bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Thermodynamics in Geochemistry
Authors: Anderson Greg M. , Crerar David A.
Published: November 2020

This textbook and reference outlines the fundamental principles of thermodynamics, emphasizing applications in geochemistry. The work is distinguished by its comprehensive, balanced coverage and its rigorous presentation. The authors bring years of teaching experience to the work, and have attempted to particularly address those areas where other texts on the subject have provided inadequate coverage. A thorough review of the necessary mathematics is presented early on, both as a refresher for those with a background in university calculus, and for the benefit of those coming to the subject for the first time. The text is written for students in advanced undergraduate or graduate-level geochemistry as well as for all researchers in this field.
Business Geography and New Real Estate Market Analysis.
Authors: Thrall Grant Ian
Published: November 2020

This work focuses on integrating land-use location science with the technology of geographic information systems (GIS). The text describes the basic principles of location decision and the means for applying them in order to improve the real estate decision.
Geology and Settlement
Authors: Crouch Dora P.
Published: November 2020

This study explains the Greco-Roman urban form as it relates to the geological basis at selected sites in the Mediterranean basin. Each of the sites--Argos, Delphi, Ephesus, and Syracuse among them--has manifested in its physical form the geology on which it stood and from which it was made. "By demonstrating the dependence of a group of cities on its geological base," the author writes, "the study forces us to examine more closely the ecology of human settlement, not as a set of theories but as a set of practical constraints..." Exacting attention will be given to local geology (types of building stones, natural springs, effect of earthquakes, silting, etc.) The findings are based on site publications, visits to the sites, and the most recent archaeological plans. The book is illustrated with original photographs and geological maps indicating the known Greco-Roman features--the first such maps published for any of the sites. Sequel to Water Management in Ancient Greek Cities, now available by Publication on Demand
Drug Permeation through Biological Barriers
Authors: Saltzman W. Mark
Published: November 2020

In multicellular organisms, thin lipid membranes serve as semipermeable barriers between aqueous compartments. The plasma membrane of the cell separates the cytoplasm from the extracellular space; endothelial cell membranes separate the blood within the vascular space from the rest of the tissue. Properties of the lipid membrane are critically important in regulating the movement of molecules between these aqueous spaces. While certain barrier properties of membranes can be attributed to the lipid components, accessory molecules within the cell membrane—particularly transport proteins and ion channels—control the rate of permeation of many solutes. Transport proteins permit the cell to regulate the composition of its intracellular environment in response to extracellular conditions. The relationship between membrane structure, membrane function, and cell physiology is an area of active, ongoing study. Our interest here is practical: what are the basic mechanisms of drug movement through membranes and how can one best predict the rate of permeation of an agent through a membrane barrier? To answer that question, this section presents rates of permeation measured in some common experimental systems and models of membrane permeation that can be used for prediction. The external surface of the plasma membrane carries a carbohydrate-rich coat called the glycocalyx; charged groups in the glycocalyx, which are provided principally by carbohydrates containing sialic acid, cause the surface to be negatively charged. On average, the plasma membrane of human cells contains, by mass, 50% protein, 45% lipid, and 5% carbohydrate. Given the mass ratio of protein to lipid is ~ 1 : 1, and assuming reasonable values for the average molecular weight and cross-sectional area for each type of molecule (50 × Mw,lipid = Mw,protein; Alipid = 50 Å2 and Aprotein = 1,000 Å2), the area fraction of protein on a typical membrane is ~ 33%. The lipid composition varies in membranes from different cells depending on the type of cell and its function. In addition, the outermost monolayer of lipids, called the outer leaflet, has a different lipid composition from the inner leaflet.
Interfacial Electrochemistry
Authors: Schmickler Wolfgang
Published: November 2020

Electrochemistry is the study of a special class of interfaces--those between an ionic and an electronic conductor--that can conduct current. This makes it especially important to research and for industrial applications such as semiconductors. This book examines different topics within interfacial electrochemistry, including the theory of structures and processes at metal- solution and semiconductor-solution interfaces, the principles of classical and modern experimental methods, and some of the applications of electrochemistry. Students and nonspecialists in materials science, surface science, and chemistry will find this a valuable source of information.
The Destruction of Sodom, Gomorrah, and Jericho
Authors: Emery K. O. , Neev David
Published: November 2020

The story of the destruction of Sodom, Gomorrah, and Jericho--three cities situated along a major fault line extending 1,100 kilometers from the Red Sea to Turkey--is the oldest such description in human history. In this book, noted geologists K.O. Emery and David Neev have revisited that story to shed light on what happened there some 4,350 years ago. With all the benefits of modern geological and forensic science techniques at their disposal, the authors explore an area where earthquakes, volcanic activity, variations in the Dead Sea's level, and oscillations between arid and wet climates have affected life there for over 10,000 years. In reviewing the geology, biblical paleogeography, and limnology of the region, the authors have produced fascinating insights into the tectonic and climatic changes that have occurred in the region over the last 6,000 years and how those changes have affected cultural life in the Middle East. The Destruction of Sodom, Gomorrah, and Jericho is the first book to combine modern science and biblical archaeology to produce an authoritative account of the of these three great cities. It will fascinate students and researchers in geology, geophysics, and archaeology alike.
Computational Statistics in Climatology
Authors: Polyak Ilya
Published: November 2020

Scientific descriptions of the climate have traditionally been based on the study of average meteorological values taken from different positions around the world. In recent years however it has become apparent that these averages should be considered with other statistics that ultimately characterize spatial and temporal variability. This book is designed to meet that need. It is based on a course in computational statistics taught by the author that arose from a variety of projects on the design and development of software for the study of climate change, using statistics and methods of random functions.
Biophysics of Computation
Authors: Koch Christof
Published: November 2020

Neural network research often builds on the fiction that neurons are simple linear threshold units, completely neglecting the highly dynamic and complex nature of synapses, dendrites, and voltage-dependent ionic currents. Biophysics of Computation: Information Processing in Single Neurons challenges this notion, using richly detailed experimental and theoretical findings from cellular biophysics to explain the repertoire of computational functions available to single neurons. The author shows how individual nerve cells can multiply, integrate, or delay synaptic inputs and how information can be encoded in the voltage across the membrane, in the intracellular calcium concentration, or in the timing of individual spikes. Key topics covered include the linear cable equation; cable theory as applied to passive dendritic trees and dendritic spines; chemical and electrical synapses and how to treat them from a computational point of view; nonlinear interactions of synaptic input in passive and active dendritic trees; the Hodgkin-Huxley model of action potential generation and propagation; phase space analysis; linking stochastic ionic channels to membrane-dependent currents; calcium and potassium currents and their role in information processing; the role of diffusion, buffering and binding of calcium, and other messenger systems in information processing and storage; short- and long-term models of synaptic plasticity; simplified models of single cells; stochastic aspects of neuronal firing; the nature of the neuronal code; and unconventional models of sub-cellular computation. Biophysics of Computation: Information Processing in Single Neurons serves as an ideal text for advanced undergraduate and graduate courses in cellular biophysics, computational neuroscience, and neural networks, and will appeal to students and professionals in neuroscience, electrical and computer engineering, and physics.
Fluorine Chemistry for Organic Chemists
Authors: Hudlic'ky Milos
Published: November 2020

This book is a synthesis of two of Hudlicky's earlier books outlining the many unpredictable properties of fluorine and its compounds that are not analogous to the properties of any other halogens and their compounds. It is divided into two separate sections, the first presenting peculiar reactions as problems to be solved. Each reaction can be analyzed in the lab without the help of the second section, however if a solution is not easily reached, the second section provides discussion of the problems, outlining the products of the reactions and their mechanisms. Among the 105 reactions outlined are the introduction of fluorine into organic molecules, reduction and oxidation of fluorine compounds, reactions of fluorocompounds with halogens and their derivatives, nitration, acid catalyzed reactions, organometallic syntheses, and pyrolyses. The reactions are documented in the experimental material of the earlier volumes and will be important background knowledge for anyone working in organic chemistry.
Understanding Anasazi Culture Change Through Agent-Based Modeling
Authors: Dean Jeffrey S. , Gumerman George J.
Published: November 2020

Traditional narrative explanations of prehistory have become increasingly difficult to operationalize as models and to test against archaeological data. As such models become more sophisticated and complex, they also become less amenable to objective evaluation with anthropological data. Nor is it possible to experiment with living or prehistoric human beings or societies. Agentbased modeling offers intriguing possibilities for overcoming the experimental limitations of archaeology by representing the behavior of culturally relevant agents on landscapes. Manipulating the behavior of artificial agents on such landscapes allows us to, as it were, "rewind the tape" of sociocultural history and to experimentally examine the relative contributions of internal and external factors to sociocultural evolution (Gumerman and Kohler in press). Agent-based modeling allows the creation of variable resource (or other) landscapes that can be wholly imaginary or that can capture important aspects of real-world situations. These landscapes are populated with heterogeneous agents. Each agent is endowed with various attributes (e.g., life span, vision, movement capabilities, nutritional requirements, consumption and storage capacities) in order to replicate important features of individuals or relevant social units such as households, lineages, clans, and villages. A set of anthropologically plausible rules defines the ways in which agents interact with the environment and with one another. Altering the agents' attributes, their interaction rules, and features of the landscape allow experimental examination of behavioral responses to different initial conditions, relationships, and spatial and temporal parameters. The agents' repeated interactions with their social and physical landscapes reveal ways in which they respond to changing environmental and social conditions. As we will see, even relatively simple models may illuminate complex sociocultural realities. While potentially powerful, agent-based models in archaeology remain unverified until they are evaluated against actual cases. The degree of fit between a model and real-world situations allows the model's validity to be assessed. A close fit between all or part of a model and the test data indicates that the model, albeit highly simplified, has explanatory power. Lack of fit implies that the model is in some way inadequate.
Agent-Based Modeling of Small-Scale Societies: State of the Art and Future Prospects
Authors: Wright Henry T.
Published: November 2020

The thematic social sciences—economics, political science, psychology, and so on—often privilege that aspect of human action on which they focus. Can we fruitfully understand change in human affairs from the perspectives of these disciplines? Philosophers have (for millennia), and anthropologists and geographers (for little more than a century) have said "no," and have attempted to view human phenomena as a totality. Anthropology, a holistic discipline, at its best integrates human biology, cultural anthropology or ethnology, psychological anthropology, linguistics, and archaeology. But the task is daunting, and has led often to elegant, but very specific case studies. However, new theoretical approaches to nonlinear and adaptive systems and to modeling such approaches give hope that rigorous general formulations are possible. The Culture Group of the Santa Fe Institute focuses on long-term stability and transformation in cultural developments. In December 1997, with the support of the Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research, a diversity of researchers gathered in Santa Fe to assess the progress of this working group and to chart future directions. We had many fruitful exchanges, ranging from general theoretical problems of cultural change and its explanation to the specifics of modeling actual cultural processes. The touchstones of the discussions were breakthroughs in the modeling of small-community networks in southwestern North America, but new developments in other theoretical and empirical areas also proved important in pointing toward future efforts. This volume presents the much discussed and revised papers from the Santa Fe meeting. The conference began, as does this volume, with overviews of the state of the art of modeling. George Gumerman, in his preface, touches on the roots of modeling whole social and cultural systems in North America, threads of inquiry which are picked up in many chapters of this volume. Tim Kohler, in his elegant introduction argues the advantages of agent-based modeling as the resolution of several outstanding problems in traditional social science. Nigel Gilbert then provides rich insight into recent work in Europe, little known to many North American social scientists outside the modeling community.
Static Performance Characteristics
Authors: Brock Fred V. , Richardson Scott J.
Published: November 2020

Sensor performance characteristics are generally divided into at least two categories: static and dynamic. Additional categories sometimes used include drift and exposure errors. The performance of sensors in conditions where the measurand is constant or very slowly changing can be characterized by static parameters. Dynamic performance modeling requires the use of differential equations to account for the relation between sensor input and output when the input is rapidly varying. Static characteristics due to friction or other nonlinear effects would vastly complicate the differential equations so, even when the input is not steady, static and dynamic characteristics are considered separately. Static characteristics are determined by carefully excluding dynamic effects. Dynamic characteristics are assessed by assuming that all static effects have been excluded or compensated. Many of these terms have been encountered in chaps. 1 and 2, although without formal definitions. Analog signal. A signal whose information content is continuously proportional to the measurand. If an electrical temperature sensor has a voltage output, that voltage signal fluctuates with the sensor temperature. Voltage output would be continuously proportional to the measurand (temperature) and is analogous to it, hence we refer to the sensor output as an analog signal. Data display. Any mechanism for displaying data to the user. The stem of a mercury-in-glass thermometer with attached scale is a data display. Data storage. A memory element or mechanism for holding data and later recovering them such as a disk or magnetic tape. Again, this could be as simple as a piece of paper. Data transmission. The process of sending a signal from one place to another. The data transmission medium could be a piece of paper, a magnetic tape, radio or light waves, or telephone wires. Digital signal. A signal whose information content varies in discrete steps. The step size can be made arbitrarily small such that a plot of a digitized signal could also resemble the analog signal. However, the granularity of a digital signal will be revealed if it is examined in sufficient detail.
When Information Came of Age
Authors: Headrick Daniel R.
Published: November 2020

Although the Information Age is often described as a new era, a cultural leap springing directly from the invention of modern computers, it is simply the latest step in a long cultural process. Its conceptual roots stretch back to the profound changes that occurred during the Age of Reason and Revolution. When Information Came of Age argues that the key to the present era lies in understanding the systems developed in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries to gather, store, transform, display, and communicate information. The book provides a concise and readable survey of the many conceptual developments between 1700 and 1850 and draws connections to leading technologies of today. It documents three breakthroughs in information systems that date to the period: the classification and nomenclature of Linnaeus, the chemical system devised by Lavoisier, and the metric system. It shows how eighteenth-century political arithmeticians and demographers pioneered statistics and graphs as a means for presenting data succinctly and visually. It describes the transformation of cartography from art to science as it incorporated new methods for determining longitude at sea and new data on the measure the arc of the meridian on land. Finally, it looks at the early steps in codifying and transmitting information, including the development of dictionaries, the invention of semaphore telegraphs and naval flag signaling, and the conceptual changes in the use and purpose of postal services. When Information Came of Age shows that like the roots of democracy and industrialization, the foundations of the Information Age were built in the eighteenth and early nineteenth century.
How Much Risk?
Authors: Goldstein Inge F. , Goldstein Martin
Published: November 2020

An excellent critical analysis and scientific assessment of the nature and actual level of risk leading environmental health hazards pose to the public. Issues such as radiation from nuclear testing, radon in the home, and the connection between electromagnetic fields and cancer, environmental factors and asthma, pesticides and breast cancer and leukemia clusters around nuclear plants are discussed, and how scientists assess these risks is illuminated. This book will enable readers to better understand environmental health issues, and with the proper scientific understanding, make informed, rational decisions about them.
Introduction
Authors: Dyall Kenneth G. , Faegri Knut
Published: November 2020

The quote above from Paul Adrian Maurice Dirac (1929) has been somewhat of an article of faith for modern quantum chemistry. Intensive efforts on the development of theory, algorithms, and techniques have made computational quantum chemistry a very successful representative of the “third way” in modern science—computer modeling has come into its own alongside experiment and theory. Fifty years ago this was a branch of science where predictions were at best qualitative, founded on rather approximate models. Many of these models were quite sophisticated, and much of the insight gained is still valid and valuable, but the developments in both methods and computer hardware up to the present have very much transformed this field. Today standard quantum chemical methods are capable of predicting results with chemical accuracy: reaction energies may be determined within a few kilojoules per mole, and spectral data within a few reciprocal centimeters. At least, this sort of reliability can be expected for “normal” areas of application. Dirac’s main contribution to science was a merging of the two great developments of 20th century physics—quantum mechanics and the (special) theory of relativity. Most of the successful development in quantum chemistry has been based on nonrelativistic quantum mechanics. This may be justified by considering that special relativity is needed primarily to describe objects moving at velocities approaching the speed of light, and that this is mostly not the case for chemical systems. After all, most chemical reactions and phenomena occur at energies below the relativistic domain. Or could relativistic effects nevertheless be important? Even without the recent advances in computational chemistry, it became clear fairly early that nonrelativistic theory was unable to explain certain trends in observed properties. A few examples will suffice to illustrate the anomalies. Experimental determination of the metal–carbon bond length in the group 12 dimethyl compounds showed an increase in bond length from Zn to Cd, but a decrease in bond length from Cd to Hg (Rao et al. 1960). The expected trend was an increase from Zn to Cd and again from Cd to Hg.
Elements of Tissue Development
Authors: Saltzman W. Mark
Published: November 2020

This book began with a reflection on the miracle of development, wherein a single cell transforms into a human. The transformation from fertilized egg to adult results from a complex tapestry of events, which scientists are only beginning to dissect and unravel. Certain processes occur frequently during development; that is, the tapestry is woven from threads of elemental colors and textures. A central assumption of subsequent chapters is that key concepts underlying tissue regeneration first appear during fetal development. The elements of developmental biology are presented in this chapter; more complete descriptions are available in any of several excellent textbooks. The relevance of developmental processes in the study of tissue engineering is detailed in subsequent chapters. One of the most intimidating aspects of developmental biology is the vocabulary; therefore, important words are indicated in small capitals on first occurrence and collected in a glossary at the end of the chapter. Developmental biology is an ancient science. One of the central concepts in developmental biology, EPIGENESIS, came from Aristotle in the fourth century B.C. Epigenesis is a continuous, stepwise process in which a simple initial structure becomes complex. Through much of history between Aristotle and the present, epigenesis was not widely accepted as operating in development; many scientists, particularly during the 17th and 18th centuries, were preformationists who believed that the structure of animals was preformed at conception. To the preformationist, the embryo begins as a small replica of an individual which changes only in size during the course of development. Preformationists differed as to whether the preformed individual resided in the ovum or the sperm, but they agreed that all of the attributes of an adult were present from the outset of development. Epigenesis is now well established and many of the steps underlying epigenesis are understood. Human development is part of a larger cyclic process; fertilized eggs develop into newborns who grow to adults and produce new eggs and sperm. This chapter will introduce some of the mechanisms underlying human development from egg to newborn.
Case Studies in Tissue Engineering
Authors: Saltzman W. Mark
Published: November 2020

This final chapter introduces a few tissue engineering systems that either have been used clinically or are rapidly approaching clinical use for cartilage, skin, and nerve repair. Some of the elements of each tissue engineering system are presented, together with references to the primary literature. The first example involves engineering of a tissue with an important mechanical function: cartilage. The general approach described for cartilage has been attempted in other structural tissues such as bone, tendon, and skin; there are important common elements among these tissue engineering systems. One common underlying theme, which is emphasized in the first example, is the use of a material as a scaffold for the ingrowth, proliferation, and function of cells, which differentiate into mature functional cells. After being introduced to this first example and provided with an outline of some experimental results, the reader is then presented with a series of questions: some are intended to stimulate discussion in the classroom, while others can be used as homework assignments or as the basis for independent projects. The main objective of these exercises is to assimilate information from previous chapters and apply it in a situation with clinical application: cartilage tissue engineering. The second and third examples involve tissue-engineered skin and repair of nerves lost to disease or trauma. No questions are provided with these examples, but the reader is encouraged to identify the connections to material in the preceding chapters. One of the first tissue engineering products available to patients is Carticel1®, which uses autologous cultured chondrocytes for the repair of cartilage defects in the femoral condyle (spirally curved prominences on the end of the femur that is involved in the knee joint). The procedure has several phases: first, a pea-sized biopsy of healthy knee cartilage is obtained. This tissue is expanded in vitro to obtain a large number of cultured cells that are all derived from the patient. In a second procedure, a surgeon prepares the transplant site by removing diseased tissue and preparing the defect (in the clinical trials of this product, the defect had a cross-sectional area of <1 to 20 cm2, with 90% of the defects <10 cm2).
Swimming Lessons
Authors: Ehrenfeld David
Published: November 2020

Never in history has life been so complicated and full of sudden changes. Technology, the environment, and the way we work and relate to one another are all in upheaval. With wit, humor, a calm voice, and great authority, Swimming Lessons gives a clear view of what our world has become - not just our successes, but also the destruction set loose by our own genius and inventions. In addition, it offers practical, non-utopian suggestions for keeping afloat in the dangerous waters of the 21st century's globalized civilization. Whether it is describing a comical brainstorming session in a Washington boardroom or a close encounter with an Alaskan grizzly and her cubs, Swimming Lessons is a delight to read. Trained in history, medicine, and zoology, David Ehrenfeld brings a grand perspective to his challenging task. He writes not just as a scientist, but as one who values and understands the social sciences and humanities as well. In the first half of Swimming Lessons, we learn to recognize the lies we live: about education, new military weapons systems, biotechnology, electronic pseudocommunities, and accelerated obsolescence. We also learn about the deadly corporate economics that affect every aspect of our lives, even environmental conservation. The second half reveals the pitfalls and opportunities in the main tasks we face: relating to nature in a manmade world and restoring our damaged communities.
Drought Impacts on Tree Growth and Mortality of Southern Appalachian Forests
Authors: Kloeppel Brian D. , Clinton Barton D.
Published: November 2020

The Coweeta LTER Program represents the eastern deciduous forests of the southern Appalachian Mountains in the United States. Coweeta Hydrologic Laboratory was established in 1934 and hence has a long record of climate measurement and vegetation response to both natural and human disturbance (Swank and Crossley 1988). The general climate of the area is classified as marine humid temperate because of high moisture and mild temperatures (Critchfield 1966; Swift et al. 1988). These conditions have favored the evolution of high species diversity in organisms in the southern Appalachians at many levels. In recent years, however, Coweeta has experienced several droughts that have caused significant tree growth reduction and increased mortality rates (Swift et al. 1990; Clinton et al. 1993; Vose and Swank 1994; McNulty and Swank 1995). In this chapter, we describe the general climate and features of Coweeta as well as the impact of droughts on tree growth and mortality. The timescale of this climate variability is annual, with the potential for preexisting soil moisture conditions either providing a buffer or further exacerbating the drought conditions. Mean annual precipitation at Coweeta Hydrologic Laboratory (latitude 35º14' N, longitude 83º26' W) varies from 1798 mm at the base climate station (686 m) to 2373 mm at the high-elevation Mooney Gap climate station (1364 m). Mean annual growing season precipitation, defined as May to October, is 782 mm at the base climate station (figure 3.1). Mean annual streamflow from watershed 18, a low-elevation reference watershed, is 1011 mm or 56% of precipitation (figure 3.1). Short-duration thundershowers at Coweeta are typical for midsummer and fall with occurrences of large rainfalls stimulated by tropical disturbances near the Atlantic or Gulf coasts. Forty-nine percent of the 133 storms each year have a total precipitation amount less than 5 mm, and 69% of the annual precipitation falls with an intensity less than 10 mm per hour. Snow is a minor part of the annual precipitation, averaging 2–5% depending on elevation. Snow cover rarely lasts for more than 3 or 4 days, even on the upper slopes.
American Dream and Public Schools
Authors: Hochschild Jennifer L. , Scovronick Nathan
Published: November 2020

Why is education policy so contentious? Do conflicts over specific issues in schooling have anything in common? Are there general principles that can help us resolve these disputes? In this book the authors find the source of many debates over schooling in the multiple goals and internal contradictions of the national ideology we call the American dream. They also propose a framework for helping Americans get past acrimonious debates in order to help all children learn. The American Dream and the Public Schools examines issues that have excited and divided Americans for years, including desegregation, school funding, testing, vouchers, bilingual education, multicultural education, and ability grouping. These seem to be separate problems, but much of the contention over them comes down to the same thing--an apparent conflict, rooted in the American dream, between policies designed to promote each student's ability to pursue success and those designed to insure the good of all students or the nation as a whole. The authors show how policies to promote individual success too often benefit only those already privileged by race or class, and too often conflict, unnecessarily, with policies that are intended to benefit everyone. The book also examines issues such as creationism and Afrocentrism, where the disputes lie between those who attack the validity of the American dream and those who believe that such a challenge has no place in the public schools. At the end of the book, the authors examine the impact of our nation's rapid racial and ethnic transformation on the pursuit of all of these goals, and they propose ways to make public education work better to help all children succeed and become the citizens we need.
Accreditation
Authors: Hibbert D. Brynn
Published: November 2020

Accreditation is the procedure by which the competence of a laboratory to perform a specified range of tests or measurements is assessed against a national or international standard. The accreditation covers the kinds of materials tested or measured, the procedures or methods used, the equipment and personnel used in those procedures, and all relevant systems that the laboratory has in place. Once accredited, the laboratory is entitled to endorse test results with their accreditation status which, if it has any validity, is an imprimatur of some degree of quality and gives the client added confidence in the results. Accreditation therefore benefits the laboratory, by allowing the laboratory to demonstrate competence in particular tests, and the client, by providing a choice of accredited laboratories that are deemed competent. Accreditation is part of conformity assessment in international trade. Conformity assessment leads to the acceptance of the goods of one country by another, with confidence borne of mutual recognition of manufacturing and testing procedures. Figure 9.1 shows the relation between accreditation and the goal of conformity in trade. For accreditation to be a cornerstones of conformity in trade, each laboratory that is assessed, in whatever country, must be judged against the same standard (e.g., ISO/IEC 17025), and the assessment process must be essentially the same from one country to another. The standards are indeed international, through the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), and the accreditation bodies themselves are scrutinized under the auspices of the International Laboratory Accreditation Co-operation (ILAC), being accredited to the ISO/IEC Standard 17011 (ISO/IEC 2004a). Full membership in ILAC is open to recognized bodies that operate accreditation schemes for testing laboratories, calibration laboratories, and inspection bodies that have been accepted as signatories to the ILAC Mutual Recognition Arrangement. They must maintain conformance with appropriate international standards such as ISO/IEC 17011 and ILAC guidance documents, and the must ensure that all their accredited laboratories comply with ISO/IEC 17025 and related ILAC guidance documents. Table 9.1 lists the full members and signatories of the ILAC Mutual Recognition Arrangement. The National Association of Testing Authorities (NATA) of Australia has the distinction of being the first accreditation body in the world (founded in 1947), and has long been in the vanguard of the approach to quality through accreditation.
Genetic Algorithms: A 30-Year Perspective
Authors: Jong Kenneth De
Published: November 2020

I continue to be surprised and pleased by the dramatic growth of interest in and applications of genetic algorithms (GAs) in recent years. This growth, in turn, has placed a certain amount of healthy "stress" on the field as current understanding and traditional approaches are stretched to the limit by challenging new problems and new areas of application. At the same time, other forms of evolutionary computation such as evolution strategies [50] and evolutionary programming [22], continue to mature and provide alternative views on how the process of evolution might be captured in an efficient and useful computational framework. I don't think there can be much disagreement about the fact that Holland's initial ideas for adaptive system design have played a fundamental role in the progress we have made in the past thirty years [23, 46]. So, an occasion like this is an opportunity to reflect on where the field is now, how it got there, and where it is headed. In the following sections, I will attempt to summarize the progress that has been made, and to identify critical issues that need to be addressed for continued progress in the field. The widespread availability of inexpensive digital computers in the 1960s gave rise to their increased use as a modeling and simulation tool by the scientific community. Several groups around the world including Rechenberg and Schwefel at the Technical University of Berlin [49], Fogel et al. at the University of California at Los Angeles [22], and Holland at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor [35] were captivated by the potential of taking early simulation models of evolution a step further and harnessing these evolutionary processes in computational forms that could be used for complex computer-based problem solving. In Holland's case, the motivation was the design and implementation of robust adaptive systems, capable of dealing with an uncertain and changing environment. His view emphasized the need for systems which self-adapt over time as a function of feedback obtained from interacting with the environment in which they operate. This led to an initial family of "reproductive plans" which formed the basis for what we call "simple genetic algorithms" today, as outlined in figure 1.
1001 Computer Words You Need to Know
Authors: Pournelle Jerry
Published: November 2020

1001 Computer Words You Need to Know explains and illuminates the essential vocabulary of computers and the Internet. This comprehensive, but never condescending guide to the language of the electronic age carefully defines and explains every term with a sample sentence, and many entries have supplementary notes. In addition, the book includes a number of quick miniguides to managing your online life - dealing with Windows and Macs (and sometimes *nix), burning CDs and downloading files, word processing, spread-sheeting, connecting to the Internet (dialup, cable, DSL, wireless) surfing, IMing and emailing, taking digital photos, coping with networks, memory, and drives, and just plain coping with your computer. The backmatter contains an extensive list of helpful websites and an essay about online language and etiquette.
After the Earth Quakes
Authors: Hough Susan Elizabeth , Bilham Roger G.
Published: November 2020

Earthquakes rank among the most terrifying natural disasters faced by mankind. Out of a clear blue sky-or worse, a jet black one-comes shaking strong enough to hurl furniture across the room, human bodies out of bed, and entire houses off of their foundations. When the dust settles, the immediate aftermath of an earthquake in an urbanized society can be profound. Phone and water supplies can be disrupted for days, fires erupt, and even a small number of overpass collapses can snarl traffic for months. However, when one examines the collective responses of developed societies to major earthquake disasters in recent historic times, a somewhat surprising theme emerges: not only determination, but resilience; not only resilience, but acceptance; not only acceptance, but astonishingly, humor. Elastic rebound is one of the most basic tenets of modern earthquake science, the term that scientists use to describe the build-up and release of energy along faults. It is also the best metaphor for societal responses to major earthquakes in recent historic times. After The Earth Quakes focuses on this theme, using a number of pivotal and intriguing historic earthquakes as illustration. The book concludes with a consideration of projected future losses on an increasingly urbanized planet, including the near-certainty that a future earthquake will someday claim over a million lives. This grim prediction impels us to take steps to mitigate earthquake risk, the innately human capacity for rebound notwithstanding.
A Cubic Mile of Oil
Authors: Crane Hewitt , Kinderman Edwin , Malhotra Ripudaman
Published: November 2020

One cubic mile of oil (CMO) corresponds very closely to the world's current total annual consumption of crude oil. The world's total annual energy consumption - from all energy sources- is currently 3.0 CMO. By the middle of this century the world will need between 6 and 9 CMO of energy per year to provide for its citizens. Adequate energy is needed remove the scourge of poverty and provide food, clothing, and shelter for the people around the world, and more will be needed for measures to mitigate the potential effects of climate change such as building dikes and desalinating water. A Cubic Mile of Oil describes the various energy sources and how we use them, projects their future contributions, and delineates what it would take to develop them to annually produce a CMO from each of them. The requirement for additional energy in the future is so daunting that we will need to use all resources. We also examine how improved efficiency and conservation measures can reduce future demand substantially, and help distinguish approaches that make a significant impact as opposed to merely making us feel good. Use of CMO eliminates a multitude of units like tons of coal, gallons of oil, and cubic feet of gas; obviates the need for mind-numbing multipliers such as billions, trillions, and quadrillions; and replaces them with an easy-to-understand volumetric unit. It evokes a visceral response and allows experts, policy makers and the general public alike to form a mental picture of the magnitude of the challenge we face. In the absence of an appreciation of the scale of the problem, we risk squandering efforts and resources in pursuing options that will not meet tomorrow's global energy needs. We must make critical choices, and a common understandable language is essential for a sustained meaningful dialog.
Chemistry in Quantitative Language
Authors: Oriakhi Christopher O.
Published: November 2020

Problem-solving is one of the most challenging aspects students encounter in general chemistry courses leading to frustration and failure. Consequently, many students become less motivated to take additional chemistry courses after the first year. This book deals with calculations in general chemistry and its primary goal is to prevent frustration by providing students with innovative, intuitive, and systematic strategies to problem-solving in chemistry. The material addresses this issue by providing several sample problems with carefully explained step-by-step solutions for each concept. Key concepts, basic theories, and equations are provided and worked examples are selected to reflect possible ways problems could be presented to students.
A Tale of Seven Elements
Authors: Scerri Eric
Published: November 2020

In 1913, English physicist Henry Moseley established an elegant method for "counting" the elements based on atomic number, ranging them from hydrogen (#1) to uranium (#92). It soon became clear, however, that seven elements were mysteriously missing from the lineup--seven elements unknown to science. In his well researched and engaging narrative, Eric Scerri presents the intriguing stories of these seven elements--protactinium, hafnium, rhenium, technetium, francium, astatine and promethium. The book follows the historical order of discovery, roughly spanning the two world wars, beginning with the isolation of protactinium in 1917 and ending with that of promethium in 1945. For each element, Scerri traces the research that preceded the discovery, the pivotal experiments, the personalities of the chemists involved, the chemical nature of the new element, and its applications in science and technology. We learn for instance that alloys of hafnium--whose name derives from the Latin name for Copenhagen (hafnia)--have some of the highest boiling points on record and are used for the nozzles in rocket thrusters such as the Apollo Lunar Modules. Scerri also tells the personal tales of researchers overcoming great obstacles. We see how Lise Meitner and Otto Hahn--the pair who later proposed the theory of atomic fission--were struggling to isolate element 91 when World War I intervened, Hahn was drafted into the German army's poison gas unit, and Meitner was forced to press on alone against daunting odds. The book concludes by examining how and where the twenty-five new elements have taken their places in the periodic table in the last half century. A Tale of Seven Elements paints a fascinating picture of chemical research--the wrong turns, missed opportunities, bitterly disputed claims, serendipitous findings, accusations of dishonesty--all leading finally to the thrill of discovery.
Introduction and Overview
Authors: Dale Peter , McLaughlin John
Published: November 2020

1948 saw the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. All governments that signed the Declaration formally recognized that human beings have a right to adequate shelter as one component of their right to an adequate standard of living. In 1996, at the Habitat II Conference, many countries committed themselves to ‘Promoting optimal use of productive land in urban and rural areas and protecting fragile ecosystems and environmentally vulnerable areas from the negative impacts of human settlements, inter alia, through developing and supporting the implementation of improved land management practises’ (UNCHS 1996). Access to land and security for credit are vital components of sustainable development and good land management practice; every State needs to ensure that efficient and effective land administration mechanisms are in place. Land is a physical thing that encompasses the surface of the earth and all things attached to it both above and below. It is also an abstract thing that is manifest as a set of rights to its use with a value that can be traded even though the physical object cannot be moved. The term ‘land administration’ is used here to refer to those public sector activities required to support the alienation, development, use, valuation, and transfer of land. The relationship between human beings and the land is of fundamental importance in every society and is evident in the form of property rights. This relationship has evolved in many different ways, from full state control, through communal forms of tenure, to the individual property rights. In the land reform programmes of the 1960s, especially in Africa, new land tenure arrangements such as the granting of individual freehold rights were introduced, often contrary to traditional custom and practice. In the reforms of today, especially in east and central Europe, the land restitution programmes have reprivatized land previously owned by individuals. They have also granted first-time rights of private ownership to what was formerly state-owned land, on the basis of the traditions of the past, thus reinforcing old land tenure arrangements.