bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Implications of U.S. Federal Law and Court Cases for Physical Education Placement of Students with Disabilities
Authors: Block Martin E.
Published: August 2016

Inclusion, the philosophy of placing all children with disabilities in regular education settings, is easily the most discussed and controversial education reform issue since the 1975 passage of PL 94-142, Education of Handicapped Children Act (EHA). However, inclusion is never mentioned in the original EHA or the updated PL 101-476, Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) (e.g., Sherrill, 1994; Stein, 1994). What is discussed in IDEA as well as Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 is the “continuum of least restrictive environments” (LRE). The purpose of this paper is to (a) review United States federal laws regarding inclusion and LRE, most notably IDEA and Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973; (b) review recent U.S. court cases regarding inclusion and LRE including three landmark cases: Roncker v. Walter (Ohio) (1983), Daniel R.R. v. State Board of Education (Texas) (1989), and Sacramento Unified School District, Board of Education v. Rachel H. (California) (1994); and (c) apply these federal laws and court decisions to physical education placement.
Qualitative Analysis of a Pediatric Strength Intervention on the Developmental Stepping Movements of Infants with Down Syndrome
Authors: Sayers L. Kristi , Cowden Jo E. , Newton Maria , Warren Barbara , Eason Bobby
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to describe the developmental stepping movements of 5 infants with Down syndrome who participated in a pediatric strength intervention. Pretest and posttest data were collected with the Hawaii Early Learning Profile Strands, Battelle Developmental Inventory, and specially designed gait analysis. An 8-week individualized pediatric strength intervention was implemented according to theoretical principles of progressive interactive facilitation (Cowden, in press). Posttest data and the Snyder-McLean (1987) intervention developmental quotient suggested an increase in the subjects’ rates of motor development during intervention as compared to their lifetime rates prior to intervention. One subject showed increased rate and distance, 2 subjects acquired independent upright locomotion, and 1 subject established independent sitting movements and creeping patterns. One subject was unable to complete the study.
Training Practices of Athletes with Disabilities
Authors: Liow David K. , Hopkins Will G.
Published: August 2016

The training practices of athletes with disabilities were investigated by means of a validated self-administered questionnaire. Descriptive statistics were derived from the replies of 41 wheelchair racers, 20 swimmers, and 14 athletes specializing in throwing events. The majority of athletes competed at either international (77%) or national levels (15%). Almost all swimmers were coached frequently, but one third of the wheelchair racers and one half of the throwers were not coached. Median volumes of endurance, interval, strength, and skill training in each of four training phases (buildup, precompetition, taper, and postcompetition) only partially reflected the contribution of energy systems and skills to performance in the different sports; moreover, there were wide variations in the training programs of athletes within each sport, especially swimmers and throwers. It was concluded that there is need for improvement in the coaching and training of many top-class athletes with disabilities.
Retirement from Disability Sport: A Pilot Study
Authors: Wheeler Garry D. , Malone Laurie A. , VanVlack Sandy , Nelson Ewen R. , Steadward Robert D.
Published: August 2016

We examined the transition experiences and adjustment to retirement among 18 athletes with disabilities. Adopting a grounded theory approach, we interviewed athletes using a semistructured format based on Schlossberg’s (1981, 1984) transition model. Three basic questions were asked regarding the competitive period, events surrounding the retirement decision, and adjustment to retirement. Data were analyzed by an iterative process and a model was developed. Sport was a highly valued part of the lives of athletes; personal commitment to sport was evident and often taken to extremes including overtraining and ignoring medical advice. Transition from sport was an emotional experience for athletes, and difficulties were associated with voluntary versus involuntary retirement and readiness or lack of readiness for retirement. Coping with retirement appeared to be facilitated by readiness and having other job and family interests outside of sport. Many athletes expressed concern regarding chronic injuries and aging with a disability. We suggest that the Schlossberg model is a useful framework for examining athlete transition and adjustment to retirement.
The Effect of Peer Tutors on Motor Performance in Integrated Physical Education Classes
Authors: Houston-Wilson Cathy , Dunn John M. , Mars Hans van der , McCubbin Jeffrey
Published: August 2016

The effect of untrained and trained peer tutors on the motor performance of students with developmental disabilities in integrated physical education classes was studied. This study used a single-subject delayed multiple baseline design across six participants (5 boys and 1 girl, ages 9 to 11) with developmental disabilities. Six typically developing peers served as peer tutors. The ability to perform critical elements of fundamental motor skills was the dependent variable. Students were assigned to one of two protocols. Protocol 1 consisted of three conditions: baseline, assistance by an untrained peer tutor, and assistance by a trained peer tutor. Protocol 1 revealed that trained peer tutors were effective at assisting participants to improve their motor performance while untrained peer tutors were not. Protocol 2, which consisted only of a baseline and trained, peer tutoring, was used to replicate and provide additional support for the effect of trained peer tutors. Results revealed that trained peer tutors were effective at assisting participants to improve their motor performance in integrated physical education classes.
Raising the Consciousness of Researchers: Hidden Assumptions in the Behavioral Sciences
Authors: Slife Brent D.
Published: August 2016

Behavioral science researchers have long acknowledged that their methods have certain technical limits: measurement errors, design restrictions, problems of inference, and other factors. Within these limits, however, many researchers have assumed that their methods provide truthful, accurate, or objective renderings of their subject matter. The problem is that the philosophical limitations of method qua method are often overlooked. Method is not a neutral tool of inquiry but a biased metatheory about how to adjudicate theories and findings. This bias is most evident in the modernist foundations for traditional science. Three modernist assumptions are described as integral to the philosophy and practice of traditional behavioral science: universalism, materialism, and atomism. For purposes of contrast and to facilitate conversation about these assumptions, three postmodern assumptions are also described: contextuality, lived experience, and radical holism. Neither set of assumptions is advocated. Rather, an evaluation of any method and its philosophy is advocated in light of the questions being asked and subject matter being investigated.
Assumptions Inherent in Biological Research
Authors: Shephard Roy J.
Published: August 2016

A quantitative hypothetico-deductive approach has continued to contribute greatly to advances in biological and medical science. Quantitative methods are adopted over other approaches primarily because they contribute the most new knowledge about biological processes. Nevertheless, investigators make many assumptions when testing a biological hypothesis quantitatively. These assumptions may become invalid unless experiments are designed with great care. Problems arise in relation to formulating appropriate hypotheses, using volunteer samples, controlling the experimental intervention and potentially interfering behaviors, reaching an acceptable level of proof, excluding alternative hypotheses, and generalizing findings beyond the immediate experimental sample. When biologists are aware of these issues, they can take appropriate countermeasures and reach valid conclusions. However, the issues become more critical and resolution is less clear-cut when the same methods are extended from biology to psychology and the social sciences, and from general to special populations. In such situations, case studies and single-subject designs may have continuing relevance.
Identifying What We Take for Granted in Our Research: Suggestions for Assumption Hunters
Authors: Strean William B.
Published: August 2016

The theme of this special issue, following from the 1996 NAFAPA meeting, is “Questioning Our Research Assumptions.” Before assessing the validity of assumptions, they must first be identified. This paper describes how researchers can go about locating what they take for granted in their work. Attention is given to three types of assumptions: paradigmatic, prescriptive, and causal. The specific strategies discussed are examining the gap between conclusion and reasons, analyzing the ideas that support reasons, identifying with the researcher’s point of view, identifying with opposing viewpoints, learning more about relevant issues, and considering barriers in current thinking.
Learning and Control of Simple Aiming Movements by Adults with Profound Mental Retardation
Authors: Choi Seung-oh , Meeuwsen Harry J. , French Ron , Stenwall Jill
Published: August 2016

Behavioral, response outcome, and response kinematic measures were analyzed for 6 adults (5 males and 1 female) with profound mental retardation (PMR). Participants performed 30 error-free simple linear aiming movements on a digitizing tablet during 7 acquisition, 3 retention, and 4 transfer days. A one-way ANOVA on the number of trials to reach 30 error-free responses revealed that adults with PMR improved, learned the skill, and transferred it to a new situation. The 2 × 3 × 3 (Phase × Day × Block) repeated measures ANOVAs for response outcome and kinematic measures indicated that participants were able to initiate movement faster with practice. However, practice did not result in changes in kinematic response measures.
Motivational Factors and Coping Strategies of Norwegian Paralympic and Olympic Winter Sport Athletes
Authors: Pensgaard Anne Marte , Roberts Glyn C. , Ursin Holger
Published: August 2016

This study aimed to compare individual and situational motivational factors and the use of coping strategies among elite athletes with and without physical disabilities. Participants were Norwegian athletes from the 1994 Winter Olympics (n = 69) and Paralympics (n = 30) at Lillehammer. Quantitative data came from questions concerning expectations and satisfactions, and three instruments (Perception of Success Questionnaire, Perceived Motivational Climate Questionnaire, and the COPE Inventory). Qualitative data came from interviews. MANOVA analyses revealed that Paralympic and Olympic athletes had similar motivational profiles, but the Paralympic athletes perceived a more mastery-oriented climate, F(1, 98) = 12.6, p < .001. Both groups used similar types of coping strategies, except that Olympic athletes employed more redefinition and growth strategies, F(1, 97) = 6.72, p < .01. Paralympic athletes were also significantly more satisfied with effort and results. Paralympic and Olympic athletes were significantly different on only 4 of 11 variables.
Family Participation in Challenger Baseball: Critical Theory Perspectives
Authors: Castañ Lupe , Sherrill Claudine
Published: August 2016

The purpose was to analyze the social construction of Challenger baseball opportunities in a selected community. Participants were 10 boys and 6 girls with mental and/or physical disabilities (ages 7 to 16 years, M = 11.31), their families, and the head coach. Data were collected through interviews in the homes with all family members, participant observation at practices and games, and field notes. The research design was qualitative, and critical theory guided interpretation. Analytical induction revealed five outcomes that were particularly meaningful as families and coach socially constructed Challenger baseball: (a) fun and enjoyment, (b) positive affect related to equal opportunity and feelings of “normalcy,” (c) social networking/emotional support for families, (d) baseball knowledge and skills, and (e) social interactions with peers.
Motor Proficiency of Boys with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and Boys with Learning Disabilities
Authors: Beyer Robbi
Published: August 2016

The motor proficiency of 56 boys with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) was compared with that of 56 boys with learning disabilities (LD); both groups were divided into two age groups, 7 to 8 years and 9 to 12 years. Boys with ADHD were taking Ritalin and attending public schools. Boys with LD were medication-free and attending private schools for LD. The Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency–Long Form (BOTMP–LF) was used to measure balance, bilateral coordination, strength, upper limb coordination, response speed, visual-motor coordination, and upper limb speed and dexterity. MANOVA revealed significant main effects for condition and age. Subsequent univariate ANOVAs revealed (a) expected age differences on all but one item and (b) significantly poorer performance for boys with ADHD than boys with LD on all variables except balance, upper limb coordination, and response speed.
Postural Balance and Self-Reported Exercise in Older Adults
Authors: Hoeppner Suzanne C. , Rimmer James H.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to determine if self-reported exercise status (exercise, nonexercise) and ambulatory status (aid, no aid) discriminate between balance performance and balance self-efficacy of older adults, ages 65 to 95 years. Participants were 14 males and 46 females in a retirement home that contained a supervised fitness center. An activities-specific balance confidence scale and three balance performance tests yielded data. Data from males and females were combined because independent t tests revealed no significant gender differences. The Mann Whitney U test revealed that (a) exercisers (M age = 83.4) scored significantly higher than nonexercisers (M age = 83.7) on all measures, and (b) nonaid users (M age = 83.5) scored significantly higher than aid users (M age = 83.7). Findings indicate that regular exercise (at least 30 min per day, 3 days per week) and ambulation without a cane or walker are descriptors of older adults with good balance performance and high balance self-efficacy.
Inclusive Physical Education from the Perspective of Students with Physical Disabilities
Authors: Goodwin Donna L. , Watkinson E. Jane
Published: August 2016

The study describes the phenomenon of inclusive physical education from the perspective of students with disabilities. The experience of 9 elementary school-aged students with physical disabilities (6 males and 3 females with a mean age of 11 years, 1 month) was captured by way of focus group interviews, field notes, and participant drawings. The thematic analysis uncovered a persistent dichotomy in how the participants experienced physical education. Good days were revealed in the themes of sense of belonging, skillful participation, and sharing in the benefits. Bad days were overshadowed by negative feelings revealed in the themes of social isolation, questioned competence, and restricted participation. The students’ experiences were discussed within the conceptual framework of ecological perception and affordance theory (Gibson, 1977, 1979).
The Developmental Validity of Traditional Learn-To-Swim Progressions for Children with Physical Disabilities
Authors: Gelinas Joanna E. , Reid Greg
Published: August 2016

The purpose was to determine whether traditional learn-to-swim progressions, leading to a 10-m front and 10-m back swim, were developmentally valid for children with physical disabilities. Forty children (22 boys, 18 girls) ages 5 to 12 years participated. They were classified according to disability type, functional sport classification, mode of ambulation, and flotation device use. Developmental validity was assessed by testing the children on rhythmic breathing, front float, front glide, front swim, back float, back glide, and back swim. Each skill was deemed successful if the child accomplished all performance criteria of that skill. Atypical progression was evident if a child performed a skill without the ability to perform skills previously listed in that progression. Atypical progression occurred in 32 (80%) children in the front skills and 22 (55%) in the back skills, which indicates that the traditional learn-to-swim progressions for both the 10-m front swim and the 10-m back swim were not developmentally valid for most children with physical disabilities in the conducted research.
Physical Fitness Levels of Physically Active and Sedentary Adults with Down Syndrome
Authors: Balic Myriam Guerra , Mateos Eufemia Cuadrado , Blasco Carolina Geronimo , Fernhall Bo
Published: August 2016

The purpose was to compare physical fitness of two groups of adults with Down syndrome, one active group of Special Olympians (9 males, 4 females), and one sedentary group (5 males, and 2 females). The active group had trained for an average of 4.9 hr per week for a minimum of 1 year for Special Olympics competitions. Participants underwent laboratory testing, including (a) treadmill test to determine peak oxygen uptake; (b) isometric strength tests of handgrip, lower back, and quadriceps; (c) explosive power; and (d) body composition. Peak oxygen consumption and muscle strength were significantly greater in the active group. Although crossectional, these findings suggest that long term exercise training, at a greater than previously reported weekly training load, may enhance physical fitness in individuals with Down syndrome.
The Scientific Method, Modernism, and Postmodernism Revisited: A Reaction to Shephard (1999)
Authors: Bouffard Marcel
Published: August 2016

This paper is a reaction to Shephard’s (1999) criticism of the July 1998 special issue of the Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly on research assumptions. Shephard’s paper is essentially a defense of the use of the scientific method in adapted physical activity and a critique of his own understanding of the postmodern alternative. He argues that the scientific method is the method adapted physical activity researchers must privilege to know the truth. In this paper, it is argued that Shephard’s description of the scientific method is too general to be useful. In addition, he often confounds traditional modernist issues with postmodernist issues. His depiction of the postmodern alternative is too sketchy to be an adequate critique of the postmodern alternative. This paper highlights key issues unaddressed by Shephard and, as well, outlines some major postmodernist themes so that some of Shephard’s distortions can be corrected.
The Scientific Method, Modernism, and Postmodernism Revisited: A Response to Bouffard (2001)
Authors: Shephard Roy J.
Published: August 2016

This paper offers a brief response to the article of Bouffard (2001), which in itself was a reaction to two earlier papers published by the present author (Shephard, 1998, 1999). Bouffard makes a vigorous attack on his perceptions of my observations concerning the use of jargon, the primacy of the scientific method, and postmodernism. Unfortunately, his perceptions of my arguments are not always substantiated by a careful reading of the text. Many of the world’s social ills are rashly attributed uniquely to rationalism. No viable alternatives to the scientific method are suggested, and self-criticism of the postmodern approach is less than optimal. Nevertheless, the paper is to be welcomed, both as a challenge to continuing perfection of evidence-based science and as providing an insight into the thinking of those who espouse the postmodernist philosophy.
Social Comparisons of Children with and Without Learning Disabilities When Evaluating Physical Competence
Authors: Shapiro Deborah R. , Ulrich Dale A.
Published: August 2016

The purpose was to examine the reference groups used by children with and without learning disabilities (LD), ages 10-13 years, when judging perceived physical competence in three contexts (in physical education class, during outdoor school recess, and at home). Participants, 30 students with LD and 30 without LD, completed the athletic competence subscale from the Self-Perception Profile for Learning Disabled Students (SPPLD; Renick & Harter, 1988) and two social comparison questionnaires in each activity context. Differences in the percentage of students citing the various reference groups across context was not statistically significant. Observations of responses indicate participants relied primarily on classmates, self-comparison, and family members to judge their physical competence. These results suggest that, while students with and without LD tend to compare themselves with their general education classmates, their reliance on eight different social comparison groups from which to judge physical competence varies with context.
Assessment of Static Postural Control in Teenagers with Down Syndrome
Authors: Vuillerme Nicolas , Marin Ludovic , Debû Bettina
Published: August 2016

This study evaluated stance control in 24 teenagers with and without Down syndrome (DS) by (a) assessing center of foot pressure variables under different conditions of availability of visual and somatosensory inputs and (b) analyzing postural perturbation and adaptation following abrupt changes in visual information. Results showed no gender-related differences in either group. Group comparison revealed similar strategies in adolescents with and without DS, although quantitative differences may exist in the ability to integrate sensory inputs to control stance. Adaptation to changing environmental conditions varied greatly from one individual to another in the two groups. Finally, comparison of the two experiments suggests that the increased postural oscillations reported for the sample with DS on long lasting recordings could be related to insufficient allocation of cognitive resources in stable environments.
A Knowledge-Based Approach to Motor Development: Implications for the Physically Awkward
Authors: Wall A.E. , Bouffard M. , McClements J. , Findlay H. , Taylor M.J.
Published: August 2016

Our major purpose is to develop a more holistic model of the development of skilled action that can guide our research and practical efforts to help physically awkward persons enjoy the benefits of physical activity. Based on recent research in the areas of cognitive science and cognitive development, we suggest that motor development can be viewed as the acquisition of three major types of knowledge about action: procedural, declarative, and affective. A brief discussion of how each type of knowledge about action might develop is presented. The final section examines the complementary role of knowledge and consciousness in the acquisition of skilled action and the implications of the model for physically awkward children.
The Performance of Visually Impaired Youngsters in Physical Education Activities: Implications for Mainstreaming
Authors: Winnick Joseph P.
Published: August 2016

The relative performance of individuals with visual handicapping conditions in physical education is directly or indirectly associated with severity of visual impairment, gender, age, activity type, method of ambulation, and parental attitudes. Each of these influences success, extent, and/or nature of participation in physical activity, which in turn results in characteristics, limitations, abilities, and needs that must be considered in order to effectively implement physical education programs in mainstreamed settings. Several implications for mainstreaming based on research pertaining to these factors are presented.
The Integration of Handicapped and Nonhandicapped Children in Elementary Physical Education
Authors: Karper William B. , Martinek Thomas J.
Published: August 2016

This paper describes physical education research completed in a university-based laboratory over a 2-year period. The purpose of various laboratory projects was to study the complexities associated when integrating handicapped with nonhandicapped children. All of the work was focused on children in the kindgerten through third grades. Variables studied were motor performance, self-concept, teacher expectations, student effort (how hard a student tried during class), age, and social climates (competitive and noncompetitive atmospheres). Implications for teachers of physical education are drawn from investigation results.
The Utilization of Behavior Management in Mainstreaming in Physical Education
Authors: Dunn John M. , Fredericks H.D. Bud
Published: August 2016

The mainstreaming of handicapped students into physical education classes is dependent upon teachers who can provide successful learning experiences. The application of behavior management concepts appears to be an instructional technique which physical educators should consider in designing quality mainstreaming experiences. Studies were reviewed that report the application of behavior management principles in various curricular areas including physical education. Additional research is needed to substantiate the importance of behavior management techniques in helping to create a favorable environment in the mainstreamed physical education class.
Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A Review of Research on Movement Skill Performance and Physical Fitness
Authors: Harvey William J. , Reid Greg
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to present a comprehensive review of research on the movement performance and physical fitness of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and offer research recommendations. Movement behaviors of children with ADHD were described on the basis of 49 empirical studies published between 1949 and 2002. Major results indicated that (a) children with ADHD are at risk for movement skill difficulties, (b) children with ADHD are at risk for poor levels of physical fitness, (c) comorbidity may exist between ADHD and developmental coordination disorder (DCD), and (d) few interventions have focused on movement performance and physical fitness of children with ADHD. Numerous reference citations for seminal review articles on ADHD are provided so that potential researchers or program planners might enter the vast ADHD literature with some ease.
Swimming Speed Patterns and Stroking Variables in the Paralympic100-m Freestyle
Authors: Daly Daniel J. , Djobova Stefka K. , Malone Laurie A. , Vanlandewijck Yves , Steadward Robert D.
Published: August 2016

A video race analysis was conducted on 100-m freestyle performances of 72 male and 62 female finalists at the Sydney 2000 Paralympic Games. Races were won or lost in the second half of each 50-m race lap and differences in speed between swimmers were more related to stroke length than stroke rate. Within-race speed changes were more related to changes in stroke rate. Stroke rate changes were also responsible for speed changes between qualifying heats and finals in the first part of races, while stroke length was responsible for better speed maintenance at the end of races. Results indicate that Paralympic finalists use race speed patterns similar to able-bodied elite swimmers.
Barriers to and Facilitators of Sports Participation in People With Visual Impairments
Authors: Jaarsma Eva A. , Dekker Rienk , Koopmans Steven A. , Dijkstra Pieter U. , Geertzen Jan H.B.
Published: August 2016

We examined barriers to and facilitators of sports participation in people with visual impairments. Participants registered at Royal Visio, Bartiméus, and the Eye Association were invited to complete a questionnaire (telephone or online). Six hundred forty-eight of the invited participants (13%) completed the questionnaire, and 63% of the respondents reported sports participation. Walking (43%), fitness (34%), and cycling (34%) were frequently mentioned sports. Costs, lack of peers/buddies, and visual impairment were negatively associated with sports participation, whereas higher education and computer (software) use were positively associated. The most important personal barrier was visual impairment; transport was the most important environmental barrier. Active participants also mentioned dependence on others as a personal barrier. The most important personal facilitators were health, fun, and social contacts; support from family was the most important environmental facilitator. To improve sports participation in people with visual impairments, the emphasis in a sports program should be on the positive aspects of sports, such as fun, health, and social contacts.
Fractionated Lower Extremity Response Time Performance in Boys with and Without ADHD
Authors: Pedersen Scott J. , Surburg Paul R. , Heath Matthew , Koceja David M.
Published: August 2016

The purpose was to investigate central and peripheral processing mechanisms through the use of electromyography (EMG) to determine differences between the performance of children with and without ADHD on a lower extremity choice response time task. Sixteen children with ADHD were tested on and off medication along with 19 children without ADHD. For premotor time, the comparison group performed significantly faster than children with ADHD. The longer latencies exhibited in central processing of children with ADHD were related to midline crossing inhibition (MCI). Medication improved the speed of processing for children with ADHD, but did not negate MCI.
Athletic Identity and Sports Participation in People with Spinal Cord Injury
Authors: Tasiemski Tomasz , Kennedy Paul , Gardner Brian P. , Blaikley Rachel A.
Published: August 2016

The aims of this study were to investigate “athletic identity” in people with spinal cord injury (SCI), using the Athletic Identity Measurement Scale (AIMS), to evaluate the psychometric properties of the 7-item version, and to identify reasons for and barriers to sports participation in this population. People with SCI (N = 678), even those competing as athletes, reported lower levels of athletic identity than able-bodied adults and adolescents with physical disabilities. AIMS scores varied according to gender, athlete status, and hours of sports participation per week. No relationship was found between athletic identity and depression, anxiety, or life satisfaction. Exploratory factor analysis did not support the 3-factor structure of the AIMS with this population, although internal consistency was good.
Comparison of Physical Activity Levels between Children with and Without Autistic Spectrum Disorders
Authors: Sandt Dawn D. Rosser , Frey Georgia C.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to compare daily, physical education, recess, and after school moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) levels between children with and without autistic spectrum disorders (ASD). Children ages 5 to 12 years wore a uniaxial accelerometer for five days (four weekdays, one weekend day). There were no differences between children with and without ASD at any physical activity setting. Both groups were more active during recess compared to after school, and children with ASD were similarly active in recess and physical education. Although many children with ASD acquired 60 min of physical education per day, this may decrease with age as opportunities for recess and physical education are eliminated.
Specificity of Learning in Adults with and Without Down Syndrome
Authors: Hansen Steve , Sheahan Bridget , Wu Melinda , Lyons James , Welsh Timothy N. , Elliott Digby
Published: August 2016

Adults with Down syndrome (DS), an undifferentiated developmental delay (UnD) and no developmental delay practiced a manual target aiming task either with or without on-line visual feedback. Following acquisition, participants performed a retention test involving the same sensory condition available during practice, followed by a transfer test under the other sensory condition. Although the participants with UnD were highly dependent on visual feedback for movement accuracy, participants with DS relied more on either kinesthetic feedback or feedforward control for spatial precision. Participants in all three groups improved their movement times with practice. This improvement was associated both with an increase in peak velocity and a reduction in the time required to decelerate their aiming movements. Contrary to our expectations, improvements in performance were not specific to the sensory conditions available during practice.
Adults with Down Syndrome Benefit from Visual Instructions for Spatial-Temporal Aspects of Drumming
Authors: Ringenbach Shannon D. , Balp-Riera Anna
Published: August 2016

Ten adults with Down syndrome (DS), 10 mental age-matched, and 10 chronological age-matched participants drummed continuously with both hands for 10 s in response to verbal in-phase (”up,” “down”) and anti-phase (”left,” “right”), visual in-phase (video of both drumsticks moving up and down together) and anti-phase (video of the left, then right drumstick hitting each drum), and auditory in-phase (sound of both drums being hit, then cymbal being hit) and anti-phase (sound of one drum being hit, then the other drum being hit) instructions. Timing and coordination consistency were similar for in-phase and anti-phase drumming for adults with DS, whereas in-phase was more consistent than anti-phase drumming for CA. In addition, spatial-temporal measures showed performance advantages when using visual instructions.
The Relationship between Aquatic Independence and Gross Motor Function in Children with Neuro-Motor Impairments
Authors: Getz Miriam , Hutzler Yeshayahu , Vermeer Adri
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between motor performance in the aquatic setting as measured by the Aquatic Independence Measure (AIM) to motor performance on land as measured by the Gross Motor Function Measure (GMFM) and the Pediatric Evaluation of Disability Inventory (PEDI). Fourty- nine children with neuro-motor impairments ages 3 to 7 participated in the study. Pearson correlations were applied to determine the relationships between the AIM and the GMFM, PEDI, and Gross Motor Function Classification System (GMFCS). Significant correlations were found between the total AIM and GMFM scores (r = 69, p < .01) and PEDI self-care sub-scale (r = .79, p < .01) as well as the PEDI mobility sub-scale scores (r = .35, p < .05). The water adjustment sub-scale as measured by the AIM showed the strongest relationship to motor performance on land as measured by the GMFM and PEDI in our sample of 49 children.
Self-Regulation of Sport Specific and Educational Problem-Solving Tasks by Boys with and Without DCD
Authors: Lloyd Meghann , Reid Greg , Bouffard Marcel
Published: August 2016

The research purpose was to examine the domain specific self-regulatory skills of boys with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD, n = 10) compared to peers without DCD (n = 10). A sport specific problem-solving task (hockey shot) and an educational problem-solving task (peg solitaire) were compared. Guided by Zimmerman’s (2000) social cognitive model of self-regulation, participants were taught to think aloud. Codes were developed under five categories: goals, knowledge, emotion, monitoring, and evaluation. The quantity of verbalization was similar in both groups but differences were found in verbalization quality. Results indicate that boys with DCD have emotional and planning differences on the hockey task, but only planning differences were evident on the peg solitaire task.
Kinesthetic Ability in Children with Spastic Hemiplegia
Authors: Chrysagis Nikolaos K. , Skordilis Emmanouil K. , Koutsouki Dimitra , Evans Elizabeth
Published: August 2016

The purpose was to examine the differences in kinesthetic ability, at the elbow joint, between children with (n = 15) and without (n = 15) spastic hemiplegia. The Kin Com 125 AP isokinetic dynamometer Configuration Chattanooga was used. Results revealed significant (p < .05) interaction between participant groups and side which was a repeated measures factor (nonaffected side for CP group and dominant side for nonCP group vs. affected side for CP and nondominant side for nonCP group) with respect to the passive reproduction of movement (PRM) and detection of passive movement (DPM). The interaction was attributed to the kinesthetic deficits of the hemiplegic participants compared to the control group. A significant relationship was found between the level of spasticity and PRM scores.
The Body in Persons with an Amputation
Authors: Sousa Ana I. , Corredeira Rui , Pereira Ana L.
Published: August 2016

This study reports on a comparison of how two different groups of people with an amputation view their bodies and perceive how others view them. One group has a history of sport participation, while the other has not. The analysis is based on 14 semistructured interviews with people with amputations: 7 were engaged in sport and 7 were not. The following themes emerged: Body, Prosthesis, Independence, Human Person, and Social Barriers. One could conclude that participation in sport influences how people with an amputation perceive their body as they live with their body in a more positive way and they better accept their new body condition and their being-in-the-world. The social barriers that people with an amputation have to face daily were evident, and one of the most significant ideas was the importance of being recognized and treated as a person and not as a person with a disability.
Universal Accessibility of “Accessible” Fitness and Recreational Facilities for Persons With Mobility Disabilities
Authors: Arbour-Nicitopoulos Kelly P. , Ginis Kathleen A. Martin
Published: August 2016

This study descriptively measured the universal accessibility of “accessible” fitness and recreational facilities for Ontarians living with mobility disabilities. The physical and social environments of 44 fitness and recreational facilities that identified as “accessible” were assessed using a modified version of the AIMFREE. None of the 44 facilities were completely accessible. Mean accessibility ratings ranged between 31 and 63 out of a possible 100. Overall, recreational facilities had higher accessibility scores than fitness centers, with significant differences found on professional support and training, entrance areas, and parking lot. A modest correlation was found between the availability of fitness programming and the overall accessibility of fitness-center specific facility areas. Overall, the physical and social environments of the 44 fitness and recreational facilities assessed were limited in their accessibility for persons with mobility disabilities. Future efforts should be directed at establishing and meeting universal accessibility guidelines for Canadian physical activity facilities.
The Fair Use of Lower-Limb Running Prostheses: A Delphi Study
Authors: Dyer Bryce , Noroozi Siamak , Sewell Philip , Redwood Sabi
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this paper is to investigate the role of lower-limb running prostheses and stakeholders’ perceptions of fairness in relation to their use in competitive disability sport. A Delphi study was conducted over three rounds to solicit expert opinion in a developing area of knowledge. High levels of consensus were obtained. The findings suggest that the prosthesis is defined as a piece of sporting equipment to restore athletes’ function to enable them to take part in disability sport. In addition, the panel determined that the development of this technology should be considered to be integral to the sport’s ethos. Crucially, prostheses technology should be monitored and have limits placed upon it to ensure fairness for both participants and stakeholders.
Prediction of VO2peak from the 20-m Shuttle-Run Test in Youth With Down Syndrome
Authors: Agiovlasitis Stamatis , Pitetti Kenneth H. , Guerra Myriam , Fernhall Bo
Published: August 2016

This study examined whether 20-m shuttle-run performance, sex, body mass index (BMI), age, height, and weight are associated with peak oxygen uptake (VO2peak) in youth with Down syndrome (DS; n = 53; 25 women, age 8–20 years) and whether these variables can be used to develop an equation to predict VO2peak. BMI, 20-m shuttle-run performance, and sex were significantly associated with VO2peak in youth with DS, whereas age, height, and weight were not. A regression model included only shuttle-run performance as a significant predictor of VO2peak; however, the developed prediction equation had low individual predictability. Therefore, 20-m shuttle-run performance alone does not provide valid prediction of VO2peak in youth with DS. Sex, BMI, age, height, and weight do not improve the prediction of VO2peak.
Evidence-Based Practice and Research: A Challenge to the Development of Adapted Physical Activity
Authors: Hutzler Yeshayahu Shayke
Published: August 2016

Evidence-based practice (EBP) is a growing movement in the health and educational disciplines that recommends emphasis on research outcomes during decision making in practice. EBP is made possible through evidence based research (EBR), which attempts to synthesize the volume and scientific rigor of intervention effectiveness. With the purpose of assessing the impact of this movement on adapted physical activity, this article (a) describes EBP/EBR and outlines its methodological development, (b) provides an historical perspective of EBP/EBR in APA, (c) examines EBR quality indicators in the review literature published in Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, (d) identifies and synthesizes thematic domains appearing in these review articles, and (e) discusses practical examples of professional issues in APA arising from a lack of EBR.
Athletic Identity, Sport Participation, and Psychological Adjustment in People With Spinal Cord Injury
Authors: Tasiemski Tomasz , Brewer Britton W.
Published: August 2016

This study examined interrelationships among athletic identity, sport participation, and psychological adjustment in a sample of people with spinal cord injury (SCI). Participants (N = 1,034) completed measures of athletic identity, life satisfaction, anxiety, depression, and demographic and sport participation variables. Current amount of weekly sport participation was positively related to athletic identity when statistically controlling for age, gender, and pre-SCI amount of weekly sport participation. Being able to practice one’s favorite sport after SCI was associated with higher levels of athletic identity and better psychological adjustment. Team sport participants reported experiencing better psychological adjustment than individual sport participants did. The findings suggest that social factors are important in the link between sport participation and psychological adjustment in people with SCI.
Is Increased Residual Shank Length a Competitive Advantage for Elite Transtibial Amputee Long Jumpers?
Authors: Nolan Lee , Patritti Benjamin L. , Stana Laura , Tweedy Sean M.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the extent to which residual shank length affects long jump performance of elite athletes with a unilateral transtibial amputation. Sixteen elite, male, long jumpers with a transtibial amputation were videoed while competing in major championships (World Championships 1998, 2002 and Paralympic Games, 2004). The approach, take-off, and landing of each athlete’s best jump was digitized to determine residual and intact shank lengths, jump distance, and horizontal and vertical velocity of center of mass at touchdown. Residual shank length ranged from 15 cm to 38 cm. There were weak, nonsignificant relationships between residual shank length and (a) distance jumped (r = 0.30), (b) horizontal velocity (r = 0.31), and vertical velocity (r = 0.05). Based on these results, residual shank length is not an important determinant of long jump performance, and it is therefore appropriate that all long jumpers with transtibial amputation compete in the same class. The relationship between residual shank length and key performance variables was stronger among athletes that jumped off their prosthetic leg (N = 5), and although this result must be interpreted cautiously, it indicates the need for further research.
Difference, Adapted Physical Activity and Human Development: Potential Contribution of Capabilities Approach
Authors: Silva Carla Filomena , Howe P. David
Published: August 2016

This paper is a call to Adapted Physical Activity (APA) professionals to increase the reflexive nature of their practice. Drawing upon Foucault’s concept of governmentality (1977) APA action may work against its own publicized goals of empowerment and self-determination. To highlight these inconsistencies, we will draw upon historical and social factors that explain the implicit dangers of practice not following policy. We propose that APA practitioners work according to ethical guidelines, based upon a capabilities approach (Nussbaum, 2006, 2011; Sen, 2009) to counteract possible adverse effects of APA practitioner action. A capabilities approach is conducive to the development of each individual’s human potential, by holistically considering the consequences of physical activity (i.e., biological, cultural, social, and psychological dimensions). To conclude, this paper will offer suggestions that may lead to an ethical reflection aligned with the best interest of APA’s users.
Examining Rater Effects of the TGMD-2 on Children With Intellectual Disability
Authors: Kim Youngdeok , Park Ilhyeok , Kang Minsoo
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to investigate rater effects on the TGMD-2 when it applied to children with intellectual disability. A total of 22 children with intellectual disabilities participated in this study. Children’s performances in each of 12 subtests of the TGMD-2 were recorded via video and scored by three adapted physical activity specialists who have expertise in the TGMD-2. Two advanced measurement theories, Generalizability-theory (G-theory) and many-facet Rasch model (MFRM), were applied in data analyses. There were relatively large variances attributed to rater effects on the scores of the TGMD-2 awarded to children with intellectual disabilities. The severity of each rater significantly differed across all subtests of the TGMD-2. There was a set of biased ratings interacted with measurement conditions of the TGMD-2.
Attitudes Toward Physical Activity of Elite Cerebral Palsied Athletes
Authors: Cooper Marilyn A. , Sherrill Claudine , Marshall David
Published: August 2016

Attitudes toward physical activity were examined in relation to sports classification (nonambulatory vs. ambulatory) and gender for elite cerebral palsied athletes and were compared to attitudes of elite Canadian able-bodied athletes (Alderman, 1970). Subjects were 165 CP adult athletes who competed in the 1983 National CP Games, Ft. Worth, Texas. Data were collected by interview on the Simon and Smoll Attitude Toward Physical Activity Scale (SATPA). SATPA answers were treated with MANOVA and ANOVA, and the Scheffé test was used for post hoc analysis. No significant difference was found among class, gender, and class-by-gender combinations in attitudes toward physical activity. Adult CP athletes have positive attitudes toward the total concept of physical activity, but are significantly less favorably disposed to physical activity as a thrill and as long and hard training than as social experience, health and fitness, beauty, and tension release.