bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
LASER IGNITION OF OIL SPILLS
Authors: Whittaker Harry
Published: January 2013

A major oil spill in the Arctic, whether from a tanker or an oil rig, could result in large concentrations of oil among broken ice and/or thousands of oiled melt pools. The remoteness of the area and the inadequacy of other countermeasures make in-situ burning the only possible response. Helicopter-deployable igniters have been developed to ignite the oil, but studies have shown that use of these devices has severe logistical constraints. The use of a helicopter-borne laser system as an alternative to, or in conjunction with, the igniters has been pursued from conceptual development to completion of the engineering design phase.

The concept was examined by theoretical analysis combined with laboratory studies. This work indicated that a dual-laser system would ignite both fresh and weathered crude oils at temperatures representative of an arctic spring or fall day.

A series of outdoor experiments was carried out in Kanata, Ontario, Canada, in March 1985. These experiments, under climatic conditions very similar to those in the Canadian Arctic in June, demonstrated that a two-laser system would ignite both fresh and weathered crudes.

An engineering feasibility and design study was undertaken. The study confirmed that a system having the required performance can be assembled from existing, proven hardware and operated effectively from a helicopter.

The development of the laser ignition of oil spills from concept through engineering design is described.
A TECHNIQUE FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF UNDER-ICE ROUGHNESS TO DETERMINE OIL STORAGE VOLUMES
Authors: Goodman R. H. , Holoboff A. G. , Daley T. W. , Waddell P. , Murdock L. D. , Fingas M.
Published: January 2013

To plan an oil spill response in ice-covered regions, it is vital to know the area of ice exposed to oil and the spatial extent of the spill. The parameter that characterizes this spatial extent is the storage volume, which has units of m3/m2, and is the average oil thickness under the ice. The critical parameters controlling this thickness are oil properties, the under-ice microlayer current regime, and the spatial roughness of the ice-water interface.
THE PERSISTENCE OF OIL STRANDED ON SEDIMENT SHORELINES
Authors: Little D. I. , Scales D. L.
Published: January 2013

The objectives of this field experiment were to observe the behavior and measure the residence times of crude oil and mousse applied to a wide range of shorelines. The range of residence times measured (from 3 days to more than 1 year), depended on the energy level, drainage, and sediment textural gradients. As would be expected, self-cleaning was generally faster on more exposed or waterlogged sandy beaches than on sheltered, muddy shores. Wet weather, the presence of microflora, and burial by sediments all affected the ease of visual identification of oil. Estimates of residence times from hydrocarbon analysis were therefore longer than those based on visual survey, except where large, immobile pebbles were oil coated. However, the two estimates produced a similar rank order of residence time. Mousse treatments resulted in more patchy oil distribution and less deep but more variable infiltration than did the crude oil. Visible contamination by the mousse was longer lasting and more obvious. Some oil treatments increased the firmness of the surface sediments and may thus have increased oil residence time. Poor drainage provides hydrological protection for sediments by limiting oil adherence and penetration, which is more or less independent of sediment type, compaction, and degree of exposure. Agreement with a published vulnerability index was otherwise good.
AN OVERVIEW: REHABILITATION OF OIL CONTAMINATED BIRDS
Authors: Frink Lynne
Published: January 2013

This illustrated talk reviews twenty years of efforts of oiled bird rehabilitation in this country and abroad. The internal and external effects of oil on waterbirds are presented. Planning for oil spill crises, agency interactions following an oil spill, and techniques for dealing with the public and media are discussed.
PROTECTING AN ISLAND'S DRINKING WATER AND DESALINATION PLANT
Authors: Kruth David J. , Overton Edward , Murphy John
Published: January 2013

On February 6, 1986, the barge St. Thomas struck a submerged piling in Crown Bay, St. Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands. It is estimated that up to 70,000 gallons of an intermediate fuel oil were spilled from both this initial incident and a secondary spill which occurred the following day in Charlotte Amalie Harbor. The spilled oil threatened the island's primary source of drinking water: the desalination plant. St. Thomas' only alternative source of fresh water is rain water collected in cisterns. Due to its limited supply, potable drinking water is a precious commodity in the Caribbean Islands, and protection of the desalination plant became a crucial part of the spill response.

When officials in charge of the desalination plant believed that oil had entered the plant's intakes, they shut down the desalination plant. Residents were warned by local officials not to drink the water to avoid serious health effects. The island's hospital feared their water supply had become contaminated and began using emergency bottled water. The Commissioner of Public Works reported that the island had less than four days of water remaining in storage.

This paper discusses how the contaminated drinking water problem was resolved. Details are provided about the sampling methods and chemical analysis used in determining the water quality. Possible effects of oil on the two most common types of desalination plants are addressed. Monitoring and protection techniques are suggested for these desalination plants. Finally, a checklist is provided for oil spills which threaten desalination plants.
ESTIMATING MORTALITY OF SEABIRDS FROM OIL SPILLS
Authors: Ford R. Glenn , Page Gary W. , Carter Harry R.
Published: January 2013

From an aesthetic and damage assessment standpoint, the loss of seabirds may be one of the more important results of a marine oil spill. Assessment of the actual numbers of seabirds killed is difficult because the bodies of dead or incapacitated seabirds are often never found or recorded. We present a computer methodology that estimates the number of birds that come in contact with an oil spill and partitions these birds among four possible fates: (1) swimming or flying ashore under their own power; (2) carried out to sea by winds and currents; (3) carried inshore, but lost before being beached; and (4) beached by winds and currents. Beached birds are further divided into those that are recovered and those that are not. The accuracy of the methodology is examined using data for two recent spills in central California, each of which resulted in the beachings of large numbers of birds. The methodology also has potential application to real-time emergency response by predicting when and where the greatest numbers of bird beachings will occur.
UNDERGROUND STORAGE TANK CORRECTIVE ACTION TECHNOLOGIES
Authors: Ammon Douglas C. , Cochran S. Robert
Published: January 2013

Of the estimated 1.4 million underground petroleum and chemical storage tanks in the United States, between 100,000 and 400,000 may leak. The average cleanup cost is estimated by industry sources at $70,000, but corrective action may cost more than $1 million if water supplies are affected. Leaks can occur for several reasons, the most common of which is corrosion of the tank or associated piping systems. To detect leaks, a tank monitoring program can use any of four methods: (1) volumetric (quantitative) leak testing; (2) qualitative leak testing; (3) inventory controls; and (4) environmental effects monitoring, in which wells outside the tank are tested.

Response to an underground storage tank leak takes two forms: the initial response to control immediate impacts, and permanent corrective measures. To be effective, the initial response technologies should be in place within hours of the discovered release. Such action usually consists of removing any remaining product in the tank and minimizing immediate risk to public health and the environment. Permanent corrective action focuses on site characterization and assessment to determine the need for further action, on calculation of transport rates, on assessment of the hazard to the environment and public, and on collection of data for selecting and designing further corrective actions.
PNEUMATIC HAMMER SOIL VAPOR PROBES AND MINIATURE PIEZOMETERS FOR GASOLINE SPILL DELINEATION AND CLEANUP
Authors: Kerfoot William B. , Soderberg Jon R.
Published: January 2013

In a new twist on an old procedure, pneumatically injected miniature well points may change soil investigations much as nail guns have changed carpentry. Soil vapor analysis has increasingly gained attention as a means of locating and monitoring subsurface gasoline spills. Accurate depiction of the plume position requires reproducible vapor detection and monitoring. In addition, static water level needs to be determined to understand flow direction.

Miniature aluminum slitted well points can be mass-produced by computer-aided production facilities to create low-cost identical copies about 10 cm in length. The small points can be inserted into shafts and injected into the ground. The shaft is then pulled back, leaving a flexible teflon or polypropylene tubing attached.

A gasoline spill at Falmouth, Cape Cod, Massachusetts, provided an opportunity to test the use of the injected “shield” points. More than 40 vapor points were installed in two days during four transects across a product plume located 10 m below grade.
TECHNOLOGIES FOR THE REMOTE DETECTION OF HYDROCARBONS IN THE SUBSURFACE
Authors: McCarthy Mike , Denahan Barbara J. , Herbert John R.
Published: January 2013

An increase in the frequency of hydrogeologic assessments in response to hydrocarbon losses from storage systems has prompted this research effort to evaluate economical and effective remote detection techniques. Two general technology groups were evaluated for their ability to detect the contaminant as well as their cost effectiveness. These technologies include soil gas and geophysical techniques. The soil gas techniques evaluated included active and passive procedures. The geophysical technologies which were evaluated on the basis of the same criteria included electromagnetic surveys, resistivity, and ground penetrating radar. This paper describes the interference factors associated with each technique and the relative costs of the technologies given the same set of assumptions.
MANAGEMENT ELEMENTS OF RESPONSE TO MAJOR MARITIME OIL SPILLS
Authors: Gallagher John J.
Published: January 2013

Implementing oil spill contingency plans in the event of a major maritime spill demands the kind of strategic and tactical planning and execution seen in military operations. Essential elements of a spill response include such diverse considerations as the initial cleanup actions best-suited for a particular situation, potential legal and economic liabilities under law, the environmental and economic sensitivities of the spill area, selection of contractors and materials for cleanup operations, proper scientific and technical support, and close liaison with federal, state and local government agencies involved in a spill or potential spill. The manager of a spill response must be able to handle every aspect of the response short of litigation, performing a “balancing act” to keep governments and the public satisfied, and to keep owner costs and liabilities to a minimum.
EVALUATION OF THE ACCURACY OF VOLUMETRIC LEAK DETECTION METHODS FOR UNDERGROUND STORAGE TANKS CONTAINING GASOLINE1
Authors: Maresca Joseph W. , Starr James W. , Roach Robert D. , Farlow John S.
Published: January 2013

A United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) research program evaluated the current performance of commercially available volumetric test methods for the detection of small leaks in underground gasoline storage tanks. The evaluations were performed at the EPA Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory's Underground Storage Tank Test Apparatus in Edison, New Jersey.

The methodology used for evaluation made it possible to determine and resolve most of the technological and engineering issues associated with volumetric leak detection, as well as to define the current practice of commercially available test methods. The approach used (1) experimentally validated models of the important sources of ambient noise that affect volume changes in nonleaking and leaking tanks, (2) a large data base of product-temperature changes that result from the delivery of product to a tank at a different temperature than the product in the tank, and (3) a mathematical model of each test method to estimate the performance of that method. The test-method model includes the instrumentation noise, the configuration of the sensors, the test protocol, the data analysis algorithms, and the detection criterion.

Twenty-five commercially available volumetric leak detection systems were evaluated. The leak rate measurable by these systems ranged from 0.26 to 6.78 L/h (0.07 to 1.79 gal/h), with a probability of detection of 0.95 and a probability of false alarm of 0.05. Five methods achieved a performance between 0.19 L/h (0.05 gal/h) and 0.57 L/h (0.15 gal/h). Only one method was able to detect leaks less than 0.57 L/h (0.15 gal/h) if the probability of detection was increased to 0.99 and the probability of false alarm was decreased to 0.01. The measurable leak rates ranged from 0.45 to 12.94 L/h (0.12 to 3.42 gal/h) with these more stringent detection and false alarm parameters.

The performance of the methods evaluated was primarily limited by test protocol, operational sensor configuration, data analysis, and calibration, rather than by hardware. The experimental analysis and model calculations suggested that substantial performance improvements can be realized by making procedural changes. With modifications, it is estimated that more than 60 percent of the methods should be able to achieve a probability of detection of 0.99 and a probability of false alarm of 0.01 for leak rates between 0.19 L/h (0.05 gal/h) and 0.56 L/h (0.15 gal/h), and 100 percent should be able to achieve this performance for leak rates of approximately 0.76 L/h (0.20 gal/h).
THE ASHLAND OIL SPILL OF JANUARY 1988: AN EPA PERSPECTIVE
Authors: Laskowski Stanley L. , Voltaggio Thomas C.
Published: January 2013

The Ashland oil spill of January, 1988 near Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, was one of the largest inland releases of oil in U.S. history. The response to this release lasted over a month and involved the combined resources of government, industry, and the public. This paper discusses the spill incident, the response, and the causes of the release; an inquiry into the regulatory aspects of this incident is continuing and is not a focus here.

The major issues brought out in the response to the release were the determination of the cause of the release, the role that the responsible party played in the cleanup efforts, the role of the first responders to the release, and the role that governmental agencies played in maintaining adequate water supplies to the many communities which take their drinking water from the Monongahela and Ohio rivers.

The response to the release and the methods which were used to track the plume and provide early warning to downstream users, as well as the active role played by the Regional Response Team in coordinating the many governmental entities involved are described.
ENHANCEMENT OF THE NATURAL BIODEGRADATION OF CONDENSATE AND CRUDE OIL ON BEACHES OF ATLANTIC CANADA
Authors: Lee Kenneth , Levy Eric M.
Published: January 2013

Low-energy coastal systems are considered among the most sensitive of marine ecosystems to oil spills because of their vulnerability to oil stranding and the difficulty in cleanup. Field experiments, in an aerobic intertidal sand-beach environment, demonstrated that the biodegradation of Scotian Shelf condensate and Hibernia crude oil can be substantially accelerated by periodic application of agricultural fertilizers. Due to the diauxic growth response of microorganisms, similar applications of an oleophilic nutrient mixture were found to be less effective.
AMOCO CADIZ LITIGATION: SUMMARY OF THE 1988 COURT DECISION
Authors: Gundlach Erich R.
Published: January 2013

In January 1988, Judge Frank McGarr of the United States District Court in Chicago presented the decision concerning all claims by the French government, local communes, fisheries groups, and other parties, concerning the financial liability of the Amoco parties for damages related to the Amoco Cadiz oil spill of March 1978. Several categories of claims, including lost image, lost enjoyment, and ecological damage were eliminated as being uncognizable under French law. Claims for unpaid volunteers who worked on the spill were also eliminated. Most other categories were substantially reduced for a variety of factors including exaggeration, lack of evidence, double billing of certain claims against Amoco Cadiz and the Tanio spill of two years later, and the inability to attribute damage directly to Amoco Cadiz.

This paper summarizes the major claims and awards, and discusses the court's decision. Altogether, the court recognized 252.8 million francs of claims against Amoco, plus interest compounded annually at the rate of 7.22 percent since December 31, 1979. Utilizing the current exchange rate (6.28 francs/U.S. dollars) yields an approximate judgment of $40.26 million in claims and $35 million in interest through December 1988. The judgment is expected to be appealed by both sides.
THE CABO PILAR GROUNDING AND OIL SPILL
Authors: Pizarro Francisco
Published: January 2013

The carrier Cabo Pilar, 31,781 gt, 249 m in length, flying the Chilean flag, grounded at Punta Davis, Chile, on the Magellan Strait on October 8, 1987, loaded with 70,347.8 m3 of ENAP crude oil. The area is a desolate zone without inhabitants. However, there are many places where king crabs and other shellfish are harvested. Weather conditions are normally bad, with prevailing winds from the northwest, of force 6 to 8, and sometimes up to force 12. As a result of the impact, some tanks were damaged and open to the sea and 6,500 m3 of crude oil and bunkers were spilled. Maritime authorities undertook control and preventive measures, and dispersants were sprayed one day after the ship stranded, during low tides. They also ordered cleanup of the Abra Canal, where most of the untreated oil covered some rock and stone beaches. The University of Magallanes carried out an environmental study of the area three months after the ship was refloated.
ESTABLISHING A WILDLIFE RESPONSE AFTER THE ASHLAND OIL SPILL
Authors: Frink Lynne , Dalton Mary Jane
Published: January 2013

On January 2, 1988, an Ashland Oil Company storage tank in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, ruptured, spilling about 750,000 gallons of No. 2 diesel fuel into the Monongahela River. This spill, the largest documented inland oil spill in history, occurred in an area that was unprepared for this kind of environmental disaster.

Tri-State Bird Rescue & Research, Inc., was requested by state and federal authorities to establish a wildlife response plan, set up a treatment center, and train professionals and volunteers to treat contaminated wildlife.

Using previously developed training packets and supplies lists, Tri-State personnel established task forces, trained volunteers in tested medical protocols, equipped a center, and began treating birds within 12 hours of their arrival at the scene. While only 5 percent of the birds affected could be retrieved, 94 percent of the birds retrieved were successfully treated, released, and subsequently monitored in the wild.

This paper focuses on the need for rapid response, adherence to protocols, interagency communication, and hands-on experience in establishing a successful response to wildlife contaminated by oil.
Efficiency of Selected Oil Skimming Systems in Irregular Seas
Authors: Clauss G. F. , Kühnlein W. L.
Published: January 2013

In offshore oil spills a very thin oil layer has to be skimmed off from the sea surface. Generally this operation has to be carried out in rough seas, requiring a very accurate separation of oily water from the water surface. This paper presents three different systems for oil recovery in the seaway. All are in service in the Federal Republic of Germany.

The development of spilt-hull multipurpose vessels introduced a new technical concept for oil recovery in the seaway. The ships show good efficiency in open seas up to wave heights of 2 m. The advantage of a split-hull oil combat vessel is its high transit speed. Its operation is favorable in following waves, since the two hinged parts of the hull act as a shielding device.

Also for open sea operations, the Mobil Oil Dike (MOD) has been developed. In this system, 49 m long and 27 m wide, with a draft of 3.2 to 4.4 m, a wave breaking beach is integrated between the two hulls of a catamaran. The vessel moves at an operating speed of 3 to 4 knots, which raises the water level at the beach and forces the surface oil-water layer to rise above the dam crest and splash into the sump. Driven by the pressure head, the mixture proceeds through the settling tanks of the catamaran hulls. The separated water is discharged into the sea through valves in the hull's stern.

For inshore operations a third system has been developed. The Multipurpose Oil Skimming System (MPOSS) is a dock-shaped vessel with two horizontal flap systems that follow the wave profile. The front flap-floater system skims off the oil by controlled undercutting of the water surface. Its motions are damped by a counter-rotating wing, acting as a balanced rudder. After the oil-water layer has passed the intake, it proceeds to the aft separation flap where accurate separation takes place. The overflowing oil proceeds over the flap to the oil sump and is removed by pumps. For offshore missions in coastal waters, this oil skimmer is integrated into a catamaran-type pontoon. The vessel is 33.5 m long, 12 m wide and has a draft of 1.5 m.

All these systems raise considerable hydrodynamic problems as only a thin oil-water layer has to be skimmed off. The motion of the flaps, the deviation of substantial water quantities and the related vortex generation disturb the oil flow at the surface. In waves, breaking phenomena and related forces have been studied. Based on model tests and full scale experience this paper describes some hydrodynamic problems and their solution.
Implementation and Revision of the Wildlife Protection Guidelines for Alaska's Federal On-Scene Coordinators
Authors: Bergmann Pamela Ann
Published: January 2013

The Alaska Regional Response Team (RRT) established the Wildlife Protection Working Group in September 1987 to develop and maintain guidelines to assist Alaska's federal on-scene coordinators (OSC) in dealing with potential wildlife impacts resulting from oil spills. The working group is composed of representatives of four federal and state agencies and three special-interest groups. The guidelines, which were adopted by the Alaska RRT on December 14, 1988, address three response strategies: controlling the release and spread of oil to protect wildlife, keeping wildlife away from spills through the use of deterrent techniques, and attempting to capture and rehabilitate oiled wildlife.

Since adoption by the Alaska RRT, the guidelines have been used in conjunction with response activities associated with the following spills: the Swallow diesel fuel and fuel oil spill near Dutch Harbor on February 27, 1989, the Exxon Valdez crude oil spill in Prince William Sound on March 24, 1989, and the Milos Reefer fuel oil and diesel fuel spill on St. Matthew Island on November 15, 1989. In the Swallow incident, protective booming, bird hazing, and bird capture and rehabilitation programs were conducted in accordance with the guidelines. In the Exxon Valdez incident, information in the guidelines was used to establish the sea otter rescue program and to begin implementation of the bird capture and rehabilitation program. In the Milos Reefer spill, the guidelines were used as the basis for a decision not to initiate a rescue program for birds oiled as a result of the vessel's grounding.

In October 1989, the working group met to conduct a review of the guidelines based on experience gained through the Swallow and Exxon Valdez incidents. As a result of this meeting, seven principal additions have been proposed for the guidelines.
Shoreline Cleanup: Equipment and Operations
Authors: Nauman Scott A.
Published: January 2013

The extreme diversity of affected shoreline areas in Prince William Sound necessitated a variety of treatment techniques. Innovation produced equipment that was versatile and effective in the environment encountered. This paper reviews some of the key shoreline treatment equipment used during the summer of 1989: the cold water landing craft vessel (LCV), the maxi-barge, the omni-barge, and the hot water LCV. Also addressed are the containment and collection methods used to support this treatment equipment. The paper concludes with a description of the treatment equipment and techniques used to respond to the shoreline conditions encountered in 1990, the second year of the cleanup. The paper stresses the need for flexibility and innovation in cleanup techniques.
Shoreline Cleanup—Reconnaissance, Evaluation, and Planning Following the Valdez Oil Spill
Authors: Teal Andrew R.
Published: January 2013

The shoreline cleanup following the Exxon Valdez spill was a mammoth task complicated by geographical and ecological factors. Shoreline assessment was a prerequisite to the cleanup program in both 1989 and 1990, and provided the cornerstone for the development and monitoring of the cleanup program. Information provided by the assessment teams included geomorphological, biological, archaeological, and oiling information that led to site specific treatment plans. These plans were submitted for interagency review prior to approval by the federal on-scene coordinator. This process was instrumental in developing an environmentally sensitive approach to the cleanup of over 1,000 miles of remote shoreline in 1989.
Marine Operations and Logistics During the Exxon Valdez Spill Cleanup
Authors: Carpenter A. D. , Dragnich Robert G. , Smith Michael T.
Published: January 2013

The Exxon Valdez oil spill required unprecedented marine operations and logistics support for cleanup. At the peak of operations, more than 11,000 people, 1,400 vessels and 85 aircraft were required.

Due to the remoteness of the spill location and the absence of land access, virtually all cleanup was conducted from vessels. Three types of vessels were used: landing craft and barges for oil recovery and shoreline treatment; berthing vessels for housing offshore workers; and support vessels for transporting personnel and materials.

Major logistic challenges in the oil spill response included providing offshore housing; replenishing food, water, and fuel for the offshore operations; establishing a large aircraft operation; installing a telecommunications network that was essentially built from scratch; providing onshore support; handling and disposing of more than 25,000 tons of oily solid waste and several hundred thousand barrels of oily liquid waste; and safely demobilizing the effort.
Bald Eagles in Alaska Following the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill
Authors: Gibson Marjorie J.
Published: January 2013

Despite initial concerns about the impact of the Exxon Valdez oil spill on bald eagles in Prince William Sound, accumulating evidence indicates that the area's eagle population is doing well. This paper presents and discusses the 1989 data collected during the Prince William Sound and Kodiak Island Eagle Capture and Short-term Rehabilitation Programs, as well as 1990 data from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's operational field surveys.
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Response Activities Following the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill
Authors: Parker Jill
Published: January 2013

In nonfederalized oil spill responses (in which the spillers assume responsibility), the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service of the U.S. Department of the Interior is responsible for advising the Regional Response Team and the federal on-scene coordinator on the protection of fish and wildlife resources, overseeing the rehabilitation of wildlife resources, and assessing the extent of environmental damage. The Exxon Valdez spill, in March 1989, required a major effort by the service, due to the amount of oil spilled, the large area affected, the environmental sensitivity of the area and its wildlife, and the spill's impacts on National Wildlife Refuge lands. The service's response began within 24 hours of the spill, and continued until fall 1990. Wildlife surveys were conducted by aircraft and boat throughout the spring and summer of 1989, and in the summer of 1990. Live oiled birds and sea otters were rescued and, when possible, rehabilitated and relocated; dead ones were collected for study, and to protect scavengers from ingesting oil. Service personnel also monitored shoreline cleanup efforts in bald eagle nesting sites. Further response work is anticipated in the 1991 season. The Service is updating its National and Regional Oil Spill Contingency Plans to take account of the lessons learned in this major response.
Review of Analyses of the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill by the Policy Committee of the OCS Advisory Board1
Authors: Thorman Jan C. , Groat Charles G.
Published: January 2013

On May 23, 1990, the Policy Committee of the Outer Continental Shelf Advisory Board approved a report containing 24 recommendations. These recommendations are intended to help develop a credible national oil spill prevention and response program for both OCS and non-OCS spills in the marine environment. The committee concluded that such a program is needed to improve public confidence and foster the public support necessary for a viable OCS oil and gas program in the wake of the Exxon Valdez oil spill. Eight essential elements of such a program were identified, and recommendations addressing these elements were presented in the report. This paper focuses on recommendations dealing with command of oil spill response and public involvement and education in oversight of oil spill prevention efforts, contingency planning, and spill response.

A subcommittee of the Policy Committee is pursuing the implementation of the recommendations in the report, focusing on Minerals Management Service actions and the extent to which the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 addresses the committee's recommendations.
Initial State of Alaska Response to the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill
Authors: Bayliss Randolph , Janssen John H. , Kegler Albert , Kendziorek Marshal , Lawn Daniel , Gundlach Erich , Little Arthur D.
Published: January 2013

The first weeks of the Exxon Valdez oil spill were critical to the defense of state resources. The Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation (ADEC) implemented the state spill response plan upon notification in the early hours of March 24, 1989. A local ADEC representative boarded the vessel within three and one-half hours of grounding. Experienced ADEC spill response staff, other state agencies, and two cleanup contract firms were notified that morning and were arriving through the first day. The Governor of Alaska and the Commissioner of ADEC surveyed the wreck that same day. Within 33 hours, ADEC had 30 persons on site. The state notification procedure and plan functioned effectively.

Key roles undertaken initially by the state were aerial and computer spill tracking; liaison with fishing groups and local villages; and protection of sensitive habitats, especially salmon hatcheries. Notably, ADEC worked with the Cordova District Fishermen United (CDFU) to defend a critical salmon hatchery directly in the path of the spreading oil. Using the Alaska Air National Guard, two Alaska state ferries, and fishing boats, CDFU volunteers, local Chenega villagers, ADEC staff, and contractors used miles of boom to defend the hatchery. The hatchery was spared from oiling just as millions of salmon fry were released.
National Park Service Contingency Planning for Natural and Cultural Resources
Authors: Donahue John , Hoogland Jacob
Published: January 2013

Coastal units of the National Park Service (NPS) continue to receive hazardous material and oil spills from outside sources. The physical and cultural isolation that once insulated National Parks from these concerns is no longer a source of protection from the catastrophic pollution events of the modern world. This paper details the experiences of NPS units with major and minor oils spills in recent years. It also examines the contingency planning needs determined to be most urgent and the most effective methods for meeting those needs.
Long-Term Results from the BIOS Shoreline Experiment—Surface Oil Cover
Authors: Humphrey Blair , Owens Edward H. , Sergy Gary
Published: January 2013

The Baffin Island Oil Spill (BIOS) Project was conducted at Cape Hatt on the northern end of Baffin Island, Canada, from 1980 to 1989. A shoreline experiment in Bay 11 consisted of spilling 15 m3 of Lago Medio crude oil on a sheltered beach. Some of the oil was removed within days, and the remaining oil (about 5 m3) was monitored until 1989. The natural removal of oil was initially rapid, but the rate of change slowed significantly as available unweathered “free” oil was removed. This experiment provides a worst case example of natural oil removal from a low energy, predominantly frozen pebble-cobble beach. The most useful trend indicator was equivalent area (EA) oiled. Over the approximately 17 open water months since the spill, more than 90 percent of the oil was removed by natural process.
Recovery of Intertidal Biotic Communities at Sullom Voe Following the Esso Bernicia Oil Spill of 1978
Authors: Rolan Robert G. , Gallagher Ronald
Published: January 2013

In December 1978, the Esso Bernicia spilled 8,000 barrels of Bunker C oil during a berthing accident near the Sullom Voe Oil Terminal. About 100 miles of shoreline were oiled, much of that span heavily. Sullom Voe is a bay of the Shetland Islands, north of Scotland, an area environmentally similar to Prince William Sound. The highly indented, rocky shoreline is inhabited by typical intertidal communities characterized by fucoid algae (rockweed), barnacles, and snails. Biological survey data for the intertidal communities had been collected for three years prior to the spill.

During the cleanup, most of the shores that were accessible to heavy equipment were stripped of oily rock, cobble, and gravel. Other fairly accessible areas were hand-cleaned. Dispersants were tried on a few shores, but were ineffective. Many of the less accessible locations were not cleaned at all.

The oiled shorelines were resurveyed every year from 1979 through 1987, except 1982 and 1983. Except for the mechanically cleaned areas, the biological communities in the rocky intertidal zone returned to very near normal within the first year, and have remained so in spite of the presence of traces of weathered oil. Normal populations of snails and small crustaceans have thrived in intimate contact with asphaltic residues that remain in some locations. In contrast, the biological communities at the sites that were cleaned mechanically were obliterated, and still had not fully recovered after almost nine years.
On Scale Modeling of Oil Droplet Formation from Spilled Oil
Authors: Delvigne Gerard A. L.
Published: January 2013

Oil droplets form through various processes when oil is spilled at sea:Breakup of the oil surface layer by breaking waves and intrusion of the droplets into the water column (natural dispersion)Enhanced breakup of the oil layer by application of dispersants (chemical dispersion)Breakup of oil lumps from a subsurface spill by turbulence in the waterEntrainment of droplets from a boomed oil slick caused by a large difference in velocity between the oil and the waterBreakup of oil droplets after disposal of oily water into the turbulent wake of a ship.

The formation of droplets from a coherent oil mass has been found to be dependent on a complex structure of process parameters, for example, the turbulent eddy structure in the water, internal breaking waves on the oil-water interface, and viscosity and interfacial tension of the oil. The behavior of oil and oil droplet formation in the above processes can be studied relatively easily in small-scale laboratory models, provided that the scaling rules are understood and the laboratory results can be interpreted in terms of field situations. Several laboratory model studies of oil droplet formation were performed by Delft Hydraulics. Much attention was paid to scaling rules and the reliable interpretation of the results in terms of field conditions. Results and conclusions about the modeling process are discussed.
Development and Evaluation of Application Techniques for Delivery of Nutrients to Contaminated Shoreline in Prince William Sound
Authors: Glaser John A. , Venosa Albert D. , Opatken Edward J.
Published: January 2013

The application of nutrients to assist and accelerate naturally occurring biodegradation processes was studied at field scale on contaminated shoreline in Prince William Sound as part of the effort to recover from the Exxon Valdez oil spill. Selection of fertilizer forms and means to apply the nutrients comprised a major part of the evaluation project. Liquid and solid forms of nutrients were tested.

New and innovative application technology was investigated for use under field conditions. Ease of application and cost-effective technology were important selection criteria. Worker protection and environmental-effect concerns served to modify the selection of application technology. Details of application technology selection are presented, difficulties with application and areas for potential research are discussed. Projections for development of application technology to subsurface deposits of stranded oil are made.
Protocol for Testing Bioremediation Products against Weathered Alaskan Crude Oil
Authors: Venosa Albert D. , Haines John R. , Nisamaneepong Wipawan , Govind Rakesh , Pradhan Salil , Siddique Belal
Published: January 2013

To screen various commercial microbial products for effectiveness in enhancing biodegradation of weathered Alaskan crude oil, a series of laboratory tests were conducted of 10 different products. The products were tested by electrolytic respirometry, to measure oxygen uptake over time, and in shaker flask microcosms, to measure oil degradation and microbial growth. Results supported the decision to field test two of the products.
Selection of Nutrients to Enhance Biodegradation for the Remediation of Oil Spilled on Beaches1
Authors: Safferman Steven I.
Published: January 2013

Laboratory studies were conducted to determine the fate of fertilizers proposed for application to the Alaska shoreline in support of the Alaskan Oil Spill EPA Bioremediation Project. Fertilizer application is thought to provide indigenous organisms with nutrients that appear to be limited on ocean beaches. The experiments were developed strictly to test the durability, release rates, and application procedures of a variety of fertilizer types.

The effects of tidal movement on a beach were simulated by two separate conditions, static and dynamic. The static condition represented periods when the beach material was under water and turbulence was at a minimum. This condition was simulated in the laboratory by submerging the nutrient in a beaker of simulated seawater (with or without beach material, depending on the nutrients being tested). These experiments ran continuously over a three-month period, with water exchanges according to a planned schedule. Nutrient concentrations were measured in the exchanged water. Dynamic conditions represented the forces on beach material as the water moved from low to high tide and back to low tide. In the laboratory, the condition was simulated by applying the nutrients to beach material piled in one end of a long, narrow tray placed on a rocker table. When the rocker table was operating and enough seawater had been added to cover the beach material (in the rocker table's low position), a gentle sloshing of the water over the materials resulted. These experiments generally lasted one to two hours, during which time liquid samples were collected for nutrient analyses. Durability of the fertilizers was measured by visual observation and freeze/thaw determinations.

The experimental setup was economical and performed well. The fertilizer most suited for field trial was found to be isobutyraldehyde diurea briquettes, which produced a slow, continuous release of nutrients.
The Metamorphosis of PIRO into MSRC
Authors: Costello V. Adm. John D.
Published: January 2013

In reaction to the March 1989 oil spill in Prince William Sound, Alaska, the oil industry formed a high-level task force to study the problems associated with maritime transportation of petroleum. The task force recommended the creation of a Petroleum Industry Response Organization (PIRO), financed entirely by industry. This company would have three missions: response, readiness, and research and development. PIRO was conceived to fill the void in the nation's capability to manage catastrophic offshore spills of persistent oils.

Bringing the PIRO concept to reality required resolving many organizational, legal, and operational issues. PIRO was originally conceived as an industry initiative. However, passage of federal legislation made the creation of an organization—broadened in scope and renamed the Marine Spill Response Corporation (MSRC)—a necessity for those that ship and handle bulk oil in the maritime environment of the United States. The federal law also provided the states with important powers, especially in determining the liability limits that affect shippers, handlers, and responders.

Original assumptions about PIRO's resources requirements for response and cleanup were adjusted as more detailed analyses were completed. MSRC has considerably more capability than was originally contemplated for PIRO. PIRO was estimated to require $250 million in its first five years to cover its operating, capital, and research and development costs. The corresponding estimate for MSRC is $800 million.
Future of the International Conventions on Liability and Compensation for Oil Pollution Damage
Authors: Jacobsson Måns
Published: January 2013

The international regime on oil spill liability and compensation is based on two international conventions, the 1969 Civil Liability Convention and the 1971 Fund Convention. The Fund Convention establishes an intergovernmental organization, the International Oil Pollution Compensation Fund (IOPC Fund), with the task of administering the regime of compensation set up by that convention. At present, 67 nations are party to the Civil Liability Convention, 45 to the Fund Convention. The United States is not party to either.

In 1984, the conventions were revised by two protocols, which provide higher compensation limits and a wider scope of application than the original conventions. These protocols have not yet come into force.

The future of the compensation regime established by these conventions is examined here, with special attention to the prospects for the entry into force of the 1984 protocols. At present, the United States will not ratify these protocols.
THE CONTRIBUTION OF AIR CUSHIONED VEHICLES IN OIL SPILL RESPONSE1
Authors: McCarthy Mac W. , McGrath John
Published: January 2013

On July 22, 1991, the Tuo Hai, a 46,500 ton Chinese grain carrier, collided with the Tenyo Maru, a 4,800 ton Japanese fish processing ship, off the coast of Washington State. The Tenyo Maru sank, creating an oil spill that cost upwards of $4 million (U.S.) to clean up. The incident initiated a joint response from the U.S. and Canadian governments. As part of this response, the Canadian Coast Guard mobilized an SRN-6 hovercraft. This air cushioned vehicle (ACV) provided logistical support to responders on both sides of the international boundary.

The response operation along the Pacific Coast was extensive. Dense fog and the remote location of the impacted area provided formidable challenges to the cleanup effort. It was the mission scenario of the Canadian SRN-6 hovercraft to provide logistical support—as an experiment in ACV utility—to the organizations responding to this incident. Based on this experience, it can be argued that the hovercraft offers great potential value in responding to marine oil spills. Appropriate application of ACV technology can enhance oil spill response work, spill waste management, and incident surveillance.

This paper discusses the contribution of the SRN-6 hovercraft to the Tenyo Maru response, briefly examines the use of another, very different hovercraft, during a response in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and reviews a new hovercraft design and discusses its potential contributions.
RESPONDING TO THE UNDERGROUND OIL SPILL: A CASE STUDY OF THE CITY GAS AND TRANSMISSION SITE IN WILMINGTON, NORTH CAROLINA
Authors: Babb Jeffrey , Laferriere Roger
Published: January 2013

Numerous above-ground and underground oil storage tanks and underground piping present a significant groundwater pollution threat when breached or deteriorated. The principal aid in cleaning up a spill on land or at sea is being able to observe it, and this opportunity is lacking in the case of the groundwater incident. A groundwater incident can be equally as damaging to the environment as a surface spill and can directly impact the public health by contaminating drinking water or creating hazardous atmospheres in cellars, storm drains, and sewers.

In March 1991, when oil was found leaching from the bank of a river trench leading to the Cape Fear River, the Coast Guard Marine Safety Office (MSO) in Wilmington was able to control the oil in the trench through traditional use of booms and sorbents. The MSO was confronted with the threat of oil contaminating ground water and the challenge of locating the source. This report outlines the decisions, actions, and events surrounding the response to the groundwater contamination problem at the City Gas and Transmission facilty.
THE REGIONAL RESPONSE TEAM (RRT): DYNAMITE OR DINOSAUR?1
Authors: Reed John C. , Schultz Harry E. , Athayde William P.
Published: January 2013

The U.S. Government has in place a national oil and hazardous substance spill response system as required under the Federal Water Pollution Control Act (FW?CA) of 1972, as amended, and the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) of 1980. The National Contingency Plan (NCP) establishes the National Response Team (NRT), Regional Response Teams (RRTs) and the National Response Center (NRC). This system has been in place since 1971, with NRT and RRT membership including 15 federal agencies having environmental responsibilities, and associated states in thirteen specific regional areas.

Initially, when CERCLA-funded support positions were staffed in 1987, the RRT membership interaction proved to be dynamic and highly productive. However, as the organizations “matured,” work emphasis shifted from new initiatives to refinement of existing policies/documents. Examination of some of the existing organizational interactions demonstrates shortfalls that must be overcome before any RRT can be rejuvenated. These barriers to high productivity include skewed distribution of CERCLA-funded positions, accountability of CERCLA positions, parochial interests versus cooperation, adequacy of working level resources, duplication of efforts, lack of state funding support, and lack of continuity due to the constant personnel turnover and shortages.

Also, in light of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA 90) mandates, in order to better determine if increased RRT productivity is possible, two major questions must be examined: what exactly is the nature of the NRT/RRT relationship and appropriate interaction; and, how should area committees (ACs) and the RRTs interact?