bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
TREATING TOTAL LIQUID REFUSAL WITH BACKWARD CHAINING AND FADING
Authors: Hagopian Louis P. , Farrell Debra A. , Amari Adrianna
Published: March 2006

In this study, we report on a 12‐year‐old boy with autism, mental retardation, and a history of severe gastrointestinal problems who presented with total liquid and food refusal. Backward chaining was used to shape drinking from a cup, and a fading procedure was used to increase the quantity of water he was required to drink.
USING REINFORCEMENT‐BASED METHODS TO ENHANCE MEMBERSHIP RECRUITMENT IN A VOLUNTEER ORGANIZATION
Authors: Herndon Elise J. , Mikulas William L.
Published: March 2006

The present study employed reinforcement‐based methods to induce existing members to recruit new members to join a chamber of commerce. Three interventions took place during June and July of 3 successive years. The investigators trained chamber leaders to use reinforcement methods (e.g., contingent tokens) to reinforce recruitment and dues collections. All three interventions produced substantial increases in their targets.
DEFINING, VALIDATING, AND INCREASING INDICES OF HAPPINESS AMONG PEOPLE WITH PROFOUND MULTIPLE DISABILITIES
Authors: Green Carolyn W. , Reid Dennis H.
Published: March 2006

In this study we attempted to operationalize, measure, and increase happiness among people with profound disabilities. Happiness indices were defined and observed among 5 individuals. Validation measures indicated that (a) increases in happiness indices were observed when individuals were presented with most preferred stimuli relative to least preferred stimuli, (b) increases in unhappiness indices were observed when they were presented with least preferred relative to most preferred stimuli, and (c) practitioner ratings of participant happiness coincided with observed indices. Subsequently, classroom staff increased happiness indices through presentation and contingent withdrawal of activities. Results suggested that a behavioral approach can enhance happiness as one aspect of quality of life among people with profound disabilities. Research directions are offered that focus on using a behavioral approach to investigate other private events that are important among people with disabilities.
DEFINING CHILD NONCOMPLIANCE: AN EXAMINATION OF TEMPORAL PARAMETERS
Authors: Shriver Mark D. , Allen Keith D.
Published: March 2006

This study examined compliance parameters for 53 clinic‐referred and nonreferred children, ages 2 to 10 years. Although there were significant differences between the referred and nonreferred samples for percentage compliance, there were no significant differences between the referred and nonreferred samples in terms of initiation or completion latencies. The average initiation latency was 5.92 s, whereas 98% of the sample initiated compliance within 14 s. Younger children did take longer to complete tasks. Results suggest that the use of short latencies in defining noncompliance may represent overly conservative criteria.
ON THE RELATION OF MANDS AND THE FUNCTION OF DESTRUCTIVE BEHAVIOR
Authors: Bowman Lynn G. , Fisher Wayne W. , Thompson Rachel H. , Piazza Cathleen C.
Published: March 2006

When standard analogue functional analysis procedures produce inconclusive results in children with conversational speech, the child's mands may help to identify the function of destructive behavior. In the current investigation, functional analyses conducted with 2 children who exhibited self‐injury, aggression, and property destruction were undifferentiated across conditions. Based on informal observations and school and parental report, an analysis was conducted using mands to help determine the function of the destructive behavior. Using a multielement design, the therapist's compliance with the child's mands occurred either on a fixed‐ratio (FR) 1 schedule or contingent on destructive behavior. Destructive behavior occurred at high and consistent levels when reinforcement of mands was contingent on destructive behavior and at near‐zero levels when reinforcement of mands occurred on the FR 1 schedule. Based on these results, a second analysis was conducted in which compliance to mands occurred only when the child appropriately requested it (i.e., functional communication training plus extinction) and, for 1 child, compliance with mands was terminated contingent upon destructive behavior (i.e., functional communication training plus response cost). For both children, the rates of destructive behavior decreased markedly. The results suggest that assessing the child's mands may be useful in decreasing destructive behavior when a functional analysis is inconclusive.
THE USE OF POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT IN THE TREATMENT OF ESCAPE‐MAINTAINED DESTRUCTIVE BEHAVIOR
Authors: Piazza Cathleen C. , Fisher Wayne W. , Hanley Gregory P. , Remick Matthew L. , Contrucci Stephanie A. , Aitken Tammera L.
Published: March 2006

We identified 3 clients whose destructive behavior was sensitive to negative reinforcement (break from tasks) and positive reinforcement (access to tangible items, attention, or both). In an instructional context, we then evaluated the effects of reinforcing compliance with one, two, or all of these consequences (a break, tangible items, attention) when destructive behavior produced a break and when it did not (escape extinction). For 2 clients, destructive behavior decreased and compliance increased when compliance produced access to tangible items, even though destructive behavior resulted in a break. For 1 client, extinction was necessary to reduce destructive behavior and to increase compliance. Subsequently, when the schedule of reinforcement for compliance was faded for all clients, destructive behavior was lower and fading proceeded more rapidly when compliance produced multiple functional reinforcers (i.e., a break plus tangible items or attention) and destructive behavior was on extinction. The results are discussed in terms of the effects of relative reinforcement value and extinction on concurrent operants.
TOWARD THE DEVELOPMENT OF STRUCTURED CRITERIA FOR INTERPRETATION OF FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS DATA
Authors: Hagopian Louis P. , Fisher Wayne W. , Thompson Rachel H. , Owen‐DeSchryver Jamie , Iwata Brian A. , Wacker David P.
Published: March 2006

Using functional analysis results to prescribe treatments is the preferred method for developing behavioral interventions. Little is known, however, about the reliability and validity of visual inspection for the interpretation of functional analysis data. The purpose of this investigation was to develop a set of structured criteria for visual inspection of multielement functional analyses that, when applied correctly, would increase interrater agreement and agreement with interpretations reached by expert consensus. In Study 1, 3 predoctoral interns interpreted functional analysis graphs, and interrater agreement was low (M = .46). In Study 2, 64 functional analysis graphs were interpreted by a panel of experts, and then a set of structured criteria were developed that yielded interpretive results similar to those of the panel (exact agreement = .94). In Study 3, the 3 predoctoral interns from Study 1 were trained to use the structured criteria, and the mean interrater agreement coefficient increased to .81. The results suggest that (a) the interpretation of functional analysis data may be less reliable than is generally assumed, (b) decision‐making rules used by experts in the interpretation of functional analysis data can be operationalized, and (c) individuals can be trained to apply these rules accurately to increase interrater agreement. Potential uses of the criteria are discussed.
THE EFFECTS OF ORAL PRESENTATION PREVIEWING RATES ON READING PERFORMANCE
Authors: Skinner Christopher H. , Cooper Lisa , Cole Christine L.
Published: March 2006

A multielement design was used to compare the effects of rapid oral presentation and slow oral presentation during listening previewing on rates of accurate oral rereading. The participants were 2 elementary students with reading skills deficits. For both students, rates of accurate oral rereading were higher when adults reduced their oral reading rates as students read silently.
PICTURE NAMING, MATCHING TO SAMPLE, AND HEAD INJURY: A STIMULUS CONTROL ANALYSIS
Authors: Geren Mark A. , Stromer Robert , Mackay Harry A.
Published: March 2006

Computer‐based procedures were used to examine oral naming and matching‐to‐sample performances in an adult with a head injury. Relatively few errors occurred when pictures were (a) named, (b) matched to dictated names presented simultaneously, (c) matched to dictation after a delay, and (d) matched to identical pictures presented simultaneously. More errors occurred on delayed than on simultaneous identity matching. On delayed matching trials, fewer errors occurred when instructions to name the samples were given.
BASIC AND APPLIED RESEARCH ON CHOICE RESPONDING
Authors: Fisher Wayne W. , Mazur James E.
Published: March 2006

Choice responding refers to the manner in which individuals allocate their time or responding among available response options. In this article, we first review basic investigations that have identified and examined variables that influence choice responding, such as response effort and reinforcement rate, immediacy, and quality. We then describe recent bridge and applied studies that illustrate how the results of basic research on choice responding can help to account for human behavior in natural environments and improve clinical assessments and interventions.
ASSESSMENT OF PREFERENCE FOR VARIED VERSUS CONSTANT REINFORCERS
Authors: Bowman Lynn G. , Piazza Cathleen C. , Fisher Wayne W. , Hagopian Louis P. , Kogan Jeffrey S.
Published: March 2006

One method that has been demonstrated to improve the effectiveness of reinforcement is stimulus (reinforcer) variation (Egel, 1980). Egel found that bar pressing increased and responding occurred more rapidly during varied reinforcement than during constant reinforcement when identical stimuli were used across phases for 10 individuals with autism. The purpose of the current investigation was to assess the preferences of 7 individuals for varied presentation of slightly lower quality stimuli relative to constant access to the highest quality stimulus. Varied presentation was preferred over constant reinforcer presentation with 4 participants, and the opposite was true for 2 participants. One participant did not demonstrate a preference. These results suggest that stimulus variation may allow less preferred reinforcers to compete effectively with a more highly preferred reinforcer for some individuals.
EVALUATION OF CLIENT PREFERENCE FOR FUNCTION‐BASED TREATMENT PACKAGES
Authors: Hanley Gregory P. , Piazza Cathleen C. , Fisher Wayne W. , Contrucci Stephanie A. , Maglieri Kristen A.
Published: March 2006

Functional communication training (FCT) and noncontingent reinforcement (NCR) are commonly prescribed treatments that are based on the results of a functional analysis. Both treatments involve delivery of the reinforcer that is responsible for the maintenance of destructive behavior. One major difference between the two treatment procedures is that client responding determines reinforcement delivery with FCT (e.g., reinforcement of communication is delivered on a fixed‐ratio 1 schedule) but not with NCR (e.g., reinforcement is delivered on a fixed‐time 30‐s schedule). In the current investigation, FCT and NCR were equally effective in reducing 2 participants' destructive behavior that was sensitive to attention as reinforcement. After the treatment analysis, the participants' relative preference for each treatment was evaluated using a modified concurrent‐chains procedure. Both participants demonstrated a preference for the FCT procedure. The results are discussed in terms of treatment efficacy and preference for control over when reinforcement is delivered. In addition, a method is demonstrated in which clients with developmental disabilities can participate in selecting treatments that are designed to reduce their destructive behavior.
A PERFORMANCE IMPROVEMENT PROGRAM FOR AN INTERNATIONAL‐LEVEL TRACK AND FIELD ATHLETE
Authors: Scott David , Scott Lorna M. , Goldwater Bram
Published: March 2006

This study outlined the development, implementation, and evaluation of an intervention strategy that was designed to improve the technical skill and performance of an international‐level pole vaulter. Intervention, in the form of a prompting and shaping procedure, consisted of breaking a photoelectric beam with the hands at the moment of take‐off. The height of the beam was gradually increased until the vaulter reached maximum arm extension at take‐off. Increase in arm extension was matched by an increase in bar height clearance.
USE OF EXTINCTION AND REINFORCEMENT TO INCREASE FOOD CONSUMPTION AND REDUCE EXPULSION
Authors: Coe David A. , Babbitt Roberta L. , Williams Keith E. , Hajimihalis Constance , Snyder Angela M. , Ballard Christopher , Efron Lisa A.
Published: March 2006

Extinction and reinforcement contingencies were used to treat 2 children with feeding disorders. Positive reinforcement and avoidance extinction effectively increased food acceptance but also increased food expulsion. Reduced expulsion and increased swallowing were achieved by repeated presentation of expelled food, a second extinction component.
TEACHING RECEPTIVE NAMING OF CHINESE CHARACTERS TO CHILDREN WITH AUTISM BY INCORPORATING ECHOLALIA
Authors: Leung Jin‐Pang , Wu Kit‐I
Published: March 2006

The facilitative effect of incorporating echolalia on teaching receptive naming of Chinese characters to children with autism was assessed. In Experiment 1, echoing the requested character name prior to the receptive naming task facilitated matching a character to its name. In addition, task performance was consistently maintained only when echolalia preceded the receptive manual response. Positive results from generalization tests suggested that learned responses occurred across various novel conditions. In Experiment 2, we examined the relation between task difficulty and speed of acquisition. All 3 participants achieved 100% correct responding in training, but learning less discriminable characters took more trials than learning more discriminable characters. These results provide support for incorporating echolalia as an educational tool within language instruction for some children with autism.
USING NEUTRALIZING ROUTINES TO REDUCE PROBLEM BEHAVIORS
Authors: Horner Robert h. , Day H. Michael , Day Julie R.
Published: March 2006

Establishing operations can alter problem behaviors by changing the momentary value of reinforcers associated with those problem behaviors. If establishing operations (EOs) precede the presentation of discriminative stimuli (SDs) for problem behaviors, it may be possible to introduce neutralizing routines that both reduce the value of reinforcers associated with problem behaviors and decrease the occurrence of problem behaviors. The present study examined this logic with 3 adolescents with severe intellectual disabilities. Initial functional analyses indicated that problem behaviors were motivated by either escape or tangible items. Functional assessment interviews identified possible establishing operations that were associated with the occurrence of problem behavior and indicated that these establishing operations occurred over 1 hr before presentation of the SD for problem behaviors. We used an alternating treatments design to examine problem behaviors during instruction under four conditions: EO + SD, SD only, EO only, and neither SD nor EO. For all 3 participants, problem behaviors occurred almost exclusively during the EO + SD condition. A further analysis compared the EO + SD condition when neutralizing routines were embedded between the EO and the SD. Results from an ABAB reversal design supported the effectiveness of neutralizing routines to reduce these problem behaviors. Applied and theoretical implications are discussed.
AN EVALUATION OF METHYLPHENIDATE AS A POTENTIAL ESTABLISHING OPERATION FOR SOME COMMON CLASSROOM REINFORCERS
Authors: Northup John , Fusilier Iantha , Swanson Victoria , Roane Henry , Borrero John
Published: March 2006

We conducted reinforcer assessments for 3 boys with a diagnosis of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder who alternately received either placebo or previously prescribed methylphenidate. Our purpose was to evaluate whether methylphenidate altered the relative reinforcing effectiveness of various stimuli that are often used in classroom‐based behavioral treatment programs (e.g., activities, tangible items). Results showed clear differences for some stimuli between reinforcer assessments conducted when participants had received methylphenidate compared to placebo. Results suggest that methylphenidate might act as an establishing operation for some common classroom reinforcers. Implications for the development and evaluation of behavioral treatments are discussed.
COMPREHENSIVE SCHOOL‐BASED BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT OF THE EFFECTS OF METHYLPHENIDATE
Authors: Gulley Veronica , Northup John
Published: March 2006

Individualized assessments of the effects of three doses of methylphenidate (MPH) were conducted for 2 students with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder within each child's classroom using behavioral, academic, and social measures. A double‐blind, placebo‐controlled, multielement design was used to evaluate the results. Results suggested that at least one or more dosages of MPH were associated with some degree of improvement for both children in each area of functioning as compared to placebo. However, the degree of improvement at times varied substantially across dosage and area of functioning. Results suggest that MPH dosage and area of child functioning are critical assessment parameters and that controlled clinical trials are necessary to optimize the effectiveness of treatment with MPH for the individual child.
FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS AND TREATMENT OF SOCIAL‐COMMUNICATIVE BEHAVIOR OF ADOLESCENTS WITH DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES
Authors: Frea William D. , Hughes Carolyn
Published: March 2006

This investigation used functional analyses to identify the social variables that maintained the inappropriate social‐communicative behaviors of 2 adolescent students with mental retardation. Analyses were performed in the students' classrooms with the assistance of peers and teachers. The results of these assessments were used to identify appropriate, functionally equivalent behaviors that the students were taught to self‐monitor. Findings showed substantial decreases in inappropriate social responding and increases in the use of appropriate social skills.
USING PRETREATMENT AND POSTTREATMENT ASSESSMENTS TO ENHANCE AND EVALUATE EXISTING TREATMENT PACKAGES
Authors: Richman David M. , Berg Wendy K. , Wacker David P. , Stephens Tracy , Rankin Barbara , Kilroy Jennette
Published: March 2006

Pretreatment assessment data were used to enhance an existing treatment package to reduce aggression and to increase positive social interactions between a young boy and his peers. Based on the results of pretreatment assessments, additional reinforcement (differential reinforcement of alternative behavior with adult attention) and punishment (performing a nonpreferred task during time‐out) components were added to an existing nonresetting differential reinforcement of other behavior (access to peers unless aggression occurred) plus time‐out procedure. A posttreatment component analysis of the additional treatment components indicated that the reinforcement component facilitated positive social interactions and the punishment component suppressed aggression towards peers.
ASSESSMENT‐BASED INTERVENTION FOR SEVERE BEHAVIOR PROBLEMS IN A NATURAL FAMILY CONTEXT
Authors: Vaughn Bobbie J. , Clarke Shelley , Dunlap Glen
Published: March 2006

Functional assessments and assessment‐based interventions were conducted with a boy with disabilities and severe problem behavior in the context of two family routines: using the bathroom in the family home and dining in a fast‐food restaurant. A multiple baseline design demonstrated the effectiveness of the intervention package as implemented by the boy's mother in the two routines. The results provide a systematic replication and extension of behavior‐analytic interventions in natural family contexts.
DOES FUNCTIONAL COMMUNICATION TRAINING COMPETE WITH ONGOING CONTINGENCIES OF REINFORCEMENT? AN ANALYSIS DURING RESPONSE ACQUISITION AND MAINTENANCE
Authors: Shirley Melissa J. , Iwata Brian A. , Kahng SungWoo , Mazaleski Jodi L. , Lerman Dorothea C.
Published: March 2006

We examined the effectiveness of functional communication training (FCT) in reducing self‐injurious behavior (SIB) and in shaping an alternative (communicative) response while SIB continued to be reinforced. Following a functional analysis of 3 individuals' SIB, we attempted to teach an alternative response consisting of a manual sign to each individual, using the reinforcer that maintained SIB. When FCT was implemented without extinction, SIB remained at baseline rates for all participants, and none of the participants acquired the alternative response. When extinction was added to the training procedure, SIB decreased and manual signing increased for all participants. To determine if signing, when established, would compete with SIB when both were reinforced, extinction was then withdrawn. Signing was maintained and SIB occurred at low rates for 2 individuals, but SIB returned to baseline rates for the 3rd individual, necessitating the reimplementation of extinction. These results suggest that it may be difficult to establish alternative behaviors if inappropriate behavior continues to be reinforced, but that, when established, alternative behavior might compete successfully with ongoing contingencies of reinforcement for inappropriate behavior.
TREATMENT OF SLEEP PROBLEMS IN A TODDLER: A REPLICATION OF THE FADED BEDTIME WITH RESPONSE COST PROTOCOL
Authors: Ashbaugh Rosemary , Peck Stephanie M.
Published: March 2006

Multiple sleep problems of a 2‐year‐old girl improved following treatment with a faded bedtime with response cost procedure (Piazza & Fisher, 1991). These results extend the literature by implementing treatment in a home setting with a nondisabled child using the parents as therapists.
TREATMENT OF PICA THROUGH MULTIPLE ANALYSES OF ITS REINFORCING FUNCTIONS
Authors: Piazza Cathleen C. , Fisher Wayne W. , Hanley Gregory P. , Leblanc Linda A. , Worsdell April S. , Lindauer Steven E. , Keeney Kris M.
Published: March 2006

We conducted functional analyses of the pica of 3 participants. The pica of 1 participant appeared to be maintained by automatic reinforcement; that of the other 2 participants appeared to be multiply controlled by social and automatic reinforcement. Subsequent preference and treatment analyses were used to identify stimuli that would compete with the automatic function of pica for the 3 participants. These analyses also identified the specific aspect of oral stimulation that served as automatic reinforcement for 2 of the participants. In addition, functional analysis‐based treatments were used to address the socially motivated components of 2 of the participants' pica. Results are discussed in terms of (a) the importance of using the results of functional analyses to develop treatments for pica and (b) the advantages of developing indirect analyses to identify specific sources of reinforcement for automatically reinforced behavior.
SOCIAL INTERACTION SKILLS FOR CHILDREN WITH AUTISM: A SCRIPT‐FADING PROCEDURE FOR BEGINNING READERS
Authors: Krantz Patricia J. , McClannahan Lynn E.
Published: March 2006

Engaging in spontaneous social exchanges is a central skill deficit of children with autism, and one that is often difficult to remediate. The 3 boys (ages 4, 4, and 5 years) who participated in this study had acquired small verbal repertoires, but typically spoke only when answering questions or requesting preferred edible items or toys, and did not converse with a familiar teacher during baseline. During teaching, textual cues (“Look” and “Watch me”) were embedded in the youngsters' photographic activity schedules; after learning to use the scripts, the children's verbal elaborations and unscripted interactions increased and were maintained when a new recipient of interaction was introduced. After scripts were faded, unscripted interactions not only continued but also generalized to different activities that had not been the topic of teaching. The script‐fading procedure enabled children with autism to converse with adults, to benefit from adults' language models, and to engage in language practice that contributes to fluency.
EFFECTIVENESS OF FUNCTIONAL COMMUNICATION TRAINING WITH AND WITHOUT EXTINCTION AND PUNISHMENT: A SUMMARY OF 21 INPATIENT CASES
Authors: Hagopian Louis P. , Fisher Wayne W. , Sullivan Michelle Thibault , Acquisto Jean , LeBlanc Linda A.
Published: March 2006

Functional communication training (FCT) is a frequently used treatment for reducing problem behavior exhibited by individuals with developmental disabilities. Once the operant function of problem behavior is identified by a functional analysis, the client is taught to emit an appropriate communicative response to obtain the reinforcer that is responsible for behavioral maintenance. Studies on FCT have typically used small numbers of participants, have reported primarily on clients for whom FCT was successful, and have varied with respect to their use of other treatment components. The main purposes of the present study were to evaluate the efficacy of FCT for treating severe problem behavior in a relatively large sample of individuals with mental retardation (N = 21) and to determine the contribution of extinction and punishment components to FCT treatment packages. FCT with extinction was effective in reducing problem behavior for the majority of clients and resulted in at least a 90% reduction in problem behavior in nearly half the applications. However, when demand or delay‐to‐reinforcement fading was added to FCT with extinction, treatment efficacy was reduced in about one half of the applications. FCT with punishment (both with and without fading) resulted in at least a 90% reduction in problem behavior for every case in which it was applied.
VISUAL IDENTITY MATCHING AND AUDITORY‐VISUAL MATCHING: A PROCEDURAL NOTE
Authors: Kelly Shelagh , Green Gina , Sidman Murray
Published: March 2006

After preliminary computerized training on visual‐visual identity matching, a 5‐year‐old boy with autism (Sam) was given visual‐visual and auditory‐visual matching‐to‐sample tests with new stimuli. He did well in matching dictated name samples to 20 pictures, 26 printed upper case letters, and 9 single‐digit numbers. In matching the visual stimuli (pictures, letters, or numbers) to themselves, however, he did not perform well. We then increased the number of picture comparisons per trial from two to three. In tests after this three‐comparison training, Sam correctly matched on 95% of the original 20‐stimulus, four‐comparison, identity‐matching test trials. He went on to demonstrate accurate identity matching of the numbers, letters, and new pictures. In identity‐matching tests on the table top, he performed poorly until the stimulus array was made to resemble the stimulus arrangement on the computer. These findings showed that seemingly small procedural changes can influence performance and demonstrated that successful auditory‐visual matching does not guarantee proficiency in visual‐visual identity matching.
WHEN PERFORMANCE IMPROVEMENT IS THE GOAL: A NEW SET OF CRITERIA FOR CRITERIA
Authors: Komaki Judith L.
Published: March 2006

Weitz (1961), aware of the lure of tradition and expedience, urged the identification of evaluation standards for dependent variables, which he referred to as criteria for criteria. In this article, five criteria are proposed using the mnemonic SURF & C: the directness of sampling (S); the responsiveness of the target (i.e., making sure the dependent variable is under (U) the worker's control); the reliability (R) of observers; the frequent (F) assessment of the target during the intervention period; and the critical (C) nature of the target. Together the criteria provide guidelines for what and how targets should be assessed. Their necessity is illustrated in two year‐long experiments designed to improve the preventive maintenance of heavy equipment in the U.S. Marine Corps. Although the criteria are limited to evaluating dependent variables in field experiments, they are recommended as the foundation for successful performance efforts in any applied setting.
INCREASING COMPLIANCE WITH MEDICAL PROCEDURES: APPLICATION OF THE HIGH‐PROBABILITY REQUEST PROCEDURE TO A TODDLER
Authors: McComas Jennifer J. , Wacker David P. , Cooper Linda J.
Published: March 2006

The effects of high‐probability (high‐p) requests on compliance with low‐probability (low‐p) responses have received increased attention from applied investigators. This study examined the effects of a high‐p procedure on a toddler's compliance with medical procedures. Compliance to low‐p requests occurred more frequently following compliance to high‐p requests, suggesting that this procedure may be useful across different topographies of compliance.
EFFECTS OF IMMEDIATE SELF‐CORRECTION, DELAYED SELF‐CORRECTION, AND NO CORRECTION ON THE ACQUISITION AND MAINTENANCE OF MULTIPLICATION FACTS BY A FOURTH‐GRADE STUDENT WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES
Authors: Bennett Kristine , Cavanaugh Rodney A.
Published: March 2006

This study compared the effects of immediate self‐correction, delayed self‐correction, and no correction on the acquisition and maintenance of multiplication facts by a fourth‐grade student with learning disabilities. Data from daily and maintenance tests indicated that both correct response rate and accuracy were higher when self‐correction was immediate rather than delayed or absent.
TEACHING MULTIPLICATION FACTS TO STUDENTS WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES
Authors: Wood Donna K. , Frank Alan R. , Wacker David P.
Published: March 2006

Multiple baseline designs were used to examine the effects of an instructional package on accuracy of performance in solving multiplication facts by 3 students with learning disabilities. The instructional package included the following components: (a) a modified instructional sequence in which multiplication facts were grouped into the zeros, ones, doubles, fives, and nines categories, and those remaining; (b) identification of the category in which each fact belonged; (c) mnemonic strategies associated with solving facts in each category; and (d) steps to be completed for solving facts in each category. Results indicated that the instructional package produced substantial and immediate effects. After receiving instruction, a participant's accuracy was often 100%, and this was maintained throughout the evaluation even as other strategies were introduced. Comparable results occurred across students, demonstrating replication of the effects of the instructional package.
UTILIZING INCREASED RESPONSE EFFORT TO REDUCE CHRONIC HAND MOUTHING
Authors: Irvin Douglas S. , Thompson Thomas J. , Turner William D. , Williams Dorothy E.
Published: March 2006

The effects of increased response effort on levels of hand mouthing, leisure engagement, and adaptive elbow flexion were investigated with 2 individuals who had been diagnosed with profound disabilities. Arm restraints designed to alter the amount of physical effort necessary to engage in hand mouthing were used. Results indicated that the treatment strategy reduced levels of hand mouthing but produced only small to moderate reductions in levels of leisure engagement and adaptive elbow flexion. At follow‐up, the effects of increased response effort on hand mouthing and leisure engagement were maintained for both participants; however, the restraints were associated with substantial reductions in adaptive elbow flexion for 1 participant.
TEACHING ELEMENTARY STUDENTS WITH DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES TO RECRUIT TEACHER ATTENTION IN A GENERAL EDUCATION CLASSROOM: EFFECTS ON TEACHER PRAISE AND ACADEMIC PRODUCTIVITY
Authors: Craft Michele A. , Alber Sheila R. , Heward William L.
Published: March 2006

Four fourth graders with developmental disabilities were trained to recruit teacher attention while they worked on spelling assignments in a general education classroom. The students were taught to show their work to the teacher two to three times per session and to make statements such as, “How am I doing?” or “Look, I'm all finished!” Training was conducted in the special education classroom and consisted of modeling, role playing, error correction, and praise. A multiple baseline across students design showed that recruitment training increased (a) the frequency of students' recruiting, (b) the frequency of teacher praise received by the students, (c) the percentage of worksheet items completed, and (d) the accuracy with which the students completed the spelling assignments.
IMPROVING THE ACCURACY OF SELF‐REPORTS OF ADHERENCE
Authors: Finney Jack W. , Putnam Dana E. , Boyd Christopher M.
Published: March 2006

Behavioral scientists who study socially important but difficult‐to‐measure behaviors often rely on self‐reports. We evaluated the influence of three experimenter demands—demand for adherence, demand for accurate reports, and demand for accurate reports combined with a prompted recall strategy—on the accuracy of self‐reports of adherence to a week‐long prescribed regimen of twice‐daily telephone calls. Self‐reports of adherence were significantly more accurate in the accuracy demand/prompted recall group (p < .05). The analogue study should be replicated with other regimens and populations to determine the most effective strategies for enhancing the accuracy of self‐reports.
ASSESSMENT AND TREATMENT OF DESTRUCTIVE BEHAVIOR MAINTAINED BY STEREOTYPIC OBJECT MANIPULATION
Authors: Fisher Wayne W. , Lindauer Steven E. , Alterson Cindy J. , Thompson Rachel H.
Published: March 2006

In the current investigation, 2 participants with mental retardation displayed property destruction and stereotypy, and both responses involved the same materials (e.g., breaking and tapping plastic objects). Three experiments were conducted (a) to indirectly assess the functions of these two responses, (b) to determine their relation to one another, and (c) to develop a treatment to reduce the more serious behavior, property destruction. In Experiment 1, previously destroyed materials were either present or absent, and their presence reduced property destruction but not stereotypy. In Experiment 2, matched toys (ones that produced sensory stimulation similar to stereotypy) were either present or absent, or were replaced by unmatched toys (for 1 participant). Matched toys produced large reductions and unmatched toys produced small reductions in property destruction and stereotypy. In Experiment 3, attempts to pick up undestroyed objects were either blocked or not blocked while matched toys were continuously available. Response blocking reduced property destruction (and attempts), prevented stereotypy, and increased manipulation of matched toys. These results suggest that the two aberrant responses formed a chain (e.g., breaking and then tapping the object), which was maintained by the sensory consequences (e.g., auditory stimulation) of the terminal response, and that previously destroyed material or matched toys made the initial response (property destruction) unnecessary.
USE OF TEXTURE FADING IN THE TREATMENT OF FOOD SELECTIVITY
Authors: Shore Bridget A. , Babbitt Roberta L. , Williams Keith E. , Coe David A. , Snyder Angela
Published: March 2006

Children with feeding disorders often display severe food selectivity. For many of these children, consuming highly textured foods may be aversive or potentially dangerous because of frequent gagging. The purpose of this study was to demonstrate the efficacy of texture fading in the treatment of food selectivity displayed by 4 children. Treatment involved the gradual addition of higher textures based on the results of periodic probes. In addition, food acceptance and swallowing were reinforced, while food refusal and food expulsion were placed on extinction. Results showed that all participants successfully advanced to consumption of age‐appropriate texture and volume. The results suggest that texture fading with intermittent probes at higher textures may be an effective method for the treatment of food selectivity by texture.
PLAY VERSUS ALONE CONDITIONS AS CONTROLS DURING FUNCTIONAL ANALYSES OF SELF‐INJURIOUS ESCAPE BEHAVIOR
Authors: Kahng SungWoo , Iwata Brian A.
Published: March 2006

We compared the effects of continuous reinforcement (play) and alone conditions as controls during functional analyses for 66 individuals whose self‐injurious behavior (SIB) was maintained by escape. In every case, SIB was lower during both control conditions than it was during the test (demand) condition. However, SIB was lowest during the alone condition more often than it was during the play condition. Circumstances under which the alone condition might serve as an alternative or more suitable control for escape‐maintained problem behaviors are discussed.
EFFECTS OF WARNING STIMULI FOR REINFORCER WITHDRAWAL AND TASK ONSET ON SELF‐INJURY
Authors: Mace Amy Boyajian , Shapiro Edward S. , Mace F. Charles
Published: March 2006

Results of a functional analysis of self‐injurious behavior (SIB) in a child with autism showed that her SIB was maintained by access to preferred objects and escape or avoidance of task demands. Extinction and noncontingent reinforcement treatments were supplemented by presenting a statement combined with a picture cue at 30‐s intervals indicating that a preferred object would be removed or a task would be presented. Warning stimuli in combination with extinction and noncontingent reinforcement reduced SIB to acceptable levels. SIB rates remained comparatively high in a control condition consisting of a 2‐min delay to onset of reinforcer removal or task demands.
INCREASING RECYCLING IN ACADEMIC BUILDINGS: A SYSTEMATIC REPLICATION
Authors: Ludwig Timothy D. , Gray Timothy W. , Rowell Allison
Published: March 2006

We placed recycling receptacles in two locations in academic buildings and studied recycling behavior within an ABA multiple baseline design. During baseline, recycling receptacles were placed in a central location. During the intervention, receptacles were moved into classrooms where beverages were primarily consumed. Baseline conditions were then reinstated. The percentage of cans recycled daily increased during intervention and returned to near‐baseline levels during withdrawal. The percentage of cans discarded daily in the trash decreased during the intervention and increased to near‐baseline levels during withdrawal. Implications of this study include making recycling more convenient in institutional settings.
THE FRED S. KELLER SCHOOL
Authors: Twyman Janet S.
Published: March 2006

The Fred S. Keller School is located in Yonkers, New York, and is one of several schools operating as a Comprehensive Application of Behavior Analysis to Schooling (CABAS®) program. CABAS® schools are self‐correcting and self‐sustaining, and incorporate the science of teaching into every aspect of schooling. The Keller School functions as a cybernetic system of education in which the individualized instruction of each student influences the behavior of the entire education community. Student opportunities to learn are continuously measured, graphed, evaluated, and, as necessary, modified. Staff training occurs as a function of the programmatic needs of each student and the repertoire of the individual staff member. Supervisors are master teachers whose behavior is directly tied to the learning of the students and other staff. Parents are also taught principles of behavior as they relate to the education of their child, and parenting behaviors are changed based upon the needs and progress of the child. The behavior of the entire school (including efficacy and efficiency measures, the development of repertoires) is influenced by the performance of each individual within it.
THE EFFECT OF REINFORCER PREFERENCE ON FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS OUTCOMES
Authors: Lalli Joseph S. , Kates Kelly
Published: March 2006

We combined functional analyses and concurrent‐schedule assessments to identify reinforcer preference during situations in which problem behavior may have been multiply controlled. Participants were 3 children with developmental delays who engaged in problem behavior during toy play with another child and one adult present, suggesting that problem behavior may have been maintained by adult attention or access to tangible reinforcement. Thus, conditions were designed to test attention and access‐to‐toys hypotheses. Initial functional analyses suggested multiple control. Subsequent concurrent‐schedule assessments identified preference between the reinforcers, and treatments were based on these findings. Findings are discussed regarding the assessment of potentially multiply controlled problem behavior.
DECREASING SIGNS OF NEGATIVE AFFECT AND CORRELATED SELF‐INJURY IN AN INDIVIDUAL WITH MENTAL RETARDATION AND MOOD DISTURBANCES
Authors: Lindauer Steven E. , DeLeon Iser G. , Fisher Wayne W.
Published: March 2006

We evaluated the effects of an enriched environment, based on a paired‐choice preference assessment, on both rates of self‐injurious behavior (SIB) and percentage of session intervals during which signs of negative affect were displayed by a woman with mental retardation and a mood disorder. Results suggested that SIB and signs of negative affect were highly correlated and that the enriched environment effectively reduced both.
EXAMINATION OF AMBIGUOUS STIMULUS PREFERENCES WITH DURATION‐BASED MEASURES
Authors: DeLeon Iser G. , Iwata Brian A. , Conners Juliet , Wallace Michele D.
Published: March 2006

Items that produced ambiguous results in an approach‐based preference assessment were reassessed using a duration‐based assessment. The reinforcing effects of three items on free‐operant responding were subsequently tested. The results suggested that the duration‐based assessment produced slightly more differentiated results and that predictions about reinforcer value, based on this assessment, were accurate.
REDUCING INDICES OF UNHAPPINESS AMONG INDIVIDUALS WITH PROFOUND MULTIPLE DISABILITIES DURING THERAPEUTIC EXERCISE ROUTINES
Authors: Green Carolyn W. , Reid Dennis H.
Published: March 2006

A program was developed to reduce indices of unhappiness that accompanied therapeutic exercise routines among people with profound multiple disabilities. Indices of unhappiness were recorded, using an observation system that had been validated through previous research involving happiness‐related variables, while support personnel conducted exercises with 3 participants. A multicomponent program was then implemented that involved presenting highly preferred stimuli before, during, and after each exercise session. Results indicated that the program was accompanied by reduced indices of unhappiness for each participant relative to the traditional method of conducting the exercises, although changes in the preferred stimuli used with 1 participant were required before consistent reductions occurred. Results are discussed regarding the importance of reducing unhappiness indices as a means of enhancing aspects of the daily quality of life for people with profound multiple disabilities. Areas for future research are also discussed, focusing on expanding the unhappiness‐reduction procedures to other routine events that may occasion indices of unhappiness.
CORRESPONDENCE BETWEEN OUTCOMES OF BRIEF AND EXTENDED FUNCTIONAL ANALYSES
Authors: Kahng SungWoo , Iwata Brian A.
Published: March 2006

We compared results obtained from 50 sets of functional analysis data from assessments of self‐injurious behavior (SIB), 35 of which showed clear response patterns and 15 of which were undifferentiated, with those obtained from two abbreviated methods of assessment: (a) a brief functional analysis, consisting of the first session of each condition from the full functional analysis, and (b) a within‐session analysis, in which data from the brief analysis were regraphed to show minute‐by‐minute changes in response rates during a session. Results indicated that outcomes of the brief and within‐session analyses corresponded with those of the full functional analyses in 66.0% and 68.0% of the cases, respectively. Further examination of results indicated a tendency for the brief analysis to identify a large proportion of positive cases (both true and false positives) and for the within‐session analysis to identify a large proportion of negative cases (true and false negatives).
A COMPARISON OF PRESESSION AND WITHIN‐SESSION REINFORCEMENT CHOICE
Authors: Graff Richard B. , Libby Myrna E.
Published: March 2006

Single‐ and concurrent‐operants procedures were used to evaluate the effects of two reinforcement conditions on the free‐operant responding of 3 individuals with developmental disabilities and 1 with attention deficit disorder. In the presession choice condition, prior to each session the participant chose one item from an array of three different highly preferred stimuli. This item was delivered by the experimenter on each reinforcer delivery during that session. In the within‐session choice condition, each reinforcer delivery consisted of placing an array of three different highly preferred stimuli in front of the participant, who was allowed to select one. Only one of the two reinforcement conditions was in effect for any particular session in single‐operant phases. Buttons associated with each reinforcement condition were present, and the participant could allocate responses to one or the other in concurrent‐operants phases. Data showed substantially more responding to the button associated with within‐session choice than presession choice during concurrent‐operants phases. This effect was not as apparent during single‐operant phases, suggesting that a concurrent‐operants procedure provided the more sensitive evaluation of within‐session and presession reinforcer choice effects.
EFFECTS OF SESSION DURATION ON FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS OUTCOMES
Authors: Wallace Michele D. , Iwata Brian A.
Published: March 2006

We examined the extent to which variations in session duration affected the outcomes of functional analyses. Forty‐six individuals, all diagnosed with mental retardation and referred for assessment and treatment of self‐injurious or aggressive behavior, participated in functional analyses, consisting of repeated exposure to multiple test conditions during 15‐min sessions. For each set of assessment data, new data sets based on session durations of 10 and 5 min were prepared by deleting data from the last 5 and 10 min, respectively, of each session. Each graph (N = 138) was then reviewed individually by graduate students who had previous experience conducting and interpreting functional analyses, but who were blind to both participant identity and session duration. Interpretations of behavioral function based on the 10‐ and 5‐min data sets were then compared with those based on the 15‐min data sets. All of the 10‐min data sets yielded interpretations identical to those based on 15‐min data sets. Interpretations based on the 5‐min and 15‐min data sets yielded three discrepancies, all of which were the result of increased response rates toward the latter parts of sessions. These results suggest that the efficiency of assessment might be improved with little or no loss in clarity by simply reducing the duration of assessment sessions.