bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Introduction: Europe’s Endangered Industrial Champions
Authors: Hayward Jack
Published: November 2023

Within the ever-widening expanse of comparative political economy, the comparative study of industrial policy has been very susceptible to fashion. After the Second World War, and especially in France, it was associated with national economic planning and with macro-economic policy. In the 1960s, it was more specifically linked with the merger mania that took the specific form of developing firms that could carry the national flag into the internationally competitive arena. What had been seen as government¬industry relations, regarded as a sectoral activity, became increasingly focused upon particular firms, although it took quite a while for this to be appreciated by external observers.
Introduction
Authors: Hesse Joachim Jens , Wright Vincent
Published: November 2023

This book, as its title indicates, deals with the subject of ‘federalizing Europe’. And it does so at three levels: at the level of the European Community, at the level of its Member States, and at the level of the states of Central and Eastern Europe. This approach, it will be argued, is essential, because of the increasing interdependence and interplay of these three levels: nation-states in all parts of Europe influence one another, influence the Community, and are influenced by it. This is true in a variety of ways and to varying degrees. This book looks at one of those ways: the federalizing of previous unitary state systems or the reordering of existing federal arrangements. Clearly, not all European nation-states are involved.
The Cultural Dimension
Authors: Leslie Peter M
Published: November 2023

Technology, which brings abundance and material happiness, presupposes an undifferentiated mass of consumers; it also tends to minimize the values that let a human being acquire and retain his own identity, values that I am grouping here under the vague term ‘cultural’. The political order created by the state must struggle against this kind of depersonalization by pursuing cultural objectives.
From the USSR to the Commonwealth of Independent States: Confederation or Civilized Divorce?
Authors: Kux Stephan
Published: November 2023

The dissolution of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and the creation of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) mark a crucial turning-point in the political landscape of Europe and indeed in world history. The revolutionary process of systemic change and national liberation is, however, not yet terminated, and the CIS also seems to be on the brink of collapse. The republics are shaken by domestic instabilities, powerful centrifugal forces are pulling the post-Soviet states further apart, and interrepublican ties are beset with serious political, military, and economic conflicts. The ambitious plans to create a common market, a political union, and a military alliance at the same time could not be realized. Most observers have written off the CIS as a viable institution. Despite the serious challenges facing this heterogeneous confederation of states in statu nascendi, some progress towards institutionalization and integration can nevertheless be observed. Moreover, despite the often confusing, chaotic nature of alliance politics in the new Commonwealth, the republican leaders, have a fairly good track-record in managing conflicts, finding compromises, and co-ordinating policy.
Federalizing Europe: The Path to Adjustment
Authors: Hesse Joachim Jens , Wright Vincent
Published: November 2023

This book has hopefully contributed to a more balanced assessment of the political, economic, and socio-cultural potential of federal arrangements through an exploration of the costs, benefits, and preconditions of federalization. The basic questions addressed were the following: To what extent do we discern federalization processes at work in Europe, and why such processes? What, on the basis of theoretical understanding and empirical studies (not confined to Europe), can reasonably be expected from federal systems, at what price, and under what conditions?
Internal Factors in Russian Foreign Policy
Authors: Malcolm Neil , Pravda Alex , Allison Roy , Light Margot
Published: November 2023

After the turmoil following the collapse of Soviet power, post-Communist Russia has emerged as an assertively independent force in international affairs. Meanwhile, an intense debate has been underway in Moscow about Russia's national interests and foreign policy priorities. Domestic political conflicts and the close ties with former Soviet partner states have made internal factors particularly particularly important in shaping Russian foreign policy. Internal Factors in Russian Foreign Policy is the first systematic analysis of the domestic political forces which condition the international behaviour of the new Russian state. Four leading specialists examine in turn the areas of foreign policy thinking and debate, how policy is made, the public politics of foreign policy and the role of the military. They explore the changing domestic alignments associated with recent shifts in Russian foreign policy, focusing on the roles played by institutions such as the Security Council and the legislature, by military groupings and by emerging economic interests. The authors throw new light on the domestic foundations of Moscow's more assertive and sef-reliant stance.
Foreign Policy Making
Authors: Malcolm Neil
Published: November 2023

In most countries foreign policy questions are handled among a relatively small circle of officials in the executive arm of government. Access to information about foreign policy making is not easy, and the process tends to be relatively insulated from domestic politics. The Soviet system was one of the most secretive of all. However, since the collapse of the Communist order considerably more information has become available about how foreign policy is made in Moscow. What is more, the confusion and conflict of Russian political life mean that the boundary between domestic politics and the foreign policy process has become much more penetrable. The political struggle is likely to have an impact even on the innermost decision-making circles greater than it would in a more stable and routinized setting.
Boat-Owning Groups
Authors: Barnes R H
Published: November 2023

The larger fishing and whaling vessels, called téna in Lamaholot and pelédang in the local version of Bahasa Indonesia, which are used for chasing whales, porpoise, manta ray, and other large game, are owned and maintained by corporations centred on a hereditary core, which are augmented by other ties, typically those based on marriages of women from the descent group.1 Each boat (with one exception) is associated with either a patrilineal descent group or with a named segment of such a descent group. Most of the clans in the village own at least one boat. Just as some clans are larger than others and internally more complexly organized, so too are there more boats in some clans and the pattern of ownership is more complex.
A Critique Of Welfare Economics
Authors: Little I M D
Published: November 2023

A Critique of Welfare Economics was first published in 1950. It was concerned with the exposition, criticism, and appreciation of the theory of economic welfare as it had been developed to that date. It was an attempt to clarify what was meant by 'welfare'; to distinguish measurable, verifiable elements of the theory from subjective normative judgements about policies for improving economic well-being; and to establish criteria for determining whether one configuration of the economic system is better or worse than another. Little showed that the welfare theory of the time could be based directly on individual market choices, and that resort to traditional utilitarian concepts was not essential. A Critique of Welfare Economics is now reissued at the same time as Ethics, Economics, and Politics -- Little's latest book which explores the overlap between the three disciplines, and discusses the need for political decisions in economic matters, and the principles guiding them. He has added a new retrospective preface to Critique in which he assesses the contribution the book made in the light of subsequent literature in the area.
Age at Menopause and Fecundity Preceding Menopause
Authors: Rahman Omar , Menken Jane
Published: November 2023

The reproductive life-span of a woman is delimited by menarche and menopause. In contrast to age at menarche and adolescent fertility, age at menopause and fertility preceding menopause have received relatively little attention in the scientific literature. Female fecundity does not decline precipitously; rather, menopause is the culmination of a gradual decline that results from both biological and socio-cultural factors (Gray, 1979a, 1979b). Recently, as more women in developed countries have chosen to delay first births, there has been increased interest in the availability of accurate information about fecundity in the period shortly preceding menopause and about factors affecting age at menopause. In developing countries, involuntary sterility due to disease remains an important concern. Additionally, the long life expectancy of women today means a significant proportion, especially in the developed world, can expect to live for two or three decades past the age of natural menopause. Postmenopausal women have a number of increased health risks: osteoporosis (Lindquist et al., 1981) and increased risk of cardiovascular disease (Kannel et al., 1976) are two of the more prominent. Thus, knowledge about factors affecting age at menopause and the consequent duration of exposure to postmenopausal health risks has become more crucial (McKinlay et al., 1985).
Fertility Following Contraceptive Use
Authors: Huggins George R
Published: November 2023

The issue of fertility following contraceptive use is of the utmost importance to any patient or couple seeking advice as to the best method of contraception. Few things are as disheartening to a couple and their physician as the discovery of an infertility problem after having postponed childbearing. The late discovery of an unsuspected infertility problem often occurs in patients who have utilized long-term steroidal contraception, an intra-uterine device (IUD), or a combination of these two methods. Contraception usage today is heavily concentrated on oral contraceptives and intra-uterine devices. In addition to the preventive contraceptive methods, approximately one million elective abortions are performed each year in the United States (Centers for Disease Control, 1987).
The Relationship Between Reduced Fecundability and Subsequent Foetal Loss*
Authors: Baird Donna D , Ragan N Beth , Wilcox Allen J , Weinberg Clarice R
Published: November 2023

Understanding the relationships among reproductive outcomes is important in both clinical and regulatory settings. In clinical settings, couples who have one reproductive problem may want to know whether they are at higher risk of others. In making regulatory decisions, it would be convenient to know if environmental or occupational exposures generally cause an array of reproductive problems. Then we could study a single outcome (the most convenient or the most sensitive). If, however, exposures are generally so specific in their biological effects that a given exposure affects only a specific outcome, a broader range of reproductive endpoints must be evaluated in order to assess the safety of exposures.
Statistical Evidence of Links Between Maternal Nutrition and Post-Partum Infertility
Authors: John A Meredith
Published: November 2023

The question at hand is whether mild or moderate undernutrition affects the ability of a woman to reproduce, and, in particular, whether mild or moderate undernutrition affects the duration of post-partum infertility, either by affecting the duration of post-partum amenorrhoea or by affecting the subsequent waiting time to conception. Simple comparisons of mean length of the birth interval, mean duration of post-partum amenorrhoea, or mean waiting time to conception among populations are uninformative: differences among populations may equally well be nutritional or behavioural. Intra-community variations in the duration of post-partum amenorrhoea or the waiting time to conception as a function of, for example, weight, are only slightly more informative, since women will still differ, in, say, the timing of the introduction of supplemental foods to their infants.
The Return of Ovarian Function during Lactation: Results of Studies from the United States and the Philippines*
Authors: Gray Ronald H , Apelo Ruben , Campbell Oona , Eslami Susan , Zacur Howard , Labbok Miriam
Published: November 2023

Demographers and biomedical scientists have long been interested in the return of fecundity during lactation. For demographers, this interest largely focuses on the length of the post-partum infertile period, which is’ a major determinant of birth intervals. But because post-partum infertility cannot be directly measured in most demographic surveys, the duration of lactational amenorrhoea has generally been used as a proxy. There is, however, concern that amenorrhoea may not be a satisfactory proxy measure, both because pregnancy may occur in amenorrhoeic women and because there is evidence that fecundability is suppressed in breastfeeding women even after the resumption of menstruation. Moreover, numerous retrospective, cross-sectional, and prospective demographic studies of the duration of lactational amenorrhoea suggest serious data problems due to recall error, digit preference, and marked heaping of menstrual return around 6 and 12 months postpartum. In addition, there are limitations to the measurement of lactational status, with often crude categorization of women into full or partial breastfeeding groups (Lesthage and Page, 1980; Hobcraft and Guz, 1985; Ford and Kim, 1987).
The Relation of Scale and Size and its Historical Development
Authors: Scazzieri Roberto
Published: November 2023

In the previous chapters we considered the relationship between scale and technical practice from a theoretical point of view. After presenting a rational reconstruction of the economists’ views about this issue (Chapter 3), we introduced a new model of the production process (Chapter 4). This model, which is based on viewing productive activity as a network of tasks performed in real time, was then used in order to analyse two different ‘scenarios’ in which a change of process scale brings about a change in the set of technical alternatives available to the producer: scale-technology expansion and scale-technology contraction (Chapters 5 and 6). In both ‘scenarios’ the change of scale brings about a change in the range of possible outcomes (feasible technical practices). The actual outcome (the technical practice actually adopted) depends on the pattern followed by the producer in searching for a ‘suitable’ technical practice (Chapters 7 and 8). This search is based on ‘optimizing’ or ‘satisficing’ behaviour.
Capitalism without Poverty
Authors: Haslett D W
Published: November 2023

Capitalism today gives rise to greater wealth, and probably more personal freedom, than any other system the world has known. Realization of the ideals of freedom and productivity are capitalism’s strengths. Unfortunately, capitalism, with the vast inequalities to which it gives rise, does not do nearly as well in realizing two vital ideals of equality: equal access for everyone to the basic necessities of life and equal opportunity. Libertarians (arch-conservatives) and central-planning socialists (arch-liberals) often agree, curiously enough, about one basic premise. They agree that these two ideals of equality can never, through any governmental intervention, be realized much more fully than at present without abandoning capitalism.
Formalization of the Analysis
Authors: Courgeau Daniel , Éva Leliévre
Published: November 2023

We shall now deal with the formalization of event history analysis. This formalization extends the methods developed by biomathematicians for the analysis of mortality, in the presence of restricted samples, to the ‘analysis of the durations of stay’, which does not assume that the studied event is death. Contrary to death, it is entirely possible that marriage, the birth of a child, a migration, or an occupational change may never occur during the life-course of a given individual. The observation of event histories provides us with a certain number of occurrences, the distribution of which we want to study over time. In order that these occurrences can be precisely defined, three conditions must be met.
Extending to More Complex Situations
Authors: Courgeau Daniel , Éva Leliévre
Published: November 2023

The bivariate situation is the simplest interaction model. The ambit of the analysis may be enlarged to cover more complex situations, such as trivariate or multivariate situations. In this chapter we shall make a brief theoretical presentation of the problem posed by increasing the number of events studied in the same sample. We shall also see just how far the bivariate problem can go, as a result of the rapid multiplication of states. As in the bivariate case, it is possible to consider the other events as time-dependent variables, the influence of which could be measured on the hazard rates of the event chosen; however, rather than envisage a regression study, we prefer here to analyse interactions.
Phenomenological Characterization
Authors: Papandreou Andreas A
Published: November 2023

The growing awareness of pollution and its rise on the political agenda in the early 1960s offered an important focal point for the concept of externality which had been struggling to find a real-world counterpart that would do full justice to the attention economists had bestowed on it. Pollution and extemality became nearly synonymous. This grounding of the term to something tangible or physical, heightened the sense that externality had a separate ‘existence ’ of its own, that it was an identifiable phenomenon. It also intensified the feeling that it was a narrower category than general interdependence or coercion that warranted separate classification, although this has always been the prevailing sense in traditional economic models.
Non-Convexity and Entitlements
Authors: Papandreou Andreas A
Published: November 2023

In the previous chapter the notion of non-convexity came up under three different guises: first, as a cause of ‘absolute market failure ‘, which is the traditional view of non-convexity in general-equilibrium models; secondly, Heller and Starrett (1976) talked about ‘fundamental ’ non-convexities arising from forming markets for detrimental ‘externalities’; and thirdly, non-convexities in the formation of property rights or markets. In this chapter I will take a closer look at the notion of non-convexity and its relationship with externality. I shall be dealing with the first two kinds of non-convexity which are present in models without endogenous transaction costs, i.e. this chapter is about non-convexity in ‘frictionless ’ models. It is from these models that the notion of externality as missing markets has derived.
Transaction Costs, Efficiency, and Counterfactuals
Authors: Papandreou Andreas A
Published: November 2023

If one wants to pass through open doors easily, one must bear in mind that they have a solid frame: this principle, according to which the old professor had always lived is simply a requirement of the sense of reality. But if there is such a thing as a sense of reality—and no one will doubt that it has its raison d ‘etre—then there must also be something that one can call a sense of possibility. The traditional concept of optimality or efficiency found in welfare economics has come under strong criticism from institutional economists1 for using as its reference point a world of zero organizational costs.
The Individual’s and the Society’s Day: Micro- and Macro-Theories of Time Use
Authors: Gershuny Jonathan
Published: November 2023

The Talmud lists ten unnatural objects that God created at the end of the sixth day, immediately before the first sabbath; these were the mechanisms necessary to His grand design, which were however not well integrated with the rest of creation. Among these ten was, according to one authority, that particularly unnatural object, the tongs that made the first tongs. Tongs were a crucial tool for workers in bronze in classical antiquity. But they were made of bronze.
Common and Idiosyncratic Components
Authors: Forni Mario , Lippi Marco
Published: November 2023

In this and the following three chapters, which constitute the first part of this book, we analyze univariate aggregation of micro variables whose dynamics typically differ across individuals, like for instance income, wealth, or wage rates. Two main questions are discussed. Firstly, how should dynamic heterogeneity be modeled? Secondly, given the micro model, what are the consequences of aggregation on the univariate properties of the variables? The results presented here, besides being interesting per se, will prove useful in Parts II and III, where the variables just mentioned are embedded within multivariate models based on economic theory.
How Many Common Shocks?
Authors: Forni Mario , Lippi Marco
Published: November 2023

In the previous chapter we discussed a model with many common shocks and response functions which may differ across agents. Since the simpler model (1.1), with only one common shock, encompasses almost all time series models with heterogeneous agents proposed in recent literature, one may wonder whether such a generalization is really needed. In the present chapter we conduct an empirical analysis based on US incomes and wages data, in order to get some indication about the number of common shocks. The result is that the single common shock hypothesis is strongly rejected. Moreover, even small numbers of common shocks, like two or three, appear inadequate. Other evidence on the number of common shocks in macroeconomic data will be presented in Part III. Our purpose here is to show with a paradigmatic case that current models have poor empirical performance, so that a richer heterogeneity not only is theoretically interesting but also has a solid empirical motivation.
Disaggregating the Business Cycle
Authors: Forni Mario , Lippi Marco
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, the method introduced in Chapter 3 is applied to a data set on the output and productivity of 450 American industries from 1958 to 1986. The objective is to learn about both the sources and the manifestation of the business cycle.
Japan
Authors: Charkham Jonathan P
Published: November 2023

It is not necessary to delve too deeply into history or geography-not because either is unimportant-but because as time goes on it is impossible to ascribe precise causes and origins to what exists today. Suffice it to rehearse briefly the main factors that everyone knows. Geographically Japan has a large population on a series of extended islands without good natural resources and with much of its usable landmass subject to earthquakes. Spiritually it has tolerated many faiths and has woven into the fabric of thought and principle many threads of Confucianism and Buddhism: politically and economically Its modem history starts with the convulsion of the Meiji restoration over 125 years ago.
The Interaction of Financial and Expenditure Decisions
Authors: Hay Donald , Morris Derek , Liu, Guy , Yao Shujie
Published: November 2023

Previous chapters have looked at a range of financial and expenditure characteristics of Chinese state-owned enterprises. In particular we have looked at the pattern of inflows and outflows of funds (Chapter 7), identified the role of bonus payments in determining efficiency (Chapter 4), and examined the determinants of investment expenditure (Chapter 8). Bonus payments appear to be particularly important in influencing efficiency in the short term, and investment is likely to be the main determinant of longer-term development. Both must compete with other claims on finance and both ultimately depend on the availability of funds, internally generated and externally available. The main purpose of this chapter is to take some first steps towards understanding the pattern of interactions of financing and expenditure occurring in Chinese enterprises.
A Complete Model of the Firms and Policy Simulations
Authors: Hay Donald , Morris Derek , Liu, Guy , Yao Shujie
Published: November 2023

In previous chapters different aspects of firms ‘ behaviour during the reform period have been analysed. In Chapter 4 a model of the employment and wage decisions of the firm was presented, in which the constraints of the wage bill imposed by the labour bureau were found to be significant. An important feature of that analysis was the relation of the bonus to the efficiency of the firm as measured indirectly by value added per worker. The policy mechanism behind this is that firms are permitted to retain some profits for the payment of bonuses. In Chapter 5, the production and cost behaviour of the firm was explored within a production function framework. The major impact of the bonus/wage ratio on efficiency was identified. However, other policy variables, such as measures of firm autonomy in input and product markets, appeared to have no discernible effects.
Introduction
Authors: Heller Frank , Pusić Eugen , Strauss George , Wilpert Bernhard
Published: November 2023

The title of the book appropriately reflects the dilemma facing the authors, who have set out to describe and evaluate nearly half a century of research and experimentation with the democratization of organizational life. The reality of the experiments and the extensive support participation research and action have received in many parts of the world are undeniable. At the same time many questions remain unanswered and some are still ill-formulated. Protagonists and sceptics have found some common ground, but are still divided by ideology, political philosophy, and scientific orientation. Nowhere have the ideals of a fully participative organization been fulfilled, but then there is no agreement on what such an organization should do. Ideals easily transcend into Utopias. Leaderless and non-hierarchical organizations have been championed and may have worked in laboratory or small-group situations.
Organization Theory and Participation
Authors: Heller Frank , Pusić Eugen , Strauss George , Wilpert Bernhard
Published: November 2023

In a sense, participation is the essence of organization in both its empowering and its limiting aspects. Participation implies a field of self-determined choices, but among possible actions (cf. Wilpert, Chapter 2, this volume). And what is possible is predetermined by, among other criteria, the participants’ commitment to collective activity—just as organization itself is the enhancement of individual effort through the differentiated and integrated work of many and at the same time the constraint of coordinated cooperation imposed upon individual will and representation.
Innovation, Technological Opportunity, and Market Structure
Authors: Geroski Paul A
Published: November 2023

Discussions of the social cost of monopoly invariably end with a long list of caveats, of which the Schumpeterian hypothesis is perhaps the best known and most frequently invoked. The notion that monoply deadweight loss is the price that must be paid for high levels of innovative activity has attracted less support than attention, but still has enough adherents to ensure that it remains in the forefront of thinking about competition policy. The importance of the question demands that one examine the evidence available on the issue, and this chapter does so in the context of interindustry comparisons using cross-section data. (In what follows, we propose to explore the correlation between innovativeness and monopoly power by examining the effect of rivalry using more information on market structure than just concentration ratios, by correcting for interindustry variations in technological opportunity, and by distinguishing the effect that rivalry has on innovativeness for a given level of post-innovation returns from the effect that rivalry has on innovativeness through its effects on post-innovation returns.)
Problems of Ascendancy: Trade Associations and the Formation of the Distillers Company, 1856–1877
Authors: Weir Ronald
Published: November 2023

In 1822 Thomas Smith of the Mile End distillery in London had regarded it as inevitable that distilling should fall into the hands of a few, because ‘the application of machinery to various parts of the manufacture’ would give competitive advantage to large producers.1 The Coffey still symbolized the transition to ‘factory’ distilling and the contrast between pot and patent still distillers was evident. In 1854, when the output of patent still distilleries passed that of pot, there were thirteen patent still distilleries in Scotland whose combined output was over 7 million gallons. Pot still distilleries numbered 119, a reduction of forty-nine since 1840, and they shared an output of 4¾ million gallons. The position was little different in the United Kingdom as a whole. In 1860, 27m.p.g. of spirit were distilled, of which 63 per cent came from patent stills, concentrated in twenty-eight distilleries.
Moderation and Modernity The Distillers Company, 1914–1918
Authors: Weir Ronald
Published: November 2023

The war brought government intervention in the drink trade to an extent unimaginable before 1914. By 1918 most stages of the manufacture and distribution of Scotch whisky were subject to control. Prohibition and nationalization were both seriously considered; had the latter come to pass this might well have been a study of British Drinks Ltd. rather than the Distillers Company. Although most controls were lifted between 1919 and 1921, this outcome was neither certain nor inevitable. Relations between the trade and the government thus assumed an importance unusual even for an industry which normally operated under close official supervision. In this relationship DCL, through its managing director, W. H. Ross, played a leading part. Much later (in 1932), reminiscing about the war, Ross thought it had been the time when ‘I went through the hardest work of my life, because I had to keep the Distillers Company going and travel backwards and forwards to London, sometimes more than twice a week’.3 Unfortunately, Ross never wrote an account of his wartime experiences (characteristically he felt to do it in a scrappy fashion would be 1 D. Lloyd George, War Memoirs of David Lloyd George (London, 1934), i. 194.
DCL and the Big Three: ‘A Scheme for Amalgamation’, 1909–1915
Authors: Weir Ronald
Published: November 2023

The men who carved out a distinctive niche in the spirits market for Scotch whisky and transformed it from a drink of purely local significance into one with an international reputation were not distillers but blenders. Blending, the mixing of different distillates, produced a more homogenous product yet one which, because of the different costs of malt and grain whisky, could be moulded to suit a wide range of tastes and pockets. This much was common to all blenders, but what distinguished the more successful ones was their creation of national firms with centralized blending plants and a countrywide network of branches. This concept of mass marketing, implemented first in the home market and then in the export trade, was accompanied by the registration of trade marks, the introduction of standard brands, and advertising. Such was the supremacy of blended whisky by 1908 that the Royal Commission on Whiskey reported that ‘the market for blended whiskeys is greater than that for individual whiskeys; so much so that the majority of Englishmen who drink whiskey seldom drink anything but a blend’. When William Ross asserted that the blenders had been responsible for the great increase in whisky consumption since 1860, few in the trade would have disagreed with him, not even the most diehard malt distiller.
‘The Altered Circumstances of the Trade’s, 1919–1924
Authors: Weir Ronald
Published: November 2023

If the big combine was to be achieved Ross had to secure his board’s support as well as the Big Three’s. The board was worried about how DCL’s other customers might react. Before the war the Big Three accounted for 20 per cent of DCL’s grain whisky fillings, and hostility to a combine might result in orders being switched to other grain distilleries, or, worse still, the foundation of a new grain distillery. This was why Ross originally wanted a large-scale restructuring, which embraced most of the grain distillers-DCL, North British, and Calder-and the large blending—houses-the Big Three, Mackie, Usher, Robertson & Baxter, and Watson. Even then, blenders outside the combine might turn to English or Irish grain distillers. The ‘big question’ could only be resolved if the Big Three absorbed the majority of DCL’s output and DCL controlled all, or nearly all, the grain distilleries.
Problems and Issues in the Study of Mortality Differentials
Authors: Ruzicka Lado
Published: November 2023

Demographers and epidemiologists have long been aware that chances of a child surviving through infancy and early childhood are primarily determined by the resources available in the child’s family. These resources are not only economical, such as family income, quality of housing, and, associated with these, the physical environment in which the family lives and social amenities to which it can gain access. Equally important are the social resources: characteristics of the parents, such as education, beliefs, social norms, and traditions they hold. These affect the family life-style and behaviour in many respects which are directly or indirectly related to the active promotion and protection of health, and intervention in the case of ill health. The economic resources are usually measured by a range of indicators, such as income (of individual members or of the family as a whole), possession of household chattels, occupation of household head, type of house in which the family lives (construction material, number of rooms and the density of their occupation), and so on. Among the social resources the indicators most often encountered are the educational level of the parents, family type and size, religion (or some measure of religiosity), and caste (or other indicator of social status).
Socio-economic Differentials in Infant and Child Mortality in Indonesia in the 1970s: Trends, Causes, and Implications
Authors: Utomo Buoi , Iskandar Meiwita Budiharsana
Published: November 2023

In Indonesia, data on infant and child mortality are almost invariably based on indirect techniques of measurement. Soemantri (1983) has shown that estimates from different censuses and surveys provide evidence of a general decline in infant and child mortality levels, though there is a 10 per cent gap between the trends obtained from the 1971 population census and from the 1976 intercensal population survey (Figure 7.1). Hull and Sunaryo (1978) suggested that this was due partly to age misstatements and partly to the design of the questions.
French Influences on Technical and Managerial Education in England, 1870-1940
Authors: Sanderson Michael
Published: November 2023

French views on Technical Education may be said to demand attention ... we may well look to France for some light on a subject to which the state, in conjunction with the best authorities of the country has devoted close attention for more than 20 years. (C. C. Perry, 1898) As Britain faced economic competition from industrial rivals in the later nineteenth century so she looked inward to supposed defects of her own education as a cause of retardation. She also looked outward to other countries to learn from their educational arrangements. Germany was seen as the exemplar for technical and scientific education and America for business. Yet the educational relations with France have been much less emphasized.1 Unjustly, it may be argued, since the French experience has had a pervasive and sometimes decisive influence in the areas of technical, vocational, and managerial education in England.
Mergers and the Transformation of the British Brewing Industry, 1914-80
Authors: Gourvish Terry
Published: November 2023

While this chapter is empirical in character-it is concerned with the transformation of British brewing ‘s industrial structure after 1914-there is a theoretical observation underpinning the study. It is that because markets are complex and differ from country to country, the causes and extent of increased industrial concentration differ also. In addition, corporate motivations require careful evaluation, since entrepreneurial and/ or managerial responses are ultimately critical to the process. Increasing concentration has been a characteristic feature of modern brewing industries in the developed world. However, the extent of this concentration, and its timing, have varied from country to country. In the UK, the degree of concentration, measured by output per plant or per company, was more limited than in most European countries, with the exception of Germany and Belgium. British brewing was certainly less concentrated than in France. Thus, while the top five French enterprises enjoyed a market share of 90 per cent in 1990, and the two leading French companies, Boussois Souchon Neuvesel (BSN) and Frarn;aise de Brasserie, had 75 per cent of the market, the figures for the UK were 70 per cent and 36 per cent (Bass and Allied) respectively. Only in Germany was there a lower level of concentration. Here, the top five companies (in West Germany) enjoyed a mere 28 per cent of the market.
Clusters and Competitiveness: A Policy Perspective
Authors: TEMPLE PAUL
Published: November 2023

Over long periods of time, economic growth and prosperity have depended upon a progressive development of international specialization. Much of this volume is devoted to showing empirically that the industry cluster is an important means of understanding that process in both computing and biotechnology. This chapter addresses some of the policy issues that emerge from this analysis, setting them in the broader context of knowledge-based specialization. The chapter is organized as follows. Section 9.1 describes the challenges currently facing economic policy in the advanced economies, especially those posed by unemployment and rising inequality. It argues that, if the dangers of protectionism are to be avoided, then successful policy will require, among other things, the development of knowledge as a strategic resource. Section 9.2 examines some of the policy implications that emerge from viewing knowledge as a resource, concluding that the concept of the industry cluster is sufficiently flexible to embrace the complex processes that describe technological change. Section 9.3 looks at the issue of cluster performance.
Management Accounting in Denmark Theory and Practice
Authors: Israelsen Poul , Andersen Michael , Rohde, Carsten , Sorensen Poul Erik
Published: November 2023

The industrial revolution arrived relatively late in Denmark. While most authorities place the beginning of industrial development in the 1870s, this was a very slow development at first, probably due to the lack of raw materials. As a result, industrial development in Denmark was largely related to two other important industries—agriculture and shipping. While the agricultural sector was for many years characterized by small, local industrial firms, larger firms—first and foremost shipyards—quickly became established in the shipping industry. Despite this, there were only a few large industrial firms up to the Second World War. In 1948, there were only just over 500 firms with more than 100 workers, employing a total of 140,000 individuals, or an average of 225 workers per firm. This possibly reduced the potential for a strong cost and management tradition. And while, in the 1890s, the engineering profession both argued for and proposed various cost accounting systems, the discussion was almost purely at the level of bookkeeping techniques.
A Survey of Management Accounting Practice in Greek Firms
Authors: Ballas Apostolos , Venieris George
Published: November 2023

During the past decade there has been increased interest in the literature (mainly the Anglo-Saxon literature) about management accounting and costing in particular. This was attributed mainly to changes in the production techniques employed by many firms, which, according to the proponents of the new costing techniques, made traditional costing methods irrelevant. These criticisms struck a chord with many firms, and the proposed changes in costing technology were rapidly adopted by a number of companies, mainly in North America.
Free-Riding Versus Rent-Sharing: Should Even David Gauthier Support an Unconditional Basic lncome?
Authors: Parijs Philippe Van
Published: November 2023

Some years ago, I spent a few months with my family in a house we were sharing with my father-in-law. Very soon, one feature of our daily routine started disturbing me greatly. I noticed that my father-in-law was quite sensitive to the floor getting dirty, far more sensitive at any rate that I was myself. As soon as dust started covering the lounge floor, he would take out the vacuum cleaner and deal with it, long before I would start thinking it was necessary. The result, of course, was that the floor was tidied up for me beyond my wishes, without my doing anything for it. This bothered me because I could not help feeling it was unfair. True, I did manage to convince myself that I was not exploiting my father-in-law, because, even though I derived a benefit from his work, and one that was not meant as a gift, I did not do so by exercising any power over him. But I had to concede that this semantic response did not settle the ethical issue, and that such a situation, if continued-and taken in isolation from other aspects of the interaction-was unfair. This I found particularly annoying because of a puzzling connection with an idea which I was beginning to explore at the time and to which I soon became committed to the point of spending a considerable amount of time advocating it in aU sorts of circles.
The Patent System and R&D in Japan
Authors: Okada Yosuke , Asaba Shigeru
Published: November 2023

The purpose of this chapter is to study the relationship between the patent system and R&D activities in Japan through an analysis of the change of both patent applications and grants for scientists and engineers (i.e. the application-S&E ratio and the grant-S&E ratio). As is generally known, technological progress is one of the most important drivers of the economy, and we can regard the patent system as one of the most important factors affecting the rate and direction of inventive activity. Since the late 1960s, many advanced countries have been suffering from economic slowdowns, and many researchers have been seeking the causes and effects of techno logical innovation to explain such slowdowns. At the same time, some researchers have observed that the patents granted per R&D expenditure (the patent-R&D ratio) or per number of scientists and engineers (the patent-S&E ratio) declined in most advanced countries. On the other hand, the Japanese economy has experienced dramatic recovery and development since the Second World War and sustained growth until quite recently, without a decline in its patent-R&D or patent-S&E ratios.
Industrial Policies in Europe: Introduction
Authors: Federico Giovanni , Foreman-Peck James
Published: November 2023

At the end of the twentieth century, Europe confronts a range of industrial cha11enges. The integration of Eastern Europe with the West, indeed the very definition of’ European’ and the boundaries of Europe, are perhaps the most fundamental in the long run. But more immediate are the potential consequences of a core group of states linked by a common currency, while industry in other Union states gains competitive advantages from exchange-rate depreciation. Diver gences between ‘regional’ European economies within or outside such a currency area could be equally problematic. Moreover slow industrial growth coupled with real wage rigidity has a1lowed unemployment in all Member States to reach levels not experienced since the 1930s.
The Netherlands: The History of an Empty Box?
Authors: Zanden Jan L Van
Published: November 2023

Since its creation in the final decades of the sixteenth century, the Netherlands has arguably been the most liberal country in Europe. In the seventeenth century its policy of ‘free trade’ was based on the very open character of its economy and superiority in manufacturing and international trade. In the eighteenth century, with industry in decline as a result of foreign competition, the strong interests of the Dutch bourgeoisie in international trade and finance ruled out the possibility of a switch to a more protectionistic trade policy. In the nineteenth and twentieth century this tradition basically has remained unchanged. For the wealthy and politically dominant bourgeoisie of a small open economy, with strong interests in export industries and an important part of its capital invested abroad, a policy of non-intervention into the development of industry and international trade seemed to be the most beneficial. The strong laissez-faire orientation of the Dutch ruling classes was not shaken by the fact that during periods of increased protectionism in the world economy-for example in the first ha]f of the nineteenth century and in the 1920s and 1930s-the Dutch economy was the first to be hurt. Only in case of dire necessity, with its economy in ruins after a devastating war-in fact only after 1813 and 1945-werc experiments with more interventionist policies adopted.
Financial Assistance to Families
Authors: Shirley Ian , Pool Peggy Koopman-Boyden Ian , John St.
Published: November 2023

Throughout most of the post-war era it is possible to see some continuity in the financial assistance provided for families with children, with incremental improvements reflecting changing demographic patterns and needs. In recent years, however, this momentum appears to have been lost, with policy changes responding to fiscal concerns, and policy design based on an implicit view of how the family ought to be. Meanwhile the pace of economic and technological change has not abated, and many families face an uncertain future.
Patterns of Technology Management in European Firms: An Overview
Authors: Dankbaar Ben
Published: November 2023

The translation of new knowledge into competitive products is one of the most important tasks of management. In fact, without much exaggeration it can be considered as the single most important task for the leadership of an enterprise. As the economist Joseph Schumpeter pointed out as early as 1912, the essence of capitalism is innovation, which he defined as making new combinations of markets, products, people, and technologies (Schumpeter, 1980). If the management of an enterprise does not succeed in making such new combinations or if it makes them too slowly in comparison with the competition, the performance of the enterprise will decline. The dynamics and growth of capitalist economies are determined by the decisions of enterprises to enter new markets, to introduce new products, to adopt new processes, new skills, and new forms of organization.