bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
EFFECT OF THE MANUSCRIPT TASK ANALYSIS ON EVALUATING APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS RESEARCH: A TECHNICAL REPORT1
Authors: Ramey Gregory , Peters John , Souweine Judith , Sulzer‐Azaroff Beth
Published: March 2006

The effects of using the Manuscript Task Analysis, a 207‐item checklist for assessing the content, methodology, and style of applied research articles, were evaluated using a multiple‐baseline design. Sixteen guest reviewers, each of whom evaluated three anonymous manuscripts submitted to the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, were randomly assigned to three groups. In a multiple‐baseline across‐subjects design, subject‐reviewers in all three groups reviewed one article without the Manuscript Task Analysis during the first phase. In the second phase, subjects in Group I reviewed a second article using the Manuscript Task Analysis; subjects in Groups II and III reviewed again without the instrument. In the third phase, subjects in Groups I and II reviewed with the Manuscript Task Analysis; subjects in Group III completed their third reviews as usual. The order in which the subjects received the manuscripts was counterbalanced within and across groups. The effects of the Manuscript Task Analysis were assessed by collecting the self‐report data from subject‐reviewers and comparing the quality of reviews written without the task analysis with those written when the instrument was available. Self‐report data included an evaluation of the completeness, clarity, helpfulness, conciseness, and practicality of the instrument, as well as the time and effort involved in its use. The quality of the reviews was assessed in terms of the number of critical issues mentioned in each review. In addition, authorities in applied behavior analysis rated the quality of each review along seven critical dimensions. Subject‐reviewers reported that the Manuscript Task Analysis clearly would be of valuable assistance as an adjunct to the reviewing process, as well as useful in the preparation of manuscripts and supervision of students. The effect of the instrument on the quality of the reviews was generally positively correlated with improvement in reviews. However, the relation did not hold in all cases. Several methodological ambiguities—subject characteristics, type of manuscript, order in which the manuscripts were received—may have contributed to the lack of complete generality. Future research may address itself to the utility of the instrument in training researchers in applied behavior analysis.
TEACHING GENERALIZED RECEPTIVE AND PRODUCTIVE BEHIND‐FRONT DISCRIMINATIONS TO TWO RETARDED CHILDREN1
Authors: Lee Vicki L.
Published: March 2006

Typically, a generalized discrimination for two linguistic forms (e.g., “behind the (noun)” and “in front of the (noun)”) has been developed in a sequence of three treatment conditions, with generative usage developed for each form consecutively in the first two conditions and a generalized discrimination developed for those forms in the third condition. Moreover, generalized discriminations have typically been measured by a set of unreinforced probes, rather than by first‐trial performances across a series of new tasks, as in some studies that have taught generative usage of a single form of language. In this study, successive sets of instructions were presented to two children. Each set contained four tasks, the four possible combinations of two new nouns with the linguistic forms “Put the (noun) behind the (noun)” and “Put the (noun) in front of the (noun)”. For each set, receptive usage of nouns was taught, and then the four instructions were presented, once each, to test for generative usage of the prepositional forms. First‐trial performances were never prompted. After a baseline of five sets of tasks, correct first‐trial performances earned praise and tokens. Also, in each set with three or fewer such performances, the specific receptive discriminations were taught to a criterion before presentation of the next set. Successive sets were presented until all first‐trial performances were correct in five consecutive sets, whereupon this generalized discrimination was reversed and subsequently reinstated. Similar procedures were then used to teach the same children a generalized productive‐discrimination for the forms “behind the (noun)” and “in front of the (noun)”. This study demonstrated the development of generalized receptive and productive behind‐front discriminations without the prior development of generative usage in each linguistic form and with measurement of the generalized discrimination across first‐trial performances. The method may offer a less time‐consuming procedure for the development and measurement of generalized discriminations in receptive and productive language.
A COMPARISON OF INDIRECT MEASURES FOR LONG‐DURATION BEHAVIORS1
Authors: Green Samuel B. , Alverson Linda G.
Published: March 2006

A computer program was developed to simulate long‐duration behavior. The program generated data by using two time‐series models linked together by a covariance parameter. By varying the parameters of the program, the characteristics of the simulated behavior were altered, including the mean and variance of the durations of behavior, the mean and variance of the interresponse time, and the degree of relationship within and between durations of behavior and interresponse times. Four data‐collection methods were applied to the simulated data: whole interval, partial interval, momentary time‐sampling, and continuous measures. The accuracies of the first three recording measures were judged by comparing them to the continuous measure. The results indicated that only the momentary time‐sampling approach yielded unbiased results. The degree of bias for the whole and partial interval measures was a function of the ratio of the interval recording length to the sum of the mean duration of behavior and the mean interresponse time. Unfortunately, it was concluded that researchers cannot estimate the magnitudes of these latter two parameters for most behaviors of interest and, consequently, are unable to choose an appropriate interval length. Therefore, it was recommended that the use of interval recording approaches be greatly restricted and that momentary time‐sampling be substituted where possible.
A SURVEY OF PARENT TRAINING MANUALS
Authors: Bernal Martha E. , North Juel Ann
Published: March 2006

Twenty‐six commercially available parent training manuals were surveyed with the goal of providing helpful information to the professional for selection of manuals. Included were manuals for parents as well as manuals for professionals for use in conducting individual or group treatment. The following information was given for all manuals: the characteristics of the target populations for whom the manuals were intended, readability levels, use made of technical language, provision of glossary, organization and format of the book, availability of supplementary materials such as leaders' guides, and references to reviews by other authors. In an additional section, the research literature dealing with evaluation of these manuals was reviewed and summarized as a means of acquainting the reader with the available scientific information on their effectiveness. A report on the status of each manual in terms of evaluation was provided in tabular form. The evaluation of manuals by conduct of empirical research to determine their usefulness to the consumer was emphasized.
EFFECTS OF SERIAL VERSUS CONCURRENT TASK SEQUENCING ON ACQUISITION, MAINTENANCE, AND GENERALIZATION1
Authors: Panyan Marion C. , Hall R. Vance
Published: March 2006

Effects of serial and concurrent task presentation on skill acquisition, generalization, and maintenance were compared. Two severely retarded females participated. During serial training, items of one response class, tracing, were trained to mastery before those of a second task, vocal imitation. In the concurrent method, training on two different tasks, tracing and vocal imitation, alternated within sessions for fixed periods of time. There were no major differences between the serial and concurrent methods of instruction in the number of steps attained per behavior or in the number of trials required to reach criterion levels of performance. It was found however, that concurrent training resulted in more generalization. Retention results were not consistently related to training method.
NATURAL RATES OF TEACHER APPROVAL AND DISAPPROVAL IN GRADE‐7 CLASSROOMS1
Authors: Thomas John D. , Presland Ian E. , Grant M. Dilys , Glynn Ted L.
Published: March 2006

The natural rates of teacher verbal approval and disapproval in ten grade‐seven classrooms were determined and compared with those described by White (1975). Although there were differences in the observation techniques used and the behavioral, cultural, and ethnic groups sampled, the results were similar. The majority of the teachers displayed individual rates of disapproval that were higher than their individual approval rates. The correlations between levels of on‐task behavior and approval and disapproval rates were low. The issues raised by these findings are discussed in terms of directions for further research.
COMPARISON OF ESTABLISHED AND INNOVATIVE WEIGHT‐REDUCTION TREATMENT PROCEDURES1
Authors: Loro Albert D. , Fisher E. B. , Levenkron Jeffrey C.
Published: March 2006

A central component of a commonly used weight‐loss procedure developed by Stuart (1967), which emphasizes situational engineering (SE), was compared to eating behavior control (EBC), a treatment employing reinforcement of changes in eating habits. A third treatment encouraged development of individuals' own applications of a model of self‐control and attempted to provide effective feedback regarding progress toward weight‐loss goals. This self‐initiated treatment (SI) was designed to be less directive than many behavioral treatment packages and to be more realistic about the expectations of subjects and the actual eating habits of overweight and normalweight people. Following baseline, treatment lasted six weeks and followup lasted 16 weeks. While all treatments produced weight losses, EBC surpassed SE during treatment. SI losses during treatment did not differ from SE or EBC, but SI was the only group that lost weight throughout followup, indicating the possible utility of more subtle, less directive interventions than those that have often been associated with behavioral approaches. The results of SE question the applicability to clinical procedures of the external cue hypersensitivity theory of obesity (Schachter and Rodin, 1974), to which SE is closely related.
STANDARDIZED CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT PROGRAM: SOCIAL VALIDATION AND REPLICATION STUDIES IN UTAH AND OREGON
Authors: Greenwood Charles R. , Hops Hyman , Walker Hill M. , Guild Jacqueline J. , Stokes Judith , Young K. Richard , Keleman Kenneth S. , Willardson Marlyn
Published: March 2006

A comprehensive validation study was conducted of the Program for Academic Survival Skills (PASS), a consultant‐based, teacher‐mediated program for student classroom behavior. The study addressed questions related to: (a) brief consultant training, (b) subsequent teacher training by consultants using PASS manuals, (c) contrasts between PASS experimental teachers and students and equivalent controls on measures of teacher management skills, student classroom behavior, teacher ratings of student problem behaviors, and academic achievement, (d) reported satisfaction of participants, and (e) replication of effects across two separate school sites. Results indicated that in both sites significant effects were noted in favor of the PASS experimental group for (a) teacher approval, (b) student appropriate classroom behavior, and (c) four categories of student inappropriate behavior. Program satisfaction ratings of students, teachers, and consultants were uniformly positive, and continued use of the program was reported a year later. Discussion focused upon issues of cost‐effectiveness, differential site effects, and the relationship between appropriate classroom behavior and academic achievement.
THEORETICAL, PRACTICAL, AND SOCIAL ISSUES IN BEHAVIORAL TREATMENTS OF OBESITY
Authors: Wooley Susan C. , Wooley Orland W. , Dyrenforth Susan R.
Published: March 2006

Although showing superior maintenance, behavioral treatments of obesity typically produce small weight losses at a decelerating rate. Rather than reflecting poor compliance with treatment, these findings are consistent with known compensatory metabolic changes that operate to slow weight loss and promote regain. Other problems associated with dieting include failure of caloric regulation, hyper‐responsivity to food palatability, and hunger, which is greatest under conditions of moderate restriction and unpredictability of access to food. The inevitability of treatment failure in many instances must be faced and efforts made to prevent further worsening of the obese patient's self‐esteem. Prognosis and treatment planning may be aided by consideration of the historical difficulties of weight loss, the degree of hunger experienced on diets, which may reflect important physiological differences among individuals, and the use of food to optimize arousal level. Full involvement of the patient in setting goals and planning treatment is recommended.
INCREASING APPROPRIATE SPEECH IN A CHRONIC SCHIZOPHRENIC
Authors: Schraa James C. , Lautmann Lee , Screven C. G.
Published: March 2006

In a severely withdrawn schizophrenic, a combination of instructions, modeling, informational feedback, and noncontingent reinforcement was associated with a low rate of appropriate verbalizations. However, an increase in speech output was obtained using a combination of instructions, modeling, informational feedback, and contingent reinforcement. The design of this study thus permitted the conclusion that contingent reinforcement was crucial in bringing about the increase in appropriate verbalizations. The three verbal behaviors that increased in frequency were: (a) the number of socially appropriate words emitted, (b) declarative statements, and (c) appropriate replies to questions. The verbal behaviors of conversational questions and positive conversational feedback failed to be significantly affected by the experimental procedures. An attempt was also made to establish whether having the subject engage in the observable, information‐gathering response of reading aloud would result in increased speech output during a subsequent conversation period. Having the subject read aloud failed to have any discernible positive effect on his speech output. A withdrawal design was used to evaluate the effectiveness of the experimental procedures. The importance of assessing changes in verbal output with a variety of verbal response measures, stereotyped verbal behaviors, and carryover effects are discussed.
TRAINING PEERS TO TUTOR: EVALUATION OF A TUTOR TRAINING PACKAGE FOR PRIMARY LEARNING DISABLED STUDENTS
Authors: Parson Leanna R. , Heward William L.
Published: March 2006

Peer tutoring—academic instruction given by a student to a same‐aged classmate—can be a cost‐effective way of providing needed instruction in the typical classroom where one teacher must deal with many students of varying ability levels. This study evaluated an instructional package as a training method for increasing the use of selected tutoring behaviors by peer tutors. Nine male students, aged 7 to 9 years, from a learning disabilities resource room served as subjects; four subjects served as tutors, four as students, and one as a generalization student who was assigned to all tutors during generalization testing. Subjects were assigned to tutor‐student pairs based on their performances on a pretest of the 220 Dolch Basic Sight Words, with the subjects scoring highest on the pretest serving as tutors. Each tutor worked with his assigned student throughout the study, except for pre‐ and posttest sessions with the generalization student. During daily sessions, tutors trained their students to recognize sight words using 10 flash cards, each with 1 of the Dolch words printed on it. Training was conducted with all four tutors in a group and was evaluated using a multiple baseline design across three classes of tutoring behaviors: Preparation Behaviors, Prompting Behaviors, and Praising Behaviors. Training consisted of: (a) verbal instructions on how to perform the tutoring behaviors; (b) charts illustrating the appropriate tutoring behaviors with stick figures; (c) role playing with each tutor with the experimenter playing the part of the student and giving feedback and verbal reinforcement to the tutor for performance of the appropriate tutoring behaviors; and (d) verbal testing of each tutor by asking him to state orally the behaviors he was to perform. Training sessions took approximately 30 minutes for each of the 3 classes of tutoring behaviors. Results showed an increased use of tutoring behaviors by tutors as a function of the instructional package. Increases in tutoring behaviors were also observed during postintervention generalization testing of tutors instructing their regular student in new subject matter (math). Data taken from pre‐, mid‐, and postintervention testing of the 220 Dolch Words showed an increase of identifiable sight words by both students and tutors after completing the peer tutoring program. This study demonstrates that a simple tutor training package can be employed to teach young, special education students to serve as effective tutors for their peers. In addition, the academic gains evidenced by the subjects lend positive support to the effectiveness of peer tutoring programs and specifically to the research of Dineen, Clark, and Risley (Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1977, 10, 231–238) which demonstrated the educational benefits of tutoring incurred by the tutor as well as by the student.
OPERANT CONTROL OF PATHOLOGICAL TONGUE THRUST IN SPASTIC CEREBRAL PALSY
Authors: Thompson George A. , Iwata Brian A. , Poynter Holly
Published: March 2006

Pathological tongue thrust (reverse swallowing) has been associated with neuromuscular disorders and linked to dental malocclusion, articulation problems, difficulty in eating, and excessive drooling. In this study, observable tongue thrust in a 10‐year‐old retarded male was modified during mealtime using a procedure consisting of differential reinforcement (presentation of food contingent upon tongue in) and punishment (gently pushing the tongue back into the mouth with a spoon). Results of a reversal design showed substantial decreases in tongue thrust and food expulsion, and a large increase in observed chewing. These data compared favorably with data obtained for other retarded persons not judged to be tongue thrusters; in addition, the objective results of the treatment program were substantiated via pre‐post evaluations done by occupational and physical therapists. These findings suggest that operant techniques may be an effective means of treating tongue thrust and its associated problems, and that further development and evaluation of behavioral interventions may provide a desirable alternative to more intrusive surgical or mechanical procedures.
BEHAVIORAL TREATMENT OF CAFFEINISM: REDUCING EXCESSIVE COFFEE DRINKING
Authors: Foxx R. M. , Rubinoff Andrea
Published: March 2006

Excessive coffee drinking can have deleterious effects because of the large amounts of caffeine that are ingested. Caffeine is thought to be addicting, and prolonged and excessive use can lead to caffeinism, a condition that has serious behavioral and physiological side effects. The present study developed and evaluated a treatment program to reduce excessive daily coffee drinking to moderate and presumably safer levels. Three habitual coffee drinkers received individualized changing criterion programs that systematically and gradually reduced their daily caffeine intake. The coffee drinkers were required to self‐monitor and plot their daily intake of caffeine. They received monetary prizes for not exceeding the treatment phase criteria and forfeited a portion of their pretreatment deposit when they did. Their coffee drinking decreased from almost nine cups per day (over 1100 mg of caffeine) during baseline to less than three cups per day (less than 343 mg) at the end of treatment or a reduction of 69%. The treatment effect was maintained during a 10‐month follow‐up, averaging a 67% reduction from baseline. The program appears to be a reasonable method of reducing and then maintaining daily caffeine intake at less harmful levels.
RELAXATION TREATMENT OF PSEUDOINSOMNIA AND IDIOPATHIC INSOMNIA: AN ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPHIC EVALUATION
Authors: Borkovec T. D. , Grayson J. B. , O'Brien G. T. , Weerts T. C.
Published: March 2006

Twenty‐nine insomniacs underwent four consecutive sleep laboratory evaluations before and after receiving tension‐release relaxation training, no‐tension‐release relaxation training, or no‐treatment. On the basis of the discrepancy between subjective and EEG‐defined measures of latency to sleep onset, subjects were classified as pseudoinsomniacs or idiopathic insomniacs. As predicted, tension‐release relaxation was significantly more effective than the other two conditions on subjective sleep measures, regardless of insomnia subtype and on objective sleep measures only for idiopathic insomniacs. Subjective improvement was maintained at 12‐month followup. Numerous differences between the two subtypes emerged on pretherapy and during‐therapy measures distinct from the latency measures, but changes on those variables were unrelated to outcome improvement.
SATIATION THERAPY: A PROCEDURE FOR REDUCING DEVIANT SEXUAL AROUSAL
Authors: Marshall W. L.
Published: March 2006

Two single‐case experiments demonstrated the efficacy of satiation therapy with adult males who had long‐standing deviant sexual interests. The procedure involves the pairing of prolonged masturbation (1 hour) with the verbalization by the patient of his deviant sexual fantasies and in both cases the designs permitted the attribution of control over aberrant responding to the satiation therapy. The results are discussed in terms of the possible active ingredients of the procedure.
ACQUISITION OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS IN SENTENCES WRITTEN BY HEARING IMPAIRED AND APHASIC CHILDREN
Authors: Heward William L. , Eachus H. Todd
Published: March 2006

The effect of an instructional package, which included modeling, reinforcement, and remedial feedback on the rate, accuracy, and topography of sentences composed by four hearing impaired and aphasic children, was examined. In a specially designed classroom, students wrote sentences describing a stimulus picture on acetate sheets placed on the stage of an overhead projector which was built into each student's desk. This arrangement provided the teacher and other students immediate and continuous visual access to each student's sentences. In a multiple baseline design across behaviors, model sentences were projected and token reinforcment and remedial feedback were made contingent upon writing correct sentences containing prenominal adjectives only, then adverbs only, then prenomial adjectives plus adverbs. During baseline all students displayed poor written language skills and seldom wrote sentences containing modifiers. When the instructional package was implemented, all students demonstrated significant increases in response rate, accuracy, and percentage of correct sentences including prenominal adjectives and adverbs.
TEACHING MENDING SKILLS TO MENTALLY RETARDED ADOLESCENTS
Authors: Cronin Kathleen A. , Cuvo Anthony J.
Published: March 2006

This experiment presents a model for analyzing community living skills and teaching them to mentally retarded adolescents. A task analysis of three mending skills was developed and validated, aided by consultation with persons having expertise in home economics and mental retardation. The task analysis was modified to compensate for the constraints imposed by the trainees' disabilities. Five moderately retarded youths received training on sewing hems, buttons, and seams. Sewing skills were acquired rapidly and maintained. The behavior generalized from trained to untrained tasks on their common components for all subjects. A multiple baseline across participants combined with a multiple baseline across responses demonstrated the combined effectiveness of an objectively validated, detailed task analysis; graduated sequence of prompts; and response consequences in training and maintaining community living skills with mentally retarded adolescents.
OVERJUSTIFICATION EFFECTS IN TOKEN ECONOMIES
Authors: Fisher E. B.
Published: March 2006

This study tested the relevance to clinical token economies of the overjustification hypothesis that tangible reward interferes with intrinsic interest in target behaviors and causes such behaviors to be less probable following a period of reinforcement than preceding such a period. The study was carried out in an ongoing token economy for chronic psychiatric patients. Alternated over an 8‐week period were weeks of token and no‐token reward for one of the program's target behaviors, toothbrushing. Two different amounts of token reward were employed in order to examine whether reward magnitude might influence the presence or extent of overjustification effects. Little evidence was found for the presence of overjustification effects in token economies. However, maintenance of toothbrushing was greater in no‐token weeks following weeks of low amounts of token reward than in no‐token weeks following weeks of higher amounts of reward. The importance of such complex functional relationships is discussed.
SELF‐CONTROL TRAINING IN THE CLASSROOM: A REVIEW AND CRITIQUE
Authors: Rosenbaum Michael S. , Drabman Ronald S.
Published: March 2006

Self‐control training in classroom settings is becoming widespread. Establishing effective self‐ rather than externally controlled behavior modification programs in schools would enable children to control their own academic and social behavior, while enabling teachers to devote more time to teaching. The following components of self‐control are reviewed in the present article: self‐recording, self‐evaluation, self‐determination of contingencies, and self‐instruction. Self‐control strategies designed for the maintenance of appropriate classroom behavior, and issues associated with self‐control training, such as the reliability of self‐observation, response maintenance, generalization, and the role of external control, are examined. Finally, suggestions for maximizing the potential effectiveness of self‐control training in the classroom (e.g., teaching self‐observational procedures, teaching students to provide themselves with instructions and praise), as well as future areas for experimental investigation (e.g., social changes that may be associated with self‐control procedures), are presented.
THE GOOD PRODUCTIVITY GAME: INCREASING WORK PERFORMANCE IN A REHABILITATION SETTING1
Authors: Lutzker John R. , White‐Blackburn Georganne
Published: March 2006

Simple reinforcement systems have been used to improve performance in a broad range of settings. For example, in classrooms, the “Good Behavior Game” has been shown to be very effective (Barrish, Saunders, and Wolf, Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1969, 2, 119–124). In industry, small bonuses were used to increase the punctuality of workers (Hermann, deMontes, Dominquez, Montes, and Hopkins, Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1973, 6, 503–572). In a sheltered workshop setting, Shroeder (Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1972, 5, 45–52) examined work rates under varying frequencies and amounts of reinforcement and response force. The present study involved the utilization of simple group contingencies to increase productivity in a rehabilitation industry. Four state hospital residents who were trainees at a rehabilitation industry participated in the study which examined the effects of feedback, and feedback plus the “Good Productivity Game” to improve work output. The task, for which the employees were paid a wage, involved sorting boards by size. When the employees were provided with feedback on the number of boards sorted during the observation period, productivity increased slightly over baseline. After a return to baseline, the “Good Productivity Game” was played. For performance, the game afforded the employees pseudo‐competition (in that teams were paired against each other, but both teams always “won”) and simple rewards such as candy and early work termination. The game improved performance by 104% over the second baseline and by 64% over the third baseline. Data gathered on rates of on‐task behavior by the employees correlate with the productivity rates. Data gathered on rates of staff attention paid to employees show little difference across conditions, thus corroborating the function of the “Good Productivity Game” in increasing work output. Although no formal data were collected, the staff continued to use the game with considerable success after the formal termination of the study. The “Good Productivity Game” appears useful in increasing work output in a rehabilitation setting. Further research should concentrate on the utility of the game throughout longer periods of the workday and over extended periods of time.
A GRAPHICAL JUDGMENTAL AID WHICH SUMMARIZES OBTAINED AND CHANCE RELIABILITY DATA AND HELPS ASSESS THE BELIEV ABILITY OF EXPERIMENTAL EFFECTS
Authors: Birkimer John C. , Brown Joseph H.
Published: March 2006

Interval by interval reliability has been criticized for “inflating” observer agreement when target behavior rates are very low or very high. Scored interval reliability and its converse, unscored interval reliability, however, vary as target behavior rates vary when observer disagreement rates are constant. These problems, along with the existence of “chance” values of each reliability which also vary as a function of response rate, may cause researchers and consumers difficulty in interpreting observer agreement measures. Because each of these reliabilities essentially compares observer disagreements to a different base, it is suggested that the disagreement rate itself be the first measure of agreement examined, and its magnitude relative to occurrence and to nonoccurrence agreements then be considered. This is easily done via a graphic presentation of the disagreement range as a bandwidth around reported rates of target behavior. Such a graphic presentation summarizes all the information collected during reliability assessments and permits visual determination of each of the three reliabilities. In addition, graphing the “chance” disagreement range around the bandwidth permits easy determination of whether or not true observer agreement has likely been demonstrated. Finally, the limits of the disagreement bandwidth help assess the believability of claimed experimental effects: those leaving no overlap between disagreement ranges are probably believable, others are not.
BEHAVIORAL MANAGEMENT OF EXERCISE: CONTRACTING FOR AEROBIC POINTS
Authors: Wysocki Tim , Hall Genae , Iwata Brian , Riordan Mary
Published: March 2006

Behavioral contracting was used to encourage physical exercise among college students in a multiple‐baseline design. Subjects deposited items of personal value with the experimenters, which they could earn back on fulfillment of two types of contract contingencies. Subjects selected weekly aerobic point criteria, which they could fulfill by exercising in the presence of other subjects. In addition, subjects contracted to observe and record the exercise of other subjects and to perform an independent reliability observation once each week, with both of these activities monitored by the experimenters. Results indicated that the contract contingencies produced increases in the number of aerobic points earned per week for seven of eight subjects, that the aerobic point system possesses several advantages as a dependent variable for behavioral research on exercise, and that inexperienced observers could be quickly trained to observe exercise behavior and to translate those observations into their aerobic point equivalents. Finally, in a followup questionnaire completed 12 months after the end of the study, seven of the eight subjects reported that they were earning more aerobic points per week than had been the case during the baseline condition of this experiment.
RELIABILITY IN THE CONTEXT OF THE EXPERIMENT: A Commentary on Two Articles by Birkimer and Brown
Authors: Yelton Ann Rubinsohn
Published: March 2006

Two sources of variability must each be considered when examining change in level between two sets of data obtained by human observers; namely, variance within data sets (phases) and variability attributed to each data point (reliability). Birkimer and Brown (1979a, 1979b) have suggested that both chance levels and disagreement bands be considered in examining observer reliability and have made both methods more accessible to researchers. By clarifying and extending Birkimer and Brown's papers, a system is developed using observer agreement to determine the data point variability and thus to check the adequacy of obtained data within the experimental context.
THE QUANTITY AND QUALITY OF MARITAL INTERACTION RELATED TO MARITAL SATISFACTION: A BEHAVIORAL ANALYSIS
Authors: Williams Ann Marie
Published: March 2006

An assessment instrument is presented for the evaluation of the quantity and quality of dyadic interaction, as well as for the daily recording of behaviors presented and omitted which influence marital satisfaction. Comparison of data from ten happy couples and from ten couples entering therapy indicated two distinct dysfunctional patterns among distressed couples, with significantly different patterns of time‐together and positive/negative ratios differentiating the happy versus therapy groups. Independent behavioral recording for 14 consecutive days significantly increased husband‐wife agreement on a traditional adjustment questionnaire without significantly increasing or decreasing the level of satisfaction being assessed. There was no difference between groups as to interspousal agreement on amount of time together. However, the happy couples agreed on daily quality ratings of the 72 15‐minute segments significantly more often than did the distressed couples. Couples at the extremes of the happy‐distressed continuum reported rewarding and punishing, respectively, in response to the partners presence, regardless of behaviors emitted. Midrange happy couples defined “pleasant” as positive behaviors presented; midrange distressed couples defined “pleasant” as negative behaviors omitted. Theoretical and clinical implications of behavioral analysis of sequential patterns are discussed.
MULTIVARIATE ASSESSMENT OF CONFLICT IN DISTRESSED AND NONDISTRESSED MOTHER‐ADOLESCENT DYADS
Authors: Prinz Ronald J. , Foster Sharon , Kent Ronald N. , O'Leary K. Daniel
Published: March 2006

A battery of measures was used to assess conflict between mothers and young adolescents (females and males, 11 to 15 years of age). Two groups of families, one composed of a distressed clinical sample (N = 38), the other a nondistressed normative sample (N = 40), participated. The assessment battery included retrospective judgments, frequency estimates, self‐monitored home recording, and tape‐recorded discussion of a home problem. Content of assessment measures tapped aspects of parental control, decisionmaking, self‐reported interaction behavior, arguments, interaction behavior rated by independent “blind” observers, frequency and anger‐intensity of specific problematic issues, and perceptions of positive and negative behaviors of the other family member. Based on univariate analyses, 21 of the 26 defined variables discriminated significantly in the predicted direction. Maternal and adolescent reports of behavior and independent ratings of tape‐recorded interaction emerged as strong and consistent discriminators. Stepwise multivariate discriminant analysis provided successful classification of 100% of the families based on the inclusion of nine variables. In a cross‐validation sample, 84% of the families were correctly classified. Implications for systematic outcome research as well as clinical application are discussed.
ANALYSIS OF THE CONSISTENCY OF OBJECTIVE MEASURES OF SEXUAL AROUSAL IN WOMEN
Authors: Henson Donald E. , Rubin H. B. , Henson Claudia
Published: March 2006

Eight adult women volunteers viewed the same erotic film in two different sessions. Their resulting genital responses were recorded simultaneously by three different measures: vaginal pressure pulse, vaginal blood volume, and labial temperature change. During the erotic stimulation, the vaginal pressure pulse and labial responses always increased, and the vaginal blood volume response increased on all but two occasions. Although there was considerable intersubject variability in each genital measure, all three measures were found to have some intrasubject consistency over sessions with respect to either their response amplitudes or patterns, with labial temperature being the most consistent on both parameters. The relationship between the response patterns of the three measures during the film was also relatively consistent across sessions, as was the correspondence between subjective ratings of arousal and both vaginal pressure pulse and labial responses but not vaginal blood volume response. To overcome the problem of considerable intrasubject variability of response amplitudes, it was suggested that the inclusion in the data analysis of several parameters of response patterns, which were relatively stable over sessions, might facilitate the evaluation of a treatment.
TEACHING MENTALLY RETARDED ADULTS TO TIME‐MANAGE IN A VOCATIONAL SETTING
Authors: Sowers Jo‐Ann , Rusch Frank R. , Connis Richard T. , Cummings Linda E.
Published: March 2006

Three retarded adults who had minimal ability to tell time were trained to “time‐manage.” Each was given a card with clock face representations on which the hands of the clock were drawn, representing each trainee's assigned lunch and break times. Instruction was given before work to perform each of the required behaviors when the “real” clock matched the clock faces. Praise was given following correct responses, and reprimands, instruction, and, in some instances, delay or omission of the scheduled activity followed incorrect responses. Pre‐instruction and instructional feedback were then sequentially withdrawn. Results indicated that the package consisting of pre‐instruction, instructional feedback, and picture cues was effective in producing independent time management responding. When the first two components were withdrawn, two trainees maintained high levels of correct responding. Correct responding decreased for one trainee when pre‐instruction was withdrawn. Reintroduction and subsequent withdrawal of the components resulted in maintenance by this trainee. Little improvement in time‐telling ability resulted.
ENHANCING SOCIAL INTERACTIONS AND ACTIVITY AMONG THE ELDERLY THROUGH STIMULUS CONTROL
Authors: Quattrochi‐Tubin Susan , Jason Leonard A.
Published: March 2006

The present study investigated the effectiveness of a stimulus control procedure (access to free coffee and cookies) in increasing attendance and interactions among elderly in a lounge area of a nursing home. Following a baseline period, residents were provided access to coffee and cookies. The results showed that the refreshments were effective in increasing attendance and interactions and in decreasing television watching. In addition, attendance and participation during a subsequent activity session increased. Attendance, interactions, and participation decreased during a return to baseline period, and increased again with reimplementation of treatment.
AN EVALUATION OF THREE LITTER CONTROL PROCEDURES—TRASH RECEPTACLES, PAID WORKERS, AND THE MARKED ITEM TECHNIQUE
Authors: Bacon‐Prue Ansley , Blount Ronald , Pickering David , Drabman Ronald
Published: March 2006

This study assessed the effectiveness of three litter control procedures on the grounds of a residential retardation facility. Fifty‐seven areas were divided into five groups according to the amount of litter they contained. Daily litter counts were made in one randomly chosen area for four of the groups and weekly litter counts were made from one randomly chosen area from the fifth group. After the baseline period, trash receptacles were placed at high traffic areas on the grounds of the facility. This was followed by the payment of two resident workers for picking up trash. In the next phase, marked pieces of litter were placed on the grounds, and residents voluntarily collected litter and turned it in at a central location. When a marked piece was turned in, that resident received $1.00 and had his or her picture taken and posted. This phase was followed by a return to the trash receptacles phase and then a return to the marked item phase. The results indicated that the marked item procedure was effective in reducing the amount of litter on the campus grounds, but the use of trash receptacles and the payment of resident workers for picking up litter did not noticeably reduce the amount of litter. The results are discussed in terms of the cost effectiveness of the procedures.
APPLICATION OF A SOCIAL SKILLS TRAINING PROGRAM IN THE MODIFICATION OF INTERPERSONAL DEFICITS AMONG RETARDED ADULTS: A CLINICAL REPLICATION
Authors: Bornstein Philip H. , Bach Paul J. , McFall Miles E. , Friman Patrick C. , Lyons Patricia D.
Published: March 2006

Six mentally retarded adults, equally divided into two treatment groups, were provided with individualized social skills training programs. Treatment, evaluated via a multiple‐baseline design strategy, was sequentially and cumulatively applied across target behaviors over a four‐week intervention period. Behavioral observation probes and social validation measures served as the primary dependent variables. Results indicated that (a) treatment was effective for virtually all behaviors across all subjects, (b) improvements occurred for both training and generalization scenes, and (c) behavioral performance was maintained one month following the termination of treatment.
THE RELATION BETWEEN CHOOSING AND WORKING PREVOCATIONAL TASKS IN TWO SEVERELY RETARDED YOUNG ADULTS
Authors: Mithaug Dennis E. , Mar Deanna K.
Published: March 2006

This study investigated the relation between prevocational preference, as measured by the client's selection of a task object, and the work that followed that choice. After selecting a task object, the clients worked a task previously assessed to be more or less preferred than the one indicated by the object. The results indicated that when the selection represented a task that was less preferred than the one actually worked, choices for that object increased on subsequent trials. Conversely, when the selection represented a task that was more preferred than the task subject actually worked, choices for the object decreased on subsequent trials. The work that followed object choices reinforced or punished subsequent selections. These findings indicated that the clients' object choices were valid indicators of their preference for working different tasks. They were also consistent with Premack's principle that one class of responses may reinforce or punish a different class of responses for the same individual.
A SUPERVISORY STRATEGY TO IMPROVE WORK PERFORMANCE FOR LOWER FUNCTIONING RETARDED CLIENTS IN A SHELTERED WORKSHOP
Authors: Martin Garry , Pallotta‐Cornick Angela , Johnstone Gail , Goyos A. Celso
Published: March 2006

A multiple component strategy was investigated for aiding staff responsible for supervising production of lower functioning retarded clients on contract tasks in an institution‐based sheltered workshop. The strategy was assessed in a combined multi‐element, multiple baseline across groups design with a reversal component. Production performance increased during the production supervisory strategy with all 16 clients, with the range of increase varying from a few percentage points to 150% of baseline production. Both the clients and staff (responsible for conducting the research) preferred working under experimental conditions rather than under baseline conditions which approximated those found in “typical” sheltered workshops.
THE INSULAR MOTHER: HER PROBLEMS IN PARENT‐CHILD TREATMENT
Authors: Wahler Robert G.
Published: March 2006

Eighteen mother‐child dyads were referred for psychological help because of the children's oppositional behaviors and the mothers' aversive reactions to the children. All dyads were from low income families in which the mothers reported themselves to be relatively isolated from social contact in their communities. Following a baseline phase, the mothers were trained to modify their children's oppositional behaviors through time out and a point system. Fourteen of the dyads were observed in three phases of the study: baseline, parent training or treatment, and a 1‐year follow‐up period. In Phases one and two, child opposition and mother aversive reactions to the children were measured twice weekly by professional observers in the home settings. During Phase three (follow‐up), these observations occurred twice per month. In addition, the mothers' self‐reported contacts with people in their communities were obtained immediately after each observation. Results showed significant improvement in the mother‐child problems during the parent training or treatment phase. However, the problems returned to baseline levels of occurrence during the follow‐up phase. The self‐report findings indicated that number of mother contacts with friends was an inverse predictor of these problems. On days marked by high proportions of friend contacts, mother‐child problems were lower in frequency than on days marked by low proportions of friend contacts. These correlational findings were taken to suggest that a mother's extra‐family social contacts may influence her child interaction patterns at home. This possibility was discussed as a factor in the long‐term success of parent training as a treatment strategy.
BEHAVIORAL AND STIMULANT TREATMENT OF HYPERACTIVE CHILDREN: A THERAPY STUDY WITH METHYLPHENIDATE PROBES IN A WITHIN‐SUBJECT DESIGN
Authors: Pelham William E. , Schnedler Robert W. , Bologna Nancy C. , Contreras J. Anthony
Published: March 2006

Eight hyperactive children were treated with a behavioral intervention focusing on teacher and parent training over a period of 5 months. Three times, before therapy and after 3 weeks and 13 weeks of intervention, children received methylphenidate during 3‐week probe periods. Each week in a probe they received either a placebo, .25 mg/kg, or .75 mg/kg methylphenidate. Classroom observations of on‐task behavior suggested that effectiveness of the behavioral intervention was between that of the two dosages of medication before therapy. Both dosages resulted in higher levels of on‐task behavior when administered after 13 weeks of behavioral intervention than when administered before therapy. Teacher rating data showed equivalent effects of therapy and the low dosage of methylphenidate alone but a stronger effect of the high dose alone; only the high dose resulted in improved behavior after 13 weeks of behavioral intervention. As a group, only when they received the high dose of methylphenidate after 13 weeks of behavioral intervention did children reach the level of appropriate behavior shown by nonhyperactive controls. However, this level was also reached by two children with the low dose and by one child without medication, and it was not reached by one child. The results suggest that the combination of psychostimulant medication and behavior therapy may be more effective in the short‐term than either treatment alone for hyperactive children in school settings. In addition, parent ratings and clinic observation of parent‐child interactions suggested that children had improved in the home setting, highlighting the importance of behavioral parent training in the treatment of hyperactivity.