bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Creeping Dune Irrigation Site in Glen Canyon, Utah
Authors: Sharrock Floyd W. , Dibble David S. , Anderson Keith M.
Published: April 2006

This early Pueblo III site in the Little Rincon of the Colorado River, about 17 river miles downstream from Hite, Utah, is the first site with an irrigation system of any kind to be noted in the upper Glen Canyon. It is most closely linked to the Kayenta branch of the Anasazi culture. It is unusual because of its distance from any center of cultural development and because of the complexity of the irrigation system. This system consists of a large masonry reservoir filled by an internal spring and drained by a metering gate and a slab-lined tunnel into a canal or ditch which was traced for 30 feet. Two possible gates were noted on the downslope side of the canal. Many notched slabs, which were possibly used as canal gates, were located in the reservoir area, but were not definitely associated with other features. Only two dwellings were located. Post-occupational erosion has changed surface contours and erased the possible connection between the reservoir and canal and the fields. The water supply is probably more limited now than at the time of occupation.
Flake Tools in the American Arctic: Some Speculations
Authors: Wilmsen Edwin N.
Published: April 2006

Two sites, Kogruk (at the summit of Anaktuvuk Pass, Alaska) and Engigstciak (at the head of the Firth River delta, Yukon Territory, Canada), have recently yielded flake-tool assemblages which show striking resemblances to a Eurasiatic flake-blade tradition based on a Levallois-Mousterian stone-chipping technique, and to the Clovis flake-blade tradition of America which appears to be based on a similar chipping technique. It is suggested that these traditions are historically related and that the Arctic sites provide a possible link between the two. The presence of incipient fluting in Siberia and at Engigstciak may prove significant. Dating is discussed in terms of the ecology and geology of the sites and is correlated with the probable periods of availability of the Bering land bridge. An upland-foothills zone is seen to be essentially continuous from central Asia to central North America. It is suggested that this zone provided the only environmentally compatible link between the two continents, and that it was therefore the most probable route of early hunting peoples into the New World.
Column Chromatography and the Possibility of Carbon-Lens Migration
Authors: Brown Jack , Gould Richard A.
Published: April 2006

A process known in biochemistry as column chromatography suggests how, under certain conditions, carbon lenses can migrate downward to new levels in the soil of archaeological sites. A radiocarbon date from a carbon lens may not correspond to the date of objects found associated with it.
Spruce Swamp: A Partially Drowned Coastal Midden in Connecticut
Authors: Powell Bernard W.
Published: April 2006

Archaeological, geological, and biological observations, including a quantitative midden analysis, of a shell midden on the Connecticut shore support the inference that a Woodland manifestation, probably of the East River aspect, was preceded by an Archaic, possibly Transitional, horizon. The deposit was formed during a lower sea stand; both global and regional sea-level data are cited in support of chronological placement.
Early Occupation of the Colorado Front Range
Authors: Husted Wilfred M.
Published: April 2006

Finds of Cody knives, Agate Basin, Allen, Clovis, Eden, and Meserve points indicate that the Colorado Front Range was occupied at least 7000 to 8000 years ago. Apparently Folsom hunters avoided the higher altitudes, but Clovis hunters may have crossed the Continental Divide.
Antiquity of Man at Anaktuvuk Pass, Alaska
Authors: Porter Stephen C.
Published: April 2006

Geologic evidence from Anaktuvuk Pass indicates that the latest ice advance during the Itkillik glaciation reached its maximum stand between 8000 and 9000 years ago. Archaeological sites at the pass lie behind a terminal moraine built during this advance and therefore must postdate it. In view of the probable time involved for deglaciation, habitable ice-free areas near the axis of the valley could not have been available for campsites until an advanced stage of ice wastage. Radiocarbon dates indicate that deglaciated areas existed near the present drainage divide as early as 7200 years ago, but prior to that time the valley floor was largely buried under stagnant ice. Although certain archaeological complexes have been interpreted on the basis of typology as evidencing considerable antiquity, the geologic relationships between the sites and radiocarbon-dated, late-glacial sediments places a maximum limiting age of about 7000 years on the oldest cultural materials.
Food Animals of the Continental Army at Valley Forge and Morristown
Authors: Olsen Stanley J.
Published: April 2006

Recent excavations of fireplace hearths at the Revolutionary campsites of General Washington's army at the National Historical Park at Morristown, New Jersey, and at the State Park at Valley Forge, Pennsylvania, have been responsible for the recovery of a quantity of bones of food animals (Bos taurus). These remains are discussed and compared with the dietary reports made by soldiers of the time. A crudely made strap-iron grill, used by the men at Morristown in 1778, is figured.
The Wapanucket No. 8 Site: A Clovis-Archaic Site in Massachusetts
Authors: Robbins Maurice , Agogino George A.
Published: April 2006

This site, which is on a low bluff overlooking Lake Assawompsett in southeastern Massachusetts, has yielded both fluted and Archaic projectile points, as well as other artifacts. The stratigraphy is complex, and a mixture of Paleo-Indian and Archaic artifacts is indicated. Two charcoal samples have been radiocarbon-dated at 1948 B.C. ± 100 years and 2758 ± 140 years B.C. These dates agree with the age of similar Archaic sites in the area.
An Olmec Stela from San Miguel Amuco, Guerrero
Authors: Grove David C. , Paradis Louise I.
Published: April 2006

A recently discovered stela in Guerrero represents the north-westernmost extension of monolithic sculpture in the Olmec style yet known in Mesoamerica. The stela depicts a standing human figure wearing a cloak and bird mask and holding a staff-like object. It is suggested that the theme is ceremonial or one of rank or rulership. The style of the carving and its association with Olmec style pottery confirms its colonial Olmec identity. The nature of the stela confirms our impression that Olmec presence in Guerrero and the central highlands represents more than a diffused art style. A tentative model for interpreting Olmec diffusion takes into account economic as well as socio-political factors, including possible motives bringing the Olmec into the highlands and the nature and pattern of relationships established with local culture groups. Trade and status borrowing are the basis of this model.
Gyratory Crushers of the Sierra Pinacate, Sonora
Authors: Hayden Julian D.
Published: April 2006

A unique grinding tool, termed a "gyratory crusher," was developed very early in Phase I of the Amargosan-Pinacateño occupation of the Sierra Pinacate, an isolated ecological and archaeological enclave in extreme north-western Sonora, Mexico. The gyratory crusher resembles a perforated mortar, either in slab or block form, in which a wooden pestle with a projection extending through the perforation in the mortar base was gyrated, the projection providing leverage against the under rim of the hole, to grind mesquite pods. The crusher underwent modification, and its use seems to have been discontinued with the disappearance of mesquite forests at the end of the Yuman I period, about A.D. 1100-1200. A few similar tools are reported late in time in the western Sierra Madre, Mexico, and also from early horizons in Iran and Israel. Recognition of the tool type may extend its known distribution in both the New World and the Old World.
Sacalum, Yucatán: A Pre-Hispanic and Contemporary Source of Attapulgite
Authors: Folan W. J.
Published: April 2006

A survey of a cenote in Sacalum and the Chilam Balam of Chumayel suggests strongly that Sacalum, Ticul, and probably Tixtohilcheen have been a source of the mineral attapulgite used variously in the manufacture of Maya Blue, for medicinal purposes, and as a pottery temper.
A Stylistic and Historical Analysis of Shoulder Patterns on Plains Indian Pottery
Authors: Wood W. Raymond
Published: April 2006

A stylistic analysis of the incised patterns executed on the shoulders of the pottery of five Central and Northern Plains village groups yields two broad pattern types. The configurations of these types and their variants in time and space conform to what is now known of the development of the five historic socio-linguistic groups considered: Pawnee, Arikara, Cheyenne, Crow, and Mandan-Hidatsa. The spread of a distinctive triangular pattern, the “Alternating Triangle,” from its inception along the eastern boundary of the Central Plains, provides a test of the hypothesis that incised Plains pottery shoulder patterns derive in large part from stimuli from Mississippian groups to the east. Subsequent history of the incised patterns is that of a strong collective tradition over-riding earlier patterns in the Northern Plains. This incised tradition is related to historic data on skin and robe painting and to the concept of a general art style of the area, as well as to fundamental problems in the field of art.
Ethnobotanical Aspects of Snaketown, a Hohokam Village in Southern Arizona
Authors: Bohrer Vorsila L.
Published: April 2006

The Hohokam grew maize as early as 300 B.C. Common beans were introduced by Estrella phase (100 B.C.-A.D. 100) and cotton was cultivated by the following phase (A.D. 100-300). Sahuaro and mesquite seeds supplemented agricultural products especially when crops failed. The Hohokam apparently harvested two plantings per year. Opuntia seeds were eaten when crops failed and sedge seeds were consumed during optimal conditions for growth of all local vegetation. Pollen analysis suggests cholla buds were eaten and that there was continual expansion of agricultural land from Sweetwater through Gila Butte phases. Coniferous timbers were incorporated into houses during the last phase (Sacaton, A.D. 1100-1200) of the occupation of Snaketown.
Microscopic Examination of Human Femurs Buried at Washington Island, Wisconsin
Authors: Peske G. Richard , Tappen N. C.
Published: April 2006

Shafts of human femurs from burials on Washington Island, Wisconsin dated ca. A.D. 200 were in good enough condition to allow decalcification, microscopic sectioning and routine staining. Many histological features of the bone are retained. Such procedures are less laborious than grinding undecalcified sections, allow three-dimensional observation of serial sections, and offer possible uses in age determinations of skeletons and paleopathology. The specimens give initial evidence that prompt burial prevents the formation of weathering cracks in bone.
A Consideration of Some Processual Designs for Archaeology as Anthropology
Authors: Kushner Gilbert
Published: April 2006

In recent years a new approach in archaeology, the "processual school," has been developed. The processualists suggest that method and theory in archaeology be in various important ways altered and reoriented. A number of the school's basic axioms are defined, illustrated, and discussed. Included is a consideration of such notions as "adaptation," "system," and "explanation." It is argued that various of the components of the processualist position themselves require some modification.
Archaeological Investigations in Northern Chile: Project Tarapaca — Preceramic Resources
Authors: True D. L. , Núñez A. Lautaro , Núñez H. Patricio
Published: April 2006

A series of nonceramic sites is described for the purpose of indicating the nature of the resources to be found along the western margin of the Andean precordillera in northern Chile. Artifacts recovered from several sites are similar to those designated Ayampitin and Lauricocha from other regions in Andean South America. Strong ties are suggested between coastal and interior sites, due either to trade relationships between separate groups or to the same peoples occupying a series of site locations on a seasonal round. Detailed studies that hopefully will clarify these relationships are in process. Information on permanent agricultural settlements in this same region will be presented in a future summary.
A Quimbaya Gold Furnace?
Authors: Bruhn Karen Olsen
Published: April 2006

An unusual hourglass-shaped vessel from a tomb in the middle Cauca Valley, Colombia, is described. This is the area of the so-called Quimbaya culture, in which metal work reached a very high artistic and technical development; however, as yet, no tools definitely used in manufacture of metal objects have been found. It is suggested that the vessel described here is a furnace built to hold a crucible, although, since the vessel was apparently placed new into the tomb, definite identification of its function is not possible.
Differential Bone Destruction: An Ethnographic Example
Authors: Lyon Patricia J.
Published: April 2006

Much recent archaeological work has been aimed at attempts to reconstruct ancient subsistence and ecological patterns. Ethnographic observations by the author in eastern Peru indicate that domesticated dogs may play a significant role in distorting the archaeological record as it is reflected in unmodified mammal bone. These observations indicate that medium-sized dogs may totally devour the bone of small animals and destroy identifiable portions of the bone of medium-sized animals, leaving only the remains of large animals in condition for identification. The possibility of such destruction in the past indicates the need for caution in evaluating subsistence on the basis of bone remains in archaeological sites.
Community Settlement Patterns at Chan Chan, Peru
Authors: West Michael
Published: April 2006

A recent surface survey was conducted at the site of Chan Chan, Peru, for purposes of investigating the nature of community settlement patterns. Previous writers have tended to view these in terms of the speculated sociological implications of specific largescale architectural features known asciudadelas. In doing so they have neglected an extremely important body of information regarding the many small and inconspicuous building units that are closely associated with theciudadelas. The present survey concentrated on the smaller complexes and provided data that were relevant to studying aspects of community settlement patterning such as house types, distribution of public buildings, street layouts, distribution of population types, population size and density. The results indicate that the range of social activities that were engaged in at Chan Chan during its flourish cannot possibly be understood in terms of the implications of large-scale architecture. It is suggested here that the overall community settlement pattern of Chan Chan is coincidental to the configuration described by Sjoberg (1965) for the typical preindustrial city. The hypotheses and suggestions generated by this study provide a base or foundation for future research at the site.
“Pottery” in the Aleutian Islands
Authors: McCartney A. P.
Published: April 2006

Pottery was reported from the eastern Aleutian Islands in 1945. Recent petrographic examination of the supposed sherds reveals that they are fragments of carved stone vessels rather than tempered clay pots. The dissimilarity of the Aleutian specimens to well-documented southwestern and western Alaskan pottery, and negative evidence from the central and western parts of the chain suggest that the Aleutian cultural area lay beyond the prehistoric distribution limits of Alaskan pottery.
Osteology of Social Organization: Residence Pattern
Authors: Lane Rebecca A. , Sublett Audrey J.
Published: April 2006

Since laboratory studies on skeletal variations have validated the use of non-metric osteological traits to genetically distinguish populations, a direct relationship between these traits and biological reality can be assumed. Because of this relationship, it is possible to conceive the central thesis of this paper: to the degree that any social organizational feature corresponds to the biological referents of the kinship system, osteological data can be used to elucidate that feature. The kinds of problems that might be investigated are limited by the archaeological determination of certain social units. In the present study, a method is developed to test for residence pattern. This method is applied to data from the Allegany reservation (Seneca) dating from the 1850's to 1930. Ethnohistorical sources support the conclusions of the osteological analysis.
The Salvage Archaeology of a Zoned Bichrome Cemetery, Costa Rica
Authors: Lange Frederick W. , Scheidenhelm Kristin K.
Published: April 2006

Salvage operations were carried out at an extensively pot-hunted Zoned Bichrome period (300 B.C. to A.D. 300) cemetery in northwestern Guanacaste Province, Costa Rica. This is the first "pure" Zoned Bichrome site of this type to be studied and yielded a cross-section of ceramics representative of other Late Formative sites in the area and of contact with the Maya lowlands. In addition, it solidified the impression of this period being an entity distinct from subsequent regional developments. This distinction is seen in terms of adaptation to the exploitation of marine mollusca, a pattern not present in Zoned Bichrome sites known at the present time, but very important in succeeding Polychrome periods.
Manually Operated Post-Hole Diggers as Sampling Instruments
Authors: Fry Robert E.
Published: April 2006

Manually operated post-hole diggers have proven to be useful tools for sampling archaeological deposits in an area where surface collection of artifactual material is impossible. Post-hole diggers were used to locate areas of dense occupation debris around residential platforms in the periphery of Tikal, Guatemala. The post-holing of extensive areas as a technique for locating hidden construction was also tested, with positive results.
Developments in the Archaeology of Nuclear America, 1935-60
Authors: Willey Gordon R.
Published: April 2006

Archaeological developments in the zone extending from Mesoamerica to the Andes are summarized in terms of the following topics: early man, the origins of agriculture, the interrelationships of the Nuclear American cultures, the ethnic identification of archaeological complexes, horizonal and tradition formulations, the place of Nuclear America in the hemisphere, relationships between the New World and the Old World, the rise of native American civilizations, and main trends since 1935. These trends include increasing chronological control, greater awareness of context, growing interest in culture process, and more clarity and precision in definitions.
Red Mountain: An Early Pioneer Period Hohokam Site in the Salt River Valley of Central Arizona
Authors: Morris Donald H.
Published: April 2006

Test excavations made in the spring of 1964 along the Salt River near Mesa, Arizona, by personnel from the Department of Anthropology, Arizona State University, provide new data on the earliest Hohokam. The Red Mountain site produced inhumations, a burial cairn, a different grinding-tool complex, and other items previously unknown in early Hohokam associations. Since only Vahki Plain and Vahki Red pottery are present, the site might be designated Vahki phase; however, this designation alone would obscure and ignore the important differences that are present. There are several better interpretations, two about equally plausible: (1) since the only other excavations in early Hohokam sites in the Red Mountain area have also produced inhumations and at least one other burial cairn, and these sites span the Pioneer period, one can emphasize the persistence of differences in the Red Mountain area by identifying a "Red Mountain branch" Hohokam at least through the Pioneer period; hence, Vahki phase, Red Mountain branch. This designation employs a traditional South-western concept. On the other hand (2) if one subscribes to the hypothesis that both Mogollon and Hohokam are derived from the San Pedro stage Cochise, the Red Mountain data support the identification of a phase transitional between San Pedro stage and Vahki phase — Red Mountain phase. This latter interpretation does not preclude a Red Mountain branch.
Preceramic Subsistence on the Peruvian Coast
Authors: Parsons Mary Hrones
Published: April 2006

This paper attempts to show that a reexamination of the ecological zones along the Peruvian coast can prove extremely helpful in understanding the subsistence patterns of preceramic populations. The phenomenon of the periodic El Niño Countercurrent and its drastic effects on both sea and land resources are discussed in detail, with particular reference to lomas sites. An attempt is made to distinguish seasonal food resources from those available all year round, and to examine the possible factors limiting both types of resources. Vital problems concerning human adaptation to the coastal niche in preceramic times are stressed in hopes that they will serve as focal points for future research.
Seriation Method and Its Evaluation
Authors: Dunnell Robert C.
Published: April 2006

Seriation as a scaling technique produces a formal arrangement of units, the significance of which must be inferred. Arrangement per se is a statistical matter, while the inference of significance is archaeological method. Here seriation as an archaeological method for inferring relative chronology is reviewed in terms of its assumptions and the conditions under which it is applicable. From this examination it is concluded that seriations may be inferred to be chronologies when and only when: (1) the comparisons are conducted using historical classes; (2) the units ordered are of comparable duration; (3) the units ordered are from the same cultural tradition; and (4) when the order is repeated through several independent seriations. The means of assessing whether or not a given seriation meets these conditions is considered in detail. Within specifiable limits seriations can be inferred to be chronologies, but these limits are more restricted than generally appreciated.
Early Man's Utilization of the Great Plains Environment
Authors: Wendorf Fred , Hester James J.
Published: April 2006

In this paper the results of several pollen analyses and related invertebrate studies are utilized in an attempt to reconstruct the nature of the Great Plains environment prior to and during the advent of man. A large sample of Early Man sites is then examined and conclusions are drawn concerning man's use of this environment. Specific problems considered include: the types of sites, where the sites are located, the types of animals hunted, hunting techniques, butchering techniques, and tool manufacture. It is concluded that the environment consisted of a savanna grassland with abundant ponds and streams bordered on the north and west by pine and occasional spruce trees. The stream valleys sheltered galleries of junipers and oaks. On this grassland lived large herds of Pleistocene animals now extinct. Climatic indicators suggest that the summers were cooler than today, with winters warmer than at present. A Paleo-Indian cultural tradition adapted to the utilization of this environment, primarily through big game hunting, was practiced on the Great Plains during the time interval represented by the Llano, Folsom, and Parallel Flaked horizons. During this entire interval, the type of sites, site situations utilized, hunting techniques, butchering techniques, and most of the tool inventory remained constant.
Copper Artifact Analysis with the X-Ray Spectrometer
Authors: Olsen Edward J.
Published: April 2006

The X-ray spectrometer method as an archaeological tool is discussed with special reference to its limitations as a chemical analytical instrument. Qualitative results are presented for six North American copper samples, one European trade brass, and nine artifacts from the Great Lakes region. From this pilot study it is concluded that the most fruitful results in the problem of the determination of provenance of copper artifacts will be obtained from semi-quantitative optical spectographic analyses of carefully collected artifacts and raw materials. The largest inherent error in this problem is that of meaningful sampling techniques. The only recourse is to treat such chemical data statistically and determine the probabilities that given specimens came from the various possible sources.
Additional Stone Carving from the North Highlands of Peru
Authors: Thompson Donald E.
Published: April 2006

Two carved stones depicting human heads are currently to be found at Huaylas in the Callejon de Huaylas, Peru. They represent a style so far unreported from the Callejon. The closest stylistic similarities are to be found in the Chavin style and in the unique monoliths at Cerro Sechin Temple in the Casma Valley.
Solid Core Drilling of Monks Mound: Technique and Findings
Authors: Reed Nelson A. , Bennett John W. , Porter James Warren
Published: April 2006

Solid core drilling was used to provide guidelines for future excavation of Monks Mound at the Cahokia site. The objective was to study, within reasonable limits of time and finances, the internal structure of the largest earthen mound in North America. The process is described along with a discussion of its problems and limitations as applied to similar archaeological situations. Radiocarbon dates indicate construction over approximately 250 years, from A.D. 900 to 1150. Evidence of construction stages is described and used to arrive at an estimate of labor figures and the necessary sustaining population of the Cahokia settlement. It is suggested that most of the mounds at the site were built after the completion of Monks Mound.
Pollen at Broken K Pueblo: Some New Interpretations
Authors: Hill James N. , Hevly Richard H.
Published: April 2006

Using data from a 100-room 13th-century Pueblo ruin in east-central Arizona, it is tentatively demonstrated that pollen evidence can be useful in dating areas within “single-component” sites and in determining the within-site locations of prehistoric activities or functions.
Some Aspects of Microscope Analysis and Photomicrography of Lithic Artifacts
Authors: MacDonald George F. , Sanger David
Published: April 2006

Interest in the use of microscopes for the analysis of lithic technology and functional interpretations has increased in recent years. Some minerals and rocks are more suitable than others for these studies. In order to communicate the observations made through the microscope, the archaeologist can use the microscope to take photomicrographs using relatively simple and inexpensive equipment.
A Flint Ballast Station in New Rochelle, New York
Authors: Rose F. Peter
Published: April 2006

The possibility of mistaking natural fractured flint stones for artifacts has always been problematic to researchers in the Old World and the New World. This problem increases ten-fold when artifact-like assemblages are collected from heaps of nonindigenous stone which was brought to the New World as ballast. Such a ballast station consisting of flint from the Thames in England and deposited in New Rochelle, New York, is described, and its ramifications are discussed.
Prehistoric Soil and Water Conservation on Chapin Mesa, Southwestern Colorado
Authors: Rohn Arthur H.
Published: April 2006

Intensive archaeological survey on Chapin Mesa in Mesa Verde National Park disclosed remains of soil and water conservation devices built and used by the Pueblo II and III inhabitants. Low stone masonry check-dams across intermittent drainages formed farming terraces, while associated seasonal field houses sheltered their tillers. Larger dams near clusters of house sites stored water for domestic use. Water from the extensive collection system for the largest of these, Mummy Lake, was subsequently led through the long Far View Ditch to the late Pueblo III Cliff-Fewkes Canyon cliff dwelling group. These various adaptations to an undependable environment may be symptomatic of the underlying causes for the ultimate abandonment of the Mesa Verde.
A Suggested Terminology and Classification for Burial Description
Authors: Sprague Roderick
Published: April 2006

A review of previous systems for describing the disposal of the dead reveals basic inconsistencies in terminology and logic. A new classification is proposed that not only utilizes concepts and terminology wherever possible but also attempts to eliminate non-mutually exclusive categories and ambiguous terminology. The system is summarized in outline form to facilitate the use of the scheme as a field checklist during the excavation of burials.
A Dugout Canoe from Renfrew County, Ontario
Authors: Mitchell Barry M. , Croft David A. , McQuade Donald W. , Hayes Father J.
Published: April 2006

A dugout canoe, with a rounded stern configuration, flat bottom, and no thwarts or seats, is reported from the Ottawa Valley in eastern Ontario, Canada. Its existence since the earliest settlement of the nearby village of Beachburg makes it probable that construction was before A.D. 1900.
“Hit-and-Run” Archaeology: A Rejoinder to Jett
Authors: Euler Robert C.
Published: April 2006

The paper “Grand Canyon Dam, Split-Twing Figurines, and ‘Hit-and-Run Archaeology,’ ” by Stephen C. Jett, which appeared in the July 1968 number of American Antiquity is replied to relative to the importance of “salvage” as opposed to “hit-and-run” archaeology, the fallacy of assuming archaeological knowledge on the basis of numbers of sites recorded in a region, and the value of proper popularization of archaeological data.
Postglacial Palynology and Archaeology in the Naknek River Drainage Area, Alaska
Authors: Heusser Calvin J.
Published: April 2006

Samples were collected from four excavations and three muskegs for palynological examination in connection with a study of human prehistory in the Naknek drainage area, upper Alaska Peninsula. The purpose was to reconstruct the sequence of environments dating back to the earliest recognizable cultural phase, close to 4000 B.P. Pollen diagrams for muskeg show birch and alder as the principal arboreal types. Increasing percentages of alder occur during a late interval of hypsithermal time dating about 5500 B.P. Birch thereafter gained in proportion and between approximately 5000 and 2500 B.P. achieved maxima. Subsequently percentages of birch declined. Pollen spectra disclose that migration of spruce from the interior into this area took place within recent centuries. A climate cooler and drier than at present is interpreted from the diagrams to have been in effect during the earliest cultural phase and probably lasted until about 2500 B.P. Later, climate became slowly warmer and increasingly more humid. Temperature, however, was at first lower than at present and, coupled with greater precipitation, presumably caused heavy snow accumulation in the Aleutian Range which resulted in glacial advances during recent centuries.
Inferences on the Use Position of San Dieguito Percussion-flaked Artifacts
Authors: Creutz E. , Moriarty J.
Published: April 2006

Thirty-one percussion-shaped tools from the San Dieguito complex of the southern California middens have been examined. On 30 of these tools facets apparently corresponding to several regions of the thumb and the first two fingers of the right hand have been identified, as well as clearance and rake angles at the cutting edges corresponding closely to those on modern cutting tools. One of the tools seems to have been intended for left-handed usage. The evidence indicates that these tools were shaped with great precision to fit the hand and to have efficient cutting edges. Statistics on the length of the facets and the mass and height of the tools, as well as on the angles of the working edges, are given.
Olmec and Chavin: Reply to Michael D. Coe
Authors: Lanning Edward P.
Published: April 2006

Starting with a similarity between an Olmec design and a specimen from Kotosh, Coe concludes that all New World civilizations derive from Olmec. This study, like others which would derive Peruvian civilization from Mesoamerican origins, is methodologically weak because it treats traits out of their archaeological context and because it assumes diffusion without considering alternative explanations of similarities.
Finger-Loops and Cruciform Objects
Authors: Johnson Ann S.
Published: April 2006

Ekholm's (1962) discovery that problematical U-shaped objects served as finger-loops for prehistoric atlatls permits two problematical objects from the La Playa site, Sonora, Mexico, to be properly identified as finger-loops. Similar attributes of the three, known, Sonoran finger-loops may indicate a Sonoran variety of this artifact.

The cruciform object is another problematical object found at La Playa. A search of the literature produced suggestive evidence that this artifact also may have been attached to prehistoric atlatls. The evidence which led to the formation of the hypothesis that cruciform objects were attached to atlatls, and some test implications of the hypothesis are presented.
The Production of Secondary Multiple Flakes
Authors: Jelinek Arthur J. , Bradley Bruce , Huckell Bruce
Published: April 2006

Flakes having superimposed positive and negative bulbs of percussion may be produced in two ways: by being struck from a core from which a primary flake has previously been struck, or by being produced simultaneously with the primary flake. Conditions are defined under which those produced in the latter fashion can occur by natural agency, and thus need not be diagnostic of human industry.
A Woodland “Mummy” from Salts Cave, Kentucky
Authors: Robbins Louise M.
Published: April 2006

A mummy, or rather, a dessicated body, from Salts Cave, Kentucky, has been subjected to a comprehensive analysis. Radiocarbon analysis of internal body tissue placed the individual in the Woodland cultural period. A careful dissection of the body cavity revealed the presence of all internal organs but, due to dehydration, in a collapsed form. The diet of the individual, and indirectly of the population, was determined from the contents of the fecal material in the lower intestine and colon. Examination of the external side of the body revealed the individual to be a male, and radiographic and dental evidence indicated that he was around nine years of age. Blood group studies are still somewhat inconclusive, but tests are being conducted to clarify that problem. This paper was originally presented at the 35th Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, Museo Nacional de Antropologia, Mexico, D.F.
Of the Stone Called Iztli
Authors: Feldman Lawrence H.
Published: April 2006

Recently, an article appeared in American Antiquity that attempted to correct and supplement Don E. Crabtree's ethnohistoric discussion of obsidian blade making. Unfortunately, this article did not probe as deeply as was possible into the available source material. As a supplement to a supplement, this note traces the antecedents of the sources given and provides relevant portions of those earlier texts.
A Long Architectural Sequence at Teotihuacán
Authors: Millon René , Bennyhoff James A.
Published: April 2006

A series of superimposed structures spanning the Preclassic, Classic and Postclassic periods was uncovered in 1959 in the Oztoyahualco zone of the ancient city of Teotihuacán in the Valley of Mexico. Superimposed structures spanning so long a period have not previously been found in the Valley. The earliest structures in the sequence are earth floors of the Tzacualli (Teotihuacán I) phase, beneath which were found a number of caches of broken pottery and other objects. These are followed by massive, concrete, ceremonial structures of the Xolalpan (Teotihuacán III) phase and above these are structures built after the fall of Teotihuacán. The nature and distribution of these successive structures is such as to suggest that the locality became sacred in Tzacualli times and maintained this sacred character even after the fall of Teotihuacán. The Tzacualli structures receive primary attention in the discussion because of their importance.
Paleolimnology and Prehistory
Authors: DeCosta John , Warren Claude N.
Published: April 2006

Archaeologists have failed to use all available data relevant to climatic changes and other environmental factors necessary for the reconstruction of paleoclimates. This neglect has fostered the continuance of significant problems of reconstruction and interpretation in archaeology. Paleolimnology can be helpful in elucidating some of these problems. Research of this sort has already provided valuable evidence for the advent of agricultural man in Austria, as well as providing data for the reconstruction of paleoclimates in other areas. While pollen analysis has traditionally been used as an indication of climatic change, certain aquatic micro-organisms manifest a more rapid and subtle response to slight climatic changes. Paleolimnological evidence can provide important data for paleoclimatic reconstruction in archaeology.
Unregulated Diffusion from Mexico into the Southwest Prior to A.D. 700
Authors: Schroeder Albert H.
Published: April 2006

It is suggested that the idea of a sedentary pattern of existence diffused into southern Arizona from lower western Mexico or Guatemala by way of the region west of the Sierra Madre. It is also suggested that this transmission occurred shortly after the introduction of a teosinte-infectedchapalotecorn into the Southwest, a type that was better suited to low, arid regions than the chapalote corn that preceded it. The spread of this sedentary complex from southern Arizona into other areas also is outlined.
An Early House from Chilca, Peru
Authors: Donnan Christopher B.
Published: April 2006

A semisubterranean cane and grass house was recently excavated at the site of Chilca on the central coast of Peru. The context in which it was found, as well as its associated radiocarbon date of 5370 ± 120 B.P., indicates that the house was made by early preceramic horticulturists. Seven burials were found inside. The remarkable state of preservation in which the house was found provided sufficient data for a full-scale reconstruction of the structure. This small, conical, beehive-type house is the earliest artificial shelter yet reported from Peru.
Peruvian Settlement Pattern Studies and Small Site Methodology
Authors: Moseley M. Edward , Mackey Carol J.
Published: April 2006

Settlement pattern research was introduced to Peruvian archaeology by Gordon R. Willey 2 decades ago. A critical review of this pioneering work points up a basic problem in the structure of analysis. The problem is generated by the use of a simple site taxonomy that is insensitive to the range of human activities that went on at different settlements. Examination of the subsequent course of settlement pattern research shows that this fundamental problem has not been recognized or dealt with in a constructive manner. The small site methodology is introduced as one possible means of treating sites in terms of the different activity patterns they housed.
Evidence for the Origins of the Pueblo Katchina Cult as Suggested by Southwestern Rock Art
Authors: Schaafsma Polly , Schaafsma Curtis F.
Published: April 2006

Rock art studies have indicated that the katchina cult and associated religious sodalities arrived in the Pueblo Southwest in the early 14th century from the Jornada region of the Mogollon. Recent studies of prehistoric Pueblo social organization suggest that population aggregation after A.D. 1150 led to the need for means of intravillage social integration. It is proposed that the arrival of the katchina cult and its widespread acceptance occurred in response to this need for intravillage integrative mechanisms.
Two Middle Preclassic Engraved Monuments at Tzutzuculi on the Chiapas Coast of Mexico
Authors: McDonald Andrew J.
Published: April 2006

Excavations by the BYU-New World Archaeological Foundation at the site of Tzutzuculi on the Chiapas coast of Mexico, revealed two engraved monuments flanking a central stairway of a late Middle Preclassic period pyramidal platform. This report focuses on these two monuments, discussing their context, dating, and style. The context at its most general level involves the corresponding platform complex, which in its layout has a general resemblance to the Olmec site of La Venta. As for the monuments-one a were-jaguar representation, the other a serpent-dragon figure-they too, in their style, are identified as being Olmec. Moreover, their combined imagery, possibly expressing a dualistic viewpoint, is consistent with other Olmec iconographic examples. At Tzutzuculi, however, this imagery has for the first time in Olmec form been found in direct association with platform building.
The Central Mexican Preclassic: Is There Really Disagreement?
Authors: Grove David C.
Published: April 2006

Archaeological data from Iglesia Vieja, Mexico, are discussed in terms of other published research. Rather than superseding and invalidating the research, the Iglesia Vieja data are seen to closely conform to current interpretations on the Early Preclassic in central Mexico.
The Need-Achievement Test Applied to the Hohokam
Authors: Rippeteau Bruce E.
Published: April 2006

Davies (1969) has applied the need-Achievement test of individual motivation in assessing the decline of Minoan Civilization. Such use of psychology for interpreting past events is potentially of great interest to anthropologically-oriented archaeologists. This paper, therefore, is a discussion of the theoretical aspects of such a proposition, a commentary on its previous applications, and a report of methodology and negative results for a similar test that I have applied to the prehistoric southwestern U.S. culture of the Hohokam.
Prehispanic Architecture and Sculpture in Central Yucatan
Authors: Potter David F.
Published: April 2006

Analysis of the style of architecture and related sculpture, contemporaneous with part of the Late Classic period, prevalent in what have traditionally been designated as the Rio Bee and Chenes regions of the Maya lowlands, suggests the advisability of reconsideration of these regional designations. The Rio Bee and Chenes styles cannot readily be differentiated either in time or space and are, therefore, appropriately no more than substyles in a wider Central Yucatan regional style. In this style, internal distinctions are markedly less than those between other regional styles of the Maya lowlands. Further, on the basis of these same architectural and sculptural considerations, the Central Yucatan style is more appropriately the first phase of the Florescent period of Yucatan than the middle of the Late Classic period of the Peten with which it is contemporaneous.
Cultural Hiatus in the Eastern Great Basin?
Authors: Aikens C. Melvin
Published: April 2006

The case recently made by Madsen and Berry (1975) for human abandonment of the entire eastern Great Basin between approximately 3200 and 1500 B.P. is critically reviewed. The stratigraphic and radiocarbon data on which their argument is based are shown to be inadequate to support it.
Get Them Young? Age and Sex Inferences on Animal Domestication in Archaeology
Authors: Collier Stephen , White J. Peter
Published: April 2006

The assumption that a high proportion of immature herd ungulates in an archaeological site indicates a domestic population implies (a) there is a 'natural' population structure common to all wild herds, and (b) predators will kill a representative sample of this population. We challenge these implications by demonstrating that wide variations occur in the population structures of non-domestic herds, in the vulnerability of age and sex classes to predation, and in the selective hunting of herd animals by predators, including man. We conclude that the initial assumption cannot be sustained.
Xeroradiography: A New Archaeological Tool
Authors: Heinemann S.
Published: April 2006

The use of xeroradiography as a new archaeological tool is illustrated in the study of ceramic, stone, and wood artifacts. A brief comparison with conventional x-ray is given.
9,700 Years of Maritime Subsistence on the Pacific: An Analysis by Means of Bioindicators in the North of Chile
Authors: Martinez Agustín Llagostera
Published: April 2006

In this report, conclusive archaeological data are disclosed that demonstrate that about 10,000 B.P. there were in America groups of people able to exploit the sea with remarkable effectiveness. In addition, through the analysis of the biological indicators of three coastal archaeological sites of different chronology, the continuity and the diachronic development of the maritime adaptation in the north of Chile is shown.
The Olmec in the Central Highlands: A Non-Quintessential Approach
Authors: Tolstoy Paul
Published: April 2006

A recent article by Grennes-Ravitz and Coleman includes several assertions that are not in keeping with the results of recent work in the Basin of Mexico discussed here.
Curation, Statistics, and Settlement Studies: A Reply to Munday and Lincoln
Authors: Bettinger Robert L.
Published: April 2006

Munday and Lincoln have questioned my interpretations of prehistoric human ecology in Owens Valley, California, on the grounds that they may be an artifact of curation and prehistoric disturbance and on the grounds that statistical tests suggest that my interpretation of settlement data is incorrect. Careful consideration of their arguments shows that curation would not produce the effects they suggest and that they misuse statistical inference and settlement data. Review of the evidence supports my original views.
Paradigms and the Nature of Change in American Archaeology
Authors: Meltzer David J.
Published: April 2006

Aspects of Kuhn's The Structure of Scientific Revolutions are discussed and criticized. Problems are pointed out in three general areas: the latitude Kuhn allows in the concept paradigm, his views on the nature of scientific change, and his notion of incommensurability and the accompanying problems of relativism. The utilization of Kuhn's model by archaeologists is then critiqued, with a focus on the varying interpretations of the paradigmatic state of the discipline. Finally, consideration is given to the recent changes in archaeology that have led to the claim that there has been a scientific revolution in the field. It is argued that those ostensibly fundamental changes are neither revolutionary nor particulary beneficial to a scientific archaeology.
On Explanation in Archaeology: A Rebuttal to Fritz and Plog
Authors: Levin Michael E.
Published: April 2006

This paper argues that the recommendation by Fritz and Plog-that archaeologists adopt the Deductive-Nomological model of scientific explanation-mistakes a conceptual explication for a substantive recommendation. This misinterpretation results in the recommendation of tautologies. The detailed examination of this misinterpretation leads to an investigation of logical inference, the justification of the D-N model, the theory-laden nature of archaeological classificatory predicates, the epistemic status of the laws involved in this data-language, and the relation of the Fritz-Plog research program to the problem of devising and verifying worthwhile hypotheses in archaeology.