bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Stabilization
Authors: Williams Paul D.
Published: July 2018

Particularly after expelling al-Shabaab’s main forces from Mogadishu in August 2011, AMISOM began to pursue stabilization programmes. But it struggled in large part because Somalia’s asymmetric threat environment made any stabilization initiatives extremely difficult, AMISOM was never designed or equipped to be a force that operated in this type of situation, and its local partners proved rather ineffective. Hence, while AMISOM achieved some notable military successes including recovering dozens of settlements from al-Shabaab, it was unable to consistently deliver on the governance dimension of its stabilization agenda. This chapter analyses these issues by first summarizing the evolution of AMISOM’s stabilization agenda and then identifying ten challenges that bedevilled its efforts in this area. The concluding section identifies nine lessons from AMISOM’s experience in Somalia that might help in designing more effective stabilization operations elsewhere.
Conclusion
Authors: Williams Paul D.
Published: July 2018

Rather than repeating the lessons and conclusions identified in Part II of this book relating to logistics, security sector reform, civilian protection, strategic communications, stabilization, and exit strategy, this concluding chapter reflects on how to assess AMISOM’s first ten years of operations and what this means for whether the ‘AMISOM model’ should be replicated elsewhere. It does so by first summarizing previous attempts to distil lessons from the mission before analysing AMISOM’s key successes and failures. The final section reflects on the future prospects of the ‘AMISOM model’ with reference to its approach to political authority, financing, as well as the operational dimension of peace operations.
Assessing Consciousness in Other Humans: From Theory to Practice
Authors: Massimini Marcello , Tononi Giulio
Published: July 2018

This chapter translates the theoretical principles illustrated in Chapter 5 into an empirical measure that can be applied to real human brains. It explains how transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) and simultaneous electroencephalography (EEG) can be employed to derive a surrogate measure of information integration, the perturbational complexity index (PCI). By describing the results of a series of experiments, it demonstrates that PCI can discriminate with very high accuracy between consciousness and unconsciousness, across many different conditions, ranging from wakefulness to sleep, dreaming esthesia and coma patients. The chapter ends by suggesting that principled measures of brain complexity can also help understanding the mechanisms of loss and recovery of consciousness in both physiological and pathological conditions.
A Universe in Your Palm
Authors: Massimini Marcello , Tononi Giulio
Published: July 2018

In this final chapter, the reader is asked to step back into the shoes of the same medical student who was given a brain to hold at the beginning of the book. At the end of a journey between theory and practice at the borders of consciousness, this section reappraises the existential questions raised in the first chapter, this time by a different perspective. The student realizes that the thalamocortical system may actually be a very special object, considers the relationships between consciousness and the external world, appreciates the difference between doing and being and, finally, perceives by intuition a new place for consciousness in the universe.
Paul and the Non-Ethnic Ethnē
Authors: Ophir Adi , Rosen-Zvi Ishay
Published: July 2018

Chapter 5 singles out one author, the apostle Paul, who offers a novel understanding of the biblical goyim. The chapter goes against the scholarly consensus, according to which Paul simply borrowed his binary distinction between Jews and ethnē from a Jewish tradition. It shows that despite scattered cases in 1 and 2 Maccabees, in which goy is used to refer to indefinite groups of individuals, no such tradition existed. While these texts still preserve the political context of the biblical ethnē, Paul’s ethnē is totally individualized, stripped from any ethnic context. Thus, in Paul’s writing, one finds the first systematic use of a generalized, abstract category of the Jew’s Other. The chapter explains what could have led Paul to develop this discursive formation and discusses the implications. It also considers various ideas about Jews’ others in nascent Christianity and compares them to the rabbinic formation of the goy.
The Formation of the Binary Structure in Early Rabbinic Literature
Authors: Ophir Adi , Rosen-Zvi Ishay
Published: July 2018

This chapter sets the stage for a detailed analysis of the rabbinic goy. It traces the consolidation of the binary relation and the exclusion of hybrid categories. It further traces the rabbinic tendency to erase intermediate categories (Samaritans; foreign slaves; God-fearers; heretics) and force them into the new binary formation. From this perspective a new reading of the conversion ceremony is also offered. First appearing in rabbinic literature, the ceremony transformed diffusive spaces of conversion into a sharp and unequivocal procedure of passage—a transitory, instant event. Instead of reading this procedure as an evidence of a permeable border between groups, as scholars tend to do, the chapter shows how it performs the very erection of this border as it regulates its crossing.
Loss of laten-support in embedded infinitivals in fifteenth-century Low Saxon
Authors: Postma Gertjan
Published: July 2018

This chapter is a theory-informed quantitative corpus study of infinitival fronting in a type of Infinitival V2 construction found in Old-Frisian and Middle-Dutch. The quantitative investigation evidences that infinitival fronting is the non-finite counterpart of the embedded subjunctive constructions. Formal I-language arguments are provided to demonstrate that the emergence of laten-support (the parallel of English do-support) and the decline of subjunctives are related to one parameter change in CP/TP. Before the fifteenth century, in Dutch, subjunctives and infinitives found in the relevant constructions move out of TP reaching C or Mod. In the second half of the fifteenth century, infinitives are being reanalysed as sitting in T. Hence, in infinitival fronting constructions, a separate verbal auxiliary form (laten) is created as a spellout of C. Although Laten-support is a transient phenomenon (‘failed change’), it has been the trigger of the reanalysis of auxiliaries as ordinary verbs in Dutch.
The distribution of quantifiers in Old and Modern Italian
Authors: Garzonio Jacopo , Poletto Cecilia
Published: July 2018

This chapter considers the distribution of VO and OV orders in Old Italian when the object is represented by a quantified constituent. The investigation takes into consideration cases of VO/OV variation with complex analytic verb forms where V is the past participle and O contains a universal or a negative quantifier. It is shown that while OV with non-quantified DPs and complex QPs is optional, universal bare quantifiers always precede the past participle. It is proposed that bare quantifiers undergo obligatory movement to a dedicated position, which is a function of their internal structure. Moreover, it is argued that the modern stage of the language has preserved the movement of the quantifier, but this is not always visible because of a change in the movement properties of the verb: in generalized verb-second Old Italian the past participle remains trapped inside the vP left-periphery while it raises higher in Modern Italian.
Train Up a Child in the Way He Should Go
Authors: Larsen Timothy
Published: July 2018

This chapter presents Mill’s precocious learning as a child—he famously was reading Greek at the age of three—as well as his father’s and Jeremy Bentham’s interest in shaping the boy in the light of their theories and beliefs. It traces how much religious education Mill actually did receive, and what books he read that helped to form his views on religion and Christianity. Despite Alexander Bain’s claim to the contrary, Mill read theology throughout his life. He spoke approvingly of the religious works of a range of authors, especially liberal Anglicans such as F. D. Maurice, Charles Kingsley, Florence Nightingale, and Baden Powell, but also the Quaker John Woolman and even the Roman Catholic W. G. Ward. This chapter also argues that Mill lacked a devotional sense.
Arms Embargoes
Authors: Pattison James
Published: July 2018

This chapter considers arms embargoes. It first examines the idealized case for arms embargoes, which holds that they reduce the aggressors’ access to weapons and frustrate their goals, whilst distributing the costs fairly and avoiding doing harm. It then assesses the vehement, nonideal critique of arms embargoes in some of the academic literature. This highlights various problems such as that they are violated by sender states, that weapons are still obtained on the black market and through porous borders, and that they are used to avoid undertaking more effective action. The chapter challenges this nonideal critique and argues that the idealized account is in fact largely correct: arms embargoes do often work once we adopt the correct measure of effectiveness (what it calls ‘morally valuable effectiveness’). In doing so, this chapter provides a defence of the importance and meaning of effectiveness—the central factor on the Pragmatic Approach.
Positive Incentives
Authors: Pattison James
Published: July 2018

This chapter considers the use of economic, political, and legal incentives. After presenting three notable reasons for using positive incentives—including the fact that they are not coercive—it considers several objections to their use. These include, centrally, the worry that they reward those who commit egregious wrongdoing and therefore are problematic in terms of desert. It also considers the potential moral hazard that such inducements will encourage others to commit wrongdoing and the potential for incentives to ‘crowd out’ intrinsic motivation and to undermine morally valuable international norms and laws. Although the chapter largely defends the case for positive incentives, it rejects the case for international amnesties and exile.
Deflationism Revealed
Authors: Edwards Douglas
Published: July 2018

Deflationism threatens the metaphysics of truth in two ways. Firstly, by offering an austere view of truth, it is a view that, if correct, renders the majority of metaphysical issues with respect to truth obsolete. Secondly, it has inspired a certain methodological approach to the study of truth, sometimes referred to as ‘methodological deflationism’. The idea here is that, since deflationism is the most neutral and innocuous of all truth theories, it ought to enjoy the position of the ‘default’ theory of truth, with the onus being on other theories of truth to demonstrate why deflationism is wrong prior to taking up their more substantial metaphysical projects. This chapter responds to both of these threats. The main focus will be deflationism about truth itself, and to reveal the true nature and commitments of the view. Once these are exposed, methodological deflationism is addressed.
Models of Being
Authors: Edwards Douglas
Published: July 2018

This chapter explores how ontological pluralism should be formulated. We will see that similar issues arise to those that we saw in the formulation of truth pluralism, and that the models from the truth pluralism debate are applicable here as well. It begins by discussing in more detail the role of quantifiers in the existence debate, before turning to ontological pluralism itself. Strong ontological pluralism is examined, and the extent to which it suffers from analogues of the mixing problems we saw in the last chapter is evaluated, before other forms of ontological pluralism are looked at. After examining McDaniel’s (2009, 2010a) formulation, a form of determination pluralism for existence is developed, and then the question of whether existence is abundant or sparse is discussed.
Primitivism and Truth-Making
Authors: Edwards Douglas
Published: July 2018

Chapters 9 and 10 explore some applications of the pluralist framework, and show how responses can be given to two different threats from primitivist approaches to truth. Primitivism distinguishes itself from deflationism by holding that truth has important explanatory roles to play, but denies that there is any informative theory of truth to be given. The first threat comes from Trenton Merricks’s claim that there are truths for which there are no truth-makers. This implies that we should be primitivists about truth, as there are truths for which there are no explanations of why they are true, threatening both theories of truth and truth-maker theories. In this chapter this threat is addressed by showing how a pluralist theory can respond to it, including discussions of modal truth, truths about the past, and negative existentials. In the process, pluralism is shown to offer useful resources to those tempted by truth-maker theory.
Truth-Making and the Nature of Truth
Authors: Edwards Douglas
Published: July 2018

Chapter 9 claimed that a way to preserve ideas about truth-making is to think of truth differently for different sorts of claims. However, what, exactly is the connection between theories of truth and truth-making? This chapter considers this issue in detail, and argues that the notion of truth-making only makes sense in the context of views about the nature of truth. It is argued that some stance on the nature of truth is a necessary prerequisite of a theory of truth-making. This causes problems for any theorist who wishes to combine a theory of truth-making with a deflationary or a primitivist approach to truth. The central idea here is that theories of truth-making do not make theories of the nature of truth obsolete. Instead, as we will see, they give another demonstration of the paramount importance of metaphysical investigations into the nature of truth.
Concluding Remarks
Authors: Edwards Douglas
Published: July 2018

I began this book with two main aims: first, to counter deflationary and primitivist movements to re-assert the importance of the metaphysics of truth; and, second, to develop a distinctively pluralist account of the metaphysics of truth. With regard to the first aim, I hope to have shown that there is no presumptive advantage to being a deflationist or a primitivist, and to have loosened the hold that these views tend to have on discussions of truth. Moreover, I have noted that successfully defending these views would require overcoming some significant explanatory challenges. In identifying these challenges, I hope to have demonstrated that the metaphysics of truth is a topic worthy of discussion, and that there are interesting and important issues to consider in studying it....
Pay, Promotion, and Democratization
Authors: Seligmann Matthew S.
Published: July 2018

As soon as he was appointed First Lord of the Admiralty in 1911, Winston Churchill sought to buttress his credentials as a social reformer by improving conditions for sailors in the Navy and widening the social composition of the officer corps. This chapter examines his efforts towards both of these ends. It shows how he fought against the Treasury and his Cabinet colleagues to offer sailors their first meaningful pay rise in decades. It similarly catalogues the many schemes he introduced to entice people from a wider range of backgrounds, including sailors from the lower deck, to become naval officers. As with enhanced naval pay, this required him to persevere against entrenched interests, but as this chapter will show, his achievements in this area were considerable.
Rum
Authors: Seligmann Matthew S.
Published: July 2018

While the serving of a spirit ration to the sailors of the Royal Navy had long been a custom, in the climate of Edwardian Britain it was no longer one that commanded universal public support. The temperance movement was a strong political force and a major source of pressure for reform. Equally, within the Navy there was widespread recognition that the rum ration was a barrier to optimal crew efficiency, caused drunkenness and indiscipline, and would be a significant handicap in a war with Germany. Accordingly, once appointed First Lord of the Admiralty, Churchill sought to encourage temperance by increasing the allowance to those who chose to forgo the spirit ration. The cost of this was prohibitive and Churchill was forced to consider other less expensive measures, one of which was introduced on the eve of war in 1914.
Sodomy
Authors: Seligmann Matthew S.
Published: July 2018

This chapter explores the secret policy introduced by the British Admiralty in 1911 to stamp out homoerotic practices in the Royal Navy. Homosexual acts were illegal in pre-First World War Britain and harsh sentences would be awarded to any sailor convicted (by court martial) of so-called ‘unnatural crime’. However, in the decade prior to 1911 prosecutions were infrequent and convictions rarer still. This all changed in 1911. Following a spate of indecency and sodomy cases, a concerted effort was made by the naval leadership to remedy this. Archaic offences against naval law were revived in order to facilitate prosecutions and the naval medical service was charged with providing evidence of homosexual acts. The result was a significant increase in the prosecution and conviction of sailors for homosexual acts, a process that was only curtailed as a result of the outbreak of war in 1914.
The Lash
Authors: Seligmann Matthew S.
Published: July 2018

Although the flogging of adult sailors had been suspended in the Royal Navy in 1881, at the outset of the twentieth century boy sailors could still be caned or birched for infractions of naval discipline. Many naval officers regarded such physical chastisement as the only appropriate and effective punishment for the youths in their charge, but there were many important opinion formers and campaigners outside the Navy who regarded corporal punishment as a relic from a more barbaric age and sought its total abolition in the senior service. Pressure was particularly strong in Parliament on this point. Sensitive to this pressure, Winston Churchill set up a committee to examine the whole system of naval discipline and, under cover of its report, sought to limit the regime of corporal punishment in the Navy.
Conclusion
Authors: Seligmann Matthew S.
Published: July 2018

As this book has shown the common conception that ‘Churchill’s “radical phase” was cast to the winds’ when he was put in charge of the Navy in October 1911, although well established in the literature, is not, in fact, accurate.1 The radical President of the Board of Trade, eager to improve the lives of the poor, became the radical Home Secretary, no less enthusiastic for social reform, who then became the radical First Lord of the Admiralty, imbued with both a desire and, perhaps more importantly, a will to intervene in order to better conditions for those who served in the Royal Navy. Accordingly, he embarked upon a major programme of improvement across a wide range of different areas all of which affected the everyday life of sailors. Alcohol intake, sexual behaviour, religious practice, corporal punishment, as well as pay and equality of progression, all came under the spotlight while Churchill was First Lord. Of course, not all of the new measures were successful and not all were progressive in the modern understanding of the term, but all of them represented significant attempts to push forward a radical agenda for change....
Introduction
Authors: Bose Mandakranta
Published: July 2018

Beginning by recognizing that the idea of female divinity in Hinduism has been a mystery from the inception of Hindu theology, this Introduction proceeds to an overview of the contents of this volume. Presenting the chapters, arranged thematically and historically into four related parts, this Introduction shows how Hindu philosophy and worship practices have expounded the idea of the divine feminine by conceptualizing it as a personified goddess at once singular and manifested in multiple forms. Drawing upon a variety of Hindu philosophical traditions, the authors relate the goddess as an abstraction to belief systems that render the goddess as humanized figures. In both formal theology and popular belief, this conception has resulted in an emotional and spiritual closeness to goddesses that continues deeply to influence Hindu social life and its cultural expressions, especially in its impact on the lives of women.
Śrī/Lakṣmī
Authors: Bose Mandakranta
Published: July 2018

Goddess Lakṣmī, also called Śrī in early texts, is a goddess not only worshiped by Hindus as the source of wealth, domestic stability, and Viṣṇu’s beloved consort, but also venerated as an exemplar of virtuous womanhood, especially within the domestic sphere. Known in the earliest Hindu sacred texts as a provider deity and upholder of royal authority, Śrī/Lakṣmī is understood in Hindu theology as a manifestation of the primordial energy called śakti and thus a form of Devī, the Great Goddess. Her public worship rites are performed in autumn, most colorfully at Dīpāvalī (Diwali) or the festival of lights in many parts of India. She is worshiped more regularly on a weekly or even daily basis in many Hindu homes mainly by women.
Sītā
Authors: Pauwels Heidi R.
Published: July 2018

The impulse in Hinduism to attribute divinity to women is well demonstrated in the legend of Sītā. Her unconditional devotion to her husband Rāma qualifies her as worthy of devotion, particularly because as consort to Rāma who is Viṣṇu in human form, Sītā can be regarded as Lakṣmī, to be worshiped jointly with him. Her total surrender to Rāma’s will elevates her in Vaiṣṇava thought as the model for the soul’s passive dependence upon God and as mediator between Viṣṇu and worshipers. But offering a contrary view, Śākta narratives shift redemptive power from Rāma to Sītā. Yet another construction of Sītā, especially in folk culture, highlights her protest against her subjugation. In recent times this has turned her into a locus for the resistance of women to patriarchal oppression, which may free her from the matrix of devotion and refashion her as an icon of resistance worthy of veneration.
A “Muslim” Poet in the Lap of a “Hindu” Mother
Authors: McDermott Rachel Fell
Published: July 2018

An intriguing twist in the devotional culture of Kālī in modern India is its spread across religious boundaries, of which a notable example is the poetry of Kazi Nazrul Islam, a twentieth-century poet who has left a dual legacy in West Bengal and Bangladesh. The absorbing attachment to Kālī of this Muslim poet who had a Tantric guru manifested itself in some of the finest lyrics that comprise the Śyāmā Saṅgīt genre. While they underscore Kālī’s command over an individual’s spirituality and poetry, they also problematize religious identities by assailing Muslim sensibilities, especially in Bangladesh, where this Hindu voice of its National Poet troubles the Bangladeshi sense of what Bangladeshi Islam is or should be. This chapter addresses the complex issue of why and how a Hindu goddess could have exercised so strong a pull on a Muslim poet possessing so powerful an imagination and so clear a voice.
‘All is Returned’
Authors: Newton Hannah
Published: July 2018

This final chapter asks what it was like to resume ordinary life after serious illness: it traces the patient’s journey from the sickbed to the wider world of society and work. Organized around three areas—spatial, social, and working life—the overarching argument is that the return to normality was found to be physically liberating, socially bonding, and mentally stimulating. Ultimately, patients felt they regained not just their bodily faculties, but all the other aspects of life that they cherished, which sickness had rendered impossible, such as the enjoyment of company, the outdoors, and work. There were, however, significant downsides: residual weakness rendered daily tasks difficult for some patients, certain actions were thought to precipitate relapse, and for those who disliked socializing or working, returning to former employments could be troublesome. This argument challenges the entrenched notion that early modern people rarely retired from normal life during serious illness.
Objectcy and Agency
Authors: Walsh Denis M.
Published: July 2018

Organisms are like nothing else in the natural world. They are agents. Methodological vitalism is a view according to which the difference that organisms make to the natural world cannot be captured wholly if we treat them as mere objects. Understanding agency calls for a different kind of theory, an agent theory. Most of our scientific theories are object theories. The modern synthesis theory of evolution is a prominent example of object theory. Being the way it is, it cannot countenance the contribution to evolution that organisms make as agents. A comprehensive account of adaptive evolution requires an agent theory.
Symbiosis, Transient Biological Individuality, and Evolutionary Processes
Authors: Bouchard Frédéric
Published: July 2018

Whereas individual organisms have acted as the paradigm case to make us think about biological individuality, multi-organism assemblages such as colonies and communities force us to reconsider how biological individuality can emerge. Symbiosis research has given philosophers of biology tools for rethinking the nature of biological individuality. This chapter discusses how the adaptations linked to symbiotic communities highlight a new research dilemma: should we think of a biological ontology focused on individuals and their traits (even if this means positing non-orthodox individuals with non-standard properties)? Or should we move beyond individuals and focus instead on intersecting evolutionary processes? While reasons are offered to favour the former option, it is explained why this dilemma highlights the question of the different temporal scales at which evolution occurs and how this forces us to consider the transient and intermittent biological individuals generated by evolution, as well as the significance of the processes that generate them.
Measuring the World
Authors: Barwich Ann-Sophie
Published: July 2018

How much does stimulus input shape perception? The common-sense view is that our perceptions are representations of objects and their features and that the stimulus structures the perceptual object. The problem for this view concerns perceptual biases as responsible for distortions and the subjectivity of perceptual experience. These biases are increasingly studied as constitutive factors of brain processes in recent neuroscience. In neural network models the brain is said to cope with the plethora of sensory information by predicting stimulus regularities on the basis of previous experiences. Drawing on this development, this chapter analyses perceptions as processes. Looking at olfaction as a model system, it argues for the need to abandon a stimulus-centred perspective, where smells are thought of as stable percepts, computationally linked to external objects such as odorous molecules. Perception here is presented as a measure of changing signal ratios in an environment informed by expectancy effects from top-down processes.
Determination, Determinability, and the Structure of Ens
Authors: Nuzzo Angelica
Published: July 2018

This chapter takes us into the fundamental elements of Baumgarten’s metaphysical system, the concepts of “determination” and “determinability,” and shows how his specific formulation of these concepts was fateful for the development of later German philosophy. Nuzzo notes in particular that Baumgarten’s formulation of these ideas fundamentally structured three key moments in German thought: the public debate on the “Destiny of Mankind” (“Bestimmung des Menschen”—lit. “Determination of Mankind”), Salomon Maimon’s development of the “Principle of Determination,” and finally Georg Wilhelm Hegel’s discussion of being in his Science of Logic.
Baumgarten, Kant, and the Refutation of Idealism
Authors: Guyer Paul
Published: July 2018

This chapter points to the influence of Baumgarten’s Metaphysics on Kant’s transcendental philosophy. By comparing Kant’s refutation of idealism, including modifications to it suggested by notes written after the Critique of Pure Reason, with passages in the Metaphysics, Guyer shows that Kant clearly adopts Baumgarten’s own peculiar definition of idealism and develops the thesis that Baumgarten’s discussion of real interaction suggested to Kant the underlying strategy of his own refutation.
Wolff, Baumgarten, and the Principle of Thoroughgoing Determination in Kant’s Opus postumum
Authors: Edwards Jeffrey
Published: July 2018

This chapter attempts to make sense of Kant’s deduction of the existence of a material aether from the principle of complete determination in his last great work, the Opus postumum. Edwards does this by tracing the connection of Kant’s understanding of the relation between existence and complete determination back to their unique formulation in Baumgarten’s Metaphysics and Kant’s continued development of this nexus of ideas in his own pre-critical writings. Edwards’ essay shows that Baumgarten’s formulation was a fundamental condition for the development of Kant’s similar doctrine and that, contrary to appearances, the derivation of existence from such a principle does not in fact compromise the critical dimension of Kant’s thought.
The Work of Charles Travis
Authors: Collins John , Dobler Tamara
Published: July 2018

The chapter explains the leading ideas of Charles Travis in relation to three main topics and offers first-pass responses to some general objections to Travis’s general philosophical orientation to the topics. Firstly, regarding linguistic meaning, it is argued that occasion-sensitivity poses a novel set of problems for standard construals of truth-conditional semantics. Secondly, regarding the structure of thought, it is explained how much the same issues arise for thought as they do for language. Thirdly, regarding perception, Travis’s distinctive flavour of disjunctivism is explained. The chapter also seeks to situate Travis’s thought in relation to Wittgenstein and more contemporary thinkers such as Jerry Fodor.
On Content and Context
Authors: Hilary Putnam
Published: July 2018

This chapter explores the ways in which Travis’s ‘context-sensitive semantics’, and the non-reductionist picture of thinking developed in connection with that idea, have influenced some of the central debates in contemporary philosophies of language and mind. The author defends Travis’s occasion-sensitivity against two recent attempts to refute the position. One of these attempts is by Donaldson and Lepore, and the other by Fodor and Lepore. It is argued that semantic atomism and the key role assigned to speakers’ communicative intentions in interpreting utterances, both of which contradict occasion-sensitivity, are not mandatory. The author shows that Fodor and Lepore’s position is compatible with the idea that thought may be occasion-sensitive.
On Rule-Following
Authors: McGinn Marie
Published: July 2018

In Philosophical Investigations, Wittgenstein raises difficulties for the idea that what comes before my mind when I hear, or suddenly understand, a word can impose any normative constraint on what I go on to do. The conclusion his reflections seem to force on us gives rise to a paradox: there is no such thing as going on to apply an expression in a way that accords with what is meant by it. The paradox can be seen as one horn of a dilemma, the other horn of which is Platonism about meaning. It is generally agreed that resolving the paradox means finding a middle course between the two horns of the dilemma. This chapter looks at three attempts to find the middle course: communitarianism, naturalized Platonism, and quietism. It then considers whether Charles Travis offers a way out of the dilemma which avoids the problems of the other views discussed.
Contextualism and Singular Reference
Authors: Recanati François
Published: July 2018

This chapter discusses the relations between three approaches to the referential/attributive distinction: the Gricean approach advocated by Kripke and others, the two-dimensional approach pioneered by Kaplan and Stalnaker, and the Millian approach favoured by Donnellan. In contrast to the two-dimensional approach, the Millian approach honours the intuitions which led to the rejection of descriptivism, but it is subject to Gricean criticism based on the speaker’s reference/semantic reference distinction. The chapter shows that, suitably elaborated and revised, the Millian approach can be made immune to that criticism. The resulting view, it is argued, applies beyond the case of definite descriptions. It also supports Austin’s and Strawson’s speech act theoretic approach to reference and truth—an approach which Grice initially dismissed and which Travis insightfully attempted to defend and resurrect.
Surveying the Facts
Authors: Longworth Guy
Published: July 2018

This chapter discusses some central themes in a dispute between J. L. Austin and P. F. Strawson over the nature of truth. The dispute is of contemporary interest in part because it prefigures elements in a more recent discussion concerning the objects of perceptual experience, between for example Charles Travis and John McDowell. The dispute turned in particular on a pair of Austin’s claims: (i) that facts are able to serve as truth-makers for some statements; and (ii) that facts are (in at least some cases) worldly particulars that are capable of being perceived. The chapter considers arguments deriving from the work of Strawson and Zeno Vendler that are widely held to have undermined (i) and (ii) and shows that those arguments fail to decide the issue.
Quasi-internalism
Authors: Yli-Vakkuri Juhani , Hawthorne John
Published: July 2018

Chapters 1–4 operate with and make precise a notion of narrowness that is pretty standard in the literature. The remainder of the book explores whether alternative construals of narrowness might be better suited to explaining the epistemological properties that interest internalists. Internalists standardly think of narrow content as being fixed by the qualitative structure of our inner lives, disregarding the particular individual objects in the qualitative nexus. But, on the face of it, it seems that one could have a notion of narrowness that does not disregard individual objects in this way. Chapter 5 pursues this line of thought and finds it to be rather unpromising.
The European Union
Authors: Waddington Lisa
Published: July 2018

The EU’s accession to the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) implies an important role for the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU). Given that the Court has the task of interpreting the CRPD as an instrument of EU law and, in particular, ensuring that EU secondary legislation is interpreted in a manner which is compatible with the Convention wherever possible, it is not surprising to find references to the CRPD in a number of judgments and Opinions of its Advocate General rendered both before, and primarily after, the conclusion of the CRPD by the EU. This chapter explores those judgments and Opinions in some depth, looking at the status of international agreements concluded by the EU; how the CRPD has been incorporated into EU law; and discussing case law that has referred to the CRPD, and analysing the extent to and way in which the CJEU has interpreted the CRPD.
India
Authors: Atrey Shreya
Published: July 2018

This chapter provides an expository account of Indian appellate courts’ engagement with the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) and the developing case law on disability rights. As a dualist State, India has ratified but not incorporated the CRPD into its domestic law. This has not deterred frequent references to the CRPD in litigation at the highest level. The appellate courts—High Courts and the Supreme Court—have resorted to the CRPD in diverse ways. The analysis of the small but not insignificant body of case law shows that these instances can be classified into two broad themes of ‘citation’ and ‘interpretation’. In the final analysis, the overall impact of references to the CRPD can be considered largely positive but still modest in the absence of new legislation embracing the human rights framework and social model of the CRPD in India.
Ireland
Authors: Flynn Eilionóir
Published: July 2018

Ireland’s constitution adopts a dualist approach to international law. It is in a unique position as a state which has not ratified the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD), but one which is obliged to adhere to the provisions of the CRPD in EU law, by virtue of the EU’s conclusion of the CRPD in 2010. To date, the CRPD has been referenced in a number of cases before the Irish courts in the context of employment equality law and mental health law. This chapter examines the extent of the impact that the CRPD can have on the judgments of domestic courts on disability rights in advance of the state’s ratification of the Convention.
Italy
Authors: Ferri Delia
Published: July 2018

Italy was among the first countries to sign the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) in 2007, and ratified it in 2009 by Law 18/2009. Since then, the Convention has displayed significant influence on case law, and provoked a degree of judicial activism. This chapter provides an overview of how Italian courts have used and interpreted the CRPD. It highlights how Italian lower and higher courts, including the Constitutional Court and the Court of Cassation, have attempted to overcome the gap between domestic law and the CRPD, by ‘rethinking’ legal concepts in light of the Convention. This is evident with regards to the field of legal capacity and the domestic provisions of the civil code on the ‘administration of support’, but also to non-discrimination legislation, the scope of which has been evidently enlarged to encompass the failure to provide reasonable accommodation as a form of indirect discrimination.
The Domestication of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities
Authors: Waddington Lisa
Published: July 2018

This chapter reflects on jurisdiction-specific approaches to the domestication of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD), considering in particular the domestic legal status of the CRPD and the relevance of that legal status for case law. The chapter explores four dimensions of the CRPD’s legal status: direct effect; indirect interpretative effect (where the CRPD influences the interpretation given to domestic law); use of the CRPD because of commitments to another international treaty; and absence of domestic legal status. With the exception of the first category, all dimensions can potentially present themselves in legal systems which tend towards the monist approach as well as in those which tend towards the dualist approach. The chapter discusses examples of relevant case law and reflects on similarities and differences emerging from a comparison of that case law.
The Role of the Judiciary and Its Relationship to the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities
Authors: Waddington Lisa
Published: July 2018

This chapter examines the role of the judiciary with regard to the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD). It considers the relationship which the judiciary have or appear to perceive themselves as having with the CRPD and explores some of the factors seemingly prompting courts to refer to it. The first section reflects on: whether judges are able to choose to refer to the Convention or have a legal duty to do so; the significance of the fact that the CRPD is international law; and whether judges appear to see themselves merely as domestic actors, or as agents or trustees of the CRPD. The second section explores whether judges are referring to the CRPD in response to arguments raised before the court or doing so of their own volition. Also considered are the relevance of amicus curiae interventions; reasons for referral related to the domestic legal system; and the role of particularly engaged individuals.
Russia
Authors: Zysk Katarzyna
Published: July 2018

The Russian armed forces and military thought have been undergoing a historic transition. Following several failed attempts at military reforms since the 1990s, it became increasingly clear that the organizational structure, operational doctrines, and weaponry of Soviet provenience were poorly adapted to the radically changed security environment, as well as to Russia’s economic, material, and human capabilities. Since Vladimir Putin’s second presidential term, the political will to prioritize the defence sector has systematically increased and eventually led to a comprehensive military transformation. A new command and force structure, massive introduction of new materiel, and sharply increased quality and quantity of training have been accompanied by doctrinal revisions to accommodate changing forms of warfare. Nevertheless, the modernization efforts have been unevenly distributed and in some cases incoherent, undermined by inadequate industrial, technological, socio-economic, and demographic resources. The end objective of the military transformation remains a subject of an ongoing discussion.
Benelux Countries
Authors: Klinkert Wim
Published: July 2018

The defence policy of the Netherlands and Belgium has changed substantially following the end of the cold war. Both countries suspended conscription early on and actively participated in many (UN) peacekeeping missions. Both countries also experienced traumatic events that influenced their defence policy: in Ruanda for the Belgians in 1994 and in Bosnia (Srebrenica) for the Dutch (1995). Drastic budget cuts and the integration of the new, but small, professional armies within new NATO and EU defence structures (CSDP and NRF) are also themes with which both countries struggled. Both countries embraced pooling and sharing and cultivated European defence cooperation, especially within Benelux but also with Germany, the UK, and increasingly with other partners. Simultaneously they also attached much value to their ties with the USA. The Dutch furthermore attach great importance to the development of the international legal order and the safeguarding of the flow of trade by sea.
Czech Republic, Hungary, and Slovakia
Authors: Onderco Michal
Published: July 2018

This chapter focuses on defence transformations in the Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Hungary since the end of the cold war. The three lesser powers of Central Europe all eventually joined NATO and the European Union, following the fall of the Iron Curtain. The process they underwent completely transformed their security strategies and military doctrines, but the plans to transform their military forces have developed slowly, and the actual process has been interrupted and incomplete. This chapter addresses the development of civil–military relations, the main milestones in the development of the respective states’ national security policies, and the main changes in the structure of military forces in each of these countries. Finally, the chapter looks at the nascent trends towards military cooperation between the three countries, including military sharing and joint procurement.
Finland and Sweden
Authors: Andersson Jan Joel
Published: July 2018

Since the end of the cold war, the two Nordic neighbours and non-NATO members Finland and Sweden have undertaken major defence reforms but have pursued rather different strategic choices. After some initial hesitation in the mid-1990s, Sweden rapidly abandoned its long-time focus on territorial defence in the 2000s, suspended conscription in 2009, and turned to out-of-area operations in collaboration with partners in NATO, the EU, and the UN in the Balkans, Afghanistan, Libya, and Central Africa. In contrast, Finland chose to remain more focused on territorial defence and was one of few European countries that retained national conscription after the end of the cold war. Bordering an increasingly aggressive Russia, Finland and Sweden are refocusing on territorial defence and intensifying their bilateral military collaboration as well as their collaboration with the United States. Meanwhile, both countries are increasingly debating possible NATO membership.
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization
Authors: Giegerich Bastian
Published: July 2018

NATO, founded as a collective defence alliance, has spent most of the post-cold-war period transforming itself into a security management organization. Its ability to adapt has been the basis of NATO’s continued relevance. At the same time, NATO’s adjustments in functional and geographic scope have triggered debate about its strategic direction and the political and military requirements necessary to fulfil current and future roles. This chapter will assess NATO’s evolution by concentrating on the bargaining processes among member states that shaped the direction of NATO’s strategic guidelines and its out-of-area operational activities. The objective is to trace the extent to which a common strategic outlook has emerged among the European members of NATO.
UK–French Defence and Security Cooperation
Authors: Pannier Alice
Published: July 2018

The expansion and deepening of the UK–French defence partnership that came with the signing of the Lancaster House Treaties of November 2010 is of particular importance for European armed forces. The UK–French agreement concerns Europe’s two main defence players and covers both nuclear and conventional matters. This chapter first analyses the incentives that led to the cooperation treaties being signed in November 2010. It argues that it has four drivers: converging defence policies, economic necessity, the waning of traditional bilateral partnerships, and frustration with regional defence cooperation. Then the chapter assesses the progress made in the different areas of defence: training and interoperability, procurement and industrial integration, cooperation in international crises and participation in military interventions, and nuclear cooperation. The chapter concludes with a study of the challenges faced by the two countries, while also underlining the positive effects of institutionalization on their security partnership.
Franco-German Defence and Security Cooperation
Authors: Krotz Ulrich , Wolf Katharina
Published: July 2018

Bilateral Franco-German cooperation in security and defence is characterized by a paradox. On the one hand, France and Germany are closely connected institutionally, and consult across all key areas of foreign policy, security, and defence in highly regularized ways. On the other hand, the countries’ general orientations in security and defence, as well as their strategic postures and numerous policy preferences in these domains, often are disparate and, not infrequently, deeply divergent. This chapter outlines both the institutional underpinnings of the robust Franco-German bilateral connection and the enduring differences between France and Germany. It then explores how this ‘double logic’ of institutional cohesion versus preference divergence plays out across key areas in security and defence, including armament cooperation; nuclear forces; the Franco-German brigade and the Eurocorps; and military deployment. The chapter concludes by discussing where the Franco-German relationship may be heading, and the implications of these developments for European politics.