003

Obstacles to democratization and pre‐conditions for transformative change are examined, as are changing evaluations of Mikhail Gorbachev. The weakness of the dissident movement in the first half of the 1980s and the modesty of expectations of change when Gorbachev succeeded Konstantin Chernenko as Soviet leader are noted. The radicalization of Gorbachev's policies is related to his learning process, to the strengthening of his political power between 1985 and 1988, and to societal pressures. Gorbachev outwitted the traditional holders of institutional power who imposed constraints upon the General Secretary's freedom of action but he was also responsible for the creation of new countervailing powers, more broadly based than the old ones, which ultimately undermined his institutional authority. The diversity of view within the Communist Party of the Soviet Union became increasingly apparent as the novel phenomenon of a serious reformer in the Kremlin allowed these divergent opinions to come out into the open.
The Power of Ideas and the Power of Appointment
Authors: Brown Archie
Published: October 2003

A back‐handed tribute to the power of ideas had been paid by the Soviet leadership prior to Gorbachev's coming to power through the lengths to which they went not only to promote official Marxism‐Leninism but also to keep out of circulation any heterodox political ideas. Gorbachev embraced new concepts more boldly than any previous General Secretary and engaged in a sharp struggle with conservative opponents of change within the Soviet establishment to have thinking that was radically new in the Soviet context accepted and acted upon. To some extent, the fresh ideas were codified into another orthodoxy known as ‘New Thinking’ or ‘New Political Thinking’, but the new openness meant that this was a fast‐changing body of doctrine, in which, for example, an endorsement by Gorbachev of ‘socialist pluralism’ quite rapidly was broadened into advocacy of ‘political pluralism’. Gorbachev's power of appointment went hand in hand with his support of new ideas. He was able to change the balance of influence before he could alter the balance of power, for he had a much freer hand in choosing aides and advisers than he had in elevating an ally to the Politburo. His changes to that body were also important, however, especially his rapid promotion of Alexander Yakovlev. Gorbachev's own ideas evolved in his discussions both with domestic advisers and with foreign politicians, especially such West European social democrats as Felipe Gonzalez. Conceptual change is an important species of political innovation in any society, especially in a system, such as the Soviet one, in which all political actions were required to adhere to an officially sanctioned ideology. Support for perestroika (reconstruction), democratization, pluralism, and glasnost (openness, transparency) and other heterodox ideas amounted to a conceptual revolution that had profound implications for Soviet politics and society.
Gorbachev and Political Transformation
Authors: Brown Archie
Published: October 2003

A central thesis of the book, elaborated especially in this chapter, is that from the outset of his General Secretaryship, Gorbachev was seriously interested in political change as well as in economic reform, but that in the course of the struggle to introduce it, he came to the realization that reform was not enough and that the political system had to be comprehensively transformed. The chapter discusses six stages of transformation between March 1985 and December 1991 as well as the fourfold nature of the transformation that was required: first, the movement from authoritarianism to political pluralism; second, the need to move from a command economy with virtually 100% state ownership of the means of production to a market economy with a substantial private sector; third, the need to create a genuine federation or a looser confederation in place of the pseudo‐federalism in which the aspirations of the more self‐conscious nations within the Soviet borders had been ruthlessly suppressed; and, fourth, the need to transform foreign policy. The dilemma for Gorbachev was that the fourfold transformation was an interlinked process: any three of these basic changes were likely to be undermined by the absence of a fourth; yet, as each was implemented to a greater or lesser degree, its side effects produced complications in the other spheres. Among the political changes analysed are the breakthrough represented by the Nineteenth Party Conference of 1988, the movement from party to state power, the advent of contested elections for a new legislature, the indirect election by that legislature of Gorbachev as President, and the failure to split the Communist Party.
Conclusions
Authors: Brown Archie
Published: October 2003

Of the four transformations outlined in Ch. 6, two of the four had, by the end of the 1980s, been successful beyond the dreams of Soviet dissidents and of the most optimistic Western observers at the time Gorbachev came to power. That is to say, the political system had become substantially pluralist and partially democratized and international relations had been still more comprehensively transformed. Economic reform and nationalities policy – along with some bad (as well as good) appointments – were, in contrast, areas of relative failure for Gorbachev. A decisively important achievement, however, was the dismantling of Communism (defined in the chapter) that occurred remarkably peacefully in a country that had been under Communist rule for seven decades. There was nothing inevitable either about the timing of the end of the Soviet state or about the way in which, under Gorbachev's leadership, the system was transformed. Taking all his mistakes and some undoubted failures into account – along, however, with the almost insuperable obstacles he had to overcome – Gorbachev has strong claims to be regarded as one of the greatest reformers in Russian history and as the individual who made the most profound impact on world history in the second half of the 20th century.
Holes
Authors: Lewis David
Published: October 2003

Cowritten with his wife, Stephanie Lewis, this whimsical dialogue features Argle and Bargle debating the ontological nature of holes. Argle ingeniously defends the claim that a hole is just the lining of matter that surrounds it. Responding to Bargle's disinclination toward accepting a view that flouts common sense, Argle comments that philosophical argument involves “measuring [the] price” that one must pay in order to accept the contested position. It is a telling remark, given the “incredulous stares” that often greet Lewis's modal realism.
Anselm and Actuality
Authors: Lewis David
Published: October 2003

Lewis demonstrates the infeasibility of attempting a nonmodal reformulation of Anslem's ontological argument. The key premise in Anselm's famous argument is the claim that “Something exists in the understanding, than which nothing greater can be conceived.” Lewis argues that the apparent credibility of the most promising, nonmodal rendering of this premise – viz. “There is an understandable being x, such that for no world w and being y does the greatness of y in w exceed the greatness of x in the actual world” – depends entirely on the illusion that the actuality of our world renders it “radically different from all other worlds – special in a way that makes it a fitting place of greatest greatness.” This illusion becomes obvious once we accept perhaps the most notable claim in this paper, viz. Lewis's indexical account of actuality. The substantive postscript includes an important retraction (viz. that impossible worlds do not exist) and several interesting discussions (e.g., concerning the anthropic principle and the specter of skepticism).
Counterpart Theory and Quantified Modal Logic
Authors: Lewis David
Published: October 2003

In this landmark paper, Lewis outlines his theory of modality and counterparts. The eight postulates constitutive of Lewis's counterpart theory are expressed in an extensional first‐order language that replaces the modal operators (characteristic of traditional quantified modal logic) with four primitive predicates: ‘x is a possible world’, ‘x is in possible world y’, ‘x is actual’, and ‘x is a counterpart of y’. Upon presenting a scheme for translating sentences expressed in quantified modal logic into those expressed in his preferred extensional language, Lewis demonstrates that the latter is nevertheless a richer language; while every sentence of quantified modal logic may be translated into a sentence expressed in counterpart theory, the reverse is not the case. Lewis concludes the paper by considering the implications of his view for several well‐known topics (notably, Aristotelian essentialism). The postscript includes numerous additions and emendations (including a specification of the primitive predicate, ‘x is in possible world y’).
How to Define Theoretical Terms
Authors: Lewis David
Published: October 2003

Lewis defends an account of the role of theoretical terms in scientific theories. Drawing on the work of Ramsey and Carnap, Lewis advocates the view that theoretical terms are implicitly defined by the scientific theories in which they figure; their meanings are to be characterized in functional terms, by reference to causal roles. According to Lewis, this understanding of theoretical terms (which would become influential in the development of functionalist theories of the mind) enables us to understand how one scientific theory may be reduced to another.
An Argument for the Identity Theory
Authors: Lewis David
Published: October 2003

Lewis offers a functionalist argument for the type‐type psychophysical identity theory, according to which, as a matter of fact, mental experiences are type‐identical with certain neuro‐chemical brain states. Lewis summarizes his argument as follows: “The definitive characteristic of any (sort of) experience as such is its causal role, its syndrome of most typical causes and effects. But we materialists believe causal roles which belong by analytic necessity to experiences belong in fact to certain physical states. Since those physical states possess the definitive characteristics of experience, they must be the experiences.”
Mad Pain and Martian Pain
Authors: Lewis David
Published: October 2003

Lewis invites us to consider two ostensible challenges to any materialist theory of the mind. The madman feels pain just as we do, but his pain differs greatly from ours in its characteristic causes and effects; the Martian also feels pain just as we do, but his pain differs greatly from ours in its physical realization. Lewis argues that his functionalist theory is adequate to meet the challenges presented by both cases. In the postscript, Lewis considers how advocates of phenomenal qualia respond to the functionalist account he defends; in particular, he responds to Frank Jackson's ‘knowledge argument’.
Languages and Language
Authors: Lewis David
Published: October 2003

Lewis attempts the synthesis of two rival accounts: the thesis, according to which languages are a semantic system abstracted from the nature and history of human affairs; and the antithesis, according to which language is a rational, convention‐governed human social activity. Upon answering an extended series of objections, Lewis concludes that the philosophy of language is best understood as a single subject.
Mathematical Intuition
Authors: Kitcher Philip
Published: October 2003

If we are to obtain a priori mathematical knowledge by following proofs, then we have to be able to have a priori knowledge of the axioms. This chapter (along with Chapter 4) examines the major accounts of how such knowledge might be gained. It is argued that all these accounts fail.
Toward a Defensible Empiricism
Authors: Kitcher Philip
Published: October 2003

The next stage is to set up the main question for the rest of the book: How is empirical mathematical knowledge possible? The outline of an answer is given: relatively simple experiences provide knowledge of elementary mathematics; the historical process extends the basic mathematical knowledge in extraordinary ways.
Mathematical Reality
Authors: Kitcher Philip
Published: October 2003

We can gain empirical knowledge of elementary arithmetic and elementary geometry because the primitive core of these subjects consists of truths about manipulations of reality. Full arithmetic and geometry idealize these operations. Later mathematics attributes much more extensive powers to the ideal agent who performs mathematical operations.
Mathematical Change and Scientific Change
Authors: Kitcher Philip
Published: October 2003

Chapters 7–9 offer a general account of the growth of mathematics. Introduce the notion of a mathematical practice, a multidimensional entity consisting of a language, accepted statements, accepted questions, accepted means of inference, and methodological maxims. Mathematics grows by modifying one or more components in response to the problems posed by others. So new language, language that is not initially well understood, may be introduced in order to answer questions taken to be important but resisting solution by available methods; in consequence, there may be a new task of clarifying the language or taming the methods that the extended language allows. The chapters attempt to show how such processes have occurred in the history of mathematics, and how they link the rich state of present mathematics to the crude beginnings of the subject. In Chapter 7, in particular, Kitcher compares mathematical change with scientific change, attempting to show that the growth of mathematical knowledge is far more similar to the growth of scientific knowledge than is usually appreciated.
Mathematical Changes
Authors: Kitcher Philip
Published: October 2003

Surveys the types of changes in mathematics that are of epistemological interest.
Patterns of Mathematical Change
Authors: Kitcher Philip
Published: October 2003

Describes some types of inference and principles of theory choice that are involved in the growth of mathematics.
Philosophical Papers Volume II
Authors: Lewis David
Published: October 2003

A collection of 13 papers by David Lewis, written on a variety of topics including causation, counterfactuals and indicative conditionals, the direction of time, subjective and objective probability, explanation, perception, free will, and rational decision. The conclusions reached include the claim that time travel is possible, that counterfactual dependence is asymmetrical, that events are properties of spatiotemporal regions, that the Prisoners’ Dilemma is a Newcomb problem, and that causation can be analyzed in terms of counterfactual dependence between events. These papers can be seen as a “prolonged campaign” for a philosophical position Lewis calls “Humean supervenience,” according to which “all there is to the world is a vast mosaic of local matters of particular fact,” with all global features of the world thus supervening on the spatiotemporal arrangement of local qualities.
Counterfactuals and Comparative Possibility
Authors: Lewis David
Published: October 2003

Proposes an analysis of counterfactual conditionals in terms of possible‐world semantics. Various issues arising from the proposed analysis are then discussed, including possible equivalent reformulations and various ways in which the set of all sentences valid under the analysis can be axiomatized, taking the counterfactual connective as primitive.
The Paradoxes of Time Travel
Authors: Lewis David
Published: October 2003

This paper argues that time travel is possible, and that the paradoxes of time travel are oddities, not impossibilities. The defence of the possibility of time travel involves a commitment to enduring things having temporal as well as spatial parts, psychological continuity and connectedness and causal continuity as criteria of personal identity, and a distinction between external and personal time.
A Subjectivist's Guide to Objective Chance
Authors: Lewis David
Published: October 2003

Formulates a principle about reasonable subjective probabilities conditional on propositions about objective probability in the single case. Consequences of the principle for objective probabilities and for the relation between objective and subjective probabilities are then considered. The paper contains four postscripts, dealing with objections and further issues arising from the principle.
Causal Explanation
Authors: Lewis David
Published: October 2003

Argues for the thesis that to explain an event is to provide some information about its causal history. This involves showing that there are no noncausal explanations of particular events, distinguishing between two kinds of why‐questions (plain and contrastive), and comparing the proposed account of explanation with the “covering‐law model” of Hempel and others.
Events
Authors: Lewis David
Published: October 2003

Advances a theory of events as properties of spatiotemporal regions. It also argues for a number of related claims, including the claim that events stand in logical relations, that they have a spatiotemporal mereology, and that their history amounts to the whole history of the world.
Veridical Hallucination and Prosthetic Vision
Authors: Lewis David
Published: October 2003

Argues that the difference between veridical hallucination and genuine seeing cannot be accounted for in terms of the absence of the normal causal process for seeing, since that process is also absent in cases of prosthetic vision. It is proposed instead that the difference lies in the pattern of counterfactual dependence of visual experience on the scene before the eyes. The paper contains a postscript with further considerations on the notion of a “suitable pattern of counterfactual dependence.”
Are We Free to Break the Laws?
Authors: Lewis David
Published: October 2003

Soft determinism seems to have the incredible consequence that sometimes we are able to act in ways that break the laws of nature. This paper distinguishes between a weak and a strong version of this consequence, and argues that it is the strong version that is incredible, but only the weak version that is the consequence.
The Economics of Financial Markets
Authors: Houthakker Hendrik S. , Williamson Peter J.
Published: October 2003

This book puts economics to work on the daily problems faced by investors, traders, speculators, and brokers as they wrestle with increasingly diverse and complex financial markets. Drawing mainly on data direct from the financial behavior of households, corporations, and governments in the USA, the authors show how accessible but rigorous economics can help in making sense of the financial markets (including those in equities, bonds, mutual funds, options, and futures) and of the ways in which these markets are organized. The authors contend that many of the approaches that might seem random or counter‐intuitive at first sight are in fact rational and often predictable responses to events – but they also find that real markets stray from the rational economic path – financial markets make mistakes, and inefficiencies do exist. When they do, unique profit opportunities arise that the authors demonstrate throughout the book. The book differs from many works on financial markets in that it provides a systematic framework for analyzing the impact of events on security prices and trading volumes; explains how the value of a firm's assets and dividend flow will influence the prices of its securities; provides the tools to identify and manage different types of risk; discusses what protection investors can expect from financial market regulators and what happens when a clique tries to squeeze or corner a market; includes a detailed treatment of futures and their role at the core of today's financial markets, and explains why they should be of concern to more and more investors and traders; shows how to use modern corporate strategy tools in security analysis; and shows how to discover inefficiencies in financial markets and profit from them. By bringing together information on the institutional details of financial markets with the concepts and tools of economic theory, the book will be of value to practitioners and students of financial markets alike.
The Supply of Securities
Authors: Houthakker Hendrik S. , Williamson Peter J.
Published: October 2003

The supply of securities is examined both in terms of the contractual characteristics and importance of each main type and the way in which the actual performance and supply of each over time is influenced by the behavior of issuers. The analysis presented is with respect to the USA. The securities explored include government securities – municipal bonds and bonds of foreign governments and international organizations; corporate securities – equities and senior debt, takeovers, bonds, junk bonds, convertible securities; mutual fund shares; mortgages and mortgage‐backed securities. The chapter also includes discussion of the implications for the supply of securities of corporate financial policy, partnership units and business taxation, and claims on financial institutions.