bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Process Assessment: A Model for Broadening Assessment
Authors: Meyers Joel , Pfeffer Judith , Erlbaum Vicki
Published: December 2008

Process assessment is offered as an alternative frame of reference for conducting psychoeducational assessment. Underlying issues such as the assessment-intervention link, nondiscriminatory assessment, and the assessment-environment link, provide the basic rationale for an approach that emphasizes the process of generating and testing hypotheses during assessment. The research base is presented, as well as a specific model that focuses assessment on the characteristics of the task, the child, and the setting, as well as the interactions between these three factors.
Temperament as a Factor in the Assessment of Children Educationally At Risk
Authors: Pullis Michael , Cadwell Joel
Published: December 2008

This study was designed to investigate the influence and utility of information about children's temperament in the processes of assessment of educational risk and the implementation of intervention approaches. A sample of 54 risk students and 54 matched students were examined at three levels of assessment of decision making— identification, classification, and instruction (within the classroom). Results from a series of discriminant analysis procedures reveal that the temperament information had little or no utility with respect to the administrative decisions concerning identification and classification. Multiple regression analyses documented significant relationships between the temperament factors and teachers' classroom monitoring decisions. Temperament information is most useful in terms of guiding adaptive instruction at the instructional level. Implications for teacher training in order to maintain risk students within the mainstream are discussed.
Suspension and Expulsion of Handicapped Pupils
Authors: Leone Peter E.
Published: December 2008

In recent years parents and advocates for handicapped children have asked the courts to define educational rights granted by Public Law 94-142. One issue, suspension and expulsion of handicapped pupils, has been particularly difficult for parents and school administrators to address. Current regulations implementing Public Law 94-142 do not discuss discipline; consequently, when serious disciplinary infractions of the school code involve handicapped children, parents and school administrators are unsure of their rights and responsibilities respectively. The courts are being asked to rule in cases that balance educational rights of handicapped children with schools' need to maintain order and preserve educational rights of other children.

This paper reviews litigation and discusses issues related to suspension and expulsion of handicapped pupils. Recommendations for reviewing school disciplinary codes are made; finally, an active role for special educators in this process is suggested.
Research and Education of the Mentally Retarded Preschool Children in the Soviet Union
Authors: Holowinsky Ivan Z.
Published: December 2008

Preschool education of exceptional children in the Soviet Union differs in some important respects from education in the United States. The beginning of formal first grade instruction starts at 7 years of age. There is a categorical approach to the education of handicapped children. The preschool education is an integral part of ideological indoctrination.

This article provides a sample of research with the mentally retarded preschoolers and is based on recently published studies Defectologia.
The Effects of Supplemental On-Task Contingencies On the Acquisition of Simple and Difficult Academic Tasks
Authors: Rosenberg Michael S. , Sindelar Paul T. , Stedt Joseph
Published: December 2008

The purpose of the present study was to investigate the effects of different reinforcement contingencies on the acquisition of both a simple and difficult academic task. Distractible students were randomly assigned to one of four experimental conditions, reflecting the two independent variable manipulations: simple task with contingencies for attention and correct academic performance (SAP), simple task with contingencies, for correct academic performance alone (SP), difficult task with contingencies for attention and correct academic performance (DAP), or difficult task with contingencies for correct academic performance alone (DP).

The results indicated that for difficult tasks students assigned to contingencies for correct academic performance alone (DP) were off-task more and scored significantly lower on two measures of academic performance than those students who were assigned to the DAP condition. No such differential effect was noted for students assigned to the simple task conditions; all students, regardless of contingency condition (SAP or SP), maintained high rates of time and task and academic performance.

The results were discussed in terms of both theoretical and practical implications. It was suggested that teachers could not only task analyze specific instructional skills but also plan and implement specific contingency management strategies based upon the characteristics of the component skill to be presented.
Technical Characteristics of Postsecondary Admissions Tests for Handicapped Examinees: a Review of Research
Authors: Bennett Randy Elliot , Ragosta Marjorie
Published: December 2008

This paper reviews the research on the technical adequacy of postsecondary admissions tests for handicapped examinees. First, the performance of disabled students relative to the general population is explored. Of the four disability groups discussed, the admissions test performance of learning-disabled students and of hearing impaired students appears most discrepant from the general test-taking population. Evidence relating to the validity and reliability of admissions tests for handicapped and nondisabled examinees is reviewed next. The results of this review suggest no dependable differences in validity or reliability across these populations. However, because the data on which this conclusion is based are so limited, further research is needed before the technical characteristics of admissions tests for handicapped examinees can be fully evaluated.
Contemporary Issues in Social Skills Research With Mentally Retarded Persons
Authors: Schloss Patrick J. , Schloss Cynthia N.
Published: December 2008

There is consistent evidence that a majority of mildly and moderately mentally retarded persons adjust to community environments upon leaving school. Mental age and academic achievement appear not to have a significant influence on adjustment. Other features, including interpersonal skills and social competence do have a strong bearing on community adjustment. In view of this, numerous studies over the past two decades have been conducted to evaluate social skill enhancement strategies. Unfortunately, there are serious limitations to this literature. Specifically, (a) the absence of a conceptual base has resulted in the failure of research to build a comprehensive body of knowledge; (b) training priorities have not been matched to learner characteristics or needs; (c) the social significance of program effects has generally been ignored; (d) independent and dependent variables have not been evaluated and applied with equal precision ; (e) investigators seldom evaluate the generality of effects to other settings, responses, and time; and finally (f) research has not demonstrated that community integration and adjustment can be enhanced through training.
Relaxation Techniques for Handicapped Children: a Review of Literature
Authors: Zipkin Dvora
Published: December 2008

Relaxation exercises have been used effectively with handicapped children as an intervention treatment for behavior management. Techniques such as progressive muscle relaxation, isometrics, yoga, movement exercises, massage, guided fantasy and imagery, meditation, concentration, suggestion, music, breathing control, self-relaxation, and biofeedback training have been applied with successful results to decrease hyperactivity and impulsivity, improve academic achievement, increase attention span, and improve communications and interpersonal relationships. This paper discusses four major relaxation training approaches used with handicapped children: progressive muscle relaxation, biofeedback, yoga, and mental relaxation, which includes guided fantasy, imagery, and meditation. Descriptions of these techniques, the effects of their use with various populations, and reviews of recent studies of their use, are presented.
Social Comparison Choices of Mainstreamed Academically Handicapped Children
Authors: Meisel C. Julius , Shaeffer Bernice
Published: December 2008

Eleven academically handicapped and 18 nonhandicapped members of a fourth-grade class participated in a six-week study designed to investigate the social comparison behavior of mainstreamed students. An auditing procedure was used that allowed students to audit their own performance and that of all classmates on daily arithmetic assignments. Auditing was done on a computer terminal which was installed in the classroom; the computer kept a daily record of auditing choices.

Under the assumption that classmate auditing was an act of social comparison, computer records were analyzed to determine whether handicapped children made comparisons as often as nonhandicapped peers and whether or not they chose to compare with classmates similar to themselves. Results indicated that the handicapped students on the average audited classmates more often than nonhandicapped peers; however, this difference was not statistically significant. Close examination of auditing choices indicated that handicapped students did not prefer to compare with other handicapped classmates nor with classmates who performed similarly. Handicapped students who ranked lowest on the comparison measure clearly preferred to compare with high-ranked classmates. The results are compared with results of a previous investigation, and their implications for mainstreaming and the study of social comparison among children are discussed. Major assumptions and limitations of the study methods are also critically examined.
Parameters of Learning Disabilities in Achievement, Linguistic, Neuropsychological, and Social/Behavioral Domains
Authors: Kavale Kenneth A. , Nye Chad
Published: December 2008

The techniques of meta-analysis were used to provide a quantitative synthesis of the findings from 1077 studies investigating the nature of learning disability. Across four domains (linguistic, achievement, neuropsychological, and social/behavior) that included 38 variables, studies were summarized to quantify the level of differentiation between comparisons of learning-disabled and normal groups. In general, about 75% of learning-disabled subjects could be differentiated clearly from normal subjects, but no particular area emerged as a primary source of learning disability. Across 34 variables, only about 40% of the variance in learning disability functioning was explained. The greatest group differentiation was in the linguistic domain, but it did not account for a significantly greater proportion of the variance. Across the remaining domain and variables, the learning-disabled subjects revealed about the same level of differentiation from normal subjects. It was concluded that learning disability is a complex and multivariate phenomenon which involves a number of component deficits that all make an important contribution. Consequently, a multiple-syndrome paradigm is necessary to provide a comprehensive description of learning disability.
Nonaversive Procedures in the Treatment of Classroom Behavior Problems
Authors: Skiba Russell J. , Casey Ann , Center Bruce A.
Published: December 2008

Athough a number of previous narrative reviews have found reinforcement to be effective in the management of classroom behavior problems, lack of a statistical methodology for analyzing singe-case design has prevented precise comparisons of many of the parameters of reinforcement. This investigation uses a regression approach to generate effect sizes for a quantitative synthesis of single-case studies. Five parameters of reinforcement approaches in classroom behavior management were investigated: type of treatment, topography of behavior treated, administrative arrangements, agent administering the treatment, and setting. Although few main effect differences were found within any one parameter, significant, robust interaction effects were found between the presence of reinforcement and topography, reinforcement and setting, and setting and administrative arrangements. Implications for both practice and research methodology are discussed.
An Examination of Statistical Interactions in the Special Education Literature
Authors: Kaufman Nancy J. , Dudley-Marling Curtis , Serlin Ronald L.
Published: December 2008

This study investigated the prevalence in the special education literature of the Type IV error, an error encountered when the finding of a significant interaction in an analysis of variance model is followed by discussion that does not correspond to the correct conceptualization of an interaction. One hundred ninety-three studies were identified that included significant interaction effects based on a two-way ANOVA design. It was found that only 9% of the studies reviewed interpreted the significant interaction consistent with the accurate explanation of a differential or joint effect. These studies did not, however, include a post hoc analysis to determine the cause of the interaction. Seventy-seven percent of the studies with a significant interaction were explained by using the cell means comparison procedure, which does not correspond to the ANOVA model with interaction effects.
Curriculum-Based Assessment of Progress Toward Long-Term and Short-Term Goals
Authors: Fuchs Lynn S. , Fuchs Douglas
Published: December 2008

This meta-analysis explored how measuring student progress toward long-term vs. short-term goals affects achievement outcomes. Eighteen controlled studies were coded in terms of measurement method (toward long-term vs. short-term goals) and type of achievement outcome (probelike vs. global achievement test). Analogs to analysis of variance conducted on weighted unbiased effect sizes (UESs) indicated an interaction : When progress was measured toward long-term goals, UESs on global measures were higher than on probelike outcomes; when progress was measured toward series of short-term goals, the reverse was true. Implications for special education practice are discussed.
Educational and Occupational Outcomes of Hispanic Learning-Disabled High School Students
Authors: Cardoza Desdemona , Rueda Robert
Published: December 2008

The purpose of this study was to examine the educational characteristics of six subgroups in the high school and beyond data set. These included senior learning-disabled Hispanic students, senior learning-disabled Anglo students, and a randomly selected Anglo senior nonhandicapped subsample. In addition, three parallel sophomore groups were included.

The major analyses of the data reflected an attempt to compare the groups in terms of their course taking behavior, educational aspirations and educational/occupational outcomes. The results indicated that there were significant differences between the handicapped and nonhandicapped groups. However, in general, there were no differences between the Anglo and Hispanic handicapped groups.
Classroom Ecology in Categorical Special Education Classrooms: and So, They Counted the Teeth in the Horsei
Authors: Algozzine Kate M. , Morsink Catherine V. , Algozzine Bob
Published: December 2008

Teaching is systematic presentation of content assumed necessary for successful progress in school. Each year, large numbers of students fail to profit from the educational menu taught in America's schools. Many of these failing students are classified as handicapped and receive special education designed to compensate for or correct the problems believed to be the sources of their failure. Although very many students receive special education in self-contained classrooms, the effectiveness of this alternative educational placement remains an issue largely because so little is known about what special teachers do differently in their classrooms. Forty teachers of categorical special education classrooms were observed during various academic instructional periods. No differences were indicated in the extent to which these teachers demonstrated several general teaching behaviors (e.g., by using a variety of instructional strategies, maintaining active student involvement). The outcomes of this research raise questions about the appropriateness of categorical grouping of students for instruction and relate to issues of personnel training in categorical programs.
Teacher Ratings of Hyperactivity in Learning-Disabled, Emotionally Disturbed, and Mentally Retarded Children
Authors: Epstein Michael H. , Cullinan Douglas , Gadow Kenneth D.
Published: December 2008

Teachers of LD, ED, MR, and nonhandicapped pupils rated their pupils on the Abbreviated Teacher Rating Scale, a measure used to assess hyperactivity. The prevalence, distribution, and pattern of hyperactivity within and among these groups were analyzed. Age and sex differences were also studied. The findings are discussed in relation to cross-cultural research on hyperactivity and are integrated into research on the behavioral characteristics of mildly handicapped pupils.
Relationships Between Health Problems and School Adjustment of Young Children
Authors: Lotyczewski Bohdan S. , Cowen Emory L. , Weissberg Roger
Published: December 2008

One hundred and seventy-nine first to fourth graders who had experienced one or more of six health problems were judged by classroom teachers to have more serious school adjustment problems and fewer school competencies than a demographically matched peer group of 710 youngsters who had not experienced such problems. Within the health-problem sample, children with multiple problems were rated as more maladjusted and less competent than those who had experienced only one problem. There were several adjustment differences among subgroups of youngsters who experienced specific types of health problems.
Metal Pollutant Exposure and Behavior Disorders: Implications for School Practices
Authors: Marlowe Mike
Published: December 2008

Childhood exposure to metal pollutants routinely encountered in the environment is an issue of importance to the field of behavior disorders. Metal pollutants at low levels, far below those associated with clinical metal poisoning, are associated with a spectrum of behavior disorders. This review addresses a set of environmental and diet variables to reduce metal exposure which are potentially within the realm of control of child, parent, and health or educational professional working with the family.
Attention Deficit Disorder With Hyperactivity: a Review and Implications for the Classroom
Authors: O'Brien Mildred A. , Obrzut John E.
Published: December 2008

One of the most common problems experienced by elementary school children is attention deficit disorder with hyperactivity (ADD-H). Although this syndrome is defined by the American Psychiatric Association in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (3rd ed.) (DSM III), much of the research regarding its validity as a diagnostic category has been generated after publication of DSM II1. This article reviews the research findings related to the various forms of intervention or treatment commonly employed in work with ADD-H children. Among the topics addressed are direct observation studies, drug treatment, drug effects on academic achievement, diet interventions, behavior modification, cognitive behavior modification, and metacognition and executive control. Practical implications of the research data are suggested for educators and school psychologists who do their work in school environments.
Direct Vs. Mnemonic Instruction: Relative Benefits for Exceptional Learners
Authors: Mastropieri Margo A. , Scruggs Thomas E. , Levin Joel R.
Published: December 2008

In two experiments, students learned the hardness levels of minerals via either direct instruction or a pictorial mnemonic technique. In Experiment 1, the subjects were 56 learning-disabled high school students who were taught one of the methods in small groups. In Experiment 2, the subjects were eight educable mentally retarded junior high school students who were individually administered both methods in a crossover design. In both experiments, students given mnemonic instruction substantially outperformed direct instruction subjects.
Characteristics of Special Education Placements: Findings From Probability Samples in Five Metropolitan School Districts
Authors: Singer Judith D. , Butler John A. , Palfrey Judith S. , Walker Deborah K.
Published: December 2008

Characteristics of classroom placements were studied for a probability sample of approximately 950 special needs children enrolled in kindergarten through sixth grade in five major metropolitan school districts. Across all special education students, 58% spent the majority of their school day in a regular class, 38% spent the majority of their school day in a special class, and 4% attended special schools. The regular classes in which special education children were enrolled resembled other regular classes in overall size and student composition. By contrast, special classes were smaller and more heterogeneous, and classes in special schools were especially small and heterogeneous. The proportion of time spent in regular education varied significantly both by the child's primary handicap and the school district in which the child lived, but sizable variations also were found within disability groups and within districts. For learning-disabled, mentally retarded, and physically/multiply handicapped children, variations in placement were found to be associated with student socioeconomic status and race or ethnicity.
Teacher Manageability: Do Special and Regular Educators Agree?
Authors: Safran Stephen P.
Published: December 2008

The purposes of this study were to determine whether there were differences between regular and special educators in their perceptions of manageability of common problem behaviors and which behaviors were identified as most problematic. Forty-four regular and 65 special education teachers completed the Behavior Manageability Scale, a 39-behavior, 11-cluster checklist of problem behaviors. A multivariate analysis of variance indicated no significant differences among groups, with the socially withdrawn, inattention and work organization behavioral clusters rated as most difficult to manage by each group. Implications for teacher education and referral and placement policies are discussed.
Critical Success Factors of Special Education Administrators
Authors: Burrello Leonard C. , Zadnik David J.
Published: December 2008

The purpose of this study was to empirically identify and describe critical success factors (CSFs) of local special education administrators and to determine the extent to which these factors differed across organizational and demographic variables. The study additionally determined the differences in critical success factors of a nominated group of effective administrators with a random sample of local special education administrators. A nominating process led to the selection of 14 administrators from 250, considered from various structures, sizes, and settings. Interviews (personal and telephone) gave rise to a set of factors and measures considered critical to the success of the administrators and their programs. These factors were then used to construct a survey instrument which was sent to the remaining effective nominees and a random sample of local special education administrators.

The findings supported the premise that the effective administrators were more concerned about how they and their programs were a part of the larger cultural context of the schools than the random respondents.
Special Education in the Soviet Union: Problems and Perspectives
Authors: Gindis Boris
Published: December 2008

This article reviews the theory and practice of contemporary special education in the Soviet Union. It focuses on the current state and tendencies in development of basic theoretical concepts, methods of screening, and organizational structure of special education in the Soviet Union. Some comparison with American theoretical considerations and practical approaches to the same problems are provided.
Practical Significance in Special Education Research
Authors: Hanson Marjorie , Abramson Marty , McNamara James F.
Published: December 2008

Whereas statistical significance indicates whether a difference is a difference, additional information signifying whether the difference is large enough to make the results worth acting upon is included in practical significance. Statistical measures of practical significance report the extent to which variation in the dependent variable can be explained by the independent variable. Measures of practical significance are seldom reported in The Journal of Special Education, although sometimes issues of practicality are discussed using the estimate of statistical significance. Practical significance, however, may vary greatly among samples even though statistical significance estimates are similar.
The Development of Early Communication: Using Developmental Literature for Selecting Communication Goals
Authors: Harrison Janet , Lombardino Linda J. , Stapell Jamie B.
Published: December 2008

The developmental model of communication growth is often the most appropriate framework for determining intervention goals regarding forms of communication. Most children who are functioning at the sensorimotor level of cognition can learn to communicate more effectively and will benefit from intervention that is based on the normal progression of communication forms and functions. An integration of published literature describing the developmental progression of sensory, motor, and social abilities is provided as an intervention framework for developing communicative abilities in prelinguistic children.
Effective Educational Practices in the Mainstream Setting: Recommended Model for Evaluation of Mainstream Teacher Classes
Authors: Bender William N.
Published: December 2008

This paper recommends evaluation of effective educational practices in all mainstream class settings. A seven-point rationale for such evaluation is presented, followed by discussion of evaluations of mainstreaming which have already been conducted. Areas of research relevant to effective instructional practices in the mainstream are also presented, in order to specify content of an appropriate evaluation instrument. Finally, a model of an effective evaluation system for evaluation of classroom mainstreaming is presented.
Regular Education Teacher Modifications for Mainstreamed Mildly Handicapped Students
Authors: Munson Susan M.
Published: December 2008

An interview procedure was used to investigate 26 regular education teachers' (RET) perceptions of education program modifications made for mainstreamed mildly handicapped students (MMHS). Teacher statements were categorized and subsequently analyzed using both qualitative and quantitative procedures. The results indicated that RET made more typical modifications for MMHS than they made substantial modifications in the education program. A significant negative relationship emerged between RET age and years of teaching experience and, in some cases, class size and the number of modifications reported for MMHS. Conclusions were made regarding the appropriateness of the educational programs provided for MMHS. Implications of the findings were discussed in regard to teacher preparation and inservice training, least restrictive environment (LRE) policy, and LRE placement decisions.
Using Adaptive Behavior in Assessment and Intervention
Authors: Horn Eva , Fuchs Douglas
Published: December 2008

Adaptive behavior is a dynamic construct, influenced by cultural norms and age-related expectations. The zeitgeist of the times also has affected how it has been conceptualized and applied to practice. This paper presents a brief and selective history of the care and treatment of persons with mental retardation, emphasizing the roles that adaptive behavior has played in assessing and treating this group of handicapped persons. The purpose of the historical perspective is to contribute to a clearer understanding of adaptive behavior and a greater appreciation for its potential importance in training as well as assessment of mentally retarded individuals. In the final sections of the paper, we discuss current and possible future applications of adaptive behavior.
Conceptual and Psychometric Issues in the Assessment of Adaptive Behavior
Authors: Kamphaus Randy W.
Published: December 2008

This article discusses three issues in the assessment of adaptive behavior: the clarity of the construct of adaptive behavior, the norm samples for adaptive behavior scales, and the predictive validity of adaptive behavior scales. It is concluded that while the concept of adaptive behavior is still too vague it is at least as well defined as other constructs, such as intelligence. Vast improvements are noted in the standardization properties of major adaptive behavior scales. Finally, it is argued that adaptive behavior assessment lacks clear evidence of predictive validity. A research agenda aimed at improving adaptive behavior assessment is presented.
Research with Adaptive Behavior Scales
Authors: Harrison Patti L.
Published: December 2008

In recent years, a great deal of research concerning adaptive behavior scales has been conducted. This article reviews adaptive behavior research in the following areas: the relationship between adaptive behavior and intelligence and school achievement, the relationship between different measures of adaptive behavior, predictive aspects, declassification, group differences in adaptive behavior, the relationship between parents' and teachers' ratings, factorial dimensions, the effects of training and intervention, and stability and interrater reliability.
Adaptive Behavior and the Psychologically Disturbed Child
Authors: Sparrow Sara S. , Cicchetti Domenic V.
Published: December 2008

In this report, we discuss recent research and clinical issues relevant to the adaptive functioning of psychologically disturbed children. We focus upon the overall and specific adaptive behavior patterns of several types of emotional disorders, some diagnosed before, others after, the advent of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-III) criteria (American Psychiatric Association, 1980). Disorders include Atypical Mild and Reactive conditions (pre-dating DSM-III) as well as the following DSM-III diagnostic categories: Anxiety Disorder, Atypical Pervasive Developmental Disorder, and Infantile Autism. In general, results indicate that (1) the severity of adaptive behavior deficits tends to increase with the severity of the psychological disturbance; (2) the usual pattern for disturbed children relative to appropriate controls is highest deficits in both socialization and maladaptive areas of assessment; and (3) patterns of deficit in other major areas (i.e., Communication, Daily Living Skills) tend to be less predictable.
Adaptive Behavior of Subtypes of Learning Disabled Individuals
Authors: Weller Carol , Strawser Sherri
Published: December 2008

Although there is ample literature concerning social skills of school-age learning disabled individuals, research clarifying the adaptive behavior characteristics of learning disabled children, youth, and adults is in its infancy. The learning disabled population frequently has been treated as a homogeneous group by researchers and practitioners. Awareness of the differences among subtypes of the population must be recognized before appropriate adaptive behavior assessment and instruction can be provided. For this paper, data from subtyping research were compiled from an adaptive behavior perspective, resulting in the identification of five subtypes of individuals currently receiving service in learning disability programs. Adaptive characteristics of each subtype are described and implications for assessment, programming, and intervention are provided.
Future Developments in the Concept and Application of Adaptive Behavior
Authors: McCarver Ronald B. , Campbell Vincent A.
Published: December 2008

A fictional post-evaluation conference conducted in 1995 is used to present predictions regarding the future of adaptive behavior assessment and intervention. The conference includes an analysis of the student's profile of performance on a comprehensive adaptive behavior scale with norms based on the entire United States population and supplemental norms for a variety of demographic and diagnostic subgroups, the results of additional testing suggested from the performance profile and recommendations for services to meet the student's future needs. Predictions are based on issues that are current in the literature; relevant articles and papers are cited. The status of theoretical issues 10 years from now are also presented as extrapolations of current trends.
Consistency of Performance Across Classrooms: Instructional Materials Versus Setting as Influencing Variables
Authors: Anderson-Inman Lynne
Published: December 2008

This study explores the extent to which and the conditions under which five mildly handicappped students demonstrated consistency of academic performance in two school settings, a special education resource room and a regular education classroom. For each student, 9 to 15 specific arithmetic skills were tested using two types of accuracy measures: (a) criterion-referenced tests replicating the content and format of instructional materials used in the resource room and (b) curriculum probes simulating the task demands of the regular classroom curriculum. Comparison of student performance on criterion-referenced tests administered in the two settings is an indicator of the effect of setting changes alone on cross-classroom consistency of performance. Comparison of student performance on criterion-referenced tests and curriculum probes administered in the regular classroom is an indicator of the effect of different instructional materials on student performance in the same setting. Togegether, the tests indicate the relative contribution of setting changes and curriculum differences to the cross-classroom consistency of performance of mildly handicapped students mainstreamed into a regular classroom. Results of the study revealed that changing setting alone had no significant impact on student performance. The combined effect of changes in test materials and test administrator, however, resulted in performance which was more variable and less accurate, indicating that curriculum differences do affect the extent to which skills are transferred across settings. The results are discussed in terms of their relevance for interpreting handicapped students' performance in regular classes.
An Examination of Overlap Between Reading Curricula and Standardized Achievement Tests
Authors: Shapiro Edward S. , Derr Tami F.
Published: December 2008

The overlap between reading subtests of four individual achievement tests and five basal reading curricula was examined. Raw scores, grade equivalents, percentiles, and standard scores were reported that would be obtained if all words appearing in each grade level of the curriculum were mastered. Results showed that little overlap exists between what is taught and what is tested. Additionally, the degree of overlap varied considerably across tests and curricula. Implications for interpretation of individual standardized achievement test results were discussed.
The Impact of Screening and Referral Practices in Early Childhood Special Education: Policy Considerations and Research Directions
Authors: Ysseldyke James E. , Thurlow Martha L. , O'Sullivan Patrick J.
Published: December 2008

Ecological case study methods were used in an exploratory investigation of four early childhood special education (ECSE) screening programs. Possible influences on screening outcomes were identified. The screening outcomes selected for comparing ECSE programs included (a) the percentage of eligible preschoolers screened (participation rate) and (b) the percentage of screened children referred for further developmental assessment (referral rate). Observations, interviews, file searches, and parent surveys were used to obtain multidimensional descriptions of outreach, screening, and referral practices. Results suggested that few screening and referral practices influenced screening outcomes in a consistent manner. Participation rates were related to school district size and the accessibility of screening to the public. Referral rates appeared to be influenced by screening purposes, second-level referral decisions, and subjective judgment. Relationships among community agencies appeared to influence both participation and referral rates. Policy considerations and directions for research are discussed.
GRE Score Level, Test Completion, and Reliability for Visually Impaired, Physically Handicapped, and Nonhandicapped Groups
Authors: Bennett Randy Elliot , Rock Donald A. , Jirele Thomas
Published: December 2008

This study examined the score level, extent of test completion, and test reliability for three handicapped groups taking the Graduate Record Examinations (GRE) General Test. The groups studied were physically handicapped students taking the test under standard conditions, visually impaired students taking a special administration, and visually impaired students taking the standard examination. Results showed the performance of the visually handicapped groups to approximate closely that of nondisabled examinees, while physically handicapped students performed substantially lower on two of the three General Test scales. Data on test completion showed indications of minimal disadvantage to the two disabled groups taking timed administrations and slight advantage to the group taking the extended-time test. Analysis of test reliability revealed no important differences across groups. Further research—especially predictive validity studies—should better inform judgments about the meaning of General Test scores for handicapped students.
Mothers' Expectations, Interactions, and Achievement Attributions for Their Learning Disabled or Normally Achieving Sons
Authors: Tollison Patricia , Palmer Douglas J. , Stowe Michael L.
Published: December 2008

Mothers of learning disabled (LD) and normally achieving (NA) pupils administered an academic task to their children in their homes. Mothers' expectations, observed interactions, and attributions for their youngsters' performance were assessed. Mothers of LD pupils held lower expectations for their sons' performance and provided more negative nonverbal responses. Differences were noted in the relationship of LD and NA pupils' performance to their mothers' expectations and interactions. Mothers of LD pupils also were more likely than mothers of NA pupils to attribute their sons' failure to lack of ability. Results are discussed in the context of an interactionist perspective on parenting.
Technology For Persons with Severe Disabilities
Authors: Garner J. Bradley , Campbell Philippa H.
Published: December 2008

Technological advances relevant to the needs of persons with severe handicaps are emerging at a rapid rate. These devices and adaptations have significant potential for enhancing opportunities for integration, independence, and personal choice for this group of individuals. This article discusses several critical issues related to the use of technology: (a) obstacles to the use of adaptations and technological devices, (b) strategies for the selection, design, and use of adaptations and technological devices, and (c) an approach for incorporating technology into the integrated team planning process. Consideration is given to ethical and philosophical issues that must guide the application of new technological advances.
THE EFFECTIVENESS OF SPECIAL EDUCATION
Authors: Marston Douglas
Published: December 2008

Much of the current research on special education effectiveness challenges the notion that delivery of these services to handicapped children significantly improves their academic performance in schools. It is argued here that such conclusions are premature since many of these studies are based upon tests with poor technical adequacy or flawed experimental designs. It is reasoned that a more efficacious approach to investigating issues of special education effectiveness might rely on time series analysis where researchers examine the response of handicapped children to varying educational interventions. This study presents such an approach where the impact of regular and special education on 11 mildly handicapped children is studied by analyzing their slope of improvement on weekly curriculum-based measures (CBM) reading scores. The data for these pupils suggest that special education is in fact a significant educational intervention, and that time series analysis of CBM data is a useful evaluation tool. In addition, the report provides an analysis of the instructional environment of these children in their regular and special education settings.
A MODEL ACCOUNTING PLAN FOR SPECIAL EDUCATION
Authors: Rossi Robert J. , Wolman Jean M.
Published: December 2008

Current systems for monitoring the enrollments and status of special education programs do not meet current demands for increased accountability. Project MAP (Model Accounting Plan) attempts to meet this demand. MAP is a demographic accounting model for monitoring the transitions of special education students as they progress through the school system and for the year after they graduate. The MAP was pilot tested with 1,100 secondary level special education students in one Northern California school district. Using existing pupil count data and a follow-up one year later, the MAP describes and predicts the paths special education students follow, taking into account the student's age, handicap, and instructional setting assignment. The MAP provides previously unavailable data to special educators and decision makers at all levels regarding program effectiveness and resource allocation and poses useful questions for further study.
HEARING IMPAIRED ADOLESCENTS' COMPREHENSION OF ANAPHORIC RELATIONSHIPS WITHIN CONJOINED SENTENCES
Authors: Stoefen-Fisher Jill M.
Published: December 2008

Thirty-two hearing impaired adolescents were administered a test instrument assessing comprehension of three anaphoric forms within conjoined sentences: repeated noun, personal pronouns, and null form. The null form was presented in two semantic environments. One environment allowed use of the object-subject deletion rule, a deviant rule found in the language of some hearing impaired students. In this environment, use of the deviant rule produced a conceptually acceptable event. Use of the deviant rule in the second environment, however, produced a conceptually unacceptable event. The null form anaphora in the semantically acceptable environment was significantly more difficult than the other anaphora. Implications for teaching language and development of reading materials for hearing impaired students are discussed.
RESTRICTIVENESS OF PROCEDURES TO DECREASE BEHAVIOR
Authors: Morgan Robert L. , Striefel Sebastian
Published: December 2008

A survey was distributed to school psychologists, administrators, teachers, and specialists in special education settings, which required them to rank the restrictiveness of 13 procedures designed to decrease behaviors. Data from 118 respondents indicated general agreement in the rankings of procedures, although considerable dispersion was noted with respect to some of them. Results are discussed in terms of the nature of the procedures, sample groups, and correspondence with previously proposed, theoretical hierarchies of behavioral procedures.
A FACTOR ANALYSIS OF PSYCHOTIC BEHAVIOR
Authors: Eaves Ronald C. , Hooper Jill
Published: December 2008

Available instruments designed to facilitate the differential diagnosis of severe handicaps were developed almost exclusively through qualitative methods. Inconsistencies in the scales thus developed have failed to resolve the confusion surrounding differential diagnosis. In an effort to illustrate how one quantitative method (i.e., factor analysis) can assist in the resolution of the problem, the authors describe the construction of the Psychotic Behavior Rating Scale (PBRS) and compare the factor analytically derived scale with five existing instruments. Similarities and dissimilarities among the various scales are noted.
Children Who were Very Low Birthweight: Cognitive Abilities and Classroom Behavior at Five Years of Age
Authors: Klein Nancy K.
Published: December 2008

Sixty-two children who were born very low birthweight (VLBW; < 1,500 grams) in 1976 are now reaching school age, and their ability to meet the demands of school can be evaluated. These children, enrolled in regular classrooms, were matched by race and sex to full-term classmates at 5 years of age. Measures of cognitive abilities and visual motor integration were administered and teachers rated their classroom behavior. VLBW children scored significantly lower on measures of visual perceptual and visual motor function. Teachers rated VLBW children as having significantly more problems including attending to tasks, following directions, and being passive. These data suggest the need for early intervention programs. Furthermore, these data underscore the need for longitudinal follow-up into the elementary school years.
Modifying Parent-Child Interaction: Enhancing the Development of Handicapped Children
Authors: Mahoney Gerald , Powell Amy
Published: December 2008

This paper describes the Transactional Intervention Program (TRIP), an intervention curriculum designed to modify patterns of interaction between parents and their young handicapped children. Issues that were considered in designing the program are discussed, and evaluation data on a group of 41 handicapped children and their parents are presented. Data indicate that parent-child interaction is an important and legitimate focus for early intervention. At the same time, the data illustrate the complex nature of parent-child interaction and underscore the difficulty of developing and evaluating interventions designed to modify it.
Teaching Mothers to Imitate Their Handicapped Children: Effects on Maternal Mands
Authors: Brown-Gorton Robin , Wolery Mark
Published: December 2008

The purpose of this study was to teach mothers of children with handicaps to imitate their child's behavior and to measure the effects on the number of mands displayed by the mothers during 10-minute play sessions. The procedures for teaching mothers included telling them to imitate their child, demonstrating a verbal and motor imitation, setting a goal for the frequency of imitation, providing graphic feedback, and delivering verbal praise. These procedures were implemented within a combination multiple baseline and reversal design. A partial interval sampling system was used to measure the frequency with which caregivers imitated their child and provided mands to the child. The results indicated that (a) implementation of the teaching procedures was related to the percentage of intervals during which mothers imitated their child and (b) an inverse relationship existed between the percentage of intervals in which limitations and mands occurred (as imitations increased, mands decreased). Throughout the investigation, the mothers were not aware that mands were being measured.