bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
South Asia as a Sociolinguistic Area
Authors: Ferguson Charles A
Published: November 2023

In 1956, Emeneau’s article, ‘India as a Linguistic Area’ appeared in Language, and it was followed by a number of additional studies, by Emeneau and others, of features of language STRUCTURE widely shared throughout South Asia that set that area apart from other regions of the world (e.g. Andronov 1964, Emeneau 1974, Kuiper 1967, Masica 1976, Ramanujan and Masica 1969). In all these studies the concept of Sprachbund or linguistic area was used in its established meaning of a multilingual area having languages of different families, in which many of the shared structural features are held to represent convergence that has resulted from long periods of language contact. This kind of ‘areal’ similarity that arises from mutual influences is contrasted with ‘genetic’ similarity between languages, which results from communicative continuity from a single origin at an earlier point in time. Thus, certain present day similarities between Indo-Aryan and Dravidian languages of South Asia in phonology, inflectional categories, syntax, an lexical semantics do not go back to similarities between Old lndo-Aryan and Proto-Dravidian but have resulted from lexical borrowing, Ll-L2 language transfer, and other processes operative in long term bilingualisms.
Absence of Copula and the Notion of Simplicity: A Study of Normal Speech, Baby Talk, Foreigner Talk and Pidgins
Authors: Ferguson Charles A
Published: November 2023

The purpose of this paper is to examine one feature of human language in a general typological framework in order to obtain some insights into the notion of grammatical simplicity. The feature in question is the presence in some languages, or special varieties or registers of a single language, of an overt connecting link, or COPULA, between nominal subjects and complements in equational clauses of the type X is YI as compared with the absence of such a link in other languages or other varieties of the same language. Thus, English My brother is a student and Japanese Aniwa gakkusee desu differ from Russian Moj brat student(om) or Arabic ‘Axf tilmfoun by having a copula (is, desu) which has no overt equivalent in the latter two languages. Similarly, English Your mother is outside or has gone out may correspond to baby talk Mommy bye-bye with no copula, or French La machine est grande ‘The machine is big’ corresponds to Haitian Creole Machinna gro.
Standardization as a Form of Language Spread
Authors: Ferguson Charles A
Published: November 2023

‘Language spread’ is a useful and stimulating concept that seems to orient and unify many lines of sociolinguistic research, and in this paper it will be used to organize some thoughts about the process of language standardization and the kinds of research most likely to lead to better understanding of that process. Probably like other papers at this Georgetown University Round Table on Languages and Linguistics, this paper will start from Cooper’s definition. By ‘language spread’ is meant ‘an increase over time in the proportion of a communicative network that adopts a given language or language variety for a given communicative function’ (Cooper 1982:6). By ‘language standardization’ is meant ‘the process of one variety of a language becoming widely accepted throughout the speech community as a supradialectal norm-the “best” form of the language--rated above regional and social dialects, although these may be felt to be appropriate in some domains’ (Ferguson 1966:31).
From Esses to Aitches: Identifying Pathways of Diachronic Change
Authors: Ferguson Charles A
Published: November 2023

The first great discovery of modem linguistics was that sound change tends to be regular and by tracing the pathways of particular sound changes it is possible to trace the communicative continuities in language behavior that have come to be called genetic relationship among languages. A subsequent insight was that any language variety, whether of an individual or of a social group, tends to have regularities of internal relationships and dependencies that constitute a linguistic system, different in patterned ways from the systems of all other human language varieties. Finally, in recent years, linguists have emphasized the universal characteristics of both synchronic systems and diachronic changes, characteristics that underlie or constrain the variability of human languages. Joseph Greenberg’s has been one of the clearest voices insisting on the necessary complementarity of diachronic and synchronic considerations and the importance of the empirical search for typologically based universals of human language (cf. Greenberg 1966, 1978). The present paper is an attempt to explore some aspects of sound change in the spirit of Greenberg’s theoretical position.
Then They Could Read and Write
Authors: Ferguson Charles A
Published: November 2023

My concern in this paper is with the changes in language brought about by the introduction of literacy into a society. In investigating this topic, one of the most useful research strategies available to us is the development of detailed case studies of either contemporary or historical situations in which societies become literate. In this paper, we will concern ourselves with four such instances, each of which involve the creation of a writing system appropriate to the vernacular language of a nonliterate society as part of an attempt to spread or strengthen Christianity among its members. The four cases we will consider include the development of the Armenian alphabet (by Mesrop), the Glagolitic alphabet (by Constantine), the Permian alphabet (by Stefan), and the Aleut alphabet (by Veniaminov). Each of these four cases differs from the others in the degree to which the introduction of literacy proved successful. With this in mind, each will be discussed in terms of four factors that are likely to control the path of vernacular literacy development in societies of various types and, therefore, to promote or to retard its chances for success: 1) the linguistic choices to be made; 2) the source of the literacy initiative; 3) the scope of literacy within the society; and 4) the extent of the institutional support for literacy within the society and the means employed to transmit the new literacy skills among the members of the society and from one generation to the next.
The Language Factor in National Development
Authors: Ferguson Charles A
Published: November 2023

Social scientists of various disciplines are concerned with the concept “national development”, in particular, of course, economists and political scientists, but to a lesser extent scholars in other fields. Structural linguistics, however, in spite of its concern with diachronic matters, has been resolutely opposed to any developmental or evolutionary approach in linguistic analysis. The purpose of this paper is on the one hand to suggest the relevance of “national development” for linguistic analysis and on the other hand to point to linguistic aspects of national development as it is studied by social scientists in other fields. The approach followed here has resulted from the work of the Survey of Second Language Learning in Asia, Africa, and Latin America which was carried out by the Center for Applied Linguistics in collaboration with outside specialists from the United States and other countries.
National Attitudes toward Language Planning
Authors: Ferguson Charles A
Published: November 2023

‘Language is in decline ... Something drastic is needed’. So Edwin Newman, in his best-selling book, Strictly Speaking, characterizes the language situation in America in the 1970s (Newman 1974:4-5). In making this pronouncement, Newman is expressing a widely held belief about the state of American English. The purpose of this paper is to explore such beliefs about language which are current in our nation, compare them with beliefs of other times and places, and try to understand where they come from and what social functions they serve.
Conjunctivity
Authors: Kronenfeld David B
Published: November 2023

We have already spoken of the importance for formal analytic practice of conjunctively defined definitions, whether definitions of analytic categories or features or of folk categories. In this chapter, I want first to summarize the formal reasons for this importance that have already been raised, and then to discuss work in psychology by Bruner, Goodnow, and Austin (1956) that illustrates the psychological importance of conjunctively defined categories for human thought and that somewhat narrows the psychologically relevant definition of conjunctivity from the more general mathemat ical definition. Next I will describe some classroom experiments of mine that closely relate Bruner, Goodnow, and Austin’s psychological work to Nerlove and Romney’s study (1967) of the role of conjunctivity in semantic categories. Our exploration of conjunctivity will conclude with a reconsideration of the problem that Nerlove and Romney’ findings pose for Romney and D’Andrade’s conclusions.
Prior Extensionist Work
Authors: Kronenfeld David B
Published: November 2023

In order to see how an extensionist approach contains the power but not the limitations of earlier semantic models, we will explore how traditional componential analysis (see Lounsbury 1964a, Goodenough 1956) can be treated as a special case of graded category membership analysis, which in turn can be treated as a special case of prototype/extension analysis (see Rosch 1973, Rosch et al. 1976, Coleman and Kay 1981). We then will show that there are semantic situations with which the first two kinds of analysis cannot deal, although the third can. Finally, we will sketch the outlines of what a general semantic theory of word meaning based on prototypes and extension will look like. That sketch will include a discussion of kinds of extension.
Toward a Theory of the Semantics of Words
Authors: Kronenfeld David B
Published: November 2023

The semantic theory described in the present volume offers a way to account for the well-attested flexibility with which words are used in ordinary discourse, while at the same time making clear the shared anchors to experience and the shared systematic framework that make it possible for us to understand each others’ creative usages. The theory, in the tradition of Saussure and Durkheim, situates language clearly as a collective phenomenon; clearly as an entity that inheres not in isolated individuals, but in a community. The theory, then, is concerned not only with the individual experiences and understandings that shape the learning and use of words, but, also with the social processes by which the knowledge and usage of individuals is tied together and meshed into a single collective system. This social framework not only embraces the regularities of normal established usage but also, perhaps more im portantly, the conceptual means by which novel individual creations are structured and understood and by which the collective system changes over time-whether the change represent adaptation to changed external material circumstances or to interior changes of style, interest, or perception.
Between a Rock and a Hard Place
Authors: Pascoe Peggy
Published: November 2023

From its headquarters in New York City, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) kept a wary eye on the progress of miscegenation law. As the laws began to blanket western states, each passing year brought new cause for concern. In 1909, the year the NAACP was founded, Montana, North Dakota, and South Dakota enacted their first miscegenation laws and Missouri added “Mongolians” to its existing statute. In 1911, Nevada replaced a law from the Civil War era with a broader prohibition on the marriage of “any person of the Caucasian or white race” with “any person of the Ethiopian or black race, Malay or brown race, Mongolian or yellow race, or the American Indian or red race.”
U .S.-Japanese Manufacturing Joint Ventures and Equity Relationships
Authors: Ettlie John E , Swan Peter
Published: November 2023

Recent headlines read “GM to Sell Its 50% Stake in GMF annual, a Robotics Firm, to Japanese Partner” (Wall Street Journal, June 4, 1992, Business Briefs section) and “IBM, Toshiba, Siemens to Team Up” (Ann Arbor News, July 13, 1992). The dissolution and formation of joint ventures (]Vs) in manufacturing continue to be high drama in the world competitive scene, but the reasons for formation and dissolution of these ventures are still not well understood.
A Critical Comparison
Authors: Gilbert Daniel R
Published: November 2023

“Of course we want business to be more ethical. That is simply com­ mon sense. Who could possibly argue against such a position? What politician, executive,journalist, taxi driver, or professor could resist advocating such a position? Very, very few, probably. Naturally, once we endorse this position there is little doubt about what we must do. We must expose and publicize the many instances of insider trading, toxic waste dumping, toxic waste burning, deceptive advertising, shoddy product design, shoddy product testing, questionable lending, question­ able campaign contributions, and avoidance of one obligation after another that occur repeatedly in the business world.
Auricular Confession and the Crisis in the Church
Authors: Haliczer Stephen
Published: November 2023

Fundamental to the development of auricular confession and the inclusion of penance as one of the seven sacraments of the Roman Catholic Church is the Christian concept of sinful mankind. Sin, in the sense of the commission of willfully evil acts offensive to the divine order, did not exist for the ancients. For Plato, a moral error was a mere blunder on the part of an individual who thought he was in pursuit of the good. Such a well-meaning mistake could never be offensive to God. Christianity, on the other hand, took over the notion of original sin from the Old Testament and made it into a deliberate contravention of God’s will, an opposition that manifested itself not only by external acts, but by thoughts, beliefs, and intentions.
The Spanish Inquisition and Its Jurisdiction Over Solicitation
Authors: Haliczer Stephen
Published: November 2023

Writing 131 years after Pius IV had granted the Spanish Inquisition exclusive jurisdiction over solicitation, the anonymous author of an admonition to a recently convicted curate declared that older works of canon law failed to mention penalties for solicitation because “lawmakers could not even imagine the existence of such depraved clerics and confessors.” Of course, solicitation was hardly new when Pius issued his bull of April 14, 1561. In fact, the Toledo tribunal of the Spanish Inquisition had tried a solicitation case as early as 1530. What was new was the perception on the part of Church authorities that solicitation posed a serious threat to the entire Tridentine program of revitalizing sacramentalism and expanding the authority of priests and confessors. As early as 1543, Calahorra’s reforming bishop, Juan Bernal de Luco, who was a leading member of the Spanish delegation to the Council of Trent, suggested that illicit relations between confessor and penitent should be severely punished if they became known publicly because of the danger that the sacrament itself would lose credibility. It was another prominent Spanish delegate to Trent, Pedro Guerrero, archbishop of Granada, whose 1559 memorial to Paul IV first raised the alarm about the frequency of solicitation and led directly to the bull of 1561.
Corporate Entrepreneurs and Managers, 1821-1914
Authors: Owen Thomas C
Published: November 2023

Whatever the accuracy of the bureaucratic criticism of merchants’ feeble entrepreneurship in the period of minimal corporate activity prior to the Crimean War, the perennial lack of sympathy typified by those remarks deserves attention because of constant allegations in the Soviet historical literature of a close partnership between business and the tsarist state. This essentially polemical assertion inspired suspicion on two counts. First, it merely reiterated the common criticism of capitalism that filled the prerevolutionary Bolshevik and Menshevik press. It also rested on a weak empirical foundation, Soviet historians having produced little in the way of enterprise histories and biographies of business leaders.
Giving Advice and Feedback Are Inherently Political Activities
Authors: Culbert Samuel A
Published: November 2023

The tack we’ve taken has been primarily psychological. Now it’s time to emphasize the political. This is another area where people have to develop skill and sensitivity before they can operate any model, especially a modern one, successfully. But just like psychology, it’s a specter that most have been doing their best to avoid. It’s almost as if people treat organizational politics as a low-grade virus infection, hoping that if they ignore it and think positively it will go away.
Performance Evaluation: The Capstone Event in Giving Feedback and Advice
Authors: Culbert Samuel A
Published: November 2023

It’s always struck us as a strange and amazing fact that a high percentage of managers and professionals receive direct and substantive feedback only once a year. That time, of course, is the company­ mandated annual performance appraisal and pay review. Paradoxically, it’s the precise time people are most likely to resist learning. In their minds they’ve come to negotiate next year’s pay and want to hear neither what they are doing wrong nor how they might profit from doing something differently. So there they are, trying to put their best foot forward while the person conducting the pay and performance review is trying to extract a confession that there are critical functions to be performed more effectively and essential lessons to be learned. When we see such a situation we always question the group-think that can get otherwise intelligent people to go along with such “a program.” After all, every reviewer is also a pay-review­ recipient and has firsthand reason for knowing better.
Introduction
Authors: Hoyle Susan M , Adger Carolyn Temple
Published: November 2023

Studies of language in interaction have usually examined the talk of adults. As more and more scholarly attention focuses on language socialization, we are also learning a great deal about the development of grammatical, pragmatic, and dis course abilities among preschoolers. Only recently, however, has work begun on the language practices of the intermediate group. Attention to school-age children and adolescents is essential to a complete understanding of the dimensions along which language use can vary in the social construction of everyday life across the life span. In bringing together the work of several researchers who have been investigating the linguistic and interactional practices of older children, this volume contributes to our understanding of how members of a society use their language resources.
Accommodating Friends: Niceness, Meanness, and Discourse Norms
Authors: Greenwood Alice
Published: November 2023

Preschool children, with grand insouciance, are able to explicitly announce whom they are “friends” with and whom they “hate,” as well as whom they want to play with and whom they don’t. Such alliances and allegiances are often created on the spot, simply by virtue of the spoken declaration. For example, in saying, “We don’t want to play with you,” a group bands together, asserting a common goal of ousting the “other” to non group status. Or, in saying, “We’re friends, right?” (Corsaro 1985), individual children seek to claim or reinforce their solidarity with one another. Thus, language itself can create an immediate sense of friendship.
Bodytalk: Discourses of Sexuality among Adolescent African American Girls
Authors: Emihovich Catherine
Published: November 2023

Sociolinguistics has always emphasized the critical importance of the social con text in which language use is embedded (Hymes 1974a). Recently researchers have begun to emphasize that language not only reflects context but indeed creates it (e.g., Duranti & Goodwin 1992). Of particular relevance to this chapter is the contention by Gumperz and Cook-Gumperz (1982) that social categories, such as race, gender, and class, are constructed through social interaction.
A New Generation in the White House (1993- )
Authors: Caroli Betty Boyd
Published: November 2023

On January 20, 1993, Hillary Rodham Clinton moved into the White House amid predictions that she would completely rewrite the job of First Lady. Headlines described a president’s”First Partner" who is”breaking new ground." One magazine searched the record of three administrations to fashion a composite that did her justice, finally concluding that she was a”presidential super spouse" who combined”the policy presence of an Eleanor Roosevelt [with] the sounding board of a Milton Eisenhower and the ... generalship on hard decisions that Robert F. Kennedy offered during the Cuban missile crisis of 1962." Within months, a popular magazine outlined not”The President’s First One Hundred Days" but”A Hundred Days of Hillary." The normally sedate Atlantic suggested that she was making”motherhood look good" on women’s job resumes, and the career-minded Working Woman evaluated the”ripple effect of the’Biliary’ phenomenon" on”husband-wife business relationships" across the nation." Television viewers of CNN’s popular”Sonya Live" cheerfully offered their own opinions of the First Lady’s effect on the president and on the nation.
Gynecological and Obstetrical Issues for HIV-Infected Women
Authors: Anderson Jean
Published: November 2023

Women now account for over 50,000 cases of AIDS diagnosed in the United States, representing 13% of total cumulative AIDS cases among adolescents and adults in this country. Furthermore, AIDS is now the fourth leading cause of death for U.S. women between the ages of 25 and 44 years and is the number one cause of death in certain regions of the country. Nevertheless, these statistics, as sobering as they are, both misrepresent and underestimate the reality of HIV disease today. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that some 16 million people are infected with HIV worldwide and that 7-8 million of these are women of childbearing age.

Despite evidence that the face of HIV is increasingly female, the importance of gender-specific issues and gynecological manifestations of HIV has been underrecognized and poorly studied. Fortunately, this has begun to change, and these are now major targeted areas for research nationally and internationally.
Practices and Opinions of Health-Care Providers Serving HIV-Infected Women
Authors: Kass Nancy , Faden Ruth
Published: November 2023

Since it became evident that HIV can be transmitted from mother to child through pregnancy and birth, there have been increasing calls for women to be tested for HIV and for women known to be HIV-infected either to delay or refrain from childbearing. Such calls by policy makers, clinicians, and members of the public have been in striking contrast to an otherwise established practice of according women autonomy in reproductive decision-making. Any plausible policy directed at influencing the reproductive behavior of HIV-infected women would have to be implemented in part or in whole through the health-care providers—doctors, nurses, social workers, counselors, and others—who inter act with HIV-infected women. Despite the pivotal role of these health-care providers, little is known about their views concerning childbearing and HIV infection, nor is it known how the providers who regularly care for HIV-infected women currently approach the topics of reproduction and childbearing with their clients. To gain a better understanding of how health-care providers actually counsel women and what providers’ own beliefs and attitudes are concerning HIV infection and childbearing, we interviewed providers who care regularly for HIV-infected women.
Nonlinear Responses Of The Cochlear Partition: Suppressions And Otoacoustic Emissions
Authors: Geisler C Daniel
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we consider only two of the most prominent expressions of the cochlea’s nonlinearities, response suppressions and otoacoustic emissions. At first sight, these two phenomena may seem to be unconnected, but it is clear from work with cochlear models that both classes of these nonlinear responses can be attributed to the same amplitude-limited motile forces of the outer hair cells widely held responsible for the compressive nature of pure-tone responses. As a case in point, the model introduced in Chapter 9 produces both realistic suppressions and life-like emissions. Accordingly, that model is referred to at appropriate points in this chapter to account for various response characteristics. Before proceeding, a brief review of linear responses is called for to highlight what is not linear about the cochlea’s responses.
Treatments for Damaged Ears
Authors: Geisler C Daniel
Published: November 2023

Appropriately, this last chapter concerns the relief currently available for people with various forms of hearing impairment. It is good to celebrate the improvement in their lives brought about by present treatments and hearing aids. It is also important to pay tribute to the army of workers-scientists, clinicians, technicians, manufacturers-who have labored long and hard to understand and alleviate the disabilities and distress of hearing impairment. Moreover, clinical treatments and aids to hearing comprise a sort of final examination, providing practical tests of the depth with which we understand the workings of the ear. It is such understanding that largely determines the methods used for treating ailing elements within the ear and finding substitutes or assistive devices for missing or defective stages.
Historical Justice
Authors: Teitel Ruti G
Published: November 2023

This chapter explores the historical response to evil legacies and the question of what role historical accountability plays in liberal transition. Transitions appear—almost by definition—to imply periods of historical discontinuity. Wars, revolutions, and repressive rule represent gaps in the life of the state that threaten its historical continuity. The questions that arise are: as a descriptive matter, how do societies treat these periods of apparent historical glitch? To what extent is the response to past evil rule historical? And, normatively, in what sense is historical accountability a corrective, ushering in liberalization?
The Prehistory of Distribution Theory
Authors: Mandler Michael
Published: November 2023

Economics embraced marginal productivity as essential at the turn of the twentieth century, only to dismiss it as superfluous after World War IL As we have seen, this dismissal invited back the indeterminacy problem that the early neoclassicals had solved primarily by using marginal productivity. Indeed it was precisely this solution that earlier had brought conceptual order to the clutter of nineteenth-century distribution theory, thus allowing neoclassical economics to establish itself as a full-fledged replacement to the classical school and guaranteeing its future as the dominant voice of economic analysis.
The Ordinal Revolution
Authors: Mandler Michael
Published: November 2023

Contemporary ordinal preference theory rejects hedonism and cardinal utility as proper starting points for explaining economic behavior. The axioms of consumer theory, it is now said, should be imposed on choices, not on the psychology underlying choice. In the early neoclassical era, in contrast, hedonism provided rationales for assumptions on behavior. The completeness, transitivity, and convexity of preferences were thereby grounded by a substantive account of economic rationality.
Script Reform from Within
Authors: typewriters Kana , Textbooks Romaji
Published: November 2023

Given the realities of Japanese literacy reviewed in chapter 2, it should come as no surprise that thoughtful Japanese were concerned with script reform from even before the Meiji Restoration. Nanette Twine (1983, 1991) has amply described the key events, documents, organizations, and personalities connected with calls for script reform of various kinds up to the tum of the century, and, in the case of those who favored a reduction in the number of kanji, down to 1945. (The hundreds of illustrations in Kida 1994 provide a perfect complement to Twine’s narrative and analysis.) Here, we will concentrate on the 20th century, especially on the development of the romanization movement. First, however. we need to supply some background information that Twine does not cover.
Overt versus Covert Movement
Authors: Kayne Richard S
Published: November 2023

In this sentence, there is a narrow-scope reading according to which the content of the request is that they read not a single linguistics book. There is also a wide-scope reading (facilitated by having an initial In all these years or Funnily enough) according to which there have been no requests made for linguistics book reading.
Indefinite Articles
Authors: Heine Bernd
Published: November 2023

In chapters 2 and 3 we were concerned with the first step in the evolution from concrete concept to grammatical concept—for example, from body-part to locative marker or numeral. Here we deal with the subsequent evolution from grammatical concept to even more grammatical concept. In addition, we attempt to illustrate what this evolution means with reference to the structure of grammatical categories. The example chosen is that of indefinite articles, already touched upon briefly in the introductory chapter. The question raised there was the following: Why does the English definite article determine both singular and plural nouns, as can be seen in (1), whereas the indefinite article may not be used with plural nouns, as can be seen in (2)?
“Helpin Somebody Out”: Imperatives in Task Situations
Authors: Puckett Anita
Published: November 2023

contrary to popular culture stereotypes, Ash Creek residents are generally laboring, or “<loin something during waking hours. Most children are socialized from five or six years old to activities that contribute to household maintenance. One’s activities at any given time are likely to dominate “just talkin” exchanges. The metapragmatic functions created or reproduced in these conversations reassert a well-developed ideology of task-focused communication. A primitive component in constituting this ideology! is that “<loin something references a physical activity. The “sayin” “around here, honey, we work with our hands, not with our heads” describes one way individuals are likely to interpret and assign value to labor. Individuals are expected to be “keepin busy,” even if it is simply turning the pages of a grocery store insert in a newspaper or waiting for hours to shoot unwanted groundhogs in a garden. This task-orientation is so well developed that performing some type of task often replaces other forms of recreational activity, such as reading or playing board games, which do not result in something “glttin done.”
The Economics of Frivolous Litigation
Authors: Miceli Thomas J
Published: November 2023

It is a common perception that there are too many lawsuits filed in the United States. The available data on litigation rates provide some support for this perception. For example, figure 9.1 depicts the rapid growth in the number of civil cases filed in U.S. district courts beginning in the early 1970s, even after controlling for population growth. A rising number of lawsuits, however, does not, by itself, indicate an increasing number of nonmeritorious, or “frivolous,” suits; perhaps some meritorious suits had previously been deterred. Since we saw in the last chapter that most suits end up either settling or being dropped before going to trial, it is virtually impossible to offer data on the fraction of suits that are in fact frivolous. Thus, the question can be addressed only theoretically. In this chapter, I therefore survey various economic models of frivolous litigation that have been offered both to support the conjecture that some fraction of suits is frivolous, and to suggest remedies for this problem.
Argument Projection, Thematic Configurationality, and Case Theory
Authors: Gruber Jeffrey S
Published: November 2023

The main objective of this chapter is to eliminate Theta-role assignment as an independent theoretic module determining correspondence between arguments in a syntactic structure and thematic roles in a structure apart from syntax, for example, in a Theta-grid (Stowell 1981), independent “argument structure” (Williams 1984), or autonomous conceptual or semantic structure (Jackendoff 1983, 1990; Gruber 1990, 1992a, b). Concomitantly, this entails the determination of the wide variety of primitive thematic relations configurationally, as well as the derivation of overt forms from them through the operation of principles of syntax. We will assume the general framework of Chomsky’s (1993) Minimalist program, in which derivations are constrained by principles of economy and conditions on the syntactic interfaces, PF (Phonological Form) and LF (Logical Form).
Introduction to Part I
Authors: Weaver Thomas Nogrady Donald F
Published: November 2023

Designing drug molecules to alleviate human disease and suffering is a daunting yet exhilarating task. How does one do it? How does a researcher sit down, paper in hand (or, better yet, a blank computer screen), and start the process of creating a molecule as a potential drug with which to treat human disease? What are the thought processes? What are the steps? How does one select a target around which to design a drug molecule? When a researcher does design a molecule, how does she or he know if it has what it takes to be a drug?
Basic Principles of Drug Design III Designing drug molecules to fit receptors
Authors: Weaver Thomas Nogrady Donald F
Published: November 2023

The aim of this book is to provide a conceptual framework for medicinal chemistry. Chapter 1 dealt with the properties necessary to transform a molecule into a drug-like molecule. Chapter 2 described the properties that determine whether a macromolecule could be a receptor. It is now necessary to develop a method of designing drug molecules to fit into receptor molecules. The multiphore method of drug design is such a method.
Introduction to Part II
Authors: Weaver Thomas Nogrady Donald F
Published: November 2023

From this sequence of activities, a number of observations can be made. Not all molecules are drugs, but certain properties enable a molecule to be a drug-like molecule and potentially a drug. Analogously, not all macromolecules are receptors, but certain properties enable a macromolecule to be a druggable target. With these two basic facts in place, it is then necessary to understand how to design drug-like molecules that can specifically interact with drug targets. This process involves lead compound identification (via rational drug design or high throughput screening, using either random or focused libraries) followed by lead compound optimization (via quantitative structure–activity relationship studies). Throughout the full spectrum of this design process, computer aided drug design with molecular mechanics and molecular orbital calculations is an important design tool.
Messenger Targets for Drug Action II Hormones and their receptors
Authors: Weaver Thomas Nogrady Donald F
Published: November 2023

In 1902, Bayliss and Starling demonstrated that the effect exerted by the duodenum on pancreatic secretion was due to a bloodborne factor that seemingly acted as a “chemical messenger.” Their research led to the identification of this chemical messenger, which they called secretin. They went on to suggest that secretin was not unique, hypothesizing that many chemical agents are secreted by various cells throughout the body and that these agents, upon distribution by the bloodstream and circulation, influence the function of organs that are located some distance away. They coined the term hormone to describe such chemical messengers that are synthesized in one organ system and distributed via the circulation to distant organ systems to elicit an altered biochemical response. Insulin is the prototypic example of a hormone; it is biosynthesized in the pancreas and then distributed via the bloodstream to organs and tissues throughout the body where it influences carbohydrate, protein, and fat metabolism. The medical discipline of endocrinology deals with the diagnosis and treatment of diseases related to hormones and hormonally responsive systems.
Messenger Targets for Drug Action III Immunomodulators and their receptors
Authors: Weaver Thomas Nogrady Donald F
Published: November 2023

The final messenger system that can be exploited for purposes of understanding drug action is the immune system. The function of the immune system is to preserve the integrity of the body at a cellular level. It is designed to eliminate pathogens and to protect the host. In fulfilling this goal, the immune system makes extensive use of white blood cells as cellular messengers and mediators. Like neural and endocrine messenger systems, the immune system is capable of manipulating biochemical information for the purpose of maintaining homeostasis and combating disease. The immune system stores information concerning previous infections and transmits information through the integrated use of cellular (white blood cell) and molecular (cytokine) elements.
Nonmessenger Targets for Drug Action II Endogenous macromolecules
Authors: Weaver Thomas Nogrady Donald F
Published: November 2023

If targeting messenger molecules such as neurotransmitters, hormones, or immunomodulators fails to address the disease under study, the next approach is to target either nonmessenger endogenous structures, such as the cell membrane or cell nucleus (see chapter 7), or nonmessenger endogenous macromolecules such as proteins (enzymes) or lipids (prostaglandins) (this chapter). These endogenous macromolecules are the catalysts and molecular machinery that enable the cell to perform its normal metabolic functions; accordingly, they afford numerous druggable targets.
Two Lavender Issues for Linguists
Authors: Zwicky Arnold m.
Published: November 2023

Some questions about sexual orientation are naturals for professional linguists­ for theoretical linguists, phoneticians, sociolinguists, psycholinguists, discourse analysts, and anthropological linguists, for instance. One natural topic (which I look at in the following section) concerns the lexical items that are available for referring to sexual orientations and to people of various orientations. A second topic which I look at in the following section concerns differences in the language and speech of people of different orientations.
Toward a Study of Lesbian Speech
Authors: Moonwomon-Baird Birch
Published: November 2023

This paper is a decade old. I have gone somewhere else in my work on lesbian language use, but one thing I like about this conference paper is that in it I observe that lesbian practice is regarded as marked behavior but goes unremarked much more than is true Of gay male practice, even in this era of both friendly and hostile societal discourses on queers. Lesbian language behavior in particular goes unremarked. I ask why the dominant society ‘s negative sanction on lesbian revelation and its general refusal to ac­ knowledge lesbian existence, a state of affeirs referred to as “enforced invisibility,” manifests especially as, in fact, “inaudibility.” Why are we not heard as lesbians, apparently even by ourselves?
Linguistic Gender Play among French Gays and Lesbians
Authors: Pastre Genevieve
Published: November 2023

The question of homosexuality has long been neglected in feminist studies of sex and linguistic gender. This neglect has created a serious gap in the field of sociolinguistics: How does the classification masculine(feminine function in language when an individual ‘s sexuality does not conform to the general rules of heterosexual patriarchy that regulate grammar? What effect does the fact of having a partner of the same sex as oneself have on the way one speaks? How do gay men and lesbians refer to themselves and each other?
How the Brain Works
Authors: Swanson Larry W
Published: November 2023

Most of us don’t think much about our brain—let alone about how it works—until something goes wrong with it. Then we wonder why this or that distressing symptom happened and whether we can do anything about it. Stroke, depression, retardation, epilepsy, dementia, addiction, schizophrenia—the list of heart-wrenching afflictions is long indeed and doesn’t even include a host of other less severe, yet frustratingly real, problems like anxiety, learning and memory disorders, attention deficits, and on and on. For answers we often turn to medicine—to neurologists and psychiatrists who usu­ally prescribe drugs or surgery that may relieve symptoms in a more or less effective way, at least for a while. But ask 10 of the world’s leading neuroscientists how the brain works—how it thinks, feels, perceives, and acts as a unified whole—and you will get 10 very different answers, unless they are very narrowly framed around the bio­physics and chemistry of nerve impulse conduction and synaptic transmission. Synapses are the functional contacts between nerve cells that may change their strength based on experience. You have about 100 trillion of them in your brain, and they are so tiny they.
The Simplest Nervous Systems
Authors: Swanson Larry W
Published: November 2023

It is natural to imagine that over the course of evolution here on earth, which spans around 5 billion years, the simplest organisms appeared first and that, when viewed over a very long time frame, they were followed by more and more complex organisms, culminating with the appearance of modern humans only 100 thousand years ago or so (Fig. 2.1). If we continue to think along these lines, it’s a good bet that we should be able to learn a great deal about the architecture of the nervous system by starting to examine it in the evolutionarily oldest, simplest organisms, then going on to analyze its organization in progressively more recent and complex organisms, before finally considering it in the ultimate puzzle, the human brain. By this time, we should have a vocabulary and set of rules that apply to all mammals, to all vertebrates, and perhaps even to all animals with a nervous system.
The Role of Language in European Nationalist Ideologies
Authors: Blommaert Jan , Verschueren Jef
Published: November 2023

In his book Nations and Nationalism since 1780, E. J. Hobsbawm concludes that “the phenomenon [of nationalism] is past its peak” (1990:183). Before he gets to this conclusion (apparently written some time in 1989, before German reunification became a realistic possibility and before the process of fragmentation in some countries of the old communist bloc had gained momentum), he shows quite convincingly, and almost prophetically, that a new “Europe of nations” in the Wilsonian sense (e.g., with independent entities such as Catalonia, Corsica, Slovenia, Estonia) could not produce “a stable or lasting political system” (p. 177). For one, “the first thing most such hypothetical new European states would do is, almost certainly, apply for admission to the European Economic Community, which would once again limit their sovereign rights” (p. 177).
The Decennial Republic
Authors: Truesdell Matthew
Published: November 2023

Less than three weeks after the coup d’etat, Louis-Napoleon asked the French electorate—once again enlarged to include all adult men—to allow him to draw up a new constitution, and a very large majority of 7.5 million voted in his favor. For the Bonapartists, the plebiscite was, as Prefect of Police Charlemagne-Emile de Maupas put it, “a veritable national festival.” The 7.5 million votes seemed to prove conclusively the reality of Louis-Napoleon’s popularity—the same popularity they so frequently had seen manifested in the celebrations of the Republic. For Bonapartists, the divided nation of the Republic seemed to have found in Louis-Napoleon a means of coming together as a unified community.
Rituals of Opposition
Authors: Truesdell Matthew
Published: November 2023

If the Second Empire found public spectacle a useful political tool, so too did its opponents, both republican and legitimist alike. But in contrast to the regime’s freedom to mount whatever celebrations it liked whenever it liked, throughout most of the period the opposition had to work in the face of extremely severe restrictions. Until 1868 almost all public political assemblies were illegal and the press was tightly controlled. And even after the liberalizations of 1868, many limitations remained. Speaking derogatorily of the imperial family, for example, was defined throughout the period as a “seditious cry” and punished by fines and prison terms. As late as October 1869, for example, the prosecutor at Metz was reporting such infractions to Paris. But even with these restrictions, the opposition still often managed.to use celebrations to challenge the fête impériale and to call into question its underlying message of quasi-unanimous national support for the emperor.
Absence of the Gonads
Authors: Pinsky Leonard , Erickson Robert P , Schimke R Neil
Published: November 2023

“Absent gonads” may reflect failure of gonad formation or failure of gonad retention. The gonads that are absent may have been meant to become, or once were, either ovaries (Overzier and Linden, 1956; Medina et al., 1982) or testes (Cunningham, 1960). This chapter deals primarily with conditions in which the gonads were formed and then disappeared. Two examples in males are testicular regression syndromes and congenital anomalies presumably due to testicular torsion. 46,XX females with no gonads have also been described (Levinson et al., 1976; Kennerknecht et al., 1993; Medina et al., 1982; Mendonca et al., 1994; Kennerknecht et al., 1997). Gonads may also be absent in Turner syndrome (Chapter 6) and other forms of gonadal dysgenesis. Our focus will be on testicular regression syndromes. This group of conditions is characterized by embryonic or fetal formation of testicular tissue and later gonadal regression in 46,XY individuals with ambiguous genitalia.
Genetic Disorders of Gonadotropin Action
Authors: Pinsky Leonard , Erickson Robert P , Schimke R Neil
Published: November 2023

The chorionic gonadotropin/luteinizing hormone receptor (henceforth, LHR), and the follicle-stimulating hormone receptor (FSHR) belong to the subfamily of G protein-coupled receptors for glycoprotein hormones. They share a very long (~ 350 amino acids) N-terminal extracellular domain devoted primarily to high-affinity ligand binding, seven membrane-spanning α-helices with six intervening loops (three each, internal and external), and a relatively short C-terminal intracellular domain (Fig. 11-1).
Hearing and Notating Conversational Rhythm
Authors: Auer Peter , Couper-Kuhlen Elizabeth , Müller Frank
Published: November 2023

In the preceding chapter we stressed that our approach to rhythm relies on the notion of gestalt. Such an approach has of course its own methodological problems. How can rhythmic structures be discovered in reliable ways? Instrumental measurement of the acoustic data will not provide us with an unproblematic ac cess to rhythm, given the highly interpretive steps we language users must go through to perceive language as rhythmic or non rhythmic. From this it follows that an auditory analysis of rhythm must have priority over instrumental analysis as a research tool.