bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Cellular Toxicity of Different Classes of Adjuvants
Authors: de Ruiter H , Nijhuis E , Wollenweber H-W , Mainx H-G
Published: April 2008

The phytotoxicity of adjuvants depends on the amount of surfactant deposited per unit of leaf area, the penetration of the surfactant into the leaf, and the cellular toxicity. In this study we investigated the cellular toxicity by determining the leakage of electrolytes from potato discs. We included four adjuvant classes [alkylpolyglycosides (APG), polyoxyethylene fatty alcohols (FAL-EO), methylated polyoxyethylene fatty acids (FAC-EO-ME), and esterified polyoxyethylene glycerols (G-EO-E),]. In each class we included a lipophilic and a hydrophilic product by variation of the C-content of the alkyl chain (APG) or EO-content (other classes). Conductivity of the bathing media was measured at concentrations of 10-4,10-3,10-2,10-1, and 1% (w/v). A polyoxyethylene (10) nonylphenol was included as a reference compound. The cellular toxicity of the adjuvants started at concentrations >0.01% (FAL-EO and FAC-EO-ME) or >0.1% (APG).

The glycerol derivatives (G-EO-E) were not toxic at all concentrations tested. The FAC-EO-ME class of adjuvants was the most toxic class; on average 65% of the total electrolyte content of the discs was released within 3h. The FAL-EO and the APG adjuvants were less toxic excepted the C8-C10 APG giving a release of 56% at a concentration of 1%. In each adjuvant class the lipophilic product was less toxic than the more hydrophilic product. The results are discussed in relation to the physical-chemical properties of the adjuvants.
Pesticide Solubility and Other Tools to Use to Optimize an Emulsifiable Concentrate Formulation
Authors: Tann RS , Frisch PD , Kuo KP
Published: April 2008

Emulsifiable concentrates (EC) continue to be the preferred formulation type as judged by the number of new formulations registered each year. The key component of an EC formulation is a solvent capable of dissolving the active ingredient. This paper examines common types of hydrocarbon and oxygenated solvents registered for agricultural chemical use and identifies some critical physical properties that can be used to guide the formulator in his solvent selection. Properties such as Kauri Butanol (KB) Value (ASTM D1133), Aniline Point (ASTM D611), and Hildebrand or Hansen Solubility Parameter are generally recognized, direct measures of solvency. If applied properly, these properties can directionally give valuable starting information on solvency. Each of these test methods will be described together with how it relates to solvency of a fluid. In addition, the relevance to the formulator of ECs will be demonstrated by correlation of the results of these tests with laboratory-determined solubility of several generic pesticides.
The Physical Chemistry of Water Dispersible Granules, Part II: The Influence of Dispersant Molecular Weight and Paste Rheology on the Physical Properties of Extruded WDGs
Authors: Doering IW , Delli Colli HT
Published: April 2008

The molecular weight distribution and the degree of sulfonation of Kraft lignin dispersants are used to determine performance plateau regions for the most favorable physical properties of WDG formulations produced by low pressure extrusion. Special emphasis is placed on the preparation of extruder feedstock pastes and on the related rheological properties of such pastes. Their ideal water requirement was determined by torque rheometry and other methods such as yield by deformation. A model study containing blends of high and low degree of sulfonation Kraft lignin dispersants with correspondingly high and low molecular weight fractions demonstrates the existence of such performance plateau regions which permit the selection of a final formulation with a broad spectrum of desirable physical properties. Porosity data are utilized to further demonstrate performance differences within the described platform regions.
The Measurement of Droplet Size Distributions from Rotary Atomizers
Authors: Teske ME , Hewitt AJ , Mickle RE
Published: April 2008

Various experimental techniques have been developed to recover droplet size distributions emitted from rotary atomizers. These techniques include both single line-of-sight measurements through the center of the spray cloud and volume weighted averaging from multiple passes through portions of the spray. Because the droplet size distribution of a spray is one of the most important inputs into aerial spray prediction models such as AgDRIFT®, a consistent, widely-accepted standard for rotary atomizers should be developed and implemented with regard to this measurement. No such standard currently exists. The present paper summarizes current measurement techniques and develops a simple computer model to predict droplet movement following emission from a rotary atomizer in a wind tunnel. Qualitative comparisons are made with available data to demonstrate the effects of single line-of-sight measurements and weighted averaging from multiple passes.
Monobranched Alcohol Alkoxylates: A New Generation of Surfactants for Use in Crop Protection
Authors: Rommens JCG , Davies SJ
Published: April 2008

Monobranched alcohol alkoxylates (Atplus® MBA and Atlox® MBA) are a special class of alcohol alkoxylates with specific properties related to the monobranched structure of the hydrophobe. The availability of different alkyl chain lengths (C11 to C15) and ethoxylation / alkoxylation degrees (from 6 to 30 EO) results in a range of surfactants which has been selected as preferred replacement products for nonyl phenol ethoxylates without carrying a hazard classification. The particular type of branching of the hydrophobe results in lower gelling and foaming tendency compared to linear alcohol alkoxylates with similar carbon chain lengths and alkoxylation degree. The compact nature of the hydrophobe is responsible for the very fast dynamic behaviour which makes MBAs very suitable as adjuvants for pesticides. Furthermore, MBAs show lamellar liquid crystalline phases which are less viscous at higher concentrations than linear counterparts. Monobranched alcohol alkoxylates have shown to be efficient in enhancing the bio-efficacy of selective and non-selective herbicides and fungicides.
Foam Control Strategies for Formulating with Alkypolyglycoside Surfactants
Authors: Lachut FJ
Published: April 2008

Alkylpolyglycosides are versatile, mild and environmentally friendly surfactants derived from starch and fatty alcohol Renowned for their high tolerance of ionic strength, alkylpolyglycosides are the only class of nonionics that will provide wetting, interfacial tension reduction, and emulsification properties to these systems absent the presence of other classes of surfactants or hydrotroping agents. This property makes them especially valuable when considering how to couple together today's multicomponent pesticide products with disparate properties as where one component is water-soluble and others are oil soluble. The utility is further heightened when it is remembered that both water soluble and oil soluble active ingredients can have their efficacy potentiated by nonionic surfactants. Complex combinations of adjuvant chemistry have also recently entered the marketplace which require tolerance of high ionic strength.

Foam is a property exhibited by most nonionic surfactants, alkylpolyglycosides included. A limited number of agricultural applications benefit from foam but for most formulators using these products the challenge is to control the foam whatever source it comes from. A number of chemical approaches have been investigated and those persons familiar with the chemistry of nonionic surfactants will recognize the similarity to strategies employed with traditional nonionics based on alcohol or alkylarylphenol ethoxylates. The alkypolyglycoside can be based on a low molecular weight fatty alcohol, the degree of polymerization can be extended or truncated and the hydroxyl groups can be functionalized. None of these modifications are without impact on the same properties that attracted us to these surfactants initially and the impact is not always positive.

The focus of the present work is not on structural modification. It is to compare the effectiveness of a range of coformulants and foam control agents available to the agricultural formulator working with alkylpolyglycoside surfactants. Foam control agents based on fluorochemistry, silicone chemistry, hydrocarbons, fatty alcohols and polymeric defoaming surfactant are compared with each other in the alkylpolyglycoside environment. Relative effectiveness of foam control is assessed and recommendations offered to guide formulation development.
Variable Inclinable Stepmeter: Using Test Subjects to Evaluate Walkway Surface/Footwear Combinations
Authors: Medoff H , Brungraber R , Hilferty C , Patel J , Mehta K
Published: April 2008

A variety of techniques have been used to measure walkway-surface/shoe-outsole slip resistance, employing both stationary and portable devices. In operation, typically, a shoe outsole material is placed in contact with a walkway surface and the ratio of the tangential force to the normal force at motion inception is a measure of the static coefficient of friction between the surfaces.

Recently introduced in Europe is a motorized inclinable ramp. A test subject walks both up and down the inclineable ramp and the ramp angle is incrementally increased until a slip occurs. The tangent of the ramp angle when slip occurs is an indication of the slip resistance between the walkway and shoe bottom. The ramp surface can be covered with a liquid for testing wet floor surfaces

The device described in this paper, called a ‘Stepmeter,’ is a simplified ramp device. It has a test subject stepping down with one foot on a variably inclinable ramp surface. The test subject's other foot rests on a flat, level surface. The ramp angle is incrementally increased until the subject's foot slips. The tangent of the angle at slip is a measure of the slip resistance between the shoe bottom and walkway surface. Tribometer test feet were constructed from the same shoe outsoles as on the shoes worn by the test subjects. These test feet were used in two portable tribometers on the same test surfaces as used in the device we developed.

Preliminary results indicate that this device can reproduce consistent results. Stepmeter results and the (limited) portable-tribometer slip resistance test results were similar.
What is Needed to Gain Valid Consensus for Slip Resistance Standards
Authors: Fendley AE
Published: April 2008

ASTM and the various stakeholders in ASTM F13 Committee on Safety and Traction for Footwear hold widely differing philosophical positions with regard to friction safety standards, but have a common ground in wanting to see a reduction in slip and fall accidents. Since no existing friction-testing device can evaluate every aspect of pedestrian friction, conflicts exist between the stakeholders as to the appropriate use of these devices and standards based upon them. To speed the passage of needed slip resistance standards, analysis of the basis of stakeholder positions and ways to accommodate these positions is required to gain more rapid consensus. This paper addresses specific interests of the shoe, flooring and steel industries, producers of proprietary slip-testing equipment, consumers of footwear, workers, architects and builders, expert witnesses and politicians, academic scientists and of ASTM, and mentions issues that have prevented the timely passage of standards. It explores possible solutions to these conflicts, including the eventual replacement of proprietary-based standards with performance-based standards, and the inclusion in standards of statements relating to the limitations of the methods and clear descriptions of the methodology and stage of precision and bias testing. It discusses directions for future research, and mentions useful approaches to slip resistance standards writing in Australia and New Zealand.
Issues in the Development of Modern Walkway-Safety Tribometry Standards: Required Friction, Contextualization of Test Results, and Non-Proprietary Standards
Authors: Marpet MI
Published: April 2008

Walkway-safety tribometry standards need improvements in the area of machine neutrality and in more meaningful contextualization of test results. One of the underlying difficulties in improving these standards is that obsolete and incorrect abstractions of real-world resilient-surface friction underpin existing standards. Problematic abstractions include the static/dynamic friction model, the notion that the underlying friction model is deterministic, and the single-numeric-threshold method for determining whether or not a walkway surface, shoe bottom, or a combination of both, is r is not slip resistant. Significant improvements may be realized by considering required friction in the setting of slip-resistance thresholds and by a non-numeric ranking method for classifying slip resistance. The ASTM Board of Directors F13 Task Group recommendations for a new slip-resistance-testing model are seen to be both closely related to and congruent with the directions for improvement expressed in this paper.
Implications for the Development of Slip-Resistance Standards Arising from Rank Comparisons of Friction-Test Results Obtained Using Different Walkway-Safety Tribometers Under Various Conditions
Authors: Bowman R , Strautins CJ , Westgate P , Quick GW
Published: April 2008

This paper studies the extent to which different tribometers consistently rank the slip resistance of a series of different ceramic tiles, as measured by a number of techniques. An accelerated abrasion treatment was used to determine how the slip resistance might change with wear in service. It forms part of a wider study of the slip resistance of stone, concrete, vinyl, rubber and other pedestrian surfaces. Although most techniques ranked the tiles in a similar order, there were some notable exceptions. Underestimation or overestimation of available slip resistance may cause significant problems, whether in the evaluation of a new product or an existing walkway surface. It is important to determine when specific tribometers may give “incorrect” results on particular types of surfaces, in order that a more reliable assessment can be made. This may require the use of a different technique, a dissimilar test foot, or modified test procedures or parameters. When a hard rubber test foot was used, the slip resistance tended to reflect the altered surface roughness of the abraded tiles, but when a resilient rubber was used, there was a general increase in the slip resistance. These results confirm the complex interplay between surface topography and choice of test foot. The results also indicate that current commonly used test methods can yield results that poorly predict the traction available to a pedestrian, either when the product is new or after the surface wears. This study found that the manually-pulled 50-pound drag sled (as used in ASTM C-1028) was incapable of satisfactorily distinguishing between the wet slip resistance of ceramic tiles. The pendulum tribometer (used according to AS/NZS 4586, with TRRL rubber, similar to ASTM E-303) provided more reliable results than the English XL Variable Incidence Tribometer (used according to ASTM F-1679).
A Global Methodology to Quantify Fretting Damages
Authors: Fouvry S , Kapsa P , Vincent L
Published: April 2008

Fretting wear and fretting fatigue are commonly associated with damage of quasistatic loaded assemblies and with decrease in lifetime. Depending on the sliding condition, wear induced by fretting or cracking induced by fretting can be observed. To quantify such competitive damage phenomena, a fretting map approach has been extensively applied describing the sliding conditions and the damage evolution as a function of the normal force and the displacement amplitude. This approach, considered as a useful methodology to analyze tribo-systems, nevertheless presents the limitation of not allowing a direct comparison between tribo-systems. To rationalize this experimental approach and facilitate the comparison between tribo-systems, normalized sliding condition and crack nucleation fretting maps are introduced. Based on contact mechanics, the sliding transition is quantified using a fretting sliding criterion, and a specific formulation is provided to identify the local friction coefficient under partial slip condition. Cracking, which is mainly observed under stabilized partial slip condition, is analyzed by applying multiaxial criteria and taking into account the size effect. Wear, which is favored under gross slip condition, is quantified through an energy approach. Finally a global methodology is developed by which the sliding condition, the crack nucleation under partial slip condition and the wear kinetics under gross slip regime may be quantified.
Stress Intensity Factors KI and KII of Oblique Through Thickness Cracks in a Semi-Infinite Body Under Fretting Fatigue Conditions
Authors: Kimura T , Sato K
Published: April 2008

In this paper the formulas for calculating KI and KII of an oblique crack under fretting fatigue loading conditions have been derived. The scheme of the formulation is based on a method using Green's functions and the principle of superposition, i.e. the Green's functions have been obtained through boundary element analysis for normal and tangential localized forces on oblique crack faces and superimposed their results to calculate two components of mode I and II. The formulas for KI and KII were expressed as functions of crack angle, crack length and applied loading conditions, such as bulk fatigue stress, contact pressure distribution and friction stress distribution. A user-friendly program based on these formulas, then, has been developed to compute the values of stress intensity factors KI and KII under arbitrary fretting fatigue conditions. The values of stress intensity factors for both normal and oblique cracks have been illustrated as examples to understand the effects of crack angle and pad load distribution.
Influence of Nonhomogeneous Material in Fretting Fatigue
Authors: Goh C-H , Neu RW , McDowell DL
Published: April 2008

Since fretting fatigue often leads to catastrophic failure in components clamped together with relatively small amplitude displacements, several analysis methods have been developed to quantify fretting fatigue damage. Fretting damage analyses using crystal plasticity have potential to address the issues of accounting for inherent material microstructure heterogeneity as well as more realistic treatment of crystallographic slip in fretting fatigue. The primary focus of this study is to explore the influence of microstructure as well as coefficient of friction within the fretting fatigue boundary layer during fretting fatigue process. Crystal plasticity theory is used for nonhomogeneous finite element simulations and the results are compared to those developed by an initially homogeneous J2 plasticity theory with nonlinear kinematic hardening flow rule as well as experiments.
Development of Test Methods for High Temperature Fretting of Turbine Materials Subjected to Engine-Type Loading
Authors: Murthy H , Rajeev PT , Okane M , Farris TN
Published: April 2008

Two bodies are said to be in fretting contact when they are clamped together under the action of a normal force and see an oscillatory motion of small amplitudes at the contact interface due to the effect of shear force and bulk stress. The contact stresses that drive crack nucleation are very sensitive to the shape of the contacting surfaces and the coefficient of friction. To have an understanding of fretting at the contacts in turbine engine components, it is important to simulate similar temperature, load, and contact conditions in the laboratory and develop tools to analyze the contact conditions. Efforts made to simulate the temperature and load conditions typical of engine hardware in a controlled laboratory setting, similar to that developed previously at room temperature, are described. It is shown that the temperature in the contact region can be held constant at nominally 600°C. Preliminary results are given in terms of loads and measured total lives along with thoughts on development of a total life model for single crystal materials.
Fretting Fatigue Behavior of Titanium Alloys
Authors: Hoeppner DW , Taylor AMH , Chandrasekaran V
Published: April 2008

A discussion of experimental studies to characterize the fretting fatigue behavior of titanium alloys is presented. This includes studies to evaluate the effects of normal pressure, contact material conditions, surface treatments, and environment. In addition, concepts of normal pressure threshold and damage threshold as related to fretting fatigue of titanium alloys are discussed. Finally, this paper is concluded with suggestions for future research efforts that are essential to improve understanding of the fretting fatigue behavior of titanium alloys.
Evaluation of Ti-48Al-2Cr-2Nb Under Fretting Conditions
Authors: Miyoshi K , Lerch BA , Draper SL , Raj SV
Published: April 2008

The fretting behavior of Ti-48Al-2Cr-2Nb2 (γ-TiAl) in contact with a typical nickel-base superalloy was examined in air at temperatures from 296 to 823 K (23 to 550 °C). The interfacial adhesive bonds between Ti-48Al-2Cr-2Nb and superalloy were generally stronger than the cohesive bonds within Ti-48Al-2Cr-2Nb. The failed Ti-48Al-2Cr-2Nb debris subsequently transferred to the superalloy. In reference experiments conducted with Ti-6Al-4V against superalloy under identical fretting conditions, the degree of transfer was greater for Ti-6Al-4V than for Ti-48Al-2Cr-2Nb. Wear of Ti-48Al-2Cr-2Nb generally decreased with increasing fretting frequency. The increasing rate of oxidation at elevated temperatures led to a drop in wear at 473 K. However, fretting wear increased as the temperature was increased from 473 to 823 K. At 723 and 823 K, oxide film disruption generated cracks, loose wear debris, and pits on the Ti-48Al-2Cr-2Nb wear surface. Both increasing slip amplitude and increasing load tended to produce more metallic wear debris, causing severe abrasive wear in the contacting metals.
Fretting Fatigue Crack Initiation Behavior of Ti-6Al-4V
Authors: Mall S , Jain VK , Namjoshi SA , Lykins CD
Published: April 2008

Fretting fatigue crack initiation behavior of titanium alloy, Ti-6Al-4V was investigated by using different geometries of the fretting pad. Specimens were examined to determine the crack initiation location and the crack angle orientation along the contact surface. Fretting fatigue experiments were analyzed with the finite element analysis. Several critical plane based parameters were used to predict the number of cycles to fretting fatigue crack initiation, crack initiation location and crack orientation angle along the contact surface. These predictions were compared with the experimental counterparts to study the role of normal and shear stresses on the critical plane in order to characterize fretting fatigue crack initiation behavior. From these comparisons, the fretting fatigue crack initiation mechanism in the tested titanium alloy appears to be governed by the shear stress on the critical plane. However, the role of normal stress on the critical plane at present appears to be unclear.
Quantifying Contributions of Aggregate Characteristics to HMA Performance Using PURWheel Laboratory Tracking Device
Authors: Stiady J , Hand A , White T
Published: April 2008

The effects of nominal maximum aggregate size (NMS), coarse aggregate type, fine aggregate angularity (FAA), and gradation types on HMA rutting performance were evaluated using the Purdue Laboratory Wheel Track Device (PURWheel).

Correlation between PURWheel and Indiana Department of Transportation/Purdue University (INDOT/Purdue) Accelerated Pavement Tests (APT) was used as an initial step to field pavement rutting performance evaluation. Test results showed that PURWheel and APT are well correlated. This is positive because the traffic loading andcompaction method used in the prototype scale APT is essentially identical to field conditions.

The rutting performance of 9.5 and 19 mm mixtures and that of limestone and granite mixtures was not statistically different. Analysis of the data revealed that adequate performance could be obtained with mixture gradations plotting above (ARZ), through (TRZ), and below (BRZ) the restricted zone. FAA significantly impacted the rutting performance in PURWheel tests. However, mixtures incorporating very high FAA values did not perform better than those incorporating typical (≈ 45) FAA values.
Image Analysis Techniques to Determine Fine Aggregate Angularity
Authors: Chowdhury A , Button JW , Wilson D , Masad E , Prowell BD
Published: April 2008

The validity of the Superpave fine aggregate angularity (FAA) test isquestioned by the paving industry. State agencies are concerned that local materials which have provided good field performance now cannot meet the Superpave requirements. Previous research has shown that these questions and concern are valid. The objectives of this study are to evaluate the ability of FAA test procedure to distinguish aggregates with good and poor performance in HMA and to examine the potential of image analysis methods of quantifying fine aggregate angularity.

Twenty-three fine aggregates from different parts of the USA were tested using ASTM C 1252, Method A. These same aggregates were tested using three different image analysis methods, including: Hough transform at University of Arkansas at Little Rock, unified image analysis at Washington State University, and VDG-40 videograder at Virginia Transportation Research Council. Results from the image analysis methods were compared with FAA test results and available pavement performance history.

The FAA test method does not consistently identify angular, cubical aggregates as high quality materials. Reasonably good correlations were found between FAA and all three image analysis methods. Moreover, the image analysis methods exhibited good correlations among themselves. Those crushed cubical fine aggregates with FAA values lower than 45 showed high angularity in all three imaging methods. These crushed, cubical materials also demonstrated good field performance history.

Image analyses appear to be very promising methods for directly measuring fine aggregate angularity and to replace the current FAA method. Since they are in their initial stage, more research work is needed to optimize their use and make them commercially viable
Determination of Aggregate Specific Gravity and Its Effect on HMA Mixture Performance
Authors: Haddock JE , Prowell BD
Published: April 2008

Measurement of the aggregate bulk specific gravity in a hot mix asphalt mixture can have an impact on the performance of hot mix asphalt pavements. In particular, the measurement of the fine aggregate specific gravity has raised issues. The current testing method is lengthy and highly variable. This study was undertaken to investigate newer methods of determining fine aggregate specific gravity in hopes of finding a test method that could decrease both the test time and variability. Two new methods were investigated and compared with the standard method. The results indicate that both methods are less variable and take less test time to complete. However, though the timesavings may be significant during the mixture design phase, they may not be enough to improve quality control methods designed to allow tighter control over hotmix asphalt production.
Integration of Data Management, GIS, and Other Data Uses
Authors: Rich DW
Published: April 2008

Efficient data management is becoming increasingly important in managing site environmental projects. Key decisions in designing a data management system include where the data will reside, how data will be moved between interested parties, and how connections will be built between applications for managing, interpreting, and displaying the data. Options for database locations include stand-alone, client-server, and increasingly, Web-based. Formats and protocols for data transfer or data access can be a challenge, and the advantages of direct connections (as opposed to export-import) must be weighed against the effort required to implement the connections. The benefits to be gained by overcoming data management and communication obstacles can, in many cases, greatly exceed the effort expended. If the end justifies the means, the displays that can be generated using GIS and other technologies can provide a much greater understanding of site technical and administrative issues.
The Use of Decision Support Systems to Address Spatial Variability, Uncertainty, and Risk
Authors: Knowlton RG , Peterson DM , Zhang H
Published: April 2008

Traditional methods of characterizing contaminated waste sites and evaluating cleanup alternatives generally utilize conservative methods that may not produce optimal results. With the advent of powerful desktop computers, advanced database management tools, sophisticated graphical display capabilities, new statistical methods, as well as decision analysis methods, there is a greater opportunity to employ decision support systems to address spatial variability, uncertainty, sampling efficiency, risk and cost-benefit needs. Several decision support systems have been developed in the past few years that can address these needs directly, and help decision-makers evaluate their environmental liabilities and alternatives for action in a more efficient manner. EPA recognized the value of these new tools in the decision making process and instituted a review of Decision Support Systems. The EPA's Environmental Technology Verification (ETV) program is designed to peer-review innovative technologies for acceptability of use. ETV then publishes these reviews, along with verification certificates, to facilitate more rapid acceptance of the technologies. Two decision support tools that were evaluated by the ETV program, SamplingFX2 and GroundwaterFX2, will be discussed in this paper, along with examples of the use of the tools for decision making purposes. The SamplingFX toolkit utilizes geostatistical analysis techniques and operations research methods to quantify uncertainty in the nature and extent of soil contamination, as well as optimizing the number and location of samples required for characterization. The GroundwaterFX toolkit utilizes Monte Carlo simulation techniques and operations research methods to quantify uncertainty in the nature and extent of groundwater contamination, as well as optimizing the number and location of monitoring wells required for characterization, and evaluating groundwater remediation strategies.
Status of Standards and Guides Related to the Application of Spatial Methods to Environmental and Hydrologic Problems
Authors: Hansen DT
Published: April 2008

Geographic information systems (GIS) and related technologies are active tools in addressing environmental and hydrologic problems. The application of spatial methods to environmental and hydrologic problems has been supported by the rapid development of computer systems, software, and the internet. The present computing environment has become increasingly dynamic and the use of spatial methods to address local issues has been rapidly growing.

The fields of environmental studies and hydrology have long been active areas for the development of standard guides and practices. ASTM has been active in the development of standards for site characterization, modeling of surface and groundwater systems, and the application of statistical and geostatistical techniques. Standards related to spatial data are more recent. These include the content of digital spatial data and procedures for capturing and recording surface location and elevation. Work has also been done on defining characteristics for particular sets of data in the United States. This includes developing base data layers and classification schemes for some thematic layers. Some work has been done on analysis methods.

The use of spatial methods to address site-specific issues will be assisted by further development of the standards process in this dynamic environment. Data management, data integration, and data quality are common issues in this environment. Common methods, practices, or guides that address these issues will assist in the application of spatial methods to site-specific issues.
Ambiguities, Changes, and Contradictions in Building Wall Literature
Authors: Kudder RJ , Lies KM , Faith BA
Published: April 2008

There is an enormous body of information about the behavior of building walls and numerous guidelines, codes and standards to assist designers in establishing wall performance criteria, selecting and specifying wall materials, and testing to verify wall performance. There is so much information available that it is difficult for a designer to be familiar with and to digest all of it. Guidelines also change over time, often in a way which significantly changes the meaning of performance criteria. In addition, the nomenclature used in this body of information is not clearly and consistently defined. This can make a designer's task difficult, necessitating attention to the current meaning of the guidelines and how changes could impact a design. Examples of ambiguities and contradictions in standards and industry practices are discussed.
The Use of Wind Tunnels to Assist in Cladding Design for Buildings
Authors: Williams CJ , Conley GJ , Kilpatrick J
Published: April 2008

Wind loads on a building are sensitive to a number of factors, including the wind speed approaching the site, building height and shape, and the local influence of nearby buildings on the wind flow patterns. Building codes attempt to allow for these factors by providing simple formulae for calculating design wind loads that will be at least conservative. The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) 7 Standard [1] and most other building codes recognize that for irregularly shaped buildings or structures that may have unusual response characteristics it is advisable to undertake detailed wind load studies or use wind tunnel methods of analysis. Wind tunnel methods determine the wind loading on a structure with increased precision, which leads to more economical and risk consistent structural designs than do code calculation methods. This paper describes the wind tunnel method of determining cladding wind loads, and provides comparisons between the wind tunnel method and code calculation methods for a 22-story building.
Connectivity of the Air Barrier and Building Envelope System: Materials, Process, and Quality Assurance
Authors: Day KC
Published: April 2008

The engineering of air barrier and building envelope details for the construction of exterior walls requires that construction sequence and quality assurance be addressed. Further, the assembly of specific materials should not be based merely on “what was used in the last project” since the interior and exterior conditions of a given building may be vastly different from the proverbial last project.

The word “connectivity” is used in the information technology industry, and this word has been deliberately selected for the title of this paper to describe the inter-connection of materials that form an air barrier system in exterior wall assemblies.

This paper considers the air barrier system, as it relates to moisture management strategies for condensation and precipitation control, exterior and interior conditions, and the quality assurance of the air barrier installation. An example wall assembly is presented to demonstrate some of the issues that must be considered during the construction sequence.
Evaluation of Seismic Performance of Anchored Brick Veneer Walls
Authors: Memari AM , Aliaari M , Hamid AA
Published: April 2008

This paper reports the first part of an ongoing research project that is looking into the seismic performance of veneer walls. The type of veneer of interest for this work is normally anchored to the backup wall through metal ties. Brick veneer walls are supported in most cases by shelf angles attached to the floor slab at each story and are supposed to carry only their own weight and not participate in in-plane lateral load resistance. To achieve this behavior, horizontal and vertical movement joints are necessary. Ideally, this design could isolate the lateral movement of the backup wall from that of the veneer wall, thus preventing any distress to the veneer. However, earthquake reconnaissance reports show many failures of veneer walls with the potential of life-safety hazard. In this paper, it is discussed how the vertical differential movement between the brick veneer and the frame can close the gap between the underside of the shelf angle and the top course of brick, thus putting the brick veneer under high compressive stresses. It is shown that this can result in proportionally high friction forces during earthquakes with the possibility of shear cracking of the veneer before sliding between the brick veneer and the supporting steel shelf angle occurs.
Determination of Poisson's Ratio of Silicone Sealants from Ultrasonic and Tensile Measurements
Authors: Wolf AT , Descamps P
Published: April 2008

Poisson's ratio is a fundamental material constant arising from the equations of linear elasticity and is a primary input property for finite-element analyses. Elastomers are generally regarded as nearly incompressible materials with Poisson's ratios slightly below 0.5. However, incorporation of particulate fillers may reduce Poisson's ratio significantly. Determining the Poisson's ratio of silicone sealants is an essential task, since these materials are increasingly used as structural adhesives in construction applications, which frequently require finite-element design calculations. The paper reports on the results of a feasibility study aimed at determining Poisson's ratio of three filled RTV silicone sealants based on simple ultrasonic and tensile measurements. Using this method, longitudinal ultrasound velocities of 984–1003 m/s were determined; and from Young's moduli and specific densities, transversal ultrasound velocities of 64–90 m/s and Poisson's ratios between 0.496 and 0.498 were calculated for the three sealants.
Evaluation of the Condensation Index Rating as Determined using the Proposed Testing Method in the NFRC 500 Draft Procedure
Authors: Wise DJ , Shah BV , Curcija D , Baker J
Published: April 2008

This paper presents a comprehensive and detailed assessment of the proposed NFRC 500 Procedure currently under development in the NFRC Technical Committee, as developed by the NFRC Condensation Subcommittee. The proposed NFRC 500 Procedure contains a new element in the evaluation of condensation, that being the utilization of computer software in analyzing and calculating the condensation index for comparative purposes. For those products that can't be simulated, a test only option is also offered.

The primary focus for this paper is the analysis of the testing portion of the proposed NFRC 500 Procedure, emphasizing the testing calculations as defined in the procedure. Two NFRC annual round robins will be characterized, 1999 and 2000. The 1999 and 2000 NFRC round robin tests employed a nominal 1520 mm × 910 mm (60“ × 36“) non-thermal aluminum horizontal sliding window with high performance glazing. The simulated results will be used as a benchmark for the analysis of the testing data. Each round robin test specimen was tested at the NFRC-accredited Testing Laboratories. The tested fenestration thermal performance ratings (U-factors) were acquired in accordance with NFRC 100 (1997): Procedures for Determining Fenestration Product U-factors and NFRC Test Procedure for Measuring the Steady-State Thermal Transmittance of Fenestration Systems (April 1997).

This paper details specific data regarding various measured and calculated performance values as required by the NFRC Procedures and Program Documents.
Panelized Wall Construction: Design, Testing, and Construction Procedures
Authors: Lindow ES , Jasinski LF
Published: April 2008

Today's building construction requires speed, efficiency, and economy. To meet these needs, prefabricated wall panels are being incorporated in curtain wall systems, creating a rapidly expanding market. To illustrate concepts, benefits and needed research and development, the design and use of a panelized wall system are discussed. The prefabricated panels are manufactured using steel studs and a mechanically fastened rigid board sheathing. The exterior envelope can then be completed using a factory installed EIFS (exterior insulation finish system) or a conventionally built brick masonry veneer. The development and constructability of the panelized curtain wall system are described along with associated design and code validation testing. In addition, the need to integrate water management details into the curtain wall design is also reviewed. A current construction project provides the transition from design to installation and exemplifies the benefits of panelized construction.
A Basic Guide to Minimize Sealant Joint Failures in Exterior Building Walls
Authors: Erdly JL , Gensel RW
Published: April 2008

while the quality and performance of elastomeric sealants used in exterior building walls have improved, the occurrence of leakage and envelope failures attributed to sealant installation has not decreased. This paper will outline, from a contractor's viewpoint, what designers need to know with regard to sealant joint design and detailing to minimize building wall leakage attributed to sealant joint failures.
Selected Performance Characteristics of a Dual Purpose 100% Acrylic Polymer-Based Coating that Performs as Both a Weather Resistive Component for Exterior Insulation Finish Systems (EIFS), and as an Adhesive for Attachment of the Insulation Board
Authors: Konopka KM , McKelvey JL , Rimmer JW , O'Brien MJ
Published: April 2008

The multi-component Exterior Insulation Finish Systems (EIFS) designed nearly 30 years ago are still the basis for today's EIFS. However, over the years new EIFS have been developed to meet the needs of the building industry. One such system, EIFS with drainage, incorporates the components of the basic barrier EIFS, but adds the dimension of a drainage plane behind the insulation board. One EIFS with drainage system consists of a liquid coating that can be used as a flexible weather resistive barrier in place of building paper, and as an adhesive in place of the metal fasteners

This paper describes the testing and selected performance characteristics of one component of EIFS with drainage, an acrylic polymer-based coating that trowels easily, forms breathable, highly water resistant weather barrier assemblies, and adheres the insulation board to the typical EIFS sheathings, all in one step. Early grab, or “green strength”, helps hold the insulation board when it is first set in place, which may allow the insulation board to be rasped sooner than when a more conventional liquid adhesive is used.

Full component testing of the EIFS, including joint-treatment and flashing requirements, is not the objective of this paper.
Uncertainty of Heat Transfer Measurements in an Engulfing Pool Fire
Authors: Kramer MA , Greiner M , Koski JA , Lopez C
Published: April 2008

A series of experiments were performed to measure heat transfer to a cylindrical steel calorimeter engulfed in a 30-minute pool fire. The calorimeter inner surface temperature history was measured at 46 locations. A one-dimensional inverse heat conduction technique was used to determine the net heat flux to the calorimeter as a function of time and location. The uncertainty in heat flux caused by three-dimensional effects is estimated using finite element computer simulations. A Monte Carlo uncertainty simulation is used to estimate the uncertainty in heat flux from propagated uncertainties in dimensions, temperature measurements, and material properties. The estimated uncertainty in the measured heat flux over the 30-minute fire test and the entire calorimeter was found to be ± 18 kW/m2, or 27% of the average heat flux of 66.6 kW/m2. The uncertainties for the early times of the fire test are less than those at later times in the test due to the instability of the inverse conduction calculations caused by the Curie effect of the carbon steel calorimeter material.
Thermal Measurements for Fire Fighters' Protective Clothing
Authors: Lawson JR , Vettori RL
Published: April 2008

Current test methods used for quantifying the thermal performance of fire fighters' protective clothing are not providing information needed to understand why fire fighters are being burned. Many of the thermal exposures where fire fighters receive serious burn injuries are much lower than those specified in current test methods. In addition, current test methods do not provide a means to measure performance changes associated with wet garment systems. New test apparatus have been developed for measuring thermal performance of protective clothing systems. A wide range of thermal exposures can be replicated. These test apparatus can measure the thermal performance of protective clothing systems that are dry or wet and also measure performance changes associated with garment compression. This is an overview of measurement issues critical to the development of standards for fire fighters' protective clothing and the safety of fire service personnel. Research efforts addressed in this document have been supported in part by the United States Fire Administration and the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health.
Analysis of Carving and Conventional Ski Measured Pressured Distributions During Carving Turns
Authors: Yamagish T , Fujii K , Kato S , Tsukawaki M , Ozawa T
Published: April 2008

The purpose of this research was to evaluate and compare the pressure distribution inside the ski boot between carving skis and conventional skis during a carving turn in order to determine their relationship to injuries such as knee injuries. Two subjects with prior experience as national level racers participated in the study. Two carving racers performed several test runs on a moderately steep 20 degree and well-prepared slope with both carving skis and conventional skis. The Orthopedic Measuring System for Static and Dynamic Pressure Measurements (ORMES) was used to directly collect field data. Recording and analysis were performed by three senior coaches using two synchronized Sony 3-CCD video cameras and ORMES during a carving turn with a carving ski and conventional ski. After evaluation of the kinematic data and dynamic measurements, the center of pressure (COP) trace along the boot sole during the carving turn with the carving ski located the instantaneous position more rear ward compared to the conventional ski. This means that the carving ski experiences more weight in the back compared with a conventional ski, due to the increased potential for catching an inside ski edge, the carving ski may increase the risk of phantom foot anterior cruciate ligament injury. With respect to safety, the lower and more specifically articulated center of gravity demands a better sagittal balancing ability as well as improved edging behavior to stay centrally positioned over the ski.