bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Syllabification of Pronominal Clitics
Authors: Wheeler Max W
Published: November 2023

The system of pronominal (anaphoric) clitics is possibly the most complex element of Catalan grammar. There are fourteen clitic elements, most of which are polysemous to some degree. They frequently occur in combination, up to six at a time, in theory (Bonet 2002: 976). Combinations of more than three pronominal clitics are unusual, but most clauses in spontaneous speech contain one or two pronominal clitics. In addition to the complexities arising from polysemy, there are complexities due to the fact that clitic sequences are often not straightforwardly compositional. Some of the clitics are morphologically complex—for example, in the 3pl dative clitic represented here as elzithree morphemes can be clearly identified: /l/ ‘3rd person’ / +z/ ‘plural’ and / +i/ ‘dative/locative’. There is very considerable dialect variation, in the forms of the clitics, in their ordering, and in their syntactic functions. And—what concerns us specifically here—there is substantial contextual variation in their phonological realization, within individual dialects. In this chapter I deal mostly with the system found in Barcelona and the surrounding area. I concentrate on matters of phonological realization of given clitics or clitic sequences, ignoring entirely the syntactic and morphological questions relating to how the sequences are composed. A comprehensive survey of the form and functions of Catalan clitics, with attention to dialect variation, is given in Bonet (2002).
Distributive Justice and Economic Desert
Authors: Scheffler Samuel
Published: November 2023

What is the relation between distributive justice and desert? According to one familiar view, which many people find intuitively plausible, distributive jus tice requires that each person be given the economic advantages that he or she deserves, as judged by a standard of individual merit or desert that is prior to and independent of the principles of justice themselves.1 I will refer to this as the view that justice requires distribution in accordance with ‘prejusticial economic desert’.2 Notwithstanding the widespread appeal of this view, some prominent contemporary theories of distributive justice reject it. These theories, which I will refer to as ‘non-desert’ theories, deny that justice consists, even in part, in distribution on the basis of prejusticial economic desert.
Modernizing or Polarizing Vienna?
Authors: Redak Vanessa , Novy Andreas , Becker Joachim
Published: November 2023

It is commonly accepted that the 1990s brought modernization to Vienna. The spatial organization of the city was transformed, with the emergence of new actors, new planning philosophies, and a new urban landscape. Skyscrapers replaced churches as the dominant feature of the townscape, real estate agents were canvassed as the harbingers of progress, and city marketing of large-scale projects was substituted for statutory planning. All these changes were crystallized in the new Urban Development Projects (UDPs), which were implemented in the city during that decade. In the eyes of the experts and the public alike, Vienna is being finally ‘modernized’.
Points of view
Authors: Saussure Ferdinand de
Published: November 2023

When looking for what might truly be the first and last principle of this constant duality, which strikes one even in the slightest paragraph of a grammar where barring editorial intervention there can always be two totally different but completely legitimate formulations, we believe that in the last analysis one must always come back to the issue of what in the essence of language constitutes a linguistic entity.
Phonetics and morphology
Authors: Saussure Ferdinand de
Published: November 2023

So, although these two rules are of exactly the same order, the second is made into a rule of interior sandhi, while no one knows what to do with the other.
Morphology and form
Authors: Saussure Ferdinand de
Published: November 2023

We differ from the very outset from theorists who think it is enough to describe the phenomena of language, and also from that rarer breed who would define the work of the linguist as being within these phenomena. We consider that some kind of definition of a term is a prerequisite to any knowledge of a phenomenon or of a mental operation; not the chance definition that one can always give of one relative term in the context of another relative term, and which produces a endless vicious circle, but a substantial definition which has at some point a basis of some kind.
Different signs
Authors: Saussure Ferdinand de
Published: November 2023

(Investigate) ‘Different signs for one idea’: this seems to be a grammatical property. In synonymy both are always different. It will become increasingly evident that not one of our grammatical distinctions is based on a properly defined principle—or on a number of principles defined in . . . No one has determined the terra firma on which these definitions stand. Some bring together certain signs as corresponding to a certain idea (thereby indicating that the sign itself is not defined); others take the opposite view and see the sign as what is defined.
Grammar: rules
Authors: Saussure Ferdinand de
Published: November 2023

We shall simply adopt the least controversial version and investigate what is inherent in a rule of this kind.
On essence*
Authors: Saussure Ferdinand de
Published: November 2023

This is because what is initially given is always the negative boundary between the content of a certain sign and the content of another; it follows that any new idea which may emerge will be straightforwardly accommodated either within the first sign or within the second (if within both, there must be contrast with a third or fourth coexisting sign).
Early Documents (from the Engler edition)
Authors: Saussure Ferdinand de
Published: November 2023

Those who have followed Here is the point that we have reached. Even if the chapter on phonetic change is not complete, since it could go on for ever, it is at least closed, containing what I particularly wanted to say at the start of this lecture course. What, then, are the other forms of language change, which depend on nonphonetic factors? This now needs examining and will be our first subject.
Conclusions: Troy and the Empire of the Hittites
Authors: Latacz Joachim , Kevin Windle , Ireland Rosh
Published: November 2023

Our initial question has been answered: in the Bronze Age Hisarhk was known to the Hittites as Wilusa and the Greeks as Wilios. Moreover, in the ‘land of Wilusa’, at the end of the fifteenth century bc, the Hittites knew an area called Taruwisa or Tru(w)isa, which can scarcely be distinguished from the Greek Troia. The city that Homer’s Iliad tells of is therefore certainly a historical reality, and in the Bronze Age it lay in precisely that area of north-west Asia Minor where Homer places it.
The Tale of Troy and History
Authors: Latacz Joachim , Kevin Windle , Ireland Rosh
Published: November 2023

The Achaians had known of Troy since the middle of the second millennium at the latest. That can be deduced from the best indicator we have available to prove contacts among peoples and cultural zones: ceramics. Greek pottery of the Mycenaean age, i.e. ‘Mycenaean’ or ‘Achaian’ pottery, begins to spread increasingly on the west coast of Asia Minor from about 1500 (and is very soon imitated in large quantities by local producers).
The Natural Order
Authors: Black Jeremy , Cunningham Graham , Robson Eleanor , Zólyomi Brá
Published: November 2023

The landscape of Sumer was an extraordinarily flat alluvial plain. Without careful and labour-intensive water management whole cities could be deluged, or major rivers divert their courses overnight. Canals and irrigation ditches crisscrossed the land, enabling intensive grain agriculture. But herding was equally important to the Sumerian economy, on the field boundaries, fallow land, and uncultivated areas beyond the reach of the watercourses. The tension between the two is expressed in The debate between Sheep and Grain (as indeed in Dumuzid and Enkimdu, Group B, in which the shepherd and the farmer vie for Inana’s love).
Architecture and Image-Building in Seventeenth-Century Hertfordshire
Authors: Hunneyball Paul M
Published: November 2023

The seventeenth century witnessed a radical and far-reaching transformation in English architecture, as new and purer forms of classical design became firmly established, sweeping away earlier fashions. How this dramatic change came about at local level has never been fully understood. Using Hertfordshire as a case-study, this ground-breaking, interdisciplinary book reconstructs the complete built landscape--not just houses but churches, momnnuments, and almshouses--to reveal a competitive and visually sensitive environment in which people at all social levels exploited architectural display to enhance their personal image. New fashions were an important weapon in this struggle. Because only the county elite possessed the necessary contacts and resources to obtain the latest classical designs, such patterns became badges of status, symbols not just of cultural aspirations but of social ambition. Paul Hunneyball demonstrates that classical architecture caught on at local level less because it was aesthetically superior than because its advocates were socially superior.
Styles and Meanings
Authors: Hunneyball Paul M
Published: November 2023

Why did so many members of the social elite in seventeenth-century Hertfordshire embrace the basic elements of classical architecture? A purist like John Evelyn would have argued that it was because classicism was intrinsically superior to its competitors. Roger North, with his more practical outlook, took a rather different view. While personally convinced of the merits of ‘regular’ or classical design, he also recognized the mutability of taste.

In most cases mankind seek beauty as a positive thing, which for the most part rests wholly in opinion without any real ground in nature, and in truth is no more than not deformed.
Riot
Authors: Cooper J P D
Published: November 2023

To judge by Tudor obedience literature, riot and rebellion were two sides of the same coin: both were an affront to God, and subverted the natural order. Two very different Edwardian homilies illustrate the range of arguments deployed against popular protest. The ‘Exhortadon concernyng good ordre and obedience’, as read out in parish churches from 1547, taught the scriptural lesson that ‘we maye not in any wyse resist violently or rebell against rulers, or make any insurrection, sedition or tumultes, against the anoynted of the Lord or any of his appointed officers’.1 The duty of the good subject was to suffer wrongs and injuries with patience, awaiting the judgment that only God might dispense.
The Quest for East Africa (1884—1885)
Authors: Perras Arne
Published: November 2023

In October 1883 Peters returned to Berlin to prepare for his Habilitation. Walking down Friedrichstrafle one morning, he met an old friend, the Protestant pastor Diestelkamp from the Nazareth Church. The clergyman introduced Peters to the newly founded Konservativer Klub, located at Behrensstrafle 29. There the young academic became acquainted with Count Felix Behr—Bandelin, a Pomeranian landowner and the Kaiser’s chamberlain (Kammerherr), who was to become one of Peters’s major mentors in the following months. He was hated by left—wing circles, and those who associated with him were usually labelled reactionary.3 As Peters wrote to his family, he was ‘swimming hellishly in the conservatives’ political wake’.4 In part, he sought the company of well—connected figures like Behr because he hoped that they could be of advantage for his future career.5 In this environment he no longer cultivated the image of an English gentleman. Now he was anxious that his image in the club reflected a good deal of chauvinism. He always showed up ‘with hunting—whip and breeches’.
‘From the Nyassa to the Nile’: Peters and the German East Africa Company (1885—1887)
Authors: Perras Arne
Published: November 2023

If Africa, that dark country, did not exist, we diplomats would have little to do. Count Munster, German ambassador to London, 1885 With the publication of the imperial charter Peters overnight became a famous man. Official recognition did a lot to strengthen his self—confidence. His belief that he was swimming ‘with a historical current’ seemed to be confirmed. He saw ‘the better part of the nation’ standing behind him.With the Schutzbriefin his pocket, he was confident that Bismarck would sanction a further series offaitsaccomplis,3 a hope which—at least in part-was later to be frustrated. Correspondence with his family indicates how much Peters enjoyed public attention in those days.4 More than twenty years later, he was still to recall his reception by the old Kaiser as one of the few ‘brightly shining’ moments ‘from a grey past’.
Introduction
Authors: Langdon John
Published: November 2023

Watermills and windmills provide one of the most enduring images of the Middle Ages. Although medieval Europe cannot necessarily claim to have originated the development of machines powered either by water or wind, a prominent historical view is that they adopted such machines more readily than any other area of the world at the time. This was particularly the case, as has been argued by many, in the realm of industrial activity, where watermills in particular were used for a myriad of industrial activities, such as fulling cloth, breaking up bark for tanning, or-eventually-rags for making paper, operating trip-hammers for iron forges, or crushing ore and bellows for blast furnaces, powering grindstones for sharpening tools, and even providing the power for automatic saws. Although this enthusiasm for the industrial dimension of milling should not persuade us to disregard what always remained the chief function of mills, that is, the grinding of grains for preparation into various forms of food or drink, nonetheless mills at an early stage epitomized the poten­tial of new technology in the Middle Ages.
The Technology of the Late Medieval English Milling Industry
Authors: Langdon John
Published: November 2023

This long chapter provides an overview of the technological basis for the milling industry over the period 1300 to 1540. It is given in some detail because the milling industry is unique in having a truly massive amount of information existing about mill construction and repair. In those frequent cases where the mills were operated ‘directly’ for the lord’s benefit or those where the mill was leased but the lord still retained some responsibilityfor the mill’s upkeep, details about mill repairs and occasionally the entire construction or reconstruction of mills were entered into the sections of accounts usually titled ‘Cost of Mill(s)’ (Gustus Molendini or Gustus Molendinorum). Generally these sections recorded any labour or materials that required a cash outlay dispensed by the reeve, bailiff, or sergeant. In some particularly useful cases the scribe writing down the account felt constrained to add some bit of explanation concerning a part being repaired, especially as he was writing in a language (Latin) other than his mother tongue. These result in a wealth of very detailed and illuminating material.
Long Periods
Authors: Gee Austin
Published: November 2023

409. Anon. ‘Periodical literature in Wales, 1998’, Archaeologia Cambrensis, 148 (1999), 254-9. 410. Anon. ‘Records of Spaunton: preserving the moors’, North Yorkshire County Record Office Review (2000), 8-32. 411. Barratt, Alick; Barratt, Fiona. Clungunford: 950 years of a rural commun ity. London: Alfi, 2002. viii, 184p. 412.Barrow, Jan. Llanbadoc, Monmouthshire: the history of a rural parish. Usk: The author, 1999. 166p.
Britain 1714–1815
Authors: Gee Austin
Published: November 2023

3032. Allan, David. Scotland in the eighteenth century: union and enlighten ment. Harlow: Longman, 2002. vi, 220p. 3033. Brumwell, Stephen; Speck, W.A. Cassell’s companion to eighteenth cen tury Britain. London: Cassell, 2001. 455p. 3034. Canning, Joseph; Wellenreuther, Hermann (eds.) Britain and Germany compared: nationality, society and nobility in the eighteenth century. Gottingen: Wallstein, 2001. 239p. 3035. Clark, J.C.D. English society, 1660-1832: religion, ideology and politics during the ancien regime. 2nd edn. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000. xii, 580p.
Britain Since 1914
Authors: Gee Austin
Published: November 2023

5991. Black, Jeremy. The making of modern Britain: the age of empire to the new millennium. Stroud: Sutton, 2001. viii, 273p. 5992. Budworth, Julia Mary. Never forget: George F.S. Bowles-a biography. Stowmarket: The author, 2001. xiv, 687p. 5993. Burk, Kathleen (ed.) The British Isles since 1945. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002. xiii, 277p. 5994. Cannadine, David. In Churchill’s shadow: confronting the past in modern Britain. London: Allen Lane: The Penguin Press, 2002. 385p.
Languages of Middle America
Authors: Yasugi Yoshiho
Published: November 2023

Many indigenous languages of Middle America (from Mexico to Panama) have disappeared since the conquest in the sixteenth century. During the last 500 years, 244 out of 365 languages, which include languages and dialects known only by name, were lost according to McQuown (1955), while B. Garza Cuaron and Y. Lastra (1991: 120–8) give a substantial list of 167 extinct languages in Mexico and Guatemala, and now only ninety-two languages are spoken by over nine million people (Yasugi 1995: 5–10).
Japanese Dialects and Ryukyuan
Authors: Sanada Shinji , Uemura Yukio
Published: November 2023

Located between multilingual/multiethnic areas—South-East Asia (Chs. 15–17) in the south and the Asian North Pacific Rim (Chs. 19–20) in the north- east—the Japanese islands, by contrast, tend to be regarded as having little linguistic diversity, although there are a few non-Japanese languages such as Ainu (§ 19.2) and immigrants ‘ languages like Korean. Japanese is considered to be one language with a variety of dialects. Ryukyuan or Ryukyu-go (-go meaning “language “) is usually treated as a Japanese dialect but actually should be considered a separate language from Japanese or a considerably divergent branch of the “Japanese-Ryukyuan “ family.
Fortunes and Families
Authors: Ackroyd Marcus , Brockliss Laurence , Moss Michael , Retford Kate , Stevenson John
Published: November 2023

While there is no disagreement amongst historians about the growth of the professions in the first half of the nineteenth century, there is much that remains to be explained. Penny Corfield claims that the professions ‘advanced into and consolidated their position in the broad embrace of Britain’s respectable middle class’, ‘circles within which professional men moved easily’.1 Such a statement begs as many questions as it answers. What were the parameters of the middle class and who qualified to belong to it? How dynamic was it and was it possible to rise above it or drop out of it? At the beginning of her study, Corfield demonstrates convincingly that the elite or upper class was accessible to those with sufficient talent and wealth to gain admission.2
Reflection
Authors: Ackroyd Marcus , Brockliss Laurence , Moss Michael , Retford Kate , Stevenson John
Published: November 2023

Any rigorous study of a microcosm of society, such as this, inevitably prompts the question, and so what? This is always difficult to answer objectively from a particular perspective after years of laborious research. We would argue from our experience of detailed prosopographical enquiry over the last decade that we are experiencing a paradigm shift certainly in social history, but perhaps also in other parts of historical discourse, making ‘what was familiar appear strange and what was natural seem arbitrary’.1 Our claim rests on the ability to explore collective biography drawing on resources that are available in increasing volume across the Internet. Many of these have only been released during the course of our research, for example the wills proved in the Prerogative Court of Canterbury (PCC) and commissary courts in Scotland, the union catalogue of the United Kingdom’s research libraries, and the Access to Archives database.2
Sounds, Letters, and Theories
Authors: Gussmann Edmund
Published: November 2023

Phonological analysis traditionally depends on the adequacy of the phonetic transcriptions it employs. In the present study we supply a phonetic transcription of all forms used, in addition to conventional spelling and glosses. In this way readers not familiar with Polish should get a reasonable approximation of how the individual forms sound. Obviously transcription is, to a certain extent, a matter of convention but it avoids some of the pitfalls of the traditional spelling, such as making distinctions in symbols where there is none in sounds and, conversely, using the same orthographic form for distinct phonetic events. Phonetic transcription prides itself on being consistent in its use of symbols. The choice of the symbols varies with traditions, though.
Introduction: Problems Regarding Method
Authors: Anglo Sydney
Published: November 2023

In his book Great Pianists of Our Time, the German critic Joachim Kaiser refers to a certain kind of ‘triing’ piano playing where performers ‘by arbitrarily accentuating particular notes in a richly- scored passage suddenly spell out quite new melodies, because wherever there are a hundred notes, it is naturally possible to pick out ‘‘baa-baa-black sheep’’ or a national anthem’. This arbitrariness is, I feel, analogous to certain kinds of writing about the history of ideas: especially when it concerns the ways in which a particular thinker was read, interpreted, and absorbed by later generations; or when it tries to establish such relative matters as influence and significance. It is all too easy to select, from the cyclopean mass of documentary evidence available to an assiduous searcher, numerous fragments which may be stuck together to make an imposing show both of completeness and of central importance. Yet often both the completeness and the centrality are as unconvincing as an emphasis on the notes of ‘baa-baa-black sheep’ would be in the midst of a Chopin Scherzo.
The Earliest Readers of Machiavelli: Miscellaneous and Military
Authors: Anglo Sydney
Published: November 2023

‘This poison is spread through the courts of princes in this man’s books which are circulating almost everywhere.’ That was how Reginald Pole, addressing the Emperor Charles V about the year 1539, referred to the spread of Machiavelli’s doctrines. A couple of years later, the Portuguese cleric Jeronimo Osorio was at pains to refute Machiavelli’s views on Christianity because he perceived that the number of those who, ‘either stirred uppe by his writings or of their voluntary motions, were partakers of his wickedness and fury, [which] were far and wide dispersed’. Machiavelli’s toxic qualities, wickedness, and fury remain matters of debate and doubt: but there is no gainsaying the rapid circulation of his writings, noted by these two early critics. Editions of his four principal books poured from the presses of Italy so that by the time Pole was writing there were already twenty-two different printings available; and, in the short period which then elapsed before Osorio’s attack was published, a further twelve Machiavelli editions had appeared.
Machiavelli and the Index of Prohibited Books
Authors: Anglo Sydney
Published: November 2023

Listed among the authors used by Tommaso Porcacchi to elucidate his edition of Guicciardini’s La historia d’Italia (1574), there occurs, under the letter S, a certain ‘Secretario Fiorentino ne’ discorsi & altrove’. This ‘Secretario’ is, of course, Machiavelli; and Porcacchi’s marginal annotations to Guicciardini’s text include material from Il Principe, the Discorsi, and Istorie florentine. The finding references to these works, and the quotations themselves, are accurately given, despite Porcacchi’s frequent qualiflcation (when providing a Machiavellian source), ‘if memory doesn’t deceive me’, and his claim not to have seen any of these works, nor to have been ‘permitted’ to see them, for more than twenty years.
Innocent Gentillet and Machiavelli’s ‘Maximes tyranniques’
Authors: Anglo Sydney
Published: November 2023

Posterity was to be allowed no lapse of memory. Indeed, the literary effusions of the Huguenots, who hastened to challenge the massacre and its defenders, have fared far better with the passage of time than those of their adversaries: though not through any intrinsic superiority. Intellectually as well as physically, opponents of the Saint Bartholomew had been driven on the defensive by pre-emptive accusations of duplicity, violence, and conspiracy; and much of their energy was consumed in unconvincing protestations of innocence. Nevertheless, the savage glee and pride in premeditated atrocity expressed by many Catholic pamphleteers gave an opening for hitting back: an opportunity most fully exploited by Innocent Gentillet, though he was not the only Huguenot to perceive some connection between Italian political vice and advice (especially as exemplified by Machiavelli), the Florentine Queen Mother, and the bloody practices of a degenerate court. On the other hand it is important not to fall into the trap whereby a few passing references make denunciation of Machiavelli ‘current’ in France at this time.
Paradoxes on the Reception of Machiavelli’s Military Thinking
Authors: Anglo Sydney
Published: November 2023

Towards the end of the sixteenth century, a peppery old warrior, Sir John Smythe, referred one of his military discourses to the judgement of soldiers, scorning the opinion of ‘any that will onely bring a pound of old Antiquity usages and Customes, to waigh downe an ounce of true reason and fresh experience’.
Epilogue
Authors: Anglo Sydney
Published: November 2023

In 1641 the Florentine printers Massi and Landi published the Avvertimenti politici collected, some years previously, by a highly obscure author, Giovanni Maria Pichi of San Sepolcro.1 The work was dedicated by the printers to Giovanni Battista Gondi, Secretary of State to the Grand Duke of Tuscany: but Pichi had addressed himself to the ‘Curiosi e sottili Ingegni’ in a short introductory letter as curious and subtle as the intellects for whom it was intended.
A Temporal Logic for Reasoning About Processes and Plans*
Authors: Dermott Drew Mc
Published: November 2023

A common disclaimer by an AI author is that he has neglected temporal considerations to avoid complication. The implication is nearly made that adding a temporal dimension to the research (on engineering, medical diagnosis, etc.) would be a familiar but tedious exercise that would obscure the new material presented by the author. Actually, of course, no one has ever dealt with time correctly in an AI program, and there is reason to believe that doing it would change everything.
Extending the Event Calculus with Temporal Granularity and Indeterminacy*
Authors: Chittaro Luca , Combi Carlo
Published: November 2023

In many real-world applications, temporal information is often imprecise about the temporal location of events (indeterminacy) and comes at different granularities (Dyreson and Snodgrass 1995). Temporal granularity and indeterminacy are thus emerging as crucial requirements for the advancement of intelligent information systems which have to store, manage, and reason about temporal data. Consider, for example, these events taken from the application—a temporal database for cardiological patients— we are considering in our research (Combi and Chittaro 1999): ‘‘between 2 p.m. and 4 p.m. on May 5, 1996, the patient suffered from a myocardial infarction’’, ‘‘he started the therapy with thrombolytics in July 1995’’, ‘‘on October 12, 1996, he had a follow-up visit’’. The three events happened at the hours, months, and days timelines, respectively.
Towards a General Theory of Action and Time
Authors: Allen James F
Published: November 2023

The concept of action arises in at least two major subareas of artificial intelligence, namely, natural language processing and problem solving. For the most part, the formalisms that have been suggested in each subarea are independent of each other and difficult to com- pare, although there is recent work that attempts to merge work from both areas (Charniak 1981). Even considering such work, however, there is presently no computational theory of action that is sufficiently powerful to capture the range of the meanings and distinctions expressible in English. The primary goal of this paper is to suggest a formalism that is considerably more expressive than current theories of action and to explore its use in defining the meanings of English sentences that describe actions and events.
Annotating and Reasoning about Time and Events
Authors: Hobbs Jerry , Pustejovsky James
Published: November 2023

The Semantic Web will necessarily require specification of temporal information. For example, someone who does a web search trying to find a place to buy a book needed before next Tuesday may or may not be able to use an online bookstore that promises delivery within five business days. Someone doing a genealogical search may want to specify that the birthdate of a person is between 15 and 45 years before a known marriage date. In response to this need, in connection with the DARPA-sponsored DAML program, we have been developing an ontology of temporal concepts, OWL- Time (originally DAML-Time), that covers the basic topological temporal relations on instants and intervals, measures of duration, and the clock and calendar (Hobbs, 2002).
Introduction to Part III
Authors: Dowty David R
Published: November 2023

Sentences are rarely interpreted in isolation. The context in which a sentence is uttered, including the situation of the speakers involved, is important. In general, the previous discourse history plays a crucial role in resolving anaphoric references, including those of pronouns, definite and indefinite noun phrases, and temporal adverbials like later, that day, then, in June, etc.
Tense Interpretation in the Context of Narrative
Authors: Song Fei , Cohen Robin
Published: November 2023

Tense interpretation plays an important role in determining the temporal ordering between the states and events mentioned in a narrative. Following Mourelatos (1978), we generally call states and events ‘‘situations.’’ Determining temporal ordering is useful for many research problems of artificial intelligence.
Introduction to Part IV
Authors: Dowty David R
Published: November 2023

The work presented in earlier sections of this book has, by and large, followed the methods of analytical linguistics, philosophy, and symbolic AI. That is, aspects of how temporal information is conveyed in language have been analyzed and modeled in formal (in varying degrees) or computational systems.
Conclusion
Authors: Harrison Mark
Published: November 2023

Reviewing the development of military medicine during the Second World War, the medical officer Anthony Cotterell noted that: ‘The picture has not just been improved; it has been transformed. In some battles the badly wounded man’s chances of recovery have been something like twenty-five times as good as in France during the last war.’¹ This was no exaggeration: by 1944 most casualties were receiving treatment within hours of wounding, due to the increased mobility of field hospitals and the extensive use of aeroplanes as ambulances. The care of the sick and wounded had also been revolutionized by new medical technologies, such as active immunization against tetanus, sulphonamide drugs, and penicillin. The importance of penicillin, in particular, is illustrated by contrast with the German army in 1944–5: lacking antibiotics, many German wounded were found to be suffering from severe sepsis, which was very rare in Allied hospitals where penicillin was administered routinely.
Imagining Mothers
Authors: Cody Lisa Forman
Published: November 2023

Male natural philosophers had established for themselves by the early eighteenth century an authority over certain aspects of the reproductive world that they could lay their hands on, but it does not appear that Leeuwenhoek, Woodward, or most others doing theoretical work about conception and embryology necessarily cared about entering the field of midwifery. None the less, these projects and the methodologies advocated by the Royal Society greatly influenced the men who had begun to establish themselves as experts in obstetrics and gynaecology by providing a naturalistic, rather than theological or wondrous, language and explanatory framework to discuss both odd and routine reproductive phenomena. Early eighteenth-century doctors and men of science were given an opportunity to test new scientific methods too in the case of monstrous births, a phenomenon that medical men had long been commonly invited to witness and investigate.
Epilogue
Authors: Cody Lisa Forman
Published: November 2023

By the 1830s British men had established an intellectual and professional authority over sex and birth. As this transformation occurred in old fields’ medicine, law, and charity-and was foundational in the rise of modern disciplines reproductive biology, political economy, ethnography, and even linguistics-they brought the once cloistered and female-controlled experience of reproduction out into a public arena and asserted that there were certain knowable, verifiable facts and laws about the body and life. Men-midwives and other authorities over reproductive matters were not necessarily consulted as much as they would have wished when the state began to develop more specific and intrusive legislation about abortion and illegitimacy, but they nonetheless had fundamentally altered how Britons viewed the categories of sex and birth.
The Anti-Palafox Coalition
Authors: Toledo Cayetana Alvarez De
Published: November 2023

On hearing that Palafox had been relieved of his duties as visitor-general of New Spain, don Francisco Molinos, lecturer at the University of Mexico, wrote a commiserating letter to the bishop in which he observed: ‘Historians will find much to discuss and write in relation to this matter, for in my opinion it is one of the most extraordinary that has occurred in the church of God on account of such a minor issue as asking the fathers of the Company to show their licences to preach and confess.’ Don Francisco was wrong to believe that the decision to call the visita general to a halt was the result of Palafox’s dispute with the Jesuits; the ecclesiastical controversy had merely confirmed a decision previously taken in Madrid. His error, however, is comprehensible, a consequence of the time which it took for the Council’s verdict on the confrontation between Palafox and Salvatierra over the reform of the district officials to reach the viceroyalty. Moreover, his guess that the dispute over the licences to preach and confess would long be the subject of passionate historical debate shows remarkable fore-sight.
Predicate Structure: Miscellaneous Suffixes
Authors: Dixon R M W , Vogel Alan R
Published: November 2023

Between the inflecting verb (slot D in predicate structure, as set out in 4.1) or the auxiliary of a non-inflecting verb (slot E) and tense-modal suffixes (slot G) there can be one or more members drawn from a set of about fifty-six ‘miscellaneous suffixes ‘, in slot F. These miscellaneous suffixes show a range of morphological properties. The main parameters of variation are summarized in table 5.1 (where X represents a miscellaneous suffix); note that two suffixes each occur in two types. The four types are illustrated in (5.1-4).
Dependent Clauses
Authors: Dixon R M W , Vogel Alan R
Published: November 2023

Whereas a complement clause functions as a core argument within a main clause (MC), what is here called a dependent clause (DC) falls outside the core. Most often it occurs after the core (a postposed DC) but it does sometimes precede the core (a preposed DC). There is generally-but not always-a core argument shared between a DC and its MC; this is likely to be the pivot argument in one or both clauses.
The Relational Noun ihi/ehene ‘Due to, Because of ‘
Authors: Dixon R M W , Vogel Alan R
Published: November 2023

In form, ihi/ehene is like a possessed noun (PN). In (22.r) and (22.3) it functions as the last element in an NP, agreeing in gender with the head-m in (22.r), f in (22.3)-just like a PN. This is probably its diachronic origin. But it has now expanded functionally, marking the relation of a peripheral NP to the main clause, as in (22.r), or the relation of a subordinate clause to the main clause, as in (22.2). Mayan linguistics uses the term ‘relational nouns‘ for ‘a small set of always possessed nouns‘ which ‘indicates grammatical relations in a sentence‘ (see, for example, England r983: 7r-4). It seems appropriate to borrow this term and refer to ihi/ehene as a ‘relational noun ‘; it is the only relational noun in Jarawara.
Prologue A Haunting in Minehead
Authors: Marshall Peter
Published: November 2023

October, 1634. Susan Leakey, widow, of Minehead in the County of Somerset, lies in a chamber in the house of her son, Alexander, a once-prosperous merchant and ship owner of the town. She knows that the bed she is lying in will be her deathbed, and she prepares herself for the coming and inevitable end. With eVort, she declares before witnesses what her will is for the disposal of her worldly goods, the burial of her mortal body, and the destiny of her immortal soul.
The Devil Let Loose off his Chain
Authors: Marshall Peter
Published: November 2023

In the summer of 1629, Wve years and more before the chain of events set in motion by the death of Susan Leakey, a Somerset clergyman took ship for Ireland, where he had hopes of bettering his prospects. John Atherton was at that time a mature man of 31, and had been an ordained minister in the Church of England for almost eleven years. His professional rise up to this point had been, if hardly meteoric, at least solidly upwards. The decision, in midcareer, to set an oblique course and to continue to pursue it in the Church of Ireland requires explanation, though it was not quite as eccentric as it might sound.
Athenianism
Authors: Marshall Peter
Published: November 2023

London in the Wrst decade of the eighteenth century was a good place and time to be a publisher and seller of books. Twenty years after the (almost) bloodless revolution which had sent the Catholic James II into brooding exile on the continent, and established his Protestant daughter Mary and her canny Dutch husband William on the English throne, the presses were busier than they had ever been before, even in the wonder year of 1641. The capital ballooned in size through the later seventeenth century; its population reached about 600,000 by 1700, making it the largest city in Western Europe.
Atherton and Leakey: History and Folklore
Authors: Marshall Peter
Published: November 2023

In the summer of 1730, Jonathan Swift, dean of St Patrick ‘s in Dublin and author of the world ‘s most famous Wctional travelogue, experienced a vision of Bishop John Atherton. We should not let ourselves get too excited, for the vision was a strictly literary and satirical one. It came in the course of Swift ‘s An Excellent New Ballad, a work which vented justiWed spleen at a fellow clergyman of the Church of Ireland, the dean of Ferns, Dr Thomas Sawbridge.
Introduction: The Heroes’ Gate
Authors: Mevius Martin
Published: November 2023

Szeged is a medium-sized town in the south-east of Hungary, near the Yugoslav border, well known for its large university, the sausages produced in the Pick factories at the outskirts of town, the Szegedi Szabadtéri Jákok, musical performances held annually in front of the cathedral on Dom Square, and for the Virág Cukrászda, probably one of the best cake shops in Hungary. The main road into town from the railway station is the Boulevard of the Good Lady, known before 1989 as the ‘Road of 4 April’, the communist celebration of the ‘liberation’ of Hungary in 1945.
Agents of Moscow (1941-1944)
Authors: Mevius Martin
Published: November 2023

On the day of the German attack on the Soviet Union, Commissar for Foreign Affairs Vyacheslav Molotov gave a rousing speech in which he referred to the defeat of Napoleon at the hand of the tsars almost a century earlier, consciously mixing tsarist and Soviet history. The war became the ‘Great Patriotic War’, and Russian national heroes such as Alexandr Nevsky were used to rally the troops. Simultaneously the parties connected to the Comintern conducted national propaganda of their own, in a centrally organized ‘national line’ carried out on orders by Stalin.
The Heirs of Kossuth, Petőfi, and Táncsics (December 1944—March 1945)
Authors: Mevius Martin
Published: November 2023

To be credible as a national party, it was not adequate to deflect attacks on the MKP’s national reputation, but also necessary to present a positive national image. Reminiscent of the VKP(b)’s exploitation of Russian national figures, the MKP used Hungarian national symbols, such as the national flag, national heroes, and national celebrations, to underline its national character, depicted Hungarian history as an age-long struggle for national and social liberation, and pronounced itself the only heir to all of Hungary’s progressive national traditions, especially the anti-Habsburg revolution of 1848. In contrast with this positive ‘patriotism’, it formally denounced ‘reactionary’ Hungarian nationalism of the Horthy years, which it dubbed ‘chauvinist’. This did not stop the MKP from appropriating some of the heroes of Horthy Hungary, such as St Stephen, the founder of the Hungarian state.
Salami Tactics and National Unity (1945-1947)
Authors: Mevius Martin
Published: November 2023

After the election defeat of 1945, it was clear that the MKP would not gain power through the ballot box. The Smallholder Party would have to be defeated through extra-parliamentary pressure and the control over the police and security services. By allying itself with the National Peasant Party, the Social Democrats, and left-wing Smallholders, the MKP managed to have its right-wing enemies expelled from the party, and bring about the disintegration of the party in 1947.
Socialist Patriotism (1949-1953)
Authors: Mevius Martin
Published: November 2023

During the coalition period, the MKP had rarely used the term ‘nationalism’, preferring instead the word ‘chauvinism’ to define forms of patriotism it disagreed with. Now, the designations ‘nationalist’ and ‘bourgeois nationalist’ became potentially lethal labels to attach to political opponents and scapegoats. Nevertheless, with Soviet consent and encouragement, the MDP continued its national propaganda. As in the coalition period, it put itself forward as the heir to Hungarian national traditions, and as a party that represented Hungarian national interests.
Notes on Tragic Visualizing in the Iliad
Authors: Slatkin Laura M
Published: November 2023

The Iliad is a poem of shocking visions. Drawing attention throughout to what its characters perceive, to their experience of viewing, the poem dwells on the impact of the sights that confront them and on the act of seeing itself. Whether from distant vantage points (the Wery head of Achilles appearing to the Trojans) or those close by (the view of Hector ‘s neck as Achilles takes fatal aim), confrontations with things seen place the unfolding of the poem before the audience ‘s eyes, even as the events are realized in the experience of its characters.1 At such moments, what they are seeing we are seeing; the audience shares their line of vision. In the discussion that follows, I hope to suggest how the characters ‘ lines of vision, in the various directions they take, may oVer additional perspective on the Iliad ‘s stringent and subtle intimations of tragedy.
Introduction
Authors: Mclellan Josie
Published: November 2023

On the evening of 5 November 1989, just four days before the fall of the Berlin Wall, the Deutsches Theater in East Berlin found itself with a full house. The crowd was so large that loudspeakers had to be set up to relay proceedings to the people packed in the foyer. What brought so many East Germans out on a chilly Sunday evening? Perhaps surprisingly, the occasion was a reading from the memoirs of Walter Janka, a German veteran of the International Brigades.
The Odyssey of the German Volunteers
Authors: Mclellan Josie
Published: November 2023

‘It started getting light around us as we reached the mountain ‘s peak. It appeared to me that that was no normal dawn, but the outbreak of brightness, of the new day. We marched along an almost level plateau and saw the sun rise. It rose over Spain. We had arrived. ‘ Long after their wounds had healed and their halting Spanish had been forgotten, the German veterans of the International Brigades remembered their arrival in Spain with astonishing clarity. Many of them had first glimpsed Spanish soil after a night—time trek over the Pyrenees—often the only way to evade the French border authorities.
Strangers in a Strange Land: The Spanienkampfer in East Germany
Authors: Mclellan Josie
Published: November 2023

In September 1945 Hans Kahle wrote from London to Franz Dahlem. The war was finally over, and Kahle pleaded with Dahlem to use his connections to get him out of England: ‘Our most burning desire is to return to Germany as quickly as possible and take part in the final extermination of fascism and the rebuilding of a new and genuinely democratic Germany.” Kahle was not alone. The archives are full of similar letters detailing the veterans ‘ longing to return to Germany now that Nazism had finally been defeated. As one veteran described it, ‘after our important abilities have lain stagnant for so long ... life in Berlin will use them again, despite the difficulties we are well aware of; and life will have a point ‘. Many emigres experienced great difficulty in returning to Germany, having to collect money to pay their passage, visas, and exit permits, as well as permission to enter the Soviet Zone of Occupation. Despite these problems, over 1 ,ooo veterans chose to live in East Germany after 1945. They returned with high hopes for the new state and the prospect of a socialist post—war order. These political goals were also tied up with personal hopes: after twelve years of Nazi rule and illegality, veterans finally had the opportunity to restart a private life and resume contact with friends and family.
The Uses of History: The Party Appropriates Spain
Authors: Mclellan Josie
Published: November 2023

The SED was the most powerful player involved in discussing the International Brigades. As the ruling party, it had automatic access to the widest possible audience, as well as the ability to suppress any account which came into conflict with its own interpretation of the war. Those who wrote about Spain were unable to ignore the party ‘s version of events, whether they decided to breach, stretch, or remain within the limits of debate set by the SED.
Reluctant Heroes: Veterans and the State Contest the Meaning of the War
Authors: Mclellan Josie
Published: November 2023

For the veterans of the International Brigades, antifascism was much more than a way of legitimating SEO rule. Most veterans were, it is true, members of the party. They agreed that there were valuable lessons to be learnt from the Spanish Civil War and were delighted that their contribution to the antifascist fight was being publicly commemorated. Those who wrote their memoirs often aimed to convince young people of the moral superiority of the East German state, hoping that the appeal of the Spanish Civil War would be enough to stop them deserting to the other side of the Wall. But the fact that the veterans and the SEO shared a political agenda did not necessarily mean that their interpretations of the war were identical. For the most part, the veterans were happy to publicly endorse the party ‘s version of events. Party discipline alone would have been enough to ensure that.