bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A Biopsychosocial Approach to Treatment
Authors: Cohen Mary Ann , Goforth Harold W.
Published: November 2020

The care of persons with HIV and AIDS presents clinicians, caregivers, families, and loved ones with special biopsychosocial challenges posed by the infectious nature of HIV, the specific modes of HIV transmission, the particular way HIV affects the brain, the age of onset, and the complex stigma of HIV. These challenges differentiate AIDS from other severe and complex illnesses, causes, have significant clinical and public health implications, and necessitate early recognition and treatment. The multifactorial nature of these challenges is summarized in Table 11.1, and some unique aspects of AIDS are briefly summarized in Table 11.2. AIDS psychiatrists, psychosomatic medicine psychiatrists, physicians trained in both medicine and psychiatry, and other mental health clinicians can play a vital role the care of persons with HIV and AIDS, in the prevention of HIV transmission, and in training of other clinicians to alleviate distress, reduce ongoing high-risk behavior and nonadherence, provide support for patients and families, and improve patients’ quality of life. In this chapter, we will review the biopsychosocial aspects of AIDS and suggest strategies to address the unique challenges of this devastating and complex illness. Although the AIDS epidemic was first described in the medical literature in 1981, it was not until 1983 that the first articles were published about the psychosocial or psychiatric aspects of AIDS. The first article was not written by a psychiatrist. This article, written by Holtz and colleagues (1983), was essentially a plea for attention to the psychosocial aspects of AIDS. They stated that “noticeably absent in the flurry of publications about the current epidemic of acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) is reference to the psychosocial impact of this devastating new syndrome.” The authors deplored ostracism of persons with AIDS by both their families and their medical systems of care. These authors were the first to describe the profound withdrawal from human contact as the “sheet sign” observed when a person with AIDS drew a bed sheet over his or her face and head, essentially withdrawing and hiding from visitors.
In the end Is the Beginning
Authors: Newman Richard S.
Published: November 2020

As yet another summer approached with little prospect of change, Love Canal residents took more risks to get out of their toxic environment. On May 19, 1980, the LCHA detained two EPA representatives visiting the group’s headquarters. Residents were angered by the results of a much debated genetic test showing that roughly one-third of the thirty-six people sampled may have suffered chromosome damage (a possible indicator of future illness). Angry and confused, residents gathered en masse at the group’s headquarters. Spilling fuel on the lawn, they lit a fire that read “EPA.” Hoping to quell rising discontent, the EPA officials drove over to meet with Love Canal families. When they arrived, however, the two men were told “they couldn’t leave.” While Gibbs explained that she was protecting the men from the chaos outside, others proclaimed that they would be held until the federal government vowed to evacuate all area residents. “If we won’t be relocated, keep them here,” one activist remembered someone shouting. The scene grew increasingly tense. A crowd of residents, some holding two-by-fours, stood guard as police officers arrived. On the phone, Gibbs explained residents’ demands to politicians in Washington. “We’ll keep them fed, we’ll keep them happy,” she also told reporters. But the LCHA would not release the men. The drama ended a few hours later when the FBI phoned LCHA headquarters, darkly warning that agents would storm the home if the hostages were not freed in “six minutes.” The EPA representatives were let go—one thanked residents for serving delicious oatmeal cookies—while LCHA activists were put inside a police car, driven around the corner, and then released. That same month, LCHA figures engaged in a sit-in at the county legislature. The demonstration came after county politicians vetoed a novel plan to “revitalize” parts of Love Canal, including the possible purchase of outer-ring homes.
Screening for Depression in Clinical Practice
Authors: Mitchell, MRCPsych Alex J. , Coyne, PhD James C.
Published: November 2020

Mood disorders are a global health issue. National guidance for their detection and management have been published in the US and in Europe. Despite this, the rate at which depression is recognized and managed in primary and secondary care settings remains low and suggests that many clinicians are still unsure how to screen people for mood disorders. Against the backdrop of this problem, the editors of this volume have designed a book with a dynamic two-fold purpose: to provide an evidence-based overview of screening methods for mood disorders, and to synthesize the evidence into a practical guide for clinicians in a variety of settings--from cardiologists and oncologists, to primary care physicians and neurologists, among others. The volume considers all important aspects of depression screening, from the overview of specific scales, to considerations of technological approaches to screening, and to the examination of screening with neurological disorders, prenatal care, cardiovascular conditions, and diabetes and cancer care, among others. This book is sure to capture the attention of any clinician with a stake in depression screening.
Screening for Depression in Primary Care: Can It Become More Efficient?
Authors: Magruder Kathryn M. , Yeager Derik E.
Published: November 2020

Screening for depression has been so widely advocated that the burden of proof has shifted to skeptics who argue against it. Yet only recently has sufficient evidence accrued to judge dispassionately the advantages and disadvantages of screening. Here we discuss the evidence for specific tools and specific strategies in improving the outcome of depression screening in primary care. In 1978, the Institute of Medicine defined primary care as ‘‘care that is accessible, comprehensive, coordinated, continuous, and accountable.’’ While the definition has evolved over time,2 these fundamental characteristics are still valid today. Included in the primary care mission is to serve as the first line for detection and either treatment or referral of common mental disorders, including depression. The inclusion of first-line mental health services as a component of primary care distinguishes primary care (including outpatient clinics in managed care organizations, community hospitals, Veterans Administration hospitals, teaching institutions, and other medical centers) from care in more specialized clinical settings. The comprehensiveness of primary care and the obligation of its providers for first-line care make it a logical and appropriate venue for mental health screening. Complicating the issue, however, are the time constraints on primary care providers. Although the amount of time spent per patient visit is about 20 minutes in the United States, the recommended services that should be provided in that short period of time are daunting. It is therefore imperative that these recommended services—in particular preventive health services— be provided in the most efficient manner possible. Services that cannot be provided efficiently and fit within the busy, fast-paced world of primary care are at risk of being omitted. This is especially true for preventive mental health services. Screening for depression is such a service; therefore, it is critical that primary care providers make use of the best and most efficient depression screening approaches possible. In this chapter, we will address issues related to screening for depression in the primary care context. We will start by briefly reviewing the epidemiology of depression as related to primary care. Next, we will provide a critical examination of the applicability to depression screening of the World Health Organization’s criteria.
Overview of Perimetry
Authors: Walsh Thomas J.
Published: November 2020

Like a painter, the practitioner of perimetry must learn his or her profession from experience. Just as a painting does not spring from the paint and brushes alone, the perimetrist does get his or her diagnosis from just a printout of the field test. Rather, the perimetrist’s experience in interpreting field test results, his clinical skill in examining the validity of the patient’s performance, and his selection of the needed field technique chosen under the appropriate clinical circumstances combine to produce a suitable test and interpretation of results. In this age of computerization, we tend to accept the infallibility of perimetry. It is true that new developments have corrected some of the errors in technique that have been troubling in earlier methods such as the tangent screen and Goldmann perimeter. However, in our rush to embrace these new techniques, we might forget that there is still a place for these older techniques in selected cases. Among other things, these older techniques may allow for a human element to be introduced when the patient is overwhelmed by technology—that is, a well-performed tangent screen is more valuable on a given occasion than a poorly performed computerized field examination. Such circumstances occur almost always with neuro-ophthalmology patients, who are usually ill in other ways than just visually and need more help in performing the test. Most other patients, particularly those with glaucoma, are much more reliable in their responses in using the newer techniques. They frequently start testing at a younger age and do their testing frequently so they become skilled at performing the test. Many neuro-ophthalmologic patients do not have that experience. Interpreting the blind spot remains a standard part of any field examination. Interpreting the blind spot size requires experience. The blind spot may be enlarged because the patient is a slow responder or because a large myopic crescent is present. An important use of measuring the blind spot is to show the patient what a scotoma is and to test his validity of fixation by putting the target in the blind spot from time to time.
Optic Chiasm Field Defects
Authors: Lin Christine E. , Odel Jeffrey G.
Published: November 2020

The optic chiasm has been a topic of much interest since the first century A.D., when Galen described the union of the optic nerves as a “shape…very much like the letter chi.” In the centuries that followed, many scientists and physicians studied the structural aspects of the optic chiasm, starting with Isaac Newton, who in 1706 first explained that the partial decussation of the optic nerve fibers was necessary for binocular vision. Abraham Vater and J.C. Heinicke provided the first clinical evidence of hemidecussation in 1723, when they described cases of transient “halved vision” (homonymous hemianopia), presumably of migrainous origin, and concluded that the optic nerves decussate before uniting into the optic tracts because “without decussation of fibers in these nerves divided vision can in no way be explained.” The first diagram of decussating fibers was published in 1750 by “Chevalier” John Taylor, an itinerant eye surgeon, notorious for his charlatan ways and a practice “deeply tainted with the dishonest arts of the quack.” In 1824, a century after Vater and Heinicke’s work on hemidecussation, William Wollaston reported experiencing two episodes of half vision in each eye. He concluded that this necessitated hemidecussation of the optic nerves at the chiasm. The growing body of knowledge of chiasmal anatomy and visual fields culminated in the work of Harvey Cushing on the diagnostic recognition and surgical management of pituitary tumors. In December 1901, a 16-year-old girl was referred to Cushing by Sir William Osler. She had headaches and loss of vision and was short, obese, and sexually underdeveloped, appearing as a child of 12. Cushing missed the possible connection of the patient’s symptoms and appearance to the chiasm and the pituitary. After the young girl developed papilledema, Cushing operated first to decompress one cerebral hemisphere and then the other. When both operations failed to restore her vision, he operated a third time on the cerebellum, but the patient died several days later. At autopsy, a large pituitary cyst was discovered.
Bioprocess Design and Economics
Authors: Harrison Roger G. , Todd Paul W. , Rudge Scott R. , Petrides Demetri P.
Published: November 2020

This chapter teaches students and practicing engineers the fundamentals of bioprocess design with an emphasis on bioseparation processes. It combines the information presented in earlier chapters for use in the context of integrated processes. The ultimate objective is to enable the reader to efficiently synthesize and evaluate integrated bioseparation processes. Given a product and a desired annual production rate (process throughput), bioprocess design endeavors to answer the following and other related questions: What are the required amounts of raw materials and utilities needed for a single batch? What is the total amount of resources consumed per year? What is the required size of process equipment and supporting utilities? Can the product be produced in an existing facility or is a new plant required? What is the total capital investment? What is the manufacturing cost? What is the optimum batch size? How long does a single batch take? How much product can be generated per year? Which process steps or resources constitute scheduling and throughput bottlenecks? What changes can increase throughput? What is the environmental impact of the process (i.e., amount and type of waste materials)? Which design is the “best” among several plausible alternatives? After completing this chapter, the reader should be able to do the following: • Initiate a process design and choose the appropriate sequencing of processing steps. • Set up a process flowsheet using the unit procedure concept. • Become familiar with batch process simulators. • Schedule batch processes. • Estimate capital and operating costs. • Perform profitability analysis. • Assess the environmental impact of a process. • Perform process sensitivity analyses. Process design is the conceptual work done prior to building, expanding, or retrofitting a process plant. It consists of two main activities, process synthesis and process analysis. Process synthesis is the selection and arrangement of a set of unit operations (process steps) capable of producing the desired product at an acceptable cost and quality. Process analysis is the evaluation and comparison of different process synthesis solutions.
The Construction of E–pH Diagrams
Authors: Schweitzer George K. , Pesterfield Lester L.
Published: November 2020

In order to construct an E–pH diagram one needs to follow eight basic steps: (1) Select the species of the element involved which contain one or more of the following entities: the element, oxygen, and hydrogen. This is best done by reading the descriptive chemistry of the element in a good inorganic text and identifying the species, both soluble and insoluble, which persist, at least for several minutes, in aqueous solution. (2) Starting at the lower left-hand corner of an E–pH framework, arrange the selected species in vertical order of increasing oxidation number of the element. Then, if there are different species with the same oxidation number, arrange them in horizontal order of decreasing protonation (increasing hydroxylation). If there is only one species of a given oxidation number, this species extends across the entire pH range for the purposes of diagram construction. (3) Draw in border lines between the species, that is, the lines representing the transformation of a species to another species. You will not know exactly where these lines occur but the approximate regions are sufficient for the purposes of diagram construction. (4) Write equations for the transformations that have been indicated. Some of them will involve electrons and therefore will be half-reactions. Such equations must always be written as reductions, that is, with the electrons on the left. In addition, no reaction should contain the OH− ion; only the H+ and/or HOH instead. (5) From appropriate tabulations, obtain the standard free energy values (ΔG° in kJ/mole) of every species in the equations. These ΔG° values are to be employed in the following relationship which applies to each of the above equations. . . . ΔG° (reaction) = ∑ΔG° (products) − ∑ΔG° (reactants) (6) . . . (6) The ΔG° (reaction) values for each equation are to be converted into E° values for those equations containing electrons and into K values for those equations which do not. This is done by use of the following expressions: . . . E° = ΔG° /−96.49n log K = ΔG° /−5.7 (7/8) . . . where n represents the number of electrons in an equation.
Precipitation and Complexation
Authors: Schweitzer George K. , Pesterfield Lester L.
Published: November 2020

In Chapter 2, a method for the construction of single-element E–pH diagrams has been presented. No agent which could produce an insoluble compound nor any agent which could complex with any of the simple ions in the single-element diagrams except OH− has been included. However, it is of interest in many cases to derive E–pH diagrams for systems which involve the precipitation or complexation of one or more of the simple ions present in the single-element diagram. One method of deriving such diagrams is to recognize that precipitation or complexation of a simple cation or anion reduces the concentration of the simple ion in solution considerably. If this reduced simple-ion concentration is calculated, it can then be used to construct a new E–pH diagram for the simple ion. Therefore, since the predominant species in the region labeled as the simple ion is no longer the simple cation or anion due to the precipitation or complexation, the region is re-labeled with the precipitated compound or the complex. E–pH diagrams which involve the precipitation or complexation of one or more of the simple ions present in the single-element diagram may also be obtained using one of the available computer programs. For complicated systems, the hand calculations become time consuming and it is often better to employ a computer program. In order to determine the changes in a single element E–pH diagram that occur due to the addition of a precipitating species and the resulting formation of an insoluble compound, the following five steps may be followed. (1) Select an element of interest showing a simple cation or anion and construct the E–pH diagram for the element at a soluble species equilibrium concentration of 10−4.0 M. (2) Select a precipitating agent which will form an insoluble compound with a simple cation or anion of the element of interest. In order to determine which species will form insoluble compounds with the simple ions of an element, it is often useful to consult a list of solubility rules.
Governance
Authors: Orr David W.
Published: November 2020

The u.s. constitution and the bill of rights were drafted in an agrarian era by a small group of men as collectively brilliant as any in history. The government they created was designed with checks and balances and divided authority in order to prevent executive tyranny, sometimes override popular majorities, and avoid quick action on virtually anything. From its agrarian origins it has grown incrementally ever since in response to particular issues, economic necessity, and above all war, but not as a result of much planning, foresight, or effort to create a coherent political architecture. Nonetheless, the framework they created has survived and even thrived through sectional rivalry and the Civil War, the excesses of the Robber Baron era, two world wars, and the rise and fall of fascism and communism. The Constitution, for some, is a scripture hence beyond reform. Historian Charles Beard, less reverential, once argued that it was written to protect private wealth, especially that of the founders. That may not have been as true as Beard assumed for the founders, but it is clear that “By the middle of the nineteenth century the legal system had been reshaped to the advantage of men of commerce and industry at the expense of farmers, workers, consumers, and other less powerful groups within the society” (Horwitz, 1977, pp. 253–254). More recently, political scientists Robert Dahl, Sanford Levinson, Daniel Lazare, and Larry Sabato have questioned the inclusiveness of the Constitution as well as its effectiveness and future prospects. Dahl, for example, argues that undemocratic features were built into the Constitution because the founders “overestimated the dangers of popular majorities . . . and underestimated the strength of the developing democratic commitment among Americans” (Dahl, 2002, p. 39; Lazare, 1996, p. 46). While somewhat pessimistic about the prospects for greater democratization, he argues that “it is time—long past time—to invigorate and greatly widen the critical examination of the Constitution and its shortcomings” (pp. 154–156). Constitutional law expert Sanford Levinson agrees: “the Constitution is both insufficiently democratic . . . and sufficiently dysfunctional, in terms of the quality of government that we receive . . . [that] we should no longer express our blind devotion to it” (Levinson, 2006, p. 9).
The Upshot: What Is to Be Done?
Authors: Orr David W.
Published: November 2020

As I write, the president-elect and his advisors are pondering what to do about climate change amidst the largest and deepest economic crisis since the Great Depression of the 1930s. Their first round of decisions will have been made by the time you read this book. But whatever policy emerges in the form of cap and trade legislation, taxation, and new regulations on carbon, they are only the first steps, and they will quickly prove to be inadequate to deal with a deteriorating biophysical situation. Emerging climate realities will drive this or the next president, probably sooner rather than later, to more comprehensive measures—as a matter of national and global survival. The problem for President Obama presently is that we are running two deficits with very different time scales, dynamics, and politics. The first, which gets most of our attention, is short-term and has to do with money, credit, and how we create and account for wealth, which is to say a matter of economics. However difficult, it is probably repairable in a matter of a few years. The second is ecological. It is permanent, in significant ways irreparable, and potentially fatal to civilization. The economy, as Herman Daly has pointed out for decades, is a subsystem of the biosphere, not the other way around. Accordingly, there are shortterm solutions to the first deficit that might work for a while, but they will not restore longer-term ecological solvency and will likely make it worse. The fact is that climate destabilization is a steadily—perhaps rapidly—worsening condition with which we will have to contend for a long time to come. University of Chicago geophysicist David Archer puts it this way: . . .a 2°C warming of the global average is often considered to be a sort of danger limit benchmark. Two degrees C was chosen as a value to at least talk about, because it would be warmer than the Earth has been in millions of years. Because of the long lifetime of CO2 in the atmosphere, 2°C of warming at the atmospheric CO2 peak would settle down to a bit less than 1°C, and remain so for thousands of years (Archer, 2009, pp. 146–147).
Mashup
Authors: Keats Jonathon
Published: November 2020

The origin of the mashup is a matter of debate. According to one theory, the phenomenon began in 2001 with the XFM radio broadcast of the song “Stroke of Genius,” a bootleg remix by the deejay Freelance Hellraiser that incongruously set the pop vocals of Christina Aguilera’s “Genie in a Bottle” against garage rock instrumentals from the Strokes’ “Hard to Explain.” A competing hypothesis credits the culture-jamming Evolution Control Committee, which in 1993 satirically layered the brutal rap lyrics of Public Enemy over swinging Latin arrangements of Herb Alpert and the Tijuana Brass. Other theories cite Club House’s 1983 medley of Steely Dan’s “Do It Again” and Michael Jackson’s “Billy Jean,” Frank Zappa’s ’70s experiments in xenochrony, King Tubby’s ’60s dub remixes, John Cage’s ’50s compositions for a chorus of radios, and even the Renaissance practice of quodlibet. Although some of these may have been influential—and all are reminders of the role remixing has forever played in the creative process—this long tail of influences scarcely anticipates the explosion of songs combining vocals from one source with instrumentals from another following the Freelance Hellraiser’s XFM debut. In a matter of months mashups numbered in the thousands, with juxtapositions including Missy Elliott vs. the Cure, Art Garfunkel vs. Watership Down, and Whitney Houston vs. Kraftwork. Evoking a wrestling match, A vs. B became the standard formula for citing sources, generally in parentheses following a title playing on names of the original songs. (For instance, “Smells Like Teen Booty” was a mashup of Nirvana’s “Smells Like Teen Spirit” with “Bootylicious” by Destiny’s Child.) The sounds of these remixes were as varied as the source materials, and the motivations were as disparate as the historical influences, with intended targets ranging from dance club entertainment to cultural critique. What these works shared, and have in common with the countless additional musical (and video) mashups that have since joined them, is the notion that culture is interactive, a feedback loop rather than a mail chute. Whether done in tribute or ridicule, or simply to create something beautiful, these songs mash up the standard distinction between consumer and producer.
Singularity
Authors: Keats Jonathon
Published: November 2020

In the future humans will live forever. Bodies will be optional. Brains will be networked, and the whole universe will be sentient. All of this is an inevitable consequence of the singularity, the moment at which computers surpass human intelligence. And the singularity will inevitably occur by the year 2045. These are the predictions of Ray Kurzweil, one of the most successful and respected technologists alive, the father of speech- and optical-character-recognition software, fundamental advances in artificial intelligence that have tapped computers into the two primary modes of human communication: oral and written. Both breakthroughs, conduits of machine learning, were achieved by imbuing computers with basic pattern recognition, such that voices with different accents and alphabets in different typefaces could be deciphered. Key to our knowledge and understanding, pattern recognition is something that humans are very good at, and Ray Kurzweil is better than most people at recognizing patterns. Perceiving subtle connections between varied technologies, he has foreseen the victory of a computer over the world’s leading chess player as well as the proliferation of seminal technologies, including the world wide web. These are reasons that prominent figures from Bill Gates to Marvin Minsky take Kurzweil seriously. Kurzweil’s prediction of the singularity follows his pattern of pattern recognition, enlarged to the scale of all history. He claims that he first recognized it while plotting human advances from the wheel to the web, discovering a curve of technological advancement that was not linear but exponential. He dubbed this the Law of Accelerating Returns and hired a team of researchers to trace it back to the Big Bang. Then he began ploddingly to move forward in time, until he reached “a profound and disruptive transformation in human capability,” circa 2045. At that point, he writes in The Singularity Is Near, his best-selling 2005 book on the subject, “the entire universe will become saturated with our intelligence. This is the destiny of the universe.” Kurzweil was not the first to make this observation.
The Economics of Climate Change
Authors: Stern Nicholas
Published: November 2020

Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are externalities and represent the biggest market failure the world has seen. We all produce emissions, people around the world are already suffering from past emissions, and current emissions will have potentially catastrophic impacts in the future. Thus, these emissions are not ordinary, localized externalities. Risk on a global scale is at the core of the issue. These basic features of the problem must shape the economic analysis we bring to bear; failure to do this will produce, and has produced, approaches to policy that are profoundly misleading and indeed dangerous. The purpose of this chapter is to set out what I think is an appropriate way to examine the economics of climate change, given the unique scientific and economic challenges posed, and to suggest implications for emissions targets, policy instruments, and global action. The subject is complex and very wide-ranging. It is a subject of vital importance but one in which the economics is fairly young. A central challenge is to provide the economic tools necessary as quickly as possible, because policy decisions are both urgent and moving quickly—particularly following the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) meetings in Bali in December 2007. The relevant decisions can be greatly improved if we bring the best economic analyses and judgments to the table in real time. A brief description of the scientific processes linking climate change to GHG emissions will help us to understand how they should shape the economic analysis. First, people, through their consumption and production decisions, emit GHGs. Carbon dioxide is especially important, accounting for around three-quarters of the human-generated global-warming effect; other relevant GHGs include methane, nitrous oxide, and hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs). Second, these flows accumulate into stocks of GHGs in the atmosphere. It is overall stocks of GHGs that matter and not their place of origin. The rate at which stock accumulation occurs depends on the “carbon cycle,” including the earth’s absorptive capabilities and other feedback effects. Third, the stock of GHGs in the atmosphere traps heat and results in global warming; how much depends on “climate sensitivity.”
Energy Policy and the Further Future: The Identity Problem
Authors: Parfit Derek
Published: November 2020

I have assumed that our acts may have good or bad effects in the further future. Let us now examine this assumption. Consider first: . . . The Nuclear Technician: Some technician lazily chooses not to check some tank in which nuclear wastes are buried. As a result there is a catastrophe two centuries later. Leaked radiation kills and injures thousands of people. . . . We can plausibly assume that, whether or not this technician checks this tank, the same particular people would be born during the next two centuries. If he had chosen to check the tank, these same people would have later lived and escaped the catastrophe. Is it morally relevant that the people whom this technician harms do not yet exist when he makes his choice? I have assumed here that it is not. If we know that some choice either may or will harm future people, this is an objection to this choice even if the people harmed do not yet exist. (I am to blame if I leave a man-trap on my land, which ten years later maims a five-year-old child.) Consider next: . . . The Risky Policy: Suppose that, as a community, we have a choice between two energy policies. Both would be completely safe for at least two centuries, but one would have certain risks for the further future. If we choose the Risky Policy, the standard of living would be somewhat higher over the next two centuries. We do choose this policy. As a result there is a similar catastrophe two centuries later, which kills and injures thousands of people. . . . Unlike the Nuclear Technician’s choice, our choice between these policies affects who will be later born. This is not obvious but is on reflection clear. Our identity in fact depends partly on when we are conceived. This is so on both the main views about this subject. Consider some particular person, such as yourself. You are the nth child of your mother, and you were conceived at time t.
Land Registration
Authors: Dale Peter , McLaughlin John
Published: November 2020

Land registration systems provide the means for recognizing formalized property rights, and for regulating the character and transfer of these rights. Registries document certain interests in the land, including information about the nature and spatial extent of these interests and the names of the individuals to whom these interests relate. They also normally record charges and liens, that is rights to retain property against debts as in the case of mortgages, although in some systems these are held in separate registries. In addition, land registries provide documentary evidence that is necessary for resolving property disputes as well as information for a wide variety of public functions (such as land valuation). There are at least three basic types of land registration system: (i) private conveyancing; (ii) registration of deeds; and (iii) registration of title. Under a private conveyancing system, land transactions are handled by private arrangement. Interests in land are transferred by the signing, sealing, and delivery of documents between private individuals with no direct public notice, record, or supervision. The pertinent documents are held either by the individuals to a transaction or by an intermediary such as a notary. In such a system, the state has little control over the registration process (save for regulating the intermediaries) and there is little if any security for errors or fraud. Also, private conveyancing systems are invariably slow and expensive. Despite these serious limitations, notarial versions of private conveyancing are still found in many parts of Latin America. Under a system of registration of deeds, a public repository is provided for registering documents associated with property transactions (deeds, mortgages, plans of survey, etc.). There are three basic elements in deeds registration: the logging of the time of entry of a property document; the indexing of the instrument; and the archiving of the document or a copy thereof. While there are many types of deed registration system, they are all based on three core principles (Nichols 1993): 1. Security-registration of a document in a public office provides some measure of security against loss, destruction, or fraud.
Land Use and Land Use Control
Authors: Dale Peter , McLaughlin John
Published: November 2020

One fundamental objective of good land administration is to ensure sustainable development. All landscapes change over time, whether through human interference or by natural processes. It is essential that these changes are monitored and understood and that the uses to which the land is put are sustainable and that development: ‘meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs’ (WCED 1987). To be sustainable, development must meet both economic objectives related to returns on investment and social objectives related to meeting people’s material, cultural, and spiritual needs. Development must also be ecologically sustainable such that it preserves the long--term viability of the underlying ecosystem (Dalal-Clayton et al. 1994). In 1992, virtually all the nations of the world signed up to the United Nations Agenda for the twenty-first century, known as Agenda 21 (UNCED 1992) and committed themselves to develop national strategies for the good management of the environment. Since then there has been a growing awareness of the need for sustainability. From a land administration perspective, the challenge for sustainable development will require in part reconciling perceptions of the nature and value of land which range from: 1. a commodity that can be bought and sold; 2. a functional space; 3. an aesthetic resource; to 4. the setting for activities, such as ‘the patterned ways in which households, firms and institutions pursue their daily affairs’ (Kaiser et al. 1995). Of special importance are the ways in which the land is or will be used. The term ‘land use’ has many different interpretations but in the present context it may be defined as the economic and cultural activities practised upon the land. As such, it is distinguished from land cover, which denotes the physical state of the land and describes the quantity and type of vegetation and other material that occurs on the earth’s surface. Land use and land cover are interconnected by human actions that directly alter the physical environment such as bio-mass burning, irrigation, reforestation, and the applications of fertilizers.
New Directions in Land Administration
Authors: Dale Peter , McLaughlin John
Published: November 2020

The role of property in fostering good governance, robust economies, and strong civil societies has received fresh attention in the wake of the dramatic global changes that have occurred during the past decade. Innovative and cost effective ways to formalize property rights have emerged, linking these with new strategies and tools for building and maintaining the infrastructure necessary for sustaining a property regime. Land administration functions have been re-engineered and there have been legal reforms that have focused on modernizing, standardizing, and simplifying legislation relating to land and property. There have been new concepts of risk management, the introduction of new technologies, and a variety of organizational reforms. Many of these reforms have been the consequence of political changes, especially as a result of the collapse of communism, the adoption of a market driven approach to the economy and the impact of information technology. The processes of re-engineering have focused on a diverse package of measures dealing with land tenure security, land and property transactions, and access to credit. They have also been concerned with the provision of support for physical planning, the sustainable management and control of land use and of natural resources, and facilitating real property taxation. Internationally funded projects have also been concerned with the protection of the environment, the provision of land for all people whatever their gender but especially for the poor and ethnic minorities, and the prevention of land speculation and the avoidance of land disputes. As Burns et al. have reported: . . . The policy environment for land titling projects is becoming more complex, and a range of issues must now be addressed if a project is to pass through a Multilateral or Bilateral funding agency’s approval process. These include impact on gender, impact on the environment, resettlement requirements and impact on indigenous groups (Burns et al 1996). . . . Gender issues, fix example, are becoming increasingly important with the international funding institutions demanding that gender equity be present both in law and in practice; this requires performance indicators to demonstrate compliance with the regulations.
The City in a Glass of Water: Circulating Water, Circulating Power
Authors: Swyngedouw Erik
Published: November 2020

In recent years, an impressive body of work has emerged in the wake of the resurgence of the environmental question on the political agenda, addressing the environmental implications of urban change or issues related to urban sustainability (Haughton and Hunter 1994; Satterthwaite 1999). In many, if not all, of these cases, the environment is defined in terms of a set of ecological criteria pertaining to the physical milieu. Both urban sustainability and the environmental impacts of the urban process are primarily understood in terms of physical environmental conditions and characteristics. We start from a different position. As explored in Chapter 1, urban water circulation and the urban hydrosocial cycle are the vantage points from which the urbanization process will be analysed in this book. In this Chapter, a glass of water will be my symbolic and material entry point into an—admittedly somewhat sketchy—attempt to excavate the political ecology of the urbanization process. If I were to capture some urban water in a glass, retrace the networks that brought it there and follow Ariadne’s thread through the water, ‘I would pass with continuity from the local to the global, from the human to the nonhuman’ (Latour 1993: 121). These flows would narrate many interrelated tales: of social and political actors and the powerful socio-ecological processes that produce urban and regional spaces; of participation and exclusion; of rats and bankers; of water-borne disease and speculation in water industry related futures and options; of chemical, physical, and biological reactions and transformations; of the global hydrological cycle and global warming; of uneven geographical development; of the political lobbying and investment strategies of dam builders; of urban land developers; of the knowledge of engineers; of the passage from river to urban reservoir. In sum, my glass of water embodies multiple tales of the ‘city as a hybrid’. The rhizome of underground and surface water flows, of streams, pipes and networks is a powerful metaphor for processes that are both social and ecological (Kaïka and Swyngedouw 2000). Water is a ‘hybrid’ thing that captures and embodies processes that are simultaneously material, discursive, and symbolic.
The Urban Conquest of Water in Guayaquil, 1880–1945: Cocoa and the Urban Water Dream
Authors: Swyngedouw Erik
Published: November 2020

The problems outlined in the previous chapter evolve from particular historical political ecological processes. As the urbanization process is predicated upon the mastering and engineering of nature’s water, the ecological conquest of water is an integral part of the expansion and growth of the city. At the same time, the capital required to build and expand the urban landscape is itself, at least in the case of Guayaquil, generated through the political ecological transformation of the city’s hinterland. In this and the following chapters, we shall explore the historical dynamics of the urbanization process through the lens of this double ecological conquest. The city’s growth created the need for water systems, which stretched further and further from the city in order to tap additional water resources. Foreign capital had to be generated to finance the imported technology of these projects. This necessitated a sound export-based economy, initially driven by cocoa (until the early twentieth century), bananas (from the mid-1950s to the early 1970s), and oil (from 1973 onwards). The urban process was consequently embedded in a double ecological conquest: ever greater flows of water became urbanized, while the city’s hinterland was socially and ecologically transformed. The latter conquest, in turn, plugged the Ecuadorean economy into the international division of labour. Guayaquil was the arena and medium through which those circuits of transformed nature and money were organized. The contemporary social struggle around water is evidently the result of the deeply exclusive and marginalizing ways in which political, economic, and ecological power have been worked out. The current water system and water politics exemplify the wider socio-economic and political processes that characterized Guayaquil’s urbanization process. Until the mid-nineteenth century, Guayaquil was just a large port village on Ecuador’s Pacific coast, surviving in the shadow of the political and former colonial centre of Quito and the economically dominant Sierra (Andean highland) hacienderos. In 1780, Quito had a population of 28,500 compared to 6,600 in Guayaquil, and by the mid-nineteenth century these figures had risen to 36,000 and 25,000 respectively.
The Water Lords: Speculators in Water
Authors: Swyngedouw Erik
Published: November 2020

As already documented in Chapter 3, more than 600,000 of Guayaquil’s inhabitants depend on the ‘tanqueros’ for their daily supply of water. Private water vending is of course not a recent phenomenon. It was a common activity in the time of the Incas, and became the standard means of urban water provision in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. With the introduction of urban water engineering systems in the late nineteenth century water distribution became increasingly organized by the state, while new engineering practices aimed to provide the entire city with access to water. However, with the exception of a few years after the opening of the La Lolita treatment station in 1928, Guayaquil never really succeeded in achieving the objective of full coverage. Nevertheless, the aim of providing unlimited quantities of potable water for all of the urban population at a marginal (highly subsidized) price was never abandoned, and has been built into successive Master Plans until this very day. The political economic realities of Guayaquil’s urbanization process ran counter to this objective, for reasons discussed in previous chapters. Although the plans always held up the promise of unlimited and guaranteed water supply, a promise which served very important political and ideological functions as it deflected potential social unrest, cultivated clientelist political programmes, and contributed to legitimizing privatization, a growing number of people became systematically excluded from access to publicly provided water. Particularly during the period 1960–90, there was a growing gap in water coverage. Whereas 73% of the urban population was connected to the public water system in 1974, this declined to just 64% in 1990. In absolute terms, 222,269 people were deprived of connections in 1974, but by 1990 this number had risen to 596,013 (according to conservative INEC data). According to the 1980 Master Plan, 75 to 80% of the metropolitan population was connected to the supply system in 1980,while only 20% was serviced by tank lorries (224,964 people). This means that there has been an almost threefold increase in the number of people who are dependent on private water purchases in just over little more than a decade (EMAP-G 1980: Cuadro 4.4–16).