bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Zermelo’s Axiomatic Set Theory
Authors: Giaquinto M
Published: November 2023

As Russell and Whitehead were preparing the first edition of Principia Mathematica, Zermelo was formulating axioms for Cantorian set theory without type restrictions. The result was a seminal paper published in 1908. The project was motivated by the paradoxes. Set theory, Zermelo wrote, was an indispensable part of mathematics, but ‘the very existence of this discipline seems to be threatened by certain contradictions, or “antinomies”, that can be derived from its principles—principles necessarily governing our thinking, it seems—and to which no entirely satisfactory solution has yet been found.’

A satisfactory solution would require the articulation of an alternative to the conception of a set as the extension of a concept, an alternative that would not give rise to the offending principles. At the time, Zermelo frankly admitted, no such alternative conception had been found. How in this circumstance would it help to provide an axiomatization of set theory? Zermelo envisaged a two-stage programme. The first task was to formulate axioms that, taken together, would be generous enough to allow the development of arithmetic and analysis within set theory, thus preserving its foundational role, but which would be too strict to reproduce the paradoxes. The second task was to prove that the axioms would give rise to no new paradox, that is, to prove the axioms consistent. Zermelo’s paper of 1908 achieved the first stage.
Blitz on Paradise
Authors: Giaquinto M
Published: November 2023

Despite the discovery of the paradoxes around the end of the nineteenth century, Cantor’s set theory continued to be developed in the following years and used fruitfully both in clarifying the infinitesimal calculus and in the study of sets of spatial points and its generalization to the study of topological spaces.There is no doubt that set theory, including the theory of the transfinite, has an intuitive content that reveals an apparent realm of considerable beauty, ‘Cantor’s paradise’, in Hilbert’s memorable phrase.Zermelo’s axiomatization of the theory dispelled immediate concern about the paradoxes, as those routes to contradiction were not passable in Zermelo’s system. But confidence in the theory would remain shaky as long as positive reason for believing the theory consistent was lacking. And new attacks were on the way.
Hilbert’s Programme
Authors: Giaquinto M
Published: November 2023

Hilbert aimed to justify acceptance and use of arithmetic,analysis, and set theory. A natural way of approaching this task is to look for indubitable truths to serve as axioms for a comprehensive theory, along with inference rules that are indubitably truth-preserving. This may have been Frege’s approach, but following discovery of the contradiction, Russell concluded that some element of doubt about the truth of the axioms is unavoidable. The best one could hope for, on Russell’s view, was that the axioms were inductively well supported by their known consequences. Accordingly, Russell distinguished between epistemological foundations and deductive foundations. In making this move, Russell had performed a half-revolution. The epistemological basis was now regarded as comprising the simplest and most immediately evident truths of mathematics, together with quasi-empirical induction. The goal, however, was still to establish the truth of the axioms, beyond reasonable doubt if not beyond all doubt. For this goal the permitted means were inadequate. Russell never found a sufficiently powerful set of axioms that he felt met the required standard. Had he abandoned the goal of a comprehensive theory and decided to treat the subjects of real analysis and transfinite sets separately, he would have fared no better: recall the troubles over Dedekind’s Continuity Axiom, the Axiom of Infinity, and the Axiom of Choice.
Solving the Class Paradoxes
Authors: Giaquinto M
Published: November 2023

According to Zermelo’s view of a universe of sets, there are many of them, as there is no restriction on the class of atoms that can constitute the initial stage of a universe. But even if we hold the initial stage fixed, there will be a plurality of universes, on Zermelo’s view. There is no absolute all-inclusive universe (for a fixed initial stage), as any candidate for the title of ‘universe’ can be taken as a starting point for further iterations of the procedures by which higher stages are formed, so that the candidate universe is just an initial segment of a more extended universe. As stages are indexed by ordinal numbers, the idea can be expressed in terms of the series of ordinals: ‘This series reaches no true completion in its unrestricted advance,’ Zermelo wrote, ‘but possesses only relative stopping-points.’1 The proper classes of a universe U, such as the class of all its sets and the class of all its ordinals, are not sets in U but are sets in any universe that extends U, as the proper classes of U will be sets in the stage formed from U by adding to U all selections of members of U. In this Zermelo saw a solution of the class paradoxes. Thinking of a universe of set theory as a model of the theory, Zermelo wrote:
Hume to Hegel
Authors: Kenny Anthony
Published: November 2023

Shortly after Berkeley, in Dublin, gave the world his empiricist metaphysics, there was born in Edinburgh a philosopher who was to take empiricist principles to an anti-metaphysical extreme, David Hume. Hume was born in 1711 into a junior branch of a noble Scottish family. As the younger son of a mother widowed early he had to make his own way in the world. Between twelve and fifteen he studied literature and philosophy at Edinburgh University, falling in love, he tells us, with both subjects. He then set out to prepare himself for a legal profession, but soon gave up because, in his own words, he found ‘an insurmountable Aversion to anything but the pursuits of Philosophy and General Learning’.
The Ridiculousness Of Being Overcome By Pleasure: Protagoras 352 B 1-358 D 4
Authors: Wolfsdorf David
Published: November 2023

Socrates ‘ celebrated denial of akrasia in Protagoras precisely criticizes the condition commonly conceived as knowingly being overcome by pleasure, i.e. knowledge-akrasia-through-pleasure. The critique crucially employs the argument form reductio. The argument and its immediate context are structured as follows:

That is, while that act contains aspects of both goodness and badness, on balance the act contains more bad than good.
Archytas Unbound
Authors: Barker Andrew
Published: November 2023

No One till now has devoted a whole book to Archytas’ thought. Specialists in Greek mathematics and related sciences comment often enough on certain of the fragments and reports about him, but he has tended to be marginalized and rather oddly contextualized by historians of philosophy. His work falls squarely into the fourth century bc, yet as Carl Hu·man notes in this admirable volume (44–5), he has regularly been treated as a sort of honorary Presocratic. The Archytan fragments and testimonia are included in the standard collection of texts on the Presocratics by Diels and Kranz (hereafter DK); and Guthrie, for example, discusses him (briefly) just before Xenophanes, who was more than a century his senior.3 Further, in both these books and many others he appears as a ‘footnote to Pythagoras and Presocratic Pythagoreanism’, despite the fact that Aristotle, one of our most authoritative witnesses (who mentions him on several occasions, and devoted a three-book treatise and part of another to his work), never calls him a Pythagorean, and never mentions him in the same context as those to whom he does give this title.
With friends, ‘ more is going on than meets the eye’
Authors: Dancy R M
Published: November 2023

More is going on than meets the eye’ is a major theme of this book, for while the authors are by no means followers of the cult of Leo Strauss, they are wedded to finding subtexts. Indeed, it appears that people have complained to them about this very feature of their work (see their comments on the accusation of ‘overinterpretation’, 172). And they are also wedded to certain highly controversial philosophical theses that govern various aspects of their interpretation.2 The theses in question come forward as part of a running polemic against people variously called ‘modern philosophers’, ‘analytic philosophers’, ‘moderns’, and so on. The culprits are not always explicitly identified, but it is pretty clear that among them Gregory Vlastos would be prominently included.3 There is no hope of covering this dense book adequately in anything short of another book. I shall focus on some central features of the dialogue and Penner and Rowe’s interpretation of them, and on some of the philosophical views they take to underlie that interpretation.
Cardiopulmonary bypass simulation
Authors: Morris Richard , Pybus Andy
Published: November 2023

Cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) is characterized by a relatively low frequency of rapidly evolving but potentially serious critical incidents. In a recent American study, Stammers and Mejak surveyed the results of over 650,000 perfusions carried out at nearly 800 institutions, and reported that serious injury resulting from perfusion-related incidents occurred in approximately 1 in 2000 cases.
Creating virtual reality medical simulations
Authors: Alverson Dale C , Caudell, Thomas P , Goldsmith Timothy E
Published: November 2023

This chapter describes the step-by-step approach to creating a virtual reality (VR) simulation for medical education, training, and performance assessment, as well as an example of the tools and methods that can be applied. VR simulations can be used onsite as part of a simulation centre or independently offsite, by individual learners or teams of learners, as well as used interactively by teams over distance at different sites in distributed VR environments. VR allows students and trainees to be uniquely immersed and engaged in lifelike situations where they can learn without suffering the consequences that may occur due to lack of experience(1).With VR, as with simulation in general, students are offered a type of experiential training that would otherwise be impossible to achieve, a safe environment to make mistakes and improve performance through practice. Simulation training is especially important in medical education where students are expected to learn how to react in high-risk situations where human lives are potentially at stake. VR simulation for training and education represents ‘serious games’ that provide an opportunity for students to apply important concepts while thinking on their feet without endangering themselves or others, opportunities to improve understanding, gain confidence in application of their knowledge and skills. In addition, through a process called reification, VR can create environments in which participants could not normally interact, environments that are not normally accessible but that could be produced for improving comprehension of otherwise abstract concepts, making them appear concrete with which the learner can interact(2).Virtual reality simulations of complex or abstract concepts offer powerful tools to improve human comprehension and understanding of those concepts, through the process of ‘reification’ in which those abstractions can be made to appear concrete and with which the learner can interact.
Basic Categories: The Noun–Verb Distinction
Authors: Bornkessel-Schlesewsky Ina , Schlesewsky Matthias
Published: November 2023

Within the neuropsychological literature, a great deal of research on word processing and the neural representation of words has focused on issues of categorization. For example, selective impairments observed in particular patient populations (or in single case studies) have been used to argue for distinct representations of categories such as nouns vs. verbs (Daniele et al. 1994; Miceli et al. 1984), content vs. function words (Caplan, Hildebrandt, and Makris 1996; Gardner and Zurif 1975), concrete vs. abstract words (Eviatar, Menn, and Zaidel 1990; Funnell, Corballis, and Gazzaniga 2001; Tyler, Moss, and Jennings 1995; Villardita, Grioli, and Quattropani 1988; Warrington and Shallice 1984), and different semantic categories (e.g. animals vs. tool names; Warrington and McCarthy 1987).
Syntax and Morphology at the Word Level: Summary and Critical Evaluation
Authors: Bornkessel-Schlesewsky Ina , Schlesewsky Matthias
Published: November 2023

As already mentioned at the beginning of this section, the main theoretical and empirical debates regarding the neurocognition of syntax and morphology at the word level have revolved around the distinction between ‘‘rule-based’’ and ‘‘network-based’’ approaches. Whereas both of these model types come in several different flavors, the basic controversy between them pertains to the question of whether linguistic regularities are generated by rule-based knowledge or not. Crucially, this debate should not be taken to suggest that proponents of connectionist models deny the existence of regular structures in language.
On the functional interpretation of late positive ERP effects in language processing
Authors: Bornkessel-Schlesewsky Ina , Schlesewsky Matthias
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, we depart from our functionally-oriented discussion in order to focus on a particular language-related ERP effect (or perhaps even class of ERP effects), namely the late positivity. Late positivities are often observed in response to (morpho)syntactic violations, either as monophasic components or following an (E)LAN. As will have become clear throughout the preceding chapters, however, late positivities are by no means restricted to this type of sentential environment. Rather, they have been observed in response to a wide range of language-related manipulations, thereby warranting a componentoriented chapter of their own.
The mechanisms of RNA virus evolution
Authors: Holmes Edward C
Published: November 2023

In many ways, this chapter is the heart of the book. In particular, it is arguable that the more ‘macroevolutionary’ patterns described in Chapters 2, 5, and 6 cannot be under- stood without a firm grasp of the processes of microevolution in RNA viruses. My specific aim here is therefore to describe the rates, determinants, and consequences of a variety of fundamental evolutionary processes in RNA viruses, particularly mutation, recombination, natural selection, and epistasis. Perhaps to the relief of many working with RNA viruses, debates concerning the respective roles played by natural selection and genetic drift—what John Gillespie has called the ‘great obsession of population genetics’ (Gillespie 1998)—have not dominated evolutionary arguments. This is probably because students of RNA virus evolution have spent more time considering how frequent mutation may play an even more important role in shaping evolutionary dynamics. However, no discussion of the mechanics and dynamics of viral evolution is complete without at least picking at the great obsession.
Transitivization
Authors: Stassen Leon
Published: November 2023

In the preceding chapters we have discussed various processes of reanalysis that predicative possessive constructions may undergo. Thus, the process of adnominalization may in some cases lead to a rearrangement of the constituent structure of an erstwhile Locational Possessive or Topic Possessive. The process of predicativization changes the category status of the possessee phrase in a With-Possessive or a Topic Possessive, and, in its slipstream, it changes the syntactic structure of the construction as well.
Summary of Part I
Authors: Stassen Leon
Published: November 2023

In the previous chapters I have developed the contours of the typology of Predicative Possession through a number of sometimes rather intricate discussions. At the end of this exposition it may be useful to give a brief summary of the main results of our typological investigation. Thus, the main features of the typology that has been proposed here are the following: The concept of possession constitutes a conceptual space or domain, which is defined by the intersection of two independent parameters, namely permanent contact and control. Depending on the values of these two parameters, the domain of possession can be divided .
Postoperative nausea and vomiting (PONV)
Authors: Conn David
Published: November 2023

Postoperative nausea and vomiting (PONY) is common. It may affect up to 35% of patients after day case surgery. Although rarely life­ threatening, it is distressing and debilitating, and can lead to delays in returning to normal oral intake, delayed discharge from hospital, increased bleeding, wound dehiscence, and aspiration pneumonia. Although PONY is usually short-lived, many patients find it the most distressing part of their hospital stay. Nausea and vomiting is mediated through central and peripheral pathways, with a number of neurotransmitters involved. Central structures include the chemoreceptor trigger zone (CTZ) in the area postrema, which lies outside the blood-brain barrier. The nucleus of the tractus solitarius (NTS) and the vagal nuclei receive afferent impulses from the vagus nerve and interconnect with the CTZ.
Universal precautions against blood-borne viruses
Authors: Searle John
Published: November 2023

Blood-borne viruses (BBVs) can be transmitted from infected patients to health care workers and may cause serious illnesses, some of which are fatal. The prevalence in the population of the viruses which are particularly important in the UK are given in Table 19.1. Transmission of BBVs to health care workers is well documented. The commonest cause is by blood-to-blood contact by a ‘sharps’ injury (usually a hollow needle). The risk of transmission by contamination of broken skin or mucous membranes with infected blood is rare but it does occur. The seroconversion rate following percutaneous inoculation is as follows: HBV: 1 in 3 if source patient is ‘e’ antigen positive and contact is not immune.
Teamwork on the surgical ward
Authors: Authers Alison
Published: November 2023

Understanding how to work in a team will help you with the demands of your job. As you establish your role and appreciate that of others, your confidence and job satisfaction will increase. Be at the right place at the right time for lists and ward rounds. Late arrival can cost you your confidence. Make a good impression on your colleagues. Most of them will notice. Do the basics well: sloppiness is never tolerated. An efficient junior doctor attracts support from all areas when it is needed. Efficiency can carry you through the inevitable difficult times, which are usually not your fault. Patients value effort, and even in the fast turnover of surgical wards they still have time to observe and respond to efficiency. You will find you work better when people thank you, remember to do the same.
Respiratory disorders
Authors: Sheldon Chris , Wilson lain
Published: November 2023

Upper abdominal operations are associated with pulmonary complications in 20-40% of a general surgical population. The incidence with lower abdominal surgery is 2-5%. Following general anaesthesia for upper abdominal or thoracic surgery, there is a reduction in lung volumes, shallow respiration, and a reluctance and inability to cough effectively. These changes often result in inadequate basal air entry and sputum retention, which may be complicated by atelectasis and/or infection. Effective postoperative analgesia and physiotherapy may reduce their severity. Patients with underlying respiratory disease are at increased risk of developing problems during and after surgery. Complications are minimized if the underlying condition is optimally controlled pre­ operatively.
Alcohol intoxication and chronic alcoholism
Authors: Berry Colin
Published: November 2023

Alcoholism is drinking which results in impairment of physical and social health. Alcohol consumption contributes to 15-30% of male and 8-15% of female hospital admissions in the UK. Equivalent figures in the USA are slightly higher. The causes of hospital admission are physical complications of excessive drinking, alcohol-related trauma, or neuropsychiatric illness related to alcohol consumption. Additionally, alcohol withdrawal symptoms commonly arise in patients admitted for unrelated medical or surgical problems. Many of the physical complications of alcohol abuse have implications for surgical and anaesthetic care, particularly after trauma. Usually treated conservatively. Prevent airway obstruction and aspiration of vomit. May require ICU admission.
Introduction
Authors: Stock Kathleen
Published: November 2023

This volume presents ten contributions to the philosophy of music, nearly all wholly new, from leading thinkers in the analytic tradition. Some are well known for work in aesthetics, while others are better known for work elsewhere in philosophy. Indeed, it is striking that the art form of music seems like no other to attract philosophers from diverse areas of analytic philosophy. One part of the explanation is undoubtedly that, given the love many philosophers have for music, and in particular for classical music, their attention is specially drawn to its philosophical possibilities. Perhaps equally significantly, though, analytic philosophers in general have an urge to keep things tidy, and are drawn to music because of the suspicion that it cannot be easily tidied away.
Sounds, Instruments, and Works of Music
Authors: Dodd Julian
Published: November 2023

A satisfying account of the ontology of works of music must do two things. First of all, it must enlighten us as to musical works’ ontological nature: that is, tell us to which ontological category such works belong. Building on this, it must then explain how musical works are individuated: that is, provide an informative account of when we have one and the same work of music and when we have numerically distinct such works. What I shall term the simple view does just this. Its first component— what I shall call the type/token theory — has it that works of music are types whose tokens are sound sequence-events: datable, locatable patterns of sounds.
What are the symptoms of polycystic ovary syndrome?
Authors: Elsheikh Mohgah , Murphy Caroline
Published: November 2023

PCOS affects women in different ways, with some having severe symptoms whereas others may only be mildly affected. Symptoms often develop at the time of puberty or late teens, following weight gain or after coming off the contraceptive pill, but can occur at any time. If you have PCOS you may have some or all of the following symptoms.
What are the health risks associated with polycystic ovary syndrome?
Authors: Elsheikh Mohgah , Murphy Caroline
Published: November 2023

It is becoming increasingly apparent that women with PCOS, particularly if they are overweight, are at increased risk of developing certain conditions (Figure 4.1). This chapter summarizes the health risks associated with having PCOS and discusses how to minimize the risks.
Controlling insulin resistance
Authors: Elsheikh Mohgah , Murphy Caroline
Published: November 2023

Insulin resistance plays an important role in the development of symptoms associated with PCOS and also increases the risk of developing diabetes, high blood pressure, abnormal blood fats, and heart disease (Chapter 4). If you have PCOS and insulin resistance then you are up to seven times more likely to develop diabetes than other women your age, particularly if you are over- weight.
Introduction
Authors: Elsheikh Mohgah , Murphy Caroline
Published: November 2023

By the time the majority of women with PCOS get round to attending a specialist clinic, they have usually tried every single ‘diet’ there is. These women will report either that the diet ‘didn’t work’ or that they lost a couple of stone before putting that couple of stone back on along with a little bit more. The following chapters aim to remove the myths about losing weight and give you the information you need to lose weight and, most importantly, to keep it off.
The physics of weight loss
Authors: Elsheikh Mohgah , Murphy Caroline
Published: November 2023

Imagine you have an identical twin sister, who is the same weight and height as you and who does the same level of activity as you everyday. She is identical to you in every way except that she does not have PCOS. What you would find is that, if you both ate exactly the same number of calories as each other every day for a year, if your twin sister’s weight remained the same, yours would increase by 4 lb in that year. Therefore women with PCOS have a very slightly slower metabolism than their non-PCOS counterparts. An accumulation of 4 lb of fat in a year equates to an excess of only 38 calories per day, less than two teaspoons of sugar.
Preliminaries
Authors: Carnie Andrew
Published: November 2023

This book is about the shape of nouns in Modern Irish. However, it should be noted that there is no single ‘ ‘Irish language. ‘ ‘ The language has three major spoken dialects (and even more smaller variants within these dialects), and a standard written form. The dialects all differ from one another not only in how they pronounce words but also in how they inflect and form nouns.
Inflecting Irish Nouns: Singular Declensions
Authors: Carnie Andrew
Published: November 2023

In the next few sections, we will examine the new declensions of Irish nouns, with some hints on identifying them and the basic rules for declining them in the appropriate case form.
The Translation: Authorship, Date, and Style
Authors: Malcolm Noel
Published: November 2023

There is nothing surprising, then, about the idea that an English translation of a difficult Latin text of the late 1620s, found among Mansfield’s papers, should be the work of Thomas Hobbes. The particular reasons for the attribution may now be considered. They are threefold: the handwriting, the nature of the alterations in the manuscript, and some stylistic features of the English. The volume that contains this manuscript is not unknown to Hobbes scholars: among the other items in it relating to Mansfield are seven holograph letters sent to him by Hobbes in 1634–6.
On Knowledge and Convention
Authors: Burge Tyler
Published: November 2023

Language, we all agree, is conventional. By this we mean partly that some linguistic practices are arbitrary: except for historical accident, they could have been otherwise to roughly the same purposes. Which linguistic and other social practices are arbitrary in this sense is a matter of dispute. Some of the early disputants claimed as nonconventional certain practices which we now consider obvious cases of convention. And such mistakes sometimes held vague but wide-spread popular sway, owing to provincial or religious prejudices.1 Whereas it is easy to spot errors of our predecessors, it remains an open question whether some of our own activities are conventional or ‘natural’.
Kaplan, Quine, and Suspended Belief
Authors: Burge Tyler
Published: November 2023

In ‘Quantifying In’, David Kaplan gives an argument that Quine’s notation for representing relational contexts is inadequate for certain cases of suspension of belief. The argument has a general interest. For if it were sound, it would undermine any theory which did not represent relational (or de re) belief as a special case of notional (or de dicto) belief. I think that relational belief is more basic than notional belief. But I shall not argue that here. My present purpose is to show that Kaplan’s argument is not sound.1
Two Thought Experiments Reviewed
Authors: Burge Tyler
Published: November 2023

The issues raised by the arguments in Hilary Putnam’s “The Meaning of ‘Meaning’ “ and my ‘Individualism and the Mental’ (Ch. 5 above) are various and complicated. I shall be able to touch on only a few of these issues in this space. What makes matters more complicated is that Putnam’s interests and viewpoint differ from mine. Although a comparison of our views would be useful, I will have to concentrate entirely on those of Fodor’s remarks that concern my work. I begin by setting out two thought experiments, which I formulate in ways that raise a minimum of issues that are extraneous to my primary interests. Then I will state what I take the thought experiments to show. Finally, I will discuss Fodor’s criticisms.1
Cartesian Error and the Objectivity of Perception
Authors: Burge Tyler
Published: November 2023

Individualism as a theory of mind derives from Descartes. It dominates the post-Cartesian tradition—Locke, Berkeley, Leibniz, Hume—up until Kant. And it has re-emerged in the writings of Husserl and of many English-speaking behaviorists and functionalists. Although a generic similarity of standpoint is discernible in this motley, it is difficult to state clearly and succinctly what these philosophers hold in common. Roughly, they all think that the nature and individuation of an individual’s mental kinds are ‘in principle’ independent of the nature and individuation of all aspects of the individual’s environment.
Social Anti-individualism, Objective Reference
Authors: Burge Tyler
Published: November 2023

Donald Davidson taught me in graduate school. I have learned from him ever since. Quine and Hempel dealt the deathblows to the restricted approach to philosophy embodied in logical positivism. Davidson helped show how philosophy can say new and valuable things about traditional philosophical problems, including issues of fundamental human concern. His work is systematic and subtle. I think that on many basic matters it is right. Disagreement will occupy most of my remarks. But agreement looms largest in the broader scheme of things.
Individuation and Causation in Psychology
Authors: Burge Tyler
Published: November 2023

Over the last decade I have argued that certain relations between an individual and his environment are partly determinative of what it is for the individual to have certain kinds of mental states and events. In any full explication of the nature of such mental states, such relations will be cited. I call this view ‘anti-individualism’.
Intentional Properties and Causation
Authors: Burge Tyler
Published: November 2023

In “A Modal Argument for Narrow Content”a Jerry Fodor tries to show that psychological properties typed by ordinary intentional propositional content (which he calls ‘broad content’) cannot be associated with distinctive causal powers for purposes of psychological taxonomizing. Causal powers are relevantly distinctive insofar as they are distinguished from twin-earth psychological properties. Thus Fodor attempts to show that ordinary intentional propositional content cannot be basic for taxonomizing causal powers in psychology. I think that he does not succeed.
Two Kinds of Consciousness
Authors: Burge Tyler
Published: November 2023

I want to develop some ideas about consciousness that derive from reflection on a distinction between phenomenal consciousness and access consciousness drawn by Ned Block.1 I accept a version of such a distinction, and I think that Block’s drawing it is a significant contribution. But I believe that Block has not drawn it quite right. I will maintain three primary points. First, access consciousness—indeed, any sort of consciousness—in an individual presupposes the existence of phenomenal consciousness in that individual. Second, the relevant notion of access consciousness is not captured by the idea of a state’s being poised for use in rational activity, even if it is assumed that the individual is phenomenally conscious.
How the brain works and how it is damaged
Authors: Daisley Audrey , Tams Rachel , Kischka Udo
Published: November 2023

It is much easier to cope with things that we understand. However, the effects of head injuries can be difficult to understand because the brain is such a highly complex organ. As stated in the four principles in Chapter 1, becoming knowledgeable about how the brain works and how it is typically damaged after a head injury is an important first step in understanding your relative’s particular difficulties.
Changes in physical functioning
Authors: Daisley Audrey , Tams Rachel , Kischka Udo
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we focus on the physical problems that arise directly from injuries to those areas of the brain that are involved in movement control, balance, and processing of incoming information from the senses. Our movements are orchestrated by the brain in a highly complex manner which is usually quite reliable. This is achieved by a sophisticated interaction of several diverse centres in the brain. Each centre is specialized to a certain aspect of our movements: to keep us upright, to walk automatically, to start a movement, to stop it, to move powerfully or gently, or smoothly rather than jerkily. After severe head injury, difficulties with moving different body parts are frequently found because of damage to areas such as the cerebellum and the motor cortex, leading to weakness, spasticity of limbs, reduced balance/coordination, and involuntary movements.
Semantics, Pragmatics, and the Role of Semantic Content (with Jeffrey C. King)
Authors: Stanley Jason
Published: November 2023

Followers of Wittgenstein allegedly once held that a meaningful claim to know that p could only be made if there was some doubt about the truth of p. The correct response to this thesis involved appealing to the distinction between the semantic content of a sentence and features attaching (merely) to its use. It is inappropriate to assert a knowledge-claim unless someone in the audience has doubt about what the speaker claims to know. But this fact has nothing to do with the semantic content of knowledge-ascriptions; it is entirely explicable by appeal to pragmatic facts about felicitous assertion (that is, a kind of use of a sentence).
Introduction
Authors: Hatfield Gary
Published: November 2023

Assuming that sensory perception has the function of representing the world in the service of action and cognition, there is much to explain. Focusing on vision, we can ask about the physical means by which objects affect the eyes as sense organs, about the physiological processes that take place in the nervous system, about the psychological processes that yield visual experience (as well as nonconscious representations), about the character of that experience itself, and about the ways vision guides action and yields knowledge and other cognitive or affective states.
Making incisions
Authors: Tulloh Bruce , Lee David
Published: November 2023

Making that first incision is one of the most stressful moments in a surgical trainee’s career. A surgical wound is like a signature, and patients do judge their surgeon by the quality of the final scar. Thought must therefore be given not only to the position, direction and length of the incision, but also to the possibility that the incision may have to be extended. While the primary aim of an incision is to provide access for the operation, cosmesis is also very important. Scissors are no good for cutting skin, except perhaps in the paper-thin skin of the very young or the very old. Whether you use the scalpel or diathermy, careful planning is required to provide good access through a cosmetically acceptable incision.
Retracting
Authors: Tulloh Bruce , Lee David
Published: November 2023

In every operation, the surgeon must be able to see clearly what he or she is doing. Working in the depths of a deep wound with tissues collapsing into the operating field is difficult and stressful, while lack of visibility is dangerous for both patient and surgeon. Good retraction to expose things clearly may be vital in determining the success of an operation. This can be provided by the surgeon alone, by an assistant, or by mechanical self-retaining devices.
The Riverboat Puzzle
Authors: Lycan William G
Published: November 2023

Let us turn at last to Gibbard‘ s (1981) riverboat cases. I shall speak of the Simple Version and the Anomalous Version. The Simple Version (p. 226) is as follows:

Sly Pete nnd Mr. Thonws Stone are pbying poker nbonrd a Mississippi River boat. Both Pete and Stone are good poker players, and Pete, in addition, is unscrupulous. Stone has bet up to the limit for the hand, and it is now up to Pete to call or fold. Zack has seen Stone‘ s hand, which is quite good, and signalled its contents to Pete. (Call this moment Stone, suspecting something, demands that the room be den red. Five minutes later, Zack is stnnding by the bar, confident that the hand has been played out but ignornnt of its outcome. (Call this moment t  1) He now entertains these two conditionals.
The Secret Doctrine: Plato’S Defence of Protagoras in the Theaetetus
Authors: Lee Mi-Kyoung
Published: November 2023

1. Introduction

Why does Plato introduce the so-called Secret Doctrine in his examination of Protagorean relativism in the Theaetetus? I argue

(1) that the relation between Protagoras’ claim and the Secret Doctrine is not one of mutual implication, but that the Secret Doctrine has the status of an independent hypothesis which Plato uses to defend Protagoras, (2) that the Secret Doctrine is not simply a doctrine of constant flux, but a collection of loosely related theses, and (3) that it is introduced to explain what it means for things to have properties only relative to perceivers. Plato’s discussion of Protagoras in the Theaetetus is the most careful and perceptive examination of relativism in antiquity. It is, however, highly problematic, for in order to explain what Protagoras meant by his claim that ‘man is the measure of all things: of what is, that it is, and of what is not, that it is not’ (Theaet. 152A 2-4; see also S.E. M. 7. 60=80 B 1 DK; D.L. 9. 51 =80 A 1 DK), Plato introduces a theory which is even more contentious and obscure. He calls this theory a ‘Secret Doctrine’, presumably to acknowledge that Protagoras himself never espoused any such
Probability as a Guide to Life; Co-authored with Helen Beebee
Authors: Papineau David
Published: November 2023

Let us assume that people’s degrees of belief conform to the probability calculus. This is an idealization, but it will not matter for the purposes of this essay. In line with normal usage, we will refer to these degrees of belief as subjective probabilities. Then we can say that agents are subjectively rational if they choose those actions which their subjective probabilities imply are most likely to achieve what they want. More precisely, given that agents normally attach different utilities to a number of different ends (another useful idealization), subjectively rational agents will choose those actions which will maximize their subjective expected utility.
Causation as a Guide to Life
Authors: Papineau David
Published: November 2023

In this essay, I want to re-examine the debate between evidential and causal decision theory. My immediate motivation for returning to this familiar issue derives from two recent papers, by Christopher Meek and Clark Glymour (1996), and by Christopher Hitchcock (1996). I shall argue that these papers are seduced by a plausible line of thought into a mistaken sympathy for evidentialism. A second motivation is to extend an account of non-causal probabilistic rationality developed earlier with Helen Beebee (Beebee and Papineau, 1997) to deal with causal contexts as well. By the end of the paper, I hope to have deepened our understanding of exactly why rational decision theory needs to attend to causes.
Are Whales Fish?
Authors: Dupré John
Published: November 2023

This chapter discusses the relationship between ordinary language classification of biological organisms and scientific classification. In a recent book (Dupre 1993) I argued at length for a pluralistic view of biological classification. This thesis has two parts, a pluralism about biological taxonomy and the insistence that folk taxonomies are as legitimate, and can be interpreted as realistically, as scientific taxonomies. A consequence of this, which I shall emphasize in this chapter, is that there is no reason to expect folkbiological categories to converge towards scientifically recognized kinds. Although there are certainly cases in which this happens, the removal of whales from the category of fish being a standard example which I shall consider in some detail, I argue that such changes are, at least, philosophically unmotivated.
The Mental Lives of Non-Human Animals
Authors: Dupré John
Published: November 2023

It is commonly supposed that the question whether animals other than ourselves have minds is perfectly simple to understand, but very difficult to answer. We suppose that we know exactly what is at issue, since we know from our own experience what it is to think, or more generally have mental lives; but we are very uncertain how we might ever discover whether animals do the same. In large part, we may also suppose, this is because, being dumb, they are unable to tell us. I want to argue in this paper that almost everything about this set of views is wrong. Our difficulty with this question is hardly at all to do with lack of evidence, but has everything to do with a lack of clarity about what is really involved in the attribution of mental states. I do not, of course, mean that the question about animal minds could be settled independently of any evidence. But I do want to suggest that the empirical facts in question may, in many cases, be quite banal. The trick is to decide what the relevant facts are.
The Calendar
Authors: Harding Jason
Published: November 2023

John Gross was correct to question respectfully the ‘underground reputation’ enjoyed by the Calendar of Modern Letters. The origins of that reputation can be traced to F. R. Leavis’s admiring introduction to his 1933 selection of critical essays and reviews from the Calendar. Comparing the Calendar to the Criterion, he spoke of its ‘superior liveliness’ and of ‘its great critical superiority’. In 1961, Malcolm Bradbury, who had interviewed Eliot, Leavis, and the Calendar’s chief editor, Edgell Rickword, described the journal as ‘in many ways’ the best literary review of the 1920s.
Introduction: The Developl\Ilent Of ‘I’He Inexpressiblli’I’Y Topos In European Literature
Authors: Brook Clodagh J
Published: November 2023

Then Eugenio Montale, in his review of. Joyce’s Dublin, wrote that ‘ii sense detail composition e in quell fringier di parole non date’, he was drawing attention to the unsaid in literature, hinting that some firm of truth is harbored beyond the word.1 It is a concern that echoes across his writing, finding its clearest articulation, perhaps, in the poem ‘So lore in cui’ (La  bodega  e  alto) where he affirms that ‘la piuveraragione di chit ace’. Here Montale challenges the power of language, his primary medium of expression, to reveal truth, and his as section raises a number of important theoretical questions.
Introduction
Authors: Clark Peter , Hawley Katherine
Published: November 2023

Most of the articles in this volume were previously published in a special supplement of the British Journal for the Philosophy of Science (Vol. 51, 2000), intended to mark the Journal’s fiftieth birthday; the articles by Brandon and Rosenberg, Campbell, Hall and Paul, and Shapiro are additional pieces, commissioned especially for the book. The range of articles is not intended to provide exhaustive coverage of current work in philosophy of science and allied disciplines —for example, there is little discussion of philosophical issues arising from cognitive science, and no mention of new developments in the philosophy of chemistry.
‘New Age’ Philosophies of Science: Constructivism, Feminism and Postmodernism
Authors: Koertge Noretta
Published: November 2023

This paper surveys three controversial new directions in research about the nature of science and briefly summarizes both the intellectual and sociological impact of this work. A bibliographic introduction to the major literature is provided and some fruitful directions for future research are proposed. Philosophers of science are also exhorted to perform ‘community service’ by correcting misunderstandings of the methods of science fostered by these new approaches.

As Kuhn has taught us, one quick way to find the center of gravity of a field is to look at its textbooks. When I came to the HPS department at Indiana in 1970, Nagel’s Structure of Science ([1961]) was recommended as summer reading for entering graduate students and provided the background for the set lectures on logical empiricism. To learn about new trends, students read Kuhn’s Structure of Scientific Revolutions ([1962]),
Geographical Introduction
Authors: Fodor Jerry , Lepore Ernest
Published: November 2023

COMPOSITIONALITY is the property that a system of representation has when (i) it contains both primitive symbols and symbols that are syntactically and semantically complex; and (ii) the latter inherit their syntactic/semantic properties from the former. For example, it is part and parcel of the compositionality of English that the symbol ‘dogs’ is complex, that it has the symbols ‘dog’ and ‘s’ as constituents, and that its meaning (viz., dogs) is inherited from the meanings of ‘dog’ (viz., dog) and ‘s’ (viz., plural). Likewise, it is part and parcel of the compositionality of English that the symbol ‘John jumps’ is complex, that it has among its constituents the symbols ‘John’ and ‘jumps ‘, and that its meaning (viz., John jumps) is inherited from the meanings of these sub sentential parts. The details are moot, but the general intuition will suffice for our present purposes: It seems clear (and we assume in what follows) that all the systems of representation that philosophers/cognitive scientists are professionally concerned with are more or less compositional. In particular, natural languages are, and so too is the system of mental representations that presumably mediates such mental processes as perception and thought.
What Can’t Be Valued Can’t Be Valued, and it Can’t Be Super valued Either
Authors: Fodor Jerry , Lepore Ernest
Published: November 2023

THIS is a long paper with a long title, but its moral is succinct. There are supposed to be two, closely related, philosophical problems about sentences with truth value gaps (tv gaps): If a sentence can ‘t be semantically evaluated, how can it mean anything at all? And how can classical logic be preserved for a language that contains such sentences? We are neutral on whether either of these supposed problems is real. But we claim that, if either is, super valuations will not solve it. There are many sentences that contain empty names; there are many sentences whose presuppositions fail, and there are many sentences whose predicates are vague (by some authors’ lights all predicates are, see Kamp and Partee 1995: 129-91). It seems plausible that at least some of these sentences are incapable of semantic evaluation; a fortiori, that they lack truth values. Let ‘s suppose for a working example that ‘The present king of France is bald’ is one of these.
Paul Churchland and State Space Semantics
Authors: Fodor Jerry , Lepore Ernest
Published: November 2023

A NUMBER of philosophers believe that the notion of identity of meaning should be replaced by some graded notion of similarity of meaning. With a graded notion of similarity of meaning, intentional generalizations would be viewed as subsuming individuals in virtue of the similarity of their mental states; translation and paraphrase would be viewed as preserving not identity but similarity of meaning, and so forth. The prospects, however, for constructing a ‘robust’ notion of similarity of meaning-one adequate to the purposes of semantics and cognitive science-are, we believe, remote. This prognosis is n ‘t widely shared, perhaps because friends of semantic similarity have generally been careful not to say what they take semantic similarity to consist in. Paul Churchland, however, has proposed a sketch of the sort of similarity theory that is required, a notion of mental (or, anyhow, neural) representation that ‘embodies ... metrical relations ... and thus embodies the representation of similarity relations between distinct items thus represented’ (1989b: 102).