bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Subjective Estimates of Exercise Ability: Comparison to Objective Measurements
Authors: Barber Gerald , Heise Charles T.
Published: August 2016

Although not well validated, physicians frequently use subjective estimates of exercise ability to assess clinical status and therapeutic results. This study employed a standardized questionnaire and cardiopulmonary exercise test to compare the results of subjective estimates by 211 patients (mean age 13.9 yrs) with objective measurements of exercise ability. Questionnaire data correlated with measured maximal oxygen consumption. Individuals thought to be below average had a maximal oxygen consumption of 21±6 ml/kg/min. Those thought to have average fitness had a maximal oxygen consumption of 26±8 ml/kg/min, and those thought to be above average had a maximal oxygen consumption of 30±7 ml/kg/min. There was a great degree of overlap and scatter of these data, however, such that questionnaire data significantly overestimated exercise ability in 67% and underestimated it in 3% of the subjects. In only 30% of the subjects did the subjective estimate of exercise ability correspond with objectively measured exercise ability. It was concluded that subjective estimates are unreliable and should not be used in assessing the functional status of an individual patient, but subjective estimates may give some idea of objective capabilities in large population studies.
Relationship of Maximal Lactate Steady State to Performance at Fixed Blood Lactate Reference Values in Children
Authors: Williams Joanne R. , Armstrong Neil
Published: August 2016

This investigation set out to estimate exercise intensity and blood lactate corresponding to the maximal lactate steady state (MLaSS) and also examined the relationship between performance at the MLaSS with performance at fixed blood lactate reference values of 2.5 and 4.0 mmol•1−1. Cardiopulmonary responses at peak treadmill exercise and blood lactate reference values were measured in 10 boys and 8 girls ages 13-14 years. The 2.5 mmol•11 reference value represented 84±7% peak VO2 in boys and 82±6% peak VO2 in girls. Corresponding values at the 4.0 mmol•1−1 level were 93±6% and 90±5% peak VO2. MLaSS occurred at 77±7% peak VO2 in boys and 76±7% peak VO2 in girls. Blood lactate at the MLaSS was 2.1±0.5 mmol•l−1 in boys and 2.3±0.6 mmol•l−1 in girls. Cardiopulmonary and heart rate responses at the MLaSS were not significantly different from corresponding responses at the 2.5 mmol•l−1 reference value. In contrast, cardiopulmonary responses at the 4.0 mmol•l−1 reference level were significantly higher than those at the MLaSS. These data indicate that a 2.5 mmol•l−1 criterion for assessing aerobic performance in children may be the most appropriate.
Changes in Overhand Throwing Patterns as a Function of Ball Size
Authors: Burton Allen W. , Greer Nancy L. , Wiese Diane M.
Published: August 2016

Ten males and 10 females in each of four grade/age groups threw styrofoam balls of six different diameters as hard as possible at a wall 6.7 m away. Each ball size was thrown four times. The first hypothesis, that the levels of the five components of the one-hand overhand throw would be quite stable for individuals for throws of a particular ball size, was supported. Ball sizes at which the component levels were unstable marked the beginning of a transition to a new component level 70.6% of the time. The second hypothesis, that five components would change from higher to lower levels for most of the subjects as ball size was scaled up, was supported only for the backswing and forearm components. These components were more likely to be affected by increasing ball size because the higher level components required a firm, one-hand grip on the ball, which became more difficult as ball diameters exceeded the subjects’ hand widths. The results indicate that practitioners need to recognize that different ball sizes may elicit different throwing patterns, and specifically that a critical ball diameter may be reached when it is equal to hand width.
Seated Shot Put as a Measure of Upper Body Power in Adolescent Wrestlers
Authors: Mayhew Jerry L. , Bemben Michael G. , Rohrs Donna M.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to determine the relationships among the seated shot put (SSP), bench press power (BPP), and body composition in adolescent wrestlers. Seventy-five wrestlers from three high schools were tested during their preseason training. Upper body power was tested with a plate-loaded bench press machine equipped with infrared sensors attached to a digital timer. Each subject was given three trials with a constant 24.5-kg load (CLP) and with a variable load equal to 60% of body mass (VLP). Skinfolds were used to estimate body composition. The SSP was significantly related to both CLP and VLP as well as to body mass, lean body mass (LBM), and % fat. Removing the effect of body mass reduced the relationship between SSP and both CLP and VLP. Removing the effect of LBM had a slightly greater effect on the relationships between SSP and both CLP and VLP, although the correlations remained significant. Therefore it appears that the SSP is only moderately related to upper body power in adolescent wrestlers and may be greatly influenced by size and muscularity.
Systolic Time Intervals before and after Maximal Exercise in Adolescents with Insulin-Dependent Diabetes Mellitus
Authors: Campaigne Barbara N. , Landt Kyle W. , James Frederick W. , Reimar Joan , Mays Wayne , Sperling Mark A.
Published: August 2016

Systolic time intervals (STI) were measured before and after exercise in 18 diabetic adolescents (D) and 18 age- and sex-matched nondiabetic controls (C). At similar heart rates, pre-exercise pre-ejection period (PEP) and left ventricular ejection time (LVET) were significantly shorter in D compared to C (p<0.05). There was no difference between the two groups in the PEP/LVET ratio. Following exercise there were no differences in STIs between groups. However, the change in PEP and LVET from pre- to postexercise was significantly less in D compared to C (delta PEP 38 vs. 53±3 msec, p<0.01; delta LVET 120 vs. 134±4 msec, p<0.05). These data suggest a hypercontractile state at rest in D and a blunted response to exercise when compared to C. This study provides data that may be relevant to the early identification of individuals at risk for premature diabetic cardiomyopathy.
Goal Attainment and Non-Goal Occurrences as Underlying Mechanisms to an Athlete’s Sources of Enjoyment
Authors: Stein Gary L. , Scanlan Tara K.
Published: August 2016

The present study examined a conceptual framework developed to organize and explain an athlete’s sources of enjoyment. The framework consisted of two potential underlying mechanisms: goal attainment and non-goal occurrences. Goal attainment are experiences that athletes set, strive for, and achieve. Athletes have two functionally related goal levels, labeled universal and general, which form a goal hierarchy. Non-goal occurrences are environmental events that take place but are not a priori set as goals. Participants were 13- to 16-year-old high school and park league baseball and basketball players who answered a single postseason questionnaire. Stepwise regression analyses indicated partial framework support. General goal attainment predicted both universal goal attainment and seasonal enjoyment, universal goal attainment failed to predict seasonal enjoyment, and non-goal occurrences showed no relationship to either universal goal attainment or seasonal enjoyment.
Biofeedback Treatment for Cerebral Palsy in Children and Adolescents: A Review
Authors: James Robert
Published: August 2016

This article reviews the role of augmented biofeedback as a treatment aid for selected neuromuscular problems in children and adolescents with cerebral palsy. Neuromuscular dysfunction often prevents those inflicted with cerebral palsy from performing even simple tasks of daily activity. Research has evaluated the role of augmented biofeedback in reducing this neuromuscular dysfunction. Augmented feedback, on the whole, has been successful in improving head and neck posture, reducing hypertonicity, and improving weight-bearing during gait, hand-eye coordination, sitting posture, and drooling. However, most studies have shown that the carry-over without feedback was limited. Moreover, the generalization to real-life situations often was not demonstrated. The sample size in most studies was very small. Future research should address the adequate number of training sessions needed to produce an improvement and consider the mode and type of feedback appropriate for a given subject. Augmented biofeedback appears to have important implications in the treatment of those with cerebral palsy.
Optimizing the Involvement and Performance of Children with Physical Impairments in Movement Activities
Authors: Burton Allen W. , Davis Walter E.
Published: August 2016

An ecological model of motor behavior presented by Davis and Burton (12) suggests that the qualitative and quantitative aspects of motor behavior for all persons emerge from three sets of constraints: performer, environmental, and task. The involvement and performance of movement activities by children with physical impairments may be optimized by carefully manipulating one or more of these three types of constraints, and by recognizing and accepting that the optimal movement patterns used by these children with unique performer constraints may differ from those exhibited by other children.
Impact of Enhanced Physical Education in the Prepubescent Child: Trois Rivières Revisited
Authors: Shephard Roy J. , Lavallée Hughes
Published: August 2016

The influence of 1 hour per day of required physical education upon aerobic fitness was tested in 546 prepubescent children recruited from an urban and a rural school in Québec. Two cohorts of experimental students began the enhanced program in Grade 1, with immediately preceding and succeeding classes as controls. V̇O2 peak (treadmill) and PWC170 were measured each year within 2 weeks of each child’s birthday. The data showed significant effects of sex (M>F) and environment (urban>rural). Experimental students showed a significant advantage of V̇O2 peak from 8 to 11 years (M>F; urban>rural). Many students reached less than a centrally limited V̇O2max, although the quality of peak effort was somewhat better in experimental than in control students. PWC170 values confirmed a training response in the boys but not in the girls. The data illustrate some of the problems of repeated testing of young children, but nevertheless support the value of training in the prepubescent years.
Interdependencies between the Perceived and Self-Reported Goal Orientations of Young Athletes and Their Parents
Authors: Duda Joan L. , Hom Harry L.
Published: August 2016

This study examined the interrelationships between young athletes’ and parents’ personal and perceived goal orientations in sport. Forty-three boys and 34 girls who were involved in a summer basketball camp completed the Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire (TEOSQ) with respect to their own dispositional goal perspective in basketball and their perceptions of the goal orientation of the parent who was most involved with their basketball participation. The parents (55 mothers and 21 fathers) responded to the TEOSQ in tenns of their personal goal orientation and their perceptions of the goal orientation held by their child in basketball. Results revealed no significant correlations between children’s and parents’ self-reported task and ego orientation. Children’s goal orientation was significantly related to their views concerning the goal orientation adopted by their patents. The implications of these findings for understanding the socialization of sport goal orientations are discussed.
Relationship of Player Status and Time of Season to Achievement Goals and Perceived Ability in Interscholastic Athletes
Authors: Petlichkoff Linda M.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this investigation was to replicate and extend previous research (16) that examined group differences (starters, primary and secondary substitutes) on achievement goal orientations, perceived ability, and level of satisfaction. Athletes (N=417), ranging in age from 14 to 18 years, responded to an interscholastic sport questionnaire at preseason and postseason. Multivariate analyses revealed significant player status and time-of-season main effects for males, females, and age groups 14–15 years, 16 years, and 17–18 years. Follow-up analyses indicated that starters were significantly higher on their perceived ability rating than primary and secondary substitutes. Group differences also revealed there were player status differences on the ability and mastery goal orientations for males and females, and for 17- to 18-year-olds. The time main effect revealed that the mastery orientation decreased from the preseason to postseason assessment.
Longitudinal Changes in Peak Aerobic and Anaerobic Mechanical Power of Circumpubertal Boys
Authors: Falk Bareket , Bar-Or Oded
Published: August 2016

A mixed cross-sectional longitudinal design was used to study the effect of growth and physical maturation on peak aerobic and anaerobic mechanical power. Subjects were divided into three groups based on Tanner staging: 16 prepubertal (PP, Stage 1), 15 midpubertal (MP, Stages 2, 3, 4), and 5 late pubertal (LP, Stage 5). Aerobic and anaerobic power were observed every 6 months for IS months. Peak mechanical aerobic power and peak oxygen consumption were determined using a progressive cycle ergometer test. Anaerobic power indices were derived from the Wingate Anaerobic Test. There was no difference in peak mechanical aerobic power (in W · kg−1) among the maturation groups, nor with chronological age. There was a significant difference in peak and mean anaerobic power (in W · kg−1) among maturation groups, but the increase with chronological age was not statistically significant. There was a significant correlation between aerobic and anaerobic power (in Watt) during each session among the PP and MP boys but not among the LP boys. This may suggest that the child’s metabolic specialization into either an aerobic or anaerobic performer begins in late puberty.
The Effects of a Twice-A-Week Strength Training Program on Children
Authors: Faigenbaum Avery D. , Zaichkowsky Leonard D. , Westcott Wayne L. , Micheli Lyle J. , Fehlandt Allan F.
Published: August 2016

The effectiveness of a twice-a-week strength training program on children was evaluated in 14 boys and girls (mean age 10.8 yrs) who participated in a biweekly training program for 8 weeks. Each subject performed three sets of 10 to 15 repetitions on five exercises with intensities ranging between 50 and 100% of a given 10-repetition maximum (RM). All subjects were pre- and posttested on the following measures: 10-RM strength, sit and reach flexibility, vertical jump, seated ball put, resting blood pressure, and body composition parameters. The subjects were compared to a similar group of boys and girls (n = 9; mean age 9.9 yrs) who were randomly selected to serve as controls. Following the training period, the experimental group made greater gains in strength (74.3%) as compared to the control group (13.0%) (p < 0.001), and differences in the sum of seven skinfolds were noted (−2.3% vs. +1.7%, respectively, p < 0.05). Training did not significantly affect other variables. These results suggest that participation in a short-term, twice-a-week strength training program can increase the strength and improve the body composition of young boys and girls.
Iron and Hematologic Status in Young Athletes Relative to Puberty: A Cross-Sectional Study
Authors: Willows Noreen D. , Grimston Susan K. , Roberts Delia , Smith David J. , Hanley David A.
Published: August 2016

This study assessed serum ferritin, hemoglobin, and hematocrit among 107 physically active young people 9 to 18 years of age. Tanner stage (TS) of puberty was assessed and subjects were categorized as prepubertal (TS 1), midpubertal (TS 2, 3, and 4, excluding menarcheal females) and going through their rapid growth phase, or late pubertal (TS 5 and menarcheal females) and having completed their rapid growth phase. Midpubertal females had a lower hematocrit than late pubertal females, but there were no significant differences in serum ferritin or hemoglobin between pubertal groups. Late pubertal males had hemoglobin and hematocrit values that were higher than among prepubertal males, but serum ferritin did not differ. At late puberty the males had significantly higher serum ferritin, hemoglobin, and hematocrit compared with late pubertal females, and females in late puberty were more likely to have marginal iron stores compared with males at the same stage of pubertal development. Midpubertal and late pubertal females reported a diet low in absorbed iron, which could contribute to their poorer iron status.
Physiological Effects of a 13-Week Physical Fitness Program on Down Syndrome Subjects
Authors: Dyer Suzanne M.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of a 13-week health-related fitness program on 10 Down syndrome subjects aged 8 to 18. An A-B-A time-series design was used, with data collected every 6 weeks for 43 weeks: The preintervention phase included four data collection points, and the intervention and postintervention phases included two data collection points each. Data obtained included resting heart rate, blood pressure, and results of a step test designed to measure cardiovascular fitness. Analyses of results revealed significant positive changes for resting heart rate (p < .0005), blood pressure (p < .01), and step test (p < .0001). Motivation and the type of program implemented were identified as particular reasons for positive outcomes. It was concluded that participation in regular physical activity may be beneficial for Down syndrome subjects, particularly because poor fitness levels have been closely associated with health risks such as cardiovascular disease.
Anabolic Steroids: A Study of High School Athletes
Authors: Corbin Charles B. , Feyrer-Melk Steven A. , Phelps Craig , Lewis Lisa
Published: August 2016

A group of 1,680 high school athletes were studied to determine factors associated with anabolic steroid use. A questionnaire assessed personal factors and steroid use, behavior of others and steroid use, and availability of anabolic steroids. Use rates were 1.1% for females and 2.4% for males. Steroids were more readily available to males, who also reported knowing more steroid users than did females. Older athletes were more likely to consider steroid use, but differences in use rate were not significant from Grade 8 to 12. Using discriminant analysis, significant differences (p < .001) were found for profiles of steroid users and nonusers for both males and females. For both males and females, personal factors such as having considered steroid use, a willingness to use them if they were legal, and a willingness to use them if they could insure success in sports were the most useful in classifying athletes as steroid users versus nonusers.
Achievement Goal Orientations and Intrinsic Motivation in Physical Fitness Testing with Children
Authors: Goudas Marios , Biddle Stuart , Fox Kenneth
Published: August 2016

This study examined the relationship between dispositional achievement goal orientations and intrinsic motivation following physical fitness testing. Students, aged 11–15 years, completed the Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire, participated in the 20-m progressive shuttle run test, and then completed a modified Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (IMI). Using their goal orientations, students were placed into one of four groups: low in both task and ego, high ego/low task, high task/low ego, and high in both task and ego. A MANOVA indicated that for students in the “high” and “low” performance groups, differences in intrinsic motivation between goal orientation groups were found. Perceived success and goal orientations had independent effects on intrinsic motivation for the lower performance group but interacted to influence intrinsic motivation for the higher performance group. It is concluded that children have different motivational reactions to fitness testing, depending on their goal profile, performance, and perceived success.
The Physical Activity of Singapore Primary School Children as Estimated by Heart Rate Monitoring
Authors: Gilbey Helen , Gilbey Malcolm
Published: August 2016

Physical activity patterns of Singapore school children aged 9–10 years were assessed by continuous heart rate monitoring. Fifty boys and 64 girls were monitored for three 14-hour periods during normal school days. In addition, 43 boys and 53 girls were monitored for 14 hours on a Saturday. Only 13 children (11.4%) experienced a daily 10-min period of continuous activity at a heart rate ≥140 bpm. Twenty percent of the boys and more than 50% of the girls never achieved a single 10-minute period ≥140 bpm. Boys achieved more periods of moderately intense activity (p < .01) than girls on weekdays. Lean girls were more active (p < .05) than the obese girls during weekdays. No differences were detected between activity levels on weekdays or on Saturday. The results indicate that Singapore school children in general rarely experience the quantity or quality of physical activity needed for maintenance and development of cardiovascular health and cardiopulmonary fitness.
The Relationship between Heart Rate Deflection and Ventilatory Threshold in Children Following Heart Surgery
Authors: Rogers Ralph K.L. , Reybrouck Tony , Weymans Maria , Dumoulin Monique , Gewillig Marc , Vaccaro Paul
Published: August 2016

This study assessed the relationship between the VO2 measured at ventilatory threshold (VT) and the VO2 measured at the point of deflection from linearity of heart rate (HRD). Twelve children (10 boys and 2 girls) with a mean age of 11.3 years (±4.8) performed a graded exercise test to determine VT and HRD. All children had undergone surgical repair for d-transposition of the great arteries at approximately 13 months of age. Because of failure to demonstrate HRD, the data from 4 patients were excluded from statistical analysis. For the remaining 8 patients there was no significant difference between mean VO2 (ml/kg/min) at VT and HRD (26.6 ± 6.4 vs. 26.3 ± 6.8; p > 0.25). Linear regression analysis revealed a correlation of r = 0.92 between the VO2 measured at VT and the VO2 measured at HRD. Only 8 of the 12 patients (66%) in this study satisfied criteria needed to identify the HRD. Therefore HRD may be an accurate predictor of VT in most but not all children who have had surgery for d-transposition of the great arteries.
Application of the Critical Power Concept to Young Swimmers
Authors: Hill David W. , Steward Robert P. , Lane Cindy J.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to evaluate use of the critical power concept with swimmers ages 8 to 18 years. Critical velocity (CV) and anaerobic swimming capacity (ASC) were determined from the results of three short time trials (n = 86) or competition swims (n = 60). Data fit the critical power model well, as evidenced by high R2 and low SEE of CV and ASC estimates. CV was correlated with velocity in an endurance swim (r ≥ 0.86) and ASC was correlated with peak lactate (r ≥ 0.69). Thus, even in very young swimmers, CV and ASC provide mode-specific indices of endurance and anaerobic capacity, respectively.
Two-Year Follow-Up on the Impact of Physical Fitness and Body Fatness on Children’s Heart Growth and Rising Blood Pressure: The Muscatine Study
Authors: Janz Kathleen F. , Mahoney Larry T.
Published: August 2016

To assess the relationship of changes in physical fitness and body composition to heart growth and rising blood pressure (BP) during early puberty, fat-free mass (FFM), body fatness (% fat), physical fitness (peak VO2, peak mechanical power, peak O2 pulse, peak systolic blood pressure [SBP], and grip strength), Tanner stage, resting BP, and echocardiographic left ventricular mass (LVM) were measured in 123 children (age M = 10 years) and remeasured 2 years later. Increased FFM, increased grip strength, and increased peak power explained 28% of the variability in heart growth. Increased FFM, increased % fat, and decreased peak O2 pulse explained 23% of the variability in rising SBP. During puberty, physical fitness is an independent predictor of changing heart size and systolic blood pressure. Results suggest that improvements in physical fitness and decreases in body fatness may have beneficial effects on children’s blood pressure.
Growth and Development of Physical Fitness in Igloolik Inuit and Volochanka nGanasan
Authors: Rode Andris , Shephard Roy J.
Published: August 2016

Two circumpolar populations, ages 11.0–19.9 years, have been studied at different stages in acculturation to a sedentary lifestyle: Igloolik Inuit and Volochanka nGanasan. Both populations are short, but have a normal body mass. Skinfold readings rise with age. Male handgrip force develops similarly in both communities, but female scores are poorer for Inuit than for nGanasan. Older nGanasan males show a greater knee extension force than the Inuit, but the converse is true for females. Predicted aerobic power is 56–59 ml · kg−1 · min−1 for Inuit males and 49–57 for nGanasan males. For females, values decline with age, from 50 to 45 ml · kg−1 · min−1 for Inuit females and from 47 to 39 for nGanasan females. It appears that the main effect of acculturation has been an accumulation of body fat in the Igloolik population.
Relationship between the Lactate Threshold and Cross-Country Run Performance in High School Male and Female Runners
Authors: Fernhall Bo , Kohrt Wendy , Burkett Lee N. , Walters Steven
Published: August 2016

This study evaluated the relationship between run performance, lactate threshold (LT), VO2max, and running economy in adolescent boys (n = 11) and girls (n = 10). Subjects completed laboratory tests to establish VO2max, LT, and running economy. The race performance was the finish time from a cross-country meet. The boys exhibited higher VO2max (67.7 vs. 54.6 ml · kg−1 · min−1) and VO2 at LT (61.7 vs. 48.4 ml · kg−1 · min−1) compared with the girls (p < .05), but there was no difference in running economy, peak lactate, or the %VO2max at LT (p > .05). VO2max (r = −.70) and VO2 at LT (r = −.74) were significantly correlated to performance for the boys, but running economy was not (r = .10). For the girls, VO2max (r = −.90), VO2 at LT (r = −.77), and running economy (r = −.86) were all significantly related to performance. LT was important for cross-country run performance. However, VO2max was an equally strong or better predictor than either LT or running economy.
Physical Activity in Prepubescent Children: Relationship with Residential Altitude and Socioeconomic Status
Authors: Kemper Han C.G. , Spekreijse Mariëlle , Slooten Jaap , Post G. Bertheke , Welten Desiree C. , Coudert Jean
Published: August 2016

The main purpose of this study was to measure physical activity of 10- to 12-year-old prepubescent boys and girls living in Bolivia at low altitude (400 m above sea level) and at high altitude (4,000 m) with either a low socioeconomic status (LSES) or a high socioeconomic status (HSES). Habitual physical activity was measured by 24-hour heart rate (HR) monitoring during a normal school day. The mean HR is expressed as a percentage of heart rate reserve (HRR%) and the time spent at 50–85% HRR. Analysis by ANOVA showed no significant effects (p > .05) in HRR%. However, the boys spent significantly (p < .05) more time at 50–85% HRR (M = 51 min) than did girls (M = 34 min), and LSES children significantly (p < .01) more (M = 51 min) than HSES children (M = 32 min). There was also a significant interaction between SES and gender, indicating that the difference between boys and girls was significantly (p < .05) greater in LSES than in HSES, and the difference between LSES and HSES children was significantly (p < .05) greater in boys than in girls.
Validity and Social Acceptability of the Polar Vantage XL for Measuring Heart Rate in Preschoolers
Authors: Bar-Or Tali , Bar-Or Oded , Waters Heather , Hirji Arif , Russell Storm
Published: August 2016

Although portable heart rate (HR) monitors are commonly used to assess energy expenditure, little is known about their suitability for preschoolers. To validate the Polar Vantage XL monitor (XL), the HRs of twenty-seven 3- to 5-year-old girls and boys were measured using the XL and ECG simultaneously. During rest, values for both methods were virtually identical (ECG = 97.3 ± 7.5, XL = 97.9 ±7.2, r = .99 for lying, and ECG = 111.1 ± 16.5, XL = 110.4± 16.3 for sitting). XL nonsignificantly underestimated HR during 1–2 min of non-steady-state cycling (ECG = 142.7 ± 11.0, XL = 140.2 ± 11.5, r = .93) and significantly overestimated it during recovery (ECG = 112.4 ± 12.8, XL = 118.0 ± 12.3, r = .92). To assess social acceptability of wearing the XL, twenty-three 3- to 5-year-old girls and boys were observed twice for 60–90 min. Approximately 90% of the time, their responses were rated as enthusiastic/positive or agreed. Only 3–5% of children refused to wear the XL. In conclusion, the XL is highly valid and socially acceptable, when used with 3- to 5-year-old children.
Anaerobic Characteristics and Performance of Prepubertal Asthmatic and Nonasthmatic Males
Authors: Buttifant David C. , Carlson John S. , Naughton Geraldine A.
Published: August 2016

Anaerobic characteristics of preadolescent asthmatic and nonasthmatic males were measured using the accumulated oxygen deficit (AOD) on 10 asthmatics (mean age = 10.9 years) and 10 nonasthmatics (mean age = 11.1 years). Subjects ran to exhaustion at speeds that were 110% and 130% of their V̇O2 peak. Mean AOD values for 110% and 130% were 53.23 ± 4.02 and 50.60 ± 2. 81 ml · kg−1, respectively, for the asthmatic children’s and 51.59 ± 2.66 and 47.04 ± 3.44 ml · kg−1, respectively, for the nonasthmatic children. There were no statistically significant differences in anaerobic characteristics measured by AOD values (p > .05) between intensities and groups. FEV1 data revealed that there was no bronchoconstriction occurring in either group under either of the test intensity conditions for up to 15 min postexercise.
Maximal Lactate Steady State in Children
Authors: Beneke Ralph , Schwarz Volker , Leithäuser Renate , Hütler Matthias , von Duvillard Serge P.
Published: August 2016

Maximal lactate steady state (MLSS) corresponds to the prolonged constant workload whereby the kinetics of blood lactate concentration clearly increases from steady state. Different results of MLSS in children may reflect specific test protocols or definitions. Three methods corresponding to lactate time courses during 20 min (MLSS I), 16 min (MLSS II), and 8 min (MLSS III) of constant submaximal workload were intraindividually compared in 10 boys. At MLSS I, lactate, V̇O2peak, heart rate, and workload were higher (p < .05) than at MLSS II and at MLSS III. The differences between MLSS I, MLSS II, and MLSS III reflect insufficient contribution to lactate kinetics by testing procedures, strongly depending on the lactate time courses during the initial 10 min of constant workload. Previously published divergent results of MLSS in children seem to reflect a methodological effect more than a metabolic change.
Children Are Less Susceptible to Exercise-Induced Muscle Damage than Adults: A Preliminary Investigation
Authors: Soares José M.C. , Mota Paulo , Duarte José A. , Appell Hans J.
Published: August 2016

The aim of the present study was to investigate whether children showed similar signs of muscle overuse like adults after intense exercise. One child group (n = 10) and one adult group (n = 10) of males both had to perform five series of bench press exercises at an intensity of 80% of maximum strength until exhaustion. Maximum isometric strength, subjective perception of muscle pain, was measured before, immediately after, 48 hr, 72 hr, and 1 week after the exercise. Serum creatine kinase (CK) activity was measured before, 48 hr, 72 hr, and 1 week after the exercise. The adults showed all symptoms of muscle overuse: reduced strength, muscle pain, and elevated CK activities until 3 days after the exercise. In contrast, the children experienced only some light muscle pain, but neither showed reduced strength nor elevated CK activities. It is concluded that children’s muscles can easier withstand physical stress than adult muscles.
Insulin’s Contribution to Growth in Children and the Potential for Exercise to Mediate Insulin’s Action
Authors: Horswill Craig A. , Zipf William B. , Kien C. Lawrence , Kahle E. Bowie
Published: August 2016

Insulin is an anabolic hormone with stimulatory effects on glucose and amino acid uptake, possibly protein synthesis, and bone growth, and inhibitory effects on protein breakdown. The precise role of insulin in the growth of healthy children is unclear, but two clinical models can be examined to illustrate insulin’s potential role in the growth of children. The cystic fibrosis (CF) patient, who exhibits poor linear growth and low lean body mass, may exhibit inadequate insulin secretion or impaired insulin action. The obese child typically has an excess of peripheral insulin, an associated acceleration of linear growth, and an accretion of lean body mass and adipose tissue. Speculation is offered on the putative role of exercise in affecting insulin action and secretion, which in turn could impact growth in children with CF or obesity.
The Effect of Karate Training on Flexibility, Muscle Strength, and Balance in 8- to 13-Year-Old Boys
Authors: Violan Mariona A. , Small Eric W. , Zetaruk Merrilee N. , Micheli Lyle J.
Published: August 2016

The effect of 6 months of twice weekly karate training on flexibility, balance, and strength was evaluated in 14 boys who perform karate as beginners (age M = 10.3 ± 1.8) and a group of the same age who had never been involved in martial arts (n = 10; age M = 10.9 ± 1.4). All subjects were pretested and posttested on the following: flexibility of upper extremity (shoulder), hamstrings and quadriceps; strength, including handgrip strength and concentric flexion/extension of quadriceps; and balance, with eyes either open or closed. After 6 months, the tests were evaluated and compared by groups. The results showed the karate group made significant gains on quadriceps flexibility and balance with eyes closed. By improving flexibility, balance, and strength, karate improves three of the basic fitness components that are very important for preventing sport injuries in the growing years.
Determinants of Emotion in Children’s Physical Activity: A Test of Goal Perspectives and Attribution Theories
Authors: Vlachopoulos Symeon , Biddle Stuart , Fox Kenneth
Published: August 2016

The present study examined the relationships between achievement goal orientations, perceived sport competence, situational goal involvement, attributions for achievement outcomes, and achievement-related affect after participation in aerobic activity in children. School students age 11–14 years (N = 211) participated in either a 400-m track-and-field event or a health-related fitness test during regular physical education lessons. Participants were assessed on goal orientations and perceived sport competence prior to participation. After completing the activities, participants indicated their goals adopted during the activities, perceptions of success, attributions for success and failure, and emotions. Task involvement and perceptions of success emerged as significant predictors of positive affect, whereas perceived success inversely influenced negative affect. In addition, internal attributions for success emerged as significantly predicting positive emotion, but with a weak effect. Adoption a task goal appears to enhance children’s positive affect after physical activity participation.
A Step Test for Evaluating the Aerobic Fitness of Children and Adolescents with Mental Retardation
Authors: Pitetti Kenneth H. , Fernhall Bo , Stubbs Nancy , Stadler Louis V.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to determine if a step test could be feasible, reliable, and valid for youths with educable (EMR) or trainable (TMR) mental retardation. Thirteen males and 11 females (age M = 14.7 ± 2.7 yr) with EMR or TMR participated in this study. Three step tests were employed using one platform height and stepping frequencies of 13, 15, and 17 ascents/min for 3 min. Recovery HR was used to estimate VO2peak. Though significant, correlations between the recovery HR and VO2peak for the 15 (r = −0.48) and 17 (r = −0.46) ascents/min were not high enough to be considered valid indicators of VO2peak. The large standard errors of the estimate and total errors suggested systematic errors of prediction. Furthermore, the measured VO2peak was significantly different from the estimated values at all step rates (p < .05). The step-test was relatively feasible, but was not a valid test of VO2peak in this population.
Blood Lactate Responses to Exercise in Children: Part 1. Peak Lactate Concentration
Authors: Pfitzinger Peter , Freedson Patty
Published: August 2016

Part 1 reviews the literature concerning peak blood lactate responses to exercise in children. After a brief overview of lactate metabolism, an analysis is presented comparing children to adults regarding peak blood lactate concentration. Possible factors accounting for lower blood lactate concentrations during maximal exercise in children are considered.
Performance on the Wingate Anaerobic Test and Maturation
Authors: Armstrong Neil , Welsman Joanne R. , Kirby Brian J.
Published: August 2016

The influence of sexual maturation on the Wingate anaerobic test performance of 100 boys and 100 girls, ages 12.2 ±0.4 years, was examined using Tanner’s indices of pubic hair and, in boys, salivary testosterone as measures of maturation. No sex differences (p > .05) in either peak power (PP) or mean power (MP) were revealed. Significant main effects (p < .01) for maturation were detected for both PP and MP expressed in W, W · kg−1, or with body mass controlled using allometric principles. Testosterone did not increase the variance in PP or MP explained by body mass alone (p > .05). No sex or maturational effects were observed for postexercise blood lactate (p > .05). Testosterone was not (p > .05) correlated with blood lactate. Thus, sexual maturation exerts an influence on PP and MP independent of body mass, but maturational effects on postexercise blood lactate remain to be proven in this age group.
A Proposed Recreation Field Standard for Institutional Master Planning
Authors: Turman James C. , Brown Anthony K.
Published: August 2016

A variety of standards exist to guide architects and engineers in the design of recreation facilities. Existing recreation facility standards do not, however, adequately meet the needs of college and university master planners. No existing standard answers the basic question of how much gross area should institutions set aside for recreational uses. Based on a study of recreation field space at 11 major, urban universities, this article proposes a standard of one acre per 1,000 students enrolled as the amount of area needed, relative to the size of the institution, to satisfy the recreational needs of a campus population.
Risk Management Practices at Higher Educational Sport and Recreation Centers
Authors: Mulrooney Aaron , Styles Alvy , Green Eric
Published: August 2016

Risk management is an issue that has been previously addressed in recreation and athletic professions. The litigious nature of today's society requires that risk management procedures and policies be in place in recreation and athletic facilities. An institution that has implemented risk management procedures will better protect itself from costly litigation. This article is a follow-up to a 1997 article by Mulrooney & Green that discussed the overall risk management process and presented a risk management paradigm for recreational sport facilities.

The purpose of this study was to examine college recreation facilities to elucidate if risk management procedures were in place in light of Spiegler v. State of Arizona (1996). This case resulted in a $5,000,000 verdict for the plaintiff, a result that might have been avoided with a properly developed and implemented risk management program. The study also examined the importance administrative personnel placed on having a risk management policy, and to what degree risk procedures and risk management training were implemented.

A questionnaire designed and validated for utilization in a previous study was sent to 178 Division 1 universities throughout the United States. One hundred and twenty-three respondents completed and returned the survey. Based upon the results of the study, it is evident that the importance of risk management and its impact on liability reduction has not reached the administration of campus recreation and sport programs.
Automated External Defibrillators in Sport, Recreation, and Fitness Programs
Authors: Connaughton Angela V. , Connaughton Daniel P. , Spengler John O.
Published: August 2016

Automated external defibrillators (AEDs) are portable devices about the size of a laptop computer, that deliver an electrical shock to restore a cardiac arrest victim's heartbeat back to normal. The use of publicly accessible AEDs could potentially prevent 100,000 deaths per year. Many sport, recreation, and fitness programs have installed AEDs while several others are considering them. The purpose of this article is to: (1) describe the purpose and function of AEDs; (2) provide recommendations regarding AEDs from leading sport, recreation, and fitness practitioners; (3) provide information on AED trends, training, and certification; (4) identify related legal issues and concerns; (5) provide references regarding AED training and legislation; and (6) provide recommendations for those considering and/or implementing AEDs. With the recent emphasis on publicly accessible AEDs, it appears that sport, recreation, and fitness programs will begin to see more of them. Prudent professionals should stay abreast of the developments, research, and legislation regarding AEDs.
Identification of Problems in Campus Recreation Programs in North America
Authors: Stier William F. , Schneider Robert C. , Kampf Steve , Wilding Gregory E. , Haines Scott
Published: August 2016

In campus recreation programs, major problem areas within (a) technology, (b) personnel, and (c) perception and value were identified. The subjects were campus recreation directors throughout North America. The surveyed directors expressed the extent to which they agreed or disagreed with literature-based, potential problem areas within campus recreation programs. Areas primarily agreed upon as being major problem areas within campus recreation were: the availability of quality officials (61%), perception of program by institution (49%), and value of program as perceived by higher administration (47%). Generally, in order to improve programs, directors should place an emphasis on attaining and training quality officials and implement a public relations campaign that positively portrays their program.
Reporting Structure and Job Satisfaction of Collegiate Campus Recreation Directors
Authors: Schneider Robert C. , Stier William F. , Kampf Steve , Haines Scott , Wilding Gregory E.
Published: August 2016

The differences in reporting structures among educational institutions, along with how satisfied campus recreation directors were with specific components of their jobs were studied. Directors, on a survey instrument, indicated to whom they reported and their level of satisfaction or dissatisfaction pertaining to 16 employment related areas within campus recreation. Overall, directors predominately reported to student affairs (62%), while 24% reported to athletics. Directors indicated highest levels of satisfaction in their organization and with other departments (89%) and expressed high levels of dissatisfaction with outdoor facilities and publicity related matters (56%). In order to attract and retain quality campus recreation directors, upper administration should make efforts to satisfy facility-related needs and publicity related matters of programs.
Failure to Learn to (Really) Swim: Inflated Self-Efficacy?
Authors: Dixon Harriet E.T. , Bixler Robert D.
Published: August 2016

The willingness of individuals to enroll in swimming classes requires them to recognize they do not have functional skills. This study investigated the self-efficacy of young adults 18 to 35 years of age regarding their understanding of what constitutes a competent swimmer. Forty-five interviews were conducted in recreation centers and parks with significant water features. Participants defined the word “swimming” and explained what they thought it meant when someone else said they knew how to swim. After analyzing the data, seven relevant domains appeared within respondents' definitions: not panicking, instinctive skills, basic skills, advanced skills, covering a distance, rescue skills, and ability to swim in multiple settings. Most respondents did not seem to have a well-structured understanding of swimming competency, viewing dog-paddling as evidence of competency. Organizations promoting swimming must be aware that not all people define swimming competency the same way as aquatic professionals. Appeals to take swimming lessons may fail with people most in need of them, simply because many non-swimmers have an inflated self-efficacy of their swimming ability. Information campaigns, face-to-face interactions between aquatic professionals and potential students, and advertisements for learn-to-swim classes must be specific in defining what it means to be a competent swimmer.
Risk Perceptions versus Legal Realities in Campus Recreational Sport Programs
Authors: Young Sarah J. , Fields Sarah K. , Powell Gwynn M.
Published: August 2016

Risk management in campus recreational sports has been a consideration on the minds of campus recreational sport directors for over the past three decades. But are directors' concerns aligned with the litigation being decided in the courtroom? This study examined whether or not campus recreation directors were concerned about the same legal and risk management issues that appeared most frequently in published court decisions. A case law analysis revealed that 54 cases were related to campus recreation over the past 30 years. To determine risk perceptions of campus recreation directors, a Web survey identifying 34 risk issues was administered. The findings showed the relationship of perceptions of directors to published cases and the risk management formula, as well as differences in perceptions based on demographic variables. The results identified several opportunities for discussion and new areas for research.