bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Orbis Seraphicus–A Bibliographical Note
Authors: Chiappini Aniceto
Published: July 2006

Orbis Seraphicus is the title of the impressive Franciscan cosmography projected by Fr. Domenico De Gubernatis da Sospello (d. 1690) for a total of some thirty-five volumes in folio divided into four sections. The programmatic plan of the work, which was submitted to the General Chapter of the Franciscan Order held at Rome in 1688, is known to us as published by the author himself. It has the formidable heading: Idea Orbis Seraphici de tribus Ordinibus a Seraphico Patriarcha S. Francisco institutis, deque illorum progressibus et honoribus per quattuor mundi partes Europam, Asiam, Africam, et Americam, in obsequium Jesu Christi et Ecclesiae Sanctae Romanae, pro defensione atque propagatione fidei catholicae reportatis, a Fr. Dominico De Gubernatis concepta et concinnata; Romae Typographia Comerae Apostolicae, 1688. Copies of the plan are rare, and thus the writer took advantage of the occasion to reproduce it in the prolegomena of the Orbis Seraphicus itself, when it was published at Quaracchi in 1945.
The Holy see and the Question of the Bishop-Elect of Rio, 1833-1839
Authors: Cardozo Manoel
Published: July 2006

On march 22, 1833, the regency of Brazil in the name of the emperor, by virtue of the privileges of ecclesiastical patronage which the crown enjoyed, appointed Dr. Antônio Maria de Moura to the See of Rio de Janeiro, vacant since the death of the eighth bishop, Dom José Caetano da Silva Coutinho, on January 27, 1833. In accordance with the usual practice, the regency petitioned Pope Gregory XVI on April 30 of the same year to confirm the appointment by sending the appropriate bulls of institution without which (since collation is effected solely by institution of the Roman Pontiff) the bishop-elect could not be consecrated and enthroned and, in the case of Brazil, could not exercise jurisdiction over the diocese or administer it. When Gregory refused to confirm Dr. Moura, for reasons which will later be made clear, the Imperial Government and the Holy See became involved in a dispute more bitter and prolonged than any of the many disputes between the two powers that characterize the history of the church-state relationship in Brazil from the proclamation of the independence of the country in 1822 to the abrogation of the union and the renunciation of patronage by the government in 1890.
More about the Wood-Beach at Recife
Authors: Smith Robert C.
Published: July 2006

In the october, 1949, issue of THE AMERICAS the present writer published an article on the wood-beach at Recife in Brazil as it existed in late colonial days. To this the editor very kindly added the subtitle “A Contribution to the Economic History of Brazil.” Since the article appeared I have received a number of communications from historians in Brazil and in Portugal who commented with such interest upon the subject that I feel justified in soliciting more space in THE AMERICAS in order to present a discovery I have recently made. Since it concerns the authorship of the extraordinary watercolor around which the article was written, it is of vital importance to the subject.

The old wood-beach in the harbor of Recife, the capital of the rich colonial captaincy of Pernambuco, was the storage place for the valuable shipments of tropical woods to Portugal and other parts of the Portuguese Empire, which constituted a major element in Brazilian eighteenth-century trading. In the Arquivo Militar of Rio de Janeiro there is a view of the area showing in great detail the warehouse, the government and other buildings that surrounded it, as well as men working on the shore and loading ships that lie at anchor in the harbor. This watercolor, which was published in THE AMERICAS, is signed by José de Oliveira Barbosa and dated 1788. The author gave as his only identification the phrase “of the Regiment of Olinda.” Since an examination of the records of this regiment in the year 1788, which are now at the Arquivo Histórico Colonial in Lisbon, failed to show Barbosa’s name among the officers, I reached the conclusion that at that time the man did not have the rank of officer and so stated in my article.
A Survey of the Historiography of Guatemala Since 1821: Part II: The Twentieth Century
Authors: Lamadrid Lázaro
Published: July 2006

Although it has not attempted such large undertakings as general histories of Central America, the twentieth century has been more productive than the previous one and has also surpassed it in quality. It opens with the Historia de la Medicina en Guatemala by Francisco Asturias (1902), based on documents existing in the Archives of the Faculty of Medicine.
The Trial of the Ecclesiastics in the Inconfidência Mineira
Authors: Ennes Ernesto
Published: July 2006

No Chapter in Brazilian history has received more attention or is better known in all its details than the story of the “Inconfidência Mineira.” Nor has any theme been the subject of more partisan study or greater disagreement.

Innumerable documents pertaining to the topic have long been known and studied, discussed and published, both in Brazil and Portugal. These range from the correspondence between Thomas Jefferson and José Joaquim da Maia, to the work known as “The Last Moments of Tiradentes, by the friar who assisted him as confessor,” attributed to Frei Raimundo de Penaforte. In Brazil alone we may refer to the seven volumes of the “Autos de Devassas da Inconfidência” in the Arquivo Público; the two large volumes of the Manuscript Division of the Biblioteca Nacional; the documents in the Historical Section of the Arquivo Público, and those in the Arquivo Público of Minas Gerais. There are many published documents to be found scattered throughout journals and reviews, such as the documents edited by Melo Morais in Brasil Histórico, by Barão Homem de Melo in the Revista do Instituto Histórico Brasileiro, by Melo de Moares Filho in the Arquivo do Distrito Federal, and many others. Many eminent historians, from Joaquim Norberto de Sousa e Silva to Lúcio José dos Santos, have given to the matter their most careful attention.
Fray Lorenzo de Bienvenida, O.F.M., and the Origins of the Franciscan Order in Yucatan
Authors: Canedo Lino G.
Published: July 2006

Fray Lorenzo de Bienvenida was among the first and most noted of the founders of the Christian missions of Yucatan, a region whose conversion was almost exclusively entrusted to the Franciscan Order. The work of the friars has been fairly well studied, not only on the basis of the data supplied by the old chronicles, but also by modern research in the documentary sources preserved in the archives of America and Spain. This research has resulted in the publication of many documents and historical studies which contain important information on the Franciscan missions of Yucatan. Analysis of the information offered in these various documents and studies—although it is sometimes conflicting—enables us to reconstruct an acceptable account of the obscure period which coincides with the first decades of Franciscan activity in Yucatan.
The Indians of America and Christianity
Authors: Moreno Wigberto Jiménez
Published: July 2006

This is a very broad topic and its treatment is quite complex. The time necessary to complete a systematic search of the pertinent literature, which is very rich and very dispersed, was lacking to us. For these reasons, we do not hope to offer here more than some considerations based on certain cases which can be considered as symptomatic.

The area which we shall study extends in area from New Mexico to Chiapas and in time from the conquest of Tenochtitlan completed in 1521 to that of Tamaulipas, completed in 1755. Moreover, we shall make some reference in passing to the actual state of Christianity among certain groups of indigenes.
The Church-State Dispute Over Education in Mexico from Carranza to Cárdenas
Authors: Hilton Stanley E.
Published: July 2006

The delegate from Tabasco definitely believed that the destiny of Mexico was at stake. At President Carranza’s behest an assembly had convened at Querétaro charged with the duty of drafting a constitution which would embody the ideals of the Revolutionary element. Although he was still a young man in his early thirties, the delegate, Francisco Múgica, was a former military commander and governor of Tabasco, and he now occupied the strategic post of chairman of the Committee on Constitutional Reform whose task was to recommend the necessary modifications of the proposed constitution. It was December 13, 1916, and the committee’s report on a key article of the future constitution was being discussed. Múgica, the chief spokesman for the radical majority at the convention, rose to defend his views. The discussion of this particular article, he declared, was “the most solemn moment of the revolution. [No other moment] has been so great, so important, so solemn. … [The issue is] nothing less than that of the future of the nation, the future of our young people. …” The article which prompted Múgica’s dramatic remarks engendered one of the longest and most heated debates of the convention, and in the ensuing two decades it formed the basis of an important area of conflict between the Mexican government and the Catholic Church. This was Article 3 which deals with education.
Las Casas, Historian of Christopher Columbus
Authors: Jos Emiliano
Published: July 2006

THE esteemed and controversial figure of that famous citizen of Seville, Fray Bartolomé de las Casas, has been, and continues to be, studied by many authors. Some are those who are attracted by the eminence of Christopher Columbus, the discoverer of “the new heaven and earth,” and devote years of work to formulating opinions on the Columbian historical sources. They include J. B. Muñoz, Fernández de Navarrette, Washington Irving, Thacher, Lollis, Harrisse, González de la Rosa, Vignaud, and many others. The three last-named scholars, however, in their studies have casf suspicion on one of the principal sources of Las Casas, and one of the notable historical works on Columbus: the Historia de la Vida y Hechos del Almirante Don Cristóbal Colón, written by his son Fernando. They say it was not written by Fernando Colón but is a forgery. Some even insinuate that several of the less credible sections of that Historia were introduced by Fr. Las Casas. It seems to me that such a hypothesis is not justified by creditable reason.
Manuscripts Concerning Mexico and Central America in the Library of Congress, Washington, D. C.
Authors: Cortés Vicenta
Published: July 2006

There is no doubt that manuscripts proceeding from or referring to Ibero-America which are preserved in the Manuscript Division of the Library of Congress constitute an interesting collection for the historian of the Hispanic world. This collection was begun in the second half of the nineteenth century when the library started to receive writings, documents, correspondence, and diverse papers relating to the past history of these northern regions and of other countries south of the frontiers of the United States. It was the moment when the North American collectors and antiquarians began to frequent the auctions of papers and books, when individuals and universities began to make their collections of material from which historians could procure documentation for their writings. The Library of Congress did not stay on the fringe of this movement, and some outstanding examples of documentation began to arrive in this depository, so much so that in 1900 the head of the Manuscript Division sent to the Congress of Americanists meeting in Paris a catalogue of the fifteen items relating to Mexico to be found under his care.
Moctezuma and Spaniards: An Incident from a Sixteenth–Century “Rimed Chronicle”
Authors: Reynolds Winston A.
Published: July 2006

The general history of man has not infrequently been supplemented by materials found in epic poetry (The Iliad, The Aeneid, La Chanson de Roland, Os Lusiadas, etc.). The history of Spanish America has similarly profited, from epic poems such as Castellanos' Elegías de varones ilustres de Indias, Ercilla's La Araucana, Oña's Arauco domado. Most scholars who have commented on Antonio de Saavedra Guzmán's El Peregrino indiano, published in 1599, have emphasized this poem's historical value. Such emphasis perhaps compensates somewhat for their having found scant literary merit in it (A mere “rimed chronicle” is the dictum of Menéndez y Pelayo, dean of Spanish literary historians).
Prophecy and Messianism in the Works of Antonio Vieira
Authors: Ricard Robert
Published: July 2006

For more than half a century the great voice of Antonio Vieira (1608-1698) made the churches of Portugal and Brazil echo with its resonance. For more than half a century, on both sides of the ocean, the illustrious preacher never stopped expounding to the faithful the dogmas they should believe and the duties they had to practice. This tireless apostolate produced the just renown of Vieira. But if preaching is the best known of his claims to fame, one must not forget that he had another, of an order as high, perhaps even higher still: his long and difficult missions among the Indians of Brazil and his struggles on their behalf. Nor is this all. A man of many facets, with the richest talents and the most varied aspirations, he was much interested in public affairs and undertook diplomatic missions, with varying success, in France, the Low Countries, and in Italy.
The Marquis of Pombal and the American Revolution
Authors: Alden Dauril
Published: July 2006

During the imperial crisis of the 1770's the Pennsylvania conservative, Joseph Galloway, offered a plan to close the everwidening breach that was dividing England and her colonies. Galloway's Plan of Union, a revision of the Albany Plan proposed by Franklin twenty years before, called for the establishment of a subordinate colonial parliament “for regulating the administration of the general affairs of America.” Though rejected by the Continental Congress, the plan continued to draw support from some statesmen on both sides of the Atlantic. Among them, curiously enough, was the Marquis of Pombal, Portugal's prime minister, a man who by no stretch of the imagination could be regarded as a friend of popular government.
The Canal in Retrospect—Some Panamanian and Colombian Views
Authors: Gatell Frank Otto
Published: July 2006

The Panamanian Revolution of November 3, 1903, and the establishment of an independent republic under the aegis of the United States are well-known and often related events. Neither the scholar nor the polemicist has been guilty of neglecting this episode in history. The Revolution of 1903 was to Panamá, of course, the starting point of its history as a separate state; to Colombia, possession of the isthmus of Panamá seemed a sine qua non of national existence. Thus it is no surprise that writers in both countries should turn their attention to the circumstances of the separation of Panamá from Colombia. With the passage of over half a century we can assume that Panamanian and Colombian attitudes toward the Revolution, and the role of the United States in it, have undergone changes. It is hoped that by examining some of the books written by Panamanians and Colombians about their countries' histories in general, or the canal and isthmian politics in particular, the evolution of these changed, and still changing, attitudes will be illuminated.
Three Centuries of Missionary Work in Northern Brazil: Franciscan Province of St. Anthony, 1657-1957
Authors: Willeke Venâncio
Published: July 2006

In the words of the Brazilian historian, “Brazil was born Franciscan,” since it was a Franciscan, Frei Henrique Soares de Coimbra, and his confreres, who said the first Holy Mass on Brazilian soil in 1500.

After that, in 1516, two anonymous Franciscans were massacred by the Indians near Porto Seguro. Various groups of Franciscans in Brazil are mentioned during the rest of the sixteenth century, until, in 1584, Fr. Francisco Gonzaga, while visiting Portugal in his capacity as Minister General, and presiding at the provincial chapter of the Franciscan Province of St. Anthony in Portugal, decreed the founding of the custody, or minor-province, of St. Anthony in Brazil. He did this over the objections of some of the friars assisting at the chapter, who thought their numbers too small to think of founding a new mission.
The Author of the Mexican Council Catechisms
Authors: Burrus Ernest J.
Published: July 2006

In colonial times four ecclesiastical Councils were held in Mexico City: in 1555, 1565, 1585, and in 1771. Their decisions and enactments affected directly the extensive territory of New Spain and indirectly that of the Philippines.

The last two of these Councils ordered the publishing of three catechisms, of which two were actually printed. The 1585 Council decreed the publishing of a catechism, which, as we shall see, was taken over substantially by the 1771 Council for its lay catechism and partially also for its parochial manual.
The Franciscans and Portuguese Colonization in Africa and the Atlantic Islands, 1415–1499
Authors: Boehrer George C. A.
Published: July 2006

When the portuguese began their great expansion in the fifteenth century, it was not surprising that the Franciscan friars would enter into the work. They had in the past evidenced a more than cursory interest in North Africa and the lands beyond. Indeed their first martyrdoms occurred in Morocco in the second decade of the thirteenth century. In the following years, they had regular establishments there. That their activity in North Africa was not entirely concentrated on the Mediterranean coast is shown by the treatise Libro del conoscimiento de todos los regnos y tierras by an anonymous fourteenth-century Castilian Franciscan. In the work the Atlantic coast to Sierra Leone is adequately described as perhaps also are the Azores. Although the friars working in North Africa before 1415 were Spanish or at least attached to Spanish provinces, it is not unlikely that Portuguese friars also labored there when the former union and the still close relationship of the Franciscans on the peninsula is considered.
The Lautaro Lodges
Authors: Reynolds Keld J.
Published: July 2006

The Lautaro lodges of revolutionary South America had their roots in Spain and England where creole patriots dreamed and plotted the overthrow of Spanish colonial power. The name was that of an Indian chief of the Araucanians of Chile, immortalized by the poet, Alonzo de Ercilla y Zúñiga. There is general agreement among Latin American historians that the Lautaro lodges played a significant role in the struggle for independence. Still debated is whether or not they were masonic or merely resembled the Freemasons in organization and principles.
The Historia de España of Rafael Altamira
Authors: Barceló Javier Malagón
Published: July 2006

The Historia de España y de la civilización española by Don Rafael Altamira was published nearly 70 years ago in Barcelona (June, 1899) by Juan Gili. In character it is a manual, as the author himself admits in the prologue to the first edition:

. . . this is a manual, that is to say, a simple book for the general reader, a book that has no erudite pretensions, nor does it presume to exhaust the material, nor, much less, to teach anything to serious students in the field.. . .
John Barrett's Plan to Mediate the Mexican Revolution
Authors: Prisco Salvatore
Published: July 2006

In 1911 Francisco I. Madero overthrew the Mexican dictatorship of Porfirio Díaz. Unable to consolidate his initial victory and establish a stable government, Madero presided for sixteen months over the political destruction of the Mexican Republic. Then on February 9, 1913, the counterrevolutionary General Victoriano Huerta came to power following a coup d'etat.

Throughout the period of Madero's presidency the United States and the republics of Latin America had attempted without success to encourage stability in the Mexican Government. In order to begin the quest for a steadying influence in Mexico, John Barrett, the Director-General of the Pan American Union and an experienced American diplomat in Latin America, proposed that the international hemispheric organization mediate the situation, and thus work to insure an essentially Mexican solution to a Mexican problem. To this end Barrett sent a series of letters on February 13, 1913, to President Taft, Presidentelect Wilson and the members of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, explaining his plan. To avoid the further decay of the Mexican situation, which could eventually lead the United States to intervene with force, Director-General Barrett proposed that an international commission of mediation be called under the auspices of the Pan American Union.
The United States and the German “Threat” to the Hemisphere, 1905–1914
Authors: Small Melvin
Published: July 2006

Those who defend America's entry into the First World War often call attention to the ultimate German threat to the security of the Western Hemisphere. Through his political and economic activities in the years before the War, Kaiser Wilhelm II allegedly endangered the independence of Latin American states, and especially, the dominant position America enjoyed in the Caribbean. Hard evidence to support this position, however, is rarely presented, and with good reason, for after the celebrated Venezuelan incident of 1902-03, German-American relations in Latin America decline in saliency. Yet, during the crucial decade before the onset of World War One, Germans and Americans met one another in the hemisphere in a variety of places and under a variety of circumstances. An analysis of these relatively obscure contacts will help answer two questions: Did Germany menace American interests in the area, and, more importantly, did Americans believe that she did?
The Politics of Nativism: Ethnic Prejudice and Political Power in Mato Grosso, 1831-1834
Authors: Seckinger Ron L.
Published: July 2006

Nativism has proved an enduring theme in the history of the New World. Successive waves of immigration have brought groups of diverse cultural and ethnic origins into intimate contact within the nations of the Americas. The bitter fruit of such contact has frequently been nativism, which here refers to a social movement that seeks to purge elements considered alien to a culture.

Nativist movements have usually been directed against latecomers who pose a threat to established groups. In 1798, for example, the Federalist administration of the United States attempted to use popular hostility toward French and Irish immigrants as a weapon against Jefferson's Republican party, which tended to attract new arrivals from Europe. The Alien Acts limited the political activities of immigrants and marked the foreign-born as potential subversives. The Sedition Act was designed to suppress criticism of the administration and indirectly challenged the liberal ideas of the French Revolution.
A Matter of Faith: North America's Religion and South America's Independence
Authors: Gribbin William
Published: July 2006

For the last several decades, scholars concerned with America's foreign relations have paid increasing attention to public opinion, to national images, to the ties between domestic politics and international events. And because contemporary American diplomacy seems entangled in webs of mass behavior, the same wisdom has been applied to earlier times to investigate the way foreign policy has sometimes been an extension of passions and forces from the country's street corners, kitchen tables, and church pews. In this regard, great attention has lately been paid to American stereotypes of the Orient, as sages attempt to find in age-old popular attitudes the reasons for enduring problems of statecraft. Inasmuch as public interest shifts from one area of crisis to the next with each morning's headlines, it should be useful to examine, for areas other than the Far East, how the methods and goals of American diplomacy have been influenced or shaped, sometimes thwarted or transformed, by a kind of people's diplomacy growing out of the limited knowledge and unrestrained emotions of the man in the street.
Antonio de Espejo and the Mexican Inquisition 1571-1586
Authors: Greenleaf Richard E.
Published: July 2006

AFTER the Tribunal of the Holy Office of the Inquisition was established in Mexico in 1571, one of its functionaries, Antonio de Espejo, became a wealthy cattle rancher and entrepreneur in the Bajío (lowlands) region north of Mexico City, an area which today stretches from San Juan del Río through Querétaro to Aguascalientes. During November 1582 until September 1583, Espejo made a reconnaissance of New Mexico and he became a strong contender for the royal contract to colonize New Mexico as the Spanish king and the Mexican viceroy began to screen suitable applicants. It is probable that Antonio de Espejo would have been awarded the New Mexico patent had he not fled central Mexico for the north in the spring of 1581, because there was a warrant out for his arrest on a murder charge. As a Familiar of the Inquisition Espejo attempted to claim immunity from criminal persecution. His uncle and legal representative, Francisco de Santiago, handled his affairs during the civil trial and as the Inquisition investigated the murder charges, because Espejo had already gone to the Nueva Vizcaya frontier.
The Militarization of Mexico, 1913-1914
Authors: Meyer Michael C.
Published: July 2006

THE Mexican Revolution was almost two and a half years old when General Victoriano Huerta captured the presidential chair. The chaotic period between November, 1910 and February, 1913 witnessed an ever-increasing militarization of the country which just a few years earlier had prided itself as the most stable republic and lucrative investment field in Latin America. When the military campaigns of the anti-Díaz movement began to assume serious proportions early in 1911, the government in Mexico City set out to increase at once the size and efficiency of the federal army and the rurales. Although Díaz efforts were for naught, the preparations themselves augured ominously for the immediate future. When the rebel general Pascual Orozco captured Ciudad Juárez in May of 1911, the die was cast. A small but effective revolutionary army, adept at guerrilla warfare, had humbled a professional fighting force schooled in the nineteenth-century German tradition.
The Germans in Mexican Trade and Industry During the Díaz Period
Authors: Schiff Warren
Published: July 2006

One of the key policies guiding the regime of General Porfirio Díaz during its rule over an underdeveloped Mexico between 1877 and 1911 was to invite foreign participation in Mexico’s economic activities. At that very moment in history a rapidly industrializing Germany was anxious to find new economic opportunities in less advanced nations. German private entrepreneurs in Mexico could easily exploit both of these trends. A study of their fortunes suggests that commercial and industrial representatives of an economically advanced nation can earn the respect and personal friendship of citizens of a less developed country. This relationship was readily manifested because the Mexicans did not fear or resent German entrepreneurs since the German influence was large and tactful enough to be useful but small enough not to constitute a menace. There was no great possibility of a large influx of Germans into Mexico, because, by contrast to the opportunities enjoyed by German businessmen, Mexico’s latifundia system continued to limit German participation in Mexican agriculture to a few plantation owners. German professional people and workers avoided Mexico because of the depressed conditions that faced members of their calling there. Cautious German investors, afraid that Mexico’s political and economic stability might not last, limited themselves to extending occasional loans to the Mexican Government or to investments in Mexican private enterprises in conjunction with other foreigners, especially Americans.
The Harassed Exile: General Cipriano Castro, 1908–1924
Authors: Sullivan William M.
Published: July 2006

General Cipriano Castro came to power in Venezuela in 1899. During his nine year regime he destroyed all internal political opposition, imposed a tight, one-party dictatorship, and undermined the national economy by creating federal monopolies, implementing arbitrary trade policies, and antagonizing foreign nations. His relations with outside powers were poor in particular. Not only did General Castro’s refusal—or inability—to pay international debts result in the December 1902 naval blockade of Venezuela by Great Britain, Germany, and Italy, but his undiplomatic treatment of foreign representatives, harassment of foreign companies, and policy of trade warfare prompted the severance of official ties with Colombia (1901), France (1906), the United States (1908), and the Netherlands (1908) and strained relations with Great Britain and Italy. In fact, in late 1908 the Dutch fleet began to conduct a belligerent naval demonstration against the Venezuelan coast and the United States was debating, among stronger measures, whether or not to boycott Venezuelan coffee and cacao. Clearly most Venezuelans and most foreigners favored General Castro’s removal from office. Their wishes were fulfilled in late 1908 when the dictator’s health—he had been bordering on death for four years due to a kidney ailment—again collapsed and he opted for surgery in Germany. First Vice President Juan Vicente Gómez was named Acting Chief Executive until General Castro returned from Europe.
Demographic, Ethnic and Occupational Structure of New Mexico, 1790
Authors: Tjarks Alicia V.
Published: July 2006

Since early times civil and religious authorities of New Spain showed considerable interest in population statistics of New Mexico. Such an interest was directly related to the peculiarities of settlement in the province since the Reconquest, fourteen years after the bloody Indian uprising of 1680. From then on, control over New Mexico could only be sustained with great difficulty—final pacification could not be achieved until the late eighteenth century—for a purely geopolitical reason: keeping New Mexico for the Crown as a defensive bulwark in the northern approaches of New Spain against the penetration of hostile Indians and foreigners. In that sense, the Franciscan missions performed a decisive role in affirming the Spanish occupation of the territory.
Anti-Democratic Thought in Early Republican Peru: Bartolomé Herrera and the Liberal-Conservative Ideological Struggle
Authors: Gleason Daniel
Published: July 2006

During its first half-century of independence, Peru fought in five international conflicts, had thirty-one different governments, and operated under thirteen various constitutions or provisional charters. The international wars, uncertain terms of office, and a frequency of change in constitutions were all symptoms of an unsettled political environment. Additional symptoms included forceful overthrows of government, political exile, conspiracies, and foreign intervention. By mid-century, Peruvian writers complained of political corruption, graft, lack of public spirit, disrespect for the law, militarism, elitism, mobocracy, a mania for public office (empleomanía), and in general of the social and political disintegration.
Mexican-Guatemalan Imbroglio: Fishery Rights and National Honor
Authors: Wolff Thomas
Published: July 2006

At seven o'clock on the morning of December 31,1958, President Miguel Ydígoras Fuentes of Guatemala ordered his Air Force to bombard and sink vessels manned by Mexican nationals fishing clandestinely in his country's territorial waters. Simultaneously, his message was transmitted to Mexican and United States authorities in Guatemala. Ninety minutes later, after warning the fishermen through loudspeakers to proceed to the Guatemalan port of Champerico — announcements which brought only grimaces, lewd gestures, and attempted escape — the pilots strafed the flagless fishing boats, forcing one aground and two, the Elizabeth and the San Diego, to Champerico. Although the remainder of the fishing fleet was escorted by the Mexican Coast Guard to the Oaxacan port of Salina Cruz, seventeen casualties — three dead and fourteen wounded — resulted from the incident. While some of the injured Mexicans were hospitalized, ten of the survivors captured by Guatemalan authorities were incarcerated and subjected to military interrogation. Another of the progressively increasing number of inter-American fishing disputes was inexorably under way.
The “Underside” of the Mexican Revolution: El Paso, 1912
Authors: Harris Charles H. , Sadler Louis R.
Published: July 2006

The Mexican Revolution was predominantly a Northern movement. In part this was a logical continuation of what had occurred during the Díaz regime, namely, the rapid development of the northern tier of Mexican states. But in large measure the rise to prominence of leaders such as Francisco Madero, Pascual Orozco, Francisco Villa, Venustiano Carranza, Alvaro Obregón, and Pablo González reflected the advantage they enjoyed over revolutionaries in other parts of Mexico—access to the American border. Arms and ammunition could be imported, loot to pay for these munitions could be exported, United States territory could be used as a base of operations, and the United States provided a sanctuary for the members of defeated factions. Moreover, since the majority of the population along the border were of Mexican extraction, they inevitably became caught up in the factional struggle, as, for that matter, did many of the Anglos, either out of sympathy or because the Revolution became a lucrative business. Yet despite the extent to which the Revolution spilled over into the United States, we still have but a sketchy knowledge of this phenomenon. Precisely how did Mexican juntas function, how were munitions acquired, how was recruiting conducted, and how was revolutionary activity financed? To understand this critical aspect of the Revolution we need much more work along the lines of David N. Johnson's admirable study of Maderista activities in San Antonio in 1910–1911.
Estimation of the contribution of the bioluminescent reaction rate and quantum yield to the enhancement of firefly bioluminescence in the presence of cationic liposomes
Authors: Kamidate Tamio , Tani Hirofumi , Ishida Akihiko , Hayashi Masaya
Published: July 2006

Cationic liposomes containing phosphatidylcholine, cholesterol and distearyldimethylammonium chloride (DSDAC) enhanced maximum light emission (BL intensity) and total light emission from the firefly bioluminescence (BL) reaction. The increase in BL intensity was interpreted on the basis of the increase in both BL reaction rate and BL quantum yield (ΦBL) of the BL reaction. The increase in BL reaction rate was due to the increase in the localized concentration of BL reactants on the surface of cationic liposomes by electrostatic interaction. On the other hand, the increase in ΦBL was due to the change of light‐emitting species in the presence of cationic liposomes. Each contribution of BL reaction rate and ΦBL to the enhancement of the BL intensity was estimated by measuring the BL reaction rate and ΦBL in the presence of cationic liposomes containing various amounts of DSDAC. The contribution of the BL reaction rate to the increase in the BL intensity was found to be two‐fold greater than that of ΦBL. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Petroleum Industry Effluents and Other Oxygen‐Demanding Wastes in Niger Delta, Nigeria
Authors: Osuji Leo C. , Uwakwe Augustine A.
Published: July 2006

In this article, we review the fundamental phenomenon of oxygenation within the overriding context of petroleum‐industry effluents and the other oxygen demanding wastes in Niger Delta, Nigeria. Drill cuttings, drilling mud (fluids used to stimulate the production processes), and accidental discharges of crude petroleum constitute serious land and water pollution in the oil‐bearing province. Effluents from other industrial establishments such as distilleries, pulp and paper mills, fertilizer plants, and breweries, as well as thermal effluents, plant nutrients (such as nitrates and phosphates), and eroded sediments have also contributed to the pollution of their surrounding environment. Since these wastes are oxygen‐demanding in nature, their impact on the recipient environment can be reversed by the direct application of simple chemistry. The wastes can be reduced, particularly in natural bodies of water, by direct oxidation–reduction processes or simple chemical combinations, acid–base reactions, and solubility equilibria; these are pH‐ and temperature‐dependent. A shift in pH and alkalinity affects the solubility equilibria of Na+, Cl−, SO2−, NO$\rm{ _3^ - }$, HCO$\rm{ _3^ - }$, and PO$\rm{ _4^{3 - } }$, and other ions and compounds.
Immunosuppressive Activity of the Ethanol Extract of Siegesbeckia orientalis on the Immune Responses to Ovalbumin in Mice
Authors: Sun Hong‐Xiang , Wang Hua
Published: July 2006

The in vitro and in vivo immunosuppressive activity of the ethanol extract of Siegesbeckia orientalis (EESO) was studied on the immune responses in mice. EESO significantly suppressed concanavalin A (Con A)‐ and lipopolysaccharide (LPS)‐stimulated splenocyte proliferation in vitro in a concentration‐dependent manner. ICR Mice were immunized subcutaneously with ovalbumin (OVA) on days 0 and 14. Beginning on the day of immunization, the mice were administered intraperitoneally with EESO at a single dose of 0.25, 0.5, and 1.0 mg at intervals of 7 days. On day 28, OVA‐specific antibodies in serum, and mitogen‐ and OVA‐induced splenocyte proliferation were measured. EESO significantly suppressed Con A‐, LPS‐ and OVA‐induced splenocyte proliferation in the OVA‐immunized mice in a dose‐dependent manner. The OVA‐specific serum IgG, IgG1, and IgG2b levels in the OVA‐immunized mice were also significantly reduced by EESO. Moreover, reducing effect on the IgG1 antibody of EESO at the dose of 1.0 mg was more significant than that of cyclosporin A (CsA; positive drug). The results suggest that EESO could suppress the cellular and humoral response to ovalbumin in mice, and deserve further investigations to be developed as immunosuppressant.
Synthesis of dl‐Alanine Hollow Tubes and Core‐Shell Mesostructures
Authors: Ma Yurong , Börner Hans G. , Hartmann Jürgen , Cölfen Helmut
Published: July 2006

Three double hydrophilic block copolymers were used as crystal‐growth modifiers of dl‐alanine to generate amorphous precursor nanoparticles that undergo subsequent mesoscopic transformation to core‐shell mesostructures and hollow tubes with quadratic cross‐sections. The growth sequence can be stopped at various stages so that a series of intermediates between amorphous core‐ and crystalline‐shell particles and tubes can be obtained. Time‐dependent conductivity, TEM, SEM, and environmental scanning electron microscopy (ESEM) measurements were used to obtain a better understanding of the crystallization process, and a formation mechanism for the generation of the tubes is proposed. Na2SO4, NaCl, and NaNO3 as salts differ in their influence on the crystallization behavior of alanine by changing the solubility of alanine and by decreasing the stability of the intermediate particles. Core‐shell mesostructures that formed in the dissolution–recrystallization process were captured as the transformation rate was decreased by the addition of copolymers or salts. Hollow tubes with quadratic cross‐sections are the final product of the transformation process.
High Structural Control in Metal‐Mediated Synthesis of New Functionalized Diphosphines Using Diphosphinoketenimines as Precursors
Authors: Mosquera Marta E. G. , Ruiz Javier , García Gabriel , Marquínez Fernando
Published: July 2006

The diphosphinoketenimine ligand in the neutral complexes fac‐[MnI(CO)3{(PPh2)2CCNR}] (1 a: R = Ph; 1 b: R = p‐tolyl) undergoes nucleophilic attack by MeLi and nBuMgCl yielding, after hydrolysis, the diphosphinoenamine‐containing complexes fac‐[MnI(CO)3{(PPh2)2CC(R′)NHR}] (3 a,b: R′ = Me; 4 a,b: R′ = nBu). Complex 1 a reacts under the same conditions with H2CCCHMgBr to afford fac‐[MnI(CO)3{(PPh2)2CC(CH2CCCH)NHR}] (5 a), which contains a terminal alkyne group on the α‐carbon atom of the diphosphinoenamine ligand. The cationic complexes fac‐[Mn(CO)4{(PPh2)2CCNR}]+ (6) react with H2CCCHMgBr to afford diphosphinomethanide derivatives bearing three different types of functional groups, depending upon the substituent on the nitrogen atom of the ketenimine: cumulene in fac‐[Mn(CO)4{(PPh2)2CC(CHCCH2)N‐xylyl}] (7 d), internal alkyne in fac‐[Mn(CO)4{(PPh2)2CC(CCCH3)NtBu}] (8), and quinoline in 9 (R = Ph), whose formation implies an unusual cyclization process. Protonation of 7 d, 8, and 9 with HBF4 occurs at the nitrogen atom to give the cationic derivatives 10 d, 11, and 12, respectively, which contain the corresponding functionalized diphosphine ligands. Irradiation of 3 a,b and 4 a,b with Vis/UV light makes it possible to isolate the free ligands (PPh2)2CC(R′)NHR (13 a,b and 14 a,b), completing the metal‐assisted synthesis of these novel functionalized diphosphines. Irradiation of 12 with Vis/UV light generates free phosphinoquinoline ligand 15, which readily affords a complex 16 containing 15 as a P,N‐chelating ligand when treated with [PdCl2(NCMe)2], thus demonstrating its coordination capability.
Substitution of Hydrogen by Deuterium Changes the Regioselectivity of Ethylbenzene Hydroxylation by an Oxo–Iron–Porphyrin Catalyst
Authors: de Visser Sam P.
Published: July 2006

Heme oxo–iron complexes are powerful oxygenation catalysts of environmentally benign hydroxylation processes. We have performed density functional theoretic calculations on a model system, that is, an oxo–iron–porphyrin (Por) complex [(FeO)Cl(Por)], and studied its reactivity toward a realistic substrate, namely, ethylbenzene. The calculations showed that the dominant reaction process in the gas phase is benzyl hydroxylation leading to 1‐phenylethanol, with an energetic barrier of 9.1 kcal mol−1, while the competing para‐phenyl hydroxylation has a barrier 3.0 kcal mol−1 higher in energy. This benzyl hydroxylation barrier is the lowest CH hydroxylation barrier we have obtained so far for oxo–iron–porphyrin complexes. Due to electronic differences between the intermediates in the phenyl and benzyl hydroxylation processes, the phenyl hydroxylation process is considerably stabilised over the benzyl hydroxylation mechanism in environments with a large dielectric constant. In addition, we calculated kinetic isotope effects of the substitution of one or more hydrogen atoms of ethylbenzene by deuterium atoms and studied its effect on the reaction barriers. Thus, in a medium with a large dielectric constant, a regioselectivity change occurs between [H10]ethylbenzene and [D10]ethylbenzene whereby the deuterated species gives phenol products whereas the hydrogenated species gives mainly 1‐phenylethanol products. This remarkable metabolic switching was analysed and found to occur due to 1) differences in strength between a CH versus a CD bond and 2) stabilisation of cationic intermediates in a medium with a large dielectric constant. We have compared our calculations with experimental work on synthetic oxo–iron–porphyrin catalysts as well as with enzyme‐reactivity studies.
Non‐racemic atropisomeric (thio)ureas as neutral enantioselective anion receptors for amino‐acid derivatives: Origin of smaller Kass with thiourea than urea derivatives
Authors: Roussel Christian , Roman Mihaela , Andreoli Federico , Rio Alberto Del , Faure Robert , Vanthuyne Nicolas
Published: July 2006

The synthesis of a limited series of non‐racemic atropisomeric 1‐(2‐(4‐methyl‐2‐thioxothiazol‐3(2H)‐yl)phenyl)‐3‐(hetero)aryl‐(thio)ureas is described. Using NMR titration experiments monitoring the shift of the two NH of the (thio)urea and the C‐5 hydrogen of the heterocycle, the binding constants for some optically pure (thio)‐ureas with the enantiomers of N‐protected amino acid tetrabutylammonium salts were determined in CD3CN. The obtained enantioselectivities were modest. Contrary to what was expected on the basis of the NH acidity in thiourea versus urea group, the association constants were smaller with the thiourea than with the corresponding urea. X‐ray data, DFT calculations, and NMR provided the explanation of that unexpected behavior: the urea presents a pre‐organized (Z,Z) conformation suitable for a double hydrogen bond with the carboxylate anion, the thiourea presents a (Z,E) conformation, which must be reorganized in a constrained (Z,Z) conformation in the complex. An intramolecular hydrogen bond between one NH and the thiocarbonyl group of the heterocycle, which is present in the thiourea and absent in the urea, might also contribute to the smaller Kass for the thiourea. The possible implication of these observations in the field of bifunctional organocatalysis is briefly discussed. Chirality, 2006. © 2006 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Selective distribution and function of primary afferent nociceptive inputs from deep muscle tissue to the brainstem trigeminal transition zone
Authors: Wang Hu , Wei Feng , Dubner Ronald , Ren Ke
Published: July 2006

Orofacial injury activates two distinct regions in the spinal trigeminal complex, the subnuclei interpolaris/caudalis (Vi/Vc) transition zone and the laminated Vc, or medullary dorsal horn (MDH). Studies suggest that the Vi/Vc transition zone plays an important role in processing orofacial deep input. To test this hypothesis, we employed a double‐tracing strategy to compare central projections of primary afferent neurons that innervate the masseter muscle and the overlying skin. Different tracers were injected either centrally (Fluoro‐Gold: ventral Vi/Vc, or MDH) or peripherally (wheat germ agglutinin‐conjugated horseradish peroxidase or cholera toxin B: masseter or overlying skin) in the same rat. Trigeminal ganglion tissue sections were processed for single or double immunohistochemistry. The double labeling of ganglion neurons indicates their site of peripheral and central innervations. A population of small to medium‐sized neurons was doubly labeled after injections of the tracers into the masseter‐Vi/Vc, masseter‐MDH, or the skin‐MDH. However, only a few double‐labeled neurons were occasionally observed after injections of the tracers into the skin‐Vi/Vc. Injection of an N‐methyl‐D‐aspartate receptor antagonist, AP‐5, into the Vi/Vc and MDH attenuated masseter inflammatory hyperalgesia. In contrast, hyperalgesia after inflammation of the skin overlying the masseter was attenuated by injection of AP‐5 into the MDH but not Vi/Vc. These results indicate that while both masseter and cutaneous inputs project to the MDH, masseter afferents provide an additional input to the Vi/Vc. These findings provide further evidence to support a role of the trigeminal transition zone in response to orofacial deep injury. J. Comp. Neurol. 498:390–402, 2006. © 2006 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
The Xfeb gene is directly upregulated by Zic1 during early neural development
Authors: Li Shuzhao , Shin Yongchol , Cho Ken W.Y. , Merzdorf Christa S.
Published: July 2006

The transcription factor Zic1 plays important roles in patterning the neural plate in early vertebrate development. However, few genes that are regulated by Zic1 are known. We have identified a new direct downstream target gene of Zic1 that we have named Xfeb. Xfeb is a member of the pathogenesis‐related (PR) protein superfamily and contains five tandem SCP domains. The sequence of Xfeb suggests that it may possess serine protease activity. Xfeb is expressed in the presumptive hindbrain region during neurula stages and in somite tissues later in development. Xfeb represses the hindbrain gene hoxB1 and the anterior neural gene otx2, suggesting that Xfeb is involved in regionalizing the neural plate, possibly by ensuring a posterior expression limit for otx2. Developmental Dynamics 235:2817–2827, 2006. © 2006 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.