bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Form and Function of the Meditations
Authors: Rutherford R B
Published: November 2023

Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, emperor and philosopher, has generally been approached and criticised in terms of one or other of these roles. In consequence, Marcus the writer, through whom we have our most intimate knowledge of both, has suffered from a surprising neglect. From the historians his campaigns in Germany, his legal rulings as preserved in the Digest, and his behaviour concerning the Christians have received due attention, and in some recent work there have been attempts to reinstate the Meditations and their author in the cultural history of the period. Much, however, still remains to be done. On the philosophic side, Marcus finds a place in all accounts of late Stoicism.
The First Book: Literary and Cultural Background
Authors: Rutherford R B
Published: November 2023

The first and shortest book of the Meditations differs in character entirely from the rest of the collection. It consists of seventeen chapters of roughly increasing length, stating the debts which the emperor feels that he owes to his relations, his teachers and friends, and finally to his adoptive father, the emperor Antoninus Pius (ch. 16), and to the gods (ch. 17). Further remarkable Characteristics, such as the extreme selectiveness of these accounts, and the peculiarity of some of the items singled out, will become evident later; but this much will suffice to show the strangeness of Marcus’ enterprise. There is quite simply nothing else like Book I of the Meditations in the whole of classical literature. Even its links with the rest of the work have never been very satisfactorily established. When this has been said, however, a number of qualifications are in order. It is certain that the first book cannot be said to belong to any of the regular categories of ancient writing. But in the first chapter, when considering the rest of the collection, we concluded that although unparalleled as a whole, it had many affinities with more familiar genres.
The Veteres (HMBOV) and Associates
Authors: Diggle James
Published: November 2023

In an attempt to assess the value of HMBOV, relative to each other, I have tabulated all the readings in which one or more of HMBOV (or Va, where Vis missing) disagree with the others. The number of readings is 781; His present for 300 of these.6 In classifying readings as right or wrong, I use my own judgement. Since the number of readings at issue is sufficiently large, a few disputable judgements ought not to distort the overall picture.
Θ
Authors: Diggle James
Published: November 2023

There exists a class, which I shall call Θ, consisting of AbFMnPrR SSa. This class may be subdivided into three pairs: FSa; AbR; MnS. Pr is a twin of Sa for about 400 lines; for the rest of the play it adheres now to FSa, now to AbR, now to MnS.
GBgE
Authors: Diggle James
Published: November 2023

gB is present for 121, gE for 406 lines or parts oflines. Their value for the editor of Orestes is negligible.’ Neither offers a true reading unknown to the other manuscripts, with one exception: 1I14 ωc gE, coni. Wecklcin (see Willink). I regard this as a happy slip, since gnomologies have no reliability in the transmission of connecting words at the beginning of the line.2 Neither gB nor gE shows any dear relationship with a single manuscript or group of manuscripts. Here arc the more notable agreements:
Colometry
Authors: Diggle James
Published: November 2023

The Alexandrian colometry can usually be recovcred.1 When our manuscripts agree in rational colometry, this colometry is presumably the ancient one. When (less commonly) they agree in demonstrably false colometry, we cannot be sure whether the fault lies with them or with the Alexandrian metrician. But more often than not it will lie with them; and sometimes they are convicted of error by the evidence of papyri.
Comparisons, Assumptions, and the Concept of ‘Shape’
Authors: Todd S C
Published: November 2023

The word ‘law’ in English is used in at least two different ways: lay people tend to refer to it in the plural or with the indefinite article, speaking of ‘the laws’ or of ‘a law’; lawyers tend instead to be interested in ‘law’ or ‘the law’. This is a crucial distinction. ‘The laws’ are conceived of by the laity as a series of individual rules or enactments, but ‘the law’ in the lawyer’s sense is more than simply the sum of these rules: it is characteristic of ‘the law’ that it should take the form of a coherent system, in which the individual ‘laws’ should find their place.
The Shaping of Athenian Law
Authors: Todd S C
Published: November 2023

The aims of this book have already been introduced at the end of Chapter 2. No attempt will be made to deal exhaustively with the interpretation of every disputed question, although the book does seek to cover the full breadth of the subject. Our focus throughout will be on the concept of ‘shape’: we shall be exploring how, and how effectively, Athenian law made and makes sense when viewed as a system. The second and third sections of the book will deal first with procedural and then with substantive law. Before examining these subjects in detail, however, it seems sensible first to draw together the three main themes that will recur throughout the body of this book. These, it will be argued, are the principal characteristics of Athenian law; and it is these which will furnish the essential shape of what follows.
Personal Status
Authors: Todd S C
Published: November 2023

At some time in the early fourth century, an anonymous client of Lysias delivered a speech against an otherwise unknown man called Pankleon. The manuscript title for the speech may roughly be translated as follows: ‘[prosecution] against Pankleon, because (or ‘showing that’) he was not a citizen of Plataia’. Plataia was a small polis and an ally of Athens, which had been destroyed by its mighty neighbour Thebes early in the Peloponnesian War (431-404 BC), and was not to recover its independence until 386. Out of gratitude for services rendered (and in particular for their unique military assistance at the battle of Marathon in 490), Athens rewarded Plataian refugees during their period of exile with a rare privilege: Athenian citizenship. If Pankleon was therefore a Plataian, then in law he was to be treated as an Athenian not as a foreigner.
Relations within the Polis
Authors: Todd S C
Published: November 2023

Lysias’ speech Against Theomnestos (Lys. 10) is the climax of an extensive and intriguing series of trials which between them supply much of our evidence about the treatment of defamation and verbal abuse in Athenian law. To describe it as the ‘climax’ may indeed be misleading: since we have no evidence outside this speech for any of the stages in the sequence, there is therefore no compelling reason to believe that the quarrel was finally settled at this hearing, whatever its outcome.
Introduction
Authors: George Judith w.
Published: November 2023

Venantius Fortunatus is a poet who has provoked strong critical reaction. Curtius’s assessment was that he was one of the major literary figures of the early medieval period. For Dill, on the contrary, he was ‘a decadent alike in style and morals’. Some modern scholars also have followed Koebner in relegating Fortunatus’ verse to the depths of triviality, as poesie d’ameublement.
Fortunatus: Poet and Person
Authors: George Judith w.
Published: November 2023

The irony of informal occasional verse is that, for all its appearance of intimacy, it can erect an impenetrable barrier of elegant trivia which distances a reader as effectively from the poet himself as do the most public utterances. This, however, is not invariably the case with Fortunatus. His poems to various patrons such as Iovinus and Felix, and in particular to Gregory, Radegund, and Agnes, allow us to glimpse interests and friendships of significance to the poet. We can surely conclude that he was not merely a bread-and-butter writer, earning a living by technical mastery-a shrewd politician, but one with no heartfelt interest in his craft. The way in which his verse warms into life, passion, and humour when he has a patron who really appreciates the skill and the tradition behind his writing, conveys enthusiasm and innate humanity. And it must be significant that it was only for patrons, but not for good friends, that Fortunatus wrote his epitaphs; the greatest loss was not to be expressed in so public a fashion. While we can come close to him as a person in such pieces, there are two poems we have not yet considered which cast a particular light on Fortunatus’ role as a poet and on the change in his standing in Merovingian court circles over the years.
Rome And Persia
Authors: Isaac Benjamin
Published: November 2023

Much has been written about the motives for individual Roman campaigns against Parthia, later Persia, and there is no agreement. This is not surprising, given the fact that even the origins of the Second World War have been a subject of debate. Roman policy in the East in general reminds one of a statement made in another context:

This is a pronouncement made by Prince Alexander Gorchakov,. Russian foreign minister in 1864, cited in a recent book about Afghanistan and the Soviet Union.
The Army Of The Principate: An Army Of Occupation
Authors: Isaac Benjamin
Published: November 2023

The last chapter was concerned with the internal situation in Judaea, Arabia, and Southern Syria. Various forms of unrest, banditry, and resistance were described in an effort to identify the problems of security which the Romans faced in this area. The information was derived from literary sources. Through the perspective thus gained we shall now attempt to describe the organization and aims of the Roman forces in the area. These can be traced only, if at all, if we reach a partial understanding of the local security situation and critically combine various sources, literature, epigraphy, and material remains, even though these do not allow of an easy synthesis. At II times the possibility of changes in the security situation and, hence, of the aims of the army in the area, must be allowed for. An effort is made to offer an analysis of all relevant information, leaving aside ambiguous or uncertain material; and at the same time there is some discussion of the methodology of combining historical and archaeological information. Chapter III deals with the army of the principate, Chapter IV with that of the later empire.
The army of the fourth Century
Authors: Isaac Benjamin
Published: November 2023

This chapter will continue the theme of Chapter III. The relevant information on army organization will be analysed in an attempt to gain a better understanding of the function of the troops. During the late third and early fourth centuries, in the reigns of the tetrarchs and of Constantine, a major reorganization is known to have taken place. We shall have to consider both the nature of the reform and the change in the distribution of the. troops in the east, notably the increased army presence in the desert. Numerous relatively small installations can be dated to this period. Their function will be discussed. The interpretation proposed, like other opinions expressed in this book is closely connected with the interpretation of the concept ‘limes’ proposed in a recent paper and briefly restated in Chapter IX. It is argued that limes nowhere means ‘defended frontier’ and never denotes any physical form of military organization. For the period under discussion, the fourth century, it can easily be shown that limes is an administrative concept. It means ‘frontier district’ and refers to an area under the military (as distinct from the civil) command of a dux limit is. This has important consequences for our understanding of the military organization in districts called limites, as attested in the provinces of Palaestina and Arabia. If a limes is not a defended frontier it is no longer necessary to interpret the military installations in such an area as connected with frontier defence and we are free to consider other hypotheses.
Enemies And Allies After septimius severus
Authors: Isaac Benjamin
Published: November 2023

The conquest of northern Mesopotamia by the Roman empire at the end of the second century had many consequences, notably an increase in tension which resulted in a century of intensive warfare. The Parthian dynasty was succeeded by the Sassanids, a development which was accompanied by changes in religion, government, and society.in Persia. In the middle of the third century, for the first time in almost three hundred years, the eastern Roman provinces were overrun by enemy forces. It is not intended to recount the history of the relationship between Rome and Persia during the centuries following the Roman expansion east of the Euphrates in the second century, but to describe changes that occurred between the third and sixth centuries.
Urbanization
Authors: Isaac Benjamin
Published: November 2023

What was merely a natural assumption for Gibbon became a certainty for many others. Yet Gibbon does not really say anything in support of his hypothesis. Augustus rebuilt Rome in marble, but Rome is a special case. ‘Scarcely had the proud structure of the Coliseum been dedicated at Rome, before edifices of a smaller scale indeed, but of the same design and materials, were erected for the use, and at the expense, of the cities of Capua and Verona. The inscription of the stupendous bridge of Alcantara attests that it was thrown over the Tagus by the contribution of a few Lusitanian communities.’Gibbon then devotes two pages to the munificence of Herodes Atticus, the wealthy Athenian, before returning to public buildings erected by the emperors in the city of Rome. He is careful in noting who paid for the work in Rome and who did so in the provinces. ‘The public .monuments with which Hadrian adorned every province of the empire were executed not only by his orders, but under his immediate inspection.’ Here, however, Gibbon does not say Hadrian paid for the work.
Achamians
Authors: Parker L P E
Published: November 2023

Dicaeopolis and Lamachus: Iamhic, with resolution and syncopation, perhaps dochmiac. Then Dicaeopolis and chorus using iambic tetrameters. Cretics are much used in the early plays of Aristophanes, but in none do they predominate as in Achamians. It is at least highly plausible that the poet felt the rhythm to be not only suitable to comic dance but particularly suitable to the fierce and virile old men of this chorus.
Knights
Authors: Parker L P E
Published: November 2023

With few characters and little diversity of incident, Knights depends heavily on the interchange of speech, song, and recitative for variety and pace. The first, second, fourth and fifth songs are in metres predominant in Ach.: cretic, trochaic, and iambic, with a few dactyls. Dochmiacs are absent from the play: neither the chorus nor any of the characters gives way to the kind of uncontrolled emotion typically expressed in that metre.
Peace
Authors: Parker L P E
Published: November 2023

Trygaeus’ children (114-18). Dactylic hexameter parody will figure largely later in the play. The main action from the entrance of the chorus to the rescue of Peace is marked off by recurrences of the same stanza-form, at 346ff., 385ff. and 582ff. The stanza combines trochees and cretics, so that these are the rhythms that dominate the first half of the play. Between the first and second antistrophae, the two attempts to rescue Peace are accompanied by songs (463ff.=49off. and 512ff.) which combine anapaestic, iambic, and (in the first song) cretic in different proportions. The parabasis comes in two parts, 729-818 and 112.7-90, and each part has its own parabasis-song which is quite distinct metrically from the songs which belong to the action of the play. The first parabasis-song, 775ff.=796ff., uses metres of tragedy and high lyric for a complex combination of allusion and parody.
Birds
Authors: Parker L P E
Published: November 2023

In Birds Aristophanes seems to have set out to dazzle his audience with a display of metrical and musical virtuosity. Here, in consequence, we face most painfully our inability to appreciate what he was doing, except theoretically and intellectually. The repeated use of certain rhythms with structural and thematic functions, which is so common a feature of Aristophanes’ plays, is absent here.
General Introduction
Authors: Silk M S
Published: November 2023

The essays that make up this book are new. They are the work of classical scholars, largely though not exclusively. They centre on Greek tragedy and the qualities that make Greek tragedy what it is; at the same time, they bear on tragedy as a whole and the qualities that make tragedy as a whole what it is. There is a good deal here about more recent drama, from Shakespeare to Beckett (but especially Shakespeare). There is much reference to theory, and much discussion—and use—of theoretical perspectives, from Nietzsche to Heidegger, from the Romantics to the post-structuralists, from Vernant to Northrop Frye, from Carol Gilligan to Rene Girard, from Aristotle to Brecht (but especially Aristotle). There is an out-ward-looking spirit to the discussions, individually or in their cross-relations, which explains the subtitle of the book: Greek Theatre and Beyond.
Is there a Polis in Aristotle’s Poetics?
Authors: Hall Edith
Published: November 2023

Yet such an identification, though widely assumed, poses a considerable problem. At no point does Aristotle specify the nature or constituency of his imagined theatrical audience. More importantly, no amount of special pleading can alter the fact that the Poetics goes against the grain of all previous discussions of tragedy in virtually excising from the genre not only the Athenian democratic polis, but also the very abstract notion of a polis, and of the civic context, consciousness, and function of tragic drama.
Tragic Freedom and Fate in Sophocles’ Antigone: Notes on the Role of the ‘Ancient Evils’ in ‘the Tragic’
Authors: Mogyoródi Emese
Published: November 2023

On the basis of the thesis indicated above, I could be expected to argue for the pervasiveness of necessity, as opposed to freedom, in Greek tragedy. But the case is quite the contrary: I agree with Dodds in considering the ‘necessity versus freedom’ debate a debate about false alternatives, but I wish to stress the importance of both the ‘ancient evils’ (unlike Dodds) and yet also the element of freedom. The Greeks were well aware of superhuman forces of causation, striking at the very heart of human endeavours, yet ‘vigorous, self-assertive, emulous, ambitious, they pursued their aims in some confidence that they could attain them. And freedom, as individuals and as communities, they valued above most other things. ’ I do not think it would be much of an overstatement to say they valued freedom above all. By exploring in what way freedom is operative despite the inevitable workings of some external determination, I hope to provide reinstatement for freedom, as against views that overemphasize the determination.
Family and Friends
Authors: Mcdowell A G
Published: November 2023

Some of the most charming documents from Deirel-Medina are letters between family and friends, which are full of information about the concerns of and relations between the villagers as well as about individual styles of expression and use of language-especially by women, whose voices are seldom heard in the rest of the textual record. But even where the letters do not contain information that is directly useful to the social historian, they furnish glimpses of the personalities of the villagers that help to flesh out the drier accounts and official journals. Unfortunately, the most personal letters are also the most tantalizing, because they refer casually to people and events known to the correspondents but not to us. Some 470 letters from Deir el-Medina are preserved, of which we can present only a few; the interested reader may wish to consult Edward Wente ‘s Letters from Ancient Egypt, which includes translations of 175 texts from the village.
Education, Learning, and Literature
Authors: Mcdowell A G
Published: November 2023

The literary texts from Deir el-Medina include works of which no other copies are known and also give these and more familiar literary texts a well-documented setting from which it is possible to recon struct something of the use and ownership of belles lettres by the villagers. No other Egyptian community offers us this opportunity. This chapter will focus on literary and scholarly works in their context, that is, on works used for educational purposes, works collected by individuals to be read for pleasure, and above all, works composed by the villagers themselves.
Barbarian Economy and Society
Authors: Elton Hugh
Published: November 2023

In the late fourth century AD various barbarian, in the sense of non-Roman, tribes lived on the borders of the Roman Empire in Europe. The orthodox view of these barbarians, partially rejected here, sees the small Germanic tribes known from the first century combining into large confederations in the third century. Thus the Bructeri, Chatti, etc., were replaced by the Franks on the lower Rhine. These Franks were distinct socially and politically from the Saxons to the east and the Alamanni to the south. On account of their size, these confederations posed a greater danger than their predecessors to the Roman Empire. Though the first wave of attacks in the third century was eventually defeated, continuing invasions in the fourth and fifth centuries inevitably overloaded the defences of the Empire. This allowed barbarian tribes to move into the Empire, a movement encouraged by pressure from the tribes further east, such as the Huns.
Conclusion
Authors: Elton Hugh
Published: November 2023

This book has covered the period 350-425, a period in which no one could imagine that the Roman Empire was in any danger of failing. Yet, only fifty years later, the Western Empire was tottering on the verge of collapse, and the last Western Emperor, Romulus Augustulus, was deposed in 476. This book has said much about how the Roman army worked before this, but does not attempt to explain the collapse.
Introduction
Authors: Brosius Maria
Published: November 2023

This book discusses Greek attitudes towards the royal women of the Achaemenid court (559-33r ec). It also attempts to look at the position of royal and non-royal women from a Near Eastern view point by examining the evidence of the Fortification texts from Persepolis and Neo-Babylonian texts.
Royal Women and the Achaemenid Court
Authors: Brosius Maria
Published: November 2023

Greek sources concentrate in their description of Achaemenid royal women on their activities at the court. The way the actions of these women were described shapes our understanding of their role at court, and the influence they might have had on the court. To what extent were their activities understood by the Greeks? Were they judged from a Greek point of view or did Greek writers see their actions in the context of the cultural background of the Persian court? It is crucial to examine the descriptions of the indi vidual actions of women since this will help us to clarify perceptions of the Persian court. We need to consider whether the Greek historical narrative used female figures in particular ways. Do the descriptions of women offered by these authors fall into patterns which would suggest women were assigned stereotypical roles for the sake of the narrative development?
Women and the Economy of Achaemenid Persia
Authors: Brosius Maria
Published: November 2023

Judging from the Greek sources the wealth of Achaemenid royal women was well known. Herodotus recalls that the Egyptian town Anthylla provided the king’s wife with shoes (2. 98. r). In Alcibiades l Plato refers to the vast amount of property owned by the mother of the Persian king, Amestris (Ale. l r21c-123cd). Xenophon mentions the estates of Parysatis in Syria from which she supplied the rebellious troops of her son Cyrus in his revolt against Artaxerxes II (an. I. 4. 9). It was also known that Parysatis owned villages in Media (an. 2. 4. 27; Lewis 1977: 22 and n. u3). Accordingly we have to assume that the peasants and craftsmen of these villages were officially in Parysatis’ service. When Parysatis was banned from the Persian court and moved lo Babylon, she presumably took up residence on her estates (Plut. Art. 19. 10).
Separation and Single Life
Authors: Arjava Antti
Published: November 2023

As we have seen, the young age of Roman girls at marriage was typical of the Mediterranean family pattern. Consequently, extended youth, so characteristic of modern western society, was virtually non-existent in Rome; the girl left her childhood as she married. On the other hand, as mortality in general was high and especially as husbands were so much older, wives were often, and relatively early, widowed. The independence of married women may have varied in the course of history, and there were even more important differences between individual wives. The most essential distinction, how ever, has always been that between married and unmarried women. A wife has lived, at least to some extent, in the shadow of her husband. The end of the marriage—whether she wanted it or not—has usually led to a new autonomy and direct dealings with the rest of the society.
Sexual Relations outside Marriage
Authors: Arjava Antti
Published: November 2023

Marriage is not the only way to satisfy sexual needs. However, for women it has usually been the only one which has been legally and morally accepted—except when they have been reserved for the common use of several men as prostitutes or slaves. In sexual morals the inequality of males and females appears most clearly. On this question the Christian church claimed to advocate a radically novel view. Its influence on late ancient society will be examined in the following sections.
Introduction: Chronologies and Cultural Change in Egypt
Authors: Shaw Ian
Published: November 2023

All history is clearly reliant on some form of chronological framework, and a great deal of time has been spent on the construction of such dating systems for ancient Egypt. Ever since the first Western-style history of Egypt was written by an Egyptian priest called Manetho in the third century BC, the ‘pharaonic period’, from c.3100 to 332 BC, has been divided into a number of periods known as ‘dynasties’, each consisting of a sequence of rulers, usually united by such factors as kinship or the location of their principal royal residence. This essentially political approach has served very well over the years as a way of dividing up Egyptian chronology into a series of convenient blocks, each with its own distinctive characteristics. It is, however, becoming increasingly difficult to reconcile this politically based chronology with the social and cultural changes revealed by excavations since the 1960s.
The Iconography of Roman Childhood
Authors: Rawson Beryl
Published: November 2023

Philippe Aries’s 1960 book on childhood in pre-Revolutionary France1 opened a new era in the historical study of children and childhood. His use of artistic representations of children was dramatically new, and his main thesis—that there had been no real concept of childhood before the seventeenth century—dominated the field for almost thirty years. Recently there have been reassessments of this thesis, but although later scholars have modified the thesis the importance of iconographic evidence is fully accepted (and the difficulties recognized).
The Organization of the Roman Army 60 BC-AD 200
Authors: Goldsworthy Adrian Keith
Published: November 2023

The theme of this book is the behaviour and methods of operation of the Roman army. Later chapters will deal with the way the army moved on campaign, the strategy it adopted and how it fought the enemy in battle. If all these aspects are to be properly understood, it is first vital to examine the army’s organization, since this affected all of its activities. This chapter describes the development of the army’s unit structure during this period.
The Opposition
Authors: Goldsworthy Adrian Keith
Published: November 2023

The organization of the Roman army played a great part in determining its conduct on campaign. In the next chapter I shall discuss Roman strategy and methods of operation. It is important to remember the obvious fact that there must be at least two sides in any conflict. The organization and methods of operation of the armies of Rome’s enemies must have influenced the course of a campaign fought against them. We must study the military institutions of Rome’s opponents before we can hope to understand fully Roman strategy.1 During our period the Roman army fought against a great range of opponents, however, virtually no information has survived for many of these armies. I intend to discuss the armies of the three bestdocumented opponents that faced Rome in this period. These are the Germans, Gauls, and Parthians. The differences between the warfare of these peoples may suggest something of the overall variety of opponents faced by Rome.
The General’s Battle
Authors: Goldsworthy Adrian Keith
Published: November 2023

The principles of strategy and tactics, and the logistics of war are really absurdly simple: it is the actualities that make war so complicated and so difficult, and are usually neglected by historians. The primary purpose of any army is to defeat the enemy in battle. This is true, even if few of its soldiers ever experience battle directly. This section examines the nature of a battle in this period, and looks at the way in which the Roman army did, or did not, function on such occasions. The Roman army possessed a clearly defined hierarchy of officers, at the head of which was the general, who sought to control and co-ordinate the army during a battle. Potentially, this position enabled the general to influence the course of the fighting more than any other individual. This chapter discusses the role of the commander in determining the outcome of a battle.
The Unit’s Battle
Authors: Goldsworthy Adrian Keith
Published: November 2023

Having looked at the battlefield role of the general and his immediate subordinates, in this chapter I shall examine the fighting from the perspective of the individual unit, the cohort or ala. There have been many studies of the unit tactics of the Roman army, often in conjunction with the examinations of generalship discussed in the last chapter. Delbriick attempted to explain in detail how the legion, based on the maniple and later the cohort, worked in battle, dealing with equipment, formations, and tactics.1 Other scholars have adopted a similar approach, whilst differing on the minutiae of these aspects.2 The ancient sources were often ambiguous or silent concerning points of minor tactics, allowing room for debate. Most scholars, such as Keppie, have assumed that ancient authors believed that their audience had full knowledge of these aspects of military practice, and so did not deal with it. They have not considered the possibility that ancient authors did not consider tactics to have been important.3 Von Domaszewski doubted that the battle tactics of the legions of the Principate could ever be reconstructed, given the lack of technical detail in the literary sources after Caesar.
The Individual’s Battle
Authors: Goldsworthy Adrian Keith
Published: November 2023

For the vast majority of men the instincts of fear and self-preservation were naturally stronger than aggressive impulses. As a result, the formation of a unit was as much dictated by the need to prevent its members from running away from any perceived threat, as by the practical considerations of manreuvre and weapons. use. Other factors were also of great importance in allowing a soldier to cope with the stress of battle. Leadership, training, discipline, and esprit de corps could all have contributed to this. The morale of the soldier, which was the product of all these factors, as well as of those peculiar to the situation, was of crucial importance in determining how he behaved as an individual, and collectively as part of a unit. In many situations the actions of a very few individuals, be they the men who led the way and went forwards when an attack had stalled or the men who hacked their way into an enemy formation, could decide the result of an action. Therefore examination of the individual’s motivation is crucial to our understanding of a battle.1 However, few scholars have attempted to study the morale of the Roman army. MacMullen noted, in an article, that .an attempt to understand anything so romantic as the soul of a soldier has, I think, yet to be made..2 In the same article he discussed the importance of comradeship and esprit de corps in the motivation of legionaries. Otherwise scholars have largely ignored morale.
Theseus and the Suppliants
Authors: Mills Sophie
Published: November 2023

In Euripides’ Suppliants, most explicitly of all the tragedies in which he appears, Theseus is presented as the representative of the city of Athens and as the mouthpiece for certain modes of thought and behaviour which belong to the idealized Athens of the encomia discussed in the previous chapter. After the failure of Polynices’ expedition against Thebes, in which the Seven against Thebes fell before the city walls, the Theban victors refused to allow their bodies to be buried, or to be returned to the Argives for burial. Thus the Argive king, Adrastus, comes to Theseus at the start of the play and asks him to help him retrieve them. Although at first Theseus refuses to do so, on the grounds that Adrastus’ expedition was grounded in his ill-counsel and impiety (Supp. I 10-249), his mother Aethra persuades him to change his mind by reminding him of his duty as an Athenian (Supp. 297-364). At this point, a herald from Thebes arrives: their encounter comprises a debate concerning the respective merits of tyranny and democracy (399-462), followed by an exposition of the rights and wrongs surrounding the burial of the dead (Supp. 465-563). Theseus is not cowed by the herald’s insistence that he should not interfere in what is not his business, and fulfils his promise to Adrastus by going off to fight the Thebans for the return of the dead. After anxious speculation from the chorus over the outcome of his expedition (Supp. 598-633), a messenger returns from the battlefield with the good news that Theseus has won the battle.
Taking the Woman’s Part: Gender and Scholarship on Love Elegy
Authors: Wyke Maria
Published: November 2023

When a woman writes herself into the genre of Roman love elegy she appears to break the recognized conventions for its production, according to which woman is generally the mistress over whom the male ego has erotic and poetic mastery, the passive object of erotic desire not its active subject, the written not the writer. In discussing the elegiac poetry composed by Sulpicia, one means by which critics have expressed her extraordinary achievement has been to engender Roman love elegy. For Nick Lowe, Sulpicia’s unique intervention was to compose poetry on the subject of her own erotic experience in ‘an obstinately male genre’.
Meretrix Augusta: Messalina 1870s–1920s
Authors: Wyke Maria
Published: November 2023

A lustful empress reclines in a steaming bath. Sliding her hands up over her body—naked but for the ropes of pearls that dangle from her hair—she stares directly out of the cinema screen. A Roman soldier announces to her his love for a Christian girl, as she warns of the seductive pleasure revenge can bring. Next the beloved girl is seized and dragged away, while the empress smirks sadistically in extreme close-up. On her imperial command a gladiator vigorously twists his trident into another’s body, before Christian girl and Roman soldier walk serenely to their death through the corpse-strewn arena.
Entertaining Arguments: Terence, Adelphoe
Authors: Henderson John
Published: November 2023

Terence is Latin Literature’s second author, from the generation after Plautus, and the only other Roman comedy-writer to survive. His work behaves itself, and, as we shall see, helps teach manners. Adelphoe, his most famous play, is well preserved, with an ancient commentary, no less, and authentic details about the occasion it was first written for, a day in the history of Rome we know remarkably well. The script acts out national celebration and commemoration of a major player in the extension of the empire east into the Greek sphere, delivering the best that Athenian theatre can offer to make a Roman funeral. Terence over determines the wake with both seriousness and guying of seriousness on-stage, together with a carefully orchestrated ambush of the audience. So Adelphoe points straight to the people and the issues at the heart of Rome, as this comic plot looks inside the city, within the structure of the domus, and turns the spotlight on the roles of paterfamilias and adulescens. Their interaction we can dub ‘education’, for the traditionalist ideology of Rome held fathers responsible for their sons, impressing the past on to posterity.
Who’s Counting?—Catullus by Numbers
Authors: Henderson John
Published: November 2023

Roman Comedy played before the people as theatre classics, until their adoption by elite education. The second pair of poets of the Republic we can read wrote in the SOs: Lucretius’ philosophical epic hammering our lives of childish folly with reason survives in just one MS, vulnerable to propriety whether pagan or Christian; and some gentleman of Verona preserved the sole copy of his local hero’s miscellany of a hundred plus, more or less indecorous, poems: Catullus my friend across twenty centuries Anxious to complete your lechery before Christ came? More to the point: before the Caesars came—Cisalpine Verona would acquire Roman citizenship early in 49 when the territory of Italy was extended so that Julius couldn’t have just invaded his country by crossing the Rubicon. Catullus’ poetry crowds out the wide world of the lowering cosmopolis, Imperial Rome.
Horace, Odes 3.22 and the Life of Meaning: Stumbling and stampeding out of the woods, Blinking and screaming into the light, Snorting and gorging at the trough, Slashing and gouging at the death
Authors: Henderson John
Published: November 2023

Montium custos nemorumque uirgo quae laborantis utero puellaster uocat(a) audis adimisque leto diua triformis imminens uillae tua pious esto quam per exactos ego laetus annos uerris obliquum meditantisictumsanguine donem.
Satire Writes Woman: Gendersong
Authors: Henderson John
Published: November 2023

Satire is not ‘about’ women (or even ‘Woman’). But it is tied into social discourse on gender. If you ask me, feminism has it knocked into a cocked hat. In this introductory chapter, I will (satirically) plunge straight into disabling double-bind; the remaining three chapters of Part III will set about worming their way off the hook.
Be Alert (Your Country Needs Lerts): Horace, Satires 1. 91
Authors: Henderson John
Published: November 2023

This chapter returns to the triumviral traumas of the 30s, focusing on the last piece proper in Horace’s first poetry collection, Satires 1, just the retrospective epilogue to come. In this poem 9 (too lengthy to reproduce here), Horace writes down an anecdote starring Horace, which also releases a controlled ‘leak’ from the palace (of Octavian Caesar’s closest associate Maecenas); and leaves readers an ironical but pithy reflection on buttonholing and social climbing, as moral(ized) vademecum—the kit a networker needs to negotiate the bailing circuitry of power at Rome. This text, besides, composes a poetic (of ‘anti-aesthetic’ plebeian vigour adapting Callimachean angularity and litotes, not without paradox). But this is also programmed as Satire, made from the dia-logic-al exchange of sermo, the conversational interaction presented within the story. And in the political stake of its legibility are wagered the purchase of discourse and conversation analysis, pragmatics, narratology, new rhetoric, social semiotics, patronage theory, and a welter of cultural history concerns and techniques.
Homeric Epic: The Greeks and the Rational?
Authors: Hershkowitz Debra
Published: November 2023

In Iliad 6, Glaucus tells the story of his ancestor Bellerophon, an exile who accomplished a series of labours and won a bride and a country.But when he too became hateful to all the gods, he wandered alone along the Alean plain, eating his heart out, avoiding the tracks of men. (II. 6.200-2)While the passage does not actually describe Bellerophon as mad, later on the Homeric1 Bellerophon becomes a paradigmatic example of the madman.
Writing and society in early Egypt
Authors: Baines John
Published: November 2023

Egyptian writing appeared first in the late fourth millennium BCE, evolving thereafter in stages, until in the later 2nd dynasty the script reached a more or less definitive structure that was applied in some contexts to the notation of continuous language. During this period of perhaps four hundred years, writing was a very limited instrument. It was used both in administration and in artistic display, but there is no reason to suppose that it was intended from the first to record texts in full syntactic form. This restricted form of writing was a vital means of communication for administration and for display within the inner elite, but its impact outside those spheres was probably indirect. Administration, writing, and representational art were three central, interlinked creations of a society that evolved rapidly into a state.
Introductory note
Authors: Baines John
Published: November 2023

The studies assembled in this part address two different styles of question. ‘Theories and universals of representation’ (Ch. 9) and ‘Colour terminology and colour classification’ (Ch. 11) review issues raised by salient features of Egyptian material high culture that are also significant for cross-cultural analysis. ‘Schäfer’s mottoes and the understanding of representation’ (Ch. 10) is a note on the history of scholarship that grew out of my work on Heinrich Schäfer and exemplifies the difficulties that western art historians—in this case including Schäfer himself—have had in approaching a tradition, like that of Egypt, that has different representational conventions.
Theories and universals of representation: Heinrich Schäfer and Egyptian art
Authors: Baines John
Published: November 2023

The fundamental work on representation in Egyptian art is Heinrich Schäfer’s Von ägyptischer Kunst (English edition, Principles of Egyptian art). This solves, with outstanding success, many problems in the analysis of non-perspective pictorial representation. The book provides insights that affect the understanding of an enormous range of representational art, Egyptian or other; and this was the author’s intention, for he argued that his discoveries had important implications for the study of pictorial representation as such (xiii xxviii). These broader implications are significant for more general debates among art historians, of which many are reviewed by E. H.
Nikias and Athens
Authors: Rood Tim
Published: November 2023

Our great historian—after devoting two immortal books to this expedition—after setting forth emphatically both the glory of its dawn and the wretchedness of its close, with a dramatic genius parallel to the Oedipus Tyrannus of Sophokles—when he comes to recount the melancholy end of the two commanders, has no words to spare for Demosthenes (far the abler of the two, who perished by no fault of his own), but reserves his flowers to strew on the grave of Nikias, the author of the whole calamity.
Cruelty
Authors: Lintott Andrew
Published: November 2023

The previous examination of violence in Roman tradition and law has provided a background against which personal attitudes can become more intelligible. It is time now to centre the inquiry on the individual and his relation to his present society and past history. Our direct knowledge of Roman attitudes in the Republic depends to a very great extent on the remarks of Cicero in his speeches, philosophical works, and letters, and on those of his correspondents. At best this can help us to conceive how the mind of an upper-class politician worked: about the man in the street we are reduced to very generalized inference. However, it is the mind of the politician that provides the ultimate answer to the problem of the fall of the Republic. For it was his will which was the origin of the most atrocious and politically dangerous violence. Yet he was no revolutionary in the sense of wishing to overturn comprehensively the old order; his contact with violence was not so close and continuous that brutalization of character was only to be expected; nor finally was he under the severe economic pressure which may make life seem cheap and of little consequence.
The Nature And Techniques Of Violence
Authors: Lintott Andrew
Published: November 2023

In the last years of the Republic most of the violent incidents related in our sources were either stage-managed by a politician or purposeful acts springing from the common feeling of a mob. Caesar and Pompeius, Clodius and Milo all organized their violence for a specific end, and it was fair that their deeds were described in the language of military operations. It was also possible to have men ready to fight against any eventuality that might occur. Even when supporters were neither armed nor organized, a politician could work on a crowd’s passions and show that he encouraged violence in his interest.
States Of Emergency
Authors: Lintott Andrew
Published: November 2023

From time to time in the late Republic, when legal remedies for violence were judged to be inadequate, the so-calledsenatus consultumultimumwas passed and more drastic emergency measures were taken. Controversy over the nature and implications of this decree has not been confined to historians: there was fierce dispute among the politicians at Rome, which continued until argument took second place to civil war. It may be that the conflict of principles at the root of the Roman constitution forbade a definitive solution. The most exact formulation of the different interpretations of the decree will, however, shed light on the objects of this inquiry, the constitutional position of violence and the Roman attitude to its use.
Conclusion
Authors: Lintott Andrew
Published: November 2023

Polybius was right to hold that the Roman constitution was a mixture of monarchy, oligarchy, and democracy, but his belief that this blend was as stable as law could make it seems misguided. He ascribed to law what was in fact the product of the mos of his period. The oligarchy had gradually made the vital concessions to democracy during an era of intermittent civil strife, separated by armistices when external pressure was strong. The constitution evolved was more of a truce position than a peace settlement.
Ireland to c. 1640
Authors: Gee Austin
Published: November 2023

Cosgrove, Art. ‘Ireland’ [the new Cambridge medieval history], A4. Edwards, Nancy. ‘Early medieval Munster: summary and prospect’, A122, 200-5. Flanagan, Laurence. Ancient Ireland: life before the Celts. (Dublin: Gill & Macmillan, 1998), vii, 264p. Gillingham, John. ‘The travels of Roger of Howden and his views of the Irish, Scots and Welsh’, Anglo-Norman Studies 20 (1997), 151-69. Kew, Graham. ‘The Irish sections of Fynes Moryson’s unpublished itinerary’, Analecta Hibernica 37 (1995-96), 1-137. Lydon, James. The making of Ireland: from ancient times to the present. (London: Routledge, 1998), ix, 425p.
Ireland since c. 1640
Authors: Gee Austin
Published: November 2023

Agnew, Jean (ed.) The Drennan-McTier letters 1776-1793, volume 1, general editor Maria Luddy. (Dublin: Women’s History Project in association with the Irish Manuscripts Commission, 1998), lx, 612p. Johnson, Barry Cornish. Baronet in an earth lodge: the life of Sir St George Gore and his ‘singular adventures’ in the great West. (London: English Westerners’ Society, 1997), viii, 96p. McCabe, Ian. ‘Leaving the Commonwealth’, History Ireland 6:4 (1998), 5-7.