bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
CYTOTOXIC EFFECT AND PHYTOCHEMICAL STUDY OF PETROLEUM ETHER EXTRACT OF TILIA CORDATA MILL
Authors: Raoof Gehan F. Abdel , Mohammed Hala M.
Published: September 2019

The aim of this research was to investigate the chemical composition of petroleum ether extract of Tilia cordata aerial parts as well as to evaluate its cytotoxic activity. Gas chromatography and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS) were used to analyze the unsaponifiable matter and fatty acid methyl esters. Moreover, the cytotoxicity was examined against human hepatoma HepG2 cell line and breast adenocarcinoma MCF cell line. The result showed that thirteen compounds were identified in the fatty acid methyl esters fraction representing 93.71% of the total identified peak area. The major compounds were Octadecanoic acid methyl ester (36.26%) and eicosanoic acid methyl ester (29.42%), whereas nineteen compounds in the unsaponifiable fraction were identified representing 90.56 % of the total beak area. The major compounds were 1- Nonene (30.44%), 1-Hexadecene (24.83%) and phytol (10.40%). Moreover, petroleum ether extract showed a potent cytotoxic effect against human hepatoma HepG2 cell line and a moderate cytotoxic effect on breast adenocarcinoma MCF7 human tumor cell line. So the current research aims to be the first step toward the use of petroleum ether extract of Tilia cordata aerial parts as a potent cytotoxic drug.
A RECENT OVERVIEW OF LOCALLY ADMINISTERED TOPICAL OTIC DOSAGE FORMS
Authors: YAPAR Evren ALGIN , BESKAN Umut , KARAVANA Sinem Yaprak
Published: September 2019

Ear diseases can significantly affect the life quality of patient, so the need for effective treatment encourages the development of new active substances and new dosage forms. Otic dosage forms may be solutions, suspensions, or emulsions of drops or spray for washing the ear or for administration to the ear canal. They may be ear-wash preparations in the form of solution or emulsion, or medicated semi-solid or solid preparations in the form of gel, cream, ointment, powders, sticks or buffers. These preparations can contain one or much more active ingredients in a suitable vehicle and additionally may contain different excipients for isotonisation, pH adjustment, viscosity or solubility enhancement, buffering, preservation, etc. These excipients should not alter the pharmacological effect of active substances and should not be toxic or irritating. Ear preparations can be packaged in single or multiple doses. It is anticipated that otic dosage forms will be improved and the importance of locally applied, safe and highly controlled drug delivery systems will increase in the future.
Political-philosophical Analysis of Power in Russian Political Thought of the Second Half of XIX - First Third of XX Centuries
Authors: Skachko M V
Published: September 2019

The paper does research of political-philosophical analysis of the problem of power in Russian public thought of the second half XIX - the first third XX centuries. The analysis of the problem of power in this period was realized in channel of three directions: conservatism, liberalism and radicalism. Conservatism considers monarchy as the most acceptable form of power for Russia, liberalism - parliamentary republic, radicalism - peoples’ dictatorship. The relation to democracy of the first and third direction was negative, but the second direction had positive relation to democracy.
Pengaruh Strategi Predict Observe Explain (POE) Terhadap Kemampuan Berpikir Kritis Siswa
Authors: Amirullah Gufron , Suciati Rizkia , Susilo Susilo , Handayani Dewi
Published: September 2019

Learning strategy is a very decisive factor in student learning outcomes. This study wanted to know the influence of Predict Observe Explain (POE) strategy to the critical thinking ability of grade X students in environmental pollution material at SMA Negeri 3 Bekasi. The study used Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design with a sampling technique of Cluster Random Sampling (N: 90). Research instruments in the form of 10 test descriptions that have been integrated with the ability of critical thinking are used for data collection. The research Data is analyzed using the normality test, homogeneity test, and T test. Our research results show the average value of the experiment class (x = 75.03) greater than the control class (x = 65.57). The hypothesis Test (T-Test) with a signification level of 1% obtained a Thit value of 5.25 & this 2.39. Our research suggests that POE learning strategies can affect students ' critical thinking skills. This POE strategy can be used as a referral for biological teachers to improve the students ' critical thinking skills.

Keywords: POE strategy, essential thinking ability, environmental pollution.

Abstrak. Strategi pembelajaran merupakan faktor yang sangat menentukan hasil belajar siswa. Studi ini ingin mengetahui pengaruh strategi Predict Observe Explain (POE) terhadap kemampuan berpikir kritis siswa kelas X pada materi pencemaran lingkungan di SMA Negeri 3 Bekasi. Penelitian ini menggunakan Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design dengan teknik sampling Cluster Random Sampling (n: 90). Instrumen penelitian berupa 10 soal tes uraian yang telah terintegrasi dengan kemampuan berpikir kritis digunakan untuk pengumpulan data. Data penelitian dianalisis dengan menggunakan uji normalitas, uji homogenitas, dan uji t. Hasil penelitian kami menunjukkan nilai rata-rata kelas eksperimen (x = 75,03) lebih besar dari kelas kontrol (x = 65,57). Uji hipotesis (uji t) dengan taraf signifikasi 1 % diperoleh nilai thit sebesar 5,25 & ttabel 2,39. Penelitian kami menunjukkan bahwa strategi pembelajaran POE dapat mempengaruhi kemampuan berpikir kritis siswa. Strategi POE ini dapat dijadikan rujukan guru biologi untuk meningkatkan kemampuan berpikir kritia pada siswa.

Kata Kunci : Strategi POE, Pencemaran Lingkungan, Kemampuan Berpikir Kritis.
Safety of pimecrolimus and tacrolimus in the topical therapy of atopic dermatitis
Authors: Jovanovic Marina
Published: September 2019

nema
Atypical location of ST elevation acute myocardial infarction in relation to the electrocardiogram
Authors: Ivanovic Vladimir , Dabovic Dragana , Stojsic-Milosavljevic Anastazija , Petrovic Milovan , Dodic Slobodan , Ivanov Igor
Published: September 2019

Introduction. Electrocardiography is an initial non-invasive diagnostic
algorithm for ST elevation acute myocardial infarction. Specific
electrocardiographic phenomenon is described, when the occlusion of the
proximal segment of the right coronary artery or the isolated occlusion of
its ventricular branch is presented with ST elevation in the precordial
leads. Case Report. A 78-year-old woman was admitted as an emergency due to
chest pain and electrocardiographically recorded concave elevation in leads
V1 - V3. She was diagnosed with ST elevation myocardial infarction of the
anterior region and sent to catheterization laboratory for emergency
coronary angiography. It showed an occlusion of the proximal-medial right
coronary artery. Behind the occlusion, the right coronary artery, posterior
descending artery and posterior lateral artery, a hetero-collateral
circulation was seen. Two drug-eluting stents were implanted into the
proximal segment of the right coronary artery. Discussion. The phenomenon of
acute myocardial infarction caused by occlusion of the proximal right
coronary artery and/or ventricular branches of the right coronary artery,
presenting with ST segment elevation in the precordial leads, is a
consequence of several anatomical variations: occlusion of nondominant right
coronary artery, isolated occlusion of the ventricular branch of the right
coronary artery, and the occlusion of the right coronary artery proximal to
the ventricular branch with hetero collateral circulation on the periphery
of the right coronary artery, like in our case. Electrocardiographic
characteristic pointing to the occlusion of the proximal right coronary
artery and/or ventricular branches of the right coronary artery is higher ST
elevation in the lead V1 than in the other leads, followed by the absence of
Q wave development. This ST elevation is concave. Conclusion. It is
necessary to emphasize the significance of differential diagnosis of culprit
lesion in patients with chest pain and elevation of the ST segment in the
precordial leads having in mind further different thera peutic algorithms.
Patients with right ventricular myo cardial infarction need to maintain an
adequate ?preload? and avoid vasodilators in order to maintain the right
ventricular stroke volume.
Kaposi sarcoma in a non-immunocompromised patient - a potential diagnostic pitfall
Authors: Nikolic Jelena , Vuckovic Nada , Marinkovic Marija , Mijatov Ivana , Lekovic Dragana , Tesic Isidora
Published: September 2019

Introduction. Kaposi sarcoma is a rare soft tissue tumor that may form masses
in the skin, lymph nodes, mucosa and many other organs. It has a strong male
predilection and is usually seen in the older population. It is caused by
human herpes virus 8. Risk factors include compromised immune system,
typically seen in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection or
organ transplant recipients. Case Report. We report a 66-year-old Caucasian
woman with no previous history of human immunodeficiency virus infection,
immunosuppressive therapy or organ transplantation. She was referred to a
plastic surgeon by a dermatologist due to a suspected dermatofibroma
presenting with one solitary, firm nodule on the dorsal aspect of the foot
that she reported to have occurred a year before. A surgery was scheduled in
6 months, as the tumor was assessed as benign. After excisional biopsy and
histological evaluation without immunohistochemical staining, that was not
available, a diagnosis of benign myofibroblastic tumor was made. Later on, a
new similar tumor on the hand appeared and the diagnosis was changed into a
malignant tumor. Further pathological examination, using immunohistochemical
staining, confirmed Kaposi sarcoma. The malignant cells showed positive
immunostaining for CD34, CD31, D2-40, WT1, bcl-2, and human herpes virus 8,
but they were CD99 negative. Conclusion. Nonspecific clinical presentation
and absence of risk factors may mislead the doctors, delay the biopsy and
thus delay adequate treatment. In the same time, histological similarities
with other disorders and tumors may be challenging for pathologists and lead
to wrong diagnosis.
Development of the city hospital in Novi Sad - Part I
Authors: Dobanovacki Dusanka , Vuckovic Nada , Gudovic Radmila , Sakac Vladimir , Tatic Milanka , Tepavcevic Vesna
Published: September 2019

Introduction. In 1907, the City Council of Novi Sad authorized the building
of a new city hospital. The complex of hospital buildings was planned as a
modern pavilion-style hospital with a 300 bed capacity. Foundation. The
Pavilion 1 was intended for Admitting Department, Management and
Administrative Departments. The facade of this building was decorated with a
monumental mosaic of two angels. The Pavilion 2 was built for Departments of
Surgery and Gynecology, whereas the Pavilion 3 included departments for
patients with internal diseases, patients with skin and venereal diseases
and maternity ward, but occasionally some infectious and neurological
patients were treated there as well. In 1912, two new buildings were built:
the first was the Antitrachoma Department and the other for patients with
tuberculosis. During the First World War, the City Hospital was turned into
a military hospital for the wounded, and also for those suffering from
abdominal and typhoid fever, as well as from Spanish fever. Period between
the two world wars. Since 1921, the founder of the hospital and its name
have changed, and it has become the General State Hospital. After young
physicians, educated at famous European medical centers, were employed, the
Novi Sad State Hospital experienced a great advancement, especially in the
field of surgery. In 1922, a new building was built, where the
Bacteriological Station and the Pasteur Institute were established. The
problems that the City Hospital was facing transferred to the General State
Hospital, and were mostly financial. Before the Second World War, the State
Hospital had a 455 bed capacity. After the Hungarian armed forces occupied
Novi Sad in May 1941, the hospital director and all the ward physicians were
replaced by Hungarian military doctors who worked there until September
1944.
Queering Romantic Engagement in the Postal Age
Authors: VanHaitsma Pamela
Published: September 2019

Romantic letters are central to understanding same-sex romantic relationships from the past, with debates about so-called romantic friendship turning on conflicting interpretations of letters. Too often, however, these letters are treated simply as unstudied expressions of heartfelt feeling. In Queering Romantic Engagement in the Postal Age: A Rhetorical Education, Pamela VanHaitsma nuances such approaches to reading letters, showing how the genre should be understood instead as a learned form of epistolary rhetoric. Through archival study of instruction in the romantic letter genre, VanHaitsma challenges the normative scholarly focus on rhetorical education as preparing citizen subjects for civic engagement. She theorizes a new concept of rhetorical education for romantic engagement—defined as instruction in language practices for composing romantic relations—to prompt histories that account for the significant yet unrealized role that rhetorical training plays in inventing both civic and romantic life. VanHaitsma's history of epistolary instruction in the nineteenth-century United States is grounded in examining popular manuals that taught the romantic letter genre; romantic correspondence of Addie Brown and Rebecca Primus, both freeborn African American women; and multigenre epistolary rhetoric by Yale student Albert Dodd. These case studies span rhetors who are diverse by gender, race, class, and educational background but who all developed creative ways of queering cultural norms and generic conventions in developing their same-sex romantic relationships. Ultimately, Queering Romantic Engagement in the Postal Age argues that such rhetorical training shaped citizens as romantic subjects in predictably heteronormative ways and simultaneously opened up possibilities for their queer rhetorical practices.
Fuzzy Applications of FUCOM Method in Manufacturing Environment
Authors: Sofuoğlu Mehmet Alper
Published: September 2019

Conventional manufacturing methods are limited in the
machining of newly developed high strength, precision / brittle and complex shaped parts. Non-conventional
manufacturing methods are required to machine such parts. Choosing the most
suitable manufacturing method for the part is a vital decision-making problem and the solution of this problem is very important for today's manufacturers. In
this study, three different Full Consistency Method (FUCOM) methods were
combined with fuzzy Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to Ideal
Solution method (fuzzy TOPSIS) and fuzzy weighted aggregated sum product
assessment (fuzzy WASPAS) techniques. In
order to test these developed methods, the selection of non-traditional
manufacturing methods from the literature was
taken as a case study. It is seen
that the model produced successful results.
Nota dos Editores
Authors: Editores Os
Published: September 2019

v.12, nº34
ENTREPRENEURIAL LEADERSHIP AND INNOVATION: THE MEDIATING ROLE OF EMPLOYEE VOICE BEHAVIOR
Authors: Aslam Farhan , Maitlo Qamaruddin
Published: September 2019

This study uses a systematic quantitative research approach to identify the relationship between entrepreneurial leadership (EL) and innovation through the moderating effect of employee voice behavior (EVB). This study focuses on employees of Pakistani medium and large enterprises and implies that there is a positive and significant relation between EL and innovation and similarly between EL and EVB. Current study concludes that EVB also partially mediate the relationship between EL and innovation, which means that there are other factors mediating their relationship about which further research needs to be done. It can be concluded from this paper that the firms having entrepreneurial leadership ability in their employees and having EVB in organizational culture are usually good at innovation.
ABRAÃO E A ESPIRITUALIDADE INDIVIDUAL COMO BASE DA EXISTÊNCIA AUTÊNTICA EM KIERKEGAARD: DA FÉ COMO RELAÇÃO ABSOLUTA COM O ABSOLUTO À FÉ COMO A ENCARNAÇÃO DO ABSOLUTO NO DEUS-HOMEM JESUS CRISTO
Authors: Mariano da Rosa Luiz Carlos
Published: September 2019

Investigando o dever ético do Herói Trágico e a sua virtude moral em um processo que envolve o sacrifício ao geral e sobrepõe o universal ao singular, o artigo, baseado na perspectiva teológico-filosófica de Kierkegaard, estabelece a distinção entre Agamêmnon e Abraão, o Cavaleiro da Fé e a sua relação absoluta com o Absoluto através de um ato que o mantém para além do geral e da sua mediação e implica a suspensão temporária do ético em um movimento de resignação infinita em face do dever absoluto que converge para o paradoxo absoluto da fé e encerra a espiritualidade individual como base da existência autêntica. Dessa forma, assinalando a superação do desafio do desespero da relação envolvendo o princípio moral e a ordem de Deus em uma experiência existencial que engendra a espiritualidade individual e a consciência da singularidade, o artigo sublinha o processo que torna Abraão pai espiritual de todo aquele que crê e que, tendo como fundamento a leitura teológico-bíblica católico-protestante, demanda a manifestação do Deus-Homem Jesus Cristo como a encarnação do Lógos em um movimento que pressupõe um novo ser e um novo modo de existência e atribui à fé a condição de que “tudo é possível”, seja para Deus, seja para o homem.
Megasthenes’ Book
Authors: Stoneman Richard
Published: September 2019

This chapter focuses on Megasthenes' book on India. His book became the primary, and often the only, source for all later imaginings of India, so that even when Rome had been in trading contact with India for two centuries, Pliny was still describing a world essentially as it had been evoked by the Greek author. The observations of the author of the Periplus, and of Agatharchides, have little impact on later writers. Somehow Megasthenes' India was the sort of India that the Hellenistic and Roman worlds found it comfortable to imagine. There was no critical attempt to evaluate what he had written and to compare it against later observations. The case reminds one of the impact of Kipling's India in the Britain of the late imperial years.
The Question of Utopia
Authors: Stoneman Richard
Published: September 2019

This chapter discusses how some or all of the Greek writers, including Megasthenes, have used India as the location for a utopian fantasy of an ideal world. Ancient writers have a regular repertoire of utopian traits. (1) The natural world: mild climate; eternal spring; fruits grow without human effort [implying vegetarianism]; springs and rivers of wine, milk, honey, nectar, and soup. (2) Human characteristics: longevity; tall stature; enduring good health; piety; gods dwell among men; and justice. (3) Human way of life: community with the gods; community of women; absence of slavery; simplicity of life; and peacefulness. Almost all of these can be found attributed to India by one or more writers, though eternal spring seems to be an exception, and piety is attributed only to the Brahmans.
Bending the Bow
Authors: Stoneman Richard
Published: September 2019

This chapter discusses Greek literature in India. The first Greek play ever performed on Indian soil may have been written by Alexander the Great. This was Agen, a satyr play performed on the banks of the river Hydaspes before Alexander's departure from India. The chapter also considers whether Greek drama became well enough known in India to have an impact on the development of indigenous Indian performance; and the influence of the Homeric poems on Indian poetry. It also argues that Greek ideas became associated with non-Brahmanical trends, especially Buddhism, and an attempt to impose the Brahmanical view of the world must surely turn its back on things Greek.
Secular Lives
Authors: Jacob Margaret C.
Published: September 2019

This chapter looks at secular lives, focusing on the ordinary, literate, reasonably educated eighteenth-century people who may be described as enlightened. They may not have been original thinkers like the great philosophes, but they enable one to see the Enlightenment at work in more “ordinary” lives. Secular and enlightened, they occupied time and space differently from their very religiously inflected contemporaries. Indeed, as participants in different activities, such men and women brought a set of interests different from those motivated by religion; one might say that their agendas were worldly and enlightened without being overtly hostile toward the religion into which they had been born. Secularity, like religiosity, entailed more than a set of doctrines, or heresies; it meant being at ease in this world with little thought about any other.
The 1790s
Authors: Jacob Margaret C.
Published: September 2019

This chapter discusses the Italian Enlightenment. From the time of Galileo onward, the new science was ill understood on the Italian peninsula. The heresy hunters stood guard against a system that they believed led to atheism and materialism. The breakthrough toward Enlightenment came in Rome in 1707, when Celestino Galiani (1681–1753) and his coterie began experiments in Newtonian optics. Still, Galiani had little confidence that the new science would thrive in an Italian setting. Nevertheless, by the 1720s, the new enlightened culture with its European sources had arrived in Italian intellectual circles, despite the best efforts of the Inquisition to suppress it. The chapter then focuses on the distinctive intellectual vitality of Naples and Milan.
The Problem of Order
Authors: Ikenberry G. John
Published: September 2019

This introductory chapter provides an overview of how states build international order. The great moments of international order building have tended to come after major wars, as winning states have undertaken to reconstruct the postwar world. Certain years stand out as critical turning points: 1648, 1713, 1815, 1919, and 1945. At these junctures, newly powerful states have been given extraordinary opportunities to shape world politics. In the chaotic aftermath of war, leaders of these states have found themselves in unusually advantageous positions to put forward new rules and principles of international relations and by so doing remake international order. The most important characteristic of interstate relations after a major war is that a new distribution of power suddenly emerges, creating new asymmetries between powerful and weak states.
The Settlement of 1919
Authors: Ikenberry G. John
Published: September 2019

This chapter assesses the order building in the settlement of 1919. The United States emerged as the leading world power after World War I, and it brought an ambitious institutional agenda aimed at binding democratic states together in a universal rule-based association. They envisioned a worldwide organization of democracies—a League of Nations—operating according to more demanding rules and obligations. The great powers would still form the core of this democratic community, but power balancing would be replaced by more legal- and rule-based mechanisms of power management and dispute resolution. However, Woodrow Wilson's stubborn convictions about the sources of law and institutions, the poor exercise of American power, and missed opportunities were enough to doom the settlement, particularly in the face of conflicting interests among the allies.
Patron of Byzantine Music
Authors: Leontis Artemis
Published: September 2019

This chapter tracks Eva Palmer Sikelianos's activities in a different performance medium, music. An organ named for her (Evion Panharmonium), records from a school of Byzantine music where she taught, two lectures, and more letters and photographs structure an inquiry into her collaboration with three subaltern musicians: Penelope Sikelianos, Konstantinos Psachos, and Khorshed Naoroji. Each one of these figures shaped Eva's journey in a different way, causing her to change the orientation of her musical pursuits from an initial disorienting pleasure that beguiled her (Penelope), to an essential part of the curriculum of becoming Greek (Psachos), to the basis of a social movement (Khorshed Naoroji) and ground for staging the Delphic Festivals.
The Problem of Moral Obligation
Authors: Wallace R. Jay
Published: September 2019

This chapter looks at the issue of the normative significance of moral requirements in the first-person perspective of deliberation. Moral conclusions are customarily treated as considerations that matter within an agent's practical decision-making. That a course of action would be impermissible, for instance, or morally the right thing to do, are conclusions that appear to have direct relevance for practical deliberation, which agents who are reasoning correctly will take appropriately into account in planning their future activities. The philosophical problem in this area is often understood to be the problem of making sense of the reason-giving force of morality. That is, an account of moral rightness or permissibility should shed light on the standing of these considerations as reasons for action, which count for and against actions in the first-person perspective of agency. However, this conventional understanding seriously underdescribes the challenge that faces a philosophical account of morality.
Morality as a Social Phenomenon
Authors: Wallace R. Jay
Published: September 2019

Chapter 2 explored the normative significance of moral rightness for the agent. This chapter, shifts the focus from the agent to those potentially affected by what the agent does. A leading idea here will be that interpersonal morality apparently has normative significance not only for the agent, but for other parties as well, and that it is an important but neglected task for moral theory to make sense of this aspect of it. Moral standards of right and wrong purport to define constraints on agency; but they also purport to provide a basis for interpersonal accountability relations between individuals, articulating what we can expect of each other as each of us pursues our private ends. Disregard of such interpersonal expectations by an agent thus has normative implications for other parties, giving them reason to adjust their attitudes and behavior in response, in the characteristic register of blame.
From Interests to Claims
Authors: Wallace R. Jay
Published: September 2019

This chapter takes up questions about the structure and scope of relational morality. If the moral nexus is construed as a domain of self-standing relational obligations, the question arises as to the manifold of individuals who are potentially linked under such obligations. Prior relationships or ties are not preconditions for linkage under the relational duties and claims of morality, so what other principles might enable us to decide the issue of inclusion in the set of moral persons? It suggests that this class be viewed as including those individuals who are capable of entertaining relational moral thoughts. The chapter then considers various ways in which the cosmopolitan manifold of persons might be extended outward from this core, including possible extensions that result in asymmetries among the members of the manifold.
Some Practical Consequences
Authors: Wallace R. Jay
Published: September 2019

This chapter considers the implications of relational morality for some first-order questions about what it is right and wrong to do. It begins by discussing some of the cases in which it seems most intuitive to think of moral duties in directed terms, as owed to other persons. It focuses on the foreseeability of a specific individual as the person to whom duties of these disparate kinds might be directed. This leads to a consideration of cases in which it has been alleged that others can be wronged by our actions, even though the individuals who are wronged are not discernible as claimholders by us in advance of acting. It suggests that cases of this kind, to the extent they are agreed to be plausible as cases of moral wrongs, can be understood to involve secondary claims, which are parasitic on the first-order claims held by discernible individuals.
Introduction
Authors: Irani Lilly
Published: September 2019

This introductory chapter provides an overview of entrepreneurial citizenship. Entrepreneurial citizenship promises that citizens can construct markets, produce value, and do nation building all at the same time. It attempts to hail people's diverse visions for development in India—desires citizens could channel toward oppositional politics—and directs them toward the production of enterprise. In this way, entrepreneurial citizenship becomes one attempt at hegemony, a common sense that casts the interests of ruling classes as everyone's interests. However, this entrepreneurialism is not only a project of the self but also a project that posits relations between selves and those they govern, guide, and employ. Champions of innovation and entrepreneurship often leave this hierarchy implicit or deny its existence, leaving the problems it raises unaddressed. This book depicts the practices by which institutions, organizations, and individuals selectively invest only in some people, some aspirations, and some projects in the name of development.
Can the Subaltern Innovate?
Authors: Irani Lilly
Published: September 2019

This chapter assesses how people recognize some acts as innovation and others as not. To judge something as innovation is not just to recognize it as new but also to judge the authenticity of producer in ways mediated by assumptions about caste, race, region, and ethnicity. Findings show that those who pulled off the performance of innovation had to do enormous cultural work to establish the uniqueness and then authenticity of their productions. Ultimately, while people create in myriad ways, the conditions of recognition and reward for such innovation are powerfully constrained by histories of colonialism, contemporary capitalisms, and other forms of social hierarchy, exploitation, and oppression.
The Setting
Authors: Trivellato Francesca
Published: September 2019

This chapter examines the quotation claiming that Jews invented marine insurance and bills of exchange, which can be read from a compilation of maritime laws assembled with commentary by a provincial French lawyer, Étienne Cleirac, published in Bordeaux under the title Us et coustumes de la mer (Usages and Customs of the Sea). By adding bills of exchange to his commentary on marine insurance, Cleirac paired two credit contracts that by the mid-seventeenth century had become indispensable to long-distance trade and were handled by merchants of all sorts. By this time, marine insurance was no longer considered usurious. In contrast, bills of exchange continued to ignite fierce debates over usury. The ease with which bills of exchange could be passed from one person to another generated the erroneous but indelible impression that they were like paper money. However, unlike banknotes, they were not fully negotiable, nor were payers obliged to accept them.
The Making of a Legend
Authors: Trivellato Francesca
Published: September 2019

This chapter discusses Étienne Cleirac's commentary on the first article of the Guidon de la mer (The Standard of the Sea). In brief, he says that the Jews expelled from France invented marine insurance policies and bills of exchange in order to salvage their assets when fleeing to “Lombardy,” that is, to northern and central Italy. From there, Italian refugees exported the newly invented financial instruments north of the Alps, where bankers and moneylenders were called “Lombards,” a name eventually given to a public square in Amsterdam. Cleirac's merging of these spaces has the effect of tracing a direct line between fourteenth-century Lombards and seventeenth-century Amsterdam and makes pawnbroking appear contiguous with the most sophisticated forms of financial credit developed during the sixteenth century. This chronological compression is crucial to Cleirac's rhetorical strategy of making medieval Jewish moneylenders, the object of scorn and prejudice, interchangeable with the international merchant-bankers of the seventeenth century.
The Riddle of Usury
Authors: Trivellato Francesca
Published: September 2019

This chapter argues that Étienne Cleirac's words locate him at an important and little understood historical junction, when the late medieval habit of treating money and the economy as part of the moral and theological universe intersected with the emerging “science of commerce.” This literature assigned multifarious meanings to the word usury. Church doctrines about usury were neither uniform nor uncontested. The most salient phase in these debates occurred in the sixteenth century, when Catholic theologians devised new and subtle arguments about the legitimacy of various financial contracts, including marine insurance and bills of exchange, in order to control but not hamper the expansion of European commercial society. By the eighteenth century, writers of the ars mercatoria (writings on commerce and economy) treated the term usury as a placeholder for all sorts of unsavory economic behaviors, and because of the enduring influence of an earlier discourse, they often assumed that Jews personified such behaviors.
A Legacy that Runs Deep
Authors: Trivellato Francesca
Published: September 2019

This chapter focuses on three giants of modern social thought: Karl Marx, Max Weber, and Werner Sombart. In their efforts to define what constituted modern capitalism and how it came into being, each proposed a different role for Jews. Although only Sombart transformed Jews into key actors in the genesis of Western capitalism, all three thinkers appealed to Jews to define how modern capitalism differed from earlier forms of commercialization. As part of this quest, Sombart proposed yet another version of the legend of the Jewish invention of bills of exchange, which figured front and center in his Die Juden und das Wirtschaftsleben (The Jews and Economic Life), a text that most economic historians justly dismiss but that has exerted an enormous, troubling, and—as of late—contradictory influence on the field of Jewish history.
Coda
Authors: Trivellato Francesca
Published: September 2019

This coda argues that from the 1650s to the 1910s, the legend of the Jewish invention of bills of exchange absorbed and at the same time transformed conceptions of Jewish usury that had emerged in the thirteenth century. Resilient as those conceptions proved to be across time, they also evolved and adapted in response to new realities and competing discursive traditions. In fact, the legend analyzed here served multiple, sometimes even conflicting, agendas. By mapping the routes of its transmission, this book has shown why this tale became a powerful tool for debating and policing the boundaries of European commercial society and why it planted deeper roots in France than in the rest of Old Regime Europe. The chapter then considers the legend's disappearance, which was to be expected since people no longer use bills of exchange.
The Relevance Question
Authors: Desch Michael C.
Published: September 2019

This introductory chapter provides an overview of the growing scholarly/policy gap, which is the result of the professionalization of the discipline of political science. While the professionalization of a discipline and its increasing irrelevance to concrete policy issues is not inevitable, there nonetheless seems to be an elective affinity between these two trends. Rigor and relevance are not necessarily incompatible, but they are often in tension, which is why social science's relevance question endures. As the number of scholarly articles using sophisticated quantitative or formal methods increased since 1980, the percentage of them offering concrete policy recommendations—the core of policy relevance—has declined. Many proponents of the scientific study of politics now eschew advocacy of particular policies on the grounds that doing so is incompatible with scientific objectivity. Moreover, many pressing policy questions are not readily amenable to the preferred methodological tools of social scientists.
How War Opened the Door to the Ivory Tower during the First World War and Peace Closed It Again
Authors: Desch Michael C.
Published: September 2019

This chapter illustrates the results of the intersection of disciplinary and international security dynamics through exploring the relationship between social science and policymaking in war- and peacetime. The former suppresses disciplinary inclinations to favor internal disciplinary agendas that lead social scientists to eschew policy relevance. However, during peacetime, social science disciplinary dynamics led them to disengage with practical policy issues. This was the direct result of the effort to make the discipline more scientific, as the distinction between “basic” and “applied” research had become one of the most important ways of distinguishing whether a scholar was doing science or not. Of course, many social scientists remained eager to find a way to square the circle between professionalization and practical relevance. To do so, they reassured themselves with the notion that the results of pure research will just trickle down and inform concrete policy decisions without their directly engaging with policy issues.
Social Science’s Cold War
Authors: Desch Michael C.
Published: September 2019

This chapter details how with the end of the Second World War, social science disciplines were pulled in two diametrically opposed directions. The general intellectual climate of the post-World War II/early Cold War era was one of great optimism about professionalizing and modernizing the social sciences on the model of the natural sciences. This impulse especially affected political science. However, the inherent tensions between “rigor” and “relevance” reasserted themselves once again, and it became clear that a peacetime choice between them might have to be made. On the one hand, the experience of the war, and the growing realization that the country faced a protracted period of rivalry with the Soviet Union, encouraged the disciplines to try to remain relevant to policy. On the other hand, the mixed security environment and desire to remake the social sciences in the image of the natural sciences eventually pushed them away from it.
Summer Studies, Centers, and a Governmentwide Clearinghouse
Authors: Desch Michael C.
Published: September 2019

This chapter examines how the Cold War witnessed continuing government interest in drawing on social science as a resource for national security policymaking. Despite this continuing interest, there was just below the surface an undercurrent of dissatisfaction with academic social science as it became more oriented to producing basic, as opposed to applied, research. Government funders increasingly complained that basic social science research was couched in excessive jargon and deplored the unwillingness of scholars to provide policy-relevant findings unless they could meet very high standards of scientific proof. This led to an ongoing search by national security policymakers for alternative arrangements through which to tap social science expertise. What early Cold War national security policymakers wanted was social science that was accessible to the layman, struck a balance of theory and practice, and engaged the key policy problems they were grappling with.
The Scientific Strategists Follow the Economists to an Intellectual Dead End
Authors: Desch Michael C.
Published: September 2019

This chapter assesses whether academic social science had any influence on nuclear strategy. Social science did have important effects on strategy. At times this was direct. More often it was indirect, working not through the formulation of doctrine or the drafting of operational plans, but rather by providing the intellectual frameworks and mental road maps that shaped senior policymakers' and presidents' thinking about the utility of nuclear weapons during confrontations with other nuclear states. Academic strategists such as Thomas Schelling reputedly exercised such influence that the period between 1945 and 1961 is regarded as the “golden age” of academic national security studies. However, scientific strategists reached a dead end by privileging internal disciplinary concerns like logical rigor and the use of sophisticated methods over addressing concrete policy problems.
Strategic Modernization Theory Bogs Down in the Vietnam Quagmire
Authors: Desch Michael C.
Published: September 2019

This chapter looks at the rise and fall of strategic modernization theory. One of the key figures in bridging the worlds of nuclear strategy and political and economic development, not to mention academia and policy, was the economist Walt W. Rostow. Unique among civilian development strategists, Rostow was not only a scholar of these issues; he also held a series of high-level U.S. government positions, which made him a direct formulator and implementer of policy. The chapter then outlines the intellectual context in which he formulated his universal model of strategic modernization and development. It also studies his arguments and shows how and why they provided U.S. policymakers with the mental map to interpret the Cold War in the Third World in a particularly threatening way and also to recommend strategies to respond to the challenge of underdevelopment there.
Conclusions, Responses to Objections, and Scholarly Recommendations
Authors: Desch Michael C.
Published: September 2019

This concluding chapter evaluates the increasing tendency of many social scientists to embrace methods and models for their own sake rather than because they can help people answer substantively important questions. This inclination is in part the result of the otherwise normal and productive workings of science but is also reinforced by less positive factors such as organizational self-interest and intellectual culture. As a result of the latter, many political scientists have committed themselves to particular social science methods not so much because they believe they will illuminate real-world policy problems but because they serve a vested interest in disciplinary autonomy and dovetail with a particular image of what a “science” of politics should look like. In other words, the professionalization of social science is the root of the enduring relevance question. The chapter then offers some concrete suggestions for how to reestablish the balance between rigor and relevance in the years to come.
Introduction
Authors: Schwartz Richard Evan
Published: September 2019

This introductory chapter provides an overview of the book, which deals with the plaid model. The plaid model is a rule for assigning a square tiling of the plane to each parameter A = p/q ɛ (0, 1) with pq even. Such parameters are called even rational. Based on the parameter A, even integers are assigned to the lines of the usual infinite grid of integer-spaced vertical and horizontal lines. These integers are called capacities. At the same time, a second grid of slanting lines is defined and odd integers are assigned to these lines. These odd integers are called masses. Then, a light point is placed at every intersection of the form σ‎ ∩ τ‎ where σ‎ is a slanting line, τ‎ is a horizontal or vertical line, and the mass of σ‎ has the same sign as the capacity of τ‎ and smaller absolute value.
Pixellation and Curve Turning
Authors: Schwartz Richard Evan
Published: September 2019

This chapter revisits the idea of pixelated spacetime diagrams considered in Chapter 5. It proves a technical result, the Curve Turning Theorem, which gives a way to understand the spacetime diagrams in terms of patterns of oriented lines. Section 6.2 assigns directions to all the particle lines. This is done using a key feature of the oriented plaid model which has already been established: the directions of all instances of a particle are the same. The Curve Turning Theorem is also stated at the end of this section. Section 6.3 proves a technical result about the spacing of the particle lines in spacetime diagrams. This result will help with the proof of the Curve Turning Theorem. Section 6.4 and 6.5 prove the Curve Turning Theorem, respectively, in the vertical and the horizontal case. Section 6.6 gives two applications of the Curve Turning Theorem.
The Vertical Lemma
Authors: Schwartz Richard Evan
Published: September 2019

This chapter contains the statement and proof of the Vertical Lemma. Section 10.2 uses symmetry to cut down the amount of work that needs to be done. Section 10.3 translates the picture to prove something more symmetric. The Vertical Lemma associates a point at the center of the unit integer square with a point on the east edge of the square. A more symmetric picture is obtained when working with the centers of the east edges rather than the centers of the squares. Section 10.4 presents some alternative formulas for the map Φ‎: Π‎ → X' and Φ‎: Π‎ → X, which will help with the calculations. Section 10.5 proves the version of the Vertical Lemma for Λ‎'. Section 10.6 makes a careful study of the congruences and shows that the Λ‎'-based result implies the Λ‎-based result.
The Quasi-Isomorphism Theorem
Authors: Schwartz Richard Evan
Published: September 2019

This chapter proves the Quasi-Isomorphism Theorem modulo two technical lemmas, which will be dealt with in the next two chapters. Section 18.2 introduces the affine transformation TA from the Quasi-Isomorphism Theorem. Section 18.3 defines the graph grid GA = TA(Z2) and states the Grid Geometry Lemma, a result about the basic geometric properties of GA. Section 18.4 introduces the set Z* that appears in the Renormalization Theorem and states the main result about it, the Intertwining Lemma. Section 18.5 explains how the Orbit Equivalence Theorem sets up a canonical bijection between the nontrivial orbits of the plaid PET and the orbits of the graph PET. Section 18.6 reinterprets the orbit correspondence in terms of the plaid polygons and the arithmetic graph polygons. Everything is then put together to complete the proof of the Quasi-Isomorphism Theorem. Section 18.7 deduces the Projection Theorem (Theorem 0.2) from the Quasi-Isomorphism Theorem.
Some Elementary Number Theory
Authors: Schwartz Richard Evan
Published: September 2019

This chapter proves some number-theoretic results about the sequences defined in Chapter 23. It proceeds as follows. Section 24.2 proves Lemma 24.1, a multipart structural result. Section 24.3 takes care of several number-theoretic details left over from Section 23.6 and Section 23.7.
The Weak and Strong Case
Authors: Schwartz Richard Evan
Published: September 2019

This chapter completes the proof of the weak and strong case of the Copy Lemma. The two cases have just about the same proof. Section 25.2 proves the first two statements of the Copy Lemma. The rest of the chapter is devoted to proving the third statement. Section 25.3 proves an easy technical lemma. Section 25.4 repackages some of the results from Section 1.5. Two sequences are assigned to each rectangle in the plane: a mass sequence and a capacity sequence. It is established that these sequences determine the structure of the plaid model inside the rectangle. Section 25.5 proves a technical result about vertical light points. The final section verifies the conditions of the Matching Criterion.
E∞-Structures on l-Adic Cohomology
Authors: Gaitsgory Dennis , Lurie Jacob
Published: September 2019

For applications to Weil's conjecture, a version of (3.1) is formulated in the setting of algebraic geometry, where M is replaced by an algebraic curve X (defined over an algebraically closed field k) and E by the classifying stack BG of a smooth affine group scheme over X. This chapter lays the groundwork by constructing an analogue of the functor B.