bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Coping With Technological Disasters: Helping Communities Help Themselves
Authors: aihue Lisa Ka'
Published: January 2013

Major technological disasters, such as oil spills, create many situations that are addressed in typical government and industry contingency plans—for example, how to boom a beach, clean a bird, or lighter a tanker. What is not addressed in contingency plans is how to mitigate the social and psychological impacts of such a disaster on residents of affected communities. Technological disasters have been shown to produce what have come to be known as “corrosive communities” characterized by unusually high levels of tension, conflict, ongoing litigation, and chronic psychological stress.

Having experienced a major oil spill firsthand, the members of the Prince William Sound Regional Citizens' Advisory Council (PWS RCAC) initiated a project to fill this large gap in oil spill response planning. In addition to drawing on personal experience, PWS RCAC consulted experts in the fields of socioeconomic and technological disaster research to help in the development of a guidebook titled Coping with Technological Disasters.

The guidebook was released in 1999 and contains information to help communities and individuals understand what a technological disaster is, how it differs from a natural disaster, and what to expect during and in the years following the disaster. Information, resources, and proven programs are presented in the guidebook for use by local governments, civic groups, mental health organizations, individuals, or just about anyone responding to a major disaster.

Since its release, the guidebook has been requested by communities, state and federal agencies, organizations, and companies throughout Alaska, the United States, and internationally. Community leaders, mental health professionals, and emergency responders have praised the guidebook as an excellent reference and resource. By sharing what the communities of the Exxon Valdez oil spill region have learned, PWS RCAC believes that this guidebook will enhance already existing contingency plans, not only for spill response, but for other emergencies as well.
New Carissa Oil Spill: Challenges to Oil Spill Source Identification
Authors: Moffatf Gary
Published: January 2013

High resolution gas chromatography (GC) and gas chromatography in conjunction with mass spectrometry (GCMS) were used as fingerprinting techniques in this study to link oil spilled from the New Carissa to oil taken from oil impacted locations. Analyses included normal and isoprenoid alkanes, hopanes, and steranes, as well as a range of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHS). The oil spilled from the New Carissa was initially thought to be limited to bunker oils. Therefore, chromatograms of these samples and selected ion monitoring (SIM) chromatograms of the components and their combinations were compared, and obvious mismatches were rejected.

Initial comparisons seemed simple; however, as with the spill response itself, factors that most often are insignificant began to affect the chemical analyses. Complications and technical challenges using conventional fingerprinting methods arose for several reasons. Likely reasons are (1) the spilled oil weathered on continued exposure to environmental conditions; (2) burning could cause changes to the chemical fingerprint; and (3) potential inhomogeneity of the spill because of multiple fuel sources in five fuel tanks at the bottom of the vessel. The PAH fingerprint had limited resistance to weathering. Therefore, the hopane fingerprint was selected for its resistance to weathering and potential screening power. Preburn and postburn New Carissa oil was characterized using principal component analysis (PCA) to determine if new and seemingly unrelated tarballs could be derived from the New Carissa spill. Response personnel will benefit from the lessons learned about potential complications of oil identification and subsequent determination of origin.
OHMSETT 2000: FISCAL YEAR IN REVIEW
Authors: Nolan Kathleen , Schmidt William , Lane James
Published: January 2013

During fiscal year 2000, a series of, boom, skimmer, pump, and dispersant tests were performed at OHMSETT, the national oil spill response test facility. Spill response technology development and training sessions were also conducted. These projects were conducted by government organizations, including the U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) Research and Development Center and the U.S. Navy Naval Facilities Engineering Service Center (USN ?FESC); research organizations such as Environment Canada, S.L. Ross Environmental Research, and the University of New Hampshire (UNH); and other private companies.

The USCG and the National Spill Control School of Texas A&M University-Corpus Christi continued training sessions on the handling of oil spill response equipment. The USCG Research and Development (R&D) Center sponsored a test on viscous oil pumping systems, and another test for the development of fast-water oil spill containment and cleanup equipment. The NFESC conducted an evaluation of four high-speed skimmers that involved testing in waves with light fuel oils. Private companies utilized the tank and its simulated beach system to test their new containment boom designs and multi-skimmer units for oil retention and recovery capabilities. UNH returned to gather performance data on a new rapid current oil barrier design. Each of these projects has been significant in advancing oil spill response technology.
EVOLUTION OF A WORLD-CLASS TANKER ESCORT SYSTEM
Authors: Mitchell Vincent B.
Published: January 2013

The Ship Escort Response Vessel System (SERVS) of Alyeska Pipeline Service Company (Alyeska) in Valdez Alaska is responsible for overseeing the prevention, preparedness, and response activities for the safe transportation of oil through Prince William Sound. Since the inception of SERVS in 1989, escort vessels have accompanied laden tankers through Prince William Sound from the Valdez Marine Terminal to the Gulf of Alaska, a distance of approximately 70 miles. The tankers pass through the pristine Prince William Sound, which encompasses over 2,500 square miles, with fjord-like topography and a subarctic climate.

The evolution of the tanker escort system began with the emergency order issued by the state of Alaska in 1989 immediately after the grounding of the Exxon Valdez. A fleet of 12 vessels, each singular in purpose, was quickly developed: three dedicated pairs of escorts (comprised of an escort response vessel and tug), response barge standby vessels, and four dedicated docking tugs. The emphasis was more on oil spill response than prevention, and there was little interchangeability between vessels and their missions.

In subsequent years, a variety of factors has caused changes to the escort system and vessel mix. These included the Disabled Tanker Towing Study, Prince William Sound Risk Assessment Promulgation of Federal Escort Requirements, oil spill response responsibility in the Gulf of Alaska, tanker vapor recovery, reduction in pipeline throughput, and weather restrictions. Additionally, industry instituted voluntary measures such as ice scouts and sentinel standby escorts for inbound tankers in ballast have affected the escort system, in addition to the experience gained in the operation the system.

As the escort system matured, there was a marked emphasis and focus on oil spill prevention, fleet modernization, and multipurpose vessels to increase capabilities while maximizing efficiencies. Alyeska/SERVS embarked on a dedicated strategy to upgrade the specialized vessel fleet of 12 vessels to a fleet composed of fewer multipurpose vessels. This strategy encompassed a technological and operational enhancement of the fleet, significantly improving the prevention posture while maintaining the necessary response capabilities.

Today, the Alyeska/SERVS escort fleet consists of nine multipurpose vessels. The cornerstones of the escort fleet are the two 10,192 horsepower Voith Schneider enhanced tractor tugs and the three 10,192 horsepower ? drive Prevention and Response Tugs, all specifically designed, constructed, and outfitted for tanker escorting. The combination of these vessels for tanker escorting utilizes complimentary best available technology to ensure the safe transit of tankers through Prince William Sound.
OFFLOADING NORNE OIL (WAXY OIL) FROM STORAGE TANKS ON THE NOFO OIL SPILL RESPONSE VESSELS
Authors: Johannessen Bjørn Olaf , Holmemo Sigmund
Published: January 2013

The oil from the Norne field at the Norwegian continental shelf presented new challenges to the Norwegian oil spill contingency. Because of its high wax content and high pour point, under some conditions the oil could not be collected with the weir skimmers that traditionally are used in Norwegian offshore oil spill contingency. An intensive development project was carried out through which new recovery concepts were developed for the collection of this oil.

Having found a satisfying solution to the oil recovery problem, there were concerns with the ability to offload Nome oil from the storage tanks on the Norsk Oljevernforening For Operatorselskap (NOFO) oil spill response vessels. Det Norske Vertias (DNV) was contracted to assess the offloading capability of four of the vessels in the NOFO pool. Because of the oil's unique properties, it was not trusted that standard methodology for calculating pressure drop in pipes and fittings would provide satisfying accuracy for this oil. Therefore, a pumpability test was conducted on a full-scale copy (somewhat simplified) of one of the offloading systems, in which pressure drops and pumping rates were measured using 30 m3 of emulsified Nome oil. Based on the test findings, a modified method for estimating pressure drop in pipes pumping the Nome oil was established, taking into account the highly non-Newtonian behavior of the oil. The new method was later applied to estimate Nome offloading capacity from a number of tanks on four NOFO vessels.

This paper describes the work conducted and the methodology that was established for estimating offloading capability. As an example, the results obtained applying the method to one of the oil spill response vessels are outlined.
BACKGROUND FLUORESCENCE VALUES AND MATRIX EFFECTS OBSERVED USING SMART PROTOCOLS IN THE ATLANTIC OCEAN AND GULF OF MEXICO
Authors: Henry Charlie , Roberts Paulene O.
Published: January 2013

For a 6-month period between May and September 1999, the staff and crew of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) research ship R/V Ferrel augmented their activities to support a baseline fluorometry study for NOAA's Office of Response and Restoration (OR&R). During the study period, scientific data were collected at more than 50 stations in the Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico. The study was designed, in part, to assess the Special Monitoring of Applied Response Technologies (SMART) program. SMART is a joint U.S. Coast Guard (USCG), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), and NOAA monitoring program that provides near real-time feedback to the Unified Command during dispersant applications to mitigate marine oil spills.

Using fluorometers to accurately measure dispersed oil concentrations is not a trivial task. Detector response values vary because of oil composition and oil weathering; dispersed oil is not in true solution; and natural waters contribute matrix effects and background fluorescence. It was the latter two that were investigated. Because seawater is a complex mixture of dissolved chemicals, particulates, and living plants and animals, archiving samples for future analysis relative to background fluorescence is problematic. Each contributes to background fluorescence and matrix effects when dispersed oil is present in the sample. Since water samples change with storage, only near real-time analyses are valid; therefore, using an at-sea laboratory like the NOAA's Ferrel was essential to the study design.

Results suggest that the adverse flouorometry effects observed for open-ocean environments were within typical quality-objective goals. Therefore, the range of seawater composition changes observed in this investigation had very little effect on the ability to detect dispersed oil and meet the SMART mission objectives.
COMPARATIVE TOXICITY OF OIL, DISPERSANT, AND DISPERSED OIL TO TEXAS MARINE SPECIES
Authors: Fuller Chris , Bonner James S.
Published: January 2013

Dispersants are one class of chemical response agents currently approved for use on offshore oil spills. However, questions persist regarding potential environmental risks of nearshore dispersant applications. To address these questions, the relative toxicity of weathered crude oil, dispersant, and weathered crude oil plus dispersant were compared. This study included one luminescent marine bacteria (Vibrio fisheri), two marine vertebrate (Cyprinodon variegatus and Menidia beryllina), and one invertebrate test species (Mysidopsis bahia). Both the vertebrate and invertebrate species were tested under spiked (short episodic) exposure regimes and 96-hour continuous exposure regimes using protocols developed by the Chemical Response to Oil Spills: Ecological Effects Research Forum (CROSERF) and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), respectively. Toxicity to the marine bacteria was evaluated after a 15-minute exposure using the Microbics Microtox® system. Results showed no significant variance between the relative toxicity of solutions prepared with weathered crude oil only and weathered crude oil plus dispersant when evaluated with the vertebrate and invertebrate test species. However, oil only solutions were shown to be significantly more toxic to Vibrio fisheri than oil plus dispersant solutions. Data also indicated that constant exposures were significantly more toxic than declining exposures, which is generally consistent with time weighted exposure response evaluations. Microtox® data was comparable to both vertebrate and invertebrate test results suggesting that the method is suitable for toxicity field screening.
OIL REMOVAL OPERATION—YUIL NO.1 AND OSUNG NO.3
Authors: Shim Yoo-Tack , Lee Jae-Gon , Kim Uk
Published: January 2013

This information paper describes the operation principle and method of the oil removal operation carried out by the Korean government in 1998 for two wrecks that had sunk off the south coast of Korea in 1995 and 1997, causing major oil spill incidents. Not only did the oil spill damage the marine environment around Korea and Japan, but it also caused huge damage to the fish farms around the area. It was estimated that the cargo and fuel oil remaining on board was over 1,000 tons. The Korean government therefore decided to remove the remaining oil to eliminate further risk of oil spill and instructed the Korea Marine Pollution Response Corp. (KMPRC) to carry out the operation for the two wrecks. KMPRC successfully removed the oil in 137 days. The operation was extremely difficult since the oil had to be removed from 70 m underwater without affecting the marine environment, which had many fish farms nearby. As the operation used the best underwater equipment and newest technology, this information paper is submitted for reference to those countries that will conduct similar operation in the future.
EMISSIONS FROM MESOSCALE IN SITU OIL (DIESEL) FIRES: EMISSIONS FROM THE MOBILE 1998 EXPERIMENTS
Authors: Fingas Mervin F. , Lambert Zhendi Wang Pat , Ackerman Francine , Li Ken , Goldthorp Mike , Fieldhouse Ben , Whiticar Steve , Campagna Philip , Turpin Rodney , Nadeau Royal , Schuetz Steve , Morganti Mike , Hiltabrand Robert A.
Published: January 2013

A series of mesoscale burns were conducted in 1998 to assess fire-resistant booms, twelve of these were used to study emissions from diesel oil burns. Extensive sampling and monitoring were conducted to determine the emissions at nine downwind ground stations, one upwind ground station, and at six side stations. Particulates were measured using high-volume samplers and real-time particulate analyzers. Particulate samples in air were taken and analyzed for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Water under the burns was analyzed; small amounts of PAHs were found. The burn residue was analyzed for PAHs as well. PAHs were at about the same concentration in the residue than in the starting oil, however, there is a slight differential concentration increase in some higher molecular weight species in the residue. Combustion gases including carbon dioxide, sulphuric acid aerosols, and sulphur dioxide were very low and in some cases undetectable. Volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions were measured in Summa canisters. Over 100 compounds were identified and quantified; most concentrations were too low to be considered a health risk. It was concluded that small burns of this size (burn area about 25 m2) are too small to pose a health hazard.
THE U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY: NATIONAL OIL AND HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES POLLUTION CONTINGENCY PLAN, SUBPART J PRODUCT SCHEDULE (40 CFR 300.900)
Authors: Nichols William J.
Published: January 2013

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) manages the National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan Final Rule, Subpart J Product Schedule (40 Code of Federal Regulations Part 300.900), which lists dispersants, surface-washing agents (SWAs), bioremediation agents, surface-collecting agents, and miscellaneous oil spill control agents that may be used in response to oil spills on land and on or near waters of the United States, depending on the product and its proper application. Over the last few years, alternative oil spill response methods have been gaining in acceptance and use in the field among first responders, industry, state and federal agencies, Congress, and the entire oil spill response community. EPA sets policy and guidance for the proper use and authority to use these products. Manufacturers and vendors of these products have become more aware of this acceptance evidenced by the frequency that EPA is contacted to provide information on the listing process and EPA policy regarding their use. The number of applications to add new products to the Subpart J Product Schedule has increased over the last year. Subpart J is very prescriptive and specific in directing manufacturers to perform the proper test within the proper protocols, yet many applications are rejected or need modification because of errors in testing procedures or data reporting.

This paper will address the data needed to list a product under each category and will clarify issues related to the Product Schedule. It will also address the policies that EPA uses to enforce the Subpart J regulation. The author has managed the Product Schedule for over 3 years, and his experience and expertise regarding the issues surrounding alternative countermeasures will be covered as well. Dispersants, SWAs, chemical sorbents, and other technologies have sparked controversy and confusion in all regions and areas of the United States, and in some cases internationally. Many research efforts have added to the baseline knowledge we have about dispersants and bioremediation agents' toxicity, efficacy, and proper use, but conflicts still arise as that data is interpreted and applied in the field. The reader will have a better understanding of why and how alternative countermeasures are required to be listed and describe the authority to use them based on EPA policy.
DEVELOPMENT AND WATER TANK TESTS OF SBS (SUGI BARK SORBENT)
Authors: Saito Masaki , Ishii Nobuyoshi , Ogura Suguru , Maemura Shinji
Published: January 2013

In order to provide a resource for responses to marine oil spills with reduced costs and lowered secondary environmental loads we began to develop an oil absorbent made from organic waste material in 1997. After some screening it was found that the fiber of Sugi (Cryptomeria japonica D.Don) bark has the potential to be an excellent oil absorbent due to its hydrophobic and oleophilic properties. As bark fiber can be enclosed in cotton nets or sheets, the product is composed entirely of organic materials, thus decreasing its toxicity during incineration after use as compared with polymeric materials. In laboratory experiments SBS demonstrated equivalent absorbency (picking up at least 11 times its own weight in bunker C) as conventional polypropylene sheets. The drier and larger the bark fibers of the SBS, the better the absorbency was. In water tank experiments, we also confirmed that some types of SBSs such as S25, S50, B6S14 and M50 were successful in recovering oil in situations with small waves and currents.
ON THE VALUE OF SIMULTANEOUSLY ADDRESSING HUMAN HEALTH RISK AND POTENTIAL NATURAL RESOURCE DAMAGES
Authors: King Virginia , Kealy Mary Jo
Published: January 2013

During an emergency response to an incident, it is both possible and frequently advantageous to simultaneously address human health risk and injury to natural resources. Integration plays an important role in the overall outcome and success of a response effort for an emergency incident. The primary focus during an emergency incident for the On-Scene Coordinator (OSC) is traditionally the reduction of risk to human health. As such, historical response activities have somewhat failed to incorporate other risks, mainly the risk of injury to natural resources. This paper discusses the value of considering incorporation of natural resources potentially affected by the incident early on in the response process. Integration of the delegated interests of all the stakeholders, including the natural resource trustees, into the planning of response actions can serve to accomplish restoring the natural resources that were injured as well as reduce the human health risks associated with the incident. The only means of accomplishing these goals simultaneously is to incorporate all objectives, when possible, through effective communication and coordination of all parties. This paper draws on the authors' experience from over 100 emergency response actions to identify the key factors for the successful integration of restoration into response.
DETERMINING THE SCALE OF RESTORATION FOR A FISH KILL IN THE ALAFIA RIVER, FLORIDA1
Authors: DiPinto Lisa , Penn Tony , Iliff John , Peterson Charles
Published: January 2013

In December 1997, a phosphogypsum stack wall failed at a phosphoric acid/ fertilizer production facility in Mulberry, Florida, releasing 50–56 million gallons of acidic process water into the Alafia River, a major tributary of Tampa Bay. The process water lowered the pH along 35 miles of the river to levels ranging from approximately 2.3 in the freshwater portion to 3–4 in the lower 10-mile estuarine portion. This release resulted in a significant fish kill and injuries to other natural resources and services.

This paper describes the fish kill assessment and the determination of restoration type and scale to offset the fish injuries. The assessment team quantified the fish kill as total biomass lost, defined as the sum of direct mortality plus the foregone future production, as loss of somatic growth of those individuals that were killed. The team identified creation and/or enhancement of fish habitats as the preferred alternatives to provide fish production of the species that were injured, which is an established approach to compensate for acute, species-specific losses. Case-specific analytic techniques were used to estimate secondary productivities from the preferred habitats. Based on the productivity data, the assessment team calculated the scale of the habitat projects that, over the course of their lifetimes, would provide the same amount of biomass that was lost. While the injuries were the result of a hazardous substance release, as opposed to an oil spill, the methods used for injury determination and restoration scaling are directly applicable to an oil spill scenario.
ENVIRONMENTAL CRIMES ON AND OFFSHORE: AN ENFORCEMENT UPDATE
Authors: Grasso Jeanne M.
Published: January 2013

Criminal enforcement of environmental laws has evolved rapidly in the past few years. Recent environmental prosecutions have targeted subtle conduct in innovative and aggressive ways by using expansive theories of liability beyond those contained in environmental statutes. Prosecutions for criminal negligence also are becoming more common. Because of aggressive federal and state efforts targeting environmental crimes, it is time for companies to take a hard look at their corporate policies and environmental compliance records to help ensure that they do not become a target of a criminal prosecution. This paper will review recent criminal environmental cases and discuss ways in which companies can best protect themselves and prepare for an environmental criminal investigation of their companies, officers, and employees.
BUSINESS-OPERATIONAL CONTINUITY PLANNING
Authors: Epler Glenn F.
Published: January 2013

U.S. federal and state regulations require industry to develop and maintain detailed crisis and emergency response plans. These plans are, for the most part, well thought out and detailed. As a result, along with extensive training and exercise programs, industry preparedness is better than it has ever been to respond to and manage an emergency. But how well prepared is industry to handle the business or operational continuity aspects of a crisis or emergency? What plans are in place to deal with the requirement for continuing essential business functions in the face of a disaster? If a major incident occurs to a refinery, terminal, or offshore production platform that requires it to be taken off-line, or damages it beyond repair, are there plans in place to minimize the impacts on the rest of the organization and on the downstream customers? How will this be done simultaneously while managing the response?

This paper addresses those needs and discusses the requirements that companies in the oil and chemical industry should consider in developing business and operational continuity plans. It explains a multi-step planning process that is being used by many companies around the world to maintain their business edge when a crisis or disaster strikes. This planning process includes such functions as conducting a risk analysis and business impact analysis, developing mitigation and recovery strategies, drafting a continuity plan, developing an awareness program, and building a training and exercising program. The paper also looks at the similarities between business and operational continuity plans and a company's emergency or crisis management plan and address ways in which the plans may be integrated.
NEW SPACE-BORNE SENSORS FOR OIL SPILL RESPONSE
Authors: Brown Carl E. , Fingas Mervin F.
Published: January 2013

In the next few years, several new satellite sensors will be launched by various national remote-sensing/earth observation agencies around the globe. It is hoped that these space-borne sensors will provide oil spill response personnel with more than just a synoptic overview of the spill scene. The state-of-the-art capabilities of these new sensors should provide responders with information that can be used in a tactical role as opposed to older-generation sensors that perform a strictly strategic role. Of primary use to spill response coordinators is the Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) sensor. The next generation of SAR satellites will have enhanced capabilities when compared to their predecessors. The enhancements include the addition of Polarimetric modes for satellites, including Envisat-1 and RADARSAT-2. RADARSAT-2 will be quad-polarimetric, with resolutions of 8 × 8 m in Polarimetric mode and down to 3 × 3 m in co- or cross-pole modes. The ASAR sensor on Envisat-1 will follow up the successful missions of the European Space Agencies ERS-1, −2 satellites. ASAR will have an alternating polarization mode, and transmit and receive polarization can be selected, thus allowing scenes to be imaged simultaneously in two polarizations. In addition to SAR satellites, several new optical satellites have been or will be launched over the next few years. While optical sensors often are plagued by periods of foul weather that frequently accompany oil spills, some of these sensors will provide valuable information that can be used in conjunction with the radar data in a corroborative fashion. The most useful of the new optical satellites might well be those used to collect data for weather forecasting.

This paper will review the operating characteristics and modes of recent and planned satellite sensors, with an eye toward their usefulness for tactical remote sensing of oil spills.
AIRBORNE OIL SPILL SENSOR TESTING: PROGRESS AND RECENT DEVELOPMENTS
Authors: Brown Carl E. , Marois Richard , Fingas Mervin F. , Choquet Marc , Monchalin Jean-Pierre , Mullin Joseph V. , Goodman Ronald H.
Published: January 2013

It is now possible to measure the thickness of an oil slick on water by remote sensing. A laboratory sensor has been developed to provide this absolute oil slick thickness measurement. A joint project between Environment Canada, U.S. Minerals Management Service (MMS), Imperial Oil Research Ltd., and Industrial Materials Institute of the National Research Council of Canada has led to the development of a prototype slick thickness measurement system, known as the Laser Ultrasonic Remote Sensing of Oil Thickness (LURSOT) sensor. This prototype was the first step in achieving the ultimate goal of providing an airborne sensor for the remote measurement of oil slick thickness on water. The LURSOT sensor employs three lasers to produce and measure the time-of-flight of ultrasonic waves in oil, hence providing a direct measurement of oil slick thickness. The successful application of this technology to the measurement of oil slick thickness will benefit (1) the scientific community as a whole by providing information about the dynamics of oil slick spreading and (2) the spill responder by providing a measurement of the effectiveness of spill countermeasures such as dispersant application.

The first part of this paper provides initial results from laboratory testing prior to a second round of airborne test flights of the modified LURSOT system. The second part of this paper provides details on a new generation of laser fluorosensor, known as Scanning Laser Environmental Airborne Fluorosensor (SLEAF). SLEAF recently has been installed on Environment Canada's DCS aircraft. SLEAF incorporates a high-power excimer laser, high-resolution range-gated intensified diode-array spectrometer, and a pair of variable speed and angular displacement scanning mirrors. These scanning mirrors provide SLEAF with the across-track sampling pattern needed to detect narrow bands of oil that can pile up along the high tide lines of beaches and shorelines.

Ground testing of SLEAF has now been underway for some time. This paper provides details of the sensor installation and testing program, and illustrates the operational capabilities of the new system. It is believed that this new sensor will provide prompt reliable detection and mapping of oil contamination in a variety of marine and terrestrial environments.
M/T Westchester Oil Spill: Shoreline Assessment and Cleanup Along the Lower Mississippi River
Authors: Michel Jacqueline , Henry Charles B. , Thumm Stephen
Published: January 2013

On 28 November 2000, the M/T Westchester spilled 1,925 tonnes of Nigerian crude oil into the Mississippi River. An estimated 50 percent of the spilled oil was recovered during the response. Several factors contributed to this extraordinary recovery rate: deployment of booms within hours in locations where large volumes of oil were diverted out of the river and into sheltered holding areas for later recovery; the wind blew consistently from one direction piling the oil against one bank; the oil quickly emulsified thus spreading on the water surface was limited; the ambient air temperature was often below the oil's pour point so the oil formed thick accumulations that adhered to the shoreline; and the river levees provided good access to the shoreline in places. The spilled oil contaminated 35 kilometers of one bank of the river and sheens extended as far as 70 kilometers downriver of the release site. Oiled shoreline habitats included 22.5 km of riprap, 2.9 km of sand flats, 3.4 km of mud flats, and 5.4 km (1.38 acres) of freshwater marshes and sloughs. The shoreline assessment process supported operations in evaluating cleanup methods and developing operationally oriented cleanup endpoints.
Workers Safety & Health During Iguassu Oil Spill Response Oil Spill in Iguassu River – Araucaria, Parana, Brazil
Authors: Glitz Alexandre
Published: January 2013

On July 16, 2000 a major oil spill occurred at the side of the Araucaria refinery. A total of 4,000 m3 of a light crude oil run down around two kilometers trough Saldanha creek, crossing and contaminating four wetlands. The oil discharged into Barigüi River, a tributary of Iguassu River contaminating 6 kilometers in Barigüi River and 60 in Iguassu River. An oil recovery and cleanup operation was mounted. Almost 3000 workers were hired in haste to clean and recover oil in the impacted wetlands area, as well as in the water streams. The accident happened on a Sunday afternoon, during one of the coldest (for Brazilian standards) winters in past years, with temperatures as low as − 6°C. At the start of the oil recovery work, a very important issue was worker's safety and health. Most of the workers were unskilled people, unemployed until the accident and among them a great number of illiterate persons. The paper describes the issues with regards to safety and health, the actions taken to protect worker's health during manual oil recovery in wetlands, the means used to reduce hydrocarbon vapor exposure and evaluation of worker's exposure to hydrocarbon vapors. The effort was successful, in nine days all the free oil was removed from the rivers. The cleaning of the riverbanks and inundation areas was completed in three months. The creek and wetland areas ascending Barigüi River held around 70 per cent of the spilled oil. In these areas the safety and health concerns where higher. All superficial oil was removed from the rivers and streams.
Environmental Damage Assessment - Canadian Style
Authors: Percy Roger , Dewis Sinclair , Hennigar Peter
Published: January 2013

Damage Assessment involves evaluating and monetizing damages for compensation purposes. This process is meant to compliment enforcement activities by providing a framework for securing funds for restorative and prevention measures. In recognition of the growing need to address the issue of restoration of and compensation for environmental damages incurred as a result of pollution incidents Environment Canada has undertaken an initiative to develop and implement a national approach to environmental damage assessment and restoration. This paper will describe the steps taken by Canada to establish a practical framework for an environmental damage assessment/restoration process. It will highlight steps taken to reach consensus and to educate stakeholders, identify available legal instruments, describe development of guidelines/protocols for scientific assessment as well as the mechanism for decision making.
Petrobras - Program for Excellence in Environmental and Operational Safety Management
Authors: Varella Carlos , Alves Rui Antonio Fonseca , Filho Jayme de Seta
Published: January 2013

The Petrobras management of safety, environment and health introduces in this paper its new strategy to reduce emissions, residues, effluents and to improve the prevention and control of accidents in all its units. With expected investments of more than US$ 1 billion from 2000 to 2003 the Program for Excellence in Environmental and Operational Safety Management is Petrobras’ strategy for becoming one of the best petroleum companies of the world, regarding safety and environmental protection.
Estimation of Shoreline Response Cost Factors
Authors: Etkin Dagmar Schmidt
Published: January 2013

Data analyses on shoreline responses to two major US oil spills were analyzed to derive preliminary factors for estimating shoreline cleanup costs based on oiling degree, sediment type, labor and equipment requirements, and disposal costs. Per-unit area cost factors are calculated for marsh cleanup of a heavy fuel oil spill. Cleanup of heavily oiled areas cost an average of $lll/m2 for labor, equipment, and waste disposal, while lightly oiled areas cost an average of $5/m2. Worker-day requirements for cleanup of crude oil from a variety of sediment types from rocky to sand (by length) were calculated. Additional analyses are required to extrapolate equipment and disposal costs for development of sediment- and oiling-specific cost factors from this data. Further analyses on this and other spill response data are required to develop comprehensive shoreline response cost factors as part of the development of a methodology to estimate response costs for evaluating cost-effectiveness and cost-benefit analyses.
Conceptual Models for Assessing the Risk of Seafood Tainting During Oil Spills
Authors: Lord Christine , Michel Jacqueline
Published: January 2013

Because there are no accepted international or federal criteria for oil-related contaminants in seafood, fisheries may be closed as a precautionary action, then remain closed until samples can be collected and analyzed, then interpreted as to the actual risk. Real and potential contamination of seafood can have substantial impacts on commercial and recreational fishing and subsistence seafood use. Therefore it is important to consider oil fate and pathways of exposure that lead to the contamination of seafood species. Many biological and ecological factors influence rates of uptake and elimination, such as differences in feeding strategies, habitat, and physiology, which ultimately determine the likelihood and duration of taint. Using data gathered from past spills and laboratory studies, conceptual models of exposure pathways for a range of spill conditions and oil types can be used in combination with spill conditions and ecological factors to predict oil exposure, uptake, and elimination of petroleum compounds in seafood species. These conceptual models may allow risk assessors to evaluate the risk of significant contamination of seafood and make decisions based on limited on-scene data.
U.S. Coast Guard Federal on Scene Coordinator Role in Vessel Salvage1
Authors: Moore Michael R. , Miller Thomas C. , Boone George L. , Farley Rendall B.
Published: January 2013

Salvage operations must be conducted with the utmost concern for the safety of personnel, as well as protection of the marine environment, and property. Due to the highly dynamic circumstances involved in salvage operations, there is no standard or foolproof method for responding to a casualty. Therefore, contingency planning and pre-established relationships with industry become indispensable to ensure that informed decision making, maximum responder cooperation and optimum asset coordination. Inherent in contingency planning is having an understanding that the role of the Captain of the Port (COTP) / Federal On-Scene Coordinator (FOSC) during a salvage response is multifaceted. While the COTP/FOSC has federal responsibilities to protect people, property, and the environment, it is achieved only through close coordination of multiple responding agencies, the response/salvage community and their resources. This successful coordination is greatly facilitated through an understanding of FOSC roles and proper use of the Incident Command/Unified Command (ICS/UC) System. This paper also describes the assets and authorities available to the COTP/FOSC during a salvage response, the triggers and overriding issues that would initiate full or partial federalization.
Application of Remote Sensing Data for Oil Spill Monitoring in the Guanabara Bay, Rio De Janeiro, Brazil
Authors: Bentz Cristina , de Miranda Fernando Pellon
Published: January 2013

The rupture of a pipeline transporting hydrocarbons at high temperature caused the spill of 1,300 m3 of fuel oil near the Guanabara Bay shoreline, on January 18, 2000. Immediately after the accident, an emergency effort was undertaken to obtain satellite images in order to monitor the spill's location and movement. One Landsat-5/TM (Thematic Mapper) and 15 Radarsat-1 images were acquired This paper describes the results obtained with the interpretation of the first three images acquired after the spill. The low frequency of acquisition and the prevailing cloud cover limited the use of visible and infrared spaceborne sensors. Image processing techniques were applied to highlight oil-covered areas on the water surface. Ambiguities in the oil detection were resolved with the aid of ancillary information such as location of knows sources of pollution; aerial inspection information and GPS controlled aerial photos taken from helicopters. The RADARSAT-1 images show clearly the area affected by the spill accident allowing the differentiation of oil-free water areas, fluvial discharge or effluents areas, and oil-covered water areas. One limitation to oil detection using the Landsat-5/TM image was the presence of clouds and haze near the spilled area. In order to improve the visual discrimination of patterns on the water surface related to oil, many RGB combinations of the seven TM bands were evaluated. A supervised classification procedure was applied resulting in the following classes: oil-free water, fluvial discharge, bay areas affected by haze and oil-covered water. The GIS integration of the classification results with ancillary information, such as location of knows sources of pollution; aerial inspection information and GPS controlled aerial photos acquired simultaneously with image acquisition, allowed the final selection of oil-covered areas. The results obtained helped PETROBRAS to optimize the emergency response procedures and subsequent cleaning efforts.
Continuing Long-Term Studies of the Tropics Panama Oil and Dispersed Oil Spill Sites
Authors: Ward Greg A. , Baca Bart , Cyriacks Wendy , Dodge Richard E. , Knap Anthony
Published: January 2013

The TROPICS (Tropical Oil Pollution Investigations in Coastal Systems) oil spill experiment was conducted on the Caribbean coast of Panama, near Bocas del Toro. In November 1984, crude and dispersed crude oil were released in two separate boom-enclosed areas representative of intertidal mangrove and subtidal seagrass/coral ecosystems. The present information is based on site visits over the past two years, including 2002. Following the degradation of oil over the past 18 years, sheen identified from the spilled oil in 1994 is still visible in non-dispersed Oil Site sediments. In mangroves, previously denuded areas exposed to crude oil are currently occupied by new seedlings and saplings, which are growing rapidly but with morphological prop-root deformations. Tree mortality occurred in both the Dispersed Oil and Reference Sites, but was non-localized and appeared as natural mortality in aged trees. Recent data have revealed an invasion of seagrass beds by finger coral at the Oil Site. Since treatment, percent coverage of corals at this site has grown from a pretreatment value of 33.5% in March 1984 to 67.5% in June 2001.
Spill Response Decision-Making in Relation to Wildlife Resources and Oil Spill Applied Technologies
Authors: Scholz Debra , Warren Steven R. , Stout Heidi , Hogue Gregory , Walker Ann Hayward , McGowan Peter
Published: January 2013

During a response to spilled oil or hazardous material, the protection, retrieval, and rehabilitation of affected wildlife is the jurisdiction of the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS), the US Department of Interior (DOI), the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS), and the affected state resource trustees. Only permitted and trained individuals (Qualified Wildlife Responders - QWR) are allowed to directly handle the affected wildlife. QWRs are familiar with a wide range of actions that can be taken to minimize the adverse effects of spilled oil on fish and wildlife resources and their habitats. However, decision-makers and QWRs are not always familiar with the effects that various oil spill products and technologies may have on different wildlife resources. Applied oil spill products and technologies are listed under the National Contingency Plan (NCP) Product Schedule (40 CFR § 300.317) and are the focus of the Selection Guide for Oil Spill Applied Technologies. These applied oil spill products and technologies are relatively unknown and most decision-makers have limited experience in their use. To facilitate greater understanding of these products and technologies, the Selection Guide assists the decision-maker to evaluate the various spill response products and technologies for potential or suspected impacts to the environment, workers, and natural resources. Of particular interest is the evaluation of the use of various oil spill response
Use of Brine Shrimp (Artemia) In Dispersant Toxicity Tests: Some Caveats1
Authors: George-Ares Anita , Febbo Eric J. , Letinski Daniel J. , Yarusinsky Joseph , Safadi Regina S. , Aita Alice F.
Published: January 2013

Several Latin American countries currently use Artemia to evaluate the aquatic toxicity of dispersants. Test methods used to evaluate dispersant toxicity to Artemia are not uniform. The study reported here demonstrates how varying Artemia test conditions can significantly affect toxicity results for the dispersant Corexit® 9500.

The type of seawater used in Artemia toxicity tests affects 48 hour LC50 values for Corexit 9500 (lethal concentration for 50% of test organisms). Nominal LC50 values ranged from 35 to 147 ppm when natural seawater was used. Nominal LC50 values ranged from 29 to 39 ppm when a synthetic seawater prepared from Crystal Sea® Marinemix was used. Greater toxicity was observed when synthetic (reconstituted) seawater was prepared according to the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA, 1987) Artemia dispersant test guideline. Observed nominal LC50 values ranged from 8.4 to 14 ppm.

Age of the Artemia nauplii is another test variable that can significantly affect toxicity results. The 48 hour nauplii showed greater toxicity to Corexit 9500 than 24 hour old nauplii. In tests using two types of synthetic seawater (Coral Reef Red Sea Salt® and Crystal Sea® Marinemix at 20 °C, 20 ppt salinity), nominal LC50 values ranged from 29 to 68 ppm for 24 hour old nauplii; 48 hour old nauplii had LC50 values ranging from 9 to 27 ppm. Greater toxicity was also observed in 48 hour nauplii under different salinity and temperature (Red Sea, 25 °C, 33 to 35 ppt salinity). The LC50 values were 33 and 1.6 ppm for 24 and 48 hour nauplii respectively.