bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Battle of Bemis Heights
Authors: Weddle Kevin J.
Published: July 2021

This chapter discusses the battle of Bemis Heights. While Burgoyne waited in vain for Clinton to arrive, he was forced to reduce rations. On October 7 he led a 1,700-man reconnaissance force to forage for food to gather intelligence on Gates’s left flank. Contrary to the standard account of the battle, Gates and Arnold had reconciled to the point where they could work with each other. Gates ordered Arnold to send Morgan’s riflemen to attack. More American units were sent into the battle, and finally Arnold asked Gates for more men to finish the enemy. Gates agreed. The Americans mortally wounded Fraser and Burgoyne’s force fled back to their fortifications. Arnold personally led an attack that seized Breymann’s fortified camp on Burgoyne’s far right flank. Arnold was seriously wounded but Burgoyne, with Americans on his flank, had no choice but to fall back. The next day he ordered a retreat.
British Strategic Reassessment
Authors: Weddle Kevin J.
Published: July 2021

This chapter discusses the British military strategy reassessment after the Saratoga defeat. Shortly after learning of Saratoga, British senior leaders embarked on a several-months-long reassessment of their military strategy and policy for the American war. They replaced senior commanders, including Howe, with Sir Henry Clinton. They offered Americans everything short of independence, but it was too little, too late. For the Americans, after Saratoga, there was no turning back. Their initial revised strategy was undermined by the news that the French had signed an alliance with the Americans. Now the British faced an expanded and more challenging war. Their new strategy included naval operations, attacks on French overseas possessions, and limited operations in North America. They directed Clinton to conduct operations in the American South in the future. The British reassessment was good, but they never fully addressed the underlying objectives of their strategy toward the American rebellion.
The Fruits of Victory
Authors: Weddle Kevin J.
Published: July 2021

This chapter discusses two issues: the threat to Washington’s position after Saratoga and the American diplomatic triumph in Paris. After Saratoga, Gates’s reputation soared, and this coincided with Washington’s failures against Howe during the Philadelphia campaign. Washington skilfully thwarted the so-called Conway Cabal—a faction that advocated replacing Washington with Gates as commander-in-chief. In France, Louis XVI’s foreign minister Vergennes, reopened discussions about a formal alliance with Franklin and the other American diplomats. The Saratoga victory provided evidence of American resolve and competence. The Franco-American alliance, due in large part to Franklin’s brilliant diplomatic efforts, on the heels of the Saratoga military victory, changed the very character of the war. Washington would now have access to French sea power and its army, which ultimately resulted in the war-winning 1781 Yorktown campaign. The American success at Saratoga was not sufficient for ultimate victory, but it was necessary.
Men and Measures
Authors: Weddle Kevin J.
Published: July 2021

This chapter conducts a final assessment of the British and American military strategy of the Saratoga campaign and the leadership of the major players involved in 1777, including Germain, Washington, Howe, Burgoyne, Gates, Schuyler, and others. The primary reason the British failed in their quest to end the war in 1777 was due to faulty military strategy. Fundamental errors involving coordination, lack of unity of command, faulty assumptions, and their failure to fully evaluate ends, ways, and means, in London, New York City, and Canada, doomed Burgoyne’s expedition even before it started. This chapter also includes an overall assessment of the leadership of the major senior ranking figures on both sides—Washington, Germain, Burgoyne, Gates, Howe, Clinton, Schuyler, St. Clair, Arnold, and others. In general, the American commanders demonstrated better leadership throughout the campaign.
The Journey Continues
Authors: Holt Frank L.
Published: July 2021

The final chapter emphasizes that numismatics may be one of the oldest fields of humanistic inquiry, but it is still evolving in step with other, more modern disciplines. Researchers today want to know more about the non-elites of history, the nameless masses whose lives made possible the celebrated deeds of kings, queens, and emperors. Coins may seem particularly unsuited to this task since they are state-sponsored ego-facts bearing the names, faces, and boasts of the rich and famous. Cognitive numismatics, however, provides a new way of seeing in coins the common people—how they worked, what they thought, when they had a bad day. This approach brings the reader back to meme theory within the busy confines of an ancient mint. It completes the life cycle of a coin by examining its removal from circulation as an economic instrument, perhaps ending its journey as some other artifact of everyday experience.
Introduction
Authors: Potter David
Published: July 2021

The patterns of change over time, how to use the past to think with about the present
Constantine and the Christian Church
Authors: Potter David
Published: July 2021

Christianity develops on the fringe of Roman intellectual society, gradually drawing new converts, into the fourth century. Constantine transforms Christianity from a fringe movement to the central intellectual movement in the Roman Empire when he converts as part of an effort to provide the empire with a new governing ideology. A crucial aspect of the conversion of Constantine had been the collapse of the ideological core of the imperial system in the previous century, which undermined faith in existing institutions and created space for radical redefinitions of imperial power which, even before Constantine, has stressed a reimagined connection between emperors and the gods.
Core Texts of the Sŏn Approach
Authors: Broughton Jeffrey
Published: July 2021

The book is a study and partial translation of Core Texts of the Sŏn Approach (Sŏnmun ch’waryo), a Korean anthology of key texts foundational to Korean Sŏn (Chan/Zen) Buddhism. This anthology provides a convenient entrée to two fundamental themes of Korean Sŏn: Sŏn vis-à-vis the doctrinal teachings (in which Sŏn is shown to be superior); and the huatou (Korean hwadu) method of practice-work popularized by the Song dynasty Chan master Dahui Zonggao (1089–1163). This method consists of “lifting to awareness” or “keeping an eye on” the huatou or phrase, usually the word wu無/No (Korean mu). No mental operation whatsoever is to be performed upon the huatou. The practitioner simply lifts the huatou to awareness constantly, twenty-four hours a day. Core Texts of the Sŏn Approach, which was published in Korea during the first decade of the twentieth century, attempts to encapsulate the entire Korean Sŏn tradition in one convenient volume (and thus functions as a sort of vade mecum). It contains eight Chan texts by Chinese authors and seven Sŏn texts by Korean authors, showing the organic relationship between the parent Chinese Chan tradition and its heir Korean Sŏn. Due to the circumstances of modern East Asian history, Korean Sŏn is much less well-known in the West than Japanese Zen. This book will give readers access to a broad sweep of texts of the Korean branch of this school of East Asian Buddhism.
Law and Self-Preservation in Leviathan
Authors: Martinich A.P.
Published: July 2021

Quentin Skinner’s principle that a philosopher’s contemporaries have a privileged perspective on his doctrine is tested. This chapter shows that Hobbes’s contemporaries misinterpreted him on many important issues. The examples used to disconfirm Skinner’s principle have to be ones that have strong textual support and are not currently interpreted by scholars today as being ironic, skeptical, or misleading. Thomas Hobbes’s views about self-preservation and law satisfy the criteria. Contrary to the view of his contemporaries, self-preservation is a desire, a physiological condition, not a law or command. The concept of self-preservation is an important part of the definition of “law of nature.” But the definition is no more a law of nature than the definition of an elephant is an elephant. The content of the laws of nature are deduced from the definition of “a law of nature.”
The Laws of Nature Are the Laws of God in Leviathan
Authors: Martinich A.P.
Published: July 2021

The standard interpretation that the laws of nature in Leviathan are not laws because he calls them theorems is mistaken. The theorems, or “dictates of reason,” are the propositions that Hobbes proves. But they need the force of a command to be, as he says “properly called Lawes.” Hobbes uses reason to prove them, and reason is the “undoubted word of God.” The author argues against John Deigh’s ingenious defense of the standard view. Deigh maintains that words in phrases that are technical terms do not retain their meaning outside of the phrase. But if that were true, then “civil laws” and “natural liberty” would not be laws or liberty respectively. Also, if they were not laws, Hobbes’s division of two kinds of law, civil and natural, would be absurd.
Hobbes on Sovereignty by Acquisition in Leviathan
Authors: Martinich A.P.
Published: July 2021

Hobbes describes two ways in which sovereignty comes to exist, sovereignty by institution and sovereignty by acquisition. Sometimes in Leviathan it seems that sovereignty by institution consists of a covenant among all and only the subjects of a commonwealth and that sovereignty by acquisition does not. If this interpretation were correct, then several unfortunate consequences follow: (1) Commonwealths could have two kinds of sovereigns governing the same territory, with different kinds of subjects with different obligations. (2) The kind of commonwealth that occurs most frequently in history, sovereignty by acquisition, would have a less prominent place in his political philosophy and be less clearly described. And (3) sovereignty by acquisition would lack Leviathan’s two most innovative aspects, authorization and representation. The author’s alternative interpretation of sovereignty by acquisition offered here contains the essential features of sovereignty by institution; and the unfortunate consequences are eliminated or mitigated.
The Rise and Fall of Peace on Earth
Authors: Mandelbaum Michael
Published: July 2021

In the twenty-five years after 1989, the world enjoyed the deepest peace in history. To be sure, wars took place in this era, but less frequently and on a far smaller scale than in previous periods. The peace ended because three major countries – Vladimir Putin’s Russia in Europe, Xi Jinping’s China in East Asia, and the Shia clerics’ Iran in the Middle East – put an end to it with aggressive nationalist policies aimed at overturning the prevailing political arrangements in their respective regions. The three leaders had a common motive: their need to survive in a democratic age with their countries’ prospects for economic growth uncertain. The key to the return of peace lies in the advent of genuine democracy, including free elections and the protection of religious, economic, and political liberty. Recent history has shown, however, that democracy cannot be imposed from the outside, leading to a paradox: the world has a formula for peace, but the world has no way to put it into practice.
Europe: The Lost Peace
Authors: Mandelbaum Michael
Published: July 2021

In the wake of the Cold War, both the United States and Western Europe had an unprecedentedly peaceful relationship with Russia. That relationship eventually ended, however, to be replaced by conflict, for two reasons. First was the unwise Western decision to expand the Western alliance, also known as NATO, to Russia’s borders despite having promised not to do so. Second were aggressive Russian policies toward its neighbouring countries. These measures were undertaken by President Vladimir Putin as a way of winning popular support for his dictatorial rule, which had begun to lose favor across the state due to its economic shortcomings.
Peace Regained?
Authors: Mandelbaum Michael
Published: July 2021

World peace is possible if and when the primary twenty-first-century disturbers of the Peace—namely Russia, China, and Iran—adopt democratic political systems. Democracies have demonstrated a pronounced tendency to conduct peaceful foreign policies, especially toward one another. Unfortunately, the world has shown by trial and error that democracy cannot be imposed from the outside on these or other countries. The revolution must come from within. There are forces favoring democracy, as well as trends and institutions opposing it, in all three of these powerful countries; but when or indeed whether any or all of them become democratic is unknown and unknowable.
How Academics Can Work with Journalists (Hint: They Already Have)
Authors: Davis Chase
Published: July 2021

This is a short commentary from a practice perspective. How Academics Can Work with Journalists (Hint: They Already Have)
The Company They Keep
Authors: Baum Lawrence , Devins Neal
Published: July 2021

Today’s ideological division on the U.S. Supreme Court is also a partisan division: all the Court’s liberals were appointed by Democratic presidents, all its conservatives by Republican presidents. That pattern never existed in the Court until 2010, and this book focuses on how it came about and why it’s likely to continue. Its explanation lies in the growing level of political polarization over the last several decades. One effect of polarization is that potential nominees will reflect the dominant ideology of the president’s political party. Correspondingly, the sharpened ideological division between the two political parties has given presidents stronger incentives to give high priority to ideological considerations. In addition to these well-known effects of polarization, The Company They Keep explores what social psychologists have taught us about people’s motivations. Justices take cues primarily from the people who are closest to them and whose approval they care most about: political, social, and professional elites. In an era of strong partisan polarization, elite social networks are largely bifurcated by partisan and ideological elites, and justices such as Clarence Thomas and Ruth Bader Ginsburg live in milieus populated by like-minded elites that reinforce their liberalism or conservatism during their tenure on the Supreme Court. By highlighting and documenting this development, the book provides a new perspective on the Court and its justices.
The Supreme Court and Elites
Authors: Devins Neal , Baum Lawrence
Published: July 2021

This chapter develops the argument that is summarized in chapter 1. One lesson of social psychology is that Supreme Court justices are not single-mindedly devoted to making good law or good policy. Rather, they have multiple goals that include a concern for their reputations, especially how they are regarded by the elite groups of which they are part. As a result, while the general public may have an impact on the justices, they respond primarily to fellow elites. Indeed, the Court’s decisions on most controversial social issues such as affirmative action and same-sex marriage are more consistent with the policy positions of highly educated people than the positions of the public as a whole. Starting with the 1980 election of Ronald Reagan, elites have become less homogeneous; over the past 25 years, today’s elites increasingly reflect the growing partisan divide among liberal Democrats and conservative Republicans. Nonetheless, norms within the elite legal profession such as collegiality and legally oriented decision making shape the behavior of justices, sometimes counteracting the effects of ideology.
The Church
Authors: Sprigge Martha
Published: July 2021

This chapter examines how the East German government commemorated the firebombing of Dresden at the end of World War II. Religious spaces and musical institutions became central to the state’s antifascist propaganda as commemorative rituals for the firebombing took shape in the early 1950s. On the tenth anniversary of the attack, in 1955, local politicians participated in a grand reopening ceremony of the city’s oldest church, consecrated with performances of Rudolf Mauersberger’s Dresdner Requiem (1947/1948). Annual performances of this work allowed congregants to maintain ties to the Lutheran faith in a socialist society, and created a context for the expression of narratives about the firebombing that could not be voiced openly in public spaces. Drawing on performers’ testimonies, audience accounts, and Mauersberger’s revisions to the score, this chapter demonstrates how the Dresdner Requiem served as an outlet for grief in postwar Dresden.
State Constitution-Making
Authors: Wood Gordon S.
Published: July 2021

This chapter describes the constitution-making by the thirteen independent republics. Most of them created bicameral legislatures, single executives, and independent judiciaries. They set forth the idea of separation of powers, which forbade members of the legislature or judiciary from simultaneously holding office in the executive, thus setting American constitutional development off in a very direction from that of the former mother country. At the same time, the Americans established written constitutions that were different from and superior to the institutions of government and they worked out devices (constitutional conventions) for creating these constitutions. Several of the constitutions had bills of rights.
Hypermeter
Authors: Mirka Danuta
Published: July 2021

This chapter unearths a number of cues that point to eighteenth-century recognition of what today is called hypermeter and retraces the line of tradition that led from eighteenth-century music theory to the emergence of the modern concept of hypermeter in the twentieth century. It departs from the eighteenth-century concept of compound meter, related to hypermeter by some modern authors, and from the analogy between measures and phrases posited by Johann Philipp Kirnberger and Johann Abraham Peter Schulz in Johann Georg Sulzer’s Allgemeine Theorie der schönen Künste (1771–74). While compound meter proves irrelevant for the development of hypermeter, the analogy between measures and phrases, adopted by Gottfried Weber in his Versuch einer geordneten Theorie der Tonsetzkunst (1817) and further refined by German music theorists, provides the point of departure for the development of the concept of hypermeter in American music theory. The further course of the chapter traces more recent history of this concept. It evaluates the contribution of Schenkerian theory and the cognitive study of music, and it introduces a dynamic model of hypermeter as an extension of the dynamic model of meter presented by the author in Metric Manipulations in Haydn and Mozart (2009).
Hypermetrical Irregularities in Expanded Phrases
Authors: Mirka Danuta
Published: July 2021

This chapter deals with hypermetrical irregularities in phrases expanded by means of parenthesis, repetition, and appendix. All these means of phrase expansion were recognized by eighteenth-century authors. The discussion of parenthesis reveals an uncharacteristically careless treatment of this concept by Heinrich Christoph Koch. It outlines its further development by Hugo Riemann and Heinrich Schenker and deconstructs the concept of parenthesis developed by William Rothstein (1989), thus restoring it to eighteenth-century perspective. The discussion of repetition engages with Rothstein’s discussion of this technique of phrase expansion and its effect upon hypermeter. The discussion of appendix compares Koch’s account of this concept to Rothstein’s concept of “suffix.”
Hypermeter Beyond Phrase Structure
Authors: Mirka Danuta
Published: July 2021

This chapter explores hypermetrical irregularities beyond phrase structure. The discussion focuses on the perception of hypermeter in transition and development sections. It tracks hypermeter in sequences and fugato, then turns to augmented half and full cadences and posits their hypermetrical profiles as preference factors of hypermetric perception. Augmentation of rhythmical values in cadences is related to the augmentation of passing notes. While it was not permitted in strict style, such augmentation is discussed by eighteenth-century music theorists in relation to free style. This discussion provides further proof of eighteenth-century recognition of hypermeter and it supplements the remarks about historical origins of hypermeter in chapter 1.
Imagining the phonograph, 1877–1888
Authors: Moreda Rodríguez Eva
Published: July 2021

This chapter focuses on the initial impact of the phonograph in Spain, arguing that, even though the device was rarely seen or heard in the country in its first decade of existence, it contributed to stimulating discussion and speculation that drew upon, and at the same time contributed to shaping, existing national discourses on science, technology, and modernity. At the same time, however, other key elements of the early reception of the phonograph elsewhere, such as the issue of the disembodiment of the voice, remained practically unexplored. The chapter covers the first accounts about the invention of the phonograph published in the Spanish press in 1877 and 1878, the range of demonstrations which took place between 1878 and 1882 at the hands of scientists and entertainers, and, finally, the multifarious discourses (in theatrical writing, juridical literature, and other realms) that emerged around the phonograph and its potential uses.
Hope’s Place in Our Lives
Authors: Stockdale Katie
Published: July 2021

This chapter explores the nature of hope. It argues that hope is a way of seeing in a favorable light the possibility that an outcome one desires and believes to be possible obtains. This understanding of hope is similar to many competing accounts of the nature of hope in the philosophical literature. Setting the debate about which precise theory of hope is correct aside, the significance of human difference to experiences of hope and our relative power to affect the world is explored. A feminist perspective on hope reveals that oppression is a threat to hope. Attending to the power dynamics that shape how we hope, this chapter illustrates the ways in which people and institutions in positions of power use hope to further their ends. It then traces the relationship between the hope we place in others, normative expectation, and trust.
Hope, Faith, and Solidarity
Authors: Stockdale Katie
Published: July 2021

This chapter develops an account of the relationship between hope, faith, and solidarity in struggles against oppression. It argues that a particular form of faith, intrinsic faith, enables resilience in the face of evidence that suggests the pursuit of justice is futile. Intrinsic faith is a deep belief in the intrinsic value of one’s actions or way of life. Drawing upon testimony of scholars and activists, this chapter illustrates how intrinsic faith can flow from spiritual faith, faith in humanity, and moral faith. Faith helps bring people together in solidarity against oppression. And through solidarity, a form of collective hope for justice can emerge. The chapter concludes by exploring different ways in which individuals and groups can hope well for justice.
Digital Ontology and Appreciation
Authors: Thomson-Jones Katherine
Published: July 2021

This chapter takes up the aesthetic implications of images belonging to digital schemes. I consider how the most basic feature of digital scheme types—namely, their inherent replicability—properly conditions appreciation of digital artworks. Returning to the art examples from chapter 1, I show that the inherent replicability of digital imagery does not guarantee the multiple instantiability of digital image-based works. In the digital age artists face a choice as to whether to limit their works to a particular exhibition space, or make their works universally available on the screens of networked computers. I explore the interpretive significance of this choice and the way such significance rests on recognition of the underlying digital structure of an artwork.
Digital Interactivity
Authors: Thomson-Jones Katherine
Published: July 2021

This chapter concerns the distinctive and distinctively prominent forms of interactivity realized in digital art. The focus is on the complex relation between interactivity in the visual arts and the inherent replicability of digital representation. First, I show that, despite appearances to the contrary, replicability and interactivity are compatible in the case of digital images. To do this, I argue that an artwork’s appreciative display—the structure by which the work is intended to convey its artistic content—comprises not just the materials of the work but also their uses. Then I can explain both the transmissibility of the digital image—in terms of a single display type—and the interactivity of the digital image in terms of the boundaries for modifying instances of the type in question. Once this explanation is in place, I look at ways in which the combination of transmissibility and interactivity—a combination that is unique to images that are digital—has significance for the interpretation and social function of art.
Locational Technologies in Post-disaster Infrastructure Space
Authors: Sheller Mimi
Published: July 2021

Drawing on research carried out in Haiti from 2010 to 2013, this chapter considers how mobile communication infrastructures and locational technologies are enrolled into uneven global assemblages of power that may have more, or less, democratizing effects depending on how they are performed. The takeoff of digital humanitarianism using platforms such as OpenStreetMap (OSM) was built upon idealistic beliefs in the power of open data and locational media. However, the inclusivity of digital communication is fragile, and disconnection arises even as organizations and individuals attempt to facilitate connection. This analysis of locational technologies in post-earthquake Haiti considers how humanitarian aid and post-disaster recovery processes might be improved by first recognizing the uneven topologies of accessibility within communication infrastructures; and second by building on local appropriations of connectivity within everyday life to envision and enact patchwork connections across diverse communication platforms, as well as strategic disconnections.
Digital Ruins
Authors: Garcia Gonzalo C. , Miller Vincent
Published: July 2021

Geography has seen a rebirth of interest and appreciation of the ruined and abandoned spaces of industrial modernity. This work has often considered such ruins largely in terms of the phenomenological or affectual experiences of material decay, disorder, and blight. This chapter is an investigation into ruined spaces that do not have materiality or temporality: digital ruins. Existing in a kind of eternal present, such spaces do not decay, yet still demonstrate many affective and phenomenological experiences of what we understand to be ruin. Using ethnographic research of three abandoned and nearly abandoned virtual worlds, these landscapes provide a unique opportunity for a critical analysis of digital ruins as spaces of disconnection: particularly in their relationship with time, their algorithmic disconnection from the social imaginary of the Internet, the phenomenological disconnection one experiences in these places, and their founding premise as spaces of utopian disconnection from the limitations of materiality.
Walkers on the way
Authors: Reader Ian , Shultz John
Published: July 2021

This chapter looks at those who walk the pilgrimage many times. These are most commonly older retired male Japanese, and the chapter explores their various accounts of why they do this. It shows that faith is rarely an overtly stated or primary factor and that health and the wish to learn about themselves while keeping fit and meeting others remain dominant forces among such contemporary pilgrims. It also discusses a theme that runs through every chapter: how people who do the pilgrimage find themselves drawn back again and again to it, sometimes seeking new ways to do it in order to enhance their pilgrimage experiences. It demonstrates how pilgrims generally, and particularly walkers, devote immense energy and time between pilgrimages to preparing the ‘next journey’ and making records of their previous ones so that they are never really away from the pilgrimage. Instead they are mentally always on pilgrimage.
The Solitary Sphere in the Age of Virgil
Authors: Kachuck Aaron J.
Published: July 2021

The Solitary Sphere in the Age of Virgil uses an enriched tripartite model of Roman culture—touching not only the public and the private, but also the solitary—in order to present a new interpretation of Latin literature and of the historical causes of this third sphere’s relative invisibility in scholarship. By connecting Cosmos and Imperium to the Individual, the solitary sphere was not so much a way of avoiding politics as a political education in itself. As reimagined by literature in this age, this sphere was an essential space for the formation of the new Roman citizen of the Augustan revolution, and was behind many of the notable features of the literary revolution of Virgil’s age: the expansion of the possibilities of the book of poetry, the birth of the literary cursus, new coordinations of cosmology and politics within strictly organized schemes, the attraction of first-person genres, and the subjective style. Through close readings of Cicero’s late works and the oeuvres of Virgil, Horace, and Propertius and the works of other authors in the age of Virgil, The Solitary Sphere thus presents a radical reinterpretation of classical Roman literature, and contributes to the study of premodern culture more generally, especially for traditions that have taken antiquity as too fixed a point in their own literary, religious, and cultural histories.
Cicero Speaking with Solitudes
Authors: Kachuck Aaron J.
Published: July 2021

This chapter argues that the question of how one can “speak with oneself” (secum loqui) was central to Cicero’s personal, philosophical, and political projects throughout much of his career, and especially in his late works. Set against the background of scholarship on Cicero’s life and work, Petrarch’s interest in Cicero, and the wide arc of Cicero’s philosophical works, it studies Cicero’s dilations on the paradox of solitude—including Scipio’s adage, “Least alone when most alone”—in the years 46 to 43 BCE. It explores Cicero’s treatment of solitude in his letters (especially to Atticus) and in major works on either end of this period, works that rewrote social genres in solitary form: the Brutus and Orator, it shows, reimagined oratory in the deserted forum, while his Laelius de amicitia answered the question Aristotle had left hanging, and of great interest subsequently to Montaigne, whether persons can be friends to themselves.
Virgil’s Solitary Spheres
Authors: Kachuck Aaron J.
Published: July 2021

This chapter argues that Virgil was a poet not only of cosmos and of empire, but also of individuals. It analyzes, by turns, the solitude of figures, of language, and of literature in the Georgics and the Aeneid. It argues that the Georgics is a poem for humans, but not of them, culminating in the story of Orpheus and in the mannered circularity suggested by the Georgics’ revolutionary envoi. The chapter looks to Virgil’s adaptation of Homer’s Shield of Achilles as a touchstone for the poet’s solitary model of poetic composition and of reading, testing it against the poem’s narrative joints. From scenes of soliloquy to dream scenes, solitude, it shows, is a characteristic quality of the poem’s settings, figures, form and its poet’s persona, that last of which, the chapter argues, contributed to the biographical tradition’s Lives of Virgil from antiquity to the Renaissance.
Prologue
Authors: Gandy Jr. Oscar H.
Published: July 2021

This prologue provides a brief introduction to the primary sources of the theoretical and philosophical frameworks which influenced the development of the panoptic sort as a point of focus and concern. It begins almost immediately with Karl Marx and other political economists seeking to understand the importance of technological systems in the continuing development of capitalism. It includes Jacques Ellul’s technicist emphasis as contrasted with Max Weber’s emphasis on rationalization and the search for efficiency and effectiveness in social as well as technological systems and institutions. Michel Foucault provides much more than an introduction to panopticism through his articulate linking of power and knowledge, and its application to discipline and social control. And while Foucault’s influence has been substantial, it comes in second to Anthony Giddens’ presentation of the nature and importance of the complexity within societal systems, and processes like “structuration,” that are linked to public policy and governance efforts that are becoming increasingly dependent upon surveillance and computational analytics.
Conclusion
Authors: Gandy Jr. Oscar H.
Published: July 2021

Majid Tehranian has suggested that we have only two options from which to shape our future, totalitarianism or communitarian democracy. Of course there are more. This brief conclusion suggests that we might even imagine a future that would be the result of a collaborative process involving “free acting, fully informed rational producers and consumers”. As has been my tendency so far, most of the possibilities I considered that have been identified by engaged scholars tend to invite a rather pessimistic view. My conclusion is one that nearly ends with Jacques Ellul’s description of a future in which we essentially come to accept control over our lives, in part because it all seems reasonable and sufficiently pleasant. But some of the final words have been reserved for L. Frank Baum’s Wizard of Oz, in which happenstance, associated with an unbalanced, cowardly lion, provides for a potentially alternative future.
The Rise and Demise of World Communism
Authors: Breslauer George W.
Published: July 2021

Sixteen states came to be ruled by communist parties during the twentieth century. Only five of them remain in power today. This book explores the nature of communist regimes—what they share in common, how they differ from each other, and how they differentially evolved over time. The book finds that these regimes all came to power in the context of warfare or its aftermath, followed by the consolidation of power by a revolutionary elite that came to value “revolutionary violence” as the preferred means to an end, based upon Marx’s vision of apocalyptic revolution and Lenin’s conception of party organization. All these regimes went on to “build socialism” according to a Stalinist template, and were initially dedicated to “anti-imperialist struggle” as members of a “world communist movement.” But their common features gave way to diversity, difference, and defiance after the death of Joseph Stalin in 1953. For many reasons, and in many ways, those differences soon blew apart the world communist movement. They eventually led to the collapse of European communism. The remains of communism in China, Vietnam, Laos, North Korea, and Cuba were made possible by the first three transforming their economic systems, opening to the capitalist international order, and abandoning “anti-imperialist struggle.” North Korea and Cuba have hung on due to the elites avoiding splits visible to the public. Analytically, the book explores, throughout, the interaction among the internal features of communist regimes (ideology and organization), the interactions among them within the world communist movement, and the interaction of communist states with the broader international order of capitalist powers.
Introduction
Authors: Breslauer George W.
Published: July 2021

Sixteen states came to be ruled by communist parties on the Leninist model. What did they have in common? How did they differ from each other? And how did these evolve over time? This book specifies those common features and differences and explores the reasons that the death of Joseph Stalin led to an explosion of differences. It demonstrates how and why these led to the collapse of European communism and the transformation of three remaining Asian communist states into “Market-Leninist” regimes. It goes on to evaluate the legacy of communism and its likely future in the five remaining communist states.
What Did Communist Regimes Have in Common?
Authors: Breslauer George W.
Published: July 2021

This chapter delineates common features of all communist states. The sixteen communist regimes all had in common, during their early years in power, a commitment to revolution and to the use of revolutionary violence to consolidate their power, a determination to build socialism on the Stalinist model, membership in a world communist movement led by Moscow, and commitment to anti-imperialist struggle as the core mission of that movement.
How Did Communist Regimes Differ from Each Other?
Authors: Breslauer George W.
Published: July 2021

The death of Joseph Stalin in 1953, and his successors’ decision to eliminate the use of mass terror and to improve the population’s standard of living, led to a variety of responses over time to the “de-Stalinization” of Soviet governance and of relations within the world communist movement. The responses included worker rebellions, full-scale revolution, democratization from below, democratization from within the communist party, retention of Stalinist despotism, and transformation of the economic system (to “market Leninism”) and integration into the capitalist international economy.
Leninism
Authors: Breslauer George W.
Published: July 2021

Lenin conceived of a “party of a new type” that would enshrine the principles of strict centralization and discipline: an “organizational weapon” geared toward building the base for revolution against Tsarism and seizing power when the moment arrived that it could succeed.
The Sino-Soviet Schism, 1957–1963
Authors: Breslauer George W.
Published: July 2021

The schism between Moscow and Beijing became irreversible once it became clear that Mao’s willingness to run the risk of nuclear war on behalf of Chinese national interests (Taiwan, in particular) by far exceeded Khrushchev’s willingness to run such risks, especially for purposes that served Chinese, but not Soviet, national-security interests. This led Moscow to precipitously withdraw its massive material assistance to China, and led China to denounce Moscow, increasingly openly, as an apostate to the cause.
China in a Postcommunist World
Authors: Breslauer George W.
Published: July 2021

Many theories of modernization would predict that one-party rule, strict controls against organized or dramatized dissent, and a marketized and privatized economy—as exist in China—are incompatible. This chapter offers a skeptical view of claims that either revolution from below (à la Hungary and Poland) or democratization from above (à la the Prague Spring or Gorbachev) are likely in coming decades in China. More likely is the combination of cooptation and repression that has taken place thus far.
Bureaucratic Leninism in Cuba
Authors: Breslauer George W.
Published: July 2021

After 1970, Cuba became increasingly dependent on the USSR economically and adopted a Soviet-style management structure for the economy. But the economy ground down over time and crashed after the disappearance of the Soviet subsidy when that country collapsed in 1991. The party-military elite that runs Cuba has tried varieties of domestic and foreign policy adjustments but remains victimized by the US embargo and the inefficiencies of the bureaucratic Leninist model.
Stalinism in North Korea
Authors: Breslauer George W.
Published: July 2021

North Korea never went through a process of de-Stalinization. It remained until 1994 under the control of a despot who arranged for the despotism to continue after his death. Thus, North Korean politics became a family dynasty that continues to this day, with Stalinist political controls and a confrontational posture toward South Korea and the United States.
Meaning of International Order and Evidence on Revisionism
Authors: Chan Steve , Feng Huiyun , He Kai , Hu Weixing
Published: July 2021

“Revisionism” is supposed to mean a rejection of the existing international order. Yet the meaning of international order has been underdeveloped in current research. This chapter delineates this idea, relying on the English school’s writings. It distinguishes the primary and secondary institutions of international order and introduces a collection of indicators to track and measure Chinese and US commitment to two aspects of international order: one that is norm-based and the other that is rule- or institution-based. These indicators encompass these countries’ official pronouncements, their involvement in wars and militarized disputes, their engagement in international political economy, and their participation in international organizations and multilateral treaties. The evidence shows that, contrary to customary depiction, the United States has become more revisionist over time and according to some measures, more so than China.
Projecting Imperial Power
Authors: Watanabe-O'Kelly Helen
Published: July 2021

The nineteenth century is notable for its newly proclaimed emperors, from Franz I of Austria and Napoleon I in 1804, through Agustín and Pedro, the emperors of Mexico and Brazil, in 1822, to Napoleon III in 1852, Maximilian of Mexico in 1864, Wilhelm I, German emperor, in 1871, and Victoria, empress of India in 1876. These monarchs projected an imperial aura by means of coronations and acclamations, courts, medals, and costumes, portraits and monuments, ceremonial and religion, international exhibitions and museums, festivals and pageants, architecture and town planning. They relied on ancient history for legitimacy while partially espousing modernity. The empress consorts had to find a meaningful role for themselves in a changing world. The first emperors’ successors—Pedro II of Brazil, Franz Joseph of Austria, and Wilhelm II of Germany—expanded their panoply of power, until Pedro was forced to abdicate in 1889 and the First World War brought the Austrian and German empires to an end. Britain invented an imperial myth for its Indian empire in the twentieth century, until George VI relinquished the title of emperor in 1947. The imperial cities of Berlin, Paris, Vienna, and New Delhi bear witness to these vanished empires, as does Chapultepec Castle in Mexico City and the town of Petrópolis in Brazil. How the empires came to an end and how imperial cities and statues are treated nowadays demonstrates the contested place of the emperors in national cultural memory.
Introduction
Authors: Watanabe-O'Kelly Helen
Published: July 2021

This book discusses the newly proclaimed emperors of the nineteenth century in Austria, Brazil, France, Germany, India, and Mexico. It shows how they created symbolic power by means of coronations and acclamations, courts and costumes, portraits and monuments, ceremonial and religion, architecture and town planning, international exhibitions and pageants, festivals and museums. The emperors regarded themselves as rulers by the grace of God but legitimated their reigns by presenting themselves as the heirs to an ancient tradition. At the same time, they engaged with modernity, building imperial cities and showing off their territories’ technological advances in international exhibitions. The book describes how these empires came to an end and how they are remembered in cities and statuary.
Nietzsche's Philosophical Psychology
Authors: Riccardi Mattia
Published: July 2021

The book offers a systematic account of Nietzsche’s philosophical psychology. The main theme is the nature of and relation between unconscious and conscious mind. Whereas Nietzsche takes consciousness to be a mere ‘surface’—as he writes in Ecce Homo—that evolved in the course of human socialization, he sees the bedrock of human psychology as constituted by unconscious drives and affects. But how does he conceive of such basic psychological items and what does he mean exactly when he talks about consciousness and says it is a ‘surface’? And how does such a conception of human psychology inform his views about self, self-knowledge, and will? These are some of the questions that are addressed in this book. This is done by combining a historical approach with conceptual analysis. On the one hand, Nietzsche’s claims are carefully reconstructed by taking into account the intellectual context in which they emerged. On the other hand, in order to work out their philosophical significance, the claims are discussed in the light of contemporary debates such as those about higher-order theories of consciousness and mind-reading.
More (Kinds of) Consciousness
Authors: Riccardi Mattia
Published: July 2021

This chapter argues that Nietzsche allows for other forms of consciousness besides reflective consciousness. In order to demonstrate this thesis, it introduces and discusses Nietzsche’s claim that reflective consciousness involves ‘falsification’. It identifies perceptual consciousness as a second kind of consciousness which is language-independent and characterized by pictorial content, and qualitative consciousness as a third kind of consciousness which Nietzsche only ascribes to pure sensations and raw feelings. It is argued that qualitative consciousness is the only kind of consciousness that does not involve ‘falsification’. It is further argued that affects are always conscious at least in the qualitative and, arguably, also in the perceptual sense, while drives—qua dispositions—are typically strictly unconscious.
Nietzsche’s Epiphenomenalism about RConsciousness
Authors: Riccardi Mattia
Published: July 2021

This chapter argues for an epiphenomenal reading of Nietzsche’s view of reflective consciousness. The position ascribed to Nietzsche is that no reflectively conscious state is among the causally efficacious antecedents of token actions. This reading is defended by showing it is compellingly supported by textual evidence. The chapter also argues that reflective consciousness’s proper function is in the realm of social coordination. More precisely, Rconscious states play a crucial role in the acquisition of social norms. That role, however, is not sufficient for the relevant norm to become behaviourally efficacious and, thus, cause our actions. For only internalized norms are behaviourally efficacious in that sense. In turn, though Rconscious states are often the channel through which we are presented with social norms, it depends on the arrangement of our drives and affects whether we internalize them or not. The chapter ends by surveying and rebutting a range of objections to epiphenomenal readings of Nietzsche.
Conclusions
Authors: Riccardi Mattia
Published: July 2021

This chapter offers a concluding perspective by considering how Nietzsche’s philosophical psychology compares to the belief–desire psychology widely adopted by contemporary philosophers, on the one hand, and by contrasting (some of) Nietzsche’s most distinctive claims with (some of) those put forward by Kant and Hegel, on the other hand. The comparison with Kant and Hegel focuses in particular on the different claims these three thinkers put forward concerning the social dimension of the human mind, appreciation of that dimension being among the most original and substantial achievements of post-Kantian philosophy. Viewing Nietzsche’s philosophical psychology from that angle helps us to better appreciate its distinctive contribution to that tradition.