bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Where the “ruber” Meets the Road: Using the Genome of the Red Diamond Rattlesnake to Unravel the Evolutionary Processes Driving Venom Evolution
Authors: Hirst Samuel R , Rautsaw Rhett M , VanHorn Cameron M , Beer Marc A , McDonald Preston J , Rosales García Ramsés Alejandro , Rodriguez Lopez Bruno , Rubio Rincón Alexandra , Franz Chávez Hector , Vásquez-Cruz Víctor , Kelly Hernández Alfonso , Storfer Andrew , Borja Miguel , Castañeda-Gaytán Gamaliel , Frandsen Paul B , Parkinson Christopher L , Strickland Jason L , Margres Mark J
Published: September 2024

Understanding the proximate and ultimate causes of phenotypic variation is fundamental in evolutionary research, as such variation provides the substrate for selection to act upon. Although trait variation can arise due to selection, the importance of neutral processes is sometimes understudied. We presented the first reference-quality genome of the Red Diamond Rattlesnake (Crotalus ruber) and used range-wide ‘omic data to estimate the degree to which neutral and adaptive evolutionary processes shaped venom evolution. We characterized population structure and found substantial genetic differentiation across two populations, each with distinct demographic histories. We identified significant differentiation in venom expression across age classes with substantially reduced but discernible differentiation across populations. We then used conditional redundancy analysis to test whether venom expression variation was best predicted by neutral divergence patterns or geographically variable (a)biotic factors. Snake size was the most significant predictor of venom variation, with environment, prey availability, and neutral sequence variation also identified as significant factors, though to a lesser degree. By directly including neutrality in the model, our results confidently highlight the predominant, yet not singular, role of life history in shaping venom evolution.
Trait imputation enhances nonlinear genetic prediction for some traits
Authors: He Ruoyu , Fu Jinwen , Ren Jingchen , Pan Wei
Published: September 2024

The expansive collection of genetic and phenotypic data within biobanks offers an unprecedented opportunity for biomedical research. However, the frequent occurrence of missing phenotypes presents a significant barrier to fully leveraging this potential. In our target application, on one hand, we have only a small and complete dataset with both genotypes and phenotypes to build a genetic prediction model, commonly called a polygenic (risk) score (PGS or PRS); on the other hand, we have a large dataset of genotypes (e.g. from a biobank) without the phenotype of interest. Our goal is to leverage the large dataset of genotypes (but without the phenotype) and a separate genome-wide association studies summary dataset of the phenotype to impute the phenotypes, which are then used as an individual-level dataset, along with the small complete dataset, to build a nonlinear model as PGS. More specifically, we trained some nonlinear models to 7 imputed and observed phenotypes from the UK Biobank data. We then trained an ensemble model to integrate these models for each trait, resulting in higher R2 values in prediction than using only the small complete (observed) dataset. Additionally, for 2 of the 7 traits, we observed that the nonlinear model trained with the imputed traits had higher R2 than using the imputed traits directly as the PGS, while for the remaining 5 traits, no improvement was found. These findings demonstrate the potential of leveraging existing genetic data and accounting for nonlinear genetic relationships to improve prediction accuracy for some traits.
7. The regulation of environmental protection
Authors: Bell Stuart , McGillivray Donald , Pedersen Ole W. , Lees Emma , Stokes Elen
Published: September 2024

This chapter introduces different approaches to environmental regulation. Through a series of examples, it explores reasons for regulating, regulatory processes, techniques and forms of regulation, including different types of environmental standards, and the importance of enforcement and compliance.
13. Environmental assessment
Authors: Bell Stuart , McGillivray Donald , Pedersen Ole W. , Lees Emma , Stokes Elen
Published: September 2024

This chapter interrogates the key regulatory tool of environmental assessment. A central focus is on fundamental questions such as what environmental assessment is, what it covers and how it works, when a project or plan is subject to assessment, and its use in practice. The chapter discusses the key legal instruments, which derive from EU law, and the highly procedural nature of the assessment process.
8. Statehood, Self-Determination, and Recognition
Authors: Craven Matthew , Parfitt Rose
Published: September 2024

This chapter, which examines various theoretical arguments about recognition, statehood, and sovereignty, discusses the elusiveness of the actual place occupied by the State in legal international thought and practice. In one direction, the existence of a society of independent States appears to be a necessary presupposition for the discipline—something that has to precede the identification of those rules or principles which might be regarded as forming the substance of international law. In another direction, however, statehood is something that appears to be produced through international law following from a need to determine which political communities can rightfully claim to enjoy the prerogatives of sovereignty.
5. United Nations Treaty (Monitoring) Bodies
Authors: Cançado Trindade Antônio Augusto , González-Salzberg Damián A.
Published: September 2024

Chapter 5 continues the topic of the universal protection of human rights within the framework provided by the United Nations. It focuses on the so-called ‘treaty bodies’, supervisory organs created to monitor the implementation of each of the nine core human rights treaties adopted throughout time under the auspice of the UN. The chapter begins with an exploration of the main common functions of the treaty bodies, to then focus on each of these nine supervisory organs individually. It also provides a reflection on the long-debated need to reform the treaty body system, as well as insights into the debate about the creation of a world human rights court.
Cases & Materials on International Law
Authors: Dixon Martin , McCorquodale Robert , Williams Sarah
Published: September 2024

Cases and Materials on International Law, a topical companion for study placing international law directly in the context of contemporary debate, offers broad coverage of international law, and is suitable for use alongside a range of course structures and teaching styles. The book provides readers with a comprehensive selection of case law and other relevant extracts for their studies. Extracts have been chosen from a wide range of historical and contemporary cases, treaties, legislation and commentary to show how international legal principles are developed. The book contains the essential cases and materials needed in order to understand and analyse the international legal order, providing notes on selected extracts to explain the complexities of legal developments. The seventh edition expands its coverage of core areas of international law, such as state responsibility, jurisdiction and international legal personality, and consequently reduces areas which now tend to be dealt with in separate courses, such as international criminal law and international economic law. It provides expanded coverage of topical areas such as: the use of force in Ukraine ; Covid-19 pandemic; Brexit; new Advisory Opinions by the International Court of Justice; climate change issues and developments in human rights and international environmental law. The new edition continues to include the perspectives of non-western and feminist scholars.
7. Assistance after the offence
Authors: Ormerod David , Laird Karl , Gibson Matthew
Published: September 2024

This chapter examines the statutory offences under the Criminal Law Act 1967 of assisting an offender. Examples include hiding a principal offender, helping a principal offender to avoid arrest or to abscond from bail, lying to the police to protect the principal offender from investigation and prosecution, hiding the weapon used by the principal offender in committing the assault/robbery, and washing clothes worn by the principal offender to obstruct any potential forensic examination. In addition to the fact that the offender must have committed a relevant offence, another element in the actus reus where an offender is charged with impeding the apprehension or prosecution of the offender is that D must have done ‘any act’ with the appropriate intent. An attempt to commit this offence does not amount to criminal liability.
11. Inchoate crime
Authors: Ormerod David , Laird Karl , Gibson Matthew
Published: September 2024

Inchoate offences include attempts, conspiracies, and encouraging or assisting crime under the Serious Crime Act 2007. Creating inchoate offences is difficult because the conduct involved will tend to be far removed from the type of harm necessary to charge a person under the relevant substantive offence. The actus reus of inchoate offences can encompass a wide range of behaviour, such as ‘an agreement’ in conspiracy or mere words of encouragement in encouraging or assisting. Given the broad nature of the actus reus, inchoates must be kept within reasonable limits by requirements of high thresholds of subjective mens rea. This chapter deals with inchoate offences and considers the limits on liability for attempts of conspiracy and other accessorial liability. It also discusses jurisdictional issues, common law conspiracies, procedural issues relating to conspiracies, encouragement, or assistance under the Serious Crime Act 2007, and the impossibility of committing an inchoate crime.
15. Further homicide and related offences
Authors: Ormerod David , Laird Karl , Gibson Matthew
Published: September 2024

This chapter deals with further homicide and related offences. It discusses offences ancillary to murder, solicitation and threats to kill, the offence of concealment of birth, complicity in suicide, mercy killing and suicide pacts, as well as the Suicide Act 1961. The chapter also covers offences of infanticide, child destruction, and abortion. Finally, it moves on to provide an overview of offences under the Domestic Violence, Crime and Victims Acts 2004 and 2012 of causing or allowing a child or vulnerable adult to be killed or caused serious injury. The chapter examines the line of case law from the House of Lords and the Supreme Court considering whether the absolute prohibition on assisted suicide violates rights guaranteed in the European Convention on Human Rights.
19. Robbery
Authors: Ormerod David , Laird Karl , Gibson Matthew
Published: September 2024

Robbery is an aggravated form of theft and is considered an extremely serious offence that carries a maximum life sentence and in practice attracts substantial sentences. It was put on a statutory footing in s 8 of the Theft Act 1968 and is triable only on indictment. The offence is very broad, applying to thefts in many circumstances ranging from the work of sophisticated gangs and armed bank robbers, to extreme forms of playground bullying. This chapter examines robbery and the requirement of theft, coupled with the use or threat of force in committing theft, and the mens rea of robbery.
26. Handling and related offences
Authors: Ormerod David , Laird Karl , Gibson Matthew
Published: September 2024

This chapter deals with handling stolen goods and related offences. Under s 22 of the Theft Act 1968, a person who dishonestly receives goods, or dishonestly undertakes or assists in their retention, removal, disposal, or realization by or for the benefit of another person, or if they arrange to do so knowing or believing that the goods are stolen, is guilty of the offence of handling stolen goods. English criminal law treats this offence as an independent crime rather than one of being an ‘accessory after the fact’ to theft. The chapter considers the actus reus and mens rea of handling stolen goods, when goods cease to be stolen, handling by omission, the ‘doctrine’ of recent possession, dishonest retention of a wrongful credit, advertising for the return of stolen goods, and money laundering.
6. Equitable Interests
Authors: McFarlane Ben , Hopkins Nicholas , Nield Sarah
Published: September 2024

All books in this flagship series contain carefully selected substantial extracts from key cases, legislation, and academic debate, providing able students with a stand-alone resource. This chapter explores the content of equitable interests in land, and considers how such rights differ from personal rights and also from legal estates and interests. Equitable interests in land are capable of being asserted against third parties and so differ from personal rights. The content and acquisition questions are answered differently, depending on whether B claims a legal or an equitable property right. It is also noted that, in general, equitable interests in land, unlike legal estates and interests, do not bind strangers who interfere with the land. Equitable interests also depend on A’s coming under a duty to B. It is therefore suggested that equitable property rights are conceptually different from legal property rights.
9. Adverse Possession
Authors: McFarlane Ben , Hopkins Nicholas , Nield Sarah
Published: September 2024

All books in this flagship series contain carefully selected substantial extracts from key cases, legislation, and academic debate, providing able students with a stand-alone resource. This chapter investigates in detail adverse possession. The acquisition of title by adverse possession consists of two distinct stages: first, the inception of adverse possession; and, secondly, the operation of limitation rules at the end of the requisite period of adverse possession. The concept of adverse possession reflects ideas underlying unregistered titles. The operation of adverse possession is generally incompatible with the ideas underpinning registration of title and this led to significant reforms in the Land Registration Act 2002 (LRA 2002). The LRA 2002 provides a new scheme of adverse possession through which title is obtained by registration, rather than by possession. A criminal offence of squatting in a residential building was introduced in 2012, but it has been held that the commission of the offence does not preclude a claim to title by adverse possession under the LRA 2002. Adverse possession rules have also been held to be human rights compliant.
11. Trusts
Authors: McFarlane Ben , Hopkins Nicholas , Nield Sarah
Published: September 2024

All books in this flagship series contain carefully selected substantial extracts from key cases, legislation, and academic debate, providing able students with a stand-alone resource. This chapter describes how trusts may arise in relation to land, providing an overview of key situations in which a party may acquire an equitable interest under a trust of land. It considers express, resulting, and constructive trusts of land. A resulting trust can arise in favour of A, where A purchases or contributes to the purchase of land held by B, or in some cases where A transfers land to B without receiving anything in return. Constructive trusts arise in a number of diverse circumstances in which it can be said that it would be unconscionable for the legal owner to assert his or her own beneficial ownership and to deny the beneficial interest of another. They may arise, for example, under the doctrine in Rochefoucauld v Boustead and the Pallant v Morgan equity. The doctrine in Rochefoucauld v Boustead imposes a constructive trust to prevent a transferee of land from relying on the absence of compliance with formalities to deny a trust pursuant to which the land was transferred. The Pallant v Morgan constructive trust can arise where one party acquires land pursuant to an informal commercial joint venture and reneges on an agreement that another party will have an interest in the land.
20. Regulating Leases and Protecting Occupiers
Authors: McFarlane Ben , Hopkins Nicholas , Nield Sarah
Published: September 2024

All books in this flagship series contain carefully selected substantial extracts from key cases, legislation, and academic debate, providing able students with a stand-alone resource. This chapter reviews the statutory protection potentially available to B if he or she has a lease. It is shown that, following the House of Lords’ decision in Bruton v London and Quadrant Housing Trust, B can be seen as having a lease (at least, in the sense used by a particular statute) even if B has no property right. A lease can give B status: the status of a party qualifying for statutory protection. As the Law Commission has noted, however, it is questionable whether the availability of such protection should continue to turn on whether B has a lease, rather than a licence, and a new approach has recently been taken in Wales.
1. Studying the English legal system
Authors: Rutherford Helen , Kotecha Birju , Macfarlane Angela
Published: September 2024

This chapter introduces you to the study of the English legal system in higher education. After explaining some of the different expectations of studying at this level, the chapter’s focus is on how you learn and how to succeed on the module. There is considerable advice and tips on how to get the most out of lectures and seminars. The coverage introduces some key terminology and emphasises the importance of independent research and reading both primary sources (legislation and case law) and secondary sources (textbooks and journal articles). Finally, the chapter provides guidance on how to tackle assessments such as written essays, oral presentations, and examinations.
12. Offences under the Theft Acts 1968 and 1978: Theft and related offences
Authors: Allen Michael J. , Edwards Ian
Published: September 2024

Course-focused and comprehensive, the Textbook on series provides an accessible overview of the key areas on the law curriculum. This chapter discusses offences under the Theft Acts of 1968 and 1978. It covers each element of the offence of theft (dishonest appropriation of property belonging to another with the intention permanently to deprive), abstracting electricity, robbery, and offences involving temporary deprivation. It discusses the meaning of ‘dishonesty’, including the Supreme Court’s decision in Ivey v Genting Casinos UK Ltd (2018), which held that the two-part Ghosh test for dishonesty no longer applies. The Law in Context feature analyses critically the criminalisation of ‘freeganism’.
13. Fraud
Authors: Allen Michael J. , Edwards Ian
Published: September 2024

Course-focused and comprehensive, the Textbook on series provides an accessible overview of the key areas on the law curriculum. This chapter examines the offence of fraud, covering offences under the Theft Acts and offences under the Fraud Act (FA) 2006. The FA 2006 repealed various sections of the TA 1968 and TA 1978, replacing a number of individual offences based on deception with the offence of fraud which may be committed in three ways: fraud by false representation, fraud by failing to disclose information, and fraud by abuse of position. It also creates the offence of dishonestly obtaining services to replace the offence of obtaining services by deception under s. 1 of the TA 1978. A Law in Context feature examines the difficulties in prosecuting cases of complex fraud and proposals to do away with juries in such cases.
Overview of EU and UK competition law
Authors: Whish Richard , Bailey David
Published: September 2024

This chapter provides a brief overview of EU and UK competition law and the institutions involved in formulating, interpreting and applying competition law in those jurisdictions. It also explains the relationship between EU competition law and the domestic competition laws of the Member States, in particular in the light of Article 3 of Regulation 1/2003. The rules of the European Economic Area are briefly referred to, and the trend on the part of Member States to adopt domestic competition rules modelled on those in the EU is also noted. Three diagrams at the end of the chapter explain the institutional structure of EU and UK competition law.
The obligations of Member States under the EU competition rules
Authors: Whish Richard , Bailey David
Published: September 2024

This chapter examines the obligations of Member States in relation to EU competition law. Specifically, it considers the obligations that Article 4(3) TEU and Articles 37 and 106 TFEU place upon Member States. Article 4(3) requires all Member States to take all appropriate measures to ensure fulfilment of the obligations arising out of the Treaties, and to avoid any measure which could jeopardise the attainment of the EUs objectives. Article 106 particularly obligates Member States to refrain from enacting or maintaining measures, contrary to the rules provided in Article 18 and Articles 101 to 109 of the TFEU. Article 37 is concerned with state monopolies of a commercial character.
Enterprise Act 2002: market studies and market investigations
Authors: Whish Richard , Bailey David
Published: September 2024

This chapter describes the UK system of market studies and market investigation references. It begins by describing the CMA’s ‘general function’ of gathering information about markets, followed by an explanation of what is meant by a ‘super-complaint’. It then examines the purpose, procedure and outcomes of market studies, including the various outcomes that are possible. Market studies sometimes lead to market investigation references, though, as explained later, there are several other possible outcomes of a market study. The chapter describes the making and determination of analyses the market investigation provisions references under Part 4 in of the Enterprise Act 2002. The Enterprise Act was amended by the Enterprise and Regulatory Reform Act 2013 and the Digital Markets, Competition and Consumers Act 2024, and the text that follows incorporates those amendments. Having briefly considered public interest cases, enforcement and other supplementary matters, the chapter discusses how the market investigation provisions have been working in practice. The final section of the chapter briefly refers to the enforcement and review of undertakings and orders still in force under the monopoly provisions in the former Fair Trading Act 1973.
The international dimension of competition law
Authors: Whish Richard , Bailey David
Published: September 2024

This chapter explores the international dimension of competition law from two perspectives. It begins by describing the growth of international institutions involved in the development of competition law and policy, with particular reference to the International Competition Network (the ‘ICN’), the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (the ‘OECD’) and the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (‘UNCTAD’). It then looks at a more technical issue, which is the extent to which a sovereign state (or the European Union) can apply its competition law extraterritorially to conduct beyond its borders that has a harmful effect within it: this will briefly be considered from a theoretical perspective, after which the positions in the US, EU and UK will be examined in turn.
Horizontal agreements (2): oligopoly, tacit collusion and collective dominance
Authors: Whish Richard , Bailey David
Published: September 2024

Oligopoly exists where a few firms between them supply all or most of the goods or services on a market without any of them having a clear ascendancy over the others. Oligopolistic markets vary greatly from one another; some are towards the end of the continuum at which markets are competitive while in others one of the oligopolists may be close to a position of market dominance. The purpose of this chapter is to examine whether oligopoly presents a particular problem for competition policy and, if so, how that problem should be overcome. The chapter discusses the theory of oligopolistic interdependence and how oligopolies can lead to a well-known problem for competition law and policy: oligopolists are able, by virtue of the characteristics of the market, to behave in a parallel manner and to derive benefits from their collective market power without, or without necessarily, entering into an agreement or concerted practice of the kind generally prohibited by competition law. This phenomenon is known in economics as ‘tacit collusion’ and is the result of each firm’s individual and rational response to market conditions. The chapter identifies possible ways of dealing with the ‘oligopoly problem’, before considering the extent to which Articles 101 and 102 can be used to address that problem. The chapter also discusses UK law and, in particular, the possible use of the market investigations to address market failure that may arise in oligopolies.
Horizontal agreements (3): cooperation agreements
Authors: Whish Richard , Bailey David
Published: September 2024

This chapter is concerned with horizontal cooperation agreements which might be permitted under EU and UK competition law. Some horizontal agreements can enhance economic efficiency and produce beneficial effects. For example, an agreement between pharmaceutical companies to combine their research and development efforts may enable them to develop new and better drugs more quickly. The European Commission has issued Guidelines on the applicability of Article 101 TFEU to Horizontal Cooperation Agreements which describe the Commission’s approach to the assessment of horizontal cooperation agreements. Chapters 2 to 9 then address in turn the application of Article 101 to: R&D agreements, production agreements, purchasing agreements, commercialisation agreements, information exchange, standardisation agreements, standard terms and sustainability agreements. After a short section on full-function joint ventures, this chapter will follow the structure of the Guidelines, with the exception that the exchange of information, which in some circumstances may be tantamount to a cartel, has already been discussed in chapter 13. This chapter will conclude with a discussion of several types of agreement that are not discussed in the Guidelines but which may be permissible, and with a brief review of the position under UK law.
Abuse of dominance (2): pricing practices
Authors: Whish Richard , Bailey David
Published: September 2024

This chapter considers abusive pricing practices under Article 102 TFEU and the Chapter II prohibition in the Competition Act 1998. It first discusses various cost concepts used in determining whether a price is abusive. It then deals in turn with excessive pricing; conditional rebates; bundling; predatory pricing; margin squeeze; price discrimination; and practices that are harmful to the single market. This taxonomy is over-schematic, in that the categories overlap with one another: for example, price discrimination may be both exploitative and exclusionary, and an excessively high price may in reality be a way of preventing parallel imports or of excluding a competitor from the market; nevertheless this division may provide helpful insights into the way in which the law is applied in practice. In each section the application of Article 102 by the European Commission and by the EU Courts will be considered first, followed by cases in the UK. Reference will be made where appropriate to the Commission’s Guidance on the Commission’s Enforcement Priorities in Applying Article [102 TFEU] to Abusive Exclusionary Conduct by Dominant Undertakings, as amended in March 2023.
Mergers (1): introduction
Authors: Whish Richard , Bailey David
Published: September 2024

This chapter briefly discusses the subject of merger control. Merger control is an important component of most, though not all, systems of competition law. Merger control has been under particular scrutiny in recent years, partly as a result of governments, competition authorities and think tanks worldwide seeking to grapple with increasing industrial concentration. Separately, there has been a certain backlash against the trend towards the globalisation of markets, and national governments, as well as the EU, have considered whether controls over the foreign acquisition of key industries are required, and whether the basic test of merger control—would a merger be harmful to competition?—should be supplemented by broader provisions enabling ‘the public interest’ to be taken into account. Against this background, the chapter begins by explaining what is meant by a ‘merger’ or ‘concentration’, the term used by the EU Merger Regulation (EUMR). It then proceeds to describe the different effects of mergers between independent firms from within and different production levels, the proliferation of systems of merger control, why firms merge, and the purpose of merger control. The final section of the chapter deals with how to design a system of merger control when a country decides, as a matter of policy, to adopt one.
Mergers (2): EU law
Authors: Whish Richard , Bailey David
Published: September 2024

This chapter examines EU merger control. The chapter is organised as follows. Section 2 provides an overview of EU merger control. Section 3 discusses the jurisdictional rules which determine whether a particular merger should be investigated by the European Commission in Brussels or by the national competition authorities (‘the NCAs’) of the Member States. Section 4 deals with the procedural considerations, such as the mandatory pre-notification to the Commission of mergers that have a Union dimension and the timetable within which the Commission must operate. Section 5 discusses the substantive analysis of mergers under the EU Merger Regulation (EUMR), and section 6 explains the procedure whereby the Commission may authorise a merger on the basis of commitments, often referred to as remedies, offered by the parties to address its competition concerns. The subsequent sections describe the Commission’s powers of investigation and enforcement, judicial review of Commission decisions by the EU Courts and cooperation between the Commission and other competition authorities, both within and outside the EU. The chapter concludes with an examination of how the EUMR works in practice.
Particular sectors
Authors: Whish Richard , Bailey David
Published: September 2024

This chapter deals with four issues. First, it will briefly examine three sectors of the economy that are wholly or partly excluded from EU competition law, namely nuclear energy, military equipment and agriculture; the special regime that once existed for coal and steel products under the former European Coal and Steel Community (‘the ECSC’) Treaty is also mentioned in passing. Secondly, it will explain the application of the EU competition rules apply to the transport sector. Thirdly, the chapter will consider the specific circumstances of four so-called regulated industries: electronic communications, post, energy and water, where a combination of legislation, regulation and competition law seek to promote competition. Fourthly, the chapter will consider the debate about the appropriate way to address the power of digital platforms, and describe the ex ante sector-specific regulation of digital markets that has recently been introduced in the EU and the UK.
11. EU International Relations Law
Authors: Craig Paul , de Búrca Gráinne
Published: September 2024

All books in this flagship series contain carefully selected substantial extracts from key cases, legislation, and academic debate, providing students with a stand-alone resource. This chapter discusses EU law on international relations. The area of external relations has become increasingly important in recent years, as the EU strives to enhance its global presence on issues such as trade, climate change, development, human rights, and international terrorism. Some of the crucial issues for the conduct of EU international relations are effective coordination across policy fields, coordination between the EU and the Member States, and coordination at the level of international representation. Consistency across and between policies has become a constitutional requirement of EU external relations. The UK version contains a further section analysing how far EU law concerning international relations impacts on the UK post-Brexit.
29. Competition Law: Article 102
Authors: Craig Paul , de Búrca Gráinne
Published: September 2024

All books in this flagship series contain carefully selected substantial extracts from key cases, legislation, and academic debate, providing students with a stand-alone resource. This chapter focuses on another principal provision concerned with competition policy, Article 102 TFEU. The essence of Article 102 is control of market power, whether by a single firm or, subject to certain conditions, a number of firms. Monopoly power can lead to higher prices and lower output than would prevail under more normal competitive conditions, and this is the core rationale for legal regulation in this area. Article 102 does not, however, prohibit market power per se. It proscribes the abuse of market power. Firms are encouraged to compete, with the most efficient players being successful. The UK version contains a further section analysing issues concerning EU competition law and the UK post-Brexit. EU law
25. Bills of exchange
Authors: Beheshti Reza , Saintier Séverine , Thomas Sean
Published: September 2024

This chapter explains that the laws correlated to the bills of exchange are contained in the Bills of Exchange Act 1882 (BoEA 1882). It presents the historical development of bills of exchange, which is an order by the drawer of the bill to the drawee to pay money to some person. Technological changes have radically altered the environment of payment mechanisms, so bills of exchange have become far less common as a result. However, bills of exchange still play a role in commerce and the concept of negotiability. The chapter then examines the requirements for a valid bill of exchange as per the BoEA 1882.
26. The Nature And Structure Of International Trade
Authors: Beheshti Reza , Saintier Séverine , Thomas Sean
Published: September 2024

This chapter considers the nature and structure of international trade. It cites that trade carried on across national boundaries since ancient times, but the volume of international trade in modern times increased dramatically. Generally, the expression of ‘international trade law’ refers to the law which applies to international trade transactions. The chapter considers the sources and development of international trade law, particularly English law relating to international sale contracts. It also provides an illustration of an international sale transaction composed of several contracts, while also having the sale of contract at its heart, to consider the stage of a typical transaction.
The Brasselet–Schürmann–Yokura Conjecture on L-Classes of Projective Rational Homology Manifolds
Authors: Fernández de Bobadilla Javier , Pallarés Irma
Published: September 2024

In 2010, Brasselet, Schürmann, and Yokura conjectured an equality of characteristic classes of singular varieties between the Goresky–MacPherson $L$-class $L_{*}(X)$ and the Hirzebruch homology class $T_{1,*}(X)$ for a compact complex algebraic variety $X$ that is a rational homology manifold. In this note we give a proof of this conjecture for projective varieties based on cubical hyperresolutions, the Decomposition Theorem, and Hodge theory. The crucial step of the proof is a new characterization of rational homology manifolds in terms of cubical hyperresolutions that we find of independent interest.
Biosoteriology and the Postsecular (In)Human: The Religio-Racializing Assemblages of Evangelical Nephilim Demonology
Authors: O’Donnell S Jonathon
Published: September 2024

This article explores the use of apocryphal narratives of the angelic Watchers and their offspring, the nephilim, in contemporary American evangelical demonology. It contends that such demonologies use the figure of the nephilim to galvanize reactionary political narratives of crisis, placing the source of cultural change and ecological collapse in an inhuman Other whose removal would permit the restoration of social and spiritual order. Drawing on Black studies and postsecular critique, the article contends that nephilim demonologies mobilize processes of “religio-racialization” rooted in antiblackness to create a paradigm of “biosoteriology”—a conflation of biological “purity” and soteriological possibility mobilized through religio-racializing assemblages. Situating this paradigm in the context of US Christian nationalism and a racialized “return” of religion, the article shows that the nephilim become figured as an alterity threatening white, cisheteronormative visions of the human and the futurity of (white, Christian) America.
Sward type alters enteric methane emissions, nitrogen output and the relative abundance of the rumen microbial ecosystem in sheep
Authors: Woodmartin Sarah , Smith Paul E , Creighton Philip , Boland Tommy M , Dunne Eoin , McGovern Fiona M
Published: September 2024

Observed improvements in animal and sward performance, coupled with a desire for more sustainable pasture-based feeding systems, has triggered a surge in the implementation of more botanically diverse pastures. However, thus far, there has been limited research investigating the effects of botanically diverse sward types on enteric methane (CH4) or nitrogen (N) excretion, alongside the ruminal microbiota and fermentation profile, in sheep. Hence, this study investigates the effect of sward type on CH4 production and N excretion, in addition to assessing the rumen microbiome, volatile fatty acid proportions, and ammonia nitrogen (NH3-N) concentration in sheep. A 5 × 5 Latin square design experiment was implemented to investigate 5 dietary treatments; perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.; PRG) only or PRG plus white clover (Trifolium repens L.; PRG + WC), red clover (Trifolium pratense L.; PRG + RC), chicory (Chicorium intybus L.; PRG + Chic) or plantain (Plantago lanceolata L.; PRG + Plan). Diets were mixed at a ratio of 75% PRG and 25% of the respective companion forage and 100% PRG for the PRG treatment, on a dry matter basis. Twenty castrated male sheep were housed in metabolism crates across 5 feeding periods. Methane measurements were acquired utilizing portable accumulation chambers. Rumen fluid was harvested using a transoesophageal sampling device. Microbial rumen DNA was extracted and subjected to 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing and fermentation analysis. Data were analyzed using PROC MIXED in SAS. Results show that animals consuming PRG + WC ranked lower for CH4 production (g/d) than sheep offered PRG, PRG + Chic or PRG + Plan (P < 0.01) while the addition of any companion forage ranked CH4 yield (g/kg dry matter intake (DMI)) lower (P < 0.001) than PRG. There was a moderate positive correlation between DMI and CH4 (g/d; r = 0.51). Ruminal NH3-N was lowest in animals consuming the PRG diet (P < 0.01). There was a greater abundance of Methanobrevibacter and reduced abundance of Methanosphaera (P < 0.001) in sheep offered PRG, compared with any binary sward. On average, herb diets (PRG + Chic or PRG + Plan) reduced the urinary nitrogen concentration of sheep by 34% in comparison to legume diets (PRG + WC or PRG + RC) and 13% relative to the PRG diet (P < 0.001). Sheep offered PRG + Chic had a greater dietary nitrogen use efficiency than PRG + RC (P < 0.05). This study demonstrates the potential for sward type to influence rumen function and the microbial community, along with CH4 and N output from sheep.
Chicken meal is not an appropriate reference protein for estimating protein quality of ingredients used in extruded diets intended for dogs
Authors: Crosbie Michelina , Templeman James R , Pezzali Julia G , Courtney-Martin Glenda , Levesque Crystal L , Hancock Leslie , Buff Preston R , Columbus Daniel A , Verbrugghe Adronie , Shoveller Anna K
Published: September 2024

The indicator amino acid oxidation (IAAO) method has been used to determine metabolic availability (MA) of amino acids in feedstuffs for pigs, humans, and preliminarily for cats. Peas are a commonly used protein source in grain-free extruded dog diets. However, peas have a poor sulfur amino acid (AA) ratio (methionine [Met]:cysteine) with Met being the first limiting AA. Furthermore, little is known about the MA of Met in peas fed to dogs. Therefore, our objective was to compare the MA of Met in peas to chicken meal (CM), as a gold-standard reference protein. The study was done as a replicated 5 × 5 complete Latin square design. Ten neutered male mixed-breed dogs (1.5 years old; 26.0 kg ± 2.4 kg body weight; BW) fed to maintain ideal BW received all dietary treatments: BAS: lamb-based diet (deboned lamb and lamb meal) providing Met at 50% of its requirement (0.27 g/100g dry matter [DM]), CHK: CM and lamb-based diet, and PEA: ground dried pea and lamb-based diet both providing Met at 68% of its requirement (0.35 and 0.37 g/100g DM, respectively). Two other treatments were created by blending BAS with PEA (BAP) and the BAS with CHK (BAC) to create diets with Met at 59% of requirement (0.32 and 0.31 g/100g DM, respectively). This resulted in three graded levels of Met for both CM and peas to allow for a slope-ratio assay approach to quantify MA with the BAS diet as the common first point. All other AAs were provided to meet at least 120% of the AAFCO recommendations for adult dogs. The BAS diet, with supplemental DL-Met, was fed for a 2-wk wash-in period. After 2 d of diet adaptation IAAO was performed. Dogs were fed 13 small meals where meal 6 contained a priming dose (9.4 mg/kg BW) of L-[1-13C]-phenylalanine (Phe; 99%) as well as a constant dose (2.4 mg/kg BW) in meals 6-13. Breath samples were collected and enrichment of 13CO2 was measured using isotope-ratio mass spectrometry to calculate the rate of Phe oxidation (F13CO2 umol/kg BW/h). Oxidation was analyzed via SAS using PROC GLIMMIX with dog and period as random effects, and diet, %Met, and their interaction as fixed effects. Unexpectedly, the slope of Phe oxidation, in response to increasing Met intake, from CM was 31% of that of peas, indicating a lower MA for Met in CM as compared to peas. This finding may be due to damage of AAs during rendering. At this time, CM in extruded diets is not an acceptable reference protein to determine MA of AAs in dogs, and the MA of Met from peas cannot be confidently assessed.
Development and method validation of a sampling technique for a reproducible detection of synthetic cannabinoids in exhaled breath using an in vitro pig lung model
Authors: Walle Nadja , Doerr Adrian A , Peters Benjamin , Laschke Matthias W , Menger Michael D , Schmidt Peter H , Meyer Markus R , Schaefer Nadine
Published: September 2024

Alternative matrices, especially exhaled breath (EB), have gained increasing attention for a few years. To interpret toxicological findings, knowledge on the toxicokinetic (TK) properties of a substance in EB is indispensable. While such data are already accessible for various drugs (e.g. Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol), they are still not available for new psychoactive substances, particularly synthetic cannabinoids (SCs). As SCs raise a high public health concern, the aim of this study was to assess these data in future TK studies in pigs. For this purpose, an in vitro sampling technique of EB was initially developed, which is prospectively applied to anesthetized and ventilated pigs for the detection of SCs in a controlled and reproducible manner as exemplified by cumyl-5F-P7AICA. Furthermore, a method for the qualitative and quantitative detection of cumyl-5F-P7AICA in EB using glass fiber filters (GFFs) was established and fully validated. Therefore, cumyl-5F-P7AICA (0.5 mg/mL in ethanol absolute) was initially nebulized using a ventilation machine and a breathing tube, as they are also used in surgeries. The aerosol was delivered into a simulated pig lung. To collect EB, a pump was connected to that part of the breathing tube, which contains EB (expiratory limb), and sampling was performed repeatedly (n = 6) for 15 min (2 l EB/min) each using GFF. For extraction of the substance, the GFFs were macerated with acetone and the remaining experimental components were rinsed with ethanol. After sample preparation, the extracts were analyzed by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. In the complete experimental setup, about 40% of the initially nebulized cumyl-5F-P7AICA dose was found, with 3.6 ± 1.3% being detected in the GFF. Regarding the comparably high loss of substance, the open ventilation system and a conceivable adsorption of the SC in the ventilator have to be considered. However, the herein introduced approach is promising to determine the TK properties of cumyl-5F-P7AICA in EB.
Upgoing and downgoing wavefield separation in VSP data using CGAN based on asymmetric convolution blocks
Authors: Cao Danping , Chen Xin , Jia Yan , Jin Chao , Fu Xin
Published: September 2024

Accurately upgoing and downgoing wavefield separation is a critical step in vertical seismic profile (VSP) data processing, as its accuracy is directly related to the imaging quality of VSP data. Traditional methods are based mainly on transforms, and their windows are manually set in the transformed domain to obtain the target wavefield. The manual operations often cause errors and affect the accuracy of wavefield separation. In contrast, deep learning algorithms are more automatic, and have achieved a lot in seismic data processing. We propose to employ a conditional generative adversarial network (CGAN) for wavefield separation in VSP data. A CGAN consists of two main components: a generator, which generates new data samples, and a discriminator, which evaluates the generated samples against real data, with both components trained simultaneously in an adversarial manner to improve the quality of generated samples. The full wavefield serves as a constraint to link the generator and discriminator, ensuring that the separated up- and downgoing wavefields align better with the full wavefield. An asymmetric convolution block is introduced to more effectively capture the directional features of the VSP wavefield. To mitigate the influence of amplitude differences between the waves on the network update, the relative downgoing wavefield (obtained by subtracting the predicted upgoing wavefield from the full wavefield) is included in the loss function. Numerical experiments demonstrate that the trained network can effectively learn the characteristics of the up- and downgoing waves, especially their propagation directions, achieving high-precision wavefield separation.
New status of Bichromomyia subspecies (Diptera: Psychodidae: Phlebotominae) based on molecular taxonomy
Authors: Lozano-Sardaneta Yokomi N , Huerta Herón , Marquez-López Yesenia , Contreras-Ramos Atilano
Published: September 2024

The sand fly of the genus Bichromomyia (Galati, 1995) includes 3 subspecies considered vectors of Leishmania, which share high morphological similarity. Through information from the Cytochrome Oxidase Subunit I (COI) gene, we provide complementary evidence to support that Bichromomyia olmeca olmeca, and Bichromomyia olmeca bicolor, should be raised to nominal species status. We recovered specimens of Bi. o. olmeca from Quintana Roo, Tabasco, and Oaxaca, Mexico, supply 17 new COI sequences, and also incorporate GenBank sequences for other Bichromomyia species. After a Maximum Likelihood (ML) analysis, all Bichromomyia species clustered with a bootstrap of 100%, although sequences of Bichromomyia flaviscutellata were divided into 2 clusters with an interspecific range distance of 11.16% between them, which confirm cryptic species in Brazil. The genetic distance of Bi. o. olmeca compared to related subspecies ranged between 12.59% and 14.64%. A total of 29 haplotypes (Hd = 0.987; π = 0.08783; S = 136) were recovered from the Bichromomyia sequences. Results of the TC network were consistent with the ML analysis, supporting that subspecies of Bichromomyia are genetically distinct and deserve being raised to valid species category: Bichromomyia olmeca (Vargas & Díaz-Nájera) and Bichromomyia bicolor (Fairchild & Theodor).