bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Extracellular Polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA) Depolymerases: The Key Enzymes of PHA Degradation
Authors: Jendrossek Dieter
Published: January 2005

Introduction

Historical Outline

Identification and Isolation of Extracellular d‐Poly(HA)‐Degrading Microorganisms

Characterization of Poly(HA)‐Degrading Microorganisms

Biochemical Properties of Extracellular d‐Poly(HA) Depolymerases

Molecular Biology and Functional Analysis of d‐Poly(3HASCL) Depolymerases

PhaZ7, a new Type of Thermoalkalophilic Hydrolase ofP. lemoigneiwith high Specificity for Amorphous Poly(HASCL)

Molecular Biology and Functional Analysis of d‐Poly(HAMCL) Depolymerases

Enantioselectivity and Hydrolysis Products of Poly(HA) Depolymerases

Regulation of Poly(HA) Depolymerase Synthesis

Influence of Physico‐chemical Properties of the Polymer on its Biodegradability

Outlook and Perspectives

Patents

Acknowledgments
Molecular and Material Design of Biodegradable Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs)
Authors: Abe Hideki , Doi Yoshiharu
Published: January 2005

Introduction and Historical Outline

Structure and Properties of PHAs

Poly[(R)‐3‐hydroxybutyrate] Homopolymer

Copolymers of (R)‐3‐hydroxybutyrate with Hydroxyalkanoates

Poly[(R)‐3‐hydroxybutyrate]‐based Polymer Blends

Medium‐chain‐length Poly[(R)‐3‐hydroxyalkanoates]

Biodegradability of PHAs

Environmental Degradability of PHA Materials

Enzymatic Degradability of PHA Materials

Outlook and Perspectives
Crystallization and Material Properties of Polyhydroxyalkanoates PHAs)
Authors: Marchessault Robert H. , Yu Ga‐er
Published: January 2005

Introduction

Historical Outline

General Use Properties

Optical Rotation of PHAs

Crystalline Unit Cell and Conformation of Bacterial Poly(3HB) and Poly(3HV)

Crystalline Structure of Syndiotactic Poly(3HB)

Crystalline Conformation of Poly(4‐hydroxybutyrate)

Crystalline Structure and Properties of MCL‐PHA

Folded Chain Lamellar Single Crystals

Splintering of Poly(3HB) Single Crystals by Depolymerases

Molecular Chirality and Polymer Morphology

Kinetics of Crystallization of PHA

Thermal Degradation

Crystalline Structure of Poly(3HB) Oligomers

Dependence of Lamellar Thickness andTmon the Molecular Weight of Poly(3HB)

Chemical Degradation of Lamellar Poly(3HB) Crystals

Outlook and Perspectives

Acknowledgements
Structure and Hydrolysis of Polyester Single Crystals
Authors: Iwata Tadahisa , Doi Yoshiharu
Published: January 2005

Introduction and Historical Outline

Crystal Structure and Morphology

Poly([R]‐3‐hydroxybutyrate)

Poly([R]‐3‐hydroxybutyrate) copolymers

Poly([R]‐3‐hydroxyvalerate)

Poly(4‐hydroxybutyrate)

Poly(β‐propiolactone)

Poly(l‐lactic acid)

Poly(ɛ‐caprolactone)

Poly(ethylene succinate)

Poly(ethylene adipate)

Poly(tetramethylene succinate)

Poly(tetramethylene adipate)

Biodegradation of Single Crystals

Poly([R]‐3‐hydroxybutyrate) and its Copolymers

Poly(ethylene succinate)

Poly(l‐lactic acid)

Other Aliphatic Polyesters and Chemical Hydrolyses

Outlook and Perspectives

Acknowledgements
Fermentative Production of Building Blocks for Chemical Synthesis of Polyesters
Authors: Lee Sang Yup , Park Sang Hyun , Hong Soon Ho , Lee Young , Lee Seung Hwan
Published: January 2005

Introduction

Historical Outline

Dicarboxylic Acids

Succinic Acid

Adipic Acid

Diols

1,2‐Propanediol

1,3‐Propanediol

1,4‐Butanediol

Hydroxy Acids

Lactic Acid

Lactones and Other Cyclic Esters

Outlook and Perspectives

Acknowledgements

Patents
General Methodology for Chemical Synthesis of Polyesters
Authors: Seppälä Jukka V. , Korhonen Harri , Kylmä Janne , Tuominen Jukka
Published: January 2005

Introduction

Condensation Polymerization

Condensation of Hydroxy Acids

Condensation of Aliphatic Diols with Dicarboxylic Acids or Anhydrides

Ester Exchange Reactions

Polycondensation of Diols and Acyl Chlorides

Polycondensation of Aromatic Copolyesters

Enzymatic Synthesis of Polyesters

Ring‐opening Polymerization

Thermodynamics

Ring‐opening Polymerization Mechanisms

Effect of Polymerization Conditions

Tailoring of Macromolecular Architecture and Microstructure

Side Reactions, Thermal Degradation, and Stability

Synthesis of Polyester Derivatives

Poly(ester‐urethanes)

Poly(ester‐amides)

Poly(ester‐ethers)
Properties and Application of Aliphatic Polyester Products
Authors: Mochizuki Masatsugu
Published: January 2005

Introduction

Classification and Properties of Aliphatic Polyesters

Poly(α‐hydroxy acid)

Poly(β‐hydroxyalkanoate)

Poly(ω‐hydroxyalkanoate)

Poly(alkylene dicarboxylate)

Processability of Aliphatic Polyesters

Structural Effects on Biodegradation of Aliphatic Polyester Fibers

PCL fiber

Poly(butylene succinate) Fiber

Poly(lactic) Acid

Manufacture of PLA and its Products

Key Performance Features

Environmental Degradation

PLA Products and their Potential Applications

Conclusions
Applications of Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) in Medicine and Pharmacy
Authors: Williams Simon F. , Martin David P.
Published: January 2005

Introduction

Historical Outline

PHA Preparation and Properties: A Primer

Production

Mechanical and Thermal Properties

Sterilization of PHA Polymers

Biocompatibility

Natural Occurrence

In vitroCell Culture Testing

In vivoTissue Responses

Biodistribution

Bioabsorption

In vitroDegradation

In vivoBioabsorption

Applications

Cardiovascular

Dental and Maxillofacial

Drug Delivery

Prodrugs

Nerve Repair

Nutritional Uses

Orthopedic

Urology

Wound Management

Future Directions

Patents
Polylactides “NatureWorks® PLA”
Authors: Gruber Patrick , O'Brien Micheal
Published: January 2005

Introduction

Historical Outline

Production of PLA

Polymerization of Lactide

PLA Packaging Applications and Performance

Deadfold and Twist Retention

High Gloss and Clarity

Barrier Properties

Low Temperature Heat Seal

High‐tensile Modulus Strength

Film Characteristics

Packaging Conclusions

PLA for Fibers and Nonwovens

Applications and Properties

Clothing

Carpeting and Furnishings

Other Fiber Application Areas

Environmental Sustainability

CO
2
Emissions

Degradation and Hydrolysis

Disposal Options

Outlook and Perspectives

Acknowledgments
Aliphatic Polyesters: “Bionolle”
Authors: Ishioka Ryoji , E. Kitakuni  , Y. Ichikawa
Published: January 2005

Introduction

Historical Outline

Composition of “Bionolle”

Grades of “Bionolle”

Structure and Properties of Bionolle

Chemical Structure

Molecular Weight and Molecular Weight Distribution

Branching Structure

Crystal Structure

Melting and Crystallization

Processability

Blown Film

Stability of “Bionolle”

Hydrolysis

Pyrolysis

Biodegradability

Aerobic Biodegradation

Compostability

Degradation in the Environment

Microbial Degradation

Environmental Friendliness

Fitness for Sustainable Development

Outlook and Perspectives

Patents
Polyesteramides
Authors: Timmermann Ralf
Published: January 2005

Introduction

Historical Outline

Chemistry

Chemical Structures

Synthesis

Properties

Applications

Biodegradation

Production

Outlook and Perspectives

Patents
Chemical Modification of Natural and Synthetic Polyesters
Authors: Chiellini Emo , Bizzarri Ranieri , Chiellini Federica
Published: January 2005

Historical Outline and Introductory Remarks

Malic Acid‐based Polyesters

Poly(α‐Malic Acid) and its Copolymers

Poly(β‐Malic Acid) and Poly(alkyl malolactonate)s

Polyesters with Pendant Amine Groups

Poly(l‐Serine Ester)s

Poly(lactic acid‐co‐lysine)

Functionalization of Poly(ɛ‐caprolactone)

Synthesis of Functional Monomers by the Bayer–Villiger Oxidation of Cyclohexanones

Post‐modification of Functional PCL

Functional Poly(ester amide)s

Functional Polyesters by Miscellaneous Polymerization Methods

Synthesis of Functional Polyesters by Michael‐type Reaction

Synthesis of Functional Polyesters from Protected Polyhydroxylated Monomeric Precursors

Telechelic Polyesters

Role of Polymerization Mechanism

Anionic ROP

Coordinative ROP

Functional Microbial Polyesters

Concluding Remarks
Polysaccharides from Microorganisms, Plants and Animals
Authors: Sutherland Ian W.
Published: January 2005

Introduction

Polysaccharide Composition and Structure

Microbial Polysaccharide Composition and Structure

Composition and Structure of Yeast and Other Fungal Polysaccharides

Composition and Structure of Plant and Algal Polysaccharides

Polysaccharide Synthesis

Bacterial Synthesis of Polysaccharides

Synthesis of Plant and Animal Polysaccharides

The Physical Properties and Function of Polysaccharides

Commercialization of Polysaccharides

New Products
Bioemulsans: Surface‐active Polysaccharide‐containing Complexes
Authors: Rosenberg Eugene , Ron Eliora Z.
Published: January 2005

Introduction

Historical Outline

The Petroleum Industry Connection

The Emulsan Story

Occurrence and Chemical Properties

RAG‐1Emulsan

BD4Emulsan

Alasan

Biodispersan

Other High Molecular‐mass Bioemulsifiers

Natural Role of Emulsans

Increasing the Surface Area of Hydrophobic Water‐insoluble Substrates

Increasing the Bioavailability of Hydrophobic Water‐insoluble Substrates

Binding of Toxic Heavy Metals

Regulating the Attachment‐detachment of Microorganisms to and from Surfaces

Genetics and Regulation of Bioemulsan Production

Biodegradation

Production

Shake‐flask Experiments

Production in Small Fermentors

Large‐scale Production of Emulsans

Patents

Potential Applications

Outlook and Perspectives
Curdlan
Authors: Lee In‐Young
Published: January 2005

Introduction

Historical Outline

Structure

Beta‐1,3‐glucan

Conformation in Solution

Gel Structure

Occurrence

Biosynthesis

Molecular Genetics

Production

Carbon Source

Nitrogen Effect

Oxygen Supply

Phosphate Effect

pH Effect

Batch Production

Continuous Production

Isolation Process

Properties

Gel Formation

Immunestimulatory Activity

Applications

Food Applications

Pharmaceutical Applications

Agricultural Applications

Other Industrial Applications

Outlook and Perspectives

Patents

Acknowledgments
Sphingan Group of Exopolysaccharides (EPS)
Authors: Pollock Thomas J.
Published: January 2005

Introduction

Historical Outline

Chemical Structures

Structural Variations

Analytical Methods

Occurrence

Physiology

Properties

Biosynthesis

Synthesis of Sugar‐nucleotide Substrates

Assembly of the Repeat Unit, Polymerization and Secretion

Genetics

Regulation

Use of Classical Genetics and Recombinant DNA Technologies to Modify Production

Biodegradation

Production

Fermentation

Recovery and Purification

Producers

World Market

Applications

Outlook and Perspectives

Patents
Dextran
Authors: Leathers Timothy D.
Published: January 2005

Introduction

Historical Outline

Chemical Structure

Physiological Function

Chemical Analyses

Occurrence

Biosynthesis

Genetics and Molecular Biology

Biodegradation

Production

Properties and Applications

Patents

Outlook and Perspectives
Hyaluronan
Authors: Prehm Peter
Published: January 2005

Introduction

Historical Outline

Chemical Structure

Occurrence of Hyaluronan

Mechanism of Hyaluronan Synthesis

Chain Elongation

Chain Size

Chain Export

Swelling

Macromolecular Assembly

Hyaluronan Synthases

Hyaluronan‐binding Proteins and Receptors

CD44

RHAMM

Other Hyaluronan‐binding Proteins

Mechanisms of Hyaluronan Release from the Cell Surface

Regulation of Hyaluronan Synthesis

Expression of the Synthase

Stimulation and Inhibition of the Synthase

Influence of Chain Length on Further Elongation

Turnover and Catabolism

Functions of Hyaluronan

Cellular Functions

Physiological Functions

Pathological Functions

Hyaluronan Degradation

Degradation by Free Radicals

Degradation by Hyaluronidases

Production

Patents

Market

Medical Applications

Ophthalmics

Arthritis

Wound Healing and Scarring

Adhesion Prevention

Drug Delivery

Effects of Hyaluronan Oligosaccharides

Outlook and Perspectives
Exopolysaccharides of Lactic Acid Bacteria
Authors: Hallemeersch Isabel , De Baets Sophie , Vandamme Erick J.
Published: January 2005

Introduction

Historical Outline

Chemical Structure

Occurrence

Physiological Function

Chemical Analysis and Detection

Separation of EPS and Microbial Cells

Isolation and Purification

Structural Analysis

Biosynthesis

Genetics and Regulation

Factors Influencing Growth and EPS Production

Effect of Physico‐chemical Parameters

Effect of Nutritional Parameters

Kinetics of EPS Biosynthesis

Applications
Polysaccharide‐containing Cell‐wall Polymers of Archaea
Authors: König Helmut
Published: January 2005

Introduction

Historical Outline

Chemical Structure

Glutaminylglycan

Heteropolysaccharide

Methanochondroitin

Pseudomurein

S‐Layer

Lipoglycan

Occurrence

Functions

Biochemistry

Biosynthesis

Biological Activity

Molecular Genetics

Biodegradation

Methanochondroitin

Pseudomurein

Production (Producers, World market, Applications, Patents)

Outlook and Perspectives

Acknowledgements
Yeast Extracellular Polysaccharides
Authors: De Baets Sophie , Du Laing Sara , Vandamme Erick J.
Published: January 2005

Introduction

Historical Outline

Chemical Structures

Ascomycetous Yeasts

Basidiomycetous Yeasts

Chemical Analysis and Detection

Occurrence

Functions

Biosynthesis

Molecular Genetics and Regulation

Biodegradation

Production

Properties and Applications

Hansenula(Pichia)holstii

Tremellaspp.

Rhodotorulaspp.

Sporobolomyces albo‐rubescens

Outlook and Perspectives

Patents

Hansenula(Pichia)holstii

Tremella fuciformis

Tremella mesenterica

Cryptococcus laurentii
Chitin and Chitosan in Fungi
Authors: Peter Martin G.
Published: January 2005

Introduction

Chemical Structure

Chitin

Chitosan

Polyphenolic Pigments

Occurrence

Physiological Function

Chemical Analysis and Detection

Biosynthesis of Chitin and Chitosan

Chitin Synthases (CS)

Glucan Transferase

Chitin Deacetylase (CDA)

Biodegradation

Chitinase

Chitosanases

Exo‐β‐d‐glucosaminidases

Biotechnological Production

Screening for Chitosan Producer Strains

Isolation of Chitin and Chitosan from Fungal Biomass

Production of CDA

Applications

Adsorption of Coloring Matters

Metal Ion Adsorption

Healthcare

Outlook

Patents

Acknowledgements
Fungal Cell Wall Glycans
Authors: Jong Shung‐Chang
Published: January 2005

Introduction

Historical Outline

Immunomodulatory and Antitumor Glycans

β‐Glucans and their Protein Complexes

Heteroglucans and their Protein Complexes

Chemical Modification

Antiviral Glycans

Antimicrobial Glycans

Hepatoprotective Glycans

Antifibrotic Glycans

Antiinflammatory Glycans

Antidiabetic and Hypoglycemic Glycans

Hypocholesterolemic Glycans

Patents

Outlook and Perspectives
Cell‐Wall Beta‐Glucans ofSaccharomyces cerevisiae
Authors: Dijkgraaf Gerrit J. P. , Li Huijuan , Bussey Howard
Published: January 2005

Introduction

Historical Outline

Methodological Advances in Cell‐Wall Research

Elucidating the Molecular Structure of Yeast Glucans

Alkali‐Insolubility of Glucan is Mediated by Cross‐Linking to Chitin

Structural Studies on Yeast Glucan

Enzymology of Glucan Synthesis

Gene Products Involved in β‐1,3‐Glucan Biosynthesis

Fks1p and Fks2p

Rho1p

Gns1p

Knr4p

Hkr1p

Gene Products Involved in β‐1,6‐Glucan Biosynthesis

Endoplasmic Reticulum

Golgi

Cytoplasm and Cell Surface

Glucan Remodeling and Cross‐Linking

Glucanases

Glucanosyltransferases

Applications of Yeast β‐Glucans

Glucan Synthase Inhibitors

Outlook and Perspectives

Acknowledgments
Seed Gums
Authors: Dierckx Stephan , Dewettinck Koen
Published: January 2005

Introduction

Historical Outline

Chemical Structures

Occurrence

Introduction

Carob Bean

Guar

Tara Gum

Functions

Biochemistry

Biodegradation

Production

Processes and Producers

World Market

Applications

Outlook and Perspectives

Patents
Cyanophycin
Authors: Oppermann‐Sanio Fred Bernd , Steinbüchel Alexander
Published: January 2005

Introduction

Historical Outline

Chemical Structure

Chemical Analysis and Detection

Solubility Properties of CGP and Isolation

Molecular Weight and Structure of CGP

Quantification of CGP

Variations in Composition and CGP‐like Polymers

Occurrence

Occurrence in Cyanobacteria

Occurrence in Chemotrophic Bacteria

Functions

Physiology

Biochemistry

Primary Structures and Motifs Occurring in CGP Synthetases

Assay of CGP Synthetase Activity and Substrate Specificity

Mechanism of Catalysis

Molecular Genetics

Biodegradation

Intracellular Mobilization

Extracellular Breakdown

Biotechnological Production of CGP

Fermentative Production after Heterologous Expression ofcphAinE. coli

Isolation of CGP

Fermentative Production after Heterologous Expression ofcphAin other Bacteria

In‐Vitro Biosynthesis of CGP

Outlook and Perspectives

Patents
Poly‐γ‐glutamic Acid
Authors: Ashiuchi Makoto , Misono Haruo
Published: January 2005

Introduction

Historical Outline

Chemical Analysis

Chemical Synthesis

Molecular Structure

Molecular Spring

Chemical Modification

Esterification

Crosslinking

Producers

Glutamic Acid‐dependent Producers

Glutamic Acid‐independent Producers

Physiology

Nullification of Immunity in InfectiousB. anthracis

Neutralization of Near‐cell Surface in Alkalophiles

Prevention of Drastic Dehydration under High‐saline Conditions in Halophiles

Regulation of Osmotic Pressure in Cnidarians

Molecular Genetics

Encapsulation (cap) Genes

Poly‐γ‐glutamic Acid Synthesis (pgs) Genes

Regulatory Genes

Biosynthesis

Poly‐γ‐glutamic Acid Precursor Biosynthesis

Poly‐γ‐glutamic Acid Biosynthesis

Biodegradation

Occurrence

Enzymology

Molecular Genetics

Applications

Potential Applications

Biodegradable Plastics and Hydrogels

Bioremediation

Other Applications

Manufacturers

Outlook and Perspectives

Patents
Self‐assembling Symmetric Protein Materials
Authors: Padilla Jennifer E. , Yu Tianwei
Published: January 2005

Introduction to Self‐assembly

Protein Properties that Promote Self‐assembly

Historical Outline

Chemical Structures

Symmetry

Symmetry Elements

Symmetric Contacts in Proteins

Multiple Symmetry Elements

Naturally Occurring Symmetric Complexes

Protein Oligomers

Icosahedral Viral Capsids

Clathrin

Filaments

S‐layers

Protein Crystals

Designed Self‐assembling Protein Complexes

Coiled‐coil Extensions

Domain Swapping

Symmetric Construction

Polyvalency

Observing Protein Assemblies

Transmission Electron Microscopy

Cryoelectron Microscopy

Atomic Force Microscopy

X‐ray and Electron Diffraction

Applications

Patents

Outlook and Perspectives
Self‐assembling Protein Systems: Microbial S‐layers
Authors: Sleytr Uwe B. , Sára Margit , Pum Dietmar , Schuster Bernhard , Messner Paul , Schäffer Christina
Published: January 2005

Introduction

Historical Outline

Occurrence and Ultrastructure

Isolation and Chemical Characterization

Molecular Biology, Genetics and Biosynthesis

Assembly and Morphogenesis

Self‐assemblyin vivo

Self‐assemblyin vitro

Functional Aspects

Biodegradation

Production of S‐layer Proteins

Application of S‐layer Proteins

S‐layer Ultrafiltration Membranes

S‐layers as Matrix for the Immobilization of Functional Macromolecules

S‐layer‐based Dipsticks

Supramolecular Structures Generated by Oriented Recrystallization of S‐layer Fusion Proteins on Supports Precoated with SCWP

S‐layers as Templates for the Formation of Regularly Arranged Nanoparticles

S‐layers as Supporting Structures for Functional Lipid Membranes (Planar Membranes and Liposomes)

S‐layers for Vaccine Development

Outlook and Perspectives

Patents
Enzymes for Technical Applications
Authors: Schäfer Thomas , Kirk Ole , Borchert Torben Vedel , Fuglsang Claus Crone , Pedersen Sven , Salmon Sonja , Olsen Hans Sejr , Deinhammer Randy , Lund Henrik
Published: January 2005

Introduction

Historical Outline

Enzymes for the Detergent Industry

Introduction

History

Overview of Enzymes

Latest Innovations

Future Perspectives

Enzymes for the Starch Industry

Introduction

History

Enzymes

Latest Innovations

Perspectives

Enzymes for Biofuel

Introduction

History

Enzymes and Latest Innovations

Future Perspectives

Enzymes for the Textile Industry

Introduction

History

Enzymes

Latest Innovations

Enzymes for the Pulp and Paper Industry

Introduction

Overview of Selected Applications

Enzymes

Future Perspectives

Enzymes for Organic Synthesis

Introduction

History

Enzymes

Latest Innovations

Perspectives

Enzymes for Processing of Fats and Oils

Introduction

History

Enzymes

Latest Innovations

Perspectives

Key Technologies for the Discovery of Industrial Enzymes

Exploring Nature's Diversity

Protein Optimization

Conclusion

Acknowledgments
Silk Fibroin Proteins: Structure, Function, and Evolution
Authors: Lewis Randolph V.
Published: January 2005

Introduction

Historical Outline

Biological Aspects

Mechanical Properties

Protein Sequences: Conservation, Divergence, and Convergence

Major Ampullate Silk Proteins

Minor Ampullate Silk Proteins

Flagelliform Silk Proteins

Sequence Comparisons Between Spider Species

Biophysical Studies

Protein Structure–Function Relationships

Expression of Synthetic Spider Silk Proteins

Strategies for Synthetic Gene Construction

Expression of Spider Silk Proteins

Materials Studies with Expressed Proteins

Outlook and Perspectives
Biology and Technology of Silk Production
Authors: Vollrath Fritz , Knight David
Published: January 2005

Introduction

Historical Outline

Evolution of Spider Silks

Design Requirements

Spinning Micro‐ and Nanocomposites

Spinning Conditions That Affect Mechanical Properties

Fiber Composition

Extruder and Feedstock Morphology

Liquid Crystalline Spinning in Nature

Silkworm Spinning

Evaluation of Nature's Spinning Technology

Commerce of Artificial Silks

Outlook and Perspectives
Wool from Animal Sources
Authors: Zahn Helmut , Schäfer Karola , Popescu Crisan
Published: January 2005

Introduction

Historical Outline

Cell Biology

The Wool Follicle

Expression of Keratin and KAP Genes in Wool Follicle Differentiations

Occurrence

Sheep Rearing and Breeding

Places of Origin and Types of Raw Wool

Wool Fiber Geometry

Morphology

Structural Biology

Bonding and Interactions in Wool Fibers

α‐ and β‐Keratin Structures in the Cortical Microfibrils

Chemical Composition of Wool and its Morphological Components

Proteins

Free Internal Lipids

Covalently Bound Lipids

Chemical Analysis

Physical and Mechanical Properties

Water Absorption

Mechanical Properties

Glass Transition

Thermal Denaturation

Wool as a Polyampholyte

Chemical Reactivity

Dry Heat

Moist Heat

Acid Degradation

Degradation by Alkali

Reducing Agents

Photodegradation

Clothing Physiology

Biochemistry

Isolation of Wool Proteins

Amino Acid Sequences of Wool Proteins

Morphological Location of Wool Proteins

Biodegradation

Enzymatic Degradation

Molecular Genetics

Production

Wool Collection

Raw Wool Scouring

Mechanical Processing

Chemical Processing

World Market and Prices

Outlook

Acknowledgments
Sweet‐tasting Proteins
Authors: Faus Ignacio , Sisniega Heidi
Published: January 2005

Introduction

Historical Perspectives

Thaumatin

Monellin

Mabinlin

Pentadin

Brazzein

Curculin

Miraculin

Comparison of Different Sweet‐tasting Proteins: The Thaumatin‐like Proteins

Patents

Outlook and Perspectives
Protein Composites: Biominerals
Authors: Veis Arthur
Published: January 2005

Introduction

Historical Outline

Type I Collagen Synthesis and Secretion

Molecular Structure and Fibril Assembly

Chemistry of Collagen Crosslinking

Matrix Mineralization and Organization

Tooth Enamel

Invertebrate Mineralization and Organization

Outlook and Perspectives

Acknowledgments
Self‐assembling Protein Cage Systems and Applications in Nanotechnology
Authors: Douglas Trevor , Allen Mark , Young Mark
Published: January 2005

Introduction

Historical Outline

Ferritin

Using Ferritin for Nanoparticle Synthesis

Modification of the Outer Surface of Ferritin

Assembly of Ferritin into Two‐dimensional Arrays

Use of Ferritin as a Photocatalyst

Ferritin‐like Proteins

Viruses as Protein Cages

Cowpea Chlorotic Mottle Virus

Cowpea Mosaic Virus

Norwalk Virus

Virus‐like Protein Cages

Viruses for Gene Delivery

Outlook and Perspectives
Crystallization of Proteins, Nucleic Acids, and Viruses for X‐ray Diffraction Analysis
Authors: McPherson Alexander , Cudney Robert , Patel Sam
Published: January 2005

Introduction

Solubility and Supersaturation

Properties of Macromolecular Crystals

Preparation of Samples

Precipitants and Their Effects

The Use of Temperature for Crystallization

Creating Supersaturation – Methodology

Factors Affecting Crystallization

Screening and Optimization

Theoretical Contributions to Macromolecular Crystal Growth

Future Trends
Natural Polyacetals
Authors: Metzger Pierre , Largeau Claude
Published: January 2005

Introduction

Historical Outline

Chemical Structure

Isolation and Abundance

Molecular Weights

Chemical Analyses

Occurrence of Polyaldehyde and Polyacetals

Functions of Polyaldehyde and Polyacetals

Physiology

Biochemistry of Polyaldehyde and Polyacetal Biosynthesis

Molecular Genetics

Biodegradation and Fossilization

Application of Polyaldehyde and Polyacetals

Outlook and Perspectives

Patents
Hemozoin: a Biocrystal Synthesized during the Degradation of Hemoglobin
Authors: Sullivan David J.
Published: January 2005

Introduction

Malaria

Malaria Pathogenesis

Hemoglobin Degradation

Historical Outline

Pigment Associates with Malaria

Pigment Links Mosquito toPlasmodiumLife Cycle

Chemical Structure

Occurrence

Function of Hemozoin

Structure of Hemozoin

Analysis of Early Purifications

Comparison with Schistosomal Pigment

Hemozoin Lacks Protein

The Iron–Oxygen Coordinate Bond

Paramagnetic Hemozoin

Biochemical Formation of Hemozoin

Formalin Pigment

Other Parasite Pigments

PlasmodiumProtein Initiation of Pigment

Inhibition of Hemozoin Formation

Immune Modulation of Hemozoin

Perturbation of Leukocyte Function

Leukocyte Pigment as a Prognostic Indicator

Patents

Outlook and Perspectives
Thymine‐Containing Styrene Polymers as Environmentally Benign Photoresists
Authors: Lloyd‐Kindstrand Lisa , Warner John C.
Published: January 2005

Introduction

Polystyrene Derivatives

Polymer Coatings

Regenerating Polymeric Starting Materials

Outlook and Perspectives
Biodegradation of Alginate, Xanthan, and Gellan
Authors: Hashimoto Wataru , Mishima Yumiko , Miyake Osamu , Nankai Hirokazu , Momma Keiko , Murata Kousaku
Published: January 2005

Introduction

Historical Outline

Alginate

Xanthan

Gellan

Alginate Depolymerization

Alginate‐assimilating Bacterium

Genes Responsible for Uptake of Alginate

Enzymatic Depolymerization System for Alginate inSphingomonassp. A1

Catalytic Action and Crystal Structure of Alginate Lyase A1‐III

Xanthan Depolymerization

Xanthan‐assimilating Bacterium

Properties of Xanthan Lyase and its Gene

Enzymatic Depolymerization System for Xanthan inBacillussp. GL1

Gellan Depolymerization

Gellan‐assimilating Bacterium

Properties of Gellan Lyase and its Gene

Enzymatic Depolymerization System for Gellan inBacillussp. GL1

Concluding Remarks

Direct Uptake System for Macromolecules

Common Rules for Polysaccharide Lyase Processing

Structure and Evolution of Sugar‐metabolizing Enzymes

Functions of Bacterial Exopoly‐ and Oligosaccharides

Outlook and Perspectives

Acknowledgments
Biodegradation of Polyacrylate
Authors: Kawai Fusako , Hayashi Takaya
Published: January 2005

Introduction

Historical Outline

Chemical Structure

Biodegradation of Polyacrylate

Biodegradation of Acrylic Oligomers

Biodegradation of PAA

Biodegradation of UV‐irradiated PAA

Physiology

Production

Patents

Outlook and Perspectives

Acknowledgments
Biodegradation of Polyurethanes
Authors: Tokiwa Yutaka
Published: January 2005

Introduction

Microbial Biodegradation of Polyurethane

Enzymatic Degradation of Polyurethanes Containing Polyester Segment (ES‐PUR)

Enzymatic Hydrolysis of ES‐PUR

Effect of Polyester Molecular Weight on ES‐PUR Hydrolysis byR. delemarLipase

Effect of Third Component of ES‐PUR on Hydrolysis byR. delemarLipase

Effect of Chemical Structure of Diisocyanate on ES‐PUR Hydrolysis by Lipase

Outlook and Perspectives
Biodegradation of Poly(vinyl alcohol) and its Copolymers
Authors: Matsumura Shuichi
Published: January 2005

Introduction

Historical Outline

Chemical Structures

Functions

Physical Properties

Properties of PVA film

Properties of Aqueous PVA Solution

Chemical Properties of PVA

Physiology and Biochemistry

Biodegradation

Microbial Degradation of PVA and Related Enzymes

PVA Biodegradation Mechanism and Related Enzymes

Polymer Structure and Biodegradation

Biodegradation of PVA‐based Polymer

Design of Biodegradable Polymer using Vinyl Alcohol Block

Production

Outlook and Perspectives

Patents

Acknowledgments
Biodegradation of Nylon and other Synthetic Polyamides
Authors: Negoro Seiji
Published: January 2005

Introduction

Historical Outline

Chemical Structures, and Preparation of Nylon Oligomers

Cyclic Oligomers of 6‐Aminohexanoate

Linear Oligomers of 6‐Aminohexanoate and their Related Compounds

Production and Main Applications of Nylon

Biodegradation

Biodegradation of Polyamides

Biodegradation of ɛ‐Caprolactam

Biodegradation of Nylon Oligomer

Outlook and Perspectives

Patents
Biodegradation of Polyanhydrides
Authors: Kumar Neeraj , Ravikumar Majeti N. V. , Slivniak Raia , Krasko Michal Y. , Domb Abraham J.
Published: January 2005

Introduction

Degradation: A Real Meaning

Mechanisms Involved in Degradation

Historical Outline

Polymer Erosion

Changes in Polymer Structure During Erosion

Factors Affecting Degradation

Synthesis

Structures

Surface Analysis

Polyanhydride Degradation: In‐vitro and In‐vivo Approaches

In‐vitro Degradation and Drug Release

In‐vivo Degradation and Drug Release

Modeling of Polymer Erosion

Production of Polyanhydrides

World Market

Applications

Patents

Outlook and Perspectives
Biodegradation of Polyphosphazenes
Authors: Zhu Kangjie , Qiu Liyan
Published: January 2005

Introduction

Historical Outline

Chemical Structures

Occurrence

Functions

Controlled Drug Release

Temporary Replacement of Body Parts

Physiology

Biodegradation

Hydrophobic Matrix

Water‐soluble Matrix

Polyphosphazene–Drug Conjugation

Products

Outlook and Perspectives

Patents
Biodegradation of Silicones (Organosiloxanes)
Authors: Lukasiak Jerzy , Dorosz Agnieszka , Prokopowicz Magdalena , Rosciszewski Pawel , Falkiewicz Bogdan
Published: January 2005

Introduction

Historical Outline

Chemical Structures

Occurrence and Functions

Properties, Degradation and Biodegradation

Degradation and BiodegradationIn vitro

BiodegradationIn vivo

Silicone Industry

Production of Silicones

Main Commercial Silicone Producers

Patents

Outlook and Perspectives
Applications of Polyphosphate and other Biopolymers in Wastewater Treatment
Authors: Kuroda Akio , Ohtake Hisao
Published: January 2005

Introduction

Historical Outline

Analytical Methods for Polyphosphate

Synthesis of Polyphosphate

Cellular Function of Polyphosphate

Phosphagen

Phosphate Reservoir

Stress Regulator

Applications of Polyphosphate

Phosphorus Reuse and Recycling

Polyphosphate as a Low‐cost Phosphoryl Donor

Phosphorus Fiber

Using other Biopolymers in Wastewater Treatment

Biopolymers as Biodegradable Flocculating Agents

Biopolymer to Support Biofilm Formation

PHB in Denitrification Process in a Wastewater Treatment Plant

Outlook and Perspectives

Patent Applications
Chemical Modification of Synthetic and Biosynthetic Polyesters
Authors: Hazer Baki
Published: January 2005

Introduction

Chemical Modification of Synthetic Polyesters

Poly(lactic acid), Poly(glycolic acid), and Poly(ɛ‐caprolactone)

Atactic‐PHB (a‐PHB)

Chemical Modification of Biosynthetic Polyesters

Chemical Modification of sPHAs

Chemical Modification of mPHAs

Acknowledgments
Biofilms
Authors: Flemming Hans‐Curt , Wingender Jost
Published: January 2005

Introduction

Historical Outline

Composition and Structure of Biofilms

The EPS matrix

Structure of the Biofilm Matrix

Functional Aspects of the Biofilm Matrix

Formation and Development of Biofilms

Role of Intercellular Communication in Biofilm Formation

Environmental Role of Biofilms

Biotechnological Use of Biofilms

Wastewater Treatment

Bioremediation

Detrimental Biofilms

Biofilms in Medicine

Biofouling in Industrial Systems

Microbially Influenced Corrosion

Biodeterioration of Mineral Materials

Biodeterioration of Synthetic Polymers

Enhanced Resistance of Biofilm Organisms

Transport Limitation by Reaction–Diffusion Interaction

Slow Growth Rate and General Stress Response

Role of Biofilm‐specific Phenotype

Role of Persister Cells

Outlook and Perspectives
Health Issues of Biopolymers: Polyhydroxybutyrate
Authors: Freier Thomas , Sternberg Katrin , Behrend Detlef , Schmitz Klaus‐Peter
Published: January 2005

Introduction

Historical Outline

Poly(3‐hydroxybutyrate)

Mechanical Properties

Biocompatibility

In vitroDegradation

In vivoDegradation

Investigations of Clinical Applications

Poly(4‐hydroxybutyrate)

Mechanical Properties

Biocompatibility

In vitroDegradation

In vivoDegradation

Investigations on Clinical Applications

Excursion: Biopolymers other than PHA

Polypeptides

Polysaccharides

Outlook and Perspectives
Economic Aspects of Biopolymer Production
Authors: Lee Sang Yup , Park Si Jae , Park Jong Pil , Lee Young , Lee Seung Hwan
Published: January 2005

Introduction

Historical Outline

Microbial Polysaccharides

Bacterial Cellulose (β‐d‐Glucan)

Pullulan (α‐d‐Glucan)

Xanthan

Poly‐γ‐glutamic acid (γ‐PGA)

Production of γ‐PGA

Recovery of γ‐PGA

Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs)

Poly(3‐hydroxybutyrate)

Poly(3‐hydroxybutyrate‐co‐3‐hydroxyvalerate)

Poly(3‐hydroxybutyrate‐co‐3‐hydroxyhexanoate)

Medium‐chain‐length Poly(3‐hydroxyalkanoates)

Outlook and Perspectives

Patents
Polymer Industry: Sustainability, Agro‐resources and Technology
Authors: Vellema Sietze , van Tuil Robert , Eggink Gerrit
Published: January 2005

Introduction

Technology and Sustainability

Fine‐tuning Business Strategy and Technology Strategy

Transition to a Bio‐based Industry: Sectoral Integration in the Netherlands

Perspectives on Healthy and Sustainable Technology Development

Can Sustainability Drive Technology?

Foresight in the Materials and Chemicals Industry: International Perspectives

USA: Technology Roadmap for Plant/Crop‐based Renewable Resources 2020 and Bio‐based Industrial Products

USA: Technology Vision for the Chemical Industry in 2020

UK: A Chemicals Renaissance

Netherlands: Catalysis Roadmap

OECD: Biotechnology for Clean Industrial Products and Processes

Keys to Sustainability in the Materials Industry

Translation to Content

Safe and Efficient Production of Monomers, Polymers and Materials

High‐performance Polymers and Materials

Safe and Efficient Waste Management and Transformation to Resource or Energy

Conclusion
Evaluation and Certification of Compostable Polymeric Materials and Products
Authors: van der Zee Maarten
Published: January 2005

Introduction

Background

Defining Biodegradability

Why is Compostability an Issue?

The European Council Directive on Packaging and Packaging Waste

Evaluation of Compostability

Characterization

Biodegradability

Disintegration

Effects on the Composting Process

Effects on Compost Quality

Evaluation versus Certification

Examples of Current Certification Programs

Compostability Mark of IBAW

OK Compost Logo of AVI

Compostable Logo of BPI

GreenPla Identification and Labeling System of BPS

Other Developments

Future Perspectives
The third parameter in reactive barrier films
Authors: Nuxoll Eric E. , Cussler E. L.
Published: January 2005

The lag time of a barrier film can be dramatically increased by the addition of sacrificial scavengers that consume solute before crossing the barrier. This increase in lag time is independent of the scavengers' reaction rate. This reaction rate does affect the amount of solute that crosses the membrane before steady state, a premature leakage that may render the barrier unsuitable regardless of its putative lag time and permeability. A third parameter is needed to characterize the barrier's transient behavior. Guided by experiments, we offer two candidate parameters for quantifying these changes. Correlations of these parameters are determined numerically and compared with experimental results. © 2005 American Institute of Chemical Engineers AIChE J, 51: 456–463, 2005
Gas fluidization characteristics of nanoparticle agglomerates
Authors: Zhu Chao , Yu Qun , Dave Rajesh N. , Pfeffer Robert
Published: January 2005

An experimental study is conducted to determine the effect of different types of nanoparticles on the gas fluidization characteristics of nanoparticle agglomerates. Taking advantage of the extremely high porosity of the bed, optical techniques are used to visualize the flow behavior, as well as to measure the sizes of the fluidized nanoparticle agglomerates at the bed surface. Upon fluidizing 11 different nanoparticle materials, two types of nanoparticle fluidization behavior, agglomerate particulate fluidization (APF) and agglomerate bubbling fluidization (ABF), are observed and systematically investigated. A simple analytical model is developed to predict the agglomerate sizes for APF nanoparticles, and the results agree fairly well with the optical measurements. Using the Ergun equation, the experimentally measured pressure drop and bed height, and the average agglomerate size and voidage at minimum fluidization predicted by the model, the minimum fluidization velocities for APF nanoparticles are calculated and also agree well with the experimental values. Other important fluidization features such as bed expansion, bed pressure drop, and hysteresis effects, and the effects of the primary particle size and material properties are also described. © 2005 American Institute of Chemical Engineers AIChE J, 51: 426–439, 2005
Polymer encapsulation of fine particles by a supercritical antisolvent process
Authors: Wang Yulu , Pfeffer Robert , Dave Rajesh , Enick Robert
Published: January 2005

Coating and encapsulation of fine particles with polymer using a supercritical antisolvent (SAS) coating process was investigated in this research. Synthesized submicron silica particles were used as host particles and poly(lactide‐co‐glycolide) (PLGA), a biodegradable polymer used for controlled release of drugs, was chosen as the coating material. In the SAS coating process a suspension of silica particles in an acetone–polymer solution was sprayed through a capillary nozzle into supercritical (SC) CO2, which acts as an antisolvent for the acetone. A rapid mutual diffusion between the SC CO2 and the acetone causes supersaturation of the polymer solution, leading to nucleation and precipitation of the polymer to encapsulate the silica particles. The operating parameters that have an effect on the coating process, such as polymer to particle weight ratio, polymer concentration, temperature, pressure, flow rate of polymer solution, and the addition of a SC CO2 soluble surfactant, were systematically studied. It is shown that the polymer to silica ratio and the polymer concentration are critical for the successful encapsulation of silica particles with minimum agglomeration. © 2005 American Institute of Chemical Engineers AIChE J, 51: 440–455, 2005
Assessing the validity of blood‐based gene expression profiles for the classification of schizophrenia and bipolar disorder: A preliminary report
Authors: Tsuang Ming T. , Nossova Nadine , Yager Tom , Tsuang Min‐Min , Guo Shi‐Chin , Shyu Kou Ge , Glatt Stephen J. , Liew C.C.
Published: January 2005

Recent advances have facilitated the use of blood‐derived RNA to conduct genomic analyses of human diseases. This emerging technology represents a rigorous and convenient alternative to traditional tissue biopsy‐derived RNA, as it allows for larger sample sizes, better standardization of technical procedures, and the ability to non‐invasively profile human subjects. In the present pilot study, we have collected RNA from blood of patients diagnosed with schizophrenia or bipolar disorder (BPD), as well as normal control subjects. Using microarray analysis, we found that each disease state exhibited a unique expressed genome signature, allowing us to discriminate between the schizophrenia, BPD, and control groups. In addition, we validated changes in several potential biomarker genes for schizophrenia and BPD by RT‐PCR, and some of these were found to code to chromosomal loci previously linked to schizophrenia. Linear and non‐linear combinations of eight putative biomarker genes (APOBEC3B, ADSS, ATM, CLC, CTBP1, DATF1, CXCL1, and S100A9) were able to discriminate between schizophrenia, BPD, and control samples, with an overall accuracy of 95%–97% as indicated by receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis. We therefore propose that blood cell‐derived RNA may have significant value for performing diagnostic functions and identifying disease biomarkers in schizophrenia and BPD. © 2005 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Suicidal disorders: A nosological entity per se?
Authors: Leboyer Marion , Slama Frederic , Siever Larry , Bellivier Frank
Published: January 2005

An extensive body of data has repeatedly shown in the past decades that suicidal behaviors are associated with several external validators such as low serotonergic activity in body fluids and in brains of suicide victims, genetic transmission of suicide risk independently of transmission of associated major psychiatric disorders, and more recently association with several serotonin‐related genes. Despite these concordant findings, suicidal behaviors are still not considered as a nosological entity per se in standardized classification. The aim of this study is to review the existing literature establishing the validity of this entity through clinical, genetic, biochemical, and therapeutic arguments all leading to the need to recognizing suicidal behavior as an independent and possibly dimensional clinical entity. © 2005 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Suicidal behavior prevention: WHO perspectives on research
Authors: Bertolote José Manoel , Fleischmann Alexandra
Published: January 2005

Suicide has been identified as a serious public health problem which is receiving increasing attention. Whereas a large number of Member States of the World Health Organization (WHO) reports on suicide mortality, no systematic national data on attempted suicide exist. Having recognized the need for comparable information about attempted suicide across different countries and cultures, WHO's Multisite Intervention Study on Suicidal Behaviors is presented. © 2005 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Suicidal behavior: Relationship between phenotype and serotonergic genotype
Authors: Courtet Philippe , Jollant Fabrice , Castelnau Didier , Buresi Catherine , Malafosse Alain
Published: January 2005

The basis of suicidal behavior (SB) is complex and multifactorial. Numerous risk factors have been identified. Epidemiological genetics studies (family studies, twin studies, adoption studies) suggest that there is a genetic basis to SB and that this genetic basis is specific and independent from the genetic factors implicated in predisposition to psychiatric disorders associated with SB (bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, alcoholism). Recently, new molecular genetics tools have been designed to identify the genetic factors that predispose certain individuals to disorders of complex etiology. Biological psychiatry studies have suggested that the physiopathology of SB involves dysfunctioning of the serotonin system. The first genetic association studies tested candidate genes encoding proteins involved in serotonin metabolism. The results of these studies suggest that the gene coding for the limiting enzyme in the synthesis of serotonin, tryptophan hydroxylase (TPH), and the gene encoding the serotonin transporter are involved in predisposition to SB. Furthermore, it is likely that these genes interact with each other and with environmental factors (early) and that they have different phenotypic consequences. One of the main aims of studies currently underway is to identify the precise phenotypes associated with genes that predispose to SB or intermediate phenotypes (impulsivity, inability to control anger, etc.). © 2005 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
History and geography of suicide: Could genetic risk factors account for the variation in suicide rates?
Authors: Marušič Andrej
Published: January 2005

The current state of knowledge of genetic predisposition towards the suicidal behavior allows for a question whether genetic risk factors account for the variation in suicide rates through time and space. Accordingly, the presented paper will attempt to tackle the genetics behind suicidal behavior from the perspective of the populational genetics. First, the variability of suicide rates across Europe is discussed. This is followed by a brief discussion of the J curve (on a map of Europe, the countries with a higher suicide rate form a so‐called J curve, which starts in Finland and extends down to Slovenia), which maps on to the second principal component identified for European gene distribution, representing the ancestral adaptation to cold climates and the Uralic language dispersion. Furthermore, we will discuss whether the group of people living within the J‐curve could share genes, which may not tolerate excessive amounts alcohol, the combination of which is more likely to end in suicidal behavior. Further along we list possible ways in which suicidal behaviour could have been selected for genetically in populations and identify those specific populations in which it may have appeared. Finally, we point at other locations in the world where a similar interplay of genes and environment has probably occurred, Greenland being the best example of the malignant interaction of alcohol consumption and the trait‐like characteristics, which might constitute the vulnerability to suicidal behaviour. © 2005 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Molecular characterization of suicide by microarray analysis
Authors: Gwadry Fuad G. , Sequeira Adolfo , Hoke Glenn , ffrench‐Mullen Jarlath M.H. , Turecki Gustavo
Published: January 2005

Several lines of evidence support the idea that individuals who commit suicide have a certain biological predisposition, part of which is given by genes. Studies investigating genetic factors increasing suicide predisposition have been limited by current knowledge of the suicide neurobiology and have typically investigated one or a few genes at a time, whereas it is anticipated that several genes account for the total genetic variance mediating suicide. This review focuses on the advantages and the interest of using the microarray technology to investigate the neurobiology of suicide and discusses, by means of a data analysis example, the possible methodological problems and bioinformatic strategies that should be employed in order to separate the signal from the large amount of background noise, which is usually generated in such studies. Microarray expression studies and related platforms are promising tools to gain better insight into the neurobiology of suicide. © 2005 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Conducting copolymers of polytetrahydrofuran and their electrochromic properties
Authors: Ünür Ece , Toppare Levent , Yağci Yusuf , Yilmaz Faruk
Published: January 2005

Living polytetrahydrofuran (PTHF) was terminated with sodium thiophene methonate to yield a polymer with a thiophene group at one end. Copolymerizations of PTHF with pyrrole and thiophene were achieved in water‐p‐toluene sulfonic acid and acetonitrile‐tetrabutylammonium tetrafluoroborate (TBAFB) solvent‐electrolyte couples via constant potential electrolyses. Characterizations of the samples were performed by NMR, cyclic voltammetry, FT‐IR, thermal analyses, and scanning electron microscopy. Electrical conductivities were measured by the four‐probe technique. PTHF/PTh film that was deposited on ITO‐glass in a dichloromethane‐TBAFB solvent‐electrolyte couple was found to exhibit electrochromic behavior and it electrochemically switches between blue oxidized and red reduced states. Optical analyses were carried out to investigate the electronic structure of PTHF/PTh electrochromic copolymer. © 2005 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 95: 1014–1023, 2005