bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Trademark Registration Is Not a Right
Authors: Kingston William
Published: May 2006

There is widespread lack of understanding of how far brands’ related trademarks depend on statutory registration. This legal innovation transformed the efficiency of advertising and made sponsorship, franchising, and international brands possible. It has resulted in mass-market products of consistent acceptable quality, which is often very high, but also in much of the harm now attributed to tobacco, alcohol, and junk foods. Public control of advertising for such products has proved difficult because firms in these industries can rely on constitutional rights to free speech or to property. Because trademark registration is not a right but a privilege granted for certain public objectives, withdrawing it for products that do not contribute to these objectives could escape such objections. It would greatly reduce the effectiveness of whatever advertising needs to be controlled, without interfering in any way with freedom to smoke, drink, overeat—or advertise.
Dynamic Focusing Effect of Laminated Piezoelectric Structures Subjected to Radial Impact
Authors: Sun B. , Dai H. L. , Wang X.
Published: May 2006

This article presents an analytical solution to reveal some of the phenomena of the dynamic focusing effect of the laminated structures composed of the piezoelectric fiber and the matrix layer subjected to the radial impact load. The dynamic focusing effect gives rise to very high stress magnitudes and electric potential at the center or near the center of piezoelectric fibers, which easily results in a breakage along the axial direction of the piezoelectric fiber at the higher tensile stress region. The electroelastodynamic equation for the laminated cylindrical piezoelectric structures is solved by means of the integral transforms. The unknown constants involved are determined by using the interface continuity conditions between the piezoelectric fiber and the matrix layer, and the boundary condition at the external surface of the laminated cylindrical piezoelectric structure. From the analytical expressions and the numerical examples for the two kinds of piezoelectric fibers, PZT-4 and BaTiO3, it is found that the dynamic focusing effect is dependent on the material property of the piezoelectric fibers, so that the maximum dynamic focusing effects of the two kinds of piezoelectric fibers occur at different radial points. It is significant to know the mechanism of the dynamic focusing effect of the laminated cylindrical piezoelectric structures subjected to the radial impact load to evaluate the dynamic strength and the electric excitation signal of the composite structures with the piezoelectric fiber and the matrix layer.
In vitro priming and expansion of cytomegalovirus-specific Th1 and Tc1 T cells from naive cord blood lymphocytes
Authors: Park Kyung-Duk , Marti Luciana , Kurtzberg Joanne , Szabolcs Paul
Published: May 2006

Adoptive transfer of CMV-specific cytotoxic T cells (CTLs) expanded in vitro from memory donor T cells can reduce the incidence of CMV disease in allogeneic transplant recipients. However, this approach has been unavailable in the cord blood (CB) transplantation setting because CB T cells are antigen naive and biased toward Th2/Tc2 function. We developed a protocol to in vitro prime and expand CMV-specific CTLs from CB. T cells were primed with cytokines to trigger skewing toward Th1/Tc1 lineage before encountering monocyte and CD34+ progenitor-derived dendritic cells loaded with CMV antigen and its immune complex. CMV-pulsed cultures expanded significantly more over 4 to 6 weeks than CMV cultures despite identical cytokine milieu. T cells isolated from CMV+ cultures showed a preferential expansion of CD45RA-/RO+/CD27+ T cells compared to CMV- cultures. CMV-specific IFN-γ- and TNF-α-producing CD4+ (Th1) and CD8+ (Tc1) T cells were enriched after 3 to 4 weeks and CMV-specific cytotoxicity developed 1 to 2 weeks later.
Bayesian models for pooling microarray studies with multiple sources of replications
Authors: Conlon Erin M , Song Joon J , Liu Jun S
Published: May 2006

Background

Biologists often conduct multiple but different cDNA microarray studies that all target the same biological system or pathway. Within each study, replicate slides within repeated identical experiments are often produced. Pooling information across studies can help more accurately identify true target genes. Here, we introduce a method to integrate multiple independent studies efficiently.

Results

We introduce a Bayesian hierarchical model to pool cDNA microarray data across multiple independent studies to identify highly expressed genes. Each study has multiple sources of variation, i.e. replicate slides within repeated identical experiments. Our model produces the gene-specific posterior probability of differential expression, which provides a direct method for ranking genes, and provides Bayesian estimates of false discovery rates (FDR). In simulations combining two and five independent studies, with fixed FDR levels, we observed large increases in the number of discovered genes in pooled versus individual analyses. When the number of output genes is fixed (e.g., top 100), the pooled model found appreciably more truly differentially expressed genes than the individual studies. We were also able to identify more differentially expressed genes from pooling two independent studies inBacillus subtilisthan from each individual data set. Finally, we observed that in our simulation studies our Bayesian FDR estimates tracked the true FDRs very well.

Conclusion

Our method provides a cohesive framework for combining multiple but not identical microarray studies with several sources of replication, with data produced from the same platform. We assume that each study contains only two conditions: an experimental and a control sample. We demonstrated our model's suitability for a small number of studies that have been either pre-scaled or have no outliers.
The generation and gender shifts in medicine: an exploratory survey of internal medicine physicians
Authors: Jovic Emily , Wallace Jean E , Lemaire Jane
Published: May 2006

Background

Two striking demographic shifts evident in today's workforce are also apparent in the medical profession. One is the entry of a new generation of physicians, Gen Xers, and the other is the influx of women. Both shifts are argued to have significant implications for recruitment and retention because of assumptions regarding the younger generation's and women's attitudes towards work and patient care. This paper explores two questions regarding the generations: (1) How do Baby Boomer and Generation X physicians perceive the generation shift in work attitudes and behaviours? and (2) Do Baby Boomer and Generation X physicians differ significantly in their work hours and work attitudes regarding patient care and life balance? Gen Xers include those born between 1965 and 1980; Baby Boomers are those born between 1945 and 1964. We also ask: Do female and male Generation X physicians differ significantly in their work hours and work attitudes regarding patient care and life balance?

Methods

We conducted exploratory interviews with 54 physicians and residents from the Department of Medicine (response rate 91%) and asked about their perceptions regarding the generation and gender shifts in medicine. We limit the analyses to interview responses of 34 Baby Boomers and 18 Generation Xers. We also sent questionnaires to Department members (response rate 66%), and this analysis is limited to 87 Baby Boomers' and 65 Generation Xers' responses.

Results

The qualitative interview data suggest significant generation and gender shifts in physicians' attitudes. Baby Boomers generally view Gen Xer physicians as less committed to their medical careers. The quantitative questionnaire data suggest that there are few significant differences in the generations' and genders' reports of work-life balance, work hours and attitudes towards patient care.

Conclusion

A combined qualitative and quantitative approach to the generation shift and gender shift in medicine is helpful in revealing that the widely held assumptions are not necessarily reflective of any significant differences in actual work attitudes or behaviours of Boomer and Gen X physicians or of the younger generation of women entering medicine.
Xenoestrogenic activity in blood of European and Inuit populations
Authors: Bonefeld-Jorgensen Eva C , Hjelmborg Philip S , Reinert Thayaline S , Andersen Birgitte S , Lesovoy Vladimir , Lindh Christian H , Hagmar Lars , Giwercman Aleksander , Erlandsen Mogens , Manicardi Gian-Carlo , Spanò Marcello , Toft Gunnar , Bonde Jens Peter
Published: May 2006

Background

Human exposure to persistent organic pollutants (POPs) is ubiquitous and found in all individuals. Studies have documented endocrine disrupting effects and impact on reproduction. The aim of the present study was to compare the level of xenoestrogenic activity in serum of groups with varying POP exposure, and to evaluate correlations to the POP biomarkers, 2,2',4,4',5,5'-hexachlorobiphenyl (CB-153) and 1,1-dichloro-2,2-bis (p-chlorophenyl)-ethylene (p,p'-DDE).

Methods

The study included 358 men: Greenlandic Inuit's, Swedish fishermen, and Warsaw (Poland) and Kharkiv (Ukraine) inhabitants. Xenoestrogenicity of serum extracts alone (XER) and XER competitive (XERcomp) effect on 17β-estradiol induced estrogen receptor (ER) transactivity were assessed in the hormone free, lipophilic serum fraction containing the POPs using the MVLN human breast cancer cell line.

Results

No agonistic XER activity was exhibited for Inuit serum samples, while 12 – 24% of the European samples had detectable agonistic XER activity. On the contrary, 71% of Inuit serum samples antagonized XERcomp compared to 7 – 30 % in the other regions. XER and XERcomp were not or weakly correlated to the two POP markers. XER activity of Inuit samples was negatively associated to levels of CB-153 andp,p'-DDE. For the Warsaw group a positive and negative correlation between XER andp,p'-DDE and estradiol equivalence level and CB-153 levels was found.

Conclusion

No strong consistent association between xenoestrogenic net activity and the two POP markers was found. The results showed that the selected POP markers alone can not predict the integrated xenoestrogenic serum activity. Correlations to the POP markers were found at the extreme edge; the Inuit's and Warsaw study groups eliciting high frequency of samples with ER antagonistic and agonistic activity, respectively. We suggest that the variation in xenoestrogenic serum activity reflects differences in POP exposure mixture, genetic factors and/or life style factors.
Sexually dimorphic gene expression that overlaps maturation of type II pneumonocytes in fetal mouse lungs
Authors: Simard Marc , Provost Pierre R , Tremblay Yves
Published: May 2006

Background

In human, respiratory distress of the neonates, which occurs in prematurity, is prevalent in male. Late in gestation, maturation of type II pneumonocytes, and consequently the surge of surfactant synthesis are delayed in male fetuses compared with female fetuses. Although the presence of higher levels of androgens in male fetuses is thought to explain this sex difference, the identity of genes involved in lung maturation that are differentially modulated according to fetal sex is unknown. We have studied the sex difference in developing mouse lung by gene profiling during a three-day gestational window preceding and including the emergence of mature PTII cells (the surge of surfactant synthesis in the mouse occurs on GD 17.5).

Methods

Total RNA was extracted from lungs of male and female fetal mice (gestation days 15.5, 16.5, and 17.5), converted to cRNA, labeled with biotin, and hybridized to oligonucleotide microarrays (Affymetrix MOE430A). Analysis of data was performed using MAS5.0, LFCM and Genesis softwares.

Results

Many genes involved in lung maturation were expressed with no sex difference. Of the approximative 14 000 transcripts covered by the arrays, only 83 genes presented a sex difference at one or more time points between GDs 15.5 and 17.5. They include genes involved in hormone metabolism and regulation (i.e. steroidogenesis pathways), apoptosis, signal transduction, transcriptional regulation, and lipid metabolism with four apolipoprotein genes. Genes involved in immune functions and other metabolisms also displayed a sex difference.

Conclusion

Among these sexually dimorphic genes, some may be candidates for a role in lung maturation. Indeed, on GD 17.5, the sex difference in surfactant lipids correlates with the sex difference in pulmonary expression of apolipoprotein genes, which are involved in lipid transport. This suggests a role for these genes in the surge of surfactant synthesis. Our results would help to identify novel genes involved in the physiopathology of the respiratory distress of the neonates.
Molecular Characterization and Expression of Urotensin II and its Receptor in the Flounder (Platichthys flesus): A Hormone System Supporting Body Fluid Homeostasis in Euryhaline Fish
Authors: Lu Weiqun , Greenwood Michael , Dow Louise , Yuill Janette , Worthington Jonathan , Brierley Matthew J. , McCrohan Catherine R. , Riccardi Daniela , Balment Richard J.
Published: May 2006

Urotensin II (UII) is a potent vasoconstrictor in mammals, but the source of circulating UII remains unclear. Investigations of the caudal neurosecretory system (CNSS), considered the major source of UII in fish, alongside target tissue expression of UII receptor (UT), can provide valuable insights into this highly conserved regulatory system. We report UII gene characterization, expression of the first fish UT, and responses to salinity challenge in flounder. The 12-aa UII peptide shares 73% sequence identity with pig and human UII. Flounder UT receptor shares 56.7% identity with rat. Although the CNSS is the major site of UII expression, RT-PCR revealed expression of UII and UT in all tissues tested. Around 30–40% of large CNSS Dahlgren cells expressed UII, alone or in combination with urotensin I and/or corticotrophin releasing hormone. Immunolocalization of UT in osmoregulatory tissues (gill, kidney) was associated with vascular elements. There were no consistent differences in CNSS UII expression or plasma UII between seawater (SW)- and freshwater (FW)-adapted fish, although gill and kidney UT expression was lower in FW animals. After acute transfer from SW to FW, plasma UII and kidney and gill UT expression were reduced, whereas UT expression in kidney was increased after reverse transfer. UII appears to be more important to combat dehydration and salt-loading in SW than the hemodilution faced in FW. Potentially, altered target tissue sensitivity through changes in UT expression, is an important physiological controlling mechanism, not only relevant for migratory fish but also likely conserved in mammals.
Fe-MCM-41 for N2O Decomposition and Reduction with Methane
Authors: Tian Yan , Ogawa Erika , Ikuo Akira , Shishido Tetsuya , Zhang Quinghong , Wang Ye , Takehira Katsuomi , Hasegawa Sadao
Published: May 2006

The catalytic activities for N2O decomposition and selective reduction with methane were studied on Fe-MCM-41 prepared by direct hydrothermal synthesis (DHT) and template ion exchange (TIE) methods. Fe-MCM-41-DHT showed higher activity than those prepared by TIE and impregnation methods. The high activity of Fe-MCM-41-DHT is caused by the formation of highly isolated and tetrahedrally coordinated iron-oxo species.
Writing Refereed Journal Articles – An Editor's View
Authors: Whitelock Jeryl
Published: May 2006

New academics frequently ask for advice on getting their work published in refereed journals. This short paper, which is based on a presentation given to the Academy of Marketing on 7th July 2004, offers some guidance on selecting and targeting journals, considers the refereed review
process, and discusses other key issues which may be of interest to researchers.
Undertaking a Literature Review in Marketing
Authors: Gabbott Mark
Published: May 2006

Writing a literature review is often considered to be one of the most difficult tasks a student will undertake and is often the most significant part of the academic contribution of essays and theses. Academia is a broad and inclusive community and all research takes place within the
context of others work. It is therefore imperative that we review current knowledge before we can advance. This article provides guidelines for the construction of a literature review in marketing and focuses upon three key tasks. The first is the identification and sourcing of literature.
The second is the interpretation and critical understanding of what has been collected and the third is the preparation and writing of the final document. Within these three tasks a number of suggestions and examples are given to aid anyone starting to prepare a marketing literature review.
Strategic Planning for Global Markets
Authors: Blythe Jim , Zimmerman Alan
Published: May 2006

Globalisation may be the most important issue facing marketers in the 21st century. This article explores the issues around developing global strategies, particularly paying attention to competition and hypercompetition. Beginning with an overview of current thinking on strategic
planning and competitive advantage, the article goes on to look at competition and hypercompetition in a global context. Global strategy is seen as a process of identifying market positions across national boundaries, building on global strengths as opposed to national strengths.The article
concludes by identifying three key factors in global strategy: the type of competition, the rapid shifts in the business environment caused by the entry of foreign competitors, and the difficulty of predicting future trends in an information-swamped environment.
Doing Diversity
Authors: Ahmed Sara , Swan Elaine
Published: May 2006

The challenge of diversity is much more than a change in terminology from categories like gender, ethnicity, age and class to the more encompassing and concealing term ‘diversity’. In contrast to gender and other categories of identity, which are often represented as sources of social inequality in organisations, ‘diversity’ does not so powerfully appeal to our sense of social justice. (Benschop, 2001, p. 1166)
Recent Articles in Foreign Periodicals
Authors: White Leonard D. , Buell Raymond Leslie , Havighurst Harold C.
Published: May 2006

I. English. The following summary of articles in the English journals is confined, in conformity with the review appearing in 1921, to discussions of governmental organization, structure, process, and procedure. The journals here included (1921–1922 inclusive) are The Edinburgh Review, Nineteenth Century, Contemporary Review, Fortnightly Review, Quarterly Review, Journal of Comparative Legislation, Round Table, and The Journal of Public Administration.
Political Institutions in Liberia
Authors: Ellis George W.
Published: May 2006

Liberia will long be a source of permanent interest to the government and people of the United States, not only because it was founded and fostered by American citizens, but because there is going on there in the interest of the African races one of the unique struggles in modern state-building, in an endeavor to perpetuate in West Africa a government fashioned after the American democracy in which liberty shall be limited and regulated by law.

Under the most unfavorable circumstances the Liberian people have entered upon a grave and stupendous undertaking. The high political ideas and principles which they represent, the ardor and fidelity with which they have maintained them for nearly three quarters of a century against European opposition and in the midst and in the presence of the overwhelming numbers and dissimilar civilization of their African kinsmen, entitle them to the sympathetic consideration and good will of all liberty-loving nations.
The Third International Conference of American States
Authors: Reinsch Paul S.
Published: May 2006

The Third International Conference of American States, which was held in Rio de Janeiro in July and August, 1906, differed in some important respects from the two conferences which had preceded it. While it was left to the conferences of Washington and of Mexico City to arrange their own programs and to determine upon their rules and regulations, and while no limit was set to the length of their sessions, all these matters had, in the case of the last conference, been settled beforehand by arrangement of the diplomats representing the American States in Washington who constitute the council of the Bureau of American Republics. A complete program had been worked out, containing all the subjects upon which joint action was considered desirable. A set of rules and regulations also had been adopted and the length of the session had been fixed not to exceed six weeks. The conference when it convened was, therefore, saved all the trouble and loss of time which a discussion of these matters would have made necessary had they been left to the conference itself. As a matter of fact the discussion of these preliminary matters consumed several months at both the conferences of Washington and of Mexico.
The Physiology of Politics: Presidential Address, Sixth Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association
Authors: Lowell A. Lawrence
Published: May 2006

Our organization is known as the Political Science Association, and yet the subject to which it is devoted lacks the first essential of a modern science—a nomenclature incomprehensible to educated men. Other sciences employ terms of art which are exact because barbarous, that is remote from common usage, and therefore devoid of the connotations which give to language its richness and at the same time an absence of precision. But the want of an exact terminology is not the only defect of our subject. It suffers also from imperfect development of the means of self-expansion. The natural sciences grow by segmentation, each division, like the severed fragments of an earthworm, having a vitality of its own. Thus in zoölogy and botany we hear of cytology, histology, morphology and physiology, expressions which correspond, perhaps, with aspects of our own ancient, yet infantile, branch of learning.

The first of the divisions already mentioned, cytology, deals with the cell as the unit of structure, and bears thus an analogy to the study of man as an individual, a social being by nature, no doubt, but considered from this point of view as a separate personality; to some extent at least as an end in himself. It corresponds rather to psychology than politics. Histology, if I am correctly informed, is concerned with the tissues made by the organic connection of many cells, the substances of which the body is formed, and by means of which its manifold operations are conducted. We may fancy that it has its counterpart in sociology, that science of which the late Gabriel Tarde remarked that it was named before its birth, although the time had come when it ought to be born.
Parliamentary Government in Chile
Authors: Reinsch Paul S.
Published: May 2006

In the public life of modern states, political and economic motives of action are so closely interwoven that the student of politics rarely encounters a situation or institution in which he can trace and study purely political principles. Indeed, the struggle for political power and for recognized authority, the effort to give the stamp of public sanction to this or that policy, is always the focus of public life; but the action of the participants in the political drama is determined largely by non-political motives. We have to go back to the Athenean republic or to the Whig rule in eighteenth century England to see the political factor in its clearest and most detached manifestations. It is there that we see a society highly capable and cultivated, concentrating all its attention upon that dramatic struggle for power, that attempt to gain leadership over other men by ascendancy in counsel, which form the true essence of politics. Among modern nations, with their democratic organization, with vast material interests clamoring for attention, purely political considerations are apt to be overshadowed by those of economic and social import, although it always remains interesting to compare and measure nations with regard to their ability to express and deal with the principles of their life in the forms and activities of political counsel.
Central Utilities Commissions and Home Rule: A Paper before the Madison Literary Society, May 9, 1910
Authors: Meyer Balthasar H.
Published: May 2006

The term “public utilities” embraces all properties devoted to a use in which the public has an interest. As currently employed in this country today, it includes water, light, heat, power, and telephone plants; urban, suburban and interurban electric railways; steam railways; the telegraph, express companies and several minor organizations connected with transportation. In a narrower and more local use of the term, its scope is restricted to water, light, heat, power and local telephone utilities, and urban and suburban electric railways.

Central utilities commissions are administrative bodies appointed or elected for the purpose of carrying out legislative acts with reference to public utilities. In the widest sense of the term a central commission is a federal or national commission, of which the Interstate Commerce Commission is the best-known representative. Central Commissions, in the narrower sense of the term, are illustrated by state utilities and railroad commissions. Like many other terms central and local have relative meanings with shifting and overlapping circumferences.
Bibliographical Notes on German State Government
Authors: Wells Roger H.
Published: May 2006

At the present time, there is an extensive literature dealing with the structure and functions of the eighteen German state governments. For most of the states, one finds collections of laws and regulations, commentaries and manuals, state hand-books, statistical year-books, legal and administrative journals, together with other more or less fugitive publications. But among all this material, there are almost no comparative studies in state law, politics, and administration.

It may be worth while to suggest briefly a number of helps for the comparative study of German state government. Of the treatises on public law, the only one which deals exclusively with the states is Julius Hatschek's Ausserpreussisches Landesstaatsrecht (Berlin, 1926). This volume discusses and compares the governments of all the German states except Prussia and Waldeck. The constitutions of ten of the more important states are printed as appendices, but the usefulness of the book is lessened by the complete omission of an index. Otto Meissner's Das Staatsrecht des Reichs und seiner Länder (2nd ed., Berlin, 1923) devotes considerable space to the states and is provided with a good index. It is now, however, somewhat out of date. Walter Jellinek's Verfassung und Verwaltung des Reichs und der Länder (Leipzig, 1925) is of little value for the purpose now under consideration, as it contains only thirteen pages on the states. Fritz Stier-Somlo's Deutsches Reichs-und Landesstaatsrecht (Vol. I, Berlin, 1924) is, of course, recognized as a standard work, but thus far only one volume has appeared. The second volume, dealing with the states, is not yet forthcoming.
The Political Ideas of Contemporary Tory Democracy
Authors: Rockow Lewis
Published: May 2006

The most significant political phenomena of post-war Britain are the emergence of the Labor party and the slow extinction of the Liberal party. The Labor party has emerged as the expression of a demand on the part of the wage-earners for an alteration of the basis of property. The Liberal party has suffered an eclipse because its historic mission has been achieved. The rising industrial classes which it represented for a century have now arrived. Whatever difference may still exist between the interests that were heretofore represented primarily by the Liberal party and those that were represented by the Tory party shrinks into insignificance as compared with the common interests of all the dominant elements against the radical demands of Labor. Thus Toryism and Labor alone will apparently share between them the future destinies of Britain. One will offer largely a brief for the claims of the past; the other will present in the main the demands of the future. The traditional British two-party alignment promises henceforth to be a struggle between Toryism and Labor, and to be marked by the intensity and animosity characteristic of a political division that comes dangerously near to being a clash of economic classes.
America's Rôle in the League of Nations
Authors: Hudson Manley O.
Published: May 2006

Whatever may be the present attitude of the people of the United States toward the League of Nations, it now seems clear that the Government of the United States has come to feel the necessity for such an international organization. For several years past, official American coöperation with the League has steadily increased. The situation has now developed to a point where the current formulae for explaining the official attitude are to some extent misleading, and it may serve a useful purpose to trace the changes which have occurred since 1920, to survey the situation as it now exists, and to forecast some of the probabilities for the future.

Let us start with the fact that the United States has not ratified the Covenant of the League of Nations and has not accepted the place provided for her in the Assembly and the Council of the League. It is beside the present purpose to explain that fact, to attempt to say whether it is due to drift or to design, or to offer any argument for changing it. Whatever the seven millions of voters who constituted President Harding's majority in 1920 may have desired at that time, the Government of the United States has since interpreted their votes as a determination that the United States should not accept membership in the League, and it has proceeded on the theory that that issue is closed. But if this fact is to be taken as the starting-point, there still remains a question as to the account to be taken by the Government of the United States of other important facts, viz., that the League of Nations continues to exist, that more than fifty governments are vigorously pushing its work and effecting through it their coöperative action, and that much of the organized international life of our time is centered at Geneva.
The Special Session of Congress
Authors: Rogers Lindsay
Published: May 2006

Problems left unsolved rather than measures which were passed are the noteworthy features of the special session of the Sixty-sixth Congress—from May 19 to November 19, 1919. The senate was almost exclusively occupied with the Peace Treaty, the session ending in a deadlock over the reservations to the League of Nations covenant; and the treaty, together with the Anglo-French-American alliance and the other agreements of the Paris Conference, went over to the regular session. The appropriation bills, a resolution submitting the woman suffrage amendment to the states, the repeal of daylight saving, and the prohibition enforcement law, constitute the most important legislation which was completed. The two latter measures were passed over the President's veto and evidenced a disposition on the part of Congress to reassert the authority which during the war had been limited by presidential control.
Local Government in Belgium
Authors: Dupriez Léon
Published: May 2006

In Belgium there are two units of local government, the province and the commune.

Belgium is divided into nine provinces, the boundaries of which were drawn somewhat arbitrarily by the government of the French Revolution after the conquest of the country in 1795. All the provinces except one are about equal in territorial extent, but they differ considerably in respect to population, which varies from 250,000 to 1,200,000. Thus the province of Luxemburg, whose area exceeds that of any of the others by about a third, has the smallest population; it has neither industrial centers nor any important city (its largest city has a bare 10,000 inhabitants), and it is in large part covered with forests. The differences in population have increased during the last fifty years, as much from the great development of industry in certain provinces as from the growth of certain great urban centers like those of Brussels and Antwerp.

There are 2630 communes in Belgium; their boundaries were not established systematically by a single act, nor by a series of acts of the legislative authority. Almost all grew up in the course of centuries, and their boundaries have come into existence only in accordance with very ancient traditions. There are great differences among the communes, not only in respect to their territorial extent (which varies from some hundreds to some tens of thousands of acres), but also in respect to their population. Some little villages have scarcely a hundred inhabitants, whereas Antwerp had more than 300,000 in 1914. Some communes take the name of cities, others are called villages; but that does not make the least difference so far as the law is concerned, nor in respect to the administrative régime to which they are subject.
The Operation of the Direct Primary in Michigan
Authors: Millspaugh Arthur C.
Published: May 2006

The purpose of the direct primary, in so far as its purpose can be formulated in general terms, was to realize within the party organization, and especially in the process of nomination, accepted principles of democratic control. It is a commonplace, however, that political machinery must in the long run be judged not by its theoretical democracy but by its practical results. In a study of direct nominations, then, it appears most fruitful to examine the system in its operation rather than in its theory, and, whenever possible, to compare its working with that of the system which it supplanted.

Since 1901 the Michigan legislature has passed more than thirty acts, original and amendatory, relating to the nominating machinery. From 1901 to 1905 legislation applied to selected counties, cities, and districts; from 1905 to 1909 it was both local and general but optional with the parties and with the localities; since 1909 it has been general and mandatory. On the whole it has been halting, half-hearted, opportunistic, and unscientific, and is still far from perfection. At the present time all state officials elected in the spring, including judges of the supreme court and regents of the university, all elective state administrative officers except governor and lieutenant-governor, and all township and village officers are still nominated by the old method, a method which is also retained for the selection of delegates to state and national conventions and in a modified form for the drafting of party platforms.
The Effect of the Non-Recognition of Manchukuo
Authors: Middlebush Frederick A.
Published: May 2006

When the United States government, on January 7, 1932, and the Extraordinary Assembly of the League of Nations, on March 11, 1932, and again on February 24, 1933, invoked non-recognition as a sanction,1 the necessity at once arose of determining what would be the precise effects, as far as international relations are concerned, of withholding recognition of Manchukuo. It may seem strange that the decision to resort to non-recognition as a sanction was taken before an attempt was made to determine the practical effects of such action on the Far Eastern situation. Presumably, however, this must be the procedure in the application of international sanctions.
Fascism in America?
Authors: Steiner H. Arthur
Published: May 2006

Attention has been drawn recently to the possibility of a Fascist revolution in the United States—by the Dickstein Committee, by journalistic and cinematic exposés of Fascist tendencies, by the revival of the 1918–20 “Red-baiting” spirit and technique, and by the fervent and constant agitation of the League Against War and Fascism and related organizations. Little is said seriously in responsible circles of the possibility of a Communist revolution, that being so overworked a thesis that all are aware of whatever drift in that direction there may be. Hence the present discussion of Fascist tendencies must not be taken to imply the impossibility of a swing to the left, but rather simply to denote an interest in a more novel movement to the right.
A Program for Research in Political Science
Authors: Willoughby William F.
Published: May 2006

There are probably few members of the learned professions who do not feel the urge to contribute, if they can, to the existing store of knowledge regarding their chosen field, or, more ambitious still, to advance yet further that body of thought constituting the fundamental principles by which it is sought to interpret the data dealt with, to trace relationships between cause and effect, to distinguish the essential from the non-essential, to evaluate action by results—in a word, to give philosophic coherence to what would otherwise be disconnected and unrelated thinking.

In the case of many, this urge is supplemented by a positive obligation. Those holding academic positions calling for the direction of students engaged in advanced or postgraduate work, and those at the head of institutions of research, not only have the desire themselves to engage in work of original research, but are under the responsibility of encouraging, if not compelling, work of a like character by others.
Suggestions for a General Index for Political Science
Authors: Friedrich Carl J. , Trackett Mary C.
Published: May 2006

For some time, the growing stature of political science as an independent social science has been a notable feature in American universities. Yet, up to the present time, the categories of this new field of scientific endeavor have not found their way into the indexing departments of libraries, nor have they been recognized by indexers of other collections. Even the editors of encyclopedias, people of great learning and ability, have omitted some of the most significant topics of political science, because of the lack of any accepted index indicating the range of the field and focusing attention upon its primary categories. The American Political Science Review itself is confronted with the problem of a suitable subject-index. The growing complexity of all kinds of materials bearing upon the work of political scientists, and more particularly the increasing mass of public documents, has become more and more baffling. Even the skillful indexers of the Congressional Record, for example, seem unaware of the major topics of interest for political science, and thus no sign-posts of the usual kind have been made available to workers in our field.
The Office of Lieutenant-Governor in the States
Authors: Isom Warren Rex
Published: May 2006

The first instances of the office of lieutenant-governor in the history of American political institutions are found in the governments of the colonial period, when in its most usual form the colonial government, like that of the trading company, consisted of a governor, a deputy-governor, a council, and a general assembly. The office was permanent, however, in only two colonies, i.e., Connecticut and Massachusetts. In other colonies, it existed only when there was a particular need for it. For instance, Lieutenant-Governor Pownall was sent to New Jersey in order to have a competent person “upon the spot” to act whenever the infirmities of the governor made it “painful and hazardous if not impossible” for him to attend to the affairs of his office.
The Concurrent Resolution in Congress
Authors: White Howard
Published: May 2006

Much has been said and written in recent years concerning executive usurpation of congressional powers. Little attention seems to have been given to encroachment by Congress on the President's right to give or withhold his approval of “every order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence of the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a question of adjournment).”
Distinguishing Administrative Aspects of the Farm Credit Administration
Authors: Emmerich Herbert
Published: May 2006

The federal farm loan system is a government established, aided, and supervised organization, designed to render an economic service in the field of agricultural lending. Its main purpose is to create and keep open a continuous channel between the farmer and sources of surplus funds in large centers. It was founded nineteen years ago, and has been developed and amplified in order to pool the credit needs of individual farmers with good credit and good farms, and provide for them more nearly the same terms and rates extended to large industrial borrowers. These general rules may be said to govern the operations of its credit policy: (1) without attempting to make all agricultural loans, Farm Credit Administration endeavors to supplement the activities of other agencies, and to set a standard of costs of credit and the terms upon which such credit is extended to agriculture; (2) interest rates charged to farmers should bear a relation to the cost of money to the Farm Credit Administration in the investment market at the time the loan is made; (3) loans should be made with reference to the needs of agriculture and the biological cycle of production; and (4) loans should be made which are within the capacity of the farmer to pay, so that he may repay them out of farm income, minimize his indebtedness, and keep credit channels open for future needs.
The British Bureaucracy and the Origins of Parliamentary Policy, II
Authors: Aikin Charles
Published: May 2006

Thus far, reference has been made, not to the great mass of the civil servants, but only to the higher officials. The work of more than ninety-seven per cent of the members of the service has no significance for this study. The laborers, clerks, writing assistants, and a large majority of the members of the professional class make only incidental contributions to policy, and while their importance is occasionally to be noted, we are not concerned here with a detailed examination of their work. Suffice it to say that the 150,000 who are usually referred to by the term “civil service” possess a certain esprit that links the members together. Within this number, however, there are marked divisions: there is the foreign, diplomatic, and consular service, the colonial service, the defense services, and the home service, all with their peculiarities, often of outlook and sometimes of mode of recruitment, salary, or promotion. Outside of this group fall such diverse units as the local government service, the large judicial service, and the employees of such semi-independent agencies as the British Broadcasting Corporation and the Central Electricity Board. Our interest here is centered on the more important members of the professional or specialist class of some 14,000 members, the higher officials of the executive grade numbering between 4,000 and 5,000, and the administrative class with its small but highly important membership of 1,200 to 1,300.
The Prospects of English Local Government
Authors: Holden F. W.
Published: May 2006

Periodically the reform of English local government makes its appearance in English public life. A Royal Commission sat for nearly the whole decade of the 1920's and its labors produced three reports, which ultimately led to the Local Government Act of 1929. Similarly, the 1939–45 conflict has raised again the question of what, if anything, should be done about the reform of English local government. In 1943, Mr. Churchill expressed the view of the Coalition that no major reconstruction of the structure was necessary, nor indeed could it be undertaken in the immediate postwar years. In January, 1945, Mr. Willink, Minister of Health, produced for public discussion a White Paper on the whole problem, the main burden of which was in line with the Churchillian dicta of 1943, but which proposed the creation of a boundary commission with power to recommend alterations in the status and areas of local authorities after suitable local inquiry. These proposals were debated in the House of Commons in February, 1945, with little significant difference of opinion becoming apparent on the fundamental problems involved. Before the end of the Coalition, a bill creating the Local Government Boundary Commission had passed into law.
The Summer Schools and Other Educational Activities of the British Conservative Party
Authors: Starr Joseph R.
Published: May 2006

The British Conservative party recommenced its normal activities after the party truce of the World War years in fundamentally different circumstances. The electorate had been vastly expanded, and the Conservatives faced a formidable new opponent in the Labor party. There was danger that the mass following of the party might be lured away by this new opponent, and there was the necessity of gaining the allegiance of a large number of the new voters.

These tasks of holding the old adherents of the party and gaining new recruits were assigned in large measure to labor committees, widely organized as an integral part of the constituency organizations, and the Central Labor Committee which was set up as a subcommittee of the executive council of the National Unionist Association.
The Monroe Doctrine and World War II
Authors: Wilcox Francis O.
Published: May 2006

Only a decade or two ago, the Monroe Doctrine was in disfavor. The vitriolic pens of its critics denounced it as an “indisputable evidence of our overweening national conceit.” They condemned it as an “obsolete shibboleth,” “hoary with age”—a doctrine which the twentieth century would surely relegate to the dusty archives of diplomatic history. As late as 1937, no less a person than the chairman of the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations remarked in the course of an interview that the Monroe Doctrine was dead.

Time and circumstance, however, often bring remarkable changes. Since the beginning of World War II, the red blood corpuscles of Pan-American unity have instilled new life and vitality into the Doctrine. Curiously enough, after 120 years, the very threats which confronted President Monroe in 1823 have risen again to becloud the security of the Western Hemisphere. Historians may have argued (before the fall of France) that the Holy Alliance, with its determination “to put an end to the system of representative government,” constituted a greater danger to the New World than the Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis. It is clear, however, that the fascist concepts of the master race and of world domination are far more menacing to democracy than the avowed aims of the Holy Alliance ever were. The tremendous striking power which the Axis has so amply demonstrated in a world shrivelled by technology, coupled with the demoralizing effects of up-to-date fifth column techniques, makes the case even clearer.
Administration in a Federal Government Bureau
Authors: Melton Presley W.
Published: May 2006

The term “administration,” as used in a federal government bureau, may have either of two definitions. It may refer to the activities of bureau chiefs, division chiefs, and regional directors. Or it may mean the work of the bureau executive officer and employees with similar duties in the bureau. When the term is used by the employees of the bureau or by the personnel classification division of the Civil Service Commission, nine times out of ten it is the latter connotation that is given it.