bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Conclusion
Authors: Kerr Rachel
Published: August 2004

This chapter presents a synthesis of the discussions in this volume. The establishment of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia was part of a wider trend towards accountability and enforcement of international humanitarian law. The external political function did not undermine the Tribunal’s status as an impartial judicial body. Instead, it enhanced its effectiveness.
You, The People: The United Nations, Transitional Administration, and State-Building
Authors: Chesterman Simon
Published: August 2004

Transitional administrations represent the most complex operations attempted by the United Nations. The missions in Kosovo (1999—) and East Timor (1999–2002) are commonly seen as unique in the history of the United Nations. But they may also be seen as the latest in a series of operations that have involved the United Nations in ‘state‐building’ activities, in which it has attempted to develop the institutions of government by assuming some or all of those sovereign powers on a temporary basis. Viewed in light of earlier UN operations, such as those in Namibia (1989–1990), Cambodia (1992–1993), and Eastern Slavonia (1996–1998), the idea that these exceptional circumstances may not recur is somewhat disingenuous. The need for policy research in this area was brought into sharp focus by the weighty but vague responsibilities assigned to the United Nations in Afghanistan (2002—) and its contested role in Iraq (2003—).

This book seeks to fill that gap. Aimed at policy‐makers, diplomats, and a wide academic audience (including international relations, political science, international law, war studies, and development studies), the book provides a concise history of transitional administration and a treatment of the five key issues confronting such operations: peace and security, the role of the United Nations as government, establishing the rule of law, economic reconstruction, and exit strategies. Research for the book has been conducted through extensive field research and interviews with key UN staff and local representatives in almost all of the territories under consideration. The unifying theme is that, while the ends of transitional administration may be idealistic, the means cannot be.
Consultation and Accountability: Building Democracy Through Benevolent Autocracy
Authors: Chesterman Simon
Published: August 2004

Once control has been established, how should the territory be governed? What treaties and conventions bind the temporary administration? The UN Transitional Administration in East Timor (untaet) was granted a period of benevolent autocracy to prepare East Timor for local democratic rule. In Kosovo, ongoing security concerns and the absence of a clear future made the UN‐administered province an oddity: the depository of human rights treaties itself detained persons without trial for over a year at a time and acted with impunity. Different attempts have been made to restrain the power of the United Nations, including ombudspersons in East Timor and Kosovo (with varying degrees of success) and a Timorese Office of the Inspector General to oversee the trust fund set up with the World Bank. In addition to concerns about abuse of power, questions also arise about the impact of such rule on the development of mature political actors within the population under international administration.
Sentence-Meanings as Proto-Acts
Authors: Barker Stephen J
Published: August 2004

I defend the idea of sentence-meanings as proto-illocutionary-act types; entities that are structurally distinct from propositions. I develop a theory of logically simple sentences, according to which their meanings are reportive proto-assertion types. I diffuse the slingshot argument, and offer a novel theory of adverbial modification.
Unifying Noun Phrases
Authors: Barker Stephen J
Published: August 2004

I outline a unified treatment of descriptive noun phrases: definite, indefinite, universal noun phrases, quantitative phrases like most Fs, phrases featuring any, and noun phrases in the scope of adverbs of generality, like usually or invariably. The analysis does not utilise quantification theory, but is a speech-act analysis in which surface grammar is reflected in logical form.
Plurals and Pronouns
Authors: Barker Stephen J
Published: August 2004

I set out a treatment of plural noun phrases, and a theory of anaphoric and relative pronouns. Anaphoric pronouns are treated perfectly uniformly with no semantic distinction between bound and unbound anaphora.
Intentional States and Natural Representation
Authors: Barker Stephen J
Published: August 2004

Here I deal with the foundations of an intention-based semantics–the representational properties of intentional states–by describing a hypothetical pre-linguistic, natural representation system, or NR system, insofar as it underpins the denotative and representational intentions of simple sentences. I provide a description of how the NR system structures the intentions underpinning proto-acts.
Scope and Complex Noun Phrases
Authors: Barker Stephen J
Published: August 2004

I analyse scope relations between indefinite descriptions, universal noun phrases, and negation. A unified compositional account of any is offered. Relative clause modification, as in Every dog that likes barking, and complexes phrases, such as the friend of every girl, are analysed with ease.
Troubles for the Quantifier–Variable-Binding Model
Authors: Barker Stephen J
Published: August 2004

I develop a general argument that the quantifier-variable-binding approaches available within the Frege model are unable to analyse a whole class of donkey pronouns. I call this the double-bind problem. I demonstrate this by looking at two major approaches to anaphora–E- and D-type pronoun theory and Discourse Representation theory–but the conclusions apply to other approaches.
Domesticating Donkeys: STA on Generality and Anaphora
Authors: Barker Stephen J
Published: August 2004

I provide STA’s general and unified analysis of donkey pronouns, along with a unified treatment of if-sentences that spans the singular/general divide. I develop STA’s solution to the double-bind problem raised in 10.
Hedonism and the Shape of a Life
Authors: Feldman Fred
Published: August 2004

Many philosophers have claimed that the value of a life for the person who lives it is not simply a matter of total amounts of good and evil in that life; the pattern in which those goods are distributed within the life also matters. This objection, if it were sound, would refute any axiological theory that contained a purely additive principle for the evaluation of lives. The forms of hedonism discussed in the book are all understood to contain such additive principles. Attempts to explain why the forms of attitudinal hedonism defended here are not refuted by the ‘shape of a life’ objection.
INTRODUCTION
Authors: Brink David O.
Published: August 2004

This introductory chapter presents a brief background on T. H. Green, one of the most important and influential 19th-century British idealists at Oxford, and his major philosophical work, The Prolegomena to Ethics, published posthumously in 1883. The Prolegomena has been out of print for over thirty years and has become a neglected classic in the history of ethics. This neglect means that Green's ethical theory is not widely understood or appreciated. The book seeks to help renew interest in and appreciation of Green's ethical theory.
GREEN'S LIFE AND WORK
Authors: Brink David O.
Published: August 2004

This introductory chapter presents a brief background on T. H. Green, one of the most important and influential 19th-century British idealists at Oxford,and his major philosophical work, The Prolegomena to Ethics, published posthumously in 1883. The Prolegomena has been out of print for over thirty years and has become a neglected classic in the history of ethics. This neglect means that Green's ethical theory is not widely understood or appreciated. The book seeks to help renew interest in and appreciation of Green's ethical theory.
GREEN'S METAPHYSICS AND EPISTEMOLOGY
Authors: Brink David O.
Published: August 2004

This chapter begins with a brief discussion of Green's attack of empiricism and defence of idealism in Prolegomena. It then identifies Green's four main aims in the first book of Prolegomena. Firstly he wants to reject the common-sense view, inherited from the empiricists, that knowledge can be analysed into two separable components — the deliverances of the senses and the operations of the understanding — in which what is given by nature is real and the contributions of the understanding are not. Secondly, the attack on empiricism and atomism is supposed to support the idealist claim that in some sense nature is the product of the understanding. Thirdly, in order for the idealist to distinguish between appearance and reality, it is necessary to posit an ‘eternal’ and ‘unalterable’ system of relations in a self-conscious corporate agent that includes the finite systems of relations contained in the self-conscious minds of individual agents. Finally, much of the first book of the Prolegomena is concerned with the role of self-consciousness in the possibility of apparently discrete episodes of experience, but Green is also concerned with the role of self-consciousness in knowledge.
THE ATTACK ON EMPIRICISM AND ATOMISM
Authors: Brink David O.
Published: August 2004

This chapter focuses on Green's attack on the empiricist programme that sees all knowledge as resting on the deliverances of the senses. In this view, knowledge is built up from a foundation of simple discrete sensory experiences. He believes that this empiricist programme suffers rot at the foundations, because simple sensory experience that is not relational and in which the mind plays a purely passive role is impossible. For Green, it is hard to see how there could be any mere or pure sensation that was not at least implicitly relational and, hence, the product of the understanding.
IDEALISM
Authors: Brink David O.
Published: August 2004

This chapter focuses on Green's views on idealism. Among these is his belief that that there are obstacles to the idealist conclusion that account for the plausibility of empiricist and Kantian dualisms between the world of appearances and things as they are independently of appearance. He believes that Kantian dualism is unnecessary. Green's views about moral responsibility also presuppose that the self is not outside space and time but rather plays a crucial role as the cause of responsible action.
ABSOLUTE IDEALISM
Authors: Brink David O.
Published: August 2004

This chapter focuses on Green's views on absolute idealism. Green's believes that knowledge and, hence, inquiry presuppose absolute idealism: ‘That there is an unalterable order of relations, if we could only find it out, is the presupposition of all our enquiry into the real nature of appearances; and such unalterableness implies their inclusion in one system which leaves nothing outside itself’. Green recognizes that this may not seem to answer the sceptic who doubts that there is such a system of relations. But he insists that in doubting that there may be an order of relations underlying our individual appearances, the sceptic necessarily presupposes the existence of such an order. This argument aims to show that attempts to articulate scepticism are self-refuting.
SELF‐CONSCIOUSNESS AND EPISTEMIC RESPONSIBILITY
Authors: Brink David O.
Published: August 2004

This chapter focuses on Green's arguments linking knowledge and self-consciousness via epistemic responsibility. Green argues that knowledge requires self-consciousness, inasmuch as epistemic responsibility seems to presuppose self-consciousness. For epistemic responsibility requires a cognizer to be able to distinguish and distance an appearance from herself, to frame the question of whether she should assent to the appearance, and to assess the reasons for assent by relating this appearance to other elements of her consciousness. Any extended piece of reasoning requires consciousness of different appearances as parts of a single system. For instance, I recognize and trust the results of previous deliberations as premises in my present deliberations. All this requires a self that is conscious of and synthesizes a set of appearances. On this view, knowledge presupposes epistemic responsibility, which presupposes self-consciousness.
SELF‐CONSCIOUSNESS AND PRACTICAL RESPONSIBILITY
Authors: Brink David O.
Published: August 2004

This chapter focuses on Green's arguments about the role of self-consciousness in practical responsibility or moral personality. Green denies that moral responsibility is threatened by determinism and requires indeterminism. He believes that indeterminism is a greater threat to responsibility, inasmuch as it is unclear why we should hold a person accountable for actions that are not due to his character. Green shows the influence of a long tradition of thinking about agency that extends back to the Greeks and is given forceful articulation by moderns, such as Butler, Reid, and Kant.
PURSUIT OF A PERSONAL GOOD
Authors: Brink David O.
Published: August 2004

This chapter focuses on Green's views about personal good. He believes that the responsible agent acts not simply on appetites or passions, but as the result of ought judgements or in light of a conception of goods. He also says that the deliberating agent takes the object of reflectively endorsed desire as his own good, indeed, his own greatest good, and that he aims at ‘self-satisfaction’. Green thinks that the agent's own good includes the good of others and that this undermines the popular contrast between self-love and altruism. It is argued that if these claims can be defended, then the egoist interpretation of the aim of responsible action should not be rejected on the grounds that it is inconsistent with a concern for the good of others or a willingness to engage in self-sacrifice.
PSYCHOLOGICAL HEDONISM AND THE GOOD
Authors: Brink David O.
Published: August 2004

This chapter focuses on Good's views about the content of good will. Green rejects the hedonism that he finds in the utilitarian tradition and that he associates with a naturalistic approach to ethics. He focuses his criticism of hedonism on Mill's claims in Utilitarianism. One of Green's main complaints is that the plausibility of evaluative hedonism rests on a commitment (perhaps implicit) to psychological hedonism, which rests on the fallacy, which Butler exposed, of inferring that pleasure is the object of desire from the fact that it is expected that pleasure will attend the satisfaction of desire. Green' s Butlerian doubts about psychological hedonism are examined.
MILL AND EVALUATIVE HEDONISM
Authors: Brink David O.
Published: August 2004

This chapter examines Green's discussion of evaluative hedonism, which focuses on Mill's (alleged) defence of that doctrine. Green not only criticizes the evaluative hedonism he finds in Mill, but also rejects evaluative hedonism outright. He argues that evaluative hedonism is actually inconsistent with psychological hedonism. Evaluative hedonism says that our ultimate aim ought to be to maximize net pleasure or to seek the largest sum of pleasures, whereas psychological hedonism claims that pleasurable experience is the ultimate object of desire. But a sum of pleasures is not itself a pleasure, thus, according to psychological hedonism, we could not act on the requirements of evaluative hedonism.
SELF‐REALIZATION AND THE COMMON GOOD
Authors: Brink David O.
Published: August 2004

This chapter examines Green's views about the link between self-realization and a common good. He believes that full self-realization can take place only in a community of ends in which each person cares about others for their own sakes. Green suggests that this concern for others, at least for those within one's immediate circle, is given or natural.
THE SCOPE OF THE COMMON GOOD
Authors: Brink David O.
Published: August 2004

This chapter focuses on Green's rejection of Aristotle's account of the scope of the common good. Whereas Aristotle recognizes significant restrictions on the scope of the common good, Green thinks its scope should be universal; full self-realization and the securing of a really permanent good occurs only when each person respects the claims made by other members of a maximally inclusive community of ends.
IMPARTIALITY AND THE COMMON GOOD
Authors: Brink David O.
Published: August 2004

This chapter examines whether Green's conception of the common good is impartial in the sense that it demands an equal weighting of everyone's good. Green's views on the philosophical and political influence of utilitarian and Kantian conceptions of impartiality are considered. It is argued that partiality of variable weight is consistent with impartiality of universal scope. Moreover, it fits the common view that even if morality has universal scope, the demands that it imposes are a function not simply of the amount of benefit that one can confer but also of the nature of the relationship in which one stands to potential beneficiaries. If we fill in the details of Green's claims about the role of the common good in self-realization with the help of Aristotle's eudaimonist justification of virtues that aim at the common good, then it is hard to see how Green can avoid endorsing this sort of partiality.
LIBERALISM AND EXTREME HARMONY
Authors: Brink David O.
Published: August 2004

This chapter focuses on Green's liberal political commitments. It is argued that Green's brand of liberalism mixes egalitarian social and economic reforms with a commitment to democratic institutions and a system of personal and civic liberties and opportunities. Egalitarian reforms establishing a decent minimum standard of living and a system of state-sponsored education provide each citizen with resources with which to pursue his own self-realization; democratic procedures allow for individual participation in collective decision-making; and individual liberties create space for individual self-determination. This kind of liberal regime would effect a division of moral and political labour that might accommodate the potentially conflicting demands of partiality and impartiality.
SELF‐REALIZATION VS. UTILITARIANISM
Authors: Brink David O.
Published: August 2004

This chapter focuses on Green's views on utilitarianism and his own ethics of self-realization. It argues that both Green's ethics of self-realization and self-referential altruism are agent-relative in so far as they claim that an agent's reasons to be concerned about someone depend essentially on the nature of the relationship that exists between the agent and that person. If so, then even if much of Green's perfectionist critique of hedonistic utilitarianism is compatible with a perfectionist utilitarianism, there are important strands in his conception and justification of the common good that do not admit of utilitarian interpretation.
FROM PERFECTIONISM TO LIBERALISM
Authors: Brink David O.
Published: August 2004

This chapter examines Green's perfectionist liberalism. It argues that Green's perfectionist liberalism is part of a classical liberal tradition which grounds liberal essentials in a conception of the good that prizes the exercise of a person's rational capacities. In Green's version, the good consists of self-realization and the exercise of the very deliberative capacities that make one a moral agent. Like Mill, Green concludes that the state cannot foster this kind of good by regular use of paternalistic or moralistic intervention.
INFLUENCES ON GREEN
Authors: Brink David O.
Published: August 2004

This chapter examines the various influences on Green's ethical theory. Green roots his ethical theory firmly in ancient and modern philosophical traditions. His method is dialectical and syncretic, examining different ethical traditions and forging his own view out of what he regards as the insights and resources in these traditions. Among strongest formative influences on Green's ethical theory are the Greeks (especially Aristotle), Kant, and Hegel.
GREEN AND KANT
Authors: Brink David O.
Published: August 2004

This chapter examines Green's views toward Kantian doctrines. Green is clearly sympathetic to central Kantian doctrines. First, his criticism of empiricist metaphysics and epistemology is deeply indebted to Kant's views of empirical knowledge in the first Critique. Like Kant, Green also thinks that moral requirements apply to all moral agents in so far as they are agents — that is, in so far as they have capacities for practical reason and independently of contingent inclinations and interests. However, Green is not uncritical of Kant. The Prolegomena promises, but never really delivers, a critical discussion of Kant's ethical theory. A compilation of Green's reservations about Kant's ethical theory from his stray remarks in the Prolegomena and his lectures on Kant's ethics, is presented.
GREEN'S IMPACT
Authors: Brink David O.
Published: August 2004

This chapter discusses the impact of Green's views on his contemporaries and subsequent generations of philosophers. Green's metaphysical and ethical views were sympathetically received and developed in Britain by Bernard Bosanquet, Edward Caird, R. B. Haldane, J. S. Mackenzie, J. H. Muirhead, R. L. Nettleship, Hastings Rashdall, D. G. Ritchie, and Arnold Toynbee. His metaphysical and ethical views also had an influence in the United States. The young John Dewey developed his form of pragmatism out of idealist metaphysical and epistemological claims, and he articulated an ethics of self-realization in conscious response to Green. Later, Brand Blanshard showed the influence of Green, among others, in reacting to the then dominant Logical Positivism by defending a form of absolute idealism and a form of ethical naturalism.
GREEN AND SIDGWICK
Authors: Brink David O.
Published: August 2004

This chapter focuses on the relation between Green and Sidgwick. Both Green and Sidgwick were schoolmates at Rugby. Their friendship lapsed during their undergraduate studies, but was renewed during a vacation together in Switzerland in 1862. Although they seemed to have had intellectual respect for each other, this was insufficient to enable them to form a just assessment of each other's views. Most of Sidgwick's criticisms focus on some genuine obscurity or ambiguity in Green' s argument; he has a good eye for philosophical extravagance; and some of his criticisms pose significant worries. It is argued that Sidgwick never manages to engage Green's perfectionism sympathetically, which prevents him from recognizing its strengths and from seeing potential weaknesses in his own hedonism.
GREEN'S LEGACY
Authors: Brink David O.
Published: August 2004

This chapter discusses Green's legacy to students of ethical theory and the history of ethics. One is the way he blends systematic and historical concerns. Though his primary concern is systematic, he draws heavily on various ancient and modern ethical traditions. Green's Prolegomena also deserves continued study for its contribution to the perfectionist tradition. It offers distinctive ideas about the justification, content, and implications of perfectionism.
Introduction: Consociational Theory and Northern Ireland
Authors: McGarry John , O'Leary Brendan
Published: August 2004

The chapter is divided into three sections. The first shows what consociationalists can learn from Northern Ireland. The second shows what critics of consociational theory can learn from Northern Ireland. The authors argue that a revised consociational theory provides the most sensible basis for understanding and prescribing for Northern Ireland and similar conflict zones. The third section suggests a number of ways in which Northern Ireland's Agreement may be best stabilised following the uncertainty of the first phase in efforts to implement it (1998-2003)
Comparing Northern Ireland
Authors: McGarry John , O'Leary Brendan
Published: August 2004

The chapter discusses the use of the comparative method by Northern Ireland's political partisans and academics. It shows how analogies with other conflicts have been used by partisans to further their political agendas. These analogies are tied to important international norms, and their use by Northern Ireland's politicians are an attempt to influence international opinion, as well as cement group solidarity. The second part of the chapter summarizes how Northern Ireland has been analysed by academics employing important comparative political theories, including consociationalism and integrationism.
Political Settlements in Northern Ireland and South Africa
Authors: McGarry John , O'Leary Brendan
Published: August 2004

The chapter offers a comparative evaluation of Northern Ireland's Agreement and the one reached in South Africa, and underlines the differences between them. It argues that the analogy between Northern Ireland and South Africa should be read in different ways than it is by nationalist and unionist integrationists, and by social transformationists. It explains that the Northern Ireland conflict has important exogenous dimensions that are missing in South Africa, This is illustrated by two central points: (i) while South Africans reached agreement because of endogenous factors, cooperation by the British and Irish governments was essential to the attainment of agreement in Northern Ireland; (ii) while South Africa's settlement required new political institutions internal to the country, a vital part of Northern Ireland's agreement involved the construction of trans-border political institutions linking Northern Ireland with the Republic of Ireland.
A History of Sociology in Britain
Authors: Halsey A. H.
Published: August 2004

Literary claims to ownership of the third culture of sociology are considered and the rise of scientific method traced. The institutional history is summarized from the establishment of a chair of sociology at the London School of Economics and Political Science in 1907. Phases of expansion (1950–67), revolt (1968–75) and uncertainty (1976–2000) are described. Analysis of the professors—their origins, careers and fame—is presented. A content analysis of three leading British journals of sociology is reported. An epilogue is finally added of eight essays by well‐known sociologists—A. H. Halsey, Z. Bauman, C. Crouch, A. Giddens, A. Oakley, J. Platt, W.G. Runciman, and J. Westergaard.
Introduction
Authors: Halsey A. H.
Published: August 2004

It is becoming standard for sociologists to preface their books with a brief autobiography. This I have done, emphasizing belief in the potency of politics as the atmosphere of LSE in the 1940s. A strong tradition of empirical sociological enquiry has existed since the ‘invisible college’ of the seventeenth century. But sociology belongs to all human civilization, not only to Britain, which was arguably slow in promoting academic sociology.

Five themes will be elaborated in the following chapters: (1) The consequences of Darwin; (2) the division of ownership of the subject between science and literature; (3) methods in the study of society focussing on the scientific and statistical history of the sample survey; (4) the use of sociology in social policy and its characteristic capture by the Fabians and (5) the institutionalization of academic sociology at LSE before 1950.
Literature or Science?
Authors: Halsey A. H.
Published: August 2004

There was always a struggle between science and literature for ownership of the intellectual territory of social criticism and social reform. Balzac's La comedie humaine was the nineteenth century French beginning of literary claim to possession. The struggle never ceased and is now centred on battles over cultural studies as opposed to scientific method. Is schism or reconciliation the solution? Ideally, there is toleration but not necessarily institutional integration.
The Rise of Scientific Method
Authors: Halsey A. H.
Published: August 2004

The history of the search for a science of society is traced back to the political arithmeticians of the seventeenth century. Social survey is defined. What is right and what is wrong with sociology is discussed in the context of historical development. Claims for statistical originality are considered in respect of Graunt, Pascal, Quetelet, Florence Nightingale, Galton, Fisher, Lazersfeld, and Yule. Booth's biography is retailed. Social surveys and sampling multivariate analysis and log linear modelling, and the new English statistics are put historically into the context of a developing society and its concern with social policy.
Sociology Before 1950
Authors: Halsey A. H.
Published: August 2004

Before 1950 sociology in Britain scarcely existed. The subject was almost exclusively confined to the London School of Economics. But there were at least a dozen well‐known names. Spencer, Booth, and Rowntree had no academic connections. Three were Scots—Geddes, Branford, and McIver: of the others, Sidney and Beatrice Webb, Westermaark, Hobhouse, Beveridge, Ginsberg, T.H. Marshall, Mannheim, and Carr‐Saunders were connected with LSE. Barbara Wootton was at Bedford College, London. Each one is treated here briefly and biographically. There is briefly also, a comparison with social anthropology up to 1950. No equivalent to the Parsonian school of American functionalism emerged: there was no Weber circle, no Durkheimian, or Chicagoan school established.
Expansion 1950–67
Authors: Halsey A. H.
Published: August 2004

During the 1950s, an expansion of sociology began in Britain, accelerated in the 1960s by the Robbins Committee report. Sociology ran ahead of the general expansion. Demand outran supply; sociologists moved faster and were drawn into the also expanding international network of America and Europe. Leicester became prominent; then Essex and other new universities. Scottish and Welsh and Redbrick institutions joined the expansion. The subject became more exciting, more specialized and more influential as a source of social and governmental policy. It flourished in London and in the provinces. But Oxford and Cambridge were reluctant and resisted outside pressure to expand their curricula to include sociology. Both Oxford and Cambridge stories are retailed here. The relation of the social sciences to Government developed a new phase after the Heyworth Committee recommended the formation of a Social Science Research Council to match the ones for the Physical Sciences and Medicine. Michael Young was its first chairman, from 1965 to 1969.
Celebrated Sociologists
Authors: Halsey A. H.
Published: August 2004

Who among their British and foreign colleagues are held by the professors of sociology in Britain in the highest esteem either as teachers (‘mentors’) or the most notable contributors (‘models’) to the subject in the twentieth century? The answers are based on a professorial survey (see Ch. 8 and Appendix 1) and on a citation analysis of the three main British journals of sociology (BJS, Sociology, and Sociological Review).

The leading ‘mentors’ in the twentieth century have been British. The leading ‘models’ have been German, French, or American. Among the Britons only Anthony Giddens offers a serious challenge to these foreign luminaries.
The Shape of Sociology
Authors: Halsey A. H.
Published: August 2004

There was a dramatic expansion of numbers but was there a parallel multiplication of theory and methods of research in the twentieth century? An answer is attempted here based on content analysis of the three main British journals of sociology from 1910 to 2000. The limitations of content analysis are stressed (see also Claire Donovan, Appendix 3 below). A multiplication of sub‐disciplines as well as new disciplines (e.g. social policy) emerged in the second half of the century together with temporary fashions. Of the 38 fields or areas of study into which sociology may be divided, 8 were prominent in the mainstream journals – stratification, social theory, social policy, religion, education, political sociology, economic organization, occupations, and gender. The fortunes of these sub‐disciplines fluctuated during the century. Some authors believe that the old orthodoxy is now being replaced by social and cultural theory; others vigorously deny this thesis. Fragmentation is a notable feature of journal production in the twentieth century. As to method, quantification and qualification have contended throughout the century, both with increasing sophistication.

Social policy became a separate discipline, Marxism and Feminism became strong, the former in the sixties, the latter after the seventies.
Motivation, Agency, and Public Policy
Authors: Le Grand Julian
Published: August 2004

Can we rely on the public service ethos to deliver high quality public services? Are professionals such as doctors and teachers really public‐spirited altruists—knights—or self‐interested egoists—knaves? And how should the recipients of those services, patients, parents, and pupils, be treated? As passive recipients—pawns—or as active consumers—queens?

This book offers answers to these questions. It argues that the original welfare state was designed on the assumptions that those who worked within it were basically altruists or knights and that the beneficiaries were passive recipients or pawns. In consequence, services were often of low quality, delivered in a patronising fashion and inequitable in outcome. However, services designed on an opposite set of assumptions—that public service professionals are knaves and that users should be queens—also face problems: exploitation by unscrupulous professionals, and overuse by demanding consumers, especially middle class ones.

The book draws on evidence from Britain and abroad to show that, in fact, public policies designed on the basis that professionals are a mixture of knight and knave and recipients a mixture of pawn and queen deliver better quality and greater equity than policies based on more simplistic assumptions about motivation and agency. In particular, contrary to popular mythology, the book shows that policies that offer choice and competition within public services such as education and health care can deliver both excellence and equity. And policies aimed at building up individual assets and wealth ownership can empower the poor and powerless more effectively than those aimed simply at bolstering their current income.
Introduction: Motivation, Agency, and Public Policy
Authors: Grand Julian Le
Published: August 2004

Assumptions concerning human motivation—the internal desires or preferences that incite action—and agency—the capacity to undertake that action—are key to both the design and the implementation of public policy. So, for instance, a policy instrument designed on the assumption that people are motivated primarily by their own self‐interest—that they are, in the words of David Hume quoted at the beginning of the book, knaves—would be quite different from one constructed on the assumption that people are predominantly public‐spirited or altruistic: that they are what we might term, in contrast to knaves, knights. Similarly, a policy that took no account of individuals’ capacity for independent action—one that treated those working in the public sector or those who received its benefits as passive victims of circumstance, or pawns—would be different from one that treated workers or recipients as active agents, i.e. not as the least powerful piece on the chessboard, the pawn, but as the most powerful, the queen. This chapter illustrates these propositions by reference to the evolution of the British welfare state since World War II, showing how it was initially designed to be run by knights for the benefit of pawns, but became one intended to be run by knaves for the benefit of queens.
Knights and Knaves in the Public Sector: What Do We Mean and What Do We Know?
Authors: Grand Julian Le
Published: August 2004

Formulates more precisely what is meant by ‘knights’ and ‘knaves’, and examines the empirical evidence concerning the existence of different kinds of motivation in the public sector. It concludes, unsurprisingly, that both self‐interested and altruistic motivations exist among the people working in public services and, more interestingly, that altruistic motivations often require that the individual himself or herself performs the relevant act.
Motivation and the Policy Context
Authors: Grand Julian Le
Published: August 2004

Considers the impact of the policy context on motivation, asking whether individuals’ motivations are independent of the context in which they operate or whether they are in fact deeply affected by that context. Do market‐oriented policies, such as the introduction of financial incentives for previously voluntary activities such as blood donation, corrupt? Do they turn knights into knaves? Alternatively, does government corrupt—or lead to moral atrophy? The answers are somewhat surprising, with both markets and governments devaluing knightly motivations on occasion but at other times rewarding or revaluing it.
Agency and Public Services
Authors: Grand Julian Le
Published: August 2004

Discusses the fundamental agency question as to the relative balance of power between individual users and professionals with respect to public services such as health care and education. It examines arguments concerning market and individual ‘failure’, and concludes that the best service is one that treats the users of the service as queens not pawns: i.e. a health care service empowers patients and an education system empowers parents or pupils. But it would also incorporate mechanisms that avoid the overuse or over‐provision of the service concerned, or the use of the service in such a way that damages either the users themselves or the wider society. And it would provide appropriate incentives for providers to deliver such a service, relying upon the appropriate balance of self‐interested and altruistic motivations.
School Education
Authors: Grand Julian Le
Published: August 2004

Uses the experience of parental choice and competition in primary schools to argue that, if the aim is to have a public service that treats its users more like queens than like pawns and, moreover, is relatively efficient in its use of resources, then a system of quasi‐market competition with independent providers run by public sector professionals and with users or their agents having fixed budgets is the best—or perhaps the least bad. There is a danger in such a system that providers will exploit any informational advantages they may have to lower quality or to cream‐skim. However, this is likely to be restrained in part by their knightly instincts and in part by the judicious design of policy, incorporating such measures as the positively discriminating voucher.
Limiting Sovereignty
Authors: Shue Henry
Published: August 2004

Employs historical analysis and philosophical reasoning to argue that sovereignty is inherently limited. The writings of classical theorists such as Grotius and Vattel indicate that aspirations to sovereignty and non-intervention have always been tempered by considerations above and beyond the state. Philosophically, it must be remembered that sovereignty is a right, and the concept of a right makes no sense in the absence of a corresponding duty. The duties that are constitutive of the rights of sovereignty constrain the behaviour of every sovereign belonging to international society. Two conclusions follow. First, there are limits on how states may treat their own citizens within their own territory. Second, other states face specific limits concerning the ill-treatment of residents within the territory of other states that they are free to ignore. In particular, genocide and massive violations of human rights are a matter of concern for all states in contemporary international society.
The Humanitarian Responsibilities of Sovereignty: Explaining the Development of a New Norm of Military Intervention for Humanitarian Purposes in International Society
Authors: Wheeler Nicholas J.
Published: August 2004

Argues that we are witnessing the development of a new norm of military intervention for humanitarian purposes in contemporary international society. Since the end of the Cold War, the United Nations Security Council has been more active in the realm of intervention, extending its Chapter VII powers into matters that had previously belonged to the domestic jurisdiction of states. Without the material power of Western states, this activism would not have been possible. However, a purely materialist explanation for this development fails to consider the changed normative context within Western states that permitted, and in some cases encouraged, intervention. While normative evolution has occurred, it is also limited in its scope, specifically over the question of whether military intervention must have Security Council authorization.
The United Nations and Humanitarian Intervention
Authors: Roberts Sir Adam
Published: August 2004

Demonstrates that the United Nations has been at the centre of key field operations and policy debates relating to humanitarian intervention since the end of the Cold War. However, the issue of humanitarian intervention also poses a challenge to the UN and its member states, and could even undermine the organization. At the heart of the UN’s difficulty is a delicate balance between the rights of individuals and the rights of states. For its first 45 years, the body was associated with the principle of non-intervention and the non-use of force, yet, since 1990, it has endorsed a series of interventions for humanitarian purposes. After considering the history and causes of this shift, the author discusses nine cases of intervention between 1990 and 2001. These cases reveal a number of issues and controversies, including reliance on the UN Security Council for authorization, the stance of the UN Secretary General, and the impact of the 2002 National Security Strategy of the United States.
Humanitarian Intervention and International Society: Lessons from Africa
Authors: Mayall James
Published: August 2004

After the end of the Cold War, many in the West viewed Africa as a testing ground for the solidarist argument that sovereignty was no longer an absolute principle and that the international community could intervene to protect individual from human rights violations. This argument seems particularly challenging in the African context, given the continental leadership’s historic commitment to territorial integrity and non-intervention. However, as the author shows, African leaders from 1945 to 1990 were largely upholding the pluralist international norms of the time. In other words, the case for humanitarian intervention – and the problems posed by the practice – are not region-specific. The early 1990s, during which the United Nations intervened in Somalia, seemed to confirm the solidarist position. However, the failure to intervene in Rwanda in 1994, and the more recent experience of interventions in Sierra Leone, present a more mixed picture. Humanitarian intervention remains a controversial practice because of its coercive means, and its tendency to attribute blame or responsibility in what are often very complex civil conflicts.
From End-Directedness to Power
Authors: Yaffe Gideon
Published: August 2004

As emerges in ch. 3, Reid holds not only that every event that flows from power is end‐directed but also that every end‐directed event necessarily flows from power. This chapter examines this second claim as it emerges in Reid's ‘third argument for moral liberty’ in which Reid asserts that the fact that we engage in planned, end‐directed conduct indicates that we are endowed with active power. The chapter argues that the claim is intertwined with Reid's conception of character traits; he holds that end‐directed events necessarily exhibit the virtue of wisdom, and he holds that a creature can have a character trait such as wisdom only if it is endowed with active power. What emerges is that Reid's conception of character plays a role in his conception of the moral agent exactly parallel to the role played in his metaphysics by the features of the world, whatever they are, that assure that nature will be sufficiently regular for us to rely on our inductive inferences.
The Influence of Motives: The Push of Power?
Authors: Yaffe Gideon
Published: August 2004

A central part of any theory of action is an account of the nature of motives and the relationship between motives and actions. Reid argues against the view that motives are the causes of action. In fact, this view can be construed in at least two different ways: either as the claim that motives have the power to cause action or as the claim that there are laws linking the presence of certain motives with certain actions. This chapter examines Reid's argument against the former claim. Reid argues against it by asserting that motives are not ‘things that exist’ but, instead, ‘things conceived’. This obscure view is unpacked through examination of Reid's view of non‐existent objects of conception. In addition to a reconstruction of his anti‐causalist argument, what emerges is an account of what Reid takes motives to be: they are ends, rather than thoughts about ends; but they are not just any ends: they are those that are thought by the agent of the act to be furthered by the act's performance.
Education is Good for the Poor: A Note on Dollar and Kraay
Authors: Gundlach Erich , Pablo JosÉ Navarro De , Weisert Natascha
Published: August 2004

A recent paper by Dollar and Kraay (2001) finds that higher primary educational attainment of the workforce does not increase the income of the poor except for its effect on average income. We test the robustness of their finding by using a broader measure of human capital that accounts for international differences in the quality of education. Our findings suggest that more quality‐adjusted education does increase the income of the poor in addition to its positive effect on average income. Hence, effective education policies should be an essential component of any poverty‐reduction strategy.
Twin Peaks: Distribution Dynamics of Economic Growth across Indian States
Authors: Bandyopadhyay Sanghamitra
Published: August 2004

This study documents the convergence of incomes across Indian states over the period 1965–98. It departs from traditional analyses of convergence by tracking the evolution of the entire income distribution, instead of standard regression and time series analyses. The findings reveal twin‐peaks dynamics—the existence of two income convergence clubs, one at 50%, another at 125% of the national average income. Income disparities seem to have declined over the 1960s, only to increase over the following three decades. The observed polarization is strongly explained by the disparate distribution of infrastructure and to an extent by a number of macroeconomic indicators—that of capital expenditure and fiscal deficits.
Spain
Authors: Ungern-Sternberg Thomas Von
Published: August 2004

Studies the catastrophe insurance monopoly in Spain, the Consorcio the Compensacion de Seguros. It is shown that the Consorcio operates with exceptionally low administrative costs. It is able to offer a very low cost insurance cover in a domain, where competition would usually lead to market failure due to problems of adverse selection. The existence of the Consorcio is in contradiction with the 3rd EU guidelines on the insurance market. However, Spain managed to get an exemption.
Population Growth and International Migration
Authors: Zlotnik Hania
Published: August 2004

International migration has always been an important process leading to the redistribution of population. At the beginning of the twentieth century, it was a major component of the population growth of sparsely populated countries of overseas European expansion. By the end of the century, international migration has become a key component of the population growth in developed countries of Europe, North America, and the Pacific. From the viewpoint of a world divided into a developing “South” and a developed “North”, immigration is often seen as the main process leading to the redistribution of population; but unless net migration increases exponentially, it cannot counterbalance over the long run the effects of either a positive or a negative rate of natural increase.