bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
New Perspectives on Representation and Reality
Authors: Dodwell Peter
Published: November 2023

How does all this jibe with modem theories of cognition? Despite the great variety of research techniques, levels of study, and explanatory ideas, as expressed in table 5.1, there is a striking and apparently anomalous characteristic of most cognitive theorists, especially those who initiate major “schools.” They tend toward profound commitment to a single particular conception of the nature of their field. Perhaps some minor variance is allowed, but still there is only one central way to approach the important questions, one valid principle of explanation. Indeed, that principle is what makes the theory unique. Theories of perception, in other words, like most other theories in cognitive science, always have a strong metaphysical message to convey. Köhler in Gestalt psychology, Hebb, Gibson, and Marr in their perceptual theories, all insisted that everything, but everything, is to be classified and explained in terms of a single overriding principle.

This single-mindedness seems truly remarkable once we have recognized that the study of perception, and perception itself, are intrinsically multifaceted and varied. The unswerving dedication to a single principle of explanation of its major theorists seems to belie the very nature of their subject. Or does it? Let us consider in more detail the views of one of the century’s most influential theorists, James J. Gibson. As stated in chapter 2, Gibson was a fiercely “antiphysiological” theorist who swam against the very strong current of orthodox opinion, then as now, basically the standard model.
The Sacred River
Authors: Dodwell Peter
Published: November 2023

Who would deny the marvelous sonority of the language, the poetic inspiration, that informs these lines, even if—as seems likely—they were composed under the influence of opium? So he wrote on, for some 50 more lines, until “a man from Porlock” (a nearby village) arrived “to settle some business,” breaking the reverie, which was thus lost forever. We are reminded of Emerson’s essay “The Oversoul,” where he depicts the mind, man himself, as the stream whose source is unknown:

The philosophy of six thousand years has not searched the chambers and magazines of the soul. In its experiments there has always remained, in the last analysis, a residuum it could not resolve. Man is a stream whose source is hidden. The most exact calculator has no prescience that somewhat incalculable may not balk the very next moment.
Statement of the Problem and Survey of the Solutions
Authors: Vogel Joseph Henry
Published: November 2023

The year 1986 is a turning point in the mass-extinction crisis, not because the crisis was finally contained, but because the crisis was finally publicized. In September 1986, a conference of over 1,000 participants was held in Washington, D.C., under the auspices of the Smithsonian Institution and the National Academy of Sciences. The organizers made no bones about the unscientific intentions of the scientific meeting; the National Forum on Bio Diversity was meant to be a media event, and it was indeed a media event. Not only did every major American newspaper cover the story, but journalists reserved the rain forest for feature stories in future issues.
Analogy Becomes Application: Property Rights Mean Privatization
Authors: Vogel Joseph Henry
Published: November 2023

Foreign languages are tricky. Quite often, identical words have virtually identical meanings (e.g., “organisation” in both French and British English). Such words are called cognates, and they facilitate the learning of a foreign language. However, not all identical words are cognates. Many identical words can mean something slightly different to something completely different and, on occasion, even something obscene. French teachers call such words fauxamis, or “false friends.” Faux amis happen not only across languages, but also within the same language. Take, for example, the word “football.” Football in the United Kingdom is not the football of the United States, which is not the football of Australia. As a faux ami, the word “football” is insidious because the meanings lie in a gray area. All the footballs are related: all are played with feet and balls, but, nevertheless, all are quite distinct; an American would distinguish them respectively as soccer, football, and Aussie-rules football. It is far easier for an American and an Australian to confound the meaning of a word like “football” than to confound the meaning of a word that, by its context, clearly means something different.
Illustrating The Problem And The Property-Rights Solution
Authors: Vogel Joseph Henry
Published: November 2023

Theory is abstract, and abstractions, by their nature, are difficult to comprehend. Many astute readers will not have the patience to keep track of the definitions and acronyms, plod through the sequence of steps, and deduce the solution. For many, privatization may still seem too abstract to work. As an economist engaged in the enterprise of rhetoric, my job is to persuade multiple audiences that the solution is workable. In other words, I must persuade the readership that privatization does not teeter on abstractions; privatization is both simple and practical. Indeed, it is so simple that the essence of the argument can even be communicated through illustration. There are many reasons for illustrating both the problem and the property­ rights solution. The first is that good illustrations are universally recognizable, while words are not. Many people living in the remote tropics can barely read or write. Inasmuch as these same people are the most affected by any conservation policy, they should know the basic mechanism of the policy and have some say in its design and implementation. This is not just some lofty democratic principle that I espouse (although I do); it is a deductive consequence of the property-rights approach. A policy that poor people see as one in their own best interest will entail the lowest transaction costs in policing, whereas a policy that poor people do not see as in their interest will be frustrated whenever the poor enjoy some de facto property right over the resource allocated by the policy. To discover the most efficient policy, technocrats in the North would do well to speak and listen to the poor of the South. Ideally, an array of policies should be floated among the poor and the illiterate.
Politics
Authors: Vogel Joseph Henry
Published: November 2023

Exclusion of nonpaying users cannot be divorced from finance, and finance cannot be divorced from contracts, and contracts cannot be divorced from the law. Therefore, to talk about the exclusion of nonpaying users, one must also talk about the law. The laws of interest are those governing patents, copyrights, semiconductors, trademarks, and trade secrets. These are the laws that define intellectual-property rights. These rights, in turn, set the parameters for contracts between creators and users of intellectual property. Because the laws protecting intellectual property are drafted by politicians, exclusion ultimately cannot be divorced from politics.
Finance
Authors: Vogel Joseph Henry
Published: November 2023

Once nonpaying users are excluded from the genetic-information commons, several obvious questions emerge regarding contracts and finance. First, how will the genesteaders be remunerated in the interim between staking out the genestead and receiving the first royalty payments? Second, how will the countries of the South guarantee long-term ownership over their patrimony? Third, why will privatization be in the interest of the landed class as well as the landless class? Fourth, how will financiers of genesteads monitor their investment? And fifth, who will finance the gargantuan database needed to identify the claimants? Each of these questions is complex and, upon scru­ tiny, invites simpler and more specific questions.
Final Payments: Greenhouse-Gas Abatement
Authors: Vogel Joseph Henry
Published: November 2023

There is a psychological phenomenon known as cognitive dissonance. It is a mental process by which one chooses only those facts that confirm prior beliefs. In other words, one filters the evidence and discards that which would force a revision of prior beliefs. Cognitive dissonance would explain why, say, the French Communist party is still as committed as ever even after the failed Soviet coup of August 1991. The party members simply discard the evidence and deny the rational inference—communism fails as a political system. Economists are now suffering the same syndrome when it comes to greenhouse gas. They are discarding the evidence of global warming because it may force a revision of their prior beliefs. The result has been an almost total silence. This silence is not because the greenhouse effect is something new and exotic; it has been known for at least a century, heavily discussed during the past 30 years, and elaborately modeled over the past 10 years. The silence is because of cognitive dissonance.
Anomia
Authors: Benson D Frank , Ardila Alfredo
Published: November 2023

Disordered word finding (anomia) easily ranks as the most common language impairment. Everyone complains from time to time that they are unable to find the appropriate name and this normal problem can be greatly magnified by brain injury. Word-finding deficits are noted and complained about by patients with structural damage to any cerebral area in either hemisphere. Virtually every aphasic patient suffers some degree of naming disturbance; however, the characteris tics of the word-finding problem can vary considerably in the different aphasia syndromes. These differences represent a potentially valuable guide in the diagnosis and therapy of aphasia and can be a useful tool for linguistic investigation.

It is important to bear in mind that anomia is a term with a double meaning in aphasiology. In one usage, the term is synonymous with naming disorder; in this broad sense all aphasic patients are anomic. Schuell, Jenkins, and Carroll (1962) found anomia to be the most prevalent general factor in aphasic disorders, and naming difficulties are the most permanent residual deficit in chronic aphasics. When used in the broad sense of a word-finding disorder (e.g., decreased performance on a confrontation naming task), anomia is not of localizing value (Benson and Geschwind, 1976, 1985). In attempts to be more specific, some aphasiologists limit use of the term to those patients whose word-finding difficulty leads to circumlocutions and/or verbal paraphasias as observed in some patients with fluent aphasia.
Speech Disorders
Authors: Benson D Frank , Ardila Alfredo
Published: November 2023

Speech and language can be separated both by definition and by assessment, at least technically. In the terminology defined in Chapter 1, speech disorders are not included as aspects of aphasia. For the clinician, however, language disorders and speech disorders are superficially similar and so often coexist that a working knowledge of both is needed. In addition, some speech disorders mimic the ver bal output of aphasics to a sufficient degree that an ability to separate the two becomes essential. In this chapter, a number of the more common speech disorders will be described, with particular emphasis on those likely to co-occur with aphasia. Table 16.1 outlines the disorders that will be discussed.

Strictly speaking, mutism does not co-occur with aphasia. Aphasics must produce some verbal sounds; without them, it is impossible to determine that an individual has a disorder of language. Certain types of mutism, however, do occur in the early stages of brain damage that causes aphasia; other types of mutism should be considered for differential diagnosis.
Associated Neurologic and Behavioral Problems
Authors: Benson D Frank , Ardila Alfredo
Published: November 2023

Most approaches to aphasia focus on disordered language and rarely take into account complicating behaviors. In actuality, aphasia almost never occurs as an isolated finding. Language functions are performed by consortiums of cells located in many sites scattered across the dominant (usually left) hemisphere that are further influenced by connections with nondominant-hemisphere neuronal networks. Brain damage of sufficient scope to produce a disorder of language is almost bound to interfere with circuitry needed for other behavioral functions that operate in or through the same cerebral areas. Almost every patient with aphasia will have additional neurologic or behavioral problems that complicate the aphasia picture.

The neurologic and behavioral complications of aphasia are incompletely understood and behavioral complications that often go unrecognized interfere with both the diagnosis and the treatment of aphasia. Recognition of the behavioral complications is essential for understanding and treating language disorder. Fortunately, in the past decade the fields of behavioral neurology and neuropsychia try have grown rapidly. Professionals with expertise in both the neurologic and the behavioral complications that accompany aphasia can be found at many medical centers. A multidisciplinary approach utilizing the expertise of neurologists, language therapists, and specialists in neurorehabilitation provides the most effective treatment for the aphasic patient.
1972: The President vs. The Prophet
Authors: Jamieson Kathleen Hall
Published: November 2023

In June 1971, the political deck appeared stacked against Richard Nixon’s reelection. The economy was flagging; the war in Vietnam that he had promised to end persisted; and only 48% of the American public approved of his handling of the presidency. The pundits pegged Maine’s Senator Edmund Muskie as Nixon’s likely opponent in the general election of 1972.

Two factors catapulted Muskie into the position of front-runner for the Democratic nomination. First, as Humphrey’s running mate in 1968 Muskie had gained favorable national exposure. Indeed, Humphrey’s campaign had spent part of its advertising budget trumpeting the presidential potential of the person they hoped in January 1969 would be a heartbeat away from the presidency. Additionally. in a back-to-back presentation with Richard Nixon on the off-year election eve 1970 Muskie appeared the less partisan, more statesmanlike of the two. How Richard Nixon came to be upstaged by Edmund Muskie is a story in misplaced staff enthusiasm.
1976: Integrity, Incumbency, and the Impact of Watergate
Authors: Jamieson Kathleen Hall
Published: November 2023

Among the many assumptions shattered by Watergate were the notions that the president does not lie and that, unlike members of Congress, who represent special constituencies, the president represents all the people. For both the Republican and Democratic contenders in 1976, and for their advertising teams, the shattering of these assumptions seemed to suggest that 1976 could not be run simply as a typical campaign in which the candidates appealed to the voters’ traditional party loyalties and campaigned on the position on the issues that each party took. Rather, in a year in which it was widely perceived that the honesty of a presidential candidate and his commitment to constitutional government were on the line, campaign advertising had to find a way to communicate the trust­ worthiness of the candidates.
1988: The Pit and the Paradise
Authors: Jamieson Kathleen Hall
Published: November 2023

The seamless continuity of the Republican’s 1988 campaign with the campaign that ushered in the second Reagan term has been missed in the pundits’ autopsies. In 1984, one Republican ad speculated about whether the bear (the U.S.S. R.) was real and urged peace through strength until we were sure; in 1988, a Republican ad showed Vice-President Bush approaching Gorbachev as the announcer noted “Somebody is going to find out if he (Gorbachev] is real.” In 1984, the Republican campaign created a new national anthem, Lee Greenwood’s “I’m Proud to be an American,” a song whose country flavor bespoke the Republican’s South­ ern strategy. In 1988, that song pervaded the sound track of the emotion­ ally charged, flag-filled collage of patriotic scenes that made up the Bush election eve program. Segments from 1984 “Morning in America” ads even found their way into the Bush convention film and election eve program.

There were other similarities as well. The Norman Rockwellian images of the 1984 “Morning in America” ads recaptured a mythic past of small towns and lush farms, inviting us to linger in the world of childhood none experienced but many wished for. In 1984, fact and fiction were blurred into a netherworld.
Japan and the New Competition
Authors: Tabb William K
Published: November 2023

“The difficulty with the Meiji Westernizers, was copying everything they knew of the West. Instead, they should increase their knowledge of the West tenfold, and then select only those things which are suitable for Japan. To do this selection and adaptation, however, they must also know Japan, but such people did not know their own country either.
Adaptive Optics Performance Analysis and Optimization
Authors: Hardy John W
Published: November 2023

The literature on adaptive optics contains many different approaches to the design of wavefront compensation systems. This situation is typical of a rapidly evolving technology. Each new idea is tested and evaluated over a period of time; eventually, the technology matures and crystallizes into well-defined components and system configurations. Adaptive optics is far from reaching that state of maturity. New ideas on wavefront sensing, wavefront correction, and control systems are being formulated and tested. However, all systems are constrained by the same basic principles, and a systematic design procedure may be followed, whatever the state of the technology.
Astronomical Adaptive Optics Programs
Authors: Hardy John W
Published: November 2023

This chapter contains a capsule summary of the organization, goals, and achievements of the major research programs in astronomical adaptive optics around the world, as they existed at the end of 1997. Most of these efforts are associated with specific telescopes. The technology and applications of adaptive optics are rapidly changing, so the summaries presented here should be regarded as a starting point for further investigation. Most organizations have sites on the World Wide Web, from which the latest information may be obtained. In the final sections of this chapter, current trends in adaptive optics are summarized and prospects for the future are discussed. Some perspective on the current activity in adaptive optics can be obtained by considering its relation to the present boom in telescope building, which is certainly the biggest in history. This activity comes after a long period of stagnation, from about 1950 to 1980, in which telescope technology reached a plateau, with maximum apertures of about 5 m. This is the largest practical diameter for conventional “stiff’ mirrors made of glass, which have a diameter-to-thickness ratio of between 6:1 and 8:1. Above this size, the weight increases so rapidly that the sag due to gravity becomes unacceptable. During this period, the main advances came from better detectors: notably solid-state detectors, such as charge-coupled devices (CCDs), with high efficiency and broad spectral range.
The Relationship of Neuropsychological Functioning to Health-Related Quality of Life in Systemic Medical Disease: The Example of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
Authors: Mcsweeny A John , Labuhn Karen T
Published: November 2023

The term “quality of life” has enjoyed colloquial use in several human service and health-related fields for some time, yet its use as a scientific concept is relatively recent. There has been a recent upsurge of interest in quality of life, and psychosocial factors in general, in the biomedical fields. A major conceptual impetus to the scientific application of psychosocial concepts in health care was provided by George Engel’s (1980) paper on the biopsychosocial model of medicine. Using a systems theory framework, Engel argued that the inclusion of psychosocial information in the formulation of medical concepts, research, and patient care serves to make medicine a more scientific enterprise, when compared to more narrow biomedical models or to nonscientific “holistic” models.
Simplicial Approximation
Authors: Jonckheere Edmond A
Published: November 2023

From the examples of the previous chapter, it should be clear that a crucial issue is whether the Nyquist mapping preserves the boundary. In the simple Kharitonov case, f preserves the boundary. In the overwhelming majority of other cases, it does not.
Combinatorial Homology Of Crossover And Stability Boundary
Authors: Jonckheere Edmond A
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we study the connectivity properties of the crossover f−1 (0+ jO) and the stability boundary in D using simple homology tools. We hasten to say that simple homology tools do not lead us very far.
Cohomology
Authors: Jonckheere Edmond A
Published: November 2023

We quickly browse through simplicial cohomology and spend more time on the de Rham cohomology, a cohomology based on cochain groups of differential forms together with the exterior differential acting as coboundary operator. This latter cohomology theory, which is very well suited to study manifolds and Lie groups, will be instrumental to study the homotopy properties of the Nyquist map from the uncertainty to the return difference matrix viewed as an element of the Lie group GL(n  i, C).
Twisted Cartesian Product Of Uncertainties
Authors: Jonckheere Edmond A
Published: November 2023

In previous chapters, a central idea was the decomposition of the uncertainty space as a Cartesian product. This revealed quite a lot of structure: the prismatic decomposition of combinatorial topology, the equivalent Q-triangulation of operations research together with the extra insight provided by the underlying Hex board structure, the Eilenberg-Zilber theorem, and so on.
Homotopy Of Matrix Return Difference Map
Authors: Jonckheere Edmond A
Published: November 2023

We consider the Nyquist map that takes a combination of uncertain parameters to the corresponding matrix return difference I+ LΔ. This is motivated, in part, by the counterexamples of Section 2.2, pointing out some pitfall in the usual determinant criterion when the number of open-loop RHP poles varies.
Geometry Of Stability Boundary
Authors: Jonckheere Edmond A
Published: November 2023

In the previous chapter, we have derived bounds on the homology of the neutral stability region Xω in the D × Ω space. What still needs to be done is the elimination of ω in order to get bounds on the homology of the stabilty boundary X ⊆D in the physical parameters space. In Chapter 11, we developed a geometric-combinatorial approach based on the idea of projecting Xω on the first factor of D × Ω. Here, we approach the same problem from the real algebraic geometry point of view: We view the projection on the first factor of D × Ω as the so-called Tarski-Seidenberg elimination of the real variable ω among the polynomial equations describing Xω.
Affect Regulation and Psychopathology: Applications to Depression and Borderline Personality Disorder
Authors: Westen Drew
Published: November 2023

In a number of areas of psychology, particular developmental, personality, and clinical, researchers have begun focusing on affect regulation (Aronoff, Stollak, & Woike, 1994; Eisenberg & Fabes, 1992; Fox, 1994; Garber & Dodge, 1991; Kobak, Cole, Ferenz-Gillies, & Fleming, 1993; Kopp, 1989; Mayer, Salovey, Gomberg-Kaufman, & Blainey, 1991; Thayer, 1989; Tile & Baumeister, 1993; Tronick, 1989). Much of this research has centered on the way infants and young children learn to regulate their emotions in the first 2 years of life. Researchers have focused comparatively less attention on affect regulation in adults and psychopathology. Psychoanalytic theorists have written extensively about defensive processes, and many researchers have studied coping responses, but neither have typically conceptualized these primarily as mechanisms of affect regulation (but see more recent work by Lazarus, 1991, 1992).
Cavitating Flows
Authors: Brennen Christopher E
Published: November 2023

We begin this discussion of cavitation in flows by describing the effect of the flow on a single cavitation “event.” This is the term used in referring to the processes that occur when a single cavitation nucleus is convected into a region of low pressure within the flow, grows explosively to macroscopic size, and collapses when it is convected back into a region of higher pressure. Pioneering observations of individual cavitation events were made by Knapp and his associates at the California Institute of Technology in the 1940s (see, for example, Knapp and Hollander 1948) using high-speed movie cameras capable of20,000 frames per second. Shortly thereafter Piesset (1948), Parkin (1952), and others began to model these observations of the growth and collapse of traveling cavitation bubbles using modifications of Rayleigh’s original equation of motion for a spherical bubble.
Marx and the Early Marxists
Authors: Crane George T , Amawi Abla
Published: November 2023

Karl Marx (1818-1883) was not primarily interested in international political economy. His greatest work examined the genesis and internal dynamics of the capitalist mode of production. He commented upon the expansion of capital internationally, especially British colonialism, but his thoughts on the subject were not rigorously integrated into his general theory of capital. Marx’s episodic writing on IPE centers on two themes: the dialectical interaction of international forces and the development of capitalism; and the consequences of the internationalization of capital.
Language Use and Conversation Management
Authors: Aries Elizabeth
Published: November 2023

Scholars have engaged in considerable debate over the past two decades about the extent to which gender differences exist in speech and about the meaning of those differences. It is important to note that in the English language no speech forms are used exclusively by members of one sex and not the other;1 men and women both use the same linguistic forms. Some have argued that there are consistent gender differences in the frequency with which certain speech forms are used. Others contend that stereotypes about gender differences in language far outweigh actual gender differences in speech. Controversy exists as to the meaning of the gender differences in language use that have been identified. A review of the research literature reveals the complexity of these issues and the problematic nature of many of the conclusions that have been drawn. Given the breadth of the issues that have been considered in regard to gender differences in language use, I have chosen to focus this chapter on language and will not consider paralinguistic features (e.g., pronunciation, pitch, intonation, loudness, grammatical form, hesitations in speech, laughing, and crying).
From Bernstein And Von Holst To Dynamic Systems
Authors: Goldfield Eugene C
Published: November 2023

Complexity. In this last decade of the twentieth century, scientists in many fields have sensed the inadequacy of the kind of linear, reductionist thinking that was introduced by Newtonian physics. The problem that has led to this dissatisfaction is how to describe and understand the order which emerges in complex systems of all kinds-physical, biological, psychological, social, and economic. New coalitions of scientists crossing disciplinary boundaries have begun to address complexity with new tools from mathematics and new insights from physics and biology (Gleick, 1989; Waldrop, 1992). In this chapter, I examine a similar evolution of ideas about complexity in attempts to understand how human nervous systems accomplish coordination in action systems. I do so by highlighting the work of Nikolai Bernstein and attempts by students of Bernstein to use ideas from dynamic systems to explain how behavioral order emerges from the interplay of multiple components.
Spontaneous Pattern Formation
Authors: Goldfield Eugene C
Published: November 2023

In this chapter and the one which follows, I present background for a theory of the development of action systems based upon two processes: assembly, the spontaneous formation of pattern, and tuning, the means for transforming these patterns into specialized forms adapted to local resources. This chapter focuses on the former. The theme of spontaneous pattern formation is applied to the work of Gibson and Bernstein by emphasizing the ways in which each addresses how nature has capitalized on physical law in building complex biological systems for perceiving and acting. Gibson, for example, showed how the sensory organs evolved to detect patterned energy fields (see Chapter 3), while Bernstein demonstrated that mammalian nervous systems evolved a style of control of action which harnesses reactive and other forces generated during motion of the articulators with respect to a support surface (see Chapter 2). Here, I turn more generally to the question of how evolving biological systems may have capitalized on physical law by discussing two aspects of pattern formation: resettable clocks and morphogenesis. I then make the claim that perception-action systems, specialized biological systems, both act like resettable clocks and exhibit morphogenesis.
Basic Orienting
Authors: Goldfield Eugene C
Published: November 2023

Orienting as a foundation. Gibson (1966) recognized that orientation was the foundation upon which all perceiving and acting rests. He distinguished relatively permanent orientation to the earth (gravity and the support surface), temporary orientations to events and objects being attended to, oriented locomotion (ranging from simple tropisms to homing and migration), and geographical orientation (see Fig. 8.1). Reed (1982) bases his outline of a theory of action systems on this idea, and in this chapter, I consider the ontogeny of basic orienting, and the function of basic orienting for the ontogeny of other action systems. Moreover, I make the claim here that the types of orientation distinguished by Gibson have an ontogenetic course that is based upon transitions to new habitats (see Table 8.1).
Eating And Drinking
Authors: Goldfield Eugene C
Published: November 2023

Issues. In his paper for the First Symposium on Oral Sensation and Perception, James Bosma identifies a central issue to be addressed in this chapter: how does infant appetitive behavior develop in the context of the other functions served by the oral articulators? Like another effector organ of the body, the hand, the mouth may be used for multiple functions or “effectivities” (see Table 9.1): a detector (of what is in the mouth), sucker, explorer, chewer, biter, and speaker. In this chapter, I will make the claim that the multiple functions of the oral articulators may emerge from activation influences on attractor dynamics (Saltzman & Munhall, 1989).
Locomotion
Authors: Goldfield Eugene C
Published: November 2023

The mature step cycle of human walking emerges from an intimate link between stance and transport. We see in the earliest spontaneous movements of the legs in the fetus and newborn that there is inherent temporal order (Provine, 1988; Robertson, 1988). Yet, a complete account of locomotor development must also consider how these early spontaneous patterns become nested within the postural matrix of the basic orienting system. The “milestones” of locomotor development, recognized even in the ancient riddle of the Sphinx, all involve changing orientations of the body to the surface of support under the influence of a gravitational field: crawling on all fours, standing with support, standing unassisted, and walking.
The Expressive Action System
Authors: Goldfield Eugene C
Published: November 2023

The study of expressive acts has a long history deeply embedded in biological theories concerned with affect and the emotions, such as evolution and psychoanalysis (Izard, 1977). These views tend to treat expressive acts as an innately endowed means for communicating affective states. For example, in the first epigraph above, Charles Darwin wasted little time in observing his newborn son in order to seek evidence for a theory of the natural origins of emotions. Darwin believed that emotional expressions were widespread in the animal kingdom and innate in humans because they served the communicative function of specifying internal states to others, which has significant adaptive value (Zajonc, 1985; Zajonc, Murphy, & Inglehart, 1989). More recently, a distinction has been made between the social-regulatory and communicative functions of expression (Charlesworth, 1982). People smile for different reasons-when they are happy or pleased or when they wish to express their pleasure to others. The study of the communicative function, e.g., what the smile signifies to others, is typically the domain of psychologists. By contrast, observing and describing the social conditions under which smiling occurs and the immediate effect on the observer is of greater interest to ethologists (Charlesworth, 1982).
Future Directions
Authors: Rosen Gerald M , Britigan Bradley E , Halpern Howard J , Pou Sovitj
Published: November 2023

The possibility that a radical addition reaction might provide a means of detecting short-lived radicals had initially been considered during mechanistic studies of the dehydrogenation of hydroaromatics with hot nitrobenzene and thermal decomposition of nitro aromatics.
Application of Anonymous Nuclear Loci to Conservation Biology
Authors: Karl Stephen A
Published: November 2023

A primary goal of many conservation programs is to determine the degree of genetic variation that exists in populations. By assessing genetic variation, conservation managers are able to estimate the degree of inbreeding in the population, determine the effective population size, identify individuals, identify populations, determine limits to species distinction, and monitor interspecific hybridization. There are currently many ways to assess genetic variation in natural populations, several of which are covered in this text. Historically, behavioral and morphological variation served as surrogates of genetic variation. More recently, techniques such as starch gel electrophoresis of soluble proteins (isozymes), mitochondrial and nuclear DNA restriction fragment analyses, DNA fingerprinting and mini- and microsatellite analyses have supplemented and greatly enhanced this endeavor. This chapter outlines the methodology and application of one of these approaches: the elucidation of DNA sequence variation in arbitrarily chosen, anonymous, single-copy nuclear DNA (ascnDNA) loci.
some Applications of Spherics
Authors: Evans James
Published: November 2023

Our knowledge of the scientific and technological activity of the ancients is based mostly on the written testimony of the ancients themselves. The physical (as opposed to textual) evidence for the scientific activity of the Greeks is meager, for delicate scientific instruments tend not to survive. Objects preserved from antiquity tend to be made of relatively indestructible stuff: building stone, ceramics, marble statuary. Thus, it should come as no surprise that the corpus of some 250 Greek and Roman sundials, found at sites all over the Mediterranean, constitutes the great bulk of the physical evidence for the place of astronomy in classical civilization.1
The Psychic Unity Muddle
Authors: Bruner Jerome
Published: November 2023

This is a book about anthropology’s oldest and most vexing question: the psychic unity of humankind. George Stocking has characterized this commitment to psycho­ logical universalism as “the major premise of the comparative method of ethnology” and the cornerstone of “The Enlightenment view of man” (Stocking, 1968:115). Grounded in eighteenth-century notions of rationality as a defining characteristic of the human species, the psychic unity doctrine has appealed to social Darwinists and cultural relativists alike.

Despite its status as the theoretical and moral bedrock of modem anthropology, the idea of psychic unity has always had an uncomfortable relationship with the idea of culture as a key element in human life. The philosophical commitments of Enlightenment anthropology have had an uneasy relationship with the empirical evidence of human diversity—evidence amassed by generations of travelers, missionaries, and professional ethnologists. Yet along with psychic unity, cultural anthropology has adopted cultural diversity as its defining issue. Anthropologists have typically defended cultural difference as a defining human characteristic while repeatedly affirming their faith in humankind’s psychic unity, usually without noting the apparent tensions between these two views.
Dreamtime Learning, Outside-In: Murngin Age-Grading Rites
Authors: Bruner Jerome
Published: November 2023

The case for culture in mind rests on an understanding of how public models—what I call instituted models—are internalized by members of a community and born again as mental models—the cultural dimensions of personal experience. The study of cultural learning was pioneered by Margaret Mead and Gregory Bateson. In New Guinea and in Bali, they used photography to document the cultural messages embedded in the culturally patterned behavior between caretakers and children. This “cultural communication” was assumed to shape the children’s perception of fundamental aspects of experience (Bateson and Mead, 1942). Mead and Bateson studied what they called “Balinese character” outside-in. Their primary data were not psychometric tests, life histories, or psychodynamic interviews but rather photos of a large number of standardized behavioral patterns that were assumed to model for children basic orientations to the world.
Making People Jumpy Tom Sawyer and Huck Finn Create a Hyperstartler
Authors: Simons Ronald C
Published: November 2023

People often become hyperstartlers as a result of being startled repetitively and frequently. The fact that this is so is an interactional resource, a bit of neurophysiology that can be exploited socially and culturally in a great number of ways. This chapter analyzes one use of this resource: the story of how and why Aunt Sally Phelps, a character in Mark Twain’s The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, was turned into a hyperstartler. Being fictional, the account is a cultural artifact-both in the usual sense of the word “cultural” (it is part of a work of literature), and also in the anthropological sense (shared symbolic, meaning-laden material).
The Startle Museum I: Exhibits of Startle Sorted by Their Expository Uses
Authors: Simons Ronald C
Published: November 2023

In the passage from Huckleberry Finn discussed in Chapter 3, Mark Twain used his understanding of the startle reflex to further an intricate bit of plot development. This chapter and the next examine a collection of similar literary, expository, and artistic uses of the startle reflex, sorted and classified systematically. They present and discuss examples of the ways in which creative persons have described or shown someone or some thing being startled or have used the word “startle” or any of its variants.
The Startle Museum II: Exhibits of Startle Sorted by Properties of Startle Events
Authors: Simons Ronald C
Published: November 2023

In my lap is a book titled Startling Experiences, published in the early 1900s. Its cover is an intense red, and the words “Startling” and “Experiences” are in flamboyant gold letters, outlined in black. The book’s title page reveals that its subject is rather more narrow than the title implies; it’s really “Startling Experiences in Three Wars.”The title page also tells the potential reader that “all the thrilling stories of the three wars” consist of “exciting stories of bravery;’ “wonderful descriptions of battles;’ and “startling personal experiences.”
Game Theory and Predator–Prey Response Races
Authors: Sih Andrew
Published: November 2023

A key issue in ecology is the study of animal habitat or patch use. Why are animals where they are? Why do they go where they go? In the past three decades, behavioral ecologists have focused on the effects of foraging, competition, and predation risk on habitat use. Optimality theory and its cousin, game theory, have provided conceptual frameworks guiding work in this field (Stephens&Krebs 1986, Mangel&Clark 1988, Milinski&Parker 1991; Brown, this volume).

In the absence of predation risk, individual foragers often show patch use pat terns that are consistent with the goal of maximizing rates of net energy intake (Stephens&Krebs 1986; Brown, this volume). In the absence of competition, energy maximizing behaviors can be assessed without considering strategies shown by other foragers. Competition and predation risk, however, clearly influence patterns of patch use. Because the presence of competitors generally causes a reduction in individual feeding rates (Hassell 1978, Schoener 1983), the value of a given patch for an individual forager depends on the patch use of its competitors. When the value of each behavioral option (here, time spent foraging in each patch) depends on decisions made by other individuals, the appropriate conceptual framework is game theory (Maynard Smith 1982). Ideal free distribution (IFD) theory uses game theory to predict patch use patterns in a world with competition for resources (Fretwell 1972, Milinski&Parker 1991, Kacelnik et al. 1992).
Petrov’s Canonical Forms for the Weyl Tensor and Another Approach to the Kerr Metric
Authors: Snygg John
Published: November 2023

In seeking out solutions for Einstein’s field equations for empty space, one can save considerable labor by imposing symmetry conditions on the Riemann tensor. These conditions are particularly useful if they also guarantee that the Ricci tensor is zero. Aleksei Zinoveivich Petrov (1954, 1969) devised a classification scheme that divides all Riemann tensors into six classes.
Natural hybridization: Frequency
Authors: Arnold Michael L
Published: November 2023

As discussed in Chapter ], numerous investigators have used natural hybridiza tion as a tool for studying phenomena that may cause population divergence and speciation (i.e., the formation of ban-iers to reproduction; Barton and Charlesworth, 1984; Coyne and Barton, 1988; Hewitt, 1988; Barton and Hewitt, 1989). Such analyses have been used to calculate the minimum number of genes that contribute to reproductive barriers (e.g., Szymura and Batton, 1986). Furthermore, the genetic structure of hybrid zones, as measured by levels of genetic disequilibria, is viewed as an estimator of the intensity of selection against recombination between differently co-adapted genomes (Barton, 1983, 1986); selection is proportional to the number of genetic differences between the hybridizing taxa (Barton and Charlesworth, 1984). Finally, hybrid zones have been used to examine the theoretical and conceptual basis of Wright’s shifting balance model (Mallet and Barton, 1989; Rouhani and Barton, 1987).
Numerical Investigations
Authors: Censor Yair , Zenios Stavros A
Published: November 2023

Failures must be considered the cue for further application of effort and concentration of will power. And if substantial efforts have already been made, the failures are all the more joyous. It means that our crowbar has struck the iron box containing the treasure. Overcoming the increased difficulties is all the more valuable because in failure the growth of the person performing the task takes place in proportion to the difficulty encountered. Aleksandr I. Solzhenitsyn, The First Circle, 1968 In the first chapter of this book we argued that parallel processing can improve by several orders of magnitude the speed with which calculations are executed on a computer. Such improvements have a significant impact on various areas of application, and it is these anticipated improvements that largely motivate the investigations into methods of parallel optimization. Throughout the book we developed feasibility and optimization algorithms that are suitable for implementation on parallel machines; we described large-scale applications that are solved with these algorithms, and discussed different modes of parallel implementations. To what extent can the goal of solving large-scale applications be achieved with parallel processing? In this chapter we answer this question by reporting computational results with the parallel solution of several of the applications discussed earlier.
Have Field Experiments Aided in the Understanding of Abundance and Dynamics of Temperate Reef Fishes?
Authors: Holbrook Sally J , Schmitt Russell J
Published: November 2023

A central goal of ecology is to understand factors that determine the abundance of organisms and predict patterns of population size in space and time. Three different but related attributes of abundance have been identified and studied: the overall mean, spatial variation, and temporal variation. Although many different physical and biological processes potentially can impact these, it is often assumed that a process that affects one will automatically affect the other two. That is, a factor that has a strong effect on mean abundance will similarly affect spatial or temporal patterns of abundance. This assumption is often made in experimental studies of interspecific competition, because usually field experiments are designed to assess whether the interaction significantly reduces the average population size, with only limited evaluation of causes of spatial and temporal variation. In this essay, we explore and compare the mechanisms underlying the mean, spatial, and temporal abundance of two species of marine reef fish, striped surfperch (Embiotoca lateralis) and black surfperch (Embiotoca jacksoni), as well as consider the effects of interspecific competition.
The Logic of Community Resource Management in Latin America
Authors: Ascher William
Published: November 2023

Community management of natural resources is an increasingly credible strategy for sustainable development. A strong belief in state control of natural re sources prevailed for many years, followed by the more recent mania to privatize everything. The increased interest in community management of natural resources is a remarkable shift in thinking. This chapter begins by outlining the arguments for and against community resource management. It then discusses the requirements necessary for success. Finally, it describes several efforts to establish community management and some of the results of these strategies.
The Geography of Dry land Plant Formations in Central America
Authors: Ulate Gilbert Vargas
Published: November 2023

Regional studies of vegetation distribution in Central America are rare, particularly studies of the region’ s dry land herbaceous and shrub complexes. However, while regional studies are lacking, important research, touching either directly or indirectly on these vegetation types, has been conducted at the national level. This chapter calls on previous regional studies, data sets, research, and other technical information available for each of the Central American nations. This information is pooled to provide a Central American regional analysis with a geographic perspective and an emphasis on semiarid formations.
The Frija/ Tapado Agroecosystem: The Survival and Contribution of a Managed Fallow System to Modern Costa Rican Agriculture
Authors: Rosemeyer M , Schlather K , Kettler J
Published: November 2023

Many agricultural development strategies have failed because local indigenous knowledge of agricultural techniques has not been taken into account. The under valuing of these traditional methods has often led to the transposition of inappropriate technologies onto socio economic and ecological conditions for which they are not adapted (Moock and Rhoades, 1992). These large technological jumps have not been sustained once the promoters of the nonindigenous technology have left the area. The term sustainable implies not only ecological soundness but also suitability for local use over time.