bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Women’s Rights, Suffrage, and Feminism in Nineteenth-Century America
Authors: Rogers Dorothy
Published: November 2023

This chapter provides an overview of the interplay of activism and theory in the nineteenth-century women’s rights movement across ideological and racial and cultural lines. It points to the influence of (masculine) modern political theory in the liberal branch of the women’s rights and suffrage movement. It then moves to a discussion of progressive women’s activism and theory, particularly women’s opposition to the distinctions between the “public,” “social,” and “private” spheres of life that were accepted in both intellectual life and popular culture. The chapter then recognizes maternal views of women that remained influential throughout the nineteenth century—some of which were feminist and sought to “export” feminine virtues into public life to repair social and political ills. The chapter recognizes racial and cultural diversity within each branch of feminism, asserting that the women’s rights movement was multicultural at the start and must continue to be recognized as such.
The Protestant Reformations and Law
Authors: Witte John
Published: November 2023

The sixteenth-century Protestant Reformation revolutionized not only theology and the church but also law and the state. This northern European reform movement, and its colonial expansion across the Atlantic, broke the international rule of the medieval Catholic Church and its canon law, permanently splintering Western Christendom into competing nations and regions. The Reformation also triggered a massive shift of power, property, and prerogative from the Catholic Church to the Protestant state. Protestant rulers now assumed jurisdiction over numerous subjects and persons previously governed by the medieval church. Using studies of Lutheran, Anabaptist, and Calvinist communities, this chapter illustrates the enduring reforms of church-state relations, constitutional law, criminal law, religious freedom, family law, education law, and social welfare that reflected this new Protestant theology. The chapter makes clear, however, that in formulating their new state laws, Protestant authorities also drew heavily on biblical law, Roman law, and medieval civil law and canon law, as well humanist and republican legal and political thought.
Christianity and Law in the Early Americas
Authors: Herzog Tamar
Published: November 2023

This article surveys the relations between religion and law in colonial English, Spanish, and Portuguese America. It shows that religion served to explain the colonial expansion. Religion justified the particular forms that colonialism took, the special regimes developed vis-à-vis both Indigenous peoples and individuals of African descent (including the basis for “just war” against native populations), and the creation of new legal and social categories. The importance of religion was noteworthy among colonialists who believed in an order made of both religious and civic norms, but it was no less noticeable among Indigenous peoples and individuals of African descent.
Christianity and Law in Latin America Today
Authors: Villalonga Cristián
Published: November 2023

This chapter surveys the contribution of Christianity to modern Latin American law during the past two hundred years, exploring how the region has experienced debates in its institutional development in dialogue with Christian religious ideals. In concrete terms, the chapter addresses such an influence in four specific legal fields: (1) the transition from Catholic republics to the coexistence of public ecclesiastic law with religious freedom; (2) the regulation of social life, particularly family relations and freedom of association; (3) the legal contest over economic regulation during the twentieth century; and (4) the scope and protection of human rights since the late 1940s. In contrast to mainstream social-sciences scholarship, which looks at Christianity as an obstacle to modernization in the region, the chapter shows that Christianity has contributed to a distinctive religiously oriented version of legal modernity. In this orientation, Christian ideals about justice, the commonwealth, and human dignity have influenced the social mindset and the content of constitutions, legislation, and legal scholarship. And they have done so while facing a landscape that frequently has been plagued with political violence and state failures. The chapter concludes that understanding the contribution of Christianity is essential in order to comprehend some traits of the current Latin American legal culture, even when the place of Christian ideals in the public sphere has been called into question.
Christianity and Law in Africa Today
Authors: Odozor Paulinus I.
Published: November 2023

Christianity is one of the three main religions of Africa. Its history and impact are felt differently in various African societies. The complexity of the relationship between Christianity and each individual African country makes it difficult therefore to speak generally of the impact of Christianity on law in all African countries. There are, however, shared Christian assumptions about reality that motivate Christian input and emphases and provide a common Christian vision of what the law should look like in particular areas of African life. And there are particular areas of life—such as education, health, social services, sexuality, marriage and family, reproduction and abortion, and human rights—in which Christian views have been important, if not decisive, in formulating the policies and laws in the various countries on the continent. Important to note is that Christian advocacy for just laws in Africa is meant not to secure particular privileges for the faith but to ensure good governance and justice for all, irrespective of their faith or other affiliations. Finally, although the Christian impact on African legal systems is normally exhortatory, it can sometimes aim at enshrining particular statutes or at forbidding the enactment of laws on particular issues.
Christianity and Law in Northeast Asia Today
Authors: Jonghyu Jeong Ambrose
Published: November 2023

This chapter surveys the many faces of Christianity across the countries in northeast Asia. On one hand, China and North Korea have ranked as countries with the most persecution of Christians over the past two decades. China is the scene of the most striking evangelization efforts in the two-thousand-year history of Christianity, and North Korea may well be called the catacombs of the twenty-first century. On the other hand, some countries are establishing diplomatic ties with the Holy See: Taiwan, where Christians are a minority; Mongolia, where Christianity has just begun to spread; Japan, where there is strong indifference to Christianity; and the Republic of Korea (South Korea), where both Catholicism and Protestantism are developed. Particularly in South Korea, Protestantism is at the center of many legal disputes, and secular law clashes with various medical, social welfare, and educational missions.
Christianity and Constitutional Law
Authors: Aroney Nicholas
Published: November 2023

Modern constitutional law is the product of several important historical influences. These include Greek philosophy, Roman law, Christian theology, and Enlightenment principles. Greek philosophy proposed a classification of the basic types of constitution and introduced the idea of the rule of law. Roman law contributed the legal concept of jurisdiction, which is an essential feature of contemporary constitutional law. Christian theology offered a conceptual framework in which the authority of civil government was effectively qualified by a higher natural or divine law, and in which the spiritual authority of the church posed a practical limit on the temporal powers of the civil authority. Christian theology also provided the context in which the powers of civil and ecclesiastical rulers were tempered through various means, including the administration of oaths of office and the issuing of charters guaranteeing the rights of religious, social, economic, and civil associations of many kinds. The principle of the separation of powers and the establishment of written constitutions enforced by judicial review, although associated with the Enlightenment, also owed a great deal to these earlier principles and practices. This chapter surveys the contribution of each of these influences and argues that although the Greek, Roman, and Enlightenment contributions have been important, constitutional law would not be what it is today if it were not for the influence of Christianity.
Christianity and Equity
Authors: Bray Samuel L. , Miller Paul B.
Published: November 2023

Equity is an important concept in the legal systems of the common-law world. The development of the concept has been shaped by Christian sources, which in turn have been heavily influenced by classical sources. This chapter surveys the line of development from Aristotle to the modern law of equity. In between, it traces equity through Roman law, the Hebrew Bible, the New Testament, scholastic theology, canon law, the Magisterial Reformation, and the early modern English Court of Chancery. Some of these contributions to the development of equity treat it as an exceptional correction to the law on account of its generality (the exceptional sense). Others are more likely to see equity as the justice that is the ultimate aim of law, and thus a guide to the law’s interpretation (the interpretive sense). Regardless of which sense is emphasized, these sources tend to link equity with justice, both as a political virtue and as a personal virtue—that is, as an essential condition for a just society and an essential characteristic of a just person. The contemporary law of equity still bears the imprint, even if faint, of the classical and Christian sources, and these sources offer insights for equity in the present.
Law and the Church Fathers
Authors: Lössl Josef
Published: November 2023

The present chapter covers aspects related to law and the Church Fathers. It begins with an overview of who the Church Fathers were and how they thought about and dealt with law. It understands the Church Fathers not merely as a group of people in history (specific early Christians, leading intellectuals, and bishops) but also as a quasi-normative entity, a body of teaching, which continues to shape legal thinking in the Christian tradition. Contrariwise, the chapter takes into consideration that law was something early Christians encountered in their secular environment but also something they themselves developed and cultivated as a form of Christian law, and it considers how these two are connected and differ. The chapter goes on to discuss relevant concepts developed by the Church Fathers, such as divine law, natural law, freedom of religion, citizenship, the common good, and moral conscience. It does so by considering classical and biblical sources and the late ancient contexts of these concepts as well as their reception in later periods. Particular attention is paid to Origen’s concept of a freedom of conscience and Augustine’s ideas on citizenship, law, and the common good. The chapter finishes by briefly touching upon the relevance of these ideas through today.
Christianity and Torts
Authors: Moreland Michael P.
Published: November 2023

This chapter surveys the relationship between Christianity and the law of torts. The field of tort law is briefly explained, then its relation to Christian legal thought is explored through a discussion of the tension between instrumentalist and noninstrumentalist accounts of tort law. The chapter shows how a Christian understanding of torts will tend toward noninstrumentalist explanations, and it discusses the revival of noninstrumentalist accounts and the rejection of reductive consequentialism in tort theory in the work of John Goldberg and Benjamin Zipursky. The chapter concludes with two examples of contemporary Christian tort theory: John Finnis’s insistence on the significance of intention and the morality of purposeful harm to persons, and the human face of the famous case of Palsgraf v. Long Island Railroad Co. as discussed by John T. Noonan Jr. in Persons and Masks of the Law.
Christianity and Economic Law
Authors: Crane Daniel A.
Published: November 2023

From the first century forward, Christian thinkers and authorities have espoused many different views of economics, regulation, the role of the state, and economic law. Christian thought on economic regulation underwent systematic scholarly exposition during the Scholastic, Reformation, and modern eras, culminating in a wide array of perspectives on the role of markets and the government’s regulatory role. From Thomas Aquinas on just price theory to Martin Luther on cartelization and predatory pricing and Adam Smith on the nature of the market’s “invisible hand,” Christian and Christian-influenced thinkers worked out the ethical and moral implications of contracts, usury, exchange, and the role of government in economic matters. Christian thinkers thus laid the foundations for the modern economic world. However, in the modern era, Enlightenment rationalism, empiricism, and academic specialization gradually displaced a distinctive Christian influence on economic law. Even though many Christians continue to work on matters of economic law, modern scholarship on market regulation shows little evidence of an ongoing, expressly Christian influence. However, recent trends in political, social, and academic interests regarding economic law—particularly those related to the fallibility of human decision-making and wealth inequality—offer renewed opportunities for productive engagement by Christian thought.
Christianity and International Law
Authors: Walker Neil
Published: November 2023

The role of Christianity in the development of international law is complex and contentious. A crude but tenaciously relevant distinction holds between a perspective that views Christianity as marginal to international law and one that views it as fundamental. Support for each approach is found in more general orientations trading upon broader uncertainties and controversies about international law’s character. On the one hand, the marginalizing approach is supported by an underlying orientation that treats international law as a modern invention and, thus, free of the metaphysical assumptions that granted religion wide-ranging authority in premodern times. According to this approach, the paramount authorities of the modern world are sovereign states. From the late nineteenth century, international law has witnessed the construction by and among these secular “final” authorities of a legal bond within an institutional and cultural framework emphasizing common civilizational progress. On the other hand, there is a historical orientation that attends to the roots of international law in premodernity, prominently including the universalizing language and juristic impulses of the Christian faith. This longer perspective is sensitive to how modern international law remains conditioned by these roots and to the ways in which the narrative of convergence and progress in international law is challenged and complicated by encountering a pluralism of beliefs, interests, and identities partly grounded in religious faith. Only by addressing both approaches and their respective supporting orientations can there be a balanced understanding of the ways in which Christianity affects the theory and practice of international law.
Christianity and Byzantine Law
Authors: Wagschal David
Published: November 2023

This chapter considers the significance of the key developments in Christian law in the Eastern Roman Empire. Noting that the Greek empire is “ground zero” for the epoch-making emergence of church law, the chapter begins by exploring the importance and influence of the Antiochian corpus, the first quasi-official legal collection of the imperial church. It then considers some of the key characteristics of the mature Byzantine canonical tradition: its lack of professionalization and jurisprudence, its traditionalism, its sacralization, some of its distinctive substantive provisions, and its relationship with the civil law. The chapter suggests that the Byzantine canonical tradition should be understood as the central representative of a distant Christian legal world that, although later much eclipsed by the Western medieval developments, constituted a coherent and fascinating whole: a veritable “Old Catholic Law” of the first millennium.
Christianity and the Law of Religious Freedom
Authors: Smith Steven D.
Published: November 2023

Religious freedom understood as a natural or legal right is a modern development, but it is the product of ancient Christian themes, shaped by modern pluralism, and channeled through Enlightenment institutions, such as constitutional government and rule of law. Three themes in particular have been crucial: the inherent dignity of the person created in the image of God, the jurisdictional dualism of God and Caesar, and the sanctity of a sincere and uncoerced conscience. In the Middle Ages, these themes inspired a struggle for freedom of the church. Later, they supported a commitment to freedom of conscience. These freedoms have been the essential ingredients of the modern conception of religious freedom. Given its foundations in Christian themes, religious freedom faces uncertain prospects in an increasingly post-Christian world. In the United States, claims to religious freedom are challenged and often overridden in the name of other rights or interests framed in terms of equality or nondiscrimination. Scholars frequently conclude that there is no persuasive contemporary justification for singling out religion for special legal protection. And the uncertain prospects are hardly limited to religious freedom, narrowly conceived. The development of religious freedom has been closely associated with other rights—freedoms of thought and expression, in particular—and, as James Madison recognized, the logic of these rights is intertwined. Hence, the fate of religious freedom may influence the fate of other central elements of the constitutional tradition as well.
Christianity and Religious Freedom in the Asian Context
Authors: Thio Li-ann
Published: November 2023

The continent of Asia may be the cradle of Christianity and other religious faiths, although Asian Christians have largely forgotten or ignored this. Many Asians view Christianity, more frequently associated with Western colonialism, as an invasive, foreign, missionary religion, even if Christianity’s encounter with Asia predates Western Christendom and colonialism; the center of Christianity has shifted to the Global South, and some of the world’s largest mission-sending churches are in Asia in the Global South. In many Asian contexts, Christianity has been a force for religious and political freedoms. Although Christians in Asia are generally minorities, they have played an outsized role in promoting religious freedom, two facets of which this chapter focuses upon. First, the individual right of religious conversion and corollary freedom of religious propagation is based on freedom of conscience. The Indian Constituent Assembly has debated the inclusion of propagation as part of the religious freedom guarantee; this chapter discusses how these influenced developments in South and Southeast Asia. Second, at the collective level, religious freedom opposes political absolutism, particularly in Asian socialist regimes. The fear that communism was incompatible with religious freedom drove Christians in South Korea to embrace a vision of a democratic nation that safeguarded political and religious liberties. That fear manifested in the repressive treatment of Christian minorities in North Korea and China, where the hegemonic state subordinates individuals and groups to its totalizing agenda, contrary to Christian values of human dignity and the differentiation of religious and political power.
Christianity and the Law of Migration
Authors: Kerwin Donald M.
Published: November 2023

This chapter examines the interconnections between Christianity, forced migrants, and the diverse legal systems to which they are subject. Christianity views migrants as the children of a loving God, equal in dignity and rights to all other persons. The Torah stresses the imperative to love and act justly to the stranger based on love of God and the Jewish people’s experience of wandering, exile, dispersion, exodus, and return. The New Testament describes the Holy Family’s journey to Bethlehem, their flight to Egypt, the itinerant ministry of Jesus, his crucifixion under color of law, and his identification with the “least,” including the stranger. To forced migrants, the law represents both a source of hope and an instrument of exclusion. To some, forced displacement leads to deepened reliance on their faith traditions, communities, and migrant forbearers. In its long history, Christianity has used natural law, subjective human rights, and international law to mediate its values to the broader community. Its teaching has influenced and lent support to legal systems that extend protection, membership, and hospitality to forced migrants. Conversely, it is strongly critical of state practices that turn away desperate persons and erect barriers to their integration and belonging. It also has long experienced the negative effects of ideologies such as nativism and exclusionary nationalism that privilege certain groups but seek to exclude other beneficiaries of God’s love and grace.
Christianity and Health-Care Law
Authors: Keown John
Published: November 2023

The law governing health care predates not only the relatively new academic discipline of health-care law but even the development of medical science and the medical profession in the nineteenth century. This chapter illustrates, with reference to the landmark text The Sanctity of Life and the Criminal Law (1957) by eminent jurist Glanville Williams, the important influence of Christianity on the historical development of the law governing health care, in particular the law’s prohibition of abortion, infanticide, and euthanasia. The chapter argues that although Williams was right to identify the Christian origin of these prohibitions, he not only misunderstood their theological basis but also (like many critics of those prohibitions today) failed to appreciate that they can be defended on philosophical, and not only theological, grounds. The chapter notes the growing influence in recent decades of secular, utilitarian thought on the law relating to health care, reflected by the widespread legalization of abortion and the increasing legalization of euthanasia and physician-assisted suicide.
Christianity and the Law of Biotechnology
Authors: Okediji Ruth L.
Published: November 2023

The relationship between Christianity and biotechnology is mediated by the moral clarity with which Christianity views the sacredness of life, especially the distinctiveness of humans in God’s creation. The significant role of humans in the orthodox doctrine of creation might suggest that Christianity views technologies that enhance the physical quality of human life favorably while disfavoring those that impinge on the sanctity of life. There is no such dichotomy, however; the emerging biotechnology landscape is increasingly morally and doctrinally complex. The benefits of biotechnology for enhancing the body and overcoming disease have obscured questions about God’s created order, whether it should be altered, the conditions under which such alterations could be an expression of biblical stewardship or, conversely, a form of idolatry, and whether laws such as intellectual property that incentivize manipulation of biological matter should be of greater concern to Christianity. The frontiers of biotechnology raise challenges for foundational Christian doctrines of creation, stewardship, and redemption directed at the well-being of spirit, soul, and body. Christianity has selectively engaged with biotechnology, with implications for the development of moral intuitions necessary to discern between stewardship and the abuse of creation, and between worship of the Creator and worship of His creation. This chapter offers a framing of Christianity’s role in the significant policy choices that face societies as advances in biology increasingly blur, on one hand, the boundaries between humans and the rest of God’s creation and, on the other hand, the boundaries between humans and what humans create.
Christianity and Racial Justice
Authors: Lloyd Vincent
Published: November 2023

Christianity has offered important conceptual resources for advancing racial justice. The Christian tradition has urged attention to the marginalized. It has described the savior as residing among the poor and as a victim of state violence. Christian ethical traditions of natural law reasoning and of opposing domination help identify and challenge racism. And Christian traditions of naming social sin offer language for understanding the wrongness of racism. Yet Christianity has also had an ambivalent relationship to racial justice, with Christian communities mobilizing in support of racist causes, appealing to Christian symbols and ideas, across centuries. This chapter explores the ambivalent relationship of Christianity and racial justice. It tracks Christian movements in favor of racial justice as well as ways Christianity has acted as an impediment to racial justice. Throughout, the chapter suggests that racism must be understood in its depths, not as individual acts but systemically. Understood in this way, racism can leave secular scholars and activists flummoxed, with every purported vision of racial justice already captured by the forces of racism. The vision of hope offered by Christianity, along with the virtues of faith, love, and forgiveness that are woven throughout the Christian tradition, offer an essential resource for pursuing racial justice.
Christianity and the Rule of Law
Authors: Lee Simon
Published: November 2023

Fernanda Pirie, an anthropologist of law, thinks the rule of law is four thousand years old. The phrase itself in English, however, was popularized by the constitutional lawyer Albert Venn Dicey only less than 150 years ago. Dicey’s own definition is rarely supported nowadays, but the expression is much invoked, albeit with radically different meanings. This chapter adopts a pared-back understanding of the initial part of Dicey’s concept when considering the relationships of the rule of law to Christianity and society as a whole. A history of ideas should not collapse all virtues into the rule of law. Just as there are other faiths, so there are other values alongside the rule of law, such as justice, democracy, equality, and freedom. The rule of law matters, even in extreme circumstances of oppressive legislation. The leading Marxist historian E. P. Thompson, in his study of the draconian Black Act of 1723, could see redeeming features in the rule of law, which he described as “an unalloyed human good.” This chapter presents brief examples of Christian attitudes to the rule of law through the ages, and it offers reflections on how views evolve alongside the impressions themselves. The chapter concludes that bilateral relationships between Christianity and the rule of law are best understood as parts of a bigger picture of human flourishing.
Christianity and Judgment
Authors: McIlroy David H.
Published: November 2023

Judgments are acts of evaluation, ways of distinguishing between right and wrong. A good judgment is a moment of truth in which is disclosed how the affected parties deserve to be treated. The Bible is full of both divine judgments and examples of God’s mercy and forgiveness. Christianity teaches that God has authorized human authorities to issue such judgments as are necessary to maintain social peace. Indeed, Christianity makes judgment the justification for, and central activity of, rulers. Judgments are pronouncements on existing actions and states of affairs. Christianity recognizes that retribution is a natural response to wrongdoing but urges rulers to seek restoration wherever possible. From the time of Augustine onward, many church leaders have urged rulers to be as merciful as they can be, consistent with maintaining public order and confidence. Good judgments vindicate and condemn in appropriate measure, defend social order, and so open up possibilities for human flourishing. Christian teaching warns against the dangers of vindictiveness, bias, and hypocrisy in judgments. Because rulers are fallen human beings, and because the Last Judgment has not yet happened, there are limits on the judgments that rulers may pass. Christian teaching and practice stress that rulers should pronounce judgment only on issues in which the public good is at stake. Moreover, rulers should be mindful of the possibility of errors in their judgments. Human judgments are provisional, limited, and fallible acts, authorized by the need to protect against violence, resolve disputes, and open up space for flourishing and forgiveness.
Cognitive-Behavioral and Dialectical Behavior Therapy for Nonsuicidal Self-Injury
Authors: Chapman Alexander L. , Hood Philippa , Turner Cassandra J.
Published: November 2023

The primary aim of this chapter is to discuss and illustrate core cognitive-behavioral (CBT) principles and practices in the treatment of nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI). CBT principles emphasize the context in which NSSI occurs, along with the transaction of cognitive, emotional, and behavioral factors in the maintenance of NSSI. Dialectical behavior therapy (DBT) is an example of an effective treatment for NSSI with unique elements, including a comprehensive treatment structure, a biosocial developmental and dialectical theoretical perspective, and a focus on skills deficits, emotions, and emotion regulation. Broadly, DBT includes many core CBT strategies that can help clients overcome NSSI, build more effective coping strategies, and build lives they experience as worth living. Throughout this chapter, the authors discuss key, overarching CBT and DBT principles and strategies applied to the treatment of NSSI.
Mahasweta Devi and Indian Literature from Below
Authors: Majumder Auritro
Published: November 2023

This chapter surveys the Bengali writer Mahasweta Devi’s influential and less-remarked texts, including her novels, short stories, and nonfiction. Utilizing Sisir Kumar Das’s notion of Indian literature as a dialogic formation, it situates Mahasweta’s retelling of regional, national, and world history—such as her sprawling historical fiction ignored by most critics—with particular attention to literary form and experiments with style and idiom. Translated into multiple Indian languages, Mahasweta’s writings signal an awareness of what is here termed Indian literature from below; departing from recent discussions that view Indian literature as an offshoot of 19th-century orientalist discourse, this chapter illuminates an ebullient strand of decolonizing intellectual thought and practice that in remarkable ways reworks classical and premodern traditions and juxtaposes folk-popular culture with the global modernist avant-garde. In doing so, it bridges the gap between urban educated classes and marginalized populations in India: anti-state rebels, women, Dalits, and Adivasis.
The Many Meanings of Capital in IPE
Authors: Bryan Dick , Rafferty Michael , Wigan Duncan
Published: November 2023

International Political Economy (IPE) research deploys one or more concepts of “capital” as a key part of its analytical project. The needs of analyzing developments in capitalism have seen considerable change in these concepts. This chapter provides a fourfold and blended taxonomy of capital in IPE that tracks these changes. Capital as Means of Production invokes a focus on capital as means of production, including the capital-labor relation. This is most closely associated work on Fordism, post-Fordism, the international division of labor, the developmental state, and chains and networks of internationalized production. Capital as Units of Production depicts discrete capitals in competition. Here we include the multinational corporation as monolith, its expansion via overseas subsidiaries and its fragmentation. Where a corporation focuses on the valuation of its individual component activities and decides which to hold, which to sell off, and which to subcontract, this draws attention to a Financial Wealth notion of capital, with focus on financial instruments and institutions and the movements of finance that arise with their transformations. Finally, capital as a process of social relations of Value in Motion (ViM) gives focus to investment and valuation and incorporates Marxian value theory, assetization, and capitalization. ViM appears as the most abstract depiction of capital and thereby the “level” at which the other conceptions come to relate to each other qua capital.
Big Tent Revivalism
Authors: McMullen Josh
Published: November 2023

The huge popularity of big tent revivalism coincided with the rise of consumer and therapeutic culture at the turn of the twentieth century. This chapter argues that big tent revivalists participated in the shift away from Victorianism and helped in the construction of a new consumer culture. Revivalism’s adaptation to and innovation of newer cultural understandings was largely the product of revivalists’ desire to reach the masses with their Christian message. This populist impulse made big tent evangelists highly sensitive to cultural trends. Revivals attempted to temper consumer culture by retaining nineteenth-century Protestant language that emphasized sin, character, salvation, and hard work, but this language was increasingly spoken with a consumer accent. Big tent revivals were fashioned to fit the urban consumer culture, drawing on the city’s idioms of consumption, entertainment, abundance, celebrity, and therapeutic self-fulfilment, offering old-time religion, but in novel ways.
Salvation and the ‘Social Gospel’
Authors: Ceri Jones David
Published: November 2023

Taking its lead from the various essays on Christian salvation that appeared in The Fundamentals (1910–15), this chapter argues that fundamentalists often reserved their sharpest criticisms for those who questioned the substitutionary nature of Christ’s sacrifice. Closely related was their opposition to the ‘social gospel’ which supposed societal transformation to be the main goal of Christian witness. Yet resistance to the social dimension of liberal Christianity did not mean that they ignored social action entirely. The chapter argues that while some fundamentalists continued to stress personal regeneration, others attempted to navigate a middle way, developing a place, albeit often a subordinate one, for issues of social justice. However, the fear that a pre-occupation with social issues would compromise the simple gospel message remained ever present, and became a fault line between fundamentalists and the wider evangelical movement.
Education in Home and School
Authors: Gaither Milton
Published: November 2023

The education of children has always been a major emphasis of American Christian fundamentalism. Early fundamentalists fought a largely successful battle to keep public schools Protestant and free of hot-button curricular emphases like evolution and sex education. Developments in the 1950s, most notably Brown v. Board of Education (1954) and the National Defense Education Act (1958), and in the 1960s, most notably Engel v. Vitale (1962) and Abington v. Schempp (1963), along with broader trends like school consolidation and the professionalization of the teaching force, left fundamentalists increasingly alienated from public education. Many turned to private day schools and to homeschooling as alternatives. More recently, fundamentalists have in many states lobbied for and are increasingly securing public funding for their sectarian institutions in the form of tax credit scholarships and education savings accounts, even as the number of fundamentalist children being educated in alternative settings declines overall.
Higher Education
Authors: Laats Adam
Published: November 2023

As the fundamentalist movement emerged in the United States in the 1920s, one of the primary concerns of its founders was the state of Christian higher education. In that decade, fundamentalist activists created a network of institutions dedicated to teaching a specifically fundamentalist vision of liberal arts. Over the course of the twentieth century, this network grew and changed in significant ways. The network maintained its desire for a theologically and culturally pure faculty, but in many ways fundamentalist colleges, Bible institutes, and universities took part in broader patterns of change in higher education. This chapter focuses on one element that was unique to fundamentalist higher education: a focus on keeping students safe from changes in mainstream academic and cultural life.
Fundamentalism and Early Pentecostalism
Authors: King Gerald W.
Published: November 2023

This chapter explores the relationship between fundamentalism and Pentecostalism as they both emerged and developed in the 1920s and 1930s. It begins by examining the origins of both movements, and tracing some common influences and features, before looking more closely at the way in which fundamentalists initially responded to Pentecostals. It then surveys how the fundamentalist movement impacted Pentecostalism itself, before investigating in detail some of the ways in which fundamentalists criticized aspects of Pentecostal theology and practice. Despite this, there were areas in which fundamentalists and Pentecostals could find common cause, not least in the National Association of Evangelicals from 1942.
Class
Authors: Dochuk Darren
Published: November 2023

Fundamentalism’s class composition has always vexed observers. Just what class label, exactly, is best applied to American Christianity’s warring conservatives? Resisting both a rigid ‘class model’ of analysis, which privileges economics over culture and limits fundamentalists to the lower class, and a ‘culture model’ that stresses values over economics, this chapter claims fundamentalism is best understood in hybrid terms. Drawing on sociologist Thaddeus Coreno, it assumes a ‘Class Culture Model’ which posits that fundamentalism is ‘the product of both structural and cultural forces’ and representative of the lower strata in each class. As a survey of fundamentalist history and historiography illustrates, fundamentalists typically occupy the lower tier of the business, middle, lower middle, and working classes. In that shared station they demonstrate common distaste for ‘elites’ and the modern, liberal order that seems to grant those elites privilege and authority. Through a shared sense of subordination, fundamentalists thus arm themselves with a grievance politics that collectivizes their plight and projects it onto worries about society’s failing social fabric and secular drift. That class-culture posture has long fuelled fundamentalist engagement with American society.
From the Television Age to the Digital Revolution
Authors: Howard Robert Glenn , Zahay Megan L.
Published: November 2023

This chapter explores the apparent contradiction that while fundamentalists have often been fiercely anti-modern, they have more often than not embraced the latest technologies in pursuit of their cause. It does so by firstly examining fundamentalist use of the broadcast media, especially radio and television, paying particular attention to televangelists like Oral Roberts, Jimmy Swaggart, and Jim Bakker. The increased power and often politicization of many of these figures brought them into disrepute. The expansion of the Internet in the new millennium served to extend the reach of the fundamentalist message. The chapter proceeds to examine various types of online fundamentalist presence, with a focus on the proclivity towards a blurring of religious authority, and the popularity of conspiracy theories. Sometimes fundamentalists online became ready-made audiences for conservative political mobilization, especially important in the age of Donald Trump.
Escaping Fundamentalism
Authors: Atherstone Andrew
Published: November 2023

Christian fundamentalism, like other forms of conservative religion, has continually lost adherents to deconversion, disaffiliation, or disillusionment. Many ex-fundamentalists have turned to autobiography and memoir as a vehicle for reconstructing their spiritual identities, expressing their ongoing search for meaning, and persuading readers to follow in their footsteps. This chapter examines memoirs and novels of disaffiliation by Christian fundamentalism from the 1970s to the 2020s, including prominent figures such as Charles Templeton and Frank Schaeffer. It illustrates recurring themes in the literature like intellectual turmoil and moral revulsion, and shows how ex-fundamentalists often used conversionist language to testify to their loss of faith. It also demonstrates the growing number of women’s voices in this genre in the early twenty-first century.
The Fundamentals
Authors: Treloar Geoffrey R.
Published: November 2023

That The Fundamentals occupies an important place in the rise of Christian fundamentalism is keenly appreciated, but its purpose, the nature of the contents, its view of the fundamentals of Christianity and the precise connection with fundamentalism have been less well understood. This chapter addresses each of these matters, presenting The Fundamentals as the commendation of the perspective of interdenominational evangelicalism on the eve of the Great War to the active Christian workers of the world on whom the future of Christianity was seen to depend. Section 1 establishes its purpose and design, with a brief account of the origins and implementation of the project. Section 2 outlines the position taken on a range of contemporary theological and cultural issues intended as ‘a new statement of the fundamentals’. Section 3 identifies the publicly undeclared theological commitments and priorities that underpinned this standpoint. The final section notes the immediate and long-term reception of The Fundamentals to establish its connection with Christian fundamentalism.
Princeton and Fundamentalism
Authors: Hart D. G.
Published: November 2023

Beginning with discussion of the problematic nature of the term ‘fundamentalist’, this chapter examines the role of Princeton Seminary within the fundamentalist–modernist debates of the early twentieth century. After placing Princeton within the context of nineteenth-century American Protestantism, the chapter looks at its initial reaction to theological liberalism, arguing that the response of the Princeton theologians was at first nuanced and sophisticated. It was not until the intra-Presbyterian controversies in the 1920s that the lines became more firmly drawn. Examining the career of J. Gresham Machen in detail, the chapter shows that while Machen battled liberalism and modernism, his critique was of a very different nature to the more populist arguments sometimes adopted by fundamentalists more widely. The chapter contends that fundamentalism was far from being a monolithic movement.
Billy Graham, Fundamentalism, and Neo-Evangelicalism
Authors: Coffman Elesha J. , Wenger Regina B.
Published: November 2023

Billy Graham began to transition from fundamentalism to neo-evangelicalism in college. Even after he became the leading spokesman for the neo-evangelical tradition, however, he retained aspects of his Southern, fundamentalist upbringing. This chapter analyses his efforts to steer a middle course between fundamentalism and Protestant liberalism, arguing that his positions are best understood as centre-right, despite the strident criticism he faced from fundamentalists. After describing Graham’s educational journey and narrating the founding of the National Association of Evangelicals and Christianity Today magazine, the chapter examines Graham’s approach to three hot-button issues in the latter twentieth century, race, gender and sexuality, and foreign policy. The chapter also describes Graham’s 1957 New York Crusade as a breaking point between the evangelist and his fundamentalist critics.
Visibility Networks
Authors: Čučković Zoran
Published: November 2023

Visibility networks are models of explicit visual relationships between one or more observers and their visual targets. Such networks, comprising visual connections, are analyzed by archaeologists in order to study past signaling and distance communication, land and sea navigation, human experience of architecture, and other problems in landscape archaeology and architectural analysis. This chapter aims to give a broad overview of the topic by introducing basic concepts of visibility analysis, and by reviewing common approaches in visibility network modeling. These approaches are grouped under several general themes: local neighborhood analysis, visual signaling models, network models of human landscape experience, and landscape visibility graphs. Finally, common issues and pitfalls are briefly discussed, such as data quality, historical reality of visibility networks, and the problem of ocularcentrism in visibility analysis.
Biodistance Networks
Authors: Johnson Kent M.
Published: November 2023

This chapter reviews the application of network analytical techniques to phenotypic data from human skeletal remains as part of biological distance (biodistance) research. Skeletal and dental traits are suitable for network analysis because, as proxies for genetic relatedness, they are relational data and the nodes in biodistance networks represent well-defined social actors (i.e. persons from archaeological contexts). Biodistance network research has been limited compared to archaeological applications of network analysis. In bioarchaeology, social network analysis has used ego-networks, subgroups, and components to identify regional-level biological kin networks among skeletal samples and evaluate an archaeological model of colonial organization. Although critical aspects of biodistance network research require further consideration, network techniques represent a powerful suite of analytical tools for biodistance research in bioarchaeology.
Mortuary Archaeology Networks
Authors: Sosna Daniel
Published: November 2023

This chapter examines the relevance of networks in mortuary archaeology. It traces the genealogy of network thinking and provides a critical synthesis of the diverse ways in which successive generations of archaeologists have approached and interpreted relations when researching the mortuary archaeological record. Case studies demonstrate a range of theoretical issues and scales investigated using network concepts and methods. This chapter evaluates the strengths and weaknesses of network approaches vis-à-vis multivariate statistics and Geographic Information Systems, which represent other powerful tools for mortuary analyses. The overview of the case studies shows a high degree of diversity, given the limited use of mortuary networks. It is argued that network methods not only enable the expansion of scale but, more importantly, enable movement across scales. Finally, the chapter proposes potential future directions for the development of networks in mortuary archaeology, especially synergies between different traditions of network thinking and the integration of different kinds of data and analyses within a single project.