bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
John Gardner’s Continuity Theory of Corrective Justice
Authors: Chau Peter
Published: August 2023

This chapter discusses John Gardner’s justification of wrongdoers’ duty to repair, which is based on what he labelled the ‘continuity thesis’. After noting that continuity thesis-based justifications of wrongdoers’ duty to repair come in different forms, it is suggested that Gardner can be read as offering either a version that is based on a loss-independent right to hold on to one’s existing life or a version that is based on a right against wrongful loss. It is argued that the former version cannot justify reparation generally, and that the latter version cannot work in circumstances of distributive injustice. Two passages by Gardner discussing distributive justice-based challenges to corrective justice are then considered, and it is argued that they provide no satisfactory reply to the concern just raised.
Virtuously Discriminating: John Gardner’s Contributions to Discrimination Theory
Authors: Moreau Sophia
Published: August 2023

This chapter focuses on Gardner’s most original contributions to the growing field of discrimination theory. Gardner defended a number of quite radical views about discrimination—for instance, that indirect discrimination is just another form of direct discrimination, and that discrimination is wrong because we prohibit it (a malum prohibitum) rather than wrong in itself (a malum in se). In this chapter, I explain his views and discuss the possibilities he has opened for future philosophical inquiry and productive legal reform. I argue that it is particularly important that we take seriously his suggestion that the divide between direct and indirect discrimination is not very wide. I then critique some features of his views. I argue that although direct and indirect discrimination are wrong for similar reasons, we should not treat indirect discrimination as just another form of direct discrimination on a different ground. I also argue that it is a mistake to think that discrimination is a malum prohibitum, and that in order to see why it is genuinely a malum in se, we need to move beyond Gardner’s concept of disadvantage and focus on the particular way of disadvantaging people that makes discrimination wrongful, which in my view involves subordination.
Indigenous Rights and Decolonized Legal Positivism
Authors: Newman Dwight
Published: August 2023

The accelerating global development of legal doctrine on Indigenous rights poses important questions on the nature of law that analytical legal positivists have largely eschewed. Indigenous rights theorists have often attacked ‘positivism’ for its implications for Indigenous rights. However, the clarification of the concept can offer ways of reframing the engagement between Indigenous rights and positivism. While their arguments are not necessarily different from those of other human rights advocates, the choice by Indigenous rights theorists to attack positivism is nonetheless a strategic error. In parallel, the choice by positivist scholars to pay less attention to this area of law than they could has undermined possibilities of adding helpful nuances to positivism. To the extent that recognition of Indigenous rights might be described as entailing recognition of legal rights originating from a source preceding or otherwise outside the legal system that recognizes them, such recognition raises fundamental questions worthy of attention. This piece, wrestling with aspects of John Gardner’s account of positivism, engages with some of these questions, using Indigenous rights doctrine as a central example of norms that are legal—as opposed to conceptually outside law—while nonetheless having a more complex relation to the concept of a legal system than some versions of positivism seem to permit. Distinguishing this claim from functionalist accounts of ‘law’ not oriented to the concept of law, the chapter will argue that Gardner’s account of positivism can open space for a set of principled exceptions to standard positivist requirements while grounding these exceptions in underlying positivist principles.
Big-E Equity, Small-C Conservatism
Authors: Samet Irit
Published: August 2023

This chapter attempts to dig a little deeper into the relationship between the general theory advanced by Gardner and Big E Equity, namely, the body of law developed by the courts of Chancery in England. The chapter asks whether the central ideas Gardner explored in ‘From Personal Life to Private Law’ apply to the law of Equity. The question is interesting for scholars and students of Equity, even if Gardner himself never got around to discuss it in depth. The chapter suggests that the answer to this question is ‘yes, albeit in a unique way that reflects the unusual nature of this area of law’. It starts by looking briefly at Gardner’s explanation of why the law of obligations operates in the way that it does (mainly in Gardner’s chapter 5), and then explain why, at first glance, it does not seem to account for Equity. However, as the chapter argues next, correctly identifying if the unique role of Equity within the legal system can help reveal the way in which the themes Gardner suggests reverberate under its surface.
Human olfaction: A view from the top
Authors: Pierzchajlo Stephen , Olofsson Jonas K.
Published: August 2023

Although our understanding of human olfactory perception has increased dramatically, it remains less well understood how olfaction interacts with cognitive processes. This chapter reviews the claim that olfaction predominantly supports ‘novelty detection’, a framework that leaves little room for cognitive representations and processes. It is argued that this framework has several possible limitations. Instead, it is proposed that human olfaction is best understood in terms of its significant reliance on top-down processes; a fundamental role of olfaction is to evaluate predictions that are constructed based on the context, and these predictions may be explicit and cognitive in nature. Olfaction is, according to this view, not limited to passively responding to environmental changes, but actively interacts with cognitive systems to shape goal-directed behaviours. It is proposed that cue-target matching tasks provide useful and flexible experimental designs to study these effects.
The Skeptical Rule
Authors: Pinillos N. Ángel
Published: August 2023

This chapter puts forward the skeptical rule (Principal Base Sensitivity), a heuristic which produces our skeptical inclinations. The rule says that if the principal base for your belief that p is insensitive to p, then you don’t know p. An agent applying the rule checks to see if the principal base for the belief at issue would be the same (have the same truth value) if the belief in question were false. If it would be the same (insensitivity), then the agent becomes inclined to judge that the belief in question is not knowledge. The chapter argues that this rule can explain skeptical doubt in global, local, lottery, and statistical cases. In addition, something like this rule can account for why we find certain arguments for skeptical doubt appealing. In particular, it can help explain why the Cartesian and under-determination arguments seem plausible, as well as an argument from James Pryor.
Skepticism in Society
Authors: Pinillos N. Ángel
Published: August 2023

This chapter discusses the societal impact of skeptical thinking. It begins with an argument that efforts to adhere to certain knowledge norms of inquiry can inhibit fruitful creative inquiry. Knowledge skepticism, in certain instances, can provide a healthy antidote to that force. However, it’s also the case that skepticism can have a stultifying effect on decision-making, as it prevents the closing-off of idle possibilities. Finally, the chapter argues that skepticism can play an important role in the logic of conspiratorial thought. In particular, it can explain how those theories may be seen to be immune from refutation. Based on this perspective, the chapter proposes some ways to respond to conspiracy theorists.
Psychological Accounts
Authors: Pinillos N. Ángel
Published: August 2023

This chapter reviews leading psychological accounts of our attraction to skepticism. It discusses approaches put forward by John Hawthorne, Timothy Williamson, Alexander Dinges, Jennifer Nagel, Mikkel Gerken, Alexander Jackson, John Turri, and others. These psychological theories appeal to well-known biases including those that arise from uses of the availability and the subadditivity heuristics as well as from stereotype and ego-centric thinking. They provide causal accounts of how our judgments or inclinations to judge in skeptical cases arise. They contrast with semantic or epistemic theories which were reviewed in the previous chapter (although we “psychologized” those approaches). The take-home message of this chapter is that the various accounts in the literature are either mistaken or incomplete. I recommend the approach I defend in this book.
Pay no attention to the model behind the curtain
Authors: Stark Philip B.
Published: August 2023

Many widely used models amount to an elaborate means of making up numbers—but once a number has been produced, it tends to be taken seriously and its source (the model) is rarely examined carefully. Many widely used models have little connection to the real-world phenomena they purport to explain. Common steps in modelling to support policy decisions, such as putting disparate things on the same scale, may conflict with reality. Not all costs and benefits can be put on the same scale; not all uncertainties can be expressed as probabilities; and not all model parameters measure what they purport to measure. These ideas are illustrated with examples from seismology, wind turbine bird deaths, and climate policy.
In the twilight of probability
Authors: Vineis Paolo , Savarino Luca
Published: August 2023

This chapter analyses the use of scientific concepts, observations, and models in their intersection with values in policy-making, with examples. Though we refer mainly to the experience of COVID-19, the chapter goes beyond this by describing how policy-making uses scientific knowledge in different ways and in different contexts, but almost never explicitly referring to underlying uncertainties, implicit values, and assumptions. In addition to dissecting mathematical models to describe the evolution of the pandemic, we also refer to the historical evolution of the intertwining of science and values by referring to the pivotal theories of Max Weber, and how they need to change in the current Anthropocene context. We propose that politics or policy-making is the art of finding a balance between different values (and interests) on the basis of the scientific evidence available at the time. Much has changed since Weber’s times, and a radical separation between science and values is now contradicted by facts—that is, the increasing commitment of scientists on political grounds in the wake of the environmental crisis. The Anthropocene reality can only be described as an increasingly cultured nature that is constantly reshaped and destabilized by the action of human beings. This situation calls for a radical rethinking of the relationships between science and values in policy-making.
Epilogue: Those special models
Authors: Saltelli Andrea , Fiore Monica Di
Published: August 2023

This chapter reflects on the ‘state of exception’ of mathematical models, which are to some extent shielded by their mathematical specialization from the gaze of other disciplines. It also tackles the political economy of mathematical modelling, and what role models play in the nexus between numbers and democratization. The authors mention the trade-off between quantity and quality, listing examples of modelling gone wrong, but also good practices which might be adopted to alleviate existing pathologies, keeping in mind the objective of reciprocal domestication between models and society. What is to be done? The chapter concludes with lessons from existing movements regarding responsible use of numbers, from the French statactivists to the US Algorithmic Justice League.
Atlantic slave trade
Authors: Zimmermann Lisbeth , Deitelhoff Nicole , Lesch Max , Arcudi Antonio , Peez Anton
Published: August 2023

For centuries, European seafaring nations traded enslaved people across the Atlantic: Over ten million human beings were violently torn from their homes and surroundings in one part of the world, Africa, transported across the Atlantic, and sold in a second region of the world, the Americas—in a business operated by people from a third region, Europe. The permissive Atlantic slave-trading norm established the right of states to facilitate the capture, transport, and sale of African people. The slave trade is an important example of an international norm that completely eroded and has been replaced. This chapter compares developments in Portuguese and British slave trading from the sixteenth to the early nineteenth centuries and shows how applicatory contestation generally prevailed and helped stabilize the norm. Only after Great Britain began to distance itself from the trade and pressured other nations to follow suit did the norm start to erode.
International norm disputes
Authors: Zimmermann Lisbeth , Deitelhoff Nicole , Lesch Max , Arcudi Antonio , Peez Anton
Published: August 2023

This final chapter in the book summarizes and compares the main findings in our six case studies of the link between contestation and norm robustness. We analyze the key factors of law, the relative power of norm challengers, and institutions in order to explain when contestation radicalizes and weakens international norms. Additionally, we discuss how this project relates to recent debates on issues such as norm complexity and change, practice, silence, and critique. We conclude by outlining how our findings and insights into the dynamics of international norms advance the current debate about the “crisis” of the liberal international order.
Introduction
Authors: Tabarrini Lorenzo
Published: August 2023

The Introduction outlines the main themes and problems related to the study of medieval economic growth during the central Middle Ages. It then proceeds to provide an overview of the historiography on land management in medieval Tuscany; finally, it addresses the political history of Lucca and Florence by focusing on the development of the commune, the emergence of the Popolo, the surge in warfare, and the sharpening of increasingly complex fiscal systems. This is the background against which the analysis of land management and rural society needs to be set. The Introduction argues that the transformations in the forms of estate management, which accelerated over the decades bridging the twelfth and the thirteenth centuries, were largely caused by the socio-political context of that time, which furthered in turn overall economic change.
How International Institutions Transform
Authors: Graham Erin R.
Published: August 2023

Chapter 2 develops a theoretical framework to understand and explain how gradual, subterranean transformation occurs in international institutions. The first section offers a review and critique of prominent theories of institutional change in IR, with an emphasis on rationalist approaches. Drawing especially on historical institutionalist approaches, the second section develops the framework’s foundations of genuine uncertainty, permissive rules, and creative agents. The third section integrates interpretive rules outlined in the Vienna Convention on the Law of the Treaties into layering and conversion processes developed by historical institutionalist scholars. The fourth section outlines the observable implications of the framework.
Vision over Visibility
Authors: Graham Erin R.
Published: August 2023

Chapter 3 outlines the planning process and negotiations that culminated in the adoption of the United Nations Charter. It identifies the combination of one-country-one-vote in the General Assembly, the Assembly’s budgetary authority, and mandatory funding obligations for all UN member states, as jointly producing egalitarian multilateralism at the UN. This design outcome is puzzling in retrospect. The Soviet Union would regret the combination in just a few years’ time and the US would follow by 1960. Consistent with the framework outlined in Chapter 2, the chapter demonstrates that genuine uncertainty prevented the UK, the US, and the USSR from “seeing” the challenges of 1960 from 1945. Using archival evidence, it uncovers the working assumptions of UN negotiators in 1945 about how the UN and the world would develop and reveals how these assumptions were wrong in two respects. First, they misjudged decolonization in various ways. They failed to anticipate how quickly new states would gain independence, how many new states decolonization would produce, and the preferences of newly independent states. Second, and related, they did not anticipate the potential for UN costs to rise significantly because they did not foresee a substantial operational arm in either peacekeeping or economic and social development. The chapter argues that had negotiators foreseen these developments, UN Charter rules would look quite different.
Creative Cracks in Multilateralism
Authors: Graham Erin R.
Published: August 2023

Chapter 5 considers the negotiations and establishment of the United Nations Development Program (UNDP). It demonstrates that earmarked funding was first accepted at UNDP to accommodate a pledge from the Netherlands that they wished to earmark for special industrial services. The UN Office of Legal Affairs determined the contribution would be illegal under UNDP rules but recommended a legal maneuver to allow UNDP to accept the contribution. Less than two years later, the UNDP Governing Council formally incorporated the recommendation from Legal Affairs in its financial rules, formally allowing earmarked funding. Consistent with the theoretical framework, evidence demonstrates that earmarks were not introduced to undermine multilateral governance. Rather, they came from states with a pro-UN orientation seeking to overcome political disagreement over the substance of UNDP activity, especially in the field of industrial development. It further demonstrates that the impetus for earmarked funding rules at UNDP and early earmarked contributions came not from the US, but from smaller donor states. Proposals from these states were less likely to provoke suspicion and opposition, facilitating the subterranean nature of institutional change.
Conclusion
Authors: Graham Erin R.
Published: August 2023

Chapter 7 covers the culmination of the UN’s transformation as the use of earmarked funding increases from the 1990s onward, sidelining multilateralism within the United Nations. It documents the late-breaking realization across the UN system of the costs associated with an increased reliance on earmarked funding. These include a distortion of program priorities, and an inability to comply with need-based allocation, alongside concerns about governance. The chapter summarizes findings with regard to uncoordinated, subterranean transformations, and derives lessons for the study of international institutional development. In addition, it offers implications for how we think about UN agencies—and other international organizations that are heavily reliant on earmarked funding—as actors in world politics. Finally, it evaluates the prospects of efforts to roll back earmarked funding, including the UN Funding Compact.
Introduction
Authors: May Steven W.
Published: August 2023

The Introduction outlines the rationale for this book with examples of the kinds of new information that can be gleaned from the manuscript archives: the immediately literary (such as works by unknown women authors), along with biographical and more broadly historical discoveries. Renaissance manuscript culture did not evolve organically from its medieval counterpart. That professional, parchment-based scribal tradition continued to develop its own contours as paper grafted onto it a very different, amateur scribal culture. The new, paper-based tradition extended literacy, and with it opportunities for complex thought and transmission of knowledge of all sorts down the socio-economic scale to populations heretofore excluded from it by the high cost of the only extensive writing surface, parchment. The focus of this study is the circulation of poetry through the scribal communities that made up an informal national network for transmitting texts of all kinds.
The Transition to a Hybrid Scribal Culture
Authors: May Steven W.
Published: August 2023

The English tradition of amateur manuscript culture spread at an ever-accelerating pace, producing an ever greater volume of documents written in the vernacular by scribes from ever less affluent social strata The new tradition did not grow out of the medieval one but was instead grafted onto it. At the same time, Church and state took advantage of cheap paper to expand their record keeping. The proliferating texts expanded the need for scriveners and secretaries. On the official level, this increase led to the creation of a national repository of records and a national system of posts augmenting the traditional services of private servant-messengers. Print greatly expanded the production of texts in multiple copies, but was otherwise merely another innovation made possible by the availability of cheap paper. And while this study is only concerned with the textual nature of paper’s impact on English culture, it infiltrated daily life in myriad other ways where it was used for bandages, to store medicines, spices, tobacco, and foods, to strain liquids, and to line baking pans. The new product was soon pervasive in society as it is today.
Amateur Handwriting and Document Formats
Authors: May Steven W.
Published: August 2023

Chapter 2 deals with the complexities of handwriting with pen and ink. It surveys the time, effort, and materials amateur scribes needed to produce handwritten texts on paper or parchment. An overview of the various hands taught to amateur scribes, and the personal adaptations of these model alphabets, shows how the amateur tradition in all its variety was far more susceptible to misinterpretation and the transmission of error in the texts it produced than was the case for either professional copy or printed texts. A survey of the kinds of document formats cultivated during the age of paper concludes with an analysis of how paper influenced personal correspondence.
Personal Notebooks
Authors: May Steven W.
Published: August 2023

Chapter 3 describes the kinds of personal notebooks that paper encouraged including student notebooks, commonplace books, books on specialized topics such as recipes and alchemy, and various different types of anthologies. A sampling of these notebooks serves to emphasize the variety of their contents and the fact that almost anyone could afford to compile such documents. Texts of all kinds were accessed by amateur scribes who collected and transmitted them with few limitations regarding where they lived or their economic or social status. This survey of representative manuscript notebooks highlights the democratizing power of the amateur scribal tradition based on paper.
The Circulation of Texts
Authors: May Steven W.
Published: August 2023

Chapter 4 concerns the circulation of texts in the new hybrid scribal culture with particular attention to how paper encouraged both production and widespread circulation. Exclusive coteries played a very small role in this circulation, which was dominated by an informal national network made up of what Harold Love has termed “scribal communities.” In aggregate, these interconnected, overlapping communities transmitted manuscripts rapidly to all parts of the kingdom. Compilers of manuscripts received and sent texts by regularly scheduled carriers as well as by informal means. Sites of composition included inns, taverns, and alehouses as well as the court, universities, and Inns of Court. The scribal culture nurtured by these scribal communities connected through a national network of textual exchange ignored class barriers, bringing transcribed texts of all kinds to audiences that, historically, had been largely cut off from literate culture of any kind.
Loss Rates and the Skewed Patterns of Survival
Authors: May Steven W.
Published: August 2023

Chapter 5 considers the impact of loss rates on our understanding of scribal culture. The Dissolution of the Monasteries, the English Civil War, and the Great Fire of London were three major events that caused catastrophic destruction of manuscripts during the Renaissance. The very high rates of loss for such documents, especially those from the amateur tradition, led to skewed patterns of survival that do not always receive much attention in considerations of scribal culture. The circumstances of manuscript survival guarantee that what survives cannot leave us with a representative cross-section of the overall culture of writing in which they were produced. What we have lost is difficult to assess or reconstruct, but has a significant bearing on the actual nature of Renaissance literate culture.
Real Forgiveness
Authors: Russell Luke
Published: August 2023

Forgiveness is supposedly the key to regaining happiness and escaping cycles of blame and revenge, but is it true that we always ought to forgive those who wrong us, even if they are unrepentant repeat offenders? In forgiving them, would we be failing to stand up for ourselves and letting them off the hook? These questions are complicated by the fact that no one can agree on what forgiveness is supposed to be. Is forgiveness an emotional change within the victim, including the loss of resentment? Is forgiveness a change in the way that the victim treats the wrongdoer, perhaps including reconciliation or the merciful withholding of punishment? Is forgiving a performative speech act, similar to making a promise or to cancelling a debt? Is forgiveness a moral virtue? This book identifies the tensions within our thinking about forgiveness and explains why there is endless disagreement on this issue. Many assume that forgiveness is permissible whenever it is possible, that forgiveness is available to every victim, and that forgiveness allows victim and perpetrator to move on peacefully. It turns out that forgiveness cannot be all of these things simultaneously, so we must reject one of these common assumptions. Arguably, real forgiveness results in intrapersonal and interpersonal peace and is available to every victim. This means that real forgiveness is frequently beneficial and morally admirable, but in some cases is irrational, dangerous, and impermissible. Sometimes the victim morally ought to remain in conflict with the wrongdoer, and so should not forgive.
Introduction
Authors: Russell Luke
Published: August 2023

What is forgiveness, and when should we forgive? Victims are often praised for forgiving, but sometimes to forgive appears to be weak, dangerous, or unjust. To make matters worse, there is enormous disagreement as to what forgiveness is supposed to be. Does forgiveness entail mercy and reconciliation? Is forgiveness compatible with continued punishment? Is forgiveness a moral virtue? This introduction sets out the structure of the book Real Forgiveness chapter by chapter, showing how it will survey philosophical views of forgiveness, provide an underlying explanation of the disagreements, and conclude by setting out a novel and attractive account of forgiveness.
The Philosophy of Forgiveness
Authors: Russell Luke
Published: August 2023

This chapter maps out the history of the philosophy of forgiveness and considers whether contemporary philosophers can provide us with an adequate definition. How is forgiving related to various other ways of responding to wrongdoing, including resenting, blaming, rebuking, punishing, pardoning, excusing, and forgetting? While some contemporary philosophers refer back to Bishop Butler’s comments on forgiveness, philosophical work on interpersonal forgiveness did not begin in earnest until the second half of the twentieth century, when several influential papers set the parameters for the current debate and helped to solidify some common assumptions about the nature of forgiveness. There is a lot of disagreement on this issue, but this chapter focuses on the common ground. The vast majority of contemporary philosophers who write about this topic agree that forgiving is a response to wrongdoing that is incompatible with excusing and with justifying, and, in slightly different way, incompatible with forgetting. Most philosophers think that forgiveness is connected in some way to blame and the reactive attitude of resentment. Furthermore, contemporary philosophers agree that forgiving is distinct from but compatible with institutional pardoning and acts of mercy.
Prioritizing the Unrestricted Availability of Forgiveness
Authors: Russell Luke
Published: August 2023

This chapter explores the options that are available to philosophers who claim that forgiveness is an act that is available to all victims, and that forgiving is under the victim’s direct voluntary control. These philosophers suggest that forgiving is a performative speech act, similar to the making of a promise, via which the forgiver exercises a normative power. According to this view, a victim who forgives thereby waives some obligations and creates others. This chapter examines several performative accounts of forgiveness, some of which suggest that the forgiver abandons the right to blame the wrongdoer, and others which suggest that the forgiver also abandons her right to keep punishing or resisting the wrongdoer. Performative commitments of this kind are a genuine and important moral phenomenon, but ultimately it is not plausible that they are an essential part of forgiveness. It is also problematic to make the weaker claim that one kind of forgiveness is performative, but another kind is not. The performative act that these philosophers are talking about is not forgiveness itself, but something that sometimes occurs in association with it.
Prioritizing the Peaceful Functionality of Forgiveness
Authors: Russell Luke
Published: August 2023

This chapter develops and defends the Peaceful End Point account of forgiveness, prioritizing the idea that forgiving results in intrapersonal and interpersonal peace. On this model, forgiveness is primarily conceived of as the stable end state in which the victim no longer holds hostile reactive attitudes towards the perpetrator, and in which victim and perpetrator are no longer in conflict, even though the victim still judges that she was culpably wronged by the perpetrator. With this end state as our anchoring point, we can then define forgiving as the process via which the victim moves into that end state. This comparatively expansive conception of forgiveness allows that there are many different ways of forgiving, some active and reason-driven, some passive, some correctly targeted at culpable wrongdoing, some mistargeted at actions that were not even wrong. What it takes for a victim to forgive depends on that victim’s particular starting point. The Peaceful End Point account makes sense of the fact that forgiveness is frequently sought by both victims and by wrongdoers, and why it is sometimes easy but other times very difficult for a victim to forgive. It also helps us to see why some cases of forgiveness are morally wrong, and why the relevant moral virtue in this domain is not best described as the virtue of forgiveness.
Entrepreneurial Journalism
Authors: Dahiya Surbhi
Published: August 2023

The advent of the new media technologies effected a tectonic shift in the perception of what constitutes capital. Until then, the word ‘capital’ referred to tangible wealth required for launching a business enterprise. The New Information and Communication Technologies transmuted the character of capital from tangible to intangible wealth. Information was no more only a facilitating communicational requirement for the success of a business organization. It became the new capital. As an intellectual product, it could power into existence of new service-based business ventures. Hence, the mushrooming of the tech-based business ventures by people who could lay no claim to big ticket investments, the sole preserve of the legacy entrepreneurs of the post-industrial revolution period. Post the financial meltdown of 2007, it even took on the shape of a new kind of money, the crypto currencies, free from governmental, as if cocking a snook at the financial mess created by the central banks. Soon, a whole new industry came up using the crypto currencies not just as store of value but also as a medium of exchange, the function that currencies have been performing. This marginalization of physical wealth and centre staging of intellectual wealth, rather capital, has made the ground even for the entry of the knowledge-entrepreneur in various sectors of the economy, including the business of news. Welcome to the age of digital media organizations that depend for their success on the ingenuity of content creators and content designers on multiple digital platforms! This book details the digital entrepreneurial journalistic endeavours in India.
The Indian Trailblazers
Authors: Dahiya Surbhi
Published: August 2023

The digital revolution is accentuating and leading to a metamorphosis of the society. The world is getting closer due to digitization with ventures innovating and merging the virtual with the real world. Journalism cannot stay bereft of this digitization, nor can the media industry subsist without the ultimate transformation. Many opinions have been put forth regarding the unique amalgamation of traditional and modern-day dissemination of news, the onset of innovative ventures, and the rise of the new and dynamic business/economic environment. In this chapter, the author explains international trends: celebrity journalists shifting to digital start-ups, in line with online: digital metamorphosis of traditional Indian media, online presence of foreign media in India, and emergence of the trailblazers: digital Indian media giants. Some of the digital journalism trailblazers in India that the author has covered in detail in this book are ThePrint, ScoopWhoop, Inshorts, IndiaSpend, Boomlive, Alt News, Youth Ki Awaz (YKA), Democracy News Live, Beyond Headlines, Better India, The Quint, PARI, The Wire, exchange4media, Newslaundry, Scroll, The Logical Indian, etc. Many others such as Editorji, Khabar Lahariya, and CGNet Swara have been discussed briefly in a separate chapter.
ScoopWhoop
Authors: Dahiya Surbhi
Published: August 2023

ScoopWhoop (SW) is a digital media start-up headquartered in New Delhi with offices in Mumbai and Bengaluru. In 2019, Oxford University’s Reuters Institute placed ScoopWhoop among the ten most trusted online news websites in India. ‘It’s the only new media company in the top 10’, according to Sattvik Mishra. The author takes on board the inception of this organization that was started as an experiment by three classmates of the Indian Institute of Mass Communication. The author also uncovers the genesis, strategic intent, growth and development, editorial policies, revenue, funding, and business model of the organization. The chapter sheds light on their creative and unique content and product development that helps them in keeping Indianness alive via their stories. The chapter unfolds how SW represents and celebrates the unique culture of the young Indian—which is multicultural in itself.
Youth Ki Awaaz
Authors: Dahiya Surbhi
Published: August 2023

Youth Ki Awaaz (YKA) is an open publishing platform which lets people post about issues that they are passionate about. Started in 2008 by Anshul Tewari, currently the online portal boasts of over 160,000 writers and 4 million views every month. It also promotes young people to write about critical issues, ranging from education and gender to politics and culture. The chapter outlines the ability of the youth to talk about anything that they feel about and the persistent issues in the country and the world on the online platform that has been provided by YKA. The organization is also promoting mobile journalism for easy accessibility. Therefore, the chapter discusses about this organization that is aiming to build a democratic and participatory society. The aim of the organization, which is further elaborated in the chapter, is to build a democratic and participatory audience via community-led product model. The chapter focuses on the vision, mission, strategy, ideation, genesis, editorial policies, technology used, revenue and funding, and the business model of the organization.
The Quint
Authors: Dahiya Surbhi
Published: August 2023

‘The Quint tells stories no one else is willing to tell’—that’s how the digital media organization describes itself. The author discovers their journey of ‘FOMO’ (fear of missing out) that makes them stand distinct in the pack of varied digital platforms. In the chapter, the author embarks on the journey of the genesis and growth of the organization which claims, ‘We are the signal above the noise’. With the strong background of its founders, the organization is appealing to the audience with innovative experiments like WebQoof, a fact-check programme. Their slogan is ‘Truth for the Youth’ that suggests their appeal to the millennial by providing them with supreme technological experience along with factual content. They are expanding digitally with their social media handles and also by partnering with other media outlets for platforms such as BQ Prime (formerly BloombergQuint) and Quintype.
Newslaundry
Authors: Dahiya Surbhi
Published: August 2023

The chapter outlines the birth and growth of Newslaundry, an organization backed up by renowned journalists. It unravels their motive to present analytical reports on the basis of investigative journalism to the citizens of a democratic country. A peep into the journey of Newslaundry explains their establishment both as a media watchdog and a news site that follows the path of truth and transparency and has been committed to presenting current affairs stories in innovative and engaging formats including media critique and reportage. The chapter sketches the enunciation of the organization defining its mission and vision statements, content, editorial and business policies, unique characteristics, and how it competes with its rivals with alacrity. Exclusive interviews with the founders of the digital venture reveals the challenges and emerging business model of the organization. Depending solely on its subscribers for the revenue has been a dicey way to run an organization, but it has collaborated with some giants who have invested a handsome amount in the organization. The author wants to take the readers through the odyssey of Newslaundry—the watchdog of watchdogs.
Tips for Budding Journopreneurs
Authors: Dahiya Surbhi
Published: August 2023

The last chapter focuses on tips for budding journalists with a futuristic approach. It also talks about the future of entrepreneurial journalism in India.
Precarious lives
Authors: Waters Rob
Published: August 2023

‘Precarious lives’ describes how London’s race–class topography developed in the two decades after the end of the Second World War. As London’s multi-ethnic make-up expanded in these years, people of colour were concentrated in just a few of the city’s poorest districts. To their white neighbours they became an index of poverty against which the fragile gains of reconstruction, affluence, and the social-democratic settlement were measured. On-the-ground campaigns to limit black and brown settlement in the city frequently mobilized against the threat to socio-economic status and material prosperity that black settlement was presumed to bring. In this, the politics of race and class became inextricably linked, as, for many white Londoners, the struggles of class status and hierarchy became tied to questions of the proximity of racial otherness. This was the context in which the ideals of civilization and, above all, respectability moved to the heart of anti-immigration politics. It was through race that the politics of respectability lasted in the post-war period, where otherwise it might have more readily declined. This chapter demonstrates its hold.
Bad citizens
Authors: Waters Rob
Published: August 2023

In the thinking of integrationists, to be tolerant and indeed to embrace integration was a sign of respectability; to seek segregation or to indulge in racial discrimination, or, worse still, racial hatred, was a sign of roughness. ‘Bad citizens’ explores the reform projects directed towards ‘bad’ white citizens, seeing how the reaction of integrationists to the white violence of the 1958 Notting Hill riots led to a concerted effort to ‘civilize’ the ‘hooligans’ upon whom the violence of the riots was blamed. This was a way of understanding racism that explained it as a product, simultaneously, of ‘roughness’ and primitivity, both of which were understood to be in plentiful supply among the Teddy boys who led the violence in Notting Hill. A good dose of civilization and civility, in this thinking, could transform racists into integrationists and solve the problems posed by the threat of racial violence. The bad white citizen—epitomized in the figure of the Teddy boy, taken to be the typical rioter and race-hater—was repeatedly cast as outside the bounds of civility, respectability, and citizenship, and indeed his unreadiness for life in a multi-ethnic city was spoken of in racial terms as often as was his black neighbours’. Teddy boys were, in the eyes of many integrationists, degenerate whites, simultaneously in need of reform and, in more pessimistic moments, beyond help.
The Metaphysics of Christology in the Late Middle Ages
Authors: Cross Richard
Published: August 2023

The late middle ages was a period of great speculative innovation in Christology, within the framework of a standard Christological opinion established by the Franciscan John Duns Scotus and the Dominican Hervaeus Natalis. This book explores ways in which this standard opinion was developed in the period, along with alternative views proposed by Peter Auriol, John Wyclif, and others. The fourteenth and fifteenth centuries were pre-eminently the age of nominalism, and this book examines the impact of nominalism on Christological discussions, as well as the development of Thomist and Scotist theology in the period. It also provides essential background for the correct understanding of Reformation Christology.
Introduction
Authors: Cross Richard
Published: August 2023

This chapter describes the standard account of the metaphysics of Christology found in the late Middle Ages, according to which Christ’s human nature depends on the divine person in a way akin to that in which an accident depends on a substance. (The view is here labelled the ‘opinio communis’.) The chapter shows that the view was accepted not just in Paris, but universally. It discusses the way in which Franciscan and Dominican approaches to the theory differ from each other in various small details. It contextualizes this Christology relative to the three Christological opinions found in Peter Lombard’s Sentences. It introduces some of the main doctrinal currents, including the traditions of Scotism, Thomism, and nominalism, and with reference to Jean Gerson shows that nominalism was by far the most significant position on the theory of universals in the period.
Christological semantics and the impact of nominalism
Authors: Cross Richard
Published: August 2023

This chapter shows the impact that nominalism had on Christological semantics. It also attempts to show that this impact, with one possible exception, did not extend to the metaphysics of Christology. The chapter begins with a consideration of a standard realist semantics: that of Scotus, here summarized by his student John of Bassolis. It shows that nominalist metaphysics and semantics was introduced in the early fourteenth century by Hervaeus Natalis, and then becomes the predominant position among both Dominicans and Ockham and his followers. It thus features as a presupposition in the debates between Durand of St Pourçain and his Dominican opponents at Paris. Some Dominicans in the fifteenth century return to Aquinas’s realism, and at the same time some Franciscans adopt aspects of the Christological semantics proposed by Bonaventure. The chapter ends with the speculation that Aquinas’s Christology was not adopted until the fifteenth century because it is metaphysically inconsistent with nominalism.
Homo assumptus Christologies
Authors: Cross Richard
Published: August 2023

This chapter considers some theologians who adopt the homo assumptus Christology, a pre-Chalcedonian Christology, from Augustine. The Franciscan John of Ripa argues that the divine person is the same as the human nature, such that something can be God without being the divine nature. As a result the divine person communicates the complete array of divine attributes to the human nature, not by informing the nature, but by being some non-informing formal cause of the nature. John Wyclif holds that there is some kind of identity between the divine person and the human nature, such that features of the human nature can be predicated of the divine person. Jan Hus copied the relevant parts of Wyclif’s Christology, and the position was condemned at the Council of Constance. The chapter includes with an account of the issue found in Thomas Netter of Walden, who attempts to show that various Augustinian and other texts appealed to by Wyclif admit of an orthodox interpretation. The chapter ends with an account of the Christology of Augustine Favaroni of Rome, and the explicit condemnation of the homo assumptus Christology at the Council of Basel.
Reviews
Authors: Wilson Ross
Published: August 2023

This chapter opens by considering the depreciation of the review and the fear that it is disappearing as a form with which that depreciation is twinned. The anxiety surrounding the anonymity of reviewers is shown to be a perennial concern, having been hotly debated in the eighteenth, nineteenth, and twentieth centuries, and being reprised in the relatively new context of online reviewing. The question of the identity of professional literary criticism is central here, as is, relatedly, the relation between academia and journalism. The chapter also necessarily addresses the history of a number of notable periodicals. Examples discussed include Mary Wollstonecraft’s reviews, Francis Jeffrey’s reviewing of the same work by Robert Southey in different venues, as well as Edmund Wilson’s long career as reviewer, in which he ably exploited the conventions of the review.
The Winding-Up
Authors: Wilson Ross
Published: August 2023

This book about different literary-critical forms ends with an experiment in a different literary-critical form. The dialogue between ‘Wilson’, who would rather not be participating in a dialogue at all and is much more comfortable with the conventions and forms of academic literary scholarship, and ‘Ross’, who is more given to experimentation, with the occasional appearance of ‘Footnote’, addresses the argument of the book and its conduct, while also reflecting on some recent developments in literary-critical writing, especially the claims sometimes made for the formal innovations supposedly facilitated by digital publication. There is consideration of the suggestion (by F. R. Leavis) that the practice of literary criticism is inherently dialogic, though this suggestion is complicated, not least by the form (the lecture) in which Leavis made it.