bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Estimation of Correlation and Path Coefficient Analysis for Quantitative Characters in Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus L. Moench) Genotypes
Authors: B. Vinod , Lal Gaibriyal M.
Published: August 2023

The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the genetic variability and parameters such as genotypic coefficient of variation (GCV), phenotypic coefficient of variation (PCV), heritability, genetic advance, as well as perform correlation and path analyses on 20 different okra genotypes, including one check variety. The experiment was conducted during the kharif season of 2022 at the experimental farm of the Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, Naini Agricultural Institute, Sam Higginbottom University of Agriculture, Technology and Sciences in Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh. A randomized block design with three replications was employed for the study. Thirteen characteristics were observed and recorded, which includes: days to first flowering, days to 50% flowering, length of mature fruit (cm), diameter of fruit (cm), average fruit weight (gm), internodal length (cm), number of nodes on the main stem, number of primary branches, plant height (cm), number of fruits per plant, number of seeds per fruit, seed index (gm), and fruit yield per plant (gm). Azad Bhindi-1 exhibited the highest mean performance in terms of fruit yield per plant among all the genotypes. The PCV values were consistently higher than the corresponding GCV values for all traits, indicating the influence of environmental factors on trait expression. Fruit yield per plant and number of primary branches displayed the highest GCV and PCV values. The number of primary branches exhibited both high heritability and genetic advance. The correlation analysis revealed a positive and significant association between number of fruits per plant and fruit yield per plant at both the genotypic and phenotypic levels. The traits with the highest positive direct effects on fruit yield per plant were obsereved for average fruit weight and plant height, as determined through genotypic and phenotypic path analysis. These identified traits can serve as effective selection criteria for strategizing an efficient breeding programme to enhance fruit yield in okra.
Response of Biofertilizer and Foliar Spray of Boron on Growth and Yield of Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.)
Authors: Dhote Pranay P. , Mehera Biswarup , Kumar Prateek , Kumbhare Sahil , Nachiketa
Published: August 2023

A field experiment was carried out at Crop Research Farm, Naini Agriculture Institute, Department of Agronomy, Sam Higginbottom University of Agriculture, Technology and Sciences, Prayagraj during Rabi, 2022 on sandy loamy soil. The experiment was laid out in Randomized Block Design, Replicated thrice, consisting of ten treatments i.e., Rhizobium 20 g   +   Boron 0.25%, Rhizobium 20 g   + Boron 0.5%, Rhizobium 20 g   + Boron 0.75%, PSB 20 g + Boron - 0.25%, PSB 20 g + Boron - 0.5%, PSB 20 g + Boron – 0.75%, Rhizobium 10 g + PSB 10 g   + Boron - 0.25%, Rhizobium 10 g + PSB 10 g   + Boron - 0.5%, Rhizobium 10 g + PSB 10 g   + Boron - 0.75%, and Control Plot. The field experiment result revealed that Rhizobium 10 g + PSB 10 g   + Boron - 0.75% has significantly increased the growth parameters viz., Plant height (46.54 cm), Number of nodules/plant (16.44), Plant dry weight (15.37 g/plant), pods/plant (55.61), seeds/pod (2.52), test weight (265.6 g), Seed yield (1.99 t/ha), Stover yield (5.95 t/ha) and Harvest index (25.06%). The economics of experiment, i.e., maximum gross return (106464.00 INR/ha), net return (76796 INR/ha) and B:C ratio (2.58) was also recorded in Rhizobium 10 g + PSB 10 g   + Boron - 0.75%.
Phytonematode Diversity in Tomato Crops of Chittoor District, Andhra Pradesh, India: A Comprehensive Survey, Distribution, and Community Analysis
Authors: Rushi G. , Arunasri P. , Gopal K. , Jayalakshmi R. Sarada , Kumar K. Sunil
Published: August 2023

The present study was undertaken to analyze the distribution and community analysis of important plant parasitic nematodes associated with the vegetable crop tomato in Chittoor District of Andhra Pradesh. The study revealed that maximum infestation is observed in somala mandal and least in Chowdepalle mandals of Chittoor District of Andhra Pradesh. Plant parasitic nematodes viz., Meloidogyne incognita, Hoplolaimus spp., and Tylenchorynchus spp. etc. was found to be associated with tomato crops. It has been observed that M. incognita population was found to be maximum in tomato crops at Chittoor Districts of Andhra pradesh. The prominence value was found to be maximum for root knot nematode in tomato crops having 8.76/200 cc. The data also revealed that M. incognita absolute frequency in tomato was 100% and absolute density is around 87.60% while the genera Hoplolaimus showed the least occurrence frequency of 40% and absolute density of 1.56%. From these studies it can be interpreted that M. incognita is most predominant nematode and cause damage substantially to tomato crop grown in Chittoor District of Andhra Pradesh.
Role and Importance of Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR) in Modern Day Agriculture by Improving Soil Rizosphere: Review
Authors: Thakur Priyanka , Thakur Neha
Published: August 2023

The expanding human population necessitates more food production, but this must be done in the face of worsening climate change and a limiting supply of farmland. Today's challenge is to increase agricultural production demand while lowering the use of synthetic chemical fertilisers and pesticides. Growing need for agricultural production while reducing the usage of synthetic chemical fertilisers and pesticides has become a major problem in recent years. Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) plays a vital part in the agriculture industry's sustainability. PGPR has been shown to be an ecologically friendly method of improving agricultural yields by stimulating plant development via a direct or indirect process. PGPR regulates hormonal and nutritional balance, induces resistance against plant diseases, and solubilizes nutrients for easier absorption by plants, among other things. Furthermore, PGPR exhibits both synergistic and antagonistic interactions with microorganisms in the rhizosphere and in bulk soil, which improves plant growth rate indirectly. PGPR regularly establish mutualistic interactions with host plants related to nutrient absorption (N fixation, P and K solubilization, and siderophore production), enhanced stress resistance (abiotic and biotic), and regulation of plant development and physiology through signal compound production, including phytohormones and specific inter-organism signal compounds, could be used as a more sustainable agricultural approach. Root exudates, which are released into the rhizosphere by host plants as a reduced carbon supply for phytomicrobiome members, also aid in providing a stable environment for microbe development. Given the benefits of PGPR in terms of biofertilization, biocontrol, and bioremediation, all of which have a favourable impact on crop yield and ecosystem functioning, its use in agriculture should be encouraged. With the advancement of technology in the establishment of effective research and development, PGPR utilisation will undoubtedly become a reality and will be helpful in critical processes that assure the stability and productivity of agro-ecosystems, bringing us to a perfect agricultural system.
Field Screening of Elite Cassava (Manihot esculenta) Mutant Lines for their Response to Mosaic and Brown Streak Viruses
Authors: Kimno Lydia Chepkoech , Kinyua Miriam Gaceri , Bimpong Isaac Kofi , Were Javan Omondi
Published: August 2023

Cassava Brown Streak Disease (CBSD) and Cassava Mosaic Disease (CMD) have been major limiting biotic factors to the productivity of cassava farming in Kenya. Development of resistant cassava varieties is most effective way. The study was to determine response of elite cassava lines to CBSD and CMD under field conditions on different agro-ecological zones in Kenya. Screening was done under hot-spot field conditions where five lines together with their parents were evaluated in Randomized Complete Block Design with three replications at University of Eldoret (UoE), Solai and Marakwet sites in Kenya. Severity assessment done on 1-5 rating scale where 1 very resistant and 5 most susceptible. Elite cassava lines had significant differences in their response (p < 0.05) to CBSD and CMD. Additionally, genotypes, site and time interval were also significant (p < 0.05). The three elite lines (CAS1, CAS2 and CAS3) had better tolerance to both diseases compared to their parents (KME3 and KME4) with KME4 showing visible brown rings on the root typical of CBSD The elite lines CAS1, CAS2 and CAS3 identified to have better adaptability to both CBSD and CMD could be further exploited in breeding for new cassava varieties for Kenya and other countries in the region with similar ecology.
Concurrent Care as the Next Frontier in End-of-Life Care
Authors: Ernecoff Natalie C. , Anhang Price Rebecca
Published: August 2023

Importance

Hospice care is a unique type of medical care for people near the end of life and their families, with an emphasis on providing physical and psychological symptom management, spiritual care, and family caregiver support to promote quality of life. However, many people in the US who could benefit from hospice have very short stays or do not enroll at all due to current hospice policy. Changing policy to allow for concurrent availability of disease-directed therapy and hospice care—known as concurrent care—offers an opportunity to increase hospice use and lengths of stay.

Observations

Under Medicare payment policy, hospices are responsible for covering all costs related to patients’ terminal conditions under a per diem rate. This payment structure has led to a de facto requirement that patients forgo costly therapies (including life-prolonging treatments or those with palliative intent) on enrollment in hospice because they are prohibitively expensive. In other countries, in Medicaid for children, and in the Veterans Health Administration in the US, there is greater flexibility in providing hospice services alongside life-prolonging care. Often paired with innovative payment models, concurrent care smooths practical, psychological, and physical care transitions when patient goals prioritize comfort. For example, allowing simultaneous receipt of hospice care and dialysis for people living with end-stage kidney disease—a group with relatively low hospice enrollment—can act as a bridge to hospice and potentially promote longer lengths of stay.

Conclusions and Relevance

Medicare and health care delivery systems are increasingly testing payment and care delivery models to improve hospice use via concurrent care, offering an important opportunity for innovation to better meet the needs of people living with serious illness and their families.
Accumulation
Authors: Butler Gregory S.
Published: August 2023

A common theme in political philosophy is the relationship between property accumulation and questions of morality and the common good. Aristotle explains interest in the subject: “pleasure … is thought to be most intimately connected with our human nature.” The accumulation of wealth becomes the obvious means, then, to a certain kind of pleasure. But many thinkers (Aristotle included) have concluded that the pursuit of mere bodily pleasure is only a part of the good. For the classical thinkers generally, accumulation is not the highest end and ought to be limited. The life of virtue is of more lasting value and, ultimately, offers up the highest form of pleasure. Aristotle recommends that, for the sake of happiness, we accumulate only so as to be “moderately furnished with externals,” which is sufficient for performing “the noblest acts.”
Adorno, Theodor W. (1903–69)
Authors: Young Katherine E.
Published: August 2023

Theodor Adorno is among an astute group of scholars commonly referred to as the Frankfurt School, who as a set were deeply concerned with human liberation and, more importantly, were participants in Western Marxism. Critical theory refers to the Frankfurt School's heterodox and open reading of the Hegelian‐Marxist tradition, which takes seriously the use of theory to transform the social sphere including, and especially, politics. Adorno's work, in particular, emphasizes the tense and irresolvable relationship of theory and action, which produces the relentless critique of both and, as a result, critique becomes politics. In this sense, Adorno effectively radicalizes political theory as a form of revolutionary political action. Moreover, one could argue that his interpretation of critique as praxis renders his work
sui generis
in comparison to his Frankfurt School colleagues. On one hand, Adorno's revaluation of theory, coupled with his own apparently moderate political views, would eventually sit in tension with the New Left radicals of the 1960s. On the other hand, it is the very untimely character of Adorno's sense of praxis, which appeared ironic and contradictory during his own lifetime, that points to the limits of practical politics and anticipates the theoretical challenges of postmodernism.
Americanization
Authors: Solomon M. Scott
Published: August 2023

The complex and disparate processes associated with contemporary globalization have produced a vigorous debate about the significance, novelty, and reach of globalization. A key element of these debates centers on questions of homogeneity versus difference/hybridity. In other words, does globalization increasingly result in a world that is economically, politically, and culturally the same, or does globalization produce hybrid forms resulting in more diversity and difference? The concept of “Americanization” often stands in for the term “globalization” in these debates. There are at least three variants of what could be called an Americanization thesis.
Anti‐Federalists
Authors: Duncan Christopher M.
Published: August 2023

The anti‐Federalists were citizens in postrevolutionary America who opposed, for varying reasons, the construction and ratification of the United States constitution. The Federalists were those who supported its adoption. While it was in many ways a negotiated settlement, the standard historical narrative has always declared the Federalists the winners. This is a vast oversimplification even though technically true. Believing the Constitutional Convention was intended to make revisions to the first US constitution, the Articles of Confederation, those who became the anti‐Federalists, were instead presented with a radical and even revolutionary document that would become the new American constitution without a shot being fired.
Antiglobalization Movements
Authors: Funke Peter Nikolaus
Published: August 2023

Antiglobalization movements is an umbrella term for the diverse set of organizations, groups, and movements including labor, environmental, feminist, indigenous, and student groups that oppose neoliberal globalization from the political left. Also referred to as the global justice movement, the alterglobalization movement, the movement of movements, or globalization from below, antiglobalization movements are distinguishable from a right‐wing critique of globalization that emphasizes the importance of parochial national identities. As such, the termantiglobalization movements is a misnomer and often used in a derogative sense. The loosely networked groups of antiglobalization movements are not against globalization per se but rather oppose the particular neoliberal, market‐driven type of globalization and the subsequent expansion of corporate power. According to antiglobalization movements, neoliberal globalization benefits multinational corporations and finance capital at the expense of human rights and democracy, basic labor laws and environmental codes, fair trade, and sustainable development.
Arab Political Thought
Authors: Karoui Hichem
Published: August 2023

Because of the deep impact Islam has had on Arab society since its dawn in the eighth century, most Arab political thought in modern and medieval times relates to Islam as a frame of reference. From tribes constantly fighting one another, Arabs rose to the level of IslamicUmma(nation) when they embraced Islam, which expanded into an empire. The leaders who tried to unite Arab tribes before Islam, such as King Nuʾman ibn al‐Mundhir or Zuhair al‐Jennabi (leader of Qudhaʾa), left little impact on Arab thought.
Arrow, Kenneth J. (1921–)
Authors: Chichilnisky Graciela
Published: August 2023

Kenneth Joseph Arrow is a great American economist, a founder of post‐World War II economic theory. Arrow drew the foundations of market economics, created social choice theory, defined the economics of risk and uncertainty, and provided fundamental concepts of financial economics, and of welfare and environmental economics. Arrow is known as one of the most important economists of the twentieth century. Born in 1921 in New York City to Harry and Lilian Arrow, he graduated from Townsend Harris High School and earned a bachelor's degree from the City College of New York studying under Alfred Tarski. After graduating in 1940, he went to Columbia University and after a hiatus caused by World War II, when he served with the Weather Division of the Army Air Forces, he returned to Columbia to study under the great statistician Harold Hotelling.
Aurelius, Marcus (121–80)
Authors: Caverly Matthew M.
Published: August 2023

Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus was a Roman emperor (161–80
ce
) and Stoic philosopher who authored the
Meditations
between 170 and 180
ce
. Marcus Aurelius is principally remembered for articulating late Stoical values through the lens of his own experience as a political leader. These values are best summarized as promoting the virtue of individual will within an otherwise deterministically structured universe. To Marcus Aurelius, man existed in a natural order wherein it was his own responsibility to find and embrace his place within it. Aurelius further claimed that good action was undertaken for its own sake. For Marcus Aurelius, as for other ethical thinkers in antiquity, happiness is indeed the goal of human life.
Authenticity
Authors: Varga Somogy
Published: August 2023

All philosophical conceptions of authenticity relate to some extent to the basic meaning of the word “authentic,” which is used either in the strong sense as being “of undisputed origin or authorship,” or in the weaker sense of being “faithful to an original” or a “reliable, accurate representation.” While such a distinction is perfectly intelligible when an original entity is compared to potential copies or composites, matters are complicated when discussing authenticity as a characteristic attributed to human agents. What is it to be oneself, or to be at one with oneself? Any reflection on “who one really is” discloses a multiplicity of puzzles connecting to metaphysics, semantics, and epistemology. In a straightforward sense, being oneself is inescapable, since whenever one thinks a thought, makes a decision, or acts in a certain way, one is identical with the subject of those thoughts, decisions, and acts. They are one's own. But in a more sophisticated sense, while someone may acknowledge being identical with the subject of those thoughts, decisions, or acts, she may be inclined to say that some of those are “not really hers,” thus denying that they are expressive of who shereallyis. At this point, the “mineness” in question goes beyond metaphysical issues, and acquires its meaning by connecting to a moral‐psychological dimension.
Behavioralism
Authors: Gunnell John G.
Published: August 2023

When political scientist Pendelton Herring became president of the Social Science Research Council in 1948, he urged the scientific study of political “behavior.” The term “behavioralism,” however, was first adopted by political scientists when a group of social scientists at the University of Chicago, who were devoted to developing a general interdisciplinary theory of human behavior, chose, in 1949, the label “behavioral sciences.” This designation seemed both to suggest an attitude of scientific objectivity and, during the Cold War, to avoid an accentuated worry about confusing “social science” with “socialism.” The first significant statement of the behavioral position may reasonably be attributed to David Easton's 1951 article on the “Decline of Modern Political Theory” in which he attributed the “poverty” of theory in the discipline to an absorption with the study of the history of past ideas and to the failure to take on the “task of building systematic theory about political behavior.” In the article, he put equal emphasis on the need for creative “value theory,” but behavioralism increasingly became identified, by both proponents and opponents, with a commitment to a scientific approach to the study of politics and to a depreciation of normative, historical, and institutional forms of research.
Bolingbroke, HenrySt. John, 1st Viscount (1678–1751)
Authors: West Chris
Published: August 2023

Bolingbroke, Henry St. John, 1st Viscount (1678–1751) was an influential British politician, diplomat, and political essayist of the early eighteenth century who contributed to the transformation of early modern civic humanism into the “country” ideology of eighteenth‐century American and British politics. His thinking has had far‐reaching influence on such movements as British radicalism, the American founding, and the French Revolution. His most famous works,
A Dissertation upon Parties
(1733–4), the letter “On the Spirit of Patriotism” (1736), and
The Idea of a Patriot King
, journalistic pieces written after his exit from official power, were authored in response to the newly emerging constitutional dynamics set into motion by the Glorious Revolution and the Settlement of 1688–9. Chief among these dynamics was the emergence of what might be called the first system of modern political parties. The major themes of his essays – corruption, partisanship, the nonpartisan executive, public virtue, and the separation of powers – center around the project of forging an ideology around which an organized opposition to prime minister Sir Robert Walpole and his Whig oligarchy might form.
Camus, Albert (1913–60)
Authors: Bronner Stephen Eric
Published: August 2023

Every great writer touches the young, and Albert Camus was no exception. He spoke to his generation, which came of age in the 1940s and 1950s. But he was also the most popular writer among the students of the 1960s. His work offered a strange mixture of pessimism and optimism, and he engaged himself politically without forgetting about the desire for personal happiness. Even today, every high school student is introduced to one or another of his works. Camus was an artist who dealt with the perennial concerns of philosophy. He was a man of the Mediterranean who lived in Europe. He was a hero of the antifascist Resistance, but also a pacifist. He will always be remembered as part of the existentialist circles of postwar Paris, which included Jean‐Paul Sartre and Simone de Beauvoir, and yet he was an intensely private person. Camus was a celebrity with many lovers, who liked to style himself after Humphrey Bogart. But he was also a serious intellectual and the second‐youngest recipient of the Nobel Prize for Literature. He was a problematical man. He made many enemies. Yet there is something on which all agree: Camus was a writer of remarkable integrity, who lived an extraordinary life, and who offers a moral outlook that speaks to our time.
Capitalism
Authors: Ascher Ivan
Published: August 2023

The term capitalism refers to a system of production characterized by the following: (1) production and distribution are organized through a system of monetized exchange; (2) property is privately held; (3) labor can be freely bought and sold; and (4) the productive activity of society is oriented toward the pursuit of individual profit. Thus understood, capitalism is principally an economic system, but it is one that is characterized by particular social, cultural, and political relations, and tends to benefit the owner of capital.
Causation
Authors: Landemore Hélène
Published: August 2023

Causation (or causality) is the relationship of cause and effect. Depending on the goal of the philosophical inquiry – whether we mean to determine the nature of causation on the basis of an a priori analysis valid for all possible worlds, or to determine the nature of causation on the basis of an a posteriori investigation about its properties in the real world – the definition of causation will vary in scope, ambition, and content. Broadly speaking, one can distinguish between an epistemic concept of causation, which refers to our knowledge about the world, and a more ontological concept, which refers to causation as a natural species, like water or iron. Modern science also distinguishes between a deterministic and a probabilistic account of causation.
Christianity
Authors: Pecknold C. C.
Published: August 2023

The influence of Christian theology upon political thought is pervasive and undeniable. As Carl Schmitt once put it, “all significant concepts of the modern theory of the state are secularized theological concepts” (Schmitt 2005: 36). Christian teaching on God, creation, conscience, good and evil, freedom of the will, atoning sacrifice, service, salvation, worship, virtue, authority, hierarchy, church, law, grace, happiness, eschatological time, community, and vision all find their way into western political thought.
Church and State
Authors: Lienesch Michael
Published: August 2023

In the history of political thought, few issues have been more central than the relationship between church and state, and few more complex and contested. From ancient times to today, thinkers have conceived of the connections between religious and political institutions in a wide variety of ways, with the two being sometimes combined, sometimes separated, and sometimes (in fact often) at odds. Christian writers have been particularly active in conceptualizing the relationship between church and state, and in applying those concepts to the modern nation‐state. But those from other religious traditions have contributed as well, as have secular theorists, inspiring an array of institutional relationships that ranges from theocratic regimes and established churches to secular states like today's France and Turkey, with multiple systems based on cooperation, neutrality, and strict church–state separation found in between. Moreover, while appearing to be static, relations between church and state are in fact quite fluid, changing frequently as a result of court decisions, public policies, and shifting political opinion. Today especially, with the appearance of religiously based political movements in many parts of the world, the issue has become even more complex and contested, as what was once seen as a dualistic and exclusive relationship between two dominant sources of power has become a multifaceted set of interactions that includes interest groups, social movements, and political organizations that engage in multiple forms of religious politics within civil society.
Civil Disobedience
Authors: Clor Harry
Published: August 2023

Civil disobedience, as usually understood, is the nonviolent, though deliberate and public, violation of law that is believed to be unjust. In persistent arguments for and against this enterprise, large questions, including philosophic questions are raised. Opponents of civil disobedience invoke a putative obligation of the citizen to respect the law. But if this is a moral obligation, what is the basis of it? What is it about “law” that constitutes an imperative claim upon us? Proponents of civil disobedience maintain that higher standards exist transcending the legal order and mandating a higher obligation. But what are these standards, whence is their authority derived, and how does law violation on their behalf comport with the interests of society? The great proponents, including Thoreau, Mahatma Gandhi, and Martin Luther King, provide somewhat different answers to such questions. Hence, we can recognize variety among philosophies of civil disobedience.
Collective Memory
Authors: Bruyneel Kevin
Published: August 2023

Collective memory is a genre of political discourse. It is the field through which communities construct a shared identity by defining present‐day identities through past events and myths. Collective memory is a critical concept for understanding the meaning, terms, and construction of collective identity. In contrast to individual memory, collective memory is driven by sociological and political imperatives more than psychological ones. Maurice Halbwachs, a seminal figure in the field, argued that “there are no recollections which can be said to be purely interior, that is, which can be preserved only within individual memory. Indeed, from the moment that a recollection reproduces a collective perception, it can itself only be collective” is thus a shared narrative, reconstructed through such functions as elite narratives, popular culture, national myths, and public memorials. Collective memory is often associated with the identity of the nation, for while a nation without a military may be deemed weak and vulnerable, a nation without a collective memory does not exist at all.
Cosmopolitanism
Authors: Brown Garrett Wallace
Published: August 2023

Broadly defined, cosmopolitanism is the idea that there are moral duties and obligations owed to all human beings based solely on our humanity alone, without reference to ethnicity, nationality, political association, race, culture, religion or other communal particularities. The etymological origins of cosmopolitanism can be traced back to the Cynic philosopher Diogenes of Sinope (400–323bce), who is reputed to have resisted the idea of city‐state patriotism by claiming that he was not a citizen of any one particular community, but that he waskosmopolites, “a citizen of the world”. By combining two words –kosmos(universal) andpolites(citizen) – Diogenes was suggesting that every person belonged to a universal fraternity of humankind and that all persons should be treated with a sense of dignity and hospitality,as if they werecommon citizens. As is often related, Diogenes substantiated this claim by arguing that every person was a member of the same species and inhabited the same earthly cosmos, and, since this human condition is common to all, it naturally bestows a universal reason to treat every person with a sense of brotherly love and hospitality, regardless of place of birth or political affiliation.
Cropsey, Joseph (1919–2012)
Authors: Colmo Christopher A.
Published: August 2023

Joseph Cropsey received his graduate training in economics at Columbia University. While teaching economics at City College of New York (1946–58), he met Leo Strauss, then teaching political philosophy at the New School for Social Research. Cropsey moved to the department of political science at the University of Chicago in 1958, joining Strauss who had gone there in 1949. They contributed to and edited their now‐famousHistory of Political Philosophy(1962). After Strauss's death in 1973, Cropsey edited a third edition of this book (1987), which included for the first time articles on Husserl, Heidegger, and Strauss himself. Cropsey's influence can be measured in part by the hundreds of undergraduates he taught and by the 134 dissertation committees (76 as chair) on which he served.
Decision Theory
Authors: Wong James K. L.
Published: August 2023

Decision theory models decision‐making by agents such as individuals or groups of individuals. On the positive level, it explains why agents, in a given scenario, behave as making a certain decision; it also predicts how agents would make decisions in other similar scenarios. On the normative level, it evaluates and recommends how agents should make decisions based on some standard of goodness. Individual decisions play a role in democratic politics insofar as they interact with, and influence, the decisions of each other, or as these decisions are aggregated into group or collective decisions. This entry focuses on
how
decision theory models an agent's decision under uncertainty.
Democratic Centralism
Authors: Barrow Clyde W.
Published: August 2023

Democratic centralism is a Communist organizational principle that ostensibly combines the practices of elective democracy and free discussion with centralized executive direction and political discipline. The origin of the concept is commonly traced to several writings by V. I. Lenin, particularlyWhat Is to Be Done?(1902) and it is often summarized in his statement: “unity in action, freedom of discussion and criticism.” The democratic aspect of democratic centralism is the freedom enjoyed by members of a political party to discuss and debate matters of policy, but once a decision is made by the party through majority vote, every member is expected to adhere to this “party line” and follow the central directives of party leaders aimed at implementing that decision.
Derrida, Jacques (1930–2004)
Authors: Rubenstein Diane
Published: August 2023

Jacques Derrida, the French philosopher and public intellectual, is commonly associated with the term “deconstruction.” As someone for whom America was to play a consequential role in his career, he started life with an appropriate given name, “Jackie,” named after Jackie Coogan, the child actor from California. He was born in El Biar, Algeria, in 1930 to what he would often describe as an assimilated petit bourgeois Sephardic Jewish family. It is difficult to circumscribe his influence. His academic reach extended from the humanities and social sciences to law schools, psychoanalytic institutes, art exhibits, and theatre. His written work exceeded the confines of genre as well as discipline: poetry (Rams); theatre(Marx en Jeu); pseudo‐epistolary novel (The Postcard); life writing (Circumfessions,Counterpaths, Monolingualism of the Other): typographical experimentation (Glas). He was the subject of two documentary films (D'Ailleurs Derrida, Faathy 1999;Derrida, Dick & Kofman 2003) and acted in another (Ghostdance.)
Descartes, René (1596–1650)
Authors: Watson Richard A.
Published: August 2023

René Descartes is known as the father of modern philosophy. He is also a primary founder of modern mechanistic science, the inventor of analytic geometry that led to the calculus, and a pioneer in vivisection and the psychology of the emotions. His work constitutes a definitive break with the Aristotelian Scholasticism of passive matter and active form, and is foundational to the Enlightenment of the eighteenth century. His metaphysics consisting of two substances – immaterial mind whose essence is active thinking and material body whose essence is passive extension – has set the foundations and agenda for philosophy and science ever since, from the dualism of mind and body to the monisms of idealism (only the mental exists) and materialism (only bodies exist). The most recent manifestation of the problems set by Descartes is materialist neurophysiology, according to which the mental realm of ideas and sensations is either reduced to material activities in the brain or elevated to epiphenomena that have no causal effect in the deterministic material world.
Despotism
Authors: Garrow Robert
Published: August 2023

“Despotism” derives from the Greek word “despotēs,” which means “master.” In his
Politics
, Aristotle defines a despot as the head of a household in his capacity as ruler over slaves, though this kind of rule also characterizes the rule of the soul over the body. Despotic rule is thus the part of household management which uses humans as if they were soulless bodies or tools. The science proper to despotic rule is mastery in the use of slaves, and Aristotle claims that there is “nothing great and dignified about it.” It may be distinguished from both the rule of a father over his children and of a husband over his wife.
Downs, Anthony (1930–)
Authors: Pennington Mark
Published: August 2023

Anthony Downs, born in 1930, is an American economist and political scientist and an early pioneer of public choice theory. His two most influential works are
An Economic Theory of Democracy
(1957) and
Inside Bureaucracy
(1967). In later years Downs developed a longstanding relationship with the Brookings Institution and in particular had a keen interest in housing and transportation issues, reflected in the 1992 volume
Stuck in Traffic
.
Dworkin, Ronald (1931–2013)
Authors: Williams David Lay
Published: August 2023

Ronald Dworkin was among the most important and influential Anglo‐American philosophers of the twentieth and twenty‐first centuries, standing at the intersection of legal and political thought. Dworkin published numerous books, articles, and essays on a wide variety of topics related to legal, political, and moral philosophy, including civil disobedience, rights, community, abortion, constitutional law, democratic theory, pragmatism, terrorism, taxation, religion, and pornography. While influential in all these realms, however, his greatest impact and influence came through his contributions to jurisprudence and the philosophy of justice.
Empire
Authors: Pagden Anthony
Published: August 2023

Of all the terms in the political lexicon “empire” is one of the most elusive. Ancient Macedonia, Rome, Byzantium, Ottoman Turkey, China, Vishanagar, Assyria, Elam, Urartu, Benin, Maori New Zealand, Peru and Mexico, the Soviet Union, the United States, even, by its enemies, the European Union, have all been described as “empires.” What all of these states share in common with one another are three things: they are all (relatively) large; they are all states in which one ethnic or tribal group, by one means or another, rules over several others, and for the most part, most of them have been acquired by conquest. Some of them, but by no means all, were also believed to be, either actually or potentially, universal. As such, empires have always been more frequent, more extensive, human experiences than tribal territories or nations have ever been. Nations and nation‐states are relatively recent inventions, and although they have now been spread across the globe, they are of exclusively European origin. The political history of most of the world can be understood as the slow, but inexorable replacement of empires by nations. (Which is not to say that the process might not, at some future date, be reversed.)
Engels, Friedrich (1820–95)
Authors: Carver Terrell
Published: August 2023

Friedrich (or Frederick) Engels has figured most prominently in modern political thought as coauthor with Karl Marx (1818–83) of
The German Ideology
, edited in the 1920s from manuscripts written 1845–6 and published in full only in 1932, and
The Communist Manifesto
, published anonymously in 1848 but only widely circulated after 1872. These are two landmark works in the modern Marx canon, and are also essential reading for any understanding of Marxism as a modern ideology (though neither Marx nor Engels endorsed the “ism”). Their major contribution to political thought lies in the necessary inclusion of economic relations into any theorization of politics. For both this meant a view of human history as a succession of social formations rooted in class struggle and secured by governmental power structures. In modern industrial and industrializing societies, they argued, the contradiction between oppressed wealth‐producers and privileged wealth‐owners would intensify. Politically the two worked to bring this conflict to a point of radical dissolution, and they expected the workers of the world to unite and form a classless society.
Ethics
Authors: Sabl Andrew
Published: August 2023

In its original, Aristotelian meaning, ethics meant the study of character; politics was seen as a comprehensive activity aiming at perfection of character. In a modern, pluralistic context, ethics as applied to politics includes debates over whether and how the old, Aristotelian model might still apply; political ethics in a narrow sense, involving questions of ends and means, leadership and responsibility; the question of civic ethics or the virtues and practices required of ordinary citizens; and questions of corruption, involving problems of enforcement and institutional design. In all these cases, contemporary normative disputes reflect larger historical debates about the ends of politics, the nature of political leadership, the demands of collective action, and the structure of political value.
Evangelicalism
Authors: R. Murphy Andrew
Published: August 2023

The term “evangelical” comes from the Greek word
evangelion
, meaning “good news” or “gospel.” It has a long Protestant pedigree; Martin Luther himself used it to describe the reform movement to which his critique of Catholic doctrine and practice gave rise. Over time, “evangelical” has come to be more particularly associated with a strand of Protestant Christianity that emphasizes an individual's personal relationship with God and de‐emphasizes ritual and liturgy. David Bebbington articulated four primary characteristics of evangelical religion: (1) conversionism (the idea of life‐changing religious experience, often described as being “born again”); (2) activism (putting the gospel into action); (3) biblicism (the Bible as inspired word of God, the ultimate authority for human life); and (4) crucicentrism (an emphasis on the death of Jesus as central to the redemption of humanity).
Exploitation
Authors: Lipscomb Michael E.
Published: August 2023

The concept of exploitation is a central term of political discourse, both descriptively and normatively. As a descriptor, exploitation marks a concrete application of power, perhaps most often in the economic realm, and is thus central to what we call politics. Furthermore, the term is sometimes used neutrally as any act in which a resource is being utilized, and it is even used complimentarily to refer to the skillful mastery and use of a set of resources or potentials. More typically, however, the invocation of “exploitation” signals an ineluctable normative element within the political, carrying an accusation of injustice.
Failed States
Authors: Grigsby Ellen
Published: August 2023

Failed states are states that are incapable of exercising sovereignty over their territories and populations. That is, a failed or failing state (depending on the degree of incapacity) is one that is no longer capable of carrying out the most basic governing responsibilities, such as the enforcement of the rule of law and the provision of security throughout its territory, control of its borders, maintenance of its basic infrastructure and revenue extraction processes, and interaction with other states in the global arena as an independent decision‐making entity as regards its own diplomacy, treaties, and international agreements. A combination of internal and external factors may contribute to state failure.
Feminism
Authors: Marso Lori J.
Published: August 2023

Feminism is defined by social and political movements on behalf of women, and as a critical orientation that initiates curiosity and consciousness about how gender hierarchy pervades institutions, state formations, economic structures, the constitution of racial and other forms of difference, the construction of desire, and the ability to embrace possibilities for freedom. It is arguably more accurate to speak of “feminisms” rather than “feminism,” and “movements” rather than a “movement,” as feminism's several movements and critical orientation are, and have always been, characterized by plural, internally contested visions and goals.
Fichte, Johann Gottlieb (1762–1814)
Authors: Clarke James
Published: August 2023

J. G. Fichte was one of the leading representatives of German Idealism. He sought to complete Kant's philosophical project by developing a comprehensive system of transcendental philosophy – the
Wissenschaftslehre
(doctrine of science). This system is based on the claim that there is an aspect of human selfhood that is radically free and self‐determining. Political philosophy or the “philosophy of right” (
Rechtsphilosophie
) preoccupied Fichte throughout his career and plays a central role in his philosophical system.
Gadamer, Hans‐Georg (1900–2002)
Authors: McClimans Leah
Published: August 2023

Hans‐Georg Gadamer was a German philosopher most well known for his work on philosophical hermeneutics, which he developed in his magnum opusTruth and Method. Born in Marburg and continuing to live in Germany throughout his life, Gadamer was witness to the entire twentieth century, a century in which German politics often took center stage. Although Gadamer himself remained relatively apolitical, his work on hermeneutics is of central importance to ethics and political philosophy. This importance stems from Gadamer's account of the engagement and understanding that can be achieved with those works of art, texts, and individuals who are separated from us in time and/or tradition, for instance, Greek tragedies or Iranian mullahs. If, as some have suggested, the great political challenge of the twenty‐first century is the understanding of the other, then we can expect Gadamer's philosophy to continue to play a key role in contemporary ethical and political thought.
Gemeinschaft
and
Gesellschaft
Authors: Inglis David
Published: August 2023

Gemeinschaft
and
Gesellschaft
are a pair of concepts normally translated into English from German as “community” and “society.” The terms were originally coined by the German social and political theorist Ferdinand Tönnies (1855–1936). They came subsequently to be highly influential in German‐speaking social theory. The terms were systematically propounded in Tönnies's first book, entitled
Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft
(1887). This work was indebted to, among others, Hobbes, Adam Smith, Tocqueville, Marx, Nietzsche, and Carlyle. These writers furnished Tönnies with a vocabulary to describe what he saw as
the
key contemporary sociopolitical issue, namely the shift from more “community”‐oriented to more “individualistic” forms of thought and practice in western Europe since around the sixteenth century.
Genital Mutilation
Authors: LeJeune John
Published: August 2023

Genital mutilation is the alteration of genital organs, including the partial or total removal of external genitalia, for cultural and nonmedical reasons. While sometimes associated with male circumcision, the term typically refers to a traditional practice most prominent in Africa, the Middle East, and Southeast Asia and administered to girls usually between infancy and puberty. Varying across groups, the practice ranges in intensity from pricking of the clitoris, to removal of the clitoris, labia minora, and labia majora followed by narrowing or stitching of the vaginal orifice. Parents who sanction the practice want the best for their children and usually associate it with desire for proper marriage. Other explanations include religious piety (Islamic), rites of passage, and tradition. The World Health Organization estimates that between 100 and 140 million women are currently affected by female genital mutilation.
Geopolitics
Authors: Rubinovitz Ziv
Published: August 2023

Geopolitics is a profound field of research in social and political sciences, with significant influence on practically every aspect of life and every international occurrence, past, present, and probably future. Although geopolitics relates to international relations, the terms are not synonymous. It is one of the most influential concepts in modern political thought, in forming international relations and political theories as well as foreign policies. There is hardly any other field or set of theories that has had such influence. It was so powerful that it was ostracized by the bulk of the academic world for decades due to the horrors of World War II.