bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Parasites in marine food webs
Authors: McLaughlin John P. , Morton Dana N. , Lafferty Kevin D.
Published: May 2020

Parasites have important and unique impacts on marine food webs. By infecting taxa across all trophic levels, parasites affect both bottom-up and top-down processes in marine systems. When host densities are high enough, parasites can regulate or even decimate their populations, causing regime shifts in marine systems. As consumers and resources, parasites are enmeshed in food webs in ways that are different from free-living species. Their unique lifestyle renders parasites more susceptible to perturbations than their free-living hosts. As a result, parasites serve as useful indicators of ecosystem integrity. A theory for how food webs affect parasites will help us better understand why a particular infectious disease has become problematic, give insight into how restoration might reduce a costly marine disease, or let us use parasites as indicators to follow changes in food-web complexity.
Diagnosing marine diseases
Authors: Frasca, Jr Salvatore , Gast Rebecca J. , Bogomolni Andrea L. , Szczepanek Steven M.
Published: May 2020

Infectious disease concerns are paramount when considering the health of the oceans and seas of the world. Understanding the ecology of disease in marine environments requires knowledge of diagnostic principles and techniques. Morphologic and molecular approaches exist that allow for the detection of infectious agents from marine life and from the marine environment. However, detection of infection may not be the equivalent of a diagnosis of disease. Disease determination requires recognition of anatomic, biochemical, and molecular features that are characteristic of the disease state and that identify pathogenic organisms. Disease investigations in marine scenarios can be complex and may engage concurrently a wide variety of techniques including microbiological culture and isolation, histotechnological procedures performed on arrays of tissue samples, immunohistochemical methodologies, and nucleic acid-based techniques that make use of genetic, genomic, transcriptomic, and metagenomic data. Effective use of these techniques requires knowledge of their capabilities and limitations so that appropriate selection, proper application, and accurate interpretation can be made.
Modelling marine diseases
Authors: Ben-Horin Tal , Bidegain Gorka , de Leo Giulio , Groner Maya L. , Hofmann Eileen , McCallum Hamish , Powell Eric
Published: May 2020

The unique characteristics of marine ecosystems have pushed investigators to refine well-tested and widely applied epidemiological modeling methods to understand marine disease dynamics. This chapter begins by reviewing models used to quantify within-host parasite dynamics in open marine ecosystems where infection is near universal. These models are powerful tools for quantifying how diseases respond to changing environmental conditions and, when reliable environmental data are available, can forecast marine disease risks into the future. This chapter then describes epidemiological models that consider transmission processes and parasite life histories unique to marine systems, and then incorporates disease processes in fisheries assessment models. Finally, because disease dynamics vary across local host populations, this chapter concludes by overviewing ocean circulation models and their use in understanding parasite dispersal and spread in marine ecosystems.
Images of Belfast
Authors: Lavan Rosie
Published: May 2020

Seamus Heaney lived for over a decade in Belfast. The city was the site of many formative experiences and he began his career as a poet there, yet his work betrays little fondness for it. This chapter examines Heaney’s evolving relationship with Belfast at a critical moment in the city’s recent history, through his prose, poetry, and work for television in the late 1960s and early 1970s. It stresses the importance of other places, specifically Berkeley and Madrid, in reforming his view of Belfast and, informed by contemporary visual theory, it looks closely at his responses to violence in poetry and visual art, and especially the work of Goya, in his developing exploration of the ethics of representation.
Obstacles to Freedom? Obstacles to Responsibility?
Authors: Coope Ursula
Published: May 2020

This chapter raises three puzzles for the Neoplatonists. The first concerns ignorance and knowledge. How can we be responsible for our vicious activity if all such activity is involuntary and stems from ignorance? Conversely, how can knowledgeable contemplation be free, given that contemplation depends on the thing contemplated? The second puzzle concerns desire. If our passions drag us about and prevent us from being free, why doesn’t a rational desire for the good also count as dragging us about, and enslaving us to the good? If our passions enslave us, then how can we be responsible for what we do when we act on such passions? The third puzzle concerns fate. Why is freedom compatible with subjection to causation from above, but not compatible with subjection to fate? And how can we be responsible for what we do when we are enslaved to fate?
Responsibility and the Myth of Er
Authors: Coope Ursula
Published: May 2020

This chapter discusses certain puzzles arising from Plato’s myth of Er. How can the doctrine of the transmigration of souls be reconciled with human responsibility? How can the human soul control (and be responsible for) its activities during life if these activities are entirely determined by its pre-life choice? Plotinus argues that the soul made its pre-life choice by the way it lived its previous life. This choice influences, without fully determining, how the soul will lead its next life. Porphyry argues that the soul makes two choices, and that its choice of the way it will live a particular life is made during that very life. Proclus argues that no pre-life choice is such as to prevent the soul from living virtuously during the life it has chosen, and that rational souls are to blame when they choose badly, because they contain within themselves ‘unerring standards’ for choosing correctly.
Plotinus on Responsibility and Having a Free Principle
Authors: Coope Ursula
Published: May 2020

This chapter considers Plotinus’s claim that human beings are subject to blame (in a way other animals are not) because they possess a ‘free principle’. It argues that the ‘free principle’ is the soul’s undescended intellectual part, and asks how having such a free principle could be relevant to responsibility. Sections 2 and 3 suggest two answers. (i) Because the human soul has a ‘free principle’, it can achieve freedom by uniting itself with this part. It only needs to focus its attention on the free, self-intellective activity in which it is already, though unconsciously, engaged. (ii) The rational soul’s possession of an undescended intellectual part influences its ability to engage in ordinary reasoning. This suggests that, provided the soul can engage in ordinary reasoning, it will have (even when acting badly) a kind of access to the correct standards in its undescended part.
Proclus on Self-movement and the logoi Within
Authors: Coope Ursula
Published: May 2020

Proclus argues that we human beings are both dependent and responsible. We are moved by the gods but also self-moved. We are responsible because of the way in which our souls are self-moving. Section 1 explains how Proclus reconciles human responsibility with the operation of providence. He claims that our actions are atemporally determined but nevertheless contingent. The later sections explain Proclus’s view that our responsibility is grounded in our capacity to improve ourselves. Proclus illustrates this by explaining how Socrates, in Plato’s dialogues, helps his interlocutors to improve themselves. We can improve ourselves by making use of the logoi within our souls. Because even our bad desires are influenced by these logoi within us, when we act badly we retain a kind of access to the correct standards. By reflecting on our own bad desires we can come to grasp the correct standards stored within us.
Fundamental and Derived Quantities
Authors: Wolff J. E.
Published: May 2020

A widespread view in metaphysics holds that some properties, perfectly natural ones, have an elite status among properties. As part of a naturalistic approach to metaphysics, it is commonly presumed that science—in particular physics—will reveal which properties in fact play the role of these elite properties. Since properties in physics are often quantitative, this raises the question whether all quantities are elite properties, or whether there is a distinction between fundamental and non-fundamental quantities, with only the former being candidates for elite properties. In this chapter I investigate whether the distinction between base quantities and derived quantities found in systems of units can serve as a basis for distinguishing between fundamental and non-fundamental quantities. My conclusion is aporetic: it seems clear that not all quantities are equally fundamental, yet a general criterion for fundamentality (or non-fundamentality) based on physics alone remains elusive.
Super-Humeanism: The Canberra Plan for Physics
Authors: Esfeld Michael
Published: May 2020

The chapter argues for a metaphysics in the vein of the Canberra plan, namely to single out a minimal, basic set of entities and then to show how everything else is located in that set by being identical with something in that set and how the propositions that describe the basic entities entail all the other true propositions. The chapter conceives the Canberra plan for the domain of the natural sciences as a naturalized metaphysics that is not committed to a priori entailment. The proposal is that the minimal set of entities is defined by the following two axioms: (1) There are distance relations that individuate simple objects, namely matter points. (2) The matter points are permanent, with the distances between them changing. Finally, the chapter explains how the Canberra plan sets a clear standard for ontological issues that go beyond the natural sciences.
Tunisia
Authors: Eibl Ferdinand
Published: May 2020

This chapter substantiates the causal mechanism at the micro-level by retracing the emergence and development of social policies in Thnisia. A primary goal of the case studies is to provide empirical evidence for a link between intra-elite conflict and social policies and spending. The author relies on three types of primary source: archival material; autobiographies of key actors; and interviews with former policy makers. A particular focus is the role of the ruler, Bourguiba, and his impact on early social policies. Highlighting Bourguiba’s opposition to important social policy reforms, the chapter backs up the author’s claim that ideology and the ruler’s personality played a secondary role in shaping social policies. The chapter also sets out to explain the persistence of social spending following divergence. It highlights the key mechanisms of path dependence in the Tunisian case, using the examples of food and energy subsidies and the 2004 health care reform.
Methods of Researching Online Communities
Authors: Jemielniak Dariusz
Published: May 2020

The chapter presents the idea of Thick Big Data, a methodological approach combining big data sets with thick, ethnographic analysis. It presents different quantitative methods, including Google Correlate, social network analysis (SNA), online polls, culturomics, and data scraping, as well as easy tools to start working with online data. It describes the key differences in performing qualitative studies online, by focusing on the example of digital ethnography. It helps using case studies for digital communities as well. It gives specific guidance on conducting interviews online, and describes how to perform narrative analysis of digital culture. It concludes with describing methods of studying online cultural production, and discusses the notions of remix culture, memes, and trolling.
Kenya
Authors: Upadhyaya Radha
Published: May 2020

In Kenya the impetus for Basel implementation has come from the regulator, the Central Bank of Kenya (CBK), which is highly independent, has strong links to international policy networks, and is very receptive to international policy ideas. Since 2003, the incumbent politicians have also been keen to adopt the latest international standards in order to attract investment into Kenya’s financial sector. Meanwhile, as the banking sector is relatively well capitalized, there has been little opposition from banks, with some international and large local banks being mildly in favour of Basel II and III adoption. In the Kenyan case the regulator has been the driving force for Basel adoption, supported by internationally oriented politicians and banks.
Early “Italian” Scholars of Ius Gentium
Authors: Storti Claudia
Published: May 2020

Between the twelfth and fifteenth centuries several issues led jurists to rethink the international legal order established in the Roman Empire and the Early Middle Ages. The first was the need to update the list of the law of nations legitimate subjects after the birth of the commune that had not been accounted for in Roman-law sources. The second was to recreate a superior and universally shared set of ‘public’ law rules for international relations to counteract the tendency of communal and monarchical governments to consider the law inter gentes as a form of internal law. In order to address this issue Bartolus of Sassoferrato adapted the Roman category of ius gentium to the features of the medieval geopolitical context. Other topics focused on defining the enemy, freedom of peoples, and treaties among unequal subjects, while the theory of ius gentium of Alberico Gentili was fully rooted in the medieval and early modern legal tradition.
Time in Action
Authors: Gallagher Shaun
Published: May 2020

In this chapter I explore the micro-structures of action and the perceptual aspects that accompany action, in order to show how at a very basic level they self-organize into processes that support the intentional lives of agents. The intrinsic temporality of action is shaped in part by the fact that action is dynamically embodied and situated. Initial and boundary conditions are determined not simply by anatomical and neural parameters but also by the circumstances that individuate actions, including agent-related aspects (like intention, motivation, skill, knowledge—but also things like fatigue, physical condition, processes associated with age, emotional experience, starting posture, etc.) and world-related aspects (like facts about objects and physical arrangements, and people in the action environment). This intrinsic temporality is reflected at the macro level (on the narrative scale) where actions are always situated in a world of meaning, and intentions are always future-oriented towards the possibilities of transcending present circumstances.
Runaway Dispersal in Social Species
Authors: Oro Daniel
Published: May 2020

Local populations are in most cases open and connected with other populations through dispersal. Dispersal, aside from its multiplicative nature, has a demographic additive effect for the spatiotemporal dynamics and extinction–colonization turnover of the donor and the receiver populations. Population dynamics are more sensitive to dispersal under perturbations, because dispersing is a resilience mechanism to avoid or reduce novel mortality risk. Furthermore, dispersing individuals carry information, a process that may create dynamic landscape information networks. In social species, the decision to stay or to disperse is made based on decisions made by others. When perturbations accumulate and jeopardize survival or fecundity, leading individuals may decide to disperse, and this decision is copied by others, generating a runaway dispersal to other patches. The decision trade-off between staying and dispersing depends on the dynamic spatiotemporal heterogeneity in patch quality. What matters for making a decision is not the difference in patch quality, but the ratio between the patch currently occupied and the rest of the patches. Decision-making in social animals for dispersing is explored under the frameworks of the prospect theory, the neoclassical economic theory, and the hypercycle theory. It is also shown how runaway dispersal may occur from a theoretical point of view due to a very simple mechanism of copying others in a density-dependent manner. This simple mechanism overruns a rational scenario when making decisions in social animals. This chapter ends by assessing the potential consequences of runaway dispersal for nonlinear responses in communities and entire ecosystems.
Ending Global Poverty
Authors: Michalopoulos Constantine
Published: May 2020

Ending poverty is a noble goal, relevant today as much as it was two decades ago when four women rose to prominent positions in their government and decided to make it their central objective. As the world strives to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals, we may find inspiration in the work of Eveline Herfkens from the Netherlands, Hilde F. Johnson from Norway, Clare Short from the United Kingdom, and Heidemarie Wieczorek-Zeul from Germany who became ministers in charge of their governments’ international development policies in 1997–8. They believed that the best way to end global poverty was to join forces in changing the policies of the international institutions where decisions affecting the poor all over the world are made and to reform donor countries development programmes. They came to be known as the Utstein Four, after the Norwegian Utstein Abbey where they formalized their collaboration in 1999. They called their collaboration ‘a conspiracy of implementation’ to contrast their action-oriented approach with the lofty pronouncements leaders agree to in big global conferences only to forget them when they return home. This volume discusses Utstein’s many contributions ranging from helping relieve the poorest countries of their debt, using debt relief to actually lift individuals out of poverty, achieving primary education for all, especially girls, and putting developing country partners in charge of setting priorities and implementing programmes of assistance. It is a story of women’s empowerment which lasted for only about half a dozen years as the original Utstein Four moved on to other positions. But their influence continues to be felt because their approach to improve aid effectiveness was codified in international agreements and practices of global institutions. The last part of the book discusses the legacy of the Utstein group and the lessons that their experience offers to the continuing challenges of eradicating poverty and achieving sustainable development.
Organizing Collaboration
Authors: Michalopoulos Constantine
Published: May 2020

The story of Eveline Herfkens, Hilde F. Johnson, Clare Short and Heidemarie Wieczorek-Zeul, all of whom, with different titles became ministers in charge of development cooperation in the Netherlands, Norway, the UK, and Germany in 1997–8, and what they did together to bridge the gap between rhetoric and reality in the war against global poverty, starts with a short discussion of their background. This is followed by a discussion of the political situation and the different government arrangements that determined development policy in their countries at the time. The last part of the chapter reviews the beginnings of their collaboration which focused on ensuring that the debt relief provided to highly indebted poor countries (HIPCs) in programmes supported by the World Bank and the IMF resulted in actually lifting people out of poverty.
Aid Effectiveness
Authors: Michalopoulos Constantine
Published: May 2020

This chapter starts with a description of some of the specific steps the Utstein group took to streamline their aid procedures in order to reduce the burdens imposed on partner countries and increase effectiveness in the implementation of their bilateral assistance programmes. This is followed by a similar discussion of U4 efforts to help improve the effectiveness of EU aid in which three of the four ministers were involved. The chapter then turns to a discussion of the U4 aid to Tanzania which four of them visited in 2000 as a showcase of what they had been advocating. They spread their message about a new approach to development cooperation in which the partner country is in the driver’s seat by organizing so called ‘Big Tables’ with African leaders (including Ministers of Finance) that permitted a frank exchange of views on ways to make aid more effective in achieving poverty reduction. The final part of the chapter reviews U4’s support to fragile states, focusing on their joint efforts in several countries, including the Democratic Republic of Congo, Sierra Leone, and Sudan.
The Long Transition
Authors: Michalopoulos Constantine
Published: May 2020

Herfkens and Short left their cabinet positions in 2002–3, the former because of a government change, the latter over disagreement with the government’s policy in the Iraq War. But Johnson stayed in office until 2005 and Wieczorek-Zeul until 2009, pushing for implementation of the U4 agenda in different contexts and with different partners. They continued to collaborate with each other, the UK, and the Nordics, on specific issues. Thus, while a systemic and fully fledged U4 cooperation never re-emerged at the political and ministerial level, there was a transition over time. The U4 did not disappear from the international scene as much as they faded away as a ministerial group. This chapter reviews this transition roughly over the period 2003–8, discussing key aspects of international cooperation for development: the Rome–Paris–Accra accords on Aid Effectiveness, the UN 2005 Millennium Development Goals Review, the Doha Round of Multilateral Trade Negotiations; changes in HIPC, the Doha Review Conference on Financing for Development, and other aspects of international cooperation over this period.
The Future
Authors: Michalopoulos Constantine
Published: May 2020

Much has changed since the Utstein Four burst onto the international scene twenty years ago: a resurgent nationalism and xenophobia are undermining efforts to address global problems. Yet, the world today in many respects is a better place than it was twenty years ago: the share of the global population living in absolute poverty is the lowest in human history; people are better educated and nourished, and live longer and healthier lives. Many challenges remain: while global inequality has declined, within country inequality has increased; women still fare worse than men in practically all aspects of the human condition; and climate change is inexorably marching on, threatening the very existence of humankind. Still, it has been said that a peaceful earth inhabited by about ten billion people without anyone suffering poverty is not a wild fantasy. It is feasible. That is what the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are about. Among the many things the U4 were credited with was their contribution to the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals in 2015. The last chapter tries to draw lessons from the U4 experience of twenty years ago that can be useful in addressing the future challenges humanity faces in achieving the SDGs.
The Literature of Connection
Authors: Trotter David
Published: May 2020

This book is about some of the ways in which the world got ready to be connected, long before the advent of the technologies and the concentrations of capital necessary to implement a global ‘network society’. It investigates the prehistory not of the communications ‘revolution’ brought about by advances in electronic digital computing from 1950 onwards, but of the principle of connectivity which was to provide that revolution with its justification and rallying cry. Connectivity’s core principle is that what matters most in any act of telecommunication, and sometimes all that matters, is the fact of its having happened. During the nineteenth century, the principle gained steadily increasing traction by means not only of formal systems such as the telegraph, but of an array of improvised methods and signalling devices. These methods and devices fulfilled not just an ever more urgent need, but a fundamental recurring desire, for near-instantaneous real-time communication at a distance. Connectivity became an end in itself: a complex, vivid, unpredictable romance woven through the enduring human desire and need for remote intimacy. Its magical enhancements are the stuff of tragedy, comedy, satire, elegy, lyric, melodrama, and plain description; of literature, in short. The book develops the concepts of signal, medium, and interface to offer, in its first part, an alternative view of writing in Britain from the Victorian era to modernism; and, in its second, case studies of European and African-American fiction, and of interwar British cinema, designed to open the topic up for further enquiry.
Starry Sky
Authors: Trotter David
Published: May 2020

The aim of this chapter is to ‘showcase’ two stellar (in more than one sense) modernist texts which met with relish the challenge presented by the pace of technological and literary change, and which remain to this day essentially uncategorizable: Wyndham Lewis’s ‘Enemy of the Stars’ (1914) and Mina Loy’s ‘Songs to Joannes’ (1915). These texts put a cosmological understanding of the universe as medium in dialectical tension with the generation of exclusive closed circuits and loops (an exclusiveness that might be thought to amount to madness). Lewis and Loy aimed not simply to represent, but to reproduce, the idea of communication as an adjustment of signal-to-noise ratio. The chapter concludes with a discussion of cryptographic modernism, and of the poems of Harriet Monroe.
Giving the Sign
Authors: Trotter David
Published: May 2020

This chapter extends the emphasis on signal and interface developed in Chapters 1 and 2 to the work of a writer usually positioned between colonial, anti-colonial, and decolonized perspectives. Mansfield’s interest in methods of telecommunication crystallized in stories about modern urban (mostly London) middle-class existence. But it did not diminish when she began in the final years of her life to draw increasingly on memories of her childhood and youth in New Zealand. Detailed analysis of the narrative structure of some of her best-known stories shows how signalling practices act as the catalyst for expressions of gendered and sexual identity. The late Auckland-set ‘The Stranger’ is compared to James Joyce’s ‘The Dead’. The chapter begins with an account of turn-of-the-century views of Englishness; and concludes with a discussion of Waterway (1938), by the Australian novelist Eleanor Dark.
Kafka’s Strindberg
Authors: Trotter David
Published: May 2020

This chapter, the first of three case studies designed to carry the story of representations of connectivity forward from the moment in the history of literature in English at which Chapter 5 left off, develops its own version of island theory in order to revalue the two novels Strindberg wrote about islands in the Stockholm archipelago, The People of Hemsö (1887) and By the Open Sea (1890). Islands insulate and isolate. They insulate the connectivity which sustains both empire and international trade from social and political circumstance; and, in doing so, isolate their inhabitants. The popularity of local colour writing offers a context for stories of isolation by Strindberg, Lawrence, and Sarah Orne Jewett, as well as for Kafka’s rewriting of aspects of By the Open Sea, a novel he knew well, in The Castle. The chapter concludes by analysing the distribution of the term Verbindung (connection) in The Castle.
Linguistic Pragmatism
Authors: Collins John
Published: May 2020

This chapter articulates and defends linguistic pragmatism as a linguistic hypothesis that language alone underdetermines truth conditions (or what is said), and doesn’t even provide a variable licence for the truth conditions of an utterance in a context. Linguistic meaning is characterized, therefore, in terms of constraints upon what can be literally said with a linguistic structure, without the presumption that the linguistic properties of an utterance in a context will determine a content. The hypothesis is explained in terms of the resources language makes available to content, differentiated from related positions, and defended against numerous objections, especially those that argue for an essential role for minimal propositions in accounting for aspects of what is said.
Hebrew
Authors: George Coulter H.
Published: May 2020

The final chapter of the book turns to Biblical Hebrew so that the portrayal of a language from a different family can, through this very contrast, set off better what is Indo-European about the other languages considered so far. Not only are the sounds themselves different (the Semitic languages have many more fricatives and sounds produced in the throat than the older Indo-European languages did) but the way they’re arranged into words is also distinctive, with the triconsonantal root structure a notable hallmark of the Semitic family. Then, the chapter focuses on a couple of syntactic patterns that are especially characteristic of Biblical Hebrew, the waw-conversive and construct chains, showing how these features even make their way into the English translations of the Bible, such as the King James Version, in such phrases as “and it came to pass” and “Holy of Holies”.
Introduction
Authors: Insole Christopher J.
Published: May 2020

This book offers a comprehensive study of the development of Kant’s conception of the highest good, from his earliest work, to his dying days, demonstrating the theological motivations and significance of this concept. In the course of doing this, the book shows that Kant believes in God, but that Kant is not a Christian. This should be of interest both to Christian thinkers, and, also, to non-Christians who are curious about an important and neglected strand of Western philosophy....
Divine Ideas
Authors: Insole Christopher J.
Published: May 2020

The chapter establishes that the pre-critical Kant is committed to the absolute and entire dependence of all possibilities upon God. Furthermore, and in contrast to some rival influential accounts, it is argued that this dependence is compatible with a traditional divine ideas account, as found in a strand of Christian theology represented in Aquinas, and taken up by Leibniz. Kant’s account is shown to be compatible with this divine ideas account in three respects: every possibility depends upon uncreated divine ideas that constitute the divine understanding; all possible combinations of possibility depend upon God, and God must contain as much compossible reality as possible. In the course of showing this, voluntarist and exemplarist (Spinozistic) readings of Kant’s early philosophy are refuted, through a close engagement with scholars who support such readings, such as Rae Langton, Robert Adams, Andrew Chignell, and Omri Boehm.
God and the Good
Authors: Insole Christopher J.
Published: May 2020

This chapter studies Kant’s dramatic rupture, both with his own earlier position about the highest created good, and with any theological or philosophical tradition that he would have received (from scholastic or Lutheran sources). The unconditioned, that which is all-sufficient for practical reason and the will, is not, as it would be for traditional Christian theology, loving and knowing God. Pivotal here is Kant’s rejection of any ‘external object’ for the will and practical reason. Rather, the unconditioned, for Kant, is the will itself, in its activity of rational willing, or, as Kant puts it, the ‘good will’. Kant is convinced that only in this way is genuine human freedom protected.
Egress and Regress
Authors: Insole Christopher J.
Published: May 2020

This chapter defends Kant’s claim that all the formula for the derivation of the categorical imperative are in some sense ‘identical’. I show that although Kant rejects the claim that the ultimate object of theology (God) can be a worthy object for us, nonetheless, Kant’s movement of thought still has a theological shape. This is because Kant is concerned with what would be a worthy object for a rational being, whose dignity is such that the object of attention must not be in any sense external. This is the oldest theological problem of all, reaching back through Aquinas, and back to Aristotle and Plato, gravitating towards a version of the perennial answer, ‘thought thinking itself’. Kant claims, not entirely perspicuously, that the different formulations are ‘three ways of representing the principle of morality’, and that although they are at ‘bottom only so many formulae of the very same law’, nonetheless ‘there is a difference among them…intended to bring an idea of reason closer to intuition’. Commentators have struggled to hold together Kant’s claims, with regard to the ‘sameness’ of, and the ‘difference’ between, the formulae, interpretative approaches tend to focus exclusively on either the purported identity or difference. It is suggested that if autonomy is a variation on the ancient theological problem of ‘thought thinking itself’, then we might find a fundamental unity underlying the different formulae, such that the will’s giving to itself its own self-conception is the single reality represented under different aspects, in the various formulae.
‘Beautiful in Calling to Life’
Authors: O’Collins, S.J. Gerald
Published: May 2020

Through encountering the beautiful Jesus, Nicodemus grew slowly in his faith. Eventually, grace won him over completely, and he joined Joseph of Arimathea in giving the crucified Jesus a burial worthy of a king. Far from being a slow learner, the Samaritan woman at once let herself be changed by Jesus and, in the space of a few hours, became a missionary for him. In what seemed like a perfectly chance meeting, his grace and beauty worked on her very quickly. The encounter with the royal official in chapter 4 of John’s Gospel reports someone whose faith in the word of Jesus led not only to the healing at a distance of his beloved son but also to the creation of a community of believers.
Test Case 3
Authors: Lloyd G. E. R.
Published: May 2020

A sense of the difference between right and wrong and a corresponding recognition of a concept of morality can be widely, maybe even universally, attested, as has been suggested for the Golden Rule (treat others as you would have them treat you). But how far does the great variety of explicit codified legal systems that can be attested across the world and over time undermine any possibility of treating law or even ‘custom’ as a robust cross-cultural category? This chapter investigates the similarities and differences in those systems in ancient societies (Greece, China) and in modern ones (e.g. Papua New Guinea) to throw light on the one hand on the importance of law for social order but on the other on the difficulties facing any programme to secure lasting justice.
Manner/Result Complementarity and causation in verbal roots
Authors: Beavers John , Koontz-Garboden Andrew
Published: May 2020

Chapter 4 explores the question of Manner/Result Complementarity. It proposes that there are systematic verb classes that entail both meanings at once, including verbs of manner of killing, cooking, and ballistic motion, demonstrated by applying various diagnostics for manner and result in a verb’s meaning and showing that certain verb classes pass both sets of tests. Data from sublexical modification further show that the manner and result meanings are both coming from the sole root, arguing against an alternative by which manner plus result verbs have two roots, each introducing one meaning. The roots of these verbs can either be syntactically like canonical manner roots or canonical stative roots, and a formal analysis for how roots of each type can introduce both meanings at once is developed. These roots also all entail causation as well, arguing once again against Bifurcation.
The Ethical Demand
Authors: Løgstrup K. E. , Rabjerg Bjørn , Stern Robert
Published: May 2020

This book concerns the nature and basis for the fundamental ethical relation between human beings. Beginning from the fundamental example of trust, it is argued that this relation arises from our interdependence and mutual vulnerability, which then gives us power over the lives of other people. It claimed that in this situation, there arises a demand to care for the other person. This demand is characterized as silent, radical, one-sided, and unfulfillable, as it cannot be satisfied by just doing what the other asks; requires us to act unselfishly; is non-reciprocal; and should not be experienced as a demand. As a result, the demand is distinguished from ordinary social norms, which lack these characteristics, though it is argued that there is a relation between these two levels, as legitimate social norms should ‘refract’ the ethical demand. It is also argued that in order to make sense of a demand of this sort, we must see ‘life as a gift’, rather than treating ourselves as the sovereign grounds for our own existence. In understanding the ethical demand in this way, it is suggested, we can make sense of Jesus’s proclamation to love our neighbour in purely human terms, though at the same time we may have to go beyond a scientific picture which operates with a clear distinction between fact and values, and treats determinism as a basis for rejecting moral responsibility.
The Radicality of the Demand and the Social Norms
Authors: Løgstrup K. E.
Published: May 2020

This chapter focuses on the radicality of the ethical demand, and how that sets it apart from social mores and laws. It is argued that because the demand is silent or unspoken, we must then respond selflessly for the good of the other person, while it may also interfere with our lives, and could include love of the enemy. The radicality of the demand then expresses itself in the fact that a person has no right to make the demand, while it isolates or makes responsible the person on whom it falls. At the same time, the radicality of the demand does not mean it is limitless. However, as we cannot rely on people to act as the demand requires, we also need social norms, which are not radical in these ways. The relation between the demand and these norms is explored, and each is argued to require the other.
The Changeability of the Social Norms
Authors: Løgstrup K. E.
Published: May 2020

This chapter continues the discussion of the relation between the ethical demand and social norms. It considers the changeability of such norms, focusing on the cases of the norms governing sex, love, and marriage, the relation between political authority and citizens, and between society and the church and religion. The final section asks whether, given the historical variability in the nature of such norms, there is a worry of moral relativism. In response, it is argued that even if our social norms can vary, the ethical demand itself cannot, as what remains constant is the wrongness of exploiting the vulnerability of others for our own good: it is just that in different societies, such exploitation can take different forms, so that the norms protecting us from such vulnerability to others can vary.
Kierkegaard and Heidegger on ‘Life in the Crowd’
Authors: Løgstrup K. E.
Published: May 2020

This chapter considers a fundamental problem which is central to Søren Kierkegaard and Martin Heidegger, namely how to avoid living a life that is governed by others and so is inauthentic, trapped within the hum-drum and the mundane—a life in the crowd. Focusing first on Kierkegaard, and his critique of ‘busyness’, it then turns to Heidegger, and his account of ‘idle talk’. However, it is argued that Kierkegaard’s approach differs from Heidegger’s in being fuelled by an ethical passion, which is partly driven by his hostility to Hegelianism, and also to contemporary Danish Christendom. Moreover, while on Heidegger’s account, life in the crowd is made an inevitable and therefore neutral feature of human existence, for Kierkegaard it can be avoided. How this might be possible for Kierkegaard is considered in subsequent chapters.
The Relation between Heidegger’s and Kierkegaard’s Analyses of Existence
Authors: Løgstrup K. E.
Published: May 2020

This chapter considers how Heidegger’s account of existence relates to his conception of life in the crowd, and how it compares to Kierkegaard’s position. It is argued that while they share broadly the same view of the self as involving becoming and movement, whereas for Kierkegaard this can be traced back to its relation to the infinite demand, for Heidegger it can be traced back to ‘care’ or ‘Sorge’, through which the individual takes on responsibility for themselves in a way that can never be finished or concluded. The chapter also contrasts the role that the infinite plays in Kierkegaard’s account with the role that death plays in Heidegger’s, which then leads to differences in their respective treatments of anxiety and nothingness.
More Voice, Less Exit
Authors: Freudlsperger Christian
Published: May 2020

The second chapter constructs a theoretical framework to account for the introduced research puzzle. Building on a central line of work on ‘federal dynamics’, it argues that the institutions and procedures of intergovernmental relations bear a decisive impact on a multilevel system’s ability to organize openness to international trade. While self-rule systems build on power-hoarding and the delineation of spheres of competence, shared rule systems rely on collaborative power-sharing between central and subcentral executives. In reference to Hirschman’s seminal concepts of exit and voice, the chapter then posits that any multilevel polity endows subcentral executives with a specific amount of voice in the making of trade and procurement policy. This voice it expects to be inversely related to exit: the more voice subcentral executives are equipped with, the less they dispose of an incentive to exit from a system-wide policy or international commitment. As shared-rule systems endow constituent units with more voice in polity-wide trade policy-making, they should organize openness more effectively than self-rule systems. At the same time, the inverse relationship between voice and exit does not unfold in an experimental vacuum. Depending on the specific policy sector, intervening factors can come to affect constituent units’ propensity to seek exit without affecting the amount of their voice. In the specific field of trade and procurement policy, the book expects two such policy-specific factors potentially to affect constituent units’ degree of exit. These are the amount of domestic procurement market integration and the politicization of international procurement liberalization.
European Union
Authors: Freudlsperger Christian
Published: May 2020

The third case study investigates the case of the European Union. It finds that the EU’s constituent units enjoy an unusually influential role in its council model of subcentral representation. Member states shape EU trade policy at both stages of formal decision-making. In-between these formal veto points, collaborative relations between supranational and national executives are supported by a dense and formalized network of committees as well as a clear-cut division of procedural authorities. Turning to the two theorized intervening factors, the chapter finds that the nexus between European integration and international liberalization has been particularly close in procurement, reinforcing member states’ openness. Politicization of procurement liberalization, in turn, has remained low despite recent years’ contestation against CETA and TTIP. Ultimately, the EU case corroborates the initial expectation that shared rule systems are institutionally and procedurally well-equipped to adapt flexibly to the demands of multilevel trade governance and organize openness more effectively than self-rule models. EU member states have developed strategies to avoid the joint-decision trap’s propensity to decision-making blockades and lowest common denominator outcomes. Among these means rank a clear-cut division of procedural competences with the Commission, a densely institutionalized system of IGR largely secluded from domestic public and party political pressures, and the adoption of legislative proposals by qualified majority. This general institutional and procedural set-up has allowed the Union to act as a ‘market-making polity’ both internally, forging an integrated procurement market, as well as externally, pursuing an offensive agenda in the WTO and in preferential trade agreements.
Introduction
Authors: Thomas Marcel
Published: May 2020

This chapter introduces the reader to the two case study villages Neukirch and Ebersbach, explains the methodology of the study, and outlines the structure of the book. It also sets out the central argument that there were parallel histories of responses to social change among villagers in the divided Germany. The chapter then outlines the three major ways in which the book contributes to scholarship on postwar Germany: Firstly, by highlighting similarities between East and West, it complicates persisting Cold War divisions in the historical literature. Secondly, it emphasizes the complex ways in which East and West Germans engaged with large-scale changes through peculiarly local meanings. Thirdly, by focusing on two case study localities which question conventional divides between the urban and the rural, it challenges understandings of the rural as the traditional ‘other’ in modern society.
Strangers in the Village
Authors: Thomas Marcel
Published: May 2020

The third chapter turns towards newcomers in Neukirch and Ebersbach and explores how the villagers responded to the growing inflow of non-locals into the locality in the postwar era. Unlike previous scholarship, which has often focused on one particular group of newcomers, it examines the continuities between different waves of migration in East and West. The chapter reveals that ethnic German refugees, foreign workers, and urban newcomers were in similar ways marginalized by long-standing locals who tried to claim ownership over the spaces of ‘their’ locality. While migration is remembered through very different narratives in Neukirch and Ebersbach, Easterners and Westerners failed to fully come to terms with diversity in their village. In the booming Ebersbach, locals remembered a continuous inflow of strangers that diversified the community. In the shrinking Neukirch, on the other hand, stop-and-go migration was silenced in a narrative of continued homogeneity of the community. The chapter thus demonstrates how migration and integration in the divided Germany played out in local contexts. Diversity in postwar society, it will be shown, was contested in debates over local identity and belonging.
Give-and-Take Politics
Authors: Thomas Marcel
Published: May 2020

Chapter five focuses on instances of activism in the two villages to challenge the dominant understanding of rural politics in East and West as mirror images. It demonstrates that the remodelling of localities in postwar Germany provided the framework for a new kind of give-and-take politics which relied on a mutually beneficial partnership between citizens and the state. In the liberal democracy of the West as well as the socialist dictatorship of the East, dynamic local politicians created spaces for participation which were readily seized upon by local residents. Locals became more willing to volunteer their time and energy towards the remodelling of their locality, often partnering with, or at least expecting support from, state authorities. In return, they increasingly defended their own interests and held the welfare state to its promises. The localities of the divided Germany thus became the site of a new kind of give-and-take between citizens and state. Within the confines of the very different social and political systems, a parallel transformation of local politics in East and West occurred in the 1960s and 1970s.