bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Andocides
Authors: Harris Edward M.
Published: December 2012

Andocides came from a prominent Athenian family. One of his ancestors, also named Andocides, was a treasurer of Athena in the sixth century; another named Charias helped the Spartans and the Alcmeonids to drive out the Peisistratids in 510
bce
. His grandfather served as general in the Megarid and on Samos and was one of the envoys who negotiated peace with Sparta in 446. His father Leogoras married a sister‐in‐law of Perikles' son Xanthippos. Andocides himself appears to have been born around 440.
Anytos
Authors: Bearzot Cinzia
Published: December 2012

Anytos was an Athenian politician (ca. 450–395), son of Anthemion, from the deme of Euonymon. He belonged to a rich family of tanners; one of his sons is mentioned in Xenophon (Ap. 30). He was perhapsbouleutesin 413/12 (Ar.Thesm. 809).
Apodektai
Authors: Papazarkadas Nikolaos
Published: December 2012

Theapodektaiwere an Athenian financial board annually allotted from the ten tribes (oneapodektesper tribe). From ca. 386bceonwards they received money (hence their name “receivers”) from several sources before allocating it to the appropriate authorities as part of the elaborate fiscal system calledmerismos.
Archelaos
Authors: Worthington Ian
Published: December 2012

Archelaos was king of Macedonia from 413 to 399. He seized power by murdering his uncle, his cousin, and then his younger brother, which led Plato to describe him as “the greatest criminal in Macedonia, the most wretched of all the Macedonians, and not the happiest” (Gorg. 471a—d). Nevertheless, Archelaos ruled Macedonia well compared to his immediate predecessors.
Arginousai, battle of
Authors: Hunt Peter
Published: December 2012

Arginousai was an Athenian naval victory in the last phase of the Peloponnesian War.It is best known for its aftermath, the mass trial and execution of the victorious generals.
Aristocracy, Greek
Authors: Duplouy Alain
Published: December 2012

As an analytical and historical concept, aristocracy has long been defined as a conjunction of wealth, power, and nobility. The word actually appeared during the fifth centurybcewhen historians and philosophers began to think about their political history.
Aristophanes
Authors: Sommerstein Alan
Published: December 2012

Aristophanes (ca. 450–ca. 385bce) was one of the leading comic dramatists in the Athens of his day, and has ever since been regarded as the outstanding representative of Old comedy.
Army, Greece
Authors: Schwartz Adam
Published: December 2012

The concept of “army” in Archaic and Classical Greece was very different from the modern notion.
Art, Greece
Authors: Stansbury‐O'Donnell Mark
Published: December 2012

Greek art is probably best known for the mimetic representation of the human figure, starting from very abstract depictions during the Geometric period to more intensely naturalistic and realistic sculptures and paintings in the Classical and Hellenistic periods. Beyond style, however, Greek art served social and cultural purposes that are important for understanding the role that Greek art played in the experience of its viewers, creators, and patrons.
Chalkous
Authors: Kroll John H.
Published: December 2012

The Greek word for a Bronze coin, used most commonly for the ubiquitous small coin (diam. ca. 10–13 mm) worth one‐eighth of an Attic silver obol (or one‐twelfth of the heavier Aiginetan obol). Larger bronze coins, for example, two‐ and four‐chalkous pieces, were multiples of this basic unit.
Chares
Authors: Bianco Elisabetta
Published: December 2012

Athenian general, leading figure in fourthcentury Athenian politics. He held the
strategia
in at least half of the years between 367/6 and 324/3
bce
, although subsequently his reputation suffered and he fell into obscurity.
Chiliarchos
Authors: Muccioli Federicomaria
Published: December 2012

Greek translation of the Old Persianhazārapati(“Commander of a Thousand”).
Croesus
Authors: Almagor Eran
Published: December 2012

The last Lydian king (mid‐sixth century
BCE
) of the house of Mermnadae, who succeeded his father, Alyattes, at the age of thirty‐five (Hdt. 1.6–7, 26, 92), Croesus forged diplomatic ties with Media and Ephesos (Hdt. 1.74; Ael.
VH
3.26), secured the support of Babylon, Egypt, and Sparta (Hdt. 1.69–70, 77), and controlled the region west of the Halys River (Hdt. 1.28, 103; cf. Thuc. 1.16), being the first barbarian to subdue all the Greek cities in Asia Minor and make them tributary (Hdt. 1.6, 27).
Cunaxa
Authors: Almagor Eran
Published: December 2012

The site of a decisive battle fought in 401
bce
, where the Persian King Artaxerxes II defeated and killed his brother Cyrus the Younger.
Delian League
Authors: Papazarkadas Nikolaos
Published: December 2012

The modern name traditionally used to describe the Athenian‐led alliance of Greek (mainly Ionian) city‐states established in 478BCEwith the aim of continuing the war against Persia.
Demes, Attic
Authors: Jones Nicholas F.
Published: December 2012

Previously existing settlements of Attica became “demes” (demoi, singulardemos) when, upon the creation of the democracy in 508/7BCE, Kleisthenes imposed on the land of Attica an elaborate territorial organization of which the demes were the basic units.
Demosthenes, orator
Authors: Worthington Ian
Published: December 2012

Demosthenes was born in 385/4 or 384/3BCEand died in 322. He was one of Athens' most influential anti‐Macedonian politicians and remains one of the foremost Attic orators whose speeches survive today.
Diogenes of Sinope
Authors: Bosman Philip R.
Published: December 2012

Diogenes of Sinope (ca. 403–323bce) was a colorful fourth‐century philosopher regarded as the original face of Cynicism.
Dionysios II
Authors: Bearzot Cinzia
Published: December 2012

Dionysios II (ca. 396–post‐344
bce
) was tyrant of Syracuse, son of Dionysios I and Doris of Locri. The principal sources for his life and career are Diodorus of Sicily (15–16), Plutarch (
Dion
), and Cornelius Nepos (
Dion
).
Dodona
Authors: Dieterle Martina
Published: December 2012

Ancient sources – the first mention comes in Homer – identify the shrine of Zeus at Dodona (in Epirus, 600 masl, under Mount Tomaros) as uniquely significant in the Hellenic world and equal to Delphi and Delos (Pl.Phdr. 244b; Cic.Div. 1.3; Diod. Sic. 18.4.4; Plut.Lys. 25.1; Paus. 8.23.5).
Douketios
Authors: Giangiulio Maurizio
Published: December 2012

Douketios was the military and political leader of the Sikels who, after the fall of the tyrants of Syracuse (466BCE), tried to unite the natives of southeastern Sicily into a league. All we know about him comes from Diodorus of Sicily (11.76, 78, 88–92; 12.8, 29), whose information goes back to the Sicilian historian Timaeus of Tauromenium.
Eleven, the (hoi Hendeka)
Authors: Liddel Peter
Published: December 2012

In Athens, the “Eleven” were officers chosen by lot who were charged with enforcing legal decisions of the courts: with the assistance of public slaves.
Ephialtes
Authors: Wallace Robert W.
Published: December 2012

Ephialtes was an Athenian democratic politician in the 460s ([Arist.]Ath. Pol. 25.1; 28.2 calls him leader of thedêmos) but is poorly documented, as is the Areopaos Council that he reformed.
Eukrates, law of
Authors: Richardson M. B.
Published: December 2012

The law of Eukrates is a fourth‐century
BCE
Athenian law, preserved in an inscribed copy excavated in 1952 in the Athenian Agora.
Eurymedon, battle of
Authors: Tuci Paolo A.
Published: December 2012

The battle of Eurymedon was fought between the Athenians, with their allies and the Persian Empire, during the Pentekontaetia.
Euthyna, euthynai
Authors: Liddel Peter
Published: December 2012

In Athens, theeuthyna(“a straightening”; often in the plural form when referring to legal procedure) checked the conduct of outgoing magistrates.
Forts, Greek
Authors: Lefebvre Ludovic
Published: December 2012

Our knowledge of the history of Greek fortifications of the Classical and Hellenistic periods has improved in the last thirty years, mostly thanks to fruitful archaeological discoveries and a new reading of ancient texts.
Four Hundred, oligarchs at Athens
Authors: Shear Julia L.
Published: December 2012

In 411bce, a group of four hundred oligarchs briefly seized power in Athens and contrived through manipulation of the city's constitution to overthrow the democracy.
Freedom (eleutheria)
Authors: Edge Matt
Published: December 2012

Recent developments in the writing of the history of political thought, influenced by trends in the philosophy of language since Wittgenstein, have stressed the importance of studying the history of our normative concepts and how they were applied to, and how they evolved within (so to speak), historical languages.
Gaugamela
Authors: Poddighe Elisabetta
Published: December 2012

Gaugamela was the scene of a decisive battle between Alexander the Great and the last Achaemenid king, Darius III, on October 1, 331
bce
.
Graphe nomon me epitedeion theinai
Authors: Rhodes P. J.
Published: December 2012

An Athenian lawsuit (“public suit for proposing an inexpedient law”), available for one year against the proposer and indefinitely against the law (cf. Dem.
Lept
. 144 and
hyp
. 2.3), in fact on the grounds either that the law was inexpedient or that it was illegal.
Herakleia Pontica
Authors: Saprykin Sergej Ju.
Published: December 2012

The Greek city, founded in 554
BCE
by the Megarians, Boiotians, and Thessalians on the south coast of the Euxine (modern Ereğli, Turkey), kept to its Doric origins throughout its long history.
Himera
Authors: Longo Fausto
Published: December 2012

The Greek city of Himera in Sicily was founded in 648
bce
by Zankle with the help of a contingent of Syracusans and a group of Euboeans from Chalcis (Thuc. 6.5.1; Strabo 6.2.6, 272; Ps. Scymn. 289‐90).
Ionian tribes
Authors: Jones Nicholas F.
Published: December 2012

“Tribes” is the conventional but misleading rendering of Greekphylai(singular,phyle), the principal units segmenting the populations and/or territories of many, perhaps originally all, Greek city‐states. Just as in the case of the three ancestralphylaiof the Dorians, Ionians inherited a set of fourphylai, with an attested distribution at Athens and, to the east, on the Ionian islands and along the Ionian seaboard.
Thessaly
Authors: Sprawski Sławomir
Published: December 2012

Thessaly is a region in northern Greece. The term refers narrowly to the area of two great plains drained by the Peneios River (Ps.‐SkylaxPer. 64), but is also used to denote a much broader region extending from Mount Olympos in the north to Mount Oita in the south, and from the Aegean coast in the east to the Pindos range in the west; and thus consisting of the great plains and the adjacent regions of Perrhaibia, Magnesia, Phthiotic Achaia, Dolopia, and the Spercheios valley (Strabo 9.5.1, 429–30).
Isaeus
Authors: Ferrucci Stefano
Published: December 2012

Isaeus (ca. 420–ca. 340
bce
), forensic speech writer, had his
floruit
in Athens during the first half of the fourth century.
Issa
Authors: Kirigin Branko
Published: December 2012

Issa is the ancient name of both the Adriatic island of Vis (ca. 90 km
2
) and the Greek
polis
(Ps.‐Skylax 29; Ps.‐Skymnos 413–14) located near the modern town of Vis.
Jason of Pherai
Authors: Sprawski Sławomir
Published: December 2012

Jason of Pherai (?–370
bce
) was a Thessalian tyrant. He probably came from a noble family of Pherai and was a relative of Lycophron, who fought in 404
bce
against the Aleuadai of Larissa and attempted to gain control over Thessaly (Xen.
Hell
. 2.3.4).
Kallistratos, Athenian politician
Authors: Bearzot Cinzia
Published: December 2012

Kallistratos was an Athenian politician and orator (ca. 415–355bce), son of Kallikrates, of the deme of Aphidna; nephew of Agyrrhios (Dem. 24.134) andkedestes(father‐in‐law?) of Timomachos (Dem. 18.219; 19.297).
Kamarina
Authors: Cordano Federica
Published: December 2012

Polis
founded by the Syracusans on the southern shore of Sicily in 598
bce
(Thuc. 6.5.3).
Korkyra Melaina
Authors: Kirigin Branko
Published: December 2012

According to Ps.‐Skylax (29) and Apollonius Rhodius (
Argon
. 565–73), this is the name of the island of Korčula (Croatia). Ps.‐Skymnos (427–8), Strabo (7.5.5, 315), and Pliny (
HN
3.152) state that on the island there was a Knidian colony.
Kleroterion
Authors: Rhodes P. J.
Published: December 2012

An Athenian device introduced in the fourth centurybcefor making allotments, for example of men to hold office or serve on juries.
Kritias
Authors: Németh György
Published: December 2012

Kritias (ca. 460–403 bce) was a politician and writer in Athens, a student of Socrates, and the uncle of Plato (Xen.
Mem
. 1.12–17).
Cumae (Kyme)
Authors: Lomas Kathryn
Published: December 2012

Cumae (Kyme) was the earliest Greek colony on the Italian mainland, founded in the mid‐eighth century
BCE
.
Lelantine War
Authors: Parker Victor
Published: December 2012

This Early Archaic war between the Euboean cities of Chalcis and Eretria was the first that began to go beyond a mere border conflict and involve alliances on both sides (Thuc. 1.15).
Leonidas I of Sparta
Authors: Lupi Marcello
Published: December 2012

Leonidas I (ca. 540–480
bce
) was a Spartan king of the house of the Agiads.
Leontinoi
Authors: Longo Fausto
Published: December 2012

A Greek
polis
in Sicily founded in 729
bce
on the hills of S. Mauro and Metapiccola, south of the fertile Etna plain, by inhabitants of Naxos guided by the oikist Theokles after ousting the Siculi by force (Thuc. 6.3.3).
Leukon
Authors: Moreno Alfonso
Published: December 2012

Leukon I (389/8–349/8bce), Spartokid ruler of Pantikapaion, so transformed the Bosphoran state that his dynasty, founded by his grandfather Spartokos, later became sometimes known as the Leukonidai (Ael.VH6.13).
Literacy, Greece
Authors: Sickinger James P.
Published: December 2012

Literacy, understood in its most simple terms as the ability to read and write, reached new levels in Greek civilization. The Mycenaean Greeks had kept some palace records in the Linear B script, but no evidence suggests that they used writing to record or preserve literary compositions, diplomatic correspondence, business documents, or other types of texts, and Mycenaean literacy was probably limited to a small class of scribes and palace officials. Knowledge of writing disappeared from the Greek world when Mycenaean civilization collapsed in the twelfth centuryBCE, but by the early eighth century the Greeks had adapted a western Semitic script, often mislabeled the Phoenician alphabet, to the Greek language. The small number of characters in this new Greek alphabet and their close correspondence to spoken sounds made it relatively simple to learn. Literate skills thus became accessible to a broader group of individuals than had been the case with earlier writing systems, and the functions of writing spread throughout the Greek world in the following centuries.
Sortition, Greece
Authors: Taylor Claire
Published: December 2012

Appointment by lot, or sortition, was a common way of selecting public officials in the ancient world.
Pharos, Adriatic Island
Authors: Kirigin Branko
Published: December 2012

Pharos is both the ancient name of the Adriatic island of Hvar (ca. 299 km2) and that of the GreekPolis(Ps.‐Skylax 23; Ephoros inFGrH70 F 89; Eratosth.ap. schol. in Ap. Rhod.Argon. 4.1215) founded there in 385/4bceby the Parians from the Aegean island and supported and protected by Dionysios I, the tyrant of Syracuse (Diod. Sic. 15.13–14).
Protagoras
Authors: Herman Gabriel
Published: December 2012

Protagoras of Abdera (ca. 490–420
BCE
), Greek intellectual, pupil of Democritus, author of treatises on grammar, logic, Ethics, and politics, was involved in Athenian life during a period of intensive intellectual creativity.
Socrates
Authors: Edmunds Lowell
Published: December 2012

Socrates was a pivotal figure in the history of western philosophy – the first one “who called philosophy down from the heavens, established her in the cities of men, introduced her even into private houses, and compelled her to ask questions about life and morality and things good and evil”.
Thetes
Authors: Rosivach Vincent J.
Published: December 2012

The ancient Greek singular is
thes
(modern adaptations, like the English “thete,” are arrived at from the oblique cases, which display the root
thet‐
).
Hippeis
Authors: Rosivach Vincent J.
Published: December 2012

The noun
hippeus
(plural
hippeis
) means “horseman” (from
hippos
, “horse”) and refers both to military cavalry and to recreational riders.
Archilochos
Authors: Rawles Richard
Published: December 2012

Archilochos (fl.mid seventh centurybce) was a poet from the island of Paros, famous in antiquity for his vigorous invective sprinkled with obscenity.
Democritus
Authors: Englert Walter
Published: December 2012

Democritus of Abdera (ca. 460–360bce) was a Greek philosopher and student of Leukippos. He developed ancient Atomism into an influential philosophical system.
Afterlife, Judaism and Christianity
Authors: Clark‐Soles Jaime
Published: December 2012

Ancient Judaism and Christianity reflect a wide variety of views on the afterlife. One finds both linear and parallel development with different ideas waxing and waning. Due to the multitudinous cultural influences (including Ugaritic, Canaanite, Egyptian, Persian, Greek, and Roman), the span of centuries, and the different kinds of evidence available (e.g., texts, epigraphy, graves, art), systemization remains impossible.
Agrapha Iesou
Authors: Stroker William D.
Published: December 2012

Agrapha Iesourefers to sayings of the earthly Jesus which are not included in the earliest versions of the canonical gospels (Hofius 1991: 336). Noncanonical and extracanonical sayings of Jesus are alternative designations. The termagraphaassumes that the sayings go back to the pre‐written, oral stage of tradition, though that cannot be held for much of the material.
Ascesis/asceticism
Authors: Weatherwax Nancy
Published: December 2012

Ascesis/asceticism (Greekaskesis, “exercise,” fromaskein) refers to the practice of self‐denial and self‐discipline for the sake of spiritual growth.
Athenagoras
Authors: Kannaday Wayne C.
Published: December 2012

Little is known about the second century Christian apologist Athenagoras apart from his description as an Athenian Christian philosopher. His limited surviving writings, however, signal him as one of the most eloquent and original defenders of early Christianity and bear witness to the earliest known formulation of the Christian trinity.
Bishop
Authors: Maier Harry O.
Published: December 2012

“Bishop,” cognate ofepiskopos(literally “overseer”), is a term perhaps borrowed from the contemporary Greco‐Roman world.
Catechesis, Catechumenate, early church
Authors: Finn Thomas M.
Published: December 2012

Although in late‐classical Greekkatechêsismeant making oneself understood, it soon came to mean oral religious instruction with conversion as the goal.
Catholic Epistles
Authors: Donelson Lewis R.
Published: December 2012

The Catholic Epistles are a varied group of seven letters that contain some of the richest theological imagery in the New Testament. These letters include a summary of Jewish Christian ethics, the most careful analysis of suffering in the New Testament, a glimpse into heated attacks on outsiders and on other Christians, and a rather orthodox, non‐Gnostic reading of the Gospel of John.
Constantine II
Authors: Howard Nathan D.
Published: December 2012

Constantine II (317–340ce) was the eldest of three surviving sons of Constantine I when the emperor died in 337. His full name was Flavius Claudius Constantinus. He was part of a new line of Flavian emperors that his father hoped to establish in the aftermath of years of civil war during the Tetrarchy. But divisions plagued the deceased emperor's sons, ultimately resulting in the early death of Constantine II at the age of 23.
Deacon
Authors: Weatherwax Nancy
Published: December 2012

The church office of deacon (diakonos, cf. Greekdiakonia, service) has New Testament roots.
Devil/Satan
Authors: Garrett Susan R.
Published: December 2012

The devil (also called Satan) is a spirit‐being known from the Hebrew Bible, intertestamental Jewish literature, the New Testament, and postcanonical Christian literature. Today this figure is popularly conceived as a fallen angel, the Archfiend of God and of humankind. Portrayals by ancient writers were more complex and varied.
Didache
Authors: Draper Jonathan A.
Published: December 2012

TheDidacheor “Teaching of the Twelve Apostles” is an early Jewish Christian manual for the instruction and initiation of Gentile converts and the ordering of community life, probably originating before the end of the first centuryce.
Docetism
Authors: Slusser Michael
Published: December 2012

The term “docetism” is applied to the teaching sometimes found in early Christianity that the divine redeemer only seemed to be, but was not, a human being. It comes from the Greek
dokein
, to seem, and
dokēsis
, a seeming appearance or phantasm. That teaching was vigorously opposed by the authors of some New Testament texts, by the second‐century writers Ignatius of Antioch and Irenaeus of Lyon, and by the Great Church generally.
Epistula Apostolorum
Authors: Hills Julian V.
Published: December 2012

TheEpistula Apostolorum, or “Epistle of the Apostles,” was rediscovered by Western scholars in the late nineteenth century.
Gnosis, gnostics, gnosticism
Authors: Meyer Marvin
Published: December 2012

Gnosisis a Greek word meaning “knowledge”gnosticis derived from the Greekgnostikos, to designate a person of knowledge; andgnosticismis a modern term for a religion or philosophy of knowledge.
Gregory Thaumaturgus
Authors: Slusser Michael
Published: December 2012

Gregory (ca. 210–ca. 270
ce
) was bishop of Neocaesarea in Pontos (modern Niksar in Turkey) in the middle third of the third century.
Ignatius of Antioch
Authors: Foster Paul
Published: December 2012

Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch, is arguably the most significant Christian theologian, church leader, and writer of the first half of the second century.
Lactantius
Authors: Nicholson Oliver
Published: December 2012

L. Caelius Firmianus Lactantius (ca. 250–ca. 325ce) is the author of the first comprehensive exposition of Christianity in the Latin language,Divinarum Institutionum Libri VII(theDivine Institutes), written during the last Great Persecution of the church (303–313). Soon after the persecution ended, in 313–315, he wrote a vitriolic political pamphlet,De morte persecutorum (On the Deaths of the Persecutors), dedicated to a Christian comrade who had spent six years in a Nicomedia prison. This work describes the persecutions and the rise of Constantine from the point of view of a well‐informed if partisan political insider. From these, from Lactantius' other works, and from notices by Jerome (Chron. ad ann. Abr. 3222;Vir. Ill. 79–80), the outline of Lactantius' life may be reconstructed.
Luke, Gospel of
Authors: Arterbury Andrew
Published: December 2012

The Gospel of Luke is one of four first‐centuryceliterary works that present the life and teachings of Jesus in narrative form and that are included in the Christian scriptures as theological reflections on the importance of Jesus.
Martyrdom and martyrs, Christian
Authors: Dehandschutter Boudewijn
Published: December 2012

Christian martyrdom was the consequence of a conflict with the representatives of the Roman Empire regarding the role of religion in the public forum.
Mary, Gospel of
Authors: King Karen L.
Published: December 2012

The Gospel of Maryis the only preserved Christian gospel attributed to a woman, namely Mary of Magdala, one of Jesus' most prominent disciples. It illustrates well the diversity of early Christianity in a period before the establishment of a common creed, canon, or male hierarchical leadership.
Melito of Sardis
Authors: Williams Megan
Published: December 2012

Melito (fl. 170–180) was a Christian leader at Sardis in Asia Minor; he was a prolific author with an excellent literary and rhetorical training and was read by Clement of Alexandria, Origen, and Eusebius. Near‐contemporaries describe his asceticism, prophecy, and links to John the Evangelist; later, he is called a bishop. Little is known of his life.
Methodius
Authors: Williams Megan
Published: December 2012

Methodius was a Christian teacher in the second half of the third century, active in Lycia in southwestern Asia Minor, perhaps a bishop, perhaps a martyr. Little more is known of his life. One work, the
Symposium
, survives in Greek; others exist in fragments and early medieval translations.
Monarchianism
Authors: Lyman Rebecca
Published: December 2012

The term “monarchianism” was applied polemically by Tertullian of Carthage (Prax. 10.1) against second‐ and third‐century Christians who defended traditional Monotheism by describing Jesus as a temporary mode or operation of God rather than a separate and pre‐existent person.
Monasticism, Christian
Authors: Dysinger Luke
Published: December 2012

Christian monasticism, understood as a way of life characterized by prayer, withdrawal from society, celibacy, and dispossession of goods, first attained prominence in Egypt toward the end of the third century. Earlier antecedents certainly existed but are only faintly discernible in patristic allusions and early monastic biographies. Ignatius of Antioch (d. ca. 107) and Hippolytus (c. 215) mention communities of “virgins called widows,” celibate women committed to prayer and service. Whatever their origins, these feminine models of proto‐monasticism were sufficiently organized and established by the middle of the third century that Antony of Egypt (ca. 251–356), revered as the founder and “father of monks,” could entrust his young sister to their care before embarking on his own ascetical career around the year 270.
Muratorian Fragment
Authors: Hill Charles E.
Published: December 2012

The Muratorian Fragment is a discursive list of early Christian books which its author claims are, or may be, received by the Catholic Church. Its traditional dating to the latter half of the second century or beginning of the third, thus providing the earliest “canon list” of New Testament books, has, however, been forcefully challenged by scholars who view it as a product of the late fourth‐century east. Settling this question can have noteworthy effects for understanding the stages of the development of the New Testament Canon.
Origen
Authors: Williams Megan
Published: December 2012

Origen (ca. 185–ca. 254ce) was a pioneering philosophical theologian and the first Christian to apply the methods of ancient literary scholarship extensively to the Bible.
Ossius of Cordoba
Authors: Gwynn David M.
Published: December 2012

Ossius of Cordoba (ca. 257‐ca. 357ce, bishop of Cordoba ca. 295‐ca. 357), also known as Hosius (seeCorduba(cordoba)), is one of the most prominent and yet mysterious figures of the fourth‐century church.
Pachomius
Authors: Schroeder Caroline T.
Published: December 2012

Pachomius (292–346ce) was a Christian monk in Egypt who is often credited with founding coenobitic monasticism.
Paul and Pauline Epistles
Authors: Furnish Victor P.
Published: December 2012

Paul the apostle (ca. 5–62
ce
), renowned missionary and founder of churches, was also the most original thinker of first‐century Christianity.
Paul, Acts of
Authors: Snyder Glenn E.
Published: December 2012

TheActs of Paulis an early Christian narrative that collects traditions about the apostle Paul.
Paul, Apocalypse of
Authors: Nicklas Tobias
Published: December 2012

In 2 Corinthians 12:2–4 Paul indicates that he has been taken up into the third heaven fourteen years before, but does not speak in detail about this experience.
Persecution of Christians
Authors: Cobb L. Stephanie
Published: December 2012

It is often thought that Christians were victims of systematic imperial persecutions from the earliest days of the movement – and thus that Christianity was an illegal religion –but the evidence suggests that this was not the case.
Peter,CopticApocalypse of
Authors: Meyer Marvin
Published: December 2012

The CopticApocalypse of Peter(orRevelation of Peter) is a Christian apocalypse of gnosis in which the savior reveals to the apostle Peter the meaning of the crucifixion and the nature of true Christianity.
Protevangelium Jacobi
Authors: Hock Ronald F.
Published: December 2012

The
Protevangelium Jacobi
, anglicized as the
Infancy Gospel of James
, is a mid‐second‐century apocryphal gospel.
Pseudepigrapha in early Christianity
Authors: Duff Jeremy
Published: December 2012

Pseudepigrapha are texts that contain a false claim of authorship.
Purification, Christian
Authors: Bakker Jeremy T.
Published: December 2012

Purification in the Christian tradition is the removal of defilement caused by behavior that violates recognized norms.
Relics
Authors: Jacobs Andrew S.
Published: December 2012

“Relics” (
reliqua
, literally “remains”) are the venerated remains of a human being.
Sabellius, Sabellianism
Authors: Lyman Rebecca
Published: December 2012

In accordance with the orthodox Christian practice of labeling erroneous theologies by the name of their founder, “Sabellianism” was a heresy associated with Sabellius (ca. 220CE), a teacher in third‐century Rome who left no extant writings and whose views were summarized only by his opponents.
Sacraments in early Christianity
Authors: Finn Thomas M.
Published: December 2012

“Sacrament” and related terms derive from the Latinsacramentum, something sacred (sacer), as an oath.
Sentences of Sextus
Authors: Ramelli Ilaria L. E.
Published: December 2012

The so‐calledSextii Sententiaeseem to be, in their present form, a Christian collection, probably dating to the second centuryce, of mostly moral sentences ascribed to the Pythagorean Sextus.
Second Treatise of the Great Seth
Authors: Meyer Marvin
Published: December 2012

TheSecond Treatise of the Great Seth, also referred to as theSecond Discourse of Great Seth, is an early Christian text of gnosis that presents what is said to be a speech or message of Christ explaining the nature of saving knowledge and the meaning of the crucifixion.
Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs
Authors: Hillel Vered
Published: December 2012

TheTestaments of the Twelve Patriarchsis a pseudepigraphic work (seePseudepigrapha in Early Christianity) that contains a collection of twelve self‐contained units, each of which purports to relate the deathbed speeches (“testaments”) of one of Jacob's twelve sons to their assembled descendants (modeled on Genesis 49; cf. Deuteronomy 33; for Greek text see de Jongeet al. 1978; for English translation see Hollander and de Jonge 1985).
Thomas, Infancy Gospel of
Authors: Frilingos Chris
Published: December 2012

TheInfancy Gospel of Thomasis an extracanonical collection of stories about the childhood years of Jesus .
Trinity, doctrine of the
Authors: Weatherwax Nancy
Published: December 2012

The Trinity is the Christian doctrine that God is one yet existing in three eternal and equal persons, Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, distinct but not separate, united in will, each fully God, all three involved in all divine operations.
Sozomen of Gaza
Authors: Williams Megan
Published: December 2012

Sozomen was the author of an ecclesiastical history in nine books, dedicated to Theodosius II and intended to cover 324–439, but in its present form breaking off in 423.
Philostorgius
Authors: Weatherwax Nancy
Published: December 2012

Philostorgius (ca. 365–after 425CE) was an ecclesiastical historian, probably a layman, born in Borissus, in Cappadocia Secunda, and living later in Constantinople.
Antony
Authors: Schroeder Caroline T.
Published: December 2012

Antony (251–ca. 356CE) was an influential monk of early Christianity, who is often considered the father of anchoritic monasticism. His rigorous asceticism contributed to an enduring reputation for holiness during his own lifetime, which only increased after his death with the publication of the popularLife of Antonyby Athanasius of Alexandria. Christian monastics in Catholic and Orthodox traditions have viewed him as an exemplar and a model for imitation. Antony's story has influenced Western culture and has been portrayed in art and literature by Rubens, Flaubert, and others.
Adaeratio
Authors: Adams Colin. E. P.
Published: December 2012

In the Roman Empire,
adaeratio
was the term used to describe the process of commuting tax payments in kind into cash equivalents. There seems to have been no formal procedure, as practices varied over time and place.
Aerarium militare
Authors: Meyers Rachel
Published: December 2012

The
aerarium militare
was established in 6
CE
by Augustus as a detachment of the Roman state treasury.
Agora
Authors: Boehm Ryan
Published: December 2012

The agora (pl.
agorai
; from
ageiro
: to assemble) was originally an assembly of the entire free male population of a city, as well as the physical location of that assembly. However, with the development of the Greek polis, the agora evolved into the public center of the city, serving as a political, administrative, and religious center, market, and meeting place.
Angaria
Authors: Puk Alexander
Published: December 2012

The Greek term
angareia
was adopted from the Persian
aggaros
, which designated a mounted courier belonging to a system of royal messengers stationed along the main roads, which according to early Greek sources (Hdt. 8.98.2; Xen.
Cyr
. 8.6.17) was first established under Cyrus II in the sixth century
BCE
.
Apotimema
Authors: Harris Edward M.
Published: December 2012

In Greek law there were two basic forms of security, personal and real. In personal security (
engye
) a person who incurs an obligation to another person arranges to have a third party (surety) promise to satisfy his obligation in the event he cannot pay.
Arcarius
Authors: Hirt Alfred M.
Published: December 2012

The term
arcarius
(often
arkarius
) refers to a subaltern clerk charged with an
area
, a money‐box, within a private household or a public, private, or religious institution. Most evidence pertains to the Principate.
Architects
Authors: Newsome David J.
Published: December 2012

It is not always possible to disentangle the architect from the patron, the builder, or the dedicator, and the broad semantic range of terms that might be grouped beneath
architecton/ architectus
is problematic. Plato (
Plt
. 260A–B) suggests that the
architecton
was responsible for delegation and direction rather than hands‐on building. In the Late Roman Republic, then most notably with Vitruvius under Augustus, we see the distinction between the practical builder (
aedificator
) and the scientific and mathematical intellectual (
architectus
).
Arrha, arrhabon
Authors: Arzt–Grabner Peter
Published: December 2012

The Greek termarrhabon(Latinarrhaandarrhabo) is of Semitic origin and means “down‐payment, earnest money, premium, hand money.”Arrharepresents the advance payment, which is made payable to the seller by the buyer upon completion of a contract.
Artisans, Greece and Rome
Authors: Ulrich Roger B.
Published: December 2012

The Greek artisan, along with his Roman counterpart, worked with his hands to make a living (hence a Greek term for the artisan,
cheirotechnes
: “skilled with hands”).
Naturally Occurring Nanoparticles from Arthrobotrys oligospora as a Potential Immunostimulatory and Antitumor Agent
Authors: Wang Yongzhong , Sun Leming , Yi Sijia , Huang Yujian , Lenaghan Scott C. , Zhang Mingjun
Published: December 2012

Arthrobotrys oligospora, a representative flesh eater in the fungal kingdom, is a potential source for natural‐based biomaterials due to the presence of specialized 3D adhesive traps that can capture, penetrate, and digest free‐living nematodes in diverse environments. The purpose of this study is to discover novel nanoparticles that occur naturally in A. oligospora and to exploit its potential biomedical applications. A new culture method, fungal sitting drop culture method, is established in order to monitor the growth of A. oligospora in situ, and observe the nanoparticle production without interfering or contamination from the solid media. Abundant spherical nanoparticles secreted from the fungus are first revealed by scanning electron microscopy and atomic force microscopy. They have an average size of 360–370 nm, with a zeta potential of –33 mV at pH 6.0. Further analyses reveal that there is ≈28 μg of glycosaminoglycan and ≈550 μg of protein per mg of nanoparticles. Interestingly, the nanoparticles significantly induce TNF‐α secretion in RAW264.7mouse macrophages, indicating a potential immunostimulatory effect. The nanoparticles themselves are also found slightly cytotoxic to mouse melanoma B16BL6 and human lung cancer A549 cells, and show a synergistic cytotoxic effect upon conjugation with doxorubicin against both cells. This study proposes a new approach for producing novel organic nanoparticles secreted from microorganisms under controlled conditions. The findings here also highlight the potential roles of the naturally occurring nanoparticles from A. oligospora as an immunostimulatory and antitumor agent for cancer immunochemotherapy.
Practical Synthesis of Polysubstituted Imidazoles via Iodine‐ Catalyzed Aerobic Oxidative Cyclization of Aryl Ketones and Benzylamines
Authors: Huang Huawen , Ji Xiaochen , Wu Wanqing , Jiang Huanfeng
Published: December 2012

A practical synthetic method for polysubstituted imidazoles via iodine‐catalyzed aerobic oxidative cyclization of aryl ketones and benzylamines has been developed. It was found to tolerate a broad range of substrates to prepare polysubstituted imidazole derivatives in a one‐pot manner, and thus importantly allowed product diversity for imidazole chemistry. Additionally, the resultant 1,2,4‐trisubstituted imidazoles could be conveniently transformed to functionalized 1,2,4,5‐tetrasubstituted imidazoles via electrophilic substitution or direct CH functionalization, or 2,4‐diaryl‐1H‐imidazoles by debenzylation reaction, which further indicates potential applications of this method in synthetic and pharmaceutical chemistry.
Batch Stille Coupling with Insoluble and Recyclable Stannylated Polynorbornenes
Authors: Martínez‐Arranz Sheila , Carrera Nora , Albéniz Ana C. , Espinet Pablo , Vidal‐Moya Alejandro
Published: December 2012

The Stille coupling can be carried out in a batch process using insoluble tin supports. The new type of support consists of stannylated polymers based on the vinylic polynorbornene skeleton that allow one to use a set‐up where the tin reagent is immobilized in a column. The immobilized stannylated polymeric reagent can be easily reused. The coupling products are thus obtained by a very simple work‐up procedure and have very low levels of tin contamination.
Direct Aza‐Darzens Aziridination of N‐Tosylimines with 2‐Bromomalonates for the Synthesis of Highly Functionalized Donor‐Acceptor Aziridines
Authors: Wu Xingxing , Li Lei , Zhang Junliang
Published: December 2012

An approach to highly functionalized donor‐acceptor aziridines by the aziridination of N‐tosylimines and 2‐bromomalonates in the presence of sodium hydride under mild conditions has been developed. The high‐yielding reaction has a relatively broad scope and can be easily scaled up to the gram level.
Enantioselective Organocatalytic Michael Addition of Cyclobutanones to Nitroalkenes
Authors: Mailhol Damien , Duque Maria del Mar Sanchez , Raimondi Wilfried , Bonne Damien , Constantieux Thierry , Coquerel Yoann , Rodriguez Jean
Published: December 2012

Synthetic applications of cyclobutanones other than ring expansion and fragmentation reactions are rare. Herein, highly efficient diastereo‐ and enantioselective organocatalytic Michael additions of 2‐substituted cyclobutanone derivatives to nitroalkenes are reported allowing the stereocontrolled creation of ‘all‐carbon’ quaternary centers. The approach relies on both the use of Brønsted base/hydrogen‐bond donor bifunctional organocatalysts, and importantly, the specific stabilization and activation of cyclobutanone with a secondary amide moiety. The reaction was found to nicely accommodate a broad scope of substrates, allowing the control of up to three contiguous stereogenic centers. This work has opened new synthetic opportunities.
Linear viscoelastic behavior of compatibilized PMMA/PP blends
Authors: Souza Adriana Martinelli Catelli de , Calvão Patrícia Schmid , Demarquette Nicole Raymonde
Published: December 2012

In this work, the morphology and linear viscoelastic behavior of PMMA/PP blends to which a graft copolymer PP‐g‐PMMA has been added was studied. The copolymer concentration varied from 1 to 10 wt % relative to the dispersed phase concentration. The rheological data were used to infer the interfacial tension between the blended components. It was observed that PP‐g‐PMMA was effective as a compatibilizer for PMMA/PP blends. For PP‐g‐PMMA concentration added below the critical concentration of interface saturation, two rheological behaviors were observed depending on the blend concentration: for 70/30 blend, the storage modulus, at low frequencies, increased as compared to the one of the unmodified blend; for 90/10 blend, it decreased. For 90/10 blend, the relaxation spectrum presented an interfacial relaxation time related to the presence of the compatibilizer (τβ). For PP‐g‐PMMA concentrations added above the critical concentration of interface saturation, the storage modulus of all blends increased as compared with the one of the unmodified blend. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 2013
Transforming clinical imaging and 3D data for virtual reality learning objects: HTML5 and mobile devices implementation
Authors: Trelease Robert B. , Nieder Gary L.
Published: December 2012

Web deployable anatomical simulations or “virtual reality learning objects” can easily be produced with QuickTime VR software, but their use for online and mobile learning is being limited by the declining support for web browser plug‐ins for personal computers and unavailability on popular mobile devices like Apple iPad and Android tablets. This article describes complementary methods for creating comparable, multiplatform VR learning objects in the new HTML5 standard format, circumventing platform‐specific limitations imposed by the QuickTime VR multimedia file format. Multiple types or “dimensions” of anatomical information can be embedded in such learning objects, supporting different kinds of online learning applications, including interactive atlases, examination questions, and complex, multi‐structure presentations. Such HTML5 VR learning objects are usable on new mobile devices that do not support QuickTime VR, as well as on personal computers. Furthermore, HTML5 VR learning objects can be embedded in “ebook” document files, supporting the development of new types of electronic textbooks on mobile devices that are increasingly popular and self‐adopted for mobile learning. Anat Sci Educ 6: 263–270. © 2012 American Association of Anatomists.
Reproductive and Neurobehavioral Effects of Brilliant Blue FCF in Mice
Authors: Tanaka Toyohito , Takahashi Osamu , Inomata Akiko , Ogata Akio , Nakae Dai
Published: December 2012

Brilliant blue FCF of food color was given in the diets of mice at levels of 0% (control), 0.08, 0.24, and 0.72% from 5 weeks of age in the F0 generation and continuing to 11 weeks of age in the F1 generation and selected reproductive and neurobehavioral parameters were measured. Mice were mated at 9 weeks of age and dams were delivered offspring at 12 weeks of age. Offspring were weaned at 4 weeks of age. Regarding exploratory behavior at 8 weeks of age in the F0 generation, movement time (sec) displayed a significant tendency to be increased and the average time of rearing (sec) displayed a significant tendency to be decreased in females in the treatment groups in a trend test (p = 0.019 and 0.027, respectively). In the F1 generation, the development of surface righting at postnatal day 4 was delayed significantly in the high‐dose group (0.72%) in male and female offspring, and those effects were significantly related to dose in a trend test (p< 0.01 for both). Regarding exploratory behavior at 8 weeks of age in the F1 generation, the number of horizontal activities exhibited a significant tendency to be decreased in females in the treatment groups in a trend test (p = 0.015). Regarding spontaneous behavior, average time of movement (sec) was significantly accelerated in females in the high‐dose group. The dose levels of brilliant blue FCF used in the present study produced a few significant effects on neurobehavioral parameters in multiple generations in mice.
Multigenerations Assessment of Dietary Nucleotides Consumption in Weaned Rats
Authors: Xu Meihong , Ma Yi , Xu Linlin , Xu Yajun , Li Yong
Published: December 2012

With the multifaceted activities of nucleotides, there is a history of safe consumption of dietary nucleotides (NTs) in the human diet. This study investigated the multigenerations cumulative toxicity on rats’ development after weaning. Weaning rats (F0) were fed with NTs at the dosage of 0.01, 0.04, 0.16, 0.64, and 1.28% (wt/wt) for 90 days and then mated for 1:1 pattern. The offspring was F1. F1 rats were fed with NTs for 90 days after weaning. Afterwards, F1 go on to the second reproductive part. We repeated the above process, until F3 rats were born. We observed the weight, food consumption in the whole experiment, and detected the blood indicators and organ pathology at the terminal. No abnormal reaction, behavior disorder, and organ pathology related to toxic symptom were observed in NTs‐treated groups. Weight gain and diet utilization ratio of males in each NTs group had significant increase after weaning (p < 0.05). With the exception of decrease in uric acid (p < 0.05) of NTs male, there were no differences between the control and NTs groups in blood indicators. NTs could promote early growth and development of rats after weaning, especially in males.
CITED2 is a novel direct effector of peroxisome proliferator‐activated receptor γ in suppressing hepatocellular carcinoma cell growth
Authors: Cheung Kin‐Fai , Zhao Junhong , Hao Ying , Li Xiaoxing , Lowe Anson W. , Cheng Alfred S. L. , Sung Joseph J. Y. , Yu Jun
Published: December 2012

BACKGROUND:

Previous reports from these authors found that activation of peroxisome proliferator‐activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) suppressed hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). This study sought to identify the molecular target of PPARγ and characterize its antitumor effect in HCC.

METHODS:

Optimal PPARγ binding activity was obtained using the PPARγ agonist rosiglitazone (100 μM) as determined by enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assay. Under PPARγ activation, 114 PPARγ downstream targets associated with cancer development were identified by oligonucleotide microarray and Gene Ontology analysis. Among them, Cbp/p300‐interacting transactivator, with Glu/Asp‐rich carboxy‐terminal domain, 2 (CITED2) was the most prominent PPARγ‐bound target, as determined by chromatin immunoprecipitation–polymerase chain reaction.

RESULTS:

CITED2 messenger RNA and protein was significantly down‐regulated in primary HCCs compared with their adjacent nontumor tissues. PPARγ induced expression of CITED2 in HCC cell lines after adenovirus‐PPARγ transduction. The biological function of CITED2 was evaluated by loss‐ and gain‐of‐function assays. CITED2 knockdown in the hepatocyte cell line LO2 and HCC cell line Hep3B significantly increased cell viability and clonogenicity, and promoted G1‐S phase transition in both cell lines. In contrast, ectopic expression of CITED2 in HepG2 and BEL7404 HCC cell lines significantly suppressed cell growth. The tumor suppressive effect of CITED2 was associated with up‐regulation of cyclin‐dependent kinase inhibitors p15INK4B, p21Wat1/Cip1, p27Kip1, antiproliferative regulator interferon alpha 1, proapoptotic mediators including tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily member 1A (TNFRSF1A), TNFRSF25, caspase‐8, granzyme A, and the tumor suppressor gene maspin. CITED2 was also associated with the down‐regulation of cell cycle regulator cyclin D1, oncogene telomerase reverse transcriptase, and proinvasion/metastasis gene matrix metallopeptidase 2.

CONCLUSIONS:

CITED2 is a direct effector of PPARγ for tumor suppression. Cancer 2013. © 2012 American Cancer Society.