bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Children as Mathematicians: The Interplay between Discourse Structure, Mathematicising, and the Participatory Approach
Authors: Kaartinen Sinikka , Latomaa Timo
Published: January 2012

This paper investigates the discourse structure, mathematicising and the participatory approach in an early education classroom community whose pedagogy in the learning of mathematics draws on the sociocultural perspective. The social interactions of the classroom community, as well as the role of pre-symbolic sign vehicles as semiotic tools in supporting interaction building, mathematicising, and strategy selection, were subjected to a qualitative micro-level analysis based on applied discourse and semiotic procedures. The results of the study suggest that the young children's mathematical ability develops during the two-year observation period from nonverbal participation to verbal participation through the following core elements: attention to numeracy, the learning of number words, object counting and mathematical story telling. The iconic and indexical pre-symbolic sign vehicles and semiotic chaining applied in the learning situations provide the learning community with the means to structure their experiences of their everyday practise and to relate them to the culture of mathematicising.
Seismic Performance Evaluation and Analysis of Major Arch Dams Considering Material and Joint Nonlinearity Effects
Authors: Hariri Ardebili Mohammad Amin , Mirzabozorg Hasan
Published: January 2012

Seismic failure of major concrete dams can be disastrous due to sudden release of reservoir water. At the present study, 203 m DEZ arch dam was selected as case study, and two types of nonlinearity were incorporated in seismic analysis of dam, joint nonlinearity and material nonlinearity. The finite element model of the dam, soil, and water was excited using multicomponent maximum design earthquake record which was extracted from seismic hazard analysis of the dam site. Also seismic performance of the dam was evaluated based on linear analysis. The extension of overstressed areas, demand-capacity ratio, and cumulative inelastic duration were used to identify the necessity of nonlinear analysis. It was found that when contraction joints between dam blocks are modeled, the direction of the principal stresses and their distribution patterns are changed meaningfully. In addition, overstress surfaces on the dam body change in comparison with the model without contraction joints.
Why and How to Make Plant Conservation Ecosystem-Based
Authors: Hamilton Alan , Pei Shengji , Huai Huyin , Anderson Seona
Published: January 2012

Compared to other groups of organisms, plants require distinctive approaches in their conservation because of their keystone roles in ecosystems and economies. The state of the whole plant cover of the Earth should be of concern to conservationists – for its capacity to ensure the survival of plant species, deliver ecosystem services (locally to globally) and provide produce from plants in ecologically sustainable ways. The primary targets of attention in ecosystem-based plant conservation are the relationships between people and plants, as relevant to every locality, rather than the species-centric approach of conventional plant conservation. Moving plant conservation to an ecosystem-based approach will require the development of training programmes for field practitioners and of information systems for their use.
Efeito do lipopolissacarídeo de Escherichia coli sobre a proliferação de osteoblastos
Authors: Teixeira Victor Perez , Ferrari Raquel Agnelli Mesquita , Bussadori Sandra Kalil , Mascaro Marcelo Betti , Fernandes Kristianne Porta Santos
Published: January 2012

Introdução: O lipolissacarídeo (LPS) é um componente majoritário da parede celular de bactérias gram-negativas, reconhecido como potente indutor de resposta inflamatória e de reabsorção óssea. Objetivo: Investigar o efeito do LPS de Escherichia coli, sobre a proliferação de osteoblastos. Métodos: Os osteoblastos foram cultivados com diferentes concentrações de LPS (0,1, 1 e 10µg/ml) e as culturas do grupo controle não receberam a adição desse composto. A análise da proliferação celular foi realizada por meio do teste MTT. Resultados: A adição de LPS, na concentração de 1µg/ml, diminuiu a proliferação celular (porém de maneira estatisticamente não significante), quando comparado com as células do grupo controle e demais grupos. Conclusão: Esse resultado sugere que a proliferação de osteoblastos pode ser afetada pelo LPS de Escherichia coli e, sendo assim, poderia ter um papel importante nos quadros de destruição óssea por infecção de bactérias gram-negativas.
Influência da superfície instável no padrão da marcha de pacientes com doença de Parkinson
Authors: Silva Gabriela Dias , Freitas Sandra Maria Sbeghen Ferreira de , Agulhon Ana Maria , Silva Ludmila Costa Toni de Oliveira , Bagesteiro Leia Bernardi , Alouche Sandra Regina
Published: January 2012

Introdução: Pacientes com a doença de Parkinson (DP) apresentam alterações no controle postural e na marcha. No entanto, as adaptações na marcha desses sujeitos devido às condições do ambiente (i.e., superfícies instáveis) não são muito conhecidas. Objetivo: Analisar o padrão cinemático da marcha de pacientes com DP quando andando no solo instável. Método: Os ângulos articulares do quadril, joelho e tornozelo no plano sagital foram comparados em três condições: no solo estável, no instável e retorno ao estável, além disso, a velocidade e o comprimento da passada também foram analisados. Resultados: Os participantes aumentaram as amplitudes de tornozelo, joelho e quadril e reduziram a velocidade da marcha, quando andando no solo instável. Conclusão: Pacientes com DP reduzem a velocidade e aumentam as amplitudes de movimento dos membros inferiores durante a marcha em superfície instável. Após essa exposição, houve um aumento do comprimento da passada no solo estável.
Desempenho motor de escolares com idade entre 11 e 14 anos de Florianópolis-SC
Authors: Nascimento Erika Morgana Félix do , Contreira Andressa Ribeiro , Beltrame Thais Silva
Published: January 2012

Objetivo: Avaliar o desempenho motor de escolares, com idade entre 11 e 14 anos, de Florianópolis, SC. Métodos: Participaram deste estudo 40 escolares, de ambos os sexos, sendo todos avaliados por meio do MABC-2. Resultados: A maioria dos estudantes apresentou desenvolvimento motor típico. Os meninos mostraram melhor atuação nas habilidades totais do que as meninas. A performance das meninas, nas categorias de habilidade equilíbrio e lançar e receber, foi levemente superior a dos meninos. Já nas tarefas de destreza manual os meninos tiveram melhor desempenho, não havendo diferença estatisticamente significativa. Conclusão: É importante que os profissionais responsáveis por escolares realizem avaliações motoras como estratégias para melhorar o conteúdo das aulas de educação física e para ajudar o aluno em caso de atraso no seu desenvolvimento. Sugere-se que futuros estudos contemplem a análise de variáveis psicossociais que, em conjunto com o desenvolvimento motor, podem ser responsáveis pelas dificuldades de movimento.
Universidades e envelhecimento: ações de marketing em seus projetos para idosos
Authors: Streit Inês Amanda , Acosta Marco Aurélio de Figueiredo
Published: January 2012

Objetivo: Neste estudo, objetivou-se analisar as ações de marketing de instituições de ensino superior, no Brasil, nos programas de atividade física para idosos. Métodos: Para tanto, foram investigadas sete universidades pioneiras no trabalho “Universidades da Terceira Idade”, por meio de questionário, encaminhado via on-line, e respondido pelos coordenadores dos programas. Resultados: De acordo com os resultados, o marketing social ocorre como consequência de um trabalho planejado e direcionado para essa população, o que motiva a permanência dos idosos. Conclusão: Verificou-se que os programas de atividade física oferecidos pelas IES efetivaram-se e atendem uma parcela significativa da população; no entanto, é necessário multiplicar essas experiências com a implementação de novos programas que atendam a demanda existente.
Correlação entre capacidade funcional e qualidade de vida em idosas hipertensas submetidas a treinamento resistido
Authors: Souza Juliana Fernandes de , Nogueira Ivan Daniel Bezerra , Lira Murillo Jales Lins de , Silva Eline Cunha , Ferreira Gardênia Maria Holanda , Nogueira Patrícia Angélica de Miranda Silva
Published: January 2012

Introdução: A hipertensão arterial sistêmica exerce influência na dependência funcional e qualidade de vida dos idosos, sendo a distância percorrida no teste da caminhada de 6 minutos preconizada como alternativa para avaliação da capacidade funcional desses indivíduos. Objetivo: Correlacionar a capacidade funcional com a qualidade de vida de pacientes idosas antes e após a execução de programa de treinamento resistido (TR). Métodos: Foram avaliadas 15 idosas, com hipertensão controlada. O treinamento foi realizado durante um período de oito semanas. A qualidade de vida foi avaliada por meio do questionário SF-36. Resultados: Foram elegíveis 10 idosas hipertensas (70,7 ± 7,4 anos). Observou-se correlação positiva moderada entre a distância percorrida e os domínios do questionário SF-36 antes e após treinamento, respectivamente: capacidade funcional (r=0,6), limitação por aspectos físicos (r=0,5) e vitalidade, (r=0,5). Conclusão: Houve associação entre a distância percorrida no TC6M e aqueles domínios do SF-36 que expressam a capacidade funcional.
Cicatrização de feridas com a utilização do extrato de Chenopodium ambrosioides (mastruz) e cobertura secundária estéril de gaze em ratos
Authors: Sérvio Elisgardênia Maria Lima , Araújo Karinne Sousa de , Nascimento Lyon Richardson da Silva , Costa Charllyton Luis Sena da , Mendes Liana Martha Soares , Maia Filho Antônio Luis Martins , Santos Ísidra Manoela Sousa Portela
Published: January 2012

Introdução: O mastruz (Chenopodium ambrosioides) é considerado uma das plantas mais utilizada na medicina popular. Objetivos: Verificar a cicatrização de feridas cutâneas tratadas com o mastruz com e sem cobertura. Métodos: Foram utilizados 45 ratos Wistar, divididos em três grupos. As feridas dos animais foram tratadas, como segue: no grupo 1, com solução salina 0,9%; no grupo 2, com o extrato do mastruz, e no 3, com o extrato do mastruz e recobertas com curativo. As lesões foram avaliadas no 4º, 7º e 14º dia pós-operatório. Resultados: Houve maior contração da ferida nos animais tratados com mastruz sem cobertura no 4º e 7º dia. No 14º dia, não houve diferença significativa da contração das áreas lesionadas e os achados histológicos exibiram moderada inflamação, maior organização da matriz e reepitelização parcial das lesões de todos os grupos. Conclusão: O extrato aquoso da planta Chenopodium ambrosioides (mastruz) favoreceu a cicatrização de feridas cutâneas abertas em ratos.
Theodore (Tadrus)
A
bu
Q
urrah (
d
. 825)
Authors: Amar Joseph P.
Published: January 2012

Theodore (Tadrus) Abu Qurrah (d. 825), a native of Edessa, Syria, and a Chalcedonian monk of St. Sabas monastery near Jerusalem, has the distinction of being the earliest theologian to write in Arabic for the purpose of commending the truths of the Christian faith to Muslims. An early exponent of understanding between Muslims and Christians, Theodore did this by articulating Christianity in the language and idiom of contemporary Muslim scholastic theologians known as
mutakallimun
. His writings, therefore, provide an invaluable witness to Christian thought and expression in the increasingly Islamic milieu in which eastern Christianity found itself in the 8th and 9th centuries.
Adiaphora
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J.
Published: January 2012

Most lay Christians probably have never heard of the concept
adiaphora
(plural) or
adiaphoron
(singular). Adiaphora, a word borrowed from the Greek, means “things that are indifferent.” It has its origin among the Greek Stoic philosophers (4th century
bc
) who first used the concept to indicate a given act was neither a virtue nor a vice. The Greek word
diaphoron
means “difference,” but when the letter alpha (
a
) is prefixed to
diaphoron
, the word means “indifferent.” Hence, in regard to given theological or ecclesiastical beliefs or practices, adiaphora refer to beliefs or practices that are biblically indifferent, that is, neither commanded nor forbidden in the Bible. Adiaphora are those matters that Christians in their God‐given liberty are free to do or not to do.
Alexandrian Theology
Authors: Nixon John Ashley
Published: January 2012

Over the course of several centuries, a particular way of speaking and thinking about the incarnation was clarified among a group of theologians associated with the city of Alexandria. The roots of this theology reach back to the end of the 2nd century. Pantaenus, Clement, and Origen helped to articulate and develop a theology that emphasized the Word that became flesh. Athanasius continued to form and express this theology in his writings and it reached perhaps its deepest formation in the work of Cyril of Alexandria. The development of this theology, however, should not be seen as a consistent and continuous effort. Rather it was formed as each of these teachers faced developing questions within the life and practice of the church. In particular, Alexandrian theology was clarified in response to Arianism and took its definitive form in the 5th century in contrast to what modern scholars have termed “Antiochene theology.” One, however, must not make too much of these categories, they are simply a framework commonly used to help classify theologians or systems of thought.
A
mbrose (
c
.338–397)
Authors: Williams D. H.
Published: January 2012

Born into Roman high society at Trier (Trêves), Aurelius Ambrosius, Bishop of Milan (Ambrose) never intended to pursue episcopal office. Like his brother Satyrus, he was trained in law and had already begun a career in imperial service, eventually being appointed provincial governor of the northern Italian province of Aemilia‐Liguria. When the “Arian” bishop of Milan, Auxentius, died in 374, Ambrose entered the city basilica to quell the disturbances that threatened to escalate over choosing a successor, only to find himself being elected bishop. Since he had not yet been baptized, Ambrose was rushed through the catechetical process and baptized within a week by the presbyter Simplicianus.
Anabaptists
Authors: Whiting Michael
Published: January 2012

The expression “Anabaptists” originated in the 16th century as a derogatory term identifying “rebaptizers” who invalidated the rite of infant baptism. They were severely belittled by their Catholic, Lutheran, and Reformed contemporaries as seditious and “fanatical,” and scholars since the 1960s still commonly classify Anabaptists and antisacramental “Spiritualists” (Sebastian Francke) as the “Radical Reformation” in distinction to a Protestant mainstream. Recent research emphasizes the complexity of their origins and cautions against popular characterizations, such as that all Anabaptists were descendants of pacifist rebaptizers. A millenarian group in Germany under Hans Hut actually had roots in the more militant and revolutionary dissent of Andreas Karlstadt and Thomas Müntzer, while a Dutch community inspired by the apocalyptic spiritualism of Melchior Hoffman reconstructed a polygamous theocracy and eventually brought tragedy upon the German city of Münster in the 1530s.
Apocrypha, the
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J.
Published: January 2012

The word apocrypha is derived from the Greek word
apokryphos,
meaning hidden or secret things. Initially, the term referred to esoteric writings and also to books that contained a lot of obscure content. During the Reformation era, “the Apocrypha” referred to those books that were non‐canonical in the Hebrew Bible before Christ or in the Septuagint (the Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible about 250
bc
) The Latin Vulgate of St. Jerome (d. 420) had 15 OT apocryphal books, including The Additions to Esther. The Septuagint contained 17 OT apocryphal books. It omitted 2 Esdras from the Vulgate, but added Psalm 151 and 3 and 4 Maccabees.
Apologists
Authors: Scholer David M.
Published: January 2012

One of the significant forms of 2nd century Christian literature is the
apologia
(= defense); the authors of these writings are known as the Apologists. Most of the Apologists wrote in Greek, although there are a few Latin Apologists. Some of the apologies were defenses of Christianity against Judaism (e.g. Barnabas; Justin Martyr,
Dialogue with Trypho
), but these works are not considered here.
Art (Painting)
Authors: Crabtree Mara Lief
Published: January 2012

The primary reasons for the creation of artistic works in the medium of painting are: to glorify God; to express faith; to provide a means for witnessing to others concerning the message and meaning of the Christian faith; to provide beauty, meaning, and decorative elements to places of worship, schools, hospitals and other institutions with a connection to the Christian faith; and as a means to elevate and to focus one's thought on spiritual themes.
Assyrian Apostolic Church of the East
Authors: van den Berg Heleen Murre‐
Published: January 2012

The Assyrian Church of the East, better known as the Nestorian Church, today numbers a little over 400,000 people. Fewer than half of its members live in the Middle East, mainly in Iraq, Syria, and Iran. More than with any other church of the Middle East, its adherents have settled in Western countries, in the Americas, in Europe, and in Australia. From early times, a considerable part of this church has been found in India, and traces of that old community are still present although the overwhelming majority of the sect known as Thomas Christians is now part of other churches. The focus in this article is on the Assyrian Church of the East, but its history is closely connected with the Chaldean Church, its Catholic counterpart that came into existence from the mid 16th century onward. With a similar number of faithful worldwide, this church had until recently suffered less from largescale migration than the Church of the East, but after the political developments of the last two decades, especially in Iraq, this church, too, has seen many of its faithful move to the West. With the Syriac Orthodox Church, these churches share the use of Classical Syriac, a form of Aramaic, as the most important language of literature and liturgy. Alongside the languages of the countries in which they live, many members of these churches speak a modern Aramaic language at home.
Atonement, Theoriess of
Authors: Gomes Alan W.
Published: January 2012

The doctrine of Christ's atonement concerns his work on the cross in providing salvation for humankind. From Genesis to Revelation the Bible gives special prominence to this doctrine, beginning with the Old Testament “types” of Christ's death (e.g. Gen. 3:21; 8:20; Exod. 12:1–28; Lev. 1–7) to the direct fulfillment in the New Testament, in which, as Dr. Henry Holloman observes, the death of Christ is mentioned more than 175 times and is assumed or implied in many other instances. Consequently, there is scarcely a doctrine in all of Christian theology of greater importance.
A
ugustine,
S
aint (354–430)
Authors: Kolbet Paul R.
Published: January 2012

Augustine was a gifted orator and author whose books have been continuously read to the present day. Born in Thagaste, North Africa (modern Souk‐Ahras, Algeria), Augustine received a classical education that greatly emphasized the discipline of rhetoric. Subsequently, he taught rhetoric in Carthage, then in Rome, and finally, in 384 he was appointed the municipal orator of Milan, the imperial residence. After some years of spiritual searching, including nearly a decade as a Manichaean, Augustine was baptized as a Catholic in 386 by Ambrose of Milan, ordained a priest in 391, and made bishop of the same city in 395 or 396. At a time when to write meant conforming to defined genres, in his early dialogues Augustine showed both his mastery of classical forms of expression and genuine literary innovation (such as his
Soliloquies
). Augustine's
Confessions
, written in mid‐life in his early years as a bishop, illustrates the psychological awareness, rhetorical power, and theological insight that characterize his written works. More of his writings have been preserved than any other ancient author, including, among others, his
City of God
,
On the Trinity
, nearly a thousand sermons, and a sizable collection of letters.
A
ustralian Christianity
Authors: Gallagher Robert L.
Published: January 2012

A historic view of Australian Christianity may be divided into three periods: early settlement to World War II, from World War II to the present, and contemporary Christianity.
A
ustrian Christianity
Authors: Schirrmacher Thomas
Published: January 2012

Christianity probably came to Austria — by then made up of the Roman provinces Rhaetia, Noricum, and Pannonia — through Roman soldiers and officers in the 1st century, and the first local churches were founded in the 2nd century
ad
. After the tolerance edict by Constantine in
ad
313, Christianity spread and there is evidence of the installation of the first bishoprics. The Germanic tribes moving to Austria in the emigrations of nations during the end of Roman rule were mainly Arian Christians, and Christianity became the majority religion till the 5th century. But in the 6th century, all kinds of heathen tribes wandered or expanded to Austria, especially the Slavs, the Bavarians and the Alamans. Christians were again in the minority, even though, differently from the German regions, some of the structure of the Christian churches continued through the fall of the Roman Empire.
Authority
Authors: Laing Jacqueline
Published: January 2012

The term authority derives from the Latin
auctoritas
. Although often regarded as synonymous with
potestas
or power, authority is more properly considered power legitimately exercised. Whereas Stalin had the power to kill millions of innocent civilians he did not have the authority to do so. Accordingly, it is often said that the supreme authority is God himself who is both omnipotent and all good. On this view God is the source of the eternal law which is observed both in the fullness of the physical universe and also in the moral universe that governs men and angels. Accordingly the book of Proverbs states that “By me kings reign and lawgivers decree just things” (Prov. 8:15).
B
axter,
R
ichard (1615–1691)
Authors: Bain‐Conkin Jeffrey L.
Published: January 2012

Richard Baxter was a Puritan clergyman in 17th century England. The Puritan movement sought to remove all vestiges of Roman Catholicism from the Church of England. Some left for the New World when persecuted by Archbishop Laud. This “Great Migration” to the colonies demonstrated the two paths of Puritanism: churchly and separate Puritans. (Separatists had given up on the redemption of Anglicanism.)
B
ea,
A
ugustin
C
ardinal (1881–1968)
Authors: Morrow Jeffrey L.
Published: January 2012

Augustin Cardinal Bea was born in Riedböhringen, Germany in 1881. He is primarily recognized for his role as a pioneering leader in the Catholic ecumenical movement, but he was originally trained as an Old Testament exegete. Bea became a Jesuit in 1902. From 1924 until 1949, Bea taught courses in the Bible at the Pontifical Gregorian University in Rome (Gregorianum) and at the Pontifical Biblical Institute in Rome (PBI), where he served as Rector from 1930 until 1949. He assisted Pope Pius XII with his encyclical on the sacred liturgy,
Mediator Dei
, and he also assisted in drafting Pius XII's encyclical on biblical studies,
Divino Afflante Spiritu
. Pope John XXIII made Bea a cardinal in 1959, and he became that Pope's closest advisor. When John XXIII began preparations for the Vatican II (1962–1965), he commissioned Bea to draft a document on the relationship between the Catholic Church and the Jewish people for the Council to discuss. The text Bea wrote was revised and expanded, and eventually became Vatican II's famous Declaration on the Church's Relation to Non‐Christian Religions,
Nostra Aetate
. Bea was an important figure at the Council. He contributed significantly to the Dogmatic Constitution on Divine Revelation,
Dei Verbum
, for which he was the Co‐President of the commission responsible for drafting the document. In 1960, two years before the Vatican II, John XXIII appointed Bea as the first President of the Secretariat for Promoting Christian Unity. After the Council Bea's work focused on ecumenism, work which he had begun as early as 1949. Much of his publishing during this time dealt with Christian ecumenism. His other major publications treated biblical interpretation and inspiration. In 1968 Bea died at the age of 87.
B
enedict of
N
ursia (
c
.480–c.547)
Authors: Matus Zachary A.
Published: January 2012

St. Benedict, author of a monastic rule, founder of the religious houses of Subiaco and Monte Cassino, and brother of St. Scholastica (c.480–c.543), was a pivotal figure in the development of monasticism in Western Europe. Details of Benedict's life are scarce, however, and survive only as a hagiographical account in Pope Gregory the Great's (590–604)
Dialogues.
Gregory did not know Benedict and makes his report on the basis of information gathered from Benedict's disciples.
B
enedict
XVI
,
P
ope (
b
. 1927)
Authors: Morrow Jeffrey L.
Published: January 2012

Pope Benedict XVI was born Josef Alois Ratzinger in Marktl am Inn, Germany, on April 16, 1927 (Holy Saturday). Growing up in Bavaria, Ratzinger was immersed in a Catholic culture that attracted him early on. He fell in love with Catholic liturgy, with art, and with music. He was an avid pianist, and knew from an early age that he wanted to become a Catholic priest. As a 16 year old seminarian, he was drafted by the German army in World War II to protect a motor production site. When he reached 17, he was drafted into the SS, which he refused, explaining he intended to become a priest. Instead he was forced to dig trenches. Benedict eventually deserted and only missed execution because of the mercy of the soldiers who captured him. After the war Ratzinger was awarded two doctorates in theology. His first dissertation considered St. Augustine's doctrine on the church. His second dealt with St. Bonaventure's theology of history. A consummate historical theologian, Ratzinger has been said to possess an encyclopedic knowledge of church history, the history of biblical interpretation, and the history of the development of the liturgy.
B
erdyaev,
N
ikolai
A
lexandrovich (1874–1948)
Authors: Phillips Benjamin Blair
Published: January 2012

The Russian philosopher Nikolai Alexandrovich Berdyaev was born on March 6, 1874 to aristocratic parents in Kiev. He attended the University of Kiev but was arrested as a Marxist and exiled to Vologda in 1898. Returning to Kiev in 1901, his commitment to Eastern Orthodox theology was awakened by Sergei Bulgakov. In 1920, Berdyaev began teaching philosophy at Moscow State University, but was exiled 2 years later for anti‐authoritarian views. Berdyaev moved to Paris in 1923, where he published
Put
(“The Way”), a journal of religious philosophy, from 1925 to 1940. Though he never completed a university degree, Berdyaev lectured at the Sorbonne in 1939, and received an honorary doctorate of divinity from Cambridge University in 1947. Berdyaev died at his desk on March 24, 1948.
Bioethics and Christianity
Authors: Foreman Mark W.
Published: January 2012

Bioethics can be defined asthe analysis and study of ethical issues and problems which arise due to the interrelationship between the practice of the medical/biological sciences and the moral rights and values of human beings. Almost everyone recognizes the value of medical research and treatment. Over the history of the past century there have been tremendous advances in medical progress reducing or even eliminating much disease and suffering. A number of conflicts have arisen, however, between that medical progress and the rights and values of human beings. These conflicts have generated a large amount of thought and discussion on the nature of human life, the goals of medicine, and appropriate ways to respond to human suffering. These discussions make up the field of bioethics.
B
lake,
W
illiam (1757–1827)
Authors: Veith Gene Edward
Published: January 2012

English poet and artist, who was born in London on November 28, 1757, the third of five surviving children. His father, James, was a hosier. Though William never went to school and labored in poverty most of his life, he became a visionary poet and artist who defied the Enlightenment and anticipated the heights of the Romantic imagination. He died on August 12, 1827.
Blasphemy
Authors: Montgomery John Warwick
Published: January 2012

Exodus 20:7 declares: “Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain; for the Lord will not hold him guiltless that taketh his name in vain.” Blasphemy consists, not in employing crude or scatological language — what the French refer to as
gros mots
— but in violating this biblical commandment in a particularly egregious manner.
Body of Christ
Authors: Macy Gary
Published: January 2012

The “body of Christ” refers first and most obviously to the body of Jesus that was miraculously raised from the dead and appeared to his followers before ascending into heaven. The risen body of Christ is believed to have been transformed by the experience of the resurrection and is now both immortal and incorruptible. Christians believe that a similar transformation of their bodies will take place when the dead rise again. Traditionally, a body that has undergone resurrection is termed “a glorified body.”
Bollandists
Authors: Hayes Patrick J.
Published: January 2012

The Société des Bollandistes, based sporadically in Belgium for over 350 years, is a collective of church historians who have sought to bring the historical–critical method to the study of hagiography. The group is responsible for the 68 folio volumes of the
Acta Sanctorum
, the most complete rendition of the lives of saints from antiquity to the middle ages. Its publication schedule spans three centuries, from the first volumes (saints' feasts for January) in 1643 to the 1940s. The organization's roots are closely associated with members of the Society of Jesus. Fr. Héribert Rosweyde, SJ (d. 1629), was the inspiration for bringing together the best learned hagiographical manuscripts in Belgian libraries and who, after assembling several studies such as the
Vitae Patrum
(1615), endeavored to collect in a multi‐volume work all those
vitae
of the Servants of God before the year 1500. Rosweyde's death necessitated the transfer in 1630 of fellow Jesuit Jean van Bolland (d. 1665), for whom the society takes its name. Before he died, Bolland assigned confreres Godefroid Henskens (Henschen) and Daniel van Papebroech to search for and collect copies of manuscripts in Germany, Italy, and France, and the library soon rivaled those of Rome. Work proceeded haltingly on the
Acta
, particularly because of the suppression of the Jesuits in 1773, which also disbanded portions of the library. Bollandists formally reconstituted in 1837 in Brussels. With financial and material assistance from local abbots and scholars from across Europe, the Bollandists again amassed the most significant library on saints in the world. In the last century, Fr. Hippolyte Delehaye not only contributed extensively to the workings of the society, he broadened the scope of their work from Latin, Greek, and Oriental texts to the Slavic, Nordic, Asian, and African texts. Today Bollandists publish the prestigious journal
Analecta Bollandiana
(begun 1882) that updates the
Acta Sanctorum
and a series of books,
Subsidia Hagiographica
(begun 1886). The Bollandists today are directed from offices located at the College St. Michel in Brussels.
Bonhoeffer,Dietrich (1906–1945)
Authors: Mills D. E. “Gene”
Published: January 2012

Dietrich Bonhoeffer was born on February 4, 1906 in Breslau, Germany into the family of noted physician and professor Karl Bonhoeffer. Both sides of Dietrich's family were well placed in society, giving him a privileged upbringing. He died in a Nazi prison camp on April 9, 1945. His 39 years earned him the legacy of martyr, theologian, pastor, and critic of both society and the church.
B
otticelli,
S
andro (1444/1445–1510)
Authors: Drake Joshua Farris
Published: January 2012

Florentine painter. Botticelli applied to painting the mytho‐poetic visions of Florentine humanism. Contemporary art theorist Leon Battista Alberti admonished painters to “associate with poets … who have many embellishments in common with painters and who have a broad knowledge of many things; whose greatest praise consists in invention.” Botticelli's association with the poets he admired led to artistic inventions that are as poetic as they are profound.
B
right,
B
ill (1921–2003)
Authors: Mullin Miles S.
Published: January 2012

Entrepreneur, author, Templeton Prize recipient, and founder of Campus Crusade for Christ, William R. “Bill” Bright was born in Coweta, Oklahoma, USA in 1921.
B
ruce,
F
rederick
F
yvie (1910–1990)
Authors: Bigalke Ron J.
Published: January 2012

Frederick Fyvie Bruce was born the oldest of seven children in Elgin, Scotland, on October 12, 1910, and died on September 11, 1990. As his father was a Plymouth (Open) Brethren evangelist, he maintained membership in that church (although he did not affirm the dispensationalism of the Plymouth Brethren). Theologically, Bruce could be considered a conservative (moderately) and reformed (although not a paedobaptist) evangelical. Not one to waver in reconsidering traditional doctrines, he stressed the hermeneutical priority (first principle) of Galatians 3:28 for interpreting Pauline statements that seem to forbid women from certain ministries. His interpretative methodology was to examine biblical passages without presuppositions. He believed the New Testament interpretation of the Old Testament should be examined exegetically. Bruce insisted that interpretation of individual passages should be understood within the whole of Scripture, and the whole of Scripture should be understood within the interpretation of individual passages.
B
ulgakov,
S
ergei
N
ikolaevich (1871–1944)
Authors: Foltz Bruce V.
Published: January 2012

Sergei Bulgakov was the most prominent thinker of the Russian Silver Age that immediately preceded the Revolutions of 1917, and after his emigration to Paris in 1925, he went on to become the most original, and probably the most widely known, Russian philosopher and theologian living in the west. He was born the son of an Orthodox priest, and the heir of distinguished priestly lineages on both maternal and paternal sides of his family. He grew up with a strong attachment to nature, and a spiritual orientation that he described as “a child's Christian ‘pantheism’.” He began seminary training at the age of 13, but within a few years had lost his faith in God, and shifted his allegiance to Marxism and the longing for “an earthly paradise,” yielding, as he later put it, to “the temptation to worship man.” He eventually became an economist holding a prestigious chair in agricultural economics — adapting Marx to the largely agrarian economy of Russia — and a politician who served in the Second Duma, or Russian parliament, of 1906. Along with many of the Russian intelligentsia, Bulgakov — having published in 1900 a major work called
Capitalism and Agriculture
— became disillusioned by the poor fit of Marxist economics to Russian reality, and disenchanted with the political irresponsibility of the left. Together with N. Berdyaev, he edited in 1909 an influential collection of articles called
Vekhi
or
Landmarks: A Collection of Essays on the Russian Intelligentsia
, which sought to articulate a vision for Russia more indigenous than the failed revolutionary politics. Published in 1912,
The
Philosophy of Economy
represents Bulgakov's major work as a philosopher, finalizes his break with Marxist political economy, and establishes the philosophical grounds for his later work as a theologian. Drawing upon both Orthodox mysticism and German Idealism, especially Schelling, he develops a deeply ecological vision of creation as
natura naturans
, as revealing divine energies, as divine wisdom (
Sophia
) at work. Meanwhile, through his experiences of numinous beauty in nature and art, and a mysterious visit to the hermitage of a
staretz
or spiritual elder — all of these (nature, art, and Church) being vital elements of his later concept of Sophia — he recovered his Orthodox faith, being ordained a priest 1918. He was exiled from Russia by the Bolsheviks in 1922, and continued his academic life at St. Sergius Orthodox Theological Institute in Paris, as both Professor of Dogmatic Theology and Founding Dean, until 1944 when, according to those present, he died as a saint.
B
yrd,
W
illiam (1540–1623)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas
Published: January 2012

The finest composer in Tudor England, he was the organist and choirmaster at Lincoln Cathedral from 1563 to 1572 and at the Chapel Royal in London, where he worked for the rest of his life. Some of his influence is related to the fact that he had Queen Elizabeth's license to print and sell music along with Thomas Tallis. A devout Roman Catholic, he left his imprint on church music but also excelled in madrigals and other popular forms of music. His large inspired output places him on the same rank as some of the greatest composers, such as Palestrina, Lassus, and Victoria.
Campanile
Authors: Whytock Jack C.
Published: January 2012

A campanile is generally a free‐standing bell tower which is adjacent to a church or a cathedral, thereby possessing an ecclesiastical purpose; it is also found on university campuses or in other public locations in its nonecclesiastical form. The campanile originated in Italy where it was built as a bell tower, thus playing a central role in the call to prayer for the daily offices or for worship. However, its origin is probably from the round towers that were built to fulfill military needs as watchtowers or those built along the coast as navigational aids in the 10th century and earlier. The word is from the Italiancampanameaning “bell.” In the plural form it is campanili, although it is seldom used in this form. Towers built on Syrian churches in the 4th century may be related to the Italian campanile. Thus the exact origin of the campanile may come from a variety of backgrounds.
Canonical Criticism
Authors: Hasel Frank M.
Published: January 2012

Canonical criticism is a recent hermeneutical approach that has its roots in the school of biblical theology. The best‐known representatives are Brevard Childs and James Sanders. The term “canonical criticism” was first coined by James Sanders and popularized in his bookTorah and Canon(1972) to denote a method of biblical criticism that operates subsequent to form‐ and redaction‐criticism. Canonical criticism is particularly interested in the meaning of texts within their canonical context and takes into consideration the nature of their assigned authority. Today it is used rather ambiguously with reference to a variety of interpretive approaches that share an appreciation of canonical accepted texts as foundational to all biblical exegesis.
Catechism
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J.
Published: January 2012

The word “catechism” is derived from the Greek word
katechaeo
, meaning “to instruct orally.” In the early church
katechaeo
referred to oral instruction in Christian doctrine by which non‐Christians were prepared for baptism in order to become members of the church. Although there apparently were some handwritten catechetical materials in the early Middle Ages, scholars believe that Martin Luther's
Small Catechism
(1529) was the first catechism to be published. Much of his catechism's content consists of questions and answers. He wrote his catechism to be used primarily by fathers to instruct their children and servants in basic Christian doctrines.
C
hambers,
O
swald (1874–1917)
Authors: Bigalke Ron J.
Published: January 2012

Oswald Chambers was born the son of a Baptist pastor, in Aberdeen, Scotland on July 24, 1874, and died in Egypt on November 15, 1917, after suffering from an emergency appendectomy. Oswald was the fourth and youngest son of nine children born to Clarence and Hannah Chambers. He was converted in his teenage years (1890) through the preaching ministry of Charles Spurgeon. Chambers studied art and archaeology at the University of Edinburgh despite his father's stern objections. He believed in serving God through his use of the arts, and that such expression lightened one's pilgrimage in the world. In addition to being an avid reader of several disciplines, Chambers loved music, and played the organ and piano. The calling to full‐time Christian ministry convinced him to withdraw from studies at the university despite a promising career in the arts. In 1897, he began studying theology at Dunoon Gospel Training College in Scotland; he would later teach art at the college and tutored students in philosophy and psychology. As a theology student, he developed a passion for evangelism and claimed to receive the Pentecostal baptism of the Holy Spirit. During this time, he began speaking at outdoor evangelistic meetings. From 1906 to 1907, he traveled with a Japanese evangelist to the United States and Japan and conducted meetings among Holiness and Methodist denominations. From 1907 to 1910, he maintained an itinerant Bible teaching ministry for the Pentecostal League of Prayer in Ireland and the United Kingdom, which was a component of the transdenominational British Wesleyan‐Holiness movement. In 1910, he married Gertrude (Biddy) Hobbs, a trained court stenographer. Oswald and Biddy had one daughter, Kathleen. In 1911, the Chamberses helped in the founding of the Bible Training College in Clapham, London, and Oswald served as the principal. He lectured at the college until it was closed in 1915 as a result of World War I. In October of that same year, the Chamberses left England for Zeitoun, Egypt, as the YMCA commissioned Oswald. Chambers ministered as chaplain to thousands of soldiers in desert camps from Australia and New Zealand.
C
haucer,
G
eoffrey (c.1343–1400)
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J.
Published: January 2012

Chaucer was a poet, a philosopher, a civil servant, a Member of Parliament, and a diplomat, born in London about 1343 and died in 1400. Some have speculated that he was probably murdered by the same enemies who murdered King Richard II, for the king was Chaucer's patron. He is buried in the poets' corner in London's Westminster Abbey.
C
hesterton,
G
ilbert
K
eith (1874–1936)
Authors: Edwards Jason R.
Published: January 2012

G. K. Chesterton was one of the greatest authors and Christian apologists of the 20th century. Throughout his life, he leveled his insightful mind and gifted pen against a host of popular 20th century causes, including socialism, relativism, materialism, skepticism, industrial capitalism, and eugenics. The famed argumentation of Chesterton — the “Prince of Paradox” — resounded with wit that exposed popular falsehoods as clever but ultimately nonsensical. Not limited to attack, Chesterton also remains one of the most eloquent advocates for common sense, beauty, the family, the poor, and Christianity.
Christ in Art
Authors: Quantz Amanda D.
Published: January 2012

As indicated by John of Damascus (c.676–749) in
On the Divine Images
, the Mystery of the Incarnation is the theological basis for visual representations of Christ. The history of these images provides valuable information about how the gospel message has been celebrated, interpreted, and represented by various societies and cultures. Throughout the church's evolution, each Christian society has emphasized key theological tenets in pictorial form. These issuesare related not only to Christology, but also to the culture, politics, spirituality, and the tastesof the day. Each of these variables has played a role in the overall gestalt of images of Christ throughout the ages. It is important to note that the term “art” which today is typically associated with ideas of novelty or uniqueness, cannot accurately be applied to these early representations of Christ. Rather, “art,” in the modern sense of the term, only began to develop in the 15th century Renaissance, when beauty and ingenuity became essential to the process of representing sacred subjects. This essay concludes with several insights about pictorial developments that arose in that period.
Christian Socialism
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J.
Published: January 2012

Although Frederick Denison Maurice's father was a Unitarian clergyman, Maurice later joined the Church of England, and in 1834 he became one of its ordained clergy. He was appalled by the widespread poverty, the misery of child labor, and the economic plight of the poor and working class in the 1830s and 40s. Similar to his acquaintance, John Malcolm Ludlow, he believed that socialism would ameliorate England's socio‐economic problems of the economically oppressed. But neither Maurice nor Ludlow wanted socialism, divorced from Christian principles. Socialism, in their opinion, needed the guidance of Christian values. Thus, Maurice coined the term “Christian socialism” in 1848, as he launched the Christian Socialist Movement. He had another close associate in Charles Kingsley, also an avid proponent of Christian socialism. In 1850, a periodical,
The Christian Socialist
, was created with Ludlow as editor.
Christian–Jewish Relations
Authors: Groppe Elizabeth T.
Published: January 2012

The Christian polemic against Judaism that scars the history of western civilization runs so deep that it is hard to imagine that the people known as the first “Christians” knew themselves only as Jews. The disciples of Jesus Christ were, in fact, one of many different groups within 1st century Judaism. The success of Paul's mission to the Gentiles, the dispensation from circumcision and observance of dietary law accorded Gentile converts, the destruction of the Temple and the fall of Jerusalem to the Romans in 70ce, and the failure of the Bar Kochba revolt in 135ceall contributed to the development of Christianity and Rabbinic Judaism as two distinct communities emergent from the complex matrix of 1st century Palestinian Judaism. The dominant approach in contemporary scholarship posits a dual “parting of the ways” of Christianity and Rabbinic Judaism, but no single interpretive paradigm can account for all the complexities of the actual historical record, and the parting took place at different times in different locales, and boundaries were sometimes quite ambiguous.
Church of the
N
azarene
Authors: Kurian George Thomas
Published: January 2012

The Church of the Nazarene is an offshoot of the Holiness Movement generated by Wesleyan Methodism. It was born through a merger of three independent Holiness groups: the Association of Pentecostal Churches of North America, the Church of the Nazarene, and the Holiness Church of Christ, in 1908 as the Pentecostal Church of the Nazarene. It gave up the name Pentecostal following the birth of Pentecostalism after Azusa Street and adopted the name of the Church of the Nazarene in 1919. Principal leaders in the early church were Phineas Bresee, William Howard Hoople, H. F. Reynolds, and C. B. Jernigan. The church is theologically and historically Methodist as modified by the Holiness movements of the 19th century and its early leaders were Methodist ministers. Its
Manual
is an adaptation of the Methodist Discipline. Its 15 articles summarize the essential teachings of the church. Church historians call it the right wing of the Holiness Movement because it did not abandon rituals entirely.