bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Decline of Dirigisme in France
Authors: Campbell John L. , Pedersen Ove K.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the political-economic problems that France faced in the aftermath of the Golden Age. These political-economic problems persisted and precipitated what some people described as a crisis of ideas within the state—the realization that the statist knowledge regime was too insulated and therefore suffered a lack of fresh thinking. In turn, policymakers began to encourage the development of new semi-public policy research organizations outside the state as well as new ones inside it in an effort to cultivate new ideas. This externalization strategy was very much a part of France's move away from dirigisme—central state-led economic development—and involved the gradual if partial separation of the knowledge regime from the policymaking regime, which earlier had been virtually indistinguishable from each other.
The Nature of Negotiation in Denmark
Authors: Campbell John L. , Pedersen Ove K.
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses how a war of ideas subsided in Denmark after the mid-1980s. This was due to the fact that the Danes perceived what was described as a crisis of ideology among the political parties as the Golden Age faded away. Policymakers and others realized that the old ideological battles between the left and the right were counterproductive and that thinking based on objective empirical analysis should guide policymaking in order to resolve the economic malaise that first beset Denmark in the 1970s. Given the state's presence in the knowledge regime and the extensive system of corporatist negotiations that permeate this society, the interpenetration and lack of separation among knowledge, policymaking, and production regimes is extensive although diminishing slowly. Thus, the Danish knowledge regime is an example of an increasingly centralized and planned response to the perceived breakdown of the knowledge regime's institutional complementarity, but one that involved much negotiation and consensus making.
Questions of Influence
Authors: Campbell John L. , Pedersen Ove K.
Published: November 2017

This chapter assesses the degree to which knowledge regimes influence policymaking. It begins by asking whether individual policy research organizations influence policymakers' thinking? For methodological reasons, it is enormously difficult to determine which policy research organizations are influential on an individual basis. Notably, the evidence offered by people in these organizations by which they try to measure their organization's influence is, by their own admission, often circumstantial at best. Meanwhile, based on content analysis of reports from national councils of economic advisors in the four countries studied here, arguments, analyses, and policy recommendations from these councils reflect the arrangement of the knowledge regimes in which they are located. As such, these cases demonstrate that the structure of knowledge regimes affects the content of the ideas that they produce.
Summing Up and Normative Implications
Authors: Campbell John L. , Pedersen Ove K.
Published: November 2017

This chapter briefly reviews this book's main findings and reflects on a normative question: Which knowledge regime is best? It argues that each of the four knowledge regimes studied here has certain advantages and disadvantages. There is no one “best” way to organize a knowledge regime. The chapter compliments the heterogeneity of ideas produced in the U.S. knowledge regime; the self-critical attitude in France where policymakers spotted and then tried to remedy an excessively insulated and myopic knowledge regime; the comparatively uniform and high level of analytic sophistication of the German knowledge regime; and the nonideological and inclusive nature of the Danish knowledge regime as well as its increased emphasis on analytical sophistication. The more a knowledge regime exhibits all of these positive characteristics the better it will be for policymakers and everyone else.
Research Programs, “Autistic Disturbances,” and Human Difference
Authors: Silverman Chloe
Published: November 2017

This chapter traces the evolution of the concept of autism from its first characterization as a rare emotional disturbance in 1943 to its present status as a potential epidemic. It examines developments in research on autism as well as changes in modes of identification, treatment practices, and daily experience of autism. It also considers standard descriptions of autism and their relationship to different theories of causation, as well as the application of these criteria to the practice of epidemiological surveys. Furthermore, it discusses the effects that changes in diagnostic criteria have had on findings about autism rates. It concludes with an analysis of the use of published screening and testing instruments used in the diagnosis of autism, including the Autism Diagnostic Interview (ADI) and the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS).
Pandora’s Box: Immunizations, Parental Obligations, and Toxic Facts
Authors: Silverman Chloe
Published: November 2017

This chapter explores the relationship between childhood vaccines and autism. A preponderance of evidence suggests that vaccines are not responsible for the increased prevalence of autism cases over the past two decades, although the matter remains unsettled. Still, parents who nonetheless believe that vaccines caused their child's autism are not impaired, in denial, or unable to comprehend statistical correlations. Their individual experiences and observations contradict the claims of scientists and the evidence against an association between immunizations and autism. As parents make claims about the environmental causes of autism, the chapter considers their explanations about the onset of their autistic children's symptoms and the ideological importance of intervening in processes of injury rather than disease. It also explains how parents' observations and informal trials can help researchers incorporate some of the passionate particularity of parental commitment and love into their own devotion and commitment to research programs and experimental facts.
Murder at the Glenwood
Authors: Wuthnow Robert
Published: November 2017

This essay examines the murder of Laura Beers in Topeka and what it means for Kansas religion and politics. Laura Beers was found dead in a pool of blood by the Topeka police on the night of November 12, 1912, in the Hotel Glenwood. Her husband, Reverend W. L. Beers, an upstanding Methodist preacher, was charged with the crime. The Beers case was a crime of passion arising from a domestic quarrel, but it also illustrated something important about Kansas politics. In addition, it was suggested that Laura Beers had been killed because of her religion. The story came out that Laura Beers had been raised Catholic and did not see eye to eye on matters of faith with her Methodist husband, who reportedly hated the Catholic Church with intense bitterness. Tension between Catholics and Methodists, and with other Protestants, continued long after the Beers trial.
Redefining the Heartland
Authors: Wuthnow Robert
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines how Kansas experienced a long slide from being the “kernel of the country” to becoming a mere outpost far from the centers of national economic and political influence—a shift that was rooted in economic and demographic changes, but was primarily a matter of cultural redefinition. On those rare occasions in the nineteenth century when the Kansas Republican Party lost power, it regrouped and made a comeback in the next electoral cycle. The chapter first considers how the influence of Republicans and Methodists peaked in 1924, a banner year for the Kansas economy, before discussing the consolidation and further expansion of Kansas churches. It then describes the separation of church and state, along with the rise of fundamentalism and the impact of the Great Depression on Kansas churches. It also explores the repeal of Prohibition in 1933 and the emergence of smaller political and religious movements in Kansas.
Quiet Conservatism
Authors: Wuthnow Robert
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines how the people of Kansas retreated into a quiet centrist conservatism that was relatively more bipartisan and apolitical than would have been expected, especially in a state with such a long Republican history. The conservatism of the period included rare hints of the more aggressive political and religious movements that were to brand the region as part of the red state Middle West in later decades. The chapter first considers the increasing feeling of political isolation in Kansas that was evident by the end of Franklin D. Roosevelt's second term. It then looks at the rise of Harry S. Truman as U.S. president after Roosevelt's death on April 12, 1945, along with Kansans' renewed emphasis on homes, hometowns, and hometown religion as the essential ingredients of Middle West life. It also discusses the religious situation in Kansas during the administration of Dwight D. Eisenhower.
Epilogue
Authors: Wuthnow Robert
Published: November 2017

A CENTURY AND A HALF after Abraham Lincoln lectured at the Methodist Church in Atchison, the principal questions for those of us who ponder the relationship of faith and politics in the twenty-first century are these: What are the decisive turning points that with hindsight can be said to have shaped the region’s political climate—to have produced, in this instance, one of the reddest of the nation’s red states and led to the Religious Right’s lengthy ascendancy? And what broader conclusions can be drawn from this history about the contested place of religion in U.S. politics?...
Duality
Authors: Brubaker Ben , Bump Daniel , Friedberg Solomon
Published: November 2017

This chapter shows that the boxing and circling decorations of the BZL patterns are in a sense dual to each other. The circling and boxing rules seem quite different from each other, but they are actually closely related, and the involution also sheds light on this fact. The chapter describes a natural box-circle duality: a bijection between the bᵢ and the lᵢ in which bᵢ is circled if and only if the corresponding lᵢ is boxed. It also considers a striking property of the crystal graph and proceeds by obtaining two BZL patterns in which circled entries in one correspond to boxed entries in the other, and illustrates this with an example.
A Brief History of Social Learning Research
Authors: Hoppitt William , Laland Kevin N.
Published: November 2017

This chapter provides a brief historical background to social learning research. The history of research into social learning and imitation dates back to Aristotle, who explicitly made the claim that animals acquire behavior through imitation and other forms of social learning. Aristotle was particularly impressed with the human imitative tendency. The three insights made in the fourth century BC—that humans are uncharacteristically reliant on imitative learning compared to other animals, that young children in particular acquire important aspects of their behavioral repertoire through copying, and that imitation appears intrinsically rewarding to children—are remarkably relevant to contemporary social learning research. The chapter examines how investigations of social learning have been central to research into the evolution of mind, the mechanisms of social learning, animal culture, the diffusion of innovations, child development, and cultural evolution.
Developmental Methods for Studying Social Learning
Authors: Hoppitt William , Laland Kevin N.
Published: November 2017

This chapter describes developmental methods for studying social learning. Developmental approaches can be broadly divided into two types. The first type includes approaches that involve collecting observational data on the development of a trait and the opportunities that arise for social learning, as well as attempting to infer the role of social learning. The second consists of developmental methods that involve experimental manipulations. The chapter begins by discussing some of the methods that have been applied to observational data on the development of traits in order to elucidate the social influences on development. In particular, it considers approaches for describing the developmental process, modeling the probability of acquisition and time of acquisition, modeling the proficiency of trait performance, and modeling option choice. The chapter also evaluates the limitations of observational data and concludes with an overview of experimental manipulation methods, including diffusion experiments, manipulation of social experience, and translocation experiments.
Modeling Social Learning and Culture
Authors: Hoppitt William , Laland Kevin N.
Published: November 2017

This chapter describes a variety of approaches to modeling social learning, cultural evolution, and gene-culture coevolution. The model-building exercise typically starts with a set of assumptions about the key processes to be explored, along with the nature of their relations. These assumptions are then translated into the mathematical expressions that constitute the model. The operation of the model is then investigated, normally using a combination of analytical mathematical techniques and simulation, to determine relevant outcomes, such as the equilibrium states or patterns of change over time. The chapter presents examples of the modeling of cultural transmission and considers parallels between cultural and biological evolution. It then discusses theoretical approaches to social learning and cultural evolution, including population-genetic style models of cultural evolution and gene-culture coevolution, neutral models and random copying, social foraging theory, spatially explicit models, reaction-diffusion models, agent-based models, and phylogenetic models.
The Government-purposed Genre
Authors: Lena Jennifer C.
Published: November 2017

This chapter expands our view to include music produced in other countries. A preliminary survey of the popular music of countries with widely differing political economies, music cultures, and levels of development revealed that the four genre forms (avant-garde, scene-based, industry-based, and traditionalist) do exist to greater or lesser degrees across the globe. However, there proved to be another widely distributed form that was not found in the U.S. sample: the government-purposed genre. Musics in this genre receive substantial financial support from the government or oppositional groups with a direct interest in the ideological content of popular music. There are two major types: those sponsored directly by governments, which benefit from national distribution and legal protections, and an antistate type supported by an opposition party or constituency. The chapter examines four nation-cases to advance the argument: the People's Republic of China, Chile, Serbia, and Nigeria.
The Victorian Context
Authors: Bevir Mark
Published: November 2017

This chapter explores Victorian culture using the concepts of tradition and dilemma to highlight both continuities and discontinuities. Continuities arose from the persistence of traditions from the late eighteenth century right through the late nineteenth century. Discontinuities arose as people responded to dilemmas in ways that transformed these traditions. More specifically, the dominant traditions in Victorian Britain were liberalism and evangelicalism, both of which had constitutive places in a wide range of domestic, social, political, and imperial practices. However, by the 1880s and 1890s, these two traditions confronted dilemmas such as the collapse of classical economics and the crisis of faith. People responded to these dilemmas in ways that decisively changed social practices, altering the manner of religious worship, inspiring a new trade unionism, and fragmenting the Liberal Party. The British socialist movement developed in the context of these changes, sometimes benefiting from them, sometimes contributing to them, and at other times struggling to respond to them.
Ernest Belfort Bax
Authors: Bevir Mark
Published: November 2017

This chapter begins to show how British Marxism arose out of traditions that stood aside from the evangelicalism and liberal economics that had dominated much of the nineteenth century. It focuses on E. B. Bax, probably the leading socialist philosopher in Britain during the late nineteenth century. It begins by looking at the traditions and movements that fed into British Marxism, including republican positivists and exiled anarchists as well as Tory and popular radicals. Bax came to Marxism through his contact with these groups and his interest in German idealism. He argued that Marxism was an economic and historical science that lacked a philosophical and ethical basis. He wanted to base the Marxian dialectic on German idealism, arguing that the dialectic was a fact about reality, and he wanted to base an ethical defense of Marxism on the republican positivism of the French Revolution.
Sidney Webb
Authors: Bevir Mark
Published: November 2017

Webb was the single most important thinker and actor in the development of Fabian socialism. This chapter looks in detail at his political thought, rejecting the often repeated claim that he was a descendant of the utilitarians and a representative of a new managerial class. Webb's intellectual background lay in the liberal radicalism of the 1870s, which combined ethical positivism with evolutionary sociology. Webb first became a socialist because of his positivist ethic. He soon defined his socialism in terms of an evolutionary philosophy. He later adopted collectivism when he turned away from neoclassical economics to positivist sociology. And his collectivism always remained an ethical ideal embedded in an evolutionary sociology.
Pulling It Together and Stretching It Beyond
Authors: Phillips Damon J.
Published: November 2017

This book has shown which tunes had disproportionate long-run appeal based on social congruence, which gave a dynamic structure to jazz as a market category. In particular, it has examined the role of geography and organizations in determining which of those “million” have shaped jazz through their ascension into the discographical canon of recordings. This concluding chapter considers the implications of the book's findings for a conceptual model of product appeal in emerging markets in which meaning and value are dynamically constructed. It first draws out generalizations and scope conditions of the overall results before discussing contexts outside cultural markets where the book's ideas should be informative, such as the markets for nanotechnology, green technology, and software. Finally, it describes the market for bottled water and emphasizes the ways that the marketing and packaging of different bottled waters influence our notion of what is good (or appealing).
Democracy, Consequences, and Social Knowledge
Authors: McGinnis John O.
Published: November 2017

This chapter outlines a theory of a central function of social governance and an important function of democracy—assessing consequences of social policy—that underlies the need to create social knowledge. It argues that democracies work more effectively when basic social knowledge is more widely shared, because at election time citizens must rely on information to assess whether the proposed policies of their leaders are broadly sound. Modern information technology can facilitate acquiring social knowledge by reducing information costs. Reducing information costs has four large advantages for social decision making. Among these is that reducing information costs can create more knowledge about public policy and reduce the cost of accessing knowledge. Another advantage is that reducing information costs better enables citizens to organize around encompassing interests that many of them have in common, such as good education and economic growth.
Experimenting with Democracy
Authors: McGinnis John O.
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses the rise of empiricism. It describes how empirical findings have made a difference to social policy. It details how the empirical age makes three kind of information-eliciting rules more desirable. The first category encourages decentralization. By permitting jurisdictions to adapt different polices, a political system creates information about the effects of different policies that can then be tested through regression analysis and similar methods. The second category encourages randomization of the application of different policies. The third category is the simplest: rules that make government data more available in the most transparent and useful form. Such rules advance empiricism by offering more material for testing and assessment. Information-eliciting rules also help create a better political culture.
Unleashing Prediction Markets
Authors: McGinnis John O.
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on political prediction markets, that is markets that allow the public to speculate on election and policy outcomes. Prediction markets temper three of the largest problems of politics. First, they offer a mechanism for overcoming what has been called the “basic public action problem” of collective decision making—the Difficulty of persuading individual citizens to provide information that is useful to the whole community. Second, the markets help mix expert and dispersed o,pinion. Finally, prediction markets are able to draw together information into a single place and numerical form, economizing on the attention of citizens. This latter capacity is particularly important today, because in an age of accelerating technology, people are likely to be distracted from the business of public life by the more compelling entertainment of private life.
De-biasing Democracy
Authors: McGinnis John O.
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses how democracy can adopt reforms, including those based on new information technology, to combat bias more effectively. These include reinforcing majority rule and representation, earmarks, term limits, and education reform. It argues that society has now accumulated knowledge about more subtle yet pervasive biases—from biased assimilation, to knowledge falsification, to status quo bias. We should use this developing social knowledge to create better mechanisms of constraint against bias and thereby make new information about substantive policy more effective for democratic updating. An age of technological acceleration can less afford bias than previous ages, because its speed of social change may make mistakes less easily correctable.
Separation of Powers and the Strategic Constraint
Authors: Bailey Michael A. , Maltzman Forrest
Published: November 2017

Justices have considerable latitude to pursue either their personal preferences or their personal visions of the law. The danger is that the Court gets so far out of line from the rest of the political system that we see fundamental institutional showdowns that threaten the independence of the judiciary, such as the Court-packing controversy in the 1930s. If the elected branches influence justices, however, they can keep the Court in check, thereby attenuating such risks. This chapter tests whether the Court systematically yields to the elected branches. In particular, it examines whether individual justices vote differently when the constraints imposed by the executive and legislative branches are likely to be at their strongest. It focuses on the two versions in the literature: one in which the Court is constrained only on statutory cases and the other in which the constraint extends to all cases, including constitutional cases.
Signals from the Executive
Authors: Bailey Michael A. , Maltzman Forrest
Published: November 2017

This chapter provides general answers to questions about executive influence on the Court, which will help us to understand decision-making on the Court—what matters and when. It considers whether the Court is beyond democratic control. If the solicitor general's briefs influence justices, this could provide at least some measure of democratically accountable influence on Court decision-making. Motivated by such questions, the chapter focuses on whether the solicitor general and the executive branch shape judicial decision-making. In particular, it asks whether justices defer to the solicitor general. If so, is it non-ideological deference or does ideology condition the nature of deference? The chapter develops and tests a signaling model of deference to show that non-legal and non-attitudinal forces influence the Court. It also shows that the nature of the deference depends on ideological factors as well.
Conclusion
Authors: Bailey Michael A. , Maltzman Forrest
Published: November 2017

This concluding chapter first summarizes the book's key themes. These are that justices are influenced by more than just the policy preferences emphasized by the attitudinal model; the law matters for justices; and the influence of specific legal doctrines varies across justices. These findings have important implications for understanding the political context of the Court. What does it mean for the legitimacy of the Court that both law and policy influence justices? What do the existence and patterns of these non-policy influences mean for the Court in it relations with the rest of the political system? The remainder of the chapter is devoted to exploring such questions.
How Do Political Scientists Know What Citizens Want?
Authors: Lupia Arthur
Published: November 2017

This chapter sets out a paradox: in politics, citizens must sometimes make inconsistent choices in order, ultimately, to have made a consistent one. It examines this paradox to bring out how the preferences of citizens may appear fickle and incoherent because of measurement error. This is done by looking at how many political scientists conceptualize and measure what citizens want. The chapter then contends that we can improve our current conceptualization and measurement of citizen preferences. It further argues that progress can come from paying greater attention to how two factors, institutions and cognition, affect preferences. In examining the effect of institutions, the chapter maintains that many scholarly claims about what citizens should want ignore the moderating effect of institutions.
Pathways to Conservative Identification
Authors: Ellis Christopher , Stimson James A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers a long-standing paradox in American public opinion: that the American public is, on average, operationally liberal and at the same time symbolically conservative. It discusses the reasons for and implications of it, working to understand why so many citizens who hold predominantly liberal policy preferences identify as ideological conservatives. This chapter argues that because of its nonpolitical connotations and the way in which it is used by political elites, the ideological label “conservative” is both more popular and more multidimensional than the label “liberal.” It suggests three general “pathways” through which an individual can approach the decision to identify as ideological conservatives.
Introduction
Authors: Barnes Steven A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter first sets out the book's purpose, namely to explore the role played by the Gulag in the Soviet polity. It provides a close study of the camps and exiles in the Karaganda region of Kazakhstan along with a general reconsideration of the scope, meaning, and function of the Gulag in Joseph Stalin's Soviet Union. Focusing on Karaganda offers a number of benefits to an examination of the history of the Gulag. First, a concentrated look at a single locality allows for a study of the massive phenomenon of the Gulag without giving up the chronological breadth that is important to understanding shifts in its operations through the period (approximately 1930–57) when it was at its height. Second, exploring the Gulag at the local level reveals the operation of the system at the very point of contact between Soviet authority and its detained subjects. The chapter then describes the sources upon which the book is based, followed by an overview of the subsequent chapters.
A Cooperative Species
Authors: Bowles Samuel , Gintis Herbert
Published: November 2017

This book examines the cultural, biological and other processes that explain how humans evolved into an exceptionally cooperative species. It advances two propositions, the first of which deals with proximate motivations for prosocial behavior and the second is concerned with the distant evolutionary origins and ongoing perpetuation of these cooperative dispositions. It argues that cooperation arose because it was highly beneficial to the members of groups that practiced it, and humans were able to construct social institutions that minimized the disadvantages of those with social preferences in competition with fellow group members, while heightening the group-level advantages associated with the high levels of cooperation that these social preferences allowed. The book explains why altruistic social preferences supporting human cooperation outcompeted unmitigated and amoral self-interest.
The Evolution of Strong Reciprocity
Authors: Bowles Samuel , Gintis Herbert
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on the evolution of strong reciprocity. A predisposition to cooperate and a willingness to punish defectors is known as strong reciprocity, and it is the combination of the two that is essential to human cooperation. Punishment reduces the gain to free-riding, and may induce even entirely self-interested individuals to cooperate. Before explaining how a willingness to punish those who violate social norms even at personal cost could have evolved, the chapter considers how punishment is coordinated among group members so that it is contingent on the number of others predisposed to participate in the punishment. It also shows that punishment is characterized by increasing returns to scale, so the total cost of punishing a particular target declines as the number of punishers increases. Finally, it discusses the results of simulations that illustrate the emergence of strong reciprocity and examines why coordinated punishment succeeds.
The ExComm
Authors: Gibson David R.
Published: November 2017

This chapter begins with some historical background, situating the ExComm, as a deliberative body, against the backdrop of the Bay of Pigs, where genuine deliberation was lacking. Then, it describes how the ExComm's meetings were organized and conducted. It starts with some remarks about the composition of the group, and then describes, in general terms, how the meetings were structured. Next, it describe Kennedy's singular role in the meetings, as sometimes-chair, sometimes-decider, and addressee of choice. Finally, it looks at the conversational data through an entirely different methodological lens, presenting some simple quantitative findings about who spoke, how they obtained the floor, and who was addressed—patterns that offer further evidence for the qualitative observations about authority and expertise while providing additional insight into the interactional styles of the different ExComm members.
The Response
Authors: Gibson David R.
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on discussions about the initial U.S. response to the discovery of Soviet missiles. It argues that the choice of the blockade was only possible once a particular objection to that very plan was suppressed, namely that it would give the Soviets a chance to complete work on at least some of the missiles, as a result of which the United States might subsequently find itself attacking operational missiles that could be launched (perhaps without authorization) against U.S. cities. This suppression took time, however, time that the ExComm had because it was able to postpone a decision so long as its deliberations were kept secret.
The Deal
Authors: Gibson David R.
Published: November 2017

This chapter is concerned with the discussions about Khrushchev's two proposals: to remove the missiles in return for a U.S. pledge not to invade Cuba, and to remove them on the condition that the United States agreed to withdraw NATO Jupiter missiles in Turkey. Here there was a sharp difference of opinion, with Kennedy certain that Khrushchev would never accept a deal that was limited to the no-invasion pledge but his advisers equally convinced that it was worth trying. This difference of opinion rarely translated into overt conflict, however, in part because each side allowed the other to tell its story without objection. But eventually a decision had to be made, and Kennedy gave in, only to subsequently sign off on an informal message to Khrushchev that offered a secret concession on the Jupiters in spite of fears that the alliance could unravel as a result.
Exclusion of the Ottoman Empire from the Family of Nations, and Legal Doctrines of Humanitarian Intervention
Authors: Rodogno Davide
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the legal doctrines of humanitarian intervention that were developed in the second half of the nineteenth century. Drawing on nineteenth-century British and French writings, articles, memoirs, journals, pamphlets, and reviews, it shows that the image of the Ottoman Empire and that of its Christian subjects were far from being monolithic. The chapter first considers the reasons why the Ottoman Empire was generally excluded from the Family of Nations, including despotism, Islam, polygamy, slavery, corruption and the absence of a sound social structure, inability to reciprocate in legal dealings, and unwillingness or incapacity to institute reforms that would guarantee security of life and property to Ottoman Christians. It then discusses the main criterion articulated by various legal scholars for the Ottoman Empire's inclusion in the Family of Nations before concluding with an analysis of late-nineteenth-century doctrines of humanitarian intervention.
Nonintervention during the Eastern Crisis (1875–78)
Authors: Rodogno Davide
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the concept and practice of humanitarian intervention and nonintervention during the Eastern crisis of 1875–1878, with a particular focus on the insurrection in Bosnia and Herzegovina and on the events of the Bulgarian atrocities, also known as the “Bulgarian horrors.” It first provides a background on the 1875 revolt in Bosnia and Herzegovina before discussing British foreign policy regarding the massacres in Rumelia. It then considers British leader William E. Gladstone's views on the question of military intervention on grounds of humanity, the National Conference held in London in 1876 to tackle the Eastern Question, and the motives for intervention in the campaigners' discourse. It also analyzes the negotiations of the December 1876 Conference of Constantinople and the breakout of the Russo-Turkish War in 1877. Finally, it looks at the Congress of Berlin, held on June 13, 1878, to address a number of territorial questions.
Introduction
Authors: Monroe Kristen Renwick
Published: November 2017

This chapter reflects on the curious puzzle of how identity can influence moral choice, and why. In so doing the chapter discusses the background context within which this volume operates, as it traces an initial intellectual objective of explaining the psychology of genocide to an exploration of how the themes found in the Holocaust resonate with other periods of genocide, other instances of ethnic cleansing, other acts of prejudice, discrimination and group hatred, and animosity, just as they resonate with other instances of compassion, heroic altruism, and moral courage. The psychological forces at work during the Holocaust, this chapter argues, partake of the same political psychology underlying other political acts driven by identity. From here, the chapter develops a new theory of moral choice to tackle these issues and gives a brief overview of the succeeding chapters.
Beatrix: Bystander
Authors: Monroe Kristen Renwick
Published: November 2017

This chapter presents a narrative interview with Tony's cousin, a woman called “Beatrix.” Since the two are related, Beatrix shared many background characteristics with Tony, and she spent much time with Tony's family after her mother died. In terms of behavior, however, Beatrix was a bystander, living through the war as someone politically uninvolved. She discusses her marriage to a Dutch doctor, how her husband took over a medical practice from a Jewish doctor, how she and her husband then moved into the Jewish doctor's large home in Utrecht. Yet Beatrix never seemed to make a connection between her own good fortune and the Jewish doctor's plight. In her attitudes, worldview, self-image, and other psychological characteristics, Beatrix captures the themes commonly voiced by other bystanders interviewed for this study.
The Psychology of Difference
Authors: Monroe Kristen Renwick
Published: November 2017

This concluding chapter presents some thoughts about the implications of this study for the overall understanding of ethics, moral psychology, and other works on prejudice and genocide. It reveals how events in the author's personal life influenced her work and how she was, in turn, changed by it, leading her to view the world differently, and making her aware of limitations in the traditional approaches to the discipline as well as heightening her commitment to interdisciplinary work and methodological pluralism in the search for fresher approaches to studying the normative bases of politics. In returning to these themes, the chapter reviews what has been learned about altruism, moral choice, and the psychology surrounding the ethics of difference.
Measuring Everyday Perceptions of the Distribution of the American Electorate
Authors: Judd Charles M. , Van Boven Leaf , Huber Michaela , Nunes Ana P.
Published: November 2017

This chapter investigates perceptions of policy and partisan polarization through the use of an interactive histogram procedure (in which respondents were asked to raise and lower bars to reflect what they perceived to be the distribution of the public on some issue). The chapter discusses how respondents handled this task, as well as the reliability of the estimates it provided. Respondents were able to use this novel method to report their perceptions and to do so in ways that were not merely the result of projecting their own attitudes. The chapter then turns to a set of important issues in political perception that these data permit us to address.
Measuring Ambivalence about Government
Authors: Martinez Michael D. , Gainous Jason , Craig Stephen C.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines ambivalence about government. The 2006 Pilot Study had included a subjective, self-report measure as well as questions designed to tap into the specific considerations that can be used to create objective, or “operative,” measures of ambivalence. While the subjective (or meta-attitudinal) ambivalence measure generally performed better than the operative measures on many of the construct-validity tests, it also was most susceptible to order effects. This chapter focuses on individuals in comparing the construct validity of objective and subjective measures of ambivalence toward government that were included in the 2006 ANES Pilot Study. It concludes that subjective and operative measures of ambivalence tap into different constdisructs.
Gender Stereotypes and Gender Preferences in American Politics
Authors: Sanbonmatsu Kira , Dolan Kathleen
Published: November 2017

This chapter analyzes a series of questions related to citizen's attitudes about gender issues. These items are included in the 2006 Pilot Study. The examination of gender stereotypes suggests that many people see few differences in the traits and abilities of women and men, but that those who do perceive differences tend to do so in predictable ways. These new items also demonstrate that gender stereotypes transcend party, although gender and party interact in meaningful ways in some circumstances. The examination of voters' gender preferences for elected officials reveal the importance (or lack thereof) of descriptive representation to voters and the potential for women candidates to mobilize women in the public to greater political involvement. Finally, the analysis of these new items clearly indicates that while they are related to other gender attitudes, gender stereotypes and gender preferences are distinct attitudes held by voters.
“The Sciences of the Ancients”: Speculation on the Origins of Philosophy, Medicine, and the Exact Sciences
Authors: McCants William F.
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses the attempts to explain the origins of science, philosophy, and medicine. In classical Greece, medicine and philosophy were held to be Greek inventions, whereas the mathematical, or exact, sciences were believed to have originated in the ancient Near East, usually Egypt or Babylon. In the Hellenistic and Roman periods, the “barbarian” nations also laid claim to medicine and philosophy, with some Greek and Roman agreement. Jews in particular focused on philosophy when advancing their claims to civilizational priority rather than laying claim to the other sciences or civilization in general. This was for at least two reasons. First, soon after Alexander's conquests, Greeks promulgated the image of Jews as a philosophical race; when Greek and Roman authors later started to portray Jews as misanthropic outsiders, Jewish scholars sought to reinforce the earlier positive, transconfessional image. Second, once the Hebrew Bible was translated into Greek, Greek-speaking Jews could read their scriptures and note parallels with Greek philosophy.
Lending to the Sound of Cannon
Authors: Drelichman Mauricio , Voth Hans-Joachim
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses wartime spending and the rise of the fiscal-military state. The need to borrow was intimately related to the cost of war. After 1500, a “military revolution” transformed warfare in Europe. The invention of gunpowder meant that old medieval city walls no longer offered protection. The increasing use of cannon therefore required an entirely new set of protective walls. These new fortifications meant that wars became longer, with many sieges lasting more than a year. Then, the rise of firearms translated into a need to train soldiers. All these changes—the arms used, the rise of permanent, large armies and navies, new fortifications, and high frequency and great length of conflict—made wars vastly more expensive. Success in war therefore depended in the early modern period on financial resources. Eventually, states run by a successful military-fiscal complex dominated the map of Europe.
Philip’s Empire
Authors: Drelichman Mauricio , Voth Hans-Joachim
Published: November 2017

This chapter provides a brief history of Castilian ascendancy from the late Middle Ages through the end of Philip II's reign. After the marriage of Prince Ferdinand of Aragon and Princess Isabella of Castile, a series of agreements—both tacit and explicit—recognized Castile's exclusive sovereignty over all territories conquered in the future. Ferdinand and Isabella shed many of the medieval structures of administration, modernizing the apparatus of the state and preparing it for the coming expansion. At the dawn of the early modern age, Ferdinand and Isabella had succeeded in giving their kingdoms a relatively strong monarchy and streamlined state institutions. Castile, where reforms were particularly deep and the peace dividend sizable, flourished economically.
The Memory of Banking
Authors: Lépinay Vincent Antonin
Published: November 2017

This chapter studies the difficulties encountered by the various operators trying to keep track of the changes a typical product goes through. The customized nature of the services offered by General Bank and the right of the clients to revise their products along the way creates a puzzle for an organization needing to be collectively reactive to these changes. From the perspective of the back office, capital guarantee products (CGPs) are disruptive: they impose themselves on a bank's conservation methods and demand new rules. The challenge for the bank comes from its complex topography, as contacts with the outside world morph from being driven by the front office (salespeople, traders, engineers) to being the realm of the back-office managers.
Selling Finance and the Promise of Contingency
Authors: Lépinay Vincent Antonin
Published: November 2017

This chapter analyzes the notion of client preference by showing how clients are affected by interactions related to the properties of products as these are staged by salespeople. The interaction between salesperson and client is set up to control the uncertainty around the product and the client. To anticipate and control the preferences of clients, the salespeople have to become clients. On the other end, General Bank has to tailor its commercial pitch to differentiate its services from liquidity while luring the client into freezing his or her capital for five to ten years. Moving back and forth between clients and engineers, salespeople straddle an expensive borderland between that which is inside the bank and that which is outside.
The Costs of Price
Authors: Lépinay Vincent Antonin
Published: November 2017

This chapter introduces the other side of the bank where the costs of the CGPs are revealed. These high-maintenance products create new costs and challenge existing accounting techniques. Against this opacity, investors have demanded that specific accounting rules be adopted. They have pressed for more transparent disclosure requirements and a new bank organizational strategy. Investors owning General Bank shares had no direct way of monitoring the secret and opaque strategies conducted by the bank. Indeed, the bank itself did not always assess properly its risks and costs. Only after having launched these innovative products did it try to devise ways of counting them and measuring their costs. Investors are entitled to these regular snapshots of the bank so that they can make informed decisions when allocating their resources.
George Eliot’s Lot
Authors: Kurnick David
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on George Eliot's tangled engagement with the drama. It begins with an analysis of the mutual constitution of theatricalized space and characterological interiority in Romola (1863) and Felix Holt (1866)—transitional novels in which her emphasis on psychological inwardness works at the expense of demonized crowds. But during this period she also undertook a dramatic work that challenged her most fundamental formal and ethical commitments. Conceived as a play but published as an epic poem mixing dramatic and narrative forms, The Spanish Gypsy shows Eliot refusing both the novel as a form and the inward cultivation it seems designed to encourage. The Spanish Gypsy includes narrative passages that take the grammatical form of free indirect discourse, in which a character's habits of mind are mimicked by the narrator's prose. But the exteriorized perspective demanded by the dramatic origin of The Spanish Gypsy assures that these eminently psychologizing sentences emanate from and attach to no character in particular, instead appearing to echo in an auditorium populated with spectators. Eliot carried this experiment in externalized forms of psychological narration into the novels she wrote next, Middlemarch (1871–72) and especially Daniel Deronda (1876).