bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Number System Of Mathematics
Authors: Courant Richard , Robbins Herbert
Published: November 2023

We must greatly extend the original concept of number as natural number in order to create an instrument powerful enough for the needs of practice and theory. In a long and hesitant evolution zero, negative integers, and fractions were gradually accepted on the same footing as the positive integers, and today the rules of operation with these numbers are mastered by the average school child. But to gain complete freedom in algebraic operations we must go further by including irrational and complex quantities in the number concept. Although these extensions of the concept of natural number have been in use for centuries and are at the basis of all modern mathematics it is only in recent times that they have been put on a logically sound basis. In the present chapter we shall give an account of this development.
Projective Geometry. Axiomatics. Non-Euclidean Geometries
Authors: Courant Richard , Robbins Herbert
Published: November 2023

Geometry deals with the properties of figures in the plane or in space. These properties are so numerous and so varied that some principle of classification is necessary to bring order into this wealth of knowledge. One might, for example, introduce a classification based on the method used in deriving the theorems. From this point of view a distinction iR usually made between the “synthetic” and the “analytic” procedures. The first of these is the classical axiomatic method of Euclid, in which the subject is built upon purely geometrical foundations independent of algebra and the concept of the number continuum, and in which the theorems are deduced by logical reasoning from an initial body of statements called axioms or postulates. The second method is based on the introduction of numerical coordinates, and uses the technique of algebra. This method has brought about a profound change in mathematical science, resulting in a unification of geometry, analysis and algebra into one organic system.
The Calculus
Authors: Courant Richard , Robbins Herbert
Published: November 2023

With an absurd oversimplification, the “invention” of the calculus is sometimes ascribed to two men, Newton and Leibniz. In reality, the calculus is the product of a long evolution that was neither initiated nor terminated by Newton and Leibniz, but in which both played a decisive part. Scattered over seventeenth century Europe, for the most part outside the schools, was a group of spirited scientists who strove to continue the mathematical work of Galileo and Kepler. By correspondence and travel these men maintained close contact. Two central problems held their attention. First, the problem of tangents: to determine the tangent lines to a given curve, the fundamental problem of the differential calculus. Second, the problem of quadrature: to determine the area within a given curve, the fundamental problem of the integral calculus. Newton’s and Leibniz’ great merit is to have clearly recognized the intimate connection between these two problems. In their hands the new unified methods became powerful instruments of science. Much of the success was due to the marvelous symbolic notation invented by Leibniz. His achievement is in no way diminished by the fact that it was linked with hazy and untenable ideas which are apt to perpetuate a lack of precise understanding in minds that prefer mysticism to clarity. Newton, by far the greater scientist, appears to have been mainly inspired by Barrow (1630-1677), his teacher and predecessor at Cambridge. Leibniz was more of an outsider. A brilliant lawyer, diplomat, and philosopher, one of the most active and versatile minds of his century, he learned the new mathematics in an incredibly short time from the physicist Huygens while visiting Paris on a diplomatic mission. Soon afterwards he published results that contain the nucleus of the modern calculus. Newton, whose discoveries had been made much earlier, was averse to publication.
Renaissance and Earth Science
Authors: Sigurdsson Haraidur
Published: November 2023

The beginning of the Renaissance marked the transition from centuries of intellectual domination of theology during the Middle Ages to a new era of human reason in the Western world. It thus delineates the shift away from divine science to natural science, and with it the first real progress of scientific thought since the time of classical Greece. After centuries of medievalism, a humanist revival began in Europe in the fifteenth century that helped widen mental horizons and paved the way for the coming of modern science.! European cities, growing and prosperous, were powered by an upsurge in trade, industry, and technological experimentation, which in turn led to the reawakening of science.
Baron Miinchausen in the Volcano
Authors: Sigurdsson Haraidur
Published: November 2023

Two notable geologic events occurred in the early part of the eighteenth century, events that were to strongly influence the thinking about the workings of the Earth. In 1707 a submarine eruption in the underwater caldera of Santorini (Thera) led to the emergence of a new volcanic island that continued to grow until 1712. And on November 1, 1755, a major earthquake shook all of western Europe and was felt in parts of Africa, the West Indies, and as far afield as the Great Lakes in North America. In Portugal, the city of Lisbon, closest to the Atlantic Ocean epicenter of the earthquake, experienced the loss of an estimated 30,000 to 60,000 lives and most of its large public buildings were destroyed. Both of these convulsions aroused intellectual curiosity and scientific inquiry about the astonishing power stored in the Earth.
The Transition to and fi-om High School of Ethnic Minority Sh1dents
Authors: Ginorio Angela B , Grignon Jeri
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we will explore how the high school experiences of ethnic minority students translate the statement “when I grow up I want to be a scientist/mathematician/engineer” into skills that make a college admission and a major in a science, mathematics, and engineering (SIVIE) field a possibility. Students enter high school in middle adolescence at either the ninth or tenth grade and leave high school as young adults three or four years later. By staying in high school, students are fulfilling the principal social duty of adolescents as it has been defined in Western culture: the acquisition of an education (Feldman and Elliot 1990).
Seeking the Healing Patient-Therapist Relationship
Authors: Beutler Larry E , Bongar Bruce , Shurkin Joel N
Published: November 2023

Patty P had just finished her master’s degree in chemistry from a prestigious New England university and had been accepted into a science journalism program in the Midwest. She was already beginning to pack, physically and mentally. Patty’s fiance, Howie, was attending a medical school in the South and Patty had dated other men while they were separated. She was ambivalent about Howie and her future with him, wondering why, after she had agreed to marry him, she was still attracted to-and even slept with-other men. With a new stage in her life beginning, and with too much self-doubt, she decided to seek help.
Historical Introduction
Authors: McDougall Ian , Harrison T Mark
Published: November 2023

Scientists have sought ways and means of determining the numerical age of the Earth and its constituent rocks since the study of geology along modern scientific lines began more than two centuries ago. In the latter half of the nineteenth century, there was a lively debate regarding the age of the Earth, which centered about William Thomson (later Lord Kelvin), a prominent British physicist. Kelvin adopted Fourier’s (1820) model of conductive heat flow from an initially molten earth, from which he concluded that the age of the Earth could not be too far in excess of 100 million years (Ma) (Thomson, 1863). He later reduced this estimate to between 20 and 40 Ma (Kelvin, 1899). Although many prominent geologists acceded to this outlook, several argued that the complexity of the geological record demanded a much longer time scale than Kelvin was advocating. However, other contemporary physicists (Perry, 1895a,b,c; Heaviside, 1899), using models incorporating the possibility of mantle convection, were able to accommodate time scales as great as 5 Ga (1Ga = 109 years). Detailed discussion of these debates is given in Burchfield (1975) and Hallam (1983).
Technical Aspects
Authors: McDougall Ian , Harrison T Mark
Published: November 2023

Measurement of 40Ar/39 Ar ages on geological samples requires the utilization of a wide range of methods and techniques. This chapter is primarily concerned with the more technical aspects of 40 Ar/ 39 Ar dating, with a concluding section on laser microprobes, together with examples of their application. The topics to be covered include sample preparation, irradiation of samples in a nuclear reactor, nuclear interferences, argon extraction procedures, and isotopic analysis of the argon. Several sections of this chapter deal with concepts drawn from the fields of nuclear physics and nuclear chemistry. In our treatment we have used the book by Friedlander et al. (1981), and also the volume by Harvey (1962), as sources for much of the back ground information.
40 Ar/39 Ar Thermochronology
Authors: McDougall Ian , Harrison T Mark
Published: November 2023

In the previous chapter we reviewed both the conceptual and mathematical foundations of diffusion in solids and showed that the Arrhenius relationship could be linked with solutions of the diffusion equation (for a constant D) to yield an expression that relates temperature and heating duration to the degree of argon loss [eq. (5.26)1 Although useful as an illustration of how knowledge of diffusion parameters can be used to extract thermal history information from a disturbed isotopic system, the underlying assumptions inherent in this equation (i.e., a heating episode of constant temperature and short duration relative to the time of argon accumulation) restrict its geological application to rather few circumstances.
Modeling of the Atomic Potential in Hot Plasmas
Authors: Salzmann David
Published: November 2023

To get a full picture of the interactions of an ion immersed in a hot plasma with all the other plasma particles, one should in principle solve 1023 coupled Schrodinger equations with 1023 unknown wavefunctions. This is certainly beyond the capacity of present-day computers, so one needs the help of various models, which approximate the plasma influence on the ionic potential.
Line Broadening
Authors: Salzmann David
Published: November 2023

The width of spectral lines emitted from astrophysical and laboratory plasmas is an extremely valuable diagnostic tool for the study of the plasma conditions surrounding the emitting ion. The line width is a parameter that is very sensitive to the local microfield around the emitting ions, and can be used, therefore, to provide information about the local temperature and density conditions that cannot be obtained by other diagnostic means.
Applications
Authors: Salzmann David
Published: November 2023

This final chapter is devoted to a short review of the potential applications of radiation from hot plasmas for commercial purposes. X-rays emitted from hot plasmas have remarkable advantages over the use of visible light in several applications. In particular, the short wavelength, which is capable of providing orders of magnitude better spatial resolution than visible rays, is of paramount importance in several industrial and high-tech applications. The conversion efficiency of visible into x-ray intensity in laser-produced plasmas may attain several tens percent, thereby providing an x-ray source in the range of 109-1010 watts, which is equivalent to a few joules in ∼ 10-9 s. This is a very high radiant intensity that may have industrial or high-tech applications.
Philosophical Preconceptions
Authors: Savage-Rumbaugh Sue , Shanker Stuart G , Taylor Talbot J
Published: November 2023

In the previous chapter, Savage-Rumbaugh makes a strong case for the claim that Kanzi’ s communicational skills are not observably different from that of the two- and-a-half-year-old human child named Alia. This claim-like virtually all those attributing a linguistic skill to a nonhuman primate-has not been generally accepted in the scientific community. Indeed, it has been derisively rejected by some of the leading linguists and cognitive scientists of the day (see New York Times, June 1995). Critics of Ape Language Research (ALR), including Pinker (1994) and Wallman (1992), insist that no ape has ever developed truly linguistic skills, and that even the skills that Kanzi has manifested are more accurately termed “performative” and “effective,” but certainly not “linguistic.”
Benefits and Burdens
Authors: Baron Jonathan
Published: November 2023

Most national politics is about fairness in distributing benefits and burdens. Who should be rich? Who poor? How poor should we allow the poor to be? Who should be punished for what? How much? Who should be compensated, by who, for what injuries? More specifically, is medical care a right? If so, how much care? Should we compensate people who become sick from pollution? Who should pay for the compensation? Should we compensate people when their property loses value because it is declared a protected wetland? Should we punish people for crimes when they themselves were the victims of criminal abuse? These issues may seem disparate, but they are all related.
Risk
Authors: Baron Jonathan
Published: November 2023

Risk makes decisions difficult just because, by the nature of risk, the outcome is uncertain. When patients decide whether to have risky surgery, for example, they like to think that there is a right answer to whether they should have it or not. But, in a sense, the real answer will come after the surgery is performed and we know whether it succeeded or failed. The same with investments, or, more to the point here, governmental decisions about permitting new technologies or regulating old ones. When a spaceship blows up or a new wonder drug turns out to have awful side effects, it is easy to say that someone made a mistake. If, however, we knew what the decision maker knew, we might agree with the decision.
What is to Be Done?
Authors: Baron Jonathan
Published: November 2023

People often make decisions about public issues on the basis of their intuitions rather than on the basis of expected future effects, and they are often overconfident in the correctness of these intuitions. These problems distort public policy so that, in the end, we have less good and more harm than the limits of nature would otherwise allow. These problems are greatest in the case of our moral intuitions. When we act on these, we typically affect other people more than ourselves. Because of this, we do not have the same opportunity to learn from experience as we do when we make more self-interested decisions. We do not experience the effects of participating in a demonstration or writing our representative in the same way that we experience the effects of buying a box of breakfast cereal or a bottle of beer. Our moral intuitions are thus less attached to reality than are our intuitions about most other things.
Concrete Corridors
Authors: Cunningham Carol , Berger Joel
Published: November 2023

Having finally begun to understand something about rhinos, we debated the merits and pitfalls of making management suggestions. Actually Joel mulled it over. I was his sounding board. We now were sure there was sentiment against us and our project. One ministry officer had accused us of shooting guns indiscriminately, even though the only shots ever fired had been when I was charged and treed by a rhino the year before. JB had never even carried a gun in the desert. Still, the accusation echoed through the ministry. Rumors grew. Because we weren’t seen often, people claimed we rarely worked, or that we sat in chic cafes in Swakopmund on the coast. We couldn’t answer the gossip, short of sending out a weekly newsletter, so we tried to ignore it, focusing instead on logistics and rhino biology. We had thought that although dehorning was controversial, Malan had welcomed our proposal, and we had support. But now we inched toward thorny political ground.
Rhino Rhetoric
Authors: Cunningham Carol , Berger Joel
Published: November 2023

January snow blanketed northern Nevada as we prepared for a fourth field season. Despite sunny blue skies, high temperatures hovered near 20°F. We visited physicians, dentists, and accountants, and each day stacked supplies in our living room. We also bought last-minute items for Namibian friends-gun parts, a camera, a day pack and tent for Archie, a book on elephant lore for Malan. But there was still no one to housesit or care for the dogs. Airlines in the United States, Europe, and South Africa had yet to decide on charges for our excess baggage. Even getting to Los Angeles International Airport would be difficult because of the massive freeway destruction from the devastating earthquake only a week earlier. One thing kept worrying us-the six-month silence from Namibian officials.
Genetics Of Maternal And Paternal Effects
Authors: Byers Ruth G Shaw & Diane L
Published: November 2023

The evolution of any adaptation depends primarily on additive genetic variation in the traits involved and on selection (Falconer and Mackay 1996). Thus, the adaptive nature of effects of maternal and paternal parents on their progeny involves the genetic determination of parental effects. It has long been recognized that maternal effects, in particular, may be genetically variable and hence may evolve and contribute to selection response (e.g., Eisen 1967; Van Vleck 1970, 1976). Yet consideration of maternal effects has often emphasized two possible consequences in relation to selection. (1) Environmentally induced maternal effects are typically confounded with genetic effects and may lead to overestimates of direct additive genetic variance (1/4; i.e., additive genetic variance attributable to variation in genotype of the individuals expressing the trait), and thus to erroneous prediction of rapid selection response (e.g., Mitchell Olds and Rutledge 1986). (2) Maternal effects arising from environmental variation may impede response to selection by obscuring additive genetic effects (e.g., Stratton 1989). Kirkpatrick and Lande (1989, 1992; see also Lande and Kirkpatrick 1990) presented an approach to account for maternal effects in predicting selection responses, but this work treated as fixed the relationship between offspring traits and maternal traits and therefore does not account for evolutionary change in a maternal effect.
Maternal Effects As Adaptations For Transgenerational Phenotypic Plasticity In Insects
Authors: Mousseau Charles W Fox & Timothy A
Published: November 2023

In nature, organisms live in spatially and temporally variable environments, environments that vary in abiotic conditions, resource availability, resource quality, social interactions, and numerous other characteristics across both time and space. Variation in selection resulting from this environmental variation generally results in the maintenance of genetic variation within populations, the evolution of polymorphisms, and possibly even speciation. Flexibility of ecologically important behavioral, morphological, and life history traits (phenotypic plasticity), induced by environmental cues, also frequently evolves in response to a variable environment (Via 1993). Examples of phenotypic plasticity abound in nature, and there is general agreement that many of these examples are adaptive.
A
Authors: Sacks David
Published: November 2023

Abdera Important Greek city on the north Aegean coast in the non-Greek region known as THRACE. Located on a coastal plain near the mouth of the River Nestos, Abdera served as a depot for TRADE with local Thracian tribesmen and as an anchorage on the shipping route between mainland Greece and the HELLESPONT. After a failed beginning in the 600s s.c. due to Thracian attacks, Abdera was reestablished by Greek colonists circa 544 B.c. These settlers came from Teos-a city in the Greek region of western ASIA MINOR called IONIA-which they had abandoned to the conquering Persians under King CYRUS (1). Among the Tean settlers was a young man, ANACREON, destined to become the most famous lyric poet of his day.
O
Authors: Sacks David
Published: November 2023

Oceanus In MYTH, Okeanos was a river that encircles the world and serves as the underground source for all earthly rivers. The poet HESIOD described the river god Oceanus as one of the primeval offspring of Uranus (Greek: Ouranos, “Sky”) and GAEA (Mother Earth). Oceanus and his wife, Tethys, produced the 3,000 Oceanids, the “daughters of Oceanus.” These Oceanids were NYMPHS inhabiting bodies of water and other wilderness sites. In HOMER’S Iliad and Odyssey, Oceanus was associated with the far West; there he flowed past shores inhabited by such fabulous creatures as MEDUSA, Geryon, and the Hesperides.
X
Authors: Sacks David
Published: November 2023

Xanthippus Athenian soldier and politician who lived circa 525-475 B.C. and was active in the PERSIAN WARS.

Xanthippus (Yellow Horse) was born to an aristocratic fainily at ATHENS. In the days after CLEISTHENEs’ (1) democratic reforms (508 B.c.), Xanthippus began his political career by marrying Cleisthenes’ niece Agariste. Uncle and niece both belonged to the noble and ambitious Alcmaeonid clan. Agariste and Xanthippus had three children, the youngest of whom was the future left-wing leader PERICLES, born in 494 B.C.
A Catalog of Business Virtues
Authors: Solomon Robert C
Published: November 2023

In Chinese philosophy, the word for “virtue” (Chinese: Te) is sometimes translated as “potency.” It is an apt image because a virtue is a kind of power. It is one’s potential. It is that which enables us to become who we really are. But who we are depends upon the roles we play in life, and the virtues that count the most are those that help us along our way (Chinese: Tao). In business, “the way’’ involves such activities as exchanging goods and services, making money, and dealing with other people’s needs and demands. Consequently, business has built into it such notions as mutual agreement and the expectation of honest dealing and fair exchange. Thus we might identify the three most basic business virtues: honesty, fairness, and trustworthiness. These are the virtues that empower, that make business possible. There can be no business arrangement, no business society, that does not presuppose these. Peter Drucker, in his classic tome Management, says that the one essential feature of a good manager is integrity. But integrity, as we have seen, is not a single feature nor a single virtue but an encapsulation, the unity of virtues. And of those virtues, we would do well to highlight honesty, fairness, and trustworthiness.
Affect, Memory, and Social Cognition
Authors: Bower Gordon H , Forgas Joseph P
Published: November 2023

Since time immemorial, philosophers, writers, and artists have sought to under stand how and why our feelings and emotions come to influence our memories, thoughts, and judgments. Indeed, clarifying the relationship between such basic mental faculties as affect, cognition, and conation remains a perennial goal in psychology (Hilgard, 1980). Surprisingly, most psychological research in this century proceeded on the implicit assumption that affect, cognition, and conation can be studied as separate, independent features of the human mind. Of the two paradigms that have dominated our discipline so far, neither behaviorism nor cognitivism have traditionally paid much attention to the study of affect.

Early work exploring the links between affect and cognition relied either on psychoanalytic principles such as projection (Feshbach & Singer, 1957) or on conditioning theories (Clore & Byrne, 1974; Griffitt, 1970) to account for the apparent infusion of affectively valenced material into our memories, thoughts, and judgments. During the past decade or so, interest in the role of affect in cognition and behavior has increased dramatically. Contemporary theories are predominantly based on cognitive principles to explain affect infusion (Bower, 1981, 1991; Clore, Schwarz, & Conway, 1994; Fiedler, 1990,1991; Forgas, 1992b, 1995a, 1998a, 1998b, 1998c, Kruglanski, 1989). In this chapter, we discuss some of the influences of affective states on cognitive processes, especially those involved in memory and judgment.
Progressives
Authors: Noble Charles
Published: November 2023

The transition from agriculture to industry, and from small-scale commercial enterprise to large-scale, corporate capitalism transformed the West in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Everywhere, reform movements emerged demanding that government tame these new social and economic forces. In the United States, Progressive reformers called for a variety of new institutions and policies. But class and state combined to erect insurmountable barriers to European-style welfare-state building in the United States.
Backlash
Authors: Noble Charles
Published: November 2023

Just as they have constrained reformers who have wanted to build a more generous welfare state, class, state, and race have shaped efforts to roll back what liberals accomplished in the 1930s and 1960s. To date, conservatives have launched three major campaigns to cut public provision: the first was led by President Richard Nixon in the late 1960s and early 1970s, the second by President Ronald Reagan in the early 1980s, and the third by Speaker of the House Newt Gingrich after the 1994 midterm elections. In each case, the same political and institutional factors that determined the trajectory taken by reform influenced the politics of retrenchment.
Introduction: Enter the Internet
Authors: Davis Richard
Published: November 2023

On July 17, 1996, an explosion rocked TWA’s Flight 800 shortly after it departed from JFK airport. The plane plummeted to the earth in pieces. Months later, after extensive search operations and testing by various governmental organizations, the mystery of what downed the Paris-bound flight remained. Nearly four months later, Pierre Salinger, former Kennedy White House press secretary and ABC News reporter, announced that he had solved the puzzle. Using a document he had obtained from a French intelligence source, Salinger announced that the U.S. government had covered up an accidental shooting down of the plane by a Navy ship in training exercises.
Surfing for News
Authors: Davis Richard
Published: November 2023

Imagine sitting in front of your wall-screen television in 2001 and seeing a news story about a fire swept out of control by the Santa Ana winds in southern California. Using your voice recognition TV response system, you ask for more video about the fires, which instantly comes up. But, acting as an assignment editor, you ask for information about the estimated cost of battling the fire, the communities affected, and the number of similar fires in the area in the past twenty years Your response is processed in a central news bureau, which receives similar questions from more than two thousand viewers. The bureau assigns a reporter to the story you have re­ quested, and the next day that story is transmitted to your digital video recorder for later viewing.1
Electronic Lobbying
Authors: Davis Richard
Published: November 2023

On March 26, 1997, police officers found 39 bodies in a rented southern California mansion, the remains of a joint suicide by a strange religious organization, the Heaven’s Gate group. Their mass suicide prompted saturation media coverage of the group’s doctrine and practices. However, when the group’s Internet site was found, public concern deepened. Not only were group members bent on killing themselves, but they sought to use the Web to justify their actions and even recruit others. Though the Web has been linked to the wake of other gruesome events-the Oklahoma City bombing, the TWA 800 explosion, the death of Princess Diana-that discovery symbolized the Net’s communication potential for new or nontraditional groups.
www.gov
Authors: Davis Richard
Published: November 2023

Direct democracy has no place for mediating institutions. The ancient Athenians gathered to listen, debate, and decide policy for the city-state. In a more modern setting, New England town meetings feature common residents of small communities gathering in town halls, fire stations, or school auditoriums to vote directly on town policies and expenditures. Yet, this kind of democracy has faced insurmountable obstacles when applied to large communities. How can the citizens of a major metropolitan area, much less the United States as a whole, gather together to discuss and vote on policy? That was considered impossible, apparently, until now.
Belowground Biology and Processes
Authors: Rice Charles W , Todd Timothy C , Blair John M , Seastedt Timothy R , Ramundo Rosemary A , Wilson Gail W T
Published: November 2023

A large proportion of the net primary productivity in grassland ecosystems is allocated belowground, and much of the C fixed by plants is processed by heterotrophic soil organisms (Elliott et al. 1988). This pattern of C allocation and processing by the soil biota leads to the accumulation of the large stores of soil organic matter and nutrients characteristic of the grasslands of the central United States. Soils of tallgrass prairie, in particular, are characterized by high belowground productivity and biomass, large accumulations of organic matter and nutrients, and a large and diverse assemblage of soil biota (Chapters 1, 4, this volume). Although soil processes involved in the cycling of nutrients are discussed in Chapter 13 (this volume), this chapter focuses on belowground productivity, soil biota, and the processing and storage of soil C, with emphasis on some key factors influencing belowground populations and processes. A conceptual model oftallgrass prairie ecosystem function (Fig. 14.1) illustrates the interconnectedness of above- and belowground processes in these ecosystems, as well as the importance of the soil biota in affecting the flow of energy (C) and nutrients through soil.
Climate Change, Elevated CO2, and Predictive Modeling Past and Future Climate Change Scenarios for the Tai/grass Prairie
Authors: Seastedt Timothy R , Hayden Bruce P , Owensby Clenton E , Knapp Alan K
Published: November 2023

Understanding the response of tallgrass prairie to natural and anthropogenic changes in climate requires the same hierarchical perspective used to study prairie responses to fire and grazing. Changes in the physical and chemical environment are expressed at the physiological level of the organism. However, these physiological responses may not be expressed at the community level because they can be masked or obscured by biotic interactions such as competition and predation. These community interactions are themselves constrained by soil characteristics and natural variation in climate, storms, and other events, as described earlier (Chapter 1, this volume). Therefore, extrapolations of responses of the tallgrass biota observed from microcosm, greenhouse, or small plot studies must be treated with some healthy skepticism. In similar fashion, extrapolations from validated simulation models also must be viewed with caution. At most these products are testable predictions of complex hypotheses, and failures of such models (rather than successes, which may be spurious) are likely to provide the greatest potential for insights into key processes controlling the structure and function of the grassland.
Assessment of Spatial Uncertainty
Authors: Goovaerts Pierre
Published: November 2023

The multiGaussian and indicator-based algorithms introduced in Chapter 7 provide only models of local uncertainty in that each conditional cdf is specific to one single location. Most applications require a measure of the joint uncertainty about attribute values at several locations taken together, for example, the probability of occurrence of a string of large or small values. Such spatial uncertainty is modeled by generating multiple realizations of the joint distribution of attribute values in space, a process ltnown as stochastic simulation. Then, transfer functions, such as flow simulators, can be applied to the set of alternative representations, yielding a distribution of response values, such as the time for a fluid to travel from one location to another, used in subsequent risk analysis.
The Origins of Different Committee Styles
Authors: Rosenthal Cindy Simon
Published: November 2023

Jane Maroney and Liane Sorenson were once seatmates in the Delaware House of Representatives, and they now chair important legislative committees. But their legislative careers are hardly carbon copies. For one thing, Jane Maroney was first elected in 1978 and Liane Sorenson won her first election in 1992. Much like bookends, the careers of Jane Maroney and Liane Sorenson mark how much and how little things have changed over three decades for women in legislatures. They do share the characteristics of older age when first elected, family background, and community commitments that define the legislative careers of women committee chairs generally and are associated with integrative leadership styles. These characteristics also represent the differences that distinguish the careers of women and men committee chairs and create social distance among presumed equals.
Ohio: Gender Power in a Time of Leadership Transition
Authors: Rosenthal Cindy Simon
Published: November 2023

On February 22, 1995, Senator Merle Kearns was presiding over one of her first meetings as chair of the Human Services and Aging Committee. A standing-room-only crowd was on hand to hear a bill dealing with child custody and parental responsibilities in cases of divorce. As Senator Grace Drake began a line of questioning with the sponsor, she abruptly stopped to ask Senator Kearns what title she preferred in her new role. “Do you want to be called ‘Madame Chairwoman,’ ‘Madame Chairman’ or what?” Senator Drake, who up until then had been the only woman chairing a Senate committee, added: “Personally, I have always preferred ‘Madame Chairman.”‘ Senator Kearns responded, “Whatever works.” An almost identical question was posed by a male lawmaker a day earlier to Representative Cheryl Winkler, the new chair of the House Family Services Committee. Her preferred title is “Madame Chairperson.” The two events are not merely incidents of self-conscious “political correctness.” They reflect the transitional stage at which female committee chairs in Ohio find themselves. Unlike the few women chairs in Oklahoma, who are largely defined by their token status, institutional practices, and political culture, Ohio women are defining roles for themselves during a period of institutional change and leadership transition. Because Ohio women are still relatively few in number and new to leadership positions, however, their long-term imprint on leadership practices seems less certain than that of women chairs in other states. But their impact has thus far been considerable because of real power rather than numbers.
Colorado: Defining the Standards of Leadership
Authors: Rosenthal Cindy Simon
Published: November 2023

In the Colorado Senate chambers, seven stained glass windows hold the faces of the state’s leaders from days gone by. From five of the windows, the images of mustachioed men peer somberly down: John Routt, the last territorial governor and the first state governor; two U.S. senators, Charles Hughes and Edward Wolcott; and two men of industry, David Moffat, whose famed railroad tunnel provided transportation and water to the Queen City of the plains, and Samuel Nicholson, whose mining technology revolutionized gold and silver exploration in the Rocky Mountains. The other two windows are of women. One window contains the picture of Virginia Neal Blue, state treasurer from 1966 to 1970 and the first woman elected to a statewide office. The most recent addition to this pantheon of notables is Ruth Stockton, who served twenty-three years (196i-1984) in the General Assembly and became one of the most powerful women in the state as the first female chair of the Joint Budget Committee (JBC) (1975-1980) and the first female Senate President Pro Tern (1979-1980). Senator Stockton’s window speaks volumes about what distinguishes the Colorado General Assembly from other state legislatures. While other states struggle to elect women legislators and every woman is in some way a first, Colorado women have established themselves not only as powerful players but as part of the basic furnishings of the legislature.
Interesting Numbers
Authors: Benson Donald C
Published: November 2023

Mathematics has no privileged road to the truth. However, there are modes of reasoning that are seldom seen outside of mathematics. Shortly we will encounter one of these methods: proof by contradiction.However, this method is not as exotic as one might think; in fact, it is the mathematical equivalent of the process of elimination,a favorite device of Sherlock Holmes.
Native Atnerican
Authors: Leeming David , Page Jake
Published: November 2023

Jeroes abound in Native American myth and legend, but the majority of these fall into the culture hero category and must therefore also be considered gods in some sense. Figures such as Raven and Coyote, stories about whom we treated earlier, are tricksters known not only for their humorous and amoral escapades but for their role in creation and in bringing knowledge to their people.
The Role of Perception in Development beyond Infancy
Authors: Gibson Eleanor J , Pick Anne D
Published: November 2023

Perception always has a role in development, as well as in ongoing behavior, because perceiving is the way we keep in touch with the world and what is going on around us. Perception never stops; it provides the information for ongo ing actions (even just sitting or standing), for planning, and for developing concepts and reasoning. It may be that the role of cognitive processes such as imagining and reasoning increases developmentally in proportion to one’s get ting information directly from ongoing events (we certainly make educational efforts to encourage them). Of course, what we learn verbally increases enormously as spoken, and then written, language is acquired. Does that mean that perceptual development ceases, or at least slows down, after infancy?

Our answer is no. Potential new affordances never stop becoming available, nor do people of any age stop learning to perceive them. We have seen that as reaching, handling, and locomotion develop, encounters with the environment broaden and potential affordances multiply. New opportunities don’t stop with physical growth, they increase. The nervous system develops, as well as stature and muscles. Increasing experience provides a backlog of knowledge that breeds new opportunities. Environments change from home to school to scenes outside both, imposing new demands that lead to learning about new affordances.
The Study of Emotion from the Perspective of Cognitive Neuroscience
Authors: Lane Richard D , Nadel Lynn , Allen John J B , Kaszniak Alfred W
Published: November 2023

This book’s title, and the conference upon which it was based, reflect the view within the cognitive neuroscience community at the University of Arizona that the role of cognition in emotion is an important area to pursue. The contributions in this volume were solicited with this theme in mind.
Emotional Experience: A Neurological Model
Authors: Heilman Kenneth M
Published: November 2023

Cannon (1927) noted that emotions are primarily adaptive. They help prepare the organism to deal with important events. Emotions are also one of the strongest motivating forces that direct human behavior. The adaptive and motivational aspects of emotions help ensure the survival of an organism, its family, and society.
Neural Correlates of Conscious Emotional Experience
Authors: Lane Richard D
Published: November 2023

It is now well established that people can display emotional behavior in the absence of concomitant conscious emotional experience (Öhman et al., this volume). This is one example of the known dissociations that have been observed among the experiential, expressive, and evaluative components of emotion (Lang, 1993b). These dissociations raise fundamental questions about what emotion is and why such dissociations occur. One of the key fundamental questions is whether conscious experience is a necessary component of emotion.
The Functional Neuroanatomy of Affective Style
Authors: Davidson Richard J
Published: November 2023

This chapter focuses on two ubiquitous features of emotion. First is the fact that emotion is valenced, with positive and negative representing a fundamental dimension along which emotion is organized. This dimension is present in virtually all systems that have been developed to classify emotion and motivation, ranging from comparative accounts that address phylogenetic origins (Shnierla, 1959) to studies of semantic structure (Osgood, 1957). The second feature of emotion that forms the core of this chapter is the striking nature of the variability among individuals in the valence and intensity of their emotional reactions to a challenging event. I have used the phrase “affective style” to refer to the broad rubric of characteristics along which individuals might differ in their reactivity to emotionally provocative events (Davidson, 1992). Differences among people in affective style appear to be associated with temperament (Kagan et al., 1988), personality (Gross et al., 1998), and vulnerability to psychopathology (Meehl, 1975). Moreover, such differences are not a unique human attribute, but appear to be present in a number of different species including rodents and nonhuman primates (e.g., Davidson et al., 1993; Kalin, 1993).
Principles of Sustainable Technology Transfer
Authors: Harris Eva
Published: November 2023

A Low-Cost Methodology New technologies are often perceived as too sophisticated and expensive for implementation in situations of limited resources. However, there are many ways to adapt technology to make it low-cost and more accessible. Designing or modifying equipment to suit conditions is one approach; the use of alternative, simpler techniques in place of more sophisticated, expensive ones is another. Other methods include simplification of protocols, in-house preparation of reagents, recycling, and appropriate use of donated materials. Each of these will be discussed in detail below. Adapting equipment, streamlining protocols, and recycling materials not only make new technologies economically feasible and environmentally friendlier but also create a more sustainable base for their long-term implementation.
Counseling Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Youths
Authors: Ryan Caitlin
Published: November 2023

During the past 15 years, a growing body of literature has explored the experiences of lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) youths. Little research to date has been conducted on developing a bisexual identity during adolescence1 (Ryan & Futterman, 1998; Savin-Williams, 1995), so while the literature may refer to lesbian, gay, and bisexual youths, much of the research has been conducted on gay male youths and less frequently on lesbian youths. Since the mid-1980s, information has increased substantially on identity development and coming out, family interactions, HIV prevention, victimization, suicide, and risk behaviors. But with few exceptions, counseling and clinical care have not kept pace with the rapidly changing experiences of today’s generation of LGB youths.
“The Armstrong Story”
Authors: Armstrong Louis
Published: November 2023

This document, now housed in the Louis Armstrong House and Archives at Queens College/CUNY, overlaps slightly with the conclusion of Armstrong’s published autobiography of 1954, Satchmo: My Life in New Orleans. The present document begins and ends in mid-sentence; it is published here in its entirety. In the Appendix, I describe the relationships between Satchmo: My Life in New Orleans, the complete typescript for that book (a copy of which is now at the Institute of Jazz Studies, Rutgers University}, and the present document. The present document covers Armstrong’s experiences in Chicago, from his arrival in August 1922 through 1924, including his marriage to Lil Hardin, which took place February 5, 1924. There are also digressions to earlier events in New Orleans and on the Streckfus riverboat.
“The Satchmo Story” (Early 1959)
Authors: Armstrong Louis
Published: November 2023

Armstrong titles this document “The Satchmo Story, 2nd Edition.” This can only mean that he wrote it as a sequel to Satchmo: My Life in New Orleans, published in 1954; the forthcoming sequel was announced at the time of publication. Gary Giddins (1988: 16) discusses Joe Glaser’s decision to break off Satchmo: My Life in New Orleans with Arm strong’s arrival in Chicago, as well as the suppression of subsequent material that dealt with marijuana. According to Giddins, Armstrong read parts of the sequel to friends, doubling them up with laughter in reaction to his claims for the medicinal value of ma rijuana. Giddins thought the book had been lost. But the present document, held at the Louis Armstrong House and Archives at Queens College/CUNY, is surely the beginnings of it. Armstrong says, at one point: “This whole second book might be about nothing but gage”-”gage” being slang for marijuana.
The Value of Trees
Authors: Hartman John R , Pirone Thomas P , Sall Mary Ann
Published: November 2023

Almost everyone likes trees for one reason or another. They provide cool shade during hot summer days, and whether in the yard or the park, they offer a serene setting to relieve the tensions of modern life. They add to the beauty and value of property. The splendor of a springtime floral display and the pageantry of autumn coloration make trees a delight to the eyes (Fig. 1-1). Even in winter, tree crown silhouettes and textured bark details provide enjoyment (Fig. 1-2). Trees evoke sentiment perhaps because Grandpa planted them when he and Grandma moved into the neighbourhood many years before or because some historic event took place beneath their boughs. No matter what the reason-aesthetic, financial, or sentimental-a tree is a sound investment.
The Soil and Its Relation to Trees
Authors: Hartman John R , Pirone Thomas P , Sall Mary Ann
Published: November 2023

No book on the maintenance of shade and ornamental trees would be complete without some discussion of that important natural body, the soil. Usually considered by the layman to be an inert mass, soil is actually a dynamic entity in which physical, chemical, and biological changes are constantly occurring. A detailed treatment of these changes is beyond the scope of this book, but a brief presentation of the more important ones, particularly as they relate to trees, is essential.
Factors Important for Tree Selection
Authors: Hartman John R , Pirone Thomas P , Sall Mary Ann
Published: November 2023

Tree species vary greatly in their ability to grow in different environments. The selection of an appropriate tree for a specific site requires consideration of the characteristics of the site, the adaptation of tree species to these characteristics, the function of the tree in the landscape, and its availability.
Fertilizers and Their Use
Authors: Hartman John R , Pirone Thomas P , Sall Mary Ann
Published: November 2023

Woodland trees thrive despite the absence of artificial fertilization, but many of our shade and ornamental trees do not grow in such a favorable environment. Under forest conditions, decayed leaves and dead plants replace mineral elements (referred to here as nutrient elements, or nutrients) taken up by living plants. However, in urban settings, leaves and lawn clippings are usually raked up and removed. The soils near buildings are often disturbed by construction activities, causing the loss of topsoil, compaction, and the presence of clay subsoil within the rooting zone. Turfgrass competes with trees for nutrients and water, and pavement frequently covers all or part of root systems.