bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Photochemical Electron Transfer Applied to the Reduction of Carbon Dioxide
Authors: Meyer Thomas J
Published: November 2023

Biological systems which utilize carbon dioxide are well represented in this book. Progress in this area is impressive, our understanding of the mechanism is growing, and there are interesting prospects for tinkering with the photosynthetic apparatus to improve its efficiency. I will take the opposite tack. What happens if we turn our backs on natural photosynthesis and start over again? Do we have sufficient understanding of chemistry and chemical systems to design total artificial systems which use visible light to reduce carbon dioxide? In thinking about this problem it is useful to consider model systems and reaction schemes.
Structure-Activity Correlations in Carbamoyl Phosphate Synthetases
Authors: Rubio Vicente
Published: November 2023

Although all CPSs catalyse reaction (1), many have a low affinity for ammonia and use glutamine as an endogenous source of ammonia. However, CPS I, which is involved in urea synthesis and thus in the detoxification of ammonia, exhibits considerable affinity for ammonia and cannot use glutamine (Marshall 1976).
Parental care
Authors: Sargent Robert Craig
Published: November 2023

Parental care is generally defined as an association between parent and offspring that enhances offspring development and survival (e.g. Sargent and Gross 1986). Although fishes exhibit a considerable diversity of kinds of parental care, by far the most common form of parental care is brooding the eggs on a substratum (Blumer 1982; Sargent and Gross 1986, 1993). Substrate brooding may be subdivided into care performed directly at the eggs, such as aeration (e.g. fanning), and care that can be provided at a distance from the eggs, such as protecting the eggs from predators. After substrate brooding, the three next most common forms of parental care in descending frequency of occurrence are mouthbrooding, external egg carrying and carrying the eggs in a brood pouch; however, these three forms of parental care combined account for only a small fraction of the taxonomic families that exhibit substrate brooding (Blumer 1982; Sargent and Gross 1986, 1993).
Introduction
Authors: Humphries Christopher J , Parenti Lynne R
Published: November 2023

Biogeography means many things to many people depending on their outlook and purposes of enquiry. As data accumulated over the last two centuries it became clear that organisms exhibit particular distribution patterns over the surface of the earth. Given that picture, biogeographers ask the question ‘What lives where and why?’ The answers given invoke either ecological or historical explanations, or both.
Methodological developments
Authors: Humphries Christopher J , Parenti Lynne R
Published: November 2023

Developments in the theory of continental drift and its general acceptance during the 1960s and 1970s confirmed the idea that disjunct biotic patterns and corresponding geological patterns are due to the same events in earth history. That the earth, including relative sizes and composition of land masses, constantly changes means that many, if not all, migration or dispersal solutions to biogeographic questions are wrong, or, at least, overstated. To us, a more realistic solution came when Brundin (1966) applied Hennig’s (1950) definition of phylogenetic relationship to the problems of vicariant distribution of southern hemisphere chironomid midges.
Competition for open space
Authors: Shigesada Nanako , Kawasaki Kohkichi
Published: November 2023

An open space, to an organism, can be defined as 'a space which when invaded will allow reproductive growth'. According to this definition, a new continent to an invading species from another continent could constitute a large open space. Likewise, freshly deglaciated grounds that appeared after the retreat of ice-sheets in the northern hemisphere during the Quaternary Period were also large open spaces. By analyzing the fossil pollen record taken from lake sediments, Davis (1981) showed that the open space (tundra) that appeared in North America after the last ice age (16,000 years ago) was consecutively invaded from the southeast by spruce (Picea), oak (Quercus), white pine (Pinus), hemlock (Tsuga), beech (Fagus) and somewhat later chestnut (Castanea dentata), etc., and that each took a different route, advancing its range northward or westward at the rate of about 100-400 m/year (Fig. 7.1; see also Bennett, 1983, 1986; Jacobson et al., 1987). One of the most rapid migrants among them is oak (350 m/year), although the acorns from a parent oak are disseminated usually by only a few metres per year.
Diversity in the past: comparing cladistic phylogenies and stratigraphy
Authors: Benton Michael J , Storrs Glenn W
Published: November 2023

The study of biodiversity involves the dimension of time, whether short- or long-term. Most research in biodiversity is based on observations on human time scales, either experimental protocols lasting for one or two years, or data collation from historical records spanning back a few hundred years. The scale of regional or global diversity change at present is great enough, however, to require comparison with information based on geological time scales of thousands or millions of years. There are many problems in bridging the gap from experimental and field-based studies to the palaeontological work which extends into the depths of the geological past. Many of these problems, often gathered together under the heading ‘the incompleteness of the fossil record’, are geological, and they will be outlined briefly. Other issues are, however, more biological, and are concerned with phylogenetic reconstruction; these may offer insights into understanding the past history of life.
Overview
Authors: Clobert Jean , Gliddon Chris , Hawkins Bradford A , Hochberg Michael E
Published: November 2023

With the increasing impact of humanity on the ecological processes of this planet, we find ourselves in a position, much like Noah, of attempting to save some semblance of the existing biodiversity of the earth. Human activities are modifying a large proportion of Earth’s ecosystems by both reducing their geographical size and altering their functioning. Noah’s solution of saving one pair of each species, albeit pragmatic, is inconsistent with current theories of population biology and, even if possible today, would simply be expected to fail as a global conservation strategy. Given the limited resources we have to maintain biodiversity, how should we choose which species or assemblages to conserve and, having made this first decision, how should we put our conservation aims into practice?

To begin to derive strategies aimed at conserving species and communities of species we must first understand how diversity is manifested at the eco system level. The problem is that the utter complexity of ecosystems impedes our progress in understanding. It is evident that we must break down the problem into smaller, more tractable parts, while remembering that the sum of the parts do not necessarily equal the whole. Part 1 of the book dealt with evolutionary patterns and processes. This part simplifies approaches to understanding the ecological processes governing the diversity of commu nities and ecosystems.
Biology and Ecology
Authors: Hayward P J
Published: November 2023

The Bryozoa, and especially the Cheilostomatida, are uniquely a major part of the marine benthic community over large areas of the Antarctic continental shelf. In parts of the North Sea, and in Tasman Bay, New Zealand (Bradstock and Gordon 1983), bryozoan communities constitute the larger part of the sessile, benthic biomass, but nowhere except Antarctica do they achieve such a conspicuous presence over such wide geographical areas. Together with sponges they are the most significant occupiers of space (Bullivant 1961) and bryozoan skeletons and sponge spicules may comprise the larger part of the coarse bottom sediment (Bullivant 1967).
Ontogeny of asymmetry and phenodeviants
Authors: Møller Anders Pape , Swaddle John P
Published: November 2023

The term developmental stability denotes the reproducible (constant) development of a genotype under given environmental conditions. The nature of ontogenetic processes, and their aberrations, is central to the study of developmental stability and, hence, there is a long history of interest in this subject. The developmental origins of phenodeviants and fluctuating asymmetries were originally considered a 'black box'. For example, Mather (1953) suggested that asymmetries arose as a consequence of differences in the environment or disruption of the development of cells. Later work suggested that random deviations in the activity of molecules or smaller particles were responsible for the formation of developmental instabilities (Reeve 1960; Soule and Cuzin-Roudy 1982; Lewontin 1983). This explanation may seem akin to the most recent developments suggesting that the accumulation of initially small deviations from perfect symmetry leads to major deviations from perfect symmetry (Emlen et al. 1993; Graham et al. 1993c). However, all developmental systems may not necessarily be organised in the same way. Different species may have different ways of ensuring developmental stability and so exhibit different vulnerabilities to the loss of bilateral symmetry.
Causes of developmental instability. Genetic factors
Authors: Møller Anders Pape , Swaddle John P
Published: November 2023

The factors that cause fluctuating asymmetry can be either genetic or environmental in origin. As fluctuating asymmetry represents the ability of an individual to resist genetic and environmental factors during growth and development, then it could be viewed as a general health certificate of an individual. In this chapter we will review the heritability of developmental stability (as measured by fluctuating asymmetry, frequency of phenodeviants, and coefficient of variation) as well as detail the various genetic factors that can cause a breakdown in developmental stability.
Developmental stability and signalling
Authors: Møller Anders Pape , Swaddle John P
Published: November 2023

Signals are either morphological structures or have a morphological basis. There are frequently considerable intra- and interspecific differences in signal design, particularly for those involved in sexual selection, but also for signals used in other contexts. Current differences in the efficiency of signals and large degrees of signal divergence during evolutionary history suggest that signals have experienced a recent history of consistent directional selection. The role of developmental stability in signalling theory in general and in sexual selection in particular is described (section 8.2).
Developmental stability and fitness
Authors: Møller Anders Pape , Swaddle John P
Published: November 2023

Developmental instability per se and its causes are often assumed to result in reduced performance in domains of fitness other than sexual competition (sexual selection was discussed in Chapter 8). The consequences of such reductions in fitness have often been presumed rather than estimated. Here we present a large body of evidence for a negative association between fitness and individual asymmetry. Significant correlations between morphological asymmetry and various fitness components do not demonstrate a causal relationship, and many potentially confounding variables may obscure attempts to unravel real relationships. Individuals with asymmetric phenotypes may be characterised by poor overall quality. For example, they may have experienced poor environmental conditions during their development, or they may have genotypes that make them less efficient in terms of growth, survival, or reproduction. Random experimental assignment of individuals to treatments will unravel the direct relationships between developmental instability and fitness components.
The role of flying foxes (Pteropodidae) in oceanic island ecosystems of the Pacific
Authors: Rainey William E , Pierson Elizabeth D , Elmqvist Thomas , Cox Paul A
Published: November 2023

With accumulating evidence that flying foxes (Pteropodidae) are important seed dispersers and pollinators in Palaeotropical ecosystems, we examine their role, focusing on the relatively simple forest communities on remote oceanic islands.
A review of ecological interactions of fruit bats in Australian ecosystems
Authors: Richards G C
Published: November 2023

The 13 species of fruit bats in Australia can be separated into five ecological groups: large-sized (>300 g) and small-sized ( <60 g) specialist frugivores and nectarivores, and large-sized generalists. Each group contains only one abundant species and one or more rare species. Large nectarivores have a wide distribution which is related to the extent and species diversity of eucalypt forests and woodlands. The frugivorous species have restricted distributions that correspond to the similarly restricted and diminished distribution of rainforest. All identifiable ecological niches available in forest in Australia appear to be filled by at least one frugivorous and nectarivorous species.
Chiropteran nocturnality
Authors: Speakman John R
Published: November 2023

Despite their diverse feeding habits almost all bats are exclusively nocturnal. Explanations of chiropteran nocturnality have focused on three potentially negative consequences of feeding in daylight: competition with insectivorous (and frugivorous) birds, risk of avian predation and risk of hyperthermia. A survey of daylight flying by bats in the UK suggested that the risk of avian predation might be the most significant factor, and this was supported by observed predation rates on bats deliberately released to fly during daylight in south-eastern Australia. There are many island groups where bats are found but where there are no avian predators likely to take bats. If avian predation is the most significant factor influencing nocturnality then I predict that these bats should fly in daylight. One group of islands where this behaviour would be predicted is the Azores. Early observations of the indigenous Azorean bat (Nyctalus azoreum) suggested that this bat flies in daylight. However, more recent detailed studies of temporal patterning of activity in the Azorean bat indicate that it is primarily nocturnal, thus contradicting the predation hypothesis. Anecdotal records of several other island populations of insectivorous bats also indicate that they have retained nocturnality in the absence of diurnal predators. In contrast, several studies of activity patterns in pteropodid bats suggest that they fly during the day when predators are absent. A heat balance model was constructed to evaluate the significance of the hyperthermia hypothesis. Although there is a high endogenous heat production during flight, incoming solar radiation may place a heat burden on a flying bat an order of magnitude greater.
Introductory overview
Authors: Beynon J H
Published: November 2023

Reviews of the ways in which mass spectrometry has developed often concern themselves with its applications within certain specialized areas. But it is also important to remember that developments made in one research field may find their most important applications in another and to note that collaboration between scientists trained in different disciplines is often the key to progress; the more ways we can look at how to solve a problem the better. By the same token, we should not isolate mass spectrometry from other analytical techniques such as NMR, IR, UV, and XRF spectroscopies whose findings are complementary to those of mass spectrometry.
Recent and projected developments in mass spectrometric techniques
Authors: Gaskell Simon J
Published: November 2023

The pace of recent developments in mass spectrometry and related techniques has been extraordinary; there is no sign of a slackening of that pace. Many of the recent advances have significantly improved our capabilities of analysing biologically significant molecules. Indeed, the needs of biological research have provided the driving force for many of the most important developments. This chapter attempts to review in broad outline the most significant recent advances and projects the direction of future work.
Mass spectrometry of plant hormones
Authors: Moritz Thomas
Published: November 2023

Plant hormones are a group of naturally occurring organic compounds that play a crucial role in the growth and development of plants. The term ‘hormone’ was adapted from the use in mammalian physiology, in which it describes compounds with localized site of synthesis, transport in the bloodstream to specific target tissues, and the control of physiological events at low concentrations. No compound in plants can fulfil all the definition of a hormone in the mammalian sense, but the term is often used for describing the compounds that control the growth and development of plants at very low concentrations, i.e. pg to ng/g fresh weight.
Mass spectrometric analysis of cyclic nucleotides and related enzymes
Authors: Newton Russell P
Published: November 2023

Cyclic nucleotides perform a vital role in the regulation of cellular metabolism. Structurally they are composed of a heterocyclic base, a ribose sugar, and a cyclic phosphate moiety (Fig. 11.1). The latter can be linked to the ribose ring at either the 3’,5’-positions or the 2’,3’-positions, giving rise to two sets of isomers; of these two sets it is the 3’,5’-cyclic nucleotides which are of importance in the context of metabolic regulation, with the 2’,3’isomers arising merely as intermediates in the catabolism of ribonucleic acids.
A comparison of FAB MS, HPLC-MS, and CZE-ES MS in the characterization of the alcoholic extracts of Haplophyllum patavinum
Authors: Favretto* D , Traldi* P , Hamdamt M , Curcuruto† O , Innocenti+ G , Caniato+ R
Published: November 2023

Several species of Haplophyllum are known to contain coumarin-related compounds including umbelliferone, scopoletin, xanthyletin, seselin, and 5- hydroxy-7-methoxycoumarin. Due to the biological relevance of these substances, both the chemotaxonomic rationalization of the content of coumarins and the search for new active compounds in these botanic species present a stimulating aim. In this context, our interest has recently been focused on Haplophyllum patavinum, whose spontaneous growth is more and more rare. For such reason, in vitro cultures have been undertaken; interestingly, they have been found to produce angelicin, the angular isomer of psoralen, a compound which has not been found in the in vivo grown plant. In order to gain a deeper knowledge of the compounds present in extracts of this plant, and to compare them with the ones produced by in vitro cultures, we employed different mass spectrometry-based analytical methods. The combination of several methods resulted in comprehensive characterization of a number of coumarin-related compounds, already described in other Haplophyllum species. Furthermore, other compounds, including non-coumarin-like substances with molecular weights ranging from 280 to 550 Da, have been found and some structural information has been gained about them by comparing the data obtained by different methodologies.
Paul Ewald in Cambridge and Belfast
Authors: Bethe H A , Hildebrandt G , Perutz Max F , Hodgkin Dorothy C
Published: November 2023

His friend, Sir Lawrence Bragg, secured him a research grant at Cambridge, and Paul left Germany in the autumn of 1937. His wife and the two younger children followed in spring 1938, and his mother soon afterwards. Lux, the older son, emigrated independently. He had a good job in Stuttgart with Bosch, the electrical firm, and the directors, knowing his situation, sent him abroad to a subsidiary with good wishes for his future. So as not to draw attention to their emigration, which would have entailed permits and delays, the family travelled to England separately and with little luggage, as for an extended visit only. Lux, having the task of dissolving the apartment, put the furniture in storage but managed to ship the Ewalds’ beloved books, wrapped in bedsheets and other linen, all of which were sorely needed in England. Old Mrs Ewald followed her son’s invitation to celebrate her birthday in England, expecting to return soon.
Commentary on Ewald’s fundamental papers of the dynamical theory of X-ray diffraction
Authors: Juretschke Hellmut J
Published: November 2023

Ewald’s dynamical theory of X-rays in crystals is embedded formally in the work of his doctoral thesis (Ewald 1912). Although the immediate goal of the thesis was to develop a microscopic theory of dispersion of visible and near-visible light in anisotropic crystals, its main results were actually valid at all wavelengths. The thesis was submitted a few months before the experimental discovery of X-ray diffraction. Hence the substance of its theoretical formulations predates that event, as well as the initial (kinematical) interpretation of the experimental results.
Contributions to the Theory of the Interferences of X rays in Crystals
Authors: Ewald P P
Published: November 2023

Currently there are two points of view on the interpretation of the interference effects described by Laue. The explanation proposed by Laue ascribes the maxima of beam intensity emerging from the crystal slab to the cumulative action in the interior of the crystal of the individual oscillators (dipoles), the regular arrangement of which allows the crystal to be viewed as a three-dimensional diffraction grating. On the other hand, following Bragg, the orientation of the interference patterns can be adequately described on the assumption that the incident X-ray undergoes an optical reflection from each crystallo graphically allowed plane (lattice plane of the space lattice). On detailed examination, there is no difference between these two approaches, as has already been shown by G. Wulff and M. Laue (see also§ 5). The connection between the phenomena of X-rays and ordinary light passing through a crystal can be deduced easily from the equations of§ § 3 and 4 [TNl, 2].
Electron diffraction theory
Authors: Humphreys C J , Bithell E G
Published: November 2023

The purpose of this chapter is to describe the theoretical models upon which our understanding of electron diffraction is based. There is a broad experimental division in the electron microscopy of materials between diffraction contrast methods (i.e. bright and dark field imaging etc.) and phase contrast techniques (high resolution ‘lattice’ imaging). In both cases the elastic scattering processes which dominate the image behaviour are well described by the time- independent Schrödinger equation for a fast electron accelerated through a potential E and travelling through a material with an inner potential.
Electro diffraction Structure analysis
Authors: Vainshtein B K , B.B. Zvyagin , A.S. Avilov
Published: November 2023

Three diffractional methods are applied for the analysis of crystal structures: X-ray diffraction structure analysis (XDSA), neutron diffraction SA (NDSA) and electron diffraction SA (EDSA). The general requirement which they have to satisfy is that the wavelength X should be suitable for the resolution of the structure inhomogeneities. It must be of the same order as the interatomic distances (1-3A) or less. The ^-values used in XDSA and NDSA are in the interval 1.5-1 A. For the electrons which may conveniently be used in EDSA, having acceleration voltage of up to 1MeV, the λ- values from 0.05-0.04 to 0.015A (See section 1.1).
Electron Channelling and its Uses
Authors: Spence J C H
Published: November 2023

This chapter covers the field of channelling and its effects for electrons traversing thin crystals in the transmission geometry. Channelling effects in the reflection or RHEED geometry, where the beam makes a glancing angle with the crystal surface, are treated in Vol. 2, chapter 3. Backscattered channelling patterns from bulk crystals, where the beam and detector make a smaller angle with the surface normal, are also treated briefly in this chapter. (The distinction between these catagories depends on the energy of the beam).
Gas Electron Diffraction
Authors: István Hargittai
Published: November 2023

Gas electron diffraction may be different in many aspects from the fields described in the preceding chapters in this book. It is linked to them, however, by the common nature of its basic phenomenon as well as by the similarity of its primary application as source of structural information. This technique provides bond lengths, bond angles, torsional angles, and vibrational and energetical data for gaseous molecules
A
Authors: Atkins P W
Published: November 2023

The small amount of quantum chemistry still conducted in Latin is the province of °computational chemists. Ab initio, roughly translated, means ‘from scratch’. The term is applied to calculations of molecular structure that use no input other than the °Schr6dinger equation, the values of the fundamental constants (specifically e, me, and Ii), and the atomic numbers of the atoms present.
B
Authors: Atkins P W
Published: November 2023

One theoretical description of the structure and properties of metals (which is applicable to all solids) is based on the view that a metal is composed of an array of cations held together by a surrounding sea of electrons. The electrons occupy orbitals that spread throughout the metal and span a nearly continuous band of energies, with gaps between neighbouring bands.
F
Authors: Atkins P W
Published: November 2023

An f orbital is an atomic orbital with l = 3; they occur in shells for which n is equal to or greater than 4. There are seven f orbitals in a subshell, corresponding to the seven vales of the quantum number m1, namely+ 3, + 2,... , - 3. Mathematical expressions for the real forms of the orbitals are given in Box F.1 and their boundary surfaces are shown in Fig. 7.1. The 4f orbitals are occupied starting with lanthanum and are responsible for the existence of the first row of the f block (the ‘rare earths’ or ‘lanthanides’). The 5/ orbitals are occupied from actinium, and give rise to the second row of the f block (the ‘actinides’). One chemically important characteristic of the f orbitals is that electrons that occupy them shield the nuclear charge only very poorly (partly on account of the large number of angular nodes, which denote regions of zero electron density).
G
Authors: Atkins P W
Published: November 2023

We shall deal with five types of g-value (or ‘g-factor’) in this section; each of them is involved in the relation of an angular momentum to a magnetic moment. They are: The g-value of the free electron. The nuclear g-factor. The Lande g-factor. The g-factor of electron spin resonance. The molecular g-value.
I
Authors: Atkins P W
Published: November 2023

An electrical insulator is a substance that does not conduct electricity; however, strictly speaking, no solid is an electrical insulator. A metallic conductor is a substance with an electrical conductivity that decreases as the temperature is raised, a °semiconductor is a substance with an electrical conductivity that increases as the temperature is raised, and all solid substances fall into one or other of these two classes. However, it is conventional to regard semiconductors with very low electrical conductivities as ‘insulators’. Nevertheless, the conductivities of solid ‘insulators’ increase with temperature, and hence they are properly regarded as semiconductors. Solid ‘insulators’ are semiconductors with large °band gaps and hence a very low concentration of charge carriers at normal temperatures.
Disorder and Defect Scattering, Thermal Diffuse Scattering, Amorphous Material
Authors: Gjønnes J
Published: November 2023

Most properties and virtually all transformations in solids are strongly influenced by defects. Hence the characterization of defect structures has been a challenge to structure research ever since models of various crystalline defects were advanced in the 1930s. Optical microscopy, spectroscopy and in particular x-ray diffraction contributed significantly to insight in the nature of defects, notably the statistical description of short range order and the relation of crystal structures to transformations.

But it was through the application of electron microscopy techniques, at first by diffraction contrast imaging and selected area diffraction in the 1950s and 60s, that we were able to construct the present detailed and many-faceted picture of defects in inorganic solid matter: of dislocation configurations, of the nature and distribution of planar faults and of relations between short range and long range ordering in a variety of compounds. Schematic models and statistical pictures based on more circumstantial evidence could be confirmed, replaced or augmented by direct observations of defect arrangements and by diffraction information about local structure within individual crystal grains and precipitates. A further wealth of detail was offered in the 1970s by high resolution imaging of the projected atomic arrangement. The investigation of local structure - as distinct from the average structure normally studied with x-ray or neutron diffraction - became a prime domain of electron microscopy techniques.
Rheed and Rem
Authors: Yagi K
Published: November 2023

A brief historical survey of reflection high energy electron diffraction (RHEED) has been included in Volume 1, section 1.6. Until the nineteen fifties, RHEED was used as a unique method for the study of surface processes such as the initial oxidation and corrosion of metals and alloys with crystallographic information (Cates, 1933) and the growth of thin films on crystalline surfaces (Uyeda, 1942). In the same period, progress was made in basic research on diffraction phenomena such as the refraction effect (Yamaguti, 1935) Kikuchi patterns (Kikuchi, 1928), surface wave resonance (Kikuchi and Nakagawa, 1933: Miyake et al., 1954) and asymmetry in RHEED patterns (Uyeda and Miyake, 1957).

However RHEED became less widely used after the development of transmission electron microscopy (TEM) (Hirsch et al., 1965) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) because these techniques can give direct information in real space on the nature of surfaces and the microstructure of thin films.
Introduction to Crystallographic Statistics
Authors: Shmueli Uri , Weiss George H
Published: November 2023

Modern structural applications of crystallography make extensive use of statistical methods, in particular the probability density function (pdf) of the magnitude of the structure factor. Similarly, direct methods of phase determination have been responsible for much of the success of crystallography - methods based on properties of joint pdfs. This monograph, from two authorities in the field of structure factor statics, presents a survey of techniques and theories in this field of research in a self-contained and consistent way, with an emphasis on the probabilistic principles involved.
The Hot-Plasma Dielectric Tensor
Authors: Brambilla Marco
Published: November 2023

We will now derive the dielectric tensor of a uniform hot plasma immersed in a static magnetic field. For this purpose, we must evaluate the current induced in the plasma by the electric field of a small-amplitude h.f. wave; in turn, this requires that we solve the Vlasov equation to determine the distribution functions of ions and electrons in the presence of the h.f. field. The concept of a dielectric tensor, introduced in Section 4, implies a linear relation between the current and the field; hence, in the first place, we must linearize the kinetic equation.
The Electrostatic and Fluid Approximations
Authors: Brambilla Marco
Published: November 2023

In contrast to what occurs in vacuum or in ordinary dielectrics, the electric field of a plane wave propagating in a plasma generally has a nonvanishing longitudinal component, Eς = k · E/k ‘F- 0.
Quasilinear Theory of Heating and Current Drive
Authors: Brambilla Marco
Published: November 2023

Irreversible absorption of h.f. power is the result of resonant wave-particle interactions occurring in well-defined domains of phase space. To evaluate the number of resonant particles and the heating rate in each particular situation, the equilibrium distribution function F0(ii) must be assumed to be known and, as a first approximation, time independent. This is acceptable not only on the very short time scale of a few wave periods, but also for the somewhat longer duration of individual resonant interactions. Over still longer times, however, F0(V) itself will change as a consequence of the heating. Our goal now is to derive a kinetic equation adequate to describe this slow evolution of the average distribution function. In the following sections of this chapter we will present a few applications of this equation to problems of h.f. heating and current drive in fusion plasmas.
The Semi-Empirical Picture Of Turbulent Shear Flow
Authors: McComb W D
Published: November 2023

Turbulence, a phenomenon which is complicated in itself, can be encountered in a wide variety of more or less complicated situations, both in the natural environment and in many industrial processes. Thus, when engineers attempt to predict the behavior of turbulent systems, they have more to reckon with than the intrinsic difficulty of the turbulence problem. In order to carry out design calculations, they must also tackle the problems inherent in describing fluid flow through complicated physical systems such as turbine rotors, chemical reaction vessels, or tube bundles in heat exchangers. Nevertheless, as computational methods improve and computers grow in power, there is continuous progress in treating the merely complicated aspects of problems. Therefore, in many engineering applications nowadays, the major problem faced is the irreducible one of the turbulence itself.
Renormalized Perturbation Theories of the Second Kind
Authors: McComb W D
Published: November 2023

In the preceding chapter, we discussed the pioneering theories of turbulence, in which systematic renormalization methods were introduced to the subject for the first time, but we did not dwell to any extent on the virtues (or otherwise) of these theories. We shall continue to defer such considerations, for the most part, to Chapter 8, where the overall assessment of RPTs will be considered in some detail. However, before turning our attention to those theories which do yield the Kolmogorov spectrum as a solution, we shall make a rather limited analysis of certain unsatisfactory features of the older theories. Our reason for doing this at the present stage, is that it provides a perspective into which we can fit the development of the newer theories. Inevitably this means that the discussion is conducted in terms of failures to achieve the Kolmogorov form of the energy spectrum. Nevertheless, this should not be taken to mean that we are asserting that the Kolmogorov distribution provides a crucial test for analytic turbulence theories.
An Assessment Of Renormalized Perturbation Theories
Authors: McComb W D
Published: November 2023

Our principal source of information on the performance of RPT, is a handful of numerical investigations into the application of RPT to the problem of freely decaying isotropic turbulence. Accordingly, this will be our main topic in the present chapter, although we shall also revive the question of whether such theories should be compatible with the Kolmogorov spectrum at high Reynolds numbers. We shall also examine the problems involved in applying RPTs to inhomogeneous flows-along with a glance in passing at some other approaches to shear flows-before attempting to come to some overall conclusion about the various theories.
Renormalization Group Theories
Authors: McComb W D
Published: November 2023

In Section 3.5.3 we introduced the basic idea of renormalization group (RG) methods, and illustrated the general method by discussing how it might be applied in principle to fluid turbulence. The key phrase here is ‘in principle’, for in practice there are quite formidable problems in the way. Some of the attempts to overcome these problems will form the subject of this chapter. However, before turning to this-the main topic-a few remarks about the background to the subject may not be out of place. To begin with, RG was a procedure for eliminating divergences in field theory, and later became famous when it was successfully applied to critical phenomena in the early 1970s (e.g. see Wilson and Kogut 1974; Wilson 1975). More recently there has been an interplay between field-theoretical and renormalization group methods (Amit (1984) emphasizes this aspect), and this tends to be reflected in papers describing attempts to apply RG to turbulence.
Non-Newtonian Fluid Turbulence
Authors: McComb W D
Published: November 2023

There may appear to be some element of ambiguity about the title of this chapter. Does the adjective ‘non-Newtonian’ qualify the fluid? Or, should we read ‘fluid turbulence’ as a single entity, and take it to be non-Newtonian? In fact, this ambiguity is really rather more general in character. A purely Newtonian fluid flowing in the presence of solid boundaries which are flexible may behave quite differently from the case where the boundaries are rigid. It might therefore be appropriate to regard the combination of Newtonian fluid and flexible boundaries as an example of a fluid flow which should be described as non-Newtonian. Another example (and arguably the most important) is the phenomenon of drag reduction by additives (see Section 3.4). As we shall see later, the turbulence which occurs in the presence of drag-reducing additives is different from the turbulence which occurs in the solvent alone. Indeed, in some cases of very dilute polymer solutions, the anomalous (i.e. less dissipative) turbulence is probably the only detectable non-Newtonian effect.
Chemical Reactions And Thermal Radiation
Authors: Bird G A
Published: November 2023

The molecular model is ideally suited to the study of chemically reacting gas flows in that the basic theory of gas phase chemical reactions is primarily concerned with processes at the molecular level (e.g. Levine and Bernstein 1987). The theory is supported by studies in experimental chemistry that are becoming increasingly concerned with measurements at the molecular level. In addition, computational methods are now being applied to the interactions between reactive molecules, but these can involve extensive calculations for each set of impact parameters. It is impossible to make such a calculation for each of the billions of collisions in a flow simulation, but it might eventually be possible to build up a database of outcomes for all impact parameters in the collisions of interest.
The Representation of Stress-Strain Relations in Cyclic Loading
Authors: Ishihara Kenji
Published: November 2023

In making seismic response analysis of ground or soil structures based on the theory of wave propagation or on the finite element principle, of uttermost importance is to represent the cyclic behaviour of soils in a form of material model correlating shear stress and shear strain. Modelling of soil behaviour under cyclic or random loading conditions must be made so that the model can duplicate the deformation characteristics in the range of strains under consideration. When soil behaviour is expected to stay within the range of the small strain, the use of an elastic model is justified and the shear modulus is a key parameter to properly model the soil behaviour (see Fig. 3.1). When a given problem is associated with the medium range of strain, approximately below the level of 10-3, the soil behaviour becomes elastoplastic and the shear modulus tends to decrease as the shear strain increases. At the same time, energy dissipation occurs during cycles of load application.
Low-Amplitude Shear Moduli
Authors: Ishihara Kenji
Published: November 2023

A vast majority of experimental data has been accumulated to evaluate the shear modulus of various soils at very small levels of strains. This modulus is called maximum shear modulus, initial shear modulus, or low-amplitude shear modulus, and denoted by Gmax or Go- In the laboratory, the most widely used procedure has been the resonant column test, but because of its simplicity, the cyclic triaxial test procedure with precise monitoring of axial strains is finding overriding popularity in recent years, particularly in Japan, for measuring modulus and damping. The outcome of these investigations will be described in the following section with emphasis on laboratory studies.
Strengths of Cohesive Soils Under Transient and Cyclic Loading Conditions
Authors: Ishihara Kenji
Published: November 2023

Several types of dynamic loading tests have been attempted thus far to determine the dynamic strength of soils. These may be classified into four types, as illustrated in Fig. 9.1, according to whether the loading is rapid or slow and also whether the loading is monotonic or cyclic. Monotonic loading tests can be conducted with varying speeds of loading. The conventional static loading tests employ a rate of loading to failure on the order of a few minutes. The monotonic loading tests conducted in less than a few seconds to failure are classified as rapid loading tests. The rapid loading test or transient test has been performed to evaluate the strength of soils exhibited under blast loading such as detonation of explosives or falling of bombs. The second type of dynamic loading consists of a cyclic load application that is executed following the static monotonic loading as illustrated in Fig. 9.l(b). This type of test has often been conducted to evaluate the strength of soils during earthquakes. The initial phase of the static monotonic shear stress application is envisaged as representing a sustained static pre-earthquake state of stress which exists in a soil element beneath sloping surfaces. After applying the sustained shear stress, soils samples are subjected to a sequence of cyclic stress until failure occurs.
Evaluation of Liquefaction Resistance by in Situ Soundings
Authors: Ishihara Kenji
Published: November 2023

For accurate evaluation of the cyclic strength of sand, recovery of high-quality undisturbed samples and testing in the laboratory would be the most reliable procedure. However, the sampling of sand samples from deposits below the ground water table is a costly operation and cannot be recommended for every occasion of liquefaction investigation except for an important construction project. Therefore a simpler and more economically feasible procedure to assess the cyclic resistance of sand needs to be established. One of the methods to accomplish this end is to take advantage of the penetration resistance of the Standard Penetration Test (SPT) or Cone Penetration Test (CPT) which have found worldwide use in investigating in situ characteristics of soil deposits. There are basically two different approaches as described below for correlating penetration resistance with the cyclic strength of soils in the field.
Onset Condition for Liquefaction and Consequent Flow
Authors: Ishihara Kenji
Published: November 2023

In the preceding chapters, laboratory testing on reconstituted samples has been recognized as a useful tool for making the most conservative estimate of the residual strength of in situ sands. A similar argument may be developed as to the cyclic strength controlling the triggering of liquefaction. The relationship between the cyclic strength and the Ni value summarized in Fig. 12.2 is reproduced in Fig. 16.1 in the form of a belt zone where most of the proposed correlations are clustered. Also shown superimposed in Fig. 16.1 are the points derived from the results of the coalescent tests conducted in the United States and Japan.
Liquid-Liquid Equilibria
Authors: Newsham D M T
Published: November 2023

The proper design of solvent extraction processes depends crucially upon an accurate knowledge of the relevant liquid-liquid equilibria. The latter must be either measured or predicted. This chapter is concerned with methods for the correlation of experimentally determined liquid-liquid equilibria and with methods for the prediction of unknown equilibria.
Laser-Based Methods Of Temperature Measurement
Authors: Lawton B , Klingenberg G
Published: November 2023

With the advent of laser sources, laser spectroscopy developed as a novel diagnostic tool for studying temperature and species concentration in combustion and flow. Laser techniques are particularly promising when they are combined with modem sensors and computer analysis. Recent experimental demonstrations have shown the potential of Raman processes including spontaneous, resonant, coherent, and stimulated radiation, and of laser florescence techniques. The main applications have been to the study of laboratory flames. For example, the advent of UV lasers enabled the development of pulsed Raman imaging techniques which, in combination with gated multichannel detectors measure simultaneously the temperature and species concentration with adequate spatial and temporal resolution in a two-dimensional plane through the event. Planar imaging of the flame developing during spark-ignition engine combustion has also been successfully demonstrated using UV, Rayleigh, and fluorescence radiation.
Diamond-Indenter Cells
Authors: Eremets M I
Published: November 2023

However, the traditional cell with one rounded cone and a plane is of interest, primarily because of simplicity of construction and importance for study of contact phenomena. This cell has narrower but important fields of application, such as the study of phase transitions, Fig.1.18. The presence of shear stresses in an ungasketed sample helps to localize the boundaries of phase diagrams as in the shear deformation cell, Chapter 5.
Hydrostatic Cells
Authors: Eremets M I
Published: November 2023

Hydrostatic cells commonly imply piston-cylinder cells. Of course, hydrostatic conditions are also achieved in diamond anvil cells and other apparatus. The piston-cylinder system is one of the obvious methods of pressure generation, Fig.6.1.
Optical Properties
Authors: Eremets M I
Published: November 2023

Complex refractive index of medium. Interference spectra of a platelet. DAC cavity. Refractive index of diamond. Features of optical measurements in DAC. Optical properties of diamond. Absorption, reflectance.
Infrared Spectroscopy
Authors: Eremets M I
Published: November 2023

Infrared (IR) spectroscopy is an immense field of study of low-energy excitation in matter. Primarily it is phonon, or vibrational, spectroscopy of solids and molecules. Low-energy electron states: impurity levels in semiconductors, interband transitions, cyclotron resonance, superconductor gap transitions, and many other phenomena, arc studied by IR spectroscopy.
Development of more highly intelligent products and systematization of nanotechnology
Authors: Taniguchi Norio
Published: November 2023

The highest precision fine processing of materials will soon be realized in mass production systems for highdensity 256 Mbit IC memories of ULSis, for which a minimum gate width of 0.25 µ,m with a scattering error width of 30 nm is required. Furthermore, the production yield rate is now said to reach several tens of per cent in 200 mm wafers. However, lately, logic ICs for microprocessors with a least gate width of 0.2 µ,m have become necessary for mass production of ULSis.
Latent Heat Transfer
Authors: Lock G S H
Published: November 2023

This beginning graduate text is the first comprehensive work on latent heat transfer. It covers all forms: evaporation, sublimation, melting, condensation, freezing, and deposition. The work has been designed to provide both insight and example for junior engineering graduate students. The three introductory chapters on the history and significance of thermodynamics and fluid mechanics are followed by self-contained treatments of solidification, fluidification, condensation, evaporation and boiling. Direct contact latent heat transfer is covered separately. The final chapter is devoted exclusively to worked examples. Emphasis throughout is placed on fundamentals which apply equally to industrial and environmental processes.