bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
MAINTAINING ACCURATE MATH RESPONSES IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOL STUDENTS: THE EFFECTS OF DELAYED INTERMITTENT REINFORCEMENT AND PROGRAMMING COMMON STIMULI
Authors: Freeland Jennifer T. , Noell George H.
Published: March 2006

This study examined the effect of delayed reinforcement on digits completed by elementary school children and the effect of programming stimuli common to reinforcement conditions on the maintenance of their performance. Participants exhibited similar levels of responding during intermittent and continuous reinforcement. Responding continued for a number of sessions at similar levels during a maintenance phase that included stimuli present during delayed reinforcement.
REDUCTION OF UNSAFE EATING IN A PATIENT WITH ESOPHAGEAL STRICTURE
Authors: Shore Bridget A. , LeBlanc Donna , Simmons Jennifer
Published: March 2006

Previous research has demonstrated the efficacy of behavioral interventions in teaching self‐feeding skills as well as in reducing inappropriate self‐feeding behavior. The purpose of this study was to extend previous research on the use of prompting and reinforcement in reducing unsafe eating behaviors to the treatment of an adolescent with developmental disabilities and esophageal stricture. A behavioral assessment and treatment using prompting and reinforcement were shown to be effective in decreasing bite rate, decreasing bite size, and increasing the number of chews per bite.
FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS AND TREATMENT OF PROBLEM BEHAVIOR EXHIBITED BY ELEMENTARY SCHOOL CHILDREN
Authors: Meyer Kim A.
Published: March 2006

A functional analysis involving antecedent events was conducted with 4 students who had been identified as having behavior problems. Off‐task behavior was measured while task difficulty and level of adult attention were manipulated during analogue sessions. Results revealed two patterns: Three students displayed higher rates of off‐task behavior during difficult tasks, and 1 displayed higher rates of off‐task behavior during sessions with low attention. Improved behavior was observed when students were taught an alternative behavior that matched the assessment results.
COMPETITION BETWEEN POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT IN THE TREATMENT OF ESCAPE BEHAVIOR
Authors: Lalli Joseph S. , Vollmer Timothy R. , Progar Patrick R. , Wright Carrie , Borrero John , Daniel Dency , Barthold Christine Hoffner , Tocco Kathy , May William
Published: March 2006

We compared the effects of reinforcing compliance with either positive reinforcement (edible items) or negative reinforcement (a break) on 5 participants' escape‐maintained problem behavior. Both procedures were assessed with or without extinction. Results showed that compliance was higher and problem behavior was lower for all participants when compliance produced an edible item rather than a break. Treatment gains were achieved without the use of extinction. Results are discussed regarding the use of positive reinforcement to treat escape behavior.
USING HIGH‐PROBABILITY INSTRUCTION SEQUENCES WITH FADING TO INCREASE STUDENT COMPLIANCE DURING TRANSITIONS
Authors: Ardoin Scott P. , Martens Brian K. , Wolfe Laurie A.
Published: March 2006

Making efficient transitions from one instructional activity to another has been shown to increase academic learning time and therefore student achievement. Because compliance with teacher instructions is a prerequisite for efficient transitions, we sought to determine if high‐probability (high‐p) instruction sequences issued by a classroom teacher would increase student compliance and decrease latency to comply during transitions. Three children in a regular second‐grade classroom participated. Each day at the beginning of morning calendar time, the teacher issued five instructions to the class as a group while compliance data were recorded for the 3 target students. Following baseline, a multielement design was used to examine the effects of the high‐p instruction sequence. We then systematically faded the number of instructions included in the high‐p sequence as a means of transferring stimulus control to low‐probability instructions. The procedure was effective for 2 of the 3 participants, and the results were maintained at 2‐and 3‐week follow‐up. The implications of these findings for group applications of the high‐p instruction sequence in regular education classrooms are discussed.
FURTHER ANALYSIS OF THE SEPARATE AND INTERACTIVE EFFECTS OF METHYLPHENIDATE AND COMMON CLASSROOM CONTINGENCIES
Authors: Northup John , Fusilier Iantha , Swanson Victoria , Huete John , Bruce Treasure , Freeland Jennifer , Gulley Veronica , Edwards Stephanie
Published: March 2006

We evaluated separate and interactive effects between common classroom contingencies and methylphenidate (MPH) on disruptive and off‐task behaviors for 4 children with a diagnosis of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Analogue conditions consisting of contingent teacher reprimands, brief time‐out, no interaction, and alone were conducted in a multielement design. Medication status (MPH or placebo) was alternated across days in a superordinate multielement design. Results indicate that (a) the behavioral effects of MPH were influenced by one or more of the analogueue conditions for each participant, and (b) time‐out was associated with zero or near‐zero levels of both disruptive and off‐task behavior for 3 of the 4 participants during MPH and placebo conditions. Implications for the clinical effectiveness of MPH and possible behavioral mechanisms of action of MPH in applied settings are discussed.
REDUCING WANDERING BY PERSONS WITH DEMENTIA USING DIFFERENTIAL REINFORCEMENT
Authors: Heard Katherine , Watson T. Steuart
Published: March 2006

Wandering behavior of 4 geriatric patients with dementia residing in a long‐term care facility was assessed using direct behavioral observations. The consequences identified during the observations as maintaining wandering for each patient were then applied for the absence of wandering using differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO). The effectiveness of the DRO procedure was evaluated using an ABAB design. Results indicated significant reductions in wandering during treatment.
TRAINING AND GENERALIZATION OF SEXUAL ABUSE PREVENTION SKILLS FOR WOMEN WITH MENTAL RETARDATION
Authors: Miltenberger Raymond G. , Roberts Jennifer A. , Ellingson Sherry , Galensky Tami , Rapp John T. , Long Ethan S. , Lumley Vicki A.
Published: March 2006

Previous research has shown that behavioral skills training to teach sexual abuse prevention skills to women with mental retardation results in skill acquisition but poor generalization. In this investigation we evaluated procedures for enhancing generalization following training. Five women with mental retardation received 10 behavioral skills training sessions followed by in situ training when the skills did not fully generalize. Behavioral skills training resulted in skill acquisition and in situ training produced generalized responding during naturalistic assessments.
AN UNEXPECTED EFFECT OF RECORDING FREQUENCY IN REACTIVE SELF‐MONITORING
Authors: Critchfield Thomas S.
Published: March 2006

Two young competitive swimmers self‐monitored their swimming using three different frequencies of recording. Contrary to the findings of previous studies, in which greater reactivity was associated with more frequent recording, swimming appeared to increase (compared to an instructions‐only baseline) only with the least frequent of the recording schedules. The results highlight the importance of matching recording procedures to the performance of interest.
ESTABLISHING OPERATIONS: IMPLICATIONS FOR THE ASSESSMENT, TREATMENT, AND PREVENTION OF PROBLEM BEHAVIOR
Authors: McGill Peter
Published: March 2006

This paper seeks to integrate Michael's (1982, 1993) discussion of the concept of the establishing operation (EO) with existing conceptual and empirical analyses of problem behavior in people with developmental disabilities. The paper begins with a summary of Michael (1993), which seeks to describe his concept of the EO and place it briefly in historical context. The role of EOs in evoking and establishing motivation for problem behavior is considered in some detail. A case is made for the greater consideration of EOs in the functional analysis of problem behavior, and specific suggestions for detecting the operation of conditioned establishing operations are offered. Turning to treatment, the paper considers the role played by EOs in existing procedures and discusses the development of treatment strategies that seek to modify EOs, extinguish EOs, and modify the responses evoked by EOs. Finally, consideration is given to the implications of EOs for the more systemic treatment and prevention of problem behavior.
AN EVALUATION OF THE PROPERTIES OF ATTENTION AS REINFORCEMENT FOR DESTRUCTIVE AND APPROPRIATE BEHAVIOR
Authors: Piazza Cathleen C. , Bowman Lynn G. , Contrucci Stephanie A. , Delia Michael D. , Adelinis John D. , Goh Han‐Leong
Published: March 2006

The analogue functional analysis described by Iwata, Dorsey, Slifer, Bauman, and Richman (1982/1994) identifies broad classes of variables (e.g., positive reinforcement) that maintain destructive behavior (Fisher, Ninness, Piazza, & Owen‐DeSchryver, 1996). However, it is likely that some types of stimuli may be more effective reinforcers than others. In the current investigation, we identified 2 participants whose destructive behavior was maintained by attention. We used concurrent schedules of reinforcement to evaluate how different types of attention affected both destructive and appropriate behavior. We showed that for 1 participant praise was not an effective reinforcer when verbal reprimands were available; however, praise was an effective reinforcer when verbal reprimands were unavailable. For the 2nd participant, we identified a type of attention that effectively competed with verbal reprimands as reinforcement. We then used the information obtained from the assessments to develop effective treatments to reduce destructive behavior and increase an alternative communicative response.
RELATIVE VERSUS ABSOLUTE REINFORCEMENT EFFECTS: IMPLICATIONS FOR PREFERENCE ASSESSMENTS
Authors: Roscoe Eileen M. , Iwata Brian A. , Kahng SungWoo
Published: March 2006

We compared results obtained in two previous studies on reinforcer identification (Fisher et al., 1992; Pace, Ivancic, Edwards, Iwata, & Page, 1985) by combining methodologies from both studies. Eight individuals with mental retardation participated. During Phase 1, two preference assessments were conducted, one in which stimuli were presented singly (SS method) and one in which stimuli were presented in pairs (PS method). Based on these results, two types of stimuli were identified for each participant: High‐preference (HP) stimuli were those selected on 75% or more trials during both preference assessments; low‐preference (LP) stimuli were those selected on 100% of the SS trials but on 25% or fewer of the PS trials. During Phase 2, the reinforcing effects of HP and LP stimuli were evaluated in reversal designs under two test conditions: concurrent and single schedules of continuous reinforcement. Two response options were available under the concurrent‐schedule condition: One response produced access to the HP stimulus; the other produced access to the LP stimulus. Only one response option was available under the single‐schedule condition, and that response produced access only to the LP stimulus. Results indicated that 7 of the 8 participants consistently showed preference for the HP stimulus under the concurrent schedule. However, when only the LP stimulus was available during the single‐schedule condition, response rates for 6 of the 7 participants were as high as those observed for the HP stimulus during the concurrent‐schedule condition (1 participant showed no reinforcement effect). These results indicate that, although the concurrent‐schedule procedure is well suited to the assessment of relative reinforcement effects (preference for one reinforcer over another), absolute reinforcement effects associated with a given stimulus may be best examined under single‐schedule conditions.
RAPID ASSESSMENT OF THE EFFECTS OF RESTRAINT ON SELF‐INJURY AND ADAPTIVE BEHAVIOR
Authors: Wallace Michele D. , Iwata Brian A. , Zhou Liming , Goff Gerald A.
Published: March 2006

We evaluated the effects of restraint on occurrences of self‐injurious behavior (SIB) and adaptive responses exhibited by 2 individuals across eight response‐effort conditions: baseline (no restraints); restraint sleeves without stays; restraints with 5, 10, 15, 20, or 25 thin metal stays; and restraints with five thick metal stays. From this analysis, we identified a restraint level for each participant that reduced SIB but did not inhibit adaptive responding.
FURTHER EVALUATION OF REINFORCER MAGNITUDE EFFECTS IN NONCONTINGENT SCHEDULES
Authors: Ecott Cheryl L. , Foate Beth Ann L. , Taylor Benjamin , Critchfield Thomas S.
Published: March 2006

We closely replicated the procedures of a previous study that showed a positive relationship between reinforcer magnitude and the response‐rate‐reducing effects of noncontingent schedules (NCS). NCS reduced response rates, as expected, but the NCS‐magnitude effect was not reproduced, illuminating possible weaknesses of current arbitrary‐response procedures and suggesting avenues for future research.
EVALUATING TREATMENT CHALLENGES WITH DIFFERENTIAL REINFORCEMENT OF ALTERNATIVE BEHAVIOR
Authors: Vollmer Timothy R. , Roane Henry S. , Ringdahl Joel E. , Marcus Bethany A.
Published: March 2006

In prior research, differential reinforcement of alternative behavior (DRA) has been implemented at optimal treatment values: Problem behavior is never reinforced, and alternative behavior is always reinforced. However, in application, DRA is unlikely to be conducted optimally. In this study, following a functional analysis phase and a differential reinforcement at full implementation phase, we challenged initially positive treatment effects for 3 participants by implementing DRA at less than optimal parameters. For example, some occurrences of problem behavior were reinforced, and some occurrences of alternative behavior were not reinforced. Results suggested that when exposed to DRA at full implementation, participants showed a bias toward appropriate behavior in subsequent conditions during which “mistakes” (treatment challenges) were intentionally introduced. In addition, the negative effects of treatment challenges were quickly reversible, in comparison to the positive effects of DRA, which were not quickly reversible in the face of treatment challenges.
AN EVALUATION OF THE EFFECTS OF MATCHED STIMULI ON BEHAVIORS MAINTAINED BY AUTOMATIC REINFORCEMENT
Authors: Piazza Cathleen C. , Adelinis John D. , Hanley Gregory P. , Goh Han‐Leong , Delia Michael D.
Published: March 2006

The purpose of the current investigation was to extend the literature on matched stimuli to three dissimilar forms of aberrant behavior (dangerous climbing and jumping, saliva manipulation, and hand mouthing). The results of functional analyses suggested that each behavior was automatically reinforced. Preference assessments were used to identify two classes of stimuli: items that matched the hypothesized sensory consequences of aberrant behavior (matched stimuli) and items that produced sensory consequences that were not similar to those produced by the aberrant behavior (unmatched stimuli). The effects of providing continuous and noncontingent access to either the most highly preferred matched or the most highly preferred unmatched stimuli were assessed relative to a condition in which no stimuli were available. Overall results suggested that providing access to items that matched the hypothesized sensory consequences of aberrant behavior may be more effective than simply selecting stimuli either arbitrarily or based on the results of preference assessments alone.
REINFORCING VARIABILITY IN ADOLESCENTS WITH AUTISM
Authors: Miller Neal , Neuringer Allen
Published: March 2006

Five adolescents with autism, 5 adult control participants, and 4 child controls received rewards for varying their sequences of responses while playing a computer game. In preceding and following phases, rewards were provided at approximately the same rate but were independent of variability. The most important finding was that, when reinforced, variability increased significantly in all groups. Reinforced variability could provide the necessary behavioral substrate for individuals with autism to learn new responses.
SKILL ACQUISITION IN THE IMPLEMENTATION OF FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS METHODOLOGY
Authors: Iwata Brian A. , Wallace Michele D. , Kahng SungWoo , Lindberg Jana S. , Roscoe Eileen M. , Conners Juliet , Hanley Gregory P. , Thompson Rachel H. , Worsdell April S.
Published: March 2006

Functional analysis methodology is a powerful assessment tool for identifying contingencies that maintain a wide range of behavior disorders and for developing effective treatment programs. Nevertheless, concerns have been raised about the feasibility of conducting functional analyses in typical service settings. In this study, we examined the issue of skill acquisition in implementing functional analyses by evaluating an instructional program designed to establish a basic set of competencies. Eleven undergraduate students enrolled in a laboratory course in applied behavior analysis served as participants. Their performance was assessed during scripted simulations in which they played the roles of “therapists” who conducted functional analyses and trained graduate students played the roles of “clients” who emitted self‐injurious and destructive behaviors. To approximate conditions under which an individual might conduct an assessment with limited prior training, participants read a brief set of materials prior to conducting baseline sessions. A multiple baseline design was used to assess the effects of training, which consisted of reading additional materials, watching a videotaped simulation demonstrating correct procedural implementation, passing a written quiz, and receiving feedback on performance during sessions. Results showed that participants scored a relatively high percentage of correct therapist responses during baseline, and that all achieved an accuracy level of 95% or higher following training that lasted about 2 hr. These results suggest that basic skills for conducting functional analyses can be acquired quickly by individuals who have relatively little clinical experience.
COMPETITION BETWEEN NONCONTINGENT AND CONTINGENT REINFORCEMENT SCHEDULES DURING RESPONSE ACQUISITION
Authors: Goh Han‐Leong , Iwata Brian A. , DeLeon Iser G.
Published: March 2006

We examined the extent to which noncontingent reinforcement (NCR), when used as treatment to reduce problem behavior, might interfere with differential reinforcement contingencies designed to strengthen alternative behavior. After conducting a functional analysis to identify the reinforcers maintaining 2 participants' self‐injurious behavior (SIB), we delivered those reinforcers under dense NCR schedules. We delivered the same reinforcers concurrently under differential‐reinforcement‐of‐alternative‐behavior (DRA) contingencies in an attempt to strengthen replacement behaviors (mands). Results showed that the NCR plus DRA intervention was associated with a decrease in SIB but little or no increase in appropriate mands. In a subsequent phase, when the NCR schedule was thinned while the DRA schedule remained unchanged, SIB remained low and mands increased. These results suggest that dense NCR schedules may alter establishing operations that result in not only suppression of problem behavior but also interference with the acquisition of appropriate behavior. Thus, the strengthening of socially appropriate behaviors as replacements for problem behavior during NCR interventions might best be achieved if the NCR schedule is first thinned.
USING POSITIVE PEER REPORTING TO IMPROVE THE SOCIAL INTERACTIONS AND ACCEPTANCE OF SOCIALLY ISOLATED ADOLESCENTS IN RESIDENTIAL CARE: A SYSTEMATIC REPLICATION
Authors: Bowers Frank E. , Woods Douglas W. , Carlyon William D. , Friman Patrick C.
Published: March 2006

We studied how rewarding youth in residential care for publicly reporting positive social behavior influenced the social interactions and acceptance of their most socially isolated peers. Results showed that the intervention resulted in substantial improvements in social interactions by the previously isolated peers. Peer acceptance ratings also improved for 2 of the target youths.
ALIVE AND KICKING: A REVIEW OF HANDBOOK OF BEHAVIORISM, EDITED BY WILLIAM O'DONOHUE AND RICHARD KITCHENER
Authors: Baum William M.
Published: March 2006

Behaviorists have struggled and continue to struggle with basic questions about behavior, such as how to define behavior, how to talk about behavior in relation to environment, and what constitutes an adequate explanation of behavior. Skinner made huge progress on these questions, because of his emphasis on the generic character of stimuli and responses, his advocacy of rate as a datum, his introduction of stimulus control, and his reliance on selection by consequences as a mode of explanation. By no means, however, did he provide final answers. In particular, Skinner fell short because he never escaped from the limitations imposed by thinking in terms of contiguity and discrete events and because he never specified a useful role for theory. The 14 chapters in this book offer varying degrees of clarity on the ways in which behaviorists and behaviorally oriented philosophers dealt with basic questions in the past and are dealing with them in the present, post‐Skinner. They are reviewed individually, because they are uneven in quality. Overall, the book is a useful tool for gaining historical and philosophical background to behaviorism and for getting some idea of behaviorists' current directions.
A COMPONENT ANALYSIS OF “STEREOTYPY AS REINFORCEMENT” FOR ALTERNATIVE BEHAVIOR
Authors: Hanley Gregory P. , Iwata Brian A. , Thompson Rachel H. , Lindberg Jana S.
Published: March 2006

Results from several studies have suggested that the opportunity to engage in stereotypic behavior may function as reinforcement for alternative, more socially desirable behaviors. However, the procedural components of this intervention include several distinct operations whose effects have not been analyzed separately. While measuring the occurrence of stereotypy and an alternative behavior (manipulation of leisure materials), we exposed 3 participants to three or four components of a “stereotypy as reinforcement” contingency: (a) continuous access to materials, (b) prompts to manipulate materials, (c) restricted access to stereotypy (i.e., response blocking), and (d) access to stereotypy contingent on manipulating the materials. Continuous access to materials and prompting (a and b) produced negligible results. Restriction of stereotypy (c) produced a large increase in the alternative behavior of 2 participants, suggesting that response restriction per se may occasion alternative behavior. However, contingent access to stereotypy (d) was necessary to increase the 3rd participant's object manipulation; Final acceptance this finding provided some support for the use of stereotypy as reinforcement for alternative behavior. Finally, when transfer of the effects of intervention was assessed during periods in which active intervention components were withdrawn, the alternative behavior was maintained for 1 participant.
FURTHER EVALUATION OF THE ACCURACY OF REINFORCER SURVEYS: A SYSTEMATIC REPLICATION
Authors: Northup John
Published: March 2006

The present report evaluates the accuracy of a reinforcer survey by comparing the survey results to the results of subsequent reinforcer assessments for 20 children using a concurrent‐operants arrangement to assess relative reinforcer preference. Total accuracy for the survey was determined to be approximately 57%. The results provide a systematic replication of Northup et al. (1996) with a much larger sample of children. A need for the development of more accurate and comprehensive reinforcer assessment methods for verbal children is discussed.
A REVIEW OF COCAINE ABUSE: BEHAVIOR, PHARMACOLOGY, AND CLINICAL APPLICATIONS, EDITED BY S. T. HIGGINS AND J. L. KATZ
Authors: Poling Alan , Jennings Lanai
Published: March 2006

This book comprises 17 chapters that deal with a variety of topics related to cocaine and its abuse. Several of the chapters are excellent, and the book in its totality contains a wealth of information. These are major strengths. On the down side, some important topics are ignored, the relevance of several chapters to cocaine abuse is not apparent, and the various chapters are not well integrated. We recommend Cocaine Abuse as a reference volume for scientists with specific training in the areas that it covers. But we do not recommend it for cover‐to‐cover reading as an overview of cocaine abuse.
IMPLICATIONS AND REFINEMENTS OF THE ESTABLISHING OPERATION CONCEPT
Authors: Michael Jack
Published: March 2006

In this paper I discuss (a) three steps in the development of establishing operation (EO) terminology, (b) my early neglect of its possible relevance to applied behavior analysis, (c) the importance of functional analysis methodology for increasing awareness of EO issues, and (d) three comprehensive reviews that clarify the role of EOs in applied work. I then review and further analyze seven topics that require further clarification or that have been raised since my 1982 and 1993 articles: the EO evocative effect, deprivation and satiation, problem behavior maintained by attention, decreasing behavior evoked by a transitive conditioned establishing operation, EOs in the context of escape and avoidance, academic demand, and decreasing behavior evoked by a reflexive conditioned establishing operation.
ANALYSIS AND TREATMENT OF FINGER SUCKING
Authors: Ellingson Sherry A. , Miltenberger Raymond G. , Stricker Jason M. , Garlinghouse Matthew A. , Roberts Jennifer , Galensky Tami L. , Rapp John T.
Published: March 2006

We analyzed and treated the finger sucking of 2 developmentally typical children aged 7 and 10 years. The functional analysis revealed that the finger sucking of both children was exhibited primarily during alone conditions, suggesting that the behavior was maintained by automatic reinforcement. An extended analysis provided support for this hypothesis and demonstrated that attenuation of stimulation produced by the finger sucking resulted in behavior reductions for both children. Treatment consisted of having each child wear a glove on the relevant hand during periods when he or she was alone. Use of the glove produced zero levels of finger sucking for 1 participant, whereas only moderate reductions were obtained for the other. Subsequently, an awareness enhancement device was used that produced an immediate reduction in finger sucking.
CURRENT RESEARCH ON THE INFLUENCE OF ESTABLISHING OPERATIONS ON BEHAVIOR IN APPLIED SETTINGS
Authors: Iwata Brian A. , Smith Richard G. , Michael Jack
Published: March 2006

This article provides commentary on research published in the special section of the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis devoted to establishing operations (EOs). Three major themes are highlighted: (a) identification of the influence of EOs on behavior in applied settings, (b) the use of EO manipulation as an assessment tool, and (c) the development of interventions based on the alteration of EO influences. Methodological issues pertaining to research on EOs are addressed, and suggestions for future investigation are provided.
EFFECTS OF NONCONTINGENT REINFORCEMENT ON PROBLEM BEHAVIOR AND STIMULUS ENGAGEMENT: THE ROLE OF SATIATION, EXTINCTION, AND ALTERNATIVE REINFORCEMENT
Authors: Hagopian Louis P. , Crockett Jennifer L. , van Stone Maureen , Deleon Iser G. , Bowman Lynn G.
Published: March 2006

This study examined the effects of noncontingent reinforcement (NCR) with and without extinction on problem behavior and stimulus engagement (consumption of reinforcement) of 4 participants. Reductions in problem behavior using NCR have frequently been attributed to both satiation of the reinforcer and extinction. In the current study, aspects of the NCR treatment effects were difficult to explain based solely on either a satiation or an extinction account. Specifically, it was found that stimulus engagement remained high throughout the NCR treatment analysis, and that problem behavior was reduced to near‐zero levels during NCR without extinction. The implications of these findings are discussed with respect to the satiation and extinction hypotheses frequently described in the applied literature. Findings from basic studies examining the effects of response‐independent schedules are presented, and are used as the basis for a matching theory account of NCR‐related effects. It is proposed that reductions in problem behavior observed during NCR interventions may be a function of the availability of alternative sources of reinforcement.
RELATIVE INFLUENCES OF ESTABLISHING OPERATIONS AND REINFORCEMENT CONTINGENCIES ON SELF‐INJURIOUS BEHAVIOR DURING FUNCTIONAL ANALYSES
Authors: Worsdell April S. , Iwata Brian A. , Conners Juliet , Kahng Sung Woo , Thompson Rachel H.
Published: March 2006

In the typical functional analysis in which the antecedent and consequent events associated with problem behavior are manipulated, the control condition involves elimination of both the relevant establishing operation (EO) and its associated contingency through a schedule of noncontingent reinforcement (usually fixed‐time [FT] 30 s). In some functional analyses, however, antecedent events are manipulated in the absence of differential consequences, and a common test condition in such analyses also involves the delivery of reinforcement on an FT 30‐s schedule. Thus, the same schedule of reinforcement (FT 30 s) is not considered to be an EO in the former type of analysis but is considered to be an EO in the latter. We examined the relative influences of EOs and reinforcement contingencies on problem behavior by exposing 6 individuals who engaged in self‐injurious behavior (SIB) to four combinations of functional analysis conditions: EO present/ contingency present, EO absent/contingency present, EO present/contingency absent, and EO absent/contingency absent. Results indicated that the only condition in which high rates of SIB were observed consistently was one in which the EO and the reinforcement contingency were both present. Implications of these results for the design of functional analysis test and control conditions are discussed.
“TRANSITIONAL OBJECTS” AS ESTABLISHING OPERATIONS FOR THUMB SUCKING: A CASE STUDY
Authors: Friman Patrick C.
Published: March 2006

This study examines the effects of a “transitional object” (surgical cloth) on the thumb sucking of a 3‐year‐old boy in two conditions: while sitting in the lap of his physical therapist and while alone in his crib. Sucking occurred when the cloth was present and did not occur when it was absent, regardless of condition. These results are discussed in terms of establishing operations, object attachment, and application.
VARIABLE‐TIME REINFORCEMENT SCHEDULES IN THE TREATMENT OF SOCIALLY MAINTAINED PROBLEM BEHAVIOR
Authors: Van Camp Carole M. , Lerman Dorothea C. , Kelley Michael E. , Contrucci Stephanie A. , Vorndran Christina M.
Published: March 2006

Noncontingent reinforcement (NCR) consists of delivering a reinforcer on a time‐based schedule, independent of responding. Studies evaluating the effectiveness of NCR as treatment for problem behavior have used fixed‐time (FT) schedules of reinforcement. In this study, the efficacy of NCR with variable‐time (VT) schedules was evaluated by comparing the effects of VT and FT reinforcement schedules with 2 individuals who engaged in problem behavior maintained by positive reinforcement. Both FT and VT schedules were effective in reducing problem behavior. These findings suggest that VT schedules can be used to treat problem behavior maintained by social consequences.
TEACHING SELF‐CONTROL TO SMALL GROUPS OF DUALLY DIAGNOSED ADULTS
Authors: Dixon Mark R. , Holcomb Sharon
Published: March 2006

The present study examined the use of a progressive delay procedure to teach self‐control to two groups of dually diagnosed adults. When given a choice between an immediate smaller reinforcer and a larger delayed reinforcer, both groups chose the smaller reinforcer during baseline. During treatment, progressive increases in work requirements for gaining access to a larger reinforcer resulted in both groups selecting larger delayed reinforcers. The results are discussed with respect to increasing cooperative work behavior and self‐control.
REVIEW OF ANTECEDENT CONTROL: INNOVATIVE APPROACHES TO BEHAVIORAL SUPPORT, EDITED BY J. LUISELLI AND M. CAMERON
Authors: Horner Robert H. , Harvey Mark T.
Published: March 2006

This review identifies antecedent manipulation and the role of establishing operations as primary themes of the book as well as crucial elements in the design of a broadly applicable behavior support technology. The discussion of the book's thematic treatment of these elements highlights the traditional importance of elaborate antecedent interactions within the field of behavior analysis and welcomes researchers' efforts to broaden their credibility and influence through comprehensive and durable applications of behavior support technologies in a variety of natural settings. The reviewers rate the book as representative of the most recent developments and directions within applied behavior support.
ASSESSMENT OF A RESPONSE BIAS FOR AGGRESSION OVER FUNCTIONALLY EQUIVALENT APPROPRIATE BEHAVIOR
Authors: DeLeon Iser G. , Fisher Wayne W. , Herman Kelly M. , Crosland Kimberly C.
Published: March 2006

We evaluated the effects of a dense (fixed‐ratio 1) schedule of reinforcement for an 11‐year‐old boy's mands for toys while aggression produced the same toys on various schedules chosen on the basis of a progressive‐ratio probe. Based on the probe session data, we accurately predicted that aggression would be more probable than mands when the schedules were equal or slightly discrepant, but that mands would be more probable when the schedule discrepancy was large.
THE EFFECTIVENESS OF CONTINGENCY‐SPECIFIC AND CONTINGENCY‐NONSPECIFIC PROMPTS IN CONTROLLING BATHROOM GRAFFITI
Authors: Mueller Michael M. , Moore James W. , Doggett R. Anthony , Tingstrom Daniel H.
Published: March 2006

This study replicates and extends the work of Watson (1996) in which a sign eliminated graffiti when posted on bathroom walls. The present study investigated the effects of three different signs on walls in six men's bathrooms located on a university campus. Posting the signs was followed by the elimination or sharp reduction of graffiti. Removal of the signs was followed by a resurgence of graffiti.
EFFECTS OF CHOICE OF STIMULI AS REINFORCEMENT FOR TASK RESPONDING IN PRESCHOOLERS WITH AND WITHOUT DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES
Authors: Waldron‐Soler Kathleen M. , Martella Ronald C. , Marchand‐Martella Nancy E. , Ebey Tara L.
Published: March 2006

The effects of choice and no choice of stimuli as reinforcement for task responding were investigated across preschoolers with and without disabilities. Five less preferred stimuli were identified for each participant using a stimulus preference assessment. No differences were found for choice and no‐choice conditions when the less preferred stimuli were used as reinforcers.
ASSESSING REINFORCERS UNDER PROGRESSIVE SCHEDULE REQUIREMENTS
Authors: Roane Henry S. , Lerman Dorothea C. , Vorndran Christina M.
Published: March 2006

Recent research findings suggest that reinforcing stimuli may be differentially effective as response requirements increase. We extended this line of research by evaluating responding under increasing schedule requirements via progressive‐ratio schedules and behavioral economic analyses. The differential effectiveness of preferred stimuli in treating destructive behavior maintained by automatic reinforcement also was examined. Results showed that one of two stimuli was associated with more responding under increasing schedule requirements for the 4 participants. Furthermore, stimuli associated with more responding under increasing schedule requirements generally were more effective in treating destructive behavior than stimuli associated with less responding. These data suggest that progressive‐ratio schedules and behavioral economic analyses may be useful for developing a new technology for reinforcer identification. From a clinical perspective, these results suggest that two reinforcers may be similarly effective for low‐effort tasks and differentially effective for high‐effort tasks.
A DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS OF SOCIAL CONSEQUENCES FOLLOWING PROBLEM BEHAVIOR
Authors: Thompson Rachel H. , Iwata Brian A.
Published: March 2006

The social consequences delivered for problem behavior during functional analyses are presumed to represent common sources of reinforcement; Final acceptance however, the extent to which these consequences actually follow problem behavior in natural settings remains unclear. The purpose of this study was to determine whether access to attention, escape, or tangible items is frequently observed as a consequence of problem behavior under naturalistic conditions. Twenty‐seven adults who lived in a state residential facility and who exhibited self‐injurious behavior, aggression, or disruption participated. Observers recorded the occurrence of problem behavior by participants as well as a variety of consequences delivered by caregivers. Results indicated that attention was the most common consequence for problem behavior and that aggression was more likely to produce social consequences than were other forms of problem behavior.
LONGITUDINAL ANALYSIS OF LEISURE‐ITEM PREFERENCES
Authors: Zhou Liming , Iwata Brian A. , Goff Gerald A. , Shore Bridget A.
Published: March 2006

Twenty‐two individuals with developmental disabilities participated in two leisure‐item preference assessments, spaced approximately 16 months apart. Results showed (a) an overall increase in item contact across assessments for 13 participants and (b) at least some overlap across assessments in the five most highly ranked items for every participant. These results highlight individual differences in the stability of preference over time and suggest the need for research to identify the determinants of temporal shifts in preference.
FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS AND TREATMENT OF SELF‐INJURY ASSOCIATED WITH TRANSITIONS
Authors: McCord Brandon E. , Thomson Richard J. , Iwata Brian A.
Published: March 2006

We applied functional analysis methodology to the assessment and treatment of 2 individuals' self‐injurious behavior (SIB), which was reported to be occasioned by transitions from one activity or location to another. A structural (task) analysis of activity transitions identified at least three separate components that might influence behavior either alone or in combination: (a) termination of a prechange activity, (b) initiation of a postchange activity, and (c) movement from one location to another. Results of preference and avoidance assessments were used to identify activities to which participants were exposed in varying arrangements during transitions in a functional analysis. Results of 1 participant's functional analysis indicated that his SIB was maintained by avoidance of having to change locations, regardless of the activity terminated prior to the change or the activity initiated following it. The 2nd participant's analysis revealed the same function but also an additional one: avoidance of certain task initiations. This information was used to identify transition contexts during intervention and to design treatment procedures appropriate for a given context and behavioral function. A procedure involving advance notice of an upcoming transition had no effect on SIB, and differential reinforcement of alternative behavior (DRA) had limited effects in the absence of extinction. Sustained decreases in SIB were observed when DRA was combined with extinction and response blocking. Further extensions of functional analysis methodology to the assessment of problem behavior in situations characterized by multiple or protracted stimulus changes are discussed.
THE EFFECTS OF FORM TRAINING ON FOUL‐SHOOTING PERFORMANCE IN MEMBERS OF A WOMEN'S COLLEGE BASKETBALL TEAM
Authors: Kladopoulos Chris N. , McComas Jennifer J.
Published: March 2006

The effects of instruction and feedback in proper form on foul‐shooting performance was evaluated in 3 players of a women's NCAA Division II college basketball team. Players showed an increase in percentage of shots made and in correct form compared to baseline shooting without instruction or feedback. All players reached criterion within seven training sessions. The results suggest that training proper form is an effective strategy for improving foul‐shooting performance.
USING FIXED‐TIME SCHEDULES TO MAINTAIN BEHAVIOR: A PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION
Authors: Dozier Claudia L. , Carr James E. , Enloe Kimberley , Landaburu Heidi , Eastridge Dixie , Kellum Karen Kate
Published: March 2006

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the potential of fixed‐time (FT) schedules to maintain behavior. Two children who had been diagnosed with autism were taught a functional task. Subsequently, three different FT schedules (i.e., yoked, thin, dense) were compared to determine their capacity to maintain task responding. Results suggested that FT schedules may be used to maintain previously acquired behavior.
ANALYZING THE INFLUENCE OF TIC‐RELATED TALK ON VOCAL AND MOTOR TICS IN CHILDREN WITH TOURETTE'S SYNDROME
Authors: Woods Douglas W. , Watson T. Steuart , Wolfe Elizabeth , Twohig Michael P. , Friman Patrick C.
Published: March 2006

This study examined the effect of tic‐related talk on the vocal and motor tics of 2 boys with Tourette's syndrome. Using ABAB withdrawal designs, the boys were alternately exposed to conditions with and without talk of their tics. For both boys, vocal tics markedly increased when talk pertained to tics and decreased when talk did not pertain to tics, but motor tic covariance was less consistent.
THE WIDENING WORLD OF FUNCTIONAL ASSESSMENT: COMMENTS ON FOUR MANUALS AND BEYOND
Authors: Dunlap Glen , Kincaid Donald
Published: March 2006

An escalating number of materials have been published recently on the topic of functional assessment and assessment‐based behavioral interventions. We review four manuals that purport to provide practical guidance for conducting functional assessment. An examination of these manuals yields encouraging evidence that the field of behavioral support has made notable progress in adopting a functional (behavior‐analytic) approach to unwanted behaviors. The content of the manuals, considered in the context of emerging perspectives in behavioral support, suggests a number of important issues and directions that should be addressed by future functional assessment research and practice.
ASSESSMENT OF IMPULSIVITY AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF SELF‐CONTROL IN STUDENTS WITH ATTENTION DEFICIT HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER
Authors: Neef Nancy A. , Bicard David F. , Endo Sayaka
Published: March 2006

We examined a combined approach of manipulating reinforcer dimensions and delay fading to promote the development of self‐control with 3 students diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. First, we administered a brief computer‐based assessment to determine the relative influence of reinforcer rate (R), reinforcer quality (Q), reinforcer immediacy (I), and effort (E) on the students' choices between concurrently presented math problems. During each session, one of these dimensions was placed in direct competition with another dimension (e.g., RvI involving math problem alternatives associated with high‐rate delayed reinforcement vs. low‐rate immediate reinforcement), with all possible pairs of dimensions presented across the six assessment conditions (RvQ, RvI, RvE, QvI, QvE, IvE). The assessment revealed that the choices of all 3 students were most influenced by immediacy of reinforcement, reflecting impulsivity. We then implemented a self‐control training procedure in which reinforcer immediacy competed with another influential dimension (RvI or QvI), and the delay associated with the higher rate or quality reinforcer alternative was progressively increased. The students allocated the majority of their time to the math problem alternatives yielding more frequent (high‐rate) or preferred (high‐quality) reinforcement despite delays of up to 24 hr. Subsequent readministration of portions of the assessment showed that self‐control transferred across untrained dimensions of reinforcement.
LOADING THE PROBLEM LOADER: THE EFFECTS OF TARGET TRAINING AND SHAPING ON TRAILER‐LOADING BEHAVIOR OF HORSES
Authors: Ferguson Dawnery L. , Rosales‐Ruiz Jesús
Published: March 2006

The purpose of this study was to develop an effective method for trailer loading horses based on principles of positive reinforcement. Target training and shaping were used to teach trailer‐loading behavior to 5 quarter horse mares in a natural setting. All 5 had been trailer loaded before through the use of aversive stimulation. Successive approximations to loading and inappropriate behaviors were the dependent variables. After training a horse to approach a target, the target was moved to various locations inside the trailer. Horses started training on the left side of a two‐horse trailer. After a horse was loading on the left side, she was moved to the right side, then to loading half on the right and half on the left. A limited‐hold procedure and the presence of a companion horse seemed to facilitate training for 1 horse. Inappropriate behaviors fell to zero immediately after target training, and all the horses successfully completed the shaping sequence. Finally, these effects were observed to generalize to novel conditions (a different trainer and a different trailer).
EXAMINATION OF RELATIVE REINFORCEMENT EFFECTS OF STIMULI IDENTIFIED THROUGH PRETREATMENT AND DAILY BRIEF PREFERENCE ASSESSMENTS
Authors: DeLeon Iser G. , Fisher Wayne W. , Rodriguez‐Catter Vanessa , Maglieri Kristen , Herman Kelly , Marhefka Jean‐Marie
Published: March 2006

Several brief preference assessments have recently been developed to identify reinforcers for individuals with developmental disabilities. One purported advantage of brief assessments is that they can be administered frequently, thus accommodating shifts in preference and presumably enhancing reinforcement effects. In this study, we initially conducted lengthy paired‐choice preference assessments and identified a hierarchy of preferred items for 5 individuals with developmental disabilities. Subsequently, brief multiple‐stimulus‐without‐replacement assessments using the same items were completed each day prior to work sessions. On days when results of the daily brief assessment differed from the one‐time lengthy assessment, the relative reinforcing effects of the top items from each assessment were compared in a concurrent‐schedule arrangement. The results revealed that when the two assessments differed, participants generally allocated more responses to the task associated with the daily top‐ranked item.
SELF‐CONTROL IN CHILDREN WITH AUTISM: RESPONSE ALLOCATION DURING DELAYS TO REINFORCEMENT
Authors: Dixon Mark R. , Cummings Anne
Published: March 2006

This study examined the use of a progressive‐delay schedule of reinforcement to increase self‐control and decrease disruptive behavior in children with autism. When initially given the choice between an immediate smaller reinforcer and a larger delayed reinforcer, all participants chose the smaller reinforcer. When access to the larger reinforcer required either no activity or engaging in a concurrent task during the delay, all participants demonstrated both self‐control and preference for a response requirement. Disruptive behavior decreased during delays that required a concurrent task compared to sessions without an activity requirement.