bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Relation of Primitive Christianity to Jewish Thought and Teaching
Authors: Arnold William R.
Published: October 2011

Christianity was founded by an historical person who lived in comparatively recent times. Few of us have not seen one or other of our grandparents; some doubtless have looked upon the faces of their great-grandparents. Now Jesus of Nazareth lived, and people were first called Christians, no longer ago than about twenty-five such periods of time as separate a man from his great-grandfather. We speak sometimes of the ‘evolution of Christianity,’ as if Christianity were something coeval with the geologic periods. But the fact is that though there has been a great deal of activity in theological speculation under the name of Christianity, there has been very little evolution of Christianity itself since the days of Jesus of Nazareth and Paul of Tarsus. However that may be, we need to realize that Christianity appeared in the full light of comparatively recent historical times, and was founded by an historical person of whom we have fairly definite records and under conditions that we may pretend to understand. And if there are some things about the origin of Christianity that we do not know or understand, it is not because of the remoteness of the times, but because of the obscurity and the literary insignificance of its beginnings. The men who launched it were plain men, and we cannot know what they failed to observe and in after years omitted to set down. Yet they set down enough to enable us to study intelligently the circumstances and conditions under which Christianity arose and to which in so large part owed its rise.
The Authoress Of Revelation — a Conjecture
Authors: Bacon Benjamin W.
Published: October 2011

Of what value is a pure conjecture, unverified, perhaps unverifiable? In the face of possible disparagement we answer, Much every way. A conjecture is the most concrete and tangible form of the working hypothesis. When directed at some important yet knotty point of criticism it coördinates and articulates the data, narrowing the question down to sharply definable points. It is the oxyacetylene blowpipe of historical inquiry. It may be misdirected, but if so is promptly quenched. If rightly applied it goes to the heart of the matter. Criticism in this form laughs at the epithet ‘destructive’. Discarding the defensive armor of negative propositions it comes boldly forth into the open, flinging down its challenge of pointed affirmation and defying disproof. As long as its challenge remains unanswered it serves to rouse debate from the lethargy of stagnation. Accepted or rejected, it stimulates to new energy the forces of liberalism and conservatism alike. In the end it works inevitably for the truth. Against the truth it can do nothing.
A Diis Electa: a Chapter in the Religious History of the Third Century
Authors: Nock Arthur Darby
Published: October 2011

The excavation of a site commonly gives us a neat and definite stratification of successive periods. Although the religious history of the Empire is less fortunate, nevertheless it has turning points and we can remark certain features as characteristic of particular periods. It is not that the phenomena in question are confined to these periods, but that they appear in them with special emphasis. The purpose of this paper is to consider a group of inscriptions which throw some light on the religious atmosphere of Rome in the middle of the third century of our era.
Two Notes on Valentinian Theology
Authors: Casey Robert P.
Published: October 2011

It has often been suggested that the principal gnostic myths had their origin in genuine folklore, and the difficulty of discovering traces of this lore outside of gnostic sources has been explained by supposing that the myths were Oriental and were derived either from the oral traditions of localities in which no literature was produced or from literature which is no longer extant. Nothing favorable, however, to this view can be found from a comparison of gnostic myths with the native myths of Greece or with such Oriental mythology as is preserved unmixed with philosophic exegesis. In cases where known Greek, Jewish, or Christian sources are borrowed for the myths, the effort to extract gnostic theology is as painful as in the worst attempts of the Stoic exegetes, but where the myth is distinctively gnostic the philosophic meaning is easily traced in the story's plot. The reason for this is evidently not that Oriental myths are more philosophic than Greek but that gnostic myths are in their origin artificial and symbolic. Reminiscences of Oriental fancy may occasionally appear, but they do not control the main structure of the plots and can usually be detected by the difficulty with which a philosophic meaning is attached to them. An underlying structure of thought invariably conditions the imaginative forms of gnostic myths, so that theological differences between related sects are often apparent only in minor variations in the development of the story. These variations are difficult to interpret in systems of which we have only a fragmentary knowledge, and it is dangerous to patch up one system with pieces derived from another, however admirably they may seem to fit. Unlike the Stoics, who started from popular myths, the natural products of unsophisticated imagination, and explained these as symbols of philosophic truth, the gnostics invented their own myths to suit their philosophy. In course of time the best of these inventions served as the basis for further allegorizing, and some of the later gnostics, like the authors of Pistis Sophia, forgot, or neglected, the philosophy of their masters and elaborated only the mythological elements in their theology. Since they were men of feeble abilities, they only made bad myths into worse ones, and obscured the philosophic meaning which was really symbolized in the earlier forms of the stories, stiff and artificial though they were.
A Gothenburg Papyrus and the Letter to Abgar
Authors: Youtie Herbert C.
Published: October 2011

The resemblance of P. Got. 21 to the letter sent by Jesus to Abgar had already occurred to me when I saw Bell's review of Frisk's publication. Bell there expresses the opinion that “the text looks like a version of the ‘Letter to Abgar.’” It is in reality nothing else.
The Meaning of ‘Authority’ in Mark 1, 22
Authors: Starr Joshua
Published: October 2011

He entered into the synagogue and taught. And they were astonished at his teaching, for he taught them as one having authority and not as the scribes (Mk. 1, 21–22).

The accepted interpretation of Mark 1, 21 f. is well known. In the words of Herford, the passage means that Jesus taught “with the spiritual force of a tremendous personality,” and this was bound to shock his contemporaries who adhered to the idea of Torah. Such a view has the advantage of making the material self-explanatory, while it receives corroboration both from other data in the gospels regarding Jesus' personal traits and from facts derived from the Judaistic sources concerning the Pharisaic method of teaching.
An Armenian Version of Athanasius's Letter to Epictetus
Authors: Casey Robert P.
Published: October 2011

The following Armenian text of Athanasius's Letter to Epictetus is found in two manuscripts of the Mechitarists at Vienna:

A. Cod. 629, ff. 66a–73b, 19th century, notragir, copied from an 18th century archetype at Ispahan.

B. Cod. 648, ff. 102b–105b, paper, 14th century, bolorgir, without word division and badly worm-eaten.

The version is different from that published by Tajezi, and belongs to an Armenian corpus of Athanasian writings compiled early in the eighth century. I have added a collation with Ludwig's edition of the Greek, but have deliberately refrained from discussing at length its relation to other textual authorities.
Un Fragment de Rituel D'Initiation aux Mystères
Authors: Cumont Franz
Published: October 2011

Le tome X du recueil des “Papiri della Società italiana,” où ont déjà paru tant de morceaux précieux, contient sous le n° 1162 le texte mutilé d'un serment que son éditeur, M. V. Bartoletti, a jugé “plutôt juif que chrétien.” Evidemment ce caractère lui a paru résulter des premières lignes, restituées par lui avec une grande vraisemblance et où il s'agit d'un dieu créateur. Mais les fonnules employées n'ont qu'une analogie très vague avec les premiers versets de la Genèse. Elles s'en rapprochent beaucoup moins que la teneur de certaine cosmogonie hermétique, où l'influence juive se décèle immédiatement. Comme j'avais suggéré à M. Vitelli, sous toutes réserves, la possibilité d'une autre interprétation, ce maître incontesté de la papyrologie m'a courtoisement invité dans les additions au tome X à exposer moi-même cette explication nouvelle. Je cède donc à son exhortation, malgré certains doutes qui, on le verra, subsistent dans mon esprit, car, si je comprends bien ce texte tronqué, il prendra une valeur singulière et méritera qu'on s'attache à l'étudier.
The Vulgate, Peshitto, Sahidic, and Bohairic Versions of Acts and the Greek Manuscripts
Authors: Ropes James Hardy , Hatch William H. P.
Published: October 2011

The use of statistics in textual criticism is always attractive to the student, but is apt to be disappointing in application. It resembles the attempt of Raymond Lull in the thirteenth century to convert the Mohammedans by a mathematical demonstration of the truths of Christianity: in both cases the insights have been chiefly gained through other and more direct processes, and the figures can seldom do more than provide interesting illustration, or the test of an hypothesis; they seldom lead to much new knowledge. Moreover, it is very difficult to make the statistics either complete or perfectly accurate. Nevertheless, in textual criticism something can be learned from statistics both by way of verification and of suggestion; and the following study of the chief versions of the Book of Acts seems to the writers to yield some profitable fruit.
Ezekiel or Pseudo-Ezekiel?
Authors: Spiegel Shalom
Published: October 2011

From the earliest times we hear of doubts and difficulties in the Book of Ezekiel which have beset alike the pious and the inquiring student. In patient love, like that of the talmudic sage of old, generations have poured jars of oil into their lamps hoping to illumine in that prophecy what seems but an impenetrable gloom. Jerome often confesses his inability to grapple with the ‘obscuritates’ of a book known to be difficult in the tradition of the Hebrews. Especially he gives voice to utter consternation when on the threshold of the restored sanctuary envisioned by the prophet in his last chapters; there he is like one knocking at a closed portal. The chapters, tenebrous and trackless, are not unlike the catacombs he used to visit when studying in Rome: a glint from above would cast a swift light and then vanish, leaving him even more hopeless in the dusky cave. In like manner he often thinks he has found the way through a dark and difficult chapter only to discover that he has sunk into even denser darkness. Not in temerity, therefore, but in faith and the fear of God will he venture his guesses about Ezekiel's temple, shrouded in the mystery and silence of the centuries (“quod saecula cuncta tacuerunt”): others may contribute more and, he hopes, will not despise his little portion.
The Slavonic Version of Josephus' History of the Jewish War
Authors: Creed John Martin
Published: October 2011

The Slavonic version of Josephus’ History of the Jewish War, extant in some fifteen Russian MSS. of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, was first brought to light in recent times by A. N. Popov, the discoverer of the Slavonic Book of Enoch, who in 1866 called attention to passages contained in this version, but unattested elsewhere, relating to John the Baptist and Jesus Christ. Popov published the Slavonic text of parts of these passages. The Preface to Niese and Destinon's edition of the Greek text of the Jewish War (1894) contains a reference (p. xxii) to the existence of the version, but the text was then still inaccessible. For our further acquaintance with the Slavonic version we are chiefly indebted to the Esthonian scholar, Alexander Berendts of Dorpat.
The Ethiopic Text of Acts of the Apostles
Authors: Montgomery James A.
Published: October 2011

Dr. Ropes in his encyclopaedic treatment of “The Text of Acts,” in The Beginnings of Christianity, vol. iii, 1926, omitted treatment of the Ethiopic versions for lack of reliable critical material. In the section calling attention to the Ethiopic texts (pp. cxlvi seq.), along with the expression of opinion that an investigation of that field for Acts “would produce interesting and valuable results,” he notes the Ethiopic manuscripts recorded for Acts in Gregory's list, of which “one (Paris, Bibl. Nat., aeth. 26 [Zotenberg 42]) is of the fifteenth century.” Subsequently to the completion of his volume Dr. Ropes was able to secure a photographic copy of that MS. of Acts; and he did the present writer the honor of asking him to make a critical study of what appeared to be the oldest known witness to Acts in that version.
Suarez and Vico: A Note on the Origin of the Vichian Formula
Authors: Gianturco Elio
Published: October 2011

Veri criterium est id ipsum fecisse.

This is the pivotal formula, the central theme of the speculative system of G. B. Vico.

When the question of the origin of this axiom, fraught with such important results for the destiny of moral sciences, is investigated in detail, it will be necessary to proceed to a thorough examination of the relations connecting Vico's metaphysics with scholastic thought, and especially with the systematization given to it by F. Suarez.
Notes on Torrey's Translation of the Gospels
Authors: Marcus Ralph
Published: October 2011

Professor Torrey's new translation of the Gospels has more importance than a mere substantiation of a thesis might be expected to have. Whether or not his theory of a written Aramaic (and in part Hebrew) original of the four Gospels is correct, there can be no doubt of the value to New Testament scholarship of a critical translation made by so competent a Semitist and biblical student as the author is universally acknowledged to be. And lest this brief note of appreciation be taken as the conventional tribute paid by the disapproving critic before he attempts to show that the author's theories deserve less polite treatment, the reviewer wishes to make clear that he has studied the arguments for translation-Greek advanced in Torrey's essay on “The Origin of the Gospels” and has examined a fair amount of the evidence without any preconceived notions about Torrey's ability to prove his points.
The Internal Senses in Latin, Arabic, and Hebrew Philosophic Texts
Authors: Wolfson Harry Austryn
Published: October 2011

In Aristotle there is no general term for those faculties of the soul which he treats of in the Third Book of De Anima and in De Memoria et Reminiscentia to differentiate them as a class from the five senses which he treats of in the Second Book of De Anima. In Latin, Arabic, and Hebrew philosophic texts, however, these post-sensationary faculties, or some of them, or sometimes only one of them, are designated by the term “internal senses,” in contradistinction to the five senses which are designated by the term “external senses.” Sometimes instead of “external” the terms “corporeal” and “passive” are used, and instead of “internal” the terms “spiritual,” “separable,” and “cerebral.” Sometimes, too, the term “faculties” or “apprehensions” is used instead of “senses.” The use of the terms “internal,” “spiritual,” and “cerebral” has been explained by the fact that the faculties to which they are applied reside within the brain and operate without bodily organs.
The Chester Beatty Papyrus and the Caesarean Text of Luke
Authors: Tasker R. V. G.
Published: October 2011

Sir Frederick Kenyon, in the introduction to his edition of the Chester Beatty Papyrus, points out the strong affinity of the text of this papyrus with ‘that segregated by Canon Streeter and others…and identified by them with the text of Caesarea.’ The object of this article is to raise the question whether or no the same thing applies in the case of the Gospel of Luke. The difficulty of answering the question is caused by the relative scantiness of the MSS. authority for the Caesarean text in Luke as compared with Mark. Among the best authorities for the Caesarean text of Mark are W, 28, 565, and the Old Georgian version. In Luke, however, the Caesarean readings in these Greek MSS. are very scanty, and the text of the Adysh MS. of the Old Georgian is not yet available. Again, in the case of θ and 700, the Byzantine reviser has left fewer Caesarean readings in Luke (especially towards the latter part of the Gospel) than even in Matthew, and far fewer than in Mark.
Armenian Manuscripts of St. Athanasius of Alexandria
Authors: Casey Robert P.
Published: October 2011

The Armenian version of the works of Athanasius is known to European scholars from four sources: (1) the list in Karekin's catalogue of early Armenian translations, (2) Conybeare's edition of the pseudo-athanasian “Dialogue between Athanasius and Zacchaeus,” (3) an article by the same scholar, ‘On the Sources of the Text of St. Athanasius,’ with accompanying collations of the Armenian of De Incarnatione et contra Arianos and Qvod unus sit Christus, and (4) the Venice edition of Armenian Athanasiana made by E. Tajezi and published with Conybeare's help at the Mechitarist press in 1899. This edition contains all the material then available in the Mechitarists' library at Venice but is not based on a complete survey of the sources. Furthermore, the manuscripts employed are (with the one exception of Cod. Venet. 818) collections of various patristic writings, and do not contain corpora of Athanasius's works such as are commonly found in Greek.
Limitations to genetic comparison of populations
Authors: Thoday J. M.
Published: October 2011

In this Symposium we are to discuss biological and social aspects of race. This is, of course, a tender topic, in dealing with which I feel strongly that we must all take especial care to express our ignorance when we are ignorant. Especially is this so in the most sensitive area of the topic, the question whether or not differences between racial groups in so-called mental abilities have an innate genetic component or not. I hope to convince you that nobody knows the answer to this question, and that in present circumstances it is impossible to know or even to foresee with certainty that it will ever be possible to know. Hence, whoever speaks as if he knows that such a racial difference is genetic, or whoever speaks as if he knows that such a racial difference is not genetic, is showing a bias that cannot be justified by the facts. Both they who say the differences are genetic and they who say they are environmental or cultural are equally prejudiced.
Natural selection and population diversity
Authors: Allison A. C.
Published: October 2011

It is an observed fact that human populations differ in genetic composition. Some of the inherited diversity is due to combined effects of many genes. Although it would be interesting to know the magnitude and nature of the genetic contribution to some characters under polygenic control, such as intelligence or physique, environmental effects may be so great that no genetic analysis is possible—as Thoday has pointed out earlier in this symposium. With other polygenic characters, such as skin colour, the genetic component is more obvious but still difficult to analyse precisely. The number of genes involved, their frequency and dominance have not been established. This is one of the reasons why selective effects on such characters are not readily measured, although they probably exist.
Ethnic differences in sensory perception
Authors: Kalmus Hans
Published: October 2011

It is possible to summarize our survey under the following four headings:

1. Members of different ethnic groups may react differently to comparable natural (usually complex) situations.

2. Laboratory measurements of various sensory functions of ethnic groups have often been contradictory; and even though some peripheral differences in perception are a priori probable, others may still be caused by cultural differences in cognition, memory content or motivation; these cognitive and memory differences may be best interpreted as differences in individually acquired but group characteristic reafference systems.
Population prospects for regions of the world
Authors: Taylor Wallis
Published: October 2011

Two different projections of world population for the years 1980 and 2000, viz. the United Nations Medium Variant Projection and Current Fertility Projection, are considered. Both show large increases in world population. When the more developed regions and the less developed regions are considered separately, the major part of the growth is seen to be concentrated in the less developed regions.

The changes in total population expected in the next 40 years (1960–2000) are seen to be very different from changes which have taken place in the last 40 years.
Sociological aspects: Introduction
Authors: Mason Philip
Published: October 2011

I was thinking as we went through the first three sessions of this symposium of a difficulty faced by human geneticists which is not faced by those who are concerned with the genetics of plants and animals, and which I do not think has been mentioned—though, certainly, it was implied in Dr Harrison's Galton Lecture.

The geneticist of plants and animals, if he is concerned with wild plants and wild animals, is considering their viability in a particular environment. The geneticist who is concerned with domestic strains is concerned with something which he knows much more precisely. He knows what he wants; he knows that he wants a cow that will give more milk, or a hen that will give more eggs.
The role of the settlement area in British race relations
Authors: Lyon M. H.
Published: October 2011

This paper attempts to analyse some of the local social structural factors accounting for racial attitudes towards coloured settlers, and will concentrate particularly on the way in which the coloured settlement zones, often known loosely as ghettos, promote the formation of racial attitudes and relationships in Britain.
Cognitive aspects of prejudice
Authors: Tajfel Henri
Published: October 2011

The aim of this paper was to stress the importance of the adaptive cognitive functioning of man in the causation of prejudice. It was felt that this approach has the merits of economy, credibility and testability of explanation which are not always shared by views seeking the psychological causes of intergroup tensions in the evolutionary past of the species or in unconscious motivation. Three cognitive processes were considered from the point of view of their relevance to the genesis of prejudice in an individual: categorization, assimilation, and search for conceptual coherence.

Though the paper was not concerned either with discussing ways to reduce prejudice or with outlining in any detail designs for future research, it is my belief that the general approach adopted here has implications, both for social action and for research, which have not been as yet consistently and fully taken into account.
Aspects of homosexuality
Authors: West D. J.
Published: October 2011

The Sexual Offences Act, 1967, which made private homosexual behaviour between consenting males over the age of 21 years legal in England, marked a significant stage in the gradual change of social attitudes on this topic. A substantial body of opinion, including perhaps most of those personally affected, now takes the line that homosexuality is a common and relatively minor variant from the normal, that its occurrence is inevitable and that it is about time that the community learned to live and let live, recognizing that many ordinary folk, as well as many outstanding citizens, are unalterably homosexual.
Sex differences in age at marriage
Authors: Cox P. R.
Published: October 2011

The subject of this talk is the ages of brides and grooms and how the relativity of the ages of such marriage partners has changed in England and Wales over the years. It is a well-documented subject in the sense that square tables showing the combinations of ages of marrying couples have been published annually since the middle of the nineteenth century. It is not well-documented in the sense that these plentiful data have attracted the research interest of demographers, economists or sociologists. Indeed, little work has been done up to now on this subject.
Which is the weaker sex?
Authors: Potts D. M.
Published: October 2011

The male is the weaker sex in nearly all disease categories and age groups. Sexual differences in mortality rates sometimes pose some interesting biological problems and warrant the interest of those concerned with the health of society. Males are undoubtedly the weaker sex. In contemporary, developed countries most mortality is man-made, the male being particularly adept at killing himself. In addition, men, the weaker sex, appear to reap some sort of vengeance on women, as the attitudes of doctors—and these are predominantly male attitudes—do not always lead to the most rational care of women undergoing the uniquely female risk of reproduction.
Human fertility in global perspective
Authors: Potts D. M.
Published: October 2011

Sir David Owen, who should have given this lecture, died very suddenly and unexpectedly at the end of June.

U Thant said in a tribute: ‘David Owen was literally the first member of the United Nations Secretariat. He joined the United Nations directly from the San Francisco Conference in 1945…. As the first and only Executive Chairman of the Technical Assistance Board he was key organizer of what has now become the United Nations Development Programme…. When he left the United Nations a year ago to assume his new post as Secretary General of the International Planned Parenthood Federation he was continuing the work to which he had devoted his life, the application of human ingenuity and technological progress to problems of peoples of the world. It is a tragedy, and a loss to all mankind, that his life and his new career have been so abruptly cut short.’
Cultural explanations of fertility differences
Authors: Mitchell J. Clyde
Published: October 2011

The reproductive behaviour of human beings, in contrast to that of other animals, is distinguished by almost universal awareness of the connection between sexual activity on the one hand and the birth of children on the other. There are, it is true, some classic examples where this connection apparently is not appreciated, as for example, the Trobrianders as described by Malinowski (1937), and the Arunta of the Central Australian desert as described by Spencer & Gillen (1927). These, however, are exceptions rather than the rule. In any case, even in them, reproductive behaviour is still constrained by custom although the connection is not appreciated. The biological potential to reproduction therefore does not, in itself, determine the level of fertility in any human population. Some individuals, or some categories of persons, may deliberately attempt to influence the natural process of reproduction, either to enhance or to inhibit its efficacy.
The unwanted pregnancy
Authors: Diggory Peter
Published: October 2011

This is a subject in which one can readily become entangled in semantic confusion. Short definitions of the unwanted pregnancy are always inadequate and I am going to assume that we all know what we mean by the term. I would comment that a planned pregnancy is a wanted pregnancy, but not all unplanned pregnancies are ultimately unwanted. Many of us here could, in truth, be described as more or less happy accidents.
Physiology of lactation
Authors: McNeilly A. S.
Published: October 2011

In adult life the human breast, unlike that of other species, is sufficiently developed to allow milk secretion to occur after only a brief period of hormonal stimulation. During pregnancy the ducts and secretory alveoli develop under the influence of both oestrogen and progesterone. Growth hormone and placental lactogen are not required; the role of prolactin in mammogenesis remains questionable. Lactogenesis, the onset of milk secretion, is inhibited during pregnancy despite high levels of prolactin, by a direct inhibitory action of steroids on the breast. The clearance of placental steroids after delivery removes this inhibition and milk secretion is initiated.

Inhibition of prolactin secretion prevents milk secretion, suggesting that prolactin is the essential hormone for lactation in man. Prolactin release occurs in response to suckling and the amount released depends on the strength and duration of the suckling process. No release of prolactin occurs in response to stimuli other than stimulation of the nipple.

Removal of milk from the mammary gland is effected by the milk-ejection reflex (MER) involving the release of oxytocin in response to suckling. Unlike prolactin, oxytocin may be released in response to stimuli associated with breast-feeding, e.g. the cry of the infant. The MER may be inhibited by psychological and physical stress, either by inhibiting oxytocin release or by preventing its action upon the breast contractile elements. The susceptibility of the MER to disturbance requires consideration when encouraging the establishment of breast-feeding.

Breast-feeding is geared directly to the needs of the infant, since not only does the suckling infant obtain its present meal by inducing oxytocin release, but also by stimulating prolactin release it orders the next (Tindal, 1972).
Interactions of contraception and breast-feeding in developing countries
Authors: Mosley W. H. , Osteria T. , Huffman S. L.
Published: October 2011

One of the major goals of health programmes in the developing world is to improve maternal and child health. Two important steps towards achieving this goal are the promotion of birth spacing and the promotion of breast-feeding. Since birth spacing requires some type of fertility control measures, modern contraceptive programmes are becoming an integral part of maternal and child health programmes. The next logical question would then appear to be, ‘What are the appropriate contraceptives, particularly among the modern methods, for use during lactation ?’
Effect of oral contraceptives on the production and composition of human milk
Authors: Gupta A. N. , Mathur V. S. , Garg S. K.
Published: October 2011

One hundred and thirty six lactating women were studied, 42 controls and 94 taking oral contraceptives. Combination pills of oestrogen and progestogen (Primovlar and Minovlar) and a low dose progestogen pill (Norgestrel) were used. The selection of a particular formulation was based on the endocrine profile of an individual; this reduced drop-outs due to side effects.

The change in the quantity of milk was assessed by test-feeding followed by manual expression. Milk was also analysed quantitatively. Significant reduction in the milk yield was found with the Primovlar and Minovlar groups but no change was observed with Norgestrel. No change in the quality of milk was found for any of the three groups.
Side effects of steroid contraception
Authors: Gellén J. J.
Published: October 2011

Side effects of steroid contraception during lactation are discussed and followed by a review of the relevant literature. It appears that oestrogen has an inhibiting effect on lactation performance, but progestogen alone does not. Most of the undesirable systemic side effects of oral contraceptives on the mother are connected with the relative excess or deficiency of the oestrogen and/or the progestogen component. It is likely that a low oestrogen content preparation causes no dangerous side effects. There are few data about the appearance of contraceptive steroids in breast milk. Probably only a small proportion of the steroids are excreted into the milk. Any adverse effects, on the infant, such as slow weight gain, neonatal breast hypertrophy and breast milk jaundice, are dependent on the two preceding factors. It is doubtful whether the small amount of contraceptive steroids contained in modern pills exert any influence on the fetus. Although further examinations are necessary, the low dosage of progestogen and oestrogen combined contraceptives given at fully established lactation under close control seems to be advantageous to both mothers and their infants.
Demographic considerations
Authors: Gray R. H.
Published: October 2011

I should like to discuss both the demographic and public health implications of the matters which have arisen at this meeting.

There are clearly some areas of consensus: we all agree that lactation is of fundamental importance, and that the birth interval is important, both for the health of the mother and child and with regard to fertility. Obviously, the longer the birth interval, the fewer births a woman will have during her reproductive life. A number of schemes were presented yesterday to show that in traditional societies with very long birth intervals there will be a reduced total fertility.
Research requirements
Authors: Potts Malcolm
Published: October 2011

It is surprising that although the IPPF is 27 years old it has never previously had a meeting on this topic. On rational grounds, it is one of the first subjects at which it might have looked because many of the data we have discussed were available long ago. I remember reading about a Western doctor in Asia who saw the familiar scene of a mother with a young baby being suckled from one breast and an older child from the other breast but, in this case, the older one was also smoking a cigarette between sucks! Perhaps we need some kind of startling image like that to make us look closely at the role of lactation in fertility regulation.
The incidence and outcome of adolescent pregnancy in the United States
Authors: Dryfoos Joy G.
Published: October 2011

The publication in 1976 of a 64-page pamphlet with the unlikely title 11 Million Teenagers: What Can Be Done About the Epidemic of Adolescent Pregnancies in the U.S. (AGI, 1976) precipitated a dialogue quite new to the American public. For the first time, attention was centred on the fact that pregnancy among teenagers was almost as prevalent as the common cold and that those who were getting pregnant increasingly were younger, and more of them were white and middle class. The figure of one million pregnancies experienced by women aged 15–19 showed that one in ten female adolescents and one out of four sexually active teenagers are conceiving each year.
Contraception in adolescence—a review of the literature
Authors: Ryde-Blomqvist Elsa
Published: October 2011

During the last 10 years an increasing number of pregnancies have been noted in adolescents. The children of these pregnancies are often at risk. The problem was discussed in a meeting on Pregnancy and Abortion in Adolescence in 1974, held at WHO headquarters, Geneva. An annotated bibliography was prepared for that meeting, from which this review originated. The literature covered a wide range of subjects, but an attempt has been made in this review to discuss the problem in six main sections: social aspects; sexual attitudes and behaviour; sex education and information; contraceptive services for adolescents; medical and clinical aspects and legislation. Quite a number of teenagers are sexually active even in their early teens but often keep to one partner. Their use of contraception is poor, partly because of a lack of education and information. Young people are demanding better information and services, which would probably best be provided through special teenage clinics. So far, there have been very few investigative studies dealing exclusively with adolescent use of different contraceptive methods. Methods of contraception available at present are often unsuitable for use by adolescents, and further research on the problem is needed.
Social and emotional aspects of pregnancy in teenagers
Authors: Crabbe Pauline
Published: October 2011

A recent report by the Brook Advisory Centres, refers to the fact that in girls under 20, the numbers of illegitimate births and abortions have not shown any decline in the period 1966–77. It is also estimated that half the 40,000 teenage brides who marry each year are pregnant when they do so. It seems appropriate therefore, at this time, to look at the social and emotional factors that contribute to this situation.
Law, policy and adolescent sexuality
Authors: Paxman John M.
Published: October 2011

For those interested in the patterns of adolescent fertility there is a lesson to be learned from the story about the Emperor's new clothes (Andersen, 1913). The problems, or lack of them, present themselves as starkly as the Emperor's, yet there is a tendency not to face the fact that in certain societies adolescent sexuality can create problems. The vast majority of parents, health personnel and policy makers seem to prefer to ignore what can be readily perceived. Conversely, in many areas of the world, there may be a tendency to announce the existence of problems which do not exist.
Social and psychosexual problems of African adolescents
Authors: Sai F. A.
Published: October 2011

The population of African countries, typical of developing countries, is characterized by the large proportion of children and young people. An almost perfect pyramid illustrates the age distribution of Ghana's population (Text-fig. 1).

Projections of future population point to a further rise in the proportion of children (0–15 years of age) from the present 45% to 47–49% by the year 1980. The children of today will be the parents of tomorrow and for the adolescents the statement can be taken literally; the study of adolescents and their sexual and fertility problems, therefore, needs urgent attention. Especially in black Africa, these problems cannot be studied in isolation from the traditional, cultural and socio-economic environment. Indeed much of the psychosexual trauma of this group is closely interwoven with their complex backgrounds.
Factors affecting the age at menopause
Authors: Keep P. A. Van , Brand P. C. , Lehert Ph.
Published: October 2011

A postal questionnaire was sent out in September 1977 to all women aged between 40 and 60 years in Ede, the Netherlands. The design of the study was similar to that used by Jaszmann et al. in 1967 in the same locality. The response rate was 66·6%. Data were analysed using theprobit analysis, a segmentation analysis and by applying chi-squared tests to cross tabulations. The median age at menopause was 51·7 years, 3 months later than in 1967. When, however, women who were taking oral contraceptives at the time of the survey were excluded the median age at menopause was found to be virtually the same as 10 years previously. The effect of factors associated with early or late menopause was studied. The results are discussed. The concept of a secular trend is briefly commented upon.
Appropriate contraception for middle-aged women
Authors: Greenblatt Robert B. , Nezhat Camran , McNamara Virginia P.
Published: October 2011

The United States Food and Drug Administration and the International Planned Parenthood Federation recommend that women over the age of 40 should utilize forms of contraception other than the pill. This decision was reached as a result of the 1975 clinical papers by Mann and his associates (Mann et al., 1975; Mann & Inman, 1975) and the epidemiological reports of the Royal College of General Practitioners (1977), Mann, Inman & Thorogood (1976) and Vessey, McPherson & Johnson (1977). Several authoritative bodies believed it prudent to suggest that the age limit for oral contraceptive use be lowered to 35, and even to 30 years (Anon, 1977; Planned Parenthood memorandum, 1977). The investigations of Inman & Vessey (1968) point to a precarious rise in mortality figures for women over age 35 on oral contraceptives.
Genetics and ageing in man
Authors: Roberts D. F.
Published: October 2011

Among the conflicts of modern life is that faced by many educated women between the desire to pursue a professional career and the demands of their potential maternal role. Some resolve this by deferring having children. This deferment, coupled with an increased awareness of birth defects generally and of the problems faced by older mothers, leads to an increasing number of queries to genetic advisory services, family doctors, obstetricians, and family planning centres, as to the specific risks in reproduction by older parents. The appreciable risk of death in childbed of earlier days is no longer with us, thanks to modern obstetric techniques. But the child morbidity due to congenital and genetic disorders, already appreciable (Roberts, Chavez & Court, 1970; Roberts, 1975) and increasing both proportionately and absolutely, and the evidence that some of these increase in incidence with age, mean that there is a real basis for the enquirers' concern. The following review of the ways in which parental ageing affects the incidence of such disorders, and of the mechanisms that appear to be responsible, places the increased risks in perspective.
Women and sport – social aspects
Authors: Talbot Margaret
Published: October 2011

A wide ranging coverage is given of the issues involved in the interaction between women and sport. The pressures on girls and women to take part in or to refrain from various sports are considered. The question of the leisure time available to women in various situations, and the pressures on that leisure time, are discussed, and space is also given to the opportunities available at school level, the Equal Opportunities Commission's involvement in sport and the problems of sportswomen at the highest level.
Selection and training as they affect factors of performance
Authors: Cadman John F.
Published: October 2011

The changes in the competitive structure of hockey at national and international level over the past 30 years are described. Ways in which the pressures on players have affected their attitudes to the sport, and the efforts made to relate selection and training procedures to the rapidly changing situation are discussed.
Whither sport – the next decade
Authors: Lamb G. C.
Published: October 2011

Recent changes in attitudes, within and towards sport, and their effect on the future development of sport are discussed. Social, political, commercial and legal influences are also considered.
Patterns of interaction
Authors: Jackson Peter
Published: October 2011

The title of this paper suggests at least two possible points of departure. First, one can argue that spatial patterns are themselves an important feature in the study of social life which deserves our attention: that there is a significant geographical dimension to social interaction. Secondly, the title also implies that various social groups interact differentially with one another: that interaction is itself a proper focus for social investigation. Both points will be developed in the present paper with respect to ethnic minorities in Britain and the United States.
The socioeconomic context of migrants and minorities
Authors: Pitt David C.
Published: October 2011

This paper is based on the author's experiences during first, participation in an anthropological study of migrants, particularly Samoan migrants, in New Zealand over a period of 10 years in the late 1960s–mid- 1970s (Pitt & MacPherson, 1975) and secondly, participation over the last 3 years in a World Health Organization programme concerned with promoting the health and welfare of children, many of whom were migrants living in poverty.
The Educational needs of ethnic minority children
Authors: Tomlinson Sally
Published: October 2011

The concept of ‘need’ is currently popular in education. It is, as Dearden (1972) has pointed out, an attractive concept for educationalists, because it appears to offer an escape from arguments about values and about power. Those who uncritically accept the doctrine of needs can assume that there are educational experts who can unproblematically decide on needs, which can then be unproblematically catered for. Thus, when ethnic minority children began to arrive in British schools in significant numbers in the early 1960s, it was assumed that the schools—without experience or understanding of other cultures—could make an assessment of the needs of these children.
Consequences of breast-feeding for mother and child
Authors: Labbok Miriam H.
Published: October 2011

Breast-feeding is an integral part of the reproductive process. This paper reviews the consequences of breast-feeding and bottle-feeding for the child and the mother with emphasis on health parameters and child spacing. Controversies that have arisen in this field are considered. Methodological problems in study design and areas for further research are discussed.
Effect of measles immunization on child mortality in rural Gambia
Authors: Williams P. J.
Published: October 2011

The Gambia provides an unusual opportunity for the application of cost analysis to health due to a relatively long history of immunization and recent empirical research. The results should apply not only to immunization programmes but also to a variety of types of primary health care in developing countries. In particular, well-based estimates of the cost per case averted and the cost per death prevented by alternative health interventions should prove to be of widespread interest and usefulness.
Sociodemographic determinants of contraceptive method choice in Sri Lanka: 1975–82
Authors: Kahn Joan R. , Thapa Shyam , Gaminiratne K. H. W.
Published: October 2011

The determinants of contraceptive method choice in Sri Lanka are examined during a period in which contraceptive prevalence increased by over 60% and involved substantial use of sterilization and traditional methods. Data are from the 1975 World Fertility and 1982 Contraceptive Prevalence Surveys. Polytomous logistic regression is used to model four current contraceptive choices: non-use, use of a traditional method, use of a modern temporary method and use of sterilization. The analysis shows, in 1975 and 1982, strong socioeconomic as well as demographic effects on whether any method is used. However, in both years the type of method chosen is primarily a function of demographic considerations related to the couple's family-building stage rather than social status, implying that in Sri Lanka there are few socioeconomic barriers limiting access to different contraceptive methods. The family planning programme, however, has emphasized sterilization rather than birth spacing methods.
Contraceptive method choice in the Philippines, 1973–83
Authors: Zablan Zelda , Choe Minja Kim , Palmore James A. , Ahmed Tauseef , Alcantara Adelamar , Kost Kathryn
Published: October 2011

Contraceptive use and method mix were analysed using Philippines national survey data of 1973, 1978, and 1983. The analyses suggest that the reported decline in contraceptive prevalence between 1978 and 1983 was due to under-reporting of use in 1973 and 1983. The shifts in contraceptive method mix were also partly from under-reporting of rhythm and other methods in 1973 and 1983. Nevertheless, the determinants of method choice were similar in all three sets of data. Filipino couples were making rational choices in terms of their contraceptive goals, access, evaluation, and competence. Modifications in the directions and magnitude of the relationships in determining method choice also occurred, partly reflecting the increased use of sterilization by older, higher parity women.