bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Der Mensuralcodex St Emmeram (Clm 14274): Einezentrale Quelle Fur Die Musik Mitteleuropas Im I 5. Jahrhundert Und Ihre Musikalischen, Liturgischen, Und Theologischen Voraussetzungen
Authors: Schmid Bernhold
Published: November 2023

Nach wie vor sind diverse Fragen der Entstehung sowie der Verwendung des Codex St Emmeram nicht hinreichend geklart. Tom R. Ward machte auf die zentrale Rolle von Wien fur den Codex aufmerksam. Der Besitzer und Hauptschreiber Poetzlinger hatte von 1436 bis 1439 dort studiert. Dies kann sich konkret in Kompositionen bzw. Texten augern: Neben Kungspergers Urbs beata Jerusalem (Nr 256) ist separat ein Alternativtext notiert: ,,Sancte Dei pretiose”, ein ansonsten selten zu findender Text, der auf St Stephan bezogen ist, dem der Wiener Dom geweiht ist. Petrus Wilhelmi, dem z.B. die Nr 13 mid 47 des Codex zuzuschreiben sind, diirfte Verbindungen zum in Wien residierenden kaiserlichen Hof gehabt haben. Der Codex enthalt schlief lich sieben Werke des Wiener Kantors Edlerawer, sechs davon als Unica. Wien kann als eines der Zentren in Mitteleuropa gelten: die Universitat hatte Studenten aus ganz Zentral-, aber auch aus Westeuropa. Soweit sie sich mit Musik beschaftigten, taten sie das im Rahmen von sehr vie! breiter angelegten Studien. Moglichkeiten, hier Böcher und auch Musikalien zu sammeln und auszutauschen, sind somit in hervorragender Weise gegeben. Die Handschrift reprasentiert deswegen wie keine andere das musikalische Repertoire in Zentraleuropa vor der Mitte des 15. Jahrhunderts.
Study Session 26 Opera Et Mel0drame En France, I 800-30: Uneenquete Sur Les Genres
Authors: Charlton David
Published: November 2023

This session was conducted in three parts, each of which was the responsibility of two contributors. In his introduction, David Charlton drew attention to the special intrinsic relation between stage works in France and the concept of genre (a concept visible today even in cinema listings in Paris). From a wider perspective, a genre designation denotes on the one hand a work’s intellectual connection with classical literature; on the other, the general rejection of fixed models by (say) Victor Hugo in 18271 imposes further questions concerning what meaning a ‘genre’ might have in Romantic terms, for example as applied to grand opera. An analogous rejection of ‘rules and formulas’ in the ‘public use of reason’ had in fact already been adumbrated by Kant in 1784,2 during a decade which in France saw many opera librettists proudly inventing mixed genre designations.
Kulturelle Traditionen In Mitteleuropa: Musikleben Zwischen Zentralismus Und Regionaler Spezifik Am Beispiel Der Rolle Von Vereinen
Authors: Knotik Cornelia Szabó
Published: November 2023

Hauptinhalt dieser Sitzung war die Diskussion i.iber Methode und Ziel einer unter Einbeziehung von Telekommunikation und Informations technologie durchgefohrten internationalen Vergleichs-Studie zur musikalischen Alltags geschichte im Mitteleuropiiischen Raum. Einleitend (Cornelia SzabKnotik) wurde das Forschungsziel formulicrt-die Beschreibung des wechselseitigen Einflusses von Stadten (Bratislava, Brno, Budapest, Ljub ljana, Praha, Trieste, Zagreb, Wien) im Bereich des Musiklebens in ihrer je nach Blickwinkel verschiedenen Eigenschaft als (regionales) Zentrum bzw. Peripherie einer kulturellen Einheit; Untersuchungsfeld (Vercinsleben) und Untersuchungszeitraum (r867-r92oer Jahre) begri.indet; und die Organisa tionsstruktur (lokale Forscherteams, Mischformen der Kommunikation aus Telekommunikation und halbjahrlichen workshops) erlautert. Anschliegend wurde die als wesentliches Arbeitsmittel fungierende Datenbank (Markus Reisenleitner, Arno Traninger) nach den for ihrcn Aufbau wesentlichen technischen und inhaltlichen Schritten und Auswertungsmoglichkeiten for die Darstellung der Forschungsresultate bzw. for zuki.inftige Anwendungsformen vorgestellt.
Liturgy and Homiletics
Authors: Jeffery Peter
Published: November 2023

The sermons and biblical commentaries of the Church Fathers preserve much important evidence about the liturgical chant repertories of the early church. In hundreds of cases they indicate which psalm texts were selected for singing on which liturgical feasts, because at the time no clear distinction was made between chanted psalms and lessons read from other parts of the bible. Early Christian sermons show that some of the texts of the medieval chant repertories had already achieved a fixed position as early as the fourth century, and often give valuable information about performance practices. Publications on this subject have tended to focus on St Augustine of Hippo (354-430), but Augustine’s north-African chant repertory was not a direct ancestor of medi<val Gregorian chant. This paper dealt exclusively with sermons and commentaries that can be linked to Rome, in order to clarify certain aspects of the formation of the Old Gregorian and Old Roman repertories that emerged there.
Session 2: The Historiography of Early Music
Authors: Annibaldi Claudio
Published: November 2023

In attempting to respond affirmatively (though, alas, posthumously) to Howard Mayer Brown’s invitation to formulate explicit theories about the nature of musical patronage in the period in question, this paper was theoretically linked to the Round Table chaired by him at the 1992 IMS Congress. Since then I have developed an anthropological approach to musical patronage in Renaissance and Baroque Italy, seeing it as a phenomenon intended to symbolize the patrons’ social rank through musical performances, and I have established a set of assumptions which have proved useful in interpreting archival documentation. In this presentation I focused on one of these assumptions, the coexistence of institutional and humanistic trends in musical patronage after 1400. I shall present the semiotic implications of this assumption as a key to Brown’s ‘crux of patronage studies’, that is, to the problem of demonstrating analytically the relationship between individual compositions
Session 18: The Eighteenth-Century Tradition
Authors: Harriss Ernest
Published: November 2023

Johann Adolf Hasse (1699-1783) was a most popular composer among aristocratic audiences during the middle decades of the eighteenth century. His primary claim to fame was his success in the field of serious opera, the most important genre of the day at court. However, Hasse also wrote a great deal of music for the church. Indeed, he wrote to his friend Ortes in 1768 that he was devoting his remaining years primarily to religious music. Recent archival searches in Poland, the Czech Republic, and the Slovak Republic demonstrate that he did this to a degree not reflected in the literature. A surprisingly large number of manuscripts of unreported sacred works has been brought to light since the publication of Sven Hansell’s article on the composer in The New Grove Dictionary^ thanks to the more open political conditions which now prevail.
Session 33: Renaissance Theory
Authors: Saavedra Leonora
Published: November 2023

This paper explored issues of method and philosophical background in the treatises of Bartolomeo Ramos de Pareia and Franchinus Gaffurius. It focused on the relationship between the one and the many, a philosophical issue underlying conceptions of sound and intervallic theories that were transmitted within the discipline of musica. Two questions were raised: how can a body of knowledge that is Platonic in origin be transmitted and taught on the basis of a scholastic-Aristotelian epistemology? And how did theorists of differing philosophical backgrounds deal with this (apparent) conflict? I surveyed the Platonic and Aristotelian systems of ideas about the nature of mathematical and musical objects, approaching them as systems of beliefs belonging to cultures foreign to us. Then, through an analysis of Ramos’s and Gaffurius’s epistemological approach to these issues, I analysed their ideas about the nature of musical objects and their relationship to the rest of the world.
Session 34: Schubert and Song
Authors: Badura-Skoda Eva
Published: November 2023

A number of formerly unknown portraits of Schubert have come to light since the death of 0. E. Deutsch. The most interesting discovery has been that the authenticity of a death-mask could be fully established with the help of anthropological (forensic) measurements, comparing the mask with an extant plaster copy of Schubert’s skull (Badura-Skoda). Recently developed forcibly appeal to the feelings. Because this important aspect of singing was left ‘to the singer’s sagacity and discretion’, little information on delivery was normally included in published scores. However, editions by Corri and Greatorex teach us where singers employed legato, staccato, portamento, soft and loud, ornaments, etc., as well as how breathing articulated the sense of the text. Continua realizations demonstrate how accompanists reinforced expressive vocal delivery.
Session 1: Analytical Applications
Authors: Borders James
Published: November 2023

Drawing on manuscripts and critical editions of medieval pontificals (books of chants, prayers, and liturgical directions for rituals over which only a bishop could preside) this session focused on changes in the selection, number, and order of antiphons in the principal redactions of the service for the consecration of nuns. Based on a comparison of sources compiled between c.950 and the end of the thirteenth century, the case was made that the prevailing view of chant as musical accompaniment to ritual came into being relatively late in the Middle Ages, replacing a prior conception in which the sung texts were elements of narratives that intersected with ceremonial. The narrative of the consecration service was traced back to the vita and Office of St Agnes, a Roman virgin martyr, in which her progress from trial to torture and death moved the saint ever closer to a mystical marriage with Christ.
Session 2: New Computer Applications in Musicology
Authors: Desain Peter , Honing Henkjan
Published: November 2023

Musical performance data often require a lot of pre-processing, matching performances and scores, adding musical structure, filtering, and tabulation before further analyses can be made or performance expression can be manipulated. For the generation of musical stimuli (for example, of manipulated or artificially generated performances), some kind of flexible support is very useful. POCO is a workbench for analysing, modifying, and generating expression in music. It is aimed to be used in a research context. It is based on a consistent and flexible representation of musical objects and musical structure. Tools are made available in a modular form, all based on a shared representation of musical data in textual and MIDI file formats. A lot of attention has been given to the openness, integration, and extendibility of the system. Recent additions include better support for matching performances and scores, manipulation of audio and spectral data, and graphical editors. The system is freely available to researchers.
A Conflict of Interests
Authors: Sasportes Jose
Published: November 2023

Since the birth of melodramma in Italy and opera in France, the relationship of musical drama with the art of dance has been that of a conflict of interests: the poet and the composer complain that dance and dancers destroy the attention of the audience, who because of the intrusion of ballet become unable to follow the plot; choreographers and dancers fight to find an independent space for their art, if possible outside the framework of opera and opera houses. I believe that our subject, Verdi and the ballet, belongs to the story of this conflict.
Questions of Detail
Authors: Prendergast Christopher
Published: November 2023

The inscriptions suggest a lineage, but not only for the notaries of France. The mix of names and dates mirrors the legitimizing exercises mounted by the Napoleonic propaganda machine itself, in its efforts to provide the regime with the aura of a political pedigree.
World History on Horseback
Authors: Prendergast Christopher
Published: November 2023

Hegel is memorably, though inaccuratsely, alleged to have described Napo leon as ‘world-history on horseback’ , the equestrian embodiment of the ‘higher universal’ (Taine adapted the same idea as a metaphor for Napoleonic rule, though his drift was quite different). He would also have thought of Napoleon as blind, in the sense that for Hegel a condition of possibility for the emergence of the world-historical hero is that he cannot know precisely where he is going; he may be the incarnation and instrument of a grand historical telos, but the rational shape of futurity cannot be a fully intentional object of the actor’s consciousness, for the reason that reflective consciousness destroys the essentially unselfconscious basis of the actor’s deed; the search for rational grounds undermines the efficient ground of action itself.
Introduction
Authors: Hopkins David
Published: November 2023

In revising what was originally presented as a doctoral thesis at the University of Essex in 1989 I have largely preserved the shape and flavour of the original but sharpened certain historical points and updated the notes as far as possible. If I tackled the same project now I would no doubt produce a very different book, but what has struck me is that even as the social construction of gender and postmodern theory ceases to have the methodological novelty it once had, it remains an absolutely appropriate model for rethinking the material with which I deal. This said, I hope the reader will approach the book as an extended discussion, or a series of interwoven discussions, which is deliberately contentious in places. The Duchamp chapters can be read as a self-contained entity, but the Ernst material relies heavily on the first half of the book. It should be stressed, however, that the project was conceived from the outset asan argument to be read from start to finish. The subsections within chapters provide thematic signposts, but the overall effect is intended to be cumulative.
Identity, Taxonomy, Narrative: Geometry in Ernst’s Vax Angelica and Related Works
Authors: Hopkins David
Published: November 2023

If the hybridization of source materials in La Toilette de la mariée appears to make manifest the ‘structurality’ of belief systems and the lack of any order of priority amongst them, it is possible to show that this was in itself a powerful reaction to aspects of Ernst’s earlier works which Norris and Lascault’s ‘relativist’ arguments of the last section cannot account for. It has been asserted that the coexistence of psychoanalytic and alchemical allusions in Les Hommes n’en saurontrien oh923 were symptomatic of a desire for a non-personal ‘archetypal’ dimension of symbolism, relating to Silberer’s contention that alchemical/Rosicrucian imagery possessed precisely this quality. Such a concern in Ernst’s work can be examined by looking at the dialogue, or sometimes tension, between abstract geometrical devices and figurative imagery in certain works of the 1920s and 1930s.
Conclusion: Loplop and Rrose Sélavy
Authors: Hopkins David
Published: November 2023

The arguments in this book have been marshalled not only to establish thematic links between Duchamp and Ernst but also to get to the roots of fundamental divergences of outlook roughly corresponding to differences between Dada and Surrealism. I have avoided any overt insistence on a guiding theoretical rationale but the repeated emphasis on patterns of structuration in relation to gender and (apparently incommensurate) belief systems will hopefully alert the reader to analogies with areas of theoretical interest currently, although increasingly circumspectly, subsumed under the label ‘postmodernism’.
Wagnerites en masse:The Audience as Spectacle
Authors: Sutton Emma
Published: November 2023

Whether perceived from the perspective of observer or participant, audiences juxtapose, happily or problematically, the subjective and the public. They invite the individual to consider, for example, to what extent their own responses are indeed unique and personal; to what extent and in what ways they are representative of those of their peers; and whether they are of a nature to be comfortably experienced in public.
The North-East in the Fifteenth Century
Authors: Pollard A J
Published: November 2023

On 24 September r 48s Henry VII offered a pardon to all those of the north parts of his land who had of late done him great displeasure by being in the field in the company of his adversary, ‘the enemy of nature’. The north parts were specified by him as including the counties of Nottingham, York, Northumberland, Cumberland and Westmorland, the city of York, the bishopric of Durham, and the town of Hull. Henry no doubt excluded the duchy of Lancaster and the county of Chester because the knights, esquires, and gentlemen of those north-western shires had demonstrated their loyalty in the service of the Stanley brothers on the field of Bosworth. Presumably the enemy of nature himself, Richard III, had had a similar region in mind when two years earlier he appealed for help to the city of Yark. In a letter of ro June 1483 he claimed that Queen Elizabeth Woodville was threatening ‘the final distruction and disinher disinheritance of you and all other the inheritors and men of honour, as well of the north parts as other countries that belongen us [are our dependants]’.2 The north clearly formed a recognizable, if imprecisely defined, ‘country’ in fifteenth-century England.
3 [L] The Structure of Politics
Authors: Connolly S J
Published: November 2023

What are Irish politics in the eighteenth century about? Historians have found it difficult to decide. The theme which most immediately seems to offer itself is the conflict between English government and Irish patriotism. Yet this way of looking at it has obvious limitations. Even in the last decades of the eighteenth century, the era of Grattan, the Volunteers, and the ‘constitution’ of 1782, an analysis focused on patriotism and its opposite must exclude from consideration much that was central to Irish political life. Applied to earlier decades, it becomes even more the arbitrary highlighting of what was at best a subsidiary theme. Yet what is to take its place? For the most part, the answer has been a reductionist interpretation, in which politics is seen as essentially the pursuit of private gain: the competition of individuals and factions, operating in an ideological vacuum, for the benefits to be gained from office or government favour. To present a more rounded picture, it is necessary, not to deny the importance of patronage and profit, but rather to recreate something of the cultural context within which they were pursued. First, however, we must say something about an earlier period still, one in which politics did in fact revolve around serious conflicts of political and religious principle.
5 [L]The Inventions of Men in the Worship of God: Religion and the Churches
Authors: Connolly S J
Published: November 2023

It is unlikely that we will ever know with certainty the absolute, or even the relative, size of the different religious denominations in late seventeenth- and early eighteenth-century Ireland. Contemporaries offered widely varying estimates. Sir William Petty, in 1672, suggested that there were 300,000 Protestants in Ireland and 800,000 Catholics. Oliver Plunkett, two years earlier, had claimed that there were twenty Catholics for every Protestant. Sir Richard Cox, arguing in 1706 that the Catholics no longer constituted a serious threat, maintained that they outnumbered Protestants only by two to one or less. Lord Coningsby, in the course of a more pessimistic review of the state of Ireland in 1714, put the Catholic superiority at eight to one; while in 1708 the Whig Lord Chancellor Richard Freeman maintained that it was ‘by the best information I can get ... at least ten to one through the whole kingdom’. Archbishop Boulter in 173 1 believed that Catholics outnumbered Protestants by at least five to one; others, he noted, put the figure as high as seven to one.
Introduction
Authors: Collini Stefan
Published: November 2023

This book is intended as a contribution to the intellectual history of modem Britain. It attempts to bring to life and to explore in sometimes unusual ways certain central themes in the development of English moral and cultural attitudes, and their bearing upon political argument from the mid-nineteenth to the early-twentieth century. In practice, the book largely concentrates on reconstructing the thought and sensibility of some of the leading members of the educated class of this period.
Their Master’s Voice: John Stuart Mill as a Public Moralist
Authors: Collini Stefan
Published: November 2023

Any discussion of Victorian political and intellectual life, especially one primarily concerned with the relation between the moral assumptions exhibited in public debate and the kinds of voice available for addressing the relevant audience, must accord a special degree of attention to John Stuart Mill. It would be an exaggeration to say that he ‘dominated’ the higher reaches of political argument in the mid-nineteenth century; no one writer did that, though Mill’s was as inescapable a presence at the intellectual level as Gladstone’s was in the practical sphere. More particularly, Mill was, especially in the later part of his life, an adroit and conspicuous controversialist, vigorously exploiting his special role and the opportunities it offered to tax his opponents with their failure to measure up to the moral values to which allegiance was so frequently, at times piously, expressed in the public discourse of the Victorian educated classes. There is still a tendency among historians and political theorists to treat Mill as a detached, Olympian figure, who held himself above the fray of current politics, a tendency easily encouraged by the equable serenity of his prose in his larger treatises and by his unusually strenuous commitment to an ideal of open-mindedness. There is, of course, an element of truth in this picture, but it needs to be complemented by an exploration of the ways in which Mill engaged more directly in public debate on topical issues, where he revealed himself to be avowedly partisan and, when roused to a pitch of moral outrage, violently polemical.
Manly Fellows: Fawcett, Stephen, and the Liberal Temper
Authors: Collini Stefan
Published: November 2023

What in Mr Mill is but a yielding to a spirit of irritable injustice, goes on and worsens in some of his disciples, till it becomes a sort of mere blatancy and truculent hardness in Professor Fawcett.’ Matthew Arnold may not always have exhibited enough of his own cherished quality of ‘disinterestedness’ when speaking of the leaders of radical Liberalism, but as we move on to consider some of those who lived under Mill’s shadow, this judgement provides a useful, if teasing, starting-point. It is not, it has to be said, immediately obvious what is meant by the phrase ‘a sort of mere blatancy and truculent hardness’, yet anyone who has read much of Fawcett’s writing would be bound, I think, to come to find these words uncannily apt. They are not, needless to say, at all similar to the theoretical labels which historians of political thought conventionally use when referring to those who might be considered in some sense Mill’s followers. But an essential part of the argument of the present chapter is that we shall not understand the political attitudes of someone like Henry Fawcett, still less Leslie Stephen, if we confine ourselves to the abstract propositions of Utilitarianism or classical political economy. Rather, we need to attend once more to what may seem the un- or pre-political predispositions and allegiances which animated the otherwise dry bones of their political creed.
An Exclusively Professional Subject The Jurist as Public Moralist
Authors: Collini Stefan
Published: November 2023

The connection between law and political science’, lamented Ernest Barker in 1934, ‘is far closer on the Continent than it is in England. With us, the subjects have generally tended towards a divorce; and there has been little study of political science in terms of law.’ His elaboration of this contrast was suggestive. ‘Few of our lawyers’, he continued, ‘have turned their attention to the fundamental questions of politics On the whole our law has been a close and empirical preserve of the legal profession; and our political science has proceeded not from lawyers or professors of law, but from politicians with a philosophic gift or philosophers with a practical interest.’ This, he fairly conceded, had had its merits as well as its drawbacks, and ‘the English system of political science, so far as we can speak of such a thing, has combined an instinct for actual fact with some sense of the moral foundations on which the action of states, like all human action, must necessarily rest’. The strong presence of classical humanism in the English universities, he further speculated, had reinforced ‘a native sense of the moral foundations of politics.’
Finance and Trade under Richard II
Authors: Ormrod W M
Published: November 2023

The kingdom of England was probably more dependent on the revenue derived from the taxation of international trade than any other monarchical state in later medieval Europe. The intimate connection between the financial (and therefore also the political) fortunes of the Crown on the one hand and the volume and value of overseas trade (above all, of English wool exports) on the other had its origins in the thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries, when the Crown first established a permanent system for raising customs duties on exports and imports. It was not until the opening of Edward Ill ‘s wars with France, however, that the taxation of overseas trade became a major, indeed after 1350 the principal, element in the finances of the state as a result of the long serit--s of supplementary subsidies on wool exports which the Crown negotiated first with the merchant community and later with Parliament. It has long been appreciated that there was a fundamental flaw, not to mention a certain irony, in the Crown ‘s use of the customs and subsidies as a means of raising the financial resources it needed to fight the Hundred Years War, for while the rhetoric of strategy often presented the war as a necessary means by which to maintain England ‘s trading interests, the subordination of economic policy to financial exigency had the effect of creating structures and conditions that were fundamentally hostile to the English trading economy as a whole.
Richard II and the Visual Arts
Authors: Scheifele Eleanor
Published: November 2023

While Richard H ‘s beleaguered reign was silenced in 1399, his image of kingship has not only endured but prevailed. As the patron of the Westminster hall roof and the Wilton Diptych, Richard has been accorded a stature beyond which even his own ambitions might have conceived. Recently, though, scholars have begun to diminish this acclaim by questioning the presumption of a distinct Ricardian court style. A call has since been made to determine the degree of continuity between Richard ‘s court and that of his grandfather Edward III, especially concerning the number of commissions, formal types, expenditures, and artists employed. Under this revision, the splendour once attributed to Richard ‘s patronage has somewhat dimmed. New large-scale architectural construction and sculptural projects were rare, and now fewer illuminated manuscripts can be ascribed with certainty to his direct commission or even to his private collection.
Richelieu As Chief Minister
Authors: Moote A Lloyd
Published: November 2023

Of all the roles that Cardinal Richelieu played, that of chief minister to Louis XIII astounded contemporaries and posterity the most by its success. Generation after generation of scholars have sought to understand Richelieu’s ‘system’ by categorizing it as a ministériat, and his function as that of premier ministre.  Ministériat or ‘ministerial government’ is a useful term in so far as it suggests that Louis XIII ruled primarily with ministers, working individually and collaboratively in and out of the royal council; and the complementary term ‘chief minister’ surely captures the reality that from 1624 to 1642 Richelieu was the mediator between king and council, acting both as intimate adviser to the king (in a maître--serviteur relationship, in the language of the day) and powerful controller of his fellow ministers (a protector-creature relationship).
Introduction the Paradise Lost of Liberalism
Authors: Taylor M W
Published: November 2023

Writing in the Fabian Essays in Socialism, Sidney Webb saw fit to berate ‘Mr Herbert Spencer and those who agree in his worship of lndividual ism’ for wanting to ‘bring back the legal position which made possible the “white slavery” of which the “sins of legislators” have deprived us.’ Despite the fact that the writings of Fabians, New Liberals, and even Conservative Tariff Reformers abound with disparaging references to ‘Individualism”, this political theory has been hitherto neglected by historians of late Victorian and Edwardian political thought. In the absence of a sustained examination, the doctrines of the Individualists, like those of the sophists, stand in danger of being known only through the mouths of their partisan critics. It is the objective of the present work to remedy this deficiency and to demonstrate the importance of Individualism for an adequate understanding, not only of the nature of late Victorian political argument, but of the transformation of the doctrine of the limited State and free market from a radical creed into one which became an instrument of the defenders of the status quo.
Progress and the Struggle for Existence
Authors: Taylor M W
Published: November 2023

Evolutionary theories appealed to the Individualists because they appeared to make possible the reconciliation of two conflicting theoretical commitments. On the one hand, as former Radicals, the Individualists were reluctant to renounce the old liberal belief in progress, and the dream of a human millenium founded on the emancipation of the individual. On the other hand, however, the Individualists were also the defenders of the late Victorian status quo. They were able to square the political circle by insisting that the millenium would arrive, but that it would be brought about only over many generations, by the slow processes of natural evolution, and there was little or nothing political action could do to speed its arrival, although it could do much to hinder it. The present chapter will be concerned accordingly with the Individualists’ use of evolutionary theory, and in particular with their appropriation of the Darwinian notion of the struggle for existence as the motive force behind evolutionary processes.
The Formation Of Character
Authors: Taylor M W
Published: November 2023

In the previous chapter it was shown that Spencer’s theory of evolution incorporated both Darwinian and Lamarckian elements. Having examined the role which the Darwinian notion of the struggle for existence played in Individualist political thought, the focus of the present chapter will be on the political implications of the Lamarckian theory of use inheritance, and in particular its role in developing an account of character formation which underpinned the Individualists’ fears that a substantial sphere of State activity would be antithetical to the virtues of self-reliance, independence, and respect for the rights of others. It will be argued that Spencer used Lamarckianism to support his view that the virtues of character were not to be promoted by the conscious design of the legislator, but only by the individual being prepared to develop inherited ‘natural’ faculties of the mind. As part of his attempt to confer scientific credibility on this theory of the formation of individual character, Spencer also transformed the classical associationist psycho logy in a direction which provides additional confirmation for our central contention that Individualism represented a conservative adaptation of the liberal tradition.
Visions of Empires, 1798-1801
Authors: Ingram Edward
Published: November 2023

The origins of the Persian Connection should not be sought in British fears that their Indian territories might have to be defended against overland invasion, even though the Connection was passed off on the board of control and the East India Company as a defence against Afghan, French, and even Russian plans to invade India. Like the subsidiary alliances made between the government of India and other Indian states, the treaty made by Captain John Malcolm on behalf of the government of India in 1801 was meant to lead to British control of the Qajar dynasty, its army, and its foreign relations. Its origins are to be found, therefore, in India rather than in the Middle East, in what admirers of the governor-general, Lord Wellesley, called his ‘extensive views’: ‘schemes so vast that they exceed the compass and reach of ordinary understandings’.
West against North-West, 1809-1810
Authors: Ingram Edward
Published: November 2023

The Persian connection reached its apogee in the five years after the signature of the preliminary treaty of Tehran, the nadir of Great Britain’s fortunes in the Napoleonic Wars the years of the Continental System and the Orders in Council. In I 8 ro it had its moment of highest comedy in an unseemly dispute between the government of India and the cabinet, known after its subject, Harford Jones, as the Harfordian Controversy. The dispute accompanied the exchange of a western strategy for the north-western strategy Minto borrowed from his former patron, Lord Grenville, and adapted to Indian conditions. Minto expected the rulers of Sind, the Punjab, and Afghanistan to copy the behaviour Grenville had expected of the Emperor and the tsar in the First and Second Coalitions. They should treat the enemy the British chose as a threat to all of them, and the rivalries between them as secondary to the need for joint action in the region, as well as the cause, the British had chosen. They should face west, not east.
Imperial Retreat, 1814-1822
Authors: Ingram Edward
Published: November 2023

The Marquis Wellesley’s attempt to use the Persian Connection to turn the tables on the East India Company for thwarting him in India was challenged, as he should have expected, as soon as his goal was revealed by the terms of the definitive treaty of Tehran. One cannot know whether, or how, Wellesley would have bothered to defend the treaty, for in the spring of 181, after a final moment of glory while he tried to form a government at the invitation of the prince regent and failed miserably, his career fizzled out into two terms as lord-lieutenant of Ireland in the 1820s and 1830s. Having undermined Spencer Perceval’s administration, partly by refusing to be bound by cabinet, partly by laziness, he fatally compromised his reputation by resigning on 16 January without explaining why, then allowing the speech he had written, but not made, to be published after Perceval’s assassination on 11 May. The Grand Lama, as Wellesley was known, was left out o(the earl of Livcrpool’s administration. The foreign office was offered to Viscount Castlereagh, who, in ten years of office until his suicide in r 822, broke decisively with long-established traditions in British foreign policy.
Shows of Strength, 1818-1823
Authors: Ingram Edward
Published: November 2023

At the foreign office Castlereagh was failing to persuade the Russians to treat Europe and the Middle East as one states system or to concede that Great Britain, as an Asiatic power, had as much right as Russia to influence in the Ottoman Empire and Persia. At the same time the government of India, following Lord Minto’s rule, was trying to separate the Middle East from India. A forward policy designed to protect trade in the Persian Gulf should not be jeopardized by Qajar claims to sovereignty. By 1822, however, the government of India was asking the question the foreign office would try to avoid answering for another ten years: what would happen if the Qajars, crossed by the British, turned to Russia for support? And if Russia did take up the issues left unresolved by the treaty of Bucharest in I 8 I2 and the treaty of Gulistan in I8I3, would the Qajars give way to Russia in Transcaucasia in return for compensation in areas in which Great Britain must bar their way?
Anglo-French Naval Rivalry 1840-1870
Authors: Hamilton C I
Published: November 2023

By the middle years of the nineteenth century, there seem to have been few places on the globe where British and French commercial, colonial, or religious interests could not clash; and thanks to the extent and flexibility of their sea power the two rivals were able to support these interests with naval force virtually wherever there was enough water to float a warship. The Crimean War brought the British and French navies, the most technologically advanced in the world, into alliance after many years of common hostility. It was a period of enormous technological innovation and development, witnessing the transition from sail to screw, and the birth of the ironclad. In this extensively researched and thorough study, C. I. Hamilton traces the technological development of both British and French navies and analyses the political and diplomatic policies which formed the backdrop to the naval history of the period 1840-1870. Dr Hamilton compares the two navies in a variety of important ways: their recruitment and training systems, dockyard facilities, naval administrations, strategy and tactics. His book makes a noteworthy contribution both to naval history and to our knowledge of Anglo-French relations in the nineteenth century.
Introduction
Authors: Hamilton C I
Published: November 2023

A Frenchman speaking around 1815 of une ennemie puissante et perfide or, even more obviously, une nation de boutiquiers, was clearly referring to only one state. And who can doubt who was being marked out when an Englishman of the same period spoke of ‘an ancient rival, envious and unscrupulous’, or ‘an immoral and fickle people’? After a long war, the two nations had much reason to think ill of each other, and the coming of peace did not entirely soften acerbities. British responsibility for the return to their original owners of some of the loot gathered by the French government during hostilities laid the foundation for the new and flourishing myth of hypocrisie anglaise. And the old British belief in the lightness and loose living of the folk across the Channel was soon to be reinforced by the ‘scrofulous French novels’ that Victorian society so liked to shock itself with.
Inheritance
Authors: Johnson P A
Published: November 2023

Born on 22 September 1411 Richard of York was early orphaned. His mother Anne, sister of Edmund Mortimer, earl of March, died soon after his birth. His father, Richard earl of Cambridge, died on the scaffold at Southampton, the penalty for the failure of his plot against Henry V. The child’s future was precarious. The one great lord who had an interest in his prospects, his uncle, the childless Edward duke of York, fell at Agincourt, and in November 1415 Richard’s father was posthumously attainted. To the great credit of Henry V this act was in no way extended to the young and helpless heir. Henry’s motives can only be guessed, but Duke Edward’s death had somewhat redeemed the house of Yark, and there was no reason to suppose that the boy would not grow to be a useful peer of the realm. There was the further consideration that Cardinal Beaufort had an interest in the duchy estates. The 4-year-old Richard succeeded, therefore, to the duchy of York.
Piety And Charity In Late Medieval Florence
Authors: Henderson John
Published: November 2023

This book explores the relationship between the secular and sacred in late medieval Florence. The vehicle through which this theme is examined is the religious confraternity, one of the most popular and ubiquitous forms of lay association of late medieval Europe. Known variously as gild, fraternity, society, company, brotherhood, and school, the confraternity fused two areas of life which are frequently portrayed by historians as mutually exclusive, but which to contemporaries formed parts of a complementary whole, the spiritual and temporal. If the main functions of a confraternity may seem pious (to perform devout works in honour of a patron saint and provide spiritual insurance for members in the after-life), they also did much to foster social relations.
Introduction
Authors: Henderson John
Published: November 2023

This book explores the relationship between the secular and sacred in late medieval Florence. The vehicle through which this theme is examined is the religious confraternity, one of the most popular and ubiquitous forms of lay association of late medieval Europe. Known variously as gild, fraternity, society, company, brotherhood, and school,1 the confraternity fused two areas of life which are frequently portrayed by historians as mutually exclusive, but which to contemporaries formed parts of a complementary whole, the spiritual and temporal. If the main functions of a confraternity may seem pious (to perform devout works in honour of a patron saint and provide spiritual insurance for members in the after-life), they also did much to foster social relations.
Fraternity and Fraternities in Medieval Italy
Authors: Henderson John
Published: November 2023

The ubiquity of the fraternal model, as emphasized in the Introduction, underlines the fact that the late medieval Italian confraternity did not emerge out of a vacuum. Scattered references have survived to a number of congregationes and scholae of the tenth to twelfth centuries in cities such as Ivrea, Lucca, Modena, Ravenna, and Venice. These associations are often represented as exclusively pious in scope and condemned for moral laxity when contemporaries recorded members indulging in more secular pursuits, as in the case of the orgiastic meals of the Tuscan confraternity dedicated to S. Ilario. The Florentine grammarian Buoncompagno recorded in the early thirteenth century that when the rectors of this company presented the accounts at the end of their annual feast, one member stood up and said ‘Blessed is God who shall perform miracles for us and through us because nothing remains in the cashbox to cover the expenses, except for one copper (un solo asse)’.
Penitence and Penitents
Authors: Henderson John
Published: November 2023

The popularization of voluntary flagellation through the foundation of confraternities has been linked by many historians of medieval Italy to the movement of 1260.1 But a spontaneous outburst of religious fervour does not in itself explain why a particular form of devotion should have been adopted either by the clergy or the laity. It does no more than reflect some of the themes of contemporary piety. One of the most important and relevant to the popularity of lay penitence was the emphasis on the incarnate life of Christ. This devotion helped to underline the central role of the mass in Christian practice, and in particular the significance of the celebration of the Eucharist as a visible reenactment of the Passion. In time, the recently introduced practice of the elevation of the host became the focal point of the ceremony; the laity frequently timed their arrival at church in order to ‘greet’ the body of the Saviour.
Charity in Fifteenth-Century Florence
Authors: Henderson John
Published: November 2023

Historians, following contemporary panegyrics, have depicted the Quattrocento as a golden age for Tuscan charity, inspired by a ‘new direction in Christian piety’. This growth in poor relief has been explained by the increased intervention of the commune and the expansion of charitable confraternities. The moral underpinning for the new ‘direction’ is seen as having stemmed from a combination of the civic humanism of the governing classes and the Observant reform movement of the friars. The leaders of Church and State are portrayed as having demonstrated a mutual concern for the health of the community, which led to a novel awareness of poverty as a social rather than a purely religious problem.
Latin Siege Warfare In The First Crusade
Authors: Rogers R
Published: November 2023

Some notable ingredients of the success of the First Crusade are manifest in that expedition’s siege warfare. Complex sieges were waged in circumstances made arduous by hostile field forces and limited logistical support. Not only did supply problems affect war materials, but on occasion the provisioning of foodstuffs especially to the indigent became an overriding concern. While these difficulties were inherent in the first mass movement of the Crusades, they were exacerbated by the crusaders’ ad hoc organization and occasional inability to agree on military and territorial objectives. Although these factors influenced many aspects of the armed pilgrimage, they brought particular complications to siege operations.
Birmingham to Leeds
Authors: Marrison Andrew
Published: November 2023

When Chamberlain delivered his famous speech at Birmingham on l 5 May l 903, he instantly converted Tariff Reform, which had for a quarter of a century been smouldering in a Britain beginning to lose confidence in her economic strength and supremacy, into a fiercely burning political issue. The result was the first major debate on an economic issue since the battle over the Corn Laws, and the first electoral contest on an economic issue in the new age of mass democracy. In this it can be represented as the most significant single step in the transition towards a twentieth-century politics dominated by continual conflict over economic policy. The economics of the Tariff Reform question were inherently complicated, especially when compounded by the imperial considerations which were integral to the political debate. This worked heavily in favour of the Free Traders, who had the tremendous advantage of defending the status quo. Free Trade had become an institution defended at many levels. At the lowest, which counted most in electoral terms, the Free Traders could invoke the image of a Christian defence of the poor man’s loaf, a tactic as old as the Free Trade movement itself.
The Chambers of Commerce and Tariff Reform, 1903-1913
Authors: Marrison Andrew
Published: November 2023

This chapter surveys the trend of opinion on the fiscal issue in the chambers of commerce before the First World War, and gives a clearer picture of the factors which influenced the formation of Tariff-Reform sentiment over time than has been possible so far. Detailed treatment is necessarily restricted to a narrow range of sources covering nine Chambers, but references to other Chambers in those sources, and the piecing together of the story of Tariff Reform in the twice-yearly meetings of the Associated Chambers of Commerce of the United Kingdom (ACCUK), enables a wider perspective. The surviving evidence has its limits, particularly due to the fact that Chambers were not one-trade. Since votes were almost never ascribed to individuals, it is usually impossible to discern interest- or industry-alignments within each Chamber: the examples of Macclesfield and Bradford below are very much the exceptions. Chambers generally had a mixed membership, in which merchants and accountants could count alongside the representatives of large, nationally known firms. This weakness of the evidence would not be overcome by a wider survey of Chambers than has been attempted here. On the other hand, study of Chambers of Commerce does allow an insight into fiscal attitudes in those small- and medium-sized firms which, though so characteristic of British industrial structure, are prone to be overlooked.
Interpreting The East German Dictatorship
Authors: Fulbrook Mary
Published: November 2023

On Wednesday, 21 September 1961, Sieglinde M., a sixth-form pupil in Anklam, Neubrandenburg, came to school wearing a black pullover. For this, she was expelled from school and forced to ‘work in production’. Sieglinde M. was not alone. The entire class 12b came to school on that day wearing black. This was precisely the problem, as far as the East German political leadership was concerned. Most teachers chose to ignore this surprising display of uniformity. But in a break between classes, one teacher asked the reason why the class was dressed in black.