bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Poverty and Poverty Discourses
Authors: Taylor Claire
Published: September 2017

Chapter 2 discusses how poverty was socially constructed in Athens by examining the discourses surrounding penia within the surviving literary evidence. This chapter is therefore concerned with how the Athenians thought about and wrote about poverty and the poor. These discourses constructed the poor as deficient, needy, and dissatisfied, and poverty as something to fear and beset by instability. However, these ideas are shaped by the concerns of the elite and do not necessarily provide a good guide to understanding the realities of poverty. Whilst poverty was used as an ideological vehicle for certain types of behaviour, ideas about poverty and the poor were actively debated and contested.
Poverty and the Distribution of Income and Wealth
Authors: Taylor Claire
Published: September 2017

Chapter 3 examines wealth and income distribution in Athens. It argues that understanding Athenian poverty depends not just on the perceptions of the literary elite, but on combining and critiquing various measurements of poverty drawn from the social sciences. By deliberately eschewing ancient categories of poverty, and using instead modern sociological ones, this chapter asks what proportion of the Athenian population might be considered poor, how poor they were, how big a gap there was between the richest and poorest, and how this might have changed over time.
Wilde’s Abstractions
Authors: Bristow Joseph
Published: September 2017

This chapter draws attention to Wilde’s methods of studying for his final examinations in Literæ Humaniores (or Greats) between 1876 and 1878, when he was an undergraduate at Magdalen College, Oxford. It looks closely at the substantial document that scholars usually refer to as the ‘Philosophy’ notebook: a 350-page set of notes that range across many of the modern areas of disciplinary inquiry that the Greats student was expected to know in addition to classical history, philosophy, and literature. Using as an example Wilde’s notes on the concept of abstraction, the chapter traces his engagement with this idea in relation to such works as Aristotle’s Posterior Analytics, Mill’s System of Logic, Bain’s Mental and Moral Science, and Cairnes’s Essays in Political Economy. Throughout Wilde displays a truly dialectical turn of mind as he adopts different approaches to the logical process of abstraction: the condensing of complex particulars into general definitions.
Wilde and the Emergence of Literary Drama, 1880–1895
Authors: Foster Clare L. E.
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines Wilde’s championship of serious theatre and the authentic performance text by analysing his reviews of the first so-called ‘archaeological’ productions of Greek plays and Shakespeare. It offers a wider context in which to understand the rapidity of his disaffection with Greek plays, as practised among the social elite; and it suggests some ways in which his early enthusiasm for authentic Greek drama and Shakespeare is related to his own later classically informed playwriting, which combines old ideas of theatre as about and for its audiences with new ideas of drama as the appreciation of a literary object. Wilde’s own work as a dramatist straddled that change, prefigured by a comment he made in 1885: ‘An audience looks at a tragedian, but a comedian looks at his audience.’ He combines both these directions of gaze in his 1895 play The Importance of Being Earnest.
‘All the terrible beauty of a Greek tragedy’
Authors: Riley Kathleen
Published: September 2017

This chapter focuses on Wilde’s special kinship with Euripides, whom he saw as ‘the great humanist of Hellas’. It argues that that kinship, nurtured in free and fertile soil at Oxford, declares itself most profoundly in Wilde’s ‘Epistola: In Carcere et Vinculis’, and particularly his provocative reinvention of Isaiah’s Man of Sorrows as the consummate Individualist and archetypal Artist. It further argues that Wilde’s notion of Christian autarkeia and self-fulfilment is founded in Euripidean humanism, and his exposition of Christ’s ‘dangerous idea’ (love for the sinner) is steeped in Euripides’ progressive idea of redemptive love as exemplified in Heracles, a play Wilde professed to know intimately. The chapter also explores the likely influence of De Profundis on Frederic Manning’s Euripidean concept of autarkic realization through philia. It concludes that Wilde’s ‘Epistola’, The Ballad of Reading Gaol, and post-prison letter to the Daily Chronicle constitute his most authentic homage to Euripides.
The Criminal Emperors of Ancient Rome and Wilde’s ‘true historical sense’
Authors: Malik Shushma
Published: September 2017

This chapter explores how Wilde uses ‘historic sense’ (the intuition of a learned historian and the antecedent of historical criticism) as a tool with which to analyse the past, particularly the criminal emperors of ancient Rome. In his essay ‘Pen, Pencil, and Poison’, Wilde claims that ‘true historical sense’ in relation to the past allows us to ignore the crimes of Nero and Tiberius, and instead to recognize and appreciate them as artists. His decadent reading of the past is undermined, however, when we compare this version of historically guided intuition with his definition of the phrase in other works. By examining ‘Pen, Pencil, and Poison’ alongside The Picture of Dorian Gray and ‘Epistola: In Carcere et Vinculis’, we can see how Wilde manipulates his readings of the criminal emperors of Rome in order to fit his own changing relationship with Decadence and the (im)morality of crime.
‘I knew I had a brother!’
Authors: Witzke Serena S.
Published: September 2017

This chapter first examines the direct structural, narrative, and textual engagement of Wilde’s The Importance of Being Earnest with New Comic playwright Plautus’ Menaechmi, and then suggests that viewing Wilde’s Earnest as an interpretation of Menaechmi offers a new lens for understanding the bad behaviour of the Plautine twins. Both plays are farces involving two brothers with hidden identities and behaving badly, and both depend upon the revelation of identity through the use of signa (verbal signs) or symboli (physical tokens) of recognition. Wilde’s interest in the consequences of stifled self-development and the psychological pressures of false identity through the characters of Jack and Algernon elucidate the similarly stunted growth of Menaechmus and Sosicles. Wilde’s clarification of motivation allows us to rethink the behaviour of Plautus’ wayward twins: they are not naturally bad, but rather are forced into ill-fitting personae and so act out until their mistaken identity is corrected.
Courtesy, Lying, and Politics
Authors: Hadfield Andrew
Published: September 2017

Chapter 5 is a discussion of courtesy books and political conduct manuals and whether the behaviour they recommend could or should be divorced from moral conduct, and, if so, what implications this had for truthfulness and whether courtiers were ever permitted to tell lies in the name of a greater good. Political speech has always been calculated, and it is rare to encounter ‘naïve communication—where a speaker states literally all that he thinks, and/or an audience accepts his representation at face value’. The chapter explores the question of whether small lies led to big lies or whether they could be contained, a central question asked in Edmund Spenser’s Faerie Queene. It provides analysis of a number of books on courtesy including Castiglione’s Book of the Courtier; Giovanni della Casa’s Galateo; Stefano Guazzo’s Ciuile Conuersation, and others, concluding with Machiavelli and Christopher Marlowe.
Loyal Women? Marie Jones and Christina Reid
Authors: Parr Connal
Published: September 2017

Marie Jones and Christina Reid earned critical and commercial success, with the former breaking through with the Charabanc Theatre Company ensemble in 1983 and Reid emerging via the Lyric Theatre contemporaneously. The latter’s plays reveal a far closer affinity with the traditions of her Orange-supporting family than she conveyed in interviews and has been reflected in scholarly literature. While both writers profess Irish identifications, both tend to emphasize and explore social class along with gender in their lives and work. Being from different but strongly Protestant backgrounds, both were also proximate with Loyalist paramilitaries, writing and interacting with them in some personal or critical capacity. Interviews with Reid, Jones, and the Charabanc women supplement the testimony and insights of female representatives and activists.
Imitating the Queen of Troy
Authors: Pollard Tanya
Published: September 2017

Chapter 2, “Imitating the Queen of Troy,” explores responses to Greek tragic women in Kyd’s Spanish Tragedy and Shakespeare and Peele’s Titus Andronicus, two early revenge tragedies that both feature raging, grieving mothers and sacrificial young women framed among Greek allusions. Both plays also reflect metatheatrically on the nature of tragedy and link it with appeals to sympathy, suggesting that their attention to Greek legacies and tragic female icons accompanies a broader interest in the genre and its effects. Tracing Kyd’s Greek training at Merchant Taylors’ School, and Peele’s Greek literary experience at Oxford, the chapter identifies Greek debts in these two early commercial tragedies as establishing a crucial foundation for the genre’s development in England.
Iphigenia in Illyria
Authors: Pollard Tanya
Published: September 2017

Chapter 4, “Iphigenia in Illyria: Greek Tragic Women on Comic Stages,” argues that Greek tragic women shaped Shakespeare’s sense of comedy’s affective possibilities in plays including The Comedy of Errors and Twelfth Night. In the wake of Greek-inspired experiments with tragedy, Shakespeare turned to mediating versions of these tragic icons to explore the resources of female lament for soliciting sympathies in comic settings. Comedy of Errors departs from Plautus by invoking the romance Apollonius of Tyre to heighten its tragic backstory, expand the role of Adriana, and introduce a lost mother; Twelfth Night extends on these same revisions, while also alluding to Heliodorus’ Aethiopica to identify Viola with Greek sacrificial virgins, heightening her links with tragedy and her appeal to audiences’ sympathies.
Bringing Back the Dead
Authors: Pollard Tanya
Published: September 2017

Chapter 5, “Bringing Back the Dead: Shakespeare’s Alcestis,” argues that, after incorporating Greek tragic women into comedies, Shakespeare increasingly drew on these figures to merge tragic and comic structures in plays featuring miraculous recoveries from apparent deaths. Plays such as Much Ado About Nothing, Pericles, and The Winter’s Tale not only dramatize women’s miraculous return to life from apparent death, but also link these recoveries with the performance of female lament, which elicits sympathies and melts audiences into supportive alliances. Drawing on sources shaped by Greek texts, these plays reconfigure tragedy with a happy ending, a hybrid genre identified with Euripides. In particular, they recreate the ending of Alcestis, in which a grieving man encounters a veiled woman who is eventually revealed to be his lost wife returned from death.
Determinants of (inequalities in) health: an overview
Authors: Olsen Jan Abel
Published: September 2017

This chapter provides an overview of the determinants of (ill) health, which in turn help explain observed inequalities in health across population groups. It includes a graphical representation of three sets of determinants along an ‘outside–inside own control’ continuum: genetic endowments are health preconditions and reflect a ‘biological lottery’ over which people have no control; the social environment reflects a ‘social lottery’ over which people have some control; while health-related behaviour is something people have much control over. This framework forms the basis for a discussion of which causes of ill health people might be held responsible for, and which causes that are avoidable, and hence considered to represent an unfair inequality. A brief discussion is included on the various normative arguments that attempt to change the focus of social justice from equality in health outcomes to equality of health opportunities.
Exogenous determinants of health
Authors: Olsen Jan Abel
Published: September 2017

This chapter considers some determinants that lie completely outside of people’s own control. For such exogenous causes of ill health, the unlucky ones cannot be held responsible for their misfortune. Still, some of these causes are avoidable, in the sense that effective policy interventions exist. Biological variations are in general unavoidable. The chapter investigates two types of determinants associated with early life circumstances. The most systematic health difference that an individual is affected by is whether born a boy or girl: women live 5–6% longer than men. Childhood differences in health follow a strong social gradient, and some figures are included to prove this sad fact. One additional exogenous determinant is the physical environment that affects people’s health. A simple model is presented to show how unhealthy externalities can be reduced by imposing pollution taxes: the polluter pay principle.
Secondary care: hospital financing
Authors: Olsen Jan Abel
Published: September 2017

This chapter discusses the three most widely used payment systems for hospitals. While concepts differ, payment models in secondary care have parallels to those used in primary care. In retrospective systems, providers’ costs are fully reimbursed after they have incurred which leads to cost escalations and inefficiencies. In prospective systems, payments are determined ex ante without any link to the real costs incurred by the provider. Prospective payment systems are of two kinds: variable or fixed. The former are often referred to as activity-based financing, while fixed payments refer to block grants or global budgets. The three models are compared emphasizing their pros and cons. In practical policy, prospective activity-based funding has increased in popularity, but many countries opt for a blended model involving a fixed budget together with activity-based incentives. The chapter ends with a brief discussion of various pay-for-performance schemes.
Benefits from improved health
Authors: Olsen Jan Abel
Published: September 2017

This chapter starts with an inquiry into the nature of different outcome measures that are being used in the medical literature, emphasizing an important distinction between incommensurable versus commensurable measures. The quality-adjusted life year (QALY) represents the most widely used commensurable metric. A key issue is how to value health-related quality of life (HRQoL) on a [0–1] scale by the use of health-state utility instruments. In addition to the health outcomes that are accounted for in the QALY measure, productivity gains might occur as a result of previously sick people returning to work. The chapter discusses the methodological and the equity issues involved when determining the extent to which production gains should be included in an economic evaluation. Finally, the theory behind the willingness-to-pay method is briefly explained, and contrasted with some measurement problems when applied as a way to value health benefits.
Humanity, Necessity, and the Rights of Soldiers
Authors: May Larry
Published: September 2017

In both morality and law, it is still common to say that soldiers’ lives do not count for very much in assessments of whether or not a particular war or armed conflict is justifiably initiated and conducted. I argue that soldiers should be acknowledged to have the humanitarian right not to be killed unnecessarily. Also, I argue that military necessity is best conceived as a form of practical necessity. I argue for a strengthening of the principle of military necessity, so that a soldier’s life can only be taken if it is practically necessary to achieve a needed military objective. I then set out a new way to understand humanitarian norms that is in keeping with the idea that the humans who are soldiers should be treated with at least minimal dignity. I support an expanded view of humanitarian rights that takes account of soldiers’ unique vulnerabilities.
Proportionate Defense
Authors: McMahan Jeff
Published: September 2017

Proportionality in defense is a relation between the good and bad effects of a defensive act. Stated crudely, proportionality requires that the bad effects of such an act not be excessive in relation to the good. If this seems simple, the apparent simplicity is an illusion. This chapter explores some of the hitherto unappreciated complexities in the idea of proportionality. It explains how a requirement of proportionality differs from a requirement of necessity, distinguishes among various types of proportionality, and examines the ways in which proportionality in defense differs from proportionality in punishment. The chapter also suggests that certain good or bad effects may have less weight than others, or even no weight at all, in the assessment of proportionality. Finally, the chapter argues that proportionality is not just a matter of the consequences of action, but is also sensitive to the ways in which consequences are brought about.
A Theory of Jus in Bello Proportionality
Authors: Haque Adil Ahmad
Published: September 2017

The chapter argues that an attack that inflicts harm on civilians is proportionate only if it prevents the opposing party from inflicting substantially greater harm on the attacking force or civilians in current or future military operations. This account does not compare incommensurable values, only immediate losses to civilians and future losses to civilians and to attacking forces. In addition, it applies symmetrically to all parties to an armed conflict, independently of the jus ad bellum morality and legality of their use of military force. Attacks that are disproportionate under this account are morally impermissible when carried out by just combatants, and disproportionate attacks carried out by unjust combatants are morally worse than proportionate attacks carried out by unjust combatants. Finally, the chapter explores a number of decision procedures and rules of engagement that officers may use to make the best possible decision given the limited information available to them.
Weighing Unjust Lives
Authors: Forcehimes Andrew
Published: September 2017

Are the lives of those fighting on the unjust side of a war worth less than the lives of those fighting on the just side? It is tempting to answer yes. There is a powerful and popular rationale for this verdict: Things are intrinsically better when people get what they deserve. According to this view, the goodness of a life is the product of one’s desert-adjusted welfare. In this chapter, I highlight the troubling implications that adjusting for desert has in the context of war. The implausibility of these implications calls into question the core idea of the desert-adjusted account: namely, that there is some level of welfare that each person deserves, and things would go best if everyone were at these levels.
Streets of Excitement
Authors: Prestel Joseph Ben
Published: September 2017

In 1870s Berlin, the debate on emotions shifted. While morality remained an important referent for a number of groups in the city, new claims about the “pathology” of emotions rose to prominence. The issue of sick “nerves” began to occupy a central role in various actors’ statements including doctors, prostitutes, philosophers, and journalists, when they wrote about the impact of urban change on emotions. According to many of these descriptions, the recently created entertainment district around Friedrichstraße produced ambiguous emotions in city dwellers, ranging from love to disgust and anger. The ambiguity of these emotions, grouped together under the concept of “excitement,” risked making city dwellers lose hold of their emotions and render them “nervous.” While this pathology of emotions provided a new way to “naturalize” middle-class ideals of emotional restraint, police and court records demonstrate the conflicts surrounding claims about emotions in Berlin’s entertainment district.
Haunted Happiness
Authors: Prestel Joseph Ben
Published: September 2017

turn-of-the-century Cairo, practices of living at a distance from the city center and physical exercise were also praised as fostering rationality and producing positive emotions. While contemporaries in the Egyptian capital could draw on the same examples as their counterparts in Berlin, Arabic-language authors did not exclusively refer to “European” ideals. They also discussed specific “Egyptian” antecedents, including physical exercise among the ancient Egyptians. With the spread of suburbs and spaces for physical exercise, these arguments about emotional betterment left material traces in turn-of-the-century Cairo. Looking at these dynamics, the chapter demonstrates that practices of emotional reform in Cairo were bound to a specific class formation. The attempt at creating “rational” and emotionally controlled subjects was tied to the rising influence of the city’s Arabic-speaking, male middle class, which presented itself as the vanguard of the national movement.
Introduction
Authors: Nuovo Victor
Published: September 2017

The Introduction outlines the purpose of the book, which is to show how Locke’s philosophical work is clarified and explained when it is considered as the production of a Christian virtuoso—a seventeenth-century English experimental natural philosopher, an empiricist, who also professed Christianity of a sort that was infused with moral seriousness and Platonic otherworldliness, and with the conviction that the material and temporal world is irremediably imperfect and cannot satisfy the desire of the mind to know all things and the will to achieve perfection. The method used in interpreting Locke’s thought involves careful and repeated reading of his whole works in their proper contexts. Those contexts were natural philosophical and biblical theological projects engaged in by Locke’s eminent predecessors, Francis Bacon and Robert Boyle. Bacon is credited with initiating a revival of interest in the Presocratics, especially Democritus and his system of atomism; but this was part of a larger program of the renewal of learning that was deeply influenced by Christian expectation.
Robert Boyle, Christian Virtuoso
Authors: Nuovo Victor
Published: September 2017

Boyle gave the vocation of a Christian virtuoso its name and exemplified its character in his life. Following Bacon, he affirmed the priority of natural philosophy, and, like Bacon, he prescribed that it be practiced through experimental methods and that it found its explanations either directly upon perceived causes or upon causal hypotheses inferred from experimental practice or trials of nature, chief among them the mechanical or ‘atomicall’ philosophy. In his book The Christian Virtuoso, he prescribed that the study of nature was complemented and completed by the study of Holy Scripture, and he imagined a form of intellectual life in which the scope of natural reason was enlarged by revelation, which in turn was confirmed through trials or experiments of faith.
The Philosophy of a Christian Virtuoso i
Authors: Nuovo Victor
Published: September 2017

An Essay concerning Human Understanding is, with respect to its genre, a system of logic, consisting of signs, or words and ideas, and the use the mind makes of them to achieve an understanding of things and to convey them without ambiguity to others. Words and ideas are combined in definitions and causal statements. One of the main goals of the Essay is to determine the nature and limits of knowledge and belief. Locke concludes that a science of nature is impossible to us, because human understanding cannot gain access into the essence or inner constitution of things, material or spiritual, but that a science of morality is possible, because the objects of moral reflection, moral ideas, are fully comprehensible to us. With regard to other things, material or spiritual, the mind must be content with probable belief. Locke concludes the Essay claiming that morality is the proper business of mankind in this life.
The Philosophy of a Christian Virtuoso ii
Authors: Nuovo Victor
Published: September 2017

Although Locke’s Essay is primarily a discourse in logic, he says enough about the physical nature of things to construct a theory of the nature of things. As a virtuoso, physics replaces metaphysics in his philosophical system. His ontology, however, includes not only bodies, but God and finite spirits, and its major achievement is to prove the existence of God and demonstrate his immateriality. Perhaps encouraged by reading Cudworth, Locke was confident that our faculty of reason is sufficient to refute materialism and atheism. As to the nature of bodies, Locke finds empirical evidence that solidity or impenetrability is their most evident quality. The idea of superaddition is central to Locke’s speculative or divine physics. But although such insights may elevate the mind to God, Locke’s physics is theoretically sterile, although it may have beneficial practical uses.
The Theology of a Christian Virtuoso
Authors: Nuovo Victor
Published: September 2017

This chapter offers expositions of Locke’s two major theological works: The Reasonableness of Christianity and A Paraphrase and Notes on the Epistles of St Paul. Their theme is revealed theology. It is noted that Locke’s approach to the Bible is historical and inductive as well as theological. He maintained that revelation is an enlargement of natural reason, not a reduction of divine things to mere natural understanding. What is disclosed in Scripture is the divine purpose in the creation of the world and the redemption of mankind, and therefore, the special place and duties of mankind in the scheme of things. In this regard, Locke’s theological writings represent the completion of his philosophical program, and the resolution of the impasse concerning the principles of morality and revelation that was its starting point.
Conclusion
Authors: Nuovo Victor
Published: September 2017

The purpose of this work has been to present Locke’s philosophical work as the product of a Christian virtuoso, of an experimental natural philosopher who is also a sincere and committed Christian. This approach to Locke has the advantage of integrating the theological and philosophical parts of his thought. It is concluded that Locke fashioned a standard system of philosophy, comprising logic, physics, and ethics. Locke’s logic was a system of logical empiricism from which he drew skeptical conclusions concerning the possibility of a science of nature. Unlike Hobbes, he lacked the daring to embrace materialism. And, although like Hobbes he was a natural law theorist, moral pessimism led him to doubt the possibility of moral realization. Only by enlarging reason through divine revelation was Locke able to discover a way to transcend the limitations of reason and human intransigence. Locke’s greatest achievements may have been in biblical theology.
On Presumption
Authors: Ullmann-Margalit Edna
Published: September 2017

Some of the most difficult decisions in law and ordinary life are simplified by the use of some kind of presumption. Accused criminals are presumed to be innocent, and most of the time, legislative acts are presumed to be constitutional. And when people do not know what to do, they often adopt a presumption of some kind—for example, sticking with the status quo, or perhaps in favor of making a specific change. In countless domains, presumptions help people to extricate themselves from difficult situations. They can serve as a way of breaking an initial symmetrical situation by using a supposition not fully justified, yet not quite rash either—favoring one action over the other.
Big Decisions
Authors: Ullmann-Margalit Edna
Published: September 2017

A decision is “big” if it exhibits the following characteristics: it is transformative, or “core affecting”; it is irrevocable; it is taken in full awareness; the choice not made casts a lingering shadow. Such decisions present a serious challenge for rational choice theory, because people’s preferences and values will change as a result of the very decision they make. In such cases, people opt. Opting is distinguished from converting and drifting.
On Not Wanting to Know
Authors: Ullmann-Margalit Edna
Published: September 2017

A common assumption of practical reasoning is that, in order to act rationally, agents are to act on the basis of the totality of evidence available to them. Common practice and introspection, however, suggest that people often do not want to know. The chapter explores various aspects of the phenomenon of not wanting to know in an attempt to find out whether it is inherently unreasonable. The exploration leads, first, to weakening the principle of total evidence through replacing it with a rebuttable presumption in favor of additional knowledge. The sustainability of this presumption is then examined in light of the large variety of circumstances in which it seems to be reasonably rebutted. The alternative which in the end is recommended is to give up both the general principle and the presumption, and adopt instead something like a case by case cost-benefit approach, where the value of additional knowledge is matched up against its cost.
Holding True and Holding as True
Authors: Ullmann-Margalit Edna
Published: September 2017

There is nothing absurd about holding a sentence true without believing the proposition it expresses. For example, people often hold Holy Scriptures to be true without necessarily understanding them. People display a kind division of epistemic labor. They hold many propositions as true because they trust others, such as scientists or priests, who are taken to understand them.
Revision of Norms
Authors: Ullmann-Margalit Edna
Published: September 2017

Social norms sometimes break down. In the process, they often shift from conclusive to presumptive—as when, for example, there is an across-the-board taboo against choosing abortion, which is revised to a taboo that can be overcome in specified cases (as, for example, when the mother’s health is at stake). Sometimes the presumption actually reverses, as in the case of smoking in public places. There is a distinction between “norm change (evolutionary, spontaneous) and norm revision (initiated), but the distinction is not dichotomous. Sometimes a gradual and ‘evolutionary’ process of change in societal attitudes and values eventually gets the official cachet on the level, mostly, of institutional policy revision.
Invisible-Hand Explanations
Authors: Ullmann-Margalit Edna
Published: September 2017

Invisible-hand explanations suggest that many social practices are a product of human action, but not human design. In coming to terms with such explanations, it is essential to distinguish between explanations of the emergence of practices and explanations of the persistence of practices. The kind of invisible-hand explanation that accounts for the emergence of practices might turn out to be altogether different from the kind that accounts for their persistence. The emergence of practices is often best explained by aggregating explanations: Diverse and dispersed action by numerous people might produce some kind of pattern, even if they did not foresee it or intend to bring it about. By contrast, practices often persist because of evolutionary explanations. They survive some sort of competition. Survival value may have nothing to do with the emergence of a practice in the first place.
Is Rationality Normative?
Authors: Wedgwood Ralph
Published: September 2017

In its original meaning, the word ‘rational’ referred to the faculty of reason—the capacity for reasoning. It is undeniable that the word later came also to express a normative concept—the concept of the proper use of this faculty. Does it express a normative concept when it is used in formal theories of rational belief or rational choice? Reasons are given for concluding that it does express a normative concept in these contexts. But this conclusion seems to imply that we ought always to think rationally. Four objections can be raised. (1) What about cases where thinking rationally has disastrous consequences? (2) What about cases where we have rational false beliefs about what we ought to do? (3) ‘Ought’ implies ‘can’—but is it true that we can always think rationally? (4) Rationality requires nothing more than coherence—but why does coherence matter?
The Beginnings of an Answer
Authors: Wedgwood Ralph
Published: September 2017

This chapter answers the first two of the four objections from the end of Chapter 1. (1) When thinking rationally has disastrous consequences, in one sense (reflecting the ‘wrong kind of reasons’) you ‘ought not’ to think rationally, but in another sense (reflecting the ‘right kind of reasons’) you ‘ought’ to think rationally. This corresponds to the difference, not between ‘state-given’ and ‘object-given’ reasons, but between the norms that are, and those that are not, constitutive of the mental states to which they apply. (2) If it is really possible to have rational false beliefs about what one ‘ought’ to do, the sense of ‘ought’ featuring in the content of this belief must be different from the sense in which one ‘ought’ never to act contrary to one’s beliefs about what one ought to do. The former is an ‘objective “ought”’ while the latter is a more ‘subjective “ought”’.
‘Rationally Ought’ Implies ‘Can’
Authors: Wedgwood Ralph
Published: September 2017

The principle that ‘ought’ implies ‘can’ is defended: it follows from the classical semantics for ‘ought’, and the objections to it can be answered. If the ‘ought’ is a non-trivial agential ‘ought’, the agent must be also able to act or think otherwise than as she ought. Such a non-trivial ‘ought’ implies a ‘two-way power’ (the agent can act or think as she ought, and also act or think otherwise). This kind of two-way power is explained. It need not involve acting or thinking voluntarily or ‘at will’; but it must involve the agent’s having appropriate opportunities for exercising her capacities. It is suggested that opportunities can be reduced to chances, and capacities to dispositions, of appropriate kinds. Prima facie, this account is compatible with the idea that we are subject to non-trivial rational requirements, each of which entails a corresponding non-trivial agential ‘ought’.
Objective and Subjective ‘Ought’
Authors: Wedgwood Ralph
Published: September 2017

This chapter offers an account of the truth conditions of sentences involving terms like ‘ought’. These truth conditions involve a function from worlds of evaluation to domains of worlds, and an ordering of the worlds in such domains. Every such ordering arises from a probability function and a value function—since it ranks worlds according to the expected value of certain propositions that are true at those worlds. With the objective ‘ought’, the probability function is the omniscient function, which assigns 1 to all truths and 0 to all falsehoods; with the subjective ‘ought’, the probability function captures the uncertainty of the relevant agent. The relevance of this account for understanding conditionals is explored, and this account is defended against objections. For present purposes, the crucial point is that any normative use of ‘ought’ is normative because of the value that is semantically involved. The fundamental normative concepts are evaluative.
Introduction
Authors: Schütze Robert
Published: September 2017

This Introduction offers an overview of the general argument as well as the structure of the book. It presents the idea of market integration and the three main market models that will be used to analyse the evolution of the European internal market.
The Rise of the Federal Model I
Authors: Schütze Robert
Published: September 2017

What philosophy governs the European common market today? This chapter examines this question by exploring the doctrinal structure of Article 34 since Cassis de Dijon. It will be argued that after Cassis, the substantive structure of the European market could no longer be presented as a ‘new legal order of international law’. For the principle of mutual recognition ‘breaks’ the backbone of the international model, as each State loses a part of its (internal) sovereignty over its own (internal) market. This loss of sovereignty was first established for national rules relating to product requirements; but the question whether this federal solution equally applied to ‘selling arrangements’ has preoccupied the Court ever since. With Keck, the Court acknowledged the existence of different tests for different categories of measures. How do these three jurisprudential lines interrelate? Two theoretical approaches are discussed: the (old) category approach and a (new) unitary approach.
Conclusion
Authors: Schütze Robert
Published: September 2017

The Conclusion brings together the various strands of the general argument, while it also offers a defence of the methodological approach adopted in the book. The second part explores whether the results, found in the context of the free movement of goods, can be transferred to the other three fundamental freedoms.
Simon V of Montfort and Baronial Government, 1195-1218
Authors: Lippiatt G.E.M.
Published: September 2017

Dissenter from the Fourth Crusade, disseised earl of Leicester, leader of the Albigensian Crusade, prince of southern France: Simon of Montfort led a remarkable career of ascent from mid-level French baron to semi-independent count before his violent death before the walls of Toulouse in 1218. Through the vehicle of the crusade, Simon cultivated autonomous power in the liminal space between competing royal lordships in southern France in order to build his own principality. This first English biographical study of his life examines the ways in which Simon succeeded and failed in developing this independence in France, England, the Midi, and on campaign to Jerusalem. Simon’s familial, social, and intellectual connexions shaped his conceptions of political order, which he then implemented in his conquests. By analysing contemporary narrative, scholastic, and documentary evidence—including a wealth of archival material—this book argues that Simon’s career demonstrates the vitality of baronial independence in the High Middle Ages, despite the emergence of centralised royal bureaucracies. More importantly, Simon’s experience shows that barons themselves adopted methods of government that reflected a concern for accountability, public order, and contemporary reform ideals. This study therefore marks an important entry in the debate about baronial responsibility in medieval political development, as well as providing the most complete modern account of the life of this important but oft-overlooked crusader.
Crusaders
Authors: Lippiatt G.E.M.
Published: September 2017

Simon’s independence required alternative bases for his own power that could not be found in the largely rhetorical refuge offered by a distant overlord. In the absence of support from above, Simon worked to cultivate relationships with his social peers and the lesser French nobility. Notably, however, outside of his immediate family, adherence to his cause more often came from his socially inferior neighbours and those with common spiritual devotions than from his wider kinship network. His extended family, of roughly equivalent social standing to himself, were more interested in following the French king in his campaigns to consolidate royal power than investing deeply in Simon’s crusade. However, those with similar ideological concerns or dependent on his success saw in Simon a charismatic and effective leader worthy of their allegiance.
Masters and Monks
Authors: Lippiatt G.E.M.
Published: September 2017

Simon’s crusades were animated by the programme of reform advocated by the Cistercians and certain Parisian theologians. His context was permeated by the reformers, especially in his close connections with the abbey of Vaux-de-Cernay. Concerns about just war, the liberation of the Holy Land, ecclesiastical liberty, sexual morality, and the purgation of heresy espoused by Cistercians and schoolmen were reflected in Simon’s career. He was, however, more than a simple cipher for ecclesiastical priorities: his campaigns and government were ambiguous in their attitude towards mercenaries and complicit in the problem of usury. Nevertheless, Simon’s crusades to both Syria and the Midi demonstrated a remarkable dedication to building a Christian republic according to the vision of the reformers.
Duke of Narbonne and Count of Toulouse
Authors: Lippiatt G.E.M.
Published: September 2017

Simon’s dynamism failed just as his crusade reached its zenith in the acquisition of the county of Toulouse. Though Simon’s introduction of French feudal patterns and antiheretical policies stood in stark contrast to the government of his Raymondine predecessors, their dynastic eminence offered more incentive to maintain iconographic continuity and cultivate ties with traditionally favoured abbeys. As in the viscounties, cultivation of local nobles, appointment of French followers to key posts, preservation of urban liberties, and patronage of Cistercians and bishops all undergirded Simon’s regime. But even with this broad base of support, Simon was finally undone by the southern resurgence that focused on the fatal exception to his characteristic urban lenience: Toulouse. His inability to accommodate the independence of his ostensible capital allowed it to serve as a rallying point for the disaffected aristocracy of the region, and it was before its walls that Simon met his bloody end.
The Third Man and the Coherence of the Parmenides
Authors: Peacock Howard
Published: September 2017

The ‘Third Man’ in the Parmenides is often reconstructed in terms of unstated background commitments of the Theory of Forms; thus it seems to threaten the internal coherence of that theory. However, the regress can be derived solely from premises explicitly stated within the dialogue, and blocked simply by giving up one candidate account of participation, leaving the central commitments of the Theory of Forms intact. Consequently, the problem highlighted by the argument is not an infinite regress of Forms, but merely the lack of an adequate account of participation. This reading facilitates a coherent account of the dialogue as a whole, using the ‘scorecard’ approach outlined by Zeno himself, and developed more recently for contemporary metaphysics by Lewis and Armstrong: Part I acknowledges non-fatal difficulties for the Forms which are then eclipsed by more serious issues for Eleatic monism in Part II.
Going Through Aporiai: The Critical Use of Aristotle’s Dialectic
Authors: Rossi Gabriela
Published: September 2017

This paper challenges a widespread reading of Aristotle’s use of dialectic in the treatment of aporiai. According to this reading, the search for a resolution of an aporia is supposed to proceed by arguing against conflicting theses to refute one of them. I argue that this reading is not satisfactory and propose an alternative, based on an often overlooked distinction between two dialectical procedures, the refutation (elenchos) of a thesis and the resolution (lusis) of an argument. These two terms are employed fairly consistently by Aristotle in the treatises as well. Since an aporia requires not merely conflicting theses, but conflicting arguments for those theses, I contend that the ideal way out of aporiai involves a critical analysis of those arguments, akin to that involved in the dialectical resolution. A relevant implication of this reading is that it expands the critical use of dialectic for philosophy, and points to the specific philosophical utility of the Sophistical Refutations.
Religion, Empire, and Law among Nations in The City of God
Authors: Keys Mary M.
Published: September 2017

This chapter analyses the early Salamanca theologian-jurists’ turn to Augustine of Hippo’s analysis of religion, empire, and laws amongst nations in his magnum opus The City of God (De civitate dei). The first section surveys the import of and access to Augustine’s City of God in the late Middle Ages and Renaissance. The second section interprets and assesses Augustine’s place in the early Salamanca School, according special attention to the writings of Francisco de Vitoria, Melchior Cano, and Domingo de Soto. The third section continues Soto’s fruitful project of relectio, rereading The City of God afresh with a focus on Augustine’s commentaries on right (ius) and law (lex) among nations under Rome’s imperial sway. The chapter’s conclusion argues that rereading The City of God in this way deepens our awareness of Augustine’s alliance with the Salamanca School, even as it highlights a certain tension between Augustine’s legal thought and Vitoria’s.
The Religion/Secularism Debate in Human Rights Literature
Authors: Haskell John
Published: September 2017

The tension between religion and secularism within the field of human rights is a popular topic in contemporary international legal scholarship. In the first section of the chapter, I map the arguments between Christianity, Islam, and liberal secular perspectives: on the one hand, exploring the different styles of treatment available within scholarship, and on the other hand, demonstrating how they bear a constitutive relationship to each other that reveals a common aesthetic sensibility and set of disciplinary assumptions among concerned scholars. Whatever differences exist in the texts, the paper seeks to show that authors only tend to produce four varieties of argument around the rhetorical trope law/religion/secularism, and that each of these four varieties are dependent upon their seemingly antagonistic counterparts.
Whose Justice? What Political Theology?
Authors: Slotte Pamela
Published: September 2017

This chapter contributes to scholarship that has suggested that a good deal of twentieth-century internationalism was faith-based, even if this remained tacit. It offers insights into religious attitudes underpinning twentieth-century internationalism and the formation of international legal concepts and institutions. It looks at how religiously framed matters and articles of faith were given a ‘secular’ reinterpretation during the early twentieth century, in the name of peace and a just international order, and offers an account of the political theology that this reconceptualization of ‘the sacred’ in terms of ‘the secular’ expressed. It shows that liberal theological thought, with an optimistic outlook on man and history, a progression narrative, and an attempt to mediate between theology and the epistemological demands of the positive sciences—inter alia through dismissal of traditional metaphysics and turning to ‘ethics’/value judgments and ‘vocation’—formed the framework within which internationalist Christian action in this period was to a large extent grounded.
Muslim Jurists’ Criteria for the Division of the World into Dar al-Harb and Dar al-Islam
Authors: Ramadan Moussa Abou
Published: September 2017

There is disagreement over the definition of dar al-Islam and dar al-harb between classical and contemporary jurists. Different authors have laid down different criteria; we find different opinions even within the same school; and at times variations may even be found with regard to the same author and/or in the same treatise. Some jurists give preference to Islamic law, while other focus on the safety of Muslims. The majority accepts that dar al-Islam can be transformed into dar al-harb, while Ibn Hajar holds that a territory belonging to dar al-Islam will never lose its status. There is also divergence on the question whether the world is divided into two or three categories.