bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Reactive Dyes for Nylon*
Authors: SCOTT D. F. , VICKERSTAFF T.
Published: July 2010

Conventional dyes for nylon have suffered, hitherto, from the disadvantage that those of good fastness properties do not readily cover the chemical and physical irregularities of the fibre, whilst those which are free from these defects have rolatively low fastness properties.

A new range of reactive dyes for nylon has now been developed. They are disperse dyes and can be applied in an unreaetive form under acid conditions, when they possess the level–dyeing properties of disperse dyes. When the bath is made mildly alkaline, reaction occurs between dye and fibre, and a fast, level dyeing is obtained. It has been found that these dyes react both with the amine end–groups and with the amide groups in the fibre, so difficulties associated with saturation of amine end–groups are not encountered.

Rates of dyeing and fixation of the dyes have been determined both separately and in mixtures and it is shown that the dyes are compatible for dyeing as mixtures. Rate–of–dyeing curves indicate that these dyes behave as medium–to–slow dyeing disperse dyes.

As with Procion dyes when applied to cellulose, a side–reaction occurs in the dyebath, and in this case the deactivated dye remains on the fibre after the soaping treatment. Since, however, the unfixed dye has fastness properties at least equal to those of conventional disperse dyes, this small proportion can be tolorated without undue loss of fastnoss.

For the first time a range of dyes is available for dyeing nylon to level, attractive colours with good wet fastness properties using a simple technique and conventional dyeing machinery.
The Reactions of Cold‐dyeing Procion Dyes with Cellulose
Authors: Dawson T. L. , Fern A. S. , Preston C.
Published: July 2010

The historical development of reactive dyes for cellulose and wool is reviewed briefly. The reactions of dichloro‐s‐triazinyl dyes with water, cellulose‐model compounds and with the primary and secondary hydroxyl groups of cellulose are discussed and a scheme for describing the fixation of these dyes under mild and severe conditions of alkalinity and temperature is presented. Paper chromatography, colour reactions in presence of a pyridine—caustic soda mixture, and cuprammonium solubility have helped to provide the evidence on which this scheme is based.
The Effect of Sulphuric Acid on Wool IV—Some Further Observations of the Reaction with Concentrated Acid
Authors: Elliott R. L. , Asquith R. S. , Hopper M. E. P. , Rawson D. H.
Published: July 2010

The following types of wool have been treated with concentrated sulphuric acid—virgin wool, dinitrophenylated wool, and deaminated wool. Subsequent analyses of the treated wools have shown clearly that the amino groups do not give covalent sulphamic acid derivatives, but that the aliphatic hydroxyl groups react rapidly to give sulphate esters. Serine and threonine analyses of treated wools after reaction with sulphuric acid support the theory that an O‐peptidyl rearrangement occurs. The mechanism proposed for this rearrangement has been modified, and it is suggested that it proceeds through the aliphatic sulphate ester grouping primarily introduced into the wool.
An Investigation of the Carbonising of Wool*
Authors: Zahn H.
Published: July 2010

Wool of crossbred quality, in the form of cloth, was carbonised with sulphuric acid (5% by weight). Part of the baked cloth was rinsed with water at the mill, part was stored in the laboratory in a desiccator over silica gel, and a third part was stored for up to 29 weeks in the conditioning room at 65% R.H. After storage for five weeks and seven weeks respectively, part of the dry and part of the humidified cloth was neutralised. Subsequently the wool was examined for modification by the following methods—alkali solubility, pH of aqueous extract, pyridine extraction, total sulphate, Van Slyke amino nitrogen, and end‐group analysis using 1 ‐fluoro‐2,4‐dinitrobenzene.

The findings led to the following conclusions—(1) The alkali solubility of carbonised wool, if tested soon after preparation and corrected for the sulphuric acid content, is not increased. (2) When wool which has been carbonised but not neutralised is stored under humid conditions a progressive increase in alkali solubility is observed. During dry storage the alkali solubility does not change significantly. (3) Carbonised wool contains about double the number of serine and threonine amino end‐groups, whereas the other end‐groups of wool are not affected. (4) Dry storage leads to further increase in the number of serine and threonine end‐groups and has some effect on the glycine and valine end‐groups. (5) Humid storage results in a much faster increase in end‐groups. (6) Neutralised wool contains fewer serine and threonine end‐groups, whereas the end‐groups of the other amino acids remain unchanged or increase slightly. The results are best explained by assuming a partly reversible N‐O‐peptidyl shift on the serine and threonine amino residues during carbonising and neutralisation. Storage of carbonised wool under humid conditions induces irreversible hydrolysis of peptide links involving aspartic and glutamic acids, glycine, alanine, and valine. The practical implications are discussed.
Quinonoid Dyes: XIV*—Relation between Coplanarity and Substantivity of Quinonoid Dyes applied to Secondary Cellulose Acetate and Cellulosic Fibres
Authors: Daruwalla E. H. , Rao S. S. , Tilak B. D.
Published: July 2010

Two series of coplanar dyes derived from naphthaquinones have been synthesised, and for each dye a corresponding non‐coplanar compound has also been obtained. Dyes belonging to one of these series (I–X) could be applied to secondary cellulose acetate rayon from aqueous dispersion, whilst cellulosic fibres could be dyed satisfactorily from an alkaline reducing bath with dyes belonging to the second series (XI–XX). The affinity values of these dyes have been determined, and the importance of coplanarity for substantivity is discussed.
The Dyeing of Cellulose Acetate with Disperse Dyes X—Saturation Values with Mixtures of Dyes
Authors: Bird C. L. , Rhyner P.
Published: July 2010

With disperse dyes which are insufficiently soluble in cellulose acetate fibre to yield a full shade, the difficulty can be overcome by using a mixture of two or three dyes of similar hue and chemical composition. The components of the mixture must be carefully chosen, as some dyes interact to give a compound which has low solubility in the fibre. There is no evidence that the solubility in cellulose acetate of a mixture of disperse dyes can exceed the sum of the solubilities of the individuaj components. Interaction can also occur when a mixture of disperse dyes is dissolved at 22d̀C in ethanol, hexane, or 0.2% aqueous Ultravon W.
The Cross‐linking of Cellulose and its Derivatives
Authors: McKay J. E. , Taylor W.
Published: July 2010

The reactions of cellulose—acetate crotonate mixed esters with ethylenediamine, ammonia, and n‐hexylamine have been studied. In all cases, addition of the amine to the double bond occurs readily, but only the first two give insoluble, and therefore cross‐linked, products. Aminolysis also occurs, but this only becomes of importance after 50–100 hours. Sodium hydroxide hydrolyses the cross‐linked films and the products have been identified as far as possible by paper chromatography.
The Interaction Forces between Polyacrylonitrile Fibres and Disperse and Cationic Dyes
Authors: Feichtmayr F. , Würz A.
Published: July 2010

Results obtained in the field of theoretical chemistry are utilised to investigate the structure of the nitrile group. Recent developments in high‐polymer physics are used as a basis to explain the relation between the structure of the polyacrylonitrile fibre and its physical behaviour. The interactions between the nitrile groups of the fibres and disperse dyes, and also between the nitrile groups and cationic dyes, are discussed. Consideration is also given to the interaction between cationic dyes and the anionic groups incorporated in commercial polyacrylonitrile fibres under the conditions of polymerisation. Dyeing tests have been carried out on cyanoethylated cotton to confirm the correctness of the concepts developed with regard to the interaction forces between polyacrylonitrile fibre and cationic dyes.
Dyeing Chrome‐tanned Leather with the Aid of Ethylene Oxide Levelling Agents
Authors: Herndl J. , Haldemann W.
Published: July 2010

A brief description is given of the properties of leather, with particular reference to the application of dyes in presence of non‐ionic, anionic, and cationic auxiliary agents. Fixation of chrome complex, vegetable, and synthetic tanning agents is described. The dyeing of suède leather is considered in detail, and the effect of two “non‐ionic” polyoxvethylene derivatives on the absorption spectra of six sulphonated azo dyes is studied. It is concluded that, to obtain satisfactory dyeings on chrome‐tanned suede leather, the dyes used must have similar affinity, any differences in affinity must be minimised by addition of a suitable auxiliary agent, and the agent must have similar effects on the absorption spectra of all the dyes used.
The Hydrolysis of Reactive Dyeings
Authors: Benz J.
Published: July 2010

Twelve reactive dyes were synthesised containing the same chromophore but different reactive systems and different bridge members. These dyes were applied to mercerised cotton at approximately standard depth and the effects on the dyeings of alkaline and acid hydrolysis were studied. Increasing reactivity of dichloro‐ and trichloro‐pyrimidyl dyes is accompanied by a growing tendency to acid and, more particularly, alkaline hydrolysis. The position at which saponification occurs depends on the nature of the bridge member. In a second series of dyes, various reactive systems were combined with the same chromophore through an imino group; no general relation between reactivity and tendency to hydrolysis could be established for these dyes.
Setting of Animal Fibres in Solutions of Thiourea Dioxide
Authors: Bajpai L. S. , Whewell C. S.
Published: July 2010

Data are given on the setting of wool and human hair in solutions of thiourea dioxide under various conditions. The effectiveness of thiourea dioxide is probably associated with the ability of this reagent to reduce —S—S— bonds in the fibre, for fibres in which — S‐S— bonds are converted into more stable —C—S‐C‐linkages do not take a set. Deaminated fibres take a set in thiourea dioxide solution but not in water.
A Review of the Chemistry of Thermosetting Resins and Related Compounds and their Application to Textiles
Authors: Smith A. R.
Published: July 2010

The chemical reactions concerned in the preparation of thermosetting resins based particularly on urea or melamine and formaldehyde are discussed, together with the newer cellulose cross‐linking agents, including cyclic urea—formaldehyde derivatives and non‐nitrogenous compounds, e.g. glycol acetals and epoxides. The effect of ancillary processes on the properties of resin‐treated fabrics and the incorporation of additives in the resin bath are reviewed, with particular reference to the production of smooth‐drying cellulosic fabrics, and the problems encountered in producing chlorine‐resistant finishes are outlined. Newer developments in the fields of water‐repellent treatment and durable flameproofing of cellulosic fabrics are also discussed, and reference is made to the rotproofing of cellulosic materials and the production of bactericidal finishes.
Two Problems associated with the Blending of Coloured Fibres
Authors: Guthrie J. C. , Moir Miss J. , Oliver P. H.
Published: July 2010

A procedure is described for selecting the minimum number of colours that will permit a pattern to be matched with a two‐component fibre blend so that the resulting blend has a solid appearance. This has been applied to 50:50 blends in carpets, and the minimum number of colours is at least 40–50, if the blends are viewed from a distance of six feet. Small variations in the proportions of blending fibres may affect the resultant colour of the blend. A method for calculating permissible tolerances in the blending of coloured fibres is shown to give promising results when compared with subjective assessments.
Rongal A in Flash Ageing
Authors: Küppers W.
Published: July 2010

The properties of Rongal A are described and compared with those of sodium hydrosulphite. These properties are then discussed in relation to the padding process, padding mangles of various types, bowl hardness, the path followed by the material, and the low liquor pick‐up. The steaming process is thon considered and the importance of avoiding working with wet steam is stressed. The use of contact heating is also mentioned. The main part of the paper deals with oxidation and removal of alkali from the material. Oxidation with hydrogen peroxide, possibly stabilised with acetic acid, not only leads to a high consumption of chemicals, but also very frequently gives rise to fluctuations in colour. With regard to aftertreatment in rope form, it is observed that satisfactory oxidation is obtained with water alone and that effective removal of alkali results from prolonged immersion in the winch beck. At the same time much of the thickening agent is removed. The chemical‐free oxidation and removal of alkali from fabrics in open‐width is also considered.
Some Physico‐chemical Properties of Solochrome Violet R and its Metal Complexes
Authors: Coates E. , Rigg B.
Published: July 2010

The purification and estimation of Solochrome Violet R (2′‐hydroxy‐5′‐sulphophenylazo‐2‐naphthol; C.I. 15870; C.I. Mordant Violet 5) have been investigated. Equilibria involving self‐association of the dye, the formation of metal‐dye complexes, and the acidic ionisation of several relevant species have been studied quantitatively. Potentiometric, conductimetric, polarographic, and spectrophotometric techniques are described.

Analysis of mixtures of the dye, CrD and CrD2 has been achieved by a combination of polarographic and spectrophotometrio methods. Quantitative information on the aggregation of the dye in aqueous solutions has been obtained by the potentiometric method, which should be a satisfactory method for the study of other systems of this type. It has been shown that ionic strength effects should be considered in the determination of equilibrium constants, and formation constants are reported for the complexes of eight metals with this dye. The dye appears to behave as a tridentate ligand and in six‐co‐ordinate systems gives rise to 1:1 and 1:2 metal‐dye complexes. In the light of this evidence, previously postulated structures for some Cu(II) and Mg(II) complexes have been reconsidered.
Some Fundamental Aspects of the Washing Process
Authors: Parish G. J.
Published: July 2010

Washing ranges for the continuous treatment of textile materials commonly consist of a number of units in sequence, each unit comprising an immersion tank and a mangle nip. Previous analyses of the performance of this type of plant, or of essentially similar plant in other industries, have usually been based on the assumption that the material is brought into equilibrium with the wash water in each unit. Here the analysis is generalised by the use of a factor, based on experimental evidence and called the washing parameter, which is in effect a measure of the efficiency of washing within the unit. The significance of this parameter is discussed.
Calculation of Fading Rates of Dyeings of Different Light Fastness on Exposure to Fluorescent Tubes
Authors: Jaeckel S. M. , Ward C. D.
Published: July 2010

Energy outputs of fluorescent tubes, derived by applying photometric formulae to a published datum, were correlated with the energies required to fade different blue standards, in order to obtain estimates of the times required to fade dyed goods in shops lit by fluorescent tubes. The effect of varying the type of tube, distance between tube and goods, shielding of the tube, and light fastness was considered. Controlled exposures of some light‐fastness standards were compared with the results. Experimental results differ in some respects from the theoretical, particularly in that goods of very low light fastness may be more prone to fading than expected, and faster goods less so.
Some Observations on the Overdyeing of Nylon with Aggregated Acid Dyes
Authors: Greenhalgh M. , Johnson A. , Peters R. H.
Published: July 2010

Dyeing in excess of the amino content of the nylon can be obtained with dyes of the Carbolan type from solutions of pH 45. This is accompanied by some hydrolysis, but insufficient to account for the whole of the dye uptake, and it is suggested that dyeing is to a large extent due to non‐ionic affinity of the dye anions. There is evidence that the dyes form micelles in solution and that this determines the maximum rate of dyeing.
Aggregation in Aqueous Solutions: Solochrome Black WDFA
Authors: Coates E. , Rigg B. , Murton R. , Smith D. H.
Published: July 2010

The second and third ionisation constants for pure Solochrome Black WDFA (C.I. Mordant Black 11; C.I. 14645; sodium 1‐(1‐hydroxy‐2‐naphthylazo)‐6‐nitro‐2‐naphthol‐4‐sulphonate =DH2 Na+)† have been determined spectrophotometrically at 25·C in aqueous solutions (pKTD = 6·0: pK = 12·0). The variation with dye concentration of the apparent molar extinction coefficient for the dye ion (DH2‐) at pH approx. 9 has been interpreted as being due to the formation of a dimer, the dissociation constant for which is given by pKTD = 3·0. A theoretical interpretation of pH‐titration data for the dye over the pH range 5·5–8 has permitted the calculation of the dissociation constants for several equilibria that exist in this complex system. The singly charged ion DH can exist in equilibrium with a dimer (pTKTD = 5·3), which has acidic ionisation constants represented by pTKTD = 6·7 and pTKTD = 7·7. The dissociation constant for the complex formed between DH and DH is given by pKTD = 4·7. There is no evidence for association of D3‐ ions, the visible absorption spectrum for which is essentially unaffected by a change in the dye concentration or by the presence of electrolytes. Only slight changes occur in the spectrum for DH2‐, obtained at a constant dye concentration (ca. 10‐4 m) by the addition of electrolytes such as soluble salts of Na+, K+, Ba2+, and Cr3+. However, at very low concentrations (ca. 10‐5 m) of some salts (Cr3+), marked differences from the spectrum for the pure dye in the form DH have been noted. The magnitude of the effect is dependent essentially on the concentration, nature, and charge of the positive ions. It is suggested that, under these conditions, micellisation of the dye DH occurs, with positively charged gegenions.
The Saturation Values, Rates of Dyeing, Rates of Diffusion, and Migration of Disperse Dyes on Heat‐set Polyester Fibres*
Authors: Merian E. , Carbonell J. , Lerch U. , Sanahuja V.
Published: July 2010

Studies have been made of the dependence of saturation limits, rates of diffusion, rates of dyeing, and migration properties of a number of disperse dyes on polyester fibres upon the temperature at which the fibres have been heat‐set. Use of pure, crystalline dyes was found to give erratic results and therefore ultra‐dispersed commercial dyes were used in the investigation. The saturation limit and the average diffusion coefficient showed a minimum at a particular heat‐setting temperature. Values were calculated for heat of dyeing, heat of solution, and entropy change in dyeing; these values tended to a maximum or minimum for fibre set at 150C. The findings suggest that the minimum tinctorial yields obtained at such temperatures are due to (a) increasing transformation of the fibre structure on heat setting and (b) preferential loosening of unset fibre by swelling agents in a heated medium. Degree of setting was found to have virtually no influence on migration. The causes of unlevel dyeings are discussed.
The Early History of the Synthetic Dye Industry*
Authors: Welham† R. D.
Published: July 2010

The history of the industry is continued to 1914. Short accounts are given of the activities of the main British companies which, in general, made a success of the manufacture of intermediates, turning away to a large extent from the manufacture of dyes themselves. The setting‐up of German‐ and Swiss‐owned works in Britain is described and an account is given of the progress of the industry in Germany. Finally there is a brief summary of the dye situation in Britain at the beginning of the First World War.
A Historical Approach to the Dyestuffs Industry
Authors: Cliffe W. H.
Published: July 2010

Organised for a world economy, rich in natural resources, and with a traditionally liberal and moral outlook, nineteenth century Britain was singularly well qualified to be the birthplace of the synthetic‐dye industry. Yet, in the case of the organic chemical industry, the social and economic conditions that were often so favourable to the innovation and growth of industrial and commercial enterprises were not those best suited to combat the paternalism and planned economies of the aspiring new Germany. Thinking in terms of large‐scale production of relatively cheap materials, British industrialists built up highly profitable industries based on the production and export of coal‐tar and its distillation products. Without imagination, intellectual foresight, and stimulus from other industries, the British chemical industry stood aside whilst other nations developed their own dye‐making enterprises. A European war and a renewal of belief in a modicum of State intervention were turning points marking a new determination on the part of Great Britain to be no longer subservient to foreign domination in the field of organic chemicals.
Acrylic‐polymer Composition and its Relation to Basic‐dye Substantivity*
Authors: Balmforth D. , Bowers C. A. , Guion T. H.
Published: July 2010

The mechanism of dyeing of acrylic polymers with cationic dyes is discussed, and it is shown that equilibrium adsorption is adequately described by the Langmuir equation. The presence of both strong and weak acid groups in commercial acrylic polymers is demonstrated. The effect on equilibrium dye uptake of the different response of the two types of groups to variation in pH is considered.
Fading of Pastel Colours on Wool by Light and Sulphur Dioxide
Authors: Jaeckel S. M. , Ward C. D.
Published: July 2010

The effect of sulphur dioxide on the blue standards is discussed and the light fastness of pastel colours on wool investigated. Comparisons are made of seasonal variations, visual and colorimetric assessments, and bleaching and dyeing variations. Standard 4 is very sensitive to sulphur dioxide. Product LF (S)1 retards the initial fading on wool. Undyed wool has lower light‐fastness ratings than dyed wool: yellow colouring matter in the wool, rather than the dye applied, is responsible for most of the fading.
Bleaching of Wool with Hydrogen Peroxide in Presence of Different Stabilisers
Authors: Cegarra J. , Ribé J. , Gacén J.
Published: July 2010

The influence of Stabilizer C (a mixture of sodium oxalate and sodium pyrophosphate [Laporte]), sodium pyrophosphate, trisodium phosphate, and sodium silicate on the decomposition of solutions of hydrogen peroxide, as well as on the bleaching effect produced on a wool fabric, has been studied. The pH of the peroxide solutions remains constant, except for the solutions containing trisodium phosphate, whose pH increases. The release of oxygen is regulated by the nature of the stabilising anion and the pH of the solution. The presence of wool in bleaching solutions decreases the pH of the solution, the oxygen release being regulated by the nature of the stabilising anion. No relation was found between the degree of reflectance obtained and the less of oxygen from the bleaching solution. The cystine content of the wool decreases during bleaching and its alkali solubility increases, both values being related to the reflectance obtained; the tryptophan content of the wool also decreases considerably.
Further Notes on Reactive Dyes and their Identification on Cellulosic Fibres
Authors: Jordinson F. , Lockwood R.
Published: July 2010

The reactive systems and chromophores present in reactive dyes are briefly discussed, with reference to the wet fastness of the dyeings produced on cellulosic fibres. The results are described of tests on selected reactive dyes on cotton carried out to distinguish between the various types of reactive dyes.
The Sorption of Acids by Wool from Mixtures of Acids
Authors: Larose P. , Donovan R.
Published: July 2010

The amounts of Orange II dye (C.I. 15510) sorbed from solutions containing mixtures of the lye acid or the sodium salt of the dye with hydrochloric acid or with trichloroacetic acid were measured. The results show that, although the sorption of hydrochloric acid or trichloroacetic acid from the mixtures is normal, the sorption of the dye acid is anomalous and quite different from that of the acids studied earlier. Competition between thedye anion and the counteranions is overshadowed by a secondary effect which results in anincrease in the amount of dye sorbed as the concentration of the counterion is increased.A possible explanation for this effect is suggested.
Cold–pad Desizing and Bleaching for Dyeing and Printing
Authors: GARDNER H. S. , KALINOWSKI S. E.
Published: July 2010

Meetings of the Midlands Region, held at the King's Head Hotel, Loughborough, on 26th November 1963, Mr J. Saunders in the chair; of the Northern Ireland Region, held in the Grosvenor Rooms, Belfast, on 14th January 1964, Mr N. Hindshaw in the chair; and of the Manchester Region (One–day Symposium), held at the College of Science and Technology, Manchester, on 6th March 1964, Mr F. V. Davis in the chair

Existing cold–pad processes, and new methods developed to overcome their defects, are discussed in the light of laboratory experiments and full–scale works trials; the processes examined in detail are bromite desizing, peroxide bleaching, and chlorite bleaching; mention is made of a new cheap solvent–detergent for use with enzymes and scouring liquors.
Discovery or Invention?*
Authors: RATTEE I. D.
Published: July 2010

The relation between industrial and academic research is discussed, and a distinction is drawn between discovery– the revelation of what exists in our environment and the study of the laws that govern it– and invention– the utilisation of the results of discovery to change that environment. Problems arising from difficulties in communication, especially in large industrial complexes, are discussed and illustrated. Finally, the role of the universities in the training of graduates for participation in applied scientific activities is examined.
Specific Problems in the Dyeing of Cellulosic Fibres in Circulating–liquor Machines
Authors: HORN P. J.
Published: July 2010

Meetings of the Scottish Region held in the St. Enoch Hotel, Glasgow, on 11th February 1964, Mr I. Gailey in the chair; of the Huddersfield Region held in the Queen Hotel, Huddersfield, on 12th February 1964, Mr M. Nutton in the chair; and of the Leicester Junior Branch held in the College of Technology, Leicester, on 13th February 1964, Mr R. G. Charlesworth in the chair

The types of pump used in circulating–liquor dyeing machines are discussed, particularly in terms of the relation between pressure head and output. With the turbo pump there is a steady increase in flow rate as the pressure is reduced, but for the centrifugal pump the relation is more complex. The turbo pump has a much wider operating range than the centrifugal pump, but is less efficient. The rate of liquor flow through a dyeing system is determined by the capacity of the pump and the differential pressure, i. e. the difference in pressure immediately before and beyond the wound package. Factors affecting the differential pressure are discussed. Brief reference is made to the measurement of flow rates, and the effect of flow rates on the quality of dyeing is outlined. The advantages of the recently developed semi–axial pump are mentioned. Finally, practical aspects of the dyeing of wound packages (effect of package density and uniformity of winding) and of warp beams (means of reducing danger of bursting, application techniques for vat dyes) are discussed.
Photocatalytic Activity of Anthraquinone Derivatives in Photochemical Reduction of Azo Dyes
Authors: VAN BEEK H. C. A. , HEERTJES P. M. , VISSCHER F. M.
Published: July 2010

Azo dyes are photoreduced rapidly when solutions in water also containing dl–mandelic acid are exposed to ultraviolet radiation. Since the active reducing species in this reaction is formed from the photoexcited mandelic acid, the wavelength region responsible for the fading coincides with the region in which mandelic acid absorbs. The photoreduction reaction can be sensitised to longer wavelengths by the addition of sodium–9, 10–anthraquinone–2–sulphonate. The mechanism of sensitisation has been investigated and it has been found that semiquinone radicals are formed by hydrogen abstraction from dl–mandelic acid by the photoexcited anthraquinone derivative. The semiquinone radicals can reduce the azo dyes to the corresponding amines, the quantum efficiency of this reaction being almost unity.
Relations between some Physicochemical Properties of Reactive Dyes and their Behaviour in Padding Processes
Authors: CAPPONI M. , SENN R. C.
Published: July 2010

Meetings of the Scottish Region, held in the St Enoch Hotel, Glasgow, on 16th February 1965, Mr B. W. Mills in the chair; and of the Manchester Region, held at the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society on 18th February 1965, Mr F. V. Davis in the chair

Experimental results are presented which show that the members of any given range of reactive dyes have a diffusion coefficientDand an exhaustion valueEwhich are roughly in inverse proportion to each other. Metal–complex dyes (1: 1 and 1: 2) and phthalocyanine metal complexes, however, show characteristic deviations in behaviour. The significance ofDandEin the padding, intermediate drying, and fixation of reactive dyes is elucidated. The theory of the padding process is discussed and the relationships betweenDandEand the ending behaviour are demonstrated. A new test for assessing the tendency to ending is described.
Chemical and Mechanical Wear of Cotton Fabric in Laundering*
Authors: VAECK S. V.
Published: July 2010

International organisations are studying the standardisation of unsoiled cotton test pieces and methods of using them for the determination of chemical damage and mechanical wear in laundering. Of particular importance is the relation between chemical attack, as measured by viscosity or fluidity changes, and the corresponding strength loss. Study of the literature reveals that the available experimental data are far from complete and that published curves differ. In order to clarify the position, loads of test pieces of two different plain–weave cotton fabrics were laundered up to 35 times, without and with hypochlorite bleach, under different conditions, and an attempt was made to find the breaking strength loss corresponding to a given fluidity increase under identical mechanical conditions.

It is concluded that, up to a 20 % strength loss, the relation between strength loss and fluidity increase is a linear one, provided that the severity of the chemical attack remains constant; above this value a curve similar to that of Clibbens and Ridge is found. In practice, however, test pieces are examined after a constant number of launderings, usually 25; consequently, low fluidity values correspond to a slow chemical attack, and high values to a rapid chemical attack. Under these conditions a curve is found that is similar to the Delft curve now under consideration for international standardisation, up toa 20% strength loss; above this value it remains similar to the curve of Clibbens and R idge.
Disulphide Bond Breakdown in Wool during High–temperature Steam Treatments
Authors: ORWELL R. L. , DATYNER A. , NICHOLLS C. H.
Published: July 2010

The extent to which cystine residues react when wool is steamed at temperatures above 10077deg;C was found to be very dependent on the pH of the wool and the temperature of the treatment, but was less sensitive to variations in the time of treatment. Extending the wool by up to 20% had no significant effect on cystine reactivity.

Lanthionine was detected in the steamed wool in amounts which corresponded, approximately mole for mole, with the cystine losses recorded for the same samples, thus indicating that, under these conditions, even when the wool is at pH 3 0, almost all the cystine undergoing modification is converted to lanthionine. Measurements of the urea–bisulphite solubility of steamed wool provided indirect evidence of lanthionine formation.

A new method of estimating lanthionine in protein hydrolysates, based on one–dimensional thin–layer chromatography combined with measurements of spot areas, is described.
Explanatory Paper on Modern Theory Theory of Dyeing
Authors: MCGREGOR R.
Published: July 2010

A clearer appreciation of the significance of the conventional standard affinity of dyeing (–μo)can be obtained if the nature of the driving forces behind dyeing in simple, model dyeing systems is analysed. It is then seen that the standard affinity of dyeing is the driving force behind dyeing in a particularly well–defined model of the dyeing system, at a particular stage of dyeing. The simple assumption that the rate of dyeing is directly proportional to the magnitude of the driving force behind dyeing provides a unifying link between the thermodynamics and the kinetics of dyeing and is consistent with modern theories of nonequilibrium thermodynamics. The extension of these ideas to an analysis of the nature of the driving forces in systems in which the rate of dyeing is determined by diffusion processes within the fibre produces a rather surprising result that reveals the true complexity of the concept of ‘affinity’ in dyeing.
The Beam Dyeing of Cotton Yarns
Authors: CHARLESWORTH A.
Published: July 2010

Presented at a Symposium on ‘Processing Textiles on Perforated Beams in the Dyehouse’ held by the Manchester Region at the Manchester College of Science and Technology, on 26th March 1965, Mr F. V. Davis in the chair

Practical aspects of the beam dyeing of cotton yarn are described. Particular attention is given to methods and machines for preparing the dyer's beam, as well as to beam–dyeing plant and the different types of circulating pump. The application of vat dyes is discussed with special reference to high–temperature dyeing, and problems associated with azoic dyeings are outlined.
A New Concept in the Use of Perforated Beams in Textile Treatments
Authors: MARSHALL W. J.
Published: July 2010

Presented at a Symposium on ‘Processing Textiles on Perforated Beams in the Dyehouse’ held by the Manchester Region at the Manchester College of Science and Technology, on 26th March 1965, Mr F. V. Davis in the chair

The full exploitation of the pad–batch process of dyeing cotton–with reactive dyes has hitherto been retarded by limitations in simple equipment for washing–off unfixed dye. This paper shows that, contrary to general belief, only small amounts of water and low flow rates are necessary, provided that sufficient time is allowed and interchange between liquor and fabric is high. A simple means for meeting these requirements is described. It consists of batching the padded material onto a perforated beam, on which it is stored for the required reaction time; unfixed dye is then washed–off by passing water slowly through the beam and running the eluant liquor to waste without recirculating. This procedure works well in practice: 5000–m batches are washed–off in 20–30 min, the water consumption being about 10 l. /kg of material, which is only about 20–50 % of the minimum wash–water requirement in conventional equipment. The significance of beam diameter in relation to batch size is discussed. The equipment is cheap in capital, labour, and running costs.
Explanatory Paper on Modern Theory
Authors: McGREGOR R.
Published: July 2010

Before the standard affinity of dyeing — Δü± can be determined, it is necessary to develop a theory of the dyeing process. This theory should indicate clearly the measurements that must be made and the manner in which they must be interpreted in order to determine — Δμ±. Each existing theory of dyeing provides a theoretical model of the dyeing process with which the behaviour of the real dyeing system may be compared. Only when the theoretical model is correct in every respect is — Δμ±, calculated with the aid of the model, a true thermodynamic variable, and only then can reliance be placed upon the values that are obtained for this parameter. From the variation of — Δμ± with the absolute temperatureT, it is possible to determine the standard heat of dyeing ΔH±, which then enables the standard entropy of dyeing ΔS± to be derived. The measurement and the significance of the thermodynamic variables — Δμ±, ΔH±, and ΔS± are discussed in detail, with particular reference to the mechanism of dyeing of synthetic‐polymer fibres with disperse dyes.
Colour and Constitution
Authors: COATES E.
Published: July 2010

An interpretation of colour is out lined and an explanation is given of the presentation of experimental data in the form of absorption spectra. Several different approaches to the modern interpretation of spectra in terms of electronic theory are indicated. Some simple quantitative methods are illustrated, but the emphasis is laid on qualitative accounts of spectral‐energy changes in well‐known classes of molecules, including dyes.
Mechanism of Reaction of Proteins with Reactive Dyes:III—Reactivity of Soluble Proteins with Chlorotriazine Dyes
Authors: SHORE J.
Published: July 2010

The reactivities of ten soluble proteins with a monochlorotriazine reactive dye were measured under various conditions and compared with those of mixtures of simple model compounds representing the reactive groups of the proteins. Both sets of results agreed wellwith reactivity curves calculated from measurements of the individual model compounds. The mechanisms of the reactions between the dye and proteins are discussed with reference to the dyeing of wool and other proteinaceous fibres.
The Behaviour of Mixtures of Disperse Dyes
Authors: HOFFMANN K. , McDOWELL W. , WEINGARTEN R.
Published: July 2010

A new explanation and new evidence are presented connecting the behaviour of mixtures of disperse dyes in dyeing and in the solid state. The ability to form mixed crystals only affects the behaviour in aqueous dispersion, since these dyes are always monomolecularly dispersed in the fibre phase.
The Synthesis and Ultraviolet Spectra of Nitrodiphenylamine Disperse Dyes III—Ultraviolet Spectra of Some Substituted 2‐ and 4‐Nitrodiphenylamines
Authors: Day M. , Peters A. T.
Published: July 2010

The ultraviolet and infrared spectral characteristics of a series of substituted 2‐ and 4‐nitrodiphenylamines are reported. Shifts in the long‐wavelength absorption band resulting from substitution into the nitrated ring of electron‐donor and electron‐acceptor groups are related to the Hammett σ values of the substituent. Substitution in the unnitrated ring has a less significant effect. The effect of solvent polarity on the spectra of both series indicates that the band is associated with a highly polar quinonoid charge‐transfer form.

The NH‐stretching frequencies of the dyes are also recorded.
Dyeing and Finishing for the Tufted‐carpet Trade
Authors: Beal W. , Lister A. , Dickinson K.
Published: July 2010

Dyeing for the tufted‐carpet trade is considered under three headings—yarn, stock or tow, and piece dyeing. Continuous and batchwise techniques are examined for most fibresused in carpets.
New Dyes and their Intermediates for Synthetic‐polymer Fibres
Authors: Peters A. T.
Published: July 2010

Halogenobenzothiazolylazo dyes were prepared by coupling diazotised halogeno‐2‐aminobenzothiazoles to N‐β‐hydroxyethyl‐N‐β‐cyanoethyl‐m‐toluidine. The colour and fastness properties of the dyes on secondary cellulose acetate and on polyester fibre are compared with respect to the position and the nature of the halogen atom. Dyes containing 4‐halogeno atoms have the highest fastness to sublimation on polyester fibres; the fastness to light of the dyes is considerably higher on secondary cellulose acetate than on polyester fibres, but differences between individual dyes are small.
Effect of Temperature on the Kinetics of Hydrolysis of Dichlorotriazinyl Reactive Dyes
Authors: Rattee I. D. , Murthy K. S.
Published: July 2010

The kinetics of the hydrolysis of dichlorotriazinyl reactive dyes have been studied over a range of temperatures and pH values. The results have been examined in accordance with the generally accepted reaction scheme, and methods of calculating the separate rate constants are described. The activation energy of hydrolysis varies with temperature and this variation is thought to be due to changes in the activity coefficient or probability factor with temperature. The equilibrium between two forms of the dye does not have the characteristics of a simple acid‐base equilibrium with respect to temperature, indicating that it may not arise from the ionisation of the imino bridging group, as has been generally supposed.
Economical and Efficient Fading Lamps*
Authors: Giles C. H. , Shah C. D. , Baillie D.
Published: July 2010

Tests have been made with over 300 dyed or pigmented materials exposed to mercury‐tungsten or mercury lamps. The colorations were of a wide range of hue and light‐fastness properties (1 to 8 and above) and in several depths on different substrates. The mercury‐tungsten fluorescent lamp (500 W) gave results identical with those obtained with daylight or xenon arclight for 75% of the very varied selection of 174 patterns examined, and 25 % were within one‐half of a grade, except for five which differed by one grade. When the blue standards are faded in this lamp (at 45% r.h.), they have an average interval factor of about 2.1. The required times of exposure are similar to those for the xenon arclight. The equipment required is extremely simple, and its initial and operating costs are considerably lower than those of methods hitherto used for testing in artificial light. The equipment can readily be used on the laboratory bench and is suitable for routine testing of the light fastness of any coloured material. In addition to the control of humidity, temperature control is possible, though this is not usually necessary. The mercury‐vapour lamp (400 W) has also been similarly examined, using 138 patterns. It is not recommended for general use but is valuable for routine sorting tests of materials of very high fastness (BS grading above 7). The blue standard patterns fade, under exposure to these lamps, in the same sequence and with similar interval spacings, as in daylight or xenon light.
Some Observations on the Concentration Dependence of Diffusion Coefficients of Acid Dyes in Nylon
Authors: Hopper M. E. , McGregor R. , Peters R. H.
Published: July 2010

The diffusion of acid dyes in nylon 6.6 film has been examined by the measurement of the concentration distribution through the film. For a series of films prepared by different methods, the shape of the distribution curve was independent of the history of the film. Dyes of different basicity have been shown to give approximately the same shape of curve, provided that the surface concentrations are the same. The variations of the concentration‐distribution curve with salt concentration and pH are given. The results are explained in terms of the electrochemical potentials of the dyes.
Dyeing and Printing by Solvent‐assisted Processes
Authors: BEAL W. , CORBISHLEY G. S. A.
Published: July 2010

The background to solvent‐assisted methods of dyeing and printing and the uses that have been found for them in practical processes in the U.K. are summarised, with particular reference to the Irga‐solvent method. In principle, the addition of a suitable solvent has the same effect as either dyeing at a higher temperature for the same time or dyeing or steaming at the same temperature for a much longer time. Wherever it is more practical to include a solvent in the dye‐liquor or printing paste rather than increase the dyeing temperature or prolong the dyeing or steaming time, then solvent‐assisted processes should be of interest.
Analysis of Factors Influencing Colour Matching in Package Dyeing
Authors: BELL J. R. , GAILEY I. , OGLESBY S.
Published: July 2010

Automated dyeing can be successfully accomplished only if all the variables that affect the final colour are held within limits that keep the accumulated effect on colour within acceptable tolerances. The number of variables is large and the magnitude of the effect of each factor on colour must be assessed in order to determine the degree of process control to be imposed on each factor to meet any prescribed standard of colour matching. A comprehensive investigation of the many variables, using a statistical factorial type of design (termed skeleton factorial design), is described. These designs reduce the experimental work to reasonable proportions and enable simple estimates to be made of the effect of each factor. Colour variations were assessed instrumentally and translated into colour‐difference terms using a uniform colour‐difference co‐ordinate system. Simulation work assessed the colour variation consequent upon random variation of groups of factors with given standard deviation. From this work, it was possible to construct limits of accuracy that had to be maintained, at each relevant process, to achieve dye lots that were within the prescribed tolerances at the end of each automated dyeing cycle.
Dyeing from Solvents
Authors: MILIĆEVIĆ B.
Published: July 2010

With model dyes and chemicals, some basic physico‐chemical phenomena of solvent dyeing are examined. Starting with properties of the solvents, different interactions between solvents and fibres, dyes and chemicals are described and the influence on the dyeing result is discussed. In conclusion, work on establishing solvent dyeing is considered as a stimulus to dyeing technology as a whole.
The Dyeing of Polyester Textile Fabric in Perchloroethylene by the Exhaust Process
Authors: GEBERT K.
Published: July 2010

The dyeing behaviour of disperse dyes in perchloroethylene is considered. In particular, the relationship between distribution equilibrium and colour yield, the effect of auxiliary solvents on colour yield, the effect of water on the dyeing mechanism, the dependence of the colour yield on the amount of water and time and temperature of dyeing, and the effect of auxiliary solvents on the colour yield in water‐containing perchloroethylene liquors are discussed. The stripping of dyes from polyester with trichloroethylene is mentioned. Finally, the selection of dyes for use in the dyeing of polyester from perchloroethylene by exhaust processes is considered. The desire for a solvent‐based dyeing process can be fulfilled. Dyeing of polyester from perchloroethylene can offer a number of technical advantages which make it a genuine alternative process to the conventional dyeing methods.
The Photochemistry of Dyes. III—Some General Processes and Techniques
Authors: EGERTON G. S. , MORGAN A. G.
Published: July 2010

The principles of electron spin resonance, flash photolysis, pulse radiolysis, photoconductivity and photopolymerisation are outlined. The nature of the results obtained from these experimental methods is described briefly.
Surface Tension of Ionised Dye Solutions
Authors: GILES C. H. , SOUTAR A. H.
Published: July 2010

Surface‐tension (γ) values of solutions of several anionic and cationic dyes in water have been measured by the ring method over a range of concentrations. All of these dyes reduce the surface tension of water, i.e. they are surface‐active, the most effective being monosulphonated and cationic dyes. Polysulphonated dyes are less effective, but even a tetrasulphonated naphthaleneazonaphthalene dye reduces γ noticeably. Addition of sodium chloride causes a further reduction of γ with a polysulphonated dye. The results suggest that all ionised dyes are surface‐active, and thus will tend to concentrate at a water interface. This may partly explain their adsorption by fibres.