bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A Multidimensional Theory of Burnout
Authors: Maslach Christina
Published: November 2023

Job burnout is a prolonged response to chronic interpersonal stressors on the job. The three key dimensions of this response are an overwhelming exhaustion; feelings of cynicism and detachment from the job; and a sense of ineffectiveness and failure (Maslach, 1982a; Maslach and Jackson, 1981b; Maslach and Leiter, 1997). The experience can impair both personal and social functioning. While some people may quit the job as a result of burnout, others will stay on, but will only do the bare minimum rather than their very best. This decline in the quality of work and in both physical and psychological health can be costly-not just for the individual worker, but for everyone affected by that person.
The dermatological history, examination, and investigations frequently used in dermatology
Authors: Path Rona M
Published: November 2023

Most patients with skin disease are first seen and treatment prescribed in a primary care setting or in a hospital out-patient department. A very small number require in-patient care and nowadays, in many parts of the world, this may not be in dedicated dermatology beds. It is therefore even more important than in other specialties to ask the patient all the possibly important questions in an orderly and logical framework in the primary care setting or in the out-patient clinic.
Cutaneous medicine
Authors: Path Rona M
Published: November 2023

A 43-year-old female patient consults you about non-painful red lesions, present on her shins for about 4 months.
Drug use and multiple drug use
Authors: Gossop Michael
Published: November 2023

Over time there are variations in the emphasis given to different substances as ‘main’ problem drugs. Sometimes greater attention is given to heroin use. At other times, arguments are made for the primacy of problems associated with crack cocaine, amphetamines, tranquillizers, or other drugs. This chapter discusses the drugs that are most frequently linked to addiction problems. Although the drugs are discussed one at a time, they are seldom used in isolation. Drug users who seek treatment rarely confine their drug taking to just one substance.
Treatment effectiveness and social policy
Authors: Gossop Michael
Published: November 2023

Large-scale, prospective, multi-site treatment outcome studies have played an important role in improving our understanding of treatment effectiveness (Simpson 1997). They provide valuable information about drug misusers, the separate stages of their addiction careers, their various and complicated involvements with treatment services, and, of course, the changes that occur in their drug use and other problem behaviours across extended periods of time after treatment. Such studies are rare, however, because of the high costs in money, effort, and organizational commitment necessary to implement, coordinate, and sustain such data collection systems over many years.
Ethics and law, consent and Professionalism
Authors: King Jennifer
Published: November 2023

Law and ethics, consent and professionalism are a related set of subjects that have only recently begun to be taught systematically as an essential part of the dental curriculum. Each is a subject in its own right but they are integrated in their clinical application within health care. These subjects are also closely linked with communication skills in their chair-side application. For instance, the moral principle of respect for autonomy is worked out in dental practice by giving good explanations to people before obtaining their consent to be treated. This in turn requires good communication skills on the part of the dentist. The behavioural sciences are also important here. An understanding of sociology shows, for example, how ethnicity, social class and gender influence health beliefs and behaviour; and an understanding of psychology is important in the recognition and management of pain and anxiety. An example of how these subjects are integrated for a dental patient can be found at the end of this chapter. Competency in these subjects is an essential part of every dental student’s personal and professional development.
Prevention and interception
Authors: Maguire Anne
Published: November 2023

There are a number of generic skills required of the graduate in the area of prevention and interception. Prevention of disease should form an integral part of any comprehensive treatment plan in clinical practice. A dentist has a fundamental role to play in the prevention of dental diseases and conditions including dental caries, periodontal disease and tooth surface loss as well as a contributory role in the prevention of oral cancer and other smoking and alcohol-related diseases. In addition, a dentist’s interceptive role is particularly important in the management of the developing dentition, especially with regard to space maintenance, and timely management of local irregularities, such as single tooth cross bites. The graduate should also recognize how an increased overjet increases risk of dental trauma and be proactive in its timely and appropriate management, through specialist referral where necessary. The dental graduate also has a contributory role in reducing the dental effects of trauma by being able to provide well-fitting mouth guards and instructing patients in their use for contact sports.
Pulp therapy in the primary dentition
Authors: Waterhouse Paula Jane
Published: November 2023

Restoration of carious primary molar teeth is an important part of paediatric dentistry. Data derived from the UK Child Dental Health Survey (O’Brien 1994) showed that in the primary dentition, caries most frequently affected molars. Forty per cent of 5yearolds and 50 per cent of 8-year-olds had dental caries in primary molars. If a carious primary molar remains untreated or inadequately treated, bacterial invasion of the coronal pulp occurs by direct spread through dentinal tubules. In response to the microbial insult, the coronal pulp tissue lays down reactive, secondary dentine and mounts a defensive inflammatory response. At this stage the entire pulp is not moribund; if the irreversibly inflamed coronal pulp is removed and the radicular pulp treated with an appropriate agent, the remaining tissue possesses the ability to recover. However, if the infected coronal pulp remains, micro-organisms invade the radicular pulp, resulting in irreversible pulpitis. Control of infection can then only be secured by polypectomy and root canal treatment, or extraction. If treatment is not undertaken, infection may spread from the pulp canal space to the periodontium through patent accessory, lateral, and apical foramina. The tooth may then become mobile and associated soft tissues may become painful and swollen.
Restorative dentistry
Authors: Burke Francis , Allen Finbarr
Published: November 2023

The 1998 Adult Dental Health Survey documented an increase in the population who are retaining their teeth. Eighty-seven per cent of the population was dentate compared to 68 per cent in 1968. It is projected that 96 per cent of the population will be dentate by 2028 (Nuttall et al.2001). The average number of sound teeth has increased and untreated decay has decreased. However, half of the 16–24-year-old age group had untreated decay and 11 per cent of adults had wear of their anterior teeth. Over half the population experienced oral problems in the previous year with pain being the most common problem. Tooth decay is still the most commonly cited reason for tooth loss, with toothache/abscess or broken or decaying teeth being the most immediate problem prior to tooth loss.
Endodontics
Authors: Saunders Bill
Published: November 2023

Endodontology is defined as the study of the form, function and health, injuries to and diseases of the dental pulp and periradicular tissues, their prevention and treatment (International Endodontic Journal, European Society of Endodontology 1998). Endodontics is the practice of this science. The aetiology of the most common diseases of the dental pulp and periradicular tissues is microbial (Kakehashi et al. 1966) and the objective of endodontic treatment is to eliminate microbial irritation of the pulpal and periradicular tissues. Dental caries and its subsequent removal and replacement with restorations and traumatic injuries to the teeth are the most common sources of microbial contamination of the dental pulp and periradicular tissues. Endodontic treatment must be part of holistic care to ensure that oral and general health of the patient is maintained.Undergraduate education in endodontics expects competence to be achieved in practical procedures, involving management of the dental pulp and root canal treatment in both singleand multi-rooted teeth.
Broadening the mind
Authors: Dowrick Christopher
Published: November 2023

By now it should be clear that I do not consider the case in favour of depression as a medical concept to be particularly strong. I think the explanation for its contemporary popularity has more to do with various interconnecting commercial, professional, and cultural pressures than it has to do with evidence from biomedical science. I am not for one second trying to argue that the emotions, thoughts, and sensations which we currently describe as being part of depressive syndromes are illusory. Clearly and all too distressingly they are very real indeed. The desolate poetry of Coleridge in Chapter 1 and Mary’s anguished narrative in Chapter 3 are utterly convincing descriptions of intense personal suffering.
Special problems of trials in psychiatry
Authors: Everitt Brian S , Wessely Simon
Published: November 2023

In the previous chapter, we looked in some detail at a variety of issues that are common to randomized controlled trials in whatever area they are used. In this chapter, we move from the general issues surrounding clinical trials to some more specific issues that are of particular concern to those undertaking trials in mental health.
RCTs in psychiatry: Threats, challenges, and the future
Authors: Everitt Brian S , Wessely Simon
Published: November 2023

Clinical trials are a composite of matters ethical, practical and theoretical. They have had a short but distinguished history, having rapidly become the accepted norm for benchmarking medical progress and yielding the highest quality, singlestudy evidence for treatment efficacy.
Decision making, uncertainty and the value of information
Authors: Briggs Andrew , Claxton Karl , Sculpher Mark
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we discuss how the results of probabilistic decision modelling should be interpreted and how decisions should be made in the light of the type of analysis described in the previous chapters. We identify two decisions which must be made: (i) should a technology be adopted on the basis of existing evidence, and (ii) whether further evidence is required to support this decision in the future. The first decision is dealt with in the following section. Measures of value of information, which can inform the second decision are covered subsequently. The role of this type of analysis in identifying research priorities, including the results of two recent UK pilot studies are then presented, followed by exercises to take you through this type of analysis.
Developing A Questionnaire Using Item Response Theory: A Case Study Of Fatigue
Authors: Cella David , Lai Jin-Shei , Davis Kim , Dineen Kelly , Hudgens Stacie , Gershon Richard
Published: November 2023

Fatigue is a common problem in most chronic medical conditions. For example prevalence estimates for significant fatigue have been documented in cancer (Cella et al. 1993, 1997, 2001; Vogelzang et al. 1997; Winningham et al. 1994; Irvine et al. 1994; Blesch et al. 1991), multiple sclerosis (Schur 1989; Liang et al. 1984), Parkinson ‘s disease (Friedman and Friedman 2001, 1993; Karlsen et al. 1999; Krupp and Pollina 1996) and HIV (Breitbart 1998; Cunningham 1998). Because fatigue is a symptom associated with so many conditions, its evaluation is included in many HRQoL instruments, both generic and condition-specific.
Individual Patient Monitoring
Authors: Velikova Galina , Wright Penny
Published: November 2023

During the twentieth century a change in the pattern of diseases in the developed countries occurred, with a predominance of chronic conditions. This led to a shift in the understanding of health as a satisfactory physical and psychosocial functioning of the individual, not merely an absence of disease (WHO 1952). There was a movement away from the limited biomedical model of health and illness to a bio-psychosocial model (Engel 1977). This fundamental shift in the health-related thinking led to an increasing interest in the measurement of health status, functioning and well-being and in the use of these measures in health care research and practice (Greenfield and Nelson 1992).
Discrete Choice Experiments
Authors: Ryan Mandy , Gerard Karen
Published: November 2023

One of the greatest challenges facing health economists is the identification and valuation of benefits from health care interventions. Until the 1990s benefit assessment in health economics was dominated by an assumption that health was the only important outcome from health care. This is evidenced by the large amount of research devoted to valuing health outcomes using quality adjusted life years (QALYs). The 1990s saw a challenge to this assumption. It was recognized by some health economists that concentration on health outcome fails to allow for the possibility that individuals derive benefit from what were being called non-health outcomes and process attributes.
Combining Clinical Trials: Meta-Analyses
Authors: Fayers Peter , Scott Neil
Published: November 2023

Patient-reported outcomes are becoming more frequently reported as the primary end points in randomized clinical trials, and this has led to the emergence of systematic reviews and meta-analyses of health-related quality of life (HRQoL) outcomes. In the past, meta-analyses have been most commonly used for specific dimensions of HRQoL, principally pain and depression. One reason for this may be the apparent complexity of combining results from diverse HRQoL instruments: to many investigators, it may seem impossible to combine the disparate scales that are reported. In this chapter we will explain, with examples from published literature, the main issues involved and some of the decisions that must be taken when planning and carrying out meta-analysis of HRQoL outcomes.
Fundamentals of good communication
Authors: Macdonald Elisabeth
Published: November 2023

This chapter analyses the important elements of good cmmunication. This involves both initiating and responding skills and is an interactive process both giving and receiving information. Helpful techniques are explored, including the use of active listening, non-verbal encouragement and response to cues. Physical surroundings and practical arrangements are discussed. Linguistic aspects of the consultation are analysed, including the role of language and the structure of the consultation in a sequence of phases. Effective time management is vital and suggestions are given to help keep the conversation on track and to deal with the garrulous or the reticent patient.
Community Mental Health Teams: A Guide to Current Practices
Authors: Burns Tom
Published: November 2023

Community Mental Health Teams (CMHTs) have evolved over the last 30-40 years to serve patients with mental illnesses who would previously have been treated in large mental hospitals. They play a pivotal role in the provision of mental health care in the developed world. Consisting of nurses, doctors, social workers, and psychologists, the people within these teams work together to care for individuals with severe mental illnesses outside the hospital. Because CMHTs have evolved, rather than been developed, little has been written about how they should work - how the multidisciplinary members of the teams can work effectively together, who should do what within the team. This is the first book to provide practical advice for those working within these teams. It addresses the needs of the individual specialists within the CMHT, and provides clinical advice based on what has been seen to work. The book also looks at the recent development of 'functional' CMHTs - Assertive Outreach, Crisis resolution, and early intervention services, describing how these teams work, their similarities, and their differences. Written by a leading authority in this field, the book will become the standard text for all those specialists working within and close to community mental health teams.
Free radicals and antioxidants in ageing and disease: fact or fantasy?
Authors: Gutteridge John M C , Halliwell Barry
Published: November 2023

It is difficult these days to open a popular science magazine or medical journal without seeing an article about the role of free radicals in human disease. Women’s magazines contain articles about the use of ‘antioxidant creams’ to prevent ageing of the skin, and health food stores are full of pamphlets and books describing how antioxidant or dietary supplements can prolong life, protect youth, or prevent disease. Is there any truth in all this?

Three points are worth stating:

(1) There is no evidence that consuming more antioxidants will prolong the natural maximum human life span.
Matrix-Isolation Techniques
Authors: Dunkin Ian R
Published: November 2023

Matrix isolation is a technique for trapping reactive species at very low temperatures and studying them spectroscopically. This book offers detailed practical advice on how to carry out matrix-isolation experiments, and is a unique introduction to the subject. Chapter 1 introduces a brief historical survey of the development of the technique that incorporates a discussion of its strength and limitations. Chapter 2 provides a thorough description of the building of a matrix-isolation laboratory from scratch. All the necessary equipment is described in full and there are diagrammatic examples throughout. In later chapters, ancillary equipment for generating reactive species, and an informative description of the various methods for forming low-temperature matrices are dealt with. There then follows a chapter on the specialized technique of matrix photochemistry with polarized light. The final chapter comprises an extensive collection of classic matrix experiments which have been selected due to their ease of application and which will thus serve as useful exercises for testing new pieces of equipment. This accessible text offers thorough coverage of the topic and will be invaluable to postgraduate and industrial chemists as an introduction to matrix isolation techniques. Researchers in chemistry and related fields who are considering whether matrix isolation can play a part in their own research will also find this book useful.
Special Clinical Populations
Authors: Green Stephen A , Bloch Sidney
Published: November 2023

Arguably, all psychiatric patients are special in the sense of being unique. Thus, when an ethical aspect of their illness and treatment emerges as warranting the clinician’s attention, this should also be regarded as unique. On the other hand, certain areas of clinical practice generate a set of distinctive ethical issues. Forensic psychiatry, for instance, as we discuss in Chapter 7, is especially problematic in relation to the practitioner’s complex role as expert witness in a legal proceeding.
Forensic Psychiatry
Authors: Green Stephen A , Bloch Sidney
Published: November 2023

The subspecialty of psychiatry now known as forensic psychiatry has its roots in the need for civilized society to distinguish between criminal acts committed with or without conscious intent. Acceptance of this moral obligation has been considered a hallmark of civilization since ancient times. A commentary on the Hebrew Scripture in the sixth century bc explored the role of responsibility in the commission of unlawful acts, and the Greek philosophers, as far back as the fifth century bc, considered the distinction between culpable and nonculpable acts to be among ‘the unwritten laws of nature supported by the universal moral sense of mankind’.
Bacterial pathogenicity and epidemiology
Authors: Bagg Jeremy , MacFarlane T Wallace , Poxton Ian R , Smith Andrew J
Published: November 2023

A bacterial pathogen is simply a bacterium that causes harm to a host, resulting in disease, whilst pathogenicity is the process by which this is brought about. Before describing bacterial pathogenicity, it is useful to consider some of the biological relationships that occur between bacteria and the human body. The body is naturally colonized by a vast and complex microflora or microbiota, which consists mainly of bacteria. These bacteria are generally considered harmless and are found over the whole outer surface of the body and in much of the gastrointestinal tract, the urogenital tract, and the oropharynx. Thus, most epithelial surfaces, with the exception of the lungs and the upper small intestine, have a resident microflora. This association of bacteria with the host is a relatively stable symbiotic relationship.
Infections of the skin and soft tissues
Authors: Bagg Jeremy , MacFarlane T Wallace , Poxton Ian R , Smith Andrew J
Published: November 2023

The skin provides an excellent defence for the underlying tissues against invading, pathogenic micro-organisms (Chapter 8). The structural elements of normal skin that are important in this protection include its acid pH, the limited amount of moisture present and excreted chemicals such as sebum, fatty acids and urea. In addition, the skin is colonized by a large number of bacterial species, which comprise the resident normal flora. This resident flora includes coagulase negative staphylococci, micrococci and diphtheroids and plays an important defence role through prevention of colonization by exogenous pathogens.
Gastrointestinal infections
Authors: Bagg Jeremy , MacFarlane T Wallace , Poxton Ian R , Smith Andrew J
Published: November 2023

In this chapter gastrointestinal infections are defined as diseases caused by micro-organisms which affect the stomach, small intestine, or large intestine and are usually characterized by the symptoms of vomiting and/or diarrhoea. The acquisition of the infecting agent is usually either via the faecal–oral route or through consuming contaminated food or drink. However, more rarely, contaminated medical devices have been implicated in transmitting gastrointestinal infections, most notably Clostridium difficile colitis (see later) which has been transmitted through inadequately sterilized endoscopes. The faecal–oral transmission route occurs largely because of inadequate personal hygiene, contaminated hands being the normal vehicles. Prevention is by proper handwashing and through disinfection of faecal ly contaminated surfaces.
Blood-borne viruses
Authors: Bagg Jeremy , MacFarlane T Wallace , Poxton Ian R , Smith Andrew J
Published: November 2023

The blood-borne viruses (BBVs) comprise a heterogeneous group of viruses, which share a common characteristic of transmission between hosts via blood-to-blood contact. They are very relevant to dentistry, since they pose an occupational hazard for dental personnel, and may also be transmitted to patients from infected dental staff or as a result of inadequately sterilized dental instruments. The two major groups of BBVs are agents of viral hepatitis, particularly hepatitis B and C viruses, and the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). A wide range of viruses may cause hepatitis. These agents include, for example, Epstein–Barr virus and cytomegalovirus (Chapter 19), in addition to the recognized family of hepatitis viruses classified as hepatitis A to E.
Antimicrobial agents in dentistry
Authors: Bagg Jeremy , MacFarlane T Wallace , Poxton Ian R , Smith Andrew J
Published: November 2023

The inappropriate prescribing of antimicrobial drugs through incorrect diagnoses, choice of agent, dose and duration of treatment contributes to the increasing development of antimicrobial resistance, both in pathogens and members of the commensal flora. There is substantial evidence to suggest that dental practitioners, in common with many other health care professionals, frequently make inappropriate use of antimicrobial drugs (see Further reading). The aim of this chapter is to provide guidance to the dental practitioner on correct usage of antimicrobial agents in routine dental practice. The accurate diagnosis of an acute dentoalveolar infection is critical to its successful management. It is essential to define anatomically the extent of the infection, since spreading infections involving critical structures may require referral to a hospital facility.
Preoperative assessment: motor function
Authors: Fesl Gunther , Yousry Tarek A
Published: November 2023

With the advent of FMRI, it was quickly recognized that a new tool might be available for the preoperative mapping of motor function. The motor system was extensively studied in both healthy volunteers and also in patients. The clear relationship between the activation of the primary motor cortex and the corresponding electrophysiological response even led to the use of intraoperative mapping as a method to validate motor FMRI. Today, preoperative motor FMRI seems to be the major clinical application of a method that has become an indispensable tool of research. Motor control is a complex organized process that involves several motor, sensory, and associative areas. Anatomically, the motor cortex, neocortical association areas, the basal ganglia, the cerebellum, the brainstem, and the spinal cord are involved. The main cortical motor areas include the primary motor cortex (M1), the supplementary motor area (SMA), the presupplementary motor area (pre-SMA), the cingulate motor area (CMA), the premotor area (pre-MA) and the prefrontal cortex (PFC). The location of these areas is usually described using the Brodmann classification which subdivides the cortex into more than 40 areas using cytoarchitectonic criteria (Fig. 2.1).
Schizophrenia
Authors: Ramsey Nick F , Kahn Ren é S
Published: November 2023

The methodological improvements of FMRI, both in the fields of image acquisition and data analysis, call for constant re-evaluation of the type of questions that can be addressed. Particularly the technological advances made in MRI technology forces the neuroimaging community to rethink the meaning of the results that are acquired in FMRI experiments and to decide on the experimental design, as technology is no longer the dominant bottleneck but the theoretical framework in which to fit the results. For instance, whereas earlier studies were mainly focussed on identifying regions that were somehow involved in performing a cognitive task, recent studies have elucidated the way in which brain regions communicate and how they function within networks. It is conceivable that, in the coming decades, some of the neuronal mechanisms that form the basis of human behaviour may be captured in well-defined models, making it possible to understand pathological processes underlying mental disorders in terms of localized abnormalities of function within brain structures and of communication between structures. This review attempts to describe what FMRI has contributed to the field of schizophrenia research. Rather than to summarize the plethora of FMRI studies on this illness, the authors have chosen to explain how FMRI has influenced ideas about the nature of brain malfunction. The most dominant subject of investigation with FMRI is undoubtedly that of information processing. This appears to be associated with two developments. Firstly, the notion that cognitive impairments are an important aspect of schizophrenia has gained significance as it has the potential to provide mechanistic explanations for a variety of seemingly unrelated clinical symptoms (e.g. see ). Secondly, rapid advances have been made in cognitive neuroscience — a discipline of sorts that builds on the theoretical frameworks of human cognition developed by experimental psychology and neuropsychology — providing new insights into the mechanism of normal brain function (e.g. see ).
Depression and anxiety disorders
Authors: Veltman Dick J
Published: November 2023

Depression and anxiety disorders are, by far, the most common psychiatric disorders, with a lifetime prevalence estimated as high as 16% for major depressive disorder alone. Similar figures have been reported for anxiety disorders. In the widely used Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders , major depressive disorder (MDD; also termed unipolar depression) has been brought under the heading of ‘mood disorders’, together with dysthymia (i.e. chronic mild depression), various types of bipolar disorder (or manic depressive disorder), and some additional, sometimes provisional, diagnoses. Similarly, since the 1980s, anxiety disorders have been grouped together in the DSM. This category includes ‘pure’ (non-phobic) anxiety disorders, in which patients may experience anxiety symptoms without clearly identifiable external cues, and phobic disorders, the symptoms of which are triggered by specific objects or situations. Non-phobic anxiety disorders are panic disorder (PD) and generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), both formerly lumped together under the name of anxiety neurosis. Phobic disorders include agoraphobia (which usually occurs in the context of panic disorder), social phobia, and the so-called specific phobias, e.g. for animals (snakes, spiders) or specific situations (elevators, airplanes). Finally, obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) have been classified as anxiety disorders, again with a few residual categories for completeness’ sake. Comorbidity among anxiety disorders is high, not only for PD and agoraphobia, but also for PD and GAD, and for PD and social phobia. In addition, depressive episodes are common in anxiety disorders, and panic attacks frequently co-occur in MDD. Although this would suggest a shared predisposition and/or pathogenetic mechanism between depression and anxiety disorders, their aetiology is still insufficiently clear, with the exception of PTSD.
The person at the centre of rehabilitation
Authors: McGrath Joanna Collicutt
Published: November 2023

The last chapter was concluded with the idea that acquired brain injury (ABI) is, above all, an assault on the personal. We will now explore this idea in more detail by considering two questions. First, what it is that renders us persons; secondly what it is that renders us human persons. If ethics is about doing the right thing with respect to other persons, it is important to understand how ABI has the potential to rob the individual of recognizable human personal characteristics, so that he may seem to fall outside the scope of ethics altogether. We can slip into unethical practice when dealing with people recovering from ABI simply because we do not perceive them as fully human persons.
Renal disease
Authors: Carton James , Daly Richard , Ramani Pramila
Published: November 2023

The main function of the kidneys is the production of urine, allowing the excretion of waste products, maintenance of extracellular fluid volume, and control of acid balance. In addition, the kidneys have an endocrine function, producing the hormones renin, erythropoietin, and calcitriol (the hormonally active form of vitamin D). With so many diverse roles, it is not surprising that diseases of the kidneys can give rise to many different problems.
Eye disease
Authors: Carton James , Daly Richard , Ramani Pramila
Published: November 2023

The eye is the organ of vision, converting light waves into electrical impulses that are transmitted via the optic nerves to the optic cortex for analysis (Fig. 20.1). Many common eye diseases are intrinsic to the eye, though the eye may also be often involved in systemic diseases such as diabetes mellitus, hypertension, and Graves’ disease.
Linguistic Reconstruction
Authors: Fox Anthony
Published: November 2023

How and why are languages constantly changing? Historical lingustics seeks to find out by going beyond the history of individual languages to discover the general principles which underlie language change. But our evidence is severely limited. Most of the world's languages are still unwritten, and even in areas with long written traditions, such as Europe and the Near East, documentary evidence stretches only a little way back along the path of the historical development of languages. How, then, can we uncover our long linguistic prehistory, and what can it tell us about language change? This new textbook is an accessible general guide for students with an elementary knowledge of linguistics to the methods and theoretical bases of linguistic reconstruction, and of newer, less well established principles such as the application of linguistic universals and language typology, and quantitative techniques. Finally he reviews the principles for establishing language relationships and for uncovering information about the homelands and cultures of the prehistoric speakers of reconstructed languages.
Language Change
Authors: Culicover Peter W , Nowak Andrzej
Published: November 2023

A dynamical system is a system that evolves in time. The core of our approach to language acquisition thus far has been to account for changes in the grammatical description of an individual’s linguistic knowledge in terms of the underlying dynamical system that embodies this knowledge. The grammatical description picks out the general properties of the behaviour of this system and reflects, more or less exactly, the organization and structure of the system.
The Service Economy
Authors: Daunton Martin
Published: November 2023

In 1966, Nicholas Kaldor posed a question which troubled politicians and economists at the time: why was the growth of the British economy so slow? His answer was that Britain had already passed through the major structural transition from agriculture to manufacturing and was experiencing a second structural change: a shift from manufacturing into services. The result, Kaldor argued, was slow growth, for he assumed that the service sector had lower productivity than manufacturing. In his opinion, faster economic growth could be achieved by moving labour back into manufacturing. His approach was adopted by James Callaghan, Labour’s Chancellor of the Exchequer, who introduced a tax on employment in the service sector.
Cultures of Consumption
Authors: Daunton Martin
Published: November 2023

In 1851, consumption was a matter of survival for many— of finding enough to eat, and clothes, shelter, and heat to remain healthy. The poorest members of society had their pleasures too, from family and friends, the consolations of religion, or the sociability of the public house. But as the economy grew, more people were able to escape from the narrow constraints of mere survival (see Table 3.1). They could spend money on leisure, and might even take a holiday. The Great Exhibition and the Festival of Britain were themselves part of the economy of enjoyment— and the needs of a more affluent Britain were supplied by department and chain stores, music halls and cinemas, radio and gramophone, seaside resorts, sport, and leisure pursuits.
Taxing and Spending
Authors: Daunton Martin
Published: November 2023

‘Thereis something repulsive to human nature’, wrote Gladstone’s biographer John Morley, ‘in the simple reproduction of defunct budgets.’ Gladstone might have been surprised by Morley’s remark, for budgets were central to his political success and to the forging of the mid-Victorian consensus which removed taxation from the centre of political contention. Cobden was nearer the mark when he suggested that ‘When a government deals unjustly by the people with respect to taxation, that constitutes the whole matter of account between them.’ As Gladstone and Cobden realized, taxation was crucial to the relationship between the citizen and the state.
Education
Authors: Daunton Martin
Published: November 2023

‘The preservation of internal peace’, remarked James Kay-Shuttleworth in 1832, ‘ ... depends on the education of the working classes.’ His concern was less with the production of educated workers to benefit the economy and more with the maintenance of social order. At the time he wrote, the state provided very little in the way of financial aid to education. In England, a modest subsidy was offered from 1833 to elementary schools provided by religious societies; only in Scotland did the parishes fund a system of public education. England was a laggard during the industrial revolution in terms of student enrolment. From the 1890s, the gap closed, and by the First World War enrolment in primary schools was actually higher in England than in Scotland and Germany, which experienced declining levels of enrolment (see Table 15.1).
The English Doctrine of Precedent
Authors: Cross Rupert , Harris J W
Published: November 2023

It is a basic principle of the administration of justice that like cases should be decided alike. This is enough to account for the fact that, in almost every jurisdiction, a judge tends to decide a case in the same way as that in which a similar case has been decided by another judge. The strength of this tendency varies greatly. It may be little more than an inclination to do as others have done before, or it may be the outcome of a positive obligation to follow a previous decision in the absence of justification for departing from it. Judicial precedent has some persuasive effect almost everywhere because stare decisis (keep to what has been decided previously) is a maxim of practically universal application. The peculiar feature of the English doctrine of precedent is its strongly coercive nature. English judges are sometimes obliged to follow a previous case although they have what would otherwise be good reasons for not doing so.
Foundations of Normativism
Authors: Loughlin Martin
Published: November 2023

The foundations of the normativist style in public law are to be found in the political ideologies of conservatism and liberalism. These are strange bedfellows. Conservativism as a form of thought is traditionalist, is primarily concerned with the issue of authority and views the individual organically, as part of a social order. Liberalism is a rationalistic theory which has little regard for the past, is primarily concerned with liberty and is constructed on the assumption of the autonomy of the individual. Despite such important differences, these two political ideologies nevertheless share certain affinities with respect to their visions of law and government. It is this common core of shared understanding about law and government that provides us with an insight into the normativist style in public law. In order to reveal these foundations we must therefore examine the main tenets of conservative and liberal political thought.
Traditions of Public Law Thought
Authors: Loughlin Martin
Published: November 2023

My argument has been that the positions adopted within public law by commentators, advocates, and judges are rooted in certain categories of thought. I have identified the main styles of public law thought, which I call normativism and functionalism, in an ideal typical form. In this form these styles are inventions; they are constructed to permit us to obtain initial insights into the dominant categories of public law thought. As I suggested, these styles are fluid and that, within them, certain tensions may be evident. In order to understand them better we therefore need to examine their influence; and this process of investigation also leads to elaboration. I have first tried to show how their origins are to be found in certain political ideologies. Through this exercise we may obtain an insight into the richness of these styles. In addition to appreciating their complexity, however, we have also seen something of their internal tensions. This is hardly surprising since these styles are not fixed and intractable. Their various facets are constantly being adapted in the light of changing circumstances and requirements.
Social Security Decision Making and Appeals
Authors: Sainsbury Roy
Published: November 2023

In 1998, a new Social Security Act was passed which, among other things, established a new framework for decision making and appeals for large parts of the social security system. It has to be said that this barely provoked a flicker of interest in the media or among the public at large. Perhaps this should not surprise anyone. I low decisions are made, who makes them, and how appeals are handled seem to be dry administrative details compared with important issues such as the cuts to benefits for lone parents, also contained in the Act. And yet, decision making is important. The rules of decision making and the way they are used in practice will have a direct bearing on the outcome of a claim for benefit.
The Economics of Pre-emption and the Abuse of a Dominant Position
Authors: Sanders Anselm Kamperman
Published: November 2023

In this Chapter some economic justifications for the law of unfair competition will be discussed.1 In order to grasp these economic considerations, the economics of the statutory ‘property rule’ regimes of trade mark, patent, and copyright protection are contrasted with the economics of protection of confidential information and other forms of ‘liability rules’ that are employed to regulate competition. The effects on competition of market dominance sustained by a property or a liability rule are considered. Further attention is given to the Treaty of Rome, which forbids the abuse of such a dominant position.
Malign Competition: Action and Remedy
Authors: Sanders Anselm Kamperman
Published: November 2023

In this final Chapter an attempt is made to integrate all aspects of the action for malign competition. Factual situations will be taken from cases in order to demonstrate how the action provides a sound rationale in the assessment of liability. Consideration will also be given to the remedies that are the result of a successful action. The first part is a recapitulation of the grounds for the action in malign competition where the focus is on the action for free acceptance augmented by constructive knowledge principles to assess liability. It is also at this point where we will ask which factors must be pres ent in addition to the Baden progression to make a defendant liable. The later part is an assessment of the action on a factual case-by-case basis. The facts are taken from several cases that have been discussed in previous chapters and have been selected to display the maximum number of problems that can arise in malign competition cases.
Privacy as a Constitutional Right and Value
Authors: Barendt Eric
Published: November 2023

English common law does not recognize a general right to privacy, while Parliament has been unwilling to introduce a broad statutory right. Nor is it likely to take this step in the foreseeable future. Even within the relatively narrow context of disclosure by newspapers of personal information, it is argued the right is too difficult to define satisfactorily and that its introduction would significantly erode press freedom. Outside this context there are occasional references in judicial and political discussion to the guarantee under Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) of the ‘ right to respect for private life and correspondence’, but there is no imminent prospect of the introduction of such a right in English law, short of general incorporation of the Convention. Many commentators would accept the Younger Committee’s conclusion that a right couched in these terms would be far too broad, being little more than a reformulation of Judge Cooley’s classic, if vacuous, definition of privacy as ‘the right to be let alone’. 1 Even in the United States there is much debate about the coherence and scope of privacy.
Introduction
Authors: Susskind Richard
Published: November 2023

It is said that one of the world’s leading manufacturers of electric power tools invites its new executives to attend an induction course, at the opening session of which they are urged to consider a slide projected onto a large wall screen. The image put before them is of a gleaming electric drill and the executives are asked if this is what the company sells.
Law as Information
Authors: Susskind Richard
Published: November 2023

In Chapter One, I considered a number of thorny problems with contemporary legal systems. While I concentrated largely on the effects of these problems on social and business life, it is easily seen that the same difficulties can also be assessed in terms of information. For example, hyperregulation refers to legal information being of unmanageable quantity and complexity. Lack of promulgation means that certain legal information is not disseminated adequately and then made available to those who need it.
Express Coaching: Privatization, Incumbent Advantage, and the Competitive Process
Authors: Thompson David , Whitfield ANN
Published: November 2023

The deregulation of express coach services, implemented in October 1980, has resulted in profound changes in this industry—some of them expected but some almost wholly unexpected. The significant scale of market entry which followed immediately after deregulation, and the associated reduction in real price levels, can both be counted as expected outcomes. More surprising has been the success which the main incumbent—National Express—achieved in fighting entry, the large share of the deregulated market which it was able to sustain, and the rising trend in real price levels after 1982. These unexpected outcomes have been examined in several studies (see Jaffer, for example, Jaffer and Thompson 1986; Davis 1984) and these point to various advantages of incumbency which enabled National Express (NE) to successfully meet the threat of market entry. Such advantages included exclusive access to major coach terminals, an established brand name, an extensive marketing network, and a weak bankruptcy constraint, arising from NE’s status as a subsidiary of the public-sector National Bus Company (NBC).
Regulatory Reform in Higher Education in the UK: Incentives for Efficiency and Product Quality
Authors: Cave Martin , Dodsworth Ruth , Thompson David
Published: November 2023

The last decade has seen a series of significant changes in the funding, organization, and regulation of higher education in the UK. Whilst the objectives and motivations of the changes in higher education have been multifaceted (see, for example, Kogan and Kogan 1983), it seems clear that they share some common goals with the wider programme of public-sector reforms—goals motivated by concern with the contribution which the (then) public-sector institutions could make to the health of the UK economy and shaped by a belief that these institutions were failing to perform effectively (see, for example, Moore 1983). It was suggested variously that the public-sector bodies were poorly managed, lacked clear objectives, or had been captured by their work-forces.
Privatization and Regulation of the Water Industry in England and Wales
Authors: Cowan Simon
Published: November 2023

The ten water authorites in England and Wales were privatized in1989. This was the third privatization of network utilities following the sales of British Telecom in 1984 and British Gas in 1986. These three industries have many characteristics in common but there are some special features of the water industry which make the study of its regulatory regime of particular interest. These include the possibility of some form of yardstick competition, the importance of quality and environmental regulation, the danger of underinvestment, and the possible introduction of metering.