bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Transportation Geography
Authors: Goetz Andrew R. , Ralston Bruce A.
Published: November 2020

Transportation geography is the study of the spatial aspects of transportation. It includes the location, structure, environment, and development of networks as well as the analysis and explanation of the interaction or movement of goods and people (Black 1989). In addition it encompasses the role and impacts—both spatial and aspatial—of transport in a broad sense including facilities, institutions, policies and operations in domestic and international contexts. It also provides an explicitly spatial perspective, or point of view, within the interdisciplinary study of transportation. There has been substantial progress in the development of the transportation geography subfield over the last ten years. In 1993, the Journal of Transport Geography was started in the UK, providing the subfield with its own eponymous journal. Several second editions of key textbooks were published, including The Geography of Transportation (Taaffe et al. 1996), The Geography of Urban Transportation (Hanson 1995), and Modern Transport Geography (Hoyle and Knowles 1998). The Transportation Geography Specialty Group (TGSG) instituted the Edward L. Ullman Award for scholarly contributions to the subfield; recipients have included Edward Taaffe, Harold Mayer, Howard Gauthier, William Garrison, William Black, James Vance, Susan Hanson, Morton O’Kelly, Bruce Ralston, Donald Janelle, Thomas Leinbach, Brian Slack, and Kingsley Haynes. The specialty group also began honoring students who have written the best doctoral dissertations and masters theses each year, and a TGSG web page was created. The University of Washington Department of Geography instituted the Douglas K. Fleming lecture series in transportation geography at AAG annual meetings. Finally, transport geographers have played prominent roles in a Geography and Regional Science Program organized joint National Science Foundation/European Science Foundation initiative on Social Change and Sustainable Transport (SCAST) (Leinbach and Smith 1997; Button and Nijkamp 1997). This initiative led to the development of the North American-based Sustainable Transportation Analysis and Research (STAR) network led by geographer William Black as a counterpart to the European-based Sustainable Transport in Europe and Links and Liaisons with America (STELLA) network. Together, these initiatives and research networks offer significant opportunities for geographers to contribute to a growing body of literature on the environmental, economic, and equity implications of transportation systems.
Burial by sand
Authors: Maun M. Anwar
Published: November 2020

In coastal dune systems, plant communities are fundamentally the product of interaction between disturbance of the substrate, impact of high wind velocities, salt spray episodes, sand accretion levels and other factors of the environmental complex. Burial by sand is probably the most important physical stress that alters species diversity by eliminating disturbance-prone species (Maun 1998). There is a close correlation between sand movement and species composition, coverage and density (Moreno-Casasola 1986; Perumal 1994; Martínez et al. 2001). Sand accretion kills intolerant species, reduces the relative abundance of less tolerant species and increases the abundance of tolerant species. It filters out species as the level of burial starts to exceed their levels of tolerance. For example, lichens and mosses are the first to be eliminated, then the annuals and biennials and finally the herbaceous and woody perennials. Again within each life form and genus there are significant differences in survivability. Burial imposes a strong stress on production by altering normal growth conditions and exposing plants to extreme physiological limits of tolerance. Do plant communities occurring in different locations within a dune system correspond to the amount of sand deposition? Several studies (Birse et al. 1957; Moreno- Casasola 1986; Perumal 1994) show that the species composition and their distribution are strongly related to the long-term average sand deposition. The evolution of a plant community in coastal foredunes requires frequent and persistent predictable burial events specific to a particular coast. In a large majority of sea coasts burial occurrences are of relatively low magnitude and species occupying the coasts are well adapted to withstand the stress imposed by burial. This recurring event within the generation times of plant species allows them to acquire genes of resistance over time and evolution of adaptations to live in this habitat. A prerequisite to survive in this habitat happens to be the ability to withstand partial inundation by sand. To survive the dynamic substrate movement a plant species must be a perennial, be able to withstand burial, endure xerophytic environment, spread radially and vertically, and adapt to exposure on deflation and coverage on burial (Cowles 1899).
Pickard's Guide to Minimally Invasive Operative Dentistry
Authors: Banerjee Avijit , Watson Timothy F.
Published: November 2020

An ideal introduction to the theory and practical aspects of conservative dentistry, the tenth edition of Pickards' Guide to Minimally Invasive Operative Dentistry is a must-have text for all dental students, new graduates and oral healthcare professionals alike. Written in an easy to understand and concise style, the authors introduce the essentials of dental disease before outlining how to collect patient information clinically in order to detect, diagnose, plan and deliver care. Exploring key topics such as disease prevention and control, the principles of minimally invasive operative dentistry, contemporary restorative materials and procedures, this completely up-to-date revised edition integrates a thorough academic grounding for degree examination with an essential preparation for clinical practice for the whole oral healthcare team. Illustrated with step-by-step colour photos, common clinical procedures are clearly set out and labelled for beginners to learn. The tenth edition has been updated to reflect the latest evidence based guidelines for preventitative management and there is a focus on maintaining existing restorations and follow up/long term care.
Relic Hunters
Authors: Snead James E.
Published: November 2020

Relic Hunters is a study of the complex relationship between the people of 19th century America with the material antiquities of North America's indigenous past. As scholars struggled to explain their existence, farmers in Ohio were plowing up arrowheads, building their houses atop burial mounds, and developing their own ideas about antiquity. They experienced the new country as a "place with history" reflected in material traces that became important touch points for scientific knowledge, but for American cultural identity as well. Relic Hunters traces the encounter with American antiquities from 1812 to 1879. This encompasses the period when archaeology took root in the United States: it also spans the "deep settlement" of the Midwest and sectional strife both before and after the Civil War. At the center of the story is the first iconic find of American archaeology, known as "the Kentucky Mummy." Discovered deep in a cavern, this dessicated burial became the subject of scholarly competition, traveling exhibitions, and even poetry. The book uses the theme of the Kentucky Mummy to structure the broader story of the public and American antiquities, a tour that leads through rural museums, mound excavations, lecture tours, shady deals, and ultimately into the famous attic of the Smithsonian Institution. Ultimately, Relic Hunters is a story of the American landscape, and of the role of archaeology in shaping that place. Derived from letters, memoranda, and reports found in more than a dozen archives, this is a unique account of a critical encounter that shaped local and national identity in ways that are only now being explored.
A century of Turing
Authors: Wolfram Stephen
Published: November 2020

I never met Alan Turing; he died five years before I was born. But somehow I feel I know him well, not least because many of my own intellectual interests have had an almost eerie parallel with his. And by a strange coincidence, the ‘birthday’ of Wolfram Mathematica, 23 June 1988, is aligned with Turing’s own. I think I first heard of Alan Turing when I was about 11 years old, right around the time I saw my first computer. Through a friend of my parents, I had got to know a rather eccentric old classics professor, who, knowing my interest in science, mentioned to me this ‘bright young chap named Turing’ whom he had known during the Second World War. One of this professor’s eccentricities was that, whenever the word ‘ultra’ came up in a Latin text, he would repeat it over and over again and make comments about remembering it. At the time, I didn’t think much of it, although I did remember it. Only years later did I realize that ‘Ultra’ was the codename for the British cryptanalysis effort at Bletchley Park during the war. In a very British way, the classics professor wanted to tell me something about it, without breaking any secrets—and presumably it was at Bletchley Park that he had met Alan Turing. A few years later I heard scattered mentions of Alan Turing in various British academic circles. I heard that he had done mysterious but important work in breaking German codes during the war, and I heard it claimed that after the war he had been killed by British Intelligence. At that time some of the British wartime cryptography effort was still secret, including Turing’s role in it. I wondered why. So I asked around, and started hearing that perhaps Turing had invented codes that were still being used. In reality, though, the continued secrecy seems to have been intended to prevent its being known that certain codes had been broken, so that other countries would continue to use them. I am not sure where I next encountered Alan Turing. Probably it was when I decided to learn all I could about computer science, and saw all sorts of mentions of ‘Turing machines’. But I have a distinct memory from around 1979 of going to the library and finding a little book about Alan Turing written by his mother, Sara Turing.
Turing’s model of the mind
Authors: Sprevak Mark
Published: November 2020

This chapter examines Alan Turing’s contribution to the field that offers our best understanding of the mind: cognitive science. The idea that the human mind is (in some sense) a computer is central to cognitive science. Turing played a key role in developing this idea. The precise course of Turing’s influence on cognitive science is complex and shows how seemingly abstract work in mathematical logic can spark a revolution in psychology. Alan Turing contributed to a revolutionary idea: that mental activity is computation. Turing’s work helped lay the foundation for what is now known as cognitive science. Today, computation is an essential element for explaining how the mind works. In this chapter, I return to Turing’s early attempts to understanding the mind using computation and examine the role that Turing played in the early days of cognitive science. Turing is famous as a founding figure in artificial intelligence (AI) but his contribution to cognitive science is less well known. The aim of AI is to create an intelligent machine. Turing was one of the first people to carry out research in AI, working on machine intelligence as early as 1941 and, as Chapters 29 and 30 explain, he was responsible for, or anticipated, many of the ideas that were later to shape AI. Unlike AI, cognitive science does not aim to create an intelligent machine. It aims instead to understand the mechanisms that are peculiar to human intelligence. On the face of it, human intelligence is miraculous. How do we reason, understand language, remember past events, come up with a joke? It is hard to know how even to begin to explain these phenomena. Yet, like a magic trick that looks like a miracle to the audience, but which is explained by revealing the pulleys and levers behind the stage, so human intelligence could be explained if we knew the mechanisms that lie behind its production. A first step in this direction is to examine a piece of machinery that is usually hidden from view: the human brain. A challenge is the astonishing complexity of the human brain: it is one of the most complex objects in the universe, containing 100 billion neurons and a web of around 100 trillion connections.
Networks or Work-nets? Actor-Network Theory and Multiple Social Topologies in the Production of Roman Terra Sigillata
Authors: Van Oyen Astrid
Published: November 2020

This paper has a threefold aim: to clarify some misunderstandings concerning so-called ‘actor–network theory’ (ANT), to show how ANT can be put to use in archaeology, and to articulate differences from, overlaps, and possible combinations with ‘conventional’ network analysis. The key argument is that whereas networks imply direct and untransformed flows between bounded entities, ANT renders visible the heterogeneous ‘work-nets’ needed to support and stabilize these networks and the entities they connect. Moreover, networks are only one constellation or social topology that can emerge from such worknets, and we thus need to be cautious not to project properties of networks onto other constellations. Finally, ANT introduces a much-needed dynamic approach in which stability and uniformity of categories and flows is the outcome of contingent processes of maintenance work, and not the starting point. This has important consequences for how we conceive of material culture, and hence of our data, in archaeology: archaeological network analysis tends to assume stable, invariable, and comparable things, traits, or properties. One extreme example of this tendency is so-called terra sigillata, a type of Roman pottery that is so easily recognizable and so well-studied that its stability and invariability across contexts and practices is, to a large extent, taken for granted. The problem is that the starting position of sigillata as a category already posits a particular, non-neutral social topology, with certain possibilities for action. By analysing changes and continuities in the practices by which this type of pottery was produced in a single site in central France, however, this paper will explore some of the problems with this assumption, and suggest ways of resolving these issues. Networks. What’s in a word? Following the recent buzz around networks in everyday and academic vocabulary, the answer seems to veer from ‘everything’ to ‘nothing’ and back. Stretched from a lightweight intuition to deepseated theoretical and methodological axioms, the term risks losing all real potential. Cynics are quick to warn that any discipline, theory, or method flying the banner of networks is amalgamated into a melting pot in which implicit, incompatible, or conflicting principles are stirred.
Uncovering the Hidden Routes: Algorithms for Identifying Paths and Missing Links in Trade Networks
Authors: Tsirogiannis Constantinos , Tsirogiannis Christos
Published: November 2020

A network is a simple yet powerful tool for representing a set of relations in the real world. For instance, to represent direct business relations between several people, we can sketch a network where each person is represented by a node and any two people that have done business together are connected by a link. A naive analysis of this network gives a picture of the direct connections between individuals, that is, who has done business, in person, with whom. However, for several network applications it is important to observe more complicated structures, other than the direct connections between the nodes. An example comes from applications in trade networks, where goods are exchanged between several people. In this case, it is important to keep track of the paths that specific goods have traversed in a network; in other words, we want to know the exact sequence of nodes through which a specific item was exchanged. Unfortunately, in some studies of trade networks we may not always know the exact path that certain items followed in the network. This is frequently the case with networks that represent trade relations between sites in an earlier historical period; knowledge of the exact trade paths in such networks has not survived and only fragmentary data is available (Sindbæk 2007, 2013; see in this volume Peeples et al. 2016). The same problem also arises in modern trade networks, when the transactions involved are the result of illegal activities. Such an example is the modern trade network in illicit antiquities. During recent decades, thousands of antiquities were illegally excavated worldwide and exchanged via a global trade network. During the late 1990s and 2000s, the combined efforts of forensic archaeologists and police investigators uncovered a considerable part of the trade network that handled illicit Italian and Greek antiquities in particular (Gill and Chippindale 2006; Gill and Tsirogiannis 2011; Godart et al. 2008). However, a large part of the activities that took place within this network remain unknown and there are some transactions that police investigations were not able to trace.
Which Network Model Should I Use? Towards a Quantitative Comparison of Spatial Network Models in Archaeology
Authors: Evans Tim
Published: November 2020

Archaeology can be ‘site centric’. Much of the primary evidence comes from excavations based on a single site so naturally the primary sources for archaeological information are organized by site. This is a great help when establishing intra-site links, be they local spatial relationships which may help reveal functions of buildings on a site, or temporal ones, perhaps how different institutions waxed and waned within a society. However, this organization of the primary evidence inhibits comparisons between sites. The regional and global interactions of each site must be deduced by secondary work, comparing information from a range of primary sources with their differing protocols. Yet deducing these wider relationships from finds is one of the key goals of archaeological research as only by understanding societies at all scales can we get a proper view of how society functions. In this sense, archaeologists, and social science in general, have long appreciated that societies are complex systems, with some coherent large-scale phenomena emerging from microscopic interaction, a language that physical scientists have only articulated over the last couple of decades; for example, see Ball (2004) or Lane et al. (2009). Archaeology meets this challenge with several well-developed approaches. Some are rooted in physical science, such as through the chemical analysis of materials. Others are the product of human expertise, as when styles of product are compared across sites. There are efforts to produce secondary regional catalogues through human analysis of the primary sources, for instance see Mills et al. (2013), Sindbæk (2007), Terrell (2010) and chapter 4 of this volume (Peeples et al. 2016) for recent examples. Yet, there remain limitations. Chemical analysis may reveal the sources of materials but not the paths used for their transfer. Stylistic analysis may be subject to unquantifiable bias. A systematic database from primary sources may be too costly to construct. Even with such a database, there is then too much information and we have to pull out the key patterns, to simplify the information into the important parts in order for us to understand what the data is telling us.
The scale of the problem
Authors: McKnight Rebecca , Price Jonathan , Geddes John
Published: November 2020

One in four individuals suffer from a psychiatric disorder at some point in their life, with 15– 20 per cent fitting cri­teria for a mental disorder at any given time. The latter corresponds to around 450 million people worldwide, placing mental disorders as one of the leading causes of global morbidity. Mental health problems represent five of the ten leading causes of disability worldwide. The World Health Organization (WHO) reported in mid 2016 that ‘the global cost of mental illness is £651 billion per year’, stating that the equivalent of 50 million working years was being lost annually due to mental disorders. The financial global impact is clearly vast, but on a smaller scale, the social and psychological impacts of having a mental dis­order on yourself or your family are greater still. It is often difficult for the general public and clin­icians outside psychiatry to think of mental health dis­orders as ‘diseases’ because it is harder to pinpoint a specific pathological cause for them. When confronted with this view, it is helpful to consider that most of medicine was actually founded on this basis. For ex­ample, although medicine has been a profession for the past 2500 years, it was only in the late 1980s that Helicobacter pylori was linked to gastric/ duodenal ul­cers and gastric carcinoma, or more recently still that the BRCA genes were found to be a cause of breast cancer. Still much of clinical medicine treats a patient’s symptoms rather than objective abnormalities. The WHO has given the following definition of mental health:… Mental health is defined as a state of well- being in which every individual realizes his or her own po­tential, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully, and is able to make a contribution to her or his community.… This is a helpful definition, because it clearly defines a mental disorder as a condition that disrupts this state in any way, and sets clear goals of treatment for the clinician. It identifies the fact that a disruption of an individual’s mental health impacts negatively not only upon their enjoyment and ability to cope with life, but also upon that of the wider community.
Thinking about aetiology
Authors: McKnight Rebecca , Price Jonathan , Geddes John
Published: November 2020

Doctors need to be able to combine scientific know­ledge with empathic understanding in order to form a coherent account of their patients, their illnesses, and their difficulties. In this chapter, we will de­scribe how this can be achieved in the assessment of the aetiology (cause or causes) of a patient’s disorder. A knowledge of the causes of psychiatric disorders is important for two main reasons: … ● It helps the doctor to evaluate possible causes of an individual patient’s psychiatric disorder and life difficulties. This is the focus for this chapter. ● It adds to the general understanding of psychiatric disorders, which may contribute to advances in diagnosis, treatment, or prognosis. This is reviewed in subsequent chapters…. When assessing aetiology in a particular patient, we usually structure this by talking of predisposing, precipitating, and perpetuating (often called maintaining) factors (see Fig. 7.1 and Box 7.1). These ‘three Ps’ are often supplemented by a fourth P: protective factors. These terms are used most commonly in psychiatry and related disciplines. However, the principles are broadly applicable in medicine. We therefore recommend that you prac­tise their use in long- term physical conditions such as diabetes, asthma, and vascular disease. Predisposing factors determine vulnerability to other causes that act close to the time of the illness. Many predisposing factors act early in life. Physical factors, for example, include genetic endowment, the environ­ment in utero, and trauma at birth. Psychological and social factors in infancy and childhood are also rele­vant, such as bullying at school, abuse in its various forms, and family stability. Such factors lead to the de­velopment of a person’s ‘constitution’, which leads to wide variability, at a population level, in vulnerability to disorder: some people are highly vulnerable, some are highly resilient, and most are somewhere in be­tween. Some personality traits increase vulnerability to specific disorders— for example, obsessional traits predispose to depressive illness, perhaps because the challenges and uncertainty of everyday life inevitably lead to disappointment for those seeking order and perfection at all times. Precipitating factors are events that occur shortly before the onset of a disorder and appear to have induced it. Again, these may be physical, psy­chological, or social. Physical precipitating causes include diseases such as hypothyroidism, myo­cardial infarction, breast cancer, and stroke, and the effects of drugs taken for treatment or used il­legally.
Communicating your findings
Authors: McKnight Rebecca , Price Jonathan , Geddes John
Published: November 2020

The first part of this chapter offers guidance on how to explain to patients and their carers the results of your assessment. The second part of this chapter offers guidance on communicating with other healthcare professionals, which is a vital part of modern healthcare: no longer can one nurse or one doctor, working in geographical and professional isolation, seek to deliver effective health interventions to a population. Instead, healthcare is delivered in complex systems, integrating primary, secondary, and tertiary care; dif­ferent medical specialties; and different disciplines, such as doctors, nurses, psychologists, and occupa­tional and physiotherapists. Interviewers should be aware of the ethical and legal principles that govern the giving of information to people other than the patient. These principles are summarized in Box 10.1. Sometimes a relative or an­other person telephones the interviewer to ask for information about the patient. In general, the patient should be told of the request, and asked whether or not they are happy to give their permission. The clinician should never allow a conspiratorial at­mosphere to develop in which he or she conceals from the patient conversations with family, friends, or others. Patients and relatives need to know more than the diagnosis and the basic facts about treatment. It is useful to begin by finding out what they know already, and what help they are expecting. This information makes it easier to meet their requirements, help with their concerns, and explain the treatment plan. It is useful to keep in mind the list of frequently asked ques­tions shown in Box 10.2. The management plan should be explained using the usual principles of patient com­munication such as: … ● delivering information in an unhurried way; ● avoiding jargon; ● checking from time to time that the patient has understood; ● involving a relative/ carer whenever possible and permitted by the patient; ● encouraging questions; ● summarizing the plan in writing (e.g. in a subsequent letter). If, after a full discussion, the patient does not ac­cept some part of the plan, or the relatives do not accept the role proposed for them, a compromise should be negotiated.
A Material Culture
Authors: Wynne-Jones Stephanie
Published: November 2020

A Material Culture focuses on objects in Swahili society through the elaboration of an approach that sees both people and things as caught up in webs of mutual interaction. It therefore provides both a new theoretical intervention in some of the key themes in material culture studies, including the agency of objects and the ways they were linked to social identities, through the development of the notion of a biography of practice. These theoretical discussions are explored through the archaeology of the Swahili, on the Indian Ocean coast of eastern Africa. This coast was home to a series of "stonetowns" (containing coral architecture) from the ninth century AD onwards, of which Kilwa Kisiwani is the most famous, considered here in regional context. These stonetowns were deeply involved in maritime trade, carried out among a diverse, Islamic population. This book suggests that the Swahili are a highly-significant case study for exploration of the relationship between objects and people in the past, as the society was constituted and defined through a particular material setting. Further, it is suggested that this relationship was subtly different than in other areas, and particularly from western models that dominate prevailing analysis. The case is made for an alternative form of materiality, perhaps common to the wider Indian Ocean world, with an emphasis on redistribution and circulation rather than on the accumulation of wealth. The reader will therefore gain familiarity with a little-known and fascinating culture, as well as appreciating the ways that non-western examples can add to our theoretical models.
Personifying Prehistory
Authors: Brück Joanna
Published: November 2020

The Bronze Age is frequently framed in social evolutionary terms. Viewed as the period which saw the emergence of social differentiation, the development of long-distance trade, and the intensification of agricultural production, it is seen as the precursor and origin-point for significant aspects of the modern world. This book presents a very different image of Bronze Age Britain and Ireland. Drawing on the wealth of material from recent excavations, as well as a long history of research, it explores the impact of the post-Enlightenment 'othering' of the non-human on our understanding of Bronze Age society. There is much to suggest that the conceptual boundary between the active human subject and the passive world of objects, so familiar from our own cultural context, was not drawn in this categorical way in the Bronze Age; the self was constructed in relational rather than individualistic terms, and aspects of the non-human world such as pots, houses, and mountains were considered animate entities with their own spirit or soul. In a series of thematic chapters on the human body, artefacts, settlements, and landscapes, this book considers the character of Bronze Age personhood, the relationship between individual and society, and ideas around agency and social power. The treatment and deposition of things such as querns, axes, and human remains provides insights into the meanings and values ascribed to objects and places, and the ways in which such items acted as social agents in the Bronze Age world.
Gold and Gilt, Pots and Pins
Authors: Hinton David A.
Published: November 2020

In this highly illustrated book, David Hinton looks at what possessions meant to people at every level of society in Britain in the middle ages, from elaborate gold jewellery to clay pots, and provides a fascinating window into the society of the middle ages. Gold and Gilt, Pots and Pins is about things worn and used in Britain throughout the Middle Ages, from the great treasure hoards that mark the end of the Roman Empire to the new expressions of ideas promoted by the Renaissance and Reformation.
Neoliberalism on Trial
Authors: Harvey David
Published: November 2020

The two economic engines that have powered the world through the global recession that set in after 2001 have been the United States and China. The irony is that both have been behaving like Keynesian states in a world supposedly governed by neoliberal rules. The US has resorted to massive deficit-financing of its militarism and its consumerism, while China has debt-financed with non-performing bank loans massive infrastructural and fixedcapital investments. True blue neoliberals will doubtless claim that the recession is a sign of insufficient or imperfect neoliberalization, and they could well point to the operations of the IMF and the army of well-paid lobbyists in Washington that regularly pervert the US budgetary process for their special-interest ends as evidence for their case. But their claims are impossible to verify, and, in making them, they merely follow in the footsteps of a long line of eminent economic theorists who argue that all would be well with the world if only everyone behaved according to the precepts of their textbooks. But there is a more sinister interpretation of this paradox. If we lay aside, as I believe we must, the claim that neoliberalization is merely an example of erroneous theory gone wild (pace the economist Stiglitz) or a case of senseless pursuit of a false utopia (pace the conservative political philosopher John Gray), then we are left with a tension between sustaining capitalism, on the one hand, and the restoration/reconstitution of ruling class power on the other. If we are at a point of outright contradiction between these two objectives, then there can be no doubt as to which side the current Bush administration is leaning, given its avid pursuit of tax cuts for the corporations and the rich. Furthermore, a global financial crisis in part provoked by its own reckless economic policies would permit the US government to finally rid itself of any obligation whatsoever to provide for the welfare of its citizens except for the ratcheting up of that military and police power that might be needed to quell social unrest and compel global discipline.
It Began with Babbage
Authors: Dasgupta Subrata
Published: November 2020

As a field, computer science occupies a unique scientific space, in that its subject matter can exist in both physical and abstract realms. An artifact such as software is both tangible and not, and must be classified as something in between, or "liminal." The study and production of liminal artifacts allows for creative possibilities that are, and have been, possible only in computer science. In It Began with Babbage, computer scientist and writer Subrata Dasgupta examines the distinct history of computer science in terms of its creative innovations, reaching back to Charles Babbage in 1819. Since all artifacts of computer science are conceived with a use in mind, the computer scientist is not concerned with the natural laws that govern disciplines like physics or chemistry; instead, the field is more concerned with the concept of purpose. This requirement lends itself to a type of creative thinking that, as Dasgupta shows us, has exhibited itself throughout the history of computer science. More than any other, computer science is the science of the artificial, and has a unique history to accompany its unique focus. The book traces a path from Babbage's Difference Engine in the early 19th century to the end of the 1960s by when a new academic discipline named "computer science" had come into being. Along the way we meet characters like Babbage and Ada Lovelace, Turing and von Neumann, Shannon and Chomsky, and a host of other people from a variety of backgrounds who collectively created this new science of the artificial. And in the end, we see how and why computer science acquired a nature and history all of its own.
Eating Earth
Authors: Kemmerer Lisa
Published: November 2020

Exploring the environmental effects of animal agriculture, fishing, and hunting, Eating Earth exposes critical common ground between earth and animal advocacy. The first chapter (animal agriculture) examines greenhouse gas emissions and climate change, manure and dead zones, freshwater depletion, deforestation, predator control, land and use--including the ranching industries public lands subsidies. Chapter two first examines whether or not the consumption of fish is healthy and outlines morally relevant aspects of fish physiology, then scrutinizes the fishing industry, documenting the "silent collapse" of ocean ecosystems and calling attention to the indiscriminate nature of hooks and nets, including the problem of bycatch and what this means for endangered species and fragile seascapes. Chapter three outlines the historic link between the U. S. Government, wildlife management, and hunters, then systematically unravels common beliefs about sport hunting, such as the belief that hunters are essential to wildlife conservation, that contemporary hunting qualifies as a tradition, and that hunting is merciful, economical, or rooted in "fair chase." At the end of each chapter, Kemmerer examines possible solutions to problems presented, such as sustainable meats, organic and local, grass fed, aquaculture, new fishing technologies, and enhanced regulations. Eating Earth offers a concise examination of the environmental effects of dietary choice, clearly presenting the many reasons why dietary choice ought to be front and center for environmentalists. Kemmerer's writing, supported by nearly 80 graphs and summary slides, is clear, straightforward, and punctuated with wry humor.
Best of Five MCQs for MRCPsych Paper 2
Authors: Palaniyappan Lena , Krishnadas Rajeev
Published: November 2020

Following the launch of the new syllabus and new MRCPsych exam by the Royal College of Psychiatrists, this book contains more than 450 multiple choice questions to help psychiatry trainees to prepare for Paper 2 of the MRCPsych exam. Supporting these MCQs are detailed explanatory answers and revision notes, referenced to the key textbooks used by trainees.
Clinical Medicine for the MRCP PACES
Authors: Mehta Gautam , Iqbal Bilal , Bowman Deborah
Published: November 2020

Volume 2 of a two volume MRCP text, this book includes cases which mimic the style and approach of the MRCP PACES exam. Clinical Medicine for MRCP PACES will equip the candidate attempting the MRCP examination with the skills and knowledge necessary for success, and will also provide an overview of evidence-based medicine for competency-based training. Throughout this and Volume 1, the authors explore all aspects of the candidate's performance, from clinical examination, to presentation, communication and medical ethics and up-to-date clinical evidence. Volume 2 includes 75 cases and covers Stations 2 and 4: Station 2 covers history taking skills; Station 4 covers communication skills and ethics. This book follows a structured approach to history taking and communication issues, which not only facilitates learning and understanding, but is also required for other workplace based assessments. This book will continue with the theme of Volume 1, in providing candidates with an accurate, authoritative, evidence-based companion for both the MRCP examination, and postgraduate training in the MMC era. Visit our website for details of our range of titles for MRCP and more in the Oxford Specialty Training series at www.oup.com/uk/medicine/ost  http://www.oup.com/uk/medicine/ost Advance praise for Clinical Medicine for MRCP PACES: "The authors have produced two volumes packed with the information needed to pass PACES and to practise high quality medicine. While written specifically for those aspiring to be physicians these volumes deserve to be widely read by all with an interest in clinical medicine. Candidates in particular and patients have good reason to welcome these volumes." Sir Graeme Catto
The Consultant Interview
Authors: Watkin Sara , Vincent Andrew
Published: November 2020

Covering the whole preparation process for your consultant interview, this is the only book you will need to succeed. Becoming a consultant is the key moment of your career and getting a position can be a difficult, competitive and stressful process. This book presents a medically focused guide on how to prepare for the interview, how to behave in the interview and finally how to put yourself in the best possible position to be appointed in a consultant job. Starting from acquiring the right experiences, qualities and skills for the job you want, the book covers writing CVs and application forms and the art of selling yourself, as well as the interview and any formal presentation itself. The book is designed to help you prepare for the job over a period of time. Easy to read and full of practical information, the book includes a series of exercises to help you practice and reinforce ideas and concepts.
Preparation and handling of peptides containing methionine and cysteine
Authors: Royo Miriam , Barany George
Published: November 2020

Among the genetically encoded amino acid residues, methionine (Met) and cysteine (Cys) are special because they each contain an atom of sulphur. The present chapter describes how these residues are incorporated into peptides in the context of an Fmoc/tBu solid-phase synthesis strategy, as well as further considerations once the synthetic peptide is released from the support. Of added interest, some manipulations of Cys are advantageously performed at the level of the assembled peptide-resin, prior to cleavage. Many of the aspects discussed here also carry over to the preparation of peptides using a Boc/Bzl strategy. The major problems associated with management of Met reflect the susceptibility of the thioether to alkylation and oxidation. One of the merits of the Fmoc/tBu strategy, in contrast to Boc/Bzl, is that in the former strategy Met is usually introduced without recourse to a protecting group for the thioether side-chain. As documented in this chapter, a proper understanding of acidolytic cleavage conditions and the availability of selective procedures to reverse any inadvertent oxidation are likely to lead to success in obtaining homogeneous peptides containing Met. Management of Cys provides additional significant challenges. For some targets, Cys is required with its side-chain in the free thiol form, whereas for other targets, an even number of Cys residues pair with each other via disulphide linkage(s) to provide cystine residue(s). Disulphide bridges play an important role in the folding and structural stabilization of many natural peptides and proteins, and their artificial introduction into natural or designed peptides is a useful approach to improve biological activities/specificities and stabilities. Furthermore, use of a disulphide bridge is a preferred method to conjugate peptides to protein carriers for increasing the response in immuno-logical studies, to link two separate chains for developing discontinuous epitopes, and to generate active site models. This chapter describes Cys protecting groups, how they are removed to provide either free thiols or disulphides directly, and various strategies and practical considerations to minimize side reactions and maximize formation of the desired products. The thioether side-chain of Met is subject to alkylation and oxidation side reactions, either during the synthetic process or during subsequent handling of the Met-containing peptide.
Glycopeptide synthesis
Authors: Kihlberg Jan
Published: November 2020

Most eukaryotic proteins, some bacterial and many viral proteins carry structurally diverse carbohydrates that are covalently attached through N- or O-glycosidic bonds to the side chains of asparagine, serine, threonine, hydroxylysine, tyrosine, and hydroxyproline. In nature, N-linked glycoproteins are assembled by post-translational, enzymatic attachment of a common oligosaccharide having the composition Glc3Man9GlcNAc2 to the side chain of asparagine. This saccharide is then modified enzymatically, thereby giving structural variation to the part remote from the protein. However, N-linked glycoproteins have a common pentasaccharide core (Manα3(Manα6)Manβ4GlcNAcβ4GlcNAc) in which the chitobiose moiety (GlcNAcβ4GlcNAc) is bound to asparagine. By contrast, O-linked glycoproteins are built up by sequential attachment of monosaccharides by different enzymes to hydroxylated amino acids in the protein, and therefore no common core is formed. Thus, N-acetyl-α-D-galactosamine attached to serine and threonine is found in mucin secreted from epithelial cells. β-D-Xylosyl serine is found in many proteoglycans, whereas β-D-galactosyl hydroxylysine is common in collagen found in connective tissue. α-L-Fucosyl residues linked to serine and threonine are found in fibrinolytic and coagulation proteins. N-Acetyl-β-D-glucosamine attached to serine and threonine occurs frequently in glycoproteins located in the nucleus and cytoplasm, whereas glycoproteins produced by yeast have α-D-mannosyl residues linked to serine and threonine. Larger structures are usually formed by attachment of additional saccharides to the O-linked 2-4 when found in glycoproteins. Structures 5,10, and 11 can also carry additional monosaccharides. In recent years numerous glycoproteins have been isolated and characterized, but the roles for the protein-bound carbohydrates have only just begun to be unravelled. It is now well established that glycosylation affects both the physiochemical properties and the biological functions of a glycoprotein. For instance, glycosylation has been found to influence uptake, distribution, excretion, and proteolytic stability. It is also known to have important roles in communication between cells and in attachment of bacteria and viruses to the host. Efforts to understand the role of glycosylation of proteins, or to develop glycopeptides as tools in drug discovery and drug design, have led to substantial progress in development of methodology for the synthesis of glycopeptides during the last decades.
Methods of preparing peptide-carrier conjugates
Authors: Drijfhout Jan W , Hoogerhout Peter
Published: November 2020

For many applications, peptides should be conjugated to carriers. An important example is the conjugation of peptides to proteins, carbohydrates, or lipids for immunological studies. Further examples are the preparation of peptide affinity media and the conjugation of peptides to suitable coating compounds on surfaces for enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and plasma resonance. The most important consideration in designing conjugates is that the peptide part of the conjugate must retain its biological activity. This means that the site of activity of the peptide must not be involved in the conjugation reaction. However, the active part of the peptide is often not precisely known, which complicates the design of a proper conjugation strategy. In addition, if the peptide is a fragment of a larger biologically active protein, the small peptide will frequently not adopt the conformation (for instance, a loop structure) of the corresponding sequence in the native protein. This might also abolish desired biological properties, such as the possibility to induce functional antibodies recognizing the native protein. In that case, appropriate artificial conformational restrictions should be introduced into the peptide - if possible. From the numerous conjugation methods available, only a few are described in this chapter. One example concerns the application of the homobifunctional cross-linker glutaraldehyde. Heterobifunctional cross-linking is illustrated by coupling of thiol-containing peptides or carriers to sulphydryl-reactive carriers or peptides, respectively. A general and easy method of conjugating peptides to proteins is to make use of homobifunctional cross-linkers. An example of a homobifunctional cross-linker is glutaraldehyde. This bis-aldehyde reacts with amine groups at neutral or basic pH to yield enamines, which can be reduced optionally to amines with sodium cyanoborohydride. The peptide and the protein react selectively via their N-terminus and/or lysine side chains to give not only a very complex mixture of products—peptide-peptide, peptide-protein, and protein-protein conjugates—but also large constructs containing peptide and protein. Typically, several peptide molecules per protein molecule are coupled. In view of the complex reaction pathway, the batch-to-batch reproducibility of the conjugate is difficult to control. If the peptide contains a lysine in the active part, it is recommended to extend the peptide N- or C-terminally with some additional lysines during synthesis in order to provide more amine groups for conjugation.