bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
‘Abject odious’: Feminine and Masculine in Henryson’s Testament of Cresseid
Authors: Riddy Felicity
Published: November 2023

In the cathedral museum in Strasbourg there is a late fifteenth century painting attributed to an unknown Swabian Master called ‘Les Amants trépassés’. It depicts the dead lovers naked, standing side by side on what looks like a stone floor which dissolves into an impenetrably black background. Their bodies are already decomposing; through their emaciated flesh the bones are visible; the skin on their faces is pulled back so that they are almost grinning skulls.
A Disordering of the Senses
Authors: Mcgann Jerome
Published: November 2023

‘Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things’: the ‘natural’ association of the three in the Dyirbal language, wonderfully explored by George Lak off, recalls a similar set of categorial associations that were commonplace in eighteenth-century Europe. Idiots, children, peasants, primitive people, women —all are the ‘sentimental’ figurae of a ‘na” їve’ order. They are imagined as sharing similar qualities, variously seen along a broad spectrum of emotions, feelings, sensations. More specifically, as the word sentimental itself shows, they are imagined as creatures who ‘think’ through their feelings. That imagination, so deplorable to so many even to this day, is deeply grounded in ancient ideas about mind and body, thinking and feeling, reason and sensation. In its crudest (and clearest) form this imagining represents itself in the difference between men and women, man being the image of the higher powers of mind and reason, woman of the lower orders of body and sensation.
Mary Robinson and the Myth of Sappho
Authors: Mcgann Jerome
Published: November 2023

Describing the scope of her study of the Fictions of Sappho I546-I937,joan Dejean points outthat the reception history of the Greek poet ‘is almost exclusively a French preserve’ until the eighteenth century, at which point ‘the English and the Germans really began to play a role’. These facts explain why Dejean focuses on French traditions. But she then adds: Once other traditions become active, I refer to all the major contributions to the composite portrait of Sappho that originate outside of France.
Politics and Postmodernism: The Late 1970s to 2000
Authors: Stevenson Randall
Published: November 2023

‘Satire to-day | Moults in silence or has flown away’ Geoffrey Grigson remarked at the end of the 1970s (‘To an Abusive and Ridiculous Art Historian’, 1980). Its departure was especially marked in the work of older poets—including Grigson himself—who had shared the political concerns of the ‘Auden generation’ in the 1930s. In 1974, in an elegy addressed to Auden, Grigson recalled that ‘Forty years now | Have slipped by since for some who were young | You became living’s healer… |…| …our fixture, our rhythm’ (‘To Wystan Auden’).
Absurdism, Postmodernism, Individualism
Authors: Stevenson Randall
Published: November 2023

‘You’re alone in the world, remember. No one can tell you what to do about it’. The remark is made by the central character in John Mortimer’s popular success, A Voyage Round my Father (Greenwich, 1970). Earlier, Mortimer’s father is described in terms of a ‘great capacity for rage—but never at the Universe’ (I). Much of the drama assessed in Chapters 9–11 shared a ‘capacity for rage’, but directed against the immediate problems of life in contemporary society.
Discovering the Body
Authors: Stevenson Randall
Published: November 2023

Shelagh Delaney anticipated some developments in the period’s drama even more directly than John Osborne, Chapter 11 suggested. So did another woman playwright in the late 1950s, Ann Jellicoe. Though she seemed to share a renewed interest in contemporary society with Osborne and other dramatists emerging at the time, Jellicoe also had much wider aims. The Sport of My Mad Mother (Royal Court, 1958) topically depicted Teddy Boys and 1950s teenage violence, and The Knack (Arts, Cambridge, 1962) freer sexual behaviour at the start of the 1960s.
A Darker Route: Morality and History in the 1960s and 1970s
Authors: Stevenson Randall
Published: November 2023

The period’s opening was marked by a new readiness among writers to respond to the challenges of the Second World War. The war had obviously remained a huge influence on English life and society in the years immediately following, as several 1960s novels confirmed: Elizabeth Jane Howard’s After Julius (1965), for example, traces the continuing, inescapable consequences, for more than twenty years afterwards, of a death during the evacuation of Dunkirk in 1940. Yet extended treatment of the war in English fiction seemed long delayed —surprisingly, given the narrative opportunities it offered.
‘The Century of Strangers’: Travellers and Migrants
Authors: Stevenson Randall
Published: November 2023

Late twentieth-century history, Chapter 17 suggested, no longer allowed the faith in personal development through time that was once the mainstay of the Bildungsroman, even threatening more limited forms of ‘psychological orientation’ employed by novelists in earlier periods. Towards the end of the century, geography and dimensions of space often seemed as fractured and disorienting as recent history and experience of the temporal.
Blake Auden and James Auden
Authors: Fenton James
Published: November 2023

You will remember that Auden, when an undergraduate at Oxford, took a look at the literary scene in general and decided that it offered an empty stage. ‘Evidently they are waiting for Someone’, he said with, Stephen Spender tells us, ‘the air of anticipating that he would soon take the centre of it’. Auden’s fantasy, however, was to be at the centre, not to be the sole figure. Christopher Isherwood was to be the novelist. Robert Medley was to be the painter. Cecil Day-Lewis was in there in some poetic capacity, as were Louis MacNeice and Spender. Spender told Auden he wondered whether he, Jr Jr fSpender, ought to write prose. But Auden put his foot down. ‘You must write nothing but poetry, we do not want to lose you for poetry.’ ‘But do you really think I’m any good?’ gulped Spender. ‘Of course,’ Auden frigidly replied. ‘But why?’ ‘Because you are so infinitely capable of being humiliated. Art is born of humiliation.
A Critical Geography of Britain’s State Forests
Authors: Tsouvalis Judith
Published: November 2023

Attitudes in Britain to forests and trees are changing. Plantation forests - the product of the 'strategic reserve of timber' vision that held sway in the early twentieth century, and was turned into a physical reality by the Forestry Commission - are no longer fashionable. Today's forests are required to be sustainable, multi-purpose, and biologically diverse. They are expected to possess a 'spirit of place', be aesthetically pleasing, and help alleviate poverty and social exclusion in cities and remote rural areas. This book traces the changing fortune of forests and trees in Britain and people's changing relations with them. It investigates traditional woodland management practices, and considers how they came to be supplanted by scientific forestry knowledge and methods. It examines the development of the Forestry Commission and its body of foresters, looks at the symbolic function of forests and trees, and assesses the claim that present day forestry has become a postmodern phenomenon. A Critical Geography of Britain's State Forests will prove useful not only to foresters and nature conservationists, but to all those who are interested in how human beings socially and biophysically construct the environment, driven by a constant urge to find their place and meaning within it.
Applicatives and Benefactives: A Cognitive Account
Authors: Masayoshi Shibatani
Published: November 2023

My early readings in linguistics included one of Chuck Fillmore’s earliest writings, Indirect Object Constructions in English and the Ordering of Transformations (originally written in 1963), which took as its primary goal ‘to construct and incorporate within the grammar of English the means for correctly generating sentences containing indirect objects’-the sentence types exemplified by He gave me an umbrella and He bought me an umbrella. In his 1977 paper ‘The Case for Case Reopened,’ Chuck dealt with, among others, sentence alternations exemplified by Bees were swarming in the garden/ The garden was swarming with bees and I loaded hay onto the truck/ I loaded the truck with hay. What is common to these phenomena is the pattern of grammatical coding of apparently peripheral event participants or physical settings as central clausal arguments.
The Interpretation of Deverbal Nouns in Tepehua
Authors: Watters James K
Published: November 2023

There are several issues that face us in any attempt to account for the interpretation of deverbal nouns. Among these are the following: the relation of the argument structure of the base verb to that of the derived noun and the diachroni and synchronic narrowing or specification of meaning. The purpose of this paper is to briefly explore these issues with reference to nominalization processes found in Tepehua (Totonacan, Mexico), a language with a rich word-formation component, including extensive nominalization.
The Irrelevance of Moral Objectivity
Authors: Waldron Jeremy
Published: November 2023

No one should infer from the title of this chapter that objectivity in the sense of fairness, impartiality, or even-handedness is being called irrelevant or unimportant in law or anywhere else. The sense of ‘objectivity’ I mean is less familiar than that. It is the sense invoked when people claim that some moral judgements are objectively true, while others are objectively false.
The Contexts of Contemporary Contact
Authors: Loveday Leo J
Published: November 2023

This chapter begins with a look at how contact is instigated and items become established as part of Japanese community resources. Then special consideration is given to the social and ecological dynamics which are leading to the massive linguistic transfer now taking place.As Table 2.1 revealed, the main donor of present-day European loans is English.
The Social Reception of Contact with English Now
Authors: Loveday Leo J
Published: November 2023

In this chapter the focus shifts from texts to the variation among community members in their interpretation and evaluation of the language contact taking place around them. Conclusions from the last chapter already indicate that intensive Anglicization is a predominantly orthographic phenomenon associated with the public spheres of marketing and media and does not extend to ordinary interaction in the speech community. It was also pointed out that the main types of foreign transfers in daily conversation, unlike those in the commercial domain, arose from the need to fill lexical gaps for mainly concrete, material referents; sinification, on the other hand, appears to be the preferred method for encoding abstract Western concepts. These findings suggest that the active creation and dissemination of contact vocabulary across the entire community is still extremely limited.The study of non-broadcast, daily interaction has not been attempted, because the collection and analysis of such data is fraught with innumerable methodological problems such as comparability in number of subjects, rates of speech, and context, and cannot lead to definitive conclusions. Instead, a discussion of the social reception of contemporary contact with English is offered based on the findings of a questionnaire answered by 461 informants (see Appendix 1). Before discussing these data, some general findings and comments concerning subgroup and attitudinal variation in Japanese society in relation to Anglicizing processes are set out. However, it must be pointed out that information in this area is scanty and that the following is based on personal observation combined with the limited material available.
The Functions of Language Contact in Japan Today
Authors: Loveday Leo J
Published: November 2023

The diverse purposes behind Japanese contact with the English language constitute the final topic to be dealt with in this work. Certain functions of Anglicization in media contexts can already be discerned from the description presented in Chapter 5, particularly as regards the switching and mixing of codes. Now it is necessary to shift the focus from the transferred items themselves to their producers, and to ponder why people choose to lexify with foreignisms. Such a functional perspective requires consideration of the stylistic and symbolic dimensions of contact behaviour, but because neither of these fields as yet offers a widely accepted, ready-made paradigm for approaching the problem, a novel, exploratory framework will be suggested.
Relativism and Self-Refutation
Authors: Fine Gail
Published: November 2023

One of the most intriguing passages in the Theaetetus is 169d-171d, where Plato argues that Protagoras’s Measure Doctrine is self-refuting. It is unclear, however, precisely how to understand the Measure Doctrine; and it is correspondingly unclear whether Plato succeeds in refuting it.

In his twin articles ‘Protagoras and Self-Refutation in Later Greek Philosophy’ and ‘Protagoras and Self-Refutation in Plato’s Theaetetus’, Myles Burnyeat contrasts two interpretations of Protagoras.1 According to the interpretation he favours, Protagoras is a relativist ‘who maintained that every judgment is true for (in relation to) the person whose judgment it is’ (p. 172). According to the interpretation he rejects, Protagoras is a subjectivist who maintained that ‘every judgment is true simpliciter—true absolutely, not merely true for the person whose judgment it is’ (p. 46).2 Burnyeat argues not only that the historical Protagoras is a relativist, but also that that is how Plato portrays him in the Theaetetus.
Aristotle on Method and Moral Education
Authors: Kraut Richard
Published: November 2023

In a familiar passage in the Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle says that to make progress in the study of politics, we must begin with what is already known to us, and that good students of the subject therefore ought to have been brought up in good habits (I. 4. 1095b3–6). These words have suggested to some scholars that he recognizes a limitation in the arguments he will be presenting in the remainder of his work: he realizes that the premisses he will be using would not be granted by those who reject or are sceptical about the ethical life. He none the less restricts himself to these premisses, because he believes that there can be no good argument in defence of the ethical virtues that rests solely on premisses acceptable to all rational persons. Ethical activity is not a mere means to other goods; so there is no convincing defence of it that can be given to those who see no intrinsic value in it. Aristotle therefore comes to the conclusion that it is fruitless to address his lectures to everyone capable of fo11owing an argument.
Language Mixing by the Young Bilingual Child: Some Formal Aspects
Authors: Lanza Elizabeth
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, the focus will be on some formal aspects of the bilingual child’s language mixing. By ‘form’ I refer to the linguistic expression of meaning. A formal description is a grammatical description of the various subsystems of language: phonology, morphology, and syntax. Language mixing in this chapter will refer to mixing at the morphological and syntactic levels in the child’s speech. Phonology, however, has been used as a key for language assignment (cf. 3.5.2).
Measurement and Computational Description
Authors: Fields Chris
Published: November 2023

The mathematical theory of computation does not directly address the questions of whether, and if so, how physical processes might be characterized as computations, or physical systems characterized as computers. These questions lie at the heart, however, of the technology of computer design, and of empirical investigations in cognitive science, computational neuroscience, and other sciences concerned with the processing of information. Addressing these questions requires a theory not of computation per se, but of the computational description of physical systems. My purposes in the present paper are, first, to outline a theory of computational description that is based explicitly on the theory of physical measurement, and, second, to examine some consequences of this theory for some questions in the philosophy of computer science and artificial intelligence.
Ideologists of Superiority
Authors: Calvet Louis-Jean
Published: November 2023

It is easy to imagine that, when confronted by linguistic differences, human beings have always had a tendency to laugh at the customs of others, to consider their own language the most beautiful, the most effective, the most precise, in other words to convert the difference of other languages (for of course it is always the other person or language that is different) into inferiority. La Guerre dufeu (Quest for fire, 1981), a film which had worldwide success some years ago, showed ‘tribes’ speaking different languages, and could also have portrayed this kind of language conflict: you do not speak like me, therefore your speech is ridiculous. From all of this it is possible to take a further step and imagine the extension of war studies to prehistoric language wars.
The Family as Battlefield
Authors: Calvet Louis-Jean
Published: November 2023

In some cultures, including French culture, married couples are tradition ally where power with regard to family names is exercised. If a Marie Dupont marries a Jean Dubois she becomes Marie Dubois, while also changing title, from Miss to Mrs. This was long considered to be normal and it took feminist campaigns to do away with the difference between Mrs and Miss in the USA (to be replaced by the neutral Ms), while in France we have seen Marie Dupont marry Jean Dubois and become either Marie Dupont-Dubois or Mme Marie Dupont. But it remains difficult for a Marie Dupont, who has written a book under her married name, and so has become known under the name of Dubois, to return to her maiden name after a divorce, for example. Although the operation is obviously legal, it is socially awkward, so ingrained are the conventionalities. Clearly married couples are where power with regard to family names is exercised, the power of the husband over the wife.
Markets and Languages
Authors: Calvet Louis-Jean
Published: November 2023

Multilingualism is, as we have seen, the language situation most frequently found in the world, and it naturally poses problems of communication. Every day, everywhere, hundreds of thousands of people meet, and need to communicate but do not have the same language. Now trade is the social activity that encounters this problem the most often: how to buy from and sell to people with a different language? In fact, every time that a person needs to communicate, he or she finds the means. Maurice Delafosse describes, for example, the way in which exchanges were man aged in West Africa during the Middle Ages:
A New Start? Cartesian Metaphysics and the Emergence of Modern Philosophy
Authors: Cottingham John
Published: November 2023

In many of his writings, Descartes conspicuously presented himself as an innovator. Announcing his philosophical programme to the public in 1637, he likened himself to an architect, designing a town from scratch: ancient cities which have grown up over many years, with many different hands ‘patching up (raccommoder) buildings by adapting old walls’, are generally ill proportioned compared with those ‘laid out by the planner on levelled ground’ (AT vi. 11; CSM i. 116). The intellectual autobiography which opens the Discourse is that of a rebel who proposes not to build on the inherited wisdom of the past, but to demolish it and start afresh. And the sooner the better; ‘as soon as I was old enough to escape from the control (la sujection) of my teachers, I entirely abandoned book learning’ This direct and vigorous propaganda for the ‘new’ philosophy (as it came to be called in the later seventeenth century, and indeed even within Descartes’s own lifetime) must have struck Descartes’s readers more forcibly than we can easily imagine today. For nowadays, to break new ground is the goal of every aspiring writer whether in the arts or sciences-in some respects it is the very criterion of success. By the start of the eighteenth century the modern race for originality had begun to gather speed (witness the bitter priority dispute between the followers of Leibniz and Newton over the infinitesimal calculus).
Introduction
Authors: McConchie R W
Published: November 2023

The tendency to regard the lexicon as a part of the language with an existence independent of its other components or of the conceptual structure of the society of which that language is an expression should be resisted. The very existence of dictionaries may of course conduce to such a notion, but word and concept are, if not always coextensive, at least inextricably connected. Separating them leads to much fruitless historical speculation as to the ‘adequacy’ of the lexicon of the language, a linguistic phenomenon which is virtually as large as the capacity of its speakers to conceptualize, and practically as large as it needs to be at any one time; hence what is at stake is not the adequacy or the inadequacy of its wordstock, but the nature of the lexicalization of concepts, whether through metaphoric substitutions, description and periphrasis, the various forms of neo logism, or through borrowing or calques. The limits to the process will be largely those consequent upon the pre-existing semantic webs already established in the language by its users.
The Medical Lexicon and the OED
Authors: McConchie R W
Published: November 2023

Much attention has been paid so far to examining what it is that a corpus of corrections to the OED incorporating many sixteenth century medical terms might reveal about the dictionary and the way in which it has been compiled. The emphasis has been on what the OED might have incorporated had it wished, or would have incorporated had it access to the source of the data, and something has already been shown of how well the OED registered, or failed to register, this particular corpus. It ought to be possible to learn something from the dictionary’s history as well, even though it is only partly recorded. The practices of other workers-readers, sub editors, and other helpers-should also be considered where the evidence is available. However, a record of editorial decisions by its editors and other workers unfortunately does not exist, and in any case, even if such decisions had been minuted, it does not follow that they would have been scrupulously adhered to in the Scriptorium, let alone outside it. This chapter therefore considers the editorial practices which bore directly upon the collection of medical terms, their acceptance or rejection, their field marking, and changes to these policies which occurred during the history of the OED. It also considers the actual practices of the OED workers, from editors to readers, and the relative weightings given to various sources of lexical data as far as the present evidence will allow.
Humean Doubts about the Practical Justification of Morality
Authors: Dreier James
Published: November 2023

Humeans doubt that there is any categorical justification of morality, in that they doubt that practical reason demands compliance with morality. In this essay I examine the grounds for their scepticism. One kind of ground is dubious. After exposing its flaws, I explain why there is a plausible ground for scepticism anyway.
Practical Theory
Authors: Cullity Garrett
Published: November 2023

The critics of ethical theory concur in making the following claim: ethical theory seeks to impose on our ethical thinking a structure which there is no good reason for us to submit it to. But they hold this for different reasons. A first line of objection is that the onus lies on the theorist to show why our thinking should aspire to conform to any ethical theory, and that this onus remains undischarged. A second goes further. It is not just that the onus lies on the theorist to show why our thinking should aspire to conform to his theory; rather, there are decisive reasons why it should not. One popular way of arguing this has been to maintain that holding our ethical thinking responsible for its justification to an ethical theory would itself be morally objectionable (perhaps because it would alienate us from the values to which that thinking is responsive).
The Structure of Practical Reason
Authors: Gaut Berys
Published: November 2023

The structure of practical reason needs to be specified in at least two fundamental respects. On the one hand, we need an account of the relation between reason and motivation. This is the motivational aspect of reason. Practical reasons, reasons to act, must be capable of motivating an agent, for reasons guide action, and therefore an agent must be capable of acting on them under suitable conditions. These conditions are specifiable in terms of rationality: plausibly it is analytic that reasons motivate an agent in so far as she is rational and aware of the reasons. For this truism about rational motivation to yield a more substantive truth requires a specification of the powers by virtue of which an agent is rational and is appropriately motivated. A further structural aspect of practical reason that needs to be specified is the relation of practical reason to the good. This is the evaluative aspect of practical reason.
Kantian Rationalism: Inescapability, Authority, and Supremacy
Authors: Brink David O
Published: November 2023

Kant appears to be the ultimate rationalist about moral psychology In claiming that moral requirements express categorical imperatives, he defends the existence of objective moral requirements that are part of practical reason and are supposed to have overriding authority. I want to examine and assess different strands in Kant’s rationalism. In particular, I believe that in claiming that moral requirements are categorical imperatives Kant commits himself to three distinguishable claims. (a) If moral requirements are categorical imperatives, they are objective or inescapable; their application to an agent does not depend on the agent’s own contingent inclinations or interests.
A Theory of Freedom and Responsibility
Authors: Smith Michael
Published: November 2023

Once we equip ourselves with a suitable version of the dispositional theory of value we can solve the various metaphysical, epistemological, and motivational puzzles that standardly arise in meta-ethics. So, at any rate, I have argued.

Even if I am right about this, however, it might be thought that another set of problems in meta-ethics remains, problems which the dispositional theory of value goes no way towards solving. These are problems about the nature of freedom and the conditions of moral responsibility. A solution to these problems, it might be said, requires some super-added theory about the nature of the moral agent, something about which the dispositional theory of value remains silent. My task in the present essay is to address this concern and to show that it is unfounded. The dispositional theory delivers an intuitive and compelling conception of freedom. It delivers, more or less in and of itself, a plausible conception of the responsible moral agent.
Narrative Comprehension: Text, Knowledge, and Inference-Making
Authors: Emmott Catherine
Published: November 2023

Although we rarely notice it, we are all the time engaged in constructing hypotheses about the meaning of the text. The reader makes implicit connections, fills in gaps, draws inferences and tests out hunches; and to do this means drawing on a tacit knowledge of the world in general and of literary conventions in particular. The text itself is really no more than a series of ‘cues’ to the reader, invitations to construct a piece of language into meaning.
Do We Have a Determinate Conception of Finiteness and Natural Number?
Authors: Field Hartry
Published: November 2023

I’m going to begin with a rather familiar worry, about whether we have a determinate understanding of second-order quantification. Then I will consider an analogous worry about whether we have a determinate under standing of the notion of finiteness. At first blush the case for the second worry seems quite analogous to the case for the first but for various reasons doubts about the determinacy of the notion of finiteness may seem harder to take seriously than doubts about the determinacy of second-order quantification.
Neo-Fregeans: in Bad Company?
Authors: Dummett Michael
Published: November 2023

For a time, Frege believed that he had solved the central problem of the foundations of mathematics. He believed so firmly until 1902, when Russell wrote to announce the contradiction, and hopefully until 1906, when he recognized his inability to resolve it. He then concluded that he had failed in his life’s ambition, to provide sure foundations for arithmetic. Crispin Wright, however, beJieves that he ought not to have despaired so soon. He should have recast his whole exposition: for, if only he had realized it, he had solved the central problem.
Britain and Ireland: The Varying Significance of Language for Nationalism
Authors: Barbour Stephen
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we are concerned with two states: the Republic of Ireland (sometimes also referred to in English by its Irish name Eire), and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (the UK), along with the UK dependencies of the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man. These two states are commonly referred to as ‘Ireland’ and ‘Britain’, but these terms are problematic, since ‘Ireland’ also designates the island of Ireland, part of which, Northern Ireland, is within the United Kingdom. ‘Britain’ is problematic, since some regard it as synonymous with ‘Great Britain’, which for others means only the larger of the two major islands in the archipelago, or England, Scotland and Wales. I shall refer to the two major islands, with their respective smaller offshore islands, as ‘Ireland’ and ‘Great Britain’ respectively, and I shall refer to the states as ‘the Republic of Ireland’ and ‘the United Kingdom’ or ‘the UK’ respectively. The term ‘United Kingdom’ is appropriate when referring to the state, the political structure, but ‘Britain’ is more appropriate when referring to national identity, since ‘United Kingdom’ is a cold, formal, political designation, with which, I would argue, few identify. I would even suggest that the United Kingdom is a state, a political structure, while Britain is a nation, a human population. This view is supported by the fact that many de jure citizens of the UK, Irish nationalists in Northern Ireland, consider their nationality to be Irish and not British.
France: ‘ One state, one nation, one language’?
Authors: Judge Anne
Published: November 2023

The premiss ‘one state, one nation, one language’ seems an obvious one to the vast majority of French people, with the possible exception of some in areas where regional languages were and continue to be spoken. The aim of this chapter is to discover why this view of citizenship is so generally accepted and whether this is a permanent feature of French life. It is also to investigate whether there is credible political opposition to this view from the proponents of the regional languages. Before suggesting an answer, a number of issues have to be addressed. The first is conceptual: how the French define the terms ‘state’, ‘nation’, ‘people’, and ‘nationalism’ and how these concepts relate to language (Section 3.2). The second issue is to consider the languages other than French that were spoken in Prance, in what contexts they were and are spoken, and their links with nationalism (Section 3.3). It is also necessary to understand how French emerged as a distinct language (Section 3.4.), how the concept of a nationally imposed ‘French’ language developed, and how extensive legislation ensured that it became closely identified with nationhood (Section 3.5).
Greece and European Turkey: From Religious to Linguistic Identity
Authors: Trudgill Peter
Published: November 2023

Many areas of Europe have seen a transition from ethnic identities based on traditional cultural practices and religion (with language playing some part), to national identities with a strong territorial dimension, often with language as a highly important marker of identity. A transition of this kind is particularly clear in the area covered by the Greek and Turkish states, which are hence treated together here. Their combined treatment is also merited by the long inclusion of Greece within the Turkish-ruled Ottoman Empire.
Poetic Language
Authors: Berg Thomas
Published: November 2023

In the preceding two parts of this monograph, attention has been focused upon the implications of language processing for language structure and change. A third area to which processing aspects can be applied is the structure of poetry, which is not identical to what is standardly referred to as’linguistic structure. The reason for this non-identity is simply that (traditional) poetry, in its accentuation of the formal side of language, employs devices which play a very limited role in everyday language use. The most salient of these devices is rhyming, which is highly characteristic of poetry but untypical of ordinary speaking.
Intransitive Predication
Authors: Stassen Leon
Published: November 2023

Intransitive Predication constitutes a major contribution to the study of typological linguistics and theoretical linguistics in general. Basing his analysis on a sample of 410 languages, Leon Stassen investigates cross-linguistic variation in one of the core domains of all natural languages. The author views this domain as a `cognitive space', the topography of which is the same for all languages. It is assumed to consist of four subdomains, which correspond to a four-way distinction between the semantic classes of event predicates, property predicates, class predicates, and locational predicates. Leon Stassen offers a typology of the structural manifestations of this domain, in terms of the nature and number of the formal strategies used in its encoding. He discusses a number of abstract principles which can be employed in explaining the cross-linguistic variation embodied by the typology. In the final chapter, he brings together the research results in a universally applicable model, which can be read as a `flow chart' for the encoding of intransitive predications in different language types.
The Typology of Intransitive Predication
Authors: Stassen Leon
Published: November 2023

In the foregoing chapters we have established a number of basic characteristics of the domain of intransitive main predicate encoding. We have assumed that the predicates in this domain can be divided into four semantic sets, which form the predicate categories of verbs, adjectives, nominals, and locationals. In the formal encoding of these four categories, a language maximally has three different strategies at its disposal. These three strategies are prototypical, in that they are associated with the encoding of one specific predicate category; if some other category is encoded by the strategy as well, this must be rated as a case of strategy takeover. The formal features of the three encoding strategies have been shown to be as follows:
Non-Tensed Languages
Authors: Stassen Leon
Published: November 2023

The tensedness universals formulated in (9.17) claim that, out of four logically possible clusterings, only the nouny-tensed and the verby-non-tensed clusterings will be attestable in natural language. Having tested the empirical validity of this prediction for the nouny-tensed clustering, we will now do the same for the second prediction. Thus, we will look at those languages in which predicate adjectives are taken over by the verbal strategy, and see whether or not their verbal systems can be rated as non-tensed in the sense of Definition (9.8). In Section 4.5 we designated these languages as A-Languages Uages. Areas in which this language type is the norm are East and South-East Asia, the Indic and Pacific Ocean, North America, considerable parts of Central and South America, and Sub-Saharan Africa. In the following sections we will examine these areas in tum.
Problematic Cases
Authors: Stassen Leon
Published: November 2023

With very few exceptions, the languages discussed in the foregoing two chapters can be evaluated as corroborations of the tensedness universals in a straightforward way. The present chapter takes a look at languages and language areas for which this assessment is problematic to some extent. These problem cases come in several different kinds. First of all, of course, there are the outright counter-examples to the claims made by the tensedness universals. Thus, a language which is non-tensed but nouny, or a language which is tensed but verby, will pose a problem for our claims in the strongest way possible. However, cases of this kind are very rare, so that their occurrence can be written off as marginal. A far greater problem is created by the fact that, for a not inconsiderable number of languages, the evaluation of the tensedness universals is impeded by the uncertain status of the language with respect to one or both of the relevant parameters. Both Tensedness and Adjectival Encoding are gradual parameters.
Evaluation and Explanation
Authors: Stassen Leon
Published: November 2023

Now that the tensedness universals have been evaluated for each individual language in the sample, it is time for a general assessment. In the foregoing three chapters we have examined the correlation between the value settings on two different parameters-the Tensedness Parameter and the Adjective Parameter. It has turned out that these value settings are gradual in both cases; that is, both parameters define a continuum between two extremes. The Tensedness Parameter can have the value of Tensed, or Nom-Tensed, or some in-between value, which we have labelled as (various degrees of) Mixed tense-aspect encoding. Similarly, on the Adjective Parameter a language may adopt the extreme settings of No UNY or YERBY, or some intermediate setting of Split/Shift adjectival encoding. Now, if the settings for these two parameters were completely independent of one another, one would expect a more or less even distribution of the nine logically possible combinations of these settings. In reality, however, we find that these combinations are heavily restricted, in that two of them, when taken together, cover over 85 per cent of the languages in the sample. In Chapter 10 we have identified the Blngguages, which feature a combination of the Tensed setting on the Tensedness Parameter and the No UNY setting on the Adjective Parameter. Diametrically opposed are the A-Languages (see Chapter 11), in which Non-Tensedness and Verbiness are combined. As these are the two combinations which are predicted by the Tensedness Hypothesis, we can conclude that the tensedness universals formulated in (9.17) receive considerable empirical support from ourdata base.
Real Times and Possible Worlds
Authors: Dyke Heather
Published: November 2023

There are ways in which David Lewis’;s theory of genuine modal realism is analogous to a tenseless token-reflexive account of time. At the semantic level Lewis offers an indexical account of actuality which is formally analogous to an indexical account of temporal terms such as ‘now’; and ‘presenf. At the ontological level there appears to be an analogy between Lewis’;s account of all possible worlds being equally real, and the doctrine of the tenseless theory that all times are equally real.
The Tensed vs. Tenseless Theory of Time: A Watershed for the Conception of Divine Eternity
Authors: Craig William Lane
Published: November 2023

Although theologians in the Judaeo-Christian tradition agree that God is eternal (without beginning or end of existence), they differ profoundly concerning the nature of divine eternity. The biblical data are not wholly determinative with respect to this question, leaving theologians divided as to whether God’;s eternity is to be construed as timelessness or as infinite omnitemporality.
The “Signatures” of 1770
Authors: Fischer Steven Roger
Published: November 2023

Those eighteenth-century visitors to Rapanui who otherwise described in detail everything they found on the island made no mention of written characters on wooden or other objects. The only indication of something approximating a script on Easter Island at this time issues from the pen of the second known European to have commanded an expedition to the island, Don Felipe Gonzalez de Haedo (1908: 47-8), in his orders for 19 November 1770: “You will cause the Paymasters to furnish you with a declaration of all that is done, to which you will procure the attestations of the recognised Chiefs or Caciques of the islanders, signed in their native characters”. The misleading translation would suggest that the Commander of the Viceroy of Peru’s South Pacific Expedition had had personal knowledge of “native characters” on Rapanui-if one did not discern that the original phrase “rubricate in the form of their characters” was simply assumptive.
Croft, Harrison, and Palmer
Authors: Fischer Steven Roger
Published: November 2023

The r87os were an exciting era in rongorongo research. The inscriptions had just been found. Copies of them were circulating throughout Europe. Their “ancient origins”, ostensibly “proving” both the provenance and high cultural attainment of the Polynesians, were strongly suspected. And, above all, an informant decipherment of the inscriptions was believed by nearly everyone involved in the adventure to be imminent. It was a period of intense scholarly preoccupation with rongorongo, one that would not come again until the 1950s.
Fantasts and Speculators
Authors: Fischer Steven Roger
Published: November 2023

The Routledges’ remarkable Mana Expedition to Easter Island immediately struck a positive resonance among British and Commonwealth scholars of the Pacific. Clearly inspired by the Routledges, E. N. Fallaize (1916: 262) alerted the readers of Nature that: “About fifteen inscribed wooden tablets from the island are known to exist, one being in the British Museum [RR 19]”. The New Zealander H. D. Skinner, who twenty years later was to become “the dean of Polynesian anthropologists” (Marshall, 1956b: 59), wrote from London to Scoresby Routledge on 9 March 1917 that “if I get through this war” two Cambridge dissertations would be forthcoming from the Easter Island material he had personally collected (Routledge, 1914-15: Reel 4). Also in 1917, Henry Balfour (191T 374-7) pointed out in Folklore “striking counterparts” to rongorongo in designs employed in the Solomon Islands-this in the unhappy attempt to seek “confirmations” for his Melanesian hypothesis for the origin of Easter Island culture.
The Franco-Belgian Expedition of 1934-35 and Alfred Metraux
Authors: Fischer Steven Roger
Published: November 2023

The Director of the MusÉe d’Ethnologie (today’s MusÉe de !’Homme) at the Trocadero in Paris, the celebrated French ethnologist Paul Rivet, was unduly excited by Guillaume de Hevesy’s claim of a possible genetic relationship between Easter Island’s rongorongo and the Indus Valley script. As soon as he could, Rivet journeyed with the Belgian ethnologist Henri Lavachery to Braine-le-Comte in Belgium in order to see Jaussen’s tablets for himself at the SSCC’s small ethnographic museum. It was here at this museum, Lavachery (1935a: 50) claimed, that both Rivet and he conceived the idea to initiate a Franco-Belgian archaeological and ethnological expedition to Easter Island that could test de Hevesy’s hypothesis through field data.
Categories of Inscriptions
Authors: Fischer Steven Roger
Published: November 2023

What did the rongorongo contain? It certainly wasn’t messages. As Macmillan Brown (1924: 80) correctly observed: “There could have been no real necessity on this minute surface of the globe and amongst a people constantly torn by feuds for any means of long-distance communication.” Nor did the Rapanui use the rongorongo to keep accounts, which, in other parts of the world, gave birth to the idea of writing; for this, they would simply have used knotted cords, as one finds throughout the Pacific region. “Without exception, unless we deny the authority and unanimity of the traditions, the [rongorongo] tablets were associated [by the Rapanui] with literary productions”, wrote Alfred Metraux (196s: 315). There is little argument among Easter Island scholars that the rongorongo inscriptions constituted the premissionary Rapanui’s sacral and profane oral traditions. These comprised many forms, most of which the Rapanui appear to have still remembered, if not always faithfully, at the beginning of the twentieth century.
Rongorongo Rites
Authors: Fischer Steven Roger
Published: November 2023

The rongorongo complex constituted one of the most important social phenomena on premissionary Easter Island. The holding and reciting of a rongorongo artefact composed an integral part of the island’s most significant communal events. Be it an incised staff, tablet, rei miro, or some other object-it was prominently flourished and ritually sung at any number of formal gatherings. When Metoro Tau’a Ure was imitating rongorongo chanting for Bishop Jaussen (1893b: 253) in 1873, he recalled that the chanters used to gather in a circle and perform a chant “as a type of cult”. The object of such performances was evidently to imbue the special occasion with rongorongo’s inherent mana in order to assist the affected person, involved family, or community in the achievement of one or more specific goals.
The “Rongorongo Schools”
Authors: Fischer Steven Roger
Published: November 2023

In 1914-15, Katherine Routledge collected her largest amount of rongorongo information from the Rapanui korohua Kapiera and Te Haha. But these two elders’ accounts regarding the “rongorongo schools” of Easter Island substantially differed. And both contradicted the stories about the schools that Charli Teao of the next generation provided to Lavachery and Mètraux in 1934. For this reason, the following should perhaps be read with cautious scepticism.
Ta’u
Authors: Fischer Steven Roger
Published: November 2023

As mentioned earlier (pp. 288-91), the kouhau ta’u was the rongorongo category of inscription that contained a list of the kouhau koro (commemoration of a father’s deeds): it provided the name of each celebrant and the year of his koro celebration. This had nothing to do with the imitative ta’u “script” that was created on Rapanui in the 1880s to decorate various wooden artefacts for trade. It is this latter, imitative, post rongorongo phenomenon called ta’u that this chapter investigates.
Universalizability, Impartiality, Truth*
Authors: Wiggins David
Published: November 2023

What is the relation of the demand that agents act upon judgments that are universalizable to the demand that agents adopt the moral point of view? ‘Universalizable’ being a term of art, let us begin with ‘moral point of view’. I cannot define this, but that need not prevent me from enlarging upon what one might ordinarily mean by the phrase. Borrowing from Hume and from other writers, perhaps we may say that, in so far as someone adopts the moral point of view, he will have to refer his actions, feelings, evaluations, complaints and exhortations to the point of view that is ‘common to him with others’. Departing from ‘his private and particular situation’, he must try to speak and think not only on behalf of himself but as if on behalf of others too.