bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
War Preparation, Warfare, and the Welfare State in Austria
Authors: Obinger Herbert
Published: August 2018

This chapter shows that war preparation and particularly the two world wars have left a strong and lasting imprint on the Austrian welfare state. First, war and war preparation are important factors for understanding the timing of programme adoption. Second, the economic and social repercussions of war strongly affected the public–private mix and financing mode of the welfare state. Third, welfare provision to the victims of wars had a strong impact on the social spending/GDP ratio that only gradually petered out. Fourth, social provision for the victims of war was a harbinger of modern social policies as it informed innovations in (civilian) disability policies, active labour market policy, and long-term care. Finally, war drastically altered the political context in a way that has allowed the welfare state to flourish in the post-war period (via e.g. democratization, a changed distribution of power resources, corporatism and consensus democracy, and centralization of government).
Welfare Policy and War in Japan
Authors: Kasza Gregory J.
Published: August 2018

World War II marked a massive change in Japan’s public welfare policies. The demands of total war greatly increased the state’s responsibility for the well-being of its subjects. Both the military and a new Ministry of Health and Welfare generated expansive new programmes despite the absence of pressure from political parties or labour unions. Not only soldiers and their families but also members of the civilian labour force were targeted as vital ‘human resources’ for war. Among the most noteworthy policies were public health insurance, pensions, public assistance for the poor, housing, and pronatal measures. Many policies and institutional changes enacted during the war survived to provide the foundation for Japan’s post-war welfare state.
War and the Development of the British Welfare State
Authors: Edgerton David
Published: August 2018

War has long played a central role in discussions of the rise of the British welfare state. War did not just help create the welfare state, but shaped its nature. This paper, drawing on much recent revisionist literature, retells the story of the relations of war and welfare in this key case. It makes clear that the welfare state for service personnel and veterans was, in both world wars, different from the welfare state for the mass of the population and that there is a need to systematically consider the two over time. In peace and in war, the British state was both a welfare and a warfare state, each operating to different rules. The paper also endorses the view that the reforms in welfare of the 1920s were very much more significant than those of the Edwardian years, and indeed created a working-class welfare state which was extended to the whole population after 1945.
From Military State to Welfare State
Authors: Petersen Klaus , Arne Sørensen Nils
Published: August 2018

Compared to most other countries, Denmark was only marginally affected by the two world wars. However, this does not mean that war had no impact on the historical development of the Danish welfare state. First, the formation of the nation state is directly linked to war and military defeats. As a result, Denmark gradually went from being a medium-sized European power to a small nation state with a very homogeneous population. Second, being a small state, the overall Danish security strategy was a passive one from 1870 to the end of the Cold War with a focus on domestic issues. The welfare state is part of this story. Third, as a consequence of this, the voice of the military was marginalized in politics and almost completely absent in debates on social issues. Still, war was a reality and both world wars affected the Danish social security system in various ways.
Diverging Paths
Authors: Luyten Dirk
Published: August 2018

For the Netherlands and Belgium in the twentieth century, occupation is a key concept to understand the impact of the war on welfare state development. The occupation shifted the balance of power between domestic social forces: this was more decisive for welfare state development than the action of the occupier in itself. War and occupation did not result exclusively in more cooperation between social classes: some interest groups saw the war as a window of opportunity to develop strategies resulting in more social conflict. Class cooperation was often part of a political strategy to gain control over social groups or to legitimate social reforms. The world wars changed the scale of organization of social protection, from the local to the national level: after World War II social policy became a mission for the national state. For both countries, war endings had more lasting effects for welfare state development than the occupation itself.
War and Social Policy Development in Switzerland, 1870–1990
Authors: Leimgruber Matthieu
Published: August 2018

This chapter explores the trajectory of social policy development in Switzerland and its interactions with state-building and military conflict from the Franco-Prussian war of the early 1870s to the end of the Cold War. This analysis confirms that, despite the fact that Switzerland has remained untouched by war for more than 150 years, military preparation and the world wars have had a crucial impact in the shaping of the distinctive public–private mix that distinguishes the Swiss welfare state from its immediate neighbours. Periods of war thus coincided not only with an expansion of state social insurance but also witnessed the consolidation of existing private social provision. The chapter also highlights how Switzerland’s distinctive militia-based conscription contributed to forge a male-centred social citizenship that lasted for decades after 1945.
Bullets and Benefits in the Israeli Welfare State
Authors: Shalev Michael , Gal John
Published: August 2018

The unresolved territorial conflicts and outbreaks of violence that have characterized the history of Israel make it distinctive among welfare states in affluent democracies. The war which accompanied the founding of the state in 1948 was quickly followed by the creation of a dedicated system of veterans’ benefits. Both the demand and supply of military-related benefits has been repeatedly refuelled by ongoing conflict and war preparation. These benefits have grown in both generosity and coverage, while at the same time having a crowding-out effect on parallel civilian programmes. This chapter documents the resulting dualistic character of social rights in Israel, and explains the institutional, political, and cultural dynamics that have driven the evolution of military-related benefits.
Introduction
Authors: Cox Fiona
Published: August 2018

This chapter offers an overview of Ovidian reception at the turn of the millennium, and identifies a new trend of contemporary women writers turning to Ovid. It analyses the intersections between Ovid’s playful subversiveness and the concerns of third-wave feminists, which extend much further than the second-wave recuperation of women’s lost voices, couched in terms that in fact excluded the vast majority of women. In the hands of contemporary women writers Ovid speaks of a multitude of issues, including contemporary politics, of body image, illness, global warming, and the financial crisis. After the criteria governing the selection of women writers to be discussed have been established, a short story of A. S. Byatt is analysed, illustrating the ways in which she alludes to Ovidian myth while simultaneously portraying a world of illness, grief, and ultimately liberation.
Marie Darrieussecq
Authors: Cox Fiona
Published: August 2018

This chapter is the first to examine translations of Ovid written by contemporary women writers. Marie Darrieussecq is most famous for her novels, the first of which—Truismes—is often referred to as being an Ovidian fable for our times. She was inspired to tell the story of Ovid’s exile through her translation of his exile poems, as she felt that his plight foreshadowed the catastrophes facing so many, especially in light of the financial crisis, when it was all too common to lose all that you had from one day to the next. This chapter analyses her translation, and examines its connections to the themes of her novels—highlighting her extensive references to Ovid within her novels as well as in this translation.
Michèle Roberts and Clare Pollard
Authors: Cox Fiona
Published: August 2018

This chapter examines the reception of the Heroides and the psychology of women ‘answering back’ through short stories and through translations. It analyses Michèle Roberts’s reworking of the myth of Jason and Hypsipyle, in which Hypsipyle, far from performing the role of one of Ovid’s abandoned heroines, revels in the independence and freedom of time spent alone while Jason is absent. Such subversion is also apparent in the translations/adaptations of selected Heroides by Clare Pollard, who transposes them to a modern Britain, peopled with domestic goddesses, internet trolls, and bag ladies. In the hands of both authors the female speakers of Ovid’s letters speak in contemporary and assertive tones.
Conclusion
Authors: Cox Fiona
Published: August 2018

The conclusion summarizes the significant and shaping contribution made to Ovidian reception by these third-wave women writers, and evaluates the implications for future receptions. An analysis of the extraordinary journey that Ovid has taken with contemporary women writers—that has seen him enter the virtual world of the internet, a world where gender transformation has become possible, a world that is itself in a process of constant transformation through the trafficking of refugees and the experience of contemporary exiles —has demonstrated how the ‘strange monsters’ housed within these contemporary ‘writing women’ affirm Ovid’s worlds of wonder and enchantment. In their hands Ovid’s song stretches into the future, as he continues to give voice to today’s women.
Cash and Dash
Authors: Bátiz-Lazo Bernardo
Published: August 2018

Cash and Dash looks at the origins and development of the automated teller machine (ATM) as means to provide the unifying thread to explain changes in retail banking brought about by and around the introduction of computer technology. Main themes include an explanation of why technological change is slow in retail financial markets, and how different groups of people and organizations interact to shape a particular technology. Documentary evidence helps to clarify the myth of the single inventor and details the monumental task to deliver digital banking for retail consumers. Of particular importance for banks around the world throughout this task, was the need to balance new and unintended uses of a device by consumers as opposed to solving impending technical issues and gaining consumers’ trust, acceptance, and high usage. Research illuminates the progress of an industry-specific innovation becoming a novelty and how new payment devices embed in everyday life. The story in Cash and Dash also illustrates that serious ethical and political issues can emerge while adopting, making operational, and maintaining a particular technology within and around retail financial institutions. This approach contrasts with others that perceive technological change as external, neutral, and devoid of context and social setting. The book aims to keep the focus of the narrative off obsolescence and on maintenance and reinvention, while also allowing space to provide conceptual underpinnings and celebrating industry milestones. In short, Cash and Dash recounts a story of decisions about capital investments, business strategies, and technological evolution, and how these were followed by decisions dealing with legacy systems, personnel, standards, locations, and whether machines could become a source of competitive advantage in retail banking.
The Network Becomes the Core of the ATM
Authors: Bátiz-Lazo Bernardo
Published: August 2018

Chapter 5 (‘The Network Becomes the Core of the ATM’) traces the emergence of proprietary ATM networks and the formation of shared networks in the USA, Canada, and Britain. The formation of these networks bears witness to the transformation of the ATM and other forms of applications of computer technology from a potential source of competitive advantage to a minimum requirement for competition in retail banking. Detailed examples of all three countries exemplify alternative network configurations. These, in turn, help to illustrate different competitive strategies to implement technological change as well as show that the competitive transformation of the ATM was neither inevitable nor poised to follow a single path of development. The role of standards and particularly the encoding of messages communication between the ATM and the bank’s computer centre come to the fore. These help to elucidate some of the technological challenges of the 1980s.
Work and energy
Authors: Sherwood Dennis , Dalby Paul
Published: August 2018

Definition of work, and distinction between work done ‘on’ a system and work done ‘by’ a system. Definitions of path function, and quasistatic path. Introduction to P,V diagrams, and how changes in state, and the path followed during a change in state, may be represented graphically. Definition and illustration of thermodynamic cycles. Introduction of the concept of energy.
The First Law of Thermodynamics
Authors: Sherwood Dennis , Dalby Paul
Published: August 2018

The First Law of Thermodynamics, and how the First Law relates a change in a state function, internal energy, to changes in the path functions work and heat. Thermodynamic cycles. Heat capacities at constant volume, and the definition CV = (∂U/∂T)V. Mathematics of internal energy. Examples of the application of the First Law to isothermal, isobaric, isochoric and adiabatic changes. Reversible and irreversible paths. Mixing and friction as irreversible processes. Proof that that any path involving friction (or any other dissipative process) must be irreversible, implying that all real paths are irreversible.
Clausius, Kelvin, Planck, Carathéodory and Carnot
Authors: Sherwood Dennis , Dalby Paul
Published: August 2018

A chapter that draws together, and compares and contrasts, the principal alternative formulations of the Second Law – The Clausius statement, the Kelvin-Planck statement, the Carathéodory statement, and the Carnot cycle. This includes a discussion of heat engines and heat pumps, and of the efficiency of devices that transform heat into work.
The Third Law of Thermodynamics
Authors: Sherwood Dennis , Dalby Paul
Published: August 2018

The Third Law was introduced in Chapter 9; this chapter develops the Third Law more fully, introducing absolute entropies, and examining how adiabatic demagnetisation can be used to approach the absolute zero of temperature.
Free energy
Authors: Sherwood Dennis , Dalby Paul
Published: August 2018

A critical chapter, explaining how the principles of thermodynamics can be applied to real systems. The central concept is the Gibbs free energy, which is explored in depth, with many examples. Specific topics addressed are: Spontaneous changes in closed systems. Definitions and mathematical properties of Gibbs free energy and Helmholtz free energy. Enthalpy- and entropy-driven reactions. Maximum available work. Coupled reactions, and how to make non-spontaneous changes happen, with examples such as tidying a room, life, and global warming. Standard Gibbs free energies. Mixtures, partial molar quantities and the chemical potential.
Phase equilibria
Authors: Sherwood Dennis , Dalby Paul
Published: August 2018

This chapter extends the discussion of gas phase equilibria to phase equilibria. The central concept is the vapour pressure, and the key proof is that the criterion for phase equilibrium is the equality of the molar Gibbs free energies, or chemical potentials, of each phase. This then leads to the Clapeyron and Clausius-Clapeyron equations. A notable feature of this chapter is the discussion of non-ideal gases, answering the question “Given that, by definition, an ideal gas can never liquefy, what is it about a real gas that enables the gas to change phase into a liquid?”. A unique feature of this discussion is the rigorous analysis of the Gibbs free energy of a van der Waals gas under compression, and the proof of the ‘Maxwell construction’.
Acids, bases and buffer solutions
Authors: Sherwood Dennis , Dalby Paul
Published: August 2018

Many reactions in solution involve acids and bases, and so this chapter examines these important reactions in detail. Topics covered include the ionisation of water, pH, pOH, acids and bases, conjugate acids and conjugate bases, acid and base dissociation constants, the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation, the Henderson-Hasselbalch approximation, buffer solutions and buffer capacity. A unique feature of this chapter is a ‘first principles’ analysis of how a reaction buffered at a particular pH achieves an equilibrium composition different from that of the same reaction taking place in an unbuffered solution. This introduces some concepts which are important in understanding the biochemical standard state, as required for Chapter 23.
From ideal to real
Authors: Sherwood Dennis , Dalby Paul
Published: August 2018

Up to this point, the analyses throughout the book have related to ideal states – in particular, ideal gases and ideal solutions. This chapter shows how the theory developed for ideal states can be modified for real states, and introduces the concepts of fugacity, the fugacity coefficient, activity, the activity coefficient and ionic strength.
Macromolecular conformations and interactions
Authors: Sherwood Dennis , Dalby Paul
Published: August 2018

As a polymer of many amino acids, any given protein can, in principle, adopt a huge number of configurations. In reality, however, the biologically stable protein adopts a single configuration that is stable over time. Thermodynamically, this configuration must represent a Gibbs free energy minimum. This chapter therefore explores how the thermodynamics and kinetics of protein folding and unfolding can be investigated experimentally (using, for example, chaotropes, heating or ligand interactions), and how these measurements can be used to enrich our understanding of protein configurations and stability.
Measuring Religion
Authors: Bruce Steve
Published: August 2018

Because the empirical study of contemporary religion is dominated by ethnographic case studies, this chapter argues for the importance of the statistical analysis of big data. It begins by arguing that description in words involves counting every bit as much as description in numbers. It explains different sorts of scales. It makes the case that counting the Godly is no more difficult than measuring any other sort of social characteristic and considers the relative merits of various ways of doing it. It details both the virtues and vices of quantitative analysis. Particular attention is given to the vital problem of representativeness: how far can we generalize from the particular people or groups we study.
Ethics in Social Research
Authors: Bruce Steve
Published: August 2018

It is right that social researchers consider the ethical implications of their work, but discussion of research ethics has been distorted by the primacy of the ‘informed consent’ model for policing medical interventions. It is remarkably rare for the data collection phase of social research to be in any sense harmful, and in most cases seeking consent from, say, members of a church congregation would disrupt the naturally occurring phenomena we wish to study. More relevant is the way we report our research. It is in the disparity between how people would like to see themselves described and explained and how the social researcher describes and explains them that we find the greatest potential for ill-feeling, and even here it is slight.
Does Danger Make People Religious?
Authors: Bruce Steve
Published: August 2018

This chapter takes an interesting proposition—that danger makes people particularly receptive to religion—and uses the examples of the supposed piety of miners and fishermen to explore three very different sorts of social explanation. It could indeed be the case that unpredictably dangerous work disposes people to consider their mortality or to find supernatural ways of dampening anxiety. Or it could be that the unusual social structure of fishing villages and mining communities (generally isolated and introverted) insulates religious traditions from secularizing forces. Or it could be that the piety of these communities is a social myth based on the romantic assumption that those who work close to the elements should be more open to the supernatural than is the cosseted urban office worker. As well as addressing the substantive proposition, it considers practical problems of measuring piety.
Surveillance
Authors: Wich Serge A. , Pin Koh Lian
Published: August 2018

In this chapter we review a number of cases where drones have been used for habitat and wildlife surveillance. Specifically we discuss their use in patrolling terrestrial and marine protected areas for detecting and documenting illegal activities. We highlight success stories, as well as key technical, ethical, and security issues.
Mapping
Authors: Wich Serge A. , Pin Koh Lian
Published: August 2018

In this chapter we review cases of drones being used for the mapping of natural landscapes and habitats. We also highlight several key considerations in the use of drones for mapping, including effective mission planning, data processing software, environmental factors, and legislation.
Data post processing
Authors: Wich Serge A. , Pin Koh Lian
Published: August 2018

This chapter discusses how data that have been collected with drones can be used to derive orthomosaics and digital surface models through structure-from-motion software and how these can be processed further for land-cover classification or into vegetation metrics. Some examples of the various programs are provided as well. The chapter ends with a discussion on the approaches that have been used to automate counts of animals in drone images.
Elements, biochemicals, and structures of microbes
Authors: Kirchman David L.
Published: August 2018

Microbiologists focus on the basic biochemical make-up of microbes, such as relative amounts of protein, RNA, and DNA in cells, while ecologists and biogeochemists use elemental ratios, most notably, the ratio of carbon to nitrogen (C:N), to explore biogeochemical processes and to connect up the carbon cycle with the cycle of other elements. Microbial ecologists make use of both types of data and approaches. This chapter combines both and reviews all things, from elements to macromolecular structures, that make up bacteria and other microbes. The most commonly used elemental ratio was discovered by Alfred Redfield who concluded that microbes have a huge impact on the chemistry of the oceans because of the similarity in nitrogen-to-phosphorus ratios for organisms and nitrate-to-phosphate ratios in the deep oceans. Although statistically different, the C:N ratios in soil microbes are remarkably similar to the ratios of aquatic microbes. The chapter moves on to discussing the macromolecular composition of bacteria and other microbes. This composition gives insights into the growth state of microbes in nature. Geochemists use specific compounds, “biomarkers”, to trace sources of organic material in ecosystems. The last section of the chapter is a review of extracellular polymers, pili, and flagella, which serve a variety of functions, from propelling microbes around to keeping them stuck in one place.
Community structure of microbes in natural environments
Authors: Kirchman David L.
Published: August 2018

Community structure refers to the taxonomic types of microbes and their relative abundance in an environment. This chapter focuses on bacteria with a few words about fungi; protists and viruses are discussed in Chapters 9 and 10. Traditional methods for identifying microbes rely on biochemical testing of phenotype observable in the laboratory. Even for cultivated microbes and larger organisms, the traditional, phenotype approach has been replaced by comparing sequences of specific genes, those for 16S rRNA (archaea and bacteria) or 18S rRNA (microbial eukaryotes). Cultivation-independent approaches based on 16S rRNA gene sequencing have revealed that natural microbial communities have a few abundant types and many rare ones. These organisms differ substantially from those that can be grown in the laboratory using cultivation-dependent approaches. The abundant types of microbes found in soils, freshwater lakes, and oceans all differ. Once thought to be confined to extreme habitats, Archaea are now known to occur everywhere, but are particularly abundant in the deep ocean, where they make up as much as 50% of the total microbial abundance. Dispersal of bacteria and other small microbes is thought to be easy, leading to the Bass Becking hypothesis that “everything is everywhere, but the environment selects.” Among several factors known to affect community structure, salinity and temperature are very important, as is pH especially in soils. In addition to bottom-up factors, both top-down factors, grazing and viral lysis, also shape community structure. According to the Kill the Winner hypothesis, viruses select for fast-growing types, allowing slower growing defensive specialists to survive. Cultivation-independent approaches indicate that fungi are more diverse than previously appreciated, but they are less diverse than bacteria, especially in aquatic habitats. The community structure of fungi is affected by many of the same factors shaping bacterial community structure, but the dispersal of fungi is more limited than that of bacteria. The chapter ends with a discussion about the relationship between community structure and biogeochemical processes. The value of community structure information varies with the process and the degree of metabolic redundancy among the community members for the process.
Current control strategies for infectious diseases in low-income countries
Authors: Pagè Fréric , Maison Dominique , Faulde Michael
Published: August 2018

The burden of communicable diseases is ten times higher in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) in terms of mortality rate and of years of life lost. Most of the LMCIs are in tropical or subtropical areas with vector-favorable climate conditions and poverty impeding access to improved water supply, sanitation, and efficient health care coverage. Public health strategies to control infectious diseases can be sorted by prevention level. Infectious diseases control strategies often combine actions from different prevention levels according to the stage of a disease. At the individual level, actions and interventions are succeeding in a logical cascade following the stage of the disease as community-level actions are implemented. We present strategies that have been implemented to control infectious diseases, their limits and the needs to attain successful control of infectious diseases in LMICs.
Spatial-temporal transmission dynamics and control of infectious diseases: Ebola virus disease (EVD) as a case study
Authors: Viboud Cécile , Broutin Hélène , Chowell Gerardo
Published: August 2018

Disentangling the spatial-temporal dynamics of infectious disease transmission is important to address issues of disease persistence, epidemic growth and optimal control. In this chapter, we review key concepts relating to the spatial-temporal dynamics of infectious diseases in meta-populations, whereby geographically separate subpopulations are connected by migration or mobility rates. We review the dynamics of colonization, persistence and extinction of emerging and recurrent pathogens in meta-populations; the role of demographic and environmental factors; and geographic heterogeneity in epidemic growth rate. We illustrate theoretical concepts by reviewing the spatial dynamics of childhood diseases and other acute infections in low- and middle-income countries, and provide a detailed description of the spatial-temporal dynamics of the 2014–16 Ebola epidemic in West Africa. We further discuss how increased availability of empirical data and recent methodological developments provide a deeper mechanistic understanding of transmission processes in space and time, and make recommendations for future work.
Viral evolution and impact for public health strategies in low-income countries
Authors: Webster Jessica Lynn , Vignuzzi Marco
Published: August 2018

Viruses, the simplest organisms, obligate parasites that encode structural proteins and replicative functions requiring the cellular machinery of the host to ensure their propagation. Viruses are masters of evolution. An analysis of infectious diseases emerging since the 1980s revealed that most were caused by viruses, especially those with RNA genomes. New viral emergences are generally the result of intrinsic changes in the genetics of the virus to increase transmission, virulence or host range, and environmental or ecological changes that favor contacts between viruses and humans or other hosts. We describe the molecular mechanisms of viruses that ensure their rapid adaptation and evolution. We describe instances where viral evolution appears partially responsible for recent outbreaks and discuss the challenges in identifying the cause or consequence of viral evolution in the context of resource-rich versus -limited countries.
Evolutionary control of infectious disease in low-income countries
Authors: Ewald Paul W.
Published: August 2018

An evolutionary suggests that health interventions can reduce not only the frequency of infectious disease but also the harmfulness of the causal organisms. Interventions that may accomplish this dual goal include hygienic investments such as vector proofing of housing, provisioning of safe water supplies, infrastructure that blocks transmission of durable propagules, the prevention of attendant-borne transmission in hospitals and reductions in the potential for sexual transmission. Vaccines can also reduce the frequency of infection and the harmfulness of the target organisms if they are designed to inhibit selectively the harmful variants in the target population. These approaches should help suppress the evolution of antimicrobial resistance because benign variants causing mild or asymptomatic infections will be less exposed to antimicrobial treatment, reducing the strength of selection for antimicrobial resistance. The interventions should improve health at low cost, which would be especially important for low-income populations.
Exploiting symbiotic interactions for vector/disease control
Authors: Mavingui Patrick , Valiente Mor Claire , Tortosa Pablo
Published: August 2018

Arthropods transmit a variety of diseases to humans and animals, including arboviruses, bacteria and parasites. No efficient treatments or control methods are available for many vector-borne diseases, especially for emerging diseases. Therefore, the development of alternative strategies aiming at controlling disease transmission is encouraged worldwide. Although transmission phenomenon is a result of complex interactions involving several actors evolving in a changing environment, the biotic relationship between pathogens and their vectors represents a key step in successful disease transmission. Recent studies highlighted a strong impact of microbiomes on the life-history traits of arthropod hosts. This chapter emphasizes those biotic interactions having an impact on adaptive traits influencing disease transmission. Evidence in behavioral alterations of vector populations/individuals with relevance to vector-pathogen transmission mitigation is reviewed. Opportunities to take advantage of such biotic processes in the control of vector-borne diseases in different epidemiological, entomological and environmental settings are explored.
Host-species diversity and the transmission of vector-borne disease in low-income countries
Authors: Ferguson Heather , Brock Patrick , Torr Steve
Published: August 2018

The term “dilution effect” describes scenarios where pathogen transmission is reduced as host diversity increases. Theoretical frameworks exist to predict conditions under which dilution effects may arise, with vector-borne diseases (VBDs) being particularly susceptible to host diversity. However, to date, empirical investigation of dilution effects has been restricted to a few temperate VBD systems. We review the potential contribution of dilution effects for VBDs of greatest public health importance in low-income, typically tropical, countries. Using examples, we discuss how the underlying ecology of pathogen and vector species combine to determine the response of the disease system to biodiversity. We review cases demonstrating how manipulation of host-species diversity has altered human exposure risk. We caution that attempts to control VBDs by manipulating host diversity are unlikely to succeed, and may even be detrimental, without having a detailed understanding of the local ecology of the specific VBD and environmental setting.
Interactions between ecological and socio-economic drivers of Buruli ulcer burden in Sub-Saharan Africa: opportunities for an improved control
Authors: Garchitorena Andes , Bonds Matthew H. , Guégan Jean-Francois , Roche Benjamin
Published: August 2018

This chapter provides an overview of the complex interactions between ecological and socioeconomic factors for the development and control of Buruli ulcer in Sub-Saharan Africa. We review key ecological and evolutionary processes driving the environmental persistence and proliferation of Mycobacterium ulcerans, the causative agent, within aquatic environments, as well as transmission processes from these aquatic environments to human populations. We also outline key socioeconomic factors driving the economic and health burden of Buruli ulcer in endemic regions, revealed by reciprocal feedbacks between poverty, disease transmission from exposure aquatic environments and disease progression to severe stages owing to low access to health care. The implications of such insights for disease control, both in terms of limitations of current strategies and directions for the future, are discussed.
Ecological control of schistosomiasis in Sub-Saharan Africa: restoration of predator-prey dynamics to reduce transmission
Authors: Jones Isabel , Lund Andrea , Riveau Gilles , Jouanard Nicolas , Ndione Raphael A. , Sokolow Susanne H. , De Leo Giulio A.
Published: August 2018

Human modification of the landscape can increase the transmission of schistosomiasis, a snail-borne parasitic infection prevalent in Sub-Saharan Africa. The construction of dams and irrigation schemes increases the habitat available for the freshwater snails that serve as the parasite’s intermediate host. Schistosomiasis is considered both a cause and consequence of poverty. The disease is treatable, but its persistence in the environment makes it difficult to prevent reinfection after treatment. Interventions that address the environmental source of infection are a necessary complement to mass treatment campaigns. We present a promising ecological solution for schistosomiasis control that harnesses predator-prey dynamics to suppress snail populations and parasite transmission. We present data on the ecological and epidemiological impacts of restoring Macrobrachium vollenhovenii, a freshwater prawn native to the Senegal River. Harnessing ecology to control disease transmission may be a viable strategy in other geographic regions and other disease systems.
Ecology of poverty, disease and health care delivery: lessons for planetary health
Authors: Bonds Matthew H. , Garchitorena Andres , Farmer Paul E. , Murray Megan B.
Published: August 2018

Over the past two decades, the global health agenda has increasingly embraced the concept of sustainable development in pursuit of solutions at the “systems” level. A central challenge is that the relevant social, economic and biophysical systems that influence human health and well-being operate at difference spatial and temporal scales and scopes of problem solving. Here, we explore three interconnected self-reinforcing systems of central importance to planetary health: the ecology of poverty, the ecology of disease, and systems of health care delivery. We frame these issues to inform how practical interventions can be implemented and studied to create practical systems-level change at the ground level and establish methods for evaluating that change and produce transferable knowledge for scaling or replication.
Afterword I The status of public health in low-income countries
Authors: Roche Benjamin , Broutin Hélène , Simard Frederic
Published: August 2018

In this first part of the book, we have highlighted that infectious diseases still impose a very high burden on populations living in low-income countries, with millions of deaths every year attributable to pathogens that have (almost) disappeared in high-income countries (such as malaria or tuberculosis). Numerous public health programs at a global scale are trying to diminish this burden through multiple interventions, involving vaccines, antibiotics, drugs and vector control, among others. Many of these global programs have been extremely successful, but their impacts have been much more striking in high-income countries than in low-income countries, where, despite noticeable successes, achievements are fragile, sustainability is uncertain and there are still many possible improvements....
Finding useful theories when and where you need them
Authors: Stern Marc J.
Published: August 2018

This short chapter provides a simple roadmap for matching the theories within the book to real world problems. It contains a table for easy reference that enables readers to determine which theories may be most applicable to different contexts and for different purposes. For example, certain theories are particularly useful in high conflict situations. Others are especially useful within organizational or team settings. Specific purposes range from persuasive communication to designing effective governance institutions.
Theories of motivation, cognition, and reasoning
Authors: Stern Marc J.
Published: August 2018

The theories in this chapter address the following general questions in everyday circumstances and others characterized by the absence of entrenched emotional conflicts: When are people most likely to think through their actions? And what can we do about it? How do people make decisions? And how can we use this knowledge to be more persuasive? What circumstances provide the greatest motivation for people to act? And how can we cultivate these conditions? Each theory is summarized succinctly and followed by guidance on how to apply it to real world problem solving. This guidance includes when each theory might be most (or least) applicable and specific ideas for how to use it.
Organizational theories
Authors: Stern Marc J.
Published: August 2018

This chapter summarizes theories related to organizational learning, innovation, adaptation, and performance, directly addressing questions of accountability, leadership, risk, monitoring and evaluation, teamwork, appropriate levels of worker discretion, and collaboration. The theories and lessons shared apply to a wide range of organizational contexts, including both non-profit and for-profit organizations, government agencies, and other types of organizations of varying sizes and structures. They also apply for those working within, across, and outside of organizations on environmental or sustainability-related issues. Each section summarizes a key body of organizational literature and provides guidance on how to apply that knowledge to real world problem solving.
Introduction
Authors: Pacchioni Gianfranco
Published: August 2018

About 10,000 years ago, at the beginning of the agriculturalrevolution, on the whole earth lived between 5 and 8 million hunter-gatherers, all belonging to the Homo sapiens species. Five thousand years later, freed from the primary needs for survival, some belonging to that species enjoyed the privilege of devoting themselves to philosophical speculation and the search for transcendental truths. It was only in the past two hundred years, however, with the advent of the Industrial Revolution, that reaping nature’s secrets and answering fundamental questions posed by the Universe have become for many full-time activities, on the way to becoming a real profession. Today the number of scientists across the globe has reached and exceeded 10 million, that is, more than the whole human race 10,000 years ago. If growth continues at the current rate, in 2050 we will have 35 million people committed full-time to scientific research. With what consequences, it remains to be understood. For almost forty years I myself have been concerned with science in a continuing, direct, and passionate way. Today I perceive, along with many colleagues, especially of my generation, that things are evolving and have changed deeply, in ways unimaginable until a few years ago and, in some respects, not without danger. What has happened in the world of science in recent decades is more than likely a mirror of a similar and equally radical transformation taking place in modern society, particularly with the advent ...
Judges and defendants
Authors: Pacchioni Gianfranco
Published: August 2018

This chapter explores how validation of new results works in science. It also looks at the peer-review process, both pros and cons, as well as scientific communication, scientific journals, and scientific publishers. We give an assessment of the total number of existing journals with peer review. Other topics discussed include the phenomenon of open access, predatory journals and their impact on contemporary science, and the market of scientific publications. Finally, we touch on degenerative phenomena, such as the market of co-authors, bogus papers, and irrelevant and wrong studies, as well as the problem and the social cost of irreproducible results.
Units of measurement
Authors: Pacchioni Gianfranco
Published: August 2018

This chapter discusses how performance is measured in science, such as through the role of citation metrics. Next, the chapter discusses the pros and cons of bibliometric indexes, and of ‘impact factor’, which was introduced by Eugene Garfield in 1955 but not widely used until twenty years later. The various ways that journals attempt to improve their impact factors, and how this will affect science, are also examined. Besides impact factor, the role played by indicators in evaluating scientists, such as the recently introduced h-index, is explored. Finally, fashions and trends in science are touched upon, illustrated with personal anecdotes from the author.
Joseph Scaliger
Authors: van Miert Dirk
Published: August 2018

Chapter 1 shows that in Leiden around 1600 the type of philology that undermined the stability of the biblical text was kept indoors or was restricted to private correspondence. The independently minded Joseph Scaliger focused on chronology and history, and the history of the Bible was part of his studies, although it did not stand at the centre of his attention. Scaliger was reluctant to publish his philological annotations on the Bible. He adopted different levels of openness, depending on the medium. Scaliger observed that the text of the Bible was often not stable and irretrievably lost. He inculcated his textual-critical, linguistic and historical methods in his students Daniel Heinsius and Hugo Grotius. He exerted a profound influence on antiquarians such as Selden and Saumaise, not through a published work or an organized selection of biblical annotations, but through a number of methods and themes, which the next generation developed.
Grotius’s Annotationes on the Bible (1619–1645)
Authors: van Miert Dirk
Published: August 2018

Chapter 5 shows that Scaliger’s heritage could be used to different ends. Grotius used the tool of biblical philology to back up his somewhat naïve ideal of religious ecumenism between Protestantisms and Catholicism. As a reincarnation of Erasmus, he miserably failed to convince either party, but left an impressive set of annotations on the Old Testament and particularly on the New Testament, which trumped Heinsius’s annotations both in clarity and in sharpness. More than Heinsius, Grotius employed linguistic and political contextualization from pagan history, in the train of Scaliger, and also inspired by John Selden. There was competition between the one-time youthful friends Heinsius and Grotius. Contrary to Heinsius’s more neutral approach, Grotius’s philological study of the Bible ran parallel to a sustained polemic over religious politics.
On the Eve of Spinoza
Authors: van Miert Dirk
Published: August 2018

Chapter 8 demonstrates how biblical scholarship became part of normal public discourse in the course of the 1650s and 1660s. Discussions on the Sabbath, on usury, on long hair, on vernacular translations, on chronology, on the Septuagint all conspired to normalize textual criticism, linguistic analysis, and historical contextualization as ways of approaching the Bible, in juxtaposition with theological and dogmatic readings. Meanwhile, such theological discussions raged particularly in the 1660s, with pamphlet wars over newly voiced radical ideas. Together, all such disputes made very fertile ground for Spinoza’s radical biblical scholarship, which took its lead from precisely the philology developed and was made popular by Scaliger, the translators of the States’ Translation, Gomarus, Heinsius, Grotius, Saumaise, La Peyrère, Isaac Vossius, and a host of other participants in what had become a highly charged public debate over the status of the biblical text.
Conclusion
Authors: van Miert Dirk
Published: August 2018

In the conclusion, the intrinsic deconstructive power of philology is contrasted with external pressures moving philology in different political and religious directions. The positions of the main protagonists differed widely, but they show that the less they were institutionalized, the more freedom they had to present unorthodox theories. As in the case of natural science, biblical philology was a handmaiden of theology, but it could also be used against certain theologies. In the end, the accumulation of evidence regarding the history of the Bible and the transmission of its texts, could not fail to impinge on the authority of Scripture. The problems in the transmission of the biblical text were widely discussed in the decade leading up to the publication of the Theological-political Treatise. Readers of Spinoza were already familiar with the type of reasoning which Spinoza employed in the central chapters of his notorious work.
The Bible in the Political Fabric of the Dutch Republic, 1660–1710
Authors: Touber Jetze
Published: August 2018

Chapter 4 investigates the repercussions of biblical philology, including Spinoza’s, within ecclesiastical administration locally and regionally. The Public Church warded off the effects of biblical criticism by keeping God’s Word in the safe enclosure of the States’ Translation and credal documents. Nevertheless, within the clergy itself, individuals broke ranks and threatened to undo the hermeneutical concord. A sequence of protracted conflicts at various levels of ecclesiastical administration indicates the tensions that continuously undermined the aspirations to harmony. Biblical philology was only indirectly at play in Utrecht in the 1650s and 1660s, but it was central in the anti-Coccejan campaign in Friesland in the 1680s. The Frisian campaign in turn provoked a response from the minister Frederik van Leenhof, who became progressively more Spinozist. Van Leenhof’s example shows how humanist biblical philology and Spinozist hermeneutics could come together in the heart of the Reformed Church, leading to unexpected outcomes.