bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Urban and Metropolitan Development in the United States and Canada
Authors: Schnore Leo F. , Petersen Gene B.
Published: March 2007

Compared with the rest of the Western Hemisphere, the patterns of population distribution in the United States and Canada are highly similar. This historico-statistical review shows that both nations have had "urban" majorities since at least World War I. But Canadian urbanization has lagged behind that of the United States, and the same thing can be said about "metropolitan" de velopment which began on a large scale just after World War I.
The Caribbean Islands
Authors: Roberts G.W.
Published: March 2007

With high population densities, large proportions dependent on ag riculture, and rates of natural increase generally in excess of 2 per cent per year, the Caribbean exemplifies all the modern demographic problems of the under developed areas of the world. Fertility remains high, though there is some suggestion of a decline in Puerto Rico, and mortality has declined steeply in nearly all the islands. Recent emigration has reduced rates of growth in Puerto Rico and the British Islands, but the indications are that massive increments are to be expected unless definite policies of fertility control materialize.
The Climax of Stalinism, 1950-1953
Authors: Byrnes Robert F.
Published: March 2007

Stalin's last years were especially bitter for Eastern Europe. With control firmly in Soviet hands, Stalin sought to tighten the Soviet grip, to re shape the cultural values of the conquered peoples, to develop a heavy indus trial base in each country, to promote agricultural collectivization, to exploit the area more efficiently, and to use it as a point of pressure against Western Eu rope and Tito. He achieved some success, but at the cost of rousing such popular resentment and such dissatisfactions, even among Communists, that his successors were forced substantially to modify his policies.
The Beginning of the "Thaw," 1953-1955
Authors: Stillman Edmund O.
Published: March 2007

Following Stalin's death, party leaders in Moscow and the satellites made public pronouncements indicating a sharp break with Communist dogma. "New Course" policies included: concessions to agriculture and peasantry, re adjustment of proportions between heavy and light industry, increase in con sumer-goods production, sharp rise in living standards, and a new respect for "forms of Socialist legality." After the introduction of the first economic re forms the "New Course" took on a political dimension. East European party and governmental leaders found themselves in unfamiliar ground—it was no longer merely a case of what the center chose to do, but how the masses would respond. The "New Course" was not a success and initiative was passing from Communist hands. A strategy of restoration was initiated by Russian leaders who intended that 1955 should be a year of salvage, a going back to pre-"New Course" policy. However, in Eastern Europe this was too late.—Ed.
The Development of Industry
Authors: Spulber Nicolas
Published: March 2007

The object of this paper is to analyze the characteristics of the in dustrial development of Eastern Europe from 1950 onwards and to indicate the main directions of the industrial growth of the area. Attention is focused on Czechoslovakia, Poland, Hungary, Rumania, Bulgaria, and Yugoslavia; but whenever useful, the discussion is extended to Eastern Germany. The postwar period could be conveniently subdivided in the following way: up to 1948, re construction years; from 1949 to the end of 1953, years of planning on an "all- round" basis, that is of simultaneous growth for all branches of the economy with the aim of reaching "self-sufficiency"; 1954-55, years of significant read justments in the previous pattern of investment and growth; 1955-60, years of the second long-term plans 1 characterized by simultaneity in the launching of most of these plans and by efforts toward co-ordination between the countries of the area at both the level of trade and the levels of outputs of certain commodi ties.
The Pattern of Political Purges
Authors: Brzezinski Zbigniew
Published: March 2007

The purge is inherent in the totalitarian system but it differs in form depending on circumstances and stage of development of the system. Ob jectives of a purge are: the cleansing of the party, the restoration of its vigor and monolithic unity, the elimination of enemies, and the establishment of the correctness of its line and the primacy of the leadership. Communist purges are of two types: purges whose content is programmatic and whose form is non violent, and purges whose content might or might not be programmatic and whose form is violent. In the satellites, purges were most violent in Bulgaria, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia. After Stalin's death during the "New Course" there followed a time of "anti-purge" purges which in some countries shook the foundation of Communist control. The dramatic events of fall 1956, however, again produced pressures for further purges.—Ed.
The Sovietization of the Baltic States
Authors: Senn Alfred Erich
Published: March 2007

Latvia, Lithuania, and Estonia have been subjected to an intensive campaign aimed at integrating them into the Soviet Union. The Communists have reorganized the economy, deported their opponents, and tried to re-educate the Baltic peoples in a spirit of devotion to the USSR. Since the death of Stalin they have let up somewhat, allowing a greater degree of personal free dom; but there is no indication that they would ever willingly give the Baltic nations their freedom. Despite their almost hopeless position, the Baltic peo ples have continued to cling to their old national ideals and to hope for liberation.
Eastern Europe in Exile
Authors: Valkenier Elizabeth K.
Published: March 2007

Because of their composition, the World War II emigrations from Eastern Europe have had two main purposes: the preservation of national cul tures subject to intensified Russification and destruction, and the liberation of their compatriots from an alien and unpopular rule. The recent détente in the international situation and signs of liberalization in the satellites have called for a reassessment of the émigré policies and have caused disagreement on the role of the political and cultural mission of the exiles.
Religion and Language as Forces Affecting Unity in Asia
Authors: Brown W. Norman
Published: March 2007

Religion and language move Asians less than anticolonialism and the desire for economic development. It is the hope of Asian countries to attain increased agricultural pro duction, industrial expansion, more equitable distribution of wealth, and the attainment of the good life for their citizens. In the Near East religion and language furnish some of the background for Islamic and Arab hostility to Israel, but they are not strong enough to unite either the Islamic or the Arab nations. In the Far East and Southeast Asia, they play scarcely any part. In South Asia religion led to the partition of India and the creation of Pakistan. This division has been an embarrassment for the Western democracies since it has di vided South Asia at a time when the West wanted a united South Asian support of its cause in the cold war. Language is an internally disruptive force in both India and Pakistan. In South and Southeast Asia the ethical concept of Ahinsa is one of the elements producing "neutralism" toward the cold war. It is felt that this "neutralism" can contribute more toward world peace than the propaganda and arms race.
Asian Nationalism Vis-À-Vis Other Asian Nations
Authors: Mehta G.L.
Published: March 2007

The growth of nationalism in Asia can be traced to regional rather than national groupings and state—similarity of culture is frequently as important as a common racial origin. The coming of Europeans into Asia produced a tremendous im pact through trade, conquest, and religious contacts. It is felt that the plight of many Asian and African countries has been due in a larger or smaller measure to the dominance and ex ploitation by powerful countries of the West, although foreign rule also brought several incidental advantages. European dominance over Asia cut off contacts among Asians and shifted their political relationships and economies to the West. But this domination generated a spirit of resistance and engendered the growth of nationalism. National movements in India were inspired by Western ideas. During the last ten years, over 600 million people of the world have emerged from their dependent status. The resurgence of Asia has been a most significant event of this century. However, if nationalism in Asia is to be liberal and democratic, it has to solve fundamental social economic problems like poverty, abysmally low standards of liv ing, and chronic unemployment. There are undoubtedly many unresolved problems among Asian countries. But these differ ences in development need not necessarily be categorized in terms of cold war, and they should be resolved by peaceful means. The right of self-rule carries with it a moral obliga tion to be a responsible member of a world community.
Belief in the Continued Solidarity of Our Western Alliances
Authors: Drexel Biddle Anthony J.
Published: March 2007

Threat from militant Communism has not les sened since 1949 when it led to the North Atlantic Pact and, in turn, to the collective armed strength under SHAPE, NATO military agency. The collective strength of NATO consists of the spiritual force of the operation, the economic, and the organized military strength. The adoption of missiles does not cancel out massive retaliation. Due to the vast dispersal of Western retaliatory power and installation of additional missile launchers, a potential aggressor could not, even in a surprise at tack, count upon knocking out all Western launching sites and air bases. The earliest days of NATO were marked by a psy chology of despondency, lethargy, and cynicism—this situation greeted General Eisenhower and General Gruenther upon their arrival in Western Europe. In their pioneer task these difficul ties were overcome. There was a return of confidence, hope, and will to get on with the job of building up a collective armed strength. SHAPE's leadership is marked by dedication, under standing of NATO's people and a grasp of their problems, and determination to resolve them in the common purpose. Many of the problems confronting NATO nations are similar in vary ing degree since they all stem from the common threat of mili tant communism. Soviet pressure to ban tests and use of nu clear weapons and for the abandonment of our overseas bases are problems which concern both our allies and ourselves. A latest common problem is Soviet pressure for a summit confer ence on Soviet terms.
Factors Looking to Western World Leadership
Authors: Finletter Thomas K.
Published: March 2007

In the world of today, it is not a matter of whether the East or the West should lead. We all face one universal problem—how to live together in peace. The U. S. cannot act alone, and our most natural allies are the nations of the West. The world, however is bigger than the West, and the West cannot face the Communist empires alone. We need the friendship of the non-Communist nations of Africa and Asia. But, because of the nature of nuclear weapons, there cannot exist in the world two polarized ideological camps. A partner ship between Asia and Africa and the West can work. Freedom will not survive in Africa and Asia unless they can achieve a decent standard of living. The U. S. should lead in acting as banker for the underdeveloped countries as the organizer of the surplus wealth of the non-Communist world. In the Near East there is a great opportunity for Asia and the West to work together. The alliance could bring pressure on the Arabs and the Russians to have the Arabs give up their state of war against Israel. The greatest achievement of the alliance would be to compel all nations to join in an attack against war itself. Dis armament will never take place if negotiations are left only to Russia and the U. S. We must bring Asia, Africa, and South America into the discussions. The problems of easing world tensions and controlling war weapons are interrelated. Lead ership, then, is the responsibility of all nations working in concert to eliminate the possibility of a war of total destruc tion.—Ed.
The Action Program for Highway Safety
Authors: Damon Norman
Published: March 2007

History shows that the Action Programs for Traffic Safety of both the United States and Canada have evolved as a result of half a century of seemingly unrelated ef forts to cope with the growing problem of motor vehicle acci dents. In both countries, public officials have the primary re sponsibility for traffic safety. Equally important, however, is the active support of citizen leaders to meet the needs of and to secure the proper operation of official traffic agencies. This dual approach is predicated upon close co-operation between traffic officials and citizen leaders in developing and securing understanding and acceptance of the official traffic safety pro gram of a jurisdiction. The Action Program first developed in 1946 and revised slightly in 1949 stands as the master plan for this balanced comprehensive program; it is applicable in whole or in part by all governmental jurisdictions and by organiza tions of private citizens. New concepts of traffic accident pre vention are developing: driver behavior research is being probed; important developments in vehicle and highway en gineering are taking place; new formats are being explored for the enlistment of citizen support leadership; and basic re search into accident causes is getting under way. Many of the recommendations set forth in the Action Program are likely to face substantial change under the impact of future develop ments.
Inventory and Appraisal
Authors: Stewart George C.
Published: March 2007

The Annual Inventory of Traffic Safety Activities, a nationwide program administered by the National Safety Council with the co-operation of several national professional organizations, provides an accurate measurement of progress in putting the features of the Action Program into effect in cities and states. Recommended standards and criteria against which these voluntarily reported programs are measured are raised as traffic safety activities in cities and states improve. In 1957, the average performance of states met 67 per cent of the cur rently recommended minimum. The average for cities over 10,000 population was 53 per cent of minimum recommenda tions. The Traffic Inventory grew out of the National Traffic Safety Contest and was approved by the President's Highway Safety Conference in 1947. While only 600 cities reported the first year, more than 1,200 now report; forty-seven states and Puerto Rico also report. Each of these cities and states receives a detailed written analysis containing recommendations for im provement. Inventory results are presented to local officials and at a public meeting by trained field representatives. Among other functions, the inventory provides a program guide for officials and citizens in cities and states and serves to keep attention focused on the features of the Action Program.
The Law Must Hurry to Catch Up
Authors: Morony Louis R.
Published: March 2007

Following World War II the need for highway improvement came into such prominence that it could not be ignored. Today, under the expanded federal-aid program, we are building the highways we need for years to come. The danger here lies in trying to superimpose new and ultramodern facilities on what is hardly more than a "horse-and-buggy" governmental structure for regulation and control of highway use. It is important that states now turn their attention to the operational problems posed by these new facilities—and especially those which are certain to be created by the increased traffic demands of the future. A first approach to this is mod ernization of the laws on which are based all state functions bearing on motor vehicle ownership and use. Only by long- range factual study of functions involved can we hope to provide sound foundations and guidance for legislative action. A movement to evaluate state highway laws in light of the new huge construction program has been underway for some time, and already is proving its value. So far, only one state has directed comparable attention to laws regulating and controlling motor vehicle and highway use. This pioneering study effort is underway now in Minnesota. Other states are beginning to move in that direction, to the end that use of new roads and streets might be safer and more efficient.
Organization and Response in Communist China
Authors: Schurmann H.F.
Published: March 2007

Communist China today is marked by two great processes: industrialization and organization. Organization is total, reaching from the top of society down to its lowest levels. Everyone is recruited into some group organized and controlled by the regime. At its lowest level, organization consists of numerous small groups, usually numbering no more than twenty people. These are the "study" and work groups. It is through these small groups that the masses are controlled and manipulated according to definite organizational principles uni formly applied throughout the society. These principles call for the development of strong internal solidarity in the small groups as well as disciplined obedience to orders from above (manipulability), both of which are to some extent mutually exclusive. Hence the Communists consistently and universally use certain mechanisms, mainly "study," to maintain a dynamic balance between the two. "Study" is the intensive application of group and self-criticism to individual group mem bers. The considerable success of the Communists in eliciting "response" in the small groups is due not only to coercion but also, possibly, to a tradition in China of participation in small, tightly knit associations.
China's Industrial Growth, 1953—1957
Authors: Hsia Ronald
Published: March 2007

Official data indicate a pattern of rapid industrial growth in Communist China during the First Five-Year Plan (1953-57). This growth varied considerably from year to year, largely because of industry's substantial dependence upon agriculture and because of uneven performance in the agricul tural sector of the economy. The composition of mainland China's industrial output also changed significantly during this period. The nation's resources were primarily concentrated on development of heavy industry, and the annual rate of growth of production of capital goods was thus consistently above that of consumer goods. The tempo of industrial expansion should increase further during the Second Five-Year Plan (1958-62 ) as the regime continues maximum mobilization of material, financial, and human resources. New policy changes—includ— ing more attention to industries serving the agricultural sector, emphasis on smaller industrial units, and decentralization of in dustrial planning and administration—will affect future devel opment. By 1962 the economy of mainland China should have completed the period of rapid industrial expansion known as the take-off and entered a new stage of sustained, self-generating growth.
An Experiment in Reaching Asocial Adolescents Through Group Therapy
Authors: Stranahan Marion , Schwartzman Cecile
Published: March 2007

Many disturbed, potentially delinquent boys and girls by the time they are adolescent have become unreachable by all the ordinary means available in even a highly urbanized community with highly developed resources. This experiment was devised and developed in an effort to reach these adoles cents in groups. To establish any measure of therapy required intensive work within the groups and later additionally in their community relationships. The attitude of the therapist that proved successful in setting up the right atmosphere with the members of the groups had to begin with the first contact. Boys' groups show clearer stages of evolution than the girls'. Certain trends in their behavior reveal the boys' maturation, for example, their behavior in the group concerning refresh ments. The girls show dissimilar reactions but even more in tense and complicated problems. For both boys and girls, once a certain amount of closeness and trust is established, show their need for and accept help outside the group and in their community contacts. Not only the therapist but a staff trained in special fields were needed to change these contacts to work able relationships. The degree of success is not easy to evalu ate for the future, but to date there is a genuine basis for considering the experiment successful. The adolescents in the main seek out social relationships and have a greatly improved appreciation for education, work, and community authorities.
A Resident Representative's View of Technical Co-operation
Authors: Spence Harry L.
Published: March 2007

The Technical Assistance Board, composed of a central secretariat and a network of Resident Representatives' field offices, plays a significant part in the planning, co-ordinat ing, and servicing of the United Nations Expanded Program of Technical Assistance. The success of the Program is evi denced by the almost unanimous support given it by both the receiving and contributing countries. The need and desire of improving the Program's impact upon the economic and social development of the world, requires constant evaluation studies and administrative adjustments to meet the realistic conditions determined from operation experience. The Resident Repre sentative, functioning at the country level, witnesses the tech nical assistance operation from the closest point and, therefore, holds a key position in guiding the administration of the Pro gram.
A Congressman's View of Technical Co-operation
Authors: Hardy Porter
Published: March 2007

According to the Act of International Develop ment of 1950, technical co-operation programs are "Programs for the international interchange of technical knowledge and skills designed to contribute to the integrated development of the economic resources and productive capacities of economi cally underdeveloped areas." To carry out this program the United States sends technicians to host countries, brings host countries personnel to the United States for training, and con tributes to the joint support of bureaus in the host country. Since technical co-operation is primarily a program of educa tion, the emphasis is on the transfer of skills and know-how. Before a program can be successful, three elements must be present. The initial demand must come from the host country —because the idea of self-help is inherent in technical co operation, it must believe in and want the project. Further the host country must be willing to contribute its own funds to the project. When a program or project has been agreed upon, there must be proper planning. A realistic estimate must be made of the type and amount of knowledge and skill which can be supplied by us and of the time required to pro vide this education. It is also important to be aware of how much can be absorbed by the host country, keeping in mind the difference in culture between the host country and our own. When these elements are not present in the technical co-operation program or project, failures will result. Failures which have occurred so far have been ones of administration. —Ed.
Financing Technical Co-operation
Authors: Egger Rowland
Published: March 2007

The major problems of financing both multi lateral and bilateral technical co-operation derive from the precarious year-to-year underwriting of the programs and from the organizational and administrative separation of technical and economic co-operation, including investment. Congres sional attitudes toward continuing commitment to the United Nations Expanded Program, plus annual reauthorization of the bilateral program, create uncertainties which prevent technical co-operation staff from going forward with the re cipient countries in the formulation of long-term national eco nomic and social development programs. The lack of such long-term programs, moreover, prevents the development of bench marks and priorities for the proper planning and budg eting of both technical and economic assistance. Technical co-operation is in consqquence largely occupied with a string of accidental, ad hoc, opportunistically undertaken projects, few of which relate themselves effectively to major ongoing influences in general economic and social change. This situa tion is exacerbated by the complete separation of technical and economic co-operation in the United Nations system and the substantial separation of technical and economic co-opera tion in a large part of the Mutual Security Program. The financing problems of technical co-operation will not be solved apart from the solution of the larger problem of financing economic development and until it is properly reintegrated into multilateral and bilateral programs of economic assistance.
The Role of the Technical Expert
Authors: Caldwell Lynton K.
Published: March 2007

Insofar as we can realistically speak of an ex pert's "role" it is shaped by four principal elements, only one of which can be relied upon to approximate constancy. These elements are the technical co-operation agency, the expert himself, the requirements of the task to be fulfilled, and the host government. Each of these elements is subject to varia tions and contradictions that make it improbable that a gen erally satisfactory definition of the expert's role will be discovered accidentally. The great variety of technical co operation tasks and the individual differences among experts make generalizations concerning the role of experts of question able validity. Insofar as clarity of purpose regarding objec tives is shared by the technical co-operation agency, its expert, and the host government, clarification of the expert's role becomes more nearly possible. Responsibility for the clarifi cation necessarily rests primarily with the co-operation agency. It is in the planning of the project and in the selection and briefing of the expert that the shared objectives of the project are brought to focus on the particular task to which the expert is assigned and hence on the role which he is to play.
The United Nations Program in Brazil
Authors: Louw Michael H.H.
Published: March 2007

Brazil is on the threshold of a great economic development and social change and needs large numbers of skilled administrators and technicians in all fields to carry through the necessary programs for using its vast natural and human resources. The role played by the United Nations Expanded Program of Technical Assistance in this develop ment has been most significant because first, it was timely, and second, it focussed public attention on key areas where developments could be expected to have widespread effect. This is especially true for the projects associated with regional development, such as that of the Amazon Valley, the San Francisco Valley, and the Northeast. Two national projects: the Brazilian School of Public Administration and the Educa tional Reform Program have also made important contribu tions in the formulation of future policies in the fields of administration and education.

On these various projects a large number of specialists from many fields, specialized agencies, and nationalities, served to gether as teams or groups; and in the process, they in turn, learned the art of effective personal and interdisciplinary co-operation, not only among themselves but also with their Brazilian colleagues.
Recognition of the People's Republic of China
Authors: Snow Edgar
Published: March 2007

The United States alliance with the Nationalist regime on Taiwan is a form of armed intervention in the in ternal affairs of China. Today it is clear that the aims of that policy cannot be realized in the visible future. The costs of maintaining Chiang Kai-shek far exceed the American invest ment in nonmilitary help to other Asian lands; preoccupation with armed answers to the challenge of poverty obscures American understanding of the real needs of all underdeveloped countries. State Department justifications for continued non- recognition of China are threadbare; defining functional alter natives is not easy. Outstanding Sino-American issues are negotiable, given the will on both sides. The future of Taiwan most likely would be settled, once serious "recognition talks" began, by compromise between Peking and the Taiwan succes sors to Chiang Kai-shek's regime. Recognition by the United States and the United Nations would greatly enhance the in ternational prestige of the People's Republic of China. It would mean serious modifications in the cold war and accept ance of the implications of a prolonged period of competitive co-existence. Recognition, therefore, is not something to be lightly undertaken without a clear alternative program and dy namic concepts and means of winning the "battle" of competi tive co-existence. Continuation of our present policy will, however, lose that battle to the Communist bloc by default.
Arab Nationalism and Soviet-American Relations
Authors: Sayegh Fayez
Published: March 2007

Arab nationalism has reacted against Western policies which affected adversely their national interests; Arab attitude in the cold war has been affected by its conflict with the West over colonialism and Zionism; in its policies toward the Arab world, the West has shown a lack of awareness and respect for Arab sovereignty and nationalism. These are the reasons that in the cold war conflict the Arab countries have viewed the cause of the West with distrust. They explain the evolution of Arab policy from unconcern and indifference, to passive negative nonalignment, to active and positive neutral ity. They also explain the deterioration of the Western posi tion and the improvement of the Soviet position in the Arab world since 1955. There are signs that a more favorable Arab attitude toward the West may emerge in the future. How ever, the initiative for this transformation must come from the West, and there are factors inviting such initiative. The Arabs have shown that they are not willing to submit to Soviet inter vention in their affairs, and Arab nationalism has proved a bul wark against communism in the Arab world. If in its negotia tions the West respects the sovereignty and legitimate aspira tions of Arab countries, it will find the Arab world more ready to join the side of the West in the East-West conflict.—Ed.
Soviet Diplomacy: A Challenge to Freedom
Authors: Wilcox Francis O.
Published: March 2007

Because of the nature of modern weapons, rela tions between the West and Russia will determine man's life in the future. All facets of Russian society are at the disposal of her diplomacy while US foreign policy is dependent on Con gress, the people, and group interests. Stalin held war inevi table ; his successors have adopted a policy of co-existence, however, the goal of both is world domination. Soviet diplo macy has sought to weaken the Western position; there have been several maneuvers, the latest being the German crisis. By focusing attention on Berlin, the Soviets have tried to di vert attention from German unification and European security. The US is ready to negotiate disarmament agreements, but traditional Russian mistrust of foreigners will not permit full inspection. The ultimate aim of Soviet economic aid to less- developed countries is penetration and subversion. The most important weapons of Soviet diplomacy are psychological war fare and propaganda. However, our information program, based as it is on truth, is an equally strong weapon. We should not be discouraged by Soviet rigidity and inflexibility in our search for negotiation since there have been some suc cesses, for example, agreement was reached on the Austrian State Treaty. If the West maintains itself strong militarily, adheres to the principles of the UN Charter, tries to prevent Communist subversion in less-developed lands, and actively demonstrates its values, the way of life of free people will endure.—Ed.
What Kind of an American Civilization Do We Want?
Authors: Northrop F.S.C.
Published: March 2007

There are reasons for believing that we do not now have the kind of America we want. It can be had, how ever, providing three major subjects are given a place of pri macy throughout our educational system and in the training and the practice of all our legal, political, and other cultural representatives. These three things are: (1) creative art and the cultivation of aesthetic sensitivity; (2) normative tolerant religious, moral, legal, and political philosophy together with the presentation of alternative theories; and (3) continuous training in imageless formal thinking by means of the teaching of English grammar, traditional and symbolic logic, mathe matics, and the theory of experimentally verified mathematical physics and its philosophy. Only if these three things are done is it likely that America can keep her ideals in the forefront of what she is doing to win the confidence of free men and also possess first-rate instruments for protecting and implementing these ideals.
Forecasting Surpluses and Shortages in Key Occupations
Authors: Wolfle Dael
Published: March 2007

The usual question asked about manpower is whether there is a shortage or a surplus. In projecting future trends, it is frequently more useful to know how the total demand and the total supply will change. In engineering, science, and most of the other professions, the total demand will probably increase as a result of increased need for teachers, emphasis upon research, and industrial production. The total supply will also increase as rising college enrollments are fol lowed by larger graduating classes. Whether, at a particular time, supply will be larger or smaller than demand is difficult to predict, but at least for science and engineering, most pre dictions for the next few years are of shortages. The real usefulness of manpower forecasts is to help guide actions that must be taken now. Consequently, the accuracy that can be usefully employed depends upon the extent to which present actions can be adjusted to projected supply and demand trends. Current accuracy is less than would be desirable. The whole field is in need of better methods of projecting demand trends.
Improvements Needed in Secondary Schools
Authors: Nelson Lester W.
Published: March 2007

Rapid population growth, increase in knowledge, technological developments, and the acquisition of new sources of energy pose tremendous challenges to our schools. The chal lenge is threefold: providing education for vastly more stu dents; maintaining educational opportunities for substantially longer periods of time; raising sharply the levels of human understanding and skill. This task requires clear definition of unique responsibilities, establishment of priorities consistent with these responsibilities and better utilizaton of resources. The nature of resources, both material and human, must be fully realized. The capacity of students to assume greater re sponsibility for their own learning must be recognized and ex ploited. Professional competences must be used more fully. To achieve these ends, employment of technological resources can make major contributions. Educational facilities need to be expanded and, more importantly, need to be redesigned and improved. Present restrictions imposed by conventional con cepts of class size, school schedules, the uniformity of teachers' roles and rigid patterns of organization must be modified. Schools should stop thinking of themselves merely as consumers of teachers and assume a' partnership responsibility in the re cruitment and preparation of teachers. To accomplish such changes redefinition of practices is called for rather than mere refinement of existing practices.
The Fight Against Inflation in Canada
Authors: Perry Harvey
Published: March 2007

Canadian postwar experience with inflation has closely paralleled the American with the exception that its fed eral government budget has been balanced for most of the pe riod, capital expenditure has been a higher proportion of gross national product, and foreign investment in Canada has been extremely heavy. Recent attitudes towards inflation reflect an intense reaction on the part of investors towards govern ment financial measures and a concern that returning prosper ity will produce price rises. Lessons of Canadian experience raise some serious questions as to the efficacy of fiscal and monetary policy.
Income Taxes and Inflation
Authors: Gainsbrugh Martin R. , Gaston J. Frank
Published: March 2007

The income tax, which has been regarded as the chief weapon in the battle against inflation, has come to be scrutinized as a possible factor in inducing inflation. Prior to World War II, the comparatively low rates of corporate and personal income taxation made such taxes appear rela tively unimportant. High rates of taxation, however, have been carried over to the postwar period and, consequently, have served to focus attention upon the effect of such taxation upon economic growth and stability, distribution of income, and the efforts made by corporations and individuals to pass along the higher rates of income tax as well as the effect that these taxes may have on savings and investment. Until fairly recently, it was generally expected that business corpo rations and the stockholders bore the burden of the corporate income tax. This absorption theory has been giving ground to the shifting theory which maintains that under present-day competitive conditions, the corporation is able to shift taxes in the form of higher prices. Empirical studies have noted an increasing tendency for businessmen to say that they take in come tax increases into consideration when setting prices. With respect to the personal income tax, there is growing reason for believing that work incentives and willingness to make risk investments are adversely affected and that efforts are made to pass along higher income taxes in the form of higher wages and salaries.
Monetary Policy and Inflation
Authors: Balderston C. Canby
Published: March 2007

Inflation does not stimulate sustainable growth; it just creates a temporary illusion of it. Real growth requires that competition do its work both at home and abroad. Com petition must be allowed to produce the kind of flexible change that brings out the maximum use of resources and does not allow inefficiency to hide behind the shelter of monopoly or other forms of protection. Rapid growth requires use of the most advanced technology. That which is inefficient and out moded must be abandoned quickly. To employ some form of protection merely to preserve the status quo, whether through subsidies, tariffs, or featherbedding, tends to retard growth. The problems of monetary policy are the problems of a society organized around the principles of free markets and freedom of choice. In an economy where freedom is exercised by indi viduals and by business units, effective regulation of the money system is of prime importance. In brief, the problems that are the concern of monetary policy in a free society are those which flow from the exercise of freedom in the use of money. Mone tary policy cannot be successfully managed by formula because it must be adapted to the variety of our economy and to its changing moods.
Inflation: Its Cause and Cure
Authors: Sprinkel Beryl W.
Published: March 2007

Despite widespread concern over inflation, prices have risen less since 1951 than in most past periods. The aver age annual rise in the price level has been about 1 per cent in the past eight years compared to 5 per cent to 8 per cent from 1946 to 1951 and 2.5 per cent to 3 per cent in the past half century. One of the major factors inciting inflation fears dur ing the past year was the mammoth size of the fiscal 1959 federal deficit. Prices remained stable during fiscal 1959 be cause slack in the economy permitted production increases to equal spending increases. Inflation is caused by excessive in creases in spending relative to the capacity of the economy to increase production. It is absolutely critical for the success of any program for the containment of inflation that management of the federal budget and monetary policy be designed to pro mote growth in total demands only so fast as the real economy grows. In particular, growth in the stock of money should be no faster, on average, than growth in production of goods and services. The Federal Reserve System has the power to con trol the stock of money and has used that power wisely since 1951. Budget policies have been less adequate. The informed citizen should urge support of flexible monetary and stabilizing budget policies.
The Challenge of Government Science
Authors: Honey John C.
Published: March 2007

The failure of government science to meet Rus sian accomplishments in space research poses fundamental questions about American governmental and social institutions which are of deep concern to public administrators. These questions do not find their solution in relatively minor adjust ments of the administrative machinery such as have been made since the fall of 1957. They relate to our pluralistic values, our lack of a sense of national purpose and our system of Presi dential leadership made weak by the checks and balances which are grounded in the Constitution.

The contrast between Russian and American scientific ca pacities, and the relative ability of the two societies to plan and to direct resources to those activities which further the national interest, lead to the following basic questions: do we need constitutional reform to provide for a stronger Presi dency and for a modification of the costly and inefficient fed eral system? Must we not anticipate national planning so as to assure that the creative and productive capacities of the country go first to efforts of high national importance? Be yond these basic questions there are a number of urgent mat ters which challenge public administrators, for example, the quick development of an effective research communications system and the treatment of scientists in government in a man ner commensurate with their importance to the national well- being.
Recent Developments in the Relationship of Government to Science
Authors: Piore E.R. , Kreidler R.N.
Published: March 2007

National concern for science has increased as the recent developments in the relationship of government to sci ence testify. The government's extensive role in scientific activities is witnessed by the numerous agencies and department divisions which have been created or extended in their scope. The growth of government-science operations has brought with it the present experimentation for a better administrative struc ture. One of the newer attempts to promote co-ordination in governmental science was the Presidential appointment of a Special Assistant to act as a liaison between government and science in the executive branch. He is particularly well suited for this role of co-ordinator as chairman of both the Science Ad visory Committee and the Federal Council for Science and Technology. The augmentation of the government's role in science and the accompanying proliferation of scientific agen cies has created a need for scientists who are both versed in technical subjects as well as in the operations of the govern ment. These specialists may be secured if the academic in stitutions realize the nation's growing need.—Ed.
Influence of the Past: An Interpretation of Recent Development in the Context of 200 Years of History
Authors: Hunter Dupreee A.
Published: March 2007

Although the eighteenth century spoke bravely of internationalism in science, its scientists were put under heavy pressure by the rise of the nation-state. Ease of com munication in the nineteenth century made it seem as if sci ence were the product of an international community, while at the same time science was becoming more dependent on nationally divided institutions for support. When in the twentieth century the free flow of information ceased, it be came clear how closely science was tied to the various national units. The same pattern can be traced in the relation of basic to applied research. The eighteenth century saw the two brands of research as closely linked, but in the nineteenth spe cialization drove the two activities wide apart to form separate traditions. In the twentieth century military problems brought basic and applied research together again. Likewise the same pattern can be traced in the evolution of institutions within national units. The eighteenth century could envision com prehensive scientific institutions, but the nineteenth century created government, industrial, and university research institu tions in separate compartments. The problems of the mid- twentieth century are defined by the basic relations among the various institutions within the nation, the very relations which the peculiar characteristics of the nineteenth century had ob scured.
Research Planning and Program Development in the National Institutes of Health: The Experience of a Relatively New and Growing Agency
Authors: Rosenberg Herbert H.
Published: March 2007

Research planning and program development in the National Institutes of Health (NIH) have emerged over the past decade in a context of rising national interest, steadily expanding funds, shifting program emphasis, and constantly broadening scope of scientific inquiry. NIH basic philosophy seeks to maximize creative potential and regards research plan ning as a totality encompassing the limiting resources of man power and facilities as well as conduct of research itself. Planning has evolved as a continuous, flexible, adaptive process in which administrators and scientists possess considerable dis cretion within a framework of goals and priorities established by Congressional action. It represents a balance between the spontaneous interests of individual scientists and organized effort designed to meet needs and opportunities vital to the nation's health. Responsibility for over-all planning has grown as expenditures have increased, program interests have en larged, and NIH has become a more significant factor in sup port of university research and training of scientific manpower. The nature of the process requires further adaptation to deal more effectively with the problems of the future such as total impact of NIH programs upon an institution as a whole, strengthening the nation's research structure, and administering a co-operative research program on a world-wide scale.
The Philosophy and Objectives of The National Defense Education Act
Authors: Flemming Arthur S.
Published: March 2007

Considered in its historical context, the National Defense Education Act expresses a Congressional attitude that has characterized federal legislation in this field from the be ginning of the Republic. The variety and scope of its concerns, the number and size of its grants, and its widespread public acceptance indicate that this Act will exert influences beyond and in addition to its specific defense intentions. The National Defense Education Act recognizes that education is a national unifying force, and it regards an educated citizenry as the country's most precious resource. Its ten Titles are designed to motivate the discovery of intelligent and talented young men and women and stimulate them to devote themselves to the sciences, foreign languages, technology, and in general to those intellectual pursuits that will enrich personal life, strengthen resistance to totalitarianism, and enhance the quality of Amer ican leadership on the international scene. The Act is also a contract that reasserts the partnership of federal and state governments in education, the former assisting with funds and counsel, the latter exercising full control over their own educa tional systems and programs.
The Situation in 1959
Authors: Green Milton D.
Published: March 2007

Delay in the courts, although not a new com plaint, has been the subject of much current discussion. De lay, as used in the present article, is the time interval between the point when a case is "at issue" and the trial. In the fed eral courts this period varies from 4.1 months to 39.1 months. In the state courts it varies from 1.0 month to 52.9 months. During the last seven years delay in the federal courts has in creased, whereas delay in the state courts has decreased.