bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Well-Being Mindfulness Versus Positive Evaluation
Authors: Langer Ellen
Published: November 2023

What is considered evil, beautiful, good, folly, and wickedness are products of our mind. It is surely easier to be happy living in a world full of beauty and goodness. Just as surely, it is easier to be happy if we think these things of ourselves. This chapter will consider the ways our mindless use of evaluation, be it positive or negative, leads to our unhappiness; the direct effects of mindfulness on happiness; and why teaching mindfulness may reap more benefits than trying to teach people to be positive. Most will agree that pessimism is virtually synonymous with unhappiness. What might be worth considering is how positive evaluations may lead to the same result.
Optimistic Explanatory Style
Authors: Peterson Christopher , Steen Tracy A
Published: November 2023

Optimism has a checkered eputation. Consider Voltaire’s (1759) Dr. Pangloss, who blathered that this is the best of all possible worlds, or Porter’s (1913) Pollyanna, who celebrated misfortunes befalling herself and others. Consider contemporary politicians who spin embarrassing news into something wonderful. So-called optimism has given thoughtful people pause because of connotations of naïveté and denial. In recent years, however, optimism has become a more respectable stance, even among the sophisticated. Optimism, conceptualized and assessed in a variety of ways, has been linked to positive mood and good morale, to perseverance and effective problem solving, to achievement in a variety of domains, to popularity, to good health, and even to long life and freedom from trauma.
Hope Theory A Member of the Positive Psychology Family
Authors: Snyder C R , Rand Kevin L , Sigmon David R
Published: November 2023

A new theory typically begins with the proponents offering a model that supposedly is more heuristic than the prevailing, older view. Our development of hope theory began in this manner. So, what was the accepted scholarly view of hope that we sought to alter? The perception that one’s goals can be attained was a common thread in the scholarly work that defined hope in the 1950s through 1960s (Cantril, 1964; Farber, 1968; Frank, 1975; Frankl, 1992; Melges & Bowlby, 1969; Menninger, 1959; Schachtel, 1959). Our hypothesis was that this view, although shared by many previous scholars, did not fully capture that which is involved in hopeful goal-directed thought.
Wisdom Its Structure and Function in Regulating Successful Life Span Development
Authors: Baltes Paul B , Glück Judith , Kunzmann Ute
Published: November 2023

In the history of the humanities and the social sciences, questions of perfection and optimality in human behavior and human development always have been part of the intellectual agenda. Fueled by philosophers and theologists, many proponents participated in the search for truth criteria of perfection and optimality (Brandtsta ¨dter & Schneewind, 1977; Lerner, 1986; Tetens, 1777). Since the times of secularization and subsequently the advent of evolutionary biology, however, the answers to questions of perfection and optimality became more and more relative and uncertain.
Compassion
Authors: Cassell Eric J
Published: November 2023

Philoktetes has been given a magical bow by the demigod Herakles. On the way to the war against Troy, in the company of Odysseus and his crew, a sacred serpent bites Philoktetes. The divinely inflicted wound is unbearably painful and foul smelling. Because his cries of agony and the smell are intolerable, the crew stops at the island of Lemnos and casts Philoktetes away.
The Psychology of Forgiveness
Authors: McCullough Michael E , Witvliet Charlotte vanOyen
Published: November 2023

Human beings appear to have an innate proclivity to reciprocate negative interpersonal behavior with more negative behavior. When insulted by a friend, forsaken by a lover, or attacked by an enemy, most people are motivated at some level to avoid or to seek revenge against the transgressor. Although both of these two post- transgression motivations can be destructive, revenge is usually the more potent and almost always the more glamorous of the two.
Empathy and Altruism
Authors: Batson C Daniel , Ahmad Nadia , Lishner David A , Tsang Jo-Ann
Published: November 2023

Altruism refers to a specific form of motivation for one organism, usually human, benefiting another. Although some biologists and psychologists speak of altruistic behavior, meaning behavior that benefits another, we do not recommend this use. Such use fails to consider the motivation for the behavior, and motivation is the central issue in discussions of altruism. If one’s ultimate goal in benefiting another is to increase the other’s welfare, then the motivation is altruistic. If the ultimate goal is to in- crease one’s own welfare, then the motivation is egoistic. We shall use the term altruism to refer to this specific form of motivation and the term helping to refer to behavior that benefits another.
Toughness
Authors: Dienstbier Richard A , Zillig Lisa M Pytlik
Published: November 2023

The ancient Greeks had it right; mind and body are integrally connected. In modern psychology, we are catching up. We have begun to explore the mind-body connection, but we have typically approached it by emphasizing the mind’s influence on the body—how our emotions and thoughts influence health and physical well- being through processes that range from immune function to neuroendocrine availability. Toughness emphasizes the reciprocal path— how body influences mind. Because the evidence for toughness comes largely from experimental studies in which the researchers have demonstrated positive impacts on mind from manipulations that change the body, in tough- ness theory we propose that lifestyle choices enhance psychological well-being through observable neuroendocrine mediation.
Spirituality: Discovering and Conserving the Sacred
Authors: Pargament Kenneth I , Mahoney Annette
Published: November 2023

G. Stanley Hall and William James would have been quite comfortable with Harold Kushner’s bold assertions about the centrality of the sacred to human experience. To these founding fathers of psychology, spiritual phenomena represented critically important topics for psychological study. Since the early part of the 20th century, however, psychologists have tended to: (a) ignore spirituality; (b) view spirituality as pathological; or (c) treat spirituality as a process that can be reduced to more basic underlying psychological, social, and physiological functions.
Positive Psychology for Children: Development, Prevention, and Promotion
Authors: Roberts Michael C , Brown Keri J , Johnson Rebecca J , Reinke & Janette
Published: November 2023

Although the specialties of psychology dealing with children recognize the serious problems encountered during their development, much of the recent orientation involves moving away from viewing the psychological and behavioral deficits resulting from a developmental challenge. Instead, the focus increasingly has become one of perceiving the competence of the child and his or her family and enhancing growth in psychological domains. The clinical child, school, and pediatric psychology literatures frequently address concepts of stress and coping, generally accepting that coping is a positive response to the stress of a negative environmental situation or life event such as a chronic illness or parental divorce.
A Critical View of Marital Satisfaction
Authors: Weiss Robert L
Published: November 2023

The title of the conference paper that gave rise to this chapter was ‘‘Don Quixote Glimpses the Windmills of Marital Bliss.’’ Then, as here, my concern was with the theories and methods fashioned to understand that quintessential component of marital quality, marital satisfaction, arguably a most important aspect of adult intimacy, yet so elusive in its promise. ‘‘Marital bliss’’ is transitory and not as readily accessed as ‘‘marital satisfaction,’’ but it serves to call attention to the limitations of the search itself. How can the methods of family science help us to understand marital satisfaction as a respectable variable, the correlates of which lead to formulating testable basic research questions as well as facilitating all important preventative and ameliorative interventions that address adult intimacy? As with the idealistic Don, are we also pursuing an elusive truth? The present journey in search of marital satisfaction selects from among attractive ideas from the literature. I explore how the construct of marital satisfaction has infiltrated the behavioral science approach to adult intimacy, highlighting where necessary limiting assumptions.
A Life Span Developmental Systems Perspective on Aggression Toward a Partner
Authors: Capaldi Deborah M , Shortt Joann Wu , Kim Hyoun K
Published: November 2023

The use of physically aggressive tactics during disagreements between partners has gained national attention as domestic violence. Former Surgeon General Novello announced in 1992 that domestic violence is the leading cause of injuries to women aged 15–44 years and that addressing the issue of violence against women has become a national priority (Biden, 1993). For perhaps as many as 25 to 30% of those who report first instances of physical aggression in early dating relationships, such aggression becomes more serious across time (O’Leary et al., 1989; Roscoe & Benaske, 1985). Understanding the causes and course of physical aggression directed at women by male partners is a critical issue. Aggression in couples, however, is a larger issue than this alone. First, men also are injured by their partners (Archer, 2000). Furthermore, physical aggression that does not result in injuries severe enough to require medical attention can have other impacts that are destructive to the relationship and to the well-being of the partners (Bradbury & Lawrence, 1999; Gelles & Harrop, 1989). Possible impacts include decline in relationship satisfaction, relationship breakdowns, and divorce, with accompanying negative effects such as loss of income and housing; personal distress including fear, depressive symptoms, and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD); and consequences such as substance use. Finally, such aggression between parents has been related to negative outcomes for the children (Jouriles, Norwood, McDonald, & Peters, 2001; Simons, Johnson, Beaman, & Conger, 1993). In this chapter, we discuss the prevalence of physical aggression in romantic relationships, current theoretical perspectives on couples’ aggression, and the need for a developmental systems perspective to move the field forward in its endeavors to explain the etiology of and processes involved in aggression toward a partner.
Partner Violence and Men: A Focus on the Male Perpetrator
Authors: Holtzworth-Munroe Amy , Meehan Jeffrey C
Published: November 2023

The present chapter addresses male violence against an intimate female partner. The chapter consists of three main sections. First, we consider a series of questions that we are often asked about this research area, including such issues as why we study male rather than female violence, why we often focus on the individual rather than the dyad, and what the relationship between psychological abuse, physical violence, and marital distress may be. Growing out of our consideration of these issues, we next focus much of the chapter on the consideration of batterer typologies, presenting our own typology theory and study findings, discussing the clinical implications of our data, and considering some limitations of our approach. Finally, we end with a discussion of issues for future researchers to consider.
Disentangling Causality in the Associations Between Couple and Family Processes and Depression
Authors: Whiffen Valerie E
Published: November 2023

In this chapter I have the formidable task of reviewing the research literatures linking couple and family processes to depression. These comprise at least two separate literatures. The first assesses the impact of parental depression, particularly maternal depression, on children’s risk for psychopathology. The second evaluates the role of marital distress in the etiology of adult depression or, less frequently, the impact of depression on the marital relationship. My goals are twofold: to paint a picture of the interpersonal context in which adult depression occurs and on which it has a reciprocal impact and to identify key research issues central to the problem of disentangling causality in both fields of research. Because of the scope of this chapter, I am not able to include research on family processes that are linked to child and adolescent depression.
Psychological Relief: An Overview-The Balkan Experience
Authors: Capozzoli Joseph A
Published: November 2023

Individuals like to be able to predict, foresee, and influence events. When we are placed in situations in which we are powerless and unable to influence events, we become victims. Disastrous and devastating events, especially those events that are unpredicted, are the spawning ground for psychological trauma. Indeed, very serious psychological repercussions can result in individuals who have been exposed to trauma which stems from displacement from home, death of loved ones, loss of community, and an inability to predict the future with any degree of certainty.
Disaster Mental Health: Trauma Relief, Concepts, and Theory
Authors: Weaver John D
Published: November 2023

People are almost always changed by the traumatic events they face during their lives, but they need not be damaged by those events. Anyone who watches tv or reads newspapers realizes that potentially traumatic life events are always just a heartbeat away. Everything from a seemingly minor traffic accident to a house fire, a violent crime, or a catastrophic natural or human- caused disaster can, in a matter of minutes, change our lives forever. Helping people cope with the emotional fallout from such traumatic events is the focus of the expanding field of practice that has come to be known as disaster mental health (DMH).
Developmental Issues in Stress and Crisis
Authors: Zubenko Wendy N
Published: November 2023

Children and adolescents experience and respond to stress and crises in ways quite different from adults. Throughout this chapter, when I refer to children, the reader should under- stand that this includes adolescents as well, unless otherwise stated. This chapter describes children’s responses to traumatic events and discusses warning signs that the child’s usual way of coping is either no longer working or is unhealthy. Specific interventions are also discussed.
The Misunderstood Double Marking of Indirect Objects and New Infinitive Strategies in Unexpected Places: A Brief Study of Romance Variation
Authors: Trumper John B
Published: November 2023

Rohlfs (1968, 3 $632) discusses the normal marking of DOs that are [+human] with prepositions, usually a, in Southern Italian dialects, including the Calabrian varieties. I have already addressed a few brief comments to this topic in Trumper 1996.1 The phenomenon, which syntactically binds Southern and some Central dialects to Sardinian, to Corsican, to Ibero-Romance, and to Romanian, is also present, albeit with more restrictions, in Northern Italian dialects.2 Rohlfs is essentially correct when he states that the preposition used is not always a but sometimes da (“Gallo-Sicilian”), sometimes per, not only in Romanian (am viizut pe tine) but even in the Mediterranean “lingua franca” or sabir described in detail in Cifoletti (1989) with examples such as genti mirado per mi andar con ti“mi s’e visto andar via con te”: the example mi ablar per ti adduced by Rohlfs doesn’t exhibit this particular construction but only the generalized use of the preposition per to mark both IO’s (“io ti dico”: mi ablar per ti) and DOs (“io ti vedo”: mi mirar per ti), provided they be [+human]. The particular preposition used seems to be irrelevant; more important is the fact of marking a distinction between types of DO/ IO [+human] vs. [-human], not always with the restriction [+human] to the names of persons or the Pro-forms that substitute them, but often with an extension to kinship terms, occasionally to place names (personification?) and, usually to professions or roles.
Quantifying Spatial Correlation
Authors: Deutsch Clayton V
Published: November 2023

An essential aspect of geostatistical modeling is to establish quantitative measures of spatial correlation to be used for subsequent estimation and simulation. Spatial variability is different for each variable (facies indicators, porosity, and permeability) within each reservoir layer.
Helping Children with Autism Learn
Authors: Siegel Bryna
Published: November 2023

Bryna Siegel gives parents of autistic children what they need most: hope. Her first book, The World of the Autistic Child, became an instant classic, illuminating the inaccessible minds of afflicted children. Now she offers an equally insightful, thoroughly practical guide to treating the learning disabilities associated with this heartbreaking disorder. The trouble with treating autism, Siegel writes, is that it is a spectrum disorder—a combination of a number of symptoms and causes. To one extent or another, it robs the child of social bonds, language and intimacy, but the extent varies dramatically in each case. The key is to understand each case of autism as a discrete set of learning disabilities, each of which must be treated individually. Siegel explains how to take an inventory of a child’s particular disabilities, breaks down the various kinds unique to autism, discusses our current knowledge about each, and reviews the existing strategies for treating them. There is no simple cure for this multifarious disorder, she writes, instead an individual program, with a unique array of specific treatments, must be constructed for each child. She gives practical guidance for fashioning such a program, empowering parents to take the lead in their child’s treatment. At the same time, she cautions against the proliferating, but questionable treatments hawked to afflicted families. She knows the panic to do something, anything, to help an autistic child, and she offers parents reassurance and support as well as sensible advice, combining knowledge from experience, theory and research. For parents, autism in a child is heartbreaking, but it need not be overwhelming. Bryna Siegel offers a new understanding, and a practical, thoughtful approach, that will give parents new hope.
Phenotypic Variation from Single Genotypes: A Primer
Authors: Dewitt Thomas J , Scheiner Samuel M
Published: November 2023

A plant senses competitors for light and elongates its stem, accepting and elevating the challenge. A zooplankter senses diurnal predators and alters its daily vertical movements. A great breadth of ideas fall under the rubric of phenotypic plasticity, and this book is designed to express that breadth as a broad historical and conceptual review, bringing together a variety of (sometimes conflicting) viewpoints. In this chapter, we set the stage for the rest of the book by reviewing these diverse ideas under an intentionally broad definition of plasticity: environment-dependent phenotype expression. We emphasize the value of combining proximate, ultimate, and historical views. We hope to convey the need to understand how trait values are influenced by the environment, how individuals vary in this ability, and what such variations imply for how organisms live and reproduce.
A Behavioral Ecological View of Phenotypic Plasticity
Authors: Sih Andrew
Published: November 2023

In recent years, there has been a burst of new interest in understanding evolutionary forces that shape patterns of phenotypic plasticity, and in the effects of plasticity on evolutionary dynamics and ecological patterns (see reviews by Stearns 1989; WestEberhard 1989; Newman 1992; Scheiner 1993a; Via et al. 1995; DeWitt et al. 1998). Most studies that apply the term phenotypic plasticity examine developmental plasticity; typically, environmentally induced changes in morphological, or life history traits (see above reviews). Behaviors, despite their obvious plasticity, are often explicitly excluded from the rubric of phenotypic plasticity. Based strictly on its definition (the change in the expressed phenotype of a genotype as a function of the environment), however, phenotypic plasticity could refer to any trait that is influenced by both genetic and environmental effects. Here, I discuss (1) existing ideas on the distinction between behavioral and developmental plasticity, (2) the different approaches that dominate the study of phenotypic plasticity versus adaptive behavior, (3) some insights for the study of phenotypic plasticity that can be gained from the behavioral ecology view, (4) the joint evolution of behavioral and developmental plasticity, and (5) some insights for ecologists from genetically based studies of phenotypic plasticity. My primary focus will be on issue (3). I will suggest that the optimality approaches’ emphasis on explicit biological mechanisms that relate plastic phenotypes to fitness costs and benefits can provide new insights on how to measure and how to think about relationships among realistic, complex environments, reaction norms, and fitness.
The Role of Phenotypic Plasticity in Diversification
Authors: Schlichting Carl D
Published: November 2023

Although phenotypic plasticity has gained acceptance as an important means of adaptation to heterogeneous environments, its role in population differentiation, speciation, and other macro evolutionary events is poorly understood. My goal here is to persuade you. first. that phenotypic plasticity actually plays anr part in the diversification of taxa and, further, that its role may be greatly underestimated. I discuss three specific areas where the possession of plasticity may facilitate evolutionary change. Its greatest contribution appears to be in promoting the occupation of new niches by means of the production of phenotypic alternatives, paving the way for genetic differentiation. Another key role may be to shield genetic diversity from the discerning eye of selection. Finally, it may enhance the long-term survival of taxa, via species selection. The process now referred to as genetic assimilation (GA) has been something of a phoenix. The basic premise of GA is that a phenotypic change, initially strictly plastic (i.e., environmentally induced), over time can be incorporated into the genetically determined phenotypic repertoire. It provides a mechanism whereby seemingly Lamarckian shifts can be explained with Darwinian principles. Originally hailed as a means of promoting evolutionary change, it was later considered to be an equally potent buffer against diversification. Resurrected as an evolutionary catalyst independently in Russia and England, it was subsequently dismissed as being of minor importance.
Future Research Directions
Authors: Scheiner Samuel M , Dewitt Thomas J
Published: November 2023

Over the past 20 years the study of phenotypic plasticity has grown from a small cottage industry investigating an odd phenomenon, to a major research agenda (figure 13.1 ). Although its roots go back to the very beginnings of modern evolutionary biology (chapter 2), only recently has phenotypic plasticity been studied in a widespread and systematic fashion. This book is testimony to the substantial progress that has been made, especially in the past decade. So, where do we go from here? The empirical focus of plasticity studies has shifted considerably in the past two decades, from simply demonstrating the existence of genetic variation for plasticity and the response of plasticity to artificial selection, to whether plasticity in nature is adaptive and what types of environmental heterogeneity will select for plasticity. Perhaps the most important advance has been the general recognition that phenotypic plasticity is a property of organisms that can evolve. Still contentious is the form of that evolution.
Reason
Authors: Turner Mark
Published: November 2023

AT THE May 1997 conference on the future of social science held in the Institute for Advanced Study’s Wolfensohn Hall, a sociologist from Harvard, Orlando Patterson, while reading his paper (all of the conference presentations, three days of them, consisted of scholars reading papers from a podium onstage) remarked pointedly that he would like to present some socioeconomic evidence but could not, because to do so would require “the use of”—he paused to get our attention, then finished with ironic disdain—”an overhead projector.” His message was unmistakable. The conference, in its style, was a living dis¬ play of interpretive social science’s rejection of the trappings, and maybe some of the principles, of science—graphs, charts, statistics, regression analysis, theorems. When Albert O. Hirschman, the economist in the School of Social Science, spoke in Wolfensohn Hall as part of a faculty lecture series, he stood at the podium and read a paper on commensality. When, in the same series, Edward Witten, a mathematical physicist, gave his lecture on string theory, he worked through an exhaustive set of overhead projections, each filled with diagrams and equations.
Choice
Authors: Turner Mark
Published: November 2023

COGNITIVE science, allied with precursor and tributary traditions—psychology, philosophy of mind, interpretive anthropology, rhetoric—thinks it has something to say, useful if embryonic, about principles of human reason and choice. So, too, do economics and political science, lately with increased confidence. The rise in economics and political science of research programs for modeling decision and judgment—viewed as causes of action, on the assumptions of greed, rationality, and equilibrium—has created a social scientific armada parallel to cognitive science in its interest in reason and choice.
Physician-Patient Communication
Authors: Hall Judith A , Roter Debra L
Published: November 2023

Everyone who has been a medical patient—and of course this is everyone—knows that interactions with physicians can be rewarding and productive, but often such interactions are upsetting and frustrating. Patients who are sick are worried or uncomfortable, and even if they are not sick (as at a checkup visit) they are often aggravated by the inconvenience of going, waiting, and talking to the doctor. Encounters with doctors are highly charged, and patients often remember—and recount for family and friends—every word exchanged at important moments in the medical visit. Patients also remember, usually too late, things they wished they or the doctor had talked about. Patients’ focus on how they communicate with their doctor should not, of course, be a surprise considering that most of what doctors and patients do is talk. However, the medical profession has come rather slowly to a full awareness of the centrality of talk, and of communication more broadly, to the practice of medicine.
The Que/Qui Alternation and the Distribution of Expletives
Authors: Taraldsen Knut Tarald
Published: November 2023

There are various conceptual and empirical reasons to be dissatisfied with the analysis of qui as an agreeing C as well as with Rizzi’s theory of formal licensing of traces. For example, que, being invariant and incompatible with a following subject, lacks the characteristic morphosyntactic properties of agreeing C in Germanic. And there is an alternative account of (1)-(2), essentially for free, that explains all properties of qui and is consistent with theories of trace-licensing where agreeing C plays no role.
Preparation of Gametes, in Vitro Maturation, in Vitro Fertilization, and Embryo Recovery and Transfer
Authors: Lane Michelle , Gardner David K
Published: November 2023

The conditions used for the collection and manipulation of gametes and/or embryos has a significant impact on the subsequent developmental potential of the embryo. It is therefore essential when handling gametes/embryos that factors such as temperature, pH, medium composition, and so forth, are always optimized during collection and handling of embryos to minimize stress. For example, mammalian oocytes and embryos should never be exposed to a medium lacking amino acids (see below). This care to minimize stress is necessary if the handling period is for a very short time (less than 5 min) or chronic (several hours), as the developmental competence of the embryos can be affected. Whether the final outcome of an experiment is to produce live young or measure the physiology or genetic make up of an embryo, the conditions that the embryo is exposed to during the manipulation period are crucial.
A Life Of Sir Francis Galton
Authors: Gillham Nicholas Wright
Published: November 2023

Few scientists have made lasting contributions to as many fields as Francis Galton. He was an important African explorer, travel writer, and geographer. He was the meteorologist who discovered the anticyclone, a pioneer in using fingerprints to identify individuals, the inventor of regression and correlation analysis in statistics, and the founder of the eugenics movement. Now, Nicholas Gillham paints an engaging portrait of this Victorian polymath. The book traces Galton’s ancestry (he was the grandson of Erasmus Darwin and the cousin of Charles Darwin), upbringing, training as a medical apprentice, and experience as a Cambridge undergraduate. It recounts in colorful detail Galton’s adventures as leader of his own expedition in Namibia. Darwin was always a strong influence on his cousin and a turning point in Galton’s life was the publication of the Origin of Species. Thereafter, Galton devoted most of his life to human heredity, using then novel methods such as pedigree analysis and twin studies to argue that talent and character were inherited and that humans could be selectively bred to enhance these qualities. To this end, he founded the eugenics movement which rapidly gained momentum early in the last century. After Galton’s death, however, eugenics took a more sinister path, as in the United States, where by 1913 sixteen states had involuntary sterilization laws, and in Germany, where the goal of racial purity was pushed to its horrific limit in the “final solution.” Galton himself, Gillham writes, would have been appalled by the extremes to which eugenics was carried. Here then is a vibrant biography of a remarkable scientist as well as a superb portrait of science in the Victorian era.
Biological Diversity
Authors: Hey Jody
Published: November 2023

We now return to more conventional biological turf to develop some appreciation for the way that biological diversity might really be, out in nature, a Part and independent of our perception of it. With biological diversity, I refer simply to variation, both phenotypic and genotypic, that occurs among organisms. At the outset of this inquiry, I must emphasize that our immediate goal is not a definition of species, and it is not a method for identifying species. Others have undertaken these tasks head-on and despite insights and successes on various fronts, the species problem still thrives. Instead we will proceed as we did with language. Just as we approached language from a distance, in order to avoid assumptions about the reality of references, we will also approach biological diversity from a distance. We do not need to assume that species exist—that the usual starting point of “What are species? ” has any kind of straightforward answer—to try to understand patterns of biological diversity.
Recombination and Biological Species
Authors: Hey Jody
Published: November 2023

Most DNA molecules that are the genomes of organisms include genes that permit or encourage the breaking and joining of the DNA with other DNA molecules. In other words, most genomes include genes that cause recombination. This process of recombination is often highly choreographed and occurs regularly at specific stages of an organism’s life cycle. For many eukaryote genomes it occurs at the life cycle stage of transition from diploid cells (with two copies of every chromosome) to haploid cells (with just a single copy of each chromosome). This process is called meiosis, and when recombination occurs during meiosis it involves two similar genome copies that had previously come together earlier in the life cycle at the time of transition from haploid to diploid cells (i.e., syngamy or fertilization). Many genomes have also evolved multiple disjunct DNA molecules (chromosomes) among which there is effectively free recombination at the time of meiosis. For the genomes of prokaryotes there is no meiosis and syngamy, yet the breaking and joining of DNAs may still occur with high frequency (Lenski 1993). Whether or not the shuffiing of DNA segments occurs in the course of reproduction or at some other life stage and whether or not it proceeds by swapping portions of DNA molecules or by the incorporation of one DNA by another, recombination leads to a new genome that is an admixture of two.
Phylogeny
Authors: Hey Jody
Published: November 2023

The title of this chapter is a word that is used frequently by biologists to refer to the origin (i.e., genesis) of phyla (traditionally, kinds of organisms). On the basis of its etymology, the word could be used for any or all aspects of the origins of biological diversity, but in modern parlance, it usually refers to a branching history of evolutionarily related groups of organisms. The use of branching diagrams to represent relationships among kinds of organisms predates Darwin, but one of the greatest byproducts of Darwin’s discoveries is the theoretical support they provide for the use of tree-shaped diagrams.
What are Species? What are Taxa?
Authors: Hey Jody
Published: November 2023

The first of the two questions in the title of this chapter was set aside back in chapter 6 simply to avoid whatever existential presumptions might arise in trying to find an answer. As we return to it, we should keep in mind two things. The first is that, whatever else species are, they appear in our language as categories of organisms. The second is that, a Part from the pleasantry of a short phrase, there is no need for a terse definition of the word species. Whatever real species are we can take our time to describe the reasons they exist and those things that different species share. Biologists’ demand for a definition that cuts cleanly through species uncertainty may be understandable given the awkwardness of all that uncertainty; but as a hopeful mechanism for ridding ourselves of the species problem, it is misplaced. Quite simply, we cannot presume to describe things as having more distinction than actually occurs in nature.
The Battle of Algiers, the Battle of New York
Authors: Connelly Matthew
Published: November 2023

Seldom does one find a statesman so self-conscious in his sense of history as John Foster Dulles on the morning of November 1, 1956, after listening to his brother Allen brief the National Security Council. The CIA director had described Hungary’s uprising and withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact as “a miracle.” Meanwhile, Britain and France were conducting air strikes in support of an Israeli invasion of the Sinai and their occupation of the Suez Canal appeared imminent. “We had almost reached the point,” the secretary announced, “of deciding today whether we think the future lies with a policy of reasserting by force colonial control over the less-developed nations, or whether we will oppose such a course of action by every appropriate means. . . . [T]his decision,” Dulles continued, “must be made in a mere matter of hours—before five o’clock this afternoon” —when he was scheduled to address the first emergency session of the U.N. General Assembly.3
Desegregating American Literary Studies
Authors: Fishkin Shelley Fisher
Published: November 2023

In a survey of forty university and college literature departments conducted between 1986 and 1988, Alan Wald found that “students across the country who enroll in courses called ‘The Modem Novel’ or ‘Modem Poetry’ read and discussed works almost exclusively by elite white men that were interpreted through the prism of the British tradition” (quoted in Katterman, 14-15).
Difference and Disciplinarity
Authors: Wiegman Robyn
Published: November 2023

This essay began as a deliberation on “Car1ons, Hierarchies, and the Profession of the Critic,” the opening session at the Aesthetics and Difference Conference that was the inaugural occasion for the essays collected in this volume. It focuses on issues central to contemporary academic feminism by turning to Susan Gubar’s “What Ails Feminist Criticism?,” which registers its lament over the seeming decline of feminist literary criticism by tracing the textual rhetorics and aesthetics of feminist ethnic studies and poststructuralist theory.
Conclusion: Can We Be Delivered from Extraordinary Evil?
Authors: Waller James
Published: November 2023

Is there any hope that the twentieth-century’s “Age of Genocide” will be supplanted by an increase in cooperative, caring, nonviolent relations between countries and the people in them? Unfortunately, most futurists and scholars in genocide studies think not. Current trends suggest that there will be escalating conditions of extreme hardship, even disaster, in many parts of the world throughout the twenty-first century. These trends include a combination of environmental damage, loss of agricultural lands, dwindling of food and fuel resources, and a doubling of population to between 8.5 and 9.5 billion by 2025. Disconcertingly, the most volatile areas of social instability, mainly in the Third World, are the very places where much of the genocide since 1945 already has taken place.
Identifying and Understanding the Narcissistic Personality
Authors: Ronningstam Elsa
Published: November 2023

Narcissists have been much maligned, but according to clinicians who study personality, there are many productive narcissists who succeed spectacularly well in life because they can articulate a vision and make others follow. Elsa Ronningstam, who has been studying and treating narcissists for 29 years, presents a balanced, comprehensive, and up-to-date review of our understanding of narcissistic personality disorder, explaining the range from personality trait, which can be productive, to full-blown disorder, which can be highly destructive. Through fascinating case histories, Ronningstam shows us the inner life of narcissists, the tug of war that exists within them between self-confidence and arrogance on the one hand and painful shame and insecurity on the other. It is the first integrated clinical and empirical guide to assist clinicians in their work with narcissistic patients.
Dispersal and the Population Genetics of Primate Species
Authors: Hoelzer Guy A , Morales Juan Carlos , Melnick Don j.
Published: November 2023

Patterns of genetic diversity within species mark both familial relationships and subpopulation membership. They can also influence ongoing evolutionary processes. For these reasons, data on intraspecific genetic diversity are important to the study of primate social structure and historical biogeography, as well as to the design of management plans for species conservation (see many chapters in Clobert et al. 200 I).
Patrilineal Kinship and Primate Behavior
Authors: Strier Karen B
Published: November 2023

Understanding the impact of patrilineal kinship on behavior in primates is complicated by a variety of factors, beginning with the limited abilities of primates-and their human observers-to recognize patrilineal kin when they occur. Few primates mate monogamously when other potential partners are available, and inferring paternity from observed copulations is difficult, even when the timing of fertilizations can be estimated from physical, hormonal, or behavioral cues (e.g., de Ruiter et al. 1994). The challenges of identifying patrilineal kinship relationships beyond those involving paternity are further compounded by incomplete genealogies and imperfect observation conditions, especially but not exclusively in the wild.
Kinship Structure and Its Impact on Behavior in Multilevel Societies
Authors: Colmenares Fernando
Published: November 2023

The link between kinship structure and social behavior in primate societies has been fairly well documented in several species of Old World monkeys with multimale/multifemale social systems (e.g., macaques [Macaca spp.], savanna baboons [Papio spp.] and vervets [Cercopithecus aethiops]). In these species, dispersal is male biased, and females tend to establish strong and enduring bonds and alliances with maternal kin (Gouzoules & Gouzoules 1987). In contrast, much less is known about the impact of kinship structure on the behavior and decision-making processes of individuals in monkey species with one-male/multifemale social systems, in which the species’ typical dispersal pattern can be more variable. For example, both sexes may transfer or female resident patterns may prevail. To complicate matters further, some of these species may form fusionfission, multilayered societies, in which individuals establish and maintain relationships with others at various levels of nested groupings. For example, hamadryas (Papio hamadryas) and geladas (Theropithecus gelada) are known to organize themselves into one-male units, clans or teams, bands, and troops or herds (harnadryas: Sigg et al. 1982; Abegglen 1984; Kummer 1968a, 1984; gelada: Dunbar & Dunbar 1975; Kawai 1979; Kawai et al. 1983; Dunbar 1984, 1986, 1988a).
John Winthrop
Authors: Bremer Francis J
Published: November 2023

The preeminent figure of early New England, John Winthrop was the first governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. More than anyone else, he shaped the culture of New England and his effort to create a Puritan “City on a Hill” has had a lasting effect on American values. In John Winthrop, Francis J. Bremer draws on over a decade of research in England, Ireland, and the United States to offer a superb biography of Winthrop, one rooted in a detailed understanding of his first forty years in England. Indeed, Bremer provides an extensive, path-breaking treatment of Winthrop's family background, youthful development, and English career. His dissatisfaction with the decline of the “godly kingdom of the Stour Valley” in which he had been raised led him on his errand to rebuild such a society in a New England. In America, Winthrop would use the skills he had developed in England as he struggled with challenges from Roger Williams and Anne Hutchinson, among others, and defended the colony from English interference. We also see the personal side of Winthrop--the doubts and concerns of the spiritual pilgrim, his everyday labors and pleasures, his feelings for family and friends. And Bremer also sheds much light on important historical moments in England and America, such as the Reformation and the rise of Puritanism, the rise of the middling class, the colonization movement, and colonial relations with Native Americans. Incorporating previously unexplored archival materials from both sides of the Atlantic, here is the definitive portrait of one of the giants of our history.
Public Opinion, Foreign Policy, and Democracy: How Presidents Use Public Opinion
Authors: Shapiro Robert Y , Jacobs Lawrence R
Published: November 2023

The relationship between public opinion and government policymaking is fundamental to understanding how democracy works in the United States and in liberal democracies generally. Some theorists argue that the existence of free and periodic elections of leaders in government is all that (procedural) “democracy” requires to assure citizens’ control of public policy (from the American founders to Schumpeter [1950] and Zaller [1992]), others maintain that there should also be identifiable influences of public opinion on some important portion of government policies (e.g., the “substantive democracy” of Key 1961; Page and Shapiro 1983, 1992; Stimson, MacKuen, and Erikson 1995; Jacobs and Shapiro 1994d, 2000 ), not only on a country’s domestic policies but also on a nation’s foreign and defense policies.
How Policymakers Misperceive U.S. Public Opinion on Foreign Policy
Authors: Kull Steven , Ramsay Clay
Published: November 2023

A substantial amount of polling data has shown a widespread feeling among the American public that the U.S. government has a poor understanding of majority preferences and that its decisions are out of step with the wishes of the majority. In this chapter, we examine evidence that in the realm of U.S. foreign policy in the post-Cold War era, members of the foreign policy elite have misperceived public attitudes-which may indeed be a key factor in creating a disjunction between U.S. foreign policy and majority preferences.
The Future of Polling: Relational Inference and the Development of Internet Survey Instruments
Authors: Witte James , Howard Philip E N
Published: November 2023

New media technologies have generated much excitement about ways of improving communication between leaders and citizens. During the last election cycle, pundits announced the arrival of electronic democracy-a political environment in which public deliberation and the measurement of public opinion would be facilitated by multimedia technologies like the Internet. Along with electronic town halls and e-mail listservs, Internet surveys and polls have been hailed as new ways of conducting and measuring public deliberation. For many practitioners, these innovations are akin to those that replaced the magnifying glass with the microscope in the biologist’s lab. Most of the major survey houses have recast themselves as interactive, multimedia polling agents with the ability to employ a widening range of stimuli to help elicit responses from subjects.
Diabetes
Authors: Nutting Russell E Glasgow Paul A
Published: November 2023

The purpose of this chapter is to describe diabe-tes and the primary care–based management of diabetes, with emphasis on the role that psychol-ogists can play. We summarize current evidence on behavioral interventions for this complex and challenging condition and make recommenda-tions for practical strategies and ways to integrate behavioral and psychological interventions into primary care. These issues are important because diabetes is increasing markedly in prevalence and will continue to do so and because it is a proto-typical chronic illness. Clinicians able to deal suc-cessfully with diabetes should also be well pre-pared to assist with other chronic illnesses.
Moral Sensibility and Social Cohesion
Authors: Schulkin Jay
Published: November 2023

I watch a stranger cringe in pain, and I react to help. The cognitive/behavioral mechanisms are built into the brain. The origins are ancient. Underlying the response are rules for detection, detecting discomfort in another. The bodily sensibility is not on one side and the rules of engagement on the other.1 Fast appraisal of these events generates approach or avoidance. The representations in the brain are rich in information processing and reflect bodily engagement. Bodily representations are inherent in what has been traditionally called the “moral sentiments” (A. Smith, 1759/1976; table 4.1). Darwin (1871/1982) repeatedly referred to the “moral sense.” He asserted, “Any animal whatever, endowed with a well-marked social instinct, the parental and filial affections being here included, would inevitably acquire a moral sense of conscience, as soon as its intellectual power had become as well or nearly as well developed as in man” (p. 95). The use of such social abilities is not necessarily solely oriented toward doing no harm or helping conspecifics.
Interpreting Age Effects in Second Language Acquisition
Authors: Birdsong David
Published: November 2023

Age effects in second language acquisition (SLA) are often construed as evidence for a maturationally based critical period. However, an analysis of end-state SLA research reveals little congruence with geometric and temporal features of critical periods. In particular, there is no apparent period within which age effects are observed; rather, they persist indefinitely. We see that not only are maturation and aging distinct biological processes, but also their behavioral effects are not realized in comparable ways. Our understanding of age effects in SLA must also take into account the significant incidence of native like attainment among late learners.