bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Eutrophication (Excessive Fertilization)
Authors: Lee G. Fred , Jones‐Lee Anne
Published: July 2005

Excessive fertilization (eutrophication) of lakes and reservoirs is recognized as one of the most important causes of water quality impairment of lakes, reservoirs, and some streams, rivers, and nearshore marine waters. Driven by excessive input of nitrogen and phosphorus, eutrophication is characterized by the presence of sufficient planktonic and attached algae and/or water weeds to impair the use of water for domestic water supply (tastes and odors, shortened filter runs, THM precursors, etc.), recreation, and fisheries (decline in coldwater fisheries, fish kills). The control of excessive fertilization requires an understanding of the loading of nutrients, nutrient availability, and the quantification of the relationship between nutrient load and eutrophication response for the waterbody of concern. Simple concentration‐based standards are unreliable for effective eutrophication control. The Vollenweider–OECD eutrophication modeling approach, as amplified by the authors, can develop and evaluate nutrient control options and estimate the change in eutrophication‐related water quality that could be achieved for the control program for a given lake or reservoir.
Land Surface Modeling
Authors: Liang Xu
Published: July 2005

Land surface modeling consists of developing and applying computational models that integrate complicated hydrologic and physical processes that occur at the land surface, between the land surface and the atmosphere, and within the soil column. A land surface model or macroscale hydrologic model, as these types of models are called, has two important characteristics: (a) it considers processes related to both the energy and water budgets and their interactions, and (b) it operates over relatively large spatial domains with short temporal scales. Depending on their complexity, these models generally include representations for some or all of the following major physical processes:

Snow and snowmelt

Frozen soil

Infiltration

Surface runoff

Subsurface runoff (e.g., flows from unsaturated and/or saturated zones)

Evaporation and transpiration

Vegetation dynamics

Processes related to the energy budget (e.g., radiation, sensible heat flux, ground heat flux, etc.)

The above processes are interconnected and constrained by the available water and energy. Evapotranspiration links the energy and water aspects of a land surface model together. Soil moisture and surface temperature relate various different physical, hydrological, and biogeochemical processes to one another.
Regulated Rivers
Authors: Petts Geoffrey
Published: July 2005

The regulation of river flows by dams and reservoirs has been fundamental to the advancement of civilization, and as dryland development continues, river regulation for water supply and power production continues to be central to economic growth. However, river ecosystems have evolved to become adapted to the natural pattern of flow variability from season to season and from year to year. Flow regulation has had dramatic impacts on both running‐water and floodplain ecosystems, resulting in major changes in biodiversity and to fisheries.
Environmental Flows
Authors: Petts Geoffrey
Published: July 2005

The management of river flows to protect river and floodplain ecosystems has become a major focus of interest to both scientists and managers. Species of animals and plants within and along rivers have evolved in response to the natural flow regime. “Environmental flows” refer to the full range of flows, including minimum flows to be maintained during low‐flow seasons and overbank flows for floodplain inundation. Environmental flows must be assessed for the sustainable management of regulated rivers and those impacted by water abstractions.
Microbiology of Lotic Aggregates and Biofilms
Authors: Strauss Eric A.
Published: July 2005

The diverse and abundant microbial communities present in aggregates and biofilms of flowing water systems are important for organic matter processing, nutrient cycling, and the transfer of energy among trophic levels. Aggregates (free‐floating particulate matter and associated microorganisms) and biofilms (thin slime layers present on surfaces and substrates) are present in most aquatic systems, but the physical stresses exerted by flowing water maintain aggregates at smaller sizes and cause biofilms to be more dense and more stable than their counterparts in nonflowing systems. Both aggregates and biofilms contain microbially produced exopolymers that bind their contents together and assist in the capture of additional nutrients, organic matter, and other microorganisms. The density of bacterial cells and rates of bacterial activity are typically greater in aggregates and biofilms compared with bacterial density and activity in the surrounding water. This high microbial activity can lead to chemical and biological gradients, especially within biofilms, that are particularly important for cycling of nutrients such as nitrogen, sulfur, and carbon. Specialized and often colorful biofilms dominated by unique groups of microorganisms can develop in certain environments exhibiting specific chemical and physical conditions.
Modeling Trace Metal Speciation in Natural Water Systems
Authors: Filella Montserrat
Published: July 2005

Trace metal speciation is often studied by applying an analytical methodology. An alternative method is based on the prediction of the distribution of chemical species by using computer modeling techniques. This approach involves solving multiple simultaneous equations, some of which describe the competing chemical equilibria and others mass balance relationships, and requires the input of data on the total level of cations, anions, and ligand species present and equilibrium constant values for all possible interactions between the various species. The approach is not new. However, today the technique is potentially more readily available because of advances in computer technology, and speciation modeling can now be considered a routine tool in many fields. In this chapter, the main aspects of thermodynamic speciation modeling are described. The reader progresses from fundamental concepts, such as the idea of chemical component or the presentation of the well established adsorption models used to describe trace metal sorption on solid phases, to the discussion of the limitations imposed by the need of additional and reliable thermodynamic data and the difficulties involved in obtaining a rigorous thermodynamic description of the complexing properties of natural organic matter.
Floods
Authors: Jennings Steven , Gruntfest Eve
Published: July 2005

Streams are linear water features that flow under the impetus of gravity. The amount of water contained in a stream is usually regulated by contributions of groundwater and surface runoff to the stream channel (Zaslavsky and Sinai, 1981; Knighton, 1998). Much of the time water in a stream flows within the confines of its channel. When inputs of water increase sufficiently, stream discharge leaves the stream channel and covers all or parts of the adjacent floodplain. Since the floodplain surface is usually a virtually flat surface and near the elevation of the stream channel, water can easily spread over the floodplain once water exceeds the elevation of the stream's banks. Most floods develop over a period of days or months as discharge increases gradually (Hirschboeck, 1987, 1988). Flash floods by contrast occur suddenly with little warning and are of short duration. Semiarid and arid areas are likely to experience flash floods (Reid and Frostick, 1987; Hassan, 1990). Flooding is not always associated directly with stream channels. Flooding occurs any time when water covers a surface that is normally not under water. Flooding can occur in coastal areas, low lying areas with poor drainage, or locations with inadequate urban drainage systems.
Floodplain
Authors: Tompkins Mark R.
Published: July 2005

The term
floodplain
has a range of physically and ecologically based definitions, in addition to a regulatory (i.e., flood control) definition. From the physical perspective, floodplains are a component of the dimensions and geometry of river channels, which as a whole reflect the runoff and sediment load they carry. Floodplains have been defined as the relatively flat level floor formed of sediment deposits, which extends from the edge of the channel to the valley walls. Nanson and Croke define floodplains more precisely as “the largely horizontally‐bedded alluvial landform adjacent to a channel, separated from the channel by banks, and built of sediment transported by the present flow‐regime.” They identify lateral point bar accretion, overbank vertical accretion, and braid‐channel accretion as the dominant floodplain forming processes in their genetic floodplain classification based on stream power and sediment texture.
Flood Prevention
Authors: Simonovic Slobodan P.
Published: July 2005

Although people cannot do much about floods, they can influence the nature and extent of flood losses. The latter can be achieved through flood management policies and programs. The first section of this contribution describes some of the causes of flooding in order to provide insight into why some flood protection and response polices might succeed in one area but fail in another. Since natural flood mechanisms exist and socioeconomic conditions vary throughout the world, a mix of responses is necessary to effectively deal with the flood problem. The second section of this contribution describes the nature of some specific flood protection activities. In this manner, the need for effective flood management is demonstrated.
Forests and Wetlands
Authors: Endreny Theodore A. , Bridger Emera
Published: July 2005

Forests and wetlands are landscape features that play integral roles in the hydrological cycle. Within the landscape, forests and wetlands are inextricably linked. Wetlands may exist within forest ecosystems, or wetland ecosystems can be characterized as “forested.” This article will outline the characteristics of both forests and wetlands and some implications for water resource management.
Great Lakes
Authors: Endreny Theodore A.
Published: July 2005

Lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, and Ontario comprise the five interior freshwater lakes that extend across a total area of 244,000 km
2
(0.16% of world land area), occupy parts of six states and two provinces in two nations, and contain nearly 20% of the world's freshwater supply. Glaciers, although frozen, are the only contiguous surface freshwater volume that contains more freshwater; they were the geologic forces that carved these lakes and the surrounding drainage area from the Precambrian rocks and overlying marine deposits from earlier inland seas that are now rocks classified by their Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, Mississippian, and Pennsylvanian periods. The current Pleistocene Epoch of glacier activity, whose vertical heights were 2 km, compressed and scoured the area during numerous advances and retreats. During each icesheet retreat, the ice‐excavated lake basins were filled by meltwater, and the absence of ice overload burden triggered areas of earth uplift and the creation of drainage outlets.
Hydraulics of Pressurized Flow
Authors: Fang Xing
Published: July 2005

Hydraulics is a branch of fluid mechanics specifically dealing with water as a major fluid in many engineering systems. It is safe to consider water as an incompressible fluid for typical engineering applications. Pressurized flow usually refers to the flow in closed conduits. Hydraulics of pressurized flow involves three basic equations: continuity, energy, and momentum equations. Head loss is important in hydraulics of pressurized flow regardless of system design or flow analysis. Darcy‐Weisbach and Hazen and Williams equations typically estimate friction head loss. The friction factor depends on Reynolds number and relative roughness of the pipe. Total head loss includes friction head loss caused by fluid viscosity and local head losses at changes in the cross section, bends, and various pipe fittings. A pump provides energy head to, and a water turbine takes energy head from, the pipe system.
Instream Flow Methods
Authors: Loganathan G. V.
Published: July 2005

Abstract The competing and increasing demands for water pose a formidable challenge for efficient management of instream flows. The offstream demands should in general be satisfied separately. The same instream flow satisfies all the instream flow demands and therefore its determination should be based on the largest of the demands. The demands need not be in the form of flow alone; there may be specific depth and velocity requirements. Methods of estimating minimum instream flow are discussed. They broadly fall into two categories, namely, threshold flow methods to guarantee releases for most of the time; and physically based methods addressing specific aspects of the demands.
Interception
Authors: Savenije Hubert H.G.
Published: July 2005

Interception is a key process in hydrology that is receiving relatively little attention. It is the first process of the hydrological cycle that a raindrop experiences after falling from the sky, and hence, all subsequent processes depend on it. Neglect of the interception process can lead to serious modeling mistakes. Interception is defined as the evaporative process that feeds moisture back to the atmosphere shortly after the rainfall has ceased (within approximately 1 day). It is the evaporation from all surfaces that have been moistened by precipitation, including leaves, soil, mulch, rock, paved, and build‐up surfaces. Evaporation from interception can amount to a considerable part of all terrestrial evaporation, depending on the climate and region. The interception process behaves differently at different time scales. Formulas are presented for the computation of interception at short, daily, and monthly time scales.
Lakes—Discharges To
Authors: Phoenix Laurel
Published: July 2005

Lakes have suffered from a long history of receiving pollutants from various sources. These pollutants degrade water quality, with implications for aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems as well as for a variety of issues for human populations dependent on that water and those ecosystems. The degree to which these pollutants degrade the lake depends on the amount and types of pollutants as well as the physical characteristics of the lake. For an introductory overview of how discharges to lakes are harmful, the pollutant sources and how pollutants are transported into the lake are described. The physical characteristics that determine the assimilative capacity of a lake are then covered. Finally, the effects that different pollutants have on lakes and their dependent ecosystems are explained as well as the ramifications for aquatic species, birds, wildlife, and humans.
Bioaccumulation
Authors: Lin Zhi‐Qing
Published: July 2005

Bioaccumulation is a process by which a chemical from the environment accumulates in an organism's body over time. It results from mass equilibrium where the uptake of a chemical into the body of an organism exceeds the elimination of the chemical from the body. Bioaccumulation occurs when there is a concentration increase of the chemical in the tissues of an organism. When the concentration of a chemical becomes higher in an organism than in the environment, the bioaccumulation process is specifically termed bioconcentration. Distribution of an accumulated chemical in an organism varies significantly among tissues/organs, species, and chemicals. One of the important environmental concerns of bioaccumulation is biomagnification, whereby the concentration of a chemical increases at each higher trophic level through a food chain. Biomagnification can result in a concentration increase between two trophic levels of two to three orders of magnitude. The term bioaccumulation is sometimes also used to refer to the total amount of a chemical accumulated in the body of an organism.
Minimum Environmental Flow Regimes
Authors: Arasteh Peyman Daneshkar
Published: July 2005

Environmental flows, sometimes referred to as ecological or instream flow requirements, or compensation flows are defined as the amount and quality of water necessary to preserve ecological functions and values in watercourses. One set of challenges in water resources planning today is to define environment flow requirements (quantity, timing, and quality on a seasonal basis), integrate them in water allocation policies and achieve consensus on this, and translate and incorporate those requirements into the operating rules for flow regulating structures, such as dams, reservoirs, and diversion schemes. In this article, basic concepts of environmental flow are introduced.

A minimum environmental flow will have significant benefits toward maintaining a macroinvertebrate population by providing suitable habitat refugee between discharge peaks. A minimum environmental flow, however, would not be expected to fully mitigate the effects of increased hydropeaking.

Establishing a minimum environmental flow is partly aimed at mitigating the effects of variable flows. Policies on environmental flows are perhaps the most important direct connection between water resource and wetland resource management.

A number of new planning approaches are emerging to quantify and apply environmental flow standards, which have been grouped in three main categories: hydrologic or historical flow record methods, hydraulic and habitat modeling, and holistic methods. The first category consists of approaches where historical flow records are used to develop environmental flow, or instream flow recommendations, based on subjective assessments of ecosystem needs. Hydraulic and habitat rating methods use relationships between habitat condition and discharge to develop instream flow recommendations. The final and more complex method is the holistic approach to the assessment of instream flows and water quality aspects, in which all components or attributes of the ecosystem and their interrelationships are addressed.
Modeling Ungauged Watersheds
Authors: Wagener Thorsten
Published: July 2005

Models of watershed hydrology are irreplaceable tools in today's research and practice. Their areas of application are wide reaching, from water management and flood forecasting, to their use as load models for water quality studies. A vast number of these models have been developed since the 1960s and they differ in temporal and spatial discretization, processes described, and in the constituent equations used. However, there are also similarities that have consequences for the way these models are commonly applied. All models of watershed hydrology aggregate the real hydrologic system on a particular element scale in space and time. The spatial scale might vary from grid cells of tens of meters to models that treat the whole catchment as a single unit, and the temporal scale might vary, for example, from 15‐minute intervals to monthly time steps.
Numerical Modeling of Currents
Authors: Rajar Rudi
Published: July 2005

Currents—water movement—appear in all surface waters: rivers, lakes, coastal seas, and oceans. This flow of water is almost always turbulent, which means with many irregular eddies of different size. Currents are sometimes near to steady movement (not changing with time), but mostly the movement is unsteady, significantly changing with time.

In rivers the currents are more aligned nearly in one dimension (1D), although in larger rivers they can be quite complex and three‐dimensional (3D). In shallower rivers or coastal seas the modeling of currents is sometimes two‐dimensional (2D), but in reality
all
currents are three‐dimensional (3D); that is, the water velocities are in all three directions, although often they are an order of magnitude greater in the two horizontal directions than in the vertical direction.
Open Channel Design
Authors: Fang Xing
Published: July 2005

An open channel flow is a flow having a free surface subject to atmospheric pressure. Open channel design is to design a channel to carry a certain amount of flow from one location to another under any provided channel geometry and topographic conditions. Parameters to define channel geometry include channel shape, cross‐sectional area, wetted perimeter, hydraulic radius, top width, and hydraulic depth. Manning's equation computes channel discharge. For open channel design, channels should be classified as nonerodible and erodible channels. For lined (nonerodible) channel design, one typically designs the channel with the best hydraulic section, where the channel section has the least wetted perimeter for a given cross‐sectional area and the channel is most hydraulic efficient. If a channel is placed in erodible material, the permissible velocity method can assure channel stability. A freeboard is recommended to prevent overtopping by surface waves and surges.
Phytoremediation by Constructed Wetlands
Authors: Datta Rupali , Sarkar Dibyendu , Khairom Alpana , Therapong Chacharee
Published: July 2005

A constructed wetland is a wastewater treatment facility that duplicates the processes in natural wetlands. Constructed wetlands are complex, integrated systems in which water, plants, animals, microorganisms, and the environment interact to improve water quality. Phytoremediation, defined as cleansing of the environment using vegetation, is the primary water treatment process in constructed wetlands. The advantages of phytoremediation using constructed wetlands are that it is environmentally friendly, a sustainable technology, and cost‐effective; the primary disadvantages are potentially incomplete removal of pollutants and pest attraction. Successful implementation of phytoremediation technology in constructed wetlands is a function of a number of interrelated biophysicochemical factors, including the types and fate of toxicants, characteristics of soil and sediment, plant species and plant uptake, hydrology and water flow, and microbial population. Hence, phytoremediation by constructed wetlands generally reflects an integrated multidisciplinary effort that combines plant biology, microbiology, surface chemistry, hydrology, and environmental engineering. The initial construction of wetlands, taking into account all these factors to design the most appropriate and effective method for removing target pollutants is labor‐intensive and expensive, but low maintenance and operating costs make constructed wetlands a much more economically viable alternative to conventional physical and chemical treatments. Above all, the use of plants in environmental cleanup may guarantee a greener and cleaner planet for us and for future generations.
Hydroelectric Reservoirs as Anthropogenic Sources of Greenhouse Gases
Authors: Soumis Nicolas , Lucotte Marc , Canuel René , Weissenberger Sebastian , Houel Stéphane , Larose Catherine , Duchemin Éric
Published: July 2005

The ever‐increasing demand for energy over the recent development of societies has spurred the construction of hydroelectric facilities. Since dams were first used to generate hydropower around 1890, their construction rate increased tremendously to peak during the 1950s and the 1980s. Today, about 25% of the 33,105 large dams (≥15 m height) listed by the International Commission on Large Dams (ICOLD) are used for hydropower generationand currently provide 19% of the world's electricity supply. Although over 150 countries operate hydroelectric plants, Brazil, China, Canada, Russia, and the United States produce more than 50% of the world's hydropower. According to data from 1996, hydroelectric reservoirs worldwide cover an estimated 600,000 km2.
Reversal of the Chicago River
Authors: Lanyon Richard
Published: July 2005

Through the end of the nineteenth century, the rapidly growing city of Chicago was plagued with frequent epidemics of waterborne diseases because sewers drained to the Chicago River and Lake Michigan. The lake was the city's water supply, and moving the water intakes farther from shore only provided temporary relief. The permanent solution was to discharge the sewage across a subtle subcontinental divide into the Des Plaines River, a tributary of the Illinois and Mississippi rivers. A sanitary district was created and eventually constructed a deep channel from Chicago to Joliet, Illinois. Large tracts of land needed to be acquired. Pioneering construction techniques for rock and soil excavation were devised. Managing construction of a new canal in the midst of existing canals and rivers and intersecting many railroads required artful negotiations and, sometimes, litigation. When the work was completed, a mere decade later, this remarkable project resulted in the excavation of 42,230,000 cubic yards of rock and soil, construction of 460,000 cubic yards of masonry for channel walls and bridge abutments, and the erection of 31 bridges. The total cost was $33.5 million. In 1900, the flow of the Chicago River was permanently and irrevocably reversed.
Chironomids in Sediment Toxicity Testing
Authors: Sibley Paul K.
Published: July 2005

Since it was first recognized that sediments served as significant repository for contaminants, research in the field of sediment toxicology has largely focused on the development and validation of methods to assess sediment toxicity. Several invertebrate species have played an integral role in the assessment of sediment toxicity in freshwater systems, but arguably none have been used more extensively than the two midge speciesChironomus tentansandC. riparius. The adoption of these two midges for sediment toxicity testing reflects their ecological relevance in aquatic systems, tolerance to a wide range of sediment characteristics, short generation times and amenability to culturing, relative insensitivity to manipulation, and wide acceptance among regulatory agencies. The most commonly applied standard test using bothC. tentansandC. ripariusis the 10‐d survival and growth assay. However, a standardized life cycle test usingC. tentansis also available in which survival, growth, emergence, and reproduction can be evaluated. This article presents detailed methods and practical insights pertaining to the use of the 10‐d and life cycle tests and discusses potential future applications ofChironomusspp. in sediment toxicity testing.
Sedimentation
Authors: Yang Chih Ted , Julien Pierre Y.
Published: July 2005

Sedimentation is a science of interest to geologists, river morphologists, environmentalists, and engineers. Geologists are interested in the formation, mineral content, and age of sedimentary rocks. River morphologists are interested in the formation of rivers, their patterns, and profiles. Environmentalists are interested in the impacts of sediments on water quality, aquatic habitat, and ecosystems. Engineers are interested in the movement of sediment and its impact on the engineering design and operation of hydraulic structures. Due to these differences of interests and emphases, sedimentation studies can vary from qualitative to quantitative or a combination of both.

This article emphasizes the hydraulics of sediment transport. Due to the complexity of sediment transport, only basic assumptions and approaches used by engineers are summarized here.
Sedimentation and Flotation
Authors: Viadero Roger C.
Published: July 2005

Waters and wastewaters typically contain particulate matter ranging from a few microns to centimeters in diameter, although the actual size distribution is often highly variable. One of the most common methods for the removal of particulate matter from waters and wastewaters is simple gravity settling, often referred to as “sedimentation.”

In water and wastewater treatment, four general classes of sedimentation can occur: Type 1, discrete settling; Type 2, flocculent settling; Type 3, hindered or “zone” settling; and Type 4, compression settling. In Type 1 settling, particles settle individually with no interparticle interactions. Consequently, no change in particle size occurs (i.e., floc formation). This system is often analyzed using
Stokes' Law
, based on a force balance on a single particle settling in a viscous medium under laminar flow conditions.
Water Symbolism
Authors: Marrin D. L.
Published: July 2005

Throughout history, water has been used as a symbol of wisdom, power, grace, music, and the undifferentiated chaos that gave rise to the material world. Many ancient cultures believed that everything in existence was birthed from, and ultimately returns to, the metaphoric “waters of chaos” through the substance of water. Whether portrayed as a shape‐shifting dragon, an omnipotent god, a three‐dimensional geometry, or a subterranean river, water has always been understood to play a fundamental role in the creation and maintenance of the physical world and, in particular, biological life. The post‐Renaissance view of water differed in many respects from ancient views, but water and its recognizable flow forms remained symbols of power, beauty, wisdom, and the essence of the natural world. In our postmodern world, water most commonly symbolizes an economic commodity, which is bought, sold, collected, and distributed according to various market forces. This shift in human perception has resulted in many unforeseen effects on the earth and the biosphere.
The Myth of Bad Cholesterol: Why Water is a Better Cholesterol‐Lowering Medication
Authors: Batmanghelidj F.
Published: July 2005

Water itself—not caffeine‐containing beverages that further dehydrate—is a better cholesterol‐lowering medication than any chemical on the market. It is absolutely safe, unlike the dangerous medications so often used.
Water: The Key to Natural Health And Healing
Authors: Batmanghelidj F.
Published: July 2005

Water is a better medication than whatever is manufactured by the drug industry for any of the presently recognized painful degenerative diseases. These diseases are the products of an inefficient, water‐deprived, prunelike state of cells that cannot keep up with the demands placed on them. Each year, more than 700,000 people die of heart disease, 500,000 die of cancer, and arterial disease of the brain kills over 160,000. All of these deaths might have been prevented if water was given a primary position in the daily diet.
The Mistake of Waiting to Get Thirsty
Authors: Batmanghelidj F.
Published: July 2005

In his research on “conformational change in biological macromolecules,” Ephraim Katchalski‐Katzir of the Weizmann Institute of Science has shown that the “proteins and enzymes of the body function more efficiently in solutions of lower viscosity”(2). Thus water loss from the interior of the cells would adversely affect their efficiency of function. This finding alone negates Dr. Valtin's view that we should let dehydration get established before drinking water. It is desirable that all cells of the body function efficiently within their physiological roles, so it would be more prudent to hydrate the body optimally rather than wait for the drought‐management programs of the body to induce thirst. Furthermore, it is much easier for the body to deal with a slight surplus of water than to suffer from its shortfall and have to ration and allocate water to vital organs at the expense of less vital body functions. The circulation of concentrated blood in the vascular system is truly an invitation to catastrophe.
Water, Bacteria, Life on Mars, and Microbial Diversity
Authors: Vance David B. , Jacobs James A.
Published: July 2005

Microbial life is extremely diverse with regard to ambient conditions, metabolic pathways, and geographic dispersion at depth in soils and sedimentary formations on Earth. Original bacterial life on Earth started in anaerobic conditions, without free oxygen in the atmosphere. Water chemistry in the primitive oceans would have been devoid of significant dissolved oxygen. The primitive atmosphere was chiefly carbon monoxide (CO), hydrogen sulfide (H
2
S), nitrogen (N
2
), hydrogen (H
2
), and water. Some of the more volatile trace elements such as chromium, manganese, and sodium may also have been present (1). Since that time, almost every niche on Earth has been colonized by some type of microbial life. Given the robust nature of microbial life on Earth, it is possible that microbial life existed on other planets having similar elements and compounds. As the very early history of Mars may have been somewhat similar to that of Earth, Mars may have had the conditions for microbial life. In the oceans, the gases in the primitive atmosphere were present as dissolved constituents. In addition, given the reducing conditions, soluble forms of reduced metals were also present, with ferrous iron likely being a dominant species.
I
ranian Traditional Water Systems
Authors: Jahani Hamid R.
Published: July 2005

Water has had a value sometimes not less than gold among Iranians, facing almost 250 mm of precipitation annually. Evidence exists of the struggle of the people against the dry nature, yielding masterpieces all over the country. These are some hydraulic structures still under operation after some hundreds of years with hundreds of thousands of people still dependent on them. This article points to some of these structures that have been propagated through the world and accepted and used by different nations.
Water Transportation Occupations
Authors:   Bureau of Labor Statistics
Published: July 2005

Many jobs in water transportation occupations require a merchant mariner's document or a license from the U.S. Coast Guard.

Merchant mariners on oceangoing ships are hired for periods ranging from a single voyage to several continuous voyages and may be away from home continuously for months.

Jobs aboard oceangoing vessels have high pay, but competition for them remains keen, and merchant mariners might have to wait months between work opportunities.
Effective Water Education Strategies in a Nontraditional Setting
Authors: Lien Sharon L.
Published: July 2005

Thinking out of the box, or in this case out of the classroom, enables water educators to explore less traditional educational strategies. This article discusses three examples of effective water education in nontraditional settings—Children's Groundwater Festival, Groundwater University, and Awesome Aquifers for Science Olympiad—and the impact these efforts have had on educating youth in groundwater protection and conservation.

Formulated around the concept of making learning fun, the Festival is staged in a fair‐like atmosphere that is stimulating and exciting for participants. This event is a dynamic, energetic day filled with hands‐on education. Groundwater University is intensive, experience‐based groundwater education for youth that provides hands‐on activities, field trips, and presentations from top water professionals. As part of the Awesome Aquifers event, students conduct groundwater research and design and build a groundwater flow model. During competition, students use their models to demonstrate an understanding of groundwater concepts.

These water educational strategies have demonstrated the ability to increase the knowledge and understanding of groundwater. As a result, the impact will be the development of youth with the capacity and ability to protect and preserve groundwater resources now and in the future.
Evolution
Authors: Haley David
Published: July 2005

From the scientific evidence of cosmic evolution to creation myths and poetic inspiration, water plays a key role in the development of all life forms and cultures. This article contrasts Darwinian theories of natural selection and notions of competitive survival with symbiotic and cooperative development, to demonstrate how water drives the evolutionary process—the salinity of our bodily fluids remind us of our marine origins over 400 million years ago.

It is noted that evolution of the human species coincided with the famous ice ages, but the nineteenth century scientist, John Tyndall, first showed the importance of water vapor in maintaining the atmosphere and climate. However, intense debate has ensued, concerning global warming and the possible effects of climate change. With great uncertainty surrounding our ability to understand the causes, predict the outcomes, and respond appropriately, the water cycle remains a central mediator. This relationship is taken up in reports from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, the views of a proindustrial development scientist, an ecological activist and illustrated in apocalyptic fashion by Leonardo da Vinci. To conclude, this article looks to the oceans, the source of the planet's greatest biodiversity and potential, for an evolutionary continuum.

In the cosmic sense of evolution, water may be viewed as part of the design of a supernatural “creator,” or a quirk of fate—that a certain condition occurred for a combination of atoms (H
2
O) to coincide in a particular atmosphere and remain for a sustained period of time within the atmosphere of a planet. And as Theodore Schwenk writes in his analysis of flow forms,
Sensitive Chaos
: “It is not possible to speak of the beginning or end of a circulatory system; everything is inwardly connected and reciprocally related. Water is essentially the element of circulatory systems” (2). He continues: “The great rhythms of the tides are a response to forces that work in the interplay of earth and cosmos…and for which, through its great impressionability, the element of water is a receptive ‘sense organ’” (3). Governed by the Sun and Moon, this earth‐bound phenomenon is claimed by creation myths and scientific conjecture and is the source of inspiration for poets and artists.
Water as a Human Right
Authors: Phoenix Laurel
Published: July 2005

The human right to physical and economic access to water has recently been declared by nongovernmental institutions and civil society groups worldwide. The movement to establish this right has been driven by two related issues. First, global populations are currently experiencing a water crisis predicted to become much worse. Second, the growing global trend of water privatization has created additional concerns regarding access to potable water. An introduction to the global water crisis of rising demand from population growth and industrialization for limited resources (water) is given here. Included is a discussion of global privatization trends and the support that some international governmental organizations give to private water corporations and the effects of this privatization on poor citizens. Human rights and governmental obligations to their citizens are discussed in reference to providing potable water to all citizens.
U
.
S
./
C
anadian Boundary Waters Treaty and the Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement
Authors: Yoskowitz David W.
Published: July 2005

The IJC was created as a result of the Boundary Waters Treaty of 1909 between the United States and Great Britain because it still controlled Canadian foreign policy. The pressure for a treaty came from within as populations of communities on both sides of the border began to grow and demands on water increased along with it. Initially, obstacles had to be overcome in the legal wording of the document because the two countries look at boundary waters differently. Americans tend to look at boundary water resources from the point of view of equity and equitable utilization, in which rights and obligations of the individual water user are recognized. Canadians, on the other hand, see water issues in terms of equality and the rights and responsibilities of the two states.
U
nited
S
tates‐
M
exico Border Waters: Conventions, Treaties, and Institutions
Authors: Lowery Nancy A.
Published: July 2005

Cooperation over shared United States–Mexico waters dates back to the
Treaty of Peace, Friendship, Limits, and Settlements
, know as the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, signed in 1848. This treaty established the international boundary from the Gulf of Mexico along the Rio Grande to El Paso, Texas, then west to the Pacific Ocean just south of San Diego Harbor, a stretch of 3141 km. For 2001 km of that border, the Rio Grande serves as the boundary line. This is a long and complex boundary with topography ranging from coastal plains to mountain ranges and high desert. The climate is predominately semiarid to arid, has two major watersheds, the Rio Grande (called the Rio Bravo in Mexico) and the Colorado River, many smaller watersheds, and numerous groundwater basins. This was a treaty of intent, not of specifics. The treaty did not deal with details of the boundary line, management of water between the two countries, fluctuation of the river courses, water quality, or groundwater resources. Subsequent agreements would have to deal with these issues.
Transboundary Waters in
L
atin
A
merica: Conflicts and Collaboration
Authors: Whiteford Scott , Jimenez Alicia
Published: July 2005

In the Americas, there are approximately 70 international basins shared by Latin American countries (32 in North America and 38 in South America). Of those, 15 of the North American international basins and six of the South American international basins are governed by international treaties (2). These treaties refer to agreements where there is a concern with water as a scarce or consumable resource, a quantity to be managed, or an ecosystem to be improved or maintained (see Table 1).

Although treaties and agreements of cooperation exist, countries of the Americas face a great challenge in collaborating to achieve sustainable development on both sides of their borders. This is particularly important where the actions of one nation can directly or indirectly affect the well‐being of its neighbors. Frequently, projects that threaten water quality are located near international borders and create winner–loser confrontations. These situations generate serious international conflicts, sometimes violent, which may extend for years. To resolve these types of prolonged conflicts, collaborative agreements are negotiated which facilitate shared water and land management. This article presents examples of conflicting situations and cooperative efforts among Latin American countries in North America, Central America, and South America. This article examines key examples of binational development that has threatened the quality of water used by two nations and created binational conflict and negotiation.
A Brief History of the Water Pollution Control Act in the
U
.
S
.
Authors: Russell David L.
Published: July 2005

The earliest significant start for water pollution control legislation in the United States began with the formation of the Ohio River Sanitary Commission (ORSANCO) in the 1940s. It was formed as a result of efforts by individuals from the U.S. Public Health Service (USPHS) and many of the state Departments of Health. The ORSANCO compact culminated more than 10 years of work to promote public health and reduce the incidence of waterborne disease in communities along the Ohio River. ORSANCO started as an initial effort among four states, and by 1940, the compact had six states. In 1948, the seventh and eighth states signed the compact on the same day that President Harry Truman signed the first comprehensive water pollution control legislation that directed the U.S. Public Health Service to control water pollution to promote public health.
Negotiating between Authority and Polluters: An Approach to Managing Water Quality
Authors: Šauer Petr , Dvořák Antonín
Published: July 2005

Water pollution reduction is one of the most complicated challenges of environmental policy. Technical solutions exist that are already economically efficient for the polluters. However, many projects exist that bring net control costs for the polluters, so the polluters do not have an economic interest in them. These projects can still be efficient from the social point of view and polluters should be motivated in their realization. Our contribution is to present a relatively new approach that could lead to cost‐effective solutions of water pollution reduction problems. It is based on voluntary (multiple‐round) negotiations between an authority and polluters, where economic tools of environmental policy (environmental fees and subsidies) are used. The principle of the approach is explained in the chapter. An illustration on a simple economic laboratory experiment follows. Various potential practical applications of the approach are mentioned. The help with an efficient initial distribution of tradable water pollution rights is probably the most interesting application. It also could contribute to resolving complicated situations (characterized by many pollutants, synergic effects, etc.) before the rights are allocated for a limited number of the pollutants.
Interface between Federal Water Quality Regulation and State Allocation of Water Quantity
Authors: Kassen Melinda R.
Published: July 2005

In the United States, separate systems regulate water quality protection and water allocation. The Clean Water Act regulates water quality, although the Act gives states certain responsibilities and allows the Federal Government to delegate states others. States have the primary authority to allocate quantities of water to various users, with Western states generally using the system of
prior appropriation
, and eastern states following the
riparian system
.

Because a river has aspects of both flow and quality, actions taken pursuant to either quality or quantity regulation can affect regulatory actions in the other system. Such overlap creates substantial friction between both the different government decision‐makers and between the governments and those using the nation's waters. States' approaches range from Colorado, with a complete separation between the two systems, to California, which practices complete integration. In many states, resistance to applying Clean Water Act requirements to the exercise of water rights has hampered protection of water quality. Meanwhile, a growing number of Clean Water Act programs, including permitting for dredge and fill activities, state certifications of water quality for federal permits, and addressing impaired waters through total maximum daily loads, may limit the exercise of water rights.
Reserved Water Rights for
I
ndian and Federal Lands
Authors: Woods Eve
Published: July 2005

Historically, the United States set aside land from the public domain for federal purposes such as parks and national forest without taking the actions necessary to establish a water right under state law. It also negotiated treaties with American Indian Tribes that failed to address the question of a water supply for the lands set aside for the tribe. The doctrine of reserved water rights is based on the contract law theory that the federal government intended to reserve adequate water for itself when it set aside land for federal purposes, even though it did not say so expressly in the document setting aside the land (1). Likewise, when an Indian tribe reserved some of its land for itself while ceding the rest to the United States by treaty, this doctrine recognizes that the tribe must have intended to reserve some waters for itself, to make the land it reserved useable.

The United States Supreme Court first recognized a reserved water right in the 1908 case of “Winters v. United States”.