bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Ultrastructure of granulated cells in the bile duct of reindeer
Authors: Nikander Sven , Rahko Timo
Published: February 2013

The presence and ultrastructural characteristics of mast cells and globule leucocytes in bile ducts of the reindeer have not been previosly documentated. Tissue blocks of ductus bepaticus communis from six reindeer were processed by commonly used methods for TEM and examined with a JEOL JEM 100 S electron microscope. The present material originates from reindeer without clinical signs of parasites. However, several types of granulated cells were identifiable. The granules of connective tissue and subepithelial mast cells were small and mostly diffusely electron dense but also fine granular matrices were shown. The globules of intraepithelial globule leucocytes were fewer in number and distinctly larger than the granules of the mast cell. In addition there were noted intraepithelial granulated cells appearing similar to the neuroendocrinic cells reported in bovine bile ducts.
Warble infestations in some Canadian caribou and their significance
Authors: Thomas Donald D. , Kiliaan Hendrick P. L.
Published: February 2013

Warble fly larvae (Oedemagena tarandi) occurred in 97-100% of barren-ground caribou (R.t. groen-landicus) sampled in March from the Beverly herd. In December, they occurred in 98% of males and 75% of females. Larvae numbers increased up to several-fold from December to March. Within age classes, males generally were more heavily infected than females. Annual differences were small. Larvae occurred in 14 and 26% of two populations of Peary caribou (Rangifer tarandus pearyi) on the Canadian Arctic Islands. In them, incidences of larvae were unrelated to sex or age. Greater than average numbers of larvae in barren-ground caribou sometimes were associated with females in relatively poor condition and therefore less fecund. These results are discussed in relation to current hypotheses of the factors that affect warble infections.
Fóring av rein. Norske erfaringer. (Reindeer feed in Norway).
Authors: Sletten Harald
Published: February 2013

Fóring av rein hadde for inntil et par år tilbake et lite omfang i Norge. I tillegg til tradisjonell foring med reinlav ved gjerdeopphold o.L, lå omsetninga på 40-50 tonn kraftfor/år. Fra slutten av 70-åra og fram til 1987 var RF-71 det eneste kommersielt tilgjengelige kraftfór til rein i Norge. I situasjoner der utsultet rein fikk tilgang på RF-71, viste fóret seg å være lite egnet. Det ble derfor satt i gang forsøk med å lage et nytt fór. Utgangspunktet var at det skulle gi reinen tilstrekkelig næring samtidig som det skulle likne laven mest mulig, særlig med hensyn på tungt nedbrytbare karbohydrater.
Nikander's Thesis: Studies on the exocrine ducts of the pancreas and the liver in reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus L)
Authors: Nikander Sven
Published: February 2013

This thesis is based on the following papers, which will be referred to in the next by their Roman numerals:

I Nikander, S. 1990. On the anatomy and topography of the pancreas and the pancreatic duct in reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus L.). Rangifer 10: 25-29.

II Rahko, T. & Nikander, S. 1990. Macroscopical and microscopical studies of the common bile duct in reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus L.). Rangifer 10: 3-8.

III Rahko, T. & Nikander, S. 1990. Histochemical studies of the common bile duct in reindeer. Rangifer 10: 9-15.

IV Rahko, T. & Nikander, S. 1990. Electron microscopical studies of the common bile duct in reindeer. Rangifer 10: 17-23.

V Nikander, S. & Rahko, T. 1990. Ultra-structure of granulated cells in the bile duct of reindeer. Rangifer Special Issue No. 3: 363-367.
PART A: 5th American Caribou Workshop, 19-21 March 1991, Yellowknife, Northwest Territories, Canada.
Authors: Skjenneberg (ed. in chief) Sven
Published: February 2013

The 5th American Caribou Workshop was arranged at Yellowkife 1991 with 67 participants. The workshop addressed the issue of how ecological theory can be applied to practical caribou management problems. In addition to that theme, we also chose to highlight cooperative caribou management boards and the conservation and management of woodland caribou. The proceedings was publihed in two parts, part A and part B.
Wildlife Co-management defined: The Beverly and Kaminuriak Caribou Management Board
Authors: Thomas Donald C. , Schaefer James
Published: February 2013

A comparison of indigenous and scientific forms of wildlife data gathering and conservation/management reveals similarities and differences. The two systems are needed to effectively manage wildlife in northern Canada, particularly migratory, trans-boundary species. The Beverly and Kaminuriak Caribou Management Board brought multi-jurisdictional caribou users and managers together to co-manage two large herds of caribou (Rangifer tarandus groenlan-dicus). The advisory Board's principal duties and responsibilities are communication and to maintain the two herds at population levels that will meet user needs. Goals, objectives, and principles are set out in a management plan. Board activities are structured in 15 action plans under major categories of communication, supply of caribou, use of caribou, and habitat. Board successes are attributed to use of the plan to guide actions; to the Chairmen and vice-Chairmen; to the quality of founding members and their continuity; to effective vehicles of communication such as a newspaper, radio, video, and community meetings; to a spirit of cooperation; and to high caribou numbers because of high productivity combined with poor accessibility. Problem areas include technical limitations, members' decreasing powers and increasing turnover, inadequate communication of Board objectives and activities within the communities, and accountability. Future challenges include the management of caribou shortages, obtaining better herd data, and the need for more intensive management as user populations grow.
Pastures, calf production and carcass weights of reindeer calves in the Oraniemi co-operative, Finnish Lapland
Authors: Kumpula Jouko , Nieminen Mauri
Published: February 2013

The effects of climatic and density-dependent factors on calf production and carcass weights of reindeer calves were studied between the years 1965-87 in the Oraniemi co-operative, Finnish Lapland (67°50´N). The Oraniemi area is divided into five pasture regions, in which the annual home range of the reindeer varied from 300 to 600 km2. The more than trebled reindeer density over the period 1965-87 in Oraniemi had no detrimental effect on calf production (range 15-74 calves/100 females), nor on the mean carcass weight of the calves in 1974-87 (range 16.8-23.2 kg). The annual variations in calf% were explained best by snow conditions during the previous winter and spring and their effects on the nutritional status of the females. The carcass weights of the calves were greater following a warm, rainy May and lower following a warm, rainy June and July. The weather in spring affects the emergence of green vegetation, which is reflected in the condition of females and their milk production, while the weather in early and mid-supper probably affects the quantities of blood-sucking insects and their activity. Carcass weights upon slaughtering rose from September to the beginning of December but then fell quickly. The differences in reindeer densities between the five pasture regions was not reflected in the calf% over the period 1984-87, but the carcass weights of calves were lower following high densities in the pasture regions, especially in the winter pastures.
Comparative habitat selection by muskoxen introduced to northeastern Alaska and the Taimyr Peninsula, Russia
Authors: Klein David R. , Yakushkin Gregory D. , Pospelova Elina B.
Published: February 2013

Muskoxen (Ovibos moschatus) introduced to formerly occupied areas in northeastern Alaska (70°N) in 1969 and 1970, and the Taimyr Peninsula (75°N) in 1974 and 1975 increased in number (exceeding 20%/year in the early years following their establishment), and have expaned into available habitats. Vegetation of the two areas share many similarities, although richness of vascular plant species is greater in Alaska (350) than in the Taimyr (230). Seasonal partitioning of range use is similar in both areas with low-lying tussock tundra being used primarily from summer through early to mid-winter. By late winter, when snow accumulation in low areas and on lower slopes of hills limits access to forage, muskoxen concentrate activity on drier ridge tops and river and coastal bluffs with little snow accumulation. Riparian habitats appear to receive greater year round use in Alaska than in the Taimyr.
Laura Christine Cuyler; Temperature regulation and survival in Svalbard reindeer
Authors: Skjenneberg (ed.) Sven
Published: February 2013

Laura Christine Cuyler successfully defended her doctoral thesis "Temperature regulation and survival in Svalbard reindeer" at the University of Oslo, Norway, on the 30th of January, 1993. Christine Cuyler was born in Vancouver, B. C, Canada. She attained her B.Sc. degree at the University of Guelph, Ontario and her Cand. scient. degree at the University of Oslo.
Seasonal Hypomagnesemia in reindeer on Kautokeino winter pasture in Finnmark County, Norway
Authors: Hoff Bernt , Rognmo Arne , Havre Gustav , Morberg Hanne
Published: February 2013

Hypomagnesemia was diagnosed in reindeer on Kautokeino winter pasture in Finnmark County, Norway. The affected animals were paretic or ataxic. Mean serum magnesium levels were 0.19 +/- 0.20 mm/L (n = 6), compared to a serum Mg level of 0.82 +/- 0.17 mm/L for the reference group.
Body burden and distribution of 137Cs in reindeer
Authors: Åhman Birgitta
Published: February 2013

The whole body was collected from 6 reindeer that had been grazing contaminated pasture and from 6 reindeer that had been fed uncontaminated feed the last weeks before slaughter. The body was emptied from in-gesta and weighed. Samples were taken from skeletal muscle, kidneys, heart, liver, lungs, rumen wall, bone and blood. The total activity of 137Cs in the ingesta-free body and the acitivity concentration of l37Cs in the different tissues were determined. The highest acitivity concentrations of l37Cs were found in skeletal muscle and in kidneys. Activity concentrations in kidneys, heart, liver, lungs and rumen wall, relative to skeletal muscle, were lower in reindeer with decreasing radiocaesium levels, compared to reindeer with continuous intake of radiocaesium, indicating a more rapid elimination in these tissues than in muscle. The ratios between average activity concentration of 137Cs in whole body and acitivity concentration in muscle from the same animal, ranged from 0.51 to 0.62. A factor of 0.57 is suggested for calculating average body activity concentration of radiocaesium from known activity concentration in muscle.
The ungulates of northern China
Authors: Jia-yan Wu
Published: February 2013

Presently, thirty five species of ungulates occur in northern China. Some species are threatened or endangered. There are three species of Equidae (E. przewalskii, E. hemionus, E. kiang), one of Suidae (Sus scrofa), one of Camelidae (Camelus bactrianus), 14 species of Cervidae (with the genera Moschus, Elaphus, Cervus, Elaphurus, Alces, Rangifer, Capreolus) and 16 species of Bovidae (within the genera Bos, Gazella, Procapra, Pantholops, Saiga, Nemorhaedus, Capricornis, Budorcas, Capra, Pseudois, Ovis). They inhabit different biotopes, i.e. temperate mountain forest and steppe, temperate desert and semi-desert, and vast alpine ranges. Ungulate fossils are widespread in China evidencing that Asia was an evolutionary centre for some ungulates. Although new data have been gathered through research efforts in China since 1949 it is a fact that some ungulate species have suffered serious population set-backs and some have become endangered or even extinct. Detailed studies of ungulate populations and protection of habitats are now most important future research needs.
Metabolic rate and plasma T3 in ad lib. fed and starved muskoxen
Authors: Nilssen K.J. , Mathiesen S.D. , Blix A.S.
Published: February 2013

Resting metabolic rate (RMR) in two 12 yrs., semidomesticated, female muskoxen was 0.86 ± 0.10 W • kg-1 in winter, and 1.74 ± 0.27 W • kg-1 in summer, (p<0.001). After 6 days of starvation RMR was down to 0.62 + 0.07 W • kg-1 and 0.77 ± 0.03 W • kg-1 (p<0.001) in winter and summer, respectively. RMR during starvation in winter was 19% below predicted RMR for animals of equal body mass. Standing RMR was significantly higher (p<0.01) than lying RMR. Winter plasma levels of T3 in both animals were 1-1 nmol • l-1 when food was freely available, and 1.4 nmol • l-1 after 6 days of starvation. Plasma concentration of T3 in another 8 free ranging semi-domesticated, female muskoxen aged 12 yrs. in March was 0.64 ± 0.20 nmol • l-1. Corrseponding value in August was 1.00 ± 0.10 nmol • l-1, being significantly higher (p<0.01) than the winter value.
The timing and departure rate of larvae of the warble fly Hypoderma (= Oedemagena) tarandi (L.) and the nose bot fly Cephenemyia trompe (Modeer) (Diptera: Oestridae) from reindeer
Authors: Nilssen Arne C. , Haugerud Rolf E.
Published: February 2013

The emergence of larvae of the reindeer warble fly Hypoderma (= Oedemagena) tarandi (L.) (n = 2205) from 4, 9, 3, 6 and 5 Norwegian semi-domestic reindeer yearlings (Rangifer tarandus tarandus (L.)) was registered in 1988, 1989, 1990, 1991 and 1992, respectively. Larvae of the reindeer nose bot fly Cephenemyia trompe (Moder) (n = 261) were recorded during the years 1990, 1991 and 1992 from the same reindeer. A collection cape technique (only H. tarandi) and a grating technique (both species) were used. In both species, dropping started around 20 Apr and ended 20 June. Peak emergence occurred from 10 May - 10 June, and was usually bimodal. The temperature during the larvae departure period had a slight effect (significant only in 1991) on the dropping rate of H. tarandi larvae, and temperature during infection in the preceding summer is therefore supposed to explain the uneven dropping rate. This appeared to be due to the occurrence of successive periods of infection caused by separate periods of weather that were favourable for mass attacks by the flies. As a result, the temporal pattern of maturation of larvae was divided into distinct pulses. Departure time of the larvae in relation to spring migration of the reindeer influences infection levels. Applied possibilities for biological control by separating the reindeer from the dropping sites are discussed.
Farmed Reindeer - a future prospect?
Authors: Rehbinder Claes , Ekberg Bengt , Brorsson Joel
Published: February 2013

On a farm near Uppsala, reindeer, in a small scale trial (6 animals), far away from their natural grazing areas, have been kept on a pasture, four hectars in size, for more than two years, fenced in by electric wire. They have stayed healthy and borne calves. The animals have received hay and commercial supplementary feed during the winter season and have, spring and autumn, been regularly dewormed with Ivermectin pour on. They carry a very low burden of lungworms and are free of gastrointestinal worms and Oestridae.
Managing Woodland Caribou in West-Central British Columbia
Authors: Cichowski Deborah B.
Published: February 2013

Initial long term planning for logging on the Tweedsmuir-Entiako caribou winter range began in the early 1980s. Because little information was available on which to base winter range management, the British Columbia Fish and Wildlife Branch began studies on radio-collared caribou in 1983, and an intensive study on caribou winter habitat requirements was conducted from 1985 to 1988. Terrestrial lichens were identified as the primary winter food source for the caribou, and in 1987, caribou winter range ecosystem maps, which emphasized abundance of terrestrial lichens, were produced. The ecosystem maps and information from the caribou study, including potential direct and indirect effects of timber harvesting on the caribou population, were used to develop a management strategy for the winter range. The management strategy comprised two levels of management: a landscape level (Caribou Management Zones); and a site-specific level (caribou habitat/timber values). Timber information associated with BC Ministry of Forests forest cover maps was integrated using a Geographic Information System. Six winter range management options were proposed ranging from harvesting low value caribou habitats only throughout the winter range to total protection of the entire winter range. Impacts of those options on both the caribou population and on the timber supply were evaluated. The options were reviewed through a public planning process, the Entiako Local Resource Use Plan, and recommendations from that process were forwarded to the British Columbia Protected Areas Strategy.
Towards a Caribou Habitat Management Strategy for Northwestern Ontario: Running the Gauntlet
Authors: Racey Gerald D. , Armstrong Edward R.
Published: February 2013

A management strategy for woodland caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou) habitat is being developed in northwestern Ontario. This strategy is based upon a set of draft Timber Management Guidelines for the Provision of Woodland Caribou Habitat. These guidelines recommend maintaining a sustainable supply of winter habitat within large tracts of old forest, protecting calving areas and minimizing human disturbance. Due to the large temporal and spatial scale of caribou habitat management, an ecosystem-based approach is recommended. Public response to the strategy shows a strong dichotomy between environmental and utilitarian values among all the major stakeholder groups. The major issues raised by the public include security of industrial wood supply, quality of the knowledge base, level of awareness of caribou, economic impacts on remote communities, concern about environmental impacts and silvicultural know-how. The government is responding to these concerns as the strategy evolves. Current emphasis is placed on increasing awareness of the public, training resource managers in caribou biology, management and habitat planning, implementing interim habitat management prescriptions and studying the potential impact on wood supply. The final direction for a northwestern Ontario strategy to conserve woodland caribou habitat has yet to be decided, although a commitment has been made to strive for the conservation of woodland caribou populations and their habitat.
Human impacts on George River Caribou: An Overview
Authors: Harrington Fred H.
Published: February 2013

Habitat loss exerts its influence by lowering the carrying capacity of the habitat. Loss of critical habitat, therefore, is of most concern. The fact that calving range is the one "constant" in the caribou's migratory movements, and that summer range appears to be overgrazed at present and may be limiting the population, indicates that protection of habitat in or about calving and summer range is a priority. It is important to monitor human influences of the population, so that changes in the relative magnitudes, at least, of these variables can be detected before their impacts become serious. Until a fuller understanding of the impacts of these various activities is acquired, it may be more appropriate to accept the alternative hypothesis that there is an impact, rather than the null hypothesis that there is none.
Salivary glands in Svalbard reindeer (Rangifer tarandus platyrhynchus) and in Norwegian reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus)
Authors: Mathiesen Svein D. , Rædergård V. B. , Vader M. A. , Haga Ø. E. , Norberg H. J. , Sørmoe W. , Tyler N. J. C.
Published: February 2013

The aim of this investigation was to compare the size of salivaty glands in Svalbard reindeer {Rangifer tarandus platyrhynchus) and in Norwegian reindeer (Rangifer t. tarandus) in relation to feeding strategy, season and reproductive status. The mean body mass (BM, standard deviation j) in adult non-lactating female Svalbard reindeer was 72.0, s = 4.2, kg (n = 8) in September and 46.7, s = 7.1, kg (« = 4) in April. The mean BM of adult non-lactating Norwegian reindeer was 67.5, s = 7.7, kg (» = 8) in September and 59.2, s = 9.6, kg (n = 9) in March. In non-lactating female Svalbard reindeer the mean combined mass of parotid glands was 82.7, s = 4.5, g in September and 58.8, s = 8.7, g in April (P < 0.05). In the Norwegian reindeer the mean combined mass of the parotid glands was 95.2, s = 14.4, g in Septembet and 68.1, s = 9.5, g in Match (P < 0.05). We wete not able to find any sub-species differences in the size of the salivaty glands which could be related to phenotypic difference in feeding strategy. Both sub-species had parotid glands sizes similar to that of intermediate ruminant types, ranging from 0.11-0.14% of BM. The larger absolute size of salivaty glands in summer compared to winter reflects the importance of high rates of production of saliva when the dry matter intake and microbial fermentation is high.
Lactation in yearling Alaskan reindeer: Implications for growth, reproduction, and survival
Authors: Prichard Alexander K. , Finstad Greg L. , Shain Drew H.
Published: February 2013

Unlike most Rangifer herds, free-ranging female reindeer {Rangifer tarandus) on the Seward Peninsula, Alaska frequently give birth as yearlings (12 months). In other reindeer herds this early reproduction has led to negative effects such as decreased future weight gain and reproduction. We analyzed reindeer data collected on the Seward Peninsula between 1987 and 1997 to determine what effect lactating as yearlings had on future weight gain, reproductive rates, and survival. Reindeer were rounded up during June and early July. Individual ear tag numbers were recorded, females were visually inspected for the presence of a distended udder, and some animals were weighed. Females with distended udders as yearlings had subsequent recapture rates, survival rates, weight gain, and future reproductive success comparable to females that did not have distended udders as yearlings. These findings suggest that the beneficial effects of increased calf weight gain outweigh potential negative effects of early reproduction in these reindeer. This may be due to high quality range leading to heavy calves and the ability of females to maintain body reserves during lactation.
Deltakerliste - List of participants
Authors: Skjenneberg (ed.) Sven
Published: February 2013

Fra de nordiske landene deltok det 38 personer tilknyttet forskning, forvaltning, administrasjon og reindriften.
Comparative response of Rangifer tarandus and other northern ungulates to climatic variability
Authors: Weladji Robert B. , Klein David R. , Holand Øystein , Mysterud Atle
Published: February 2013

To understand the factors influencing life history traits and population dynamics, attention is increasingly being given to the importance of environmental stochasticity. In this paper, we review and discuss aspects of current knowledge concerning the effect of climatic variation (local and global) on population parameters of northern ungu¬lates, with special emphasis on reindeer/caribou (Rangifer tarandus). We also restrict ourselves to indirect effects of climate through both forage availability and quality, and insect activity. Various authors have used different weather variables; with sometime opposite trends in resulting life history traits of ungulates, and few studies show consistent effects to the same climatic variables. There is thus little consensus about which weather variables play the most sig¬nificant role influencing ungulate population parameters. This may be because the effects of weather on ungulate pop¬ulation dynamics and life history traits are scale dependent and it is difficult to isolate climatic effects from density dependent factors. This confirms the complexity of the relationship between environment and ecosystem. We point out limits of comparability between systems and the difficulty of generalizing about the effect of climate change broadly across northern systems, across species and even within species. Furthermore, insect harassment appears to be a key climate-related factor for the ecology of reindeer/caribou that has been overlooked in the literature of climatic effects on large herbivores. In light of this, there is a need for further studies of long time series in assessing effects of climate variability on reindeer/caribou.
River crossings as principal points of human/reindeer relationship in Eurasia
Authors: Baskin Leonid M.
Published: February 2013

Since prehistoric time, indigenous peoples throughout Eurasia have hunted reindeer from boats when the animals were swimming across rivers. A number of landscape peculiarities and reindeer behavior features determine the phenomena of mass reindeer river crossings at a few points. Hunting at river crossings occurs predominantly in the autumn season along migration routes of tundra and forest-tundra populations. In the past, many of the well-known river cross¬ings were in private possession by indigenous families (Anonymous, 1945). In northern Russia, since the 1970s, the reindeer river crossings became the place of commercial slaughter of reindeer. The state hunting husbandry "Taymyrsky" was established, it received licenses for hunting and then totally regulated who was permitted to hunt reindeer and where (Sarkin, 1977). Step by step, most of the indigenous peoples have been forced out of their traditional hunting locations by aggressive non-indigenous newcomers and became unemployed. Large-scale commercial hunting has led to overexploitation and the decline of reindeer populations in Yakutia and Taymyr. The sustainable use of migratory reindeer populations, as well as renaissance of hunting economies, are possible if exclusive use of some of the reindeer river crossings are returned to indigenous communities as their property, with others to be used by urban hunters and commercial enterprises under the improved state regulations and enforcement.
Towards a protocol for community monitoring of caribou body condition
Authors: Kofinas Gary , Lyver Phil , Russell Don , White Robert , Nelson Augie , Flanders Nicholas
Published: February 2013

Effective ecological monitoring is central to the sustainability of subsistence resources of indigenous communities. For caribou, Arctic indigenous people's most important terrestrial subsistence resource, body condition is a useful measure because it integrates many ecological factors that influence caribou productivity and is recognized by biologists and hunters as meaningful. We draw on experience working with indigenous communities to develop a body condition monitoring protocol for harvested animals. Local indigenous knowledge provides a broad set of caribou health indicators and explanations of how environmental conditions may affect body condition. Scientific research on caribou body condition provides a basis to develop a simple dichotomous key that includes back fat, intestinal fat, kidney fat and marrow¬fat, as measures of body fat, which in autumn to early winter correlates with the likelihood of pregnancy. The dichotomous key was formulated on "expert knowledge" and validated against field estimates of body composition. We compare local indigenous knowledge indicators with hunter documented data based on the dichotomous key. The potential con¬tribution of community body condition monitoring can be realized through the continued comparative analysis of datasets. Better communication among hunters and scientists, and refinement of data collection and analysis methods are recommended. Results suggest that specific local knowledge may become generalized and integrated between regions if the dichotomous key is used as a generalized (semi-quantitative) index and complemented with other science and community-based assessments.
Of reindeer and man, modern and Neanderthal: A creation story founded on a historic perspective on how to conserve wildlife, woodland caribou in particular
Authors: Geist Valerius
Published: February 2013

A review of successful systems of wildlife conservation, the North American included, suggests that broad public support and determined effort by volunteers is essential for wildlife conservation. Since North American wildlife conservation is the only large-scale system of sustainable natural resource use, and exemplifies the great economic and cultural benefits of a renewable resource held in common, its lessons may be profitably applied to Rangifer conservation. Animals that have value are surrounded by myths that tell of their relationship to humans. In our Anglo-American culture reindeer and caribou are rather deficient in this respect. However, reindeer feature prominently in the rise of modern humans and the demise of Neanderthal man early in the Upper Paleolithic. The colonization by humans of the periglacial environments during the last glaciation depended on the rich periglacial megafauna, Rangifer included. Archeological sites of the European Upper Paleolithic show that reindeer were the most important food source. The Upper Paleolithic, characterized by exceptional physical development and health of people, as well as by the first flowering of art, extended from Spain to Crimea with surprisingly little cultural change for some 25 000 years. While the cave paintings express an infatuation with dangerous game (woolly mammoth, woolly rhino, steppe wisent, giant deer, cave lions, bears etc), the archeological sites indicate that reindeer was the staple food. Reindeer play a minor role in cave art. Neither this art, nor archeological sites, show any evidence of warfare. It is hypothesized that during a mid-glacial interstadial modern people entered Europe having developed a highly successful system of hunting reindeer using interception based on the discovery of chronologic time. This led to a first flowering of culture based on a rich economy, but also to additional hunting mortality of the periglacial mega-herbivores that Neanderthal people depended on. That would explain the slow decline into extinction of the previously invincible Neanderthal people. Therefore, modern humans owe much of what they are to reindeer. We need to reciprocate. What is urgently required is a foundation formed by volunteers for the conservation of caribou, similar to the Rocky Mountain Elk Foundation, focusing on the severely endangered wood¬land caribou.
Predation risk and optimal foraging trade-off in the demography and spacing of the George River Herd, 1958 to 1993
Authors: Bergerud Arthur T. , Luttich Stuart N.
Published: February 2013

The behavior options of feeding animals lie on a continuum between energy maximization and minimization of predation risk. We studied the distribution, mobility, and energy budgets of the George River herd, Ungava from 1974 to 1993. We arranged the annual cycle into 6 phases where we argue that the importance between the priorities of optimal foraging and predation risk change between periods. At calving, risk is more important than foraging for females but males take more risk to optimally forage. During the mosquito season, insect avoidance takes priority over risk and for¬aging. Optimal foraging takes precedent over risk in the late summer and fall and it is at this time that the herd expanded its range relative to numbers and forage abundance. In the winter (December to mid-March) animals sought restricted localized ranges with low snow cover to reduce predation risk. The spring migration of females may have increased risk during the interval the females were moving back to the tundra to give birth to their neonates on the low risk calv¬ing ground. In May, females sought early greens near treeline, which may have increased risk in order to provide maximum nutrition to their fetuses in the last weeks of pregnancy. The ancestors of the George River Herd during the Pleistocene, 18 000 yr. BP may have reduced predation risk by spacing-out in the Appalachian Mountains, removed from the major specie of the megafauna in the lowlands. With global warming, it is argued the major problem for caribou will be increased wolf predation rather than changing forage and nutritional regimes. It is essential that First Nation residents of the North maintain their option to manage wolf numbers if excessive predation in the future adversely affects the migratory herds of the Northwest Territories and Ungava.
Body size of female calves and natality rates of known-aged females in two adjacent Alaskan caribou herds, and implications for management
Authors: Valkenburg Patrick , Tobey Robert W. , Tobey Robert W. , Dale Bruce W. , Dale Bruce W. , Scotton Bradley D. , Scotton Bradley D. , Ver Hoef Jay M. , Ver Hoef Jay M.
Published: February 2013

We studied body mass of female calves and natality rate of adult females in two adjacent Interior Alaskan caribou (Rangifer tarandus granti) herds during 1991-2001. Mass of newborn calves was similar in both herds, but Delta calves gained significantly more mass over summer than Nelchina calves. In contrast, Nelchina calves consistently maintained their mass during winter while Delta calves lost mass. Metatarsus length was similar in both herds in 4-month-old and 10-month-old calves, and it increased over winter in both herds. Natality rates of females >3 years old were consistently higher in the Delta Herd than in the Nelchina Herd, primarily because natality in 3- to 5-year-old Nelchina females was low. Although body mass of Delta Herd calves consistently declined over winter, we concluded that nutrition was not significantly limiting herd growth. Managers are more likely to maximize harvest by maintaining the Delta Herd near its present size (i.e., 3500), or allowing it to increase only slightly. The only real option for increasing harvestable surpluses of caribou in the Delta Herd is reducing predation during calving and summer. In contrast, we conclude that summer nutrition significantly limits potential population growth and body mass in the Nelchina Herd, and managers are more likely to maximize harvest by maintaining herd size at or below 30 000 than by allowing the herd to grow to near historical highs (i.e., 60 000-70 000).
Grazing intensity on the plant diversity of alpine meadow in the eastern Tibetan plateau
Authors: Ning Wu , Jian Liu , Zhaoli Yan
Published: February 2013

Because ofthe remoteness and harsh conditions of the high-altitude rangelands on the eastern Tibetan Plateau, the relationship between yak grazing and plant diversity has not been so clear although livestock increase was thought as the main issue leading to the degradation of rangeland. In the debate of rangeland degradation, biodiversity loss has been assumed as one of the indicators in the last two decades. In this paper authors measured the effects of different grazing intensities on the plant diversity and the structure of Kobresia pygmaea community in the case-study area, northwestern Sichuan. The results indicated that plant diversity of alpine meadow has different changing trends respectively with the change of grazing intensity and seasons. In June the highest plant diversity occurred in the intensively grazed (HG) plots, but in July and September species biodiversity index of slightly grazed (LG) plots is higher than other experimental treatments. In August the intermediate grazed (IG) plots has the highest biodiversity index. Moreover, it was found that intensively grazing always leads to the increase of plant density, but meanwhile the decrease of community height, coverage and biomass. Over-grazing can change the community structure and lead to the succession from Kobresia pygmaea dominated community to Poa pratensis dominated. Analyzing results comprehensively, it can be suggested that the relationship between grazing intensity and plant diversity is not linear, i.e. diversity index is not as good as other characteristics of community structure to evaluate rangeland degradation on the high altitude situation. The change of biodiversity is so complicated that it can not be explained with the simple corresponding causality.
Aspects of a two-pasture — herbivore model
Authors: Riseth Jan Åge , Johansen Bernt , Vatn Arild
Published: February 2013

Pastures for reindeer can be divided into green pastures (mainly herbs and grasses) of summer time and more or less snow-covered lichen pastures of winter. Fall and spring pastures have a composition in-between these extremes, but for model purposes bisection is sufficient. For the animals the green-pasture season is an anabolic phase with a physiological building-up of protein reserves, while winter is a catabolic phase where food-intake is reduced and the animals to a considerable extent survive on the accumulated reserves from summer. While protein reserves are stored from summer to winter, lichen pastures are stored from year to year. Grasses and herbs not being grazed are wilting by the end of the growing season, while lichens not grazed can live for many years. This corresponds with fundamental differences in both growth pattern and resilience. The implications of the different features, and their interconnections, are not easy to survey without formal modeling. The point of departure is a simple pasture-herbivore model, well known from the literature building on a set of differential equations. A new two-pasture-herbivore model is developed. The model includes as basic elements the Klein (1968) hypothesis and that a residual lichen biomass is kept ungrazed due to snow-cover protection. Further the annual cycle is divided into four stylized seasons with herd rates of winter survival, spring calving, summer physiological growth and fall slaughtering. Isoclines are derived for summer pasture, winter pasture and herbivores. Stability properties are discussed in relation to various situations of seasonal pasture balance. Empirical examples, particularly that of changes in pasture balance and vegetation cover in Western Finnmark, Norway, are discussed. The article finds that the two-pasture model provides important features of reality, such as the stability aspects of pasture balance, which cannot be displayed by a one-pasture model. It is suggested that this type of modeling can be used as a basis for further research, e.g. implications of climate change.
11th Arctic Ungulate Conference (AUC)
Authors: Nieminen Mauri
Published: February 2013

The 11th Arctic Ungulate Conference (AUC) wasorganised by the Finnish Game and Fisheries Research Institute (RKTL) in Saariselkä, in the Heart of Lapland, Finland, 24-28 August 2003. The conference continued a series of ten conferences devoted to Arctic Ungulates, including five Reindeer/Caribou Symposia, two Muskox Symposia and three Arctic Ungulate Conferences. The series began with the 1st International Reindeer/Caribou Symposium held in Fairbanks, Alaska, in 1972
Rethinking the basic conservation unit and associated protocol for augmentation of an "endangered" caribou population: An opinion
Authors: Miller Frank L. , Barry Samuel J. , Calvert Wendy A. , Zittlau Keri A.
Published: February 2013

Use of the subspecies as the basic unit in the conservation of endangered caribou (Rangifer tarandus) would produce a “melting pot” end-product that would mask important genotypic, phenotypic, ecological, and behavioral variations found below the level of the subspecies. Therefore, we examined options for establishing the basic conservation unit for an endangered caribou population: use of subspecies based on taxonomy, subspecies based solely on mtDNA, Evolutionarily Significant Units, and the geographic population. We reject the first three and conclude that the only feasible basic unit for biologically and ecologically sound conservation of endangered caribou in North America is the geographic population. Conservation of endangered caribou at the level of the geographic population is necessary to identify and maintain current biodiversity. As deliberations about endangered caribou conservation often involve consideration of population augmentation, we also discuss the appropriate augmentation protocol for conserving biodiversity. Management of a critically endangered caribou population by augmentation should only be initiated after adequate study and evaluation of the genotype, phenotype, ecology, and behavior for both the endangered caribou and the potential‘donor’ caribou to prevent the possible ‘contamination’ of the endangered caribou. Translocation of caribou into an endangered population will have failed, even if the restocking efforts succeed, if the donor animals functionally alter the population’s gene pool or phenotype, or alter the ecological and behavioral adaptations of individuals in the endangered population. Most importantly, a seriously flawed restocking would risk irreversibly altering those functional characteristics of caribou in an endangered population that make them distinct and possibly unique. It might even result in the loss of the endangered population, thus eliminating a uniquely evolved line from among the caribou species.
The need for the management of wolves — an open letter
Authors: Bergerud Arthur T.
Published: February 2013

The Southern Mountain and Boreal Woodland Caribou are facing extinction from increased predation, predominantly wolves (Canis lupus) and coyotes (Canis latrans). These predators are increasing as moose (Alces alces) and deer (Odocoileus spp). expand their range north with climate change. Mitigation endeavors will not be sufficient; there are too many predators. The critical habitat for caribou is the low predation risk habitat they select at calving: It is not old growth forests and climax lichens. The southern boundary of caribou in North America is not based on the presence of lichens but on reduced mammalian diversity. Caribou are just as adaptable as other cervids in their use of broadleaf seed plant as forage. Without predator management these woodland caribou will go extinct in our life time.
Determining effects of an all weather logging road on winter woodland caribou habitat use in south-eastern Manitoba
Authors: Schindler Doug W. , Walker David , Davis Tim , Westwood Richard
Published: February 2013

The Owl Lake boreal woodland caribou population is the most southerly population in Manitoba. It is provincially ranked as a High Conservation Concern Population. Forestry operations exist in the area and there are plans for further forest harvest and renewal. The Happy Lake logging road is the only main access through the Owl Lake winter range. This logging road is currently closed to the public and access is limited to forestry operations during specific times of the year. An integrated forestry/caribou management strategy for the area provides for the maintenance of minimum areas of functional habitat. Habitat quality along the road was compared to habitat quality in the winter core use areas, within the winter range and outside the winter range. To evaluate the extent of functional habitat near the road, we conducted animal location and movement analysis using GPS data collected from January 2002 to March 2006. Habitat quality in the winter range, core use areas and along the road were assessed and found to be similar. Analysis of caribou locations and movement illustrate less use of high quality habitat adjacent to the Happy Lake Road. Loss of functional habitat is suggested to occur within 1 kilometre of the road. This potential loss of functional habitat should be incorporated into integrated forestry and caribou conservation strategies. Road management is recommended to minimize the potential sensory disturbance and associated impacts of all weather access on boreal woodland caribou.
Populations of wild and feral reindeer in Siberia and Far East of Russia
Authors: Baskin Leonid M. , Miller Frank L.
Published: February 2013

Identification and cataloging of discrete reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) populations in Siberia and the Far East of Russia has not been carried out. This prohibits accurate measures of population structure and dynamics that would allow more intensive management of this important renewable resource. To rectify the lack of information, an inventory was made that identifies 84 wild populations and 3 feral populations originating from domestic reindeer. This inventory summarizes the information available on the location, approximate population size, approximate range size, and occurrence by ecoregions and habitat types of each of those 87 reindeer populations. The 87 reindeer populations used a collective landmass of about 3 000 000 km2. The range size for each population was calculated to be between 446 km2 and 392 267 km2, with a mean ± SE of 34 033 ± 5734 km2. The 86 populations for which population size could be approximated totaled 790 655 reindeer, with an approximate mean ± SE of 9194 ± 2517, a minimum size of 50, and maximum size of 145 000. The location of the calving grounds could be determined for only 26 (30%) of the 87 reindeer populations.
Sami herders’ classification system of reindeer winter pastures – A contribution to adapt forest management to reindeer herding in northern Sweden
Authors: Roturier Samuel
Published: February 2013

The system for classifying vegetation types currently used in Swedish forestry has two major deficiencies when identifying reindeer winter pastures: it uses lichen cover as the sole criterion for defining them, and it ignores the possible adverse effects of snow cover. Based on ethnological field studies, this paper examines Sami reindeer herders' classification of reindeer winter pastures, and compares it to the system used by foresters at different levels of classification. At the lower level, which deals with identifying discrete entities, it is possible to find some correspondence between the representations of forest characteristics used by the Sami herders and the foresters. Reindeer herders discriminate the same factors – tree height, canopy enclosure, stem density, field-layer, bottom-layer – as forest manager, but the former use this knowledge to evaluate the effects on snow cover and ice, and thus on the accessibility of the lichen beneath. Inconsistencies appear at the second level of classification, which consists in ordering this variety of forest characteristics into a classificatory system. There is a mismatch between Sami herders and forester’s representations and classifications of pastures because Sami categories are ‘complex’, i.e. categories including many criteria that have to be combined and balanced before defining the pasture. Herders’ representation of pasture is thus holistic, rather than purely botanical. The comparison of the two classification systems demonstrates that it is impossible to define grazing quality solely in terms of lichen abundance, because of the multidimensional nature of reindeer winter pastures and consequent shifts (spatial and temporal) in its quality.