bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
MOOC (MASSIVE OPEN ONLINE COURSES) AS AN ADVANCED TECHNIQUE TO STUDY ENGLISH LANGUAGE
Authors: Yaseen Inas Kamal , Demir Çağlar
Published: July 2021

This study tries to shed lights on the most updated technique that has been used nowadays to study variety of disciplines and English in particular. MOOC (Massive Open Online Courses) is a trendy term come to exist in the very recent dates, where learners can use technology and internet to learn from vital online recorded or live platforms assured by granted well organized resources or foundations that provide knowledge for free or not. This research tries to investigate the awareness of Iraqi English teachers to MOOCs by making a questionnaire to English language college teachers from different disciplines and universities in Baghdad during the academic year 2018-2019. The sample of this study includes 35 English language college teachers. According to the findings of this study, the researcher considered the weighted mean 50% and 68% as an item that gain low positive attitude from teachers. Consequently, three items were gaining high attitude from teachers.

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A STUDY OF SPEECH ANXIETY AMONG ESL LEARNERS
Authors: Rahmat Noor Hanim , Abu Bakar Amirul Mukmin , Zamri Akmal Haziq , Roslan Aida Nasuha , Zakaria Ain Zuhraa , Sabandi Dania Thurayya Ahmad , Zaki Muhammad Alif Imran Mohamad
Published: July 2021

This research investigated English as a second language (ESL) speaking anxiety faced by university students. Data was obtained through a group of 44 students in the undergraduate course, in public university in Malaysia through questionnaires in a Google Form. This study examined reasons of anxiety, types of anxiety, and methods to cope with the anxiety. The instrument is a questionnaire. The data was analysed using SPSS. The result of the analysis revealed that ESL students suffered from English language speaking anxiety. Furthermore, fear of negative evaluation and lack of confidence was proven to be the source of ESL speaking anxiety. Additionally, different students have different types of anxiety such trait anxiety and situation anxiety. In order to cope with anxiety, development of self-confidence is important. Preparation is another way to relieve language anxiety for instance implementation of roleplay or simulations.

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AN ANALYSIS OF TEACHER COMMUNICATION BEHAVIORS THAT FACILITATE THE TEACHER-STUDENT RELATIONSHIP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL
Authors: Smith Kelli
Published: July 2021

This study focused on teacher communication behaviors and teacher-student interactions in the middle school setting as they relate to teacher-student relationships. Thirty-seven teachers and 218 sixth, seventh, and eighth grade students participated in this explanatory sequential mixed methods study. The Questionnaire on Teacher Interaction (QTI) survey was employed to measure ideal teacher communication behaviors and actual teacher communication behaviors in the middle school classroom. Implications for middle school education are discussed, including recommendations for future study with communication behaviors and teacher-student relationships.
 

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TRADITIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL KNOWLEDGE AND GIFTED STUDENTS AS TWO IMPORTANT SOURCES OF SOCIAL MEMORY: GIFTED STUDENTS’ ATTITUDES TOWARDS TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE
Authors: Ugulu Ilker
Published: July 2021

Traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) can be defined as cumulative knowledge, beliefs, and practices transmitted from generation to generation, related to people's relationship with the environment. This study aims to determine the attitudes of gifted students towards traditional environmental knowledge and to examine them in terms of various variables such as age, class and gender. The study group of the research consists of 120 gifted/talented students (67 girls, 53 boys) studying at Manisa Science and Art Center. “Traditional Knowledge Attitude Scale (TKAS)” developed by Ugulu (2013) was used in the study. The t-test and ANOVA test were used to determine whether students' attitudes towards science showed a significant difference in terms of independent variables of the study. According to the results of the research, when the average of the students' attitudes towards traditional knowledge according to their grade levels were evaluated, it was seen that the eighth-grade students' attitude scores were the highest. In terms of gender, it was concluded that the attitude scores of female students were higher than male students. As a result of the statistical comparison of the attitude scores of the gifted students according to the independent variables of the study, it was concluded that the difference between the averages in terms of grade level and age variables was not significant, but there was a significant difference in favour of girls in terms of gender (p < 0.05). 

 

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INVESTIGATION OF EDUCATION FACULTY STUDENTS' VIEWS ON DISTANCE EDUCATION: THE EXAMPLE OF INONU UNIVERSITY, TURKEY
Authors: Kaya Fatih , Özkul Ramazan , Kirbaç Metin
Published: July 2021

İn the last century we live in, technological developments are advancing faster than ever, and the world is changing irresistibly. With the Covid-19 epidemic, this change has moved to a very different dimension. Especially today, the pandemic conditions of the whole world have increased the importance of distance education by directing education to the digital field. The aim of this study is to examine the views of education faculty students towards distance education. This research, which aims to examine the views of education faculty students on distance education, is a quantitative method and causal comparison model research. The study population of the research consists of İnönü University Faculty of Education students. The sample of the study consisted of 584 participants determined by the random stratified sampling method from the population. While determining the stratum, the gender variable was taken as a basis. The data of the research were collected with the “Distance Education Evaluation Scale”. The obtained data were subjected to independent groups t-test, one-way ANOVA and descriptive statistics tests. According to the research findings, students preferred distance education to face-to-face education. In addition, in terms of the efficiency of the distance education process, it is important to use computers and students to have their own rooms.

 

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IMPLEMENTATION OF ABS SBK VALUE IN LIFE OF MINANGKABAU PEOPLE
Authors: Hafizah H. , Ananda Azwar , Fatimah Siti , Ilham Muhammad
Published: July 2021

This research is based on the value of purification of Protestant religious reforms that are closely related to the purification of the purification of Minangkabau patterns of behaviour that are far from Islamic values and Minangkabau cultural customs. The purpose of this study is to explain the clearing of behaviour patterns and minimize conflict through the application of ABS SBK in Minangkabau people's lives. The study used literature studies by finding facts based on the results of research from several journals and articles. The results showed that (1) To purify the pattern of behaviour of ABS SBK in the form of the existence of religious and customary leadership in the efforts to apply the value of ABS SBK in the life of Minangkabau people; and (2) To purify the minimize conflicts in the lives of Minangkabau people in the form of muscular religious and indigenous stakeholders who support each other in realizing the value of ABS SBK in Minangkabau people's lives.

 

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DETERMINATION OF THE EDUCATION TECHNOLOGY COMPETENCIES OF SPECIAL EDUCATION TEACHERS
Authors: Yılmaz Yunus , Karabulut Havva Aysun , Uçar Ahmet Serhat , Uçar Kadriye
Published: July 2021

The novel coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic that started in December 2019 led to the closure of schools on a global level, and implementation of strict social distancing measures has led to rapid and prevalent changes in conventional forms of education and instruction. In this period where distance education is preferred in education processes, the education technology competencies of teachers have gained importance. In this context, this study aimed to determine the education technology competencies of special education teachers. The descriptive study included 114 special education teachers. The data were collected by using the “Education Technology Competencies Scale for Teachers” and analyzed by using the SPSS 25 package software. The maximum total score that could be obtained in the scale that was used in the study is 190. It was determined that, with the mean score of 155.27, the participants of this study had an education technology competency level of 81.72%. In this study which investigated the technological competencies of special education teachers, no significant difference was found based on the participants’ gender, professional experience or areas of teaching. Considering the items in the dimensions of the scale, it was found that the male teachers were more competent in terms of technical knowledge on technology, while the female teachers used the technological knowledge they had more effectively in classes, instruction and materials, as well as in communication with both students and parents.

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INCREASING HAIRDRESSING COMPLIANCE WITH A CHILD WITH AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDERS
Authors: Gajić Anja , Arsić Bojana , Bašić Aleksandra , Maćešić-Petrović Dragana , Parezanović Ružica Zdravković
Published: July 2021

The diagnosis of autism spectrum disorders (ASD) itself can include problems with hyper responsiveness to different sensory stimuli. These difficulties can lead to different maladaptive behavioral manifestations and prevent children diagnosed with ASD from participating in certain activities. The aim of the present case study was to examine the effectiveness of shaping procedure application in order to increase compliance with haircutting with a six year old boy diagnosed with ASD. The procedure used for increasing compliance while getting a haircut was shaping and we divided the intervention into two phases. Phase one involved teaching the participant to tolerate the presence of the hair clipper on his head, while phase two consisted of increasing participant’s toleration of the sound emitted by the hair clipper. Generalization probe involved taking the participant into a hair salon, where he would receive hair grooming performed by a professional hair stylist. The child mastered phase one in 54 trials that were conducted during five sessions and mastered the goal time in phase two in 89 trials that were conducted during four sessions. In conclusion, shaping procedure appears to be an effective and efficient training procedure for teaching skills that are important for future everyday functioning in society of children with ASD, as well as basic hygiene skills, such as hair cutting. Study limitations and future research implications are discussed.

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INVESTIGATION OF OPINIONS OF TEACHERS OF THE HEARING-IMPAIRED CHILDREN ABOUT SERVING AS A SPECIAL EDUCATION TEACHER
Authors: Uçar Ahmet Serhat , Yılmaz Yunus , Uçar Kadriye , Bekar Ramazan
Published: July 2021

The aim of this study was to investigate the opinions of teachers of the hearing-impaired children about serving as a special education teacher. The research was designed as a descriptive case study within the framework of qualitative research methods. Two criteria that the participants to be included in the study should have were determined as follows: graduating from universities’ hearing-impaired teaching programs and serving as a special education classroom teacher in schools affiliated to the MNE. The participants consist of 51 teachers meeting the specified criteria. Semi-structured interviews were held with 5 of the participants, and data were collected from 46 of them through an open-ended questionnaire. Given the pandemic period conditions we currently experience, the e-interviews were conducted using Zoom, while open-ended questionnaires were collected via Google Forms. Descriptive analysis technique was used in the analysis of the research data. The descriptive analysis process consists of four stages: creating a thematic framework, processing of data according to the thematic framework, identification of findings, and interpretation of findings. Study findings revealed that the fact that teachers serve out-of-field they graduated from led them to feel insufficient in terms of professional knowledge and competency. Besides, it was observed that they failed to provide sufficient benefit to the students, they had difficulties communicating with families, they failed to cooperate with the school administrators or other colleagues and could not find the necessary support.

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PENGARUH PERTUMBUHAN PENJUALAN DAN PROFITABILITAS TERHADAP KEBIJAKAN DIVIDEN PADA PT. TRISULA TEXTILE INDUSTRIES TBK
Authors: Munir Muhamad , Aprianti Kartin
Published: July 2021

Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk  mengetahui dan menganalisis pengaruh pertumbuhan penjualan dan profitabilitas terhadap kebijakan deviden pada Pt. Trisula Textile Industries Tbk secara parsial maupun simultan. Jenis penelitian ini adalah asosiatif.  populasi dalam penelitian ini ialah data laporan keuangan Pt. Trisula Textile Industries Tbk yang terdiri atas data penjualan bersih perusahaan, laba setelah pajak dan jumlah pembagian dividen selama 6 tahun sejak tahun 2015-2020. Sampel yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah laporan keuangan selama 6 tahun, dengan menggunakan sampling Purposive SampIing dengan kriteria sampling yaitu ketersediaan data dan menggunakan data terbaru atau terupdate. Hasil penelitian menunjukan bahwa pertumbuhan penjualan  secara parsial tidak berpengaruh terhadap kebijakan dividen  sedangkan profitabilitas secara parsial berpengaruh terhadap kebijakan dividen. Namun secara simultan pertumbuhan penjualan dan profitabilitas berpengaruh terhadap kebijakan dividen perusahaan.
Comparative Study on Phytochemical Screening of Root and Bark with Leaf of Cardiospermum Halicacabum
Authors: Priya P. Vishnu , Rani D. Jenila
Published: July 2021

Aim: The Present study was designed to compare the phytochemical screening of root and bark with leaf of Cardiospermum halicacabum. Materials and Methods: Samples were taken leaf (N=24) root and bark (N=24) based on the total sample size using clinical.com. The leaf, root and bark extract were collected. The phytochemicals were extracted by sequential extraction using three solvents methanol, ethanol and acetone. The quantification of flavonoids and phenols was performed by using Folin-Ciocalteu and quercetin as standard. Quantification of tannins was determined by using an insoluble polyvinyl-polypyrrolidone (PVPP) as standard. Results: Statistical analysis showed that methanol extract of root (0.49mg/ml) has highest phenolic content and acetone extract of root has highest tannin (0.64mg/ml) and flavonoid (1.18mg/ml) content when compared with leaf and bark. There appears to be a statistically significant difference in the mean of root when compared with leaf and bark (p<0.01, independent samples). Conclusion: In this study root appears to have better phytochemical and phenol content when compared with the content in leaf and bark.
PENDERITAAN DALAM KONTEKS PENGINJILAN
Authors: Suwito Tri Prapto , Hermanto Yanto Paulus , Tanama Yulia Jayanti
Published: July 2021

Evangelism and suffering are two things that are often questioned. What is the connection between evangelism and suffering? Why do these two things always seem to go hand in hand? This issue is often debated. The author conducts research with a qualitative approach, and it is hoped that from various historical sources, books and journals related to this issue, research results can be obtained that can answer this problem and become the basis for Christians to respond correctly according to the truth of God's Word. Evangelism is a must for believers, but on the other hand suffering seems to be allowed by God for evangelists to experience. Both of these things must be addressed correctly by all believers, so that the lives of believers still obey His commands but in His presence that continues to strengthen and make them happy.
The Effects of Wall Color on Students’ Attention Levels: An International School’s Perspective
Authors: Ogita Chiharu , Pothong Amy
Published: July 2021

The aim of this study was to investigate the psychological impact of colored classroom walls on individuals. The research was conducted with eighth-grade students from an international school in Chiang Mai, Thailand. A total of 34 students with a variety of cultural backgrounds participated in this study. Students attended their regular classes with the three wall colors of purple, green, and red, while the Bourdon Attention Test was utilized as an assessment of the students' attention level. Data from the two conditions, control and experimental groups, each consisting of both pre-test and post-test, were collected and examined to find out the effects of different wall colors on the student's attention. The results indicate that the classroom with red-colored walls showed a significant impact on the participant’s attention. In summary, this paper will contribute to enhancing awareness of how wall colors in educational facilities affect student’s learning activity as well as to assist future designer’s decisions on the usage of appropriate colors.
New Meat on the Block: Factors Influencing India’s Gen Z’s Decision to Purchase Plant-based Meat
Authors: Dhawan Nikita , Choo Kah Ying
Published: July 2021

There have been increasing concerns regarding the meat industry due to its negative influence on the environment, such as freshwater pollution, biodiversity loss, and increased methane emissions. These concerns have sparked the public’s interest in plant-based meat, the demand for which is expected to reach USD 27.5 billion by 2025. This study evaluated the factors influencing the decision of India’s Gen Z (aged 15-25) to purchase plant-based meat by conducting an online survey using a mixed method research approach. Among the eight different factors examined, the study found environmental consciousness as one of the highest-rated factors in all the three categories of respondents—combined (vegetarians and non-vegetarians), vegetarians, and non-vegetarians—in influencing their decision to purchase plant-based meat. This finding mirrors the growing environmental awareness of Gen Z globally. Health/safety was another top-rated factor for all three groups, possibly due to the increasing concern of zoonotic diseases, such as COVID-19. Conversely, price, convenience, and food curiosity were the least influential, highlighting the Indian market's unique characteristics. As a significant majority of young Indian adults live with their parents, plant-based companies targeting Gen Zs need to consider India’s family-oriented culture and the parents’ dominant role in determining meal choices at home. While companies could incorporate plant-based meat products into traditional food and well-known dishes to appeal to parents, companies can also target the more independent Gen Zs by emphasizing plant-based meat as a sustainable alternative to traditional meat. Additional nuanced marketing strategies for vegetarians and non-vegetarians have also been discussed in this paper.
Cosmopolitan Identifiers
Authors: Obua Steven
Published: July 2021

I propose a simple Unicode-based lexical syntax for programming language identiﬁers using characters from international scripts (currently Latin, Greek, Cyrillic and Math). Such cosmopolitan identiﬁers are designed to achieve much of the simplicity of Fortran identiﬁers while acknowledging a modern international outlook. This seems particularly advantageous in contexts where such identiﬁers are not (only) used by professional programmers, but are exposed to normal users, for example through scriptable applications.
Analysis of English Writing from the Perspective of Western Rhetoric
Authors: Chang Shuanglin
Published: July 2021

English learning is often thought of as words, grammar and sentence patterns, or as a combination of foreign languages and cultures. In fact, rhetoric, as an English writing skill, is of great significance to English writing. Many people think that the application of rhetoric in English writing will only make the article mechanical and rigid. Therefore, many English learners pay less attention to rhetoric in the process of English learning. Flexible use of various rhetorical devices can make the article more vivid, so English learners should pay attention to the study of western rhetoric. This paper will analyze English writing from the perspective of western rhetoric.
Discussion on the Reform of Comprehensive Practice Evaluation Model for Physical Geography Courses in Chinese Universities
Authors: Lv Dianqing , Han Guang , Han Longfei , Yang Wen , Yi Liwen , Zhang Xinzhu
Published: July 2021

In this paper, the comprehensive practice evaluation system for physical geography courses is reformed for its shortage as the goal of teacher certification and course target evaluation. We put forward a set of evaluation model of process performance evaluation including 11 participating indicators from usual grades, practice reports and teaching skills, which comprehensively considers students’ multifaceted literacy and ability. This model not only evaluates the practice content, results and knowledge mastery but also evaluates the practice process, ability training and knowledge application transfer and transformation. It strengthens the subjectivity and participation of students and can better support the course goals and graduation requirements.
AN ASSESSMENT OF FORENSIC ACCOUNTING TECHNIQUES IN THE PREVENTION OF REVENUE LEAKAGES IN NIGERIAN FEDERAL UNIVERSITIES
Authors: Haziel Mbasiti Taiya , Yohanna Gyang Jugu , Fransis Ojaide
Published: July 2021

Purpose: Forensic accounting reflects the application of investigative and analytical techniques for the purpose of resolving fraudulent practices. The purpose of the research was to examine the extent at which Forensic Accounting Techniques serves as a panacea for preventing Revenue Leakages in Federal Universities in Nigeria.  

Methodology: Primary data were collected with the aid of research questionnaire and used in this study. The sample size of 238 respondents was determined from a census of targeted EFCC, internal audit staff of selected Nigerian Federal Universities. This study applied a statistical tool, which described and evaluated the relationships between Forensic accounting techniques and revenue leakages.

Findings: The methodology shows that Forensic accounting data analysis techniques have positive effects on revenue leakages in Nigerian Federal Universities. This implies that a forensic data analysis technique can help in uncovering leakages of revenue in Nigerian Federal Universities. The implication is that when these technologies are applied, there would be drastic reduction in revenue leakages. From the findings, it was concluded that the application of forensic accounting techniques will help in preventing revenue leakages in Nigerian Federal Universities.

Unique Contribution to Theory, Practice and Policy: On the basis of these findings and conclusion, it was recommended that forensic accounting data analysis and technology techniques should be employed in Nigerian Federal Universities to help them curb revenue leakages in the system. That will help to discover and analyse patterns of fraudulent activities and develop sorts of digital tools that would be found helpful in fighting economic and financial crimes within the system.

Keywords: Forensic Accounting, Revenue Leakages, Frauds, Forensic Accounting Technologies
A Review of Spatial Variation of Allergenic Tree Pollen Within Cities
Authors: Weinberger Kate , Kinney Patrick , Lovasi Gina
Published: July 2021

Urban trees provide a range of environmental and public health benefits. However, urban trees may also have an adverse effect on human health by increasing exposure to pollen. Many types of tree pollen are considered to be allergens and have been linked to various manifestations of allergic disease, including allergic sensitization, exacerbation of allergic rhinitis, and exacerbation of allergic asthma. An emerging body of literature suggests that the amount of pollen deposited annually varies widely over small spatial scales. While the health impacts of spatial variation in tree pollen within metropolitan areas could be large, the current literature has not been systematically reviewed. To fill this gap in knowledge, this review synthesizes existing evidence on how tree pollen is distributed on an intra-urban spatial scale. A better understanding of the spatial distribution of allergenic tree pollen within urban environments and its relation to health could inform increasingly common urban tree planting programs.
Nursery Planting Depth, Mulch Application, and Root Pruning at Landscape Planting Affect Tree Health and Anchorage
Authors: Gilman Edward , Paz Maria , Harchick Chris
Published: July 2021

Influence of root collar depth in a nursery root ball and potential root remediation when planting into the landscape are subject of increasing research. Mulch placement on root ball surface at planting has also been called into question recently. Trees planted deeply in nursery containers required ≥41% more time to remove substrate and roots growing over the root collar at planting than trees planted shallowly. Circling roots on trees planted from 170 L containers persisted for five growing seasons after planting into the landscape unless remediated by pruning at planting. Root remediation improved Ulmus and Acer root systems by dramatically reducing percent trunk circled with roots without influencing post-planting xylem potential, crown growth, or anchorage during the first five years after landscape planting. Mulch placed on the root ball surface caused more re-growth of circling roots on Acer—but not Ulmus—following root remediation. Bending stress to tilt trunks was most correlated with cross-sectional area of leeward and straight roots on Ulmus or windward and straight roots on Acer. The initial increase with time in bending stress required to tilt trunks after planting followed by a drop in bending stress suggests that trees planted from nursery containers could be more susceptible to uprooting in a wind storm as they became established beyond three or four years.
Evaluation of General-Use Insecticides for Preventing Host Colonization by New Jersey Southern Pine Beetles
Authors: Strom B.L. , Oldland W.K. , Meeker J.R. , Dunn J.
Published: July 2021

Four general-use insecticides (AstroR, OnyxR, DominionR Tree & Shrub, and Xytect 2FR) were evaluated for their effectiveness at preventing attacks by the southern pine beetle (SPB) (Dendroctonus frontalis) and the small southern pine engraver (Ips avulsus) using a previously developed small-bolt method. Evaluations were conducted between 58 and 126 days post treatment. Southern pine beetles from New Jersey and Mississippi, U.S., were evaluated using a mixture of field and laboratory small-bolt trials; beetle origin did not appear to affect results. Astro and Onyx bole sprays were effective at reducing or eliminating attack by SPB, while the imidacloprid soil drench products (Dominion and Xytect) were ineffective. With I. avulsus in Louisiana, U.S., Astro was effective at reducing bole utilization at 58 and 83 days posttreatment but failed at 126 days. Onyx, Dominion, and Xytect were ineffective against I. avulsus in these tests. Imidacloprid phloem residues averaged 0.74 (μg/g phloem dry weight) for Dominion and 1.31 for Xytect, values that are similar to other studies but low for purposes of control. These results support previous findings that systemic imidacloprid is ineffective for protecting pines against Dendroctonus bark beetles and that bole sprays with bifenthrin or permethrin can be effective. However, permethrin was the only active ingredient that was effective against I. avulsus in the current study.
Retention Time in Three Nursery Container Volumes Impacts Root Architecture
Authors: Gilman Edward , Paz Maria , Harchick Chris
Published: July 2021

Four general-use insecticides (Astro®, Onyx®, Dominion® Tree & Shrub, and Xytect 2F®) were evaluated for their effectiveness at preventing attacks by the southern pine beetle (SPB) (Dendroctonus frontalis) and the small southern pine engraver (Ips avulsus) using a previously developed small-bolt method. Evaluations were conducted between 58 and 126 days post treatment. Southern pine beetles from New Jersey and Mississippi, U.S., were evaluated using a mixture of field and laboratory small-bolt trials; beetle origin did not appear to affect results. Astro and Onyx bole sprays were effective at reducing or eliminating attack by SPB, while the imidacloprid soil drench products (Dominion and Xytect) were ineffective. With I. avulsus in Louisiana, U.S., Astro was effective at reducing bole utilization at 58 and 83 days posttreatment but failed at 126 days. Onyx, Dominion, and Xytect were ineffective against I. avulsus in these tests. Imidacloprid phloem residues averaged 0.74 (μg/g phloem dry weight) for Dominion and 1.31 for Xytect, values that are similar to other studies but low for purposes of control. These results support previous findings that systemic imidacloprid is ineffective for protecting pines against Dendroctonus bark beetles and that bole sprays with bifenthrin or permethrin can be effective. However, permethrin was the only active ingredient that was effective against I. avulsus in the current study.
Determination of Crew Size Efficiency Relative to Urban Tree Inventories
Authors: Chappelka Arthur , Loewenstein Edward , Somers Greg , Keever Gary , Martin Nicholas
Published: July 2021

Trees on the campus of Auburn University (Auburn, Alabama, U.S.) were used to test the efficiency of different crew sizes in conducting a 100% tree inventory. Seventy trees were randomly sampled at-large from a previously conducted 100% inventory (7,345 trees) on the Auburn University campus. Different crews consisting of one, two, or three individuals collected and recorded data using a GPS unit that timestamped the initiation and completion of data collection for each tree. The average time spent per tree was then calculated. Crews visited separate trees each time so there would be no overlap or bias. Each tree sampled was visited by all three crew sizes at different times. The relationship of sampling time per tree with increasing tree dbh was determined using regression analysis and subsequently likelihood ratio F tests. There was no statistical difference in the interval required to inventory a tree as dbh approached 0 (intercept, fixed time) for a two- and three-person crew, but the set-up (fixed) time for a one-person crew was significantly greater (approx. 2×) irrespective of dbh. The time interval it takes to inventory each tree increased with increasing dbh; however, the rate of change was significantly less for a three-person crew compared with the other crew sizes. Based on these results, the number and relative sizes (dbh) of trees to be inventoried must be considered when determining optimal crew size.
Container and Landscape Planting Depth and Root Ball Shaving Affects Magnolia grandiflora Root Architecture and Landscape Performance
Authors: Gilman Edward , Paz Maria , Harchick Chris
Published: July 2021

Plants were grown in a 2 × 2 factorial combination of planting depth in nursery containers and at a landscape installation to study effects on root architecture, growth, and mechanical stability of Magnolia grandiflora L. Planting depth into containers or landscape soil had no impact on bending stress to tilt trunks 40 months after landscape planting, and impacted neither trunk diameter nor tree height growth 68 months later. Trees planted 128 mm deep into 170 L containers had more circling roots at landscape planting and 68 months later than trees planted shallow in containers. Root pruning at landscape planting reduced the container imprint rating on the root system to one-third of that absent root pruning with only a 4 mm reduction in trunk diameter growth over 68 months. Improvement in root architecture from root pruning likely outweighs the rarely encountered downside of slightly less anchorage in an extreme weather event simulated by winching trunks. Trees planted 5 cm above grade were slightly—but significantly—less stable in landscape than trees planted deeper (10 cm below grade). Root pruning at planting to remove roots on root ball periphery appeared to improve root architecture while only slightly impacting growth and anchorage.
An Analysis of the Field Precision of the CTLA Trunk Formula Method
Authors: Komen James , Hodel Donald
Published: July 2021

The CTLA Trunk Formula Method is an industry-standard tool for appraising large trees. The goal of this study was to measure its precision in the field and to look for possible ways to improve the formula or its implementation. Fourteen certified arborists independently appraised the same ten trees, and the results of their appraisals were analyzed. This study focused on the attributes of Trunk Area, Species, Location, and Condition. In the results, the attributes with the highest variance among appraisers were Trunk Area and the Condition Rating. In the past, much of the variation among appraisers has been attributed to personal bias due to lack of experience, and it has been suggested that variance would decrease with experience. These results give evidence to the contrary—the group of appraisers with the highest variance was the group that performed appraisals most frequently. The most valuable information from this study was the identification of four key elements of error involved in the appraisal process: personal value error, personal observation error, measurement error, and systematic error.
Response of Two Field-grown Maple (Acer) Species to Reduced Irrigation in a High Vapor Pressure, Semi-arid Climate
Authors: Montague D. Thayne , Bates Amber
Published: July 2021

Urban forests provide many benefits for those living and working in urban areas. However, urban trees face many challenges (e.g., poor soil, drought, high vapor pressure deficits). Therefore, finding tree species adapted to urban climates is essential to maintain a healthy urban forest. In a semi-arid climate, field-grown ‘Autumn Blaze’ (Acer × freemanii ‘Autumn Blaze’) and shantung (A. truncatum) maple trees were subjected to three reference evapotranspiration (ETo) based irrigation regimes (100%, 66%, and 33% ETo) over a three-year establishment period (2003–2005). During this time, weather data, tree water relations, gas exchange, and growth data were measured. Growing-season maximum air temperature was 40.1°C, and maximum vapor pressure deficit was 6.8 kPa. Pre-dawn leaf water potential was more negative for ‘Autumn Blaze’ trees, and trees receiving the least amount of irrigation. However, midday stomatal conductance was similar for trees receiving 100% and 66% ETo based irrigation regimes. In addition, stomatal conductance was greatest for ‘Autumn Blaze’ trees. Growth data were influenced by species and irrigation regime. However, despite differing irrigation volumes, greatest growth was not necessarily associated with trees receiving the greatest irrigation volume. Regardless of irrigation volume, these maple species maintained adequate growth and appearance when grown in an adverse, semi-arid climate. Despite reduced irrigation, each species appears to be adapted to harsh climates associated with urban environments.
Determining Public Values of Urban Forests Using a Sidewalk Interception Survey in Fredericton, Halifax, and Winnipeg, Canada
Authors: Ordóñez Camilo , Duinker Peter , Sinclair A. John , Beckley Tom , Diduck Jaclyn
Published: July 2021

With the majority of Canada’s population concentrated in cities, it is important to determine what people consider important in urban nature. The concept of values can help illustrate what people consider important in urban nature beyond utilitarian considerations. This is the case for urban forests. However, many studies about public opinion on urban forests do not capture expressions of importance, focus on all the trees of the city, or provide respondents with a direct experience of urban forests. In Canada, most assumptions about Canadian urban forest values are based on results from the United States. In this study researchers present and analyze urban forest values data gathered with a sidewalk interception survey in the cities of Fredericton, New Brunswick; Halifax, Nova Scotia; and Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada, to address some of these limitations. Respondents were asked to rate the level of importance of urban forests and mention the reasons. Results show that respondents rate the urban forest at a high level of importance and the reasons for this are aesthetics, air quality, shade, and naturalness, among other themes. There was a tendency for older people, women, and non-students to rate urban forests at a higher level of importance. Weather, related to time of year of survey delivery, has a discernible influence on the way value themes are distributed in the data. The study authors infer that this method helps capture data on respondents’ psychological states instead of their intellectual awareness as to what they consider important about urban forests.
An Examination of Soil Microbial Communities and Litter Decomposition in Five Urban Land Uses in Metropolitan Milwaukee, WI, U.S.
Authors: Turnquist Keith , Werner Les , Sloss Brian
Published: July 2021

The process of urbanization may alter the ability of microorganisms to supply nutrients to plants. However, both the composition and structure of soil biological communities, and the extent of variation within these communities, is not clear in urban areas. Therefore, baseline information regarding the impact of urban land management practices on soil microbial communities is essential to improving individuals’ ability to manage urban soils and the plants they support. This study examined soil microbial communities over five urban land uses with different degrees of urbanization in metropolitan Milwaukee, Wisconsin, U.S. The objectives were to 1) determine if differences exist in bacterial and fungal community composition, biological activity, and the soil physical and chemical environment across five urban land uses, and 2) determine if differences in the bacterial and fungal compositions compare to differences in the soil’s physical and chemical characteristics. Bulk density, soil organic matter, pH, magnesium, sodium, total nitrogen, and C:N ratio displayed significant differences between streets and forests. Microbial biomass did not differ between land uses, and the differences in bacterial and fungal community composition reflect only a small portion of the total microbial pool. The decomposition of transposed leaf litter showed significant decline in C:N ratio over time, but no statistical differences between land use were observed. The results display a highly redundant microbial assemblage, and suggest that in locations with adequate levels of soil carbon and where parent material and soil forming processes are homogeneous, urbanization and landscape management have less impact on soil microbiology than expected.
The Efficacy of Paclobutrazol Soil Application as it Relates to the Timing of Utility Right-of-Way Pruning
Authors: Haugen Chris , Tucker Kevin , Smalling Alex , Bick Emily , Hoover Steve , Ehlen Grant , Watson Todd , Bernick Shawn
Published: July 2021

The plant growth regulator paclobutrazol’s effect on live oak trees (Quercus virginiana) was evaluated to determine optimum timing of application and pruning time in Louisiana. Variables considered included length of branch regrowth, branch distance to conductor, pruning time and biomass chipping time. Data were evaluated to determine the ideal application timing of paclobutrazol relative to time of pruning. Live oak trees treated with paclobutrazol had significantly reduced branch regrowth, pruning time and chipping time, as compared to control trees regardless of application timing. Paclobutrazol application on live oak trees was idealized within 90 days pre- to 90 days post-prune. Economically, significant gains were found by utilizing this tool ranging from 180 days pre- to 180 days post-prune, allowing for application timing flexibility to reduce the growth of trees near power lines. Paclobutrazol treated live oak trees demonstrated significantly less re-growth response.
Non-Destructive Measurement of the Modulus of Elasticity of Wood Using Acoustical Stress Waves
Authors: Dahle Gregory , Carpenter Aaron , DeVallance David
Published: July 2021

Many biomechanical models include modulus of elasticity (E) but it is not always available in the literature. It would be useful to directly measure E for species, and one of the standard techniques for doing so is to utilize a universal testing machine (UTM). While laboratory testing can determine static flexural modulus of elasticity using a UTM, it requires destructive sampling and therefore is only useful after a tree or limb has been removed. Acoustic testing can be used to estimate the dynamic modulus of elasticity (DMOE) of wood, by measuring the speed of sound through a sample of wood without the need to remove any wood samples. This research investigated if acoustic testing can be used to accurately estimate the modulus of elasticity of green wood. Stump sprouts arising after a shelterwood harvest were cut and left at room temperature (21.1°C, warm) or conditioned to -6.7°C (frozen). The modulus of elasticity was measured using a stress-wave timer (DMOE) and a UTM (ES). The DMOE was higher in the frozen samples, but temperature did not affect ES. While the stress-wave timer used in the study found a slightly higher E than a UTM, a simple prediction equation was determined for converting the results. Researchers believe tools such as this can be successfully utilized by the arboriculture industry to rapidly assess the modulus of elasticity of standing trees in the field.
Effect of Liner Container Size, Root Ball Slicing, and Season of Root Pruning in a Field Nursery on Quercus virginiana Mill. Growth and Anchorage After Transplanting
Authors: Gilman Edward , Paz Maria , Harchick Chris
Published: July 2021

Size of liner, root ball slicing when field planting, and field root pruning season were tested with intention of optimizing posttransplant performance of field-grown nursery stock. Trees planted into a field nursery from three container sizes and either root ball sliced or not when shifted to larger containers or planting to the field nursery, and root pruned in the field nursery in either the dormant season or growing season all had the same trunk diameter (144 mm) and tree height (6.4 m) three years after transplanting into the landscape. Container size influenced root attributes—including number and orientation—and anchorage rating of field-harvested trees. Trees planted from 11 L containers required more bending stress to winch trunks evaluated 12 and 25 months after transplanting than larger containers. Percentage of root systems graded as culls was reduced from 88 to 66 by root pruning when field planting, but root pruning resulted in a slight reduction in anchorage rating. Diameter of the ten largest roots at edge of field-harvested root ball decreased with size of container planted into field soil. Root pruning season had no impact on final tree height (4.3 m) at the conclusion of field production.
Homebuilder Practices and Perceptions of Construction on the Wooded Lot: A Quarter Century Later Follow-Up Assessment
Authors: O'Herrin Keith , Hauer Richard , Vander Weit William , Miller Robert
Published: July 2021

Building new homes on wooded lots is common in the upper Midwest, United States. Existing trees are often left behind during construction to become part of the future landscape. A study conducted in 1980 found that homebuilders in Portage County, Wisconsin, U.S. generally had a poor understanding of how construction activities could impact the health of trees intended to be preserved. Researchers replicated that study 27 years later by surveying homebuilders in the same region to see how their tree preservation knowledge and use of construction activities have changed during that time. The results indicate few construction activities changed significantly, showing that little has changed overall to improve tree preservation. Even though builders significantly improved their knowledge of the negative effects that storage of fill soil on roots poses to tree preservation, they also significantly increased usage of that very same activity. Builders almost never consulted a tree preservation expert and thought doing so was the least important activity when making tree preservation decisions. Interest in a tree preservation training workshop was limited. Unless pressured by consumer demand or regulation, builders will probably not improve their tree preservation knowledge, change their construction activities, or include tree experts anywhere in the process.
Potential of Alternative Tsuga spp. as Landscape Replacements for T. canadensis: Longer-Term Evaluation and Propagation of T. chinensis.
Authors: Harper Richard , Weston Paul
Published: July 2021

Seven species of hemlock (Tsuga spp.)—four from North America and three from Asia—were evaluated in replicated plots in Katonah, New York, United States (USDA Plant Hardiness Zone 6b) as potential replacements for eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis), which is gradually being extirpated from landscapes in the eastern United States. by the invasive hemlock woolly adelgid (Adelges tsugae). Trends reported in an earlier study (Weston and Harper 2009) continued but were exaggerated after an additional three years of observation. For example, Chinese hemlock (T. chinensis) continued to show the greatest potential as a replacement for T. canadensis as mortality was very low, overall plant health was exceptional, and tolerance to A. tsugae was robust. Early indicators suggest that T. chinensis may also be readily propagated from hardwood cuttings under appropriate greenhouse conditions. These characteristics suggest that T. chinensis may indeed become a viable replacement for T. canadensis, and a valuable addition to landscapes in the eastern U.S.
An Assessment of the Remodeling of Bifurca-tions in Hazel (Corylus avellana L.) in Response to Bracing, Drilling, and Splitting
Authors: Slater Duncan , Ennos A. Roland
Published: July 2021

The ability of trees to remodel their woody structure after injury or strain to outer tissues greatly assists in their survival; however, this remodeling process is complex because it is influenced by many factors. The speed and extent of remodeling of branch junctions in trees around a mechanical flaw, such as included bark, will dictate to what extent and for how long the junction is mechanically weakened. In this study, 100 normally formed bifurcations in semi-mature hazel (Corylus avellana L.) were artificially modified by being rodbraced, drilled through the apex or split, and then left to grow in situ. Two further groups were identified as controls: 120 normally formed bifurcations and 70 bark-included bifurcations. After two to four years, these bifurcations were harvested and underwent tests of their bending strength. The bifurcations rigidly braced over three growing seasons developed adverse taper in their branches and had only 70.5% of the bending strength of the normally formed bifurcations. Bifurcations with the central 20% of the xylem drilled out of them were capable of recovering fully from this defect; in contrast, split bifurcations were found to be highly vulnerable to failure during wind-loading events. This study concludes that a bifurcation may be considered compromised in its bending strength if its apex is compromised, but that semi-mature bifurcations in hazel do exhibit a good ability to remodel after injury. The role of thigmomorphogenesis in this remodeling process is assessed with reference to the rod-braced specimens that suffered no significant mechanical perturbation at their apices.