bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Shock-induced Amorphization in Covalently Bonded Solids
Authors: Zhao Shiteng , Kad Bimal , Hahn Eric , Chen Laura , Opachi Yekaterina, , More Karren , Remington Bruce , Wehrenberg Christopher , LaSalvia Jerry , Yang Wen , Quan Haocheng , Meyers Marc
Published: September 2018

Deposition of powerful pulsed laser energy onto a material, ablates its surface and drives a compressive shock wave propagating through it. Using this technique, unprecedented states of matter with extremely high pressures, temperatures, and strain rates can be experimentally studied. Here we report on laser-shock induced amorphization in four covalently bonded solids, namely silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), boron carbide (B4C) and silicon carbide (SiC). Post shock transmission electron microscopy reveals that the newly formed amorphous materials exhibit a shear band alike morphology, suggesting that shear stress play a dominant role in this process. The density of these amorphous band decreases as a function of the distance to the surface and eventually disappeared at certain depth, which is coincident with the decay of the shock wave and indicates that there might be a critical stress for the onset of amorphization. Synchrotron XRay tomography of a recovered silicon target shows that large amounts of cracks are formed within the materials and the density also decrease with depth. Unlike amorphous bands, these cracks can propagate through the target, albeit without shattering the entire material. It is proposed that shock-induced amorphization is a new deformation mechanism of matter under extremely high rate deformation.
Energy Absorption Due to Oblique Impact Crushing of Thin-Walled Tubes
Authors: Umeda Tsutomu , Mimura Koji
Published: September 2018

From the viewpoint of improving both the crash safety and the fuel efficiency, various shaped thin-walled tubes have been utilized as energy absorbers of automobiles such as front side members, crash boxes and so forth. In the axial crushing test of the regular polygonal tube, if the number of angles was small enough, it showed a certain inherent wrinkle mode, and the mean buckling load increased with that number, while it showed the mode of cylindrical tube if that number became larger. In the oblique crushing test, the same tendency was also shown within the range that the transition from axial collapse to bending collapse did not occur. This transition considerably decreases the mean buckling load so that it is important to know the threshold crush angle for the transition. Then, the crushing behavior of regular 4-12 angled tubes were investigated with changing the crush angle mainly by the experiment. The threshold angle is sensitively influenced by the initial imperfection and the boundary condition so that both the threshold angles obtained by the experiment and by the calculation for the square tube are 8-13° smaller than that predicted by the equation proposed by Han and Park. For the carbon steel S25C, the increase of the strain rate in the axial collapse mode raises the mean buckling load, while it shows little strain rate dependence once the transition occurs.
High-Speed impact experiment for evaluation of magnetorheological fluid’s shock-absorption performance
Authors: Mitani Yuya , Yano Takahiro , Hagi Takuyoh , Watanabe Keiko , Fukudome Koji
Published: September 2018

Magnetorheological (MR) fluids are categorized as smart fluids, which are made of small iron particles suspended in carrier fluids such as silicone oil. The presence of a magnetic field will instantaneously increase the viscosity of the MR fluid, also known as the MR effect. The application of the MR fluid as viscous dampers to automobiles and buildings has shown excellent performance in shock absorption. To expand the practical application of the MR fluid, various evaluations of shock-absorption performance under high-loading conditions are needed. Therefore, we decided to investigate its performance in high-speed impact conditions. Impact experiments were conducted in different liquids—tap water, two types of silicone oils with different kinematic viscosities, and an MR fluid—and it was investigated how the properties of each liquid affect the shock-absorption performance. Accordingly, it was found that kinematic viscosity and compressibility affect shock-absorption performance. The kinematic viscosity did not affect the speed attenuation of the projectile. Furthermore, it was found that the compressibility affected the pressure wave generated by the entry of a projectile into the liquid.
Image-based high strain rate testing of orthopaedic bone cement
Authors: Fletcher Lloyd , Regal Xavier , Seghir Rian , Pierron Fabrice , Browne Martin
Published: September 2018

Bone cement is widely used for the fixation of orthopaedic implants. It is a multi-component material that consists of a PMMA base with a small proportion of (usually ceramic) radiopacifier to enable the cement to be observed by X-ray. Bone cement is formed through an exothermic reaction in which a powder of pre-polymerised beads of PMMA reacts with MMA monomer. The resulting polymer microstructure consists of PMMA beads in a matrix of newly formed PMMA containing radiopacifier particles. In service, bone cement can experience deformation over a range of strain rates, from the lower end in normal gait to 100s of s-1 in the case of falls or impacts. In the current study, it is hypothesised that the response of homogeneous (clear) PMMA to high strain rates will be different to that of bone cement due to the microstructural differences. There have been very few studies on this topic in the past, mostly because of the difficulty involved in adapting the Hopkinson bar protocol to this material, particularly for dynamic tension. The objective of this paper is to present new results on the stiffness and damping of bone cement at strain rates in the range of 100 s-1, and to compare the data with that obtained on clear PMMA. The technique employed here to measure the mechanical properties of both commercial grade PMMA and bone cement is a new image-based DMTA method recently proposed by Seghir and Pierron (Seghir, Pierron, Exp. Mech., 2018). This allows for the measurement of the complex modulus over a range of temperatures and strain rates (100s of s-1). The method relies on imaging the deformation of the specimen bearing a printed grid using a Shimadzu HPV-X camera at up to 5 million frames per second. This allows for the time-resolved displacements to be measured, leading to fields of strain and acceleration, the latter being used to derive stress information to build up stress-strain curves. The methodology is described in more details in www.photodyn.org.
Improving seed oil and protein content in Brassicaceae: some new genetic insights from Arabidopsis thaliana
Authors: Jasinski Sophie , Chardon Fabien , Nesi Nathalie , Lécureuil Alain , Guerche Philippe
Published: September 2018

Western Europe oleoproteaginous species like rapeseed mainly accumulate oil and protein in their seeds. To become competitive with soybean, seed protein quantity and quality should be improved in rapeseed. The negative correlation existing between seed protein and oil content apparently prevents the possibility to increase protein content without affecting oil content. Exploration of natural and induced genetic variability in the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana allows the identification of several genotypes impaired in this negative correlation. Different genetic approaches have been undertaken in order to isolate genetic factors responsible for the tight control of seed oil and protein homeostasis and this negative correlation. Once isolated in this model plant, such genetic determinants will be identified in important crops such as rapeseed or other oilseed crops in order to manipulate both components independently and thus produce on purposed seeds. In the long term, this research will help breed new varieties that could contribute to reduce Europe’s dependence on US soybean import.
Biomechanical evaluation of annulus fibrosus repair with scaffold and soft anchors in an ex vivo porcine model
Authors: Rickers Kresten , Bendtsen Michael , Le Dang Quang Svend , Veen Albert Jvan der , Bünger Cody Eric
Published: September 2018

Introduction: Altered biomechanical properties, due to intervertebral disc (IVD) degeneration and missing nucleus fibrosus, could be thought as one of the reasons for the back pain many herniation patients experience after surgery. It has been suggested to repair annulus fibrosus (AF) to restore stability and allow nucleus pulposus (NP) replacement and furthermore prevent reherniation. The aim of this study was to evaluate a new method for closing a defect in AF for use in herniation surgery.

Methods: Our repair method combines a polycaprolactone (PCL) scaffold plugging herniation and soft anchors to secure the plug. Ex vivo biomechanical testing was carried out in nine porcine lumbar motion segments. Flexion–extension, lateral bending and rotation were repeated three times: first in healthy specimens, second with a full thickness circular defect applied, and third time with the specimens repaired. Finally push out tests were performed to check whether the plug would remain in.

Results: Tests showed that applying a defect to the AF increases the range of motion (ROM), neutral zone (NZ) and neutral zone stiffness (NZS). In flexion/extension it was found significant for ROM, NZ, and NZS. For lateral bending and rotation a significant increase in ROM occurred. After AF repair ROM, NZ and NZS were normalized. All plugs remained in the AF during push out test up until 4000 N, but NP was squeezed out through the pores of the scaffold.

Discussion: A defect in the AF changes the biomechanical properties in the motion segment, changes that point to instability. Repairing the defect with a PCL plug and soft anchors brought the biomechanical behavior back to native state. This concept is promising and might be a viable way to repair the IVD after surgery.
Integrationsfachdienst – Neues Tätigkeitsfeld für Ergos
Authors: Engels Babette
Published: September 2018

Es gibt über 300 Integrationsfachdienste in Deutschland, die Menschen zurück ins Arbeitsleben begleiten. Eine Tätigkeit, in die Ergotherapeuten wunderbar ihr Fachwissen und Können einbringen können, weiß Babette Engels. Für den Lebensbereich Produktivität gibt es kaum eine alltagspraktischere Arbeit.
Lack of a Dose Response from 7 Days of Ischemic Preconditioning in Moderately trained Cyclists
Authors: Lindsay Angus , Petersen Carl , Ferguson Hamish , Blackwell Gavin , Rickerby Stephen
Published: September 2018

Ischemic preconditioning (IP) has a small benefit on exercise performance, but differences in the IP method, performance tasks and exercise modality have made providing practical coach guidelines difficult. We investigated the performance-enhancing effects of IP on cyclists by comparing the frequency of IP application over a 7-day period. Using a randomized, sham-controlled, single-blinded experiment, 24 competitive age-group track cyclists (38±12 years) were assigned to one of three twice-daily (sham: 20 and 20 mmHg; once-a-day: 20 and 220 mmHg; twice-a-day: 220 and 220 mmHg) IP leg protocols (4 × 5 min ischemia/5 min reperfusion alternating between legs) over seven consecutive days. A 4000-m cycling-ergometer time trial was completed before, immediately following and one week after the protocols. Neither mean power, nor 4000-m performance time nor VO2 were significantly affected by either of the IP protocols compared to the sham at any time point following treatment. Repeated application of IP over seven days did not enhance the performance of trained cyclists in a 4000-m laboratory time trial. More research is required to understand how changes to methodological variables can improve the chances of IP successfully enhancing athlete performance.
Flexible Arbeitszeiten im 24-Stunden-Betrieb
Authors: Amende Tom , Wortha-Hoyer Jenny
Published: September 2018

Die Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin ist mit derzeit 4.500 Gesundheits- und Krankenpflegern der größte Arbeitgeber für Pflegende in Berlin. Seit 2015 steigen die Bewerberzahlen wieder kontinuierlich, und mit 2,9 Prozent liegt die Fluktuationsrate deutlich unter dem bundesweiten Durchschnitt. Trotzdem sind umfangreiche Personalgewinnungs- und -bindungsmaßnahmen notwendig, um den permanenten Bedarf an offenen Stellen im pflegerischen Bereich decken zu können. Laut einer Umfrage an der Charité gibt es Anzeichen dafür, dass durch eine Flexibilisierung der Dienstzeiten die Mitarbeiterzufriedenheit steigen könnte. Ein wichtiger Faktor, der dazu beiträgt, dass Mitarbeiter lange in einem Unternehmen tätig sind.
Die Förderung eines aktiven Lebensstils und der Adhärenz im physiotherapeutischen Prozess
Authors: Weidig Thorsten , Pfeffer Ines
Published: September 2018

Überlegst du noch oder läufst du schon? Ob jemand einen aktiven Lebensstil im Sinne regelmäßiger körperlicher Aktivität führt oder ob ein Patient aktiv im
Rehabilitationsprozess mitarbeitet, ist häufig Kopfsache. Psychologische Faktoren spielen eine wesentliche Rolle. Die Motivationspsychologie bietet theoretisch
fundierte und praktisch erprobte Interventionsmöglichkeiten für die tägliche Praxisarbeit mit Patienten.
Exercise is medicine: Die Rolle von Zytokinen und Myokinen für Gesundheit und Krankheit
Authors: Wahl Patrick
Published: September 2018

Die Skelettmuskulatur ist das größte Organ normalgewichtiger Personen. Mittlerweile wird sie als aktives sekretorisches Organ betrachtet. Ausgelöst durch
Kontraktion sezerniert die Muskulatur regulatorische Myokine, die u. a. den sogenannten „Organ Cross-Talk“ vermitteln, die Kommunikation zwischen der
Skelettmuskulatur und anderen Teilen des Organismus. Den Myokinen werden viele gesundheitsfördernde Effekte zugeschrieben. Sie wirken positiv auf den
Metabolismus und unterdrücken Entzündungen.
Neutral or Natural? Functional Impact of the Coronal Alignment in Total Knee Arthroplasty
Authors: Schiffner Erik , Wild Michael , Regenbrecht Bertram , Schek Alberto , Hakimi Mohssen , Thelen Simon , Jungbluth Pascal , Schneppendahl Johannes
Published: September 2018

Total knee arthroplasty (TKA) is a very successful procedure. The alignment in TKA has been identified as being of importance to prevent early implant failure and patient dissatisfaction. Our hypothesis was that patients with a preoperative varus deformation remaining in a slight varus alignment as their natural alignment after TKA will have superior clinical results compared with patients who are restored in neutral alignment. A total of 115 patients were corrected from varus to neutral (varus–neutral) and in 33 patients a preoperative varus alignment was kept in varus (varus). Standardized preoperative and postoperative full-length hip–knee–ankle radiographs under full weight-bearing conditions were performed in all patients. The patients' knees were categorized preoperatively and postoperatively based on the angle between mechanical femoral axis and mechanical tibial axis. Knees with alignment between ± 3 degrees were categorized as neutrally aligned, whereas alignment within ≤ –3 degrees was categorized as varus. The Knee Injury Osteoarthritis Outcome Score (KOOS) and Oxford Knee Score were determined retrospectively. The varus group scored significantly better in total KOOS (p < 0.05) compared with the varus–neutral group. Also, a trend was visible in the Oxford Knee Score but this was not significant (p > 0.05). This trend was even more evident in varus knees which were slightly undercorrected. The results support the assumption that leaving a residual varus alignment after TKA leads to better functional outcomes in TKA for patients with preoperative varus osteoarthritis.
Time series of high-resolution images enhances efforts to monitor post-fire condition and recovery, Waldo Canyon fire, Colorado, USA
Authors: Vanderhoof Melanie K. , Burt Clifton , Hawbaker Todd J.
Published: September 2018

Interpretations of post-fire condition and rates of vegetation recovery can influence management priorities, actions and perception of latent risks from landslides and floods. In this study, we used the Waldo Canyon fire (2012, Colorado Springs, Colorado, USA) as a case study to explore how a time series (2011–2016) of high-resolution images can be used to delineate burn extent and severity, as well as quantify post-fire vegetation recovery. We applied an object-based approach to map burn severity and vegetation recovery using Worldview-2, Worldview-3 and QuickBird-2 imagery. The burned area was classified as 51% high, 20% moderate and 29% low burn-severity. Across the burn extent, the shrub cover class showed a rapid recovery, resprouting vigorously within 1 year, whereas 4 years post-fire, areas previously dominated by conifers were divided approximately equally between being classified as dominated by quaking aspen saplings with herbaceous species in the understorey or minimally recovered. Relative to using a pixel-based Normalised Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), our object-based approach showed higher rates of revegetation. High-resolution imagery can provide an effective means to monitor post-fire site conditions and complement more prevalent efforts with moderate- and coarse-resolution sensors.
Preparation and application of 420 martensitic stainless steel wear resistant coating on magnesium alloy by cold spraying
Authors: Chen Jie , Ma Bing , Feng Shengqiang , Dai Yu , Liu Guang , Song Hui , Jia Li
Published: September 2018

Improvement of wear and corrosion resistance by coating processes is a necessity for magnesium alloys. In the present study, 420 stainless steel coatings reinforced with WC–17Co particles were deposited on commercial AZ80 magnesium alloy using the cold spraying technology. Effects of WC–17Co content on microstructure, wear behaviour and corrosion resistance of the cold sprayed composite coatings were studied. Experimental results show that the composite coatings possess higher microhardness and more excellent wear resistance than magnesium alloy substrate. The microhardness and wear resistance of the composite coating are evidently improved with the increase of WC–17Co particle content. Meanwhile, 420SS/WC–17Co composite coatings also reduce the corrosion current density of magnesium alloy, despite that corrosion resistance of the composite coating declines to some extent at a higher content of WC–17Co. Finally, cold sprayed 420SS/WC–17Co composite coating is successfully applied to increase the durability of magnesium alloy road wheel of tracked vehicle.
Experimental evolution of personality traits: open-field exploration in bank voles from a multidirectional selection experiment
Authors: Maiti Uttaran , Sadowska Edyta T , ChrzĄścik Katarzyna M , Koteja Paweł
Published: September 2018

Evolution of complex physiological adaptations could be driven by natural selection acting on behavioral traits. Consequently, animal personality traits and their correlation with physiological traits have become an engaging research area. Here, we applied a unique experimental evolution model—lines of bank voles selected for (A) high exercise-induced aerobic metabolism, (H) ability to cope with low-quality herbivorous diet, and (P) intensity of predatory behavior, that is, traits shaping evolutionary path and diversity of mammals—and asked how the selection affected the voles’ personality traits, assessed in an open field test. The A- and P-line voles were more active, whereas the H-line voles were less active, compared those from unselected control lines (C). H-line voles moved slower but on more meandering trajectories, which indicated a more thorough exploration, whereas the A- and P-line voles moved faster and on straighter trajectories. A-line voles showed also an increased escape propensity, whereas P-line voles tended to be bolder. The remarkable correlated responses to the selection indicate a common genetic underlying mechanism of behavioral and physiological traits, and support the paradigm of evolutionary physiology built around the concept of correlated evolution of behavior and physiology.
Defining renal phenotype in Alström syndrome
Authors: Baig Shanat , Paisey Richard , Dawson Charlotte , Barrett Timothy , Maffei Pietro , Hodson James , Rambhatla Srinivasa Bhargav , Chauhan Priyesh , Bolton Shaun , Dassie Francesca , Francomano Clair , Marshall Robert P , Belal Mohammed , Skordilis Kassiani , Hayer Manvir , Price Anna M , Cramb Robert , Edwards Nicola , Steeds Richard P , Geberhiwot Tarekegn
Published: September 2018

Background

Alström syndrome (AS) is a rare autosomal recessive ciliopathy with a wide spectrum of clinical features, including cone–rod retinal dystrophy, neuronal deafness, severe insulin resistance and major organ failure. The characteristics of renal disease in the syndrome have not been systematically described. The aim of this study is to define the onset and progression of renal disease in AS.

Method

Prospective observational cohort study.

Setting and Participants

Thirty-two adult subjects from a national specialist clinic in UK and 86 subjects from an international AS registry were studied.

Outcomes

First, an international registry cross-sectional study across all age groups to determine change in kidney function was performed. Secondly, a detailed assessment was carried out of adult AS patients with serial follow-up to determine incidence, aetiology and progression of renal disease.

Analytical approach

Generalized estimating equations were used to evaluate the relationship between age and estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR). Associations between patient factors and eGFR levels were then assessed in the adult AS cohort.

Results

The international registry study of the renal function of 118 subjects with AS (median age 21 years) showed a rapid decline with age, at an average of −16.7 and −10.9 mL/min/1.73 m2 per decade in males and females, respectively. In a UK national cohort of 32 patients with AS (median age 22 years), 20/32 (63%) had chronic kidney disease (CKD) Stage 3 or above based on eGFR <60 mL/min/1.73 m2 or evidence of albuminuria. Hyperuricaemia was noted in 25/32 (79%). Structural abnormalities such as nephrocalcinosis without hypercalcaemia and cysts were observed in 20/32 (63%) subjects. Lower urinary tract symptoms were frequent in 17/19 (70%) of AS patients. Histological evidence showed mixed tubulo-interstitial and glomerular disease.

Conclusions

This is the first study to demonstrate that renal disease is the hallmark of AS, which starts early and progresses with age, leading to a high prevalence of advanced CKD at young age. AS should be considered in the differential diagnosis of rare genetic renal diseases.
Women, Power, and Families in Early Modern North America
Authors: Pearsall Sarah M. S.
Published: September 2018

The early modern period, spanning 1500 to 1800, was a vital one for what became the United States, and families were critical to the colonies that underpinned it. Households determined lines of belonging and governance; they gave status and formed a central source of power for both women and men. They also functioned symbolically: creating metaphors for authority (father-king) as well as actual sources of authority. Colonialism, or the imposition of foreign governing regimes, also shaped families and intimacies. The regulation of domestic life was a central feature of colonial power, even as individual families, both settler and indigenous, breached rules that authorities sought to impose. This chapter considers the importance of lineage and households, as well as the effects of war, epidemics, and slavery. It traces a range of households, Native American, African, and Euro-American, to argue for the central importance of families in shaping colonial North America.
Women’s Rights, Suffrage, and Citizenship, 1789–1920
Authors: DuBois Ellen Carol
Published: September 2018

The United States was a pioneer in the development of women’s rights ideas and activism. Far-seeing women, determined to find an active and equal place in the nation’s political affairs, pushed long and hard to realize America’s democratic promise. Over three-quarters of a century, women’s rights and suffrage leaders steadily agitated their cause through a shifting American political landscape, from the careful innovations of the early national period, through the expansive involvements of antebellum politics, into the dramatic shifts of revolution and reaction in the post–Civil War years, up to the modernization of the Progressive Era. The meaning and content of “womanhood,” the sign under which these campaigns were conducted, also shifted. Labor, class, and especially race inclusions and exclusions were contentious dimensions of the American women’s rights movement, as they were of American liberal democracy in general.
Women, Gender, and Religion in the United States
Authors: Braude Ann
Published: September 2018

While historians of America attend to religion most closely in the colonial and early national periods, this chapter, in contrast, views the century following the Civil War as the period when religious women had their greatest public impact, founding huge associations that connected religious women to public goals related to reform, temperance, and missions as well as foreign and domestic policy. It explores the responses of American women to the theological basis of gender in scriptural and doctrinal injunctions governing women’s public speech, leadership, and roles in marriage and motherhood. Treating Protestant, Catholic, Mormon, Muslim, and Jewish women, the chapter draws on interpretive models from African American women’s history, a field that has theorized the inseparability of multiple markers of identity, including religion. It argues that the construction of every religious prejudice, like the construction of race, advances and is advanced by the construction of gender.
Women, Gender, and American History
Authors: Hartigan-O'Connor Ellen , Materson Lisa G.
Published: September 2018

This chapter analyzes the methods, sources, and relationship between women’s and gender history, arguing American women’s and gender history is its own interpretation of American history, focused on how ideas about women and gender shaped people’s lives as they participated in the processes of migration, colonialism, trade, warfare, artistic production, community-building, and political mobilization. It explores the field as an integrated one that embraces tensions between women’s history and gender history, as well as intersectional analysis and new understandings of sexuality, to consider who counts as a “woman” and for what purpose. The field challenges the conventional chronology of the United States and the primacy of the nation as a unit of history. The field’s archive innovation excavates histories hidden in plain sight and scrutinizes silences in the historical record, challenging the nature of historical evidence and remapping what counts in historical interpretation of the past.
Sexual Coercion in America
Authors: Block Sharon
Published: September 2018

Sexual violence has a surprisingly static history, whether regarding methods of sexual assault, the relationship of sexual vulnerability to economic and social vulnerability, an underlying suspicion of women’s claims of sexual force, or an emphasis on physical violence as the only believable means of coercion. This chapter explores the legal, social, and cultural meanings of rape throughout US history from the seventeenth to the twenty-first century. It includes discussions of feminist activism, rape culture, racism, and the overall relationships between social power and sexual power. While legal treatment of sexual violence has changed over time, the ability for powerful men to coerce less powerful women into sexual acts remains a remarkably consistent feature of America’s social, economic, and cultural past and present.
Women, War, and Revolution
Authors: Haulman Kate
Published: September 2018

The American Revolution was at once a military conflict, a political movement, and an event with social and cultural causes, consequences, and meaning for the women who lived in North America. There were moments of opportunity and new freedom for some women, and the possibility of rethinking the concept “woman” itself during the Age of Revolutions, which spanned hemispheres as well as decades. Yet the process of American nation-making with its political compromises and exclusions—particularly concerning slavery and Native Americans; the persistence of patriarchy as enshrined in coverture; and the intersection of the two made for continuity as well as change in the lives of women. Moreover, racialized gendered hierarchy came to characterize the new republic, suggesting that the American Revolution looks far less triumphal and structurally transformative when women’s lives sit at the center of the story.
Manhood and the US Republican Empire
Authors: Ditz Toby L.
Published: September 2018

This chapter shows how republican and imperial grammars of manhood, and the gender order in which they were embedded, defined boundaries of civic and political inclusion in three areas of United States law and policy: the military, land and labor, and immigration. In each, specific models of labor, marriage, and domestic life defined manliness, conferring full privileges of citizenship on some men but denying it to others. Even as they generated racial and class distinctions, grammars of manhood also created openings for challenges by subordinate and marginal men. These dynamics included bids to create an egalitarian interracial republic followed by racist backlash, competition between yeoman ideals and liberal political economy’s manly wage-earning domestic provider, and alternative marriage practices among immigrants and their policing—all in the context of the nation’s colonial past, its aggressive territorial expansionism, and patterns of global labor migration shared with other former slave-based regimes.
Theory, Techniques, and Applications of Regulatory Benchmarking and Productivity Analysis
Authors: Agrell Per J. , Bogetoft Peter
Published: September 2018

State-of-the-art benchmarking methods, and in particular data envelopment analysis (DEA) and stochastic frontier analysis (SFA), are well-established and informative tools in economic regulation to set reasonable revenue caps for energy network operators. However, regulatory benchmarking is not just another application of productivity analysis. This chapter reviews the economic theory upon which these applications are based and the additional stages in activity analysis, data analysis, and model development that are necessary. The chapter also provides detailed analyses of the applications in international electricity transmission and for the Norwegian electricity distribution networks.
Productivity Measurement in the Public Sector
Authors: Diewert W. Erwin
Published: September 2018

Governments either provide various goods and services at no cost or at highly subsidized prices. It is usually possible to measure the quantities of these government-sector outputs and inputs as well as input prices, but the problem is how to estimate the corresponding output prices. Once meaningful output prices have been estimated, the measurement of productivity growth using index numbers can proceed in the usual manner. This chapter suggests three possible general methods for measuring public-sector output prices and quantities. Specific measurement issues in the health and education sectors are discussed. Similar output and productivity measurement issues arise in the regulated sectors of an economy since regulated producers are forced to provide services at prices that are not equal to marginal or average unit costs. Finally, the problems associated with measuring capital services are discussed.
Morphology
Authors: Mahmoodi-Bakhtiari Behrooz
Published: September 2018

This chapter is a description of Persian morphology, which intends to provide a general sketch of the morphological features and processes found in Persian. Therefore, after a general study of the Persian morphemes, nominal and verbal morphologies of Persian are introduced, together with a description of the compounding process in both, as well as other methods of word formation in Persian. In our general sketch of the Persian Morphemes, lexical and functional morphemes are presented, and in the study of functional morphemes, free and bound ones have been studied. In terms of Persian nominal morphology, our study of the pronominal morphology preceeds the study of the nouns, and in verbal morphology, the verb with its structure and functions has been studied. In a separate part on compounding, this very common word-formation process of Persian has been presented, and the minor word-formation types of Persian morphology have also been considered.
Typological Approaches and Dialects
Authors: Dabir-Moghaddam Mohammad
Published: September 2018

Modern Persian reveals interesting typological properties. In terms of word order parameters, it has grammaticalized a number of OV-type and a number of VO-type parameters. As this mixed typological behaviour can be attested in Old Persian and Middle Persian, the implications of this observation for typology, formal linguistics, and theories of language change are worth pursuing. The agreement system of Modern Persian is Nominative-Accusative. However, the majority of Modern Iranian languages are split in this respect. Morphologically, Modern Persian is analytic. This morphological type can be observed in Middle Persian as well. This two-millennium-old typological property gives Persian a distinct place within the Indo-European languages. As Persian is spoken in a widespread geographical area, there are many Persian dialects currently in use. A number of grammatical features of Tajik Persian, Afghan (Dari) Persian, Isfahani Persian, and Gha’eni Persian are briefly mentioned.
Phonology
Authors: Bijankhan Mahmood
Published: September 2018

This chapter reviews the organization of sounds in the contemporary Persian language and discusses the issues in phoneme inventory, syllable structure, distinctive features, phonological rules, rule interaction, and prosodic structure according to the framework of the derivational phonology. Laryngeal states responsible for contrast in pairs of homorganic stops and fricatives are different in Persian. Phonological status of continuancy is controversial for the uvular obstruent. Glottal stop is distinctive at the beginning of loan-words while not at the beginning of the original Persian words. Phonotactic constraints within the codas of the syllables violate the sonority sequencing principle. Glottals are moraic in the coda position. Feature geometry is posited on the sound distinctions and patterns within phonological processes. Eleven phonological rules are explained to suggest natural classes. Interaction of some rules is derived. Laryngeal conspiracy, syllable structure, and intersegmental processes are analysed according to interaction of ranked violable constraints of optimality theory.
The Story of the Johannine Community and its Literature
Authors: de Boer Martinus C.
Published: September 2018

Since the work of J. Louis Martyn and Raymond E. Brown in the late 1960s and 1970s, the hypothesis of a socially distinctive Johannine Community in which the Gospel and Letters of John originated and for which they were also written has played an important role in Johannine scholarship. The combined evidence of the Gospel and Letters lends historical plausibility to this hypothesis, as it does to the hypothesis of a Johannine School of writers. An account of the history of this Johannine Community, including its origin, character, and experiences, has to be correlated with an account of the composition history of the documents (e.g. their sequence). Building on the classic work of Martyn (for the Gospel) and Brown (for the Letters), though diverging from them at several points, this chapter provides a possible history of the Johannine Community and a composition history of the documents.
The Beloved Disciple, the Fourth Evangelist, and the Authorship of the Fourth Gospel
Authors: Thatcher Tom
Published: September 2018

Discussions of the authorship of the Gospel of John must answer two questions: who is the Beloved Disciple who is portrayed as the book’s primary source of information, and how is this individual related to the author, John the evangelist? On the first question, scholars are divided on whether the Beloved Disciple is a real historical individual or an ideal symbolic figure. Data from the text itself and from social-science perspectives on the reputations of key figures from the past suggest that both are correct: the Beloved Disciple was a legendary associate of Jesus whose presentation reflects his reputation as a source of information that was critical to the Johannine theological outlook. On the second question, data suggests that the evangelist was not the Beloved Disciple but rather a disciple of that individual, perhaps basing his own book on an earlier document produced by the Beloved Disciple.
The Johannine Literature and Contemporary Jewish Literature
Authors: Leonhardt-Balzer Jutta
Published: September 2018

This chapter provides an overview of research on the Johannine texts in their relationship with the Jewish literature of Second Temple times. While it cannot be said that the Gospel and Letters draw directly on any specific text, careful analysis demonstrates that they are aware of a wide range of Jewish traditions from very different backgrounds; links with Wisdom and Apocalyptic traditions have long been recognized, while more recently there has been much discussion of their relationship with the Dead Sea Scrolls, and even with later Palestinian Jewish literature, including exegetical traditions. Thus a comparison with a range of Jewish literature helps highlight the specifically Johannine perspective on concerns common in the Jewish traditions of their time.
Alignment During Interaction
Authors: Garrod Simon , Tosi Alessia , Pickering Martin J.
Published: September 2018

During dialogue, interlocutors align their situation models—cognitive representations of what they are currently discussing—and they do so by interacting. This chapter argues that alignment of situation models arises from interlocutors automatically aligning at other linguistic levels. It shows how this automatic alignment comes about from repeating each other’s choices of words, grammar, and meaning, and how alignment at one linguistic level percolates to alignment at other levels. After briefly reviewing the evidence for such alignment, the chapter considers how it relates to communicative success both cognitively and emotionally. Finally, it examines alternative social accounts of linguistic convergence processes (i.e. linguistic alignment) in relation to incidentally or strategically increasing social affiliation.
The Development of Prosodic Phonology
Authors: Demuth Katherine
Published: September 2018

Children’s early word productions are highly variable in form. However, much of this variability is systematic for a given speaker, exhibiting an interaction between segments on the one hand, and syllable and word shapes on the other. Over time, all three increase in complexity, becoming more adult-like, with interactions between them along the way. Some early word realizations take a disyllabic shape commonly found across languages. However, there are also language-specific patterns of word production that begin to be found as early as the babbling stage of development. This process can be nicely captured in terms of the Prosodic Hierarchy, where the child’s phonological grammar gradually unfolds, becoming more complex over time. This view of phonological development provides a framework for better understanding both the nature of within-speaker variability, as well as the course of phonological (and morphological) development cross-linguistically.
Language and Conceptual Development
Authors: Gelman Susan A. , Roberts Steven O.
Published: September 2018

This chapter examines how language and thought interrelate in early childhood, across several distinct domains (e.g. numerical and spatial reasoning, category formation, social cognition). A review of several decades of research indicates that throughout development, language and thought are related in several distinct ways: (1) language builds on (and reveals) existing concepts; (2) language serves as a tool for thinking in new ways; (3) language guides action and attention; (4) language invites children to form new concepts; (5) different languages have specific influences on thought; and (6) language is a social marker, such that a person’s language, dialect, and register permit others to make inferences about them (e.g. what they like and who they affiliate with). The chapter ends by pointing to important questions for future research.
Lexico-Semantics
Authors: Meteyard Lotte , Vigliocco Gabriella
Published: September 2018

This chapter presents a summary of current theories and future directions for research into how humans represent and process word meaning (lexico-semantics). The chapter begins with a review of theoretical approaches from cognitive and developmental psychology, cognitive neuroscience, and computational sciences. Three core issues are identified that theories need to account for: (1) how to characterize non-verbal concepts and lexico-semantics; (2) the cognitive and neural format of lexico-semantic representations; and (3) whether lexico-semantics is fundamentally independent of context (Is there is a fixed “core” of what a word means?) or fundamentally dependent on context (Does word meaning change depending on how it is used?). We conclude that a useful direction for future research will be to carefully consider how words change with their context of use.
New FMRI Methods for the Study of Language
Authors: Willems Roel M. , van Gerven Marcel A. J.
Published: September 2018

The use of various techniques for measuring brain activation has led to a dramatic increase in knowledge about how the brain is involved in language. One of these techniques is functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). This chapter describes ways of analyzing data that take away some of the classical limitations of fMRI. One important message from the chapter is that improved analysis techniques allow for the use of more naturalistic and continuously presented stimuli like spoken narratives or movies, than was considered possible before. Part 1 describes how some traditional limitations of fMRI for language research can relatively easily be overcome. In part 2, state-of-the-art approaches for the analysis of fMRI data are examined. It is intended that the description of these techniques will be inspirational for those who want to perform cognitive neuroscience studies of language, most notably at the level of discourse.
Varieties of Semantic Deficit
Authors: Jefferies Elizabeth , Thompson Hannah
Published: September 2018

This chapter reviews neuropsychological literature on comprehension impairments. Evidence from patients suggests that semantic cognition involves multiple components which can be separately damaged, leading to semantic deficits which play out in qualitatively different ways. This chapter reviews patterns of behavior seen in semantic dementia (SD), a progressive degenerative disorder leading to loss of stored knowledge, and access deficits, including semantic aphasia (SA) and Wernicke’s aphasia (WA), where knowledge is not lost but inaccessible. The chapter argues for a modality and category free “hub” of knowledge, degraded in SD. Additionally SA patients with access deficits are limited in their executive use of knowledge—with inflexible understanding across modalities. The chapter focuses on current areas of debate, highlighting brain regions implicated in different aspects of semantic cognition, and poses unanswered questions within the semantic cognition literature.
Sentence Comprehension
Authors: MacDonald Maryellen C. , Hsiao Yaling
Published: September 2018

This chapter on sentence comprehension reviews prominent sentence comprehension models addressing how people can turn a linear string of words into an understanding of sentence meaning: who did what to whom. A key method is comparing the factors that make one kind of sentence more difficult to comprehend than another, and the chapter discusses the roles of syntactic ambiguity and syntactic complexity in comprehension, including theoretical accounts emphasizing innate comprehension mechanisms or changes in comprehension patterns with experience. The chapter also discusses probabilistic and information theoretic models, the relationship between comprehension and production processes, and incrementality in sentence comprehension—the degree to which comprehension processes are devoted to interpreting the present input, updating the past, and predicting future input. The chapter also addresses future directions and the degree to which sentence comprehension research can be integrated with work addressing other aspects of language comprehension.
The Return of Legal Realism
Authors: Priel Dan
Published: September 2018

This chapter considers what might be called the ‘realist puzzle’: How can scholars who otherwise agree on very little all see themselves as legal realists? It suggests four possible explanations, not mutually exclusive: (a) that the Realists’ ideas were banal and obvious; (b) that they identified something fundamental that—despite all other differences—all contemporary legal scholars now accept; (c) that different people simply identified in the realists whatever they had already believed; and finally (d) that the Realists were less consistent than people commonly assume. Although there is little direct discussion of the realist puzzle in writings on legal realism, it is a useful framework for considering some current trends in scholarship on legal realism, in a way that helps put some recent discussions in a new light.
Roman Law
Authors: Ando Clifford
Published: September 2018

Roman law has been a system of practice and field of academic study for some 2,400 years. Today, the field enjoys unprecedented diversity in terms of linguistic, disciplinary, and national context. However, the contours of contemporary study are the product of complex and imbricated historical factors: the non-codification by the Romans of the classical period of their own public law; solutions taken in the classical period and later to resolve conflicts among sources of law of very different antiquity; the codification in late antiquity of academic jurisprudence regarding private law; the on-going prestige of Roman civil law in medieval and late medieval Europe, which made it a resource for analogical argumentation in both public and international law; and much else besides. This chapter evaluates the contribution made by some of these factors to Roman legal history as a contemporary endeavour, with an eye to its future.
Jewish Law
Authors: Wilf Steven
Published: September 2018

This chapter argues that Jewish law’s distinctive nature is constructed from the ancient to the modern period in the midst of a complex, competing world of plural legalism. It examines how Jewish law appropriated, resisted, and oddly conserved, sometimes while claiming as its own, other forms of legalism—such as Roman or modern law—to create the impression of being a legal other. It also considers two contemporary trends in Jewish law: the stalled—perhaps even failed—attempt to deploy Jewish law as a foundational legal system for the modern Israeli state and, secondly, the project of mining traditional religious Jewish law for its non-parochial, broadly conceptual jurisprudential principles.