bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Nature of Music Nurturing in Japanese Preschools
Authors: Adachi Mayumi
Published: February 2013

This article examines the musical lives of Japanese preschool children, including the music they learn and the musical activities they are encouraged to participate in. The study is based on survey responses from 121 preschools in Japan. Although Japanese preschools offer a musically rich program of education, there appears to be a lack of structured instructions for creativity. Most preschool children are simply encouraged to listen to music, to reproduce songs from their memory, or to learn new song to add to their repertoire. The children’s only regular musical activity that involves a form of creative expression is free movement to music, which may be considered as a creative activity with greater attention to movement than to music.
Tinkering and Tethering in the Material Culture of Children’s MP3 Players
Authors: Bickford Tyler
Published: February 2013

This article examines the material culture of children, based on ethnographic research with schoolchildren at a small public and elementary and middle school in Heartsboro, Vermont. The study challenges the notion of children’s use of MP3 players that emphasize wireless connectivity, communication at a distance, and technological expertise. It shows that children have domesticated MP3 players within a material culture already characterized by playful physical interaction and portable objects such as toys, trading cards, and dolls that can be shared, manipulated, and held close. Children’s conceptions of sound, music, and circulation were also influenced by their emphasis and interest in the materiality of the devices.
Constructions and Negotiations of Identity in Children’s Music in Canada
Authors: Hoefnagels Anna , Walsh Kristin Harris
Published: February 2013

This article reviews research and the historical context for Anglo-Canadian children’s folk music, the development of the children’s folk “movement” in the 1970s, and the resultant Anglo-Canadian children’s musical canon. Specifically, it explores the relationship between musicians and the selection and contents of songs through the repertoire of two musical “acts”: the threesome known as Sharon, Lois, and Bram; and Raffi Cavoukian. The analysis and comparison of the music, performance practices, and songs of both acts show that despite their varied approaches, each drew upon folk and popular musical traditions, and created new songs in forming their repertoires. Both acts created music that empowered children as the keepers of the future through their use children’s artwork, children’s voices, and efforts to teach children how to care of themselves and the world around them.
Evolved Cognitive Adaptations
Authors: Sell Aaron N.
Published: February 2013

Psychology has frequently drawn on animal behavior for insights into the human mind, but the central theory of biology, that of natural selection, has yet to be fully incorporated into the primary comparative psychology literature. This chapter reviews the adaptationist program (Williams, 1966), a method that allows psychologists to use theories and insights developed in evolutionary biology, behavioral ecology, and evolutionary psychology to map the computational architecture of the human mind. As an example of the adaptationist program at work, I review a long standing problem in perceptual psychology: the inconsistent evidence for the ability to assess height and weight from the voice, and then show how the application of this method allows us to derive the hypothesis that the human mind contains cognitive mechanisms for the assessment of formidability. A series of tests of this theory are then reviewed.
Cephalopod Intelligence
Authors: Mather Jennifer A.
Published: February 2013

Cephalopod intelligence has similarities and differences from that of vertebrates. Both groups have paired lens-type eyes and a sophisticated vestibular system. Cephalopods have a lateral line mechano-reception system, like that of fish, and chemical sensing. The motor systems are quite different, as cephalopods have jet propulsion by the flexible mantle and lateral fins. For grasping, they have many sucker-equipped arms and two flexible tentacles. A hydrostatic skeletal system gives many degrees of freedom of arm movement, but its brain monitoring is unknown. Both groups have paired lateral brain lobes, and cephalopods have two storage areas for learned visual and chemotactile information. Cephalopods are solitary but can play, have personalities, and may have a simple form of consciousness. They have a unique visual skin display system for camouflage and communication with conspecifics. This offers an interesting comparison and contrast to vertebrates as a model for the development of intelligence.
Symbolic Communication in the Grey Parrot
Authors: Pepperberg Irene M.
Published: February 2013

For over 30 years, I have used a modeling technique (the model/rival or M/R procedure) to train Grey parrots to use an allospecific code (English speech) referentially, and then employed the code to test their cognitive abilities. The oldest bird, Alex, labeled 〉50 objects, seven colors, five shapes, quantities to eight, three categories (color, shape, material) and used “no,” “come here,” “wanna go X,” and “want Y” (X, Y being appropriate location or item labels). He combined labels to identify, request, comment on, or refuse 〉150 items and to alter his environment. He processed queries to judge category, relative size, quantity, presence or absence of similarity/difference in attributes, show label comprehension and a zero-like concept; he demonstrated some understanding of phonological awareness, and numerical competence more comparable to that of young children than to nonhumans. His requests were intentional. He consequently exhibited capacities presumed limited to humans or nonhuman primates. Younger birds are acquiring similar competence.
The Evolution of Morality: Which Aspects of Human Moral Concerns Are Shared With Nonhuman Primates?
Authors: Sheskin Mark , Santos Laurie
Published: February 2013

Morality is a critical part of human society. This chapter explores the origins of human morality by examining whether nonhuman primate species share aspects of five domains thought to be important in human moral behavior—concerns involving harm, fairness, hierarchy, ingroup allegiance, and purity. Behaviors in the harm domain have received the most attention from researchers, and converging lines of evidence suggest that some primates express harm concerns. The domain of fairness has become a recent focus of primate research, with active debate about whether closely related primates share human-like concerns. Moral behaviors regarding ingroup allegiance, authority, and purity have received the least attention in nonhuman species, though recent work suggests that research with primates might productively pursue the ingroup allegiance and authority domains. Future primate research will continue to elucidate the nature of human morality, and should include an increased focus on the previously neglected domains of ingroup and hierarchy.
Darwin, Tinbergen, and the Evolution of Comparative Cognition
Authors: Shettleworth Sara J.
Published: February 2013

Darwin and Tinbergen represent two enduring contrasts in comparative cognitive psychology: in the types of behaviors studied and the kinds of explanations sought. Darwin encouraged the search for human-like behaviors in animals as evidence for evolutionary continuity of mental processes. Tinbergen encouraged the careful causal analysis of animal behaviors as such and eschewed interpretations in terms of anthropomorphic processes. The Darwinian program has reemerged in contemporary research on comparative cognition. Its development and relationship to other areas of behavioral biology are traced. In using behavior as a window onto the animal mind, it is important to remember the lessons of Tinbergen and like-minded behaviorists in psychology. Several of the challenges that arise in attempting to show that other species share complex cognitive processes with humans are discussed in the light of the contrast represented by Darwin and Tinbergen, as are examples of how these approaches are being productively integrated.
Comparative Evolutionary Psychology: A United Discipline for the Study of Evolved Traits
Authors: Vonk Jennifer , Shackelford Todd K.
Published: February 2013

Several themes have emerged from the chapters in this volume. Some tensions exist between researchers seeking to answer questions concerning the adaptive purpose of human and nonhuman behaviors and capacities, and researchers seeking to shed light on the evolutionary forces giving rise to such traits. These tensions may be dissipated if several unnecessary dichotomies are avoided and researchers thereby embraced nonmutually exclusive stances to different methodological and theoretical approaches. We suggest that those studying humans and/ or nonhumans—whether in the field or in the lab, with large numbers of participants or with few, from a behaviorist or nativist standpoint, asking questions about structure or function, stressing continuity or discontinuity—focus less on absolutes and existing dogma, and more on openness and objectivity. We suggest that, if all researchers with similar goals unite under the single unifying framework of evolutionary theory, many more advances can be made and a more focused field of study will emerge.
Violence Across Animals and Within Early Hominins
Authors: Sherrow Hogan M.
Published: February 2013

Violence is common among animal populations, but the term is rarely used in modern behavioral ecology studies and is instead typically reserved for aberrant human behaviors. Despite this, there are virtually no animal populations in which violence, to some degree, has not been observed. Instead, organisms have elaborate behaviors that allow them to mitigate violence when it does occur or attempt to avoid it all together. Here I review two separate, but not mutually exclusive, views on the evolution of violence across animals. I then characterize violence across animals, with special emphasis on apes, including humans. Finally, I present a model for violence in our earliest hominin ancestors.
Suicide
Authors: Brown R. Michael , Brown Stephanie L.
Published: February 2013

The focus of this chapter is suicide, with emphasis on two evolutionary explanations. One views suicide as a by-product of states, traits, or predispositions that may have been adaptive in ancestral environments. The other views suicide as an evolved response that is conditioned on rare but well-specified environmental circumstances. The chapter considers this second approach—an inclusive fitness model of self-destructive motivation—in some detail. This model identifies circumstances under which self-preservation might be expected to break down—namely, the coupling of low individual reproductive potential with a sense of being a burden to close kin (burdensomeness). Although the model was designed to show how self-destructive phenomena might have evolved in ancestral environments, there is growing evidence to suggest that it is also capable of predicting instances of suicidal thinking and behavior in the present. We review that evidence and include a description of our own program of research that has tested and extended the model.
Parasite Stress, Collectivism, and Human Warfare
Authors: Letendre Kenneth , Fincher Corey L. , Thornhill Randy
Published: February 2013

We recently proposed a new model to explain cross-national variation in the frequency of intrastate conflict based on the parasite-stress theory of sociality. In regions of high pathogen severity, cultures are characterized by xenophobia and ethnocentrism, which function in the avoidance and management of infectious disease. The xenophobia expressed in environments with high pathogen severity creates barriers to intergroup cooperation. These barriers cause greater poverty in environments with increased pathogen severity, in addition to the direct effects of disease on the human capital that is essential to economic growth. Xenophobic groups in competition for resources are unwilling to resolve this competition through cooperative means, and they are more likely to resort to violent conflict. Here, we extend our findings to other categories of conflict. We discuss the implications of our model to the understanding of human warfare in evolutionary context and to foreign aid directed at reducing poverty and conflict.
Resource Acquisition, Violence, and Evolutionary Consciousness
Authors: Gorelik Gregory , Shackelford Todd K. , Weekes-Shackelford Viviana A.
Published: February 2013

The evolution and development of adaptations result from the gradual selection and inheritance of traits and behaviors that better enable organisms to acquire and maintain resources needed for survival and reproduction. We argue that instances of individual, regional, and global violence are rooted in our adaptations to seek, acquire, maintain, and utilize limited resources, regardless of whether such adaptations are currently successful at doing so. However, violence is not the only strategy employed by organisms to acquire resources; cooperation, reciprocity, and social bonding are behaviors that may likewise prove useful in this endeavor. We speculate about how individual adaptations and their by-products may interact with the adaptations of other individuals and with societal and cultural phenomena, both violently and nonviolently. Finally, we discuss how individual decisions can affect higher level regional and global violence. Individual decisions carry moral weight for the individual in question and for society as a whole. We hope to convince readers that their personal decisions and behaviors have far-reaching consequences on the well-being of others and that an evolutionary consciousness may help us to understand the effects of our personal choices on the existence of individual- and group-level violence.
Ethical Decision Making
Authors: Lindsay Geoff
Published: February 2013

This chapter explores the use of ethical codes to support ethical decision making. The nature of codes is examined with reference to ethical principles, domains of practice, cultural factors, and function. Distinctions are made between using codes for developmental/educative purposes, as working to assist decision making, as a basis for regulatory bodies’ decision making, and as public statements. Three levels of complexity for decision making are proposed, from relatively automatic responses based on experience to analysis of ethical dilemmas. A model of decision making is proposed, drawing upon that of the Canadian Psychological Association. Its use is exemplified by a vignette describing decision making using the European Federation of Psychologists’ Associations’ Meta-Code of ethics.
Principles of Indigenous Ethics and Psychological Interventions
Authors: Tassell Natasha A. , Herbert Averil M. L. , Evans Ian M. , Young Patricia TeW. A.
Published: February 2013

The importance of indigenous principles in undertaking psychological assessment, interventions, and applied research is increasingly being recognized and acknowledged in most formal codes of ethics for psychologists. Nevertheless, specific ethical guidelines still tend to reflect the established assumptions of the dominant academic cultures. This chapter highlights additional principles and relevant issues at different levels of ethical judgment. At the deepest level are fundamental concerns over power differentials, especially when interventions are designed, controlled, and evaluated by practitioners from majority populations (colonization). At other important levels there are questions concerning the recognition of indigenous knowledge, alternative worldviews regarding psychological well-being, and different cultural values with respect to privacy, consent, and the rights to effective treatment. At a more practical level are issues of treatment acceptability and access, adequacy of the evidence base, prioritization of treatment targets, and training and career development opportunities for indigenous practitioners.
Principles, Standards, and Guidelines that Impact Test Development and Use and Sources of Information
Authors: Oakland Thomas
Published: February 2013

Test development and use may constitute psychology's most important technical contribution to the behavior sciences. Tests are found universally, albeit distributed unevenly. Despite their somewhat widespread use, ethics codes from only 20 psychological associations address issues associated with test development and use. However, services from professionals engaged in test development and use are likely to find general guidance from policies promulgated by international (i.e., World Health Organization, International Union of Psychological Sciences, and the International Association of Applied Psychology) and regional professional associations. Guidelines from the International Test Commission specifically address issues important to test adaptation and use. Guidelines from the American Psychological Association, British Psychological Society, and Canadian Psychological Association also are featured. Prominent sources that provide information on tests are identified.
R&D Costs and Returns to New Drug Development: A Review of the Evidence
Authors: DiMasi Joseph A. , Grabowski Henry G.
Published: February 2013

This article reviews the extensive literature on R&D costs and returns. The first section focuses on R&D costs and the various factors that have affected the trends in real R&D costs over time. The second section considers economic studies on the distribution of returns in pharmaceuticals for different cohorts of new drug introductions. It also reviews the use of these studies to analyze the impact of policy actions on R&D costs and returns. The final section concludes and discusses open questions for further research.
Financing Research and Development
Authors: Nicholson Sean
Published: February 2013

This article examines whether market distortions and failures prevent biopharmaceutical firms from raising the optimal level of R&D funding and, if market failures exist, how markets have adapted to ameliorate their impact. The first section reviews the amount and sources of biomedical R&D spending in the United States over the last ten years and presents limited information on spending in other developed countries. The second section explores how pharmaceutical and biotech firms finance their R&D and whether either type of firm appears to be at risk of not raising enough to finance all projects with positive net present value. The third section discusses the theoretical arguments for why biopharmaceutical firms may spend either more or less on R&D than the socially optimal amount. The fourth section reviews empirical studies of whether firms in general are financially constrained and then, more specifically, whether pharmaceutical and biotech firms are financially constrained. The final section reviews whether venture capital firms and the market for alliances between biotech and pharmaceutical firms are able to address possible underinvestment in R&D due to financial constraints.
Cost of Capital for Pharmaceutical, Biotechnology, and Medical Device Firms
Authors: Harrington Scott E.
Published: February 2013

This article provides new estimates of systematic risk and the cost of equity capital for the pharmaceutical, biotechnology, and medical device sectors. The main analysis employs data for pharmaceutical, biotechnology, and medical device firms with publicly traded stock on US exchanges (including foreign-owned firms) with at least $100 million of market capitalization during the periods 2001–2005 and 2006–2008. Two frameworks are used for estimating firms' risk and the cost of equity capital: the capital asset pricing model (CAPM) and the empirically driven three risk-factor model of Fama and French (the F-F model). The article is organized as follows. The first section briefly reviews prior work and discusses the likely relation between the cost of equity capital and R&D intensity. The next section outlines the CAPM and F-F models and their empirical implementation. The data and samples are discussed in the third section. The fourth section presents beta and cost of equity capital estimates for equally weighted portfolios formed by sector and by sector and firm size. The fifth section presents results concerning the relationship between individual firm betas and R&D intensity, and it is followed by a final concluding section.
The Regulation of Medical Products
Authors: Malani Anup , Philipson Tomas J.
Published: February 2013

This article synthesizes and extends, in a nontechnical manner, recent research on the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). The aim is to shed light on whether the policies of the agency itself are safe and effective when measured in terms of economic efficiency. The first section provides an overview of the role of the FDA in regulating pharmaceutical drugs and medical devices. The second section surveys the existing efficiency rationales for government regulation of the information about and the quality of medical products, and then canvasses the literature for empirical studies on the effects of FDA regulation on innovation and costs. The final section examines the growing role of tort law—specifically, products liability litigation—in supplementing FDA regulation of drug quality.
Incentives to Innovate
Authors: Lakdawalla Darius N. , Sood Neeraj
Published: February 2013

Efficient innovation policy requires decoupling of the innovator's private rewards from consumer prices, and instead tying them to the marginal social value of the invention. This is not easy to achieve, but movement toward this goal can be effected through a mix of policy instruments. This article develops this thesis by drawing on the existing theoretical and empirical literature on innovation. It begins with the canonical positive model of innovative activity, along with its various extensions, weaknesses, and criticisms. It then turns to the empirical literature testing and quantifying the implications of this theory and its variants. Next, it moves to the normative implications of economic theory and describes how the empirical literature sheds light on the nature and degree of inefficiency in the discovery and dissemination of innovative goods. Finally, it characterizes various policy approaches to ameliorating these inefficiencies at their root.
Consumer Demand and Health Effects of Cost-Sharing
Authors: Goldman Dana P. , Joyce Geoffrey F.
Published: February 2013

With recent increases in pharmacy spending, pharmacy benefit managers and health plans have adopted benefit changes designed to reduce pharmaceutical use or steer patients to less expensive alternatives. The rapid proliferation of mail-order pharmacies, mandatory generic substitution, co-insurance plans, and multitiered formularies have transformed the benefit landscape. This article focuses on how the salient cost-sharing features of prescription drug benefits may affect access to prescription drugs and what is known about how these features may affect medical spending and health outcomes. The evidence suggests that some patients, including the chronically ill, are very responsive to the cost-sharing arrangements in prescription drug plans. And for certain conditions, the evidence clearly indicates that more cost-sharing is associated with increased use of other medical services such as hospitalizations and emergency department visits. These findings make benefit design an important public health tool for improving population health.
Critical Questioning of Social and Feminist Identity Development Literature: Themes, Principles, and Tools
Authors: Fischer Ann R. , DeBord Kurt A.
Published: February 2013

Theory and research in psychology are products of numerous, often unnamed choices made by individuals embedded in systems of power and privilege. Acknowledging and dissecting these effects allow more conscious decision making about the research and theory-making process, ultimately improving work with clients, students, and communities. Building on feminist science studies and the feminist therapy technique of power analysis, the authors take a process-oriented approach, examining the roles of power and privilege in shaping knowledge production and “the literature.” In order to model metacognition and systematic questioning of the “unnamed specificity” pervading research, they first identify overarching principles of how societal factors shape the research process. Next, they articulate practical tools for analyzing the roles of power in any body of psychological research. As a case example, they then apply those tools to relevant research and theory, with particular emphasis on critiquing the feminist identity literature to which the first author has contributed.
From Hottentot to Superwoman: Issues of Identity and Mental Health for African American Women
Authors: Speight Suzette L. , Isom Denise A. , Thomas Anita Jones
Published: February 2013

We are well aware of the gendered and racialized nature of our social world, from structures and systems to internalized ideologies. The social constructs of race and gender are often viewed comparatively, in parallel, or as additive elements. What is often lost is the particularity of the intersections, the unique social locations, and the myriad ways these two combine. For African American women, the “and” of race and gender marks a troubling and complex sociohistorical context that impacts the identity development and mental health of African American women. This chapter examines the social context from the story of Saartjie Bartmann, the “Hottentot Venus,” through the produced images of enslaved African women, to the contemporary projections of “the “strong Black woman.” This discussion is held alongside an examination of theories of identity development and the implications for mental health. Ultimately, this work raises a call for further research and continued dialogue on the development of an authentic sense of self in African American women so that they can speak with their own voice and see themselves through their own eyes.
Feminist Counseling Psychology and Lesbians, Bisexual Women, and Transgender Persons
Authors: Szymanski Dawn M. , Hilton Angela N.
Published: February 2013

Feminist counseling psychologists have made important advances to our understanding of lesbian and bisexual women and transgender persons, the challenges that they face as a result of living in a heterosexist context, and the complex interplays of navigating multiple identities and oppressions. The purpose of this chapter is to survey theory, research, and practice in hopes of presenting readers with a snapshot of the current status of scholarship in this area and to foster mental health professionals culturally competent, empirically based services to this population. We critically review nine main areas: (a) sexual identity development, (b) transgender identity development, (c) similarities and differences between lesbian and bisexual women, (d) the links between external and internalized oppression and psychosocial health, (e) coping with and resisting oppression, (f) immigration and acculturation, (g) life span transitions and issues, (h) career development and workplace issues, and (i) counseling and psychotherapy issues.
Career Issues and Challenges Viewed Through a Feminist Multicultural Lens: Work-Life Interface and Sexual Harassment
Authors: Ormerod Alayne J. , Joseph Dana L. , Weitzman Lauren M. , Winterrowd Erin
Published: February 2013

This chapter examines research and theoretical perspectives about the work-life interface and sexual harassment in the workplace. Multiple roles and unwanted social and sexual experiences at work are considered from feminist multicultural and organizational perspectives. The chapter focuses on adaptive and contextual factors when considering how women experience and navigate the work-life interface, and how they respond to sexual harassment. In the context of the review, a new meta-analysis of the relationship between sexual harassment and racial/ethnic harassment and a new quantitative review of sexual harassment measurement are presented. The chapter discusses organizational remedies for sexual harassment in the workplace and strategies for addressing work-family conflict and sexual harassment at the individual level, and presents recommendations for future research.
Conflict, Delegitimization, and Violence
Authors: Bar-Tal Daniel , Hammack Phillip L.
Published: February 2013

In this chapter we focus on a key sociopsychological mechanism that frees human beings from their normative and moral restrains and therefore leads individuals and groups to engage in acts that intentionally harm others, including discrimination, oppression, ethnic cleansing, and even genocide. Delegitimization is defined as the categorization of a group, or groups, into extremely negative social categories that exclude it, or them, from the sphere of human groups that act within the limits of acceptable norms and/or values, since these groups are viewed as violating basic human norms or values and therefore deserving maltreatment. It thus plays a major role in intense, vicious, violent, and prolonged intergroup conflicts by legitimizing, and allowing the involved group members to carry out, the most immoral acts. In the chapter, we elaborate on our conception of delegitimization, distinguish it from other similar constructs in the literature, and review relevant theoretical and empirical studies that illustrate the utility of the concept in understanding various intergroup practices, particularly behaviors in intergroup conflicts. Second, we describe its roots and development in societies, focusing on the context of intractable conflict. Third, we outline the various sociopsychological negative consequences of delegitimization. Finally, we outline potential ways to reduce delegitimization, focusing on both individual-psychological and collective-structural strategies.
Retribution and Revenge
Authors: Lickel Brian
Published: February 2013

This chapter provides a description of affective, cognitive, and social processes related to group-based revenge. The chapter is divided into four main sections. The first section reviews the link between outgroup-directed anger and the motivation for intergroup aggression, as well as other emotions (i.e., fear, humiliation, and contempt) that may work in concert with anger to motivate or facilitate group-based revenge. The second section further examines the cognitive processes that underlie group-based revenge, in particular the ways in which people's initial perceptions and emotions are modified and bolstered over time to (usually) justify and facilitate vengeful action. The third section considers the affective and cognitive processes described in the prior sections in light of the important social processes that occur within groups during intergroup conflicts. Ultimately, group-based revenge is a collective action, and an understanding of the psychological processes that are observable at the individual level must take into account the inherently social character of group-based revenge. In its final section, the chapter discusses two key directions for future work.
Remembering Intergroup Conflict
Authors: Bilali Rezarta , Ross Michael A.
Published: February 2013

Philosopher George Santayana is probably best known today for his aphorism, “Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it.” Variations of this quote appear frequently when countries, ethnic groups, or individuals engage in conflicts over economic, legal, or territorial issues. The version of history provided by one's own side is depicted as a true account of the past, whereas contrasting versions provided by one's opponents are deemed to be lies. In the current chapter, we examine bases of conflicting narratives of the past. We document how individual- and group-level factors (e.g., needs, goals, motives) shape historical memories, and how historical memories exacerbate conflict. In the final section of the chapter, we consider how historical memories can be used to promote reconciliation rather than conflict.
Collective Victimization
Authors: Vollhardt Johanna Ray
Published: February 2013

This chapter discusses the role of collective victimization in inciting, sustaining, and preventing intergroup conflict. The emerging psychological literature on this topic has studied collective victimization that was experienced directly in one's lifetime, as well as collective victimization experienced indirectly, through transgenerational and societal transmission. Affective, cognitive, and behavioral responses to collective violence against the ingroup are discussed that affect intergroup relations with the perpetrator group and with other groups—in ways that either contribute to cycles of violence and revenge, or to constructive intergroup outcomes such as solidarity and reconciliation. Various types of victim beliefs that social psychologists have recently begun to study are broadly classified as conflict-specific or global, and as inclusive or exclusive victim beliefs. Additional factors are identified that might moderate the effects of collective victimization on intergroup outcomes. The chapter concludes with a discussion of interventions that have addressed the role of collective victimization and victim beliefs.
Intergroup Dialogue: A Critical-Dialogic Model for Conflict Engagement
Authors: Nagda Biren (Ratnesh) A. , Yeakley Anna , Gurin Patricia , Sorensen Nicholas
Published: February 2013

In this chapter, we focus on intergroup dialogue as a particular approach to intergroup conflict. Extending the tradition of intergroup contact, intergroup dialogue seeks to engage participants from diverse backgrounds to build relationships and enhance collaborative social justice actions to address intergroup conflicts. We use a conceptual framework of affective, analytical, and action asymmetries to understand how intergroup conflicts manifest in intergroup dialogue between members of high-power and low-power groups. We draw on participant reflections to illustrate how they experience the four-stage intergroup dialogue model and how they see the asymmetries manifest in their interactions. Participant narratives also help illustrate how four critical-dialogic communication processes—engaging self, appreciating difference, critical reflection, and alliance building—enable participants to engage across these asymmetries in both learning about intergroup conflicts and learning from the intergroup conflicts that occur in their interactions.
Genocide, Mass Killing, and Violent Conflict: Prevention and Reconciliation
Authors: Staub Ervin
Published: February 2013

This chapter briefly describes the influences that lead to violence between groups, including extreme violence such as mass killing and genocide. The starting points are economic deterioration, political disorganization and/or great social changes, and persistent conflict. These frustrate basic psychological needs and can lead to scapegoating, the development of destructive ideologies, and the evolution of increasing hostility and violence. A history of devaluation of some group, past group victimization and woundedness, other cultural characteristics, and the passivity of internal and external bystanders make such violence more likely. The chapter describes trainings and educational radio projects in Rwanda to promote understanding the influences that lead to violence and avenues to prevention, and their positive impact. It discusses a number of other avenues to prevention and reconciliation: Humanizing the other, through words and significant contact, including dialogue; creating constructive ideologies, visions that embrace all groups; healing from past victimization and fostering altruism born of suffering; the establishment of the complex truth and working to develop a shared history, which require changes in collective memories or group narratives. The importance of positive socialization of children for inclusive caring and moral courage, and the relationship between political processes and reconciliation activities, in particular in Rwanda, are noted. Promoting positive psychological changes can advance the development of constructive social values and the creation of institutions and practices that fulfill basic material and psychological needs, and help create a harmonious society.
The Development of American Sign Language and Manually Coded English Systems
Authors: Schick Brenda
Published: February 2013

This chapter reviews research on the development of American Sign Language, mostly in deaf children with deaf parents. It examines what we know about early aspects of development, including babbling, phonological development, early lexical development, gestures and pointing. Morphological development is described for verb agreement, the acquisition of classifiers, and facial grammar. It reviews the development of syntax and spatial mapping. The development of manually-coded English (MCE) systems is also examined, including lexical, grammatical, and morphological development in young children with a hearing loss.
Speech Perception and Spoken Word Recognition
Authors: Bernstein Lynne E. , Auer Edward T.
Published: February 2013

Speech is an important mode of communication for many people with hearing loss, even for those whose hearing loss is profound. This chapter focuses on spoken communication by adults with severe or profound hearing loss. It describes several fundamental issues in speech perception and spoken word recognition, such as the use of amplification even with profound hearing loss, enhanced lipreading abilities associated with deafness, and the role of the lexicon in speech perception. The chapter describes how the lexical structure of words can assist in compensating for reduced access to speech information. Although lipreaders must frequently contend with ambiguous segmental information, many words in English nevertheless maintain distinct perceptual patterns that can be used for accurate lipreading. The chapter also describes results of a study that sought to compare word age of acquisition estimates in deaf versus hearing adults. Subjective judgments showed delayed but generally similar order of word acquisition and much greater reliance on orthography for word learning among the deaf participants. A review of some results on audiovisual speech perception and speech perception with vibrotactile stimuli underscores the importance of bimodal speech information. Individuals with severe or profound hearing loss can greatly benefit from being able to see a talker along with hearing reduced auditory information or even feeling vibrotactile information. Overall, this chapter demonstrates that speech information can withstand extreme stimulus degradation and still convey the talker’s intended message. Multimodal integration and lexical structure assist in overcoming effects of hearing loss, and speech is frequently an important communication mode for deaf individuals.
Cognitive Functioning in Deaf Adults and Children
Authors: Marschark Marc , Wauters Loes
Published: February 2013

Recent studies have obtained findings of significant theoretical and practical importance for parents and educators of deaf children and others who seek to discover how hearing loss and the use of a visuospatial language might influence language, cognitive, and social functioning. This work has led to a more objective understanding of deaf individuals and signed languages, and offers great hope for improving deaf education. This chapter offers a historical review of cognitive research involving deaf individuals through the stages of “the deaf as inferior,” “the deaf as concrete,” and “the deaf as intellectually normal.” It argues for an additional, contemporary stage of “different does not mean deficient.” Findings with regard to attention and perception, mental representation, visuospatial imagery and cognition, memory, and problem solving all point to the probability that deaf and hearing individuals differ cognitively in several subtle and not-so-subtle ways that might affect learning and other psychological domains. Whether a function of their language experiences, variable educational backgrounds, nature, or nurture, it is essential that such differences be understood in order to accommodate the needs of deaf learners while utilizing their strengths.
Organizational Behavior’s Contributions to Evidence-Based Management
Authors: Rousseau Denise M.
Published: February 2013

Organizational Behavior (OB) is a social science that has discovered general principles regarding the organization and management of work. One of management research’s more mature fields, OB’s contribution to evidence-based Management (EBMgt) stems from its large body of programmatic, cumulative research. This chapter provides an overview of OB research, including its history, standards for evidence, and domains of study. It distinguishes between science- and practice-oriented OB research and their respective evidence criteria to better show different ways OB research can inform EBMgt. OB research has identified several hundred evidence-based principles to inform practice, and this chapter provides examples. The chapter concludes by discussing how OB scholars, educators, and practitioners can further EBMgt practice.
Evidence-Based Entrepreneurship (EBE): A Systematic Approach to Cumulative Science
Authors: Frese Michael , Bausch Andreas , Schmidt Peter , Rauch Andreas , Kabst Rüdiger
Published: February 2013

The concept and aim of an evidence-based entrepreneurship (EBE) is discussed as a strategy to overcome the divide between knowledge developed in the field of entrepreneurship and its use in practice. Evidence constitutes the best summary of knowledge based on several sources of information (several studies, several different research groups, several different methodological approaches, among them the best methods available), all of which go beyond individual experience and isolated studies. We argue that meta-analyses can and should be used in entrepreneurship research (and that it should also be used for qualitative work). Meta-analyses establish certain relationships; these should then be summarized in well-founded models and theories that can be translated into action principles. These action principles can then be used by EBE’s constituents. These include scientists, professionals who regularly deal with entrepreneurs (bankers, consultants, venture capital providers), policy makers (e.g., government), students of entrepreneurship, and, last but not least, the entrepreneurs themselves. Once, a set of action principles have been developed from science, the application of them can be tested with the help of further evidence on the efficacy of interventions (including meta-analyses on the interventions). Evidence-based entrepreneurship (EBE) has the potential to change research, teaching, and practice.
Enabling Evidence-Based Management: Bridging the Gap between Academics and Practitioners
Authors: Leung Opal , Bartunek Jean M.
Published: February 2013

Several barriers, grounded in differences in knowledge, training, skills, and awareness, interfere with academics communicating successfully with practitioners about evidence. We describe several ways to reduce such barriers. These include providing sources that are trustworthy and accessible to managers; developing managerial skill in diagnosis; carrying out evidence-based practice; and communicating evidence in ways that are attractive, understandable, memorable, and actionable through channels that are likely to be noticed. We suggest several means for accomplishing each of these.
Decision Logic in Evidence-Based Management: Can Logical Models From Other Disciplines Improve Evidence-Based Human-Resource Decisions?
Authors: Boudreau John W.
Published: February 2013

The “mental models” used in organizations often reflect disciplines such as finance, marketing or engineering. Such models can overlook or misinterpret evidence related to human capital, producing poor human-resource (HR) and organizational decisions. Improved evidence-based HR decisions may result from “retooling” HR issues using logic from mental models in other management disciplines. HR researchers and practitioners can tap the power of these well-accepted logic frameworks to “retool” evidence about HR management.
Reflections on Teaching Evidence-Based Management
Authors: Jelley R. Blake , Carroll Wendy R. , Rousseau Denise M.
Published: February 2013

Educators have begun developing courses and curricula to help managers cultivate an evidence-based mindset and acquire relevant knowledge and skills. This chapter describes what three evidence-based management (EBMgt) educators have learned in the process of creating relevant courses and curricula. It presents the learning objectives that their teaching has promoted along with the frameworks, content, and exercises used to realize them. It also describes specific assignments and activities to encourage EBMgt teaching and provide a basis for further adaptation and innovation by educators seeking to prepare learners to practice EBMgt.
Beyond “New Scientific Management” Critical Reflections on the Epistemology of Evidence-Based Management
Authors: Hornung Severin
Published: February 2013

This essay draws on social theory and philosophy of science to outline controversies about EBMgt as a critical movement versus a one-sided ideological project marginalizing nonmainstream research. Discussed issues include the authority to define evidence, research topics, methods, and evaluation criteria for managerial decisions. A critical and self-reflexive perspective is suggested to enhance awareness of ideological and epistemological constraints that could turn EBMgt into a reloaded version of scientific management.
State and Local Government Finance: Why It Matters
Authors: Yilmaz Serdar , Vaillancourt François , Dafflon Bernard
Published: February 2013

This article lays out the economists' view of why state and local government matters. To establish the economic framework, the article systematically works through the seminal contributions of Paul Samuelson's theoretical arguments of the importance of a public-sector role for efficiency in resource allocation; Charles Tiebout's thinking on the difference between national and local public goods; Richard Musgrave's classification of the fiscal “branches” of a decentralized federalist system; and Wallace Oates's Decentralization Theorem. It is from this platform that the article proceeds to address three fundamental fiscal policy issues for a multigovernmental society (e.g., US fiscal federalism): the sorting out of expenditure responsibilities among different types of governments (“expenditure assignment”); the question of which type of government should use which type of revenue (“revenue assignment”), and what happens when, for many state and local governments, the costs of the allocation of expenditure responsibilities are greater than that which can be financed from their “own” state/local revenues (the role of “intergovernmental transfers”).
Profiles of Local Government Finance
Authors: Martell Christine R. , Greenwade Adam
Published: February 2013

This article provides a profile of the structure and diversity of local government finance. Nearly ninety thousand local governments in the United States provide most public services. It is such a diverse subsector that no one set of political or fiscal arrangements can be said to be standard. This scale and complexity make the local governments in the United States unique among the world's nation-states. The main revenue sources for local governments are own-source revenues that they raise within their jurisdictions (including revenue from property taxes, sales taxes, personal income taxes, and user fees and charges) and from transfers they receive from the state and federal governments. Local government own-source revenue options are determined by each respective state, although local jurisdictions typically have some power to set rates and exemptions.