bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Growth and Development of Salvia splendens as Affected by Pot Volume
Authors: van Iersel Marc
Published: February 2019

Salvia splendens `Top burgundy' was grown in pots of different sizes (5, 50, 150, and 450 mL) to assess the effect of rooting volume on the growth and development of salvia. Seeds were planted in a peat-lite growing medium and plants grown in a greenhouse during the winter and spring of 1996. Plants were spaced far enough apart to minimize mutual shading and interplant light competition. Plants were harvested at weekly intervals and shoot and root dry mass and leaf area were measured. Relative growth rate (RGR) and net assimilation rate were calculated from these data. Differences in plant size became evident at 25 days after seeding. A small pot size (5 mL) decreased root and shoot dry mass, RGR, and NAR, while increasing the root:shoot ratio. Differences between the pot sizes became more apparent during the course of the experiment. The observation that root: shoot ratio decreased with increasing pot volume suggests that the decreased plant size in smaller pots was not the direct effect of reduced root size. Growth most likely was limited by the ability of the roots to supply the shoots with sufficient water and/or nutrients. Pot volume did not only affect the growth, but also the development of the plants. Salvia flowered faster in bigger pots (about 50 days after seeding in 450-mL pots), while the plants in 5-mL cells did not flower during the 9-week period of the experiment.
Evaluation of Vesicular–Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi in Commercial Production of Silver King (Aglaonema commutatum L.) Plants
Authors: Guzman G.S. , Alvarez I.C.A , Farias L.J.
Published: February 2019

In the commercial production of silver king plants and other ornate plants, the substrates are treated with fungicides, which affect the vesicular–arbuscular mycorrhizal (VAM) fungi and the plant growth negatively. The restoration of de VAM fungi to the substrate, after its disinfection, might improvement the development. The effectiveness and infectiveness of Glomus fasciculatum and Glomus aggregatum on silver king (Aglaonema commutatum) plants was evaluated in this work. Seedlings of 4-week-old, growing treated with mancozeb, were removed and planted in pots filled with a disinfected mixture of sand soil, cow manure and coconut powder (1:2:2), containing the inoculum of VAM fungi (soil with spores and colonized roots). After 3 and 4 months of the inoculation, plants were removed and dry weight of roots and shoot, number and length of leaves, and mycorrhizal colonization were evaluated. A better development was showed in plants inoculated, resulting highest values in number and length of leaves in relation to control plants. Both VAM fungi improvement the number and length of leaves. The percentage root length colonized (80%) and visual density of endophyte in roots was highest in plants inoculated with Glomus aggregatum in both sampling period.
Photoperiod Sensitivity during Flower Development of Opium Poppy (Papaver somniferum L.)
Authors: Wang Z. , Acock M.C. , Acock B.
Published: February 2019

Flower development in opium poppy (Papaver somniferum L. `album DC') is enhanced by long photoperiods (PP ≥ 16-hours). Predicting time to flower in field-grown opium poppy requires knowledge of which developmental stages are sensitive to PP and how the rate of flower development is changed by changes in PP. The objective of this work was to determine when poppy plants first demonstrated developmental changes in response to PP and how long PP continued to influence the time to first flower under consistent temperature conditions. Plants were grown in artificially lit growth chambers with either a 16- (inductive) or a 9-hour PP (noninductive). Plants were transferred at 1 to 3-day intervals from a 16- to a 9-hour PP and vice versa. All chambers were maintained at a 12-hour thermoperiod of 25/20°C. Poppy plants demonstrated developmental changes in response to PP four days after emergence and required a minimum of four inductive cycles before the plant flowered. Additional inductive cycles, up to of a maximum of nine, hastened flowering. After 13 inductive cycles, flowering time was no longer influenced by PP. These results indicate four phases between emergence and first flower: 1) a photoperiod-insensitive juvenile phase (JP); 2) a photoperiod-sensitive inductive phase (PSP); 3) a photoperiod-sensitive post-inductive phase (PSPP); and 4) a photoperiod-insensitive post-inductive phase (PIPP). The minimum durations (days) of these phases under the conditions of our experiment were JP = 4, PSP = 4, PSPP = 9, and PIPP = 14.
Photosynthetic Activity of Four Florist Azalea Cultivars
Authors: Bellert C. , Gauthier F. , Dansereau B.
Published: February 2019

The photosynthetic activity of four Rhododendron simsii cultivars `Dorothy Gish', `Paloma', `White Gish', and `Gloria' were studied at both the individual leaf level using a portable photosynthesis system (closed), or at the whole-plant level using assimilation chambers (semi-open system). Net photosynthetic assimilation curves in response to light in both systems will be established. The experimental points obtained will be adjusted to a photosynthetic model as described in the literature. The model parameters [original efficiency (α) dark respiration (Rd), maximum photosynthetic capacity to saturated light (Pmax)] will be presented. The evolution of these parameters will be presented as a function of the various stages of development. Also a comparison of the four cultivars will be shown.
Fruit Development in Saskatoon (Amelanchier alnifolia Nutt.)
Authors: McGarry Roisin , Ozga Jocelyn A. , Reinecke Dennis M.
Published: February 2019

Saskatoon fruits, an emerging horticultural crop across the Canadian prairies, vary greatly in size among cultivars. In this study, we compare fruit development patterns among large, medium, and small fruited cultivars of saskatoon, and assess the role of seed number and pedicel diameter on fruit size. Fruit growth patterns of four cultivars (Thiessen, Northline, Regent, and Smoky) were determined from weekly measurements of fruit diameters and fresh and dry flower/fruit weights during two consecutive growing seasons. The developmental patterns of fruit growth determined using the above criteria were similar among cultivars and between years. At maturity, the largest fruits (fresh weight) obtained were from cv. Thiessen, followed by `Northline', `Smoky', and `Regent', in descending order. Pedicel diameters (one week prior to maturity) correlated linearly with increasing fruit diameter and fresh weight. At maturity, seed number per fruit correlated linearly with increasing fruit weight. Thiessen contained significantly more seeds per fruit (4.6) than `Northline' (3.7), `Smoky' (3.2), and `Regent' (3.2).
Light Duration Alters [14C] Photosynthate Partitioning into Sorbitol in Apple
Authors: Wang Z. , Yuan Z. , Quebedeaux B.
Published: February 2019

Sorbitol synthesis in apple leaves requires NADPH, a product of photosynthetic light reactions. Light duration directly affects NADPH production, thus, variation in light duration may influence sorbitol synthesis and alter the ratios of sorbitol to other carbohydrates. Our experiments were designed to determine whether light duration altered photosynthate partitioning among carbohydrates and whether longer light durations favored sorbitol synthesis. One-year-old `Gala' apple plants that experienced a 1-, 4-, 7-, 10-, or 14-hour photoperiod for 7 days were exposed to 14CO2 for 15 minutes. Individual carbohydrate concentrations and the activity of newly-fixed [14C] carbohydrates were analyzed during different intervals for 24 hours after labeling. Sorbitol and fructose concentrations increased significantly as light duration increased from 1 to 10 hours, then remained stable at a light duration of 14 hours, whereas starch concentration increased linearly over increasing light durations. Sucrose and glucose concentrations were not significantly altered by light duration. The sorbitol: sucrose ratios increased while sorbitol: starch ratios decreased as light duration increased from 1 to 14 hours. Newly-fixed [14C] carbohydrates varied diurnally. Similar changes during the different light duration periods were found for individual [14C] carbohydrates and unlabeled carbohydrate concentrations. Our results suggest that longer light durations favored sorbitol synthesis over sucrose, and NADPH concentration may become a rate-limiting factor for sorbitol synthesis during short light durations.
Effect of Shade on Pear Fruit Growth and Quality
Authors: Garriz Patricia I. , Alvarez Hugo L. , Alvarez Angel J.
Published: February 2019

This investigation was undertaken to determine the response of pear fruit growth and quality to shade imposed during development. Whole branches of mature `Bartlett' trees on P. communis L. growing at the Experimental Farm on a sandy loam soil were covered with a 20% transmission black, neutral-density shadecloth from 43 days after full bloom (DFB) to 138 DFB, during the 1995–96 growing season. Two comparable branches on each of five uniform trees were selected for good exposure and one branch of each pair was shaded. Fruit diameters were measured at 2-weekly intervals. Pulp pressure and soluble solids concentration (SSC) were measured at harvest time on 31 Jan. Specific leaf mass (SLM) also was recorded (leaf dry mass was obtained by drying discs at 80°C). Relative fruit growth rates were initially similar between light regimes, becoming lower for the shaded fruit at the subsequent measurements. Light exposure induced a 8.76% increase in final fruit diameter (66.40 mm); this increment would appear to depend on carbohydrate availability, since highly significant differences at P ≤ 0.01 emerged in the spur SLM of the exposed and covered branches (7.68 vs. 5.79 mg·cm–2, respectively). SCC was similar for the two light environments, while flesh firmness was 8.80% higher in the shaded fruit. Our results indicate that solar radiation deprival had clearly detrimental effects on fruit growth and maturity, and they provide a basis for improving pruning and training practices in the future.
Partial Root Volume Irrigation of Papaya Plants in Split Root Containers
Authors: Marler Thomas E. , Discekici Haluk M.
Published: February 2019

The influence of partial root volume irrigation on water relations and expansion of roots and leaves of papaya plants was determined using split root containers. In one study, `Tainung #1' and Solo #8 seedling roots were trained into four compartments until well-established, then water was withheld from 0, 1, 2, or 3 quadrants. Mid-morning stomatal conductance and predawn relative leaf water content were not affected by the irrigation treatments. Similarly, relative root water content in the dry quadrants was not different from that in the watered quadrants. In a second study, `Red Lady' seedling roots were trained into four compartments which contained a 13 × 13-cm plexiglass observation window. After the plants were well-established, watering was continued in one of 4 (1:4) or four of four (4:4) quadrants. Leaf midrib and root extension were measured at 06:00 and 18:00 hr each day. Daily growth of roots in the dry quadrants was reduced 25% below that in the watered quadrants, and midrib extension of the 1:4 plants was reduced ≈10% below that of the 4:4 plants. Irrigation treatments did not influence the percentage of growth occurring during the diurnal and nocturnal periods. The dry quadrants of 1:4 plants were almost devoid of fine roots. The number of root tips on the observation windows of the 1:4 plants was reduced 43% in the dry quadrants and increased 22% in the wet quadrant compared with that for the 4:4 plants.
Root and Stem Extension of Young Papaya Plants
Authors: Marler Thomas E. , Discekici Haluk M.
Published: February 2019

`Red Lady' and `Tainung #1' papaya plants were grown in nursery trays with cells 5.1 cm in diameter. After 10 weeks, mean height of the `Red Lady' plants was 10.1 cm and that of the `Tainung #1' plants was 9.3 cm. Each of five plants per cultivar was planted between two root observation windows, one at 45 cm and the other at 95 cm. Roots reached the 45-cm observation window in 30 days, when mean height of the `Red Lady' plants was 18.7 cm and that of the `Tainung #1' plants was 13.0 cm. Roots reached the 95-cm observation window in 55 days, when mean height of the `Red Lady' plants was 55.4 cm and that of the `Tainung #1' plants was 40.6 cm. Thus, root extension during these initial 55 days was 17 to 18 mm per day for both cultivars, and stem extension during this period was 8.7 mm·d–1 for `Red Lady' and 5.5 mm per day for `Tainung #1'. Root extension declined for both cultivars to ≈12 mm·d–1 by the initial bloom period, then further declined to ≈4 mm·d–1 during and after the initial fruit set stage. Stem extension increased to about 19 mm·d–1 after the plants were established and remained at this rate until well into the stage of heavy fruit set and growth, when it declined to about 8 mm·d–1. The amount of fruit set influenced root characteristics more than cultivar.
Residual Effects of Chemical Induction of Branching of Apple Trees in the Nursery on Their Performance after Transplanting
Authors: Jacyna Tadeusz
Published: February 2019

One-year-old trees of three apple selections [NY73334-35 (A), NY75414-1 (B), and NY75413-30 (C)] from the Geneva Breeding Program were transplanted into an orchard. While at the nursery, the trees were treated with Promalin and Accel, by themselves or in combination, to promote lateral branch formation (feathering). After trees were transplanted, no growth regulators were applied to the trees. One year after transplanting, treated trees of B and C had produced more feathers than the controls. This was particularly pronounced with the very difficult-to-branch selection C. No differences between chemical treatments were found. Regardless of selection, each chemical treatment significantly influenced increase in total extension growth compared to the control and contributed to rapid build up of tree structure. There were no differences between the treatments in tree height, tree caliper, or the number of spurs.
Chemical Control of Spininess with Apple Rootstocks
Authors: Jacyna Tadeusz , Cummins James N.
Published: February 2019

Spininess is characteristic of many Malus species, especially American crabapple and Malus baccata L. Spininess often is present on rooted stoolshoots of commercial apple rootstocks (M.9, M.26, MM.111, and MM.106) and some rootstocks from the Geneva Breeding Program. This undesirable characteristic makes liner production costly and laborious. It is estimated that the cost of manual removal of spines amounts to ≈20% to 25% of total production costs. To counteract spininess, the stoolshoots of excessive spiny rootstock selections [74R5M9-760 (T/1), 74R5M9-707 (T/2), and 75R5M9BR-521 (T/3)] were chemically treated while growing at stoolbed. Chemical treatments consisted of single sprays of nontranslocated growth regulators Tamex (a.i. butralin) or Tamex AG (a.i. butralin + fatty alcohols C8- C10), and commercial auxin formulation (Tre-Hold A-112). Tamex AG and A-112 at applied rates brought about some phytotoxicity effects while Tamex did not. On average, Tamex application (1000, 2000, and 4000 ppm) reduced spine number to ≈80%, 68%, and 84% of T/1, T/2, and T/3 control plants, respectively. However, Tamex at 4000 ppm reduced the number of spines to 57% and 60% of control T/2 and T/3 plants, respectively, without any detrimental side effects. A parallel greenhouse experiment is being performed using commercial M.26 and Geneva 30 apple rootstocks.
Drop Control and Fruit Quality Effects of AVG on McIntosh Apples
Authors: Greene Duane W.
Published: February 2019

Aminoethoxyvinylglycine (AVG) was used in two experiments to control preharvest drop and to improve fruit quality of `McIntosh' apples. AVG application at 25 g a.i./acre (26 ppm) and 50 g a.i./acre (52 ppm) to mature `McIntosh'/M.7 apple trees delayed drop between 1 and 2 days. In another experiment where AVG was applied to `Marshall McIntosh'/Mark apple trees at concentrations between 30 and 120 ppm, drop control also was good. The response was linear. NAA had little or no effect on retarding preharvest drop. In both experiments, AVG increased fruit flesh firmness, retarded ripening, and delayed red color development. The commercial potential of AVG will be discussed.
The Effect of Accel and Carbaryl on the Fruit Set, Yield, Quality, and Leaf Mineral Composition of Apples
Authors: Ouma George , Matta Frank
Published: February 2019

Experiments were performed to determine the effect of Accel and carbaryl on the fruit set, yield, quality, and leaf mineral composition of three apples cultivars: `Empire', `Jon-A-Red', and `Braeburn'. The treatments used were Accel at 25, 50, and 75 ppm; carbaryl at 0.05%, 0.1%, and 0.2%. There were significant increases in length: diameter ratio, weight of fruit per tree, pH, and percent red color. Mean fruit weight, percent N, K, and Mg as the rates of Accel and carbaryl increased. Sugar content in the fruit and the levels of P, Ca, Mn, Fe, Cu, and Zn in the leaves were not affected. We conclude that the increased fruit weights were due to increased cell numbers and the few fruit that remained after thinning, thereby leading to increased amounts of assimilates directed to the developing fruit. The increase in percent red color is indicative of the effect of the treatments on the degree of ripening.
Alternative Production and Protection Practices for Tree Nut Crops
Authors: Buchner Richard P.
Published: February 2019

California walnut farmers compete with pests and diseases to produce an economically viable crop. Current control strategies work reasonably well for most pest and diseases. However, the future of these techniques is a matter of speculation. This presentation describes current production practices and potential alternatives to “traditional” pest and disease control. Codling moth, walnut husk fly, mites, navel orangeworm, aphids, and scale are typical insect pests that have an impact on California walnut production. Spray decisions using Integrated Pest Management, beneficial insect releases, mating disruption, insect growth regulators, and orchard sanitation offer potential alternatives. Major diseases include: Phytophthora crown and root rot, crown gall, oak root fungus, and walnut blight. Control options include careful site selection and orchard management, resistant rootstocks, competitive bacteria for crown gall control, and copper compounds for walnut blight suppression. Weed growth is related to the amount of light reaching the orchard floor. Mature trees often shade the orchard floor, subsequently reducing the need for weed suppression. Herbicides are typically used for vegetation control. Choice of irrigation system, cultivation, mowing, cover crops, and flaming offer potential alternatives either alone or in combination with conventional herbicides.
Alternative Production and Protection Practices for Hazelnuts
Authors: Olsen Jeff
Published: February 2019

Oregon's Willamette Valley is home to 99% of the U.S. domestic production of hazelnuts, Corylus avellana. There are currently around 30,000 acres of hazelnuts in Oregon. Hazelnuts are a relatively low resource input crop when compared to other orchard crops. They require few pesticide applications, and are harvested mechanically. Oregon State Univ. (OSU) developed an Integrated Pest Management (IPM) program for hazelnuts in the middle 1980s that is widely adopted in the industry today. Sampling schemes and action thresholds have been developed for the filbertworm (the most important insect pest), as well as: obliquebanded leafroller, filbert leafroller, and filbert aphids. In an example of classical biological control, a filbert aphid parasite, Trioxysis pallidus, was imported from Europe in 1984. Trioxysis has successfully established itself throughout the industry. As a result, the need for aphid control sprays has been significantly reduced. Current research in hazelnut IPM is focused on a “soft pesticide” program that features an insect growth regulator for filbertworm control. Recent research with isotopically labeled nitrogen seeks to improve the efficiency of nitrogen fertilization in the industry. The northern portion of the industry is affected by Eastern Filbert Blight. OSU research has secured registrations of effective fungicides and refined the control program for the blight. Work is being completed on a predictive model to quantify the extent of spore dispersal, based on accumulated rainfall.
Nutritional Losses in Fruits and Vegetables as a Function of Postharvest Handling and Storage
Authors: Curry Eric A.
Published: February 2019

Present dietary recommendations for fruits and vegetables should be based on the bioavailability of essential nutrients at the time of optimum harvest. Few people, however, are fortunate enough to have available freshly harvested produce all year. With the development of improved postharvest technology, shelf life has increased dramatically in many parts of the world. How does the nutritional quality of fruits and vegetables change with increasing storage time, changes in storage atmosphere, different postharvest processes? Do these changes have an impact on dietary recommendations? Apples are capable of being stored for up to 12 months with properly managed temperature and storage atmosphere. Because information regarding this subject is lacking for apple (and many other fruits and vegetables), perhaps a model can be developed based on work with other commodities to help us understand the nutritional changes associated with different postharvest treatments.
The Horticulture Curriculum at Michigan State University
Authors: Herner Robert C.
Published: February 2019

The Dept. of Horticulture changed its curriculum prior to 1992 to conform to the change from the quarter to the semester system that took place in Fall 1992. As a result of changes in our student body, their interests, and new accounting procedures for determining productivity in our college and the university, another revamping of our curriculum was accomplished beginning in Fall 1992 and our curriculum was changed again to take effect in Fall 1994. Our students now have a choice of a Landscape, Design, Construction Management option or Horticulture. Students all take a two-semester sequence of an Introductory Horticulture course—they must choose a production and management course from three out of four commodity areas (floriculture, landscape, pomology, or vegetable crops), and three out of five upper-division courses in applied physiology or genetics. They must also take a course in Greenhouse Structures and Management and a senior-level capstone course in Horticutural Management. This curriculum has broadened our students' exposure to horticulture to a much greater degree than was present in our old curriculum. In addition, they have about 20–21 credits (out of 120) for electives.
Breeding of Lupinus harvardii as a Specialty Cut Flower Crop
Authors: Mackay Wayne A. , Davis Tim D.
Published: February 2019

The Big Bend bluebonnet, Lupinus havardii Wats., is a showy winter annual native to a narrow geographical range in southwestern Texas with blue, fragrant 0.5–1.0-m-long racemes. The L. havardii raceme has considerable potential in the floral industry, because there is a need for high-quality, durable, raceme-type cut flowers. We began a research and breeding project in 1991 aimed at evaluating the potential for this species as a specialty cut flower. Breeding strategies included the development of selfed populations as well as random pollinations among selected individuals with the aim of improving flower color, uniformity, yield, and postharvest performance. Recurrent phenotypic selection has resulted in the development of blue, pink, and white color lines. Concurrently with the breeding efforts, research on seed germination, greenhouse culture for year-round production, postharvest handling, and shipping requirements have been conducted. Trials have indicated that L. havardii is adaptable to greenhouse culture and that individual plants can produce 15–25 marketable racemes within 4–5 months from sowing. Two years of commercial greenhouse trials have been completed. Blue and white cultivars will be released by Texas A&M Univ. within the next year.
The Chalkboard-less Classroom
Authors: Needham Douglas C
Published: February 2019

Classrooms are radically changing across the nation's campuses. Rooms that were once dominated by bright lights, chalkboards, and overhead projectors are being transformed into multimedia “Master Classrooms,” complete with task lighting, video projectors, visualizers, laserdisk and videotape players, soft boards, and computers. What are these pieces of equipment, how much do they cost, and how can they be implemented into horticultural curriculum? Just as our college students teethed on television programs such as Sesame Street when they were toddlers, they now are continuing to learn through a combination of audio, video, and kinesthetic stimulation in the classroom. Computer hardware and software empowers today's educator with a multimedia development studio on his/her desktop to create simple “slide” presentations or complex, interactive multimedia applications. However, it is not multimedia itself, any more than it was the chalkboard, that makes a powerfully educational presentation; rather it is the educator's creativity, utilization of instructional methods, and delivery. Interactive, multimedia development software allows the educator to address different styles and paces of learning as he or she develops a lesson. Through on-screen hot spots, movable objects, buttons, etc., the educator engages the learner's attention and provides the opportunity for the learner to rehearse a concept as often and repeatedly as necessary to encode the information for later retrieval and application to new concepts. Given the power of this new medium to visually and audibly present information, how does the educator avoid overloading the learner? Although multimedia applications readily engage the learner, it takes careful programming by the educator to maintain and direct the learner's attention to ensure transfer of the information from short- to long-term memory.
Applications of Computer Programming to Specific Horticultural Research Problems
Authors: Lightner G.
Published: February 2019

The personal computer has become a standard research tool and is used in the research process from data collection to publication of results. The volume of computer software increases as personal computers proliferate. Most tasks are accomplished with off-the-shelf products available at any computer store. More specific needs are usually met with commercial software packages supplied by the company providing the research equipment or from a specialized software provider. However, there are specific research needs that are best fulfilled with a custom computer program. An interface between data collection and storage that is more comfortable to the user or a model developed with a narrow scope might be better served with software developed for that application. The development of software for the MARYBLYT fire blight system is presented.
Compost Regulations: Overview of the Status in the United States
Authors: Alexander Ron
Published: February 2019

State and federal regulations relevant to compost marketing and end use can greatly affect the success of a compost distribution and marketing program. Typically, regulations are feedstock-specific and they vary from state to state. They address health, safety, and environmental issues, as well as other concerns of the general public and professional end users. This presentation reviews regulatory approaches adopted by states that are leaders in compost production. It provides insight as to regulatory trends and discusses how they have affected market development to date. Suggestions regarding the improvement or modification of environmental regulations and USDA Acts are also provided.
Biological Control of Plant Diseases with Composts
Authors: Hoitink Harry A.J. , Stone Alex G. , Han David Y. , Zhang Weidzheng , Dick Warren A.
Published: February 2019

Compost offers the potential to suppress root rots and vascular wilts caused by soilborne plant pathogens, as well as plant diseases affecting aerial plant parts. Many factors affect the degree of control obtained. They include the decomposition level (stability) of the compost, the types of microorganisms colonizing the organic matter after peak heating of the compost, plant nutrients released by the compost (fertility), its salinity, loading rates, and other factors. Biocontrol agents in composts induce suppression through various mechanisms, including competition, antibiosis, hyperparasitism, and the induction of systemic resistance in the plant (roots as well as foliage) to pathogens. Examples of each of the effects are reviewed.
Weed Control Consideration in Compost Production and Use
Authors: Ozores-Hampton Monica
Published: February 2019

A rapid increase in municipal solid waste (MSW) production (2 kg/person per day), combined with a decreasing number of operating landfills, has increased waste disposal costs. Composting MSW can be an alternative method of waste disposal to traditional landfilling or incineration. Weed control methods using waste materials such as bark, straw, and sawdust were used in commercial crop production for many years before the advent of chemical weed control. Weed growth suppression by mulching can often be almost as effective as conventional herbicides. A 10 to 15 cm-deep mulch layer is needed to completely discourage weed growth in these systems, and best results are obtained with composted materials. In recent years, composts made from a large variety of waste materials have become available on a commercial scale. Preliminary investigations into the use of MSW compost as a weed control agent have shown that compost, especially in an immature state, applied to row crop middles reduced weed growth due to its high concentration of acetic, propionic, and butyric acids. Subsequently, compost can be incorporated into the soil for the following growing season to potentially improve soil physical and chemical properties. Integrated pest management programs that incorporate biological control should be adopted wherever possible because some weed species with persistent seeds can escape chemical control.
New Proteins for the Control of Insects in Transgenic Crops
Authors: Corbin David R. , Perlak Frederick J. , Fischhoff David A. , Greenplate John T. , Shen Zhen , Purcell John P.
Published: February 2019

Genetically modified potato and cotton crops that express insecticidal proteins from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) have recently been commercialized. These crops display autonomous resistance to specific insect pests, and thus offer major agricultural and environmental benefits. We have implemented a microbial screening program to discover new types of insecticidal proteins for use in transgenic crops. New proteins with diverse modes of action offer opportunities to control insect pests that are not susceptible to Bt insecticidal proteins and to delay or prevent the potential occurrence of resistance of insects to crops genetically modified with Bt genes. Cholesterol oxidase emerged from our screen as a new insecticidal protein with potent activity against the cotton boll weevil. Cholesterol oxidase was acutely toxic to boll weevil larvae, with an LC50 of 2–6 parts per million when ingested in artificial diet feeding assays, and caused marked reductions in fecundity when ingested by adult boll weevils. Cholesterol oxidase also exerted significant, though less severe, toxicity against several lepidopteran pests. The insecticidal action of cholesterol oxidase appears to be due to oxidation of midgut epithelial membrane cholesterol followed by membrane disruption. A cholesterol oxidase gene was cloned and expressed in transgenic tobacco plants to yield plant tissue that exerted potent activity against boll weevil. Expression of this cholesterol oxidase gene in cotton plants may offer significant protection against the cotton boll weevil and may also aid in the mitigation of resistance of cotton lepidopteran pests to Bt proteins.
Biotechnology for the Treatment of Pesticide Waste
Authors: Karns Jeffrey S.
Published: February 2019

The use of microbes and/or microbial processes for the bioremediation of soils contaminated with pesticides is an idea that has enjoyed considerable interest over the past several years. Many microbes with specific pathways for the degradation of particular pesticides, or classes of pesticide, have been isolated and characterized. Unfortunately, most sites that are heavily contaminated with pesticides contain a mixture of the many different types of pesticides that have been used over the last 5 decades. This complex mixture of compounds may inhibit microbial degradation or may require multiple treatments to assure that all the chemicals are degraded. Treatment of wastes before they contaminate the environment is one way to avoid the problems associated with mixed wastes. We have isolated a number of microorganisms that detoxify insecticides, such as carbaryl of parathion via the action of hydrolase enzymes. These enzymes can be used to treat waste pesticide solutions before disposal. A system was developed for the disposal of one high-volume organophosphate insecticide waste by treatment with parathion hydrolase, followed by ozonation to yield harmless products that were readily degraded by other soil microorganisms. A second method for disposal of this waste involves altering the environmental conditions in the waste to stimulate the growth of microorganisms naturally present in the material utilizing the pesticide as a carbon source. This accomplishes degradation of the material over a 2-week period. Many, if not all, pesticides are degradable to some degree by microorganisms, and this fact can be exploited to provide cost-effective methods for the safe disposal of pesticide wastes.
Evaluation of Eight Species for Suitability as Seasonal Cut Foliage
Authors: Pope Torin O. , Beyl Caula A.
Published: February 2019

The Aquifoliaceae and Magnoliaceae families play an important role in seasonal holiday arrangements. For florists, floral designers, and seasonal gift shop owners, there is a great need to find cut foliage species suitable for use in floral displays. Foliage cuttings that retain their appearance, stay green, and do not drop leaves or berries are desired characteristics for greenery used in these displays. Because of their attractive foliage, the following species were chosen: Ilex × attenuata, Ilex vomitoria, Ilex cornuta `Rotunda', Ilex cornuta `Burfordii', Ilex opaca, Osmanthus heterophyllus, Ilex latifolia, and Magnolia grandiflora. For each species, cuttings were taken, fresh weights for these cuttings were obtained, and chlorophyll levels were measured. Measurements forweight and chlorophyll levels were then taken once a day for 5 days. After the five daily measurements, the measurements were taken once a week for 3 weeks. Based upon slow rate of water lost, chlorophyll retention, and visual rating of appearance, the two most suitable species were Osmanthus heterophyllus and Ilex latifolia. The Ilex vomitoria was unsuitable because of the tendency to drop leaves. The Ilex opaca was also unsuitable because of leaf drop and unattractive leaf curling.
Controlling Rhizoctonia solani using Quartenary Benzophenanthridine Alkaloids
Authors: Cuomo Arlette S. , Newman Steven E. , Nassar Hassan H. , Harkrader Ronald J.
Published: February 2019

There are many naturally occurring substances that have the potential to be adapted to modern pest control chemistry. Azadirachtin, an insect growth regulator, is one such naturally occurring compound that has been widely accepted in insect pest management. Quartenary benzophenanthridine alkaloids (QBAs) are known to be effective in the control of crop-damaging fungal diseases. QBAs can be isolated from plants in the Papaveraceae. Extracts of Macleaya cordata, a species rich in QBAs, were formulated for drench application to Cucumis sativa `White Wonder' seedlings. The seedlings were grown in a peat-lite medium using 10-cm plastic pots and inoculated with Rhizoctonia solani. Test formulations were prepared with and without QBAs and applied at 75, 150, and 300 ppm QBAs as a 100 ml/pot drench. The QBA formulations that provided effective control of Rhizoctonia solani lost 20% or fewer seedlings compared to the formulation without QBA, which lost more than 60% of the seedlings. Treated plants were evaluated confirming Rhizoctonia solani infection.
Cultivar Specificity of Jujube using Agrobacterium rhizogenes
Authors: Cooper Christopher M. , Beyl Caula A.
Published: February 2019

Jujube (Ziziphus jujuba), is valued for its fruit, its ornamental quality, and for its use in reforestation. Jujube is considered to be very difficult to root. Five strains of Agrobacterium rhizogenes were tested on eight cultivars of jujube for the induction of roots. Strains of A. rhizogenes used were A4, TR105, AR WT, MT232, and 50. Cultivars of jujube included `Sherwood', `Sugar Cane', `So', `Li', `Silver Hill', `Tiger Tooth', `Lang', and `Contorta'. `Sugar Cane' had the lowest callus rating of the cultivars and `Li' the highest of the cultivars, followed closely by `Tiger Tooth'. `Sugar Cane' consistently had the lowest number of primary and secondary roots, and did not have any tertiary roots. `Li' consistently had the highest number of primary, secondary, and tertiary roots of the cultivars, followed by `Lang'. `Li' had more, longer roots than any of the other cultivars, followed by `Contorta'. `Li' had the best root grade rating of the cultivars. The highest percentage of rooting occurred in `Li' and `Contorta'. `Sugar Cane' had the lowest percentage of rooting. There was no significant effect of strain on any of the rooting parameters measured. Overall, `Li' rooted the best of the cultivars tested in response to Agrobacterium rhizogenes. `Sugar Cane' performed the worst.
Chemical and Physical Evaluation of Tofu from Vegetable Soybean Cultivars
Authors: Ghale G. , Sapra V.T. , Beyl C.A. , Chawan C.B.
Published: February 2019

Soybean, Glycine max (L.) Merril is an annual self-pollinated diploid legume (sub-family Fabaceae). In the 1990s, soybean production in the far east, as in ancient times, was primarily for food consumption. Today, vegetable soybean is the dominant soyfood in Asia and is gaining popularity in the United States because of its versatility and nutrient value. Dozens of different forms of food have been developed from it. Tofu is one of the most important of these. Twenty four cultivars of vegetable soybean from two regional tofu tests (Alabama A&M and Virginia State Univ.) and 10 cultivars from the Alabama A&M Univ. soybean breeding project were evaluated for the physical and chemical characteristic of the resultant tofu. Data on protein, tofu yield, moisture content, tofu texture, and structure were recorded. Shear-force (used to evaluate texture) was determined with a Kramer Shear cell and micro-structure was examined using a scanning electron microscope. Seed protein content ranged from 30 to 54%. Tofu yield ranged from 41.9 to 83.0 g and texture of tofu ranged from 10 to 62.3 lb.
Germination of Selected Turfgrass Seeds under Saline Conditions
Authors: Dehmer Edward S. , Lee Chiwon W.
Published: February 2019

The influence of NaCl concentration on seed germination in blue grama grass (Bouteloua gracilis), salty alkaligrass (Puccinellia distans) and Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis) were investigated. When seeds were germinated in petri dishes containing 0, 2.5, 5.0, 7.5, 10, 12.5, 15, 17.5, 20, 22.5, 25, 27.5, and 30 g·liter–1 NaCl at 22 C for 4 weeks, blue grama grass was most salt-tolerant with 50% germination at 17.5 g·liter–1. The salt concentrations that provided 50% germination for salty alkaligrass and Kentucky bluegrass were 5 and 1.5 g·liter–1, respectively. The upper limits of salinity that allowed any germination were 30 g·liter–1 (1%) for blue grama grass, 27.5 g·liter–1 (1%) for salty alkaligrass, and 5 g·liter–1 (2%) for Kentucky bluegrass. Germination was quickest in blue grama grass (90% germination in 1 week) followed by salty alkaligrass (50% in 3 weeks) and Kentucky bluegrass (50% in 4 weeks). The tissue contents of Na+ and Cl– as influenced by increasing levels of NaCl were also determined.
COOPERATIVE EXTENSION IN THE AGE OF ACCOUNTABILITY
Authors: Ingram Dewayne L.
Published: February 2019

This presentation focuses on driving forces and philosophies in the current Age of Accountability and explores ideas of how to respond. The increased scrutiny faced by all public agencies is requiring that Cooperative Extension approach the issue of accountability a bit differently. We must articulate our objectives and values to specific clientele groups, the general public, and government officials. Hard questions are being asked about past and anticipated return on tax dollars invested in state and federal agencies. The Government Performance and Results Act of 1993 requires “performance based budgeting” for all federal agencies, including the USDA. Each federal agency must develop an action plan with well-defined objectives and anticipated impacts to justify the allocation of federal funds. The overriding theme is not how busy we are and how many activities we can report, but what has been the impact of our efforts.
HORTBASE: AN EXAMPLE OF PROFESSIONAL SOCIETIES' ROLES IN ELECTRONIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS
Authors: Green J. L. , Matylonek J. , Duncan A. , Liss E.
Published: February 2019

HortBase, a global electronic information system for classroom, distance education, lifelong learning and Extension, incorporates three innovative concepts: 1) Three-dimensional team-creation of the electronic information files (subject, communications, and information science authors working together from start to finish to create the file). Team-creation respects, uses, and develops the professional strengths of each of the three team members. 2) National peer review by each file creator's professional society (ASHS, ACE, and ASIS, respectively) not only enhances information quality and continued professional development of the authors, but also creates wider acceptance and use of the information. 3) Nationwide, or even worldwide, distribution of the workload and costs of creation, review, revision, and distribution of the electronic information, rather than individual efforts-expenditures within each state, will minimize redundancy and will enable us to do more as a group and to specialize individually. Capabilities of electronic information systems facilitate, indeed require, this new approach to information development and delivery.
CHARACTER EDUCATION—ITS PLACE IN THE CLASSROOM
Authors: Haque Mary
Published: February 2019

In The Seven Habits of Highly Effective People, Stephen Covey presents a convincing appeal to replace what he calls the “Personality Ethic” with focus on the “Character Ethic” as a foundation of success. Rutger's professor Donald McCabe's 1991 survey reporting that 67% of 6000 college students responding to a survey say they have cheated at least once verifies the need to address basic foundations of character, including honesty and integrity in the college classroom. The question is no longer “Do we need character education?” but rather “How can we implement a process that inspires people to action?” A process involving students in the development of both personal and class codes of ethics has been well received in a sophomore-level landscape appreciation course. Incorporating such codes into all classes would be a logical response to McCabe's study, which revealed that dishonesty is less prevalent at schools with explicit honor codes. Encouraging students to write ethics statements that address high standards of behavior and concern for a greater society and world is a first step toward developing concerned professionals who will serve the public with integrity and understanding after they leave the classroom.
DISTANCE LEARNING—IT'S NOT FOR EVERYONE
Authors: Poling E. B.
Published: February 2019

One of many forms of Distance Learning is “Interactive Video Teleconferencing” (IVT). I was an early user of interactive video for both course teaching and delivery of extension programs in small fruit production. But after 3 years of trying interactive video for delivery of an extension program, “Preplant Considerations for Strawberry Plasticulture Producers,” agents and growers have indicated a strong desire to discontinue the use of this medium in favor of truly “live” regional meetings for the 1996 season. Growers and many agents may have some anxiety about appearing “on TV,” and this leads to fewer questions and reduced audience participation levels when this extension meeting format is used. There is also the additional problem of finding funds to defray the costs associated with IVT programs. An evening broadcast of 2 hours to six university sites on the MCNC network in July 1994 led to charges of more than $700 to the program sponsor, the North Carolina Strawberry Association. Quality interactive video programs require considerable advance planning and program preparation. In cases where this medium is being used only infrequently by the specialist (one or two meetings each year), the audience is basically uncomfortable with the idea of “being on TV” and network costs are high. The advantages of a more traditional extension meeting format will likely outweigh the benefits of distance education via interactive video.
BIOSTIMULANTS CAN INCREASE GROWTH OF GREEN-HOUSE-GROWN ORNAMENTAL ANNUALS
Authors: Gibbons Brian P. , Smalley Timothy J. , Armitage Allan M.
Published: February 2019

Three biostimulants, Grow-plex (Menefee Mining Corp., Dallas), Roots 2 (LISA Product Corp., Independence, Mo.), and Root n' Shoot (Natural Organic Products International, Mount Dora, Fla.) were applied to transplanted plugs of Salvia splendens `Empire Red' and Begonia semperflorens `Varsity Pink' and `Varsity Brite Scarlet'. Root n' Shoot drench (0.78%) solutions at transplant increased root weight, but a 1.56% solution decreased root weight of Salvia, although shoot growth was unaffected. Root n' Shoot decreased shoot growth of Begonia, but did not affect root growth. Roots 2 treatments (0.25% or 2.00%) increased shoot weight of Salvia, but did not affect the root growth of Salvia or the root or shoot growth of Begonia. Spraying Grow-plex (0.78% or 1.56%) to runoff at transplanting and 2 weeks after transplanting did not affect root or shoot growth of Salvia or Begonia.
BA-INDUCED OFFSET FORMATION IN HOSTA DEPENDENT ON CULTIVAR
Authors: Garner James M. , Keever Gary J. , Eakes D. Joseph , Kessler J. Raymond
Published: February 2019

A foliar spray of 0, 1250, 2500, or 3750 mg benzyladenine (BA)/liter was applied to 10 hosta cultivars. Response to BA treatment was cultivar dependent, with BA promoting offset formation in half of the cultivars tested. Increase in offsets compared to the control ranged from 116% in `Francee' to 3500% in `Francis Williams' at 30 days after treatment (DAT) and from 150% in `Royal Standard' to 2250% in `Francis Williams' at 60 DAT with 3750 mg BA/liter. Stage of development, as indicated by the number of unfurled leaves on offsets, was also cultivar and BA dependent. All cultivars treated with 3750 mg BA/liter had an average of three or more unfurled leaves at 60 DAT, while among control plants, 40% of cultivars averaged less than three unfurled leaves. No phytotoxic symptoms were noted in any cultivar, and growth index was either increased or not affected by BA treatment. Chemical name used: N-(phenylmethyl)-1H-purin-6-amine (benzyladenine, BA).