bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Dialogical Self
Authors: Hermans Hubert J. M.
Published: January 2010

In its original formulation, the dialogical self is conceived of as a dynamic multiplicity of I‐positions in the landscape of the mind. These I‐positions are involved in processes of mutual dialogical relationships that are intensely interwoven with external dialogical relationships. In this conception, the I is always bound to particular positions in time and space but has the possibility to move from one position to the other in accordance with changes in situation and time. The I fluctuates among different and even opposed positions and has the capacity to imaginatively endow each position with a voice, so that dialogical relations between positions can develop. The voices behave like interacting characters in a story, involved in a process of question and answer, agreement and disagreement. They all have a story to tell about their own experiences from their own perspective. As different voices, these characters exchange information about their respective Me's, creating a complex, narratively structured self. In this multiplicity of positions, some positions are more dominant than others, so that the voices of the less dominant positions are subdued (Hermans, 1996; Hermans, Kempen, & Van Loon, 1992).
Dual Relationships
Authors: Zur Ofer
Published: January 2010

In psychotherapy, dual relationships, or multiple relationships, refer to situations in which multiple roles exist between a therapist and a client. These are situations in which therapists have additional relationships with their clients beyond the clinical‐therapeutic ones. Examples of dual relationships arise when a therapist's client is also the therapist's student, employee, colleague or friend (Zur, 2007).
Ecological Psychology
Authors: Mace William M.
Published: January 2010

This article describes James J. Gibson's ecological approach to psychology as it developed. Gibson's system evolved as an approach to visual perception, but the consequences have extended far beyond vision—first to other modalities (Gibson, 1966; Turvey, 1996), then to action, cognition, social psychology, and movement science, to name a few. Part of the range of ecological psychology can be seen in the list of books in the series,
Resources for Ecological Psychology
(see Heft, 2001).
Ego Development
Authors: Noam Gil G. , Malti Tina
Published: January 2010

The ego development concept was first introduced in psychoanalytic thinking. Using Freud's so‐called structural model distinguishing between id, superego, and ego, an American group of psychoanalysts developed a branch of theory and practice that came to be known as “ego psychology” (Hartmann, 1964). The term
ego development
has been used with various meanings. Whereas Freud viewed the ego as a weak rider of the powerful id and the strict superego, the more pragmatic line of U.S. psychoanalysis led clinicians and theorists to stress the ego's conscious elements of decision making, choice, and competence. In general, the ego has been utilized as a broad descriptive term for all ego function in the psychoanalytic tradition or, most prominently, as the changing organization of an individual's central frame regarding the psychosocial realm or psychosocial developmental tasks.
Ego Psychology
Authors: Lettieri Richard
Published: January 2010

The ego psychological approach to understanding mental life has evolved considerably since Freud created the discipline of psychoanalysis in the latter part of the nineteenth century. Contemporary ego psychologists have a different theoretical and clinical perspective than did Freud or early psychoanalytic theorists. As in all areas of scholarship and clinical practice, ego psychologists have evolved in their understanding of motivation and behavior and have integrated new findings from psychoanalytic practice and research, and from the cognate disciplines. This article relates the early theory of psychoanalysis and ego psychology and then presents its more contemporary edition, referred to as modern conflict theory or modern structural theory.
Elder Abuse and Neglect
Authors: Heiser Deborah , Brownell Patricia
Published: January 2010

Elder abuse does not discriminate. Older adults from all walks of life, regardless of socioeconomic status, religious affiliation, race, or ethnicity, have been mistreated and abused. It is difficult to determine the prevalence of elder abuse. First, it is not a single easily measurable phenomenon. There are seven types of elder abuse: physical abuse, sexual abuse, emotional abuse, financial abuse, neglect, abandonment, and self‐neglect. We do not know the exact prevalence of elder abuse, because it is often underreported and often unidentified. The National Center on Elder Abuse (2005) estimated that as many as 2 million elders have been mistreated.
Electroconvulsive Therapy
Authors: Hermida Adriana P. , McDonald William M.
Published: January 2010

Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is one of the most effective somatic treatments for major depression and mania. For major depression, the remission rates in patients undergoing ECT are as high as 80%, even including those patients who previously failed multiple medication trials. The response to ECT is also faster than with medications, often occurring in the first three to five treatments.
Electroencephalography
Authors: Thibodeau Ryan
Published: January 2010

First demonstrated by the German psychiatrist and neurologist Hans Berger in 1924 (Karbowski, 2002), electroencephalography (EEG) is the measurement of brain electrical activity via recording electrodes placed on the scalp. Rhythmic variations in this electrical activity assume the form of waves that vary with respect to two key parameters: frequency (the speed of the wave cycles) and amplitude (the size of the wave). A number of distinct rhythms, based on these parameters and denoted using Greek letters, have been identified and are systematically related to variations in consciousness. For instance, the delta rhythm consists of very tall, slow waves that are apparent during deep sleep. The alpha rhythm consists of shorter, faster waves that are apparent during states of relaxation. The beta rhythm consists of short, very fast waves that are apparent during periods of effortful cognitive exertion.
Emotion Regulation
Authors: McRae Kateri , Gross James J.
Published: January 2010

Emotion regulation refers to influencing which emotions one has, when one has them, and how one experiences and expresses these emotions. This includes attempts to change the magnitude and/or duration of behavioral, experiential, and/or physiological aspects of the emotional response. Emotion‐regulatory processes may be either automatic or controlled, or conscious or unconscious, and they may dampen, intensify, or maintain positive or negative emotion, depending on one's goals.
Emotions
Authors: Aldao Lia , Mennin Douglas S.
Published: January 2010

Over the last 10 years, the field of psychology has witnessed an increased interest in emotional processes. This interest has been fueled by considerable advances in (1) understanding and investigating structural components of emotion (e.g., neurobiology); (2) functional roles of emotions in development, cognition, memory, and attention; and (3) the relevance of these processes to health outcomes such as psychopathology and the promotion and treatment of mental health.
Encopresis
Authors: Friman Patrick C.
Published: January 2010

Encopresis is a common, often undertreated, and often overinterpreted form of fecal incontinence. When left untreated, encopresis can lead to serious and potentially life‐threatening medical problems and seriously impaired social acceptance, relations, and development. The primary reasons for the medical problems are the possibility of organic disease (some cases have medical causes such as Hirschprung's disease) and the medical risk posed by fecal matter inexorably accumulating in an organ with a limited amount of space. The primary reason for the social impairment is that soiling evokes more revulsion from peers, parents, and important others than other forms of incontinence (and most other behavior problems).
Engineering Psychology
Authors: Durso Francis T. , Delucia Patricia R. , Jones Keith S.
Published: January 2010

Engineering psychology is a discipline that aims to improve socio‐technical systems: driving cars, working on surgical teams, controlling nuclear power plants, improving consumer products, controlling air traffic, and the like. It does this by considering how human operators interact with technologies, with environments, and with other operators in particular contexts. Engineering psychology contributes to the understanding of human capabilities and limitations and directly or indirectly impacts the design of technologies that operators use. Cognates of engineering psychology include human factors, ergonomics, applied experimental psychology, and cognitive engineering. All have the common goal of improving socio‐technical systems, but each does so with a different approach, for example, focusing on the cognitive versus the physical factors that affect the operator. However, differences among disciplines are often subtle, and professionals in separate disciplines often conduct very similar work. In addition to the goal of improving the particular system, inducing general principles from the study of particular systems characterizes the scientific nature of what many engineering psychologists do.
Envy
Authors: Smith Richard H. , Combs David J. Y.
Published: January 2010

Envy is an unpleasant blend of discontent and ill will caused by noticing a desired advantage possessed by another person. People often confuse envy with jealousy, but they are distinct emotions (Parrott & Smith, 1993). Envy involves two people and arises when one lacks something enjoyed by another. Jealousy entails three people and arises when one fears losing someone (often a romantic partner) or something to a rival. The confusion derives partly from the dual meaning of “jealous,” which can be used to mean either envious or jealous. The term “envy” nearly always refers to the two‐person case in which a person lacks a desired thing. Thus, we can say that Salieri was envious or jealous of Mozart's musical talent, but we would not say that he flew into an envious rage if his wife showed interest in Mozart. Jealousy would be the preferred label for his emotion in the latter case.
Epidemiology of Mental Disorders
Authors: Kessler Ronald C. , Wang Philip S.
Published: January 2010

The word epidemiology is derived from the Greek words epidemos, meaning “among the people.” Epidemiology is the branch of public health concerned with understanding and controlling disease in the population by investigating correlates of illness that might provide clues about disease‐causing agents (Susser, 1973). Because the ultimate goals of epidemiological research are to understand the causes of disease and to prevent disease occurrence, epidemiology is the backbone of public health.
Epilepsy
Authors: Barrett Rowland P.
Published: January 2010

The term
epilepsy
is derived from the Greek word
epilambabein
, meaning “to attack.” It is defined by repetitive abnormal cerebral neuron firing that may or may not be accompanied by a disturbance of consciousness or an alteration in perceptual motor functioning. Recurrent seizures are a required manifestation of epilepsy.
Episodic Memory
Authors: Wheeler Mark E. , Gallo David A.
Published: January 2010

When we think back to a past experience, such as a childhood birthday party, we can bring to mind faces of people in attendance, the appearance and location of the event, the sounds of voices or music, and our mood and thoughts. This contextually rich form of retrieval is the basis for episodic memory. As defined by Endel Tulving (1983), an episodic memory contains three critical elements that delineate it from other forms of memory. The first is that the memories are embedded in a spatiotemporal context in which some aspects of the location and timing of the event are available to consciousness. The second is that they are personal memories associated with a distinct impression of self‐involvement. The third is that they are accompanied by a subjective awareness of remembering in which sights, sounds, and other experiences are replayed in the present moment.
Errors, Type I and Type II
Authors: Hancock Gregory R.
Published: January 2010

The goal of most social science research is to infer whether variables relate to each other in one or more populations of interest. Statistical tests are a tool used to assist in this inferential process by evaluating data from samples drawn from the population(s) of interest; these statistical tests are, however, by no means foolproof. Occasionally sample information would seem to imply that, for example, variable
X
is related to variable
Y
in the population, when in fact no such population relation exists. Such an inaccurate inference is termed a
Type I Error
(or “alpha error”). On the other hand, sample data may seem to imply that
X
and
Y
appear unrelated, when indeed those variables do have a relation in the population. This inaccurate inference is termed a
Type II Error
(or “beta error”). These two types of errors are discussed in the context of an illustrative research example.
Ethology
Authors: Vetreno Ryan P. , Anzolone Steven J. , Savage Lisa M.
Published: January 2010

The study of animal behavior in their natural environment is termed
ethology
and arose as a consequence of the seminal early works of zoologists and field naturalists, such as Nikolaas Tinbergen and Konrad Lorenz. These researchers stressed the importance of examining the evolution (phylogeny) and development (ontology) of behavior in the context of the animals' unique ecological niche. One goal of ethology is to determine which behaviors are learned and can be modified via an organism's interaction with the environment and which are “built‐in” or passed on through genes. A key finding is that very complex behavior patterns are a function of genetics and are instinctive to specific environmental “stimuli” or events.
Evolutionary Psychology
Authors: Jackson Russell E.
Published: January 2010

Human psychology is a product of the human nervous system. Neural mechanisms, often clustered in the brain, gather and process information from the environment, interact, and execute actions. All conscious and unconscious mental phenomena, such as motivations, emotions, or planning, derive from neural activity. Even the most mundane behaviors require precise unconscious calculations. Walking, for instance, requires extensive feedback, calculation, and integration in order to coordinate intricate muscle movement.
Excitatory and Inhibitory Synapses
Authors: Micheva Kristina D.
Published: January 2010

Chemical synapses—that is, synapses that use a chemical neurotransmitter to transfer information from one neuron to another—can be excitatory or inhibitory, depending on their effect on the postsynaptic neuron. Synapses releasing a neurotransmitter that brings the membrane potential of the postsynaptic neuron toward the threshold for generating action potentials are said to be excitatory. Alternatively, inhibitory synapses drive the membrane potential of the postsynaptic neuron away from the threshold for generating action potentials.
Experimental Psychology
Authors: Bourne Lyle E. , Healy Alice F.
Published: January 2010

Experimental psychology is a branch of the broad academic discipline of psychology. As its name suggests, experimental psychology is defined primarily by its methodology. Like all branches of psychology, experimental psychology aims to understand the behavior of organisms, both human and nonhuman. However, it does so exclusively by using the experimental method of science. Experimental psychology includes any aspect of behavior that is amenable to examination by the experimental method.
Expert Testimony
Authors: Bank Steven C.
Published: January 2010

As the world becomes more complex, expert testimony assumes an increasingly important and controversial role in the Anglo‐American judicial system. The Federal Rules of Evidence specify that expert testimony occurs when a witness, qualified as an expert by knowledge, skill, experience, training, or education, testifies by providing opinions or facts that assist the judge to understand evidence or to determine a fact in issue. For justice to be served, expert witnesses present unbiased opinions and facts based on sound science or technical knowledge.
Exposure Therapy
Authors: Taylor Steven , Abramowitz Jonathan S.
Published: January 2010

Exposure therapy is used to treat excessive fears, which are central to many anxiety disorders. During exposure therapy, the person is presented with a fear‐evoking stimulus in a controlled fashion, until the fear diminishes. Treatment is collaborative, with the patient and therapist working together to decide how and when exposure will take place. Exposure duration depends on many factors, including the type of feared stimuli and the severity of the person's fears. Typically, an exposure session lasts 40–90 minutes, and sessions are repeated until the fear is substantially reduced or eliminated. Sessions may be either therapist‐assisted or completed by the patient as homework assignments. In order to ensure that exposure is optimally effective, the patient is exposed to fear‐evoking stimuli in a variety of different contexts to promote the generalization of therapeutic effects (Bouton, 2002).
Extremism
Authors: McGregor Ian
Published: January 2010

Moderation has long been identified as a hallmark of virtue. Pythagoras preached virtue from proper proportion among one's feelings, intuitions, and reasons. Plato depicted virtue as arising from reason's skill at bridling the extremes of appetite and spirit. Confucius, the Buddha, and Aristotle all promoted their own versions of a golden mean or middle‐way between extremes. Given such praise for moderation, why are people so readily drawn to extremes of thought and action? Extremes seem especially enigmatic when one considers that they are so often self‐destructive. For example, in the first century CE a group of religious fanatics who were uncompromising in their opposition to Roman rule carried daggers under their cloaks and killed anyone who did not fully support their views. Their extremism brought reprisals that crushed their “Zealot” sect, but the example of their rabid idealism persists as the origin of the word, “zeal.” Zealous extremism has accordingly come to refer to ideological conviction that belligerently insists on consensus, with apparent disregard for practical consequences.
Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing
Authors: Shapiro Francine , Solomon Roger M.
Published: January 2010

Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) is an integrative psychotherapeutic approach that emphasizes the role of the brain's information processing system in ameliorating the somatic and psychological consequences of distressing events. Current emotional problems not caused by organic deficit or physical insults are conceptualized as the result of inappropriately processed memories of disturbing or traumatic experiences. EMDR is an eight‐phase treatment, including a tripartite protocol that focuses on the memories underlying current problems and those that must be specifically addressed to bring the client to a robust state of psychological health. One of its distinguishing characteristics is its use of bilateral physical stimulation, such as side‐to‐side eye movements, alternating hand taps, or alternating auditory tones while the person undergoing treatment is mentally focusing on aspects of various life experiences.
Eyewitness Testimony
Authors: Ogle Christin M. , Chae Yoojin , Goodman Gail S.
Published: January 2010

Eyewitness testimony is a powerful and influential source of information for juries, especially about crimes such as sexual assault in which the victim is the only witness. Because verdicts in these cases often hinge on eyewitness statements, concern over the accuracy of memory for experienced or witnessed events is magnified. Eyewitness testimony is influenced by a complex interaction of cognitive, socio‐emotional, and situational factors during encoding, storage, and retrieval of information (Lindsay, Ross, Read, & Toglia, 2006).
E
ysenck,
H
ans
J
. (1916–1997)
Authors: Staff
Published: January 2010

Educated in Berlin, Hans J. Eysenck left Germany in 1934 for political reasons (opposition to Hitler regime) to study in Dijon, France, and Exeter, England, before enrolling in a psychology course at the University of London in 1935. He obtained the B.A. and Ph.D. in 1940, then joined the Maudsley Hospital and later the Institute of Psychiatry, which is part of the University of London. In the newly formed Institute he founded the Department of Psychology, becoming a Professor at the university and psychologist to the Maudsley and Bethlem Royal Hospitals. He was given the task of establishing clinical psychology as a profession in the United Kingdom, and his newly created department was the first to train clinical psychologists and to use the newly developed methods of behavior therapy.
Eysenck Personality Questionnaire
Authors: Mor Nilly
Published: January 2010

The Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) is a self‐report instrument that is based on Eysenck's theory of personality. The EPQ was developed by Hans J. Eysenck, one of the most influential personality theorists, and Sybil B. G. Eysenck, and is part of a group of scales developed by Eysenck and his colleagues. The first published scale in this line of work was the Maudsley Personality Inventory (MPI; H. J. Eysenck & Knapp, 1962), which measured two personality tendencies, Neuroticism (N) and Extraversion (E). Following the publication of the MPI, a lie scale was added and two alternate forms were devised, forming the Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI; H. J. Eysenck & Eysenck, 1964). Subsequently, a third personality dimension, Psychoticism (P) was added, creating the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire. The psychoticism subsacle had undesirable psychometric properties and was criticized for having low reliability, a low range of scoring, and a skewed distribution. In response, in 1985 the scale was revised by removing some items from the P scale and adding some items to the P, N, and E scales. The revised measure, the EPQ‐R is the currently used form of the questionnaire (S.B.G. Eysenck, Eysenck, & Barrett, 1985) and is a prime measure of Eysenck's personality dimensions.
Factor Analysis
Authors: Byrne Barbara M.
Published: January 2010

In broad terms,
factor analysis
focuses on the link between a set of intercorrelated variables and their representation by a smaller set of conceptually meaningful megavariables, termed
factors
. Within this all‐encompassing umbrella description, factor analysis is more precisely characterized in terms of its function. If used to determine the extent to which the set of variables
can be
adequately represented by a smaller number of factors, then we are describing
exploratory factor analysis
. If, on the other hand, it is used in determining the extent to which a set of variables
are
adequately represented by a smaller number of factors as postulated by theory and/or empirical research, then we are describing
confirmatory factor analysis
. In providing a more comprehensive explanation of factor analysis, I first address the general notion of factor analysis and then follow with a more extensive description of both exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis, together with a comparative summary of these two factor analytic approaches. Finally, I close this article by addressing important issues and caveats associated with the application of these approaches in psychological research.
Factorial Designs
Authors: Lomax Richard G.
Published: January 2010

The most basic experimental design is the one‐factor analysis of variance (ANOVA). Here there is one continuous dependent variable and one categorical independent variable or factor with two or more levels. For example, to what extent do different therapies (levels of a treatment factor) result in differential recovery from a psychological condition (dependent variable)?
Family Development, Theories of
Authors: Clingempeel W. Glenn , Henggeler Scott W.
Published: January 2010

Family development theory focuses on the stress‐induced changes that occur in families over time (White & Klein, 2008). Historically, family development theorists assumed that families move through deterministic, invariant numbers, types, and timing of stages over time consistent with ontogenetic stage theories of individual child development (e.g., Piaget's stages of cognitive development). For example, Duvall's (1957) widely‐cited model defined family development in terms of eight developmental stages: (1) married couple without children, (2) childbearing families with the oldest child between birth and 30 months, (3) families with preschool children, (4) families with school‐age children, (5) families with adolescent children, (6) launching families (first to last child is leaving home), (7) middle‐age families (“empty nest” to retirement), and (8) aging families (retirement to death of both spouses). Whereas Duvall's theory assumes a traditional nuclear family, alternative stage theories describe greater variations in types of family structures (e.g., childless couples, single‐parent families, stepfamilies, etc.), but still rely on universalistic assumptions about the number, types, and timing of stages (Laszoffy, 2002).
Fechner's Law
Authors: Robinson George H.
Published: January 2010

Gustav T. Fechner (1801–1887), professor of physics at the University of Leipzig, sought to measure the mind quantitatively. In approaching this task he studied stimuli and the sensations they aroused. His interest was in ascertaining how sensations changed with changing stimulation. While lying in bed on the morning of October 22, 1850, he conceived the essential idea of what was later to be called Fechner's law. In his subsequent derivation of the law (which appears at the beginning of the second volume of
Elemente der Psychophysik
), he began with Weber's law (that the just‐noticeable difference in stimulation is a constant proportion of the stimulus magnitude, or JND=kI) and the assumption that the sensation (R) of a stimulus is the cumulative sum of equal sensation increments. Translating this into differential form, he started with dR = dI/I and integrated, under the assumption that R = 0 at absolute threshold (I°), to get the equation R = clog (I/I°).
Femininity
Authors: Good Emily E. , Shields Stephanie A.
Published: January 2010

Within the psychological literature, femininity is a construct broad in scope with no single agreed‐upon definition. It is important to note, however, that psychological femininity, as a type of gender expression, is separate and distinct from female secondary sex characteristics, core gender identity (i.e., one's self‐definition regarding gender status), and being biologically female. Females or males can exhibit femininity to a greater or lesser degree, or not at all. Although femininity is thought to be more often expressed by females, there is variability on this dimension. Thus, femininity and identification as female are related, but not identical.
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
Authors: Moore Timothy E. , Gagnier Karina Royer
Published: January 2010

Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) is recognized by the World Health Organization as the leading cause of environment‐related birth defects and mental retardation in the western world. It results from prenatal alcohol exposure, the consequences of which fall along a continuum ranging from subtle neurodevelopmental and behavioral manifestations to FAS, the most serious outcome. Recently, the term fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) was coined to encompass all the terms that describe alcohol‐related defects, including FAS (Sokol, Delaney, & Nordstrom, 2003). Other terms, such as fetal alcohol effects (FAE), partial FAS (pFAS), alcohol‐related neurodevelopmental disorder (ARND), and alcohol‐related birth defects (ARBD) describe other effects within the spectrum.
Fibromyalgia
Authors: Friedberg Fred
Published: January 2010

Fibromyalgia (FM) is a common musculoskeletal pain syndrome defined by at least three months of generalized bodily pain and tenderness (Wolfe et al., 1990). In addition, an FM diagnosis requires a physical examination finding of at least 11 out of 18 tender points, that is, specific regions of localized pain (e.g., neck and shoulders). The current definition of FM as established by the American College of Rheumatology replaced the previous term “fibrocitis.” The literal translation of FM is “pain in the muscles and fibrous tissue.”
Fitness‐for‐Duty Evaluations
Authors: Lavin Patrick F.
Published: January 2010

Fitness‐for‐duty evaluations (FFDEs) involve the application of comprehensive psychological assessment skills to address employer questions about a worker's ability to perform essential job duties safely and effectively. Such evaluations should never be undertaken lightly, as they are of importance for both employers and employees. For employers, FFDEs are often intended to help fulfill their obligation to provide a safe working environment. For employees, FFDEs concern issues related to their livelihood, self‐esteem, and privacy. In addition to employers, organizations with service oversight responsibility, such as professional licensing boards or hospitals, may also request FFDEs.
Flourishing
Authors: Keyes Corey L. M.
Published: January 2010

Arguing that mental health and mental illness are not merely opposite ends of one single measurement continuum, Keyes (2002, 2005, 2006) proposes that mental health should be viewed as a complete state consisting of two dimensions: (1) the mental illness continuum and (2) the mental health continuum. Furthermore, symptoms of mental health consist of individuals' subjective well‐being, which in turn reflects their perceptions and evaluations of their lives in terms of their affective states and their psychological and social functioning.
Food Addiction
Authors: Menzel Jessie , Thompson J. Kevin
Published: January 2010

Food addiction is a topic that has received attention in the psychological literature in part because of the role that it potentially plays in binge eating, obesity, and eating disorders. Food addiction has also received attention as an addiction in its own right, akin to widely known addictive substances and behaviors such as drugs, gambling, and sex. An addiction is defined by the
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM‐IV‐TR) as (1) the use of a substance that has mood altering or psychoactive effects, (2) highly controlled or compulsive use of a substance, and (3) the used substance reinforces behavior (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). Other criteria include tolerance and physical dependence. Food addiction specifically is typically characterized by a loss of control over eating certain foods, preoccupation with or craving of certain food or foods, failed attempts to overcome the eating problem despite negative consequences, and use of the food or foods to cope with negative emotions. Food addiction has been tied most often to highly palatable foods such as chocolate, confectionary foods, carbohydrate‐rich foods, and foods high in fat content.
F
reud,
S
igmund (1856–1939)
Authors: Haynie N. A.
Published: January 2010

Sigmund Freud moved from Moravia to Vienna at age four and lived there for nearly 80 years. He demonstrated an unusual intellectual ability early in life and was encouraged by his family. Freud graduated with distinction from Gymnasium at age 17 and entered the University of Vienna to study medicine and scientific research. Because of his diversified interests in biology, physiology, and teaching, as well as medicine, Freud spent eight years at the university. Finally persuaded to take his medical examinations, he entered private practice as a clinical neurologist in 1881.
GABA
Receptors
Authors: Costa Erminio
Published: January 2010

It is now universally recognized that γ‐aminobutyric acid (GABA), synthesized by the two molecular forms of glutamix acid decarboxylase (GAD65 or 67) and expressed in neurons, functions as a key neurotransmitter in creatures ranging from crustaceans to mammals. In the brains of vertebrates, GABA mediates synaptic inhibitory events by binding to specific recognition sites located in various members of a pentameric protein family, including a transmembrane anion channel, which is termed GABA.
Gender Roles
Authors: Lenton Alison P.
Published: January 2010

Gender roles are the set of expectations a society has about girls and boys, and women and men. These expectations are multifaceted and generally include specifications about appearances, personality traits, emotions, interests, abilities, and occupations. For example, in Western societies men are expected to be more agentic and less emotional than women, and women are expected to be more communal and less aggressive than men. More commonly, men may be assumed to have paid occupations and to be financially responsible for their families, whereas women are assumed to be homemakers with primary responsibility for the children. Such beliefs serve to define the sets of characteristics and behaviors that are considered appropriate or inappropriate for each sex. In other words, gender roles do more than merely describe the way things are: They describe how things should be.
General Adaptation Syndrome
Authors: Quigley Karen S.
Published: January 2010

The General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) is a cluster of bodily responses to severe, prolonged stressors that was first described by Hans Selye. Selye observed that rats exposed to a wide variety of noxious agents exhibited a nonspecific syndrome consisting of enlargement of the adrenal gland, shrinkage of the thymus, spleen, and lymph glands, and the emergence of ulcers in the stomach and small intestine. This was seen in animals exposed to extreme cold and heat, intense sound or light, forced exercise, injections of various organ extracts or formalin, and other potent biological challenges to homeostasis.
Genetic Counseling
Authors: Sullivan Jennifer A. , McConkie‐Rosell Allyn
Published: January 2010

Genetic counseling as a separate and distinct component of medical care was introduced as part of the eugenics movement in the United States during the 1940s. Over time, societal rejection of “eugenic” practices as well as advances in medical technology highlighted the need to consider the psychological effects on the family of a genetic diagnosis (R. G. Resta, 2006). Throughout the 1950s and 1960s genetic counseling evolved from this primarily social and public health perspective, and many different types of health‐care professionals—including physicians, nurses, and social workers, as well as research geneticists—provided explanations and social support to individuals and families diagnosed with genetic disorders. Genetic counseling as we know it today benefited from these early practitioners.
Genetics and General Intelligence
Authors: Spinath Frank M. , Spengler Marion
Published: January 2010

A question that directs many research fields within psychology concerns the origins of observed differences among individuals. Behavioral genetics targets this research question. Quantitative behavioral genetics and molecular genetics are the two methodological approaches within behavioral genetics.
Geriatric Psychology
Authors: Lichtenberg Peter A.
Published: January 2010

Geriatric psychology, the science and practice of psychology with older adults, is a field experiencing significant growth due to the “age tsunami” that the United States and the world are experiencing. While there are 37 million older Americans today, by 2050 there will be 70 million. Like all geriatric professions, geriatric psychology is focused at its core on function, that is, how to maintain and/or enhance function in adults over the age of 65. Function reflects the convergence of medical, neurocognitive, and behavioral/mental health in older adults. This article first reviews the demographic changes that are fueling our nation's extraordinary population growth of older adults and then reviews how three areas of geriatric function affect geriatric psychology.
Geropsychology
Authors: Qualls Sara Honn
Published: January 2010

Geropsychology is the “specialized field of psychology concerned with the psychological and behavioral aspects of aging” (Tuleya, 2007). Early uses of the term include a chapter in theAnnual Review of Psychologyin 1970 (Botwinick, 1970) and a book title for the summary of a conference at Duke University in 1974 (Gentry, 1977). Although the conceptual and scientific roots of geropsychology extend back for centuries, the explosion of empirical research that defines the field escalated rapidly during the second half of the twentieth century. The termgeropsychologywas not widely adopted until the latter decades of the twentieth century, however. ThePsychological Literaturedatabase first adopted it as a keyword in 2006 and applied it retrospectively to previous entries (Tuleya, 2007).
Gestalt Therapy
Authors: Glass Thomas A.
Published: January 2010

Gestalt therapy is an existential and phenomenological treatment approach that emphasizes the principles of present‐centered awareness and immediate experience. To discover how one blocks one's flow of awareness and aliveness, the individual in therapy is directed to fully experience current thoughts, feelings, and body sensations. Gestalt therapy was developed by Frederick S. (Fritz) Perls and his two collaborators, Laura Perls and Paul Goodman. Originally trained in classical Freudian psychoanalysis, Perls incorporated various new cultural and intellectual movements of the 1940s and 1950s, and synthesized them into a new theory and method of therapy. Perl's broad interests in existentialism, Eastern religions, and Gestalt psychology led him away from the Freudian viewpoint to a new humanistic and experiential approach. Perls saw the human being as a unified organism, an integration of mental, physical, emotional, and sensory processes expressed in the present moment.
Greece, Psychology in
Authors: Kalpakoglou Thomas
Published: January 2010

The notion of psychology in ancient Greece can be traced back to the fifth century
B.C.
; in the works of Alcmaeon of Croton, Plato, Aristotle, and Hippocrates there are issues mentioned relating to the understanding of human psychological and emotional states (Wolff et al., 1990). In modern Greece, however, psychology is still considered a relatively new academic discipline and profession. Preliminary studies in psychology made their first appearance at the university level in the late 1920s and, for many decades, were closely attached to philosophy studies. Not until 1989 did psychology become recognized as an independent field of study. As a profession, it started to develop to a satisfactory level in the late 1960s.
Grief
Authors: Robak Rostyslaw W.
Published: January 2010

Grief is usually defined as a person's constellation of responses to bereavement. These include thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that accompany coping with and adjusting to a loss. As a universal human phenomenon, grief has biological, cultural, and uniquely individual components.
Group Cohesiveness
Authors: Berent Stanley
Published: January 2010

Group cohesiveness has been defined in many ways, with no general consensus regarding how to define the term, despite a relatively long history of attempting to reach such a consensus (Yalom, 1985). Leon Festinger (1957) defined the concept in terms of forces that lead an individual to remain in or leave a given group. Credited with developing the concept of cognitive dissonance, a theory that recognizes and, more importantly, explains how individuals become invested in ideas and strongly motivated to maintain those intellectual investments, Festinger and his many students and colleagues contributed much to our understanding of why and how individuals create and maintain groups as well as what causes those groups to fragment. He and others interested in the psychology of groups have taught us that an understanding of group psychology is as important as the study of individual psychology if we wish to fully understand human behavior.
Growth Curve Analysis
Authors: Babyak Michael A.
Published: January 2010

Growth curve analysis (GCA) is a statistical technique that assesses change and correlates of change. Although often hailed as a new technique, growth curve analysis actually has long historical roots in slopes‐as‐outcomes models, repeated measures analysis of variance, mixed and variance components models, time series analysis, random effects models, and empirical Bayes models. It has been only relatively recently, however, that advances in estimation methods and computer technology have made it possible to execute GCA with reasonable facility and considerably more flexibility than its predecessors.
Guilt
Authors: O'Connor Lynn E.
Published: January 2010

Guilt, a notoriously difficult concept to define, is an emotion and a condition that almost everyone experiences. Across all definitions, guilt is related to the violation of a group's or a person's morals. The objective state of guilt refers to a situation in which a person has violated a rule of a religion, a state, a social group, or a community. In this definition a person may be categorized and labeled “guilty.” The result usually may involve punishment or censure. This kind of guilt may or may not include subjective or psychological guilt, which is the internal affective state in which a person feels highly anxious, repentant, and regretful. Subjective guilt may result from violating internalized moral standards. Both types of guilt are tied to morality in social contexts or relationships. In most situations, a person categorized as objectively “guilty” is likely to suffer from the internal discomfort of being a transgressor, as well as from the expectation of punishment. When people are accused of being “guilty,” they may suffer from subjective guilt, even when the label has been determined unfairly.
Halfway Houses
Authors: Drake Peter A. , Ferrari Joseph R.
Published: January 2010

Halfway houses, often referred to as group homes or therapeutic communities, are locales where all activities and interactions may be viewed as having potentially healing, rehabilitative, and supportive properties and where all members may consciously or unconsciously contribute to therapy. Residents of these houses are halfway from institutionalization to independence. Halfway houses typically work to prepare individuals to move from institutionalized settings, where they are isolated from the community at large, to becoming able to function independently. It is also the goal of the halfway house to integrate or reintegrate former residents into independent living situations in their communities.
Hamilton Depression Rating Scale
Authors: Kobak Kenneth A.
Published: January 2010

The Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HAMD) is a clinician‐administered rating scale to assess symptom severity in depressive disorders. First developed by Max Hamilton (1960), it is one of the most widely used outcome measures in antidepressant drug trials, and it is often the criterion measure against which other depression scales are validated. The original scale had 21 items. However, Hamilton later recommended dropping 4 items on account of lack of construct validity, resulting in the standard 17‐item scale version. Some continue to use 21 items, and others have expanded the scale to 24 or 28 items. The scale was not designed as a diagnostic instrument; rather, it is intended to be used in patients otherwise diagnosed with depression. Each item is rated on either a 0–4 or 0–2 scale, the latter to be used for items where quantification of severity is difficult, and thus the item is rated as either probably or definitely present.
Harlow,HarryF. (1905–1981)
Authors: Blum Deborah
Published: January 2010

Harry Frederick Harlow, whose innovative studies of love and family propelled him into both fame and controversy, was born Harry F. Israel in the Iowa farm town of Fairfield. He changed his name to Harlow at the urging of his major professor at Stanford University, Lewis Terman, who told him that the Jewish sound of his name would make it difficult for him to get a job.
Head Start
Authors: Styfco Sally J.
Published: January 2010

Head Start is a comprehensive intervention program for young children and their families who live in poverty. It is the largest and longest‐running federal program established to prepare this population for a successful entry into elementary school. As such, it has served as a national laboratory for the design, study, and refinement of effective intervention techniques.
Heterosexuality
Authors: Meston Cindy M. , Harte Christopher B.
Published: January 2010

Heterosexualiy is characterized by sexual and/or romantic attraction to the opposite sex and is the most prevalent sexual orientation among humans. The term
heterosexual
can be used to describe an individual's sexual orientation, sexual history, or self‐identification. The term
heterosexuality
has been commonly used only since the middle of the nineteenth centuary, and is usually contrasted with the terms
homosexualilty
and
bisexuality
. Contemporary scientific research indicates that the majority of individuals adhere to a more fluid scale of sexual orientation, exhibiting a range of both same‐sex and opposite‐sex sexual behaviors or fantasies (Kinsey, Pomeroy, & Martin, 1948; Kinsey, Pomeroy, Martin, & Gebhard, 1953). However, social and cultural pressures have influenced people to self‐identify in terms of categories rather than along a spectrum of sexuality.
Hippocampus
Authors: Eichenbaum Howard
Published: January 2010

Ever since Scoville and Milner's 1957 report of the patient H.M., who suffered a profound amnesia following bilateral surgical resection of the medial temporal lobe, it has been clear that the hippocampal region of the brain plays a critical role in memory. There is now considerable knowledge about the anatomical pathways of the hippocampus, about the functional role of the hippocampal region, and about the information encoded by firing patterns of hippocampal neurons.
Human Locomotion
Authors: Dietz Volker
Published: January 2010

In the eighteenth century, the investigation of movement was based on the premise that upright stance and gait, as well as differentiation of hand movements, represented a basic requirement for human cultural development. These movements necessitate that the nervous system must function to automatically balance the body's center of mass over the feet during all motor activities. In other words, every movement must begin and end with a postural adjustment.
Humanistic Psychotherapies
Authors: Cain David J.
Published: January 2010

Humanistic psychotherapies have made a substantial impact on how psychotherapy is conceived and practiced for over 65 years. Beginning with Carl Rogers's seminal contributions in the early 1940s, as part of the third force in psychology, some of the most distinguished psychotherapists of the twentieth century were founders and developers of humanistic psychotherapies. They include Carl Rogers, Art Combs (Person‐Centered), Fritz and Laura Perls, Erv and Miriam Polster (Gestalt), Rollo May, R. D. Laing, Ernesto Spinelli, Irv Yalom, Viktor Frankl (Existential), Jim Bugental, Kirk Schneider (Existential‐Humanistic), Virginia Satir (Relational), Al Mahrer (Experential), Clark Moustaka (Phenomneological), Eugene Gendlin (Focusing Oriented), and Les Greenberg and Robert Elliot (Emotionally Focused/Process‐Experiential). These pioneers and second‐generation leaders challenged many of the current views and practices of psychotherapy and offered a different view of the person, psychopathology, and how growth might be promoted in a therapeutic context.