bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
EFFECTS OF LAND USE AND TOPOGRAPHY ON SOME WATER QUALITY VARIABLES IN FORESTED EAST TEXAS1
Authors: Chang Mingteh , McCullough Jack D. , Granillo Alfredo B.
Published: June 2007

ABSTRACT: Spatial variation of five water quality variables were analyzed using composite water samples collected periodically from eight small watersheds (11.4–71.6 km2) in forested East Texas during 1977 through 1980. Based on 31 observations during the four‐year period the average yield of nitrate‐nitrite nitrogen (NNN), total kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN), total phosphorus (PO4), chloride (CHL), and total suspended sediment (TSS) were 1.43, 21.96, 3.09, 50.11, and 90.39 ka/ha/yr, respectively. Compared to the water quality standards of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1976) and the Texas Department of Water Resources (1976) for CHL, TSS, and NNN, none of the observations exceeded the limits for public water supplies.

The study showed that forested watersheds normally yielded stream flow with better quality than that from agricultural watersheds. Watersheds of greater percent of pasture area, mean slope, stream segment frequency, and drainage density produced greater concentrations for these five chemical parameters in water samples. Meaningful equations were developed for estimating mean average yields for each chemical parameter for each watershed with R2 ranging from 0.77 to 0.96 and standard error of estimates from 17 to 33 percent of the observed means.
STREAM FLOW IN RELATION TO OHIA FOREST DECLINE ON THE ISLAND OF HAWAII1
Authors: Doty Robert D.
Published: June 2007

ABSTRACT: Dieback of the ohia forest over a large part of the Hilo watershed and adjacent areas has resulted in a severe loss of the overstory crown component of the vegetation. The decline could cause serious damage to the watershed. To evaluate possible changes in conditions in the Hilo area since the decline began, stream flow, water quality, and precipitation data from 1929 to 1980 were collected and analyzed. The limited data available do not indicate that the ohia decline has resulted in a significant change in either annual stream flow or peak stream flow of a stream discharging from the ohia forest in the Hilo area. Suspended sediment production of two streams remains well within accepted levels as does the chemical makeup of components dissolved in the streams.
PREDICTION OF CHLOROPHYLL A CONCENTRATIONS IN FLORIDA LAKES: THE IMPORTANCE OF PHOSPHORUS AND NITROGEN1
Authors: Canfield Daniel E.
Published: June 2007

ABSTRACT: Models for the prediction of chlorophyll a concentrations were developed and tested using data on 223 Florida lakes. A statistical analysis showed that the best model was log (Chl a) =−2.49 + 0.269 log (TP) + 1.06 log (TN) or log (Chl a) =−2.49 + 1.06 log (TN/TP) + 1.33 log (TP) where Chl a is the chlorophyll a concentration (mg m‐3), TP is the total phosphorus concentration (mg m‐3) and TN is the total nitrogen concentration (mg m‐3). The model yields unbiased estimates of chlorophyll a concentrations over a wide range of lake types and has a 95 percent confidence interval of 29–319 percent of the calculated chlorophyll a concentrations. Other models, especially the published Dillon‐Rigler and Jones‐Bachmann phosphorus‐chlorophyll models, are less precise when applied to Florida lakes. The data support the hypothesis that nitrogen is an important limiting nutrient in hypereutrophic lakes.
MINE DRAINAGE AND ROCK TYPE INFLUENCES ON EASTERN OHIO STREAM WATER QUALITY1
Authors: Helsel Dennis R.
Published: June 2007

ABSTRACT: Stream water during fair weather (base flow) is largely ground water discharge, which has been in contact with minerals of the underlying aquifer. Base flow water quality should therefore reflect aquifer mineralogy as well as upstream land use. Three upstream mining categories (unmined lands, abandoned coal mines, and reclaimed coal mines) differed in pH, specific conductance, sulfate, iron, aluminum, and alkalinity for 122 streams in eastern Ohio. Aquifer rock type influenced pH, specific conductance, sulfate, iron, and alkalinity. Reclamation returned many components of acid mine drainage to near unmined levels, although sulfate and specific conductance were not improved. Acid mine drainage problems were less severe in watersheds underlain by the calcareous Monogahela Formation. These results should ayply to other Appalachian coal regions having similar rock units.

The water quality data distributions were neither consistently normal nor lognormal. Statistical tests utilizing ranks of the water quality data, instead of the data themselves, proved useful in analyzing the influences of mining category and rock type.
RHODAMINE WT DYE LOSSES IN A MOUNTAIN STREAM ENVIRONMENT1
Authors: Bencala Kenneth E. , Rathbun Ronald E. , Jackman Alan P. , Kennedy Vance C. , Zellweger Gary W. , Avanzino Ronald J.
Published: June 2007

ABSTRACT: A significant fraction of rhodamine WT dye was lost during a short term multitracer injection experiment in a mountain stream environment. The conservative anion chloride and the sorbing cation lithium were concurrently injected. In‐stream rhodamine WT concentrations were as low as 45 percent of that expected, based on chloride data. Concentration data were available from shallow‘wells’dug near the stream course and from a seep of suspected return flow. Both rhodamine WT dye and lithium were nonconservative with respect to the conservative chloride, with rhodamine WT dye closely following the behavior of the sorbing lithium.

Nonsorption and sorption mechanisms for rhodamine WT loss in a mountain stream were evaluated in laboratory experiments. Experiments evaluating nonsorption losses indicated minimal losses by such mechanisms. Laboratory experiments using sand and gravel size streambed sediments show an appreciable capacity for rhodamine WT sorption.

The detection of tracers in the shallow wells and seep indicates interaction between the stream and the flow in the surrounding subsurface, intergravel water, system. The injected tracers had ample opportunity for intimate contact with materials shown in the laboratory experiments to be potentially sorptive. It is suggested that in the study stream system, interaction with streambed gravel was a significant mechanism for the attenuation of rhodamine WT dye (relative to chloride).
CONSOLIDATION OF A STREAM QUALITY MONITORING NETWORK1
Authors: Letternmaier Dennis P. , Anderson Dale E. , Brenner Robert N.
Published: June 2007

ABSTRACT A method for systematic consolidation of a fixed station water quality monitoring network using dynamic programming is described. The approach utilizes a hierarchical structure; stations are allocated to what are termed primary basins on the basis of a weighted attribute score, and specific station locations within each primary basin are specified using a criterion based on stream order numbers. The method has been applied to the Municipality of Metropolitan Seattle (Metro) stream and river quality monitoring network. The results aided in a 1982 metro decision to reduce the scope of its fixed station monitoring from 81 to 47 stations, at an annual savings of approximately $33,000 per year exclusive of equipment depreciation and indirect costs.
COAL ASH BASIN EFFECTS (PARTICULATES, METALS, ACIDIC pH) UPON AQUATIC BIOTA: AN EIGHT‐YEAR EVALUATION1
Authors: Cherry Donald S. , Guthrie Rufus K. , Davis Ernst M. , Harvey Raymond S.
Published: June 2007

ABSTRACTCoal ash effluent effects including particulates, acidic pH excursions, elemental concentrations and bioconcentration in selected organisms have been studied as changes in water quality and densities of benthic macroinvertebrate and mosquitofish (Gambusia affinis) populations in a swamp drainage system over an eight‐year period. Three changes in the ash basin settling system were made between mid‐ 1973 and January 1982. Initial density of the aquatic biota was altered severely by heavy ash siltation, followed by acidic pH excursions and perhaps overall by elemental concentrations and bioaccumulation. Heavy ash siltation, followed by acidic Ph excursions (mean of 5.5, extreme of 3.5) after the addition of fly ash to the original settling basin system, had the most profound effect on biota. Dipterans (chironomids) and some odonates (Plathemis lydia and Libellula spp.) were resistant to heavy ash siltation, while mosquitofish, which showed no discernible responses to ash siltation, were absent at acidic pH, along with the few previously surviving invertebrate populations.

Elemental concentrations of arsenic, cadmium, chromium, copper, selenium, and zinc did not appear to limit aquatic flora and fauna on a short‐term, acute basis. Long, chronic elemental exposures may have been instrumental in retarding the recovery of all forms of aquatic life in the receiving system. Elemental concentrations (except for arsenic and selenium) in the receiving system were generally one to two orders of magnitude higher than the Water Quality Criteria set by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1980) for protection of aquatic life for the minimum and 24‐hour mean values. From collective elemental exposures in the receiving system, bioconcentration factors in macrophytes, invertebrates and fish were generally lower than those reported in the literature for laboratory, single elemental concentrations. By 1978, when the new settling basin systems were operating effectively, invertebrate populations were largely recovered, and mosquitofish populations recovered within one year afterward.
ESTIMATION OF DAILY TEMPERATURE MEANS USING ELEVATION AND LATITUDE IN MOUNTAINOUS TERRAIN1
Authors: Boyer Douglas G.
Published: June 2007

ABSTRACT A model was developed for predicting mean daily, mean daily minimum, and mean daily maximum temperatures in West Virginia. The model is easily used since the only inputs are elevation, latitude, and julian date. With local calibration, the model is expected to apply to other areas in the Appalachian region.
DEVELOPMENT OF EARTH SATELLITE TECHNOLOGY FOR THE TELEMETRY OF HYDROLOGIC DATA1
Authors: Paulson Richard W. , Shope William G.
Published: June 2007

ABSTRACT The use of satellite telemetry is playing a major role in the collection of hydrologic data. Advancing technology and availability of government satellites have permitted many agencies to take advantage of new procedures for acquiring data from automated remote data collection stations. Experiments with Earth satellite technology started in the 1960's and 1970's, with the polar‐orbiting National Aeronautics and Space Administration Nimbus and Landsat satellites. Subsequent advancements took place through the development phase to operational systems using the Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES) of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. This satellite system supports more than 2,500 active telemetry sites, of which approximately 1,200 are Geological Survey stream‐gaging stations for the collection of hydrologic data. A satellite data collection system is made up of three primary components; a small battery‐operated radio, and Earth‐orbiting satellite, and an Earth receive and data processing station. The data relay satellites' vast aerial view of the Earth's surface gives satellite telemetry a large advantage over ground‐based systems for the collection of real‐time hydrologic data for flood warning, reservoir management, irrigation water control, hydropower generation, and the operation of hydrologic stations.
PREDICTION OF PEAK FLOWS ON SMALL WATERSHEDS IN OREGON FOR USE IN CULVERT DESIGN1
Authors: Campbell Alan J. , Sidle Roy C.
Published: June 2007

ABSTRACT: Using data from 80 Oregon watersheds that ranged in size from 0.54 km2 to 27.45 km2, equations were developed to predict peak flows for use in culvert design on forest roads. Oregon was divided into six physiographic regions based on previous studies of flood frequency. In each region, data on annual peak flow from gaging stations with more than 20 years of record were analyzed using four flood frequency distributions: type 1 extremal, two parameter‐log normal, three parameter‐log normal, and log‐Pearson type III. The log‐Pearson type III distribution was found to be suitable for use in all regions of the State, based on the chi‐square goodness‐of‐fit‐test. Flood magnitudes having recurrence intervals of 10, 25, 50, and 100 years were related to physical and climatic characteristics of drainage basins by multiple regression. Drainage basin size was the most important variable in explaining the variation of flood peaks in all regions. Mean basin elevation and mean annual precipitation were also significantly related to flood peaks in two regions of western Oregon. The standard error of the estimate for the regression relationships ranged from 26 to 84 percent.
FECAL COLIFORM RELEASE FROM CATTLE FECAL DEPOSITS1
Authors: Kress Michael , Gifford Gerald F.
Published: June 2007

ABSTRACT: Cowpies molded to a standard configuration and size were subjected to simulated rainfall, and the fecal coliform counts were determined using the most probable number (MPN) method of enumeration. The standard cowpie deposits were exposed to simulated rainfall once at ages 2 through 100 days. The effects of rainfall intensity and recurrent rainfall were also tested. Naturally‐occurring fecal deposits were also tested to compare their results with those from the standard cowpies.

A log‐log regression was found to describe the decline in peak fecal coliform release with fecal deposit age. The 100‐day‐old fecal deposits produced peak counts of 4,200 fecal coliform per 100 milliliters of water. This quantity of release is minimal compared to the release from fresher fecal material.

Rainfall intensity had little effect on peak fecal coliform release from fecal deposits that were 2 or 10 days old. At age 20 days the effect of rainfall intensity was significant; the highest intensity gave the lowest peak counts, and the lowest intensity gave the highest peak counts. The effect of rainfall intensity appears to be related to the dryness of the fecal deposits.

Peak fecal coliform counts were significantly lowered when the fecal deposits were rained on more than once. This decline was thought to be produced by the loss of bacteria from the fecal deposits during the previous wettings.

Standard cowpies produced a peak release regression that was not significantly different from the regression for the natural fecal deposits. Apparently, grossly manipulating the fecal deposits did not significantly change the release patterns.
CALIBRATION AND APPLICATION OF QUAL‐II TO THE LOWER WINOOSKI RIVER1
Authors: Benschoten John Van , Walker William W.
Published: June 2007

ABSTRACT: A modified version of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's QUAL‐II water quality simulation model is calibrated and applied to the Lower Winooski River, Vermont. The river flows through the metropolitan Burlington area and is impacted by several industrial and municipal point sources and by operation of hydropower facilities. Several structural modifications are made in the model to improve water quality simulations in rivers impacted by algal growth; these include the addition of organic nitrogen and organic phosphorus compartments and provision for algal uptake of ammonia and/or nitrate nitrogen. The model is interfaced with statistical programs which facilitate tabulation, display, and analysis of observed and predicted concentrations. The model is calibrated and tested against data from two intensive water quality surveys. Applications demonstrate the factors controlling water quality and sensitivities to point source waste management strategies and flow, as influenced by hydropower operations.
A GEOGRAPHICAL ANALYSIS OF VOTING PATTERNS FOR WATER RELATED CONSTITUTIONAL AMENDMENTS IN TEXAS, 1957‐19811
Authors: Schoolmaster F. Andrew
Published: June 2007

ABSTRACT: Country level electoral data were used to analyze the voting patterns of eight water related constitutional amendment elections. Both water quality enhancement amendments (1971, 1976), and three of six water development amendments (1957, 1962, 1966) have been ratified, thus establishing a statewide policy of reservoir development, a funding mechanism to implement such a policy, and the creation of a water management agency. Begining with the 1969 election, a West Texas‐East Texas regionalized voting pattern has emerged, resulting in the defeat of three amendments (1969, 1976, 1981) intended to provide additional funding for water development. This regionalization reflects different climatic, physiographic, economic, and locational factors, and represents a potential obstacle to coordinated water management in Texas.
ESTIMATING THE VALUE OF WATER AMONG REGIONAL ECONOMIC SECTORS USING THE 1972 NATIONAL INTERINDUSTRY FORMAT1
Authors: Harris Thomas R. , Rea Matthew L.
Published: June 2007

ABSTRACT: Recent growth in irrigated agriculture and metropolitan areas of the Western United States suggests that if growth continues, there will be a potential shortage in future water resources. Compound the expansion of agriculture and municipal demands with possible enaction of instream flow requirements, a method to allocate water among alternative economic sectors in the West is needed. In this study, an interindustry‐linear programming model based on the 1972 national model format is used to allocate scarce water supplies among competing regional economic sectors. The shadow price of water and the sectorial value of water at different availabilities for each competing sector is derived. Also, economic sectors are ranked by value of water at different water availabilities.
DOCUMENTATION OF HIGH SUMMER FLOWS ON THE POTOMAC RIVER FROM THE WOOD ANATOMY OF ASH TREES1
Authors: Yanosky Thomas M.
Published: June 2007

ABSTRACT: Ash trees (Fraxinus americana L. and F. Pennsylvanica Marsh.) collected from the flood plain of the Potomac River near Washington, D.C., were studied for evidence of associations between known periods of above‐average summer flows and changes in wood‐growth anatomy. Concentric bands of latewood fibers with atypically large lumens and thin walls commonly developed in trees growing near the low‐water channel. Discharge records indicate that roots of most trees with these “white rings” were flooded temporarily during the latewood‐growth interval. Trees apparently were not damaged and a concomitant reduction of internal water stresses seems to have accelerated the rate of radial growth. The intra‐ring position of anomalous fibers generally corresponded to the time of increased discharge within the estimated interval of latewood growth. Anomalous fibers occasionally formed in unflooded trees, but their position also coincided with episodes of increased discharge. The results of these studies may have applications for streamflow‐reconstruction techniques where hydrologic data are incomplete or lacking.
TRACE ELEMENTS IN NORTHERN GREAT PLAINS STRIP MINE AND LIVESTOCK IMPOUNDMENT WATER1
Authors: Anderson Mark T. , Hawkes Clifford L.
Published: June 2007

ABSTRACT: The water from 32 strip mine water impoundments and nine livestock watering ponds in North Dakota, South Dakota, and Wyoming were analyzed for trace elements. Because of the high concentrations of trace elements in coal and bentonite clay, the possibility exists for these elements to dissolve or be suspended in the water. Strip mine ponds were not significantly higher in trace element concentrations compared to livestock ponds. All but one of the 41 ponds sampled contained elemental concentrations that would be detrimental for livestock use or aquatic life use. Cadmium and lead were the elements most frequently in excess of water quality crieria. Lead was found in the study ponds about 35 times the median concentration of North American rivers. Manganese concentrations were found to exceed iron in many ponds, which is unusual in natural waters. The potential for detrimental concentrations of trace elements in pond water must be evaluated when designing land use management plans for ponds intended to be used by livestock or aquatic life.
ATMOSPHERIC CONTRIBUTIONS TO FOREST NUTRIENT CYCLING1
Authors: Swank Wayne T.
Published: June 2007

The atmosphere is a significant source of plant nutrients that partially replenishes losses due to timber harvesting. The relative importance of wet and dry deposition depends upon the specific nutrient and site. Nitrogen in bulk precipitation (wetfall and dryfall) is equivalent to at least 70 percent of the nitrogen incorporated annually in above‐ground woody tissues of some temperate hardwood forests. Atmospheric sources of calcium and potassium supply between 20 and 40 percent of the nutrients sequestered in woody increments. Annual nutrient inputs in bulk precipitation can exceed removals associated with sawiog harvest over a rotation period. Atmospheric inputs of nitrogen are only slightly less than hydrologic losses immediately after timber harvesting. The deposition of nutrients is highly variable in both time and space; interpretations of nutrient inputs and forest management impacts require quantification of inputs for a variety of ecosystems over long periods of time.
THE EFFECTS OF RISK AND RELIABILITY ON OPTIMAL RESERVOIR DESIGN1
Authors: Yazicigil Hasan , Houck Mark H.
Published: June 2007

A chance‐constrained linear programming model, which utilizes multiple linear decision rules and is useful for river basin planning, is used to evaluate the effects of risk and reliability on optimal reservoir design. Streamflow forecasts or predictions can be explicitly included in the linear program. The risk associated with the predictions is included in the model through the use of cumulative distribution functions (CDF) of streamflows which are conditioned on the predictions. A multiple‐purpose reservoir on the Gunpowder River in Maryland is used to illustrate the effectiveness of the model.

In order to provide the decision makers with complete and useful information, trade‐off curves relating minimum reservoir capacity (a surrogate for dam costs), water supply and flood control targets, and the reliability of achieving the targets are developed. The trade‐off curves may enhance the decision maker's ability to select the best dam capacity, considering technological and financial constraints as well as the trade‐offs between targets, risks, and costs.
INSTITUTIONS AND TECHNOLOGY: KEYS TO BETTER WATER MANAGEMENT1
Authors: Lord William B.
Published: June 2007

Seven considerations which bear upon the achievement of better water management are discussed. First, separation of judgments of fact from judgements of value is helpful in deciding upon what actions to take. Second, separation of social values from matters of individual or group interest is crucial to institutional design. Third, achieving economically efficient water management may create a surplus of benefits which can be divided among the parties in order to resolve conflicts. Fourth, surpluses also can be used inappropriately, whether to reward undesirable behavior or to penalize unjustly. Fifth, avoidance of external costs is best achieved through restructuring of rewards and penalties. Sixth, technological solutions are too easily selected in place of less costly institutional change. Seventh, water management technology is too often selected in place of more cost‐effective, water‐related technology. Selected examples of each of these considerations are offered. However, better water management is not easy to define. The social process criterion adopted in this paper is discussed briefly.
INTERVENTION ANALYSIS OF WATER QUALITY RECORDS1
Authors: Whitfield Paul H. , Woods Paul F.
Published: June 2007

The impoundment of the Kootenai River by Libby Dam caused changes in discharge and water quality in the river downstream from Lake Koocanusa. The changes observed downsteam were largely attributable to the depth of withdrawal from the reservoir and the reservoir's ability to store and mix various influent water masses. The preimpoundment and postimpoundment time series of discharge and six water quality variables were autocorrelated and exhibited strong seasonality. Intervention analysis, a technique employing Box‐Jenkins time series models, was used to quantify the nature and magnitude of the changes in water quality after the construction of Libby Dam. The models were developed with data from June 1967 through February 1981 and were able to satisfactorily forecast riverine conditions from March 1981 through January 1982.
FLOOD FREQUENCY CHARACTERISTICS OF SOME ARIZONA WATERSHEDS1
Authors: Boughton W. C. , Renard K. G.
Published: June 2007

The flood frequency characteristics of 18 watersheds in southeastern Arizona were studied using the log‐Boughton and the log‐Pearson Type 3 distribution. From the flood frequency study, a generalized envelope for Q100 for watersheds 0.01 to 4000 mi2 in area has been produced for southeastern Arizona. The generalized envelope allows comparisons to be made among the relative flood characteristics of the watersheds used in the study and provides a conservative estimate of Q100 for ungaged watersheds in the region.
GROUND WATER YIELDS AND INVENTORY FOR LAND‐USE PLANNING IN CRYSTALLINE ROCK AREAS OF WAKE COUNTY, NORTH CAROLINA1
Authors: Welby Charles W.
Published: June 2007

In urbanizing areas underlain by crystalline rocks an inventory of the usable ground water should form an important element in the land‐use planning process. Land‐use decisions are most often made upon water‐well yield data alone, but these data do not address the inventory question. A method utilizing local geology, stream lowflow characteristics, and pumping test data permitted outlining portions of Wake County, North Carolina, which are more favorable and those which are less favorable for ground water supply development. Information from state‐required 24‐hour pumping tests on 232 wells was supplemented by information from an additional 100 wells whose initial yields were determined by shorter pumping tests.

Comparison of the ground water inventory values on a per acre or per square mile basis with average water use at various residential densities provides information useful to the responsible political body as it decides about population density distribution and the need for surface water supplies. For Wake Country an average density of one residential unit per acre appears generally permissible before overdraft of the ground water supplies becomes a significant risk. By utilizing the ground water inventory and patterns of ground water yields from various rock types, county officials can maximize the effectiveness of public facilities funds. The technique appears useful for other parts of the Piedmont region of the southeastern United States.
SIDE EFFECTS OF 58 YEARS OF COPPER SULFATE TREATMENT OF THE FAIRMONT LAKES, MINNESOTA1
Authors: Hanson Mark J. , Stefan Heinz G.
Published: June 2007

The shallow Fairmont Lakes in southern Minnesota have been treated with copper sulfate for 58 years to reduce excessive algal growth. Copper sulfate was applied to five lakes at cumulative rates upo to 1647 kg/ha (1470 1b/acre), totaling 1.5 million kilograms. Data collected since treatment of the Fairmont Lakes began in 1921 provide alarming insights into lake responses to sustained chemical treatment with copper sulfate. Short‐term and long‐term effects have occurred. Short‐term effects include: a) the intended temporary killing of algae, b) dissolved oxygen depletion by decomposition of dead algae, c) accelerated phosphorus recycling from the lake bed and recovery of the algal population within 7 to 21 days, and d) occasional fish kills due to oxygen depletion or copper toxicity or both. Long‐term effects are shown to include: a) copper accumulation in the sediments, b) tolerance adjustments of certain species of algae to higher copper sulfate dosages, c) shift of species from green to blue‐green algae and from game fish to rough fish, d) disappearance of macrophytes, and e) reductions in benthic macroinvertebrates. The conclusion is that while copper sulfate treatments enjoy great popularity because they kill and remove algae almost instantaneously, other immediate or cumulative side effects can be harmful to many other aquatic organisms.
AN ENGINEERING ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF A PROGRAM FOR ARTIFICIAL GROUNDWATER RECHARGE1
Authors: Reichard Eric G. , Bredehoeft John D.
Published: June 2007

This study describes and demonstrates two alternate methods for evaluating the relative costs and benefits of artificial groundwater recharge using percolation ponds. The first analysis considers the benefits to be the reduction of pumping lifts and land subsidence; the second considers benefits as the alternative costs of a comparable surface delivery system. Example computations are carried out for an existing artificial recharge program in Santa Clara Valley in California. A computer groundwater model is used to estimate both the average long term and the drought period effects of artificial recharge in the study area. For the example problem, the benefits of reduced average annual pumping lifts and reduced incremental subsidence are greater than the total costs of continuing the existing artificial recharge program. Benefits for reduced subsidence are strongly dependent on initial aquifer conditions. The second analysis compares the costs of continuing the artificial recharge program with the costs of a surface system which would achieve the same hydraulic effects. Results indicate that the costs of artificial recharge are considerably smaller than the alternative costs of an equivalent surface system. In evaluating a particular program, consideration should also be given to uncertainties in future supplies and demands for water as well as to the probability of extreme events such as droughts.
THE STATUS OF NONPOINT SOURCE POLLUTION: ITS NATURE, EXTENT AND CONTROL1
Authors: Vigon Bruce W.
Published: June 2007

Nonpoint source pollution remains as the primary reason for the designation of many of the Nation's streams as “water quality limited.” This means that even with the application of technology‐based effluent limitations on point sources, ambient water quality standards will not be met. This paper explores several of the reasons why nonpoint sources are so difficult to come to grips with. These reasons include: (1) the inability to expand the definition of nonpoint sources to encompass nonengineering attributes, (2) the relatively primitive state of characterizing nonpoint sources, (3) the lack of prior success in conducting programs to study and alleviate nonpoint problems, and (4) an uncertain approach to providing incentives for control practices.
POLLUTANT RUNOFF MODELS: SELECTION AND USE IN DECISION MAKING1
Authors: Reckhow Kenneth H. , Butcher Jonathan B. , Marin Carlos M.
Published: June 2007

Models for pollutant runoff can be useful in water quality management planning if appropriately structured for the problem at hand. Accordingly, a “top‐down” approach is proposed for the examination of extant pollutant runoff models. The approach consists of the identification of objectives and attributes that reflect the needs of planners and decision makers when these models are used for water quality management planning. Ideally, the attributes should concern the effect of model information on improved decision making and the cost of model application. Practical difficulties with the first attribute necessitates substitution of surrogate attributes reflecting model appropriateness, resolution, and uncertainty. Common pollutant runoff models, in particular export coefficients and hydrology‐driven simulation models, are found to have serious weaknesses on some of the attribute scales. The “top‐down” approach leads to a set of desirable pollutant runoff model attributes; alternate modeling techniques are thus examined in order to identify promising future directions for model development. The focus of this examination is phosphorus, due to its importance in the eutrophication of surface waters. Models for both sediment‐attached and dissolved phosphorus are considered. Among the conclusions is the belief that the partial contributing area concept can yield an effective yet simple simulation despite the variable and complex nature of runoff.
URBAN RUNOFF: POLLUTION SOURCES, CONTROL, AND TREATMENT1
Authors: Field Richard
Published: June 2007

This paper reviews progress on urban storm water management and pollution control, with emphasis on non‐ and low‐structurally intensive techniques along with the total system approach encompassing control‐treatment.

Many of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's demonstration‐evaluation projects are presented to exemplify: Land Management Techniques, i.e., land use planning, best use of natural drainage, dual use of retention and drainage facilities required for flood control designed concurrently or retrofitted for pollution control, porous pavement, surface sanitation, and chemical use control; Collection Systems Control, i.e., catchbasin cleaning, flow regulators (including swirl and helical devices), and the new concepts of elimination or reduction of unauthorized cross‐connections, in‐channel/conduit storage and/or other forms of storage for bleed‐back to existing treatment plants; Storage including in‐receiving water storage; Treatment, i.e., physical/chemical, disinfection, and a treatment‐control planning and design guidebook; Sludge and Solids Residue from Treatment; and Integrated Systems, i.e., storage/treatment, dual‐use wet‐weather flow/dry‐weather flow facilities, and reuse of stormwater for nonpotable purposes.

Recommendations for the future in the areas of: control based on receiving water impacts, toxics characterization and their control, sewer system cross‐connections, integrated stormwater management, and institutional/sociological/economic conflicts are also presented.
GOLD‐MINING EFFECTS ON STREAM HYDROLOGY AND WATER QUALITY, CIRCLE QUADRANGLE, ALASKA1
Authors: Bjerklie David M. , LaPerriere Jacqueline D.
Published: June 2007

Effects of placer mining on the hydrology and water quality of several interior Alaska streams were studied as part of a project on the impacts of placer mining on stream ecosystems. Surface and subsurface waters were analyzed in the field for conductivity, pH, temperature, alkalinity, total and calcium hardnesses, iron, copper, manganese, ammonia‐N, nitrate‐N, nitrite‐N, settleable solids, and turbidity. Total, nonfiltrable, and filtrable residues were determined in the laboratory.

In the streams placer mining increased turbidity, settleable solids, nonfiltrable and filtrable residues and total iron. Surface and subsurface water levels, as measured in wells driven in the stream beds, were correlated with stream flow. Fine sediment deposited on stream beds in mined drainages reduced the hydraulic contact between the surface and subsurface waters of the stream and caused the piezometric water level to be below the surface water level of the mined streams. This resulted in higher specific conductance and significantly lower dissolved oxygen concentrations in the subsurface waters of mined streams compared to their surface waters. No significant differences were found for any water quality characteristics comparing surface to subsurface waters for the unmined streams.
PERIODIC AUTOREGRESSIVE‐MOVING AVERAGE (PARMA) MODELING WITH APPLICATIONS TO WATER RESOURCES1
Authors: Vecchia A. V.
Published: June 2007

Results involving correlation properties and parameter estimation for autoregressive‐moving average models with periodic parameters are presented. A multivariate representation of the PARMA model is used to derive parameter space restrictions and difference equations for the periodic autocorrelations. Close approximation to the likelihood function for Gaussian PARMA processes results in efficient maximum‐likelihood estimation procedures. Terms in the Fourier expansion of the parameters are sequentially included, and a selection criterion is given for determining the optimal number of harmonics to be included. Application of the techniques is demonstrated through analysis of a monthly streamflow time series.
FORECASTING QUARTER‐MONTHLY RIVERFLOW1
Authors: Thompstone Robert M. , Hipel Keith W. , McLeod A. Ian
Published: June 2007

Recent developments with respect to transfer function‐noise models are reviewed and used to model and forecast quarter‐monthly (i.e., near‐weekly) natural inflows to the Lac St‐Jean reservoir in the Province of Quebec, Canada. The covariate series are rainfall and snowmelt, the latter being a novel derivation from daily rainfall, snowfall and temperature series. It is clearly demonstrated using the residual variance and the Akaike information criterion that modeling is improved as one starts with a deseasonalized ARMA model of the inflow series and successively adds transfer functions for the rainfall and snowmelt series. It is further demonstrated that the transfer function‐noise model is better than a periodic autoregressive model of the inflow series. A split‐sample experiment is used to compare one‐step‐ahead forecasts from this transfer function‐noise model with forecasts from other stochastic models as well as with forecasts from a so‐called conceptual hydrological model (i.e., a model which attempts to mathematically simulate the physical processes involved in the hydrological cycle). It is concluded that the transfer function‐noise model is the preferred model for forecasting the quarter‐monthly Lac St‐Jean inflow series.
DETECTABILITY OF STEP TRENDS IN THE RATE OF ATMOSPHERIC DEPOSITION OF SULFATE1
Authors: Hirsch Robert M. , Gilroy Edward J.
Published: June 2007

A method is presented to assist policy makers in determining the combination of number of sampling stations and number of years of sampling necessary to state with a given probability that a step reduction in atmospheric deposition rates of a given magnitude has occurred at a pre‐specified time. This pre‐specified time would typically be the time at which a sulfate emission control program took effect, and the given magnitude of reduction is some percentage change in deposition rate one might expect to occur as a result of the emission control. In order to determine this probability of detection, a stochastic model of sulfate deposition rates is developed, based on New York State bulk collection network data. The model considers the effect of variation in precipitation, seasonal variations, serial correlation, and site‐to‐site (cross) correlation. A nonparametric statistical test which is well suited to detection of step changes in such multi‐site data sets is developed. It is related to the Mann‐Whitney Rank‐Sum test. The test is used in Monte Carlo simulations along with the stochastic model to derive statistical power functions. These power functions describe the probability of detecting (α=0.05) a step trend in deposition rate as a function of the size of the step‐trend, record length before and after the step‐trend, and the number of stations sampled. The results show that, for an area the size of New York State, very little power is gained by increasing the number of stations beyond about eight. The results allow policy makers to determine the tradeoff between the cost of monitoring and time required to detect a step‐trend of a given magnitude with a given probability.
PARAMETRIC/NONPARAMETRIC MIXTURE DENSITY ESTIMATION WITH APPLICATION TO FLOOD‐FREQUENCY ANALYSIS1
Authors: Schuster E. , Yakowitz S.
Published: June 2007

Much attention has been invested in the model choice problem for peak annual flows, in the context of flood frequency analysis. The authors would sidestep this dilemma through non‐parametric density estimation methodology, but recognize that the standard nonparametric estimators preclude the use of prior information and related data, and furthermore have virtually no tail at all. Here we offer a remedy for these inadequacies by introducing an estimator which mixes parametric and nonparametric density estimates. We prove that our mixture rule is consistent. By this procedure, we do allow incorporation of prior information, experience, and regional data information, but nevertheless provide a safeguard against incorrect model choice.
MEASURED AND CREAMS‐PREDICTED NITROGEN LOSSES FROM TOMATO AND CORN MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS1
Authors: Sweeney D. W. , Bottcher A. B. , Campbell K. L. , Graetz D. A.
Published: June 2007

Nitrogen runoff and leaching losses from two tomato and four corn field plots were compared to model predictions by CREAMS, a field‐scale model for Chemicals, Runoff, and Erosion from Agricultural Management Systems. The tomato treatments were (1) trickle irrigation with one‐half of applied N at preplant and one‐half of applied N through the trickle irrigation system and (2) overhead sprinkler irrigation with one‐half of applied N at preplant and one‐half of applied N in two equal sidedressings. The corn treatments consisted of multiple N applications, minimum tillage, and “conventional” management. Soil type appeared to influence the ability of CREAMS to predict seasonal trends and treatment influences. Model predictions for N losses from tomato and corn treatments that were located on sandy soils often disagreed with measured values. Treatment influences and seasonal trends for N losses from corn treatments that were located on a higher clay content soil were more satisfactorily predicted by CREAMS. Even though model input parameter estimation and measurement techniques may be imperfect, the simulation ability of CREAMS for predicting N leaching losses from systems on deep sands probably needs to be improved. Sensitivity analyses indicated that annual NC3−‐N leaching loss predictions were either minimally or not affected by changes in saturated hydraulic conductivity. Input estimations of the fraction of soil pore space filled at field capacity and soil organic matter were inversely related to annual NO3−‐N leaching losses, while potential mineralizable N was directly related to yearly N leaching losses.
THE OPTIMAL STEADY‐STATE IN GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT1
Authors: Knapp Keith C. , Feinerman Eli
Published: June 2007

Groundwater use is likely to be inefficient in the absence of regulation and hence there is substantial interest in optimal groundwater withdrawals over time. Under an optimal regime withdrawals, pumping lifts, and profits converge to steady‐state levels. In this paper we show that optimal steady‐state lifts, withdrawals, and marginal user costs can be readily calculated for multi‐cell models of confined aquifers. Applications to the design of economically efficient groundwater management policies are discussed, comparisons to previous work and to the safe yield concept are made, and an illustrative example is given.
AIRBORNE THERMAL MAPPING OF A “FLOW‐THROUGH” LAKE IN THE NEBRASKA SANDHILLS1
Authors: Rundquist Donald , Murray Gene , Queen Lloyd
Published: June 2007

The Sandhills region represents a tremendous water resource for the State of Nebraska. Small shallow lakes, marshes, and subirrigated meadows are abundant due to interactions between ground water and surface water. One theory relating ground water to lake‐flow systems in the Sandhills has been termed the “flow‐through” concept. Thermal‐infrared remotely acquired images document the flow‐through model for a test site in Western Nebraska.
AN APPLICATION OF MATHEMATICAL PROGRAMMING IN PLANNING SURFACE WATER STORAGE1
Authors: Buras Nathan
Published: June 2007

Designing a surface reservoir involves the concept of reservoir yield. This concept embodies three basic information items: hydrologic regime, active storage volume, and reservoir release policy. In the actual case presented below, the magnitude of the active storage was prescribed by a legal procedure, so that the planning issue became that of determining the reservoir yield given the hydrological information. A stochastic dynamic programming model was formulated to derive a schedule of seasonal optimal reservoir releases and their respective probabilities of occurrence. This schedule is the reservoir yield. The yearly cycle was divided into three seasons representing the actual climatic conditions, and conditional probabilities linking streamflows in consecutive seasons were estimated. An operating policy was postulated, based on the same set of legal decisions that prescribed the active storage volume, and target reservoir releases were assumed. Similarly, target storages at the end of each season were set up. The optimizing/ minimizing criterion in the dynamic programming formulation was the sum of squares of deviations of actual releases and final storage volumes from their respective targets.
ESTABLISHING PRIORITIES FOR WETLAND MANAGEMENT1
Authors: Barnard William D. , Ansell Christopher K. , Ham Joan G. , Kevin Daniel
Published: June 2007

Wetlands provide a variety of ecological services, but are attractive sites for many development activities. Between the mid‐1950's and mid‐1970's about 550,000 acres, or about 0.5 percent, of the vegetated wetlands remaining in the conterminous states were converted to other uses each year. About 80 percent of these losses involved draining and clearing of inland wetlands for agricultural purposes. Recent reductions in national wetland conversion rates are due primarily to declining rates of agricultural drainage and secondarily to government programs that regulate wetlands use. Several governmental policies and programs exist that either encourage or discourage wetland conversions. Section 404 of the Clean Water Act is the major tool for Federal involvement in controlling the conversion of wetlands to other uses. The 404 program, in combination with State regulatory programs, is responsible for reducing annual conversions nationwide by about 50 percent of what is applied for, or 50,000 acres of wetlands per year, primarily through project modifications. Coastal wetlands are reasonably well protected. Inland, freshwater wetlands are generally poorly protected. Efforts to protect wetlands, given a set level of resources, could be improved by categorizing wetlands according to their relative importance and focusing existing wetland programs on high value wetlands.
PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS IN THE USE OF STOCHASTIC DYNAMIC PROGRAMMING FOR RESERVOIR OPERATION1
Authors: Goulter I. C. , Tai F‐K.
Published: June 2007

ABSTRACT: A stochastic dynamic programming model is applied to a small hydroelectric system. The variation in number of stage iterations and the computer time required to reach steady state conditions with changes in the number of storage states is investigated. The increase in computer time required to develop the storage probability distributions with increase in the number of storage states is reviewed. It is found that for an average of seven inflow states, the largest number of storage states for which it is computationally feasible to develop the storage probability distributions is nine. It is shown that use of the dynamic program results based on a small number of storage states results in unrealistically skewed storage probability distributions. These skewed distributions are attributed to “trapping” states at the low end of the storage range.