bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Lockean Ideas, Overview and Foundations
Authors: Bennett Jonathan
Published: October 2003

Locke had no clear metaphysic of ideas. Ideas ought not to be reified, but Locke sometimes did this. In this chapter, ideas are presented as tropes. Locke put ideas to work in perceiving and imagining, thinking, meaning, a priori knowledge, and classifying. Different ways in which an idea might represent something is discussed.
Lockean Ideas, Some Details
Authors: Bennett Jonathan
Published: October 2003

Lockean ideas (especially complex ones) are sometimes regarded as images, sometimes not, especially when Locke grants them logical structure. His two accounts of abstract ideas, Berkeley's attacks on them, and Hume's variant on one of those attacks is covered. How ideas relate to concepts in Locke's thought and his strong tendency to identify ideas with qualities is also described.
Locke on Essences
Authors: Bennett Jonathan
Published: October 2003

Carries an exposition and defence of Locke's view that no individual has, per se, any essential qualities. His views about the essences of kinds—nominal and real—is given. He connected nominal essences with meanings, but Leibniz and Kripke showed that meanings involve real essences as well. Locke's unstable view about how essences relate to universals is also dealt with.
Substance in Locke
Authors: Bennett Jonathan
Published: October 2003

Locke wrote both scornfully and acceptingly about the thought of ‘substance’, understood as the substratum of all qualities. This is because he was trying to talk about the notion of a thing; he thought we could not do without the ‘thing’ thought, but that it could not satisfy his own theory about how a general word comes to have a meaning. The chapter shows how he could have avoided the second horn of this dilemma; it also discusses Ayers's rival interpretation of the texts on substratum.
Berkeley Against Materialism
Authors: Bennett Jonathan
Published: October 2003

Given the foundationalism that they all shared, Descartes, Locke, and Berkeley all had a problem about evidence for the existence of matter. Unlike the other two, Berkeley said that there is no evidence for it: he rejected the thesis that there is matter as being contrary to common sense, not supported by evidence, certainly false, and conceptually defective. Locke's tendency to identify qualities with ideas becomes firm, open theory for Berkeley, and has much to do with his case for immaterialism.
Berkeley on Spirits
Authors: Bennett Jonathan
Published: October 2003

For Berkeley, a spirit is a substance, understood in the substratum way that he attacked where material substances are in question. He opposed solipsism, as did Descartes and Locke, on the grounds that some of his ideas came to him unbidden and were therefore caused by external things. Holding (as Reid did) the puzzling view that only spirits can be causes, Berkeley concludes that there are spirits other than himself; his conclusion that there are other finite spirits is not well argued for. Berkeley is committed to holding that the only events a spirit can cause are the beginnings of ideas within itself; he has no basis for holding—and only thinly and intermittently does hold—that we cause the movements of our bodies.
Berkeleian Sensible Things
Authors: Bennett Jonathan
Published: October 2003

Berkeley's proposal that a sensible thing is a collection of ideas is not well thought out: it is supposed to license the saying that one can perceive a house (say); but one does not perceive the collection, only a part of it. Evidence is given that Berkeley did not care much for this topic: his more considered view was that the messy talk of ‘the vulgar’ about houses, trees etc. was not worth careful salvage. He cared little about the continuity of sensible things, and did not seriously argue that God must exist to perceive things when we do not. His immaterialism is a form of idealism, with only faint signs of phenomenalism; reasons are given here why he did not take the phenomenalist route whole‐heartedly.
Hume's ‘Ideas’
Authors: Bennett Jonathan
Published: October 2003

Contains remarks on the kind of philosopher Hume was; the subtle interplay in his work between logical analysis and naturalistic psychology. His distinction between ideas and impressions; his attempt to use it to differentiate experiencing from remembering, both from thinking or imagining and his account of memory are described. His ‘copy thesis’ says that every (1) simple idea is (2) copied from (3) an earlier impression; a defence is given here for reconstruing it as saying that every (1) word that cannot be verbally defined must be (2) explicable in terms of its bearing upon (3) experience of the objective world.
Hume and Belief
Authors: Bennett Jonathan
Published: October 2003

Locke discusses the formation of propositional thoughts, but takes for granted the difference between thinking P and believing that P. Hume does the reverse: theorizes about belief, while helping himself to propositional thoughts. He rightly holds that wondering does not differ from believing in propositional content; the only difference he can find is in how vivaciously the relevant propositional idea occurs in the person's mind. This is a bad account of belief, though there is much instructive philosophy in Hume's arguments for it.
Some Humean Doctrine About Relations
Authors: Bennett Jonathan
Published: October 2003

Within the genus of (philosophical) relations, Hume distinguishes a species of ‘natural’ relations: resemblance, contiguity in time and place, and causation. His doctrine of the association of ideas involves causation: an idea will be apt to cause the mind to have another idea that relates in a certain way to the first idea. Complexities within this doctrine are teased apart. Hume's extremely strange section entitled ‘Knowledge’, in which he theorizes about seven kinds of relations, is explained.
Hume on Causation, Negatively
Authors: Bennett Jonathan
Published: October 2003

Hume argues that we have no idea of a necessitating tie between any pair of events, and no basis for conjecturing—as Locke did—that such a tie exists. In the course of discussing this, he says he will ‘beat about the neighbouring fields’ and discuss the question of what is going on when we infer effects from causes, and the question of why we think it necessary that every event has a cause. The former question is directly linked to his own positive views on causation; the latter is not. Hume argues that there is no real causal necessity from the premise (shared with Descartes) that no state of the world absolutely necessitates any subsequent state. His reasons for tying causal necessity to absolute necessity are explained and defended.
Hume on Causation, Positively
Authors: Bennett Jonathan
Published: October 2003

Hume's best account of causation says that when we make causal judgements, we express our inclination to conduct a certain inference, and that we are caused to have this inclination by patterns in our past experience. The account becomes untenable, and even absurd, when Hume tries to supply an impression from which an idea of necessity might be copied, and fixes on our feeling (impression) of being compelled to have a certain expectation. Discussion of the view that Hume was a realist about causal necessity, and merely held that we cannot have any knowledge of it is also expressed.
Reason
Authors: Bennett Jonathan
Published: October 2003

Hume shares many philosophical opinions with Spinoza, including the view that there is no sharp radical intellectual difference in kind between humans and other animals. His account of reason's role in demonstrative reasoning is unstable and unclear: it involves a compulsion on the thinker's part, but not a compulsion to believe the conclusion. He offers a sceptical attack on reason—fighting it with its own weapons—purporting to show that none of its deliverances has any probative force whatsoever. In fact, it fails in two ways to secure this sceptical result. Hume, who thinks it does succeed, says that nevertheless nobody will be affected for long by that result; and he takes this as evidence of the robustness of human nature.
Locke on Diachronic Identity‐Judgements
Authors: Bennett Jonathan
Published: October 2003

Locke's great chapter on identity and diversity starts with an account of what it is for a single atom to last through time, then a single mass of matter, a single organism (including a single man), and finally a single person. The core of personal identity, he says, lies in a connectedness of ‘consciousness’, which seems to consist mainly in memory‐links. His conditions for identity are in one way too strong, in another too weak; but the account is enormously instructive. So is his thesis that person is a forensic concept, and that it would be, though possible, unjust for God to allow one person to be constituted successively out of several substances.
Hume and Leibniz on Personal Identity
Authors: Bennett Jonathan
Published: October 2003

Hume's section ‘Of Personal Identity’ owes its shape to Locke's, and Hume evidently wants to capture and explain any of Locke's results that he thinks are true. Where Locke argues from conceptual intuitions about possible cases, Hume argues from high theory. He holds that all diachronic identity‐statements are, strictly speaking, false; but he has a theory about which of them will pass muster as truths in everyday life; and this, he thinks, enables him to predict which judgements of personal identity we will accept and which we will not. He recants his entire account in an appendix to the Treatise, for a cryptically expressed reason that seems to be valid. In Hume's view, there are strictly no persons, but what passes for persons in everyday life are sequences of perceptions, united in certain ways. Leibniz's main account of what a substance is is strikingly similar to that; likenesses and differences are teased out.
A History of the Churches in Australasia
Authors: Breward Ian
Published: October 2003

Distinctive forms of Christianity have emerged in Australia, New Zealand, and the Pacific Islands since the late eighteenth century. With European and North American roots, they have successfully intermixed with local cultures, despite the influence of the colonizing powers and their missionaries. Pacific Island Christians, both the Melanesians and the Polynesians, have successfully retained a unitive religion and social order, though that was much less possible for Aborigines, Kanaks and Maori, because they were so outnumbered by their colonizers. Protestantism and Roman Catholicism have been the dominant forms of Christianity, though Orthodoxy has been significant in Australia since the 1950s. In two centuries, significant changes have occurred in worship, theology, and patterns of discipleship, as well as in relationships with government and in the public face of religion. Since the 1960s, there has been a major decline of numbers attending worship and professing denomination allegiance, especially in the under 40s. Widening roles for women, including ordination, ecumenical cooperation, reunion, a growing emphasis on social justice, and liberalized views on sexuality, marriage, and parenting have been divisive and underlined Christian pluralism. Migration has brought all the major world religions to Australia. The churches have continued to be major partners with governments in education, the social services, as well as the economy, with members contributing substantially to philanthropy, voluntary community service, and civil society.
From Missions to Churches
Authors: Breward Ian
Published: October 2003

British and French missions and colonization were closely related. The pace of Christianization varied, for Pacific Islanders and Aborigines were not just passive recipients, but actively sought advantages from conversion and formed adjustment cults. As migration increased, settler churches were formed. Lay participation was stronger than in their homelands. Resistance to the principle of establishment was considerable, though government subsidies to churches were important in certain Australian colonies.
Organizing Christian Churches from the 1830S to the 1870s
Authors: Breward Ian
Published: October 2003

Denominations played an important part in the construction of colonial societies. Colonial education, health care, social welfare, the press, philanthropy, and politics were all shaped by Christian influences. Sectarianism was a distorting factor throughout the region, but was used by some Melanesians and Polynesians to their own advantage. Islanders created their own kinds of Christian society, while settler churches established new kinds of governance and ministry to cope with the constraints of distance and isolation.
The Making of Christian Societies
Authors: Breward Ian
Published: October 2003

Visions of a Christian society in the South Pacific varied within Protestantism, as well as between Protestants and Roman Catholics. Some settlers argued for a secular society, as distinct from one without religious tests or an established church. Primary education was the main area of disagreement, with secular systems established in most colonies by the 1870s, leaving Roman Catholics and Lutherans to finance their own schools. Pressures for political and religious cooperation were strong, leading to Methodist and Presbyterian unions and federation of the Australian colonies. Land wars in New Zealand and New Caledonia left a bitter legacy.
New Opportunities for Mission and Service
Authors: Breward Ian
Published: October 2003

Missionary expansion and consolidation continued, with French and German missions joining British ones in Melanesia and Papua New Guinea. Aboriginal missions were recommenced in Northern Australia. Hundreds of Pacific Islanders were a vital part of this missionary expansion, demonstrating the strength of their churches. Colonial denominations reflected the energies and tensions of their parent bodies in their response to urbanization, doctorial and intellectual challenges, as well as the constant pressures of settlement expansion
Wars and Depression
Authors: Breward Ian
Published: October 2003

The two World Wars profoundly affected the region and its churches, as did the consequences of the great Depression of the 1920s and 1930s. Sectarianism began to decline, but Protestant and Roman Catholic subcultures were still very influential. Protestant denominational commitment was slowly declining and various remedies were offered to regain credibility, some of which were divisive, like Socialism and Liberalism. Pacific Island churches were breaking out of their missionary structures, just as some women were rejecting their exclusion from government and leadership in the churches.
Creating New Societies
Authors: Breward Ian
Published: October 2003

The 1950s and 1960s were a time of great expansion and optimism for the churches of the region. New kinds of architecture, education, theology, and music reflected economic and social changes that were creating a climate of pluralism and individuality, reinforced by the coming of television and the expansion of secondary and university education.

Vatican II and Protestant ecumenism and the roles of women changed church relations and Pentecostalism helped to reshape worship and piety. Pacific Island churches became self‐governing, as did their island groups, while adjustment cults underlined the religious creativity of Melanisians.
Searching for Credibility
Authors: Breward Ian
Published: October 2003

The latter part of the twentieth century was marked by an increasingly diverse set of religious answers to the questioning of traditional forms of Christianity. Disputes over the role of women, family, and sexuality were very divisive. Attendance at worship and involvement fell dramatically, while interest in alternative forms of spirituality increased, military coups and civil wars in the once‐stable Pacific Islands were reminders of the fragility of apparently Christian societies and the limitations of their churches. Yet the partnership of government and churches in education, health care, and social welfare had never been stronger. Nor had ecumenism.
Conclusion
Authors: Breward Ian
Published: October 2003

Roman Catholicism emerged as the largest denomination in the region, while Protestant dominance was seriously weakened by a variety of factors. The 1960s and 1970s were a time of significant transition and modernization. Migration brought the great world religions to the region, along with multiculturalism, challenging the exclusive faith claims of the churches. Regional Christianity has developed distinctive features of toleration, compassion, concern for social justice, missionary energy and a democratic spirit.
The Book Called Isaiah
Authors: Williamson H. G. M.
Published: October 2003

The book analyses and assesses the various methods and approaches used by nineteenth‐ and twentieth‐century scholars researching into the theme of the unity and diversity of the compositional structure of the Old Testament book of Isaiah. It considers the differences between the traditional, historical–critical, form of Old Testament study and the more modern, post‐critical literary reading, and argues that a more intensive application of the traditional methods would be of great value in studying the unity of the book of Isaiah and in interpreting its message. Focusing on one particular phase in the composition of Isaiah and on the relationship of the central section, known as ‘Deutero‐Isaiah’, to the other parts of the book and to other Old Testament writings, it investigates the literary influences on Deutero‐Isaiah and analyses his subsequent editorial contribution to the continuing prophecy of the judgement and salvation of Israel, thereby reinforcing the argument that critical analysis must precede interpretation.
Recent Study of the Book Called Isaiah
Authors: Williamson H. G. M.
Published: October 2003

Opens with a presentation of the main theories on the multiple authorship of the book named after the eighth‐century b.c. Judaean prophet Isaiah. Sets out the theories of Döderlein and Duhm on the book's three major historical and compositional sections, known as Proto‐, Deutero‐ and Trito‐Isaiah, and considers the significance of multiple authorship for the validity of the book's predictive prophecy. It then presents a ‘selective but representative’ review of academic research into the process of combination into a single book and into the historical and compositional relationship of Deutero‐Isaiah to Proto‐Isaiah, classifies the different approaches to the ‘modern period of study of the “unity” of Isaiah’ from the 1980s onwards, and ends by considering whether or not tracing the history of the book's composition can result in an adequate understanding of its present form.
Isaiah Chapter 6
Authors: Williamson H. G. M.
Published: October 2003

This chapter uses a detailed analysis of the account of Isaiah of Jerusalem's vision and commissioning in Ch. 6 as the basis for an investigation of the literary and historical relationship between Proto‐ and Deutero‐Isaiah. It discusses the work of scholars such as C.F. Whitley and O. Kaiser on establishing a date for this chapter and examining its links with the Deuteronomic concept of prophecy, and considers key linguistic elements that appear to have influenced the later Isaiah tradition, with reference to the work of R.E. Clements.
On Writing and Witnesses
Authors: Williamson H. G. M.
Published: October 2003

Investigates Deutero‐Isaiah's reasons for using more themes, images, and styles of expression from an earlier version of the Book of Isaiah than from any other Old Testament writing and considers the light shed by this on an understanding of the overall composition of the book. Discusses Isaiah of Jerusalem's references to the writing down of his message and his employment of witnesses and assesses the impact of these passages on Deutero‐Isaiah's understanding and description of his own continuation of the prophet's ‘ministry within the unfolding purposes of God’.
Deutero‐Isaiah and Isaiah 2–12
Authors: Williamson H. G. M.
Published: October 2003

Examines the evidence as to whether or not Deutero‐Isaiah made any editorial contribution to the original Proto‐Isaiah text that he was continuing, focusing on a textual analysis of Chs. 2–12 and parallel elements in Chs. 40–55, and concludes from a comparison of theme and vocabulary that Deutero‐Isaiah could have written specific sections of Proto‐Isaiah as part of his post‐exilic redaction of the book.
Deutero‐Isaiah and Isaiah 28–39
Authors: Williamson H. G. M.
Published: October 2003

Considers the content and historical background of Isaiah Chs. 28–39, which describe political events from the time of Isaiah of Jerusalem and include the so‐called ‘woe!’ oracles. Assesses evidence for the dating of these chapters and discusses research by scholars including P.R. Ackroyd, K.A.D. Smelik, J.W. Groves and E.W. Conrad into the literary links between this section and earlier chapters of the book and the reasons for its present positioning in the book of Isaiah. Compares Chs. 36–39 with 2 Kings 18–20, considering their relevance to the investigation of literary dependence in the versions of Isaiah, and continues the examination of evidence for Deutero‐Isaianic intervention and its effect on the overall composition of the book.
The Incarnational Narrative and the Problem of Its Historicity
Authors: Evans C. Stephen
Published: October 2003

Though there are many historical narratives in the Bible that are significant for Christians, orthodox Christian faith has traditionally understood itself as rooted supremely in the life, death and resurrection of a historical person, Jesus of Nazareth, and it has seemed to many Christians that the Christian faith could not survive if Jesus did not live, die and rise from the dead. This story of Jesus the author calls ‘the incarnational narrative’ – the story of Jesus of Nazareth taken from the New Testament as a whole, as that story has traditionally been told by the Christian Church. Thus understood it is not a story about a mere human being, but an account of Jesus as the Son of God, a unique, divine person. The book examines the truth of this incarnational narrative, and this introductory chapter introduces the concept, discusses why the historicity of the narrative is important, why belief in the narrative has become difficult (in particular the challenge posed to its historicity posed by Enlightenment epistemology and metaphysics), and the post-modern intellectual situation – the collapse of the metaphysical and epistemological assumptions of the Enlightenment. Finally the chapter gives an outline of the structure of the book.
Why the Events Matter: 1. History, Meaning, and Myth
Authors: Evans C. Stephen
Published: October 2003

The English term ‘history’ can refer to an actual series of events, and also to the narrative or account constructed about those events; in looking at the links between Christian faith and the historical character of its founding narrative, it is crucial to distinguish these two senses of history and the different kinds of problems related to each. This chapter and the next address the question of why it matters that the events actually occurred: a question that is entirely distinct from the question of whether the events did in fact occur. Regardless of the answer to the factual question, an examination can be made of the significance the events would have had if they had occurred, and the cost that might have to be paid if belief in the historicity of the narrative had to be abandoned. The previous chapter distinguished two strategies for divorcing the religious meaning of the narrative from its historicity: the rationalist/moralist option and the romantic/existentialist option. Both claim that the religious functions of the narrative are independent of whether the events actually occurred, and to this end both sometimes characterize the narratives as mythical or at least as containing mythical elements. This chapter looks at the complex set of questions that are raised by the category of ‘myth’ in sections that address: the senses of myth; Søren Kierkegaard versus C. S. Lewis on Christianity and myth; the uniqueness versus the mythical character of the Gospel story; demythologizing and remythologizing the incarnational narrative; the essential historicity of the Gospel; and the appeal of the non-historical myth.
Is the Incarnation Logically Possible?
Authors: Evans C. Stephen
Published: October 2003

Previous chapters have argued that the historicity of the incarnational narrative matters and makes sense from various viewpoints, but none of these arguments has much weight if the events did not occur, or, if they did, it is impossible for us to have knowledge (or at least justified true belief) of them. If either of those conditions hold, then it would appear either that Christianity should be rejected, or that peace be made with the loss of the historicity of the narrative. To show that it is unnecessary to take either of these options it needs to be shown that the events did occur and that we can know or justifiably believe that they did occur; for practical purposes, these two tasks cannot be sharply distinguished. Showing that such knowledge is possible is not easy, and there are also substantial arguments that such knowledge is not even possible, several of which centre around the notion of special acts of God in history. The other type of argument against the possibility of such knowledge that is considered in this chapter, rests on the claim that the fundamental concept embedded in the narrative is logically incoherent. If the incarnational narrative embodies logical contradictions at central points then it cannot be a true, historical account. The defender of knowledge of the incarnational narrative must show that the narrative is logically coherent when considered in the traditional ontological manner, or at least that we are justified in believing that is coherent.
Epistemology and the Ethics of Belief
Authors: Evans C. Stephen
Published: October 2003

The last three chapters have argued that there is no good reasons to doubt the possible historical truth and knowability of the incarnational narrative, but these arguments have been negative in character, with the aim of showing only that it is possible to have knowledge of such a narrative. This chapter looks at the positive accounts that might be given of how such knowledge could be actual, and to do this turns to some basic epistemological questions. It was suggested in the first chapter that one of the factors that created difficulties for the historicity of the incarnational narrative was the widespread embracement of Enlightenment epistemological thinking: the epistemologies of modernity. To have a real chance of surmounting the difficulties some sense is needed of what problems there are with the epistemologies of modernity, and what viable options there are today for understanding knowledge and reasonable belief; these issues are enormously complex, so an outline, rather than a comprehensive defence, is presented of the epistemological perspective. The different sections of the chapter are: the task of epistemology; classical foundationalism; realism and anti-realism; knowledge, justification, and warrant; externalism and internalism; foundationalism and coherentism; and epistemological virtues.
The Incarnational Narrative as Historical: Grounds for Belief
Authors: Evans C. Stephen
Published: October 2003

The last chapter looked at two-stage evidentialist apologetics, and examined some of the problems that face this approach to the incarnational narrative. Although it was argued that these problems do not mean that an evidentialist argument cannot be effective, they do provide good reason to examine an alternative theological account, one that lays stress on our knowledge of the historical Jesus as made possible through the internal testimony of the Holy Spirit, and makes evidence less central to the story. This alternative to the standard apologetic approach to incarnational knowledge is called here the Reformed account, since it is seen most clearly and prominently in the works of Protestant, and especially Reformed, theologians. For Reformed thinkers the historical knowledge that can be part of saving faith is derived from the Bible, and thus, the question of how we have such knowledge is basically the question of how we can know the Bible is the reliable revelation from God it is claimed to be by the Church; the Reformed creeds assert unanimously that this knowledge is due to the witness of the Holy Spirit in our hearts. The different sections of the chapter are: the Reformed emphasis on the testimony of the Holy Spirit; the epistemology of the Reformed account; epistemology supernaturalized; how can one know that a belief has a truth-conducive ground?; criteria for recognizing the work of the spirit; and, problems with the Reformed account.
Conclusions: Deeper Encounters With Historical Scholarship and Prospects for Apologetics
Authors: Evans C. Stephen
Published: October 2003

This concluding chapter continues the ‘case study’ of ‘James’, a young man raised in a non-Christian home who is converted to Christianity but subsequently exposed to sceptical claims about the incarnational narrative of the New Testament. A number of possible responses that James could make to the sceptical claims are considered, looking at the case in which James himself is able to carry out a deeper investigation of the problems by devoting some serious study to contemporary historical scholarship concerning the story of Jesus. Such an examination can be undertaken at many different levels, and at some levels, a great amount of preliminary knowledge is required in order to be competent to form critical judgements. The situation is investigated by imagining various levels of study on the part of James. These are (in order of increasing level): a review of the conclusions of important scholars; an examination of the criteria of authenticity employed by many New Testament scholars, and the uncertainty that may emerge from this; other, deeper reasons for doubts about critical historical scholarship (philosophical and literary assumptions); the problem of biblical historical critics as an interpretative (rather than an objective) community; and apologetics (old and new).
Biblical Interpretation in Ancient Israel
Authors: Fishbane Michael
Published: October 2003

The interpretation of authoritative texts is a characteristic feature of the classical religions. In this regard, the Hebrew Bible is a fundamental source for religious exegesis in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. This book investigates, in a comprehensive manner, the origins of such Scriptural interpretation within the Hebrew Bible itself. Of crucial importance is the development of a method, in order to isolate and analyse the exegetical features found (explicitly and implicitly) within this text. The terms traditum (or body of tradition) and traditio (or transmission) are introduced, and the hermeneutical dialectic between a corpus of authoritative materials and its ongoing reception is spelt out.
Lexical and Explicative Comments
Authors: Fishbane Michael
Published: October 2003

A typology of lexical and explicative comments within the Hebrew Bible is presented with diverse examples. Among these is the explicit formulaic use of deictic elements (like ‘that is’; or ‘this means’) followed by a clarifying feature. These are used to explicate unclear or antiquated terms, as well as ambiguities of terms and phrasing, in the biblical sources. Various implicit clarifications, without deictic elements, are noted. A detailed method is established to show this phenomenon, in particular, the comparison of related formulations and texts in different parts of the Hebrew Bible. Use is also made of the various versions of Scriptures (like the Septuagint and Samaritan Pentateuch), as well as the Qumran manuscripts.
Legal Exegesis With Verbatim, Paraphrastic, or Pseudocitations in Historical Sources
Authors: Fishbane Michael
Published: October 2003

Focus on the meaning and application of the law in the late historical sources (like the books of Kings, Chronicles, and Nehemiah). A method is developed to isolate verbatim, paraphrastic, and pseudo‐citation in these texts, with attention to explicit technical terms. Exegesis helps apply the law, give its clarity and comprehensive scope, and include or exclude various groups from the ritual community. In various instances, the interpretation reapply or clarify older pentateuchal rules that are ambiguous, incomplete, or contradictory. The cultural force of legal interpretation to define actions, communal involvement, and identity is noted; equally important is the role of exegesis in harmonizing sources.
Introduction. Preliminary Considerations
Authors: Fishbane Michael
Published: October 2003

Opens with some preliminary considerations of what is called ‘aggadic exegesis’. This category encompasses that varieties of reinterpretation in the Hebrew Bible that deals with theological, sapiential (or wisdom), and historical topics. It thus treats such matters as the theological or ethical reinterpretation of laws; the reuse of the divine attributes of mercy in various genres of Scripture; or the reconsideration of theological topics like vicarious punishment and human responsibility. Explicit formulary and overall matters of method are considered.
Aggadic Exegesis of Legal Traditions in the Prophetic Literature
Authors: Fishbane Michael
Published: October 2003

Takes up the topic of the aggadic exegesis of legal traditions in the prophetic literature. The relationship between the law and the prophets and the issue of explicit and implicit reuses of the legal material by the prophets is dealt with. Among the categories treated, with detailed examples, are the exegesis (in the prophets) of cultic laws, with and without formulas of citation and comparison; and the exegesis of civil laws, with and without formulas of citation and comparison. A broad range of bold interpretations are considered, showing the knowledge by the prophets of various legal materials, and the modes and types of their theological reapplication.
Aggadic Exegesis in the Historiographical Literature
Authors: Fishbane Michael
Published: October 2003

Treats the topic of aggadic exegesis in the historiographical literature, notably the books of Samuel‐Kings and Chronicles. A broad range of theological topics are considered. Among these are the various reinterpretations and reuses of the notion of Torah; new theological explanations of problematic topics (e.g. dealing with divine wrath; or apparent human ritual fault); new understandings of the theological background of historical events; and also attempts to locate the historical event of certain psalms, through complex linguistic correlations. Altogether, it shows later historians to be active and involved readers of the earlier traditions, and with an active concern to ‘set the record straight’ by deft amendment or clarification or revision of issues.
Conclusions
Authors: Fishbane Michael
Published: October 2003

Provides a wide‐ranging conclusion to this part. It considers the various genres and types of inner‐biblical aggadic exegesis; the dynamics and implications of traditum and traditio involved; and the methods and modalities of cultural retrieval and transformation. Of particular note is the emergence of a ‘canonical consciousness’, whereby topics of various sorts from various genres are taken up and revised by later teachers and tridents: A new sense of the pastness of the past; of the reuse of the past for analogies and correlations; and the transformations in the meaning of Torah. A classification of aggadic form, technique, and logic are provided, giving insight into the emergent exegetical mind of ancient Israelite culture; similarly, there is an extended treatment of the types of rhetorical treatment involved, giving insight into types of spiritualization and nomicization of content. The ‘voice’ of instruction is considered (direct, personal, pseudepigraphic), as well as the cultural implications (and anticipations of early Jewish aggadic exegesis).
The Mantological Exegesis of Oracles
Authors: Fishbane Michael
Published: October 2003

Deals with the mantological exegesis of oracles (or prophecies) in ancient Israel. A method is presented for the isolation of these exegetical traditions; as in early chapters, central is the recognition of technical terms and of close comparison of parallel material. The analyses break down into two broad categories: the first of these treats the phenomenon of non‐transformative exegesis, where the language of the oracle is explicated or clarified, and hidden codes revealed; the second deals with transformative exegesis, where the terms or meaning of the oracle is re‐adapted, reapplied, or revised—all in accord with new understandings of the proper intent and purpose of the oracle. Thus, vague or imprecise predictions are specified for new times (like the ongoing revisions of Jeremiah's 70‐year oracle), and earlier material are reused in new theological ways (like the way early material in the book of Isaiah is reused in the later strata).
Generic Transformations
Authors: Fishbane Michael
Published: October 2003

Deals with various generic transformations. One section deals with the transformation of non‐oracles into oracles (e.g. original curses are transformed into oracles; and blessings are changed into oracles); a second one deals with the transformation of oracles into non‐oracles.
Conclusions
Authors: Fishbane Michael
Published: October 2003

Deals with conclusions to this part, taking up such matters as genre and mantic type; and esoteric and exoteric exegesis. The bearing of mantological exegesis on the issue of revelation is considered, along with broad considerations of the topic of traditum and traditio. Such matters as the socio‐historical context of mantological exegesis, as well as the literary context and mental matrix of this phenomenon are all dealt with.

Epilogue:

Returns to several topics considered in the opening introduction, such as the nature of an exegetical culture, or ongoing chains of native ancient Israelite tradition, and the emergence of classes and techniques to interpret the received traditions of various types. Some final considerations are added on the following topics: innovative and continuous revelations; pseudonymous and pseudepigraphic exegesis; attributive; pseudo‐attributive, and non‐attributive exegesis; and revealed or inspired exegesis. Final remarks are made about textual and religious authority.
The Religion of the People
Authors: Chadwick Owen
Published: October 2003

An account is given of the slow reforming changes that occurred in the Catholic Church in Europe in the eighteenth century, before the Enlightenment. The Church of that time still mingled magic with religion, and this was fostered by materialistic moments in the cult of saints, certain forms of faith‐healing, the use of holy objects such as relics or Biblical texts in the manner of charms, the more superstitious goals of pilgrimage, and the crudities of a mental haze about indulgences. Witches became less persecuted, Jews less uncomfortable, science began to play a part in everyday life, historians began to criticize saints, sanctuaries became less important, public opinion moved against the mendicant and beggar, and educated opinion became more confident in assailing the ‘childish’ (cults, symbolism, etc.) in the Church. The congregation became weightier in the structure of worship, there were sporadic attempts to make people understand by the use of readings in the vernacular or Bible reading by laymen, to revive the communion at its proper place in the liturgy, and some forms of Church music were popularized.
Monks and Nuns
Authors: Chadwick Owen
Published: October 2003

An account is given of the position of monks and nuns in the Catholic Church in Europe in the eighteenth century, before the Enlightenment. The following aspects are covered: numbers of monks and nuns, social needs met by monks and nuns, internal strain (tension) in religious orders, the nun's dowry, new orders, the Redemptorists (an Italian order founded in 1732), hermits, critics of the monks, the monastery prison, mortmain, and Joseph II of Austria and the abolition of monasteries and monks.
The Office of the Pope
Authors: Chadwick Owen
Published: October 2003

An account is given of the position of the office of the Pope in the Catholic Church in Europe in the eighteenth century, before the Enlightenment. The following aspects and popes are covered: authority, election, the veto, Pope Clement XI Albani (1700–21), the bull Unigenitus of 1713 condemning the French Oratorian Pasquier Quesnel's Moral Reflexions on the New Testament, the debate on infallibility, the Chinese rites, Pope Innocent XIII Conti (1721–4) and Benedict XIII Orsini (1724–30), Pope Clement XII Corsini (1730–40), Pope Benedict XIV Lambertini (1740–58), the secretary of state, the cardinal‐nephew, the college of cardinals, nuncios, the Congregations (curial offices commonly known as the dicasteries), the Inquisition (the Congregation of the Holy Office) and Index, the Spanish Inquisition, the Congregation of the Council, the action of the Pope, and the jubilee (a holy year).
The Fall of the Jesuits
Authors: Chadwick Owen
Published: October 2003

The Jesuits were the leading order in the Catholic Church in Europe at the Counter‐Reformation, and were regarded as the most papalist and unscrupulous of the Pope's followers. This chapter traces their downfall in the late eighteenth century. The different sections of the chapter cover critics of the Jesuits, Jesuits in Paraguay, the French Jesuits, Pope Clement XIII (1758–69) and support for the Jesuits, the Spanish Jesuits, Jesuits in Naples and in Parma (Italy), Pope Clement XIV Ganganelli (1769–74) against the Jesuits, and the attempt by Jesuits to survive in Prussia and in Russia.
The Catholic Reformers
Authors: Chadwick Owen
Published: October 2003

An account is given of reformers of the Catholic Church in Europe in the eighteenth century, following on from The Counter‐Reformation. This starts with the Jansenists in France, and goes on to discuss (Lodovico Antonio) Muratori (1672–1751), Pietro Tamburini (1672–1750), and Pietro Giannone (1676–1748) in Italy, the Enlightenment, Febronianism and Febronius (a pseudonym of the German anti‐Catholic Johann Chrysostomus Nikolaus von Hontheim, 1701–90), Emperor Joseph II of Austria, Pope Pius VI in Vienna, Leopold of Tuscany, Scipione de’ Ricci, the Diocesan Synod of Pistoia and the constitution of the Church (1786), the riot at Prato (1787), toleration, the attack upon celibacy, and the reform of the liturgy.
Revolution
Authors: Chadwick Owen
Published: October 2003

Starts with the overthrow of the Catholic Church in France in the French Revolution—one of the most momentous events of modern history. It goes on to discuss the Revolution in Italy, the Roman Republic and the Pope and Napoleon Bonaparte, Rome without the Pope after Pope Pius VI was driven from Rome in 1798, the sanfedists (an Italian pro‐papal anti‐liberal association in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries) and the pro‐Catholic peasant armies of Europe who first arose in Italy after the expulsion of Bonaparte's French army, the peasant war in Belgium (1798–9), the peasant war in Switzerland, the Conclave of Venice (1799), the French Concordat (negotiation between Pope Pius VII and Napoleon, 1800–01), the Italian Concordat 1802–3, the coronation of Napoleon, the end of the Holy Roman Empire, the secularization of the monasteries in Württemberg (Germany), Napoleon and Italy and the exile of Pope Pius VII, Imperial Rome and its Te Deums 1809–14, Italian churches in the age of Napoleon, Napoleon and Spain, the afrancesados (collaborators), and the Cortes at Cadiz (Spain).
Restoration
Authors: Chadwick Owen
Published: October 2003

Traces the decline of political power in the Catholic Church in Europe from the period after the overthrow of Napoleon Bonaparte in 1814, and the return of the Pope to Rome. In the new Europe so formed, Protestants were politically far stronger than Catholics. The different sections of the chapter cover the Austrian chancellor Metternich, the Age of the Concordats (agreements between Rome and the governments of different countries), Spain and the reaction to the revolution, the secret articles of Verona (Italy, 1822), revolution in Spanish America, reaction in Italy and the Prince of Canosa, the restored Pope, the Papal States, the Carbonari, Silvio Pellico, Pope Leo XII, the shadow of the Jansenists, the end of the campaign against celibacy, the structure of the restored Church (bishoprics, seminaries, brotherhoods), the jubilee of 1825, collegiate churches, the revival of the monks and monasteries, the revival of the Jesuits and other orders, new religious groups, virtus, and differences in parish life.
Christian Society in the Middle of the Eleventh Century
Authors: Morris Colin
Published: October 2003

The mid‐eleventh century saw the strong dominance of royal authority over the independence of the church. The system may be described as the private ownership of church (Eigenkirchentum). Its most obvious manifestation was the custom of lay investiture. Royal control could be an instrument for reform and discipline, especially in the hands of such rulers as the Emperor Henry III, with his strong belief in the sacred nature of royal authority.
The Pattern of Social Change
Authors: Morris Colin
Published: October 2003

From the late eleventh century, large changes were taking place in Western society. It was an age of population increase, with the clearance of great forests. Some of the small settlements of previous centuries began to evolve into cities of commercial importance, and became the centres of cathedrals and schools. There was a marked increase in the quality of education, within which a diversification of subjects was taking place. The aristocracy shared in the new prosperity, and a number of nobles became patrons of learning, poetry, and religion. Ideas circulated more freely within a society, which was slowly becoming more open.
The Papal Reform 1046–1073
Authors: Morris Colin
Published: October 2003

The generation after 1050 saw a revolution in the government of the Roman church, which became increasingly independent of both the local Roman nobility and the German emperors. Reformers demanded a stricter separation between clergy and laity and the abolition of clerical marriage and simony. The word papatus, papacy, was first used and the cardinals became a more international body.
Greeks and Saracens
Authors: Morris Colin
Published: October 2003

Examines the relations of Western Europe with the Mediterranean world, involving the Norman conquest of Apulia and Sicily and increasing tension with the Greek Church. Western Christians increasingly thought of defending Christendom by military means, a process culminating in the First Crusade and the conquest of Jerusalem.
The Conflict Renewed: The Question of Investiture (1099–1122)
Authors: Morris Colin
Published: October 2003

The conflict continued, but narrowed to a more specific issue over the lay investiture of bishops. Compromise was negotiated in the Concordat of Worms. The period saw a transformation in the administrative structure of the Roman church, with an organized body of cardinals, a chamberlain with financial authority and a chancery within the newly named ‘curia’. The whole period since 1050 had created a heritage of hostility between empire and papacy in place of ancient ideals of co‐operation.
The Roman Church and the Empire in the Twelfth Century
Authors: Morris Colin
Published: October 2003

Worms made possible a period of relative harmony, but the design of the Hohenstaufen, Frederick Barbarossa to restore the dignity of the so‐called Roman Empire (sacrum imperium) led to renewed conflict and schism, in which the question of imperial rights in Italy was of fundamental importance. From 1194 onwards, the union of Sicily and the emperor under the Henry VI created intense political pressure on the papacy.