bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Revelation
Authors: Peterson Ryan S.
Published: January 2012

Revelation is God's self‐disclosure to humanity. Because it isself‐disclosure, the content of revelation and the agent of revelation are the same: the triune God. Jesus Christ, the very Word of God, is the light of the world, and it is in the life, death, resurrection, and ascension of Jesus where God has disclosed Godself definitively. The Holy Spirit ensures the reception of the Word and acts to bring about the full fruits of the gospel. God reconciles and saves humanity through revelation as it is a means of bringing humanity into fellowship with God. Revelation stretches into the future, for Christians still await the day when we will see God face to face (1 Cor. 15) and when we will be like Christ because we will see him as he is (1 John 3:2).
Revelation — Theophany
Authors: Green Bradley G.
Published: January 2012

The word “theophany” is derived from two Greek words:
theos
=“God,” and
phanein
=“to appear.” Biblically, a theophany designates some appearance or manifestation of the Lord to humanity. A theophany generally denotes some empirical perception of God (even if “veiled”).
Rights of Women
Authors: Crabtree Mara Lief
Published: January 2012

The phrase “women's rights,” as comprehensively understood, defines those basic human rights due to individual women and to all women in every global context of life. These rights are considered inclusive of the basic human rights, as understood in Judeo‐Christian tradition, for women to be treated by others with dignity, respect, and legal equality and to be considered as possessing human rights that are equal to those rights accorded to men in all areas of life including, but not limited to, the familial, religious, legal, educational, and vocational contexts. The definition and understanding of women's rights differ and are interpreted differently in various religious contexts, depending on ecclesial rules and laws, theologies, and cultural practices of specific Christian faith traditions including those of specific denominations and other groups.
R
oberts,
G
ranville “Oral” (1918–2009)
Authors: Lamp Jeffrey S.
Published: January 2012

Granville “Oral” Roberts was born in Bebee, Oklahoma, the youngest of five children, to Reverend Ellis, a Pentecostal Holiness preacher, and Claudia. Two features of his early life helped shape the theological emphases that would characterize his teaching. First, he was raised in poverty in a pastor's home; second, in 1935, he was miraculously healed of tuberculosis and stuttering. This background, in conjunction with his interpretation of 3 John 2, led to the conviction that God desired Christians to live in divine prosperity and health.
R
eger,
M
ax (1873–1916)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas
Published: January 2012

German composer, pianist, conductor, and teacher. His career took him to most of the great German cities as composer and concert pianist: Munich, Leipzig, Meiningen, and Jena.
Roman Imperial Cult
Authors: Thomas David Andrew
Published: January 2012

The Roman imperial cult was the institutionalized system of religious devotion fostered by the Roman Empire which afforded sacrifice unto deceased and, in some respects, living emperors and their families. Emperor worship was practiced from the time of Julius Caesar through the end of the 3rd century
ad
, finally dying out when Constantine converted to Christianity and made it the religion of his empire.
R
omero,
O
scar
A
rnulfo (1917–1980)
Authors: Castelo Daniel
Published: January 2012

A Roman Catholic archbishop during the latter part of the 1970s in El Salvador, Oscar Romero is often remembered as a modern‐day martyr because of his assassination while administering the Eucharist. Romero served El Salvador during the rising violence that led to its civil war (1980–1992), in which many thousands were killed and millions displaced in a Central American country of less than 6 million. Although his death is still in many ways a mystery, it was most likely connected with the machinations of the ultraconservative and established political party (ARENA) that was attempting at the time to dispel a guerrilla insurrection associated with the FMLN and its backing among the masses of the working poor.
Roots of Christianity:
J
ewish,
G
reek,
R
oman
Authors: Leinweber David
Published: January 2012

Christianity has been described as a synthesis of Jewish ethics, Greek philosophy, and Roman administration. During the years in which Christianity rose to prominence from its somewhat obscure Jewish origins, Greek and Roman culture dominated the Mediterranean. Understanding how Christianity reflects these three major cultural streams from the ancient world can deepen an appreciation of its emergence as a major world faith.
Sacramental Theology
Authors: Macy Gary
Published: January 2012

The English word “sacrament” is from the Latin word,
sacramentum
, which was used to translate the Greek
mysterion
and is best translated as “symbol” or “ritual.” In early Christian usage,
sacramentum
indicated particularly any religious symbol or ritual.
Sacramentum
, then, has referred throughout most of its history to any religious symbol or ritual, including the Jewish rituals that preceded the Christian era. Sacramental theology for most of Christian history, therefore, encompassed any speculation on the role of sensible realities in manifesting the role of God in human life. In the 12th century the custom grew up of referring to the seven most important Christian rituals as “the sacraments,” although the older usage of the Latin word persisted alongside this newer usage. By the 16th century, debates erupted over which rituals should be considered “sacraments” and which should not. Sacramental theology from that point on took on the more specific task of justifying the continued use of certain rituals by different Christian denominations while continuing to include the older and broader discussions of the role of symbol and ritual.
Sacrifice
Authors: Oderberg David S.
Published: January 2012

The term “sacrifice,” from the Latin “sacrificium” (“sacrum,” sacred + facere, to do or make), refers to a public act of worship, usually carried out by a suitably qualified minister, in which God is venerated as the supreme end of man by the offering to him of some sensible created thing.
Satan
Authors: Oderberg David S.
Published: January 2012

“Satan” is the biblical name given to the leader of the devils or demons in hell. He is one of the angels who disobeyed God in the beginning and was cast from heaven, destined to spend all of eternity in the pit of darkness. He tempted our first parents in Paradise and so brought about their Fall. During the lifetime of mankind, until the General Resurrection, he spends his existence tormenting souls, tempting men into sin, trying to make them forget the Lord, deceiving humanity through preternatural acts (pseudo‐miracles), and striving to drag as many people as he can with him into the unquenchable fire.
S
avonarola,
G
irolamo (1452–1498)
Authors: Oderberg David S.
Published: January 2012

Dominican friar, zealous reformer, and fiery preacher who still commands universal fascination, Savonarola is one of the more colorful characters of the Italian Renaissance, and an example of what can happen when zeal overcomes prudence.
S
chweitzer,
A
lbert (1875–1965)
Authors: Montgomery John Warwick
Published: January 2012

A recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize, Albert Schweitzer is regarded as one of the great humanitarians of modern times. He made his mark in three very different fields: theology, music, and eleemosynary medicine.
S
chwenckfeld,
C
aspar (1489–1561)
Authors: Essick John Inscore
Published: January 2012

Caspar Schwenckfeld was a Silesian Reformer and spiritualist born to a noble family in Ossig, Germany. Schwenckfeld matriculated in several European universities without completing a degree, but served as an adviser to Frederick II of Liegnitz. He was greatly influenced by Martin Luther and was an early convert to Lutheran reforming efforts. Schwenckfeld became an adviser to Duke Frederick II in 1522 and subsequently persuaded the duke to initiate evangelical reform. Schwenckfeld eventually left Silesia in a self‐imposed exile stemming from political pressure, disagreements with Luther, and his evolving spiritualism. The remainder of his life was spent as a wandering lay theologian. He died from a prolonged illness while in hiding in Ulm. Schwenckfeld's numerous writings are available in translation in the multivolume
Corpus Schwenckfeldianorum
.
Science and Christianity
Authors: Menuge Angus J. L.
Published: January 2012

Before science can get started, humans must have the idea that nature is congenial to systematic study. Not all ways of understanding nature support this assumption. Animism and polytheism suggest that nature itself is sacred, so that it would be sacrilege to dissect it, and also that nature is governed by a multiplicity of local deities and is thus too heterogeneous and capricious to support universal laws. Excessive spiritualism or exclusive concern for eternal truth may disparage nature as the realm of transience,
maya
(illusion), or corruption, making its systematic study a pointless or even sinful diversion.
Second Coming
Authors: Thomas David Andrew
Published: January 2012

The Second Coming (or
Parousia
) is by definition a concept confined to the arena of New Testament theology, being predicated upon the First Advent of Christ, which is central to that canon. From Jesus' teachings (especially in the Synoptic Gospels), through the epistolary writings of the apostles, and culminating in the Book of Revelation, the teaching that Jesus Christ will return in glory to establish his eternal kingdom is proclaimed and explained with remarkable constancy, being mentioned or implied in nearly every book. While some NT passages dealing with the Second Advent contain allusions to Old Testament prophetic traditions, such as the Day of the Lord and the eschatological rescue of God's people, there is little doubt that the teaching is fundamentally grounded in the Jesus tradition and consequently, the message of the original disciples. The Second Coming also figures prominently in extra‐biblical and patristic writings of the early church such as the
Didache, The Shepherd of Hermas
, and many others.
S
elbständige
E
vangelisch‐
L
utherische
K
irche (
SELK
)
Authors: Hasel Frank M.
Published: January 2012

The SELK is an independent confessional Lutheran Church in Germany. There has been a moderate decline in membership over the past years. There are some 36,500 members (as of 2005). Members are organized in almost 200 congregations all over Germany, but mostly in Berlin, North‐Rhine‐Westphalia, Lower Saxony, and Hesse. Some 140 ordained pastors serve in the congregations.
Seraphim of
S
arov,
S
aint (1759–1833)
Authors: Foltz Bruce V.
Published: January 2012

St. Seraphim of Sarov was an influential Russian
staretz
(Greek,
geron
) or elder, a holy man recognized as bearing the
charism
, or ministry, of spiritual direction. Although he spent much of his life in solitude and ascetic struggle, he was celebrated throughout Russia as a great clairvoyant and worker of miracles, and today he is widely venerated in the Orthodox world, and beyond, as an outstanding modern exemplar of a life filled with the grace of the Holy Spirit. This remains especially the case in Russia, where he is the most beloved of all modern saints. Significantly, and ironically, it was in the basement of the Kazan Cathedral in St. Petersburg, which had for years been converted by the communist regime into a “Museum of Atheism,” that his lost relics were re‐discovered. Thus, as he had predicted, the recovery of his relics in 1991 was associated with the restoration of the Orthodox faith to Russia.
S
erra,
J
unípero (1713–1784)
Authors: Warner David B.
Published: January 2012

Spanish Majorcan missionary to the New World, Blessed Junípero Serra is known as the “Apostle of California.” His statue is one of only 100 “Founding Fathers” honored in the American Capitol's Hall of Fame. Padre (Spanish for “Father”) or Fray (“Brother”) Serra was a spiritual giant who personified some of the noblest contributions of Christian civilization, including the call to holiness, academic excellence, and authentic Christian mission.
S
impson,
A
.
B
. (1843–1919)
Authors: King Paul L.
Published: January 2012

Albert Benjamin Simpson was born in 1843 in Toronto, Canada. Graduating from Knox Seminary in Toronto, Simpson became a successful Presbyterian pastor in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada; Louisville, Kentucky; and New York City. In 1874 after reading the book
The Higher Christian Life
by W. E. Boardman, a leader in the Higher Life and Keswick holiness movements, he experienced what he identified as a sanctifying baptism of the Holy Spirit.
Slain in the Spirit
Authors: Althouse Peter
Published: January 2012

Sometimes called “resting in the Spirit,” “falling under the power,” and “overcome by the Spirit” this is a phenomenon in Pentecostal and Charismatic circles, in which an individual falls under the influence of the Spirit. Although a relatively recent phenomenon and usually described by the social sciences as the result of autosuggestion, peer pressure, trance possession, or an intense desire for an experiential encounter with transcendence, evidence for the phenomenon can be found in mystical Christianity and other religions (Alexander 2002: 1072–1073).
Slavery, Abolition of
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J.
Published: January 2012

Slavery is virtually as old as human life. It was operative in Africa and in the Middle East before it made its way to Europe. By the time of Christ, slaves made up an estimated 75 percent of the population in ancient Athens and well over half the Roman population. Slavery was also widely practiced by many tribes of the American Indians long before Columbus set foot on the shores of the New World. With few exceptions, kings and philosophers approved of it. For instance, Aristotle (384–322
bc
), the influential Greek philosopher, saw it as natural, expedient, and morally just. The first major questioning of slavery began with Christianity.
S
myth,
J
ohn (
c
.1570–1612)
Authors: Lee Jason K.
Published: January 2012

Born in Sturton‐le‐Steeple, Nottinghamshire, John Smyth received his Bachelor and Master degrees from Christ's College, Cambridge and served as a fellow at the college from 1594 to 1598. An ordained Anglican minister, Smyth held Puritan views and was elected city lecturer of Lincoln in 1600. In 1607 he and others formed a covenanted congregation in Gainsborough.
Social Gospel
Authors: Fannin Coleman
Published: January 2012

The social gospel was a diverse, loosely connected movement emphasizing the direct application of Christian principles to social problems. It arose in the late 19th century, peaked before World War I, was echoed by the New Deal and the civil rights movement, and continues to impact contemporary groups. Although centered in Protestantism in the United States, the social gospel was also part of the reforming spirit of its era and influential in Canada and Great Britain and among Roman Catholics. Much of the movement was a response to the immediate challenges of industrialization, but its advocates also displayed a sincere piety and a commitment to usher in the Kingdom of God through working for social progress.
Social Justice
Authors: Burns Lanier
Published: January 2012

Social justice is concerned with fairness or equity in relationships. The subject is usually treated as a broad subcategory of moral philosophy. It reflects principles and practices of equitable relationships in societies that are based on traditional precedents and are usually encoded in laws. Principles tend to be consistent in this universal subject, but broad distinctions are drawn on the basis of their source or authority, sacred texts in religious views versus social order or consensus in nonreligious approaches. For example, all viewpoints emphasize a “golden rule,” a mutual reciprocity among people who share goods and interests in sources as diverse as Matthew 7:12 (and Synoptic parallels) and Immanuel Kant's “categorical imperative.” In a similar way, Aristotle's principle of impartiality has been nuanced through western history in terms of social equality, merit, and need.
S
outhern
A
frica
Authors: Kurian George Thomas
Published: January 2012

Southern Africa encompasses South Africa, Botswana, Lesotho, Malawi, Namibia, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. The region is one of the most Christian in Africa with over 90 percent of the population adhering to one of several Christian traditions.
Southern Baptist Convention
Authors: Mullin Miles S.
Published: January 2012

Founded in 1845, the Southern Baptist Convention currently boasts over 16 million members in more than 42,000 churches, marking it as the largest Protestant denomination in the United States. Conservative in theology, congregational in polity, and cooperative in missions, the SBC fields over 10,000 missionaries globally — approximately half in North America and half in international fields. The convention also operates six seminaries, a publishing and resource entity, a financial resources group, and the Ethics and Religious Liberty Commission, which addresses moral, social, and public policy issues.
Southernization of Christianity
Authors: Maclean Iain S.
Published: January 2012

The southernization of Christianity refers to the shift in world Christian population from traditionally Christian Western Europe and the North Americas (the “North”) to the East and the southern hemisphere (the “South”). In the 1900s most of the world's Christians lived in Europe and North America, while today the majority of Christians live in the global South. This will increasingly be the case in the future, marking a rapid and dramatic change, largely determined by birth rates and immigration trends. The fact that the majority of Christian countries will no longer be in Western Europe but in the South, including Nigeria, Ethiopia, Brazil, and South Korea, will probably determine the structures, beliefs, and mores of a changed universal church. Europe will cease to be the traditional Christian center and the role of North America, though still dominant in terms of Christian numbers, will be greatly reduced. This entry sets out the demographics both positive and negative that support this shift, then gives a brief outline of theological and ethical implications for the emerging churches of the global South as well as for the once dominant churches of the North.
S
purgeon,
C
harles
H
addon (1834–1892)
Authors: McDonald Larry S.
Published: January 2012

British. Born in Kelvedon, Essex, on June 19, 1834 to John, an Independent minister, and Eliza Spurgeon. He was the first born of seventeen of whom nine died in infancy. Although he lacked formal theological education, at 19 he became the pastor of the historic and famous New Park Street Baptist Church in London which eventually became the Metropolitan Tabernacle. Out of his preaching at this church Spurgeon developed a ministry with such spiritual depth and vitality that it still impacts the world today, earning him the nickname, “Prince of Preachers.”
A
nthony,
S
aint (
c
.250–356)
Authors: Beiting Christopher J.
Published: January 2012

Egyptian hermit and monastic, popularly (and incorrectly) regarded as the founder of Egyptian monasticism. His biography was written by St. Athanasius, bishop of Alexandria, and was extraordinarily popular in its day and afterwards. As a result, Anthony became one of the most influential figures in the development of Christian monasticism.
B
ede,
S
aint (672/673–735)
Authors: Gonzalez Yolanda J.
Published: January 2012

Little is known about the English saint, the Venerable Bede, as he left behind no personal account, nor did his contemporaries celebrate him by recording his biographical material. The information we do have comes from his influential work,
Ecclesiastical History of the English People
. There we learn that he spent nearly all his life in the Benedictine monasteries of St. Peter at Wearmouth and St. Paul at Jarrow. At 19, he was ordained as a deacon, and at 30, he became a priest. He devoted his life to teaching and studying a wide variety of subjects including Latin, Greek, the scriptures, Roman law, poetic arts, and mathematical computation. As a result, St. Bede was able to provide the Anglo‐Saxon church, still in its infancy, with valuable materials.
B
onaventure,
S
aint (1217–1274)
Authors: Jeffrey David Lyle
Published: January 2012

Doctor of the Church, Cardinal Bishop of Albano, Minister General of the Franciscan Order and one of the greatest of medieval theologians, Bonaventure was born near Viterbo in Italy. His name was John of Fidanza, but he attracted the nickname from an apparently miraculous recovery from illness during his youth — a cure attributed to St. Francis (
O buona ventura
). He studied with the Order of Friars Minor at Bagnorea in about 1225–1235, then was sent to study in Paris under the great Alexander of Hales from 1236 to 1242, becoming licensed as
magister
in 1248. During this period his other great teacher was Albert the Great. He lectured in Paris until 1256. Along with his famous colleague, Thomas Aquinas, he was made Regent Master of the University on August 12, 1257, a few months after he had been elected Minister General of the Franciscan Order. Alexander of Hales was so struck by his purity of life that he wrote of his student that he seemed “to have escaped the curse of Adam's sin.”
P
aul,
S
aint
Authors: Deibert Richard I.
Published: January 2012

In what may be the most ironic contrition in history, Paul writes, “I am the least of the apostles, unworthy to be called an apostle” (1 Cor. 15:9). This “least” apostle's name is affixed to 13 of the 21 letters of the New Testament and this “unworthy” apostle is responsible for Christianity's early foothold across the Mediterranean world. John Chrysostom, Patriarch of Constantinople, lauded Paul's enduring stature three centuries later: “As a wall built of diamond, so his writings fortify all the churches of the known world, and he as a most noble champion stands in the midst” (
Priesthood
, Book IV.7 (NPNF
1
9:68)).
S
ergius,
S
aint (1314–1392)
Authors: Foltz Bruce V.
Published: January 2012

St. Sergius of Radonezh (1314–1392), sometimes called “the Abbot of Russia,” played a key role in three important aspects of the founding of Russian civilization: its unification under the leadership of Moscow, its liberation from Mongol domination, and most importantly, the rebirth of the monasticism that was to have such a profound effect upon Russian thought and culture.
Stained Glass
Authors: Moore R. Kelvin
Published: January 2012

People have made glass for over 3,500 years. The initial discovery of glass has been lost in anti‐quity. Pliny maintained that Phoenician sailors discovered glass after building a fire on a beach. Supposedly, as these sailors observed, the sand melted, pooled, and hardened, into glass. The origins of stained glass remain obscure as well. Some historians point to Middle Easterners as the first to develop stained glass. Middle Eastern craftsmen desired to allow light to enter a building through small openings. Next, these craftsmen filled the openings with small pieces of colored glass. Others interpret history to indicate that northern European people produced stained glass originally. Regardless of the origin of stained glass, dating before the 11th century and appearing simultaneously in several European countries, religious fervor prompted the extensive use of stained glass in churches. As Christianity expanded and churches became centers of learning, Christian artisans filled worship centers with sculptures, mosaics, and stained glass. One of the oldest stained glass windows ever discovered was unearthed from a cemetery in northern France and dates from the 9th century. Excavations in Germany have discovered stained glass windows dating from the 9th and 10th centuries. Many historians maintain that the windows in Augsburg Cathedral (Augsburg, Germany) date to 1065 (others date these same windows about 1135) and are the oldest complete examples of stained glass. But by the time of the Augsburg monks, the technique they used to make their windows was highly developed. With the emergence of Gothic architecture in France in the 10th century, religious structures grew substantially in size, including windows. Builders desired to fill these large windows with glass and color. With the erection of new churches, stained glass workers established their workshops on site, oftentimes locating furnaces at the edge of forests. With the completion of one project, stained glass workers packed their tools and took their skills to other job sites. Eventually, stained glass workers branched off across Europe, stopping where their skills could be exercised. Art historians refer to the 12th and 13th centuries as the golden age of stained glass. After a fire in 1194, artists and clergy spent 30 years designing and building 173 windows in Chartres Cathedral (Chartres, France). No other cathedral possesses such a quantity of stained glass as Chartres Cathedral. Ultimately, in the 14th century, and as a part of the Renaissance movement, artists established stained glass studios in fixed locations. While the exact origin of stained glass remains ambiguous, the connection between Christianity and stained glass remains irrefutable. Stained glass workers brought their talents to the service of the church, so much so, that historians often refer to stained glass as “cathedral glass,” because of the widespread use of the glass in church windows.
S
tanford,
C
harles
V
illiers (1852–1924)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas
Published: January 2012

One of the major figures in Anglican Church music in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Stanford became professor of music at the Royal College of Music in 1883 and professor of music at Cambridge University from 1887. He was the teacher of several generations of British composers, including Ralph Vaughan Williams and Herbert Howells. He also conducted the London Bach Choir and composed for all the English choral festivals. He was knighted in 1902.
Stations of the Cross
Authors: Gillman John
Published: January 2012

The Stations of the Cross, also known as the Way of the Cross (Latin
via crucis
), is a popular devotion that recalls several significant events during Jesus' last journey from his sentence to his death and burial. The historical route taken by Jesus, different from the
Via Dolorosa
(Way of Sorrows) followed by pilgrims in Jerusalem today, probably originated at the Herodian palace where Pilate condemned Jesus and concluded at Golgotha where Jesus died on the cross (Murphy‐O'Connor 1996). The Church of the Holy Sepulcher, traditionally held to be situated on this latter site, is the place where the last five stations are commemorated.
S
travinsky,
I
gor (1882–1971)
Authors: Stoltzfus Philip
Published: January 2012

Igor Stravinsky, Russian composer, was born in Oranienbaum, Russia on June 17, 1882, the son of a singer at the imperial opera house, St. Petersburg's Mariinsky Theater. He read law at St. Petersburg University but his true love was music, leading him to study composition with Rimsky‐Korsakov.
S
trong,
A
.
H
. (1836–1921)
Authors: Dockery David S.
Published: January 2012

Augustus Hopkins Strong was one of the most influential Baptist theologians of the 20th century. His early theological formation was shaped by the New Divinity School at Yale University, where he completed his undergraduate degree in 1857. The bright young graduate pursued his seminary work at Rochester Theological Seminary, where he later served so effectively as professor and president from 1871 to 1911.
S
trong,
J
osiah (1847–1916)
Authors: Patterson James Anthony
Published: January 2012

American. Born in Naperville, Illinois, to Josiah and Elizabeth Strong. He was a descendant of Elder John Strong, one of the early settlers in 17th century Puritan Massachusetts. Josiah's parents moved the family to Hudson, Ohio, in 1852. He spent the remainder of his childhood there and experienced an evangelical conversion at the First Congregational Church as a young teen. Afterward he attended Western Reserve College in the same town. Following graduation in 1869, he enrolled at Lane Theological Seminary in Cincinnati. Not long after ending his studies at Lane in 1871, he married Alice Bisbee. Daughters Elsie and Margery later provided useful information on these early years in an unpublished manuscript,
Josiah Strong: Social Pioneer
.
S
tylites,
S
ymeon (
c
.390–459)
Authors: McGuckin John Anthony
Published: January 2012

Late antique Syrian Christian saint and pillar‐dweller (
style
) from which derives his name. Symeon was the first, and remains the most famous, of the stylite ascetics. He lived for 37 years exposed to the elements in a life of ascetical penance, perched on top of columnar stone drums. The resistance of the stylite saints to the elements (burning sun and freezing cold and rain in winter) was a dramatic sign of their renunciation of earthly comfort for the sake of attaining the kingdom of heaven. In the wider context of late antique Roman imperial society (which still included numerous pagans in the rural hinterland at this period), the extreme ascetic lifestyle of the stylite also signaled the adoption of the life of the philosopher: for whom the “despising” of the world was by then a trope common to both pagan and Christian. Such figures were widely accepted as mediators and intercessors (both political and religious) in the often chaotic political environment of that era. Symeon and the other stylites who came after him were usually attended by disciples who sent up food for the recluse and controlled the people who came to seek his advice and prayers.
Sunday Schools
Authors: DuPree Sherry Sherrod
Published: January 2012

Robert Raikes (1735–1811) is traditionally credited as the pioneer of Sunday Schools. His first school, founded in 1780, was for the children of chimney sweeps in Sooty Alley, Gloucester, England. The school was opposite the city prison in a poor area where there were many orphans and working parents. Raikes was able to use his position as proprietor and editor of theGloucester Journalto publicize his Sunday School. After his first editorial in 1783, Sunday Schools spread with astonishing rapidity.
S
wedish Christianity
Authors: Green Todd
Published: January 2012

The kingdom of Sweden, along with Denmark, Norway, Iceland, and Finland, belongs to the Nordic region of Europe. All five countries have a religious history dominated since the Reformation by Lutheranism. This entry provides a historical overview of Swedish Christianity from the 9th century to the present, with particular attention given to Sweden's Lutheran heritage.
S
winburne,
R
ichard
G
ranville (
b
. 1934)
Authors: Geivett R. Douglas
Published: January 2012

Christian philosopher and theologian educated at Oxford University and later a research fellow at the Universities of Oxford and Leeds in the history and philosophy of science. He has held university posts in England at Hull (1963) and Keele (1972). In 1985 he was appointed to the Nolloth Professorship of the Philosophy of the Christian Religion at Oxford University. Subsequent to his retirement in 2002, he has continued to write and lecture worldwide.
S
wiss Christianity
Authors: Schirrmacher Thomas
Published: January 2012

Founded in 1291 as a confederation and since 1848 a federal state of cantons, Switzerland was for centuries a Christian nation with roughly half the population Catholic and half Protestant. However, the latter dominated politics, especially as the larger cities of Bern, Zurich, Basle, and Geneva were traditionally Protestant, even though, after many clashes and wars between Catholic and Protestant cantons, the 1848 constitution successfully established peaceful coexistence. Thus there is no federal religion, but most of the cantons have an established Catholic or Protestant state church.
Symbols
Authors: Kurian George Thomas
Published: January 2012

Symbols are the second language of the church. Christianity is rich in symbols and images because words are inadequate to convey its message. Christianity is full of paradoxes and multilayered ideas which challenge human understanding. The cross is an example. It is the most revered and powerful symbol of the Christian faith, yet it is a symbol of shame, humiliation, and death. But it evokes and encapsulates the entire gospel with just two lines, one horizontal and one vertical. Symbols illustrate the correspondence between the natural and the spiritual. Everything in life stands for something bigger than itself and everything illustrates something else. Thus a bird is not merely a bird and a plant is not merely a plant. They prefigure something and their meaning is found not merely in themselves but in what they stand for. Nothing is too lowly that it does not have meaning. Symbols thus illustrate the interconnectedness of life.
Systematic Theology
Authors: Estes Douglas
Published: January 2012

Systematic theology is the study of God organized around pre‐selected principles that highlight the relationships between various elements of biblical and natural truth, and in turn, the study immerses these truths within a specific cultural context. The term “systematic theology” originated in the 16th century with the work of German theologian Bartholomäus Keckermann (1572–1609); however, the idea goes back to the very beginning of Christianity. “Theology” is the study of God, or more accurately from its Platonic origin, a conversation or discussion about God. “Systematic” describes the parameters of the discussion — it is not simply an attempt at an all‐encompassing method, but more importantly, a structured development of the conversation about God. Since systematic theology studies God in relationship to and alongside of truth revealed in the arts and sciences, it is often considered the pinnacle of theological scholarship.
T
allis,
T
homas (1505–1585)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas
Published: January 2012

Tallis was the English composer and organist who composed for the Anglican liturgy. For 48 years he was the organist at the Chapel Royal, a position to which he was appointed in 1543. In 1575 he and William Byrd were granted a royal privilege to print music.
T
atian
Authors: Amar Joseph P.
Published: January 2012

Tatian was born in Syria or Mesopotamia early in the 2nd century. He studied under Justin Martyr, returned to the east c.170, and became associated with ascetical tendencies that thrived in the region. His only work that has survived in its entirety is a treatise,
Against the Greeks
(
Pros Hellenas
), in which he develops his critique of pagan Greek culture which he contrasts with the Christian understanding of God and humanity.
Tenth Century Christianity
Authors: Kurian George Thomas
Published: January 2012

The 10th century was a landmark in Christian history. At this point, the Islamic expansion which had started in earlier centuries had resulted in more than 50 percent of the original homelands of Christianity having been converted to Islam. All of North Africa and most of the Middle East were now part of what eventually came to be called the Fertile Crescent, where Islam was supreme. As a result, Christianity was becoming a western or European religion. However, in terms of numbers, Christianity became the religion with the most followers and it would retain this status for the succeeding centuries.
T
eresa of Ávila (1515–1582)
Authors: Harvey D. , Egan S.J.
Published: January 2012

Teresa of Ávila (1515–1582) is one of the preeminent female mystics in the Christian tradition. Such was her contemplative prowess that in 1970, Pope Paul VI solemnly declared Teresa “Doctor of the Roman Catholic Church” — a title she and Catherine of Siena were simultaneously the first women to bear. Teresa claimed that her eminent learning came from God — not from a formal education — which, in any case, she lacked.
T
ertullian of
C
arthage (
c
.155–c.225)
Authors: Williams D. H.
Published: January 2012

Tertullian (Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus) was a brilliant and highly eccentric Christian apologist, polemicist, and biblical expositor of the late 2nd and early 3rd century. Erroneously identified by Jerome (
On Illustrious Men
53) as a priest, Tertullian was a layman, certainly married, and probably lived in Carthage all his life. Insinuations from his writings indicate that he converted to Christianity in adulthood, initially captivated by the conviction and courageousness of Christian martyrs he had witnessed. He had an extensive education and expressed himself in a convoluted style of Latin imbued with satire and irony that occasionally rendered his statements obscure, but perfectly suited him as he argued against Roman Pagans, Jews, Christian heretics, and fellow‐Catholics. Not surprisingly, the scope of his 31 extant writings produced over a roughly 20 year period (c.196–220) are chiefly polemical. There are also devotional essays on prayer, baptism, penitence, and martyrdom, as well as small treatises, many from his pro‐Montanist period, on what constitutes appropriate Christian practice (monogamy, chastity, veiling of unmarried women, etc.). The authorship of
On the Pallium
and part of
Against the Jews
is still debated.
Testimonia
Authors: Parsons Stuart E.
Published: January 2012

Testimonia
collections are ancient anthologies of select Old Testament quotations. Early Christians used them for teaching and interreligious debate. Many of the Old Testament texts composing Christian collections are those which were considered to be prophecies of the New Covenant, or of Jesus' incarnation, death, and resurrection.
Textus Receptus
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J.
Published: January 2012

Textus receptus
(TR), “Received Text” in Latin, refers to a New Testament (NT) Greek text. This term first appeared in 1633 when the Elzevir brothers (printers) in Holland wrote the preface to the TR. They stated, “
Textum ergo habes, nunc cab omnibus receptum
” (You now have the text which is received by all). Although the name TR was not coined until 1633, the Dutch scholar Desiderius Erasmus had already published this NT Greek text in 1516, which he compiled from six different Greek manuscripts, the oldest one dating to the 10th century. In 1519, the TR was reprinted with many of its printing errors corrected. This second edition is the one Luther used when he translated the New Testament into German in 1521–1522.
T
heodosius
I
(346/347–395)
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J.
Published: January 2012

Born to a military family in 346/347 in Cauca (modern Coca, Spain) and named Flavius Theodosius, he later was the last Roman emperor to rule both the western and eastern empire, which split after his death in 395. Before becoming emperor in 379 he had served as a military commander. Although his parents were Christians who adhered to the decisions of Nicaea, he was not baptized until 380 when he had become quite ill.
Theological Education
Authors: Miller Glenn T.
Published: January 2012

In its simplest terms, theological education refers to the study and critical appraisal of the basic doctrines, scriptures, and history of the Christian church. In English, it is also used as a synonym for an educational program of ministerial preparation or formation. For most English speakers, the terms are used interchangeably, but caution is required. Many motives have existed for the critical study of the Christian religion, including curiosity or one's personal faith journey, and historically, Christian clergy have been prepared by a variety of means, including apprenticeship, that do not feature systematic study or ordered reflection.
Third Century Christianity
Authors: Hartog Paul
Published: January 2012

Tertullian, who wrote roughly between 190 and 220
ce
, was the first important Latin Christian theologian. We possess more than thirty of his treatises, both theological and moral. His longest work is against the heretic Marcion. Tertullian spoke of Jesus Christ as both human and divine, referring to “one person” and “two substances” or “natures.” He also described the godhead using the language of “one substance” and “three persons,” as well as the exact term
Trinitas
. Tertullian was thus important in the develop‐ment of orthodox christological and trinitarian language. Overall, Tertullian was opposed to the mixing of Greek philosophy with Christian theology, and he sharply contrasted paganism and Christianity. In the midst of his literary career, Tertullian transitioned into Montanism, or the “New Prophecy.”
Thirteenth Century Christianity
Authors: Holt Andrew
Published: January 2012

Thirteenth century Christianity represented one of the high points in western ecclesiastical history. The papacy, beginning with the reign of Pope Innocent III, was at its zenith, the Episcopal and Papal Inquisitions were fully engaged in southern Europe, and the crusading movement had expanded to include crusades against “heretics” in France, pagans in the Baltic, political opponents of the papacy in Italy, as well as continuing efforts against Muslims in Iberia and the East. It was also a period in which church councils passed some of the most far‐reaching and controversial ecclesiastical legislation ever embraced by the Western Church, and it witnessed the emergence of popular saints who founded religious orders that influenced the faith in profound ways. Yet for eastern Christians, the 13th century represented a period of decline, as the Holy City of Constantinople was subjected to Latin rule by western crusaders as the forces of Islam and the Mongols threatened Christians in Asia Minor. Indeed, in an effort to provide greater security for the empire after Constantinople had been restored to Byzantine control, Byzantine Christians were briefly subjected to the ecclesiastical rule of the papacy by their emperor Michael VIII Palaeologus. Yet by then, eastern Christians had grown far too suspicious of both the institutions and religious practices of Latin Christianity to submit to a formal reunion.
T
ikhon,
P
atriarch (1865–1925)
Authors: Parsons William H.
Published: January 2012

Russian. Born Vasily Belavin on December 19, 1865 into the family of a Russian Orthodox priest, he took the name Tikhon after he became a monk at the age of 26. He was made a bishop in 1897 and served as bishop of the Aleutians and Alaska (later Aleutians and North America) from 1898 to 1907. As head of the Russian Orthodox Church in America he was responsible for establishing many churches in the United States and St. Tikhon's Monastery in Pennsylvania. When he returned to Russia, he advanced in the hierarchy of the church, becoming the Metropolitan of Moscow in August 1917, and becoming the Patriarch of the Russian Orthodox Church on November 5, 1917. He was the leader of the church through the first turbulent years of Soviet power.
T
illich,
P
aul (1886–1965)
Authors: Estes Douglas
Published: January 2012

The most prominent theological philosopher and apologist of the 20th century. Born in Starzeddel, Brandenburg, Germany (now Poland) on August 20, 1886, Tillich was the son of a pastor in the Evangelical Prussian Church. From 1904 to 1911, he studied at the universities of Berlin and Tübingen, and received his doctorate from Breslau and his theological licentiate from Halle. Tillich served as a pastor until World War I, when he volunteered as a German Army chaplain; during the conflict, he was awarded two Iron Crosses for bravery. After the war, he took up teaching posts at universities in Berlin, Marburg, Dresden, and Frankfurt. His outspoken criticism of the rising Nazi power in Germany resulted in his dismissal at Frankfurt in 1933, and his subsequent emigration to the United States. Shortly thereafter, Tillich began teaching at Union Theological Seminary in New York City, where he would remain for the next 23 years. It was during this time he rose to worldwide prominence. In 1955, Tillich retired from Union and became University Professor at Harvard. In 1962, he took up the position of Nuveen Professor of Theology at the University of Chicago, where he would remain until his death on October 22, 1965. In his lifetime, Tillich was awarded several honorary doctorates, the Goethe Medal, and the Peace Prize of the German Publishers Association. His portrait was featured on the cover of
Time
magazine, and the US Supreme Court cited his ideas. He was the most famous — if not the most influential — of all 20th century theologians.
Timothy of
B
aghdad (727–823)
Authors: Norris Frederick W.
Published: January 2012

Born into a wealthy Christian family in 727 in what is now Iran, Timothy was sent to the revered Rabban Mar Abraham the Expositor where he learned interpretations from Theodore of Mopsuestia (d. c.428) and Diodore of Tarsus (d. c.390). Later at the Adiabene monastery, Bayt ‘Abhe, “Mother of Patriarchs and Bishops,” he studied Greek philosophy, more hermeneutics, theology, and probably some medicine, not only in his native tongue, Syriac, but also in Greek, Persian, and Arabic. He read Greek and Christian classics. One caliph considered his translation of Aristotle's
Topics
into Arabic a superior work. He also had a copy of Origen's
Hexapla
made so that he could have an accurate Old Testament text.
Tintoretto, Jacopo (1519–1594)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas
Published: January 2012

Real name: Robusti. Venetian painter. He received his nickname from his father's profession as cloth dyer (
tintore
). Unlike many of his contemporaries, he painted very few secular subjects. He was practicing as an independent artist by 1539, when he collaborated with others in the creation of
cassone
panels. In his early paintings he used classical backgrounds. He also used unusual perspectives as in
St. George and the Dragon
(1560),
Christ Washing the Feet of his Disciples
(1547),
The Last Supper
(1592–94), the
Gathering of the Manna
(1592), and the
Entombment of Christ
(1592). In the
Last Supper
the table is placed cornerwise while the apostles stretch away from Christ. In the early 1560s Tintoretto began his choir paintings, including the
Last Judgment
at the Church of the Madonna dell'Orto. At about the same time he was commissioned to produce three large paintings for the Scuola Grande di S. Marco:
The Removal of the Body of St. Mark from the Funeral Pyre
,
The Finding of the Body of St. Mark
, and
St. Mark Saving the Saracen from Shipwreck
.
T
olstoy,
L
eo
N
ikolaevitch (1828–1910)
Authors: Contino Paul J.
Published: January 2012

Count Leo Nikolaevitch Tolstoy was born to a wealthy, aristocratic family at the family estate of Yasnaya Polyana, in Russia. His parents died when he was a child, and he was raised under the guardianship of his aunt. As a youth, he was divided: on the one hand, he was committed to a rational system of self‐perfection; on the other, he was drawn to recklessness, gambling, and promiscuity. He left his university studies to become a soldier, and in his literary work he drew upon his experiences in the Caucasus and Sevastopol to illustrate the horror of war. His authorial career was successful from the start, and Tolstoy embraced the role of teacher. While still in his early 20s, he established a school for peasants, and his pedagogy was especially influenced by
Émile
, Rousseau's treatise on education. Throughout his life, Tolstoy believed in the moral superiority of the peasants, unspoiled by the false and egocentric distractions of society.
T
omkins,
T
homas (1572–1656)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas
Published: January 2012

The last of the English Renaissance composers. His output of anthems and services for the Anglican Church was unexcelled by any other. He shaped English sacred music by liberating it from Italianate influences. He remained thoroughly Elizabethan and all his works are polyphonic.