bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Effects of high intensity white noise on short‐term memory for position in a list and sequence
Authors: Daee Safar , Wilding J. M.
Published: April 2011

Seven experiments are described investigating the effect of high intensity white noise during the visual presentation of words on a number of short‐term memory tasks. The findings were:

In a free recall task recall of items decreased at the highest intensity used (85 dB) compared with a quiet and a 75 dB condition.

In free recall, recall by category decreased and recall in the original sequence increased in the 75 dB compared with the other two conditions.

Recall of the position of words in the list increased as noise intensity increased, but only when the learning of position was incidental, not when it was intentional. It is inferred that the effect is due to direction of attention or change in the learning strategy.

Recall of the original sequence (as shown by the ability to give in response to a word from a list the word which had followed it in the original list) was superior in the 75 dB compared with the other two conditions, but only when recall of the second word was required, not when it had to be recognized among all the items from the original list. It is argued that this can be explained if noise intensity affects the strength of traces and hence the interconnexions established between them, on which retrieval depends.

The results for position learning are compatible with the theories of Hockey & Hamilton (1970) or Domic (1973), but the results for sequence learning cannot be explained by either of these theories. A final experiment confirmed a prediction from the above theory that when recalling the original sequence, omissions (recalling no word) will decrease and transpositions (giving the wrong word) will increase as noise level increases.
The structure of visual and kinaesthetic imagery: A free association study
Authors: Aylwin Susan
Published: April 2011

A free association technique was used to investigate the semantic structure of three forms of encoding: verbal, visual imagery, and kinaesthetic imagery. Kinaesthetic imagery involves imagined bodily identification with the stimuli (animal names) and is included because of its possible involvement in creativity, and in view of the importance of enactive representation in cognitive development. The analysis of evoked associations in terms of the propositional relations they bear to the stimuli, shows that the actor‐action‐object framework is particularly important in kinaesthetic imagery, and the whole‐part structure in visual imagery. Verbal representation gives rise to various abstract and phonemically based association types. The relevance of these findings to creativity and to the concept of semantic memory is discussed.
Is the lemon test an index of arousal level?
Authors: Corcoran D. W. J. , Houston T. G.
Published: April 2011

On the basis of numerous studies, it was predicted that salivary output to lemon juice would increase in a noisy relative to a quiet environment. Following the accepted procedure (Corcoran, 1964) salivary output to lemon juice was measured under quiet conditions; then experimental subjects selected a level of noise ‘just too loud for comfort’ and the salivary index was reassessed. Controls were treated identically except that both measures were conducted in the quiet. It was found that salivation increased in noise, and the weight of saliva produced correlated with the level of noise chosen.
Tobacco smoking, personality and sex factors in auditory vigilance performance
Authors: Tong J. E. , Leigh Gillian , Campbell J. , Smith D.
Published: April 2011

A total of 120 university students comprising equal groups of male and female non‐smokers, smokers not smoking and smokers smoking, were compared for performance on a 60 min auditory vigilance task. Non‐smokers consistently detected more signals throughout the test. A significant interaction showed that while non‐smokers detected fewer signals as the test progressed, smokers smoking increased their number of detections. There were no sex differences and no overall EPI differences in scores, although extraverted non‐smokers gave significantly higher scores than introverted non‐smokers with the converse being present for smokers. The results are discussed in relation to hippocampal functions and indicate that smoking should be taken into account in experiments involving sustained attention.
Suppression of response rates in variable‐interval schedules by a concurrent schedule of reinforcement
Authors: Bradshaw C. M.
Published: April 2011

Herrnstein's equation, which describes the relationship between reinforcement frequency and response rate in variable‐interval schedules predicts that the introduction of a concurrent source of reinforcement will increase the reinforcement frequency needed to obtain the half‐maximal response rate, without affecting the theoretical maximal response rate itself. This prediction was tested in the present experiment. During Phase I four rats were trained to press a lever (lever A) in variable interval schedules, using a range of reinforcement frequencies. During Phase II, a second lever (lever B) was introduced; responses on lever B were always reinforced at the same frequency, while the reinforcement frequency for lever A responses was varied. During Phase I the data obtained from all four rats conformed closely to Herrnstein's equation. Comparing the absolute response rates in Phase I and Phase II it was found that the predictions based on Herrnstein's equation were qualitatively confirmed, although there was some quantitative discrepancy between the predicted and actual degree of response suppression during Phase II.
Cross‐modality transfer of spatial information
Authors: Fishbein Harold D. , Decker Joanne , Wilcox Peggy
Published: April 2011

First, second, and fourth grade boys and girls were tested on a spatial task requiring perception of the location of a group of three geometrical objects. The initial sensory input was either visual or tactual/kinaesthetic, and the choice stimuli, which were presented either simultaneously with the objects, or after the objects were removed (successively) were photographs of different configurations of the objects. There was no performance difference between the intramodal and cross‐modal conditions, although older children performed better than younger ones, and performance was better under the simultaneous than successive conditions. It was concluded that in making complex visual spatial judgements, visual perceptual representations mediate performance under both tactual/kinaesthetic and visual sensory inputs.
Golden section relations in interpersonal judgement
Authors: Benjafield John , Green T. R. G.
Published: April 2011

A model of the organization of interpersonal judgements, based on the hypothesis that people tend to organize their judgements in Golden Section ratios, was presented. A theory of the process of interpersonal judgement, based on the notion that people judge acquaintances using a Fibonacci‐like decision rule, was then developed. A computer simulation of the theory yielded results consistent with the model. An experiment in which subjects judged a variety of sets of acquaintances also yielded results consistent with the model.
Cross‐cultural study of factors influencing orientation errors in the reproduction of Kohs‐type figures
Authors: Jahoda Gustav
Published: April 2011

The aim of the study was to examine pattern difficulty as a general factor influencing orientation errors, and to explore psychological differentiation and task perception as variables accounting for cross‐cultural differences. Samples of 30 boys and 30 girls in Ghana and Scotland were tested with a specially devised apparatus under two treatment conditions. Results confirmed the effect of pattern difficulty, but the extent of psychological differentiation was only indirectly related to orientation errors. Variations in the manner subjects perceived the nature of the task appeared as a major determinant of cross‐cultural differences.
Levels of processing: A critique
Authors: Eysenck Michael W.
Published: April 2011

The theoretical approach to problems of memory proposed by Craik & Lockhart (1972) is evaluated critically. Their conceptual framework has the advantage of directing attention to mental events and processes, but there are several difficulties. They suggested that retentivity is a function of the depth and spread of processing, but there are no suitable criteria available for indexing either the depth or the spread of encoding. Furthermore, encoding depth and spread appear to affect the retrieval component of recall, but are largely irrelevant to the determination of retrieval strategies and to the decision component involved in recall and in recognition.
Impulsivity/sociability and reinforcement in verbal operant conditioning
Authors: Gupta B. S. , Nagpal Mohanjeet
Published: April 2011

The present investigation was designed to study the relationship between impulsivity/sociability and modes of reinforcement in verbal operant conditioning. Two 2times3 randomized block designs, one each for impulsivity and sociability, were replicated ten times. One hundred and twenty undergraduate female students (60 for impulsivity and 60 for sociability) were individually subjected to Taffel's verbal conditioning procedure. When the conditioning scores of high and low scorers on the impulsivity and sociability scales were compared, it was found that under rewarding conditions (‘good’ and ‘buzzer’ in respect of sociability and ‘good’ in respect of impulsivity) the high scorers' score and under punishing conditions (‘electric shock’) the low scorers' score was the higher of the two. The study also revealed that the high scorers (on the impulsivity scale) conditioned more under rewarding conditions while the low scorers (both on the impulsivity and sociability scales) conditioned more under punishing ones.
A note on the development of recall of spatial location
Authors: von Wright J. M. , Loikkanen P. , Reijonen P.
Published: April 2011

Recall of spatial location was studied with 5, 8, 12–13, and 17–18 year old subjects. Pictures of objects were shown one at a time in one of the four quadrants of a projection screen which was either blank (NF) or divided by a cross into four quadrants (F). The presence of the frame (F) did not affect item recall, but facilitated location recall more, the younger the subjects. Intentional learning of location was superior to incidental learning in the youngest but not in older children. The results are in agreement with Bryant's (1974) analysis of perceptual development which emphasizes the use of external spatial frames of reference in the encoding of attributes of visual objects in young children.
The subliminal perception of movement and the course of autokinesis
Authors: Walker Peter , Meyer R. R.
Published: April 2011

The course of autokinesis is shown to be sensitive to the real movement of a surrounding stimulus. With the supraliminal presentation of this stimulus, apparent movement in a direction opposite to that of the real movement is induced. With the subliminal presentation of the same stimulus the real movement serves to inhibit autokinesis by inducing brief periods of stationarity between the phases of upward and downward apparent movement. The results confirm previous findings that the movement of a stimulus may be discriminated without there being any perceptual (phenomenal) adjunct.
An intra‐cultural investigation of susceptibility to ‘perspective’ and ‘non‐perspective’ spatial illusions
Authors: Ahluwalia A.
Published: April 2011

Conventional Müller‐Lyer and modified Müller‐Lyer (without ‘perspective’ cues) illusions were presented to two samples of children aged between eight and 19, matched in education, but living in ‘carpentered’ and ‘uncarpentered’ environments in Zambia. Traditional differences in susceptibility have been obtained with both the variations of the Müller‐Lyer illusion. In view of the lack of perspective cues in one of these, it is concluded that the perspective theory as presented within the ‘carpentered world hypothesis' is inadequate. Since these differences are intra‐cultural, they also do not support the hypothesis which suggests that cross‐cultural variations in illusion susceptibility are due to genetic factors — such as macular (or retinal) pigmentation.
Factors influencing the response latencies of subnormal children in naming pictures
Authors: Elliott Colin
Published: April 2011

The times taken to name 56 drawings of objects on five separate occasions were analysed for 21 ESN(M) and 21 ESN(S) children, matched for picture‐naming vocabulary. The ESN(S) group not only had a higher mean response latency but also showed greater inter‐ and intra‐subject variance.

Nine objects were selected whose names have a Thorndike‐Lorge language frequency of 50 words per million or greater, and nine others were selected with a frequency of less than 50 words per million. Each object was drawn in two ways, one giving a two‐dimensional outline with the addition of important detail, the other drawing also incorporating cues indicating the depth of the object. An analysis of variance of the children's latencies in naming the selected 36 pictures of 18 objects over five trials indicated that the method of drawing had no effect upon naming latencies. Pictures with high‐frequency names were named faster than those with lower frequency names, the ESN(S) group showing a greater rate of increase in naming latency for the lower frequency words than the ESN(M) children. Results were discussed in terms of the Oldfield and Lachman models of lexical memory storage and of the search processes required for the retrieval of names.
Recall and organization in five year old children
Authors: Davies Graham , Brown Lindsay
Published: April 2011

This study is concerned with the actual and potential memorizing strategies available to five year old children. Forty‐eight children observed 20 objects drawn from five different categories. A factorial design was employed with two conditions of presentation (blocked/random) combined with two conditions of recall (cued/uncued). Both blocking and cueing produced significant effects upon recall and clustering, blocking affecting within‐category recall while cueing had its main effect on the number of categories sampled. Subjects who received a combination of random presentation and uncued recall showed low levels of clustering and little relationship between clustering and recall. It was concluded that five year olds suffer from production deficiency rather than mediation deficiency.
Tests of a structural theory of the memory trace*
Authors: Jones Gregory V.
Published: April 2011

Jones (1976) has shown that the memory trace resulting from the viewing of a picture corresponds to a ‘fragment’ of that picture. The present paper shows that the fragmentation hypothesis also correctly represents the recall of memories derived from sentences. The paper is in four sections. First, an experiment is reported which confirms that the earlier results of Jones (1976) cannot themselves be attributed to verbal recoding of the visual stimuli used there. Second, the re‐analysis of four large experiments of Anderson & Bower (1973) investigating the cued recall of sentences shows that sentences (both imaged and non‐imaged) also give rise to fragments in memory. Third, the fragmentation hypothesis is shown to be consistent with the results of several other experiments investigating the multiple cuing of sentences, even though the storage of configural information is not assumed. Fourth, the status of the fragmentation hypothesis as a general theory of memory is discussed in the light of a distinction drawn between structural and compositional representations of memory.
Acquisition and performance difference between normal and mentally handicapped adults on a complex assembly task
Authors: Tomlinson Eileen , Whelan Edward
Published: April 2011

Several single studies concerned with work training with the mentally handicapped have been reported in the literature (Bitter & Bolanovich, 1966; Huddle, 1967; Gold, 1969; Screven, Straka & Lafond, 1971). Most have been concerned with issues of acquisition and motivation to perform. No studies have been reported which focus on the evaluation of different techniques of training or which assess rate of acquisition against that of non‐handicapped controls.

The aim of this experiment is twofold. It uses a complex task, analysed by MTM‐2, to enable comparison between the performances of mentally handicapped adults and adults from a ‘normal’ population, in the acquisition of new work skills. Various strategies of training were compared and the increase in the rate and quality of performance following acquisition was measured for both, in terms of speed and accuracy of production. Results add further support for the notion that the potential of mentally handicapped individuals is commonly underestimated. It is hoped that the findings provide a basis from which further experiments can be developed and evaluated.
Evidence for language recoding in autistic, retarded and normal children: A re‐examination
Authors: Fyffe Christine , Prior Margot
Published: April 2011

In a replication and extension of earlier studies by Hermelin & O'Connor, language recoding abilities in autistic, retarded and normal children matched for mental age and digit span, were compared in a verbal recall task. Random word lists, sentences, and anomalous sentences, eight or 12 items in length (for high and low memory span subgroups) were presented and the number of words recalled from each type of input was scored. All low span children recalled sentences better than random lists with normal children superior to retarded and autistic children and the latter group poorer than the retarded group. Autistic children showed a recency effect with both types of input. There were no group differences amongst high span children and sentences were again better recalled than random lists. In Expt II sentences were better recalled than anomalous sentences, with autistic and retarded children equivalent in performance and poorer than normal children.

Although low span autistic children were clearly deficient in recall of sentence material when compared with the two control groups, the effect of conditions showed that they were able to use structure to improve recall. Since high span autistic children did not perform differently from controls it is suggested that results from this kind of study may not be generalizable, and that claims for a specific coding deficit in autistic children need further substantiation.
When retrieval cueing fails
Authors: Watkins Michael J. , Tulving Endel
Published: April 2011

Does presenting a hint, or retrieval cue, for recall of an event change the memory trace for the event even when the cue does not in fact produce recall? An experiment by McLeod, Williams & Broadbent (1971) suggests that it may. A conclusion to this effect would have important theoretical implications. In particular, it would pose difficulties for specifying trace structure. McLeod et al. observed that a retrieval cue was more effective if its target trace had been previously cued, even though this cueing did not elicit recall. Three experiments are described which indicate that this result occurs only if the first, ineffectual cue is presented along with the second cue; if the second cue is presented alone it is less effective than the first. It is concluded that there is currently no evidence that the unsuccessful cueing of an item causes a change in its memory trace.
Attentional selectivity and the problems of replication: A reply to Forster & Grierson
Authors: Hockey Robert
Published: April 2011

Forster & Grierson (1978) have reported a lack of success in replicating the essential findings of the experiments of Hockey (1970a, b). The present paper indicates a number of methodological differences between the two sets of studies, and suggests that the problems caused by these are complicated by an unnecessarily narrow interpretation of the attentional selectivity hypothesis.
Memory for melodies and tonal sequences: A theoretical note
Authors: Davies John
Published: April 2011

This note is concerned with recent research into memory for tunes and tonal sequences, and is intended to show that there are serious conceptual problems in this area. Reference is made to work by Dowling & Fujitani (1971), Cuddy & Cohen (1976), and to an earlier paper by Deutsch (1969). It is not concerned with more widely studied problem of memory for individual tones. Experimental work on memory for tunes has relied heavily on recognition paradigm; and/or upon use of short (two‐ or three‐tone) sequences. It is not clear that conclusions derived from recognition unambiguously point to an interval abstraction process; nor that use of extremely short stimulus sequences throws any light on memory for real melodies. Evidence exists which suggests that truly melodic sequences are not remembered in terms of interval‐magnitudes, and that consequently postulation of a neurological model for such a process may be premature.
Dimensions and determinants of judgements of colour samples and a simulated interior space by architects and non‐architects
Authors: Hogg J. , Goodman S. , Porter T. , Mikellides B. , Preddy D. E.
Published: April 2011

Architects and non‐architects made Semantic Differential ratings of colour samples (chips) and a simulated interior space (a model). In analyses of total samples’ ratings (architects and non‐architects) of (a) colour chips and (b) models, and individual sample analyses, (c) architects’ chip judgements, (d) architects’ model judgements, (e) non‐architects’ chip judgements, and (f) non‐architects’ model judgements, five factors occurred, though not necessarily all in any one analysis. These were: (i) dynamism; (ii) spatial quality; (iii) emotional tone; (iv) evaluation; (v) complexity. Linear correlations between parameters of Munsell Color System and above factors in various analyses were calculated, while parallel analyses were carried out employing a graphical technique described by Sivik (1974a) involving isosemantic maps. In all analyses, linear correlations between colour parameters and judgements were found for dynamism factor, spatial quality factor, and emotional tone factor. They were associated respectively with chroma, value, and hue. Inspection of isosemantic maps indicated subsidiary effects of non‐dominant dimensions of a non‐linear sort, though maps also exhibited linear relations. Linear correlations were low or non‐existent for evaluation and complexity factors, and complex nature of their determinants was clear from isosemantic maps. determinants of judgements were similar for architects and non‐architects, with exception of evaluative judgements for models in which markedly different determinants were noted.

Comparability of present findings with other studies carried out in a variety of countries over a 20 year period was high for dynamism, spatial quality, and emotional tone, and it is suggested that there may be something inherent in response to colour in relation to such judgements. Recent physiological work is discussed, and its limitations in terms of colours sampled and an overconcentration on hue dimension noted. In contrast, it is suggested that dimensions of judgement, such as evaluation or complexity, reflect to a greater extent culture or training, and are hence independent of basic colour attributes.
An analysis of individual patterns of DQ and IQ curves from 6 months to 17 years
Authors: Hindley C. B. , Owen C. F.
Published: April 2011

The case is made for basing analysis of longitudinal measurement data on each individual's array or curve of scores, and employing methods of analysis which take account of shape of each individual's curve. DQs at 6 months and 18 months, and IQs at 3, 5, 8, 11, 14, and 17 years were available on 84 subjects from 6 months to 17 years, and 109 subjects from 6 months to 14 years, from a London longitudinal project. Scores at each age were converted to SD scores with M = 0, SD = 1. Polynomial equations were fitted to each subject's curve over periods: 6 months − 17 years; 3 years − 17 years; 3 years − 11 years. For whole sample fitted curves yielded highly significant error reduction across all periods, thus rendering untenable doctrine of IQ constancy. Over 6 months to 14 years, 54 per cent of subjects’ curves had a significant fit. Curves differ not only in linear slopes, but in degrees and forms of curvilinearity, particularly over longer periods. A visual method of classification of curves is also presented, which proved effective.

Implications of findings are discussed, including that changes in IQ scores cannot be regarded as random variation, but as following systematic trends which differ between subjects; need to regard isolated IQ measures on a subject as derived from a curve of unknown shape and slope; and dangers of treating as equivalent IQs of subjects at different ages. It is concluded that present methods of analysis are applicable to a variety of longitudinal measurement data.
Personality and probabilistic thinking: An exploratory study
Authors: Wright G. N. , Phillips L. D.
Published: April 2011

This study examines relationship between authoritarianism, conservatism, dogmatism, intolerance of ambiguity and probabilistic thinking. By probabilistic thinking we mean tendency to adopt a probabilistic set, discrimination of uncertainty, and ability to express that uncertainty meaningfully either verbally or as a numerical probability. From orthodox conceptualizations of personality/cognitive measures one would anticipate strong relationships between these measures and our own various measures of probabilistic thinking. present study makes it clear that such relationships may not be present.
Emotionality in male and female rodents: A reply to Archer
Authors: Gray Jeffrey A.
Published: April 2011

Archer (1979) has complained that his criticisms (Archer, 1971, 1973, 1975) of Gray's (1971 a, b) views on emotionality and on sex differences in fearfulness in rodents have not been answered. These criticisms are shown to lack substance and to depend on confused arguments and misleading reviews of the literature.
Modifying Waugh & Norman's primary memory measurement procedure: An alternative solution
Authors: Watkins Michael J.
Published: April 2011

Martin & Jones (1979) suggested a modification of Waugh & Norman's (1965) procedure for measuring primary memory, one that would take into account negative recency in secondary memory. Specifically, they proposed that secondary memory representation could be estimated from a function selected as approximating negative recency effects observed with delayed recall procedures. It is argued here that there are problems with this particular approach, and an alternative solution is proposed. This solution follows directly from predictions of the two‐store model underlying the Waugh & Norman procedure. It is illustrated with an example.
Special Review feature: The hand that rules the world — Seven books about women
Authors: Sandow Sarah
Published: April 2011

Women at Work. By Lindsay Mackie & Polly Pattullo. London: Tavistock. 1977. Pp. 192. £2.50.

Women and the Welfare State. By Elizabeth Wilson. London: Tavistock. 1977. Pp. 208. Cloth £5.50; paper £2.20.

Housewife. By Ann Oakley. Harmondsworth, Middx: Pelican. 1976. Pp. x+273. 80p.

On Being a Woman. By Fay Fransella & Kay Frost. London: Tavistock. 1977. Pp. 237. £6.00.

Towards a New Psychology of Women. By Jean Baker Miller. Harmonds worth, Middx: Penguin. 1978. Pp. xi+147. 90p.

Man's World, Woman's Place. By Elizabeth Janeway. Harmondsworth, Middx: Penguin. 1977. Pp. 350. £1.00.

Women, a Psychological Perspective. By Elaine Donelson & Jeanne E. Gullahorn. New York: Wiley. 1977. Pp. vi+342. £10.45.
The interaction of value and subjective probability in risky decision‐making
Authors: Crozier W. R.
Published: April 2011

A central assumption of models of risky decision‐making is that value and subjective probability contribute independently to decisions. A number of studies have tested this assumption with a variety of experimental designs including asking subjects to make direct estimates of probability, guesses, wagers, and ratings of gambles. The results of these suggest that there is evidence of interaction, particularly when subjects choose between events of equal probability, one of which is valued. Theories of the conditions under which interaction occurs were considered, and there is support for the importance of distinctions between chance and skill control of outcomes, simple and complex tasks, and well‐ and ill‐defined tasks.
The effect of televised presentation on number conservation in 5 year olds
Authors: Fluck Michael , Hewison Yvonne
Published: April 2011

The Piagetian approach to intellectual development (Piaget & Inhelder, 1969; Piaget, 1952) has come under increasing critcism in the recent literature for its readiness to interpret children's performance in terms of the presence, or absence, of underlying operational structures whilst ignoring the contribution of social influences in the immediate situation; critics have argued that we risk seriously underestimating the cognitive skills available to the young child if we overlook these influences (Magarrigle & Donaldson, 1975; Donaldson, 1976; Smedslund, 1977; Sinha & Walkerdine, 1978). The young child fails the various Genevan tests of operational thinking, they suggest, not because he lacks the necessary logical competence but because he misinterprets the intention of the experimenter. Drawing on Macnamara's (1972) account of language acquisition, McGarrigle & Donaldson (1975) argue that children rely heavily on the non‐verbal features of any social interaction (including psychology experiments) to interpret the other person's intended meaning. ‘Preoperational’ children fail in conservation experiments, they suggest, because the situation involves a conflict between the formal logic of the problem and the social logic of the context: the adult refers behaviourally to length when he rearranges a row of objects, but then refers linguistically to number when he poses the question. In their study of number conservation the objects were not rearranged intentionally by the experimenter but ‘accidentally’ through the actions of a ‘naughty’ teddy bear ‘trying to spoil the game’ as a consequence, 68 per cent of a group of 4–6 year olds conserved, compared with only 41 per cent in the control condition.
Depth of processing and anxiety in facial recognition
Authors: Mueller John H. , Bailis Karen L. , Goldstein Alvin G.
Published: April 2011

Subjects selected on the basis of test anxiety scores made a judgement about each face in a series of slides. These orienting tasks involved either abstract traits (e.g. dependability) or physical features (e.g. weight), and decisions were made relative to either an absolute criterion or self‐reference. A subsequent recognition test revealed superior performance by low‐anxiety subjects and by subjects who evaluated abstract features during study, but there were no depth by anxiety interactions. The reference point for the decision had little effect overall, but the anxiety deficit was more apparent when the absolute reference point was involved.
Communication and language in severely deaf adolescents*
Authors: Grove C. , O'Sullivan F. D. , Rodda M.
Published: April 2011

One of the most important psychological effects of early severe or profound deafness is an impairment in natural language‐processing ability, with a consequent reduction in communicative skill secondary to the sensory deficit. Prelingual damage blocks the development of certain sequential/syntactical skills necessary for the acquisition of normal linguistic competence. Educators of the deaf in the UK have typically attempted to improve linguistic ability using amplification and intensive training in lip‐reading, but evidence from several psychological studies suggests that communication systems based upon manual signing are more productive of both linguistic and basic cognitive skills. This paper reports an experimental study of the communicative characteristics of both oral and total communication systems as a function of language structure. For almost all types of structure investigated, the total system was found to be the more effective method of communication.
Semantic interference from subliminal stimuli in a dichoptic viewing situation
Authors: Philpott Adrian , Wilding John
Published: April 2011

In Expt 1 subjects named words, shapes or colours presented to one eye while words or shapes were presented to the other eye subliminally. The subliminal stimuli were found to slow naming responses when they had the same name as the stimulus to be named or a closely related name, compared with random letter strings or blank cards. This result was replicated in a second experiment which also included unrelated words as subliminal stimuli. On these trials latencies were midway between those for trials with blank cards or random letter strings as the subliminal stimuli, and trials with the same name or a closely related name as the subliminal stimuli. The results imply that stimuli related in meaning compete for common analysing mechanisms.
Noise and the ‘rehearsal‐masking hypothesis’
Authors: Millar Keith
Published: April 2011

This study examines the proposal that continuous loud noise impairs short‐term recall by masking the inner speech necessary to rehearse material in memory (Poulton, 1976 a, 1977 b). The ‘masking hypothesis’ contrasts with previous theories which relate recall impairment in noise to the latter's action in over‐arousing the individual or inducing changes in attentional deployment. Separate groups performed a visual, serial eight‐consonant recall task in either 92 dBA ‘noise’ or 75 dBA ‘quiet’ and in ‘normal’ or ‘suppressed’ rehearsal conditions. The masking hypothesis predicted that noise would impair recall relative to quiet in normal rehearsal conditions. But where the rehearsal of both groups was already suppressed by a concurrent articulatory task, recall would not differ between the groups through noise‐masking then being irrelevant. Total correct recall scores appeared to confirm the masking hypothesis but the pattern of serial order recall showed differences between noise and quiet in suppressed rehearsal conditions which seemed better explained by an attentional influence of noise. Further, reduced commission and acoustic confusion errors in noise were not consistent with the predictions of the masking hypothesis. It was concluded that noise‐masking could not be refuted but that attentional changes due to the arousing action of noise might also be active determinants of recall.
Variability in reading retardation
Authors: Vernon M. D.
Published: April 2011

It is argued that much of the confusion which has arisen as to the nature of dyslexia is because retarded readers have so frequently been studied as if they formed a qualitatively homogeneous group. It is suggested that in fact reading is not a unitary process, but that it involves the acquisition of a succession of skills; and that different retarded readers may break down at different stages in the acquisition of these. There may be types of retarded reader who are unable (1) to analyse complex visual shapes; or (2) to analyse whole word sounds into phonemes; or (3) to make simple regular grapheme‐phoneme associations; or (4) to grasp irregularities in these; or (5) to group single words into phrases and sentences. Each of these disabilities may be associated with a particular type of deficiency in conceptual thinking.
Self‐rated imagery and encoding strategies in visual memory
Authors: Berger Göran H. , Gaunitz Samuel C. B.
Published: April 2011

The value of self‐rated vividness of imagery in predicting performance was investigated, taking into account the mnemonic strategies utilized among subjects performing a visual‐memory task. Subjects classified as ‘good’ or ‘poor’ imagers, according to their scores in the Vividness of Visual Imagery Questionnaire (VVIQ; Marks, 1972), were to detect as rapidly as possible differences between pairs of similar pictures presented consecutively. No coding instructions were given and the mnemonic strategies used were analysed by studying subjective reports and objective performance measurements. The results indicated that the subjects utilized two main strategies — a detail or an image strategy. The detail strategy was the more efficient. In accordance with a previous study (Berger & Gaunitz, 1977), it was found that the VVIQ did not discriminate between performance by ‘good’ and ‘poor’ imagers. However, among subjects who used the image strategy, ‘good’ imagers performed more rapidly than ‘poor’ imagers. Self‐rated imagery may then have some value in predicting performance among individuals shown to have utilized an image strategy.
Short‐term recall of nine‐digit strings and the EEG
Authors: Jones Dylan , Gale Anthony , Smallbone Adrian
Published: April 2011

In three exploratory studies, EEG changes were monitored while subjects performed a nine‐digit recall task. Experiment 1 involved auditory presentation without practice or prior instruction. EEG characteristics measured before the task related to subsequent recall, EEG activation increased progressively during digit presentation and rehearsal, and several between‐ and within‐subject analyses showed increased activation to be associated with poor recall performance. In Expt. 2 the digits were presented visually and subjects were given instruction and practice in an efficient rehearsal strategy. Recall performance improved but its relationship with the pre‐task EEG disappeared. Activation increased with digit presentation but the relationship between the EEG and performance was complex since a within‐subject analysis associated decreased activation with better performance (as in Expt. 1) while this relationship was reversed in a between‐subject analysis. The results are explained both in terms of traditional findings relating activation to recall, and drive theory accounts of learning and performance. Finally, Expt. 3 demonstrated that performance was better, both in the morning (compared with the evening) and on a second testing session. There were complex time of day effects for the EEG, with lower and higher measured frequencies yielding higher voltage output in the evening and intermediate frequencies showing a reverse effect. In summarizing the data from the three experiments it is suggested that different EEG frequencies are differentially sensitive to different conditions (task specific factors, stimulus input characteristics, knowledge of success and failure, degree of task mastery and circadian variation).
Reasoning with conditionals: The effects of a binary restriction
Authors: Cope D. E.
Published: April 2011

Contrary to previous experimental results, it appears that the binary restriction of conditional statements does not affect subjects making either the inference of denying the antecedent or of that of affirming the consequent. It is suggested that the reason for this may lie in the inadequate nature of previous controls. A new finding is that modus tollens inferences are made significantly less often with non‐binary statements. The explanation proposed here for this phenomenon utilizes the already established conclusion that subjects have difficulty with negatives and suggests that particular difficulty will be found with negatives in non‐binary conditions because logically these cannot refer to single items. In dealing with such inferences subjects will be put under an increased cognitive load, which may be sufficient to overload the system, thus causing errors.
Differential effects of noise and incentives on learning
Authors: Fowler C. J. H. , Wilding John
Published: April 2011

Three experiments are reported. In the first, monetary incentives improved the learning of nonsense words in response to colours only when the test order was the same as presentation order. In the second, incentives increased the recall of spatial location which served as an additional retrieval cue for nonsense words. In the third, noise was used to manipulate arousal. Noise during learning produced a significant decline in recall of locations for nonsense words. The results suggest that incentives increase attentional capacity, while noise does not. Previous results showing that noise increases the use of order cues are discussed and it is suggested that noise induces a type of learning which depends on order cues. Existing hypotheses about the nature of this process are noted but it is argued that further work is needed to select between them.
Convergent—divergent thinking and arts—science orientation
Authors: Lloyd‐Bostock Sally M. A.
Published: April 2011

The relationship between divergent thinking, intelligence, and arts and science orientation was investigated in a sample of 310 unspecialized, mixed‐ability, third‐year pupils (142 boys, 168 girls), with reference to the converger‐diverger dimension. A factor for verbal divergent thinking, orthogonal to an intelligence factor, correlated significantly positively (P < 0·001) with arts but not science orientation for both sexes. In regression, arts orientation was predicted from verbal tests (convergent and divergent) and science from non‐verbal. Analyses using convergent‐divergent bias scores indicated that these confounded two sources of variance (verbal‐non‐verbal mode and open‐ closed‐endedness) and the notion of convergence‐divergence as a dimension contrasting preference for open‐ended versus closed‐ended tests was not supported.
A preliminary comparison of Cantonese and American‐English as taste languages
Authors: O'Mahony Michael , Tsang Teresa
Published: April 2011

Groups of monolingual American‐English speaking Americans of Chinese descent were compared with Cantonese/American‐English bilingual Chinese living in America to examine their taste descriptions for a set of aqueous solutions. Cantonese, unlike other languages, did not appear to differ greatly from American‐English in its general taste descriptive strategy and depth of vocabulary, although Cantonese speakers had a tendency to use ‘glutamic’ as a descriptive term for monosodium glutamate.
Speech modification in near‐mute schizophrenics
Authors: Hart Barry B.
Published: April 2011

Twelve male near‐mute schizophrenics were divided into a model‐plus‐reinforcement group; a model‐only group; and a control group, to test the hypothesis that the presence of a verbalizing model to 35 mm slides would serve as an eliciting stimulus to increase speech output.

Significant increases in verbalizations were found over treatment sessions, the model‐plus‐reinforcement condition showing the most marked improvement. Generalization to the ward was found for only three subjects.
Heart‐rate change as a measure of verbal storage and retrieval
Authors: Spence Donald P. , Beyda David R.
Published: April 2011

Heart rate and respiration were monitored while the subject listened for the appearance of a target sentence in a subsequent block of text. In two‐thirds of the trials, the target sentence was altered by major or minor changes in wording, and the subject was asked to indicate whether or not a change had occurred. Heart rate preceding the first appearance of correctly recognized target sentences showed a steeper acceleration than heart rate preceding incorrectly recognized sentences. Mean heart rate during the correctly recognized embedded sentences showed a steeper deceleration than was present when the wording change was not recognized. Respiration amplitude decreased significantly in the vicinity of the embedded sentence (perhaps reflecting some kind of ‘Ah‐ha’ effect) but did not discriminate between hits and misses, and did not correlate with change of heart rate. It was concluded that falling heart rate may be triggered by a shift in style of listening set in motion when the subject attends more closely to the specific words in the sentence as opposed to its underlying meaning.
Circadian rhythms in human memory
Authors: Folkard Simon , Monk Timothy H.
Published: April 2011

Two experiments are described that examined the influence of time of day of presentation on immediate and delayed retention, and the potential effects of time of day on retrieval from long‐term memory. Time of presentation was found to influence both the immediate and delayed (28 day) retention of information presented in naturalistic contexts. However, while the trend in immediate memory over the normal waking day found in Expt 1 was exactly that predicted by a unidimensional arousal theory, the results of Expt 2 indicated that different circadian factors may be responsible for the time of presentation effects on immediate and delayed retention. Neither experiment yielded any evidence that time of day affects people's ability to retrieve information from long‐term memory. The results are discussed within a circadian rhythm framework, and would appear to necessitate the adoption of a multifactor theory. It is suggested that further research is needed on (a) the effect of time of presentation on delayed retention, and (b) the nature of the changes in the encoding/storage processes responsible for such effects.
Semantic and structural coding of the months
Authors: Seymour Philip H. K.
Published: April 2011

Semantic and structural properties of the months were investigated in a descriptive study, and in a series of experiments involving Yes‐No decisions about month names. The data were characterized by boundary effects (increases in RT near transitions between structurally or semantically defined divisions of the series) and by variations in the size of a response effect (difference between Yes and No RT). This month x response interaction was interpreted as an influence of polarized semantic and locative attributes on judgemental and response processes.
Phonological recoding and the Stroop effect
Authors: Naish Peter
Published: April 2011

In a card‐sorting version of the Stroop task it was demonstrated with male subjects that non‐words, which either looked like or were pronounced like real colour words, produced slower sorting by colour than did non‐words which did not resemble colour words in any way. For female subjects this effect was observable only with the pseudo‐homophones. The results are accounted for by proposing that males and females used different reading strategies during this task, but that the differences are less distinctive during more normal reading situations.
Sex and ethnic differences on a spatial‐perceptual task: Some hypotheses tested
Authors: Jahoda Gustav
Published: April 2011

The most prevalent version of the environmental hypothesis, by Sherman (1967), would predict a sex difference in spatial performance in Scotland but not in Ghana. With regard to the particular task used, namely 3D mental rotation, the same prediction would arise on the basis of Serpell's (1979) ‘specific experience’ hypothesis. Subjects were 40 boys and 40 girls in both Ghana and Scotland, equated for years of education. The results showed a sex difference of the same magnitude in both cultures, thereby throwing doubt on purely environmental interpretations. The findings also clearly argue against a genetic hypothesis put forward by Jensen (1975).
An investigation of memory functions in dyslexic children
Authors: Nelson Hazel E. , Warrington Elizabeth K.
Published: April 2011

A detailed investigation of short‐term memory storage, long‐term memory storage and semantic memory associated with developmental dyslexia is reported. Fifty‐one dyslexic and 28 control children were tested, and the following deficits were found amongst the dyslexic children. Short‐term memory functions were impaired both with respect to storage capacity and rate of decrement. Long‐term memory functions for visual material were normal but verbal long‐term memory functions were impaired. There was evidence of difficulties in incorporating new material into semantic memory but the rate of accessing information from within this system appeared to be normal. The significance of the memory deficits is discussed in relation to the hypothesis that childhood dyslexia is a double deficit of the graphemic‐phonemic and graphemic‐semantic reading routes.