bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
CORPORATE CULTURE: THE LAST FRONTIER OF CONTROL?[1]
Authors: Ray Carol Axtell
Published: May 2007

The purpose of this paper is to examine the present U.S. use of the concept of ‘corporate culture’ using the sociology of Emile Durkheim as a conceptual framework. Durkheim was concerned with understanding where potential sources of morality might reside in a rapidly changing, increasingly differentiated society. Proponents of corporate culture do not rely specifically on Durkheim's work but essentially answer his question by suggesting that the corporation is the appropriate site for moral order. In this paper it is argued that the attempted manipulation of a corporation's culture is simply an addition to other forms of control which companies have tried to implement. More than other forms of control, however, corporate culture elicits sentiment and emotion, and contains possibilities to ensnare workers in a hegemonic system. On the other hand, strengthening corporate cultures in the U.S.A may also lead to increased worker homogenization and activism.
THE STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT OF TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS: A REVIEW AND A MODEL
Authors: Shrivastava Paul , Souder William E.
Published: May 2007

This paper describes a research model which can guide empirical studies of technological innovation in business organizations. The focus of the model is the strategic management of new product development processes. Variables that affect the success or failure of these processes are identified and several research hypotheses are suggested for empirical examination.
THE ADMINISTRATIVE COMPONENT OF ORGANIZATIONS AND THE RATCHET EFFECT: A CRITIQUE OF CROSS‐SECTIONAL STUDIES
Authors: Montanari John R. , Adelman Philip J.
Published: May 2007

When growth and decline are examined with regard to the administrative component of organizations, an apparent dichotomy exists between crosssectional designs and within organization longitudinal studies. The results of longitudinal studes indicate the existence of a ratcheting effect of the administtrative component which cannot be explanined by the size construct alone. Therefore, an analysis of the ratchet effect is presented and a conceptual model of factors influencing the growth and decline of the administrative component is propsed.
Corporate Control Type, Strategy, Size and Financial Performance[1]
Authors: Hill Charles W. L.
Published: May 2007

A cluster analysis of questionnaire data is used to classify a sample of 156 large United Kingdom firms according to their internal control type. Interactions between the control types identified, strategy and size, are hypothesized to have an impact upon financial performance. Testing these hypotheses raises a number of issues concerning the appropriateness of recommended strategy‐structure fits.
SPECIALIZATION AS A MULTIDIMENSIONAL CONSTRUCT
Authors: Carter Nancy M. , Keon Thomas L.
Published: May 2007

ABSTRATC

Specialization as an organizational level construct has received little conceptual or operational advancement since the early 1960s. Several facets of both task and person specialization are identified as part of an argument for extending the current view of specialization. The theoretical implications of this extension with regard to technology, control and organizational life cycle are proposed.
FLEXIBLE MANPOWER RESOURCING: A LOCAL LABOUR MARKET SURVEY
Authors: Sloane P. J.
Published: May 2007

This article presents the results of an establishment level investigation carried out late in 1986 and early in 1987 of the extent of flexible manpower resourcing in the Aberdeen local labour market. It is necessary to place these results in the context of the general background of an increasing interest in flexible manning and of certain theoretical developments in labour and industrial economics. The results suggest that whilst a variety of means are used to attain flexibility in manning, few establishments can be regarded as truly ‘flexible firms’ and manpower strategies tend to be largely reactive and ad hoc.
CONVERGENT DYNAMICS IN THE PRODUCTION OF ORGANIZATIONAL CONFIGURATIONS*
Authors: Fombrun Charles J.
Published: May 2007

Organization theory lacks an adequate accounting for the processes that produce distinct structural configurations. This article interprets organization structure as an instantaneous correspondence between three analytical levels that simultaneously constrain and stimulate behaviour: infrastructure, sociostructure, and superstructure. Structuring results from a process of convergence across levels that produces distinct configurations and provides observers with a living record of the organization's historical development. This article explores the dynamics of convergence through a comparative case study of two organizations in the publishing industry. Both firms developed into stable structural configurations that were uniquely produced from historically specific accommodations.
BASES OF INTERORGANIZATION CO‐OPERATION: PROPENSITY, POWER, PERSISTENCE*
Authors: Harrigan Kathryn Rudie , Newman William H.
Published: May 2007

Co‐operation may enable organizations to attain ends that they cannot achieve alone. However, the co‐operating partners must have an unusual mix of (1) propensity, (2) power, and (3) persistence. Joint ventures are used in this article to elucidate these critical elements in the relationship.
THE ‘TEXTURE’ OF ORGANIZING
Authors: Cooper Robert , Fox Stephen
Published: May 2007

The article briefly introduces the concept of ‘texture’ and indicates its role in the organizing process. The history of texture and related ideas in the field of organizational studies is summarized. Texture itself is viewed analogically as a weave or web of interacting elements that resists operational definition. It is a tacit quality of the field of social action that, by definition, must remain beyond the grasp of explicit statement. Some implications of the ‘logic’ of texture are discussed briefly in relation to the understanding of ‘instrumental action’ in organizations as well as rethinking the ‘organization‐environment’ problem in terms of ‘contextures’.
IDENTIFYING FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE PRODUCT INNOVATION: A CASE STUDY APPROACH
Authors: Romano Claudio A.
Published: May 2007

This article provides an analysis of factors affecting the level of product innovation in a small enterprise setting. The perspective chosen considers the interaction of management and environmental factors and its impact on product innovation and explores how these factors interrelate to influence small business success (growth). A causal multi‐site model is developed which will assist in identifying product innovation determinants for high‐growth and low‐growth firms. Moreover, direct and secondary explanations of product innovations will be isolated. Twelve case studies will be examined. The conclusions are that, for high‐growth firms, determinants of product innovation that influenced small‐business success (growth) were technology, competitive edge, research and development, product life‐cycle, market change, product/market mix and customer base. For low‐growth firms, customer base was a major determinant of product innovation which influenced small‐business success (growth).
Assessing Mobility Barriers In Dynamic Strategic Groups Analysis
Authors: Sudharshan D. , Thomas Howard , Fiegenbaum Avi
Published: May 2007

The Mobility Barriers Paradigm (Caves and Porter, 1977) has strongly influenced research in strategic management, particularly in the areas of competitive analysis and strategic groups. In this article we develop a procedure called MOBIUS, based on ‘match ratios’(MRs), in order to identify those competitive variables which act as mobility barriers in a particular industry. We also attempt to classify mobility barriers in terms of the degree of observed mobility around key strategic variables and the extent to which change is desired on these variables. the MOBIUS procedure is illustrated briefly in the context of the pharmaceutical industry.
Chairmen and Chief Executives: an Exploration of Their Relationship
Authors: Stewart R.
Published: May 2007

This longitudinal study of the relations between 20 general managers and their chairmen in the UK National Health Service has wider implications despite its distinctive setting. It showed that the two roles are very dependent upon each other, and occupy overlapping domains, so that what each can do is considerably affected by the other's behaviour. the chairman has more power to determine their relative domains so that studies of individual chief executives should take account of this relationship. the ways in which both chairmen and general managers played their roles differed widely. One reason for the differences in the chairmen's roles was the wide variation in the time that they gave to the job. Different types of relationship are described. the most common was that of partners where the two complemented each other. the study crosses different literatures: corporate management, leadership, role theory and managerial work and behaviour. Its main concern is with managerial work and behaviour but it also has some implications for corporate management.
MERGERS AND PROFITABILITY: A MANAGERIAL SUCCESS STORY?*
Authors: Ingham Hilary , Kran Ingvild , Lovestam Andre
Published: May 2007

Since 1983 expenditure on acquisitions in the UK has more than doubled in real terms, despite the fact that the consensus of opinion in the academic literature is that acquisitions are not, on average, performance enhancing for the acquiring firm. Such literature, however, relates mainly to the acquisition of large, public companies. Drawing on survey evidence from 146 of the UK's top 500 companies, this article reports the results from a survey which encompasses all takeovers. The study revealed that is the expected reward of increased profitabililty which is used in ex‐post evaluation. The major finding of the study is, however, that managers firmly perceive that their takeover activity has been performance enhancing for their company. The evidence presented does suggest that the integration of small acquisitions into an existing organizational structure may be achieved without severe problems of loss of control, and the subsequent decline in performance which beset large acquisitions
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY, CONTROL AND POWER: THE CENTRALIZATION AND DECENTRALIZATION DEBATE REVISITED*
Authors: Bloomfield Brian P. , Coombs Rod
Published: May 2007

This article addresses the conceptualization of power in relation to the use of computers in organizations. Commonly held views that the application of computer based information systems leads to either a centralization or a decentralization of power and control, or that computers merely reinforce the power of dominant actors, are criticized, and an alternative view is put forward which focuses on the symbolic and disciplinary dimensions of the development of information systems. This perspective is then illustrated in connection with the development of management information systems in the National Health Service.
INTERPRETATIONS ON AUTOMATIC: A DIFFERENT VIEW OF STRATEGIC ISSUE DIAGNOSIS*
Authors: Dutton Jane E.
Published: May 2007

Models of strategic decision‐making and environmental scanning typically assume that decision‐makers diagnose issues actively, using conscious and intentional effort to identify and to interpret potentially significant events, developments and trends. This article establishes that conditions in organizations put decision‐makers ‘on automatic’in their diagnosis of strategic issues, with direct implications for the process and content of strategic action. Implications for theory and practice are established.
MANAGEMENT, MASCULINITY AND MANIPULATION: FROM PATERNALISM TO CORPORATE STRATEGY IN FINANCIAL SERVICES IN BRITAIN*
Authors: Kerfoot Deborah , Knights David
Published: May 2007

This article is concerned to demonstrate that paternalism and strategic management as forms, styles or ‘techniques’of managing people and organizations, are both constitutive of and embedded in what we term a ‘discourse of masculinism’. Within the context of the UK financial services industry, we examine how this discourse reflects and reproduces management practices, and reconstitutes individuals in accordance with masculinist priorities. This has the effect of privileging men vis‐a‐vis women, serves to rank some men above others, and maintains as dominant certain forms and practices of masculinity. We identify two of these as ‘paternalistic masculinity’and ‘competitive masculinity’respectively, regarding them as concrete manifestations of the interplay between historically shifting forms of management and masculinities in operation.
ORGANIZATIONS AS RHETORIC: KNOWLEDGE‐INTENSIVE FIRMS AND THE STRUGGLE WITH AMBIGUITY
Authors: Alvesson Mats
Published: May 2007

This article discusses the concepts of knowledge‐intensive workers and firms. the functional view is questioned and a perspective on knowledge as institutionalized myth and rationality‐surrogate is proposed. the ambiguity of knowledge work is emphasized and it is argued that a crucial dimension of a knowledge‐intensive organization concerns the struggle with this ambiguity, which leads to efforts to refine various rhetorical strategies. Besides those stressing knowledge, science and rationality, the article points to rhetoric describing employees in knowledge‐intensive firms as possessing other personal qualities and orientations than personnel employed in bureaucracies.
Developing Theories of Strategy Using Dominance Criteria
Authors: Tang Ming‐Je , Thomas Howard
Published: May 2007

This article identifies key features of the strategy concept as a basis for reviewing existing theories of strategy. It also provides an agenda for future research. the article argues that there is a decision hierarchy in a firm, and defines strategy as the highest‐level decision in the hierarchy. Consequently, strategy has to exhibit what may be called three features of dominance: vertical dominance, horizontal dominance, and dynamic dominance. A vertically dominant strategy is one that determines, directly or indirectly, other decisions of a firm. A horizontally dominant strategy seeks to optimize the value of the firm according to some criteria. Dynamic dominance implies that strategy should affect the subsequent decisions of a firm over a relevant period of time. With few exceptions, existing theories of strategy are issue‐oriented and focus largely on horizontal dominance. More research should, therefore, be directed towards vertical and dynamic dominance criteria. If a comprehensive theory of strategy which satisfies the three dominance features cannot be developed, it is suggested that development should be directed towards integrating behavioural and economic approaches.
THE ADOPTION OF JAPANESE MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES IN BRAZILIAN INDUSTRY*
Authors: Humphrey John
Published: May 2007

Changing competitive conditions in Brazilian industry are leading companies to seek Japanese management techniques as a means of rapidly raising productivity and quality. Macroeconomic instability, low levels of educational achievement and poor labour relations would seem to present barriers to the use of these techniques. Case studies of firms in the motor components industry show that firms in Brazil can make radical changes to their production systems, overcome educational deficiencies and also secure reverse past employment relations practices in order to obtain some degree of acceptance of change by labour. However, there are reasons for supposing that these successes may be difficult to sustain in a difficult and turbulent macroeconomic environment.
EMPLOYMENT FUNCTIONS AND THE SLOWDOWN IN UK PRODUCTIVITY GROWTH
Authors: Naisbitt Barry
Published: May 2007

This paper investigates the employment demand function in the light of recent developments in econometric modelling procedures. The evidence for structural breaks in the equation for the UK manufacturing sector in 1966/67 and 1973/74 is re‐examined, and the behaviour of employment in the post‐1979 recession is analysed. The empirical results illustrate the problems raised for estimating employment equations by the productivity slowdown in the 1970s, and the implications of the different methods used to model this phenomenon for interpreting the more recent experience are examined. The implicit dynamics of the equations estimated in error‐correction form are derived and are discussed in terms of both employment and productivity behaviour.
THE DEMAND FOR BEVERAGES AND INTERBEVERAGE SUBSTITUTION IN THE UNITED STATES
Authors: Uri Noel D.
Published: May 2007

The analysis in this paper is directed at measuring the substitution between seven beverages consumed in the United States with the objective of shedding some light on just what is the relevant market for antitrust purposes. With regard to the overall beverage market considerations, there is a clear indication that consumers do substitute between different types of beverages. What must be subjectively resolved, however, is whether the extent of the indicated substitution is of significant enough magnitude to infer that two different beverages are in the same product market.
THE EFFECTS OF VARIOUS TREATMENTS OF TRUNCATION REMAINDERS IN THE ESTIMATION OF THE CONSUMPTION FUNCTION: A B AYESIAN APPROACH
Authors: Nakhaeizadeh G.
Published: May 2007

Using a Bayesian approach, the effects of various treatments of truncation remainders in the estimating of the consumption function for the Federal Republic of Germany (henceforth F.R.G.) are examined with the help of small and large samples. It emerges that some parameters of the consumption function are quite sensitive to what is done with the truncation remainders. Furthermore it seems better to include these terms in the estimation procedure.
WELFARE AND MONETARY PRECOMMITMENT IN AN ECONOMY WITH MENU COSTS AND UNIONIZED WAGE SETTING
Authors: Cubitt Robin P.
Published: May 2007

The paper shows that monetary precommitment can be advantageous to the government in a macroeconomic policy game where (i) the government's objectives are explicitly derived from those of the citizens, (ii) inflation has a real cost and (iii) the suboptimality of the output level arises from the structure of the private sector rather than from fiscal policy. It suggests that, to this extent, welfare interpretations of game theoretic monetary policy models are coherent.
THE TERM STRUCTURE OF INTEREST RATES IN DENMARK 1982–89: TESTING THE RATIONAL EXPECTATIONS/CONSTANT LIQUIDITY PREMIUM THEORY
Authors: Engsted Tom
Published: May 2007

In this paper we examine whether the rational expectations/constant liquidity premium‐theory can explain the Danish term structure of interest rates during the 1980s. Three types of tests will be conducted: a single‐equation regression test, a volatility‐test, and tests based on a cointegrated VAR‐model. All these tests remain valid even if interest rates individually follow non‐stationary stochastic processes. In contrast to most other empirical studies of the term structure, the evidence generally supports the rational expectations/constant liquidity premium‐theory.
RISKY PRODUCTION WITH EX‐ANTE PRICES UNDER MONOPOLY ANALYTICAL AND SIMULATION RESULTS
Authors: Driver Ciaran , Lambert Peter , Vial Stéphane
Published: May 2007

This paper concerns the case of a monopolist facing multiplicative uncertainty in demand. Karlin and Carr (1962), henceforth KC, show that, when price and production are both chosen ex ante, the uncertainty price exceeds the certainty price. They also give a sufficient condition under which the firm locates above the certainty demand curve, but they do not consider the effect on the output level. In this note we replicate the KC results and then go further. In the special case that the price elasticity of certainty demand is constant, and the probability distribution for the uncertainty parameter in the demand function is uniform, output is unambiguously lower under uncertainty, and KC's condition for the firm to locate above the certainty demand curve can be strengthened to one that is both necessary and sufficient. The robustness of these results is tested under less stringent assumptions on demand, abandoning symmetry for a lognormal distribution of the uncertainty parameter. Simulation confirms that the results hold up, and also determines the effects upon the firm's decisions of an increase in demand uncertainty.
WELFARE EFFECTS OF STRATEGIC PRICE SETTING IN ANTICIPATION OF PRICE REGULATION
Authors: Law Peter J.
Published: May 2007

A single product monopolist with constant unit costs, in a simple two‐period model, is aware that price regulation will be imposed in the second period. The form of the regulation is such that price in period 2 may not exceed 100 L̄; per cent of price in period 1, where 0 < L̄ < 1. The period 1 price will be set higher than it would be in the absence of anticipated regulation. However, it is not always the case that pre‐regulation price will be raised as L̄ falls. The welfare effects are crucially dependent on the form of the demand function. Under constant elasticity of demand a reduction in L̄ will reduce both consumers' and the producer's welfare. Under linear demand, consumers benefit and the producer loses as L̄ is reduced and the resultant effect on aggregate welfare is ambiguous.
FUTURE POLICY UNCERTAINTY, EFFORT, AND THE RESPONSIVENESS OF OUTPUT TO MARKET SIGNALS
Authors: Aizenman Joshua , Isard Peter
Published: May 2007

This paper analyses the consequences of future policy uncertainty on the allocation of effort in an economy undergoing reforms. We demonstrate that uncertainty regarding future tax policies may reduce present effort, and will also reduce the responsiveness of output to productivity shocks and other market signals. The discussion has relevance for cases in which privatization will make present managers of firms the future owners and residual claimants to future output. An expectation that the purchasing price of the firm will have a positive relationship to present output will induce the manager to reduce contemporaneous effort, and uncertainty regarding the relationship will also depress present managerial effort.
THE GINI‐TYPE FUNCTIONS: AN ALTERNATIVE DERIVATION
Authors: Milanovic Branko
Published: May 2007

The purpose of this note is to propose an alternative and intuitively simpler derivation of the Gini coefficient (in Section l), to show how it can be generalized and how then a number of coefficients (concentration coefficient, Kakwani's progressivity index) are obtained directly from this generalization (Section 2), and finally to use this approach to obtain some Gini relationships (Section 3).
A NOTE ON GOVERNMENT INTERVENTION IN OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH: THE CASE FOR AN ACCIDENT TAX AND A SAFETY BONUS SCHEME
Authors: Lanoie Paul
Published: May 2007

Using a fairly general principal‐agent model in which both firms and workers can affect the risk of a workplace accident, this note shows theoretically that an accident tax and/or a safety bonus scheme could unambiguously reduce the incidence of workplace accidents, contrary to the ambiguous theoretical results that are obtained with safety regulations
CARTEL STABILITY AND THE CURVATURE OF MARKET DEMAND*
Authors: Lambertini Luca
Published: May 2007

The stability of collusion is analysed for a family of demand functions whose curvature is determined by a parameter varying between zero and infinity. When the number of firms is low, firms may prefer to act as quantity setters in order to increase cartel stability if demand is sufficiently convex. Otherwise, price‐setting behaviour enhances their ability to collude. As the number of firms tends to infinity, Cournot behaviour is preferable to Bertrand behaviour in order to stabilize collusion, independently of the characteristics of market demand.
LEARNING OLIGOPOLISTIC COMPETITION IN ELECTRICITY AUCTIONS
Authors: Guerci Eric , Ivaldi Stefano , Raberto Marco , Cincotti Silvano
Published: May 2007

This paper addresses the problem of auction markets efficiency within the context of recently liberalized electricity markets. Two different auction mechanisms, i.e., the uniform and the discriminatory price setting rules, have been employed worldwide in designing electricity markets. In this paper, we study the relative efficiency of the two auction mechanisms in the framework of the learning‐in‐games approach. The behavior of electricity suppliers are modeled by means of an adaptive learning algorithm and the demand is assumed to be constant and inelastic, according to a common hypothesis in electricity market modeling. Computational experiments results are interpreted according game theoretical solutions, i.e., Nash equilibria and Pareto optima. Different economic scenarios corresponding to a duopoly and a tripoly competition with different level of demand are considered. Results show that in the proposed conditions, sellers learn to play competitive strategies, which correspond to Nash equilibria. Finally, this study establishes that, in the presented computational setting and economic scenarios, the discriminatory auction mechanism results more efficient than the uniform auction one.
COMPARING PRONOUN RESOLUTION ALGORITHMS
Authors: Mitkov Ruslan , Hallett Catalina
Published: May 2007

This paper discusses the comparative evaluation of five well‐known pronoun resolution algorithms conducted with the help of a purpose‐built tool for consistent evaluation in anaphora resolution, termed the evaluation workbench. The workbench enables the evaluation and comparison of pronoun resolution algorithms on the basis of the same preprocessing tools and test data. The tool is controlled by the user who can conduct the evaluation according to a variety of parameters, with regard to the types of anaphors and the samples used for evaluation. The extensive comparative evaluation of the pronoun resolution algorithms showed that their performance was significantly lower than the figures reported in the original papers describing the algorithms. The evaluation study concluded that the main reason for this drop in performance is the fact that all algorithms operate in a fully automatic mode.
Innovation and the small firm
Authors: Gibbons M. , Watkins D. S.
Published: May 2007

In recent years, the emphasis in studies of Science and Technology has shifted from a discussion of the production of scientific and technical ideas to concern over the implementation of utilization of these ideas. Among other things, this has led to the realization that the role played by individual innovators forms a key part of the technological innovation process.
R & D and the company's requirements
Authors: Hubert J. M.
Published: May 2007

Numerous models have been put forward in the literature for the selection and evaluation of projects, many of which are based on optimizing the return on investment by the company in R & D projects. This is a noble aim but in practice the financial data available are often of dubious accuracy and so many other factors are involved in actually adopting a portfolio of selected projects that project selection often becomes a theoretical exercise. It is suggested that the selection of projects is in essence the adoption of a strategy which is within the policy and long‐term aims of the company and also within the policy and scientific development of the R & D part of the company. Such a strategy is usually sub‐optimum for both the company and the R & D division, as it is a compromise between a desire for high pay‐back investments by the company and the maintenance of a scientifically balanced R & D involving some long‐term, unknown return, investments. A method is currently being experimented with by Unilever Research which illustrates where conflicts arise between the policy of the main company and that of research, and assists management in arriving at a strategy which most closely fulfils the needs of both policies. Both the concept of the method and its practical use are described in this paper.
The Debiasing of Forecasts in Research and Development
Authors: Thomas H.
Published: May 2007

Abstract. A possible way to improve the accuracy of forecasts is to estimate (and subsequently remove) any systematic bias by reference to the bias found in similar forecasts in the past. This paper discusses the applicability to industrial R & D of a method proposed by Summers for debiasing estimates of the costs of military projects by means of a regression equation derived from past experience, and gives the results of applying a similar method to estimates of costs, sales, product prices, and return factors for ten industrial development projects.
Technology Transfer: Some British Data
Authors: Langrish J.
Published: May 2007

Abstract. Some data from two studies is given and the input from university science to technology is found to be small. The transfer of an idea by the movement of a person is found to be more important than the transfer of ideas via the literature.
Forecasting the textile scene: an aid to the planning of a research programme
Authors: Catling H. , Rodgers P.
Published: May 2007

Abstract. A Delphi study over the whole of the U.K. textile industry is at present being carried out by the Technical Economy Department of the Shirley Institute. This paper describes the methodology used and discusses some of the problems which have arisen and the results obtained.
The accuracy of project cost and duration estimates in industrial R&D
Authors: Norris K. P.
Published: May 2007

Abstract. This study of the accuracy of cost and duration estimates, both initial and intermediate, for industrial R&D projects, is based mainly on analysis of the records of 475 projects in four varying research organizations. Mean ratios of actual to estimated cost ranging from 0.97 to 1.51 are obtained, and mean ratios of actual to estimated duration from 1.39 to 3.04. The results are generally similar to those of other British and American studies, with which they are compared.

There is no evidence that the information gained as projects progress enables their future cost and duration to be estimated more accurately; at best, the accuracy of such estimates remains constant. No effect of project size on estimate accuracy is found; effects of project length on accuracy, and of time (i.e. increasing experience) on accuracy are found only in one organization each. The pattern of expenditure over time is examined, and found on average to be not far from linear, though with wide individual project variations.

When the individual project ratios are reduced by constant factors representing optimistic or pessimistic bias (derived from the mean ratios, and assumed to be characteristic of the firm), and then subjected to a log transformation to make their distribution more symmetrical, the remaining variation, which is a measure of the inaccuracy of estimation for the individual projects, is closely similar in the four organizations, and not greatly different in the organizations covered by other studies when the data are similarly treated.
Some evidence on the accuracy of forecasts in R & D projects
Authors: Thomas H.
Published: May 2007

In recent years many formal attempts, e.g. Baker & Pound, (1964), have been made to help R & D management assess the worth of R & D projects and select those most worthy of inclusion in the R & D programme. Most of these attempts are based on financial appraisals of a project's worth and require estimates of the costs and likely revenues that will result from the adoption of a given project. It is clear, therefore, that the validity of any measure of a worth for a project is dependent upon the accuracy of the estimates of cost and revenue associated with that project. Unfortunately the limited amount of evidence so far presented suggests, in particular, that cost estimates are extremely inaccurate.

In this paper, therefore, we try to add some further evidence on forecast accuracy for a number of industrial R & D projects. We begin with a short review of the existing literature evidence and continue with an analysis of the past effectiveness of R & D work and, in particular, of forecast accuracy.
The use and development of a research project planning and progressing system
Authors: Rainbow S. F.
Published: May 2007

This paper discusses the use and development of a research project planning and progressing system based on the system described by Baker & Smith (1967). It is an attempt to highlight some of the practical problems involved in setting up and developing such a system at Colworth/Welwyn, the largest Unilever research laboratory in the United Kingdom. The problem at Col worth/Welwyn, as at Port Sunlight, was to improve communications at all levels of management, and, in particular, to direct senior management's attention to those areas where it was most needed.

The system described here is only a project control system, and does not formally cover other aspects of research management such as project selection and result implementation. A project control system was chosen as the starting point because it was regarded as the most important, and the easiest to implement throughout the whole laboratory.

This paper was first presented at a conference to the R & D Study Group of the Operational Research Society, February 1970.
Conditions for Innovation—with particular reference to textiles
Authors: Catling H.
Published: May 2007

Abstract. Recent, essentially mathematical, studies of the rate of diffusion of innovation have gone far towards providing a methodology of quantitative prediction once an innovation is well under way. For many purposes, however, possibilities must be assessed and decisions taken at a much earlier stage. This is not easy and the author feels that in concentrating attention on the fully quantifiable factors we are tending to neglect other equally important factors which do not lend themselves to quantification.

In this paper* the major determinants of rate of diffusion are discussed qualitatively in relation to a number of case studies of textile innovations made at the Shirley Institute.
Training the R and D Manager
Authors: Sanders G. S.
Published: May 2007

Abstract. This is a description of the development of a comprehensive training exercise for R & D managers entitled DEVEX. It is an accelerated ‘off‐the‐job’ learning exercise aimed at middle to senior industrial R& D managers and with the broad general goal of improving their grasp of the relationship between business/market strategy and R & D strategy.
Estimate accuracy and causes of delay in an engineering research laboratory
Authors: Wilkes A. , Norris K. P.
Published: May 2007

Some of the main results of a study of the accuracy of cost and duration estimates in this laboratory have already been published. This short article adds some further information about the accuracy of duration estimates for stages of projects (as opposed to whole projects), and about the reasons for upward revisions of duration estimates.
Technical entrepreneurship: what do we know?
Authors: Cooper Arnold C.
Published: May 2007

The factors influencing the birth of new, high‐technology firms have been investigated in a number of separate studies. This paper summarizes and reports upon this research.

New, technologically‐based firms have had, in the aggregate, substantial economic impact. The birth of these companies has been concentrated in particular places and at particular times.

The decision to found a new company appears to be influenced by three major factors. The characteristics of the entrepreneur, including the many aspects of his background which make him more or less inclined toward entrepreneur‐ship, are important. The organization for which he has been working, which might be termed ‘the incubator organization’ also influences the entrepreneurial decision in various ways. A third factor consists of a complex of external influences, including the availability of venture capital and the collective attitudes toward entrepreneurship. Feedback processes appear to be at work such that past entrepreneurship makes future entrepreneurship more likely.
Technical entrepreneurship: a cis‐Atlantic view
Authors: Watkins D. S.
Published: May 2007

Studies of technical entrepreneurship outside North America are in their infancy. This paper draws together some of the little research which has been conducted in Europe and discusses to what extent the American research findings apply in a very different business environment.
Innovation through new ventures: new venture concept in BOC
Authors: Gardner J. B.
Published: May 2007

During the last decade there has been increasing questioning in industrial firms of the value and returns from conventionally organized R & D particularly from central research organizations concerned with longer term innovation. This paper describes how one multi‐divisional company, with a wide range of markets, has radically changed its Central R & D function to a Pilot Venture structure, with the object of greatly increasing its effectiveness.

The main concepts involved in this ‘New Venture Secretariat’ are not new, but it is felt the particular approach used is novel.
R & D management practices:* chemical industry in Europe
Authors: Olin J.
Published: May 2007

The paper summarizes the results of interviews with R & D managers in forty‐three chemical companies in France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Switzerland and the U.K. covering questions concerned with: R & D planning, size and distribution of R & D efforts, organization of R & D and project management. The results are presented in quantitative and qualitative terms, and the differences between various categories of chemical industry and between various national practices are discussed.
The use of slip charts to review research projects
Authors: Brooke D. G.
Published: May 2007

Three years’ experience with this method of review has produced improvements in communications and established a framework within which scarce resources can be optimized and a five‐year rolling programme pursued.

The use of slip charts to monitor and progress research projects at the Electricity Council Research Centre is described.
Budgets for research and development: an empirical study of 69 Swedish firms
Authors: Naslund B. , Sellstedt B.
Published: May 2007

It was found that, as a rule, firms decide upon individual projects and do not specify in advance a fixed level for the R & D budget. The decision about individual R & D projects and/or the R & D budget was most frequently made by the president of the company.

The implication of our results for various kinds of research on the economics of R & D are discussed.

Questionnaires were sent out to 124 large Swedish firms, asking how they determined budgets for research and development (R & D) and who decided about the size of these budgets. 94 firms answered and 69 of these undertook R & D.
A new business venture
Authors: Vernon A.
Published: May 2007

The venture is into the business area of Medical Aids. The first steps were taken by the Division just over three years ago.

This paper describes the action which was taken by the Pharmaceuticals Division of ICI Limited to move into a New Business Venture, the experiences so far and some of the lessons learned which either have confirmed or contradicted the original ideas.
Information systems and the spread of scientific ideas
Authors: Coadic Y. F. Le
Published: May 2007

This study attempts to show indirectly that by studying a spread of scientific ideas we are able to comprehend the operation and structure of science and technology information systems. It is shown that any information system is a dynamic and orderly social system which exhibits impressive features of regularity and law. It has also been observed that by formalizing the informal channels, the overall effectiveness of communication can improve.
Communication patterns in two UK R & D laboratories
Authors: Evans M. A. , Woods M. F. , Levene R. J.
Published: May 2007

The literature shows that two patterns of communication exist in an R&D environment, one dominated by a project system and the other directly related to distance. A study was made of the communication patterns of two laboratories about to merge. The study was able to show that differences do exist between the two laboratories, mainly because of the geographical differences on the two sites, but overall communication patterns were similar. These patterns showed that the number of communications did drop off with distance but work contacts and a project system override the distance factor.
Notes and Comments Industry‐University collaboration: A general study
Authors: Moore J. P.
Published: May 2007

The recent history of developments in Industry‐University collaboration in the U.K. is briefly reviewed and the present means utilized by Universities to collaborate with Industry and Commerce outlined.

The Appendix clarifies the means developed by over thirty Universities with University Companies, Industrial Units or Liaison Bureaux.
Work frustration in engineering departments
Authors: Holt K.
Published: May 2007

A large number of engineers work in organizations with specialized jobs of a routine nature. In many ways they can be compared with workers on a production line; it is the same work that is done over and over again. Empirical studies demonstrate that this leads to frustration.

There is no standard solution available, but there are a number of approaches that can lead to greater satisfaction if one is willing to experiment with them. A more organic, less structured management system and more use of problem oriented project groups may bring benefits. Job enrichment, where engineers are given more responsibility by transfer of tasks previously done by managers and seniors, and special training where engineers are given an opportunity to systematically develop their capabilities should be considered. Further, organizational development must be mentioned where an external change agent together with the people involved develops a solution aiming at the satisfaction of the needs of both the individual and the organization. Finally come flexible working hours which have an indirect effect on the job situation by allowing for a richer life off the job.
The quality of subjective probabilities of technical success in R & D
Authors: Schröder Hans‐Horst
Published: May 2007

Employing various measures for the quality of subjective probabilities of technical success in R & D a detailed analysis of 4 data sets taken from different R & D organizations shows that the probability assessments roughly specify the populations to which R & D projects belong, but are extremely unreliable indicators of the eventual outcome of individual activities. Unintentional errors and conscious biases are identified as accounting for the unsatisfactory quality of subjective probabilities in R & D. Finally, some measures are suggested which might improve the quality of the probability assessments.
A systematic approach to technological forecasting
Authors: Jones H.
Published: May 2007

Past attempts to rationalize the many methods of technological forecasting have not been sufficiently practical; they have largely been based on an abstract sort of classification while their use has been of an ad hoc nature.

This paper reviews the position and puts forward a rationale leading to a more logical classification of methods and a systematic approach to their use in practice.

The proposed classification and systematic use of the many methods is based on the concept that a technological forecast has four prime elements or dimensions, qualitative, quantitative, time and probability. Only when all these elements are provided can a technological forecast be responsibly used in decision making in R & D and corporate planning.
Application of a resource allocation system in a technology‐based public organization
Authors: Shumway C. R. , Hwang J. D.
Published: May 2007

A resource allocation system developed for a government laboratory has been subjected to a full‐scale experiment within that organization. The experimental system includes: (1) a multiplicative benefit estimation procedure, (2) a constrained optimization resource allocation model hosting piecewise linear benefit functions and interactive capabilities for sensitivity analysis, and (3)a network tracking procedure for predicting progress on major laboratory objectives. It is applied to R & D activities representing 3/4 of the laboratory's total program. The methodological philosophy, structure, and experimental design are presented together with attitudinal data and informational insights gleaned from the experiment. The flexibility of the system for adapting to alternative management models and benefit functional forms is demonstrated.
Project selection in Post Office telecommunications R&D
Authors: Elkins N. A.
Published: May 2007

In an industry in which the benefits of R & D are often difficult to quantify, numerate processes for the selection of projects and portfolios are of limited usefulness. The processes that are used provide formal means, necessary in a large organization, to enable managerial judgment at an appropriate level to be applied to both project selection and the balance of the portfolios.
International scientific and technical meetings: why go? who profits?
Authors: Peters E. B.
Published: May 2007

A growing body of empirical research shows that information which is actually put to use is most often transmitted by personal contact. This article reviews the literature to examine some of the reasons for the importance of personal contact in the transmission of information and then focuses on scientific and technical meetings as an environment designed to facilitate the transmission of information in this way. The review of the literature is included for completeness in Part II of the article. However, it is the foundation on which the empirical research described in Part I is based.

Using the author's definition of meeting effectiveness this research shows that the person who is giving the most is also the most effective in gaining and utilizing information.
The new product matrix
Authors: Bergen S. A.
Published: May 2007

The paper describes the concept, design and experience with a matrix approach to the problems of communication and co‐ordination in a multi‐discipline R & D activity.

It puts forward a systems approach to the problem of overcoming ‘differentiations’ in high technology industry, as opposed to the individual in the role of ‘integrator’.
Research appraisal in the electricity industry
Authors: Lamb P.
Published: May 2007

The paper describes an interesting and unusual approach to the task of appraising a number of related research projects in the field of electricity utilization research. A combination of conventional cost‐benefit studies and the Delphi technique, adapted to establish the potential marketability of each project, was used to rank a portfolio of twelve projects. The procedures used and the results of the exercise are outlined in the paper. It was found that this approach to quantifying the relative worths of research projects helped considerably in the final assessment of the research program. It also provided the added benefit of involving a large number of staff throughout the organization in the work of the Research Centre.

The examination of new techniques of research appraisal must be considered a worthwhile contribution to research management if the best uses are to be made of limited research budgets.
A planning model of pharmaceutical research and development
Authors: Cox J. S. G. , Millane B. V. , Styles A. E. J.
Published: May 2007

Despite the popular view that pharmaceutical research is a random process, and by inference unplannable, the long‐term survival and development of a pharmaceutical company must be based on a steady flow of new products with a full understanding by management of the relationships between research expenditure and the likely revenues they will produce. In this paper is developed a model of the R&D function which uses probabilistic assumptions to compute the expected stream of revenues from a portfolio of projects involving the major development routes from which pharmaceutical products usually arise. The model is based on expected values of market and technical research performance and hence gives expected or indicated sales in the future as output.