bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Vector and direct torque control of synchronous machines
Authors: Vas Peter
Published: November 2023

In this chapter vector control and direct torque control of different types of synchronous machines are described. For this purpose permanent-magnet synchronous machines (PMSM), the electrically excited synchronous machine, and synchronous reluctance machines (SYRM) are considered. Various ‘ sensor less’ control schemes are also discussed. Synchronous machines with an electrically excited rotor winding have a three-phase stator winding (called the armature) and an electrically excited field winding on the rotor which carries a d.c. current. There can also be damper windings on the rotor. The armature winding is similar to the stator of induction machines. The synchronous machine is a constant-speed machine which always rotates at a synchronous speed which depends on the supply frequency and on the number of poles. The electrically excited field winding can be replaced by permanent magnets.
Vector and direct torque control of induction machines
Authors: Vas Peter
Published: November 2023

Induction machines have been used for over a hundred years. Because of their simplicity, ruggedness, reliability, efficiency, low cost, compactness, and economical and volume manufacturing advantages, induction machines with a squirrel cage rotor are the most widely used machines at fixed speed. This is especially the case at lower power levels, where on the rotor there is a squirrel-cage winding, which is manufactured by die-casting. However, recent developments in the field of variable-speed drives have made possible the large-scale application of variable-speed induction motor drives.
Approaches to three-dimensional problems
Authors: Reece A B J , Preston T W
Published: November 2023

Analysis of three-dimensional electromagnetic fields, whether magnetostatic or electrodynamic, is far more difficult than analysis of two-dimensional systems (including axial symmetry and peripheral periodicity). In the two-dimensional case, the vector magnetic potential has only one component, yet it allows detailed analysis of devices with source, and, where present, induced currents. If a vector magnetic potential formulation is used for a three-dimensional problem, all three vector components will appear and in addition, a scalar potential will be needed. A simple scalar magnetic potential formulation is useful for magnetostatic problems, but source currents can only be represented approximately by magnetic shells as discussed in Section 2.5. Treatment of induced currents in electrodynamic situations requires the introduction of a further potential (unless the use of a surface impedance is justified).
Data generation (or pre-processing)
Authors: Reece A B J , Preston T W
Published: November 2023

Data generation will be discussed in relation to two-dimensional and quasi-threedimensional situations only. The details of data generation will depend on the package used but basically there are two groups of data: It should be self-evident that data generation is an important and critical stage: the quality of the computed result will depend on the goodness of the data. For example, good distribution of nodes is essential. Many silly results have been obtained through bad judgement or even errors (for example, incorrect exponent in specification of conductivity) in data. The two classes of data are discussed in detail below.
Simulation of turbine-generator short circuit and application to parameter prediction
Authors: Reece A B J , Preston T W
Published: November 2023

Flux and current patterns and intensities within a turbine generator immediately after a terminal short circuit vary with time in a complicated way. This is a result of locked or trapped flux in short-circuited coils, the complexities of the rotor damping circuits and saturation. Circuit models are commonly used in fault analyses, but it has not been possible to predict the various transient reactances and time constants with any great accuracy.
Performance calculations on permanent-magnet d.c. motor
Authors: Reece A B J , Preston T W
Published: November 2023

Conventional methods of analysis of this type of permanent-magnet machine are hardly adequate to ensure proper exploitation of the magnet properties. The object of this investigation was to assess the value of the finite element method as a design aid for this class of machine by calculating performance data for a machine for which test results were available. The investigation was a co-operative one with Lucas Electrical Ltd and is described by Smith (1986).
Induction-motor steady-state performance prediction
Authors: Reece A B J , Preston T W
Published: November 2023

The cage induction motor is used in a wide variety of applications ranging from large industrial drives to small motors in the white-goods market. This is a consequence of its simple construction, making it robust and requiring little maintenance. Its major disadvantage has been the difficulty of control and this has meant that in some applications it could not compete with d.c. motors. However, with the emergence of high-power solid-state devices it is now able to match the d.c. motor where speed control is required.
Transformer fields and reactances
Authors: Reece A B J , Preston T W
Published: November 2023

The transformer engineer needs to predict leakage fields and reactances, flux distribution in the iron, and quantities such as tank-wall losses. Whilst the transformer is simple in concept, its practical realisation is surprisingly complex, particularly when built in the three-phase form. The coils are of cylindrical form, as are the limbs, to a good approximation. However, the finite axial length, the yokes and the assembly of three phases make the whole assembly very three-dimensional.
Electric-stress calculations in bushings and surge arresters
Authors: Reece A B J , Preston T W
Published: November 2023

The designer of an insulation system needs information on the electric field distribution in all the stressed regions of a proposed design. For example, in a bushing the stresses are required in the materials forming the bushing, at interfaces between materials and in the medium surrounding the bushing. Stress distributions are controlled by the combination of material properties and geometry, so that finite element simulation which makes it possible to investigate the effect of change easily, is a valuable design aid.
Derivation Of The Wave Packet Equation And Introduction To Soliton Transmission Systems
Authors: Hasegawa Akira , Kodama Yuji
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, we derive the nonlinear envelope equation describing the linear and the nonlinear dispersion as well as dissipation effects from the Maxwell equation and the property of dielectric polarizability for the electric field wave propagation in a fibre. The method used here is based on an asymptotic perturbation technique developed by Taniuti et al. (the so-called reductive perturbation method (Taniuti 1974)), and the result gives a consistent scheme for the derivation of the wave envelope equation in the form of the nonlinear Schrodinger equation including higher order terms.
Femtosecond Solitons
Authors: Hasegawa Akira , Kodama Yuji
Published: November 2023

Soliton phenomena can be used to construct stable subpicosecond pulses with proper choice of the peak power and minimum dispersion. However higher order terms play a crucial role in this regime. This chapter is devoted to introducing the methods and limitations in producing sub picosecond pulses based on soliton processes. The chapter consists of three sections. Section 11.1 discusses soliton formation when the pulse is launched at wavelengths close to or at the zero group dispersion, Section.
Using the steam
Authors: Semmens P W B , Goldfinch A J
Published: November 2023

The vast majority of steam locomotives have made use of the steam generated in their boilers in two or more cylinders. There it drives the pistons backwards and forwards, and the thrust so generated is transferred via the connecting rods to crank-pins on the driving wheels and/or the driving-wheel axle. Clearly, some way of programming the steam supply to the two ends of each cylinder is needed to obtain the required reciprocating motion, and this is the function of the valve gear. The simplest form of valve-gear was that used by Trevithick for his ‘strong-steam’ industrial engines, one of which was mounted on wheels to power the world’s first steam-hauled train over the Penydarren Tramway in 1804.
Basic principles
Authors: Wilson P D
Published: November 2023

The essentials of the nuclear fuel cycle have been summarised in the Foreword to this book, while details of the individual stages are to be given in the following chapters. Some basic explanations may nevertheless be helpful. All nuclear data are taken from ‘Nuclides and Isotopes,’ 14th edition, General Electric Company, San Jose, California (1989).
Reprocessing irradiated fuel
Authors: Denniss I S , Jeapes A P
Published: November 2023

All thermal power reactors operate by converting the energy released by fission of actinides such as U-235 and Pu-239 into electrical energy. Fertile isotopes such as U-238 (the bulk of the fuel) are partly transmuted into additional fissile material some of which also undergoes fission. On balance the initial fissile content of the fuel is reduced during irradiation, and accumulated fission and transmutation products change its physical and neutronic properties. Some products such as neodymium absorb neutrons and poison the fuel whilst others alter its structure, and the gases (e.g. xenon and krypton) may pressurise it. Eventually further irradiation of the fuel becomes uneconomic and it is removed from the reactor.
Recycling uranium and plutonium
Authors: Patterson J P , Parkes P
Published: November 2023

The uranium and plutonium recovered by reprocessing irradiated fuel from a modem power reactor represent some 97% of the original uranium content, with no major use but as a source of energy. Fabricating reactor fuel from them is a way of husbanding resources that are currently plentiful but cannot be assumed to remain so; it has a long and established history which emphasises the maturity of both the technology and the concept.
Waste treatment
Authors: Hutson G V
Published: November 2023

The first of these is covered in Chapter 2, the last in Chapter 12. This chapter will therefore concentrate on reprocessing wastes, with particular reference to the principal British site at Sellafield as a representative modem undertaking; waste management elsewhere and in other parts of the cycle is conducted on similar principles. Wastes from military programmes outside the UK, sometimes posing specialised problems, are not covered, nor are the much less substantial amounts from the thousand or so minor producers such as hospitals and research laboratories.
Introduction To The Time Domain Wave-Splitting And Imbedding Approach In One Space Dimension
Authors: He Sailing , Strom Staffan , Weston Vaughan H
Published: November 2023

The ideas and techniques used in the wave-splitting and invariant imbedding approach to direct and inverse scattering problems can, naturally, be presented most easily and completely in the case of one-dimensional scattering. Besides being useful, though simplified, models for important classes of physical and technical problems, the one-dimensional cases have served as guides for many aspects of the extension of the wave-splitting and invariant imbedding approach to two- and three-dimensional scattering problems. The starting point for the one-dimensional formalism is given by the general features of wave propagation in a medium whose scattering properties vary along one fixed direction in space. The most directly relevant features are those which are concisely expressed by the Redheffer star product, as well as by differentiations of this product. The one-dimensional formalism can in essence be regarded as an implementation of the relations obtained from this product in a time domain setting. Of particular importance for our purposes is the fact that in a time domain setting, the wavesplitting and imbedding approach has provided the solution to large classes of inverse problems in which time domain measurements are used as given data. A typical one-dimensional inverse problem is to reconstruct, from a measured function of time, a physical parameter which is a function of one space variable. As will be shown below, integration along characteristics in a time domain approach, together with initial conditions, provides a solution to this type of inverse problem.
Dielectrics in time-dependent fields
Authors: Scaife B K P
Published: November 2023

The most straightforward analysis of the response of a dielectric medium to time-dependent electric fields is based on the study of a finite dielectric body situated in a uniform external field. In order to obtain useful results we must choose the shape of the body so that the polarization induced is uniform. This means that the most general shape will be an ellipsoid (Appendix B). Nothing is lost by taking the simplest ellipsoid, namely a sphere.
Energy required for flight
Authors: Videler John J
Published: November 2023

During flight, the beating wings are motorized by muscle activities. In Chapter 7 we saw how muscles shorten and stretch, do work, and power the wing beat cycles.
Transport in Mesoscopic Systems
Authors: Bruus Henrik , Flensberg Karsten
Published: November 2023

Electron transport in mesoscopic systems is a relatively new field of condensed matter physics. Since its beginning in the early 1980s many interesting and fundamental results have emerged from this fascinating research area bordering to the macroscopic classical world on one side and to the microscopic quantum world on the other. Here, we combine this brief introduction to mesoscopic physics with our first in-depth use of the Kubo formalism given in the previous chapter.
Minority Games
Authors: Challet Damien , Marsili Matteo , Zhang Yi-Cheng
Published: November 2023

The Minority Game is a physicist's attempt to explain market behaviour by the interaction between traders. With a minimal set of ingredients and drastic assumptions, this model reproduces market ecology among different types of traders. Its emphasis is on speculative trading and information flow. The book first describes the philosophy lying behind the conception of the Minority Game in 1997, and includes in particular a discussion about the El Farol bar problem. Then it reviews the main steps in later developments, including both the theory and its applications to market phenomena. This book gives a colourful and stylized, but also realistic picture of how financial markets operate.
Quantum Optics
Authors: Fox Mark
Published: November 2023

Most previous texts on quantum optics have been written primarily for the graduate student market at PhD leveland above. Quantum optics: an introduction aims to introduce a wide range of topics at a lower level suitable for advanced undergraduate and Masters level students in physics. The text is divided into four main parts, covering modern topics in both pure and applied quantum optics: I. Introduction and background material. II. Photons. III. Atom-photon interactions. IV. Quantum information processing. The emphasis of the subject development is on intuitive physical understanding rather than mathematical arguments, although many derivations are included where appropriate. The text includes numerous illustrations, with a particular emphasis on the experimental observations of quantum optical phenomena. Each chapter includes worked examples, together with 10-15 exercises with solutions. Six appendices are included to supplement the main subject material.
Classical optics
Authors: Fox Mark
Published: November 2023

Older electromagnetism texts tend to call H the magnetic field and B either the magnetic ﬂux density or the magnetic induction. However, it is now common practice to specify magnetic fields in units of ﬂux density, namely Tesla. Moreover, it can be argued that B is the more fundamental quantity, since the force experienced by a charge with velocity v in a magnetic field depends on B through F = qv B. A more detailed explanation of the diﬀerence between B and H and a justification for the use of B for the magnetic field may be found in Brooker (2003, 1.2).
Photon statistics
Authors: Fox Mark
Published: November 2023

The task of quantum optics is to study the consequences of considering a beam of light as a stream of photons rather than as a classical wave. It turns out that the diﬀerences are rather subtle, and we have to look quite hard to see significant departures from the predictions of the classical theories. In this chapter we shall approach the subject from the perspective of the statistical properties of the photon stream. We shall study the three diﬀerent types of photon statistics that can occur, namely: Poissonian, super-Poissonian, and sub-Poissonian.
Cold atoms
Authors: Fox Mark
Published: November 2023

In the previous two chapters we have investigated how resonant light beams interact with atomic transitions, and the way this process can be modified by means of cavities. We now wish to explore a diﬀerent aspect of the light–matter interaction, namely light-induced forces.
Quantum cryptography
Authors: Fox Mark
Published: November 2023

The fundamental concepts of quantum cryptography were developed in the 1980s and the first experimental proof of principle was given in 1992. Since then, the subject has developed to the point where demonstration systems have been installed that run over long distances down standard telecommunication optical fibre systems. This rapid growth of research activity is partly fuelled by the curiosity of scientists, and partly by the fears of military, government, and financial institutions about data confidentiality and computer security.
Quantum computing
Authors: Fox Mark
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we shall look at the basic principles of quantum computing and its implementation by optical techniques. Since this is a rapidly developing subject that occupies the attention of many research groups worldwide, we shall concentrate on introducing the fundamental ideas and avoid too many details that will inevitably date very quickly. The reader is referred to the bibliography for more rigorous treatments of the subject and more comprehensive discussions of the present state of the art in the experiments.
Working in Forensic Mental Health Settings
Authors: Barker Richard , Moore Chris
Published: November 2023

A 22-year-old male attacked a female passer-by as she walked down by a river on a late summer ‘s evening. The attack appeared arbitrary in nature with the victim stating that the attacker had been murmuring to himself as she had approached him. She sustained injuries to her hands and arms, but was able to escape by jumping into the river. She was rescued by a passer-by on the other side of the river and the attacker ran away. Later that night a man fitting the description she provided was arrested in the centre of town when he had been seen on CCTV wandering down the main road.
Working in General Medical Settings
Authors: Latchford Gary
Published: November 2023

Of the many different areas of academic psychology, health psychology has perhaps grown in popularity more than any other over the last 20 years. This is reflected in the establishment of a number of journals and organisations, and in its rise as one of the most popular topics for doctoral research projects in university psychology departments. There has been interest, too, in practical applications, for example in predicting and influencing lifestyle change such as smoking cessation, and in examining and enhancing informed decision making by patients about medical treatments.
DNA structure
Authors: Bates Andrew D , Maxwell Anthony
Published: November 2023

Of all biological molecules, DNA has perhaps most fired the imagination of scientists and non-scientists alike. This is probably due to the aesthetic appeal of the DNA double helix, a structure that is apparently simple but also profound in terms of its implications for biological function. The term ‘DNA structure’ encompasses the chemical and stereochemical details of DNA molecules. The principal purpose of this book is to focus on the higher-order structural features of DNA, namely supercoils, knots, and catenanes but before embarking on these topics, it is essential to consider the primary and secondary structural features: how DNA chains are put together and how they can form helical structures.
From absolute space and time to influenceable spacetime: an overview
Authors: Rindler Wolfgang
Published: November 2023

At their core, Einstein’s relativity theories (both the special theory of 1905 and the general theory of 1915) are the modern physical theories of space and time, which have replaced Newton’s concepts of absolute space and absolute time by spacetime. We specifically call Einstein’s theories ‘physical’ because they claim to describe real structures in the real world and are open to experimental disproof.
Foundations of special relativity; The Lorentz transformation
Authors: Rindler Wolfgang
Published: November 2023

It will be well to preface our detailed discussion of relativity theory with some comments on the nature of physical laws and theories in general. According to modern thought (largely influenced by Einstein) even the best of physical theories do not claim to assert an absolute truth, but rather an approximation to the truth. Moreover, they are not mere deductions from experimental facts, available to any diligent seeker cleansed of prejudices, as was thought by Bacon in the sixteenth, and still by Mach in the twentieth century.
The Schwarzschild metric
Authors: Rindler Wolfgang
Published: November 2023

It was left to Schwarzschild to find, early in 1916, the first and still the most important exact solution of the Einstein vacuum field equations. It represents the field outside a spherically symmetric mass in otherwise empty space. (Later it was also recognized as the solution representing both the outside and the inside of a non-rotating black hole.) Schwarzschild’s solution allows the exact calculation of several of the ‘post Newtonian’ effects of GR, including the precession of planetary orbits, the bending of light around the sun, the exact gravitational frequency shift, the Shapiro time delay of light passing near the sun, and the precession of orbiting gyroscopes.
Special Relativity
Authors: Giulini Domenico
Published: November 2023

Special relativity provides the foundations of our knowledge of space and time. Without it, our understanding of the world, and its place in the universe, would be unthinkable. This book gives a concise, elementary, yet exceptionally modern, introduction to special relativity. It is a gentle yet serious 'first encounter', in that it conveys a true understanding rather than purely reports the basic facts. Only very elementary mathematical knowledge is needed to master it (basic high-school maths), yet it will leave the reader with a sound understanding of the subject. Special Relativity: A First Encounter starts with a broad historical introduction and motivation of the basic notions. The central chapters are dedicated to special relativity, mainly following Einstein's historical route. Later chapters turn to various applications in all parts of physics and everyday life. Unlike other books on the subject, the current status of the experimental foundations of special relativity is accurately reported and the experiments explained. This book will appeal to anyone wanting a introduction to the subject, as well as being background reading for students beginning a course in physics.
Foundations of Special Relativity
Authors: Giulini Domenico
Published: November 2023

The foregoing discussion should have made clear the state of tension in which physics found itself at the end of the 19th century. This was already felt by the young and bright Einstein. Shortly before his death he remembered his short but happy year (1895–1896) as a pupil of the school in the small city of Aarau (Switzerland), in whose liberal atmosphere the ‘saucy Swabian’ (according to a classmate) felt much more at home than in the authoritarian Gymnasium at Munich (Germany).
Further consequences and applications of Special Relativity
Authors: Giulini Domenico
Published: November 2023

Atomic physics is essentially based on Quantum Mechanics. Quantum Mechanics makes essential use of the variables that describe positions and momenta (rather than velocities). The starting point for the determination of atomic energy spectra is the quantum mechanical transcription of the energy conservation equation, which in the ‘non relativistic’ situation is the famous ‘Schrödinger equation’. Schrödinger’s equation is based on the Newtonian relation between energy and momentum of a particle of massm  0, given byE=p  2  /2m  0. In special relativistic mechanics, this relation is replaced by (3.25), which approximates the former for momenta that are small compared tomc, but also implies significant deviations from it for larger momenta. In Quantum Mechanics these deviations give rise to ‘relativistic corrections’ to the ‘non-relativistic’ (i.e. basedon the Schrödinger equation) energy levels. A second’relativistic’ correction stems from the transformation rule (3.26), which predicts a magnetic field in the rest system of the electron that moves in the electric field of the atomic nucleus. This magnetic field interacts with the magnetic moment of the electron, thereby producing extra energy contributions.
The Pendulum
Authors: Baker Gregory L , Blackburn James A
Published: November 2023

The pendulum: a case study in physics is a unique book in several ways. Firstly, it is a comprehensive quantitative study of one physical system, the pendulum, from the viewpoint of elementary and more advanced classical physics, modern chaotic dynamics, and quantum mechanics. In addition, coupled pendulums and pendulum analogs of superconducting devices are also discussed. Secondly, this book treats the physics of the pendulum within a historical and cultural context, showing, for example, that the pendulum has been intimately connected with studies of the earth's density, the earth's motion, and timekeeping. While primarily a physics book, the work provides significant added interest through the use of relevant cultural and historical vignettes. This approach offers an alternative to the usual modern physics courses. The text is amply illustrated and augmented by exercises at the end of each chapter.
Pendulums less simple
Authors: Baker Gregory L , Blackburn James A
Published: November 2023

In the northwest corner of Spain, in the province of Galicia, lies the mist shrouded town of Santiago de Compostela, the birthplace of the cult of Santiago (St. James, the major apostle), and the home of the magnificent cathedral that is presumablybuilt upon the bones of that martyred apostle (Adams 1999) (see Fig. 3.1). For a thousand years, pilgrims have sought out this cathedral as a shrine to Saint James where they might worship and receive salvation. The most famous and unique feature of the celebration of the mass at this cathedral, at least since the fourteenth century, is O Botafumeiro , a very large incense burner suspended bya heavyrope from a point seventy feet above the ﬂoor of the nave, and swung periodically through a huge arc of about eighty degrees (Sanmartin 1984). The rapid motion through the air fans the hot incense coals, making copious amounts of blue smoke, and the censer itself generates a frightening swooshing sound as it passes through the bottom of its arc. Some of the physics in this chapter is manifested bythe remarkable motion of O Botafumeiro and therefore we provide some details of its structure and dynamics (Sanmartin 1984).
Microplasticity
Authors: Dunne Fionn , Petrinic Nik
Published: November 2023

This chapter briefily introduces the origins of yield and plastic flow, and in particular, attempts to explain the usual assumptions in simple continuum plasticity of isotropy, incompressibility, and independence of hydrostatic stress. While short, we introduce grains, crystal slip, slip systems, resolved shear stress, and dislocations; the minimum knowledge of microplasticity for users of continuum plasticity.
The flnite element method for static and dynamic plasticity
Authors: Dunne Fionn , Petrinic Nik
Published: November 2023

There are few practical problems in plasticity which can be solved analytically. This is usually because of irregular geometry and/or complicated boundary and loading conditions. Computational mechanics, and in particular, the ?nite element method, enables the approximate solution of these types of problems. The important requirements of equilibrium, and compatibility, together with a material’s constitutive response, enable solutions to be obtained subject to the satisfaction of initial and boundary conditions. Satisfying the requirements of equilibrium, compatibility, constitutive equations, and boundary conditions is essential for the solution of any solid mechanics problem.
Cyclic plasticity, creep, and TMF
Authors: Dunne Fionn , Petrinic Nik
Published: November 2023

In Chapter 9, we examined creep in the aero-engine combustor material nickel-base superalloy C263. In this chapter, we address combined anisothermal cyclic plasticity and creep. We use time-independent cyclic plasticity with both isotropic and kinematic hardening which we combine with the physically based creep model described in Chapter 9. The plasticity model is implemented into ABAQUS Implicit by means of a UMAT subroutine which employs a simple first-order forward (explicit) integration scheme and the initial stiffness method. We then address isothermal cyclic plasticity and creep, followed by an examination of thermo-mechanical fatigue in nickel alloy C263.
Padding or Performance Enhancer?
Authors: Loadman John
Published: November 2023

With the exception of dipped goods, it is usual for most commercial rubber products to contain appreciable levels of two other types of materials, namely fillers and plasticisers or extending oils. The former are generally inorganic, although carbon black is the obvious exception to the rule! In the absence of black, the fillers can be further separated into neutral or brightly coloured. Some idea of the range of materials used at the turn of the twentieth century is given by the advertisement shown in Fig. 12.1, which appeared in 1909.
Physics at the micrometric scale
Authors: Tabeling Patrick , Chen Suelin
Published: November 2023

Introduction The title of this chapter, ‘Physics at the micrometric scale’, may seem surprising: for the physics of the systems we are discussing, it seems as if the micrometer is not inherently be a scale at which anything out of the ordinary should happen. For example, in simple liquids, molecule sizes, intermolecular distances, and correlation lengths are on the order of a nanometer and are thus actually much smaller than the dimensions of an ordinary microsystem. A cubic micrometer of tetradecane contains around 10 atoms, a number sufficiently large to disregard the identity of the atoms, neglect thermodynamic fluctuations, and adopt without hesitation a macrometric approach.
Diffusion, mixing, and separation in microsystems
Authors: Tabeling Patrick , Chen Suelin
Published: November 2023

Introduction In lab-on-a-chip or ‘μTAS’ systems, it is often necessary to mix reactants. For example, in biology, in order to identify proteins in an unknown sample, proteins are fragmented by mixing them with enzymes. Proteins can then be characterized using mass spectrometry analysis of the resulting fragments. This method is the ‘modern’ method of protein identification, and the corresponding field is known as proteomics. In both miniaturized and non-miniaturized analytical chemistry, the identification of a component generally depends on the analysis of chemical transformations carried out in a reactor where the reactants are supposed to be mixed.
The Space Between Our Ears
Authors: Morgan Michael
Published: November 2023

In The Space Between our Ears Michael Morgan explains how our brain interprets what we see. Using a wealth of sources from over the centuries including philosophical writings, scientific thinking, experiments, passages from poems and novels, and scenes from films, Morgan reveals the difficulty in working out exactly how we make and receive our visual perceptions. To illustrate various points the book includes optical drawings as well as simple experiments that the reader can perform to test the different components of sight and our reactions to it. The book describes and criticises recent attempts to locate the ‘neural correlates of consciousness’ in specific parts of the brain. Against what he calls the ‘secretion theory of consciousness’ Morgan controversially argues that visual perception is most likely to be a function of the whole visual pathway, not just a small part of it. This intelligent, engaging book provides a revelatory overview of what we know about how the brain works regarding visual space, giving a unique insight into one of our most vital yet least understood senses.
The Physics of Rubber Elasticity
Authors: G.Treloar L R
Published: November 2023

This book provides a critical review of the equilibrium elastic properties of rubber, together with the kinetic-theory background. It is suitable for the non-specialist and the emphasis is on the physical reality embodied in the mathematical formulations. Polymer science had developed greatly since the second edition of this text in 1958, and the two main advances – the refinements of the network theory and associated thermodynamic analysis, and the development of the phenomenological or non-molecular approach to the subject – are both reflected in the structure of this third edition.
Non-Gaussian Chain Statistics and Network Theory
Authors: Treloar L R G
Published: November 2023

UP to this point the development of the statistical theory of the network has been based upon the approximate or ‘Gaussian’ distribution function (3.3) for the single chain, whose derivation assumes that the end-to-end distance r is very much Jess than the fuJiy extended Length of the chain R. The results derived on this basis are therefore limited to strains which are not too large, that is to say, to strains which do not begin to approach the limiting deformability of the network. In comparing the experimental stress-strain curves with the formulae derived from the Gaussian theory attention has already been drawn to the marked upturn in the stress in the region of very Jarge strains, which is particularly evident in the case of simple extension (Fig. 5.4, p. 87). In this region, where an appreciable proportion of the chains become highly extended, the Gaussian statistical treatment is no longer valid, and a more accurate ‘non–Gaussian’ form of theory becomes essential.
Alternative Forms of Strain-Energy Function
Authors: Treloar L R G
Published: November 2023

IN this chapter some of the more recent developments bearing on the question of the form of the strain-energy function for rubber will be examined. The aim of these developments is essentially to find the most appropriate general method of characterizing the properties of a rubber for engineering applications or similar purposes, any possible interpretation in molecular terms of such methods being either irrelevant or purely incidental.
Large-Deformation Theory: Shear and Torsion
Authors: Treloar L R G
Published: November 2023

IN the preceding chapters our principal concern has been with the problem of defining the properties of a rubber under the most general type of strain, and we have seen that these properties may conveniently be represented in terms of the strain-energy W per unit volume of the material for a pure homogeneous strain. A knowledge of the form of the strain-energy function is all that is required for the treatment of more complex problems in which the strains are not homogeneous but vary from point to point in the deformed body, the analysis of such problems being purely a question of mathematics.
Order from disorder: Ramsey’s theorem
Authors: Matoušek Jirří , Nešetřil Jaroslav
Published: November 2023

Paul Erdős (1913–1996), a famous 20th century mathematician and arguably one of the main creators of contemporary discrete mathematics, liked to tell the following story. X-rays were discovered by Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen in 1895. But the British physicist Sir William Crookes observed a similar effect earlier: photographic plates became black mysteriously when stored near a tube nowadays called by Crookes’ name. He noticed this and issued a directive to the technicians that henceforth the plates were to be stored elsewhere.
At The Heart Of The Problem
Authors: Scarani Valerio
Published: November 2023

‘When all is said and done, physics is only a description, not an explanation’. I have uttered similar statements many times myself in informal discussions, when my interlocutor happened to slide into an excessive praise of experimental science and an excessive contempt of other forms of human knowledge. In the mouth of Jean-Paul Fragnière, a friend and philosophy teacher who lives in the small Swiss town of Fribourg, this sentence sounds, however, the expression of a different and distant line of thought of a rivalry between human and natural sciences that is still latent in the French-speaking world, a relic of the arrogance of Positivism. We are in the massive building of Saint-Michel College – a sixteenth century Jesuit establishment, a public school for several decades; and though Jean-Paul’s classroom is a modernization of what was the granary, history weighs heavily here. For the first generations of young people educated in this school, heliocentrism was one of the hot topics; now Jean-Paul has invited me to speak to his students about quantum physics.
Authority Contradicted
Authors: Scarani Valerio
Published: November 2023

Physicists have their moments of weariness, enthusiasm, apprehension, relief, just like everyone in their work. Weariness, that is when something does not work – when the apparatus does not want to function or when the last bit of the theorem resists every attempt at demonstration. Enthusiasm, that is surely when we finally find an error or we overcome an obstacle. The apprehension phase generally begins when we must present our latest results to the scientific community, by writing an article or participating at a conference. That is the moment of truth, but also sometimes the moment of low blows, real or imagined.
Evolutionarily stable reproductive investment and sex allocation in plants
Authors: Zhang Da-Yong
Published: November 2023

Optimal allocation of limiting resources to various fitness-enhancing activities is central to both life-history and sex-allocation theory, providing the basis for different reproductive strategies. Allocation commonly varies with plant size, but this size dependence has not been investigated fully either theoretically or empirically. ın this chapter, ı first introduce a new approach to the classical model of sex allocation and apply it to quantify and explain within-population variation in sex allocation and reproductive effort of annuals and perennials. The model shows that the reproductive strategies of cosexual plants should equalize the marginal fitness returns through each fitness component (male and female function, and adult survival for perennials), unless constrained by insufficient available resources.
Pollen and ovule fates and reproductive performance by flowering plants
Authors: Harder Lawrence D , Routley Matthew B
Published: November 2023

Pollen and ovules experience diverse fates during pollination, pollen-tube growth, fertilization, and seed development that govern the male and female potential of flowering plants. This chapter identifies these fates and many of their interactions, and considers their theoretical implications for the evolution of pollen export and the production of selfed and outcrossed seeds. This analysis clarifies the importance of pollen quantity and quality for seed production. Our analysis emphasizes the asymmetry of pollen and ovule fates and considers its consequences for reproductive evolution.
Non-pollinator agents of selection on floral traits
Authors: Strauss Sharon Y , Whittall Justen B
Published: November 2023

Despite the dominating role of pollinators in floral evolution, mounting evidence reveals significant additional, often antagonistic, influences of abiotic and biotic non-pollinator agents. Even when pollinators and other agents impose selection on floral traits in the same direction, the role of other agents is frequently overlooked. Maintenance of genetic variation in floral traits and divergence from trait optima for pollination can result from both indirect selection on correlated traits and direct selection on floral traits. For example, in numerous species, periods of heat or drought favour pink- or purple-flowered individuals over white-flowered ones, because associated anthocyanins in vegetative tissues enhance stress tolerance. Conflicting selection on floral traits may also occur directly when floral antagonists and mutualists share the same preferences.
Flower performance in human-altered habitats
Authors: Aizen Marcelo A , Vázquez Diego P
Published: November 2023

The functioning and performance of flowers and their associated pollinators are susceptible to human- driven habitat alteration. Although habitat alteration is increasingly perceived as an important threat to the integrity of the pollination process with practical and economic consequences, the relative importance of the mechanisms mediating the response of plant reproduction to habitat disturbance is not understood clearly. Here we provide a conceptual framework to help identify critical variables and guide the design of more process- and mechanism-oriented studies of the effects of anthropogenic habitat disturbances on flower performance. With a series of qualitative matrices, we summarize the effects of different disturbance types on different plant and pollinator attributes and evaluate how these attributes affect different aspects of pollination and plant reproduction.
Geographical context of floral evolution: towards an improved research programme in floral diversification
Authors: Herrera Carlos M , Castellanos María Clara , Medrano Mónica
Published: November 2023

The diversification of animal-pollinated angiosperms is related to divergence in floral characteristics promoted by adaptations to different pollinators. According to prevailing evolutionary theory, this macroevolutionary pattern results from adaptive local or regional differentiation of pollination-related features in response to spatial divergence in pollinators. This crucial process links the micro- and macroevolution of floral adaptation, yet it has received much less attention than either floral diversification of species in a phylogenetic context, or pollinator-mediated phenotypic selection on pollination-related traits within populations. This chapter includes two components.
Pollinator-driven speciation in plants
Authors: Johnson Steven D
Published: November 2023

Speciation is often linked closely to evolutionary shifts in reproductive traits. ın plants, these shifts have been viewed as a consequence of either direct adaptation to locally effective pollinators or selection for traits that impart reproductive isolation from congeners. Available evidence suggests that plant fitness is much more likely to be limited by pollinator availability or pollinator effectiveness than by hybridization. Thus, selection probably favours floral traits that alleviate pollen limitation or promote pollen dispersal more strongly than traits that prevent matings between congeners (reproductive isolating mechanisms).
Mathematical Logic
Authors: Chiswell Ian , Hodges Wilfrid
Published: November 2023

Assuming no previous study in logic, this informal yet rigorous text covers the material of a standard undergraduate first course in mathematical logic, using natural deduction and leading up to the completeness theorem for first-order logic. At each stage of the text, the reader is given an intuition based on standard mathematical practice, which is subsequently developed with clean formal mathematics. Alongside the practical examples, readers learn what can and can’t be calculated; for example the correctness of a derivation proving a given sequent can be tested mechanically, but there is no general mechanical test for the existence of a derivation proving the given sequent. The undecidability results are proved rigorously in an optional final chapter, assuming Matiyasevich ’s theorem characterising the computably enumerable relations. Rigorous proofs of the adequacy and completeness proofs of the relevant logics are provided, with careful attention to the languages involved. Optional sections discuss the classification of mathematical structures by first-order theories; the required theory of cardinality is developed from scratch. Throughout the book there are notes on historical aspects of the material, and connections with linguistics and computer science, and the discussion of syntax and semantics is influenced by modern linguistic approaches. Two basic themes in recent cognitive science studies of actual human reasoning are also introduced. Including extensive exercises and selected solutions, this text is ideal for students in Logic, Mathematics, Philosophy, and Computer Science.
Informal Natural Deduction
Authors: Chiswell Ian , Hodges Wilfrid
Published: November 2023

In this course we shall study some ways of proving statements. Of course not every statement can be proved; so we need to analyse the statements before we prove them. Within propositional logic we analyse complex statements down into shorter statements. Later chapters will analyse statements into smaller expressions too, but the smaller expressions need not be statements.
Second Interlude: The Linda Problem
Authors: Chiswell Ian , Hodges Wilfrid
Published: November 2023

‘Linda is 31 years old, single, outspoken, and very bright. She majored in philos- ophy. As a student, she was deeply concerned with issues of discrimination and social justice, and also participated in anti-nuclear demonstrations. Please rank the following statements by their probability, using 1 for the most probable and 8 for the least probable.
Postlude
Authors: Chiswell Ian , Hodges Wilfrid
Published: November 2023

We claim that we can also set up a computer C2 to list all and only the σ-derivations. In Section 3.4 we saw that every σ-derivation is a labelled tree, and we saw in Exercise 3.2.5 how to give a labelled tree a Go¨del number. So we can devise a system giving each σ-derivation D a Go¨del number GN(D); as with formulas, each of D and GN(D) can be calculated from the other. The computer C2 goes through the natural numbers, and at each n it checks whether n is GN(D) for some σ-derivation D whose conclusion is a sentence; it can do this by Theorem 7.4.4. When the answer is Yes, it prints out the derivation D.
Voluntary action and Cognitive control from a cognitive neuroscience perspective
Authors: Goschke Thomas
Published: November 2023

The concept of voluntary action is an essential ingredient of our self-conceptualization as autonomous intentional agents, who are capable of deliberate planning and (more or less) rational decision-making, and can thus be held responsible for their actions. [At least, this appears to hold in most Western cultures (for cultural differences in the conceptualization of agency and intentionality, see McCrone, 1999).]

The assumption that we can act voluntarily—at least sometimes—is not only deeply embedded in our common sense psychology, but is constitutive for many cultural, political, and legal institutions and practices. It can make all the difference for our moral evaluation of an act, whether we conceive of it as a willed action or whether we consider it an involuntary response as, for instance, the automatic withdrawal of one’s hand when inadvertently touching a hot plate.