bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A Measure for Crisis Instability with an Application to Space-Based Antimissile Systems
Authors: O'Neill Barry
Published: March 2007

Crisis instability is the danger of war due to each side's fear that the other is about to attack. An index is defined to measure the degree of instability in a situation and is justified by a set of persuasive criteria that any such measure should satisfy, and also by a set of axioms based in the theory of games. Some past measures are summarized and compared.

In the second part, we give a simple quantitative model of a nuclear exchange and look at the stability consequences of changing various weapons parameters and of adding a space-based missile defense system, with and without submarines. Defenses tend to harm stability unless they are both very large and designed so that the government that strikes first does not have a relative advantage in attacking the opponent's defenses.
Experiments with N-Person Social Traps I
Authors: Rapoport Anatol
Published: March 2007

Subjects for single play experiments with n-person social traps (strong and weak versions of Prisoner's Dilemma, Volunteer's Dilemma, Largest Number) were recruited from several populations: students, professionals, business people, employees, and foreign visitors. Performances were compared across the subject pools, across the games, and across instructions. The results indicated that subjects receiving full instructions, including warnings about the social traps, avoid the social traps more frequently than those receiving minimal instructions. However, the differences in frequencies of cooperative choices were all slight except for the strong version of Prisoner's Dilemma. Fewest cooperative choices were observed in business people, the most in foreign visitors. However, the latter effect may have been an artifact due to self-selection. Among the games, Largest Number is distinguished by possessing no individually rational equilibrium. The cooperative solution of this game, however, is salient, namely, for each to name the smallest number. In spite of this salience, the smallest frequencies of cooperative choices were observed in this game, and full instructions did not significantly increase the frequency. When the subjects had an opportunity to organize five-person cooperative groups, each of which had a good chance of winning $1000, only 30 of 60 subjects formed such groups.
The Influence of Domestic and International Politics on the President's Use of Force
Authors: James Patrick , Oneal John R.
Published: March 2007

Ostrom and Job (1986) found that domestic, political factors are more influential on the president's decision to use military force than characteristics of the international environment. These results pose a serious challenge to realists' assumptions regarding the motives of states and the separability of domestic and foreign policy. This article reexamines Ostrom and Job's arguments and introduces a new indicator, a measure of the severity of ongoing international crises, to provide a better assessment of the relative effect of the international environment on presidential decision making. This severity index is significantly associated with the use of force by the United States from 1949 through 1976, and proves to be more influential than the international indicators used by Ostrom and Job. Nevertheless, domestic political factors remain most consequential in the president's decision to use force short of war.
Advice and Consent
Authors: Haney Patrick J. , Herzberg Roberta Q. , Wilson Rick K.
Published: March 2007

This research explores two approaches to modeling decisions about when to resort to conflict. The authors begin from a model of a single actor making unilateral decisions for her or his nation-state. That model is expanded to incorporate advisors who make recommendations to the unitary actor. Those recommendations can be accepted or rejected as the leader sees fit. The authors' concern is to explore the robustness of the unitary actor model when others are added to the decision process. The authors rely on theoretical findings from social choice theory to develop the model. Laboratory experiments are then used to test the predictions from their model.
Democracy and the Management of International Conflict
Authors: Dixon William J.
Published: March 2007

The research reported here extends investigation of the democracy-war hypothesis by focusing on the norms of dispute resolution integral to the democratic process. If we extend these norms to the international arena, then it becomes reasonable to expect democratic states to adopt compromise solutions to international problems. One implication of this logic is that democracies are likely to be more amenable than others to efforts of third parties to resolve or ameliorate interstate disputes. This hypothesis is examined in the present study. A sample of strictly interstate disputes acquired from the Alker-Sherman disaggregated conflict set provide the basis for this inquiry. Democracy is assessed for each disputant party with the composite index from the Polity II data collection. In order to control for extraneous effects on the probability of management, the author develops a baseline model consisting of prior management activity, the costs of conflict, and the power of the disputants. Because the dependent variable in this analysis is a binary indicator, the author employs probit regression to estimate the effects of democracy while partialling out the controls. The empirical results show that democracy does carry the systematic positive influence on the probability of conflict management expected of it.
Alliance Formation and General Deterrence
Authors: Sorokin Gerald L.
Published: March 2007

This article studies the relationship between alliance formation and general deterrence in regional rivalries. In a game-theoretic model under complete information, an alliance is formed only when the potential ally would not intervene without one and would always intervene with one. General deterrence succeeds under complete information unless the potential attacker is stronger than the target and values the stakes highly, and the potential ally would never intervene. When incomplete information is added to the game, alliances are sometimes formed even when the potential ally's behavior would be unaffected by the alliance. Additionally, general deterrence under incomplete information sometimes fails because of the potential attacker's mistaken beliefs about the probability that the target would win or the potential ally would intervene. The model is illustrated by examining the conflict between Israel and its rivals, Egypt and Syria, taking into account the role of the United States as Israel's potential ally. The combination of game theory and empirical analysis is theoretically richer and empirically more informative than previous analyses of Israeli general deterrence and alliance behavior.
It Takes Two to Tango
Authors: Hensel Paul R. , Diehl Paul F.
Published: March 2007

In a large fraction of all cases where a state faces an immediate military threat, it chooses to respond without resort to the threat, display, or use of military force. We seek to account for this phenomenon of nonmilitary response and to assess the utility of this strategy. We present a series of hypotheses to account for nonmilitary response, based on the literature on reciprocity, and test them using cases of interstate conflict involving Latin American states since 1816. Target states are less likely to respond militarily when the issues at stake are not highly salient, when the initiator's threat does not involve the actual use of military force, and when the target is substantially weaker than its adversary. A militarized response is more likely when the target state has employed a similar strategy in past conflict against the same adversary, regardless of the outcome of that past confrontation, and when the target is preoccupied with a civil war. No significant effect appears for contiguity or for the target state's preoccupation with another militarized dispute. Regarding the consequences of nonmilitary response, responding with militarized means did lessen the likelihood of defeat in a confrontation and increase the prospects for a successful outcome, but this advantage was small. From a more long-term perspective, nonmilitary response served to decrease the likelihood of future confrontations against the same adversary and to increase the length of time until the outbreak of the next confrontation. There thus seems to be a trade-off in terms of the outcome of the confrontation between the slight short-term costs of responding militarily and the longer term benefits of helping to postpone or avoid future conflict.
Proliferation and the Probability of War
Authors: Brito Dagobert L. , Intriligator Michael D.
Published: March 2007

To determine formally the effects of nuclear proliferation on the probability of a deliberate nuclear war requires more than just qualitative assertions about the change in the probability that an individual nation will initiate a deliberate nuclear war as the number of nuclear powers increases. For a model to predict that an increase in the number of nuclear powers will increase or decrease the probability of a deliberate nuclear war, it is necessary that it be able to predict the cardinality of the change in the probability that any one nation will initiate a nuclear war. Inasmuch as this is beyond the capability of most models in economics and political science, the formal debate on this issue should be viewed with caution. It is likely that the dominant factor when considering the effect of proliferation on the probability of a nuclear war is that it will occur as a result of an accident or other inadvertent behavior.
Understanding Success and Failure of International Mediation
Authors: Kleiboer Marieke
Published: March 2007

This article presents and assesses the state of the art in research on the course and outcomes of international mediation. The review consists of three parts. First, the elusive notion of mediation success is addressed. Second, the key contextual and process factors thought to explain international mediation outcomes are discussed. The final part raises a number of problems with current theorizing, and a plea is made for a more fundamental reflection on the assumptions underlying present research. Using a heuristic adaptation of the metatheoretical framework developed by Burrell and Morgan, it is argued that four fundamentally different currents of thought about international conflict and its management may be discerned. These four proto-theories may help us to put into perspective current debates and contradictory findings, as well as generate a more coherent foundation for future research on the success and failure of mediation in international conflict.
Political System Similarity And The Choice of Allies
Authors: Simon Michael W. , Gartzke Erik
Published: March 2007

Does the nature of a nation's political institutions influence the types of countries with which it allies? Some previous research has suggested that democracies tend to ally with other democracies. This study reexamines alliance patterns by assessing the broader linkage between regime type and alliance partnership. The authors present a refinement of previous research designs, using new data from Polity III and the updated correlates of war (COW) alliance data sets to analyze all alliances from 1815 to 1992. The bipolar alliance structures of the cold war (NATO and the Warsaw Pact) appear to be aberrations in their strong ideological content. In general, there is very little correlation between alliance dyads and regime type. Surprisingly, democracies are less likely to ally with one another than highly autocratic regimes. Regimes of most types seem to prefer to ally with partners of dissimilar type. The authors conclude that this is due to so-called gains from trade within alliance dyads.
Leadership and Credibility in N-Person Coordination Games
Authors: Wilson Rick K. , Rhodes Carl M.
Published: March 2007

It is often assumed that leaders serve as focal points around which followers rally when confronted with a coordination problem. This research begins with one component of leadership—its coordinating role—and disentangles how leadership matters for followers. This analysis proceeds as a simple one-sided signaling game from leaders to followers and investigates when a leader's signals are credible. The empirical analysis is based on a series of laboratory experiments in which groups of four actors were involved in a series of one-stage coordination games. The findings show that although leadership is crucial for coordinating followers, it is not a panacea. The introduction of uncertainty about the type of leader markedly decreases the ameliorating impact of leadership.
Assessing Extreme and Acquiescence Response Sets in Cross-Cultural Research Using Structural Equations Modeling
Authors: Cheung Gordon W. , Rensvold Roger B.
Published: March 2007

Extreme response styles (ERS) and acquiescence response styles (ARS) may constitute important sources of cross-cultural differences on survey-type instruments. Differences in ERS and ARS, if undetected, may give rise to spurious results that do not reflect genuine differences in attitudes or perceptions. Multiple-group confirmatory factor analysis is recommended as the most effective method of testing for ERS and ARS and determining whether cultural groups can be meaningfully compared on the basis of factor (latent) means. A detailed numerical example is provided.
Socialization at Meals
Authors: Tulviste Tiia
Published: March 2007

The amount and types of regulatory speech and verbal comments in mother-adolescent interaction were examined to find out whether Estonians, when compared to their North American counterparts, are more concerned with the behavior of other people and less concerned with their conversational participation. The mealtime interactions between 12 Estonian and 10 American adolescents and their mothers were videotaped in the participants’ homes. In both countries, mothers used regulatory speech more frequently than teenagers. Estonian mothers controlled the behavior of teenagers more frequently; they made more verbal comments and made more comments about their behavior. There were no cultural differences in eliciting talk and in comments on errors in language use. Mothers and teenagers were similar in their preferences for different types of verbal comments.
Cross-Cultural Variations in Identifying Embedded Figures
Authors: Kühnen Ulrich , Hannover Bettina , Roeder Ute , Shah Ashiq Ali , Schubert Benjamin , Upmeyer Arnold , Zakaria Saliza
Published: March 2007

Previous studies have found cross-cultural variation in field dependence. In this study, cross-cultural differences were expected depending on the degree of individualism or collectivism of the respective cultures. Samples were taken from two prototypically individualist cultures, the United States and Germany, and two collectivist cultures, Russia and Malaysia. As predicted, field dependence did not differ between those samples that represented the same type of culture, either collectivist or individualist. However, a clear difference could be found between the two types of cultures; that is, U.S. and German participants were more field independent than were Russian and Malaysian participants.
Do Between-Culture Differences Really Mean that People are Different?
Authors: Matsumoto David , Grissom Robert J. , Dinnel Dale L.
Published: March 2007

Statistically significant differences in culture means may or may not reflect practically important differences between people of different cultures. To determine whether differences between culture means represent meaningful differences between individuals, further data analyses involving measures of cultural effect sizes are necessary. In this article the authors recommend four such measures and demonstrate their efficacy on two data sets from previously published studies. They argue for their use in future cross-cultural research as a complement to traditional tests of mean differences.
Forgivingness
Authors: Kadiangandu Joachim Kadima , Mullet Etienne , Vinsonneau Geneviève
Published: March 2007

This study first examined the factorial structure of the responses of Congolese participants to a willingness-to-forgive questionnaire already used on European samples. The same two factors, revenge and circumstances, were found. The second aim was to examine the overall level of willingness to forgive expressed by Congolese as compared to that found in European samples. The hypothesis that the Congolese are less willing to seek revenge than the Europeans was supported by the data. The third aim was to study possible Congo-Europe differences in the way education, religious practice, and other characteristics are related to revenge and circumstances. On overall propensity to forgive, Congolese men and women did not differ as much as did European men and women, and Congolese people attending and nonattending church did not differ as much as did European people attending and nonattending church. Forgiveness may be more characteristic of collectivistic cultures than of individualistic cultures.
Action-Control Beliefs and School Experiences of Tanzanian Primary School Students
Authors: Malmberg Lars-Erik , Wanner Brigitte , Sumra Suleman , Little Todd D.
Published: March 2007

We investigated Tanzanian primary school students’ action-control beliefs about school performance using the revised Control, Agency, and Means-Ends Interview (CAMI) and school experiences controlling for the effects of parental educational level, gender, and age. Five hundred forty-five students (254 boys and 291 girls) in grades 3 through 7 from both urban and rural schools responded to the CAMI questionnaire in Swahili. A structural equation model validated the dimensions of action-control beliefs, thereby supporting the idea that these constructs are basic education-related aspects of human belief systems across cultures. The Tanzanian educational system and teaching format were reflected in low performance-belief relationships. Higher achievers were more prone to develop an adaptive belief profile (internal causes: effort, ability) and more positive perception of their teachers, whereas low achievers were more prone to develop a maladaptive belief profile (external causes: luck, teachers, and unknown), and more social anxiety.
Two-Component Model of Chemyon-Oriented Behaviors in Korea
Authors: Choi Sang-Chin , Lee Suk-Jae
Published: March 2007

Chemyon in Confucian societies has been considered as the social face having an influence on an individual’s behavior and interpersonal relationships. However, few studies have investigated its psychological structure and processes. The present study developed a Chemyon-Oriented Behaviors Scale, measuring individual differences in proclivity for doing chemyon-oriented behaviors and examined the dimensions of chemyon. Data collected from Korean undergraduate students indicate that the Chemyon-Oriented Behaviors Scale is internally consistent and valid. Confirmatory factor analysis demonstrates that chemyon- oriented behaviors consist of two distinct components: constructive and defensive, and that the two components are significantly correlated. Conceptual differences between chemyon and the social face in Western culture are discussed. Cross-cultural studies of investigating a universal theory of chemyon are proposed for future study.
Factorial Structure of the Children's School Questionnaire in American and Slovenian Samples
Authors: Phillips Beeman N. , Martin Roy P. , Zorman Leon
Published: March 2007

In the present study, the factorial structure of the Children's School Questionnaire, and differences on common factors, were investigated in samples of American and Slovenian children. The majority of the evidence indicates that the test measures the same major attributes in both samples, with one factor, labelled school anxiety, oxershadowing all the others. In addition, on the five com-- mon factors--school anxiety, sex role (2), school aspirations, and feelings of inadequacy in school--nationalitv, social status, and sex differences were found. Sex differences were generally larger among Slovenian Ss, while social status differences were generallv larger among American Ss. Sociocultural differences between the two nationalities xx ere discussed and these differences Tere used to account for the major findings, although the "explanations' were more or less hypothetical.
Ethnic Identity, Alienation and Achievement Orientation in Japanese-American Families
Authors: Okano Yukio , Spilka Bernard
Published: March 2007

The need for a strong identification with one's traditional heritage has been a chief tenet voiced in minority group movements. To test the hypothesis that ethnic identity counters the alienative feelings attributed to minority status and supports achievement values, samples of Japanese-American high school students and their mothers were evaluated. These subjects represented Sansei and Nisei Japanese Americans, respectively. They were selected from Buddhist and Christian churches in Denver, Colorado. Buddhist mothers were found to be more ethnically identified than Christian mothers, but their children did not differ in ethnic identity. Buddhist adolescents scored higher in both achievement orientation and alienation compared with Christian adolescents. These differences were discussed in their possible relation to differential home environments.
Communicating Across Cultures
Authors: D'angleja Alison , Tucker G. Richard
Published: March 2007

A word-association technique was used with the doze procedure to investigate the ability of two groups of professional translators to communicate with English and French monolinguals. Despite the translators' high level of sophistication in both languages, their own ethnic background affected significantly their ability to communicate with the monolingual groups. Mastery of two surface codes may not by itself assure effective communication between language groups who do not share a common cultural frame of reference.
Direction and Sequence in Copying
Authors: Goodnow Jacqueline , Friedman Sarah L. , Bernbaum Marcia , Lehman Elyse Brauch
Published: March 2007

To explore the nature of directional experience and directional behavior in countries with different scripts, children and adults in the United States and in Israel were asked to copy a number of geometric shapes. The paths or sequences of strokes displayed some common developmental trends together with some specific differences stemming from the patterns taught for forming letters. Generalization from letter patterns, however, followed a nonlinear course: strongest at the time when writing is first being mastered and then declining. A similar course, it is suggested, may occur in generalizations among other cognitive or perceptual behaviors.
Effects of Interethnic Contact on Friendship Choices in the Military
Authors: Amir Yehuda , Bizman Aharon , Rivner Miriam
Published: March 2007

In 51 field platoons of the Israeli army, 1,411 soldiers served as subjects in a study designed to examine to what extent interethnic contact influences willingness to accept, as close friends, soldiers from other ethnic groups. The soldiers' friendship choices were obtained on two occasions-one before and the other six weeks after interethnic contact in the army. Results indicate that at the beginning of basic training, soldiers of European ethnic origin (higher-status group) revealed a significant preference for friends from their own group. Soldiers from Middle-Eastern descent (lower-status group) showed no ethnic preference. As a result of the interethnic contact, no significant change was found. However, in some specific contact situations there was a change, primarily among the soldiers of European origin, in the direction of choosing more Middle Eastern friends.
Conformity in Chinese and Americans
Authors: Huang Lily C. , Harris Mary B.
Published: March 2007

A cross-cultural field experiment to determine the effects of a model's social status and specific task competence on imitation or conformity was conducted in Taiwan, Republic of China, and Albuquerque, New Mexico, United States. The results indicated that Chinese were more conforming than Americans and that, in both countries, the model's status had a significant effect and competence a negligible effect on conformity. A status-by-competence interaction for Americans and for both groups combined indicated that a high-status model was imitated slightly more if low in competence, but a low-status model was imitated only if he was highly competent.
Acculturative Stress
Authors: Berry John W. , Annis Robert C.
Published: March 2007

Examined is the hypothesis that the psychological response to social change would vary as a function of both the acculturative pressures brought to bear on a community, and the traditional cultural and behavioural features that characterize the community. By sampling from communities of Amerindian peoples, across an eco-cultural range, evidence was presented which indicated that the greater the cultural discontinuities across cultures, then the greater the acculturative stress; within Amerindian communities, levels of psychological differentiation were negatively related to acculturative stress. Specific cultural and individual differences must be taken into account when attempting to understand relationships between culture contact and acculturative stress; its course is not universal.
Validation of the CPI Femininity Scale in Japan
Authors: Nishiyama Toshihiko
Published: March 2007

The cross-cultural validity of the Fe (femininity) scale of the California Psychological Inventory was evaluated in samples of 300 male and 300 female Japanese university students. Item tallies showed 30 of 38 differences in agreement with the original scoring; 1 reversal was significant at p <.01 and 3 at p <.05. Mean Fe scores were 18.88 for Japanese males and 22.16 for females. The difference of 3.88 was significant at p <.01 and gave rise to a point-biserial coefficient of .46. It was concluded that the Fe scale is sufficiently valid for use in Japanese investigations.
Coding and Drawing of Simple Geometric Stimuli by Bukusu Schoolchildren in Kenya
Authors: Deregowski Jan B.
Published: March 2007

Bukusu schoolboys were asked to draw a cube and a tetrahedron, the stimulus being either in a form of a skeleton solid or its picture. Two response conditions were used: in one, subjects drew the drawing with model present; in the other, they drew after it had been removed from sight. No significant difference was observed between the responses made to the model, whether from recall or with model present. This finding also applied to drawings of a tetrahedron but not to drawings of a cube which, when time lapse between inspection and drawing was allowed, evoked responses similar to those evoked by the model. Drawings made without such a lapse of time differed significantly from those made in response to respective models.
Industrial Managers and n Ach
Authors: Krus David J. , Rysberg Jane A.
Published: March 2007

A group of 83 Czechoslovak industrial managers was tested using the McClelland's need for achievement measure. The mean n Ach score was considerably lower than a mean n Ach score of a comparable sample from the United States. Also, Osgood's semantic differential was administered with managers rating four work-related concepts. Significant differences were found between managers classified as high and low on the n Ach measure. The study does not replicate earlier findings on the n Ach level of Eastern-bloc industrial managers.
Acculturation of Prosocial and Competitive Behaviors among Second- and Third-Generation Mexican-American Children
Authors: Knight George P. , Kagan Spencer
Published: March 2007

To determine the direction of acculturation of prosocial and competitive behaviors among Mexican-American children, a behavioral choice card was administered to second- and third-generation Mexican-American children in a "traditional" Mexican-American community. Increasing generation level was associated with decreasing frequency of altruism/group-enhancement and equality choices and increasing frequency of rivalry/superiority choices, supporting an acculturation to the majority rather than acculturation to the barrio model.
Norms Regulating Self-Disclosure among Polish University Students
Authors: Derlega Valerian J. , Stepien Ewa Gurnik
Published: March 2007

The reactions of Polish university students about norms governing self-disclosure as a function of degree of friendship and discloser's sex were assessed. In the first study most American norms governing reactions to self-disclosure to friends and strangers were replicated. Disclosure of personal information to a stranger is disapproved, whereas disclosure to a friend is approved. Somewhat different from the American data, Polish students disapproved of nondisclosure to a friend but not to a stranger. In the second study American norms governing self-disclosure to males and females were not replicated. Polish students did not judge differently disclosure by males and females. These results seem to reflect different attitudes about sex roles governing self-disclosure by American versus Polish subjects.
Are the Rules of Address Universal?
Authors: Kroger Rolf O. , Cheng Ken , Leong Ishbel
Published: March 2007

Our question was: Does the alleged universality of Brown's Invariant Norm of Address (1965) extend to Chinese usage? Or, does the alleged universal relationship between social power and intimacy and between inequality and equality hold for Chinese social structure? To answer these questions, we developed three quantitative indices which measure the degrees of reciprocity, solidarity, and inequality in dyadic address exchanges. The indices permit the precise comparison of empirical results with theoretical predictions and of address usage across languages. Seventy Chinese speakers forming a diverse sample reported actual address usage received from and sent to 27 interactants. The results revealed the structure of address usage among Chinese speakers and provided unequivocal support for Brown's prediction such that we may confidently add Chinese to the series of languages which jointly support the claim for the universality of the Invariant Norm. The relationship between studies in the semantics of social structure and the emerging alternative social-psychological strategy of ethogeny is noted.
Depression and Body Image Satisfaction
Authors: Marsella Anthony J. , Shizuru Lanette , Brennan Jerry , Kameoka Velma
Published: March 2007

The relationship between depression and body-image satisfaction in different ethnic groups was investigated by comparing depressed and nondepressed males and females from Caucasian-American, Chinese-American, and Japanese-American college samples. It was hypothesized that depressed respondents would manifest significantly higher levels of body-image dissatisfaction than nondepressed respondents, regardless of ethnicity and gender. The results supported the hypothesis. As a function of the depression condition, however, there are numerous ethnic and gender differences with regard to dissatisfaction with specific body parts (e.g., increased "facial" and "physique" dissatisfaction for depressed Chinese-American females). Depression, it seems, exacerbates levels of existing body-image dissatisfaction for some groups, introduces new areas of body-image dissatisfaction for others, and does not alter the image for yet others. It was further noted that research in this area could help improve our understanding about the etiology and expression of depression.
The Social Interaction and Activity Patterns of Children from Two San Groups Living as Refugees on a Namibian Military Base
Authors: Liddell Christine
Published: March 2007

Observations were made of the social interaction and activity patterns of children under 6 years old from two San groups, Sekele and Kwengo. Despite the fact that these children lived with their families in identical settlements on the same military base, marked intergroup differences were found, especially in patterns of social interaction. Differences were particularly marked when comparing girls. The findings are interpreted in the light of cultural history and current demography.
A Cross-Cultural Study of Test Anxiety
Authors: Guida Frank V. , Ludlow Larry H.
Published: March 2007

This study compared seventh- and eighth-grade students' test anxiety across three independent variables: culture, socioeconomic level, and gender. A self-report mea-sure of test anxiety-the Test Anxiety Scale for Children (TASC)-was given to four samples of students: 91 seventh-grade Chicago, Illinois, inner-city students; 103 eighth-graders from an upper-class section of Weston, Massachusetts; 352 seventh-and eighth-graders from a middle-class section of Holliston, Massachusetts; and 1,144 eighth-graders from Santiago, Chile (who completed a translated version of the TASC). Results showed that high-SES students from both cultures were significantly lower on test anxiety than low-SES students. South American students demonstrated generally higher levels of test anxiety than did North American students. Low-SES females across both cultures scored higher in test anxiety than did low-SES males, but high-SES females and males were not significantly different in test anxiety.
Compliance and Value Internalization in Brazil and the U.S.
Authors: Bontempo Robert , Lobel Sharon , Triandis Harry
Published: March 2007

Brazilian and U.S. student samples responded to measures of behavioral intention, perceived norms, and affect regarding prosocial behaviors. Subjects were randomly assigned to either an anonymous or public condition in answering the questionnaire, and subjects were categorized as either allocentric, i.e., tending to subordinate their personal goals to the goals of others, or idiocentric, i.e., tending to subordinate the goals of others to their personal goals. The Brazilian sample indicated they would do what was expected of them and would enjoy doing so, whereas the U.S. sample reported not only less intention to do what was expected of them, but also less enjoyment regarding adherence to norms. As predicted, U.S. subjects in the anonymous condition showed less willingness to perform prosocial behaviors with high personal cost than U.S. subjects in the public condition, whereas the Brazilians did not respond differently in the two conditions. These results imply that the Brazilians have internalized ingroup norms; the U.S. subjects demonstrated compliance because of social desirability pressures. In collectivist cultures, habits and other such mechanisms of social control may predict pro-social behavior, whereas both habits and attitudes may be necessary to predict pro-social behavior in individualist cultures.
Comparison of Deductive Abilities Across Language
Authors: Politzer Guy
Published: March 2007

In order to study possible differential effects of language on reasoning and to control educational factors, bilingual subjects of two linguistic origins (Chinese and South Indian) studying in the same university were asked to solve two-term deductions between quantified sentences in their second language (English or Malay). No systematic differences were observed between subjects whose native languages were different nor between subjects reasoning in different languages. Thus no support was provided for Whorl's hypothesis. The opposing hypothesis, however, received support, that is, that the interpretation of quantified sentences is based on universal grammatical and pragmatic factors.
Children'S Choice in Conflict
Authors: Han Gyuseog , Park Bongsoon
Published: March 2007

To check the validity of individualism-collectivism theory in understanding conflict behaviors within a culture, two experiments were run using vignette method. In Experiment 1, children (half Individualists and half Collectivists) were asked to resolve a conflict in which their wish was incompatible with that of another. The other belonged to various in-groups or out-groups. The Collectivists showed far greater discrimination between in-group and out-group members than did the Individualists. In Experiment 2, the same children were asked to play the role of an allocator who, having contributed more to a task, was to divide the reward between him- or herself and the co-worker. Two independent variables manipulated were the co-worker's membership (in-group/ out-group) and the likelihood of future interaction with the co-worker (high/low). Individualists favored an equitable division over an equal division regardless of the experimental manipulations. The Collectivists, however, favored the equitable division only in the out-group-low future interaction condition. In other conditions, they favored equal division. The results provide strong support to the theory of collectivism-individualism, originally developed to understand cross-cultural differences in social acts.
Culture, Gender, and Response Bias
Authors: Watkins David , Cheung Steven
Published: March 2007

The possibility of culture and gender differences in response styles was explored. The responses of 1,717 participants aged 12-14 years from Australia, China, Nepal, Nigeria, and the Philippines to the Self-Description Questionnaire-I (SDQ-1) were analyzed for evidence of inconsistent responding, negativity or positivity bias, lack of profile variation, and social desirability. No evidence of a major social desirability factor but relatively substantial (effect sizes above 0.20) country and Country x Gender differences in response styles were found. These styles tended to correlate with scores on the academic rather than nonacademic self-esteem scales. This result may be due to participants with higher academic ability being more able to cope with the cognitive task of interpreting and answering consistently the items of the SDQ-1. Interpretations in terms of cultural dimensions such as individualism-collectivism were considered.
Love and Marriage in Eleven Cultures
Authors: Levine Robert , Sato Suguru , Hashimoto Tsukasa , Verma Jyoti
Published: March 2007

College students from secondary population centers in India, Pakistan, Thailand, Mexico, Brazil, Japan, Hong Kong, the Philippines, Australia, England, and the United States were asked to rate the importance of love for both the establishment and the maintenance of a marriage. Love tended to receive greatest importance in the Western and Westernized nations and least importance in the underdeveloped Eastern nations. These differences were stronger and clearer for decisions regarding the establishment of a marriage than for the maintenance and dissolution of a marriage. There were few significant sex differences, either across or within countries. Individualistic cultures, as opposed to collective cultures, assigned much greater importance to love in marriage decisions. Respondents assigning greater importance to love also tended to come from nations with higher economic standards of living, higher marriage rates and divorce rates, and lower fertility rates.
Orientations to Work
Authors: Adigun Isaac
Published: March 2007

Responses to a hypothetical question relating to acquisition of wealth by inheritance were obtained from employees of two developing countries-Turkey (n = 287) and Cyprus (n = 359)-in an attempt to ferret out the motive for working. Comparative analysis of the results with those obtained earlier in 7 developed countries showed no significant difference in orientations to work between developed and developing countries.
The Development of Understanding Moods Metaphorically Expressed in Pictures
Authors: Jolley Richard P. , Zhi Zhang , Thomas Glyn V.
Published: March 2007

Chinese participants, ranging in age from 4 years old to adult, were tested on their ability to select drawings to appropriately complete a positively or negatively charged drawing. Justifications for their selections were obtained, as well as their identification of the mood they perceived in the drawings. Comparing these responses with those of British participants on the same tasks (Jolley & Thomas, 1995) revealed that recognition of mood in pictures may be shown at an early age in both cultures. Performance on the completion tasks and reported justifications indicated, however, that Chinese children attend to mood metaphors in pictures at an earlier age than do Western children and have a less dismissive attitude toward scenes expressing sadness. Thus, comprehension of metaphoric expression may not develop at the same age across cultures. The greater emphasis on teaching technique within the Chinese art programme may facilitate the reading of pictorial metaphors.
Gender Role Egalitarian Attitudes in Beijing, Hong Kong, Florida, and Michigan
Authors: Chang Lei
Published: March 2007

This article presents the development and validation of a cross-cultural gender role attitudes test and cultural and regional comparisons using it. Construed within the role distribution theory, the 10-item Gender Role Egalitarian Attitudes Test measures gender attitudes along two domains of work and domestic roles and is free from prescribed gender ideology. Validated in convenience samples of 115 Hong Kong and 124 Floridian college students, the test was shown to have sound psychometric properties. Cultural and regional comparisons were conducted in four additional samples of college students from Beijing, Hong Kong, Florida, and Michigan. Each sample contained 50 male and 50 female students. Among the cross-cultural findings, Chinese were less egalitarian than Americans in work but not in domestic gender attitudes, for which Chinese women were more egalitarian than their American counterparts in Florida. Role distribution theory and recent work on hierarchical cultural collectivism are discussed.
A New Aesthetic for Environmental Awareness: Chaos Theory, the Beauty of Nature, and Our Broader Humanistic Identity
Authors: Richards Ruth
Published: March 2007

Can beauty help us adapt, evolve, and cope with environmental crisis? This article challenges the longstanding Kantian view that beauty is “disinterested,” while linking Kant’s view of the sublime with chaos theory and the fractal forms of nature. We humans participate in beauty as open systems in ongoing process, coevolving with all of existence. Beauty offers us conscious awareness and resonance with deeper life patterns. We sense our interconnection and the “bounded infinities” of potentialities related to chaotic “strange attractors.” A study of aesthetic preference not only supports preference for the fractal forms of nature but suggests, tentatively, that creative persons prefer forms of even higher “dimensionality.” Beauty can open up our vision in an endangered world—while yielding intimacy and delight, not isolation and fear. Caring can become natural for the greater whole we all cocreate. As humanistic psychologists, we can be concerned with no less than this totality.
Personal Power: a Taoist Perspective
Authors: Stensrud Robert
Published: March 2007

This article draws from the teachings of Taoism to provide a possible framework from within which we may consider personal relationships and especially personal power. Personal power is viewed as a mode of being, something existential, something to be lived rather than to be acquired. As Carl Rogers (1977) notes, when perceived in this manner personal power becomes the basis for a quiet revolution which has "gone to the root of many of the concepts and values of our culture."

To understand the contributions of Taoism to humanistic psychology we must first understand the concept of ch'i ( ki in Japanese). Ch'i is the vital force that permeates and flows throughout the universe. The enhancement of ch'i is central to creative expression and personal power as expressed through Chinese poetry, art, medicine, and martial arts. By gaining a better understanding of ch'i, we can gain a better understanding of interpersonal relationships and personal growth.

In my work with both acute and chronic psychotics I continually noticed that an increased ability to be empathic and an increased feeling of personal power were intimately related. Those people who were willing and able to enhance their abilities to be empathic were also able to improve their level of functioning so they could be discharged. Those people who were unable to become more empathic or who were unwilling to do so (which was more often the case) usually continued at the same general level of functioning. Through my practice of meditation and Chungdokwan Taekwon-do I became aware of how ch'i directly affects daily life. There are moments in the practice of a martial art when:

You and your opponent will no longer be two bodies separated physically from each other but a single entity, physically, mentally, and spiritually inseparable. Therefore the motion of your opponent may be considered to be your motion [Murphy & White, 1978, p. 34].

There are moments in a counseling relationship as well as in any interpersonal relationship when this happens also. Perhaps as the Taoists suggest, the underlying principle behind this is ch'i. If this is so, present conceptions of personal power can benefit from a greater understanding of the Taoist concept of ch'i.
Jealousy and the Abyss
Authors: Veereshwar Swami Anand
Published: March 2007

Relationships-and jealousy in particular-provide an opportunity to come to a fundamental understanding of the self. Jealousy is the eruption of attachment. It can be transcended only through awareness. As we move with awareness into the core of this phenomenon, we pass through ungrounded expectations and beliefs, projections and delusions, envy, guilt, the loss of self-esteem, and the threat to security. The core is an existential problem; it has to do with illusion and the essentially fearful nature of the ego. In possessiveness, ego defends itself against nothingness. When we come to know and accept the nothingness at the core, jealousy and the pain of obsessive attachment cease.
Further Thoughts on the Two Paths to Transformation
Authors: Marien Michael
Published: March 2007

"The Transformation as Sandbox Syndrome" (JHP, Winter 1983) is restated as two paths. Transformation I, the utopian/puerile path, is the prevailing "Way of the Sandbox." Transformation II attempts to grow up politically and deal effectively with the real world. An evolution from T-I to T-II must take place to realize any progress toward a genuine transformation of society.
The Role of Intent in Psychological Research
Authors: Weiss Avrum Rob , Kempler Bernhard
Published: March 2007

This research is a phenomenological investigation in the area of the intent of psychological research, its purpose, goals, objectives, or rationale. There is no specific hypothesis; rather, the objective is to explicate the issue of intent with researchers in the field of psychology by utilizing a descriptive methodology. Ten researchers were interviewed in depth, and the results indicate that intent is a significant component of the process and outcome of research in psychology.
Psychological Problems of the Political Development of Personality
Authors: Roshchin Stanislav K.
Published: March 2007

This article presents a theory of political socialization and the development of sociopolitical consciousness and behavior. Political development is central to personality development but too little studied by psychologists. Three aspects of this development are presented: (1) the psychological aspect, which includes subjective processes of attitude formation, (2) the social-psychological aspect, which includes the role of interpersonal and larger social forces, and (3) the political aspect, which integrates the prior two aspects into a political identity. The interaction of those three aspects is analyzed through the three stages of the political development process. The theory has a Marxist orientation but is based on Western research and has relevance for political development generally. The article concludes with a typology describing four ways people relate to political systems.