bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Corpus Analysis of Business English
Authors: Fischer‐Starcke Bettina
Published: December 2012

International business has greatly increased over the past decades, and business transactions are frequently carried out in English.
Corpus Analysis of English as a World Language
Authors: Sand Andrea
Published: December 2012

Academic interest in the field now referred to as “English as a world language” arose out of the realization that there is more to the English language than British English and that the English language had in fact changed radically by becoming a language spoken around the globe.
Corpus Analysis of Language in the Workplace
Authors: Mullany Louise
Published: December 2012

Applied linguists in various parts of the world have demonstrated the value of investigating language in the workplace from a corpus linguistic perspective.
Corpus Analysis of Political Language
Authors: Partington Alan
Published: December 2012

It is difficult to conceive of any political action which does not involve using language: political speeches, newspaper editorials, press conferences, Acts of Parliament, declarations of war and peace negotiations, to name but a few.
Corpus Analysis of Sign Languages
Authors: Johnston Trevor , Schembri Adam
Published: December 2012

Sign languages (SLs) are the naturally evolved visual‐gestural languages of deaf com‐munities.
Corpus Linguistics: Quantitative Methods
Authors: Gries Stefan Th.
Published: December 2012

Ever since technological development has made it possible to search large corpora in a very short time, corpus linguists have done a lot of interesting work in linguistics in general, and in applied linguistics in particular.
Corpus‐Based Linguistic Approaches to Critical Discourse Analysis
Authors: Cheng Winnie
Published: December 2012

In language and communication research, a wide range of theoretical frameworks and methodological approaches have been employed, among which are corpus linguistics (CL), critical discourse analysis (CDA), and an innovative combination of CL and CDA.
Corpus‐Based Testing
Authors: Barker Fiona
Published: December 2012

Principled collections of language texts—corpora—allow the storage, retrieval, and analysis of many tens of thousands of complete or partial texts, originally written, then spoken and now increasingly in multimedia formats.
Coulthard, Malcolm
Authors: Tomblin Samuel
Published: December 2012

Professor Richard Malcolm Coulthard (b. 1943) is an English linguist and prominent figure in applied linguistics who is recognized for his research on discourse analysis. Additionally, through his research, teaching, and consultancy, he has shaped the field of forensic linguistics into a credible subdiscipline of applied linguistics both in the UK and internationally. Coulthard founded the International Association of Forensic Linguists in 1993 and served until 1995 as the founding president. He cofounded the association's journal,The International Journal of Speech, Language and the Law(formerlyForensic Linguistics)which first saw publication in 1994 and which he continued to edit until 2007.
Critical Analysis of Discourse in Educational Settings
Authors: Toh Glenn
Published: December 2012

Critical analyses of discourses in education are fundamentally affected by the fact that much of education, whether as an academic field or enterprise, is born of ideologies that result in inequitable practices, power differentials among people of different race, culture, gender, class, and socioeconomic differentiation. The need for discourse and discursive practices to be critically analyzed in education settings stems, moreover, from the understanding that education can never be free of values and ideology.
Critical Analysis of Multimodal Discourse
Authors: Leeuwen Theo Van
Published: December 2012

The term “critical analysis of multimodal discourse” suggests a merger of two distinct fields of applied linguistics: critical discourse analysis and multimodality. At present it cannot be said that such a merger has taken place. Unlike critical discourse analysis and multimodality, the “critical analysis of multimodal discourse” is not—or not yet—a field with its own conferences, journals, edited books, and so on. Although some critical discourse analysts focus on multimodal texts and some multimodal analysts take a critical stance, they are in the minority, in both fields, despite the increasingly important role of multi‐modal discourse in many social and political contexts, especially since the emergence of the Internet. It is therefore best to separately survey multimodal work within the tradition of critical discourse analysis and critical work within the tradition of multimodality; and to then assess whether—and if so, to what degree—a coherent field of study has begun to emerge, even though it does not as yet have a clear academic identity of its own.
Critical Analysis of Political Discourse
Authors: Flowerdew John
Published: December 2012

The term “politics” derives from the Greek πολιτικά(politika), as used in Aristotle'sPolitics.
Critical Applied Linguistics
Authors: Makoni Sinfree , Makoni Busi
Published: December 2012

The term “critical” when used with reference to poststructuralist and postmodernist scholarship is neo‐Marxist and influenced by Derrida (1970) and Foucault (1970). Critical scholarship is “restless” (Pennycook 2004) as it questions assumptions made in the parent discipline. Criticality is a process of engaging with power and social inequality both within and outside applied linguistics. Nonetheless, critical applied linguistics (CAL) is not opposed to power but to its effects. CAL is skeptical of concepts such as the native speaker, language, identity, and agency.
Critical Discourse Analysis and Critical Applied Linguistics
Authors: Mahboob Ahmar , Paltridge Brian
Published: December 2012

Critical applied linguistics studies ways in which education, regulation, and the study and use of language relate to the realization, maintenance, and reproduction of the distribution of power in society. The critical move in applied linguistics focuses on issues of power as it is enacted, reproduced, and resisted through fields associated with language studies, such as language policy and planning, language codification, language teaching, language learning, and language testing. The purpose of this work is not only to understand and explain how power is constructed and exercised through language, but also to change the practices and empower those who are at risk from oppressive practices. Work that attempts to achieve these goals in applied linguistics has a “critical” perspective, even if it is not always labeled as such (Pennycook, 2010). Some of this critically oriented work predates the adoption of the term “critical” in applied linguistics, while others followed in response to a call by Pennycook in his 1990 article “Towards a Critical Applied Linguistics for the 1990s”:
Critical Discourse Analysis of Popular Culture
Authors: Duff Patricia A. , Zappa‐Hollman Sandra
Published: December 2012

Critical discourse analysis (CDA) is an approach to discourse analysis that has evolved over the past several decades. It is associated with work conducted since the 1980s by European linguists Norman Fairclough, Ruth Wodak, and Teun van Dijk and their colleagues but has become quite interdisciplinary as a scholarly practice. CDA also has its North American counterparts with their own interpretations of, and orientations to, critical discourse studies, a broader term, in the work of Gee (2004), for example, as well as scholars in other parts of the world (e.g., Australia, Asia). Traditionally, critical discourse analyses have examined formal media such as newspapers and oral, written, and visual (graphic) political discourse in other venues. However, CDA is also being applied to the analysis of popular culture texts, as illustrated in this entry, but generally by scholars in cultural studies and related fields, rather than in applied linguistics. Most of the work looking critically at popular culture (or “pop” culture, as it is also referred to in the literature) in applied linguistics investigates classroom practices involving, but not centrally concerned with the analysis of, pop culture texts. In what follows, we first provide a brief overview of CDA, followed by a discussion of its application to pop culture.
“Critical” in Critical Discourse Analysis
Authors: Chilton Paul
Published: December 2012

The term “critical” was adopted by a group of linguists working at the University of East Anglia, UK, in the 1970s to describe a type of applied linguistics that concerned itself with the relationship between language and social phenomena.
Critical Media Literacy
Authors: Merchant Guy
Published: December 2012

Media of various kinds play an increasingly important role in our everyday lives. With recent technological developments their reach has become ubiquitous and global.
Critical Pedagogy in Language Teaching
Authors: Crookes Graham
Published: December 2012

Critical pedagogy in language teaching is a perspective in language curriculum theory and instructional practice that supports and advances teaching and the study of languages in ways that would promote social justice.
Cross‐Cultural Pragmatics
Authors: Stadler Stefanie
Published: December 2012

“Pragmatics” refers to the study of language in action.
Crosslinguistic Influence in Second Language Acquisition
Authors: Odlin Terence
Published: December 2012

The phrasecrosslinguistic influence(CLI) is roughly synonymous with other terms, most notablylanguage transferandinterference, in that all refer to the influence of one language upon another, most typically in cases of second language acquisition (SLA). These terms continue to be used widely, but in each case the expression is really a cover term for a wide range of phenomena. For that reason, secondary terms are often used, such aspositive transferto refer to the facilitating effects of one language in acquiring another (e.g., of Spanish vocabulary in acquiring French) andnegative transferto refer to divergences due to some differences between the target language and a source language (most typically the native language of the learner). Still another cover term often used issubstrate influence, but this is found mainly in historical or sociolinguistic studies of language contact, such as work on the influence of certain African languages on the development of creoles in Surinam (Migge, 2003).
Cultural Awareness in Multilingual Education
Authors: Byram Michael
Published: December 2012

“Cultural awareness,” as a quick Internet search will show, is a widely used phrase and consequently has no single precise meaning. It is used to refer to awareness of diversity within a society and among societies. It is often associated with “training,” involving specific activities which draw attention to diversity and encourage and deliberately develop positive attitudes and understanding. Such training is directed at adults in their professional and working lives. It is linked through this to “intercultural competence” which is based in part on heightened cultural awareness and which is itself fundamental to “intercultural communication.” This field of activity and study is well enough established to have spawned “handbooks” (e.g., Straub, Weidemann, & Weidemann, 2007; Deardorff, 2009) and many textbooks (e.g., Holliday, Hyde, & Kullman, 2004; Jandt, 2004; Chen & Starosta, 2005).
Cultural Representation
Authors: Zarate Geneviève
Published: December 2012

As a concept,
cultural representation
is first and foremost a product of the field of social psychology and is particularly known to be a key concept in cultural studies.
Culture and Language for Specific Purposes
Authors: Connor Ulla , Rozycki William
Published: December 2012

A classic defi nition of culture has been formulated as follows by the anthropologists Kroeber and Kluckhohn: Culture consists of patterns, explicit and implicit, of and for behavior acquired and transmitted by symbols, constituting the distinctive achievement of human groups, including their embodiments of artifacts; the essential core of culture consists of traditional (i.e., historically derived and selected) ideas and especially their attached values; culture systems may, on the one hand, be considered as products of actions, on the other as conditioning elements of further action. (p. 357)
Cummins, Jim
Authors: Skutnabb‐Kangas Tove
Published: December 2012

Professor James (Jim) Patrick Cummins (born July 3, 1949, in Dublin, Ireland) is one of the world's most influential researchers in bilingualism studies.
Curriculum Development in Multilingual Schools
Authors: Benson Carol
Published: December 2012

This entry describes contexts calling for multilingual schools, presents agreed principles of language and literacy learning, discusses international approaches to developing appropriate curricula, and indicates new directions in the field.
Davies, Alan
Authors: Maher John C.
Published: December 2012

Professor Alan Davies, a founding father and major theorist of the field of applied linguistics, is Emeritus Professor of Applied Linguistics at the University of Edinburgh. Davies grew up in South Wales of Welsh‐ and English‐speaking parents. His early linguistic experience provided an awareness of the reality and paradoxes of multilingualism, power, and the politics of language. After taking a degree in English at the University of Oxford and seven years as an English teacher in the UK and Kenya, he developed the English Proficiency Test Battery (EPTB) for the British Council at the University of Birmingham, where he was awarded a PhD on “Proficiency in English as a Second Language” (1965). He was appointed to a lectureship at Edinburgh University in 1965, has taught at universities in Nepal and Hong Kong, and in 1991 became founding Director of the Language Testing Research Centre at the University of Melbourne. He served as editor ofApplied LinguisticsandLanguage Testing. He was chair of the British Association of Applied Linguistics, Secretary‐General of AILA, and President of the International Language Testing Association (ILTA). He was in 2003 the first recipient of a Lifetime Achievement Award presented by the University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate and ILTA. In 2006 he was awarded a Leverhulme Emeritus Fellowship for a study entitledNative Speakers and Native Users.
Describing and Illustrating Quantitative Data
Authors: Kaya Tadayoshi
Published: December 2012

Descriptive statistics, which aim to quantitatively summarize, organize, and visualize data sets, will be explained in detail in this entry. By first dealing with your data descriptively, you will be able to familiarize yourself with them, comprehend them more profoundly, and choose the right statistics to analyze them.
Descriptive Linguistics
Authors: Granath Solveig
Published: December 2012

When people who are not linguists consult a grammar book, it is usually because they want to find out the correct way of expressing something. This is the kind of information many grammars provide. Such grammars are referred to asnormativeorprescriptive, or sometimesteaching grammars, as this kind of grammar is often used in education. The underlying assumption which such grammars are based on is that rules can be established for the correct usage of a language. Descriptive linguistics rejects this notion of correctness: instead of prescribing how somethingought tobe said, it aims to systematically describe a language as fully and objectively as possible. Accordingly, descriptive grammars can be said to provide systematic descriptions of how the various components of language can be combined into sentences and other units of discourse. In sum, the ultimate object of descriptive linguistics is to describe in a non‐judgmental fashion how language is structured.
Descriptive Translation Studies
Authors: Hermans Theo
Published: December 2012

The academic discipline of translation studies is of relatively recent date.
Discourse Analysis in Language Assessment
Authors: Lazaraton Anne
Published: December 2012

When second language (L2) learners take a language test, they are really only interested in one outcome: their scores. Likewise, language testers have been preoccupied with ensuring that these scores, which are the product of the assessment, are reliable and valid. In L2 performance assessment (where L2 learners produce speech or writing for assessment), the primary challenge is to ensure consistent ratings of language. Much work in oral language assessment (the focus of this entry) has been (and continues to be) devoted to ensuring both
inter‐rater reliability
(the degree to which two or more raters agree on scores) and
intra‐rater reliability
(or the degree to which one rater's scores are consistent across language samples and over time). In more recent years, issues of test
validity
(i.e., the process of making inferences from test results; see Messick, 1989; Moss, 1994) have emerged as a central concern for the language assessment community. This is particularly true for L2 speaking tests, where the interests of some scholars have shifted from a focus on rating consistency to the process of speaking assessment itself. That is, what typifies the language that interlocutors produce in speaking tests? And how can descriptions of that language feed into reliable and valid rating of test talk?
Discourse analysis
has proven to be a very promising method for discovering answers to these questions.
Discourse and Cognition
Authors: Jenkins Laura , Potter Jonathan
Published: December 2012

Cognition has been dealt with in discourse research in two distinct ways.
Discourse in Action
Authors: Jones Rodney H.
Published: December 2012

One of the most fundamental issues in discourse studies is understanding the relationship between what we say and write and what we do, that is, the relationship betweendiscourseandaction. Nearly all mainstream approaches to discourse analysis begin with the assumption that discourse itselfisa kind of social action. Conversation analysts, for example, see talk as a matter of “paired action,” genre analysts speak of genres as examples of “communicative actions,” interactional sociolinguists focus on how people strategize discursive actions within an ongoing negotiative process with other social actors, and critical discourse analysts remind us that discourse constitutes and is constitutive of what they call “social practice.”
Discourse Markers
Authors: Fischer Kerstin
Published: December 2012

Discourse markers, comprising items likeyes,well,but,uh,oh, anduh‐huh, are notoriously difficult to define, and the functional spectrum suggested for these items is huge, including functions as diverse as marking discourse boundaries, managing the turn‐taking system, signaling speaker attitude, connecting text segments, and managing repair.
Discourse Versus discourse
Authors: Gee James Paul
Published: December 2012

Discourse analysis is the study of language in use (Fairclough, 1992; Gee, 1999). When we use language to communicate we must signal to our listenerswhowe are (in the sense of what socially meaningful identity or role we are speaking out of) andwhatwe are doing (what action or activity we are attempting to carry out). People talk and act not just as individuals, but as members of various sorts of social and cultural groups associated with different identities. For example, if a policeman says “You should move your car” we need to know if he is speaking in his role as a policeman and ordering us to move the car, or speaking as a helpful fellow citizen giving us advice.
Discriminant Function Analysis
Authors: Ramos Sara Da Silva , Rickard Liow Susan J.
Published: December 2012

Discriminant function analysis (DFA) is a data‐reduction technique used to make decisions about naturally occurring group membership. It can answer theoretical questions but has proved especially useful in applied research. In this entry we begin with an overview of DFA, describing the two types of DFA investigation and its three main procedures, followed by a summary of DFA's potential and its limitations. We then explain the steps needed for interpreting DFA results, and conclude with two recent examples of the use of DFA as a statistical tool in psycholinguistic research.
Dörnyei, Zoltán
Authors: Kormos Judit
Published: December 2012

Zoltán Dörnyei (1960‐ ) has contributed greatly to our understanding of how individual differences affect the outcomes of second and foreign language learning. He is most well known for his work on language‐learning motivation, but his research on communication strategies has also advanced the field of psycholinguistics. He is also the author of two very popular books on research methodology:
Questionnaires in Second Language Research: Construction, Administration, and Processing
(Dörnyei, 2010) and
Research Methods in Applied Linguistics: Quantitative, Qualitative and Mixed Methodologies
(Dörnyei, 2007).
Douglas, Dan
Authors: Cortes Viviana
Published: December 2012

Dan Douglas has made groundbreaking contributions to the study of language for specific purposes (LSP) and language assessment, including his work on the novel exploration of certain specific registers, like the language of aviation, but most importantly with his work on assessment in LSP. His work on assessment focused on analyzing the development of assessment criteria for LSP and on exploring ways to derive these assessment criteria from the sources used to establish LSP test content and methods, that is, the analyses of specific purpose language use situations.
Dudley‐Evans, Tony
Authors: John Maggie Jo St
Published: December 2012

Tony Dudley‐Evans (born Sutton Coldfield, Warwickshire, 1943) is one of the leading figures in the development of English for specific purposes (ESP). He was an influential researcher in genre analysis, coauthor of a number of successful and significant textbooks, an innovator in teaching and research approaches, and editor of an important journal.
Duranti, Alessandro
Authors: Keating Elizabeth
Published: December 2012

Among contemporary linguistic anthropologists, Alessandro Duranti is unique in the breadth of his research and in his interdisciplinary engagement in theorizing relationships between language and culture. His work can be understood as a career‐long interest in human creativity as expressed in linguistic (and other semiotic) forms, and the mediating influence of these forms on culture and social life. His work is highly influenced not only by formal linguistics, but by European and American philosophical and anthropological traditions. His earliest academic work at the University of Rome was on Korean syntax and semantics, but after beginning PhD study in the United States he also became interested in the social life of linguistic forms. These interests were perfectly synthesized in his ethnographic work on the role of grammatical forms in accomplishing social action, for example, how ergative case marking in Samoan could be manipulated by village chiefs and orators to negotiate agency and responsibility, one of many observations about language and culture inFrom Grammar to Politics: Linguistic Anthropology in a Western Samoan Village(Duranti, 1994). Later ethnographic work on the campaign trail in California, a contest for a US Congress seat, is another example of Duranti's approach to language, the video recorded data proving to be a rich source for understanding genre, the collaborative construction of meaning, and the materialization of locally relevant, taken‐for‐granted concepts such as democracy (Duranti, 2003, 2006a). Throughout his work he has developed and expanded his notion of “ethnopragmatics” (Duranti, 1993a, 2007) beyond a focus on the contextual life of language, local communicative practices, and speakers' attitudes, and toward the meaning and impact of those practices to language as an expression and realization of human agency more generally. Duranti is perhaps best known for his work on intentionality, both as it is perceived locally in different world areas, and the role of discursive practices in defining it (Duranti, 1993b, 2006b, 2008a). Most recently he has been reinvestigating the writings of Husserl on phenomenology in order to contribute to perhaps the most challenging anthropological question, understanding intersubjectivity and the limits and nature of sharing the perspective of the “other” (Duranti, 2009, 2010).
Dynamic Assessment in Second Language Acquisition
Authors: Poehner Matthew E.
Published: December 2012

Dynamic assessment (henceforth DA) is a structured approach to interaction in which a teacher or assessor cooperatively engages with learners, helping them extend their performance beyond levels they could reach independently.
Dynamic Systems Theory Approaches to Second Language Acquisition
Authors: Lowie Wander
Published: December 2012

Dynamic systems theory (DST) is a theory of change. Starting in the 1960s, the theory has been used extensively in a wide variety of disciplines, from physics to biology and from meteorology to demography.
Early Bilingualism
Authors: Houwer Annick De
Published: December 2012

Early bilingualism arises when young children start to regularly hear two languages instead of just one. Children may hear these languages from birth, or they may start to hear a second language at a somewhat later age. In the first case, children are going through a process of bilingual first language acquisition or BFLA (Meisel, 1989; De Houwer, 1990, 2009). BFLA children have two first languages, namely Language A (LA) and Language Alpha (Lα), which typically are both spoken to them at home. This notation indicates that BFLA children have no chronologically first or second language. Children who are at first raised with just a single language (Language 1 or L1), and who start to regularly hear a second language (Language 2 or L2) at a later age are going through a process of early second language acquisition or ESLA (De Houwer, 1990, 2009). Typically, ESLA children hear only one language at home (L1), and meet the L2 in a group setting outside the home, such as a daycare center or a preschool. The L1 is usually a minority language.
Ecology and Multilingual Education
Authors: Hult Francis M.
Published: December 2012

Theecology of languagehas its foundation in the work of sociolinguists and linguistic anthropologists in the late 1950s and early 1960s
Edwards, John
Authors: Ladegaard Hans J.
Published: December 2012

John Robert Edwards (b. 1947 in England) was educated at the University of Western Ontario (BA in Psychology) and McGill University (MA and PhD in Psychology).
Ehlich, Konrad
Authors: Thielmann Winfried
Published: December 2012

Konrad Ehlich (1942–) is a German linguist.
Endangered Languages in Australia
Authors: Thieberger Nick
Published: December 2012

Australia has the dubious reputation of being home to many of the world's most endangered languages, and having been the home of many indigenous languages that are no longer spoken.
Teaching English as a Foreign Language in Kindergarten to 12th Grade
Authors: Butler Yuko Goto
Published: December 2012

As English has increasingly gained prominence as a means of global communication, one can find various reforms in English education at the K–12 levels in those regions where English has traditionally been taught as a foreign language (EFL).
English as Lingua Franca
Authors: Meierkord Christiane
Published: December 2012

As Bolton (2000, p. 265) points out, “Today it is something of a cliche that English is a global language.” As such, English is no longer used primarily by speakers for whom English is a native or first language (L1).
English for Business
Authors: Nickerson Catherine
Published: December 2012

English for business is referred to in the academic literature in a number of different ways, including English for business, business English (BE), English for specific business purposes (ESBP), international business English (IBE), and business English as a lingua franca (BELF). English for business can be considered as English for academic purposes (EAP) when it is taught as part of academic training. Many of the research methods used in EAP are also standard in investigating English for business. When English for business is taught in professional business settings, it overlaps with English for occupational purposes. Other areas of research that are relevant to English for business are sociolinguistics, intercultural communication, discourse analysis, and business communication.
English for Occupational Purposes
Authors: Koester Almut
Published: December 2012

English for occupational purposes (EOP) refers to the specific ways English is used in different work and professional situations.
Ethical Debates in Research on Language and Interaction
Authors: Kubanyiova Magdalena
Published: December 2012

When we talk about ethics in applied linguistics research, we typically refer to at least two distinct, albeit interrelated, areas: an ethical conduct in research involving human subjects and the moral ends of our research activity.
Ethics in Language Assessment
Authors: Taylor Lynda
Published: December 2012

The term “ethics” normally refers to a set of accepted beliefs and practices intended to constrain behavior and to promote the common good.
Ethics in Research
Authors: Kono Nariyo
Published: December 2012

In earlier volumes of applied linguistics (Kaplan, 2002; Davies and Elder, 2004) ethics was included as part of the definition and history of research in applied linguistics. As the discipline of applied linguistics research flourishes and applied linguists make strides towards “the resolution of language‐based problems in the real world” (Grabe, 2002, p. 12), its growth has brought to light the natural consequence of research: how we can effectively and ethically conduct our research so that we can make contributions to others and society.
Ethnicity
Authors: Galal Lise Paulsen
Published: December 2012

Ethnicity is a concept denoting difference.
Ethnographic Approaches to Literacy Research
Authors: Barton David
Published: December 2012

In the past 30 years new ethnographic approaches to literacy research have been developed, and a wide range of studies of the role of reading and writing in society have been carried out.
Ethnography of Communication as a Research Perspective
Authors: Smart Graham
Published: December 2012

This entry provides an introduction to the“ethnography of communication” for qualitative researchers interested in possibly adopting the methodology to study the complex interrelationship between language and the sociocultural context of its use within a particular social group.
Factor Analysis
Authors: Sawaki Yasuyo
Published: December 2012

Factor analysis is a multivariate statistical technique developed in the early 20th century.
Family Discourse
Authors: Gordon Cynthia
Published: December 2012

“Family discourse” refers to a diverse area of study that draws on theories and methods of discourse analysis to examine everyday family communication.
First Language Development of Grammar
Authors: Håkansson Gisela
Published: December 2012

How children acquire language, and in particular, grammar, is a question that has intrigued both scholars and parents for centuries. How is it possible that a young child is able to learn such a complex phenomenon as language? This entry will present research on developmental stages in early grammar and how children learn and overgeneralize inflections. Most examples will be taken from English, but some other languages will also be used as examples.
Fishman, Joshua A.
Authors: Aronin Larissa
Published: December 2012

Joshua Aaron Fishman (July 18, 1926– ) is one of the most influential figures in American and world sociolinguistics of the second half of the 20th and of the 21st century. He is the founder of the sociology of language as a separate field of research. As one of the founding figures of sociolinguistics, he has made a substantial contribution as a thinker, editor, and theorist. He influenced several main fields of inquiry: language planning, language revitalization and maintenance, bilingualism and multilingualism, small languages and globalization. Among his 85 books, many monographs, and hundreds of articles and chapters are seminal works on language and ethnicity, language and religion, bilingual education, sociology of Jewish languages, Yiddish, medical anthropology, and test construction.
Fluency
Authors: Foster Pauline
Published: December 2012

Though the term “fluency” may apply equally to the language skills of reading, writing, or listening, it is most commonly applied to speaking.
Focus Groups
Authors: Ho Debbie G. E.
Published: December 2012

In a church meeting room, a group of widows compare their experiences. One woman complains that other people wanted her to stop grieving within six months but that it really takes much longer.
Foreign‐Language Distance Learning Programs
Authors: White Cynthia
Published: December 2012

In foreign‐language programs, learning and teaching have traditionally taken place in close proximity, and at particular points in time.
US Foreign‐Language Teaching in Kindergarten to 12th Grade
Authors: Rosenbusch Marcia Harmon
Published: December 2012

There is growing recognition in the United States that in order to participate fully in the interconnected world, people need the ability to speak other languages and collaborate with other cultures. This recognition is accompanied by a growing awareness that the US educational system must teach students these skills to prepare them for the future.
Forensic Discourse Analysis
Authors: Fadden Lorna
Published: December 2012

Diverse areas of criminal and civil investigation and law have benefited from discourse analysts' research and its practical applications.
Formal and Functional Approaches to Grammar
Authors: Usón Ricardo Mairal
Published: December 2012

Over the past three decades the world of linguistics has been a witness to the controversy between formal and functional models of language.
Formal Models of Bilingual Lexicons
Authors: Tokowicz Natasha , Tuninetti Alba
Published: December 2012

A number of models have been developed to describe the representation and processing of words in a bilingual's two languages.
Formulaic Language and Collocation
Authors: Schmitt Norbert
Published: December 2012

It is now clear that vocabulary typically behaves not as single words which are held together by syntax, but rather has a strong tendency to occur in multiword phraseological units.
Francis, Nelson
Authors: Meyer Charles F.
Published: December 2012

Winthrop Nelson Francis (also known as Nelson Francis) was a renowned historian of the English language, dialectologist, and corpus linguist.
Functional Approaches to Translation
Authors: Nord Christiane
Published: December 2012

Translation studies is still quite a young discipline.
García, Ofelia
Authors: Torres‐Guzmán María E.
Published: December 2012

Ofelia García, Professor in the PhD Program in Urban Education and Hispanic and Luso‐Brazilian Literatures and Languages at the Graduate Center at the City University of New York, is a renowned international scholar in the fields of bilingual and multilingual education, the education of minoritized language groups, language policy, and the sociology of language.
Gee, James
Authors: Randolph Tom
Published: December 2012

James Paul Gee (1948– ) is a preeminent cross‐disciplinary analyst and researcher of human learning.
Gender and Second Language Acquisition
Authors: Menard‐Warwick Julia
Published: December 2012

Research on gender and language learning has generally followed larger trends of gender theory in applied linguistics. Thus, over the past several decades, such research has often been situated within what Cameron (2005) terms thedifferenceparadigm of language and gender research, concerned with overarching linguistic differences between men in general and women in general (in contrast to a more explicitly feministdominanceparadigm, which has researched women's subordination through language).
Genre and Discourse Analysis in Language for Specific Purposes
Authors: Hyland Ken
Published: December 2012

Language for specific purposes (LSP) refers to a distinctive approach to language education that focuses on the particular linguistic features, discourse practices, and communicative skills used by target groups. Its success depends on accurately identifying what these features and practices are so they can be taught to students, and this has been greatly assisted since the late 1980s by the emergence of genre analysis.
Grammar Analysis Techniques
Authors: Crawford William
Published: December 2012

The term grammar, while covering a wide range of topics ranging from the rules that generate phrases and clauses in a given language to the rules of “acceptable” language prescribed in usage books and style manuals, is used in this entry to refer to the structural description of rules that govern the linguistic behavior of a group of speakers.
Grammar and Discourse
Authors: Dontcheva‐Navratilova Olga
Published: December 2012

Grammar and discourse are key notions in linguistic studies, and are associated with two aspects of linguistic analysis.
Grammar and Doctor‐Patient Communication
Authors: Hunt Daniel , Harvey Kevin
Published: December 2012

Many forms of health communication are, principally, realized through spoken interaction.
Grammar and Social Class
Authors: Macaulay Ronald
Published: December 2012

Both terms in this title are problematic. Grammar is sometimes used in a very broad sense, as when Chomsky (1965, p. 4) says that the grammar of a language “purports to be a description of the ideal speaker‐hearer's intrinsic competence.”
Grammar and the Influence of Society and Culture
Authors: Gladkova Anna
Published: December 2012

The influence of society and culture on grammar is studied within two major approaches.
Grammatical Variation in Adolescent Language
Authors: Stenström Anna‐Brita
Published: December 2012

Language change is unavoidable, and affects grammar as well as vocabulary and pronunciation.
Language Attrition
Authors: Ahlsén Elisabeth
Published: December 2012

Language attrition can be defined as a reduction, weakening or loss of a first, second, third, or more language in an individual person or in a community.
Grammar in Language Teaching and Education
Authors: Slater Tammy , Li Jinrong
Published: December 2012

If we were to open up a dictionary and begin reading, it would be obvious that despite our ability to construct meaning from the words on the page, we would not be able to interact with the writing in the same way as we do for other texts.
Grammar in the Law
Authors: Chovanec Jan
Published: December 2012

Legal language is seen as a specialized register, that is, a functionally differentiated variety of language used in certain professional contexts.
Grounded Theory and Qualitative Research
Authors: Dillon Deborah R.
Published: December 2012

“Grounded theory” (GT) is a term used by many researchers to describe a general method of developing theoretical constructs inductively from data sources gathered as part of a qualitative research study.
Halliday, M. A. K.
Authors: Webster Jonathan
Published: December 2012

For over half a century, Professor Michael Alexander Kirkwood (M. A. K.) has been engaged in practicing “appliable” linguistics. Approaching language from the vantage point of meaning and purpose, Halliday provides a theoretical framework, known as systemic functional linguistics (SFL), for dealing with questions about how and why we come to use language as we do for being and becoming who we are.
Hasan, Ruqaiya
Authors: Lukin Annabelle , Williams Geoff
Published: December 2012

For the field of applied linguistics, language must first and foremost be considered as it functions in the exchange of meanings.
Health‐Care, Medical, and Mental Health Interpreting
Authors: Angelelli Claudia V.
Published: December 2012

Health‐care interpreting occurs between users and providers of health‐care services (including mental health) who do not share the same language.
Heritage and Community Languages
Authors: Wliley Terrence G.
Published: December 2012

The expressions
heritage
and
community
languages generally refer to minority languages used in countries where there are dominant or official languages that have greater status and/or numerical dominance.
High‐Stakes Language Testing
Authors: Kunnan Antony John
Published: December 2012

Whether a test is considered high stakes or not depends not on the testing instrument per se but whether the test is used as the main basis for decision making for a major career path or life changing event.
Historical Development of Language for Specific Purposes
Authors: Starfield Sue
Published: December 2012

Learning and teaching a language for specific rather than general purposes is an approach that began to develop after World War II and has shown continued growth since then, both theoretically and methodologically.
Historiography
Authors: Matsuda Paul Kei
Published: December 2012

Historiography is the methodology for historical research.
History of Language Teaching Methods
Authors: Hilgendorf Suzanne K.
Published: December 2012

Language teaching methods refers to the set of teaching practices, approaches, and materials used by instructors to facilitate foreign‐language (FL) learning. Throughout history, methods have responded to the changing goals of language learning, for example, communicating with foreign trade partners, supporting missionary efforts to spread religion, reading academic scholarship and sacred texts, or, most recently, facilitating interaction on transnational and global levels. Language teaching methods therefore have prioritized different skills, for example, listening comprehension, speaking, reading, and writing, given the needs of learners and the values of societies. Various theoretical understandings of second language acquisition (SLA) and FL pedagogy have further informed teaching methods. In particular, new research developments, emphases, and trends in the related disciplines of linguistics, literature studies, education, and psychology have shaped thinking on the most effective ways to teach FLs.
History of Multilingualism
Authors: Franceschini Rita
Published: December 2012

Multilingualism is a human potentiality which can be developed when circumstances permit it anywhere and at any time throughout human evolution: Sporadic or prolonged language contact between populations through cohabitation, trade, intermarriage, conquest, exploration, travel, or shared interests raises the desire or need for exchange.
House,Juliane
Authors: Blum‐Kulka Shoshana
Published: December 2012

Juliane House is emerita professor of Applied Linguistics and senior member of the German Science Foundation's Research Center on Multilingualism.
Hyland, Ken
Authors: Dueñas Pilar Mur
Published: December 2012

Ken Hyland (b. 1951), a well‐known and frequently cited scholar in English for academic purposes (EAP) research, has contributed significantly to his field by putting forward comprehensive and well‐structured analytical frameworks.
Identities and Language Teaching in Classrooms
Authors: Dagenais Diane
Published: December 2012

What is the relationship between learners' identities and their language‐learning experiences? How are identities constructed in language classrooms and what does this imply for students and teachers? Over the last decade, applied linguists have paid increasing attention to questions such as these, as have scholars in such related fields as second language acquisition (SLA), language education, and sociolinguistics. Studies examining the links between learner identities and language‐learning contexts have revealed that the ways learners define themselves, are defined by others, and are positioned in social interaction have an observable impact on their learning experiences. This body of scholarship has contributed to advancing new theoretical insights on identity construction in language‐learning situations.
Identity and Second Language Acquisition
Authors: Norton Bonny
Published: December 2012

To understand the vibrant and increasing interest in identity and second language acquisition (SLA), it is important to understand changing conceptions of the individual, language, and learning in the field. Each of these areas is associated with broader trends in the social sciences, which represent a shift in the field from a predominantly psycholinguistic approach to SLA to include a greater focus on sociological and anthropological dimensions of language learning, particularly with reference to sociocultural, poststructural, and critical theory (Norton & Toohey, 2001; Block, 2007b; Morgan, 2007). SLA researchers who are interested in identity are interested not only in linguistic input and output in SLA, but in the relationship between the language learner and the larger social world. They question the view that learners can be defined in binary terms as motivated or unmotivated, introverted or extroverted, without considering that such affective factors are frequently socially constructed, changing across time and space, and possibly coexisting in contradictory ways within a single individual. These researchers have examined the diverse social, historical, and cultural contexts in which language learning takes place, and how learners negotiate and sometimes resist the diverse positions those contexts offer them.
Imaginary Words
Authors: Meara Paul
Published: December 2012

Imaginary words—sometimes also called pseudo‐words, nonsense words, or nonce words—are strings of letters which resemble real words but do not actually exist as words in a specific language. Thus, ‘shern’ is a plausible letter string for English, but does not appear as a word in any of the standard dictionaries.
Incidental Vocabulary Acquisition
Authors: Rott Susanne
Published: December 2012

Incidental vocabulary acquisition is generally described as the “picking up” of new words when students are engaged in a reading, listening, speaking, or writing task. That is, incidental acquisition refers to the absence of the conscious intention to commit a word to memory.
Individual Differences in the Classroom
Authors: Murphey Tim , Falout Joseph
Published: December 2012

Individual differences (IDs) is the notion that each individual person comprises a unique combination of aspects that might determine learning outcomes.
Inference
Authors: Brown James Dean
Published: December 2012

An
inference
is a conclusion or implication that results from examining evidence or using logic, and
inferring
is the process that leads from the evidence or logic (or both of these) to the conclusion or implication.
Inference and Implicature
Authors: Haugh Michael
Published: December 2012

An implicature is a type of speaker meaning that goes beyond what is literally said. Inference, in contrast, refers to the cognitive processes by which participants figure out meaning beyond what is said. Consider the following conversation:
Information Structure
Authors: Gundel Jeanette
Published: December 2012

Natural languages offer speakers a variety of options for expressing the same basic informational content.
Innovation in Language Teaching and Learning
Authors: Carless David
Published: December 2012

The study of innovation in language education began to generate particular interest only from the 1980s onwards, with important early contributions including Kennedy (1988) from a UK perspective and Henrichsen (1989) from a US one.
Input Processing in Second Language Acquisition
Authors: Carroll Susanne E.
Published: December 2012

Language acquisitionrequires analysis of speech and text used around us. This entails that weprocess input, that is, we perceive, classify, and understand verbal stimuli. A model of language processing is shown in (1).