bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
ECOLOGICAL MAPPING AND CLEANUP OF OIL SPILLS ONSHORE
Authors: Klokk Terje , Danielsen Arild , Sendstad Erling , Tommeraas Per
Published: January 2013

An ecological mapping project aims at mapping in advance areas along the Norwegian coast most likely to be exposed to oil spills from offshore oil activities. Up to now, the southernmost parts of ths coast as well as those parts along the northern coast most likely to be subject to oil spills from possible wells at the Haltenbanken, Traenabanken and Trømsoflaket have been mapped. Oil originating from a blowout at the northern oilfields is likely to reach the coast in a few days. This stresses the necessity and demand for locality information in a survey able and operative form.

The maps provide information about important areas with respect to natural resources, and their value for nature conservation reasons, industrial utilization, or development. Among parameters recorded on the maps are geomorphological beach types and important geological, zoological and botanical localities. Further, seabird species, seals, local fishing places and important resorts or outdoor life areas are mapped. The mapping of areas for pelagic fish species, as well as localities for fish farming and storage in the sea of live catches, has been a subject of major concern. The geomorphological types are correlated to anticipated self-cleaning ability.

A matrix for prioritizing localities with respect to cleanup actions also is presented. This implies quantifying each locality with regard to its biological, commercial, and outdoor life importance and self-cleaning ability.
OIL SPILL PROTECTION PLANNING FOR NATURAL RESOURCES IN OREGON
Authors: Sutherland G. Bruce , Jones Irving W. , Smith Randall W.
Published: January 2013

A series of oil spill protection plans for natural resources has been developed for high priority areas in Oregon. This series was begun following the Toyota Maru No. 10 oil spill in the Columbia River in 1978 and has continued to the present. The plans are designed for use by the on-scene coordinator, special forces, and advisory agencies.

Oil spill protection plans for the lower Columbia and Willamette rivers and the Yaquina Bay estuary are completed, and plans are being developed for the Coos Bay estuary. Each area contains high priority natural resource areas. These include National Wildlife Refuge System lands and waters, estuarine sanctuary lands and waters, critical habitats for endangered species, and spawning or breeding areas for fish and migratory birds. Considerations for access, water intakes, and commercial interests are included in the plans.

The method of developing the plans for the three areas is discussed in detail. The process involves locating known vulnerable areas on a series of resource maps, describing the resources and their seasonal vulnerabilities on descriptive charts, and suggesting boom locations, oil containment sites, and access points on protective maps.

Resource protection and response is analyzed, and recommendations for improving the process are included for future use by the agencies involved in pollution response and resource management. The level of interagency cooperation necessary for both spill response and detailed resource protection planning is identified. The practical value of this approach to resource protection and contingency planning is discussed.
MARINE INDUSTRY GROUP (MIRG)
Authors: Meyers Robert J. , Bennett Michael R.
Published: January 2013

Eleven companies involved in the marine transportation of petroleum in the Gulf of Mexico have established the Marine Industry Group (MIRG). MIRG is not an oil spill response organization, nor an oil spill cooperative. Rather, it is a group with the primary purpose of enhancing oil spill response capability in the Gulf of Mexico. Toward this end, MIRG has funded two oil spill contingency planning information projects which will:Identify the location of specific cleanup equipment and resources and provide information concerning the logistical requirements to deploy such equipmentProvide a survey which will identify and give information on the economically and ecologically sensitive areas in the Gulf of Mexico Both projects use available data and organize it into a format which can be useful for the broad area of interest where marine transporters operate.

This paper describes the organization and objectives of MIRG, defines the area of interest, describes the resources and logistics and the environmental survey projects, and outlines other activities of the group. The resources and logistics project is discussed at length. The method of assembling the resource information, the verification process, and the updating methods are discussed. The use of this resource data is demonstrated for a hypothetical oil spill scenario.
ORGANIZATIONAL OBSTACLES TO DECISION-MAKING DURING OIL SPILLS
Authors: Mew H. E. , Rooney-Char Ann Hayward , Webb James D.
Published: January 2013

This paper discusses a procedure for minimizing interagency conflict during oil pollution incidents. Under the organizational structure established by the National Contingency Plan, an on-scene coordinator depends on an accurate flow of information from a variety of agencies or groups for effective decision-making and a successful spill response effort. This paper identifies the different groups with responsibilities in spill incidents and discusses how their differing perspectives may lead to conflicts, imposing obstacles to decision-making. Although the differing perspectives reflect substantive issues, behavioral characteristics of organizations may actually precipitate or aggravate conflicts. Disagreements between agencies over substantive issues can be resolved to a large extent through conscientious development of the contingency plan, and frequent communication and joint training exercises among agencies are effective means for averting or minimizing conflict during actual spill incidents.
OIL SPILL PREPAREDNESS IN A TROPICAL OFFSHORE AREA
Authors: Tan Ging Tuang
Published: January 2013

The systematic process by which an oil spill preparedness plan was developed for SSB/SSPC operations in the South China Sea used local wind, current, and weather data in a SLIKTRAK model adapted to estimate the spill costs and risks resulting from a well blowout. The model shows that the Sabah and Philippines shores would be likely to be affected, while the Brunei and Sarawak shores have a low probability. The minimum period in which oil will arrive at any shore is three days after the spill. February to early August are likely months in which a spill will arrive at a shoreline. Spills from late August to January are expected to move away from the coast. Mechanical recovery of spilled oil and chemical dispersant spraying from boats is effective from March to September while natural dispersion is enhanced from September to February. The local environmental data and local availability of vessels and resources greatly influence the choice of mechanical cleanup equipment.

An ecological marine macrobenthos survey has been carried out in the Sabah and Sarawak coastal waters. The fundamental aim of the program is to develop quantitative data on the current status of selected marine macrobenthic communities in these areas. This data could be used as a reference for comparison against any future surveys so that any environmental effects or modification resulting from oil spills may be assessed. A coastal resources study along the Sarawak coast also was being carried out to determine sensitive areas in order to prioritise the allocation of available oil spill control equipment and resources.

Finally, the roles and development of Shell oil spill cooperatives in this region have been based on the tier concept. Under this concept, SSB/SSPC would be primarily responsible for its own spill as the first tier. It is complemented on a reciprocal basis by close cooperation with Brunei Shell as the second tier. The third tier involves the cooperation of the Shell Companies in Southeast Asia—the ROSE scheme.
INNOVATIVE TRAINING: COMPUTER ASSISTED LEARNING
Authors: Peabody C. H. , Goodman R. H.
Published: January 2013

Response to recent oil spill incidents has shown the need to augment the training of oil spill response teams. At the spill site, the on-scene commander attempts to correlate all the available information to implement the optimum cleanup strategy promptly. In most cases, rapid decision-making is lacking. Traditional hands-on training supplies response crews with practical experience in oil spill cleanup but leaves the on-scene commander unprepared for the time pressures of a real situation. To simulate these pressures dramatically, a new technique using computer assisted learning has been developed for training on-scene commanders. The computer assisted learning system will not replace the hands-on training field exercises, but complement them.

Two oil spill scenarios have been developed. The first involves a continuous leak in a fast-flowing river system, limited equipment and manpower constraints. The second involves an instantaneous discharge in the open ocean. This introduces the problem of determining the spill location, compounded by weather and equipment concerns. A 48-hour scenario is simulated in four hours actual time. The on-scene commander responds to the spill situation by interacting with the computer display terminal. He can request weather information and spill trajectories, deploy booms and skimmers, and be presented with problems to be solved in a time-pressure situation. These problems include the sighting of oiled birds, press conference, labor strikes, weather changes, and equipment breakdowns. On termination of the simulated response, data are provided on the amount of oil recovered, the percent of shoreline oil, and the total cost of the cleanup. Average values are compiled for comparative purposes.

The computer assisted learning program has proven to be a useful adjunct to our usual training program and provides the on-scene commander trainee the opportunity to experience the time pressures of and decision-making required during an oil spill response.
SHORELINE EXPERIMENTS AND THE PERSISTENCE OF OIL ON ARCTIC BEACHES
Authors: Owens Edward H. , Harper John R. , Foget Carl R. , Robson Wishart
Published: January 2013

Experiments associated with the oiling of beaches in an arctic environment show that fetch and wave-energy conditions at the shoreline are primary factors in determining the persistence of stranded oil. Five intertidal sections of coast were oiled, each of which differed in terms of shoreline exposure and fetch. The oil loadings of the test beaches that were oiled artificially were in the same range as those from an adjacent nearshore spill, so that the experimental results can be assumed to replicate real-world oiling conditions.

On the most exposed beach (fetch 90 kilometers) all oil was removed naturally after 80 days of exposure to open-water conditions. At a semi-exposed location, 85 to 95 percent of the oil was removed within 40 days, and at the most sheltered test sites (fetch less than 2 km) between 5 and 30 percent of the oil remained after an observation period of 160 open-water days. Data collection to determine fates of oil at the different sites over a four-year period is continuing.

In this relatively low-energy wave climate environment, with an open-water season of about 60 days, most exposed beaches would be cleaned naturally to levels less than 500 milligrams/kilogram within 100 days, but where the fetch is less than 10 to 25 km the expected persistence of oil stranded in the intertidal zone could be greater than 10 years.
BEACH CLEANING TESTS IN THE NETHERLANDS AT HOOK OF HOLLAND, SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER 1980
Authors: van Eden A.
Published: January 2013

In 1978, the Dutch Minister of Transport and Public Works set up a national working group to look into the question of heavy oil pollution of the Dutch coast. This working group was given the task of selecting, from the wide range available, those methods for cleanup, treatment, and disposal of oil pollution which would be best suited for use in the Netherlands and give the best results in combating coastal oil pollution. At the same time, it was to draw up a contingency plan and inventory the facilities available.

Experiments to determine the best method of combating beach pollution caused by oil spills were undertaken with the following objectives in mind:Testing of preventive measures to limit beach pollution, such as herders, straw bales, sand embankments, and plastic linersTesting of various methods of removing oil (mousse) from the beachTesting of various methods for the final cleaning of a beach from which oil has been removed by dispersants, demulsifiers, etc.Testing of various preliminary treatments enabling better and more efficient transport of oil and making it more suitable for further processing. Mousse-breaking additives and other substances were tested thoroughly in this respect.1Testing of various methods for dealing with the collected oil, such as incineration in suitable installations

The experience gained from the tests and the results achieved were evaluated and substantial conclusions drawn. The working group now is in a position to give useful advice to the various coastal municipalities so that they will be able to combat coastal oil pollution more efficiently. This has been done.
THE WARREN SPRING LABORATORY BEACH MATERIAL WASHING PLANT FOR SHORELINE CLEANUP
Authors: Morris P. R. , Tookey D. , Walsh T.
Published: January 2013

The Warren Spring Laboratory has devised a continuous system for removal of weathered crude oil or residual fuel oil from beach material using a process involving agitation in seawater. The separated oil floats away from the cleaned material and then is recovered by separation; the process water is recycled. The system has been evaluated in pilot plant studies and later in a field trial sponsored by the Department of the Environment and the U. K. Petroleum Industries Association. In that test, 250 tons of soiled beach material from the Eleni V oil spill in 1978 were cleaned using a plant with a throughput of 10 tons per hour. The oil content of the raw feed material varied between two and six percent; the product contained about 0.15 percent oil. Further cleaning to almost zero oil was achieved by the return of the washed product to the shoreline at low tide. The equipment used was essentially a sand and gravel washing plant, modified to handle a coarser feed. Details of the washing techniques are presented together with an outline of the equipment and support services which would be required for a plant capable of handling a feed of about 100 tons per hour. The economics of cleaning the soiled beach material for a 100-mile length of coastline were studied for several situations and the overall cleaning cost shown to be less than that expected for landfill disposal.
A REVIEW OF THE STATE-OF-THE-ART OF OIL SPILL FATE/BEHAVIOR MODELS
Authors: Huang James C.
Published: January 2013

The fate and behavior of spilled oil can be affected by nine physical, chemical, and biological processes: advection, spreading, evaporation, dissolution, emulsification, dispersion, auto-oxidation, biodegradation, and sinking/sedimentation. Currently, oil fate predictions and/or the assessment of environmental impact or risk of a spill are based mostly on oil spill models which simulate only the advective processes and some which include also the spreading processes. These models do not account for the weathering or the loss of the spilled oil that may occur immediately or soon after the spill, and thus may lead to unrealistic assessments or inaccurate predictions.

Models with varying degrees of sophistication and with different approaches for the various weathering processes are being developed, some of them implemented in composite oil fate/behavior models that are constructed to provide more realistic or accurate predictions. To provide some understanding of the current state-of-the-art of these modeling technologies, this paper presents an overview and discussion of the available models for each of the nine oil fate/behavior governing processes.
TESTING OF CRUDE OILS AND PETROLEUM PRODUCTS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PURPOSES
Authors: Mackay Donald , Stiver Warren , Tebeau Peter A.
Published: January 2013

When crude oil or a petroleum product is to be produced or transported in the marine environment, there is always a risk of spills. To assess the nature of the risk and the likely behavior of the spilled oil, it is desirable to test the oil for those properties which will determine its environmental behavior and effects. Further, the properties should be expressed in the form of parameters in equations which are suitable for direct incorporation into oil spill models. Suitable tests for properties such as chemical composition, density, viscosity or rheology, volatility, aqueous solubility, and interfacial properties are suggested and equations suggested for these properties as a function of temperature and extent of weathering. Tests which can be used to predict the rates of environmental processes such as evaporation, water-in-oil emulsion formation, natural and chemically-induced dispersion and spreading are also reviewed and test inadequacies identified. A reasonably complete test protocol can be established now but some problems remain, especially with regard to characterization of an oil's natural dispersability.
HASBAH 6: OIL COMPANIES RESPONSE TO OIL POLLUTION IN THE ARABIAN GULF
Authors: Ryan P. Bernard
Published: January 2013

The Hasbah 6 well offshore Saudi Arabia blew out on October 2, 1980 and remained out of control for ten days. The oil which escaped from the well during this period formed a large slick which drifted southeast down the gulf, threatening the coastal areas of all states south of the blowout site. Oil spill countermeasures were mounted by several oil companies in the region either on their own initiative or upon direction from their respective states’ governments in attempts to minimize the adverse effects of the spill.

All of the oil companies known to be involved in responding to the oil spill were members of the Gulf Area Oil Companies Mutual Aid Organization (GAOCMAO), an organization formed in 1972 to promote cooperation among oil companies in the Arabian Gulf for oil pollution control and cleanup in the region. The Hasbah 6 incident served to demonstrate the value of GAOCMAO in facilitating cooperative responses by member companies to a common pollution hazard and highlighted many of the problems likely to be encountered in mounting a spill cleanup operation of this magnitude in a restricted and multi-national environment such as the Arabian Gulf.
THE FATE OF TWO LARGE OIL SPILLS IN THE ARABIAN GULF
Authors: Lehr William J. , Belen Murat S.
Published: January 2013

In August and October 1980, two large oil spills occurred in the Arabian Gulf. The first, from an unidentified source, involved about 20,000 barrels of crude oil and impacted the entire north and west coasts of the island nation of Bahrain. The second occurred when the Ron Tapmeyer platform in the Hasbah offshore oil field blew out, releasing an estimated 50,000 barrels of thick crude into the Gulf. The spill subsequently covered large sections of the coastline of Qatar.

The fate of the oil from these spills is examined with respect to the unique conditions found in the region. A computer model is used for trajectory analysis of the spills and hypothesizing the possible origin of the first spill. Methods of cleanup and problems with the weathered oil are mentioned. The environmental damage caused by the Bahrain spill is assessed.
THE HASBAH 6 (SAUDI ARABIA) BLOWOUT: THE EFFECTS OF AN INTERNATIONAL OIL SPILL AS EXPERIENCED IN QATAR
Authors: van Oudenhoven Joseph A.C.M.
Published: January 2013

An oil well blowout in the Gulf lasted only eight days; however, the resultant oil spill threatened neighboring coasts for as long as two months. On windy days, nearly neutrally buoyant oil slicks approaching the Qatar coasts seemed to disappear, but they soon surfaced again whenever the weather improved.

Qatar, suddenly faced with a very unusual spill, did not have an oil spill response plan. Throughout the emergency, therefore, valuable time was lost discussing the appropriate measures and setting protection priorities. Often, any understanding of the nature of the problems involved was lacking.

Although most beaches became covered with the tar-like substance, a small task force from the state oil company, supported by a few foreign advisers, was able to protect all the important water intakes.

Examples are given of how general principles were adapted to the specific local circumstances; for instance, lagoons were used to trap and handle the oil, and discarded SBM hoses served as breakwaters. To ensure an environmentally responsible cleaning operation, the few personnel available were provided with lists of “do's and don'ts.” The effectiveness of various approaches to dispose of collected oil is discussed.

A framework for an oil spill contingency plan for Qatar has been developed and a government environmental committee set up. The oil companies’ mutual aid organization, put to the test, revealed weak areas, such as transboundary and communication problems, forcing the partners to review the organization. To enhance in-house response, the state oil company purchased spill-response equipment and is considering hands-on training of emergency crews. The valuable experience gained during this emergency should be used to improve future spill preparedness.
THE DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF A FIREPROOF BOOM1
Authors: Buist Ian A. , Pistruzak William M. , Potter Stephen G. , Vanderkooy Nick , McAllister Ian R.
Published: January 2013

In situ burning of crude oil on water can be an extremely effective oil spill countermeasure, particularly in remote offshore areas and on cold water where conventional countermeasures are limited. In order for in situ burning to be an efficient mitigative technique, the oil must be contained and thickened. A novel fireproof boom has been researched, developed, and tested that can: (1) survive, without damage, long-term exposure to the heat generated by burning crude oil in situ; (2) contain burning crude oil in at least sea states up to three and at current speeds up to 0.4 m/s without loss of combustion intensity; (3) survive without damage for long periods at sea; and (4) withstand contact with small ice features.
COMPOSITION AND FATE OF CLEAN BALLAST WATER DISCHARGED FROM CRUDE OIL TANKERS
Authors: Neff Jerry M. , Marum James P. , Warner J. Scott
Published: January 2013

According to Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative Organization protocols (MARPOL 73/78), clean ballast water (producing no surface sheen and/or containing less than 15 parts per million total oil) from crude oil cargo tanks of tankers can be discharged into coastal waters. As part of an assessment of the potential impact of clean ballast water discharges on Red Sea coral reefs, we have determined the hydrocarbon composition of clean ballast water from crude oil cargo tanks and have determined its rate of dilution following discharge to coastal waters at Yanbu, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

In 52 clean ballast water samples from 10 crude oil tankers, total petroleum hydrocarbon concentrations, measured by gas chromatography, ranged from 0.09 to 11 milligrams/liter (ppm). In most cases, the dominant hydrocarbons in the samples were Cll through C20 n-paraffins. Up to 58 micrograms/liter (ppb) total naphthalenes and 744 μg/l benzene, toluene, and ethylbenzene combined were detected in some samples. Clean ballast water was diluted rapidly upon discharge to the ocean. Dilutions of 100-fold or greater were observed within 10 to 20 meters of the discharge and dilutions of 500 to 1,000-fold were measured 1,500 to 2,000 meters downcurrent and within two to four hours of the discharge. Based on these results, it is predicted that discharge of clean ballast water to the coastal waters of the Red Sea in compliance with MARPOL 73/78 rules will have little or no adverse impact on coral reefs of the area.
EFFECT OF SPILLS OF DISPERSED AND NON-DISPERSED OIL ON INTERTIDAL INFAUNAL COMMUNITY STRUCTURE
Authors: Gilfillan E. S. , Hanson S. A. , Vallas D. , Gerber R. , Page D. S. , Foster J. , Hotham J. , Pratt S. D.
Published: January 2013

The effect of two nearshore discharges of Murban crude oil on community structure in intertidal benthic communities was studied. One discharge consisted of 250 gallons of Murban crude only. Following the discharge, no measurable amount of Murban crude could be found in sediments exposed to the cloud of dispersed oil. Significant amounts were found in the test plot exposed to untreated oil. In the area exposed to untreated oil, more oil was found in the upper intertidal zone than lower down.

Effects on infaunal communities mirrored the analytical results. There was no evidence of adverse effects on infaunal community structure from exposure to dispersed oil. There is clear evidence that exposure to untreated oil did adversely affect community structure. Some indigenous species were reduced in number or eliminated; there were blooms of opportunistic polychaetes. The changes in community structure brought about by the untreated oil are consistent with results observed at real-world oil spill sites.
SANDY BEACH COMMUNITIES EXPOSED TO NATURAL OIL SEEPAGE
Authors: Straughan Dale
Published: January 2013

Studies of the intertidal sandy beach community in the region of natural oil seepage at Coal Oil Point commenced in 1969. This research continued as part of a long term study of natural variation in sandy beach communities as well as an investigation of the impacts on the biota of intermittent exposure to natural oil seepage.

Community data were related to both localized and widespread environmental changes. Changes in the overall macrofaunal community correlate with localized sand movement in the intertidal area. Changes in species composition were related to the widespread oceanographic changes (e.g., water temperature) that occurred in the Southern California Bight during the past decade.

A positive correlation between number of specimens and weight of tar on the beach is attributed to seasonal recruitment patterns rather than the presence of petroleum. Therefore the periodic stranding of petroleum is not the dominant abiotic factor influencing this community as a whole.
GEOMORPHOLOGICAL IMPACT OF CLEANUP OF AN OILED SALT MARSH (ILE GRANDE, FRANCE)
Authors: Long B. F. , Vandermeulen J. H.
Published: January 2013

As a result of removal of surface sediments following heavy oiling from the Amoco Cadiz spill (March 1978), the Ile Grande marsh has undergone rapid erosion, instead of continuing in the normal depositional phase of formation. This resulted directly from the sediment removal, which led to increased water flow velocities through the marsh.

Four years after the cleanup, the old marsh drainage system, based on the equilibrium between channel cross section, channel slope, tidal current velocity and marsh sediments (grain size, stabilization through vegetation), has been replaced by a new artificial drainage system. The principal factor in the new system is the formation of a new meander channel system with increased cross sections of primary and secondary draining channels (tidal prism), slumping of channel banks and widening of the meanders. Primary and secondary channels, in both the mudflat and the upper vegetative zones, now exhibit meander channel valleys of 5.4 to 15 meters wide, and 1 m deep (the original width was 0.5 to 1 m). The beds of some of these channels, formerly of silt, now are the sites of sandbar formation. Thus the marsh is in a continuing erosional phase.

The process is accelerated by the erosion of the interior vegetative zone through the washout and enlargement of the marsh pools on the upper part of the marsh. Normally not part of the marsh drainage system, these were connected to the marsh channels by hand-dug ditches at the time of cleanup, thereby allowing tidal flow into the upper, low-energy marsh.
THE PORT BOLIVAR, TEXAS OIL SPILL—A CASE HISTORY OF OILED BIRD SURVIVAL1
Authors: Mueller Allan J. , Mendoza Carlos H.
Published: January 2013

On March 9, 1982 oil from an unknown offshore source began to wash ashore near Port Bolivar, Texas. Beach cleanup was coordinated between the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, the U.S. Coast Guard, and local authorities. Oiled sand was removed from the beach and stockpiled for local use in road construction.

Oiled lesser scaup (Aythya affinis) appeared on the beach almost as soon as the oil did. The Fish and Wildlife Service coordinated volunteer efforts at capturing and cleaning the scaup. A total of 37 birds were captured, with 19 brids being taken in one night outing. Oiled bird cleaning began on March 10 and was completed on March 12. Procedures followed those described by Williams.3 Five scaup were washed three times, 31 washed twice, and one washed once.

Thirty-five scaup were released on March 15 and two on April 27. No birds died during cleaning and the survival rate of the released birds is estimated to be 89 to 97 percent. Three factors were responsible for this successful oiled bird cleanup: advance preparation in the stockpiling of supplies and the training of volunteers; the availability of an adequate cleanup station; and the cooperation of volunteers and government agencies.
MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS OF WORLDWIDE TANKER CASUALTIES1
Authors: Meade Norman , LaPointe Thomas , Anderson Robert
Published: January 2013

Previous research on the relationships between oil tanker characteristics and casualty events suggests that vessel flag, size, and age may be important determinants of casualty rates. These studies have been bivariate primarily, examining one factor at a time, providing uncertain results given the interdependent nature of the factors affecting tanker casualties, such as age and size. This paper describes a multivariate analysis of the relative effects of vessel flag, size and age on the casualty rates of oil tankers for the period 1969 to 1978. Among the findings discussed are: (1) vessels operating under certain flags of registry have much higher casualty rates than others in the world fleet; 2) smaller vessels exhibit higher casualty rates than larger ones; and 3) older vessels appear to be no more accident prone than newer vessels. With few exceptions, these basic findings are invariant with respect to accident cause and accident location.
RISK CONTROL MANAGEMENT FOR OIL SPILLS
Authors: Kiebala Leo
Published: January 2013

To be effective, risk control requires scientific, engineering, technological, and managerial expertise. The latter discipline is frequently overlooked. This is ironic because it is the managerial factor that truly establishes a result-oriented program. A new concept has recently been developed and successfully carried out that stresses management of the risk control function. This concept steps ahead of traditional methods and answers two important questions: what is the necessary level of control for your organization; and how can that level of control be economically attained?

It is important to have an understanding of an organization's loss exposures and existing control over these exposures before any effective program can be carried out. Only when the exposure/control relationship is known can potential incident causes be identified in time to take corrective action. The combination of these three principles is the basis for this program.

Effective management of the risk control function requires recognition of the control/exposure relationship, subsequent prediction of future incident trends and appropriate action based on these predictions. The numerous forces exerting an influence on the control/exposure relationship are summarized in four factors: resistance, operational, motivational, and historical.

Quantification of these factors leads to the determination of the risk control performance index for the operation. Comparison of this index to past incident trends will permit prediction of future incident and loss trends. With this understanding, an action plan containing sound, well-directed risk control procedures and practices can be developed and carried out, greatly assisting in the prevention of future oil spills.
PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF A NEW VERSATILE OIL SPILL DISPERSANT
Authors: Becker Kenneth W. , Lindblom Gordon P.
Published: January 2013

Several oil spill dispersants available since 1975 have successfully dispersed spills of light to medium oils. However, they generally have performed poorly on heavily weathered oil, low gravity viscous oils, waxy crudes, “chocolate mousse” emulsions, and any oil spilled in cold environments. Some also were not formulated for use on waters of low salinity. In many cases involving spills of low viscosity oils, the decision to use chemical treatment has been delayed until the oil is in a weathered state.

Chemical treatment under any of these conditions requires that the active surfactants reach the oil/water interface with the aid of a penetrating hydrocarbon solvent. Such formulations lose effectiveness when diluted with water (as in boat spraying) and usually must be used undiluted at a high dosage. They also often are too low in viscosity and density to be sprayed efficiently by aircraft. This paper discusses the properties and performance of formulations which avoid the above oil viscosity and water salinity problems and offer, for the first time, opportunity for widespread chemical treatment of such spills by aerial spray from large aircraft.
SELF-CONTAINED OIL RECOVERY SYSTEM FOR USE IN PROTECTED WATERS
Authors: Cohen Steven , Dalton Stephen
Published: January 2013

The U.S. Coast Guard's success with the high seas skimming barrier prompted the development of a smaller, half-scale version for use in protected bays and harbors. The smaller version (SCOOP) enables more rapid deployment with significantly fewer people.

Individual components of the system include a 65-foot section of skimming barrier with redesigned skimming struts, 200 feet of containment boom, two 30-foot work boats for storage, transport, and operation of the system, trailers to carry the boats to the scene, and an oil recovery system including double-acting diaphragm pump, gravity-type oil-water separator, and 750-gallon collapsible storage bags.

In tests at the Environmental Protection Agency's Oil and Hazardous Materials Simulated Environmental Test Tank (OHMSETT) facility, the SCOOP exhibited recovery efficiencies between 30 percent and 60 percent over a speed range of 0.5 to 1.75 knots. The oil recovery rate was between 30 and 70 gallons per minute over the same speed range. At speeds below 0.9 knots there were no losses of oil from the boom.

The system has been delivered to the Coast Guard Gulf Strike Team in Bay St. Louis, Mississippi, where it is being evaluated through use in routine spill response operations and exercises.
OHMSETT PUMP TESTS1
Authors: Borst M. , Cocherell R. J. , Lichte H. W.
Published: January 2013

Pumps are an integral part of all oil spill recovery operations. Skimmers and booms are of little or no practical use if the recovered spill cannot be transferred to permanent installations for further treatment, storage, or disposal. The recovered oil may be weathered, emulsified, debris-filled, or simply highly viscous.

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has recognized the importance of this often over-simplified operation and performed tests at its Oil and Hazardous Materials Simulated Environmental Test Tank (OHMSETT) to document the performance of a variety of pumps commonly used at spills and pumps less commonly used for this specific purpose. The tests were designed to provide performance curves for each pump and to document the abilities of the pumps in four specific situations. While the same tests were applied to each pump to produce these performance curves, because of the different designs and inherent characteristics of each of the pumps (an internal and external gear, progressive cavity, centrifugal, and diaphragm type), comparisons were not intended and would be counterproductive. The results of the tests on each pump stand on their own merits.

The first tests run with each pump were conducted to measure the suction-head and discharge-head abilities of each unit using clean oils. Four oils were chosen to cover a range of viscosities from less than 10 centipoise to several thousand centipoise depending on ambient conditions. The next set of tests documented the pumping characteristics when oil and water were introduced to the pump as non-mixed fluids for concurrent pumping and, more importantly, measured the tendency of the pump to emulsify the oil and water. The third set of tests measured the same relationship as the oil tests using pre-emulsified oil of a high apparent viscosity as a non-Newtonian test fluid. The fourth set of tests simply measured debris-handling abilities of the pumps. This paper presents the initial results for the types of pumps chosen from the OHMSETT inventory.
AN ANALYSIS OF OIL SPILLS DURING TRANSPORT
Authors: Walter Robert A. , DiGregorio Ronald C. , Kooyoomjian K. Jack , Eby Terry L.
Published: January 2013

This paper examines transportation-related oil spills reported to various systems maintained and operated by the federal government. These systems contain up to 15 years of historical spill data covering 26,500 incidents involving more than 8 billion gallons of spilled petroleum and petroleum products. These data were used to develop a risk assessment for various modes of transportation. Highway transport resulted in the most spills, while pipelines were responsible for the greatest quantity of product spilled. Preliminary exposure rates for transportation modes were developed as a first step toward development of predictive models. Exposure factors were developed relating highway spills to gasoline production, and vessel spills to crude production and imports. Less satisfactory exposure factors were developed for railroads and pipelines.
RESPONSIBILITIES OF UNDERWRITERS IN CASUALTIES THREATENING OIL SPILLS1
Authors: Gallagher John J.
Published: January 2013

Various marine underwriting interests are involved when a vessel has a casualty threatening oil pollution. This paper describes the origin, evolution, and current operation of these interests, as well as the scope of the cover provided by those underwriters insuring the vessel itself and the underwriters providing the liability cover to the vessel's owners. A discussion of the operation of the covers involved in several kinds of vessel casualties is included. The interaction of cover in a casualty involving threatened oil pollution from a burning tanker is presented in some detail to illustrate a particularly troublesome type of casualty
A NORTHERN IDAHO GASOLINE SPILL AND CLEANUP USING STREAM BED AGITATION1
Authors: Graves Nathan A.
Published: January 2013

On June 4, 1983, a backhoe operator digging in a Northern Idaho creek ruptured the Yellowstone Pipeline. Approximately 24,000 gallons of unleaded gasoline were released into Wolf Lodge Creek as a result of the spill. Due to the quick response by Yellowstone Pipeline Company personnel, most of the spilled gasoline was recovered prior to entering Lake Coeur d'Alene, located about three miles southwest of the spill site. Initial cleanup methods included deployment of a series of containment and sorbent booms downstream of the spill site and recovery of gasoline by pumping the gasoline from the creek into tank trucks.

The effects of the spill on Wolf Lodge Creek were devastating. The creek was an important spawning area, wildlife habitat, and drinking water source. Federal and state officials concluded that additional cleanup of the creek was necessary, primarily because some of the spilled gasoline had been trapped in the stream bed underneath gravel and debris.

A stream bed agitation technique was developed in an attempt to release the trapped gasoline without further damaging the creek. Following a month of negotiations, Yellowstone Pipeline Company agreed to conduct the stream bed agitation operation.

Three inches of stream bed were turned over by dragging a bulldozer blade over the bed. Released gasoline was collected with sorbent material placed throughout the stream.

Initial recovery of fish and invertebrate populations in Wolf Lodge Creek has been significant. Studies are currently being conducted to determine if invertebrate recovery in agitated areas of the the stream is greater than in unagitated areas.
RECOVERY OF VISCOUS EMULSIONS FROM A FIRM SANDY BEACH1
Authors: Morris P. R. , Lynch B. W. J. , Nightingale J. F. , Thomas D. H.
Published: January 2013

Techniques for the removal of stranded water-in-oil emulsion were compared in a series of trials held on a firm beach at Pendine, South Wales during the period 7–11 November 1983 in cooperation with the local authority and the local Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food inspectors.

A technique of scraping the beach with a stiff rubber blade mounted between two pieces of wood and clamped to a mechanical shovel or hoe was found to be very successful and collected the emulsion comparatively free from sand. The use of large gulley suckers or the WSL designed Springsweep air assisted transport system were found to be effective at oil recovery but limited by the slow flow of the pollutant to the intake of the device. The Springsweep system was also capable of lifting the oily waste off the beach rather than having to attempt the concentration of the recovered liquid in a collection pit.
A COASTAL MARSHLAND REBUILDING TECHNIQUE WITH SPARTINA ALTERNIFLORA AFTER SINGULAR SEASONAL OIL SPILLS1
Authors: Watton Dan
Published: January 2013

The impact of oil on coastal marshlands can adversely affect coastline stability and the well-being of marine ecology in general. It can lead to the destruction of salt marsh flora and animal communities and destabilize the important energy-absorbing buffer zones that prevent erosion. This ecological disruption can translate into milions of dollars of loss in coastal zone properties and in income from the commercially important fishing industry. Marshland rebuilding with transplanted specific halophytes after oil pollution incidents may help retain delicate but important coastal habitat.
GROUNDWATER PROTECTION THROUGH EARLY DETECTION OF HYDROCARBON LEAKS
Authors: Donaghey L. F.
Published: January 2013

Early-warning hydrocarbon leak detection is a key to protecting groundwater from contamination by leaking storage tanks. This paper reviews the technology for vapor and liquid leak detection and evaluates methods of using it. Current technology offers both vapor and liquid hydrocarbon detectors. However, none that we tested was completely free of problems. Vapor detectors age and degrade in service. Liquid detectors lack high sensitivity. Of the different methods for early leak detection, vapor detectors respond in the shortest time. Detection systems need to be developed further to overcome remaining problems. In particular, they also need to be able to distinguish real tank leaks from normal hydrocarbon backgrounds.
CONTAINMENT AND REMOVAL OF FUEL OIL FROM GROUNDWATER BENEATH A DENSELY POPULATED HOUSING DEVELOPMENT
Authors: McNally Joseph T. , Robertson Craig G. , Wehler Ned E.
Published: January 2013

A leak from a buried pipeline resulted in the loss of approximately 30,000 gallons of No. 2 fuel oil beneath a housing development in suburban New Castle County, Delaware. After seeping to the water table, the resultant hydrocarbon plume threatened the homes as well as a downgradient stream and an irrigation pond.

Site geology consisted of a highly-weathered metamorphic rock overlain by varying thicknesses of fill material. A steep water table gradient existed; the depth to the water table ranged between 6 and 17 feet below grade.

Two-inch monitoring wells were installed in public easements and the back yards of private residences. The extent of the oil plume was determined by measuring product thicknesses, which ranged from a few inches to over 5 feet, in monitoring wells.

To establish hydrodynamic control and prevent further migration of the plume, two eight-inch recovery wells were drilled and configured with water-table depression pumps. For product recovery, Auto-Skimmers were selected because of the variable water levels and need to leave no measurable product thickness in the wells. The potential for product recovery in other parts of the site was determined by performing unattended one-week recovery tests in the two-inch monitoring wells under non-pumping conditions using an Auto-Skimmer. Based on these results, three additional six-inch recovery wells were drilled.

The recovery operation successfully halted the advancement of the contaminant plume and protected the downgradient stream and irrigation pond. In addition, more than 3,000 gallons of fuel oil were recovered from the subsurface. After 18 months, the recovery equipment was removed and only periodic monitoring of the monitoring wells was required.
CASE HISTORY: THE GROUNDING OF THE M/T TIFOSO, 1983—A TEST OF BERMUDA'S CONTINGENCY PLAN
Authors: Knap Anthony H. , Sleeter Thomas D. , Hughes Idwal Wyn
Published: January 2013

On January 20, 1983, the Liberian-registered 138,823 dwt vessel M/T Tifoso stranded on the northeast reef line of the Island of Bermuda at 32°28′25″ N, 64°46′08″ W. The ship was in ballast and contained approximately 450 tons of No. 6 fuel oil and 300 tons of No. 2 fuel oil and lubricating oil. Bermuda had developed an oil spill contingency plan in 1980, but this incident was the first major threat to the island's marine environment and the first test of the plan.

This paper outlines the events leading to the spill, the state of readiness of a small island with a tourist-based economy, the contingency plan, and the response.

Due to a previous arrangement with the U. S. government, the U. S. Coast Guard Atlantic Strike Team responded with equipment and personnel. Using additional equipment and personnel based on Bermuda and also U.S. Coast Guard pumps, most of the bunkered oil was removed (approximately 470 tons) and contained within 48 hours of grounding. Because of the existence of the contingency plan, previous training of Bermudians by the U.S. Coast Guard, and the rapid action of the Coast Guard strike team, an effective response was achieved. Approximately 20 tons of oil were spilled from the flooded engine room when the vessel was refloated. However, due to fortuitous weather conditions, no oil reached Bermuda's shores.
NEW CONCEPTS IN SPRAYING DISPERSANTS FROM BOATS
Authors: Allen Tom E.
Published: January 2013

A new approach to applying chemical dispersants from boats has been developed. The equipment has a greater swath width and, thus, greater coverage rates than existing technology. Coverage rates of 2½ square miles per day per boat are likely and four or more square miles per day is possible.

The method utilizes high speed fans which create a focused air stream with maximum velocities of 90 miles per hour. Dispersant is injected into and propelled by the air stream. With the air stream acting as a carrier for the dispersant, the spraying of smaller volumes of concentrate dispersant or dilute dispersant over a wide swath width is made possible. The focused air stream and dispersant impacts the water surface in approximately a straight line. The water surface is gently agitated by the air stream and liquid impact.

A dispersant fan sprayer has been built and tested statically on land and demonstrated offshore on a supply vessel while spraying water. Design parameters include fan size, air stream velocity, expected swath width, and concentrate (low volume) versus dilute (large volume) spraying.