bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Efficient Organization
Authors: Ketokivi Mikko , Mahoney Joseph T.
Published: December 2022

This book is aimed at guiding current and future designers of organizations to approach questions of design and governance from the perspective of efficiency. The ultimate goal is efficiency of the sustainable kind: eliminating the excess, not the essential; nurturing cooperation, not jeopardizing it; mutual value creation, not unmitigated self-interest. In building an efficient organization, the designer’s principal task is to ensure that the organization establishes credibility and secures cooperation of all its key constituencies, particularly those who are asked to put something at stake by striking a relationship with the organization. This book seeks to lay the foundation for efficient cooperation by incorporating the key insights from nearly a hundred years of economic research on organizations.
Contracting within and across Organizations
Authors: Ketokivi Mikko , Mahoney Joseph T.
Published: December 2022

Which components should the final assembler of automobiles produce in-house and which components should it outsource to external suppliers? Should a real estate company hire internal sales representatives as employees, or should it contract with independent sales agents who work on commission? Should a high-technology firm have internal legal counsel, or should it contract with an external law firm? In many contexts, the designer faces the choice of contracting either within or across organizations. The aim of this chapter is to show how these contracting decisions and choices can be subjected to a comparative efficiency analysis. To this end, this chapter focuses explicitly on the costs of contracting.
Nonprofit and Public Organizations
Authors: Ketokivi Mikko , Mahoney Joseph T.
Published: December 2022

This chapter examines various organizational forms from a governance perspective. The focus is specifically on the for-profit/nonprofit and the public/private distinctions. A detailed analysis of the two distinctions reveals that from the point of view of efficient governance, these distinctions, although important, are not as clear-cut and as consequential as one might think. For instance, most nonprofits generate an economic surplus just like for-profits, and most public organizations are in fact public-private partnerships that involve numerous private actors and private contracts. Consequently, in addition to understanding and evaluating the general organizational form, the designer must analyze the organization’s governance microstructure. An examination of nonprofits and public organizations also helps explore the central boundary conditions of the efficiency approach.
George W. Bush
Authors: Leffler Melvyn P.
Published: December 2022

Chapter 2 traces the arc of George W. Bush’s career. Born into a wealthy, accomplished family, he was not a high achiever until he married Laura Welch and deepened his faith. After helping his father campaign for the presidency, he decided to run for governor of Texas. He cultivated his own unique brand of compassionate conservatism, and compiled an impressive record. Deciding to run for president, he relied on a group of talented foreign policy advisers, led by Condoleezza Rice. When he became president, Bush allocated responsibility for foreign and defense policy to Secretary of State Colin Powell, Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld, Vice President Richard Cheney, and Rice, whom he retained as his national security adviser. While they grappled with rogue regimes like Saddam Hussein’s Iraq and terrorist groups like al Qaeda, and while they assigned priority to building ballistic missile defenses, Bush focused on his domestic priorities.
Iraq
Authors: Leffler Melvyn P.
Published: December 2022

Chapter 4 explains why Bush turned his attention to Iraq. More important than the information he received about Iraq’s possession and development of weapons of mass destruction was his knowledge that Saddam Hussein had employed such weapons in the past and had lied about them. Bush did not believe that Hussein was responsible for 9/11 and did not think he was coordinating with al Qaeda, but Bush did know about Hussein’s links to other terrorist groups and his support of suicide missions. With sanctions eroding, weapons inspections suspended, and no-fly zones challenged, Bush and his advisers believed that Hussein was a gathering threat, likely to develop WMD in the future and capable of handing them off to terrorists or using them to blackmail the United States. Why not confront him when there was opportunity to do so, and before he became more dangerous? British prime minister Tony Blair agreed.
Mission Awry
Authors: Leffler Melvyn P.
Published: December 2022

Chapter 9 describes the confusion over postwar planning inside the Bush administration and details the incompetent execution of postwar occupation policy by US military commanders (especially General Tommy Franks), the Office for Reconstruction and Humanitarian Assistance (led by Jay Garner), and the Coalition Provisional Authority (led by Paul Bremer). It highlights the chaos and turbulence inside Iraq stemming from the American decisions regarding the dismantling of the Iraqi Army, the de-Ba’thification of Iraqi institutions, the establishment of an Iraqi Interim Authority, and the contraction of postwar US occupation forces. It assigns responsibility for the failures primarily to Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld and President George W. Bush.
Dangerous Instrument
Authors: Robinson Michael A.
Published: December 2022

As increasingly contentious politics in the United States raise concerns over the “politicization” of traditionally non-partisan institutions, many have turned their attention to how the American military has been—and will be—affected by this trend. Since its nadir following the end of the Vietnam War, the US military has seen a dramatic reversal of fortune, becoming the most trusted institution in American society. However, this pattern is more complicated than we might think. Just as individuals have become fonder of their military, they have also become increasingly polarized from one another along partisan lines. The result is a new political environment rife with challenges to traditional civil-military norms against the involvement of the military in partisan affairs. In a data-driven analysis of contemporary American attitudes, this book examines the current state of US civil-military affairs, probing how the public sees their military and the effect that partisan tribalism may have on that perception into the future. It studies the dynamics of the civil-military relationship, focusing on the interplay of the public, political parties, media outlets, and the military itself regarding the threat of “politicization.” Amidst broader concerns over the future of stable democracy around the world, this book provides important insights into the effect of partisanship on America’s association with its military, delivering recommendations on ways to repair the relationship into the future.
“Korea’s Hiroshima”
Authors: Pilzer Joshua D.
Published: December 2022

This chapter offers an introduction to Hapcheon, also known as “Korea’s Hiroshima.” Shim Jintae, activist and first-generation survivor of the Hiroshima bomb, narrates the history of the Korean presence in Hiroshima, passage to the Korean peninsula, and life and marginalization in the postwar period, including bomb and radiation victims’ struggles for international recognition, health, and social welfare. Annual events held in Hapcheon to commemorate the atomic bombing of Japan, and attended over several years by the author, give the reader an introduction to the cultures of memorialization and the political environment in which bomb and radiation victims live, and to the role of sound and music in this atmosphere.
Between Worlds
Authors: Pilzer Joshua D.
Published: December 2022

This chapter introduces the Hapcheon Atomic Bomb Victims Welfare Center and some of its residents. The welfare center is the site of its residents’ complex negotiations of Japanese and Korean bicultural identities and experiences. They accomplish this through economies of Japanese and Korean speech and song, much of which consist of ruminations on childhood, the atomic experience, fate, and identity. Such Japanese-Korean cosmopolitan identities are not wholly welcome in Southeastern Korean rural society, and survivors must of necessity work around this atmosphere of disapproval to sustain their memories of childhood and its unrealized futures, and cosmopolitan identities. In both languages, in speech and song, residents reckon with fate and memory together and apart in this unusual cosmopolitan place.
Yi Suyong
Authors: Pilzer Joshua D.
Published: December 2022

This chapter presents an in-depth exploration of the expressive life of first-generation bomb victim Yi Suyong. Yi Suyong performs a poetics of endurance during self-narration in everyday speech and testimony to the experience of the atomic bomb. Her speech is slow, even, measured, and inexpressive, in a way which is reminiscent of the flatness of written testimony. But within this tone of restraint she occasionally manipulates pitch in speech and makes use of other prosodic features of speech in appeal to others. These appeals preface silences in which she forges a space of mutual copresence with her interlocutors. Yi Suyong comfortably occupies the role of witness afforded to her by South Korean society and the international atomic bomb activist community, having found a considerable resonance between that role and her own poetics of quietude and endurance. In everyday life, however, she stretches this role and pushes back against its requirements as she tailors it to her own ends.
Bae Ilmyeong
Authors: Pilzer Joshua D.
Published: December 2022

This chapter is an in-depth exploration of the expressive life of first-generation bomb victim Bae Ilmyeong. Bae Ilmyeong practices a poetics of refusal, declining to play the role of witness to the Korean experience of the atomic bombing of Japan. Instead, she focuses her energy and her expressive life on the present, and on her religious practice. In her practice of Christian devotion she demonstrates a preference for the ideality, prestige, and quiet of text over the earthiness of sound and the voice. In her virtuosic storytelling, she draws on the past to energize her present-day life, social situations, and relationships. Nonetheless, her contemplation of and speech about the past is a means of working through and maintaining a truce with traumatic memory.
Han Jeongsun
Authors: Pilzer Joshua D.
Published: December 2022

The final chapter presents an in-depth portrait of the expressive life of second-generation radiation victim Han Jeongsun. In political speech, Han Jeongsun speaks around her personal experience of radiation-related disability, focusing on her activism on behalf of others, practicing a kind of self-effacement that is at the same time a work of constructing her identity as an activist. In casual speech and song, she hedges close to personal experience as she draws on tropes of struggle and suffering in popular culture to connect them with her own experiences and those of her marginalized community. In so doing she finds a place for bomb and radiation victims in the very heart of Korean cultural intimacy and society. She also creates an affective and formal chain of expressive practices that links speech, song, and movement, allowing the momentum and structures of song to energize her struggle to walk and allowing the tropes of popular song to become tropes of her political movement.
Epilogue
Authors: Pilzer Joshua D.
Published: December 2022

In this brief epilogue, two of the main characters in the book—Shim Jintae and Han Jeongsun—sit down for dinner with the author. They reminisce about their experiences in the postwar period, and sing a popular song about a girl farmer, which keeps the conversation on the subject of the struggle for survival. Each of them knows this song for very different reasons—Han Jeongsun because it is about women’s work, and Shim Jintae because it is about farming, which relates to his morning and evening farm work. But they nonetheless come together in a moment of collective action and mutual empathy. The chapter ends with a reflection on the ongoing nature of the art and the work of survival.
The Medieval Era
Authors: Shrock Dennis
Published: December 2022

The Medieval era spans the time from approximately 900 to 1500, or from the beginning of musical notation in a format that indicated pitches and rhythms on a staff to the end of polyphonic music treated as a series of unrelated or nonintegrated separate voice parts. Medieval genres consisted of monophonic chants, laude, and songs during the earlier years of the era, and polyphonic mass movements, mass cycles, motets, and secular songs during the later years. The era is generally divided into four separate periods—Saint Martial (1100–1180), Notre Dame (1180–1260), Ars Antiqua (1260–1320), and Ars Nova (1320–1500), and the genres of composition include sacred works (chants, laude, mass movements and cycles, and motets) that were generally sung by solo voices in combination with each other or by multiple voices per part, and secular works (songs by the troubadours and trouvères, and the ballades, rondeaux, and virelais of the formes fixes) that were performed in a variety of manners—by an unaccompanied solo voice (the monophonic songs), by a solo voice accompanied by instruments (the polyphonic compositions with only one texted voice part), or by an ensemble of solo voices with or without instrumental participation (the multitexted polyphonic compositions).
The Renaissance Era
Authors: Shrock Dennis
Published: December 2022

The Renaissance era was important for the creation of genres that either would continue throughout the remaining historical eras or would disappear during the seventeenth through nineteenth centuries and then reappear in the twentieth century. The enduring genres that were newly created during the Renaissance include the sacred forms developed as a result of the Protestant Reformation—the French Calvinist psalm setting, German Lutheran chorale and chorale motet, and English anthem. The genres that were created and that flourished during the Renaissance but that did not experience a continuous history are the madrigal (both Italian and English) and chanson. Genres that were created during the Medieval era—the mass (including Requiem), motet, and related sacred genres such as the Magnificat—continued to be popular throughout the Renaissance and all successive eras. Masses during the Renaissance, which were almost always based on preexisting material (chants, other masses, motets, chansons, and madrigals), utilized a variety of interesting construction techniques. The most common technique employed a preexisting tune as a cantus firmus, usually placed in the tenor voice and scored in longer note values than the other voice parts. The tune was generally presented without modification or elaboration; however, it was frequently inverted (upside down), retrograde (backward), and retrograde inverted (upside down and backward), as well as in its original form. Further common construction techniques were paraphrase (a modification and elaboration of a preexisting tune), parody (the insertion of a polyphonic section of a preexisting composition into the mass texture), soggetto cavato (a cantus firmus built from pitches derived from the vowels of a person’s name), and quodlibet (the employment of multiple secular preexisting tunes). Motets at the beginning of the era occasionally employed Gregorian chant phrases as a cantus firmus, whereas motets during the middle years of the era often employed chant material as a basis for point-of-imitation phrases. For example, Palestrina’s Veni sponsa Christi uses the four phrases of the Gregorian chant as the organizing material for the four phrases of his motet. By the end of the era, motets were by and large free in both melodic content and structure. Magnificats, on the other hand, were most often based on chant and composed in alternatim style throughout the era (i.e., phrases of Gregorian chant alternated with passages of imitative polyphony).
In Defense of Presentism
Authors: Armitage David
Published: December 2022

Most historians know one thing about presentism: that they are against it. Yet what exactly presentism is, they cannot agree. Is it a focus on modern history or a novel way of thinking confined to the present at the expense of both past and future? Does it mean speaking only to the concerns of the present or recognizing that “all history is contemporary history”? This confusion is a symptom of a deeper quandary: the very purpose of history writing itself. With the help of scholarship on presentism in other disciplines—philosophy, psychology, history of science, literary criticism—this chapter disentangles the various meanings of presentism, presents their ethical implications, and offers a tempered defense of presentism in history as a key to human flourishing.
Well-Being and a Usable Past
Authors: Stearns Peter N.
Published: December 2022

This chapter first briefly considers the ways historical work has already contributed, or sought to contribute, to well-being, and how much change is needed for a tighter linkage. Its main argument focuses on the links between the tremendous expansion of topics historians now consider and the kind of work that will directly support well-being research and strategy. Many of the components currently urged as part of well-being have a history, or can guide further historical work, that will in turn show how trends in modern history support well-being (as in the growing interest in love) but also how certain trends will need to be modified (as in the plea to transform acquisitive consumerism into a greater interest in enriching experiences). Well-being analysis should be anchored in a historically informed understanding of what modern patterns can be built upon, and what need to be explicitly redirected. In addition to love and consumerism, the chapter furthers this argument by briefly noting historical work (or potential work) on trust, anxiety, parenting, gratitude, and loneliness, where research connects directly with well-being priorities. The chapter concludes by noting the need for history to help expand the context in which well-being is discussed, to move away from an unduly individualistic approach toward considering broader social and cultural factors.
Toward a History of Black Happiness
Authors: Bay Mia
Published: December 2022

Happiness is a highly problematic subject in African American history and culture because discussions of happiness or human flourishing among African Americans have often mobilized in support of white supremacy. This chapter offers a brief exploration of the history of black happiness and asks what we can learn from it. In this era of #Black Lives Matter and racism reascendant, can we draw meaningful connections between the study of African American history and positive psychology—or any form of study of the cultivation of well-being? Proponents of positive psychology tend to see human flourishing as a positive ideal; however, this overview of the history of black happiness will suggest that discourses about human happiness and well-being can have many uses, not all of which are positive.
Before and after Babel
Authors: Van De Mieroop Marc
Published: December 2022

“The Lord confused the language of all the earth,” so says the Tower of Babel story in the Hebrew Bible to explain why people communicate in countless languages while previously they spoke only one. This book argues that something like the biblical confusion really happened in the ancient Near East, not in speech but in writing. It examines the millennia-long history of writing there and shows a radical change from the third and second millennia to the first millennium bc. While before Babel any intellectual who wrote did so as a participant in a cosmopolitan tradition with its roots in Babylonia, its language and its cuneiform script, after Babel people from all over the eastern Mediterranean, including Greece, used a profusion of vernacular languages and scripts to express themselves. Yet they did so in dialogue with the Babylonian cuneiform tradition still maintained by the successive empires that controlled their world, oftentimes as acts of resistance, aware of cosmopolitan ideas and motifs but subverting them. As a way to frame the rich intellectual history of this region in the ancient past, the book describes and analyzes the cosmopolitan and vernacular systems, how they interacted in multiple and intricate ways, and what the consequences were.
Mystery Guardians of an Ancient Tradition
Authors: Van De Mieroop Marc
Published: December 2022

When Babylon’s control over southern Babylonia ended in 1712, literary productivity there seems to have ceased, although it continued to flourish in northern Babylonia. Teachers and scholars in the north worked with the same materials as their southern Babylonian predecessors but modified them and they developed Akkadian language materials further. This activity persisted until the end of Hammurabi’s dynasty in 1595, when a Dark Age to last until the 14th century descended all over Babylonia. Yet scribes from other regions maintained the literate tradition during the Babylonian Dark Age. Evidence from Hattusas, Tikunani, the Sealand, and Susa shows a sustained interaction with existing materials and their elaboration involving a high degree of creativity. This chapter describes the work of scribes in these places and argues that they are to be seen as essential figures in the history of Babylonian literate culture, who turned that culture into a truly cosmopolitan one.
The Height of Cosmopolitanism
Authors: Van De Mieroop Marc
Published: December 2022

In the second half of the second millennium bc, Babylonian literate cosmopolitanism was at its height with courts all over the Near East, including in Egypt, employing scribes who could write the language and the cuneiform script. Alongside it, other languages appeared, some of them written in distinct scripts. The multilingualism is extremely well documented in Hittite Hattusas, where a variety of local and translocal languages were used. The evidence on lexical materials and belles-lettres from various sites in Syria, Canaan, Elam, and Egypt shows multiple attitudes toward the Babylonian tradition but also a widespread familiarity with it. In their letter correspondence, scribes wrote a variety of contact languages, mixing local features with the cosmopolitan, but the latter held the system together. Early alphabetic scripts emerged, each one of them used in restricted areas in Syria-Palestine alone, while the use of Babylonian cuneiform to write local languages also expanded throughout the Near East. In this world Babylonia and Assyria stood out, the former under a dynasty speaking the foreign Kassite language and with little preserved evidence of literate creativity, the latter adopting Babylonia’s literate culture wholesale.
Coda
Authors: Van De Mieroop Marc
Published: December 2022

Cuneiform, the script invented in southern Babylonia in the late fourth millennium BC, was soon used there to write two very distinct languages, Sumerian and Akkadian, as well as the two combined in bilingual texts. Part I of this book showed that already in the third millennium the script and languages became the only acceptable means to record highly literate materials throughout the Near East. Irrespective of what language writers throughout the region spoke, they all contributed to the preservation and development of Babylonian literate culture. The upheavals of 1200 BC ended this cosmopolitan system, however, and triggered a new world in which vernaculars became acceptable means of literate expression. That new world will be discussed in Part II.
Scrupulous Continuity
Authors: Van De Mieroop Marc
Published: December 2022

While empires with their political centers in Assyria and Babylonia dominated the history of the first-millennium bc Near East, the supremacy of Babylonia in literate cultural terms ended at the time. Yet in Mesopotamia itself cosmopolitan literature and scholarship written in cuneiform script and in the Sumerian and Akkadian languages separately and bilingually flourished, with scribes rigorously maintaining old traditions and proudly proclaiming intellectual connections with sages and scholars of the past. Rich evidence from several libraries, both institutional and private, shows intense scribal activity in the preservation, elaboration, and analysis of older works as well as the creation of new ones in all three idioms.
Luwian
Authors: Van De Mieroop Marc
Published: December 2022

From around 1200 to around 700 bc, rulers of various states in southern Anatolia and northern Syria commissioned inscriptions in Luwian and in the logo-syllabic hieroglyphic script uniquely used for that language, both already attested in the second millennium for monumental royal proclamations. The first millennium texts were mostly building inscriptions and often appeared in multilingual and multiscriptual contexts in combination with Akkadian, Aramaic, and Phoenician texts. They show how the lords of small principalities communicated to diverse local populations and at the same time interacted with the ever-expanding Assyrian Empire, which ultimately would end the region’s political independence. The inscriptions show a revival of a second millennium scribal system but in an entirely new context, emphasizing local identity in an imperial world.
From Minority Languages to World Literatures
Authors: Van De Mieroop Marc
Published: December 2022

Sometime in the early first millennium bc, Greek speakers borrowed the alphabet from the Phoenicians and adapted it to render vowels as well as consonants. All aspects of these processes are much debated in scholarship. Alongside the transmission of the technology of writing, elements of the literate culture of the Near East became familiar to Greeks. A comparison of stories about creation, the concept of the “bitter sea,” and law codes shows the repetition and reformulation of Near Eastern ideas. A major question is how elements of Babylonian writings could have found their way to Greece, and considering the latter as part of a Greco-Levantine cultural world provides an answer. The Greek attitude toward writing was fundamentally different from the Babylonian one, seeing it as an inferior reproduction of speech and as an instrument of oppression. Yet after the 5th century the technology flourished with a rich production of literary and scholarly works, the latter based on empirical principles rather than philological ones.
The Vernacular and Its Consequences
Authors: Van De Mieroop Marc
Published: December 2022

The writings produced in the Near East and eastern Mediterranean in the first millennium bc document how many vernaculars, each with its own script, were used simultaneously and that the region was characterized by its multilingualism (a feature true throughout its history). The interactions with the cosmopolitan tradition preserved by a succession of empires (Assyrian, Babylonian, Achaemenid, Seleucid, and Parthian) show a range of attitudes that can be analyzed through a postcolonial lens as forms of resistance. For most genres of writing the switch to the vernacular required choices not only of language and script but also of the writing tools. The agents in the movement to write vernaculars were members of the courts, not the wider population, which refutes the commonly accepted idea that the alphabet triumphed in writing because it did not require a palace infrastructure to be taught. The multilingualism that often appears in inscriptions also challenges the notion that vernaculars were expressions of national identities. The rise of vernaculars in writing needs to be seen within the context of local elites in dialogue with the empires and the cosmopolitan literate tradition. Their emergence in alphabetic scripts had as consequence, albeit unintended, that the focus on the written text in epistemology was replaced by one that investigated physical reality instead.
Epilogue
Authors: Van De Mieroop Marc
Published: December 2022

With the creation of the Hellenistic world, people in a vast region came in contact with the literature and scholarship that had developed previously in Greece and in the Greek language. Those included inhabitants of Babylonia who still maintained the age-old cuneiform heritage, a small but creative group who continued to do so 400 more years. The interactions between the two cultures involved both the adoption of Babylonian practices by Greeks rulers such as Antiochus I Soter and attempts to present them to the new audience in Greek terms by scholars like Berossus. Some members of the Babylonian elites adopted Greek names and may have acted as intermediaries between the two cultures. Babylonian astronomy and astrology radically influenced these sciences throughout the Hellenistic world, something that required individuals with expertise in both Babylonian and Greek practices. The so-called Greco-Babyloniaca tablets suggest that Babylonians literate in cuneiform studied the Greek alphabet, but this was an epistemological dead end. Within this cultural mix Aramaic is often considered to have been a continuation of Babylonian practices, more accessible to people who did not know cuneiform, but we should regard Aramaic and Greek together as a literate tradition distinct from the Babylonian one. Finally a Hellenistic cosmopolis came to dominate, one that in turn was replaced by later multilingual Middle Eastern examples.
Justice Black
Authors: Silber Norman I.
Published: December 2022

This chapter relates Guido’s experience as a clerk to Justice Hugo Lafayette Black. Black joined the Supreme Court in August 1937, as the first appointee of Franklin D. Roosevelt. As a Senator from Alabama, Black had taken a leadership role supporting New Deal measures, including FDR’s court-packing proposal. Roosevelt named seven more allies as vacancies occurred: Stanley Reed, Felix Frankfurter, William O. Douglas, Frank Murphy, James [“Jimmy”] Byrnes, Robert Jackson, and Wiley Rutledge. The New Deal justices were initially all deferential to FDR’s executive and legislative programs, but incursions on civil liberties and assertions of executive power exposed sharp divisions among them. Twenty years after Black took his seat, Guido joined Justice Black’s chambers for the 1958–1959 term of the Court. By then only three New Dealers remained—Black, Douglas, and Frankfurter. There were two Truman appointees—Harold Burton and Tom Clark; and four Eisenhower appointees—Earl Warren (the “Chief”), John Marshall Harlan, William J. Brennan, Jr., and Charles Whittaker. Potter Stewart replaced Harold Burton during the term.
Teaching Aware
Authors: Silber Norman I.
Published: December 2022

This chapter speaks to Guido’s teaching over the years. Professors of law who began their teaching closer to the middle of the twentieth century had few chances to learn to teach before they began and not a lot of feedback from their peers. They mainly looked to their own learning experiences and to colleagues as models and for advice. Teaching his first law school class in 1959, Guido drew chiefly on these sources and on the traditions of teaching he found in his family. As he matured, so did his teaching. Guido reflects on the evolution of his personal approaches, and his more general views about the nature of legal education.
Seeds of Doubt
Authors: Mazaheri Nimah
Published: December 2022

In the Middle East, hydrocarbon citizens hold more negative attitudes about democracy compared to people in the oil-poor states. People in oil-rich states are more likely to believe that economic performance is weak in a democratic system, democratic systems are indecisive and full of problems, democratic systems are not effective at maintaining stability, a democratic system is not better than other political systems, and democracy is inappropriate for their country. These attitudes hold after controlling for many factors in a basic statistical analysis. However, not all hydrocarbon citizens hold the same beliefs about democracy. Age, education, and economic status are positively associated with democratic attitudes. Women are more likely to fear the potentially destabilizing effects of democracy. Since the Arab Spring, democratic attitudes grew more positive in oil-poor Jordan than in oil-rich Algeria.
Conclusion
Authors: Mazaheri Nimah
Published: December 2022

Oil’s transformative impact on Middle Eastern nations can be vividly observed in the ways that citizens think about their government and national politics. Compared to citizens in countries without oil, hydrocarbon citizens tend to hold more positive perceptions about their government’s performance across many policy areas, and they are more skeptical about the merits of democracy. These findings are crucial to keep in mind as these countries chart their own political futures in a region increasingly swept up by chaos and disorder. There are forces that push some hydrocarbon citizens to endorse political change and support democracy, but there are more powerful forces that pull them away.
Introduction
Authors: Berman Greg , Fox Aubrey
Published: December 2022

The introduction makes the argument that gradualism is well suited to the current moment in which a shared sense of reality has fractured. Far from being a tired concession to an unjust status quo, incremental reform is the best way to address social problems in a climate where it is difficult to agree on basic facts, let alone expensive, large-scale government intervention. In making the case for the virtues of incrementalism, the book is organized into three sections, each drawing on a diverse set of case studies. The first section examines the real-world considerations that made radical change difficult in the American context. The second looks at successful examples of incrementalism in action, and the final section fleshes out the details of a brand of gradualism well suited for the current moment. The book concludes by helping readers understand how to avoid the disappointment that comes from living in a world of overinflated expectations.
How New York City Reduced Crime and Incarceration
Authors: Berman Greg , Fox Aubrey
Published: December 2022

Chapter 5 offers a case study in “accidental incrementalism.” A generation ago, New York City’s jail population ballooned to more than 22,000, and the city seemed stuck in a downward spiral of soaring crime rates and ever-expanding incarceration. Today, New York is in a very different place. Even after a rise in shootings during the pandemic, it is still one of the safest big cities in the country and it has fewer than 5,500 people in jail. One of the striking things about New York City’s jail population is that it has gone down almost every year since 1989. No single policy change sparked the decline. Instead, a series of mostly unheralded innovations—what New Yorker writer Adam Gopnik has called “a thousand small sanities”—set the wheels in motion. The reduced use of incarceration in New York City is a case study of how years of gradual improvement can add up to sweeping change.
The Immigration System’s Hidden Strengths
Authors: Berman Greg , Fox Aubrey
Published: December 2022

Chapter 6 looks at one of the most controversial issues in American politics: immigration. The history of immigration policy in the United States is messy, ugly, and rife with racism—for decades, immigrants from “White” countries were explicitly favored over immigrants from non-White nations. Yet, for all of its flaws, American immigration policy has also helped fuel much of the social, cultural, and economic dynamism of the United States. Immigration policy is an example of “hidden incrementalism”: when it has worked best, it has done so out of the spotlight of public and political scrutiny. The American approach is also oriented to immigrant self-selection rather than top-down identification of particularly desirable immigrants, which offers distinct benefits as well.
The Four Core Values of Incrementalism
Authors: Berman Greg , Fox Aubrey
Published: December 2022

Despite the demonstrable success of the incremental approach to change, it remains highly unpopular amongst the chattering class. Chapter 8 articulates four core elements of incrementalism and explains how each of these values is under threat at the moment. In particular, the authors offer a plea for greater honesty and humility in the public square. They argue that people of good faith have been attempting to solve problems like violence, racism, and poverty for generations. These are complicated problems that defy easy solutions. Indeed, there are no solutions – only trade-offs. Greater honesty about this reality would help reduce political polarization and improve public trust in government.
Toward Principled Contextualism in Responding to Organized Non-State Violence
Authors: Ohlin Jens David , Regan Mitt
Published: December 2022

States responding to violence by non-state organized armed groups must decide whether to proceed either under law enforcement standards governed by human rights principles—the crime paradigm—or by the law of armed conflict—the war paradigm. Each paradigm is premised on a standard conception of either policing, which imposes stringent limits on the deprivation of life and liberty, or combat, which provides more expansive permissions. Many hostilities between states and non-state armed groups, however, do not conform to the standard conception of either paradigm. This can lead states to turn to the war paradigm based on the belief that proceeding under the crime paradigm will be ineffective to quell violence. This tendency has been especially pronounced in the US response to transnational terrorist organizations. The chapters in this book question whether this binary approach is sensible and discuss possibilities for relying on a more contextual approach that combines elements of both paradigms. They examine whether this approach can draw in a principled way on the underlying concerns of each paradigm to avoid purely ad hoc decision-making. This introductory chapter provides a short description of the contributions and the ways in which they apply this perspective to a range of issues.
Non-State Actors, Terrorism, and the War Paradigm Revisited
Authors: Cantey Seth
Published: December 2022

This chapter revisits the debate that emerged in the aftermath of 9/11 about how best to conceptualize the ongoing politico-military struggle against violent extremism. It draws on ideas from legal, academic, and policy circles in the United States to examine the allure of metaphors and analogies in the struggle against terrorism, as well as arguments for and against the war paradigm. The principal argument is that adoption of the war paradigm since 9/11 has been detrimental to our understanding of what counterterrorism is and should be. Although this understanding seems to have resonated with President Barack Obama, the stickiness of the paradigm has facilitated the treatment of counterterrorism as war across three presidencies. The corollary augmentation of executive power over the past two decades has implications for the future course of the struggle, including with regard to domestic and international law.
When Conflict Recurs
Authors: Blank Laurie R.
Published: December 2022

Conflict classification is essential for determining when the law of armed conflict applies and the concomitant protections, rights, and obligations. What happens, however, when a conflict ends or appears to end but violence and hostilities bubble up again? The complexity of conflict identification and classification and the challenges of analyzing the facts and actors in such new violence raise difficult questions regarding how to assess whether and when such new violence constitutes an armed conflict. This chapter analyzes the appropriate analytical tools and thresholds for identifying and characterizing conflict when violence recurs. Given the low threshold for international armed conflicts, a quicker identification of armed conflict when violence recurs after an inter-state conflict is unlikely. However, such scenarios pose challenging questions whether actions by a proxy group or other entity could constitute an international armed conflict and whether the threshold for such determination might be easier to satisfy after a recent conflict between the two states. In non-international armed conflicts, one overarching question is whether the Tadić factors of intensity and organization are the correct approach when violence recurs after conflict, or whether a lower threshold or “accelerated analysis” is more appropriate. Similarly, the nature of the armed group engaged in the resurgence of hostilities, or the location and nature of the hostilities, could all be consequential, such that the thresholds or framework for hostilities recurring with the same group or in the same location may not be the same as that for new or reconstituted groups or different locations.
Using Law as a Weapon against Nuclear Proliferation and Terrorism
Authors: Kittrie Orde F.
Published: December 2022

This chapter describes and analyzes the aggressive US financial lawfare campaign which resulted in Iran agreeing to curtail its nuclear program pursuant to the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA). Section I discusses the pre-JCPOA US financial lawfare against Iran in conceptual context. Section II describes and analyzes the key nexus between US financial lawfare and Iran’s nuclear weapons program and state sponsorship of terrorism: Iran’s use of the international financial system to advance those objectives. Section III provides an overview of key innovative elements of the pre-JCPOA US financial lawfare against Iran. Section IV describes and analyzes the impact of this US financial lawfare, including persuading most major foreign banks to curtail business with Iran, costing the Iranian economy tens of billions of dollars and imposing billions of dollars in penalties on foreign banks which persisted in trading with Iran. Section V systematically describes and analyzes how the US government implemented this financial lawfare against Iran. Section VI discusses lessons learned and the future of US financial and other economic lawfare.
National Security Policymaking in the Shadow of International Law
Authors: Dickinson Laura A.
Published: December 2022

This chapter describes how the norms and values embedded in international human rights law (IHRL) are sometimes adopted, not as a matter of formal law at the international level but rather as a matter of governmental policy and practice. The chapter analyzes two Obama administration counterterrorism policies and describes both their legalistic character and the advantages and disadvantages of the policy approach. Such policies can preserve flexibility while moving in the direction of IHRL as a matter of practice, providing interoperability benefits with more human rights–oriented allies. In addition, such policies implement human rights–oriented norms in practice even as they impede acceptance of these norms as a matter of legal obligation. The chapter concludes that the emergence of such legalistic policies is evidence of international law’s constraining impact and that national security policymaking can be a pragmatic and effective alternative to formal international lawmaking, even though it also may sidestep the process of creating robust new international law rules. In addition, the persistence of such policymaking across administrations illustrates the power of institutional path dependence, the role of lawyers, the constraint of interoperability with allies in multilateral military actions, and the way norms get embedded in government organizations.
Emerging Transnational Self-Defense Norms and Unrealized Liberal Values
Authors: Dehn John C.
Published: December 2022

This chapter critiques emerging norms regarding the use of alleged defensive force by powerful states against violent non-state groups located in the territory of other, typically “weaker” states, sometimes called “transnational self-defense.” Although the contemporary international legal system now formally and universally embraces basic liberal values of sovereignty, equality, and liberty/autonomy, emerging transnational self-defense norms effectively perpetuate a system of de facto inequality traceable to an earlier era. The use of armed conflict paradigms and war measures against “terrorist” groups, including targeted killing in what is effectively preemptive or preventive self-defense, perpetuates a discriminatory international system wherein sovereignty and humanity are deemed equal only between so-called “civilized” nations and peoples. Properly understood, the self-defense principles of necessity and proportionality require that states: (1) resort to defensive measures only when necessary to protect lives and property from relatively certain, significant harm, and (2) use only the amount of force which is strictly necessary to neutralize the threat that is reasonably believed to exist at the time force is used. Because self-defense principles constrain both the resort to force and the nature of any force used, the alternate norms posited here do not implicate contested issues involving the extraterritorial application of international human rights law.
From Armed Conflict to Countering Threat Networks
Authors: Huntley Todd , Regan Mitt
Published: December 2022

In recent years the United States has emphasized reliance on a range of measures to address transnational terrorism. In particular, there are indications that the United States is moving away from the idea that non-state armed groups can be defeated once and for all. This evolution is reflected in US adoption of an approach to terrorism known as “Countering Threat Networks.” One example of this approach is Joint Publication 3-25 of the Department of Defense. This publication emphasizes monitoring potentially hostile networks and using a variety of nonkinetic and kinetic means to deprive non-state armed groups of the resources they need to pose a serious threat to the United States. JP 3-25 acknowledges that completely defeating a threat network is unlikely; the focus is on continuously applying pressure with all the tools of the US government to keep it as weak as possible. As this chapter describes, social network analysis provides a powerful analytical tool in support of this approach. As artificial intelligence progresses, it likely will enable more rapid analysis to guide identification of threat networks and anticipation of their activities. This shift in emphasis toward focusing on threat networks offers a potentially promising alternative to engaging in intensive violence under the armed conflict paradigm. At the same time, it poses the danger that the United States may use force to prevent, rather than preempt, armed attacks by attempting to reduce risks to the United States as much as possible at the expense of populations elsewhere.
Introduction
Authors: Gutacker Paul J.
Published: December 2022

The introduction presents the major themes of the book, beginning with the question of biblicism and authority. In scholarship on American religion, the nearly complete absence of references to Christian history suggests its irrelevance to American Protestants; what is more, the leading interpretations of nineteenth-century Protestantism are premised on its supposed rejection of history and tradition. However, this depiction is challenged by American reading and citation of religious histories. This chapter describes how eighteenth-century historiography—books by Johann Lorenz von Mosheim, Edward Gibbon, David Hume, Joseph Priestley, and Joseph Milner—was widely read, taught, and cited by educated American Protestants. This study revises scholarly understanding by analyzing hundreds of historical references in religious print, with the aim of recovering how American Protestants thought about and argued over the meaning of Christian history.