bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Community/SANGHA
Authors: Falcone Jessica Marie
Published: May 2019

In this chapter, I also introduce the readers to the particular transnational Tibetan Buddhist community working to build the Maitreya Statue. This chapter provides an overview of Global Buddhism today with special attention to issues of community and identity for FPMTers. In the literature on Global Buddhism, disparate communities of practice are often differentiated with imprecise or careless terminology: 1) for example, Jan Nattier’s use of “ethnic” vs. “elite,” which overstates racial and class factors; or, by using the term “convert,” which is anathema to some people labelled thusly. This chapter makes a substantive contribution to the issue of properly naming disparate practitioners, as I’ve posited a heritage spectrum of practitioners that more sensitively works to contextualize various Buddhists.
The Campaign Is Over, but the Battle Continues
Authors: Bailey Anna L.
Published: May 2019

Shows how, even after the passage of the 2011 Law and the fading away of the alcohol problem from public discourse, the same fiercely contested policy battles between advocacy coalitions have continued to shape alcohol regulation in Russia. The policy activity of the “campaign” period of 2009-12 should be seen as just one phase in a broader trend of alcohol policy development: the ongoing struggle between the domestic vodka industry and multinational beer industry for regulatory advantage. Contemporary Russian alcohol policy continues to take the form of a battle between these two opposing sides, as both the vodka and beer industries try to secure regulations that give them a competitive advantage and impose costs on their rivals. Recent developments suggest that the vodka lobby still has the upper hand in this respect.
Predation Theory
Authors: Shifrinson Joshua R. Itzkowitz
Published: May 2019

This chapter elaborates on the core argument. After advancing a typology of rising state strategies, the chapter develops a theory of rising state strategy toward declining great powers. The theory – termed “predation theory” – proposes that rising state strategy depends on (1) whether a rising state can use a declining state to oppose other great powers, and (2) the military threat a declining state poses. All things being equal, the more a rising state can use a decliner against other great powers and the less threatening the declining state, the more likely a rising state is to support; conversely, the less useful a declining state in opposing other great powers, the more likely a rising state is to prey. The chapter concludes by discussing research design and justifying the cases examined in the rest of the volume.
Watching the Soviet Union Decline
Authors: Shifrinson Joshua R. Itzkowitz
Published: May 2019

Chapters 2 and 3 helped confirm that rising states support declining great powers when decliners can help rising states against other great power threats. In contrast, Chapters 4 and 5 assess the logic of rising state predation by examining the United States’ response to the Soviet Union’s decline in the 1980s and early 1990s. Chapter 4 first provides an overview of the Soviet Union’s waning relative position and discusses U.S. efforts to monitor the trend. Next, it reviews existing research on the course of U.S. strategy and relates this work to alternative accounts of rising state policy. The bulk of the chapter then uses extensive archival research to evaluate the factors central to predation theory and predict U.S. strategy given the argument. These predictions are analyzed in Chapter 5.
U.S. Strategy and the Decline of the Soviet Union
Authors: Shifrinson Joshua R. Itzkowitz
Published: May 2019

Chapter 5 discusses the course of U.S. foreign policy during the Soviet Union’s decline in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Leveraging recently declassified materials, it shows that the United States persistently preyed on the Soviet Union over the course of the latter’s decline. Moreover, the intensity of U.S. predation varied depending on the Soviet military threat: at times when the Soviet Union was able to military threaten the United States, U.S. leaders capped the intensity of their predation; conversely, U.S. predation intensified at times – most notably, following the Eastern European Revolutions of 1989-1990 – when the Soviet military looked impotent. These findings provide strong evidence for predation theory while challenging alternative accounts of rising state strategy.
Strategic Constraints
Authors: Roeder Philip G.
Published: May 2019

This chapter examines the lessons that national-secession campaign leaders can draw from the successful secessions since 1945. It defines the concept of national-secession and identifies on this basis the 171 campaigns that secured a place on the agenda of the western great powers from 1945 to 2016. This census also identifies those campaigns that employed violence as a tactic in their disputes with their central governments. The 26 successful secessions that achieved independence through international intervention, expulsion by the central government, abandonment, or collapse at the center give campaign leaders little evidence to expect they can achieve independence by forcing this on the central government by the campaign’s own means without a fortuitous intervention of events in the central government or from foreign powers.
“The Alienation of the Affection of the Colonies”
Authors: Hoffer Peter Charles , Hoffer Williamjames Hull
Published: May 2019

At whose door the onus for reigniting the crisis in 1767 belongs is and will remain an open question for historians. But it cannot be laid at the threshold of the revolutionary lawyers’ offices. Their conduct in the controversy thus far was wholly responsible and measured. Dulany wrote with judicial restraint. Otis, Dickinson, Bland, and Fitch were respectful. Only Hopkins blustered. All were careful not to defame their opponents in the colonies or the home country (not least because such defamation might lead to prosecution for seditious libel). In the main, they acknowledged their contributions to the debate by signing their essays. Reconciliation should have followed, could have followed, had not leaders across the water insisted on renewing Grenville’s legalist program.
Manufacturing a Crisis
Authors: Ornston Darius
Published: May 2019

This chapter opens the empirical section of the book with the Swedish case. Beginning in the 1930s, policymakers across the world turned to credit rationing, state aid, and planning. This volte-face away from free markets was particularly pronounced in Sweden, which could rely on tight-knit networks to implement and scale new ideas through the politics of persuasion, compensation, and coordination. In many respects, Sweden eclipsed even France, the paradigmatic statist economy, both in its capacity to reform public policy as well as its ability to foster the growth of large, capital-intensive manufacturing enterprises. At the same time, state intervention proved increasingly dysfunctional over time, generating unsustainable trade and fiscal deficits and a deep economic crisis.
Protecting the Free World
Authors: Walker William O.
Published: May 2019

This chapter, covering the years 1950-1952, demonstrates how the United States expanded the American Century by protecting the Free World. In April 1950, the National Security Council led by Paul H. Nitze formalized the grand strategy of global containment in NSC 68. Thereafter, U.S. influence spread throughout the world, especially to Syngman Rhee’s South Korea, Taiwan, Indochina, and the oil-rich Middle East. Economically, the Truman administration turned to economic aid and, importantly, the International Monetary Fund to improve the chances of modernization in developing lands. U.S. officials also sought to strengthen the Free World through cultural programs, which meant Americanization at the local level. These efforts largely succeeded, greatly aiding the cause of the American Century.
Bearing Burdens
Authors: Walker William O.
Published: May 2019

This chapter assesses the various obstacles impeding the expansion of the American Century from early 1961 through 1964. Numerous problems, including Laos, Berlin, the Cuban missile crisis, and Vietnam brought into question John F. Kennedy’s leadership. His response too often minimized consultation with allies and, across the Third World, increasingly focused on security and stability through civic action programs, overseen by the Office of Public Safety in the Agency for International Development—to the great detriment, for example, of experiments like the Alliance for Progress. Meanwhile, the rise of multinational corporations and deficit-induced flight of gold thwarted Kennedy’s and Lyndon Johnson’s economic policies, while weakening America’s hegemony and credibility.
Comparing State and FMLN Institutions and Ideologies
Authors: Hoover Green Amelia
Published: May 2019

This chapter analyzes interviews, archival research, and survey responses in an attempt to document broad differences between how the Armed Forces of El Salvador (FAES) combatants understood themselves in relation to the war, and how their counterparts in the Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front (FMLN) did. Throughout the war, the FAES recruited with a mix of force and economic incentives; they offered competent, though conventional, military training and no political education to speak of. The FMLN also trained combatants to kill, but at the same time it offered a comprehensive program of political education that focused on the important strategic role of civilians. Thus, if the Commander's Dilemma theory is correct, one should expect to observe that, despite facing strategic incentives to avoid clearly excessive or unnecessary abuses, state forces use broader, less uniform repertoires and higher levels of violence than FMLN forces throughout the conflict.
The Commander’s Dilemma beyond El Salvador
Authors: Hoover Green Amelia
Published: May 2019

This chapter looks at evidence about a set of groups that may pose a difficult test for the Commander's Dilemma framework: organizations that contested the complex, interconnected conflicts in Sierra Leone (1991–2002) and Liberia (1989–2003). These wars—referred to as the “Mano River wars”—certainly involved contact with civilians; hence they meet one key boundary condition of the theory. The second boundary condition is less clear. The Commander's Dilemma framework applies only to groups that face some incentive—strategic or moral—to control violence against civilians. Incentives for civilian protection in the Mano River wars are unclear. Widespread abuses against civilians seemed not to lead to negative military consequences but rather to increased bargaining power. Rebel groups, including the Revolutionary United Front (RUF) in Sierra Leone and the National Patriotic Front of Liberia (NPFL), financed themselves via diamond proceeds and consequently were not necessarily beholden to civilians for food or funds.
Parodic and Messianic Genealogies
Authors: Feldman Leah
Published: May 2019

This chapter discusses Russian imperial poetics and its Azeri translations in the work of Nikolai Gogol and Jalil Memmedquluzade. Taking up Gogol’s parodic prose as central to the Russian literary canon and Formalist poetics, I discuss Memmedquluzade’s interest in Gogolean parody as central to the development of a native Azeri prose canon and understandings of Russian and non-Russian ethnicity as well as the relationship between metropole and periphery through the period of revolutionary transition.
The Fate of European Colonialism and Carl Schmitt’s New World Order
Authors: Hohendahl Peter Uwe
Published: May 2019

This chapter focuses on The Nomos of the Earth, offering a comparative reading of Schmitt’s conception of European colonialism and more recent critical studies of the relevance of colonialism for the emergence of modern global history. In particular, the analysis contrasts Schmitt’s framing of colonialism as a crucial positive moment of modern history with a fundamental critique developed by liberation movements after World War II (Fanon). This analysis leads up to a discussion of recent affirmations of western imperialism in which Schmitt’s ideas seem to return.
Chimeras
Authors: Roychoudhury Suparna
Published: May 2019

It was commonly perceived during the Renaissance that imagination could engender monstrous offspring: a mother’s imaginings could deform the fetus in her womb. This chapter notes that the early moderns thought of outlandish phantasms as monsters too, akin to the chimera—an unnatural creature, part lion, serpent, and snake. Ironically, the power of imagination to produce chimeras through combination is unconsciously mimicked by early modern natural history texts, in which exotic beasts are routinely described as assemblages of other animals. Shakespeare in The Tempest challenges the supposed difference between natural and unnatural forms using a motif of “shape”—misshapen Caliban, but also shape-shifting Ariel, and the shapely Miranda and Ferdinand.
Epilogue
Authors: Roychoudhury Suparna
Published: May 2019

Why has Shakespeare’s sensitivity to the cognitive discourse of imagination not been noticed before? In A Midsummer Night’s Dream, Theseus’ speech on imagination is followed by the play-within-play of “Pyramus and Thisbe” enacted by Bottom and the other “rude mechanicals”; it shows that Shakespeare was interested in the mechanical applications of imagination, its cognitive uses in playmaking. But this interest was obscured by Enlightenment and Romantic thinkers, who prized the fairies above the mechanicals: Shakespeare was remade from a man of the theater into a visionary poet; imagination was remade from a mechanism of the mind into a mystical force of creativity. It is time to recuperate the scientific and epistemological background of Shakespeare’s interest in imagination, whose crucial achievement was to bring the complexities of cognitive theory into the realm of art.
Accounting for the Soul
Authors: Ibrahim Nur Amali
Published: May 2019

This chapter focuses on the religious socialization among conservative Islamists in the post-Suharto era. Islamists want to groom ultra-orthodox believers who are punctilious about ritual performances—persons seemingly different from the secular liberal subject. Yet, Islamists utilize accounting and auditing technologies from the business world because they find them useful for creating the self-governing believer. Although Islamists have at times rejected democracy, there are democratic impulses in their religious improvisation. By forming devout and auditable subjects, Islamists hope to lay the foundation for the creation of a transparent, corruption-free, and pious nation before God.
The Monetary Policy Network
Authors: Park Gene , Katada Saori N. , Chiozza Giacomo , Kojo Yoshiko
Published: May 2019

This chapter focuses on the formal monetary policy process specified by the Bank of Japan Law (New BOJ Law), identifying the central actors in the monetary policy network. The New BOJ Law, which came into effect in April 1998, has placed the Policy Board at the center of the BOJ's monetary policymaking. Formally, the Policy Board is not only independent, but it sits atop the entire BOJ organization. In practice, however, the larger BOJ organization has exercised influence in key ways over the composition of the Policy Board and monetary deliberations. Central to this influence is the ability of the BOJ to maintain a relatively closed monetary policy network that limited dissenting views. The key groups in the policy network are the Prime Minister's Office, the Diet, the BOJ Policy Board, the Ministry of Finance (MOF), and the BOJ itself.
Ideas and Monetary Policy
Authors: Park Gene , Katada Saori N. , Chiozza Giacomo , Kojo Yoshiko
Published: May 2019

This chapter assesses central bankers' attitudes toward inflation and deflation. Specifically, it presents a statistical test to demonstrate whether, and to what extent, the ideas held by the central bankers at the Bank of Japan (BOJ) influenced Japan's monetary policy. The results show a systematic effect of central bankers' ideas on how they determine what should be Japan's monetary base, while controlling for the status of the economy and the political environment. Concerns about inflation are a better predictor of policy than objective economic indicators. The results also reveal an Abe effect, a systematic impact of the policy ideas championed by Prime Minister Abe Shinzō after he came to power in 2012. Meanwhile, there is little evidence that the political business cycle or political partisanship influenced the BOJ policy choices.
Monetary Policymaking, 1998–2012
Authors: Park Gene , Katada Saori N. , Chiozza Giacomo , Kojo Yoshiko
Published: May 2019

This chapter looks at three case studies of the Bank of Japan's (BOJ) monetary policy to illustrate how these policy ideas influenced BOJ decision making: the decision to implement and then lift the zero interest rate policy (ZIRP) (1998–2000); the first quantitative easing (QE) policy (2001–6); and the policies implemented in response to the global financial crisis and then Japan's “3–11” triple disaster—the massive earthquake, tsunami, and nuclear meltdown that occurred on March 11, 2011. During these fifteen years, the BOJ's worldview made it slow to tackle deflation head-on and cautious in its reflationary measures. The BOJ Policy Board at various times did concede to outside pressure to use unorthodox monetary measures such as forward guidance or QE. It did so reluctantly, however. When afforded room to maneuver, the Policy Board was ready to retreat quickly from monetary easing, in some cases even before the economy was fully out of deflation.
Maybe They Will Smile Back
Authors: Leheny David
Published: May 2019

Taking its title from a line in the 2011 film We Can’t Change the World (But We Wanna Build a School in Cambodia), this chapter explores a recent fixation in Japan on rebuilding hope: first from the wreckage of the Bubble Economy and then from the debris of the 2011 tsunami. It uses this discussion to connect the expression of collective emotion to contemporary nationalism, and argues that this emotional language requires an exploration of the logic of narrative, as well as its consequences for the representation of a people’s feelings: of national sadness, or national pride, or national hope. Drawing heavily from recent debates about emotion and politics, the chapter introduces new ways of discussing narrative and its importance, particularly through Peter Brooks’s conception of “the melodramatic imagination.”
Everything Sinks
Authors: Leheny David
Published: May 2019

This short conclusion uses two recent Japanese comedy movies — Bubble Fiction: Boom or Bust and The World Sinks Except Japan — to consider how images of Japan’s past, present, and future are made emotionally meaningful. Both films target, with varying levels of sympathy, the emotional frames surrounding a dominant narrative of postwar Japan, and the chapter focuses especially on the ways in which generational change affects the resonance of these frames. The chapter considers the lenses through which even post-Bubble Japan can be re-envisioned – for example, as a “problem pioneer,” to use the term of the distinguished political scientist Kawashima Shin — as a global leader, if largely for its early discovery of and responses to the malaises likely to befall other great powers in the coming years.
Posted Work and Transnational Workspaces in Germany
Authors: Wagner Ines
Published: May 2019

Chapter 2 shows how transnational regulation and de-territorialization impact employment relations in the German construction and the meat slaughtering industries. The aim of this chapter is to examine how this opened up exit options for capital and constrained the rights of unions, works councils, and mobile workers, thereby creating a space that allows for the importation of informal work practices. It relates the literature on labor market dualization to the changes in the nature and organization of the Westphalian state system. Findings of the chapter show that declining territorial boundedness allows firms to circumvent key German industrial relations institutions.
How Alliances (Mis)Manage Nuclear Proliferation
Authors: Lanoszka Alexander
Published: May 2019

This chapter develops the main theoretical argument of the book—specifically, that alliances can be most useful for preventing potential nuclear proliferation but much less useful for curbing actual nuclear proliferation. It begins by defining treaty allies and nuclear proliferation-related behavior before assessing existing understandings regarding how alliances affect nuclear proliferation incentives. It proceeds to elaborate a theory that argues that in-theater conventional forces are crucial for making American extended nuclear guarantees; that the American coercion of allies who started, or were tempted to start, a nuclear weapons program has played less of a role in forestalling nuclear proliferation than assumed; and that the economic or technological reliance of a security-dependent ally on the United States, if utilized, works better to reverse or to halt any ally’s nuclear bid than anything else. This chapter also outlines the research strategy and alternative arguments.
American Security Guarantees during the Cold War, 1949–1980
Authors: Lanoszka Alexander
Published: May 2019

This chapter chronicles how the United States designed and adjusted its alliance commitments in Western Europe and East Asia during the first three decades of the Cold War (1949-1980). The purpose of this chapter is not only to introduce historical events to readers, but also to highlight key variation decision-makers implemented changes in American strategic posture and, by extension, the security guarantees provided to American allies. It covers how the United States expanded its commitments around the world early in the Cold War before contracting them by the late 1960s amid changes to the nuclear balance between it and the Soviet Union.
Japan, 1952–1980
Authors: Lanoszka Alexander
Published: May 2019

Many scholars would hold that a robust military alliance as well as strong anti-nuclear norms in domestic society would make any nuclear proliferation-related behaviour unlikely on the part of Japan. This chapter challenges such arguments, showing that the alliance with the United States did not fully inhibit Japan’s nuclear ambitions since Japan ratcheted up its interest in enrichment and reprocessing technologies in the late 1960. Indeed, Japan’s nuclear interest piqued amid concerns that the military alliance was weakening. Moreover, although the alliance did discourage some level of interest in nuclear weapons, the United States was reluctant to coerce Japan directly on this issue. Domestic politics and—to a lesser extent—prestige considerations were arguably a greater influence on Japan’s nuclear decision-making in the 1970s than alliance-related ones.
Nuclear Proliferation and Other American Alliances
Authors: Lanoszka Alexander
Published: May 2019

To anticipate the critique that West Germany, Japan, and South Korea are somehow unrepresentative cases of nuclear proliferation, this chapter expands the analysis by looking at the cases of Great Britain, France, Norway, Australia, and Taiwan. It shows how the United States was able to use economic levers to subordinate partially Great Britain’s nuclear deterrent but not France’s. It also illustrates how threat perceptions made Norway accept in-theater conventional military deployments from the United States in the 1980s. It highlights the absence of coercion in explaining Australia’s decision to cease its pursuit of the nuclear option as well as the difficulties experienced by the United States in applying coercion against a security and economic dependent state like Taiwan.
Finance and Mobility
Authors: Rabinovitch Oded
Published: May 2019

The second chapter analyzes the Perrault family strategy up to about 1660. Initially, the Perraults had no connections to literary life, and they were involved in legal professions. However, the status of lawyers was declining in the last years of the sixteenth century and early years of the seventeenth century, and the careers of the couple’s sons represented attempts to diversify the family’s educational and professional investments. Most significantly, Pierre II developed a career in the monarchy’s financial administration, built on the venality of office. Responding to the monarchy’s thirst for cash, financiers like Pierre played a high-stake game: while they could go bankrupt, they also stood to make immense profits from loans to the monarchy and from tax collecting. Thus this chapter demonstrates the importance of “court capitalism” and office-holding to the first literary endeavors of the family.
Epilogue (1690–1730)
Authors: Rabinovitch Oded
Published: May 2019

The epilogue follows Charles’s children as they drifted away from the life of letters and into the court. Viewing the publication of the fairy tales as a family endeavor allows us to see their production in a different light: Charles sought to assist his son in the pursuit of a military career, which required connections at court. In the writing of the tales, Charles and his son drew on the literary resources that had come to define them in the eyes of their contemporaries to pursue a broader strategy. The epilogue also shows how Charles oriented his publications in a way that consolidated his brothers’ reputation. For him, literature was both a way to act in the social world and a crucial component of his family’s identity. The epilogue also explicates the methodological approach of the book.
Coming to Terms with Dark Pasts?
Authors: Dixon Jennifer M.
Published: May 2019

This chapter introduces the book’s core questions, summarizes the stakes of inquiry, introduces the two narratives analyzed in the book, outlines the central argument, and situates this study in relation to existing scholarship on memory, transitional justice, and international norms. Given the challenges of reckoning with the past, what are the sources of continuity in states’ narratives of dark pasts, and when and why do states choose to change such narratives? To answer these questions, this book analyzes the trajectories over the past sixty years of Turkey’s narrative of the Armenian Genocide and Japan’s narrative of the Nanjing Massacre and the Second Sino-Japanese War. Extrapolating from this analysis, the book argues that international pressures increase the likelihood of change in official narratives of dark pasts, while domestic considerations determine the content of such change.
The Armenian Genocide and its Aftermath
Authors: Dixon Jennifer M.
Published: May 2019

This chapter reviews the history and historiography of the Armenian Genocide, and outlines the trajectory of Turkey’s narrative of the “Armenian question” since its initial formulation in the wake of the genocide. Over time, Turkey has experienced sustained international pressures to acknowledge the organized and intentional nature of this violence. Since the early 1990s, domestic contestation from within Turkish society has also challenged the legitimacy of the state’s narrative. While Turkish officials have resisted acknowledging the genocidal nature of this violence, elements of Turkey’s narrative have changed. Specifically, the narrative has changed three times since 1950, each time after international pressures had heightened scrutiny of the state’s position. Crucially, however, when and how officials responded to accumulated pressures were shaped by concerns about threats to territorial integrity and national identity, and feedback effects from institutionalized power bases within Turkey.
The Nanjing Massacre and the Second Sino-Japanese War
Authors: Dixon Jennifer M.
Published: May 2019

This chapter begins with an overview of the history of the Nanjing Massacre and the Second Sino-Japanese War, followed by a discussion of contested elements of this history. The second part of the chapter outlines the factors that influenced the establishment of the official narrative in the wake of World War II, and the themes that emerged in the Occupation period and in the first few years after the end of the occupation. These early themes included a neglect of Asian victims, an emphasis on Japanese victimhood, and the contention that a small group of military leaders was responsible for the war. The last part of the chapter traces the trajectory of the narrative over the past sixty years, and concludes with a discussion of how the book’s argument accounts for changes and continuities in Japan’s narrative.
Unfreezing the Question of History (1998–2008)
Authors: Dixon Jennifer M.
Published: May 2019

This chapter analyzes Japan’s narrative of the Nanjing Massacre between 1990 and 2008. Over this period, the official narrative came to include admissions of responsibility and apologies, and then backtracked to resume mythmaking and relativizing (while continuing to apologize.) Pressures from China and Korea, along with transnational activism, contributed to the shift to apologizing and deepening acknowledgment. At the same time, domestic political considerations in Japan – most notably, domestic contestation, party politics and electoral concerns, and concerns about compensation claims – frequently shaped the content and extent of changes in the state’s narrative. In particular, deepening revisionism in Japan, including high-profile “gaffes” related to “history issues” and official visits to the controversial Yasukuni Shrine, both fed and served as markers of the backtracking.
Introduction
Authors: Cameron Sarah
Published: May 2019

The introduction explains how the story of the Kazakh famine of 1930-33, one of the most dramatic consequences of Stalinist modernization, became marginalized. It argues that this neglected episode of Stalinist social engineering is in fact a crucial lens through which to view the transformations of the Stalin era, and it shows how the Kazakh famine of 1930-33 should alter conventional understandings of Soviet modernization and Soviet nation-building. The introduction concludes by examining the causes of the Kazakh famine.
The Steppe and the Sown
Authors: Cameron Sarah
Published: May 2019

This chapter examines the Kazakh steppe’s transformation into a multi-ethnic, multi-confessional society under Russian imperial rule. During the late 19th century, more than 1.5 million peasants from European Russia colonized the Kazakh steppe, a development that sparked far-reaching changed to Kazakh nomadic life and to the environmental profile of the steppe itself. These changes also made Kazakhs far more susceptible to hunger, and this chapter argues that the legacies of Russian imperial rule must be considered an important contributing factor to the Kazakh famine of 1930-33.
Nomads under Siege
Authors: Cameron Sarah
Published: May 2019

This chapter scrutinizes the Soviet regime’s launch of forced collectivization in Kazakhstan, showing how collectivization was accompanied by a broader assault on Kazakhs’ nomadic culture and practices. Intent on increasing the steppe’s agricultural productivity, the Central Committee repeatedly ignored warnings about the risks of sedentarization. As famine began in the winter of 1930-31, Moscow exacerbated the crisis by encouraging the migration and deportation of additional people to the steppe. By the winter of 1931-1932, livestock numbers in the republic had plummeted, and Kazakh nomads had entered into desperate flight.
Kazakhstan and the Politics of Hunger, 1931–34
Authors: Cameron Sarah
Published: May 2019

Chapter Six examines the final phase of the Kazakh famine of 1930-33, the refugee crisis of 1931-33. By the winter of 1930-31, Soviet Kazakhstan’s food crisis had deepened to the extent that almost every Kazakh was in flight, and the arrival of starving Kazakh refugees led to outbreaks of violence. The chapter finds that the refugee crisis began to embed ideas of nationality at the local level, although not always in the ways that Moscow had hoped. In 1934, the famine finally came to an end, a resolution reached in part through a certain amount of good luck, including good weather, as well as renewed attention initiated by a variety of state agencies to problems revealed by the famine’s course.
Conclusion
Authors: Cameron Sarah
Published: May 2019

The conclusion examines Soviet Kazakhstan’s development in the post-famine years, with attention to questions of agriculture and identity. It shows how Moscow sought to revive elements of pastoral nomadism to build up the republic’s livestock numbers. It considers what the case of the Kazakh famine tells us about other Soviet collectivization famines, including the Ukrainian famine of 1931-33. Finally, it examines whether the Kazakh famine of 1930-33 should be considered a genocide or not.
Hypergeometric Functions on Cumulative Distribution Function
Authors: Singh Pooja
Published: May 2019

Exponential functions have been extended to Hypergeometric functions. There are many functions which can be expressed in hypergeometric function by using its analytic properties. In this paper, we will apply a unified approach to the probability density function and corresponding cumulative distribution function of the noncentral chi square variate to extract and derive hypergeometric functions.
Update of control parameters for semi‐actively controlled base‐isolated building to improve seismic performance
Authors: Kohiyama Masayuki , Omura Masashi , Takahashi Masaki , Yoshida Osamu , Nakatsuka Koichi
Published: May 2019

The Sosokan building of Keio University located in Yokohama, Japan, is a base‐isolated building with a semi‐active control system. The semi‐active dampers’ damping coefficient is changed to best reproduce the optimal control force in linear‐quadratic‐gaussian control. However, the implemented control gain was calculated on the basis of the structural parameters applied at the design stage. In this study, we identified the building's actual structural parameters using observational records from the 2011 Tohoku earthquake. Using the updated structural model and 1000 simulated ground motions, we conducted a dynamic response analysis, which resulted in a fragility curve. Then, we evaluated the damage probability using the fragility curve and a seismic hazard curve. Finally, we determined the optimal control parameters to minimize the damage probability and used these parameters to implement the semi‐active control system.
Veil
Authors: Shirazi Faegheh
Published: May 2019

Hijab, or veil, is most commonly a reference to a form of modest clothing for Muslim women. All the Abrahamic religions (Judaism, Christianity, and Islam) have a long tradition of women veiling. The veil can be a tactile object, a reference to an abstract form of moral and ethical behavior(s), or a reference to the institution of gender segregation. To delimit the meaning of the veil is a challenging if not impossible task. The semantics of the veil depend on the specific cultural, historical, and religious contexts in which the veil is used. But the semantics of the veil differ even within a specific cultural context. On the one hand, the veil is a simple garment that millions of women deal with in their daily lives as a matter of habit without a second thought. They are raised to wear it; it is just another article of clothing. On the other hand, the veil is an enormously important symbol, as it carries thousands of years of religious, sexual, social, and political significance within its folds.
Homo Clausus
Authors: Salumets Thomas
Published: May 2019

From his magnum opus,The Civilizing Process(1939), to his many subsequent publications, as a human scientist interested in long term patterns of social change, Norbert Elias (1897–1990) showed us how the image of the disconnected self, orhomo clausus, took hold of our imagination. He also considered implications of this shift and offered alternatives that present a more relational and correspondingly less confined and static view of ourselves.
Consumption and Intellectual Property
Authors: David Matthew
Published: May 2019

Consumption does not just refer to using something up. It also refers to purchase of goods. However, nonrivalrous informational goods (intangibles) can circulate freely on today's global digital networks, undoing both senses of the term consumption. Intellectual property (IP) protection is designed to maintain scarcity in intangibles, and hence of maintaining scope for price and thereby profit. This entry examines six primary forms of IP: copyright, design rights, geographical indication, patent, trademark, and traditional knowledge. Intellectual property rights do not protect consumers nor incentivize quality or novelty. Neither, thankfully, in today's global network society does IP prevent infringement, as free downloads, knock‐off brand goods, and generic medicines circulate widely. Rather IP creates monopoly prices and those willing and able to pay these prices gain status from doing so.
Fear
Authors: Eller Jackie , Doherty Payton
Published: May 2019

This entry provides a brief discussion of current approaches toward the sociological study of fear. It concentrates on fear as an emotion and on studies of what we fear – “fear of” analyses.
Freud, Sigmund (1856–1939)
Authors: Dufresne Todd
Published: May 2019

Freud's contribution to sociology has been largely misunderstood. Few understand, first, how the “cultural” Freud is connected to the “metapsychology” of the middle and early periods; second, how the metapsychology and sociology effectively institutionalize Freud's outdated belief in phylogenesis; and, third, how scholars of many stripes have tried to deny or whitewash these connections. As a result we often speak of Freud's “sociology” when it was very explicitly, even aggressively, an antisociology.
Media
Authors: Luther Catherine A.
Published: May 2019

This entry provides an overview of the historical developments of media, especially in the United States, and the main theoretical frameworks that have been used to study media phenomena. After a discussion of the evolvement of media in the form of newspapers, radio, and television, the entry introduces how advancements in digital technology have created new media and impacted legacy media. It ends with a presentation of the core paradigms and theories that have persisted in spite of changes in the media landscape.
Scapegoating
Authors: Mestrovic Stjepan
Published: May 2019

Émile Durkheim's theory of religion offers the most comprehensive and universal understanding of scapegoating as a process linked to the religious and legal phenomena of expiation, sacrifice, and responsibility. When a peculiar event occurs that causes fear, anxiety, or other distressing emotions, responsibility and punishment are aimed at someone, something, or a group as expiation for the perceived pain and suffering. The object of scapegoating is not objectively responsible as much as responsibility falls upon them.
Verstehen
Authors: Ray Larry
Published: May 2019

Usually translated as “understanding,” the concept of
Verstehen
has become part of a critique of positivist approaches to the social sciences. Associated with the sociology of Max Weber,
Verstehen
derives from the hermeneutic critique of positivism that emerged in German universities in the 1880s and 1890s that gave rise to a dispute over method in the social sciences (
Methodenstreit
).
Verstehen
refers to understanding the meaning of action from the actor's point of view. It is entering into the shoes of the other, and adopting this research stance requires treating the actor as a subject, rather than an object, of one's observations. It also implies that, unlike objects in the natural world, human actors are not simply the product of causal forces. Individuals are seen to create the world by organizing their own understanding of it and giving it meaning. To do research on actors without taking into account the meanings they attribute to their actions or environment is to treat them like objects.
Evaluation of a commercial Monte Carlo dose calculation algorithm for electron treatment planning
Authors: Huang Jessie Y. , Dunkerley David , Smilowitz Jennifer B.
Published: May 2019

The RayStation treatment planning system implements a Monte Carlo (MC) algorithm for electron dose calculations. For a TrueBeam accelerator, beam modeling was performed for four electron energies (6, 9, 12, and 15 MeV), and the dose calculation accuracy was tested for a range of geometries. The suite of validation tests included those tests recommended by AAPM's Medical Physics Practice Guideline 5.a, but extended beyond these tests in order to validate the MC algorithm in more challenging geometries. For MPPG 5.a testing, calculation accuracy was evaluated for square cutouts of various sizes, two custom cutout shapes, oblique incidence, and heterogenous media (cork). In general, agreement between ion chamber measurements and RayStation dose calculations was excellent and well within suggested tolerance limits. However, this testing did reveal calculation errors for the output of small cutouts. Of the 312 output factors evaluated for square cutouts, 20 (6.4%) were outside of 3% and 5 (1.6%) were outside of 5%, with these larger errors generally being for the smallest cutout sizes within a given applicator. Adjustment of beam modeling parameters did not fix these calculation errors, nor does the planning software allow the user to input correction factors as a function of field size. Additional validation tests included several complex phantom geometries (triangular nose phantom, lung phantom, curved breast phantom, and cortical bone phantom), designed to test the ability of the algorithm to handle high density heterogeneities and irregular surface contours. In comparison to measurements with radiochromic film, RayStation showed good agreement, with an average of 89.3% pixels passing for gamma analysis (3%/3mm) across four phantom geometries. The MC algorithm was able to accurately handle the presence of irregular surface contours (curved cylindrical phantom and a triangular nose phantom), as well as heterogeneities (cork and cortical bone).
Assembly Strategy and Performance Evaluation of Flexible Thermoelectric Devices
Authors: Qu Dawei , Li Xin , Wang Hanfu , Chen Guangming
Published: May 2019

Although organic and composite thermoelectric (TE) materials have witnessed explosive developments in the past five years, the research of flexible TE devices is rather limited. In particular, their assembly strategies and device performance reported in the literature cannot be directly compared, due to a variety of deviances including p‐ and n‐type component materials, shape and dimensions of p‐n flexible films, and applied temperature gradient (ΔT). Here, three types of assembly strategies for flexible TE devices, that is, serial, folding, and stacking, are compared by fixing the corresponding experimental parameters. Furthermore, a convenient and general method to evaluate the flexible device performance (FDP) is put forward, that is, , where the maximum output power (Pmax) is divided by product mass (m), ΔT, and pair number of p‐n couples (N). The FDPs for the present serial, folding, and stacking devices are 11.13, 8.87, and 0.05 nW g−1 K−1, respectively, confirming that the serial configuration is the best among the three strategies for flexible device fabrication. The preliminary evaluation method proposed herein will pave the way for a design strategy of flexible TE devices and speed up their applications in waste‐heat harvesting, e‐skin, wearable electronics, etc.
Pathway Control in Cooperative vs. Anti‐Cooperative Supramolecular Polymers
Authors: Herkert Lorena , Droste Jörn , Kartha Kalathil K. , Korevaar Peter A. , de Greef Tom F. A. , Hansen Michael Ryan , Fernández Gustavo
Published: May 2019

Controlling the nanoscale morphology in assemblies of π‐conjugated molecules is key to developing supramolecular functional materials. Here, we report an unsymmetrically substituted amphiphilic PtII complex 1 that shows unique self‐assembly behavior in nonpolar media, providing two competing anti‐cooperative and cooperative pathways with distinct molecular arrangement (long‐ vs. medium‐slipped, respectively) and nanoscale morphology (discs vs. fibers, respectively). With a thermodynamic model, we unravel the competition between the anti‐cooperative and cooperative pathways: buffering of monomers into small‐sized, anti‐cooperative species affects the formation of elongated assemblies, which might open up new strategies for pathway control in self‐assembly. Our findings reveal that side‐chain immiscibility is an efficient method to control anti‐cooperative assemblies and pathway complexity in general.
Killing Effects of IFN R−/− Mouse NK Cells Activated by HN Protein of NDV on Mouse Hepatoma Cells and Possible Mechanism with Syk and NF‐κB
Authors: Liang Shuang , Lin Xiao , Liang Ying , Song Dezhi , Zhang Lei , Fan Xiaohui
Published: May 2019

The objective of this article is to evaluate whether the tumoricidal activity of mouse IFN R−/− nature killer (NK) cells is induced by Newcastle disease virus hemagglutinin‐neuraminidase (NDV‐HN) stimulation, and to investigate what is the mechanism of the HN‐stimulated NK cells to kill mouse hepatoma cell line in vitro. The mouse IFN R−/− NK cells were stimulated for 16 hr with 500 ng/mL NDV‐HN in 1640 medium. Quantify the cytotoxic activities of NK cells against mouse hepatoma cells (Hepa1‐6) by flow cytometry. Granzymes B (GrB) and Fas/FasL concentrations in the supernatants of IFN R−/− NK cells medium were determined by specific ELISA assay. The expression of cell surface GrB and Fas was determined by Western blot. NDV‐HN stimulation enhanced tumoricidal activity of IFN R−/− NK cells toward Hepa1‐6 in vitro. Treating with anti‐HN neutralizing mAb induced significant decline in the cytotoxicity of IFN R−/− NK cells toward Hepa1‐6 cell line (P < 0.05). After treating with anti‐HN protein (1 μL/mL), Syk‐specific inhibitor Herbimycin A(250 ng/mL) and NF‐κB inhibitor PDTC (500 ng/mL) downregulated the tumoricidal activity of HN‐stimulated IFN R−/− NK cells (P < 0.05). Moreover, significant suppressions in the production of GrB and Fas/FasL were observed in HN‐stimulated IFN R−/− NK cells (P < 0.05). Thus, we concluded that killer activation receptors pathway is involved in the IFN‐γ‐independent GrB and Fas/FasL expression of NDV‐HN‐stimulated IFN R−/− NK cells, and these are activated by Syk and NF‐κB. Anat Rec, 302:1718–1725, 2019. © 2019 The Authors. The Anatomical Record published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf of American Association for Anatomy
Angles of Axes of Incudes
Authors: Specht Jessica Lynn , Todd Norman Wendell
Published: May 2019

Incus angles of axes (the angle between “short process axis” and the “long process axis”) are more open in humans than chimpanzees: 64.0 versus 55.7 degrees (Quam et al.: J Anat 225 (2014) 167–196). However, Flohr et al. (Anat Rec 293 (2010) 2094–2106) raise concern about interobserver agreement of the axes. The concern is important as phylogenetic relationships of mammals are inferred from the incus (and malleus and stapes). We sought to check (1) interobserver agreement; and (2) if the angles of the axes of incudes (incuses) exhibit bilateral symmetry, which is expected if the axes are genetically determined. We studied incudes from 41 modern adult crania with clinically normal temporal bones. Angles of axes were determined on rectilinear digital photographs of incudes in standard lateral orientation. Two observers independently drew the axes and measured the axes. Interobserver agreement was within 4 degrees for 24 of 34 left‐sided incudes and for 27 of 35 right‐sided incudes. The mean of the two observers' angle determinations were used. Left incudes' median was 67 degrees, range 60–73; right 67.5 degrees, range 58–77. Bilateral symmetry of angles of axes was found: r = 0.55, N = 31, 95% CI 0.24–0.75. Angles of axes of modern human incudes are probably genetically determined features, but are of doubtful physiologic or evolutionary advantage in modern humans. Interobserver agreement of angles of modern human axes is concerning and must be specified in reports. Consideration should be given to a convention to designate axes in ambiguous cases. Anat Rec, 302:1615–1619, 2019. © 2019 American Association for Anatomy