bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Development: nestlings
Authors: Johnston Richard F , Janiga Marián
Published: November 2023

The feral pigeon is a semi-altricial bird. Embryonic thermoregulation develops perhaps 27 to 37 hours prior to hatching (Kamenskii et al. 1975). Thermoregulation is energetically costly and is supported by metabolism of fat reserves in the egg (Belikov 1975). Additional energy is supplied by the incubating parent, at which time the average temperature between the body of the sitting female and the eggs is about 37°C (Angal’ t and Bogomazov 1981).
Plumage polymorphism
Authors: Johnston Richard F , Janiga Marián
Published: November 2023

People identify birds using several characteristics at once-size, shape, plumage pattern and color, attitude, voice, habitat, locality, and so on. All may be important, but size and plumage color are regularly noted by most observers, and if only one characteristic were to be employed, color might be the most useful. However, for some species, difficulties arise when only color is used. Among the birds for which plumage color is not diagnostic are feral pigeons.
Completing Kraepelin’s Psychopathology Insight, Delusion, and the Phenomenology of Illness
Authors: Fulford K William M
Published: November 2023

Loss of insight, traditionally the essential feature of psychotic mental illness, has an equivocal place in present-day psychiatry. Difficulties of definition have led to minimilization of its significance in most modern classifications of mental disorders. Yet it remains important to the actual practice of psychiatry, especially in relation to ethical and medicolegal questions. In this chapter, the philosophical method of linguistic analysis is used to clarify the concept of psychotic loss of insight. Linguistic analysis approaches questions of definition indirectly by exploring the ways in which concepts are actually used. The rationale for this analysis is that difficulties in definition often arise from taking a too narrow or too restricted view of the concept in question. But we are generally better at using concepts than at defining them. (Try defining such everyday concepts as time, for instance, or baroque.) Hence, as the philosopher J. L. Austin argued ( 1956-7/ 1968; Fulford, 1989a), exploring the ways in which a concept is used may lead to a broader or more complete view of its meaning, and thus may help to resolve difficulties in definition.
The Subjective Experience of Negative Symptoms
Authors: Selten Jean-Paul C J , Bosch Robert J Van Den , Sijben A E S
Published: November 2023

There can be little doubt that negative symptoms have serious consequences. They are incapacitating and may lead to long-term hospitalization. Remarkably, however, we know almost nothing about patients’ experiences of these symptoms. Our ignorance in these matters is almost total. We do not know which patients are aware of these symptoms and which are not. We do not know to which symptoms awareness or unawareness applies and to what extent patients suffer from these symptoms.
Introduction
Authors: Holman J Alan
Published: November 2023

The Pleistocene epoch, or “Ice Age,” is thought to have begun about 1.9 million years ago (Repenning, 1987) and to have ended about 10,000 years ago (Meltzer and Mead, 1983). The term Pleistocene was proposed by Charles Lyell (1839) on the basis that it contained more than 70 percent of Recent species of marine mollusks, principally from beds in southern Italy. This contrasted with the time period now known as the Pliocene, which was characterized by 40 to 70 percent Recent mollusk species and began about 3.1 million years before the Pleistocene. Later, Forbes (1846) correlated the Pleistocene with European glaciation, and the idea of a worldwide Pleistocene followed shortly after. In 1948 the base of the Pleistocene was defined, in an edict by the eighteenth International Geological Congress, as the Italian Calabrian stage (marine) and its equivalent Villafranchian stage (terrestrial). This base recognizes as the starting point of Pleistocene events climatic deterioration in Italy rather than the appearance of the first continental glaciation. Since 1948 an attempt has been made to correlate the Italian Calabrian-Villafranchian sequence with other stratigraphically equivalent units worldwide.
The Pleistocene In North America
Authors: Holman J Alan
Published: November 2023

The Pleistocene epoch is believed to have begun about 1.9 million years ago. The North American Pleistocene is divided into stratigraphic units based on (1) glacial and interglacial ages and (2) North American Land Mammal Ages. This will be discussed in some detail later in this chapter. The period of time from the end of the Pleistocene through the present is designated the Holocene. The most dynamic feature of the Pleistocene in North America was the presence of glaciers and their advances and retreats. In the classic interpretation there were four advances and four retreats, the last retreat occurring near the end of the epoch. These movements occurred with the periodic growth and degeneration of two giant ice masses. The largest of these was the Laurentide Ice Sheet, which extended from Nova Scotia and the northeastern United States across the continent to western Canada. A smaller mass, the Cordilleran Ice Sheet, blanketed the mountain ranges of the Northwest from Montana and Washington up to the Aleutian Islands (Matsch, 1976).
The North American Herpetofauna: Late Cretaceous Through Pliocene
Authors: Holman J Alan
Published: November 2023

The Pleistocene and Holocene North American herpetofauna is a product of past events. Although fossil records in general have many gaps, ancient herpetofaunas are much better known in North America than they are in many continents, and they give us a fairly good picture of changes that occur at the family and generic level. With the exception of a major radiation of advanced snake groups that occurred in the Miocene, the North American herpetofauna did not change nearly as much in the Cretaceous through Pliocene time span as did the avian and mammalian faunas. In the following temporal accounts, many families and genera will be mentioned that also occur in the Pleistocene. Thus the reader is referred to the “Bestiary” (Chapter 4) that follows, where these taxa are systematically listed, discussed, and sometimes figured.
Herpetological Population Adjustments During The North American Pleistocene
Authors: Holman J Alan
Published: November 2023

Two overriding events took place in vertebrate populations during the Pleistocene: (1) range adjustments due to the obliteration of habitats by glacial advances and altered climatic patterns, and (2) widespread extinctions. This chapter will deal with both of these population adjustments in a general way, and the following chapter will specifically address extinction. The complete faunal list of the localities discussed in the present chapter appears in the preceding chapter. Range adjustments in herpetological populations may be divided into three major movements: (1) southward movement of northern populations during the glacial advances and the reinvasion of their former ranges by these populations during glacial retreats, (2) the altitudinalrange adjustments made in mountainous regions, and (3) range adjustments made by certain species in areas south of the glaciated areas. It is very important to note the third topic at this time, for not many years ago it would have not been an important consideration. The classic idea was that advancing and retreating glaciers altered climatic isotherms in such a uniform way that communities were uniformly displaced southward during glacial advances and uniformly advanced northward during glacial retreats. In other words, uniform bands of tundra, taiga, and deciduous forest with their component animal communities were envisioned as having moved downward during glacial advances and upward during glacial retreats. This classic stripe hypothesis was a great oversimplification.
Storage versus Flux Budgets: The Terrestrial Uptake of CO2 during the 1980s
Authors: Tans Pieter P , Enting Inez Y Fung,Ian G
Published: November 2023

Measurements of the atmospheric CO2 mixing ratio have played a major role in the discussion during recent years of the magnitudes and whereabouts of the major sources and sinks of atmospheric CO2. Any hypothesis about sources of global significance must satisfy the observed spatial distribution of CO2 and its rate of growth, today and in recent history. The link between spatial and temporal source-sink patterns and the global distribution of CO2 mixing ratios in the atmosphere is provided by numerical models of atmospheric diffusion and transport.
The Empathic Emotions: Gratitude, Compassion, and Those Aroused by Aesthetic Experiences
Authors: Lazarus Richard S , Lazarus Bernice N
Published: November 2023

The three kinds of emotion described in this chapter are closely related because each depends to some extent on the capacity to empathize with others. Our knowledge about them is modest, but they are important in our daily lives, and their special characteristics make them fascinating and distinct from other emotions.
The Nuts and Bolts of Emotion
Authors: Lazarus Richard S , Lazarus Bernice N
Published: November 2023

Now that we have looked at the unique plot of each emotion, we turn to a discussion of what these emotions all have in common-the nuts and bolts, so to speak. We have seen how personal meaning, which is constructed by us, shapes the emotion we will experience. Far from being irrational, we have seen how the emotions follow from the thought pro cesses of intelligent beings. What is no doubt now apparent is that emotion and thought are inseparable in humans. How this works, psychologically, is what this chapter is all about.
The History of the Concept of Herrschaft in the Geschichtliche Grundbegriffe
Authors: Richter Melvin
Published: November 2023

Begriffsgeschichte in the form given it by the GG will now be considered not as a set of programmatic statements but on the basis of actual performance. The qualities which recommend this lexicon are not easily conveyed to those who have not as yet used it. Yet without some knowledge of what the GG contains, it is impossible to form even a preliminary judgment about the value of either its method or findings. Rather than summarizing or describing a number of articles, I have chosen to present a detailed exposition of the long contribution on Herrschaft (“dominion,” “domination,” “lordship,” “rule,” “command”) written by a team headed by Reinhart Koselleck. Be cause this concept has figured so prominently in the vocabularies of social scientists, historians, and political philosophers in the English-speaking world since 1945, readers will be in a position to judge for themselves just what the GG might add to what they already know.
Made for Each Other
Authors: Lanner Ronald M
Published: November 2023

A beautifully written account of the symbiotic relationship between pine trees and jays; a cycle of dependency has progressed for several million years as birds have effectively planted the trees that sustain them by dispersing the seeds. This book covers a wide range of regions, focusing on the Rocky Mountains and the American Southwest, but also ranging from the Alps to Finland, and from Siberia to China. The book is written from the perspectives of evolution, ecology, and animal behaviour.
Genes For Sale
Authors: Vogel Joseph Henry
Published: November 2023

With each species lost to the mass extinction crisis, the natural economy of the nation and of the world is greatly diminished. An endangered animal may hold the cure for cancer; a threatened plant could someday become a major food crop; and even bacteria often provide novel molecular structures in polymer science. As the rainforest is destroyed and habitats are degraded, conservationists are now urgently searching for dramatic new ways to save these economic resources. In this provocative and important book, Joseph Henry Vogel details one potential solution that has met with increasing interest and popularity: the privatization of genetic information. Vogel cogently makes the case that the world should abandon the doctrine of “the common heritage of mankind” and create private property rights over genes. Landowners, once vested with the genetic resources on their land, will have a newfound financial incentive to protect what they now already control. Genes for Sale provides an overview of the many complexities inherent in implementing a viable conservation policy. Vogel elaborates both technical issues like the construction of a “gargantuan database” of land titles and biological inventories, and political issues like legal reform. Clearly written, engaging, and timely, Genes for Sale provides students, scientists, and policy makers alike with the ideal introduction to an exciting and controversial new approach to saving our precious living heritage.
Variations within Aphasia
Authors: Benson D Frank , Ardila Alfredo
Published: November 2023

Any attempt to investigate a case of aphasia demands recognition of a number of crucial variables. First is an obvious but easily overlooked factor: no two individuals have identical backgrounds (social, spiritual, material) for thought or language (Benson, 1992; James, 1890/1983). Individual variation in mental content is extreme and this naturally influences language production. Second, brains are not identical anatomically or physiologically. The causes and effects of these variations are obscure, but they defeat any attempt to look upon the brain as a fixed “printed-circuit”. A third point concerns the language(s) used by the individual. Not only the lexicon but also the rules of grammar differ between languages, and these variations between languages and even within a single language are crucial to the investigation of aphasia (Segalowitz and Bryden, 1983). Many other factors influence the comprehension and production of language, and a few will be dis cussed below.
Perisylvian Aphasic Syndromes
Authors: Benson D Frank , Ardila Alfredo
Published: November 2023

The first three aphasic syndromes presented in Table 7.2—Broca aphasia, Wernicke aphasia, and conduction aphasia—have two notable similarities in common. First, the sites of brain pathology consistently described are located in the vicinity of the sylvian fissure of the dominant hemisphere; second, one clinical finding, difficulty in the repetition of spoken language, is prominent in each syndrome. The three perisylvian language impairment syndromes constitute the earliest described and the best-recognized types of aphasia. In this chapter, the basic clinical findings for each syndrome will be outlined, variations within the typical symptom cluster will be discussed, and the neuroanatomical site most commonly involved will be described.

A frontal language disorder was originally postulated by Gall and was the first focal language impairment to be firmly established. Initially termed aphemia by Broca (1861a,b), the term aphasia was used by Trousseau (1864) to define the language defect described by Broca. Aphasia was eventually accepted, but only after considerable controversy (Henderson, 1990). After Wernicke’s (1874) dem onstration of a language deficit that was clinically different from the one originally described by Broca, aphasia became the common name for all acquired language disorders, prefaced by a term such as Broca or Wernicke to distinguish the clinical syndromes.
Agraphia
Authors: Benson D Frank , Ardila Alfredo
Published: November 2023

Agraphia may be defined simply as a loss or impairment of the ability to produce written language caused by brain damage. There is nothing simple about agraphia, however. In fact, the complexities of written language disorder have made useful clinical correlations difficult. Almost without exception, aphasic patients show some degree of agraphia. Not only does agraphia accompany many brain disturbances other than aphasia, but writing competency varies immensely between normal individuals. Writing is, at best, a tenuous accomplishment for many humans and almost any brain abnormality can significantly disrupt a poorly established writing skill.

Written language mirrors the complexities of spoken language and its loss. The distinct varieties of aphasia can be reflected by equally distinct agraphic disorders, but many other elements, some language-related but others independent of language, influence writing. Written language demands a precise output that must be presented in a specific spatial orientation; visuospatial orientation and constructional competency are important for written language. Abnormalities of visuospatial discrimination, of spatial orientation, or of constructional ability, all common in brain damage, can produce nonaphasic varieties of agraphia. In addition, motor and, to a lesser degree, sensory abnormalities can adversely affect the patient’s written language production. Ataxia, rigidity, spasticity, chorea, myoclonus, and either central or peripheral sensory loss involving the dominant limb will alter the quality of graphic output.
Psychiatric Aspects of Aphasia
Authors: Benson D Frank , Ardila Alfredo
Published: November 2023

The acute loss of the ability to communicate through language produces obvious psychological difficulties for both the patient and those close to him or her. Psychiatric complications are important not only in the overall clinical status of aphasic patients but also in determining the success of rehabilitation. Despite the facts that aphasia has been actively studied for well over a century, that it represents a major arena for subspecialists within psychology (e.g., psycholinguists, neuropsychologists), and that most early treatment methods stressed psychological support (sympathy and understanding), relatively little attention has been given to the psychiatric problems confronting the patient with aphasia.

There may be two reasons for this lack of interest in the psychiatric complications of aphasia. First, it is an obviously “organic” disorder, not basically psychogenic. Under the old and now discredited functional/organic division of behavioral disorders, aphasia was clearly a problem for the neurologist, not the psychiatrist. Second, aphasia obviously interferes with a person’s ability to communicate. Both factors tended to exclude the aphasic patient from the purview of most mid-twentieth-century psychiatrists; the “talk therapy” that prevailed during that period was difficult to conduct with an aphasic subject.
Broadsides to Broadcasts
Authors: Jamieson Kathleen Hall
Published: November 2023

In 1888, Scottish scholar and statesman James Bryce observed that during election campaigns in the U.S. “For three months, processions, usually with brass bands, flags, badges, crowds of cheering spectators, are the order of the day and night from end to end of the country.” Such business, Bryce continued, “pleases the participants by making them believe they are effecting something; it impresses the spectators by showing them that other people are in earnest, it strikes the imagination of those who in country hamlets read of the doings in the great city. In short, it keeps up the ‘boom,’ and an American election is held to be, truly or falsely, largely a matter of booming.”

The “booming” Bryce described is as alien to modern Americans as it was to Bryce. Most of us now experience presidential campaigns in the privacy of our living rooms, and little more than half the population emerges from them on election day to vote. But substitute “political advertising” as the subject of Bryce’s observation, change the idiom to modern English, and David Broder could comfortably open a column with the resulting claims: “For three months political advertising is the order of the day and night from coast to coast.
Trade Antagonism and Industrial Policy
Authors: Tabb William K
Published: November 2023

There is little doubt that Japan acted as a discriminating monopolist selling in their domestic market at higher prices and using the profits to improve Capacity to sell at cut-rate prices abroad. Since they could close their domestic market to foreign competitors and sell in competitors’ markets at lower prices, they could pick up market shares where they faced competition. This, of course, is exactly what Germany and the United States had done to free-trade England a century earlier.2 Contemporary arguments concerning the continued extent of such practices have dominated questions of trade policy to a great extent, but they are an inadequate way of looking at matters. Over the 1980s evidence mounted that a large proportion of the exports of Japanese corporations from Japan had been replaced by the output of their overseas affiliates and subsidiaries. This transnationalizing of production puts a more complex light on competitiveness. Cross-subsidization by large Japanese firms of research and development expenses and state policies to encourage technology development through cooperation and underwriting have also been important. The next chapter deals with the issue of overseas production by Japanese firms.
Economic Transformation and the World System.
Authors: Tabb William K
Published: November 2023

There are, of course, those who believe that Japan has never been different in any theoretically significant way from other capitalist nations. Given the detailed, though contested evidence, some neoclassically oriented economists suggest that whatever might have been true in the past, and they concede nothing, Japan today is becoming more like other capitalist nations. In the world system convergence is thought to be inevitable; indeed, it is seen as the result of market forces working themselves out. In this chapter the issue of convergence will be explored in a globalization context. It will be suggested that some of us in the United States may be turning Japanese, at least as much, if not more, than Japanese are being truly converted to laissez-faire thinking. Indeed, the rhetorical acceptance of Western economic ideology is partly the result of corporate Japan having outgrown the need for many types of industrial policy support and partly serves a tactical function of further disarming the ideologically hardened sons and daughters of Adam Smith.
A Taxonomy of Movement
Authors: Dingle Hugh
Published: November 2023

This is a book about behavior and its ecological consequences, and specifically it is a book about a particular kind of behavior known as migration.Migration is one of several types of movement, all of which sum over the course of an organism’s life cycle to produce a lifetime track(Baker 1978). Before proceeding to a full discussion of migratory behaviour and its evolution and ecology, I shall briefly define and describe movements and related behaviors that organisms display, including some examples and an adumbration of their roles in life cycles (Table 1-1). This taxonomy should serve to place migration in the context of the lifetime track and to indicate its significance to life histories. I then consider in greater detail a definition and description of migration in Chapter 2.Most movements occur within a relatively circumscribed area or home rangeover which an organism travels to acquire the resources it needs for survival and reproduction. The sizes of home ranges depend on the habitat and the size and powers of movement of their residents. Most cover only a small area relative to the range of the organism, but some, like those of pelagic seabirds, may extend over considerable portions of the earth’s surface.
Patterns in Migratory Journeys
Authors: Dingle Hugh
Published: November 2023

The definition elaborated in Chapter 2 explicitly excludes the pathway followed as a criterion for migration. Thus freed from the restrictions imposed by cartography, we can examine the diverse ways a similar behavioral organization can be modified by natural selection to serve a multiformity of ecological requirements. In the following sections I outline a number of different migratory pathways and their spatial and temporal elements. These should serve to illustrate the richness of pattern generated in the life cycles of organisms by the synergism between migratory behavior and the exigencies of the environment and set the stage for a more detailed examination of both proximate and ultimate factors in migration in the remainder of this book. To-and-Fro Migrations Many to-and-fro migrations are ones with which we are all likely to be familiar. They include the great seasonal movements that bring songbirds back to Temperate Zone forests and gardens, the ducks and geese to northern lakes and marshes, the great whales swimming past our coasts, and ladybird beetles from mountain refuges to lowland fields and flower beds. Many of these movements occur on a large scale over major portions of the planet; others are on a much smaller scale-sometimes, as in the case of many insects, over distances of only a few hundreds or thousands of meters. All involve breeding at one end of the migratory pathway and most include refuging at the other to escape seasonal harshness in the breeding area. As with all migratory journeys great variety is evident, as the following few examples will illustrate.
Behavioral and Life-History Variability in Migration
Authors: Dingle Hugh
Published: November 2023

Migration is rarely a unitary phenomenon even in those species usually regarded as classic migrants. Rather, there is much variation in performance not only among species, but also among populations and individuals. Broadly, this variation can be divided into three types, but with considerable overlap between categories. First, there ar those species and populations that show behavioral or life-history variation associated with migration in the absence of any overt qualitative morphological or physiological differences. Second, there are species and sometimes populations that to varying degrees retain the morphological capability for migratory movement only during the migration period, often remobilizing energy and materials into reproduction at the termination of this period. Wing muscle histolysis in insects is a good example. The most extreme form of variation is the third type, occurring in species that are polymorphic (genetic variation) or polyphenic (environmental variation) in the morphology directly associated with migratory activity. This is exemplified by those insects in which populations may fluctuate in the proportions of winged and wingless individuals and in many plant species with heteromorphic seeds. In this chapter, I shall concentrate on variation of the first type, deferring cases of morphological contrasts between migrants and nonmigrants to the next chapter.
Wavefront Correctors
Authors: Hardy John W
Published: November 2023

Since the invention of the telescope in the early sevententh century, the need for lenses and mirrors of high accuracy and stability has been a major challenge to scientists and engineers. While the size of telescope optics has steadily increased, the surface accuracy that must be achieved remains constant at a small fraction of the wavelength of light. The classic solution to maintaining the surface figure of large telescope mirrors against the onslaught of gravitational and temperature changes has been to use the most rigid and stable materials available: glass, quartz, and ceramics. A revolution has recently occurred in the development of telescope optics. Large primary mirrors now employ flexible faceplates that are actively controlled to maintain their figures. In addition, small high-speed deformable mirrors are included in the optical train to compensate atmospheric turbulence in real time. To perform these tasks, wavefront correctors must combine the high degree of mechanical stability essential for optical components with the additional capability of making precisely controlled adjustments to an optical wavefront. These requirements have led to the development of a totally new class of optical device, the evolution of which started in the late 1960s and is still in progress. The most successful wavefront correctors combine specially developed materials and processes into a single integrated structure. The absence of suitable wavefront correctors was one of the main reasons for the long hiatus between Babcock’s initial concept of adaptive optics in 1953 and its first flowering in the early 1970s.
The Neuropsychology of Memory Dysfunction and Its Assessment
Authors: Squire Larry R , Shimamura Arthur
Published: November 2023

Memory disorders merit separate attention in a volume on clinical neuropsychology because complaints about memory are very common, particularly among neurological and psychiatric patients. Among neurological patients with organic illness, memory problems are considered to be the most common initial complaint (Strub and Black, 1977). Among psychiatric patients, memory problems are often reported in association with affective disorder (Sternberg and Jarvik, 1976; Stromgren, 1977) and schizophrenia (Chapman, 1966). Memory functions are also of special interest in cases of psychogenic amnesia (Nemiah, 1980), and in considerations of the side effects of treatments such as psychotropic drugs and electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) (Squire, 1986).
Neuropsychological Aspects of Epilepsy
Authors: Thompson Pamela J , Trimble Michael R
Published: November 2023

Epilepsy is a clinical definition of a group of central nervous system disorders that have as their common symptom, seizures. The latter arise from disturbed electrical activity in the brain and take a variety of forms including episodes of disturbed movement, sensation, perception, and behavior, which are usually, but not inevitably, accompanied by alterations of the level of consciousness. Epilepsy is a relatively common disorder with a reported incideme of about 50 per 100,000 persons per year. The prevalence of active epilepsy is about 50 per 1000 persons, and it is estimated that between 2% and 5% of the general population will suffer at least one nonfebrile seizure during their lives (Sander and Shorvon, 1987). Epilepsy is a heterogeneous condition varying considerably• with regard to severity, prognosis, and etiology. In about 60% to 70% of patients the condition remits. The remainder will continue to have seizures, although seizure frequency and severity will vary markedly among patients.
The Effects of Cerebral Vascular Disease on Neuropsychological Functioning
Authors: Brown Gregory G , Baird Anne Dull , Shatz Mark W , Bornstein Robert A
Published: November 2023

About one liter of blood-nearly one fifth of cardiac output-passes through the brain each minute. Blood supplies the brain with glucose and oxygen, while dispersing the heat and metabolic products of cerebral activity (Toole, 1990, pp. 28-29). The brain can tolerate only a brief cessation in the delivery of glucose and oxygen and the removal of metabolites before neural functioning is disrupted. Diseases that clog or rupture vessels, reduce the content of glucose and oxygen in the blood, or affect the autoregulation of blood flow can cause severe neurological and behavioral deficits.
Life Quality Outcome in Head Injury
Authors: Dikmen Sureyy A , Machamer Joan , Savoie Tammy , Temkin Nancy
Published: November 2023

Traumatic head injuries represent an important health problem: they occur with high frequency; the population affected is, for the most part, previously healthy young people; and they are associated with high mortality and morbidity. Estimates of incidence vary because of how a head injury is defined, the method of case ascertainment used, and the specification of the population at risk. The best estimates are those based on hospitalized cases involving a head injury. The overall estimate of incidence based on seven U.S. studies is about 200/100,000 per year. This rate applied to the United States population of 1993 of 258 million results in about 516,000 cases of new brain injuries per year. This figure includes persons admitted for treatment as well as those who died before reaching a hospital. Approximately 77,000 of these brain injury victims die each year before reaching a hospital (Kraus, 1987; Universal Almanac, 1995). The incidence rate of all head injuries has to be several-folds higher because this figure does not include persons treated in emergency rooms as outpatients or those receiving no medical care. Using the Glasgow Coma Scale (Teasdale and Jennett, 1974) (the most commonly and widely used single index of severity measuring depth of coma), and some additional severity criteria, Gennarelli et al. (1994) reported that among hospitalized patients, approximately 25% of brain injury cases are severe and 9% are moderately severe; 66% of patients are mildly injured.
Geographic Variation in Behavior: A Phylogenetic Framework for Comparative Studies
Authors: Foster Susan A , Cameron Sydney A
Published: November 2023

Comparative studies have been used for more than a century to explore the origins and evolutionary histories of behavior patterns. Darwin employed comparison extensively in his discussion of instincts in The Origin of Species (1859) and clearly recognized that behavior patterns were the products of both natural selection and phylogeny. This insight formed the foundation upon which Whitman (1899), Heinroth (1911, 1930), and Lorenz (1935, 1941) expanded in their pioneering writings on the application of the comparative method to the study of behavioral evolution.
Comparing Behavioral and Morphological Characters as Indicators of Phylogeny
Authors: Wimberger Peter H , Queiroz Alan de
Published: November 2023

As the above quote indicates, Darwin recognized that behavioral traits, like morphology, could be inherited and thus reflect evolutionary affinities. Through the work of Whitman (1899) and Heinroth (1911) and, especially, early ethologists such as Lorenz (1941) and Tinbergen (1959), the idea that behavioral traits can and should be used as indicators of phylogeny has been maintained (McLennan et al. 1988; de Queiroz and Wimberger 1993). However, many biologists still view behavioral characters as inferior to morphology for estimating phylogenetic relationships.
Cognitive Biases in Anxiety and Depression
Authors: Mineka Susan , Gilboa Eva
Published: November 2023

Emotions are thought to consist of several elementary components (e.g., expressive, subjective, physiological, cognitive) that are not in themselves emotional (e.g., Averill, 1992; Ortony & Turner, 1990; Scherer, 1993). In the present chapter, we adopt Scherer’s definition of an emotion as an

There is still some question regarding the extent to which each of the different components proposed by Scherer is a necessary part of an emotion. Whereas physiological, expressive, and subjective components are considered to be the “building blocks”of emotions by most theorists, there is less consensus regarding the cognitive component. In this chapter we argue that cognitive processes constitute an important part of the emotion process, and play an important role in the etiology and maintenance of emotional disorders.
Affect Regulation During Psychosis
Authors: Ellgring Heiner , Smith Marcia
Published: November 2023

Affective disturbance is a hallmark of psychopathological disorders. In this chapter, we describe dysregulation of the affect system as it applies to psychosis, specifically to individuals with schizophrenia. We then present data related to facial expression, an efferent component of the affect system, and its role in affect regulation in schizophrenia.
The Pharmacological Activity of Spin Traps
Authors: Rosen Gerald M , Britigan Bradley E , Halpern Howard J , Pou Sovitj
Published: November 2023

An underlying theme of this book is that spin traps, by reacting with free radicals, compete with biologic targets for these reactive species. As such, nitrones and nitrosoalkanes can be perceived as inhibitors, interrupting the cascade of reactions at specific sites (Kalyanaraman, et al., 1991, 1993; Thomas, et al., 1994a, 1994b). Consider, for example, the competition between nitrosoalkanes and 02 for the carbon-centered free radical derived from either linoleic acid (Aoshima, et al., 1977) or arachidonic acid (Mason, et al., 1980). The efficiency of these processes is, however, not only dependent upon differing rates of reactions, but is also linked to the efficacious behavior of the spin trap toward a particular biologic target (Aoshima, et al., 1977; Mason, et al., 1980; McCormick, et al., 1995). Whether spin traps ameliorate pathologic conditions by scavenging free radicals or by attenuating specific biologic actions, these compounds are now being considered as therapeutic agents about to take their place in the pharmacopoeia of drug therapy (Carney and Floyd, 1991a, 1995; Floyd and Carney, 1991a; Floyd, et al., 1996). In this chapter, we will begin to investigate these rather sparse sugges tions of pharmacological activity by exploring the various roles that spin traps are purported to play in modulating physiologic responses.
The Utility of Paternally Inherited Nuclear Genes in Conservation Genetics
Authors: Tucker Priscilla K , Lundrigan Barbara L
Published: November 2023

The mammalian Y chromosome is of special interest as a potential tool in the conservation genetics of mammalian species because of its unique mode of inheritance. With the exception of a small region that recombines with the X chromosome during meiosis, the Y chromosome is the only chromosome in the mammalian nuclear genome that does not recombine; thus, most Y chromosome¬ linked loci are clonally inherited from father to son. Clonally inherited molecules are especially useful for inferring phylogenies or pedigrees, and for detecting and characterizing population phenomena, such as bottlenecks or founder events, because they are transmitted from one generation to the next without the shuffling effects of recombination. Mitochondrial genes, which are clonally inherited through maternal lineages in most vertebrates, have proven very useful in both intra- and interspecific studies (Wilson et al., 1985; Moritz et al., 1987; Avise et al., 1987). However, variation in the mitochondrial genome, and gene phylogenies and pedigrees established using mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), represent only the maternal side of an organism’s history. Y chromosome-linked loci provide an obvious complement to mtDNA because they represent the paternal side of an organism’s history. In effect, phylogenies based on Y-linked loci supplement phylogenies constructed from maternally inherited or Mendelian inherited loci, and thus increase the explanatory power of phylogenetic analyses. Data from Y-linked loci may be particularly useful for resolving instances where phylogenies constructed from maternally inherited mtDNA do not coincide with phylogenies constructed from Mendelian inherited loci. Such cases, for example, could result from differential introgression of mitochondrial versus Mendelian inherited genes across hybrid zones (e.g., Ferris et al., 1983; Powell, 1983; Carr et al., 1986; Tegelstrom, 1987; Carr and Hughes, 1993).
Chloroplast DNA Sequencing to Resolve Plant Phylogenies Between Closely Related Taxa
Authors: GiellY Ludovic , Taberlet Pierre
Published: November 2023

When morphological data do not allow clear identification of endangered plant taxa, the first step consists of defining the potential conservation units by establishing a molecular phylogeny among the relevant species, subspecies, or populations. Analysis of chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) sequence variations represents one of the most powerful tools used by scientists to infer phylogenetic relationships of plants (Palmer, 1987; Palmer et al., 1988; Clegg and Zurawski, 1992; Clegg et al., 1991). Within seed plants, the rbcL gene, which encodes the large subunit of ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (RUBISCO), has been sequenced in all major taxonomic groups. The resulting database greatly aided studies of plant phylogenies (Palmer et al., 1988; Clegg et al., 1991; Chase et al., 1993).
Polymorphism of Genes in the Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC): Implications for Conservation Genetics of Vertebrates
Authors: Edwards Scott V , Potts Wayne K
Published: November 2023

Genes of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) are emerging as important paradigms in the study of natural selection at the molecular level (Hedrick, 1994). Several decades of immunological and molecular genetic research have revealed that MHC genes play a critical role in the mounting of an immune response by vertebrate hosts to foreign pathogens. Additionally, more recent research in mice suggests that MHC genes influence individual odors in an allele-specific fashion and that these odors are used in mate choice and kin recognition (reviewed in Potts and Wakeland, 1993; Brown and Ecklund, 1994). The extraordinary polymorphism of MHC genes at the molecular level provides the basis of their ability to perform both of these diverse functions. This extreme polymorphism, and the nature of the forces generating and maintaining it, is the basis for recent claims that MHC genes should play a disproportionate role in the design of programs to conserve genetic diversity in captive populations and endangered species (Hughes, 1991a). Both the promise and the controversy surrounding the precise use of MHC genes in conservation genetics lie in our detailed, albeit incomplete, knowledge of proximate and ultimate mechanisms of selection on MHC genes in nature; we suspect that MHC genes have roles in disease resistance and reproductive success, yet there is considerable disagreement among biologists concerning basic mechanisms underlying these roles. In this regard, issues surrounding the use of MHC markers in conservation genetics are relevant to larger issues in conservation genetics concerning the importance of genetic diversity in general (Harcourt, 1992; Caro and Laurensen, 1994). In this chapter we review the data for MHC as a case example of these larger issues.
Attention Capture and the Startle-Matching Syndromes
Authors: Simons Ronald C
Published: November 2023

I write this on a bright summer day, sitting on a bench and looking at a brightly lit green scene with trees, flowers, a path, and butterflies. Intermittently, a red-winged blackbird, song sparrows, and goldfinches sing or call. The bench is hard and a bit uncomfortable, and I feel it in my back and buttocks. Sitting here with drifting thoughts, I find my attention drawn repeatedly to a deep blue clump of delphiniums. In a visual world of mostly green, over and over again my eyes are attracted to that intense blue.
The Varieties of Love and Lust Neural Control of Sexuality
Authors: Panksepp Jaak
Published: November 2023

Male and female sexuality are subservient to distinct brain controls, although they also share many influences. The primordial plan for both female and male fetuses, in mammals but not in birds, is initially feminine. Some have called this the “default” plan, since masculinization results from the organizational effects of fetal testosterone, which, in humans, occur during the second trimester of pregnancy. Others would call it the “without fault” plan, since the female brain coordinates the use of both cerebral hemispheres more effectively than does the male brain. Contrary to some creation myths, in mammals maleness arises from femaleness, rather than the other way around. If all biochemical events go according to the masculinization plan during this phase of gender specialization, the initially feminine brain is masculinized in utero by the timed secretion of testosterone and its conversion to the active organizational hormone, estrogen. The developing female brain is protected by prophylactic molecules, such as alpha-fetoprotein, which neutralize the effects of maternal estrogens that would otherwise tend to masculinize the brain. To be masculinized means that certain areas of the brain, especially specific nuclear groups in the anterior hypothalamus, grow larger in males than in females, while other areas remain smaller, such as the corpus callosum, which connects the two cerebral hemispheres. These brain organizational effects of early hormone secretions go a long way toward explaining some homosexual tendencies, for the hormones that ultimately trigger the organization of the male brain (testosterone aromatized to estrogen) are distinct from those that trigger the organization of the male body (testosterone converted to dihydrotestosterone, or DHT, by 5a-reductase). Due to this branching of control factors for brain and body organization, it is quite possible for a male-type body to contain a female-type brain, and for a female-type body to contain a male-type brain. It has been repeatedly shown in animal models that maternal stress can hinder the normal process of brain masculinization by desynchronizing the underlying physiological processes: If neonatal testosterone is secreted too early, before receptors are available to receive the message, normal masculinization does not occur. Maternal stress also impairs aromatase activity, which retards conversion of testosterone to estrogen. These different gender potentials in the brain, laid down during fetal development, are activated by the maturation of gonadal steroid synthesis during puberty. It is also known that male and female sexual urges emerge from different neural systems.
Game Theory and Habitat Selection
Authors: Brown Joel S
Published: November 2023

Evolution by natural selection comes in three flavors: density-independent, density dependent, and frequency-dependent. Density-independent selection means that the fitness consequences of an organism’s heritable traits remain uninfluenced by the population. In response to density-independent selection, natural selection produces adaptations maximizing population growth rates (Wright 1931, 1960). Density dependent selection means that population size does influence the fitness consequences of an organism’s traits. Density-dependent selection produces adaptations that maximize the population’s size (Wright 1960, Roughgarden 1976). Frequency dependent selection means that the fitness consequences of an individual’s traits are influenced by others’ traits and the frequency of particular traits within the population. Frequency-dependent selection produces adaptations, but these adaptations neither maximize population growth rates nor maximize sizes (Vincent&Brown 1984; Metz et al. 1992). Such adaptations can be evolutionarily stable and are called ESSs (evolutionarily stable strategies). Frequency-dependence creates the need for evolutionary game theory (see Hammerstein, this volume). Habitat selection, the study of how organisms assess and respond to habitat heterogeneity, is frequency-dependent; the evolutionary ecology of habitat selection is an evolutionary game.
Game Theory, Optimization, and Quantitative Genetics
Authors: Gomulkiewicz Richard
Published: November 2023

Game theory, optimization, and quantitative genetics are among the most frequently used theoretical approaches to study evolution by natural selection. Over the last few years, the three methods have been carefully compared and contrasted (Pease&Bull 1988, Charnov 1989, Charlesworth 1990, Iwasa et al. 1991, Mangel 1992, Taper&Case 1992, Abrams et al. 1993a,b). This chapter will summarize these comparisons, describing how the approaches are used to study and predict evolutionary dynamics and equilibria for traits that evolve by natural selection. Because all three theoretical approaches consider the evolutionary roles of adaptation and constraint, a general strategy will be proposed at the end of this chapter that an empiricist might wish to follow when assessing the relative importance of adaptation and constraint in the evolution of behavioral traits in natural populations.

Another goal of this chapter is to consider how game theory, optimization, and quantitative genetic approaches apply to the evolution of complex characters such as behavior. To this end, it will be helpful to introduce some terminology and notation that will be used throughout. A complex character can often be thought of as a collection of component traits or a set of measurements. For example, an individual’s forag ing behavior might consist of a number of basic elements (such as searching, handling, consuming, and resting).