bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
In the Kingdom of Whomever: Baldwin’s Method
Authors: Kurnick David
Published: November 2017

James Baldwin is not only one of the more notable Anglophone twentieth-century novelists to attempt continually and with minimal success to enter the theater. He is also one of the major inheritors of the aesthetic and political problematic we have repeatedly encountered in the course of this book. Baldwin is perhaps the most important twentieth-century novelist to seriously explore what it means to make interiority the bearer of collective desire. This chapter argues that the novel of interiority reaches an impasse and a breakthrough in the work of Baldwin precisely when the contradictions inherent in the attempt to think collective problems through sexual interiority becomes unavoidably insistent—and does so through Baldwin's negotiation with the generic difference of the theater. His career makes clear that if the novel relentlessly personalizes collective issues, its theatrical preoccupation constitutes a record of the political costs of that reduction, one that demands to be read at the level of form.
Beyond the Orthodox Definition of Hope
Authors: Martin Adrienne M.
Published: November 2017

This chapter presents a series of challenge cases for the orthodox definition of hope—cases that show this definition cannot distinguish strong hopes for highly unlikely outcomes from either weaker hopes or even despair directed at those outcomes. To truly capture what it is to “hope against hope,” we need to supplement the orthodox definition. The chapter then considers and rejects three recent proposals about how to supplement the definition. Although these three proposals—from Philip Pettit, Luc Bovens, and Ariel Meirav—are not ultimately successful, this chapter argues that there are important lessons we should take from each. In light of these lessons, the chapter proposes the incorporation analysis of hope, whereby hoping for an outcome is a distinctive way of treating one's own attitudes toward the outcome.
Normative Hope
Authors: Martin Adrienne M.
Published: November 2017

This chapter argues that hope plays a crucial role in our standard ways of relating to each other “interpersonally” (and to ourselves intrapersonally). One way that we relate to each other interpersonally—or from the “participant stance”—is to hold each other responsible. This mode of interaction is best construed as a “normative expectation.” This chapter argues that to normatively expect someone to comply with a requirement is to be prepared to justify a narrow set of “reactive” feelings: resentment, indignation, and guilt. Normative expectation and these reactive feelings are at the heart of relating to people as rational agents by holding them responsible.
Human Passivity, Agency, and Hope
Authors: Martin Adrienne M.
Published: November 2017

This concluding chapter makes several arguments. It stresses that hope deserves rather a different reputation than it has. On the one hand, it does not deserve a reputation as either unqualifiedly good or unqualifiedly reliable. Its relation to rational action and a good life is more complex. On the other hand, it is of far deeper philosophical interest and significance than most have recognized. It is revelatory of the structures and operations of reflective human consciousness, and it can be a strategically valuable response to the fact that we are creatures with animal attractions, with the capacity for rational deliberation and choice, and the capacity to be aware of our own epistemic and agential limitations. The chapter pulls together these points and outlines recommendations for the philosophy of psychology and the emotions that follow from this investigation of hope.
The Madness of Art
Authors: Brooks Peter
Published: November 2017

This chapter suggests that the self facing its extinction may make particularly concerted, wild, mad reactions to the impending nothingness of its identity, in late work of a new, unbound creativity. There have, over the ages, been artists in all sorts of media who have had the capacity for self-reinvention late in their careers—often involving a whole new manner, a “late style” that is often their principal claim to greatness in the eyes of posterity. The chapter then assesses the relation of self-reinvention to self-dissolution. In the limiting circumstances of self-dissolution come such phenomena as Beethoven's late quartets—which, in his by then total deafness, he could not hear—or Matisse's late cutouts—these being a return to the art and techne of childhood at a point where he could no longer wield the paintbrush, in which one can find the brilliant invention of a new “period” in his work in response to necessity.
Negligence Per Se and Unaccounted Risks
Authors: Cooter Robert D. , Porat Ariel
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers cases of “negligence per se” and the problem of unaccounted risks. In general, breaching the statute constitutes “negligence per se.” When the injurer's breach of the statute harms people, courts systematically compensate the victims explicitly targeted by the legislation and not other victims, creating a misalignment. The chapter first examines the doctrine of negligence per se before discussing the problem of unaccounted risks. It then describes an approach that it argues is wrong in common law negligence: the tendency of courts to treat foreground risks created by the injurer as wrongful and impose liability accordingly, while ignoring background risks. It also explores a condition for establishing liability, known as the “causal link,” and asks why courts account for the foreground risks while disregarding the background risks.
Applying Standards, Making Judgments
Authors: Grant Ruth W.
Published: November 2017

This chapter takes up the problem of making practical judgments: how to apply abstract standards in practice. In addition to evaluating any incentive against the three basic standards, there is a need to look at its context and alternatives. There is no “rule of thumb” that can be applied without consideration of the circumstances. Examples from medicine, business, education, government, and so forth show what sorts of questions need to be asked in particular cases. These include the following: Which of the standards is most important in this case? Does the incentive work better than the alternatives? Is it fair? Does the incentive mask accountability? Is this a case of undue influence?
Reforming National Security Oversight in the Senate
Authors: Fowler Linda L.
Published: November 2017

This chapter challenges the efficacy of reform proposals currently circulating in Washington and makes practical recommendations for improving the capacity of the Senate Armed Services and Foreign Relations committees in terms of oversight of national security. These recommendations look beyond consultation about the initiation of conflicts to generate a more robust review of the implementation of administration policies over time. The focus is on the underlying incentives that drive committee inquiries into the performance of the Department of Defense and the State Department, with an eye to the self-correcting mechanisms at the heart of the Constitution that balance relations between the branches. The chapter argues that well-functioning committees that promote the rule of law in foreign affairs through regular, predictable, and public deliberation make a revised war powers act unnecessary; in the absence of such regular order, new rules for consultation seem likely to fail.
Diseased Sheep and Wolf-Men
Authors: Chamayou Grégoire , Rendall Steven
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on Christian pastoralist conceptions of hunting. Christian pastoralism was opposed to cynegetic power: fishing for souls rather than hunting for men, persuasion rather than coercion. Pastoral power was defined as antihunting. However, the paradox is that it developed its own cynegetic practices, its own forms of manhunts, pastoral hunts. What fundamentally distinguished the pastoral model from the cynegetic model, and what radically forbade the former to entertain any predatory relationship, was the imperative of caring and protecting. A protective power versus a predatory power: that was the line of opposition. But pastoral hunting took place precisely in the name of protecting the flock. To protect the flock sometimes one has to hunt down certain sheep, to sacrifice a few to save all the others. Here we are no longer in a logic of predatory appropriation but rather in a rationality of salutary ablation and beneficent exclusion.
Hunting Black Skins
Authors: Chamayou Grégoire , Rendall Steven
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses the hunt for blacks that began in the fifteenth century, and reached its full extent with the “discovery” of America and the rise of triangular trade—that is, with the establishment of Western capitalism. It considers a racial theory of African slavery that made it possible to combine two theses: blacks themselves were intrinsically responsible for their enslavement, and at the same time, and for precisely that reason, they could do nothing about it. They were in a sense completely responsible because they were the endogenous cause, and simultaneously not responsible because this cause was their nature itself. This idea was also applicable, though in a different sense, to European nations: by perpetrating their crimes, they were only conforming to the predatory urge that marked the superiority of their race.
Police Hunts
Authors: Chamayou Grégoire , Rendall Steven
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses the police as manhunters. The nineteenth century sketched the portrait of the policeman as a manhunter. The police was described as a hunting institution, the state's arm for pursuit, entrusted by it with tracking, arresting, and imprisoning. Unlike hunts for wolf-men, the state hunts by the police no longer took place in the mode of a popular operation of flushing out the prey. The police had gained a monopoly on legitimate tracking. However, the problem was that, far from coming into being as a second application of the law or as an authority originally subordinate to it, the cynegetic power inherited by the modern police force developed largely outside the judicial framework that justified it. So although the police officially justified its existence by constant reference to the legal system and to the law, in practice it remained largely blind.
Hunting Illegals
Authors: Chamayou Grégoire , Rendall Steven
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses the hunt for illegals. It begins by considering stateless people, whose legal exclusion is no longer presented as punishment for a crime, but as a status, directly connected with the individuals' political status. If the stateless person is excluded from the system of legal protection it is not because he has committed an infraction: on the contrary, he is himself that infraction, by the simple fact of existing, by his sole presence on the territory of the nation-state. Making persons infractions, making their lives a permanent infraction, is thus the first characteristic of this new system of legal exclusion. The chapter then turns to a new form of legal proscription, which is distinct from that of stateless persons, a recent historical product of policies of the illegalization of migrants. This new situation of the illegality of immigrant workers is connected with states' refusal to grant them the right to reside and work legally.
Postscript
Authors: Chamayou Grégoire , Rendall Steven
Published: November 2017

As I am completing the writing of this book, I read in the press:

In Italy, the hunt for immigrants in Rosarno. Migrants, seasonal workers, forced to engage in an exodus after having been subjected to a genuine manhunt.

It all began Thursday evening, when young Calabrians with rifles fired on migrants. The outcome: two wounded. In protest, the migrants burned a few trash cans and numerous cars. Friday, two thousand immigrant workers took part in a demonstration to protest against the vexations and attacks to which they are subjected. “The Italians here are racists!” read the signs they carried. Four thousand seasonal migrants come every winter to work in the citrus orchards from dawn to dusk for twenty-five Euros a day and crowd into a slum on the edge of town. In the evening, attacks against migrants flared again, more violent than ever. Part of the local population, two to three hundred persons, carried on a reign of terror using iron bars, rifles, and barricades, and besieging even the headquarters of a migrants’ association. The climate established by Silvio Berlusconi’s government, with its ministers issuing rival declarations against “clandestine workers,” was not unrelated to the fear felt by some of the inhabitants of Rosarno....
Local Science and Organic Processes
Authors: Petryna Adriana
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the ethical positions of local scientists and clinicians from the perspective of Soviet and post-Soviet scientific trajectories as well as in relation to international scientific influences. More specifically, it considers how the radiation research process makes connections between ailments and the Chernobyl disaster real—that is, organic. It also explores how scientific and political pressures at the international level restrict local discourses on the health effects of radiation from the Chernobyl disaster and influence the processes through which the biology of such effects becomes an object of contested scientific understanding and research. Finally, it shows how patients become captives of a new sociality in Ukraine and describes the changing doctor–patient relations, along with the in utero research carried out, at the Radiation Research Center.
About the Book and Supporting Material
Authors: Ivezi Željko , Connolly Andrew J. , VanderPlas Jacob T. , Gray Alexander , Ivezi Željko , Connolly Andrew J. , VanderPlas Jacob T. , Gray Alexander
Published: November 2017

This chapter begins by discussing the meaning of data mining, machine learning, and knowledge discovery. Data mining, machine learning, and knowledge discovery refer to research areas which can all be thought of as outgrowths of multivariate statistics. Their common themes are analysis and interpretation of data, often involving large quantities of data, and even more often resorting to numerical methods. The chapter then presents an incomplete survey of the relevant literature following by an introduction to the Python programming language and the Git code management tool. Next, it describes the surveys and data sets used in examples, plotting and visualizing the data in this book, and how to efficiently use this book.
Introduction
Authors: Ghassem-Fachandi Parvis
Published: November 2017

This introductory chapter argues that the pogrom is an event driven by words and images, as much by the associations and invocations that precede it as by those that accompany it. The enactment of the 2002 Gujarat pogrom followed a script collectively shared on the streets and in media representations. The chapter describes the forms of complicity that the pogrom demanded and the quotidian understandings it engendered. While many of these understandings seem to be recurrent instances of collective violence, the chapter focuses only on the events of 2002 and seeks to unravel the specific cultural and psychological processes of individual and collective identification that were then prevalent in central Gujarat.
The Gujarat Pogrom
Authors: Ghassem-Fachandi Parvis
Published: November 2017

This chapter talks about how middle-class Ahmedabadis either simply denied the massacres at Gulbarg Society and Naroda Patiya, or they explained everything by the reciprocal logic of anger (krodh), riot (tofan), and reaction (pratikriya). Most middle-class residents of the city speak pejoratively about the quality of life in the mill areas of east Ahmedabad, and they invoked these notions when accounting for the violence there. They routinely refer to a lack of economic discipline and ethic cultivation as explanations for social neglect and destitution. People also frequently used ambiguous expressions, such as je thayu te joyu (what has happened, that I have seen), in their depictions. In contrast to this ambiguity, there was often clarity of details narrated in an air of unself-conscious fascination, which leads to the conclusion that most of the details were from secondhand accounts and not personally witnessed.
The Lack of Muslim Vulnerability
Authors: Ghassem-Fachandi Parvis
Published: November 2017

This chapter explores how the phantasmagoria of the Muslim is drawn from certain culinary and dietary habits, most clearly stereotyped in the meat eater or butcher. This stereotype manifests in the explanations of three separate members of three different communities: Jain, Rajput, and Dalit. While they share membership in the city's middle class, these communities differentiate themselves in their relation to diet and other practices. Stereotypes always carry a kernel of truth, as their power lies primarily in the psychological material they can evoke. In the pogrom, they work as residues of individual subjective experiences that became articulated collectively. When this residue takes on a stable form by being projected onto the Muslim, that figure becomes an embodiment of the most pronounced form of perceived threat, and a danger that appears confined to this figure, controllable despite its blurred and shifting nature.
Vibrant Vegetarian Gujarat
Authors: Ghassem-Fachandi Parvis
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines how despite the historical influences of vegetarian Vaishnava traditions, Jainism, the salience of Mahatma Gandhi in Gujarat, and its current index of the abject, meat eating is not simply associated with disgust. It also carries great potency, and can signify power. If meat eating was on the one hand identified with vice and with groups considered backward, it could alternatively also be associated with erotic attraction and an alluring potency, modern decadence, and cosmopolitan freedom—an association gaining ground especially among the young. The dual valence of meat is acutely present in how members of lower-caste groups explain, legitimize, and rationalize their own practices of meat consumption or abstention.
The Adventures of Mickey Mouse, Big Mac, and Coke in the Land of the Gauls
Authors: Kuisel Richard F.
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on major American business enterprises in France. It addresses three issues. First, did Coca-Cola and the others directly export their products, techniques, and strategies to France, or did they modify their ways to suit the locals? Did they impose or adapt? A second issue is an assessment of the impact of these American multinationals: What kind of reception did they get from French consumers, and what effects did they have on their French competitors? These questions lead toward a third and more general issue—the importance of culture and identity in determining French reaction. Were the perils of these outsiders caused by American managers' misunderstanding or disregard of French values, traditions, and sense of identity? Did culture hamper American business or did it prove so supple that it was of little consequence?
Abraham Lincoln: Consummate Leader
Authors: Greenstein Fred I. , Anderson Dale
Published: November 2017

This chapter assesses the strengths and weaknesses of Abraham Lincoln, focusing on six realms: public communication, organizational capacity, political skill, policy vision, cognitive style, and emotional intelligence. Lincoln entered the White House following a mere eight years as a state legislator and two years in the House of Representatives. He excelled in all of the qualities used here to assess leadership. In the realm of communication, he showed acumen in the way he managed his message, the vision conveyed in his statements, and the clarity of his rhetoric. His organizational methods were unsystematic but effective, and were driven by his political acumen. Lincoln was also a master politician who could cooperate with others regardless of their viewpoints.
The Problem of International Order and How to Think about It
Authors: Trachtenberg Marc
Published: November 2017

This chapter argues that, to get at the issue of international order, one must first deal with the theoretical question of how politics works in the highly stylized world associated with the term anarchy—a world where security and thus power are the only things that matter, a world in which no effective international society can be said to exist. The workings of such an idealized world are worth examining not because the real world necessarily works the same way, but simply because that sort of analysis is a necessary point of departure for thinking about real world problems. Only when one understands how a highly stylized world of this sort works can questions about the role of various factors—international law, for example, or economic interdependence—be posed in any meaningful way. If the goal is to understand what difference those factors make—that is, whether they contribute to order—one needs to start with a certain preexisting frame of reference, one that only theoretical analysis can provide.
Preventive War and U.S. Foreign Policy
Authors: Trachtenberg Marc
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the Bush administration's strategy of “preemption” in the early 2000s. The Bush administration declared that U.S. policy could no longer be based on the principle of deterrence. The nation could not “remain idle while dangers gather.” It had to identify the threat and destroy it “before it reaches our borders” and “take whatever action [was] necessary” to protect itself. The new policy was considered a total break with American tradition and stunned the international community. The chapter brings a historian's perspective to bear on this issue. Has the Bush administration really broken with American tradition in this area by adopting what it calls a “preemptive” strategy? The goal here is to get at the issue by looking at how other American administrations dealt with this kind of problem.
The Iraq Crisis and the Future of the Western Alliance
Authors: Trachtenberg Marc
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers the various issues raised in the run-up to the Iraq War. It asks: How much of a problem would the development of a mass destruction capability by a regime like that of Iraq in 2002 have actually posed? Wouldn't the development of an Iraqi nuclear capability have led to mutual deterrence and thus to a relatively stable strategic relationship? To the extent that an Iraqi capability of this sort would have posed serious problems, couldn't the Iraqis have been prevented permanently from developing such forces through nonmilitary means? Couldn't an inspection regime have done the trick? And if the control regime wasn't up to the job, would it be legitimate for a country to act essentially on its own, without first getting explicit U.N. Security Council authorization? Was unilateral action impermissible under international law, and is a country that dealt with the problem in that way to be branded a law-breaker?
Tocqueville
Authors: Jaume Lucien
Published: November 2017

Many American readers like to regard Alexis de Tocqueville as an honorary American and democrat—as the young French aristocrat who came to early America and, enthralled by what he saw, proceeded to write an American book explaining democratic America to itself. Yet, as this book argues, Democracy in America is best understood as a French book, written primarily for the French, and overwhelmingly concerned with France. “America,” this book claims, “was merely a pretext for studying modern society and the woes of France.” For Tocqueville, in short, America was a mirror for France, a way for Tocqueville to write indirectly about his own society, to engage French thinkers and debates, and to come to terms with France's aristocratic legacy. By taking seriously the idea that Tocqueville's French context is essential for understanding Democracy in America, the book provides a powerful and surprising new interpretation of Tocqueville's book as well as a fresh intellectual and psychological portrait of the author. Situating Tocqueville in the context of the crisis of authority in postrevolutionary France, this book shows that Tocqueville was an ambivalent promoter of democracy, a man who tried to reconcile himself to the coming wave, but who was also nostalgic for the aristocratic world in which he was rooted—and who believed that it would be necessary to preserve aristocratic values in order to protect liberty under democracy. Indeed, the book argues that one of Tocqueville's most important and original ideas was to recognize that democracy posed the threat of a new and hidden form of despotism.
Tocqueville and Guizot
Authors: Jaume Lucien
Published: November 2017

This chapter presents a comparison of the thoughts of Tocqueville and Guizot. Both men represent the same important historical and intellectual moment and both are indispensable for understanding the French spirit. To be sure, they did not belong to the same generation: nearly twenty years separate the two men. Yet they continually observed each other, encountered each other in public life, and disappointed each other repeatedly. The fundamental divergence between them involved an issue that was central to Tocqueville's thinking and one of the major questions of the day: What type of authority was possible in the society to which Guizot often referred as “the new France”? Guizot was a proponent of elitist government and Tocqueville of subdued popular sovereignty.
Augustine of Hippo
Authors: Brooke Christopher
Published: November 2017

This introductory chapter analyses the fourteenth book of The City of God against the Pagans (c. fifth century CE) by Augustine of Hippo. Book 14 contains the analysis of Adam and Eve's life in the Garden of Eden and their subsequent Fall. This is an episode central not only to his theological project, in that Augustine single-handedly created the doctrine of original sin that dominated the thinking of the Church for so long, but also to his political theory, because it provides the setting for the central categories of the work's overall argument. More importantly, the chapters in book 14 contain by far the most sustained rumination on Stoic philosophy to be found in the entire work.
Grotius, Stoicism, and Oikeiosis
Authors: Brooke Christopher
Published: November 2017

This chapter turns to Hugo Grotius and to the origins of the modern natural rights tradition in a reworking of Ciceronian Stoicism. It first argues that there is a close fit between the general structure of a Ciceronian Stoic natural law theory and the argument that Grotius builds in his Prolegomena to De Jure Belli ac Pacis (1631). Next, the chapter notes that the Stoic concern with autonomy combined with regulating practical deliberation is what gives us this distinctive argument, in which strong claims about the natural sociability of human beings end up issuing in a theory characterised above all by rights that separate people and their property off from one another. Finally, although Grotius calls oikeiosis (a desire for society) the appetitus societatis, he in fact works far more closely with Stoic sources on the side of personal oikeiosis rather than on the side of social oikeiosis.
From Lipsius to Hobbes
Authors: Brooke Christopher
Published: November 2017

This chapter forges a connection between Lipsius and Thomas Hobbes. There are a number of ways in which Hobbes's theoretical project, culminating in the Leviathan of 1651, can be read as continuing to work with central themes from Lipsius's political thought. Both writers agreed with Augustine that the goal of political life was to secure an earthly peace, but they disagreed with the Augustinian tradition through their ‘politique’ defence of the subordination of religious concerns to those of politics. Both Hobbes and Lipsius were more or less sceptical with respect to traditional arguments about the value of republican freedom, and both defended an account of determinism in human affairs, whether Lipsius's ‘fate’ or Hobbes's materialist physics. More recently, a number of scholars have fleshed out some historical connections between Lipsius and Hobbes.
How the Stoics Became Atheists
Authors: Brooke Christopher
Published: November 2017

This chapter explores the wider and largely Continental story of how the Stoics became atheists. The Neostoicisms of the late sixteenth and early seventeenth century had been explicitly intended as supplements to mainstream varieties of Christianity. Indeed, even Lipsius remained consistent with his argument that Stoicism, with respect to both its ethics and its physics, provided an appropriate philosophical framework for a well-lived Christian life. Though a number of factors during the seventeenth century had contributed to the Stoics' atheistic turn, as this chapter shows, this shift within Stoicism is credited to Benedict Spinoza and his detailed examinations on the nature of God.
Epilogue
Authors: Brooke Christopher
Published: November 2017

This concluding chapter argues that the three intellectual streams that fed into what was eventually to become Marxism took shape not only as partial appropriations and transformations of Rousseau's ideas but each also embodied a continuing engagement with Stoicism. It reveals that what eventually crystallized under the banner of Marxism was in an important sense a putting together, as well as a radical transformation, of major elements of German idealist philosophy, especially Hegel; of the classical political economy that reaches back to Adam Smith; and of the radical French politics that unfolded over the course of the Revolutionary decade of the 1790s.
Between Charity and Punishment
Authors: Chen Janet Y.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines how “poverty” (pin) emerged as a resonant concept for reforming elites in the early twentieth century. Deeply anxious about China's precarious future, officials and intellectuals began to view “poverty” as an issue imbued with national significance. Drawing from Japanese penology and a burgeoning industrial training movement, reformers experimented with various types of workhouses, endeavoring to revive the nation on the foundation of labor. These first workhouses initially incarcerated misdemeanor convicts, and then extended detention to the nonworking poor, especially targeting “vagrants” and “beggars”—the male, mobile, and most unproductive members of society. The creation of these institutions marked a striking departure from traditional practices, anointing the combination of detention and labor as the most promising method of creating productive citizens.
“Living Ghosts” during the Nanjing Decade
Authors: Chen Janet Y.
Published: November 2017

This chapter underscores how Nationalist (GMD) assumptions about poor relief drew on the intellectual discourses that had developed in the previous decades. It begins with an overview of the intersections between academic sociology and the GMD government's relief agenda, before turning to the specific contours of changes in Beijing and Shanghai. The chapter also returns to the fate of the straw hut dwellers, picking up the narrative from the previous chapter. Here, efforts to reform poor relief tried to classify and organize the recipients of aid into discrete categories, but often failed to recognize poverty as a continuum of misery, difficult to compartmentalize. For the urban poor of Beijing and Shanghai, the GMD's decade in power would mean an uneasy combination of charity and coercion, help and punishment.
Epilogue
Authors: Chen Janet Y.
Published: November 2017

This concluding chapter tells the story of the encounter between agrarian revolutionaries and the urban poor and shows how the methods the Communists adopted drew on institutions and ideas that had developed and changed over a half century. Although the perspective of government authority dominates the source base after 1949, some recently declassified archival materials make it possible to look behind the curtain of propaganda. The chapter reveals how, fused to socialist ideology, the marriage of detention and compulsory labor became a potent combination aimed at harnessing the productivity of “social parasites” for the benefit of New China. And as old Nationalist winter shelters became new Communist detention centers, the urban poor found that in the People's Republic, as before, there would be no place for those who were guilty of indigence.
Race, Immigration, and the American Welfare State
Authors: Fox Cybelle
Published: November 2017

This introductory chapter provides an overview of the three worlds of relief created by the intersection of labor, race, and politics in welfare state development. Blacks, Mexicans, and European immigrants inhabited three separate worlds in the first third of the twentieth century, each characterized by its own system of race and labor market relations and its own distinct political system. From these worlds—and each group's place within them—three separate perspectives emerged about each group's propensity to become dependent on relief. The distinct political systems, race and labor market relations, and ideologies about each group's proclivity to use relief, in turn, influenced the scope, reach, and character of the relief systems that emerged across American communities.
Three Worlds of Race, Labor, and Politics
Authors: Fox Cybelle
Published: November 2017

This chapter describes in detail the three worlds, focusing on the factors—labor, race, and politics—that will best explain the differential incorporation of blacks, Mexicans, and European immigrants into the American welfare state and the scope, form, and function of relief provision across regions. On the eve of the Great Depression, the vast majority of European immigrants lived in the Northeast and Midwest, Mexicans lived overwhelmingly in the Southwest, while most blacks still lived in the South. So different were their experiences with the racial, political, and labor market systems in these regions that these groups could be said to be living in separate worlds. Each of them suffered from significant discrimination at the hands of native-born whites in the early part of the twentieth century. European immigrants were largely included in the social welfare system, blacks were largely excluded, while Mexicans were often expelled from the nation simply for requesting assistance.
Three Worlds of Relief
Authors: Fox Cybelle
Published: November 2017

This chapter explores the relief systems that had emerged in different parts of the country by the eve of the Great Depression. It also describes and explains the racial patterning of local social welfare provision across the 295 largest cities, focusing not only on spending levels but also on the sources of funding. On the eve of the Great Depression, the southern and much of the southwestern relief system was stunted by comparison with the social welfare system that had begun to flourish in the North. Nonetheless, the South and much of the Southwest tended to spend considerably less on relief and depend far more heavily on private donations, while the North spent considerably more on relief and relied more heavily on public funding. These regional variations suggest that blacks, Mexicans, and European immigrants would have had significantly different access to relief services based solely on their region of residence.
No Beggar Spirit
Authors: Fox Cybelle
Published: November 2017

This chapter shows how social workers saw European immigrants as culturally inept but nonetheless imagined them as “objects of reform” and so included them in their early social welfare efforts. Moreover, they became their defenders before a sometimes hostile public. They refuted assertions that southeastern European immigrants were paupers and worked to forge a competing construction, marshaling “evidence” to prove that the new immigrants were hardworking, thrifty, sober, and self-sufficient. Part of their confidence in these immigrants rested on their firm conviction that southern and eastern Europeans were capable of economic and racial assimilation. Indeed, looking around, they would have found much evidence confirming these beliefs: from high naturalization rates to growing socioeconomic mobility, all facilitated by the racial, labor, and political context in which these immigrants lived. Social workers then lobbied against national origin quotas and tried to protect European immigrants from harsh immigration and deportation laws.
Deporting the Unwelcome Visitors
Authors: Fox Cybelle
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines variation in the extent to which relief officials cooperated with the Immigration Service to expel dependent aliens. Frustrated by the inability and sometimes unwillingness of immigration authorities to deport Mexicans en masse, relief and other public officials in Los Angeles took matters into their own hands. They asked the Immigration Service to conduct raids in their communities to round up deportable aliens, and they invited the Immigration Service to set up shop in their welfare bureaus to interrogate all aliens applying for relief. Aside from the protests of the Mexican community and some business leaders, there was little dissent to this course of action; elected officials approved of these measures, as did local private relief officials. However, the situation was very different in northeastern and midwestern cities. When federal immigration and a few elected officials tried to find ways to expel dependent aliens in Chicago, for example, public and private relief officials came to their defense.
Repatriating the Unassimilable Aliens
Authors: Fox Cybelle
Published: November 2017

This chapter details variation in relief officials' efforts to use their own funds to expel destitute individuals from the nation. Relief agencies across the country helped repatriate immigrants during the Great Depression. However, the scale, scope, and character of these efforts differed drastically depending on the target of repatriation. Relief officials both inside and outside the Southwest used their own funds to repatriate Mexicans who requested relief assistance. These officials conducted mass-removal programs, often using coercive practices, targeting Mexicans and Mexican Americans alike, and placing greater emphasis on the economic savings than on the effects on those repatriated. Where European immigrants were concerned, however, repatriation programs developed on a more limited “casework basis,” where the needs and wishes of the individual were paramount.
A Fair Deal or a Raw Deal?
Authors: Fox Cybelle
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on the first New Deal and access to Federal Emergency Relief, as well as the Civilian Conservation Corps, the Public Works Administration, and the Civil Works Administration. Despite the New Deal's nationalizing reforms, intended largely to standardize relief policies across the country, local political economies and racial regimes continued to influence the administration of relief. Like blacks, Mexicans gained significantly greater access to relief during the New Deal, although they continued to face racial discrimination at the local level. Citizenship barriers were also typically strongest for local public work programs out West, and Mexican Americans were sometimes wrongly denied work relief on the assumption that they were non-citizens. The largest relief program during the first New Deal was the Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA), which brought blacks and Mexicans unprecedented access to relief.
Introduction
Authors: Levinson Sanford
Published: November 2017

This introductory chapter sets out the book’s purpose, which is to clarify the ambiguities of constitutional faith, i.e., wholehearted attachment to the Constitution as the center one’s (and ultimately the nation’s) political life. The book argues that there is an important conversation to be initiated about what it means to be an “American” in the late twentieth century. This conversation is not merely historical, to be safely distanced somewhere in the past. It assumes that there are many persons who share a very strong sense of “being” American, but are without an equally confident sense of what it means, especially in regard to what, if any, political commitments that identity entails.
Conclusion: Adding One’s Signature to the Constitution
Authors: Levinson Sanford
Published: November 2017

This chapter attempts to formulate an answer to the question regarding constitutional faith: To leap or not to leap? It returns to the Second Bank of the United States and the bicentennial exhibit, “Miracle in Philadelphia,” located there. In September 1787, visitors were confronted by two endless scrolls, each with the same two questions directed to the viewer: Will You Sign this Constitution? The exhibit implicitly directs a question at us: How do we stand vis-è-vis the Constitution? The answer is at the same a sign of our willingness to join in affirming a “constitutional faith” whatever the attendant difficulties in giving content to the notion.
Discriminating Friends
Authors: Dudziak Mary L.
Published: November 2017

This chapter details events following Marshall's arrival in Kenya in 1963. It had been three years since Marshall had last been to the country. In early 1960, independence had been a demand. Now it was an inevitability, with ceremonies scheduled for December. Jomo Kenyatta, still in detention in 1960, his influence feared by the British and Americans, had instead emerged as a moderating voice after his release in 1961. He had carried the Kenya African National Union (KANU) to power, and was now prime minister during the colony's short period of self-rule. As for Marshall, bruising Court of Appeals confirmation hearings were now behind him. The civil rights lawyer had settled into life on the court.
Development Clusters
Authors: Besley Timothy , Persson Torsten
Published: November 2017

This chapter first sets out the book's purpose, which is to offer an approach to studying weak or fragile states, taking a first step toward bringing them into mainstream economic analyses. It proceeds by using more-or-less standard ideas and methods to study the basics of state building. A key issue is to understand what creates effective states. The chapter then outlines the main ideas in brief but accessible form. It is also reviews some of the historical evidence and discusses some narrative accounts of development that shape our thinking. The primary aim is to demonstrate a strong link between the present work, with its clear roots in mainstream economics, and research within other disciplines and less mainstream approaches.
Legal Capacity
Authors: Besley Timothy , Persson Torsten
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on the productive role of government in improving the environment for doing business. Improvements in the performance of government are measured as total factor productivity and differences in income across countries can be explained by differences in the quality of their economic institutions. This makes it essential to understand why some countries make the right investments in legal institutions and deploy such legal capacity effectively. A running theme of the chapter is the possibility of a complementarity between the extractive (taxation) and the productive (supporting markets) roles of government. This is at the heart of the empirical observation that market development and state development move hand in hand. But the key insight from this is that we have to understand the incentives of a government to make investments to improve the workings of the economy.
Development Assistance
Authors: Besley Timothy , Persson Torsten
Published: November 2017

This chapter explores the implications of the analytical approach for the design of development assistance. The model suggests a number of margins on which we would expect such assistance to have an effect. The results illustrate the difficulties faced by external donors and actors who are trying to improve the situation in developing countries, particularly in weak and fragile states. Some of the issues are well known, particularly the problem that development support might crowd out rather than crowd in government. It is clear that a great deal more has to be understood about the political equilibrium before any reasoned assessment on aid can be reached. Absent this understanding, the triumph of hope over expectation, so characteristic of more than 50 years of policy experience, is likely to continue.
Lessons Learned
Authors: Besley Timothy , Persson Torsten
Published: November 2017

This chapter sums up and takes stock of the present findings. The entire project in this book is theory-driven with a core model at the heart of the approach. It ties together three different, but related, facets of development: breaking out of poverty, building a state strong enough to support markets and provide public goods, and putting an end to violent political conflicts. The chapter also defines and computes a Pillars of Prosperity Index, based on empirical counterparts to the central outcomes emphasized by the developed theory. It uses the theory—as summarized in the Anna Karenina matrix of Chapter 5—to predict the values of this index, based on empirical counterparts of the central determinants uncovered by the theory. Comparing the actual and predicted values of the Pillars of Prosperity Index for 150 countries, we learn about successes as well as failures of the theory.
Introduction: The Failure of Meter
Authors: Martin Meredith
Published: November 2017

This chapter sets out the book's focus, namely the historical moment when the concept of “English meter” seemed to stabilize. The main intervention of this book is to alter assumptions about English meter as a stable concept, to ask what else “English” and “meter” meant, and might mean. It is the premise of this book that the literary movements around the time of the First World War, along with the national, pedagogical, and political movements in the period leading up to it, essentially erased a vast history of debates about versification in English. These debates are the grounds for the claim that poets did not always approach meter as a stable category. An overview of the subsequent chapters is also presented.
The History of Meter
Authors: Martin Meredith
Published: November 2017

This chapter sets out the book's historical and methodological framework. Despite the modernist characterization of Victorian tradition as unified and steadfast, the various approaches to Victorian meter in English histories, grammars, and metrical studies reveal ideologically charged histories of English culture, often presented as Roman or Anglo-Saxon. Gerard Manley Hopkins was himself a mediator between various metrical discourses and theories. As a Catholic priest who taught the classics and an English poet who attempted to valorize the material history of the English language in his syntax and through his use of sprung rhythm, Hopkins is a test case for the personal and national ideologies of English meter.
The Stigma of Meter
Authors: Martin Meredith
Published: November 2017

This chapter resituates Gerard Manley Hopkins, whose name has become synonymous with metrical experiment, within the prosodic, philological, and theological debates of his time. His commitment to defining accent and stress in English was a critical turning point in his thinking about his identity as a Catholic and as an Englishman. It argues that his attempt to create a new English meter was a particularly Victorian engagement with poetic form, national identity, and the English language. Broader movements in comparative philology (particularly those associated with scholars such as Max Müller and Richard Chevenix Trench) influenced Hopkins's attempts to reconcile the history of English and the materiality of meter with his Catholic beliefs. Hopkins is used to prove that even the most obscure and alienated-seeming poet must be read as part of the broader debate about what meter can do for the quickly changing nation. Hopkins's successes and failures, anticipate later attempts to examine the constituent parts of meter and the English language.