bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Ethics and Images: Five Major Concerns
Authors: Lester Paul Martin
Published: May 2010

Photographs have long been known to spark more emotional responses than stories. This chapter uses a picture taken during a tragic news situation as an example of journalistic wrongdoing. Violence and tragedy are staples of U.S. journalism because many readers are attracted to gruesome stories and photographs. “If it bleeds, it leads” is an undesirable rule of thumb. This chapter uses a five-step systematic moral analysis to determine if the image's use can be justified despite the assumed harm to the woman in the photograph.
Threshold Deontology and Its Critique
Authors: ZAMIR EYAL , MEDINA BARAK
Published: May 2010

This chapter discusses moderate (or threshold) deontology, its critique, and possible responses. Deontological theories prioritize values such as autonomy, human dignity, and keeping one's promises over the promotion of good outcomes. In prohibiting the infliction of harm on other people, they resort to distinctions such as that between actively doing harm and merely allowing it, and between intending to do harm and merely foreseeing it. Moderate deontology holds that constraints (and options) have thresholds. A constraint may be overridden for the sake of furthering good outcomes or avoiding bad ones if enough good (or bad) is at stake; and an option not to promote the good may be overridden for the sake of attaining enough good or avoiding enough bad. The chapter analyzes the main critiques leveled against deontology in general and moderate deontology in particular. It concludes that threshold constraints (and options) are an indispensable part of any acceptable factoral moral theory, but that threshold deontology suffers from a lack of methodological rigor and precision.
Private and Public Morality
Authors: ZAMIR EYAL , MEDINA BARAK
Published: May 2010

This chapter discusses the claim that even if moderate deontology is the correct moral theory for individuals, consequentialism is the appropriate moral theory for legal policymakers such as legislators, judges, and regulators, and for academic policy-analysts. It refutes the argument that the distinction between actively doing harm and passively allowing it is inapplicable in the public sphere. It similarly counters the argument that the distinction between intending harm and merely foreseeing it is only applicable in the private sphere. The chapter contends that these arguments confuse, among other things, between constraints and options, and between the actor's perspective and the perspective of an external reviewer. It ultimately rejects the alleged dichotomy between personal and public morality.
Constructing Threshold Functions
Authors: ZAMIR EYAL , MEDINA BARAK
Published: May 2010

This chapter discusses various substantive and methodological choices involved in formalizing deontological constraints and options. It proposes to determine the permissibility of any act or rule infringing a deontological constraint by means of a threshold function. It outlines the scope of this proposal by describing the role of threshold functions within a broader context that may involve conflicting constraints and require a choice between several deontologically permissible acts. It then delineates the general structure of threshold functions. To capture the essence of deontological constraints, threshold functions set the magnitude and shape of the threshold, as well as the types of costs and benefits that are taken into account in determining whether the act's (or rule's) net benefit meets the threshold. The construction of threshold functions for deontological options is also discussed.
Freedom of Speech
Authors: ZAMIR EYAL , MEDINA BARAK
Published: May 2010

This chapter discusses freedom of speech. It briefly describes current constitutional protection of this freedom and surveys its standard economic analysis. It then introduces the deontological constraint against curtailing free speech and analyzes in some detail the normative judgments involved in conducting a constrained cost-benefit analysis of speech regulation. As to calculating the benefit of speech regulation — which is tantamount to calculating the speech's expected harm — it examines the desirability of excluding, or radically discounting, various types of harms, such as chronologically-remote and low-probability harms, small harms, harms brought about through rational persuasion, and mere offensiveness. Various ways of formalizing such excluders and combining them are examined. The chapter then analyzes the threshold that has to be met to justify speech regulation, including its shape, the setting of different thresholds for content-based and for content-neutral regulation, and different thresholds for different categories of speech.
Antidiscrimination Laws
Authors: ZAMIR EYAL , MEDINA BARAK
Published: May 2010

This chapter examines discrimination in the marketplace and, more specifically, the legitimacy and appropriate scope of anti-discrimination legislation. Following a brief survey of current legal norms, it relies on positive economic analysis to explain possible motivations for discrimination. It then examines the efforts made to justify anti-discrimination legislation on standard efficiency grounds. It argues that these efforts are unsuccessful. Rather, the appropriate way to adequately capture the issues pertaining to market discrimination is to directly take into account a deontological constraint against harming people by discriminating against them. The chapter analyzes the deontological constraint against discrimination, examines the relationships between this constraint and distributive bases for anti-discrimination legislation, and demonstrates how current legal norms are best understood as resting on moderate deontology and embodying threshold constraints.
Legal Paternalism
Authors: ZAMIR EYAL , MEDINA BARAK
Published: May 2010

This chapter analyzes legal paternalism in its various manifestations. It first argues that contrary to prevailing notions, normative economics does not entail principled anti-paternalism. In fact, the consequentialist nature of standard welfare economics — namely the absence of constraints on promoting good outcomes — opens the door to limiting people's freedom with a view to promoting their own good. Economists ordinarily object to paternalism, but rather than pointing to the intrinsic value of freedom, they base their anti-paternalistic stance on various secondary considerations, thus missing the real dilemmas inherent in paternalism. Adding deontological constraints to the analysis better captures the pertinent issues, and provides more accurate yardsticks with which to evaluate paternalistic legal norms and explain existing ones. The chapter constructs formal models to evaluate the desirability of paternalistic legal norms from both economic and moderate deontological perspectives.
Introduction
Authors: ZAMIR EYAL , MEDINA BARAK
Published: May 2010

This introductory chapter provides an overview of the book's motivation and goals, and describes the structure of the discussion.
2.1 Recording EEG Signals Inside the MRI
Authors: Gutberlet Ingmar
Published: May 2010

This chapter focuses on the performance of parallel and concurrent electroencephalography (EEG), and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) measurements. Topics discussed include the technical challenges of recording EEG in the MR environment, types of MR-compatible equipment, patient safety during combined recordings, data acquisition considerations, and subject considerations.
2.3 Removal of MRI Artifacts from EEG Recordings
Authors: Eichele Tom , Moosmann Matthias , Wu Lei , Gutberlet Ingmar , Debener Stefan
Published: May 2010

The simultaneous recording of electroencephalogram (EEG) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) provides several advantages over multimodal integration based on separate EEG and fMRI recording protocols. However, the recording and analysis of simultaneous EEG-fMRI is not without pitfalls. The potential benefits of simultaneous recordings come at the expense of a massive, inevitable presence of artifacts, which corrupt the EEG signals recorded in the MR environment. This chapter presents different methods of EEG artifact correction. It also discusses the limitations of currently available approaches as well as possible future directions.
2.4 Influence of EEG Equipment on MR Image Quality
Authors: Mullinger Karen , Bowtell Richard
Published: May 2010

This chapter first considers the detrimental effect of main magnetic field inhomogeneity in MRI, focusing on the particular effects of the differences in magnetic susceptibility between the materials used in EEG recording (electrodes and leads) and the human head. It then examines the importance of a uniform RF field in MRI, and analyzes how the presence of an EEG cap may affect the homogeneity of this field, thus reducing image quality. The ways in which these phenomena affect the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), and cause local signal loss in EPI data collected for fMRI experiments, are discussed. The safety aspect of simultaneous EEG-fMRI, which is an extremely important consideration, is explored. Guidance is given relating to how to test the safety of an experimental set-up, and the importance of testing each new EEG recording arrangement in the scanner is emphasized. Finally, the chapter suggests some methods that may be used to overcome the problems of reduced MR image quality, which can be encountered when performing simultaneous EEG and fMRI.
3.1 Using ICA for the Analysis of Multi-Channel EEG Data
Authors: Debener Stefan , Thorne Jeremy , Schneider Till R. , Viola Filipa Campos
Published: May 2010

Independent component analysis (ICA) is a linear decomposition technique that aims to reveal the underlying statistical sources of mixed signals. The EEG signal consists of a mixture of various brain and non-brain contributions. Accordingly, a valid and powerful unmixing tool promises a better, more accessible representation of the statistical sources contributing to the mixed recorded signal. ICA, being potentially such a tool, may help in the detection of signal sources that cannot be identified on the raw data level alone using other, more conventional techniques. The application of ICA to EEG signals has become popular, as it provides two key features: it is a powerful way to remove artifacts from EEG data, and it helps to disentangle otherwise mixed brain signals. This chapter is concerned with evaluating and optimizing EEG decompositions by means of ICA. First, it discusses typical ICA results with reference to artifact- and brain-related components. Then, it elaborates on different EEG pre-processing steps, considered in light of the statistical assumptions underlying ICA. As such, the motivation for the chapter is to provide some practical guidelines for those researchers who wish to successfully decompose multi-channel EEG recordings.
3.2 Using ICA for the Analysis of fMRI Data
Authors: Valente Giancarlo , Esposito Fabrizio , de Martino Federico , Goebel Rainer , Formisano Elia
Published: May 2010

This chapter examines the most relevant aspects concerning the use of independent component analysis (ICA) for the analysis of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data. In particular, after illustrating the fMRI-ICA model (“Problem formulation and application to fMRI”), the chapter compares the most commonly used ICA algorithms in the context of fMRI data analysis. The problems of choosing the dimensionality of the ICA decomposition, and of selecting the “meaningful” components, are considered. Optimizations of the ICA algorithms for dealing with the specific spatiotemporal properties of the fMRI data, and extensions of the ICA to multisubject fMRI studies, are described. For each of these aspects, different approaches from various groups are briefly reviewed.
3.6 The Hemodynamic Response of EEG Features
Authors: de Munck JC , Gonçalves SI , van Houdt PJ , Mammoliti R , Ossenblok P , da Silva FH Lopes
Published: May 2010

This chapter describes the hemodynamic response function (HRF) estimation problem in detail, and discusses its underlying assumptions. Different variants of the method are applied using the data of a single subject that was chosen for illustrative purposes.
3.7 Integration of Separately Recorded EEG/MEG and fMRI Data
Authors: Wibral Michael , Bledowski Christoph , Turi Georg
Published: May 2010

This chapter presents various strategies of combining separately recorded electroencephalography/magnetoencephalography (EEG/MEG) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data sets. To help the experimenter decide in the first place whether to use concurrent recordings of EEG and fMRI or separate recordings, it attempts to weigh the relative merits of combined versus separate EEG/MEG and fMRI measurements, and puts them in perspective with respect to various experimental goals. The principle of MEG recording and its advantages, as compared to EEG, are also described; these particular advantages of MEG recordings are important to consider because, at present, they are only available when data are recorded separately, due to the current incompatibility of MRI and MEG measurement equipment.
3.8 Analyzing Effective Connectivity with EEG and MEG
Authors: Kiebel Stefan J. , Garrido Marta I. , Friston Karl J.
Published: May 2010

Developments in M/EEG analysis allows for models that are sophisticated enough to capture the full richness of the data. This chapter focuses on dynamic causal modeling (DCM) for M/EEG, which entails the inversion of informed spatiotemporal models of observed responses. The idea is to model condition-specific responses over channels and peristimulus time with the same model, where the differences among conditions are explained by changes in only a few key parameters. The face and predictive validity of DCM have been established, which makes it a potentially useful tool for group studies.
3.9 Analyzing Functional and Effective Connectivity with fMRI
Authors: Stephan Klaas Enno , Friston Karl J.
Published: May 2010

Functional neuroimaging techniques, e.g. positron emission tomography (PET) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), and neurophysiological methods, e.g. electroencephalography (EEG) and magnetoencephalograpy (MEG), are used widely in cognitive and clinical neuroscience. A common aim is to understand brain function along two dimensions: functional specialization and functional integration. Functional specialization assumes that AQ1 distinct brain regions are specialized for certain aspects of information processing, but allows for the possibility that this specialization is anatomically segregated across multiple regions. Most current functional neuroimaging experiments have adopted this view and interpret the areas that are activated by a certain task component as the elements of a distributed system. However, this characterization does not address how the locally specialized areas are bound together by context-dependent interactions among these areas, i.e. the functional integration within the system. This chapter reviews established techniques for characterizing functional integration on the basis of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data.
4.2 Clinical Applications: Epilepsy
Authors: Laufs Helmut , Thornton Rachel
Published: May 2010

This chapter reviews the clinical application of electroencephalography/functional magnetic resonance imaging (EEG-fMRI) to epilepsy at two levels. Initially, it summarizes the body of primary EEG/fMRI patient studies in epilepsy, focusing on the most comprehensive and up-to-date literature available. It then addresses the question of what researchers have learned about the potentials and limitations of this technique, which is still relatively new. Although EEG/fMRI has not lived up to some of its initial expectations, it will be seen that new avenues have appeared. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the immediate next steps, and an outlook on the future of the field.
Anterior Cingulate Cortex Contributions to Cognitive and Emotional Processing: A General Purpose Mechanism for Cognitive Control and Self-Control
Authors: Krug Marie K. , Carter Cameron S.
Published: May 2010

This chapter addresses the topic of self-control from the perspective of conflict theory, a well-studied framework for understanding the behavioral and neural adaptation effects seen during the performance of a selective attention task. We begin with an in-depth explanation of conflict theory and a review of recent literature in support of this theory. We explain how the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) monitors for processing or response conflict and recruits dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) to resolve these conflicts, increasing attention to goal-related stimuli and adaptively improving behavioral performance. Next, we review alternative theories and explanations of cognitive control and compare them to conflict theory. Finally, we focus on the recent application of conflict theory to the understanding of a wide range of mental processes including emotion regulation and appraisal as well as social cognitive phenomena such as moral reasoning and attitudes, social exclusion, and cognitive dissonance. We conclude that conflict theory, a mechanistic framework originally designed to account for cognitive control functions related to attention, also shows promise in its ability to elucidate higher-level emotional and social behaviors and their associated neural activity. We propose that this model should be considered in future studies of processes related to self-control.
Damaged Self, Damaged Control: A Component Process Analysis of the Effects of Frontal Lobe Damage on Human Decision Making
Authors: Fellows Lesley K.
Published: May 2010

Frontal lobe damage can disrupt judgment, decision making, and self-control, often with devastating impact on the everyday life of the affected person. Studies of these phenomena can identify the specific brain regions important for self-control and can specify the component processes for which these regions are necessary. This chapter provides an overview of recent neuropsychological work on regional frontal lobe contributions to reinforcement learning and decision making in humans. These findings argue that self-control can be understood in terms of simpler component processes, including the ability to flexibly learn from reward and punishment, to track the value of potential choices, or to predict future events. Further, these processes have been shown to rely on particular brain regions, an important step in delineating the neural mechanisms underlying self-control.
Control in the Regulation of Intergroup Bias
Authors: Amodio David M. , Devine Patricia G.
Published: May 2010

In the intergroup relations literature, theories of control concern the interplay of basic cognitive mechanisms of self-regulation with intrapersonal and societal-level goals and motivations. By integrating multiple levels of analysis, this literature has been uniquely positioned to advance our understanding of control as it operates in the complex social world that the human self-regulatory system has evolved to negotiate. In this chapter, we review research and theoretical models of control that have emerged from intergroup approaches. The first section of this chapter describes four theoretical models of control that have been central to research in prejudice, stereotyping, and intergroup relations. The next section highlights some of the recent exciting advances in the study of control in the intergroup domain and notes how they are refining and, in some cases, redefining basic conceptions of control as a self-regulatory process. The final section outlines what we see as some major challenges faced by current theories of control, both in the intergroup domain and in the broader psychological literature.
Integrating Research on Self-Control across Multiple Levels of Analysis: Insights from Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience
Authors: Kross Ethan , Ochsner Kevin
Published: May 2010

Advances in neuroimaging methods and techniques and interest in understanding the neural bases of psychological phenomena are rapidly changing how the capacity for self-control is being addressed. An approach dubbed Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience (SCAN) integrates research across multiple levels of analysis, leading to important findings that link the basic social, cognitive, and affective processes underlying self-control to their neural substrates. This chapter illustrates how a SCAN approach can be useful for addressing questions including the problem of how to enable researchers from different areas with different types of expertise and interests in self-control to communicate with one another and most effectively use each other’s (sometimes highly technical) theories and methods. Towards this end, we begin by describing the basic goals of SCAN and some of the key challenges facing researchers who adopt this approach. We then describe how this approach is currently being used to build an integrative understanding of the processes underlying a particular type of self-control process that involves actively reinterpreting the meaning of an emotionally evocative stimulus to meet and/or modulate ones’ feelings. We conclude by discussing important future research directions in this area.
Using the Stroop Task to Study Emotion Regulation
Authors: Buhle Jason , Wager Tor , Smith Ed
Published: May 2010

The Stroop task is among the most influential experimental paradigms for the study of cognitive control. Recent variants have sought to extend the Stroop task to the study of emotional regulation. To assess these emotional Stroop tasks, it is important to distinguish between those that seek to disrupt performance purely via distraction by emotional stimuli that engage attention, from those that do so by presenting emotional information that specifically conflicts with task-relevant judgments. The emotional stimuli in distraction-based Stroop tasks typically fail to disrupt the performance of healthy adults, and recent work suggests that when inference does occur, it lags behind goal-directed processing, primarily degrading performance on subsequent trials. Although early neuro-imaging research using the emotional distraction Stroop tasks gave rise to the influential hypothesis of distinct emotional and nonemotional processing regions in the anterior cingulate cortex, subsequent research has provided limited support. Other recent evidence suggests that interference in these distraction tasks might reflect a generic transient surprise rather than inherently emotional processes. In contrast to emotional distraction Stroop tasks, studies of emotional conflict have reported robust congruency effects, but it is unclear that the resolution of stimulus incompatibility is relevant to questions of how one controls one’s emotions. Future research with emotional distraction Stroop tasks should seek to develop variants that evince more robust effects, whereas research on emotional stimulus incompatibility should leverage previous work with nonemotional conflict Stroop variants to explore topics such as the relationship between output modality and dimensional relevancy, and the distinction between categorization and identification task goals.
The Common Neural Basis of Exerting Self-Control in Multiple Domains
Authors: Cohen Jessica R. , Lieberman Matthew D.
Published: May 2010

People regularly exert control over impulsive thoughts and behaviors in order to make appropriate decisions and take appropriate actions even when they are more difficult or less pleasant than alternative choices. A common theme in mental illnesses characterized by impulsivity, such as ADHD and substance abuse, is an impaired self-control mechanism. Therefore, understanding the mechanisms underlying an intact control mechanism can not only shed light on how healthy people exert self-control over their thoughts and behaviors, but help us to understand what is impaired in patient populations as well. The right ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (VLPFC) is a region in the brain that is commonly activated when people are exerting many different forms of self-control. It is noted that other prefrontal regions also consistently activated when one exerts self-control, such as the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, orbitofrontal cortex, and medial prefrontal cortex, may be recruited for other task demands and not self-control specifically. Although the right VLPFC has been linked to other functions as well, this review will focus on the hypothesized general role that it plays during acts of self-control. There are infinite manners in which one can exert self-control. We limit our discussion to six forms of conscious, explicit control that are commonly addressed in the literature: motor response inhibition, suppressing risky behavior, delaying gratification, regulating emotion, memory inhibition, and thought suppression. First, we review the literature exploring the involvement of the right VLPFC in each type of self-control separately. Next, we explore the small amount of literature comparing different forms of self-control to each other and discuss the possibility that these forms of self-control are related constructs. We also discuss the anatomical positioning of the right VLPFC and point out that it is well suited to serving a key role in exerting self-control. Finally, we conclude that although more direct research must be conducted before firm conclusions can be made, there is evidence that the right VLPFC is utilized when exerting self-control regardless of the specific domain of control.
The Dynamic Control of Human Actions
Authors: Waszak Florian , Springer Anne , Prinz Wolfgang
Published: May 2010

Human action serves two complementary purposes. On the one hand, actions are meant to achieve desired effects in the environment. On the other hand, people act as a consequence of external events, trying to accommodate to environmental demands. While the former type of action is usually referred to as “voluntary,” “goal-directed,” or “intention-based,” the latter is often conceptualized as “response,” “reaction,” or “stimulus-based.” At the same time, the concepts of intention- and stimulus-based action control are inseparably interwoven. Although intention-based actions by definition rely on intentions, the planning process also needs to consider stimulus information from the agent’s actual environment. Similarly, although stimulus-based actions are triggered by external stimuli from the environment, stimulus information is not a sufficient condition for the execution of the action: to respond to the external information in the appropriate way, it rather needs to be complemented by an intentional set. In this chapter, we address theoretical and experimental approaches to the cognitive underpinnings of action control. We outline current theories of human action control and review experimental paradigms addressing this issue by comparing intention-based and stimulus-based actions or by investigating the interference between both types of action control. Finally, we discuss the function of the self within the proposed cognitive framework. For this purpose, we link the action control theories under discussion to cross-cultural and social-psychological evidence suggesting that individuals differ in self-regulatory performance depending on their social orientation—that is, how they define the self in connection to other people. We will claim that research on self-control can profit from cognitive research on action control because both fields deal with situations in which automatic behavioral tendencies need to be controlled and adjusted to the individual’s goals and desires, for example, losing weight, abstaining from alcohol, cigarettes or drugs, or avoiding violent and aggressive reactions to others. In turn, to understand from a cognitive perspective why people fail to withstand predominant responses to the environment, and, on the other hand, how they can successfully regulate their behavior can be viewed as a substantial part of understanding self-control.
Unpacking the Self-Control Dilemma and Its Modes of Resolution
Authors: Kruglanski Arie W. , Kőpetz Catalina
Published: May 2010

The problem of self-control has been an old preoccupation since the time of Greek philosophers. In modern psychology, self-control and related concepts, such as conscientiousness, ego resilience, willpower, or the human agency, have been of longstanding interest to theorists yielding to invaluable insights into people's abilities and difficulties to cope with self-control concerns. However, an overarching conception that would guide our understanding of self-control phenomena is still in great need. The purpose of the present chapter is to organize the most recent theorizing and empirical research on self-control and to sketch the contours of such a framework around two main issues: 1) the essential “ingredients” of the self-control problem (saliency of seemingly incompatible objectives, and their relative value); 2) the basic ways of responding to the self-control problem (goal-choice, and multifinality quest).
Conflict and Control at Different Levels of Self-Regulation
Authors: Scholer Abigail A. , Higgins E. Tory
Published: May 2010

Traditionally, self-control conflicts have been defined as conflicts between some immediate, short-term gratification versus some delayed, long-term gain. Although this is certainly a self-control issue, we argue that a focus on this definition of self-control has obscured the broader self-control issue: self-control is about resolving and managing conflict. In this chapter, we take a broad view of defining self-control within the self-regulatory system by considering how conflicts and control are represented within a self-regulatory hierarchy. Specifically, we suggest that self-control involves managing conflicts at multiple levels: managing conflicts between and within the levels of behaviors, tactics, strategies, and goals. In particular, we suggest that self-control conflicts can exist both between and within multiple levels in a hierarchy. Vertical conflicts occur between levels in a self-regulatory hierarchy (e.g., between higher-order and lower-order concerns, between goal orientations and strategies, between strategies and tactics). Horizontal conflicts occur within levels in a self-regulatory hierarchy (e.g., between goals, between strategies, between tactics, between behaviors). We review evidence that individuals exert self-control both horizontally and vertically at the goal and strategic levels of the self-regulatory hierarchy. We end by discussing the possibility that conflict representations are malleable. Representing the same conflict in different ways (e.g., vertically vs. horizontally) may have significant implications for interventions.
Justice as Social Self Control
Authors: Tyler Tom R.
Published: May 2010

This chapter examines the idea of justice from a self-control perspective. It argues that justice involves socially shared rules whose function is to facilitate people's efforts to manage social interactions. Because of the benefits of social interactions, people want to live in social groups and cooperate with others. However, doing so requires them to recognize what constitutes a reasonable balance between doing what benefits them and doing what benefits others. Rules of social justice define that reasonable balance and, in so doing, make social life more viable. This is directly true with principles of distributive justice, which indicate who should receive what. It is indirectly true of principles of procedural justice, which define how authorities should decide who should receive what. In both cases, reliance on justice makes the functioning of relationships and groups more efficient and effective.
System Justification and the Disruption of Environmental Goal-Setting: A Self-Regulatory Perspective
Authors: Feygina Irina , Goldsmith Rachel E. , Jost John T.
Published: May 2010

Global warming and environmental destruction pose formidable social dilemmas. Although the contribution of each person to the problem through consumption, utilization, and waste is nearly invisible, the cumulative impact for the well-being of societies and individuals within those societies is potentially devastating. We propose that an important psychological factor contributing to the environmental commons dilemma is the motivation to justify and rationalize the status quo and the extant socioeconomic system. Rather than acknowledging and confronting environmental problems, we propose that people may engage in denial of environmental realities as a means of satisfying short-term needs associated with system justification. Denial, in turn, contributes to a failure to set pro-environmental goals and the tendency to perpetuate environmentally harmful behaviors that are detrimental in the long term. Four studies provided support for these predictions. People who exhibit chronically stronger (vs. weaker) tendencies to justify the system reported greater denial of environmental problems, less favorable attitudes toward the environment, and failure to set useful, ambitious goals or to engage in behaviors that would prevent further environmental deterioration. Differences in system justification tendencies helped to explain commonly observed differences in environmental attitudes and behaviors among liberals and conservatives, women and men, and those with more—compared to less—years of education. In addition, our experimental evidence suggested that engaging in denial of environmental realities serves a system-justifying function by re-establishing a view of the system as legitimate and just, but it interferes with setting goals to help the environment. Implications of a self-regulatory perspective on environmental attitudes and potential contributions of a social psychological analysis of commons dilemmas are discussed.
Introduction
Authors: Rose Elizabeth
Published: May 2010

The United States' approach to educating and caring for young children relies on a patchwork of public and private programs serving children of different economic backgrounds, ages, and needs. Policymakers' decisions over the past 40 years have helped create this fragmented and market‐based system. Today's advocates are pushing to define preschool as part of public education, and to offer it to all children. The book will explore how past policy decisions have brought us to the current campaign for universal pre‐kindergarten, and how history can inform the questions that need to be answered in order to move ahead.
Chapter 1 Promises and Politics
Authors: Rose Elizabeth
Published: May 2010

The creation of the federal Head Start program in 1965 put the needs of young children from poor families on the national agenda. Head Start was inspired both by research suggesting the promise of early intervention and by the politics of Lyndon Johnson's War on Poverty, which required that it be launched quickly and on a large scale, and that it bypass the structures of local government. Local programs varied widely in how they prioritized Head Start's different goals, making it difficult to assess the program's success. By drawing national attention to the promise of preschool for the poor, Head Start also spurred interest in preschool for other children, leading to the expansion of public kindergartens, private nursery schools, and the television show Sesame Street.
Chapter 2 Creating a Patchwork Approach to Child Care in the 1970s
Authors: Rose Elizabeth
Published: May 2010

As more mothers entered the paid workforce, and as the women's movement mobilized, members of Congress proposed building a nationwide system of universally available child care services. Although the 1971 child care bill initially had broad support, proponents battled over who would control programs, and conservative opposition to the idea of government‐funded child‐care centers mounted. Ultimately, President Nixon vetoed the bill, slamming shut the window of opportunity for creating a unified public system for child care and early education. The implications of this bill's failure would be far‐reaching, making it politically difficult to act on the issue for years to come. As the demand for child care grew through the 1970s, therefore, it was met largely through the private market. Child care continued to be seen as a responsibility of individual families, not of society as a whole.
Chapter 6 “Preschool for All” or Preschool for the Needy?
Authors: Rose Elizabeth
Published: May 2010

As advocates and policymakers at the state level sought to translate the promise of preschool into practice, they had to wrestle with the practical question of whether their preschool programs should serve all children or be targeted to the neediest. The idea that universal programs would be more politically popular and result in higher quality programs was not always a useful guide in practice. Attempts to enact universal pre‐kindergarten in California, Virginia, and other states ran into opposition precisely because the idea of providing “preschool for all” seemed a questionable use of public dollars when many families were already paying to send their children to private preschools. Not only was the promise of broad political support often misleading, but so was the promise that universal programs would necessarily produce higher quality than targeted ones. In practice, the universal preschool programs that states have designed have had mixed success at generating broad political support and high quality standards, while more incremental efforts to expand targeted programs have been quite successful.
Chapter 8 Putting the Promise of Preschool into Practice
Authors: Rose Elizabeth
Published: May 2010

By borrowing the practices of K‐12 schooling, pre‐kindergarten advocates hope to gain higher‐quality classrooms, trained and well‐compensated teachers, stable funding, and access for more children. However, pressure to improve student achievement in reading and math may make it difficult for a balanced, child‐centered curriculum to flourish, and parent involvement may be a lower priority. Putting the promise of preschool into practice requires attention not only to securing for preschool the professionalism and stability that schools can offer, but also to sustaining the strengths of early childhood programs that grew up outside of schools. Teacher training and compensation, curriculum, and parent involvement are some of the key questions that policymakers today face as they seek to ensure that the preschool system they build will be of high quality.
Conclusion
Authors: Rose Elizabeth
Published: May 2010

The idea of universal pre‐kindergarten now enjoys nearly universal support. It is important at this juncture to understand what legacies we have inherited from the past, and what lessons we might learn from it. We must look beyond the lessons that advocates have already learned—namely that preschool should be framed in terms of education, provided to all children, and attached to K‐12 education—to recognize the complexity of fulfilling the promise of preschool.
Chapter 3 Drugs Don't Talk: Do Medication and Biological Psychiatry Contribute to Silencing the Self?
Authors: Gordon Richard A.
Published: May 2010

This chapter examines the recent rise in the use of antidepressant medications as well as the growing emphasis on biomedical explanations for depression. The chapter presents the history of antidepressant medications and changes in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual as well as an analysis of the shift in the treatment of depression from psychotherapy to drugs. The author provides an overview of evidence for social factors in the origin of depression and argues that social models of depression have been marginalized by the dominance of biomedical discourse and practices. The chapter looks at the gaps in current scientific understanding of what constitutes effective treatment for depression. The chapter also discusses implications for depression treatment that considers the broader social environment and that acknowledges the effects of life stress and trauma.
Chapter 4 The Itinerant Researcher: Ethical and Methodological Issues in Conducting Cross-Cultural Mental Health Research
Authors: Trimble Joseph E. , Scharrón-del Río María R. , Bernal Guillermo
Published: May 2010

This chapter describes important considerations related to ethical decision making for research on depression with women from ethnocultural populations. Using real-life examples, the authors present evidence of the connections between irresponsible research and cultural incompetence. The chapter focuses on epistemological, ethical, and methodological challenges that confront researchers when working with research participants from ethnocultural communities. It also outlines crucial dimensions of culturally sensitive research, such as applying a cultural perspective to the evaluation of risk and benefits, developing and implementing culturally respectful consent, confidentiality and disclosure procedures, and engaging in appropriate community and participant consultation.
Chapter 6 Gender as Culture: The Meanings of Self-Silencing in Women and Men
Authors: Smolak Linda
Published: May 2010

This chapter discusses the frequently reported finding that men self-report equal or higher levels of self-silencing as compared to women. It describes the relevant research and then presents various possible explanations for this finding. These explanations include methodological issues concerning questionnaire measures and participant samples, and theoretical issues concerning the meanings of voice for men and women. The author suggests that reported similarities on self-silencing scores between women and men may mask important gender differences regarding the development and effects of voice. To illustrate these gender differences, the chapter uses the example of sexual harassment as a phenomenon that is reported at similar levels by both men and women in survey research but that also carries different meanings and consequences for women than for men.
Chapter 15 Supporting Voice in Women Living with HIV/AIDS
Authors: DeMarco Rosanna F.
Published: May 2010

This chapter describes the ways in which self-silencing theory can be used to understand the experiences of women in inner-city Boston living with HIV/AIDS. The author discusses how the self-silencing construct contributed to the creation of a gender-sensitive culturally relevant intervention related to safe sex behaviors for women at risk. The chapter presents a program of community-based participatory action research that involves (a) an examination of the complex problem of women living with HIV/AIDS in the United States, and (b) the use of the author's culturally relevant intervention to change behavior, increase self-esteem, decrease depression, and give ”voice” to women. The author argues that self-silencing theory can be applied in creating an innovative approach to HIV/AIDS prevention for women.
Chapter 17 Eating Disorders and Self-Silencing: A Function-Focused Approach to Treatment
Authors: Geller Josie , Srikameswaran Suja , Cassin Stephanie
Published: May 2010

This chapter examines self-silencing and loss of voice in women's experiences of eating disorders. The authors put forward a model that links etiological perspectives, self-silencing, and eating disorder behaviors, arguing that a critical function of eating disorder behaviors is communication and management of emotions and that these behaviors reinforce and perpetuate the self-silencing schema through a negative feedback loop. The model is based on a series of studies in Canada with clinical samples of adolescents and adult women with anorexia and/or bulimia compared with various types of control groups.[Q2] The authors suggest that women who feel unable to express an authentic self through words may use their bodies as a means of communicating emotional distress. The authors describe treatment strategies and suggest that the most effective interventions engage women in collaborative nonhierarchical relationships that focus on readiness for change and that address the functions of the eating disorder.
Chapter 18 Self-Silencing and the Risk of Heart Disease and Death in Women: The Framingham Offspring Study
Authors: Eaker Elaine D. , Kelly-Hayes Margaret
Published: May 2010

This chapter presents data from the Framingham Offspring Study where data were collected on 3682 men and women who were followed for 10 years to document the occurrence of heart disease or death. This study included a measure of self-silencing that asked participants how they dealt with conflict with their spouse. After adjusting for the standard risk factors, the data revealed that women who self-silenced during conflict with their spouse, compared with women who did not, had four times the risk of dying over the 10 years of follow-up. The authors examine this finding and discuss the damaging effects of not engaging with one’s spouse during conflict. The chapter also discusses the importance of future research investigating the many possible health-related consequences of self-silencing.
Introduction
Authors: Davies Stephen
Published: May 2010

This book brings together sixteen chapters on the related topics of art's definition and its critical interpretation. Theories held on these subjects within contemporary Anglo-American analytic aesthetics are critically reviewed and developed. Among other themes, this involves consideration of art's origins, its functions, the nature of beauty and of aesthetic properties, and the goals of, and constraints on, our attempts to understand and appreciate art. While the focus is mainly abstract and theoretical, concrete topics such as architecture's credentials as an art form and the nature of metaphor, are also covered.
The Cluster Theory of Art
Authors: Davies Stephen
Published: May 2010

Berys Gaut has defended a cluster account of art, according to which no one property is necessary for something's being art, and various different combinations of properties from a fairly long list can each be sufficient for something's being art. He proposes this view as a superior form of anti-essentialism, but this chapter argues that the cluster theory is not inherently anti-essentialist in conception. It generates a disjunctive catalogue of sufficient conditions that, because it is exhaustive, allows for a necessary condition; viz., that something is art only if it satisfies at least one of the disjuncts on the list. The result may be long and messy, but no less a definition on that account.
Non‐Western Art and Art's Definition
Authors: Davies Stephen
Published: May 2010

Without much discussion, most philosophers of art have confined their attention to Western fine art. There is good reason, however, to think that art is pan-cultural and ancient, and frequently encountered claims — for instance that non-Western cultures lack the concepts needed to make art — are unconvincing. Theories that define art recursively in terms of some relation between present art and past art, implicitly make art-status relative to an artworld or art tradition, because it is only against such a background that the relation is achieved. As a result, such definitions are at best incomplete, because no account is offered of what makes an artworld an ARTworld.
First Art and Art's Definition
Authors: Davies Stephen
Published: May 2010

To be complete, theories that define art recursively in terms of some relation between present art and past art must provide an account of the first artworks, since these had no predecessors. The accounts that have been offered are largely unsuccessful. If first art can be identified as such by people who are unaware of the cultural context in which it was produced, this is likely to be because of the prominence it gives to aesthetic properties universally recognizable as such. Though art is not to be defined in terms of its aesthetic qualities, and contemporary art can eschew these altogether, it is probably an historical necessity that art begins with works that focus on achieving aesthetic excellence.