bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Some Effects of Combining Reinforcers in Operant Training with Mentally Handicapped Persons
Authors: Thomas Glyn V. , Faulkner Hilary , Bolt Elizabeth G.
Published: March 2007

Two experiments investigated the conventional practice of combining social and tangible rewards as a compound reinforcer in operant training procedures for mentally retarded persons. In the first experiment, there were no significant differences in acquisition of a color discrimination between subjects receiving combined social and food reinforcement and those receiving only one of the component reinforcers. In subsequent extinction, subjects who had received social reinforcement on its own responded more than combined reward subjects, who did not differ in extinction responding from food reward alone subjects. In the second study, higher rates of a simple manipulative response were established during training with food reinforcement alone and with combined reinforcement than with social reinforcement alone. Nevertheless, resistance to extinction was again superior after social reinforcement alone than after the food or combined reinforcement. This was the case despite generalization decrements from acquisition contingencies to extinction being kept to a minimum in this second study by the use of noncontingent reinforcement as the extinction procedure. Neither experiment, therefore, found any beneficial effects of combining the rewards, either in acquisition or in subsequent extinction.
Effects of Two Error-Correction Procedures on Oral Reading Errors
Authors: Singh Nirbhay N.
Published: March 2007

The effects of two error-correction procedures on oral reading errors and a control condition were compared in an alternating treatments design with three students who were moderately mentally retarded. The two procedures evaluated were word supply and sentence repeat. The teacher supplied the reader with the correct word immediately after each student error during the word-supply condition. During the sentence-repeat condition, the teacher supplied the correct word immediately after each student error, required the student to repeat the correct word, complete reading the sentence, and then reread the entire sentence. Both word-supply and sentence-repeat procedures were effective in reducing oral reading errors when compared to a no-intervention control condition, but sentence repeat was superior to word supply. In addition, a similar relationship was found between the two procedures when the students were tested for retention on the same reading passages a week later. These results show that sentence repeat is more effective than is the commonly used word-supply procedure in remediating the oral reading errors of students with moderate mental retardation.
BVP-Biofeedback in the Treatment of Migraine
Authors: Lisspers Jan , Ost Lars-Goran
Published: March 2007

Biofeedback training for self-regulation of blood-volume pulse ("BVP") amplitude of the temporal arteries has been used previously with good results in treatment of migraine headaches. In the present study, 23 subjects were randomly assigned to one of three groups and given (a) biofeedback training in temporal artery constriction and instructions to apply these skills during headaches; (b) the same training and instructions to apply the skills between headaches, during stress periods, and (c) biofeedback training to dilate the temporal arteries, and instructions to use these skills during stress periods. Clinically meaningful headache reductions were achieved and maintained at follow-up. Furthermore, results indicated that voluntary temporal artery dilatation also leads to headache reductions, and that there is a connection between levels of achieved self-regulation sldll and the clinical effects.
Date Rape
Authors: Marx Brian P. , Gross Alan M.
Published: March 2007

This study examined the impact of perceived token resistance and previous sexual contact on men's discrimination of when a female wants her partner to stop his sexual advances. Male college students were randomly assigned to one of four conditions. Before listening to an audiotape of a date rape, subjects were told that the couple had been on five dates. On the previous date, the man had manipulated the woman's breasts or genitals. Subjects were also told that the woman did not object to this contact, or that she initially objected to the contact but subsequently stopped resisting the contact. Relative to subjects in the no-resistance condition, subjects in the perceived token resistance conditions took significantly longer to determine that the man should refrain from attempting further sexual contact. The implications of the findings are discussed.
Violent Assault, Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, and Depression
Authors: Acierno Ron , Kilpatrick Dean G. , Resnick Heidi S. , Saunders Benjamin E. , Best Connie L.
Published: March 2007

Cigarette smoking may be conceptualized as a strategy to cope with negative affect. Therefore, rates of cigarette use might be expected to be greater in individuals experiencing events that produce negative affect, such as assault. To test this hypothesis, a national sample of 3,006 women aged 18 and older was assessed for lifetime and current cigarette use, previous history of physical and sexual assault, lifetime and current incidence of depression, and lifetime and current incidence of PTSD. Results indicated that the odds of active smoking in women with a lifetime history of assault were 1.82 times those of women with no previous history of assault. Similarly, risk of active cigarette use in women with a previous history of depression or PTSD was 2.22 and 1.34 times those of women with no depressive or PTSD history, respectively. Recent assault, current PTSD, or current depression status were not associated with increased cigarette use.
Effects of a Multicomponent Monetary Incentive Program on the Performance of Truck Drivers
Authors: Lamere Jeanne M. , Dickinson Alyce M. , Henry Michele , Henry Gordon , Poling Alan
Published: March 2007

A multiple-baseline across two groups experimental design was used to examine the effects of a multicomponent individual incentive system on the performance, safety, and satisfaction of 22 truck drivers. The intervention included incentive pay, which was increased twice; individual and group feedback; and loss of incentive pay for accidents. Drivers earned points for completing various types of jobs. The primary measure was the percentage of job points earned in less time than the baseline average, which controlled for number of hours worked and miles driven. After intervention, performance increased and remained high for nearly 4 years. Accidents did not increase when the intervention occurred, and satisfaction with pay and work were not affected by it. Labor cost savings averaged more than $5,000 a month while the incentive program was in effect, and drivers' pay increased. These results add to the substantial literature on individual incentives by documenting increased productivity sustained over a long period without accompanying increases in accidents or decreases in workers' satisfaction.
Physical Attractiveness in Schizophrenia
Authors: Penn David L. , Mueser Kim T. , Doonan Robert
Published: March 2007

The role of social skill in mediating perceived physical attractiveness among individuals with chronic schizophrenia was investigated. Twenty five inpatients participated in an unstructured role play. The physical attractiveness of the individuals was rated both before and after observation of the role play by two pairs of raters. Social skill was rated by a third pair of raters. The two ratings of physical attractiveness were only weakly correlated with one another. Social skill contributed variance independent of initial attractiveness to post-role-play attractiveness. Practical implications of the findings (i.e., stigma issues and social skills training) are discussed.
Successful Interdisciplinary Intervention with an Initially Treatment-Resistant Social Phobic
Authors: Laguna Louis B. , Healey E. Charles , Hope Debra A.
Published: March 2007

Despite very successful treatments for social phobia, with many studies reporting as many as 75% of social phobics making clinically significant gains with 3 months of treatment or less, some social phobics fail to respond to treatment. This case presents a woman with social phobia who received several trials of treatment for severe public-speaking fears but failed to improve, as demonstrated by persistent reports of fear and avoidance equal to those before treatment. With the assistance of a speech language pathologist, this client received combined therapy that included cognitive-behavioral therapy to treat her public-speaking fear and avoidance and voice therapy to treat excessive muscle contractions in the respiratory and phonatory systems. Overall, the combined treatment was successful, with the client's self-reported levels of fear and avoidance of public speaking decreasing dramatically. Specific improvements during voice therapy and implications for the treatment of social phobia are also discussed.
The Outcome of Parent lraining Using the Behavior Management Flow Chart with Mothers and Their Children with Oppositional Defiant Disorder and Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Authors: Danforth Jeffrey S.
Published: March 2007

The effects of parent training, using parameters established in the Behavior Management Flow Chart, on mother behavior and on the disruptive behavior of eight children who emitted behavior consistent with the diagnoses of both Oppositional Defiant Disorder and Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder were evaluated. There are important differences between the Behavior Management Flow Chart and well-known parent-training programs that are based on the Hanf model. Parent training was conducted within a multiple baseline design across children. Direct observation of mother and child behavior, phone interviews, and standardized rating scales showed that training improved parenting behavior, reduced maternal stress, and reduced oppositional child behavior. A 6-month follow-up revealed that parenting and child behavior remained stable. The results are comparable with prior research on behaviorl parent training for families that have children with oppositional/hyperactive behavior.
Response Covariation
Authors: Lalli Joseph S. , Kates Kelly , Casey Sean D.
Published: March 2007

This article examined the relationship between the accuracy of academic responding and aggression for two boys with mild mental retardation. Their teacher reported low rates of correct responding and high rates of aggressive behavior during spelling instruction.Afunctional analysis showed that aggression was escape maintained. Following the functional analysis, participants were tested on relations between printed, photographic, and dictated stimuli corresponding to their spelling words. On pretests, they were unable to match printed words to their photographs or to their dictated names; they could neither name the printed words nor spell the photographs or dictated words. High rates of aggression were observed during the pretests. The participants then were taught the letter-by-letter construction of the appropriate words when shown photographs. On posttests, the participants correctly matched printed words to their photographs and dictated names. In addition, they correctly named printed words and spelled dictated words orally. Data showed that rates of problem behavior negatively covaried with improvements in the participants” academic responding.
Using Self-Instructional Pictorial Manuals to Teach Child-Care Skills to Mothers with Intellectual Disabilities
Authors: Feldman Maurice A. , Ducharme Joseph M. , Case Laurie
Published: March 2007

Children of parents with intellectual disabilities (i.e., IQs less than 80, labeled as having mental retardation) are at risk for neglect due to inadequate parenting abilities. Previous studies have shown that these parents are responsive to parent-training packages consisting of instructions, pictorial cues, modeling, feedback, and reinforcement. This study evaluated the effectiveness of self-learning pictorial-parenting manuals in teaching basic child-care skills (diapering, treating diaper rash, bathing, safety) to parents with intellectual disabilities who are monitored by child protection agencies. The manuals alone increased child-care skills (to levels seen in parents without disabilities) in 9 out of the 10 mothers in the study and in 12 of 13 child-care skills. The remaining skill was acquired with the full training package. Follow-up indicated that the acquired skills were maintained for up to 3 years. Mean correct performance with the manual was positively correlated with the trainer”s rating of the mother’s reading level and acceptance of the manual when the mother was first given the manual. Consumer satisfaction ratings of the manuals were high. These results indicate that many parents with intellectual disabilities may improve their child-care skills without intensive training and that self-instruction may be an easily disseminable and cost-effectiveway of reducing the risk of child neglect due to parenting skill deficiencies.
Motivated Reasoning and Performance on the was on Selection Task
Authors: Dawson Erica , Gilovich Thomas , Regan Dennis T.
Published: March 2007

People tend to approach agreeable propositions with a bias toward confirmation and disagreeable propositions with a bias toward disconfirmation. Because the appropriate strategy for solving the four-card Wason selection task is to seek disconfirmation, the authors predicted that people motivated to reject a task rule should be more likely to solve the task than those without such motivation. In two studies, participants who considered a Wason task rule that implied their own early death (Study 1) or the validity of a threatening stereotype (Study 2) vastly outperformed participants who considered nonthreatening or agreeable rules. Discussion focuses on how a skeptical mindset may help people avoid confirmation bias both in the context of the Wason task and in everyday reasoning.
Distortion in Memory for Emotions: The Contributions of Personality and Post-Event Knowledge
Authors: Safer Martin A. , Levine Linda J. , Drapalski Amy L.
Published: March 2007

Undergraduates (N = 189) rated their test anxiety and emotions immediately before a midterm examination and recalled those feelings 1 week later. Students who learned they had done well on the exam underestimated, and those who learned they had done poorly overestimated, pre-exam test anxiety. Personality traits and emotional states together predicted memory distortion. Specifically, traits predicted the intensity of pre-exam states, such as test anxiety, which in turn predicted later distortion in recalling pre-exam negative and positive emotions. Also, students with positive personality traits were particularly likely to be influenced by current feelings when recalling test anxiety. Overestimating pre-midterm test anxiety predicted intentions to study more as well as feelings of unpleasantness just prior to the final exam.
Strategies for Reducing the Stress of Negative Life Experiences: An Averaging/Summation Analysis
Authors: Seta John J. , Seta Catherine E. , McElroy Todd
Published: March 2007

Experiments 1 through 4 investigated how different orientations to stimulus events influenced whether the addition of a mildly negative stressor to a highly negative one did or did not decrease stress. In Experiment 1, reductions in stress levels were obtained when perceivers concentrated on the negative implications of each stressor but not when they concentrated on the implications associated with the entire situation. In Experiments 2 and 3, reductions in stress were obtained when participants were asked to think about a mildly negative event in addition to a highly negative one, but this effect was reduced when participants overtly appraised each stressor before reporting their overall stress reaction. In Experiment 4, stress reductions were obtained when participants were induced to think about either two or four of the negative implications associated with a single stressor but not when they thought about six negative implications.
Ingroup Versus Outgroup Comparisons and Self-Esteem: The Role of Group Status and Ingroup Identification
Authors: Martinot Delphine , Redersdorff Sandrine , Guimond Serge , Dif Stéphane
Published: March 2007

Prior research suggests that people can protect their self-esteem by construing upward comparisons with outgroup members as non-self-relevant. In the present experiments, the authors hypothesized that only dominant group members use such a self-protection strategy. This hypothesis was confirmed in three experiments (N = 293) comparing dominant and subordinate-status groups exposed to upward versus downward social comparisons with ingroup or outgroup members. The results also showed that dominant group members suffered from upward comparisons with ingroup members, whereas subordinate group members did not. For the latter, ingroup identification appeared to be a self-protection strategy. Group status may be a potential moderator of the tendency to adopt particular self-protection strategies against upward comparisons.
Next to a Star: Paling, Shining, or Both? Turning Interexemplar Contrast into Interexemplar Assimilation
Authors: Wänke Michaela , Bless Herbert , Igou Eric R.
Published: March 2007

Four studies, set in the political and marketing domain, investigated how an extreme exemplar influences the evaluation of more moderate exemplars. In Studies 1 to 3, an extremely positive exemplar (star) elicited contrast in the evaluation of more moderate exemplars. However, the contrast effect was eliminated when the shared category membership of the star and the respective exemplar was made salient. Rather than relying on categorization, Study 4 manipulated interexemplar assimilation by using comparison processes to draw attention to the features shared with an extreme exemplar. Whether the extreme exemplar caused contrast or assimilation depended on the direction of comparison with which target and context stimulus were compared. All studies, in particular Studies 3 and 4, suggest that interexemplar contrast and interexemplar assimilation work in parallel rather than alternatively.
The Role of Contextual Constraints and Chronic Expectancies on Behavior Categorizations and Dispositional Inferences
Authors: Weary Gifford , Reich Darcy A. , Tobin Stephanie J.
Published: March 2007

The authors examined the roles of chronic expectancies and other contextual information in the dispositional inference process within the domain of ability judgments. Prior to viewing a videotaped performance under either cognitive load or no load, participants in Studies 1 and 2 were given additional information designed to constrain their categorizations of the performance. In Study 2, chronic future-event expectancies also were assessed. Analyses revealed that when under cognitive load, participants’ ability inferences were assimilated to the constraint information (Studies 1 and 2) and to chronic expectancies (Study 2). Furthermore, Study 2 analyses revealed that these effects were mediated by participants’ behavior categorizations. Evidence suggestive of a proceduralized form of correction for task difficulty (Studies 1 and 2) and an effortful, awareness-based correction for the constraint information and for chronic expectancies also was found. Results are examined in light of recent models of the dispositional inference process.
Negative Affect Can Increase or Decrease Message Scrutiny: The Affect Interpretation Hypothesis
Authors: Bohner Gerd , Weinerth Thomas
Published: March 2007

Applying insights from the mood-as-information and mood-as-input models to persuasion, it was hypothesized that negative (vs. neutral) affect would increase or decrease message processing depending on how recipients interpret their affect. Recipients who are (vs. are not) likely to question the legitimacy of the message were predicted to process to a low (vs. high) extent when experiencing negative affect. High salience of a judgment-irrelevant cause for negative affect was predicted to render affect uninformative and hence discount its effects on processing. These hypotheses were supported in two experiments with 388 university students, in which the likelihood of questioning message legitimacy was operationalized as high versus low vested interest (smokers vs. nonsmokers reading an antismoking appeal; Experiment 1) or by providing versus not providing a cue to the communicator being propagandist (Experiment 2).
Community Identification Moderating the Impact of Financial Incentives in a Natural Social Dilemma: Water Conservation
Authors: van Vugt Mark
Published: March 2007

The moderating role of community identification was investigated in the impact of different tariff systems on domestic water use. Over a 9-month interval, both consumption and survey data were collected in 278 households in the United Kingdom, 203 of which were on a variable tariff (i.e., charges related to use) and 75 on a fixed tariff (i.e., charges unrelated to use). Adopting a social dilemma approach, I expected a fixed tariff to be associated with greater use than a variable tariff, in particular when resources were valuable and people identified weakly with their community. This hypothesis was supported in both the field study and an experimental study that simulated a natural resource crisis in the laboratory.
Contingent Effects of Anxiety on Message Elaboration and Persuasion
Authors: Sengupta Jaideep , Johar Gita Venkataramani
Published: March 2007

This research examined the effects of anxiety on subsequent message processing. Experiment 1, conducted just before the hand-over of Hong Kong to China in 1997, manipulated anxiety by presenting Hong Kong participants with negative or positive potential consequences of the handover. Consistent with research documenting the cognitive deficits produced by anxiety, lower levels of message elaboration were obtained under high (vs. low) anxiety for an anxiety-unrelated message. However, for an anxiety-related message (e.g., a message about the upcoming hand-over ceremony), anxiety did not lower message elaboration, presumably because increased processing motivation compensated for cognitive deficits. Experiment 2 then revealed that, even for a motivating anxiety-related message (regarding job prospects), high anxiety results in a different type of processing compared to low anxiety. Specifically, capacity pressures caused heuristic cues in the message to bias the nature of systematic processing under high-anxiety conditions.
The Reliability of Implicit Stereotyping
Authors: Kawakami Kerry , Dovidio John F.
Published: March 2007

Recent research has moved beyond the mere documentation of implicit stereotypes to consider how these measures relate to attitudes and predict behaviors. Little is known, however, about the basic psychometric properties of these measures. The present research includes three studies that provide evidence for test-retest reliability of implicit stereotypes when supraliminal priming of associated traits precedes a group categorization decision (Experiments 1 and 2) and when subliminal presentation of a group member precedes a decision about trait applicability (Experiment 3). Across the studies, significant evidence of implicit racial and gender stereotyping was obtained. These effects showed moderate test-retest reliability of comparable levels from 1 hour to 3 weeks. Implications of these findings for the use of implicit measures are considered.
An Investigation of Three Models of Multitrait Representations
Authors: Trafimow David , Finlay Krystina A.
Published: March 2007

Two experiments were conducted to test three models of person memory concerning multitrait expectancies: the trait-specific, complete association, and dual-coding models. Participants in Experiment 1 were led to expect a target person to display two traits, then they were presented with congruent and incongruent behaviors ostensibly performed by the target person, and finally they were asked to recall the behaviors. In contradiction to the complete association model, which predicts that participants form congruent-congruent associations as often as congruent-incongruent associations, incongruent items were better recalled than were congruent items. Furthermore, conditional probability analyses contradicted the implications of the trait-specific and dual-coding models. Findings from Experiment 2 reinforced the lack of support for all three models.
The Mismeasure of Love: How Self-Doubt Contaminates Relationship Beliefs
Authors: Murray Sandra L. , Holmes John G. , Griffin Dale W. , Bellavia Gina , Rose Paul
Published: March 2007

The authors argue that individuals with more negative models of self are involved in less satisfying relationships because they have difficulty believing that they are loved by good partners. Dating and married couples completed measures of self-models, perceptions of the partner’s love, perceptions of the partner, and relationship well-being. The results revealed that individuals troubled by self-doubt underestimated the strength of their partners’ love. Such unwarranted insecurities predicted less positive perceptions of their partners. In conjunction, feeling less loved by a less-valuable partner predicted less satisfaction and less optimism for the future than the partner’s feelings of love and commitment warranted. A dependency regulation model is described, where feeling loved by a good, responsive partner is thought to represent a sense of felt security that diminishes the risks of interdependence and promotes closeness.
Emotional Reactions to a Seemingly Prejudiced Response: The Role of Automatically Activated Racial Attitudes and Motivation to Control Prejudiced Reactions
Authors: Fazio Russell H. , Hilden Laura E.
Published: March 2007

This study examined emotional reactions to a televised public service ad regarding racial prejudice. The ad induces viewers to draw a seemingly prejudicial inference about an African American man. Emotional reactions to the ad varied as a function of automatically activated racial attitudes and the two factors of the Motivation to Control Prejudiced Reactions Scale, all of which were assessed 3 months prior to exposure to the ad. More positive racial attitudes were associated with feelings of guilt in response to the ad. Individuals with higher scores on the concern with Acting Prejudiced factor of the motivation scale reported both greater guilt and greater agitation, whereas those with higher scores on the Restraint to Avoid Dispute factor experienced agitation but not guilt. The implications of the findings for prejudice reduction efforts and the effectiveness of the public service ad as a social influence strategy are discussed.
Stereotypical Verbal and Nonverbal Responses While Deceiving Others
Authors: Vrij Aldert , Edward Katherine , Bull Ray
Published: March 2007

This experiment examined the impact of public self-consciousness and acting ability on processes and stereotypical responses during deception. Seventy-three nursing students were videotaped while (a) telling the truth and (b) lying about a theft they had observed. A variety of cues were coded, including criteria-based content analysis (CBCA) and reality monitoring (RM), in which high scores indicated honest responding. Compared with truth tellers, liars waited longer before giving an answer, spoke faster, made more speech hesitations, showed fewer illustrators, and showed lower CBCA and RM scores. Public self-consciousness was positively correlated with trying to control behavior but negatively correlated with RM scores. Ability to act was negatively correlated with RM scores, with showing stereotypical deceptive facial behavior (gaze aversion and smiling), with having to think hard while lying, and with being nervous while lying.
Collective Efficacy: A Multilevel Analysis
Authors: Watson Carl B. , Chemers Martin M. , Preiser Natalya
Published: March 2007

A full understanding of how efficacy beliefs influence collective action requires considering the social nature of groups. The authors focus on collective efficacy, a shared belief that individuals hold about the group. Collective efficacy can be influenced by both individual- and group-level variables. A multilevel framework is employed to analyze the antecedents and consequences of collective efficacy in college basketball teams. Individual-level influences on collective efficacy included self-efficacy, optimism, perceptions of leader effectiveness, and perceptions of recent team performance. Group-level influences included group size, past team performance, and confident leadership. The authors also found support for collective efficacy as a shared belief. This support came from showing within-team agreement and the interdependence of team members’ collective efficacy beliefs. Collective efficacy beliefs were persistent and affected group performance. Finally, the role of leadership in the creation, maintenance, and enhancement of collective efficacy was analyzed.
When Different Becomes Similar: Compensatory Conformity in Bicultural Visible Minorities
Authors: Tafarodi Romin W. , Kang So-Jin , Milne Alan B.
Published: March 2007

The children of immigrants possess bicultural identities that reflect their ethnic heritage and their membership in the wider community. For most, strong identification with the dominant culture creates a desire for full inclusion within it. In the case of visible minorities, however, physical dissimilarity is at times experienced as an “ethnifying” obstacle to assimilation or integration. One response to this challenge is compensatory alignment with the majority group when physical appearance is made salient. To demonstrate this phenomenon, the authors asked Chinese Canadian participants to rate their liking of a set of abstract paintings. The ratings were made in relation to various normative anchors and either in the presence or absence of a mirror. As predicted, only participants in the presence of the mirror showed heightened conformity to the perceived European Canadian (majority group) norm. This tendency, however, was not matched with greater distancing from the perceived Chinese Canadian (minority group) norm.
The Relative Strength of Verbal versus Nonverbal Cues
Authors: Friedman Howard S.
Published: March 2007

A caveat is issued regarding simplistic comparisons of the potency of verbal versus nonverbal cues. To illustrate the danger, data are reported from a study in which high school students judged the meaning communicated by various face-sentence pairings. Judgments were shown to be highly dependent on the nature of the questions asked.
Androgyny and Initial Interpersonal Attraction
Authors: Pursell Sandra A. , Banikiotes Paul G.
Published: March 2007

54 undergraduate subjects, designated as androgynous or stereotyped by scores on the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI), rated their perception of four BSRI protocols contrived to represent androgynous and stereotyped males and females. Results supported the similarity hypothesis for attraction to protocols when similarity was defined in terms of sex role orientation as derived from the BSRI.
Liking and Disliking: Sketch of an Alternative View
Authors: Rodin M. J.
Published: March 2007

Even though we acquire more negative information about people as we get to know them better and negative information has a disproportionately high weight, our liking for a friend does not automatically diminish with continued acquaintance. It is difficult to reconcile this fact with the commonly held assumption that liking-disliking is a unidimensional judgment. An alternative view is proposed in which liking and disliking are seen as separate judgments. The several premises are: 1) the criteria for liking and disliking are distinct; 2) friendship choices are made from a set of eligibles; 3) people are rejected from the set of eligibles on the basis of dislike criteria; 4) friends are chosen from the set of eligibles on the basis of like criteria; 5) the like criteria are likely to be context specific. Analysis of dislike judgments suggests a differentiation of negative information into disliked and disfavored attributes. Given this distinction, the fact of nondiminishing friendship poses no difficulty. The analysis of liking judgments suggests no substantive additions to what is already known about like criteria. It does, however, point up a nontrivial methodological problem with traditional measures of liking--a difficulty associated with the failure to take the context specificity of like criteria into account.
Interpersonal Influence and the Reporting of a Crime
Authors: Bickman Leonard
Published: March 2007

A study was conducted to examine the relationship between interpersonal influence and bystander intervention in a crime. In this study, the subject witnessed a shoplifting while waiting in a supermarket checkout line. A confederate then tried to influence the subject in one of the five following ways: (1) to notice the incident, (2) to define it as a shoplifting, (3) to define it not as a shoplifting, (4) to report it, (5)not to report it. It was found that the confederate affected both the subject's definition ot the situation and actual behavior.
Looking Tough: The Negotiator Under Constituent Surveillance
Authors: Carnevale Peter J. D. , Pruitt Dean G. , Britton Scott D.
Published: March 2007

Constituent surveillance encouraged the negotiator's use of such competitive tactics as threats, positional commitments, and persuasive arguments. Negotiators apparently chose these tactics in order to look tough in the eyes of their constituent. These tactics resulted in diminished joint and individual outcomes. The results of the study suggest that constituents might fare better by not monitoring the behavior of their negotiators. Future research might profit by identifying the crucial intervening variables that account for the surveillance effects.
Perceived Action Units as a Function of Subjective Importance
Authors: Russell J. Curtis
Published: March 2007

The present study investigated the perception of action units in a videotaped behavior sequence as a function of the subjective importance attached to them. Subjects were asked to tutor a student and were promised payment depending on the student's performance. To manipulate subjective importance, some tutoring responses were labeled more effective in one treatment group than they were in a second group. Subjects were predicted to subjectively weight responses as more important for earning money when they were labeled more effective and, hence, should press an event-recorder button more often in that treatment condition. Results confirmed the prediction and indicated that greater subjective importance resulted in discriminating a larger number of action units in the behavior sequence. Findings are discussed in terms of the effect of subjective importance on perceptual segmentation.
Attitudinal and Normative Beliefs as Antecedents of Female Occupational Choice
Authors: Greenstein Marsha , Miller Richard H. , Weldon David E.
Published: March 2007

Fishbein's model was extended to female occupational choice. Normative beliefs and the attitudinal components of the model, as applied to female career choices, were expected to predict subjects' behavioral intentions better than would attitude alone. Eighty-eight sophomore women filled out and returned field survey questionnaires consisting of scales to measure the necessary components of the model. Additional measures were also taken. The normative beliefs component of the model was found to be the major predictor of behavioral intentions. The attitudinal component was relatively unimportant. Other findings were consistent with the model. Implications of the results are discussed.
The Middlemost Choice on Attitude Items
Authors: Klopfer Frederick J. , Madden Theodore M.
Published: March 2007

If respondents to a Thurstone-type attitude scale can make a middlemost response, in addition to agreement or disagreement, what concept underlies such responses when they are made? Ambivalence, neutrality, and uncertainty are three processes that can determine choice of the middlemost response. Definitions reflecting one of these processes or an innocuous control definition were presented to subjects as appropriate for a middlemost response on each of two attitude scales. The definitions presented differentially affected use of the middlemost response on one of the two scales. On that scale, an ambivalence definition yielded the greatest use of the middlemost response and differed from an uncertainty definition, which yielded the least use.
Illusory Causation and Illusory Correlation
Authors: McArthur Leslie Zebrowitz
Published: March 2007

Illusory causation and illusory correlation, two phenomena which have been observed both in object perception and in person perception, are discussed together with various explanations for these effects. It is proposed that the perception of salient stimuli as causal ma}' reflect the way in which the perceiver picks up information about the environment and that the perception of salient stimuli as correlated may reflect the perceiver's attunement to particular environmental invariants. Research evidence consistent with these propositions is reviewed, and research which would more directly test them is suggested.
An Interactionist Perspective on Social Knowing
Authors: Newtson Darren
Published: March 2007

An alternative view of the relationship between perceptual and inferential processes is proposed. It is argued that the distinction bet teen perceptual processes as low-level" and inference processes as "high-level" mental operations may be inaccurate. The proposition that these two systems may he independent, interacting, and equally, capable of providing high-level and low-level judgments is put forward and discussed in light of, findings on the perception of action.
Sex Differences in Influenceability
Authors: Cacioppo John T. , Petty Richard E.
Published: March 2007

Sex differences in influenceability have emerged in the past when discrepant advocacies w ere accompanied by greater expertise in the subject matter by men or Women. Similarly we found that when men and women were asked if they agreed with another person's inaccurate (attitude-discrepant) evaluation, resistance was greater when prior knowledge was high. However, men agreed less than women, regardless of prior knowledge, when the other person's evaluation Was a(curate (attitude-congruent). These results suggest that for attitude-congruent advocacies, gender role influences socially' acceptable levels of agreeableness. Agreement with attitude-discrepant advocacies, however, appears to be more content-based.
Recall of Social Events with the Passage of Time
Authors: Messe Lawrence A. , Buldain Roger W. , Watts Barbara
Published: March 2007

Husbands and wives were interviewed separately and asked specific questions about social events experienced together in years past, e.g., occasions that they had celebrated and trips that they had taken. 7hese couples, to a reasonable degree, remembered and agreed about events occurring within 12 months of the interview, but their performance deteriorated sharply when the events occurred earlier in time. Findings are discussed in terms of the role that recall (or the lack of it)plays in the distortion of "remembrances of things past."
Ringelmann Revisited
Authors: Kerr Norbert L. , Bruun Steven E.
Published: March 2007

Recent work suggests that group members' motivation for certain types of tasks declines as group size increases. Two experiments examined alternative explanations for this effect. The results of the first study disconfirmed the "me first" explanation, which holds that the effect occurs only when an individual performs in several different size groups. The second experiment supported the "hide-in—the crowd"explanation, which holds that member anonymity increases with group size for the tasks which have yielded the effect.
Self-Perception and Attitude-Behavior Consistency
Authors: Zanna Mark P. , Olson James M. , Fazio Russell H.
Published: March 2007

An experiment tested the hypothesis that the degree to which an attitude is inferred from past behaviors toward an object is a determinant of attitude-behavior consistency. Subjects participated in a two-session experiment. During the first session, subjects' attitudes toward religion were assessed under one of two conditions. Control subjects' attitudes were measured before they completed a questionnaire wherein they indicated which of a list of behaviors pertaining to religion they had performed in the past. Self-Perception subjects completed the same two sets of items, but in the reverse order; thus, they were provided with an extensive opportunity to review and evaluate their past behaviors before indicating their attitudes toward religion. Approximately one month later, all subjects returned for the second session, during which three measures of their behaviors pertaining to religion since the first session were obtained. On two of the three measures, the predictive utility of religious attitudes was shown to be greater in the Self-Perception condition than in the Control condition.
Forewarning and Accountability
Authors: Ford J. Kevin , Weldon Elizabeth
Published: March 2007

The influence of forewarning and accountability on strategies used to make memory-based interpersonal judgments was investigated. Subjects were asked to make judgments as to the suitability of a stimulus person for two occupations requiring either similar or dissimilar characteristics and the time required to make those judgments was measured. Overall, more time was required to make dissimilar as opposed to similar judgments. Forewarning and accountability increased median decision time for both similar and dissimilar judgments. The results are discussed in terms of the processes involved in making memory-based interpersonal judgments.
Self-Images and Cigarette Smoking in Adolescence
Authors: Chassin Laurie , Presson Clark C. , Sherman Steven J. , Corty Eric , Olshavsky Richard W.
Published: March 2007

Adolescents' self-perceptions (real and ideal), perceptions of their ideal date, and perceptions of stereotypic male and female smokers and nonsmokers were assessed. These perceptions were related to subjects' smoking status and to their intentions to smoke. Subjects who smoked differed from nonsmokers in having real self-concepts and ideal dates that more closely matched the stereotypic smoker. Most important, nonsmoking subjects who had self-concepts, ideal dates, and certain aspects of ideal selves that were close to the smoker stereotype were most likely to intend to smoke.
Federal Human Subjects Regulations
Authors: Dill Charles A. , Gilden Eugene R. , Hill Peter C. , Hanselka Larry L.
Published: March 2007

The present study investigated informed consent procedures as a possible methodological artifact in stressor research. The authors hypothesized that certain aspects of the consent form may give the subject the perception of control over the stressor. Empirical support was found for this hypothesis. Analyses revealed that stressed subjects who were explicitly informed via consent forms of their freedom to withdraw from the experiment performed significantly better on cognitive tasks than stressed subjects not so informed.
Can Values be Manipulated Arbitrarily?
Authors: Grube Joel W.
Published: March 2007

Earlier research has indicated that value changes initiated through self-confrontation procedures are apparently unidirectional-that is, occur only in a direction that serves positive self-conceptions. However, to rule out the possibility that the previous findings may be the result of statistical regression, the present study replicated this earlier research and controlled for this possible artifact. Results indicated that the experimental treatment led to significant increases in equality 3 to 5 weeks later only among respondents whose values were inconsistent with their self-conceptions. The results thus provide further support for Rokeach's (1973) theory of cognitive organization and change and suggest that it is unlikely self-confrontation can be used to manipulate values in whatever direction is arbitrarily decided upon by an experimenter.
Physical Attractiveness and Blood Pressure
Authors: Hansell Stephen , Sparacino Jack , Ronchi Don
Published: March 2007

Four studies were conducted to investigate the relationship between physical attractiveness and resting blood pressure. In two samples of adolescents, there were significant sex by attractiveness interaction effects on blood pressure. Unattractive females had significantly higher mean pressures than attractive females, even when controlling for obesity. The attractiveness of males was not generally related to their blood pressures. A fourth study investigated the generalizability of the sex by attractiveness interaction effect to an older sample of adults, but no significant effects were found. Taken together, these results suggested sex and age differences in the motivational salience of physical attractiveness and help illuminate the internal arousal potential of external physical characteristics.
The Effects of Recipient Posture on Persuasion
Authors: Petty Richard E. , Wells Gary L. , Heesacker Martin , Brock Timothy C. , Cacioppo John T.
Published: March 2007

Two experiments were conducted to explore the relationship between the body posture of a message recipient and susceptibility to persuasive influence. In Experiment 1, recipients who were reclining comfortably during exposure to a counterattitudinal message showed more agreement with the message than recipients who were standing during exposure. In Experiment 2, posture (standing or reclining) and the quality of the arguments employed in the counterattitudinal message (cogent or specious) were varied in an effort to assess competing theoretical accounts of the posture effect. An interaction between posture and message quality emerged on the measure of postmessage agreement. Reclining subjects were differentially persuaded by the strong and weak arguments, but standing subjects were not. This pattern of results is consistent with the view that reclining recipients engage in more message-relevant thinking than standing recipients.
Children's Artistic Creativity
Authors: Amabile Teresa M. , Gitomer Judith
Published: March 2007

Preschool boys and girls made collages using a subset of a large array of materials. Half of the children were allowed to choose those materials they would use. For the rest of the children, the choice was made by the experimenter. Children in the no-choice condition were yoked to those in the choice condition by the specific materials they were given. The collages made by children given a choice of materials were judged by a group of artists as significantly higher in creativity than those made by children given no choice. These results support the hypothesis that unconstrained choice in task approach can be conducive to creativity, whereas constrained choice can be detrimental.
Learned Helplessness
Authors: Moore Janet , Strube Michael J. , Lacks Patricia
Published: March 2007

This study examined the mediating influence of internal-external attribution style and comparative performance information on responses to task success and failure. Subjects classified as exhibiting either an internal or external attribution style were induced to either succeed or fail on an initial task and then attempted a second, solvable task. In addition, the initial task was performed either alone or in the presence of a confederate who succeeded on the task. Results indicated that subjects with an external attribution style were little influenced by the task success manipulation or by the presence of a successful co-participant. By contrast, internal subjects who failed on the first task in the presence of a successful confederate performed better on the second task than did subjects who performed the first task alone. These results complement previous research, which indicates that internally oriented individuals are more responsive to control contingencies, and under certain conditions, respond to failure with enhanced subsequent performance.