bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Presidential Influence versus Bureaucratic Discretion: President-Agency Relations in Civil Rights Policy
Authors: Shull Steven A.
Published: March 2007

This research examines presidents' administrative actions in civil rights policy and agency responses to those actions. It considers the frequent debate between presidential influence over the bureaucracy versus the more commonly posited model of bureaucratic discretion. Results suggest that assertive presidents like Johnson and Reagan can influence agency actions in civil rights policy; they obtain closer correspondence with their preferred policies than do less assertive presidents. Overall, however, only limited correspondence between presidential and agency actions appears because agencies have considerable discretion in their implementing actions. Thus neither presidential influence nor bureaucratic discretion fully explains the relationship.
The Use of Exit Interviews in Master's Programs of Public Affairs and Administration
Authors: Lee Robert D.
Published: March 2007

Exit interviewing is one technique available to schools interested in assessing the outcomes of their academic programs. Schools tend to use the technique to assess impacts upon students completing a program. Exit interviewing can be used in conjunction with other techniques, such as alumni surveys. Exit interviews can contain a wide variety of questions, and a particular strength of the technique is that follow-up questions can be asked. Several adminis trative problems are associated with the technique and must be anticipated. According to a survey of public affairs schools, exit interviewing is used especially for course content changes, curricu lum revisions, and feedback to individual faculty members.
System Size and Administrative Component in the American States: A Longitudinal Analysis of Economies of Scale Hypothesis
Authors: Oh Cheol H.
Published: March 2007

This study challenges economies of scale hypothesis as a useful way of explaining the effects of increasing system size on the administrative component of systems at the societal level (e.g., states). The proposition to be tested is the inverse relationship between state population and the relative size of government. More importantly, this study examines whether the relationship observed in cross-sectional studies can also be obtained from a longitudinal design. I collected data about the population and government employees of the American states from 1952 to 1990 and analyzed them by trend and time-series analyses. Findings show that the size of government grows at a faster rate than the increasing population of the states. These findings indicate that the different result is not simply a matter of how to define concepts (e.g., the administrative component in the states), but of how to model the basic process underlying the relationship between population and government structure. They also suggest that coordination and complexity hypothesis may be more promising at the societal level. Furthermore, I discuss the assumed isomorphism between organizations and social systems (e.g., states).
Administrative Practice and the Waning Promise of Professionalism for Public Administration
Authors: Jos Philip H. , Tompkins Mark E.
Published: March 2007

For two decades public administration has considered a series of evolving conceptions of professionalism, designed to address some of the field's central concerns. The authors evaluate professionalism's ability to provide practitioners a sense of unity and purpose, to promote virtuous and competent administrative practice, to defend public administration's legitimate institutional role in governance, and to enhance the standing of the field in the eyes of the public and its representatives. They conclude that the professional ideal, even a revised professionalism that avoids explicit claims to autonomous practice, is one that the field should relinquish.
Representative Bureaucracy
Authors: Selden Sally Coleman
Published: March 2007

Despite the extensive literature on representative bureaucracy, only a few studies have examined empirically whether bureaucracies with different levels of representativeness produce different policy outputs. This study adds to the growing body of empirical research by focusing on active representation of various groups of federal civil servants (African Americans, Hispanics, Asian Americans, and Native Americans) in district offices of the Farmers Home Administration (FmHA). The analysis shows significant relationships between African American, Hispanic, and Asian American representation and the share of program resources allocated to those groups. The positive findings for African Americans, Hispanics, and Asian Americans suggest that these groups obtain larger allocations of resources as their representation increases, supporting the underlying assumptions of representative bureaucracy. The relationship between passive and active representation, however, is not statistically significant for Native Americans.
Schumpeter—Fifty Years Later
Authors: Dixon Donald F.
Published: March 2007

This retrospective review of Schumpeter’s work focuses on the progress of capitalism. Marketers and other entrepreneurs introduce innovations that create economic expansions. Despite the inevitable recessions, these expansions result in successively higher levels of economic activity. However, the economic success of capitalism undermines the entrepreneur’s role and leads to the political failure of capitalism. The implications of Schumpeter’s theory of economic development for marketing theory have been neglected.
Macroeconomic Shock and Product Disposition in an Emerging Market
Authors: Green Robert T. , Mandhachitara Rujirutana , Smith Tasman
Published: March 2007

Emerging markets are often viewed as the source of greatest business expansion in coming years. Yet, their economies tend to be more volatile, and the associated economic crises are deeper and more prolonged than is the case in advanced economies. This study examines consumer disposition processes in Thailand at the time of that nation’s economic crisis. Disposition has not been studied either in an emerging market context or in the context of consumers faced with crises derived from macroeconomic forces. The study examines sellers’ motives and behavior at a retail institution that arose spontaneously out of the Thai economic crisis: the car boot sale (CBS). This institution and its variants are well known in the United States and United Kingdom but had not existed as acceptable upper-middle and upper-class retail formats in Thailand prior to the crisis. The study also examines the Thai CBS phenomenon in cultural terms.
The Importance of the Equity Concept in the Allocation of Public Services
Authors: Crompton John L. , Lamb Charles W.
Published: March 2007

The public service delivery process is largely shaped by two related sets of decisions. Allocation decisions determine who gets what; distribution decisions dictate when, where, and how services will be delivered. These decisions are substantially influenced by the concept or standard of equity employed by decision-makers. This article explores alternative concepts of equity and their implications regarding the allocation and marketing of public services.
An Assessment of the International Conference on Marketing and Development
Authors: Kumcu Erdogan , Firat A. Fuat
Published: March 2007

The Journal of Macromarketing was one of the academic sponsors of the first comprehensive international conference on marketing and development. This successful conference, which was hosted and locally sponsored by Istanbul University in Istanbul, September 1-4, 1986, brought together about 130 participants from 15 countries and various backgrounds: academicians, government representatives, international agency officials, and practitioners. Another conference is scheduled in two years and plans were also made for the formation of an association.
Promoting the Bank Savings Habit in Ghana: A Success in Marketing Technology Transfer
Authors: Dadzie Kofi Q. , Akaah Ishmael P. , Dunson Bruce H.
Published: March 2007

Given the importance of savings in the economic development effort of Third World countries, many have attempted its mobilization by extending [ILLEGIBLE] services to rural customers, who comprise the bulk of economic activities. These efforts have met with minimal success, however, in part because of the characteristics of rural (consumers and the reliance on financial rewards as the primary savings inducement. This article." discuses, in the context of Ghana's savings mobilization program, the extent to which [ILLEGIBLE] on marketing know-how can enhance the success of bank-based savings mobilization programs in Third World contexts. The results indicate that marketing know-how can help achieve [ILLEGIBLE] World social objective such as rural savings mobilization.
The Ethics of Virtue: A Moral Theory for Marketing
Authors: Williams Oliver F. , Murphy Patrick E.
Published: March 2007

The moral theory of virtue ethics holds much promise for guiding the behavior of marketers. Although the origins of this theory can be traced back to Aristotle, it has not received as much emphasis as the teleological and deontological theories within marketing. In the ethics of virtue, traits such as compassion, fairness, loyalty, and openness shape a person's and an organization's vision. Several marketing situations confronted by Johnson & Johnson are used to illustrate the theory of virtue.
An International Comparison of Environmental Advertising: Substantive versus Associative Claims
Authors: Carlson Les , Grove Stephen J. , Kangun Norman , Polonsky Michael J.
Published: March 2007

Concern about the environment has grown in recent decades, particularly in industrialized countries. This study examines whether environmental advertising claims differ across four countries: the United States, Great Britain, Australia, and Canada. Results suggest that the United States' ad claims are less concrete, as compared to those from the other countries.
A Thermal Sensor Array to Provide Tactile Feedback for Robots
Authors: Russell R. Andrew
Published: March 2007

This paper describes a new type of tactile sensor array de signed to provide sensory feedback for a robot manipulator system. It is modeled on the thermal touch sense, which enables humans to distinguish between different materials based on how "cold" or "warm" they feel. The essential parts of the sensor are a heat source and a thin layer of sili cone rubber with a 2 X 10 array of miniature thermistors embedded in its surface. Some results are presented that demonstrate the ability of thermal sensors to produce images of touched objects and to discriminate the different materials used in their construction.
Experimental Evaluation of Nonlinear Feedback and Feedforward Control Schemes for Manipulators
Authors: Khosla Pradeep K. , Kanade Takeo
Published: March 2007

The manipulator trajectory tracking control problem revolves around computing the torques to be applied to achieve accu rate tracking. This problem has been extensively studied in simulations, but real-time results have been lacking in the robotics literature. In this paper, we present the experimental results of the real-time performance of model-based control algorithms. We compare the computed-torque control scheme with the feedforward dynamics compensation scheme. The feedforward scheme compensates for the manipulator dy namics in the feedforward path, whereas the computed-torque scheme uses the dynamics in the feedback loop for lineariza tion and decoupling. The parameters in the dynamics model for the computed-torque and feedforward schemes were esti mated by using an identification algorithm. Our experiments underscore the importance of including the off-diagonal terms of the manipulator inertia matrix in the torque compu tation. This observation is further supported by our analysis of the dynamics equations. The manipulator control schemes have been implemented on the CMU DD arm II with a sam pling period of 2 ms.
Winding Number Analysis of Invertible Workspaces for Redundant Manipulators
Authors: Wampler Charles W.
Published: March 2007

Conventional controllers for nonredundant manipulators include an algorithm for computing a kinematic inverse func tion, which gives joint coordinates corresponding to a desired position and orientation of the end-effector. In a generaliza tion of this approach to redundant manipulators, the non- uniqueness of the inverse function can be used to move or eliminate kinematical singularities. However, it appears that for almost all manipulators, there is no inverse function that is free of singularities on the whole reachable workspace. This paper illustrates how a simple idea from topology, called a winding number, can be used to discover restrictions on invertible workspaces. A short tutorial introducing the engi neer to the relevant aspects of winding numbers is included, and results for four planar manipulators are worked out in detail.
Stochastic Optimal Control of Moving Vehicles in a Dynamic Environment
Authors: Papageorgiou Markos , Bauschert Thomas
Published: March 2007

This article develops a fairly general framework for derivation of control strategies applying to moving objects, such as mobile robots or robot arms, in a dynamically changing environment. The basic idea is to consider stochastic terms for any uncertain future environment change and to apply stochastic dynamic programming for control strategy development. The method permits consideration of a number of possible missions such as collision avoidance or collision hitting and/or moving forward or following a trajectory. A number of examples demonstrate that the control strategies developed are capable of making efficient, human intelligence—like decisions in quite complicated conflict situations.
Feedback Linearized Joint Torque Control of a Geared, DC Motor Driven Industrial Robot
Authors: Baines Phillip J. , Mills James K.
Published: March 2007

Implementation of advanced model based robot control algorithms necessitates that joint actuators be capable of generating com manded joint torques. This capability permits compensation of gravity torques, for example. Relatively recent work reported in the robotics literature has focused on development of load torque sensing and control of robots actuated with permanent magnet DC motors and harmonic drive gear reducers. This development in troduces the possibility of the retrofit of a large class of small- to midsized industrial robots with advanced model based controllers, which require that the commanded torque signal be reproduced at each robot joint. In this paper, the authors establish theoretically that the direct application of computed torque control to a geared, DC permanent magnet actuated robot with local joint load torque controllers does not lead to decoupled dynamics, as is the case with direct drive robots. The resultant dynamics are not decoupled due to the interaction of the computed torque control with the inner joint torque control loops. To achieve decoupled system behavior, a modified computed torque control law is developed that leads to decoupled system dynamics. Experimental results are presented that compare the modified computed torque control with the stan dard computed torque control. The experiments are conducted on a commercial 6-DOF robot that has been retrofitted with joint torque control on the first three joints. Tests have been conducted at a con trol update rate of 1000 Hz. The experimental results illustrate that the modified computed torque controller performance is somewhat better than the conventional computed torque control approach.
Enumerating the Non-Isomorphic Assembly Configurations of Modular Robotic Systems
Authors: Chen I.-Ming , Burdick Joel W.
Published: March 2007

A modular robotic system consists of standardized joint and link units that can be assembled into a number of different kinematic configu rations to meet various task requirements. Owing to typical symme tries in module design, different assembly configurations may lead to robotic structures that are geometrically identical, or isomorphic. This paper focuses on the problem of enumerating the set ofkinemat ically distinct modular robot assembly configurations from a given set of modules. We first consider how to enumerate the nonisomor phic (or geometrically unique) assembly configurations of a modular robotic system. Our scheme is based on a novel representation of a modular robot assembly configuration as an assembly incidence matrix (AIM). Equivalence relations based on symmetries in mod ule geometry and graph isomorphisms are defined on the AIMs. An enumeration algorithm to generate nonisomorphic assembly config urations based on this equivalence relation is proposed. We then present an algorithm to identify the kinematically equivalent robots. The application of these two algorithms will result in the set of kine matically unique assembly configurations. Examples demonstrate that this method is a significant improvement over a brute-force enu meration process.
The Octahedral Manipulator: Geometry and Mobility
Authors: Hunt K.H. , McAree P.R.
Published: March 2007

In most of the practical six-actuator, in-parallel manipulators, the octahedral form is either taken as it stands or is approximated. Yet considerable theoretical attention is paid in the literature to more general forms.

Here we touch on the general form, and describe some aspects of its behavior that vitiate strongly against its adoption as a pattern for a realistic manipulator. We reach the conclusion that the structure for in-parallel manipulators must be triangulated as fully as possible, so leading to the octahedral form.

In describing some of the geometrical properties of the general octahedron, we show how they apply to manipulators. We examine in detail the special configurations at which the 6 x 6 matrix of leg lines is singular, presenting results from the point of view of geometry in preference to analysis. In extending and enlarging on some known properties, a few behavioral surprises materialize.

In studying special configurations, we start with the most general situation, and every other case derives from this. Our coverage is more comprehensive than any that we have found.

We bring to light material that is, we think, of significant use to a designer.
A Complete Algorithm for Fixture Loading
Authors: Yu Kyeonah , Goldberg Ken Y.
Published: March 2007

A fixture is a device for locating and holding parts. Since the initial position and orientation of a part may be uncertain, the act of loading the part into the fixture must compensate for this uncertainty. Machinists often refer to the 3-2-1 rule: place the part onto 3-point contact with a horizontal support plane, slide the part along this plane into 2-point contact with the fixture, then translate along this edge until a 1-point contact uniquely locates the part. Finally, apply clamps (Mani and Wilson 1988; Chou, Chandru, and Barash 1989). This rule of thumb implicitly assumes both sensing and compliance: applied forces change as contacts are detected.

In this paper, we geometrically formalize robotic fixture loading as a sensor-based compliant assembly problem and give a complete planning algorithm. We consider the class of modular fixtures that use three locators and one clamp (Brost and Goldberg 1996), and discuss a class of robot commands that cause the part to slide and rotate in the support plane. Sensing is achieved with binary contact sensors on each lo cator ; compliance is achieved with a passive spring-loaded mechanism at the robot end effector. We extend the theory of sensor-based compliant motion planning (Lozano-Perez, Ma son, and Taylor 1984; Erdmann 1986) to generalized polyg onal C-spaces, and give a complete planning algorithm: it is guaranteed to find a loading plan when one exists and to return a negative report otherwise. We report on experiments using the resulting plans. Finally, we use this formalization to prove a sufficient condition for the 3-2-1 rule.
Estimation of Angular Velocity and Acceleration from Shaft-Encoder Measurements
Authors: Belanger P.R. , Dobrovolny P. , Helmy A. , Zhang X.
Published: March 2007

This paper suggests a Kalman-filter approach to the estimation of angular velocity and acceleration from (quantized) shaft-encoder measurements. Finite-difference estimates deteriorate as sampling rates are increased. For small sampling periods, we show that the filtering problem is the dual of the cheap control problem, and we jus tify the use of all-integrator models. We investigate Kalman filtering with constant sampling rate, and also with measurements triggered by encoder pulses. Simulation and experimental results are given.
Emotional Expression in Drumming Performance
Authors: Laukka Petri , Gabrielsson Alf
Published: March 2007

Two professional drummers were instructed to play three rhythm patterns on a set of electronic drums so as to communicate specific emotions (happy, sad, angry, fearful, tender, solemn, and no expression) to listeners. Listening tests confirmed that listeners on the whole perceived the intended expressions. Analyses of the acoustic variables available to the performers (i.e. tempo, dynamics, and timing) showed characteristic patterns of cue utilisation for each intended emotion. The results are discussed in relation to earlier research on communication of emotions in music performance and non-verbal vocal expression.
When Your Ear Sets the Stage: Musical Context Effects in Film Perception
Authors: Vitouch Oliver
Published: March 2007

Psychological experiments dealing with the music-dependent perception of film sequences often use reductionist approaches (stereotyped stimuli) and rely on subjects' direct (overt) ratings of the material (e.g., using semantic differentials). For this study, a more ecologically valid covert design was constructed to investigate experimentally musical context effects on perceivers' plot-related expectations. Forty-eight participants were presented with one of two music versions (original v. fake score) of the visually identical film sequence. They then wrote brief continuations of the plot, which were subsequently analysed using quantitative and qualitative content analysis, with the focus on emotional content. Results show that viewers'/listeners' anticipations about the further development of a sequence are systematically influenced by the underlying film music, which implicitly co-determines the psychological reality of the scene.
Are There Early Childhood Signs of Musical Ability?
Authors: Howe Michael J. A. , Davidson Jane W. , Moore Derek G. , Sloboda John A.
Published: March 2007

The parents of 257 children who had all studied a musical instrument but who differed in the extent of their mastery were interviewed in order to investigate the claim that unusual musical expertise is often preceded by early signs in the form of spontaneous musical behaviours. Of the possible early signs that were investigated, only one, singing by the child, was observed at an earlier age in those children who later became the most accomplished young musicians than in the other children. With the other four early signs examined in this study, the age at which the behaviours first occurred did not differ between the most and least competent musicians. The age at which parent and child first listened to music together tended to be lower for the most successful children, and these were more likely than the others to have had a keyboard instrument in their home from an early age.
Analytic and Holistic Modes in the Development of Melody Perception
Authors: Schwarzer Gudrun
Published: March 2007

The present studies investigated whether there is a developmental trend from holistic to analytic modes of processing in the perception of melodies. Children (5-to 10-year-olds) and adults were instructed to classify short melodies which varied systematically in four attributes. The subjects could learn the appropriate category assignments either analytically (by focusing on a single attribute) or holistically (by comparing melodies in terms of their overall similarity). The data show that even the youngest children learned the melodic categories more often analytically than holistically. Nevertheless, there was an age effect concerning the attributes that the analytic learners used for their categorisation. Whereas all children preferred attributes that were not melody-specific, especially loudness, adults concentrated on melody-specific attributes, especially melodic contour.
Key Implications of Ascending Fourth and Descending Fifth Openings
Authors: Vos Piet G.
Published: March 2007

Substantial evidence is reported in support of the rule that, if a Western tonal composition opens melodically with an ascending fourth or a descending fifth ("4/5 opening"), then the second tone is the tonic of the composition's key, and the first tone its dominant. The evidence is taken from unaccompanied melodic openings of compositions by Bach, Mozart, Brahms, and of national anthems, hymns, and folksongs. The implementation of the hitherto unrecognised rule in a computational key-finding model (Vos and Van Geenen, 1996) appeared to improve the validity of the model. 4/5 openings were additionally explored in relation to their concomitant metrical structures. 4/5 openings corresponded to upbeat/downbeat progressions in 99% of surveyed German folksongs, but only 23% of hymns. The findings are discussed with an emphasis on the need for more historical, music-theoretical, and perceptual research of musical openings.
Certainty and Uncertainty Sciences
Authors: Smyth Mary M.
Published: March 2007

Introductory textbooks in biology, physiology and statistics present material to the student without origins or qualifications. That is, they present autonomous facts, creating the reality of science. Psychology textbooks do not do this when they present psychology. Instead, they give evidence and they qualify and hedge the claims made. Psychology texts write autonomous facts of biology and statistics, just as biology and statistics texts do, but move away from autonomous fact-writing when material is recognized as psychological. The boundaries between disciplines are created in the modalities of the statements in the textbooks. The `fact' status of material on the activities of neurons in colour vision and feature detectors changes when this material is written as physiology in physiology textbooks and when it is written as psychology in psychology textbooks. Statistics, biology and physiology are presented as `certainty sciences' both in the home discipline textbooks and in psychology textbooks, but acceptance of material as psychological leads to the presentation of uncertainty. `Certainty writing' in psychology is not simply a reflection of a users' `certainty trough', but of textbook writing practices within the certainty sciences themselves. The failure of psychology textbooks to present autonomous facts of psychology is not an indication that no well fabricated knowledge exists in psychology, but rather that psychology habits of textbook writing involve both relevance and evidence. Maintaining relevance to everyday experience but distinguishing the claims of science from the claims of the everyday produces a form of textbook writing which does not present certainty, but which presents evidence instead.
Proverbial Economies
Authors: Shapin Steven
Published: March 2007

An evaluative contrast between learned expertise and lay knowledge is a pervasive and longstanding feature of modern culture. Occasionally, the learned have pointed to folkish proverbs to illustrate the inadequacies of common-sense reasoning and judgement. Proverbs are said perspicuously to display the superficiality, the imprecision, and even the logical contradictions of common-sense thinking. I offer an interpretation of proverbs in their naturally occurring settings as epistemically powerful, mnemonically robust, practically pertinent, and referentially flexible. My purpose is not just to recuperate the value of proverbial reasoning but, ultimately, to show the relevance of such reasoning to a revised appreciation of modern technical practices, including science, technology and medicine. To that end, the paper concludes with some speculative remarks about the linguistic forms in which the heuristics of present-day technical practices are expressed and transmitted.
Randomized Controlled Crime
Authors: Adams Vincanne
Published: March 2007

The ambiguous terrain of ‘fact-making’ in biomedical clinical research is explored by way of an investigation of the criminalization of Tibetan medicine and Tibetan medical practitioners who participate in the global pharmaceutical pursuit of new medical products. Transcultural encounters between biomedical research interests and Tibetan medical practitioners suggest the production of awkward alliances between the state, markets, and measures of medical efficacy on an uneven global playing field. Moving beyond the possibility that a postcolonial science will be inherently hybrid, this paper seeks to uncover the inequalities of such hybrid-making encounters. When ‘medical facts’ must be derived from ‘magical beliefs’ in the centres of biomedical science, the state often intervenes to criminalize practitioners of alternative medicine. But, when profits are to be made on the fact that ‘the magical’ sells in alternative medicine, the state also makes it possible to shift ownership of medical knowledge, sometimes by way of the randomized controlled trial and the pursuit of active ingredients. The possibility of relocating the label of ‘crime’ is explored in this paper by way of an inquiry into processes that enable this shift in ownership, and a relocation of what constitutes medical ‘fact’ versus‘belief’.
Security, Disease, Commerce
Authors: King Nicholas B.
Published: March 2007

Public health in the United States and Western Europe has long been allied with national security and international commerce. During the 1990s, American virologists and public health experts capitalized on this historical association, arguing that ‘emerging diseases’ presented a threat to American political and economic interests. This paper investigates these arguments, which I call the ‘emerging diseases worldview’, and compares it to colonial-era ideologies of medicine and public health. Three points of comparison are emphasized: the mapping of space and relative importance of territoriality; the increasing emphasis on information and commodity exchange networks; and the transition from metaphors of conversion and a ‘civilizing mission’, to integration and international development. Although colonial and postcolonial ideologies of global health remain deeply intertwined, significant differences are becoming apparent.
The Half-Life of Empire in Outer Space
Authors: Redfield Peter
Published: March 2007

This paper addresses an intersection between postcolonial studies and science studies, examining the greater colonial context of space exploration. In response to Chakrabarty’s call to ‘provincialize Europe’, I ask what it might mean to ‘provincialize’ outer space, considering locality relative to extra-planetary distance, and the asymmetries of history next to the symmetrical methodology advocated by Latour. By way of a brief reading of fictional texts that played an important role in the technical imagination leading up to spaceflight, I sketch the colonizing impulse that underwrote space exploration through and beyond the age of empire. I then turn to the French/European launch site at Kourou, French Guiana, where a sparsely populated former colony became a preferred launching ground for communication satellites into equatorial orbits. Here the representation of outer space as a final frontier crosses the remains of older colonial projects, uneasily confronting the landscape of their human legacy. In opposition to the space centre’s focus on adventure, political focus within French Guiana stresses development and strives to confront the space project with the local legacy of colonial failure. A conflict over the closing of a stretch of road provides a situated moment to illustrate these contrasting understandings of the place of outer space. In this conflict, I suggest, the very length and orientation of the space centre’s network affect the locality of its representation, revealing after-effects of earlier formations of geography and history. Thus, in resituating outer space against the ground, it remains important to distinguish between local knowledges and techniques that are more or less expansive, and keep in sight the different spatial and temporal frames within which ‘the local’ takes shape.
Collaboration and the Quality of Research
Authors: Presser Stanley
Published: March 2007

Does collaboration improve the quality of scientific research? Editorial decision on papers submitted to a leading social psychology journal was cross-classified by number of authors. A small relationship in the predicted direction was obtained and it persisted in the face of two relevant controls.
Drifting Continents and Colliding Interests: a Quantitative Application of the Interests Perspective
Authors: Stewart John A.
Published: March 2007

A quantitative analysis of geoscientists' published opinions on continental drift theory between 1907 and 1950 indicates that the more prominent scientists resisted this revolutionary theory. Was this resistance based on the greater knowledge of these productive geoscientists, or were they protecting their reputations? The latter interpretation gains plausibility because the current acceptance of plate tectonics implies that the previous evidence given for drift should have established it as a plausible theory. The analyses and discussion in this paper illustrate (a) how quantitative evidence can be related to the `interests' perspective; (b) the importance of assumptions in distinguishing `social' and `scientific' interests; and (c) some of the elements in the `strong programme' in the sociology of scientific knowledge.
Laboratory Studies: A Comment on the State of the Art
Authors: Woolgar Steve
Published: March 2007

Current work in `laboratory studies' promises to contribute a detailed understanding of scientific practice to the social study of science. However, much depends on the extent to which we take as unproblematic the idea of studying science `as it happens'. A distinction is developed between instrumental and reflexive conceptions of the ethnography of scientific practice. The former is characterized by the use of observer experiences for preconceived theoretical purposes and by the evasion of major difficulties in the production of sociological description. Reflexive ethnography retains the ability to produce `news' about scientific work, but also opens up new ways of addressing fundamental questions about reasoning practices in general. Sources of antipathy to reflexive ethnography are outlined, notably that stemming from the selective application of epistemological relativism implicit in recent calls for a revision of epistemological attitudes to science.
Mathematics and Meritocracy: The Emergence of the Cambridge Mathematical Tripos
Authors: Gascoigne John
Published: March 2007

The object of this paper is to examine possible reasons for the emergence of the Cambridge Mathematical Tripos, an institution which was to serve as a model for the introduction of competitive examinations throughout nineteenth-century Britain. After tracing the evolution of the Tripos, the links between this examination and the changing pattern of teaching within the University are investigated and the possible influence of the threatened parliamentary visitation of 1749 on the formation of the Tripos is also discussed. The degree to which the early Tripos served meritocratic ideals is investigated through an analysis of the pattern of appointment to fellowships and college livings. Lastly, the reasons why mathematics loomed so large in Cambridge's early examination system are explored and the situation there contrasted with that at Oxford where logic, rather than mathematics, remained pre-eminent.
Science, Society and Politics in Late Nineteenth-Century England: A Further Look at Mechanics' Institutes
Authors: Laurent John
Published: March 2007

The need to complement studies of Mechanics' Institutes which are limited to the first half of the nineteenth century with studies of a later period is suggested by showing that Institutes in the north of England, where they were most influential among working-class people, were still very active in the last decades of the century. An analysis of data concerning enrolments in Science and Art classes in Yorkshire Mechanics' Institutes follows, which indicates that working-class people attending these classes were often preferring non-vocational subjects such as geology and physiology. It is also shown that, in a number of cases, Institute libraries contained a preponderance of books on these and related subjects. A study is then made of some Institutes' connections with the late nineteenth-century Labour movement, and evidence is given for links between working-class intellectual activity associated with the Institutes, and the development and spread of socialist ideas based on evolutionary theory.
Basic Research in the East and West: A Comparison of the Scientific Performance of High-Energy Physics Accelerators
Authors: Irvine John , Martin Ben R.
Published: March 2007

This paper presents the results of a study comparing the past scientific performance of high-energy physics accelerators in the Eastern bloc with that of their main Western counterparts. Output-evaluation indicators are used. After carefully examining the extent to which the output indicators used may be biased against science in the Eastern bloc, various conclusions are drawn about the relative contributions to science made by these accelerators. Where significant differences in performance are apparent, an attempt is made to identify the main factors responsible.
The Effects of Funding Changes upon the Rate of Knowledge Growth in Algebraic and Differential Topology, 1955-75
Authors: Cohn Steven F.
Published: March 2007

This paper reports the initial results of a study of the effects of funding variations upon the rate of knowledge growth in algebraic and differential topology. It is part of an exploratory effort to determine an appropriate methodology for the study of funding changes. The study is based on a marginal productivity model of funding of effects. The rate of scientific knowledge growth is defined as the rate at which important problems are located and solved. It is measured as the rate of production of important papers, as judged by a panel of scientists. The model indicates that under certain conditions funding variations should have little or no effect upon the rate of knowledge growth. The results of the study are consistent with the predictions in the model, although all conditions could not be tested and methodological uncertainties remain.
Bog Standards: Science and Conservation at a Public Inquiry
Authors: Yearley Steven
Published: March 2007

This paper examines a public inquiry into the proposed draining and exploitation of a peat bog, held to be of great significance by conservationists. Inquiries seem to offer a `naturally-occurring' instance of the public understanding of science. Of course, the conventions and procedures of legal examination dictate that scientific arguments may be treated differently in court from the way they are normally handled by the public. Still, the purpose of the inquiry is to allow lay persons to pass judgements. The paper examines the argumentational strategy of the scientists supporting the conservationists' case, and of the Queen's Counsel representing the developer. In particular, the QC is seen to use a rigid model of scientific rigour to criticize the ad hoc and sometimes tacit procedures of the scientists; although it is by no means clear that such ad hoc ery could be eliminated, he is able to suggest that their reasoning may actually be tendentious. The paper concludes by contrasting the debate in an inquiry with scientific controversies conducted in other contexts.
The Gemini Paraglider: A Failure of Scheduled Innovation, 1961-64
Authors: Hacker Barton C.
Published: March 2007

The paraglider was conceived during the 1950s as a lightweight hybrid of parachute and inflated wing that might allow astronauts to pilot spacecraft to airfield landings. From 1961 to 1964, the US National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) sought to convert the idea into a practical landing system for the Gemini spacecraft. The spacecraft would carry the paraglider safely tucked away through most of a mission. Only after re-entering the atmosphere from orbit would the crew deploy the wing. Having now converted their spacecraft into a makeshift glider, they could fly to an airfield landing. How and why this ingenious scheme failed is the subject of this paper.
Geological Travel and Theoretical Innovation: The Role of `Liminal' Experience
Authors: Rudwick Martin
Published: March 2007

Geology is a science in which fieldwork is a central element of practice, not least because so many important geological features are not mobile. At least in the past, geological expeditions involved a double movement from the familiar to the unfamiliar and back again — not only in terms of features seen and studied, but also in terms of separation from and reintegration into the `home' scientific community. The dynamics of this process are here compared with van Gennep's classic concept of `liminality', and with Victor Turner's application of that concept to the process of pilgrimage. Theoretical innovation in a field science such as geology may require, or at least be facilitated by, a pilgrimage-like process in which scientists are exposed to unfamiliar perceptual and personal inputs while temporarily insulated from their familiar scientific environment.
Idealism and the Sociology of Knowledge
Authors: Bloor David
Published: March 2007

The sociology of scientific knowledge is an empirical discipline, but occasionally it can be fruitful to reflect on its methodological basis. Critics have sometimes claimed that it is committed to a form of `idealism' — that is, to discounting or playing down the input of the material world. This arises because sociologists often sum up their conclusions by saying that `knowledge is a social institution', or that `concepts are institutions'. If we think of social institutions according to the self-referential or performative model outlined by Barry Barnes, this may at first seem to reinforce and justify the charge of idealism. The main argument of this Comment is to show that while an `idealist' account of institutions is correct, the conclusion alleged by the critics does not follow. A secondary purpose is to compare Barnes' account of institutions with recent work by John Searle, and to show the significance of their different underlying assumptions about the nature of meaning.
Standardization in Action: Achieving Local Universality through Medical Protocols
Authors: Timmermans Stefan , Berg Marc
Published: March 2007

In this paper, we argue that universality is always `local universality'. The achievement of local universality depends on how standards manage the tension involved in transforming work practices, while simultaneously being grounded in those practices. We investigate how this is done in two case studies — an oncology protocol and the Cardio Pulmonary Resuscitation (CPR) protocol. These protocols are viewed as technoscientific scripts which crystallize multiple trajectories. In the process of obtaining local universality, we illustrate how protocols feed off previous standards and practices. We then indicate how the protocols function through the distributed work of a multitude of heterogeneous actors. Finally, we argue that, in this process, the protocols themselves are necessarily changed and partially reappropriated.
Re-examining Price's Conjectures on the Structure of Reference Networks: Results from the Special Relativity, Spatial Diffusion Modeling and Role Analysis Literatures
Authors: Baldi Stéphane , Hargens Lowell L.
Published: March 2007

In his influential article `Networks of Scientific Papers', Derek Price used data on the N-rays reference network to exemplify his argument that natural science research literatures overcite recently published papers. In subsequent work, he further argued that this tendency is weaker in social science literatures, and may be entirely absent in scholarly literatures in the humanities. We report results from a replication of Price's N-rays analysis and data for three additional reference networks: special relativity theory, spatial diffusion modeling and role algebra analysis. Our analyses indicate that the N-rays reference network provides little support for Price's conjectures, but that those for the other three areas are generally consistent with them. We find, however, that the two social science literatures exhibit structures more closely resembling the pattern that Price claimed to be characteristic of the humanities, and suggest that the variety of structures that reference networks exhibit may be greater than Price anticipated.
The Organizational Accountability of Technological Work
Authors: Button Graham , Sharrock Wes
Published: March 2007

We address a problem examined by sociologists of `Big Science': the co-ordination of individuals on large-scale projects - in this case, industrial technology projects. We consider co-ordination to be a problem of social order which can be addressed through ethnomethodology's understanding of accountable action. We propose that the technology producers studied attend to the problem of the co-ordination of their work in the design of their actions and interactions as organizationally accountable. We subsequently examine the methodical practices through which they interrelate their actions within an organizational context, and thus organize the co-ordination of their technological work and the production of their technology outcomes.
Early Social Assistance for Juveniles at Risk
Authors: Scholte Evert M. , Smit Monika
Published: March 2007

In the early 1980's, preventive social welfare intervention programmes for juveniles 'at psycho-social risk' were developed in the Netherlands. This article presents the evaluation of one of these programs-the Prejop prevention experiment in the Hague. Relevant aspects of the method of assistance used in this programme are: early detection of juveniles 'at risk' by detectives of the juvenile police in close collaboration with social workers of the prevention programme, start of social assistance directly after the police contact, quick referral to a branch of the mental health system most capable of handling the problems at hand.

For Dutch juveniles the programme reduced family malfunctioning, delinquent behavior and the amount of returns to police notice. For juveniles from ethnic minorities the programme was less beneficial.

It is concluded that early social welfare intervention is a promising perspective in the area of delinquency prevention.
The Police and the Emotionally Disturbed: A Psychoanalytic Theory of Intervention
Authors: Arcaya Jose M.
Published: March 2007

Psychoanalytic theory is applied to police crisis situations involving the mentally disturbed. After noting shortcomings of the traditional, commonsensical ways of dealing with such individuals, a discussion of thestrengths of a psychoanalytic method ispresented. It is argued thatpolice officers can achieve greater control in a psychiatric disturbance situation if they conceive of and treat the person more like a system offorces than a set ofpersonality characteristics. Concrete examples are discussed illustrating the method advocated.