bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Foundations of Justice and Human Rights in Early Legal Texts and Thought
Authors: Lauren Paul Gordon
Published: February 2014

This article examines the contributions of early legal texts and thoughts to the development of the concept of justice and human rights. It analyses ideas about justice and human rights in ancient Near and Middle East, ancient China, ancient India, Classical Greece and Rome, the Medieval Period, the Renaissance, and the Enlightenment Period. It considers the relevant works of several ancient thinkers including Mencius, Plato and Cicero and suggests that they provided significant lessons and laid the essential foundations for developments that eventually would result in international human rights law.
General Principles and Constitutions as Sources of Human Rights Law
Authors: O’Boyle Michael , Lafferty Michelle
Published: February 2014

This article examines influence of general principles of law and constitutions in the formulation of human rights standards and in their interpretation and application by international courts, particularly the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR). It describes and compares the application and interpretation of human rights by the International Court of Justice (ICJ), the European and Inter-American Courts of Human Rights, and the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU). This article also highlights the fact that majority of human rights instruments and provisions subsequently adopted at the national and international levels have built upon the guarantees elaborated by the UDHR.
Diplomatic Protection as a Source of Human Rights Law
Authors: Vermeer-Künzli Annemarieke
Published: February 2014

This article examines the influence of the law of diplomatic protection on the development of international human rights law. It explains the legal rules concerning diplomatic protection and discusses its territorial and nationality dimensions. It argues that the law on diplomatic protection has played an important role in setting some benchmarks for the protection of individuals and that the most important element has not only been the international minimum standard itself but the acceptance that this standard prevailed over national law by the mid-1920s.
Social Justice, Rights, and Labour
Authors: Diller Janelle M.
Published: February 2014

This article examines the issues of social justice, social rights, and the international labour movement in relation to international human rights. It traces the history of the emergence of international labour law and describes the action and innovation of the International Labor Organization (ILO). It suggests that the ILO�s structural machinery and guiding principles served as the global reference point for setting and supervising standards on workers� rights, freedoms, and entitlements.
Subsidiarity
Authors: Neuman Gerald L.
Published: February 2014

This article examines the role of the principle of subsidiarity in international human rights law. It explains the concept and the procedural doctrines of subsidiarity and considers subsidiarity of international institutions as a structural fact and the substantive subsidiarity within the state. It contends that international protection of human rights is subsidiary to national protection and that subsidiarity plays important roles in international human rights law. This article also predicts the future expansion and evolution of the role of subsidiarity in international human rights law.
Sovereignty
Authors: van der Vyver Johan D.
Published: February 2014

This article examines the impact of the principle of state sovereignty on the enforcement of international human rights law. It contends that while state sovereignty may still be an obstacle to the implementation of human rights and fundamental freedoms within many municipal legal systems, governments that engage in serious violations of the internationally accepted human rights norms will inevitably bear the brunt of their unbecoming laws and practices. This article also argues that state sovereignty is thus no longer an absolute right and that its implementation has become subordinate to the values imbedded in the human rights doctrine.
Solidarity
Authors: Wolfrum Rüdiger
Published: February 2014

This article examines the role and influence of the principle of solidarity on international human rights law. It analyses the pronouncement of the United Nations on solidarity and the impact of solidarity on some international legal regimes concerned with peace, trade law and environmental law. This article argues that solidarity not only facilitated the internationalization of human rights concerns but also significantly influenced modern doctrines of reparations for human rights victims, the responsibility to protect and humanitarian assistance.
Democracy and the Rule of Law
Authors: Tomuschat Christian
Published: February 2014

This article examines the role of the rule of law and democracy in international human rights law. It discusses the legal nature and the formal recognition of the rule of law and democracy. It explains that that rule of law and democracy are elements that constitute essential pillars promoting real enjoyment of human rights but they are dependent on the general conditions prevailing within society. This article highlights the importance of the supervisory roles of international bodies in ensuring the effectiveness of the guarantees set forth in international instruments for the protection of human rights.
Core Rights and Obligations
Authors: Scheinin Martin
Published: February 2014

This article examines the three main approaches in the identification of the core rights and obligations in international human rights law. These include the consideration of some human rights as being superior or more fundamental than others, the notion that each human right encompasses an essential core and the definition of core obligations of the state in relation to the enjoyment of human rights. This article suggests that the best way to achieve a thorough understanding of the normative quality and content of human rights as legal rights is to combine these three approaches.
The Role of International Tribunals: Law-Making or Creative Interpretation?
Authors: Quiroga Cecilia Medina
Published: February 2014

This article examines the law-making and legal interpretation roles of international human rights tribunals. It identifies the factors that could potential influence the interpretation of human rights norms and describes the relevant practices of the Human Rights Committee and the Inter-American Court. It argues that the function of judicial or quasi-judicial bodies is to interpret and to apply the law to a set of factual circumstances that constitute the situation or case under examination.
Universality and the Growth of Regional Systems
Authors: Heyns Christof , Killander Magnus
Published: February 2014

This article focuses on the regional human rights systems. It suggests that the emergence of these systems constitutes an important dimension of broader participation in the international human rights project because they provide platforms where people from all parts of the world can potentially make their voices heard in the global human rights discourse. It compares the regional human rights systems of Europe, the Americas and Africa and considers other smaller initiatives such as the Arab League and the Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC).
Interpretation of Human Rights Treaties
Authors: Fitzmaurice Malgosia
Published: February 2014

This article examines the systems of interpretation of several international human rights treaties by their respective human rights tribunals. It describes some approaches to the classification of human rights treaties and discusses the relevant provisions of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties of 1969 (VCLT). It also reviews the jurisprudence of human rights tribunals on main human rights issues and analyses the provisions of human rights conventions relating to interpretation.
Transnational Litigation: Jurisdiction and Immunities
Authors: Keitner Chimène I.
Published: February 2014

This article examines the issues of jurisdiction and immunities in transnational human rights litigation. It discusses the bases of asserting jurisdiction and highlights the problem in achieving consensus about the rules governing foreign official immunity. It analyses several relevant court cases including claims against foreign states, against current or former foreign officials and against non-state actors. This article argues that the horizontal enforcement of human rights norms by national courts carries the potential for both salutary and disruptive effects. It explains that while it can provide an avenue for victims of human rights abuses to obtain redress for their injuries, it can also interfere with the conduct of foreign relations with states that do not recognize the validity of national proceedings.
The Use of International Force to Prevent or Halt Atrocities: From Humanitarian Intervention to the Responsibility to Protect
Authors: Thakur Ramesh
Published: February 2014

This article examines the history of the use of international force for preventing atrocities and human rights abuses. It analyses the concept of humanitarian intervention in the context of the historical origins of sovereignty and the reasons behind the shift to the use of the term responsibility to protect (R2P). It evaluates the progress of R2P from its unanimous endorsement in 2005 to its implementation in Libya in 2011. This article also discusses the role of United Nations Security Council (UNSC) in implementing R2P and the General Assembly in refining the concept and building political understanding and support for the norm.
Trade Law and Investment Law
Authors: Joseph Sarah
Published: February 2014

This article examines the relationship among trade, investment and human rights laws. It analyses the relevant legal relationships as reflected in the salient case law and the synergies between the works of the United Nations, the World Trade Organization (WTO) and the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). It also considers the impact of WTO rules on specific economic, social and cultural rights, the benefits of free trade and investment for civil and political rights and the human rights protections for traders and investors.
Creating and Applying Human Rights Indicators
Authors: López-Bermúdez Francisco
Published: February 2014

This article focuses on the history of the creation and application of human rights indicators within the United Nations. It describes the economic, statistical, social, and development regimes created influential actors which have significantly influenced the narrative of human rights indicators and describes the works of human rights bodies concerned with economic, social and cultural rights (ESC rights). It also discusses the Office of the High Commissioner of Human Rights� (OHCHR) development of the so-called illustrative indicators and some theoretical and practical proposals for the application of human rights indicators.
Compliance
Authors: Gori Gisella
Published: February 2014

This article examines the compliance of States with international human rights law. It explains the distinction between judicial and non-judicial compliance mechanisms, focusing on the United Nations (UN) in the context of non-judicial mechanisms and the Council of Europe and the Organization of American States (OAS) in the context of judicial mechanisms. It highlights the central role of the principle of subsidiarity in all international mechanisms for human rights protection and explains that this principle provides a conceptual tool for understanding the relation between the role of states in human rights protection and the role of the international human rights protection mechanisms that states create at the global and regional levels.
Effect of rotational disruption on the size–frequency distribution of the Main Belt asteroid population
Authors: Jacobson Seth A. , Marzari Francesco , Rossi Alessandro , Scheeres Daniel J. , Davis Donald R.
Published: February 2014

The size distribution of small asteroids in the Main Belt is assumed to be determined by an equilibrium between the creation of new bodies out of the impact debris of larger asteroids and the destruction of small asteroids by collisions with smaller projectiles. However, for a diameter less than 6 km, we find that YORP-induced rotational disruption significantly contributes to the erosion even exceeding the effects of collisional fragmentation. Including this additional grinding mechanism in a collision evolution model for the asteroid belt, we generate size–frequency distributions from either an accretional or an ‘Asteroids were born big’ initial size–frequency distribution that are consistent with observations reported in Gladman et al. Rotational disruption is a new mechanism that must be included in all future collisional evolution models of asteroids.
Constructing module maps for integrated analysis of heterogeneous biological networks
Authors: Amar David , Shamir Ron
Published: February 2014

Improved methods for integrated analysis of heterogeneous large-scale omic data are direly needed. Here, we take a network-based approach to this challenge. Given two networks, representing different types of gene interactions, we construct a map of linked modules, where modules are genes strongly connected in the first network and links represent strong inter-module connections in the second. We develop novel algorithms that considerably outperform prior art on simulated and real data from three distinct domains. First, by analyzing protein–protein interactions and negative genetic interactions in yeast, we discover epistatic relations among protein complexes. Second, we analyze protein–protein interactions and DNA damage-specific positive genetic interactions in yeast and reveal functional rewiring among protein complexes, suggesting novel mechanisms of DNA damage response. Finally, using transcriptomes of non–small-cell lung cancer patients, we analyze networks of global co-expression and disease-dependent differential co-expression and identify a sharp drop in correlation between two modules of immune activation processes, with possible microRNA control. Our study demonstrates that module maps are a powerful tool for deeper analysis of heterogeneous high-throughput omic data.
Dissecting the function of the adult β-globin downstream promoter region using an artificial zinc finger DNA-binding domain
Authors: Barrow Joeva J. , Li Ying , Hossain Mir , Huang Suming , Bungert Jörg
Published: February 2014

Developmental stage-specific expression of the β-type globin genes is regulated by many cis- and trans-acting components. The adult β-globin gene contains an E-box located 60 bp downstream of the transcription start site that has been shown to bind transcription factor upstream stimulatory factor (USF) and to contribute to efficient in vitro transcription. We expressed an artificial zinc finger DNA-binding domain (ZF-DBD) targeting this site (+60 ZF-DBD) in murine erythroleukemia cells. Expression of the +60 ZF-DBD reduced the recruitment and elongation of RNA polymerase II (Pol II) at the adult β-globin gene and at the same time increased the binding of Pol II at locus control region (LCR) element HS2, suggesting that Pol II is transferred from the LCR to the globin gene promoters. Expression of the +60 ZF-DBD also reduced the frequency of interactions between the LCR and the adult β-globin promoter. ChIP-exonuclease-sequencing revealed that the +60ZF-DBD was targeted to the adult β-globin downstream promoter and that the binding of the ZF-DBD caused alterations in the association of USF2 containing protein complexes. The data demonstrate that targeting a ZF-DBD to the adult β-globin downstream promoter region interferes with the LCR-mediated recruitment and activity of Pol II.
Beauty and Divinity
Authors: Sherry Patrick
Published: February 2014

Beauty is probably the least considered of God’s attributes nowadays. After looking at the Biblical, Platonic, and Patristic roots of the topic, the chapter discusses briefly a few modern writers who have treated divine beauty, especially Jonathan Edwards, Hans Urs von Balthasar, and Simone Weil, and then some non-Christian sources. Next it considers first the world’s beauty, regarded as brought about through Creation (including works of art as inspired by God’s spirit), and secondly the beauty ascribed to God Himself. It reviews the grounds for such an ascription, including mystical experience and natural theology. It concludes by suggesting ways in which a recovery of the concept of beauty in theology might benefit the Church more widely, especially by fostering joy in worship.
The Religious Sublime
Authors: Mishra Vijay
Published: February 2014

The religious sublime is a key concept in our understanding of the relationship between humans and God. Historically the sublime had a deep connection with religion but it underwent considerable refinement after Kant and Hegel’s reflections on the sublime. The chapter examines the humanist tradition of the sublime beyond Edmund Burke and the Romantics and analyzes how the sublime may be viewed through both aesthetic and religious lenses. The argument that the sublime is linked to reason and makes sense only in the context of a theistic mysticism is critiqued to show that as a category of the mind it is not exclusive to monotheistic religions alone. By examining a classic Hindu text it attempts to give it a different order of epistemological legitimacy.
Narrative Ways of Being Religious
Authors: Jasper David
Published: February 2014

The story is fundamental in human life. As plot, narrative may embrace that which is finally mysterious, such as we find within the biblical narratives of Genesis and in the “counter-coherences” perceived by the narratologist Mieke Bal. This mystery of the biblical narratives is recognized in the rabbinical form of interpretation known as midrash and in the parables of the New Testament, relating to modern literature in writers like Kafka and Borges. The nineteenth-century novel is born from biblical narrative so that even within fiction narrative remains a way of being religious. The twentieth century saw the advent of “narrative theology” and the collapse of narrative form in postmodernism. Yet the story remains in our story-shaped world, drawing us back in fiction to the Bible and to the Gospel narratives.
Dramatic Ways of Being Religious
Authors: Bouchard Larry D.
Published: February 2014

The history of drama and performance often overlaps with histories of religious practice, belief, experience, and thought. This chapter surveys such histories and gives consideration to religious stories and themes, ritual structures, dramatic forms (including “metatheater,” “epic theatre,” verse drama, naturalism, and avant-garde theater), and to theories of religion and performance. The discussion is framed by the question, “Is drama inherently a way of being religious?” That is, does theatrical drama—by virtue of being a hybrid of narrative, dialogue, and embodied performance before live audiences—inherently create possibilities for religious, social, and ethical meanings and relations? The question’s value lies in its power to catalyze discoveries, not in any definitive answer. The chapter concludes with recent theological and ethical views of how drama can open questions of self-transcendence and otherness.
Visual Arts as Ways of Being Religious
Authors: Apostolos-Cappadona Diane
Published: February 2014

Every world religion has an attitude(s) toward the visual arts that can be categorized as being either iconic, aniconic, iconoclastic, or variations thereof. This chapter considers the multiple relationships between religion and the visual arts on the principle that the artist provides meaning and value though image and symbol. The art-historical distinctions between iconography and iconology provide the focus for a discussion of the interdisciplinary methods for interpreting symbolism in religious art. Following an analysis of the traditional concerns related to religion and the visual arts, this chapter gives attention to the contemporary challenges to religious images and symbols by globalization and religious pluralism.
Film and Video as Ways of Being Religious
Authors: Johnston Robert K.
Published: February 2014

This chapter traces the development of religion and film studies, tracking its growth from early biblically-themed shorts prior to World War I to today’s expansive theological/religious conversation with world cinema and Hollywood blockbusters. Historically, such studies centered in Christianity. Theological strategies through the decades have included “avoidance,” “caution,” “dialogue,” “appropriation,” and “divine encounter,” significant scholarship from each being noted. Today, religion and film studies are burgeoning in popularity for several reasons: (1) movies provide people their common myths and stories in our image-based culture; (2) viewer-oriented criticism has uncovered profound experiences of transcendence at the deepest recesses of the human spirit; while (3) theology and film criticism has provided focus on the work of the Holy Spirit outside the believing community and its Scripture. New developments in the field include the discussion of world cinema and other religious traditions, and a stronger focus upon music and image, not just word.
Judaism and Literature
Authors: Stavans Ilan
Published: February 2014

The written word is central to Judaism, a prophetic religion in which the divine word is delivered to humankind in the Hebrew Bible (known as Torah). Text not only enables the divine word to be delivered in the Torah, but also serves as the medium through which the entire legalistic system on which Judaism is based is established. In addition, the written word serves as the depository of collective memory that comes in the form of storytelling. In biblical Judaism, this storytelling acquires two presentations: Torah She’Beal Peh, the oral law or tradition, and Torah She’Bemichtav, the written law or tradition. This article examines the role of literature—and text—in Judaism from the Hebrew Bible to the present. It considers how the idea of literature for Jews has evolved over time and how technology has made the written word ubiquitous. It also discusses changes in readership and how Jewish literature has become global through translation. Finally, it looks at the transition between the written word and the graphic image as literary agents.
Judaism—Visual Art and Architecture
Authors: van Voolen Edward
Published: February 2014

The existence of Jewish art has long been denied by scholars. Indeed, Jewish art appears to be in conflict with the second of the Biblical ten commandments: “you shall not make for yourself a sculptured image… ” Literally interpreted, the verse prohibits visual arts among Jews and seems to reflect a Jewish aversion to images. This article examines art in Judaism and Jewish attitudes to art. It first considers evidence of art in Judaism, such as how Jews regard liturgical books and objects or how they decorate their sanctuaries. It then discusses Jewish art in modernity, focusing on Jewish artists such as Moritz Daniel Oppenheim, Jozef Israëls, Camille Pissarro, Max Liebermann, Mauricy Gottlieb, Marc Chagall, El Lissitzky, Issachar Ryback, Ossip Zadkine, and Jacques Lipchitz. It also looks at contemporary Jewish art as reflected in the architecture of museums, memorials, and synagogues.
Christianity and Visual Art
Authors: Howes Graham
Published: February 2014

This chapter focuses less on the relationship of artists to Christian religious institutions, and more on how an artist’s Christian identity, ideas, and personal beliefs are themselves instrumental in shaping, even determining, artistic self-expression. An identifiable art-historical trajectory is followed, incorporating relevant and revealing case studies, including Fra Angelico, El Greco, Rembrandt, Holman Hunt, Van Gogh, Gauguin, Matisse, and Rouault. The twentieth century—with two World Wars, the Holocaust, the Cold War, globalization, secularization, mass communication, and modernity itself—profoundly transformed both the “traditional” relationship of art to Christianity (and vice versa) and that of Christian faith to artistic practice. In our own “post-modern” era, most artists and their publics are increasingly aware of two major cultural phenomena. One is the paradox of a highly visual culture in which Christian imagery is now, at best, intermittently visible. The other is a marked, perhaps inexorable, mutation away from religion and toward spirituality.
Islam and Literature
Authors: Khalidi Tarif
Published: February 2014

This chapter attempts a historical sketch of the relationship between the Qur’an and rhetoric, arising from the Qur’an’s repeated reference to its own surpassing and inimitable eloquence, (Bayan) and thus, its divine origin. The Qur’an’s hostility to poets and poetry was eventually mitigated through early literary theories which found their fullest expression in Adab, Islamic literary humanism. Adab theories helped to define and refine the question of the Qur’an’s inimitability (i`jaz) through a close examination of the canons of eloquence. In more modern times the question of Qur’an and literature has assumed a new urgency, largely because a literary approach to the Qur’an has morphed into a theological re-examination of basic Qur’anic tenets. Such issues as the narratives in the Qur’an and how they are to be understood today as well as the nature of revelation itself are examples of this transformation of understanding of the sacred text.
Islam and Visual Art
Authors: Graves Margaret S.
Published: February 2014

The label “Islamic art” has at times served to conflate and confuse religious and non-religious impulses within popular understandings of the art of the lands that are now or have historically been majority Muslim. A selection of the manifold visual expressions that relate directly to the practices of faith and religious identity in Islam are here explored, using premodern examples to explore three different themes. The first of these presents the structural form and decoration of some of the earliest mosques and other major religious structures of the Islamic world. The second section considers the role of ornament, including calligraphic practices, in the elaboration and diversification of a religious visual identity, while the third examines the most widely misunderstood aspect of Islamic art—the purported universal aniconism of Muslim cultures—through the small extant corpus of book paintings of religious figures, particularly the Prophet Muhammad.
Hinduism—Aesthetics, Drama, and Poetics
Authors: Visuvalingam Sunthar
Published: February 2014

Distinguishing between “religious” and “secular” in terms of activity (worship), setting (temple), content (deities), intent (edification) is problematic in Hinduism, whose aesthetics often hovers ambiguously between transcendent values and worldly pursuits, while sometimes claiming to constitute a third and distinct domain. Sacred and profane are often superposed, such that the artistry may consist in playing upon the opposed registers, holding them together even while keeping them apart, or refusing to recognize the very distinction. This is best illustrated by the deployment of “humor” around the clown of the Sanskrit drama, whose obvious purpose is vulgar entertainment though his stereotyped role and characterization is intelligible only in terms of a “religious” function. Six fundamentally different approaches to the “sacred” are distinguished: sacrifice (Veda), renunciation, secularization (kingship), possession, devotion (bhakti), and transgression (tantra). This chapter extends the vantage point of Abhinavagupta’s poetics of rasa to the art of storytelling, riddling, and joking.
Hinduism—Visual Art and Architecture
Authors: Frazier Jessica
Published: February 2014

Hindu culture possesses unique ways of seeing and shaping religious art; this chapter explores the “keys” that are needed to interpret some of its characteristic art-forms. The visual arts, like music, provide a universal language that unites the immensely diverse regions of South Asia. Hindu art, in particular, reflects the belief in a polycentric and pervasive divinity that becomes visible in the plastic arts. Rooted in medieval traditions of aesthetic philosophy and ritual divinization, Hindu Art pervades the daily experience of the community, encountered in elaborate ornamental styles, spirits and gods crowding the temple-towers, ritually consecrated sacred architecture, statues and posters that are “alive” with the god’s presence, and evocative films that help the viewer to stay receptive to the effect of these intense art forms.
Doubt and Belief in Literature
Authors: Lundin Roger
Published: February 2014

The story of belief and doubt in modern literature begins with the emergence of open [CE1]unbelief at roughly the midpoint of the nineteenth century. For the first generation of writers—including such greats as Herman Melville, Emily Dickinson, Friedrich Nietzsche, and Fyodor Dostoevsky—the sense of conflict and uncertainty was palpable, as they grappled on new ground with classic questions concerning the nature and existence of God, the problem of evil, and the meaning of human life. In the generations that followed, from the rise of naturalism to the heights of modernism into the postmodern, eclectic age we call our own, the overtly Christian nature of the question of belief began to recede from view, and a politically oriented understanding took center stage. To a significant extent, on matters having to do with the relationship between literature and belief, the twentieth century was to witness an ever-widening gap between the view of those matters from the ivory tower and the perspective from the pews and the private regions of the heart. As a result, while powerful theoretical developments were fueling academic skepticism about the role of religion within the academy, outside the academy’s walls men and women continued to grapple with God and to record their struggles for others to read, to hear, and to heed. Given the infinitely diverse and widely dispersed nature of modern culture, these individual accounts of faith and doubt perhaps have not had the same cultural resonance that the explosive explorations of the nineteenth-century writers did. Yet at the same time, they testify to the ongoing vitality of belief, and unbelief, in contemporary literature and experience. At their best, such works are marked by a creative pugnacity, and in their willingness to mention the unmentionable, they continue to serve as a counter-cultural force challenging the pieties of the modern literary and theoretical establishments.
Iconoclasm
Authors: Mochizuki Mia M.
Published: February 2014

Understanding iconoclasm simply as the breaking of images fails to adequately address why reformers of all eras have sought to decapitate, maim, and otherwise erase sacred art. This chapter takes a long view of iconoclasm as the active interrogation of objects by objects—through case studies from ancient, medieval, and reformation art to today’s contemporary crises—to consider the power of religious art from the frankly object-centered perspective of “applied criticism,” censorship, and renunciation. Following a chronological overview of the many historical iconoclasms, it weighs the issues at stake through the lens of close looking, before closing with a range of objects whose hammer’s inflections intimate the potency of a methodology premised on fertile absence. Interpretation via the matrix of lack, fragility, and mystery is the proposition iconoclasm tenders whenever art and religion intersect.
Gender, Imagery, and Religious Imagination
Authors: Miles Margaret M.
Published: February 2014

In the field of Religion and Art, gender plays an important role in developing methods for the analysis of artworks in relation to the cultures and societies in which they were created. Images offer a means to correct a pervasive contemporary misrepresentation of Western Christianity as focused on ideas, doctrines, and theology—that is, on language. Imagery and religious imagination are intertwined in the testimony of many historical people from Francis of Assisi to Catherine of Siena. This article examines the interrelationships between religion, art, and gender. It discusses disciplines that address the nexus of gender, imagery, and religious imagination, and how each field has spawned studies of historical women before studies of gender relations. These include Gender and Art, Film Studies, Gender Studies, Feminist Studies, Religious Studies, and Women’s Studies.
Sacred and Secular in African American Music
Authors: Kirk-Duggan Cheryl A.
Published: February 2014

Music, a source of motivation, well-being, entertainment, and survival in diverse lives of African Americans, has afforded them experiences of signifying their humanity amidst horrific oppression, while engaging in creativity, worship, and rituals of celebration. Rooted within African traditions, where sacred and secular are one, some African American musical genres are more fluid, engaging a tension between how people label and use music. This music shares common traditions and attributes. Using themes of poetry, praise, power, protest, philosophy, and politics, this analysis of African American sacred and secular music: (1) introduces the socio-historical, cultural, cosmological origins and terminology of this music; (2) examines selected musical typologies, from antebellum Spirituals to hip-hop and contemporary classical African American music that foregrounds tenets of so-called sacred and secular music; (3) explores a religious/spiritual impact of these cultural artifacts; and (4) concludes with a literature review of scholarship regarding African American sacred and secular music.
Introduction
Authors: Brown Frank Burch
Published: February 2014

When the arts are mapped onto the terrain of religion, art itself looks different, as does religion, and one sees more plainly how each shapes the other and, at times, becomes part of the other. There is a progressively wider distribution of religion scholarship concerned with artistic and aesthetic matters, whether explicitly religious or implicitly so (when it is often termed “spiritual”). That ever widening interest in religion and the arts is not, however, accompanied by an equally wide distribution of expertise. The Oxford Handbook of Religion and the Arts is designed to draw on the best international scholarship to open up cross-disciplinary conversation that is increasingly needed so as to understand a fuller range of artistic ways of being religious, and of religious ways of being artistic. Artistry, far from receding in religious significance, as Hegel had predicted, has developed a life of its own that, nonetheless, transfigures the realm of religion, and is in turned changed by the forms of religion, both old and new. The mutual transfiguration of art and religion, in a variety of modes, is something scholars of both art and religion need to acknowledge and study as that transpires in new ways, some of which are only now coming into view.
Conservatism
Authors: O'Sullivan Noël
Published: February 2014

Conservative ideology in its moderate form is inspired by opposition to belief in radical political and social change on the ground that it rests on several mistaken assumptions, of which the most important are that human nature is highly malleable; that human will can refashion history in whatever ways human ideals may require; that society is the artificial product of a contract between autonomous individuals; and that evil is an eliminable feature of human existence. The unifying theme of conservative ideology, by contrast, is a defence of limited politics, although different schools of conservatism have theorized the concept of limit in ways that are incompatible and even incoherent. Of these, the four principal schools are the reactionary, the radical, the moderate, and, more recently, the New Right. This chapter examines the degree of coherence achieved by each of these schools of thought.
Economic Libertarianism
Authors: Gamble Andrew
Published: February 2014

One core strand in the revival of free market doctrines in the second half of the twentieth century has been economic libertarianism, noted for the priority it gives to the economy and to economic reasoning about politics and public affairs. This chapter traces the evolution of economic libertarianism, from the Ordo-Liberal critique of collectivism and totalitarianism, to the neoliberal critique of social democracy and the welfare state. It explores the diversity of the ideas and policies associated with economic libertarianism, and its relationship with Conservatism. This is traced through discourses on the state, democracy, knowledge, and culture, which reveal the strengths as well as some of the dilemmas and weaknesses of this influential form of political economy.
Fascism
Authors: Eatwell Roger
Published: February 2014

Although strands of proto-fascist thought can be identified before 1914, it was only after the First World War that a syncretic fascist ideology emerged. It is best understood within a matrix encompassing three core themes. The first is the quest for a ‘new man’, which required the creation of new forms of dynamic leadership. The second is the celebration of the holistic nation, though this did not necessarily mean militaristic expansionism outside states with major geopolitical aspirations. The final theme is the quest for a Third Way, which would inspire the community and promote economic prosperity. Within this matrix there were notable differences about issues such as the role of violence, biological racism, and the nature of the totalitarian state. However, since 1945 fascism has been a pariah with only a handful of mainly former supporters seeking to reanimate its ideology
Ideology and Political Rhetoric
Authors: Finlayson Alan
Published: February 2014

This chapter argues that studies of political ideology should be combined with research into political rhetoric. An ideology is not only a particular way of organizing values, concepts, and signifiers; it is also a way of formulating and selecting arguments for these, of devising and deploying strategies and styles of persuasion. These are not secondary to the core propositions of an ideology but part of what that ideology is. The chapter begins by making the case for adding the study of arguments to research into concepts and signifiers. It then reviews ways in which rhetoric has recently become important for historians of political thought, political scientists, and theorists of deliberation. Outlining ways in which we might best research rhetoric and ideologies, the chapter argues that it is especially important to examine the different ways in which ideologies appeal to authority (ethos), emotion (pathos), and reason (logos).
Liberalism
Authors: Freeden Michael , Stears Marc
Published: February 2014

The chapter explores the many varieties of liberal thinking that have developed over time, often in parallel. Those include theories of liberty, individualism, and autonomy alongside notions of community, progress, and welfare, some of which intersect, and all involving different degrees of state intervention or restraint. Constitutionalism, entrepreneurship, individual development as epitomized by Mill, and cultural pluralism are identified as four separate tendencies that both co-exist and clash within the liberal tradition. Their institutional manifestations oscillate between a welfare state and a market society, and between universalistic and particularistic practices. American liberalism in particular emerged as rights-based, but was also prone to criticism that policies undertaken in its name fell short of its own principles, deviating from the ethical and utopian desiderata of Rawls’ philosophical liberalism. Importantly, liberalism has also been surrounded by pretenders eager to exploit its mantle rather than commit to its substance.
Modern African Ideologies
Authors: Hendrickson Joy , Zaki Hoda
Published: February 2014

The chapter discusses African ideologies from the eighteenth to the twenty-first centuries. Two distinguishing characteristics are identified: a definition and promotion of human rights for Africans, and a global authorship of continental Africans and their descendants in the African Diaspora. The movement of ideologies between Africans and their descendents in the New World served to cross-fertilize political movements such as Pan-Africanism, many of which were formulated outside the continent. Key ideologies discussed include African Abolitionism and anti-colonialism, African Socialism and Marxism, the Non-Aligned Movement, Negritude, ujamaa, ubuntu, African feminism, environmentalism, and postcolonialism. Emerging as a response to racist Western ideologies, African responses were directed initially to Western audiences. The attempt to vindicate African humanity and human rights has evolved to an assertion of African contributions to world history and culture and to an engagement with African communities to promote a postcolonial independence.
The Morphological Analysis of Ideology
Authors: Freeden Michael
Published: February 2014

The chapter examines the recent approach to ideology as an actual and ubiquitous combination of decontested political concepts, whose micro-morphological arrangements are the key to the specific meaning each ideological family contains. Shifting proximities and relative weights accorded to those concepts produce multiple ideological variants. Ideologies are pivotal to the discipline of political theory, discernible both in professional and vernacular thinking, and serve as discursive competitions over the control of public political language. Notions of essential contestability, theories of symbolic mapping, and a focus on actual rather than normative political thinking shed light on their semantic significance. Ideologies are permanent phenomena ranging from the flexible to the rigid, and the boundaries that seem to separate one ideology from another may be loose and mutating, challenging the traditional association of ideologies with political parties. In parallel, the study of ideology involves decoding and interpretation, not its juxtaposition with truth.
Total and Totalitarian Ideologies
Authors: Gentile Emilio
Published: February 2014

Modern political ideologies can be divided into two categories, individualist and holistic. ‘Unity’, ‘community’, ‘totality’, ‘organism’ are typical concepts of holistic ideologies. This article deals with the holistic ideologies born after the French Revolution, and within this category distinguishes total from totalitarian ideologies. A total ideology is a global conception of life and of history, which postulates the social essence of man and subordinates the individual to the collective. A totalitarian ideology may be defined as a holistic ideology of a revolutionary party that considers itself to be the unique and exclusive vanguard of its own reference group—the proletariat, the nation, the racial entity—and as such demands for itself a monopoly of power in order to establish a new order. Total and totalitarian ideologies, presenting themselves as global conceptions of life that defined the significance and ends of individual and collective existence, have been interpreted as secular religions contributing to the sacralization of politics.
Contemporary Critical Theory
Authors: McNay Lois
Published: February 2014

This chapter considers the role played by ideology critique in the work of second, third, and fourth generation Critical Theorists. Ideology critique is related to the functions of disclosure and reflexivity. Critical Theorists maintain that paths to political emancipation emerge from the unmasking and challenging of often unnoticed forms of ideological domination that naturalize exploitative social relations. They also maintain that normative political thought must form part of a general interdisciplinary mode of enquiry in order to promote a reflexive self-awareness of unexamined theoretical presuppositions. Focusing on the issues of embodiment and power, this article offers a critical assessment of the extent to which Critical Theorists (mainly Habermas and Honneth) are successful in realizing this two-fold function of ideology critique.
Focus on Translational Research
Authors: McDowell John M. , Carr John , Lorito Matteo
Published: February 2014

Readers of this journal are well aware how far our field has progressed towards mechanistic understanding of pathogenesis and immunity. Almost concurrently, this new fundamental knowledge is being translated into new tools for reducing disease losses in crops. This is obviously exciting for our research community and our varied stakeholders. Thus, the MPMI editorial board decided that the time is right for a special issue devoted to the topic of Translational Research. This issue comprises reviews, invited by the editors, and primary reports submitted in response to an open call. We are gratified to introduce articles that collectively encompass a wide range of applications and clearly illustrate the practical value of fundamental understanding of molecular plant-microbe interactions.

Click on Next Article or Table of Contents above to view the articles in this Focus Issue. (From the mobile site, go to the MPMI March 2014 issue.)
Pulmonary Function after Emergence on 100% Oxygen in Patients with Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
Authors: Kleinsasser Axel T. , Pircher Iris , Truebsbach Suzan , Knotzer Hans , Loeckinger Alexander , Treml Benedict
Published: February 2014

Background:

During emergence from anesthesia, breathing 100% oxygen is frequently used to provide a safety margin toward hypoxemia in case an airway problem occurs. Oxygen breathing has been shown to cause pulmonary gas exchange disorders in healthy individuals. This study investigates how oxygen breathing during emergence affects lung function specifically whether oxygen breathing causes added hypoxemia in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.

Methods:

This trial has been conducted in a parallel-arm, case-controlled, open-label manner. Fifty-three patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease were randomly allocated (computer-generated lists) to breathe either 100 or 30% oxygen balanced with nitrogen during emergence from anesthesia. Arterial blood gas measurements were taken before induction and at 5, 15, and 60 min after extubation.

Results:

All participants tolerated the study well. Patients treated with 100% oxygen had a higher alveolar–arterial oxygen pressure gradient (primary outcome) compared with patients treated with 30% oxygen (25 vs. 20 mmHg) and compared with their baseline at the 60-min measurement (25 vs. 17 mmHg). At the 60-min measurement, arterial partial pressure of oxygen was lower in the 100% group (62 vs. 67 mmHg). Arterial partial pressure of carbon dioxide and pH were not different between groups or measurements.

Conclusions:

In this experiment, the authors examined oxygen breathing during emergence—a widely practiced maneuver known to generate pulmonary blood flow heterogeneity. In the observed cohort of patients already presenting with pulmonary blood flow disturbances, emergence on oxygen resulted in deterioration of oxygen-related blood gas parameters. In the perioperative care of patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, oxygen breathing during emergence from anesthesia may need reconsideration.