bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Sounding the Deep
Authors: Levinton Jeffrey S.
Published: September 2023

This chapter introduces the principles of marine biology which reflect the functional biology and ecology of marine life. While marine biology is a diverse subject, its main elements are composed of functional biology, ecology, and biodiversity. Marine biology began with simple observations of the distribution and variety of marine life before it evolved into a science involving ecology and hypothesis testing. The chapter explains how marine biologists use the scientific method or systematic reasoning, observation, and experiment to frame and test hypotheses. It considers the concept of neuston, plankton, nekton, and benthos to define the life habits of marine organisms.
The Chemical and Physical Environment
Authors: Levinton Jeffrey S.
Published: September 2023

This chapter looks into how marine organisms respond to changes in the chemical and physical aspects of their environment. Measures of organismal response include whole organism, behavioral, physiological, and biochemical factors. Marine species evolve to function at the highest efficiency in a given thermal regime. Moreover, changes to salinity present challenges to marine species because of diffusion and osmosis. The chapter explains that organisms respond to environmental change by reaching a new equilibrium through a process known as acclimation. It then considers the factors of temperature, salinity, oxygen, and light with regard to the acclimation of species in an environment.
Plankton
Authors: Levinton Jeffrey S.
Published: September 2023

This chapter focuses on plankton, which lives in the water column and are too small to be able to swim counter to typical ocean currents. It starts with the features of different types of plankton, such as phytoplankton and zooplankton. Viruses are not complete living organisms as they are particles in the femtoplankton range and consist of strands of DNA or RNA enveloped in a protein coat. Microorganism diversity cannot be assayed by visual techniques alone, so marine biologists use molecular identification to assay the relative abundance of different plankton with different abilities to process nutrients. The chapter considers immunofluorescence as a useful immunological technique for probing phytoplankton species.
Introduction to the Animal Kingdom
Authors: Brusca Richard C. , Giribet Gonzalo , Moore Wendy
Published: September 2023

This chapter introduces the fundamentals of the architecture and body plans of the animal kingdom. It acknowledges the concept of body symmetry as a fundamental aspect of an animal's body plan so most animal phyla exhibit bilateral symmetry with associated cephalization, while some phyla have various forms of radial symmetry. A good number of animals rely on symbiotic relationships with various microbes, which provide all or part of their nutrition. The chapter explains how almost all animals must osmoregulate and deal with toxic byproducts of protein digestion. It then explains the sexual reproduction and asexual reproduction that occurs in every animal phylum.
Two Enigmatic Phyla
Authors: Brusca Richard C. , Giribet Gonzalo , Moore Wendy
Published: September 2023

This chapter explores the unusual, marine, nonbilaterian animal phyla of Placozoa and Ctenophora. The bodies of creatures belonging to phylum Placozoa are only a few millimeters in size, are just two cell layers thick, and lack both symmetry and organs. Meanwhile, Members of the phylum Ctenophora are gelatinous and somewhat resemble jellyfish. Even though the two groups are not closely related, their respective resemblances largely reflect evolutionary convergences. Although only about 130 species have been described, they can be quite common and abundant predators in the world's seas but neither placozoans nor ctenophores have left a robust fossil record. The chapter details the taxonomic history and classification of both phyla.
Introduction to the Lophotrochozoa, and the Phylum Mollusca
Authors: Brusca Richard C. , Giribet Gonzalo , Moore Wendy
Published: September 2023

This chapter provides an overview of the Lophotrochozoa and the phylum Mollusca. The Mollusca, Nemertea, Annelida, and the three lophophorate phyla comprise the clade Lophotrochozoa in the form of the so-called small shelly fossils. Molluscs comprise the second largest phylum of animals (after arthropods) and include some of the best-known invertebrates. The chapter then details the body plan and the very long and convoluted taxonomic history and classification of molluscs. Despite the enormous diversity, all molluscs share a suite of defining characteristics that include bilateral symmetry, reduced coelom, visceral mass, body covered by the mantle, ctenidia, radula and spiral cleavage.
Phylum Echinodermata
Authors: Brusca Richard C. , Giribet Gonzalo , Moore Wendy
Published: September 2023

This chapter focuses on the phylum Echinodermata. Members of the phylum Echinodermata are familiar to many as iconic sea animals, such as sea urchins and starfish. Echinoderms are among the most unusual metazoans on Earth because they challenge the initial understanding of evolutionary pathways because of their radial symmetry. Moreover, all living echinoderms possess a well-developed coelom and a mesodermally derived endoskeleton composed of unique calcareous elements. The chapter tackles the taxonomic history and classification of echinoderms, which are historically known as divine thunder stones. It considers future research focus for echinoderms, such as their unusual regenerative capabilities, nervous system, and ecological roles in maintaining or disrupting the ecosystem.
Sarcopterygians and the Origin of Tetrapods
Authors: Harvey Pough F. , Bemis William E. , Mcguire Betty , Janis Christine M.
Published: September 2023

This chapter discusses the lineages of sarcopterygians in relation to the origin of tetrapods. The vast majority of extant sarcopterygians are tetrapods, most of which are terrestrial. The chapter looks into fossil sarcopterygians which document transitions in organ systems associated with the origin of tetrapods and the move to land. This is where lungs and digits may have allowed aquatic tetrapodomorphs to make occasional forays onto land. Thus, fossil tetrapod trackways raise questions about the timing and location of the origin of tetrapods. The chapter also considers some possible advantages of terrestrial activity and the original environment in which the fish-tetrapod transition might have occurred.
Theropods and the Origin of Birds
Authors: Harvey Pough F. , Bemis William E. , Mcguire Betty , Janis Christine M.
Published: September 2023

This chapter covers the characteristics and systematics of theropods while also considering the origin of birds. It mentions how early theropods were small, agile, lightly built, bipedal carnivores with long arms and legs. The evolutionary history of theropods varies since some gain forms with long and greatly enlarged forelimbs, while other forms against the powered flights in avialans. The chapter provides an overview of the characters and phylogenetic relationships of Mesozoic theropods and descriptions of the major clades. Birds showcase one of the clearest examples of mosaic evolution and exaptation, especially when its changes are not directly linked to the evolution of flight. The chapter also considers the reproduction and parental care among theropods.
What Is Biodiversity?
Authors: Sher Anna A.
Published: September 2023

This chapter discusses biodiversity, a term used by conservation biologists to refer to the complete range of species and biological communities on Earth, as well as the genetic variation within those species and all ecosystem processes. By this definition, biodiversity must be considered on at least three levels: species diversity, genetic diversity, and ecosystem diversity. Species diversity reflects the entire range of evolutionary and ecological adaptations of species to particular environments. Genetic diversity is necessary for any species to maintain reproductive vitality, resistance to disease, and the ability to adapt to changing conditions. Meanwhile, ecosystem diversity results from the collective response of species to different environmental conditions. Biological communities found in deserts, grasslands, wetlands, and forests support the continuity of proper ecosystem functioning, which provides crucial services to people, such as water for drinking and agriculture, flood control, protection from soil erosion, and filtering of air and water.
Threats to Biodiversity: Habitat Change
Authors: Sher Anna A.
Published: September 2023

This chapter assesses three of the major threats to biodiversity: habitat destruction, habitat fragmentation, and environmental degradation and pollution. All of these threats result from the use of the world's natural resources by an increasing human population. Habitat destruction particularly threatens rain forests, wetlands, coral reefs, and other species-rich communities. Habitat fragmentation is the process whereby a large, continuous area of habitat is both reduced and divided into two or more fragments. It can lead to the rapid loss of some of the remaining species because it creates barriers to the normal processes of dispersal, colonization, and foraging. Meanwhile, environmental pollution eliminates many species from ecosystems even where the structure of the community is not obviously disturbed. It results in pesticide biomagnification; contamination of water with industrial wastes, sewage, and fertilizers; and air pollution resulting in acid rain, excess nitrogen deposition, photochemical smog, and high ozone levels.
Climate Change and Other Threats to Biodiversity
Authors: Sher Anna A.
Published: September 2023

This chapter addresses the other four major threats to biodiversity: climate change, overexploitation, invasive species, and disease. Global climate change, including warmer temperatures and changing precipitation patterns, is already occurring because of the large amounts of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases produced by the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation. Meanwhile, overexploitation is driving many species to extinction and can consequently undermine entire ecosystems. It is the result of increasingly efficient methods of harvesting and marketing, increasing demand for products, and increased access to remote areas. Humans have deliberately and accidentally moved thousands of species to new regions of the world. Some of these nonnative species have become invasive, greatly increasing their numbers at the expense of native species. Ultimately, species may be threatened by a combination of factors, all of which must be addressed in a comprehensive conservation plan.
Establishing New Populations and Ex Situ Conservation
Authors: Sher Anna A.
Published: September 2023

This chapter describes a number of exciting conservation methods used to establish new wild and semi-wild populations of rare and endangered species and increase the sizes of existing populations. These methods include breeding species in zoos, aquariums, and botanical gardens—organizations that also assist conservation through education and research programs. Captive breeding and other approaches to augment or establish new populations may allow species that have persisted only in captivity or in small, isolated populations to regain their ecological and evolutionary roles within their ecosystems. Moreover, simply increasing the number and size of its populations generally lowers the probability a species will go extinct. Population establishment programs are unlikely to be effective, however, unless the factors leading to the decline of the original wild populations are clearly understood and eliminated, or at least controlled. Technologies are now being developed that could potentially revive versions of extinct organisms.
Protected Areas
Authors: Sher Anna A.
Published: September 2023

This chapter studies one of the most used, successful, and surprisingly flexible of the tools for conservation: the creation of protected areas. A protected area (PA) is a clearly defined geographical space, recognized, dedicated, and managed, through legal or other effective means, to achieve the long-term conservation of nature with associated ecosystem services and cultural values. Conservation biologists are developing guidelines for designing protected areas: the areas should be large whenever possible, they should not be fragmented, and managers should create networks of conservation areas for maximum protection. PA management might involve zoning to establish areas where certain activities are allowed or prohibited. The chapter then considers the challenges to PA management. Ultimately, adequate staffing and funding are necessary for park management.
Conservation Outside Protected Areas
Authors: Sher Anna A.
Published: September 2023

This chapter highlights strategies to include biodiversity protection as a management objective outside formal protected areas as a complementary strategy for conservation. Considerable biodiversity exists outside PAs, particularly in habitats managed for multiple-use resource extraction. Such unprotected habitats are vital for conservation because in almost all countries, PAs account for only a small percentage of the total area. Animals and plants living in PAs often disperse to unprotected land, where they are vulnerable to hunting and harvesting, habitat loss, and other threats from humans. Government agencies, private conservation organizations, businesses, and private landowners can cooperate in large-scale ecosystem management projects to achieve conservation objectives and use natural resources sustainably. The chapter then looks at bioregional management and community conservation projects. In Africa, local communities are now generating income by combining wildlife management and ecotourism.
Differential Gene Expression
Authors: Barresi Michael J. F. , Gilbert Scott F.
Published: September 2023

This chapter reviews the evidence from molecular biology, cell biology, and somatic cell nuclear cloning that has shown that each cell of the body carries the same nuclear genome. It analyzes differential gene expression from genetically identical nuclei that creates different cell types and occurs at the levels of gene transcription, pre-mRNA processing, mRNA translation, and protein modification. It also shows how enhancer sequences regulate a gene's transcription in time and space. The chapter talks about DNA methylation, which can block transcription by preventing the binding of certain transcription factors or by recruiting histone methyltransferases or histone deacetylases to the chromatin. It covers Class A, B, C, D, and E transcription factors that function as homeotic regulators of floral organ identity.
Sex Determination and Gametogenesis
Authors: Barresi Michael J. F. , Gilbert Scott F.
Published: September 2023

This chapter talks about primary sex determination or the determination of gonadal sex which is a function of the sex chromosomes, noting that XX individuals are usually females and XY individuals are usually males. It shows how mammalian Fgf9 and Sox9 proteins participate in a positive feedback loop which activates testicular development and suppresses ovarian development. It also examines the conversion of testosterone to dihydrotestosterone in the urogenital sinus and swellings which enables the differentiation of the penis, scrotum, and prostate gland. The chapter reviews the first division of meiosis that separates homologous chromosomes and the second division of meiosis that splits the kinetochore and separates sister chromatids. It highlights certain principles of organogenesis that are readily seen in gonad development.
Amphibians and Fish
Authors: Barresi Michael J. F. , Gilbert Scott F.
Published: September 2023

This chapter begins with an analysis of the amphibian cleavage which is holoblastic and is unequal because of the presence of yolk in the vegetal hemisphere. The chapter shows how amphibian gastrulation begins with epiboly of the ectoderm followed by the invagination of the bottle cells and the coordinated involution of the mesoderm. It also reviews dorsal-ventral specification which begins with maternal messages and proteins stored in the vegetal cytoplasm. The chapter analyzes the Danio rerio, the zebrafish, which has a vertebrate model system that develops externally as a transparent embryo and completes embryogenesis in one day. It describes Kupffer's vesicle, which is a transient, fluid-filled organ in the most posterior position of the trunk.
Neural Crest Cells and Axonal Specificity
Authors: Barresi Michael J. F. , Gilbert Scott F.
Published: September 2023

This chapter considers the neural crest as a transitory structure as its cells migrate to become many different cell types. The path a neural crest cell takes depends on the extracellular environment it meets. The chapter discusses the cranial neural crest cells that enter the pharyngeal arches to become the cartilage of the jaw and the bones of the middle ear and form the bones of the frontonasal process, odontoblasts, and cranial nerves. The chapter also highlights the fates of the cranial neural crest cells which are influenced by Hox genes, and are acquired by expression pattern through interaction with neighboring cells. The chapter covers proteins and shows how they are generally permissive to neuron adhesion and provide substrates on which axons can migrate. It stresses how the lack of synapse formation and neuronal activity can lead to induction apoptosis, which unleashes a cascade of caspase enzymes that result in cell death.
Ectodermal Placodes and the Epidermis
Authors: Barresi Michael J. F. , Gilbert Scott F.
Published: September 2023

This chapter focuses on ectodermal placodes, which are areas of columnar-shaped cells. It illustrates how cranial placodes in the head contribute to the sense organs forming the olfactory epithelium, the inner ear, and the lens of the eye, and to the cranial sensory ganglia. It also explains how the pre-placodal region separates into individual placodes, a process controlled by local signals from the neural tube and underlying mesoderm or endoderm. The chapter discusses eye development and shows how it starts with the specification of the eye field in the ventral diencephalon. The chapter also shows the major role Pax6 plays in eye formation. It mentions the enamel knot, which is the signaling center for tooth shape and development.
Development of the Tetrapod Limb
Authors: Barresi Michael J. F. , Gilbert Scott F.
Published: September 2023

This chapter describes the positions from which limbs emerge from the body axis which depend on Hox gene expression. It also highlights the proximal-distal axis of the developing limb which is initiated by the induction of the ectoderm at the dorsal-ventral boundary by Fgf10 from the mesenchyme. It also explores the opposing gradients of FGFs and Wnts from the AER and retinoic acid from the flank which patterns the proximaldistal axis of the chick limb. The chapter investigates cell death in the limb which is mediated by bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) and is considered necessary for the formation of digits and joints. It points out the involvement of BMPs in inducing apoptosis and in differentiating the mesenchymal cells into cartilage.
The Environmental and Symbiotic Regulation of Development
Authors: Barresi Michael J. F. , Gilbert Scott F.
Published: September 2023

This chapter highlights agents of the environment, such as the temperature, diet, and the presence of predators, which play critical roles during normal development. It considers phenotypic reaction norms that quantitatively respond to environmental conditions, such as the phenotype reflecting small differences in environmental conditions. It also provides an overview on organisms that usually develop with symbiotic organisms and signals from the symbionts, which can be critical for normal development. The chapter includes organisms which have integrated life cycles, featuring marine organisms whose larvae require microbes in order to settle and undergo metamorphosis. It examines changes in the environment which can be detrimental to those organisms whose life cycles are predicated on specific conditions, such as temperature or prey species.
Genome Structure and Gene Expression
Authors: Taiz Lincoln , Møller Ian Max , Murphy Angus , Zeiger Eduardo
Published: September 2023

This chapter discusses how the composition of the genome beyond its genes influences the physiology and evolution of the organism. It looks at the structure and organization of the nuclear genome and the non-gene elements it contains and contrasts that with the cytoplasmic genomes, which are contained inside the mitochondria and plastids. It also analyzes the cellular machinery needed to transcribe and translate the genes into functional proteins. The chapter highlights how transcriptional and posttranscriptional processes combine to regulate overall gene expression. It introduces some of the tools used to study gene function, including the use of genetic engineering in research and agriculture.
Water and Plant Cells
Authors: Taiz Lincoln , Møller Ian Max , Murphy Angus , Zeiger Eduardo
Published: September 2023

This chapter considers how water moves into and out of plant cells, emphasizing the molecular properties of water and the physical forces that influence water movement at the cellular level. It points out that water is the most abundant and yet often the most limiting of all the resources that plants need to grow and function. It also highlights the practice of crop irrigation that reflects the fact that water is a key resource limiting agricultural productivity and the availability of water that limits the productivity of natural ecosystems, which leads to marked differences in vegetation type along precipitation gradients. The chapter considers how the structure of water gives rise to some of its unique physical properties. It examines the physical basis for water movement, the concept of water potential, and the application of this concept to cell water relations.
Abiotic Stress
Authors: Taiz Lincoln , Møller Ian Max , Murphy Angus , Zeiger Eduardo
Published: September 2023

This chapter provides an integrated view of how plants adapt and respond to abiotic stresses in the environment, beginning with a distinction between adaptation and acclimation in relation to abiotic stress. It describes the various abiotic factors in the environment that can negatively affect plant growth and development. It also analyzes plant stress-sensing mechanisms and processes that transform sensory signals into physiological responses. The chapter talks about specific metabolic, physiological, and anatomical changes that result from signaling pathways and that enable plants to adapt or acclimate to abiotic stress. It illustrates how efforts to enhance the abiotic stress tolerance of plants can improve agricultural yield and how the different physiological processes affected in plants during abiotic stress can be used for plant monitoring and treatment in the field using precision agriculture practices.
Seed Dormancy, Germination, and Seedling Establishment
Authors: Taiz Lincoln , Møller Ian Max , Murphy Angus , Zeiger Eduardo
Published: September 2023

This chapter describes the structure and composition of various types of seeds and the processes of seed germination and seedling establishment. It talks about the production of the first photosynthetic leaves and minimal root system. It also examines the period of seed maturation between embryogenesis and germination that culminates in quiescence, a non-germinating state characterized by a reduced metabolic rate, after which the seed is released from the parent plant. The chapter considers the processes involved in the ongoing growth of the plant, which include photomorphogenesis, the development of a functioning vascular system, and the mechanisms regulating growth rate. It explores the differential growth responses that allow the plant to navigate its environment.
The Control of Flowering and Floral Development
Authors: Taiz Lincoln , Møller Ian Max , Murphy Angus , Zeiger Eduardo
Published: September 2023

This chapter addresses the fundamental questions of the phenomenon on the strong correlation between flowering and seasons, such as how plants keep track of the seasons of the year and the time of day. It looks at which environmental signals influence flowering and how those signals are perceived. It also describes how environmental signals are transduced to bring about the developmental changes associated with flowering. The chapter talks about the transitions to flowering which involve major changes in the pattern of morphogenesis and cell differentiation at the shoot apical meristem, which leads to the production of sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels. It explores temperature compensation that prevents temperature changes from affecting the period of the circadian clock.
Plant Senescence and Developmental Cell Death
Authors: Taiz Lincoln , Møller Ian Max , Murphy Angus , Zeiger Eduardo
Published: September 2023

This chapter begins with a brief overview of the features of and mechanisms responsible for cell death in plants. It discusses the various forms of programmed cell death (PCD), including senescence-associated cell death, and how a key process, autophagy, is involved in plant cell death. It also highlights senescence at the organ level, focusing on leaf senescence and abscission. It describes the mechanism of orderly degeneration during leaf senescence and its regulation by developmental and environmental signals. The chapter looks at the factors that govern the two different types of whole-plant senescence: monocarpic and polycarpic senescence. It covers nutrient redistribution from vegetative structures to reproductive sinks that may trigger whole-plant senescence in monocarpic plants.
Another histamine receptor: blockers of the histamine-1 receptor for the treatment of seasonal allergic rhinitis
Authors: Saunders John
Published: September 2023

This chapter discusses agents which selectively block H1 receptors and are therefore of benefit in histamine-related allergic responses. It begins by reviewing the major drawbacks of first-generation H1 blockers which appeared in clinical practice in the 1940s, before proceeding to explain today’s most prescribed drugs for seasonal rhinitis. The chapter describes the synthesis of terfenadine which is free from anticholinergic and CNS-related side effects. Then it takes a closer look at the original and alternative routes to loratadine-a potent antihistamine but has sedative activity quite like the first-generation compounds. Lastly, the chapter discusses the syntheses of cetirizine and astemizole.
Quinolones as antibacterial DNA gyrase inhibitors
Authors: Saunders John
Published: September 2023

This chapter focuses on quinolone antibiotics which inhibit DNA gyrase: the poly-functional enzyme that mediates the processes involved in DNA replication and RNA transcription. Quinolone antibiotics thus prevent bacterial DNA synthesis, leaving a relaxed form of bacterial DNA that cannot yield the correctly folded chromosome. The chapter looks at the synthesis of norfloxacin, one of the second-generation quinolones. It also describes the synthesis of ciprofloxacin, mentioning the role of combinatorial chemistry in the solid phase approach to quinolones. Furthermore, the chapter considers the preparation of ofloxacin, which, unlike other quinolone antibiotics, possess an additional ring and a stereogenic centre that require attention during the synthesis.
Compounds in lower oxidation states
Authors: McCleverty Jon
Published: September 2023

This chapter highlights the transition metal carbonyls which are useful and are easily available when starting materials for the synthesis of many other types of low-valent metal complexes. It examines the structures of the dinuclear and higher nuclearity species which feature bridging carbonyl groups and metal-metal bonds. It also discusses the number of electrons allocated to particular ligands for the purposes of electron counting. The chapter cites important exceptions to the 18-electron rule that are important in metal carbonyl and organometallic chemistry, such as the occurrence of stable compounds that have a formal 16-valence electron configuration. It reviews the thermodynamic stability of metal carbonyl derivatives that owes very little to the ability of CO to act as a Lewis base.
Bio-transition metal chemistry
Authors: McCleverty Jon
Published: September 2023

This chapter examines the functions of metals in biology which are generally classified into two major groups: metalloproteins and metalloenzymes. Metalloproteins are sub-divided into transport and storage functions, while metalloenzymes are non-protein systems that are involved in photo-redox activity. It also discusses proteins that consist of one or more polypeptide chains, which are comprised of amino acids that are usually connected by a peptide bond. The chapter refers to metalloproteins that incorporate one or more metal atoms as a normal part of the tertiary structure of the protein. It also describes metalloenzymes, which are applied to systems that require the participation of metal ions at the active site to function.
Quantum Mechanics 2
Authors: Green N. J. B.
Published: September 2023

Quantum Mechanics 2 opens by stating that the chemist's approach to the understanding of matter and its chemical transformations is to take a microscopic view, connecting experimental observation with the properties of the constituent molecules. Atoms and sub-atomic particles do not obey the classical laws of mechanics but conform rather to the laws of quantum mechanics. Quantum mechanics is thus of central importance in chemistry. In order to understand the behaviour of molecules and their constituent particles it is necessary to have a thorough grounding in the principles and applications of quantum mechanics. This text provides a toolkit for applying quantum mechanics to chemical problems, introducing more advanced approaches using approximate methods. It describes areas of chemistry where quantum mechanics is important, and shows how quantum mechanics can be applied to chemical problems.
Fields and couplings
Authors: Green N. J. B.
Published: September 2023

This chapter looks at chemical systems which have degenerate states, such as molecular rotational energy levels or atomic energy levels, within which perturbation may have the effect of altering or removing degeneracy. It discusses a molecule which is subject to an external influence with a reduced symmetry and to a split degeneracy in the unperturbed molecule. It also analyses the zero-order function in a degenerate space which requires at least two labels to identify it unambiguously, such as the label for energy level and label to distinguish the wavefunction from the other degenerate functions. The chapter explores the fundamental ambiguity in the choice of zero-order wavefunctions in a degenerate level as any linear combination of wavefunctions is considered an eigenfunction of the Hamiltonian. It clarifies the application of perturbation that lifts degeneracy that results in the three eigenfunctions of the Hamiltonian to become uniquely defined.
Aquatic Environmental Chemistry
Authors: Howard Alan G.
Published: September 2023

Aquatic Environmental Chemistry covers the composition and underlying properties of both freshwater and marine systems and, within this framework, explains the effects of acidity, complexation, oxidation and reduction processes, and sedimentation. Equilibrium inorganic chemistry underlies the composition and properties of the aquatic environment and provides a sound basis for understanding both natural geochemical processes and the behaviour of inorganic pollutants in the environment. The format adopted for the book consists of two parallel columns. The inner column is the main body of the book and can be read on its own. The outer column is a source of useful secondary material where comments on the main text, explanations of unusual terms, and guidance through mathematical steps are to be found. A wide range of examples to explain the behaviour of inorganic species in freshwater and marine systems are used throughout.
Kinetic theory of gases
Authors: Ritchie G.A.D. , Sivia D.S.
Published: September 2023

This chapter focuses on how classical mechanics can be used to derive expressions for the pressure and temperature of a gas in terms of the mass and velocity of its constituents. It presents a hypothetical gas called a “perfect gas” that is composed of particles that behave as rigid spheres, have negligible volume, and are in a state of random motion. The forces between the particles of this are considered negligible so that the only interaction between the particles is through elastic collisions. The chapter explains that the pressure of a gas is a consequence of the force which the gas particles exert on the walls of its container. It considers the momentum change for each particle on collision with the wall and the number of collisions per unit area in unit time when calculating pressure.
Optics
Authors: Ritchie G.A.D. , Sivia D.S.
Published: September 2023

This chapter introduces James Clerk Maxwell, who showed that visible light is one component of the electromagnetic spectrum which also includes radio waves, microwaves, infrared radiation, ultraviolet radiation, X-rays, and gamma radiation. It details how Maxwell showed that the magnetic counterpart to Michael Faraday's law of induction states exists, indicating that a changing electric field produces a magnetic field. He concluded that electromagnetic waves have both electric and magnetic components. The chapter also reviews the simplest solution to the wave equation, which is the sinusoidal wave travelling in one dimension. It describes the processes of reflection and refraction before turning its attention to interference and explaining the difference between constructive and destructive interference. Finally, it discusses diffraction, that is, the bending of light at the edges of objects.
Strategy for process development
Authors: Atherton John H. , Carpenter Keith J.
Published: September 2023

This chapter examines some fundamental concepts and definitions relevant to process development, before presenting a framework for designing a process investigation. Successful and efficient process development involves the study of a number of key aspects of the process, and allows design and development to be based on sound fundamental understanding rather than empirical rules of thumb. Key to achieving the objectives are an understanding of both the reaction and product recovery (workup) stages. The chapter then looks at reactor configuration. In the laboratory, the most common method of conducting a reaction is to mix the reactants and wait for reaction to complete, often assisted by heating. This is termed batch operation. The chapter also considers conversion, chemical selectivity, and the yield of chemical reaction, as well as reaction profiles, alongside purification and work-up.
Mixing effects in pseudo homogeneous systems
Authors: Atherton John H. , Carpenter Keith J.
Published: September 2023

This chapter assesses mixing effects in pseudo-homogeneous systems. The mixing regimes are classified as macromixing, mesomixing, or micromixing. The names reflect the different length and time scales of the dominating mechanisms. The macro scale related to the scale of the equipment, while the micro scale relates to the size of the smallest turbulent eddies. In order to be able to predict the effects of mixing on reaction selectivity during process development, it is necessary to appreciate a number of concepts and definitions used to characterise fluid flows. In tubular flow and in agitated vessels, the concepts of turbulent, laminar, and transitional flows are important. Laminar flow occurs when the fluid flow pattern is well defined, the fluid moves in streamlines with no movement lateral to the flow direction. Meanwhile, turbulent flow occurs when there is random motion imposed upon the main flow direction, with fluctuating motion in all directions.
Mass-transfer and reaction in two-phase systems
Authors: Atherton John H. , Carpenter Keith J.
Published: September 2023

This chapter studies mass transfer and reaction in two-phase systems. Two-phase reaction systems are sometimes used because they provide an intrinsically better selectivity than is achievable under homogeneous conditions, but their use may also be enforced by the nature of the reactants, if they are mutually insoluble. For large scale use, water immiscible solvents are often preferred because of their ease of recovery. For practical purposes, there are two mechanisms by which reaction may occur. Uncatalysed or extractive reactions occur following simple partition of the reactive component from a source phase to one where it is reactive. Other processes, in which a catalyst is required to facilitate interphase transport of the reactive species, are known as phase-transfer catalysed reactions.
The hardware
Authors: Pete Biggs
Published: September 2023

This chapter describes what a computer is physically made up of. It reviews the basic elements of a computer, such as the central processor unit (CPU), the memory that stores results and the controlling program, the input and output (I/O) devices that communicate with the outside world, and the buses that provide communication among the various elements. It also refers to the specific memory location which is controlled by the address bus and data which are read or written on the data bus. The chapter describes the arithmetic-logical unit (ALU) along with its associated registers and control unit found in the CPU. It talks about the architecture of a CPU, which includes the layout of the registers, ALUs, and control circuitry within the chip.
Chemistry and the Internet
Authors: Pete Biggs
Published: September 2023

This chapter discusses how chemistry has benefited from the internet as there are countless sources of chemical information available online. It explains that the graphical aspects of the internet are of great advantage for chemistry, as molecules and other things can be displayed in three dimensions or animated in ways not possible with standard paper publications. However, the evolution of protocols and formats of the data needed to produce complex chemical graphics also pose challenges in that a particular computer that does not have the right software installed may fail to display the graphics. The chapter also analyses the evolving nature of the internet and argues that this creates a big problem as publications become outdated as soon as they have been written. It discusses the vast amounts of information available on the internet on all aspects of chemistry.
Foundations of Physical Chemistry: Worked Examples
Authors: Lawrence Nathan , Wadhawan Jay , Compton Richard
Published: September 2023

Foundations of Physical Chemistry presents a grounding in the field of physical chemistry. The early chapters cover the structure of atoms, ions and molecules, reactivity, kinetics, and equilibria. The final chapter gives an insight into more advanced areas, drawing on real-world examples.
Molecules: the beginning of chemistry
Authors: Lawrence Nathan , Wadhawan Jay , Compton Richard
Published: September 2023

This chapter provides questions that cover advanced concepts relating to different types of bonds, such as ionic, covalent, metallic, van der Waals, and hydrogen bonds. It talks about the prediction of molecular shape by using the valence shell electron pair repulsion (VESPR) rules. It also highlights the use of molecular orbital theory in explaining covalent bonding and the use of different types of spectroscopy that are applied to the understanding of bonding, namely: infrared, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), ultraviolet, and photoelectron. The chapter analyses the application of spectroscopy and mass spectrometry in determining the structure of molecules. It illustrates the lattice spacing determined by X-ray crystallography, which is consistent with the implicit in the relative densities of materials.
Taking it further
Authors: Lawrence Nathan , Wadhawan Jay , Compton Richard
Published: September 2023

This chapter reviews examples that show the four base pairs involved in hydrogen bonding of stranded DNA, wherein the pairs thymine (T) and adenine (A), and cytosine (c) and guanine (G) are complementary. It addresses the question of whether there is any difference in the stability to heat of DNA sequences that contain a higher proportion of GC base pairs. It also shows the translation of RNA message into a protein and the DNA code contains four letters G, C, A, and T, wherein the DNA codes for proteins that are made up of chains of amino acids. The chapter explains how ethanol is removed from blood through the action of the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase in the liver. It discusses the alcohol dehydrogenase that contains two zinc atoms one of which provides an active site for the reaction.
Definitions and origins
Authors: Kaltsoyannis Nikolas , Scott Peter
Published: September 2023

This chapter provides an overview of the f block or f elements. These are divided into the lanthanides and actinides. The lanthanide elements lie between lanthanum and hafnium, while the actinides are situated between actinium and rutherfordium. All of the f elements are metallic. Although the ‘parent’ elements of the f block, lanthanum (Ln) and actinium (An), are really members of group three, they are often included in discussions of felement chemistry. The chapter then traces the discovery of the lanthanides and actinides, before looking at the occurrence, extraction, and synthesis of the f elements. Thorium, protactinium, and uranium are the only naturally occurring actinide elements; none of the other actinide elements occurs naturally, and must be synthesized by nuclear reactions.
Properties of the atoms and ions
Authors: Kaltsoyannis Nikolas , Scott Peter
Published: September 2023

This chapter begins by discussing the electronic structures of the f elements. The electronic configurations of free lanthanide and actinide atoms are often difficult to determine owing to the complexity of their electronic spectra. The 4f and 5f orbitals play a central role in determining the physiochemical properties of the lanthanides and actinides respectively. Unfortunately, there is no unique way of representing f orbitals. The chapter then looks at trends in ionization energies and electrode potentials, and their relationship to oxidation states. The actinide elements display a much greater range of oxidation states than the lanthanides. The chapter also considers trends in metallic and ionic radii—the lanthanide and actinide contractions—before exploring the applications of the radioactivity of the actinides.
Solid state compounds
Authors: Kaltsoyannis Nikolas , Scott Peter
Published: September 2023

This chapter investigates solid state compounds. It focuses on two classes of binary compounds—halides and oxides—which between them illustrate many of the important trends in f element solid state chemistry, and which may be used to compare the lanthanides and the actinides. The chapter then looks at the factors which determine the electrical properties of solids, and applies the ideas developed to elemental lanthanides and divalent lanthanide compounds. Many divalent lanthanide compounds exhibit very high electrical conductivities while others are insulators or semiconductors. The chapter explains this behaviour in terms of the band theory of electrical conductivity and the Hubbard approach to electron-electron repulsion in solids.
Organometallics
Authors: Kaltsoyannis Nikolas , Scott Peter
Published: September 2023

This chapter focuses on organometallics. Important advances in understanding the behaviour of the f elements have arisen from the study of their organometallic complexes. The chapter describes the methods that are used to synthesize these compounds, the structures that they adopt, and the physical and chemical properties that they display. The sensitivity of most f element organometallics to oxygen and water is a property which they share with the early d block compounds, but this problem is exacerbated by the large atomic radii of the lanthanides and actinides. It is with the advent of modern techniques for the rigorous exclusion of air and the development of sterically demanding ligands that the field has expanded to the point where, like the d block organometallics, applications in catalysis and other areas are beginning to emerge. The chapter then looks at alkyls; cyclopentadienyls; carbonyls and related complexes; arene complexes; and cyclooctatetraene complexes.
Introduction
Authors: Davey Roger J. , Garside John
Published: September 2023

This introductory chapter provides an overview of crystallization, which is a purification technique, a separation process, and a branch of particle technology. It is a supramolecular process by which an ensemble of randomly organized molecules, ions, or atoms in a fluid come together to form an ordered three-dimensional molecular array which we call a crystal. Most commonly encountered solid materials are crystalline. The properties of crystals are often directionally dependent—they are anisotropic. They grow and dissolve at different rates in different directions, their refractive indices vary with direction, and their thermal expansion coefficients and electrical conductivity are directionally dependent, as are their mechanical properties. The chapter then explains the importance of knowing the crystalline phases and the underlying phase equilibrium.
Number balances and size distribution modelling
Authors: Davey Roger J. , Garside John
Published: September 2023

This chapter addresses number balances and size distribution modelling. Together with the crystal morphology, the crystal size distribution (CSD) produced within a crystallizer is of crucial importance in determining the ease and efficiency of subsequent solid–liquid separation steps, the suitability of crystals for further processing, their caking and storage characteristics, and the eventual customer appeal of the product. The size distribution influences the supersaturation at which the crystallizer operates and so has an effect on the crystal nucleation and growth rates, crystal morphology and purity, fouling of solid surfaces, and the stability of operation. The most revealing way to explore these interactions is by making use of the number or population balance. The chapter then looks at the continuous mixed suspension mixed product removal (MSMPR) crystallizer.
Introductory Statistical Mechanics
Authors: Bowley Roger , Sánchez Mariana
Published: September 2023

Introductory Statistical Mechanics explains the ideas and techniques of statistical mechanics—the theory of condensed matter—in a simplean accessible and progressive way. The text starts with the laws of thermodynamics and basic simple ideas of quantum mechanics. The conceptual ideas underlying the subject are explained, and; the mathematical ideas are developed in parallel to give a coherent overall view. The text is illustrated with examples not just from solid-state physics, but also from recent theories of radiation from black holes and recent data on the background radiation from the cosmic background explorer.
The first law of thermodynamics
Authors: Bowley Roger , Sánchez Mariana
Published: September 2023

This chapter introduces classical thermodynamics, which is based on empirical principles resulting from experimental observation. One such principle is that heat and work are both forms of energy and that energy is always conserved, which provides the basis for the first law of thermodynamics. The second law of thermodynamics is based on the principle that heat flows from a hotter to a colder body. The principles of thermodynamics only use macroscopic concepts, such as temperature and pressure, and are justified by their success in explaining experimental observations. The chapter outlines two objectives in the statistical approach: deriving the laws of thermodynamics and deriving the formulae for properties of macroscopic systems. It provides a brief summary of the foundations and essential ideas of the first law of thermodynamics.