bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Appendix S: Biplots, Correspondence Analysis, and Principal Components Analysis
Authors: Elizabeth Horn , Cindy Ford
Published: August 2009

Multivariate graphical displays, also known as biplots, describe relationships among “Just About Right” attributes across samples. Biplots are a visual means to show multidimensional data relationships. There are many techniques that can be used to generate the necessary data for biplots, such as principal components analysis, multidimensional scaling, correspondence analysis, and discriminant analysis. Two of these methods, correspondence analysis (CA) and principal components analysis (PCA), were considered in this case study
Appendix W: Application of JAR Data to Preference Mapping Using Dummy Variables
Authors: Xiong Rui , Meullenet Jean-Francois
Published: August 2009

The dummy variable approach is a regression method that can be applied to map relationships between JAR and liking scores. The approach models the relationship between JAR and liking variables, estimates the mean drop of Overall Liking (OL) as a function of JAR scores and determines the drivers of liking. The dummy variable approach is a very flexible method that can be performed either for individual products or for all products to determine the effects of JAR attribute scores on Overall Liking.
Appendix X: Collecting Intensity and Hedonic Information Separately
Authors: Gaskin Gloria A. , Keith Joni L.
Published: August 2009

This example utilizes attribute intensity data rather than “Just About Right” data in conjunction with Overall Liking in order to determine attribute intensities that maximize Overall Liking. For this example, previously published data were utilized [1]. By relating Overall Liking to attribute intensities on an attribute-by-attribute basis and on a product-by-product basis, information is gained regarding the drivers of Overall Liking. Simple linear regression can be used to determine an equation relating Overall Liking to attribute intensity (Overall Liking = b0 + b1 Attribute Intensity). The slope b1 measures importance. High values of b1 indicate an important attribute, while low values of b1 indicate an attribute that is less important in predicting Overall Liking [2].
Appendix Y: Designed Experiments
Authors: Parker Merry Jo , Carr B. Thomas
Published: August 2009

The objective of a designed experiment is to determine the optimal level of a variable or combination of variables within the experimental range tested. Designed experiments obviate the need for JAR scales because there is a direct link between the experimental variables and consumer response. Experimental variables are generally product ingredients or components.
Appendix Z: Ideal Scaling
Authors: Goldman Anne , Mazur Jagoda
Published: August 2009

In place of attempting to gauge attribute intensity and acceptability in one scale, ideal point modeling involves separating out the hedonic component of the response from the intensity evaluation. The “Ideal” product ratings are compared to the actual ratings. Attribute liking can be used to supplement findings from this technique.
A Comprehensive Review of Lubricant Chemistry, Technology, Selection, and Design
Authors: Rizvi Syed Q. A.
Published: August 2009

Description

Get a comprehensive overview of lubricant technology and its use in formulating new lubricants.

This unique, new ASTM manual is written from the perspectives of both chemists and lubrication engineers, and therefore places equal emphasis on the chemistry and the formulation of lubricants. In addition it includes additive technology that is used in petroleum exploration, refining, and fuels.

Manual 59 complements ASTM's Fuels and Lubricants Handbook (Manual 37) in that it integrates the information in the Handbook in a manner that will be especially useful to practicing lubrication engineers.
Hydrostatic Strength and Design Stresses for Thermoplastic Pipe with Water
Authors: Reinhart F. W.
Published: August 2009

Hydrostatic stress-time data obtained in tests with thermoplastic pipe are analyzed and interpreted. A method of extrapolation to periods greater than the actual test period is developed. A test method to develop hydrostatic design stresses, based on this data, is discussed. The plastics considered are acrylonitrile-butadicne-styrene (ABS), polyethylene (PE), poly vinyl chloride (PVC), and cellulose acetate butyrate (CAB). Data obtained at higher temperatures are discussed briefly. The above information and consideration serves as the basis for the hydrostatic design stresses now incorporated in the new standard dimension ratio-pressure rated ASTM thermoplastic pipe specifications.
Advanced Process Chromatograph and Modern Petroleum Plant Analysis and Control Requirements
Authors: Wherry T. C.
Published: August 2009

This paper describes several applications in which an advanced design process Chromatographic analyzer system is employed to meet the demanding automatic control requirements in petroleum processing plants. Information pertaining to analyzer precision, speed reproducibility, reliability, versatility, and flexibility is presented. A new concept for automating plant control laboratory Chromatographic analyses is briefly described. The expanding use of the process Chromatographic analyzer is rapidly changing the function and the instrumentation requirements of the plant control laboratory.
Automatic Blending and Inspection of Lubricating Oils at the Refinery
Authors: Neilson C. A.
Published: August 2009

A continuous lubricating oil blending facility is now in use at the Ponca City, Okla., refinery of the Continental Oil Co. The blender consists of panel systems for five components, three being for base oils and two for additives. Additive mixes are preblended to operate within the two-panel limit. Each panel component is individually metered. Ticket printers on the additive meters provide a permament record for filing. A continuous recording and controlling viscometer provides the only automatic inspection of blend properties. This viscometer utilizes a constant volume pump, constant temperature bath, fixed capillaries, and a sensitive pressure measuring device. Operation depends upon measurement of the pressure drop across a capillary as a function of viscosity under constant flow and constant temperature conditions. Numerous other specification inspections are required for lubricating oil blends, but none of these inspections have been automated to date, primarily for lack of economic justification and lack of need for continuous readings for proper quality control. A review of the possibilities of such automation is given.
Quality Assurance in Petroleum Pipeline Transfer Operations
Authors: Mason R. C.
Published: August 2009

Pipeline operations have changed radically in the past few years due to the increasing reliance on automated equipment. Although refineries have used automated stream analyzers for a number of years to control refinery processes, pipelines have not as yet exploited the use of automatic instruments to a great degree in their quality control programs. This paper discussed the present use of automated quality assurance instruments by pipelines with particular emphasis on high-volume systems transporting segregated products. In the past, pipelines have used automated test equipment almost exclusively to monitor product quality in their systems and have not relied on them for custody transfer testing. The general practice in custody transfer of products from refinery to pipeline is for the refiner to perform a full laboratory analysis on each batch of product and certify the product quality to the pipeline. The pipeline in turn performs sufficient test functions on each batch to assure itself that the product quality is not degraded between the refinery and the pipeline or while it is in the pipeline's own system. The pipeline also performs certain key tests before transfer of the products from its system to the final delivery point. This being the case, the argument is presented that automated stream analyzers are ideally suited for this type of testing, and, if reliable equipment is developed, consideration should be given to using such instruments for verification testing at custody transfer points. Assuming acceptance of automated test equipment is forthcoming, studies should be started now to determine acceptable test tolerances and standardization procedures for these units. The economics of using automated test equipment is discussed only briefly as the wide variation in pipeline sizes and operations requires that each system be considered on an individual basis.
Quality Assurance in Jet Fuel Transfer Operations
Authors: Fritz I. T.
Published: August 2009

The movement of jet fuel from a refinery to an airline located at some distance from the refining facility generally involves tankers and pipelines or terminal facilities or both. Usually the overall agreement of the fuel with test specifications is determined at the point of origin, that is, the manufacturing refinery, and tests taken subsequently are only those which are considered necessary to make certain that the fuel has not been contaminated and has not suffered any significant change in any important property. This paper presents details of typical jet fuel transportation facilities with particular attention to two areas: (1) the test procedure normally utilized to determine quality and (2) the possibility of applying automated test procedures to the measurement of certain critical characteristics at any desired sampling point. The eco- nomics of such an automated analytical installation are discussed with the conclusion that any decision to install automated quality monitoring should be made only after careful consideration of all the facts. These would include: (1) the criticality of the material and the need for continuous quality assurance and (2) the relative costs of laboratory and monitor tests. In any calculation of monitor test costs, full consideration should be given to amortization of the capital investment and to maintenance and operating expenses.
Turbine System Bearing Failures Generally Classified as the Machining Type
Authors: Karpe S. A.
Published: August 2009

During the past few years, a relatively new and unique turbine system bearing failure has been encountered in both marine and land-based turbine installations. The severity of the resultant damage usually required an extensive overhaul of the whole bearing assembly. From the appearance of bearing damage, these failures have been called “machining,” “black-scab,” or “wire-wool” failures. Because of the known consequences of this type of failure on large machinery units, a research program was initiated. The objective of the program was to determine the nature, mechanisms, and causes of these failures and to recommend remedial measures to eliminate them. This paper summarizes the results obtained from a bench-scale apparatus in which the characteristics of service failure can be simulated and reproduced consistently. Also discussed are the mechanisms of failure. On the basis of these mechanisms, various methods of protecting the bearing contact surfaces were considered and evaluated. Changes in the specifications for turbine oil and materials were submitted as findings justified them.
Fire Resistant Fluids for Steam Turbine Electrohydraulic Control Applications
Authors: Wolfe G. F. , Cohen M.
Published: August 2009

Steam turbine, high pressure, electrohydraulic control systems have been successfully operated on chlorinated aromatic fire resistant fluids containing small amounts of aryl phosphate esters and on pure phosphate ester fluids. Because the chlorinated fluids caused servovalve sticking due to corrosion effects, phosphate esters were substituted, whereupon some cases of severe servovalve erosion resulted. The use of fuller's earth filtration solved the erosion problem completely, and there have been no further problems in the last four years where recommended fitration procedures were followed. Available data indicate that the erosion was due to residual, impurity level, chlorinated materials in the phosphate ester, operating through an erosion-corrosion mechanism. Principal evidence was the presence of chlorine in the eroded areas of the servovalve, as detected by electron microprobe analysis, the presence of chlorine in all erosive fluids and isolation of acidic and chlorine-containing compounds from fuller's earth cartridges that had stopped erosion. There was no evidence for other erosion mechanisms. The applicability of various chemical analysis techniques to hydraulic fluid problems is demonstrated.
Prediction of Strength of Graphitic Material by Nondestructive Test Techniques
Authors: Fanelli L. H. , McKown R. D.
Published: August 2009

A material consisting of zirconium diboride, zirconium carbide, and silicon carbide dispersed in a continuous graphite matrix was examined by nondestructive test techniques. To improve reliability of the material, a method of predicting strength was desired. Testing consisted of bulk density, penetrant, X-ray, eddy current, and ultrasonic measurements. These were correlated with compressive and flexural strength measurements. Penetrant, X-ray, and ultrasonic measurements, as performed, did not provide any useful information for the prediction of strength. Bulk density and eddy current measurements correlated with strength. Since density (and strength) were found to vary significantly over very short distances within the material, density alone did not provide sufficient information to predict strength. However, by the use of a combination of density to determine an average strength, and eddy current readings to measure local variations in strength, it was found that the strength of a graphite part could be predicted.
Contact Microradiography of Graphite
Authors: Bunnell L. R.
Published: August 2009

This paper describes the use of contact microradiography to define and characterize the microstructure of graphite. Contact microradiography uses a thin (20 to 500 μm) specimen in contact with a finegrained photographic emulsion. The emulsion has a resolution limit of 1500 to 2000 lines/mm and can be magnified ×500 without excessive loss of detail. Because the source-to-film distance is large (about 10 in.) in comparison with the maximum specimen-to-film distance, ordinary X-ray sources can be used. Thus, most of the problems of point projection X-ray microscopy are avoided. Long wavelength X-rays were used to examine microcracks and other structural features of graphite specimens 100 μm thick. The microcrack structure and coke particle orientation were clearly visible. Direct observation of the surface had not fully defined these microcracks. The technique was also used to locate and characterize very small amounts of metal carbide in graphite-metal systems. For example, 10 μm particles of uranium dicarbide were located in graphite specimens where photomicrography had shown no carbide. Vacuum impregnation with liquids opaque to X-rays has proven useful in defining graphite pore structure. If tetrabromoethane, for example, is used, short wavelength X-rays provide an image of only the filled pores. Longer wavelengths then are used to show graphite structure and unfilled pores. Mixing resins with the tetrabromoethane will immobilize it in the specimen. Impregnating bulk samples with this mixture before thin sections are taken permits the investigation of possible access routes for chemical attack.
A Novel Infrared Nondestructive Testing Technique For Determining the Thermal Conductivity of Graphite
Authors: Schultz A. W.
Published: August 2009

A unique method has been developed for rapidly determining, nondestructively, the localized thermal conductivity, and thermal diffusivity of graphites near room temperature. The method employs transient heating and requires access to only one surface of a solid. It involves heating a small area on the surface of an apparent “semi-infinite” solid with radiant energy and simultaneously observing the parabolic-shaped temperature history of this area's center using an infrared radiometer as the sensor. This history is related to the thermal inertia of the solid, so that a comparison of it with a history for a “standard” material will yield the conductivity and diffusivity if the density and specific heat of the solid-of-interest are known. Typically, the period of time to generate a measurement is 10 s, and the temperature rise is less than 10 C. Application of this technique to coated ATJ graphite indicates that it is capable of discerning inertia differences equal to 15 per cent, conductivity differences of 15 per cent, and diffusivity differences of 10 per cent. Approximately 70 per cent of the error contributing to these precision values is caused by variability in the applied coating thickness. Precision could ultimately be expected to increase to about 3 per cent. The probable accuracy of the technique is limited to that of the standard and is about 9 per cent for an inertia measurement when calibrated against Armco iron. Three noteworthy features of this method include: (1) point-to-point conductivity/diffusivity/inertia determinations, which afford an additional tool for nondestructively evaluating material variability; (2) extension of its application to poor thermal conductors, which will increase the method's precision; and (3) probable application to materials in elevated temperature environments.
Twenty-Year Atmospheric Exposure Data
Authors: Jasper J. C. , Lawson H. H.
Published: August 2009

Bar specimen exposures of 21 different standard stainless-steel alloys were examined after a 20-yr period. Effects of atmosphere, heat treatment, composition, and surface finish were studied. Two environments were used, mild industrial at Middletown, Ohio and marine at Kure Beach, N.C. Visual appearance ratings, weight-loss data, and mechanical properties before and after exposure are presented in tabular and graphical form for most of the alloys.
Influence of Chromium on the Atmospheric-Corrosion Behavior of Steel
Authors: Schmitt R. J. , Mullen C. X.
Published: August 2009

As part of a long-range program to evaluate systematically the effects of various amounts of single alloying elements on the corrosion resistance of steel, atmospheric-corrosion tests were conducted with steels containing from 0.01 to 28 percent chromium. Specimens of the steels were exposed for periods up to 8 yr at Newark, N.J. (industrial); South Bend, Pa. (semirural); and the Kure Beach, N.C., 800-ft lot (moderate marine) and 80-ft lot (severe marine). The corrosion performance of the steels was determined by visual examination and by weight-loss and pitting measurements. The results of the study show that small amounts of chromium, up to about 2.0 percent, in steel are detrimental and decrease atmospheric-corrosion resistance. Above this level the addition of chromium to about 12 percent gradually improves corrosion resistance in industrial and semirural atmospheres. Steels containing 12 percent or more chromium are “stainless” in these environments and corrosion is practically negligible. In marine atmospheres about 15 percent chromium in steel is required before negligible corrosion losses are attained. Although slight pitting and rust staining may occur above the 15 percent level in marine atmospheres, this type of attack gradually decreases as the chromium content is increased to 28 percent.
Low-Cycle Fatigue Strength of Pressurized Components
Authors: Padlog Joseph , Rattinger Ivan
Published: August 2009

A combined experimental and analytical investigation of the low-cycle fatigue strength of pressurized tubes is described. The tubes were thin-walled, closed-ended, and fabricated of heat-treated type 403 stainless steel. Repeated pressurization of both notched and unnotched tubes over a range from zero to relatively high maximum pressure resulted in the desired low-cycle fatigue failures. Fatigue strengths were also determined for notched and unnotched, flat, axially loaded specimens of the same material subjected to correspondingly high maximum load levels. Comparisons of these results, on a maximum stress basis, indicated that the unnotched tube fatigue strength was significantly less than the axially loaded specimen fatigue strength and comparable to the fatigue strength of the axially loaded, notched specimen. Two possible theoretical approaches to the low-cycle, pressurized-component fatigue problem are described. The first approach neglects the cyclic aspects of the loading and considers only pressurization that increases monotonically to failure. The alternative procedure, specifically devised for high-cycle strengths, applies to fatigue strength under multiaxial stress conditions. Predictions based on these theories are compared with the test results, and are shown to be unsatisfactory. Areas of required analytical and experimental investigation are therefore suggested.
An Observation Concerning the Cycle Ratio in Cumulative Damage
Authors: Grover Horace J.
Published: August 2009

Life estimates for structural components subjected to repeated loads of varying stress amplitudes are usually based on some cumulative damage hypothesis. Practical calculations have often used the suggestion by Palmgren (1) and Miner (2), that ΣiniNi=1 where ni is the number of cycles applied at a stress amplitude Si, while Ni is the fatigue life at this amplitude. In many situations, predictions on the basis of Eq 1 have been wrong by more than estimated experimental error (3,4). More complex relations for estimation of cumulative damage have been proposed (for example, (4,5, and 6)). Most of these have one or more of the following limitations: 1. No physical mechanism is so clearly defined as to give the relation useful identification with concepts applicable in design. 2. Too many experimental data are required for engineering application. 3. Mathematical calculations are cumbersome. The following discussion shows some interesting implications of considering cycle ratios in the light of two separate stages in the progress of fatigue: (1) damage to the initiation of a crack, and (2) propagation of the crack to failure of the specimen or component.
X-ray Spectrographic Analysis of Metals and Minerals: Scope and Limitations of Quantitative Analysis
Authors: Kemp J. W.
Published: August 2009

The past ten years have seen an important increase in the application of X-ray spectroscopy to routine analysis of metals and minerals. This expansion is well documented in the series of review articles by Liebhafsky et al, appearing regularly in Analytical Chemistry (1–7). In 1951 (1) and 1952 (2) these reviews were entitled “X-ray Absorption,” and in each of the two years contained two references to X-ray fluorescence techniques. By 1954 (3) the title of the review had been changed to “X-ray Absorption and Emission” and the major portion of it consisted of references to X-ray fluorescence techniques. By 1962 (7) the X-ray emission field had expanded to the point where some 90 per cent of the over 400 references cited in the review article were reports concerned with X-ray fluorescence or direct emission instruments and techniques. It is intended here to review the advances over the past ten years in the analytical capabilities of the X-ray emission technique. These advances in capabilities, however, arise from improvements in instrumentation and in basic analytical procedures. It is necessary, then, to review these two topics in order to account for the present capabilities of the technique. It should be noted also that the problems are not all solved. In particular, there are two important ones remaining—one in the field of instrumentation and the other in the field of methods. Improved means of exciting and detecting the X-ray spectra of elements of low atomic number are needed. In connection with basic methods, more information is needed on the effect of surface finish of metal specimens on an X-ray analysis and of the effect of specimen grinding on the analysis of various types of nonmetallic materials.
Fluorescent X-ray Spectrographic Analysis of Trace Elements, Including Thin Films
Authors: Campbell William J.
Published: August 2009

Limits of detectability for trace elements in metal, powder, and solution samples range from 0.1 to 100 ppm depending on the element being determined, sample composition, and the complexity of the X-ray spectra. The limits of detectability range from 0.01 to 10 μg for elements that have been preconcentrated chemically in a form suitable for X-ray spectrographic determination.
Summary of Papers on X-ray Spectrochemical Analysis
Authors: Michaelis R. E.
Published: August 2009

The main purpose of this summary covering the papers on X-ray Spectrochemical Analysis and the summary of the papers covering Electron Probe Analysis is to emphasize important points covered in the respective papers. The three papers that comprise the first session deal mainly with the basic instrumentation of X-ray spectrochemical analysis—production of X-rays, X-ray (and electron probe) optics, and X-ray detectors and counting techniques. The papers in the second session cover the applications of X-ray spectrochemical; analysis to metals and minerals, trace elements including thin films, and liquids and solutions. The first major point to be emphasized is that X-ray equipment has been developed and is commercially available to provide analysis of many materials. As is true of other analytical methods, however, X-ray spectrochemical methods have definite advantages and disadvantages, each of which must be evaluated fully with respect to the specific analytical problem. In view of the complexity associated with most analytical problems today, the analyst is finding it increasingly difficult to apply only one analytical technique to the solution of his problems. It is certain that the addition of X-ray spectrochemical equipment to a laboratory will enable the chemist to perform his analysis better. Absorption and enhancement effects (commonly referred to as interelement effects) offer the major source of difficulty in obtaining quantitative X-ray spectrochemical results. Most of the present papers touch on this subject and several corrective measures are described. It is pointed out that absorption effects that can be determined accurately with monochromatic X-rays can also be estimated fairly well with polychromatic X-ray excitation. Enhancement effects, however, are more difficult to evaluate and correction calculations can become quite complex.
Comparison of X-ray Fluorescence and Electron Probe Methods: Future Trends
Authors: Birks L. S.
Published: August 2009

At present, X-ray fluorescence and electron probe analysis are suitable for all atomic numbers down to 11 (Na). Precision for major constituents is about 1 per cent of the amount present for X-ray fluorescence but 3 to 5 per cent for electron probe analysis because of the relatively higher background. The limit of detectability is about 1 ppm or 10−8 g for X-ray fluorescence and about 100 ppm or 10−14 g for the electron probe. A number of improvements are likely in the near future that will extend the present limit considerably. These include: (1) measurement of the elements from boron to fluorine, (2) specimen pretreatment by techniques especially designed for X-ray analysis rather than wet chemistry, (3) selective excitation and detection of X-rays from only a few desired elements in a complex specimen, and (4) use of high-speed computers with suitably designed mathematics to eliminate the requirement for known comparison standards in quantitative analysis.
Electron Probe Analysis in Metallurgical Research
Authors: Heinrich Kurt F. J.
Published: August 2009

At the time of the advent of the electron probe microanalyzer, this instrument was considered primarily a tool for metallurgical research (l,2). Since then the domain of its application has been extended to several other fields, although metallurgy is still its main area of use. In a recent bibliographic review (3) 76 references to metallurgical applications are listed, while only 26 publications mentioned refer to mineralogical and biological applications. In his doctoral thesis in 1951 (2) Castaing outlined its use for intermetallic diffusion, microsegregation, study of inclusions, and lattice parameter measurements by the Kossel line technique. While the analytical technique then proposed by him has remained essentially unchanged, technical improvements and implementations of the instrument have widened its field of application. Extension of the spectral range to 10 A has increased the number of elements amenable to electron probe analysis, adding the important group from chlorine to magnesium. The possibility of further advance to incorporate oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon (4) is probably the most exciting prospect for the near future. Another important innovation is the creation of the scanning electron microprobe (S) that combines the features of the static electron probe and those of the scanning electron microscope proposed by von Ardenne (6) and further developed in England (7). The advantages of electron beam scanning for metallurgical applications were conclusively shown by Melford and Duncumb (8), and a similar device based on mechanical movement of the specimen was recently developed in France (9). Equally relevant is the increasing availability of highly sophisticated and efficient commercially built instruments now manufactured in the United States, France, England, and Japan. Consequently the number of microprobes used in metallurgical establishments is increasing at an impressive rate.
Summary of Papers on the Electron Probe
Authors: Wyman LeRoy L.
Published: August 2009

One of the principal reasons for holding a symposium such as this is to evaluate progress in a particular line of endeavor and to make some attempt to foresee the future. Metallography, as one recognizes that branch of metallurgy, is now approximately a century old. During all of this time metallographers have been increasingly aware of the need for a means of determining the composition of separate phases in situ in the microstructure they have been studying. In fact, a tremendous amount of effort has been expended in trying to obtain such essential data by various elaborate indirect methods.
Modern Electroforming Solutions and Their Applications
Authors: Diggin Myron B.
Published: August 2009

The criteria for the choice of an electrolyte for producing electroforms are: (1) physical, mechanical, and chemical properties required for each specific application, (2) permissible rate of deposition, (3) stability of the electrolyte and ease of management and control, and (4) costs in comparison with conventional fabrication methods. Properties of the deposits for various applications dictate the type of metal or alloy selected, the specific electrolyte to be employed, and the operating conditions of the bath. Significant physical, mechanical, and chemical properties of the resulting electroform which must be considered are: 1. Hardness—for wear and erosion resistance. 2. Internal stress—high internal stress, either tensile or compressive, may cause cracking, distortion, spontaneous wrinkling, or peeling from the matrix or mandrel. 3. Ductility—a brittle electroform is useless. 4. Electrical conductivity—an important factor in certain electroforms used in electronics and space vehicle components. 5. Thermal conductivity—especially important in producing plastic molds when rapid heating and cooling cycles are employed. 6. Corrosion resistance to environment—chemicals, heat, moisture. 7. Coefficient of friction—important where the electroform is used as a moving part against other surfaces. 8. Performance at extremely high or low temperatures. Some of the properties listed above do not have any significance for certain applications but usually several must fall within a predetermined range.
Physical and Mechanical Properties of Electroformed Nickel at Elevated and Subzero Temperatures
Authors: Sample C. H. , Knapp B. B.
Published: August 2009

Electroforming is a well-established electrodeposition process for producing both simple and complex shaped articles to extremely close dimensional tolerances and to exacting surface requirements. The process is applicable to the production of not only small, thin-walled parts but also large objects of substantial cross-section. There are considerable data in the literature on mechanical properties of electroformed nickel at room temperature (1–4), but very little information is available on properties at elevated or subzero temperatures. The lack of such data has been a serious handicap to design engineers and electroformers. Consequently a research program was initiated to provide pertinent information for nickel deposited from a few typical but basically different plating baths, which are known to yield deposits of differing microstructures and mechanical properties at room temperature. The purpose of this paper is to present the information accumulated to date.
Manufacture of Typing Wheels and Other Electroformed Piece Parts
Authors: Franks K. W.
Published: August 2009

Electroforming techniques were developed in the manufacture of specific piece parts with requirements that would have been difficult to maintain by conventional manufacturing methods. The new process, which involves the use of standard acid copper and sulfamate nickel baths, resulted in a number of advantages such as cost reduction, uniformity of parts, and reduction in tool investment.
Electroforming Supersonic Pitot-Static Tubes
Authors: Savage F. K. , Bommerscheim C. H.
Published: August 2009

A pitot-static tube or “boom” is a device mounted on the leading edge of an airplane ahead of any possible source of turbulence produced by other airplane surfaces. There are two uses for this tube. One is to report to the altimeter the static air pressure, due to plane altitude, from which the actual altitude may be determined if the barometric pressure is known—hence the word static. The other use is to measure plane velocity. The word pitot comes from the surname of Henri Pitot, a French physicist who lived between 1695 and 1771. Pitot invented an instrument for measuring the velocity of a fluid by measuring the difference between the pressure exerted upon a surface facing the flow and that upon one tangent to the flow. This instrument has been adapted to the measurement of the speed of airplanes. The pitot part of the tube feeds data to the air speed indicator. A later use of the pitot tube was developed by mounting a tube in the air stream inside a jet engine to measure gas flow velocity. A pitot-static tube is therefore an instrument to aid in measuring both the speed and the altitude of an airplane.
Electroforming: Current and Future Requirements of Our Aerospace Industry
Authors: Smith K. R.
Published: August 2009

For almost 100 years the National Academy of Sciences has been serving our national interests in major scientific areas. Through its National Research Council, the Academy has broadened its base to include investigative work in all areas pertaining to both national defense and scientific growth. The Materials Advisory Board, which serves the National Research Council, was established in 1951 to expand the scope of its studies, with particular emphasis on engineering and industrial research. The actual work of the Board is done by committees and panels made up of about 400 members chosen from Government, universities, research groups, and industry. The Panel we are concerned with is the Aerospace Manufacturing Techniques Panel. The Academy has been making studies of manufacturing methods for several years; but it was not until 1960 that the AMT Panel came into full operation. It was formed for one specific purpose—to serve the immediate and future requirements of the Aerospace Industry. The scope of the AMT Panel covers requirements for aircraft, missile, and space vehicle manufacturing.
Introduction
Authors: Pedrick A. S.
Published: August 2009

Research on railroads takes many forms. New and improved materials must be evaluated. New testing procedures have to be developed. Technological developments must be examined to see if they are applicable to railroads. Facilities must be studied for possible improvements to meet the requirements of modern railroad operations and maintenance. Maintenance must be made more efficient by centralizing, building new facilities, and automating. In the first paper in this volume, E. Lenzin and F. H. Stengele discuss the importance of cleaning in the maintenance of railroad equipment. New facilities were designed for centralized servicing and rebuilding of diesel locomotives on the Southern Pacific Railroad. The authors describe both the cleaning operations that were automated in order to meet maintenance requirements with reasonable cost and the special cleaning equipment. R. McBrian and C. O. Penney discuss the design of improved rail sections of the Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad, developed as an outgrowth of photoelastic stress analysis techniques, which were applied to the study of rail loads and stresses. Various factors related to rail service life and rail failures are mentioned, together with nondestructive testing and inspection techniques used to detect such failures in their incipient stages. Some unsolved problems relating to rail testing and inspection are also presented.
Research and Rail Inspection
Authors: McBrian R. , Penney C. O.
Published: August 2009

This paper deals with the design and development of improved rail sections by the Denver and Rio Grande Western R.R., as an outgrowth of photoelastic stress analysis techniques which were applied to the study of rail loads and stresses. Various factors related to rail service life and rail failures are discussed, together with various nondestructive testing and inspection techniques utilized by the Rio Grande Railroad to detect such failures in their incipient stages. Some of the unsolved problems relating to rail testing and inspection are also presented.
Functions and Design of a Research and Control Facility for Railroad Diesel Locomotives
Authors: Thomas E. R.
Published: August 2009

The goal of the Southern Pacific Railroad laboratory is a research and control program for reducing maintenance costs of diesel engines with future service as an important consideration. The Southern Pacific Railroad has undergone the transition from wood to coal to diesel fuels. It has evolved from a company that was required to maintain many secondary industries to support the main railroad function. Rolling mills, foundries, and chemical plants owned and operated by the railroad, to supply its own materials have become unnecessary, because of the growth of more efficient complements outside the company. The railroad industry is concerned with providing the most efficient form of transportation, whether it be by rail, pipeline, truck, or a combination of these, such as piggyback.
Research for Better Timber Railroad Bridges
Authors: Ruble E. J. , Drew F. P.
Published: August 2009

The rapid expansion of the American railroads in the past century was made possible by the extensive use of timber in bridge and track construction. The fact that even today about 40 per cent of our total bridge mileage is of timber is evidence that this type of construction is safe, economical, and practical. If all the timber railroad bridges were placed end to end, they would extend for about 1800 miles, which is about the same as the mileage of steel bridges and twice that of concrete bridges. Timber bridges are generally renewed in kind; one large western railroad is renewing timber trestles at the rate of 7000 ft per year. A typical timber trestle consists essentially of piles, caps, stringers, and ties. Six piles are often used in each bent with the outside piles battered to provide additional lateral stability. The bents may be spaced at 14 ft and have 14- by 14-in. by 14-ft caps to distribute the live load to the piles. The ties carrying the rails rest on two chords, each chord made up of five 8- by 16-in. by 28-ft timber stringers. The stringers are interlaced so that at least two of the stringers are continuous over one bent. The structure is braced laterally and longitudinally with 3- by 8-in. timbers bolted to the piles. On high structures, additional horizontal timbers, called sash bracing, are used. There are many variations. In many cases a solid floor is placed on the stringers to carry a ballasted deck. Many trestles on secondary lines have four- or even three-ply chords supported on four-pile bents. Another interesting and economical timber structure, shown in Fig. 1, consists of 60-ft laminated timber girders, carries heavy logging trains of the Weyerhaeuser Timber Co., and is located near Longview, Wash. This is the longest timber girder span in this country carrying railroad loading. Incidentally, the railroads have had several experimental timber trestles in service for 17 years where the stringers and caps are of laminated timbers. An inspection of these trestles has shown that the laminated timbers were in excellent condition with no indication of checking.
Fire and Explosion Hazards of Peroxy Compounds
Authors: Castrantas H. M. , Banerjee D. K. , Noller D. C.
Published: August 2009

The detonation theory is used to clarify the explosive characteristics of both organic and inorganic peroxy compounds. Some typical accidents are described. The hazards involved in the use of a large number of peroxy compounds are tabulated for use by laboratory workers handling these compounds for the first time. All commercially available peroxides are covered together with those that may be synthesized for occasional use in the laboratory. One hundred and thirty-four references are included.
Introduction
Authors: Schwartzberg Fred R.
Published: August 2009

The behavior of materials at cryogenic temperatures has become an important area of our technology during the last decade. In recent years, a wealth of data, particularly mechanical property data, has been generated on the properties of numerous materials at very low temperatures. These data have been primarily of a phenomenological nature; significantly less attention has been devoted to gaining an understanding of these phenomena. As our first entry into the area of cryogenics, the phenomenological approach was justified, particularly since many materials were suitable for cryogenic service and merely required testing to determine design properties. However, future developments in the cryogenic materials field will require more thorough fundamental understanding of behavior. The objective of this symposium was to provide the technical community with a convenient base for developing such an understanding. In the first paper, Kula and DeSisto review the factors governing plastic behavior at low temperatures. Following a phenomenological presentation of behavior, such as serrated yielding and effect of crystal structure, the authors present fundamental discussions of the mechanisms associated with these characteristics. Wessel presents a discussion of the basic factors governing fracture of metals and then proceeds to show that fracture data can be used to establish performance characteristics of structures.
Some Basic and Engineering Considerations Regarding the Fracture of Metals at Cryogenic Temperatures
Authors: Wessel E. T.
Published: August 2009

In this paper, factors affecting the fracture characteristics of metals at cryogenic temperatures are reviewed, and the use of fracture mechanics for predicting performance of defect-containing structures is discussed. The phenomenon of serrated yielding and the effect of phase transformations on cryogenic properties are also discussed. At cryogenic temperatures, the resistance to plastic flow of body-centered-cubic metals and most close-packed-hexagonal metals increases sharply. This increased resistance causes a corresponding decrease in fracture strength. At these subtransition temperatures, brittle fracture strength is always less than the extrapolated yield strength, and only microscopic amounts of plastic deformation precede fracture. Data from smooth-tension, notched-tension, and cracked-plate tests performed on a Ni-Mo-V forging steel indicate that the temperature and stress at which fracture occurs is strongly dependent on the severity of the test conditions—the size and acuity of defects. Since fracture strength is a variable quantity, load-bearing capacity is better evaluated using fracture toughness, a basic material parameter. Quantitative predictions of load-bearing capacity can be made using the fracture-toughness parameter with expressions relating to toughness, defect size, applied stress, and relative geometry.
Effect of Metallurgical Variables on the Superconducting Properties of Metals and Alloys
Authors: Schadler H. W. , Livingston J. W.
Published: August 2009

This paper reviews the present understanding of the effects of metallurgical variables (composition, mechanical and thermal history, state of strain, etc.) on the superconducting properties of metals, alloys, and intermetallic compounds. The discovery of the persistence of superconductivity to high magnetic fields in 1961 initiated a revolution in the understanding of superconductivity. Previously, any materials departing from the simple behavior of “soft” or Type I superconductors were called “hard” superconductors, and their properties, although sometimes characterized, were never explained or exploited. We now realize that some of this “hard” behavior resulted from Type II superconductivity, some from a superconducting surface sheath, and some from specimen inhomogeneities. These concepts are reviewed briefly, and the effects of metallurgical variables on superconducting properties are explained in terms of these concepts where possible. The extreme structure sensitivity of superconducting properties has illuminated the need for further understanding of structure-property relations in superconductors and has given the metallurgist a unique opportunity to contribute both to the understanding and to the economic use of superconducting materials.
Thermophysical Properties of Metals at Cryogenic Temperatures
Authors: Powell Robert L.
Published: August 2009

This paper is concerned with the specific heat and thermal conductivity of metals at cryogenic temperatures. A review of previous studies is complemented by the author's experience. Two internal energy forces affect specific heat—lattice interactions and electronic interactions. Since the lattice specific heat is related to T3, it is very small at very low temperatures. The total conductivity of a metal is the sum of the electron thermal conductivity and the lattice thermal conductivity. Two factors that reduce electronic thermal conductivity are scattering of conduction electrons by thermal vibrations in the lattice, and scattering of electrons by defects and impurities present in the lattice. It is not yet possible to accurately predict thermal conductivity from fundamentals, but it is possible to make adequate predictions from thermal properties or electrical resistance of similar materials.