bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Monitor-Position in Laparoscopic Surgery
Authors: Matern U. , Kehl K. , Giebmeyer C. , Faist M.
Published: January 2012

One of the key problems in laparoscopy is the correct positioning of the monitor. In this study we tested task performance and muscle-strain of subjects in relation to monitor-position during laparoscopic surgery. 18 subjects simulated laparoscopic suturing. This was repeated in three monitor positions (15 minutes each) frontal at eye level (A), frontal in height of the operating field (B) and 45° to the right side at eye level (C). No head movements were allowed during a single session. In a fourth measurement the subjects were allowed to move the head and to look at any monitor. After the test they were asked for their preferred monitor position. During all tests the electromyographic (EMG) activity of six main neck muscles was recorded and the number of pearls was counted. The EMG activity was significantly (p<0.05) lower for position A compared to position B or C. No significant difference was found between the positions B and C. The number of threaded pearls as an indicator for task performance was highest for position B. The difference was statistically significant compared to position C but not between positions A and C or A and B. Asked for the preferred monitor position 9 subjects chose two monitors in the frontal positions A and B. No subject preferred the monitor at the side (C). Regarding EMG data the monitor positioned frontal at eye level is preferable. Reflecting personal preferences of subjects and task performance it should be of advantage to place two monitors for the surgeon: one in position A for lowest neck strain, and the other one in position B for difficult tasks with optimal task performance. The monitor position at the side is not advisable.
The Effects of Ergonomic Desk with Regard to Motor Accuracy in the Writing Performance of the Students with Cerebral Palsy
Authors: Shen I-hsuan , Kang Sue-may , Wu Ching-yi
Published: January 2012

This study was conducted to examine the effects of ergonomic desk design for improving motor accuracy in the writing performance of cerebral palsy students. Thirty-two cerebral palsy students were tested in four workstations. Work surface design involved a regular work surface and a cut-out work surface, and desk angle design included a horizontal desk top and a 20° inclined desktop. The height of the desk and chair were adjustable. We compared the writing performance of each subject by administering the Motor Accuracy Test. The writing performance was obtained by accuracy score and adjusted score. Results showed that accuracy score didn't reach the significant level (p=0.0593); however, adjusted score was significantly (p<0.05) better at the cutout table than at the regular table. And students with athetoid benefited from the cutout surface significantly. These results indicated that a cutout work surface elicited significantly better tracing performance than a regular work surface did.
Target Acquisition with UAVS: Vigilance Displays and Advanced Cueing Interfaces
Authors: Gunn Daniel V. , Nelson W. Todd , Bolia Robert S. , Warm Joel S. , Schumsky Donald A. , Corcoran Kevin J.
Published: January 2012

Future Uninhabited Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) will require operators to switch quickly and efficiently from supervisory to manual control. Utilizing a vigilance task in which threat detections (critical signals) led observers to perform a subsequent manual target acquisition task, the present investigation revealed that the type of vigilance display might have important design implications for future UAV systems. A sensory display format resulted in more threat detections, fewer false alarms, and faster target acquisition times and imposed a lighter workload than a cognitive display format. Thus, the former may be the best display arrangement for future UAV controllers. Additionally, advanced visual, spatial audio, and haptic cueing interfaces enhanced acquisition performance over no cueing in the target acquisition phase of the task, and did so to a similar degree. This finding suggests that advanced cueing interfaces may also prove useful in future UAV systems and that these interfaces are functionally interchangeable.
Varying Color Intensity to Represent Time Decay in Visual Icons
Authors: McGinty Patrick K. , Worthan Shannon R. , Matthews Michael D.
Published: January 2012

The U.S. Army is developing a number of digital command and control systems that convey complicated information through the use of visual icons. The purpose of the current research was to test a method to identify time lapses in the display of such information. Eighteen U.S. Military Academy cadets enrolled in a general psychology course volunteered to participant in the experiment. Using a between groups design, the participants were assigned to one of three groups. Each group was tested with three, four, or five color intensities of icons and the time and accuracy of responses were recorded. The results indicated that the number of color intensities used to code elapsed time in a visual icon affected identification time, with five color intensities resulting in significantly longer detection times than when three color intensities were used. There was no significant difference among the three groups is accuracy of responses. Implications for the display of time-sensitive information on command and control systems are discussed.
Effects of Symbol Brightness Cueing on Attention during a Visual Search of a Cockpit Display of Traffic Information
Authors: Johnson Walter W.
Published: January 2012

This study investigated visual search performance for target aircraft symbols on a Cockpit Display of Traffic Information (CDTI). Of primary interest was the influence of target brightness (intensity) and highlighting validity (search directions) on the ability to detect a target aircraft among distractor aircraft. Target aircraft were distinguished by an airspace course that conflicted with Ownship (that is, the participant's aircraft). The display could present all (homogenous) bright aircraft, all (homogenous) dim aircraft, or mixed bright and dim aircraft, with the target aircraft being either bright or dim. In the mixed intensity condition, participants may or may not have been instructed whether the target aircraft was bright or dim. Results indicated that highlighting validity facilitated better detection times. However, instead of bright targets being detected faster, dim targets were found to be detected more slowly in the mixed intensity display than in the homogenous display. This relative slowness may be due to a delay in confirming the dim aircraft to be a target when it was among brighter distractor aircraft. This hypothesis will be tested in future research.
Directing Attention in Open Scenes
Authors: Hughes Stephen , Lewis Michael
Published: January 2012

Attention direction is particularly difficult in open scenes such as detailed aerial photographs, wide angle/multiple video feeds, or high-resolution digital imagery. Unlike conventional displays that have single parameters with definable set points, open scenes lack easy criteria for directing attention. The present study investigates the effects of varying levels of highlighting for correctly and incorrectly designated targets. The results suggest that linking the intensity of highlighting to degree of confidence may be an effective display strategy to maximize efforts to draw attention to objects in an open scene.
The Effects of Visual Cues and Interstimulus Interval on Accuracy in Auditory Localization and Detection
Authors: Coyne Joseph T. , Lee Mark D.
Published: January 2012

Auditory localization is an increasingly important topic as the technology for audio displays is becoming more available. However, few studies examine the effects of multiple simultaneous distracters on auditory detection and localization performance. Previous research has found that detection and localization performance significantly drop as the number of distracters increases; however, it is not clear what causes these errors. In the present study, participants either had to localize an auditory stimulus or detect an auditory stimulus among multiple distracters. Similar to previous research the number of errors significantly increased as the number of active speakers increased. Also consistent with previous research, the detection performance was better than the localization performance. The use of visual cues was found to benefit the localization group but did not significantly affect performance in the detection group. The present study also found that a longer interstimulus interval improved accuracy only in the localization group, and then only when visual cues were present. These findings provide insight into the complex nature of the auditory search task.
A Simple Tool for Predicting the Readability of a Monitor
Authors: Krebs William K. , Xing Jing , Ahumada Albert J.
Published: January 2012

Background: Human factor practitioners are sometimes required to provide an immediate answer to an acquisition question, e.g., what is the readability of this monitor? Unfortunately, readability is not listed on the manufacturer's brochure. This study proposes a simple tool to quickly assess the readability of a monitor without the need of conducting a lengthy readability study.

Methods: The text readability of three observers was measured for four colors (red, green, yellow, white), three brightness (.20, .25, .45), at three locations (1.62, 2.38, 3.16 meters) on a 20” color monitor.

Results: The minimum error-free readable font size could be solely determined by the text/background luminance contrast. Thus luminance, not color determined readability. From these results, a MATLAB program was developed that prompts for background and text RGB values and returns the minimal error-free readable font size.

Conclusions: The tool is a fairly robust and quick predictor to assess the readability of a monitor.
A Computational Model of Attention/Situation Awareness
Authors: McCarley Jason S. , Wickens Christopher D. , Goh Juliana , Horrey William J.
Published: January 2012

A computational model of attention and situation awareness (SA) was developed and used to predict pilot errors in the task of taxiing from runway to terminal. The model incorporates a low-level perception/attention module and a higher-level belief-updating module. Attentional scanning is controlled by bottom-up and top-down processes, with the effectiveness of top-down guidance varying as a function of SA. Information sampled by the low-level module is fed forward to the higher-level module for consolidation within a working memory representation of the pilot's situation, with the quality of this representation reflecting the pilot's level of SA. The model was validated by comparing its predictions to the behavior of pilots performing a taxiway simulation. Results indicate that the model successfully predicts the improved performance associated with display augmentations, and provides construct validity regarding the effects of visibility, distraction, and degraded information quality.
The Effects of Event Rate and Array Size on a Cognitive Vigilance Task with Associated EEG Rhythms and a Derived Engagement Index
Authors: Smith Carl , Mikulka Peter , Freeman Fred , Scerbo Mark
Published: January 2012

This study investigated the effects of event rate and stimulus array size during a vigilance task on performance and relative EEG power bandwidths (alpha, beta, theta) and a derived EEG engagement index, EI = (beta/(alpha+ theta)). Forty participants, ages 18 to 40, engaged in a visual search task. Participants were required to distinguish a green “K” from an array of stimuli (yellow-green, green, and blue-green factorially combined with K, X, N, R). Each participant searched for the signal in arrays of 2 or 5 stimuli presented at either 12 or 24 events per minute over forty minutes. The design was a 2×2 factorial with four groups. The results indicated poorer performance, higher false alarm rates in the first 10-minute period, and longer response times associated with the larger array size. There were no performance effects for event rate. The EI decreased over periods. Relative alpha and beta power in the midline sites (PZ, CZ, and FZ) were greater for the higher event rate, but were unrelated to array size. These EEG findings are discussed in the context of earlier vigilance studies using EEG measures.
Demographic Effects of Behavior Modeling in Seat Belt Use: Analysis of 15,000 Observations
Authors: Drury Colin G. , Drake Maria L.
Published: January 2012

Automotive seat belt use is known to be highly effective in saving lives, but is still not universally practiced, with wearing rates around 60% to 70%. A series of studies, observational and experimental has established that behavior modeling occur when vehicles have more than one occupant. More times than would be expected by chance, both occupants show the same wearing behavior. However, the demographics of this modeling effect are not clear from the literature. The current study analyzed a large database, over 15,000 observations collected in Indiana in 2001 where the sample size was large enough to provide statistical significance for even small effects. Overall, a high degree of modeling behavior was observed. Modeling was found to be larger for males and larger for the under 21 age group as drivers. Modeling was also maximized when driver and passenger belonged to the same age or gender group. Comparing drivers with and without passengers, we found that the major effect of modeling was negative, i.e. there was a large difference between drivers wearing seat belt while alone (67%) and in the presence of an unbelted passenger (18%). Implications for public policy aimed at increasing seat belt use are presented.
Voice Information System Adapted to Driver's Mental Workload
Authors: Uchiyama Yuji , Kojima Shin-ichi , Hongo Takero , Terashima Ryuta , Wakita Toshihiro
Published: January 2012

There is a risk that voice messages from in-vehicle information systems may cause a driver to be distracted while driving. To avoid such a risk the message systems need to be adapted to drivers' mental workload. Such adaptive systems deliver voice messages when drivers' mental workload is low and postpone the messages when the driver workload is high. It is important for the system to estimate the current driver workload from car sensors such as car speed, steering wheel angle, accelerator pedal position and so on. In order to find some relations between the driver's mental workload and the data from car sensors, a dual task experiment was conducted on a public road. In the experiment, participants performed a memory task while driving an experimental car. At the same time, the data from the car sensors were recorded. The correlation coefficients between the memory task performance and the data from car sensors showed that release of the accelerator pedal was the most significant indicator of workload. Based on these results a workload estimator was developed, which has been applied to a voice information delivery test system. The potential of a voice information system that adapts to the driver's mental workload was evaluated.
Performance Testing and Subjective Evaluation: Giving Equal Importance to Both
Authors: Quill Laurie L. , Kancler David E. , Revels Allen R. , Donahoo Carlton D. , Gorman Megan E. , Goddard Matthew W.
Published: January 2012

The key to finding real issues with, and benefits of a product or system is to collect and merge findings from both empirical performance testing and subjective evaluation methods. As practitioners, Human Factors professionals are frequently challenged with identifying cost effective solutions that also meet end-user needs for usability. If the system is not usable from the end-user's perspective, performance enhancements cannot be achieved. Likewise, if the system is very usable but does not provide any process improvement, then it is not likely to be purchased. Reconciling and communicating differences in findings between empirical and subjective data is challenging. This paper provides a systematic method for providing value for all product or system users, including individuals with such disparate needs as management and end-users. The paper incorporates recognized usability testing methods for addressing detailed usability concerns, includes a method of systematic testing called the LSF Process, and introduces a means of communicating subjective feedback through cluster graphs.
A New Test of Self-Paced Work Sensitive to the Effects of Prolonged Work and Sleep Deprivation
Authors: Tharion William J. , Montain Scott J. , Leone Cara D. , Castellani John W.
Published: January 2012

This study evaluated a new test of physical persistence, a wall building task. Volunteers (n=14) built as many 10 × 10 walls as possible using brick-size wooden blocks in 25 min on six different days. Four of the six days were without treatment effects to measure test reliability. Assessment was also done twice during a simulated military sustained operation scenario (SUSOPS) at 48 and 72 hours after SUSOPS initiation. Volunteers were kept busy with military tasks 21–22 hours per day when not being tested. There was a 26% decrement ( p≤0.001) in walls built after 48 hrs of SUSOPS, with intraclass reliability of R = 0.84. The wall building test was demonstrated to be reproducible, easily administered, and is sensitive to the effects of prolonged work and sleep deprivation that occur during SUSOPS. This test would be a useful tool to measure potential interventions used to combat the effects of SUSOPS.
Training Critical Thinking to Enhance Battlefield Initiative
Authors: Cohen Marvin S. , Adelman Leonard
Published: January 2012

The knowledge and thinking strategies associated with taking initiative were investigated. Training based on the results proved successful in improving tactical battlefield decision making performance.
The Effects of Head-Coupled Control and a Head-Mounted Display (HMD) on Large-Area Search Tasks
Authors: Draper Mark H. , Ruff Heath A. , Fontejon John V. , Napier Samantha
Published: January 2012

Proprioceptive cues afforded by a head-coupled head-mounted display (HMD) may enable performance advantages over a manual joystick with stationary display for large-area search tasks. A study was conducted to determine the effects of various head-coupled and hand-controlled camera control/display configurations on a 360-degree search task within a teleoperated vehicle environment. Ten volunteers participated in a simulation, remotely controlling a camera's line-of-sight to acquire as many targets as possible within a two-minute period. Six camera control/display configurations were studied including various permutations of camera control (manual joystick or head-coupled; nominal or increased gain) and display (stationary CRT or HMD). Teleoperated vehicle path was also varied (straight line or figure-8 pattern). Performance data revealed that significantly more unique targets and significantly less duplicate targets were designated with the manual joystick/stationary CRT combination than with the head-coupled HMD configurations. Workload ratings, situation awareness ratings, and simulator sickness data generally favored the non-HMD configurations.
Space Suit Design Enhancements to Improve Size Accommodation and Mobility
Authors: Currie Nancy J. , Graziosi David
Published: January 2012

Space suit fit and mobility can significantly affect an astronaut's performance when working in the demanding and extreme environment of space. Construction and habitation of the International Space Station necessitated an increase in the astronaut population resulting in greater variability in the anthropometric profile of crewmembers. The objective of the Small Extravehicular Mobility Unit Development Project was to expand the range of sizing accommodation and improve fit and mobility, specifically for small crewmembers. Modifications to the present suit design were evaluated during pressurized fitchecks in a laboratory environment with representative tools and equipment and in NASA's Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory to simulate the effects of microgravity. This project was successful in designing a space suit to accommodate a new anthropometric range of astronauts who cannot be provided with adequate fit in the existing space suit. Significant elements of this prototype are also promising candidates for future space suit designs.
Effects of NEXRAD Graphical Data Resolution and Direct Weather Viewing on Pilot Judgments of Weather Severity and Willingness to Continue Flight
Authors: Beringer Dennis B. , Ball Jerry D.
Published: January 2012

We conducted a study to determine how variations in displayed NEXRAD weather data resolution interact with the pilot's direct view of weather. Each of 32 pilots was assigned to one of four groups; 8km, 4km, or 2km resolution, and a baseline condition without NEXRAD. Each flew the simulator from Santa Rosa, NM, with the intent to land at Albuquerque. Heavy precipitation moved into the area during the flight, and pilots were required to decide, using both the NEXRAD data and their out-the-window view, whether to continue or to divert to an alternate airport. Pilots spent more time looking at higher-resolution images than at the lower-resolution ones. Baseline- and 2km-condition pilots deferred their decisions longer than did the other two groups. Post-test NEXRAD image judgments reinforced the notion that higher-resolution images are likely to encourage pilots to continue flights with the expectation that they can fly around or between significant weather features.
Effective Interventions in Rare Event Inspection
Authors: Panjwani Gulshan , Drury Colin G.
Published: January 2012

Safe operation and airworthiness of the civil aviation fleet demands reliable inspection, often visual, of structure and components. Inspection involves both spatial and temporal uncertainty. Visual search failure and vigilance decrements are well-documented adverse consequences of spatial and temporal uncertainty. Whereas vigilance studies have typically been conducted over single prolonged session, the task of aircraft component inspection is a multi-session task. It was hypothesized that the vigilance findings from a single prolonged session would be applicable to multi-session tasks. Forty university students were recruited to perform a search task over 10 sessions. The two independent variables were the primary target rate and number of targets types. The probability of primary target detection did not exhibit a signal rate effect, but did show a multiple target effect. The analysis also suggested that the task differed significantly from a traditional vigilance task.
Using Vision Modeling to Define Occupational Vision Standards
Authors: Beard Bettina L. , Frank Talissa A. , Ahumada Albert J.
Published: January 2012

A methodology is introduced to assist in the construction of performance-based occupational vision standards. A simple image discrimination model is first calibrated using stimuli representative of airframe and powerplant cracks. It is then used to predict simulated crack visibility for cracks of different lengths and widths. Visual acuity declines are simulated using a Gaussian blur function on the crack images. Crack width is shown to be a salient cue for crack detection. This modeling technique can generate the data necessary to construct empirically-based occupational vision standards. Future research will validate model predictions with human psychophysical data.
Implementing Speech and Simulated Data Link Commands: The Role of Task Interference and Message Length
Authors: Scerbo Mark W. , Risser Matthew R. , Baldwin Carryl L.
Published: January 2012

The present study investigated the ability of individuals to correctly execute different numbers of commands presented in speech and text format (simulating voice and data link communications). These commands were executed in the presence of different sources of task interference drawing upon visual, verbal, and central executive resources. The results showed that performance decreased as the number of commands in the message set increased from two to four, regardless of presentation format. Visual interference was less disruptive than both verbal and central executive interference. These findings have implications for the design of data link systems and suggest that during periods of high workload, communications should include fewer commands within a message set particularly when there is insufficient time to request clarification.
Air Transport Pilots' Information Priorities for Surface Moving Maps
Authors: Yeh Michelle , Chandra Divya
Published: January 2012

The use of a surface map display for operations on or near the airport surface (taxi out, takeoff, final approach and landing, taxi in) is expected to enhance safety. There is a lack of research, however, detailing how the airport surface should be depicted to air transport pilots during taxi operations. In order to address this question, an information analysis was conducted in which air transport pilots provided self-reported ratings of need for display elements found on current airport diagrams or made available on prototype surface map displays for operations on or near the airport surface. The ratings highlighted the value of presenting runway location and traffic information across all operational phases and showed the changing utility for display elements across different phases of operations. Comparison of the air transport pilot ratings with general aviation pilot ratings showed general agreement as to which display elements were of high value. Differences between the two groups were largely attributable to differences in the nature of operations.
Investigating Display Integration in Candidate Synthetic Vision System Displays
Authors: Stark Julie M.
Published: January 2012

Displays augmented with Synthetic Vision System (SVS) technologies are being examined as a means to reduce the potential for low visibility aviation incidents and accidents. A study was conducted at NASA Langley Research Center to examine how display integration in candidate SVS display layouts affect flight performance and subjective mental workload. Display layout (integrated/ less integrated), display view (SVS/ Traditional), and workload (high/low) were manipulated in a within subjects design resulting in eight possible display configurations. Sixteen commercial pilots flew multiple approaches under simulated IMC conditions in a fixed-base flight simulator. As expected, the more integrated display layout facilitated superior performance on an integrated flight task. Displays augmented with SVS technology produced better flight performance independent of the amount of workload imposed on the pilot. Subjective workload was also affected by display integration such that less workload was reported for the more integrated display. Implications for this research are addressed and future avenues for research along this line are suggested.
Effects of Viewpoint Displacement on Navigational Performance in Virtual Environments
Authors: Wang Wenbi , Milgram Paul
Published: January 2012

Viewpoint tethering, as a way of integrating information from both egocentric and exocentric frames of reference, has been proposed as a means of supporting efficient navigation in virtual environments. In this paper, we report our latest findings on the effects of tether length on navigational performance. Twelve volunteers participated in an experiment in which they were instructed to control an aircraft-shaped cursor flying through a set of virtual tunnels and to answer questions about the environment. Experimental results showed that: (1) subjects' global awareness performance improved with an increase of tether length; and (2) neither the short tether nor the long tether supported the best local guidance performance. Rather, the best performance was observed for an intermediate length tethered display. The existence of an optimal value for this parameter provides useful guidelines for the design of navigational system interfaces.
Peripheral Vision Effects on Spatial Orientation Driven by Focused Depth
Authors: Eriksson Lars , Johansson Katarina
Published: January 2012

Despite considerable efforts to diminish critical spatial disorientation incidents during flight, they persist at constant rate. In instrument meteorological conditions, significantly enhanced support of spatial orientation (SO) could be achieved by displays of peripheral visual flow with conformal horizon. Focused depth related effectiveness of peripheral visual flow needs however to be investigated because of the pilot is changing depth focus in the cockpit. This was investigated in two experiments by manipulating relative depths of peripheral/central presentations and measuring their effects on postural instability. The results show that focused depth close-by with peripheral displays further away have less impact on perceived SO than focusing further away with peripheral displays closer. We conclude that focused depth drives the effects of peripheral visual flow on SO, and implementation implications are shortly discussed.
Evaluating the Effectiveness of Spatial Audio Displays in a Simulated Airborne Command and Control Task
Authors: Nelson W. Todd , Bolia Robert S.
Published: January 2012

The effects of a spatial audio display on speech intelligibility were evaluated in a simulated Airborne Warning and Control System (AWACS) task environment. Ten trained Air Weapons Officers served as participants during a Close Air Support mission. Spatial audio, chatter level, and mission phase served as experimental factors and speech intelligibility was assessed using the Coordinate Response Measure. Results indicated that speech intelligibility was degraded during the most difficult mission segments, and that spatial audio alleviated, to a moderate extent, the degree of this degradation. In addition, spatial audio was associated with faster response times for correct identification of critical call signs. Overall ratings of perceived mental workload (NASA Task Load Index) indicated intermediate levels and failed to show an effect for the spatial audio manipulation. However, post-experimental questionnaires indicated that operators rated spatial audio technology as valuable for improving communications effectiveness. Accordingly, the present study is an important step in the transition of a mature interface technology that may significantly enhance critical communications in complex command and control environments.
Improving Comprehension of Medication Instructions in Older Adults with Heart Failure: A Patient-Centered Approach
Authors: Morrow Daniel , Weiner Michael , Young James , Steinley Douglas , Murray Michael D.
Published: January 2012

Chronic heart failure (CHF) is associated with reduced functional capacity and quality of life among older adults. Complex CHF medication regimens challenge older patients' ability to adhere to these regimens, in part because of cognitive declines and poor communication. We developed patient-centered instructions for CHF medications as part of a pharmacy-based educational intervention to improve health-related outcomes and adherence among older adults with heart failure. The present paper reports a preliminary study to test whether the instructions were easy to understand compared to instructions for the same medications available in a large chain pharmacy. Thirty-two patients varying in education, literacy, and cognitive abilities were presented instructions with patient-centered or standard formats for familiar and unfamiliar medications. Answer time and accuracy for questions were measured while patients looked at the instruction. The patient-centered instructions were understood more quickly than the standard instructions. They were also understood more accurately for unfamiliar medications, while the standard instructions were understood more accurately for familiar medications. These findings suggest that patient-centered instructions may improve patients' medication knowledge compared to standard pharmacy instructions.
Effects of Attentional Demand on Input Device Use in Younger and Older Adults
Authors: McLaughlin Anne C. , Rogers Wendy A. , Fisk Arthur D.
Published: January 2012

We investigated how different categories of input devices, direct and indirect, affected performance under different attentional conditions. We also examined the moderating effects of age on input device usability. Previous studies have found differences in performance between the two types of devices as well as interactive effects of age (e.g., Charness, 2001). Previously, researchers have suggested that attention is a key moderating variable predicting performance with an input device; however, no age-related studies have systematically manipulated attention when examining input devices. In the current study, younger and older adults used an input device, direct (touchscreen) or indirect (rotary encoder), to perform tasks under various attention allocation conditions. The tasks were comprised of on-screen controls which were then analyzed by the type of input device used. Age and attention allocation together were needed to predict usability of an input device. We discuss how these data can be used when making input and interface design decisions across user groups of different ages.
Work-Centered Design: A Cognitiive Engineering Approach to System Design
Authors: Eggleston Robert G.
Published: January 2012

This paper provides an overview of an emerging cognitive engineering framework that can be used to guide engineering analysis and design decision-making. As the name implies, the Work-Centered Design (WCD) framework considers the design problem from the perspective of an analysis of work. It pays special attention to an analysis of aiding requirements, including issues about direct automation and form-based approaches for aiding. The paper provides a brief description of the WDC framework, identifies novel features and illustrates selected concepts with examples.
Automation Failures on Tasks Easily Performed by Operators Undermines Trust in Automated Aids
Authors: Madhavan Poornima , Wiegmann Douglas A. , Lacson Frank C.
Published: January 2012

Automation users often distrust diagnostic aids that are imperfectly reliable. The extent to which users' trust in automation is influenced by the simplicity of automation errors was explored. Participants (n = 30) performed 200 trials of a target-detection task using an imperfectly reliable automated aid. For the “easy-miss” group (n = 15) the automated aid missed targets only on easy trials and was accurate on difficult trials. For the “difficult-miss” group (n = 15) the aid missed targets only on difficult trials and was accurate on easy trials. A control group (n = 15) performed the task unaided. The easy-miss group trusted the aid less, was less accurate, and contradicted the aid more than the difficult-miss group, even on trials when the easy-miss aid was more reliable than the difficult-miss aid. Results suggest that the “easiness” of the aid's errors for the easy-miss group undermined automation trust and reliance. Potential future directions include examining whether easy false alarms affect user trust in a manner akin to easy misses.
A Cognitive Task Analysis of Coordination in a Distributed Tactical Team: Implications for Expertise Acquisition
Authors: Neville Kelly , Fowlkes Jennifer E. , Nelson Melissa M. Walwanis , Bergondy-Wilhelm Maureen L.
Published: January 2012

A Cognitive Task Analysis (CTA) was conducted to examine distributed team coordination expertise. Knowledge associated with air wing strike team coordination challenges was elicited from E-2C Naval Flight Officers (NFOs) with varying levels of experience, and was assessed using a methodology consisting of multiple qualitative assessment techniques. Results include: (1) insight into the organizational structure of NFO team coordination knowledge; (2) rich representations of NFO team coordination knowledge that may be used to populate training and performance support tools; (3) experience-related differences in the use of knowledge and skill to support team coordination; and (4) knowledge and skill categories that support team coordination. Each of these results may contribute to the design of performance support tools and training guidelines, strategies, and content that enhances team coordination.
Tools for Supporting Team Collaboration
Authors: Bolstad Cheryl A. , Endsley Mica R.
Published: January 2012

Collaboration plays an important role in team tasks. Teams are also functioning more often in a distributed fashion. If individuals are to work efficiently in a distributed fashion they will need collaborative tools and systems to exchange information and most importantly Situation Awareness (SA). Little guidance exists as to which tools are appropriate for collaborative tasks or situations. The present paper presents a taxonomy of collaboration and, based on this taxonomy, information is provided on which classes of collaborative tools and techniques are most useful for different types of tasks and situations.
Communication, Proximity, and Trust in Distributed Command and Control
Authors: Swan Benjamin , Younger Beth , Smith Jana , Toll Molly , Smith Kip
Published: January 2012

This paper discusses an empirical study of the effects of communication mode and trust on performance in a distributed command and control task. The study was motivated by the US Army's plan to transition from conventional ground forces to the Objective Force Warrior, an army of autonomous, dispersed individuals. We begin with a review of this change in organizational structure in the light of social impact theory. We then develop hypotheses relating trust, proximity, and modes of communication to team performance and discuss our laboratory experiment. Trust interacts significantly with both communication and proximity. The failure to reciprocate trust appears to make it more difficult for teams to communicate and to work face-to-face. If this result generalizes, it may have profound implications for the design of distributed work groups.
Message Overload from the Inbox to Intelligence Analysis: How Spam and Blogs Point to New Tools
Authors: Tinapple David , Woods David
Published: January 2012

Patterns of responses to “message overload” can be seen in the ways in which people adapt messaging systems and capabilities. Blogging is an effective and increasingly popular decentralized form of group communication that is proving useful in helping people find and share what is informative. We look to blogging for clues to new solutions to the problem of “data overload” in the world of email. These design solutions to email overload go beyond efforts to block spam, and are based on shifting the basic unit of organization toward communication relationships that allow patterns in communications to emerge.
Situation Awareness Applications to Executive Dashboard Design
Authors: Resnick Marc L.
Published: January 2012

With the advent of mass customization, global financial markets, and Internet-based business models, executive decision making has an increased need for speed, scope, and accuracy. To meet these needs, IT vendors have created executive dashboards, systems that display visualizations of critical data via interfaces that pull from corporate data warehouses. While the visualization techniques they use take advantage of the latest technology and may support complex data analysis, these systems often fall short because they do not match the schema of the decision maker nor do they support situation assessment or awareness. A design process that considers a more naturalistic decision making perspective and uses cognitive engineering techniques such as ecological interface design would provide a significant improvement to the design of executive dashboard interfaces. However there are several challenges to applying current cognitive engineering methods to the executive decision making domain. This paper will present the executive decision making domain, illustrate how cognitive engineering principles are necessary for the design of executive dashboards, and present some methodological challenges to applying these principles.
Designing Work-Centered Performance Support Solutions for Operators of a Complex and Evolving System
Authors: Neville Kelly , Owens Jerry M. , Eitelman Susan M. , Barba Charles A. , Ennis Jack , Hafich Amanda , Sorensen H. Barbara
Published: January 2012

This paper describes the design of a performance support toolset to be used in a complex and changing satellite operations domain. In this paper, we focus on a subset of the design challenges encountered during the process of designing this toolset. This subset of design challenges includes enhancing intra-team communications in a time-limited environment; improving information comprehension; supporting users in both low and a high tempo operations; and supporting users in future conditions and during the transition to those future conditions. This paper is intended to demonstrate the valuable contributions of the research literature and of the domain experts who will be using the toolset to the design of work-centered solutions. In addition, this paper is intended to serve as a resource for other design efforts facing similar challenges.
Supporting Planning and Situation Awareness in Army Command and Control
Authors: Riley Jennifer M. , Endsley Mica R.
Published: January 2012

The planning process is the initial basis for tactical maneuvers and combat operations. Though plans are driven by the intent of the commanding officer, the quality of plans are heavily dependent upon the level of situation awareness of officers involved in the process. To support Army planning in command and control, it is important for us to understand planning and the challenges to providing the critical information underlying it. We conducted a theoretical investigation of maneuvers planning in combat situations. We used results from goal-directed task analysis, and insights from observations of Army training exercises and experiments, to make inferences on the activities carried out in preparation for tactical maneuvers. Our goal was to identify major characteristics of the planning process in current and future Army force structures. We were also interested in identifying human factors issues associated with planning in a rapidly evolving environment, and generating computer-based design concepts to support situation awareness and decision making.
Comparative Cognitive Task Analysis: The Cognition of Weather Forecasting
Authors: Kirschenbaum Susan S.
Published: January 2012

This paper expands on the traditional methodology of Cognitive Task Analysis (Schraagen, Chipman, & Shalin, 2000) (CTA) to disentangle the effects of task, tools, training, teamwork arrangements, and basic human cognition. CTA generalizes from numerous individuals performing the same task set in the same environment with the same toolset. Comparative Cognitive Task Analysis (C2TA) is based on replication, across both different individuals and different environments. We focus on the task of weather forecasting for Naval Air operations. Forecasters at US Navy (USN) and Royal Australian Navy (RAN) Meteorology and Oceanography (METOC) centers were studied as they developed forecasts. Similarities in workflow at both gross and detailed levels are attributable to characteristics of human cognition. Differences in time and frequency of tool usage are attributable to differences in available support. Taken together, these results suggest improvements in decision support systems for more timely weather forecasting by facilitating the common cognitive processes with improved tools.
Comparing Findings from Cognitive Engineering Evaluations
Authors: Patterson Emily S. , Bozzette Samuel A. , Nguyen Anh D. , Gomes José Orlando , Asch Steven M.
Published: January 2012

Cognitive engineering evaluations are broader in scope than the more common usability test. In particular, organizational, team, and contextual factors that impact system “usefulness” are incorporated. In this paper, we propose a framework of factors commonly considered in cognitive engineering evaluations and illustrate the use of the framework in comparing findings from evaluations of two tools: HIV clinical reminders and a search and browse tool for intelligence analysts.
A Methodology for Integrating Cognitive Engineering into Information System Analysis and Design
Authors: Zhou Ying , Bums Catherine M.
Published: January 2012

This paper introduces a methodology for integrating Cognitive Engineering into information System Analysis and Design (SAD). Work Domain Analysis (WDA) in CE is used to analyze and capture a large amount data and complex relationships in a work domain. In SAD, Data Flow Diagrams (DFD) and Entity-Relationship (ER) approaches are two important tools. Based on the captured data and relationships in the WDA model, DFD method is employed to further analyze data, data processing, and their relationships from the point of data flow. On the basis of creating WDA and DFD models, Entity-Relationship analysis methods uses normalization principles to optimize table structures, create the relationships among tables, and finally to create an Entity-Relationship Diagram. By applying the integrated methodology to the SAD of a database for health information, we created a system structure diagram, a work domain model, a DFD model, and an ER model. The methodology should emphasize human factors in Information System development, enhance the reliability of SAD and database integrity, and reduce system development time. The database is based on a three-tiered client/server system architecture and running on Oracle9i.
A Framework for Work-Centered Product Evaluation
Authors: Eggleston Robert G. , Roth Emilie M. , Scott Ron
Published: January 2012

We describe a comprehensive work-centered evaluation framework for assessing the value of new technology intended to support human performance. A key feature of the framework is that it spans three types of evaluation: (1) usability — How easy is the aid to use? (2) usefulness — How flexible and effective is it in aiding work? and (3) impact — How (much) does it contribute value within the work organization? We argue that all three of these dimensions are important for advancing the product development and facilitating rapid transition of the product to the customer for deployment. A recent evaluation of a work-centered support system prototype is used to illustrate the multi-level work-centered evaluation approach, the types of insights that can be drawn from it, and a way to employ it in a cost effective manner.
Putting Working Memory to Work: Integrating Cognitive Science Theories with Cognitive Engineering Research
Authors: Fiore Stephen M. , Cuevas Haydee M. , Salas Eduardo
Published: January 2012

Human factors research has long included discussions of the importance of mental models when understanding human-human interaction and human-system interaction. Additionally, a small number of researchers in the field have included theories of working memory and related constructs in their research approaches. Nonetheless, little if any research has acknowledged the connection between these two very important constructs arising out of the cognitive sciences. In this paper we discuss recent theoretical and empirical developments on working memory from cognitive psychology and cognitive neuroscience and relate these to our understanding of mental models. We show how the connection between these two concepts can facilitate a deeper understanding of issues associated with cognitive engineering and decision making research.