bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
De Obra y Palabra: Patterns of Insults in Mexico, 1750-1856
Authors: Lipsett-Rivera Sonya
Published: July 2006

Countless judicial complaints ranging frommalos tratos(domestic mistreatment) to assault to insults contain the phrasede obra y palabra(by deed and word). Mexicans of the period 1750 to 1856 understood that the two aspects of injury—verbal and physical—were equally important. While violent acts harmed the body, words attacked an individual's honor and reputation. Therefore harm was conceived of as both physical and verbal, and the connection between the two was inherent in judicial formulations and the expression itself.
Female Conflict and Its Resolution in Eighteenth-Century St. Augustine
Authors: Landers Jane G.
Published: July 2006

Historian Charles Cutter has analyzed the “non-adversarial nature” of the Spanish legal culture and the manner in which Spanish authorities deployed written law (ley), customary law (derecho), and personal discretion (arbitrio judicial) effectively to achieve justice (equidad), even in peripheral areas of the empire. The primary objective of judicial administration was the resolution of conflict and restoration of harmony within the Spanish community. This paper uses civil and criminal records from second Spanish period Florida (1784-1821) to explore the gendered nature of Spanish legal culture by examining conflict between women and its resolution, as well as the ways in which the community and the court attempted to monitor and correct the “disruptive” behavior of women.
Archival and Scholarly Resources in Oaxaca City for Mexico's Reorganization Period, 1917-1929
Authors: Newcomer Daniel
Published: July 2006

The historiography of the Mexican revolution has largely overlooked the period of the country's reorganization. Between the writing of the 1917 constitution and the creation of thePartido Nacional Revolucionario(PNR) in 1929, the revolutionary government centralized its power, institutionalized its political system, and achieved widespread legitimacy for its social and economic program, referred to as the Official Revolution. The five major syntheses of the revolution that appeared during the 1980s added important insight to the conflict and generally emphasized the struggle's regional aspects. Although a trend toward neopopulism appeared, these scholars tended to argue that the revolution exhibited considerable local variety as opposed to traditional accounts of a nationally consistent agrarian uprising. These works also seriously damaged what has become known as the “careerist” school, which portrayed lower-class participation in the conflict as manipulated by power-hungry, revolutionary elites. Nevertheless, few authors extended the revolution's periodization beyond 1924. Thus, no study has yet fully analyzed the dynamics of Mexico's reorganization. Neither has a volume emerged that appreciates this process at the local level.
Vulgar and Elegant: Politics and Procedure in Early National Mexico
Authors: Arnold Linda
Published: July 2006

Mexicans during the early national era actively grappled with identifying, clarifying, and defining core republican political values, principles, and doctrines. Throughout the first federal republic (1824-1835), the central republic (1835-1846), the second federal republic (1846-1853), and into the years of the Revolution of Ayutla (1853-1855) and the Wars for Reform (1858-1861), defining and protecting individual rights, delimiting the rights and prerogatives of corporations and their members, and limiting the power of the state became the fundamental challenges Mexicans confronted as they endeavored to create a republican political society and their own republican political culture. As in many, if perhaps not all, countries in transition from a corporate model to a republican model, the issues polarized public opinion; and militant elements procured arms and pursued civil war, not just once but several times. Simultaneously, el pueblo mexicano actively clamored for justice. Because of that clamoring, jurists, litigants, legislators, and executives all came to recognize that colonial jurisprudence was no substitute for new and innovative republican jurisprudence. The men on the Mexican Supreme Court of Justice persistently counselled politicians that extant jurisprudence contained their competence and impeded them from administering justice when individuals, corporations, and local and national government officials sought protection from perceived wrongs. Significantly, in seeking protection from perceived wrongs, in seeking justice, el pueblo mexicano initiated defining those values, principles, and doctrines that ultimately could unify the society and mystify and mythicize the meaning of the nation.
Economic Growth and Change in Bourbon Mexico: A Review Essay
Authors: Salvucci Richard
Published: July 2006

About twenty years ago, the Mexican SepSetentas series publishedLa historia económica en América Latina, the proceedings of a symposium held at the thirty-ninth International Congress of Americanists. For many novice historians of Mexico, the SepSetentas collectionavailable for ten (very old) pesos each at fine shops in the Metro, or at Sanborns-were Penguins or Pelicans of a lesser sort. Graduate students eagerly awaited new volumes, and scoured the streets for older ones. SepSetentas published some first-rate items, and, alas, some not-so-first-rate ones.La historia económica en América Latinawas a keeper. Its second volume contained useful bibliographies and historiographical essays by Enrique Florescano, David Brading, Woodrow Borah and Sherburne Cook, and Jan Bazant. To take just one example, Brading noticed that no one had reconciled Chevalier'sLand and Societywith Borah'sNew Spain's Century of Depression. “Where should one look to study domestic industry or commerce?” Brading wondered. The accounts of the Royal Treasury had not been systematically exploited. The tobacco industry had yet to find its historian. The costs of Spanish colonialism were essentially unknown. The proper scope of rural history was the regional study. And so on. Obviously, Brading's essay proved remarkably prescient. Historians in Mexico, Great Britain, Western Europe, the United States and Canada have all had a hand in carrying out the agenda that Brading proposed. We have, as the song says, come a long way. The latest and most comprehensive measure of our progress is the long-awaited appearance of Richard Garner's (with Spiro E. Stefanou)Economic Growth and Change in Bourbon Mexico(Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1993).
In Search of the Party: The Communist Party, the Comintern, and the Peasant Rebellion of 1932 in El Salvador
Authors: Ching Eric
Published: July 2006

The rebellion of 1932 in El Salvador is commonly described in the context of communism and the leadship role of the Communist Party of El Salvador (PCS). Relying on previously unavailable archive materials from Russia and El Salvador, the present article demonstrates that the PCS played a limited role in the rebellion. Factional infighting and a strategy that collided with social realities in western El Salvador combined to inhibit PCS influence among western peasants. The evidence suggests that Indian communities were at the forefront of the rebellion, as an extention of their long history of political mobilization.
Small Particulars: Variant Titles and Dates to the Manuscript of Fray Diego Durán
Authors: Hébert John R. , Forgang Abby L.
Published: July 2006

The famous sixteenth-century illustrated manuscript Historia by Fray Diego Durán is an extensive account of Aztec/Mexica history and rites, and a description of the Aztec calendar. Although the exact date of completion is unknown, there are two internal dates in the text (1579 and 1581) which have been used to date the original document. Durán's account was recopied by Mexican scholar José F. Ramírez in 1854 and a two volume printed version with the title Historia de Nueva España y Yslas de Tierra Firme was published in Mexico between 1867 and 1880. Recently a manuscript copy of Durán's text, transcribed in the 1840s, was rediscovered at the Library of Congress containing the following title and description:

Historia antigua de la Nueva España con noticias de los ritos y costumbres de los Yndios y esplicacion del calendario mexicano por Fray Diego Durán, Escrita en el año de 1585. [Peter Force Papers, Series VIII C (Hispanic Collection), Manuscript Division, Library of Congress, Washington].
The Genesis of the Mexican Labor Relations System: Federal Labor Policy and the Textile Industry 1925-1940
Authors: Bortz Jeffrey
Published: July 2006

By comparison with the rest of Latin America, Mexico's post-revolutionary political stability has long fascinated historians and social scientists. One explanation for relative political peace is the comprehensive land and labor reforms President Lázaro Cárdenas implemented in the 1930s. These created a base of social support for post-revolutionary elites. In contrast, the absence of significant land reforms and the failure to devise hegemonic labor regimes in South America resulted in class stalemates, forcing elites to fall back on the militarized state. Land and labor explain the difference between Mexican stability and South American instability since 1920.
Rural Political Violence and the Origins of the Caste War
Authors: Rugeley Terry
Published: July 2006

Between 1840 and 1847 the Mexican province of Yucatán witnessed a remarkable explosion of rural political violence. Contemporaries were well aware of the trend, for they referred to it through vivid phrases such as “uprisings,” “murder and other excesses,” “restless and turbulent spirits,” and “the storm which threatens us close at hand.” And by all accounts these episodes were something new to the society. Indeed, Yucatán had suffered a good deal less violence than had other regions of Mexico. Until 1847 nothing here had remotely approached the chaos of the Hidalgo revolt or the Morelos insurgency. It is impossible for historians, just as it was for contemporary observers, to avoid connecting the violence to the Caste War, the massive rural rebellion which would erupt in 1847. But what was the connection? And what does the political violence tell us about the nature of rural Mexican society?
Aimé Bonpland and Merinomania in Southern South America
Authors: Bell Stephen
Published: July 2006

As an integrating theme in the biological or ecological expansion of Europe, merino sheep were so important that one authority on their dispersal sees the nineteenth century standing as “the century of the Merino.” Merinos produce a wool of distinctive quality, one long appreciated for providing warmth without excessive weight. Guarded for centuries by Spanish monopoly, the breed's status as something of a prize outside Spain began to change in 1808 with the Napoleonic invasion of the Iberian peninsula. By around 1820, a major new phase in merino dispersal was underway with its adaptation to some of the vast grassland ecosystems in the Europeanizing peripheries. The breed was of critical importance to the settlement and development of Australia. It was also highly important in other parts of the southern hemisphere, including in the transformation of existing cattle cultures on the great grassland regions of the Río de la Plata. Here the merino formed the leading edge of rural modernization, offering real potential for ground-up development.
The Missionand Historical Missions: Film and the Writing of History
Authors: Saeger James Schofield
Published: July 2006

Because of the power of film, movies with historical themes affect public perceptions of the past more deeply than do scholarly reconstructions. Film makers and historians search for meaning in separate ways, but their quests can converge. Examples of different approaches to similar destinations are found in a newer film and older historical views of Catholic missions in South America. Released in 1986,The Mission, directed by Roland Joffé with a screenplay by Robert Bolt, displays paternalistic attitudes like those of an earlier generation of North American academic historians. The film's voice is a white European distortion of Native American reality. This essay will examine that voice, offer alternative explanations of historical events, and suggest a research agenda for future study of the Guarani missions of Paraguay, often mentioned in surveys but seldom studied by North American historians.
The Evacuation of the Mosquito Shore and the English Who Stayed Behind, 1786-1800
Authors: Dawson Frank Griffith
Published: July 2006

On 14 July 1786, representatives of the Kings of Spain and England signed the Convention of London by which His Britannick Majesty undertook to evacuate all British subjects from the northern coast of Central America, thereby putting an end to over a half-century of conflict in that remote corner of the Caribbean.

Although Article I of the Convention referred to the territory to be evacuated simply as “the Country of the MOSQUITOS …,” the intention was to secure the removal of a string of small British settlements extending from sixty miles east of Trujillo in what is now Honduras along some 550 miles of coast to Cape Gracias a Dios, and then south and east to Nicaragua’s San Juan River. The area was called then, as now, the Mosquito Shore, and had been a British sphere of influence since the 1730s.
The Indian Policy of Jujuy Province, 1835-1853
Authors: Bushnell David
Published: July 2006

The changing status of the Indian population in postindependence Spanish America has been a major theme of historical research and writing, with primary emphasis for obvious reasons on the cases of Mexico and Peru. Bolivia and Guatemala have received a secondary share of attention, but other countries have been relatively ignored. Certainly the case of Argentina is seldom cited save in connection with the ebb and flow of the frontier between Creole settlements and semiautonomous native peoples of the Pampa and Patagonia. The latter story, of course, has more in common with that of westward expansion in the United States than with the situation of settled Indian communities in Mexico or the central Andes. But there are some exceptions even in Argentina, involving native communities more akin to those of Cuzco or Chiapas than to the original inhabitants of Kansas and Wyoming or of the Argentine Pampa.
Tell Me Your Dreams: Psychoanalysis and Popular Culture in Buenos Aires, 1930-1950
Authors: Plotkin Mariano Ben
Published: July 2006

How does one write the history of psychoanalysis? Although the question seems too broad it is still pertinent. In countries like Argentina, where psychoanalysis has become a Weltanschauung, traditional approaches from the history of science, the history of ideas or institutional history are insufficient to give a full account of its cultural implantation. There is a level of cultural reception that is unaccounted for by those approximations but which is, nevertheless, a constitutive component of the history of the discipline. Although some authors have identified a common “latin pattern” in the reception of psychoanalysis, national differences sometimes overcome similarities. Whereas psychoanalysis, for instance, started to be discussed in Argentine medical circles as early as in the 1910s, it did not have the influence in avant-garde literature that it had in France or Brazil. However, since the early 1920s psychoanalysis had an impact in popular magazines and publications in Buenos Aires. Only a multilayered analysis can provide a good understanding of the different patterns of reception of psychoanalysis. Elsewhere I dealt with the impact of psychoanalysis in the medical profession and in the teaching of psychology in Buenos Aires. My goal here is to analyze another area of diffusion of psychoanalysis: popular periodical publications. Although the massive diffusion of psychoanalysis in Argentina began in the 1960s, since the late 1920s popular magazines and publications introduced discussions on psychoanalysis and its creator, thus defining a space through which the discipline inserted itself in the culture of the city of Buenos Aires. It seems clear that in Argentina publications aimed at an expanded lower-middle class public, outside and beyond the restricted circle of the “republic of letters,” constituted an earlier path of reception for psychoanalysis than what is usually considered high literature.
Discovering the Chichimecas
Authors: Gradie Charlotte M.
Published: July 2006

The European practice of conceptualizing their enemies so that they could dispose of them in ways that were not in accord with their own Christian principles is well documented. In the Americas, this began with Columbus's designation of certain Indians as man-eaters and was continued by those Spanish who also wished to enslave the natives or eliminate them altogether. The word “cannibal” was invented to describe such people, and the Spanish were legally free to treat cannibals in ways that were forbidden to them in their relations with other people. By the late fifteenth century the word cannibal had assumed a place in the languages of Europe as the latest concept by which Europeans sought to categorize the “other.” As David Gordon White has shown, by the time the Spanish discovered America, barbarians were an established component of European mythology, history and theology as well as popular thought, and the categories Europeans employed to describe outsiders date as far back as the Greeks and the Egyptians before them. Therefore, it is not surprising that when they reached Mexico the Spanish easily adopted a word from Nahuatl to describe the Indian peoples of the north whom they believed to be barbarians. This word, chichimeca, which both designated and defined in a very particular way the native peoples of the north Mexican frontier, assumed in Spanish the credibility of longstanding native use, although as we shall see, this was not entirely justified.
A Sense of Belonging: Colonial Indian Cofradías and Ethnicity in the Valley of Lima, Peru
Authors: Charney Paul
Published: July 2006

With the Spanish conquest came racial miscegenation, depopulation, forced relocation, and migration, which resulted in the implosion of many ethnic (as well as linguistic) distinctions among the Indian peoples. Facilitating this implosion was a European-invented label “indio,” which eliminated—philosophically, juridically, and legally—virtually all ethnic differences. Yet it bestowed upon the Indian peoples a separate existence. In the Peruvian Andes, Indians themselves during rebellious episodes contributed to this ethnic leveling when they called for pan-Andean unity or the return of thepax incaica. To be sure, numerous Indian groups did not entirely loose their distinct identities, and the ethnic implosion itself varied in time and space. Ethnic differences could be maintained through the upkeep of cultural and racial traits, such as in dress, language, marital patterns, or territorial and social boundaries. In large measure, the leveling or disappearance of precontact ethnicities occurred at a faster rate in the urban environments where Indians from rural areas took up residence, or in any region where Spanish culture or non-Indian peoples predominated. There, the invented “indio” or new ethnicity was the viable alternative and thus stronger, while the autochthonous base and ethnic distinctions remained weaker. This weakness differentiated urbanized Indians from their rural counterparts who sustained their links to the past far longer.
Costa Rica in 1948: Cold War or Local War?
Authors: Olander Marcia
Published: July 2006

The years following World War Two produced a strong resurgence of U.S. intervention in Central America and the Caribbean couched in Cold War terms. Although the U.S. intervention in Guatemala to overthrow the government of Jacobo Arbenz in 1954 has generally been seen as the first case of Cold War covert anti-Communist intervention in Latin America, several scholars have raised questions about U.S. involvement in a 1948 Costa Rican civil war in which Communism played a critical role. In a 1993 article inThe Americas, Kyle Longley argued that “the U.S. response to the Costa Rican Revolution of 1948, not the Guatemalan affair, marked the origins of the Cold War in Latin America.” The U.S. “actively interfered,” and achieved “comparable results in Costa Rica as in Guatemala: the removal of a perceived Communist threat.” Other authors have argued, even, that the U.S. had prepared an invasion force in the Panama Canal Zone to pacify the country. The fifty years of Cold War anti-Communism entitles one to be skeptical of U.S. non-intervention in a Central American conflict involving Communism. Costa Ricans, aware of a long tradition of U.S. intervention in the region, also assumed that the U.S. would intervene. Most, if not all, were expecting intervention and one key government figure described U.S. pressure as like “the air, which is felt, even if it cannot be seen.” Yet, historians must do more than just “feel” intervention. Subsequent Cold War intervention may make it difficult to appraise the 1948 events in Costa Rica objectively. Statements like Longley's that “it is hard to believe that in early 1948 … Washington would not favor policies that ensured the removal of the [Communist Party] Vanguard,” although logical, do not coincide with the facts of the U.S. role in the conflict.
Fray Juan de Zumárraga, Protector of the Indians
Authors: Chauvet Fidel de J.
Published: July 2006

The Figure of Fray Juan de Zumárraga, the first Bishop and Archbishop of Mexico and one of the first prelates of Spanish America, is outstanding for the great zeal he displayed in the defense of the natives of New Spain. It is our purpose here to study, in the light of the documents that are extant, the part^played by the great Archbishop as protector and defender of the helpless natives. With this purpose in view, we shall treat: firstly, of the origin and extent of the powers granted in general to the Protectors of the Indians; secondly, of the first powers that were given to Zumárraga as Protector of Indians, of the manner in which he exercised them, as also of the subsequent limitation of these powers; and thirdly, of the definite recall of these powers. We shall conclude with an appreciation of the work of the first Archbishop of Mexico as Protector of the Indians.
Fray Juan De Zumárraga and Indian Policy in New Spain
Authors: Castañeda Carlos E.
Published: July 2006

The Full Realization that the brave Admiral of the Ocean Sea had discovered not a new route to India and the fabled wealth of Cipango and Cathay but an otro mundo, another world, soon became inescapable. Here was another world, with all the implications of the term, inhabited by human beings gathered in various groupings, with varying degrees of development, yet none beyond the stone and precious metals stage, none with a fully integrated system of writing, none beyond the stage of human sacrifices in their religious practices. On what grounds had the crown of Spain a right to disturb the existing conditions? The problem presented was new to a Christian world just awakening from the long and troubled slumber of the Middle Ages. The norms developed by Western Europe in its relations with Islam and the Near East did not seem to apply to the peoples of the otro mundo, or New World.
The Caetano Prospect: An Eighteenth-Century View of Recife in Brazil
Authors: Smith Robert C.
Published: July 2006

No city of south america has been more frequently or more carefully depicted in views of all kinds than Recife, the capital of Pernambuco, a port on the northern coast of Brazil, which this year is celebrating the 300th anniversary of one of the great events in its history. The iconography of Recife begins with the Dutch, who are responsible for its growth as a town. Before their conquest of Pernambuco in 1630, Recife had been only a village of fishermen dependent upon the old Portuguese town of Olinda, located a short distance to the north. Olinda, however, lacked port facilities, for it was built on hills dominating an open beach. Recife, on the other hand, is located at the confluence of the rivers Beberibe and Capibaribe, where there is a deep harbor protected from the sea by reefs of sandstone, which gives the place its name. The situation was, therefore, ideal for the needs of the Dutch West Indies Company, which for commercial purposes had brought about the conquest of the rich sugar and dye-wood-producing Portuguese colony of Pernambuco.
A Bird’s-Eye View of Brazilian-Portuguese Studies in the United States
Authors: Ornstein Jacob
Published: July 2006

A NEW AND VIGOROUS INTEREST exists today in United States schools in the study of Portuguese and of Brazil. The accent has shifted both literally and figuratively. Until recent years Portuguese was studied largely by students of philology for the purpose of comparing it with other Romance languages. At present the language is approached by students as a key to the understanding of Brazil and its culture. Peninsular Portuguese has given way in the classroom to the carioca and paulista, or even the nordestino forms, in pronunciation and intonation, as well as vocabulary.

The interest in the Portuguese language in general and Brazil in particular has a long and honored history in the United States. The importance of the study of Portuguese has been emphasized by United States leaders since the early days.
The Franciscans in Colonial Chile
Authors: Cline Howard F.
Published: July 2006

The 400th anniversary of the entrance into Chile of the Order of Friars Minor, the Franciscans, is appropriately being commemorated by our presence here tonight. I am honored to have been asked to state briefly for you some of the highlights of their activities in that land during the colonial era.

It is a relatively unpublicized story, but one worthy of retelling by those better equipped for the task than I am. Coming from the field of Mexican studies, where in a comparable period one finds rich and extensive resources portraying the important role played by the Franciscans in New Spain, I was immediately impressed on looking into the Chilean matter that there are relatively few materials readily available even to reconstruct the narrative of the Franciscans in Chile. To fill that gap would be a very worthy project. One conclusion which grew out of these brief researches is that the role which Franciscans played in colonial Chile, especially in the sixteenth century, was perhaps a major one, and should be more widely known. In the short time at my disposal here, I can but hint at the outlines, revealed in printed works locally accessible. I ask your indulgence for what undoubtedly may turn out on further investigation to be major omissions.
Teresa Margarida da Silva e Orta, A Brazilian Collaborator in the Anti-Jesuit Propaganda of Pombal
Authors: Ennes Ernesto
Published: July 2006

One of the first acts of the Administration of the future Marquês de Pombal was to put into execution the Treaty of 1750, which was the keystone of the peninsular policy of D. João V. To assure and consolidate the good relations with Spain, that had begun with the exchange of princesses at Caia, was his principal desire. To liquidate the old disagreement about the Colónia do Sacramento, which had cost both the Portuguese and Spaniards quantities of blood since its foundation on the Rio Plata by D. Manuel Lobo, was the end and purpose of this treaty.

The monarch hoped, by marrying the Princess D. Maria Bárbara with the Prince of Asturias, the future King of Spain, and his elder son D. José with D. Mariana Vitória, to liquidate the old question by means of this “treaty, that had been concluded through the efforts of Alexandre de Gusmão”. In spite of everything, and notwithstanding the language and the “tone of this memorable treaty”, and the sincerity and good intentions of the two Crowns, the treaty produced “discontent, as much in Spain as in Portugal”.
Presentation of the Serra Award of the Americas for 1950
Authors: Mistral Gabriela
Published: July 2006

Thank you for the privilege of living an hour among the historians of Saint Francis and among his American children. And thank you for the superlative honor you have awarded me.

When the world of a sudden hardens and turns into a kind of fierce mythology, instead of the consummate humanity that God wished, the Franciscan genius, which is above all a spiritual genius, spreads out, thickens, and intensifies, even as do cosmic forces. A great anxiety falls over us and doubles the meaning of our terrestrial mission.

The cord that we wear around our waist should remind us day by day, especially in time of strife, that our mission surrounds us and clings to us in the same way.
The Missionary Influence of the College of Zacatecas
Authors: Carreño Alberto María
Published: July 2006

Fray Antonio Linaz De Jesús Maria had left his native Mallorca to spend fifteen years in the Franciscan Province of Michoacán. At the end of this time, in the year 1679, he was elected Custodio to take part in the General Chapter which was to be held in Toledo in 1682.

When he left for Spain, he carried with him the idea of returning to the missions of the New World, bringing with him other missionaries who would penetrate especially into the region of the “Cerro Gordo”; he presented his project in Madrid to the General Commissioner, Fray Miguel de Avegonzar and begged for authorization to encourage missionary vocations in Spain. Meanwhile, the time arrived for holding the Chapter which he had come to attend. Having obtained the permission, he preached in Mallorca, in Barcelona and in Lerida, and returned to Villa Coronada where he met Fray Joseph Ximénez Samaniego, General of the Order, who afterwards died Bishop of Placencia. Fray Antonio Linaz talked at length with the Superior; he made him see the needs, of both a spiritual and a temporal nature, of the aborigines which could be met and taken care of by obtaining provisionally the authorization to gather together twelve religious who would dedicate themselves to such a noble task, though a definite decision in the case was postponed.
The Internal Organization and Activities of San Fernando College, Mexico (1734-1858)
Authors: Geiger Maynard
Published: July 2006

Students of the Mission History of colonial Spanish America are aware of the importance played by the Apostolic Colleges in the expansion and development of the Indian mission field. The labors of the Fernandinos, Zacatecans and Queretarans, for example, have been heralded in the chronicles of the Colleges, in the extant documents pertaining to the respective mission fields, and in the histories, both Spanish and English, which describe the endeavors of the friars in behalf of Christianity and civilization on the frontier.

Between 1683 and 1814, seven of these Colleges were founded in New Spain alone: Santa Cruz, Querétaro; Cristo Crucificado, Guatemala; Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe, Zacatecas; San Fernando, Mexico City; San Francisco, Pachuca; San José, Orizaba; and Nuestra Señora de Zapopan, Guadalajara. Querétaro, Zacatecas and San Fernando are the best-known to American students, because of their influence on the Borderlands from Texas to California. San Fernando was responsible for the great development between 1769 and 1833 in the entire territory of Alta California, and in the southern portion between 1833 and 1853. Studies on this mission field are numerous and detailed, but there is a gap which should be filled with a study on the College itself. For such a study, we are dependent on the official documents of the regime, once—before the confiscation period in Mexican history—very numerous. Though various students have declared that most of the documents have been lost, the present writer may announce, with confidence, that while certain ones evidently have been lost, a great body of them does still exist; and from these it is possible to study various aspects of the College’s life. San Fernando has been chosen for study in this article, both because it was the mother house of the California missions, and because a considerable number of pertinent documents have been brought to light in recent years.
The Indian Policy of Portugal in America, with Special Reference to the Old State of Maranhão, 1500–1755
Authors: Kiemen Mathias C.
Published: July 2006

The purpose of this study is to trace the development of Portuguese Indian policy m America from 1500 to 1755 as reflected in Indian labor legislation. Special attention will be paid to the northern, more tropical part of Portuguese America which was known during a large part of the colonial period as the State of Maranhão.

The State of Maranhão must not be confused with the modern Brazilian state of the same name. Colonial Maranhão included an enormous territory, very largely Amazonian, extending from Ceará on the East to Grão Pará on the West. It was created in 1624 as a separate administrative unit of Portuguese America, and its capital was São Luiz. The other unit of the Portuguese possessions in the New World was the State of Brazil, extending south from Pernambuco, with its capital at Baía. Our interest will lie primarily in Maranhão, although the legislation on Indian labor passed before the establishment of Maranhão will be considered for background purposes.
What Became of Jolliet’s Journal?
Authors: Steck Francis Borgia
Published: July 2006

Early in the fall of 1672 Louis Jolliet, fur trader and explorer, was selected by Intendant Jean Talon to ascertain into which body of water the Mississippi River disembogued. The remote purpose of this assignment was much like that of the one entrusted to Sieur de Saint Lusson in 1671, who in June of that year supervised the annexation ceremonies conducted at Sault Ste. Marie. In fact, the two enterprises were closely allied, that of Jolliet being a further step, on the part of the French Government, toward seizing for its own advancement the reins of political ascendancy and economic control in the new West—the Great Lakes and Mississippi River regions—so emphatically expressed in the Lusson demonstration at Sault Ste. Marie.
The Palmares “Republic” of Pernambuco its Final Destruction, 1697
Authors: Ennes Ernesto
Published: July 2006

To Study Separately each of those elements which the Portuguese, with instinctive genius, used for their expansion throughout the world, is a task to which every student of the Portuguese colonization-effort must devote his attention if he is to make any contribution, how small soever, to that history. Convinced that the negro was among the most telling and effective elements which were used for the colonization of Brazil, we propose here to study him in one of his most significant revolts against his masters. That revolt, on the part of some, stemmed from the desire of freeing themselves from slavery and domination; on the part of others, from the wish of civilizing, colonizing and taking part in the march of progress.
Walt Whitman’s Popularity among Latin-American Poets
Authors: Meyer Mary Edgar
Published: July 2006

If the reading of an author’s work, allusions, imitations and dedications are an index to popularity, Walt Whitman was one of the most popular among the poets of Latin America. The number of times he is mentioned in their works alone indicates the extent of interest aroused by him and their attitude toward him.

An attempt will not be made to show that Whitman was more popular than Poe or Longfellow, but the writer will endeavor to show the extent to which he was known, imitated and emulated by Spanish American poets.
Conquerors of Uspallata Pass
Authors: Freudenthal Elsbeth E.
Published: July 2006

There was a race on, in 1914, to cross Uspallata Pass over the Andes—which would get across first, an automobile or an airplane? Man’s feet had worn trails across the high mountains, but neither of these two vehicles had ever crossed the dizzy heights of this Pass. Both were comparatively new means of transportation, and both faced great hazards in this undertaking. For the auto there was only an old, winding, dirt road; for the airplane there were the formidable, twenty-three-thousand-foot-high snow-capped mountains with their treacherous wind currents. It seemed as if Nature had had a prevision of these new inventions, and, to guard her inviolability, had thrown up insuperable physical barriers. The mountains hampered and impeded communication between various South American countries, and particularly between Chile and Argentina the Andes formed a tantalizing barricade. The ranges were like an ocean separating the two countries, and the same spirit which spurs man on to see what is over the horizon, or around the next bend in the road, would not let him rest until he had flown himself over the Andes.
A Bio-Bibliography of Franciscan Authors in Colonial Central America: L-Z
Authors: Adams Eleanor B.
Published: July 2006

1. Relación de las cosas de Yucatán. MS copy of part of Landa’s original manuscript discovered in Academia de la Historia, Madrid, by C. E. Brasseur de Bourbourg and first published by him: Relation des choses de Yucatan de Diego de Landa (Coll. Doc. Lang. Indig.… de l’Am. Anc., vol. 3). Paris, 1864. (Incomplete.)

Second edition: Juan de Dios de la Rada y Delgado, Manuscrito de Diego de Landa tomada directamente del único ejemplar que se conoce y se conserva en la Academia de la Historia (Appendix to Spanish translation of Léon de Rosny’s Essai sur le déchiffrement de l’écriture hiératique Maya, Paris, 1876). Madrid, 1884. (First complete edition except for maps.)
Indian Life and Customs at Mission San Luis Rey
Authors: Hewes Minna , Hewes Gordon
Published: July 2006

The Document entitled “Conversión de los San Luiseños de la Alta California,” by the Luiseño Indian, Pablo Tac, who was born at the California Mission of San Luis Rey de Francia in 1822, and who died in Italy in 1841, is of unusual interest both as an historical and ethnographic record, but perhaps most of all because it is the unique instance of an account of California Mission Indian life written by an Indian. It may also be claimed as the first writing of a literary nature produced by a native of California, even though there may be legal instruments, commercial notes and personal letters by native Californians bearing earlier dates. Although the culture of the Luiseño Indians is fairly well known from the work of modern anthropologists, Tac’s account is certainly the only written description of it by a Luiseño, brief and incomplete though it is.
Fray Junípero Serra and his Apostolate in Mexico
Authors: Valle Rafael Heliodoro
Published: July 2006

Over the Sea of Odysseus and of Columbus with sunrise-gilded sails, a ship with a saint aboard voyaged toward America. He was an island saint, with the compass of his heart pointing north, his vision directed toward the America which on the planisphere was still depicted as surrounded by seamonsters and dotted with Indian cities where men lived in misery, naked in a Paradise wherein the wolf of Gubbio had taken refuge.
Educational Methods of the Franciscans in Spanish California
Authors: Mcgarry Daniel D.
Published: July 2006

The Mission, so fundamental in the transformation of colonial Hispanic America, has been characterized as the “kingpin” in Spain’s New World frontier system. The culminating stage in the evolution of the mission system, as well as the final fling of Spain’s “aggressive-defensive” in America, is to be found in Alta California. For the missionary sons of St. Francis, the achievements of their Fernandinos on our present Southwest Pacific slope constituted a fitting installment in a long series of “spiritual and temporal conquests.” During the sixty-five years between 1769 and 1834, over 80,000 Indians appear to have been baptized by the Franciscans in California. These savages were not only converted to Christianity, but also, in greater or lesser degree, habituated to Christian practices and morality, civilized, agriculturalized, industrialized and Hispanicized. This despite the fact that the California natives were described as a heterogeneous lot of culturally destitute, peripheral peoples, among the most backward and abject of American red men. For the Franciscans, the Gospel and whatsoever might be necessary thereto must be taught to every human creature. The distinguished lineage of mission methods in California may be traced back to the Sierra Gorda and southern Texas, to the plains of Paraguay and the jungles of Brazil, and—still further—to the labors of missionary monks among the rude barbarians of early medieval Europe.
The Discovery and Exploration of the Nicaraguan Transisthmian Route, 1519–1545
Authors: McAlister Lyle N.
Published: July 2006

IF ANY SINGLE MOTIVE could be selected as the driving force behind that remarkable series of maritime explorations which were conducted in America during the first decades of the sixteenth century, it might very well be the desire to find a passage through the “American Nuisance.” As soon as it became apparent to navigators and cosmographers that the lands discovered by Columbus on his first three voyages were not the outposts of the East, the crown of Spain and its subjects bent every effort to find a way through or around these new and inconvenient discoveries to the Spice Islands and the markets of India and China. At about the same time that Columbus discovered the mainland of South America, Vasco de Gama reached Calicut by way of the Cape of Good Hope. His glowing accounts of the wealth awaiting exploitation in India extended the hopes of both Spain and Portugal that an interoceanic passage might be found.
Juan Diaz Covarrubias: Mexico’s Martyr-Novelist
Authors: Brushwood J.S.
Published: July 2006

ON APRIL 11, 1859, during the Mexican War of the Reform, the liberal forces of Santos Degollado were defeated at Tacubaya by the conservative forces under the command of General Márquez. Among the prisoners taken by the conservatives were several young physicians who were ordered shot by the conservative command. One of the physicians was Juan Díaz Covarrubias. The specific source of the command is obscure, but its infamy is clear; it has lived as a shameful chapter in Mexican history, and it has granted Díaz Covarrubias the glory of the man who might have been.
The Mallorcan Contribution to Franciscan California
Authors: Geiger Maynard
Published: July 2006

Between 1769 and 1853, one hundred and twenty-eight Fernandinos or Franciscan missionaries from the College of San Fernando in Mexico City founded in Upper California twenty-one missions, christianized close to 100,000 Indians, developed the agriculture, the arts and crafts of its earliest civilization, thus effecting the spiritual and in part the temporal conquest of the land. These Fernandinos, with very few exceptions, were natives of Spain. They represented a cross section of practically all the Spanish provinces from Galicia to Catalonia and from Cantabria to Andalucia. Not to be forgotten are the Balearic Islands. Sixteen of California’s missionaries came from Mallorca and thus formed eight percent of the total missionary personnel. Some of these sixteen were among California’s greatest.

Before touching on the spiritual and scientific contribution of the Mallorcan group, it will be well to insist on the fact that the very establishment of apostolic colleges in America antedating the California conquest, thus making possible the future Mallorcan contribution, was due to a Mallorcan, himself an outstanding missionary organizer both in Spain and the Indies, Fray Antonio de Jesús Llinás.
The History and Art of the Church and Monastery of San Francisco de Quito
Authors: Sanz Benjamín Gento
Published: July 2006

“The most noble and most faithful city of St. Francis of Quito”, capital of the republic of Ecuador and formerly capital of the Audiencia of the same name, was founded upon the ruins of the capital of Atahualpa by the Spanish conqueror, D. Sebastián de Belalcázar y Medrano, on December 6, 1534. On January 25, 1535, the noble Flemish Franciscan, Fray Jodoco Ricke de Marselaer, assisted by two other Franciscans, placed the first stone of the building which was to become the first Franciscan monastery in South America. As was the custom, the patron of the new building was the saint of the day. In this case, the feast of the day was the Conversion of St. Paul and by this name was the new friary known.
The Nacimiento in Mexico
Authors: Terreros Manuel Romero De , Francisco Marqués De San
Published: July 2006

NACIMIENTO IS THE NAME given in Spain and Spanish America to the plastic representation of the Nativity of Christ at Yuletide. These Nacimientos are of very ancient origin; they go back, in fact, to the days of St. Francis of Assisi in the thirteenth century. In December, 1223, St. Francis, who had just obtained from Pope Honorius III the approval of the Order he had founded, left his abode and set out for the Monastery of Monte Colombo, where, shortly after his arrival, we are told that he addressed his friend, Giovanni Vellita, in the following manner:

I am desirous of celebrating with thee the feast of the Nativity of our Lord in a special and hitherto unusual way. Go, therefore, to the cavern that is near this monastery and set up therein a manger full of hay, having taken with thee an ox and an ass, which thou wilt place close by, as they were in Bethlehem that blessed night, for I wish to recall with due solemnity the coming of the Son of God into this world, and to see with my own eyes how poor and miserable He appeared, and all for the love of us men.
A Sixteenth-Century German Colonizing Venture in Venezuela
Authors: Lacas M. M.
Published: July 2006

SPAIN AND THE SPANISH conquerors still are, too often, the scapegoats of too many would-be historians. The Spaniards, according to them, were the grasping, greedy, bloody and cruel destroyers of the wonderful Indian civilizations. They murdered or enslaved the mild, long-suffering Indians, practically decimating them in all the countries of Latin America. This, of course, will not stop the same authors from telling us a little later, in their well-informed books, that Peru, Bolivia, Venezuela, Guatemala, Mexico, etc., suffer from indianismo and are predominantly peopled by Indians. The “Black Legend,” while tottering under the blows of writers like Bandelier, Lummis, Bolton, Simpson and others—who, knowing Spanish, were able to consult primary sources—still fascinates the textbook writers of the time. They seldom can find a good word for anything Spanish—agriculture, industry, commerce, culture, religion—while every flaw in the Spanish system is played up for the scandal of the weak and the joy of the wicked.
Gabriela Mistral
Authors: Espinosa Aurelio Macedonio
Published: July 2006

Lucila Godoy Alcayaga, the internationally known Chilean poetess who received the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1945, was born at Vicuña in the province of Coquimbo on April 6, 1889, the daughter of Gerónimo Godoy, a school teacher and minor poet, and Petronila Alcayaga. When Lucila was only three years of age her father abandoned her mother; yet she apparently remembered him with deep filial affection and did not forget the following verses he had written for her:
São Paulo and the Republican Movement in Brazil
Authors: Palmer Thomas W.
Published: July 2006

It was not until the 1870’s, in the waning years of the Empire, that São Paulo’s rise to unquestioned pre-eminence in Brazil caused it to question seriously the existing framework of government. But in the span of nearly four centuries between 1500 and 1870, there were instances of friction between São Paulo and the central government which provided at least a tradition of Paulista dissatisfaction with its allegedly subordinate position in the Brazilian nation. Most of the early rebellious tendencies of São Paulo were no different from those of the other regions of Brazil, thus not warranting particular attention. Prior to 1870, however, there were two occasions involving Paulista actions against the central government which merit consideration for special reasons. They were peculiar to São Paulo, differentiating it from the other regions, and they were of significance in foreshadowing the later pattern of Paulista tendencies toward secession.