bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
NOTES ON THE LIFE HISTORIES OF FIVE COMMON GEOMETRIDAE
Authors: Dethier V. G.
Published: January 2010

Although larvae of the five species described below are among those loopers most frequently encountered in numbers, complete data on their life histories are still lacking. The following notes, based on large samples of larvae collected and bred in New England during the past three years, are intended to supplement the accounts of earlier authors and are not in themselves complete.
THE COAST TICK (IXODES CALIFORNICUS BANKS) PROBLEM IN BRITISH COLUMBIA
Authors: Gregson J. D.
Published: January 2010

During recent years the tick, Ixodes californicus Banks, has attained considerable prominence as a pest of man, pets and livestock in British Columbia coastlands. This progression from a parasite of relatively little importance to one of major economic significance has been brought about not only by the gradual spread of human settlement into the habitat of the tick, but also by a resulting marked increase in the population of the pest. The present economic status of this tick, as observed by officers of the Dominion Entomological Laboratory at Kamloops during the past eight years, is presented herewith.
A REVISED CHECK LIST OF THE BUTTERFLIES OF MANITOBA
Authors: Brooks G. Shirley
Published: January 2010

This list is based on one compiled by Dr. H. J. Brodie of Winnipeg and published in the Transactions of the Royal Canadian Institute, vol. XVII, part 1, 1929. Since that time the completion of the Hudson Bay Railway to Churchill has opened up territory, which previously had been but slightly worked and has made easily accessible country where the flora and fauna are subarctic. Also a number of new species, subspecies, races, and aberrations have been described from the Province, which seems to make a revised check list advisable. The old list contained 121 names, and that total has now been broucht to about 170.
FOUR NEW SPECIES OF MESAMIA (HOMOPTERA, CICADELLIDAE)
Authors: Beamer R. H.
Published: January 2010

Resembling M. prescotia Ball but with vertex margins meeting at distinctly more than a right angle. Length 4 mm.

Vertex flat slightly excavated, almost one-half wider between eyes than length at middle, margins slightly curved out, meeting at distinctly more than a right angle.
A NEW CERAMBYCID BEETLE FROM OREGON (COLEOPTERA)
Authors: Fisher W. S.
Published: January 2010

In a small collection of Coleoptera received for identification from Borys Malkin, the following new species was found.

Phymatodes malkini n. sp.

Piceous, except antennae, legs in part, base of thorax, mesosternum, metasternum, and triangular basal area of elytra, which are yellowish brown.
NEW DESCRIPTIONS OF LARVAE OF FOREST INSECTS, III, ZANCLOGNATHA, PALTHIS, AND AUTOGRAPHA, (LEPIDOPTERA, PHALAENIDAE)
Authors: Brown A. W. A. , McGuffin W. C.
Published: January 2010

Penultimate Instar. Head width 1.0 to 1.3 mm. Body length 7 to 10 mm. Otherwise similar to ultimate instar.

Ultimate Instar. Head width 1.3 to 1.5 mm. Body from 9 to 11 mm. long and from 1.5 to 1.7 mm. wide; shape subcylindrical, broadest at first abdominal segment, eighth abdominal segment with a dorsal swelling; skin densely covered with minute conical granules; ground colour pale yellow, cream-coloured, or greyish-white, heavily mottled with dark brown, dark grey, or ruddy-brown, often with a pink suffusion, venter lightly tinged with reddish-brown or even green.
A NEW ARGYROTAENIA FROM SPRUCE (LEPIDOPTERA, TORTRICIDAE)
Authors: Freeman T. N.
Published: January 2010

The following description is offered in order to provide a name which can be used by economic workers for a species of Argyrotaenia which is destructive to spruce foliage, and which has been erroneously regarded as lutosana Clem., following Robinson's misinterpretation of Clemen's species (Robinson, 1869, Trans. Am. Ent. Soc., II, 279, pl. VI, fig. 59). A subsequent paper dealing with the status of several species in this group is in preparation and more complete notes will then be included.
ON ANT NESTING HABITS IN NORTH DAKOTA IN 1941 COMPARED WITH DROUTH YEARS
Authors: Weber Neal A.
Published: January 2010

Forming somewhat of a supplement to the article, “Notes On The Effect Drouth Upon The Nesting Habits Of Ants”, in the August, 1941, Canadian Entomologist, are recent brief observations over widely separated areas in North Dakota. The summer of 1941 in this state was unusually wet and was preceded by several season of “normal” rainfall. The conditions constrasted strikingly with those of the drouth years of the early 1930's.
THE FEMALE OF LEUCORRHINIA PATRICIA WALKER, WITH FURTHER NOTES ON THE MALE
Authors: Walker E. M.
Published: January 2010

Since the type male of this species was dcscribed, the following additional material has been determined: Smoky Falls, Mattagami River, Cochrane District, Ont., June 26, 1934, 2 ♂ ; July 1, 3, 1934, 5 ♂, 1 ♀ (G. S. Walley, Canadian National Collection, Ottawa) ; Fort Severn, Hudson Bay, Patricia portion of Kenora District, July 3, 6, 1940, 1 ♂, 3 ♀ (C. E. Hope, Royal Ontario Museum of Zoology, Toronto.
NEW DOLICHOPODIDAE FROM UTAH AND COLORADO (DIPTERA)
Authors: Harmston F. C. , Knowlton G. F.
Published: January 2010

This report includes descriptions of five apparently new Diptera of the family Dolichopodidae. The Colorado specimens were studied through the cooperation of Doctors M. T. James and R. H. Painter. Doctor James is codescriber of Scellus coloradensis and Rhaphium colutis, which are here described as new.
TWO MILLIPEDS OF THE GENUS RHYSODESMUS FROM MEXICO
Authors: Chamberlin Ralph V.
Published: January 2010

The type specimens of the two species of Rhysodesmus described below were collected by Mr. Phil Rau, through whose courtesy the author received them for study. The specimens are at present in the author's collection.
ABAandABABDesigns
Authors: Kirk Roger E.
Published: January 2010

Single‐case designs are often used to assess the effects of an intervention. The designs usually focus on one participant who is observed numerous times. Large‐sample designs, by comparison, use many participants who are observed only a few times. The simplest single‐case design is the AB design. The letter A denotes a baseline phase during which no intervention is in effect; the letter B denotes the intervention phase. The baseline phase serves three purposes. It provides data about a participant's performance prior to instituting an intervention, it provides a basis for predicting a participant's future performance in the absence of an intervention, and it indicates the normal variability in the participant's performance.
Abnormal Psychology
Authors: Getzfeld Andrew R.
Published: January 2010

A number of laypeople will be more than happy to say that they know when someone is suffering from mental illness and that they know abnormal behavior when they see it. They purport to be experts on abnormal psychology, with the ability to recognize and perhaps even diagnose abnormality in their fellow human beings. Of course, many of these individuals are incorrect. Here is an example.
Abnormality
Authors: Lilienfeld Scott O.
Published: January 2010

From time immemorial, societies have consistently classified a small minority of people in their midst as psychologically “abnormal.” The classic research of Jane Murphy (1976) demonstrates that people in non‐Western cultures, such as the Yorubas of Nigeria and the Yupic‐speaking Eskimos of Alaska, readily recognize certain behaviors as abnormal. Moreover, many of these behaviors, such as talking to oneself, are similar to those regarded as abnormal in Western society. Murphy's findings suggest that the concept of abnormality is not entirely culturally relative, and that individuals in disparate cultures often label comparable behaviors as abnormal.
Abreaction
Authors: Peebles Mary Jo
Published: January 2010

In mental health, abreaction has come to mean an intense emotional release or discharge in an involuntary, vivid, sensory reliving or re‐experiencing, of an event that was originally neurobiologically overwhelming (i.e., “traumatic”) and thus could not be remembered (or forgotten) in normal ways. Abreaction has its origins in psychoanalytic theory, but because it taps essential principles of emotional functioning, memory, and mind‐body interaction, aspects of it are blended into diverse modalities across theoretical orientations. Originally, abreaction was viewed as curative in itself, believed to be healing through the discharging of excessive, dysregulating emotions thought to be the cause of dysfunctional symptoms.
Academic Achievement
Authors: Schunk Dale H.
Published: January 2010

Academic achievement has been an important societal topic for many years. In the years following World War II, schools educated increasing numbers of students. To optimize achievement, teachers geared their lessons to students' ability levels. The advent of the space age further elevated the importance of achievement, especially in mathematics and science. In the 1960s there was greater emphasis on disadvantaged children and on making school more relevant and less threatening. But declining achievement by the 1970s produced higher standards and greater accountability. The publication of
A Nation at Risk
(National Commission on Excellence in Education, 1983) led educators to improve teaching quality, curriculum requirements, and achievement standards.
Acquired Drives
Authors: Kimble Gregory A.
Published: January 2010

One of the raging controversies in the history of psychology once centered on the aspect of the nature‐nurture issue, which asks whether motives are inborn or learned. Some psychologists, of whom William McDougall was the most important, took the instinctivist position that motives are inborn, unlearned, universal within species, and—at least to a degree—continuous between species. Other psychologists, for whom John B. Watkins was the most important spokesman, argued that motives are acquired through learning and therefore differ from individual to individual, culture to culture, and species to species. As occurred generally with the nature‐nurture issue, the intensity of this controversy has lessened with time. It is now clear that all motives are a joint product of biological and environmental forces. If the question is asked at all, it is in terms of the relative importance of these two contributions.
Action Selection
Authors: Proctor Robert W. , Vu Kim‐Phuong L.
Published: January 2010

Action selection, also known as response selection, refers to how people determine specific actions to perform and, as studied in choice‐reaction tasks, to processes involved in deciding which response to make to a presented stimulus. Action selection is considered to be distinct from perception and from the processes involved in the execution of movements to carry out the actions. F. C. Donders (1868/1969) was among the earliest researchers to study action selection in his investigations of the temporal properties of information processing. Recent years have witnessed an expansion of interest in action‐selection phenomena, since the linking of perception and cognition to action is fundamental to all behavior.
Adjustment Disorder
Authors: Kelly Francis D.
Published: January 2010

When individuals, regardless of their age, are subjected to a significant psychosocial stressor, two possible outcomes are likely—in one instance the person is not significantly affected by the stressor and proceeds on with their life without indication of perceptible problem. In the other possible scenario, the individual experiences a negative reaction to the stressor. Herein, at some point the person begins to exhibit behavioral, mood, or emotional symptoms, the person is then described as manifesting an adjustment disorder, and there is then the need to initiate change in order to restore even functioning. It is important to emphasize that adjustment disorders differ from acute stress disorders in that the latter represent reactions to extraordinary traumatic stressors (i.e., life‐threatening events).
Admissibility of Expert Testimony
Authors: Shapiro David L.
Published: January 2010

The first test for the admissibility of expert testimony occurred in 1923 in a case entitled
Frye v. United States
(293 F 1013, 1923). Although this case dealt with the admissibility of the polygraph in court, it has been used in a much wider context to decide the admissibility of any proffered or proposed expert testimony. It is described as a general acceptability theory. That is, if the theory, methodology, or conclusion that is being “proffered” or offered as expert testimony is “generally accepted” within the relevant scientific field, it is deemed to meet the criteria for acceptability. Reliability, in other words, is determined by general acceptability. One of the problems with the
Frye
standard is that it did not define what “generally acceptable” meant. Subsequent commentary by various legal scholars has described general acceptability as referring to acceptance by “a substantial majority of the relevant scientific discipline,” but once again the term “substantial majority” was not defined. In a similar manner, the “relevant scientific discipline” was not well‐defined either.
Adulthood and Aging
Authors: Charles Susan T. , Piazza Jennifer R.
Published: January 2010

People are inherently social beings. Although this need for social relationships is observed in people of all ages, the structure and relative importance placed on various members of the social network changes across the lifespan. The convoy model of social relations discusses both the stability and changes that occur in social network composition over time. According to the convoy model, an individual moves through life embedded within a network of people who provide aid, assistance, and support, as well as serve as a secure attachment base from which the individual may explore his or her world. The size of this network is posited to change predictably across the lifespan to reflect shifting social roles and family composition. These changes follow a curvilinear pattern, with numbers of close relationships lowest in early childhood, increasing throughout early and middle adulthood, and then decreasing in later adulthood (see review by Antonucci, Akiyama, & Takahashi, 2004).
Age Regression
Authors: Brink Nicholas E.
Published: January 2010

Age regression, as a clinical hypnotic technique, leads clients in trance back through time to re‐experience past events from their lives. Clinically, hypnotic age regression has been useful in uncovering information important to therapy. Classically, this technique has been used to uncover earlier traumatic experiences with the belief that the catharsis of reliving the experience is healing. Other therapies such as psychoanalysis also find the examination of earlier life experiences useful, but when hypnotic age regression is used, the emotions of the experience can be relived more vividly and efficiently.
Agoraphobia
Authors: Mccabe Randi E.
Published: January 2010

Although the Greek word agoraphobia means fear of large open spaces, our current conceptualization of agoraphobia is far more situationally encompassing. The term was introduced by Westphal in 1871 in a case series of four men who presented with fears of large open spaces (Boyd & Crump, 1991). In the fourth edition of the American Psychiatric Association's (APA)
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(APA, 2000) agoraphobia is defined as anxiety about, or avoidance of, situations where help may not be available or where it may be difficult or embarrassing to escape the situation in the event of panic‐like symptoms or a full‐blown panic attack. Patterns of agoraphobic avoidance are variable with levels of avoidance ranging from just a few situations to an extensive range of situations. Commonly feared situations are listed in Table 1.
A
llport,
G
ordon
W
illard (1897–1967)
Authors: Vernon Philip E.
Published: January 2010

Gordon Willard Allport grew up in the Midwest and earned his bachelor's, master's, and doctoral degrees (1922) at Harvard University. His Ph.D. thesis foreshadowed his life's work, because it dealt with the psychology of personality and assessment. For two years he traveled and studied in Turkey, Germany, and England. He returned to Harvard to serve as an instructor from 1924 to 1926; he was then appointed Assistant Professor of Psychology at Dartmouth College in 1927. He came back to Harvard in 1930 and remained on the Harvard faculty until his retirement, serving for several years as chairman of the psychology department. He was president of the American Psychological Association in 1939 and received numerous honorary doctorates. His outstanding position in the psychology of personality attracted many students who have held posts of distinction in American and other universities.
Allport‐Vernon Study of Values
Authors: Oles Piotr K. , Hermans Hubert J. M.
Published: January 2010

The Allport‐Vernon Study of Values (SOV) is one of the earliest, theoretically well‐grounded questionnaires measuring personal values on the basis of declared behavioral preferences. The SOV was first published in 1931 by G. W. Allport and P. E. Vernon (1931) and later revised in 1970 by Allport, Vernon, and G. Lindzey (1970). It is a psychological tool designed to measure personal preferences of six types of values: theoretical, economic, aesthetic, social, political, and religious. The method is rooted in a philosophy of values by E. Spranger, who postulated six ideal types of people corresponding to their most important and general beliefs, ways of thinking, and preferred patterns of living. Each one is oriented toward a basic value: (1) Theoretical: truth; (2) Economic: usefulness; (3) Aesthetic: harmony and beauty; (4) Social: love for people; (5) Political: power and leadership; (6) Religious: unity or moral excellence. The idea was developed by G. W. Allport (1961), who argued that personal philosophy of life related to values is a core feature of personality implying direction of motivation, future goals, and current choices.
Alzheimer's Disease
Authors: Greenaway Melanie , Levey Allan
Published: January 2010

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease, affecting memory, intellectual functions, and behavior. The prevalence of Alzheimer's disease is increasing with the growing percentage of the population over age 65. Two to three percent of those aged 65–69 have AD. This percentage doubles every five years until almost 1 out of 2 or 3 individuals over the age of 85 are reported to have AD (Kukull et al., 2002). Approximately 14–16 million persons are expected to have AD in the United States alone by mid‐century.
Ambulatory Assessment
Authors: Westmeyer Hans
Published: January 2010

Ambulatory assessment can be defined as the use of computer‐assisted methodology for self‐reports, behavior records, or physiological measurements, while the assessee undergoes normal daily activities. Ambulatory assessment is characterized by the following features: the recording takes place in real‐life situations; computer‐assisted methodology is widely used; and the assessor attempts to minimize method‐dependent reactivity and strives to achieve a high degree of ecological validity. Ambulatory assessment has outstanding practical utility for various objectives such as monitoring and self‐monitoring, screening, classification and selection, clinical diagnosis, and evaluation. It can be applied in various areas of psychology and other behavioral sciences, and there already are many successful applications in psychophysiology, personality psychology, health psychology, and clinical psychology. For more detailed information see Fahrenberg and Myrtek (1996, 2001) or the Web site of the European Network for Ambulatory Assessment (http://www.ambulatory‐assessment.org).
American Board of Professional Psychology
Authors: Cox David R.
Published: January 2010

The American Board of Professional Psychology (ABPP;
http://www.abpp.org
) was originally established as the American Board of Professional Examiners in Psychology (ABEPP) in 1947. This followed recognition by the American Psychological Association (APA) of a need for assessing competency in professional psychology (Brent, Packard, & Goldberg, 1999). APA provided some initial funding for the establishment of the ABPP. Brent et al. (1999) provide a thorough history of ABPP through the late 1990s, and they detail the organizational evolution of ABPP.
American Psychology‐Law Society
Authors: Crocker Caroline B. , Kovera Margaret Bull
Published: January 2010

The American Psychology‐Law Society (APLS), which is Division 41 of the American Psychological Association (APA), is a professional organization dedicated to the advancement of scholarship, education, public service, and practice in the field of psychology and law. The Society was founded in 1969 by several APA members, including Eric Dreikurs and Jay Ziskin, who had specific interests in psychology and law. Ziskin became the first president of APLS. The goals of the original members included advancing the professional practice of psychology in the legal field, using research to improve the quality of psychological expert testimony to the courts, and developing a community for researchers interested in the application of psychological methods and theory to the legal context (Grisso, 1991; Fulero, 1999). Most of the original members of the Society were trained in clinical psychology and were academicians or clinical practitioners (Grisso, 1991). Early members of the Society were interested in issues such as expert testimony, competency to stand trial, the insanity defense, jury decision making, and eyewitness testimony (Fulero, 1999). APLS established a conference in 1974. These conferences began as biennial meetings and became annual meetings in 2002.
Amygdala
Authors: Rabinak Christine A. , Maren Stephen
Published: January 2010

The amygdala is a collection of anatomically and functionally distinct nuclei buried deep within the temporal lobes of the brain. It has long been appreciated that the amygdala has a critical role in emotion and emotional memory. For instance, work in the 1930s by Kluver and Bucy revealed striking changes in the emotional responses of monkeys after temporal lobe lesions that included the amygdala (Kluver & Bucy, 1937). These changes in emotion were later shown to be reproduced by amygdala damage alone and linked to deficits in assigning emotional significance to biologically relevant stimuli (Weiskrantz, 1956). Indeed, humans with amygdala damage show similar deficits in emotional processing. For example, patient S.M., who has a rare illness that caused selective and complete bilateral damage to her amygdala, is impaired in recognizing facial expressions of emotion, particularly fear. Furthermore, when presented with fear‐inducing stimuli, such as a movie clip, S.M. is unable to produce normal emotional responses, although she can explain that most people would feel afraid when watching these clips (Adolphs et al., 1999). Consistent with this, normal subjects who view facial expressions of fear exhibit increased regional cerebral blood flow in the amygdala.
Analog Research Methods
Authors: Heyman Richard E. , Malik Jill , Smith Slep Amy M.
Published: January 2010

Analog research measures phenomena of interest through an emulation of real‐life events. “Analog” is derived from the same root as “analogy”—an analog is like something else. What is measured or studied in analog research is a stand‐in for the actual behavior or phenomenon of interest.
Analysis of Covariance
Authors: Raykov Tenko
Published: January 2010

Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) is a statistical method that may be viewed as an extension of analysis of variance (ANOVA) when, in addition to one or more factors (discrete explanatory variables, typically group membership), it is required to account for possible differences due to a continuous variable(s), usually called covariate(s) or concomitant variable(s). The latter variable(s) co‐varies with a dependent variable under consideration (response, outcome), and it is of interest to examine whether group differences on the latter may be related to group differences on the covariate(s). Typically, a covariate is highly correlated with a response variable; that is, the covariate contains information about the response variable and therefore possibly also about group differences on the outcome measure(s). Empirical settings in which ANCOVA is appropriate usually have at least one categorical factor and one or more continuous covariates.
Analytical Psychology
Authors: Hopkins Burt
Published: January 2010

Analytical Psychology is the name Swiss psychiatrist Carl Gustav Jung (1875–1961) gave to his theoretical and methodological approach to the psychology of the unconscious, following his break with Freud and classical psychoanalysis in 1913. Unlike psychoanalysis, analytical psychology does not regard the structure of the unconscious as limited to contents that were initially a part of consciousness. Although not denying the psychoanalytic view that the unconscious includes contents that were once conscious, it holds that the unconscious also includes contents not yet capable of becoming conscious (i.e., symptoms) and contents incapable of ever becoming fully conscious (i.e., the symbolic manifestation of the archetypes of the collective unconscious).
A
nastasi,
A
nne (1908–2001)
Authors: Staff
Published: January 2010

Anne Anastasi is most closely associated with the development of differential psychology. She received her B.A. from Barnard and her Ph.D. from Columbia University, the latter at the age of 21. Although her long‐standing plan had been to specialize in mathematics, a course using Pillsbury's
Essentials of Psychology
as the text aroused her interest in differential psychology. Then a course with Harry L. Hollingworth and an article by Charles Spearman clinched matters, the latter convincing her that psychology and mathematics could be combined. Her Columbia professors included Henry E. Garret (her dissertation advisor), Albert T. Poffenberger, Carl J. Warden, and Robert S. Woodworth, as well as visiting professors Richard M. Elliot and Clark L. Hull. Through her husband, John P. Folely Jr., who majored in psychology at Indiana University, she was exposed to the ideas of J. Robert Kantor. To all these influences she attributed her generalist orientation and her firm commitment to psychology as an objective science.
Anger
Authors: DiGiuseppe Raymond A. , Tafrate Raymond Chip
Published: January 2010

Aristotle, Seneca, Darwin, and Ekman, a modern emotion theorist, have considered anger as one of the basic human emotions. Psychologists often use the term anger interchangeably with other terms like aggression, hostility, hate, and irritability. This usage has led to many confusing definitions and theories of anger, as well as numerous misconceptions. The resulting confusion has impeded our efforts to integrate anger research findings into a viable understanding of anger. Anger is of great concern, because it often precedes aggression, conflict, and violence.
Anger Management
Authors: Novaco Raymond W.
Published: January 2010

Anger control has been a vexing issue that has been addressed in disparate ways by great thinkers across historical periods and by social scientists, clinicians, and community caretakers alike. It has been a societal agenda since classical philosophers grappled with the regulation of inner life and the enhancement of virtue. Anger is the prototype of the view of emotions as passions that seize the personality, disturb judgment, alter bodily conditions, and imperil behavior. While anger's troublesome facets and by‐products are generally acknowledged, its personal and social value remains. Humans are hard‐wired for anger because of its survival functions. There can be no sensible thoughts to negate it, much as the Stoics and the Victorians tried. Nevertheless, the aggression‐producing, harm‐doing capacity of anger is unmistakable, and so is its potential to adversely affect prudent thought, core relationships, work performance, and physical well‐being. These problem conditions, however, are not derivative of angerper se, but result instead from anger being dysregulated, that is, its activation, expression, and experience occurring without appropriate controls.
Animal Cognition
Authors: Capaldi E. J. , Martins Ana P. G.
Published: January 2010

Animal cognition is a broad term that includes a diverse array of phenomena. Consider some examples. Can apes learn language? Are selective attention and rehearsal involved in learning and cognition? Do animals use tools? Do animals form categories? Can animals abstract rules embodied in a series of items? As a final example, can animals organize lower order items in a higher order chunk, as for example, humans do when organizing letters of the alphabet into a word?
Animal Learning and Behavior
Authors: Weiss Daniel J. , Chapman Kate
Published: January 2010

The study of animal learning and behavior has a rich tradition within the field of psychology. While learning has many definitions across fields, a useful framework for animal learning is defining it as a process in which behaviors are modified as a result of experience, provided that the change in behavior cannot be attributed to innate response tendencies, rapid change of stimuli (Domjan, 2006), developmental maturation, or temporary state factors (such as fatigue; see Runyon, 1977).
Antabuse and Other Drugs for Treating Alcoholism
Authors: Kalat James W.
Published: January 2010

Antabuse (disulfiram), a drug used as a supplementary therapy for alcoholism, was originally used in the manufacture of rubber. When the chemical got into the air in one factory and settled on the workers' skin, many developed dermatitis. If they inhaled it, they discovered that they could no longer tolerate alcohol. Beginning in the 1940s, therapists tried using the drug as a therapy for alcoholism, on the theory that alcoholics who drank alcohol after taking Antabuse would experience unpleasant effects and thereby learn an aversion to alcohol.
Anthropology
Authors: Walker Deward E.
Published: January 2010

Anthropology is an outgrowth of the sixteenth‐, seventeenth‐, and eighteenth‐century European discoveries of the remains of ancient civilizations and fossil ancestors, as well as European encounters with contemporary cultures that differed greatly from those of Europe. The need to explain, understand, and deal with these discoveries as a means of better understanding their own cultures gave rise to anthropology as an academic and museum discipline. It was not until the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, however, that a coherent intellectual structure emerged for the discipline. In the United States Franz Boas, of Columbia University, helped combine four subfields into what we now see in most major United States university departments of anthropology: cultural anthropology, archaeology, anthropological linguistics, and physical (biological) anthropology. Together, research in these four subfields has achieved a broad coverage of human biological and cultural evolution in its study of the world's cultures, past and present, which is the most distinguishing feature of anthropology. The concept of culture has become the unifying theoretical framework that allows the subdisciplines of the field to interact in research and teaching.
Antianxiety Medications
Authors: Julien Robert M.
Published: January 2010

Classically, antianxiety medications (anxiolytics) have all been medicines referred to as sedative‐hypnotic drugs or central nervous system (CNS) depressants. These medicines affect neurons so that the functioning of the brain is depressed, resulting in a behavioral state of calm, relaxation, disinhibition, drowsiness, sleep, and coma as doses of drug increased. These agents were classically ingested to ease anxiety, tension, and agitation and to induce a soporific state. Behaviorally, what was observed was a dose‐related state of increasing intoxication with release from inhibitions, sedation, sleep, unconsciousness, general anesthesia, coma, and eventually death from respiratory and cardiac depression. Increasing cognitive and psychomotor impairments were induced as the dose of any anxiolytics was increased. The classic (and certainly first) of these CNS depressants used to treat anxiety was ethyl alcohol (ethanol). Certainly ethanol as a CNS depressant is not a specific treatment for anxiety, despite hundreds of years of use for this disorder. Neither ethanol nor any other CNS depressant is useful in relieving pain (they do not have specific analgesic actions), nor do they possess antidepressant actions (they actually make depression worse). However, until recently, these CNS depressants were treatments of choice for treating anxiety disorders.
Anticonvulsant Medications
Authors: Gillespie Charles F.
Published: January 2010

Anticonvulsant medications, also known as antiepileptic drugs, are a pharmacologically diverse class of medications so named for their common efficacy in the prevention of seizures. Historically, seizures were referred to as convulsions and known colloquially as “spells” or “fits.” Epilepsy is a general term used to describe the collection of diseases characterized by chronically recurrent seizures of any etiology. Prior to the advent of anticonvulsant medications and modern surgical therapy, patients with epilepsy were subjected to treatments such as bleeding, cupping, trephination, herbal remedies, and exorcism that were ineffective and often harmful.
Antidepressant Medications
Authors: Gillespie Charles F. , Hung Olivia Y. , Burgess Kristen A.
Published: January 2010

The observation that the induction of seizure activity was useful in the treatment of psychiatric illness (Fink, 2001) was initially appreciated in asylum patients treated with convulsion‐inducing chemical agents such as camphor and metrazole and then later with insulin. The subsequent development of electrical methods of seizure induction and technical refinements to its application resulted in modern electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), the prototypic brain stimulation treatment and one of the most extensively validated treatments for depression.
Antipsychotic Medications
Authors: Gillespie Charles F.
Published: January 2010

The initial observations of the tranquilizing effects of chlorpromazine on surgical patients were first described in the 1950s by the French surgeon Henri Laborit and the French anesthesiologist Paul Huguenard. At the time, Laborit and Huguenard, in collaboration with the French chemical company Rhone‐Poulenc, were experimenting with pharmaceutical adjuncts to use with standard general anesthesia to reduce the prevalence of postsurgical shock. Struck by the relative calmness of surgical patients treated with chlorpromazine, Laborit and psychiatrist J. Hamon, of Val de Grace Hospital, administered a cocktail of chlorpromazine and barbiturates to a manic patient, resulting in a dramatic reduction of manic behavior. Intrigued by the results obtained by Laborit and Hamon, psychiatrists Jean Delay and Pierre Deniker treated a group of psychiatric inpatients with chlorpromazine alone, and they also observed a similarly impressive reduction in agitated behavior.
Antisocial Behavior
Authors: Connor Daniel F. , Fraleigh Lisa A.
Published: January 2010

Antisocial behavior (ASB) is generally defined as conduct and deportment that interferes with society. The essential characteristic of ASB is a repetitive and persistent pattern of behavior in which the basic rights of others or major societal norms or rules are repeatedly violated, beginning in childhood or adolescence and often continuing into adulthood. These behaviors generally fall into several main groupings: aggressive behaviors that cause harm to or threaten harm to others, nonaggressive property destruction, covert aggressive behaviors of lying, deceitfulness, or theft, and rule or legal violations. Included are antisocial behaviors committed by persons of high standing in society and involving fraud and financial violations in business and industry (so‐called white‐collar crime) (Lewis, 2005). Antisocial behavior is pervasive. It is found in children, adolescents, and adults at all stages of life, with the exception of infancy, and in all cultures around the world. Although males traditionally express more ASB, over the last 30 years rates of antisocial problems in females appear to be rising.
Antisocial Personality Disorder
Authors: Black Donald W.
Published: January 2010

Antisocial personality disorder (ASPD) is characterized by a pattern of socially irresponsible, exploitative, and guiltless behavior that begins in early childhood or early adolescence. Typical behaviors include criminality and failure to conform to the law, failure to sustain consistent employment, manipulation of others for personal gain, frequent deception of others, and a lack of empathy for others.
Aptitude Testing
Authors: Muchinsky Paul M.
Published: January 2010

Aptitude testing has been difficult to understand because this topic has been plagued by definitional ambiguity. This is complicated further because there have been two general types of assessment: achievement testing and ability testing. The distinction between achievement tests and aptitude tests historically has been demarcated by their intended use. Aptitude tests are typically used to predict future performance, such as the likelihood of success in training or on the job. Achievement tests are typically used as summative assessments of the candidate's knowledge after formal learning through education or training. However, the intended use of a test is a highly imprecise criterion to make differentiations among types of tests, as any test score could be used for prospective or retrospective purposes.
Archetypes
Authors: Parks Fayth M.
Published: January 2010

Carl Gustav Jung introduced the concept of
archetype
to the discipline of psychology to represent the contents of the psyche called the
collective unconscious
in his theory of the mind. Jung identified this part of the unconscious to be universal, with contents and modes of behavior that are more or less the same in all individuals. Jung (1969) observed that the personal unconscious consists for the most part of complexes, and the content of the collective unconscious is made up essentially of archetypes. Archetype is one of the most popular concepts in Jung's theory. In his theory, he presented the ego as the organization of the conscious mind. He then offered terms for other areas of the psyche (Latin for “spirit” or “soul”) such as the personal unconscious, which adjoins the ego and contains psychic activities and content incongruous with conscious functions—repressed or disregarded for various reasons, such as stressful thoughts.
Argentina, Psychology in
Authors: Godoy Juan Carlos , Brussino Silvina
Published: January 2010

Scientific psychology started developing in Argentina soon after Wundt's 1879 establishment of the first laboratory for experimental research in psychology. In 1891, Víctor Mercante (1870–1934) founded the first psychology laboratory in the city of San Juan, Argentina. Horacio Piñero (1869–1919) also created an experimental psychology laboratory at the Colegio Nacional de Buenos Aires in 1898, and a psychophysiology laboratory at the University of Buenos Aires in 1901 (Papini, 1976). In 1906, two other research laboratories were created: Félix Krueger, disciple of Wundt, founded a short‐lived center at the Instituto Nacional de Profesorado Secundario (National Institute of Secondary Teaching), and Víctor Mercante set up a laboratory at the Department of Education within the School of Law and Social Sciences, at the University of La Plata (Talak & García, 2004). Scientific research in psychology took its first steps in Argentina almost hand in hand with the psychological scientific activity in the world's most important academic centers in Europe and the United States.
Assessment Psychology
Authors: Weiner Irving B.
Published: January 2010

Assessment psychology is a field of behavioral science concerned with methods of identifying similarities and differences among people in their mental and emotional characteristics, their functioning capacities, and their dispositions to behave in certain ways. To this end, assessment methods are designed to provide information about individuals' intellectual abilities, their personality features, their neuropsychological status, and their attitudes, interests, and attainments. This article reviews the history of assessment psychology, its primary areas of inquiry, its commonly employed measures, and its present position as a field of psychological science and practice.
Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies
Authors: Schwartz Stephanie , Ronan George , Albano Anne Marie
Published: January 2010

Founded in 1966, the Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies (ABCT) is an interdisciplinary organization comprised of researchers, psychologists, psychiatrists, physicians, social workers, nurses, and other mental health practitioners and students (located nationally and internationally) who adhere to, develop, evaluate, and disseminate behavioral and cognitive approaches to the assessment and treatment of behavioral and mental health problems.
Attachment and Bonding
Authors: Hughes Daniel H.
Published: January 2010

“Attachment and bonding” is a phrase that one now naturally thinks of in describing the early intimate interactions between parent and infant. “Attachment” is the more scientific term that originally referred to an infant's relationship with his or her parent. As attachment theory and research developed, it became applied to individuals of all ages when describing relationships in which they turn to another for safety and the felt‐sense of safety. “Bonding” or “affectional bonds” is taken to refer to an ongoing relationship with a specific person that is emotionally meaningful and creates a desire to maintain mutual contact. Using the terms in this manner, a mother would not be considered to be “attached” to her infant, because she would not turn to her infant for safety. Seeking safety from the other may or may not be a feature in an “affectional bond,” whereas it is always a central component of an attachment relationship. In the most important book in the attachment field,Handbook of Attachment(Cassidy & Shaver, 1999), “bonding” is not even listed in the subject index.
Attachment Theory
Authors: George Carol
Published: January 2010

Attachment theory defines an evolutionary‐based relationship between a child and a parent figure. Attachment is a biologically based behavioral system that evolved in ways that influence and organize human motivational, emotional, and cognitive and memory processes. The relationship is conceived to develop initially in infancy and contribute to development, other relationships, risk, and mental health throughout the life span (Bowlby, 1969/1982, 1973, 1980; Cassidy & Shaver, 2008). Attachment has become a shorthand term that connotes a complex set of interrelated patterns of behavior and thinking directed toward a parent figure that is wiser, protective, and caring.
Attention Lapses
Authors: Cheyne Allan
Published: January 2010

Attention lapses are a frequently annoying fact‐of‐life with which we all have firsthand experience. Technically, attention lapses are taken to be failures of sustained attention. The lapses referred to are therefore usually defined as temporary and often brief shifts of conscious attention away from some primary task to unrelated internal information processing. This sort of definition of attention lapse has the advantage of specifying research paradigms as well as relating absentmindedness to the important practical issue of understanding cognitive and action failures during instrumental tasks (Reason & Mycielska, 1984).
Auditory Perception
Authors: Yost William A.
Published: January 2010

The world is a noisy place. Almost all objects vibrate, and those vibrations can produce audible sound. Hearing allows an organism to process information about these sound sources. Hearing assists animals in navigation, seeking prey, avoiding predators, finding a mate, and in communication (e.g., speech and language). Sound can also add an aesthetic quality, as in music. The study of auditory perception seeks to understand the auditory system's ability to process the sound from sound sources. Such processing turns out to be a challenging task. The sound pressure wave that radiates from a vibrating object (e.g., the string of a violin) does not have physical parameters that directly indicate the physical dimensions of the source. Sound is defined by its frequency, amplitude, and temporal dimensions.
Avoidant Personality Disorder
Authors: Bjornsson Andri S.
Published: January 2010

At the core of avoidant personality disorder (APD) as defined by the
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM) is an extreme sensitivity to negative evaluation that, coupled with a view of self as incompetent and inferior to others, leads to pervasive avoidance in a number of social situations (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). People with this disorder may, for example, refrain from trying new activities for fear of failure. They are also likely to be inhibited in relationships, even with family members, for fear of shame and ridicule. This leads to isolation and a lack of close relationships, and often to secondary disorders such as major depressive disorder. This negative cycle is not a function of disinterest in intimate relationships. Rather, the fear of negative evaluation is so intense as to outweigh the deep‐seated longing to interact with others.
B
andura,
A
lbert (1925– )
Authors: Staff
Published: January 2010

Albert Bandura is David Starr Jordan Professor of Social Sciences in Psychology at Stanford University. He received his bachelor's degree from the University of British Columbia in 1949 and his Ph.D. degree from the University of Iowa in 1952. After completing his doctorate, Bandura joined the faculty at Stanford University, where he has remained throughout his career.
Barnum Effect
Authors: Beins Bernard C.
Published: January 2010

The Barnum Effect refers to the tendency of people to accept vague, generally positive statements about their personality as unique to them even though feedback is likely to be true of most people. Bertram Forer (1949) first systematically documented this phenomenon by presenting to students a clinical personality inventory followed by statements from horoscopes that purported to describe each student as “You have a great deal of unused capacity which you have not turned to your advantage.” Even though all students received identical feedback, they rated the description as highly relevant to them as individuals. Many students failed to accept a number of the individual feedback statements as highly accurate in describing them, but they still gave high ratings of the overall validity of the feedback.
Base Rates
Authors: Kamphuis Jan H.
Published: January 2010

Base rates refer to the relative frequencies with which certain states or conditions occur in a population. The concept denotes the same as
prevalence
, a term often used by epidemiologists. A base rate is defined for and restricted to a specified population. In other words, a base rate is the
a priori
chance or prior odds that a member of a specified population will have a certain characteristic, assuming that we know nothing else about this person other than that he or she is a member of the population we are examining (Kamphuis & Finn, 2002). For example, the base rate of suicide in the general population is less than 1%, whereas the base rate of suicide for a more restricted population, for example, among patients with borderline personality disorder, may be as high as 10%.