bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
NATIONAL CULTURE AND THE FACTORS AFFECTING PERCEPTIONS OF PAY FAIRNESS IN KOREA AND THE UNITED STATES
Authors: Hundley Greg , Kim Jooyup
Published: February 2008

Factors other than job performance might affect judgments about pay fairness for employees doing the same job, and the strength of these factors may differ across national cultures. This study uses a multivariate, policy‐capturing approach to compare the way that characteristics of employees—seniority, education, family size, individual job performance, and work effort—affect judgments about the fairness of pay received by employees in Korea and the United States. Regression models of the determinants of judgments about pay fairness by Korean and U.S. nationals were estimated. Korean pay fairness judgments were found to be relatively more sensitive to differences in seniority, education, and family size, and American pay fairness judgments were relatively more sensitive to variations in individual job performance and work effort.
THE EFFECT OF TECHNOLOGICAL ADOPTION ON ORGANIZATIONAL PERFORMANCE: ORGANIZATIONAL SIZE AND ENVIRONMENTAL MUNIFICENCE AS MODERATORS
Authors: Irwin John G. , Hoffman James J. , Geiger Scott W.
Published: February 2008

The goal of this study is to provide guidance to managers who must make decisions regarding the adoption of technological innovations. The study was conducted within the context of the hospital industry. Results indicate that while adoption of technological innovations may lead to increased performance for certain hospitals, for large hospitals, and those located in rich environments, medical technology may be a ‘no‐win’ situation. Failure to adopt technology may result in the loss of patients, but adoption may result in increased costs that cannot be recovered due to underutilization.
RESPONSE CATEGORIES AND POTENTIAL CULTURAL BIAS: EFFECTS OF AN EXPLICIT MIDDLE POINT IN CROSS‐CULTURAL SURVEYS
Authors: Si Steven X. , Cullen John B.
Published: February 2008

The present study investigated whether questionnaires using explicit midpoints produce different results for different cultural groups. We hypothesized that managers from China, Japan, and Hong Kong (CJH) respond differently to Western management scales than do managers from the US., Germany, and United Kingdom (UGU). We found differences in central tendency (the likelihood of choosing the midpoint in overall variance between these groups). Using scales with even numbered response categories (thus removing the explicit midpoint) decreases the central tendencies of the CJH group and increases the variance in the responses to Western management questionnaire. Results suggested that when survey questionnaires are used in CJH cultures, careful consideration should be given to the choice between scales with even‐numbered response categories and those with odd‐numbered response categories.
WORKAHOLISM AND EXTRA‐WORK SATISFACTIONS
Authors: Burke Ronald J.
Published: February 2008

The topic of workaholism in organizations has received considerable attention in the popular media although our understanding of it is still quite limited. Most definitions of workaholism convey the notion of singular commitment to work to the detriment of extra‐work activities. This study, using measures developed by Spence and Robbins (1992), examines the relationship of workaholism type to measures of extra‐work satisfactions (family, friends, community). Data were collected from 530 women and men managers and professionals using anonymous questionnaires. The results showed the hypothesized negative relationship between workaholism and extra‐work satisfactions. Implications for reducing workaholic behaviors are offered.
FAMILY‐ORIENTED COLLECTIVISM AND ITS EFFECT ON FIRM PERFORMANCE: A COMPARISON BETWEEN OVERSEAS CHINESE AND FOREIGN FIRMS IN CHINA
Authors: Li Ji , Lam Kevin , Ping Fu Ping
Published: February 2008

Past research has suggested the influence of family‐oriented collectivistic culture on the behavior and performance of traditional Chinese manufacturing firms. However, insufficient empirical research has been conducted to empirically test the influence. More importantly, insufficient research has been conducted to test how the collectivistic culture in Chinese societies would affect the performance of manufacturing firms. This paper addresses these issues by comparing the behaviors and performance of two groups of firms in China, i.e., investment from overseas Chinese firms and investment from non‐Chinese Western firms, in one of China's fast‐growing manufacturing industries. Interesting differences are found between the overseas Chinese firms and those from other foreign countries. The findings support the influence of societal culture on firms' behavior and performance, but do not support the predictions on performance based on the arguments of cultural distance. This paper concludes with a discussion on implications of the findings for both researchers and practitioners.
THE ORGANIZATION OF ORGANIZATIONS
Authors: Mackenzie Kenneth D.
Published: February 2008

Just what is the core concept of organizations? The question is posed as “what is the organization of organizations?” The answer is interdependence. Beginning with the concept of a process and its framework, the notion of an entity is extended to Processual Agents. A Processual Agent is anything that can effect a process. The discussion turns to potential, defined, and manageable interdependencies with examples of each. Many traditional management methods are viewed in terms of their effects in reducing potential interdependence in order to cut it down to manageable proportions. The discussion of Processual Agents is extended to organizations. This leads to a proposed structure for levels of interdependence and a summarizing principle called the cascade principle. Next the discussion turns to a new analysis of organizational change which examines the concepts of an organizational space and the summarizing conclusion called the cushioning principle. It is argued that the cascade and cushioning principles provide processes for maintaining and stabilizing organizations in the face of change. Examples are provided for the major concepts. The text is formalized in the form of ten axioms, twenty‐two propositions, and two summarizing principles.
DEVELOPMENTS OF TRANSACTIVE MEMORY SYSTEMS AND COLLECTIVE MIND IN VIRTUAL TEAMS
Authors: Yoo Youngjin , Kanawattanachai Prasert
Published: February 2008

In this study, we examine the developments of transactive memory systems and collective mind and their influence on performance in virtual teams. Although one of the oft‐cited benefits of the virtual team is the ability of its members to contribute diverse knowledge and expertise, the question of how virtual team members can bring their respective knowledge and expertise to solve the problems they face has been largely ignored in the past research on virtual teams. Building on an emerging body of socio‐cognitive literature, we argue that transactive memory systems and the collective mind are two important variables that explain team performance. We tested our hypotheses with a longitudinal data set that was collected from 38 virtual teams of graduate management students from six universities in four countries over eight weeks. The results suggest that the influence of team members' early communication volume on team performance decreases as teams develop transactive memory systems and a collective mind. The results further suggest that the development of a collective mind represents a high‐order learning in team settings.
STRUCTURAL DESIGNS WITHIN AMERICAN INTERCOLLEGIATE ATHLETIC DEPARTMENTS
Authors: Cunningham George B. , Rivera Christina A.
Published: February 2008

The purpose of this paper is to (a) distinguish the structural designs, and (b) examine the relationship between structure and effectiveness in American sport organizations. Formalization, centralization, and specialization were examined to determine the structural designs. Senior level administrators from National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I (N = 86) departments completed an electronic questionnaire. Cluster analysis was used to group departments according to the three dimensions of structure. Results demonstrated the presence of two structural designs—the Simple Structure and the Enabling Structure. MANCOVA procedures showed differences between departments in athletic achievement, but not in the education of student athletes. Discussion of the findings and future directions are presented.
THE ENACTMENT OF ORGANIZATIONAL DECLINE: THE SELF‐FULFILLING PROPHECY
Authors: Edwards John C. , McKinley William , Moon Gyewan
Published: February 2008

Building on the enactment perspective and past work on the self‐fulfilling prophecy, this paper explores how organizational decline can be enacted through self‐fulfilling prophecies of decline. We present two self‐fulfilling prophecy‐based models of organizational decline, one in which decline is enacted unintentionally through the predictions of an organization's managers, and a second in which decline is enacted unintentionally through the predictions of external constituencies. We articulate propositions that capture the dynamics of each model and that are intended as a platform for future empirical research. We also discuss the implications of our theoretical framework for future theory development on the causes of organizational decline, and offer suggestions for managers who wish to avoid organizational decline.
THE IMPACT OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE ON WORK TEAM COHESIVENESS AND PERFORMANCE
Authors: Rapisarda Brigette Ann
Published: February 2008

In this paper it is argued that the degree of emotional competence demonstrated by members of a team will determine whether member interactions build cohesiveness and high performance. The study presented examines the relationship between the average score of team members on thirteen emotional intelligence (EI) competencies, and ratings of team cohesiveness and performance in 18 teams in an Executive MBA program. Results showed EI competencies of influence, empathy, and achievement orientation were positively related to student and faculty ratings of team cohesiveness. Empathy was positively related to student and faculty ratings of team performance, and achievement orientation was positively related to student ratings of team performance. Implications are discussed.
THE EFFECTS OF JOB STEREOTYPE, APPLICANT GENDER, AND COMMUNICATION STYLE ON RATINGS IN SCREENING INTERVIEWS
Authors: Juodvalkis Judith L. , Grefe Beth A. , Hogue Mary , Svyantek Daniel J. , DeLamarter William
Published: February 2008

This paper investigated the interactions between gender stereotypes for jobs, applicant gender, and the communication styles used by male and female applicants during an interview. This study was conducted as a laboratory experiment, utilizing a 2x2x2 mixed design. Subjects read one job description and heard three audiotapes of all male or all female job applicants exhibiting a dominant, submissive, or neutral communication style. The subjects then rated the applicant on five dimensions. These dimensions are likeability, competence, sociability, overall impression, and hireability. Results showed significant interactions of applicant gender and communication style on four of the five dimensions rated in this study. An inspection of the dimension means revealed different effects for gender‐appropriate and gender‐inappropriate behavior for males and females. Males were penalized on ratings of overall impression and hireability for communicating in stereotypically gender‐inappropriate manners. Females were penalized on ratings of sociability and likeability for communicating in a stereotypically gender‐inappropriate fashion. The implications of these findings for using interviews are then discussed in terms of aversive genderism.
LEADERSHIP AT THE TOP: THE NEED FOR EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE IN ORGANIZATIONS
Authors: Dulewicz Victor , Higgs Malcolm
Published: February 2008

The need for effective leadership has become paramount to meet the challenges of the 21st Century and a growing number of academics and senior managers have recently come to recognize the importance of emotional intelligence (EI) for effective leadership. Furthermore, Goleman, Boyatzis, & McKee (2002) have contended that the higher up one advances in an organization, the more important EI becomes. In this paper the authors have focused on evidence at the very top of the organization, the Board. They review the findings from a major study of UK boards and re‐analyze the data on tasks and competencies relating to EI constructs. Their results show that EI competencies are considered to be extremely important according to the majority of a large sample of UK directors in a survey and they go on to argue that many of the tasks (outputs) of the Board require EI competencies, as well as many aspects of Team Process (for Organizing and Running the Board). The authors also produce new findings which support Goleman's hypothesis that the higher one advances, the more important EI becomes. Possible explanations for the findings are discussed and the paper concludes with a review of important current and future research such as the full integration of EI elements into instruments to assess leadership competence and style, and the effect that organization culture has on these constructs.
JAPANESE‐FOCUSED ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR RESEARCH 1981–2001: CONTENT AND COMMENT
Authors: Godkin Lynn , Doughty Graeme , Hoosier Brooke
Published: February 2008

Japanese‐focused management papers were examined to answer four questions: (1) Has there been a relative increase in the proportion of Japanese‐focused papers published? (2) Has there been a relative increase in the proportion of Japanese‐focused Organizational Behavior (OB) papers published? (3) What is the nature of Japanese‐focused OB papers? and (4) Are there “gaps” in the Japanese‐focused OB literature? The paper particularly reports current content appearing between 1994 and 2001 juxtaposed with that reported earlier by Godkin, Endoh, and Cahill (1995) appearing between 1981 and 1993.
THE ROLE OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE IN TEAM LEADERSHIP: REPLY TO THE CRITIQUE BY ANTONAKIS
Authors: Melita Prati L. , Douglas Ceasar , Ferris Gerald R. , Ammeter Anthony P. , Buckley M. Ronald
Published: February 2008

Prati, Douglas, Ferris, Ammeter, and Buckley (2003) have proposed that emotional intelligence is a critical component in effective team leadership and team outcomes. John Antonakis (2003) questioned whether the first claim in this article, that emotional intelligence is critical for effective team leadership, is justified. He presents six questions that illuminate his reservations. In response, the present authors attempt to answer his reservations by clarifying and explicating the reasoning behind this claim.
DEVELOPMENTS AND NEW DIRECTIONS AT ORGANIZATIONAL ANALYSIS
Authors: Bowen Michael G. , Burke Ronald , Castrogiovanni Gary J. , Dulebohn James H. , Li Mingfang , Svyantek Daniel J.
Published: February 2008

This issue marks a clear transition issue for this journal: This transition will, we hope, provide new directions which aid the development of the journal into a more recognized and used journal. These changes include a name change; a new group of editors; the re‐establishment of the journal's time‐line for publication; changes in the editorial board; and some information on new directions in the journal. We would like to describe some of these developments and provide you with information on the new directions for the journal in this year and upcoming years.
NAVIGATING TURBULENT TIMES: STRATEGIC GROUPS AND PERFORMANCE IN THE HOSPITAL INDUSTRY, 1983 TO 1993
Authors: Marlin Dan , Huonker John W. , Hasbrouck Robert B.
Published: February 2008

This study confirms and extends previous research by providing a detailed longitudinal examination of the strategic group and performance relationship in the hospital industry from 1983 to 1993. Based on a deductive approach using Porter's (1980) typology, we find that matching strategy to environment affects hospital performance, that the appropriate match between strategy and environment changed over the 1983 to 1993 time period, and that hospitals combining a low cost and differentiation strategy (i.e., a best‐cost approach) performed well during most of the time period examined. We also find significant movement between strategic groups, thus calling into question the degree to which mobility barriers affect between group performance differences. Finally, our research suggests the existence of multiple groups following the same strategic approach, a result that calls into question the view that groups within an industry are monolithic.
ON WHY “EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE” WILL NOT PREDICT LEADERSHIP EFFECTIVENESS BEYOND IQ OR THE “BIG FIVE”: AN EXTENSION AND REJOINDER
Authors: Antonakis John
Published: February 2008

Emotional intelligence (EI) has been embraced by many practitioners and academicians without clear empirical support for the construct. In this rejoinder and extension of an earlier comment, I highlight the importance of using methodologically defensible scientific criteria for conducting or evaluating research. I review literature demonstrating that EI models are beset with problems concerning their validity and show that support for the EI construct may be based more on tangential speculation than on empirical findings. Although I find some common positions with EI researchers such as Prati et al., I underline contradictions and inconsistencies which may cast doubt on the necessity of EI for understanding and predicting leadership effectiveness.
JOB CHARACTERISTICS AND PERSONALITY AS PREDICTORS OF JOB SATISFACTION
Authors: Thomas Adrian , Buboltz Walter C. , Winkelspecht Christopher S.
Published: February 2008

The nature of the relationship between job characteristics, personality, and job satisfaction was investigated. A longstanding debate exists between psychologists that believe structural characteristics of the job are the primary determinants of job satisfaction (Kulik, Oldham, & Hackman, 1987; O'Reilly & Roberts, 1975) and those that believe personal attributes of the worker are most important (Hackman & Lawler, 1971; Pervin, 1968). Information was collected from 163 participants on the Job Characteristics Inventory, the Myers‐Briggs Type Indicator (Form G), and the satisfaction scale of the Job Diagnostic Survey. Hierarchical regression analyses demonstrated that job characteristics successfully predicted job satisfaction (average Ra2 =.30). A series of hierarchical regressions indicated that personality had neither a direct effect on satisfaction nor a moderating effect on the job characteristics‐job satisfaction relation. These results indicate that, at least as measured by the MBTI, the characteristics of the individual may be of little importance during job redesign.
INTRODUCING SPIRITUALITY
Authors: Klenke Karin
Published: February 2008

Spirituality in organizations is currently a particularly salient issue in both the scientific and practitioner literature. The “S” factor (Klenke, 2003) has lead to a proliferation of books, special issues of journals, edited volumes, symposia at conferences, and popular press articles which collectively represents a struggle between science and marketing for the soul. Conlin (1999) concluded that “a spiritual revival is sweeping corporate America as executives of all stripes are mixing mysticism into their management, importing into office corridors the lessons usually doled out in churches, temples, and mosques” (p. 150). Recent scandals involving ethical lapses at major U.S. corporations and institutions have only served to reinforce the need for organizations to acknowledge employees' thirst for meaning, community, and connection with a higher purpose and/or power. As a result, tapping into the human spirit at work has become a flourishing business as companies are willing to invest money to sponsor seminars, workshops and retreats on spiritual growth, mediation, creativity, and authentic communication.
HOW A NEW RULE IS ADJUSTED TO CONTEXT: KNOWLEDGE CREATION FOLLOWING THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE ISO 9000 QUALITY STANDARD
Authors: Marcus Alfred , Naveh Eitan
Published: February 2008

This paper is an analysis of knowledge creation following implementation of the world's leading quality assurance standard, ISO 9000. We combine the perspectives of Nonaka on knowledge creation (Nonaka, 1994; Nonaka & Takeuchi 1995; and Krogh, Nonaka, & Nishiguchi, 2000) with those of authors who have dealt with the dynamics of rules and routines (March, Schulz, & Zhou, 2000; Nelson & Winter, 1982; Cohen & Bacdayan, 1994). On the basis of our analysis of ISO 9000 implementation we develop observations about rules and learning and about rule integration, absorption, and renewal. Our paper fits into the growing literature on the role of learning and knowledge transfer in quality improvement and the evolution of dynamic capabilities in the firm using routines and learning mechanisms such as knowledge codification.
THE DYNAMICS OF CONFLICT AND CREATIVITY DURING A PROJECT'S LIFE CYCLE: A COMPARATIVE STUDY BETWEEN SERVICE‐DRIVEN AND TECHNOLOGY‐DRIVEN TEAMS IN TAIWAN
Authors: Chen Ming‐Huei , Chang Yuan‐Chieh
Published: February 2008

This research focuses on examining the dynamics of task and interpersonal conflict related to the creativity of teams over five stages of a project's life cycle. Data were collected from 142 respondents of information system development project teams of a service‐driven type, and from 106 respondents of new product development teams of a technology‐driven type. Results indicate that interpersonal conflict has a negative impact on creativity for a service‐driven project team. However, task conflict has a positive impact on creativity for a technology‐driven project team. The findings suggest that managing different types of project teams necessitates concern with the variations of conflict and creativity over a project's life cycle.
THE ROLE OF PERSONALITY FACTORS IN COPING WITH ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE
Authors: Ravi Kumar R. , Kamalanabhan T.J.
Published: February 2008

This study, conducted in a large public sector undertaking in India that had undergone a major change recently, examines the influence of personality factors on employees ability of coping with organizational change in the Indian context. The role of personality factors—self‐esteem, optimism, perceived control, and change self‐efficacy—on influencing employees for coping with organizational change has been examined. Further, the role of demographic variables on the employee's ability of coping with organizational change has also been studied. Results that these personality factors—perceived control, optimism and change self‐efficacy—indicate a significant relationship with coping with organizational change. Contrary to expectations, self‐esteem has not been significantly associated with coping with organizational change. Demographic variables—seniority and education—indicate a significant relationship with the outcome variable.
REALISTIC EXPATRIATE ASSIGNMENT PREVIEW: A POTENTIAL SOLUTION TO EXPATRIATE PREMATURE RETURN
Authors: Wang Lei , Hinrichs Kim T.
Published: February 2008

Multinational enterprises (MNEs) have been troubled with the problem of expatriate premature return. This paper suggests addressing this problem by conducting realistic expatriate assignment previews (REAPs) for expatriate candidates. A model is proposed to explain the mechanism between REAPs and expatriates' intention to prematurely return from an assignment. Specifically, providing REAPs to expatriate candidates may reduce expatriates' early return intention and ultimately reduce the chance of expatriate premature return through the self‐selection effect, the role clarity effect, the adjustment of expectations effect, the worry effect, the freedom of choice effect, and the organizational honesty effect. This model also proposes that expatriate candidates' prior expatriate experience moderates the effect of self‐selection, role clarity, adjustment of expectations, and worry.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND EFFECTIVENESS OF LEADER ROLE: A DYADIC STUDY IN FOUR COUNTRIES
Authors: Afzalur Rahim M. , Psenicka Clement
Published: February 2008

This study investigated the relationships of emotional intelligence—empathy and social skills—of supervisors to the effectiveness of their leader role. Questionnaire data on emotional intelligence were collected in four countries (U.S., Greece, China, and Bangladesh, N = 1,184 dyads) from employed MBA students (observers), but the data on the effectiveness of leader role were collected from the colleagues of MBA students who had the same supervisor. Responses from each dyad were matched. Data analysis showed that empathy was a mediator of the relationship between social skills and the effectiveness of leader role in the U.S., Greece, and Bangladesh, but not in China. Implications for management, directions for future research, and limitations of the study are discussed.
Displacement of Components and Solder during Reflow Soldering
Authors: Klein Wassink R.J. , van Gerven J.A.H.
Published: February 2008

During reflow soldering the applied solder paste is melted and the components, previously placed on the solder paste, move into their final position. This process, however, may be accompanied by various unwanted movements of components and solder. Components may move horizontally along the surface of the board (this is called swimming or floating), or may move vertically and stand on their ends (this is called drawbridging or Manhattan effect). On the other hand, the molten solder may move to places other than those intended, e.g., into metallised holes (PTH) connected to the solder lands, or upwards along component leads away from the joint area; this effect is called solder wicking. Moreover, isolated small solder balls are often found on the board surface after melting of the paste. Experiments show that all these effects depend on the heating method, vapour phase soldering often being the most prone. The driving forces of the displacements can be explained in terms of forces and pressure caused by the surface tension of the molten solder, whereas the observed influences of the heating method are the result of the direction from which the heat is transported to the solder paste to be melted. From this, important conclusions for vapour phase soldering, infra‐red soldering and hot‐belt soldering may be drawn.
The Strength of Soldered Joints on Surface Mounted Devices
Authors: de Kluizenaar E.E. , Verguld M.M.F.
Published: February 2008

Strength measurements of soldered joints in electronics are widely used for the assessment of joint quality. However, a variety of experiments, reported in this article, clearly show that a strong relationship between initial strength and joint quality does not exist. Far more important for joint reliability is the resistance of soldered constructions to low‐cycle fatigue of the solder metal, caused by thermal expansion differences upon temperature cycling during use. A temperature cycling test is proposed as a standard accelerated ageing method for the prediction of the low‐cycle fatigue life of soldered joints in electronics.
Laser Soldering — Production and Microstructural Benefits for SMT
Authors: Lea C.
Published: February 2008

Laser soldering, as a viable technique for surface mounting assemblies, is reviewed. The criteria for selection of a CO2 or a Nd:YAG laser are discussed. New data are given that quantify the beneficial effects of laser soldering on the solder fillet microstructure, and how this relates to in‐service performance.
A Proposal for a Standard Solderability Testing Method for SMDs
Authors: Klang L.‐G. , Nylén M.
Published: February 2008

When testing SMDs with a wetting balance, some of the test parameters have a much greater influence on the wetting force and wetting time than others. It was found that the most important parameters were the type of flux, the temperature and the immersion depth. These three parameters were thoroughly studied and finally it was possible to make a suggestion for the values that these parameters should have. To evaluate the wetting curve, different methods were studied. The method chosen was to divide the wetting force by the wettable perimeter and this was called the normalised wetting force, measured in mN/m. All of the acceptable passive components tested had normalised wetting forces over 50 mN/m; for SOT‐23s the figures were over 250 mN/m. The normalised wetting forces were reached within 1.5 s in both cases. The main conclusion drawn from the tests was as follows: it seems possible to define one point for what is to be called good or bad solderability. This point will be 50 mN/m for passive chip components and 250 mN/m for SOT‐23s, to be reached within 1.5 s.
Process Control in Soldering SMDs — Analysing and Improving the Process
Authors: Verguld M.M.F.
Published: February 2008

Although wave soldering is a long established technique, the touch‐up percentage is still unacceptably high. This leads to high touch‐up costs and too low product quality. One cause lies in the fact that the complexity of the boards is increasing all the time (greater component density, greater diversity, more leads and smaller pitches). The main reason, however, lies in the lack of a fundamental process technology background. This becomes even more serious now that soldering processes are becoming more critical. The touch‐up percentage can and must be lowered through accurate process adjustment and control. A further improvement in process adjustment and control will give a considerable improvement in soldering quality in the short term. In this way, the actions are successful, although benefits can be achieved only if the improvements are consolidated. Further improvements can be achieved through systematic application of design rules.
An Engineering Approach to Thermal‐stress Analysis in SMT Applications
Authors: Riemer D.E.
Published: February 2008

This paper introduces thermal‐stress analysis methods which follow electrical engineering procedures. The spring constant or c‐value is found to be related to the electrical impedance, combining dimensions and material characteristics in a performance parameter which simplifies calculations. Voltage is used to represent thermal deformation, and thermal forces are modelled as currents. Relationships equivalent to Ohm's Law are applied to calculate thermal stresses in leads or traces of surface‐mount assemblies. The thermal performance of laminates, e.g., thermal expansion coefficients of interconnect boards with a restraining core, and the thermal stresses in the bonded layers, are derived from the analysis of an electrical network which represents the composite structure. The method provides visual concepts which facilitate a first‐order solution of engineering problems related to thermal stress.
SMD Soldering — Direction and Time of Heating
Authors: Briken H.
Published: February 2008

In many cases people talk about reflow soldering and do not mention the parameters. It is therefore difficult to judge results. The old struggle persists between vapour phase reflow and infra‐red reflow, made even more complicated by other techniques such as conductive heating.
Development of a Fluxless Soldering Process for Surface Mount Technology
Authors: Bandyopadhyay N. , Kirschner M. , Marczi M.
Published: February 2008

In the surface mount industry, microelectronic devices are reflow soldered to printed circuit boards with the benefit of mildly activated rosin (RMA) based fluxes. The residues from these fluxes, when not properly cleaned from the component boards, have been cited for decreased circuit life due to corrosion of the solder joints and loss of insulating resistance. Post‐solder cleaning operations with CFC (chlorofluorocarbon) solvents have been deemed environmentally harmful. Hence, there is a great need in the surface mount community for a no‐clean or fluxless solder reflow process. The BOC Group has developed a novel, proprietary process, by which circuit boards and their components are attached with a solder paste under a reactive fluxing atmosphere. The post‐solder residue is non‐corrosive and so minimal that it does not require a post‐solder cleaning operation. The solder joints exhibit good wetting, excellent joint strength and are essentially void‐free. Assembled circuits processed in this way meet all the criteria for ionic cleanliness and surface insulation resistance without post‐solder cleaning.
Thermal Characterisation for a Surface Mount Rework System
Authors: Spigarelli D.J.
Published: February 2008

Effective control of the rework process for surface mount production rework or for field repair requires a knowledge of the process variables involved in the rework system and of the interaction between them. This paper presents the method by which a test was constructed for one particular system to characterise that system's thermal performance. The system tested is described. Process variables for that system are identified and classified as operator, set‐up and use variables. A description of the test board and instrumentation is provided, and the test method is presented. Results of the testing are presented along with a sensitivity analysis for the most critical process variables. Although performed on one particular system, the testing shows a method which can be followed for any system and, even simpler, rework and repair tools.
SMART group news
Authors: Lea Colin
Published: February 2008

Since its early conception, the group has grown from a handful of enthusiastic engineers to the largest trade association in Europe, if not the world, for Surface Mount. As in previous years, SMART will be arranging Seminars, Hands‐on Workshops and Open Forums, giving valuable knowledge for those just entering or those already experienced in SMT. Open forums allow the opportunity for the exchange of information on a variety of different topics, building experience in the technology which would otherwise be unobtainable.
The Harmfulness of Re‐working Cosmetically Defective Solder Joints
Authors: Lea C.
Published: February 2008

The loss of reliability of a PTH soldered joint caused by unnecessary re‐working after wave soldering is considered. Standardised joints are re‐worked under conditions that closely control the temperature of the soldering iron tip, the time of contact of the tip to the joint, the angle and the contact pressure of the soldering iron, the amount of flux and the amount of extra solder applied. The service life of the joints is assessed using accelerated thermal cycling between ‐20°C and +100°C. In all cases, the service life of these test joints is degraded by re‐working. The effect becomes worse when the temperature and time of re‐work are increased. The degradation of fatigue performance is associated with changes in the solder fillet microstructure. The effects on fatigue performance of changing the fillet size by adding extra solder during re‐work are complex, but explainable in general terms. The results obtained from the controlled laboratory rework tests are corroborated by test assemblies re‐worked to companies' in‐house workmanship standards and by field data.
Technical Outline Specification and Guideline for Infra‐red Reflow Soldering
Authors: de Langen M.T.W. , Verguld M.M.F.
Published: February 2008

This paper presents the requirements for infra‐red soldering machines for reflow soldering of printed boards with components for surface mounting. Guidelines for controlling and adjusting the infra‐red reflow soldering process, as well as a computer model to help the user of infra‐red reflow systems to adjust an infra‐red oven, are provided. In specifying the various process conditions, the authors have considered that a careful adjustment of the process parameters will improve the soldering quality.
Closed‐loop Soldering
Authors: Davy J.G.
Published: February 2008

This paper discusses some basic ideas about process development and control in Part I and applies them to soldering in Part II. Because it is possible to understand how design, materials and process affect the product, it is unnecessary and inappropriate to resort to the statistical‐correlation methods that are applied to complex processes. A process qualifies for the label ‘closed loop’ only if the design and materials going into.it are controlled. The types, degree and sophistication of control needed for a process are to be judged by consistency of the product. For soldered assemblies, the product is evaluated by visual inspection, and the adequacy of process development and control depends on the adequacy of inspection. Inspection can be improved if it is regarded as a process. It can also be improved if inspectors understand which features are important and which can be ignored safely, i.e., by understanding their causes and associated risks. Much of the criticism of visual inspection, and perception of need for automated inspection, derive from a failure to distinguish clearly enough between material and process variables, between the two types of inspection (product‐oriented and materials/process‐oriented) and between appearance and risk. Properly controlled visual inspection is well suited for evaluating the soldering process. The most important visual attribute to look for in solder inspection is the contour of the fillet, because this is what reveals the quality of wetting, and wetting is the most important physical attribute of the connection in determining its strength and reliability. Wetting depends on just two basic requirements, heat transfer and solderability, and these are discussed in some detail. Causes of non‐ideal texture and lustre of the solder are given, but these attributes do not affect reliability, nor is measuring solder purity important. Additional factors which do affect reliability relate more to design and materials than to process. Failure to deal with these factors can result in solder defects that are undetectable by any inspection technique. The answer to this problem is therefore not automated inspection to find more kinds of defects than visual inspection can, but control of design and materials, as well as process, to prevent them entirely.
Quantitative Solderability Measurement of Electronic Components
Authors: Lea C.
Published: February 2008

The wetting balance has been identified as a technique suitable for the establishment of a quantitative basis for the measurement of the solderability of electronic components. This paper deals with those parameters of the instrument and those procedures of the measurement that fall within the choice of the operator. It is important to know the amount of attention that must be paid to each parameter to achieve the precision required.
Solderless Alternatives to Surface Mount Component Attachment
Authors: Bourdelaise R.A.
Published: February 2008

Solder has been the primary method of component attachment since the early days of radio. This tradition carries with it an overhead which becomes increasingly expensive as the degree of miniaturisation increases. Solderless interconnect methods, however, are often overlooked or unfairly discounted as unreliable. Surprisingly, solderless connections can be mechanically superior to and environmentally more robust than their soldered peers. This paper reviews various solderless interconnect techniques for surface mount applications and discusses their relative merits.
Water Soluble Fluxes, their Reliability and their Usefulness as a Means of Eliminating CFC‐113 Usage
Authors: Ellis B.N.
Published: February 2008

This paper outlines the composition of water soluble fluxes for the electronics industry and their methods of use when wave soldering and reflowing tinned coatings and solder pastes. Process optimisation is facilitated by the Taguchi method. Three types of cleaning machinery are evoked, with varying results. It is shown that the energy/time relationship is important to ensure adequate cleaning quality. A number of fallacious arguments are debunked. Methods of water purification and the problems of effluent treatment for all sizes of installation are addressed. Doubt is expressed as to the viability of closed‐circuit water recycling except for the largest installations or where exceptional conditions prevail. It is shown that water soluble fluxes and their subsequent aqueous removal are unlikely to make any significant contribution to the Greenhouse Effect. The overall cost of their use is substantially similar to that of rosin fluxes with CFC‐113 azeotropes at 1986 prices. Cleanliness control under production and laboratory conditions is discussed with reference to both ionic contamination testing, including its use for SMDs, and SIR analysis, especially at low voltages, including non‐destructive production SIR testing. Reliability of the assembled circuits is shown to be at least as good as that with more traditional soldering and cleaning methods, frequently better, and this is the case even for military and aerospace applications. The paper concludes that, now that quality water soluble solder pastes are available, this method is most likely to become the workhorse for the majority of electronics applications.
Flux Mechanisms from Solderability Measurements
Authors: MacKay C.A.
Published: February 2008

Reaction rate curves for a complete range of rosin based fluxes, calculated from observed solderability wetting time curves on progressively more heavily oxidised copper, are presented. These are compared with the form expected on the basis of a concentration‐dependent fluxing mechanism. Either a chain reaction type or an autocatalytic type mechanism is suggested from the observations presented.
Microstructural and Mechanical Characterisation of 43/43/14 Tin/Lead/Bismuth
Authors: Marshall J.L. , Calderon J. , Sees J.
Published: February 2008

A mechanical and microstructural study was performed of 43/43/14 tin/lead/bismuth solder. This alloy melts lower than the commonly used tin/lead solders and therefore holds promise as a useful material in two‐step soldering processes or in processes with thermally sensitive components. Mechanical testing of 43/43/14 tin/lead/bismuth showed a strength comparable to that of tin/lead solders but increased creep rate. Microstructural analysis (scanning electron microscopy/energy dispersive X‐ray) exhibited the same mechanism of fatigue as for tin/lead solders, viz., heterogeneous coarsening. Thermocyclic fatigue demonstrated that the long‐term reliability of 43/43/14 tin/lead/bismuth is comparable to that of tin/lead solders.
Water‐rinsable or so‐called ‘No Clean’ Solder Pastes? The Attempt of a Comparison from the Technical and Environmental Viewpoint
Authors: Leske W. , Koch J.
Published: February 2008

In SMD as well as in hybrid manufacturing processes, considerable quantities of CFC are still being used in 1991 for the cleaning of component groups. The second BlmSchV, as amended, (status at 12 December 1990), prohibits the use of R‐113 for surface treatment plants as of 31 December 1992. Pursuant to developments in solder pastes, some products are already available which render the use of CFCs superfluous. Two methods in particular are emerging, which work either completely without cleaning or use water as a cleaning medium. A critical comparison is made of the properties of the relevant solder pastes in these categories.
Evaluation and Solderability of Lead‐rich and Eutectic Solder‐coated Component Leads
Authors: Dunn B.D. , Andrisi J.‐P.
Published: February 2008

A significant number of integrated circuit (IC) package leads failing solderability tests also had a very thin eutectic solder coating. Poor solderability is attributed to degradation of this coating during various burn‐in times and temperatures. Techniques were developed to pre‐tin IC leads with lead‐rich solder (95Pb‐5Sn) as this finish had been reported in the literature to be particularly effective and superior to the eutectic composition in preserving solderability even after long ageing treatments. The present work has not confirmed those recommendations. In fact, surface analyses and various solderability tests performed on steam‐aged finishes demonstrate that 95Pb‐5Sn is not a viable alternative to 63Sn‐37Pb if standard spacecraft soldering practices are to be followed. Good solder wetting was always achieved if the artifically aged leads had a minimum eutectic coating thickness of 5–7 micrometres.
The Future of Solder Paste Printing for SMT Reflow Soldering
Authors: Lo E.K. , Ekere N.N. , Mannan S.H. , Ismail I.
Published: February 2008

The use of fine‐pitch SMD devices has increased the need for accurate and consistent solder paste deposits for reflow soldering. Continued miniaturisation in PCB and SMD lead sizes is presenting the user, paste supplier and print equipment manufacturer with paste printing challenges. Most of these challenges are user‐driven, and are generally met by enhancing associated print equipment and solder paste materials. Recent developments in fine‐particle pastes, water‐soluble and no‐clean pastes are among the improvements in materials. Vision‐assisted stencil aperture and PCB pad alignment, the use of metal squeegees and new stencil fabrication methods are among the latest developments on the equipment side. Printing tests have shown that there is a physical limit for the solder paste printing process, which is defined partly by the nature of the stencil fabrication process, the physical forces and the stencil's ability to meter a precise volume of paste. The challenge as SMD lead sizes decrease is to improve the printing process to match component lead sizes. There is a fear that we are now operating at the very limits of the solder paste printing process. To meet future component developments, there is a need to develop alternative printing processes for solder reflow.
SMART group news
Authors: Lea Colin
Published: February 2008

This conference, in the series being run by the National Physical Laboratory to help the electronics assembly industry consider the problems of CFC phase‐out, was essentially an updated repeat of the event held on 30 April, which had been a complete, standing‐room‐only sell‐out. Surprisingly, this repeat performance also attracted a full house and the format used has proved to be the most popular of all the NPL non‐CFC options conferences.
A Heuristic Approach to Placement Sequence Identification for SMT
Authors: Shin W. , Srihari K. , Adriance J. , Westby G.
Published: February 2008

Surface mount technology (SMT) is being increasingly used in printed circuit board (PCB) assembly. The reduced lead pitch of surface mount components coupled with their increased lead count and packing densities have made it imperative that automated placement methods be used. However, the SMT placement process is often a bottleneck in surface mount manufacturing. A reduction in placement time in SMT will enhance throughput and productivity. This paper describes the design and development of a prototype expert system based approach which identifies ‘near’ optimal placement sequences for surface mount PCBs in (almost) realtime. The software structure used integrates a knowledge based system with an optimisation module. PROLOG is the language used in this research. The system was rigorously validated and tested. Ideas for further research are also presented.
Prospects of Solder Paste in the Ultra‐fine Pitch Era
Authors: Xiao M. , Lawless K.J. , Lee N.‐C.
Published: February 2008

12 mil pitch processing is achievable with solder paste. It may also be the limit of solder paste printing technology, mainly due to the scooping problem associated with thin stencils. With decreasing pitch size, both smear and insufficiency rate increase. Tapering of stencil aperture helps thick stencil prints, but has an adverse effect on thin stencil printing. Apertures with orientation parallel to squeegee movement result in a higher print defect rate. Overall, the use of fine powders is the most effective means to meet most challenges. It helps in achieving high performance in printability, tack and non‐slump, with acceptable trade‐offs in rheology and tack time. Solder balling may be the primary drawback. The problem may be resolved by using inert reflow atmosphere or via flux chemistry improvements. A metal load of 90.5 to 91% seems to be the optimum for most properties.