bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Contribution of Structured Activity and Deliberate Play to the Development of Expert Perceptual and Decision-Making Skill
Authors: Berry Jason , Abernethy Bruce , Côté Jean
Published: August 2016

The developmental histories of 32 players in the Australian Football League (AFL), independently classified as either expert or less skilled in their perceptual and decision-making skills, were collected through a structured interview process and their year-on-year involvement in structured and deliberate play activities retrospectively determined. Despite being drawn from the same elite level of competition, the expert decision-makers differed from the less skilled in having accrued, during their developing years, more hours of experience in structured activities of all types, in structured activities in invasion-type sports, in invasion-type deliberate play, and in invasion activities from sports other than Australian football. Accumulated hours invested in invasion-type activities differentiated between the groups, suggesting that it is the amount of invasion-type activity that is experienced and not necessarily intent (skill development or fun) or specificity that facilitates the development of perceptual and decision-making expertise in this team sport.
The Effect of Participation in Gaelic Football on the Development of Irish Professional Soccer Players
Authors: Ford Paul R. , Williams A. Mark
Published: August 2016

The developmental model of sport participation (DMSP) was proposed by Côté (1999). First, we examined whether the participation profiles of two groups of professional soccer players in Ireland who either had or had not played Gaelic football to an elite level in adolescence provided support for this model. Both groups commenced participation in soccer around 6 years of age and on average participated in two other sports between 6 and 18 years of age, excluding soccer and Gaelic football. A reduction in the number of other sports and an increase in hours devoted to the primary sport were observed between 6 and 18 years of age, as per the predictions of the DMSP. Second, we examined whether players who demonstrated early diversification required fewer soccer-specific hours to achieve expert performance in that sport compared with players who demonstrated less diversification or did not participate in Gaelic football. No significant relationships or differences were reported, which did not provide support for the DMSP, possibly due to the low sample size employed in this study.
Examining Intrinsic versus Extrinsic Exercise Goals: Cognitive, Affective, and Behavioral Outcomes
Authors: Sebire Simon J. , Standage Martyn , Vansteenkiste Maarten
Published: August 2016

Grounded in self-determination theory (SDT), this study had two purposes: (a) examine the associations between intrinsic (relative to extrinsic) exercise goal content and cognitive, affective, and behavioral outcomes; and (b) test the mediating role of psychological need satisfaction in the Exercise Goal Content → Outcomes relationship. Using a sample of 410 adults, hierarchical regression analysis showed relative intrinsic goal content to positively predict physical self-worth, self-reported exercise behavior, psychological well-being, and psychological need satisfaction and negatively predict exercise anxiety. Except for exercise behavior, the predictive utility of relative intrinsic goal content on the dependent variables of interest remained significant after controlling for participants’ relative self-determined exercise motivation. Structural equation modeling analyses showed psychological need satisfaction to partially mediate the effect of relative intrinsic goal content on the outcome variables. Our findings support further investigation of exercise goals commensurate with the goal content perspective advanced in SDT.
The Effect of Physical Activity on Executive Function: A Brief Commentary on Definitions, Measurement Issues, and the Current State of the Literature
Authors: Etnier Jennifer L. , Chang Yu-Kai
Published: August 2016

The purpose of the present commentary is to introduce relevant issues with respect to the measurement of executive function in physical activity studies. Suggested definitions of executive function are introduced, and executive function tasks that are commonly used in the neuropsychological literature are presented and briefly described. The extant literature on physical activity and cognition is discussed, and issues relative to the limitations of this body of literature are raised. In summary, research on the effect of physical activity on executive function is still in its infancy. We encourage researchers in this field to provide a clear definition of executive function, to carefully consider the relevance of published effect sizes to their own research questions, and to consider either providing a logical rationale for their selection of particular executive function measures or to use multiple measures of executive function when exploring relationships between physical activity and executive function.
Illuminating the Black Box: Investigating Prefrontal Cortical Hemodynamics during Exercise with Near-Infrared Spectroscopy
Authors: Ekkekakis Panteleimon
Published: August 2016

Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) presents an appealing option for investigating hemodynamic changes in the cerebral cortex during exercise. This review examines the physical basis of NIRS and the types of available instruments. Emphasis is placed on the physiological interpretation of NIRS signals. Theories from affective neuroscience and exercise psychobiology, including Davidson's prefrontal asymmetry hypothesis, Dietrich's transient hypofrontality hypothesis, and Ekkekakis's dual-mode model, are reviewed, highlighting the potential for designing NIRS-based tests in the context of exercise. Findings from 28 studies involving acute bouts of exercise are summarized. These studies suggest that the oxygenation of the prefrontal cortex increases during mild-to-moderate exercise and decreases during strenuous exercise, possibly proximally to the respiratory compensation threshold. Future studies designed to test hypotheses informed by psychological theories should help elucidate the significance of these changes for such important concepts as cognition, affect, exertion, and central fatigue.
Visual Scan Patterns and Decision-Making Skills of Expert Assistant Referees in Offside Situations
Authors: Catteeuw Peter , Helsen Werner , Gilis Bart , Van Roie Evelien , Wagemans Johan
Published: August 2016

The offside decision-making process of international and national assistant referees (ARs) was evaluated using video simulations. A Tobii T120 Eye Tracker was used to record the eye movements. Two hypotheses for explaining incorrect decisions were investigated, namely, the flash-lag effect and the shift of gaze. Performance differences between skill levels were also examined. First, results showed a bias toward flag errors for national ARs as expected by the flash-lag effect. Second, ARs fixated the offside line before, during, and after the precise moment the pass was given, implying there was no shift of gaze from the passer to the receiving attacker. Third, no differences were found in scan patterns between international and national ARs. In conclusion, international ARs seem to have found a strategy to better deal with the perceptual illusion resulting from the flash-lag effect. Based on their experience, they have learned to correct for this illusion, and, consequently, show fewer flag errors.
Experienced Golfers’ Perspectives on Choking Under Pressure
Authors: Gucciardi Daniel F. , Longbottom Jay-Lee , Jackson Ben , Dimmock James A.
Published: August 2016

Although researchers have experimentally examined the mechanisms underlying pressure-induced forms of suboptimal performance, or “choking under pressure,” there is a lack of research exploring the personal experience of this phenomenon. In an attempt to fill this void in the literature, this study explored experienced golfers’ perceptions of the choking experience within a personal construct psychology (Kelly, 1955/1991) framework. Both male and female golfers participated in either a focus group (n = 12; all males) or one-on-one interview (n = 10; female = 7, male = 3) using experience cycle methodology (Oades & Viney, 2000) to describe their perceptions of the choking experience. Discussions were transcribed verbatim and subsequently analyzed using grounded theory analytical techniques (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). Analyses revealed five central categories representing the personal experience of choking under pressure: antecedents, personal investment, choking event, consequences, and learning experiences. The findings reported here suggest that the choking phenomenon, which can involve acute or chronic bouts of suboptimal performance (relative to the performance expectations of the athlete), is a complex process involving the interplay of several cognitive, attentional, emotional, and situational factors. Implications of the findings for a construct definition of choking are discussed, and several applied considerations are offered.
Habit in the Physical Activity Domain: Integration With Intention Temporal Stability and Action Control
Authors: Rhodes Ryan , de Bruijn Gert-Jan , Matheson Deborah H.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to explore the role of habit in predicting physical activity with the theory of planned behavior (TPB). The study extended previous research by (a) including a measure of temporal intention stability in the regression equation, and (b) unpacking the intention × behavior × habit relationship. Participants were 153 undergraduate students who completed a habit measure and measures of the TPB at Time 1 followed by measures of intention and behavior 2 weeks later. Results using regression analysis demonstrated that habit explained 7% additional variance after accounting for the TPB and temporal stability of intention and its interaction with intention. Follow-up analyses showed considerable asymmetry in the three-way relationship between intention, behavior, and habit, where high habit participants were composed primarily of intenders (i.e., intended to be active >3 times/week at 30 min) who engaged in regular physical activity (70%, n = 28) and low habit participants were inactive nonintenders (i.e., did not intend to be active >3 times/week at 30 min and were subsequently not active; 69%, n = 25). The results support the notion that some properties of physical activity may have an automatic component and that habits may be important to physical activity action control.
Motivational Predictors of Physical Education Students’ Effort, Exercise Intentions, and Leisure-Time Physical Activity: A Multilevel Linear Growth Analysis
Authors: Taylor Ian M. , Ntoumanis Nikos , Standage Martyn , Spray Christopher M.
Published: August 2016

Grounded in self-determination theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 2000), the current study explored whether physical education (PE) students’ psychological needs and their motivational regulations toward PE predicted mean differences and changes in effort in PE, exercise intentions, and leisure-time physical activity (LTPA) over the course of one UK school trimester. One hundred and seventy-eight students (69% male) aged between 11 and 16 years completed a multisection questionnaire at the beginning, middle, and end of a school trimester. Multilevel growth models revealed that students’ perceived competence and self-determined regulations were the most consistent predictors of the outcome variables at the within- and between-person levels. The results of this work add to the extant SDT-based literature by examining change in PE students’ motivational regulations and psychological needs, as well as underscoring the importance of disaggregating within- and between-student effects.
Conscious Processing and the Process Goal Paradox
Authors: Mullen Richard , Hardy Lew
Published: August 2016

The three experiments reported here examined the process goal paradox, which has emerged from the literature on goal setting and conscious processing. We predicted that skilled but anxious performers who adopted a global movement focus using holistic process goals would outperform those who used part-oriented process goals. In line with the conscious processing hypothesis, we also predicted that performers using part process goals would experience performance impairment in test compared with baseline conditions. In all three experiments, participants performed motor tasks in baseline and test conditions. Cognitive state anxiety increased in all of the test conditions. The results confirmed our first prediction; however, we failed to find unequivocal evidence to support our second prediction. The consistent pattern of the results lends support to the suggestion that, for skilled athletes who perform under competitive pressure, using a holistic process goal that focuses attention on global aspects of a motor skill is a more effective attentional focus strategy than using a part process goal.
Cognitive Function During Acute Exercise: A Test of the Transient Hypofrontality Theory
Authors: Del Giorno Jacqueline M. , Hall Eric E. , O’Leary Kevin C. , Bixby Walter R. , Miller Paul C.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to test the transient hypofrontality theory (Dietrich, 2003) by examining the influence of exercise intensity on executive control processes during and following submaximal exercise. Thirty participants (13 female) exercised for 30 min at ventilatory threshold (VT) or at 75% of VT. The Contingent Continuous Performance Task (CPT) and Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) were used as measures of executive control. They were administered before, during, immediately following, and 20 min after exercise. An increase in false alarms and unique errors (p ≤ .05) occurred during both conditions. False alarms for the CPT and total and perseverative errors for the WCST remained elevated immediately following exercise at VT, but not at exercise below VT (p ≤ .01). The decreased executive control function during exercise can be explained by the transient hypofrontality theory. Following VT, executive control performance remained poor possibly owing to an additional amount of time the brain needs to return to homeostasis following intense exercise.
Priming as a Means of Preventing Skill Failure Under Pressure
Authors: Ashford Kelly J. , Jackson Robin C.
Published: August 2016

The present study examined the effectiveness of a priming paradigm in alleviating skill failure under stress. The priming intervention took the form of a scrambled sentence task. Experiment 1: Thirty-four skilled field-hockey players performed a dribbling task in low- and high-pressure situations under single task, skill-focused, and priming conditions. Results revealed a significant increase in performance time from low to high pressure. In addition, performance in the priming condition was significantly better than in the control and skill-focused conditions. Experiment 2: Thirty skilled field-hockey players completed the same dribbling task as in Experiment 1; however, in addition to the control and skill-focused conditions, participants were allocated to either a positive, neutral, or negative priming condition. Results revealed significant improvements in performance time from the skill focus to the control to the priming condition for the positive and neutral groups. For the negative group, times were significantly slower in the priming condition. Results are discussed in terms of utilizing priming in a sporting context.
Predictors of Doping Intentions in Elite-Level Athletes: A Social Cognition Approach
Authors: Lazuras Lambros , Barkoukis Vassileios , Rodafinos Angelos , Tzorbatzoudis Haralambos
Published: August 2016

Doping use is an ongoing problem in contemporary sports. Despite efforts to detect and control doping, research on its etiology is limited, especially among elite-level athletes. The present study used an integrated social cognition model to examine the predictors of doping intentions. Structured anonymous questionnaires were completed by 1075 Greek adult elite-level athletes (M age = 25 years, SD = 5.89, 36.1% females) from both team and individual sports. Multiple regression and mediation analyses showed that attitudes, normative beliefs, situational temptation, and behavioral control significantly predicted doping intentions. A normative process was identified whereby situational temptation mediated the effects of normative beliefs on intentions. The findings provide the basis for future social cognition research in doping use, and set the framework for the development of evidence-based preventive interventions.
Passion, Self-Esteem, and the Role of Comparative Performance Evaluation
Authors: Stenseng Frode , Dalskau Lina Harvold
Published: August 2016

Two studies were conducted to investigate the paradoxical behavior of obsessively passionate individuals: they tend to continue involvement in their passion activity despite reporting the activity as a source of ill-being. We suggested that elevated self-esteem in activity engagement could be one such persistence-promoting factor. In Study 1, we found that obsessively passionate individuals reported lower levels of global self-esteem compared with harmoniously passionate individuals, whereas they reported similar levels of activity-related self-esteem. We suggest that this indicates that obsessively passionate individuals try to compensate for low global self-esteem by utilizing self-esteem contingencies in their passion activity. Study 2 showed that activity-related self-esteem among obsessively passionate individuals was found to be strongly related to comparative performance evaluations, whereas no such relationship was found among harmoniously passionate individuals. We suggest that self-esteem contingencies related to comparative performance criteria represent a persistence-promoting factor among obsessively passionate individuals.
Buddy Up: The Köhler Effect Applied to Health Games
Authors: Feltz Deborah L. , Kerr Norbert L. , Irwin Brandon C.
Published: August 2016

The present investigation examined the Köhler motivation gain effect in a health game using an absent partner, presented virtually. The Köhler effect occurs when an inferior team member performs a difficult task better in a team or coaction situation than one would expect from knowledge of his or her individual performance. The effect has been strongest in conjunctive task conditions in which the group’s potential productivity is equal to the productivity of its least capable member. Participants were randomly assigned to one of four conditions (individual control, coaction, additive, and conjunctive) in a 4 (conditions) × 2 (gender) factorial design and performed a series of isometric plank exercises within an exercise game. They performed the first series of five exercises alone holding each position for as long as they could, and, after a rest period, those in the partner conditions were told they would do remaining trials with a same-sex virtual partner whom they could observe during their performance. The partner’s performance was manipulated to be always superior to the participant’s. Results showed that task persistence was significantly greater in all experimental conditions than in the individual control condition. The conjunctive condition was no more motivating than either the additive or coactive conditions. Results suggest that working out with virtually present, superior partners can improve persistence motivation on exercise game tasks.
Influence of Red Jersey Color on Physical Parameters in Combat Sports
Authors: Dreiskaemper Dennis , Strauss Bernd , Hagemann Norbert , Büsch Dirk
Published: August 2016

Hill and Barton (2005) showed that fighters in tae kwon do, boxing, and wrestling who wore red jerseys during the 2004 Olympic Games won more often than those wearing blue jerseys. Regarding these results, this study investigated the effects of jersey color during a combat situation on fighters’ physical parameters of strength and heart rate. An artificial, experimental combat situation was created in which the color of sport attire was assigned randomly. Fourteen pairs of male athletes matched for weight, height, and age had to fight each other: once in a red jersey and once in a blue. Heart rate (before, during, and after the fight) and strength (before the fight) were tested wearing the blue and the red jerseys. Participants wearing red jerseys had significantly higher heart rates and significantly higher pre-contest values on the strength test. Results showed that participants’ body functions are influenced by wearing red equipment.
Neural Bases for Anticipation Skill in Soccer: An fMRI Study
Authors: Bishop Daniel T. , Wright Michael J. , Jackson Robin C. , Abernethy Bruce
Published: August 2016

The aim of this study was to examine the neural bases for perceptual-cognitive superiority in a soccer anticipation task using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Thirty-nine participants lay in an MRI scanner while performing a video-based task in which they predicted an oncoming opponent’s movements. Video clips were occluded at four time points, and participants were grouped according to in-task performance. Early occlusion reduced prediction accuracy significantly for all participants, as did the opponent’s execution of a deceptive maneuver; however, high-skill participants were significantly more accurate than their low-skill counterparts under deceptive conditions. This perceptual-cognitive superiority was associated with greater activation of cortical and subcortical structures involved in executive function and oculomotor control. The contributions of the present findings to an existing neural model of anticipation in sport are highlighted.
An Attachment Theory Perspective in the Examination of Relational Processes Associated With Coach-Athlete Dyads
Authors: Davis Louise , Jowett Sophia , Lafrenière Marc-André K.
Published: August 2016

The aim of the current study was to examine actor and partner effects of (a) athletes’ and coaches’ attachment styles (avoidant and anxious) on the quality of the coach-athlete relationship, and (b) athletes’ and coaches’ quality of the coach-athlete relationship on relationship satisfaction employing the actor-partner interdependence model (Kenny, Kashy, & Cook, 2006). Coaches (N = 107) and athletes (N = 107) completed a questionnaire related to attachment styles, relationship quality, and relationship satisfaction. Structural equation model analyses revealed (a) actor effects for coaches’ and athletes’ avoidant attachment styles on their own perception of relationship quality and coaches’ and athletes’ perception of relationship quality on their own perception of relationship satisfaction, and (b) partner effects for athletes’ avoidant attachment style on coaches’ perceptions of relationship quality and for coaches’ perceptions of relationship quality on athletes’ perceptions of relationship satisfaction. The findings highlight that attachments styles can help us understand the processes involved in the formation and maintenance of quality relational bonds between coaches and athletes.
Passion and Coping: Relationships With Changes in Burnout and Goal Attainment in Collegiate Volleyball Players
Authors: Schellenberg Benjamin J.I. , Gaudreau Patrick , Crocker Peter R.E.
Published: August 2016

This study examined the relationship between harmonious and obsessive passion and coping, and assessed whether coping mediated the relationship between passion types and changes in burnout and goal attainment. College- and university-level volleyball players (N = 421) completed measures of passion, coping, burnout, and goal attainment at the start and end of a season. Results of structural equation modeling, using a true latent change approach, supported a model whereby types of passion were indirectly related to changes in burnout and goal attainment via coping. Harmonious passion was positively related to task-oriented coping which, in turn, was positively associated with change in goal attainment. Obsessive passion was positively associated with disengagement-oriented coping which, in turn, was positively and negatively associated with changes in burnout and goal attainment, respectively. This study identifies coping as a reason why passionate athletes may experience changes in burnout and goal attainment over the course of a season.
Executive Function During Acute Exercise: The Role of Exercise Intensity
Authors: Wang Chun-Chih , Chu Chien-Heng , Chu I-Hua , Chan Kuei-Hui , Chang Yu-Kai
Published: August 2016

This study was designed to examine the modulation of executive functions during acute exercise and to determine whether exercise intensity moderates this relationship. Eighty college-aged adults were recruited and randomly assigned into one of the four following groups: control, 30%, 50%, and 80% heart rate reserve. The Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) was administered during each intervention. The results indicated that the majority of the WCST performances were impaired in the high exercise intensity group relative to those of the other three groups, whereas similar performance rates were maintained in the low- and moderate-intensity groups. These findings suggest that transient hypofrontality occurs during high-intensity exercise, but not during low- and moderate-intensity exercises. Future research aimed at employing the dual-mode theory, and applying the reticular-activating hypofrontality model is recommended to further the current knowledge.
The Influence of Visual Contextual Information on the Emergence of the Especial Skill in Basketball
Authors: Stöckel Tino , Breslin Gavin
Published: August 2016

We examined whether basketball throwing performance in general and motor skill specificity from the free throw distance in particular are influenced by visual contextual information. Experienced basketball players (N = 36) performed basketball set shots at five distances from the basket. Of particular interest was the performance from the free throw distance (4.23 m), at which experienced basketball players are expected to show superior performance compared with nearby locations as a result of massive amounts of practice. Whereas a control group performed the shots on a regular basketball court, the distance between the rim and the free throw line was either increased or decreased by 30 cm in two experimental groups. Findings showed that only the control group had a superior performance from the free throw distance, and the experimental groups did not. Moreover, all groups performed more accurately from the perceived free throw line (independent of its location) compared with nearby locations. The findings suggest that visual context information influences the presence of specificity effects in experienced performers. The findings have theoretical implications for explaining the memory representation underlying the especial skill effect in basketball.
Feelings of Energy, Exercise-Related Self-Efficacy, and Voluntary Exercise Participation
Authors: Yoon Seok , Buckworth Janet , Focht Brian , Ko Bomna
Published: August 2016

This study used a path analysis approach to examine the relationship between feelings of energy, exercise-related self-efficacy beliefs, and exercise participation. A cross-sectional mailing survey design was used to measure feelings of physical and mental energy, task and scheduling self-efficacy beliefs, and voluntary moderate and vigorous exercise participation in 368 healthy, full-time undergraduate students (mean age = 21.43 ± 2.32 years). The path analysis revealed that the hypothesized path model had a strong fit to the study data. The path model showed that feelings of physical energy had significant direct effects on task and scheduling self-efficacy beliefs as well as exercise behaviors. In addition, scheduling self-efficacy had direct effects on moderate and vigorous exercise participation. However, there was no significant direct relationship between task self-efficacy and exercise participation. The path model also revealed that scheduling self-efficacy partially mediated the relationship between feelings of physical energy and exercise participation.
Research and the Management of Campus Recreation
Authors: Matthews David O.
Published: August 2016

Material for this paper was obtained from four sources: past presidents of the National Intramural-Recreational Sports Association, past chairpersons of the Research Committee of NIRSA, leading publishers of research in the field of campus recreation in Canada, and the annual proceedings of NIRSA. Information about research was elicited from the first three sources through a questionnaire asking respondents to indicate on a checklist the research in 22 areas of administration they had done, were doing, or planned to do. The second part of the questionnaire asked them to list completed research they knew about that had a special significance for the body of knowledge in the field. The third part asked which research topics should be addressed in the future because of their special significance to the profession. The survey findings indicate there is a growing concern about participants’ attitudes toward programs, a need to determine the sociological and psychological effects of the programming, and an awareness that program managers are moving away from traditional offerings of competitive sports and are emphasizing the concept of total Wellness.
Multidimensionality and Multiple Perspectives of Organizational Effectiveness
Authors: Chelladurai P.
Published: August 2016

Several models of organizational effectiveness are integrated into a comprehensive framework from a viewpoint of organizations as open systems. The multidimensionality of effectiveness is seen as emanating from both the input-throughput-output conceptualization of an organization and the distinctive domains of activities of an organization. The relevance of specific dimensions of effectiveness is said to be contingent upon the type of organization and/or the domain of activities the organization is engaged in. The paper describes the multiple constituency approaches that variously emphasize the need to satisfy the powerful groups, the least advantaged groups, or different groups at different times. The position taken in this paper, however, advocates the perspective of the “prime beneficiary.”
Canadian Interuniversity Athletics: A Model and Method for Analyzing Conflict and Change
Authors: Moriarty Dick , Holman-Prpich Marge
Published: August 2016

This paper (a) presents a comparative analysis design for use in tracing organizational history, (b) applies the comparative analysis design to the original Canadian Interuniversity Athletic Union-Central (CIAUC) (1905-1955) and the modern Canadian Intercollegiate/Interuniversity Athletic Union (CIAU) (1961 to present), and (c) relates the evolution of the past and present CIAU to Stogdill’s1 theories of cycles of conflict and Katz and Kahn’s2 theories of organizational growth, development, and decline. The comparative analysis design focuses on a number of organizational variables and the interactions among these variables such as goals, conflict, events, individuals and groups, social stress, and constituent strain and change over time. Analysis of these variables and their impact upon the development of an organization reveals the pattern of growth, decline, and restructuring within the organization. The application of the organizational history design to the original CIAUC traces the growth, development, and decline of this organization from 1905 to 1955. A similar pattern is identified in the modem CIAU from 1961 to the present. Involvement of the various regional leagues is recorded, and the transition from a mutual benefit educational sport service association to a highly centralized bureaucratic athletic business organization is documented. A CIAU conflict cube is presented, focusing on issues at the national, regional, and university member levels.
Intercollegiate Athletics in Turmoil: So What Else is New?
Authors: Perry Richard H.
Published: August 2016

A critical analysis of the literature relating to the history of problems in intercollegiate athletics, and efforts to resolve them, revealed the following: (a) The nature of the recurring problems was much the same, as was (b) the approach to resolution, and (c) the resulting long-term outcomes. In addition, it was found that efforts at resolution historically excluded involvement of the institution’s external communities. It was concluded that future efforts should employ a trinity model, composed of representation from the university, sport, and society. The institution’s external power brokers (society) should have a sense of joint authorship and accountability for maintaining the integrity of the model.
Dimensions of Fitness Services: Development of a Model
Authors: Chelladurai P. , Scott Fiona L. , Haywood-Farmer John
Published: August 2016

This study was undertaken to (a) define and describe the dimensions of fitness service attributes, (b) identify the differences, if any, between groups of subjects (categorized by sex and marital status) in the degree to which the defined attributes influenced their choice of a fitness club, and (c) develop a scale to measure those dimensions. The Scale of Attributes of Fitness Services (SAFS) was developed in three stages: generation of 71 items to measure the six theoretically derived dimensions, a pilot study (n = 178), and a final study (n = 436). In the final version of SAFS, 30 items were retained to measure five dimensions of fitness attributes: professional services, consumer services, peripheral services, facilities and equipment, and secondary services (such as provision of liquor and food). The results of the 2 x 2 x 5 (sex x marital status x dimensions) repeated measures AMOVA showed a significant three-way interaction effect. Despite differences among the four groups in the absolute ratings of the five dimensions, there was an overall consistency in the rating of facilities and equipment as the most influential dimension, and secondary services such as the bar and restaurant as the least influential in the subjects’ decision to join a particular club.
The Size-Structure Relationship in Voluntary Sport Organizations
Authors: Amis John , Slack Trevor
Published: August 2016

Contingency theorists have consistently identified size as a major factor influencing the structure of an organization. This study examines the size-structure relationship in a set of voluntary sport organizations (VSOs). The results of the study generally support the trends identified in the organization theory literature; they also demonstrate that VSOs have unique features that influence the effect that size has on their structural arrangements. This is most noticeable when the association, or more specifically the lack of association, between size and the structure of decision making is examined. The relationship between professionals and volunteers, and their associated struggle for control of these organizations, is identified as a principal factor contributing to this situation.
Image Sponsoring: A Methodology to Match Event and Sponsor
Authors: Ferrand Alain , Pagès Monique
Published: August 2016

This study is part of a larger investigation concerned with a methodology to evaluate the effectiveness of image sponsoring. The notion of image, which is equivalent to the idea of social representation from social psychology, is central to this series of studies. This study was concerned with the similarities and dissimilarities in the images or social representations of the Lyon's Tennis Grand Prix, France (GPTL) and Perrier, a seller of mineral water. In the first phase, a convenience sample of 80 subjects was presented with a list of 300 adjectives and requested to identify those adjectives that described the tennis event and Perrier, Frequency analyses of these responses showed that 23 adjectives were most often cited as representative of the tennis event, while 16 were cited as representative of Perrier. These items were used in the construction of a semantic differential scale, which was administered to 162 randomly selected subjects who were familiar with both the tennis event and Perrier. Canonical analyses showed that the GPTL and Perrier shared the images of (a) being highly popular and entertaining and (b) being dynamic and successful, but distracting. The results also showed that the GPTL had the images of (a) a distinguished, as opposed to a commercial, enterprise and (b) popular because of its arousal value. Perrier's images dimension was considered to be natural and young as opposed to appreciated. The practical implications of the results are discussed.
Fostering Interorganizational Linkages in the Canadian Sport Delivery System
Authors: Thibault Lucie , Harvey Jean
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this paper is to examine the nature and extent of interorganizational linkages between the partners involved in Canada's sport delivery system. Given the changes in the economic context of the 1990s and the ensuing fiscal restraints exercised by both government and the private sector, amateur sport organizations are in a period of high uncertainty. In order to deal with this uncertainty, links between organizations like governments, nonprofit sport organizations, and private sector organizations need to be established, fostered, and maintained. Organizations need to collaborate with each other in order to fulfill their objectives. Linkages between organizations will assist in the sharing of resources and in the coordination of work-related activities. In the paper, a number of examples of existing links between governments, nonprofit organizations, and private organizations are presented. Based on resource dependency theory, strategies such as contracts, joint ventures, and co-optation for establishing new interorganizational linkages are discussed. As well, related issues such as power struggles, loss of autonomy, asymmetrical relationships, and conflicting loyalties are addressed and discussed. Questions for future research also are proposed.
Roles of the Board in Amateur Sport Organizations
Authors: Inglis Sue
Published: August 2016

Limited empirical data on the roles associated with boards of directors in nonprofit organizations are available, yet understanding the work of boards is vital to ensure the roles desired by organizational members and the roles required by the organization are being fulfilled. The roles or functions of boards in nonprofit organizations, as found in the management literature, were used to explore the roles associated with a sample of nonprofit amateur sport organizations. Data were generated from a survey of executive directors, volunteer presidents, and volunteer board members of sport organizations housed at Ontario's Provincial Sport Centre in Toronto. The survey data yielded a 4-factor subscale providing support for a theoretical perspective in assessing roles of the board in mission, planning, executive director, and community relations areas. Similarities and differences of respondents by gender and position on ratings of importance and performance for the board roles were explored with implications for board development discussed.
Gender Portrayals in Sports Illustrated for Kids Advertisements: A Content Analysis of Prominent and Supporting Models
Authors: Cuneen Jacquelyn , Sidwell M. Joy
Published: August 2016

Gender portrayals in sport-related advertising generally reinforce institutionalized sexism and culturally defined sex-role behaviors. Gender-defining messages in advertising photographs may have an especially profound impact on children because children understand meanings in pictures before they understand meanings in text. The purpose of this study was to analyze gender portrayals contained in advertisements appearing in Sports Illustrated for Kids (SIK) over a 6-year period. Advertisements were coded to determine (a) the total number of advertisements featuring females and males, (b) genders represented as prominent or supporting in advertising portrayals, and (c) gender portrayals in advertisement activities and product types. Content analysis revealed that girls and women were drastically underrepresented as models in SIK advertising and that distinct gender roles were sustained by depicting males in nearly all types of activities and products. Conventional stereotypical relationships between sport and gender were represented in the majority of SIK advertisements.
Business Fluctuation and the Sport Industry in Japan: An Analysis of the Sport Industry from 1986 to 1993
Authors: Oga Jun
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to assess the extent to which the Japanese sport industry was affected by business fluctuations in the domestic economy during the 1986-1993 business cycle. In addition, the relations between changes in the general economy (gross domestic product, combined sector in the economic activities, family income, living expenditures, and working hours) and the value of the sport industry were investigated. The annual figures for these variables were derived from several government and nongovernment publications, and the percentage changes in these variables were used in multiple regression analysis. Analysis indicated that the trend in value of the sport industry was affected by the fluctuations and demonstrated positive correlation with the changes in the combined sector in the general economy. However, the trend in value of the sport industry was not correlated with trends in family income or living expenditures during the period under observation. Subsequent analysis of the sportswear sector in the sport industry demonstrated negative correlation with working hours.
An Empirically Based Selection and Evaluation System for Collegiate Football
Authors: Libkuman Terry M. , Love Kevin G. , Donn Paul D.
Published: August 2016

Using a content validity approach, including job analysis, a model was developed for the selection and appraisal of college football players. Evaluation instruments were developed for offensive lineman, quarterback, running back, receiver, defensive lineman, linebacker, and defensive secondary. Criterion related validity studies were then conducted by sending the evaluation instruments to a nation-wide sample of college football coaches who evaluated players at each position. Criterion data (e.g., passing and rushing performance statistics) were collected on the evaluated players. Multiple linear regression analyses conducted by position revealed numerous significant relationships between the predictor variables and the criterion measures. The usefulness of the evaluation instruments was enhanced by developing a simple and cost effective model that generated performance predictions for each position. Strengths and weaknesses of the present system were discussed as well as the role that sport management may play in such an endeavor.
Play Calling Strategy in American Football: A Game-Theoretic Stochastic Dynamic Programming Approach
Authors: Boronico Jess S. , Newbert Scott L.
Published: August 2016

This manuscript presents a model to assist in the determination of optimal American football play selection for first down and goal situations. A game theoretic approach is embedded within a stochastic dynamic programming formulation, resulting in a mixed strategy satisfying the ex-ante declared objective of maximizing the probability of scoring a touchdown. The methodology provides a quantitative framework to a problem that impacts on team performance and addresses a gap in the literature concerning the application of quantitative methods to sports.
Using Statistical Power Analysis in Sport Management Research
Authors: Parks Janet B. , Shewokis Patricia A. , Costa Carla A.
Published: August 2016

Statistical power analysis involves designing and interpreting research with attention to the statistical power (probability) of the study to detect an effect of a specific size. Statistical power analysis, which is based on the interdependence of sample size, alpha, effect size, and power, is acknowledged by scholars of various disciplines as an indispensable component of high quality research. This paper reviews basic principles associated with power analysis and demonstrates its importance by comparing the meaningfulness of significant findings in two studies of job satisfaction. The perspective advanced in this paper is that the use of statistical power analysis will strengthen sport management research and will enable researchers to expand the body of knowledge in a systematic, coherent fashion.
Sport Development and the United Kingdom-South Africa Sports Initiative: A Preevaluation Report
Authors: Burnett Cora , Hollander Wim
Published: August 2016

The United Kingdom-South Africa Sports Initiative was launched in 1994 to contribute to a sustainable and equitable sports development system in South Africa. The initiative was implemented in two phases. Phase I entailed planning and developing a national sports administration curriculum. In Phase II, planning was finalized and resources were provided for the development of a sports delivery system, and the program was monitored to identify (a) problems, constraints, and challenges; (b) solutions; and (c) an implementation plan. Coordinators (n = 5), lead facilitators (n = 2), facilitators (n = 10), and sports leaders (n = 9) were interviewed, and statistics were compiled on their race and gender. The conclusion of Phase II entailed monitoring different aspects of the sports leaders' course. The main trends identified through that process include the context, aims and objectives, style of presentation, and content of courses at different levels. Perceptions about ownership, management, and the possible impact of the initiative are discussed.
The Determination of Player Transfer Fees in English Professional Soccer
Authors: Dobson Stephen , Gerrard Bill
Published: August 2016

Unlike most major U.S. sport teams, it is common for professional soccer clubs around the world to trade players for cash. This article develops a model of the player-transfer market in soccer in which observed transfer fees are determined by player characteristics, selling-club characteristics, buying-club characteristics, and time effects. The model is based on data on 1,350 transfer fees in English professional soccer from June 1990 to August 1996. The estimated model is used to investigate the rate of inflation in transfer fees. In addition, the determination of transfer fees is considered within different segments of the transfer market. It is found that the determination of transfer fees differs markedly among segments.
Conceptualizing and Measuring the Attitudinal Loyalty Construct in Recreational Sport Contexts
Authors: Park Se-Hyuk , Kim Yong-Man
Published: August 2016

This paper describes the development of a 20-item instrument for assessing participants' attitudinal loyalty in the contexts of recreational sport activities. Out of 211 participants, 189 provided usable responses to the questionnaire regarding demographics, attitudes toward recreational sport participation, and intention to renew membership. An analysis revealed three factors that formed the subscales for attitudinal loyalty construct: normative, affective, and investment loyalty. All scales had coefficient alpha values of .70 or above. Thus, the analyses confirmed the validity and the reliability of the questionnaire after translation of the items from English into Korean and their adaptation to recreational sport contexts. The matrix of correlations among attitudinal loyalty dimensions indicates that one dimension cannot fully predict another, and that all dimensions must be simultaneously taken into account in describing the attitudinal loyalty construct. The multifaceted nature of attitudinal loyalty construct may prove useful for segmenting the recreational sport market.