bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Duties
Authors: Beneke Chris
Published: October 2024

This chapter surveys the history and contemporary meaning of the religion clauses in the U.S. Constitution, particularly the “free exercise” and “establishment of religion” clauses. It also reflects on the sociology of religion (in particular, the work of Peter Berger, Roger Finke, and Rodney Starke) and how it has refashioned our understanding of late eighteenth-century religion and church-state history. The chapter asks whether contemporaries regarded faith as something that might be selected like any other consumer good, and what the implications would be if they did. It concludes that the religion clauses reflected a profound appreciation for religious duty, as well as an inchoate nod to individual choice.
Cruelties
Authors: Beneke Chris
Published: October 2024

This chapter begins by looking at the collective memory of religious violence and its impact on late eighteenth-century provisions for religious liberty, especially those derived from John Foxe’s Book of Martyrs and recollections of the St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre. The chapter notes that religious violence was not as common in early America as commentators sometimes suggest. But the memory still mattered. Roman Catholics, Jews, and Baptists play a central role in this story. Catholics had a reputation for inflicting religious violence, Jews and Baptists for suffering it. The moderate, religion-friendly, liberty-abetting consensus that emerged in the wake of the Revolutionary War accommodated all of them, expanding the circle of religious tolerance.
Inequalities
Authors: Beneke Chris
Published: October 2024

This chapter focuses on two groups whose stories have heretofore been omitted from the larger history of religious liberty: white women and African Americans. It opens with a history of women and religious liberty, asking whether the founders expected rights of conscience to be exercised within the family. It then examines the history of enslaved African Americans and religious liberty in light of both contemporary evangelical movements and the founders’ libertarianism, noting the social and cultural constraints on a freedom that leading framers otherwise regarded as absolute. It concludes by considering whether religious tolerance and political moderation may have been partly a function of Black enslavement.
Introduction
Authors: Thomas Alan , Archer Alfred , Engelen Bart
Published: October 2024

The Introduction sets out the main aim of the book, which is to explain and to assess the impact that the extensive and growing inequalities in Western societies have on well-being, and to propose more just alternatives. It explains how the book uses the empirical resources of the new science of happiness to diagnose what has gone wrong in highly unequal and frequently unhappy societies and the role that key political emotions such as shame, envy, and admiration play in all this. It highlights how the book’s analysis of the emotional regime of market societies makes for a novel contribution to the existing literature on inequality.
The Problem of Inequality
Authors: Thomas Alan , Archer Alfred , Engelen Bart
Published: October 2024

This chapter discusses empirical data on the extent of inequality in income and wealth globally before focusing on the United States and the United Kingdom. It discusses the ways in which the United States is both exceptional and also a bellwether for changes across affluent Western societies. It discusses four explanations of the growing gap between the rich and the poor: disproportionate returns to capital in comparison to labour, a politics of wage suppression, the rise of sectoral division, and policies of rent seeking and rent extraction. It makes the normative claims that inequality is inherently bad and that unjust inequalities have further bad effects.
The Promises and Failures of Capitalist Market Societies
Authors: Thomas Alan , Archer Alfred , Engelen Bart
Published: October 2024

This chapter explains what is meant by “capitalist market societies” by building on Adam Smith’s views of markets, the Arrow-Debreu theorem of welfare economics, and Veblen’s insight that capitalists strategically exploit market inefficiencies. It uncovers a key disciplinary mechanism in capitalism, namely involuntary unemployment. It explains how it disciplines workers, shapes the field of opportunities, and is dictated by while promoting the interests of the rentier-investor class. It discusses the role of financialization and indebtedness and the ways in which the rent-extracting elite try to keep the unjust inequalities that characterize societies in place.
The Science of Happiness, Inequality, and Well-Being
Authors: Thomas Alan , Archer Alfred , Engelen Bart
Published: October 2024

This chapter explains what can be learned from the new science of happiness about the harmful effects of inequality. It discusses what well-being means and adopts a broad, ecumenical approach that is pluralist towards different constructs and methods used in the new science of happiness, while retaining normative significance. It analyses the impact that key aspects of capitalism’s emotional regime—such as shame, status anxiety, and envy—have on well-being. It discusses empirical evidence about correlations between money (income and wealth) and well-being on the one hand and inequality and well-being on the other. It develops and defends a refined version of the “Easterlin paradox” and concludes that, in capitalist societies, where social mobility is frustrated, wealth is concentrated, and inequalities become entrenched, people’s well-being is reduced for those forced on (or off) the treadmill for money, status, and education.
Traces of the Rote Armee Fraktion
Authors: Hijzen Constant Willem
Published: October 2024

In this vignette, the Binnenlandse Veiligheidsdienst (BVD)’s activities against the West German Rote Armee Fraktion (RAF) are explored. Although the violent group carried out attacks in the Federal Republic of Germany, they elicited support activities of various Dutch groups so there was always a chance that the RAF would expand their theater of operations to Dutch territory, and West German authorities made sure that the Netherlands would not become a safe haven for wanted RAF members. The BVD investigated whether the RAF printed or published their pamphlets in Amsterdam and Nijmegen, interviewed Dutch citizens who might be in touch with RAF members, investigated recipients of mail from RAF members, and tried to find RAF members in Dutch safe houses. The vignette even contains a spectacular lead: a BVD informant knocked on a door in Scheveningen where Hans-Martin Schleyer was staying for a few days before he was taken to Brussels.
Resistance to Gender-Equitable Policy Change
Authors: Josefsson Cecilia
Published: October 2024

Chapter 2 presents the book’s theoretical framework, delving into its feminist institutionalist perspective. To conceptualize resistance to gender-equitable policy change, the chapter distinguishes between the gendered institutional context and active, embodied resistance. The second part of the chapter outlines the resistance stage framework, a framework apt for exploring how resistance to gender-equitable policy change is adapted over time and across different contexts as the gender-equitable policy idea institutionalizes and starts to influence actors’ behavior. Mapped on to the policy process, this framework outlines how status quo defenders adapt their resistance strategies to accommodate institutional and ideational changes across the phases of agenda setting, policy formulation, decision-making, and implementation.
The Permanent Quota and Variations in Resistance Across Parties
Authors: Josefsson Cecilia
Published: October 2024

Chapter 7 explores the adoption (in 2017) and implementation (in 2019) of a new and permanent quota policy. Faced with the threat of having to adopt a parity law (a 50 percent quota), men political leaders quickly reverted to adopting a permanent quota law that they knew they could control: a law identical to the 2009 quota, yet permanent. To delve deeper into motives behind quota resistance, this chapter compares resistance in the two political groups historically most opposed to quotas: Partido Nacional and the party faction MPP. The chapter shows how these two organizations are based on distinctly different logics—a clientelist logic for PN and a programmatic logic for MPP. It is posited that these divergent logics carry significant implications for the perception of the quota threat, the nature of the status quo in need of protection, the perceived viability of resistance strategies, and the ultimate outcomes of the quota reform.
Authoritarian Power in Statist and Antistatist Societies
Authors: Forrat Natalia
Published: October 2024

The first chapter spells out the characteristics of statist and antistatist societies and the mechanisms of how unity- and division-based authoritarianisms thrive in them. In statist societies, group authority—the power of the group over the individual—is possessed by the state, which expands the state’s possibilities to induce the population’s compliance. Statist political environments are homogeneous and solidary; they are driven by team logic and the idea that the state is the leader of that team. In contrast, in antistatist societies, group authority is possessed by nonstate groups, which creates a more competitive and divided political environment. Antistatist political environments are pluralist and contentious; they are driven by the utility maximization logic and competition of different groups for state power and resources.
“It’s Not You and Your Biodegradable Toothbrush against the World”
Authors: Kligler-Vilenchik Neta , Literat Ioana
Published: October 2024

Chapter 5 focuses on YouTube and climate change, through an analysis of videos and comments posted by youth around climate anxiety. Climate anxiety—the feeling of dread and distress associated with worrying about the future of the planet—has been shown to be a persistent concern among young people today, across borders and sociocultural contexts. The chapter illuminates how young people used YouTube as a space to work through their concern about the future of the planet and to encourage others to channel anxiety into action. The analysis further foregrounds the value of insider conversations among young people, showing that, at times, the aim of political expression is not to convince or mobilize others, but to seek and to receive social and emotional support. Last but not least, this case study also emphasizes the emotional toll of youth political expression and its grounding in affective experiences.
Techniques in Light Microscopy
Authors: Ruzin Steven E.
Published: October 2024

This book on light microscopy techniques contains three main parts: • Part I: Basic microscope optics • Part II: Transmitted light microscopy techniques • Part III: Epifluorescence microscopy techniques The discussions in Part II roughly follow historical developments, starting with brightfield and darkfield microscopy and progressing through polarized light, phase contrast, differential interference contrast, and modulation contrast microscopy. Part III is concerned with the more modern techniques of epifluorescence microscopy. These chapters describe the progression from a theoretical description of fluorescence, through widefield epifluorescence, confocal, two photon, and selective plane imaging microscopy. Following that, there are two chapters that can be described as computational epifluorescence microscopy; microscopy that has transitioned from strictly visual to one that requires computational intervention to achieve diffraction-limited imaging (restoration microscopy) or better (super-resolution microscopy). The final chapter in this part describes super-resolution epifluorescence microscopy, or resolution that is better than theoretical when using the Abbe or Rayleigh criteria. Finally, included is a chapter on theoretical aspects of microscope resolution. The last chapter in the book describes the history of the microscope from the simple magnifying lens of Leeuwenhoek through the invention of the “double” or compound microscope, optical and mechanical advancements, and finally the discovery of fluorescence and the invention of epifluorescence microscopy.
The Compound Microscope
Authors: Ruzin Steven E.
Published: October 2024

In the last chapter we discussed the phenomenon of refraction of light and how lenses can be used to create a magnified image. In this chapter we will review how magnification can be increased through the use of two magnifying lenses in series. This device, invented c. 1600, is called the compound microscope and consists of two major lens systems: the object lens system (objective) and the eye lens system (eyepiece or ocular). The concepts of mechanical and optical tube length are discussed, both for finite tube length microscopes and infinity corrected systems. Universal standards such as Infinity Corrected Optics, parfocal distance, and RMS thread size are presented. The major microscope optical systems are discussed in detail: the condenser, the objective, and the eyepiece. Finally, the three configurations of microscopes are described: upright, inverted, and stereo.
Epifluorescence Microscopy
Authors: Ruzin Steven E.
Published: October 2024

This chapter on fluorescence microscopy provides the theoretical background for all microscope techniques that use fluorescence for imaging samples. It covers the theory of fluorescence and its implementation in microscopy. Here interference filters and dichroic mirrors are described in the context of the ubiquitous epifluorescence microscope, and all fluorescence microscopes and techniques that follow The concepts of photobleaching, the Stokes shift, and fluorescence quantum yield are also discussed. Included is a description of the optical components required for epifluorescence including the fluorescence filter set, high-intensity light sources, and particular requirements of the microscope optics. The last section is a basic description of the use of fluorescence microscopy in biological research, including several major types of experiments for biological materials such as probed fluorescence targeting, ratio imaging, fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP), Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET), fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM), and total internal reflection fluorescence(TIRF) microscopy.
The Evolution of Conventions
Authors: Young H. Peyton
Published: October 2024

This chapter considers n-person games that are played repeatedly, but by different agents in each period. Players usually choose a myopic best response to a sample of information about what others players have done in the past, but occasionally they make mistakes. When the likelihood of mistakes becomes arbitrarily small, only some equilibria will have positive probability in the limit. These are known as stochastically stable equilibria. In 2×2 coordination games they correspond to the risk dominant equilibria but this is not the case for more general games. The stochastically stable equilibria are computed by finding a path of least resistance from every equilibrium to every other, and then finding the equilibrium that has lowest overall resistance. This is a special case of a general theorem on perturbed Markov processes that characterizes their stochastically stable states graph-theoretically.
Learning by Trial and Error
Authors: Young H. Peyton
Published: October 2024

A player learns by trial and error if he occasionally tries out new strategies, rejecting choices that are erroneous in the sense that they do not lead to higher payoffs. In a game, however, strategies can become erroneous due to a change of behavior by someone else. This chapter introduces a learning rule in which behavior is conditional on whether a player experiences an error of the first or second type. An error of the first type leads to occasional experimentation with alternative strategies, whereas an error of the second type induces widespread search for an alternative strategy. This rule, called interactive trial and error learning, implements Nash equilibrium behavior in any game with generic payoffs and at least one pure Nash equilibrium.
Payoff-Based Dynamics for Multi-Player Weakly Acyclic Games
Authors: Young H. Peyton , Marden Jason R. , Arslan Gürdal , Shamma Jeff S.
Published: October 2024

This chapter focusses on the class of n-person games that are weakly acyclic in better replies, that is, from any initial combination of stage-game strategies there is a sequence of better replies that lead to a pure Nash equilibrium. An adaptive process is payoff-based or completely uncoupled if the process depends only on a player’s own actions and own payoffs from previous play; it does not depend on the actions taken by other players or their realized payoffs. The chapter analyses simple payoff-based learning processes in which players occasionally experiment with alternative actions and retain them if they yield higher payoffs. In a weakly acyclic game this type of decentralized learning process leads to equilibrium play with probability one. An important application is to multi-agent distributed control problems. The methodology is illustrated with simulations of distributed routing over a network.
Achieving Pareto Optimality through Distributed Learning
Authors: Young H. Peyton , Marden Jason R. , Pao Lucy Y.
Published: October 2024

This chapter introduces a simple payoff-based learning rule that is completely decentralized and leads to an efficient configuration of actions in any n-person finite strategic-form game with generic payoffs. Agents respond solely to changes in their own realized payoffs, which are affected by the actions of other agents in the system in ways that they do not necessarily understand. The methodcan be applied to the optimization of complex systems with many distributed components, such as the routing of information in networks and the design and control of wind farms.
Irish Theatre in the Twenty-First Century
Authors: Grene Nicholas
Published: October 2024

Irish Theatre in the Twenty-First Century is the first in-depth study of the subject. It analyses the ways in which theatre in Ireland has developed since the 1990s with emerging playwrights Martin McDonagh, Conor McPherson, and Enda Walsh. Companies such as Blue Raincoat, the Corn Exchange, and Pan Pan pioneered an avant-garde dramaturgy. This led to new styles of production of classic Irish works, including the plays of Synge, mounted by Druid. There was a re-imagining of past Irish history in the work of Rough Magic and ANU; plays by Owen McCafferty, Stacey Gregg, and David Ireland, dramatized the legacy of the Troubles; and adaptations of Greek tragedy by Marina Carr and others reflecting the conditions of modern Ireland. From 2015 the movement #WakingTheFeminists led to a sharpened awareness of gender. While male playwrights showed a toxic masculinity on the stage, a generation of female dramatists including Carr, Gregg, and Nancy Harris gave voice to the long suppressed experiences of women. For three separate periods, 2006, 2016, and 2020–2, the author served as one of the judges for the Irish Times Irish Theatre Awards, attending all new productions across the island of Ireland. This allowed him to provide the overviews of the ‘state of play’ of Irish theatre in each of those times which punctuate the book. Drawing also on interviews with Ireland’s leading theatre makers, Grene provides readers with a close-up understanding of Irish theatre in a period when Ireland became for the first time a fully modernized, secular, and multi-ethnic society.
Live History
Authors: Grene Nicholas
Published: October 2024

At the time of the political violence in the North of Ireland, many playwrights used history plays as a means of coming to terms with the troubled present. This tradition has continued with a more playful treatment of Irish history, but also the dramatization of disturbingly neglected parts of the past. Donal O’Kelly’s Catalpa (1995) tells the story of the 1876 rescue of Fenian prisoners from Australia, an epic nationalist narrative in O’Kelly’s sources. It is doubly distanced in the play as a one-man performance of an imagined film script, mocking cinematic clichés and machismo heroism. Improbable Frequency (2004), a musical by Arthur Riordan and Bell Helicopter, is a fantasy satire on World War II Ireland. By contrast, in the Monto Cycle (2010–14), the company ANU, directed by Louise Lowe, embedded audience and action in the grim realities of inner-city Dublin past and present.
Waking the Feminists
Authors: Grene Nicholas
Published: October 2024

In 2015 the announcement of the Abbey’s programme for 2016, centenary of the Easter Rising, produced a sharp reaction because only one woman playwright and three women directors were featured. Social media protests, using the hashtag #WakingTheFeminists, led to a public debate in the Abbey itself and a year-long campaign to publicize the lack of gender balance. By 2022, women occupied five of the most prominent positions in Irish theatre: Selina Cartmell, Anne Clarke, Garry Hynes Caitríona McLaughlin, and Lynne Parker. Interviews with these women and the two people who spearheaded #WakingTheFeminists, Lian Bell and Sarah Durcan, provide the basis for this chapter which consists of a collage of their views on how the movement began and its significance; the factors inhibiting women from participation in Irish theatre, and the extent to which the situation had changed.
Masculinity and Its Discontents
Authors: Grene Nicholas
Published: October 2024

The aim of this chapter is to analyse the effects of toxic masculinity shown in plays of Mark O’Rowe, Enda Walsh, and Conor McPherson. O’Rowe’s Made in China (2001) represents the hyperviolence of an imagined Dublin gangland, while Walsh’s The Walworth Farce (2006) ends its ridiculously repeated play within a play with a double murder. These playwrights stage violently aggressive men but also men with addictions and obsessions, as in McPherson’s Dublin Carol (2001) about an alcoholic undertaker, and Walsh’s Penelope (2010) which features the besotted modern counterparts to the suitors in the Odyssey fighting to the death. Male fantasias move into the surreal in McPherson’s The Seafarer (2006) where the devil plays cards for the soul of a Dublin drunk, and in Terminus (2009) in which a serial killer is pursued by a demon with a body of worms.
Women Writing Women
Authors: Grene Nicholas
Published: October 2024

An increasing number of women playwrights in the twenty-first century have represented women’s experience in Ireland’s repressive past and its changing present, while also exploring the legacy of centuries of patriarchal dominance. Incestuous rape was the shocking subject of Marina Carr’s On Raftery’s Hill (2000), a gang rape was at the centre of Abbie Spallen’s Pumpgirl (2006), while Deirdre Kinahan in Rathdmines Road (2018) explored the many factors that inhibited women from reporting sexual assault. Gender roles were challenged and defied by female playwright performers in Sonya Kelly’s How to Keep an Alien (2014), Margaret McAuliffe’s The Humours of Bandon (2016), and Sarah Hanly’s Purple Snowflakes and Titty Wanks (2021). But such defined gender roles remained constrictive for the trans teenager in Stacey Gregg’s Scorch and for the would-be romcom heroine of Nancy Harris’s Somewhere Out There You (2023).
Allocation and Plea before Venue
Authors: Dalton Bartholomew , Liggins Caroline
Published: October 2024

This chapter discusses the procedure for indictable only and either offences and explores the duty that exists when a defendant appears on the same occasion as a co-defendant but becomes a discretion if the defendant appears on a subsequent occasion. Under Crim PR 3.16 (3) and 9.11(2), the defendant may request an indication as to whether a custodial or non-custodial sentence is likely in a procedure similar to the procedure for a Goodyear (2005 EWCA Crim 888) indication in the Crown Court. The chapter clarifies how the plea to an either-way matter must be indicated by the defendant personally and not by a lawyer on their behalf. An advocate can indicate a plea on an adult defendant’s behalf to an either-way offence if the defendant’s disorderly behaviour makes it impossible to conduct the proceedings in his presence or the defendant is a company. Criminal damage under £5,000 and theft from a shop of less than £200 are considered.
Bad Character
Authors: Dalton Bartholomew , Liggins Caroline
Published: October 2024

This chapter discusses the admissibility of bad character that is regulated by sections 98–113 of the Criminal Justice Act (CJA) 2003, but section 27(3) Theft Act 1968 remains available to the Crown in cases of handling stolen goods. CJA is concerned with the admission of bad character in relation to the defendant, any co-defendant, or a person other than a defendant in the case. The Criminal Procedure Rules (Crim PR Part 21) provide the procedure for the admission of evidence of bad character. The chapter describes the power of the court to exclude admissible evidence of bad character on the grounds of non-compliance if the effect would be to prejudice a party. A court is free to admit evidence of bad character if to do so would satisfy the overriding objective of Crim PR 1, provided that there is no prejudice.
Mental Disorder
Authors: Dalton Bartholomew , Liggins Caroline
Published: October 2024

This chapter reviews the detailed guidance published by CPS in 2019, which identifies the principles relevant to the decision to prosecute individuals who have a mental disorder; learning disability or difficulty; Autism Spectrum Disorder; brain injury; dementia; and other mental health, cognitive, or neurodiverse conditions. CPS guidance seeks to inform the decision to prosecute in respect of a span of conditions that include disorders, disabilities, impairments, injuries, and diseases relating to both the brain and mind. Prosecutors will have regard to the mental functioning of a suspect or defendant even where this is not reflected in a recognized condition. The chapter discusses the issue of fitness to plead, which does not arise in the magistrates’ court as the relevant legislation does not provide for any summary procedures. Effective participation and insanity in summary proceedings are considered.
Reporting Restrictions
Authors: Dalton Bartholomew , Liggins Caroline
Published: October 2024

This chapter reviews the law in relation to child defendants in the adult court that is set out in section 45 Youth Justice and Criminal Evidence Act 1999. Under section 11 Contempt of Court Act 1981, the court may make directions necessary for prohibiting the publication of a name or matter in connection with the proceedings. In the case of Re Times Newspapers Ltd [2008] EWCA Crim 2559, the court held that it is an important aspect of open justice that a defendant’s name should be made public. The chapter explains how the court may in appropriate circumstances order the identity of a defendant, or their address, to be protected from publicity. Consideration should be given to section 46 Youth Justice and Criminal Evidence Act 1999 if the evidence of a witness may be affected by fear that the identity of her children may become known.
Special Measures and Vulnerable Witnesses
Authors: Dalton Bartholomew , Liggins Caroline
Published: October 2024

This chapter cites sections 16 and 17 Youth Justice and Criminal Evidence Act 1999 that provide special measures for those aged under 18 that may meet the requirements for incapacity. Witnesses who seek assistance may always benefit if the allegation is of the serious offences listed in the Youth Justice and Criminal Evidence Act 1999, Schedule 1A. Under Part 3 of the Criminal Procedure Rules, the courts are required to facilitate the participation of anyone taking part, both witnesses and defendants. The chapter reviews sections 86–95 Coroners and Justice Act 2009 that provide for the making and discharge of witness anonymity orders. Sections 86–95 are to be regarded as a special measure of last practicable resort.
Remittal to the Youth Court for Trial/Sentence
Authors: Dalton Bartholomew , Liggins Caroline
Published: October 2024

This chapter discusses the remittal to the youth court for trial or sentence. It highlights the good practice to remit the sentence to the young person's local court. A power to remit to the youth court for trial is granted under the Magistrates’ Courts Act 1980 where there will be no effective trial of an adult in relation to a joint charge either because the adults plead guilty or are sent to the Crown Court. Meanwhile, section 25 of the Sentencing Act 2020 contains provisions on the duty to remit about sentencing where the adult court's limited powers are not sufficient. The chapter also details the power and duty to remit offenders aged under 18 years to youth courts for sentence.
Reporting Restrictions
Authors: Dalton Bartholomew , Liggins Caroline
Published: October 2024

The chapter explains the reporting restrictions, especially when discretionary provisions apply in the adult court, unlike the youth court. The court must specifically apply the restrictions which relate to the identification of victims, other witnesses, and defendants by stating in open court that it is doing so. The power to restrict reporting of criminal proceedings involving persons under 18 years old applies to any court in England and Wales. However, this power to restrict does not apply to any proceedings to which section 49 of the Children and Young Persons Act 1933 applies. The chapter cites the relevant provisions within the Youth Justice and Criminal Evidence Act 1999.
Education Act
Authors: Dalton Bartholomew , Liggins Caroline
Published: October 2024

This chapter elaborates on the key concepts of the Education Act 1996. Section 444 of the Education Act 1996 primarily revolves around the offence of the failure to secure regular attendance at school of registered pupils. If a child of compulsory school age who is a registered pupil at a school fails to attend regularly at the school, his parent is guilty of an offence. A parent is also guilty of an offence if a school attendance order is breached. The chapter explains that the court may direct that the school attendance order shall cease to be in force if the parent is acquitted.
Harassment Offences
Authors: Dalton Bartholomew , Liggins Caroline
Published: October 2024

This chapter examines the offences concerned with harassment. It explains that the Protection from Harassment Act 1997 includes the prohibition of harassment, which correlates the notion of racially or religiously aggravated offences and non-aggravated offences. Additionally, complaints to a victim’s employer and/or professional regulator can amount to harassment or stalking, but appropriate complains will nearly always fall under the defence of reasonableness. Meanwhile, section 4 of the Protection from Harassment Act 1997 revolves around harassment of putting people in fear of violence. The chapter also provides an overview of the offences and sentencing of stalking that involves fear of violence or serious alarm or distress.
Immigration and Document Offences
Authors: Dalton Bartholomew , Liggins Caroline
Published: October 2024

This chapter discusses the offences surrounding immigration and identity documents. Several provisions of the Immigration Act 1971 concern illegal entry. The chapter also considers the offences concerned with assisting unlawful entry as per sections 25 and 25A of the Immigration Act 1971. Entering the UK without proper documentation is an offence under the Asylum and Immigration (Treatment of Claimants, etc.) Act 2004, while possessing false identity documents without reasonable excuse is an offence under the provision of the Identity Documents Act 2010.
Weapons Offences
Authors: Dalton Bartholomew , Liggins Caroline
Published: October 2024

This chapter relates to weapons offences including firearms, offences weapons, and bladed articles. Section 57(1) of the Firearms Act 1968 defines the term firearm, which exempts airsoft guns because they are considered to discharge a small plastic missile. The chapters elaborates further on the offences in relation to corrosive substances under the Offensive Weapons Act 2019.
Alteration of Sentence
Authors: Dalton Bartholomew , Liggins Caroline
Published: October 2024

This chapter discusses section 142 of the Magistrates’ Courts Act 1980, which gives the court power to reopen sentence. It provides that ‘a magistrates’ court may vary or rescind a sentence or other order imposed or made by it when dealing with an offender if it appears to the court to be in the interests of justice to do so’. According to section 142(1), ‘this power extends to replacing a sentence or order which for any reason appears to be invalid by another which the court has power to impose or make’. The procedure for reopening sentence is set out in the Criminal Procedure Rules 2020. There are no time restrictions, but a court must have regard to the principle of finality of sentence, meaning that in many cases it will not be proper to interfere.
Banning Orders (Football)
Authors: Dalton Bartholomew , Liggins Caroline
Published: October 2024

This chapter examines banning orders, which are imposed under section 14A of the Football Spectators Act 1989. Banning orders must be imposed when an offender is convicted of a relevant offence, unless the court considers that there are particular circumstances relating to the offence or to the offender which would make it unjust in all the circumstances to do so. The core requirements of such an order are to prohibit the offender from attending regulated football matches in England and Wales. In sentencing for breach of an order, the court should refer to the sentencing approach in step one of the guideline for breach of a criminal behaviour order to determine culpability and harm and determine an appropriate sentence, bearing in mind the maximum penalty for the offence. An appeal lies to the Crown Court in respect to the making of a banning order or dismissal of prosecution application.
Compensation Order
Authors: Dalton Bartholomew , Liggins Caroline
Published: October 2024

This chapter begins by assessing the provisions on compensation orders under sections 133–138 of the Sentencing Act 2020. A magistrates’ court can order compensation for each offence without limit, and may also award compensation in relation to offences taken into consideration. If there is a compensation order, a victim surcharge is not obligatory. In determining whether to make a compensation order against any person, and in determining the amount to be paid by any person under such an order, the court shall have regard to their means so far as they appear or are known to the court. An order made in the absence of a means inquiry is at risk of being ruled unlawful. The chapter then looks at the time for payment and the suggested levels of compensation.
Dangerous Offenders
Authors: Dalton Bartholomew , Liggins Caroline
Published: October 2024

This chapter looks at the provision on dangerous offenders. Generally speaking, the dangerous offender provisions are of concern to the magistrates’ court only when determining venue. The only sentence now available is an extended sentence, and this is available for those who commit a specified violent, sexual, or terrorist offence, where the court is of the opinion that ‘there is a significant risk to members of the public of serious harm occasioned by the commission by him of further specified offences’. If new information becomes available during a summary trial, there is a residuary power to commit for sentence under these dangerous offender provisions. Specified offences are those listed in Schedule 14 of the Sentencing Act 2020.
Minimum Sentences
Authors: Dalton Bartholomew , Liggins Caroline
Published: October 2024

This chapter considers the provision on minimum sentences. It looks at the criteria for minimum sentencing for burglary, drug trafficking, possession of firearms, and aggravated possession of weapons under the Sentencing Act 2020. The court must impose a mandatory minimum sentence unless there are exceptional circumstances which (a) relate to the offence or to the offender, and (b) justify not doing so. The exceptional circumstances test applies to all offences committed on or after 28 June 2022. Meanwhile, the interests of justice test still applies to offences committed prior to 28 June 2022. In both scenarios, the correct approach to minimum sentencing provision is to apply the relevant sentencing guidelines without reference to the applicable minimum sentencing provisions and to then increase the sentence to comply with the minimum sentence if necessary.
Suspended Sentences
Authors: Dalton Bartholomew , Liggins Caroline
Published: October 2024

This chapter reviews the provision on suspended sentences. The Sentencing Council’s definitive guideline on the imposition of community and custodial sentences confirms that ‘a suspended sentence must not be imposed as a more severe form of community order. A suspended sentence is a custodial sentence. Sentencers should be clear that they would impose an immediate custodial sentence if the power to suspend were not available. If not, a non-custodial sentence should be imposed.’ A magistrates’ court may suspend a sentence of not less than 14 days and not more than six months. A custodial sentence that is suspended should be for the same term that would have applied if the sentence was to be served immediately. The chapter then looks at section 287 of the Sentencing Act 2020, which provides for requirements that may be imposed as part of a suspended sentence. It also considers the breach of suspended sentence orders.
Fathoming the Deep in English Renaissance Tragedy
Authors: Publicover Laurence
Published: October 2024

This book demonstrates how a group of tragedies by Shakespeare and his contemporaries stage the fear and exhilaration generated by encounters with the unknown and the extraordinary. Arguing that the maritime art of fathoming—that is, dropping a lead and line into water to measure its depth—operates as a master-image for these plays, it illustrates how they create sublime horror through intuitions of mysterious more-than-human agencies and of worlds beyond the visible. Though tightly focused on a specific body of imagery, the book strikes up dialogue with a number of critical fields, including theories and histories of tragedy; ecocriticism and the environmental humanities; oceanic studies; and work on early modern ideas about the body, madness, and language. Countering a tendency within tragic theory to value the textual over the dramatic, it also demonstrates how the tragic effects to which it points are created through specific theatrical strategies, including the use of offstage space, intertheatricality, and the violation of dramatic conventions. Situating its arguments within recent criticism on these plays and on tragedy more generally, and pushing back against scholarship that regards the genre in Shakespeare’s time as concerned more with pity than with fear, the book offers fresh and detailed readings of some of the most frequently studied plays in the English canon, including Hamlet, King Lear, Macbeth, The Duchess of Malfi, and The Changeling.
The Horror of Macbeth
Authors: Publicover Laurence
Published: October 2024

Working outwards from Lady Macbeth’s injunction that her husband should not ‘consider […] deeply’ the implications of King Duncan’s murder, this chapter explores Macbeth’s fascination with the mysterious operations of the cosmos. Drawing on recent work in ecocriticism and adjacent fields, and challenging approaches to the play that understand it purely in social and political terms, the chapter argues that Macbeth’s tragic status derives from his willingness to dive deeper than those around him into murky questions surrounding more-than-human agencies and the relations between minds, bodies, and the environment. In witnessing Macbeth’s confrontation with such questions (and with the weird sisters in whom they are concentrated), the chapter suggests, we find our own ethical responses unsettled. It concludes with a section focused on the Thane of Ross, through whom we can register Shakespeare’s interest in how the actions of Macbeth and Lady Macbeth affect those around them.
Tragedy, History, and Ecological Thought
Authors: Publicover Laurence
Published: October 2024

A brief conclusion moves off a short passage from Massinger’s The Unnatural Combat to reflect on how images of watery depth might articulate English attitudes towards oceanic voyages in the early modern period. Reading the sea’s vertical axis against the familiar metaphor linking voyaging and the acquisition of knowledge, I suggest that tragedy—like the deep ocean—can be considered a rebuke to the new philosophy that would (in the words of Shakespeare’s Lafeu) ‘make modern and familiar things supernatural and causeless’. Noting that discussions of tragedy often deem the genre instructive, I then ask what value, if any, can be drawn from the form of the genre I have outlined over previous chapters, focusing especially on recent claims concerning literature’s capacity to illuminate—and even help resolve—our environmental crisis.
Groups
Authors: Meer Marcus
Published: October 2024

Groups like guilds and the municipal body of the citizenry, represented by the urban government, believed their collective identities to be closely linked to their heraldic signs. As the iconographic choices of seals, the rhetoric of grants of arms, and their discussion in chronicles suggest, corporate and municipal arms were perceived and fashioned as expressions of the symbolic capital of honour and seen as reminders of shared norms, values, and histories—like the arms of individual burgesses. Heraldic signs were hoped to strengthen a sense of unity within the occasionally divided corporate bodies of guilds and cities, whose members jealously guarded a sense of social distinction. In this context, corporate heraldry was relied upon to negotiate guilds’ place and precedence within the urban hierarchy, just as cities set themselves apart from other cities and related themselves to the powers that surrounded and controlled them through their municipal heraldry.
The non-aliquid Christology (2)
Authors: Cross Richard
Published: October 2024

The fullest account of the non-aliquid Christology can be found in the Summa ‘Breves dies hominis’, once wrongly attributed to Stephen Langton. In addition, the author makes a number of important innovations: in particular, a discussion of the possible ways in which the human nature might be united to the divine person (by a created relation, by a created quality, by the person itself, or by nothing at all). All of these turn out to be important in later medieval Christology. By 1170, the theory was felt in many quarters to be inadequate, both on the grounds that it seems to entail that Christ is not genuinely human (since he is not a composite of body and soul) and on the grounds that a merely accidental union such as habitus is not sufficiently tight for personal unity. The second part of the chapter traces the ways in which the theory was criticized and ultimately condemned by Pope Alexander III in 1170 and 1177.
Afterword
Authors: Cross Richard
Published: October 2024

This chapter begins by offering an account of the ways in which ideas from the theologians who accepted the homo assumptus theory and the non-aliquid theory were adopted by later adherents of the subsistence theory. For instance, there is a line of thinking, in Alexander of Hales, Albert (perhaps), and Aquinas, that has a strong role for the communication of divine esse to the human nature. This seems to emerge from the homo assumptus theory in its more sophisticated iterations. And there is an opposed line of thinking, in Peter Chanter, William of Auxerre, and Albert (perhaps), according to which the union is analogous to the dependence-relation between a substance and an accident. And this evidently emerges from the non-aliquid theory. The chapter concludes with a brief examination of the Christologies of Aquinas and Bonaventure: Aquinas accepts the communication of divine esse to the human nature; and Bonaventure accepts the explanatory priority of a dependence-relation.
Cyrene
Authors: Schaus Gerald P.
Published: October 2024

Greek migrants arrived in North Africa in the third quarter of the seventh century and established themselves at what became the polis of Cyrene, which was ruled by a hereditary monarchy until the mid-fifth century. The tribulations in establishing the settlement and arriving at a working relationship with the indigenous Libyans are documented in rare detail by a variety of textual sources. While Cyrene remained part of the larger Greek world, its monarchs and inhabitants found their interactions with the neighboring Egyptians and the Persians who ruled Egypt after c. 525 to be pressing concerns. Careful study of Cyrene thus offers important insights into the nature and diversity of Greek history during the Archaic period.
Delphi
Authors: Aurigny Hélène , Scott Michael
Published: October 2024

Delphi is known in the present day almost exclusively as a religious sanctuary, and it is undoubtedly true that in the ancient world, Delphi’s fame derived primarily from its cultic significance. However, the Sanctuaries of Apollo and Athena formed part of a thriving community that, over the course of the Archaic period, came to control much of the surrounding landscape. Approaching Delphi in a holistic fashion makes it possible to tell a new and more nuanced story of the development of one of the most famous places in the Greek world.
Phase equilibrium constraints on the pre-eruptive conditions of alkaline basalts of the Main Ethiopian Rift and their bearing on the production of peralkaline rhyolites
Authors: Sauvalle Romain , Scaillet Bruno , Prouteau Gaëlle , Scaillet Stéphane , Cioni Raffaello , Franceschini Zara , Frascerra Diletta , Sani Federico , Corti Giacomo , Melaku Abate A , Andujar Joan
Published: October 2024

Bimodal magmatism is characteristic of the geodynamic evolution of the Main Ethiopian Rift (MER), which is a reference area for the study of the processes leading to continental break-up before seafloor spreading. There are abundant emissions of basalts and rhyolites, which are in possible parent-daugther relationships. However, the P-T-H2O conditions of production and storage of the basaltic end member remain unclear. Crystallization experiments have been conducted on an alkali basalt from the MER to define its pre-eruptive conditions and shed light on the compositional evolution of derivative liquids and source conditions. The experiments were performed at 100-200 MPa, 975-1080°C, varying H2O/CO2 ratios, corresponding to melt water contents of 1-5 wt%, at fO2 slightly lower than the Fayalite-Magnetite-Quartz (FMQ) solid buffer. Comparison between the petrological attributes of the starting rock and the experiments shows that the basaltic magma was stored at 150-200 MPa, 1050 ± 10°C, with 1-2 wt% H2O in melt, with fO2 near FMQ prior to eruption. Geochemical modelling shows that the corresponding mantle source contained about 0.1 wt% H2O, reflecting a metasomatized source. Extensive crystallization of such basalts produces SiO2-rich liquids, which are not yet peralkaline, however. This underscores that extreme fractionation (>90 wt%) is required in order to produce peralkaline derivatives from mildly alkaline basalts. This extreme fractionation and the water-rich nature of the starting basalt readily explain the H2O-rich condition of peralkaline rhyolites that have fueled caldera forming eruptions in the Rift.