bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Canonical quantization of free fields
Authors: Buchbinder Iosif L. , Shapiro Ilya L.
Published: April 2021

This chapter discusses canonical quantization in field theory and shows how the notion of a particle arises within the framework of the concept of a field. Canonical quantization is the process of constructing a quantum theory on the basis of a classical theory. The chapter briefly considers the main elements of this procedure, starting from its simplest version in classical mechanics. It first describes the general principles of canonical quantization and then provides concrete examples. The examples include the canonical quantization of free real scalar fields, free complex scalar fields, free spinor fields and free electromagnetic fields.
Renormalization
Authors: Buchbinder Iosif L. , Shapiro Ilya L.
Published: April 2021

This chapter describes in detail the general concept of renormalization. It starts with a discussion of the regularization of Feynman diagrams. After that, the subtraction procedure is explained in detail, followed by an introduction to the notion of a superficial degree of divergence of the diagram. On this basis, the models of quantum field theory are classified as renormalizable or non-renormalizable theories. The main arbitrariness of the subtraction procedure is fixed by imposing renormalization conditions. Special sections of this chapter are devoted to renormalization in dimensional regularization and renormalization group equations.
The renormalization group in perturbative quantum gravity
Authors: Buchbinder Iosif L. , Shapiro Ilya L.
Published: April 2021

This is a short chapter summarizing the main results concerning the renormalization group in models of pure quantum gravity, without matter fields. The chapter starts with a critical analysis of non-perturbative renormalization group approaches, such as the asymptotic safety hypothesis. After that, it presents solid one-loop results based on the minimal subtraction scheme in the one-loop approximation. The polynomial models that are briefly reviewed include the on-shell renormalization group in quantum general relativity, and renormalization group equations in fourth-derivative quantum gravity and superrenormalizable models. Special attention is paid to the gauge-fixing dependence of the renormalization group trajectories.
‘Our own policy is well known to you’
Authors: Thackeray David , Toye Richard
Published: April 2021

Election addresses emerged in the nineteenth century from a vibrant tradition of broadsides, ballads, and hustings speeches. Following the ending of formal hustings meetings in 1868, the issue of election addresses acted as the formal start of the campaign, and became the key means for candidates to set out their cause. The high regard in which this form of election literature was held owed much to the actions of party leaders. From the 1860s onwards the election addresses of Gladstone and Disraeli were widely circulated by newspapers and in pamphlet form, and came to be commonly referred to as ‘manifestos’. While candidates commonly took inspiration from party leaders’ manifestos, these addresses were often brief statements of principle, which did not outline a formal programme for government. The nascent Labour Party offered novel ways of ‘doing politics’, centring each of their election campaigns around a manifesto programme.
Facing the future, 1940–1964
Authors: Thackeray David , Toye Richard
Published: April 2021

Let Us Face the Future became the archetype of manifestos, which the Conservatives in due course felt obliged to follow in form or method, however much they disliked its policy content. In turn, the technique of promise-making that it represented affected expectations of how government should be conducted. Winston Churchill was a reluctant supporter of programmatic politics, often employing an anti-promise rhetoric. However, the Conservatives came to embrace a programmatic politics in the 1950s. The Salisbury–Addison Convention meant that the Lords would not attempt to frustrate policies that had been included in the governing party’s manifesto. While the growing word count of manifestos made them less accessible to voters, their contents were increasingly summarized in shortened popular versions and discussed in TV election broadcasts. While election addresses remained an important means for candidates to outline their character, principles, and record, the local campaign declined in significance.
Something from Nothing
Authors: Amijee Fatema
Published: April 2021

It strikes many as obvious that negative facts—such as that Justin Trudeau is not a woman—are not fundamental: negative facts must ultimately be explained in terms of positive facts (for instance, that Justin Trudeau is a man). Amijee focuses on a particular class of negative facts: contingent negative existentials (such as that there are no 10ft tall humans). If contingent negative existentials are not fundamental, then they must be explained. But the intuition that contingent negative existentials are explained is in tension with the widely held view that any universal generalization can be explained by its instances together with a totality fact. This is because a totality fact is itself a negative existential, and equivalent to a universal generalization. If the explanation for any contingent negative existential must appeal to another contingent negative existential, then not all contingent negative existentials can be non-fundamental.
Ballot Ontology
Authors: Casati Roberto , Varzi Achille C.
Published: April 2021

The US Presidential Election of 2000 was crucially decided in Florida. And, in Florida, the election might have been decided crucially by the question: is a dimple a hole? “Yes, it is”, so dimpled ballots are valid and ought to be counted. “No it isn’t”, and dimpled ballots must be rejected as invalid. If only one knew the answer! Where were the hole experts when we needed them? Eventually the manual recount was stopped by the Supreme Court. But we did learn something. We learned that even the destiny of a Presidential Election, if not more, might ultimately depend on one’s criteria for identifying holes—not their material surroundings, which everyone could detect, but the holes themselves.
Something Out of Nothing
Authors: Segal Aaron
Published: April 2021

This chapter argues that it’s possible for something to be brought into existence by something that is non-actual. Segal distinguishes his argument from arguments for causation by omission, and draws a comparison between his argument and Zeno causation. Finally, he connects the topic to Jewish mystical traditions.
Introduction
Authors: Koinova Maria
Published: April 2021

The Introduction lays out the book’s theoretical and empirical foundations, based on large-scale research conducted among the Albanian, Armenian, and Palestinian diasporas in the UK, Germany, France, Netherlands, Sweden, and Switzerland. Two questions are of core interest: (1) why do conflict-generated diasporas mobilize in more or less contentious ways; and (2) why do they pursue their mobilizations through host-state, transnational, and supranational channels? Diaspora entrepreneurs are studied with their linkages to contested states experiencing challenges to their sovereignty, specifically de facto states with limited international recognition, Kosovo, Nagorno-Karabakh, and Palestine, respectively. The chapter presents a novel typology of four types of diaspora entrepreneurs based on configurations of their socio-spatial linkages to different global contexts: the Broker, Local, Distant, and Reserved. A two-level typological theory features interactions between diaspora entrepreneurs and homeland governments, parties, non-state actors, and critical events or limited global influences. This chapter presents other intellectual contributions of this book: going beyond analysis of diasporas as groups but focusing on individual agency; considering the socio-spatial positionality of diaspora entrepreneurs to different global contexts, not simply to host-states and home-states; shedding light comparatively on little explored diaspora lobbying in Europe, and integrating scholarship on migrant integration into the study of contested statehood. Scope conditions, methodology, coding, and dataset based on 146 interviews with diaspora entrepreneurs are presented next. The Introduction finishes by laying out the content of the individual chapters.
The Impact of Host-states and Places Within Them on Diaspora Mobilizations
Authors: Koinova Maria
Published: April 2021

Closer focused on host-states in which diaspora entrepreneurs live, Chapter 10 presents a comparative discussion. The empirical chapters (4–9) have demonstrated that analysts cannot make clear-cut comparisons of host-states, unless considering a transnational social field perspective: the UK has been the hub for mobilization for Palestinians, France for Armenians, and Switzerland and Germany for Kosovo Albanians in Europe, apart from the US. The chapter argues that host-states are not to be treated as units of analysis for controlled comparisons but should be considered as contexts of embeddedness that empower diaspora entrepreneurs in specific ways. Such approach is in line with scholarly efforts to analyse beyond methodological nationalism. The chapter argues, while a diaspora entrepreneur’s contextual embeddedness is not powerful enough to explain the contentiousness of diaspora mobilizations, it shapes the socio-spatial positionality of individual diaspora entrepreneurs. The discussion focuses on three dimensions: migration incorporation regimes, systems of interest representation, and decentralization patterns of these host-states. Empirical evidence from the Albanian, Armenian, and Palestinian diasporas shows that diaspora entrepreneurs are shaped in their migrant integration experiences, engagement through federal vs unitary systems of states, with trade unions, host-land political parties, and protest politics. Also, certain places within these host-states, such as London and Sheffield in the UK, Berlin and Stuttgart in Germany, Malmö and Gothenburg in Sweden, The Hague in the Netherlands, Paris in France, and Zurich and Geneva in Switzerland, play an important role for diaspora mobilizations but do not explain their contentiousness.
Getting acquainted
Authors: Petchey Owen L. , Beckerman Andrew P. , Cooper Natalie , Childs Dylan Z.
Published: April 2021

Before working through a real example of getting insights from data, we need to become acquainted with some tools we will use. Learning a bit about the tools first can help us feel more confident and comfortable when we then come to use them for real. Hence this chapter takes some time to introduce you to R and RStudio, including writing some simple commands, writing scripts, what to do when things seem to go wrong (as they often do!), what are functions, what are add-on packages, how to get help, and some common pitfalls to avoid.
Introduction
Authors: Szirmai Adam , Foster-McGregor Neil
Published: April 2021

Structural change is an important dimension of socio-economic development, closely connected with economic growth, as well as with innovation and technological change, international trade, political economy, employment dynamics and labour demand, inequality and poverty, and climate change, among many others. The current volume discusses the relationships between these and other factors and structural change, with this introductory chapter providing an analytic overview of the major themes discussed in the volume. The chapter seeks to discuss these issues in broad terms, highlighting the complex interactions between structural change and these different factors, thereby emphasizing the myriad ways through which structural change can impact upon—and be affected by—socio-economic outcomes.
Patterns of Diversification and Specialization in International Trade
Authors: Nomaler Önder , Verspagen Bart
Published: April 2021

Changes in the composition of production refer not only to the structure of production but also the composition of exports. The structure of exports is the topic of this chapter. The point of departure for the chapter is the well-known U-curve pattern of specialization proposed by Imbs & Wacziarg (2003). The chapter is informed by technology gap theories of catch-up. Due to international technology transfer laggard economies can start catching up. In this process they will tend to diversify. The main aim of the chapter is to test whether the U-curve hypothesis is valid. It makes an interesting distinction between specialization within product groups and specialization between product groups. For this, the chapter develops a new measure of entropy, which decomposes within and between group degrees of specialization. A rising trend for total entropy is observed over the whole product range. The curve tends to flatten at higher income levels, but it does not decline suggesting that there is no U-curve.
Three Barriers to Structural Changes and Catch-up by the Latecomers
Authors: Lee Keun , Ramanayake Shanika , Wonkyu Shin
Published: April 2021

This chapter discusses three barriers to structural change. The first barrier is that export growth cannot be sustained in those countries where wage rates are higher than labour productivity and wages increase more rapidly than productivity growth. The second barrier is the double resource curse and associated vicious cycles. This barrier derives from the effects of undervaluation on growth in mineral exporting sectors. Undervaluation reduces export earnings and increases the price of imports. The third barrier is about the negative impacts of IPR protection in the North on exports from the South, in particular in rapidly catching-up middle-income countries. The chapter uses regression analysis to test and confirm its propositions.
Central Bank Independence
Authors: Njoroge Patrick , Kanga Désiré , Murinde Victor
Published: April 2021

The chapter covers central bank independence broadly and makes use of rich literature to bring out key issues on central bank independence from the inception of central banking in 1668 to the twenty-first century. The chapter identifies four measures of central bank independence mainly focusing on legal characteristics. The findings of the study point to benefits associated with independence of central banks, including management of inflation. Also, it is found that delegating monetary policy to an independent central bank increases debt sustainability and fosters fiscal discipline. It is noted that central bank independence needs to be reconciled with the requirements of institutional and personal accountability of the governors. Further, the financial regulation role should be strengthened in the mandates of central banks as the objective of price stability does not necessarily foster financial stability.
Do Central Banks Have a Role in Financial Inclusion?
Authors: Ferrand David , Mas Ignacio
Published: April 2021

The chapter focuses on the role of central banks in fostering financial inclusion and specifically on the potential impact of financial inclusion on financial stability and economic growth. It examines the expansion of financial inclusion, from the reliance on informal solutions to the availability of formal services, through the engagement of policy-makers who have impacted on the way the financial sector has developed to be increasingly networked, driven by digitization, and supported by digital mobile networks. It highlights Kenya’s global success in financial inclusion; Kenya is used as a case study in central bank management, financial inclusion, and its contribution to economic development. It concludes by pointing out the risks associated with the absence of countervailing policies by financial institutions which may lead to unexpected losses to the financial system, and ultimately a banking crisis.
East African Monetary Union
Authors: Kasekende Louis A.
Published: April 2021

This chapter highlights progress with the East Africa Monetary Union (EAMU) and the implications for the future of central banking in the Eastern African region. In 2013, East African countries committed to move to a monetary union by 2024. However, monetary unions offer benefits as well as challenges, given the experience in European Monetary Union. The chapter highlights four main important issues: the imperative of extensive economic integration in order to reap benefits from EAMU; the need for strong, enforceable, but feasible rules to ensure the fiscal sustainability of each partner state, given that once EAMU is established, they will no longer have the option of financing their public debt from their own central banks; the mechanism for alignment of the exchange rates in the period prior to the introduction of the common currency; and how to mitigate the adverse impact of asymmetric macroeconomic shocks within the EAC.
Taking Guilt Seriously
Authors: Norrie Alan
Published: April 2021

This chapter identifies two kinds of guilt and considers how the retributive theory of punishment sits in relation to them. It draws on two lines in psychoanalytic theory, Melanie Klein’s object relations approach, and the Hans Loewald and Jonathan Lear development of the later Freud’s structural theory in terms of an ontology of love. The two kinds of guilt may be termed ‘early’ and ‘mature’, where the former entails a punitive and persecutory attitude of condemnation to a perpetrator, the latter an account which emphasizes restoration or atonement through making good. Considering Jeffrie Murphy’s account, I argue that the problem for retributivism is that there is at least an historical logic in how it is deployed in modern society, in terms of an early guilt which tends to the punitive and persecutory. An alternative guilt that is restorative and atoning might inform another retributive theory, one that was mature in its understanding of how serious violation should be addressed.
Imagining Ithaca
Authors: Riley Kathleen
Published: April 2021

‘Though home is a name, a word, it is a strong one’, said Charles Dickens, ‘stronger than magician ever spoke, or spirit answered to, in strongest conjuration.’ The ancient Greek word nostos, meaning homecoming or return, has a commensurate power and mystique. Irish philosopher-poet John Moriarty described it as ‘a teeming word … a haunted word … a word to conjure with’. The most celebrated and culturally enduring nostos is that of Homer’s Odysseus who spent ten years returning home after the fall of Troy. His journey back involved many obstacles, temptations, and fantastical adventures and even a katabasis, a rare descent by the living into the realm of the dead. All the while he was sustained and propelled by his memories of Ithaca (‘His native home deep imag’d in his soul’, as Pope’s translation has it). From Virgil’s Aeneid to James Joyce’s Ulysses, from MGM’s The Wizard of Oz to the Coen Brothers’ O Brother, Where Art Thou?, and from Derek Walcott’s Omeros to Margaret Atwood’s Penelopiad, the Odyssean paradigm of nostos and nostalgia has been continually summoned and reimagined by writers and filmmakers. At the same time, ‘Ithaca’ has proved to be an evocative and versatile abstraction. It is as much about possibility as it is about the past; it is a vision of Arcadia or a haunting, an object of longing, a repository of memory, ‘a sleep and a forgetting’. In essence it is about seeking what is absent. Imagining Ithaca explores the idea of nostos, and its attendant pain (algos), in an excitingly eclectic range of sources: from Rebecca West’s The Return of the Soldier and Remarque’s All Quiet on the Western Front, through the exilic memoirs of Nabokov and the time-travelling fantasies of Woody Allen, to Seamus Heaney’s Virgilian descent into the London Underground and Michael Portillo’s Telemachan railway journey to Salamanca. This kaleidoscopic exploration spans the end of the Great War, when the world at large was experiencing the complexities of homecoming, to the era of Brexit and COVID-19 which has put the notion of nostalgia firmly under the microscope.
Introduction
Authors: Riley Kathleen
Published: April 2021

To borrow Milan Kundera’s phrase, Imagining Ithaca treats Homer’s Odyssey as ‘the founding epic of nostalgia’. The Introduction, therefore, establishes the Odyssean paradigm of nostos and nostalgia and considers in some detail its subsequent influence. It provides a brief medical history of nostalgia, from the coinage of the term in 1688 by Basel physician Johannes Hofer, as well as a survey of the literary treatment, and cultural importance, of homecoming and nostalgia from the 1918 Armistice to the era of Brexit and Trump. In short, the Introduction serves as a guide to the six Parts of the volume and to the particular aspects of nostos and nostalgia examined in each. It explains the purpose and parameters of the book as well as its timeliness, and the choice and variety of texts discussed.
William Wyler’s The Best Years of Our Lives (1946)
Authors: Riley Kathleen
Published: April 2021

Chapter 3 locates William Wyler’s The Best Years of Our Lives within a climate of problematized nostos in the concluding years of World War II. It approaches the film as a tripartite Odyssey about three returning serviceman and three corresponding Penelope figures. It shows that, in portraying the tensions involved in the characters’ personal nostoi, The Best Years exposes a broader anxiety about the post-war stability, and indeed survival, of both oikos and polis. Through these individual stories, the film manages to suggest an entire generation readjusting to what Willard Waller called ‘this estranged world of peacetime complexity’, and to represent millions of families in their struggle to resume communication at a civilian and domestic level. The chapter delves into the genesis, development, and reception of this modern Odyssey.
John Ford’s The Long Voyage Home (1940)
Authors: Riley Kathleen
Published: April 2021

This chapter deals with the 1940 film The Long Voyage Home, directed by ‘America’s Homer’, John Ford, and critically received as ‘a modern Odyssey’. The film is an adaptation of four one-act plays by Eugene O’Neill, known as the Glencairn cycle, which are permeated by a tragic vision of unattainable nostos. Set in the contemporary context of World War II, it dramatizes the SS Glencairn’s perilous voyage home from the West Indies to England, with a cargo of munitions aboard. There is no obvious Odyssean figure in this nostos tale. Instead the members of the steamer’s ragtag international crew represent variations of the same Odyssean longing. Joseph McBride defines the film’s dramatic focus as ‘the archetypal Fordian male conflict between the urge to wander and the yearning for home’. But these men are not so much wanderers as lost souls purgatorially in thrall to the sea.
Tamar Yellin’s ‘Return to Zion’ (2006)
Authors: Riley Kathleen
Published: April 2021

Chapter 7 offers a brief description and analysis of ‘Return to Zion’, the opening tale of Tamar Yellin’s collection of short stories, Kafka in Brontëland. Yellin overlays English suburbia and the Jewish identity with elements of the Odyssey, delicately weaving the mythical and the mundane. As a rewriting of Homer, it is manifestly a minor work, but it is nonetheless an affecting and thought-provoking piece, unsettling in its portrayal of Ithaca as an elusive and illusory destination, the figment of a restive grief. Told from the perspective of Telemachus, this allegorical story identifies an intimate, incurable nostalgia as central to the Jewish heritage. It is a nostalgia that Yellin’s own father knew and that she herself expressed when she said: ‘I belong in two places at once, which sometimes feels like I belong nowhere.’
Carson McCullers’s ‘Look Homeward, Americans’ (1940)
Authors: Riley Kathleen
Published: April 2021

Chapter 11 takes a short essay by Carson McCullers as the basis for a discussion of America’s national trait of being ‘homesick most for the places we have never known’. It considers this phenomenon with reference to the writings of Mark Twain, Thomas Wolfe, and F. Scott Fitzgerald who made nostalgic wonder part of the American vernacular. It also draws a comparison between the forward-looking nostalgia McCullers analyses and Robert Sherwood’s 1935 play The Petrified Forest in which the young heroine dreams of returning to a home she has never known. The chapter ends with a brief discussion of Ralph Ellison’s Invisible Man—‘a veritable Ulysses of the black experience’—and a short story by McCullers called ‘The Aliens’, both of which urge a mature, hopeful, and inward-facing quest for ‘the homeness of home’.
George Orwell’s Coming Up for Air (1939)
Authors: Riley Kathleen
Published: April 2021

This chapter examines George Orwell’s novel Coming Up for Air, which is set in the crisis year of 1938, between Orwell’s service in the Spanish Civil War and the start of a fresh world conflict. Its hero, George Bowling, is a veteran of the Great War and now an oppressed suburban everyman wanting a week’s respite from the gathering storm. He embarks on an Ithacan quest to revisit the scenes of his Edwardian childhood in Lower Binfield, Oxfordshire and thus replenish his memories of peaceful summer days with which to meet the coming cataclysm. Unhappily he discovers that the remembered idyll has been despoiled by time, industry, and commercialism. In this parable of failed nostos, Orwell does not deny the magnetism of prelapsarian pastoral visions but he questions their worth and sustainability in a necessarily brave new world.
Alternative Voices
Authors: Carayannis Tatiana , Weiss Thomas G.
Published: April 2021

The chapter details the growing inputs for UN deliberations from two distinct sets of “voices”: from within emerging powers that formerly were absent or largely hidden; and from for-profit businesses. The first part examines the political and economic changes brought about by rising and emerging powers that are altering the landscape for how to approach the pillars of UN activity. The second part reflects the arrival on the UN’s stage of TNCs, which formerly had only cameo roles despite their weight in the global economy because of their perceived role, within the popular rhetoric from the Global South, as exploiters and explanations for poverty. Both emerging powers and business are long-ignored partners that bring resources, expertise, new technologies, and energy to international problem-solving and to the Third UN; they also have challenged the multilateral system and led to calls for a new architecture of global governance.
Who draws the line?
Authors: Sutton Rebecca
Published: April 2021

This chapter demonstrates that international humanitarian actors take it upon themselves to assert distinction, in contexts in which international actors are encouraged to demolish boundaries and work together. Empirical findings from South Sudan reveal that safeguarding distinction involves managing the perceptions of an amorphous onlooker: the ‘phantom local’. This imagined local audience—which comprises armed actors, authorities, and beneficiaries—ultimately decides who is who amongst international actors. In the civil–military training spaces, humanitarian actors again emphasize the role of perceptions, and here they also extol the importance of IHL. Across these global sites, power struggles ensue as other international actors contest the vision of distinction that humanitarians promulgate. The exploration of the Intellectual realm focuses squarely on the figure of the humanitarian actor in IHL, examining the historical evolution of this figure and its treatment in the First Additional Protocol (AP I). It is argued that IHL projects a Red Cross fantasy, such that protections for humanitarian actors are grounded in a very particular vision of ‘humanitarianness’. This leaves other humanitarians with status anxiety, yet their efforts to emulate this vision serve to further entrench the Red Cross actor’s paradigmatic status.
Where is the line drawn?
Authors: Sutton Rebecca
Published: April 2021

This chapter pursues the ‘civilian plus’, ‘mere civilian’, and ‘civilian minus’ across the three realms, exploring where the line is being drawn within the civilian category. Adopting parallel structures, the discussions in the Kinetic and Pedagogical realm first consider the humanitarian actor as a ‘civilian plus’ figure, and then as a ‘civilian minus’ figure. It is shown that in everyday practice, humanitarian actors strive to escape the vulnerability of the ‘mere civilian’ and to disperse any qualities of combatantness that might swirl around them. They root their claims to the ‘civilian plus’ in their important professional role and in the risk of harm it exposes them to; they also emphasize the expertise required to carry out humanitarian work. Other international actors detect a humanitarian superiority complex at play, sensing that humanitarian actors look down on them from a virtuous perch. Intriguingly, it is the very same professional role that could legitimate a claim to a special status that also impugns the civilianness of humanitarian actors—as when they are accused of ‘feeding the enemy’. The discussion in the Intellectual realm conveys that these intra-civilian distinctions are not disturbing an otherwise stable binary framework. Attention is drawn to IHL targeting rules that trouble a bright-line distinction. It is further shown that before the civilian was defined in AP I, the category was disaggregated for purposes of protection and access to services. Revisiting the Red Cross fantasy, it is proposed that IHL sets some humanitarian actors apart from other civilians.
Historical-economic background
Authors: Lütge Christoph , Uhl Matthias
Published: April 2021

First, this chapter distinguishes between an ethics of individual behavior that focuses on the individual’s actions and an ethics of conditions that focuses on the circumstances under which the individual is supposed to act. It is emphasized that much of today’s ethics was developed against the background of premodern societies, which implies the absence of economic growth and a high social control, both of which are in stark contrast to modern conditions. The ethical benefits of markets and competition are outlined. The market is interpreted as an instrument for the use of distributed and local knowledge, a method of discovery, an engine of innovation, a control mechanism, and an instrument of disempowerment and of self-discipline. Traditional concepts of business ethics are illustrated by the historical examples of the just price and the prohibition of lending money at interest.
Calculation and computation
Authors: Sethna James P.
Published: April 2021

This chapter introduces Monte-Carlo techniques to simulate the equilibrium properties of complex systems, and perturbative techniques to calculate their behavior as an expansion about solvable limits. It uses the Ising model as a description of magnets, of binary alloys, and of the liquid-gas transition. It introduces Markov chains and detailed balance as providing a guarantee that Monte-Carlo methods converge to equilibrium. To analyze phases and phase transitions, it introduces a 27-term low-temperature expansion for the magnetization of the Ising model. Inside phases, perturbation theory converges; at phase transitions, it cannot. Exercises simulate the behavior of the Ising model and cellular function. They explore equilibration algorithms and calculation of low temperature expansions. And they apply Markov chains to coin flips, unicycles, fruit flies, chemical reaction rates, and DNA replication.
Princes’ Justifications of War in Early Modern Europe: The Constitution of an International Community by Communication
Authors: Tischer Anuschka
Published: April 2021

Anuschka Tischer starts out with the historical analyses of the book by elaborating the dialectic of war discourses and international order in early modernity: according to Tischer, nearly every prince in early modern Europe came up with a ‘just reason’ when going to war. Whereas the theory of international law represented academic opinions, the political justifications offered the official view which fed into the public discourse. By referring to a general international law in their war declarations (and counter-declarations), the belligerent parties shaped the pattern of today’s modern international law. However, the early modern justifications represented the political and social values of pre-revolutionary Europe. While international law was regarded as universal, the European Christian powers distinguished between wars in and outside of Europe. The chapter reveals the contradictions inherent in this distinction by analysing how princes in early modern Europe justified their wars, which norms and orders were accepted, and how far international law was the result of elaborate discussions and power politics. Tischer’s findings are picked up by Hendrik Simon in his contribution on the nineteenth-century discourse of war and international order.
The Justificatory Potential of International Law: National Socialists’ Dreams of African Colonies
Authors: Lange Felix
Published: April 2021

While the other chapters in Part IV underline the self-contradictions of the universe of the Western international legal order, Felix Lange turns to the paradoxical legal justification strategies for regaining colonies of a political regime that was most hostile to liberal international law: even though Adolf Hitler’s foreign policy primarily aimed at gaining Lebensraum in the East, the recovery of the German colonies was also among the foreign policy goals of National Socialist Germany. Supporters of the colonial cause amply relied on the justificatory potential of international law to persuade other Western powers of Germany’s legal right to retake them. In particular, German international lawyers claimed that the provisions of the Versailles Treaty renouncing Germany’s titles over the colonial possessions violated key doctrines of international law. This contribution contextualizes the academic discourse on international law in the political debates of the time.
Justifying Interventions—The Case of ECOWAS in Liberia
Authors: Wilén Nina
Published: April 2021

In contrast to the other chapters in Part V, Nina Wilén’s focus is on multilateral military interventions at the regional level: She explores the relationship between sovereignty, intervention, and the international normative order, by examining how ECOWAS, an African regional organization, justified its intervention in Liberia’s civil war referring to international norms. Based on a critical discursive analysis of the speeches related to ECOWAS’ decision to intervene in Liberia in 1990, as well as the responses the justifications provoked from the UN and the United States, it is argued that ECOWAS’ intervention and the justifications which accompanied it were clearly influenced by an international normative order where sovereignty is the key constitutive norm and non-intervention the main regulative norm. Yet the fact that ECOWAS also violated the very same norms through its intervention, created a precedent for future regional interventions and implied long-term consequences for the international normative system.
Justified: Just War and the Ethics of Violence and World Order
Authors: Brown Chris
Published: April 2021

This volume’s final Part VII on the impact of legal claims in war discourses is introduced by Chris Brown. In this chapter, he fundamentally questions the relevance of international law as a frame of reference for the justification and limitation of war. Brown turns our attention back to just war which we have discussed earlier in this volume (ch. 2 by Anthony Lang, Jr): Brown argues that, properly understood, the just war tradition can be defended against most of its critics, the exceptions being those Clausewitzian realists and Gandhian pacifists who refuse to make the kind of discriminations upon which the tradition is based. More problematic are some of the newer friends of the tradition, analytical political theorists who reject its praxis-oriented dimension, and focus on the rights and responsibilities of individuals, discounting the importance of collectivities. These writers are, in some respects, closer to the medieval tradition than are defenders of contemporary international humanitarian law, but their reliance on the ability of philosophers to decide matters of justice leads to a dogmatism uncharacteristic of the just war tradition, and their emphasis on the individual undermines the link between theory and practice. This chapter defends a traditional, albeit post-Christian, reading of the notion of justified war against both its overt opponents and its supposed friends.
Part II
Authors: Clark Samuel
Published: April 2021

Part II works from the point of view of the reader of autobiography, and asks: what should we learn from autobiography? It argues for a lesson about selfhood and the good life, and specifically about the roles of narrative and of self-realization in those targets of human self-knowledge. This investigation addresses four questions: given that autobiographies are narratives, should we learn something from them about the importance of narrative in human life? Could our narration of our lives explain how their parts relate to them as wholes? Could it retrospectively unify them and thereby make them good for us? Could it create self-knowledge by interpretatively making the self? In each case it answers: no. The lesson we should learn here is instead about the centrality of self-realization to selfhood and the good life. To make that case, this part argues for pluralist realism about self-knowledge: autobiographies of self-discovery, martial life, and solitude show that the ‘self’ which is created and known by self-interpretation is, at best, one part of what we can know about ourselves, and not the most interesting part. These modes of self-discovery reveal a self that is unchosen, initially opaque to itself, and seedlike, which could not be a self-interpretation, and whose good is its realization.
Principles of epistemic logic II: Being in a position to know
Authors: Rosenkranz Sven
Published: April 2021

Principles of being in a position to know that are candidates for inclusion in a combined logic for knowledge and being in a position to know are critically reviewed. Some are disqualified for reasons similar to those that already disqualified their counterparts for knowledge, others for other reasons, since being in a position to know, unlike knowledge, does not imply belief. Of those that survive closer scrutiny, some are restricted versions of more general principles that ought to be rejected. Two unfamiliar principles are singled out and given a detailed defence. Since one of them affirms outright that some non-trivial condition is luminous, its defence involves demonstration that, at least for this isolated case, the anti-luminosity argument devised in Williamson (2000) can be resisted. Throughout, and in line with the results of chapters 2 and 3, it is being assumed that knowledge requires safe belief, and correspondingly, that being in a position to know requires being in a position to safely believe.
Concluding Remarks. (Neo)Colonialism, (Neo)Imperialism, and Hegemony
Authors: Lienau Odette
Published: April 2021

This concluding chapter considers the political salience of choosing words and characterizations when discussing sovereign debt—in particular the terms neo-colonialism, neo-imperialism, and hegemony. It highlights that, at least in popular usage, the selection among these terms is often intended less as accurate description than as an expression of the desire to identify a responsible actor, highlight the unequal burdens of restructuring, or emphasize or construct a national narrative. It also raises the question of the degree to which scholars should be mindful in using these terms. Indeed, given the continued political salience of sovereign debt issues and the emotion they engender, it can sometimes be difficult to disentangle the scholarly from the popular, the descriptive from the performative, and the instrumental from the expressive.
Ideas as Remedies to Inconveniences
Authors: Queloz Matthieu
Published: April 2021

This chapter locates the roots of the pragmatic genealogical tradition in David Hume’s explanations of artificial virtues as remedies to inconveniences. The motivation for Hume’s turn to genealogy is examined, and it is shown how viewing his accounts of the virtues of justice and fidelity to promises through the lens of pragmatic genealogy sets them apart from the Enlightenment genre of conjectural history. Four functions performed by Hume’s fiction of a counterpossible state of nature are identified, and it is shown how Hume introduces two key ideas: that under certain circumstances, the motivations to engage in a practice need to be non-instrumental motivations if the practice is to be stable; and that shared needs can give rise to practices that serve a point for participants even when those fail to grasp what that point is. This prevents genealogies from becoming overly intellectualist or circular.
Ideas Worth Having
Authors: Queloz Matthieu
Published: April 2021

This concluding chapter argues that pragmatic genealogies show us to what extent the ideas we live by merit our confidence by revealing whether and when they are ideas worth having. Returning to the opening contrast between Socratic and Pragmatic Questions, the chapter argues that the kind of pragmatic inquiry exemplified by pragmatic genealogies is something that Socratic inquiry can be grounded in and guided by. The answer to a ‘What is X?’ question cannot be the last word, because the authority of any answer to that question needs to be assessed in light of the merit of accepting it as authoritative. Finally, the chapter highlights how the method of pragmatic genealogy provides philosophy with a vessel for incorporating social, psychological, and historical understanding into philosophy, thereby offering philosophers a concrete model for how to pursue philosophy as a humanistic discipline, in integration with neighbouring human sciences.
Introduction
Authors: Oda Hiroshi
Published: April 2021

Japanese law is part of the Civil law (Franco-German) legal system. There have been discussions on the ‘Japanese legal consciousness’, but now, it is agreed that there is no such ‘uniqueness’ of Japanese law. On the other hand, the approach of the courts in interpreting statutes and their role in interpreting contracts may represent some unique aspects of Japanese law.
The Sources of Law
Authors: Oda Hiroshi
Published: April 2021

Japanese law is primarily based on statutory law. There are general codes such as the Civil Code and the Criminal Codes and a number of statutes. Case law also plays a significant role. Courts may ‘create a contract’ on behalf of the parties, and even modify statutes by way of interpretation. Japan has a system of full judicial review.
The Legal Profession
Authors: Oda Hiroshi
Published: April 2021

Judges, public prosecutors, and attorneys form a distinct group of professions which is called the hōsō. Japan has a uniform bar examination for judges, public prosecutors, and attorneys. Successful candidates go through a one-year training run by the Supreme Court. There are other professions such as tax attorneys and patent attorneys which perform the role covered by attorneys in other jurisdictions. Corporate legal counsels also play a significant role.
Civil Procedure
Authors: Oda Hiroshi
Published: April 2021

The new Code of Civil Procedure was adopted in 1996. The latest amendment to this Code involves provisions on the jurisdiction of Japanese courts in cross-border disputes. The matter had been left to the courts, but now the system has become much clearer.
Prologue
Authors: Kox A. J. , Schatz H. F.
Published: April 2021

The prologue presents the structure of this book about Lorentz’s life and work. It describes how it deals with Lorentz’s ideas and achievements and his activities in society at large, all in their historical context. It indicates how the book highlights Lorentz’s unique position in the scientific world of his day, especially after World War One, as witnessed by the overwhelming attendance by both the fine fleur of international science and ordinary people at his funeral.
Early work and the Theory of Electrons
Authors: Kox A. J. , Schatz H. F.
Published: April 2021

Chapter 4 contains an overview of Lorentz’s early work in terms accessible to a general audience. It sheds light on his unique place in science and the importance of his ideas, especially in the field of electromagnetic theory (his theory of electrons). A description of physics in the early nineteenth century, highlighting the role of Faraday and Maxwell, is followed by a discussion of Lorentz’s dissertation and his research program, the explanation of the Zeeman effect and the introduction of the electron, as well as the role of the ether. In this context the famous experiment by Michelson and Morley is also discussed, as well as the electromagnetic world view, Einstein’s special theory of relativity, and the question of which theory was to be preferred: Lorentz’s electron theory or Einstein’s special relativity theory?
Implementing a Mutual Profit and Loss
Authors: Eccles Robert G. , Laurent François
Published: April 2021

Chapter 14 records how Mars is seeking to implement a mutual profit and loss (P&L) statement in its management accounts. It is being used to align the management systems of Mars with its purpose and signal to the business that performance in terms of human, social, and natural capital is as important as financial performance. The mutual P&L reflects that the boundary of the firm should not be restricted to its legal and contractual rights and obligations but should also embrace the ecosystem that is relevant to the delivery of its purposes. It includes expenditures in the ecosystem as part of its activities and crucially recognizes these as investments not just current operating expenditures where they contribute to human, social, and natural capital as well as material and financial capitals. In line with traditional accounting methods, it values these investments at cost not at market values.
Bel Group
Authors: Colin-Jones Alastair , Berreby Alexandra , Sorlin Caroline , Radvan Hannah , Ellis Justine Esta
Published: April 2021

The case of the Bel Group illustrates the way in which a company has worked together with a variety of different parties in marketing and selling a brand around the world. The process began with investigating the structures and patterns of existing street vendors and then identifying those with whom it wished to partner. It involved running focus groups to determine pain points in the ecosystem and then providing training, health insurance, financing, and access to the formal sector of taxation, social security, and migrant registration. The programme became profitable within two years of its launch, graduated more than four hundred micro-entrepreneurs from training courses and provided health insurance to a thousand people. It is targeting eighty thousand street vendors around the world by 2025.
Sabka Dentist
Authors: Ouarzazi Yassine El , Khalil Lionel , Hadzic Aida , Roll Kate , Stroehle Judith , Vora Vikram
Published: April 2021

The case of Sabka Dentist, which is the largest chain of dental clinics in India, is an illustration of the importance of clarity of purpose. The company’s mission is to provide affordable dental care to all people in India, with an emphasis on the poorest members of the urban population. At the heart of its business model is a high degree of standardization that involves fitting out clinics with pre-specified units that allow the company to set up a new clinic within three weeks. It invests heavily in training programmes and provides interest-free funding to patients. It measures its performance in terms of the number of patients it treats, its in-house audit scores, patient satisfaction, and average revenue per patient.