bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Urbanization
Authors: Orum Anthony M.
Published: September 2017

Urbanization refers to the process whereby ever larger numbers of people migrate to and establish residence in relatively dense areas of population. It is a phenomenon that has existed throughout the ages, from ancient times to the present. Large numbers of people have gathered and created urban sites in places like ancient Rome and Cairo as well as in ancient Peking in China. Yet, in recent times, the process of urbanization has gained increasing momentum and with it greater attention as well. Today, more than half of the world's population live in what are considered urban places, and demographers project that by the year 2050 much of the world's population will reside in them.
Unpredictability
Authors: Katerelos Ioannis
Published: September 2017

In general, unpredictability implies a frequent incapacity to foresee future behaviors. On the one hand, this involves the overwhelming failure of the modern sociological (and social scientific) projects to fully contain social dynamics, or to obtain full analytic access to future social and historical developments. On the other hand, it denotes an
essential feature
concerning the nature and character of all complex or chaotic systems. Particularly, the advent of chaos or complexity theories within sociology strongly encouraged a tolerance for ambiguity, uncertainty, or unpredictability (see Lee 2002). In a “self‐organizing” or “autopoietic” social universe, where (dis)order, (mis)understanding, and (dis)unity reflexively come from agonistic competition, irreducible diversity, mutual evolution, emergence, or
chaotic noise
(von Foerster 1960), the future just becomes a mere possibility.
UK Institute of Sociology
Authors: Evans David
Published: September 2017

The Institute of Sociology was established in London in January 1930 through the merger of Le Play House and the Sociological Society. It was the only UK body representing the discipline until the formation of the British Sociological Association in 1951. The joint presidents of the merged societies were Victor Branford and Patrick Geddes. Other prominent figures actively involved during the 1930s included sociologist T. H. Marshall, anthropologist R. R. Marrett, and historian Sir Ernest Barker. However, the main instigator of the merger was Alexander Farquharson (1881–1954), who became general secretary in 1932 and, together with his wife Dorothea, whom he married in 1933, remained at its head until the Institute's demise.
Validity, Quantitative
Authors: Lahm Karen
Published: September 2017

The term validity can be defined and explained in a plethora of ways. In quantitative research, validity is most commonly discussed when a researcher is developing measures of variables or concepts to put on a survey or use in an experiment, etc. Specifically, validity is synonymous with accuracy in that a valid measure is one that is actually or in reality measuring the concept or variable that it is supposed to be measuring. For example, say a researcher needed to develop a measure for the variable IQ (Intelligence Quotient). So the researcher decides that he is going to ask his sample to get on a scale and weigh themselves in pounds. Such a measure of IQ (body weight in pounds) would be an invalid measure of one's intelligence because in reality body weight tells us nothing about one's IQ. A more valid measure of one's intelligence would be to give an IQ test and compute IQs from the answers gathered on the test.
Variables
Authors: Baur Nina
Published: September 2017

Variables (indicators, items) are an important concept in methods of social research and epistemology. A variable is a superordinated attribute, characteristic, or finding that exists in at least two distinct subordinated categories (classes, groups, units of measurement, values). Cases (individuals) can differ – vary – on the variable concerning the category they belong to. Variables thus are used to classify cases. Very often, cases are persons as members of an organization, a region, a nation, etc. Note that in statistical terminology “individuals” and “persons” are not the same. Instead, many different types of cases can be conceptualized. Some examples are given in table 1.
Variables, Control
Authors: Sung Hung‐En
Published: September 2017

Control variables are variables included in multivariate analyses to identify spurious associations to strengthen causal inferences. These extraneous variables, also known as confounders, are specified neither as the independent variables nor as the dependent variables in the hypothesis; however, because they correlate highly with both the independent variables and the dependent variables, leaving them out of the model could lead to a misestimation of the effect of the independent variables. Therefore, in assessing whether
X
causes
Y
, it is important to examine whether the covariation between them persists after the effects of other variables on this association are removed. A variable is controlled for when its influence on the other variables in the model is held constant.
Variance
Authors: Goetz Ernest T.
Published: September 2017

Variability is one of the key characteristics of a set of scores. Measures of variability are used to provide an indication of the extent to which characteristics of people (e.g., income, education), events (e.g., attendance at concerts), or things (e.g., capacity of concert venues) differ from one another. Of the statistical indices of variability (e.g., range, semi‐interquartile range), the variance and standard deviation are the only ones that reflect the exact value of each score. In this respect, they are analogous to the mean, the measure of centrality from which they are derived. For this reason, the variance and standard deviation are the measures of variability used in parametric statistics (e.g., analysis of variance (ANOVA), correlation, general linear modeling, hierarchical linear modeling, regression and regression analysis, structural equation modeling).
Veblen, Thorstein (1857–1929)
Authors: Varul Matthias Zick
Published: September 2017

Thorstein Veblen, US economist and social theorist, argued for an evolutionary‐institutionalist approach to social development. History is a non‐teleological process in which, by quasi‐Darwinian selection, institutions survive according to their fit with the current “state of the industrial arts.” Inert institutions inhibit further technological progress beyond the state they are adapted to facilitate. In this context, Veblen developed the theory of latecomer advantages and technological borrowing.
Viagra
Authors: Loe Meika
Published: September 2017

Viagra is a blood‐circulation drug (the first in its drug class as a PDE5 inhibitor) prescribed to treat erectile dysfunction. This drug, marketed by Pfizer Pharmaceuticals and approved by the FDA in 1998, has been widely cited for its record‐breaking sales and its “blockbuster” status. Specifically, Viagra set records as the fastest‐selling drug in America, and netted over a billion dollars in its first year. Viagra was the first FDA‐approved oral therapy for sexual dysfunction. After five years of consistent sales, competitors Levitra and Cialis (also PDE5 inhibitors) have entered the market, claiming to work faster and for longer periods of time. The financial success of Viagra has helped to construct and finance research and product development in sexual medicine.
Violence
Authors: von Trotha Trutz
Published: September 2017

Violence is a form of power, of the “ability of human beings to prevail over forces which are directed against them” (Popitz 1999: 22). It is really power in action, “action‐power,” as Popitz says, a way of action, above all of harm, based on the power physically and materially to hurt other creatures or to be harmed. It is determined by the boundless relation of human beings with violence: the motivations for violence are so varied and numerous that they cannot be exhausted by any list. No genetic program limits the violent behavior of humans to certain situations. Anyone can become a perpetrator and no one and almost nothing, neither human nor anything else, whatever category, is safe from victimization. Violence means to kill, to harm, to destroy, to rob, and to expel. These are the five basic forms of violence. All varieties of violence are variants and hybrids of these forms.
Violence Among Fans
Authors: Young Kevin
Published: September 2017

Multiple definitions of fan violence exist in the sociology of sport. Some are limited to specific behaviors, such as hand‐to‐hand fighting or acts of vandalism, or to violence committed in the context of a particular sport, whereas others are more expansive. Because research shows that the phenomenon is diverse, the latter definitional approach is more useful. Therefore,
violence among fans
is best understood as involving direct or indirect acts of physical violence by sports spectators, at or away from the sports arena, that result in injury to persons or damage to property.
Virtual Sports
Authors: Atkinson Michael
Published: September 2017

Virtual sports are symbolic representations of embodied, expressive, and “real world” athletic experiences. These sports can involve complete “out of body” practices wherein participants “play” a sport without exerting their bodies in a traditionally athletic way (i.e., a sports video game), or more embodied performances involving physical activity in a simulated sports environment (i.e., athletic movement in a modified sports setting like a cyclists’ wind tunnel). Centrally, virtual sports involve human beings as either real or represented athletes in a technologically enhanced setting. Although certain ludic activities might be considered representations of sport (e.g., “touch” football, “pick up” ice hockey, or go‐kart racing), virtual sports are those that place either embodied or computer generated athletes in simulated sports spaces.
Visibility
Authors: Brighenti Andrea
Published: September 2017

Issues concerning the visibility of social phenomena and social subjects are widespread in sociological research and theory. They emerge in areas ranging from gender studies to criminology, from media studies to political science. But because most of these studies tend to treat visibility as a local concept, rather than as a general sociological category, a single theory of visibility can hardly be said to exist. Despite the number of prominent social theorists as diverse as Benjamin, Foucault, Goffman, Habermas, McLuhan, Mead, and Taylor, who all have dealt with issues related to social visibility, a unified definition of this concept is not yet available.
Venture capital
Authors: Mote Jonathon E.
Published: September 2017

Venture capital is an institutionalized form of investment capital that is targeted toward young entrepreneurial ventures and companies in the early stages of development, particularly those with potential for high growth. Such businesses typically do not have significant access to capital markets, principally due to the high risk of the investment and little or no collateral. Prior to venture capital financing, these companies often rely on self‐financing (so‐called “bootstrap” financing) and investments from wealthy individuals or family members (so‐called “angel” investors). Generally, the types of companies that receive venture capital financing are pioneers in developing products based on cutting‐edge, new technologies, but any entrepreneurial venture with exceptional growth potential is a candidate for venture capital financing.
Virtual communities
Authors: Tsekeris Charalambos
Published: September 2017

Following the dramatic loss or decline of real human communities, the highly contentious sociological conception of “virtual communities” signifies a decisive historic break with material human geography and the subsequent emergence of dynamic Net‐based “social aggregations” (Rheingold 1993), electronically grounded, complex networks of interactive social and cultural relations.
Visual Sociology
Authors: Zuev Dennis , Nathansohn Regev
Published: September 2017

The starting premise of visual sociology is that what we see and how we record, interpret, and react to what we see in the social world is no less important than what we say and how we record, interpret, and react to what we say about the social reality. One of the grounding ideas of visual sociology is that “valid scientific insight in society can be acquired by observing, analyzing and theorizing its visual manifestations: behavior of people and material products of culture” (Pauwels 2010: 546). Visual sociology aims to normalize the use of visual imagery as a valid and relevant type of data for sociological research. Visual sociology allows for using mixed methods, where quantitative and qualitative ones show different aspects of the studied phenomenon. Some recent studies on modern media, such as YouTube, demonstrate that both quantitative and qualitative methods can be combined (Vergani & Zuev 2011). One of the important postulates in sociological analyses is consideration of image as data, and not as an illustration or embellishment of a sociological argument. A single image, a sequence of images, and even a repository of images cannot serve as visual sociology arguments in themselves without analyzing them utilizing sociological theory (thereby also developing the theoretical tool). Visual sociological analysis can be also presented with no images at all. Radically speaking, visual sociology can even analyze non‐visual data, for example, when interviewing people on how they create, interpret, and circulate images. In this case visual sociologists analyze data related to the social world around images and not specific images themselves.
Ward, Lester Frank (1841–1913)
Authors: Hill Michael R.
Published: September 2017

Lester Frank Ward, a man of modest origins born in Joliet, Illinois, was a major architect of American sociology. Prior to Ward's election to the first presidency (1906–7) of the American Sociological Society (ASS, now the American Sociological Association), academic sociology in the US had no independent national disciplinary organization save the unifying voice of the
American Journal of Sociology
, then edited by Albion W. Small at the University of Chicago. The ASS, under Lester Ward's pioneering and able leadership, catapulted sociology into the American intellectual and academic mainstream.
Waste, Excess, and Second‐Hand Consumption
Authors: Gregson Nicky
Published: September 2017

Waste is a quotidian facet of all societies. All societies discard things; all societies have to deal with what remains of things, from human and animal bodies to vegetable peelings; and all societies are shaped through value regimes which acknowledge waste and/or rubbish as a category, albeit that they vary considerably in their determination of what exactly might befit this category, in how much matter is placed in this category, and what they do with it. While disciplines such as archeology and anthropology and interdisciplinary fields such as material culture have long recognized the disclosing capacities of waste, and while others (notably cultural studies) have begun to explore its metaphorical purchase, sociology largely has left waste alone (O'Brien 1999). This silence is unlikely to remain, for theoretical and empirical reasons. Together with its close theoretical referent excess, waste poses questions which go to the heart of current sociological debates about materiality and mobility, about reflexivity and subjectivities, and about commodity exchange. Waste has begun to be good to think through and not just about. But waste itself matters, increasingly. What happens to the remains of things, and what should happen to them, is now at the forefront of political debate, globally, nationally, and locally. Rubbish defines us: it places us in the world and our relation to it discloses key social divisions, inequalities, and distinctions.
Weber, Max (1864–1920)
Authors: Drysdale John
Published: September 2017

German sociologist Max Weber, the first child of Max Weber, Sr., and Helene Fallenstein Weber, was born in Erfurt, Thuringia, April 21, 1864. When Max was 5 years old the family moved to Berlin, where Max, Sr., an attorney, became active in both municipal and national politics, and following German unification served as a member of theReichstag, 1872–84. During these heady years the Weber household was often visited by leading politicians and professors. While the conversations of frequent guests provided much stimulation for the young Weber, there is no doubt that the most important and formative influence on him was provided by his mother, a devout Protestant, spiritually sensitive, ethically concerned and active, and intellectually curious.
Welfare Fraud
Authors: Lamnek Siegfried , Ottermann Ralf
Published: September 2017

Sociologists definefraudas any deception the intended outcomes of which are knowingly in breach of norms (of honesty, reciprocity, solidarity, etc.), and definedeceptionas any intentional non‐disclosure and/or misrepresentation of relevant information, which is to make others behave in a way they would not if they were well informed (Ottermann 2000). Many frauds do not violate laws and/or are considered relatively harmless. But some frauds are regarded not just as unfair or illegitimate, but also as illegal acts of deception. Such iswelfare fraud, committed in order to obtain unauthorized benefits, which is seen as a violation of statute, as an offense against the rules that regulate the welfare system. In legal terms, welfare fraud (benefit fraud, public assistance fraud) is defined as making a false or misleading statement or committing an act intended to mislead, misrepresent, conceal, or withhold facts concerning the eligibility for public assistance, which is determined, for instance, by (dis)informations of the current marital status, household composition, employment status, income, receipt of monetary and in‐kind gifts, bank accounts, and other resources of the claimants or clients. Welfare fraud is committed when persons make false statements, and/or misrepresent facts, or when (changed) situations are not reported to the departments of social services, in order to obtain public funds for which the beneficiaries would not otherwise be eligible. Labeled a crime, welfare fraud can result in imprisonment, probation, repayment, recoupment, or becoming ineligible for assistance for a certain length of time.
Welfare State
Authors: Gangl Markus
Published: September 2017

The essence of the modern welfare state lies in its institutional commitment to reconcile equity issues with the efficient operation of economic markets in industrial and post‐industrial capitalist societies. As capitalism institutionally relies on the free competition of autonomous individual agents in exchange markets to achieve economic efficiency, but meets with real‐world economies exhibiting an unequal distribution of wealth holdings, economies of scale in production, significant transaction costs, and imperfect information regarding prices and preferences, the unfettered operation of economic forces is likely to result in anything but an egalitarian distribution of economic well‐being in a society. As an institutional antidote, modern welfare states have developed various policy instruments to realign the distributional outcomes of the market with broader social objectives of governments and their constituencies – and hence, the welfare state has rightly come to be seen as institutionally expressing and preserving social solidarity in highly complex societies made up of socially as well as economically highly heterogeneous populations.
Welfare State
Authors: Gangl Markus
Published: September 2017

The essence of the modern welfare state lies in its institutional commitment to reconcile equity issues with the efficient operation of markets in industrial and postindustrial capitalist societies. As capitalism institutionally relies on the free competition of autonomous individual agents in exchange markets to achieve economic efficiency, but meets with real‐world economies that exhibit an unequal distribution of resource and wealth holdings, economies of scale in production, significant transaction costs, and imperfect information regarding prices and preferences, the unfettered operation of exchange markets is likely to result in anything but an egalitarian distribution of economic well‐being in society. As an institutional antidote, modern welfare states have developed various policy instruments to realign the distributional outcomes of markets with broader social objectives of governments and their constituencies – and, hence, the welfare state has rightly come to be seen as institutionalizing social solidarity in increasingly complex societies made up of socially as well as economically highly heterogeneous populations.
Whiteness
Authors: Winant Howard
Published: September 2017

Like water to the proverbial fish, whiteness has been largely invisible in the “modern world‐system” of European creation. This invisibility is somewhat unique among the racial categories. The uniqueness does not consist of the “normalization” of whiteness: the idea that whiteness is the “default” racial status, that whites are “just people” who “don't have a race.” Nor does its uniqueness consist in the “transparency” of whiteness: the way in which whiteness is taken for granted in the world's powerful countries and thus not seen, like water by the fish. In many places, especially where one racially defined group predominates, that group's raciality is relatively invisible. Think of much of Africa, Han China, or Yamato Japan.
Wollstonecraft, Mary (1759–1797)
Authors: Siemsen Cynthia
Published: September 2017

Mary Wollstonecraft has been widely regarded at least since the 1970s as the first feminist thinker of consequence on women's sociopolitical condition. The label “feminist” is perhaps a misnomer considering the historical context of her life and the relative youth of the term. However, if the litmus test for feminist thought is opposition to gender hierarchy, acceptance that gender is socially constructed, and belief that women as a social group need collective action to bring about equality, Mary Wollstonecraft is a proto‐feminist thinker. Her writings appear on the shelves of literature, political philosophy, and women's studies. Wollstonecraft's life is also the subject in its own right of psychology, anthropology, and literature. However, the consideration of her contribution to classical sociological thought is more recent. Wollstonecraft's theoretical absence is not a reflection on her sociological contributions; rather, it symbolizes the patriarchal nature of society when sociology as a discipline emerged, and the everyday reality of most societies throughout history, including our own.
Womanism
Authors: Few April L.
Published: September 2017

In 1983, Alice Walker contrasted Afrocentrism, black feminism, and white feminism using the term
womanist
to render a critique of possibilities for women and men who felt ostracized by the mainstream women's movement in the United States. Walker's much cited phrase, “Womanist is to feminist as purple is to lavender,” reflects this comparison. Walker derived the term womanist from the Southern black folk expression of mothers to female children, “You acting womanish.” Womanish girls and women “act out in outrageous, courageous, and willful ways.” They are free from traditional conventions that limit white women's experience and relating. Walker stated that womanish girls and women want to know more and in greater depth than what was considered good for them. They are “responsible, in charge, and serious” when relating to themselves and the world.
Women, Religion and
Authors: Gallagher Sally K.
Published: September 2017

Women's religious commitments, ideals, and involvement are increasingly of interest to sociologists within both the sociology of religion and other fields. While early research on religion focused on the origins, functions, meaning, and measurement of religion, the past few decades have witnessed a burgeoning interest in women's spirituality, the involvement of women within religious institutions, and religiously based women's social movements. Part of this shift is the result of the growth of gender studies within sociology, as well as increased religious pluralism and expression across the religious landscape.
Women, Religion and
Authors: Gallagher Sally K.
Published: September 2017

Women's involvement in religion varies depending on whether we are considering personal beliefs and practices or institutional affiliation and leadership. While some women are moving away from traditional western religious institutions because they do not adequately meet their needs or provide the kind of overarching moral narrative that gives meaning to women's lives, religion itself is not inevitably oppressive to women. Gender egalitarianism and strands of women's empowerment exist within most traditions and the historical involvement of women as leaders, teachers, and writers across diverse traditions has often been minimized for political and economic rather than substantially theological reasons.
Workplace Diversity
Authors: Nkomo Stella
Published: September 2017

Workplace diversity appears to have a rather short history as a field in organization studies if one locates its emergence only within contemporary scholarship (Nkomo & Cox 1996). Issues that commonly fall within the study of workplace diversity have always existed. Yet, early conceptualizations of organizations were rooted in universalistic approaches that largely ignored race, ethnicity, gender, culture, sexuality, and other social identities (e.g., Clegg 1990). Race and gender in organizations gained some attention after the passage of equal employment legislation in the United States during the 1970s as well as in the UK. This work appeared under the rubric of women in management and in studies of the effects of affirmative action and workplace discrimination (for a review see Cox & Nkomo 1990).
Westermarck, Edward (1862–1939)
Authors: Sanderson Stephen K.
Published: September 2017

Edward Westermarck was a Finnish sociologist who taught at both the University of Helsinki and the London School of Economics. He was a major sociologist in the first third of the twentieth century, even better known and more widely read than Durkheim (Roos 2008). His first important work wasThe History of Human Marriage(HHM), published in 1891. It was revised several times, the final edition appearing in 1922. His other major work wasThe Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas(ODMI), a large two‐volume work published in 1906 (volume 1) and 1908 (volume 2). Westermarck was also a diligent fieldworker, spending many years living in Morocco observing social life and publishing several volumes on his studies (e.g., Westermarck 1914, 1926).
Walt Disney World
Authors: Hansen Laura L.
Published: September 2017

The Walt Disney World Resort in Orlando, Florida, is the second Disney theme park in the United States, opening on October 1, 1971, and ranks as the most popular theme park destination in the world. Walt Disney (1901–66) used the Florida location to correct some of the mistakes he made in building Disneyland in Anaheim, California, including buying land surrounding the Florida park in order to encourage guests to spend the majority of their vacation time and money on Disney property, including hotels and restaurants. Alan Bryman (2006) defines this control of all venues in the park as hybrid consumption, or as George Ritzer (1999) has described it, “a self‐contained universe.” The resort currently consists of four theme parks and two water parks, including EPCOT, an acronym Walt Disney created to represent Experimental Prototype Community of Tomorrow.
Walt Disney World
Authors: Hansen Laura L.
Published: September 2017

The Walt Disney World Resort in Orlando, Florida, is the second Disney theme park in the United States, opened on October 1, 1971, and ranks as the most popular theme park destination in the world. Walt Disney (1901–1966) used the Florida location to correct some of the mistakes he made in building Disneyland in Anaheim, California; these corrections included buying land surrounding the Florida park in order to encourage guests to spend most of their vacation time and money on Disney property, including in its souvenir shops, hotels, and restaurants.
Weak social theory
Authors: Tsekeris Charalambos , Katrivesis Nicos
Published: September 2017

Weak social theory, as originally conceived by the Dutch sociologist Dick Pels (2003), is directly opposed to both the systematic reinforcement of the hegemonic “grand conception of sociology's role” (see Hammersley 1999) and the methodical concealment of the essential “epistemological circularity” of sociological accounts, which isolate us from the ethics/aesthetics of “imperfection” and scientific modesty. Hence, social theoretical knowledge is inescapably a fragile and contingent thing.
Weak Social Theory
Authors: Tsekeris Charalambos
Published: September 2017

Weak social theory, as originally conceived by the Dutch sociologist Dick Pels (2003), is directly opposed to both the systematic reinforcement of the hegemonic grand conception of sociology's role (see Hammersley, 1999) and the methodical concealment of the essential epistemological circularity of sociological accounts, which isolate us from the ethics and aesthetics of “imperfection” and scientific modesty. Hence, social theoretical knowledge is an inescapably fragile and contingent thing.
World Bank
Authors: Lee Susan Hagood
Published: September 2017

The World Bank is a multilateral development bank that provides low‐interest loans, interest‐free credits, grants, and technical assistance to middle‐ and low‐income countries in Africa, Asia, Latin America, and Eastern Europe. The Bank's twin goals are to reduce poverty and increase economic growth. It originated in the 1944 Bretton Woods conference with its sister organization, the International Monetary Fund (IMF), to stabilize the international economy after World War II. The Bank raises funds through the sale of bonds on the international market and through donations from member states. Voting is weighted by the size of member nations' economies and the United States has the most influence. The Bank makes loans at concessional rates for infrastructure, agriculture, social programs, and private enterprise development. Since the debt crisis of the 1970s, the Bank has required structural adjustment policy reforms as a condition of its loans. Critics charge that World Bank policies have hurt the most vulnerable, increased poverty, and damaged the environment.
World Social Forums
Authors: Karides Marina
Published: September 2017

The World Social Forum (WSF) is a collectively organized set of meetings around a broad range of social justice concerns. It includes participation by small grassroots groups and organizations, local and international non‐governmental organizations, religious groups, students, and activists worldwide. There are no official officers or representatives of the WSF but rather a set of international organizing committees guided by a Charter of Principles that was founded on the conviction that “another world is possible.” Fundamentally critical of neoliberalism as a primary cause of global injustices and inequities, the Charter of Principles is the single written document that participants agree upon to attend the WSFs.
Youth Sport
Authors: De Knop Paul , Theeboom Marc
Published: September 2017

Youth is defined for the purposes of this discussion as youngsters between 6 and 18 years. Sport means all sport activities practiced outside the physical education curriculum. Consequently, school sport as extra‐curricular activity is also included.
Youth Sport
Authors: De Knop Paul , Theeboom Marc , Vertonghen Jikkemien
Published: September 2017

Youth is defined in this text as youngsters between 6 and 18 years old. Sport means all sport activities practiced outside the physical education curriculum. Consequently, school sport as extra‐curricular activity is also included.
Z
naniecki,
F
lorian (1882–1958)
Authors: Stebbins Robert A.
Published: September 2017

Florian Znaniecki was born to a well‐to‐do Polish family living in Russian‐occupied territory. His active support of Polish nationalism resulted in his dismissal from the University of Warsaw and an extended stay abroad. He studied at the University of Geneva and the Sorbonne. He later returned, this time to the University of Kraków, receiving his doctorate there in 1910. While helping Poles to migrate he met W.I. Thomas, who in 1914 invited Znaniecki to join him at the University of Chicago. Shortly thereafter the two began work on the famous five‐volume study
The Polish Peasant in Europe and America
, published between 1918 and 1920. Znaniecki taught at Columbia University (1916–1917), at the University of Chicago (1917–1919), and in 1920, following Polish independence, became professor of philosophy at the new University of Pozna'n. Here he helped to establish sociology, founded the Polish Institute of Sociology, in 1929 and launched a Polish sociological journal. Following the conquest of Poland in World War II, he was invited to Columbia University (1939). In 1941 he went as professor of sociology to the University of Illinois, retiring from there in 1951. Before his death, in 1958, he was elected president of the American Sociological Society (1955).
Institutional Theory
Authors: Lawrence Thomas B. , Shadnam Masoud
Published: September 2017

Institutional theory is a theoretical framework for analyzing social (particularly organizational) phenomena, which views the social world as significantly comprised of institutions – enduring rules, practices, and structures that set conditions on action. Institutions are fundamental in explaining the social world because they are built into the social order, and direct the flow of social life. They are the constants that determine the rules of variation. Institutions condition action because departures from them are automatically counteracted by social controls that make deviation from the social order costly. These controls associate nonconformity with increased costs, through an increase in risk, greater cognitive demands, or a reduction in legitimacy and the resources that accompany it.
Plurality
Authors: Kunelius Risto
Published: September 2017

Plurality refers to the existence of a multiplicity of identities and perspectives from which different groups and people experience social reality. A belief that this diversity should be a criterion for judging how power is distributed in society is termed pluralism; transferred to debates about the media, pluralism is an ideal that calls for versatile media contents and diffuse distribution of power to control the media. In this form, pluralism and plurality are core elements of the legitimization rhetoric of twentieth‐century liberal democracies. As such, they are also a contested part of political and social theory and, consequently, of the role of media in society. Evidence of the actual existence of different kinds of plurality in society and in the media, as well as views about the value of the concept itself, remain contradictory. This is due to both the conceptual range over which pluralism has been stretched and the political interests this covers.
Probing Novel Microstructural Evolution Mechanisms in Aluminum Alloys Using 4D Nanoscale Characterization
Authors: Kaira C. Shashank , De Andrade V. , Singh Sudhanshu S. , Kantzos C. , Kirubanandham Antony , De Carlo F. , Chawla Nikhilesh
Published: September 2017

Dispersions of nanoscale precipitates in metallic alloys have been known to play a key role in strengthening, by increasing their strain hardenability and providing resistance to deformation. Although these phenomena have been extensively investigated in the last century, the traditional approaches employed in the past have not rendered an authoritative microstructural understanding in such materials. The effect of the precipitates' inherent complex morphology and their 3D spatial distribution on evolution and deformation behavior have often been precluded. This study reports, for the first time, implementation of synchrotron‐based hard X‐ray nanotomography in Al–Cu alloys to measure kinetics of different nanoscale phases in 3D, and reveals insights behind some of the observed novel phase transformation reactions. The experimental results of the present study reconcile with coarsening models from the Lifshitz–Slyozov–Wagner theory to an unprecedented extent, thereby establishing a new paradigm for thermodynamic analysis of precipitate assemblies. Finally, this study sheds light on the possibilities for establishing new theories for dislocation–particle interactions, based on the limitations of using the Orowan equation in estimating precipitation strengthening.
Self‐Filtered Narrowband Perovskite Photodetectors with Ultrafast and Tuned Spectral Response
Authors: Li Lingliang , Deng Yehao , Bao Chunxiong , Fang Yanjun , Wei Haotong , Tang Shi , Zhang Fujun , Huang Jinsong
Published: September 2017

Combining bandpass filters with broadband photodetectors is the most common way to detect light within a specific spectral range in many applications that need to detect only the light within desired spectral range. Here, a method is reported to realize narrowband spectral response of perovskite photodetectors by applying hybrid perovskites layers with the same or a slightly larger bandgap as filters, which are integrated into perovskite photodetectors. The narrowband photodetectors have a full width at half maximum of 28 nm due to the sharp absorption edges of perovskite materials, and the light rejection ratio is above 1000. By tuning the bandgaps of perovskite filters and the associated perovskite layers in the detectors, the response bands are continuously tuned in the whole visible light region to satisfy different applications. Superior to the thick single crystal narrowband perovskite photodetectors, the naorrowband peroskite detectors with this design have a very high response speed only limited by the resistance capacitance constant.
Design of Disaccharide Modules for a Programmable One‐Pot Synthesis of Building Blocks with LacNAc Repeating Units for Asymmetric N‐Glycans
Authors: Ting Cheng‐Yueh , Lin Yu‐Wei , Wu Chung‐Yi , Wong Chi‐Huey
Published: September 2017

Poly‐N‐acetyllactosamines (poly‐LacNAc) containing the repeating unit of N‐acetyllactosamine (LacNAc, Gal‐β‐1, 4‐GlcNAc) are a general glycan epitope of glycoconjugates that are often sialylated or fucosylated to exhibit significant biological functions. To explore the biological significance of poly‐LacNAc, scientists have made efforts in preparing multi‐antennary N‐glycans linked with different numbers of LacNAc units via chemical or chemoenzymatic approaches. However, current methods have not met the challenge of producing asymmetric N‐glycans with poly‐LacNAc extension for further glycosylation. We have developed a strategy to address this issue using a combined programmable one‐pot synthesis and enzymatic strategy based on glycosyltransferases to prepare linear poly‐LacNAc and derivatives. The one‐pot synthesis is carried out with the use of building blocks that have the “GlcNAc‐β‐(1, 3)‐Gal” skeleton. The LacNAc repeating units can be deprotected and further glycosylated enzymatically, as illustrated by the galactosyl transferase and α‐2, 3‐sialyltransferase reactions, to add galactose and sialic acid sequentially, to reduce the complexity of protecting group manipulation. In addition, the synthetic LacNAc derivatives contain a temporary PMP protecting group at the anomeric position that can be easily removed and converted into an oligosaccharyl donor such as glycosyl fluoride for the subsequent synthesis of asymmetric N‐glycans.
Intrinsic Broadband White‐Light Emission from Ultrastable, Cationic Lead Halide Layered Materials
Authors: Zhuang Zewen , Peng Chengdong , Zhang Guiyang , Yang Huimin , Yin Jinlin , Fei Honghan
Published: September 2017

We report a family of cationic lead halide layered materials, formulated as [Pb2X2]2+[−O2C(CH)2CO2−] (X=F, Cl, Br), exhibiting pronounced broadband white‐light emission in bulk form. These well‐defined PbX‐based structures achieve an external quantum efficiency as high as 11.8 %, which is comparable to the highest reported value (ca.9 %) for broadband phosphors based on layered organolead halide perovskites. More importantly, our cationic materials are ultrastable lead halide materials, which overcome the air/moisture‐sensitivity problems of lead perovskites. In contrast to the perovskites and other bulk emitters, the white‐light emission intensity of our materials remains undiminished after continuous UV irradiation for 30 days under atmospheric conditions (ca.60 % relative humidity). Our mechanistic studies confirm that the broadband emission is ascribed to short‐range electron‐phonon coupling in the strongly deformable lattice and generated self‐trapped carriers.
Bioassay, determination and separation of enantiomers of atenolol by direct and indirect approaches using liquid chromatography: A review
Authors: Batra Sonika , Bhushan Ravi
Published: September 2017

Atenolol, a β‐adrenergic receptor antagonist, is a chiral compound used for the treatment of cardiovascular diseases and to treat hypertension, coronary heart disease, arrhythmias, sinus tachycardia and myocardial infarction, where it acts preferentially upon the β‐adrenergic receptors in the heart. It is marketed as a racemate, but only the (S)‐enantiomer of (RS)‐atenolol is responsible for the β‐adrenoceptor blocking activity. Different chromatographic methods have been applied for the separation and determination of enantiomers. In this article a review is presented on liquid chromatographic methods for enantioseparation of (RS)‐atenolol by both direct and indirect approaches involving practical applications of several chiral stationary phases, chiral derivatization reagents and ligand exchange and impregnation methods. These include methods using both HPLC and TLC for separation, determination and bioassay of enantiomers of atenolol. In addition, some aspects of enantioseparation under achiral phases of liquid chromatography have been briefly mentioned as applicable to (RS)‐atenolol. This review provides current available enantioseparation choices not only for (RS)‐atenolol but also for other applicable racemic drugs.
03.25: On the seismic behavior of the HBS and RBS moment connections
Authors: Nobari Hesam Bafandeh , Hamed Arash Akbari
Published: September 2017

After the earthquakes of Northridge‐1994 and Kobe‐1995, the reduced beam section (RBS) connections were proposed to improve the seismic behavior of moment connections. Afterwards, some major problems like high construction cost, remarkable reduction of stiffness along with lateral torsional buckling observed in this new connection type. Therefore, some researches completed recently to eliminate these objections. One of the novel suggestions in this way is heat‐treated beam sections (HBS). To form HBS connection, a region of the beam flanges at a short distance from column face is exposed to high temperatures purposefully followed by slow cooling. As a result, bending plastic hinges develop within this weakened areas of flanges. In the present article, the seismic performance of frames with heat‐treated beam section connections is compared with respect to the reduced beam section (RBS) connections. To this aim, first, finite element models of HBS and RBS connections are verified based on a chosen experimental program. Then considering connection of the beams with tube, box and I‐shaped sections to a box column, a parametric study is done by analyzing the finite‐element models using a quasi‐static loading protocol. Finally, the cyclic behavior of the HBS and RBS connections are judged with respect to some structural parameters like strength, stiffness, energy dissipation and hysteretic curves. Regarding to the unchanged properties of HBS connections like elastic stiffness and cross section area, it is concluded that the obtained results will show the superiority of the HBS connections.
05.30: Stability and load bearing capacity of a braced truss under upward wind loading
Authors: Krajewski Marcin , Iwicki Piotr
Published: September 2017

The paper is focused on the numerical and experimental investigation of stability of a steel truss under upward wind loading. The structure was stiffened by elastic braces situated at the top and bottom chord. Usually the lateral (translational) brace stiffness is considered. However, the rotational stiffness of braces caused by interaction between torsional stiffness of the truss top chord and bending stiffness of the roof elements (purlins, sandwich panels, trapezoidal sheet) should be taken into account. The model of real roof truss scaled by factor ¼ was investigated. In the research the linear buckling analysis results and non‐linear static analysis results for the truss shell model are presented. As a result the buckling and limit load in relation of the truss bracing stiffness was found and the threshold bracing condition necessary to provide maximal buckling resistance of the truss was obtained. The truss load bearing capacity obtained from numerical analysis was compared with the experimental test results and Eurocode 3 requirements.
08.12: Mega composite columns in plant construction
Authors: Dürr  , Gong FY. , Bartenbach J.
Published: September 2017

Plant structures in industrial facilities are often very large and can reach a height of up to 150m. Although composite steel‐concrete structures can be found worldwide in many areas of construction, the large towers in plant structures are still commonly built as truss or framework structures of pure steel or of concrete construction. As an innovative alternative, the columns – the most important elements of the structure – can be made as a steel‐concrete mega composite construction. In several pilot studies and two design projects these new column types were developed for the application in plant constructions as a boiler support structure for steam power plants and as a preheater tower for cement plants. In a first pilot project, composite columns measuring approximately 2m × 2m cross section size and with a height of almost 100m were successfully executed. Within this paper two different types of these “Mega Composite Columns” are explained and compared in detail from a static, structural and manufacturing point of view. Moreover, the most significant features in the design and construction of these “Mega Composite Columns” in plant construction are pointed out herein. Especially the design of the main joints (columns‐beams‐diagonals) is essential in such composite structural elements for economic reasons; therefore different examples of these main connections are presented and discussed. Furthermore, new innovative concepts for optimizations of these details are presented in order to enhance the future profitability of this construction.