bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Rethinking ancestors in Africa
Authors: McCall John C.
Published: April 2006

Analyses of ancestor-related practices were a crucial component of structural-functional models of social organisations in Africa. In the 1970s the theories of lineage and segmentary social organisation upon which these studies depended were called into question. Ethnographic and historical research indicated a preponderance of migratory activities and a high degree of discontinuity and reorganisation in kin relations. As a result most anthropologists turned from lineage-based functional theory to historical models of social organisation. With the waning of lineage theory, studies of ancestors in Africa became a marginal issue for most scholars of African societies. Ancestor-related practices, however, continued to be important in the lives of many African people. On the basis of data from Ohafia, Nigeria, the article suggests that the structural-functional model of social structure and the historical model of social dynamics both have parallels in indigenous representations of the ancestral past. In academic discourse these two models are taken as 'schools of thought' which pro-pound incompatible explanatory arguments. However, these apparently contradic-tory representations unite as an irreducible whole in the lived experience of the people of Ohafia. It is suggested that this indigenous paradigm of knowledge about the past provides valuable insights, not only into how we might productively theorise the social, but also for how we evaluate the contributions of our own intellectual ancestors.
Local politics in the time of Turabi's revolution: gender, class and ethnicity in western Sudan
Authors: Kevane Michael , Gray Leslie
Published: April 2006

In one small village in western Sudan local political struggles over power and resources are enmeshed in discursive struggles over representations of gender, ethnicity, class and community. Analysis of two specific conflicts illustrates this point. In one conflict over control of a village grain co-operative some villagers sought to exclude women, West African immigrants and the poor from participating in political decision-making. In a second conflict over a roadside market these same villagers, empowered by the divisive rhetoric and policies of the National Islamic Front regime, again mobilised dominant representations of class, gender and ethnicity in an attempt to prevent marginal groups from gaining economic advantage. In both cases, villagers translated national discourses in different ways, refracting ideology to meet their specific local interests. These conflicts and fractured discourses epitomise the process of civil breakdown that has marked the tenure of the NIF regime.
Property reckoning and methods of accumulating wealth among the Ogoni of the eastern Niger delta
Authors: Kpone-Tonwe Sonpie
Published: April 2006

This article is a product of research in the Ogoni region of the Niger delta between 1981 and 1991. It analyses an aspect of the pre-colonial economy of Ogoni, which aimed at preserving the proceeds of agricultural production and increasing the wealth of the individual. Agricultural production was not all for subsistence. A substantial proportion was sold off and the proceeds invested in the economy. The article argues that this was possible because the Ogoni were acquainted with the use of an all-purpose currency before the arrival of Europeans. By a method of linguistic analysis it was possible to trace the existence of such an indigenous currency and its spread from the Ogoni area to the rest of the eastern Niger delta and to the greater part of south-east Nigeria. It is shown that the Ogoni were major producers and distributors of large transport and fishing canoes in the eastern Niger delta. A thriving canoe-making industry at Ko on the Imo river, led to a culture of marine transport and distributive long-distance trade through the waterways of the delta and to the island of Equatorial Guinea and to the Cameroons. The conclusion summarises the evidence and drives home the fact that in pre-colonial Ogoni wealth was accumulated and reckoned not by the yardstick of more cash but by the possession of livestock and landed property.
‘Why we fight’: voices of youth combatants in Sierra Leone
Authors: Peters Krijn , Richards Paul
Published: April 2006

Young people are the major participants in most wars. In the African civil wars of the last twenty years combatants have become increasingly youthful. Some forces are made up largely of young teenagers; combatants may sometimes be as young as 8 or 10, and girl fighters are increasingly common. The trend to more youthful combatants also reflects the discovery that children—their social support disrupted by war—make brave and loyal fighters; the company of comrades in arms becomes a family substitute. There are two main adult reactions. The first is to stigmatise youth combatants as evil (‘bandits’, ‘vermin’). The other (regularly espoused by agencies working with children) is to see young fighters as victims, as tools of undemocratic military regimes or brutally unscrupulous ‘warlords’. But many under-age combatants choose with their eyes open to fight, and defend their choice, sometimes proudly. Set against a background of destroyed families and failed educational systems, militia activity offers young people a chance to make their way in the world. The purpose of this article is to let young combatants explain themselves. The reader is left to decide whether they are the dupes and demons sometimes supposed.
Elites, ethnicity, and ‘home town’ associations in the Côte d'Ivoire: an historical analysis of state–society links
Authors: Woods Dwayne
Published: April 2006

The democratisation process which began in the early 1990s in many sub-Saharan African countries has led to renewed interest in the role of voluntary associations in the shaping of the political and social realms. This article maintains that the most effective way to understand the role of associational politics and developments in Africa is not by postulating what they should do according to Western democratic theory, but through an historical analysis of how associations functioned before the introduction of multi-party competitive elections and putative democratic rules in recent years. In this way it will be possible to attain a richer and more complex under-standing of state–society relations under one-party and military regimes, and thus of how these links are likely to change in a more pluralistic environment. This article explores these issues in the Côte d'Ivoire.
Initiation into theugao: rethinking the structure of Tharaka symbolism
Authors: Giarelli Guido
Published: April 2006

After analysing the myth of origin ofugao(Tharaka medicine) as the constitutional charter of its ‘jurisdiction’, the article describes the initiation of the author by threeagao(healers) in the ‘territory’ ofugaoduring a period of seventeen days, and outlines the different kinds of teachings and ritual performances and its conclusion with a practical apprenticeship. In particular, a detailed account is given of thegiciaro, the blood brotherhood sealed by themuma, the oath made with goat's blood between the masters and the novice, and, finally, the ritual handing over of the horns, the instruments of themugao'shealing art.

In the second part of the article, the key symbols of theugaotherapeutic rituals are analysed in order to show the specific structure that defines the healing pattern. Here the author, on the basis of his results, questions the validity of ‘dual classification’ and discusses the shortcomings of the analysis of Meru symbolism proposed by Rodney Needham. It is suggested that a triadic classification can account better for the overall pattern of symbolic correspondences in theugaoand in the culture of Tharaka.
Comparative Efficacy of K-ABC Subtests VS. WISC-R Subtests in the Differential Classification of Learning Disabilities
Authors: Glutting Joseph J. , Bear George G.
Published: April 2006

Comparison of IQ-subtest scores has gained new popularity with the recent introduction of the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children (K-ABC). The present study addressed questions pertinent to the utility of K-ABC subtests in differentiating LD children from students classified as EMR, SEM, and referred but Unclassified. In addition, it directly compared the efficacy of K-ABC subtests vs. subtests from the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised (WISC-R) in this task. The sample consisted of 265 children (181 males, 84 females) referred for psychological evaluations; 171 were classified LD. The LD group was further divided into two subgroups: those who showed significant ability-achievement discrepancies (LDdisc; n = 42) and those who did not (LDno; n = 129). Hierarchical discriminant-function analyses showed that subtest scores from both the K-ABC and the WISC-R differentiated the LDdisc group from children in the other categories. However, subsequent classification analyses revealed that neither the K-ABC nor the WISC-R was capable of returning children to their correct placements. Results, therefore, indicate that subtest scores from the K-ABC and the WISC-R were incapable of enhancing the differential classification of LD over rates obtainable on the basis of chance.
A Decision-Making Process for the College-Bound Student: Matching Learner, Institution, and Support Program
Authors: McGuire Joan M. , Shaw Stan F.
Published: April 2006

Often students, parents and high-school personnel become frustrated in their efforts to track down valid information about support services for LD students on college campuses. This article describes a process designed to help college-bound LD students select a college or university. Three major components should be explored when searching for appropriate postsecondary programs for LD students: (a) characteristics of the LD student, (b) characteristics of the institution, and (c) characteristics of the LD support program. By investigating these variables systematically, college-bound LD students will be better prepared to make an informed decision about their future educational and career goals.
The Polyphony of Learning in the Learning Disabled
Authors: Coles Gerald S.
Published: April 2006

The predominant view in the learning disabilities field conceptualizes the development and continuation of dysfunctional cognition as something that can be described primarily in terms of neurological functioning, perception, information processing, or problem solving. I have criticized this viewpoint maintaining that social relationships, which by the standard learning disabilities (LD) definition are excluded as being responsible for the disabilities, need to be regarded as the context in which disabled cognition is created and embedded (e.g., Coles, 1978, 1980, 1983, 1984). In this article I will discuss some of these social relationships in the learning of the learning disabled by analyzing the process in a clinical session during which an illiterate adult successfully learned. Surprisingly, with few exceptions (e.g., Feuerstein, 1979; Stone & Wertsch, 1984), few studies have been conducted on the process of successful learning by the learning disabled in an instructional situation. I say surprisingly because it seems that a transformational approach through which a poor learner learned might uncover cognitive and associated activity otherwise obscured in the study of disabled learning through the educational products, usually test results, of good and poor learners.
Characteristics of Teacher-Student Discourse in Computer-Based Dialogue Journals: A Descriptive Study
Authors: Rueda Robert S.
Published: April 2006

Twenty-seven learning disabled students in grades four through six engaged in interactive journal writing with their teachers in seven resource rooms (special education pull-out programs). Dialogue journal writing took place by means of a microcomputer program, and was carried out over a two- to three-month period. Although journal writing requires a conversational style, the literature suggests this might be affected both by learning disabled students' social and communicative abilities and by teachers' predisposition to engage in evaluative, “recitation”-style interactions in the classroom.

A variety of discourse features of the journals were analyzed. In general, students engaged appropriately in written interaction with their teachers, but the journals tended to be dominated by teachers. For example, teachers wrote more, asked more questions, and introduced more new topics, including more topics that led to extended sequences or topic chains. Analysis of teacher input suggested that teachers used more complex than simple questions, and both students and teachers responded to a relatively high proportion of each others' initiations. In addition, various examples showed that teachers were able to be more conversational and less “teacher-like” in their discourse: that is, they were able to use a more personal style than otherwise common in the classroom. Analysis of the journals suggested that when such conversational style occurred, the topics were maintained to a greater extent than when the discourse was of a more traditional nature.
Vocabulary Intervention for Secondary-Level Youth
Authors: Stump Colleen S. , Lovitt Thomas C. , Fister Susan , Kemp Karen , Moore Rickey , Schroeder Bruce
Published: April 2006

A research-translation project introduced a precision-teaching vocabulary intervention to 36 general and special education teachers through two workshops over a two-year period. (The teachers, in turn, introduced the approach to 694 students, 125 of whom were youth with learning disabilities). The goals of the project were threefold: (a) to determine if, after attending one-day training sessions, teachers were able to implement the vocabulary approach with their students; (b) to evaluate the degree to which the intervention influenced student performance, especially that of pupils with learning disabilities; and (c) to gather teacher and student reactions to the approach.

Project outcomes revealed that (a) all but one teacher who received training implemented the approach and collected student performance data; (b) the majority of students, whether general or special education youth attending mainstream or special education settings, demonstrated increased accuracy and fluency on timed vocabulary quizzes; and (c) both teachers and students found the approach worthwhile and enjoyable.
Early Spelling Acquisition: Does Writing Really Beat the Computer?
Authors: Vaughn Sharon , Schumm Jeanne Shay , Gordon Jane
Published: April 2006

This research evaluated the efficacy of handwriting, letter tiles, and computer-based instruction on the early spelling acquisition of normal achieving (NLD) and learning disabled (LD) elementary students. The study replicated and extended the Cunningham and Stanovich (1990) study. Forty-eight primary-grade students (24 non-learning disabled; 24 learning disabled) received spelling training under three experimental conditions that involved different types of instructional activity: writing, sorting letter tiles, or typing on the computer. Results indicated no significant differences between the LD and NLD groups on words spelled correctly for any of the three conditions. Since the number of spelling words learned was low across conditions and groups, the number of correctly learned bigrams was examined. No within-group differences emerged for condition (writing, tile, computer); however, significant differences between the groups were found on number of bigrams learned for writing, tile, and computer, with the NLD group outperforming the LD group on all three conditions. Statistically significant time effects for bigrams were also noted for all three conditions. Unlike the Cunningham and Stanovich (1990) study, results did not replicate the superiority of the handwriting condition for the NLD group, nor was the handwriting condition found to be significantly more effective for the LD group.
Strategy Instruction: Overview of Principles and Procedures for Effective Use
Authors: Swanson H. Lee
Published: April 2006

This overview will focus on the advantages of strategy instruction as well as the components and principles that underlie effective strategy use. The advantages are related to (a) modifiable and planful activities, (b) individual differences and adaptation, and (c) instructional development. Principles of effective strategy use incorporate such factors as (a) different strategy purposes, (b) component analysis, (c) strategy matching to individual students, (d) processing differences and performance similarities, (e) comparable strategy use and noncomparable performance, (f) transformational strategies, and (g) learner constraints.
General Problem-Solving Skills: Relations between Metacognition and Strategic Processing
Authors: Borkowski John G. , Estrada M. Teresa , Milstead Matthew , Hale Catherine A.
Published: April 2006

This paper presents a metacognition model that has relevance for understanding general problem-solving deficits in LD students. Two components of metacognition are highlighted - executive processes and attributional beliefs. An educational package that combines these components with specific strategy training (such as instruction in summarization) is illustrated as an approach to solving the problem of skill generalization in LD students.
Intervention Strategies for Learning Disabled Children with Oral Communication Disorders
Authors: Spekman Nancy J. , Roth Froma P.
Published: April 2006

This paper presents intervention strategies for managing learning disabled children with oral communication disorders. The strategies are based on a comprehensive organizational framework of pragmatic abilities comprised of three major components: communicative intention, presupposition, and social organization of discourse. Following a brief description of the components, specific intervention goals and instructional activities related to each area will be addressed.
Relative Effects of Two Previewing Procedures on LD Adolescents' Oral Reading Performance
Authors: Rose Terry L. , Sherry Lee
Published: April 2006

An alternating-treatments design was used to investigate the relative effects of two oral reading previewing procedures: (a) silent: the student reads silently the assigned reading passage prior to reading it aloud, and (b) listening: the teacher reads the assigned selection aloud with the student following along silently prior to the student reading the passage aloud. Five junior-high school learning disabled students, four boys and one girl, participated in the study. In four of five cases results showed that systematic prepractice procedures were related to higher performance levels than was baseline (no prepractice). Differential effects were noted: the listening procedure was related to higher rates of words read correctly than was the silent procedure. The findings are discussed in terms of their implications for research and instructional procedures, especially as these relate to adolescent learners.
“I Know One When I See One” — Differentiating LD and Non-LD Students
Authors: Epps Susan , Ysseldyke James E. , McGue Matt
Published: April 2006

This study examined the extent to which school personnel were able to differentiate learning disabled students from low achievers by examining patterns of scores on psychometric measures. Subjects were 65 school psychologists, 38 special education teachers, and a “naive” group of 21 university students enrolled in programs unrelated to education or psychology. Provided with forms containing information on 41 test or subtest scores of 9 school-identified LD students and 9 non-LD students, judges were instructed to indicate which students they believed were learning disabled and which were non-learning disabled. Accuracy and inter-judge agreement confirmed the difficulty of differentially diagnosing students with learning disabilities suggesting that having information from a battery of tests does not increase the decision maker's ability to discriminate between LD and non-LD students. Considering the extreme difficulty of integrating empirical and non-empirical information, it is recommended that current assessment practices be simplified.
Effects of Relative Competence on Learning Disabled Children'S Oral Reading Performance
Authors: Gottlieb Barbara W.
Published: April 2006

The effect of social facilitation, particularly the impact of perceived evaluation and relative competence of handicapped learners, was tested to determine its efficacy in predicting 26 learning disabled children's oral reading performance. Two conditions reflected the competence variable: low relative competence and similar relative competence. The dependent measure was number of oral reading errors. Results revealed a significant main effect, indicating that children who read with similar-ability peers performed significantly better than when they read with peers of superior ability. Results are discussed in relation to mainstreaming decisions and homogeneous groupings of students for direct academic instruction.
Being Known by the Company We Keep: The Contagion of First Impressions
Authors: Bryan James H. , Bryan Tanis H. , Sonnefeld L.J.
Published: April 2006

The purposes of the present study were (a) to replicate previous findings concerning naive judges' negative immediate impressions of learning disabled children, and (b) to explore whether such impressions were correlated with the impressions formed by other naive judges concerning a second child viewed in a dyadic peer-group interaction. College students were shown videotapes of second-or fourth-grade boys playing either a host or a guest role on a simulated television talk show. One half of the hosts had been identified as learning disabled. Results indicated that while second-grade learning disabled boys were judged as at least as adaptable as and less hostile than non-learning disabled children, the opposite results were obtained with fourth-grade boys. Additionally, a second set of naive judges judged fourth-grade nondisabled children who interacted with learning disabled students to be more socially hostile than those children interacting with a non-disabled host. Reverse findings were obtained for the second-grade children. Mean ratings of the two children's social hostility by two independent groups of judges were significantly correlated.
Qualitative Characteristics of Educationally High-Risk Children
Authors: Hall Robert J. , Keogh Barbara K.
Published: April 2006

Research conducted on educationally high-risk and nonrisk children revealed not only quantitative differences between the two populations, but also a range of qualitative differences which characterized the high-risk group. This study describes the factors which qualitatively differentiate the risk- and nonrisk groups. Hall and Keogh also discuss the implications of these identified qualitative characteristics for assessment and intervention.
Competencies for Professionals in Learning Disabilities
Authors: Newcomer Phyllis L.
Published: April 2006

A major role of any professional organization is to establish standards by which professionals and practices in the field can be evaluated. DCLD has taken a major step in this direction by developing a set of competencies for teachers of learning disabled children and youth. This article presents the rationale behind the development of these competencies as well as potential uses of the competency statements. The development of this set of competency statements underscores the Division's commitment to upgrading current practices. Readers are strongly encouraged to provide feedback to Dr. Newcomer's Committee on the scope, format, and content of the competency statements. Meaningful standards can best be derived from these statements through a broad base of input from professionals in the field.
Independent Study Behaviors: A Framework for Curriculum Development
Authors: Brown Virginia
Published: April 2006

LD students spend a good deal of their instructional time under the watchful eye of the teacher. Supervision that is too close or constant may retard the student's development of independent study behaviors (ISB's). In this article, Brown discusses characteristics, assessment and curriculum development of ISB's. Since a basic instructional goal for LD students is independence of action, this topic is of particular relevance to the LD Professional.
Development and Validation of an Expert System for Special Educators
Authors: Parry James D. , Hofmeister Alan M.
Published: April 2006

The authors describe the development and initial validation of a computer-based expert system, Mandate Consultant (Parry, 1985), designed to review the regulatory procedures for developing Individual Education Programs (IEP). The formative process involved three phases: (a) definition of need and proposed solution, (b) design of a prototype, and (c) progressive refinement through field-testing and revision cycles. The summative component included a two-phase experimental design for validating the accuracy of expert system output through comparisons with human experts. The findings indicated that the expert system-generated conclusions matched the conclusions of the “better” human experts, and were considered more appropriate than the conclusions of the majority of experts. Furthermore, “blinded” evaluators judged the expert system-generated conclusions as being equally acceptable as those produced by the “better” human experts, and more acceptable than those of the majority of experts.
Attributions of Children with Learning Disabilities Who are Treated with Psychostimulants
Authors: Allen J. Scott , Drabman Ronald S.
Published: April 2006

Henker and Whalen (1989) suggested that there is support for the hypothesis that improvements in children's academic performance are the result of enhanced willingness to assume responsibility to exert effort. Psychotropic medication has been a major treatment regimen for children who exhibit problem behavior in the classroom. However, children who are medicated may report less personal responsibility for academic outcomes. Therefore, the attributions for academic situations may differ for LD children receiving stimulant treatment and those who are not. Two intact groups were studied, one receiving medication and one not receiving medication. Using the Intellectual Academic Responsibility Questionnaire (Crandall, Katovsky, & Crandall, 1965), we assessed whether LD boys who were taking medication reported fewer adaptive attributions in academic situations than their nonmedicated peers. Discriminant analysis revealed an approximately 86% correct classification of medication status. Boys who were not taking medication reported more internal-effort attributions in failure situations than boys who were taking medication. This result was replicated 8 weeks later. Behavior therapists who conduct evaluations for educational programming need to consider the possible relationship between children's academic attributions and stimulant medication status.
Effectiveness of a Group-Managed Interdependent Contingency System
Authors: Salend Spencer J. , Lamb Elizabeth Allen
Published: April 2006

An interdependent group-managed response-cost system mediated by free tokens was employed to decrease the inappropriate verbalizations of two groups of students labeled learning disabled. Results showed that this contingency system was a viable and effective method of decreasing inappropriate behavior. Reasons for the effectiveness of the treatment procedure are discussed.
Efficacy of the Pause Procedure for Enhancing Learning Disabled and Nondisabled College Students' Long- and Short-Term Recall of Facts Presented through Lecture
Authors: Ruhl Kathy L. , Hughes Charles A. , Gajar Anna H.
Published: April 2006

Despite growing numbers of learning disabled students in college classes, few empirically validated strategies for use by faculty when lecturing these students have appeared in the professional literature. The effect of a pausing procedure (three 2-minute pauses spaced at logical breaks during videotaped lectures) on students' performance of three dependent variables (immediate free recall of facts, long-term free recall of facts, and performance on objective tests) was determined using analysis of variance with repeated measures and follow-up t-tests. Performances of two mixed groups of learning disabled (LD) ( n = 15) and nondisabled (ND) ( n = 15) students were compared after lectures both without pauses and with pauses. Findings indicate the pause procedure is effective for enhancing student performance on immediate free-recall and objective test measures. The procedure may also be applicable to a variety of lecture situations.
Social Acceptance of Learning Disabled Adolescents
Authors: Sabornie Edward J. , Kauffman James M.
Published: April 2006

The regular classroom sociometric status of learning disabled (LD) and nonhandicapped (NH) high-school students was examined. Forty-six LD students who attended regular classes for portions of the school day were matched with an equal number of NH students in 6 schools. A sociometric rating scale, the Ohio Social Acceptance Scale (OSAS), was administered in 32 physical education classes enrolling LD students. LD and NH students were found not to differ significantly in regular classroom sociometric status. In addition, LD pupils were as well known as their matched peers and rated fellow LD students in the same classes higher than did NH raters. The findings are inconsistent with those of previous studies involving younger students by suggesting that regular classrooms can be socially rewarding for LD adolescents.
Does Passive Learning Account for Disabled Readers' Comprehension Deficits in Ordinary Reading Situations?
Authors: Jenkins Joseph R. , Heliotis James , Haynes Mariana , Beck Karen
Published: April 2006

Thirty-two LD and 32 average elementary students, matched by grade, read under three conditions: a classroom group condition, an individual (child and examiner) condition, and an individual restatement condition, requiring subjects to summarize, or restate, the contents of each paragraph during passage reading. Overall results of comprehension tests failed to confirm predicted differential effects of conditions on attentional control. The performance pattern across conditions was the same for both reader groups, although LD students' comprehension was considerably lower than that of their average peers. The condition requiring restatements resulted in superior performance for both reader groups suggesting that average as well as LD readers did not always process the texts actively under the group and individual reading conditions.
Status of the Resource Room Model in Local Education Agencies: A Descriptive Study
Authors: McNutt Gaye , Friend Marilyn
Published: April 2006

Although resource room programs are widely used, only limited information is available on implementation of this model. The purpose of the present investigation was to survey a nationwide sample of local education agencies (LEAs) to determine the status of this model at the local level and to identify the characteristics of resource programs as they are currently implemented. A questionnaire was sent to a 5% stratified random sample of LEAs with a 53.4% response rate. Results indicated that most local education agencies use resource room programs, and have done so for at least three years. Most programs are multicategorical. The majority of respondents indicated that they believed the programs were effective, and that they would continue to be used. A major conclusion from this study relates to the need for descriptions of model resource room programs and practices.
LD Students' Temperament Characteristics and their Impact on Decisions by Resource and Mainstream Teachers
Authors: Pullis Michael
Published: April 2006

LD students ( N = 412) from grades 1–6 were rated by their special education resource teachers and their regular education mainstream teachers on areas of school competence and temperament characteristics — Task Orientation, Adaptability, and Reactivity. The two groups of teachers were also asked to indicate the monitoring, behavior management, and instructional strategies used with each of the students. LD subjects generally received more negative ratings across measures. Results of multiple-regression policy-capturing analyses were interpreted to mean that temperament characteristics, and especially Task Orientation, significantly influenced teacher decisions. The two groups of teachers were found to differ in degree of sensitivity to student characteristics. Implications for training, diagnosis, and classroom decision-making are presented.
The Debate over Learning Disability vs. Reading Disability: A Survey of Practitioners' Populations and Remedial Methods
Authors: Johnson Barbara , Schneider Mary , German Diane
Published: April 2006

The Learning Disability/Reading Disability Questionnaire constructed by the researchers was used to investigate and compare diagnostic and remedial populations and practices among 333 professionals in the following groups: 74 self-contained learning disabilities specialists, 141 resource learning disabilities specialists, and 118 reading resource specialists. Results are presented here regarding characteristics of remedial populations, prevalent use of instructional time, and usage of remedial methods and materials. The investigation demonstrated that both learning disabilities and reading professionals remediated language-disordered populations and displayed a similar profile regarding use of instructional time. Both professions employed reading methods rather than process methods. A paucity of study skill methods was found to be used by both professions. Implications for the fields are noted.
Notetaking Formats for Learning Disabled Adolescents
Authors: Saski Jim , Swicegood Philip , Carter Jade
Published: April 2006

Notetaking is an important skill for secondary students in content-area classes. While most research on notetaking indicates its usefulness for effective recall of academic information, little literature exists on notetaking techniques for learning disabled adolescents, who often have problems organizing information. This article suggests two notetaking formats for learning disabled adolescents, as well as general instructional guidelines for notetaking. Since notetaking is not a singular process, it must be coordinated with other areas such as listening and study/test-taking strategies. Finally, notetaking is viewed as an individualized, active process on the part of students.
Mainstreaming from a Cognitive Perspective
Authors: Papish Marion Alexis , Moses Nelson
Published: April 2006

After more than a decade of widespread advocacy in favor of mainstreaming, professionals are still at odds as to whether or not mainstreaming works (Gottlieb, 1981). The prevalent conceptualization of education in the mainstreaming literature emphasizes criterion forms of behavior and information. The purpose of this paper is to argue that the criterion form-referenced (CFR) concept contradicts the philosophy and definition of mainstreaming, whereas a cognitive conceptualization constitutes a more appropriate framework for designing and assessing mainstreaming. Thus, the discussion focuses upon learning from a cognitive perspective which emphasizes self-regulation (Gallagher & Reid, 1981; Piaget, 1977). Derivation of behavioral criteria, functional grouping, and normalization are identified as especially problematic aspects of the CFR approach. Finally, we examine the implications for mainstreaming of the cognitive and CFR approaches in light of a specific classroom interaction.
Children's Ability to Write Stories as a Function of Variation in Task, Age, and Developmental Level
Authors: Barenbaum Edna , Newcomer Phyllis , Nodine Barbara
Published: April 2006

In this study of children's ability to write stories, written compositions were classified by means of a system consisting of the following categories: story, primitive story, action sequence, descriptive, and expressive. Three groups of children served as subjects: learning disabled, low achievers, and normal achievers in grades 3, 5 and 7. Findings permit conclusions pertaining to (a) the performance of the three ability groups; (b) the relationship between age / grade and writing ability; (c) the continuum of composition categories used; (d) composition consistency; and (e) effect of task on performance. Specifically, the percentages of the various composition categories varied according to subjects' age and learning capacity. Also, the structure of the writing tasks and the length of compositions produced by the subjects were found to relate to story category.
Effects of Self-Recording on High-School Students' on-Task Behavior
Authors: Blick Deborah W. , Test David W.
Published: April 2006

Twelve mildly handicapped (9 learning disabled, 2 educable mentally handicapped, and 1 emotionally handicapped) high-school students served as subjects in a study conducted to determine the effects of self-monitoring and recording on student on-task performance. Although only four students from three classes were targeted for data collection, all students in each class were taught how to self-monitor and record —first in the presence of audible cues and later independently as audible cues were faded. A multiple-baseline design across groups revealed a functional relationship between the intervention and increased on-task behavior. Changes were maintained as audible cues were faded. In addition, student accuracy data showed a relationship between increased on-task behavior and accurate self-recording. Anecdotal data indicated that students' academic performance improved in both training and nontraining settings.
Micro-Interpretation of a Meta-Analysis: A Reply to Inglis and Lawson
Authors: Forness Steven R. , Kavale Kenneth A. , Nihira Kazuo
Published: April 2006

Responding to a meta-analysis of 94 studies which fails to support the presence of distinctive Wechsler profiles for LD children, Inglis and Lawson contend that a distinctive LD pattern indeed exists. As evidence they cite their own pattern derived from an unrotated principal-components analysis. Although this approach is statistically sound, it nonetheless offers a limited empirical solution with little explanatory power beyond the finding that LD groups seem to find Verbal subscales more difficult than Performance subscales. Further, the authors' response implies a lack of understanding of the purposes of meta-analysis.
LD Teachers' Self-Ratings on Mathematics Education Competencies
Authors: Fitzmaurice Anne M.
Published: April 2006

A sample of teachers of learning disabled students were surveyed to determine the competency levels they perceived themselves as having in the area of mathematics. The items in the survey were taken from the DCLD publication Code of Ethics and List of Competencies of Teachers of Learning Disabled Youth. The teachers responded to the survey voluntarily. The results indicated that, in general, teachers perceived themselves as having weaknesses in certain areas of content, assessment, and methodology. No significant correlation between number of credit hours in mathematics and/or mathematics education and number of stated competencies was found.
Bilingualism and Special Education: Program and Pedagogical Issues
Authors: Cummins Jim
Published: April 2006

This paper addresses common assumptions about bilingualism and language acquisition which are relevant to special educators concerned with learning difficulties among minority students. Two opposing assumptions have dominated the policy debate about the effects of bilingual education: the linguistic mismatch and maximum exposure. The former holds that because students cannot learn in a language they do not understand, a home-school language switch will result in academic retardation. According to the maximum exposure assumption, the more exposure minority students receive to English in school the more academic progress they will make. Both assumptions are refuted by the research data which consistently support two theoretical principles that (a) first- and second-language cognitive/academic developments are interdependent and (b) language acquisition is largely dependent on students receiving sufficient comprehensible input in the target language. These principles are discussed in terms of their implications for program planning and pedagogy for language-minority students who are academically at risk.
Ethnic Composition of Special Education Programs in California
Authors: Wright Pamela , Cruz Rafaela Santa
Published: April 2006

The purpose of this study was to investigate the racial composition of mental retardation (MR), speech impairment (SPEECH), serious emotional disturbance (SED), and specific learning disability (SLD) classes in California during 1981. The basic unit of analysis was 96 Special Education Local Planning Areas (SELPAs) representing all school districts in the state. Using the criteria established by the court in the Diana and Larry P. cases, findings indicate that Hispanic students continue to be overrepresented in approximately one fourth of the SELPAs in MR, SPEECH, and SLD programs. Black students are overrepresented in MR and SPEECH programs in approximately one-fourth of the SELPAs, but in nearly two-thirds of the SELPAs in SLD programs. Minority students are overrepresented in SLD programs more frequently than in other program types.
Differences in Adolescent School Attitudes as a Function of Academic Level, Ethnicity, and Gender
Authors: MacMillan Donald L. , Widaman Keith F. , Balow Irving H. , Hemsley Rita E. , Little Todd D.
Published: April 2006

The present study investigated the relations between dimensions of adolescents' attitudes toward school and their academic level, ethnicity, and gender. The Survey of School Attitudes, assessing four aspects of school attitudes, was administered to a sample of 1,140 eighth graders. Students were stratified by academic level (regular class, educationally marginal, learning handicapped), ethnicity (Anglo, Black, and Chicano), and gender. Results showed that regular class students held more favorable attitudes toward reading and social studies than did educationally marginal and learning handicapped students; the latter groups did not differ on several scales. Anglo students expressed less favorable attitudes than did the combined Black and Chicano samples on all four attitude scales. Gender differences in attitudes toward reading favored females; differences in attitudes toward science favored males. Implications of these results are discussed in terms of social comparisons.
Influence of Reading-Comprehension Strategy Information on Children's Achievement Outcomes
Authors: Schunk Dale H. , Rice Jo Mary
Published: April 2006

Two experiments investigated the effects of sources of strategy information on children's acquisition and transfer of reading outcomes and strategy use. Children with reading-skill deficiencies received comprehension instruction on main ideas. In Experiment 1, some students were taught a comprehension strategy, while others received strategy instruction and strategy-value feedback linking strategy use with improved performance; controls received comprehension instruction without the strategy.

In Experiment 2, children were taught the comprehension strategy or received instruction without strategy training; they were then given comprehension instruction on details. Some children were taught how to modify the strategy; others did not employ the strategy on details. Children who received strategy-value feedback (Experiment 1) and strategy-modification instruction (Experiment 2) demonstrated the highest self-efficacy, skill, strategy use, and transfer. These results support the idea that remedial readers benefit from information about strategy usefulness.
Ecological Assessment: Implications for Teachers of Learning Disabled Students
Authors: Heron Timothy E. , Heward William L.
Published: April 2006

Results obtained from normative or criterion-referenced assessments are sufficient to determine the starting point for most students' academic or social instruction. However, some students' learning/behavior difficulties are subtle and complex and, thus, necessitate a more global assessment to ensure the most appropriate instructional approach. This paper discusses the rationale for conducting an ecological assessment, a model for conceptualizing ecological assessment data, factors affecting student performance, sources of ecological assessment data, and implications of such data for the teacher of learning disabled students.
Effects of Computer-Presented Text on LD Adolescents' Reading Behaviors
Authors: Keene Sylvia , Davey Beth
Published: April 2006

This investigation assessed the effects of computer-displayed text on LD students' reading comprehension, strategic behaviors, task-completion time, and attitudes toward the reading task. Fifty-one LD high-school students were randomly assigned to read two lengthy expository passages either from a computer monitor or from a comparably formatted printed page. Subjects were encouraged to use six reading strategies as often as necessary to help them comprehend. Total time spent interacting with the passages was recorded in seconds. Subjects were then assessed on comprehension of the passage content, on their use of the six strategies, and their attitudes toward the task. They were retested on passage content one week later. Results indicated that, overall, the computer-displayed text format did not affect comprehension processing, five strategic behaviors, or time on task. However, computer use appeared to facilitate the lookback text strategy and made users' attitude toward the reading task more favorable.
Special Education Placement and the Self-Concepts of Elementary-School age Children
Authors: Yauman Beth E.
Published: April 2006

This study investigated the relationship between degree or extent of special education participation and measured self-concept. Subjects were 45 third-grade male students of average or above intelligence who were divided into three groups: 1) students in self-contained LD classes, 2) students provided individual tutoring, and 3) a control group of students from regular classes. Since achievement has consistently been found to correlate with scores on self-concept measures, a reading achievement score was obtained for each subject in order to examine the differences in self-concept while statistically controlling for achievement. The results indicated a significant difference among the three groups on both reading achievement and self-concept measures. With the effect of reading achievement covaried out, no significant difference remained among the three groups on measured self-concept. Rank ordering and statistical pairwise comparison of self-concept scores indicated poorer self-concepts for the tutored group despite higher achievement levels than the self-contained group.
A Framework for Comprehensive Evaluation of the Individualized Education Program (IEP)
Authors: Maher Charles A. , Barbrack Christopher R.
Published: April 2006

This article describes an Evaluation Framework that allows for comprehensive evaluation of the Individualized Education Program (IEP). Within the Framework, IEP evaluation is seen as a multifaceted process, undertaken by an IEP evaluator, in order to provide evaluation information to IEP planners and implementers on various aspects of the IEP. Thus, through the systematic use of the Framework, information is obtained about the design of the IEP by means of an evaluability assessment; information about the operations of the IEP by means of a process evaluation; information about the outcome of the IEP by means of an outcome evaluation; and information about the usefulness of the IEP by means of a consumer evaluation. The discussion focuses on appropriate utilization of each evaluation strategy. In addition, several potential problems related to implementation of the Evaluation Framework are highlighted and suggestions are offered for their resolution.