bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Existential Transactions at Harvard
Authors: Riedlinger Thomas J.
Published: March 2007

Before gaining notoriety as a promoter of the psychedelic drug experience, Timothy Leary established impressive credentials in the field of interpersonal psychology and was developing a humanistic form of psychotherapy he called "existential-transactional." This article plots the evolution of his work in these areas, from publication of his classic Interpersonal Diagnosis of Personality (1957), based on research conducted at Kaiser Foundation Hospital from 1950 to 1956, through his experiments with humanistic psychotherapy techniques and psychedelics at Harvard University, where he taught graduate student seminars from 1960 to 1963. Emphasis is placed on existential-transactional psychology, which he formulated, prior to accepting the Harvard position, in The Existential Transaction, a treatise that enjoyed extremely limited circulation among Harvard colleagues and that never was formally published. It urged psychologists to work in "real life situations... observing behavior in the trenches" without imposing "a medical or any other model" on their subjects, and to be willing to "get involved, engaged in the events they're studying." Leary's Harvard research using psychedelic drugs to change behavior patterns is discussed as an example of this theory's application. He is quoted as saying his subsequent expulsion from Harvard in 1963 and emergence as a public figure allowed him and fellow believers in the theory "to expand... [their] experimental design from selected laboratory samples of hundreds to field studies involving millions." It is reported that Leary's bibliographers have so far been unable to locate a copy of The Existential Transaction.
The Worldview of Ken Wilber
Authors: Walsh Roger , Vaughan Frances
Published: March 2007

Ken Wilber has emerged as a leading contemporary thinker and theoretical psychologist. The most remarkable features of his work are the extraordinary scope and integrative capacity of his multidisciplinary syntheses, which span psychology, philosophy, sociology, anthropology and religion. The result is a coherent, comprehensive worldview for which this article provides a brief introduction.
Fukujoka Heuman Relations Community: a Network Approach to Developing Human Potential
Authors: Murayama Shoji , Nakata Yukishige
Published: March 2007

At the time of the student riots in the 1960s, a small seminar on Carl Rogers's writings began at a college in the city of Fukuoka, Japan. It has spontaneously developed into a satellite network community called Fukuoka Human Relations Community (FHRC), and it is likely to evolve further into an unknown form of community. The FHRC is a large growth-oriented network of people who get to know each other through encounter groups, monthly open group sessions, and other humanistic activities. The purpose of this article is to describe FHRC and discuss how FHRC activates human potential for growth. This social experiment has important implications for the transition away from a hierarchical society in Japan and illustrates the benefits of new spontaneous, humanistic ways of being and relating.
Jung'S Theory of Archetypes: A Critique
Authors: Neher Andrew
Published: March 2007

This critique examines Jung's theory of archetypes, which underpins much of his other work. The critique focuses on Jung's belief that the origins of archetypes (and their basis in the collective unconscious) transcend the individual, in that they reflect an ancestral or universal essence. The critique also examines a related notion of Jung's, that the collective unconscious unites us with the world around us in an immediate paranormal or synchronistic sense. These notions of Jung's are found to be seriously flawed. In spite of this, the critique suggests that Jung's belief in the genetic basis of certain unconscious content holds some promise. With this in mind, suggestions are made concerning needed modifications in Jung's theory and concerning the kind of evidence required for its support.
Relatedness: Where Humanistic and Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy Converge
Authors: Portnoy Dennis
Published: March 2007

Historically, the third force was founded to move beyond what Maslow and others saw as reductionism in psychoanalysis as well as behaviorism. Existential-humanistic and psychoanalytic psychotherapies have often been regarded as being worlds apart. In this article, I suggest that dialogical-existential therapy and interpersonal psychoanalysis have significant common ground, particularly in their emphasis on relatedness as being the key factor that facilitates change. I show how interpersonal psychoanalysis, as articulated by Mitchell and Aron, goes further than intersubjectivity theory in bringing psychoanalysis and existential-humanistic psychology closer together. I also show how this perspective is relevant to clinical work.
Russia and the Politics of `Putinism'
Authors: Herd Graeme P.
Published: March 2007

Alexseev argues that four robust `state-preserving' pillars of support prevent Russia from collapsing. This article seeks rather to persuade that these pillars provided little safeguard against the `confederalization' of Russia's Federation, particularly after the `systemic shock' of August 1998. It finds agreement with Alexseev in noting the dangers to stability posed by Putin's programme of recentralization, and concludes by suggesting that the politics of `Putinism' will become a key litmus test for the nature of Russian governance into the 21st century.
Cyprus: The Failure of Mediation and the Escalation of an Identity-Based Conflict to an Adversarial Impasse
Authors: Fisher Ronald J.
Published: March 2007

The Cyprus conflict is an intractable, identity-based conflict that has challenged the international community for over 40 years. This article provides an overview of the history and sources of the conflict, followed by a description of both official and unofficial third-party interventions. Formal mediation, primarily by the United Nations, has consistently failed to produce a settlement by which the Greek-Cypriot and Turkish-Cypriot communities could rebuild their fragile political relationship. Unofficial interventions have been limited in consistency, and their direct connection to official decisionmaking has been minimal. More recently, unofficial efforts have focused on the grass-roots level, and have engaged hundreds of influential individuals in bicommunal interactions. Nonetheless, the parties remain locked in an adversarial frame that is self-perpetuating and mutually destructive, and that might only be altered through a comprehensive and sustained unofficial track of conflict analysis and resolution that can overcome the trauma of the past and address the basic needs of the parties.
The Impact of War on Trade: An Interrupted Times-Series Study
Authors: Anderton Charles H. , Carter John R.
Published: March 2007

The `trade promotes peace' hypothesis rests upon three premises: (1) Societies achieve salient economic gains from their trading relationships; (2) serious conflict among societies disrupts trade; and (3) premises 1 and 2 enter the calculus of political decisionmakers. If any one of the three premises does not hold, the liberal linkage between trade and peace is broken. In a recent analysis of seven non-major power dyads, Katherine Barbieri & Jack Levy raise doubts about the second premise upon which the liberal hypothesis rests. In this article, we further test the trade disruption premise. We use an interrupted time-series model to study the impact of war on trade for 14 major power dyads. We find reasonably strong evidence that major power war is associated with a decline in trade relative to pre- and postwar periods. We also investigate the impact of war on trade for 13 non-major power dyads. Here the evidence is weaker but on balance remains supportive of the trade disruption premise.
Discrimination in International Relations: Analyzing External Support for Ethnic Groups
Authors: SAIDEMAN STEPHEN M.
Published: March 2007

Why do some ethnic groups in conflict (those that are mobilized or face discrimination) receive more external support than others do? This is an important question that has been overlooked despite the crucial role international support has played. Which characteristics of groups and their host states cause them to receive more support? I consider three explanations. First, separatist groups are less likely to receive support owing to their threat to regional stability and international norms. This argument is derived from accounts focusing on the inhibiting impact of vulnerability upon the foreign policies of African states. Second, groups in stronger states are more likely to receive support as states try to weaken their most threatening adversaries - an application of realist logic. Third, groups with ethnic ties to actors in positions of power elsewhere are more likely to receive external assistance. Using Minorities at Risk data, analyses focusing on the number of states supporting particular groups and the intensity of this support suggest that ethnic ties influence the international relations of ethnic conflict more than vulnerability and relative power. Further analyses contrast the international relations of peaceful ethnic disputes and violent ethnic conflicts. These analyses reveal that some factors (such as regime type, nearby separatism) increase breadth and/or intensity of support for groups that are not engaged in violence, while other variables (separatism of the group in question, relative power of host) influence the international relations of violent conflicts. The article concludes with implications for policy and future research.
Peacekeeping and Burden-sharing, 1994-2000
Authors: SHIMIZU HIROFUMI , SANDLER TODD
Published: March 2007

This article updates earlier analyses of peacekeeping burden-sharing for the 1994-2000 period. In particular, we apply a Kendall tau test to determine whether peacekeeping burdens are being shouldered by the large countries for the small countries in recent years. This test indicates the rank correlation between GDP and peacekeeping burdens. Two sets of countries are examined: NATO allies and a broader sample of the primary supporters of peacekeeping missions. The study investigates burden-sharing not only for UN-led peacekeeping missions, but also for UN-led and non-UN-led missions (for example, Implementation Force in Bosnia, the Kosovo Force). Our spending proxy for non-UN-led peacekeeping missions relies on troop expense and is much more systematic than proxies in prior studies. The statistical findings indicate that burden-sharing is disproportionate during recent years when compared with the Cold War era. This result suggests that peacekeeping has a relatively large share of purely public benefits, which is leading to some `exploitation of the large by the small'. It is anticipated that this disproportionality will increase over time and lead to more suboptimal allocation of resources to peacekeeping from a global vantage point. This article also extends the analysis to investigate the rank correlation between GDP per capita and peacekeeping burdens in order to ascertain whether the rich are being exploited by the poor. There is some evidence of disproportionate burdens being carried by the rich for just the NATO sample during two recent years when both UN-led and non-UN-led missions are included.
Torture: The Need for a Dialogue with Its Victims and Its Perpetrators
Authors: Nicole Laurent
Published: March 2007

Torture has probably never been as widely discussed as today, nor has it ever been as broadly condemned, both in specific terms and within the more general framework of human rights It is none the less true that it remains a common practice across the world and constitutes, in many cases, an instrument of power. The scope of the phenomenon, as well as the development of its various forms, renders the task of its active opponents ever more difficult and sensitive Among their ranks, the International Committee of the Red Cross is developing, within the framework of its protection activities implying access to persons deprived of liberty, a little-known approach combining visits to the detainees and dialogue with the responsible authorities. This approach, increasingly implemented by the ICRC and which has involved about 90 countries, contributes not only to preventing and decreasing the practice of torture, but also to furthering, through the accumulation of experience, global efforts to assess the nature and implications of the phenomenon.
Extended Deterrence, Superpower Control, and Militarized Interstate Disputes, 1962-76
Authors: Weede Erich
Published: March 2007

This paper hypothesizes two pacifying effects of superpower control on international relations: (1) If the superpowers deter each other from going to war against each other, and if they largely control the national security decision-making of their allies or clients or bloc members, then extended deterrence pacifies interbloc relations; (2) If the superpowers largely control decisions on war and peace by their bloc members, then they guarantee the avoidance of war within blocs. While my previous research (Weede, 1975a, 1975b, 1983) provided some support for these ideas, the rarity of war made it rather difficult to establish the significance of the effects which I attribute to superpower control. This paper attempts to overcome the problem by substituting militarized interstate disputes for war as the dependent variable. Since militarized disputes occur much more frequently than wars, the small numbers problem is thereby mitigated. Of course, a new substantial assumption has to be made: superpower control not only reduces the risk of war where it applies, it also tends to reduce the incidence of much lesser uses of military force. While this paper provides some support for the pacifying effects of superpower control by extended deterrence, there is no support at all for some reduction in the incidence of disputes between allies of the same superpower. This latter finding might be an early warning indicator of some future breakdown of extended deterrence.
Gene Sharp's Theory of Power
Authors: Martin Brian
Published: March 2007

Gene Sharp, the world's leading writer on non-violent action, uses a theory of power based on a division between rulers and subjects and on the withdrawing of consent as the main avenue for effecting political change. From the point of view of structural approaches to the analysis of society, Sharp's picture leaves out much of the complexity of political life, such as the structures of capitalism, patriarchy and bureaucracy which do not fit well with the ruler-subject picture. As a set of conceptual tools for social activists, however, Sharp's theory of power is far superior to structural approaches.
Global Policy Studies: A Skeptical View
Authors: Donnelly Jack
Published: March 2007

As a counterpoint to the other articles in this special issue, this final paper presents a skeptical view of the global policy perspective, especially as it has been presented in the writings of the guest editor. The author argues that the perspective is conceptually muddled and that such key terms as `global' and `policy' have yet to be given clear, precise, or analytically penetrating definitions. A case is made that the very idea of global (as opposed to international) policy seriously misrepresents the nature of contemporary international regulations. It concludes by suggesting that the policy perspective, even if the conceptual problems can be worked out, promises to provide little additional descriptive, analytic, or heuristic leverage for students of international relations.
Reducing Offensive Capabilities - the Attempt of 1932
Authors: TER BORG MARLIES
Published: March 2007

The theme of the article is the multilateral reduction of offensive capabilities, aimed at the enhancement of conventional defensive superiority as a means of war prevention. This approach surfaced at the 1932 World Disarmament Conference in Geneva. It was promoted in order to enhance confidence, prevent a disastrous arms race, and allow for a `cooling-off' period in times of tension. Uppermost in most minds, however, was the aim of precluding the possibility of a `lightning attack' by prohibiting the necessary hardware - bombers and tanks. The origin of the approach cannot be traced back much further than 1930, to the influential leader of the peace movement, Lord Cecil, and the strategic thinker Liddell Hart. After initial widespread support by political delegates, fruitless debates in special technical commissions led to stagnation, while Hitler rose to power. Advocates of the revival of the powers of the offensive, such as Fuller and Winston Churchill, had had no doubts about what kind of hardware to promote, in order to prevent a repetition of the stalemate of World War I. When it came to abolishing rather than promoting weapons, however, they refused to fully accept the distinction between offensive and defensive weapons. In order to save a handful of experimental tanks, and the dream they promised of a revival of decisive offensive warfare, the military experts of the major powers let pass the chance of preventing war through the reduction of offensive capabilities. The Conference failed, and Hitler set out to acquire exactly those bits of hardware that promised success through what was later to become known as the `Blitzkrieg'. Thus, in 1932 the window of opportunity, still slightly ajar, finally closed, preparing the way for World War II. Today the approach has another chance, but once again the window of opportunity is closing.
After Consensus, What? Performance Criteria for the UN in the Post-Cold War Era
Authors: Stiles Kendall W. , Macdonald Maryellen
Published: March 2007

Not since 1945 has the UN enjoyed such support across the East-West divide as today. Cold War standards to evaluate UN performance are now of little value, but there is little general and theoretical discussion of alternative criteria. In an effort to clarify the issues at stake in what is sure to be a lively debate, the authors derive four distinct performance criteria extant in the literature on UN performance. These criteria include (1) declarations found in organic documents (charter-based), (2) medium and short-term objectives established by agency officials (operational), (3) past performance (trend-based), and (4) a scenario following elimination of the agency (absence-based). The strengths and weaknesses of each criteria are discussed theoretically and concretely through use of the four criteria to assess UN peace-keeping operations. The authors conclude that a blending of the operational and trend-based approach offers the most promising avenue for UN evaluation.
What Are They Fighting For? The Importance of Issues in International Conflict Research
Authors: Diehl Paul F.
Published: March 2007

Most empirical research on international conflict has focused on national, dyadic, and systemic attributes to understand state behavior. Following the ideas of Vasquez & Mansbach, this study argues that scholars must take into account the issues and their salience over which states are in dispute in order to explain the onset and escalation of conflict. The article begins with a review of the most prominent data sets and models in the subfield. Most of the prominent theoretical approaches explicitly or implicitly ignore the issues in dispute. Furthermore, only a few of the available conflict data sets include issue components and even then only in a limited fashion. Several reasons for this are reviewed, including those related to realpolitik, ignoring the decision-making level of analysis, and methodological difficulties. There are some studies that do look at issues and their salience when trying to explain the incidence and escalation of international conflict. Almost uniformly, these demonstrate that foreign policy behavior varies by issue area and that states are more willing to fight for issues that they regard as important. The remaining part of the study is devoted to demonstrating how issues and their salience can affect decisions to use military conflict and discussing how these concerns might be integrated into international conflict research. Specific suggestions are offered concerning incorporating issues in research design, identifying issues, and measuring their salience.
The Modernization of the US Radar Installation at Thule, Greenland
Authors: Fischer Kristian
Published: March 2007

A controversial arms control issue in the 1980s was the US-Soviet dispute concerning new or modernized radars which were claimed to violate the ABM Treaty. The new US Large Phased-Array Radar at Thule, Greenland, became a major issue in the Danish security policy debate, particularly in early 1987, when several claims were made in the Danish media and the Danish Parliament concerning the radar's function and potential capabilities. As the US military facilities in Greenland have rarely been at the forefront of the political debate in Denmark, it is not surprising that both the political and media debate have been riddled with speculations and contradictory assertions. The political debate in Denmark resulted in a resolution adopted by a broad majority in the Danish Parliament, stressing that the radar should not be used in a future SDI or ABM system. This article discusses the strategic rationale behind the modernization decision as expressed by the US Air Force in testimony before the US Congress. I argue that the purpose of the modernization was to enhance the quality of attack warning and attack assessment data so crucial to a nuclear warfighting strategy. Various claims which were aired in the Danish debate are assessed; and I maintain that the radar is unlikely to be of substantial utility in a future ABM or SDI system, that the modernization did not violate the spirit of the ABM treaty; that the radar is able to perform certain spacetracking missions; and that data collected from the Thule array could be relevant for a potential future US ASAT system.
Children and Adolescents' Conceptions of Peace, War, and Strategies to Attain Peace: A Dutch Case Study
Authors: Hakvoort Ilse , Oppenheimer Louis
Published: March 2007

This article examines age-related changes in the conceptions children and adolescents hold about peace, war, and strategies to attain peace. These were expected to change from concrete, materially related to abstract, norm-related conceptions. The conceptions were assessed by means of a semi-structured questionnaire presented to 101 Dutch children between 8 and 16 years of age and divided into five age groups (mean ages 8, 10, 12, 14, and 16 years). Each age group consisted of approximately equal numbers of boys and girls to ascertain any gender differences. Developmental levels for children's understanding of the reciprocal nature of interpersonal relationships (assessed by means of role or perspective-taking tasks) were presumed to relate to their conceptions of peace and strategies to attain peace, in particular. In addition to a development from concrete, materially related conceptions to abstract, norm-related conceptions, the findings suggest a more complex developmental course. While 8 to 12-year-olds used concrete, materially related characteristics for peace, war, and strategies to attain peace, 14 to 16-year-olds mentioned abstract, norm-related characteristics only when strategies to attain peace from an everyday perspective were considered. As noted by Selman, most 12-year-old children understood the mutual or reciprocal nature of interpersonal relationships. The latter understanding was primarily associated with the more abstract, norm-related level of reasoning involving ideas about human attitudes and universal rights.
Displacing the Conflict: Environmental Destruction in Bangladesh and Ethnic Conflict in India
Authors: Swain Ashok
Published: March 2007

Recently, a substantial amount of research has been devoted to establishing that environmental destruction itself may be the cause of conflict. Conflicts may arise directly due to scarcity of resources caused by environmental destruction, and can also be the potential consequence of environmentally forced population migration. India and Bangladesh are in a long-standing dispute over the sharing of the waters of the River Ganges. Since 1975, India has been diverting most of the dry-season flow of the river to one of her internal rivers, before it reaches Bangladesh. At Farakka, this has affected agricultural and industrial production, disrupted domestic water supply, fishing and navigation, and changed the hydraulic character of the rivers and the ecology of the Delta in the down-stream areas. These trans-border human-inflicted environmental changes have resulted in the loss of the sources of living of a large population in the south-western part of Bangladesh and have necessitated their migration in the pursuit of survival. The absence of alternatives in the other parts of the country has left no other option for these Bangladeshis but to migrate into India. The large-scale migration, from the late 1970s, of these Muslim migrants into Hindu-dominated India has culminated in a number of native-migrant conflicts in the receiving society. The Indian state of Assam, which received a large proportion of these migrants, was the first to experience conflict. Conflicts between natives and migrants have now spread to other parts of India and have become a major issue for politically rising Hindu organizations. As this study determines, environmental destruction not only creates resource scarcity conflicts, it can also force the people to migrate, thus leading to native-migrant conflicts in the receiving society.
When the Individual Soldier Says `No' to War: A Look at Selective Refusal during the Intifada
Authors: LINN RUTH
Published: March 2007

This paper is an attempt to profile the personal and societal incentives for selective refusal among Israeli reserve soldiers during the Intifada. The article draws in part upon Kohlberg's model of moral development and addresses the following questions: (1) What is the motivation for selective refusal in times of morally-controversial conflicts such as the Intifada? (2) What socio-psychological incentives could ease the way to refusal? (3) What differentiates the individual objecting soldier from the objecting soldier who does not refuse to serve? The data for this theoretical discussion are taken from studies of 48 Israeli reserve soldiers out of 165 who decided to refuse military service within the first four years of the Intifada (Linn, 1995a, 1995b, 1995c) and of 36 out of 86 soldiers who refused during the war in Lebanon (Linn, 1989a). The findings suggest that unlike other objecting yet non-refusing soldiers, the selective refusers were motivated to change the unjust situation by assuming a position of disobedience to which they were personally predisposed and were capable of doing in their close milieu. Intifada and Lebanon refusers differed in their political affiliation and their different social support for their action.
The Rhetorical Strategies and the Misleading Nature of Attacks on `Postmodernism': A Reply to Østerud
Authors: Patomäki Heikki
Published: March 2007

As a reaction to Østerud's attack on `postmodernism', it is argued that post-structuralism, Critical Theory and critical realism should be seen as important responses to the crisis of positivism and modernity. Even the few `postmodernists' who would be willing to defend the idea that it is only thought and discourses that matter or that `anything goes' or that we should stop talking about truths have been able to contribute to transformations of understandings in a constructive way. Even though some of the actual critical-reflective analyses have been rather conventional, there is much room for producing even better critical-reflectivist studies in the future. However, Østerud's loaded terms have effects of power: there is an unjustified tendency to silence the emerging latemodern interpretative and explanatory possibilities.
Quantitative Methods in Peace Research
Authors: Smith Ron P.
Published: March 2007

Quantitative methods are an important component of peace research, since many of the issues addressed are inherently quantitative - the frequency and intensity of conflict, or the determination of military expenditures, for instance. This article argues that quantitative peace research could be improved if authors put more emphasis on the substantive issues and less on the mechanical application of rule-based, statistical techniques. After some methodological discussion, seven questions are posed that quantitative researchers might ask themselves; an attempt is made to show why these questions are important. If quantitative peace researchers asked themselves these questions more often, the substantive contribution of quantitative peace research could be increased.
From War-Hero to Villain: Reversal of the Symbolic Value of War and a Warrior King
Authors: Moerk Ernst L.
Published: March 2007

Parallels are demonstrated between changes in Swedish attitudes toward peace and war, reflected in the image of the `war-hero', Karl XII, and the increasing peacefulness of Swedish society. The value changes are documented through analyses of four literary works: those of Geijer and Tegner, who glorified Karl XII as `war-hero', and Heidenstam and Strindberg, who described the same Karl XII as a psychopath and villain and as a scourge for his country. As Geijer and Tegner wrote at the beginning of the 19th century, whereas Heidenstam and Strindberg produced their works at the end of it, the value changes occurring during this century can be demonstrated in these literary works. Relations between changed mentalities, as reflected in the literary works, and political decisions are explored. Finally, as a resulting implication, the potential impact of critical attitudes of the electorate on a leader's election and on his license for engaging in impulsive wars is discussed.
Arms Transfers and Coups d'État: A Study on Sub-Saharan Africa
Authors: Wang T. Y.
Published: March 2007

Early studies of African coups have largely focused on domestic determinants such as social mobilization, economic conditions, and the characteristics of the military itself. Scant attention has been paid to the political effects of arms transfers on military intervention in Africa. Considering that defense spending may meet the demands of the armed forces, absorb vital social and economic resources needed for development, retard the growth of the civilian domestic product, or strengthen the political position of the military, it is likely that expenditures on arms imports may directly or indirectly affect the likelihood of coups in sub-Saharan African countries. Utilizing theories of arms transfers and coups d'état, a causal model was constructed and data were collected for 35 African nations. An event-count analysis in conjunction with conventional regression techniques was employed for statistical estimation. The findings suggest that arms transfers serve to meet the military's corporate interests and have a long-term direct effect on reducing the likelihood of coups in Africa. However, arms transfers contribute to African regime instability indirectly by enhancing the military's position vis-a-vis civilian institutions in society. Former French colonies have experienced significantly fewer coups than the rest of Africa, but throughout sub-Saharan Africa, countries that experienced an economic downturn or a coup are more likely to have military intervention in politics.
The Peaceful Settlement of Interstate Conflict: Saar, Austria, and Berlin
Authors: Schwarzer Gudrun
Published: March 2007

An integrative process model of conflict settlement is developed and compared in the cases of three conflicts. The basic idea is that conflict settlement should be understood as a process unfolding in two steps, each of which needs to be explained. The first step is `getting to the table' (negotiation), the second step is `getting to yes' (agreement). Different conditions must be satisfied for the opponents to take these two essential steps of conflict settlement. Serious negotiations are causally linked to the emergence of a mixed-motives situation, and agreement is dependent on cost-benefit calculations that favor cooperation over self-help. A set of hypotheses drawn from the literature on conflict management is developed into an integrative model of conflict settlement. The model is integrative in that it offers a rationale for considering together hypotheses which are usually discussed separately. The model is applied to three conflicts which have all a territorial component and have all finally been settled in a peaceful way. The conflicts show a similar pattern of conflict management and conflict settlement. The analysis reveals that the successful settlement of conflict in the three cases was due mainly to three factors: a hurting stalemate in the issue-area, a crisis of the security situation of one conflict party, and time pressure. By acting together, these factors brought about conflict-settling agreements which had not been possible before.
Sanctions as a Foreign Policy Tool: Weighing Humanitarian Impulses
Authors: Weiss Thomas G.
Published: March 2007

Economic sanctions have become a popular multilateral and bilateral enforcement measure in the 1990s. Their efficacy is doubtful along with their moral superiority over military force. Substantial suffering by vulnerable groups in Iraq, former Yugoslavia, and Haiti has led to a `bust' for this foreign policy tool. Sanctions can be designed to be more effective and less inhumane than they are at present, but much more research is required about their precise impact on civilians and on targeted regimes. Early post-Cold War euphoria is giving way to more realistic and subtle assessments of the pluses and minuses of economic and military coercion.
Armed Conflict, 1989-98
Authors: Wallensteen Peter , Sollenberg Margareta
Published: March 2007

A total of 108 armed conflicts has been recorded for the years 1989-98. Of these, 36 were active in 1998. This marks an increase from 1997, after an overall decline in the number of conflicts per year since 1992. The number of wars nearly doubled in 1998, after a marked decrease that had also started in 1992. Most wars took place in Africa. Seven interstate armed conflicts were recorded for the whole period, of which two were active in 1998.
Gender and Crime among Felony Offenders: Assessing the Generality of Social Control and Differential Association Theories
Authors: ALARID LEANNE FIFTAL , BURTON VELMER S. , CULLEN FRANCIS T.
Published: March 2007

Although often tested empirically on high school samples, differential association and social control theories have only infrequently been used to explain offending by felons. Based on a sample of 1,153 newly incarcerated felons, the authors examine the ability of differential association and social control theories to explain self-reported offending across types of crime and gender groups. Overall, the analyses lend support to both perspectives and suggest that they are “general” theories of crime. It also appears, however, that differential association theory has more consistent effects, especially for men. Parental attachment is a significantly stronger predictor of female than male participation in violent crime. These results indicate that future studies of criminal behavior risk being misspecified if they do not include measures of these “traditional” theories of crime.
An Exploratory Study of Cottage Reputation in a Training School for Girls
Authors: Toigo Romolo
Published: March 2007

A pilot investigation of in formal social organization in a single cottage living unit at a training school for girls made necessary a preliminary assessment of the extent to which this unit was rep resentative of the other sixteen similar units. A reputational instrument was divised around a series of ad hoc dimensions impressionistically identified as salient in the description of dif ferent cottages at the school. The instrument was administered to the social work staff of the school and to the clinical psychol ogist. Results indicated that the cottage under intensive scrutiny was identified in reputational terms as one of the more strict, authoritarian living units at the training school. Both the utility and limitations of the reputational approach are considered in terms of the factors responsible for the development of a charac teristic reputation of an individual cottage.
Common Sense and Correctional Science
Authors: Fosen Robert H. , Campbell Jay
Published: March 2007

Common sense can no longer be permitted to stand alone as the only guideline for correctional administration. Historically useful as an effective force in prison reform, common sense must now be joined with correctional science if advances are to be made, at acceptable cost, in public protection and in restoration of the offender to the community. While only one-third of 1 per cent of current correctional budgeting is allocated to research, three-fourths of the state correctional agencies responding to a nation-wide survey indicate interest in initiating or expanding self-study. An emerging model for correctional science is out lined, and the need for scientific management is discussed along with suggestions for accelerating growth in this area.
Dimensions of Current Gang Delinquency
Authors: Gannon Thomas M.
Published: March 2007

Research into the types of gangs serviced by the street workers of the New York City Youth Board points to the beginnings of a more sophisticated type of delinquent group. Although continu ing to come from neighborhoods which lack stability and offer multiple opportunities for delinquency, many New York gangs have shifted from the more tightly structured, aggressive gangs of the 1950's, to a rather loosely-knit group with informal leader ship and less cohesive organization. Many of the larger fighting gangs have dissolved into smaller cliques in which violence is more diffuse and individualistic. Aggression remains the chief mechanism of group maintenance, but extreme intergroup con flict has declined. As group solidarity has weakened, the group's tolerance for a wider range of deviance has increased.

This overall shift in gang patterns is accompanied by an increase in social ability, occupational aspirations, and involve ment in the larger society. The data also reveal a certain ambivalence on the part of gang members toward their own group, thus supporting Short and Strodtbeck's findings about the unsatisfying nature of gang life. Many of these current changes reflect the fact that society is apparently beginning to offer these groups more than recreational facilities and consultative services; they also indicate important implications for agency and commu nity intervention programs.
The Penal Press: Opportunities for Correctional Research
Authors: Rogers Joseph W. , Alexander Elizabeth Smith
Published: March 2007

Although the penal press consists of over two hundred publi cations and has an estimated audience exceeding three hundred thousand readers, surprisingly little research attention has been devoted to it. This paper attempts to focus attention on the penal press through a merger of interests in corrections, com munication, theory and content analysis.

After providing a brief background of the penal press, two particular publications are compared through content analysis. Further examination is attempted through the incorporation of the concept of neutralization from the work of Gresham Sykes and David Matza.

Since the intention of this paper is primarily suggestive rather than conclusive, demonstrative rather than comprehensive, emphasis is placed upon the potential of the penal press. Ac cordingly, the conclusion suggests a number of ways in which this research vehicle might be utilized to further correctional knowledge.
The Legality of Killings by Australian Police
Authors: Harding R.W.
Published: March 2007

This article is a summary of the central point made in the writer's recent book, POLICE KILLINGS IN AUSTRALIA. (Penguin, 1970), which will be referred to simply as POLICE KILLINGS in this article. That central point is that it is highly probable that the majority of killings by police in the course of their duty occur in circumstances which are not permitted by law, but that the legality or illegality of such killings is never tested in an effective way because of various defects in the actual administration of the law. So invariable and systematic is the failure to test such conduct that one can say that the law, while remaining formally unchanged, has in fact been modified so as to afford greater protection to a privileged group within society-the police.
Unofficial Probation: An Evaluation of Its Effectiveness
Authors: Venezia Peter S.
Published: March 2007

Unofficial probation, one approach to the diversion of young sters from court, is in widespread use throughout the country. The study reported here was aimed at examining the effectiveness of such informal handling by means of an experimental-control-com parison group investigation of 277 children referred to the Yolo County Probation Department, Woodland, California, during an 18-month period from January, 1970, through June, 1971.

Though conclusive findings were not obtained, due primarily to the small number of children in the groups studied, the research effort did produce several noteworthy results:

—The Yolo County Probation Department now has a tested and efficient probation information system in operation. It may be the only probation department in the country using a data system that lends itself so readily to research as well as management infor mation purposes.

-Some idea was gained as to the degree to which the unofficial probation approach is used across the nation.

-An attribute profile of one probation department's informal probationers was developed. Thus, other departments are pro vided with an opportunity to make comparisons - on the basis of probationer characteristics instead of merely the usual mislead ing "success rates."

-The study described a research methodology that is available to practitioners for evaluating the effectiveness of probation approaches.

-Evidence was obtained to show that the selective use of informal probation does not result in any greater rate of official delinquency than does formal probation.

-Some of the findings tend toward the conclusion that proba tion services provided to children who need them do prevent further delinquency.

-Taken together, the study findings indicate that informal probation may reduce delinquency recidivism.

-The obtained results clearly favor the contention that a com munity can benefit financially and socially from the judicious use of unofficial probation.

A further conclusion was that the study results warrant replica tion of the research on a larger scale, with more than one depart ment studied.
Reactions of Juvenile Delinquents to "Justified" and "Less Justified" Movie Violence
Authors: Berkowitz Leonard , Parke Ross D. , Leyens Jacques-Philippe , West Stephen G.
Published: March 2007

In order to determine whether juvenile delinquents would respond to the sight of someone being beaten up the same way as previously studied university students, two-thirds of the in stitutionalized delinquents in the sample watched a brief filmed prize fight after having been insulted or treated in a neutral fashion by the experimenter's confederate. A story summary given to the subjects depicted the defeated movie character as either a callous exploiter of other persons or as a more sym pathetic individual. Immediately after the film the insulted de linquents shown the exploiter being beaten administered stronger electric shocks to the confederate than a no-movie control group and somewhat more than other provoked subjects seeing the sympathetic character being hurt. Like the university students, the delinquents had apparently regarded the exploiter's beating as "justified" aggression; and this interpretation temporarily legitimated their own attacks upon their tormentor.
Developing the Prison Environment Inventory
Authors: WRIGHT KEVIN N.
Published: March 2007

Climate, a popular conceptualization used to describe contextual properties of prisons that may have significant influence on individual behavior, is generally considered to be multidimensional and can be used to describe what it is like to live and work in prison. Past efforts to apply the conceptualization to organizations in general and specifically to prisons have been faulted for three reasons: inadequate theoretical specification, lack of attention to psychometric details, and a failure to consider the individual effects arising in aggregate measures. This article describes a new correctional climate instrument, the Prison Environment Inventory (PEI), which was attentive to these three issues. Hans Toch's eight environmental concerns—Privacy, Safety, Structure, Support, Emotional Feedback, Social Stimulation, Activity, and Freedom—were used as the dimensions of the instrument. The 80-item Inventory was created in a series of steps in which versions of the instrument were submitted to rigorous evaluations to assure its reliability and validity. Factor analyses of data indicate that the theoretical structure of the instrument is empirically patterned. Scale analyses confirm the integrity of the dimensions of climate, although some scales appear to be better defined than others. Final assessments indicate the individual effects do not greatly bias climate measurement with this instrument.
The Changing Forms of Racial/Ethnic Biases in Sentencing
Authors: ZATZ MARJORIE S.
Published: March 2007

Racial/ethnic discrimination in criminal justice processing has been the subject of heated debate for several decades. This article traces findings from four historical waves of research on sentencing disparities. Particular attention is given to changes in research methodologies and data sources, the social contexts within which research has been conducted, and the various forms that bias can manifest. It explores the change from findings of overt racial/ethnic disparities to more subtle, but still systematic, institutionalized biases. In so doing, the movement toward determinate sentencing is discussed, and the biases identified are partially explained by the need for the system to maintain legitimacy in the face of social change.
Deviant Lifestyles, Proximity to Crime, and the Offender-Victim Link in Personal Violence
Authors: SAMPSON ROBERT J. , LAURITSEN JANET L.
Published: March 2007

This article assesses the theoretical and empirical status of offense activity and proximity to offending for explaining personal victimization. Our theoretical approach to the often-neglected linkage between offending and victimization is derived from recent revisions of lifestyle-routine activity theory (Jensen and Brownfield 1986; Garofalo 1987). Analyses of two national surveys of victimization in England and Wales suggest that offense activity—whether violent or minor deviance (e.g., drinking or drug use)—directly increases the risk of personal victimization. Moreover, ecological proximity to violence has positive effects on personal victimization, regardless of individual-level offense patterns. These results are generally replicated across time, across type of victimization (e.g., stranger vs. acquaintance-crime), and are independent of major demographic and individual-level correlates of victimization. Consequently, the data support the hypothesis that general deviance and violent offense activity may be considered a type of lifestyle that increases victimization risk, and that the structural constraint of residential proximity to crime has an effect on victimization that is unmediated by lifestyle and individual-level demographic factors. Our research therefore demonstrates that three broad factors—violent offending, deviant lifestyles, and ecological proximity to crime and violence—are deserving of further consideration in theoretical and empirical accounts of personal victimization.