bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Mutual Affect Therapy and the Emergence of Transformational Empathy
Authors: Ryback David
Published: March 2007

The early founders of humanistic psychology made clear the priority of empathy in effective psychotherapy. In the past decade, an understanding of emotional communication has been enhanced by research in neurobiology and brought to popular attention by those writing under the banner of “emotional intelligence.” This article presents a novel approach to empathy in which the therapist searches for a memory-evoking affect sufficiently similar to that of the client to experience that shared affect more fully and vividly. Clients receiving such empathy using this mutual affect approach appear to experience a deeper level of validation and emotional clarification. Referred to as Mutual Affect Therapy, this approach is put in the context of the literature on empathy and illustrated by two examples in the author’s experience.
Displaced Jewish Children During World War II
Authors: Hogman Flora
Published: March 2007

Eleven people who survived World War II as Jewish children in Europe were interviewed to investigate (1) psychological resistance to emotional trauma in children, and (2) the effect on adult adjustment of a trauma experienced during the growth process. All survivors described experiences and reactions that were attempts to cope in active ways with feelings of total helpleasness during the war. As adults they continue to react to the effects of their earlier experiences by fighting helplessness and trying to integrate their feelings, thus continuing the process of active coping.
Gestalt Therapy and Eastern Philosophies
Authors: Steggles Shawn , Holland Cornelius , Fehr Robert
Published: March 2007

The purpose of this bibliography is to provide the reader with resources to explore the relationship between Gestalt therapy and Eastern philosophies. Items are included only if they contain explicit reference to this relationship and describe it. For the reader's convenience, attempts have been made to classify the material in a way that reflects the significance of the item with regard to its discussion of the relationship. The bibliography begins with those items that are considered primary, followed by reference considered secondary and tertiary in nature. The annotations are meant to summarize the content of the article, chapter, or book, without distorting the original author's intent. The bibliography contains 52 items. These included books (12), chapters (21), and journal articles (19) published in English during 1947 to 1979. Dissertations, theses, and unpublished material have not been included.
Sport and Human Development
Authors: Kleiber Douglas A.
Published: March 2007

Sport is a conspicuous part of modern culture and is heatedly discussed by athletes, coaches, fans, sports writers, and social scientists. It is often exalted as a developer of character and criticized as a dehumanizing force. In this article I discuss sport as it relates to the continuing dialectic between the individual and society. Its initial appeal is that it simplifies that dialectic by offering a potential for the experience of conflict and for its resolution. This process may be particularly useful in the course of ontogenetic or individual change. Nevertheless, the current commercializing of sport and the bureaucratization of its control seem to undermine its special qualities of separateness and play. A critical analysis requires a closer examination of the experience of sport involvement in relation to the prevailing issues of the day. Thus, sport is examined in relation to Author's Note: I wish to acknowledge the helpful criticism of Stephen Brock, Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, Norman Denzin, John Kelly, and Michael Novak, given during the development of this manuscript. ontogenetic change, using the developmental framework of Erik Erikson,and as it fits into the broader dialectic of the developing individual in an evolving society.
Applying Humanistic Psychology to Politics
Authors: Woolpert Stephen
Published: March 2007

The field of humanistic political psychology should not only show how social problems result from psychological processes but also show which political practices best promote human growth. Three general principles guide the search for more humanistic political institutions. Better policies (1) result from a reconceptualization of underlying assumptions, (2) transcend political polarities by synthesizing conflicting positions, and (3) promote higher levels of psychological health. Criminal restitution exemplifies such a policy. The impending crisis in criminal punishment is described. Restitution is evaluated as an emerging alternative to conventional punishments. Measured against the three above criteria, restitution appears to be a practical policy that can contribute to a healthier society.
Poetry for Liberation
Authors: Kramer Aaron
Published: March 2007

This article focuses anecdotally on the therapeutic powers of poetry and of the poet himself or herself as a direct agent in the healing process. Four long poems-by Adam Mickiewicz, Thomas Gray, Robert Browning, and Walt Whitman-that won unexpectedly profound acceptance from a hospital audience of mentally ill people are analyzed in depth. What the poems have in common is that each demonstrates dramatically the poet's liberating role. Other episodes of a similar nature follow, culminating in a remarkable moment when a fast-fading tubercular schizophrenic was literally resuscitated by a cassette recording of his own voice reciting his own affirmative poetry. The poets are liberating Gods.Ralph Waldo Emerson'
Artistic Creativity and the Meaning of Freedom
Authors: Freeman Mark
Published: March 2007

Despite the fact that today's art world is thought to be a pluralistic one, ostensibly free of many of the constraints inherent in past eras, many artists feel that they are still unable to create meaningful art. Thus we encounter a paradox. Too much freedom somehow leads to too little. It is argued here, however, that because freedom means significantly more than the mere absence of constraints, there is no paradox at all; the illusion of freedom has simply been mistaken for freedom itself. With a more inclusive conception of what freedom means, both in the context of art and in that of society more generally, we may be more likely to see freedom actualized.
The AHP Soviet Exchange Project
Authors: Hassard Jack
Published: March 2007

Seven years have gone by since AHP sent its first delegation to the Soviet Union. During that time, over 150 North American psychologists, psychotherapists, and educators have represented AHP as delegates in the U.S.S.R. A smaller but growing number of our Soviet counterparts have visited the U.S. This article describes the events, people, progress, and future of the AHP Soviet Exchange Project. Delegates on the first three trips were truly explorers. Without official invitation, they sought ways to establish ties to prestigious institutes, universities, and schools in the Soviet Union. With each new encounter was the hope that this might lead to more lasting, satisfying, and in-depth relationships. The early visits set the stage for more organized and official relationships with Soviet colleagues and institutions. Strong ties were developed with colleagues in Moscow, Leningrad, and Tbilisi, and more recently in Tallinn, Vilnius, and Kiev. Two areas of collaboration with Soviets have emerged over the years: psychotherapy and humanistic education. AHP psychotherapists have worked with groups in six cities, demonstrating practice and discussing recent trends in humanistic psychology. The humanistic education focus has progressed through two offlcial agreements. In the most recent one (1989), the AHP, Georgia State University, and the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences signed a three-year agreement in which American and Soviet scholars and teachers would work together through a series of exchanges, writing conferences, and field testing to develop teaching materials focusing on global thinking. The work of both sides will culminate in an international conference co-hosted by both sides in Leningrad during the summer of 1992.

The more that the common people contact each other the more our leaders will be obliged to contact each other as well.

-Yulia Siroyezhina

Institute of Adult Education, Leningrad
Maslow's Study of Self-Actualization
Authors: Mittelman Willard
Published: March 2007

The focal point of this article is Abraham Maslow's famous study of self-actualizing people. Maslow was profoundly correct in perceiving that there was something special and admirable about the individuals whom he selected for study. In calling his subjects self-actualizing, however, Maslow failed to capture just what was special about them. I propose that the individuals whom Maslow studied were not distinguished from others by the fact that they were self-actualizing, but rather by the fact that they were very open. I will explain both what I mean by openness and why we should speak of openness rather than self-actualization. I will also use the idea of openness, along with Maslow's description of his "self-actualizing" people, to delineate an ideal of human character.
The Medicalization of Sex
Authors: Szasz Thomas
Published: March 2007

Like all human action, sexual acts involve the use of the human body, inviting the illusion that sexual problems are medical problems. Using sex crimes, surrogate motherhood, and the existential dilemmas created by AIDS as topical examples, the author presents a critique of the currently fashionable medicalization of sex.
Carl Rogers-Values, Persons, and Politics
Authors: Caspary William R.
Published: March 2007

The person-centered approach began as a strictly personal/psychological/ private approach, only belatedly applied to politics. Nonetheless, that political turn is an expression of intrinsic tendencies within Rogers's approach. Criticisms of the person-centered way of being as inherently individualistic and apolitical, therefore, are not well founded. Exploring the challenge of the values-based, communityorganizing approach, it appears that the Rogerian framework can absorb without strain many lessons from this political theory and practice. However, the Rogerian outlook also has much to offer the world of political organizing. Despite the contrasting emphases of the Rogerian search for new values and the neopopulist search for roots in tradition, this article offers avenues for fruitful dialogue, if not for reconciliation between the two positions. The article also presents latent ideas about the individual within the communitycentered approach and latent notions about community within the person-centered approach. As these implicit ideas are developed, a picture emerges of complex relations between person, community, economy, and polity that might enrich the Rogerian and the neopopulist approach.
Biographical Origins of Psychological Ideas
Authors: Fuller Robert C.
Published: March 2007

This article explores the biographical and experiential origins of psychological ideas by focusing on the role that Freud's personal use of cocaine played in his gradual abandonment of a positivistic neurological psychology and his simultaneous formulation of early psychoanalytic theory. Both phenomenological and pharmacological studies of the effects of cocaine will be used to demonstrate that Freud's use of cocaine altered his perceptual and cognitive structures in ways that made his "discovery" of psychoanalysis, if not inevitable, at least likely.
Who's Minding the Store?
Authors: Fadiman James
Published: March 2007

In spite of Frick's assertion that the self is unified, the evidence appears to be more and more in the other direction. It is time to let go of comfortable but unlikely concepts in face of the emerging data.
The 1957 Martin Buber-Carl Rogers Dialogue, as Dialogue
Authors: Cissna Kenneth N. , Anderson Rob
Published: March 2007

This study offers an understanding of human dialogue by examining a 1957 conversation between two of this century's leading proponents of dialogue, philosopher Martin Buber and psychologist Carl Rogers. The study assumes that this conversation was a dialogue (as those principally involved said it was) and asks what we can learn about dialogue through a study of this one instance. We conduct and report a close analysis of the conversation. For all the difficulties caused by the roles assigned to Buber and Rogers, the presence of two silent audiences, and the interpersonal styles of the men themselves, and despite the encounter not matching some idealized conceptions ofdialogue, this study demonstrates that dialogue is not an 'ideal possibility seldom realized" but a concretely realizable and practical accomplishment.
Humanistic Neuroscience, Mentality, and Spirituality
Authors: Dennis Del
Published: March 2007

Mentality and spirituality, the most distinctly human phenomena, have been ignored and forced underground ever since psychology was taken over by materialistic and behavioristic science. This article reviews the contemporary scientific status of mental and spiritual processes in the light of the new worldview of modern physics and other recent developments, including the overthrow of behavior by mentality, the development of humanistic neuroscience, current views concerning the relationship between religion and science, and vigorous work synthesizing religion and psychology. The main conclusion is that views and research in science, philosophy of science, theology, and psychology have converged to support an optimistic outlook for continued integration of mentality and spirituality in psychology.
James F. T. Bugental: Portrait of a Humanistic Psychologist
Authors: deCarvalho Roy Jose
Published: March 2007

This essay is a biographical sketch of James Bugental, an outspoken member of the existential wing within humanistic psychology. It narrates his upbringing and education and delineates key tenets of his psychological thinking.
A Guide to Wilberland: Some Common Misunderstandings of the Critics of Ken Wilber and His Work on Transpersonal Theory Prior to 1995
Authors: Fisher Robert M.
Published: March 2007

This article substantiates the importance of Ken Wilber and his work on transpersonal theory to the psychology and spirituality of human development over the past 23 years. Wilber and his work, prior to 1995, continue to attract ardent controversy, particularly outside of the field of transpersonal psychology. The focus of this article is directed to the identification of a few common pervasive misunderstandings based on recent critiques from writers in psychology. Although Wilber's critical style is at times unnecessarily arrogant, the evidence indicates that the critics' interpretations are not often substantiated and tend to become explicitly or implicitly polemical. This trend is the opposite effect of Wilber's stated intentions of his unifying spectrum psychology. This article is divided into three parts: First is Wilber's actual intentions; second, his major theses; and third, his critical style, with a number of summary hypotheses provided for further study to explain the conflicts between Wilber and his critics.
The Role of the Humanistic Movement in the History of Psychology
Authors: Wertz Frederick J.
Published: March 2007

A review of history of psychology textbooks shows that humanistic psychology is in crisis. Although well understood and respected by some, it is inadequately understood and dismissed by many. The value of the movement is shown to hinge on whether it faithfully embodies the historical tradition of humanism, provides an appropriate philosophical foundation for psychology, asserts relevant critiques of contemporary psychology, affords the discipline theoretical unity, offers rigorous research methodologies, bridges the gap between psychology and the humanities, and assumes leadership in socially reforming the depersonalizing tendencies of modern culture. It is argued that the best work in humanistic psychology has achieved these virtues, and that the major criticisms of the movement do not apply to this work. The contemporary crisis is attributed to sociological factors-inadequate institutional establishments necessary to gain historical impact.
East of Eden: Clinical and Theoretical Aspects of the Sense of Excommunication
Authors: Strenger Carlo
Published: March 2007

This article investigates an organization of personality, centered on a sense of excommunication. What often seems like amoralism or cynicism often hides a moral outrage against the moral and social order the individual experiences as inherently painful, as condemning him or her to unavoidable guilt, or as an identity of deviance or illegitimacy. This constellation is exemplified through elements of Philip Roth's works and Jean Genet. Aclinical case study exemplifies the inherent complexity of working with patients whose identities are governed by the protest against social order. It is shown that they are particularly susceptible to experiencing the therapist as representing this order and that the experience of mutuality in the therapeutic relationship most likely is to establish a good working alliance.
The Depth of the Soul: James Hillman’s Vision of Psychology
Authors: Drob Sanford L.
Published: March 2007

James Hillman’s vision of psychology is explored and commented on. Hillman’s deconstruction of psychological theory and his critique of humanistic psychology are considered against the background of several of his foundational ideas: the deepening of the soul, personification and the “world soul,” image, and myth as the language of the psyche, the function of narrative, honoring psychopathology, psychological polytheism, and the deconstruction of the ego. Several of Hillman’s more controversial ideas are critiqued, and the relationship of Hillman’s ideas to Hegel’s philosophy is explored. It is concluded that Hillman’s vision of psychology is far more humanistic than he himself acknowledges.
Comparative Quit Rates of Men and Women
Authors: Lewis Donald E.
Published: March 2007

Observed differences in quit rates of men and women have little value in explaining the wage gap between the sexes. It is hypothesised that because men and women quit for different reasons, employers believe the quit rate differential to be greater than it is. This hypothesis is substantiated by inter views with personnel directors; the results indicate that they significantly under estimate the quit rate of their male employees and over-estimate the quit rate of their female employees. If employers act on these inaccurate assessments, they are likely to discriminate against women when making decisions about hiring, training and promoting their staff.
Industrial Relations Under a Conservative Government: The Coalition's Labour Law Programme 1975 to 1978
Authors: Mitchell Richard
Published: March 2007

In just three years following the election of the Liberal-National Country Party Coalition Government, Australian industrial law underwent considerable transformation, including extensive amendments to the Conciliation and Arbi tration Act and further legislative changes introduced by commonwealth and state parliaments. These developments marked a shift towards the principle of industrial enforcement. In the 1960s and early 1970s a pattern of industrial relations developed which tended to play down the centralising role of the Conciliation and Arbitration Commission.1 Those developments have to some extent been legislatively repudiated, though how far this will effect the long term evolution of industrial relations remains to be seen. The purpose of this article is to provide an outline of recent changes in labour law and to make some comment on their likely impact upon industrial relations. The analysis concentrates on the amendments made to the Conciliation and Arbitration Act in the two key Bills of 1977.2 The central feature of the new legislation, the Industrial Relations Bureau (IRB) is taken as a starting point for an examination of the changes in four basic areas of industrial law: the enforcement of the legis lation and awards made thereunder; the protection of individual rights; control of internal trade union affairs; and the penal provisions against strikes. The con clusion is that the industrial legislation has served to bolster the Government's political campaign against the union movement and to direct public attention away from the real problem—the economic crisis.
Structure and Strategy in the Case for Worker Participation
Authors: Vaughan Edward
Published: March 2007

The case for increasing worker participation in management has been a popular subject of Australian industrial relations debate over the last ten years, but the debate has so far had little effect on Australian management practices. Workers are generally no closer no w to participating in decisions than they were ten years ago.

Economic recession and high unemployment help to explain why worker participation has made little progress, but they do not provide a complete explanation. It is thought that advocates of worker participation have generally argued their case badly and so have not made the case convincing enough. Factual claims have often appeared exaggerated, and arguments have sometimes adopted illegitimate or illogical forms. Furthermore, advocates have made a serious strategic mistake by relying too much on facts and empirical reasoning, which has probably resulted from a poor understanding of the structure of the case and its implications for choice of strategy.
Rewarding North Korea: Theoretical Perspectives on the 1994 Agreed Framework
Authors: MARTIN CURTIS H.
Published: March 2007

This article tests theoretical propositions of sanctions theory against a `crucial case study' of the US-DPRK Agreed Framework, which since 1994 has employed incentives to influence North Korea to abandon its nuclear weapons program. By electing an incentives-based strategy, the Agreed Framework appears to invalidate the proposition that positive sanctions are unlikely to be employed between adversaries. However, the choice can be explained in part by the unique political and security environment on the Korean peninsula, by the absence of viable policy alternatives for the USA and its allies, and by the relatively low cost to the USA. The subsequent history of implementation, however, amply confirms a number of theoretical caveats and leaves in doubt the ultimate success of the Agreed Framework. The case illustrates how diplomatic and political pressures on both sender and recipient have altered the baseline of expectations away from a pragmatic and partial improvement in relations and toward the sweeping and more problematic goal of an `all or nothing' transformation of the adversarial relationship. Positive sanctions were caught between the perceived advantages of de-linking proliferation concerns from other contentious security issues and the domestic political advantages to the sender of greater linkage. The latter tendency is illustrated by the 1999 Perry plan, which abandoned `limited engagement' in favor of a `comprehensive and integrated approach'. While this policy shift may have bought time for administration policy, it did not resolve the contradictions inherent in a low-trust relationship. As it reassesses US policy towards the DPRK, the new US administration is likely to draw on the more skeptical view of positive incentives found in sanctions theory. The case of the Agreed Framework challenges several assumptions of sanctions theory, but it is too soon to claim that it invalidates them.
Credibility and Reputation in Peacemaking
Authors: ADDISON TONY , MURSHED S. MANSOOB
Published: March 2007

This article analyses credibility and reputation in the context of peace negotiations. The model is applicable to the credibility of peace agreements in post-conflict situations in the immediate aftermath of civil war, where there is a danger of conflict breaking out again. The analysis is motivated by the empirical regularity with which peace agreements break down in the context of civil war, as for example in Angola, Sierra Leone and many of the conflicts in the Caucasus region. Where war provides economic gains to one side, peace is not incentive compatible, and peace agreements will necessarily degenerate, as they become time inconsistent. The party that has something to gain from surprise warfare, agreeing to peace but reneging on it, will do so and return to war. The levels of conflict chosen by this group are an increasing function of greed and capturable rents, but decreasing in the direct costs of war. In this context, action by external powers could lower the risk of civil war reigniting. Basically, these involve a greater commitment to peace, induced by policies known as commitment technologies. Sanctions, aid and direct intervention, if effective, could eliminate conflict, as well as help in devising commitment technologies to peace. In a multiple-time framework, uncertainty about the type of the group that may renege on peace generates extra costs in terms of greater fighting, and the key role of the discount rate in trading off present versus future consumption enters the analysis. High discount rates and the impatience to consume at present engender greater conflict.
The Arms Trade and the Incidence of Political Violence in Sub-saharan Africa, 1967-97
Authors: CRAFT CASSADY , SMALDONE JOSEPH P.
Published: March 2007

The role of the weapons trade has often been ignored in the study of conflict. This article presents empirical research that strongly supports a broad conceptualization of armed conflict in Africa and addresses a critical gap in the literature on the arms trade and war. Using multivariate binomial logistic regression, it finds that arms transfers are significant and positive predictors of increased probability of war. The models, which also include posited conflict-related domestic political, economic, military, and cultural variables, explain 90% of the cases and two-thirds of the war cases, thus making a further contribution to the understanding of conflict dynamics and correlates. In addition to arms transfers, six other variables - semi-democracy, regime transitions, military spending, cumulative previous conflict, and ethno-political groupings - correctly predict war incidence, while economic development exhibits the expected negative relationship; two other factors - repression and colonial legacy - contrary to expectations, are also negatively related. The analysis and findings, while not asserting explicit causal links between arms transfers and the incidence of political violence, support the view that weapons acquisitions are virtually necessary as ingredients in the recipe for war, and that meaningful restraint by suppliers and recipients alike is needed to break the nexus between arms and conflict in sub-Saharan Africa.
Is There a Clash of Civilizations? Evidence from Patterns of International Conflict Involvement, 1946-97
Authors: CHIOZZA GIACOMO
Published: March 2007

This article offers an empirical test of Huntington's thesis in The Clash of Civilizations. Huntington argues that states belonging to different civilizations will have a higher propensity to be involved in international conflict. This effect should be more prominent in the post-Cold War period. The civilization factor should also interact with membership in different Cold War blocs, border contiguity, regime type, and levels of modernization, magnifying or depressing the basic effects of these variables. To test these hypotheses, a logit specification with King & Zeng's solution for rareness of events is used on the Kosimo data. The Kosimo data allow for an extension of the empirical analysis from both a temporal and a substantive point of view. This study shows that state interactions across the civilizational divide are not more conflict prone. The first eight years of the post-Cold War era also fail to give support to Huntington's thesis. Moreover, while the civilization factor modifies the effects of border contiguity and regime type, this is not sufficient to generate conditions under which differences in civilizational heritage are associated with greater risks of conflict.
The Risk of Compulsory Escalation
Authors: Houweling Henk W. , Siccama Jan G.
Published: March 2007

This article draws attention to the danger that deliberate escalation will transform into compulsory escalation. According to Clausewitz' philosophy, the use of violence is an instrument of policy. Nuclear deterrence would have brought an end to that philosophy, since the costs of nuclear war always exceed the benefits. However, Clausewitz also suggests the possibility that a war may escalate beyond the break-even point (where cost is equal to benefit) if a nation expects to lose unilaterally. In the nuclear era, the limited use of nuclear weapons may very easily escalate into absolute war because the target feels that its survival is at stake. This argument closely resembles Riezler's theory of bluff developed on the eve of World War I and the possibility that escalation may become uncontrollable in a Krieg aus Not (war from necessity). Just as in 1914, a third world war might break out not on the basis of a calculation that the benefits of warfare are greater than the costs, but as a consequence of compulsory escalation of a crisis or a limited war in which one side perceives that its existence is threatened. Since planning for limited nuclear war and deliberate escalation enhances the probability of compulsory escalation, a nuclear posture of minimum deterrence should be preferred.
Confronting Anthropological Ethics: Ethnographic Lessons from Central America
Authors: Bourgois Philippe
Published: March 2007

The concern with ethics in North American cultural anthropology discourages political economy research on unequal power relations and other `dangerous' subjects. US anthropologists define ethics in narrow, largely methodological terms - informed consent, respect for traditional institutions, responsibility to future researchers, legal approval by host nations, and so on. The responsibility of the researcher to uphold `human rights' or to document political repression and suffering is not merely dismissed by mainstream anthropology as a partisan issue outside the realm of scholarship, but is actually condemned as ethically problematic. The growing postmodernist deconstructivist approach within US anthropology allows ethnographers to obey their discipline's narrow ethical dictates through a reflexive investigation of the hermeneutics of signs and symbols devoid of political economic social context. Drawing on his fieldwork experiences in Central America, the author argues that anthropologists have a historical responsibility to address larger moral issues because their discipline's traditional research subjects - exotic others in remote Third World settings - are violently being incorporated into the world economy in a traumatic manner that often includes starvation, political repression, or even genocide. Meanwhile, in the name of ethics, North American anthropologists continue to ignore or avoid the human tragedies engulfing their `research subjects'.
Identity and Security
Authors: NEUMANN IVER B.
Published: March 2007

Studies of identity formation are back as a clue to questions of peace and war. Human collectives such as nation-states forge their identities by offsetting the collective against other entities. The books under review discuss how this process takes place. They make up a possible link between the literature on nationalism and state legitimacy on the one hand, and studies of interstate security on the other. This makes them a possible starting-point for empirical research.
Budgetary Consequences of Defense Expenditures in Pakistan: Short-Run Impacts and Long-Run Adjustments
Authors: Frederiksen Peter C. , Looney Robert E.
Published: March 2007

In the last twenty years, there has been a growing interest in quantifying the `guns versus butter' tradeoff facing developing countries. This article examines Pakistan's military expenditures between 1973 and 1986 and estimates both a short-run impact model and long-run adjustment model to measure how changes in the defense burden, the deficit, and government debt have affected budget allocations to economic services programs and administrative/social programs. In addition, we investigate whether defense budgets have been increased or maintained either at the expense of economic and social programs in general or merely confined to one or two specific programs. Military expenditure patterns are analyzed to see whether or not they were responsible for across-the-board cuts in long-term infrastructure programs. Our analysis indicates that the deficit, the debt service, and the military burden are often interrelated in such a complex manner that the impact of any specific program is difficult to predict. in the short run, most infrastructure programs increased as the military burden declined. The opposite was generally true for social programs such as social security, welfare, and housing. Changes in the defense budget appear to have only a transitory effect on the share of government expenditures allocated toward infrastructure. The long-run model suggests that social programs have just as high a priority as economic services. When the military burden increases, the government is willing to take some resources from infrastructure programs and lets the deficit grow to finance social programs. Our results also suggest a long run pattern of adjustment in social programs but not infrastructure programs - a counter-intuitive result given Pakistan's severe infrastructure constraints.
Re-Reading Rousseau in the Post-Cold War World
Authors: Knutsen Torbjørn L.
Published: March 2007

While the study of world politics before and during the Cold War was dominated by the competing paradigms of `idealism' and `realism', the post-Cold War world requires different approaches. This essay suggests that Jean-Jacques Rousseau's writings on war and peace may serve as a vantage-point for a paradigm which goes beyond the two orthodox perspectives. It argues that Rousseau is not the unambiguous representative for the `realist' approach that he is so routinely assumed to be. Rousseau developed a unique analysis which accentuates historical change, dialectical paradox and the tendency for interdependence to foster inequality and conflict. This analysis of interstate relations provides a useful starting-point for understanding both the global transformations which are now occurring before our eyes and the many challenges that lie ahead. First, this essay reconstructs from the many scattered pieces which Rousseau wrote about history and world politics a clear and consistent international relations theory. Then, it uses this theory to examine some of the most common assumptions about the nature of the post-Cold War world. It discusses whether the liberal-democratic values of the First World will emerge triumphant in the 21st century; whether the nations of the (former) Second World will experience prosperity and peace; and whether the struggle for liberation and justice in the Third World will finally be crowned with triumph.
Environmental Security?
Authors: Græger Nina
Published: March 2007

The literature on `environmental security' struggles with conceptual and methodological shortcomings, questioning the analytical value of the concept. Lodgaard and Westing claim that linking the environment to security - and thereby to `high politics' - has created the political awareness and sense of urgency required to resolve environmental problems and increase our security. Despite the positive political effects, Buzan, Wæver & de Wilde warn against such linking, saying it represents an undesirable `securitization' of the environment that restricts the range of means available for resolving environmental problems. In the long run, environmental security is more likely to be achieved if it is made part of the daily political debate, they argue. The environmental conflict perspective, focusing on the circumstances under which environmental degradation or change may lead to violent conflict, represents an effort to overcome some of the methodological problems of the security-environment linkage. This review also discusses how a multilevel approach to environmental security, involving global, regional, national and subnational decision-making levels according to the subsidiarity principle, would provide a more dynamic framework for action than the state-centred approach which still dominates security thinking and policy.
Defensive Arms and the Security Dilemma: A Cybernetic Approach
Authors: BELLANY IAN
Published: March 2007

A cybernetic approach is taken to the operation of the security dilemma under conditions favourable to its resolution when states have defensive intentions and access only to defensive weaponry. A systems model of this situation indicates that when only two parties are involved, the security dilemma is resolvable - the system attains a stable peacetime equilibrium - even when some of the above constraints are relaxed. But when more than two parties are involved, the preconditions for a stable equilibrium and resolution of the security dilemma become very much more demanding. The enquiry throws light on a diversity of contemporary issues, including the emerging multipolar international order, nuclear non-proliferation and non-offensive defence.
Respect for Human Rights after the End of the Cold War
Authors: Cingranelli David L. , Richards David L.
Published: March 2007

By directly affecting democratization, globalization, domestic conflict, and interstate conflict, the end of the Cold War was hypothesized to exert an indirect effect on the propensity of governments to respect the human rights of their citizens. The findings for a sample of 79 countries showed that torture, disappearances, and extrajudicial killings continued at about the same rate even after the Cold War ended. However, after the end of the Cold War, there was significant improvement in government respect for the right against political imprisonment. Contrary to expectations, it was found that governments that decreased their involvement in interstate conflict or experienced decreased domestic conflict did not tend to increase respect for the right against political imprisonment. As hypothesized, it was found that governments that became more democratic or increased their participation in the global economy after the end of the Cold War tended to manifest higher levels of respect for the right of their citizens not to be politically imprisoned. However, a closer look at several recent examples of democratization in Africa suggests that any human rights improvements resulting from post-Cold War democratization may be short-lived. In the cases examined, improved government respect for the right against political imprisonment resulted from short-term manipulations by the leaders of `illiberal' or `demonstration' democracies who were not committed to democratization or to the advancement of the human rights of their citizens.
East or Further East?
Authors: Gibler Douglas M.
Published: March 2007

NATO has recently expanded to include several eastern European, formerly communist states. This article uses empirical evidence on alliances and war to argue that this expansion and plans to expand NATO even more may pose a serious threat to international peace since the expanded alliance possesses two of the three major factors that have been found to be associated with war-prone alliances. In addition, it is argued that the expanded alliance may greatly hamper Russia's transition to democracy. The article concludes that a better long-term policy for NATO states to pursue would be an expansion that included Russia but that would be restructured to resolve outstanding territorial disputes in ways similar to the Congress of Vienna of 1815. The potential impact of this expanded NATO on political transitions in the Balkan states is also discussed.
Social Status and Attitudes toward Delinquency Control
Authors: Lentz William P.
Published: March 2007

Known or official delinquents form the basis for the delin quent stereotype and become the focus of attention of both agencies and the public. The boy who has been labeled a delinquent faces other people whose attitudes are crucial in the perpetuation of delinquency as a stable role. This survey sought to determine how Wisconsin adults believe delinquents should be handled. The findings show that they favor swift and impartial justice, but they also conceive of the delinquent as an emotionally disturbed individual who ought to be given the attention of experts. In general, the higher the social status the less likely the respondent was to subscribe to the general view. Those in higher social status groups displayed less con fusion on most issues. We may conclude that the general con fusion regarding the handling of delinquency is a barrier to control. Agencies may mitigate the problem somewhat by clari fying their roles. Delinquency will not be prevented if current attitudes on how to handle the delinquent persist.
The Resolution of Binocular Rivalry among Assaultive and Nonassaultive Youthful Offenders
Authors: Wenk Ernst Albert , Sarbin Theodore R. , Sherwood David W.
Published: March 2007

This research is part of a larger project aimed at ultimately locating a set of predictive psychological testing instruments that would permit an early identification of assault-prone persons.

Two groups of youthful offenders were shown twenty pairs of stereograms. One group was composed of twenty offenders com mitted by the court to a correctional institution after conviction for a violent crime; the other group, twenty offenders who had no history of violent behavior. Our hypothesis, that violent persons perceive significantly more violent percepts in a binocu lar rivalry situation, was not confirmed.

The discrepancy between our expectations and our findings led us to an analysis of the experiment. We concluded that the threatening aspects in the testing situation somewhat invalidated the violent subjects' verbal responses. Because the dependability of their reports may be doubted, simple methods of assessment that draw on such verbal reporting may well prove to be useless.
Five Challenges
Authors: Gottfredson Don M.
Published: March 2007

Five challenges to psychologists are described; and it is argued that meeting them can contribute solutions to pressing, difficult criminal justice problems. The needs discussed are: to develop an integrated theoretical framework, to define person classifica tions with demonstrable relevance to treatment alternatives, to develop new treatment and control strategies and test their effect iveness, to develop — in every social agency responsible for crime and delinquency programs - adequate information bases to permit the monitoring of program effectiveness, and to devise effective means for research utilization.
The Crime Costs of California Early Minor Offenders: Implications for Prevention
Authors: Higgins Thomas
Published: March 2007

This article explores some of the costs of crime attributable to the typical target of delinquency prevention programs and draws some implications for prevention efforts. Employing data from Delinquency in a Birth Cohort, by Marvin Wolfgang et al., as well as crime data from California, the author estimates the present value of future detected and undetected crime costs attributable to the 1974 population of early minor offenders in California. Early minor offenders are defined as youth whose first offense is a minor or non-index crime. The estimated costs, some social and some private but not all of either, are $930 million. The authors argues that while the sizeable amount would suggest continuing or expanding prevention programs, particularly since most prevention programs show relatively low treatment costs, the ineffectiveness of prevention efforts suggests only small, carefully eval uated programs should be encouraged.
Is Criminal Violence Normative Behavior?
Authors: Berkowitz Leonard
Published: March 2007

Analyses of criminal violence often fail to draw the important distinction between angry and instrumental aggression. The former is directed mainly toward the injury of the intended target, whereas the latter is instrumental to attaining another goal such as social approval. Various conceptions, including the subculture of violence idea, assume that many violent acts are instrumental aggression, although they may actually be, in large part, angry outbursts in tended primarily to hurt rather than to gain approval. Interviews with sixty five white British violent offenders are used to document this thesis. The role of ego threats is also discussed.
Status Offenses: a Legal Term Without Meaning
Authors: Leblanc Marc , Biron Louise
Published: March 2007

This study examines the extent and evolution of status offenses among fourteen- to eighteen-year-old adolescents in a large urban area. It then looks at the relationship between this behavior and more serious delinquent acts and examines the associa tion between deterrence and status offenses. The following conclusions are drawn: (1) Status offense is a legal term without meaning; (2) PINS laws should be restrict ed to environmental situations and all behavioral components should be eliminated from these laws; and (3) adolescence should be perceived as a process rather than as a status.
Occupational-Criminal Differentiation: an Extension and Reexamination of Earlier Research
Authors: Sadeghi-Movahed Hassan
Published: March 2007

This study extends and reexamines research conducted by Gibbs and Short on the relation between criminal and occupational differentiation in the years 1950 and 1960. Contrary to Gibbs and Short's findings, that these two variables were positive ly and strongly related in both years, no support was found for this relationship for the year 1970. Although additional age categories were used in the present study, an analysis using Gibbs and Short's original age categories still yielded a low correla tion. This finding is attributed to historical changes in occupational differentiation as compared with criminal differentiation.
Measuring Jail Use: A Comparative Analysis of Local Corrections
Authors: KLOFAS JOHN
Published: March 2007

There have been few comparative studies of the way jail space is used across localities. This research examines problems in measuring jail use and discusses a typology of jail use that involves simultaneous consideration of daily population rates and annual jail admission rates. Data from the 1986 Annual Survey of Jails are used in a comparison of jail use in 345 large jail jurisdictions across the country. The research indicates that the typology is useful in describing patterns of jail use. Large and consistent differences in jail use are associated with crime rates and region of the country. These differences are also related to crowding, capacity, and the makeup of the jail population. The comparative approach provides some direction for policy development and further research.
Twenty Years of Testing Theories: What Have We Learned and Why?
Authors: BERNARD THOMAS J.
Published: March 2007

Despite 20 years of extensive research, criminology has not made scientific progress in the sense of falsifying some theories and accumulating verified knowledge in the context of other theories. The problem lies in theory. This article presents a new conception of theorizing as a cumulative, iterative, developmental enterprise directed toward falsification, rather than as an “all or nothing” enterprise directed toward explanation. Scientific progress requires that theorizing, like researching, be nurtured in graduate education, publications, grants, and faculty hiring, tenure, and promotion.