bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Puckasaw Pits on Lake Superior
Authors: Greenman E. F.
Published: April 2006

In the past six years a number of pits dug into cobble-stone beaches of Lake Superior have been discovered. These are as much as four feet in depth and some are large enough to accommodate several people. They do not appear to have been roofed, and the small amount of animal bones, charcoal, potsherds, and other objects suggests that these pits were used as occasional shelters from the wind by Indians fishing through the ice on Lake Superior.
Comments on Johnson's “The Trincheras Culture of Northern Sonora”
Authors: Schroeder Albert H.
Published: April 2006

In a recent article Johnson makes use of the term “Desert Hohokam.” This term has been questioned several times, and nothing has been offered since in support of its use. The facts do not suggest what the concept of “Desert Hohokam” is supposed to imply.
Positivism and the Collection of Data
Authors: Chenhall R. G.
Published: April 2006

The statement of Fritz and Plog that an explicit formulation of potential laws must precede the collection of data is challenged on the grounds that (1) the collection of data, from some areas at least, must be made now or it will be lost forever, and (2) relevant archaeology can be done with salvage materials, gathered without knowledge of their ultimate use.
Matching Polychrome Sets from Acatlán, Puebla
Authors: Moser Chris L.
Published: April 2006

Previously published descriptions of pottery styles known from the Mixteca Baja, Acatlán, Puebla area have been concerned with describing and interpreting the relief designs on the interiors of polychrome grater bowls. Attention is directed here to the observation that there are actually two forms of slab-legged, tripod vessels from Acatlán which co-occur in sets. One form is a food preparation bowl or molcajete, and the other is a raised tripod serving vessel or dish that also functioned as a lid or cover to the molcajete. These matching sets were probably high-status burial offerings and may have been used in part of the burial ritual of preparing food for the dead.
A Possible Noncultural Bias in Lithic Debris
Authors: Lischka Leslie
Published: April 2006

Analysis of two separate assemblages of lithic debris from Archaic sites in the Pecos River Drainage (New Mexico) has led to the discovery of what appears to be a noncultural bias affecting flake size, which is believed to be caused by the inherent properties of the flaking material. Graphs of the flake length/thickness ratio versus frequency of ratio occurrence coincide remarkably in their curve characteristics, indicating a nonrandom causal factor. This factor is attributed to the wave pattern created by the blow of the flaking implement and is governed by the physical properties of the medium through which it is passing.
Problems of Mammal Skull Identification Due to Age Differences in the Dentition
Authors: Olsen Stanley J.
Published: April 2006

Most keys that are designed for use in identifying mammal skulls discuss and figure the skulls and dentitions of mature adults only. In some groups, particularly carnivores, there is considerable variation from the deciduous teeth of the young to the worn dentitions of the old adult. A series covering this age group, of the North American Raccoon, Procyon lotor is figured and discussed.
Southern Paiute Archaeology
Authors: Euler Robert C.
Published: April 2006

Through the use of the direct historical method and analysis of materials from more than 250 sites that indicate Southern Paiute occupation, a reconstruction of the culture history of this ethnic group is attempted. The data permit the following hypotheses: that the Southern Paiute were essentially a Desert culture people with the addition of agriculture in the south; that they entered the Southwest and the southern Great Basin about A.D. 1150 or slightly earlier from the north; that they did not develop from any of the Pueblo groups in the area; and that they maintained their maximum range until disrupted by European incursions betweenA.D.1800 and 1860.
Settlement Archaeology—Its Goals and Promise
Authors: Trigger Bruce G.
Published: April 2006

Settlement Archaeology is defined as the study of societal relationships using archaeological data. A separate approach is required because of the inadequacy of the concept of “phase” or “culture” for the investigation of this sort of problem. An examination of the history of Iroquoian warfare in the light of archaeological and ethnological data suggests that while the archaeologist’s ability to interpret prehistoric social phenomena remains severely limited, the questions raised by this sort of approach are important and, among other results, will stimulate a desire to pay still greater attention to traditional problems of cultural archaeology.
Sandy Lake Ware and Its Distribution
Authors: Cooper Leland R. , Johnson Elden
Published: April 2006

A newly defined pottery named the Sandy Lake ware is described. This ware extends from northwestern Wisconsin westward across east-central Minnesota into the extreme Mississippi River headwaters region. It is associated with Clam River focus pottery in Wisconsin and in Minnesota. It has a beginning association with Blackduck focus pottery but has a temporal duration beyond Blackduck to the latest prehistoric and perhaps protohistoric period.
Hopewellian Affiliations of Certain Sites on the Gulf Coast of Florida
Authors: Sears William H.
Published: April 2006

The Hopewellian Santa Rosa-Swift Creek culture, on the Florida Gulf Coast, includes seven or more burial mounds. Analysis of the individual complexes demonstrates that these mounds occupy points on a cultural continuum, with some clustering into two mortuary or ceremonial complexes. The earlier Yent complex, with the Pierce, Crystal River, and Yent mounds is in the Deptford time period. Some of the pottery has Tchefuncte characteristics, and there are Hopewell artifacts. The later, Green Point complex includes the Huckleberry Landing and Green Point mounds, with mostly complicated-stamped pottery and a few Hopewellian traits. The latest mounds, also placed in the Green Point complex, are Andersons Bayou and Alligator Bayou, which have Troyville or Troyville-like pottery associated with complicated-stamped pottery in an east-side deposit, a characteristic of the following Weeden Island period. The continuum originates in a Deptford-Tchefuncte period, in which there are direct Ohio-Illinois contacts, and ends in the Troyville period with Lower Mississippi Valley rather than midwest contacts. The inferred time span is from approximately 200 B.C. to A.D. 800.
Stone Artifacts of Southeastern Alaska
Authors: Keithahn Edward L.
Published: April 2006

The fact that Northwest Coast Indians obtained iron for tool making at least 175 years ago makes it unlikely that any literate person ever saw stone edge tools in use in this area, or even talked with an Indian who had seen them in use. Thus, interpretation of the function of stone tools in southeast Alaska is based on an estimate of the type of tools needed for the known aboriginal industries, experimental use of the tools, and Indian tradition. The use of 25 stone artifact types is discussed, including adzes and similar tools, mauls and hammers, mortars and pestles, lamps and pipes, clubs and fighting tools, projectile points, and ornaments.
Core and Column Sampling
Authors: Casteel Richard W.
Published: April 2006

Cores recovered from a soil auger were found to yield accurate information about the depth of midden deposit and to compare favorably with column samples as a means of recovering midden material for microanalysis.
Moche Copper Analyses: Early New World Metal Technology
Authors: Friedman Arnold M. , Olsen Edward , Bird Junius B.
Published: April 2006

Eighteen analyses are presented for 12 different Moche copper pedestal cups. Eight of the cups were made from naturally-occurring copper metal ore; the remaining 4 from copper obtained by smelting of complex oxidized ores. The use of both ore types suggests either a matter of convenience or technology in transition. In general, these people possessed a more advanced level of metallurgical technology than their utilization of primitive naturally-occurring copper metal implies.
The Growth of Archaeology in the West Coast and the Great Basin, 1935-60
Authors: Meighan Clement W.
Published: April 2006

Archaeological research in the Far West of North America is reviewed in terms of the contributions to methodology and theory. The generally simple level of culture in an area in which functioning native cultures survived until recent times has led to the perfection of analytical techniques for non-ceramic evidence, the development of ingenuity in deriving conclusions, and a considerable use of the direct-historical approach. New methodological approaches have been developed in analysis of physical components of sites, determination of food resources, estimation of population density, establishment of functional typologies, testing of the value of chemical and other changes for chronological control, and experimentation with statistical techniques of seriation. Theoretical trends include a lack of culture classification systems comparable to those in other North American areas, a dependence on classificatory units on the level of the complex or assemblage, and a tendency toward the development of a classificatory system based on an ecological framework.
Microlithic Sites in the Asiatic USSR
Authors: Formozov A. A.
Published: April 2006

Microlithic cultures of the steppe and desert zone of Asia include the Kel'teminar of the Aral Sea region and comparable cultures in Kazakhstan, Turkmenia, Trans-Baikal, Mongolia and China. This microlithic industry is characterized not by the size of the tools, but by the use of blades rather than flakes for the manufacture of stone tools. The prismatic core, often small and pencil-shaped, is very common; bifacial retouch is rare. The microliths are consistently found in association with pottery and bifacially worked projectile points of the Neolithic and Chalcolithic of the third and second millennia B.C. The tendency of Soviet archaeologists to seek the ethnic affiliations of archaeological complexes may explain the considerable regional variation in pottery and stone tool inventories, but adjustment to environment is a more likely explanation for the wide-spread occurrence of the basic features of the microlithic industry. A way of life based on migratory hunting of small game and collecting developed as a result of refinements in missile weapons which included the bow and arrow. These developments can be correlated with the introduction of the microlithic blade technology. This way of life and the use of microliths survived in the steppe and desert areas, but in the regions to the south where farming developed the microliths were rapidly replaced by heavy tools such as hoes and pestles, and in the northern forests harpoons, fishhooks, and heavy wood-working tools indicate a shift to a more sedentary life based on intensive fishing. The widespread microlithic survivals in northern Asia demonstrate similar subsistence patterns in similar ecological zones rather than basic ethnic unity. Suggestions concerning origins, historical and cultural ties, and possible population movements are gradually emerging from detailed studies of the boundaries between the microlithic zone and the pottery and forest areas as well as from broader comparative analyses.
Radiocarbon Dates for South-Eastern Fiber-Tempered Pottery
Authors: Bullen Ripley P.
Published: April 2006

Five new radiocarbon dates from an Archaic midden at the Palmer site on the Florida Gulf coast confirm the previous estimate of 2000 B.C. for the beginning of pottery making in the Southeast. Correlations over hundreds of miles give extremely close results between archaeological subperiods and radiocarbon dates.
A Hopewell Human Bone Whistle
Authors: Baby Raymond S.
Published: April 2006

An engraved human bone whistle, from a burial mound near Bourneville, Ross County, Ohio, described for the first time as part of the Hopewellian complex, was probably used in elaborate burial ceremonies.
Pre-Columbian Pottery Mushrooms from Mesoamerica
Authors: De Borhegyi Stephan F.
Published: April 2006

Until recently, pre-Columbian mushroom-shaped pottery objects were known only from El Salvador. New evidence indicates that they were also used in Chiapas, Tabasco, and Veracruz, in Mexico, in the Lowland Maya Rain Forest area, and possibly on the Pacific coast of Guatemala. They seem to be diagnostics of the latter part of the Late Pre-Classic and Proto-Classic periods. Due to their resemblance, when turned upside down, to round-bottomed, tall-necked jars, an undetermined number of specimens may have been classified by archaeologists and illustrated in the literature as jars. Their function is still unknown, but it is believed that, like the mushroom stones, they were used in connection with the ceremonial consumption and adoration of hallucinogenic mushrooms.
A Pre-agricultural Occupation on the Central Coast of Peru
Authors: Lanning Edward P.
Published: April 2006

More than 50 campsites, quarries, and workshop sites belonging to the pre-agricultural stage have been explored at Ancón on the central coast of Peru. The sites are located in areas of extinct fog vegetation, which was exploited not only for its seeds and roots, but also for grazing animals. The sites are winter camps. Six different lithic industries have been identified and seriated in a tentative sequence which may reach back to the Pleistocene. The earliest industry almost entirely lacks projectile points and other fine stone work. The next two industries are characterized by their stemmed projectile points and distinctive scrapers, while the three latest assemblages have stemless points and lack scrapers. The pre-agricultural stage came to an end around 2500 or 2000 B.C. with the establishment of permanent villages near the shore as a result of the retreat of the fog vegetation and the enrichment of the sea.
Contemporaneity and Cross-dating in Archaeological Interpretation
Authors: Patterson Thomas Carl
Published: April 2006

That cultural units are contemporary merely means that they are assigned to the same arbitrary division of time, or period. The degree of contemporaneity which is implied when units are assigned to the same period depends upon the duration of the units and the length of the period. Correlation is the alignment of sequences of units or the placement of units with respect to sequences. Synchronic correlation, or cross-dating, involves assigning units to the same period because they are contemporary. When correlations are based on contemporaneity, detailed interpretations of the archaeological evidence are possible. Precise cross-dating permits more detailed statements about cultural process and relationship. Precise cross-dating is possible when units are assigned to periods which have brief spans in time or when reference is made to a chronological framework which is not defined in terms of the archaeological materials. Cross-dating is most credible when both the sequences of units in the different localities and the patterning of each cultural unit are known and understood.
Identity of Archaeologic Grain Amaranths from the Valley of Tehuacan, Puebla, Mexico
Authors: Sauer Jonathan D.
Published: April 2006

Coxcatlán Cave has yielded the earliest records of two domesticated species still grown as minor grain crops in Mexico. Amaranthus cruentus, previously unknown archaeologically, is tentatively identified from a level dated at about 4000 B.C. and positively identified from six levels dated between about 2500 B.C. and the time of the Conquest. Amaranthus hypochondriacus was found at two levels dated about A.D. 500. There is no evidence that either species was domesticated locally.
Systematic, Intensive Surface Collection
Authors: Redman Charles L. , Watson Patty Jo
Published: April 2006

Archaeologists would agree that the cultural debris lying on the surface of a site in some way reflects what is buried below. However, few attempts have been made to discover just how closely one can predict from detailed knowledge of surface distributions what he will find if he digs.

In October and November, 1968, surface collections based on statistical sampling techniques were made at two mounds in Diyarbakir Vilayet, Turkey. The tabulated data were put into the form of contour maps. We find that study of these maps, singly or in combination as overlays, suggests numerous hypotheses that can be formulated much more precisely than those deriving from the usual intuitive method based on simple inspection of the site surface. Soundings were made to test some of the major hypotheses. The results of the soundings plus subsequent statistical analyses suggest that intensive, systematic surface collection is an extremely useful technique for determining where to dig. It is also highly productive of testable hypotheses relevant to the total interpretation of the site.
Native Made Glass Pendants from East of the Mississippi
Authors: Brown Margaret Kimball
Published: April 2006

Native made glass pendants have long been known in the upper Missouri region, but it is not generally realized these also have appeared east of the Mississippi River. The find sites and their dates are discussed and the context of the pendants where known. Indications are that the differences evident in the sizes and shapes of the pendants may be due to temporal factors. A previous estimate of 1798 for the time of the origin of the craft must be changed and evidence from the east suggests a beginning at least as early as 1730.
Food-Producing Systems Available to the Ancient Maya
Authors: Wilken Gene C.
Published: April 2006

Discussion on the subsistence base of the ancient Maya has centered mainly around the potentialities and limitations of shifting cultivation. The case for alternative and more intensive food-producing systems warrants serious consideration. Reports and personal observation reveal that techniques of terracing, irrigation, drainage, gardening, and tree culture, plus gathering and intensified shifting cultivation were likely known and used. Like other high cultures in America, the Maya probably employed a number of food-producing systems to exploit the rich variety of environments found in their region.
Ancient Peruvian Potters' Marks and Their Interpretation through Ethnographic Analogy
Authors: Donnan Christopher B.
Published: April 2006

Pre-fire incised marks can be observed on many of the plain cooking and storage ceramic vessels of the Moche style, which flourished on the north coast of Peru from approximately 100 B.C. to A.D. 800. A possible explanation of these marks is suggested on the basis of an ethnographic analogy to the present-day practices of potters in the central sierra of Peru. It is suggested that the marks were made to facilitate the identification of the pots of each potter during production and prior to the actual marketing of the pots.
Three Long-Nosed God Masks from Western Illinois
Authors: Bareis Charles J. , Gardner William M.
Published: April 2006

Three marine-shell masks, one with a removable nose and two with nonremovable noses, were excavated by two local residents from a location in the Mississippi River Valley in Pike County, Illinois. These were found in association with other items. Information pertaining to the reported provenience of the artifacts is discussed, and the typological characteristics of the masks are described. It is suggested that the masks and associated materials were part of a ceremonial kit and that they date from the same time level as similar finds reported in the eastern United States.
Is There a Hohokam-Pima Culture Continuum?
Authors: Ezell Paul H.
Published: April 2006

This question, which was answered affirmatively as early as 1716 by the missionary Velarde and more recently by some archaeologists, is reviewed in terms of trend and tradition through the archaeological and ethnographic sequence, ceramic, architectural, and other comparisons, the acculturational history of Pimas and Yumans, the broader context of the postcontact period, and the complete lack of archaeological evidence for the prehistoric Pima. The concept of a Hohokam-Pima continuum is accepted, although aboriginal Pima culture is seen as a product of multiple cultural influences.
A System of Archaeological Sites Designation for Alaska
Authors: Hadleigh-West Frederick
Published: April 2006

Since Alaska lacks stable political units equivalent to counties, it has become necessary to develop an alternative for a standardized system of site designation. This system utilizes the 1:250,000 USGS topographic quadrangle as an areal base equivalent to the county. Alaska is completely covered at this scale. The quadrangle names may be abbreviated and joined with the prefix "49" to form a trinomial paralleling the Smithsonian system. A list of these quadrangles and abbreviations is appended.
The Pleistocene Carved Bone from Tequixquiac, Mexico: A Reappraisal
Authors: Anda Luis Aveleyra Arroyo de
Published: April 2006

A carved sacrum from a fossil camelid was found near Tequixquiac in 1870 in Upper Pleistocene deposits of the Valley of Mexico. At that time it was described as one of the first discoveries that proved the co-existence of man with extinct fauna in the New World. The specimen was apparently lost at the end of the 19th century and serious doubts have been expressed about its authenticity. This carved bone was rediscovered in 1956, and recent studies of the specimen tend to demonstrate its authenticity and scientific value. A survey of all known examples of similar finds in North America suggests that the Tequixquiac bone is probably the only example of true art that has yet been found in Paleo-Indian levels in the New World.
Numerical Taxonomy, R-Mode Factor Analysis, and Archaeological Classification
Authors: Christenson Andrew L. , Read Dwight W.
Published: April 2006

The concepts underlying numerical taxonomy and factor analysis are examined in relation to the goals and requirements of archaeological classification. Numerical taxonomy, represented in the archaeological literature most commonly by cluster analysis on raw data, is found to be inappropriate for those goals. In contrast, the technique of r-mode factor analysis fits very well with the nature of archaeological data and the general aims of archaeological classification. The results of three experiments are presented which illustrate the drastically different interpretations that can be engendered by the two procedures from the same data.
Rethinking the Ware Concept
Authors: Rice Prudence M.
Published: April 2006

The type-variety system of ceramic taxonomy is widely accepted, but some difficulties exist in the identification and interpretation of "wares" in the study of Maya pottery. Although the ware concept was formulated to incorporate technological data, such as paste composition, into the classificatory scheme, in practice ware definitions are frequently limited to variables of surface treatment. A redefinition of the ware concept and the creation of a new unit of paste composition analysis which crosscuts types is suggested. This will realign theory closer to what is current practice and will enhance the potential and actual contributions of the type-variety system to the anthropological study of pottery.
Inference in Archaeology
Authors: Watson Richard A.
Published: April 2006

The science of archaeology is based on a multi-leveled interdisciplinary system of descriptions, laws, and explanations. Archaeologists try to provide systemic descriptions and to confirm hypotheses about past social structures on the assumption that they are represented by selected parts of extant material remains. Inferences are about and based on processes and relations among social structure, material culture, and its unaltered, altered, and selected remains. Archaeological inference depends on principles of cultural behavior, the accumulation and alteration of material, and archaeologists' methods. These physico-chemical, geological, biological, psychological, sociological, anthropological, and methodological principles derive from the present behavior of men and material.
Issues in Evaluating the Significance of Archaeological Resources
Authors: Glassow Michael A.
Published: April 2006

The evaluation of the significance of archaeological resources, mandated by federal, state, and local statutes, has forced American archaeologists to justify why sites or their contents should be preserved. The currently popular approach toward evaluation emphasizes determination of the relevance of archaeological resources to regional research problems. However, this approach fails to recognize that resources have values to research problems not yet conceived. It is argued, therefore, that evaluation must focus directly on the observational properties of resources. Using Spaulding's article, "Dimensions of Archaeology," as an initial inspiration, five such properties were defined: variety, quantity, clarity, integrity, and environmental context. A recent project in coastal California provides examples of how this alternative approach may be used.
Comments on the Theory of Holocene Refugia in the Culture History of Amazonia
Authors: Whitten Richard G.
Published: April 2006

The theory of Holocene refugia in Amazonia as offered by B. J. Meggers is discussed in terms of dating, climate analysis, ecology, and linguistics. There is strong evidence to suggest that Meggers" formulation may be premature.
Deer Hides and Tribal Confederacies: An Appraisal of Gramly's Hypothesis
Authors: Webster Gary S.
Published: April 2006

Two of Gramly's (1977) assumptions, aboriginal deer density and a hunting orientation among the Huron aimed at procuring deerskins, are evaluated using ethnohistorical data. An alternate hypothesis concerning the relationship between a Huron tribal confederacy and deer hunting is then offered.
Possible Social Factors in the Exchange System of the Prehistoric Maya
Authors: Voorhies Barbara
Published: April 2006

Previous discussions of the exchange system of the prehistoric Maya have been based on the assumption that their uniform environment prevented inter-group exchange of local resources. The validity of this assumption is questioned and the stability of primitive exchange systems is examined.
Topoxte and Tayasal: Ethnohistory in Archaeology
Authors: Chase Arlen F.
Published: April 2006

Some questions concerning the Postclassic Peten can be answered by systematic use of ethnohistoric sources with archaeological data. A review and re-analysis of these data for the Itza capital Tayasal are presented. A plausible argument is formulated for a relocation of the ethnohistoric Tayasal as the archaeologically recognized Postclassic site of Topoxte in Lake Yaxha, Guatemala. It is further argued that a closer correlation of the ethnohistoric data with the archaeological record and a complete re-analysis of other pertinent data may prove useful to the archaeologist when confronted with conflicting interpretations or concepts.
Measuring the Selective Utilization of Animal Species by Prehistoric Human Populations
Authors: Smith Bruce D.
Published: April 2006

To determine the pattern of selective utilization of animal species by prehistoric human populations, it is first necessary to quantify the relative importance of species of animals in the diet of prehistoric human groups through analysis of archaeologically recovered faunal samples. These values are then compared with estimates of the relative availability of different species of animals in the environment. Such estimates of the relative availability of animal species in prehistoric habitat situations, usually quantified in terms of biomass, are obtained by projecting data from modern analog situations into the past. When attempting to reconstruct prehistoric biotic communities in this manner, it is important to be aware of a number of possible sources of bias and to evaluate and apply modern wildlife data according to a set of interrelated principles. Sources of bias and criteria for selecting modern wildlife analog data are discussed.
Trajectory Discontinuity and Morphogenesis: The Implications of Catastrophe Theory for Archaeology
Authors: Renfrew Colin
Published: April 2006

The problem of discontinuity in the behavior of culture systems-the last stronghold of the anti-processualists-is discussed. Abrupt change in behavior can now be described in terms of smooth changes in the underlying causative factors by means of Rene Thom"s Theory of Elementary Catastrophes. The theory suggests insights not only into discontinuities with respect to time ("sudden" changes) but into the differentiation of forms as the result of bifurcations (morphogenesis). Although existing applications of the Theory in the social sciences lack quantitative precision, they offer a deeper understanding of crucial mechanisms of social evolution and, it is suggested, go far toward solving the discontinuity problem in archaeology.
Individuals and Their Artifacts: An Experimental Study in Archaeology
Authors: Hill James N.
Published: April 2006

It is proposed that individual motor-performance variability in the manufacture of artifacts may permit archaeologists to discover which artifacts were made by which specific prehistoric individuals; this, in turn, may provide a new approach to the description of various aspects of social organization, as well as increased understanding of one aspect of the nature of formal variability in artifacts. Experimental results employing ceramic and hand-writing data demonstrate the potential feasibility of the approach, although more research is needed before it can be used confidently with prehistoric data.
Early Historic Populations In Northwestern Ontario: Archaeological And Ethnohistorical Interpretations
Authors: Bishop Charles A. , Smith M. Estellie
Published: April 2006

There seems to be little doubt that major population shifts occurred in Northern Ontario and Manitoba following the Iroquois wars of the seventeenth century and the advent of the fur trade. These movements have tended to blur pre-contact ethnic boundaries. Although recent archaeological reports have provided much needed data, differing interpretations of that data have only further obscured the issue. For instance, while some scholars have argued that Blackduck Focus sites in western Northern Ontario and northern Minnesota were occupied by Algonkian-speakers (either Ojibwa or Creej, others have interpreted the materials as having an Assiniboin authorship. In support of the latter view, we analyze both the archaeological and early ethnohistorical data. From these sources we conclude that, at contact, the Ojibwa extended no further west than Michipicoten Bay, while the Cree occupied most of Northern Ontario except for a strip of about 50 mi north and south of the present International border west of Lake Superior which was Assiniboin territory. Proper determination of ethnic boundaries is of theoretical importance to studies of cultural ecology and social organization.
A Statistical Determination of the Black Sand Occupation at the Macoupin Site, Jersey Co., Illinois
Authors: Rackerby Frank
Published: April 2006

Small quantities of Early Woodland ceramics and knives were identified in a collection excavated from a predominantly Middle Woodland (Havana-Hopewell phase) occupation site in the lower Illinois Valley. Using simple statistical significance tests, hypotheses generated by the vertical and horizontal distribution of these items are tested. The results confirm an earlier observation that Black Sand phase sites tend to be located on a particular soil type, and that the Dickson knife co-occurs with Black Sand ceramics.
The Relationship Between Access Volume and Content Diversity of Storage Facilities
Authors: Schiffer Michael B.
Published: April 2006

A hypothesis incorrectly reported in the Current Research section of the April, 1971, American Antiquity is clarified. The methods and results of preliminary testing of this hypothesis are described. A high correlation obtains between the 2 variables, which leads to the construction of a regression equation. By use of this equation, the access volume of a facility may be predicted from knowledge of the diversity of contents.
A Rapid Chemical Field Test for Archaeological Site Surveying
Authors: Eidt Robert C.
Published: April 2006

A simple and inexpensive qualitative chemical field method, or spot test, is described for ascertaining the presence of enriched soil phosphate. The spot test is an efficient technique for rapid archaeological site surveying, for elimination of guesswork in establishing trench lines, and for creating phosphate maps depicting type, extent, and relative duration of abandoned settlement features.
The Relationship of “Volcanic Ash,” sak lu'um, and Palygorskite in Northern Yucatan Maya Ceramics
Authors: Isphording Wayne C. , Wilson Eugene M.
Published: April 2006

Shepard has described several principal types of temper used in pre-Hispanic ceramics in northern Yucatan. One of these, identified as “volcanic ash,” has long been a mineralogical problem because no unequivocal deposits of volcanic materials are known to exist in the area.

The possible indigenous materials that could have been identified as “volcanic ash” have been examined and the conclusion reached that the material in question is the mineral palygorskite. This mineral is widespread in the peninsula and is often associated with the mineral sepiolite. Palygorskite (also known as “attapulgite”) was known to the Maya as sak lu'um (white earth) and has been identified by high temperature studies as a constituent of Mayan ceramicware. Its origin, in Yucatan, is attributed to direct precipitation in shallow marine waters and in hypersaline, fringing lagoons. It is suggested that, unless ceramicware from Yucatan is found that actually contains true volcanic detritus (glass shards, grains of feldspar, amphibole, pyroxene, rutile, zircon, and so forth), reference to “ash temper” be avoided.
Determining Site Function: A North Peruvian Coastal Example
Authors: Kautz Robert R. , Keatinge Richard W.
Published: April 2006

It has long been recognized that certain macro and microanalyses of soil and midden constituents can aid archaeologists in determining the strategy and evolution of subsistence activities as well as in dealing with questions of site function and intra-site variability. Applied to the site of Medaños la Joyada (El 102) located in the Moche valley on the north coast of Peru, these techniques: (1) shed light on a subsistence strategy characterized by plant cultivation and the exploitation of marine resources found associated with the phenomena referred to as “sunken gardens” (Parsons 1968; Rowe 1969; Moseley 1969; Parsons and Psuty 1975); (2) provide comparative information for the data collected by Parsons and Psuty (1975) in their excavation of sunken garden sites located in the Chilca valley on the central coast of Peru; and (3) call into question the utility of the “small site methodology” as outlined by Moseley and Mackey (1972).
The Initial Series on Stela 5 at Pixoy
Authors: Closs Michael P.
Published: April 2006

The recently discovered Stela 5 at Pixoy is of particular interest because its Initial Series contains lunar glyphs as coefficients for the 3 lowest periods. While lunar glyphs do not appear in any other known Initial Series, they are to be found in other chronological counts. A study of the moon sign usage in these other counts leads to the conclusion that Stela 5 records the Long Count position 9.14.0.0.0 in a nontraditional manner as the Initial Series 9.13.20.0.0.
A Chronology of Upper Willamette Valley, Oregon, Prehistory
Authors: White John R.
Published: April 2006

On the basis of an analysis of data from 34 of the most thoroughly examined sites in the Upper Willamette Valley of Oregon, a chronological framework is devised that divides the prehistory of the region into five major periods: Period I, ranging between 8000 and 6000 B.C.; Period II, between 6000 and 4000 B.C.; Period III, between 4000 and 250 B.C.; Period IV, 250 B.C. to A.D. 1700; and Period V, the protohistoric and historic period dating between 1700 and approximately 1850. The bracketing dates for these periods are based on a combination of chronometric and relative dating techniques, including radiocarbon dating, tree-ring counts, typological comparison, pollen analysis, cross-dating with historic artifacts, and stratigraphy.
Pollen Records of Guila Naquitz Cave
Authors: Schoenwetter James
Published: April 2006

Pollen recovered from the sediments of Guila Naquitz Cave, Oaxaca, is compared with pollen representing modern ecological patterns in the Valley of Oaxaca. This allows the reconstruction of both vegetational and climatic patterns for the period of preceramic occupancy of the cave: roughly, 6000-8000 B.C. A generally cooler yet more xeric climate apparently prevailed, as had been suggested by faunal analyses at Coxcatlan Cave near Tehuacan, Puebla. However, the floral and faunal resources available near the cave today were available there at the time of occupation. Pollen representing a plant that is closely related to modern maize is recognizable from the pollen record. The distribution of this pollen among the samples, as well as the macrofossil remains associated with the pollen and the reconstructed ecological pattern, indicate that the maize-like plant was being cultivated.
Ceramic Longevity and Archaeological Interpretation: An Example from the Upper Ucayali, Peru
Authors: Deboer Warren R.
Published: April 2006

The differential longevity of ceramic vessel forms affects the frequencies of these forms in an archaeological midden. The observed frequencies of modern Conibo vessel forms in use are projected into the archaeological record and the results are compared to the frequencies of antecedent forms from archaeological sites on the Upper Ucayali. Some of the variables, other than differential longevity, needed to account for the differing frequencies are discussed. The utility of longevity data for estimating the population needed to produce an archaeological midden is also explored.
Coccidioidomycosis among Archaeology Students: Recommendations for Prevention
Authors: Werner S. Benson
Published: April 2006

The increasing popularity of archaeology courses has brought many persons susceptible to coccidioidomycosis into areas endemic for the fungus which causes this disease. The high incidence of infection in susceptibles can be averted by adherence to recommendations developed by the California State Department of Health. A concurrent beneift will be the reduction of potential legal action against universities.
Late Period Settlement of the Middle Klamath River of Northwest California
Authors: Chartkoff Joseph L. , Chartkoff Kerry K.
Published: April 2006

A settlement pattern study is made of 160 prehistoric habitation sites along the Klamath river in northwest California to determine what environmental factors regulate site placement and population density. Topographic variables, especially gradient, were found to serve as negative criteria in limiting the possibilities of site location. Differential access to anadromous fish was found to function positively in favoring site placement and high population density. This finding supports Baumhoffs hypothesis that Karok population levels could be accounted for by available fish resources alone (Baumhoff 1963).
Analytical Methods and Prehistoric Textiles
Authors: King Mary Elizabeth
Published: April 2006

The special problems of textile analysis in archaeology are reviewed. The present state of the art concerning identification of fibers, analysis of structure and technique, dyes, and analytical techniques is outlined. Suggestions are made for securing comparative collections and for recording archaeological specimens.
Suggestions for Evaluating Archaeological Maize
Authors: Dunn Mary Eubanks
Published: April 2006

In his report on excavations in Costa Rica, M. J. Snarskis interpreted a carbonized fragment of a maize cob, identified as the South American race Pollo, as evidence for contact with South America. It is suggested that this interpretation is invalid because of insufficient material and because the origins and relationships of the race Pollo are unclear.
Willow Smoke and Dogs’ Tails: Hunter-Gatherer Settlement Systems and Archaeological Site Formation
Authors: Binford Lewis R.
Published: April 2006

Hunter-gatherer subsistence-settlement strategies are discussed in terms of differing organizational components, "mapping-on" and "logistics," and the consequences of each for archaeological intersite variability are discussed. It is further suggested that the differing strategies are responsive to different security problems presented by the environments in which hunter-gatherers live. Therefore, given the beginnings of a theory of adaptation, it is possible to anticipate both differences in settlement-subsistence strategies and patterning in the archaeological record through a more detailed knowledge of the distribution of environmental variables.
Lowland to Highland Mexicanization Processes in Southern Mesoamerica
Authors: Fox John W.
Published: April 2006

An Epiclassic period (ca. A.D. 800-1000) Mexican-influenced archaeological pattern is delineated for the Río Negro and Río Motagua basins, the two principal arteries of highland Guatemala, which flow to the Gulf and Caribbean lowlands. This pattern is argued to have originated along the Mexican-Mayan cultural frontier of the Gulf coast. A subsequent Toltec pattern in these same river basins parallels Chichén Itzá and Mayapán and also can be seen to have originated in the same general Gulf lowlands. Such Mexican/Toltec patterns in archaeology show that ethnohistorical claims by the later Quiche and Cakchiquel peoples for having introduced Toltec cultural forms into the highlands actually predate their stated migratory movement and a threshold of "history" (A.D. 1200s) by centuries.
Separation of Bone, Charcoal, and Seeds by Chemical Flotation
Authors: Bodner Connie Cox , Rowlett Ralph M.
Published: April 2006

Gravel, bone, carbonized seeds, and charcoal recovered from a 2,000 year old cereal pit were successfully separated by chemical flotation. Specific gravities of each material were determined experimentally, and then for each pair of materials to be separated (e.g., bone from gravel, seeds from charcoal), a solution with a specific gravity intermediate between those of the two materials was used for flotation. Optimal sample sizes and possible sources of error are discussed, as are criteria for selection of solutions. A procedure for evaluating the effect of solutions and flotation practices on test seeds is also presented.
The Dynamics of Significance: An Example from Central Texas
Authors: Lynott Mark J.
Published: April 2006

The process of evaluating archaeological significance is dynamic and constantly changing. Factors affecting the significance evaluation process are considered, and an example of how the evaluation of significance at a central Texas rockshelter has changed over the last thirty years is offered.
A Case Study in Faunalturbation: Delineating the Effects of the Burrowing Pocket Gopher on the Distribution of Archaeological Materials
Authors: Erlandson Jon M.
Published: April 2006

Excavation of a small single-component prehistoric campsite in the coastal southern California foothills has provided evidence concerning the patterns and approximate rates of redistribution of archaeological materials caused by the burrowing pocket gopher, Thomomys bottae. Investigation of bimodal vertical distributions of both historic and prehistoric archaeological materials shows a close correspondence to the burrowing habits of pocket gophers in coastal California. Comparison of these bimodal distributions with a site chronology based upon diagnostic artifacts and C-14 dating suggests that, under certain soil conditions, downward displacement of archaeological materials may occur at rates averaging over 5% per century. The broader implications of the effects of faunalturbation upon the interpretation of archaeological assemblages are briefly discussed.
A Preclassic Maya Water System
Authors: Scarborough Vernon L.
Published: April 2006

The Late Preclassic Maya center of Cerros, northern Belize (300 B.C. to A.D. 150) has revealed evidence of a sophisticated water control system. Canals and raised field platforms have been examined inside the community center. An underlying limestone caprock was systematically removed during the quarrying of monument fill to maintain adequate drainage in the community. The result was a man-made relief or watershed across the entire core site area. The role of present and past microenvironments at Cerros is addressed.
Thermoluminescent Determination of Paleoindian Heat Treatment in Ontario, Canada
Authors: Pavlish L. A. , Sheppard P. J.
Published: April 2006

The possibility that prehistoric peoples employed heat treatment of chert and flint as an integral part of their lithic tool production technology is a matter that has long been debated. While previous thermoluminescence (TL) investigations of the heating phenomenon concentrate on finished artifacts, this study investigates the TL stored in biface retouch flakes which are an abundant by-product of the Paleoindian fluted point manufacture. One hundred and seventy-five retouch flakes from three excavated squares at the Parkhill Paleoindian site are examined and compared with their relatively distant geological source. Accidental heating does not satisfactorily explain the fact that the overwhelming majority of the flakes appear to have been heated. We conclude that chert heating at this archaeological site was purposeful.
Reconstructing Early Formative Village Organization in Oaxaca, Mexico
Authors: Whalen Michael E.
Published: April 2006

Large-scale excavation data are used to reconstruct some of the organizational features of a small village of the Early Formative period (ca. 1500–850 B.C.) in the southern Mexican highlands. Data from the community's residential and cemetery zones are analyzed in consideration of (1) the nature and number of village components; and (2) methods used to integrate these components. It is argued that the community was organized around some form of lineal descent group, which held corporate title to essential resources. Low-level redistribution of foodstuffs and the display of supralocal symbols are also suggested to have been aspects of community organization. The data and interpretations of this investigation are compared to the results of Early Formative studies in other areas of highland Mesoamerica.
Comments on Stafford's “Alluvial Geology and Archaeological Potential of the Texas Southern High Plains”
Authors: Holliday Vance T. , Johnson Eileen
Published: April 2006

In a recent article Thomas W. Stafford, Jr., outlined results of geological investigations (1974–1978) at the Lubbock Lake site (41LU1). Geological, pedological, and archaeological investigations conducted by the authors since 1972 govern these clarification comments offered. Numerical or stratigraphic corrections are included for several radiocarbon ages presented by Stafford. Five stratigraphic units at Lubbock Lake span the past 11,000 + years, grading from alluvial to lacustrine to marsh and finally eolian sediments. Assessing the archaeological potential of the Southern High Plains on the basis of Lubbock Lake is inadvisable due to limited and possibly biased data.
Demographic Structure of Pecos Indians: A Model Based on Life Tables
Authors: Mobley Charles M.
Published: April 2006

Age-at-death data on over 2,000 burials from two pueblo sites in New Mexico are subjected to demographic analysis. Prior studies are reviewed to illustrate deficiencies and qualifications in the data base and the analytical method. The skeletal assemblage is subdivided into seven samples by chronological phase, and life tables are constructed. Aspects such as mortality and life expectancy are then examined for each phase and a diachronic model of demographic structure is developed for Pecos Indians between A.D. 1150 and 1700.