bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
“Prevalence and Source of Various Types of Workplace Violence among Healthcare Professionals in the Public Hospitals of Karachi” A Cross-Sectional Survey
Authors: Maheshwari Jai Dev , Zaheer Sidra , Maheshwari Greesh Kumar , Khan Kiran , Batool Syeda , Turab Syed Mohsin
Published: November 2021

Objectives: To determine the prevalence of violence among medical doctors in public sector hospitals of Karachi relating to physical violence, psychological violence (verbal and bullying/mobbing), sexual harassment and racial harassment).

Methods:  A cross-sectional study was carried out in three public sector hospitals in Karachi (JPMC, Civil Hospital and Sindh Government Lyari General Hospital Karachi). Medical doctors of any age and gender who worked in outpatient departments, wards, and emergency departments were eligible to participate in the study. A validated WHO-designed questionnaire was used, with questions about exposure to violence, the source and types of violence, and socio-demographic information. In descriptive statistics, frequencies and percentages were reported for all categorical variables. The Chi-square and Fisher's exact tests were used to investigate the relationship between workplace violence and other types of violence.

Results: 350 questionnaires were distributed to qualified medical doctors in total. Only 300 of them responded, for an 85.7 percent response rate. The majority of respondents were under the age of 40, and male gender was slightly more exposed to violence. The majority of the doctors were subjected to verbal abuse as well as bullying and mobbing.

Conclusion: It was then concluded that any type of violence was common in doctors aged >35 years and male gender was more exposed to any violence as compare to female gander. The main type of violence was verbal violence in our study, whereas racial harassment and sexual harassment was also seen.
To Assess the Knowledge and Providing Booklet Regarding Health Hazards of Spitting in Public Places among General Population
Authors: Wankhede Darshana Kumari , Ghugare Suwarna , Zade Nikita V. , Bansod Payal C. , Kamdi Khushbu K. , Dewale Nutan R.
Published: November 2021

Background: Smokeless tobacco consumption, which is widespread throughout the world, lead to oral sub mucous fibrosis (OSMF), which is a long-lasting and disturbing condition of the oral cavity with the potential for malignancy. Mainly focus on the consumption of smokeless tobacco, such as pan and ghutkha the role of these substances in the instruction of OSMF and ultimately oral cancer. It was established using the finding tools provide. The continuous chewing pan and swallowing of ghutkha cause progressive fibrosis in sub mucosal tissue. Generally, OSMF occurs due to multiple risk factors, especially smokeless tobacco and its mechanism, such as betel quid, Areca nuts, and slaked lime, which are used in pan and gutkha. The incidence of oral cancer is higher in women than in men in the South Asian country.

Objective: 1 To assess the existing knowledge regarding health hazards of spitting in public places among the general population. 2. To develop Information booklet regarding health hazards of spitting in public places among the general population.

Material and Method:

Research Design: Pre experimental research design,

Research Approach: Survey approach,

Setting of Study:  Rural population Sawangi (Meghe) Wardha district,

Sample: The sample for the present study comprised of 100,

Sample size: The sample size selected for this study was 100 sample,

Sampling Technique: A convenience sampling technique.

Result: After the complete analysis, this study lead to the following result  that the mean knowledge score in pre-test was 6.61±2.30 and in post test it was 11.68±1.45 and mean percentage of knowledge score in pre test was 44.06±15.33 and in post test it was 77.86±9.70.

Conclusion: After the conclusion of the study it is exposed that the most of the knowledge are gained by providing the booklet and it is  most effective result are occurred to provide the same information about the splitting.
Statistical Analysis of Determinants of Institutional Delivery Service among Reproductive Age Women in Ethiopia
Authors: Negeri Mekonin Abera
Published: November 2021

Health care services during pregnancy and during delivery are important for the survival and wellbeing of both the mother and the infant so that increasing institutional deliveries is a basic concern for reducing maternal and neonatal mortality. This article was focused on assessing the trend of institutional delivery service and identifying associated factors using basic statistical tools. The analysis was based on the hypothetical data of 5753 women in reproductive age carefully managed from Ethiopian Mini Demographic and Health Survey (EMDHS) 2019. The trend of institutional delivery revealed a sharp increase from 26% in 2016 to 49.92% in 2019 based on DHS data of the respective years. The study identified variables such as region, place of residence, education level, sex of household head, wealth index, number of living children and antenatal care as highly significant determinants of institutional delivery service in Ethiopia. Institutional delivery service increases with better access to education, living in urban, being in better off wealth category, and following antenatal care visit. The study recommended that there should be well equipped health facilities for pregnant women at each stage.
Collagen-Chitosan Composite Powder as a Novel Biomaterial for Chronic Wounds in Hansen Disease-A Clinical Study
Authors: Babu Pombala Suresh , Srinivasan Harini , Dhandapani B. Sai , Rose C.
Published: November 2021

Aims: Natural biomaterials are more suitable than synthetic biomaterials for in vivo applications for treating damaged tissues. Collagen and chitosan are abundantly available natural biomaterials for wound dressings for tissue/wound repair. In this context, collagen-chitosan composite powder has been used to treat chronic wounds in Hansen disease (HD) patients.

Place and Duration of Study: CSIR Central Leather Research Institute, Sardar Patel Road, Adyar, Chennai 600021, Southern Railway Headquarters Hospital, Constable Road, Ayanavaram, Chennai 600023, and Gremaltes Hospital, India between June 2013 and July 2020.

Methodology: Collagen extracted from bovine rumen, a waste product of meat industry, and a commercially available chitosan were prepared as a composite powder (COL/CS) and applied to chronic wounds in HD patients after debridement and the wound contours were measured by planimetry. Biochemical parameters in blood samples were periodically assessed. Histopathology of wound tissue with Hematoxylin and Eosin and Masson’s Trichrome staining was studied. Matrix Metalloproteinase-9 (MMP9) levels before and after treatment were estimated.

Results: Wound healing of 64.2% was obtained with COL/CS treatment and formation of granulation cells was observed early. Hemogram studies have been reported in a regression model with 95% confidence intervals. Histopathology revealed dense collagen fibres and continuity of sub-epithelial layer on 8th day. MMP-9 levels showed collagen integrity after treatment.

Conclusion: The novel biocompatible, biodegradable COL/CS wound dressing is a promising biomaterial for management of chronic wounds in Hansen disease patients.
Localised Aggressive Periodontitis – A Review
Authors: Wasnik Milind , Kumar Suryakant , Sajjanar Arun , Gahlod Niharika , Khekade Sneha , George Miranda , Bhattad Durga , Kolekar Pratima
Published: November 2021

The term “periodontal diseases” includes any inherited or acquired disorders of the tissues that are supporting the teeth i. e Gingiva, Cementum, PDL, and Alveolar bone. The periodontal disease can be either localized or generalized. Localized aggressive periodontitis (LAgP) patients have interproximal attachment loss on at least two permanent first molars and incisors, with attachment loss on no more than two teeth other than first molars and incisors. In children and adolescents LAgP occurs without clinical evidence of systemic disease and it is characterized by the severe loss of alveolar bone around permanent teeth [10]. Most commonly the disease is localized to the permanent first molars and incisors.

Aim: The aim of this review article is explain in details about aggressive periodontitis including different management aspect of the same.

Methods: This paper presents a review of the aggressive periodontitis in children. An electronic search was conducted using Pub Med®/MEDLINE, and Google search using the terms: Periodontium, Localized Aggressive Periodontitis, Children and periodontal health, periodontal health in adolescents, gingival disease in children, periodontal disease in children,  gingivitis, periodontitis, gingival disease and its prevalence, periodontal disease and its prevalence.
Analytical Profile of an Unparalleled Drug Tinospora crispa W.R.T Guduchi
Authors: Lekshmipriya S. , Pandya M. R. , Prajapati Bijal
Published: November 2021

Introduction: Guduchi is a highly potential drug which is mentioned in Ayurveda classics. The clinical utility of this drug is widely known. The Tinospora species are wrapped under the broad spectrum Guduchiin the Ayurveda classics. Tinospora is one of the important genera of the family, consisting of about 15 species. Some medicinally important species includes T. cordifolia, T. malabarica, T. tomentosa, T. crispa, T. uliginosa, T. crispaetc. In the current article the drug Tinospora crispa is considered in detail.Tinospora crispa is used irrationally by the society owing to its various therapeutic benefits. Tinospora crispa (L.) Hook. f. & Thomson (Menispermaceae), found in the rainforests or mixed deciduous forests in Asia and Africa, is used in traditional medicines to treat numerous health conditions.

Materials & Methods: A detailed review of the drug has been carried out through the available literature. After considering the review the analytical profiling of the drug has been done.The phytochemical analyses review of T. crispa revealed the presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, and flavone glycosides, triterpenes, diterpenes and diterpene glycosides, cis clerodane-type furanoditerpenoids, lactones, sterols, lignans, and nucleosides. The literary review showed that the crude extracts and isolated compounds of T. crispa possessed a broad range of pharmacological activities such as anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, immunomodulatory, cytotoxic, antimalarial, cardioprotective, and anti-diabetic activities.So, in the current research study a sincere attempt has been made to study regarding the drug Tinospora crispa through its analytical profile.

Results: Through this research article able to make out the available literature and the analytical profile of the drug Tinospora crispa.

Discussion: The current analytical profile reveals the presence of alkaloids, tannins, flavonoids, saponins etc which directly connects to the various activities like Anti-pyretic, Anti- inflammatory, Antioxidant etc of the drug Tinospora crispa.

Conclusion: The current research study points towards the review of the drug and the analytical profile which is beneficial to carry out the next phase of research studies in connection with this drug Tinospora crispa.
Methotrexate Toxicity: Molecular Mechanisms and Management
Authors: Almalki Riyadh S. , Eweis Hala , Kamal Fatemah , Kutbi Dina
Published: November 2021

Methotrexate (MTX) is the most widely used drug in cancer chemotherapy and is considered to be the first-line drug for the treatment of a number of rheumatic and non-rheumatic disorders. The pulmonary toxicity, hepatotoxicity of MTX are two of its major side effects. Other toxicities such as endocrinological toxicity, GI toxicity, cutaneous toxicity, hematological toxicity, fatal malfunction or loss, and malignancy can also occur, but at a significantly lower rate of prevalence. This review aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the molecular mechanisms of methotrexate toxic effects and Lastly, we discussed the management of this toxicity.
Health Care Professionals’ Quality of Life during COVID-19 Pandemic
Authors: J. Ahmed Nehad , Z. Alkhawaja Faisal , K. Alghazwani Mohammed , A. Menshawy Menshawy
Published: November 2021

Aim: The present study aimed to describe health care professionals’ quality of life during COVID-19 pandemic Saudi Arabia.

Methodology: The cross-sectional study included a survey that was prepared using the world health organization quality of life assessment instrument (WHOQOL). To provide a good quality of care and to achieve patient satisfaction on the care received, it is important to know how satisfied health care personnel are with their quality of life and job because the personnel with a good quality of life offer better services than those with poor quality of life.

Results: The present study showed that the quality of life of about two third of the health care providers was good. Nonetheless, about one third of them had a poor quality of life. 

Conclusion: There is a need to implement long term programs aimed at improving the emotional well-being of health care specialists and improving their quality of life.
Variations in the Histogenisis and Morphometry of Human Fetal Submandibular Salivary Gland
Authors: Nedunchezhiyan S.
Published: November 2021

The average weights of submandibular glands of group I, II & III were 23.5mg, 54.6mg & 109.7mg respectively. The increase in ductal proliferation, lobulation and connective tissue septa formation caused an increase in the size and weight of the gland from 12 weeks to full term was observed. In the present study, in group I the gland was just behind the mylohyoid, group II the mylohyoid muscle just entering the interlobular fissure and in group III the muscle occupies half of the interlobular fissure. . About 15 to 18 tubules were found in the form of small round cluster of cells. Until the 10th week, no lobulation, no organised duct pattern and no canalised acini were seen. Canalisation of tubules starts at 12th week and reached maximum in 16th week (group I). Connective tissue was more prominent. Increase in canalised tubules from 75% to 90% in this group, also proved the fact that the ductal proliferation was more.
Assessment Swot on Performance of Micronized Itraconazole against Candida albicans and Aspergillus niger for Superior Health Security
Authors: Venugopal N. V. S. , Reddy K. Bujji
Published: November 2021

Background: Antifungal medication is used in adults to indulge infections caused by fungi. This includes infections in any part of the body including the lungs, mouth or throat, toenails, or fingernails. The widespread fungal pathogens causing stern insidious infections surrounded by immuno compromised patients are Candida albicans and Aspergillus niger. Itraconazole, is an antifungal medication used to treat a number of fungal infections. Itraconazole undergoes rapid metabolism to form hydroxyitraconazole, which also contributes to the anti-fungal activity exhibited by the parent compound. In the present study the assessment of plain Itraconazole and micronized Itraconazole material for increasing health safety and its biological evaluation by using Candida albicans and Aspergillus niger was reported.

Methods: The determination of particle size of the micronized material which is a very fine powder and its characteristics was carried out by Dynamic light scattering(DLS) and Scanning Electron Microscopy(SEM).Structural identification was done by UV-spectroscopy and Fourier transform Infrared spectroscopy(FT-IR).

Results: An active pharma ingredient having antifungal activity was selected and micronized using Microniser to reduce the particle size as small as possible. The product antifungal activity was reviewed between untreated material(large particle size, 200 microns) and reduced particle size(micro particles, 2.72 microns). Size reduction showed an increased efficiency of antifungal activity

Conclusion: The antifungal activity of Itraconazole can be enhanced if the coarse large particles are micronized to significantly (>70 folds) smaller particles.
Peripheral Neuropathy in Diabetes: Burden, Lifestyle and Pharmacological Interventions for Prevention and Treatment
Authors: Fairag Maryam , Akbar Abdulrahman , Ghasib Abdulrahman , Alagbari Faisal , Alzahrani Saleh , Alshegifi Hussein , Alamoudi Abdulmajeed , Awad Mohammed , Aljohani Rahaf , Althobaiti Hend
Published: November 2021

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a very common comorbidity worldwide, and it is associated with a wide variety of complications. Diabetic peripheral neuropathy (DPN) is one of these complications that increases the morbidity and mortality of these patients. Multiple studies indicated that lifestyle modifications are very beneficial for these patients in terms of decreasing the symptoms or preventing the progression of the disease. Therefore, a thorough search was conducted to study and shed light on the effects of lifestyle interventions, such as physical exercise, and pharmacological treatment on DPN. A total of 100 studies were found and 32 were selected based on whether or not they support the aim of the study. It was concluded that lifestyle interventions such as regular exercise, healthy diet and weight loss, which will all in turn improve the patient’s glycemic control, play a major role in controlling the disease and preventing its complications. Moreover, the aim of pharmacological interventions is a 30% reduction in pain intensity, however pharmacological interventions are limited in DPN, up till now the FDA approved only three medications that help in the reduction of the pain intensity. These medications are antidepressant duloxetine, anticonvulsant pregabalin, and the opioid-like analgesic tapentadol.
Aesthetics
Authors: Hedley Douglas
Published: November 2021

This entry surveys the basic theories of aesthetic experience, natural and artistic, in its relation to the sacred. The connection between art, beauty, and religion is primordial in human culture and it has profoundly influenced philosophical reflection in the West upon the experience of the aesthetic, especially in the Platonic tradition.
Apophatic and Kataphatic Theology
Authors: McGinn Bernard
Published: November 2021

This entry considers the development of apophatic and kataphatic discourse in the history of Christian theology and mysticism.
Aquinas, Saint Thomas
Authors: Kucharski Paul
Published: November 2021

Saint Thomas Aquinas was a thirteenth‐century Dominican priest, theologian, and philosopher. He is widely considered to be one of the greatest Christian thinkers ever. Beginning with a careful analysis of what can be known about natural substances and their causes, Aquinas argues that belief in God is philosophically defensible because reason can demonstrate that the material world would not here and now exist without an unchanging and uncaused first cause of its existence. Though Aquinas thinks that God's essence is incomprehensible, he holds that true statements can be made of God based upon what can be known about God's creatures. And he thinks that God has, for the benefit of humanity, revealed certain truths that elude the grasp of unaided reason, but do not conflict with reason.
Aristotle
Authors: Jeffrey Anne
Published: November 2021

Aristotle (384–322bce) was an ancient Greek philosopher, pupil of Plato, and tutor of Alexander the Great. His works span the topics of biology, metaphysics, mind, logic, language, science, epistemology, ethics, and politics. Aristotle held that there are many divine beings, but a supremely divine being is the first cause of the universe and the goodness of all other beings. This divine being plays a fundamental explanatory role in Aristotle's thought.
Barth, Karl
Authors: Jones Paul Dafydd
Published: November 2021

Karl Barth (1886–1968) numbers among the most important Protestant theologians of the twentieth century. A prolific writer, he authored
The Epistle to the Romans
and the multivolume
Church Dogmatics
, as well as numerous exegetical, historical, and political works. This entry examines five enduring features of Barth's thought: (i) an affirmation of the centrality of scripture for Christian theology; (ii) an incisive critique of religion, matched with an insistence that God's self‐revelation provides the best starting point for theological inquiry; (iii) a bold conceptualization of God and (iv) Jesus Christ; and (v) a distinctive account of human freedom, which opens out into a dynamic vision of Christian community and witness.
Boethius
Authors: Jürgasch Thomas
Published: November 2021

For a long time, Boethius (b. between 475 and 480, d. between 524 and 526) has only been considered a mediator between classical ancient thought and the Middle Ages. Nowadays, this view is increasingly changing and Boethius is more and more recognized as an independent and creative thinker who made significant contributions to philosophy and theology. The entry sheds some light on the peculiarities of Boethius's theological and philosophical methods, on his rather innovative position on the relationship between faith and reason and on the lasting impact Boethius's thought has had on the development of rational theology, especially in the Middle Ages.
Buddha
Authors: Gowans Christopher W.
Published: November 2021

The Buddha is the founder of Buddhist thought and practice. He lived in the Ganges river basin around the fifth century
bce
. Born as Siddhattha Gotama, he left his wife and child after a spiritual crisis and spent six years learning how to overcome suffering. With the discovery of the Four Noble Truths, he was an Awakened one, a Buddha, and he devoted the rest of his life to teaching. The Buddha believed that we are continually reborn and that our moral conduct in one life determines our level of wellbeing in future lives (the doctrine of karma). The Four Noble Truths are that suffering is pervasive in the cycle of rebirth, that this is caused by craving and more deeply by the mistaken belief that we are selves, that liberation from the suffering of cyclic life (
nirvāṇa
) is possible, and that this may be achieved by following the Eightfold Path.
Cambridge Platonists
Authors: Hengstermann Christian
Published: November 2021

The Cambridge Platonists or Origenists, a group of Anglican philosophers in seventeenth‐century England during the Civil War and Restoration period, championed religious toleration and a practical theology of religion. They criticized sectarian enthusiasm and the early modern philosophical systems of Thomas Hobbes, René Descartes, and Baruch Spinoza. Their practical idealism revolves around the three doctrines of libertarian free will, objective values, and a benign and providential deity. God is shown to be the first principle of both practical and theoretical reason which he impels as universal goodness and consummate wisdom. As creative power, he is the principle of life animating an intellectual, albeit unconscious, plastic nature which causes the gradual unfolding of plantal, animal, and human life in a living cosmos.
Candrakīrti
Authors: Lang Karen
Published: November 2021

Candrakīrti influenced the development of Madhyamaka Buddhist philosophy in India and in Tibet through his commentaries on the works of Nāgārjuna and Āryadeva and his
Introduction to the Middle Way
. In the most influential of his works, his commentary on Nāgārjuna's
Middle Way
Verses, the
Clear Words
, Candrakīrti opposes philosophical innovations of his fellow Buddhists, Dignāga and Bhāviveka. He criticizes Bhāviveka for defending Madhyamaka tenets by using the syllogistic reasoning of Dignāga rather than reductio ad absurdum reasoning, which points out the inconsistencies and the absurd consequences of maintaining an opponent's position. Candrakīrti's Madhyamaka views form part of a complex system of intertwined religious and philosophical beliefs in which ethical behavior and meditative experiences are the foundation on which wisdom builds. In
Introduction to the Middle Way
and in his commentary on Āryadeva's
Four Hundred Verses
he presents his views on ethical foundation of the bodhisattva path to Buddhahood.
Cārvāka
Authors: Bhattacharya Ramkrishna
Published: November 2021

The Cārvākas, who appeared in or around the eighth century
ce
, were the successors of the Ucchedavādins, the Bhūtavādins, and the Lokāyatikas, the earlier materialists of India. There are certain features common to materialism in Greece and India, but in India it has two special features: denial of the Other World and of the authority of the Veda. This led to the division of
āstika
(asserter) and
nāstika
(denier) grouping in philosophy. There is also a parallel division – the six
tarka
s (arguments) – which is secular. The Cārvākas differed from their materialist predecessors in two respects: they admitted four instead of five elements, and partly acknowledged inference in addition to perception as a means of knowledge. There is no definite evidence to brand the Cārvākas as hedonists. Their literature is lost, but the available fragments evince their impact on philosophical and religious thinking in India.
Christology
Authors: Hasker William
Published: November 2021

This entry presents a brief summary of the history of Christology, the Christian doctrine concerning Jesus Christ. It concludes with a discussion of some current issues and developments concerning this doctrine.
Cognitive Science and Theological Anthropology
Authors: Visala Aku
Published: November 2021

Theological anthropology is a subfield of theology that deals with what humans are and how they are related to God. Cognitive science is a multidisciplinary field that studies information‐processing in different forms, including human minds and brains. Instead of seeing an inherent conflict between these two disciplines, many theologians have sought to engage and adapt the cognitive sciences for theological use. Topics in this engagement include the nature of the image of God, human uniqueness, free will, virtue, character, and moral cognition. Furthermore, there is novel discussion emerging on artificial intelligence, theological anthropology, and the future of the human intellect. This entry introduces the main features of current cognitive science and provides an overview of central issues where cognitive science and theological anthropology meet.
Cosmological Argument
Authors: O'Connor Timothy
Published: November 2021

The entry introduces first cause‐ and contingency‐based cosmological arguments for the existence of an absolutely independent being on which the natural order of things depends. Tracing the roots of such arguments to Plato and Aristotle, it then summarizes major historical elaborations and criticisms in the medieval and early modern eras. It concludes by noting some contemporary developments in the articulation and analysis of these arguments.
Death
Authors: Berkson Mark
Published: November 2021

Death, and our awareness of our mortality, are fundamental aspects of the human condition. Thinkers from virtually all religious and philosophical traditions have reflected on the significance of our mortality, and many have argued that reflecting on death is an essential part of the examined life. Central themes in the philosophy of religion regarding death include defining and conceptualizing death, evaluating whether or not death can be considered bad for the person who dies and whether or not it is rational to fear death, reflecting on the way that mortality awareness shapes our lives, exploring the possibilities of various forms of post‐death existence, analyzing the conceivability and desirability of immortality, and examining the connection between mortality and the meaning of our lives.
Dharma
: Hindu
Authors: Davis Donald R.
Published: November 2021

Generally,
dharma
refers to the religious and legal duties of Hindus. Within Hinduism, the dominant tradition for the explanation and study of
dharma
was called Dharmaśāstra, the two‐thousand‐year‐old scholastic tradition of Hindu religious law. However, many other Hindu traditions also addressed the nature of
dharma
, accepting, modifying, or rejecting its formulation within Dharmaśāstra. Traditionally,
dharma
was defined contextually according to idealized social groups, and its content thus changed from group to group. Beginning in the nineteenth century, modern reformulations of Hindu
dharma
have stressed a universal and eternal conceptualization of the term as a collection of natural moral virtues.
Dharmottara
Authors: Hugon Pascale
Published: November 2021

The Indian Buddhist philosopher Dharmottara was an innovative thinker in the field of epistemology. He had a significant influence on Indian and Tibetan philosophy through his ideas on valid cognition, language, and conceptualization, which he developed in his own monographs and in commentaries on the works of Dharmakīrti.
Divine Foreknowledge
Authors: Flint Thomas P.
Published: November 2021

The idea that God knows what will happen in our future has long been discussed in the Western monotheistic tradition. Since this tradition holds that God is omniscient, and since it's natural to think that there are comprehensive truths about the future, it's plausible to think that God knows all such truths. Arguments based on the notions of eternity, fatalism, and theological determinism call this belief into question, but their effectiveness remains controversial. Even if one concludes that God knows the future, questions as to how he knows it remain. Three main approaches are considered.
Evil as a Problem for Theism
Authors: Seacord Beth
Published: November 2021

The epistemic problem for God's existence from evil is a problem concerning whether there are instances, kinds, amounts, or distributions of evil that are inconsistent with or make it unlikely that a perfect deity exists. This entry begins with a discussion of the relevance of our understanding of God's nature to the problem of evil. The second part of the entry focuses on various formulations and criticisms of the problem of evil including inductive or evidential versions, logical or incompatibility versions, as well as contemporary Bayesian and abductive versions of the problem of evil.
Evolutionary Theory and Theism
Authors: Stephens Christopher
Published: November 2021

What is the relationship between evolutionary theory and theism? Some have argued that evolutionary theory undermines the design argument for the existence of God. Some argue that evolutionary theory and theism are incompatible, while others argue that they can coexist. Some philosophers have argued that evolutionary considerations can be evidence for theism, while others claim evolutionary theory presents new resources for the problem of evil.
Free Will
Authors: Timpe Kevin
Published: November 2021

Since at least Augustine, free will has played an important role in the history of philosophy of religion. And it continues to play a central role in contemporary work. This entry explores that role with a particular focus on the problem of evil, the doctrines of divine creation and conservation, and issues of eschatology.
Gersonides
Authors: Green Alexander
Published: November 2021

Rabbi Levi ben Gershom (1288–1344) is an important Jewish philosopher of the Middle Ages who lived almost a century after Moses Maimonides. More than any of his predecessors, he is known for advocating a form of Aristotelian Judaism, which synthesizes reason and faith and counters the relative skepticism of Maimonides. Describing God and the universe as perfectly ordered and teleological, this led him to conclude that God does not know particulars as particulars, but particulars as universals. Although he viewed the interpretation of the stars as providing some guidance for individuals, he believed that human beings are endowed with the freedom to strive for preservation of the body and immortality of the soul. In his conception, the Torah's laws and narratives are God's providential gift to humanity, which guides them to more easily achieve these two goals.
Heidegger, Martin
Authors: Coyne Ryan
Published: November 2021

Martin Heidegger (1889–1976) was one of the most influential and controversial philosophers of the twentieth century. A leading figure in phenomenology, Heidegger's thinking quickly grew into a wide‐ranging critique of the Western philosophical tradition from the Presocratics to Nietzsche. His readings of figures such as Descartes, Leibniz, Kant, Schelling, and Hegel formed the basis for a thoroughgoing critique of modernity.
Henry of Ghent
Authors: Williams Scott M.
Published: November 2021

Henry of Ghent (b. 1217[?]–1293) defends and develops free choice of the will for God and for rational creatures, and distinguishes a creature's essence and existence. These explain the contingency of the world and moral responsibility. His discussion of necessity and contingency also feature in his Trinitarian theology with regard to the internal divine production of the Son and of the Holy Spirit. His account of personhood also features in his Trinitarian theology and the individuation of rational creatures. Further, Henry upholds a traditional account of analogy with an epistemic twist for our positive knowledge of God.
Hume, David
Authors: Russell Paul
Published: November 2021

This entry is intended to provide the reader with an overview of the central themes and arguments found in David Hume's (1711–1776) contributions to the philosophy of religion. The topics covered include the argument from design and the cosmological argument; the problem of evil; miracles and revealed religion; the natural history of religion; and Hume's philosophy of irreligion and atheism.
Idealism, German
Authors: Berger Benjamin
Published: November 2021

This entry provides an overview of the philosophy of religion in German idealism. The first section discusses the philosophy of religion in transcendental idealism, with an emphasis on Kant's and Fichte's conceptions of God. The second section considers the next major stage of idealist philosophy of religion, the absolute idealism of Schelling and Hegel, which seeks to surpass Kant and Fichte's morally oriented philosophy of religion. Finally, the third section briefly outlines the last major stage of this tradition, the late Schelling's metaphysical empiricism.
Immutability and Impassibility
Authors: Panchuk Michelle
Published: November 2021

This entry presents influential arguments for the doctrines of divine immutability and impassibility. These arguments attempt to show that God must possess these properties if God has other properties central to classical theism: divine perfection, divine simplicity, and divine timelessness. It then considers the reasons offered by three schools of thought in their rejection of the doctrines. Open theists reject a strong understanding of divine immutability on the grounds that it is incompatible with the combination of divine omniscience and an open future. Feminist and process theologians, on the other hand, reject divine immutability and impassibility just because they reject some of the central assumptions of classical theism from which they follow – feminists, patriarchal assumptions about the nature of perfection, and process theologians, the basic ontological framework that underlies classical models of God.
Indian Philosophy
Authors: Kapstein Matthew T.
Published: November 2021

This entry provides an introduction to the historical development of Indian philosophy, emphasizing four main phases: (i) the pre‐systematic thinking of the Vedic traditions and early Buddhism and Jainism, in which many of the characteristic ideas informing later Indian philosophy first emerged; (ii) the period from roughly the third centurybceto the fourth centuryce,during which the major philosophical systems were rigorously formulated; (iii) a scholastic phase, through the end of the first millennium, when advances in logic and epistemology brought refinements of philosophical method; and (iv) late scholasticism, characterized by the emergence of the “New Logic” and of new trends in Vedānta thought. Developments pertinent to the philosophy of religion are stressed, and some recent developments in Indian philosophy briefly described. The entry is intended to provide a broad orientation to the many entries on specific topics in Indian philosophy in theEncyclopedia of Philosophy of Religionand therefore omits references to secondary works for which full citations will be found in the particular entries concerned.
Kabbalah
Authors: Hecker Joel
Published: November 2021

The term “Kabbalah” refers to texts and practices of Jewish mysticism that emerge in the twelfth century, and continue to the present day. The narrow meaning of the term signifies the literature that assumes that Divinity manifests itself in 10 stages calledsefirot. The Kabbalists sought to view and even unite with God, through both upward ascent and downward convergence of Divinity within the world, one's environs, and one's body. Normative Jewish practice, including ritual, study, and prayer, were all understood to be efficacious in unifying the Godhead.
Korea, Neo‐Confucian Philosophy in
Authors: Chung Edward Y.J.
Published: November 2021

Yi Hwang (Toegye, 1501–1570), Yi I (Yulgok, 1536–1584), and Jeong Yagyong (Dasan, 1762–1836) were the three most eminent Neo‐Confucians in Korea. Toegye strongly influenced Korean Neo‐Confucianism (seongnihak) by articulating the “sagely learning” that must integrate knowledge, moral practice, and spiritual cultivation. His “Four‐seven debate letters” also enrich the moral‐spiritual dimension of Neo‐Confucianism by emphasizing principle (i), mind cultivation, and reverence. Yulgok advocated political, economic, and social improvement by addressing the fundamentals of ethics and statecraft. His “Four‐seven” philosophy presents a systematic interpretation of human nature, emotions, and self‐cultivation by highlighting the idea of material force (gi). Dasan, the most famous Silhak (practical learning) thinker, criticized Seongnihak orthodoxy and defined thesilhakin terms of promoting people's daily lives. He charged that the metaphysics of principle and material force is not based on the original classics; the unifying thread of Neo‐Confucianism is the inseparable link between personal cultivation and public service.
Kyoto School
Authors: Morisato Takeshi
Published: November 2021

The Kyoto school consists of two types of philosophy of religion. The first offers a series of philosophical reflections on various religious teachings while remaining faithful to an open communication between philosophy and religion. The second offers an intellectual elucidation of religion that remains strictly within the bounds of philosophy. The founders of the school, Nishida Kitarō and Tanabe Hajime, and their notable followers (Nishitani Keiji, Ueda Shizuteru, et al.) took the first approach. Hatano Seiichi, also known as the founding member of the school, established his own philosophy of religion in the second vein and had considerable influence on his students, who later became major intellectual figures in Tokyo. These two types of the Kyoto school of philosophy of religion shared a general tendency to accommodate both the Judeo‐Christian and the Mahayana Buddhist tradition in their efforts to understand the significance of religion. This entry focusses on the first type by means of a discussion of the notions of “nothingness” and “absolute dialectic” in the works of Nishida and Tanabe.
Liberation in Hinduism
Authors: Leach Robert
Published: November 2021

This entry provides an overview, not intended to be exhaustive, of some of the important philosophical and religious issues that arose in discussions of the nature of and means to liberation (
mokṣa
) from the cycle of rebirth (
saṃsāra
) found in Hindu Sanskrit literature composed in ancient and medieval South Asia. It highlights the importance of knowledge, especially knowledge of the immortal self (
ātman
), in achieving liberation, and the obstacle which desire (
kāma
,
icchā
) represents to liberating knowledge, and it distinguishes two main approaches (negative and positive) to the conceptualization and articulation of the causes and content of liberation.
Mantra
Authors: Perrett Roy W.
Published: November 2021

Mantra features significantly in all of the religions of Indian origin (Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism). The Sanskrit term
mantra
may be characterized as a syllable or word, or group of such, the utterance of which is supposed to have special powers. The syllables or words may or may not be meaningless, but the utterance of them in a ritual context is supposed to guarantee success in some ritual end.

One of the most fundamental issues about mantra that modern scholars disagree on is whether mantra is language. Some hold that mantras are mostly meaningless sound constructs; others hold that mantras are meaningful linguistic items. The alinguistic view holds that mantras can be assimilated to ritual and are meaningless. They are not language because they lack two essential properties of language: syntax and semantics. The opposing linguistic view of mantras thinks of them as speech acts, and hence a form of language which is meaningful. On this view, while the words of the mantra may or may not be semantically meaningless, their utterance in the right context is pragmatically meaningful in virtue of constituting a special kind of illocutionary speech act.
Materialism
Authors: Montero Barbara Gail
Published: November 2021

The philosophical theory of materialism can be stated in three words: everything is material. But what does this mean? Each word of this definition – “everything,” “is,” and “material” – is controversial. This entry presents an overview of this controversy with the aim of offering a starting point to understand the theory of materialism, as the theory is understood in philosophy of mind.
McTaggart, John McTaggart Ellis
Authors: McDermid Douglas
Published: November 2021

A true philosophical nonconformist, the British idealist John McTaggart Ellis McTaggart (1866–1925) argued for religion without God, atheism without naturalism, and life after death without a heaven or a hell. His rich, lucid, and rigorous writings deserve more attention than they have hitherto received from students of philosophy of religion.
Mīmāṃsā
Authors: Yoshimizu Kiyotaka
Published: November 2021

The Mīmāṃsā school was originally concerned with the exegesis of the Veda. From the early period, it continued to have a close relationship with Vedānta, with the exegesis of the Upaniṣads, and with the science of grammar. In the early medieval period, Mīmāṃsā entered into a new era when Kumārila and Prabhākara articulated their own positions with regard to many philosophical topics, in particular epistemology and the theory of scripture, which were the subject of lively discussion among philosophical schools in India. Kumārila recommended to Brahmins that they maintain a tolerant attitude towards the schools of other Vedic branches, whereas he intolerantly criticized Buddhism as a heretic religion and philosophy. He also supported the new Brahmin movement to systematize Hindu customs. Prabhākara articulated his idea about the unity of a Vedic scripture and its activity towards human beings, an idea that can be traced back to traditional Mīmāṃsā.
Miracles
Authors: Levine Michael Philip
Published: November 2021

This entry addresses principal philosophical questions associated with miracles. What is a miracle? Can miracles occur? Can anyone ever be justified in believing a miracle has occurred and has anyone ever been justified in so believing? Are miracles violations of laws of nature? Are Bayesian approaches to the question of justified belief and the probability of a miraculous occurrence useful? What is David Hume's principal argument against justified belief in his essay
Of Miracles
, and how does it relate to the additional arguments against justified belief he gives in Part II of his essay? Are miracles religiously significant and if so in what ways?
Mishnah
Authors: Schwartz Marcus
Published: November 2021

“Mishnah” usually refers to the earliest canonical collection of Rabbinic traditions. Jewish tradition attributes the collection, redaction, and publication of this text to the late‐second‐century Palestinian figure Rabbi Yehudah Ha‐Nasi. Rabbinic Jews revere this collection and have transmitted it to the present day faithfully, though with some accretions and changes. The two Talmuds present themselves as commentaries upon the Mishnah, showing its importance in the development of Rabbinic Judaism. The document is deeply influenced by the late‐first‐/early‐second‐century sage Rabbi Aqiva and his students. However, we commonly find traditions in the Mishnah claiming their origins in the first century or even earlier. The Rabbinic tradition divides the Mishnah into six “orders.” Their sequence is generally: Zeraim (“seeds” – agricultural commandments); Mo'ed (“appointed times” – festival commandments); Nashim (“women” – family law); Neziqin (“damages” – civil and criminal law); Qodashim (“holy things” – sacrificial commandments); and Tohorot (“purities” – purity regulations). Each “order” is then subdivided into smaller units known as “tractates.” Though the Mishnah is in many ways the basis for all the subsequent versions of Rabbinic Judaism, it views the post‐Temple Judaism of its time as lacking an important element and seems to assume that the Jews will someday regain religious and political autonomy and rebuild their Temple.
Monism
Authors: Taliaferro Charles
Published: November 2021

“Monism” principally refers to philosophies and religions that affirm the oneness or unity of reality. Examples are given: Advaita Vedānta Hinduism, materialism, and idealism. “Monism” may also refer to theories of value that weigh goodness and ethical requirements in reference to a single state or outcome such as happiness.
Natural Theology
Authors: Manning Russell Re
Published: November 2021

In the philosophy of religion natural theology generally refers to the use of “natural” cognitive faculties (such as reason, sense‐perception, introspection, and imagination) to enquire into theological (and religious) issues, most centrally questions about the existence and nature of God. Commonly, natural theology rejects the use of any “non‐natural” means of enquiry, both non‐natural faculties (such as inspiration and mystical experience) and super‐natural sources (such as revelation, religious traditions, and convention). As such, natural theology is frequently set up in contrast both to “revealed theology” (enquiry into theological issues that accepts the place of revelation) and to “theology of nature” (enquiry into nature and the natural on the basis of particular theological convictions, such as the existence of a creator God).
Nietzsche, Friedrich
Authors: Casey Patrick J.
Published: November 2021

Few philosophers are more contested than Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900) and few are more prone to widely diverging interpretations. While some readers are tempted to think that Nietzsche offers no coherent philosophy at all, Nietzsche's philosophy may be usefully framed as an attempt to diagnose and treat the problem of nihilism. First, an analysis of Nietzsche's distinctive understanding of nihilism is discussed along with its connection to Christianity and Nietzsche's proclamation that God is dead. Second, an interpretation of Nietzsche's positive philosophy – life‐affirmation – is offered, along with his related notions of eternal recurrence andamor fati. So understood, Nietzsche's philosophy as a radical affirmation of the here and now stands in sharp contrast to the otherworldliness of many philosophies and religions.
Origen
Authors: Hause Jeffrey
Published: November 2021

A prolific writer and dedicated teacher, Origen (c. 186
ce
–c. 255
ce
) made extensive use of Greek philosophy to investigate, articulate, and defend Christian views about the nature of God and creation. He employed philosophical and philological tools to discover the Bible's teachings about the nature of God, intellectual creatures, and the means by which those creatures can return to God. All intellectual creatures preexisted this life, having once enjoyed the beatific contemplation of the Son, the second hypostasis of the Trinity. Having turned away from God, these creatures were cast into this material cosmos, which serves as fitting punishment but affords means by which intellectual creatures can regain their original virtue and return to contemplation of the Son.