bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Rhetoric and Semiotics
Authors: Lyne John
Published: September 2017

Semiotics is the study of → signs and signification, including both linguistic and nonlinguistic signs (→ Linguistics; semiotics; Sign Systems). The American philosopher Charles Sanders Peirce (1839–1914), who coined the term and did innovative work in the area, regarded it as the study of that which supports inferences; that is to say, of how signs enable interpretive inference to other signs. Peirce held that all we know or experience comes to us through the mediation of signs. He did not hold that all signification is solely the product of social convention or of language proper, maintaining that signs serve as tools for scientific investigation as well as for the exploration of human creations (→ Language and Social Interaction). One consequence of this view is that all inquiry is semiotic inquiry. Another lineage of semiotics, usually designated by the term “semiology,” grows out of a tradition of European → structuralism traced back to the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure, and carried forward by such writers as → Roland Barthes, Roman Jakobson, and the anthropologist Claude Lévi‐Strauss. In this tradition, emphasis is placed on the social structuring of meaning and the rendering of cultural forms as texts. In contrast to Peirce, this tradition places emphasis on the arbitrariness of signs and on binary structures of meaning.
Rhetoric and Social Thought
Authors: Charland Maurice
Published: September 2017

Aristotle defines rhetoric as the art of determining the available means of persuasion in a particular case. This can be interpreted in a number of ways. When considered narrowly, the study of rhetoric can be equated with the psychology of → Persuasion or with informal logic. However, when that definition is read along with the rest of the
Rhetoric
, as well as the
Ethics
and the
Politics
, and in the context of the rhetorical instruction given by the Sophists and Isocrates, rhetoric is better understood as the theory and practice of civic → Discourse (→ Rhetoric, Greek).
Rhetoric and Visuality
Authors: Finnegan Cara A.
Published: September 2017

If visuality is understood broadly as the practices, performances, and configurations of the appearances, then the relationship between rhetoric and visuality is as old as the art of rhetoric itself. The ancients tied rhetoric to the world of
mimesis
, or the appearances, rather than to the realm of philosophical truth; this relationship has often unfairly relegated both rhetoric and the visual to subordinate status in the Platonic regime of knowledge (Kennedy 2001). Yet in the ancient tradition the visual is constitutive of rhetoric in a number of ways (→ Rhetoric, Greek). The canon of delivery references visuality in its emphasis on gesture, movement, and performance (Kjeldsen 2003; → Delivery and Rhetoric; Gestures in Discourse). The trope of
ekphrasis
(literally “bringing‐before‐the‐eyes”) and Aristotle's notion of
phantasia
reference the ability of rhetoric to create → Images in the mind and cultivate affective grounds for judgment (O'Gorman 2005; → Pathos and Rhetoric; Rhetoric, Epideictic). Sight is framed as a powerful influence on persuasion by Quintilian, who divided images into the categories of pictorial images and mental images, and argued that the best orators created visions (
visiones
) in their listeners' minds (Scholz 2001; Kjeldsen 2003; → Rhetoric, Roman).
Rhetoric in Western Europe: Italy
Authors: Marazzini Claudio
Published: September 2017

Rhetoric has been important for centuries in Italian literary culture. The first development of an Italian literary prose was thanks to a teacher of rhetoric in Bologna, Guido Faba: in the thirteenth century, he provided examples of elaborated prose in rhetorical models of letters and speeches. Other Italian works of the time represented a return to classical theory, with some limited innovation, such as
Il fiore di Rettorica
(before 1266), attributed to Guidotto da Bologna, or Brunetto Latini's
Rettorica
(c. 1260), a vernacular paraphrase and commentary on Cicero's
De inventione
(→ Rhetoric, Medieval). The
De vulgari eloquentia
(c. 1306) of Dante Alighieri was in part a treatise on rhetoric, in which, next to matters of a historical‐linguistic and metrical nature, four stylistic levels of a text are addressed: (1)
insipidus
, tasteless, grammatically correct, but qualitatively insignificant; (2)
et pure sapidus
, clear and tasteful, but scholastic, lacking in originality; (3)
sapidus et venustus
, tasteful and graceful, showing a good understanding of rhetoric; and (4)
excelsus
, the sublime style of the most illustrious writers, rich in the rhetorical ornaments necessary for perfection.
Right of Correction
Authors: Lee Jae‐Jin
Published: September 2017

One efficient way to resolve libel disputes out of court is to correct stories in the media. Prompt and timely correction can mitigate the extent of damages caused by the media's violation of a person's reputation.
Right of Reply
Authors: Lee Jae‐Jin
Published: September 2017

One of the fundamental goals of a legal system is to establish standards in reconciling competing social interests by weighing their relative values in a society. The same is applied to a society's libel laws, which provide a peaceful means for individuals to obtain vindication and compensation for their reputational harm and related losses. Therefore, libel laws furnish judicial remedies, based on such legislative acts as civil codes or press laws, to individuals whose reputational interests have been violated by the media in disseminating news (→ Libel and Slander). This is especially true of those countries where the right of reply is recognized as a way to resolve the conflicts between protection of reputation and freedom of the press (→ Right of Correction).
Risk Communication
Authors: Ruhrmann Georg
Published: September 2017

Risk communication is a field of communications research that is used by a variety of professionals, including → Public Relations and other professionals involved in purposive communications in government and the private sector (→ Strategic Communication). Risk communication can be defined as a process that increases the selectivity of the → Perception and communication of decision consequences. The decision consequences experienced by the decision‐maker are based on “uncertainty” (Otway & Wynne 1989), a situation where actions have to be taken under conditions of incomplete information. The prominent theoretical concepts of risk communications are based on the sociology of risk (Luhmann 2005), as well as journalism research (Wilkins & Patterson 1991; Görke & Ruhrmann 2003).
Russia: Media System
Authors: Vartanova Elena
Published: September 2017

The Russian Federation is a 17.1 million km
2
territory, on which a population of 143.5 million (in 2012) is unevenly distributed. It has borders with 16 countries in Europe and Asia. Russia is a federal republic comprised of 83 federal administrative units subordinate to the central government, divided into seven federal regions headed by plenipotentiaries appointed by the president. Russia is a parliamentary democracy. The bicameral Federal Assembly consists of the Federation Council, with members appointed for each of the federal administrative units, and the State Duma, with 450 members elected every five years by proportional representation from party lists (25 percent) and from single‐member constituencies (75 percent). The major political parties are Yedinaya Rossiya (Unified Russia), the Communist Party, the Spravedlivaya Rossiya (Fair Russia), and the nationalist Liberal‐Democratic Party.
Rapport
Authors: Hemmesch Amanda R.
Published: September 2017

Rapport refers to interpersonal harmony, commonly known as “clicking” or being “in sync” with another person. Rapport can be a goal in itself, or contribute to the successful achievement of interpersonal goals (→ Goals, Social Aspects of). It is important for personal relationships, as well as for therapeutic relationships, patient adherence to doctor recommendations, classroom learning, effective negotiation between competing parties, and successful business transactions. Rapport is an important part of communication because it includes verbal and nonverbal cues; is dynamic in nature; fosters liking, affiliation, and helping behaviors; and has implications beyond human interaction (→ Interpersonal Communication; Doctor–Patient Talk; Classroom Student–Teacher Interaction).
Scales and Indices
Authors: Rössler Patrick
Published: September 2017

Empirical communication and media research attempts to translate reality into data by means of measurement. To insure → reliability and → validity, this process is guided by rules. In the case of quantitative research (→ Quantitative Methodology), the rules tend to be standardized in order to keep results comparable across different instances of measurement (→ Measurement Theory). These standardized measurements can make use of the simple gauges employed in physics or engineering only occasionally, e.g., when the length of a newspaper article is determined with a ruler or the time people watch a TV program by a clock. Many concepts related to communication and media phenomena are complex in nature, for they refer to people's knowledge, intentions, emotions, or behavior. Thus they require more complex instruments for measurement, including different indicators (“latent variables”; Black 1999, 211; see also Bryman 2004, 66–69) to cover the multifaceted aspects of these concepts and to provide an indirect measurement for concepts that cannot be measured directly (Sullivan 2001, 159).
Schemas, Knowledge Structures, and Social Interaction
Authors: Hughes Mikayla
Published: September 2017

Knowledge structures are mental representations of regularities believed to exist in social situations and people's dispositions and behaviors. Specifically, knowledge structures are generalized characterizations of some social entity or experience. Knowledge structures are also commonly referred to as → schemas. Scripts, plans, prototypes, and memory organization packets (MOPS) are among the different types of knowledge structures or schemas (→ Scripts). If communication is conceptualized as a prediction activity, then knowledge structures serve as a database of social information on which people can base their predictions of how to interact with others. Knowledge structures are a means for people to anticipate their own interaction goals and the goals of others, interpersonal behaviors, and outcomes that are likely to occur in social interactions. The manner in which people perceive social situations is influenced by knowledge structures. People view interactions in a manner that is consistent with their pre‐existing expectations. Additionally, a priori explanations of situations are based on schematically organized knowledge. For any specific social interaction, it is likely that multiple knowledge structures are activated.
Selective Perception and Selective Retention
Authors: Shrum L. J.
Published: September 2017

Perception refers to the process of categorizing and interpreting information that is attended to (→ Perception).
Selective perception
refers to the process of categorizing and interpreting information in a way that favors one category or interpretation over another. Thus, selective perception is generally considered to represent a bias in → information processing. More specifically, information tends to be selectively perceived in ways that are congruent with existing individual needs, goals, values, → attitudes, and beliefs. This process generally occurs automatically, outside the conscious awareness of the perceiver (→ Automaticity).
Self‐Presentation
Authors: Smith Sandi W. , Yoo Jina H. , Walther Joseph B.
Published: September 2017

In 1959, sociologist Erving Goffman publishedThe Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. The heuristic value of the concepts he introduced have been wide‐ranging, particularly in the field of communication with its focus on the ways that communication is used to establish and maintain relationships. Human desire for contact and companionship requires teammates who help to present the self and an audience to react to the presentation. Goffman used the metaphor of a theatrical performance as the basis of his model of the ways that people present themselves to others in work situations. He cautioned that a drawback of the metaphor is that theater presents situations that are not genuine, while authenticity is present to some extent in everyday life. He does claim, however, that even honest performers must present themselves in ways that avoid discrediting the impression they are fostering in their audience.
Sensation Seeking
Authors: Zuckerman Marvin
Published: September 2017

Sensation seeking is a basic personality trait that has been defined as “the seeking of varied, novel, complex, and intense sensations and experiences, and the willingness to take physical, social, legal, and financial risks for the sake of such experience” (Zuckerman 1994, 27). The test used to measure the construct, the
Sensation Seeking Scale
(SSS) has evolved from the first version, containing only a general scale, to form version V. The latter contains four subscales and a total score based on the sum of the subscales (→ Scales). The subscales are based on → factor analyses and the results have been replicated in forms developed in many other countries. They are: (1)
thrill and adventure seeking
(TAS), an expressed desire to engage in physical activities or sports which are sometimes risky but provide unusual sensations of speed or defiance of gravity (e.g., parachuting, scuba diving, downhill skiing); (2)
experience seeking
(ES): these items describe the seeking of sensations and experiences through the mind and the senses, as through music, art, and travel, and social nonconformity and unconventionality; (3)
disinhibition
(Dis), i.e., seeking sensation through social activities, sex, and drinking, and associating with people who share these hedonistic preferences; and (4)
boredom susceptibility
(BS), which represents an intolerance for repetitious experience or predictable and unexciting people. More recently, a scale for
impulsive sensation seeking
(ImpSS) has been developed as part of a five‐factor personality test (Zuckerman 2002).
Sexualization in the Media
Authors: Mendes Kaitlynn
Published: September 2017

Sexualization is a concept used in communication research, primarily by feminist and gender studies researchers, to describe an increasingly close link between media images of men, women, and inanimate objects and human sexuality (→ Feminist and Gender Studies). Historical portrayals of sexuality tended to focus on psychological characteristics such as passivity and domesticity for women, and aggression and work for men. In recent years, representations of sexuality have centered on the eroticized body (Gill 2007; → Women in the Media, Images of). This is an important cultural shift, demonstrating an increase in the use of bodies and physicality to sell consumer products. The commoditization of sexuality increases as value and sexual appeal are linked. Additionally, developments in media production and technology, including satellite television and the Internet, have helped provide a cheap and easy forum for consumption, marketing, and distribution of sexualized images (Arthurs 2004).
Simulation
Authors: Ohler Peter
Published: September 2017

Simulations are imitations of some “real‐world” phenomena, especially the states of affairs of (real) natural or social systems or the processes of the systems (processes are defined as temporal sequences of system states). Simulations are used in numerous domains: physics, chemistry, biology, economy, social sciences, and computer and engineering sciences. The general purpose of simulations is to attain insight into the functioning of these systems and to predict their future states.
Soap Operas
Authors: Livingstone Sonia
Published: September 2017

Initially named after the soap manufacturers who advertised in the program breaks, the soap opera has long attracted among the largest audiences of any broadcast genres while being also widely reviled for its supposedly cheap, trashy, and repetitive content. The soap opera audience has, in consequence, received similar criticism, for being mindless, stereotyped, and vulnerable to mass persuasion. Since the 1970s, however, academic commentary, led significantly by the feminist revalorization of “women's genres,” though drawing also on the rise in active audience studies (or audience reception studies) during the 1980s and 1990s, has resulted in a rethinking of the genre (→ Audiences, Female; Genre; Women's Media Genres). This has permitted recognition of the genre's narrative complexity and depth of characterization, its treatment of the moral dilemmas of daily life, and the many satisfactions that audiences obtain from the soap opera.
Social Behavior, Media Effects on
Authors: M. Rubin Alan
Published: September 2017

Surveillance, correlation, and transmission functions are basic to the role of mass media in society.
Surveillance
means locating and disseminating → news and → information.
Correlation
deals with interpreting and editorializing about this information (→ Commentary).
Transmission
is the socialization of norms, → attitudes, and values between groups and generations (Lasswell 1984). Socialization research, for example, has compared the effectiveness of different agencies of socialization, such as the family, peers, teachers, and the media, for fostering information gain or molding attitudes about groups and society (→ Socialization by the Media).
Social Comparison Theory
Authors: Mares Marie‐Louise
Published: September 2017

The central idea of social comparison theory is that individuals often assess how well they are doing by comparing themselves with others around them. When → Festinger (1954) originally developed the theory, he argued that individuals want an accurate assessment of their opinions and performance, and that in the absence of objective standards, they look to others (preferably those who are similar in a relevant dimension) for → information about their relative standing. Individuals, he argued, seek to be right in their opinions, and have a unidirectional drive upward for their abilities.
Social Conflict and Communication
Authors: Hindman Douglas Blanks
Published: September 2017

Social conflict involves public struggles over limited resources, the distribution of status, and the exercise of power (Coser 1956). Communication is crucial to social conflict because through it, social conflict can escalate into violence, de‐escalate into resolution and reconciliation, and can lead to clearer definitions of opposing positions (Gilboa 2006). Conflict is a ubiquitous form of social interaction that can have positive or negative consequences for the groups involved, can have implications for both social change and social stability, and can be understood as both a product of the social setting and a purely symbolic act that has no relationship to what are imagined as real conditions.
Social Support in Health Communication
Authors: Arora Neeraj K.
Published: September 2017

Interest in social support as an important determinant of people's health stemmed from a number of influential papers published in the 1970s (e.g., Cobb

). These early writings suggested that people's interpersonal relationships with members of their → social network can reduce the negative impact of stress on their health. The specific mechanisms by which these relationships buffer the impact of stress were collectively termed “social support” (Wortman

).
Socialization by the Media
Authors: Nathanson Amy I.
Published: September 2017

The mass media can play a significant role in shaping the social attitudes and social behaviors of children and adolescents. These effects are distinct from more general media effects that do not involve attitudes toward or behaviors with others, such as purchasing behaviors or learning educational content (→ Advertising as Persuasion; Educational Television, Children's Responses to; Sesame Street). Although parents exert the most influence on children, the mass media can be considered secondary agents of socialization. Research has found that mass media use, especially exposure to television, can affect the development of children's self‐image, attitudes toward others, and interpersonal behaviors. Researchers also have studied the role of media in youth's development of political attitudes and behaviors.
Spectator Gaze
Authors: Sturken Marita
Published: September 2017

The concept of the spectator gaze was central to the development of theories of → cinema and art history, emerging primarily in the 1970s. Its origins most likely lie in Jean‐Paul Sartre's theory of the look (in French,le regard) and the extension of that theory into psychoanalytic theory by Jacques Lacan. This theory postulates the position of an idealized spectator (of cinema, for instance) and the idea that an image (still or moving) is defined by a particular kind of gaze upon it (→ Film Theory).
Statistics, Descriptive
Authors: Scheufele Bertram
Published: September 2017

The original purpose of statistics was collecting data for government and administration. Thus, the term is used for, e.g., employment data or for censuses in general that provide data (statistics) about a population or nation. Scientifically, the term stands for different forms of presenting empirical data in charts, diagrams, or tables as well as for an academic discipline. In this respect, statistics is part of mathematics, but also an auxiliary discipline for other academic disciplines like communication research. Statistics serves for analyzing, presenting, and interpreting empirical data that have been collected by applying quantitative methods (→ Quantitative Methodology; Research Methods) like → Surveys, content analyses (→ Content Analyses, Quantitative), or → observations in → experimental designs or field studies (→ Field Research). Statistics comprises of descriptive and explanatory procedures and aspects (→ Statistics, Explanatory).
Strategic Communication
Authors: Holtzhausen Derina
Published: September 2017

Strategic communication is the study of how organizations or communicative entities communicate deliberately to reach set goals. Although the term “strategic communication” has been in use for years, scholars are only now fully engaged in defining the field and its theoretical influences. Traditionally communication in its organizational context has been studied through various disciplines academically and functionally scattered over domains from management communication, → Marketingcommunication, → advertising, → Public Relations, technical communication, → Organizational Communication, and → Political Communication, to → Information or → social marketing campaigns (Hallahan et al. 2007; → Social Movements and Communication). It also covers the full spectrum of economic and social sectors, such as trade and industry, politics, nonprofit, government agencies, activist groups, and even celebrities in the sports and entertainment industries, all referred to here as communicative entities.
Student Communication Competence
Authors: Morreale Sherwyn P.
Published: September 2017

Scholars and teachers have endeavored to understand communication competence by defining it conceptually and identifying the components that comprise it. Some researchers have studied why communication competence is important for students, while others have collaborated with employers and policymakers to develop “lists” of basic and advanced student communication competencies. As a result of public mandates from accrediting agencies and academic administrators, still others have examined how to assess students’ communication competence. While these studies were mainly carried out in the US, scholars in other countries have demonstrated keen interest in understanding intercultural communication competence – communicating across cultural differences. Finally, some researchers, in and outside the US, are considering variations in communication competence based on the impact of culture, the information society, and emerging technologies.
Supply and Demand in Media Markets
Authors: Hollifield C. Ann
Published: September 2017

The concepts of supply and demand and the relationship between them are the cornerstones of the field of economics. Economic theory holds that supply of a specific product will reach equilibrium with the demand for that product because of the mediating effect of price. As prices rise, the quantity of a product demanded by the market will fall, and as prices fall, the quantity of the product demanded will rise. This relationship is known in economics as thelaw of demand.
Survey
Authors: Traugott Michael W.
Published: September 2017

Surveys are one of the standard forms of collecting data on individuals. The process is uniquely suited to the collection of knowledge, attitudes, and opinions, but there are many circumstances where it is the only way to obtain information about behaviors as well. Surveys are sometimes distinguished from polls (→ Public Opinion Polling) because they are more likely to be conducted by academic than commercial researchers or because they tend to be longer. This distinction is not applied here.
Switzerland: Media System
Authors: Bonfadelli Heinz
Published: September 2017

Switzerland is a small, federal, non‐EU‐member country in the center of Europe. It has a population of 7.6 million people (2007), 22.1 percent of whom are foreigners, and four official languages, namely German (the first language of 64 percent of the population), French (20 percent), Italian (6.5 percent), and Romansh (0.5 percent). The media inflow from the three big neighboring countries is considerable.
Symbolic Convergence Theory
Authors: Shields Donald C.
Published: September 2017

Symbolic convergence theory (SCT), a general communication theory (→ Communication Theory and Philosophy), explains the emergence of a common symbolic consciousness – one that contains shared meanings, → emotions, values, and motives for human action – among participants in a small group (→ Group Communication), organization (→ Organizational Communication), or other rhetorical community. SCT, as developed by Ernest Bormann, John Cragan, and Donald Shields, among others, is a message‐centered theory grounded through the observation of symbolic facts in communication. Observers noted the sharing of dramatized messages, called fantasy themes, within small‐group communication, in mediated communication, and among the communicating memberships of organizations and other large publics (→ Rhetoric and Narrativity; Storytelling and Narration). Within each context, researchers found that people shared, reiterated, and wove fantasy themes to form a larger, more complex view of reality called a
rhetorical vision
(e.g., the Cold War, global warming, or neo‐conservatism).
A rhetorical vision
contains many fantasy themes that depict heroes and villains in dramatic action within a scene. Within a group such a vision establishes identity, cohesion, and culture (→ Culture: Definitions and Concepts).
Tabloidization
Authors: Bird S. Elizabeth
Published: September 2017

“Tabloidization” is a vaguely defined term that since the 1980s has been used to describe stylistic and content changes in → Journalism, usually perceived as representing a decline in traditional journalistic standards (→ Quality of the News). To grasp the significance of the term, it is first essential to understand its root form – the tabloid (→ Tabloid Press).
Taste Culture
Authors: Crane Diana
Published: September 2017

The idea that → 
Popular Culture
consists of distinct “taste cultures” was developed by Herbert Gans (

) as an alternative to the then dominant theory of mass culture. Mass culture theorists (Horkheimer & Adorno

) viewed popular culture as a commercial enterprise that represented a debased form of high culture. They claimed that mass culture targeted a mass audience that was passive and uncritical and thus susceptible to mass persuasion, with potentially dangerous consequences for society as a whole (→ Culture: Definitions and Concepts).
Teacher Use of Humor
Authors: Wanzer Melissa Bekelja
Published: September 2017

When teachers use verbal and nonverbal messages to elicit laughter and smiling from students, they employ a teaching strategy labeled
instructional humor
. Classic and contemporary scholarship on this topic has shed light on the benefits of teacher humor, how teacher humor relates to student learning, challenges of studying the relationship between humor and learning, and different types of teacher humor. Instructional communication researchers recognize teacher humor as an important type of immediacy behavior often used to reduce psychological distance between students and teachers and facilitate student learning.
Technology and Communication
Authors: Mansell Robin
Published: September 2017

As users we will come to rely on our handset as a single device to manage not just communications but much of our lives. It will truly become a “remote control for life,” with massively enhanced capabilities, advanced methods of user interaction and in‐built tools … The substantial change that end users are going to witness has become possible more because the underlying infrastructure has become stable than because it is rapidly evolving.
Technology, Social Construction of
Authors: Bijker Wiebe E.
Published: September 2017

The social construction of technology (SCOT) is one approach among several constructivist ways of studying science and technology that emerged in the 1980s. Here, “constructivist” means that the truth of scientific facts and the working of technical artifacts are studied as accomplishments; that is, as being constructed, rather than as intrinsic properties of those facts and machines (→ Constructivism).
Telecenters
Authors: Colle Royal D.
Published: September 2017

Telecenters are public places where people can gain access to information technologies and other communication resources (→ Access to the Media; Participatory Communication; Public Access Television). They originated in the mid‐1980s in Scandinavian countries as an effort to help people in rural areas become part of the information economy, particularly by making modern office equipment available to them on a shared basis. Although the idea spread through many of the industrialized countries during the next decade, it was the emergence of the computer and digital networks in the 1990s that launched a variety of these public access centers – with a variety of names, such as community technology centers, village information centers, and community learning centers. UNESCO, the World Bank, the International Telecommunications Union (ITU), and overseas development agencies such as those of Canada, Switzerland, the UK, and the US gave the telecenter movement significant propulsion as they perceived a link between information and communication technologies (ICTs) and development (→ Development Communication; Information and Communication Technology, Development of; Technology and Communication; UNESCO).
Television as Popular Culture
Authors: Miller Toby
Published: September 2017

“Television” means “seeing from afar.” It describes several things: a physical device, a cultural system, and a labor process that brings the two together and embeds them in the daily experience of half the world's population (→ Television). “Popular” signifies of, by, and for the people, offering transcendence through pleasure, but doing so by referring to the everyday (→ Popular Communication). “Culture” derives from agriculture (→ Culture: Definitions and Concepts). With the emergence of capitalism, it simultaneously embodied instrumentalism and abjured it, via the industrialization of farming and the cultivation of taste.
Television: Social History
Authors: Bourdon Jérôme
Published: September 2017

Television history has developed relatively recently. After pioneering work in the UK (Briggs 1961–1995) and the US (Barnouw 1976), national histories of television (and broadcasting) have been written, mostly in Europe and sometimes beyond (bibliographies can be found at André Lange's history of television website). Historians have focused mostly on political and institutional history. Television content has long been ignored except for countries (or researchers) rich enough to have access, and this remains a problem except in privileged situations (as in France, where the Institut National de l'Audiovisuel [INA] archives televsion programs for free access:http://www.ina.fr).
Text and Intertextuality
Authors: Bruhn Jensen Klaus
Published: September 2017

Texts are vehicles of meaning in human expression and communication. Growing out of centuries of literary, → hermeneutic, and other humanistic scholarship, the concept was originally reserved for written and other verbal messages. From the 1960s onwards, however,
texts
came to denote all meaningful entities, including images, everyday interaction, and cultural → artifacts generally (→ Modality and Multimodality), as examined through increasingly interdisciplinary approaches in communication and related fields.
Time Warner Inc.
Authors: Einstein Mara
Published: September 2017

Time Warner is the world's leading multimedia conglomerate (→ Media Conglomerates), with operations in filmed entertainment, broadcast and → cable television, → Internet services and print media. The company generated more than $43 billion in revenues in 2005.
Tourism Industry
Authors: Meethan Kevin
Published: September 2017

The term “tourism industry” covers a wide range of services, activities, and commodities, bound together in a complex network of relationships that involves the temporary migration of people for leisure purposes. There has always been an element of the global within tourism. Since the first worldwide figures were gathered in the early 1950s, tourism has continued to grow year on year. In common with many other forms of economic activity, the increasing reach and spread of tourism has gathered pace since the 1990s to the extent that it is now firmly embedded as an established and important sector in many economies of the world, and consequently has had considerable socio‐economic and cultural impacts on localities.
Trademarks in the Media
Authors: Sheehan Kim Bartel
Published: September 2017

Trademarks are symbols used by companies to identify their products and services. These symbols then serve to distinguish a product or service from those of another company (when a service is trademarked, the resulting mark is legally referred to as a “servicemark”). Trademarks can consist of a word, a phrase, a design, a sound, a color, a product configuration, a group of letters or numbers, or any combination of these. The trademark for the NBC television network, for example, consists of the letters “NBC” and a stylized peacock; the trademark for the Playboy empire consists of the word “Playboy” and the famous bunny symbol.
Graphene Oxide/Polymer‐Based Biomaterials
Authors: Ege Duygu , Kamali Ali Reza , Boccaccini Aldo R.
Published: September 2017

Since its discovery in 2004, derivatives of graphene have been developed and heavily investigated in the field of tissue engineering. Among the most extensively studied forms of graphene, graphene oxide (GO), and GO/polymer‐based nanocomposites have attracted great attention in various forms such as films, 3D porous scaffolds, electrospun mats, hydrogels, and nacre‐like structures. In this review, the most actively investigated GO/polymer nanocomposites are presented and discussed, these nanocomposites are based on chitosan, cellulose, starch, alginate, gellan gum, poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA), poly(acrylamide), poly(ϵ‐caprolactone) (PCL), poly(lactic acid) (PLLA), poly(lactide‐co‐glycolide) (PLGA), gelatin, collagen, and silk fibroin (SF). The biological and mechanical performance of such nanocomposites are comprehensively scrutinized and ongoing research questions are addressed. The analysis of the literature reveals overall the great potential of GO/polymer nanocomposites in tissue engineering strategies and indicates also a series of challenges requiring further research efforts.
In‐Plane Micro‐Supercapacitors for an Integrated Device on One Piece of Paper
Authors: Guo Ruisheng , Chen Jiangtao , Yang Bingjun , Liu Lingyang , Su Lijun , Shen Baoshou , Yan Xingbin
Published: September 2017

Portable and wearable sensors have attracted considerable attention in the healthcare field because they can be worn or implanted into a human body to monitor environmental information. However, sensors cannot work independently and require power. Flexible in‐plane micro‐supercapacitor (MSC) is a suitable power device that can be integrated with sensors on a single chip. Meanwhile, paper is an ideal flexible substrate because it is cheap and disposable and has a porous and rough surface that enhances interface adhesion with electronic devices. In this study, a new strategy to integrate MSCs, which have excellent electrochemical and mechanical performances, with sensors on a single piece of paper is proposed. The integration is achieved by printing Ni circuit on paper without using a precoating underlay. Ink diffusion is also addressed to some degree. Meanwhile, a UV sensor is integrated on a single paper, and the as‐integrated device shows good sensing and self‐powering capabilities. MSCs can also be integrated with a gas sensor on one‐piece paper and can be charged by connecting it to a solar cell. Thus, it is potentially feasible that a flexible paper can be used for integrating MSCs with solar cell and various sensors to generate, store, and use energy.
Improvement and Regeneration of Perovskite Solar Cells via Methylamine Gas Post‐Treatment
Authors: Hong Li , Hu Yue , Mei Anyi , Sheng Yusong , Jiang Pei , Tian Chengbo , Rong Yaoguang , Han Hongwei
Published: September 2017

The control of film morphology is crucial in achieving high‐performance perovskite solar cells (PSCs). Herein, the crystals of the perovskite films are reconstructed by post‐treating the MAPbI3 devices with methylamine gas, yielding a homogeneous nucleation and crystallization of the perovskite in the triple mesoscopic inorganic layers structured PSCs. As a result, a uniform, compact, and crystalline perovskite layer is obtained after the methylamine gas post‐treatment, yielding high power conversion efficiency (PCE) of 15.26%, 128.8% higher than that of the device before processing. More importantly, this post‐treatment process allows the regeneration of the photodegraded PSCs via the crystal reconstruction and the PCE can recover to 91% of the initial value after two cycles of the photodegradation‐recovery process. This simple method allows for the regeneration of perovskite solar cells on site without reconstruction or replacing any components, thus prolonging the service life of the perovskite solar cells and distinguishing from any other photovoltaic devices in practice.
3D‐Printed All‐Fiber Li‐Ion Battery toward Wearable Energy Storage
Authors: Wang Yibo , Chen Chaoji , Xie Hua , Gao Tingting , Yao Yonggang , Pastel Glenn , Han Xiaogang , Li Yiju , Zhao Jiupeng , Fu Kun (Kelvin) , Hu Liangbing
Published: September 2017

Conventional bulky and rigid power systems are incapable of meeting flexibility and breathability requirements for wearable applications. Despite the tremendous efforts dedicated to developing various 1D energy storage devices with sufficient flexibility, challenges remain pertaining to fabrication scalability, cost, and efficiency. Here, a scalable, low‐cost, and high‐efficiency 3D printing technology is applied to fabricate a flexible all‐fiber lithium‐ion battery (LIB). Highly viscous polymer inks containing carbon nanotubes and either lithium iron phosphate (LFP) or lithium titanium oxide (LTO) are used to print LFP fiber cathodes and LTO fiber anodes, respectively. Both fiber electrodes demonstrate good flexibility and high electrochemical performance in half‐cell configurations. All‐fiber LIB can be successfully assembled by twisting the as‐printed LFP and LTO fibers together with gel polymer as the quasi‐solid electrolyte. The all‐fiber device exhibits a high specific capacity of ≈110 mAh g−1 at a current density of 50 mA g−1 and maintains a good flexibility of the fiber electrodes, which can be potentially integrated into textile fabrics for future wearable electronic applications.
Controlling Differentiation of Stem Cells for Developing Personalized Organ‐on‐Chip Platforms
Authors: Geraili Armin , Jafari Parya , Hassani Mohsen Sheikh , Araghi Behnaz Heidary , Mohammadi Mohammad Hossein , Ghafari Amir Mohammad , Tamrin Sara Hasanpour , Modarres Hassan Pezeshgi , Kolahchi Ahmad Rezaei , Ahadian Samad , Sanati‐Nezhad Amir
Published: September 2017

Organ‐on‐chip (OOC) platforms have attracted attentions of pharmaceutical companies as powerful tools for screening of existing drugs and development of new drug candidates. OOCs have primarily used human cell lines or primary cells to develop biomimetic tissue models. However, the ability of human stem cells in unlimited self‐renewal and differentiation into multiple lineages has made them attractive for OOCs. The microfluidic technology has enabled precise control of stem cell differentiation using soluble factors, biophysical cues, and electromagnetic signals. This study discusses different tissue‐ and organ‐on‐chip platforms (i.e., skin, brain, blood–brain barrier, bone marrow, heart, liver, lung, tumor, and vascular), with an emphasis on the critical role of stem cells in the synthesis of complex tissues. This study further recaps the design, fabrication, high‐throughput performance, and improved functionality of stem‐cell‐based OOCs, technical challenges, obstacles against implementing their potential applications, and future perspectives related to different experimental platforms.
Asymmetric Vinylogous Aldol Reaction of α‐ketoesters with 3‐alkylidene oxindoles
Authors: Kumar Krishna , Jaiswal Manish K. , Singh Ravi P.
Published: September 2017

An efficient enantioselective vinylogous aldol reaction of 3‐alkylidene oxindoles with α‐ketoesters by a bifunctional thiourea catalyst derived from cinchona alkaloid has been disclosed here. The simultaneous H‐bond directing dual activation of vinylogous nucleophile and electrophile afforded high yield (upto 92%) while obtaining excellent stereocontrol (upto 99% ee).

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Organocatalyzed Thia‐Michael Addition and Sequential Inverse Electron Demanding Diels‐Alder Reaction to 3‐Vinyl‐1,2,4‐ triazine Platforms
Authors: Berthonneau Clément , Buttard Floris , Hiebel Marie‐Aude , Suzenet Franck , Brière Jean‐François
Published: September 2017

This work highlights the use of 3‐vinyl‐1,2,4‐triazines as original thia‐Michael acceptors and inverse electron demanding Diels‐Alder platforms en route to new 7,8‐dihydro‐5H‐thiopyrano[4,3‐b]pyridines. The required but rather unstable propargylthiol nucleophiles were successfully generated in‐situ upon an innovative DBU‐catalyzed methanolysis event of the corresponding propargyl thioacetate derivatives.

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Efficient Transformation of Alkyl 3‐nitro‐5‐(aryl/alkyl)isoxazole‐4‐carboxylates into 3‐amino‐ and 3‐hydrazinyl‐5‐aryl/alkyl‐isoxazole‐4‐carboxylates in Aqueous Solution
Authors: Mukhopadhyay Sushobhan , Barak Dinesh S. , Avasthi Ilesha , Batra Sanjay
Published: September 2017

An efficient protocol for transforming alkyl 3‐nitro‐5‐(aryl/alkyl)isoxazole‐4‐carboxylates into 3‐amino‐ and 3‐hydrazinyl‐5‐aryl/alkyl‐isoxazole‐4‐carboxylates is described. The reaction that is carried out in aqueous acetonitrile solution generally afford the products without any chromatographic purification. Investigations with the substrate scope reveal that this protocol is compatible only when the ester group is present at the C‐4 position of the isoxazole ring.

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Potassium Hydroxide‐Catalyzed Alkynylation of Heteroaromatic N‐Oxides with Terminal Alkynes
Authors: Chen Xiaopei , Yang Fangfang , Cui Xiuling , Wu Yangjie
Published: September 2017

An efficient potassium hydroxide‐catalyzed alkynylation of heteroaromatic N‐oxides under transition‐metal‐free conditions with the assistance of visible‐light has been developed. Various C2‐alkynylheterocycles were obtained in up to 92% yield with good functional group tolerance. This new method is operational simple, highly efficient, atom economic, and environmental friendly.

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Influence of filler loading and palm oil‐based green coupling agent on torque rheological properties of polypropylene/cocoa pod husk composites
Authors: Koay Seong Chun , Chan Ming Yeng , Pang Ming Meng , Tshai Kim Yeow
Published: September 2017

This research examined the torque rheological properties of cocoa pod husk (CPH)‐filled polypropylene (PP) composites. Composites with varying filler loading ranging from 10 to 40 phr and formulation with or without palm oil‐based green coupling agent (GCA‐P) were analyzed using a Brabender Plastrograph torque rheometer. The GCA‐P synthesized from fatty acid of palm oil was used to enhance adhesion at the filler–matrix surface interfaces. The results reveal that PP/CPH composites containing 40 phr filler loading and GCA‐P exhibited higher processing torque and power law index (n). Higher melt viscosity was recorded at higher filler loading, owning to filler agglomeration and more effective filler‐matrix adhesion in the presence of GCA‐P. As a result, higher energy was required to compound PP/CPH composites, which could be attributed to the increase in activation energy (Ea) at higher melt viscosity.
The influence of hydrophilic mPEG segment on formation, morphology, and properties of PCL‐mPEG microspheres
Authors: He Yu , Liu Ping , Shi Chen , Liu Yongwei , Liu Songxiang , Feng Xiaobo , Fu Dehao
Published: September 2017

This research displayed the differences of formation process, morphology, degradation, and release behaviors between PCL and PCL‐mPEG microspheres. Lysozyme loaded microspheres were prepared by double emulsion evaporation method, and the double droplets transformation process was observed and compared under microscope. Microspheres morphology, in vitro degradation and release behaviors were evaluated by scanning electron microscope, gel permeation chromatography, and bicinchoninic acid protein assay kit. PCL‐mPEG microspheres got a rough surface and the outer water phase penetrated into PCL‐mPEG double droplet easier than PCL during the transformation, accompanied with a high broken percentage and size swelling. PCL‐mPEG microspheres get a faster degradation/erosion rate than PCL microspheres, and the rate was in direct proportion to mPEG chain length. In vitro release analysis showed that PCL‐mPEG microspheres get a faster release rate than PCL microspheres, and the rate was also in direct proportion to mPEG chain length.