bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
New Zealand
Authors: Leuprecht Christian
Published: July 2021

As the smallest and most centralized in the Five Eyes community, New Zealand’s intelligence and security community, and the system that holds it accountable, is an outlier. New Zealand’s proximity to Australia is reflected in parallels in intelligence accountability between the two Tasman allies. On the one hand, its relatively smaller size is reflected in certain unique attributes of intelligence accountability, such as its limited scope and access to sensitive material. On the other hand, its more modest size has been beneficial in driving innovation that has subsequently been adopted elsewhere, notably the double lock system for warrants. The chapter reviews the member organizations of the New Zealand’s National Intelligence Community, the particular strategic environment that has informed intelligence and accountability in New Zealand, its rather distinct national security threats, as well as New Zealand’s modest, centralized yet innovative intelligence accountability architecture: the Inspector General of Intelligence and Security, which has an Advisory Panel that is an attribute unique to New Zealand, the Intelligence and Security Committee of Parliament, and the Commissioner of Intelligence Warrants. New Zealand’s experience draws attention to economies of effort to be harnessed for scarce resources on the big collectors and assessor rather than other government clients that only receive intelligence. New Zealand also differs from other Five Eyes parliamentary intelligence committees in granting only limited access to sensitive operational matters or information. Mandatory regular review of legislation offers an opportunity to assess for efficacy and propose comprehensive improvements to innovate agencies and practices.
Varieties of Intelligence Accountability
Authors: Leuprecht Christian
Published: July 2021

This chapter uses a comparative approach to identify findings among accountability systems across the Five Eyes intelligence community. Commonalities and trends of convergence in intelligence accountability are relevant for and beyond the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. These observations show challenges and opportunities in democracies to reconcile the different logics that inform security and rule-of-law systems. It begins by comparing across types of accountability: review, oversight, compliance, and benchmark criteria such as reasonableness, propriety, proportionality, necessity, efficiency, and effectiveness. Specifically, the comparative findings suggest potential for innovation to play a greater role in signalling trends to governments and improving consistency and quality. The chapter then compares types of accountability bodies and commissions. The remainder of the chapter compares attributes of accountability: mandates, appointment processes, and qualifications for membership, reports, powers, access to information, security requirements, and procedural discretion. It closes on the emerging need to coordinate accountability across an intelligence system. Coordination within an accountability system allows accountability bodies to avert duplication, fill accountability gaps, and help inform each other about issues of potential importance. Coordination and de-confliction are essential for maximizing overall efficiency and effectiveness of accountability systems where mandates of multiple bodies may overlap or conflict.
Conclusion
Authors: Leuprecht Christian
Published: July 2021

This chapter historicizes, contextualizes, and theorizes the triangular relationship among governments, intelligence agencies, and democratic citizens in light of the observations and comparisons in this book. It posits accountability as a means to reconcile the apparent contradictions between the openness and transparency of democratic first principles on the one hand, and the power and secrecy of state intelligence on the other. Democracies constantly have to demonstrate their steadfast commitment to playing by the same rules they claim to value and defend as this practice ultimately sets them apart from authoritarianism. Intelligence accountability thus emerges as a quintessentially social process that is both integral and existential to democracy. Accountability tethers intelligence and security communities to the democratic society they serve and the rules, authorizations, and limitations it has imposed. In response to global threats and technological change, however, intelligence now coalesces as an epistemic community that cooperates across agencies, departments, and jurisdictions. Domestic, international, and supranational coordination and collaboration within intelligence communities and across the Five Eyes, other allies, partners, and beyond, vastly complicate the seemingly straightforward task of holding any one intelligence agency or community accountable. Accountability lags changing and expanded intelligence powers and capabilities, which can have deleterious consequences for public trust and support under which intelligence operates in a democratic society. Ergo, the lessons in the comparative study of intelligence are as much about reconciling intelligence and democracy as they are about innovation and adaptation in defending democracy as hostile state and non-state threat actors and vectors proliferate.
A socialist, French commissioner
Authors: Mérand Frédéric
Published: July 2021

Before he became a European commissioner, Pierre Moscovici was a French Minister of Finance, close to President François Hollande, and an influential member of the Socialist Party. Even after he moved to Brussels, Moscovici never neglected French politics. Members of his cabinet worked hard to make sure he remained politically relevant in France, and kept his options open there. Meanwhile, the commissioner also tried to position himself as a leader of the European left. This chapter shows how, after Emmanuel Macron’s victory, the prominent socialist politician gradually lost his political base in his home country, which led to tense relations with both the Socialist Party and the Elysée Palace—a key European player.
Italian populists and the Pact
Authors: Mérand Frédéric
Published: July 2021

Still on the Stability and Growth Pact, this chapter focuses on the Italian case, the third largest economy in the eurozone. After years of trying to find with Matteo Renzi’s Democrats a “narrow path” that would allow Italy to reduce its public debt, relations between the commissioner and Italy turn into an open political crisis when the Lega–Five Star Movement coalition government comes to power and decides to openly flout budgetary rules. After the Greek summer of 2015, the Italian autumn of 2018 is the most dramatic moment in the cabinet’s life. The chapter explains why, despite Rome’s growing isolation, the Commission ended up not sanctioning Italy.
The failed reform of the eurozone
Authors: Mérand Frédéric
Published: July 2021

This chapter is the story of a political failure. When Moscovici arrived in Brussels, he promised to reform eurozone governance, with a eurozone budget and a European finance minister. The Commission’s ambition was laid out in a Five-President Report that promised great institutional advances. Moscovici’s staff devoted considerable time and effort to push for federalist and Keynesian ideas against the ordoliberal consensus originating from Berlin and The Hague. Focusing on discussions and working meetings between political advisors and DG ECFIN officials, this chapter documents the battle of ideas waged—and lost—by the Moscos against the New Hanseatic League…until COVID-19 changed everything.
No representation without taxation
Authors: Mérand Frédéric
Published: July 2021

In addition to economic and financial affairs, Moscovici was in charge of taxation and customs union. In recent years, there have been growing calls for and initiatives to harmonize tax rules at the global level. Now, the day Juncker and Moscovici came to office, the EU was marred by tax scandals, notably in Juncker’s home country, Luxembourg. This chapter describes how the commissioner and his staff, alongside Competition commissioner Margarethe Vestager, forged an alliance with civil society groups and members of the European Parliament to adopt a series of new legislation against tax evasion, including a list of tax havens. They did so despite the need for unanimity in the Council and against the will of several member states such as the Netherlands. The chapter also recounts the Moscovici cabinet’s political role on two seemingly technical issues: the reform of the Value Added Tax code and the impact of Brexit on the customs union.
Multiparty Democracy in Zimbabwe after the Adoption of the 2013 Constitution
Authors: Chigwata Tinashe Carlton
Published: July 2021

Zimbabwe adopted a new Constitution in 2013 which, among other objectives, sought to give greater legitimacy to multiparty democracy. This Constitution strengthens the role of an independent electoral commission, entrenches an array of political rights and freedoms, and requires multilevel government elections. The harmonized elections of 2013 and 2018, which were held under its regime, did not seem to have changed the previous patterns of disputed electoral processes and outcome. Both the electoral process and outcomes for these elections were disputed and subjected to court challenges. The main opposition, the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC), continue to cry foul that elections are stolen in favour of the ruling Zimbabwe African National Union—Patriotic Front (ZANU-PF) political party. On the other hand, ZANU-PF argues that it wins elections fairly and squarely as it has always done in the past because it is the most popular political party. This chapter addresses the question of whether the new Constitution has been able to end a culture of disputed elections and, therefore promote effective multiparty democracy. If not, what are the major obstacles and areas of contention? It will do so by examining the harmonized elections that have so far been held under its regime—the 2013 and 2018 harmonized elections.
Constitutionalism and Electoral Authoritarianism in Ethiopia
Authors: Ayele Zemelak Ayitenew
Published: July 2021

After centuries of monarchical rule, 14 years of military rule, and three years of a one-party political system, Ethiopia adopted a constitution that provides for multiparty democracy. The Constitution establishes democratic institutions and contains democratic principles that are vital for competitive multiparty democracy; it also guarantees civil liberties and political rights, including freedom of expression and association that are critical in this regard. Be that as it may, in the past two-and-a-half decades, no competitive multiparty democracy has existed in Ethiopia. Instead, an electoral authoritarian system was instituted that allowed the Ethiopian Peoples’ Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) and its affiliates to enjoy exclusive control over every level and unit of government. This was so because, among other things, even if the domestic and global political dynamics that were at work when the EPRDF came to power in the 1990s left it with no choice but to constitutionalize multipartyism, its violent history, its vanguardist self-perception, and the developmental-state paradigm it later endorsed have driven it into electoral authoritarianism. The various formal and informal mechanisms that the party put in place, the socioeconomic structure of the country, and the minimal international pressure it faced when not democratizing allowed it successfully to retain its incumbency for more than two decades. New domestic and international dynamics put pressure on the EPRDF to open up the political space and to change its leadership leading to the rise to power of Abiy Ahmed who, having begun as a reformer, is now showing the tell-tale signs of authoritarianism and harbingers of one-man rule.
Women’s Participation in Elections and Legislatures in Kenya under the 2010 Constitution
Authors: Ghai Jill Cottrell
Published: July 2021

The chapter outlines the progress made with women’s representation in legislature since independence and then assesses the impact of the 2010 Constitution on this matter. Although Kenyan women had been active in the struggle for independence, there were no women in independent Kenya’s first parliament. By 1997 the total was nine (4.1 per cent of the total membership), five of whom were nominated by parties after the election. Women were again active in the agitation for a new Constitution, and in the official constitutional review bodies during 2000–2010. The Constitution finally adopted in 2010 includes various provisions designed to ensure that women are far more prominent in elected bodies, at national or devolved level, though none guarantees the constitutional principle of ‘no more than two-thirds of either gender’ at the national level. The chapter shows that at the county (devolved) level enough women must be selected from party lists, in proportion to the seats each party obtained, to top-up the total to one-third women. Special constituencies and a few list seats for women at the national level are a guarantee of only nearly 15 per cent women. The chapter reviews the reasons for women struggling to get nominated and elected, and traces the efforts, legislative and other, to achieve the constitutional percentage. It also analyses how the push for legislation to ensure the ‘no more than two-thirds’ of one gender at national level through quotas.
The 1870s
Authors: Smith Gary Scott
Published: July 2021

The 1870s were generally happy and successful ones for Twain and his family as they became part of a congenial community in Hartford, Connecticut, and writings flowed from his pen. During this decade, Twain wrote Roughing It (1872), The Gilded Age (1873), and The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (1876). He lampooned greed and corruption in The Gilded Age and numerous essays. Tom Sawyer contains several stories about Sunday school escapades and revival meetings based on Twain’s childhood. Twain’s friendship with Joseph Twichell, the pastor of the Asylum Hill (Congregational) Church in Hartford, was deep, meaningful, and long-lasting. Their relationship as well as an examination of Twain’s view of Christ, human nature, sin, salvation, Christianity, and the church helps illuminate Twain’s religious convictions during the 1870s.
Introduction to Quantum Nanotechnology
Authors: Steel Duncan G.
Published: July 2021

Quantum physics is rapidly emerging as a transformative approach to expand the frontiers of technology in areas including communications, information processing, metrology, and sensing. Indeed, the end of Moore’s Law looms in the near future and quantum effects in modern electronics such as quantum tunneling are a limiting factor. In contrast, in new technology based on quantum behavior, the quantum properties represent a new dimension of opportunity. This shift is already creating a growing need for engineers and physical scientists who have specialized knowledge in this area, in order to contribute to the growing effort. There are numerous outstanding textbooks available for a general approach to the field of quantum physics. There is much to be gained by taking the traditional learning approach, but it can take two or three years before students encounter many of the exciting ideas and tools for this area. This book takes an application-motivated approach to enable students to build a quantum toolbox. The first six chapters describe the quantum states of various systems of interest, while the remaining chapters focus mainly on dynamics. Important concepts like the quantum flip-flop, based using Rabi oscillations, and engineering the quantum vacuum are presented. Powerful tools including the atomic operator approach and density matrix operator are introduced with examples of applications. This book is aimed at upper level undergraduates and some first year graduate students. The book is arranged to fulfil the needs for a one-semester or two-semester sequence. For a one-semester sequence, the preface describes several paths that emphasize different aspects of quantum behavior.
Introduction to Applied Quantum Mechanics: Why quantum behavior is impacting technology
Authors: Steel Duncan G.
Published: July 2021

This is an introduction to the field, providing a brief discussion of why quantum physics is creating new opportunities in modern technology. Quantum has always been a part of the discussion on the behavior of semiconductors for transistors. But the measurements were on classical parameters. Now measurements are being made on quantum mechanical observables. This means that one of the most important features of quantum mechanics, namely the principle of superposition can be used to create entirely new devices. It is the principle of superposition, where a switch can be on and off at the same in a quantum system, that leads to amazing results of quantum entanglement of observables. The chapter sets the stage for the student to learn that the usual way of thinking about things in the classical world, such as the charge on a capacitor as a function of time, is no longer viable in a quantum system.
Nano-Mechanical Oscillator and Basic Dynamics: Part I
Authors: Steel Duncan G.
Published: July 2021

This discussion introduces the student to the reality, in quantum technology, that analysis of any problem necessarily begins with the Hamiltonian representing the system. The quantum Hamiltonian represents the total energy of the system, the sum of kinetic energy plus potential energy, written in canonical coordinates and conjugate momenta, and where these variables become time independent quantum operators. The nature of the potential energy for the nano-vibrator, following Hooke’s law, serves to localize the particle. The relevance of the nano-vibrator Hamiltonian—sometimes called the harmonic oscillator Hamiltonian—is perhaps one of the most important Hamiltonians in quantum systems. Not only can it be extended to cover things like phonons in solids, vibrations in molecules, and the behavior of bosons, but it is also the basis for leading to the concept of a photon, the quantum radiation field, and the quantum vacuum. This chapter provides the basic introduction for vibration of a particle or a nano-rod and looks at the wave-like behavior that emerges from the solution to the time independent Schrödinger equation. When we include the time evolution, we can observe dynamical behavior and begin to examine the meaning of quantum measurement.
Bound States in Three Dimensions: The Atom
Authors: Steel Duncan G.
Published: July 2021

In this chapter, we go to three dimensions in space and look at the solution of the time independent Schrödinger equation for the hydrogen atom. The Hamiltonian is then the kinetic energy plus the potential energy due to the Coulomb coupling between the positively charged nucleus and the electron. We construct the angular momentum operator and find that the partial differential equation for the angular momentum eigenfunctions of the spherical coordinates θ,ϕ is the same as the angular part of the ∇2 operator in spherical coordinates. The angular momentum eigenfunctions are the spherical harmonics, with two quantum numbers, l and m, and the solution to the radial part of the Hamiltonian including the Coulomb potential are Laguerre polynomials with one quantum number, called the principle quantum number, n. The hydrogen wave function is the product of a Laguerre polynomial and a spherical harmonic with three quantum numbers. Since these are two- and three-dimensional functions for angular momentum and hydrogen respectively, they are best understood in a series of plots. The chapter concludes by giving the historical letter names to specific orbitals, since they continue to be used today.
Heisenberg Operator Approach: Nano-Mechanical Oscillator (Part 2) and the Quantum LC Circuit
Authors: Steel Duncan G.
Published: July 2021

With the knowledge of the new design rules in Chapter 7, we use this new insight to find the eigenvectors for the nano-vibrator problem, and then we use the same approach to examine the quantum LC circuit. While the usual approach is to use Kirchhoff’s laws to analyze a simple circuit classically, we first see that Hamilton’s equations can in fact be used, giving the same classical result. But then, using the new design rules and the knowledge of the total energy in the circuit, we identify a canonical coordinate and a conjugate momentum that have nothing to do with real space and motion of a particle of mass m. At the same time, consistent with the Schrödinger picture, we continue to see that the time evolution of an observable such as position, x(t), or current, i(t), is not part of the solution. Given that Hamilton’s equations give the same result as Kirchhoff’s law but the quantum solution does not, reinforces the idea that the quantum description is showing features that cannot be imagined with a viewpoint based on classical (i.e. non-quantum) analysis.
Angular Momentum and the Quantum Gyroscope: The Emergence of Spin
Authors: Steel Duncan G.
Published: July 2021

Continuing with understanding the implications of the postulates in Chapter 7 and following the approach in Chapter 8 to use operators find solutions to the time independent Schrödinger equation, we return to the subject of angular momentum, of importance to many problems including the quantum gyroscope. Aside from playing a central role in any spherically symmetric quantum system, it plays a central role in inertial guidance systems from airplanes and rockets to autonomous vehicles. Working with only the operators of the angular momentum vector, L^=L^xx̌+L^yy̌+L^zž and L^2 and the corresponding commutation relations, a procedure similar to that used in Chapter 8 for the nano-vibrator is used to completely identify the eigenvectors and eigenvalues. However, in Chapter 6, we required that the magnetic quantum number, m where L^z|l.m〉=mℏ|l.m〉, be integer, because the eigenfunction Yl,m(l,m)∝eimϕ, and we required that a full rotation around the z-axis give the same result requiring, eimϕ=eim(ϕ+2π). In the operator approach, there is no such requirement, but there is still a constraint on m, namely that m is either integer or half integer. The requirements in Chapter 6 hold, so what is the meaning of half-integer? This was one of the first results to indicate the existence of intrinsic (not associated with real space rotation) angular moment known as spin.
Quantum Measurement and Entanglement: Wave Function Collapse
Authors: Steel Duncan G.
Published: July 2021

The postulates presented at this point are generally agreed upon as being the primary set. But in the course of these postulates, there is no mention of the consequences of measurement. This chapter discusses this problem and the solution as provided by the Von-Neumann postulate. The concept of the projection operator is introduced, and this leads naturally to the study of the quantum entangled state. The results show in part the origin of the struggle that Einstein and others had with quantum, and the Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen (EPR) paradox. Quantum entanglement is the key to advanced ideas in quantum encryption, teleportation, and quantum computing.
Quantum Radiation Field: Spontaneous Emission and Entangled Photons
Authors: Steel Duncan G.
Published: July 2021

One of the greatest successes in quantum theory, and certainly one of the more important parts for application to devices and applications is the prediction of the emission of light through the quantization of an electromagnetic field. Broadly, this is the field of quantum electrodynamics. In this chapter, we develop the Hamiltonian for the classical electromagnetic field. It is seen that the Hamiltonian for each mode (identified by the k-vector and polarization of the field) of the plane wave electromagnetic field is identical to that of the harmonic oscillator. One unit of energy, ℏω, in a mode is a called a photon. The eigenkets for the system are number states (Fock states). We then consider a two-level system described by a Hamiltonian which couples the two-level quantum system to the quantized electromagnetic field. Using the Weisskopf–Wigner formalism developed in Chapter 14, we solve the equations of motion for the time dependent Schrödinger equation assuming the system starts in the excited state with no radiation present in the vacuum field. The results show the creation of one unit of energy in an electromagnetic mode corresponding to the emission of a photon. The excited state probability decays exponentially with the emission of this photon. We consider the important and special case of such a two-level system but in a cavity restricting the radiation field to a single mode. The Jaynes–Cummings Hamiltonian shows that this system, if started in the excited state, Rabi oscillates with no radiation incident on the system.
Levels of Processing
Authors: Craik Fergus I. M.
Published: July 2021

This chapter focuses on the background and development of the levels of processing (LOP) ideas proposed by Craik and Lockhart (1972) and on the empirical support for the ideas provided by Craik and Tulving (1975). The chapter describes how the concept arose from the British work on models of attention by Donald Broadbent and Anne Treisman in the 1960s; specifically on how the concept of depth of processing grafts a framework for memory research on to Treisman’s hierarchical model of selective attention. After a brief survey of empirical work, the chapter deals with criticisms and rebuttals of the LOP ideas and findings, its relations to other ideas such as transfer–appropriate processing and to some more recent extensions.
Retrieval Processes
Authors: Craik Fergus I. M.
Published: July 2021

Endel Tulving’s views of synergistic ecphory and cue-dependent forgetting are discussed and endorsed, in particular the view that external stimulation (or self-initiated internal stimulation) necessarily interacts with encoded records to yield retrieval. Paul Kolers’ view of retrieval as repetition of processing operations is also evaluated. Other topics include retrieval as recapitulation of encoding, transfer-appropriate processing, environmental and schematic support, and self-initiated activities. It is concluded that the concepts of levels of processing and transfer-appropriate processing are both necessary to describe observed patterns of retrieval. Two postulated bases for recognition memory—familiarity and recollection—are described and evaluated, as are the ideas of processing fluency and attribution proposed by Larry Jacoby. Finally, studies of involuntary retrieval, mind-wandering, and prospective memory are described and their implications assessed.
Aging I
Authors: Craik Fergus I. M.
Published: July 2021

Memory performance declines in the course of healthy aging, and this chapter discusses some reasons why this may be so. The author suggests that there is an age-related decline in both processing resources and in cognitive control, and that these deficiencies underlie less efficient encoding and retrieval processes. Age-related memory losses are greater in some tasks than in others, however, and the case is made that losses are relatively slight in situations that involve substantial amounts of environmental support and therefore require small amounts of self-initiated activity. In turn, the inefficiency of self-initiated activities is attributed to age-related deficiencies in frontal lobe functions. Age-related deficits in recall performance (which is heavily reliant on self-initiation) are reduced in a recognition test, which embodies greater environmental support. Deficits were also reduced by the use of pictures as materials, and there were no age differences in the ability to hold high-valued words in working memory. These effects are illustrated by experiments carried out by the author and collaborators.
Aging II
Authors: Craik Fergus I. M.
Published: July 2021

Chapter 8 focuses on empirical studies of age-related differences in memory performance. In accordance with the concepts of environmental support and self-initiated activities it is shown that age decrements are greater in cued recall than in recognition, also that cued recall is more resource-demanding than recognition. A further study found that age-related deficits were reduced by the use of semantically related materials but that older adults showed greater dual-task costs, especially at the time of retrieval. Age-related impairments were reduced by the use of pictorial materials as opposed to words; and reinstatement of the encoding context at retrieval was particularly helpful to older adults. A study carried out in California showed how individual differences in verbal intelligence and in daily activity levels modified the pattern of findings. The point that older adults have difficulty retrieving highly specific information is discussed and illustrated. Experiments are described that investigate memory for the source of learned information, and for age differences in prospective memory; younger adults outperformed their older counterparts in both situations. Finally, some interesting patterns of age differences in performance of implicit and explicit memory tasks are described and discussed.
Are Ontological Questions Really Meaningless?
Authors: Belleri Delia
Published: July 2021

An influential critique of ontology, traditionally linked to Rudolf Carnap, logical empiricism, and verificationism, has it that ontological questions and statements are meaningless. In recent years, Amie Thomasson has revived this Carnapian critique, albeit in a non-verificationist version. This chapter argues that the meaningfulness of ontological statements can be vindicated by appealing to considerations compatible with Thomasson’s Carnapian approach. Two possible avenues are explored. The first is that of specifying the assertibility conditions of ontological statements like ‘There are Fs’, by providing an adequate rule of use. The second is that of spelling out the truth-conditions of the same ontological statements by means of a T-schema where the right-hand side is a sentence formulated in a language specifically introduced for doing ontology—what several authors call ‘Ontologese’. It is proposed that Ontologese be introduced as a bona-fide Carnapian framework, and this option is defended against a number of objections.
Emotion, Executive Dysfunction, and Agency
Authors: Timpe Kevin
Published: July 2021

Virtue theory has addressed the role of human emotions in moral agency since its earliest proponents. Timpe’s goal in this chapter is to see how far this connection can be pushed by looking at certain kinds of emotional disability (or impairments with regard to emotional control). More specifically, he explores what implications contemporary research in psychology about executive dysfunction and emotion has for thinking about virtues that take emotions as their objects (e.g., fortitude). Timpe argues that certain kinds of disabilities significantly impact an agent’s ability to develop the proper dispositions regarding emotions that are typically associated with virtue and human flourishing because of how those disabilities impact the agent’s emotions. Some disabilities will impair an agent’s ability to exercise the kind of executive function needed to regulate the emotions and develop virtue. Timpe ends by considering how the sort of disabilities considered relate to Christian flourishing and community.
Willpower and the Cultivation of Virtues
Authors: West Ryan
Published: July 2021

This chapter explores some roles willpower might play in a Christian’s grace-empowered attempt to “make every effort to supplement [his or her] faith with virtue” (2 Peter 1:5, ESV). Working from a distinction Robert Adams makes between “motivational” and “structural” virtues, West argues that virtues of the latter sort—of which self-control, perseverance, and patience are paradigm examples—are partially constituted by willpower. He then draws on recent empirical studies of self-regulation to explain how the wise exertion of willpower can help one not only resist temptation, but also leverage temptation in the interest of cultivating virtues in both of Adams’s categories.
Augustine on Grace and Worship in Virtue Formation
Authors: Herdt Jennifer A.
Published: July 2021

Augustine’s attention to the role of liturgical practices in the formation of the virtues offers a subtle account of the pedagogy or training of desire. Augustine illuminates the mystery at the heart of habituation: that we cannot simply decide to desire or decide to love, even as our character is most fundamentally defined by what we love. Yet in recovering Augustine’s thought for contemporary reflection on the virtues, we must appropriate Augustine’s critique of pagan spectacle and pagan virtue with caution, recognizing how Augustine’s own insights into the inscrutability of grace undermine any monolithic construction of the secular as Other, even Augustine’s own construction of splendid pagan vice. Affirming the liturgy as the primary site for the formation of Christian virtue sustains, rather than restricts, Christian participation in the process of articulating and acting for the sake of common goods in a pluralist secular society.
Practicing Hope
Authors: DeYoung Rebecca Konyndyk
Published: July 2021

In this chapter, DeYoung considers how the theological virtue of hope might be practiced. She first explains Thomas Aquinas’s account of this virtue, including its structural relation to the passion of hope, its opposing vices, and its relationship to the friendship of charity. Then, using narrative and character analysis from the film The Shawshank Redemption, she examines a range of hopeful and proto-hopeful practices concerning both the goods one hopes for and the power one relies on to attain those goods. In particular, she shows how the film’s picture of the role friends and friendship play in catalyzing hope is a compelling metaphor for Christian hope’s reliance on God.
Two Concepts of Intellectual Humility
Authors: Baehr Jason
Published: July 2021

One aim of virtue epistemology is to illuminate the nature and structure of individual virtues like curiosity, open-mindedness, and intellectual humility. Recently, two rather different accounts of intellectual humility have emerged. Robert C. Roberts has argued that intellectual humility should be understood negatively: that it is essentially an absence of certain concerns (e.g., a concern with intellectual status or power). By contrast, Jason Baehr and several co-authors have argued that intellectual humility has a positive character: that it is a matter of being alert to and willing to “own” one’s intellectual limitations, weaknesses, and mistakes. In this chapter, Baehr considers how these accounts stand with respect to each other, both logically and evaluatively. After tracing fundamental similarities between the two, he considers whether they share a common target or whether they attempt to get at two distinct virtues. Finally, he considers the relative merits and formational value of each account.
Strategy in Action
Authors: Rostagno Massimo , Altavilla Carlo , Carboni Giacomo , Lemke Wolfgang , Motto Roberto , Guilhem Arthur Saint , Yiangou Jonathan
Published: July 2021

The policy framework of the European Central Bank (ECB) attracted both bouquets and brickbats in the pre-crisis era. This chapter aims to assess those arguments with hindsight: was policy successful in delivering the objective or was it instead ‘inattentive’, as some critics at the time claimed? We argue that the euro area economy faced a series of inflationary supply shocks and the policy framework was helpful in those conditions. The perceived asymmetry of the inflation objective—with a hard ‘ceiling’ at 2%—allowed automatic adjustments in underlying conditions, including inflation expectations, to do a large part of the stabilization job. However, we show that this self-stabilizing mechanism also admits a second regime: if the economy enters a situation where negative demand shocks dominate, the ‘ceiling’ ceases to bind and act as a stabilizer, leading inflation to drift downwards. We contend that the ECB may have entered such a regime after the financial crisis.
Capabilities, Competitiveness, Nations
Authors: Fagerberg Jan , Srholec Martin
Published: July 2021

This chapter discusses the role of capabilities and competitiveness for the economic growth of nations. The capability concept is commonly used in analyses of firms, however, as this chapter shows, it may also be used at the level of nations. Capabilities at the national level may be defined broadly as “social capabilities,” as done by the economic historian Moses Abramovitz, or more narrowly as “technological capabilities” as suggested by the development scholar Lin-Su Kim. The paper discusses the relationships between these two dimensions of capabilities and examines recent empirical evidence on this matter for a group of 114 countries worldwide on different levels of development. It also considers the relationship between capabilities and competitiveness, and analyzes the effects of capability change and other aspects of competitiveness on economic growth on data for the period 1995–2013. The final section presents the conclusions from the study and raises issues for future research.
Economics of Technological Leapfrogging
Authors: Lee Keun
Published: July 2021

Latecomer economies are firms which may be able to leapfrog older vintages of technology, and make pre-emptive investments in emerging technologies to catch up with advanced countries in new markets. Leapfrogging can be defined as latecomers trying something different ahead of the forerunners, thereby leaping over them. The answer to the question whether the fourth industrial revolution represents a new window of opportunity for leapfrogging or whether it constitutes a source of further risks for latecomers is that this depends entirely on the country’s response and readiness, that is, its industrial policy, digital literacy, the skill and education level, as well as domestic market size and position in the GVC. Policy recommendations for leapfrogging can also be made for different types of firms, such as incumbents and start-ups. The former comprises three types of firms, namely leaders, followers, and laggards. Path-creating type leapfrogging is more likely to take place in start-ups because they have invested the least in existing technologies or business models. Leader or follower type firms in emerging economies tend to have some experience with technology and absorptive capacity and are thus likely to be in a position to skip one or several stages, while managing the risks associated with leapfrogging. Lastly, laggard firms should not attempt pre-mature leapfrogging but should first build some absorptive capacity in their niche area and upgrade by moving up the higher end of the GVC.
Innovation Surveys as Evidence for Technological Upgrading and Catch-Up Studies
Authors: Roud Vitaliy
Published: July 2021

This chapter looks at the contribution to the innovation capability measurement that is made through innovation surveys. The increased availability of data at the firm level provides new and comprehensive indicators on the accumulation of innovation capabilities. Better understanding of long-term dynamics and the heterogeneity of sectoral trajectories of innovation capabilities sets the stage for adaptable and targeted innovation policy and facilitates new insights on the technology upgrading and economic catch-up mechanics. The chapter presents an approach to assessing innovation capabilities at the national and sectoral levels using composite indicators of output-based innovation modes and illustrates the proposed ideas using the data from the Russian innovation survey. The proposed indicators bring empirical evidence to the discussions of path dependence and gradual change in the technological upgrading studies. Identification of the heterogeneity of innovation capabilities at firm and industry level contributes to a more profound understanding of the upgrading dynamics and helps to draw implications for effective policymaking.
Technological Learning Strategies and Technology Upgrading Intensity in the Mining Industry
Authors: Figueiredo Paulo N , Piana Janaina
Published: July 2021

Despite extensive research on technology upgrading in firms from emerging economies, we know little about micro-level learning strategies underlying technological capability accumulation or technology upgrading intensity, particularly in natural resource-intensive industries. Through a study of Brazil’s mining industry we found that: (1) leading firms implemented technological learning strategies as responses to changing windows of opportunity; (2) these technological learning strategies manifested from imitative and defensive to the offensive, with elements overlapping during the technology upgrading process, involving two forms of knowledge: “doing, using and interacting” (DUI) and “science, technology and innovation” (STI), which were operationalized through various learning mechanisms; (3) the use of learning mechanisms changed qualitatively over time affecting firms’ technology upgrading intensity positively. We contribute to furthering the understanding of latecomer firms’ technology upgrading by providing in-depth empirical insights through a comprehensive approach to innovation capabilities and learning strategies in an under-researched natural resource-intensive industry in a middle-income resource-rich country.
Evolutionary and Interacting Spheres that Condition the Technological Capabilities Accumulation in Latin America
Authors: Dutrénit Gabriela , Natera José Miguel , Puchet Martín , Vera Cruz Alexandre O.
Published: July 2021

The studies about technological capability accumulation (TCA) processes tend to adopt a narrow perspective to science, technology, and innovation and their policies, which is insufficient to understand these processes. It is necessary to frame the TCA processes at national levels, including technical, economic, environmental, social, and political factors, which interact and co-evolve. This chapter groups these factors into two spheres: the techno-economic and environmental (TEES) and the socio-political (SPS) spheres. The aim is to identify development profiles of Latin American countries in terms of TEES and SPS, and discuss their implications for TCA. It is argued that countries’ evolutionary trajectory combines these spheres differently, which results in diverse development profiles; this affects the TCA. This analysis is based on a dynamics structural model, which combines a long-term analysis (1970–2015) of eighteen countries to verify the existence of cointegration between TEES and SPS, and the identification and estimation of long-run paths that determine different country profiles in the region.
New Industrial Innovation Policies in a World of Global Value Chains
Authors: Pietrobelli Carlo
Published: July 2021

Global value chains (GVCs) are changing not only the way firms organize production but also the policies that influence social and economic development. In this chapter I make a first effort to develop and illustrate this framework. First, I present a typology of industrial innovation policies and extend it to “GVC-oriented policies,” that is, those policies that target the fostering of production and technology upgrading through GVCs. The examples from trade and foreign investment policies, and from innovation policies, confirm that a radical rethinking and theorizing of policies is necessary and urgent. Future research will need to move further and deeper into this direction.
Experimentalist Governance for Technology Upgrading
Authors: Kuznetsov Yevgeny
Published: July 2021

The chapter extends the familiar Schumpeterian notion of creative destruction to the public-sector domain by asking a practical “how to” question: how policymakers can set priorities assuming that they have neither the panoramic view of the economy nor good capabilities to learn. The key notion is a trial-and-error policy process—with new experimentalist public programs and policies at the center—which shifts attention from one-time choice to incremental and continuous error-detection and correction of policy choices. Central governance procedure of such policy process is diagnostic monitoring which motivates stakeholders to learn by revealing both mistakes and new possibilities for action. Such problem-solving monitoring is contrasted with conventional (accounting) monitoring. Echoing the industry life-cycle literature, a policy life cycle of a new experimentalist program is introduced. A distinction is made between experimental policy process in the managerial sense (medium-term horizon) and in the evolutionary sense (long-term horizon).
Groups, Interests, and Heuristics
Authors: Donnelly Michael J.
Published: July 2021

In this chapter, I lay out a heuristic theory of group membership and attitudes toward redistribution. I argue that the impact of ethnic and regional incomes on attitudes is mediated by a sense of linked fate, and that this relationship is stronger when levels of within-group inequality are lower, when economic uncertainty is higher, and when politicians raise the salience of the relevant cleavage. I also argue that federalism can, depending on the form it takes, increase or decrease the relevance of group incomes for redistributive attitudes.
Linked Fate and Economic Optimism
Authors: Donnelly Michael J.
Published: July 2021

In this chapter, I examine a key step of heuristic theory. That step is the perception in a person’s mind that her fate is linked to that of a larger group. I review some previous work on linked fate, and argue that it is a useful concept for understanding a wide range of countries and groups. I report results from a survey of Canada, Germany, and the United Kingdom. Ethnic inequality and regional inequality provide good reason for believing that group members’ interests are tied together, and I show that many individual demographics do not do a good job of predicting who feels linked fate, while group-level variation, especially past experiences of discrimination, do shape linked fate. One key individual level variable that does predict linked fate is regional identity, which raises the salience of the regional cleavage.
Perfect Being Theology’s Difficulties
Authors: Kvanvig Jonathan L.
Published: July 2021

The purpose of this chapter is to consider the degree to which Perfect Being Theology has resources for generating the starting points for Creator Theology and Worship-Worthiness Theology. We first argue that Perfect Being Theology has difficulty sustaining the starting point of Creator Theology. We then look at the more complicated relationship between Perfect Being Theology and Worship-Worthiness Theology. Though our goal is more in terms of finding data at this point than drawing conclusions from it, we will see that Perfect Being Theology is considerably less adept at generating the starting points of competing metatheologies than is Creator Theology.
Worship-Worthiness and Its Drawbacks
Authors: Kvanvig Jonathan L.
Published: July 2021

Disappointing results from the last two chapters for alternative metatheologies can serve to make Worship-Worthiness Theology quite attractive, or at least more attractive than some would initially think it to be. On this approach, it is not merely a good idea to worship God, but it is our required response. Given this normative understanding of the nature of God, the question to be asked concerns the extent to which this viewpoint can sustain the starting points of alternative accounts, and here I will argue that Worship-Worthiness Theology does a far better job at sustaining the starting point of Perfect Being Theology than it does of Creator Theology