bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Activating Effects of Resources Relative to Threat and Responsibility in Person‐Relative‐to‐Event Theory of Coping With Threat: An Educational Application1
Authors: Mulilis John‐Paul , Duval T. Shelley
Published: August 2006

Person‐relative‐to‐event (PrE) theory is a general theory of coping with threat that emphasizes the relationship between level of appraised threat relative to level of appraised person resources, and personal responsibility (Duval & Mulilis, 1999; Mulilis & Duval, 1995, 1997, in press; Mulilis, Duval, & Bovalino, 2000; Mulilis, Duval, & Rombach, 2001). While the theory has assumed that level of personal responsibility moderates the effects of appraised levels of resources relative to threat, nevertheless it also has been suggested (Mulilis & Duval, 1997) that these processes might, in fact, occur in an independent and parallel manner. Alternatively, Brickman (1987) suggested that a person attributes responsibility for the solution of a problem to self only to the extent that the person perceives that he or she is in control of future events surrounding the problem. Using an academic assessment as the threatening event, the present study was conducted to test these competing assumptions in the context of an educational setting. Results of this investigation support the previous suggestion of the authors that personal responsibility and resources relative to threat appear to operate as independent and parallel cognitive processes in PrE theory. Implications of these results for improved academic performance are discussed.
Applying an Extended Version of the Theory of Planned Behavior to Illicit Drug Use Among Students1
Authors: Mcmillan Brian , Conner Mark
Published: August 2006

This study employed the theory of planned behavior (TPB) to investigate the factors underlying intentions to use and use of LSD, amphetamine, cannabis, and ecstasy over 6 months in a sample of students (N= 461). The TPB provided good predictions of both intentions (mean R2= .49) and behavior (mean R2= .45). Descriptive norms explained additional variance in intentions for all the drugs, and moral norms explained additional variance in cannabis intentions. Attitude variability moderated the impact of attitudes on intentions for LSD (p < .10) and ecstasy (p < .05). Attitude moderated the impact of perceived behavioral control (PBC) on intentions for all drugs (p < .001). PBC moderated the impact of intentions on behavior for LSD (p < .05), amphetamine (p < .10), cannabis (p < .05), and ecstasy (p < .10). These interaction effects elucidate limiting conditions among the variables in the TPB.
The Preliminary Development of the Scale for Effective Communication in Team Sports (SECTS)
Authors: Sullivan Philipm , Feltz Deborah L.
Published: August 2006

Within sport psychology, a vague concept of effective team communication has been broached. Because of a lack of theoretical basis and skewed measurement, this construct is presently misunderstood and underutilized. A total of 681 athletes participated in a series of studies designed to construct a measurement of effective team communication in sports. Independent exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and subsequent confirmatory factor aalysis (CFA) uncovered a 4‐factor model. The 4 emergent factors were defined as Distinctiveness, Acceptance, Positive Conflict, and Negative Conflict. Acceptance, distinctiveness, and positive conflict were consistently positively correlated to all aspects of cohesion, while negative conflict was negatively correlated to task cohesion. Post hoc analyses suggested that male athletes exchanged more distinctiveness and negative conflict than did female athletes. The resultant scale is offered as a theory‐based, data‐driven measurement of effective team communication in sports.
The Effect of a Swarm of Local Tornados on Tornado Preparedness: A Quasi‐Comparable Cohort Investigation1
Authors: Mulilis John‐Paul , Duval T. Shelley , Rogers RandY
Published: August 2006

Previous research has indicated that experience with natural disasters appears to affect the extent to which populations act to mitigate and prepare for these events. Such efforts, however, have failed to disclose precisely why this relationship appears viable. Furthermore, rarely have these investigations included pre‐ and post‐tornado data from similar populations. In an effort to investigate further the effects of the mechanisms underlying the relationship between experience with disasters and preparedness actions, relevant data were assessed for 2 samples from the same population before and after the occurrence of a swarm of local tornados. Results indicate that tornado preparedness levels increased significantly following the tornados. Furthermore, appraised threat of tornados and personal responsibility for preparedness actions also increased significantly following the tornados. Implications of these results are discussed.
Ethnic Differences in Tipping: Evidence, Explanations, and Implications
Authors: Lynn Michael , Thomas‐Haysbert Clorice
Published: August 2006

Anecdotal evidence suggests that many waiters and waitresses deliver poor service to ethnic minorities because they believe that ethnic minorities are poor tippers. How managers should deal with this problem depends in part on whether or not ethnic minorities really do tip less than Whites and (if they do) on when and why this occurs. This paper reports on 2 studies that address these issues. The results indicate that Asians tip less than do Whites in comparisons across (but not within) restaurants and that Blacks tip less than do Whites in comparisons both across and within restaurants. Various explanations for these ethnic differences are tested, and the managerial implications of the results are discussed.
Deterrence and Incapacitation: An Interrupted Time‐Series Analysis of California's Three‐Strikes Law1
Authors: Ramirez Juan R. , Crano William D.
Published: August 2006

Using uniform crime statistics, this research investigates the impact of California's three‐strikes law on instrumental, violent, minor, and drug‐related crimes over the first 5 years of the law's implementation. Autoregressive integrated moving average (ARIMA) models reveal little immediate impact of the law, but significant effects on instrumental crime over time, suggesting an incapacitation effect. After correcting for autocorrelation distortions, less restrictive multiple regression models that test simultaneously for immediate and gradual intervention effects disclose immediate (deterrent) effects on instrumental and minor crimes and arrests, and long‐term (incapacitation) effects on these and violent crimes as well. Drug‐related crimes appear impervious to the three‐strikes law under any analytic model, suggesting the unresponsiveness of such crimes to increasingly severe legal sanctions.
The Effects of Source Credibility and Message Framing on Exercise Intentions, Behaviors, and Attitudes: An Integration of the Elaboration Likelihood Model and Prospect Theory1
Authors: Jones Lee W. , Sinclair Robert C. , Courneya Kerry S.
Published: August 2006

This study examined the influence of source credibility and message framing on promoting physical exercise in university students. Participants were randomly assigned to reading a positively or negatively framed communication that was attributed to either a credible or a noncredible source. Exercise intentions and attitudes were measured immediately following the delivery of the communication and following a 2‐week delay. Exercise behavior was also measured following the delay. There were Source Frame interactions for the exercise intentions, exercise behaviors, and cognitive response/elaboration measures such that participants receiving a positively framed communication from a credible source elaborated more and reported more positive exercise intentions and behaviors than participants in the other conditions. The results of the present investigation indicate that it might be beneficial for health professionals to provide exercise‐related information stressing the benefits of participating in exercise, rather than the traditional fear appeals, to motivate clients to engage in regular physical exercise. Implications for future research are discussed.
At the Threshold of School: Parental Assessments of the Competencies of Their Preschool‐Aged Children
Authors: Räty Hannu
Published: August 2006

The study set out to examine the organization of parental assessments of their children's competencies in terms of the parents’ education and gender and the chil?s gender. Parents with university education (N= 231) and vocational education (N= 343) were asked to appraise their preschool‐aged chil?s competencies in domains pertaining to school subjects and abilities. It was found that parents with university education emphasized cognitive‐verbal competencies when assessing their children, and parents with vocational education emphasized practical competencies. Girls’ competencies were generally assessed more favorably than were boy's. Yet boys were considered to have higher mathematical skills than were girls, and this assessment was further specified by the parents’ educational position. In sum, the organization of parental assessments seemed to have already taken shape by the time the child enters school.
Openness Among Chinese in Conflict: Effects of Direct Discussion and Warmth on Integrative Decision Making1
Authors: Tjosvold Dean , Sun Haifa F.
Published: August 2006

Although not socially valued, open discussion may still be useful for integrating positions and people in conflict in China, especially when complemented with the nonverbal expression of interpersonal warmth. In an experiment with 80 participants in South China, open discussion compared to avoiding was found to develop a cooperative relationship and open‐minded understanding of the opposing view. The communication of warmth, compared to coldness, developed a cooperative, mutually beneficial relationship; exploration of the opposing view; integration of opposing ideas into one's reasoning and decision making; and confidence in future joint work. These results challenge traditional theorizing that open discussion of conflict disrupts relationships and conflict management in China.
Do the “Eyes” Have It? A Program Evaluation of Jane Elliott's “Blue‐Eyes/Brown‐Eyes” Diversity Training Exercise1
Authors: Stewart Tracie L. , Laduke Jacqueline R. , Bracht Charlotte , Sweet Brooke A. M. , Gamarel Kristine E.
Published: August 2006

The effectiveness of Jane Elliott's well‐known “blue‐eyes/brown‐eyes” exercise in reducing college students’ stereotyping and prejudice was assessed. College students were randomly assigned to either the exercise group or a comparison group. Blue‐eyed and brown‐eyed exercise participants were given discriminatory versus preferential treatment, respectively; a procedure purportedly designed to sensitize participants to the emotional and behavioral consequences of discrimination. Participation in the exercise was found to be associated with White students (a) indicating significantly more positive attitudes toward Asian American and Latino/Latina individuals, but only marginally more positive attitudes toward African American individuals; and (b) reporting anger with themselves when noticing themselves engaging in prejudiced thoughts or actions—negative affect that theoretically could prove to be either helpful or detrimental in promoting long‐term reduction of stereotyping and prejudice.
Choosing a Place of Death: The Influence of Pain and of Attitude Toward Death1
Authors: Martineau Isabelle , Blondeau Danielle , Godin Gaston
Published: August 2006

This experimental study sought to verify if factors like pain or attitude toward death can determine the choice of a place of death. Using a questionnaire developed from Triandis’(1980) theory, the influence of pain on the intention of choosing a place of death was measured among 138 respondents. “Attitude toward death,” used as a control variable, was measured by means of the Death Attitude Profile. Variance analyses (p < .008) demonstrated the influence of pain on intention of choosing a place of death and on the cognitive component. Linear regression (p .002) highlighted 2 determinants of intention of choosing a place of death: moral norm and social role. As for attitude toward death, it seems to have no influence on the choice of a place of death.
Need for Cognition Moderates Responses to Framed Smoking‐Cessation Messages1
Authors: Steward Wayne T. , Schneider Tamera R. , Pizarro Judith , Salovey Peter
Published: August 2006

Smoking‐cessation messages usually emphasize the costs of continuing to smoke (loss‐framed). However, prospect theory suggests that messages that instead emphasize the benefits of quitting smoking (gain‐framed) could be more effective than loss‐framed messages because smoking cessation is likely viewed as a cancer‐prevention behavior with a certain rather than a risky outcome. In this study, smokers at public events read brochures containing brief gain‐ or loss‐framed smoking‐cessation messages. The influence of framing was moderated by participants' need for cognition (NFC). Individuals lower in NFC had greater intention to quit after reading a gain‐framed message than after reading a loss‐framed message a finding consistent with our predictions whereas framing did not affect the persuasiveness of messages among people higher in NFC.
Examining the Unique Effects of Multiple Motivational Sources on Task Performance
Authors: Callahan Judith Scully , Brownlee Amy L. , Brtek Mary D. , Tosi Henry L.
Published: August 2006

This paper examines whether multiple motivational sources uniquely influence task performance. Using the established framework in the goal‐setting literature that suggests a pattern of mediated relationships, we test the relationship between assigned goals, incentives, and intrinsic motivation and task performance. The results show that assigned goals, incentives, and intrinsic motivation each positively influence task performance. However, the magnitude of the relationship varies considerably. The relationship for assigned goals was fully mediated by self‐efficacy and self‐set goals, whereas only a direct relationship emerged for incentives. The data reveal both direct and indirect relationships associated with intrinsic motivation.
An Empirical Analysis of Fraternity and Sorority Individual‐Environmental Interactions With Alcohol
Authors: Reis Janet , Trockel Mickey
Published: August 2006

Hierarchical linear modeling was used to analyze fraternity and sorority individual‐environmental interactions for 3,756 Greek undergraduate students at a large public university. Alcohol expectancies were measured with items used to assess the degree to which people believe alcohol has positive effects. For sorority students, expectancies were negatively related to chapter culture emphasizing service and civic responsibility. Expectancies were positively associated with chapter culture emphasizing glorification of alcohol use in both fraternity and sorority chapters. Among sorority students, consumption was predicted by group‐level service orientation, holding expectancies constant. The strength of the relationship between alcohol expectancies and consumption level increased among fraternity and sorority members, according to chapters' progressive exaltation of the role of alcohol. The implications of the findings are discussed for observed gender differences, the role of self‐selection into these unique student organizations, and current efforts to recalibrate Greek chapters toward greater personal safety and control.
Throwing Away the Key: Measuring Prison Reform Attitudes1
Authors: Silvia Paul J.
Published: August 2006

The American prison system is larger than ever and ranks among the largest in the world. Yet, prisons have received little research attention relative to other issues in forensic psychology. In an effort to study one facet of the prison system, a scale for measuring attitudes toward prison reform was developed. The 12‐item scale has a single factor measuring whether people feel prisons should be tougher or softer on inmates. Several studies with diverse samples found that the scale has a consistent factor structure, good reliability, and a coherent pattern of relationships to other psychological variables. The scale appears to be a promising tool for studying how people want to treat those who have been officially rejected by society.
Black‐White Differences in Tipping of Various Service Providers1
Authors: Lynn Michael
Published: August 2006

Data from a national telephone survey revealed 4 general patterns in the tipping behaviors of Blacks and Whites. First, Blacks appear more likely than Whites to stiff commonly encountered service providers, but not less commonly encountered ones. Second, Blacks appear more likely than Whites to leave flat tip amounts to service providers who are commonly tipped a percentage of the bill, but not to service providers who are more rarely tipped a percentage of the bill. Third, Black percentage tippers leave a smaller average percentage of the bill than do White percentage tippers across many service contexts. Finally, Black flat tippers leave larger average dollar tips than do White flat tippers across many service contexts. The theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed briefly.
The Positive Feedback Bias as a Response to Out‐Group Unfriendliness1
Authors: Harber Kent D.
Published: August 2006

This study tests whether Whites provide especially positive feedback to minorities who respond to feedback in an unfriendly manner. White female undergraduates (N = 66) gave verbal feedback to either a Black or a White confederate who posed as the author of a poorly written essay. Confederates responded to participants’ feedback in either a friendly or unfriendly manner. As predicted, participants who gave feedback to an unfriendly Black confederate supplied a selectively higher ratio of positive to negative comments and a selectively higher proportion of positive comments. Participants paired with an unfriendly Black confederate also provided the most positive post‐interaction ratings, despite minimal impression‐management pressures. Collectively, these findings indicate that Whites’ self‐image motives underlie the positive feedback bias.
Confirmatory Factor Analyses of Scores From Full and Short Versions of the Marlowe–Crowne Social Desirability Scale
Authors: Loo Robert , Loewen Pamela
Published: August 2006

Self‐report measures are much used in social psychology. However, such measures are susceptible to response bias. The 33‐item Marlowe–Crowne Social Desirability scale (Crowne & Marlowe, 1960) is widely used to detect social desirability in responding. This study used confirmatory factor analyses and item and scale analyses to evaluate different, time‐saving, short versions of the scale. The results from 633 management undergraduates showed that all the short versions and the 2‐factor model are a significant improvement in fit over the full scale. There were no gender differences on the 14 measures. It is recommended that when the full scale is used, the separate attribution and denial scores are also used. Researchers who decide to use a short version should seriously consider Ballard's (1992) Scale 1 or composite versions because the present study identified these as the best short versions.
Posttraumatic Growth Among HIV/AIDS Patients1
Authors: Milam Joel E.
Published: August 2006

Correlates (n= 835 at Time 1) and predictors (n= 434 at Time 2) of posttraumatic growth (PTG; perceiving positive life changes stemming from diagnosis) over 1.6 years were examined among a diverse sample of HIV/AIDS patients. PTG was common–59% of participants reported to have experienced at least moderate positive changes since diagnosis. At Time 1, PTG had significant negative associations with age, alcohol use, depression, and pessimism; and positive associations with African American ethnicity (vs. White), female gender, eating a healthy diet, and optimism. At Time 2, religiosity was positively associated with PTG. The process of experiencing PTG over time was associated with lower levels of depression over time. Although the underlying process of PTG remains unclear, these results suggest that PTG is worthy of intervention focus.
Is Involvement a Suppressor of the Job Satisfaction–Life Satisfaction Relationship?1
Authors: Moser Klaus , Schuler Heinz
Published: August 2006

Previous research has demonstrated a considerable correlation between job satisfaction and life satisfaction. In addition, various researchers have hypothesized that job importance (work involvement) should be a moderator of this relationship. However, most empirical tests did not confirm this assumption. We argue that job importance cannot turn out to be a moderator because the subjective importance of work is already part of job–satisfaction judgments, a notion that has been advanced by Locke (1969) as implicit importance weighting. However, a suppressor effect can be predicted because job importance should be correlated with job satisfaction, but not life satisfaction. In a study of recently hired incumbents (N= 811) in a large German electronics company, we distinguished between job involvement and work involvement. We considered the latter, but not the former, being a measure of job importance. Work involvement, but not job involvement, turned out to be a suppressor of the relation between job satisfaction and life satisfaction.
Healthy Eating Self‐Schema and Nutrition Behavior1
Authors: Kendzierski Deborah , Costello Marcia Cauley
Published: August 2006

The nutrition behavior of female college students who differed in healthy eater self‐schema status was investigated. Forty‐nine female students enrolled in a nutrition class (27 schematics, 22 nonschematics) provided 4‐day food diaries. Analyses revealed that students who saw themselves as healthy eaters consumed more fiber and less total fat than did those without such a self‐schema. In addition, higher percentages of healthy eater schematics met the dietary guidelines for fiber, total fat, and dietary cholesterol. No group differences were found for either saturated fat or sugar intake.
Truth, Lies, and Self‐Presentation: How Gender and Anticipated Future Interaction Relate to Deceptive Behavior1
Authors: Tyler James M. , Feldman Robert S.
Published: August 2006

The present study hypothesized that gender and expectation of future interaction affects the frequency and nature of lying. Male and female participants (208 undergraduates) were randomly assigned to same‐ or opposite‐gender partners and given the expectation they either would not meet again or would meet 3 additional times. Participants engaged in a 10‐min conversation that was videotaped covertly. Later, target participants evaluated the videotape identifying lies they told. During the conversation, 78% of participants lied, with females lying significantly more than males. Females, but not males, lied more when expecting future interaction than when expecting no future interaction. The nature of lies also varied between women and men. Findings suggest women and men differentially use deception as a self‐presentational tactic.
Presidential Scandal and Leadership: A Natural Laboratory Test of the Resiliency of President Clinton's Transformational Leadership During the Impeachment Crisis1
Authors: Pillai Rajnandini , Stites‐Doe Susan , Brodowsky Glen
Published: August 2006

This study examined transformational and charismatic leadership assessments of President Clinton over 4 time periods beginning with his second term, continuing through the scandal of the Monica Lewinsky case and impeachment trial, and ending after he was acquitted. Our findings indicate that as the scandal unfolded, in general his leadership ratings declined among Democrats, Republicans, and “Others” (including Independents). However, his ratings did not decline at the same rate among all groups. They appeared to decline much more steeply with Republicans than with the other 2 groups. We discuss the differences in rates of decline among different factors of transformational leadership and the implications of the study for future research.
Perceptions of Singles and Single Parents: A Laboratory Experiment1
Authors: Eby Lillian T. , Allen Tammy D. , Noble Carrie L. , Lockwood Angie L.
Published: August 2006

Two hundred forty undergraduates rated their perceptions of an individual for a job requiring relocation using a 2 × 3 (Gender: Single Male, Single Female × Child: No Child, 3‐Year‐Old, 6‐Year‐Old) between‐subjects experimental design. Findings indicate that single parents are perceived as having a more difficult time adjusting to a move but are also perceived to be more mature than childless singles. Single parents are also more likely to be offered a job that did not require relocation and are more likely to be awarded a merit‐based stipend than childless singles. Support was also found for the hypothesized mediating role of perceptions of adjustment and maturity in understanding actions taken toward single parents. The results are discussed in terms of implications for future research and applied practice.
The Effects of Values on Worries Associated With Acute Disaster: A Naturally Occurring Quasi‐Experiment1
Authors: Frink Dwight D. , Rose Gregory M. , Canty Ann L.
Published: August 2006

On April 12, 1995, a bomb exploded in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, destroying a federal office building, killing 168 people, and upending American notions of safety and security in the heartland. Using data collected before, immediately after, and 1 year after the bombing from 3 samples living within 25 miles of the explosion in a naturally occurring quasi‐experiment, research examined effects of values on people's worries in the context of a macrolevel traumatic event. High self‐transcendence and conservation values correlated with higher macro‐worries immediately after vs. before the explosion, but these worries were lower 1 year later. Findings indicate that values emphasizing broader social perspectives were associated with higher macrolevel worries, while values emphasizing one's own life and welfare were not.
The Persuasiveness of Source Credibility: A Critical Review of Five Decades' Evidence
Authors: Pornpitakpan Chanthika
Published: August 2006

This paper reviews the empirical evidence of the effect of credibility of the message source on persuasion over a span of 5 decades, primarily to come up with recommendations for practitioners as to when to use a high‐ or a low‐credibility source and secondarily to identify areas for future research. The main effect studies of source credibility on persuasion seem to indicate the superiority of a high‐credibility source over a low‐credibility one. Interaction effect studies, however, show source credibility to be a liability under certain conditions. The variables found to interact with source credibility are categorized into 5 categories: source, message, channel, receiver, and destination variables. The most heavily researched variables have been the message and receiver variables. Implications for marketers/advertisers and suggestions for future research are discussed.
The Importance and Place of Neuroticism in Predicting Burnout in Employment Service Case Managers
Authors: Goddard Richard , Patton Wendy , Creed Peter
Published: August 2006

This study investigated the ability of neuroticism to explain variance in burnout scores obtained from a sample of Australian case managers who work with individuals experiencing unemployment. Using a longitudinal survey methodology, 70 case managers completed the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI; Maslach, Jackson, & Leiter, 1996) on 2 occasions. Case managers also completed the Work Environment Scale (Moos, 1994) and the short form of the revised Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (Eysenck & Eysenck, 1991) on the first occasion. In a series of hierarchical regression analyses, neuroticism added significantly to the explanation of variance in all 3 MBI subscales after summary scores describing work stress and work relationships had been entered at an earlier step. An investigation of whether emotional exhaustion mediated the influence of neuroticism on depersonalization found that emotional exhaustion satisfied the criteria for complete mediation.
Cross‐Cultural Misunderstandings Reduce Empathic Responding1
Authors: Nelson Donna Webster , Baumgarte Roger
Published: August 2006

An experiment was conducted with American college students to determine whether differences in cultural perspectives might act as an impediment to empathic responding. Participants read about targets who experienced distress in a social context and who assumed a perspective that was consistent or inconsistent with norms typical of U.S. culture. When evaluating targets with a dissimilar as opposed to similar cultural perspective, participants exhibited a lack of perspective taking, perceiving those responses as inappropriate, atypical, and dissimilar to their own likely response in that situation. They also tended to attribute dissimilar targets' distress to dispositional as opposed to situational forces, essentially assigning them more blame. Further, emotional empathy, including feelings of compassion and sympathy were lessened with respect to targets whose responses reflected unfamiliar cultural norms. Path analyses indicated that inadequate appreciation of the different cultural perspective could account for much of the reduction in empathic concern. Results suggest that lack of perspective taking with regard to divergent cultural norms may compromise cross‐cultural exchanges of tolerance and compassion.
Effects of Anti‐Rape Video Content on Sexually Coercive and Noncoercive College Men's Attitudes and Alcohol Expectancies
Authors: Stephens Kari A. , George William H.
Published: August 2006

Despite the growth of campus rape‐prevention programs, the role of individual differences in moderating program effects has been largely ignored. We hypothesized that the effects of anti‐rape videotape content—typical of such programs—would depend on men's past sexual coerciveness. After watching an anti‐rape or control video, coercive (n= 22) and noncoercive (n= 23) men were compared on attitudes toward women, rape‐myth acceptance, and sex‐related alcohol expectancies. As hypothesized, effects of the videotape were moderated by coerciveness. For the noncoercives, the anti‐rape video resulted in lower rape‐myth acceptance and sex‐related alcohol expectancy scores than the control video. Coercives—who presumably most need to be deterred—exhibited no such effects. We discuss the relevance of these findings for rape‐prevention programs.
Test Difficulty and Stereotype Threat on the GRE General Test1
Authors: Stricker Lawrence J. , Bejar Isaac I.
Published: August 2006

This study investigated (a) the ability to minimize or eliminate stereotype threat by reducing the difficulty of items administered via a computer‐adaptive version of the Graduate Record Examinations General Test; and (b) the generalizability of these findings for Black students as well as women, and for verbal as well as quantitative sections of the test. Standard and easier versions of the test, and measures of stereotype threat and possible symptoms or sequelae of stereotype threat were administered to students bound for graduate school or already there. Reducing test difficulty did not have any differential effects on test performance or on explicit indexes of stereotype threat for White and Black students, and for men and women, that were statistically and practically significant. However, such effects did occur for some symptoms or sequelae, mainly for White students and women.
Stereotype Threat, Inquiring About Test Takers' Ethnicity and Gender, and Standardized Test Performance1
Authors: Stricker Lawrence J. , Ward William C.
Published: August 2006

Steele and Aronson (1995) found that the performance of Black research participants on ability test items portrayed as a problem‐solving task, in laboratory experiments, was affected adversely when they were asked about their ethnicity. This outcome was attributed to stereotype threat: Performance was disrupted by participants' concerns about fulfilling the negative stereotype concerning Black people's intellectual ability. The present field experiments extended that research to other ethnic groups and to males and females taking operational tests. The experiments evaluated the effects of inquiring about ethnicity and gender on the performance of students taking 2 standardized tests—the Advanced Placement Calculus AB Examination, and the Computerized Placement Tests—in actual test administrations. This inquiry did not have any effects on the test performance of Black, female, or other subgroups of students that were both statistically and practically significant.
The Relationship Between Goal Orientation and Self‐Efficacy for Exercise
Authors: Cumming Jennifer , Hall Craig
Published: August 2006

This study examined exercisers' motivational profiles and investigated whether different combinations of task and ego orientation would reflect different levels of coping and task self‐efficacy. Male (n= 106) and female (n= 174) exercisers were administered an exercise version of the Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire (Duda & Nicholls, 1992) and an instrument measuring coping and task self‐efficacy. The results of a K‐means cluster analysis on the questionnaire scores resulted in a 5‐cluster solution that maximized between‐group differences and minimized within‐group differences. A MANOVA indicated that the different cluster groups could be distinguished by their coping and task self‐efficacy. More specifically, exercisers with high levels of task orientation, regardless of their corresponding levels of ego orientation, were characterized by having higher levels of self‐efficacy than exercisers with low levels of task orientation combined with low to high levels of ego orientation.
Negative Interpretations of Interpersonal Situations and the Relation Between Low Perceived Support and Psychological Distress Among Divorced Adults1
Authors: Lakey Brian , Drew Jana Brittain , Anan Ruth M. , Sirl Kimberly , Butler Chris
Published: August 2006

This research tested hypotheses for a mechanism by which low perceived support may lead to psychological distress. According to social‐cognitive models, perceived support guides the interpretation of interpersonal situations. People with low perceived support interpret these situations more negatively than do people with high perceived support, and these negative interpretations lead to psychological distress. This mechanism is hypothesized to be distinct from similar mechanisms involving other social‐cognitive constructs, such as dysfunctional attitudes. These hypotheses were tested in 2 samples of adults adjusting to divorce. The data were consistent with predictions. Implications for understanding low perceived support's relation to distress and adults' adjustment to divorce were discussed.
Reactions Toward Mental, Physical, and Substance‐Abuse Disorders
Authors: Kymalainen Jennifer A. , Weisman Amy
Published: August 2006

In this study, participants read 3 separate vignettes describing a hypothetical sibling with each of the following disorders: substance abuse, schizophrenia, and a physical illness. As hypothesized, and consistent with attribution theory, the hypothetical patient with a substance‐abuse disorder was perceived as having the most control over his or her illness and the associated symptoms, and the patient described as having a physical illness was perceived as having the least control over his or her illness. Also in support of attribution theory, the hypothetical patient described as having a substance‐abuse disorder elicited the most negative emotional reactions from participants, and the patient described as having a physical illness elicited the least negative emotional reactions. Again in support of attribution theory and study hypotheses, participants reported the most willingness to help a physically ill hypothetical sibling.
Studying, Practicing, and Mastering: A Test of the Model of Goal‐Directed Behavior (MGB) in the Software Learning Domain
Authors: Leone Luigi , Perugini Marco , Ercolani Anna Paola
Published: August 2006

The present study tested the model of goal‐directed behavior (MGB). The model proposes that behavioral intentions to perform instrumental behaviors are primarily motivated by desires to perform the acts. In turn, desires mediate the effects of attitudes, subjective norms, perceived control, and anticipated emotions on intentions. Construct validity for MGB variables is assessed, and the predictive utility of the MGB is compared with that of the theory of planned behavior (TPB). College students (N= 102) provided measures for MGB and TPB variables while participating in a training program to use statistical software. We focused on two goal‐related instrumental behaviors: studying handbooks and practicing with the package. The results show that the MGB accounts for a greater proportion of variance in intentions and instrumental behaviors than does TPB. Although desires mediate most of the effects of other predictors on intentions to perform the instrumental behaviors, it is proposed that when the behavior is normatively relevant, or when self‐efficacy appraisals play a major role, subjective norms and perceived behavioral control may directly affect intentions.
The Effects of Gender‐Stereotyped Radio Commercials1
Authors: Hurtz Wilhelm , Durkin Kevin
Published: August 2006

It is well established that mass‐media content often presents strong traditional gender stereotypes, but relatively little is known of the effects of exposure to such content. This study investigates the impact of gender‐stereotyped radio commercials on listeners' self‐ratings of masculinity and femininity and on the efficiency with which they performed memory tasks that included gender‐stereotyped trait terms. No effect on self‐rating was obtained. Clear effects on information processing efficiency were found, with participants exposed to the stereotyped commercials showing superior performance on memory for trait words and on a secondary task. It is concluded that repetitive exposure to gender stereotypes via the media does promote the accessibility of stereotype‐related cognitions.
Effects of Prejudicial Pretrial Publicity From Physical and Witness Evidence on Mock Jurors' Decision Making1
Authors: Shaw Jerry I. , Skolnick. Paul
Published: August 2006

The effects of prejudicial pretrial publicity (PTP) from physical and witness evidence on decisions made by trained and untrained mock jurors were compared. Mock jurors viewed a videotaped rape trial and participated in jury deliberations. Training consisted of completion of a university course on psychology and law. As expected, physical evidence PTP produced more guilty votes than witness or no PTP. Both types of PTP influenced untrained mock jurors' punishment preferences and perceptions of satisfaction and fairness, whereas trained mock jurors' opinions on these measures were unaffected by PTP. Deliberations of trained mock juries were more task‐oriented and focused on relevant evidence and legal issues than that of their untrained peers. Limitations of this mock jury study were discussed.
Attitudes Toward Employing Persons With Disabilities: A Test of the Sympathy‐Discomfort Categories
Authors: Loo Robert
Published: August 2006

While persons with disabilities comprise approximately 17% of American and Canadian populations, they comprise a mere 3% of the workforce. This study examined the attitudes of 231 Canadian management undergraduates toward employing persons with disabilities. Participants were assigned to MacLean and Gannon's (1995) fourfold table of low‐high combinations of the sympathy and discomfort scales derived from the Interaction With Disabled Persons scale (IDP; Gething, 1991). Results showed that the fourfold classification of attitudes was useful in identifying differences in attitudes, as measured by the 13‐item Attitudes Toward Employing Persons With Disabilities instrument (ATEPD; Loo, 2002). Scores on the IDP and ATEPD were independent of social desirability scores. Recommendations are presented for organizations and educators to promote positive attitudes toward employees with disabilities.
Age Discrimination in Personnel Decisions: A Reexamination1
Authors: Weiss Elizabeth M. , Maurer Todd J.
Published: August 2006

Rosen and Jerdee's (1976a) classic study on age discrimination, conducted over 25 years ago, was replicated in the present study. In the original study, participants rated older targets as being less desirable and suitable in a variety of work‐related scenarios. In contrast, participants in the current study rated older and younger targets as similarly qualified and suitable for promotion, training, and hiring. The discontinuity between the results of the 2 studies is discussed, and explanations involving both social change and methodological factors are suggested.
Self‐Presentation in Exercise Contexts: Differences Between High and Low Frequency Exercisers
Authors: Gammage Klmberley L. , Hall Craig R. , Ginis Kathleen A. Martin
Published: August 2006

The present study investigated the relationship between cognitive manifestations of self‐presentation (social physique anxiety, self‐presentational efficacy, impression motivation, and exercise imagery) and exercise behavior in 235 female exercisers. Each participant completed the Social Physique Anxiety Scale, a measure of self‐presentational efficacy, the impression motivation subscale of the Self‐Presentation in Exercise Questionnaire, and the Exercise Imagery Questionnaire. The results of a MANCOVA indicated high‐frequency exercisers reported higher levels of efficacy expectancy, outcome value, and exercise imagery than did low‐frequency exercisers. Semi‐partial correlations showed efficacy expectancy, outcome expectancy, and appearance imagery each accounted for significant variance in social physique anxiety, independent of other predictors. Self‐presentational efficacy expectancy appears to be a potent variable in both exercise behavior and social physique anxiety.
Temperature, City Size, and the Southern Subculture of Violence: Support for Social Escape/Avoidance (SEA) Theory1
Authors: Cohn Ellen G. , Rotton James , Peterson Amy G. , Tarr Deborah B.
Published: August 2006

A review of timc‐period research on temperature and aggression led the authors to hypothesize that southern subculture and sociodemographic variables are responsible for geographical differences in I1.S. homicide rates. It was also hypothesized that temperature's correlation with nonhomicidal violencc would be stronger in small than large cities. These hypotheses were tested by obtaining cross‐sectional data on I0 temperature indexes, 11 sociodemographic controls, percentage southern horn, and crime rates in more than 300 U.S. cities in 1990. Partial correlation analyses indicated that percentage southern born and sociodernographic variables rather than temperature predicted homicide rates. Moderator variable regression analyses indicated that relationships between temperature and nonhomicidal violence were stronger in small than large cities. The results are interpreted in terms of a social escapeiavoidance model of criminal behavior, which predicts that low as well as high temperatures lead co‐offenders to avoid social contact.
The Effects of Type and Level of Personal Involvement on Information Search and Problem Solving1
Authors: ILLIES JODY J. , REITER‐PALMON RONI
Published: August 2006

The effects of type and level of personal involvement on information search and problem solving were investigated in a laboratory setting. Participants were given a problem eliciting high value involvement, high outcome involvement, or low involvement. Before providing a solution to the problem, participants had the opportunity to search for additional information about the problem using a computer. The amount of information searched and the time spent searching were measured, as was the quality of problem solutions. Results showed that increases in information search resulted in more original and more appropriate problem solutions. Results also revealed that solution originality and appropriateness were highest among participants who were involved because the problem's outcome was relevant to them and lowest among participants who were involved because the problem affected their values and morals. The results of this study indicate that high involvement may not be universally beneficial to the generation of high‐quality problem solutions.
Primacy of Affect Over Cognition in Determining Adult Men's Condom–Use Behavior: A Review1
Authors: Norton Tina R. , Bogart Laura M. , Cecil Heather , Pinkerton Steven D.
Published: August 2006

Prior research suggests that failure to use condoms can be understood within the context of condom‐related attitudes. We reviewed quantitative and qualitative literature on adult men's condom‐use attitudes; condom‐related attitudinal beliefs were classified as cognitive (e.g., effectiveness) or affective (e.g., pleasure‐related), and their relationships to behavior were examined. To determine differences in the effects of cognitive and affective beliefs, we conducted a critical qualitative review, a meta‐analysis, and a “vote‐count.” In support of the primacy of affect hypothesis (Zajonc, 1984), cognitive beliefs were weaker predictors of condom use than were affective beliefs. Results suggest that HIV‐prevention interventions will have greater success by addressing negative affective reactions to condom use in addition to promoting the protective value of condoms.
Multidimensional Role Ambiguity and Role Satisfaction: A Prospective Examination Using Interdependent Sport Teams
Authors: Beauchamp Mark R. , Bray Steven R. , Eys Mark A. , Carron Albert V.
Published: August 2006

This study examined the prospective relationships between multidimensional role ambiguity and role satisfaction using interdependent sports teams. Midseason perceptions of role ambiguity and role satisfaction were recorded by 246 British secondary school rugby (n= 156) and field hockey (n= 90) players. One month later, role satisfaction was assessed again, along with a measure of dispositional negative affectivity. After controlling for the influence of negative affectivity and midseason role satisfaction, midseason role ambiguity explained significant variance in late‐season offensive and defensive role satisfaction. Findings support a prospective relationship between role ambiguity and role satisfaction, as predicted by theory (Kahn et al., 1964), and underscore the necessity of controlling for “third” variables. From an applied perspective, results also highlight the importance of ensuring that role ambiguity is avoided within interdependent sports teams.
Depressive Symptoms and Health Among Cardiovascular Disease Patients in Cardiac Rehabilitation Programs1
Authors: Bennett Kymberley K. , Elliott Marta
Published: August 2006

This study examined relations between depressive symptoms and health outcomes among 79 patients participating in cardiac rehabilitation. Results showed cross‐sectional negative associations between depressive symptoms and cardiac symptom appraisals at the beginning (Time 1) and end (Time 2) of rehabilitation. No longitudinal effects of depressive symptoms on cardiovascular functioning were found. Results also showed that improvements in depressive symptoms from Time 1 to Time 2 were related to improvements in cardiac symptom appraisals from Time 1 to Time 2. These results support the deleterious effects of depression on cardiovascular functioning. Findings such as these may help to understand the processes by which proximal health outcomes are affected by cardiac rehabilitation, thereby elucidating mechanisms linking depression to long‐term cardiovascular health.