bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Cummins-or Something Isomorphic to Him
Authors: Smith Brian Cantwell
Published: November 2023

Everyone’s right. Or anyway that’s what I tell my students. ‘Look,’ I say; ‘this paper you are reading was written by a dedicated, intelligent person, who has devoted their life to studying these issues. The author’s had an insight, uncovered some subtlety, which they’re trying to tell us about. Imagine that they’re showing us a path through the forest. Problem is, people write in words; and words are blunt instruments: intellectual bulldozers, Caterpillar D9s-big bruisers, that cut wide swaths. Rare persons-poets, mostly-can wield words with enough finesse to clear a delicate trail, without doing too much collateral damage. But most of us, when we write, even when we think we are navigating an exquisite line, are in fact unwittingly mowing down trees, ripping up the earth, sowing all kinds of destruction.
The Marxist Critique of Morality and the Theory of Ideology
Authors: Rosen Michael
Published: November 2023

The question whether Marx’s theory has a moral or ethical dimension is one of the most controversial of all issues of Marx interpretation. The difficulty is easily seen. On the one hand, Marx has a number of uncompromisingly negative things to say about morality. Moreover, after 1845 at least, he affirms that his own theory is not a utopian or ethical one but ‘real positive science’. Yet, on the other hand, much of the language that he uses to describe capitalism is plainly condemnatory (for instance, that it is antagonistic, oppressive, and exploitative). Does this not represent an inconsistency on Marx’s part? Is he not moralizing and rejecting morality at the same time?
Aristotle on Posthumous Fortune
Authors: Scott Dominic
Published: November 2023

Can a person be harmed or benefited after death, even if there is no afterlife? Bizarre as the idea may sound, there are intuitions in its support. If, for instance, events after a person’s death bring about the demise of some venture to which they devoted all their energies, or if terrible misfortunes afflict their children, we might feel that this detracts from the success of their own life; we might even feel inclined to pity them.

Philosophical treatment of this issue goes back to Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics, I. I0–II, where he asks whether posthumous events can affect a person’s eudaimonia (‘happiness’). Unfortunately, his treatment of this issue has proved extremely perplexing. Some of his commentators take him to be entertaining the notion that the dead can be conscious of what happens to their reputation and to their descendants. At same time, they agree that Aristotle’s own psychology leaves no room for such post-mortem consciousness. Yet, if he is not talking about the souls of the departed in Hades and still maintains, as he seems to, that the dead can be affected posthumously, exactly what kind of effects does he have in mind? Both the question that Aristotle raises in I. I o and the answer that he gives in the subsequent chapter raise difficult problems. In this paper I wish to show how they can be resolved. In the course of doing this, we shall see how the question of posthumous effects, at first sight something of a philosophical curiosity, takes one deep into the mainstream of Aristotle’s ethics.
Ethical lntuitionism: Re-evaluations
Authors: Stratton-Lake Philip
Published: November 2023

Ethical Intuitionism was the dominant moral theory in Britain for much of the 18th, 19th and the first third of the twentieth century. However, during the middle decades of the twentieth century ethical intuitionism came to be regarded as utterly untenable. It was thought to be either empty, or metaphysically and epistemologically extravagant, or both. This hostility led to a neglect of the central intuitionist texts, and encouraged the growth of a caricature of intuitionism that could easily be rejected before moving on to 'more serious' philosophical theories. More recently, however, this hostility towards ethical intuitionism has subsided. A wide range of moral philosophers, from Aristotelians, to rule-consequentialists, to expressivists, Kantians and deontologists, are beginning to look to the ethical intuitionists's work as a positive resource. It is, therefore, a good time to get clear on what it was that intuitionists said, and re-evaluate their contribution to our understanding of morality. This volume is the first serious engagement with ethical intuitionism in the light of contemporary developments in ethical theory. It contains essays by eminent moral philosophers working in very different traditions whose aim is to clarify and assess ethical intuitionism. Issues addressed include whether the plurality of basic principles intuitionists adhere to can be grounded in some more fundamental principle; the autonomy of ethics and self-evidence; moral realism and internalism; and the open question argument and naturalism.
Introduction
Authors: Stratton-Lake Philip
Published: November 2023

It is generally agreed that certain forms of intuitionism best reflect common-sense morality. One would have thought, therefore, that intuitionism has a certain default plausibility. But during the 1950s and 1960s intuitionism was rejected out of hand as an utterly untenable theory. How could a theory that aims to stick so closely to common sense come to be thought of as so implausible? Some criticized it on the ground that it succeeded in its aim of sticking closely to common sense too well, that it failed to tell us anything we do not already know, and is thus completely vacuous.2 Others criticized it for the opposite reason: they objected to it, not because it expresses a series of obvious truths, but because it makes metaphysical and epistemological claims that are excessively extravagant, and were thought to be patently false.
The Linguistic Traditions of Lexicography
Authors: Béjoint Henri
Published: November 2023

DICTIONARIES have always been shaped by the needs of their users, or at least by what lexicographers knew, or imagined, of those needs, and by what lexicographers knew about language in general and about words in particular; not only by what the users wanted, but also by what the lexicographers could offer. The fundamental similarities between the general-purpose dictionaries of many societies can partly be explained by the similarities in the linguistic knowledge of the lexicographers.
Vestiges of Archaic Chinese Derivational Affixes in Modern Chinese Dialects
Authors: Sagart Laurent
Published: November 2023

It has been suggested by Paul F. M. Yang (1977-8) that the pre-syllables found in some disyllabic words in north and south Chinese dialects are remnants of Archaic Chinese prefixes. Yet nowhere, until recently, had Sinitic languages been found in which affixes such as those isolated by Yang still played a clear derivational role, with a discernible meaning. The recent efflorescence of descriptive work on Chinese dialects has changed this state of affairs.
Introduction
Authors: Durand Jacques , Laks Bernard
Published: November 2023

As the title indicates, Phonetics, Phonology, and Cognition addresses the central question of the cognitive status of phonological representations and their relationship with phonetic implementations. We are aware that the term ‘cognition’ has become fashionable and has been bandied about in an irresponsible way in much linguistic and other theorizing over the last few decades. Our choice of theme, however, implies a real commitment to the view that phonology is a subsystem (not necessarily modular) of the mind/ brain. This has become a standard position since the advent of the generative paradigm but the issue of implementation has often been neglected, indeed often relegated to a subordinate position from an epistemological point of view. But current research allows a much more precise and detailed examination of both cognitive and biological systems involved in speech.
Spatial memory, landmark use and orientation in fish
Authors: Braithwaite Victoria A
Published: November 2023

Fish are a large and very successful taxonomic group. There are over 22 000 living species of tleosts (Pitcher 1993) and the cartilaginous fish, such as sharks and rays, swell the numbers even more. Being such a large group, fish are found in a wide range of aquatic habitats. For example, some fish live in, and swim around, highly, colourful and visually rich coral reefs while others explore and live in underwater caves, or at extreme depths where little, or no, light penetrates. This diverse array of habitats has led to fish facing many different types of spatial problems. Spatial orientation and memory are fundamental for all fish, from those that remain on a very restricted area of a reef, or coast, to long-distance migrants. An ability to track current location relative to the position of important features in the environment, such as shelter, will increase a fish’s chances of escaping from predators. Generally, efficient movement is aided by a map and an animal that knows the location of different resources with respect to one another can construct a map for a familiar area.
Neural mechanisms of spatial representation
Authors: Sherry David , Healy Sue
Published: November 2023

Our modern understanding of the neural basis of spatial orientation begins with a theory about the function of the mammalian hippocampus. In their book, The hippocampus as a cognitive map, John O’Keefe and Lynn Nadel (1978) proposed that the hippocampus was a neural structure dedicated to creating and maintaining a mental map of space. This theory rested on two observations. The first was that some complex spike cells in the rat hippocampus, so called because of their pattern of electrical discharge, were selectively active when the animal was in certain places in its environment (O’Keefe and Dostrovsky 1971). The receptive fields of these cells were locations in space. When the animal left the place where the place cell was active, the cell became electrically quiet. The locations in which place cells fired were of various shapes and sizes and different cells were usually active in different places (Fig. 8.1).
Cytokines: a world apart?
Authors: Mantovani A , Dinarello C A , Ghezzi P
Published: November 2023

Cytokines are secreted proteins that have pleiotropic regulatory effects on hematopoietic and non-hematopoietic cells. They are produced by virtually every nucleated cell in the body and encompass families of regulators including interleukins, tumor-necrosis factors, interferons and certain growth factors. The borders of the cytokine world are ill-defined and unstable. For instance, a ‘growth factor’, like transforming growth factor (TGF/3), is perhaps better accommodated in the cytokine realm than among growth factors sensu strictu. Sometimes this sliding continent even includes hematopoietic and non- hematopoietic growth factors.
Antibodies and soluble receptors
Authors: Mantovani A , Dinarello C A , Ghezzi P
Published: November 2023

Antibodies and soluble receptors provide a strategy for capturing and blocking cytokines before they interact with their receptors. This strategy is conceptually simple. Interestingly, with the exception of serum therapy against toxins and poisons in a distinct though related area, agonist blockade has not received major attention in classical mainstream pharmacology. With the advent of the cytokine era, this picture has changed dramatically. Antibodies are the single anti-cytokine strategy that has been studied most in one human disease, with consistent results. Thus, in a way, anti-cytokine antibodies, anti- TNF specifically, provide a paradigm for the potential of these novel therapeutic approaches. While the mode of action of antibodies and soluble receptors is intuitively simple, the reality may be more complex. Indeed, antibodies and soluble receptors may have more complex and subtle interactions with the agonist, acting for instance as delivery systems or prolonging the half-life of agonist cytokines. Indeed, the prospect of using these molecules, soluble receptors in particular, as anti-cytokine or growth factor tools has been a powerful force to better understand their biology and has unraveled unsuspected complexities and interactions with agonists.
Septic shock
Authors: Mantovani A , Dinarello C A , Ghezzi P
Published: November 2023

The diagnosis of sepsis syndrome or septic shock is based on a constellation of physiologic, metabolic, and hematologic abnormalities, most commonly occurring in patients with a known infection. In most cases, the patient is already hospitalized with an antecedent illness or has experienced recent surgery.
The biochemistry of protein oxidation in cells and cell-free systems
Authors: Davies Michael J , Dean Roger T
Published: November 2023

Here we deal primarily with protein oxidation in cells in culture and in cell-free systems derived from them, leaving consideration of its relevance to organismal function to later chapters. Note that we also defer consideration of markers for protein oxidation which can be used reliably in cellular studies until the next chapter, since the critical issues are similar for cellular and organismal systems, and there are currently more data available on the latter.
Introduction
Authors: Yamamoto Hisashi
Published: November 2023

Are enzymatic reactions really good models for laboratory chemical reactions? An enzyme is a giant molecule, large enough to support a substrate, whereas chemical reagents are composed of much smaller molecules. Still, the much smaller molecular apparatus of human-made reagents is expected to induce reactions with selectivities comparable to those of a large enzyme. Clearly, the design of new reagents requires careful abstraction and simplification of the true mechanism of an enzyme, much like the design of an aircraft might be based on the aerodynamics of a bird.
Lewis acid-assisted anionic polymerizations for synthesis of polymers with controlled molecular weights
Authors: Aida Takuzo , Takeuchi Daisuke
Published: November 2023

Unlike some naturally occurring macromolecules such as enzymes, synthetic polymers, except those obtained by stepwise approach, are of broad molecular weight distributions (MWD). In other words, they are mixtures of macro molecules with different molecular weights. Since ‘molecular weight’ is an essential factor affecting fundamental properties of polymer materials, it is important to develop a method for the synthesis of a polymer with a desired molecular weight with a narrow MWD.
Solubilities of involatile substances
Authors: Clifford Tony
Published: November 2023

This chapter considers the behaviour and prediction of the solubility of compounds of higher molar mass, often solids, in supercritical fluids. The solubility of relatively large molecules in supercritical fluids is an important topic, which has been the subject of a large number of experimental and theoretical studies. Good data on solubilities are important in designing supercritical fluid processes, particularly supercritical fluid fractionation, as described in Chapter 6. This topic is a constituent part of the subject of Chapter 2, but has been separated because of its importance. It is difficult to make good predictions of solubilities in supercritical fluids from molecular properties in the absence of any experimental data (Johnston et al. 1989), although some success has been achieved for non-polar molecules in some cases and theoretical efforts are continuing. The basic problem is that there is a logarithmic relationship between the solubility and the energies in the systems, so that errors in pre diction of the latter have a large effect on solubility predictions.
Preparation of organic conductors
Authors: Ogura Fumio , Takimiya Kazuo
Published: November 2023

Since the striking discovery of the charge-transfer (CT) complex of tetrathiafulvalene (TTF, 1) and 7,7,8,8-tetracyanoquinodimethane (TCNQ, 2) as the first synthetic metal, the development of novel electron donors and acceptors and the synthesis of organic metals and superconductors from them have aroused great interest among not only organic chemists but also scientists in many other interdisciplinary areas.
Introduction
Authors: Tomascik Tomas , Mah Anmarie Janice , Nontji Anugerah , Moosa Mohammad Kasim
Published: November 2023

The tropical Indo-Pacific ocean has recently been considered as the ‘largest eco­logical system on earth’ extending from the eastern tropical Pacific to the east wast of Africa (Sheppard et al. 1992). This vast area contains much of the world’s marine biodiversity including a wide range of marine and coastal environment, that support it.
The Ecology of the Indonesian seas
Authors: Tomascik Tomas , Mah Anmarie Janice , Nontji Anugerah , Moosa Mohammad Kasim
Published: November 2023

Located between the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and between the Asian and Australian continents, the seas of the Indonesian Archipelago have a significant role in global weather patterns and oceanic circulation. The dynamic interplay between geological, physical, chemical, and biological processes, past and present, has given rise to one of the most diverse marine regions on the planet. The exceptional marine and coastal ecosystem diversity of the Indonesian archipelago provides hundreds of habitats that support thousands of species. This treasure-trove of marine biodiversity has sustained the people of the archipelago for thousands of years. Population growth and socio-economic development place many of these resources at increasing risk of overexploitation. Using maps and numerous illustrations, The Ecology of the Indonesian Seas describes the complex and ecologically vulnerable coastal and marine ecosystems of the region in rich detail. Discussion of development, resource use and ecologically sustainable management plans is also incorporated. The first step towards sustainable use of marine and coastal resources, this book will be a valuable tool for ecologists, marine biologists, resource managers, government planners, and all those with an interest in the ecology of the region. Bound in two parts, of which this is the second, The Ecology of the Indonesian Seas is part of The Ecology of Indonesia Series.
Introduction
Authors: Katsuki T
Published: November 2023

Oxidation is an electron transfer reaction from a substrate to a reagent which is called as oxidant. Even if limited to organic reactions, a wide variety of reactions, such as hydroxylation, epoxidation, dihydroxylation, aziridination, hydroxyamination, halogenation, etc., are classified into oxidation reactions. As the names of each reaction indicate, these reactions are related to the functionalization of the substrates. For example, hydroxylation of alkanes produces alcohols and epoxidation and dihydroxylation of alkenes affords epoxides and dials, respectively. In addition to this, most oxidation reactions endow oxidized carbon(s) with chirality (Eqs 1—3). Newly introduced oxygen functionalities can be transformed stereospecifically into various other useful functional groups. Thus, stereocontrolled oxidation reactions are valuable and potent tools for the synthesis of optically active and functionalized compounds. For these reasons, much effort has long been devoted to the study of asymmetric oxidation. This book starts with a brief review of the development of stereocontrol in oxidation reactions and the following chapters are devoted to the practical approaches to various asymmetric oxidation reactions.
Oxidation of carbonyl compounds
Authors: Bolm, C , Luong T K K , Beckmann O
Published: November 2023

In 1899, Baeyer and Villiger investigated reactions of ketones with Caro’s reagent, peroxomonosulfuric acid, and they observed a previously unknown transformation: an oxygen atom was inserted into the C—C bond αto the carbonyl group, affording esters and lactones. Later, for this new type of oxidation the term ‘Baeyer–Villiger reaction’ was coined. Various peroxy compounds such as peracids, hydrogen peroxide, and alkyl peroxides can be used as oxidants yielding esters and lactones from acyclic and cyclic ketones, respectively. Acids, bases, enzymes (see Chapter 5, Section 5.3 for biological Baeyer–Villiger reaction), and metal-containing reagents catalyse Baeyer–Villiger reactions. As to the mechanism of the Baeyer–Villiger reaction of ketones with organic peracids, a two-step process originally proposed by Criegee is generally accepted: the first step is a reversible proton-catalysed addition of the peroxy compound to the ketone carbonyl affording an intermediate tetrahedral peroxyhemiketal. The following, in most cases, rate-determining step involves the migration of one of the two substituents to the next oxygen atom, simultaneous 0—0 bond cleavage and release of the acid moiety.
Distribution, habitats and conservation status
Authors: Payne Robert B
Published: November 2023

Cuckoos occur around the world in tropical and temperate regions. More species live in the Old World (n = 109) than in the New World (n = 32). The northernmost cuckoos (Common Cuckoo Cuculus canorus, Oriental Cuckoo C. optatus, Indian Cuckoo C. micropterus, Asian Lesser Cuckoo C. polio cephalus) occur in northern Europe and Russia in summer.They are migrant brood-parasites that lay in the nests of migrant Palearctic songbirds and then winter in the tropics, sometimes crossing the equator and even passing over the Indian Ocean from Asia to Africa. In the New World the two species (Yellow billed Cuckoo, Black-billed Cuckoo Coccyzus ery thropthalmus) that breed in the United States and Canada are mainly warm-weather birds that spend most of the year in the New World tropics. No cuckoo species occurs regularly and breeds in both the Old World and the New World, although vagrants from northeastern Asia (Common Cuckoo and Oriental Cuckoo) turn up in the Alaskan archi pelago and northern Alaska in migration season, and vagrant Black-billed Cuckoos and Yellow-billed Cuckoos from northeastern North America show up in many years in Europe from Iceland to Italy.
Breeding biology and life histories
Authors: Payne Robert B
Published: November 2023

The breeding behavior of cuckoos ranges from solitary pairs, to social groups that breed coopera tively, to brood parasitism. Cuckoos are altricial, and the young hatch and remain in the nest in a nearly helpless state, unable to feed themselves, and are completely dependent on their parents or their fos ter parents to provide care and to feed them. The adult females vary from providing parental care to their young in their nest, to the absence of both nest-building behavior and parental care in the brood-parasitic cuckoos. The adult males take on the life style of their females, and some males even provide more parental care than their mates. Among nesting cuckoos, many are secretive and solitary and live alone or in breeding pairs. In con trast, the communally nesting anis and Guira Cuckoos are conspicuous and social birds, living in the same social group both in the breeding season and also when they are not breeding.
Combinatorial synthesis
Authors: Terrett Nicholas K
Published: November 2023

Combinatorial chemistry has its earliest origins in solid phase peptide synthesis. Merrifield’s Nobel Prize-winning invention depended on the use of consistent and reliable reaction conditions for peptide couplings, and the use of a polymeric solid phase to permit the simple separation of products from reagents (Merrifield 1963). The solid phase techniques have been greatly refined over the years to allow the creation of essentially any peptide molecule in a consistently high yield. In the mid 1980s, several academic teams realized that so reliable and consistent were the synthetic reactions, that the same conditions could be used to make many peptides simultaneously in the same reaction vessel. In this way, productivity could be enhanced, and the discovery of peptide epitopes responsible for protein recognition and binding could be accelerated. In particular, Houghten’s use of ‘tea-bags’ as porous containers for solid phase resin beads, allowed the same peptide coupling step to be applied to many beads simultaneously irrespective of the sequence already attached to the bead (Houghten 1985). However, the mix and split procedure, first described by Furka (Furka et al.1988), and used shortly after by Houghten (Houghten et al.1991) and Lam (Lam et al.1991), allowed huge numbers of peptides to be made in a very few number of chemical steps, and combinatorial chemistry was born.
Other solid phases
Authors: Terrett Nicholas K
Published: November 2023

Unlike the synthesis of compound libraries on resin beads, the use of other solid phases such as multipoint and laminar solid phases can be generally described as spatially addressable combinatorial methods. Usually, the compounds made on these supports are discrete, single, and made simultaneously by an efficient combinatorial method. During screening, the library will yield information instantly on individual components, the identity of the compounds being determined by their spatial position within the library array. This is not to say that resin bead-based synthesis cannot be used for a spatially addressable library. In fact these methods of making single compounds in a spatially addressable form using resin samples in discrete tubes or positions in a 96-well micro titre block are gaining in popularity.
Solution phase library synthesis
Authors: Terrett Nicholas K
Published: November 2023

Much of this book has so far described the synthesis of combinatorial libraries on solid phase. The benefit of preparing libraries on resin beads has been explained as offering advantages in handling, especially where there is a need to separate excess reagents from the reaction products attached to the resin. In most cases a simple filtration effects a rapid purification, and the products are ready for further synthetic transformation. But it should be remembered that using solid phase chemistry brings several disadvantages as well. Clearly the range of chemistry available on solid phase, although rapidly growing, is limited. Furthermore, it is much more difficult to monitor the progress of reactions when the substrate and product are attached to solid phase. Although methods are rapidly being developed to increase the range of solid phase chemistry, and there is an increasing use of IR and NMR techniques to characterize compounds whilst still attached to the solid phase, it is not inappropriate to ask whether all these difficulties could be simply avoided in the first place by using solution phase chemistry to prepare combinatorial libraries.
The Barton decarboxylation and related reactions
Authors: Zard Samir Z
Published: November 2023

The carboxylic acid functional group is ubiquitous in nature, and the possibility of manipulating it using radical chemistry opens tremendous synthetic opportunities. It was known from the work of Kolbe in the middle of the nineteenth century that the electrolysis of carboxylic acid salts gave alkanes which seemed to arise from the joining of two of the alkyl groups of the starting carboxylic acid (Scheme 5.1). This reaction proceeds through an acyloxyl (also called carboxylic) radical which under goes loss of Co2.
Atom and group transfer reactions
Authors: Zard Samir Z
Published: November 2023

The accidental discovery by Kharasch and his students of the dramatic effect of oxygen or peroxides on the course of the addition of hydrogen bromide to olefins (cf. Scheme 1.4) is an important watershed in the history of radical chemistry, not only because it established conclusively the role of free radicals as reactive intermediates in solution, but also because this early example of a chain process is the prototype for a large number of exceedingly useful reactions (reviews: Stacey and Harris 1963; Walling and Huyser 1963; Sosnovsky 1964). In fact, many of the radical reactions of organo-tin, -germanium, and -silicon hydrides that we have seen in the earlier chapters may be viewed as particular cases of the ‘Kharasch-type’ atom or, more generally, group transfer process.
Applications of the Wittig reaction in the synthesis of heterocyclic and carbocyclic compounds
Authors: Schobert Rainer
Published: November 2023

Since its discovery, the Wittig olefination reaction has been widely used in organic synthesis for the construction of olefinic double bonds from various types of carbonyl functionalities (aldehydes, ketones, esters, amides, etc.) and phosphorus ylides of different reactivity. Although the mechanism of this important C=C bond forming process is still under debate, insights into the principles governing its regio- and stereoselectivity are now sufficiently deep, to allow for it, to be harnessed reliably in retrosynthetic strategies. From the early days of ‘Wittig chemistry’, its possible application to the formation of cyclic target structures attracted considerable interest and consequently, access to a host of carbocyclic as well as of heterocyclic compounds has been opened by this reaction. In the following brief overview only such applications are to be mentioned where the Wittig reaction makes for the actual ring closure step in an intramolecular process, thus reactions which merely lead to precursors of the cyclization step proper are excluded. Likewise, non-Wittig-type cyclizations involving phosphorus ylides such as cycloadditions between acyl ylides and azides to give 1,2,3-triazoles will not be considered here. SN2-type ring-closure reactions of ω -halo-ylides belong to the same category; nonetheless, one example of their use towards the synthesis of small ring systems with exocylic double bond is given in Section 2.1 (Scheme 1).
Preparation and reactions of iminophosphoranes and their synthetic applications in the aza-Wittig reaction
Authors: Mike Southern J , O’Neil Ian A
Published: November 2023

Iminophosphoranes (IMPs) were first reported by Staudinger and Meyer in 1919. Initially, they were treated as little more than chemical curiosities, and it is only in the past three or four decades that their synthetic potential has been realized. IMPs consist of a phosphorus–nitrogen double bond and are isoelectronic with the phosphoranes employed in the Wittig reaction, although, in the case of IMPs, it is more accurate to depict the nitrogen–phosphorus bond as double rather than as an ylide (Scheme 1). This makes the IMPs more stable and less basic than the corresponding Wittig reagents, which exhibit more ylide-like character.
Introduction
Authors: Osborn Helen M I , Khan Tariq H
Published: November 2023

Spectacular advances in all disciplines of science have been realised in recent years and our understanding of many biological processes has continued to improve as the full implications of new discoveries have become appreciated. However, many questions which probe the depth of this understanding remain unanswered. For example, some questions of therapeutic importance include: why are some tumour cells able to migrate from their original cancerous site and produce further tumours at secondary sites? Are there any unusual properties of the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) which explain why AIDS is so difficult to treat? How do bacteria, viruses and toxins evade the body’s immune system and initiate infective processes? If we could answer questions such as these we would undoubtedly improve our ability to treat such life-threatening diseases, which have defied effective therapy for many years. Many scientists now believe that carbohydrates may provide the missing clues to these puzzling questions. Over the past few years there has been a resurgence of interest in carbohydrate chemistry and biochemistry, and this reflects the important roles which carbohydrates play within biological systems. Thus carbohydrates which have traditionally been merely associated with energy storage and skeletal components are now being associated with a wider range of biological processes within all living systems.
Human genetic diversity and disease susceptibility
Authors: Bodmer Walter
Published: November 2023

The emphasis in my paper is on the sources of genetic variation in human populations, and its implications. Where does the genetic variation come from? Why is it there? What maintains it in populations? I aim to relate these questions to the variation in populations which has been the subject of previous chapters, and also to include some discussion on mutation which is the ultimate origin of variation between genes in any population.
Getting the Message
Authors: Solymar Laszlo
Published: November 2023

The past century has seen developments in communications technology probably unrivalled in any other field of human activity. Significant advances are made every year, and both our work and leisure activities are critically influenced by these developments. Getting the message explores the fascinating history of communications, starting with ancient civilisations, the Greeks and Romans, then leading through the development of the electric telegraph, and up to the present day with email and cellular phones. The technology is explained in a particularly simple and accessible way, and themes from politics, economics, and society weave in and out of the scientific ideas. The book concludes with a look at the possible future of communications, the new developments to come, and the implications these will have for our everyday lives. Lavishly illustrated, and including many original illustrations that show just how these new developments were received in their time, the book presents an informative and highly entertaining introduction to the field of communications.
Influence of Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient on Performance of Plate Heat Exchangers
Authors: Mehrabian M A
Published: November 2023

The advantages of plate heat exchangers are their versatility and simplicity of construction (clamped plates interleaved with gaskets). Inlet and outlet ports, controlled by the gaskets, allow hot and cold fluids to flow in alternate channels. In liquid-liquid heat exchangers [I] the overall heat transfer coefficient, U, varies with temperature and thus with length of the exchanger, so the calculation of heat transfer by use of Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD) may lead to errors.
Introduction: organisms, sediments, and water movements
Authors: Little Colin
Published: November 2023

During winter, the intertidal mudflats of the Chesapeake Bay, a large estuarine system on the east coast of North America, are crowded with wading birds. Dunlin (Calidris alpma), dowitchers (Limnodromus spp.), and oystercatchers (Haematopus spp.) accumulate in large feeding flocks. Meanwhile, mudflats in the Severn estuary, in southwest England, are visited by up to 2000 curlew (Numenius arcata), 2000 redshank (Tringa totanus), and 50 000 dunlin. As well as these mobile armies, the richness of the habitats is emphasized by the extensive fringing salt marshes, where cordgrasses (Spartina spp.) dominate meadows that are flooded by sea water at high spring tides. These salt marshes are some of the most productive areas in the world, vying with tropical rain forests and coral reefs for the highest rates at which carbon is fixed.
Estuarine ecosystems
Authors: Little Colin
Published: November 2023

In previous chapters we have emphasized the variety of habitats within estuaries. These habitats do not, of course, exist in isolation, but interact with each other, both physically and biologically. For example, mangroves and salt marshes provide organic detritus that may fuel food webs on adjacent flats, while fish and crustaceans move backwards and forwards between the mudflats and the marshes. Indeed, fish may spend much of their time outside estuarine areas, providing a link with the open sea.
Uses and abuses: human impacts and counter-measures
Authors: Little Colin
Published: November 2023

Because of their strategic position, offering sites for river crossings, harbours, and industries of many sorts, estuaries have become a focus for large proportions of the world’s population. In the USA, the Chesapeake Bay has cities such as Richmond, Washington, and Baltimore at the head of its tributary subestuaries. In Britain, London and its docks dominate the Thames estuary, and more than 30% of the population lives around estuaries. In Australia, 60% of the population is concentrated in cities on the edge of estuaries.
Challenges in structural molecular biology: genomics in three dimensions
Authors: Janin Joël
Published: November 2023

Challenges are the daily bread of science. Research is all about creating new knowledge, new ways of understanding and mastering the world around us. Structural molecular biology is even more so, as a relatively new and fast moving field of investigation. Its specific aim is to give a description of biological macromolecules and their assemblies at the atomic level, and to relate their structure to the many elaborate functions they perform in cells and organisms. The founding example, arguably still the best example of a structure that explains a function, is the DNA double helix discovered by Jim Watson and Francis Crick in 1953 (Watson and Crick 1953). Their discovery entirely changed biology, and the consequences are still far from exhausted. A few years after the double helix, Max Perutz and John Kendrew found the haemoglobin structure (Perutz et al. 1959) and established X-ray crystallography as the major tool for determining macromolecular structures at the atomic level. At the end of this century, crystallography has been joined by electron microscopy and high resolution nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). The three techniques have different capacities and limitations, they complement each other and, together, they strive to meet new challenges. One of these is to tackle larger and larger objects and to make structural biology progress upwards from the angstrom (A) scale of the atom to the micrometre (pm) scale of cells, where optical microscopy can take over. In specific cases, X-ray crystallography almost reaches there, as it has succeeded in solving the atomic structure of viruses nearly 1000 A, or 0.1 pm, in diameter. Still, viruses are best studied by the very powerful combination of crystallography and electron microscopy pioneered by Aaron Klug (1983) and now extended to macromolecular assemblies such as the ribosome or the cell membrane. In general, large structures are being approached by crystallography in parallel with other techniques, among which near-field microscopies may become important contributors in coming years.
Data collection and reduction methods
Authors: Leslie A G W
Published: November 2023

This chapter describes modern methods for collecting and processing X-ray diffraction data from macromolecules. The first five sections deal with practical aspects of data collection, with Section 2.1 focusing primarily on laboratory sources. Complementary information on synchrotron radiation instrumentation is given in the next chapter by Fourme et al. (Chapter 3). The final section deals with the computational aspects of integrating diffraction intensities and merging and scaling the data. More detailed accounts of many of these topics can be found in Carter and Sweet (1997) and Sawyer et al. (1993).
Electron density-calculation, modification and interpretation
Authors: Kjeldgaard Morten
Published: November 2023

For every diffracted beam in a diffraction experiment, the intensity I^i of reflection hkl is proportional to the square of the structure factor F^kb The structure factor can be expressed as a summation of waves scattered from every infinitesimal volume element d V by the expression
X-ray microscopy
Authors: Buckley C J
Published: November 2023

Monochromatic X-rays interact with specimens in a very different way than light, infrared radiation or electrons. The highly specific interaction of these X-rays provides for elemental and chemical state analysis of samples in a range of environments including the wet state. The short wavelength of X-rays places the fundamental limit of spatial resolution more than two orders of magnitude smaller than that of light. However, microscopy using X-rays has only recently been possible. The current advances in this area are due to the emergence of high resolution X-ray optics and X-ray sources with sufficient brilliance. Due to the availability of these resources, it is likely that the next few years will see a considerable expansion in the use of X-ray microscopy to tackle problems in the biological and material sciences.
The fundamentals of electrochemistry
Authors: Bond A M
Published: November 2023

Electrochemistry is regarded as a mature scientific discipline, having a distinguished two-hundred-year-old history (Table 1.1). Electrochemistry giants such as Faraday and Nernst are well known to all students of chemistry. Furthermore, important applied devices based on electrochemical technology have been in widespread use by the general public throughout the twentieth century. An obvious example of an electrochemical ‘product’ that has been well known for generations is the lead-acid battery used in motor vehicles (Section 6.3).
Product operator formalism
Authors: Freeman Ray
Published: November 2023

For those who aspire to lead the spins a merry dance by inventing new pulse sequences, the most valuable tool of all is, without doubt, the product operator treatment.1-5 Whereas the vector model is based firmly on geometry, the product operator treatment relies on algebra, but this has been distilled from the full density operator theory in a manner that avoids the unwieldy nature of density operators applied to multispin systems. Once the basic rules of this algebra have been assimilated, we can adopt several shorthand notations that retain the essential physics without the need to write out all the explicit equations. The beauty of the scheme is that it retains the intuitive geometrical analogies characteristic of the vector model, so that we can focus our attention on the new spin physics while taking the formal¬ ism for granted.
Spin echoes
Authors: Freeman Ray
Published: November 2023

One of the most versatile tools available to the NMR spectroscopist is the spin echo experiment.1 Not only does it pervade the fields of solid- and liquid-state NMR, ESR, and magnetic resonance imaging, but it has acted as a catalyst for the invention of a host of new physical techniques introduced over the last four decades. Today we take it for granted that nuclear spins can be manipulated in much the same way that a conjuror performs tricks with a pack of cards, but if we examine the origin of these ideas we see that it was the spin echo experiment that inspired these fascinating studies in spin choreography. This chapter will restrict itself to the theme of spin echoes in high resolution liquid-phase NMR where the impact of this idea has been extremely influential.
Broadband decoupling
Authors: Freeman Ray
Published: November 2023

The recording of 13C spectra without C-H spin-spin splitting is a widespread and routine operation in high resolution spectroscopy, going under the name of broadband decoupling. It is perhaps useful at this stage to clear up some semantic points. There is a distinction between a splitting, which is an observable in the high resolution spectrum, and coupling, which is a physical interaction between two nuclear spins carried through the valence electrons in the molecule. A double resonance experiment may modify the splitting but it certainly does not change the spin-spin coupling constant. Evidence for this assertion is provided by the fact that broadband decoupling sequences are very effective in promoting the liquid-phase Hartmann-Hahn effect,1-3 where the coupling is responsible for the coherence transfer(§ 1.4.5). Strong continuous irradiation of a particular spin species also causes saturation, but this has nothing to do with decoupling, as we can test by switching off the irradiation-the spin-spin splittings are restored immediately but the saturation persists for times of the order of the spin-lattice relaxation time.
Two-dimensional spectroscopy
Authors: Freeman Ray
Published: November 2023

Imagine for a moment that an extraterrestrial civilization is monitoring life on Earth through a satellite-based telescope and doing its best to make sense of the observations. Some of our sporting activities might well pose a considerable challenge to their understanding. One bewildering observation would be in athletics-the relay race. Several runners go around an approximately oval track but they inexplicably stop when they meet a second group of athletes who, after a short period of confusion, then set off at full speed. What is going on? The telescope in question is limited in resolution and misses some details of the changeover but it is clear that the net result is a high degree of correlation between the colours worn by the fastest runners in the first stage and those of the leading runners in the second.
The ecological theory of adaptive radiation
Authors: Schluter Dolph
Published: November 2023

What causes adaptive radiation, elevated rates of speciation together with correlated divergence of phenotype and use of environment? In this chapter I review the body of ideas that make up the ‘ecological theory’ of adaptive radiation. This theory holds that adaptive radiation is ultimately the outcome of divergent natural selection stemming from environments and resource competition. The theory was built mainly by Simpson (1944,1953), Lack (1947), and Dobzhansky (1951), but it brought together views of many other naturalists back to Darwin. It survives to the present as the last major synthesis of ideas to explain the processes driving ecological diversification of lineages.
General introduction
Authors: Ricard-Blum Sylvie , Dublet * Bernard , der Rest Michel van
Published: November 2023

The name collagen was first given, in the early nineteenth century, to the substance from animal tissues that gives rise to glue upon boiling. It was later discovered that collagen is a fibrous protein and that it assembles into fibrils that appear striated when observed using electron microscopy. These collagen fibrils are responsible for the tensile strength of connective tissues. Study of the molecules responsible for the formation of striated fibrils revealed that these molecules are formed of a large triple helical domain in which three polypeptide chains wind around each other in a unique way (Fig. 1) to form a rod-like structure that favours lateral interactions between adjacent collagen molecules. The triple helical domain is characterized by a repetitive (Gly-Xaa-Yaa),, amino-acid sequence, with Xaa and Yaa being frequently proline and hydroxyproline residues, respectively. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, it was discovered that different types of collagen molecules could be extracted from tissues. The first three collagen types that were described (types I, II and III) are very closely related molecules that participate in the formation of striated fibrils.
The coming of multicellular organisms
Authors: Williams R J P , Silva J J R Fraústo Da
Published: November 2023

Given the time when multicellular organisms first appeared (Table 14.l), less than a billion years ago, it is likely that a considerable level of dioxygen in the atmosphere was necessary to generate both their external structure (Fig. 14.1) and some new internal features of their cells. The special internal features are not present in single cell aerobic eukaryotes, but clearly multicellular organisms are derived from these organisms.