bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
How to reach the ‘hard‐to‐reach’: the development of Participatory Geographic Information Systems (P‐GIS) for inclusive urban design in UK cities
Authors: Cinderby Steve
Published: October 2009

Sustainable development and successful urban regeneration ideally require engagement with the affected communities. Existing methods employed by policymakers and planners often fail to reach significant segments of communities, the so‐called ‘hard‐to‐reach’. This paper describes the development of an innovative participatory GIS methodology specifically aimed at overcoming the barriers to engagement experienced by these groups. The application of the method is illustrated with reference to three recent case studies carried out in UK cities. The paper will then discuss the novelty of this approach in comparison with other participatory engagement techniques. The ethical implications of the technique are also discussed.
LONG‐TERM COPPER PRODUCTION OPTIONS OF THE DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
Authors: RADETZKI MARIAN
Published: October 2009

After petroleum, copper is the most important foreign exchange earner of the developing countries. Supply of copper from developing nations is heavily concentrated in six countries. The production strategies of these countries can, therefore, have a significant impact on world copper trends as well as on their own copper earnings. The author, former Chief Economist of CIPEC, examines the implications of two alternative growth paths for long‐term copper production in these countries.
UNITED STATES ENERGY PROJECTIONS AND OPTIONS
Authors: FRANSSEN HERMAN T.
Published: October 2009

Evaluation of energy options and adoption of appropriate policies require rigorous demand and supply projections. The wider the options, the more difficult the task. The author reviews the various projections which have been made in the United States to support a policy toward energy independence. He sets the stage for a similar review of the 1977 National Energy Outlook, scheduled for publication early in the year, in a subsequent issue of the Forum.
METAL RESOURCES OF DEEP SEA NODULES
Authors: ODUNTON NII ALLOTEY
Published: October 2009

The deep ocean floor represents the latest frontier of knowledge about global mineral resources. The ocean environment poses unique problems for mineral resource development ‐ problems of resource assessment, adaptation of mining technology, and management of resources common to all of mankind. In the first of three related articles on the mineral resources of the ocean, Mr. Odunton assesses the current state of knowledge about the nature and extent of marigenous minerals. He examines the processes of formation, the composition, and the regional distribution of ferromanganese nodules, which represent the most promising of these minerals at present. Attention is also given to the considerations involved in the location, evaluation and exploitation of nodule deposits. Future articles will review ocean mining technology and the economic and policy issues involved in the development of ocean mineral resources.
UNITED NATIONS MINERAL EXPLORATION ACTIVITIES: 1960–1976
Authors: CARMAN JOHN
Published: October 2009

The United Nations Development Programme plays an important role in strengthening the economies of developing countries through mineral exploration projects, training in geosciences and institution building. This review demonstrates the effectiveness of such activities, both in terms of the economic value of mineral discoveries, and the less tangible, long‐term contribution through development of infrastructure and skills, introduction of modern technology, and building up a body of reliable information as a base for future planning of mineral resources development.
GEOTHERMAL ENERGY IN TRANSITION
Authors: McNITT JAMES
Published: October 2009

At a time when future sources of energy are under close scrutiny, both in terms of availability and suitability, geothermal energy ranks among the candidates for inclusion in any appraisal of alternative forms of supply. The use of geothermal energy for the production of electricity and for supplying domestic and industrial heat is a comparatively recent phenomenon, and its application remains closely constrained by favourable geological conditions. Yet exploration in several countries shows that geothermal energy may emerge as an important adjunct to total energy supply in many localities. McNitt outlines some of the economic and technological parameters of this energy source. Small scale geothermal power stations are more economic and less capital intensive than conventional plants, which make them of particular interest for developing countries with small electricity systems and competing demands on limited capital resources. The principal capital expenditures in the development of geothermal sources include exploration, steam production, installation of generating plant and the cost of effluent disposal. The wider use of low grade geothermal heat is also examined, in addition to the environmental problems occurring to the development of geothermal energy. The scope for technical co‐operation in the development of geothermal energy is substantial, and it is likely that this source of energy will undergo more intensive development on the local scale in the future.
LIQUEFIED NATURAL GAS ‐ SOME MYTHS DEBUNKED
Authors: SYMONDS EDWARD
Published: October 2009

With natural gas being flared in major producing countries in volumes that would more than satisfy the entire energy needs of developing Africa, world attention is focusing on ways of shipping this premium fuel from sources where it is in surplus to destinations where it is urgently needed. Development and successful operation of liquefied natural gas (LNG) systems provide the means for achieving the purpose. The author reviews six misconceptions that have caused energy planners to underestimate the potential of this new transportation mode. He concludes that, given the necessary financing, international LNG movements could reach some 18 billion cubic feet daily by 1985, representing a ten‐fold jump in the traffic.
THE STATE PETROLEUM ENTERPRISE AND THE TRANSFER OF TECHNOLOGY
Authors: Alleyne D. H. N.
Published: October 2009

This article examines the potential of State Petroleum Enterprises in the developing countries for taking a lead in transfer of technology. After examining the reasons behind the growing demands for technology transfer, the paper defines the content of this technology and the means by which it can be transferred. In spite of reluctance on the part of the developed nations and the multinational oil companies to part with petroleum technology without an economic or political concession from the developing countries, much of this technology is either in the public domain or for sale by small speciality companies. The Enterprises can buy this technology and they can contract with specialty firms for operation with their countries. Of foremost importance is the education of nationals and development of indigenous group familiar with the scientific basis and specific techniques of petroleum technology.
THE UNITED NATIONS GROUND WATER EXPLORATION AND DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME ‐ A FIFTEEN YEAR PERSPECTIVE
Authors: Taylor George C.
Published: October 2009

The United Nations ground water exploration and development programme during 15 years of active life, has resulted in substantial socio‐economic benefits to 57 developing countries through some 100 ground water projects. Systematic study, development and use of this important resource have contributed to intensification of agricultural production through supplemental irrigation from ground water; alleviation of water shortages in urban and industrial areas through construction of supply wells; improvement and stabilization of pastoral and rural economies, thereby counteracting in some measure adverse demographic trends of migration to the cities; and other related benefits in training, institutional development, and development of national water policies and plans.
The Mortgaged Future: Energy Strategy and Public Policy
Authors: Tavoulareas William P.
Published: October 2009

In this article, the first of a series of viewpoint pieces in Natural Resources Forum, the president of a major transnational energy corporation analyses the pivotal role of the United States in determining world energy trends and argues that development of nuclear energy and coal will be necessary to meet demand as world oil supplies dwindle in the 1990's. In the United States, the lack of a clear‐cut government policy coupled with opposition to nuclear energy hampers the development of alternate energy sources for the future. This situation is mirrored in other parts of the world. Unless assessments of the long lead times for solar and nuclear fusion as sources of energy are accepted soon as realistic and unless efforts to develop nuclear and coal are accelerated, the United States may face grave energy shortfalls in the medium term.
CO‐OPERATION AMONG CMEA COUNTRIES IN GEOLOGY
Authors: EROFEEV B. N. , SLIZEVSKY V.
Published: October 2009

The Council for Mutual Economic Assistance was established in 1949 to facilitate economic co‐operation between a number of centrally‐planned economy countries. This article describes CMEA activities in geology, including the work of its Standing Commissions on Geology, on the Oil and Gas Industry, and on Mechanical Engineering in the Co‐ordinating Center on mineral utilisation, Intermorgeo.

CMEA activities in geology have included establishment of geological methodologies, exploration of the seas and oceans, geological and economic assessment of offshore oil and gas deposits and of coal deposits, as well as development of instrumentation. CMEA also monitors economic aspects of mineral development in terms of future needs and has provided significant assistance in resource exploration and exploitation to member countries.

Le Conseil d'assistance économique mutuelle a été créé en 1949 dans le but de faciliter les rapports économiques entre certains pays à économie planifiée. Cet article retrace les travaux de la CAEM dans le domaine de la géologie, y compris ceux de ses Commissions permanentes sur la géologie, l'industrie du gaz et du pétrole, et le génie mécanique du Centre de coordination sur l'utilisation des ressources minières.

Les efforts de la CAEM en matière de géologie ont porté tant sur la conception de méthodologies géologiques, la prospection des mers et océans, l'évaluation géologique et économique des gisements de gaz et de pétrole en mer et des gisements de charbon que sur la mise au point d'appareils appropriés. CAEM suit également pour les besoins futur les aspects économiques de la mise en valeur du secteur minier et a fourni aux pays membres une assistance notable en matiére de prospection et d'aménagement de ressources.

El Consejo para la Asistencia Económica Mutua (CAEM) fué establecido en 1949 para facilitar la cooperación económica entre un número de paises de economies centralmente planificadas. Este artículo describe las actiyidades del CAEM en geología, incluyendo los trabajos de sus comisiones — de Geología, Industrie de Petróleo y Gas, y Ingeniería Mecánica del Centro de Coordinación de la utilización de minerales, de economías centralmente planifacadas. Este artículo describe las Las actividades del CAEM en geología incluyen el establecimiento de metodologías geológicas, exploración de mares y oceános, evaluación geológica y económica de depósitos de petróleo y gas en el litoral y de depósitos de carbón asi como el desarrollo de instrumentación. El CAEM tambien estudia los aspectos económicos de desarrollo de minerales referidas a necesidades futuras y provee una asistencia significativa en la exploración y explotación de recursos a los paises miembros.
THE ENERGY SITUATION IN THE ARAB REPUBLIC OF EGYPT
Authors: ABDALLAH HUSSEIN
Published: October 2009

This article reviews the present energy situation in the Arab Republic of Egypt and planning for future development. The article presents energy demand and supply statistics reviewing current and past consumption and production as well as projections through the year 2000.

Institutional changes introduced to enhance Egypt's capabilities in the fields of analysis, assessment and programming of energy are described, including the establishment of the Supreme Council of Energy and the regrouping of several ministries.

The major constraints affecting Egyptian energy policies are reviewed, including the difficulty of changing the heavily subsidized price of fuel without affecting the overall social balance, limits on indigenous resources and rapid growth of demand. The article examines the critical energy issues that are being addressed in the context of a broad national energy planning effort.

Cet article passe en revue la situation énergétique actuelle en République arabe d'Egypte et al planification pour la mise en valeur des ressources dans ce domaine. II présente des statistiques sur l'offre et la demande en énergie tout en examinant la production et la consommation actuelles et antérieures ainsi que les projections jusqu'à l'an 2000.

L'article décrit les changements institutionnels qui ont été entroduits afin de mettre en valeur les capacités de l'Egypte dans les domaines de l'analyse, l'évaluation et la programmation en matière d'énergie, y compris la création d'un Conseil suprême de l'énergie et le regroupement de plusieurs ministères.

Les contraintes majeures qui affectent l'Egypte dans le domaine de la politique énergétique sont examinées, y compris la difficulté de reconsidérer le prix du pétrole déjà fortement subventionné sans affecter l'équilibré social général, les limites des ressources indigènes et la croissance accélérée de la demande. L'article examine également, dans le domaine de l'énergie, les aspects critiques qui se situent dans le cadre d'un effort de planification énergétique au niveau national.

Este articulo examine la situación de la energía y la planifcación de su futuro desarrollo en la República Arabe de Egipto. Las estadisticas sobre demanda y oferta de energía y su proyección al año 2000 son presentados. Se describe los cambios institucionales introducidos para acrecentar la capacidad del pais en analisar y programmar el desarrollo energético incluyendo el establecimiento del Consejo Supremo de Energia.

Políticas de energía relacionadas con el subsidio de combustibles, el rápido crecimiento de la demanda y los limitados recursos son examinados. El artículo termina con la revisión de problemas críticos enfrentados en la planificación energética del país.
The Future Role of Natural Gas in Europe
Authors: SCHNEIDER HANS K.
Published: October 2009

This paper provides an overview of the Western European natural gas market and discusses its future development. Price data are presented. Current utilization is evaluated and projection of future consumption of natural gas by market sectors is given. The factors effecting future demand for natural gas as well as those effecting price are evaluated. The author concludes that it is unlikely that natural gas reserves indigenous to Western Europe will be sufficient to meet future demands. Importation of natural gas from outside the area will be necessary. Potential natural gas exporters to Western Europe are identified.

Cet article présente une vue d'ensemble du marché du gaz naturel de l'Europe occidentale et étudie ses possibilités de développement. II donne également des indications sur l'évolution des prix. De plus, il passe en revue son usage courant ainsi que les tendances de sa consommation future par marchés sectoriels. L'article étudie aussi les facteurs affectant la demande future de même que ceux affectant les prix. L'auteur conclut qu'il est peu probable que les réserves de gaz naturel domestique de l'Europe occidentale soient suffisantes pour répondre à la demande future. L'importation du gaz naturel apparaît donc comme une nécessité. Enfin, les exportateurs éventuels de gaz naturel à destination de l'Europe occidentale sont répertoriés.

Este artículo presenta una visión general del mercado de gas natural en Europa Occidental y analiza su desarrollo futuro. Se presenta información sobre precios y se evalúa la utilización presente y proyección futura del consumo de gas natural por sectores. Se evalúa también los factores que afectan la demanda y precios futuros del gas. El autor concluye que es improbable que el gas natural de Europa Occidental sea suficiente para cubrir la demanda futura de gas. La importación de gas será por tanto necesaria. En el artículo se identifican los exportadores potenciales de gas natural destinado a Europa Occidental.
Expanding the Range of Choice in Water Management: An Evaluation of Policy Approaches
Authors: WESCOAT JAMES L.
Published: October 2009

This paper examines the ‘range of choice’ concept in water management. Although many efforts have been made to design policies that broaden the consideration of water resources alternatives, the experiences gained from these policy experiments have not been adequately assessed. What insights might American policy approaches offer for developing countries? To address this question, four general policy types were identified and compared: (1) comprehensive single‐objective policies; (2) comprehensive multiple‐objective policies; (3) specific non‐structural policies; and (4) specific technological policies. Case studies of each approach revealed that effective institutional development occurs when policies are: (1) stated in clear and specific language; (2) modified as experience is gained; (3) adequate in terms of statutory and administrative authority; and (4) subject to an orderly process of public and judicial review. The most successful policy efforts to date have involved specific alternatives, while multiple‐objective policies have encountered the most difficulties. Common institutional problems are identified, and their potential relevance for developing countries is discussed.
Tin Availability in Market Economy Countries
Authors: SABIN A.E. , BLEIWAS D.I. , PETERSON G.R.
Published: October 2009

The U.S. Department of Interior's Bureau of Mines determined costs associated with the production of tin from 18 market economy countries (MECs). The resource and relative economic positions of 146 tin deposits were evaluated. Demonstrated resources of recoverable tin metal are estimated to be 2.8 million metric tons. Over 70% of this material is recoverable from three south‐east Asian countries ‐ Malaysia, Thailand and Indonesia; all are members of the International Tin Agreement (ITA).

In the last five years, Brazil has become a major, low‐cost tin producer. In light of their large resources Brazil has become a dominant MEC tin producer and one of the world's few tin producers that can prosper during a protracted period of low tin prices.
Worldwide Availability of Silver
Authors: BOYLE EDWARD H. , FRASER SAM J. , REESE ROBERT G.
Published: October 2009

This article summarizes and interprets estimates, by the US Bureau of Mines and others, of the availability of silver from primary and secondary sources in market economy countries. Despite conservative measurements, ample silver to support expansion of its use in industrial applications was found to exist. Supply from only portions of this resource base can be expected to respond to changes in silver demand, because factors other than price are the major determinant of the flow of silver from large segments of its resource base.
The Worldwide Availability of Gold
Authors: THOMAS P. R. , BOYLE E. H. , LUCAS J. M.
Published: October 2009

This paper summarizes Bureau of Mines research relating to the state of the world gold industry. The authors discuss the world gold industry structure, demonstrated gold resources, current production, and the long‐term cost and availability of potential future gold production.

The long‐term cost and availability of primary gold production from 111 significant producing mines and developing deposits in 13 market economy countries (MECs) is evaluated. Total recoverable gold available (as of January 1984) from the evaluated mines and deposits is estimated at 819 million troy ounces. The Republic of South Africa is estimated to account for 87% of total recoverable gold. The USA and Canada account for 4% and 4.5% of the total, respectively. Eighty‐three per cent of total recoverable gold is available at a constant 1984 break‐even price of $400 per ounce, and 70% is available at $300 per ounce. South Africa accounts for 90% of the gold available at $400 per ounce or less. Gold resources in the Soviet Union and China are discussed but not evaluated for costs of production. Some conclusions of the analyses are that South Africa should remain the largest world producer until the year 2000 and annual MEC output in the year 2000 should not be significantly different from current output, given constant 1984 gold prices of more than $300 per ounce.
The Assessment of Water Resources Projects Involving Economic, Social and Environmental Costs and Benefits: The World Bank's View
Authors: OLIVARES JOSÉ
Published: October 2009

In evaluating the costs and benefits of water resources development projects, the World Bank examines the economic, social and environmental aspects of the project. Some of these aspects are more easily quantified than others. The paper reviews some aspects that have been quantified by the Bank and describes others which have not. By way of illustrating the difficulty of quantification, the Bank's efforts to quantify the health hazards resulting from the introduction of irrigation projects is examined. In addition, the Bank's requirements with respect to social and environmental factors as they affect water resources projects are described.
Study Groups Versus Commodity Agreements: An Appraisal*
Authors: BUCK W. KEITH
Published: October 2009

Since World War II there have been several attempts to establish intergovernmental mineral commodity arrangements involving both the producing and consuming countries. Two different forms have been used, the consultative forum and the commodity agreement (with binding economic provisions). The two different approaches are compared using as examples the six post‐World War II International Tin Agreements and the International Lead and Zinc Study Group. The study group or consultative forum appears to work better.
Matching Water Supply Technology to the Needs and Resources of Developing Countries
Authors: McGARRY M.G.
Published: October 2009

Over the past decade the water supply and sanitation sector has seen the development of several appropriate low‐cost technologies which are now being successfully introduced in many full‐scale projects worldwide. The principal difficulties facing this sector relate to institutional development and project implementation strategies. This paper takes up questions of: (1) incompatibilities between the appropriate technologies and the institutions trying to implement them in the field, (2) tied‐aid policies and their effect on the sector and (3) integration of the community participatory approach into government programmes. It also recommends measures for improving technology management and implementation strategies in low‐income communities of the developing world.
The Economics of Geothermal Power Development in the Philippines
Authors: VASQUEZ NAZARIO C.
Published: October 2009

In the Philippines the development of geothermal energy resources for electricity generation is undertaken by two independent agencies. One develops the steamfield and sells the steam. The second buys the steam, which, in the case of the Philippines, is the National Power Company (NPC), a government‐owned corporation mandated to produce electricity for sale and distribution to various consumers.

One such steamfield developer is the Philippine National Oil Company‐Energy Development Corporation (PNOC/EDC), Geothermal Division. At present PNOC is operating in two areas, the Tongonan Field and the Palimpinon Field. This paper discusses the economics of the development of these two steamfields. Historical investments are presented for both. Past and projected additional investments up to commissioning for a new field are also presented. Variations in the investment levels for the three fields are discussed, and explanations for the variances are presented.
Political Risks of Transnational Petroleum Investment: the Mitigating Role of National and International Insurance Programmes
Authors: ZAKARIYA HASAN S.
Published: October 2009

As in the case of all foreign investments in general, political risk has been one of the more serious inhibiting factors in petroleum operations by transnational companies. In practice, however, these risks can be significantly mitigated or eliminated altogether, through the insurance programmes which are normally available to all foreign investors. This article reviews the petroleum activities of some of such programmes, notably those sponsored by the US Federal Government under the Overseas Private Investment Corporation (OPIC) and, more recently, by the World Bank under its newly created Multilateral Investment Corporation Agency (MIGA).
Household Energy Resources: Whose Priority?
Authors: VAINIO‐MATTILA ARJA
Published: October 2009

This paper examines the different perceptions on deforestation and the household fuel crisis from the point of view of the development planners and the main user group of household fuels in developing countries — women. It is argued that afforestation strategies designed to deal with the environmental deterioration are not the most appropriate response to the household fuel shortage. It is suggested that this shortage, which in many parts of the world has reached a crisis, can only be adequately responded to by strategies which allow for the increased access to, and control over, productive resources by women.
Global oil: some key issues and challenges
Authors: Mikdashi Zuhayr
Published: October 2009

Energy ‐ and in particular petroleum ‐ is an eminently transnational commodity, with abundant supplies in excess of domestic needs available in a few countries, while large actual or potential requirements are present in other countries. This paper examines the forces which have influenced the behaviour and strategies of protagonists ‐ given their interests and objectives. It endeavours to distinguish the fundamental factors from those of a transient or reversible nature. Though recognizing that keen competition and acute rivalry have existed and will continue to exist in the oil‐cum‐energy market, the paper concludes that a measure of dialogue and understanding ‐ possibly verging on some cooperation in certain areas ‐ could well avoid crises and promote global welfare in the interest of consumers, producers and business intermediaries.
Potential use of oil shale for direct production of power in Jordan
Authors: Hill Lawrence J. , Petrich Carl H.
Published: October 2009

Up until the present, Jordan has relied almost exclusively on imported petroleum for its primary energy requirements. Encouraged by emerging technologies and recent fossil fuel discoveries, Jordanians are seriously examining exploitation of their own indigenous energy resources to meet projected mid‐ and long‐term power requirements. The most prominent of the known resources is oil shale. This report addresses the oil shale‐for‐power‐production option in Jordan. Under consideration are 20 MW and 50 MW demonstration units and a 400 MW commercial‐scale plant. The report focuses on three areas: (i) the engineering feasibility of using Jordan's oil shale in a circulating fluidized bed combustion (CFBC) boiler; (ii) environmental aspects of the proposed oil shale‐for‐power plants(s); and (iii) the economic feasibility of the proposed plant(s). The results could be useful for other low‐ to middle‐income countries considering oil shale as an option for power production.
Anatomy of downstream integration by oil‐producing countries
Authors: Robinson M. S.
Published: October 2009

Forwards and backwards integration are natural phenomena in the oil business and it is certainly understandable that producer countries should wish to stabilize their position in this way. However, there are important differences between the present trend of downstream integration from the ‘classic’ model of the 1960s. There is no interconnection between supply sources or total coverage of the market, so the new approach does nothing to balance supply and demand. The producers need to be very careful to maintain strict commercial criteria for crude supplied to downstream assets and for money invested in downstream assets, otherwise they will merely transfer competition from the crude market to the product market. The best approach is to allow a swap of assets in both the upstream and the downstream on sensible commercial terms.
Oil to 2000
Authors: Ayoub Antoine
Published: October 2009

Current surplus oil production capacity had its origins in the price increases of the 1970s. Those increases encouraged both energy conservation and the entry of new producers. Recent increases in oil demand reflect the belief among energy users that in real terms in the long term, prices will be stable. There is good reason to believe that this will be so, even at the current rate of increase it will be 15 years before demand matches current capacity. Given that situation it is difficult to see OPEC following any other pricing policy than the one currently in place. In the meantime market prices will further encourage vertical integration.
UN Department of Technical Co‐operation for Development regional seminar activities in 1989
Authors: Labonne Beatrice
Published: October 2009

The purpose of the United Nations' mineral exploration activities is to assist developing countries in identifying, evaluating and developing their mineral resources as a means of stimulating their economic development. Since 1978, these programmes have been executed by the Natural Resources and Energy Division of the Department of Technical Co‐operation for Development (DTCD) with the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) providing the bulk of the financing. In the past 30 years, more than 450 projects in some 100 developing countries have been executed at a cost estimated at US$600 million. This input has contributed to the discovery of deposits valued at billions of dollars, many of which are now being mined.
Managing mineral dependence: Papua New Guinea 1972–89
Authors: Auty Richard M.
Published: October 2009

Papua New Guinea (PNG) managed the mineral booms of 1973–74, 1979–82 and 1987‐89 well compared with other mineral exporting economies. Orthodox macroeconomic policies were one reason for this while the cushion afforded by the slow withdrawal of Australian aid was another. PNG also renegotiated MNC mining contracts in its favour without curbing foreign investment, but it managed its fragile political unity less well. Secession closed a large mine in 1989 while successful rent‐seeking left wage indexation unreformed. Relatively high wages, exchange rate overvaluation and foreign investment controls in non‐mining sectors retarded structural diversification: mineral dependence remains uncomfortably high a generation after the start‐up of the first copper mine.
The International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade in retrospect and implications for the future
Authors: Najlis Pierre , Edwards Anthony
Published: October 2009

In global terms this paper reviews the progress made during the International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade. There has been considerable progress. In terms of percent receiving water services, the urban areas made good progress: 77% in 1980 to 82% in 1990. In the rural areas progress was even greater, 30% had water services in 1980 versus 63% in 1990. There was also considerable progress in institutional terms. A positive trend towards better linkage betweeen authorities dealing with water supply and sanitation and those dealing with economic development, was one. Another was the awareness of the need for community involvement. In some cases progress was hampered by fragmentation of governmental authorities dealing with water and sanitation at the rural and/or urban level. In the 1990s an important issue will be financing the infrastructure needed to bring water and sanitation services to those not already covered and to an increasing population. Institutional issues will continue to be important as well.
Developments and prospects of world lead and zinc mining
Authors: Yates Edward M.
Published: October 2009

World developments in lead and zinc are examined for 1970‐90 and projections presented for 1995. Although lead consumption has Increased during the period under review, lead mine production has been on a decline, the differences being made up from secondary lead sources. Lead mine production is projected to be steady to 1995, with increased consumption continuing to be met from secondary sources. Zinc mine production increased at a trend rate of about 1% per year between 1970 and 1990, but for 1991‐95, production is expected to grow at a lower rate. For 1990‐95 zinc consumption is expected to grow at a rate of 2.3%. This modest mine production increase to 1995 is unlikely to be adequate to meet growth in MEC zinc consumption.
Administration of water resources
Authors: Mateo Ramón Martín
Published: October 2009

While water has always been important to people, recent pressures of population, ecology, geography and economic development have created new demands for water and call into question the old institutional arrangements for the administration of water resources. Drawing upon experience, largely from Spain and Latin America but including some examples from Europe, this paper examines the role that private enterprise and water cooperatives could play in promoting more efficient water use. The paper concludes that private management techniques under public control may prove useful but are no panacea.
Electricity planning and environmental issues in selected Asian countries
Authors: Shrestha Ram M. , Acharya Mahesh P.
Published: October 2009

This paper discusses the key issues related to the supply‐ and demand‐side options for the improvement of the environmental performance of the electricity sector in 10 countries of Asia. It also discusses the growth of the electricity sector and its contribution in the total emission of pollutants from the use of commercial energy in the selected countries.
Mineral sector technologies: policy implications for developing countries
Authors: Andrews Craig B.
Published: October 2009

Over the past 20 years the mining industry has been a leader in the conception and application of advanced technologies. New thinking about earth tectonics as well as advances in geophysics, geochemistry, remote sensing, data processing and communications permit more effective and accurate geological exploration. Mechanization, more durable materials and more powerful explosives, as well as computer aided mine design and management have led to substantial gains in productivity. Minerals processing has similarly seen significant technological advances including solvent extraction, electro‐winning of metal ores, bath smelting techniques, cyanide leach to produce gold, and bioleaching of sulphide and refractory ores. New technologies have dramatically improved mine health and safety as well as making possible control of water and air pollution. Improved communication and transport have stimulated competition and fostered the internationalization of mineral commodity prices. As these technologies are essentially market driven, developing countries should continue current efforts towards economic liberalization. Promoting investment in mining entails lifting many of the restrictions and taxes that can hinder efficient exploration and development. We examine some developments that have greatly increased the efficiency of exploration, mining and marketing. To obtain maximum benefit from many of these technologies requires governments to adopt a wide range of new policies which are examined in some detail.
Energy use in Denmark
Authors: Schipper Lee , Howarth Richard , Andersson Bo , Price Lynn
Published: October 2009

This paper reviews the evolution of energy use in Denmark since the early 1970s, in order to shed light on the future path of energy use in Denmark, with particular emphasis on the role of energy efficiency. Improvements in end‐use energy efficiency reduced primary energy requirements in Denmark by 22% between 1972 and 1988. This change accounts for two‐thirds of the decline in the ratio of energy use to gross domestic product that occurred during this time: the rest of the decline was caused by changes in the mix of goods and services produced and consumed by the Danes. Total energy savings achieved between 1972 and 1988 in Denmark ranked among the highest measured in any major OECD country. Overall, most of the energy savings in Denmark were brought about through improvements in technology. Short‐term changes in consumer behaviour were significant in reducing energy needs for space heating and transport. An important stimulus for improved efficiency was higher energy prices, led in no small part by significant taxes imposed on small consumers of heating oil, electricity and motor fuels.
Market transparency in the international aluminium industry
Authors: Morrison Dennis E.
Published: October 2009

Transparency requires many buyers and sellers with transactions executed at arms length in an open environment. The paper highlights the influence on transparency of the ownership and production structure; price formation; and the nature of the product. The world aluminium industry is analysed in light of the above in view of the emergence of terminal markets for aluminium. The disjuncture between the interests of physical traders and those speculating futures contracts is analysed in terms of the latter's effect on investment. Finally, the benefits and difficulties associated with terminal markets are explored, trends in the aluminium industry reviewed, and a framework within which to cope with aluminium as a commodity is proposed.
Mining economics and the environment
Authors: Poulin R. , Sinding K.
Published: October 2009

A mining operation can affect the environment adversely and create costs to others that are external to the mining firm, if no constraints are imposed. To deal with this problem of externalities, various regulatory steps can be taken, eg effluent taxation, subsidies, regulation of emissions by command, and use of emission permits that are tradeable. Bargaining between the polluter and the damaged party over the level of production and compensation remains a more theoretical option. Regardless of what regulatory approach is adopted to transform external costs into internal costs, the resulting higher costs will have an impact on the decisions of a mining firm. Information processes, traditionally focused on finding deposits, have now been broadened to include an environmental dimension. Operating practices can be modified to reflect the need for stable long‐term solutions of waste disposal problems. On the industry level, environmental regulation may lead to sterilization of resources, to higher prices for some commodities and to distortions of competitiveness among commodity producing countries.
The political economy of export processing zones (EPZs) in developing countries
Authors: Amavilah Voxi Heinrich S.
Published: October 2009

The ideology and praxis of EPZs are reviewed, followed by an analysis of the economics of EPZs. Namibia's EPZ incentives are analysed in the context of successful EPZs elsewhere in the world. Although the Arandis EPZ in Namibia has some credible advantages, its fiscal incentives are not really special by international standards. The zone's incentives appear suitable for non‐mineral processing industries, while the country's comparative advantages are in minerals. The conclusion is that EPZs are not of themselves engines of economic development, and must not be sold as such. Traditional investment strategies, eg R&D and joint ventures, offer better opportunities for development at about the same cost as EPZs.
Estimation of subsidies on coal in India
Authors: Bhattacharyya Subhes C
Published: October 2009

The removal of energy subsidies is considered to be the first step towards a better environment. In order to pursue a policy for subsidy removal, one needs to know exactly the amount of subsidies accorded to different fuels. In this paper, the subsidies involved in the coal sector in India are estimated. Existing prices are reviewed, economic prices are estimated and the two are compared to arrive at appropriate subsidies or taxes. The subsidies are also distributed among different sectors and policy implications of subsidy removal are discussed. Finally, the need to have a larger data sample to study the coal industry is stressed, in order to better understand the cost structure.
Suggested policies to encourage coalbed methane development in China
Authors: Maoyuan Sun , Shengchu Huang
Published: October 2009

The development of coalbed methane in the People's Republic of China has been selected by the Ministry of Coal Industry as a key strategic project within the coal industry. However, before the recovery of coalbed methane can reach its full economic potential, a number of constraints need to be overcome. Such constraints include the lack of policy framework, and of capital for project investments and equipment. Also needed is additional information on and experience with relevant technologies. Market mechanisms in China are not yet perfected during this initial period of transition to a market economy. In particular, artificially low gas prices and difficulties with repatriation of profits, discourage foreign direct investment and joint ventures. This paper examines internationally adopted, or proposed, policies that promote coalbed methane recovery; it then describes international activities that promote coalbed methane development in China; and finally presents China's options particularly suitable for expanding coalbed methane development.
Utilization of coalbed methane
Authors: Gustavson John B
Published: October 2009

Substantial progress has been made in capturing coalbed methane (CBM gas), which constitutes a valuable source of clean burning energy. It is of utmost importance to recognize and study the various potential uses of coalbed methane and to understand the various technologies required, as well as their economics and any institutional constraints. In industrialized countries, the uses of coalbed methane are almost solely dependent on microeconomics; coalbed methane must compete for a market against natural gas and other energy sources – and frequently, coalbed methane is not competitive with other energy sources. In developing countries, on the other hand, particularly in countries where other sources of energy are in scarce supply, coalbed methane economics yields predictably positive results. Here, constraints to development of CBM utilization are mainly lack of technology and investment capital. Sociological aspects such as attitude and cultural habits, may also have a strong negative influence. This paper will outline the economics of coalbed methane utilization, particularly its competition with natural gas, and touch upon the many different uses to which coalbed methane may be applied. It is recommended that all potential uses of CBM gas must be carefully investigated for positive application, each on its own or in combination.
Beijing and beyond: women's leadership in sustainable natural resource management
Authors: Abzug Bella , Islam Inji
Published: October 2009

We are pleased to have been asked to introduce this special issue of Natural Resources Forum dedicated to women and natural resources management. The issues discussed in the articles on water and energy resources, artisanal mining and sanitation, and how women can improve the management of their environment, were among the key concerns expressed at the Fourth World Conference on Women held in Beijing in September 1995.
Impact of mining on Nauruan women
Authors: Pollock Nancy J
Published: October 2009

Nauruan women have absorbed much of the impact of mining for phosphates on Nauru. They have provided continuity for the traditional mode of social organization through the maintenance of the matrilineages, while also adjusting the household lifestyle to meet the needs of a cash economy. Ties to one another and to the island through both lineages and clans provide the basis of Nauruan identity, and ensure that the identity is restricted to those born of Nauruan mothers. Land rights held by individual titleholders have been a key issue throughout the mining extraction process, and remain so as the island seeks to rehabilitate itself towards a new Garden of Eden. With four‐fifths of the island a sea of coral pinnacles, the process and cost of rehabilitation remains an immense issue for the Nauruan population. Whether the women can maintain their central role in the new reconstituted island in the 21st century remains to be answered.
Sustainable water future with global implications: everyone's responsibility
Authors: Kuylenstierna Johan L. , Björklund Gunilla , Najlis Pierre
Published: October 2009

The current use and management of freshwater is not sustainable in many countries and regions of the world. If current trends are maintained, about two‐thirds of the world's population will face moderate to severe water stress by 2025 compared to one‐third at present. This water stress will hamper economic and social development unless action is taken to deal with the emerging problems. The Comprehensive Assessment of the Freshwater Resources of the World, prepared by the United Nations and the Stockholm Environment Institute, calls for immediate action to prevent further deterioration of freshwater resources. Although most problems related to water quantity and quality require national and regional solutions, only a global commitment can achieve the necessary agreement on principles, as well as financial means to attain sustainability. Due to the central and integrated role played by water in human activities, any measures taken need to incorporate a wide range of social, ecological and economic factors and needs. The Assessment thus addresses the many issues related to freshwater use, such as integrated land and water management at the watershed level, global food security, water supply and sanitation, ecosystem requirements, pollution, strengthening of major groups, and national water resource assessment capabilities and monitoring networks. Governments are urged to work towards a consensus regarding global principles and guidelines for integrated water management, and towards their implementation in local and regional water management situations. The alternative development options available to countries facing water stress, or the risk thereof, needs to be considered in all aspects of development planning.
Policy issues pertaining to the oil and gas sector in India
Authors: Rao Raghavendra D.
Published: October 2009

This article discusses the various phases in petroleum product consumption in India from 1960 to 1996, and analyses the changes in consumption patterns. Consumption is growing rapidly although the intensity of petroleum use and the proportion of petroleum in the overall secondary energy consumption is actually on the decline, especially since the mid‐1980s. The proportion of middle distillates in total consumption, especially HSD (High Speed Diesel) which accounts for 45%, is very high mainly because of distortions caused by Government subsidies. The article also analyses expected demand for petroleum products up till the year 2010, emphasizing the need to address the particularly fast growing demand for middle distillates. Further, the article discusses various policy issues pertaining to upstream and downstream activities of oil and gas supply, and emphasizes the need for increased investment in exploration and development, better management of existing reserves, rationalization of pricing policies and the creation of modern infrastructure to meet growing needs.