bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Men and Women of the Middling Classes: Acquisitiveness and Self-Respect
Authors: Berg Maxine
Published: October 2011

Changing consumer practices in the 18th century were led by the middling classes. Consumption shifted from defining social status to freeing ‘the impulses of the heart’. This diverse and highly differentiated group wielded disproportionate influence on wider consumer habits. Women were avid consumers of chinaware. Their association with chinaware stems from their place in tea drinking. Women occupied a central part in the rituals and symbols of tea drinking. Men also played their part. There is widespread evidence in inventories, wills, and diaries of masculine collection of chinaware. Masculine art and print collections and vase mania also attest to this acquisitive consumerism. Consumer aspirations across class and gender stimulated the rapid and extensive proliferation of new commodities from the later seventeenth century onwards. These new consumer goods were generated through technological change, but above all through product innovation.
Conclusion
Authors: Berg Maxine
Published: October 2011

This book conveys the optimistic reception by enlightened observers of the spread of consumer goods and the expansion of world commerce. It investigates the consumer roots of industrialisation. It also tells a story of consumerism and the growth of inequality, of the transformation of wider world discovery and world trade into slavery, colonialism, and imperialism. In the 18th century a global trade in luxuries and manufactured consumer goods provided not just the labour and the materials that went into the making of new goods, but the designs, fashions, and sophisticated marketing that shaped the product development of the period. The new technologies and materials, the response to exotic and Asian luxuries, the marketing of new-invented products to the middling classes, and the extensive consumption of new goods signalled the modernity of the British.
Toward a Tenable Social Trinitarianism
Authors: Craig William Lane
Published: October 2011

This chapter responds directly to Brian Leftow's criticisms by suggesting that the Triune God is composed of the divine persons in a way that is analogous to the way in which Cerberus, the three-headed watchdog of Hades in Greek mythology, might be composed of ‘three centers of consciousness’ while still being rightly counted as exactly one complete dog. In the case of the Trinity, there are two ways for something to be divine: one which guarantees that the thing is a God, and another which guarantees only that it is part of a God. In the Trinity, there are three centers of consciousness who are each fully divine in the second way, but who compose a being that is divine in the first way. Thus, three divine individuals compose exactly one God without themselves being Gods.
Fully Social Trinitarianism
Authors: Mosser Carl
Published: October 2011

This chapter examines Carl Mosser's criticisms of Social Trinitarianism, looking at three traits that he takes to characterize most, if not all versions of Social Trinitarianism: appeal for precedent to a simple story about the development of trinitarian theology; insistence that the members of the Trinity are persons in the ‘full’, modern sense who relate to one another in community; and a particular way of substantiating the claim about personhood from scripture. The chapter first argues that the ‘simple story’ about the development of Trinitarian theology is false. It then goes on to argue that the claim of full personhood and social community for the members of the Trinity is deeply problematic, as is the Biblical hermeneutic commonly marshaled in defense of Social Trinitarianism.
Latin Trinitarianism: Some Conceptual and Historical Considerations
Authors: Cross Richard
Published: October 2011

This chapter explores some relevant historical considerations, arguing that the differences between Latin and Greek thought on the Trinity are not nearly as stark as they have often been thought. On this view, the salient feature of Latin Trinitarianism is that the only features of the divine persons that distinguish them from each other are their mutual relations. It argues that this is a view that was endorsed by Gregory of Nyssa, whose views are normally regarded as the paradigm historical example of Greek Trinitarianism. The chapter presents an account of Latin Trinitarianism, as understood by Leftow, along with some preliminary comments on Gregory's Trinitarianism. It then considers Gregory's views in more detail, focusing on Contra Eunomium, where Gregory makes explicit some of his crucial beliefs about divine simplicity in relation to the Trinity.
The Pandemonium of Nations
Authors: Laitin David D.
Published: October 2011

This chapter begins with a discussion of the four routes leading national and ethnic groups to violence either against their state or against ethnic/national others: irredentism, secession, sons-of-the-soil, and communalism. Conventional wisdom states that nationalism is dangerous. Indeed, the historical and contemporary evidence showing links between nationalism and violence is impressive. However, quantitative data undermine confidence in theories purporting to show that national aspirations, differences, or demographies are systematically associated with communal violence or civil war. This disconnect is attributed factors such as selection bias and listening too earnestly to the accounts of combatants.
The Cultural Foundations of Nationalism
Authors: Laitin David D.
Published: October 2011

If nations are merely the result of coordination dynamics, as was implied in Chapter 2, do they lack any cultural content? Is the coordination on national membership like coordinating on which side of the road to drive on, or whether it is best to pronounce ‘controversy’ with its accent on the first or second syllable? This chapter attempts to answer these questions by introducing a Janus-faced approach to the study of culture. It argues that coordination issues of language do not rule out that cultural equilibria embed worldviews. Languages (and other cultural categories) reproduce practices that reflect common knowledge beliefs and points of concern. It is for this reason that culture is ‘Janus-faced’. On the one face, culture provides symbolic resources that permit coordination and control; on the other face, culture embeds common knowledge beliefs that are transmitted across generations.
Concluding Remarks
Authors: SIMONS PETER
Published: October 2011

This book has shown that mereology was dominated by a single theory: classical extensional mereology (CEM), present in two logical guises — the Calculus of Individuals and Mereology — each in a number of variants. CEM is algebraically neat: only a complete Boolean algebra is neater. It is also strong. CEM is tenseless, non-modal, upholds extensionality of parts, and upholds the conditioned existence of general sums. The first two characteristics are privative, while the last two are positive. Among approaches at variance with CEM, most retain the first three characteristics and drop the last in favour of some weaker conditional existence principle. In the face of apparent temporal and modal variation, two major strategies have been followed. The first ignores modality and attempts to retain the third characteristic by recourse to an ontology of four-dimensional objects. The second strategy, that of Roderick Chisholm, takes both time and modality seriously, but preserves the third characteristic by putting forward an ontology, opposed to common sense, of modally and temporally invariable objects.
Access to Land and Land Policy Reforms
Authors: Janvry Alain De , Platteau Jean-Philippe , Gordillo Gustavo , Sadoulet Elisabeth
Published: October 2011

The problem of optimum access to farm land — which involves issues such as who would be given the access and under what conditions this access may be given — continues to receive a great deal of concern in several developing countries as achieving this is not without certain consequences to the environment, efficiency and welfare costs, and varied political implications. It is important to note that land is an often misallocated factor which entails incomplete user or property rights which may bring about disincentives. However, macro-economic reforms to address such issues in terms of structural adjustment policies resulted in a weak supply response particularly in agriculture. This chapter introduces the main issue of access to land and the possible implications of land policy reforms.
The Puzzle of Counterproductive Property Rights Reforms: A Conceptual Analysis
Authors: Ostrom Elinor
Published: October 2011

Although various endeavours in improving the ecological and economic performance of several developing countries involves imposing reforms in various property rights systems, such reforms have failed to bring about the expected results and may have even resulted to counterproductive situations. As such, the need arises for examining the multiple failures of such reforms which involve the validity or relevance of the theory informing policy since the accepted theories today are mostly based on idealized models of both government and private property. Private property in conventional theory focuses on the right to alienate property through enforcing that the defining attribute of the private property relies on inheritance or sale and owners are able to realize their financial returns on investments through mechanisms like market institutions. This chapter thus attempts to provide a conceptual analysis of the reform tools on property rights that may result in counterproductivity.
The Changing Role of the State in Latin American Land Reforms
Authors: Janvry Alain De , Sadoulet Elisabeth , Wolford Wendy
Published: October 2011

The power of the state — regardless of whether this is practiced over democratic, authoritarian, and other forms of government — has been used by all Latin American governments to impose modifications in the land access of certain household categories in regions that experience population pressure to further the redefinition of land rights for those who already have access. Looking into the history of land reform in Latin America, which can further be divided into three phases, reveals why the eighty years of land reform have only brought on minimal improvements in solving land access problems and in reducing the high inequality which is made evident in land distribution. When taking a social point of view, the skewed distribution may be attributed to land misuse. This chapter examines the state's changing role through assessing the access to land given to minifundists and the landless and the competitiveness of those who are with titles in the reform sector.
The Ministry of Finance
Authors: Wright Maurice
Published: October 2011

The Ministry of Finance (MOF) has occupied a commanding and dominating position in fiscal, financial, and economic policy-making in Japan. However, by the end of the 20th century, the MOF's formal powers were being eroded, the reputation of its elite administrators for honest and effective management of the economy tarnished by scandal and ineptitude, and its authority and influence in central government challenged by other organizations. This chapter outlines the structure, functions, and organization of the MOF, its constituent bureaux, and its advisory councils. Particular attention is drawn to the central role of the Budget Bureau and the Minister's Secretariat, and to the processes for the coordination of budgetary and other policy-making through them and other mechanisms. It describes the boundaries of the ministry's supervisory jurisdiction, within which were to be found several of the most important public banks and finance corporations. This chapter argues that in the 1990s, the MOF suffered a crisis of confidence and authority, and traces the origins of the erosion of its formal powers in the reorganization of the central executive in January 2001.
Budget Strategy, Guidelines, and Ceilings
Authors: Wright Maurice
Published: October 2011

In Japan, the processes of budget-making were divided temporally by the submission of the formal budget requests by the Spending Ministries and Agencies on 31 August. Prior to that, the Ministry of Finance had to decide, and Cabinet approve: first, the upper limit on the size of the overall General Account Budget, and the amount and type of government borrowing to finance capital investment programmes, and to cover any deficit on current expenditure; second, the budget guidelines to be used in the preparation of budget requests; and, third, within those guidelines, the upper limit or ceiling for the budget of each ministry and agency. The budget processes of the Fiscal Investment Loan Programme proceeded in parallel and interacted with those of the General Account Budget at several important stages. This chapter examines Japan's budget strategy and guidelines as well as ministerial budget ceilings and the influence of the Liberal Democratic Party in budget-making.
The Budget Bureau's Hearings, Examination, and Negotiations
Authors: Wright Maurice
Published: October 2011

After Cabinet approved the budget strategy, and ministries and agencies were informed of their ceilings in June or July, the initiative within the Budget Bureau passed to the budget examiners and deputy budget examiners. The broad aim was to deliver by December a draft Ministry of Finance budget within the budget ceiling, and consistent with the guidelines approved by Cabinet for the different categories of expenditure. There were four main stages of compilation following the formal submission of budget requests at the end of August: the hearings, examination, negotiations, and ‘revival negotiations’.
Making the FILP Budget
Authors: Wright Maurice
Published: October 2011

The community of organizations whose members contributed to the processes of making and carrying out the Fiscal Investment Loan Programme (FILP) Budget in Japan was extensive. Its membership, drawn from a wide variety of statutory and non-statutory organizations and groups, was broadly of two kinds, distinguished by the concentration of resources of authority, information, and organizational expertise, and the regularity of interaction. Those (parts of) organizations, and groups within them, that interacted on a regular and routine basis in the processes of making and/or carrying out of FILP policy had ‘insider’ status. ‘Outsiders’ had some contact irregularly with other members of the policy community, over some policy issues or problems, but their interactions tended to be formal or ad hoc and non-routinized. This chapter looks at the FILP policy community, the politics of postal savings, how the size of the FILP Budget is determined, the process of allocation of funds to local governments as well as FILP agencies such as the Housing and Urban Development Corporation, in-year budget revisions, and implementation of the FILP Budget.
Who Wins, Who Loses?
Authors: Wright Maurice
Published: October 2011

In Japan, fiscal (and other) policies were used by the government to influence the supply and demand for goods and services in the economy, through changes in corporate and personal taxation, public investment, subsidies, and welfare payments. Both then and more generally, through the annual General Account and Fiscal Investment Loan Programme Budgets, it distributed benefits and imposed burdens differentially on economic and social groups, clienteles, and individuals. Who and what won and lost in the central budgetary processes were determined mainly by the size, composition, and distribution of the mandatory and discretionary expenditures in the General Account and Supplementary Budgets. This chapter evaluates the Ministry of Finance's performance in delivering a budget total of general expenditures in December within the ceiling prescribed six months earlier—in short, the extent to which it won or lost in the autumnal bilateral negotiations with Spending Ministries and Agencies. It also looks at the changes in the distribution of current and capital spending as the policies of fiscal reconstruction, consolidation, and expansion were implemented.
The unity of thought
Authors: Priest Graham
Published: October 2011

This chapter examines the role of language theory and unity of thought on the contradictions in the limits of thought. It is natural for a theory of language to have implications about what can and what cannot be expressed, and modern theories of language always seem to render important things beyond the limit of expression. This chapter analyses philosopher Gottlob Frege's postulates on the existence of concepts, and suggests that his claims about them are beyond the limit of the expressible. It also evaluates Ludwig Wittgenstein's notion of form, and suggests that his account for unity of thought is beyond the expressible.
Translation, reference, and truth
Authors: Priest Graham
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses the contradictions in the limit of thoughts in theories which postulate that semantic correlates must be avoided in giving an account for meaning. It examines the views and works of philosophers Willard Van Orman Quine and Donald Davidson on the theory of meaning. The findings reveal that the Quine/Davidson theory gives rise to contradictions at the limits of expression because of the indeterminacy of sense and reference, and in an attempt to avoid contradictions at the limits of cognition.
Industry and Market Analysis
Authors: Dowling Grahame R.
Published: October 2011

This chapter introduces some structural frameworks and market-sensing principles. This knowledge is a crucial element in marketing planning and in defining the terrain on which companies compete — the opportunities and threats in a SWOT analysis. It draws attention to the environment in which organizations operate and compete, analysing it from two complementary perspectives. Part A of the chapter considers industry dynamics, focusing on understanding the nature of competition and cooperation in markets. Using price wars, it illustrates some of the triggers that initiate competition and the dynamics involved. The second part examines market evolution. There are two complementary reasons for examining the broad patterns of change in a market. One is that successful organizations take an outside-inside view of their business. The second reason is that many customer needs emerge from changes in the social environment.
Epilogue
Authors: Dowling Grahame R.
Published: October 2011

This chapter reflects on the lessons relearned in the process of creating the book. Some of these lessons were: Do not get captured by every marketing fad. Most of them have appeared before using a different name. Do the planning, simply because its value lies in the discipline of the process. Develop an organizational culture that understands and respects the role of marketing. Create a supportive organizational infrastructure. Strive to quantify the impact of marketing programmes, but be careful how things are measured and how measures can take on a life of their own. Understanding customers is good marketing practice. Tactical segmentation is the key to unlocking this insight.
Set Theory and its Philosophy
Authors: Potter Michael
Published: October 2011

This book presents a philosophical introduction to set theory. Anyone wishing to work on the logical foundations of mathematics must understand set theory, which lies at its heart. The book offers an account of cardinal and ordinal arithmetic, and the various axiom candidates. It discusses in detail the project of set-theoretic reduction, which aims to interpret the rest of mathematics in terms of set theory. The key question here is how to deal with the paradoxes that bedevil set theory. The book offers a simple version of the most widely accepted response to the paradoxes, which classifies sets by means of a hierarchy of levels. The book interweaves a presentation of the technical material with a philosophical critique. The book does not merely expound the theory dogmatically but at every stage discusses in detail the reasons that can be offered for believing it to be true.
Circumstances and Aim
Authors: Buckle Stephen
Published: October 2011

From its opening section, the first Enquiry signals that it has a polemical purpose. It is not merely a polemic, of course, but identifying the work's apparent and real targets assists in bringing out the underlying unity of its argument; and that argument, once its outlines have been sketched in, also illustrates the connections David Hume discerns between experimentalism and scepticism. The immediate task, then, is to emphasise the significance of the Enquiry's distinctively sharp edge, and to identify its primary targets. Attending to the particular circumstances in which the work was produced will be a useful preparation. Essentially, Hume published the Philosophical Essays concerning Human Understanding, which was the Enquiry's first title, in 1748, at the end of one of the most eventful periods of his life, events that are played down in the autobiography.
Experimentalism and Scepticism
Authors: Buckle Stephen
Published: October 2011

To cast David Hume as a player in the major drama of the new philosophy against the old may appear to make him Newtonian to a degree no longer seriously defensible. To qualify this view by adding that he is seeking to purify the new philosophy, even against some of its most notable defenders and interpreters, may seem only to ease the problem, and not to remove it. This is because some significant modern studies have challenged the validity of Hume's Newtonian credentials. The opponents of this carefully qualified, undeniably realist outlook are the Pyrrhonians and the philosophical dogmatists. So the task of the Enquiry is to show that the experimental philosophy, properly understood, has skeptical implications that undercut all the dogmatists, old and new, secular and not religious, and the body of the work is structured accordingly.
Of the Association of Ideas
Authors: Buckle Stephen
Published: October 2011

David Hume opens the section with a claim he treats as unproblematic. He simply offers a few supporting reminders: at one extreme, errant thoughts are immediately ejected when they intrude into disciplined thinking; at the other, even in the wildest and most wandering reveries, a closer scrutiny will reveal that the imagination ran not altogether at adventures, but that principles of connection were in play. No philosopher has yet sought to classify these principles of association, so Hume volunteers to fill the gap: there are three, and they are resemblance, contiguity, and cause and effect. Nothing much is said of these principles here: their importance lies in the work they will be made to do in later sections. He is sufficiently confident that the list is complete to invite the reader, after examples of each kind have been provided, to try to think of others that have not made it into his trio.
Sceptical Doubts concerning the Operations of the Understanding
Authors: Buckle Stephen
Published: October 2011

This section presents David Hume's argument, the thoroughly Lockean argument that a properly experimental philosophy undermines the dogmatist's belief in the capacities of human reason to discern the underlying nature of reality. He rejects the dogmatic claims of philosophies that seek to ground the rational grasp of essences of things in conclusions drawn from immediate acquaintance with the object's perceptible properties. Without experience of the object's behaviour in the world, rational comprehension of the object is impossible. To this point, the argument could be defending an Aristotelian position. However, the Aristotelian alternative is rejected as Hume denies that experience provides any further information about the world, and so leaves people no better off than in the first case.
Compositionality
Authors: Forbes Graeme
Published: October 2011

Compositionality can be understood to say that the meaning of a complex expression is a function of its syntax and the meanings of its immediate constituents. A function is a black box which operates on inputs to produce an output. The workings of the box are such that different inputs may produce the same output, but the same inputs never produce different outputs (thus functions are said to be deterministic). This chapter discusses the age of the universe, extensionalism, problems for extensionalism, intensionalism, and hyperintensional logic.
Overview
Authors: Layard Richard , Nickell Stephen , Jackman Richard
Published: October 2011

Unemployment is in balance when it is high enough to avoid the fluctuation of wages over each other and to make the planned mark-up of wages over prices (target real wage) uniform with the planned mark-up of prices over wages (feasible real wage). In the steady state, lower unemployment rates mandates lower real labour costs but not necessarily a lower real take-home pay. The unemployment rate is raised by adverse demand fluctuations and adverse supply fluctuations. But in the very long run, unemployment is independent of productivity, taxes, and prices. Unemployment rates are above average for less skilled labourers, young people, and people from disadvantaged regions.
The Macroeconomics of Unemployment
Authors: Layard Richard , Nickell Stephen , Jackman Richard
Published: October 2011

In a closed economy with competitive corporations and non-competitive wage determination, there is a balance level of unemployment in which expectations are met. Derivations from equilibrium can arise via demand shocks or real shocks, the most significant of which are technology shocks and wage pressure shocks. Expansionary aggregate demand shocks can produce real wage movements on either side, whereas favourable technology shocks lead to real wage increases. Decreases in wage pressure normally lead to decreases in real wages, on the other hand. Therefore, there is an ‘equilibrium’ level of unemployment uniform with both stable inflation and balanced trading.
Relevant Logic
Authors: Beall JC
Published: October 2011

The Generalised Tarski Thesis (GTT) yields classical consequence when its cases are taken to be possible worlds, where possible worlds are complete and consistent with respect to negation. That (classical) precisification of ‘follows from’ is familiar and useful, however, it is not the only sense of ‘follows from’ apparent in English. Another strongly apparent sense of ‘follows from’ takes ‘from’ seriously. There is a sense of ‘follows from’ that is more restrictive than the classical sense; it demands that premises be ‘relevant’ to conclusions. That sense of ‘follows from’ is more restrictive than the classical one: it imposes constraints that go beyond truth-preservation over possible worlds. The constraints, in effect, concern the behaviour of negation. What is required is not only truth-preservation over possible worlds, but truth-preservation over cases that go beyond the constraints of worlds, beyond the constraints of completeness and consistency. The task is to specify such cases, thereby cashing out relevant consequence.
Constructive Logic
Authors: Beall JC
Published: October 2011

Intuitionistic logic, also known as constructive logic, is a particular account of logical consequence, at variance with both classical and relevant logical consequence. One way to introduce intuitionistic logic is by means of constructions. This chapter gives an account of constructive validity by first indicating what it is to construct a statement, and then instantiating Generalised Tarski Thesis (GTT) cases with constructions: an argument is constructively valid if and only if a construction for the premises provides a construction for the conclusion. Before turning to constructions, the relationship between intuitionistic logic and intuitionism is discussed. Intuitionism maintains that constructive reasoning is required by the nature of mathematical entities themselves. The entities in question are constructions of the reasoner in intuition, and such entities have only the properties bestowed upon them by their construction.
General Objections
Authors: Beall JC
Published: October 2011

By way of further clarifying logical pluralism, this chapter turns to some general objections. One objection is to argue for a pluralism about logical consequence which is wide enough to encompass classical, relevant, and intuitionistic logic. In doing so, this chapter proposes a view which the adherents of relevant and intuitionistic logic by and large would find repugnant. In order to endorse classical logic all instances of the law of the excluded middle should be taken to be necessary. But intuitionists take the law of excluded middle to have counterexamples. The premises of this objection are correct, but the conclusion, that pluralism is uninteresting, should be resisted. Other objections discussed in this chapter relate to cases, transitivity and reflexivity, warrant and entitlement, warrant and disjunctive syllogism, meaning theory, logical truth, Carnapian pluralism, and logical form.
Pretences of Research
Authors: Starbuck William H.
Published: October 2011

The theme that links the major problems in social science research is that researchers are somewhat biased in doing what they think promotes the creation of reliable knowledge. With this bias, researchers generally make research a pretence instead of a reliable source of knowledge. Researchers attempt to create knowledge that can be acceptable to other people. People choose what they regard as knowledge so that human physiology and social systems may influence how people perceive facts. Unlike with scientific fields, social science research does not rely on specific principles, since there also is evidence that research about human behavior is not capable of producing knowledge. This chapter asserts that social science research is undermined because some of its aspects do not exhibit reliability.
Which Quantifiers are Logical?
Authors: Peters Stanley
Published: October 2011

There is no unanimity in the literature about what logicality is, but there is almost universal agreement, it seems, that topic neutrality or subject independence, that is, isomorphism closure (ISOM), is at least a necessary condition. This chapter presents the general version of ISOM for arbitrary operations and considers some of its variations. It expresses the significance of ISOM for natural language quantification in two claims: first, that simple quantirelations — including determiners and quantificational adverbs — denote ISOM quantifiers, and second, that those denoting non-ISOM quantifiers all arise from more general ISOM operations by freezing some arguments. Constancy, a property that differs from logicality, is also discussed, focusing on what appears to be the empirical manifestation of that property. This property concerns the behavior of certain expressions in intuitively valid arguments, and which are called inference constancy.
EF-tools for Polyadic Quantifiers
Authors: Peters Stanley
Published: October 2011

This chapter considers how the Ehrenfeucht-Fraïssé (EF) technique can be made to work for arbitrary quantifiers and structures. First, two-person games are described, followed by some relatively simple illustrations and a rather detailed outline of the application to branching quantifiers. The result is that branching of many familiar quantirelation denotations is not definable from any finite number of monadic quantifiers. There is a similar result for Ramsey quantifiers, which is relevant for the interpretation of certain reciprocal sentences in natural language. For resumptions, there are slightly weaker results; in this case the monadic EF-tools can be used. The inverse question of under what circumstances a quantifier is definable from its k-ary resumption is also considered. In each case, the conclusions about natural languages that may be drawn from these logical results are stated via formalisation.
Reason's Neglect
Authors: Townley Barbara
Published: October 2011

Reason, and the need to Be Rational, are essential dimensions of society and the organizations we live and work in. Yet the ‘rationalization’ of working and administrative processes, or the ‘rationality’ studied in social sciences, is all too often, used, understood, and interpreted in an extremely narrow sense. This book does three things. Firstly, it argues that rationality is a leitmotif of organization studies, but one that has often been neglected. Secondly, it deploys Foucault's work to recover the neglected dimensions of rationality. In doing this, it allows for a revisionary exploration of key subjects in organization studies: organization theory, bureaucracy, technology, culture, practice, etc. Finally, the book presents the case of new rational management techniques being introduced in an organization, allowing individuals to ‘speak for themselves’, and examining how they respond to these innovations, and how they make sense of them. Arguing that rationality should be seen as disembedded, embedded, or embodied, each chapter goes on to explore a different aspect of reason, such as economic, bureaucratic, technocratic, institutional, or contextual.
Institutional rationality
Authors: Townley Barbara
Published: October 2011

The first embedded mode of reasoning to be examined is institutional rationality. Its significance lies in its critique of a universalistic concept of rationality. Interrogating the fiction of the disembedded individual, it recognizes that ‘the rational individual is, and must be, an organized and institutionalized individual’. An institutional rationality acknowledges that there are different spheres of society reflected in the major institutions that organize social life (government, law, the family, religion, etc.), and that of these each has its own inherent or immanent logic. The individual is thus embedded in different institutional modes of reasoning. This chapter outlines the extent to which this institutional rationality has been recognized in organization theory.
Contextual rationality
Authors: Townley Barbara
Published: October 2011

A contextual rationality recognizes that rational action does not need to be fully aware of the reasons for action, nor does it have to be fully informed of the causal efficacy of action for it to constitute a rational thing to do. Both elements may be left to the ‘context’ in which the action takes place to gain their significance as rational action. This chapter outlines how contextual rationality has been handled in organization studies and illustrates how context is integral to the functioning of rationality.
Practical reason
Authors: Townley Barbara
Published: October 2011

This chapter argues that practical reason is the ability to retain the disembedded, embedded, and embodied dimensions of rationality and to incorporate or distil them into a unified understanding or picture. It is to be able to hold and see the interrelationships between all the dimensions of that with which there is engagement, the ability to see in the abstract the concrete and vice versa. It is informed by the knowledge of all subject positions — the disembedded, embedded, and embodied — to give a fully rounded interpretation of what suitable action should be. It is the combination of the disembedded ‘knowing that’, the epistemic knowledge that guides us, with the contextual awareness of knowing how, a grounded awareness. It is ‘knowing how’, based on distilled reflective judgement of experience guided by a consideration of general principles.
Building an International Financial Services Firm
Authors: Venzin Markus
Published: October 2011

A new era of global banking and insurance is emerging, with leading banks eager to serve international markets. This book explores the issues that arise for banks in their strategic choices as they move into these new international markets. This book challenges conventional assumptions from the international management literature on topics such as the limits of globalization, the importance of cultural and institutional distance, the nature of economies of scale and scope, the existence of first mover advantages, the logic behind the global value chain configuration, the speed and timing of market entry, as well as organizational architecture. It focuses on fundamental strategic decisions such as when, where, and how to enter foreign markets and how to design the organizational architecture of the multinational financial services firm. Using simple theoretical frameworks illustrated by case examples, this book provides a guide to the challenges of the international market for financial services firms.
Why go abroad? The rationale of cross-border moves
Authors: Venzin Markus
Published: October 2011

This chapter addresses a first essential strategic choice that internationalizing financial services firms face: should cross-border markets be served or not? It offers a detailed description of the major benefits and costs of international growth initiatives. Several major benefits are distinguished: economies of scale, economies of scope, X-efficiencies, access to key factors and location-related advantages, firm-specific assets, satisfying growth expectations of shareholders, accumulation of market power, and agency motives. On the other hand, the three main costs categories are liabilities of foreignness, liabilities of newness, and coordination costs.
Epilogue: Sustainable International Development after the Subprime Crisis
Authors: Venzin Markus
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses the impact of the subprime crisis on the international strategies of financial services firms. Many mostly passive investors from emerging economies will get the opportunity to acquire a share in some of the most prestigious financial services firms. New clearing platforms for investment vehicles will appear to create transparency and restore trust. Some of the big financial institutions will have to sell parts of their businesses to make up for their huge write-downs. New governance models need to be found to establish process standards and managerial practices that stabilize the financial services systems. But maybe more importantly, financial services firms need to find new ways to attract and keep talent without losing control over their activities.
The Habsburg Monarchy and Bohemia, 1526–1848
Authors: Evans R. J. W.
Published: October 2011

This chapter presents an essay on the Habsburg Monarchy's administration of the kingdom of Bohemia during the period from 1526 to 1848. It suggests that during this period Bohemia became a tractable possession of Habsburg rulers partly because of the failure of the famous revolt of 1618–20. Bohemia was the material powerhouse of the Monarchy supplying personnel much its political, intellectual, and administrative leadership. After 1800, this relationship started to change but it was only in the revolution of 1848 that Bohemia's full debility was revealed.
Religion and Nation in Hungary, 1790–1849
Authors: Evans R. J. W.
Published: October 2011

This chapter presents an essay that examines the relation between the churches and national politics in Hungary during the period from 1970 to 1849. It suggests that the confessional rivalries within ethnic communities and a tendency toward secularization of public life had diminished the direct political influence of religion. Even among the Orthodox Romanians and Serbs, the church only managed to exert a very limited influence.
The Transylvanian Saxons: A German Diaspora
Authors: Evans R. J. W.
Published: October 2011

This chapter presents an essay on German diaspora during the Middle Ages. It suggests that of all the community of German migrants it was the Transylvanian Saxons that best deserved the description of a diaspora. This is because they acquired distinctive political, jurisdictional, and ecclesiastical privileges in the kingdom of Hungary, which were sufficiently powerful and autonomous to develop a strong national consciousness but sufficiently remote from other Germans to feel essentially self-reliant.
Hungary in the Habsburg Monarchy 1840–67: A Study of Perceptions
Authors: Evans R. J. W.
Published: October 2011

This chapter presents an essay on the patterns of contact and mutual perception in the dual monarchy of Austria and Hungary during the period from 1840 to 1867. It examines the commonalities and antipathies that played major roles in creating the settlements which were reached between the two halves of the Monarchy, and in frustrating those which were not. Some of the major political developments during this period include the October Diploma and February Patent of 1860–61 and the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867.
Migrations: The Career of British White Australia
Authors: Richards Eric
Published: October 2011

This chapter argues that the migration from Britain was the unquestioned assumption of Australia’s Empire. The migrations of Australia were achieved in the context of much wider diasporic movements from the British Isles, and throughout the colonial era these migrations were sheltered under the protection of the Pax Britannica. This chapter suggests that the social engineering that underpinned the White Australia Policy represented a departure from British practice designed to keep Australia British.
Money: Trade, Investment, and Economic Nationalism
Authors: Bolton Geoffrey
Published: October 2011

This chapter examines the nature of investment, trade, and economic nationalism in colonial Australia. It argues that British finance played only a minor role in the first half-century of colonization because during this period Australian colonies remained undercapitalized. However, free trading brought great advantages to Australian exporters to Britain and entrepreneurs benefitted from membership to the Empire by being able to offer loans on the London markets at favourable secured rates.
Security: Defending Australia’s Empire
Authors: Ward Stuart
Published: October 2011

This chapter argues that defence was the most indispensable instrument of the British Empire in colonizing Australia. It explains that securing Australian colonies against perceived threats was crucial to the viability and credibility of colonization given the survivalist nature of the colonial political culture in Europe since the 1850s. It contends that it was the very distinctiveness of the evolving Australian conception of Empire that contributed ultimately to its dissolution.
Gender and Sexuality
Authors: Woollacott Angela
Published: October 2011

This chapter examines the distinctive attributes of colonial gender relations in Australia from the culture of frontier masculinities to the early successes of women’s struggle for equal citizenship rights. The British colonisers brought new assumptions about gender identities in Australia and placed an idealized colonial manhood at one remove from its British origins. However, it was the same colonial ideas about masculine excess that helped to secure early achievements of an Australian feminism built on temperance.
The Emotional Construction of Morals
Authors: Prinz Jesse
Published: October 2011

This book argues that recent work in philosophy, neuroscience, and anthropology supports two radical hypotheses about the nature of morality: moral values are based on emotional responses, and these emotional responses are inculcated by culture, not hard-wired through natural selection. In the first half of the book, the hypothesis that morality has an emotional foundation is defended. Evidence from brain imaging, social psychology, and psychopathology suggest that, when we judge something to be right or wrong, we are merely expressing our emotions. The book claims that these emotions do not track objective features of reality; rather, the rightness and wrongness of an act consists in the fact that people are disposed to have certain emotions towards it. In the second half of the book, it turns to a defence of moral relativism. Moral facts depend on emotional responses, and emotional responses vary from culture to culture. The book surveys the anthropological record to establish moral variation, and draws on cultural history to show how attitudes toward practices such as cannibalism and marriage change over time. It also criticizes evidence from animal behaviour and child development that has been taken to support the claim that moral attitudes are hard-wired by natural selection. The book concludes that there is no single true morality, but also argues that some moral values are better than others; moral progress is possible.
Shake it up, Baby: Practising Rock ‘N’ Roll Criminology
Authors: Daly Kathleen
Published: October 2011

This chapter uses the history of rock ‘n’ roll as a metaphor to encourage forms of criminological research and writing that press the boundaries of convention and conformity. As is the case in other fields, we think of criminology as having different schools of thought, methodological approaches, and political-ideological positions. As a student in sociology, this was how the author of this chapter learned the field; and like so many others, she began to understand variation and differences across the field and to see students and colleagues using this mental map. The chapter argues against viewing criminology and others in this manner. It calls for a new aesthetic, one which does not deny differences of theory, methodology, or politics and ideology, but which views the enterprise and judgements of the value of the work done in a different way.
Criminology's Disney World: The Ethnographer's Ride of South African Criminal Justice
Authors: Shearing Clifford , Marks Monique
Published: October 2011

This chapter is divided into three parts. The first part explains the meaning of ethnography and provides examples from the authors' own ethnographic research endeavours. Second, it explores ways of transforming knowledge and imaginings into action or practice. Here it considers the notion of praxis as discussed by Marx and Engels in German Ideology (1947). It is argued that the point of doing social research is not merely to contemplate the world, but to change it — a position that is, despite conventional understandings, not in conflict with Weber who saw the choice of research topics as value driven. The final section argues that southern places should be viewed as sites of knowledge creation.
Postcolonial Perspectives for Criminology
Authors: Cunneen Chris
Published: October 2011

This chapter argues for the importance of a postcolonial perspective in criminology. It is a perspective that has the potential to offer new theoretical insights, and to expand the discipline in an engaged and reflexive endeavour that is cognisant of cultural and historical differences. To date, postcolonial theory has had greater impact in areas such as literature, law, politics, and sociology than it has in criminology. Following writers like Edward Said and Gayatri Spivak, it is suggested that postcolonialism is a perspective that demands we recognize the ongoing and enduring effects of colonialism on both the colonized and the colonizers. Colonization and the postcolonial are not historical events but continuing social, political, economic, and cultural processes. The postcolonial exists as an aftermath of colonialism and it manifests itself in a range of areas from the cultures of the former imperial powers to the psyches of those that were colonized. The chapter explores the potential of a postcolonial perspective: from understanding the relationship between colonization, state crime and the over-representation of marginalized peoples, to an appreciation of indigenous art as a site for criminological investigation.