bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Science in extremis and the phosphorescent toothpaste
Authors: Gratzer Walter
Published: November 2023

With resilience and determination enough, science has been known to thrive even in a prisoner-of-war camp [35]. James Chadwick (1891-1974), who was to win a Nobel Prize for the discover)’ of the neutron, kept boredom and frustration at bay in a German prison camp during the First World War by experimenting in an improvised laboratory. Chadwick was born into the working class in the north of England and suffered in his early years from a crippling shyness. But his talents were recognized by a schoolmaster and he won a scholarship to what is now the University of Manchester. There he came to the notice of the recently appointed professor of physics, Ernest Rutherford [16], whom he later followed to the Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge.

One of Rutherford’s cleverest associates was Hans Geiger (who gave his name to the Geiger counter, still used to detect radioactive emissions). When Geiger returned to his native Germany, Chadwick arranged to spend a year with him in Berlin. That year was 1914. Chadwick was given some bad advice by the local branch of the travel agent, Thomas Cook, and in consequence was forced to endure nearly five years of internment under conditions of great privation in a makeshift camp on the race course at Ruheleben, outside Berlin. In time a group of the prisoners formed a Science Circle and, tiring of lecturing to each other, asked their captors for space to set up a laboratory. In the autumn of ] 915 they were given part of a loft in a stable block. The temperature touched -10 °C in winter and rose to 37 °C at the height of summer, but the prisoners persisted. Lamps fuelled with animal fat gave light and a little heat.
Humphry Davy gives himself airs
Authors: Gratzer Walter
Published: November 2023

Humphry Davy earned his seat in the scientific pantheon by a remarkable succession of discoveries, extending from sodium and potassium to the miners’ safety lamp and Michael Faraday, whom he engaged as keeper of the laboratory records and inducted into the mysteries of scientific research. Davy got his start in natural philosophy, as science was then called, in 1798, when at the age of 19 he was appointed assistant in Dr Thomas Beddoes’s Pneumatic Institute in Bristol. Beddoes, chemist, physician, and polymath, was something of a public figure, thanks to his well-advertised demonstrations of ‘factitious airs’-the recently discovered gases, of which nitrous oxide, laughing gas, excited the greatest interest. Beddoes had high hopes of therapeutic uses for the gases. He even believed that gases emitted by cattle might cure tuberculosis and into his patients’ sick room he piped effluvium from both ends of cows, which he kept on an adjoining lawn.
Truth stranger than fiction
Authors: Gratzer Walter
Published: November 2023

Aspirin is by a huge margin the most abundantly used of all drugs and new aspects of its multifarious beneficent activity are still coming to light. Its name derives from the willow tree, which was known from the earliest times to harbour in its bark an analgesic principle. Legend has it that this was first recognized when bears with broken or infected teeth were seen to strip and chew the bark. The active compound was identified in the nineteenth century as salicylic acid, but it soon transpired that the acid or its salt, sodium salicylate, a cheap and easily prepared chemical, while effective in suppressing pain, was intolerably bitter and also caused stomach disorders. Chemists at the German pharmaceutical concern, F. Bayer and Company, therefore set about synthesizing simple derivatives of salicylic acid. All accounts of the discovery of aspirin— acetylsalicylic acid—concur that it was prepared by a young chemist at the Bayer works by the name of Felix Hoffmann. His inspiration was the suffering of his father, crippled and in continuous pain from rheumatoid arthritis. Hoffmann made a pure preparation, which instantly relieved his father’s worst discomfort, and after evaluation by the Bayer pharmacologist, Heinrich Dreser, aspirin reached the market in 1898.
Pasteur wields the tweezers
Authors: Gratzer Walter
Published: November 2023

The young Louis Pasteur [172] came to fame with one of the most spectacular experiments in the history of science. While studying the chemistry of fermentation he fell to pondering the nature of optical activity [1]—an attribute of most compounds produced by living organisms.

One of the products of the fermentation of grape juice is tartaric acid. Its formula was already known and it had also been shown that, when purified from the ferment, solutions of the acid and its salts rotated the plane of polarized light to the left (or are said to be laevorotatory). Yet when a substance with the same formula was prepared in the laboratory by an organic chemist the solutions had no optical activity at all. This form of tartaric acid was known as racemic acid. Pasteur arrived at the inspired conjecture that racemic acid was a mixture (now called a racemic mixture) of equal parts of left- and right-rotating components. The salts of racemic acid, such as the sodium ammonium salt (for the acid possesses two acid groups), form handsome crystals and when Pasteur examined them under a lens he perceived that there were two forms, related to each other as a pair of mirror images. He picked out the two types of crystal with tweezers, dissolved them in water, and, indeed, the two solutions had opposite rotatory powers: they were dextro- and laevorotatory.
The limits of logic
Authors: Gratzer Walter
Published: November 2023

In 1931, an intellectual bombshell exploded in the sheltered world of mathematics. The perpetrator of the outrage was a young German, Kurt Godel (1906-78), and the most illustrious of the casualties David Hilbert [11], doyen of German mathematicians. The Hilbert Project, as it was called, had the aim of establishing a complete system of axioms from which all of mathematics could eventually be rigorously developed. (Remote from everyday reality as such a preoccupation might appear, this, like other researches of Hilbert’s and Gödel’s, proved to have a profound bearing on topics in science and even technology.) Godel proved by highly rarified mathematical reasoning, making use of paradoxes, that for some of the most important areas of mathematics no complete set of axioms can be formulated. This ‘incompleteness theorem’ essentially put an end to Hilbert’s vision and made Godel famous.
Boyle on the boil
Authors: Gratzer Walter
Published: November 2023

The Hon. Robert Boyle (1627-91) once described, to Samuel Pepys’s vast amusement, as ‘son of the Earl of Cork and father of modern chymistry’, played a large part in turning chemistry into a rational science. His influential book The Sceptical Chymist set out his quantitative credo. Boyle’s Law, relating the pressure to the volume of a gas, is familiar to all schoolchildren and was first expounded in 1662 in a tract with the title A Defence of the Doctrine touching the Spring and Weight of the Air. But Boyle never shook off his fascination with alchemy. He was one of the many attracted by the vision of the ‘philosopher’s stone’, the substance that would transmute base metals into gold. In their search for the secret of transmutation the alchemists made many important discoveries, of which perhaps the most spectacular was the isolation of phosphorus. Boyle and others had been much engrossed by ‘phosphoruses’, a term applied to all substances that glowed in the dark. These included certain minerals, the ignis fatuus, or will-o’-the-wisp, which was supposed to lure unwary travellers into treacherous marshes, and many biological organisms, such as fireflies, luminescent planktons, and saprophytic bacteria, which feed on decaying plant and animal matter.
Ferreting out a virus
Authors: Gratzer Walter
Published: November 2023

Research on the viruses of the common cold and flu became possible only when the first such virus was cultured in the laboratory. For many years these rhinoviruses, as they are called, resisted all such endeavours. Success finally came at the National Institute for Medical Research in London. A group of researchers there had been trying everything they knew, inoculating many species of animals—guinea-pigs, mice, rabbits, hamsters, hedgehogs, and monkeys—with throat garglings from human flu patients and lung tissue taken at autopsy from victims of the disease. These preparations were injected into abdomens, brains, and testes, all to no avail.

Then in 1933, Wilson Smith decided to try his preparations on ferrets, which were being used in the same laboratory for studies on dog distemper. Moreover, he thought of what in retrospect seems the obvious course of administering the virus through the nose. Smith inoculated two ferrets with washings from the throat of one of his colleagues, who had gone down with flu. A few days later Smith recorded in his notebook: ‘Ferret I looks somewhat seedy—crusts round the nose and slight discharge with suggestion of pus—eyes also watery, sneezing.’ Ferret II was soon similarly afflicted. Not long thereafter, Smith himself caught flu, it was thought because one of the ferrets had sneezed in his face. The virus recovered from Smith’s throat turned out indeed to be the strain that was thriving in the ferret and not the one spreading that winter through the human population. And so transmission of the virus from man to ferret and back to man was established, and the so-called WS strain became the classic vehicle for research on flu.
The last of the true amateurs
Authors: Gratzer Walter
Published: November 2023

Science, and especially physics, has become too specialized and too expensive to shelter amateurs. The de Broglie brothers, Louis (who first gave expression to the particle-wave duality [113]), and especially his elder brother, the due Maurice de Broglie, were among the last.

Louis-Cesar-Victor-Maurice de Broglie (1875-1960) was born into an ancient and illustrious French family; the diplomatic corps and the army were the only careers thought fitting for the scion of such a noble line, and it was only after delicate negotiations with his grandfather, the head of the clan, that he was per mitted to enter the navy. Posted to the Mediterranean fleet, his scientific bent soon asserted itself: it was Maurice de Broglie who installed the first shipboard wireless on a French warship. But he became restless at the limited opportunities for indulging his interests and asked leave to resign from the navy and devote himself to science. The grandfather was scandalized: science was an amusement for old men and not an occupation for a de Broglie. But, after pleading his case, it was agreed that the young Maurice might convert a room in the family hôtel in Paris into a laboratory in which to amuse himself when not at sea. It was only after the patriarch’s death that Maurice, then 33, finally felt able to resign his commission (although he returned to work on submarine communications for the duration of the First world War). He then studied spectroscopy at the College de France and completed a thesis under a distinguished physicist, Paul Langevin, with whom he had worked on the submarine project. Thereafter Maurice de Broglie withdrew to his superbly equipped private laboratory, where he was joined by a succession of assistants, including his brother, Louis, who later won a Nobel prize. The Swiss crystallographer, P. P. Ewald, told in a lecture in 1953 that:
Koch on cooking
Authors: Gratzer Walter
Published: November 2023

Paul Ehrlich (1854-1915), one of the founders of medicinal chemistry, is famous for inventing the first effective anti-microbial agent and the first drug to combat syphilis without the side-effects that were as destructive as the disease. One of his great discoveries was the so-called ‘acid-fast’ staining procedure for tubercle bacilli. This came about quite accidentally. The bacilli, which have a fatty coating, had resisted all attempts at detection by staining, until one day Ehrlich left a preparation on the laboratory stove. It must have been an unexpectedly cold day, for a member of the laboratory lit the stove. Ehrlich’s dish was heated, the bacteria absorbed the hot staining compound, and came up in bold colour under Ehrlich’s microscope. Robert Koch, the discoverer of the tubercle bacillus, wrote: ‘we owe it to this circumstance alone that it has become the general custom to search for the bacillus in sputum.’ This quickly established itself as the universal diagnostic method.
Is ‘pi’ really in the sky?
Authors: Barrow John D
Published: November 2023

What is man that he is mindful of the Universe? Given the centuries of human history during which we have been ignorant of the vast oceans of outer space and the entire inner space of elementary particles, we recognize the twentieth century as a turning point in our appreciation of the breadth and depth of the structure of the Universe. Our quest for some ultimate explanation of the Universe’s origin and structure witnesses to an unquestioned belief in our ability to understand the basic fabric of reality. But how strange this is.
Towns And Trade
Authors: Poole Austin Lane , Litt D
Published: November 2023

A Foreigner visiting London in the last years of the eleventh century, though impressed by its spaciousness and the magnitude of its population, found the only thing that called for remark was the phenomenal number of savage dogs that lurked about St. Paul’s at night-time to the terror of the passers-by. This, however, scarcely does justice to the city which had long since attained to a position of pre-eminence in the kingdom. In 1135 it was described as the metropolis and queen of the whole kingdom; its citizens were, like those of the Cinque Ports, ‘barons’. It had been surrounded by a wall since Roman times, and it was now approached by seven gates. Besides the White Tower, two other strongholds were already standing, both on the western side, the castle of Montfichet and Baynard’s castle whose lords commanded the military forces of the city and controlled the Thames fishing as far as Staines bridge. Still its pretensions were modest; its houses were unsubstantial structures, mostly of wood and thatched with straw. Fire and tempest wrought havoc in such conditions. William of Malmes-bury gives a vivid description of a south-easterly gale in 1091 that destroyed 600 houses in London: churches were heaped upon houses; roofs, rafters, and beams hurtled through the air. Another catastrophe occurred in the first year of Stephen’s reign: a fire starting from London Bridge swept through the city, demolishing St. Paul’s and most of the rickety dwellings as far as St. Clement Danes, some distance to the west and outside the wall.
The Conquest Of Normandy 1087–135
Authors: Poole Austin Lane , Litt D
Published: November 2023

The Norman rulers of England were disagreeable men, masterful, stern, and cruel. The characteristic genius for political organization and administrative efficiency, which had crowned with success every Norman enterprise, in the duchy itself, in Italy, and in England, was inherited only by the youngest of the Conqueror’s sons; but this and an aptitude for learning, usu.1lly greatly exaggerated, were the only features which redeemed the otherwise unpleasant character of Henry. Robert, the eldest of the family, who never ruled in England, Robert Curthose as his father called him because of his small size, was different from his brothers. He was not harsh or cruel; he was in fact the reverse; he was too good-natured, too easygoing. He had perhaps the greatest faults of character; his life was self-indulgent and purposeless. But he also had far more attractive qualities than his brothers, qualities which make him almost likeable. His personal courage was conspicuous; he conducted himself with distinction on the first Crusade where, it was said, neither Christian nor pagan could unhorse him. He was affable, a good talker, and a good counseller to anyone but himself.
The Celtic Fringe
Authors: Poole Austin Lane , Litt D
Published: November 2023

In 1087 the boundary between the kingdoms of England and Scotland was still undetermined. Circumstances might well have fixed it either at the Forth, the northern extremity of the old Anglian kingdom of Bernicia, or at the Tyne or even the Tees where indeed it actually rested in the reign of David I (Ir 24—53). On the west the Scottish kings had a valid claim to Cumbria, the district described as situated inter Angliam et Scotiam, which comprised Cumberland and the northern half of Westmorland, with its southern boundary on the river Duddon; a land with racial affinities to Scotland, for there, as in the west of Scotland, a strong Norse element, introduced from Ireland or the Hebrides, was superimposed on a population predominantly Celtic.
The Loss Of Normandy 1189–1204
Authors: Poole Austin Lane , Litt D
Published: November 2023

The crusade was Richard’s dominating passion at the time of his accession to the throne. He worked with a singleness of purpose to remove every obstacle that might stand in the way of its early and successful achievement. He acted quickly. Immediately after the burial of his father at Fontevrault, he sent instructions to England for the release of his mother, Queen Eleanor, whom he authorized to act as his representative until he should himself be able to cross the Channel; on 29 July he was installed as duke of Normandy in the cathedral of Rouen and received the homage of the clergy and people. Two days later at Gisors he came to terms with Philip Augustus whom he satisfied by surrendering his claims to Auvergne and part of Berri and by adding 4,000 marks to the 20,000 which his father had agreed to pay at Colombieres. The two kings then arranged to start for the east in the following spring. He made his peace also with his recent opponents, those who had adhered to his father. So far from showing himself vindictive, he actually rewarded their fidelity, for he had a chivalrous respect for loyalty and denounced as traitors his own companions in revolt. It was in this spirit that he pardoned William Marshal who had stood by the old king till the end and had unhorsed Richard and nearly caused his death in the recent fighting. He did more than this; for in accordance with his father’s wish he gave him in marriage one of the richest of the Crown heiresses, Isabel, daughter of Richard of Clare, earl of Pembroke and Strigul, better known as ‘Strongbow’.
Primitivism and power: The beginnings of Latin literature
Authors: Leigh Matthew
Published: November 2023

To later Latin critics the very earliness of the earliest phase of Latin literature is bound up with the perception of its primitivism and the image which they have of their predecessors is strikingly visual in form. The dominant metaphor is that of the barbershop: to Cicero and Quintilian, the prose-style of Cato the Elder is rough or hairy, to Gellius it is unkempt; to Ovid and Propertius, the verse of Ennius is shaggy or hirsute. A proper modern style is therefore neat, restrained, and tasteful. An excessive pursuit of innovation prompts talk of perfumes, ringlets, and curling-tongs.
Escapes from orthodoxy: Poetry of the late Republic
Authors: Morgan Llewelyn
Published: November 2023

In late 46 BCE Julius Caesar made a journey from Rome to southern Spain. To while away the time on the road he composed a poem entitled Iter (‘Journey’), describing the trek as he made it. The upshot of this rather civilized-sounding journey was the final, most brutal act of the civil wars which had raged between Caesar and the supporters of Pompey the Great since early 49. In March 45 Caesar won a crushing victory at Munda, leaving 30,000 Pompeians dead on the battlefield.
Oblique politics: Epic of the imperial period
Authors: Leigh Matthew
Published: November 2023

In his Dialogue on Orators, Tacitus depicts a small gathering of writers and orators at the house of one Curiatius Maternus (cf. p. 166). The dramatic date is 75 ce, the actual date of publication around a quarter of a century later.
The strangeness of ‘song culture’: Archaic Greek poetry
Authors: Kurke Leslie
Published: November 2023

Let the lyre sound its holy strain, and the reed pipe (aulos), And let us drink, when we have gratified the gods with libations, Saying things full of grace to each other, And fearing not at all the war of the Medes. I breakfasted, having broken off a bit of slender honey cake, And drained my cup of wine. And now I delicately pluck the lovely Eastern lyre, Celebrating the festivity (komos) with a dear and dainty girl.
Introduction
Authors: Derber Charles , Schwartz William A , Magrass Yale
Published: November 2023

Ivan Illich proclaims this the “Age of Professions,” in which people have “problems,” experts have “solutions,” and scientists measure “imponderables” such as “abilities and needs.”1 People look to experts to solve society’s ills and their own most intimate problems. Even those who don’t trust the experts often feel they have little choice but to rely on them. Millions of parents hope that their children will become professionals-perhaps a doctor, a lawyer, an engineer, a scientist, or an architect. Many, as James Fallows writes, “are convinced that unless their kid gets into the very best kindergarten, the child will be handicapped for life.”
Eyes on the Prize: Taking Charge of Business
Authors: Derber Charles , Schwartz William A , Magrass Yale
Published: November 2023

Classes lock horns over who should run business. In American capitalism, entrepreneurs and investors say they should be in charge, and workers rarely challenge business’ ultimate sovereignty. Some observers, such as Thorstein Veblen and Alvin Gouldner, speculate that a third party, a knowledge class, may emerge as a more formidable challenger. Professionals have not stormed the corporate barricades. Like workers, they accept the right of owners to hire and fire them, as well as to control investments and products.
Planning for What? New-Class Politics
Authors: Derber Charles , Schwartz William A , Magrass Yale
Published: November 2023

The subversives of feudalism proved not to be the downtrodden serfs but the “new class” of merchants. The subversives of capitalism might be its own new class of professionals rather than the proletariat. Workers are more likely to feel the stings of the market’s sharp edges. But privileged experts might have, if not greater motive, more opportunities and weapons for subverting capitalism. The medieval merchant class “tore asunder” the centuries-old system of feudal bondage, introducing in its stead the “callous cash payment” that “left remaining no other nexus between man and man than naked self interest.”
In Pursuit of Equity
Authors: Kessler-Harris Alice
Published: November 2023

Few historians have contributed more to our understanding of the history of women, and women’s effect on history, than Alice Kessler-Harris. Author of the classic Out to Work, she is one of the country’s leading scholars of gender, the economy, and public policy. In this volume, Kessler-Harris pierces the skin of arguments and legislation to grasp the preconceptions that have shaped the experience of women: a “gendered imagination” that has defined what men and women alike think of as fair and desirable. In this brilliant account that traces social policy from the New Deal to the 1970s, she shows how a deeply embedded set of beliefs has distorted seemingly neutral social legislation to further limit the freedom and equality of women. Government rules generally sought to protect women from exploitation, even from employment itself; but at the same time, they attached the most important benefits to wage work. To be a real citizen, one must earn—and most policymakers (even female ones) assumed from the beginning that women were not, and should not be breadwinners. Kessler-Harris traces the impact of this gender bias in the New Deal programs of Social Security, unemployment insurance, and fair labor standards, in Federal income tax policy, and the new discussion of women’s rights that emerged after World War II. “For generations,” she writes, “American women lacked not merely the practice, but frequently the idea of individual economic freedom.” Only in the 1960s and ’70s did old assumptions begin to break down—yet the process is far from complete. Even today, with women closer to full economic citizenship than ever before, Kessler-Harris’s insights offer a keen new understanding of the issues that dominate the headlines, from the marriage penalty in the tax code to the glass ceiling in corporate America.
“Cursed be he that moves my bones”
Authors: Strubbe J H M
Published: November 2023

I will discuss only the group of specific funerary imprecations because these contain much more detailed and varied information than the standard formulas of the nonspecific group.32 The number of these specific funerary imprecations is at this moment (as far as I have been able to collect the scattered evidence) somewhat higher than 350.33 The texts come from all parts of Asia Minor.
Prayer in Magic and Religious Ritual
Authors: Graf Fritz
Published: November 2023

The relationship between magic and religion has long been a problem widely discussed among historians of religion. Opinions ranged from the one extreme position that magic is different from and in strict opposition to religion if not its most dangerous opponent to the other where the term magic is denounced as a semantic trap and altogether expelled from scientific vocabulary. Rather than revive this debate here, I propose to survey some prayers contained in the collection of the Papyri Graecae Magicae and ask in what respect, if at all, they are different from prayers in contexts traditionally regarded as non-magical. I shall also ask whether,such differences as can be detected confirm the most widespread theory about the difference between magic and religion (at least among classicists), the one made famous by Sir James Frazer, namely, that the magician constrains, coerces, and forces the divinity to do his will, whereas religious man meekly submits himself to God’s overpowering will. (The slight denigration of religion is Sir James’s.) Among anthropologists, this Frazerian dichotomy is long dead and buried. In classical scholarship however, it loomed very large and still is among us, explicitly or, more often nowadays, implicitly. I choose prayer as the focus of interest because it was, and still is, regarded as the quintessence of religion. Its occurrence in a magical context is liable to pose some problems to those who support the traditional dichotomy.
The Constraints of Eros
Authors: Winkler John J
Published: November 2023

Once on the island of Samos while a wedding procession moved through the streets to the groom’s house, a bystander announced to his friends that the bride would be kidnapped before she reached her new home and that on that very night another man would make her his wife. And so it happened: a group of armed men descended on the crowd, killed some who resisted, and scattered the rest as they fought their way to the bride in the center and made off with her. The shrewd observer was no magician but Polemo, a second-century detective of the heart’s secrets through the science of physiognomy, who continues his account, “I later learned from people discussing the events that it had happened with her consent. And now I will explain to you the signs on which I based my judgment.”1 Polemo had noticed near the bride a young man whose face and bearing revealed the forces that had mastered him: audible breathing, sweaty spots on his clothes, a palpitation in the nose, color shifting back and forth from pallor to blush and an overall trembling as if from fear of disgrace. The bride’s eyes were unusually liquid, though her gaze was sharp, and a certain sorrow hovered over her features.
Nullum Crimen sine Lege: Socioreligious Sanctions on Magic
Authors: Phillips III C R
Published: November 2023

Like the late Justice Stewart on obscenity, most classicists confidently point to what they consider magic, on a modem viewpoint, in Greco-Roman literary texts, curse tablets, papyri, and astrology. Many are wont to identify what they deem magical elements in the “developed” forms of Greco-Roman religion, albeit often lamenting the persistence of such allegedly primitive relics of irrationality. Again, scattered ancient evidence for the repression of certain religious activities, some of which the ancients actually called magic, has encouraged a tacit working assumption that the ancients were as anxious to penalize such activities as, say, the witch-hunters of early modem Europe: according to Ammianus Marcellinus (359 A.D.), “Anyone who wore round his neck a charm against the quartan ague or some other complaint, or was accused by his ill-wishers of visiting a grave in the evening, was found guilty and executed as a sorcerer or as an inquirer into the horrors of men’s tombs and the empty phantoms of the spirits which haunt them” (19.12.14).
“The Guilt of Others”
Authors: Barnett Victoria
Published: November 2023

We are all the more thankful for this visit, as we with our people know ourselves to be not only in a community of suffering, but also in a solidarity of guilt. With great anguish we state: Through us, inestimable suffering was inflicted on many peoples and lands. What we have often witnessed before our congregations we now declare in the name of the whole church: Indeed we have fought for long years in the name of Jesus Christ against the spirit that found horrible expression in the violent National Socialist regime, but we charge ourselves for not having confessed more courageously, prayed more conscientiously, believed more joyously, and loved more ardently.
Political Developments and the East German Church
Authors: Barnett Victoria
Published: November 2023

He Rebuilding Of Postwar German society and its churches was a political and moral task, and the division of Germany into radically different political systems magnified the complexity of the undertaking. From the beginning, church developments in each country were closely related to political developments. Postwar Germans had to define themselves with respect to the past and in relation to the two new German governments as well. Moreover, the way in which Germans dealt with the moral questions raised by the Nazi past was influenced not only by their immediate political Sitz-im-Leben but by how they judged both new systems.
Introduction
Authors: Jarausch Konrad H , Cocks Geoffrey
Published: November 2023

Two images, combined in Bismarck’s reference to “blood and iron,” dominate modern German history: the spiked helmet of the Prussian officer and the steel ingot of the Ruhr tycoon. Ever since the foundation of the Second Empire in 1871, Western observers have been fascinated and disquieted by the peculiar blend of militarism and industrialism in Central Europe. Yet the Kaiser’s power rested not only on weapons or on goods “made in Germany” but on a different kind of accomplishment: the prestige of humanistic cultivation and science.
Phonon Mechanism
Authors: Kresin Vladimir Z , Morawitz Hans , Wolf Stuart A
Published: November 2023

In this section, we discuss the interaction between the conduction electrons and the crystal lattice in a metal. At first glance it may seem that it should be possible to treat this interaction in a manner analogous to that used in the theory of radiation, where the full Hamiltonian contains free electron and photon fields, plus a small interaction term. However, the present problem turns out to be quite delicate, the reason being that the very procedure of introducing the phonon field requires great care.
Experimental Methods
Authors: Kresin Vladimir Z , Morawitz Hans , Wolf Stuart A
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we will describe four of the most important experimental techniques that have been used to probe the most fundamental properties of the superconducting state, the energy gap and the pairing interaction. The techniques that will be described are all spectroscopic, they involve the tunneling of quasiparticles through an insulating barrier, the interaction of electromagnetic waves .with a superconducting film or surface, the attenuation of ultrasonic sound waves, and nuclear magnetic resonance.
Induced Superconductivity
Authors: Kresin Vladimir Z , Morawitz Hans , Wolf Stuart A
Published: November 2023

One can distinguish two types of superconducting states: intrinsic and induced. In the former case the system is characterized by its own intrinsic pairing interaction, and if temperature drops below Tc the material becomes superconducting.

The case of induced superconductivity is entirely different. The system of interest is intrinsically normal, but when it is in contact with another superconductor it becomes superconducting. Charge transfer, which is a consequence of this contact, leads to the appearance of the phenomenon of induced superconductivity.
Educating the Enlightened Child
Authors: Smith Jeffery A
Published: November 2023

Having Retired From Active Participation In His Printing Business in 1748, Benjamin Franklin entered a profitable eighteen-year partnership with David Hall thinking that his fortune would allow him to devote the rest of his life to scientific “Studies and Amusements.” As he related in his autobiography, however, “the Publick now considering me as a Man of Leisure, laid hold of me for their Purposes; every Part of our Civil Government, and almost at the same time, imposing some Duty upon me.” 1 Within a decade of quitting his trade, Franklin was elected to city offices and to the Assembly, was appointed joint deputy postmaster general for North America, and was occupied in military and political affairs at the outbreak of the French and Indian War. He also took the lead in establishing the University of Pennsylvania, the Pennsylvania Hospital, and the Philadelphia Contributorship, a fire insurance company.
Newspapers for the New Nation
Authors: Smith Jeffery A
Published: November 2023

Seeing The Potential Of The Press To Deliver Ideas And Information to the general public, Benjamin Franklin believed developments in publishing would open up a brighter future. Poor Richard, noting how words had come to conquer time and space, remarked, “What an admirable Invention is Writing, by which a Man may communicate his Mind without opening his Mouth, and at 1000 Leagues Distance, and even to future Ages, only by the Help of 22 letters, which may be joined 5852616738497664000 Ways, and will express all Things in a very narrow Compass.” In one of his almanac ‘s poems, a free press was described as an enemy of arbitrary power and superstition which could, “Like Water carriage, cheap convey” the nation ‘s art, wit, and “philosophic Goods.” Franklin ‘s sense of the importance of the press was particularly acute at the end of the Revolution.
From Cotton Belt To Sunbelt
Authors: Schulman Bruce J
Published: November 2023

This is a study of the effect of federal economic policy on the American South from the time of the New Deal to the present. Decrying the South’s economic backwardness and political conservatism, the Roosevelt administration launched a series of aggressive programmes to reorder the Southern economy. A generation of young liberal Southerners entered the national government to participate in these policies from the 1930s until the 1950s. Further chapters analyse the political implications for the South of this federal policy.
Introduction: Becoming Economic Problem No. I
Authors: Schulman Bruce J
Published: November 2023

In July 1938 President Franklin D. Roosevelt declared the South “the Nation’s No. 1 economic problem—the Nation’s problem, not merely the South’s.” The South, the nation’s poorest region, could no longer remain isolated, an island of economic deprivation diminishing a once flourishing nation. In 1937, per capita income in the region reached barely half of the standard of the rest of the nation. The South registered the nation’s lowest industrial wages, farm income, and tangible assets. Those abstract statistics translated into concrete human suffering. “The low income belt of the South,” the official Report on Economic Conditions of the South concluded, “is a belt of sickness, misery, and unnecessary death.”
The Wages of Dixie
Authors: Schulman Bruce J
Published: November 2023

“You need more industries in Texas,” President Roosevelt reminded a Fort Worth audience soon after signing the Fair Labor Standards Act in I 938, “but I know you know the importance of not trying to get industries by the route of cheap wages for industrial workers.” That salvo opened the first front in the Roosevelt administration’s battle to reform the southern economy-the attack on low southern wages. Exploiting the opportunities presented by the Depression and later by the war emergency, the federal government sought to align the wage structure of southern industry with the rest of the nation. It hoped thereby to break the hold of the low wage, labor-intensive seoors that isolated the South from the national economy and, in the minds of policymakers, imprisoned it in poverty. Expounding the message which he and many others would carry into wartime federal agencies, Maury Maverick reiterated the Administration’s goal. “If any part of the nation needs protection against low wages,” Maverick insisted, “it is the South.”
The Visible Poor
Authors: Blau Joel
Published: November 2023

Addressing one of the most pressing and publicized social issues of our times, Joel Blau focuses on the institutional response of major American cities to the problem of homelessness. Blau first examines the national causes of homelessness, and then turns to the experience of New York - the city with the gravest crisis and the most ambitious response to date - to illustrate the impediments to long-term solutions nationwide.
The Economic Causes of Homelessness
Authors: Blau Joel
Published: November 2023

I was at a very fancy cocktail party-wealthy, wealthy people-and they thought I was just wonderful: “Oh, he helps the poor and he works with them” and all that stuff. One woman asked me, What would I do if I could change any law or take just one big step to help the homeless? I said I would raise the minimum wage to $5. She wouldn’t talk to me; she said at $5 she couldn’t afford her maid. Brother Paul Johnson, Camullus House, Miami, Florida [S]uch an extraordinary income inevitably raises questions as to whether there isn’t something unbalanced in the way our financial system is working.
Housing
Authors: Blau Joel
Published: November 2023

Housing for the homeless is part of the larger problem of housing for the poor. Yet federal subsidies to poor people have always played a relatively minor role in the national housing market. In fact, only 5.6 million of all households in the United States, or slightly more than 6 percent of the total, benefit from direct, public subsidies.1 By comparison, the public sector in most Western European countries is considerably larger, amounting to one-third of the housing market in Britain and slightly less than 40 percent in France and Sweden.2 In the United States, the public housing sector has always been marginal. No strong political and economic forces support it, and the real estate industry has been consistently successful in limiting its role. This domination left its mark. From the Public Housing Act of 1937 to the housing voucher programs of the 1990s, even its most heralded reforms reflect the power of the private sector. Perhaps no other outcome was possible in a battle between opponents of such unequal weight. Nevertheless, the result permanently tarnished public housing policy. Since public housing could only become politically legitimate by accepting the concept of “less eligibility,” conspicuously poorer housing was all housing for the poor could ever mean.
Social Movements, Advocates, and the Law
Authors: Blau Joel
Published: November 2023

Every society shapes the demands made against it. In the United States, the two-party system, the absence of a socialist tradition, and the distinctive role of the judiciary in interpreting the Constitution encourage the dissatisfied to present their demands as claims under the Bill of Rights.
New York City: Wealth, Poverty, and Homeless Individuals
Authors: Blau Joel
Published: November 2023

New York City made the most comprehensive response to the problem of homelessness. With the largest number of beds, 30,500, and the most money spent-some $757 million in 1988-the $375 million it allocated in local funds was sixteen times more than Philadelphia, at the time, its nearest rival. Municipal officials were proud of these facts, which they recited whenever critics expressed doubts. As commissioner of the Human Resources Administration (HRA), the city’s primary social welfare agency, William Grinker’s stance was typical. When the Subcommittee on the Homeless of the New York City Council criticized the policies of the Koch administration, Grinker firmly defended its programs: HRA provides decent and humane accommodations and extensive services for the homeless. In addition to operating and funding temporary shelter, in compliance with state regulations, HRA operates and funds programs providing social services, health care, counseling, employment training, day care, education, recreation, substance abuse prevention, and permanent housing. Simply put, the City of New York does more for its homeless population, and each individual homeless person, than any other city in the United States.
Transmission Electron Microscopy
Authors: Thomas G
Published: November 2023

“Metallography” has been a major tool in metallurgy for centuries (Figure 5.1), and there is no doubt that the development of transmission electron microscopy (see Marton, 1968 for a history) originating from Ruska and his colleagues in 1932 (Figure 5.2) and its synergism with materials has led to dramatic developments in our understanding of structure-property relationships over a wide range of materials (Table 5.1). Now metallographers can achieve the dream of atomic resolution with the new generation of electron microscopes exemplified by the unique “ARM” (atomic-resolution microscope) installed in Berkeley in 1983 (see Chapter 7), by which interpretable point-to-point resolution of 1.6 A is possible over 40° of tilt of the sample.
Electron Diffraction Images
Authors: Williams D B , Vecchio K S
Published: November 2023

Several classical imaging processes, such as transmission light and electron microscopy, make use of a lens-the objective lens-to gather a fraction of the radiation scattered by the sample. The sample acts as the object of the lens, which, as shown in Figure 6.1, recreates an image of the sample in the image plane of the lens (CD). Subsequent. lenses magnify this image and project it onto an appropriate imaging surface, such as the retina (for a light microscope), a fluorescent screen (in an electron microscope), or any photographic/recording medium. Between the objective lens and the image plane is the focal plane of the lens (AB). Within this plane the radiation from the sample is focused to positions that depend upon the initial angle of scatter, as also shown in Figure 6.1. Thus the intensity distribution of radiation in the focal plane of the lens constitutes a scatter pattern. In this chapter, we will illustrate the use of such scatter-pattern images taken in the focal plane of the transmission electron microscope (TEM). Although these images are not “images” of the sample in the strict sense of the word, they are important indicators of the nature of the sample. These scatter patterns are also termed diffraction patterns because the phenomenon of diffraction (which means the radiation is scattered coherently, i.e., all the waves are in step) is very dependent on the crystalline nature and orientation of the sample. Thus, these diffraction patterns may be thought of as images that reflect the crystal nature of the sample. In the TEM, the area of the sample contributing to the diffraction pattern is determined by placing an aperture in the image plane of the objective lens, which creates a virtual aperture in the plane of the specimen. The resulting diffraction patterns are usually termed selected area diffraction (SAD) patterns, and typically come from areas of the sample greater than about one micrometer in diameter.
Atomic-Resolution Microscopy
Authors: Gronsky R
Published: November 2023

The resolving power of any optical instrument depends primarily upon the wavelength of the radiation used to illuminate the object. As shown in many other chapters of this book, when all other factors are equal, the smaller the wavelength, the smaller the detail that can be resolved. With conventional visible-light optics, resolution is limited to about 500 nm, the average wavelength of light in the visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum. However, electrons accelerated to high energies have an associated wavelength that is much less than one-tenth of a nanometer, and should therefore be capable (all other factors being equal) of easily resolving atoms separated by a few tenths of a nanometer, as they normally are in most materials. Unfortunately, “all other factors” are not equal in the electron microscope.
Atom Probe Field-Ion Microscopy: Imaging at the Atomic Level
Authors: Miller M K , Burke M G
Published: November 2023

Sam Weller, in Dickens’ Posthumous Papers of the Pickwick Club, responded to a question from Serjeant Buzfuz as to why he saw nothing by saying: “If they wos a pair o’ patent double million magnifyin’ gas microscopes of hextra power, p’raps I might be able to see “ Over a century later his idea was to become a reality. In 1951, Professor Erwin W. Miiller unveiled a powerful new type of microscope that used a gas to produce images with over a million times magnification. This instrument, known as a field-ion microscope, enabled individual atoms to be seen for the first time. An example of the type of image produced by this instrument is shown in Figure 9.1. In this micrograph, each spot is a highly magnified image of a single atom. A few years later, a mass spectrometer was added to the instrument so that the elemental identity of the atoms could also be determined. The combined instrument is known as an atom probe field-ion microscope (APFIM). A modem instrument combines several variants of the atom probe into a single vacuum system, as shown schematically in Figure 9.2. The APFIM has the highest spatial resolution in chemical analysis of any microanalytical tool yet devised.
Ion and Euthyphro
Authors: Robb Kevin
Published: November 2023

If the question of motive behind the continued popular absorption of epic had been put to a reflective Greek at the turn of the fourth century, the answer doubt­ less would have been that of Plato himself. The poets in general, and Homer in particular, quite simply had “educated Hellas.”Moreover, the epical figures, but especially Homer, continue to do so, in the persons of their many contemporary reciters. Even those few Greeks, led by Xenophanes and Heraclitus and dominantly philosophers, who had faulted some of the content of epic verse never questioned its role as the Hellenic paideia. Indeed, they constantly affirm it, often making that fact the object of their polemic, sometimes in evident disgust. “Homer deserves to be thrown out of the contests, and drubbed with his own rabdos!” is Heraclitus’ clever assault on contemporary singers who performed while holding proudly forward the official rhapsode’s staff (B42). The play on verb and noun are untranslatable, but if we had the verb ‘‘to crozier’’ we could say that a bishop should be croizered with his own crozier and thrown out of his diocese.