bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Exxon Valdez Oil Weathering Fate and Behavior: Model Predictions and Field Observations1
Authors: Payne James R. , Clayton John R. , McNabb G. Daniel , Kirstein Bruce E.
Published: January 2013

Outdoor flow-through seawater wave tank studies and model predictions on the chemical and physical fate of Prudhoe Bay crude oil in subarctic waters are compared with field observations from the Exxon Valdez oil spill in Prince William Sound, Alaska. Excellent agreement is obtained between predicted and observed parameters, including evaporative loss of lighter distillate cuts, water content in mousse, density, viscosity, oil/water and oil/air interfacial surface tension, and chemical composition. As predicted from wave tank studies, water column samples of dispersed and dissolved oil and suspended particulate material collected from several heavily oiled sheltered coves and bays in Prince William Sound indicate that little oil reached the near-shore benthic environment during the first few weeks after the spill.
Improving Chevron's Oil Spill Prevention, Preparedness, and Response Capabilities
Authors: Jardim George M.
Published: January 2013

Soon after the Exxon Valdez spill, Chevron assembled an Oil Spill Response Task Force to coordinate activities among its operating companies and to enhance its prevention, preparedness, and response capabilities. This paper explains several of the programs developed and actions taken.
A Guide to Response Evaluation for Oil Spill Combat in Japan
Authors: Matsumoto Ken
Published: January 2013

There are many ways to evaluate the overall performance of an oil spill response operation. There is, or there should be, however, a common standpoint for looking at such operations, irrespective of the size of the spill. Lessons learned through an incident, however trivial, can provide valuable clues to the future improvement of the operation in refineries and oil terminals. But the number of incidents at one location is too few to stand the test of analysis.

Evaluation by a variety of methods is now possible based on information and data available through the worldwide news and reporting networks. This paper presents a guideline, which is widely accepted by the Japanese oil industry, for evaluating responses to oil spills, and introduces a concise equation based on the rating of many response elements.
A MECHANIZED APPROACH TO BEACH CLEANUP IN SAUDI ARABIA
Authors: Benson Richard L. , LeGore Richard S. , Pascoe David
Published: January 2013

A prototype mechanism for cleanup of oiled, sandy intertidal beaches in the Arabian Gulf was developed under the auspices of the U.N. International Maritime Organization. In contrast to the commonly used method requiring removal and replacement of oil-contaminated sediments, this approach leaves natural materials and surviving organisms on the beach, thereby enhancing the probability of ecosystem recovery. During field trials, approximately 1,200 gallons of oil were removed from a 6 m × 125 m section of beach, equivalent to 50 to 75 percent of the total oil in the sediments. Removal of up to 80 percent is considered reasonably achievable using multiple passes of the machinery under good conditions. This approach reduces the need for off-site disposal of contaminated sediments, reduces vehicle traffic on the beach, and eliminates the need for a source of clean replacement sand. Finally, the natural beach materials remain behind to be regraded by wind and water action into an approximation of the original beach.
THE HAVEN INCIDENT: LESSONS LEARNED WITH PARTICULAR REFERENCE TO ENVIRONMENTAL DAMAGES
Authors: Turbini R. Adm. Walter , Fresi Eugenio , Bambacigno Franco
Published: January 2013

On April 11, 1991, the Cypriot tanker Haven, while at anchor off Genoa with some 144,00 tons of Iranian heavy crude oil on board, sustained a series of explosions and caught fire. Due to timely and effective intervention, it was possible to avoid the worst consequences of the accident. In fact, while the huge fire was allowed to consume a large quantity of oil, thus reducing the spill into the sea, the wreck was towed into shallower waters, where it eventually sank, permitting easier oil confinement and recovery operations.

However, a very sensitive area of the Ligurian Sea has suffered important environmental damage, the assessment of which is still in progress. The procedure for environmental damage assessment and compensation is still a matter of discussions and is affected by several uncertainties. This presentation is intended to outline the methodology that has been applied in the case of the Haven accident, as a basis for further discussions at the international level.
THE MOTHER OF ALL OIL SPILLS AND THE DAWHAT AD DAFI
Authors: O'Brien James L. , Gallagher John J.
Published: January 2013

The Gulf War (Operation Desert Storm) produced one of the largest oil spills of all time when Saddam Hussein released millions of barrels of oil from the Mina al Ahmadi terminal in Kuwait into the Arabian Gulf. The resulting massive spill descended on the Saudi Arabian coastline threatening its industrial and environmental resources, as well as the desalination plant intakes that provide fresh water for most of the eastern provinces of the country. A fortuitous combination of geographical features, natural phenomena, and defensive preparations by Saudi Arabia averted a catastrophe of substantial proportions as the “mother of all oil spills” impacted that country.
THE KIRKI INCIDENT
Authors: Brodie Donald
Published: January 2013

In the early hours of Sunday, July 21, 1991, the laden tanker Kirki was approaching the Australian coast in heavy weather when the bow section broke away from the main structure and sank. The vessel was on passage from the Middle East to Australia loaded with light crude oil. Fire was seen to break out forward, and the master transmitted a Mayday signal, which resulted in a successful rescue by the Australian authorities.

At the time of the incident, the vessel was some 55 miles off the coast of Western Australia. The initial loss of oil and the threat of severe pollution of the coastline required the activation of the Australian National Plan to Combat Pollution of the Sea by Oil and its associated state and oil industry plans.

This paper details the actions taken, addresses the lessons learned by the authorities and agencies involved, and lists the recommendations arising out of the actions taken to respond to the pollution aspects of the incident. It does not deal in detail with the distress and rescue details, but touches only on those areas that provide background to the subsequent pollution response.
THE OILING OF ICS
Authors: Hunter Steve
Published: January 2013

The incident command system (ICS) works for oil spills. It should be the industry standard and some will argue that it already is. But there are a number of temptations to fiddle with it. Fueling these inclinations is the fundamental difference between oil spills and natural disasters: Oil spills make the perpetrator fix the problem—under heavy oversight. Add to this difference the public outcry that attends oil spills and the dual role of government as both helper and prosecutor. From these conditions emerge adaptations of ICS which both weaken and strengthen it.

The benefits of ICS are diminished by deputy incident commanders who block unified commanders from access to section chiefs, over-zealous crisis managers who displace command post decisions or its information office, separate press offices with party line slants, government law enforcement activity mixed into spill response, nonstandard operations terminology and structure involving “containment and cleanup” or “salvage,” and the commingling of public and private response funds.

ICS's application to oil spill response is strengthened by the use of trained unified commanders, deputy incident commanders who operate as staff rather than line, crisis managers who support on-scene objectives, joint information centers, and heavy involvement of skilled, prepared environmental assessment teams in the planning section who generate priorities, strategies, and (operationally coordinated) tactics.

Technically, not all these points constitute alterations of ICS, but most do and the others come close. This mixed bag of strengthening and weakening tweaks to oil spill ICS provides an opportunity to take a new look at this faithful friend to the crisis responder.
EXPERIMENT IN DEMOCRACY: THE CITIZEN OVERSIGHT COUNCIL AS A MEANS OF MITIGATING ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF TERMINAL AND TANKER OPERATIONS
Authors: Ginsburg Patty , Sterling Scott , Gottehrer Sheila
Published: January 2013

In 1987, a handful of people from the small fishing community of Cordova, Alaska, coalesced around concern over the risks of oil-related pollution and oil spills in Prince William Sound posed by the trans-Alaska pipeline terminal and tanker operations in neighboring Valdez. The Cordova group sent an emissary to Alyeska Pipeline Service Company, which operates the Valdez Marine Terminal on behalf of its seven oil company owners. The emissary asked Alyeska to consider forming a citizen group to advise Alyeska on environmental issues of local or regional concern. Alyeska listened but rejected the idea.

In March 1989, the Exxon Valdez ran aground on Bligh Reef. Alyeska's owners, acting principally at the behest of majority owner, British Petroleum, soon effected sweeping change in Alyeska's management. The change in management, with Jim Hermiller as president, produced a change in Alyeska's attitude toward the citizen advisory group proposal, and not long afterward Alyeska formed the Alyeska Citizen Advisory Committee. Over the next year that group evolved into what is now called the Prince William Sound Regional Citizens' Advisory Council, or RCAC.

The Prince William Sound Regional Citizens' Advisory Council is a national experiment in providing citizens a voice in corporate decisions that affect them and their communities. This paper recounts the story of RCAC's formation and evolution, the group's mission under both federal law and its contract with Alyeska, and the hallmarks of its achievements and challenges to date.
THE STATES/BC OIL SPILL TASK FORCEAN—INTERNATIONAL MODEL FOR FORMULATING AND INFLUENCING PUBLIC POLICY
Authors: Neel Jon , Bones John , Dimmick Elizabeth , Kent Lynn J. Tomich , Dunstan Roger , Sutherland Bruce
Published: January 2013

The States/British Columbia Oil Spill Task Force was established in 1989 to enhance spill coordination among the West Coast states and British Columbia, and to address a number of issues that became apparent during the Nestucca barge and Exxon Valdez oil spills. Task Force members are the directors of the oil spill prevention and response agencies in Alaska, British Columbia, California, Oregon, and Washington. The Task Force has become a national model for facilitating cooperation and building consensus between coastal states and provinces and their federal governments.

In October of 1990, the task force issued a report containing a comprehensive set of recommendations addressing oil spill prevention, preparedness, and response. The group had achieved remarkable consensus, and many of the report's recommendations have been included in recent legislation enacted by the member states. The success of the task force's approach to regional coordination has also reduced the need for a proposed Pacific Oceans Resources Interstate Compact, which has been proposed to expand the states' role in areas of regulation that are otherwise federally preempted.

The task force has become an effective mechanism for developing vigorous, productive relationships between government agencies, industry, and the public in both the United States and Canada. It has created important linkages between state/provincial and federal regulatory activities; for example, by providing input to Coast Guard and EPA rulemaking that implemented the Oil Pollution Act of 1990. It also assisted in assuring a well-coordinated international response to the July 1991 Tenyo Maru oil spill outside the Strait of Juan De Fuca between Washington and British Columbia.

The task force is continuing to advance its goals of promoting public policy on oil spill prevention; cooperative management of major spills by government and industry; protection of the states/provincial rights and their natural and economic resources; and inter-governmental consistency in regulations adopted for oil spill prevention, contingency planning, and resource damage assessment.
RESPONSE TO A SPILL OF NATIONAL SIGNIFICANCE1
Authors: Jensen Donald S. , Pond Robert , Johnson Mark H.
Published: January 2013

Responding to a spill of national significance (SONS), such as the 1989 Exxon Valdez spill, requires an augmenting organization to support the local response organization. The U.S. Coast Guard has developed a SONS protocol to be better prepared to respond to these infrequent catastrophic spills. A flag-level Coast Guard officer assumes the role of national incident commander (NIC) and federal on-scene coordinator (OSC), and is supported by a national incident task force (NITF). The major role of the NITF is to develop a national response strategy, acquire response resources and allocate them efficiently, and effectively deal with many peripheral national issues. Unified command concepts have been incorporated into the NITF and its primary organizational elements. In addition, frequent training and exercising is essential to keep the SONS protocol's preparedness at an acceptable level.
IMPACTS ON INTERTIDAL INFAUNA: EXXON VALDEZ OIL SPILL AND CLEANUP
Authors: Driskell William B. , Fukuyama Allan K. , Houghton Jonathan P. , Lees Dennis C. , Shigenaka Gary , Mearns Alan J.
Published: January 2013

Field surveys were conducted throughout Prince William Sound in the summers of 1990 through 1992 to evaluate recovery of infauna from the effects of oiling and shoreline cleaning treatments following the Exxon Valdez oil spill. Infauna were quantitatively sampled at mixed sand/gravel/cobble beaches categorized into treatment groups according to their general degree of disturbance.Category 1: unoiled reference sitesCategory 2: oiled sites, not hot-water-washedCategory 3: oiled sites, “cleaned” with hot-water flushes

Shoreline treatments applied in 1989 and 1990 had varied effects on intertidal infauna including organism displacement and burial, thermal stress, oil dispersion, and transformed beach morphology. These treatments resulted in significant reductions in infauna (total abundance and diversity, as well as densities of polychaetes, bivalves, and some crustaceans) at Category 3 beaches. In contrast, Category 2 beaches had a richer and more varied infauna than Category 3 beaches. Multivariate analyses indicate some trends in recovery: namely, a convergence by certain Category 2 sites toward the Outside Bay, Category 1 control site.

PAH concentrations in 1990 also suggest that treatments acted to move some hydrocarbons downslope from the upper beach into the shallow subtidal. By 1991, PAH concentrations in the shallow subtidal were no longer at the high levels seen in 1990, but PAH levels at other elevations of Category 3 sites remained at about the same levels as in 1990.
CARE OF OILED SEABIRDS: A VETERINARY PERSPECTIVE
Authors: Tseng Florina S.
Published: January 2013

The primary effects of oil contamination on seabirds include hypothermia, dehydration, gastrointestinal problems, pneumonias, and hemolytic anemia. Other direct effects include skin and corneal irritation as well as an impact on reproductive organs. Secondary problems related to prolonged captive husbandry include various infectious diseases, pododermatitis, joint swellings, and keel lesions. Current methods of prevention and treatment of these effects, including nutritional support, are presented.
BIOREMEDIATION: APPLICATION OF SLOW-RELEASE FERTILIZERS ON LOW-ENERGY SHORELINES
Authors: Lee Kenneth , Tremblay Gilles H. , Levy E. M.
Published: January 2013

In situ biodegradation, the activation of microbial processes capable of destroying contaminants where they are found in the environment, is a biological process that responds rapidly to changing environmental factors. Accordingly, in situ sediment enclosures were used to test the efficacy of selected nutrient formulations to enhance the biodegradation of a waxy crude oil in a low-energy shoreline environment. The addition of soluble inorganic fertilizers (ammonium nitrate and triple superphosphate) and slow-release nutrient formulations (sulfur-coated urea) stimulated microbial activity and prolonged the period of oil degradation, despite a decline in seasonal temperatures. Low temperatures reduced the permeability of the coating on the slow-release fertilizers, effectively suppressing nutrient release. Of the nutrient formulations evaluated, we recommend the application of granular slow-release fertilizers (such as sulfur-coated urea) when the overlying water temperatures are above 15° C, and the application of soluble inorganic fertilizers (such as ammonium nitrate) at lower temperatures. Comprehensive analysis of the experimental results indicate that application protocols for bioremediation (form and type of fertilizer or type and frequency of application), be specifically tailored to account for differences in environmental parameters (including oil characteristics) at each contaminated site.
ORGANIZING COMPANY SPECIALISTS FOR RAPID AND EFFECTIVE RESPONSE
Authors: Jardim George M. , McDermott Henry J.
Published: January 2013

The staff needed for the support of cleanup operations can be large even for moderately sized spills. Marshaling sufficient and qualified people to respond on short notice at locations throughout the world can tax even the largest corporations. This paper describes how Chevron has prepared for this important aspect of spill response. Basically, Chevron has formed 13 separate teams covering specialty areas such as safety, finance, public relations, and legal. Each teams is organized and managed by people who regularly work within that function. Members of each team are regular employees of the various Chevron companies throughout the world. The incident command system and coordinated plans are the common threads which allow these groups to work together effectively. Drills and self-audits are used to keep the plans current and team members prepared.

The organization and activities of the Safety, Fire and Health (SF&H) Functional Team is described in detail as a illustrated example of the functional team approach. This team consists of about 50 professionals in related fields. To facilitate rapid mobilization worldwide, each member has been medically qualified and has a current passport and selected inoculations. The team plan outlines the responsibilities of each professional group, the call-out procedure and telephone lists, and information on pre-identified SF&H contractors that can be called upon if additional resources are needed. The plan is flexible so that it can be used by one or two people to handle all SF&H functions at a small spill or by many persons within each specialty for larger incidents.
THE EFFECT OF BIOREMEDIATION ON THE MICROBIAL POPULATIONS OF OILED BEACHES IN PRINCE WILLIAM SOUND, ALASKA
Authors: Prince Roger C. , Bare Richard E. , George Graham N. , Haith Copper E. , Grossman Matthew J. , Lute James R. , Elmendorf David L. , Minak-Bernero Vera , Senius James D. , Keim Lois G. , Chianelli Russell R. , Hinton Stephen M. , Teal Andrew R.
Published: January 2013

Bioremediation, the stimulation of the natural process of biodegradation, played an important role in the cleanup of the oil spill from the Exxon Valdez in Prince William Sound, Alaska. Since there were already substantial indigenous populations of oil-degrading microbes in the area, it was apparent that degradation was likely to be nutrient—not microbial—limited. Bioremediation therefore involved the application of carefully selected fertilizers to provide assimilable nitrogen and phosphorus to the indigenous organisms, with the intent to stimulate their activity and enhance their numbers. We show here that the indigenous microbial populations were indeed substantially increased, throughout the sound, approximately one month after widespread fertilizer applications in both 1989 and 1990. Furthermore, while oil-degrading bacteria made up a significant fraction of the microbial populations on contaminated beaches in September and October 1989, they had declined to less than 1 percent by the summer of 1990, suggesting that the microbial populations on the shorelines were returning to their pre-spill conditions.
EVALUATION OF LABORATORY TESTS TO DETERMINE THE EFFECTIVENESS OF CHEMICAL SURFACE WASHING AGENTS
Authors: Sullivan Daniel , Sahatjian Karen A.
Published: January 2013

When spilled oil reaches a shoreline, it coats a myriad of surfaces. In many cases, chemical agents are used to clean the shoreline substrates, with varying degrees of effectiveness. Both dispersants and surface washing agents have been used. In this study, the Environmental Protection Agency evaluated two of the four laboratory tests currently available to measure the effectiveness of surface washing agents: the inclined trough test and the swirling coupon test. The agency used two standard reference oils (Prudhoe Bay and bunker C), two test surfaces (stainless steel and porcelain tile), and three cleaning agents (Corexit 9580, Corexit 7664, and Citrikleen XPC) to evaluate the precision, cost, and ease of operations of the two tests. The study concluded that the overall performance of the two tests is similar but that costs for the inclined trough test are lower.

Overall, there is concern as to whether any of the four existing tests are appropriate measures of surface washing agent effectiveness. Two problems exist: none of the tests measures the amount of oil remaining on the surface after washing, and none of the tests accounts for how easily oil is removed from the water after being washed off the surface. Therefore, more research is needed before a surface washing agent effectiveness test can be adopted as a regulatory tool.

Consideration should be given to establishing a separate category for surface washing agents on the Product Schedule of the National Contingency Plan.
FULL-SCALE TESTS OF A GRAVITY-TYPE SEPARATOR
Authors: Peigne Georges , Fauvre Daniel , Chowings Neil
Published: January 2013

From September 30 to October 4, 1991, CEDRE carried out a series of tests on a gravity-type separator (SEPCON) to assess the possibility of its use downstream from a skimming barrier. The apparatus was supplied for these tests by its constructor, the German company JAFO Technology, and is entirely self-contained and designed to accept an input of 80 m3/h. This equipment was particularly adapted for conditions likely to be met during an accidental pollution off the Norwegian shore, where it had previously undergone tests.

The tests carried out at CEDRE involved two petroleum products: marine fuel 50/50 (50 cs at 50° C) and heavy fuel (bunker C). A maximum output was required with a level of hydrocarbons in the mixture varying from about 15 to 50 percent.

Due to the inability of the 50/50 fuel to settle naturally in water, some problems arose, which caused mediocre results. A modification of the internal position of the interface detectors could improve performance. Bunker C tests had better results, although the oil's high viscosity resulted in more water in the oil output. In general, the results obtained for the coil content in the water output are satisfactory (almost always less than 1 percent) although performance needs to be improved for the water content in the oil output (more than 30 percent, and sometimes even 50 percent). Simple modifications, particularly in the interface detectors, are all that seem to be necessary to reduce the water content of the oil output.
DEVELOPMENT OF A STRANDED OIL IN COARSE SEDIMENT (SOCS) MODEL
Authors: Humphrey B. , Owens E. , Sergy G.
Published: January 2013

Oil spills in Canadian waters have a high probability of impacting coarse sediment beaches, yet our ability to predict oil fate and estimate natural self-cleaning rates is less than adequate. Data is lacking to understand fully many oillsediment interactions. Historically, shoreline interactions have been considered using fairly simple concepts.

We examined the processes that may occur on a coarse sediment beach, selected those which are important, and developed a fate and persistence model for stranded oil. The processes were divided into stages relative to the spill event, and the factors which affect each stage were evaluated. Three areas of special interest were the capacity of a beach to hold oil, the residual capacity of a beach for oil, and the long-term fate of the oil. After developing model algorithms, the outputs were compared to a data base of information collected during the Exxon Valdez oil spill.

The stranded oil in coarse sediment model will provide information at two levels: a general level for planning and sensitivity mapping and a more detailed level intended for the prediction of oil fate on specific known beaches. The strengths and weaknesses of the model have been assessed in terms of data deficiencies. The type and nature of the data which are most useful to, and which need to be collected for, spill planning and spill monitoring were identified.
STATUS OF IMPLEMENTATION OF THE OPRC CONVENTION AND RESOLUTION ADOPTED BY THE OPPR CONFERENCE1
Authors: Edwards David T.
Published: January 2013

Participants in the 1991 Oil Spill Conference were informed of the outcome of the IMO Conference on International Cooperation on Oil Pollution Preparedness and Response, in particular the adoption of the International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Co-operation, 1990 (OPRC). Although 27 States signed it, the OPRC stipulates that it will enter into force or become binding one year after 15 States have accepted or ratified it. Although the OPRC, therefore, is not yet in force, IMO Member States, the Secretary-General of IMO, Mr. William O'Neil, and IMO's Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC) have taken concrete actions to facilitate early implementation. In November 1991 the Secretary-General established a coordination center in the Marine Environment Division of IMO to carry out functions assigned to IMO under the OPRC (information services, education and training, technical services, and technical assistance). In March 1992 the MEPC established an OPRC Working Group, in which government and industry experts and representatives of environmental organizations participate, to deal with matters related to implementation of the OPRC. Among the important topics which will be included in the program of the OPRC Working Group through 1992–1993 are links between MARPOL Regulation 26 and OPRC articles 3 and 6 and development of guidelines for the preparation of oil pollution emergency plans for offshore units and seaports; update of IMO's Manual on Oil Pollution, Section II—Contingency Planning; development of guidelines or recommendations on facilitating the movement of response equipment and personnel and the use of response resources during marine pollution incidents; development of research and development clearinghouse functions; development of model training courses and an OPRC training plan; and consideration of ways to expand the scope of the OPRC to include hazardous and noxious substances.
THE RIO ORINOCO AND THE HAVEN—TWO MAJOR CASES FROM A LEGAL POINT OF VIEW
Authors: Jacobsson Måns
Published: January 2013

The International Oil Pollution Compensation Fund (IOPC Fund), an inter-governmental organization with 49 member states, has recently been involved in two major oil spills of great interest from both a legal and a technical point of view. The Rio Orinoco incident occurred in Canada and the Haven incident took place in Italy.

The Rio Orinoco was carrying asphalt when it grounded in the Gulf of St Lawrence. The grounding led to extensive salvage and cleanup operations carried out on behalf of the Canadian authorities. The claims for compensation, totalling 15 million Canadian dollars (12.5 million U.S. dollars), were settled out of court. This paper discusses the main legal problems that arose, for example, the reasonableness of certain operations and the relationship between pollution prevention and salvage.

The Haven exploded off Genoa with 144,000 metric tons of crude oil on board. A large quantity of oil escaped, necessitating extensive cleanup operations in Italy, France, and Monaco. Over 1,300 claims for compensation have been submitted totalling US$1.4 billion. This paper deals with some of the main legal problems that have arisen as a result of this incident, for example, the admissibility of claims relating to non-economic damage to the marine environment and the method to be applied for the conversion of the maximum amount payable by the IOPC Fund into Italian lire.
THE IMPACT OF REGULATIONS ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF OIL SPILL RECOVERY VESSELS
Authors: Bianchi Ralph A.
Published: January 2013

Past, present, and future regulations have imposed and may continue to impose serious and unnecessary restraints on the design, construction, and operation of oil spill recovery vessels (OSRVs). OSRVs have been regulated as tankers under 46 CFR Subchapter D regulations. The application of these regulations to the design and construction of the Clean Sound Cooperative's Shearwater and the Alyeska Pipeline Service Company's Valdez Star and other vessels through the design approval and inspection processes of the American Bureau of Shipping and United States Coast Guard illustrate some of the problems.

Present regulations do not encourage the development of new OSRVs. The regulations regarding OSRVs should be reevaluated. Committees of OSRV designers and users as well as regulators should evaluate comments and recommendations before incorporating them in the design of new OSRVs.
THE SECOND GENERATION OF NATURAL RESOURCE DAMAGE ASSESSMENTS: LESSONS LEARNED?1
Authors: Luthi Randall B. , Burlington Linda B. , Reinharz Eli , Shutler Sharon K.
Published: January 2013

The Damage Assessment Regulations Team (DART), under the Office of General Counsel of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), has centered its efforts on developing natural resource damage assessment regulations for oil pollution in navigable waters. These procedures will likely lower the costs associated with damage assessments, encourage joint cooperative assessments and simplify most assessments.

The DART team of NOAA is developing new regulations for the assessment of damages due to injuries related to oil spills under the Oil Pollution Act of 1990. These regulations will involve coordination, restoration, and economic valuation. Various methods are currently being developed to assess damages for injuries to natural resources. The proposed means include: compensation tables for spills under 50,000 gallons, Type A model, expedited damage assessment (EDA) procedures, and comprehensive procedures. They are being developed to provide trustees with a choice for assessing natural resource damages for each oil spill.
MESOSCALE EXPERIMENTS HELP TO EVALUATE IN-SITU BURNING OF OIL SPILLS1
Authors: Evans David D. , Walton William D. , Baum Howard R. , Notarianni Kathy A. , Tennyson Edward J. , Tebeau Peter A.
Published: January 2013

Burning of spilled oil has distinct advantages over other cleanup countermeasures. It offers the potential to convert rapidly large quantities of oil into its primary combustion products, carbon dioxide and water, with a small percentage of other unburned and residue byproducts. Disadvantages include the dispersal of the combustion products into the air.

Mesoscale and laboratory experiments have been conducted to measure the burning characteristics of crude oil fires. Measurements on crude oil pool fires from 0.4 m to 17.2 m in effective diameter were made to obtain data on the rate of burning, heat release rate, composition of the combustion products, and downwind dispersion of the products. The smaller experiments were performed in laboratories at the National Institute of Standards and Technology and the Fire Research Institute in Japan; and the larger ones at the U. S. Coast Guard Fire Safety and Test Detachment in Mobile, Alabama. From these experiments, the value for surface regression rate of a burning crude oil spill was found to be 0.055 mm/s.

A major concern for public safety is the content and extent of the smoke plume from the fires. Smoke yield, the fraction of the oil mass burned that is emitted as particulate, was found to be 13 percent. A large-eddy simulation calculation method for smoke plume trajectory and smoke particulate deposition developed by NIST showed that the smoke particulate deposition from a 114 m2 burn would occur in striations over a long, slender area 3.2 km wide and 258 km downwind of the burn.
CHEMICAL ANALYSIS METHODS FOR CRUDE OIL
Authors: Wang Zhendi , Fingas Mervin F.
Published: January 2013

Using an oil chemical analysis method developed in our laboratory, more than 280 compounds in the Alberta Sweet Mixed Blend (ASMB) oil have been positively identified. The distribution of selected target compounds offers unique and sensitive fingerprints for matching the source of spilled oil and tracing the weathering process of oil in the environment. The pattern recognition plots involving more than 100 oil-specific individual components and component groupings permit deduction of a best set of values for oil exposure to weathering. Using data from different samples including crude oil, weathered oil, and 22-year-old spilled oil as examples, the distinct advantages of the described method over the current methods are examined.
OIL SPILL INTELLIGENCE REPORT INTERNATIONAL OIL SPILL DATABASE: RECENT TRENDS
Authors: Welch Jeff
Published: January 2013

Several major oil spills toward the end of 1994 may make the early 1990s begin to mirror the pattern of oil spills from the late 1970s and early 1980s, based on data maintained by the staff of the Oil Spill Intelligence Report newsletter.
TRAINING AND DOCUMENTATION1
Authors: Cain Michael D. , George Linda C.
Published: January 2013

This presentation will visually demonstrate information on oil spill response training and documentation for compliance with current requirements, with a link to the response training and documentation requirements of international, federal, state, and local agencies. Administrative support and a computer-generated tracking system are used to assist in compliance with these regulatory requirements.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF POTENTIAL PROTECTION STRATEGIES FOR TIDAL INLETS
Authors: Hayes Miles O. , Montello Todd M.
Published: January 2013

Protection of coastal environments on the landward sides of tidal inlets requires effective systems of booms within the inlets. Protection strategies have been developed for more than 200 inlets on the coasts of California and Florida. They call for the use of deflection booming to divert oil to low-current zones, where it can be collected with skimmers, or to catchment areas along the shore, where it can be cleaned up. The strategies are based on an understanding of the hydrodynamics and geomorphology of the tidal inlets.
LESSONS LEARNED: THE METHODOLOGY OF CONDUCTING OIL SPILL RESPONSE TRAINING
Authors: Bennett Bernard
Published: January 2013

Achieving and maintaining preparedness for oil spill response is similar to other emergency services in that constant training is required to achieve success. Careful consideration of what training is required must be conducted through systematic task and training needs analysis. Only then can the methods and suppliers of such training be selected. Once initiated, the training must be maintained, reinforced, and updated through exercises or other schemes. This paper looks at some lessons learned from conducting oil spill training and concludes that emergency response training for oil spills can be financially justifiable.
EVALUATION OF VARIOUS SURFACE OIL DETECTORS APPLIED TO HAZARDOUS ZONES
Authors: Cabioc'h François , Polard Jean-Pierre , Stephan Catherine
Published: January 2013

Handling hydrocarbons at terminals or refineries leads to many opportunities for oil spills. In a search of the quickest response to this type of spill, the French Direction of Civil Protection funded a study aimed at achieving state of the art detection of oil spills at terminals. CEDRE evaluated four types of oil detectors: ultraviolet, infrared, visible, and a membrane one. The evaluation consisted of measuring the response to various thicknesses and several oils.
THE PERFORMANCE OF BOOMS IN AN OFFSHORE ENVIRONMENT
Authors: Nash James H. , Molsberry David D.
Published: January 2013

The Marine Spill Response Corporation, Southwest Region, conducted offshore oil spill training exercises and boom tests between May 22, 1991, and August 2, 1991. Test documents and still and video pictures document the operations and evaluation of each of the nine booms used. The tests determined operational performance in the following areas: boom handling, loading, securing, deploying, retrieving, seagoing performance, response to waves, and tow force.
BIOREMEDIATION OF OILED BEACH SEDIMENTS: ASSESSMENT OF INORGANIC AND ORGANIC FERTILIZERS
Authors: Lee Kenneth , Tremblay Gilles H. , Cobanli Susan E.
Published: January 2013

The effects of inorganic (ammonium nitrate and triple superphosphate) and organic (fish bone-meal) fertilizers on the biodegradation rates of Venture condensate within a sand-beach environment were assessed over 333 days. Field results showed that the organic fertilizer stimulated microbial growth and metabolic activity to the greatest extent. However, based on chemical analysis of residual oil concentrations and composition, the application of inorganic fertilizers was the superior bioremediation strategy. This paradox between microbiological and chemical results was attributed to the selective growth of different bacterial populations, the preferential use of components within the organic fertilizer over oil by the indigenous microflora, and the production of toxic metabolic by-products from the degradation of the organic fertilizer.
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT AND RECOVERY OF A HIGH MARSH PIPELINE OIL SPILL AND BURN SITE, UPPER COPANO BAY, TEXAS
Authors: Tunnell John W. , Hardegree Beau , Hicks David W.
Published: January 2013

On January 7, 1992, a rupture in an underground oil transfer pipeline resulted in a spill of about 2,950 bbl (469 m3) of crude oil into a high marsh community near Chiltipin Creek, San Patricio County, Texas. Authorization for burning the oil, as a cleanup method, was given by the Texas General Land Office (the designated state on-scene coordinator). The environmental impact of the spill and ensuing burn on this high marsh has been assessed by monitoring changes in the total petroleum hydrocarbon (TPH) content of the associated floral community and soil over time. Ultimately 6.5 ha of oil and vegetation of the 15.5 ha surrounded by sorbent booms were burned, causing them to become barren. These bare patches produced by the burn were rapidly colonized by grasses, mainly Distichlis spicata. Secondary succession by perennial climax species is slow, resulting in significantly lower species diversity and biomass in the oiled and burned area even after 30 months. Significant changes within, and interactions between, impacted and control areas were determined using repeated measures MANOVA. TPH measurements made in December 1992 and repeated in July 1993 show consistent decreases. The obvious disadvantages of burning as a cleanup method in this high marsh area are the substantial initial damage to plants and the high residual hydrocarbon levels in the sediment.
IN SITU BURNING OF ALASKA NORTH SLOPE EMULSIONS
Authors: Buist Ian A. , Glover Nick
Published: January 2013

The onset of water-in-oil emulsion formation in an oil slick often signals the closing of the window of opportunity for in-situ burning as a countermeasure. Water contents in excess of 25 percent in a stable emulsion generally preclude ignition of the slick. A study of in-situ burning of water-in-oil emulsions formed by weathered Alaska North Slope (ANS) crude oil has recently been completed by Alaska Clean Seas. The study consisted of three phases: laboratory-scale burns in Ottawa in a 0.13 m2 burn ring, small-scale burns in Prudhoe Bay in 1.2 m2 and 3.3 m2 pans, and meso-scale burns in a 69 m2 circle of 3M Fire Boom in a water-filled pit at Prudhoe Bay. The laboratory-scale tests showed that stable, weathered ANS crude emulsions could be ignited in-situ using conventional gelled fuel igniters only up to a water content of 25 percent. The combination of adding an oilfield emulsion breaker, Petrolite EXO 0894, and the use of gelled crude oil as an alternate igniter fuel, permitted ignition and efficient combustion of weathered ANS emulsions with water contents of 65 percent, the maximum achievable. The small-scale pan tests conducted in Prudhoe Bay proved the same: that normally unignitable emulsions of weathered ANS crude, up to 65 percent water content, could be successfully ignited and efficiently burned outdoors at 0° to 5°C in winds up to 32 km/h with the application of EXO 0894 one hour prior to ignition. Tests with the Helitorch igniter system suspended from a crane showed that a mixture of gelled gasoline and crude oil was the most effective ignition fuel for the emulsions. Attempts were made to ignite emulsion slicks with gelled igniter fuels containing the emulsion breaker; but this technique did not prove as effective as pre-mixing the breaker into the slick. These tests also indicated that the emulsion burns produced a lighter smoke than that from crude oil. Three meso-scale experimental burns were carried out: one involved approximately 13 m3 (80 bbl) of fresh ANS crude as a baseline; one used about 8 m3 (50 bbl) of a stable 50 percent water-in-weathered crude emulsion; and, the final burn was done with 17 m3 (105 bbl) of stable 60 percent water content emulsion. The oil removal efficiency for the fresh crude oil burn was approximately 98 percent. The oil removal efficiencies for the 50 and 60 percent water emulsions were 97 and 96 percent respectively.
WEATHERING AND CHEMICAL DISPERSION OF OIL AT SEA
Authors: Lewis Alun , Daling Per S. , Strøm-Kristiansen Tove , Nordvik Atle B. , Fiocco Robert J.
Published: January 2013

Small-scale laboratory methods were used to simulate the weathering processes that occur when crude oil is spilled at sea. Changes caused by evaporation and water-in-oil (w/o) emulsification were studied separately. W/o emulsions were assessed for chemical dispersibility using the Institut Français du Petrole (IFP) and Mackay-Nadeau-Steel-man (MNS) methods.

Larger scale experiments were performed in a meso-scale flume. Crude oil was weathered for three days and then sprayed with dispersant. The results show that emulsion breaking is an important part of the mechanism of chemical dispersion. IFP, MNS, and Warren Spring Laboratory (WSL) tests, conducted on w/o emulsions recovered from the flume, produced much lower levels of dispersion than did treatment in the flume. The standard test procedures do not permit emulsion breaking to proceed to the extent observed in the flume.

A sea trial also was conducted. Preliminary evaluation of the results shows that dispersant application partially broke the w/o emulsion that had rapidly formed. Dispersion proceeded at a slow rate but the treated slick was removed from the surface more rapidly than the control slick. The degree of dispersion was difficult to quantify by visual observation due to the weather conditions. A combination of remote sensing, surface sampling, and subsurface fluorometry provided a more reliable estimate.
TESTING AND USE OF SHORELINE CLEANING AGENTS DURING THE MORRIS J. BERMAN OIL SPILL
Authors: Michel Jacqueline , Benggio Bradford L.
Published: January 2013

No. 6 fuel oil from the Morris J. Berman spill in January 1994 coated natural beach rock and man-made structures in areas of high visibility and recreational use in San Juan, Puerto Rico. Chemical shoreline cleaning agents were tested to determine if they increased the amount of oil removed from these hard substrates to the degree needed for such high-use areas. Using laboratory effectiveness screening results, two products were selected for testing: Corexit 9580 and PES-51. Also, Corexit 7664 was tested as an after-cleaning flushing agent. Field tests were conducted on both beach rock and riprap, comparing the chemical products with high-pressure, hot-water washing. The objective was to determine the temperature and pressure needed to remove the oil. On beach rock, water alone was not effective below 175° F and 1,000 psi, the pressure at which friable rock began to chip. On riprap, water up to 1,200 psi and 175° F was effective on smooth surfaces but not on rougher pieces. Both chemical products were more effective than water alone. The Corexit 9580 plots appeared to be cleaner, but the differences were not large. There was no dispersion of the oil treated with PES-51, whereas water flushed from the Corexit 9580 plots contained muddy, brown water, indicating some dispersion at the high water pressures used. The Corexit 7664 flush provided no added oil removal. The regional response team approved the use of Corexit 9580 based on relative effectiveness and toxicity.
CHEMICAL TREATING AGENTS: RESPONSE NICHES AND RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT NEEDS
Authors: Walker Ann Hayward , Kucklick Janet H. , Michel Jacqueline , Scholz Debra K. , Reilly Timothy
Published: January 2013

Chemical oil spill treating agents—here meant to exclude chemical oil spill dispersants, burning agents, and bioremediation agents—are one type of countermeasure used to control the release and/or spread of spilled oil. They are infrequently used in the United States, in part because they have been inadequately tested and demonstrated for efficacy and environmental effects. A study planned and sponsored by the Marine Spill Response Corporation examined the potential utility of chemical treating agents during marine oil spills. Through an extensive literature search and market survey process, this study defined specific product classes and evaluated these classes in terms of operational use, efficacy, and environmental fate and effects. Individual products within each class were also evaluated in terms of these study parameters, and a resultant compendium of available products worldwide was produced. Based on the evaluation, as well as results from a workshop held in conjunction with this project, specific response niches (for example, the application for which the countermeasure is best suited) for chemical treating agent classes were proposed. The niches were determined partially by evaluating the classes’ relative effectiveness according to oil type and degree of weathering. The study also recommended research and development needs.
LIABILITY INCENTIVES FOR REDUCING THE COSTS OF OIL SPILLS
Authors: Lively-Diebold Bobbie , Ameer Paul , Yoshioka Gary , Anand Justin
Published: January 2013

This paper briefly reviews the economics of liability law related to oil pollution and analyzes selected federal statutes and court cases to assess how liability law has evolved over time in terms of creating incentives for potential spillers to reduce the societal cost of oil spills. Based on a review of statutes and judge-made law, it appears that prior to the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA 90), the liability provisions of statutes and judge-made law may have failed to provide spillers with sufficient incentives to invest in spill prevention and minimize the societal cost of spills. The OPA liability provisions and judge-made law related to federal government natural resource damage assessment procedures have strengthened the incentive structure by making potential spillers liable for the range of costs of oil spills. However, a sufficient body of judge-made law is not yet available to draw any definitive conclusions about the extent to which the new liability regime created in part by OPA 90 will lead to significantly different outcomes and therefore compel industry to adjust behavior accordingly.