bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Genetic Risks from Exposure to the Atomic Bombs: Hiroshima and Nagasaki
Authors: Otake Masanori
Published: November 2023

Worldwide, tens, possibly hundreds of millions of individuals have been or are bing exposed to doses of ionizing radiation above the “natural” levels either as a consequence of (1) the diagnostic or therapeutic use of x-ray or radioactive materials, for example, radium or cobalt-60; (2) their occupations;(3)residing in geographic areas with “high” natural background or humanmade radiation, such as in the vicinity of the Chernobyl accident; or (4) their presence in Hiroshima or Nagasaki at the time of the atomic bombings. Exposure in these various instances varies substantially, qualitatively, and quantitatively (UNSCEAR, 1982, 1986). It may be acute or chronic, of single quality or several, whole body or partial, prompted by illness and hence possibly confounded by health status, and so forth. The ubiquity of these exposures and the differences in their nature make the estimation of the genetic risks to human beings not only an important task, but a difficult one.
Pathodemes: Heredity, Environment, and Populations of Disease SusceptibiIity
Authors: Knudson Alfred G
Published: November 2023

The burden of disease falls unequally upon the populations of the world, and unequally upon the individuals in those populations. Much of this variation is a function of time and place, as in the example of the toll of tetanus of the newborn in Haiti. Some of it relates to the genetic composition of a population, as with the incidence of skin cancer and melanoma among fair-skinned persons, especially in the southern United States and in Australia. Among the populations of first-world countries, most mortality is a function of age; the heavy burdens of cardiovascular disease and cancer are cumulative. Yet here too there is considerable geographic and familial variation. How much disease is determined by environment, how much by genetic variation, how much by chance? This question has been the target of much of the thought and effort of Jack Schull, and I suspect that more of my own thoughts on the subject are derived from him than I realize.
Nucleotide Diversity in Humans and Evidence for the Absence of a Severe Bottleneck during Human Evolution
Authors: Li Wen-Hsiung , Xiong Weijun , Liu Shyan-Woei , Chan Lawrence
Published: November 2023

How much genetic variability exists in human populations? This is an old question. Over 20 years ago electrophoretic data indicated that human populations, like many other outbreeding populations, contain considerable genetic variability (Harris, 1966). Although we have good knowledge about the variability at the protein level, the more basic question is how much variation exists at the DNA level. Even though recombinant DNA techniques have long provided the necessary tools for addressing this question, no extensive study has been conducted. Fortunately, we have been able to obtain adequate information in answer to this question from published DNA sequence data. Our analysis indicates that the variability in humans is rather low at the nucleotide level, compared to that in Drosophila populations.
Population Genetics and Evolution in the Genus Homo in the Last Two Million Years
Authors: Spuhler James N
Published: November 2023

The members of archaic human populations are sometimes assigned to different formal subspecies, for example, in Europe Homo sapiens neanderthalensis (King, 1864), in Africa H.s. rhodesiensis (Woodward, 1921), in East Asia, H.s. daliensis (Wu, 1981), and in the Indonesia H.s. soloensis (Oppenoorth, 1932); references and details are in Campbell (1965). Many biological anthropologists prefer to use geographical names to designate the major regional human populations (Garn, 1971).
Theory Of Mixing In Cumulus Clouds
Authors: Emanuel Kerry A
Published: November 2023

The observations discussed in Chapter 7 strongly suggest that mixing within clouds is of a very different nature from mixing in laboratory plumes. This may be for one or more reasons. First, the extremely high Reynolds numbers of atmospheric convection have not been achieved in either the laboratory or in numerical models; it may simply be a completely different regime of convection. More likely, the differences have to do with the phase changes of water substance that occur in clouds. Specifically, mixing of cloudy with unsaturated environmental air may result in air with negative buoyancy with respect to the environment. This is not possible in dry plumes except possibly in stratified fluids. Put another way, mix­ ing in clouds is strongly nonlinear in buoyancy; this may be the key to understanding some important aspects of cloud dynamics.
Observed Characteristics Of Precipitating Convection
Authors: Emanuel Kerry A
Published: November 2023

When convective clouds become deep and or cold enough that stochastic coalescence or the Bergeron process becomes effective in forming water droplets or ice crystals that are large enough to fall as precipitation, the character of moist convection changes dramatically. Here we review the observed characteristics of isolated precipitating convection, beginning with the common convective shower and progressing to stronger forms of convection, culminating with the rare but violent supercell thunderstorm. The chapter ends with a discussion of squall lines and mesoscale convective complexes.
The Third Coast: Aviation Pioneers Exit the Midwest
Authors: Markusen Ann , Hall Peter , Campbell Scott , Deitrick Sabina
Published: November 2023

Whenever Dr. Morton Klein, vice president for business development at the Illinois Institute of Technology Research Institute (IITRI), visits the Pentagon, he sticks an aerial photograph in his briefcase. The photo shows the shoreline of Lake Michigan, with Meigs Field, a small commuter airport, in the foreground and the corporate offices of Chicago towering behind it. Klein is trying to generate more military-research dollars for his brain-powered organization, but finds his task difficult.
Space Mountain: Generals and Boosters Build Colorado Springs
Authors: Markusen Ann , Hall Peter , Campbell Scott , Deitrick Sabina
Published: November 2023

Colorado Springs is an unusual site for an aerospace complex. Poised on the abrupt junction of the High Plains and the Front range of the Rockies, flecked in winter by snow on the mesas and backed by the stark flank of Pikes Peak, it is totally unlike typical high-tech sites such as New England, Los Angeles, and Seattle. Yet something remarkable has been happening there. The natural landscape, dramatic as it is, has been overwhelmed by the man-made. Ubiquitous housing subdivisions march across the undulating plains, bringing to mind a vast military encampment-an appropriate image in light of the surprising fact that Colorado Springs, in post-World War II America, has become an archetype of the new military-industrial city.
The Eavesdroppers: SDI, Software, and Lobbying in the Nation’s Capital
Authors: Markusen Ann , Hall Peter , Campbell Scott , Deitrick Sabina
Published: November 2023

In this millennial decade, there are two Washingtons. Which one you see depends on which side of the plane you occupy as you land at National Airport. On the right, across the Potomac, is the Washington everyone knows: the neoclassical Beaux-Arts landscape of Congress, Mall, and monuments. On the left is another landscape altogether. Behind Arlington National Cemetry and the Pentagon stretches an apparently endless landscape of low-density suburbs, into which have been injected islands of skyscrapers resembling mini Dallases or mini-Atlantas.
Why the Gunbelt?
Authors: Markusen Ann , Hall Peter , Campbell Scott , Deitrick Sabina
Published: November 2023

Because of the size and singularity of the gunbelt, its rise ranks among the most powerful of changes in American settlement patterns in the postwar period, rivaling other momentous changes like the continued movement from central city to suburb. A whole new set of industries, arrayed around aero space production and including electronics, communications equipment, and computing, and populated by a set of insurgent firms, has led to an extraordinary shift in the nation’s industrial center of gravity away from the heartland. New communities and subcultures have been created, distinctive from those characterizing older, industrial cities from Buffalo to Milwaukee, Baltimore to Detroit.
The Promise of Debates
Authors: Jamieson Kathleen Hall , Birdsell David S
Published: November 2023

Not since Nixon and Humphrey in 1968 have both major parties nominated non-incumbents for the presidency as they have in 1988. Unadvantaged and unencumbered by a record of White House decision making, both candidates are likely to see self-interest served in the exposure and legitimacy offered by debates. And should one or the other be inclined to demur, the expectations created in the public and press by the debates of 1976, 1980, and 1984 will invite words that carry powerful inducements-including fairness and accountability-and words that convey painful penalties-including cowardice. We expect skies to be blue. We expect brides to wear white. And since the last three incumbents have debated, we expect presidential candidates to debate.
English to Chinese, French, German
Authors: Olea Ricardo A
Published: November 2023

This volume provides a comprehensive collection of definitions of geostatistical terms. There are more than 600 entries at varying levels of complexity to assist readers with different backgrounds. Cross-references make the book easily accessible to students, engineers, and others concerned with the meaning of terms found in geostatistical research and practice. Lists of equivalent terms in Chinese, French, German, Greek, Portuguese, Russian, and Spanish are included.
Greek, Portuguese, Russian, and Spanish, 90 Chinese to English
Authors: Olea Ricardo A
Published: November 2023

This volume provides a comprehensive collection of definitions of geostatistical terms. There are more than 600 entries at varying levels of complexity to assist readers with different backgrounds. Cross-references make the book easily accessible to students, engineers, and others concerned with the meaning of terms found in geostatistical research and practice. Lists of equivalent terms in Chinese, French, German, Greek, Portuguese, Russian, and Spanish are included.
Greek to English
Authors: Olea Ricardo A
Published: November 2023

This volume provides a comprehensive collection of definitions of geostatistical terms. There are more than 600 entries at varying levels of complexity to assist readers with different backgrounds. Cross-references make the book easily accessible to students, engineers, and others concerned with the meaning of terms found in geostatistical research and practice. Lists of equivalent terms in Chinese, French, German, Greek, Portuguese, Russian, and Spanish are included.
Contexts for Learning
Authors: Forman Ellice A , Minick Norris , Stone C Addison
Published: November 2023

This work presents landmark research concerning the vital dynamics of childhood psychological development. It’s origin can be traced to the late 1970s, when several psychologists began to challenge existing notions of cognitive development by suggesting that such functioning is bound to specific contexts and that cognitive development is based on the mastery of culturally defined ways of speaking, thinking, and acting. About the same time, several translations were made available in this country of the seminal work of Vygotsky, the noted theoretician, offering a conceptual base on which these workers could build. This volume, with contributions from many of the scholars who pioneered this area and translated the work of Vygotsky, looks at the complex mechanisms by which children acquire the cultural and linguistic tools to carry out cognitive activities and explores the implications of this research for education. The book is organized around three main parts: Discourse and Learning in Classroom Practice, Interpersonal Relations in Formal and Informal Education, and The Sociocultural Institutions of Formal and Informal Education. An afterword by Jacqueline Goodnow suggests new directions for sociocultural research and education. The intended audience is composed of developmental, educational, and cognitive psychologists, along with advanced students in developmental and educational psychology.
Structural Abnormalities
Authors: Spreen Otfried , Risser Anthony H , Edgell Dorothy
Published: November 2023

This chapter deals with one major group of congenital defects, the structural malformations, or dysmorphias, that are present at birth. These contrast with the congenital disorders involving physiological functions, such as metabolism, that were discussed in the preceding chapter. Structural abnormalities are usually of undetermined origin. One structural abnormality, agenesis of the corpus callosum, was discussed in Chapter 9 because of its impact on neuropsycho logical theory.A group of structural abnormalities in which hands and feet are formed adjacent to the shoulders and hips (phocomelias) became notorious in the 1960s when about 15,000 babies were born with this malformation before thalidomide, a widely prescribed sleeping medication, was recognized to be the teratogenic agent.Not all malformations are evident upon physical examination at birth. It has been reported that two-thirds of the malformations recognized at the age of 12 months were not detected at birth (Aase 1990). Unrecognized malformations include some forms of hydrocephalus and microcephaly, as well as minor neuroanatomical defects. Depending on their effect on an individual’s life, some defects may be discovered only accidentally at autopsy, e.g., heteropia, misplaced groups of nerve cells.
Toxic Damage
Authors: Spreen Otfried , Risser Anthony H , Edgell Dorothy
Published: November 2023

Exposure of the mother during pregnancy or of the child after birth to any type of toxin may result in acute or chronic intoxication of the fetus and various forms of short- and long-term impairment during childhood. One example of an intoxication during pregnancy is toxemia of pregnancy (gestosis), which is presumed to result from a variety of pathological conditions. These are essentially metabolic disturbances in the mother that may cause nausea, vomiting, gastric pains, headache, hypertension and edema (pre-eclampsia), and sudden convulsions and even coma (eclampsia).Another maternal intoxication, neonatal jaundice (hyperbilirubinemia, kernicterus), occurs because of blood type incompatibility between the mother and fetus. Other intoxications by environmental pollutants, such as carbon monoxide, DDT, mercury, lead, arsenic, quinine and so on, were described in Chapter 8 as they relate to critical periods of gestation. The thalidomide tragedy focused attention on intoxication with prescribed and nonprescribed drugs (Stimmel 1982), including the use of multiple antiepileptics (Dodson 1989), barbiturates, and psychotropic drugs (Boer and Swaab 1985). The fetal alcohol syndrome and the teratogenic effects of smoking during pregnancy also have been studied in detail. Although many of these effects have been known for a long time, it was usually assumed that the placenta functioned as a protective barrier and that all potentially toxic material would be filtered out.
Nutritional Disorders
Authors: Spreen Otfried , Risser Anthony H , Edgell Dorothy
Published: November 2023

The World Health Organization estimated in 1983 that 300 million children, mostly living in the developing world, sustained growth retardation secondary to malnutrition (WHO 1983). Protein-calorie malnutrition (PCM) and protein energy malnutrition (PEM) are generic terms for a wide spectrum of nutritional deficiencies in early life that vary in type, timing, and severity. These deficiencies are distinct from the malnutrition secondary to medical conditions, such as cystic fibrosis, or from genetically determined metabolic disorders, such as phenyl ketonuria. Protein-calorie deficiencies are also distinct from highly selective de ficiencies of specific vitamins, such as vitamin A deficiency, a primary cause of preventable blindness in infancy and childhood, or of minerals, e.g., iron deficiency anemia or iodine deficiency disorder. These selective deficiencies usually occur in the context of a diet that is otherwise adequate.Two clinically notable syndromes are present in the PCM spectrum of dis orders: kwashiorkor and marasmus. If severe enough, a predominantly proteindeficient diet in the young child may present clinically as a syndrome known as kwashiorkor, whereas a predominantly energy-deficient diet may result in a syndrome termed marasmus (Table 16-1). These syndromes are accompanied on the spectrum of nutritional deficiencies by severe combined deficiencies sometimes called marasmic-kwashiorkor and by common and chronic sub clinical nutritional deficiencies characterized by notable protein, caloric, or combined shortages.
Hemispherectomy and Other Surgical Manipulations
Authors: Spreen Otfried , Risser Anthony H , Edgell Dorothy
Published: November 2023

Much recent neuropsychological research has been concerned with the development of different functional capabilities in each hemisphere. The extreme situation, where one hemisphere has complete control of all physiological and behavioral functioning, is very rare. This chapter reviews an example of lateral dominance where most of one cerebral hemisphere has been removed surgically. The main indications for this type of surgery are extensive invasion of the hemi sphere by tumor, usually in adults, and infantile hemiplegia associated with neonatal convulsions. Hemispherectomy is more accurately called hemidecorti cation, or removal of half of the cortex, since primarily cortical tissue is removed; the thalamus and striatum, as well as brainstem connections, usually remain. Often, portions of the frontal and the occipital pole are also left in place to minimize the postoperative shift of the remaining hemisphere into the space left by the removed hemisphere (Montreal-type hemispherectomy, Verity et. al. 1982). However, the terms “hemidecortication” and “hemispherectomy” are used interchangeably in the literature to refer to essentially the same surgical procedure. Other relevant surgical manipulations that radically alter the functioning of the brain are also discussed in this chapter.
St. Petersburg and the U.S. Diplomatic Tradition
Authors: Mayers David
Published: November 2023

From the standpoint of power politics, relations between the Russian empire and the American republic were of secondary importance before World War I. Separated by land and sea, their populations, commerce, cultures, and governments seldom came into contact. When there was a crisis involving the two states, it was of brief duration, as were moments of cooperation. Occasionally, the vanity of one party or the other was flattered or injured, but their vital interests were never engaged. Nevertheless, over the period between 1780-when the Continental Congress sent Francis Dana to St. Petersburg-and the cataclysms of 1914 to 1918, habits of mind developed that influenced the future shape of U.S. attitude toward the Soviet Union. Echoes of a precommunist Russian reality and an earlier diplomatic experience resonated with that of ambassadors in postczarist Moscow. The purpose of this chapter, the first of two devoted to pre-1914, is to show how U.S. envoys between the reign of Catherine II (“the Great”) and that of Nicholas I evaluated Russia and coped with its peculiarities.
Preparing for Moscow
Authors: Mayers David
Published: November 2023

Obsessed by statistical indicators of economic growth and unabashed in its disregard for the legal protections normally accorded people living in modern society, Stalin’s dictatorship emerged during the period when the United States withheld recognition from the USSR (1917-1933). These were the years of Soviet phantas-magoria. Cruelties inflicted on the peasantry by White and Red armies, policies of terror practiced by both sides in the civil war, levies on food in the years of War Communism, and epidemics of disease and famine in the early 1920s caused millions of fatalities and crippled the economy. To secure the population a respite and to pump up production (which by 1921 was a fraction of its pre-1914 level), Lenin inaugurated the New Economic Policy (NEP). It allowed for a modest system of private enterprise and spearheaded national recovery by 1926.>Communist party control of politics and the destruction to human values and lives caused by Felix Dzerzhinsky’s ubiquitous security police did not diminish, however. In the struggle for succession following Lenin’s death in January 1924, Stalin defeated by turns his rivals on the left (Trotsky), within the “new opposition” (Leo Kamenev and Gregory Zinoviev), and on the right (Nicholas Bukharin and Alexis Rykov). Such as it was, the NEP respite was (in effect) repealed by Stalin at the All Union Congress of the Communist party in December 1927. There followed the explosion of the First Five-Year Plan. The rapid industrialization, collectivization of agriculture, and decision to “squeeze” the countryside’s wealth to pay for machinery and foreign technology amounted to an attack by Stalin’s government on the population. This massive but lopsided contest between coercive state power and its subjects resulted in countless more fatalities and led to the incarceration, exile, and forced labor of millions of men and women.
Neither War Nor Peace
Authors: Mayers David
Published: November 2023

The Soviet Union confronted daunting tasks of reconstruction during the last years of Stalin. Drought and famine in the Ukraine (1946-1947), the disproportionately high number of old people and youngsters in the labor force, and the numerical imbalance between men and women of child-rearing age (in 1946, 52 million women versus 31 million men) were the most visible signs of national distress. Fought over by German and Soviet armies, expanses of western Russia and the Ukraine were devoid of habitation and agricultural life.>Through cajolery and terror, the regime forced its subjects to salvage these areas while reestablishing industrial production and repairing the physical foundations of such devastated cities as Leningrad, Kiev, and Stalingrad. This work was shouldered by a popula-tion simultaneously grieving for its war dead and improvising for millions left maimed and inadequately sheltered. Nonetheless, the fortitude of the Soviet nations combined with state necessity to effect a titanic feat in postwar rebuilding. By the mid-1950s, the USSR’s principal urban centers, coal and steel processing, and major industries had recovered, though agricultural production continued to lag.
Analysis of Hybrid Zones with Bombina
Authors: Szymura Jacek M
Published: November 2023

The study of fire-bellied toads in Europe has a long history, and for much of it debate has centered around whether the two species, Bombina bombina and B. variegata, hybridize in nature. The existence of individuals with intermediate morphology in areas where the ranges of B. bombina and B. variegata meet (overlap) was explained by invoking either hybridization (Mehely, 1892; Karaman, 1922; Mertens, 1928) or response to local environmental conditions. Artificial hybrids could be obtained in the laboratory, and heterospecific pairs in amplexus were observed in the field (Michalowski, 1958), but fertility of hybrids was unknown and morphology of F, hybrids did not resemble most intermediate forms found in nature (Michalowski and Madej, 1969). Spotting pattern and coloration of the belly, although characteristic for each of the forms, are variable and difficult to describe, making simple morphological analysis of presumed hybridization inconclusive. Furthermore, the lowland and the mountain form of Bombina have distinct mating calls (Larcher, 1969), which traditionally have been regarded as effective barriers to gene exchange in many amphibian species. Even more confusing, intermediate morphologies are also found far from the area of con tact, and some association between habitat type and morphology has been observed within the species ‘ overlap. Therefore until recently evidence for hybridization in the fire-bellied toads was ambiguous.
Memory Representation in the Hippocampus: Functional Domain and Functional Organization
Authors: Eichenbaum How Ard , Cohen Neal J , Otto Tim , Wible Cynthia
Published: November 2023

The first studies on the amnesic patient H.M. made it immediately clear that the hippocampus and associated medial temporal lobe structures are critical components of a functional system for long-term memory formation (Scoville & Milner, 1957). Subsequently, the focus of much research logically turned to characterizing the precise functional role played by the hippocampal system. Work on this issue has been conducted both with amnesic patients and with animals having experimental lesions in brain structures shown to be damaged in human amnesia. Progress toward a consensus either within or between species has been disappointingly slow, however, due in large measure to difficulties (and controversies) in identifying the relevant distinctions in memory processes that are “honored by the nervous system” (cf. Squire, 1987). Some of these issues were considered in detail in the first two meetings of this symposium (Lynch, McGaugh, & Weinberger, 1984; Weinberger, McGaugh, & Lynch, 1985) and to a lesser extent in the third (McGaugh, Weinberger, & Lynch, 1990), but a brief and pointed review will be offered here to frame the view of hippocampal system function that has emerged from our own work.
A philosophical position
Authors: Williams George C
Published: November 2023

Successful biological research in this century has had three doctrinal bases: mechanism (as opposed to vitalism), natural selection (trial and error, as opposed to rational plan), and historicity. This last is the recognition of the role of historical contingency in determining properties of the Earth’s biota. The formation of the Earth was a unique event, and unique events have been altering evolutionary processes ever since, always keeping futures unpredictable from presents. As S. J. Gould (1989, p. 48) forcefully expressed it, if we could rewind the tape of evolutionary history to the remote past and play it again, it would turn out entirely different. The term evolution in its original sense of an unfolding or development, analogous to the development of an individual animal, is misleading (Salthe 1989).
Clade selection and macroevolution
Authors: Williams George C
Published: November 2023

Chapter 2 proposed that genes and, sometimes, genotypes of inbred or asexual lineages meet requirements for the precise long-term proliferation needed by units of selection in the codical domain. If the same can be true of gene pools, they must also be considered as likely codices for the natural selection of information. A gene pool and all its descendant gene pools constitute a clade, the usual sort of entity represented by diagrams such as Fig. 2.1A. Discussions of higher levels of selection are not always clear as to whether collections of gene pools or of organisms living at a particular moment are being considered. My use of gene and clade as strictly codical concepts demands other terms for their physical manifestations (Table 3.1). My consistent use of the term clade selection always implies a parallel phylad selection in the material domain. This is reasonable because of the simple one-to-one relation between the codex
Optimization and related concepts
Authors: Williams George C
Published: November 2023

I argue in Chapter 6 that organisms are never optimally designed. Designs of organs, developmental programs, etc. are legacies from the past and natural selection can affect them in only two ways. It can adjust the numbers of mutually exclusive designs until they reach frequency­ dependent equilibria, often with only one design that excludes alternatives. It can also optimize a design’s parameters so as to maximize the fitness attainable with that design under current conditions. This is what is usually meant by optimization in biology. An analogy might be the common wooden-handled, steel-bladed tool design. With different parameter values it could be a knife, a screw driver, or many other kinds of tool-many, but not all. The fixed-blade constraint would rule out turning it into a drill with meshing gears. The wood-and-steel constraint would rule out use as a hand lens.
Historicity and constraint
Authors: Williams George C
Published: November 2023

This book is about natural selection, with all discussion constrained by acceptance of the two other doctrinal bases of modern biology, mechanism and historicity. In accepting mechanism I assume that all the laws of chemistry and physics are obeyed by living organisms, in their individual activities, in the workings of their minutest parts, and in their ecological interactions. This chapter will deal with the more generally unappreciated doctrine of historicity and with related evolutionary constraints (phylogenetic, developmental, genetic) on the action of natural selection.
Diversity within and among populations
Authors: Williams George C
Published: November 2023

Individuals in a single population can differ from each other from a variety of causes, some discussed in Chapter 5. The present chapter will use these and a few additional ideas to discuss variation within populations, and then go on to the broader question of differences among populations and phylads at all levels of divergence.
About Emotion
Authors: Lazarus Richard S
Published: November 2023

Much of what we do and how we do it is influenced by emotions and the conditions that generate them. Pride and joy about our children revitalize our commitment to advance and protect the well-being of our family. Loss undermines our appreciation of life and may lead to withdrawal and depression. Anger at being wronged mobilizes and directs us toward retribution. When “blinded by rage,” our thinking is impaired, which places us at risk. It is even said with good reason that emotions contribute to physical and mental health and illness; positive emotions to health, negative to illness.
Goal Incongruent (Negatiue) Emotions
Authors: Lazarus Richard S
Published: November 2023

The main emotions that result from goal incongruence include anger, fright-anxiety, guilt-shame, sadness, envy-jealousy, and disgust. The hyphens denote two different emotions that are closely related or at least have been traditionally regarded as such. My discussion of anger will be considerably more detailed than the discussion of other emotions, because anger is in many ways so complex, socially important, and conflictful, and because many of the issues surrounding anger apply to all emotions. For example, the subtle differences in the meaning of emotion terms are particularly well illustrated in anger.
Individual Development
Authors: Lazarus Richard S
Published: November 2023

Those who study the relationships among cognition, motivation, and emotion tend to divide into two groups, those devoted to adulthood and those focused on infancy and early childhood. The two groups rarely interact. Yet it is especially important to chart emotional development, and the processes that affect it, because what seems to happen in early childhood is by no means the same as what happens in adulthood. Not to compare these periods of life systematically risks distortion of our under standing of the emotion process in the adult, which draws on both immature and mature cognitive and motivational activity.
Social Influence
Authors: Lazarus Richard S
Published: November 2023

Two positions can be taken with regard to emotional development, reflecting the field’s preoccupations with biological influences on the one hand and social influences on the other. One position views development as an unfolding of individual genetic potentials, which follow inherited or preprogrammed patterns. The other position sees emotional development as learning from experience, which partakes of societally defined rules of behavior and culturally defined meanings. Both positions are, of course, equally applicable and, as I suggested in Chapter 5, a sound theory of emotion looks to the interplay of both.
The Birth of Judicial Politics in France
Authors: Stone Alec
Published: November 2023

This is a study of the French Constitutional Council, a judicial body created at the dawn of the Fifth Republic which functioned in obscurity for almost two decades before emerging during the 1980s as a pivotal actor in the policy-making process.
The Historical Tension: Politics v. le droit
Authors: Stone Alec
Published: November 2023

The development of constitutional review of legislation in France constitutes an extraordinary and transformative departure from an established constitutional orthodoxy long thought to have been utterly resistant to fundamental change. In this orthodoxy, la loi (“statute” or “legislation’)-the product of public politics-is a concrete expression of sovereignty, sovereignty to which le droit (“a subject matter,” things “juridical’)-the work of the judiciary and of legal science-is an obedient, if at times, creative servant. “If the average Frenchmen,” wrote a Fourth Republic critic, “were asked, ‘what is democracy?,’ he would not hesitate to answer: ‘It’s the sovereignty of the people whose will is expressed by the majority vote of the elected assemblies.”‘ To recognize judge-made law is to diagnose pathology, and judicial review is all but unthinkable.
From Watchdog to Policymaker: Structure, Function, Mandate
Authors: Stone Alec
Published: November 2023

In both context and detail, the paralysis of politics in the waning years of the Fourth Republic, the forceful coming of a heroic, charismatic leader to establish a new one, even the constitutional niceties of the emergent regime cannot but recall past Bonapartist solutions to the problem of the apparent ingovernability of France in crisis.1 The new constitution, drafted principally by conseillers d’Etat under the watchful eyes of de Gaulle, Michel Debre, and their associates, shifted effective power over the legislative process and over the form and content of legislation from parliament to the executive. In a word, the parliamentary system was rationalized, that is, placed under the management of a government detached from parliament (if left responsible ).2 A special body, the Constitutional Council, was created to guarantee the viability of this new distribution of powers, and-not wholly unlike the Bonapartist Senates the institution was expressly denied a judicial role, and its competence was limited entirely to parliamentary space. This chapter, first, examines the creation of the Council-with special attention paid to the intention of the founders-along with attributes of the body’s jurisdiction, composition and recruitment.
From Watchdog to Policymaker: The Evolution of Constitutional Review
Authors: Stone Alec
Published: November 2023

Since its inception, referrals to the Constitutional Council have been used to draw out the legislative process, a means of opposing and blocking policy choices recently enshrined in pending statutes. Whereas in the first decade of the Fifth Republic the primary function of constitutional review was to ensure that Gaullist constitutional ideas would find their expression in stable practices, since the mid-1970s the politics of review have become a central feature of opposition tactics. This development is intimately linked to the Council’s steady incorporation, beginning in 1971, of the 1789 declaration and other provisions contained in the preamble to the 1946 constitution and elsewhere. As the Council cataloged substantive restrictions on policymaking, the importance of constitutional debate in policymaking increased, and the grounds of referral open to parliamentarians expanded.
Understanding French Constitutional Politics
Authors: Stone Alec
Published: November 2023

The American law professor, Charles L. Black, Jr., used this story to dramatize what he thought to be “one of the chief excellencies of the American polity.” What the priest smelled in the air that day had emanated not from an abstract New World commitment to liberty, equality, or even the rule of law, but from something more substantial and utterly foreign to the French political system: the practice of judicial review. It was, indeed, “the sweet odor of the Supreme Court.” To believe the most published and respected French public lawyers, French citizens need no longer envy such “legitimacy”-the Constitutional Council now provides much the same thing. In this chapter, I examine aca demic discourse on the Council. In the first part, revisiting themes developed in chapter 1, the evolution of doctrinal attitudes to the Council are traced and the impact of scholarly activity on the Council’s behavior evaluated. In the second, I assess the literature on the Council’s political role and impact.
The Council Legislates: Nationalization and Privatization Policy
Authors: Stone Alec
Published: November 2023

In the late spring of 1981, under the euphoric spell of electoral victory, the newly constituted Mauroy government began work to concretize in detail what had been the central priority of the Left for most of the century: the extensive nationalization of industry and commerce. The move was unprecedented. As Ross and Jenson write, this was “the first time in modern Europe that any government had moved to extend public ownership to the core of the profitable oligopoly sector”-an extension, by any standard, “far beyond the established boundaries set for European mixed economies.” 1 By the spring of 1982, the task largely completed, the State enjoyed a virtual monopoly over France’s finance and investment sectors. It owned every major bank, controlled more than 90 percent of all deposits, and more than 85 percent of all outstanding credit; it had purchased a dying iron and steel industry, but also leading giants in the modernized, strategic industries of the international economy. Of France’s largest twenty corporations, thirteen were now in public hands. Taken together, the public sector would henceforth account for or control three-fifths of all investment, one-half of all production in big industry, one-half of all exports, one-fifth of the domestic retail market, and one out of every three jobs.
The Council Legislates: In Search of Media Pluralism
Authors: Stone Alec
Published: November 2023

The search for coherent, stable, and pluralistic regimes to govern the French press and broadcast industries has been an extraordinarily active one this past decade. It has occupied vast amounts of the time and legislative resources of governments, parliamentarians, and bureaucrats, led to the creation of numerous regulatory commissions, and opened up new areas of law and administration. Media politics dominated the political agenda and front-page headlines in the 1980s; only the politics of nationalizations and privatizations were more salient or controversial. This chapter examines attempts by successive governments, in 1984 and 1986, to reform legislative regimes governing the media. These reforms led to the most rancorous legislative debates in the history of the Fifth Republic, as measured by standard indices of obstruction,’ and to the two longest decisions ever handed down by the Constitutional Council.
Introduction: The Constitutional Founders’ Liberalism and Civic Virtue
Authors: Sinopoli Richard C
Published: November 2023

Jean-Jacques Rousseau wrote in his first published discourse that “we have physicists, geometers, chemists, astronomers, poets ... [but] we no longer have citizens.”1 In so doing, he pointed to a long-standing, probably eternal, problem of political life. How does an individual reconcile private capacities and goals with the duties-and opportunities-of public life? Rousseau’s solution, by and large, consists of a campaign of education and socialization, reminiscent of the Spartans, to remind each and every member of the political community that the good of the community takes precedence over that of any of its members. If you are a poet, Rousseau suggests, your poetry should laud the country that enabled you to develop your gifts. If you are a chemist, your life’s work should be put at the service of the community. Each person, is in a sense, public property. Whatever your particular gifts, you are first and foremost a citizen and, as such, you should not only serve the state in your particular occupation but should take an active part in its governance.
Clinical Years
Authors: Holmes Frederic Lawrence
Published: November 2023

While Hans Krebs was at home between semesters-it may have been in February or March of 1921-his father suggested to him and to Wolf that they should make a legal declaration that they had left the Jewish religious community. The idea was a logical culmination of the conviction Georg Krebs had long held that assimilation was the best solution to the Jewish problem in Germany. They should, he explained to his sons, take an active step to show that they believed seriously in assimilation.
The Research Apprentice
Authors: Holmes Frederic Lawrence
Published: November 2023

At the beginning of January, 1925, Hans Krebs walked through the entrance to the Pathological Institute of the Charite Hospital and into the Division of Chemistry, to begin his practical training in the methods of the science taught there. In one large laboratory room with many benches new students like himself worked side-by-side with more advanced students, with research assistants to the director, and with a few independent investigators. David Nachmansohn, who had already been working enthusiastically in the laboratory for several months, probably told Krebs that he could expect to learn a lot there.
The Ornithine Effect
Authors: Holmes Frederic Lawrence
Published: November 2023

Kurt Henseleit resumed his experiments on October 19, 1931. His first moves were a continuation of the efforts to improve the basic methods employed in the urea research. In phosphate-Ringer’s solution, he had found earlier, the action of urease on urea is partially inhibited. In an attempt to obviate this difficulty, so they could try using phosphate-Ringer’s solution in the main experiments, Henseleit examined the influence of calcium chloride added to that solution, and discovered that the urease reaction then took place at the same rate as in bicarbonate Ringer’s solution. On the same day, he tested a urease preparation, made in the laboratory from an extract of soya beans that he had ground up in a coffee grinder. Making the urease this way was less expensive than to buy it; but the new urease also worked three times as fast as the commercial urease they had been using. They adopted the extract for their future experimental determinations.
The Goodness and Corruption of Power
Authors: Mott Stephen Charles
Published: November 2023

Power is denounced frequently in religious circles. In the words of James Luther Adams, however, “Religion cannot be adequately described without employing the conception of power; likewise, power cannot be properly described without employing religious concepts. Power is the basic category of being and the basic category of social action.”2 Using power appropriately, therefore is both essential for political action and for the life in faith and society that precedes politics.
The Origin of Soft-Tissue Ultrasonic Echoing and Early Instrumental Application to Clinical Medicine
Authors: Wild John J
Published: November 2023

In writing this chapter, intended to convey my motivations and my own peculiar attributes that somehow enabled me to make a unique contribution to our body of scientific medical knowledge, I found it necessary to indulge in a great deal of intro spection. My path as an investigative clinical scientist has not been easy, in part because of social restrictions imposed on creative individuals who are sometimes characterized as having overinflated egos. I use the word “inflated” advisedly because of society’s leveling propensities. I think I must have come into this world with a propensity for making chaos out of order, since I always seem to be upsetting those concerned with maintaining conventional standards of orderliness and hum bleness. I have tried to analyze the reasons people become upset when presented with new concepts, even after the concepts have been proved.
The Synthesis of Diamonds
Authors: Wentorf Robert H
Published: November 2023

This story is about some inventions, or discoveries, that took place at General Elec tric in a lab that was working on synthesis of diamonds at very high pressures. I hope that it will show how, in research, one thing leads to another in ways that are hard to foresee. In this case the path led from the synthesis of small grains of abrasive diamond, to large single diamond crystals or gems, and thence to large pieces of sintered diamond for cutting tools and wire-drawing dies.
The Origin and Development of the First Zeolite Catalyst for Petroleum Cracking
Authors: Rosinski Edward J
Published: November 2023

This chapter presents the circumstances surrounding the development of a new catalyst that would enhance the catalytic cracking of crude petroleum. The catalytic cracking process, one of the petroleum refiner’s most important technologies, upgrades low-value petroleum fractions with high molecular weights to lower weight, higher-value products such as gasoline and fuel oil (diesel). We received U.S. Patent 3,140,249, for our invention. The historical value of catalytic cracking of petroleum crude fractions is well known. In World War II it made possible generation of a sufficient amount of the high-octane gasoline necessary to fuel all the aircraft participating in the European campaign. Prior to the advent of catalytic cracking, reduction in molecular weights was achieved in distillation units known as “stills,” where the high-molecular weight petroleum fractions were raised to a high temperature, a process known as “thermal cracking.” Catalytic cracking was pioneered by Eugene Houdry in the late 1920s; improvements in the cracking catalysts followed through the mid-1930s.
Stone Age Knife to Swiss Army Knife: An Invention Prototype
Authors: Weber Robert J
Published: November 2023

Every discipline needs a model system to study. That system should be both simple and complex: simple enough to understand and readily manipulate, and complex enough to embody important phenomena of interest. Genetics has Drosophila, or fruit flies (Morgan, 1926), and medical research has tissue cultures and mice. Cognitive psychology has candidate Drosophila in the form of various tasks devoted to problem-solving: the pendulum problem (Maier, 1931), the Tower of Hanoi problem, the cannibal/missionary problem, anagram problems, crypt-arithmetic problems (Newell & Simon, 1972), and finally chess problems (Chase & Simon, 1973). While all of these tasks are suitable for the study of various problem-solving facets, they do not readily lend themselves to the study of invention. Either they are not sufficiently open-ended or they do not deal with the physical world of device, process, and effect. In the context of invention, they fall short of either the simplicity or the complexity standard: they are not really simple enough to understand and manipulate, or they do not seem to embody the complex requirements of invention-something that is new, useful, and unobvious (U.S. Department of Commerce, 1985). A better candidate model system, a Drosophila of invention and creativity, is all about us. It is the simple hand tool as revealed in forms like needles, knives, forks, hammers, and shovels (Weber & Dixon, 1989; Weber & Perkins, 1989). The simplicity of the hand tool is obvious, but there is an underlying complexity also. Any given hand tool embodies function, structure, human interface and grip, actions, internal materials (what it is made of), and external materials (what it operates on). In microcosm the hand tool links our intentions to our actions via means; it must fit the mind, the hand, the world of action and effect, and the world of material, design, and construction. It is both simple and complex.