bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Isometric Strength Tests: Predicting Performance in Physically Demanding Transport Tasks
Authors: Laughery Kenneth R. , Jackson Andrew S. , Fontenelle Gail A.
Published: January 2009

A study explored the applicability of a battery of four isometric strength tests to steward, utility and warehouse jobs in a company that services offshore drilling and production facilities in the petroleum industry. The jobs involve frequently transporting materials up stairs, a category of tasks not prominent in situations where these tests have previously been applied. A job analysis established critical task requirements such as procedures, weights, distances, sizes of containers, etc. An experiment was then carried out with 25 male and 25 female subjects. The subjects performed two self-paced job-related tasks: transporting a 15.9 kg box up and down stairs and similarly transporting a 22.7 kg box. Measures included heart rate and amount of work performed, which, along with known task parameters, was used to calculate work power. Subjects also performed four standard isometric strength tests: grip, arm lift, back lift and arm press. Correlations between job task and strength performance indicated these tests are applicable to jobs with such requirements, thus extending the generalizability of the strength test battery.
Manual Materials Handling in Unusual Postures: Carrying of Loads
Authors: Ayoub M. M. , Smith J. L.
Published: January 2009

Carrying capacity of individuals was established for four height constrained postures: unconstrained, upright walking, walking in a semi-stooped posture (at 80% of standing height), walking in a full-stooped posture (at 60% of standing height), and crawling (at 40% of standing height). A dynamic strength test, the isoinertial elbow height lift was used to develop prediction models for each of the carrying activities. Carrying capacity decreased as ceiling height decreased. On the average, females handled slightly over 50% of what the males handled under the given task conditions.
Toward Electronic Work Design
Authors: Lee Yung-Hui T.
Published: January 2009

The dynamic behavior of a musculoskeletal link system in manual lifting is simulated by a mathematical model which contains a non-linear objective function and a set of linear, as well as non-linear constraints. The model was developed based upon the hypothesis that an individual performs the lifting motion following the principle of minimizing mechanical work done. The simulation model demonstrated that the associated differences between the predicted motion and the measured motion is biomechanically feasible and the accuracy is adequate enough with an average U statistics ranging from 0.012 to 0.2 09.
Maximum Load Lifting Capacity of Males and Females in Teamwork
Authors: Karwowski Waldemar
Published: January 2009

The main objective of this study was to determine the maximum permissible load lifting capacity (MLCT) of males and females working in teams of two persons. On the average, the maximum capacity of the two-people teams for infrequent lifting of compact loads from floor to the bench height of 89 [cm] was about 105 Kg for young males, and 76 Kg for young females. The ratio between the maximum capacity for a team of two males versus two females, defined as (female/male x 100) was 69.6% (S.D.=11.06%) with a range from 49.1% to 88.0%. It was proposed that when lifting in teams of two people, the majority of population (95%) should not be required to handle more than 83 Kg for males and 63 Kg for females.
Shiftwork and Industrial Injuries at a Chemical Plant in South-East Texas
Authors: Novak R.D. , Smolensky M.H.
Published: January 2009

A historical retrospective study of 242 shiftworker (SW) and 224 non-shiftworker (NSW) injuries at a chemical manufacturing plant in southeast Texas was performed. The shiftworker schedule comprised an 8-hour, 7-day backward rotation program, while the NSW schedule consisted of a normal 40-hour work week. Injury records were matched against payroll/attendance records to enhance the probability of isolating possible effects of the shiftwork rotation schedule on the rates, distribution and severity of injuries. For SW injuries, analysis by chi-square comparing day worked into shift with shift rota indicated that the occurrence of an injury, the day worked into each shift and the rota were associated. For the period studied, SW's had more confirmed injuries during the first 4 days of day and night shift than during the evening shift. Female SWs had a significantly higher reported injury incidence rate than did male SWs while maintaining a similar distribution of injury severity ratings. Among NSWs, injury incidence rates were not significantly different between males and females. The number of injuries were not found to vary significantly by clock hour during each shift but did decrease on the average as the shift worked occurred later in the day. It was believed that the rotation direction and reduced number of hours off during evening-day and day-night shift changes may have contributed to the differences in the distribution of injuries for shiftworkers.
Time-of-Day Variations in the Severity of Injuries Suffered by Mine Shiftworkers
Authors: Wagner Jon A.
Published: January 2009

One means of assessing the hazard risk associated with mine work is to study the severity of injuries that occur during the course of the workday. Of special interest is the accident risk inherent in night work and rotating shiftwork. To better understand this risk, the Bureau of Mines conducted a study of accidents that occurred during a 10-year period in the taconite (iron) mining operations of the U.S. Lake Superior iron ore region. In general, accidents that occurred during the night shift resulted in more days lost per accident, compared with either the day or afternoon shifts. To control for the possibility of different accident types occurring on different shifts, part of this study focused on accidents involving equipment operation. Again, night shift accidents were shown to be significantly more severe than on the other two shifts. These results implicate work performance during night hours as being relatively impaired, perhaps due to lowered states of psychophysiological arousal, coupled with the handicap of operating in a darkened environment.
The Older Driver — A Challenge to the Design of Automotive Electronic Displays
Authors: Rockwell T.H. , Augsburger Arol , Smith Stanley W. , Freeman Scott
Published: January 2009

Older drivers present unique challenges to the display designer. Approximately 30 percent of all drivers in the U.S. are over 50 years of age. Visual impairment, e.g., presbyopia, begins after 40. After age 55, approximately 91 percent of the population use bifocals. Unfortunately, bifocals with significant add power create zones of decreased acuity in the critical instrument panel viewing distances of 500–800 mm.

In this paper, the demands for vision in driving are related to the special visual disabilities associated with the older driver, such as increased sensitivity to glare, high contrast ratio blurring of electronic displays and increased time for target recognition. A computer legibility model is presented to relate the principal factors in design, namely character height and width, viewing distance, contrast ratio and background luminance with legibility impairment associated with various age groups. Implications of model predictions to display design are discussed.
Comparing Ease-of-Use of Steering Wheel-Mounted and Conventional Radio Controls
Authors: Farber Eugene , Salata Susan
Published: January 2009

A study was conducted to compare driver performance with a limited set of steering wheel-mounted and conventional panel-mounted radio controls. The study was conducted with subjects driving under actual freeway traffic conditions. Drivers took less time to locate and use the wheel-mounted controls, had less eyes-off-the-road time and made fewer errors with them than with the conventional controls.
Selling Ease of Use: Human Factors Partnerships with Marketing
Authors: Wichansky Anna M. , Abernethy Charles N. , Kotsonis Miriam E. , Antonelli D.C. , Mitchell Peter P.
Published: January 2009

As customer demand surges for products which are easy to use, human factors and marketing professionals are working together more frequently. The purpose of this panel is to discuss ways in which human factors and marketing can interact to provide and promote usability. Panelists will share their successes and failures in working with marketing by describing case studies of collaborative work. The pros and cons of joint efforts will be discussed in a moderated question and answer format with audience participation. Brad Woolsey of Parallax Marketing Research will be a discussant.
A Model for Describing Performance and Productivity
Authors: Rohles Frederick H.
Published: January 2009

A model for describing performance and productivity is presented as an equation in which Performance (P) is equal to the product of basic skills or ability (A) and motivation or drive (D), plus an oscillatory factor (O) which consists of five variables: selection, supervision, communication, training, and environment. Emphasis is placed on the multiplicative function of ability and drive and explains how highly motivated persons of average ability can exhibit better performance than individuals with the same ability who are poorly motivated. Implications for the human factors community, as it relates to the oscillatory factors, are discussed.
Human Factors Applications to Health Care Systems
Authors: Meadows Susan
Published: January 2009

This demonstration program shows how human factors design and evaluation principles can be applied to the area of medical device and healthcare systems. The objective is to provide examples of evaluations and new designs for healthcare products which reduce human error and improve medical devices and instructional materials. International performance and design standards incorporating human factors principles are gaining more attention because of the efforts of the European medical device industry to standardize products.
Computer-Based Simulation of a Human Falling on a Stairway
Authors: Boulet J. A. M. , Templer J. A. , Hanagud S.
Published: January 2009

A numerical simulation of a mathematical model of a human falling (plane motion) down a stairway is described. The simulation begins with an arbitrary initial state of the falling object, and numerically integrates equations of motion for the object as it falls and repeatedly strikes the stairway. Realistic simulation requires the use of nonlinear resistance to join rotations. This nonlinearity is being investigated.
Development of Standardized Test Techniques for Materials that are Capable of Reducing Injuries during Stairway Falls
Authors: Hanagud S. , Templer J. A. , Cummerford K. E. , Boulet T.
Published: January 2009

In this paper, research work leading to the development of standardized test techniques for energy absorbing material are discussed. The classification of energy absorbing material is related to the prevention of impact injuries resulting from stairway falls. Standardized tests and their usefulness to a stairway designer are discussed.
Developing a Voluntary Safety Standard for Step Stools
Authors: Loring Beth A.
Published: January 2009

American Institutes for Research (AIR) assisted the Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) to identify the human factors issues that should be addressed in a forthcoming voluntary safety standard for step stools. According to CPSC data, older people, children, and women of all ages are over-represented in step stool accidents. We studied the accident scenarios, recommended requirements for step stools, and evaluated the completeness of a draft of the standard with respect to user interaction.
Sentence Orientation and Semantic Processing Speed: Applicability to Label Design
Authors: Brown Tony J. , Salvador Anthony , O'Hearn Brian E. , Anderson Jane E.
Published: January 2009

Sentence orientation and category size were examined using a sentence verification task to determine whether the rotation of sentences would influence semantic processing. A total of 28 participants were asked to read sentences presented with five levels of rotation (−90, −45, 0, +45, +90) and two category sizes (small & large). A significant difference in the speed of sentence verification was found for sentence orientation. As the degree of rotation increased the time taken to process the sentences increased; this was especially true for vertically aligned sentences (oriented at ±90 degrees). The category size variable did not yield a significant main effect. The findings of this study may have direct implications for the positioning of labels on consumer products with varying orientations.
Reduced Keyboard Designs Using Disambiguation
Authors: Kreifeldt J. G. , Levine S. L. , Iyengar C.
Published: January 2009

There are a number of important applications where the accuracy of typed copy is less important than other criteria, such as the speed of entry, ease of learning, reduced keyboard size, provision for innovative keyboard designs and work methods, etc. Some of these applications include communication devices for the motor handicapped and rough drafting. The applications in question still provide single finger typing as opposed to multifinger entries for chord keyboards.

One approach to keyboard design for such applications involves using a multicharacter key set. Because there is more than one character on a key, the number of keys can be reduced to a point limited only by the required accuracy of the text produced which is itself limited by the ability of “disambiguation” algorithms to decode the ambiguous text strings. Reducing the number of keys increases text entry rates and reduces learning time.

Experiments with keysets of 10, 12, 14, and 16 keys have produced keystroke rates of 3.3 to 1.7 characters per second and a 6% keying error while the disambiguation programs can produce an accuracy of 85 to 95%. Learning time in the experiments was about 9 to 12 minutes.

The experiments demonstrate the feasibility of increasing text entry rates and freeing the keyboard from architectural constraints.
Riding Mower Control Placement Guideline Development
Authors: Heasly Christopher C. , Perse Randy M. , Malone Thomas B. , Fleger Stephen A.
Published: January 2009

Accident investigations and subsequent hazard analysis studies of power mower accidents conducted by the Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC), indicated that the current version of the American National Standard for Turf Care Equipment - Power Lawn Mowers, Lawn and Garden Tractors, and Lawn Tractors - Safety Specifications (ANSI/OPEI B71.1-1986) might benefit from review and/or revision. The analyses indicated control activation, placement and/or operation may have contributed to a number of the accidents reviewed. Accordingly, special emphasis was to be focused on review of Part III: Ride-On Mowers, Lawn Tractors, and Lawn and Garden Tractors, paragraph 13., Controls.

This paper describes the approach utilized in development of the inputs to update ANSI/OPEI B71.1-1986. Additionally, the paper describes a brief overview of the voluntary standard review/acceptance process.
Datahand: Design, Potential Performance, and Improvements in the Computer Keyboard and Mouse
Authors: Knight Leland W. , Retter Dale
Published: January 2009

This paper presents the design and preliminary evaluation of a new computer key and spatial entry system called Datahand. It is intended to improve human-to-computer data entry and control, as well as providing possible reduction of five major identifiable problems with conventional keyboards which subject operator to injury. The overall physical form of this product, its keys, and their organization, are unique in shape and function. Such a departure from traditional keyboards has presented an opportunity to consider new approaches to hand position, key design, spatial control and function. Preliminary empirical results from first users are covered in this paper.
Knurls on Pop Bottle Lids
Authors: Konz Stephan , Ravishankar H.
Published: January 2009

Do knurls improve torque capability? A “pop-bottle” size lid (28 mm diameter, 15 mm high) was varied with six designs: 1) a smooth lid, 2) a lid with 13 knurls/cm, 3) a lid with 7.9 knurls/cm, 4) a lid with 3.9 knurls/cm, 5) a lid with 3.9 knurls/cm but for only 4 mm of height, and 6) a lid with 2 protrusions (“radiator type”). The 18 subjects rotated each lid. Using the smooth lid torque of 1.49 Nm as 100%, the lid with 7.9 knurls/cm had 170%, the radiator type had 164%, the 13 knurls/cm had 163%, the 3.9 knurls/cm had 141%, and the 3.9 knurls/cm for only 4 mm had 110%.
Effects of Warning Explicitness on Product Perceptions
Authors: Laughery Kenneth R. , Stanush Julie A.
Published: January 2009

A common assumption of manufacturers is that explicit warning labels will deter consumers from purchasing products. This study explored people's reactions to explicit and nonexplicit warning labels, where explicitness refers to how specifically the potential injury consequences were described. 108 subjects completed a 12-item questionnaire for each of nine familiar consumer products. The questions covered the severity of potential injury, product familiarity, product hazards and dangerousness, manufacturer's concerns, and potential purchasing decisions. Results suggest that products are perceived as more dangerous and related injuries as more severe when warnings are explicit. Also, with explicit warnings subjects report that they better understand the hazards, that they are being provided with all the necessary safety information, and that manufacturers are more concerned about safety. There was no clear indication that more explicit warnings either deter people from purchasing a product or increase the likelihood of a purchase.
Some Uses of Experimental Techniques in Forensic Human Factors
Authors: Leonard S. David , Karnes Edward W.
Published: January 2009

Human factors experts in forensic practice are asked to analyze in post hoc fashion the effects of designs and warnings (or lack thereof) on occurrence and seriousness of accidents. Application of human factors principles in producing more adequate designs can provide evidence about whether or not an original design was faulty. The best test of the difference is an experimental one. Experiments were conducted dealing with warnings associated with freon, boxing headgear, and polio vaccine. The results indicate the usefulness of such procedures for confirming experts' opinions. The discussion includes consideration of the importance of testing all warnings for comprehensibility.
Effects of Post-exposure Description and Imaging on Subsequent Face Recognition Performance
Authors: Wogalter Michael S.
Published: January 2009

After viewing a crime, witnesses are frequently asked by police investigators to give a verbal description of the perpetrator. At a later time, witnesses may be asked to try to recognize the perpetrator in a lineup or a mugfile. The purpose of this research was to determine whether performance on a later recognition test is influenced by an earlier verbal description test of the target. Participants viewed six target faces, and after each, performed one of four post-exposure activities. Two were verbal description tasks. The descriptor checklist task had participants indicate, using a list of potential adjectives, those descriptors that best described the most recently seen face. The descriptor generate task had participants recall descriptors that best described the most recently seen face. Both description tasks were accomplished using a questionnaire that was identical except for the presence or absence of specific adjectives. Other participants were instructed to image the target face or they performed an irrelevant task during the post-exposure period. In a later recognition test, participants tried to find the targets in a set of faces containing 134 distractors. The results showed that participants using the checklist produced lower performance on the recognition test than participants who generated their own descriptors. Imaging produced the highest recognition performance but was not significantly different from the irrelevant condition. The recognition decrement of the descriptor checklist is explained in terms of interference caused by the presence of irrelevant face descriptors that added noise to participants' memory of the targets. Implications for testing witness memory by police investigators are discussed. For example, if verbal descriptions of faces are requested from eyewitnesses, descriptor recall may be preferred over a descriptor recognition because the former task does not degrade later recognition of the perpetrator.
Air Traffic Control Facility Lighting
Authors: Krois Paul A. , Lenorovitz David R. , McKeon Patrick S. , Snyder Christine A. , Tobey Wayne K. , Bashinski Howard S.
Published: January 2009

In conjunction with the current upgrade of the FAA's Air Traffic Control (ATC) system, significant effort has been devoted to identifying an appropriate facility lighting design. The new ATC environment will entail more extensive and intensive use of computer displays than in the current system. Studies of facility lighting techniques were performed, validating the relative advantages of indirect lighting versus direct lighting, examining proper illumination levels, and identifying appropriate positioning of luminaires.
A “Walk through” Ergonomic Analysis of a National Resort Hotel as a Conference Facility
Authors: McVey G. F. , Parsons H. McIlvaine
Published: January 2009

During the last annual meeting of the Human Factors Society, two members of the Environmental Design Technical Group conducted a “walk through” ergonomic analysis of the national resort hotel which hosted the event. Their report included observations and analyses of some of the hotels services and facilities and their impact on the conferees' stay and on their attendance and participation in the conference sessions. Recommendations for corrective remodelling, function allocation, and improvements in service were noted where deemed appropriate.
Children's Human Factors in the Design of a Pre-School Educational Furnishings System
Authors: Wise Barbara K. , Wise James A.
Published: January 2009

This paper describes the Human Factors design basis of an innovative educational furnishings system developed for the “Head Start Classroom of the Future”. The Human Factors contributions centered on:

— the ergonomics of pre-school children, including sizing, reach, visual access and ability to manipulate the furnishings elements, — safety and hazards analyses for the construction of furnishings, materials and surface finishes selection, — design for children-computer interactions through a new type of computer furniture, — development of a ‘cognitive ergonomics’ for educational furnishings that assess how these support planned activities and opportunistic discovery play.

The furnishings system is analogous to office landscaping systems that are flexible, modular in nature and adaptable to different facility settings. It is called a “Learning Landscape”, and it helps the classroom become a true active partner in the learning process
Spatial Orientation and Wayfinding in Airport Passenger Terminals: Implications for Environmental Design
Authors: Andre Anthony D. , Koonce Jefferson M.
Published: January 2009

Passengers and visitors of our nation's major airports often encounter problems of spatial orientation and wayfinding. The present study used a multiple method strategy to determine the sources of guidance information that passengers deem most important, how successful those sources are, and what design qualities facilitate or inhibit their effectiveness. The results are consistent with established theories of human navigation and spatial cognition, and are used to generate specific guidelines for effective redesign.
Use of Microcomputers in Teaching Human Factors in Aviation
Authors: Moroney William F.
Published: January 2009

With the declining cost of and the increasing capability of today's microcomputers and computer software, the time seems appropriate for a symposium on the use of computers in the teaching of human factors. For the purpose of this annual meeting the scope has been limited to the teaching of human factors in aviation using general purpose microcomputer systems (IBM PCs or compatible, including a hard drive, EGA or VGA graphics card and a color monitor) in combination with specific hardware and software, which cost no more than two hundred and fifty dollars.
Evaluation of Potential Safety Modifications by Review of Accident Reports
Authors: Ayres Thomas J. , Gross Madeleine M. , Fowler Graeme , McCarthy Roger L. , Kalinowski Ann , Lau Edmund
Published: January 2009

Analysis of accident data for consumer products can be used to identify accident modes and to aid in decisions about the feasibility of safety interventions for reducing risk. Decisions based upon a large accident data set, rather than upon a single accident, are much more likely to address important problems and to avoid creating negative consequences (e.g., increases in other kinds of accidents, loss in product utility). This paper describes the application of accident report analysis to a proposed safety intervention for all-terrain vehicles (ATVs). In order to evaluate the suggested use of conspicuity flags as standard equipment on all ATVs to prevent collision-related accidents, we reviewed 287 operating-ATV-associated “In-Depth Investigations” (conducted by the Consumer Product Safety Commission for ATV-associated injuries reported by the National Electronic Injury Surveillance System during a 2.5 month period in 1985). It was found that flags could have influenced only a very small portion of ATV injuries at best, and might even have a null or negative net impact when problems are considered. Thus, required usage of flags would be inappropriate for most riding environments.
Alcohol Beverage Warnings in Print Advertisements
Authors: Barlow Todd , Wogalter Michael S.
Published: January 2009

This experiment investigated the impact of warnings in alcoholic beverage advertising by embedding warnings in print (magazine) advertisements. Warning conspicuity (size and contrast) and shape (plain rectangle, rectangle with signal icon, and circle/arrow) were manipulated. Under the assumption that the research was a marketing study concerned with print media, participants paged through a simulated magazine and evaluated each page on its visual appeal. Later they were given an unexpected memory test on the content, location, and configuration of the warnings. The results showed that information in highly conspicuous (larger, higher contrast) warnings was remembered better than in less conspicuous warnings, and that warning advertisements can communicate information about the hazards of alcohol consumption. Implications of the results are discussed, including their applicability to warnings for other kinds of consumer products advertised in the print medium.
Automated Machines Designed to Interface with the Extremely Resistant Population
Authors: Abedini Kamran
Published: January 2009

Automated machines facing the general public's daily life (i.e., ATMs) have become common elements of environments. Even with the continued growth, some institutions still find it difficult to get more than half of their customers to use the machine regularly. This paper presents an optimized interface for an automated teller machine designed to attract even the extremely resistant user. To accomplish this task, information was gathered from non ATM users in addition to the regular customers of such machines. Several existing machines were critiqued based on the needs of non ATM users in addition to the generally accepted human factors criteria. Design solutions were generated for all desirable elements, such as input and output devices characteristics, aesthetics, etc. Designed were tested using the method of pair-comparison, the chosen ATM design is believed to enhance ease of use, accessibility, and overall productivity of such units for virtually the entire spectrum of ATM users.
The New Alcohol Warning Labels: How Noticeable are They?
Authors: Godfrey Sandra S. , Laughery Kenneth R. , Young Stephen L. , Vaubel Kent P. , Brelsford John W. , Laughery Keith A. , Horn Elizabeth
Published: January 2009

An experiment was conducted to assess the effect of various existing warning design factors on the noticeability of warnings on alcoholic beverage containers. One-hundred containers, 50 with warnings and 50 without, were used as stimuli and the time required to determine whether or not a warning was present was recorded. The results indicate that warnings on the front label were found more quickly than warnings appearing in any other location. Also, warnings printed horizontally were found more quickly than warning printed vertically. A regression analysis found that features of the signal word/phrase (“Government Warning”), as well as the amount of “noise” or clutter on the surrounding label, significantly influenced warning detection times. Thus, some of the design features currently used were shown to have an effect on noticeability of warning information. It is suggested that proper manipulation of these features could make the mandated warning more noticeable.
Analysis of Operational Errors and Workload in Air Traffic Control
Authors: Redding Richard E.
Published: January 2009

The Federal Aviation Administration has embarked on a major curriculum redesign effort to improve the training of en route air traffic controllers. Included in this effort was a cognitive task analysis. One component of the task analysis was an analysis of operational errors, to obtain insights into cognitive-perceptual factors contributing to controller decisionmaking error. The data suggest that a failure to maintain situation awareness is the primary cause of controller error. These results highlight the importance of the controller task “maintain situation awareness”, and are consistent with the findings of the other analyses. An approach for training situation awareness skills is presented in relation to models of expertise developed from other analyses: an expert mental model of air traffic control, and a task decomposition listing thirteen primary controller tasks. The findings and training paridigm have implications for training other complex high-performance tasks performed in a real-time, multi-tasking environment.
An Index for Measuring Naval Team Performance
Authors: Dwyer Daniel J.
Published: January 2009

The evaluation of team training within the Navy often relies on instructor assessments of human performance. Often, assessments are subjectively derived and may, therefore, contain biases. Consequently, a method for objectively measuring Navy team performance was developed in an attempt to supplement commonly found subjective assessments. The technique is based upon collecting observable indicators of effective and ineffective behaviors across several critical functions of the anti-air warfare (AAW) team. The effective and ineffective indicators are mathematically combined to form a performance index ranging from 0.00 (low) to 1.00 (high) to reflect the team's overall performance level. The AAW Team Performance Index (ATPI) provides a systematic, consistent, and objective measurement approach linked to specific exercise events. The development and use of the ATPI are described.
Degree of Task Consistency and Maintenance of Skill Level in Semantic Category Visual Search
Authors: Lee Mark D.
Published: January 2009

The present experiment investigated the effect of varying the degree of task consistency on the performance and maintenance of skill in a semantic category visual search task. It is well established that for a wide variety of tasks, skill development is a function of the degree of task consistency. However, the effect of inconsistency on established skills has not been investigated to date. The present experiment included a consistent Training Phase, an Adjusted Consistency Phase, and a Retraining Phase. Subjects were trained for 6,000 Consistently Mapped (CM) trials on two different categories. Subjects then performed 4,000 trials in which one of the previously trained categories remained 100% consistent, while the other category became either 100, 67, 50, or 33% consistent. Task consistency was then restored and participants performed another 4,200 CM trials. The Retraining Phase included a New CM category. Results indicated that performance was disrupted by inconsistency, and that disruption increased as consistency decreased. Upon the return of task consistency, performance improved rapidly, although some performance disruption was still evident. The results are discussed in terms of visual search theories, and for their relation to training design.
Measuring Process in Team Performance and Training
Authors: Zalesny Mary D
Published: January 2009

What if we took seriously the fact that team performance is not synonymous with individual performance? Although teams appear to be the new workhorses of economic and social goal accomplishment, the processes by which they accomplish their goals remains relatively unexplicated and not well understood. In this paper, we argue that coordination is an important unifying construct for defining, measuring, researching, and training effective team performance.
Simulation and Analysis of Perceptual-Motor Skill Training
Authors: Fisher Donald L. , Wisher Robert A. , Townsend James T. , Sabol Mark A.
Published: January 2009

This paper examines the application of order-or-processing networks to the simulation of performance of a complex skill, the copying of high-speed Morse code. A sequence of processing stages and memory buffers is described that is presumed, on the basis of earlier work, to represent the task. Two models of this sequence, distinguished by their assumptions regarding concurrent processing of characters, are also presented. Simulations were run on these models to find the parameters that yielded the best fit to performance data from 19 students undergoing the early stages of military Morse code training. The implications of the results to an analysis of early performance and the potential benefits of applying the same technique to data obtained from students late in training are discussed.
A Cognitive Framework for Integrated Embedded Training and Decision Aiding
Authors: Ryder Joan M. , Zaklad Allen L. , Zachary Wayne W. , Purcell Janine A.
Published: January 2009

This research has developed a theoretically-based cognitive model and design framework for Integrated Decision Aiding/Training Embedded Systems (IDATES). Based on a review of empirical studies of noviceexpert differences and of theoretical and computational models of skill acquisition, we defined a three-stage cognitive hierarchy model as the basis for our IDATES framework. The levels of novice, intermediate, and expert are discrete stages which differ along two primary dimensions: problem representation and problem-solving procedure. Both decision aiding and training must be targeted to the problem representation and cognitive processes of the user/trainee. Thus, there must be three levels of decision aiding targeted to novice, intermediate, and expert decision makers. Furthermore, there are two types of training: incremental training to improve performance within each of the three expertise levels, and representational training to elicit a jump to the next higher level of problem representation. Two implications arise from the IDATES cognitive model. First, integrated cognitive/behavioral task analyses are able to drive both the embedded training requirements and the decision aiding requirements, although the three skill levels must be separately addressed. Second, a single integrated architecture can underlie all the decision aiding and embedded training components of a given IDATES application.
Expertise in Air Traffic Control (ATC): What is it, and how Can we Train for It?
Authors: Redding Richard E. , Cannon John R. , Seamster Thomas L.
Published: January 2009

The Federal Aviation Administration has embarked on a major curriculum redesign effort to improve the training efficiency of en route air traffic controllers. Included in this effort was a comprehensive cognitive task analysis conducted in several phases, spanning several years. Eight different types of data collection and analysis procedures were used, resulting in an integrated model of controller expertise. This paper provides a description of controller expertise, and describes the training program under development. This is one of the first examples of cognitive task analysis being applied to study expertise in complex cognitive tasks performed in time-constrained, multi-tasking environments.
Maintaining Subject Motivation in Long-Term Experiments Using Performance Incentives and Penalties
Authors: Fiorita Annette L. , Middendorf Matthew S. , McMillan Grant R.
Published: January 2009

Experienced subjects participated in four consecutive experiments in which they performed a simulated low-level flight task. The study spanned several months, and various motivational techniques were employed with each experiment. Since the task involved low-level flight, accurate altitude control was desirable, and crash rates were of major concern. Based on both verbal and written subject debriefings, it was concluded that (1) providing lists of top scores promoted competition and motivated the subjects to improve their altitude control performance, (2) penalizing scores and negative reinforcement in the form of posted crash lists were effective in reducing crash rates, and (3) monetary awards were a minor source of motivation but were not considered a primary incentive to the subjects.
Secondary Task Assessment of the Workload Associated with Spatial Pattern Search under Automatic and Controlled Processing
Authors: Cooper Brian P. , Eggemeier F. Thomas , Elvers Greg C , Adapathya Ravi S.
Published: January 2009

This experiment investigated the workload associated with both a consistently mapped (CM) and variably mapped (VM) version of a memory/visual search task that required the processing of spatial pattern information representative of that found with some Command and Control (C2) systems. A secondary loading task paradigm which required concurrent performance of an additional spatial pattern search task was employed. The results demonstrated superior dual-task performance relative to single-task baselines on both the primary and secondary tasks when the CM version of the task was performed. The results indicate that the development of automatic processing through training can reduce the workload associated with processing spatial patterns of the type employed by C2 operators.
Combat Effectiveness Measures: An Update
Authors: Connelly Edward , Myers Kent
Published: January 2009

An approach is presented for evaluating the mission effectiveness of combat units. The formal evaluation scheme is unusual in that it works with complex tradeoffs and deals flexibly with the changing conditions of combat. The scheme is centered on an index measure in which many indicators are related through a nonlinear mathematical model. The model mimics the pattern by which an expert evaluator judges whole performance.
The Impact of Trends in Complexity in the Cockpit on Flying Skills and Aircraft Operation
Authors: Lyall Elizabeth A. , Cooper Barry
Published: January 2009

Models of human performance which include concepts of task or procedural complexity have been used to evaluate the design of specific procedures which are dictated either by the airline or the flight environment (such as a specific airport). The procedures and environment as they currently exist can be modeled producing a profile across time of the output variable of the model. The variable that has been of most interest to us is pilot workload. One way in which we are using these modeling procedures is to compare a complex departure procedure with another departure procedure which is considered to be typical of most departures. Pilot workload profiles were obtained for the pilot-flying and the pilot-not-flying for each departure. A comparison was made of the profiles from the two departures and it was indicated that the more complex departure greatly increased the workload of the pilots, especially the pilot-flying. The complex departure procedure was analyzed looking particularly at the requirements that produced large peaks in pilot workload for either pilot, and recommendations are being made for changes to the procedure based on this analysis. The value of using such a modeling procedure in the airline environment will be discussed including other possible application areas.
The Role of Complexity on Retention of Psychomotor and Procedural Skills
Authors: Wisher Robert A.
Published: January 2009

This paper describes the relative effects of task complexity on the retention of a skill over prolonged periods of non use. The paper focuses on the decay of skills and knowledges of the 20,000 reservists called up for active duty during Operation Desert Storm. Reservists were tested upon reentry to determine the extent of skill decay since their release, up to one year, from active. These data were analyzed with multiple regression and analysis of variance techniques. The major findings were: (a) procedural skills and knowledge about Army jobs decayed mostly within six months, but psychomotor skills (weapons qualifications) did not begin decay until ten months; and (b) previous skill qualification score was the best predictor of skill decay followed by aptitude score.
Human Factors and Commercial Vehicle Operations
Authors: Boehm-Davis Deborah A. , Mast Truman M.
Published: January 2009

The Commercial Vehicle Operations (CVO) segment of the IVHS program is targeted at users of interstate trucks, local delivery vans, buses, taxis, and emergency vehicles. Specifically, the goals of the CVO program are to improve (a) the efficiency and effectiveness of traffic management and regulatory administration by government; (b) the efficiency and effectiveness of fleet management; (c) safety for operators of commercial vehicles and others affected by them; and (d) driver performance. Although a number of technologies have been developed to support these goals, the human factors aspects of these systems have not been examined.
Human Factors and Advanced Traffic Management Systems
Authors: Peters Joseph I. , Roberts King M.
Published: January 2009

Advanced Traffic Management Systems (ATMS) are those components of Intelligent Vehicle Highway Systems (IVHS) that integrate traffic detection, communication, and control functions to be responsive to dynamic traffic conditions and increase the efficiency of existing traffic networks. ATMS provide the management foundation that will enable and integrate other IVHS components such as Commercial Vehicle Operations, Advanced Traveler Information Systems, Advanced Vehicle Control Systems, and Advanced Public Transportation Systems. This paper defines Advanced Traffic Management Systems. It also describes the functions that may take place within an ATMS-class Traffic Management Center (TMC), a scenario that a future TMC operator may encounter, and some of the human factors issues that must be addressed in the design of an ATMS-class TMC.
Metaprototyping: System Prototyping for ATC System Development
Authors: Benel Russell A.
Published: January 2009

This paper identifies a significant emerging problem in the definition and development of future ATC system enhancements. Metaprototyping (prototyping at the system level) in the Integration and Interaction Laboratory (I-Lab) will allow the FAA to initiate a new process for RE&D of the future NAS that will support the active involvement of system operators and users. Initial simulation studies have begun and will continue to address interaction among planned, future ATC automation programs in support of the people within the NAS. Preliminary results form these studies and the process for the conduct of metaprototyping will be described. The key difference between the I-Lab effort and previous prototyping is the integration of concepts, models and system elements within the context of the future system as opposed to prototyping of individual components or system elements. The I-lab is a tool for systems engineering and research activities to envision the future and guide development to achieve that vision. At each step the resulting information will be used to support the FAA's efforts to establish and maintain a future system definition and relevant research and development programs to achieve enhanced efficiency for the end-users, and NAS resources and personnel. In addition, the process by which system prototyping is effected will be established including the roles of RE&D organizations, outside researchers, operational personnel, and system users.
Operators' Monitoring Patterns and Fault Recovery in the Supervisory Control of a Semi-Automatic Process
Authors: Lee John D. , Moray Neville
Published: January 2009

Although technological innovations have changed the role of operators from active participants to supervisors of semiautomatic processes, an understanding of the cognitive demands of supervisory control has not kept pace. In particular, little is known about when, and how well, operators might intervene and switch control from automatic to manual. This research addresses this issue by monitoring the information use and control actions of operators of a simulated semiautomatic pasteurization plant. The results of this experiment shows that individual differences in operators” monitoring patterns during the normal operation of the plant correspond to differences in their ability to mitigate the effects of faults. Specifically, an operator who controls the plant well during both normal and fault conditions tends to observe the plant frequently, integrating control actions with other control actions, and does not fixate on narrow sub-systems of the plant. On the other hand, an operator who performs poorly when exposed to faults tends to observe the plant less often, fails to integrate control actions, and fixates attention on a narrow subset of plant variables. Although all operators interacted with the plant using the same interface and automation, large individual differences in the operators” monitoring patterns, and the associated differences in performance suggest that individuals” attitudes, motivation, and training may play a critical role in the successful implementation of automation.