bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Effects of Physiological Stress on Tactile Communication
Authors: Merlo James L. , Stafford Shawn , Gilson Richard , Hancock P.A.
Published: January 2012

The researcher-constructed tactile display prototype has been used to conduct a variety of laboratory studies that have demonstrated positive results for tactile signaling and communication. This prototype display that uses precision tactors and skilled placement of them exhibits potential for superior reception of the vibration in the appropriate skin receptors. The purpose of this study was to determine if this prototype tactile display could still produce accurate reception of tactile localization and messaging under physiological stress. Results showed that USMA cadets running on a treadmill had almost error free performance, demonstrating that messaging and localization of tactile signals seemed to be unaffected by physiological arousal or stress.
Measuring the Workload of Sustained Attention
Authors: Finomore Victor S. , Warm Joel S. , Matthews Gerry , Riley Michael A. , Dember William N. , Shaw Tyler H. , Ungar Nathaniel R. , Scerbo Mark W.
Published: January 2012

The utility of a new measure of perceived mental workload in vigilance, The Multiple Resources Questionnaire (MRQ), was evaluated by comparing its sensitivity against that of the standard measure in this area, the NASA-TLX. Sensitivity was assessed in regard to the effects of a factor previously shown by the NASA-TLX to affect task demand, detecting stimulus presence/absence. Performance efficiency was significantly greater when critical signals for detection were defined by the presence of a target feature than by the absence of that feature. This effect was echoed in higher global workload scores for absence than presence when workload was measured by the NASA-TLX and by a modified version of the MRQ involving an increase in the response range for each item in the scale. Additionally, the MRQ identified resources utilized in the vigilance task that are not reflected in the standard measure. The results indicate that the new scale could be a useful adjunct to the older one.
Broad-Spectrum Mitigation and the Cognitive Neurobiological Interface: Considering Biological Rhythms in Augmented Cognition
Authors: Alicea Bradly
Published: January 2012

Brain-computer interface design relies upon mitigating human performance. Recent attempts have focused mainly on real-time cognitive processing. This paper will consider biological rhythms as a longer-term and more dynamic factor for determining human performance in such systems. To characterize the contribution of such neurobiological phenomena to human performance, biological rhythms will be proposed as the input for both “sub-cognitive” state gauges and a predictive model based on complexity theory that modulate the input/output properties of basic cognitive state gauges. The relationship of biological rhythms to cognitive processing exists at multiple temporal scales, and provides an additional level of complexity to currently held conceptual models. Most notably, a concept called broad-spectrum mitigation will be considered as a way to improve human performance and more effectively augment cognitive processing.
Does a Head-Mounted Display Worsen Inattentional Blindness?
Authors: Krupenia Stas , Sanderson Penelope M
Published: January 2012

Head mounted displays (HMDs) can present visual information to operators at times when this would otherwise be difficult or impossible using standard visual displays. HMDs have been shown to benefit anesthetists in simulated medical environments. Operators, however, may have trouble extracting information from the HMD in dynamic environments. Operators may also fail to consciously perceive visual events that are important, meaningful, or bizarre if attending to other aspects of the visual scene. We investigated how attention manipulations (Focused, Divided, Just Watch) interact with display type (HMD, Standard Display) and found that participants were less likely to detect unexpected events using the HMD. We also found that unexpected event detection decreased from the Just Watch to Divided to Focused attention conditions. We suggest further testing be taken to ensure that HMDs to not result in failures to detect unexpected events in anesthesia monitoring.
Does a Multi-Layer Display Reduce the Effect of Non-Target Flankers?
Authors: Carr S. M. , Meehan J.W. , Phillips J.G.
Published: January 2012

Pointing movements to targets may be influenced by non-target flankers. A Multi Layered DisplayTM (MLD) was used in an attempt to reduce any distracting effects of flanking targets. A ‘response vector model’ predicts movements away from highly salient flankers, while a ‘response activation model’ can predict movements towards. Participants were 14 skilled computer users who moved a computer cursor using a mouse to virtual targets. Kinematic analysis revealed significant effects consistent with the response vector model. Separating target and flanker separation using the MLD reduced the distracting effects of flankers upon the early “planned” part of cursor trajectories but not the latter part of cursor trajectories.
Study on the Operator's Mental Activity under Unexpected Control System's Condition
Authors: Kobayashi Daiji , Yamamoto Sakae
Published: January 2012

It is difficult for human operator to control complex and large system by hand, because the delay of system response could be long. Although some previous studies characterized the progress in the manual control, the relation between the operator's progress and mental activity was not clear. In this study, we tried to make the relation clear and conducted a simulation experiment to compare the subject's performances and background electroencephalograms (EEGs). The EEGs were measured based on international 10–20 method while the subject controlled a target on the simulator. The subjects were 12 male students ranging from 19 to 23 years old. As the results, we found that the amplitude of theta waves at frontal region was getting higher when the subjects were under the unexpected condition.
Validation of Principles for Tactile Navigation Displays
Authors: van Erp Jan B.F. , Werkhoven Peter , Werkhoven Peter
Published: January 2012

Access to navigation information rapidly becomes standard in many situations, for example through GPS receivers and collision avoidance systems in cars. However, perceiving and processing the information may result in overloading the user's visual sense and cognitive resources. Intuitive navigation information presentation concepts using the sense of touch are claimed to be a solution to both threats. Employing the sense of touch can reduce the visual load, and the proverbial “tap-on-the-shoulder” may sheer automatically evoke the correct (control) behavior. This recently resulted in the development of car seats with vibrating elements, belts with vibrators for soldiers, tactile vests for pilots, and many similar displays. This paper presents a model for human behavior in platform navigation and control called prenav. Prenav allows discussing issues such as the accuracy of spatial information displays, effects on workload, and effects of external stressors. Prenav guided the validation studies we conducted in the last decade. Based on these studies, we concluded that tactile torso displays can potentially provide a major workload reduction and safety enhancement in platform control.
A Meta-Analysis of Performance under Thermal Stress
Authors: Ross Jennifer M. , Szalma James L. , Hancock Peter A.
Published: January 2012

The goal of this work was to perform a quantitative review of temperature effects on human performance, with the aim of advancing both theory and practice. Meta-analytic methods were applied to the available literature on thermal stress and performance. Two-hundred-ninety-one references were collected resulting in forty-nine publications that met selection criteria. These studies provided 528 effect sizes. Analyses revealed an overall detrimental effect of temperature on performance. Effect-size for heat was comparable to that for cold temperatures. Temperature effects were task dependent, that is cognitive performance was least affected by thermal stress, while both psychomotor and perceptual task performance were degraded to a greater degree. Other moderating variables were identified and observed to influence the effect of thermal stress. Although the results clearly indicate more empirical research is necessary to achieve more accurate estimates, the current study provides initial effect-size estimates that should be considered when designing human-machine systems.
Psychometric Survey Methods for Measuring Attitudes toward Homeland Security Systems and Personal Privacy
Authors: Sanquist Thomas F. , Mahy Heidi A. , Posse Christian , Morris Frederic
Published: January 2012

A survey method for measuring attitudes regarding homeland security systems and personal privacy is described. By use of a simple rating scale method and factor analysis, insight can be gained regarding various technologies and the reasons people consider them more or less acceptable in terms of privacy issues.
Improving Website Usability with Latent Semantic Analysis
Authors: Nuehring Sarah A. , Foltz Peter W.
Published: January 2012

When people search for information on the Web, they rely on link descriptions to decide where to look. If the descriptions are not sufficiently accurate, people will have a hard time navigating. This difficulty is what is known as the vocabulary problem. The overall goal of this study was to develop a way of making the vocabulary problem less probable on websites: first by improving the information scent of links in websites, and second by investigating the relationship between information scent and website navigability. Information scent was defined as the semantic similarity between a link description and its target information, quantified using Latent Semantic Analysis (LSA). Lists of keywords related to web pages were obtained from human participants and from LSA, and then the keywords were used to make modifications to the links on web pages. Participants showed faster navigation when using the modified websites compared to using the original websites.
Designing an Intelligent Agent? Vertical and Horizontal Features Activate Different Face Schemas
Authors: Sims Valerie K. , Chin Matthew G. , Ballion Tatiana , Sushil David J. , Smith Hana S. , Clark Bryan , Shumaker Randall , Finkelstein Neal
Published: January 2012

Participants rated machine “faces” which varied in terms of color scheme (white on black or black on white), feature shape (round or square), verticality of eyes, verticality of nose, and verticality of mouth. Ratings were made for aggression, friendliness, intelligence, trustworthiness, and attractiveness. Equally proportioned features yielded the most positive ratings, but all features were important in predicting the magnitude of the difference. Trustworthiness ratings appeared to require the most complex facial processing. Design of intelligent agents needs to take into account the minimal features that elicit an anthropomorphic response.
The Effect of Two Office Ergonomics Field Interventions and their Replication on Visual Symptoms
Authors: Menéndez Cammie Chaumont , Robertson Michelle , Amick Benjamin C. , Harrist Ronald B. , Bazzani Lianna , DeRango Kelly , Moore Anne
Published: January 2012

Upper extremity musculoskeletal symptoms and disorders in the workplace continue to be a significant public health burden (National Research Council and Institute of Medicine, 2001). These outcomes, as they relate to computer use, are important as greater than 50% of employed adults in the United States use a computer at work (U.S. Census Bureau, 2003). Visual symptoms are also known to often coexist with upper extremity musculoskeletal symptoms with computer workers. This study examines the effect of two office ergonomic interventions, a highly adjustable chair and an office ergonomics training, on the reduction of specific visual symptoms. Additionally, findings from a replicated study site are compared with those of the original study. Multilevel logistic regression models were used to estimate the effect. In comparing the original and replication worksites we find specific visual symptom reductions occurred for the group receiving both the chair with training at the original and replicated worksite. However, the group receiving only the office ergonomics training experienced individual visual symptom reductions at the replication worksite but not the original worksite. There were differences in the specific visual symptoms affected by the office ergonomics interventions when comparing worksites.
Does Active Control Eliminate the Aperture Illusion?
Authors: Ott Tammy E. , DeLucia Patricia R.
Published: January 2012

When a contour moves behind a circular aperture, observers misperceive the contour's motion as perpendicular to its orientation regardless of its true motion. This aperture illusion is relevant to the design of technologies that limit an observer's field of view, for example, cameras used in minimally-invasive surgery. Thus, it is important to determine the conditions under which the illusion occurs and how to eliminate it. In prior studies of the aperture illusion, observers passively viewed displays in which a line moved behind an aperture. Here, we demonstrated that the illusion occurred when participants actively controlled the line's motion. Furthermore, the aperture illusion was smaller with a rectangular aperture compared with a circle or octagon. Further research of this kind will help improve the design of technologies that limit an observer's field of view.
Indian Users' Expectations for the Location of Web Objects on Informational Websites
Authors: Shaikh A. Dawn , Chaparro Barbara S. , Joshi Anirudha
Published: January 2012

Previous research has established that users form mental models of web page layout. Bernard (2001, 2002) demonstrated that users expect web objects to be located in specific places on a web page. Further research has attempted to evaluate users' expectations on a global level (Bernard & Sheshadri, 2004). Th3 study discussed in this paper used a similar methodology on students at an Indian university in Mumbai in order to determine the structure of the Indian user's mental model for web page layout. India is one of the fastest growing Internet user markets in the world. With a predicted 100 million users by 2007, it is essential to get a better understanding of the Indian user. This paper graphically identifies the expected location of five web objects (back to home link, about us link, site search engine, internal links, and advertisements) commonly found on informational websites. Suggestions for overall page layout are also provided.
How Does Manipulation of Secondary Task Scheduling Affect Human Performance?
Authors: Tremoulet Patrice D. , Stibler Kathleen M. , Craven Patrick , Barton Joyce , Gifford Adam , Regli Susan Harkness
Published: January 2012

Systems that can track and intelligently adapt to changes in users' cognitive capacities may help to improve human performance. The experiment reported here was designed to assess the benefit of placing neuro-physiological sensors on users to provide data about their cognitive states that can drive performance mitigations. A test group of 16 participants performed a primary task while monitoring for alerts (secondary task) under four conditions: no-mitigation (alerts presented as they arrive), random mitigation (system randomly alters the presentation times of alerts), sensor-driven mitigation (system uses sensor data to influence alert presentation times), and user-driven mitigation (participants pressed a button to influence the alert presentation times). Participants completed no-mitigation and user-driven mitigation conditions faster than sensor-driven and random mitigation conditions, but their accuracy scores did not differ significantly across the four conditions. This is likely due to a ceiling effect: participants' accuracy scores exceeded 90% in every condition. Future work should investigate the possibility that user-driven mitigation may, in some cases, improve performance better than sensor-driven mitigation.
Statistical Considerations for the Number of Participants in Human Factors Scaling Studies
Authors: Boring Ronald Laurids
Published: January 2012

Scaling is widely used in human factors and other psychological research as the primary method to assess mental states. While scaling biases and ways to mitigate such biases are well documented, there remains little discussion of the appropriate number of participants for scaling-based research studies. This paper reviews evidence suggesting that for most scaling research, the discoverability of findings asymptotes when using five participants. This paper includes a discussion of the use of descriptive vs. inferential statistics for scaling research, a review of the parallels between scaling and usability research with regard to the number of participants, and a discussion of statistical power for scaling research.
Placement Opportunities for Human Factors Engineering and Ergonomics Professionals in Industry and Government/Military Positions
Authors: Loomer Sara , Kish Michelle , Moroney William F.
Published: January 2012

During the period from January 2005 through December 2005, the Placement Service of Human Factors and Ergonomics Society distributed announcements describing 123 new positions available for human factors and ergonomics professionals. This paper describes the 111 placement opportunities for those in Industry and the Government/Military. The attributes of the position descriptions examined include: employment sector, degree requirements, work experience, expertise, salary, and geographic location.

The employment sector type seeking the most employees was Consumer Products at 28%. The degree required was usually a Masters (42 %) and the geographic area with the most jobs was the Northeast (N=32). The area of expertise most frequently requested by employers was Experimental Research (N=58).
Enhancing Learners' Cognitive and Metacognitive Processes via Self-Generated Elaboration
Authors: Cuevas Haydee M. , Fiore Stephen M.
Published: January 2012

The present study investigated the utility of the query method for enhancing learners' cognitive (e.g., knowledge organization, knowledge acquisition) and metacognitive (e.g., comprehension monitoring) processes. The query method involves a guided, sentence generation task requiring elaboration of key concepts in the training material which encourages learners to ‘stop and think’ about the information already presented before proceeding to new concepts in the training. This study also investigated the effect of varying the level of elaboration (low or high) prompted by the queries. Overall, results showed that incorporating low-level elaboration queries into the training resulted in improved integration and application of task-relevant knowledge, more accurate comprehension monitoring, and higher instructional efficiency. High-level elaboration queries consistently failed to produce significantly better post-training outcomes, possibly due to the increased cognitive load imposed on learners during training. Results are discussed in terms of learner control, cognitive load theory, the design of distributed training environments.
Retention of Airline Pilots' Knowledge and Skill
Authors: Hendrickson Stacey M. L. , Goldsmith Timothy E. , Johnson Peder J.
Published: January 2012

A current issue for airlines is to determine the appropriate recurrent training schedules for flight crews. The present study offers empirical data on the retention of airline pilots' knowledge and skill. We report data on flight crews evaluated at six and 12-months post training. Both normal and emergency flight maneuvers experienced significantly higher decay at the 12-month assessment when compared to the six-month assessment. Maneuvers briefed before the evaluation, allowing the pilot to mentally review the appropriate procedures, showed less decay compared to non-briefed maneuvers for both the six and 12-month assessments. The greater decay suffered by the first look maneuvers suggests engaging in mental rehearsal before on-the-line flying might mitigate the decay. The results, furthermore, suggest the importance of upholding a six-month training schedule.
A Comparison between a Part-Task Cognitive Training Group and a Part-Task Skill Development Group on Aircraft Performance
Authors: Dattel Andrew R.
Published: January 2012

Twelve non instrument rated private pilots were randomly assigned to one of two part-task training groups: a cognitive training group and a skill development group. After taking a 20-minute pretest on a flight simulator, the cognitive training group spent 2 1/2 hours viewing various dynamic flight situations represented by seven basic airplane flight instruments. The group was asked several questions about each presentation, including how to respond to each flight situation based on specific flight goals. The skill development group spent an equal amount of time using the flight simulator as a tool to develop instrument skills. Three performance variables (distance, altitude, and airspeed) were compared between the pretest and three posttests. For decisions involving distance, both training methods were effective. For decisions involving altitude and airspeed, cognitive training surpassed skill based training.
Using Scenario-Based Training to Teach use of the Brs Parachute
Authors: Strally Shayna D. , Blickensderfer Elizabeth L.
Published: January 2012

This study sought to examine the effects of scenario-based training (SBT) on pilot's use of the Ballistic Recovery System, an emergency parachute used to prevent terrain collision. Of particular interest was the point at which the pilot decides to deploy the BRS. The results showed participants in the SBT condition performed significantly better than participants in a traditional training condition on several measures. Although additional research is needed, these results likely indicate that SBT is an effective method for training parachute use and emergency procedure.
Differences in Cognitive Ability and Preference Mediate Effects of Interruptions on Simulated Driving Performance
Authors: Baran Melanie , Chignell Mark
Published: January 2012

With increasing use of in-vehicle devices, such as cell phones and navigation systems, potential for accident risk due to factors such as inattention and high mental workload are heightened. Notification management systems offer a solution to this problem by mediating notifications based on factors such as task difficulty. However, relevant theories and findings are needed to guide notification management decisions. In this study, 20 participants completed working memory span, cognitive style, and desire for control assessments and then participated in a simulated driving task while responding to phone call notifications. Significant effects of the cognitive factors on how interruptions affected driving performance were found on a number of dependent variables, including measures of minimum time to collision and of longitudinal velocity. Implications for in-vehicle notification management systems are discussed.
Do Drivers know they can Steer in the Dark?: An Empirical Test of the selective Degradation Hypothesis
Authors: Brooks Johnell O. , Tyrrell Richard A.
Published: January 2012

Drivers routinely overdrive their headlights at night. The selective degradation hypothesis predicts that drivers' overconfidence is a consequence of their ability to steer being preserved even though their ability to see details is impaired. This study investigated the extent to which drivers (18 to 78 years) understand that their ability to steer is preserved in low luminances. Participants estimated their ability to steer before driving a curvy, simulated roadway. Steering performance (but not acuity) was largely intact even in extremely low luminances. Particularly at lower luminances, however, drivers steered better than they had predicted. In the dimmest condition, participants drove outside their lane only 25% as often as they had predicted. These findings support the selective degradation hypothesis, help explain drivers' overconfidence at night, and reflect the fact that drivers do not understand that the ability to see details and the ability to steer are supported by separate neural mechanisms.
Continuous versus Situation-Dependent Night Vision Presentation in Automotive Applications
Authors: Alm TorbjøUrn , Kovordányi Rita , Ohlsson Kjell
Published: January 2012

As the number of advanced driver assistance systems in modern cars increases the question of possible negative behavioral adaptation is raised. We have investigated this phenomenon for night vision systems in a driving simulator. One common opinion is that there is a risk for using the enhanced visual conditions that come with these systems to increase speed during nighttime driving and thereby eliminate the safety margins the system was designed to provide. In our study two system approaches were compared, one with continuous presentation and one with presentation only when dangerous objects were detected by the system. The latter approach was meant to minimize the risk of negative adaptation, which was partly confirmed in the study. Moreover, the results showed better and more consistent driver performance with the situation-dependent system and all subjects preferred this approach from a workload perspective.
User Preferences for Auditory Device-driven Menu Navigation
Authors: Eiriksdottir Elsa , Nees Micheal , Lindsay Jeff , Stanley Raymond
Published: January 2012

A device-driven auditory menu interface that “pushes” the menu options to the user and requires minimal user input can be beneficial to users with both limited vision and input range. Presentation rate is important for auditory menus; they need to be slow enough for comprehension and responding, but fast enough to prevent frustration. User preferences for inter-item gap on an auditory device-driven cell phone menu were investigated. Participants ( n=11) navigated a two-level auditory menu to target a randomly chosen item. Before each trial participants set the inter-item gap by manipulating a slider. Results showed a mean preference for .853 second inter-item gap in experimental trials, and a significant decrease in preferences between practice (15) and experimental (30) trials [t(10) = 4.28, p = .002]. Accuracy was 91.5% over all the trials. The findings indicate that it is feasible to design a limited-input cell phone with an auditory device-driven menu.
Preliminary Investigations into 3D Auditory Attitude Displays: Comparing Training and Methods to Display Azimuth and Elevation
Authors: Liggett Kristen K. , Venero Peter , Anesgart Martin N.
Published: January 2012

Audio displays have the capability to off-load the oversaturated visual channel for completing multiple tasks simultaneously. The challenge is designing audio symbology to portray complex information, and knowing how long to train people so they can effectively transfer the meaning of the information to the task at hand. This study evaluated two audio symbology sets and four training sessions to determine the most effective way of incorporating audio information into an aircraft task. The audio symbology varied by 1) localizing the audio information in both azimuth and elevation, and 2) localizing the audio information in azimuth and changing the tonal quality of the audio information to represent elevation. Training and feedback sessions were interspersed with the data collection sessions to increase the amount of training participants received over time. Results showed that changing the tonal quality to represent elevation information was significantly more effective than using localized elevation audio information. Interestingly, there was no significant difference in performance when varying the amount of training.
A Review of Technologies for Studying Visual Perception under Low-Illumination Conditions
Authors: Krauss David A. , Kuzel Michael J. , Cassidy Paul , Goodman Jason
Published: January 2012

A method for replicating low-illumination scenes with photography is critical to studying and understanding how people perceive poorly lit environments. The method can be used for post hoc accident analyses as well as ad hoc evaluations of safety in dark areas. The ability to photographically replicate conditions at such scenes for subsequent scrutiny is useful for accident reconstruction and safety analysis. This paper reviews the past, present and future of these methodologies from film photography to digital photography to digital video, including high-definition and high-definition 3D formats. Pros and cons of various methods and technologies are discussed.
Attention Orienting in Augmented Reality Environments: Effects of Multimodal Cues
Authors: Jerome Christian J. , Witmer Bob , Mouloua Mustapha
Published: January 2012

The accuracy and efficiency of visual, auditory, and tactile cues to orient attention were tested under different levels of workload. Nineteen participants took part in an experiment in which they performed a visual, auditory, or tactile cueing task under both low and high workload conditions. Results showed that under high workload, both visual cues alone and tactile cues alone improved target detection accuracy. In the low workload condition, perceived workload estimates were lower when tactile cues were present than when absent. These results indicate the benefits of both visual and tactile cues in target detection tasks. These findings have implications for training, systems design, and human performance assessment.
Effectiveness of Minimal Training Techniques on the use of Automated External Defibrillators
Authors: Mitchell K. Blake , Gugerty Leo
Published: January 2012

After receiving one of three types of automated external defibrillator (AED) training (exposure only, low, and high) and a two week retention interval, participants resuscitated a manikin with an AED. The groups' performances were compared using three measures — time to shock, electrode pad placement, and errors — and subjective measures. It was expected that 90% of participants in all groups would perform at the minimally acceptable level; however the high group was expected to perform closer to the ideal level than less trained groups.

Most participants performed at the minimally acceptable level for time to shock, pad placement, and safety. Ease-of-use and confidence ratings were high, indicating participants felt positively about the AED. When compared to exposure-only training, low and high training had beneficial effects on time to shock, errors, and confidence, suggesting that while untrained (exposure only) users are able to use AEDs, even brief training will improve performance.
Task Complexity and Presence in Immersive Virtual Enivronments
Authors: Khalid Halimahtun M.
Published: January 2012

This paper argues that task complexity, defined in terms of task products, required acts and information cues, determined the experience of presence in immersive virtual environments. Twenty-four subjects performed tasks at three complexity levels (low, moderate, high) in two virtual reality systems (partially-immersive desktop and fully immersive cube). Both objective performance and subjective presence measures were used. There was a highly significant effect of task complexity on the accuracy and time taken to complete the tasks. But there was no significant effect of the virtual reality systems on task performance and subjective presence. User curiosity and device usability may have confounded the measures. The benefits of geometric field of view and other perceptual cues in a cube should support task performance, but the complexity of tasks and the usability of input device reduced the intended benefits. This study has implications for design of tasks to be performed in virtual environments.
User Centered Design and Testing Methods for the Development of the Menu System for Mobile Phones
Authors: Ryu Young Sam , Lee Young Seok , Smith-Jackson Tonya L. , Nussbaum Maury A. , Tomioka Kei
Published: January 2012

User centered design and usability evaluation of mobile devices are becoming important activities in the development process of mobile products. This paper presents a case study and introduces different techniques to support the process of designing a menu system embedded into a mobile phone. These techniques facilitated a systematic user needs analysis in the early stages of the development life-cycle, to formulate a navigational structure for designing prototypes, to identify usability problems for iterative prototype design, and to develop design guidelines. The introduced techniques involve laddered grid methods to elicit users' mental models, focus groups, usability testing, and expert reviews. The advantages and disadvantages of each method used during the design project were summarized, and usability practitioners in the real environment of the mobile devices industry are advised to be selective the combination of items they incorporate to suit their purposes.
Comparison of ANSI and ISO Standard Formats on People's Response to Product Warnings
Authors: Shaver Eric F. , Young Stephen L. , Frantz J. Paul , Rhoades Timothy P. , Hall Steven M. , Shah Raina J.
Published: January 2012

Warning labels can be formatted in a variety of ways. ANSI Z535.4 and ISO 3864-2 are two voluntary standards that provide guidance on label format. Two studies examined people's perception of (Study 1) and behavior in response to (Study 2) warning labels formatted in the following ways: (1) Non-standard format, (2) ANSI-format, (3) ISO-format, and (4) a combination of the ANSI- and ISO-format. The results of Study 1 show that lay people think that warning format will significantly influence people's behavior in terms of noticing and complying with warnings. However, the results of Study 2 showed that people's actual behavioral compliance is not significantly influenced by the standard warning formats compared to the Non-standard condition. Subjects did report reading more of the Non-standard label than the other labels. The results of these studies are consistent with previous findings in the warning literature. Implications of these results are discussed.
Measuring Risk Tolerance in General Aviation Pilots
Authors: Pauley Keryn , O'Hare David
Published: January 2012

According to Lopes (1987), risk tolerant individuals are motivated by opportunity, or what they can gain from taking risks, whereas risk aversive individuals are motivated by threat, or what they can lose from taking risks. This theory was used to measure risk tolerance in aircraft pilots. Twenty-seven pilots were presented with 36 flight scenarios, varying in the level of threat and opportunity. The pilots rated the likelihood of going on the flight. Multiple regression equations were calculated to measure the influence of threat and opportunity on each pilot's ratings. Pilots were largely risk averse, as their ratings were influenced by threat. The two pilots whose ratings were influenced by opportunity had experienced more aviation incidents compared to the pilots who were not influenced by opportunity. This suggests some relationship between risk taking and risk tolerance.
Novice and Experienced Driving Performance with Cell Phones
Authors: Chisholm S. L. , Caird J. K. , Lockhart J. A. , Teteris L. E. , Smiley A.
Published: January 2012

The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of cell phones on novice drivers and the implications that the results of the study may have on the graduated licensing (GDL) restrictions. Twenty Novices, with less than 6 months of driving experience, and 20 Experienced drivers, with more than 10 years of experience, participated in the study. Perception response time (PRT) to hazards and eye movement measures were analyzed to determine if decrements in driver performance resulted during traffic events compared to baseline responses when using either a cell phone or CD player in the University of Calgary Driving Simulator. Results showed longer PRTs for the Novice compared to Experienced drivers for the lead vehicle braking, pedestrian, and vehicle pull out events. During the CD task increased glances into the vehicle and decreased rearview mirror glances were found. Implications of this research for cell phone restrictions within graduated licensing programs are discussed.
The Evolution and Future of the Highway Safety Field Through the Eyes of Multiple Generations of Lauer Awardees
Authors: Lerner Neil D. , Moskowitz Herbert , Allen R. Wade , Rockwell Thomas H. , Smiley Alison M. , Dingus Thomas A. , Shinar David
Published: January 2012

Relatively little driver behavior research was conducted prior to the founding of HFES and it only really began to accelerate in the 1960's. Some highway safety pioneers remain active in HFES and their careers illustrate the trajectory of the field itself, from emergence to maturation as a human factors domain. These early leaders mentored a subsequent generation of today's leaders. This panel brings together six of the most respected researchers in the field and spans multiple generations of human factors study. All have been honored with the Lauer Safety Award, the Society's premier recognition of career contributions to traffic safety. The more senior panelists describe the state of the field as they entered it, highlighting specific major accomplishments or changes over their careers. Their protégés then focus on how things have evolved into major issues we face now. The presentations are followed by an open discussion period.
Prevention of Rear-End Crashes in Drivers with Task-Induced Fatigue through the Use of Auditory Collision Avoidance Warnings
Authors: May Jennifer F. , Baldwin Carryl L. , Parasuraman Raja
Published: January 2012

Driver fatigue is associated with increased lane position variability, decreased response time and increased crash rate. Collision avoidance systems (CASs), which are currently installed in many vehicles, have been shown to reduce the crash rates of alert drivers. The current investigation examined the effectiveness of two auditory CAS warnings for reducing crash rates in fatigued young and older drivers faced with a potential rear-end collision. Relative to a no-warning condition, auditory CAS warnings reduced overall crash probability. The presence of a CAS warning was particularly beneficial to reducing crashes in older drivers. Results of this study indicate that auditory CAS warnings may help reduce fatigue-related rear-end crashes, particularly among older drivers.
Using a Task Analysis to Identify Potential Information Processing Bottlenecks in Intersection Driving Scenarios
Authors: Richard Christian M. , Campbell John L. , Brown James L.
Published: January 2012

A task analysis was conducted to identify the information processing bottlenecks that drivers face in specific intersection driving scenarios. These bottlenecks represent situations in which drivers may become “overloaded” by driving demands, possibly resulting in drivers improperly performing important driving tasks or skipping certain tasks altogether. The focus of this task analysis was on identifying the underlying information processing elements, including the perceptual, cognitive, and psychomotor subtasks associated with each individual driving task. A total of 7 distinct driving scenarios were investigated in the task analysis, with each scenario being successively decomposed into segments, tasks, and subtasks/information processing elements. Information processing bottlenecks were identified by analyzing converging information about workload levels, task sequencing and pacing, spatial distribution of required information, and other factors that mitigate or amplify taxing conditions.
Time-to-Collision Judgments of Constant and Non-Constant Velocities: Implications for Rear-End Collisions
Authors: Tharanathan Anand , DeLucia Patricia R.
Published: January 2012

To avoid rear-end collisions drivers putatively judge the time to collision (TTC) with a lead car. Prior studies typically measured TTC judgments of object motion or constant velocity rather than self motion or acceleration. In contrast, rear-end collisions typically occur when a driver is accelerating or decelerating. With computer-simulations of traffic scenes, we measured TTC judgments of self motion or object motion at constant and non-constant velocities. We also measured judgments at different levels of headway and viewing duration because rear-end collisions often occur with short headways and during driver distractions. Observers typically underestimated TTC when the virtual self accelerated toward a lead car. Further, the accuracy of TTC judgments depended on the parameters of the traffic environment, including viewing duration and headway. The implication is that intelligent collision-avoidance warning systems might be more effective in reducing rear-end collisions under certain traffic conditions than others. We begin to identify such conditions here.
Multidisciplinary Systems Development: Challenges and Lessons Learned
Authors: Neville Kelly , Fowlkes Jennifer E. , Owens Jerry M. , Ennis Jack
Published: January 2012

Systems developed by multidisciplinary teams should benefit from the varied backgrounds and diverse contributions of their developers. However, multidisciplinary systems development teams face challenges that can impair team effectiveness and limit the contributions of participating disciplines. These challenges may be major contributing factors to the long-term struggle of the cognitive and human factors engineering disciplines to contribute meaningfully to systems development. To gain insight into these challenges, we reviewed four of our own recent multidisciplinary systems development projects. In each project, cognitive engineers participated with systems and software engineers across the entire development effort. By describing challenges we faced, this paper is intended to draw attention to types of change that may facilitate the participation of multiple disciplines, and of cognitive and human factors engineering in particular, in future systems development efforts.
Foam, Wood, Metal: An Iterative Process for Console Usability Testing
Authors: Burton Nancy , Weaver Melissa , Smith Jeanette , Hall Katie
Published: January 2012

A new console workstation was developed for the CVN 77 Aircraft Carrier-Tactical Support Center (CV-TSC). An iterative usability testing cycle was conducted throughout the design process, with the level of fidelity and realism increasing with each iteration. In the beginning, low-fidelity foam prototypes with static or interactive displays were useful in facilitating idea generation, gross workstation design and individual component testing. This progressed to wooden prototypes with increasingly interactive displays and input devices that helped to refine workspace design, device placement, and display configuration. The iterative process culminated in testing with a fully realistic metal prototype to validate the design against the baseline console. The console design included multiple spirals of usability testing within each level of fidelity, with the results from each study incorporated into the next iteration. Objective performance data and subjective fleet feedback were included throughout the design process.
Adaptive Soldiers: Overcoming Obstacles Imposed by New Technology
Authors: Savage-Knepshield Pamela A.
Published: January 2012

The Force XXI Battle Command Brigade and Below (FBCB2) is the principal digital command and control (C2) system for the Army at echelons below brigade. It integrates communications, weapons, and sensor systems to disseminate C2 messages and provides a visual display of a common operational picture. Thirty Soldiers returning from recent deployments to Afghanistan and Iraq participated in user testing that integrated several conventional user feedback techniques into a single test session, which is referred to as a RECON test. Soldiers demonstrated how they had used the system by “RECONstructing” activities that they had performed in a combat environment, while answering questions chosen to reveal environmental, situational, and operational factors at play. They also completed questionnaires and responded to system-directed interview questions. Data analysis revealed that lack of training and a host of usability issues were overcome by developing adaptive behaviors. These behaviors provide insight into how issues can be mitigated through system design.
Thinking About Human Factors Testing and Evaluation (HFTE): Perspectives from a Piano Bench
Authors: Cameron Joyce A.
Published: January 2012

Human Factors Testing and Evaluation (HFTE) is constantly changing as product and system design/development processes evolve, and as acquisition procedures are defined and re-defined. Traditional design criteria and performance outcome measures are insufficient to meet information needs during the design and development of increasingly complex systems and systems of systems. In the world of the performing arts, a highly skilled solo pianist understands how the sounds indicated by musical notation ( e.g., pitch, rhythm) contribute to a polished performance. A highly skilled ensemble pianist understands all this, as well as how his/her part contributes to the whole ensemble ( e.g., when in a leading role, when in a subordinate role). In an ensemble environment, new performance criteria emerge: Can all participants be heard (balance)? Can everyone begin, change tempo (speed) as necessary, and end together with, or without, a conductor (ensemble)? Five questions derived from experience as a pianist and piano teacher will be used to construct a model for thinking about HFTE. Use of this model will be illustrated.
Intra-Individual Ergonomics (I2E): Framework and Future
Authors: Bittner Alvah C. , Sakuragi Yoshihide
Published: January 2012

Complementary fields of study are converging toward the emergence of a new area of Human-Factors/Ergonomics (HF/E): Intra-Individual Ergonomics (I2E). These complementary fields include: Human Genetics (HG), Intra-Individual Environmental Interventions (IEIs), and Nutriceutical Interventions (NIs). Reviews of these fields demonstrate that interrelated intra-individual factors may directly and profoundly influence: Performance capabilities, Stressor resistances, and Wellbeing/Health. An integrating synthesis of HG, IIE, and NI factors is presented as part of a human-system framework. Highlighted are the potential of combining antioxidant-related interventions, and near-term research opportunities for maximizing cognitive and physical performance capabilities. Conclusions include: (1) I2E opportunities exist for markedly increasing physical and cognitive performance capabilities via combinations of the individual antioxidant approaches, (2) Associated I2E opportunities also exist for markedly increasing associated stressor resistances and wellbeing/health; and (3) Intra-Individual Ergonomics (I2E) is an emerging field with considerable for extending the future range of HF/E.
Development of an Operational Setting Specific Field Cognitive Assessment Procedure
Authors: Harris Wayne C. , Reeves Dennis L. , Elsmore Timothy F. , Hancock Peter A.
Published: January 2012

The assessment of dynamic cognitive abilities during actual field operations by professional personnel represents a significant challenge to the behavioral scientist. Here, we present a short-duration, portable cognitive assessment instrument which seeks to address such issues. Any such instrument with poor face validity is unlikely to receive the required attention and cooperation of operational personnel. Also, if supervisors see little relationship between the assessment procedure and the actual operational tasks they are unlikely to use outcome results anyway. This work summarizes our customization of an established cognitive assessment battery, which is composed of operationally relevant tasks for field assessment. Our present results suggest equivalent user acceptance and comparable assessment capacity as the longer duration, currently established battery.