bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Standing
Authors: Kagan Shelly
Published: April 2019

This chapter introduces the key notions of moral standing and moral status, and notes the logical possibility that different individuals might have a higher or a lower status. It then turns to questions concerning the basis for having any kind of moral standing at all. A very common proposal is that sentience—the ability to feel pleasure and pain—is both necessary and sufficient for standing, but the author argues that an equally important idea (perhaps more important) is that of agency, having preferences about how things should go as well as the ability to act on those preferences. The chapter concludes with a brief discussion of the connection between having standing and having a welfare (being such that things can be better or worse for you).
Unitarianism
Authors: Kagan Shelly
Published: April 2019

This chapter identifies a common view in contemporary discussions of animal ethics, which the author calls unitarianism. According to the unitarian, animals have the very same moral status as people have, so that otherwise similar interests of animals and people should be given the very same consideration in moral deliberation. At first glance this seems to have the implausible implication that forced to choose between saving a mouse, say, and a person, one should flip a coin. But the objection can be avoided by noting the fact that people generally have much more well-being at stake than animals do (so that more harm befalls a person if she dies, than would befall a mouse if it died). The chapter closes by clarifying the sense in which unitarians deny the existence of a moral hierarchy.
Deontology
Authors: Kagan Shelly
Published: April 2019

Unitarianism must be rejected even with regard to the deontological elements of our moral theory. For unitarian deontologists hold that animals have the very same right not to be harmed as people have, and this leads to intuitively unacceptable implications. For example, if one is an absolutist deontologist—so that innocent people may not be harmed, no matter how bad the overall results would be if they are not—then unitarianism implausibly implies that one cannot kill a single rabbit, even if this were the only way to save billions of people. Admittedly, moderate deontology might seem to allow the unitarian to escape this implication, since moderates hold that rights have thresholds, so that if enough good is at stake the right can be permissibly infringed. However, working through some actual calculations shows that even moderate deontologists must reject unitarianism.
Hierarchical Deontology
Authors: Kagan Shelly
Published: April 2019

The most plausible form of deontology is one in which animals have rights, but weaker ones than people have, a view the author calls hierarchical deontology. The idea is illustrated by showing how deontologists can hold that the threshold for the right not to be harmed is lower for animals than for people (with the precise level of the threshold being, in part, a function of the status of the given animal). The chapter also notes several other ways in which animals might count less within a hierarchical deontological framework, noting, for example, the possibility that several restrictions on how the threshold of a given right can be met might turn out to be less restrictive for animals, or how animals might have less of a claim to aid than people have.
Limited Hierarchy
Authors: Kagan Shelly
Published: April 2019

For many people, the most worrisome objection to a hierarchical approach is the problem of normal variation, which seems to imply that some (ordinary adult) people have a higher moral status than others. Ideally, what many would like is a step function, where relatively minor differences in underlying capacities typically make no difference to moral status at all. The author suggests that an appeal to practical realism—the thought that moral principles must be selected with an eye toward our actual epistemic and motivational limitations—may provide the basis for just such a step function, illustrating the idea through a discussion of rule consequentialism, but showing how the idea can also be applied across a range of foundational views. This approach may support a version of limited hierarchy, where only a handful of different statuses are used to cover people and the entire animal kingdom, giving all people the same status.
Words
Authors: Matthews P. H.
Published: April 2019

This chapter focuses on words. An utterance was divided directly into words. These are literally the ‘parts’ of an utterance; and in practice the ancient terms were often interchangeable. A word was in Greek a lexis; in Latin a dictio. Both terms were technical. They were defined in grammars of either language by the place that words had in a hierarchy of vocal sound, of which the largest unit was again the logos or oratio. They were themselves the smallest parts of such a unit which, unlike a letter or a syllable, had meaning. For an ancient writer, a lexis or a dictio was what is now a ‘word-form’: a specific unit of an utterance that is related syntactically to others.
Utterances
Authors: Matthews P. H.
Published: April 2019

This chapter examines utterances. The unit that Greek grammarians called a logos, and Latin grammarians an oratio, was the largest in a hierarchy. Oratio is here translated by English ‘utterance’. Utterances were literally sounds uttered and as such, they had a physical reality. For Dionysus Thrax, a logos was something put together in prose or conversation that ‘makes clear a self-complete thought’. Thus, an utterance is a sequence of words that meets a criteria of correctness and completeness. ‘Potential utterances’ are sequences which can be uttered. Any other sequence of words is a ‘non-utterance’: either its meaning is not complete or it is contrary to ‘a rule of grammar’. A rule is therefore a constraint on what can form an utterance, and the aim of grammar, or the part of grammar that is now called syntax, is to formulate constraints which comprehensively allow whatever is potentially an utterance and exclude non-utterances.
Final comments
Authors: Matthews P. H.
Published: April 2019

This concluding chapter assesses the achievement of the Graeco-Roman grammarians, which can only be evaluated in its context. The context is in part that of their own profession, and the role it had, and they had, in ancient society. The grammarians whose writings survive were more than pedagogues. Even a simple manual could be written with an awareness of alternative views on many issues, which might be cited or criticized. Other grammars were works of scholarship, going well beyond what teachers could have needed in practice. Another part of the context is formed by the languages on which and in which ancient scholars worked. A Roman grammarian described Latin, though he might on occasion refer to ways in which it was different from Greek. A Greek grammarian, in turn, wrote only on Greek.
Balzac’s ‘Discours à Descartes’
Authors: Gilby Emma
Published: April 2019

This chapter gives a detailed analysis of Balzac’s ‘Discours à Descartes’, which Balzac sends on to Descartes in response to the Censura. These seem to have been very much neglected in the critical literature on Descartes. However, and along with the wider correspondence between Descartes and Balzac, they can be seen to anticipate the Discours de la méthode in important ways: they bring to the fore Balzac’s thinking on chance, custom, and practical reason; on his relationship to the Stoics; on themes of conversion and changing minds. These topics again resonate with contemporary literary debate; and may be seen to provide a stock of themes and images on which Descartes will draw.
Attentiveness and Indifference
Authors: Gilby Emma
Published: April 2019

This chapter argues that the project of contextualizing Descartes with reference to poetics can also impact our understanding of his mature writings, with a focus here on the common theme of attention. It commences with Descartes’s statements on attentiveness, indifference, judgement, and the problem of error. In the Meditations, Descartes comes up against various problems relating to human hubris, blindness, and bias. In Meditation Four, he pursues a theory of judgement, tackling the interaction of the will and the intellect as they work on the clear and distinct ideas on which his search for truth relies. Here, again, his philosophy resonates with the language of tragedy, as a renowned strand of secondary criticism has noted; the chapter therefore turns to the characterization of Descartes as a ‘tragic’ figure.
Providence and the Passions
Authors: Gilby Emma
Published: April 2019

Increasingly, Descartes returns to more practical questions about forms of attentiveness, premeditation, and industry. In his correspondence with the Princess Elisabeth of Bohemia, in the 1647 Letter-preface to the French edition of the Principles of Philosophy, dedicated to Elisabeth, and finally in the Passions de l’âme of 1649, which he had commenced in 1646, Descartes develops his interest in the lived benefits that our philosophy may bring us. Descartes’s later work consistently uses the language of theatre to add an affective dimension to his discussion of the gulf between the human and the ungraspably divine. His use of the extended analogy of God as sovereign finds key expression in the correspondence with Elisabeth, with the renowned example of a king and two duelling gentlemen. This example is also considered for its dramatic resonance.
The Uses of Theatre
Authors: Gilby Emma
Published: April 2019

In this chapter, poetic categories—chance, imagination, wonder—are shown to be a vehicle for enquiry into our proper relationship to the passions. In the correspondence with Elisabeth and the Passions de l’âme, the transformations effected upon the body of the theatrical spectator yield particular insights. We arrive here at the crux of mind-body interaction. The experience of watching a tragedy allows us to perceive the operations of our soul, and to take pleasure in this alertness to its own activity. It constitutes a model of reactive processes that bring new forms of attentiveness with them, along with new dispositions of the will.
Being-in-the-World and Forms of Life
Authors: Egan David
Published: April 2019

Division I of Being and Time offers an analysis of Dasein’s average everyday existence. Heidegger’s use of ‘Dasein’ to talk about human beings draws attention to the way in which we are embedded in a world that has significance to us. In particular, he observes how things show up to us within a holistic network of significance as ready-to-hand equipment, which he distinguishes from the atomistic thinghood of presence-at-hand. This account of practical engagement echoes Wittgenstein’s treatment of language as embedded in significant activities and forms of life. For Wittgenstein, a grammatical investigation of our criteria for the use of words is also an investigation of the significant world in which those words have a use.
Wittgenstein’s Pursuit of Authenticity in Philosophy
Authors: Egan David
Published: April 2019

An important difference between Wittgenstein and Heidegger is their use of metaphors of covering and discovery. Heidegger characterizes his phenomenological method as uncovering a concealed ontological framework whereas Wittgenstein insists that ‘nothing is hidden’ and that the only thing to be uncovered is covert nonsense. Wittgenstein’s method is marked by a resolute rejection of a hermeneutics of suspicion and relies instead on using pictures or objects of comparison to dislodge recalcitrant prejudices. The difference from Heidegger on these counts is manifest in Wittgenstein’s treatment of the problematic of realism and idealism. Wittgenstein’s method makes heavy use of questions and dialogue, inviting his readers into a mimetic engagement with the problems he addresses, which contrasts with the diegetic form of Heidegger’s investigation.
Privatization and Globalization of the Internet
Authors: Radu Roxana
Published: April 2019

This chapter delves into the salient role of corporate actors in Internet policymaking during the decade of privatization and globalization of the Internet. Market dynamics drove the development of the field and the digital economy shifted attention to the potential of the network in the neoliberal understanding. From the mid-1990s to mid-2000, three major shifts occurred in Internet governance arrangements: they grew in size, scale, and scope. A number of rules for the technical management of the network were defined during this period and the bodies in charge consolidated their institutional structure. The emergence of political contestation also dates back to this period, when the positions of developing countries on key Internet governance issues started to consolidate.
Disaffected Parties
Authors: Havard John Owen
Published: April 2019

Disaffected Parties reveals how alienation from politics effected crucial changes to the shape and status of literary form. Recovering the earliest expressions of grumbling, irritability, and cynicism towards politics, this study asks how unsettled partisan legacies converged with more recent discontents to forge a seminal period in the making of English literature—and thereby poses wide-ranging questions about the lines between politics and aesthetics. Reading works including Laurence Sterne’s Tristram Shandy, James Boswell’s Life of Johnson, the novels of Maria Edgeworth and Jane Austen, and the satirical poetry of Lord Byron in tandem with print culture and partisan activity, this book shows how these writings remained animated by disaffected impulses and recalcitrant energies at odds with available party positions and emerging governmental norms—even as they sought to imagine perspectives that looked beyond the divided political world altogether. ‘No one can be more sick of—or indifferent to politics than I am’, Lord Byron wrote in 1820. Between the later eighteenth century and the Romantic age, disaffected political attitudes acquired increasingly familiar shapes. Yet this was also a period of ferment in which unrest associated with the global age of revolutions (including a dynamic transatlantic opposition movement) collided with often inchoate assemblages of parties and constituencies. As writers adopted increasingly emphatic removes from the political arena and cultivated familiar stances of cynicism, detachment, and retreat, their estrangement also promised to loop back into political engagement—and to make their works ‘parties’ all their own.
Burke, Edgeworth, and Ireland’s Discontents
Authors: Havard John Owen
Published: April 2019

This chapter re-examines the party-political career of Edmund Burke and the writings of Maria Edgeworth in relation to a deep history of Anglo-Irish ‘discontents’ and their challenges to the ‘count’ of politics. Complicating ‘Burkean’ appeals to hierarchy and order, the chapter uncovers the conflicted party identity that is apparent within writings by and about Edmund Burke, returning to view the various channels of feeling engaged, for example, during his involvement in debates over ‘absentee’ landlords. The chapter goes on to give a reading of The Absentee (1812) that calls attention to recalcitrant elements that exceed systems of representation in Edgeworth’s novel, which remains animated in this reading by those elements left behind, in both senses, by emergent systems of governance. The chapter’s opening section speculates about the role of biography in Lewis Namier’s History of Parliament and asks how the novel form, in the hands of women writers, provided unique vantage points on political systems organized around men.
Austen and the Cultural Logic of Late Toryism
Authors: Havard John Owen
Published: April 2019

This chapter revises accounts of the early nineteenth-century rightward turn in Britain by emphasizing that shift’s Tory character and affective dimension. Examining how the cultural logic of this ‘late’ Toryism took shape in and beyond political culture, the chapter takes up Jane Austen’s Mansfield Park (1814) as its central case. Austen’s novel was not only compatible with the reinvention of royal prerogative and increased emphasis on order but actively sought to bolster their operations. Rather than aligning Austen’s authorship entirely with this shift, however, detailed attention to the novel reveals challenges (in the guise of characters who exceed their ‘place’) to the harmonious workings of this wider cultural-political system. The chapter concludes by reflecting on how those elements of Mansfield Park that threaten to elude these channels of control—and the ‘wayward’ heroines of her novels, beginning with Elizabeth Bennet of Pride and Prejudice—call the political status of Austen’s own writings into question.
Subjective Obligation
Authors: Mason Elinor
Published: April 2019

This chapter offers an account of subjective obligation. Different accounts of rightness and wrongness meet different versions of a ‘responsibility constraint’. Subjective rightness meets a very strong version of the responsibility constraint, and correlates closely with praise- and blameworthiness. It also seems that subjective obligation must be accessible and action guiding. This chapter argues for some modifications to these starting points. First, subjective obligation should be action guiding, but not in the rich sense that people often intend when they say that subjective obligation should be action guiding. Second, it should be anchored in the true Morality, and so is accessible only to those in our moral community. Finally, we cannot formulate subjective obligation in terms of the agent’s beliefs about what ought to be done. Rather, we need to formulate subjective obligation in terms of trying: an agent is fulfilling her subjective obligation when she is trying to do well by Morality.
Trying to Do Well by Morality
Authors: Mason Elinor
Published: April 2019

This chapter presents an account of trying. Trying involves knowledge of the aim and requires accepting the aim as an aim. In other words, there is a ‘reflexivity requirement’ on trying: roughly, the agent must know what she is doing to count as doing it, but her knowledge need not be full awareness in the moment. Additionally, we should understand trying in a strong sense, trying is not ‘merely’ trying. Trying means taking steps that the agent believes most likely to achieve her goal, which may be complex. The chapter closes with an account of failing to try. Failing to try, like trying, involves a conscious, though not necessarily conscious in the moment, grasp of the relevant aim as a required aim. Thus only those who have a grasp of Morality as an aim can count as failing to try to do well by Morality.
Ordinary Praiseworthiness and Blameworthiness
Authors: Mason Elinor
Published: April 2019

This chapter defends the connection between subjective rightness and ordinary praiseworthiness. First, merely acting on conscience is not enough for praiseworthiness. On the other hand, merely being motivated towards what is actually good is not enough either. Praiseworthiness, like trying, is subject to a ‘reflexivity requirement’. Nomy Arpaly uses the example of Huck Finn to argue that an agent can be praiseworthy without having a good grasp of morality, and without acting as they believe they ought. On a competing view, the ‘Searchlight View’, full awareness of every relevant aspect of the act at the moment of action is necessary for praise- or blameworthiness. Both of these views fail: Arpaly’s view does not meet the reflexivity requirement, and the Searchlight View meets too strong a version. Some awareness, some background knowledge is required, but it need not be as bright as a searchlight.
Exemptions
Authors: Mason Elinor
Published: April 2019

This chapter explores the complexities of who is in and who is out of our moral community. First, it considers agents who are not impaired in any obvious way, but who are in the grip of a false moral view. Such agents are exempt from ordinary blame even if they could, in principle, be brought into our moral community. There are also agents who understand Morality, but have some sort of motivational incapacity. Proceeding through a discussion of Susan Wolf’s asymmetry thesis and Bernard Williams’s account of moral incapacity, the chapter argues that just as a psychological incapacity to do bad things does not undermine praiseworthiness, so a certain sort of incapacity to act well does not undermine blameworthiness. Last, the chapter argues that there is a way to understand psychopaths such that they do not have moral knowledge, and so are exempt from ordinary blame on that ground.
Taking Responsibility
Authors: Mason Elinor
Published: April 2019

This chapter introduces a third sort of blameworthiness, extended blameworthiness. The argument defends the idea that we can take responsibility. One kind of relevant case was discussed in Chapter 6: sometimes agents try hard, but because of their own bad motivations, do badly. This chapter returns to that case, and considers two other challenges: cases where an agent’s act or omission is bad but entirely inadvertent, and cases where an agent acts through implicit biases. In these cases, there is some pull to find the agent blameworthy. We can make sense of that by arguing that when certain sorts of relationship are at stake, agents should take responsibility for their failures and be willing to engage in the blame conversation. In taking responsibility they become properly blameworthy in the extended way.
What is The State?
Authors: Lawford-Smith Holly
Published: April 2019

Chapter 2 focuses on alternative conceptions of the state. It presents several different models of the state drawn from different academic disciplines: political science, international relations, political philosophy, and international law. These include states as political leaders; states as unified national governments; states as defined in the Montevideo Convention; states as the citizenry taken together (at least in democratic states); states as competing organizations; and states as competing leaders of organizations. It is argued that particular attention should be paid to two of these models: the citizenry taken together (because this accords well with ordinary intuitions about what the state is), and a version of the unified national governments model that restricts membership in the state to those involved in the wider government administration. Both of these models are taken forward into Chapters 3 and 4 (respectively), in asking whether each group counts as a collective agent, capable of intentional action.
Governmental Culpability
Authors: Lawford-Smith Holly
Published: April 2019

This chapter returns to the issue of what the normative implications of collective culpability are for members of the collective (e.g. those in government, public services, defence forces and the police). After setting aside some preliminary worries with the idea of collective punishment, the chapter argues for a distribution of culpability under a particular transformation: proportional to hierarchy in the collective. This entails that all members get a share in the collective’s culpability, but some get a greater share than others. This conclusion is defended against several objections, including the problem that some employees may have done all they could to prevent a collective harm taking place.
Shelley, Lamb, Hazlitt, and the Revolutionary Imagination
Authors: O'Neill Michael
Published: April 2019

This chapter is concerned with the revolutionary imagination and Shelley’s relationship with Charles Lamb and William Hazlitt. It examines the personal and critical tensions between Shelley and his older contemporaries. Although Lamb and Hazlitt were outspoken in their objections to Shelley’s poetry and politics, the chapter traces their many affinities. It focuses mainly on Hazlitt’s response to Shelley and the conflicting feelings of contempt and admiration that Hazlitt has for Shelley and his poetry. The chapter identifies the ways in which the two writers converge and depart in their revolutionary, poetic, and philosophical ideals. Hazlitt, who places great value on disinterestedness, is identified as at first hopeful but ultimately aware of the difficulty of sustaining his revolutionary ideals. Thus, Hazlitt criticizes in Shelley an optimism that he believes to be naive. For Hazlitt, Shelley’s idealism isolates him and diminishes the potential achievement of his poetry. The chapter draws out the brilliance of Lamb’s and Hazlitt’s prose, and identifies ways in which the other Romantic poets’ antipathy toward Shelley is often accompanied with admiration. The chapter argues that Lamb’s and Hazlitt’s dislike of Shelley coexists with admiration, and that many of their condemnations of Shelley’s poetic, philosophical, and political ideals reveal an underlying acknowledgement of Shelley’s poetic genius.
Shelley and Southey Reconsidered
Authors: O'Neill Michael
Published: April 2019

‘Shelley and Southey Reconsidered’ provides a fresh approach to viewing Shelley’s relationship with Southey. It points out that in spite of the mythology created by Thomas Jefferson Hogg, in which Shelley is bored to sleep by Southey’s self-indulgent readings of his own works, Shelley’s initial response to Southey was genuine admiration mingled with criticism. The chapter argues that, for Shelley, his attitude of dissent towards Southey is ‘imaginatively productive’. Rather than discarding Southey and his work as of no value, Shelley alludes to Southey often in his own works and harnesses aspects of Southey’s style for its inherent revolutionary qualities as well as its originality. Although Shelley’s references to Southey in his letters often involve strong critiques of what Shelley sees as Southey’s growing orthodoxy, his ‘tergiversation’ and condoning of ‘Bigotry Tyranny and Law’, they reveal a continuing engagement with Southey’s verse. The chapter points out that, in alluding to Southey, Shelley seeks to rewrite elements of the older poet’s works rather than to discredit them entirely. This chapter identifies some of Southey’s most ambitious poetic passages and how the older poet’s skill lingered in Shelley’s imagination and continued to elicit response. The chapter points out that Shelley’s capacity for doubleness in his poetry, his ability to perceive contradiction in both human nature and in the natural world, are apparent in his intertextual relationship with Southey, a relationship exemplified by hope and admiration commingled with disillusionment and disappointment.
Turning to Dante
Authors: O'Neill Michael
Published: April 2019

Chapter 11 offers an additional perspective on the discussion of Adonais in the preceding chapter. Attending to the process by which Keats is immortalized as Adonais, this chapter considers the creative dialogue between Dante and Shelley. Using Dante, in part, as a vital alternative to contemporary British cultural and philosophical norms, Shelley almost seems to reverse the linearity of influence, as Richard Harter Fogle suggests when he refers to Paradiso 30 as ‘highly Shelleyan’. Dante’s presence in Adonais is both subtle and pervasive, even as Shelley’s individuality comes to the fore as he adapts and alters Dante’s medieval Catholic vision. Viewed in this light, Adonais emerges, newly, as a work that answers to Shelley’s affirmation that his poem is ‘a highly wrought piece of art’. Dante, like Shelley, recognizes that he is engaged in the process of figuring, shadowing forth, finding poetic equivalents for visionary apprehensions. Shelley’s own ‘sudden leap’ is in the direction of a ‘sacred strain’ (to borrow Dantean phrases) but one that is sung by a modem poet who is, who must be, priest of his own imaginative religion, rather as Keats imagines himself to be in the second half of ‘Ode to Psyche’. What happens is more than a Romantic raid on the medieval Catholic Thomist epic; it is also a matter of independent responsiveness, as Shelley both appropriates and honours Dante, and seeks resurgent consolation and existential encouragement through the act and fact of poetic creativity. Shelley is often most original at the very points where we most detect Dante’s influence.
Shelley, Beddoes, Death, and Reputation
Authors: O'Neill Michael
Published: April 2019

Chapter 13 explores the response of the poet and dramatist Thomas Lovell Beddoes to Shelley’s work. It suggests that Beddoes’s concern with imagery of death and resurrection derives from figurative patterns in Shelley and expresses a preoccupation with questions of poetic legacy and reputation. At times Beddoes brings to mind in his dealings with Shelley Harold Bloom’s theory of the anxiety of influence: Beddoes’s very readiness to suffer neglect may suggest an act of ‘kenosis’, that ‘ “undoing” and … “isolating” movement of the imagination’ which is the third of Bloom’s revisionary ratios. Elsewhere, Bloom writes that ‘Beddoes, in despair of his times and of himself, chose to waste his genius on a theme that baffled his own imagination’. But Beddoes, who helped with the publication of Shelley’s Posthumous Poems (1824), was engaged complexly and, the chapter argues, impressively in his writing with questions of reputation raised by Shelley’s legacy. More often than he yields to ‘despair’, Beddoes holds ghostly commune with the dead Shelley in ways that seek to pay tribute rather than express anxiety; he does so, as this chapter shows, by developing imaginative modes that are at once stylishly and grotesquely productive.
‘Beautiful but Ideal’
Authors: O'Neill Michael
Published: April 2019

Chapter 15 draws out the complexity of Landon’s relationship with Shelley. Landon goes far beyond irony alone in her range of responses to Shelley. Balancing her influences, from Wordsworth and Byron to Shelley, Landon creates a multi-tonal and elusive inflection in her most accomplished poetry. The chapter’s stress is on her intricate relationship with Shelley, a poet to whom she responds in a fluid and productive manner. If she sympathizes, she qualifies, yet if she withholds total assent from his vision, she does not disavow its hold over her imagination. The chapter contains a detailed reading of ‘Lines of Life’, a poem whose individual timbre re-orchestrates Shelleyan concerns with the role of the writer, reflexivity, posterity, and inspiration. Landon responds most vividly to Shelley, the chapter suggests, when she hears in his work the accents of transcendental seeker and anguishing elegist.
Coda
Authors: O'Neill Michael
Published: April 2019

This Coda considers Shelley’s reception at the hands of A. C. Bradley, a critic distinguished by his tough-minded though sympathetically mobile readings of Shelley’s poetry. Bradley’s ‘adoration’ shifted into a more sobered, even self-divided admiration, yet he remains among the best critics of Shelley because he is always testing his response to the Romantic poet. He does so in, among other places, the essay mentioned above; in the earlier piece, ‘Shelley’s View of Poetry’, included in the Oxford Lectures on Poetry, which contains other material on Shelley, principally in the essay ‘The Long Poem in the Age of Wordsworth’; in his short pieces (collected in A Miscellany) on ‘Coleridge-Echoes in Shelley’s Poems’ and ‘Odours and Flowers in the Poetry of Shelley’, which contains a cogent footnote doubting the validity of reading Alastor as showing that ‘the failure of the hero comes from his “self-centred seclusion’”; and in his notes on passages in the poetry and prose, and on The Triumph of Life. He may have been aware of an element in Oxford disdainful of literary criticism as ‘mere chatter about Shelley’, but he was not fearful of analysing the Romantic poet’s work or of laying bare complexities in the poetry and conflict in his responses. How this fine critic shaped his own dialogue with Shelley offers a suggestive model to the reader who wishes still, in ways the book is concerned to foster, to generate ‘new relations’ with the work of a major Romantic poet.
The Archbishop’s Chapel
Authors: Linehan Peter
Published: April 2019

This chapter opens with events in 1334, including the establishment of a new chapel for Braga cathedral to be under the overall charge of the dean, with the proviso that he should not be a foreigner. Details are given of the exhaustive rules (confirmed by the pope) for its staffing; the duties of its chaplains; provision for lodging and feeding; offices; and for burial space to be reserved for archbishops, but not for kings. The chapter then moves on to 1340, the battle of the Salado, followed in 1341 by Afonso IV’s attack on the archbishop of Braga’s possession of that city, since the donation of Braga to the church in 1120 was ‘invalid inasmuch as the city pertained to the corona regis and had not been the property of the donor’. The archbishop’s allegationes in response, as submitted to the judgment of judges at Avignon, are described and analysed.
After Salado
Authors: Linehan Peter
Published: April 2019

Chapter 6 commences in 1342, with a new front opening against the bishop of Porto in the battle for jurisdiction over that city, and with Alfonso XI facing an ultimatum from the pope. We read of Pedro de Casis, the king of Castile’s man at Avignon, and his machinations, papal provision, and the royal civil service. The chapter moves on to the pope’s investiture of Luis de la Cerda with the Canary Islands, questions concerning the identity of Alfonsus de Hispania, and the 1344 siege and capture of Algeciras. A future French pope’s sermons are shown to be doctored by a Spanish amanuensis intent on proving the supremacy of the king of France, ‘except for the king of Spain’. The revised statutes for the archbishop of Braga’s chapel are considered. Finally, Guillelmus de Rivoforcato’s heirs energetic but failed attempts to salvage some of their putative inheritance are described.
Alfonso XI: ‘A King Entire’
Authors: Linehan Peter
Published: April 2019

The author reflects that it is impossible to evaluate the potential of Alfonso XI’s reign had it not been for the Cortes of Alcalá in 1348 and the Black Death. He also points out the significance, of the Glosa castellana of Egidius Colonna’s De regimine principum. Afonso IV’s complaints against the church of Coimbra are seen to show the smack of firm government, with more in the offing. The peninsular clergy and their ‘connubial bliss’ pass before our eyes. The chapter concludes with a general view of Castile in the late 1340s, and a ‘glimpse’ of the Galician Church and its need for firm government, a need which Avignon’s attempts to implement end in failure. Finally, we are reminded of Álvaro Pais and his world.
Facts, Alternative Facts and Patent Literature
Authors: Segal David
Published: April 2019

The mathematician Kurt Gödel showed in his Incompleteness Theorem in the early 1930s that there are some statements in mathematics that are true but cannot be proven. Whether statements are true is important in the twenty-first century, an age of ‘fake news’ and alternative facts. Patent documents are true and accurate as they are examined and can be challenged for accuracy. This chapter outlines the patenting procedure. It also highlights the role of patents as a source of information alongside other sources. Accurate and true information is important for people with interests in engineering, physical sciences and life sciences. Patent infringement and patent trolls (non-practicing entities) are described. The following technical areas are grouped together to describe how they developed over time and how they may develop in the twenty-first century: communications, computing including quantum computing, life sciences including gene editing (CRISPR), transport and unexpected consequences of technological change.
Convenience or Conversation?
Authors: Driediger-Murphy Lindsay G.
Published: April 2019

This chapter addresses what has long been seen as the best evidence for the modern view that augural theory permitted Romans to fabricate signs that aligned with their own desires, the technique of ‘watching the sky’ (servare de caelo). Modern reconstructions of this technique suppose that practitioners always received the sign they wanted, because if no real sign was forthcoming, one could simply be created by a report (obnuntiatio). On this view, Romans considered such fabrication acceptable, and publicly chose to treat as true signs which they privately knew had been faked. The chapter provides an alternative explanation for the prohibitive effect of sky-watching on assemblies, reinterpreting the ancient evidence (mostly from Cicero) and arguing that sky-watching can be understood as genuine open-ended consultation of Jupiter.
Conclusion
Authors: Driediger-Murphy Lindsay G.
Published: April 2019

The Conclusion proposes avenues for future research in augury and considers the implications of the book’s findings for the nature of Roman religion and cognition. It explores the possibility that Roman willingness to abide by the results of augury was driven by fear of Jupiter. If so, the god would not have been conceived of purely as an equanimous fellow citizen, but as an uncontrollable and potentially hostile person with his own interests and desires, which did not always overlap with those of his human enquirers. This conception of the divine–human relationship suggests that fear may have played an important part in Roman religion. Ultimately, when human and divine will clashed, it was the will of Jupiter, not of the man consulting him, which was supposed to prevail. In theory as in practice, it was the Romans, not their supreme god, who were ‘bound’ by the auguries and auspices.
Informing Realities
Authors: Allen William , Blinder Scott , McNeil Robert
Published: April 2019

This chapter addresses how research and public debate about migration interact with and inform each other, focusing on public perceptions and media coverage as important aspects. Factors including generalized public innumeracy about migration levels, effects of emotions on perceptions, and variation in the perceived credibility of different messengers make communicating information—of which research evidence is an important type—a complex process with multiple points of potential resistance. Meanwhile, the demands and expectations of public users and policy-makers can influence how research happens and the types of questions that are seen to be more meaningful. These interrelationships exist within wider social, political, and economic contexts that, in certain circumstances, are likely to favour some outcomes over others. In total, the chapter argues that the pathway from generating research evidence to impacting public debates is not only uncertain, it is also more complex than is often presumed.
Migration Research and Policy in the United States
Authors: Martin Philip
Published: April 2019

US researchers have reached more consensus on the number and characteristics of migrants than on their socio-economic impacts, especially with regard to unauthorized migrants. When there is consensus among social scientists on some aspect of migration, such as the additional economic output due to the presence of migrants, this consensus result suggests very different policies for advocates. For example, the finding that the US economy may have been up to $10 billion larger in the 1990s due to migrants was touted by advocates of more migrants as proof of their benefits, and criticized by those favouring less migration as the equivalent of two weeks economic growth. President Trump is an example of a policy-maker selectively using migration research to justify restrictionist policies.
A Knowledge-base for the EU External Migration Policy
Authors: Weinar Agnieszka
Published: April 2019

Since the early 2000s, the European Union (EU) has been gradually developing its external migration policy, the Global Approach to Migration. In support of the policy, the EU has been funding research that contributes to a knowledge-base on migration issues outside of its borders. This chapter discusses the experiences of the Consortium for Applied Research on International Migration (CARIM) Observatories at the European University Institute (EUI), one of the central knowledge-brokers funded by the European Commission between 2004 and 2013. The research produced by the Observatories was primarily to serve the European policy-makers but, in the spirit of the EU partnership, they were also intended to benefit the partner countries. The success of the Observatories was possible thanks to a complex net of arrangements and multilateral adjustments. The chapter explores the pathways to that success and provides the insights and lessons for consideration regarding the relationship between research and policy-making in an international context.
Unwritten Poetry
Authors: Trudell Scott A.
Published: April 2019

Vocal music was at the heart of English Renaissance poetry and drama. Virtuosic actor-singers redefined the theatrical culture of William Shakespeare and his peers. Composers including William Byrd and Henry Lawes shaped the transmission of Renaissance lyric verse. Poets from Philip Sidney to John Milton were fascinated by the disorienting influx of musical performance into their works. Musical performance was a driving force behind the period’s theatrical and poetic movements, yet its importance to literary history has long been ignored or effaced. Unwritten Poetry reveals the impact of vocalists and composers upon the poetic culture of early modern England by studying the media through which—and by whom—its songs were made. In a literary field that was never confined to writing, media were not limited to material texts. Scott Trudell argues that the media of Renaissance poetry can be conceived as any node of transmission from singer’s larynx to actor’s body. Through his study of song, Trudell outlines a new approach to the Renaissance poetry and drama that is grounded not simply in performance history or book history but in a more synthetic media history.
Shakespeare’s Musical Thresholds
Authors: Trudell Scott A.
Published: April 2019

Song is accompanied by a persistent sense of dislocation from Shakespeare’s fictions, often fitting only loosely or incompletely into dramatic plots. In A Midsummer Night’s Dream, Titania’s four singing fairies connect the play to the children’s company repertoire that preceded it and foreground the question of how performing bodies are transformed into media. Dream’s playful, self-conscious inquiry into the nature of theatrical mediation anticipates Hamlet, where Ophelia is objectified as a medium by her father, brother, lover, and queen. Yet Ophelia trenchantly resists the logocentric representational economies that confront her. Through her recycled, nonauthorial balladry, Ophelia produces a musical form of poetry that is restlessly subversive and irreducibly performative, articulating a new understanding of poetic mediation that is imbued in its environment.
Aristotle’s Metaethics
Authors: Berryman Sylvia
Published: April 2019

Aristotle’s critique of attempts to ground ethics in metaphysical abstractions would be the logical place for him to have articulated the case for a naturalistic ethics, but he does not do so. Rather, we find, in Eudemian Ethics, a contrary case for a distinction between the natural good and the practical good. Given Aristotle’s well-known emphasis on the nature of action, and his practice of beginning normative treatises from the nature of action, we can see implicit in this focus an argument that, for rational agents, the fact that we aim at some good commits us to seeking the genuine or true good. This chapter argues that an apparent fallacy in the first sentence of Nicomachean Ethics yields—if properly understood—an insistence that rational agency requires consideration of the truly best goal.
The Practical Good
Authors: Berryman Sylvia
Published: April 2019

On the model of Grice’s account of the creation of a new kind of value at the same time as the introduction of practical agents, this chapter continues the argument that Aristotle attempted to ‘bootstrap’ a commitment to normativity from the existence of practical reason. Reinterpreting Socrates’ paradoxical claim that everyone aims at the good, Aristotle turned a tautological analysis of action—that it necessarily aims at some good—into the normative thesis that we are, as rational agents, implicitly committed to seeking the true good. Central to his vision is the belief that we can antecedently identify some agents as more practically wise than others, averting the possibility of radical collective error.
Conclusion Philanthropy Recommended
Authors: Moore Sean D.
Published: April 2019

Revisiting both the Preface and Chapter 1, this Conclusion makes the case for questioning the eighteenth century as a theme park upon which political neo-conservatives and economic neo-liberals project their fantasies about the founders’ supposed intentions about small government and the provision of human needs by private charities instead of taxpayer-funded public programs. Arguing instead that slavery philanthropy was the origin of these ideas, and of the “charitable industrial complex” that we have today, it explains that nineteenth- and twentieth-century reformers were aware of that, and proceeded to found more progressive public cultural, educational, medical, and other kinds of institutions. The lesson we can learn from the story of slavery-funded private libraries is that we need that kind of reform again now.
India—the march of Modicare
Authors: Britnell Mark
Published: April 2019

Ayushman Bharat, popularly referred to as ‘Modicare’, is the Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s plans to extend universal healthcare to half a billion people from the poorest 100 million families in India starting in 2018. Supporting this, India’s finance minister Arun Jaitley said in his Budget speech: ‘India cannot realize its demographic dividend without its citizens being healthy.’ The Indian government is now realizing that one of the biggest challenges among many in delivering Modicare will be to secure a workforce of sufficient scale and quality, which meets the needs of rural as well as urban areas. With a population of 1.3 billion, India is estimated to have a target of 4.6 million skilled healthcare workers. In this chapter, Mark Britnell looks at India as the country is working to make Modicare a reality.
Entrepreneurial government—from under to oversupply
Authors: Britnell Mark
Published: April 2019

The paradox of the global healthcare workforce is that while it has never been more abundant, it has never been scarcer relative to future patient needs. This workforce has largely been resistant to economic cycles of boom and bust, and has even flourished, relatively speaking, during recessions. But demand for health workers has surpassed our capacity to supply them and it has never been more important for governments to be progressive, agile, and courageous in tackling the looming crisis. In this chapter, Mark Britnell looks at entrepreneurial government, from under to oversupply. He shows how across the OECD, the functioning of the labour market for health workers—for good or ill—is characterized by strong government interventions affecting both supply and demand.
China—growth and social cohesion
Authors: Britnell Mark
Published: April 2019

In China, the growth of the middle class, lifting so many from poverty, is enabled by the very same urbanization and industrialization that is affecting the physical and mental health of many. From cancer to diabetes, obesity to cardiovascular disease, the chronic diseases of wealth are rising rapidly in China, while the health system is failing to keep up with people’s soaring demand for quality healthcare. But it should not be forgotten how far China has already come—implementing the world’s largest basic healthcare coverage. In this chapter, Mark Britnell discusses whether it can pick up the pace in terms of the reach and depth of care provision, with many patients still incurring significant out-of-pocket expenses. Looking forward, he also analyses the developments needed in China to provide healthcare for the growing older population.