bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Nonprobability Sampling
Authors: Fox Richard J.
Published: December 2010

Sampling involves selecting a subset from a population to analyze for the purpose of gaining information about the population. When the subset is chosen in a manner that does not involve randomness or chance, the method used to select the sample is called a
nonprobability sampling method
. Estimates derived from such samples may not be representative of the population as a whole. Also, the typical statistical calculations for evaluating the precision of estimates based on the sample are not appropriate when nonprobability sampling is used. In other words, there is no valid margin of error that can be associated with the estimates derived from nonprobability samples. Information derived from nonprobability samples may be useful, but they must be analyzed with caution and a clear understanding of its deficiencies.

The most common nonprobability sampling methods are convenience and self‐selecting samples. As the name suggests, a convenience sample refers to a selection process in which the items selected are convenient to the person conducting the survey, such as university professors conducting research using students in their classes. Self‐selecting samples involve situations in which individuals decide to be included in the sample on their own. Telephone or text polls conducted in conjunction with television shows are good examples of self‐selected sampling. Also, the common “suggestion box” survey is a form of self‐selected sampling.

A general misconception is that making the sample extremely large compensates for any concerns over the fact that nonprobability sampling was used. No matter how large the sample, if it is selected using nonprobability sampling, concerns regarding how well the sample represents the population are valid. Thousands of people may call in to respond in a telephone poll conducted in conjunction with a television show, but the results are still not necessarily representative of the general public.
Confirmatory Factor Analysis
Authors: Fox Richard J.
Published: December 2010

Confirmatory factor analysis is a statistical technique used when investigating the structure of multivariate data. Each of a set of
n
observed variables is represented as a linear combination of
m
(
m
 < 
n
) unobserved latent variables or factors, plus an independent error term. The
n
 × 
n
covariance matrix corresponding to the
n
‐dimensional observed variables contains the individual variable variances on the diagonal, and the covariances for all pairs of the individual observed variables in the corresponding off‐diagonal positions. A matrix equation, called the
covariance equation
, relates this
n
 × 
n
covariance matrix to the matrix whose
n
rows correspond to the coefficients of the
m
latent factors referred to as
factor loadings
, and the covariance matrices of the unobserved latent factors and the errors.

Confirmatory factor analysis is used to test whether a hypothesized structure is appropriate for multivariate data. The hypothesized structure constrains the matrices appearing in the covariance equation. Individual covariances among the latent factors or among the error terms can be assumed equal or set to zero. Likewise, selected variances (diagonal entries) may be presumed to be equal within each of these matrices. Also, selected factor loadings may be set to zero. A random sample of multivariate observations is used to estimate the corresponding sample covariance matrix with and without the constraints imposed by the hypothesized structure. The “constraint free” covariance matrix is the matrix containing the typical sample descriptive statistics. Maximum likelihood estimation is typically used to determine estimates, with the constraints imposed, of the covariance matrices of the latent factors and errors, and the matrix of factor loadings. A statistical test is conducted to determine whether the hypothesized structure fits the data by comparing the sample covariance matrix to its counterpart produced from the covariance equation using the matrices estimated by maximum likelihood (constraints imposed).
Endogeneity
Authors: Arora Neeraj
Published: December 2010

Most regression applications in marketing assume that the independent variables are determined exogenously. This is rarely the case for field data. For example, promotion decisions (
x
) are often impacted by expected sales (
y
) – high potential markets likely get greater resources. Failure to recognize endogeneity in any regression model leads to biased parameter estimates and therefore requires careful attention. Endogeneity could be caused by omitted variables, measurement error, or simultaneity. To address endogeneity, a possible approach is to jointly model demand and marketing variables by recognizing that marketing decisions may be explicitly related to the expected demand or model parameters. Another approach is to include an objective function of the decision maker that incorporates model parameters in the demand equation. An increased recognition of the limitations of a reduced form model that ignores the underlying data‐generating mechanism has led to greater efforts to use structural models that carefully account for endogeneity problems. Data fusion and experiments are also important avenues to account for endogeneity.
Repeated Measures
ANOVA
Authors: Dass Mayukh
Published: December 2010

In marketing research, one of the sources of variability in the observed measures is the respondents themselves. The respondents come from different backgrounds and have unique individual characteristics, and thus can perceive a study differently. Since this sample level variability reduces the effectiveness of the study, it is very important to separate it from the treatment effects and the experimental errors. Unfortunately, these differences among subjects are uncontrolled and are treated as errors in a between‐subject design. Therefore, we use a within‐subject design where the respondents are exposed to more than one treatment condition and hence repeated measures are obtained. Such repeated measures are also necessary in longitudinal studies where respondents are measured at different time periods and in cases where it is difficult to recruit respondents. Traditional analysis of variance (ANOVA) is not adequate to analyze this type of data as it is unable to control the correlation among the repeated measures. Therefore, a different analysis called
repeated measures ANOVA
is used. Repeated measures ANOVA is also considered as an extension of a paired‐sample
t
‐test to a case of more than two related samples.
Consumer Involvement
Authors: Zaichkowsky Judith Lynne
Published: December 2010

Involvement is a motivational variable in consumer behavior. It can be used to describe the level of consumer interest, search, or complex decision making in the marketplace. This article presents a brief history of the origins of involvement and different views on its measurement in the marketing literature.
Consumer Desire
Authors: Bagozzi Richard P.
Published: December 2010

Desires are wants (e.g., “I desire to···”; “I desire···”) or urges or cravings (e.g., “I have a desire to···”; “I have a desire for···”). Desires convert or transform reasons for acting (e.g., anticipated emotions, attitudes, subjective norms) into intentions to act or to achieve a goal. Goal desires motivate goal intentions, action desires motivate behavioral or action intentions. Self‐regulation of decision making and intention formation occurs through the control of one's desires.
Environmental Consumer Behavior
Authors: McCarty John A. , Shrum L. J. , Lowrey Tina M.
Published: December 2010

Environmental consumer behaviors include the extent to which consumers buy environmentally friendly products, and dispose of product waste in an environmentally responsible manner. Polls have shown that a majority of consumers intend to act eco‐friendly; however, their behaviors are not always consistent with their desires. Consumers' reluctance to buying green seems to relate to their perceptions of eco‐friendly products. Green products are perceived as less effective and more expensive than alternatives. Furthermore, consumers are often skeptical of the claims made by environmentally friendly brands.

The extent to which consumers engage in recycling relates to the perceived inconvenience of recycling and consumers' attitudes about the importance of recycling. Research shows that psychographics and personality variables seem to have more impact on recycling attitudes than do demographics such as age and income. In particular, variables that have been shown to be related to recycling include materialism (the extent to which one attaches importance to possessions), collectivism (the extent to which one believes in the importance of the group over the individual), and locus of control (the extent to which people believe that they control their lives rather than that they are controlled by external forces).
Family Life Cycle
Authors: Cole Catherine A. , Nayakankuppam Dhananjay , Sinha Jayati
Published: December 2010

In this article, we review the extant literature on the consumption or family life cycle (FLC). We also review criticisms of this concept. Finally, we propose a framework that might be useful in examining how life cycle might influence household decision making. We report briefly on one subject we have studied in our labs, namely, how children might influence parent preferences.
Implicit Consumer Cognition
Authors: Vargas Patrick T. , Oh Sangdo
Published: December 2010

Implicit consumer cognition may be defined as the unacknowledged or misidentified influence of prior experience on consumer‐related judgment and behavior. Perhaps the most well‐known example of implicit consumer cognition is the movie theater experiment in which the messages “eat popcorn” and “drink Coca‐Cola” were presented subliminally, and caused moviegoers to increase popcorn and soda consumption. The “experiment” was a complete hoax (never happened), but new evidence suggests that subliminally presented stimuli can subtly influence consumer behavior. In this article, we review research on how consumer behavior can be influenced by cognitive processes outside of conscious awareness. We begin by reviewing research on implicit measures of attitudes, in which attitudes are measured indirectly, generally without consumers' awareness that their attitudes are being measured. Implicit measures of attitudes reliably predict behavior, and seem to tap different aspects of attitudes than traditional, explicit measures. We also review research on subliminal persuasion, automatic cognitive processes that can influence consumer behavior (including implicit memory), and touch briefly on consumer behavior that may occur outside of conscious awareness.
Consumer Intentions
Authors: Bagozzi Richard P.
Published: December 2010

An intention is a person's commitment, plan, or decision to carry out an action or achieve a goal. It typically transforms reasons for acting (e.g., attitudes, subjective norms, or motives or desires to act) into action. Implementation intentions involve planning when, where, and how to act. I‐intentions are personal intentions to pursue a goal or perform an action by oneself. Shared or collective intentions exist in the form of either a personal intention to do something with a group of people or contribute to or do one's part of a group activity or in the form of a person concerning oneself as acting together with others to achieve a group end or perform a group goal. The latter is termed a we‐intention.
Emotion
Authors: Ruth Julie A.
Published: December 2010

Emotions are subjective feeling states that are associated with appraisals the consumer makes about a consumption situation. Emotions – including discrete emotions such as pride, or mixed emotions such as the experience of fear, joy, regret, and excitement – arise within many domains of consumer activity. With respect to advertising, upbeat, negative, and warm ad‐evoked emotional responses influence the formation of consumers' ad and brand attitudes. Consumer responses to emotional appeals sometimes produce an inverted U‐shaped pattern of effects, where consumer attitudes are more favorable under moderate compared to low or high levels of the elicited emotion. Regarding decision making, the extent to which a consumer decision maker relies on emotions depends on their heuristic value, representativeness, and relevance. Purchase and service delivery situations, especially negative ones, also elicit emotions with which consumers attempt to cope in a variety of problem‐ or emotion‐focused ways, depending on the emotion and accompanying appraisals. The emotions consumers experience are also influenced by interactions with, and the noninteractive presence of, other people in purchase, service delivery, and other consumption settings, such as gift exchange. Emotions are both affected and influenced by consumers' relationships with family, acquaintances, and service providers.
Consumer Behavior and Services Marketing
Authors: Iacobucci Dawn
Published: December 2010

Services marketing is described with respect to the manner in which it is distinct from marketing goods. The differences are primarily four: (i) services are said to be “simultaneously produced and consumed.” They unfold in real time, and the process gives the marketer more to manage. (ii) Services are characterized as heterogenous. One person's experience of a service encounter may be different from that of another, primarily due to the high component of people involvement in the service deliver–both the frontline employee and the customer himself or herself. (iii) Services are famously intangible. The intangibility leads to challenges in measuring quality and satisfaction. (iv) Services are perishable. Thus planning is required to maximize capacity utilization.
Sustainable Marketing: Collaborating with and Cloning Consumer 3.0
Authors: Honea Heather
Published: December 2010

The degree to which the digital networked environment connects and aggregates individuals has forced the crowd into the marketing equation. The crowd is made up of consumers who both consume and produce (prosumers) and to appropriately integrate them into the marketing process requires a shift in the marketing paradigm. Envisioning integrated marketing communication and brand building as the creation of a marketing ecosystem, where consumer intelligence and production sustains the organization and at the same time supports the prosumers to optimize their consumption decisions, will require a sustainable marketing model.

Sustainable marketing develops long‐term mutually satisfying relationships and co‐prosperity for all stakeholders by collaborating with the audience on the marketing process. Sustainable marketers will have to develop broader perspectives of and deeper insights into prosumers' processing, reactions, and underlying preferences. They will have to build partnership with prosumers to construct relevant marketing narratives and product offerings, inviting all facets of a prosumer's different personas to participate in the development of that narrative.

As individuals chronicle their activities, interests, and actions across the digitally connected universe, ideal material for research, communication, and promotion is offered up freely to marketers by consumers. Developing profiles or consumer clones from such data may offer insights into behavior and choice that consumers could not share, even if they were motivated to do so. To be sustainable, marketers must simply help consumers organize this information in a meaningful manner – assisting consumers in the level, timing, and composition of demand in a way that will help the individual improve consumption behavior as opposed to simply delivering on objectives of the firm. Thus, key aspects of integrated marketing communication will be the re‐education of the consumers about themselves and support for consumers to make best consumption decisions, even if this requires restructuring firm goals.
Sex in Advertising
Authors: Reichert Tom
Published: December 2010

Sex in advertising is a controversial topic in marketing. Types of sexual content typically consist of nudity or physically attractive models in revealing clothing, sexual poses, and other forms of sexual behavior, facilitating factors such as lighting, editing, and sound, and verbal information such as double entendre, suggestive language, or innuendo. Up to 10% of television commercials contain sexual content, compared to a higher proportion in magazine and Internet ads. Research shows that sex in advertising attracts attention, but if its use is not relevant to the product, it can distract viewers from attending to the advertised message and ad sponsor. However, most uses of sex in advertising assert sex‐related outcomes as a result of buying and using the brand (e.g., “I'll be more sexually attractive if I use this fragrance.”). Archaeology discovered early forms of painted murals advertising brothels in ports along the Mediterranean coast. During the modern era, sex in advertising specifically targeted men or women in publications until the 1960s when television commercials reached mass audiences. Sex in advertising is not held in high regard within the advertising profession and its use prompts legitimate criticism regarding the ways in which sexual ads depict women.
Advertising Media Selection and Planning
Authors: Moorman Marjolein , Neijens Peter C. , Smit Edith G.
Published: December 2010

Reach, frequency, and timing are key concepts in selecting TV, radio, newspapers, magazines, out‐of‐home, direct mail, Internet, and other media for advertising campaigns. We discuss these concepts and their role in media selection and media planning processes. We also describe media and audience factors that influence the impact of media. Finally, we discuss new developments in advertising media.
The Role of Signage in Marketing: Outdoor Advertising, Out‐of‐Home Media, and On‐Premise Signs
Authors: Taylor Charles R.
Published: December 2010

Signage plays an important, but often overlooked, role in marketing and advertising. This article focuses on recent findings pertaining to what makes for effective advertising on billboards and other out‐of‐home media. It also discusses the role of on‐premise signs as marketing and advertising devices.
Advertising and the Integrated Marketing Communications (IMC) Process
Authors: Kim Youngseon , Lowrey Tina M.
Published: December 2010

In this cluttered and fragmented media environment, only advertising in traditional media (or a mix of one or two other promotional tools) does not enable marketers to reach their target market. Thus, integrated marketing communications (IMC) are required. IMC involves strategic synchronization of various forms of persuasive communication programs with customers and prospects over time. The goal of IMC is to convey a company's marketing messages in a consistent and coherent manner through different promotional channels. The utmost task for IMC is ensuring consistency in messages and executions so that the target audience is able to connect any execution to the brand in the end.
Comparative Advertising
Authors: Chiagouris Larry
Published: December 2010

This article discusses the origin of comparative advertising and the conditions under which is it more or less effective, and discusses the relevant government regulation and legislation.
Database Marketing
Authors: McCarty John A.
Published: December 2010

Database marketing involves the analysis of customer transaction data, along with other customer information (e.g., demographics), to segment customers and to develop marketing strategies to some or all of those segments. It employs a number of analytical techniques that are used to search for meaningful patterns and relationships in the customer data. Database marketing aids marketers in serving very narrow segments; the information available in databases allows marketers to provide customized marketing strategies to their customers.

Database marketing has been used by direct marketers such as catalog marketers for many years; recently, other kinds of firms, such as credit card providers, automobile rental agencies, brick and mortar retailers, casinos, and hotel chains, have found database marketing techniques useful. Charities and associations have also used database marketing. Database marketing is closely aligned with the concept of relationship marketing, focusing on the long‐term relationship with the customer rather than the immediate sales opportunity.
The Advertising Budget
Authors: West Douglas C.
Published: December 2010

The advertising budget is the sum allocated to communications activities in the financial year. Many of the methods used are historic and to a great extent a muddled business reality has been formalized and compartmentalized by researchers. The leading approaches are the judgmental (arbitrary and affordable), the objective and task, measurement (return on investment (ROI), incremental and quantitative models), percentage of sales (percentage last year, percentage anticipated, unit sales), and competitive (competitive absolute, competitive relative). Heuristic methods continue to be popular because they do not put a strain on decision making whereas algorithmic methods, such as the objective and task, can be highly contentious and discordant. Nevertheless there is a certain inherent logic to using heuristic methods as they enable an organization to avoid dysfunctional behavior and to continue to function whether or not the optimal allocation of resources has been made. Furthermore, they make perfect sense when combined with algorithmic methods.
Radical Innovation
Authors: Colarelli O'Connor Gina
Published: December 2010

The phenomenon of innovation has been of interest to management and economics scholars since the disciplines came into existence. Joseph Schumpeter described the process of creative destruction, in which innovations developed and commercialized by small firms cannibalized existing businesses of incumbents as early as 1934. Since then, scholars have elaborated this concept and contrasted it with incremental innovation that develops improvements within defined product arenas and targets them toward defined markets. In this article, the nature of radical innovation is explored. Radical innovations are those that create wholly new markets and/or destroy existing ones, based on technological or logistical breakthroughs. The definitions surrounding this phenomenon are first covered, followed by a discussion of its significance for marketing scholars. The current state of scholarly knowledge regarding radical innovation is described at three levels of analysis: the industry level, the firm level, and the project level. The gaps in our knowledge regarding radical innovation and the opportunities for scholarly work in this field are also discussed.
Innovation Metrics
Authors: Reibstein David , Shankar Venkatesh
Published: December 2010

No firm can last forever on its existing products. It is necessary for a firm to invest for the future through either entirely new products or enhancements of existing products/services. Thus, investments on innovations constitute a major proportion of firms' total investments. To manage their investments in innovation, firms track the success and progress of their innovations. There is a growing body of research on “innovation metrics” – the measures used to track innovation progress. We review the state of the art on innovation metrics, report on the usage of metrics by firms, and highlight the measures that have proven to be most useful to firms.
Diffusion of Innovation
Authors: Chandrasekaran Deepa , Tellis Gerard J.
Published: December 2010

An innovation is an idea, practice, or object that is perceived as being new by an individual or other unit of adoption. Diffusion refers to the spread of an innovation across social groups or markets over time. This article briefly relates the concept of diffusion to the Bass diffusion model and the product life cycle; examines the influences of the characteristics of the innovation, the characteristics of the adopters and firm strategy on innovation diffusion; and describes key research trends in the area of global diffusion.
Success Factors for New‐Product Development
Authors: Cooper Robert G. , Kleinschmidt Elko J.
Published: December 2010

The main factors impacting success at the project and the firm levels are identified on the basis of numerous empirical studies. The factors at the project level are a unique superior product, strong market orientation, global orientation, predevelopment work, early product definition, project‐team organization, and leveraging core competencies. Differences in factors for highly innovative versus incremental projects are discussed. The main factors for success at the business level are the right organizational culture, an innovation strategy, resource commitment, top management support, portfolio management, and a multistage, disciplined, new‐product development process. Details of these factors are provided and their application in industry is outlined. Performance differences between highly successful projects and business and less successful ventures are described.
Global Product Development
Authors: Sivakumar K.
Published: December 2010

As companies and markets become global, global product development is becoming the norm for an increasing number of corporations. The article begins by defining key terms, and then briefly outlines factors that drive the trend of global product development. Key themes in global product development are then identified. The article concludes with a discussion of the potential issues related to global product development in the future.
Integrated Product Development
Authors: Langerak Fred
Published: December 2010

Integrated new‐product development is a managerial approach for improving new‐product development performance through the overlap of and interaction between activities in the new‐product development process. Since overlap and interaction increase the need to coordinate activities, integrated product development requires the systematic employment of cross‐functional teams to integrate and concurrently carry out all necessary activities to produce an effective and efficient new product that satisfies customers' needs. Among the benefits of integrated product development are reduced development time, reduced new‐product goal failure, better knowledge sharing, enhanced flexibility, cost savings, and improved new‐product quality. Drawbacks of integrated new‐product development include lower task specialization of team members and decreased project innovativeness, particularly if it is applied in the early stages of a development project. Successful integrated product development should be initiated, planned, and led from the top down, but should be executed from the bottom up to encourage ownership among cross‐functional team members.
Product Modularity
Authors: Marion Tucker J.
Published: December 2010

Product modularity is a method of designing a product based on well‐defined interfaces and architecture that fosters the organization of complex designs and process operations more efficiently by decomposing complex systems into simpler subsystems. Defining product architecture is a key element in the engineering design of modular products, and should be the performed early in the product‐development process, during system‐level design. This allows the development of clean interfaces, which permit the arrangement of components in a manner that can be easily modified, enhanced, exchanged, or proliferated more efficiently. Designing a modular product has many benefits from manufacturing flexibility to reduced R&D expenses during product redesign. Well‐defined product architecture and interfaces can foster the development of product platforms, which can help a firm easily introduce successive revenue‐generating variants. During up‐front product design, intelligently designing modularity into components and subsystems is an essential step toward development of a successful product line.
Prediction Markets
Authors: Gruca Thomas S.
Published: December 2010

A prediction market is a market‐based method for aggregating disparate sources of public and private information about future events. Prediction markets have been generating highly accurate forecasts of election outcomes for more than 20 years. More recently, prediction markets have been successfully used to forecast product sales and new movie box office revenues. Some challenges to using prediction markets include identifying appropriate traders and motivating traders (e.g., due to regulations on futures trading). Similar market‐based methods have been developed for preference measurement and new‐product idea generation and evaluation.
Whole‐Product Concept
Authors: Schmidt Jeffrey B.
Published: December 2010

Products and services may be thought of as having different levels of importance to those who consume them. The whole‐product concept considers (i) core customer benefits, (ii) the actual product/service, and (iii) the augmented (ancillary) product/service as comprising market offerings. The ability to differentiate products and services is possible by changing the actual product/service and the augmented product/service even when competitive products provide the same or similar benefits to customers. The whole‐product concept and its three levels are discussed and examples are provided. Finally, the whole‐product concept is related to customer value proposition.
Value Co‐Creation
Authors: Bhalla Gaurav
Published: December 2010

Value co‐creation is a collaborative model of marketing and innovation, in which the customer/consumer is an integral and essential resource to the value creation process. In this model, value is co‐created by both the company and the customer/consumer. Today's markets are characterized by internet‐connected, globally aware consumers, who both want to and are willing to spend time and effort articulating the specifics of the needs they want satisfied‐which, when, and in what context. This collective voice has the tangible power to shape and influence individuals' notions of value and how they subsequently vote with their purchase dollars. This new way of thinking about value creation, which is jointly driven by the company and its customers/consumers is at odds with the traditional linear, sequential, value‐chain‐oriented view of value creation and value delivery. Consequently, the pattern of adoption of this emerging business practice is uneven and heterogeneous; a few early adopters like P&G, Unilever, Nike, American Express, Mercedes Benz, and Dell have already thrown their hat in the ring. It is only a matter of time before a larger majority follows.
Society, Culture, and Global Consumer Culture
Authors: Arnould Eric J.
Published: December 2010

Consumer culture is a social system in which consumption is dominated by the consumption of commercial products. In consumer culture, the transmission of cultural values, norms, and customary ways of doing things between generations is largely carried out through the exercise of private, personal choice. Just as the consumer was theorized into existence by the economic philosophers of the eighteenth century, and turned into the linchpin of twentieth‐century economies by economic policy makers and Madison Avenue advertisers, so the consumer continues to be recreated on the global stage. Even as international marketing capitalizes on the proliferation of “cultural difference,” it also demands that cultural difference be rendered manageable within globally reproducible forms and genres. This has led to the identification of what have been calledglobal structures of common differencein global consumer culture such as market segments of consumer themselves, fast‐food outlets, soap operas, beauty pageants, comics, and popular music. The spread of global consumer culture provokes backlash and resistance. Some antiglobal activists call for deconsumption; some dispute specific elements of global value chains such as brands, GMOs (genetically modified organisms), and sweatshop labor; some promote ethical consumption; and some promote local brands that are ideologically positioned as explicit competitors to their multinational counterparts.
International Pricing Objectives and Strategies
Authors: Myers Matthew B. , Zondag Marcel M.
Published: December 2010

The price paid for a good or a service represents its customer value. Because of this characteristic, pricing plays a unique role in the marketing mix both as a strategic tool and a dimension of day‐to‐day marketing decisions. Nevertheless, pricing is largely neglected in international marketing literature, specifically in the field of B2B transactions, the topic of this article. The authors present an overview of current international pricing literature and discuss the many different pricing decisions that international marketers face. Using the “value management” concept, the authors make suggestions for future research and provide practical guidelines for the development of a consistent international pricing strategy.
International Advertising – is there Still a Standardization Versus Local Adaptation Debate?
Authors: Taylor Charles R.
Published: December 2010

For several decades now, much of the discussion of international advertising has focused on the degree to which advertising should be standardized or adapted. Even today, many academic articles start out with a literature review summarizing this “debate” and promising to offer additional insight. A close examination of the literature reveals that years of research on international advertising has provided some deeper insight on how to engage in international advertising. Most importantly, research consistently suggests that there are often key advantages to standardizing advertising at a strategic level but that executions do often need to be adapted.
Standardization/Adaptation of International Marketing Strategy
Authors: Griffith David A.
Published: December 2010

Issues pertaining to the appropriateness of standardization/adaptation of international marketing strategy continue to be paramount to academics and practitioners. While a significant number of studies have been conducted on this important topic, an examination of a selection of seminal articles in the field demonstrates considerable divergence in foundational definitions. This article does not work to resolve these conceptual distinctions but rather to address how differences in approaches to these distinctions have stimulated work in four key areas that are central to the understanding of the standardization/adaptation of marketing strategy: (i) type of standardization/adaptation, (ii) standardization/adaptation unit of analysis, (iii) market homogeneity and the effectiveness/efficiency argument, and (iv) models of standardization/adaptation.
International Franchising
Authors: Quinn Barry
Published: December 2010

Franchising has become a major driving force in the
globalization of service businesses
. Changes in the global trading environment such as the lifting of restrictive legislation and a greater homogeneity in buyer behavior have resulted in the further spread of franchising activity from the developed economies toward
emerging markets
in Asia, South America, and Europe. There are clear advantages to adopting franchise as an
entry mechanism
into international markets. Franchising is of great benefit to emerging and transitional economies. Franchisors have various modes of operation available to them when developing an international market presence. Issues surrounding control, support, and the nature of the franchise relationship play an important role in the development of international franchising.
Global Sourcing Strategy: An Evolution
Authors: Kotabe Masaaki , Murray Janet Y.
Published: December 2010

Increased global sourcing of manufacturing and service activities from independent suppliers has been a prominent part of the restructuring of firms' supply chains since the late 1980s. Researchers and practitioners have largely supported the view that global sourcing is one of the key drivers of superior performance. However, the limitations of outsourcing, or, put differently, the advantages of vertical integration, also have to be considered. First, we discuss the need to balance sourcing levels. Second, we then discuss how global sourcing levels must achieve a strategic fit with the environment. Third, we synthesize these balance and fit perspectives to suggest how, over time, changes in the fit alter the required balance in global sourcing. From this synthesis, we develop a number of research questions related to important conceptual perspectives on sourcing for future investigation. For managers, we provide indications of how they can achieve a balance and a fit of their sourcing strategies.
International Product Diffusion
Authors: Yin Eden
Published: December 2010

This entry discusses the key factors that drive the international product diffusions across countries.
International Entrepreneurship
Authors: Coviello Nicole
Published: December 2010

International entrepreneurship (IE) is generally understood to involve the discovery, enactment, and exploitation of opportunities for new goods and services across national borders. The domain of IE includes the decisions/actions of both new ventures and those enacted by larger, more established firms. It also includes comparisons of entrepreneurial behavior in multiple countries and cultures. Of particular interest is the international new venture, one form of which is the Born Global. Recent theoretical developments reflect the richness of IE as a research area and its position at the interface of many disciplines.
A Simple and Effective Modification of PCBM for Use as an Electron Acceptor in Efficient Bulk Heterojunction Solar Cells
Authors: Mikroyannidis John A. , Kabanakis Antonis N. , Sharma S. S. , Sharma Ganesh D.
Published: December 2010

[6,6]‐phenyl‐C‐61‐butyric acid methyl ester (PCBM) and poly(3‐hexylthiophene) (P3HT) are the most widely used acceptor and donor materials, respectively, in polymer solar cells (PSCs). However, the low LUMO (lowest unoccupied molecular orbital) energy level of PCBM limits the open circuit voltage (Voc) of the PSCs based on P3HT. Herein a simple, low‐cost and effective approach of modifying PCBM and improving its absorption is reported which can be extended to all fullerene derivatives with an ester structure. In particular, PCBM is hydrolyzed to carboxylic acid and then converted to the corresponding carbonyl chloride. The latter is condensed with 4‐nitro‐4’‐hydroxy‐α‐cyanostilbene to afford the modified fullerene F. It is more soluble than PCBM in common organic solvents due to the increase of the organic moiety. Both solutions and thin films of F show stronger absorption than PCBM in the range of 250–900 nm. The electrochemical properties and electronic energy levels of F and PCBM are measured by cyclic voltammetry. The LUMO energy level of F is 0.25 eV higher than that of PCBM. The PSCs based on P3HT with F as an acceptor shows a higher Voc of 0.86 V and a short circuit current (Jsc) of 8.5 mA cm−2, resulting in a power conversion efficiency (PCE) of 4.23%, while the PSC based on P3HT:PCBM shows a PCE of about 2.93% under the same conditions. The results indicate that the modified PCBM, i.e., F, is an excellent acceptor for PSC based on bulk heterojunction active layers. A maximum overall PCE of 5.25% is achieved with the PSC based on the P3HT:F blend deposited from a mixture of solvents (chloroform/acetone) and subsequent thermal annealing at 120 °C.
Gas Sensors: Ultrasensitive and Highly Selective Gas Sensors Based on Electrospun SnO2 Nanofibers Modified by Pd Loading (Adv. Funct. Mater. 24/2010)
Authors: Yang Dae‐Jin , Kamienchick Itai , Youn Doo Young , Rothschild Avner , Kim Il‐Doo
Published: December 2010

This work presents a new route to suppress grain growth and tune the sensitivity and selectivity of nanocrystalline SnO2 fibers. Unloaded and Pd‐loaded SnO2 nanofiber mats are synthesized by electrospinning followed by hot‐pressing at 80 °C and calcination at 450 or 600 °C. The chemical composition and microstructure evolution as a function of Pd‐loading and calcination temperature are examined using EDS, XPS, XRD, SEM, and HRTEM. Highly porous fibrillar morphology with nanocrystalline fibers comprising SnO2 crystallites decorated with tiny PdO crystallites is observed. The grain size of the SnO2 crystallites in the layers that are calcined at 600 °C decreases with increasing Pd concentration from about 15 nm in the unloaded specimen to about 7 nm in the 40 mol% Pd‐loaded specimen, indicating that Pd‐loading could effectively suppress the SnO2 grain growth during the calcination step. The Pd‐loaded SnO2 sensors have 4 orders of magnitude higher resistivity and exhibit significantly enhanced sensitivity to H2 and lower sensitivity to NO2 compared to their unloaded counterparts. These observations are attributed to enhanced electron depletion at the surface of the PdO‐decorated SnO2 crystallites and catalytic effect of PdO in promoting the oxidation of H2 into H2O. These phenomena appear to have a much larger effect on the sensitivity of the Pd‐loaded sensors than the reduction in grain size.
Catalytic Decarboxylative Cross‐Ketonisation of Aryl‐ and Alkylcarboxylic Acids using Magnetite Nanoparticles
Authors: Gooßen Lukas J. , Mamone Patrizia , Oppel Christoph
Published: December 2010

In the presence of catalytic amounts of magnetite nanopowder, mixtures of aromatic and aliphatic carboxylic acids are converted selectively into the corresponding aryl alkyl ketones. As by‐products, only carbon dioxide and water are released. This catalytic cross‐ketonisation allows the regioselective acylation of aromatic systems and, thus, represents a sustainable alternative to Friedel–Crafts acylations.
Interactions of flow and reaction in fluid catalytic cracking risers
Authors: Zhu Chao , Jun You , Patel Rajesh , Wang Dawei , Ho Teh C.
Published: December 2010

Fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) is the primary conversion process in oil refining. The performance of an FCC riser strongly depends on the interactions between oil/catalyst flow and cracking kinetics, but most FCC riser models do not consider such interactions. Accordingly, this work develops a computationally simple model capturing the dominant features of flow‐reaction coupling in the riser's dense phase and acceleration zones. Specifically, the particle–particle collision force and the particle–fluid interfacial force are considered. With a four‐lump kinetic model, the riser model predicts conversion and selectivity from the axial profile of the catalyst‐to‐oil ratio resulting from particle–fluid interfacial momentum transfer. The cracking intensity in the riser bottom zone is much greater than that calculated from conventional riser models, which neglects oil‐catalyst hydrodynamic coupling and catalyst dilution due to volume expansion. The present model compares well with published data and predicts conversion‐selectivity patterns that are qualitatively different from those obtained from conventional models. © 2011 American Institute of Chemical Engineers AIChE J, 2011
Equilibrium studies on enantioselective extraction of oxybutynin enantiomers by hydrophilic β‐cyclodextrin derivatives
Authors: Tang Kewen , Zhang Panliang , Pan Chunyue , Li Hongjian
Published: December 2010

The enantioselective extraction of hydrophobic oxybutynin (OBN) enantiomers by hydrophilic β‐cyclodextrin (β‐CD) derivatives was studied. The efficiency of extraction depends strongly on a number of process variables such as types of organic solvents and β‐CD derivatives, concentration of selector, pH, and temperature. The experimental data were described by a reactive extraction model with a homogeneous aqueous phase reaction of R,S‐OBN with β‐CD. Important parameters of this model were determined experimentally. The physical distribution coefficients for molecular and ionic OBN were 4.96 × 10−3 and 9.52, respectively. The equilibrium constants of the complexation reactions were 1770 and 1340 L/mol for S‐ and R‐OBN, respectively. By modeling and experiment, an optimal extraction condition with pH of 5 and HP‐β‐CD concentration of 0.1 mol/L was obtained with enantioselectivity (α) of 1.26, which was close to the theoretical maximum of 1.32 and performance factor (pfi) of 0.036. The model was verified experimentally with excellent results. © 2011 American Institute of Chemical Engineers AIChE J, 2011
Exploration of alternative models for the aging of fouling deposits
Authors: Ishiyama Edward M. , Paterson William R. , Ian Wilson D.
Published: December 2010

The effect of fouling in heat‐transfer devices (HTDs) is complicated by aging of the fouling deposits. Aging is, like deposition, often sensitive to temperature, so that heat transfer, deposition, and aging are coupled phenomena. Ishiyama et al. (AIChE J. 2010;56:531–545) presented a distributed model of the aging of deposits formed by chemical reaction fouling and illustrated its effect on thermal and hydraulic performance of a HTD operating in the turbulent flow regime. Two‐layer models, simpler than the distributed model, are explored. The deposit is considered to consist of two layers, fresh and aged; this simple picture is shown to be sufficient to interpret thermal and hydraulic aspects of deposit aging when HTDs are operated at constant heat flux (as reflecting laboratory experiments) but not in cases where the constant wall temperature approximation is more realistic. © 2011 American Institute of Chemical Engineers AIChE J, 2011
Arteriovenous malformation in the adult mouse brain resembling the human disease
Authors: Walker Espen J. , Su Hua , Shen Fanxia , Choi Eun‐Jung , Oh S. Paul , Chen Grant , Lawton Michael T. , Kim Helen , Chen Yongmei , Chen Wanqiu , Young William L.
Published: December 2010

Objective:

Brain arteriovenous malformations (bAVMs) are an important cause of hemorrhagic stroke. The underlying mechanisms are not clear. No animal model for adult bAVM is available for mechanistic exploration. Patients with hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia type 2 (HHT2) with activin receptor‐like kinase 1 (ALK1; ACVRL1) mutations have a higher incidence of bAVM than the general population. We tested the hypothesis that vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) stimulation with regional homozygous deletion of Alk1 induces severe dysplasia in the adult mouse brain, akin to human bAVM.

Methods:

Alk12f/2f (exons 4–6 flanked by loxP sites) and wild‐type (WT) mice (8–10 weeks old) were injected with adenoviral vector expressing Cre recombinase (Ad‐Cre; 2 × 107 plaque forming units [PFU]) and adeno‐associated viral vectors expressing VEGF (AAV‐VEGF; 2 × 109 genome copies) into the basal ganglia. At 8 weeks, blood vessels were analyzed.

Results:

Gross vascular irregularities were seen in Alk12f/2f mouse brain injected with Ad‐Cre and AAV‐VEGF. The vessels were markedly enlarged with abnormal patterning resembling aspects of the human bAVM phenotype, displayed altered expression of the arterial and venous markers (EphB4 and Jagged‐1), and showed evidence of arteriovenous shunting. Vascular irregularities were not seen in similarly treated WT mice.

Interpretation:

Our data indicate that postnatal, adult formation of the human disease, bAVM, is possible, and that both genetic mutation and angiogenic stimulation are necessary for lesion development. Our work not only provides a testable adult mouse bAVM model for the first time, but also suggests that specific medical therapy can be developed to slow bAVM growth and potentially stabilize the rupture‐prone abnormal vasculature. ANN NEUROL 2011;