bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Chalcatzingo, Morelos, Mexico: A Reappraisal of the Olmec Rock Carvings
Authors: Grove David C.
Published: April 2006

The content and interpretation of the Olmec bas-reliefs at Chalcatzingo are discussed in this paper. This reanalysis shows that some of the most important carvings have apparently been misinterpreted in the past. Information concerning a new carving, previously unreported, is presented, and a reaffirmation of the contemporaneity of the Chalcatzingo carvings with Olmec Gulf Coast reliefs is made. Chalcatzingo is suggested as an important Middle Preclassic religious and trade center.
The High Plains and Their Utilization by the Indian
Authors: Wedel Waldo R.
Published: April 2006

This paper re-examines the thesis, which still persists in some quarters, that limited surface-water supplies, scarcity of through-flowing streams, a generally harsh environment, and shortage of wood for tipi poles, stakes, and fuel, because they precluded year-round occupation of the High Plains, would also have made regular seasonal residence and through-travel by pedestrians extremely difficult or impossible. A review of historic Indian occupation and natural resources, notably distribution and nature of the water supplies, suggests that seasonal residence patterns were entirely feasible for prehorse Indians, and that travel in and through the region, except in times of severe drought or winter storms, would have been practicable for experienced plainsmen, even on foot. The potential significance to archaeology of the larger perennial springs in and around the shortgrass country is noted.
The Extent and Content of Poverty Point Culture
Authors: Webb Clarence H.
Published: April 2006

Late Archaic developments along the Gulf Coast and up the Mississippi Valley, after 2000 B.C., contributed a substantial base for the Poverty Point culture. New coastal and inland discoveries bring the total number of Poverty Point sites to 34, with many additional possibilities.

A study of 70,000 artifacts from the type-site is reported; the known cultural content is increased by numerous new traits. The thesis is advanced that Formative elements of Mesoamerican origin, including ceremonial organization, massive mound construction, village planning, ceramics, figurines, advanced lapidary industry, and probable agriculture, enriched the basic Archaic culture and contributed to subsequent cultural developments in the valley.
Grand Canyon Dams, Split-Twig Figurines, and “Hit-and-Run” Archaeology
Authors: Jett Stephen C.
Published: April 2006

In 1966 and 1967, amateurs unearthed a number of split-twig figurines in Stanton Cave in the Grand Canyon’s Marble Gorge. A number of these figurines are described, including one which is perhaps the finest ever discovered. It is documented that these finds by amateurs were stimulated by publication about this site in popular periodicals. It is also argued, using the Grand Canyon as an example, that survey and salvage in connection with large dam construction is never a substitute for long-range study of the archaeology and its environmental context, and that salvage cannot be considered as a benefit justifying dam construction but only as an alleviation of some of the dam damage.
Four Maya Pottery Vessels from British Honduras
Authors: Pendergast David M.
Published: April 2006

Chance discoveries in recent years in British Honduras have produced four pottery vessels of considerable interest, ranging in date from late Preclassic to Late Classic. Three of the vessels suggest relationship between British Honduran sites and Tikal, while the fourth is decorated with a complex scene not elsewhere recorded in the Maya area.
Aikens’ Fremont Hypothesis and Use of Skeletal Material in Archaeological Interpretation
Authors: Armelagos George J.
Published: April 2006

The interpretation of skeletal material in the reconstruction of culture history by archaeologists and physical anthropologists is open to a number of criticisms. Problems inherent in the typological approach are discussed.
A Glacial Kame Wolf Mask-Headdress
Authors: Baby Raymond S.
Published: April 2006

A worked wolf cranium discovered in burial association at a Glacial Kame site near Russells Point, Ohio, is interpreted as part of an animal mask-headdress. This is the first record of the use of such paraphernalia by the Glacial Kame People, and probably one of earliest evidences of ceremonialism in the Ohio Valley.
Barren Ground Caribou (Rangifer arcticus) from an Early Man Site in Southeastern Michigan
Authors: Cleland Charles E.
Published: April 2006

The identification of a phalanx of a barren ground caribou (Rangifer arcticus) from the Holcombe site in southeastern Michigan is perhaps the earliest association of man and an animal species in the eastern United States. This phalanx was excavated from a small pit which contained four fragments of unifacially worked artifacts, a number of plano-convex spalls typical of the Holcombe lithic complex, and a small amount of beech charcoal. Association of this site with a beach of glacial Lake Algonquin places its occupation at approximately 9200 B.C.
Early Milling Stone Horizon (Oak Grove), Santa Barbara County, California: Radiocarbon Dates
Authors: Owen Roger C.
Published: April 2006

Radiocarbon dates of 6880, 6980, 7270, and 6380 B.P. have been obtained for an Early Horizon site (Oak Grove) in the region of Santa Barbara, California. These dates permit the definite association of many cultural features which have previously been denied for the Oak Grove complex: a partial maritime economy, a core-and-flake industry, bone and shell technology, the use of asphaltum, and flexed burials. It is unlikely that the Early Horizon in Santa Barbara was sedentary to any degree.
Core Drilling in an Archaeological Site
Authors: Price John C. , Hunter Richard G. , McMichael Edward V.
Published: April 2006

Methods used in taking drill cores at a deeply stratified archaeological site in Kanawha County, West Virginia, are reported. A site exposed by river-bank erosion was tested with six cores, and additional deeper levels of probable human occupation were found. The site limits were determined, and evidence was gathered which suggests that the site was originally on an island. This work indicates that core drilling at similar sites in alluvial valleys would be a useful archaeological technique.
Exchange Systems among the Ancient Maya
Authors: Tourtellot Gair , Sabloff Jeremy A.
Published: April 2006

Most studies of trade in the Maya area of Mesoamerica have been descriptive examinations of exchanged objects and have relied heavily on ethnohistoric sources. This paper, on the other hand, relies mainly on archaeological data and offers several hypotheses about the socio-political significance of intra- and inter-community exchange systems.

It is proposed that in the relatively uniform environment of the Maya Lowlands, subsistence arti-facts and goods were generally exchanged within communities while prestige artifacts were exchanged between communities. This hypothesized situation is contrasted with the environmentally differentiated Mexican Highlands where subsistence items were traded widely. Following the theoretical leads of M. Coe, Webb, and Fried, we offer the hypothesis that prior to the introduction of foreign influences, the lack of differential access to basic resources among the ranked social groups of the Maya Lowlands did not stimulate the development of the state in this area.
Ridge-Back Tools of the Colorado Desert
Authors: Morlin Childers W.
Published: April 2006

Knapping experiments and examination of flaked stone objects distributed throughout portions of southwestern Imperial Valley and northern Baja California indicate that criteria other than presence or absence of percussion bulbs can be used to support the artifactual nature of certain fractured stones.
Albert Spaulding and Archaeological Method and Theory
Authors: Cowgill George L.
Published: April 2006

My object here is to list and briefly discuss the themes which seem most important and most valuable in Albert Spaulding's contributions to archaeological method and theory. I have not attempted to be biographical, to deal with his substantive contributions to North American prehistory, or to be exhaustive in mentioning every good idea and useful suggestion he has put into print. My discussion is also incomplete because the flow of major contributions has not ceased. Al is still busy trying new things (Spaulding 1976) and assessing current archaeological fashions with clarity, vigor, and reason (Spaulding 1973,1974).
A Comment on Curren's “Potential Interpretations of ‘Stone Gorget’ Function”
Authors: Starna William A.
Published: April 2006

Curren (1977) presents an interesting and provocative hypothesis regarding the “potential” function of “stone gorgets.” Nevertheless, there are some serious problems with his thesis that require comment.

Initially, there is a danger in the rather simplistic association drawn between form and function. To claim a functional similarity because there is a morphological similarity between stone gorgets and contemporary ceramic tools called “ribs” is a risky procedure. One does not need to go very far to demonstrate analogous examples. For instance, if I were to show a surveyor a stone “plummet,” I would most likely elicit the response, “ a surveyor’s plummet in stone?” If I were to present an unsuspecting archaeologist with a surveyor’s plummet, I might hear, “plummets (net sinkers or bolas] in brass?” In contrast to the paper under disucssion, Ahler’s (1971) important study is a sophisticated treatment of the problems involved in equating form with function.
The Archaeology Film Festival: Making New Friends for Archaeology in the Screening Hall
Authors: Beaudry Marilyn P. , Elster Ernestine S.
Published: April 2006

In an effort to reach a potential archaeological audience within the public sector, a film program was presented through the Extension Division at two campuses of the University of California. Described are some of the benefits and pitfalls involved in using the film festival format, along with the results of a questionnaire designed to generate data on audience make-up and motivation.
The Decline and Rise of Mesopotamian Civilization: An Ethnoarchaeological Perspective on the Evolution of Social Complexity
Authors: Yoffee Norman
Published: April 2006

The typological schemes constructed by many archaeologists to explain the rise and fall of civilizations have neither accounted for the processual changes involved in the evolution of social complexity nor contributed to the development of a comparative method for considering regularities and variation in social behavior. This paper begins with a review of the foundations on which archaeologists have based their conceptions of social evolution. A critical test of the assumptions of “evolutionism” is then provided by case studies in Mesopotamian civilization in which materials from both preliterate and literate times are examined. Using ancient, emic documentation that is recovered as part of the archaeological record, such studies may logically be termed ethnoarchaeological. It is suggested that the customary analogy between social change and biological evolution is inappropriate and that a new problem orientation will facilitate more productive research into the dynamics of social evolution.

You would be surprised at the number of years it took me to see clearly what some of the problems were which had to be solved. . . . Looking back, I think it was more difficult to see what the problems were than to solve them, as far as I have succeeded in doing, and this seems to me rather curious.

Charles Darwin

When we define a word we are merely inviting others to use it as we would like it to be used . . . the purpose of definition is to focus argument upon fact and . . . the proper result of good definition is to transform argument over terms into disagreements about fact, and thus open arguments to further inquiry.

C. Wright Mills
Regional Subsampling and Statistical Inference in Forested Habitats
Authors: Nance Jack D.
Published: April 2006

An attempt to employ probabilistic subsampling in a wooded study area is reviewed. Errors committed in attempts to test hypotheses about statistical associations are identified, and more suitable procedures are suggested. The site-location potential of regional subsampling is considered. On theoretical grounds it is concluded that regional subsampling employing small subunits in areas of low site density is probably inefficient and biased when used as a search procedure.
Pattern Recognition in Historical Archaeology
Authors: South Stanley
Published: April 2006

The process of pattern recognition using data from historic sites is illustrated with data from the British colonial system. The Brunswick Pattern of Refuse Disposal monitors eighteenth century refuse disposal behavior patterns. The Carolina Pattern monitors artifact relationships from domestic occupation. The Frontier Pattern is seen on frontier sites as well as the area inside domestic ruins, and is characterized by a high architecture to kitchen artifact relationship. The formula concept of pattern recognition demonstrated by the Mean Ceramic Date Formula is a tool based on the recognition of highly regular patterns of variation in the popularity of ceramics through time. Such pattern recognition is foundational for historic site data to contribute to the explanation of culture processes. Historical archaeology has an as yet unrealized potential for contributing to method-refinement and theory building in archaeology generally. This is the exciting promise historical archaeology holds for the future.
The Size Effect: An Explanation of Variability in Surface Artifact Assemblage Content
Authors: Baker Charles M.
Published: April 2006

The reuse of certain categories of artifacts combined with natural site formation processes, such as sedimentation and erosion, is suggested to result in the disproportionate occurrence of “large” artifacts on the surface of sites. This phenomenon, known as the size effect, is investigated with artifact assemblage data from several stratified Eastern North American sites.
Micro-Seriation: A Method for Fine Chronologic Differentiation
Authors: Le Blanc Steven A.
Published: April 2006

The value and need for the micro-seriation of archaeological data are discussed, and a non-typological approach is described. Excavated and surface material from the Cibola region of New Mexico are seriated by two different techniques: factor scores and multidimensional scaling. The results are compared with stratigraphic and dendrochronologic data. It is argued that the methods produce useful results and that time differences of about a decade can be determined.
Determination of the Provenience of Majolica Pottery Found in the Caribbean Area Using Its Gamma-Ray Induced Thermoluminescence
Authors: Vaz J. Eduardo , Cruxent José M.
Published: April 2006

The gamma-ray induced thermoluminescence of specimens of majolica pottery of known origin, and of specimens of majolica of unknown origin collected in the Caribbean area was analyzed to determine if thermoluminescence could be used as an indicator of the provenience of pottery found in an archaeological context. The results of the measurements show that the shape of the gamma-ray induced thermoluminescence glow-curve of the clay matrix of majolica is specific to the geographic locality where the pottery was made, and that the provenience of specimens found archaeologically can be determined on the basis of their thermoluminescence glow-curves, when the curves obtained from the samples with known origins are used as references.
So-Called Jaguar-Human Copulation Scenes in Olmec Art
Authors: Davis Whitney
Published: April 2006

Three Olmec sculptures are frequently thought to represent copulation between human beings and jaguars, an important element in what we are able to reconstruct of Olmec belief, but evidence and parallels discussed here suggest that this interpretation of the sculptures is incorrect. Alternate explanations which are consistent with a new view would assign an aggressive, ritual, or allegorical meaning to these sculptures and to certain other related Olmec representations.
Constraints on Dimensions of Variance
Authors: Riley Thomas J.
Published: April 2006

Whallon's introduction of dimensions of variance to instrasite spatial analysis is applauded. Constraints, stemming from the technique and from the nature of archaeological data-gathering techniques, are discussed.
Occupational Specialization at Tikal, Guatemala: Stoneworking-Monument Carving
Authors: Haviland William A.
Published: April 2006

A recent article in American Antiquity discusses evidence for occupational specialization among the Classic Maya at Tikal, Guatemala. The purpose of this paper is to amplify that discussion through review of the artifactual evidence for stoneworking and monument carving as a specialized occupation at Tikal. It is suggested that this occupation was confined to a specific family line within a lineage, the members of which were artisans engaged in a variety of occupational specialties.
Room 44, Wupatki: Rejecting False Profits
Authors: Reyman Jonathan E.
Published: April 2006

Several solar alignments were found for the east window of Room 44 at Wupatki. Analysis shows that these alignments were the accidental products of National Park Service construction and not the intended design of the original builders of the pueblo. This analysis provides an excellent example of the problems inherent in archaeoastronomical and architectural studies at "reconstructed" and stabilized sites.
Aspartic Acid Racemization and Radiocarbon Dating of an Early Milling Stone Horizon Burial in California
Authors: Ike Darcy , Bada Jeffrey L. , Masters Patricia M. , Kennedy Gail , Vogel John C.
Published: April 2006

Concordant radiocarbon and aspartic acid racemization dates have been obtained for several Holocene aboriginal skeletons from coastal southern California sites. These results further demonstrate the reliability of racemization dating. One of the skeletons (SDM 16709), dated at 8,300 years, was a burial around which several milling stones had been placed. This well-dated burial indicates that the Southern California Milling Stone horizon is significantly older than has previously been accepted.
A Reappraisal of the Roles of Technology and Organization in the Origin of Civilization
Authors: Carneiro Robert L.
Published: April 2006

The view that technological advance was the prime cause of the early civilizations is examined and rejected. Instead, it is argued that civilization was an organizational solution to specific social and ecological problems. Even where technology gave an impetus to the rise of civilization, it can be shown that the tools or weapons involved were themselves developed in response to societal demands. Thus, the invention of the steam engine, which led to the Industrial Revolution, can be traced back to the need by feudal states in Europe to cope with a severe shortage of labor. This interpretation is presented, not as a repudiation of cultural materialism, but as an elaboration on it.
Settlement Pattern Stability and Change in the Middle Northern Rio Grande Region, New Mexico: A Test of Some Hypotheses
Authors: Dickson D. Bruce
Published: April 2006

An apparent similarity in settlement pattern change in portions of the Khuzestan region, Iran, and the Middle Northern Rio Grande region, New Mexico, is described. A model is formulated as a series of hypotheses of correlation to test the validity of this supposed change in the Middle Northern Rio Grande region. Test implications of this model dictate the establishment of a survey transect. Site data is gathered from the transect using museum records, published reports and a stratified, random sample site reconnaissance. The "site weight index" is described and used to render this site data into comparable numerical form. A phi-coefficient statistic is applied to this data, and the first model is rejected. An alternative model of settlement change is derived and used to reinterpret Northern Rio Grande prehistory in general.
Pollen Preservation and Archaeology in Eastern North America
Authors: King James E. , Klippel Walter E. , Duffield Rose
Published: April 2006

The recovery of pollen from archaeological sites in Eastern North A merica has not been as successful as it has been in the western part of the continent. The depositional environment of eastern archaeological sites is generally unfavorable for pollen preservation and archaeologists have failed to search out special situations in which pollen may be preserved. At the Rhoads site, a Proto-Historic Indian village in central Illinois, abundant pollen has been found associated with copper artifacts and deeply buried tree bark. Pollen was preserved around copper, apparently due to dissolved copper salts which act as a fungicide. Tree bark, an excellent collection surface for air-borne pollen, can yield abundant pollen when preserved. When the factors involved in pollen deposition and preservation are considered, the prospects for archaeological palynology in eastern North America should be greatly enhanced.
Recent Data Bearing on the Question of the Origins of the Bow and Arrow in the Great Basin
Authors: Webster Gary S.
Published: April 2006

The origin and dating of the bow and arrow in the Great Basin has been a key issue in a recent debate concerning a cultural hiatus between Archaic and Fremont. New stratigraphic and chronometric data from Dry Creek Rockshelter are presented to support previous evidence for an Archaic rather than a Fremont origin for this new weapon.
Comment on Bray's “An Eighteenth Century Reference to a Fluted Point from Guatemala”
Authors: Rovner Irwin
Published: April 2006

Bray's interpretation of an eighteenth century reference to a lithic implement in Guatemala as describing a fluted projectile point is challenged on the grounds that semantic variations of the translation may well fit the attributes of a late period-style obsidian prismatic blade. Problems in distinguishing between genuinely fluted points and "pseudofluted" points are also noted. The possibility of widespread pseudofluted points in Central and South America raises questions of their relationship to North American paleo-Indian industries.
National Science Foundation Funding of Domestic Archaeology in the United States: Where the Money Ain't
Authors: Casteel Richard W.
Published: April 2006

National Science Foundation (NSF) funding for domestic archaeology in the United States is examined for the period 1958 through 1978. Funding levels are analyzed in terms of current- and constant-dollar expenditures, as well as funding intensity. It is concluded that NSF funding for domestic archaeological research has declined rapidly since the mid-1960s and that the funding for fiscal year 1978 represents the program's nadir (a mere 6% of the funding intensity for 1966 and about half the amount for 1958). It seems reasonable to suggest that NSF may soon cease to be a viable source of funds for scientific research in the area of domestic archaeology if recent trends continue.
A Long-Nosed God Mask From Northwest Iowa
Authors: Anderson Duane C.
Published: April 2006

A Long-Nosed God mask from the surface of a Mill Creek site in northwest Iowa is described and discussed in the light of previous discoveries. It is found that the Iowa mask (I) expands the distribution of this already widespread artistic expression, (2) underscores the degree and intensity of Mississippian-Mitt Creek connections, (3) tends to confirm the long-held supposition that Mill Creek exchanges with the Mississippian heartlands involved ideology as well as technology and material goods, and (4) supports the hypothesis that there are distinct Long-Nosed God and Southern Cult “horizons” on the northern portion of the Prairie Peninsula.
Subsistence Ecology of Scovill
Authors: Cook Sherburne F.
Published: April 2006

The data contained in the paper by Munson, Parmalee, and Yamell (1971) concerning the Scovill site in Illinois have been employed for the purpose of examining the demographic and dietary status of the inhabitants. It is calculated from the meat residues found by the authors that this source of food would have supplied 181,800 g of animal protein, and from the residues of nuts that this type of plant supplied 1,588,000 Calories. The nutritional requirement in these substances for the probable population of the site was very much greater than the residues found. Hence the residues do not approach the probable consumption. On the other hand it is shown that the environment could provide much more meat and nuts than are represented by the human consumption.
An Example of Homophony in Maya Script
Authors: Houston Stephen D.
Published: April 2006

This report demonstrates recourse to homophony in ancient Maya script, illustrating the generalization of signs on the basis of their phonetic values, apart from their primary semantic values. It focuses on substitutions, in eight glyphic contexts, of signs for “sky,” the number “four,” and “snake,” the words for which are homophonous or nearly homophonous in most Mayan languages. A final, unique glyphic context exhibits the use of homophony in a spelling of Kukulcan's name from the classic period.
Patterns of Jade Consumption and Disposal at Cerros, Northern Belize
Authors: Garber James F.
Published: April 2006

Jade artifacts have been recovered from a wide variety of contexts throughout the Maya Lowlands. Intact artifacts are usually recovered from tombs, burials, and dedicatory offerings. For the most part, the intact jade artifacts from Cerros, a Late Preclassic Maya center in northern Belize, fall within this range. However, the majority of Cerros jades are broken and were recovered from contexts that deviate from the normal Late Preclassic Maya pattern of jade consumption and disposal. In three locations at Cerros, quantities of jade were broken and scattered about. Such activity occurred during the abandonment of masonry and perishable structures and is interpreted here as being a form of termination ritual.
A Response to Adams's Review of “Prehistoric Pueblo Settlement Patterns: The Arroyo Hondo, New Mexico Site Survey”
Authors: Bruce Dickson D.
Published: April 2006

In his review of my monograph, Prehistoric Pueblo Settlement Patterns: The Arroyo Hondo, New Mexico Site Survey, E. Charles Adams makes several misstatements, questions some of my methods of data presentation, and asserts that the site densities reported are too low. An endeavor is made to answer his criticism.
Trends in North American Rock Art Research: A Quantitative Evaluation of the Literature
Authors: Wellmann Klaus F.
Published: April 2006

The literature to 1979 on North American Indian rock art has been analyzed. It was found to be characterized by a high degree of dispersion, an erratic growth pattern before 1950 followed by an exponential mode of growth thereafter, and a low proportion of multiple-author works. The growth in literary output over the years was largely attributable to an increase in the number of authors, whereas the article/author ratio changed only slightly with time. The proportion of works dealing with general topics rose from 16.4% before 1970 to 41.6% thereafter while the proportion of site reports decreased accordingly. Although all rock art regions participated in the numerical growth of the literature over the decades, their relative proportions varied with time. The Southwest, the Great Plains, and the Eastern Woodland had the greatest number of works with regional emphasis; these three regions accounted for more than 50% of the total literary output. As an instrument of scientific information exchange, the rock art literature in North America appears to be in a comparatively early stage of development and maturation, a feature it shares with the communication system in the social sciences in general.
Comments on the Analogy between Biological and Cultural Evolution
Authors: Peters Stuart M.
Published: April 2006

Norman Yoffee's characterizations of the theory of biological evolution and the theory of cultural evolution are inaccurate, unsupported in his work and, further, unsupportable in the literature of evolutionary studies. Therefore, his conclusion that the analogy between biological and cultural evolution is inappropriate cannot be logically valid.
Do You See Yonder Cloud That's Almost in the Shape of a Camel? Reply to Peters
Authors: Yoffee Norman
Published: April 2006

Discussion of various models of sociocultural evolution and their applicability to the explanation of archaeological data is certainly in order in reference to my recent article on the subject. Intemperate and unproductive remarks that miss the point of the article, however, deserve less attention. Here I shall simply respond to specific charges raised by Peters and then use the remainder of this reply to place my argument within the scope of some recent and larger considerations of archaeological model building.
Broken Canines from Alaskan Cave Deposits: Re-Evaluating Evidence for Domesticated Dog and Early Humans in Alaska
Authors: Dixon E. James , Smith George S.
Published: April 2006

Broken canines from two caves on the Porcupine River, Alaska are analyzed with respect to size, development, morphology, breakage pattern, and stratigraphic placement. These analyses indicate that they are deciduous bear teeth exfoliated in these caves through noncultural processes associated with dental development. Similarity of these teeth to the canines recovered from various stratigraphic levels at Trail Creek Caves 2 and 9, on the Seward Peninsula, Alaska (Larsen 1968:58), indicates that the Trail Creek specimens (including specimens from levels dating to the late Pleistocene) are also naturally exfoliated bear teeth and not dog canines (Canis familiaris) broken out by human beings, as originally suggested.
A Mississippian Period Ritual Cave in Tennessee
Authors: Faulkner Charles H. , Deane Bill , Earnest Howard H.
Published: April 2006

Trailed and incised drawings on the mud-covered walls of an East Tennessee cave have been identified as the artwork of Mississippian Indians who visited this sanctuary about 800 years ago. These unique drawings, called “mud glyphs” because of their similarity to certain petroglyphs found in the southeastern United States, include abstract designs, symbols, zoomorphic forms and anthropomorphic figures. Symbols such as the forked eye and the “bird-man” anthropomorphic representation correlate with six radiocarbon dates on torch charcoal that range between the twelfth and seventeenth centuries A.D. The occurrence of thousands of superimposed elements on the walls indicates that Mud Glyph cave was a Mississippian period sanctuary and further suggests that certain southeastern caves during this period were used for ritual activities rather than for mining as they were during earlier Woodland and Archaic times.
Archaeological Survey in the Mediterranean Basin: A Review of Recent Research
Authors: Dyson Stephen L.
Published: April 2006

The aim of this article is to describe and discuss the use of archaeological survey in the Mediterranean area during recent decades. Emphasis will be placed on research conducted since World War II, and I will concentrate primarily on Greece and the Western Mediterranean. In this context, surveys centering on later prehistoric and historic periods will receive most attention. Note that even within these areas of concentration, this article cannot claim to be exhaustive. It is my intention to discuss the highlights of this rapidly developing field.
Crocodilians and Olmecs: Further Interpretations in Formative Period Iconography
Authors: Stocker Terry , Meltzoff Sarah , Armsey Steve
Published: April 2006

An ecological approach to religion is utilized to examine crocodilians represented in highland and lowland Mesoamerican art from the Early Formative to European contact. It is suggested for certain Formative New World religions, the Olmec in particular, that the crocodilian may have attained religious importance because it served as a major food source, is a predator of humans, and is an anomalous and striking animal. It is further proposed that crocodilian products (meat, skins, etc.) may have been lowland items used in an exchange network with highland groups, that the crocodilian motif and crocodilian products became elements of elite status regalia, and that Olmec ideology thereby gained a foothold in central Mexico. Subsequently, a decline in the supply of crocodilians due to overhunting or other causes may have undermined one basis of Olmec strength and hastened their downfall in the Middle Formative. Crocodilians remain in the art up to European contact, but their role seems to change as they transcend the secular-mundane, as the elite establish other status regalia, and as a greater variety of religious expressions develops.
Spatial Analysis of Basin of Mexico Settlement: Problems with the Use of the Central Place Model
Authors: Evans Susan T.
Published: April 2006

In a recent report, Michael Smith proposes that the primary determinant of the settlement pattern of the southeastern Basin of Mexico during the Late Horizon (A.D. 1350-1520) was marketplace exchange. This assumption, and the use of the central place market model in analyzing the pattern, are critically evaluated and found to be unwarranted. A review of data and theory leads to the conclusion that environmental and political factors outweigh commerce in shaping the settlement pattern in this area.
Factor Analysis, Random Data, and Patterned Results
Authors: Vierra Robert K. , Carlson David L.
Published: April 2006

Multivariate statistical techniques such as factor analysis are capable of producing patterned results with most, if not all, data matrices. This paper demonstrates that patterned results are obtainable when principal component analysis is applied to a random data set. It is suggested that Bartlett's test for the statistical significance of a correlation matrix be employed in deciding whether a factor analysis of the matrix is justified.
A New Paleo-Indian Site in the State of Maine
Authors: Gramly Richard Michael , Rutledge Kerry
Published: April 2006

A newly discovered paleo-Indian site in the mountainous interior of northwestern Maine yields tools identical to those reported for the Debert site in central Nova Scotia.
The Dating and Cultural Associations of the “Potbellied” Sculptural Style: New Evidence from Western El Salvador
Authors: Demarest Arthur , Switsur Roy , Berger Rainer
Published: April 2006

For decades the “potbellied” monuments have been the center of a controversy in Mesoamerican archaeology. These massive boulder sculptures have been found at numerous sites associated with the major culture-historical problems of the Preclassic period in southern Mesoamerica. A secure dating of the style has not been possible and there have been several conflicting interpretations of their age and significance. One interpretation holds that some “potbellies” are among the earliest monumental sculptures in the New World, contemporary with, or even ancestral to, the Olmec style. New evidence from the site of Santa Leticia. El Salvador, provides the first secure dating of several “potbellied” monuments and related sculptures. An undisturbed stratigraphic context, dated by both associated ceramics and a C-14 series, indicates that the style is probably a phenomenon of the Late Preclassic period (ca. 500 B.C. to A.D. 100).
1,000 Years of New World Archaeology
Authors: Rowlett Ralph M.
Published: April 2006

Weather-stranded Norse explorer-refugees are reported in the medieval Icelandic Landnámabók to have dug into an archaeological site in eastern Greenland about A.D. 981. Enough details are given to suggest that they investigated a Dorset Culture site. This 1,000-year-old account must be the oldest known archaeological report for the New World.
Radiocarbon Dating as a Probabilistic Technique: The Childers Site and Late Woodland Occupation in the Ohio Valley
Authors: Shott Michael J.
Published: April 2006

Like any scientific technique, radiocarbon dating has limitations, and its results cannot be interpreted uncritically. The archaeological record of Childers, a Late Woodland site in eastern North America, and inferences concerning its occupational history are evaluated here against radiocarbon dates from the site. The record suggests a single, relatively brief, occupation, but radiocarbon-dating results suggest either a much longer continuous occupation or a long series of shorter ones. The apparent conflict between the archaeological record and radiocarbon results is resolved by considering context and integrity of radiocarbon samples, as well as the probabilistic character of the radiocarbon method itself. Considerable dispersion in dating results can occur even in relatively brief occupations, casting doubt on the uncritical interpretation of raw radiocarbon results. Childers's occupational history and chronological placement have important implications for regional culture process during the early Late Woodland interval, and suggest a time lag in the acceptance of cultural innovations.
Ancient Town and City Sites: A View from the Microscope
Authors: Rosen Arlene Miller
Published: April 2006

Archaeological studies concerned with reconstructing activity areas, room functions, and site-formation processes can benefit greatly from analyses of the microartifacts found on and within occupation surfaces. These remains are often primary refuse directly related to activities, and can be used to identify such locations as food-preparation areas, flint-knapping stations, and storage facilities. In addition, certain microartifacts are informative about site-formation processes. For example, the grain-size distribution of charcoal may be indicative of primary vs. secondary refuse, high percentages of corroded and crushed bone from scavenger feces may indicate locations of secondary refuse, and many small sherds could point to heavily trampled areas. A case study from the Iron Age city site of Tel Miqne-Ekron in central Israel demonstrates the use of microarchaeology at a complex sedentary site.
Recent Research on Obsidian from Iowa Archaeological Sites
Authors: Anderson Duane C. , Tiffany Joseph A. , Nelson Fred W.
Published: April 2006

In this paper we summarize the results of six years of passive obsidian collecting in Iowa during which time 31 samples were obtained and subjected to trace element analysis. We find that: (1) 74% of the obsidian originated at the Obsidian Cliff Quarry in Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming; and (2) in contrast with earlier midwestern studies where obsidian was found in ritual contexts on Middle Woodland sites, the Iowa material is associated with a broader temporal range and on sites where ritual use is not evident. A discussion of the analytical methods used is provided as well as of previous research on midwestern obsidian finds.
Punctured Human Bones of the Laurel Culture from Smith Mound Four, Minnesota
Authors: Torbenson Michael , Aufderheide Arthur , Johnson Elden
Published: April 2006

Punctured human long bones have been reported at numerous midwestern sites, but none have as large a concentration as Smith Mound Four (21KC3). This northern Minnesota mound was built by the people of the Laurel culture and dates to A.D. 565. Analysis of the bones suggests that they were perforated on the basis of inherited group affiliation for purposes that did not involve marrow extraction and may have related to ideas of spirit release.
Reply to Hughes
Authors: Stevenson Christopher M. , Scheetz Barry , Hatch James W.
Published: April 2006

Hughes (1992) raises two points in his evaluation of our paper on Hopewell obsidian studies (Hatch et al. 1990): (a) Why did we not attempt to identify the several possible western United States sources from which our Hopewell specimens were derived, and (b) was it legitimate to report hydration-rim measurements with a.1 μm or less level of accuracy? These issues are addressed within the context of our initial research goals and through reference to the literature on optical microscopy.
Since Herodotus, Has History Been a Valid Concept?
Authors: Young T. Cuyler
Published: April 2006

This paper argues: (1) that there is no meaningful philosophical and practical distinction between history and prehistory until sometime in the Lower Paleolithic; and (2) because history as we practice it is a human invention (usually attributed to Herodotus), perhaps prehistory should be reserved as a term to describe how humans dealt with the past prior to the fifth century B.C. Philosophical underpinnings for the argument are taken from Collingwood; practical examples are drawn from personal experiences in the archaeology and history of Greater Mesopotamia.
Paleoeskimo Variability: The Early Arctic Small-Tool Tradition in the Central Canadian Arctic
Authors: Bielawski E.
Published: April 2006

Research conducted since the 1976 publication of Society for American Archaeology Memoir 31, Paleoeskimo Problems (Maxwell 1976a) indicates that variability in the early Arctic Small-Tool tradition (ASTt) is greater than described previously. Three questions dominate the interpretation of early ASTt remains in the central Canadian Arctic: Are the remains affiliated with the Independence I or the Pre-Dorset variants? What are the affects of seasonal mobility on the Paleoeskimo archaeological record? Does the core-area model have any remaining utility? Evidence from six Arctic Island locations indicates that Pre-Dorset and Independence I are not clearly separated temporally and stylistically. Functional analyses that consider the meaning of relevant attributes are required. Sources of variability include seasonality, local physiography and climate, and postabandonment processes. The complexity of the early ASTt record is not explained through pure historical particularism.
Archaeological Investigations in the Choctaw Homeland
Authors: Voss Jerome A. , Blitz John H.
Published: April 2006

With a focus on the archaeology of the early historic Choctaw, field investigations in east-central Mississippi resulted in the discovery of 73 sites and the confirmation of two previously known sites. Fifty-nine of the 75 sites had either definite or probable Choctaw components. The assemblages on the historic Choctaw sites typically consisted of a complex of four decorated and four undecorated Native American ceramic types along with Euro-American trade goods that suggest site occupation dates during the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. The better preserved Choctaw phase sites typically were small artifact clusters, probably the remains of individual households, located on low ridges. In several places these sites were grouped in clusters suggestive of the dispersed communities described in historical accounts of the Choctaw. None of the sites has yielded evidence suggestive of sociopolitical centrality.
A Reconsideration of Animal Body-Part Utility Indices
Authors: Metcalfe Duncan , Jones Kevin T.
Published: April 2006

The animal body-part utility indices developed by Lewis Binford have been used to interpret faunal assemblages ranging from Plio-Pleistocene sites in East Africa to a late prehistoric bison kill in the High Plains of North America. Little attention, however, has been placed on refining or further developing these scales of economic utility. We examine Binford's derivation of the modified general utility index (MGUI) and demonstrate that it is needlessly complex. A nearly identical index, the food utility index (FUI), is presented. It simply scales variation in the amount of meat, marrow, and bone grease associated with different caribou body parts. We then use the insights provided by this simple scale to explore relations among economic utility, differential body-part representation, and human decision making.
Identification of Cultural Site Formation Processes through Microdebitage Analysis
Authors: Hull Kathleen L.
Published: April 2006

Methods for recognition of site formation processes are slowly being developed. Ethnoarchaeological data on refuse disposal suggest that comparison of the distribution of large and small objects across a site may be an interpretive method because size is often a factor in determining whether an object becomes primary or secondary refuse. To test this in the field, I carried out microdebitage analysis on soil samples from a stone circle site in the Northern Plains. Comparison of the microdebitage and macroflake distributions indicates the utility of microdebitage analysis for study of use and disposal in lithic tool manufacture areas.
More (Or Less) on Iroquoian Stemware
Authors: Ramsden Peter G. , Fitzgerald William R.
Published: April 2006

This comment argues that Latta's (1987) recent interpretation of certain ceramic items on sixteenth- and seventeenth-century Ontario Iroquoian sites as imitations of Catholic chalices is contrary to the chronological distribution of the artifacts, is inconsistent with the nature of contemporaneous chalices, and ignores more-plausible alternative interpretations.
Impacts of Climatic Variabiity and Population Growth on Virgin Branch Anasazi Cultural Developments
Authors: Larson Daniel O. , Michaelsen Joel
Published: April 2006

Two major drought episodes, A.D. 1000 to 1015 and A.D. 1120 to 1150, contributed to significant change in adaptive strategies of the Virgin Branch Anasazi, a prehistoric population that occupied the southwestern Great Basin between A.D. 100 and A.D. 1150. The first extreme climatic event promoted the adoption of several alternative buffering strategies including intensive agricultural practices, increased reliance on storage, and the organization of large residential labor groups. The second drought, which followed 150 years of favorable climatic conditions and high levels of population growth, had a devastating impact upon the Virgin Branch Anasazi resulting in the complete abandonment of the southwestern Great Basin by that group. These two climatic events required entirely different responses, which suggest that shifts in climate are best viewed as triggering culture change. The preconditions of population growth set the various levels of sensitivity to extreme climatic events and determine the precise nature of the culture changes.
Reevaluation of Early Cochise Artifact Associations with Pleistocene Lake Cochise, Southeastern Arizona
Authors: Woosley Anne I. , Waters Michael R.
Published: April 2006

Materials belonging to the Sulphur Spring stage of the Cochise culture previously were identified on the prominent 1,274 m shoreline of Pleistocene Lake Cochise in southeastern Arizona. Dated ca. 12,000 to 11,000 years ago, the remains were suggested to represent an early Archaic manifestation deposited in ancient beach gravels, possibly contemporary with Clovis levels at the Lehner and Naco sites. New data based on stratigraphic analysis, correlated radiocarbon dates, together with artifactual remains indicate that the association of Sulphur Spring stage artifacts with the shoreline of Lake Cochise is problematical.
A Shot in the Dark: Shott's Comments on
Nance and Ball
Authors: Nance Jack D. , Ball Bruce F.
Published: April 2006

Shott's comments on Nance and Ball's
article on test-pit sampling are off the mark. His
comments reveal that Shott has misread the
authors, that he generally has misinterpreted
their intent, that he does not understand their
research design and therefore does not know how to
apply their findings, that he overlooks or avoids
numerous important points made by the authors, and
that he has his own unique view of archaeological
data and survey methods.
Recognition of Bituminous Coal Contaminants in Radiocarbon Samples
Authors: Tankersley Kenneth B. , Munson Cheryl Ann , Smith Donald
Published: April 2006

Bituminous coal, previously suspected as a contaminant in radiocarbon samples, has now been demonstrated to be a source of dating error in archaeological and geological samples. Standard laboratory procedures are inadequate to recognize or remove coal from samples, but techniques for identifying coal particles include paleo-botanical and reflectance analyses, and possibly accelerator dating.