bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
THE FEEDING HABITS OF CERTAIN LEAFHOPPERS
Authors: Putman WM. L.
Published: January 2010

The feeding habits of certain leafhoppers (Cicadellidae) are of particular importance, not only because of the diverse nature of the injury produced by different species, but primarily because a number of species are vectors of some very destructive plant viruses. An investigation of the feeding habits of certain species was undertaken to learn the nature of the injury within the host plant, especially the particular tissues fed upon and their relation to the external symptoms, and to bring out any features of the methods of feeding which might bear some relation to the transmission of viruses.
CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE MORPHOLOGY OF THE LARVAL ELATERIDAE (COLEOPTERA). NO. 2: AGRIOTES LIMOSUS LECONTE
Authors: Glen Robert
Published: January 2010

Agriotes limosus LeConte is the third North American species of Agriotes Eschscholtz for which the larva definitely is known. It is a woodland form and, therefore, of much less economic importance than the meadow-inhabiting species such as Agriotes mancus Say, the wheat wireworm, but it is of greater taxonomic significance since it lacks the characters that have been universally regarded as definitive of Agriotes larvae.
ON THE CHARACTERS OF TWO GENERA CLOSELY ALLIED TO EUPITHECIA (LEPIDOPTERA, GEOMETRIDAE)
Authors: McDunnough J.
Published: January 2010

Two generic names are at present in use for those North American species of the Eupithecia group which show specialized frontal development. Nasusina Pears. (1908, Can. Ent., XL, 344) was proposed for the species originally included in the European genus Gymnocelis Mab. by Hulst, with inferior Hlst. designated as genotype. Seven species, all with supposedly “nose-like prominence of the front”, were originally listed in the genus; later the same author (1909, Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash., XI, 119; 1910, op. cit. XII, 138) added several species, including two new ones.
THE SPECIES OF MATUS, A GENUS OF CARNIVOROUS WATER-BEETLES (COLEOPTERA, DYTISCIDAE)
Authors: Leech Hugh B.
Published: January 2010

The species ol the genus Matus are as yet known only from America north of Mexico and may be separated from all other Dytiscidae of this area by the following combination of characters: Length 7 to 9.5 mm.; color brownish-red to piceous; scutellum visible; eyes emarginate above the bases of the antennae; metatarsal claws of unequal length; prosternum and its process on a plane, almost flat, and with a longitudinal median sulcus.
NEW NEARCTIC CRANE-FLIES (TIPULIDAE, DIPTERA). PART XV.
Authors: Alexander Charles P.
Published: January 2010

The preceding part under this general title was published in 1940 (Can. Ent., 72:151-155). The new species described at this time were collected by Messrs. A. E. Brower, R. E. Nye, G. F. Knowlton and H. D. Pratt, and by Dr. Marion E. Smith. I am very greatly indebted to all of the above for the privilege of retaining the type specimens in my extensive collection of these flies.
A NEW COLEOPHORID OF THE METALLIC-WINGED GROUP
Authors: McDunnough J.
Published: January 2010

Palpi metallic blackish, smooth scaled, second joint with very slight apico-ventral tuft. Antennae simple, black, with apical seventh white, basal segments moderately swollen.
GLUPHISIA LINTNERI GROTE AND RELATED SPECIES (LEPIDOPTERA, NOTODONTIDAE)
Authors: Franclemont John G.
Published: January 2010

Ater several seasons of collecting, it has become evident that Gluphisia lintneri Grote and G. avimacula Hudson, which both occur at Ithaca, are not forms of the same species, as they do not fly at the same time, lintneri being on the wing about a month before avimacula, the former occurring in late April and the latter in late May, and this lapse of time between the two periods of flight of the forms does not constitute enough for the production of two broods.
STUDIES IN NEW WORLD PLECIA (DIPTERA, BIBIONIDAE) PART II
Authors: Hardy D. Elmo
Published: January 2010

The species discussed below have been received from the United States National Museum, the American Museum of Natural History, Cambridge Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cornell University, Michigan State College, British Museum of Natural History, and Deutsches Entomologisches Institute, or are in the Snow Entomological Collection at the University of Kansas. The writer is very grateful to these institutions for the privilege of studying this material. These species will be keyed and figured in a forthcoming revision of the New World Plecia.
ON A COLLECTION OF MYRIOPODS FROM IOWA
Authors: Chamberlin Ralph V.
Published: January 2010

The following notes pertain to a small but interesting collection of centipeds and millipeds made by Dr. D. T. Jones in central Iowa during the spring of 1941.
A NEW RACE OF PIERIS NAPI (L.) FROM NEW MEXICO (LEPIDOPTERA, PIERIDAE)
Authors: Burdick W. N.
Published: January 2010

Collecting in the mountains of central New Mexico during the early summer of 1940 produced a race of Pieris somewhat resembling Pieris napi pseudonapi B. & McD., but a comparative examination proves it to be different from that insect in quite a number of recognizable and distinct characteristics.
NOTES ON THE CICADIDAE OF ALBERTA
Authors: Tinkham E. R.
Published: January 2010

From time to time during the past, the writer has endeavored to collect cicadas in Alberta, his boyhood home, whenever the opportunity presented. Some of the specimens reported here were taken many years ago when the writer was still a boy; others were taken at a more recent date. The following note is written to bring up-to-date infnrmation concerning the cicada fauna of Alberta.
SYNONYMY OF SOME FLEAS FROM WESTERN NORTH AMERICA (SIPHONAPTERA)
Authors: Holland George P.
Published: January 2010

Continued study of the material in the flea collection at the Dominion Entomological Laboratory at Kamloops, B. C., has emphasized certain mistakes in the literature. Some of the more obvious of these are cited in the following notes.
AN APPARENTLY UNDESCRIBED GRAPTOLITHA FROM BRITISH COLUMBIA WITH NOTES (LEPIDOPTERA)
Authors: McDunnough J.
Published: January 2010

In checking over the material in our collection under Graptolitha torrida Sm. in connection with slides of the male genitalia I discovered that apparently two species were involved which could be readily separated on genitalic characters.
A SYNOPSIS OF THE GENUS ANONCIA, WITH ONE NEW SPECIES (COSMOPTERYGIDAE; LEPIDOPTERA)
Authors: Clarke J. F. Gates
Published: January 2010

In my paper on the North American Oecophoridae I transferred seven species from this family to the Cosmopterygidae and erected the new genus Anoncia for them. Since the completion of that paper I have had an opportunity to study Borkhausenia longa Meyrick and B. leucoritis Meyrick. These also belong in Anoncia and are hereby transferred to that genus. In addition, one new species has come to hand and is described below. This brings to ten the total number of known species from North America referable to Anoncia.
A NEW RACE OF PLEBEIUS LUPINI BDV. FROM THE OLYMPIC MOUNTAINS OF WASHINGTON (LEPIDOPTERA, RHOPALOCERA)
Authors: Burdick W. N.
Published: January 2010

Close to timberline in the northern part of the Olympic Mountains, particularly in the Gray Wolf Range of these mountains in the State of Washington, a small race of Plebeius lupini Bdv. occurs that is quite distinct in character. The Olympic Mountains, adjacent to the sea and snow-capped throughout the entire year, present quite a different environment to that which exists in the habitat of many insects.
THE REDISCOVERY OF EUMENIS STRECHII EDW. (LEPIDOPTERA, RHOPALOCERA)
Authors: Burdick W. N.
Published: January 2010

While collecting in Nevada during the summer of 1935 in the Toiyabe Range of Mountains, which rise to an elevation of almost 12,000 feet, and the southern end of which is approximately 75 miles north of Tonopah, I came across a colony of butterflies that have ever since caused me much speculation. From this colony and from another in the nearby Toquima Range, just across the Big Smokey Valley, I secured forty-seven specimens all of which are similar to one another but distinctly different from any other satyrid that I have encountered.
NEW DESCRIPTIONS OF LARVAE OF FOREST INSECTS; II, ANOMOGYNA (LEPIDOPTERA, PHALAENIDAE)
Authors: Brown A. W. A. , McGuffin W. G.
Published: January 2010

Antepenultimate Instar. Head width 1.4 mm. Body about 13 mm. long and 2 mm. wide. Crochets on first abdominal proleg number 14 to 16.

Penultimate Instar. Head width 1.7 to 2.0 mm. Body from 15 to 17 mm. long and about 2.5 mm. wide; ground colour medium to dark green, the moderately broad white dorsal line separated from the slightly broader white subdorsal lines by twice its width in ground colour; white patches, more conspicuous in anterior segments, immediately distad of each seta alpha; spiracular line dark green, subspiracular line white with a fringe of yellow.
A NEW SPECIES OF PSEUDEXENTERA FROM APPLE, WITH NOTES ON ALLIED SPECIES (OLETHREUTIDAE, LEPIDOPTERA)
Authors: Freeman T. N.
Published: January 2010

During the past two summers, we have captured and reared a species of Pseudexentera Heinr. which was breeding in large numbers on the wild apple trees of the Ottawa district. It was also commonly noticed flying around the hawthorn (Crataegus sp.) of this area, and while it was not reared from this plant it is probable that Crataegus is another food-plant.
THE SCIENTIFIC NAME OF THE COMMON BLUE MUD-DAUBER (HYMENOPTERA, SPHECIDAE)
Authors: Pate V. S. L.
Published: January 2010

The common blue mud-dauber of the United States and Canada is generally known as either Chalybion caeruleum Linnaeus or Chalybion cyaneum Fabricius (or Klug or Dahlbom). Both names are incorrect. This wasp was first described as Sphex caerulea by Johansson or Linnaeus in 1763 (Amoenitates Academicae, VI, p. 412).
A NEW CANADIAN SPECIES OF ASPHRAGIS (HYMENOPTERA, ICHNEUMONIDAE)
Authors: Walley G. Stuart
Published: January 2010

In 1925 Cushman (Jl. Wash. Acad. Sci., XV, 392) transferred Meniscus mirabilis Cress. to the genus Asphragis, and synonymized with it Asphragis pulcherrimus Ashm., Clistopyga pleuralis Ashm. and Meniscus ostentator Davis. Up to the present this species has constituted the only representative of the genus reported from the United States and Canada.
BOTTOM TYPE AS A FACTOR INFLUENCING THE LOCAL DISTRIBUTION OF MAYFLY NYMPHS
Authors: Linduska J. P.
Published: January 2010

During the fall and winter of 1938 the author conducted a brief study of the food habits of trout in Rattlesnake Creek, Missoula County, Montana. In the course of this investigation numerous bottom samples were taken, the final analysis of which yielded interesting but incomplete information concerning the distribution of several species of mayfly nymphs over part of the stream.
NOTES ON THE PREDACEOUS THRIPS HAPLOTHRIPS SUBTILISSIMUS HAL. AND AEOLOTHRIPS MELALEUCUS HAL.
Authors: Putman WM. L.
Published: January 2010

During a study of the predators of the oriental fruit moth (Grapholitha molesta Busck), the thrips Haplothrips subtilissmus (Hal.) was found destroying the eggs of the moth and also those of European red mite (Paratetranychus pilosus C. & F.).
DESCRIPTIONS OF NEW TRICHOPTERA FROM THE UNITED STATES
Authors: Denning Donald G.
Published: January 2010

A study of recently collected Trichoptera in the University of Minnesota Collection has yielded a number of new species. Several of these new species are described in the following paper. The types of all the new species described herein are deposited in the University of Minnesota Collection, unless otherwise stated.
NEW DESCRIPTIONS OF LARVAE OF FOREST INSECTS, IV, HERCULIA, TORTRIX, AND ARGYROTAENIA (LEPIDOPTERA, PYRALIDAE AND TORTRICIDAE)
Authors: Brown A. W. A. , McGuffin W. C.
Published: January 2010

Penultimate Instar. Head width 1.4 to 1.7 mm. Body length about 7 mm. Otherwise similar to ultimate instar.

Ultimate Instar. Head width 1.7 to 1.9 mm. Body about 17 mm. long and 2.5 mm. in width; fusiform in general shape, each segment divided by a transverse fold into a broader anterior and narrower posterior portion; skin closely covered with minute hexagonal pits; ground colour light greyish-brown, with five well-defined longitudinal lines, as follows: a narrow dark grey middorsal line fading posteriorly, two wide grey-brown subdorsal lines, and two interrupted brown supraspiracular lines; oblique outfolded ridges in subspiracular position, separated by deep, infolded wrinkles, which are darkly pigmented and bear irregularly scattered pits, one series of these wrinkles forming a fine interrupted suprapodal line, the venter light brown.
THE LARVA AND PUPA OF HERCULIA INTERMEDIALIS WLK. (PYRALIDAE, LEPIDOPTERA)
Authors: Dethier V. G.
Published: January 2010

Three specimens of the last instar larva of Herculia intermedialis Wlk. were collected in the debris of sawdust, spider silk, etc. accumulated under a loose piece of bark on the trunk of a standing pine (Pinus rigida Mill.). These hibernating larvae were taken at Buzzards Bay, Mass., on the nineteenth of April. When disturbed the larvae wriggled backwards and dropped to the ground on a thread of silk. Prior to pupation, which occurred April 21, the caterpillars ate a quantity of bark and rotten wood. Just what their true food is remains to be discovered.
TORTRICID NOTES AND DESCRIPTIONS
Authors: McDunnough J.
Published: January 2010

Looks much like a very small melanosticta Wlshm.

Palpi with basal portion of second joint and entire third joint blackish, otherwise largely creamy, especially largely creamy, especially beneath. Head and collar dull brownish. Thorax largely blackish with apical half of patagia creamy, tipped with brown. Primaries with basal and median areas predominantly blackish, overlaid with an admixture of whitish, brown and leaden-colored scaling, the latter most noticeable on inner margin at base.
TWO NEW SPECIES OF DRAGONFLIES COLLECTED BY MRS. ALICE L. DIETRICH IN MISSISSIPPI
Authors: Needham James G.
Published: January 2010

Among the dragonflies of a fine collection made by Mrs. Dietrich in Mississippi and recently presented to Cornell University, there are two new species of Gomphus that she has modestly asked me to describe.
LARVAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CERTAIN ELM BARK INFESTING COLEOPTERA
Authors: Wallace Philip P. , Beard Raimon L.
Published: January 2010

There commonly occur in the bark of decadent elms certain species of coleopterous larvae which are often difficult to distinguish unless they can be positively associated with their maternal egg gallery. In handling large numbers of these larvae for precise experimental purposes and in field work, satisfactory criteria for exact identification consisting of definite external morphological characters, capable of rapid use, are necessary.
NEW NORTH AMERICAN TACHINIDAE BELONGING TO THE GENERA MICROCHAETINA AND HYPENOMYIA WITH KEY TO THE KNOWN SPECIES (DIPTERA)
Authors: Reinhard H. J.
Published: January 2010

The genera here under consideration are largely western and southwestern in distribution. Little or nothing is known concerning their biology or host relationships. Characters common to both genera include the following among others: eyes bare; parafacials setose to bristled; facial ridges practically bare; epistoma narrow and somewhat elongated; arista short plumose; propleura bare; prosternum setose; apical cell closed with long petiole reaching costa far before wing tip; costal spine large; sides of postnotum beneath calypters haired.
NOTES ON PANTHEINAE (LEPIDOPTERA, PHALAENIDAE)
Authors: McDunnough J.
Published: January 2010

I am by no means certain that flavicornis Sm. can be considered distinct specifically from propinquilinea Grt. Originally described as Demas flavicornis from a New Jersey specimen in the Graef Collection (which should now be in the United States National Museum) it was probably considered distinct from Grote's species, described under Charadra, on generic characters.
NEW RECORDS AND NOTES OF SALTATORIA (ORTHOPTERA) IN ONTARIO
Authors: Urquhart F. A.
Published: January 2010

Oecanthus pini Beutenmuller. Since O. pini is known to range from Massachusetts west to Ohio and south to North Carolina, it is not surprising to find it in extreme southern Ontario. The specimens here recorded were found on white pine (Pinus strobus L.), red pine (Pinus resinosa Sol. and jack pine (Pinus Banksiana Lam.) in an area devoted to reforestation.
THE AMERICAN SPECIES OF PHYTODECTA KBY. (COLEOPTERA, CHRYSOMELIDAE)
Authors: Brown W. J.
Published: January 2010

Phytodecta Kby. is represented in the Western Hemisphere by four or five species which occur in Canada and in northern United States. The species are poorly represented in collections, and they have been confused with European species by most authors. They have been reviewed by Schaeffer (1924, Jour. New York Ent. Soc., XXXII, 138-140), but because the antennal and color characters used by Schaeffer fail and because the food plant records are incorrect, another synopsis seems desirable.
Abortion Counseling
Authors: Geller Pamela A.
Published: January 2010

Induced abortion is the deliberate termination of a pregnancy and is subcategorized into therapeutic and elective.
Therapeutic abortion
is performed following medical advisement in order to save the life of the pregnant woman, preserve the woman's physical or mental health, prevent the birth of a child with a congenital disorder that would be fatal or associated with significant morbidity, or selectively reduce the number of fetuses to lessen health risks associated with multiple conceptions.
Elective abortion
is the termination of a pregnancy performed for any other reason.
Acculturation
Authors: Okazaki Sumie
Published: January 2010

Acculturation is commonly understood as a process of change that results from prolonged cultural contact. The anthropologists Redfield, Linton, and Herskovits (1936) defined acculturation as “those phenomena which result when groups of individuals having different cultures come into continuous firsthand contact, with subsequent changes in the original culture patterns of either or both groups” (p. 149). The modern concept of acculturation traces its disciplinary roots to anthropology and sociology, where scholars sought to understand the effects of cultural contacts arising from various forms of colonization, immigration, and modernization taking place during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.
Achievement Need
Authors: Pang Joyce S.
Published: January 2010

Achievement Need (
n
Ach) is a recurrent concern to excel or to do better at a task for the intrinsic satisfaction of doing better. It is measured using nondeclarative measures such as the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), or more commonly using the Picture Story Exercise (PSE; McClelland, Koestner, & Weinberger, 1989). McClelland, Atkinson, Clark, and Lowell (1953) created the content‐coding system for
n
Ach that includes major coding subcategories for the presence of a wish, need, or goal related to competition with a standard of excellence, for positive emotional reaction after a successful achievement outcome, and for reference to a unique accomplishment.
Addiction
Authors: McCrady Barbara S. , Glynn Lisa Hagen
Published: January 2010

Addiction is a term widely used to indicate any type of excessive repetitive involvement with an activity or substance, and colloquially it is applied as readily to exercise, eating chocolate, and computer gaming as to alcohol, methamphetamine, or heroin use. Such broad use of the term detracts from its technical value, and thus in this entry
addiction
will be used to refer only to substance use disorders.
Adult Intellectual Development
Authors: Schaie K. Warner
Published: January 2010

Why do some individuals retain their behavioral competence well into advanced old age, whereas others show early decline? This question has long been a central topic in the psychology of adult development and aging. Five central questions and relevant research findings address this issue: (1) Does intelligence change uniformly through adulthood or are there different life‐course ability patterns? (2) At what age is there a reliably detectable decrement in ability, and what is the magnitude of that decrement? (3) What are the patterns of generational differences, and what are their magnitudes? (4) What accounts for individual differences in age‐related changes in adulthood; and (5) Can cognitive decline in old age be reversed?
Advertising Psychology
Authors: Pfeiffer Bruce E. , Kardes Frank R.
Published: January 2010

Consumer psychologists utilize psychological concepts to understand, influence, and predict consumer behavior. Of these concepts, the study of attitude formation and change are of particular interest. Marketers use a wide variety of advertisements to attempt to persuade consumers to buy their products and services. These “ads” can be classified in terms of the type of attitude they are designed to change and in terms of consumers' regulatory focus (Kardes, 2005). People regulate themselves or control their behavior by focusing on information that is most relevant to their goals.
Affiliation Need
Authors: Chapman Stephanie G. , Schwartz Jonathan P.
Published: January 2010

Theorists of personality and social psychology have long speculated about the processes involved in motivating individuals toward relationships with others. In the 1930s Henry Murray (1893–1988) and his multidisciplinary team at Harvard University studied the personality traits of 51 young men and produced one of the first major systematic studies of human personality. Stemming from this research was the landmark
Explorations in Personality
(Murray, 1938), which cataloged more than 20 human motives or “needs,” one of which was the need for affiliation (
n
Aff). Murray's research program in personality formed the basis for several early personality tests, including the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT; Morgan & Murray, 1935), which assesses a dimension of need affiliation.
Aggression
Authors: Vitale Jennifer E.
Published: January 2010

The most widely accepted definitions of aggression define it as behavior that is intended to injure another individual, physically or psychologically. Within this definition, a number of important subtypes are identified. First, a distinction is made between hostile or reactive aggression, which is aggression arising from feelings of anger or hostility, and instrumental aggression, which is aggression that arises in service of goal attainment (e.g., armed robbery).
Aging, Physiological and Behavioral Concomitants of
Authors: Edelstein Barry A. , Goodie Jeffrey L. , Martin Ronald R.
Published: January 2010

Aging is accompanied by many physiological changes, with behavioral and psychological concomitants. To illustrate, we describe selected age‐related physiological changes in two sensory systems (vision and hearing) and in the cardiovascular and musculoskeletal systems, and we review the resulting effects of these changes on behavioral and psychological phenomena. Readers should note that many of these changes are not inevitable consequences of aging.
A
insworth,
M
ary
D
.
S
alter (1913–1999)
Authors: Brown Sheldon S.
Published: January 2010

Mary Ainsworth received a B.A., M.A., and Ph.D. (1939) from the University of Toronto. She was appointed Assistant Professor at University of Toronto (1946), Professor at Johns Hopkins University (1963), Commonwealth Professor at University of Virginia (1975), and was an Emeritus Professor after 1984. Ainsworth devoted a lifetime of research to the study of infant‐mother relationships. She introduced a 20‐minute, controlled laboratory technique called the “strange situation,” which provides a widely used measure of child‐mother attachment.
Alpha Rhythms
Authors: Sand Trond
Published: January 2010

Ensembles of synchronously active cortical neurons generate electromagnetic field potentials that can be measured by electroencephalography (EEG) or magnetoencephalography (MEG). The alpha frequency band is defined to be between 8 and 13 Hz (Berger, 1929). The classical alpha rhythm is prominent at electrodes overlying the occipital (visual) cortex and to a lesser extent over the posterior temporal and parietal areas. Alpha rhythm occurs in a condition of relaxed wakefulness with eyes closed. The alpha rhythm disappears gradually during drowsiness, and different types of alpha activity appear in rapid eye movement (REM) sleep.
Ambivalence
Authors: McGregor Ian
Published: January 2010

The quest for unified thought is a consistent theme in philosophical and psychological traditions. Ancient Greeks from Pythagoras to Plato equated optimal well‐being with absence of psychological conflict. Plato famously depicted virtue as arising from reason's skill at harnessing the potentially opposing “horses” of the will (spiritual versus sensual). Classic psychological theory and research on ambivalence emphasizes the neuroses that can arise from being of two minds and feeling torn between opposing inclinations. For example, Freud claimed that ambivalent feelings about sex or aggression caused neurotic feelings and reactions, and his contemporary, Eugen Bleuler, extended this view to position ambivalence as the primary basis for mental disorders.
American Psychological Association
Authors: Pickren Wade E.
Published: January 2010

In July 1892, G. Stanley Hall (1844–1924) met with a small group of men to discuss the possibility of organizing a psychological association. Hall and the group elected 31 individuals, including themselves, to membership, naming Hall as the first president. In organizing a disciplinary society, psychologists were following the lead of new scholarly and scientific disciplines like physiology, political science, and history. This was the time in America's history when many of the disciplines were establishing their identity and defining themselves. This was part of a reorganization of American knowledge production, reflecting a division of intellectual labor similar to the division of manufactory labor. Like its fellow disciplines, the new psychology grew and prospered as it responded to the needs of American society.
American Psychosomatic Society
Authors: Lovallo William R.
Published: January 2010

Founded in 1942, the American Psychosomatic Society (APS) was one of the first medical societies to be dedicated to the integration of biology, psychology, and social factors in medicine. This integration grew out of an understanding that the state of the mind could influence the health of the body, as shown by twentieth‐century physiologists, including Walter Cannon. Psychosomatic concepts also grew out of observations by psychoanalysts of patients who had physical symptoms that were not explained by purely medical causes. Drawing upon these insights, the APS was formed through the work of a New York Academy of Medicine committee headed by Dr. Helen Flanders Dunbar, a pioneer trained in medicine and religion, who compiled a bibliography of the “psychosomatic” medical literature, published in 1935 as “Emotions and Bodily Changes.” In 1936, the Josiah Macy, Jr., Foundation began financial support for psychosomatic studies and, along with the National Health Council in 1939, underwrote the publication of a new journal,Psychosomatic Medicine. The APS was subsequently formed as a medical society and held its first Annual Meeting in New York in 1942.
Amnesia
Authors: Keane Margaret M. , Verfaellie Mieke
Published: January 2010

Our current understanding of amnesia owes much to the study of the patient HM, who in 1953, at the age of 26, underwent bilateral removal of structures in the medial temporal lobe (MTL) for treatment of intractable epilepsy. The surgery was largely successful in controlling his seizures, and it did not affect his sense of personal identity, his general fund of knowledge, or his social skills, but it left him with a global amnesia—he had a profound impairment in the ability to form new memories for events and information that he encountered after his surgery (Corkin, 1984). Thus, for example, he could not remember the plot of a movie he saw recently, could not recall what he ate at his last meal, and could not recognize the names or faces of new acquaintances. In the laboratory, HM showed profound impairments in recalling or recognizing recently presented lists of words, pictures, and other stimuli. He also showed impaired recall of events prior to his surgery, but could retrieve memories from his early life, prior to about age 16. With insights gleaned from studies of HM and subsequently from other amnesic individuals, we have achieved a more complete understanding not only of the amnesic syndrome, but also of the functional and neural architecture of normal human memory.
Analysis of Variance
Authors: Cardinal Rudolf N.
Published: January 2010

Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was initially developed by R. A. Fisher, beginning around 1918, and had early applications in agriculture. It is now a dominant and powerful statistical technique used extensively in psychology. In ANOVA, a dependent variable is predicted by a mathematical model comprising one or more predictor variables, which may be categorical (factors) or quantitative and continuous (covariates; regressors). The model's best prediction is calculated by minimizing the sum of the squared residuals (errors, or deviations from the model's prediction). Having done this, the proportion of variance in the dependent variable accounted for by each predictor is assessed statistically, testing the null hypotheses that the mean of the dependent variable does not vary with the predictor(s); good predictors account for a large proportion of the variance, compared to unpredicted (error) variance, and poor predictors account for a small proportion. ANOVA allows the effects of predictors to be assessed in isolation, but it also allows the assessment of interactions between predictors (effects of one predictor that depend on the values of other predictors).
Anorexia Nervosa
Authors: Keel Pamela K.
Published: January 2010

Anorexia nervosa is a mental disorder defined by deliberate self‐starvation resulting in body weight below a minimum level necessary for health. In current diagnostic systems, such as the
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM‐IV‐TR; American Psychiatric Association [APA], 2000), additional features include an intense fear of gaining weight or becoming fat, misperception or undue influence of weight or shape on self evaluation or denial of the seriousness of low weight, and, in postmenarcheal females, loss of three consecutive menstrual cycles. Of note, no definition provides a single threshold by which to evaluate low weight. In the DSM‐IV‐TR, weight less than 85% of that expected is provided as an example for diagnosis.
Anthropomorphism
Authors: Kwan Virginia S. Y. , Johnson Kathryn , Neel Becca , Cohen Adam B.
Published: January 2010

Anthropomorphism is the attribution of humanlike characteristics to real or imagined nonhuman agents. The word anthropomorphism derives from Greek and, literally translated, means humanlike (ánthrpos) in shape or form (morphos). In our daily lives, we do not have different languages to describe humans versus nonhumans. Therefore, humanlike characteristics are often used in a metaphorical sense to facilitate understanding (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980). For example, we might say our car refuses to start, but this does not require that we actually think the car has ill intentions. Nevertheless, anthropomorphism may have important psychological and social ramifications. In some cases, anthropomorphic agents may be thought of as actual persons in the lives of those for whom they are real. These personified agents may be deemed to have rights, responsibilities, or the potential for social interactions.
Anxiety
Authors: Otto Michael W. , Calkins Amanda W. , Hearon Bridget A.
Published: January 2010

Anxiety is a future‐oriented emotional state characterized by a sense of apprehension, worry, and lack of control of one's own affective response. Anxiety should be differentiated from fear, a distinct and basic emotion that is best conceptualized as a primitive alarm in response to present danger. In contrast, anxiety is concerned with future threat, and although feelings of apprehension predominate, the emotional state of anxiety may be accompanied by a diffuse mix of shame, guilt, excitement, anger, or sadness. Anxiety tends to be a motivating force. It leads people to both intensify and narrow the focus of their attention to the perceived source of threat. If channeled into constructive activity, anxiety can be the source of motivation for problem solving, creativity, or other forms of adaptive change. However, anxiety may also interfere with performance. This is especially true for stronger feelings of anxiety and for more complex tasks where less‐aroused states may be required for careful evaluation or problem solving.
Anxiety Disorders
Authors: Antony Martin M.
Published: January 2010

Anxiety Disorders are among the most prevalent of psychological disorders, affecting up to 20% of the population. The key features shared by anxiety disorders include excessive or unrealistic fear and anxiety, avoidance of feared objects and situations, and excessive attempts to reduce discomfort or to protect oneself from potential threat. In addition, for an anxiety disorder to be diagnosed, the person has to report clinically significant distress over having the anxiety symptoms, or the symptoms have to cause significant interference in the individual's life. Indeed in severe cases, people with anxiety disorders may be unable to work, develop relationships, or even leave their homes. Anxiety disorders often pose an enormous burden on society. For example, they often lead to lower work productivity and considerable increases in health care utilization (Kessler, Ruscio, Shear, & Wittchen, 2009).
Art Therapy
Authors: Wadeson Harriet
Published: January 2010

“ ‘ I could draw it,’ a dreamer often says to us, ‘but I don't know how to say it.’ ” So said Sigmund Freud (1963, p. 90). Considering that Freud regarded dreams to be “the royal road to the unconscious,” it is surprising that he did not ask his patients to do so.
Asian Psychologies
Authors: Walsh Roger
Published: January 2010

Until recently, most Western mental health professionals usually assumed that their own psychologies and therapies were the only ones worthy of serious consideration, but fortunately this ethnocentric attitude is changing rapidly. Here we will limit discussion to four Asian psychologies—the yogic and Buddhist psychologies of India, and the Taoist and neo‐Confucian systems of China—which despite their differences, also display significant commonalities.
Asperger Syndrome
Authors: Hunter Scott J. , Malzer Valerie
Published: January 2010

Asperger syndrome (AS; also identified as Asperger's disorder) is a pervasive developmental disorder thought to be closely related to autism. Although first conceptualized in 1944 by Austrian pediatrician Hans Asperger, one year after the independent description of autism by Leo Kanner, AS did not gain wide recognition diagnostically until the early 1980s (Wing, 1981). It has since come to be accepted as a specific neurodevelopmental disorder in its own right within the psychiatric, psychological, and developmental fields (American Psychiatric Association [APA], 2000). AS is generally conceptualized as one endpoint along the autism disorder spectrum; however, there remains significant debate about where AS falls along the continuum of autism spectrum disorders, and more specifically about its relationship to high‐functioning autism (HFA), with which it is often compared and contrasted (Ghaziuddin, 2008).
Association for Behavior Analysis International
Authors: Critchfield Thomas S.
Published: January 2010

The Association for Behavior Analysis International (ABAI) is a nonproft membership organization with the mission to develop, enhance, and support the growth and vitality of behavior analysis through research, education, and practice. Behavior analysis is an approach to the science of behavior that emphasizes behaviorist epistemologies and methods. ABAI was founded in 1974 as a result of concerns that this approach to behavior science did not receive adequate consideration from existing professional audiences. Similar concerns gave rise, at around the same time, to the founding of two major behavioral journals,
Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior
and
Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis
.
Athletic Coaching
Authors: Smith Ronald E. , Smoll Frank L.
Published: January 2010

At all levels of sport, coaches function as educators, leaders, and strategists. In these roles, they can strongly influence the performance and personal development of the athletes with whom they come in contact. In the United States alone, an estimated 41 million children participate in nonschool programs, and another 6 to 7 million in interscholastic sports. Others participate at more elite levels, in intercollegiate, or professional sports. The teaching techniques coaches employ, the goal priorities they establish, the values they exhibit and reinforce, and the relationships they form with athletes in this important domain of athletic involvement have all been topics that have attracted the attention of psychological researchers.
Attachment Disorders
Authors: Campion Caroline , Zeanah Charles H.
Published: January 2010

Attachment describes the human infant's tendency to seek comfort, support, nurturance, and protection from a relatively small number of preferred caregivers or attachment figures. The capacity to form an attachment is not present at birth, but develops over time. Although infants in the first 6 months are able to distinguish among different interactive partners, they do not express an obvious preference for one caregiver over another. All of this changes at around 7 to 9 months of age. At that point, infants begin to exhibit stranger wariness and separation protest, two behaviors that herald the onset of focused attachment. Stranger wariness varies from mild reticence to outright distress, but it contrasts with the infant's comfort with an attachment figure, from whom the infant seeks comfort, support, nurturance, and protection. Separation protest describes the infant's reaction to actual or anticipated separation from an attachment figure. After these two behaviors appear, infants are attached to one or more caregivers. Once infants have developed the cognitive capacity to exhibit separation protest and stranger wariness, they may form new attachments with any caregivers with whom they have significant interactive experiences.
Attachment Styles
Authors: Reyes Gilbert
Published: January 2010

Unraveling the nature of the bonds that form between people and identifying the sources of variation in the relational characteristics observed across groups of people are prominent topics in the social sciences. One approach to explaining and predicting the variations in close personal relationships is to classify individuals based on consistent patterns of interpersonal behavior and emotional reactions to relational partners. A variety of typologies based on Bowlby's (1969) attachment theory have been proposed for classifying interpersonal tendencies according to prototypical categories known as attachment styles. Attachment styles have been classified categorically on the basis of observed behavioral differences in response to controlled situations, by inference from responses to structured interviews, and from scores derived from responses to multiple‐choice questionnaires.
Attention‐Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
Authors: Schweitzer Julie B.
Published: January 2010

Attention‐Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is characterized by persistent and chronic inattention and/or excessive motor restlessness and impulsivity. Inattentive symptoms include poor organizational skills, making careless errors, forgetfulness, trouble listening, and distractibility. Hyperactive/impulsive symptoms include restlessness, excessive talking, and interrupting. For the purpose of diagnosis, symptom manifestation should be developmentally inappropriate and exhibited in two or more settings (e.g., home and school). Much of the research in the past decade has focused on deficits associated with the disorder in regard to executive function, response inhibition, cognitive control, and motivational dysfunction in response to delayed reinforcers.
Attitudes
Authors: Visser Penny S.
Published: January 2010

Psychologists use the term
attitude
to refer to a general evaluation that an individual holds regarding a particular entity, such as an object, an issue, or a person. An individual may hold an extremely favorable attitude toward a particular political candidate, for example, and a mildly unfavorable attitude toward another candidate. Thus, attitudes vary in valence as well as extremity, and they reflect an individual's overall summary evaluation of an attitude object. Attitudes toward the countless objects that we encounter in our day‐to‐day lives are stored in memory, and they remain at least somewhat stable over time. In this way, attitudes are different from fleeting, momentary evaluative responses to an object. In addition, attitudes are specific to particular objects, unlike diffuse evaluative reactions like moods or dispositions.
Australia, Psychology in
Authors: Gordon Amanda
Published: January 2010

The history of psychology in Australia is relatively well documented. It was highly influenced in its early years by British psychology, and indeed the early psychologists formed an Australian chapter of the British Psychological Society as their learned society and primary professional body. It was only in 1966 that the Australian Psychological Society, with its own charter, Code of Ethics, and accreditation and standards committees came into being, with a resounding vote from the Australian members to become independent. Since those early days, the Australian Psychological Society has grown into a strong peak professional and scientific body in Australia, with more than 17,000 members in 2008 (approximately 60% of all psychologists in the country). The Australian Psychological Society is consulted by government and nongovernment organizations and by the media on the broad range of issues affecting psychologists and the general community, and for expert comment and advice on various psychological issues that arise.
Authoritarianism
Authors: Suedfeld Peter
Published: January 2010

Authoritarianism is one of the most studied and most controversial concepts in personality, social, and political psychology. It also has wide usage in political discourse, as, for example, in the distinction between authoritarian and totalitarian regimes. It has entered the general vocabulary: a Google search finds more than one‐and‐a‐half million references to the word.
Behavior Problems of Childhood and Adolescence
Authors: Hinshaw Stephen P.
Published: January 2010

During the long process of maturation, nearly all youth have transitory problems of adjustment, behavior, and emotion. Parents of preschoolers often lament their children's tantrums, shyness, and unruliness; families of teenagers worry about rebellion, lack of academic motivation, and temptation for drugs and alcohol. Although such problems typically resolve with further development, when issues related to impulse control, emotion regulation, or behavioral deportment are quite extreme for the child's age and when they interfere with schooling and academic achievement, family life, or the attainment of independence, referrals may be made for diagnosis of a psychological or psychiatric condition. In fact, serious levels of problem behavior are usually not short‐lived. The subject of this entry is the nature, etiology, and treatment of such clinical‐range problems.
Behavioral Assessment
Authors: O'Brien William H. , Oemig Carmen
Published: January 2010

Behavioral assessment is an approach to the measurement and understanding of human behavior that is founded on several fundamental assumptions. These assumptions also differentiate behavioral assessment from other assessment approaches such as personality assessment and projective assessment. The first and most important assumption is functional contextualism (Hayes, 2004; Haynes & O'Brien, 2000; O'Brien & Schwetschenau, 2008). This assumption posits that target behaviors (cognitive, emotional, and overt‐motor responses that are the focus of treatment) are not randomly emitted, but occur as a function of context variables that can be thought of as a collection of causal influences. Some of these causal influences arise from internal experiences (e.g., thoughts and feelings) while other causal influences arise from external sources such as interpersonal interactions and nonsocial environmental events (e.g., temperature).
Behavioral Observation
Authors: Tryon Warren W.
Published: January 2010

This article provides a brief introduction to the methodology, applications, and analysis associated with behavioral observation and is accordingly divided into three sections.
Bem Sex Role Inventory
Authors: Malloy Thomas E.
Published: January 2010

In the early 1970s psychologists questioned the assumption that masculinity (i.e., agency) and femininity (i.e., communion) were opposite ends of a one‐dimensional continuum. Rather, masculinity and femininity were conceptualized as independent dimensions; an individual could have a score on each. The Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) is based on the theory that individuals differ in the extent to which masculinity and femininity are the basis for a cognitive schema that affects the processing of information and behavior.
Beta and Gamma Rhythms
Authors: Leung L. Stan
Published: January 2010

Beta and gamma rhythms were first studied in the human electroencephalogram (EEG) recorded from the scalp. Beta waves of >13 Hz appear in the occipital EEG when the eyes are open, as first reported by Hans Berger who also named the 8–12 Hz alpha rhythm (Niedermeyer, 2005). As used by neuroscientists, beta typically designates 13 to ∼30 Hz and gamma describes ∼30 to 100 Hz, including the 40‐Hz oscillations, while higher frequency activities are called ripples (∼100–500 Hz). Beta, gamma, and ripple EEGs are of relatively low amplitude (<30 μV) in the EEG, and quantification normally requires computer analysis, with careful separation from muscle and 50–60 Hz electrical power artifacts. Other than in the EEG, gamma and beta activities can be found in the magnetoencephalogram (MEG), local field potentials, extracellular neuronal unit firings, and intracellularly recorded membrane potentials. Spontaneous (steady‐state), evoked, and induced gamma rhythms are distinguished. Spontaneous rhythm occurs without stimulation, evoked gamma activity is time‐locked to the stimulus, and induced gamma is increased by the stimulus but not time‐locked to it.
Bibliotherapy
Authors: Febbraro Greg A. R.
Published: January 2010

Bibliotherapy is a self‐help technique presented in the written format of a book or track. Although the term bibliotherapy can refer to the use of any literary work, including fiction and inspirational forms of literature, it typically involves the use of nonfiction books, manuals, or pamphlets that provide information while encouraging or guiding the person to make some type of change (Campbell & Scott, 2003). Bibliotherapy is currently the primary type of media‐based (e.g., books, manuals, audiotapes, or some combination of these formats) self‐help approach (Watkins, 2008).
B
inet,
A
lfred (1857–1911)
Authors: Lundin Ralph W.
Published: January 2010

Alfred Binet took his first degree in law in Paris. While in Paris he became acquainted with Jean Charcot and studied hypnosis under him. His interests changed to the natural sciences, in which he received his second degree. He became particularly interested in the higher mental processes of humans.