bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
7. Further innovations and controversies
Authors: Pick Daniel
Published: April 2017

‘Further innovations and controversies’ looks in more detail at affinities and differences between some of the key analytic approaches to emerge post-war, especially in America, France, and Britain. It begins with the ‘ego psychology’ tradition in post-war America led by Heinz Hartmann, Ernst Kris, and Rudolph Loewenstein before considering the work of Jacques Lacan in France and new directions taken in Britain by Melanie Klein, Donald Winnicott, and Wilfred Bion. Each of these main figures was both an inspiration to others and a catalyst for argument and new approaches. Distinct schools of thought within psychoanalysis owe much to these individual clinicians, but they also reflect wider differences in national culture and thought.
1. Military command and military discipline
Authors: Fidell Eugene R.
Published: April 2017

To be effective, and something more than a collection of individuals with weapons, a military unit must be commanded. Commanders are responsible for achieving the unit’s objective, a function that requires them to ensure that subordinates will do as they are told. With this power comes responsibility. In some circumstances commanders can be penalized for the misconduct of subordinates. In the classical model of military justice, commanders played (and in some countries, such as the United States, still play) a powerful role. ‘Military command and military discipline’ considers the powers exercised by commanders in these commander-centric systems—in particular the disposition, or charging, power—and looks at efforts to reform these systems.
6. Conduct unbecoming and all that
Authors: Fidell Eugene R.
Published: April 2017

Much of the court-martial docket involves cases concerned with the same kinds of criminality seen in the civilian courts. ‘Conduct unbecoming and all that’ explains that the docket also includes very different offenses that at times raise thorny questions. Many military codes list, alongside specific offenses, a “general article” that prohibits conduct prejudicial to good order and service discipline and conduct of a nature that brings discredit on the service. This clause covers a multitude of sins and provides ample fodder for litigation. Two other offenses, unique to the military, and not applicable to enlisted personnel, are “conduct unbecoming an officer and a gentleman” and speaking contemptuously of the president and other high officials.
In the beginning: North America’s women to 1750
Authors: Ware Susan
Published: April 2017

‘In the beginning: North America's women to 1750’ starts with the indigenous peoples who were living in America before the arrival of Christopher Columbus in 1492, the white settlements in Jamestown in 1607, and the Pilgrims' landing at Plymouth in 1620. It describes the story of Pocohontas from the Powhatan people and the vital and significant roles that women played in Native cultures. The lives of white colonial women are also described. The contact between Indian and European cultures involved war, upheaval, and disease, as well as interaction, negotiation, and adaptation, and gender was central to the story. The “consumer revolution” of c.1700 and the thriving Atlantic trade changed women's lives considerably.
Tuberculosis
Authors: McMillen Christian W.
Published: April 2017

Tuberculosis, caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis, emerged in Africa about seventy thousand years ago. It accompanied modern humans on their migrations out of Africa, across the Indian Ocean, and then into Eurasia. Tuberculosis affects almost all parts of the body. Its most common and deadly form, carried in tiny droplets through the air from person to person and highly infectious, is pulmonary tuberculosis. It thrives in densely packed places. ‘Tuberculosis’ outlines the spread of the disease, early attempts to combat it, Robert Koch’s identification of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in 1882, the development of the BCG vaccine in 1908, the use of antibiotics, and the growing multi-drug-resistant TB problem.
6. Current controversies, future directions
Authors: Tacchi Mary Jane , Scott Jan
Published: April 2017

Some people believe depression is massively over-diagnosed, some believe it to be an understandable reaction to life that should not be medicalized or treated, and some view depression as a diagnosable disorder but disagree with the treatments that should be offered. Is depression over-diagnosed? Do antidepressants work? Are all therapies equally effective for depression? ‘Current controversies, future directions’ explores these issues and looks at what evidence exists for the use of complementary and alternative therapies such as herbal medicines and exercise. It examines links between mood disorders and circadian rhythms and the immune system, and between research on the psychotherapy of the mind and the neuroscience of the brain.
4. Water in the atmosphere
Authors: Dunlop Storm
Published: April 2017

Among the planets in the Solar System, Earth is unique in possessing large quantities of water, and water’s properties are highly significant in determining weather. This is because water readily exists in three different phases (ice, liquid water, and water vapour) at temperatures frequently encountered on Earth. ‘Water in the atmosphere’ explains humidity and saturation: the number of molecules of water vapour in the air is determined solely by temperature. Unstable conditions lead to the formation of cumuliform clouds and precipitation is created by either glaciation or coalescence. There are three groups of clouds—cumuliform, stratiform, and cirriform—with ten types of cloud identified based on their altitude and structure.
6. The institutional peace
Authors: Richmond Oliver P.
Published: April 2017

‘The institutional peace’ introduces a form of peace that has been influential in the modern era, one that relies on international institutions and law to support the consolidation of a constitutional peace. This type of peace developed as the constitutional version of peace was becoming prominent during the Enlightenment. Institutional peace aims to anchor states within a specific set of values and shared legal context through which they agree on the way to behave. They also agree to police and enforce that behaviour. International law has been crucial for the institutional peace framework to produce a stable international order.
8. Peacekeeping, peacebuilding, and statebuilding
Authors: Richmond Oliver P.
Published: April 2017

‘Peacekeeping, peacebuilding, and statebuilding’ examines four generational approaches to peace which are aimed at consolidating the liberal peace system and international, state, and civil architecture. These are: a first generational approach aimed at a negative peace; a second generational approach focused on social reconciliation and a social peace; a third generational approach focused on building liberal peace through various measures such as democratization, creating a rule of law and a code of human rights, statebuilding, peacebuilding, civil society, and capitalism; and a fourth generational approach focused on recognizing local and contextual peace traditions.
Epilogue: new agendas for peace
Authors: Richmond Oliver P.
Published: April 2017

‘Epilogue: new agendas for peace’ looks at the future for peacebuilding, outlines possible new agendas for peacebuilders, and gives a history of how peacebuilding has developed. New forms of peace that have emerged over recent years are complex and need to sustain everyday life in line with local level socio-historical norms, institutions, and laws as well as international architectures of peace. The international community will need to support local patterns of peace. The joining together of an advanced notion of peace is a recognition that humanity generally prefers and works towards a culture of peace.
1. Introduction
Authors: Nagel Jennifer
Published: April 2017

Knowledge always belongs to some individual or group and the knowledge of a group may go beyond the knowledge of its individual members. The ‘Introduction’ focuses on the kind of knowledge that is a link between a person and a fact. What is it for someone to know something, rather than merely believe it? Is there a difference? Knowledge links a subject to a truth. This feature of ‘knowing that’ is called factivity: we can know only facts, or true propositions. It is assumed that truth is objective, or based in reality and the same for all of us. But knowledge has still further requirements, beyond truth and confidence.
5. Internalism and externalism
Authors: Nagel Jennifer
Published: April 2017

Internalism represents the first-person point of view where knowledge is grounded by your own experience and by your own capacity to reason: if you can't see for yourself why you should believe something, you don't actually know it. Externalists say knowledge is a relationship between a person and a fact, and this relationship can be in place even when the person doesn't meet the internalist's demands for first-person access to supporting grounds. ‘Internalism and externalism’ also explains Robert Nozick's externalist tracking theory of knowledge and its difficulty, the ‘Generality Problem’. Many different solutions have been advanced, drawing on everything from patterns in natural language to the science of belief formation.
Complex adaptive systems (CAS)
Authors: Holland John H.
Published: April 2017

Complex adaptive systems (CAS) are composed of elements, called agents, that learn or adapt in response to interactions with other agents. ‘Complex adaptive systems’ shows that all CAS exhibit lever points, points where a small directed action causes large predictable changes in aggregate behaviour. All CAS agents have three levels of activity: performance (moment-by-moment capabilities), credit-assignment (rating the usefulness of available capabilities), and rule-discovery (generating new capabilities). The behaviour of a CAS is always generated by the adaptive interactions of its components; and the hierarchical structure characteristic of CAS is also generated—particular combinations of agents at one level become agents at the next higher level.
Specialization and diversity
Authors: Holland John H.
Published: April 2017

A multi-celled organism consists of specialized cells organized into a variety of communities. ‘Specialization and diversity’ shows that community-based organization extends both downward and upward from the level of organisms, giving rise to the hierarchies that characterize complex adaptive systems. Diverse specialist agents attend to, and process, selected signals. The diversity is sustained by a combination of boundaries, signals, and signal-processing. A characteristic of this signal-processing is that relatively small parts of signals—tags—route the signals through the boundaries. This tag-based control allows cells to exist in a diverse range of conditions by activating only genes that are relevant to the current situation.
2. A map of earlier medieval philosophy
Authors: Marenbon John
Published: April 2017

‘A map of earlier medieval philosophy’ outlines the development of medieval philosophy in its different traditions beginning with the Platonic schools of late antiquity. The five originators of the medieval traditions were Augustine, Boethius, ‘pseudo-Dionysius’, John Philoponus, and Sergius of Resh‘aynā. The most powerful 7th-century philosopher in Byzantium was Maximus the Confessor. In the West, key thinkers included Alcuin and Anselm. The beginnings of Arabic philosophy—kalām and falsafa—and their exponents, including al-Kindī and Avicenna, are then discussed before moving on to Peter Abelard and his 12th-century Latin philosophy, and Muslim and Jewish philosophy in the Islamic West with Averroes and Maimonides.
2. Perspectives
Authors: Sousa Ronald de
Published: April 2017

‘Perspectives’ considers Plato’s Symposium—where the members of the party take turns making a speech in praise of love—and what we can learn from it. The dialogue is still fresh today and features several perspectives, some of which anticipate ways that modern thinkers have challenged the monopoly of poetry and literature on love. A reason for elevating some loves over others appeals to certain conceptions of the place of love and sex in human nature. Such conceptions have clustered around three basic models: the puritan, Lawrentian, and pansexual models. The form of love designated as ‘what Nature intended’ will depend on which of the three models is favoured.
4. Reasons
Authors: Sousa Ronald de
Published: April 2017

Love requires an object, but what is an object, and why just this object and not another? There are many reasons—good and bad—for loving someone or something. What reasons are appropriately adduced to explain or justify love? What reasons would you wish to be loved for? The role of reasons for love is confusing. ‘Reasons’ attempts to shed some light on it, by considering three points of view: the lover, an objective observer, and the beloved. It concludes that love does not derive from reason, virtue, or Kantian core rationality. It is largely the offspring of chance: in proximity, order of acquaintance, pheromone compatibility, genetic influences, and accidents of taste, transference, and habit.
6. Utopia
Authors: Sousa Ronald de
Published: April 2017

Given what we know about love, what ought we to do about it? ‘Utopia’ looks to the future and discusses the potential for ‘love’ in the human race. Will the neuroscience of love result in chemical control of feelings? Will love-enhancing drugs be prescribed by marriage counsellors in the service of monogamy? Will anti-love drugs become available? Is monogamy a ‘natural’ state for humans? Today, despite talk of sexual revolution, the ideology of possessive love has lost little of its power. But what is now at hand is the possibility of changing your individual dispositions in order to facilitate certain sorts of relationships.
6. Oratory
Authors: Allen William
Published: April 2017

‘Oratory’ examines the reasons for oratory's importance in the classical world and how it developed to meet the changing demands of speakers and audiences. The rules and techniques underpinning effective communication were known in the ancient world as ‘rhetoric’, and learning the art of rhetoric was the backbone of higher education for Greeks and Romans from the 5th century bc onwards. Oratory contains some of the finest examples of Greek and Latin prose, and the surviving speeches illuminate many essential features of Greek and Roman society and public life. Aristotle divided oratory into three broad types: deliberative, forensic, and display. Demosthenes and Cicero were regarded as the greatest Greek and Roman orators respectively.
7. Pastoral
Authors: Allen William
Published: April 2017

‘Pastoral’ examines the invention of pastoral poetry in the urban metropolis of Alexandria in Hellenistic Egypt, showing how the genre's literary sophistication and nostalgia for rural simplicity appealed to learned city-dwelling poets and their readers. It also considers how the genre was transformed at Rome, as contemporary politics and civil war enter the pastoral world, disrupting its potential as an idealized retreat from city life. Theocritus formalized pastoral in his eight bucolic poems written at the Alexandrian court in the early 3rd century bc, but it was Virgil, with his Eclogues completed in the early to mid-30s bc, who succeeded in taking the genre in a strikingly original and provocative direction.
8. Satire
Authors: Allen William
Published: April 2017

‘Satire’ traces the development of Roman satire from Lucilius in the 2nd century bc to Juvenal in the early 2nd century ad, showing how the targets of satire, and the personae adopted to attack them, reflect changing social and political contexts in republican and imperial Rome. It also considers how the narrative of decline, so popular in Roman thinking, contributes to the satirists' themes, and examines to what extent their criticisms of Roman society and literature reinforce cultural norms or challenge them. Roman satire ranged from erudite literary parody to the most vulgar abuse, but it is thanks to Juvenal that satire is seen as above all political, angry, and funny.
Iran and the West
Authors: Ansari Ali M.
Published: April 2017

‘Iran and the West’ charts the relationship between Iran and the West beginning in the 16th and 17th centuries with increased contact with Western rulers eager to secure both economic opportunities and political advantage. In the 18th century, as Europe embarked on Enlightenment and scientific revolution, Iran entered a period of prolonged political and economic turmoil—the collapse of the Safavid state and then the rise of the Qajar dynasty. The Constitutional Revolution of 1906 profoundly altered the political and social direction of the country and laid the foundations for much that was to follow. Twentieth-century politics and the profound effects of the 1979 Islamic Revolution are also described.
1. What is theatre?
Authors: Carlson Marvin
Published: April 2017

‘What is theatre?’ discusses the origins of theatre and how it has developed in numerous ways in different communities and cultures, from classical Greece to medieval Japan and Italian Renaissance theatre to 19th‐century Europe, resulting in a vast array of modern‐day forms. Theatre is built upon what appear to be universal human activities—imitation, storytelling, and performance. Taking the artist-oriented point of view, the question ‘what is theatre?’ can be answered by considering the different artistic and social assumptions within which theatre artists have created their work. If the focus is upon reception, the answer changes and becomes whatever an audience can be convinced to see as theatre.
3. Theatre and drama
Authors: Carlson Marvin
Published: April 2017

‘Theatre and drama’ considers the source and status of the material performed on stage, whether it originates as a written text or not. Improvisation is seen in many cultures and is recorded in China and the Middle East centuries before any written dramatic texts are found. Community theatre based on improvisation and audience participation remains popular in the non-Western world where oral traditions are strong. The wider publication of dramatic texts from the 17th century and the strict regulation of their performance played a significant role in Western theatre development. Drama and theatre, as studied at university, and the impact of postdramatic theatre, as described by Hans‐Thies Lehmann, are also discussed.
Introduction
Authors: Moon Jeremy
Published: April 2017

The ‘Introduction’ explains that corporate social responsibility (CSR) is often seen as dangerous and the sociability of CSR is questioned. The intention of this VSI is to demonstrate that CSR is increasingly central to our understanding of business–society relationships.
1. Everything has structure
Authors: Blockley David
Published: April 2017

‘Everything has structure’ considers the fundamental nature and role of structure and the relationship of structural engineering with other engineering disciplines and with architecture. Decision making is driven by the purpose of a man-made structure and how ‘fitness for purpose’ is realised. There is a need to understand how forces flow through a structure in order to ensure it meets its primary purpose of being strong and safe whilst at the same time meeting many other needs such as affordability, aesthetic, and regulatory and environmental criteria. The best structures are a harmony of architecture and engineering—where form and function are one and the flow of forces is logical.
How hormones work
Authors: Luck Martin
Published: April 2017

What is a hormone? ‘How hormones work’ defines a hormone as a chemical signal which enables an event in one part of the body to have an effect somewhere else. Hormones make up one of the two great physiological control systems—the other being the nervous system—which keep the functions of the body working together. There are strong, multifunctional connections between the nervous and endocrine systems. As well as only operating inside the body, hormones are affected by internal stimuli and by external events detected by the senses. The endocrine system comprises several interlinked sub-systems, including five main axes centred on the hypothalamic and anterior pituitary gland. The processes of hormone transport and action through these systems are described.
The thyroid gland
Authors: Luck Martin
Published: April 2017

‘The thyroid gland’ illustrates how the thyroid takes up iodine from the blood and stores it in a concentrated form attached to a protein, thyroglobulin. When stimulated by a pituitary gland hormone, thyroid cells build up thyroglobulin but also turn some of it into the hormones thyroxine and triiodothyronine. These hormones speed up a cell’s use of oxygen and so accelerate metabolism in most tissues and organs. This increased metabolism extends to processes like immunity, growth, and reproduction, which is why the right level of thyroid activity is important for development and health. Thyroid diseases such as hyperthyroidism and goitre, are relatively common medical conditions, but are also easily detected and treated.
Light and dark
Authors: Luck Martin
Published: April 2017

Many of the body’s rhythms reflect the circadian cycle, but how do they interact? ‘Light and dark’ describes a network of systems involving the senses, parts of the brain, the activation and inactivation of genes, biochemical reactions, and cellular responses, all coordinated by complex hormonal cycles. Melatonin, a hormone from the pineal gland, tracks darkness: concentrations are high at night and low during the day. Melatonin cycles affect reproduction and many other physiological changes in animals and it can also slow the division of cancer cells. The circadian connection to the important hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis and the hormone cortisol is also explained.
3. Geopolitical architectures
Authors: Dodds Klaus
Published: April 2017

‘Geopolitical architectures’ suggests that our understandings of a world composed of an international system based on territorial states, exclusive jurisdictions, and national boundaries is enduring but not all encompassing. What is the relationship between fixity and flow? How do architectures seek to impose fixity on flows? Neo-liberal globalization, with due emphasis on market accessibility and privatization, encourages two kinds of geopolitical architectures – one predicated on spatial containment (as epitomized by the war on terror) and the other underpinned by spatial administration. The financial crisis of 2008 onwards has revealed some of this geopolitical work, and the ‘Occupy Movement’ was in large part about trying to fix flows.
5. Geopolitics and objects
Authors: Dodds Klaus
Published: April 2017

‘Geopolitics and objects’ explores the role and significance of objects in geopolitics. Geopolitical imaginations and practices are embedded and emboldened by their relationship to a vast array of things ranging from the flag, the pipeline, the map, the gun, waste, and even toys such as action men dolls. The pipeline as an object has been enormously productive of global energy geopolitics, but also indigenous geopolitics. Maps play an important role in the making of geopolitics, which exceeds their practical value in terms of locating places and helping users navigate more generally. Flags are powerful; they can be objects of geopolitical hate, strong accomplices to nation-state formation and national identity politics, and capable of being enrolled in counter-geopolitics.
Viruses
Authors: Money Nicholas P.
Published: April 2017

‘Viruses’ explains that millions of people die from interacting with viruses every year, but beyond the effects of viruses on human health, the lives of all organisms and the cycling of nutrients through the biosphere depend upon the activities of viruses. Viruses control populations of bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes and this destructive power liberates massive quantities of nutrients in aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. Viruses are organized into seven groups based upon the type of genome and its mechanism of replication. Viral genomes are encoded in single-stranded and double-stranded DNA and RNA molecules. The expression of viral genes occurs within infected cells utilizing the molecular machinery of the host.
Pressures on reef ecosystems
Authors: Sheppard Charles
Published: April 2017

A fundamental character of a coral reef is the enormous number of interlocking connections between components, which is a consequence of an extremely high biodiversity. ‘Pressures on reef ecosystems’ shows that changes in any of these components can transform the reef ecosystem. Local pressures such as sewage and runoff; landfill, dredging, and sediments; and the impact of chemicals, metals, and oil are discussed. The impact of coral diseases and invasive species can be catastrophic. The ‘services’ provided by coral reefs to humankind have been numerous, from when people first settled beside them thousands of years ago. They supply food, coastal protection, and shoreline stabilization. Coral reef fishing now needs to be managed more carefully.
Doing something about it
Authors: Sheppard Charles
Published: April 2017

A quarter of the world’s reef system is already dead, and a further half is affected to varying degrees. ‘Doing something about it’ proposes two groups of measures to address this situation. First, the overall human impact on reefs, such as fishing intensity and pollution, needs to be managed. Second, some protected marine areas need to be demarcated, instead of all areas being used in sourcing food in haphazard and decreasingly effective ways. This would mirror systems already in place on land. The continued rise in the worldwide human population has put additional pressure on the reefs as a place to procure food. This means that reef degradation is no longer a just a scientific problem, but is now also a political and social one.
1. The mineral world
Authors: Vaughan David
Published: April 2017

Minerals are the fundamental components of the Earth. ‘The mineral world’ describes the fields of mineralogy and crystallography that study them. There are approximately 4,400 known minerals, but the ‘big ten’ minerals that are most abundant in the rocks of the Earth’s crust and Upper Mantle are calcite, quartz, olivines, pyroxenes, amphiboles, muscovite, biotite, orthoclase, albite, and anorthite. The two essential characteristics of any mineral are its chemical composition and its crystal structure. Minerals can be assigned to one of seven crystal classes depending on their elements of symmetry. There is further subdivision into 32 crystal classes. Minerals are classified by chemical composition into mineral groups such as silicates, and carbonates.
Accounting as control
Authors: Nobes Christopher
Published: April 2017

How does budgeting work, and how is it useful? What are standard costs and how do they help in controlling production? How can a balanced scorecard improve control? ‘Accounting as control’ looks at some ways in which accounting can be used by managers to control their organizations. The two main high-level purposes of budgeting are to optimize the use of the economic resources within the firm in order to maximize profit, and to help the firm to achieve its overall strategic objectives. Six aspects of budgeting are considered: planning, motivation, delegation, communication/coordination, control, and performance evaluation. Cash flow forecasts, flexible budgeting, zero-base budgeting, standard costings, and balanced scorecards are also explained.
Epilogue
Authors: Nobes Christopher
Published: April 2017

The ‘Epilogue’ takes an overview of accounting and considers some high level questions. How important has accounting been in the history of the world? It is clear that some sophisticated record-keeping system is necessary for larger and complex international organizations and double-entry bookkeeping serves well in this function, which is why it has gradually replaced other systems around the world. Can we rely on accounting? There are now fairly detailed rules on what to disclose and how to measure, plus monitoring and enforcement have been strengthened around the world. Did accounting cause the global financial crisis? Is financial reporting as good as it can get? And can we trust the auditors?
7. Hermeneutics and science
Authors: Zimmermann Jens
Published: April 2017

Science, we have been taught, rests on strictly empirical observation, accurate measurement, and the exact verification of its results. Scientific knowledge is independent of received opinion, personal bias, and the vagaries of language. ‘Hermeneutics and science’ shows that this position of scientific objectivism and scientific positivism does not hold. It explains the hermeneutics of scientific discovery, which depends heavily on the personal intuition of a scientist whose deep familiarity with a prior theory and the relevant facts, together with the hitherto stubbornly unexplained anomalies, allows them to intuit a better way of integrating all these particulars into a new coherent framework. It concludes by looking to the future of hermeneutics.
Big Brother: journalism and the altered state
Authors: Hargreaves Ian
Published: April 2017

‘Big Brother: journalism and the altered state’ discusses the role of the state in journalism. Russia has retightened its grip on television and newspaper journalism despite its constitutional guarantee of press freedom. In China, a separate Chinese Internet has been created that allows a certain level of freedom, but which is contained and free from foreign intervention. The ‘Arab Spring’ of 2010 was triggered in part by social media activism, and Western news media are facing their own questions of neutrality. What does this all mean for journalism now set in a world of corporate media ambition, telecommunications regulation, and global Internet governance?
Murder is my meat: the ethics of journalism
Authors: Hargreaves Ian
Published: April 2017

Journalism is a domain of high-velocity moral choices and tense emotional situations. The ethic of truthfulness, or more modestly accuracy, lies at the heart of journalism. Without it, journalism devalues its own civic currency by undermining trust. Industry codes and the law of the land have a part to play in setting the necessary standards, but this does not necessarily eliminate serious wrongdoing. ‘Murder is my meat: the ethics of journalism’ considers the ethical issues and reflects upon the UK phone-hacking scandal, which resulted in the appointment of a judicial inquiry into the culture, practices, and ethics of the press: the Leveson inquiry in 2011.
3. How did Judaism develop?
Authors: Solomon Norman
Published: April 2017

It is interesting that a people subjected to so much harassment, persecution, denial, and exile managed to produce a culture of great vitality. ‘How did Judaism develop?’ examines the stories of eight men and two women that illustrate some aspect of spiritual, intellectual, or social value in Jewish life. The Talmud is the heart of Judaism. After the Bible, it is the book most studied by Jews, but it is not known who put it together and edited it. Every generation has its Stamaim, the anonymous scholars and humble practitioners who actually shape and implement the inspirations of the ‘named ones’ who came before them.
5. The spiritual life—prayer, meditation, Torah
Authors: Solomon Norman
Published: April 2017

What does spirituality mean in Judaism? What is prayer and does it work? Prayer is a vital concern in Judaism, and one of the major forms in which spirituality is expressed. Equal in rank, or perhaps even higher, is learning. ‘The spiritual life—prayer, meditation, Torah’ considers the place of spirituality in Jewish worship. The most universal, accessible, and distinctive form of Jewish spirituality is Torah study. Learning the Torah is an expression of love that spans over generations. It is a unity of souls. It unites those who hand it down with those who receive it.
Introduction
Authors: Woodhead Linda
Published: April 2017

Christianity, one of the world’s most successful religions, has endured over two thousand years and, despite setbacks, has enjoyed its greatest growth and spread in the modern period. The Introduction describes Christianity as a powerful religion that contains vast resources for shaping life and death. It is flexible because it works with abstract concepts along with narratives, symbols, and rituals. But are there limitations to what Christianity can offer an individual? Three main types of Christianity—the Church, Mystical, and Biblical—are distinguished in terms of how they understand and embody authority and power, both human and divine, and how this plays out in their own structures and stances towards wider society.
Jesus: the God-man
Authors: Woodhead Linda
Published: April 2017

‘Jesus: the God-man’ outlines the ways in which Jesus has been interpreted, and the role these understandings play in setting the boundaries of Christian thought and possibility. Christians agree that Jesus Christ has unique significance, yet they differ over how to explain it. Is he the human figure who teaches, inspires, and dies for the cause in which he believes? Or the divine figure who performs miracles, fulfils prophecies, rises from the dead, and is God. The orthodox position is that he is the God-man—both human and divine. The battles between these different understandings of Jesus, and the communities and institutions established around them, have shaped the course of Christianity.
Conclusion
Authors: Woodhead Linda
Published: April 2017

Christianity has endured longer than the greatest empires and had more influence than the grandest cultural achievements. Its texts still shape lives and many of its institutions still function. The Conclusion shows that a major reason for this success is the religion’s variety and potential for adaptation. The confluences and divergences between Church, Biblical, and Mystical Christianity are one aspect of Christian history, their interrelations with varied social contexts the other. In our contemporary world, Christianity is as vibrant—and as deeply divided—as at any point in its history. Attempts to forge unity between its various parts have largely been abandoned. How will liberalism and popular participation develop Christianity in its third millennium?
3. Knowledge and understanding
Authors: Wilson Catherine
Published: April 2017

The Epicureans regarded the alleviation of suffering, and especially the suffering produced by fear and anxiety, as the most important contribution of philosophy to life. If all phenomena, even unusual phenomena, arise from the arrangement, motion, and effects of atoms, we cannot be impressed by the power of the gods, and there is no need to placate them or to try to forestall their wrath. ‘Knowledge and understanding’ considers the Epicureans’ explanation of nature, the impact of Epicureanism on the 17th-century Scientific Revolution, and the ability to identify smaller particles with the development of more and more powerful microscopes from the 17th century onwards.
5. Material minds
Authors: Wilson Catherine
Published: April 2017

‘Material minds’ considers Epicurus’ theory of perception and his views on knowledge and truth. The Epicureans maintained that the soul, like everything else, was material, composed of very small, light, mobile atoms that pervaded the entirety of the living body of an animal. Lucretius proposed that the mind grows up with the body, and that a mixture of four types of soul particles can explain the temperaments and capabilities of the various species. Sense perception, thinking, and dreaming are discussed, along with truth and error in perceptual experience. The Epicurean theory of materialism is then compared with three philosophical alternatives to materialism—dualism, panpsychism, and nescience—before considering modern-day materialism.
Amateurs and professionals
Authors: Cronin Mike
Published: April 2017

The vast majority of people who play sport are amateurs who take part for a variety of reasons relating to their social lives, health, and for the pure pleasure of it. ‘Amateurs and professionals’ describes the difference between amateurism and professionalism in sport that emerged in the 19th century. The amateur was someone who stood for a clearly outlined set of values and money was seen as a corrupting force. Sports such as horse racing, cricket, golf, and boxing, which had organized themselves in the 18th century, became professionalized and commercialized rapidly. Others fought professionalism for much longer—rugby union only abandoned its amateur-only rule in 1995.
1. The man of theatre
Authors: Cronk Nicholas
Published: April 2017

Voltaire was, in all senses, a man of theatre. He wrote prolifically for the stage—his fifty plays include comedies, tragedies, even opera libretti—and it was as a writer of tragedy that he first, quite literally, ‘made’ his name. He was born François-Marie Arouet in Paris in 1694, into a prosperous bourgeois family. In 1718, he changed his name to Voltaire in an attempt to distance himself from his lawyer father. ‘The man of theatre’ describes his works and his increasing theatrical fame. It suggests that Voltaire is perhaps a master of theatrical performance, and this powerful sense of theatricality is at the heart of all his literary performances.
5. The courtier
Authors: Cronk Nicholas
Published: April 2017

Voltaire worked hard throughout his life to establish and defend his status as an author within the social hierarchy of the ancien régime, with varying degrees of success, but with unflagging determination. ‘The courtier’ charts his time at the French court in 1725 and 1745–6, at the Prussian court of Frederick 1750–3, and his extensive correspondence with Catherine the Great. It describes Voltaire’s role as the Royal Historiographer in 1745 and some of his key works including the opera collaboration with Rameau, Le Temple de la gloire (1745), his historical masterpiece Siècle de Louis XIV (1751), and his world history, Essai sur les mœurs (1756).
9. The life and the afterlife
Authors: Cronk Nicholas
Published: April 2017

‘The life and the afterlife’ considers the challenges for Voltaire’s biographers. It is not easy to write a satisfactory account of his life: we know too much and too little. Another challenge is the long shadow cast by Voltaire’s reputation. Voltaire’s name is synonymous with a set of values: dislike of bigotry and superstition, belief in reason and toleration, freedom of speech. He has been a model for other great writers who have adapted these values to the struggles of their own day. This is a potent legacy, but not a static one. In true Enlightenment spirit, we continue to dialogue with Voltaire, and in so doing perpetuate his legacy.
The inter-war years
Authors: Weinberg Gerard L.
Published: April 2017

‘The inter-war years’ looks at the period after the First World War when the victorious powers were drafting peace treaties with Germany, Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria, and the successor of the Ottoman Empire. The fundamental issue was how to reorganize Europe and territories elsewhere as the basic assumption of territoriality shifted from the dynastic to the national principle. The treaty with Germany had numerous aspects including provisions for war crime trials, the demilitarization of Germany's western border, reparations, and limitations on Germany's military, which were deeply resented by the German people. Adolf Hitler's rise to power in 1933 and the increasing disregard for the peace treaty brought a Second World War closer.
Transmission at different scales
Authors: Wayne Marta L. , Bolker Benjamin M.
Published: April 2017

The term ‘transmission’ defines infectious disease. Respiratory viruses such as influenza are airborne; diseases such as HIV and hepatitis are transmitted through direct, usually sexual, exchange of bodily fluids; water-borne diseases such as cholera can survive in the environment; and vector-borne pathogens have evolved to use other organisms, especially blood-sucking insects and mites, to travel from one host to another. ‘Transmission at different scales’ considers the filters for encounter and compatibility, mathematical modelling of epidemic dynamics, and the key factors of virulence, resistance, and tolerance.
HIV
Authors: Wayne Marta L. , Bolker Benjamin M.
Published: April 2017

HIV is the human immunodeficiency virus that causes acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, or AIDS. Its transmission is by exchange of bodily fluids. HIV can only enter immune cells with the surface protein gp120. The virus can hide in these cells for many years before it is activated, although it can be transmitted throughout this period. Once activated, the virus begins to replicate, ultimately causing the immune system of the infected person to collapse making them vulnerable to opportunistic infections. ‘HIV’ describes how evolutionary biology has been used to clarify the origins of the epidemic. The rapid mutation rates and recombination that make HIV very hard to treat are also explained. Despite these challenges, a regimen of highly active anti-retroviral therapies (HAART), developed in the mid 1990s, is extraordinarily effective against HIV.
Malaria
Authors: Wayne Marta L. , Bolker Benjamin M.
Published: April 2017

Malaria is transmitted to humans through various species of Anopheles mosquitoes. In this century malaria rarely reaches out of the tropics, being limited by the ecological niche of its mosquito vectors. The most widespread strains of malaria are typically chronic and debilitating, rather than causing acute infection and death, but the cumulative impact of malaria on humanity is enormous. ‘Malaria’ considers the complexity of the disease; the history of human malaria; and the strategies employed against the disease, including the use of compatibility-blocking treatments such as quinine, chloroquine, and artemisinin, and encounter-blocking strategies such as residual indoor spraying and insecticide-treated bed nets. It concludes by considering the future for malaria control.
Matter from the inside
Authors: Atkins Peter
Published: April 2017

‘Matter from the inside’ shows that one way to understand how a physical chemist thinks and contributes to chemistry is to start at the atom's interior and then travel out into the world of bulk matter. It begins with the electronic structure of atoms, introduces the role of quantum mechanics in accounting for electron arrangement, and outlines Schrödinger's model of s-, p-, d-, and f-orbitals and the Pauli exclusion principle. Physical chemistry accounts for the general structure of the Periodic Table. The radius, ionization energy, and electron affinity properties of atoms are then considered along with ionic and covalent bonds, and the quantum mechanics of bonds, including valence-bond theory and molecular orbital theory.
States of matter
Authors: Atkins Peter
Published: April 2017

‘States of matter’ describes the three traditional states — gas, liquid, and solid — and the models used to predict and understand their behaviour. The van der Waals equation of state captures many of the properties of real gases. The classical way of studying the motion of molecules in liquids is to measure its viscosity. Techniques include neutron scattering and nuclear magnetic resonance. X-ray diffraction is used to determine the structures of solids. Intermediate states of matter — where liquid meets gas and liquid meets solid — are also considered. Examples include supercritical fluids, soft matter such as liquid crystals, and graphene, a remarkable and essentially two-dimensional material.
3. Post-Freudians: moving towards the interpersonal
Authors: Burns Tom , Burns‐Lundgren Eva
Published: April 2017

Many of Freud’s followers began to develop their own ideas, the most influential being Carl Gustav Jung. ‘Post-Freudians: moving towards the interpersonal’ describes Jung as a romantic individual who believed that analysis had the potential to bring patients to an emotionally richer, more spiritual state. He introduced the concepts of introvert and extrovert, but is best known for his ideas on symbolism. Jungian psychotherapy is called analytical psychology to distinguish it from psychoanalysis. Analytical psychology aims for integration of the personality, aspiring to a harmony that accepts inherent contradictions rather than striving to reduce or eradicate them. The work of other neo-Freudians—Alfred Aldler, Erik Erikson, and John Bowlby’s attachment theory—are also described.
5. Exchange, environments, and resources
Authors: Rubin Miri
Published: April 2017

‘Exchange, environments, and resources’ considers natural resources and their uses within an economic system of production and exchange. Food and raw materials from arable and pasture sustained the population at most times, but also formed the basis for manufacture and exchange, and was supplemented by trade in luxuries. Natural resources were closely controlled by landlords. After the collapse of demand for food following the catastrophic Black Death, landlords chose to move away from arable and to exploit other resources: fishing, mining, hemp growing. Woodland provided materials for building, thatching, fencing, basket-making, and food as well as spaces for leisure and entertainment. The roles of water and waterways in the economy are also discussed.
7. The ‘Middle Ages’ in our daily lives
Authors: Rubin Miri
Published: April 2017

‘The “Middle Ages” in our daily lives’ discusses some of the legacies of this period: universities, the printed book, and song. The 12th century saw increased specialization in centres of learning under the auspices of emperors, kings, and popes. Universities were first created in Bologna and Paris, and offered the highest training in medicine, church law, and civil law. It trained those who went on to become the highest state officials and prelates of the church. The culture of young adulthood fostered in universities, and the possibilities for social mobility they afforded, is still seen today. The development of the printed book and the combination of poetry and music in song is also considered.
1. The Atlantic slave trade
Authors: Williams Heather Andrea
Published: April 2017

Slavery had long existed in Europe and Africa, but the history of the Atlantic slave trade begins in the 1440s with Portuguese exploration of West Africa. ‘The Atlantic slave trade’ charts the increased demand for slave labor in Portugal and the Christian justification of African enslavement. In the 1490s, the journeys of Christopher Columbus to the Caribbean and North and South America opened up mineral-rich and fertile lands on which European countries planted their flags and the Christian cross. More than 12 million Africans boarded the ships, but nearly 2 million died during the Middle Passage. Of those who survived, only about 5 percent went to North America, with most going to South America and the Caribbean.
5. Surviving slavery
Authors: Williams Heather Andrea
Published: April 2017

People may not have survived the hard labor and the violence, the domination, and the degradation of slavery had they not found ways of nurturing their spirits. Most enslaved people did not escape or engage in active rebellion; instead, they focused on living their lives, resisting when they could, exerting individual agency when possible. ‘Surviving slavery’ describes the life in enslaved communities where black people formed bonds with one another and created practices, beliefs, and rituals, all of which provided them respite and enjoyment, and helped them to survive their captivity. Many turned to Christianity, rejecting their owners' interpretation, but believing that they would be delivered from slavery.