bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
On the Comparative Element of Justice
Authors: McLeod Owen
Published: November 2023

There is a certain sort of case that is likely to seem puzzling when viewed from the perspective of justice. Suppose, for instance, that a student receives an A on her excellent paper, but then discovers that the professor gave everyone an A, regardless of merit. Or suppose that all the soldiers of a given platoon are guilty of the same offense—one that customarily calls for a night in the stockade—but that the commanding officer selects one of the soldiers at random and punishes him as an ‘example’ to the others. Imagine, finally, that all of us are hopeless sinners, but that God, on the Day of Judgment, arbitrarily admits some of us to heaven and condemns the rest of us to hell.
Effort and Imagination
Authors: Sher George
Published: November 2023

One familiar answer to the question ‘How much pay does a worker deserve’ is that this depends entirely on how hard he works. Those who offer this answer generally do so on the grounds that ( 1) the wage a worker deserves must depend on some factor that is entirely within his control, and (2) only a worker’s efforts, but not what he thereby achieves or produces, are entirely within his control. My aim in the current chapter is to show that premise (2) of this common argument presupposes an idealized and unrealistic picture of effort-that, by identifying effort exclusively with the exercise of will,(2) fails to do justice to the role of imagination in guiding the will.
Large-Scale Urban Development Projects, Urban Dynamics, and Social Polarization: A Methodological Reflection
Authors: Moulaert Frank , Rodríguez Arantxa , Swyngedouw Erik
Published: November 2023

Chapter 1 addressed the dialectics between local and global dimensions of UDPs, and argued that UDPs are not just local answers to distant, abstract, and global forces driven by disembodied flows of international finance and corporate capital or by free trade-based global governance dominated by networks of financial and economic elites. They are also specifically localized projects that mobilize assets available at various interlocked spatial scales with a view towards increasing the accumulation and profitability of locally embedded capitals. In an allegedly globalized economy and polity, capital still needs to be territorialized in order to pursue its profitability objectives.
Restructuring Cities: Miracles and Mirages in Urban Revitalization in Bilbao
Authors: Rodríguez Arantxa , Martinez Elena
Published: November 2023

After two decades of uninterrupted decline, metropolitan Bilbao is experiencing an extraordinary ‘urban renaissance’. The basis for this transformation has been the setting up during the 1990s of a myriad of initiatives and projects aimed at reorganizing the physical and socio-economic profile of the city and launching a process of revitalization. Urban policy has played a crucial role in this process, heavily supported by strategic investments in large transport and infrastructure projects that have paved the road to metropolitan regeneration. As a result, in less than a decade, Bilbao has jumped from being an archetype of a declining industrial city to become the new ‘Mecca of urbanism’ (Masboungi 2001), the flagship of which is the Guggenheim Museum.
Identify and difference
Authors: Saussure Ferdinand de
Published: November 2023

Alternations are vocalic (not phonetic) differences existing at the same time between forms judged to represent, at some level, a morphological unit. The size of this unit may vary, but excludes total morphological sameness. Various expressions are used within morphology: the same meaning, the same value, the same use, the same form. None of these expressions has any meaning, unless same meaning, value, use is understood in relation to one or several forms—and similarly the same form in relation to one or several meanings, values, or uses.
Note to the reader
Authors: Saussure Ferdinand de
Published: November 2023

It is perfectly clear to us that the great difficulty of our thesis (and unfortunately one which may keep distorting our remarks in some readers’ minds) comes from the very misconception which this short volume sets out to oppose. We have reached the point where we have convinced ourselves that linguistic phenomena, expressed in relation to a given period, are ipso facto representations of an the sign, but the sign that fundamentally guides thought (and thus in fact creates it, causing it in turn to create signs of its own, inevitably similar to those it received).
Sign and signification
Authors: Saussure Ferdinand de
Published: November 2023

Phonetically, or in the field of vocal figures, there is a clear-cut delimitation between the endless alteration of a figure, and the total effacement of a figure. Morphologically, or in the field of signs, it is quite impossible to distinguish between three terms: the presence of a sign, its degree of modification after a period of time, its destruction after a further period of time. Presence, absence, forms in succession: all have exactly the same value, i.e. at any moment each has a perfectly random, unpredictable value, which is the simple, ever-changing

result of its surroundings.
On the negativity of synonymy20
Authors: Saussure Ferdinand de
Published: November 2023

Sun, then, may appear to represent a perfectly positive, clear-cut, and specific idea, and so too may moon. However, when Diogenes says to Alexander ‘Get thee from my sun!’, nothing of sun remains in sun save in opposition to the idea of shadow; and this idea of shadow itself is nothing more than the cumulate negation of the ideas of light, darkest night, half-light, etc., associated with the negation of what is lit up compared to an area of darkness, etc.
Early Miscellaneous Notes (from the Engler edition)
Authors: Saussure Ferdinand de
Published: November 2023

The subject may be a noun, or a pronoun, or an adjective or a number noun, as is immediately apparent. But it may also be a verb (infinitive); see below why the infinitive does not lose its characteristics as a verb. Predicate may also be any of these. Conjunction may be a ‘conjunction’ or an adverb. One can imagine a language in which an adjective used as subject would take a special form. This would have no impact on the overall logic.
Unde Exoriar (from the Orangery manuscripts)
Authors: Saussure Ferdinand de
Published: November 2023

Misc. In every domain, before there can even be any question of a phenomenon, it is necessary to know across or between which objects the phenomenon takes place. Since a language system is a theatre of such remarkable phenomena, it has seemed sufficient to study these. Seldom has any question been asked about the elements that have given rise to such a phenomenon, or even about the nature of these.
The Basic Facts
Authors: Latacz Joachim , Kevin Windle , Ireland Rosh
Published: November 2023

In the first part of this book, Homer was our constant companion. He was often spoken of as if readers already knew everything they needed to know about him and his poem. The present writer has been conscious that this cannot be the case for all those who are interested in Troy. However, anticipatory leaps in the story could not be avoided, since in the first part attention was directed primarily towards Troy, while Homer’s role was that of a backdrop and point of reference.
Homer’s Iliad and the Tale of Troy
Authors: Latacz Joachim , Kevin Windle , Ireland Rosh
Published: November 2023

For all the emphasis placed by researchers on the artistic dimension of the Iliad and its pre-eminence for the cultural history of Europe and especially for the development of European literature, Homer studies in the modern era have been unable to simply disregard the question of the subject matter of the poem. Material which inspired a poet to produce a work of such unique artistic quality cannot be regarded as insignificant. Where did it come from? It has seemed implausible to most that the poet should have completely invented it.
The Hymnic Genres
Authors: Black Jeremy , Cunningham Graham , Robson Eleanor , Zólyomi Brá
Published: November 2023

Our understanding of the Sumerian literary corpus is greatly hampered by the absence of any ancient tradition of explicit literary interpretation. We classify the corpus with the help of modern categories that post-date the works we are classifying by many centuries and belong to a different literary tradition. The compositions of this group are classified as hymns mainly on the thematic grounds that they are all basically poems praising a god.
Taste and Aspirations at Sub-Gentry Level
Authors: Hunneyball Paul M
Published: November 2023

In 1698 Celia Fiennes’s travels took her to Norwich. In her journal she described the medieval walls and churches, and the numerous bustling mar kets, and then turned her attention to the local housing.

All their buildings are of an old form, mostly in deep poynts and much tileing, and their building timber and they playster on laths which they strike out into squares like broad free stone on the outside, which makes their fronts look pretty well, and some they build high and contract the roofes resembling the London houses, but none of brick except some few beyond the river which are built of some of the rich factors like the London buildings.
Introduction
Authors: Perras Arne
Published: November 2023

On 17 December 1884 a strange caravan approached the Swahili coastal town of Bagamoyo. A fever—ridden young German, a historian by profession and a scholar of Schopenhauer, was returning from a brief visit to the hinterland. The man had to be carried in a hammock. At times he would wave his revolver about to drive his porters on. In his pocket, he kept twelve pieces of paper with a number of crosses on them. They were to be of crucial importance for the political future of East Africa. Thousands of miles further north, in the German capital of Berlin, the papers were recognized as legitimate treaties. It was claimed that with their signatures African leaders had ceded their territorial rights to the young traveller, Carl Peters. In February 1885 Kaiser Wilhelm I issued an imperial charter placing a territory of an estimated 140,000 square kilometres under German protection.
After Bismarck: The Heligoland—Zanzibar Agreement and its Consequences(1890—1891)
Authors: Perras Arne
Published: November 2023

When Peters arrived at Bagamoyo on 16 July 1890, he realized that all his efforts to extend claims in East Africa had been in vain. Two weeks earlier the British and German governments had concluded the so—called Heligoland—Zanzibar Agreement, which was to settle their colonial disputes. Above all, it meant the final partition of East Africa. It fixed the borders of the British territory in the north and the German one in the south. Britain secured Witu, Uganda, a protectorate over Zanzibar, and the Stephenson Road between Lake Nyassa and Lake Tanganyika. In return, it ceded the island of Heligoland to the Reich. Finally, Britain committed itself to assisting the Germans in obtaining the coastal strip from the Sultan, who had not been granted a voice in the matter at all.
Peters’ s Disputed Legacy after 1945
Authors: Perras Arne
Published: November 2023

With the collapse of Nazi rule, the Peters monument went on its final odyssey. It is not clear what exactly happened to the statue at the end of the war, but it surfaced again at a Bremen scrapyard in the late 1940s. It was then moved to the administrative district of Pinneberg (to which Heligoland then belonged) and its components were stored in various cellars. When one of the buildings was demolished, a few of the workers sold the torso to a local scrap dealer, who believed it to be part of a Hermann Goering monument. The illegal deal was exposed and the culprits were brought to court. The workers got away with a fine, but the scrap dealer was sentenced to a year in prison.
The Milling Industry about I300
Authors: Langdon John
Published: November 2023

From the start it is important to realize when considering the medieval milling industry around 1300, and especially its technological aspects, that it was already ancient. Watermills for grinding corn were known in Europe from Roman times, well over a thousand years before. In our time, when industries surrounding such technologies as the automobile, the aeroplane, the refrigerator, the television, and the computer (to name only a very few) have scarcely been in existence for a century and a sense of novelty still exists, it may seem paradoxcal if not illogical that medieval people would have considered a very long-established activity in the same way. Indeed, it could be argued that this supposed medieval enthusiasm for milling is simply a construct of overenthusiastic historians.
Collective Volumes
Authors: Gee Austin
Published: November 2023

1. Anon. Miscellany of the Scottish History Society, XII (Scottish History Society, 5th ser., 7). Edinburgh: Scottish History Society, 1994. 2. Sommer, Petr (ed.) Ruralia I (Pamatky archeologicke-supplementum). Prague: Institute of Archaeology, 1998. 340p. 3. Fridrich, Jan (ed.) Ruralia II (Pamatky archeologicke-supplementum, 11). Prague: Institute of Archaeology, 1998. 236p. 4. Klapste, Jan (ed.) Ruralia III (Pamatky archeologicke-supplementum, 14). Prague: Institute of Archaeology, 2000. 302p. 5. Anon. The sea in European history (Clioh’s Workshop, 1). Pisa: Edizioni Plus, 2001.
England 450–1066
Authors: Gee Austin
Published: November 2023

1115. Keynes, Simon. ‘Apocalypse then: England A.D. 1000’, A378, 247-70. 1116. Pelteret, David A.E. (ed.) Anglo-Saxon history: basic readings. New York: Garland, 2000. xxx, 450p. [Composite volume; all items previously pub lished: not itemised.] B.Historiography and Historical Methods See also [BJ: 491; [C]: 1005; [DJ: 1199, 1212, 1284; [F]: 2298; [HJ: 4752, 4811 1117. Banham, Debby; et al. ‘Bibliography for 2000’ [Anglo-Saxon studies]. Anglo-Saxon England, 30 (2001), 247-314. 1118. Barker, Katherine; Darvill, Timothy. ‘Introduction: landscape old and new’, A25, 1-8. 1119. Brown, Gary; et al. ‘A Middle-Saxon runic inscription from the National Portrait Gallery and an inscribed fossilised echinoid from Exeter Street, London’, Medieval Archaeology, 45 (2001), 203-210. 1120. Chaplais, Pierre. English diplomatic practice in the middle ages. London: Hambledon & London, 2002. 277p.
Ireland to c.1640
Authors: Gee Austin
Published: November 2023

8839. Anon. Claregalway: parish history 750 years. Galway: Claregalway Historical and Cultural Society, 1999. v, 277p. 8840. Brady, Ciaran. The Hutchinson encyclopedia of Ireland: an A-Z guide to its people, places, history, and culture. Oxford: Helicon, 2000. ix, 390p. 8841. Canny, Nicholas P. Making Ireland British, 1580-1650. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001. xv, 633p. 8842. Charles-Edwards, Thomas M. Early Christian Ireland. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000. xix, 707p.
Empire To 1783
Authors: Gee Austin
Published: November 2023

10336. Armitage, David; Braddick, Michael J. ‘Introduction’, A14, 1-7. 10337. Cavaliero, Roderick. Strangers in the land: the rise and decline of the British Indian empire. London: LB. Tauris, 2002. xvi, 280p. 10338. Elliott, J.H. ‘Afterword: Atlantic history: a circumnavigation’, A14, 233--49. 10339. Ellison, James. George Sandys: travel, colonialism and tolerance in the seventeenth century. Cambridge: D.S. Brewer, 2002. xi, 286p. 10340. Fischer, Steven R. A history of the Pacific islands. Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2002. xxvii, 304p. 10341. Geiter, Mary K.; Speck, W.A. Colonial America: from Jamestown to Yorktown. Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2002. xi, 228p.
Empire And Commonwealth Post 1783
Authors: Gee Austin
Published: November 2023

10555. Al-Rasheed, Madawi. A history of Saudi Arabia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. xvii, 255p. 10556. Bard, Solomon (ed.) Voices from the past: Hong Kong, 1842-1918. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2002. vii, 383p. 10557. Barr, William (ed.) Searching for Franklin: the land Arctic searching expedition 1855: James Anderson’s and James Stewart’s expedition via the Back River (Works issued by the Hakluyt Society, 3rd ser., 1). London: Hakluyt Society, 1999. xv, 292p.
Rituals and Disputing in Twelfth-Century Tuscany
Authors: M Chris Wi Kh
Published: November 2023

All societies are structured by daily rituals, our own included. Some rituals are policed by the political process (as with diplomatic or parliamentary protocol), some by the courts (as when breaches in traffic etiquette are seen as dangerous driving), some by the gossip network (infractions of dress codes, or of the rules for the buying of drinks), some by family tensions (whose tum is it to make the bed), some, the most personal, by simple existential unease (as when one unthinkingly brushes one’s teeth before, instead of after, washing one’s face).
Languages of Mainland South-East Asia
Authors: Bradley David
Published: November 2023

I am pleased to acknowledge the support of the UNESCO Endangered Languages programme and of the Australian Research Council (A59701122, A59803475, A00001357) and assistance from various institutions in China, especially the Yunnan Academy of Social Sciences; Thailand, especially Mahidol University; and France, especially the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique. Information from a number of colleagues is included here: 2000 China census figures from Colin Mackerras; information on Aslian from Geoffrey Benjamin; on various Mon-Khmer languages from Ilia Peiros, Suwilai Premsrirat, Theraphan Luangthongkum, and Gérard Diffloth; on languages of Burma from Denise Bernot; on Miao-Yao languages from Barbara Niederer; on Kristang from Alan Baxter; and on various Kadai and other languages of Vietnam from Jerry Edmondson. Of course, all remaining shortcomings and errors and any misunderstanding of information from others are my sole responsibility.
Siberia: Tungusic and Palaeosiberian
Authors: Tsumagari Toshiro , Kurebito Megumi , Endo Fubito
Published: November 2023

By the term “Siberia “ we refer to east Siberia and the Russian Far East, an area which has long been inhabited by both the Tungusic and the Palaeosiberian people. In order to cover the whole range of the Tungusic, a part of north China is also included in the following discussion. See Figure 20.1 for the geographical distribution of the languages concerned. Tungusic is a language family consisting of some ten genetically related tongues. Typologically, it is characterized by the general Altaic type with an almost exclusively suffixing agglutinative morphology.
Advancing with the Army
Authors: Ackroyd Marcus , Brockliss Laurence , Moss Michael , Retford Kate , Stevenson John
Published: November 2023

Providing the first ever statistical study of a professional cohort in the era of the industrial revolution, this prosopographical study of some 450 surgeons who joined the army medical service during the Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars, charts the background, education, military and civilian career, marriage, sons’ occupations, wealth at death, and broader social and cultural interests of the members of the cohort. It reveals the role that could be played by the nascent professions in this period in promoting rapid social mobility. The group of medical practitioners selected for this analysis did not come from affluent or professional families but profited from their years in the army to build up a solid and sometimes spectacular fortune, marry into the professions, and place their sons in professional careers. The study contributes to our understanding of Britishness in the period, since the majority of the cohort came from small-town and rural Scotland and Ireland but seldom found their wives in the native country and frequently settled in London and other English cities, where they often became pillars of the community.
The Army Medical Service
Authors: Ackroyd Marcus , Brockliss Laurence , Moss Michael , Retford Kate , Stevenson John
Published: November 2023

At the outbreak of the French wars, the army medical service was already 150 years old. From the inception of Parliament’s New Model Army in 1645, an embryonic medical corps was created to support it and ten years later its organization was stabilized with the decision that henceforth there was to be one surgeon and surgeon’s mate per regiment of foot and one surgeon per regiment of horse. At the same time, a small contingent of medical staff officers was established attached to the commander-in-chief, while overall supervision of the medical service was loosely placed in the hands of a troika comprising a physician, surgeon, and apothecary-general. Although Cromwell’s army of 30,000 men was completely disbanded at the Restoration fifteen years later, the small standing force that initially replaced it and the much bigger British army of the eighteenth century largely replicated its institutions. The army medical corps in 1793 therefore was still in essence the service of the Protectorate.
Professional Life outside the Service
Authors: Ackroyd Marcus , Brockliss Laurence , Moss Michael , Retford Kate , Stevenson John
Published: November 2023

By the time of the battle of Leipzig in October 1813 the rank and file of the British army totalled over a quarter of a million men.1 With the coming of peace in the following year the government was anxious to demobilize the armed services as rapidly as possible to save money. The majority of officers were put on half-pay.2 As we saw in the previous chapter, medical officers were culled just as mercilessly as their combatant peers in the mess. Over the next few years two-thirds of the service would be placed on half-pay, many permanently.3 As a result, young or old, the discharged medical officers had to settle back into civilian life, sometimes after twenty years or more following the colours. How they fared in Civvy Street is the subject of the present chapter.
Knowledge, Context, and the Agent’s Point of View
Authors: Williamson Timothy
Published: November 2023

Contextualism is relativism tamed. Relativism about truth is usually motivated by the idea of no-fault dis-agreement. Imagine two parties: one (she) says ‘P’; the other (he) says ‘Not P’.T Apparently, if P then ‘P’ is true and ‘Not P’ false, so she is right and he is wrong; if not P then ‘P’ is false and ‘Not P’ true, so he is right and she is wrong. In both cases, there is an asymmetry between the two parties. Since P or not P (by the law of excluded middle), there is indeed an asymmetry between them, one way or the other. Yet the two parties may strike a neutral observer as on a par, equally intelligent, informed, perceptive, and alert. Relativists about truth strive to dissolve the unpleasant asymmetry: ‘ “P” is true for her; “Not P” is true for him’.
Literalism and Contextualism: Some Varieties
Authors: Recanati François
Published: November 2023

According to the dominant position in the philosophy of language, we may legitimately ascribe truth-conditional content to sentences, independently of the speech act which the sentence is used to perform. This position, which I call ‘literalism’, contrasts with another view, reminiscent of that held by ordinary language philosophers half a century ago. That other view, which I call ‘contextualism’, holds that speech acts are the primary bearers of content. Only in the context of a speech act does a sentence express a determinate content. Both literalism and contextualism come in many varieties. There are radical, and less radical, versions of both literalism and contextualism. Some intermediate positions are mixtures of literalism and contextualism.
Compositionality and Context
Authors: Pagin Peter
Published: November 2023

In his contribution to a series of millennial articles in Mind and Language, Jerry Fodor (2001) confronts the question of the priority between thought and language. As Fodor adequately frames it, the question comes down to whether one of thought content and linguistic meaning is derived from the other. His chosen method is an appeal to compositionality (Fodor, 2001: 6): that which is primary must be compositional. For reasons of productivity and systematicity, Fodor thinks, there must be compositionality of content (2001: 6–7). Hence, he says, ‘if, as between language and thought, only one of the two has compositional content, then that must be the one whose content is underived’.
Five Puzzles in Search of an Explanation
Authors: Chihara Charles S
Published: November 2023

I shall describe five puzzles about mathematics, each in need of investigation and solution. In succeeding chapters, I shall offer analyses and explanations of these puzzles, in the course of which my own views on the nature of mathematics will emerge.
Platonism
Authors: Chihara Charles S
Published: November 2023

This chapter is concerned with the dispute in the philosophy of mathematics between mathematical realists (or Platonists) and mathematical nominalists, which has been simmering in the Anglo-American world of philosophy these past fifty or so years. A close approximation to what the terms ‘mathematical realist’ and ‘mathematical nominalist’ mean can be given as follows: a mathematical realist is one who maintains that mathematical objects exist, whereas a mathematical nominalist is one who opposes the realist’s position.1 Thus, there are two types of nominalists: those who deny that there are mathematical objects, and those who adopt the weaker thesis that we lack compelling grounds for believing in the existence of mathematical objects.
Minimal Anti-Nominalism
Authors: Chihara Charles S
Published: November 2023

John Burgess and Gideon Rosen (in Burgess and Rosen, 1997) have advanced an overall general evaluation of the various “nominalistic reconstructions” of science and mathematics that have been proposed in recent years. Judging from the many remarks found in their evaluations and from comments made by other philosophers of mathematics, it would seem that among the target “reconstructions” of their evaluations are the three views described in the previous chapter as responses to the Quinean challenge.1 The Burgess–Rosen criticisms of the nominalist’s reconstructions of mathematics occur as part of their overall account of contemporary nominalism, and their evaluations cannot be easily grasped without some understanding of this overall account. For this reason, I shall give a brief description of this account.
Constructible Structures
Authors: Chihara Charles S
Published: November 2023

According to Parsons, the first problem facing the structuralist arises in attempting to state what structuralism is.1 As I noted in Chapter 4, the problem arises from the fact that in order to state the view, one needs to say what a structure is. But it is not clear how one can say what structures are without either presupposing familiar mathematical entities (such as sets) or involving oneself in some sort of circularity (Parsons, 1996: 275).
Remaking Boundaries
Authors: Hohnen Pernille
Published: November 2023

Ever since Fredrik Barth’s famous introduction to Ethnic Groups and Boundaries in 1969, boundaries and boundary-making have occupied an important place within anthropological theory. However, despite the well-known general critique in recent years of ‘culture’ as something homogeneous and bounded, anthropology has been ‘preoccupied with boundaries between cultures’ (Cohen 1994: 123), rather than with the analyses of boundaries that separate and divide, In my analysis of the changes in Lithuanian society after independence, boundaries have appeared to be crucial in many different ways and at various analytical levels.
Gentillet’s Final Assault: The ‘Contre-Machiavel’ of 1585
Authors: Anglo Sydney
Published: November 2023

For unwary modern readers-surfeited by literary appraisal and reappraisal, but unfamiliar with Renaissance indifference to such matters-a perplexing feature of the early reception of Machiavelli must be its failure to produce much in the way of serious critical assessment. Single aspects of his work, such as historical technique, military theory, his attitude towards colonies, and even his skill as a writer, were sometimes evaluated; while instances where Machiavellian material was adopted, adapted, or distorted, were commonplace. Yet, Guicciardini and Schwendi excepted, only Gentillet has left us an attempt-albeit primitive and prejudiced-to treat Machiavelli’s ideas methodically and to test them against historical evidence.
From Sublime to Ridiculous: Some Serious Readers of Machiavelli
Authors: Anglo Sydney
Published: November 2023

Henricus Cuyckius (Henri van Cuyck) is not now a name to conjure with: and it is doubtful that he ever was. Living out his life in the Low Countries as a scholar and cleric, he taught moral philosophy at Louvain and rose from service as Vicar General of the Archbishop of Malines to the Deanship of Saint Pierre at Louvain, and ended his days as Bishop of Ruremonde. Such fame as he has enjoyed is largely due to his Speculum concubinariorum sacerdotum whose naughty title, as Crevenna sadly noted, masks a work ‘tre`s-orthodoxe’.1 However, another of his effusions, the Panegyricae orationes duae (1595), is of particular interest to us and may serve as an introductory parable for this chapter.
The Algebra of Events
Authors: Bach Emmon
Published: November 2023

A number of writers have commented on the close parallels between the mass-count distinction in nominal systems and the aspectual classification of verbal expressions (Allen, 1966; Mourelatos, 1978; L. Carlson, 1981; Hoepelman and Rohrer, 1980) that has been the subject of much attention in recent years in linguistics and philosophy.
Deriving Verbal and Compositional Lexical Aspect for NLP Applications
Authors: Dorr Bonnie J , Olsen Mari Broman
Published: November 2023

Knowledge of lexical aspect—how verbs denote situations as developing or holding in time—is required for interpreting event sequences in discourse (Dowty, 1986; Moens and Steedman, 1988; Passoneau, 1988), interfacing to temporal databases (Androutsopoulos, 1996), processing temporal modifiers (Antonisse, 1994), describing allowable alternations and their semantic effects (Resnik, 1996; Tenny, 1994), and for selecting tense and lexical items for natural language generation (Dorr and Olsen, 1996; Klavans and Chodorow, 1992; cf. Slobin and Bocaz, 1988). In addition, preliminary pyscholinguistic experiments (Antonisse, 1994) indicate that subjects are sensitive to the presence or absence of aspectual features when processing temporal modifiers.
Introduction to Part II
Authors: Dermott Drew Mc
Published: November 2023

Reasoning about time is an essential competence that all humans possess and a signature of intelligent behavior in any cognitive system. Our ability to represent temporal knowledge of actions and events in the world is essential for modeling causation, constructing complex plans, hypothesizing possible outcomes of actions, and almost any higher-order, cognitive task. It is not surprising, therefore, that temporal reasoning has been a central area of research in artificial intelligence since the 1960s.
Tense Trees as the ‘Fine Structure’ of Discourse
Authors: Hwang* Chung Hee , Schubert* K
Published: November 2023

Work on discourse structure (e.g., Reichman, 1985; Grosz and Sidner, 1986; Allen, 1987) has so far taken a rather coarse, high-level view of discourse, mostly treating sentences or sentence-like entities (‘‘utterance units,’’ ‘‘contributions,’’ etc.) as the lowest- level discourse elements. To the extent that sentences are analyzed at all, they are simply viewed as carriers of certain features relevant to supra-sentential discourse structure: cue words, tense, time adverbials, aspectual class, intonational cues, and others. These features are presumed to be extractable in some straightforward fashion and provide the inputs to a higher-level discourse segment analyzer.
The Annotation of Temporal Information in Natural Language Sentences
Authors: Katz Graham , Arosio Fabrizio
Published: November 2023

In interpreting narratives the most essential information to be extracted is who did what where, when, and why, the classic journalistic imperatives. The ‘who’ and ‘what’ information is usually expressed overtly, and this has made it possible to apply stochastic techniques to problems in this domain (such as word-sense classification and argument structure mapping). The ‘when’ and ‘where’ information is, however, often left implicit, or, at least, only partially specified. The ‘why’ information is rarely explicit. Formal semantic theories of temporal interpretation (e.g. Kamp and Reyle 1993, Ogihara 1996, Abusch 1997) have been quite successful at specifying the contribution that such overt markers as tenses and temporal adverbials make to the meaning of a sentence or discourse.
Using Semantic Inferences for Temporal Annotation Comparison
Authors: Setzer Andrea , Gaizauskas, Robert , Hepple Mark
Published: November 2023

The automatic recognition and annotation of temporal expressions as well as event expressions have become active areas of research in computational linguistics, as evidenced by workshops such as the ACL2001 workshop on Temporal and Spatial Information Processing (Harper et al. 2001), the LREC 2002 workshop on Annotation Standards for Temporal Information in Natural Language (Setzer 2002), and the TERQAS workshop on Time and Event Recognition for Question-Answering Systems (Pustejovsky.et al. 2003). Temporal information is important to many application areas, including Question Answering, Information Extraction (IE), and Topic Detection and Tracking.
Birthing the Nation
Authors: Cody Lisa Forman
Published: November 2023

How could the professional triumph of man-midwifery and contemporary tales of pregnant men, rabbit-breeding mothers, and meddling midwives in eighteenth-century Britain help construct the emergence of modern corporate and individual identities? By uncovering long-lost tales and artefacts about sexuality, birth, and popular culture, Lisa Forman Cody argues that Enlightenment Britons understood themselves and their relationship to others through their experiences and beliefs about the reproductive body. Birthing the Nation traces two intertwined narratives that shaped eighteenth-century British life: the development of the modern British nation, and the emergence of the male expert as the pre-eminent authority over matters of sexual behaviour, reproduction, and childbirth. By taking seriously contemporary caricatures, jokes, and rumours that used gender, birth, and family to make claims about religious, ethnic and national identity, Cody illuminates an entirely new view of the eighteenth-century public sphere as focused on the bodily and the bizarre. In a monarchy arbitrated by its official religion, regulation of reproduction and childbirth was vital to the very stability of British political authority and the coherence of British culture, challenged as it was by Catholicism, the French Revolution, and social change. In the late seventeenth century, the English feared the power of female midwives to control the destiny of the royal family, yet men-midwives and male experts had hardly proved their superiority to manage the successful birth of children. By the mid-eighteenth century, however, male midwives became experts over the domestic world of pregnancy and childbirth, largely replacing female midwives among the middling and elite families. Cody suggests that these new professionals provided a new model for masculine comportment and emergent intimate relationships within the middle-class and elite home. Most surprisingly, Cody has discovered many interconnections between obstetrics and politics, and shows how male experts transformed what had once been the private, feminine domain of birth and midwifery into topics of public importance and universal interest, leading even Adam Smith and Edmund Burke to attend lectures on obstetrical anatomy. This is the first book to place the eighteenth-century shift from female midwives to male midwives as the dominant experts over childbirth in a larger cultural and political context. Cody illuminates how eighteenth-century Britons understood and symbolized political, national, and religious affiliation through the experiences of the body, sex, and birth. In turn, she takes seriously how the political arguments and rhetoric of the age were not always made on disembodied, rational terms, but instead referenced deep cultural beliefs about gender, reproduction, and the family.
The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly
Authors: Salmon Nathan
Published: November 2023

One of the most important achievements in philosophy in the latter half of the last century was a movement in the philosophy of language, spilling over into metaphysics, epistemology, and the philosophy of mind. This movement has come to be known as the theory of direct reference. Keith Donnellan’s 1966 classic ‘Reference and De finite Descriptions’—spotlighting its famous distinction between the referential and the attributive use of de finite descriptions—is an early and important precursor to the direct-reference theory, in its contemporary incarnation.1 Ironically, that article argues for a direct-reference theory on its least promising turf.
On a Unitary Semantical Analysis for De finite and Indefinite Descriptions
Authors: Ludlow Peter , Segal Gabriel
Published: November 2023

Philosophers of language (and semanticists) do not agree on much, but few have felt reason to doubt that there are at least two kinds of descriptions in natural language: de finite descriptions (e.g. of the form ‘the F ’), used in sentences which say that there is a unique satisfier of F, and indefinite descriptions (e.g. of the form ‘an F ’), used in sentences which claim only that something or other satisfies F. However, if analytic philosophy had spawned in languages other than English and German, this assumption might not appear so innocent. In many languages—even many Indo-European languages—we do not find these two kinds of descriptions, at least not on the surface.
Grounding Dynamic Semantics
Authors: Dekker Paul
Published: November 2023

In this chapter I present and motivate a formal elaboration of the treatment of anaphoric relationships suggested in (Stalnaker 1998) which is close in spirit and scope to that of Heim (1982) and Groenendijk and Stokhof (1991). I agree with Stalnaker that an adequate account of the relevant facts does not require a dynamic semantic notion of meaning. Yet, I think, the data do provide motivation for such systems of dynamic interpretation. A systematic treatment of anaphoric relationships along the lines suggested by Stalnaker requires us to take into account the referential intentions which can be associated with the use of referring terms, as well as the dynamics of assertion.
Introduction: The Language and its Speakers
Authors: Dixon R M W , Vogel Alan R
Published: November 2023

Jarawara, which belongs to the small Arawa ‘ language family, is spoken as first language by about I70 Indians who live in seven villages near the Puru ‘ s River, a major southern tributary of the Amazon, in the state of Amazonas, Brazil. Jarawara has a (C)V syllable structure and an inventory of just eleven consonant and four vowel phonemes. Vowel length is contrastive but has a low functional load. The language is basically agglutinative but there are many morphophonological processes of vowel assimilation and of the omission of an underlying -h- or -hV- in certain phonological and morphological environments. Jarawara shows multiple lexical and grammatical homonymy.
Commands and Questions
Authors: Dixon R M W , Vogel Alan R
Published: November 2023

Jarawara has four imperative mood sufixes, positive and negative in each of ‘immediate‘ and ‘distant ‘. However, just as in other languages, not all commands involve an imperative sufix and not all clauses with imperative sufixes are true commands (see, for example, (15.18-19), (15.31 a/b), and (15.33)). Jarawara is similar to English in that an imperative is pragmatically direct, and is used to convey an urgent message. For instance, a man had been talking from his hammock at night and keeping others awake.
List Constructions
Authors: Dixon R M W , Vogel Alan R
Published: November 2023

Verbs in Jarawara divide into non-inflecting, which are followed by an auxiliary (this takes the afixes), and inflecting, which do not have an auxiliary. Yet, on occasion, an inflecting verb may be followed by what appears to be an auxiliary, as in (23.3) and (23.5-6). How can this be? It is an instance of what is here called a ‘list construction‘ in which a number of clauses (sometimes just a single clause) or a number of NPs-describing related events or things-are followed by an inflecting verb - na-, which is called the ‘list verb ‘. This - na- is generally glossed by bilingual consultants as ‘tambem‘ ( ‘also ‘); it indicates the end of a cumulative list.
What’s Epistemology for? The Case for Neopragmatism in Normative Metaepistemology*
Authors: Weinberg Jonathan M
Published: November 2023

How ought we to go about forming and revising our beliefs, arguing and debating our reasons, and investigating our world? If those questions constitute normative epistemology, then I am interested here in normative metaepistemology: the investigation into how we ought to go about forming and revising our beliefs about how we ought to go about forming and revising our beliefs-how we ought to argue about how we ought to argue. Such investigations have become urgent of late, for the methodology of epistemology has reached something of a crisis. For analytic epistemology of the last half-century has relied overwhelmingly on intuitions,1 and a growing set of arguments and data has begun to call this reliance on intuition seriously into question (for example, Weinberg, Nichols, and Stich 2001; Nichols, Stich, and Weinberg 2003; Cummins 1998).
The Penitent Death of a Woeful Sinner
Authors: Marshall Peter
Published: November 2023

On Saturday 28 November 1640, the day after the verdict of guilty had been read against him in the court of King ‘s Bench, John Atherton received a visitor in his cell in Dublin Castle. It was not a time for formalities or small talk, and the caller launched straight into a serious monologue concerning ‘the scandal of the fact, justice of the sentence, misery of his condition without repentance ‘. Atherton heard him out in silence, then asked, warily, if anyone had sent him.
The Legacy of 1919 and Left-Wing Radicalism (Autumn 1944—Spring 1945)
Authors: Mevius Martin
Published: November 2023

Not just the link with Moscow was detrimental to the national image of the MKP, but the attitude of the communists in Hungary as well. In theory, the Hungarian Revolution of Councils of 1919 could have been presented as a great Hungarian revolutionary achievement, a national contribution to international communism. In the 1960s this line was indeed put forward, but in 1945 the memory of the 1919 republic was harmful to the desired national and democratic presentation of the party. The Republic of Councils was hated for its radicalism. It had swiftly alienated the peasantry through the immediate collectivization of land, and because of the reign of terror of Tibor Szamuely’s Lenin Boys was remembered as a vicious phase in Hungarian history.
The Only True Party of Hungarian National Interests (March—November 1945)
Authors: Mevius Martin
Published: November 2023

By the middle of 1945, the MKP’s ‘national policy’ consisted of two main dimensions. On one level, it appropriated national symbols and presented itself as heir to national historical traditions. On another level, it put itself forward as the only true party of Hungarian national interests. Support for People’s Courts and the land reform were two important examples of this. The key to success was, however, the extent of Soviet support. When this was forthcoming, as in the case of the expulsion of the German Swabian minority, the MKP could press its case without inhibitions. If it was not, for instance, when Czechoslovakia threatened to deport its Hungarians, the MKP had serious trouble in presenting a national image. Ideologically, the MKP attempted to address the matter by presenting the USSR as an ally of Hungary. Anti-communist propaganda used during municipal elections in Budapest in October and parliamentary elections in November, how-ever, demonstrated that the MKP continued to be accused of being in league with Moscow. Defeat in both elections convinced the MKP leader-ship that the ‘national line’ had not been successful.
Chancellor of the Exchequer
Authors: Taverne Dick
Published: November 2023

As Chancellor of the Exchequer, Roy Jenkins achieved his most powerful position in his career in British politics. His reforms at the Home Office may have had more lasting effect on the social and cultural life in Britain, his defiant stand against the rest of his party over Britain’s entry into the European Community may have won him most public respect and by founding the SDP he may have made his most influential contribution to the shape of British party politics, but it was during his time at the Treasury that he exercised the levers of power most directly. He was the dominant force in the Cabinet, the master of the House of Commons, a Chancellor who transformed the economy from weakness to strength; and, had he been more ruthless, he could probably have forced Harold Wilson from office to become Prime Minister himself.
SDP
Authors: Rodgers Bill
Published: November 2023

In 1976, in the late afternoon of an April day, I was summoned across Whitehall from my office in the Ministry of Defence to the Home Secretary. Roy Jenkins rose from his chair and said, ‘Well, it’s all over, Callaghan is appointing Crosland.’ He nodded towards a hand-written envelope addressed to Giscard d’Estaing, the President of the French Republic. I knew that it contained a letter declaring Roy’s readiness to become President of the European Commission. We talked for a while and I sadly conceded that my resistance to his departure from British politics was at an end. A little before six o’ clock we watched the television news for confirmation of events. There it was. Tony Crosland had become Foreign Secretary—the only job that might have kept Roy away from the Commission. I would greatly miss him in the House of Commons, and not just for sharing the excitement of great occasions. I would miss congenial dinners when we were joined by other friends
Glasgow
Authors: Mcfarlane Donald
Published: November 2023

Roy Jenkins came to the Glasgow of Auden’s ‘Night Mail’ in the spring of 1982, seeking to be elected the Member of Parliament for Hillhead, where I was a senior partner in a large west-end general medical practice. My father had been a co-founder of the practice; thus I had been born, brought up, and educated in the constituency. I knew every street and lane, and particularly I knew the people who lived there. My wife, Elsa, and I had first heard him speak at a packed public meeting in the McLellan Galleries in September 1981. He was billed as ‘Joint Leader of the Social Democrats’ and he stated that ‘People want to hear a soundly based argument. They want positive proposals which combine responsibility with foresight.’ He was seeking to break the mould, and this struck a positive chord in Glasgow.
Writer and Biographer
Authors: Cannadine David
Published: November 2023

After a long and distinguished lifetime spent in both politics and literature, Roy Jenkins concluded that writing books was a more difficult and demanding activity than governing the country, and in support of this mildly unexpected proposition, he advanced evidence which must surely have been born of personal experience. It was, he insisted, perfectly feasible to transact a morning’s ministerial business with a mind-numbing and physiologically debilitating hangover. Yet under the same inhibiting circumstances, it was not possible to cover blank pages with coherent sentences, let alone with vivid and sparkling prose.