bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A Draped Female Torso in the Ashmolean Museum
Authors: Palagia Olga
Published: May 2006

A marble fragment of a draped female figure came to the University of Oxford as part of the James Dawkins collection of marbles, presented by his brother Henry sometime between the owner's death in 1759 and the publication ofMarmora Oxoniensiain 1763 (Plates XXa–d). The collection was formed during Dawkins's expedition to Palmyra with Robert Wood between 1750 and 1753. Of the other seven sculptures in it, three came from Attica, one from Caria, one from Cyzicus and two are of unknown provenance. Our statue seems to have received little attention since Michaelis saw it. It is now mounted on a limestone base bearing the number 63.
‘Planets’ in Simplicius De caelo 471.1 ff.
Authors: Hall J. J.
Published: May 2006

In four of the last five numbers of the JHS, Doctors D. R. Dicks and D. O'Brien have disputed about Simplicius De caelo 471.1 ff. (DK 12A19), which runs (in part, 471.2–6): καὶ γὰρ ἐκεῑ [i.e. ἐκ τῶν περὶ ἀστρολογίαν] περὶ τῆς τάξεως τῶν πλανωμένων καὶ περὶ μεγεθῶν καὶ ἀποστημάτων ἀποδέδεικται Ἀναξιμάνδρου πρώτου τὸν περὶ μεγεθῶν καὶ ἀποστημάτων λόγον εὑρηκότος, ὡς Εὔδημος ἱστορεῖ τὴν τῆς θέσεως τάξιν εἰς τοὺς Πυθαγορείους πρώτους ἀναψέρων. In his History of Greek philosophy (i 93), Professor Guthrie translates the latter part of this as follows: ‘(…speaking of the planets) “Anaximander was the first to discuss their sizes and distances, according to Eudemus, who attributes the first determination of their order to the Pythagoreans.”’ Guthrie, Dicks and O'Brien all agree that πλανωμένων is accurately translated as ‘planets’; they also evidently agree that Anaximander would not have distinguished the planets from the fixed stars, at least in this matter; and consequently Guthrie (op. cit. i 95) finds Simplicius' statement about Anaximander ‘confusing’; Dicks finds it ‘nonsensical’; and O'Brien speaks of Simplicius' ‘rather ragged context’, and supposes that Eudemus was actually speaking, not of planets, but of sun, moon and stars, i.e. that Simplicius has quite misrepresented his source.
The new musical fragment from Epidaurus
Authors: Solomon Jon
Published: May 2006

On July 17, 1977 what appears to be the most recently found ancient Greek musical fragment was unearthed some twenty-five meters northeast of the palaestra at Epidaurus. Carved on red limestone in the third century ad, the inscription consists of eleven fragmentary hexameters from a hymn to Apollo and other divine offspring, only the first line of which seems to contain suprascript musical notation. M. Mitsos published the inscription three years later without musicological analysis, and S. Sepheriades then attempted a preliminary analysis at the 1982 Eighth International Greek and Latin Epigraphical Congress. The present paper explores in greater detail the purported music of this brief, enigmatic inscription in the hope of furthering (but certainly not completing) our understanding of this, a possible fourth ancient Greek musical fragment on stone.
Theophrastus in Bessarion
Authors: Lautner Peter
Published: May 2006

There is no denying that Theophrastus ranks among the most prolific Peripatetic philosophers. Diogenes Laertius lists 225 items in his bibliography, some of them perhaps twice—first as an independent treatise, then as part of a larger work. As time went on, this vast oeuvre suffered the usual vicissitudes: the overwhelming majority of it has been partly or entirely lost. In sharp contrast to the Frankish West, where, despite great losses, more texts were in circulation under Theophrastus' name than was justified, in the ever shrinking Byzantine world we find comparatively few references to him. But this surely does not mean that the small number of references are unreliable.
Philostratos and the Pentathlon
Authors: Jackson Donald F.
Published: May 2006

One of the most vexing problems facing students of ancient athletics has been the method by which overall victory in the pentathlon was determined. Testimony from ancient sources assures us that the overall victor won three events of the five contested, but that a man of lesser talent could very well emerge victorious. Because one athlete in a large field of competitors could not be expected to outclass his opponents in three of five events, two interpretations of what occurred in the pentathlon have arisen. One theory suggests a progressive elimination of competitors so as to reduce the field and facilitate the emergence of one champion. Another theory allots points to contestants for higher and lower finishes and sometimes allows elimination of athletes who consistently finish behind others.
The independent heroes of theIliad
Authors: Jones P.V.
Published: May 2006

My objective in this paper is to consider the question of the mysteriousness or numinosity of the gods in theIliadby examining first how heroes talk about and react to the gods, and second how Homer handles fate. My aim is to integrate the findings into a wider thesis about theIliad'snarrative strategy.

Griffin (1980) 152 discusses the mysteriousness and numinosity of Homeric gods, and citesIl.i 43–52,Od.iii 371–82, xix 33–42, saying ‘It is perhaps worth emphasising that in each of these … episodes, we see not only the god behaving like a real god, mysteriously, but also the characters who are present at the moment of revelation responding to it in what can only be called a religious way: adoration or reverent silence’.
Where was Simplicius?
Authors: Foulkes Paul
Published: May 2006

In Simplicius: sa vie, son oeuvre, sa survie (Berlin 1987, reviewed in JHS cx [1990] 244-45), the editor, Mme I. Hadot, in the first part of the biographical introduction, cites Agathias Hist. ii 31, 4. This is usually taken to show that the Neoplatonists, who had fled to the Persian court when Justinian closed down the Academy in 529, went back to Athens after 532. That view, she holds, rests on a misreading of the text (…δεῖν ἐκείνους τοὺς ἄνδρας ἐς τὰ σφέτερα ἤθη κατιόντας βιοτεύειν ἀδεῶς τὸ λοιπὸν ὲφ᾿ ἐαυτ–οῖσ…). However, she herself misconstrues ἐφ᾿ ἑαυτ–οῖς as ‘selon leur choix’': that is, on returning from exile to their own accustomed places, these men should henceforth live without fear as they might choose. To yield that version, the Greek would have to be καθ᾿ ἑαυτοὺς. The actual expression means ‘amongst themselves’: they might philosophise, but not in public. That a touch of private heterodoxy amongst the learned few is harmless if it does not stir up the ignorant many was well understood, indeed explicitly so later, in Islam and mediaeval Christianity.
The auditor Thaumasius in the Vita Plotini
Authors: Lim Richard
Published: May 2006

In his Vita Plotini, Porphyry recounts a colourful episode which, for a brief moment, brings to life the dynamics within the lecture room of Plotinus in Rome. The author explains how he was in the habit of posing questions to Plotinus frequently and persistently while his teacher was conducting his philosophical discourse before a mixed body of listeners. On one occasion, such an exchange between the two over the issue of the connexion between the soul and the body continued intermittently over a period of some three days, with the following outcome (Porph. V. Plot. xiii 12-15):
Traditional Healing and Medicine in Winti: A Sociological Interpretation
Authors: Wooding Charles J.
Published: May 2006

During the period of the slave trade (1650-1830), people were brought from the whole West Coast of Africa to Suriname. The majority had a Fante-Akan (Ghana), Ewe-Fon (Togo and Benin), or a western Bantu (Congo, Zaire and Angola) background, while the Mandingo (Senegal, Sierra Leone and Liberia) formed a minor fraction (Wooding 1972: ch. II). In the course of time they amalgamated into the Afrosurinamese population group, which is subdivided into two main groups: the coastal Creoles and the inland Bushnegroes.
Guerrilla War in Portuguese Africa: An Assessment of the Balance of Force in Mozambique
Authors: Opello Walter C.
Published: May 2006

The status of the guerrilla wars in Angola, Mozambique and Guinea-Bissau has long been a topic of debate. While the coup d'etat in Portugal has affected the struggle for liberation in all three territories, the complexion of the debate appears to have changed most significantly with respect to the hostilities in Mozambique. This article presents an assessment of the balance of military force in Mozambique from the inception of the guerrilla war in 1964 through April 1974. Such an assessment provides an interesting perspective to recent military and political developments in that territory.

Five phases can be discerned in the fighting in Mozambique since the beginning of the war in 1964. The first phase began in September of that year and ran roughly to the end of 1965. This phase was marked by the initial military successes of the nationalists, the Frente de Libertaca'o de Mozambique (FRELIMO), and the loss of some territory and population by the Portuguese in the districts of Cabo Delgado and Niassa. The second phase, which began in 1966 and ended at the close of 1969, was characterized by an increase in the ability of FRELIMO to concentrate military force on more heavily defended Portuguese positions but with a decrease in the limits of the zones of fighting in Cabo Delgado and Niassa. Phase three ran roughly through the twelve months of 1970 and was marked by a change in Portuguese counterinsurgency strategy which began with the launching of a number of highly successful counteroffensives against FRELIMO bases and sanctuaries. The fourth phase, which began in 1971 and ended in the first months of 1973, was characterized by a diminishing of the level of fighting in Cabo Delgado and Niassa and a concomitant shifting of the focus of military activities to the district of Tete. The fifth phase, which began in the summer of 1973, has been characterized by the spread of military activities from Tete to the northern sectors of Vila Pery and Beira districts. Each phase is discussed in detail below.
Black Politics in South Africa Today
Authors: Latakgomo Joe
Published: May 2006

The political scene in South Africa today is perhaps one of the most complex in the modern world. The easiest analysis would be to have the white minority government on the one hand, and the back resistance and liberation organizations ranged against it on the other. Unfortunately, it is not that easy. The white minority itself is torn by divisions and differences in ideology, with essentially two divisions into the right-wing and the centrists. Both camps, however, are themselves divided into various notches on the scale to the right, but never beyond to the left of centrist. That position has been reserved for black politics, which is also positioned at various points on the scale to the left.
The Post-Apartheid Economy
Authors: Terreblanche S.J.
Published: May 2006

The nature of the post-apartheid society is very much on the agenda. In the multitude of publications, conferences and debates on this agenda, the bulk of the attention is given to the need for—and the possible characteristics of—a non-racial political system. Much less attention is given to the nature of the post-apartheid economic system, and to the structural changes necessary to synchronize it with the new political system and to ensure that it will have the fiscal capacity to sustain a truly democratic parliamentary system.
Building Health Services For A Post-Apartheid Era
Authors: Savage Michael
Published: May 2006

Health care services in South Africa are in decline. Inadequate resources, the fragmentation of services along racial lines, their division between a confused jumble of authorities together with a growing privatization of medical care are among the many factors having grave effects on an already poorly constructed health service. The persistence of high levels of infant mortality and the widespread nature of preventable disease provide clear measures indicating that existing health services have failed to meet the needs of the majority of the population for basic medical care. The changes that are currently underway in health services are making it less likely that they can adequately contribute to providing health for all.
Confronting Southern Africa Solidarity Work
Authors: Danaher Kevin
Published: May 2006

The history of US policy in Southern Africa has been depressingly consistent. Because US government agencies and major corporations were so closely tied to the ruling white minorities of the region, it was only when majority forces rose up in armed rebellion and seized power that some members of the US elite were willing to accept the fait accompli of majority rule. But even then, there were powerful conservative forces that sought to “roll back” the advance of popular movements in countries like Angola and Mozambique. The Reagan administration sought to hold back the tide of leftist victories in southern Africa by giving Pretoria the international protection it needed to bring its neighbors to their knees.
Genocide and Socio-Political Change: Massacres in two Rwandan Villages
Authors: Longman Timothy
Published: May 2006

From the comfort of American living rooms, the violence that ravaged Rwanda for four months in mid-1994 seemed almost incomprehensible. The daily newspaper reports and nightly television coverage that presented disturbing images of slaughter and destruction failed to provide the necessary background to make sense of the disaster. For most Americans, little option was left than to view the devastation as an expression of some inherent savagery in the Rwandan population.

In this article, I draw upon the example of two Rwandan communities to help explain the nature of the violence that swept Rwanda after the death of President Juvénal Habyarimana. These two communities bear certain similarities: they lie in neighboring communes in Kibuye Prefecture; both are relatively remote; and each community centers around a parish of the Presbyterian Church.
Report of a Visit to Rwanda: September 1-22, 1994
Authors: Mujawamariya Monique
Published: May 2006

It is 35-40 kilometers from the Burundi border to the town of Butare. Over the entire route, I saw only four people, two on the road and two at a riverbank, about to do their washing. [This, in what was formerly one of the most densely populated areas of the country.] In the fields were unharvested beans and sorghum; banana groves had not been maintained; the coffee trees in flower had not received mulch; the harvest will be mediocre. The paths to each homestead were overrun by weeds. The destroyed homes of Tutsi or other “nuisances” [Hutu opponents to the former regime or those who protected Tutsi] appeared as gaping sores in the countryside.
Foreign Intervention in the Civil War of the Congo Republic
Authors: Clark John F.
Published: May 2006

To the many tragedies in Africa since the end of the Cold War one may now add the civil war that devastated the Congo Republic from June to October 1997. This war not only ended Congo’s fragile experiment with democracy but also left some 10,000 Congolese citizens dead and countless more homeless, bereaved, or embittered. Artillery bombardment followed by looting destroyed much of Brazzaville’s inner city. Since seizing power in mid-October 1997, former (and again) president Dennis Sassou-Nguesso has only slowly restored public order. As of March 1998, only a few parts of town had partial phone service, water, and electricity. Congo’s long-delayed development is once again on hold as the new government grapples to restore basic services.
“Precondition for Victory”: Women’s Liberation in Mozambique and Guinea-Bissau
Authors: Urdang Stephanie
Published: May 2006

A striking aspect of the on-going revolution in Mozambique and Guinea-Bissau is the insistence on the need for the liberation of women to be an explicit and integral part of that process. “Liberation of women,” reads an oft-quoted statement of Samora Machel, FRELIMO president, “is a fundamental necessity for our revolution; a guarantee of its continuity and a precondition for victory.” In a similar vein, Amilcar Cabral, assassinated leader of PAIGC, used to state firmly that their revolution could not be successful unless it ensured the full participation of women, or, “In Guinea-Bissau we say that women are fighting two colonialisms; one against the Portuguese and the other against men.”
Gender Relations in the Democratization Process: An Analysis of Agrarian Policies in Africa
Authors: Fall Yassine
Published: May 2006

This paper is an attempt to link women’s empowerment in the democratization process and the sexual division of labour and resources in land management. Following the introduction, section two will assess the scope of women producers’ participation in the agrarian sector. Section three will analyze traditional land management systems. The impact of land reforms on women’s access to land is examined in section four. Finally, the conclusion will stress the need to create the legal and political climate that will allow the emergence of a more balanced land policy as a first step towards sustainable democratization.

Women’s potential contributions in rural development, particularly in food production, have been extensively documented.
Burundi: The Killing Fields Revisited
Authors: Lemarchand René
Published: May 2006

(Readers of the Summer 1975 issue of ISSUE — entirely devoted to a discussion of the 1972 killings in Burundi — had the opportunity to take the full measure of the tragedy then visited upon the country, 18 years before the latest outburst of ethnic violence. As René Lemarchand noted at the time, “anyone for whom the name Burundi evokes more than a Lilliputian entity in the heart of Africa must look back to the events of 1972 with a sense of horror and consternation: in a matter of weeks tens of thousands of human beings were systematically slaughtered in what, in retrospect, can only be described as the nearest equivalent offered by Africa of a ‘final solution.’”
Global Incorporation, Ideology, and Public Policy in Zimbabwe
Authors: Cyrus Reed Wm.
Published: May 2006

Six years after independence, Zimbabwe is viewed by its admirers as having adopted a pragmatic approach to a broad range of socialist oriented policies. A massive expansion and re-direction of services in the areas of education, health, and agricultural extension services, in addition to the creation of one of the world’s largest resettlement programs, are often cited as evidence of how the government of Prime Minister Robert Mugabe is working for socialist transformation in Zimbabwe. In addition, under Mugabe’s Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) government, the Zimbabwean economy has been able to maintain a real expansion in production averaging near 4.6% per annum-perhaps the highest rate in Africa--while the government has reversed a tremendous balance of payments deficit.
Is there any Justification for Economic Pressure against South Africa?
Authors: Chettle John
Published: May 2006

Henry Kissinger is supposed to have said that the situation in Southern Africa was the most complex in the world today, and I sometimes wonder which of us has more of a problem dealing with it–we South Africans in trying to solve the sometimes intractable dilemmas of a divided and heterogeneous society, or Americans in trying to work out what on earth is going on down there.
South Africa: Foreign Investment and Separate Development
Authors: Raiford William
Published: May 2006

South Africa’s system of apartheid and policy of separate development is unique among nations. Apartheid is the pervasive institutionalization of discrimination by law on the basis of race; separate development would deny South African citizenship to the blacks of South Africa. A central goal of U.S. policy with respect to South Africa is to encourage that country to end apartheid and grant full political participation to all its peoples. This key policy is diametrically opposed to the position of the government of South Africa.
Why U.S. Corporations should Get Out of South Africa
Authors: Seidman Ann
Published: May 2006

In evaluating the consequences of the $1.7 billion currently invested by U.S. corporations in South Africa, the issue is distinctly not whether or not the U.S. firms involved have adopted the Sullivan Principles. Those principles, purportedly designed to ensure upgrading and equal pay for blacks, are in reality little more than a smokescreen. Behind their rhetoric, U.S. transnational corporations continue to help South Africa build up its military-industry machinery to perpetuate oppression of the majority of black workers.
Western Aid to Africa
Authors: Gladson Charles L.
Published: May 2006

Recent reports of famine again devastating Ethiopia, Angola, and Mozambique have focused world-wide attention once more on Africa’s precarious plight. The pictures of emaciated bodies crowded into emergency feeding centers, documenting the grim statistics of declining production, are now painfully familiar. It was only three years ago that high media coverage and an active international fundraising campaign for the victims of drought brought the crisis to nightly news. However, despite the unprecedented success of efforts such as BANDAID, U.S.A. for Africa and others in raising public consciousness and contributions, the fundamental problems plaguing Africa remain unchanged and unsolved.
Political Parties Under the Abubakar Transition Program and Democratic Stability in Nigeria
Authors: Obiyan A. Sat
Published: May 2006

Nigeria has witnessed civilian rule for just over eight of nearly 39 years of self-rule. Incessant military incursions into the political terrain have led to several transition programs aimed at instituting democracy. This article focuses on the nature and operations of political parties in the recent transition and their implications for a stable democratic polity. The purpose of this focus is to recognize the enormous potential with which political parties are endowed for fostering or impeding the creation and sustenance of a cohesive, stable democratic system.
Polish Metric Spaces: Their Classification and Isometry Groups
Authors: Clemens John D. , Gao Su , Kechris Alexander S.
Published: May 2006

§ 1. Introduction. In this communication we present some recent results on the classification of Polish metric spaces up to isometry and on the isometry groups of Polish metric spaces. A Polish metric space is a complete separable metric space (X, d).

Our first goal is to determine the exact complexity of the classification problem of general Polish metric spaces up to isometry. This work was motivated by a paper of Vershik [1998], where he remarks (in the beginning of Section 2): “The classification of Polish spaces up to isometry is an enormous task. More precisely, this classification is not ‘smooth’ in the modern terminology.” Our Theorem 2.1 below quantifies precisely the enormity of this task.

After doing this, we turn to special classes of Polish metric spaces and investigate the classification problems associated with them. Note that these classification problems are in principle no more complicated than the general one above. However, the determination of their exact complexity is not necessarily easier.

The investigation of the classification problems naturally leads to some interesting results on the groups of isometries of Polish metric spaces. We shall also present these results below.

The rest of this section is devoted to an introduction of some basic ideas of a theory of complexity for classification problems, which will help to put our results in perspective. Detailed expositions of this general theory can be found, e.g., in Hjorth [2000], Kechris [1999], [2001].
On the Unusual Effectiveness of Logic in Computer Science
Authors: Halpern Joseph Y. , Harper Robert , Immerman Neil , Kolaitis Phokion G. , Vardi Moshe Y. , Vianu Victor
Published: May 2006

In 1960, E. P. Wigner, a joint winner of the 1963 Nobel Prize for Physics, published a paper titled On the Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences [61]. This paper can be construed as an examination and affirmation of Galileo's tenet that “The book of nature is written in the language of mathematics”. To this effect, Wigner presented a large number of examples that demonstrate the effectiveness of mathematics in accurately describing physical phenomena. Wigner viewed these examples as illustrations of what he called the empirical law of epistemology, which asserts that the mathematical formulation of the laws of nature is both appropriate and accurate, and that mathematics is actually the correct language for formulating the laws of nature. At the same time, Wigner pointed out that the reasons for the success of mathematics in the natural sciences are not completely understood; in fact, he went as far as asserting that “… the enormous usefulness of mathematics in the natural sciences is something bordering on the mysterious and there is no rational explanation for it.”
Second-Order Logic and Foundations of Mathematics
Authors: Väänänen Jouko
Published: May 2006

We discuss the differences between first-order set theory and second-order logic as a foundation for mathematics. We analyse these languages in terms of two levels of formalization. The analysis shows that if second-order logic is understood in its full semantics capable of characterizing categorically central mathematical concepts, it relies entirely on informal reasoning. On the other hand, if it is given a weak semantics, it loses its power in expressing concepts categorically. First-order set theory and second-order logic are not radically different: the latter is a major fragment of the former.
Explicit Provability and Constructive Semantics
Authors: Artemov Sergei N.
Published: May 2006

In 1933 Gödel introduced a calculus of provability (also known as modal logicS4) and left open the question of its exact intended semantics. In this paper we give a solution to this problem. We find the logicLPof propositions and proofs and show that Gödel's provability calculus is nothing but the forgetful projection ofLP. This also achieves Gödel's objective of defining intuitionistic propositional logicIntvia classical proofs and provides a Brouwer-Heyting-Kolmogorov style provability semantics forIntwhich resisted formalization since the early 1930s.LPmay be regarded as a unified underlying structure for intuitionistic, modal logics, typed combinatory logic and λ-calculus.
The Via Flaminia
Authors: Ashby T. , Fell R. A. L.
Published: May 2006

The frequent use of the first person singular in the text of this article makes it necessary that we should explain how the work has been divided between us. Mr. Fell, who was resident for two years at the British School at Rome, first as Craven Student of the University of Cambridge, and then as Gilchrist Student of the Faculty of Archaeology, History and Letters, is responsible for Section A (The Via Flaminia in History), and Dr. Ashby for Section B (The Topography of the Via Flaminia from Rome to Narni). In Section C the description of the road from Narni to Forum Flaminii by Terni and Spoleto is the work of Dr. Ashby, while from Narni to Forum Flaminii by Bevagna it is the joint work of both writers: but the concluding portion of the road was studied and described by Mr. Fell alone. The whole article has, however, been carefully read by both of us.
On the date of the ‘Notitia Dignitatum.’
Authors: Salisbury F. S.
Published: May 2006

Two attitudes, broadly speaking, are possible to the problem of dating the Notitia Dignitatum. (1) We may suppose that the original document from which our text is derived was from first to last an official copy kept in the principal chancellery of the Western Empire at Ravenna, that the text suffered no material alteration in its subsequent history, and that, in consequence, items, such as late military formations whose period can be fixed, may safely be used to date the picture of the Empire presented by the document as a whole. Or (2) we may regard the original as a copy (perhaps an early one) which had passed into private hands and had suffered interpolation of items of later date.
The Mints of Roman Arabia and Mesopotamia
Authors: Hill G. F.
Published: May 2006

The places whose numismatic history is studied in this paper are those which happened to be comprised in the provinces of Arabia and Mesopotamia from the time of the institution of these provinces down to the end of the period of the Greek coinage. Thus, as regards Arabia, which was organised in A.D. 106, the mints of Philadelphia, Gerasa, Dium and Philippopolis are included, although they were originally in the Decapolis, and were only transferred to Arabia in the reign of Severus at the earliest. But Canatha, which was transferred at the same time, had then ceased to issue coins; it is therefore omitted from these pages. Eboda, of which a solitary coin of Nero's time is known, might have been omitted on the same grounds, but is included because its coinage does not find a place in the series of any other province. The latest Greek coins issued by any Arabian city are of the time of Valerian and Gallienus.
The Date of the First Treaty Between Rome and Carthage
Authors: Beaumont R. L.
Published: May 2006

Mommsen left the date of the first treaty between Rome and Carthage a crux, and a crux it has remained. For many years the fires of dispute have burned fiercely, but of late they have gradually been dying down, smothered, it may be, by acquiescence in the idea that the degree of certainty for which it is legitimate to look in early Roman history is very small. Yet the question calls as imperatively for a decisive answer as ever it has done since Mommsen wrote his Römische Chronologie. It is, therefore, remarkable that the most cogent argument for the Polybian dating of the first treaty has barely been suggested, and never presented in any detail; and it is in the belief that a sixth century date can be decisively confirmed that this paper has been written.
Bigati
Authors: Milne J. G.
Published: May 2006

If the reading of the oldest manuscript of Pliny, in the passage where he deals with the first issue of the denarius nummus at Rome, is accepted, a problem arises centring round the term bigati. Briefly, the difficulty is this :—

Pliny says that the denarius nummus was first struck at a date which works out as 217 B.C.

Livy states that thousands of bigati were taken as booty in Cisalpine Gaul in 197 and 196 B.C., and in Spain in 195 and 191 B.C.

There is no doubt as to what the denarius nummus was : it was the silver coin bearing the mark X which gave it the official currency-value of ten asses, and was the prototype of the long series of coins which were known and current as denarii under the Republic and Empire. Having a face-value, it was rightly distinguished as a nummus from the earlier silver coins whose currency-value might and did vary in relation to the bronze nummus, the as : these had in the first instance been rated at ten asses and called denarii, but by 217 their exchange rate was sixteen asses.
A Letter of Hadrian in Beroea
Authors: Cormack J. M. R.
Published: May 2006

Although Plassart, when publishing for the first time the inscription referred to as Text A in this article, mentioned that he had seen it ‘assez rapidement’ and that it ‘mériterait révision’, Crönert did not realise in SEG ii, 398, that he was restoring a text which had not been published in its entirety. I was able, during a visit to Beroea in the autumn of 1936 in the company of Mr. C. F. Edson of Harvard University, to examine the inscription carefully and, in addition to correcting some inaccuracies in Plassart's copy, removed, with the permission of the Δεσπότης of Beroea, a wooden bench which covered a portion of the inscription, and thus was able to read all the extant text. The accompanying photograph (fig. 5) shows clearly the part of the text hitherto unread.
Notes concerning the Principate of Gaius
Authors: Balsdon J. P. V. D.
Published: May 2006

It is reasonable to suppose that these, the only two legions with the title ‘Primigenia,’ were sister legions. Cassius Dio appears to have thought that they were created by Augustus; for, in his (otherwise accurate) list of the foundation dates of legions which survived to his own day, he mentioned XXII (Mommsen's insertion of δευτέρου ϰαὶ in the text of 55, 23, 6 is a certain one) among the legions of Augustus' army. This cannot be XXII Deiotariana, for it was no longer in existence in Cassius Dio's time, but must be XXII Primigenia. Cassius Dio did not include XV Primigenia in his list because, having been disbanded by Vespasian at the beginning of his principate, it did not qualify for a place in that list. As, however, there is no room for these two legions among the twenty-five Roman legions which existed in A.D. 23, Cassius Dio was evidently in error, and the two legions must be supposed to have been created after that date.
Literary Evidence for the Beginnings of Roman Art
Authors: Van Essen C. C.
Published: May 2006

‘Art in Rome and Roman art are two notions not necessarily identical.’ Some years ago, I began a paper on the chronology of Roman sculpture under the Republic with these words, and since then Mrs. Strong has published her book Art in Ancient Rome, which by its title seems to express the same view—a view corroborated by the materials studied in the first chapters. Therefore, notwithstanding some recent objections, in matters of plastic art at Rome, I persist in distinguishing a Latin and a Roman period, meeting about 90 B.C., the epoch of the Social War.
A New Diploma for Roman Britain
Authors: Pryce F. N.
Published: May 2006

The British Museum has acquired a military diploma (figs. 1–4) issued on July 17th, A.D. 122, to Gemellus, a non-commissioned officer of the Ala I Pannoniorum Tampiana, granting the usual privileges of a time-expired auxiliary—citizenship and the right to contract a legal marriage. It was found in 1925 at O-Szöny, the ancient Brigetio in Pannonia Superior, on the Danube fifty miles west of Buda-Pest. Seals and wiring have disappeared, though it is said that the bronze wire was still in position round the tablets when they were found. The two bronze tablets are complete; a corner of the rear one was broken by the pick, but the fragments have been rejoined and the break does not obscure the letters. There is a slight edging round the outer texts, the inner surfaces are flat. The dimensions are 6½ × 5¾ in. (·165 × ·148 m.).
Cicero's Ideal in his de Republica
Authors: How W. W.
Published: May 2006

Any attempt to sketch. Cicero's political ideals from his own treatises de Republica and de Legibus has to confront two difficulties, one of which, at least is real and insuperable. This obstacle is that both treatises are in their present condition so defective or fragmentary that we have to judge Cicero's ideal from a torso, not a complete work. The six books On the Republic were clearly finished and published just before Cicero started for Cilicia in 51 B.C.; but though the bulk of the first three books has been recovered from the Vatican palimpsest, of the last three we have only the Somnium Scipionis and the merest fragments, so that on education and, above all, on Cicero's specific remedy for the evils of the day, the ‘moderator rei publicae,’ we have to reconstruct his views from two or three isolated notices accidentally preserved. The de Legibus was begun as soon as, or before, the Republic was finished, but was discontinued during Cicero's proconsulate and the Civil War (51–48 B.C.).
The Lex Varia
Authors: Gruen Erich S.
Published: May 2006

The outbreak of the Social War brought in its wake a furious succession of criminal prosecutions with important political implications. The wheels of ‘justice’ were set in motion by the notorious lex Varia, a criminal law passed on the motion of the tribune Q. Varius Severus Hybrida. It was not long before numerous prominent individuals came under attack and the Roman political scene was thrown into turmoil. The lex Varia will repay close scrutiny.

Modern scholarship has been content with the analysis of this measure delivered by Appian. Some time after the death of M. Livius Drusus, the tribune of 91 B.C., the equites endeavoured to make his liberal policy towards the Italians a ground for malicious prosecution of their enemies, and to this end they induced Q. Varius to pass his law. The purpose was to bring the entire senatorial oligarchy under the odious charge of sympathy with the Italian insurgents and to entrench equestrian control of the state. Such is the version of Appian. It is certainly true that, as was by now customary, external crises were made the pretext for attacks upon political opponents. The charge of bearing responsibility, in some sense, for the outbreak of war could be stretched to fit a wide variety of activities. But a careful examination of the lex Varia and of the cases heard under it will demonstrate that Appian's judgment leaves much to be desired. Legal and political consequences have never yet been fully understood or analysed, and the law can shed much light on Roman internal struggles in this period.
The Riot of A.D. 387 in Antioch: The Role of the Theatrical Claques in the Later Empire
Authors: Browning Robert
Published: May 2006

The riot at Antioch in the early spring of A.D. 387 is described in two eye-witness accounts, that of Libanius—in particular Orations 19–23—and that of John Chrysostom—in particular the 21 Homiliae ad populum Antiochenum de statuis. Consequently, it has often been studied in more or less detail by modern scholars, each approaching it from his own point of view. It might seem that all that could be said has been said. Nevertheless, certain features of the disorders, which have some interest for the social history of the period, have not been adequately dealt with. It is as a contribution to the understanding of these that the present study is written.
Four Inscriptions from Roman Cyrene
Authors: Reynolds Joyce
Published: May 2006

The four inscriptions from Roman Cyrene published below, illustrate aspects of the city's life in the first, the later second and the early fifth centuries A.D. Taken together they suggest that there may be a case for modification of theories that Cyrene was declining throughout the Roman period, whether gently from the Augustan period or sharply after the Jewish Revolt of 115, to be moribund by the end of the fourth century.
Marcus Aurelius and the Small Earth
Authors: Thomson J. O.
Published: May 2006

Among the musings of Marcus Aurelius a recurrent theme is the narrow range of fame, which covers only a ‘corner’ of the entire earth, while the entire earth itself (the globe) is only a point in the universe. These ideas were not novel, but they are boldly worded and impressive as coming from a man who was obeyed from Clyde to Tigris. Just then ancient geography had reached its widest horizons: Ptolemy had stretched the known earth half-way round the globe from the Isles of the Blest (the Canaries) eastward to the capital of the Sinae beyond the port of Cattigara. One Alexander is named as sailing along this farthest eastern coast, and that there were other seamen like him is suggested by a Chinese notice of some merchants who arrived at the Tongking frontier in A.D. 166 and posed, or were mistaken, as envoys from An-tun, King of Ta-ts'in.
The Geographical Catalogue in Acts II, 9–11
Authors: Weinstock Stefan
Published: May 2006

If this note should prove persuasive, the credit will not belong to me; if not, I must accept the blame for publishing something not published by its author.

Recently I acquired an offprint of Cumont's article ‘La plus ancienne géographie astrologique’ (Klio ix, 1909, 263–273) which deals with the doctrine that divides up the various countries among the signs of the zodiac. On p. 265, where the list of Paulus Alexandrinus (which I reproduce below in the left column) is given, I found a marginal note (here on the right) in the hand of the late Professor F. C. Burkitt:—

Burkitt's opinion obviously was that, if we want to understand this list of the Acts, we must turn to astrological geography. This seemed a convincing suggestion and became even more convincing when I found how this passage had puzzled the commentators. Some of them felt that the writer meant to say ‘the whole oecumene’, but they could not explain why he mentions just these countries. What follows is intended to show that Burkitt's suggestion is sound.
Livy, Licinius Macer and theLibri Lintei
Authors: Ogilvie R. M.
Published: May 2006

C. Licinius Macer is little known outside the citations by Livy and Dionysius of Halicarnassus. Cicero classifies him among the Roman historians but says nothing about the scope or contents of his work. From the fragments we can see that it dealt with the whole field of Roman history from the earliest times, evidently in the conventional manner used by Annalists and with considerable detail. Livy cites him seven times but not beyond the first Decade since he appears to prefer other Annalists for later history. These citations, however, are of great value because they reveal what sources Licinius himself quoted, e.g. 4, 7, 12, ‘Licinius Macer auctor est et in foedere Ardeatino et in linteis libris ad Monetae inventa’; 23,1 ‘… et Tubero et Macer libros linteos auctores profitentur … Licinio libros haud dubie sequi linteos placet’; 20, 8 ‘libri quos linteos in aede repositos Monetae Macer Licinius citat identidem auctores’. Thus we are taken behind our surviving authorities to the question of their information in the Roman historical tradition.
The Funerary Garden of Mousa
Authors: Fraser P. M. , Nicholas B.
Published: May 2006

The inscription here published was communicated to me in 1956 by Mr. L. Benaki of Alexandria who saw some of the fragments in early summer of that year in a dealer's shop in Alexandria and was subsequently able, by dint of considerable perseverance, to recover a few more pieces. Mr. Benaki assembled the pieces himself and had them photographed, and the excellent photograph (fig. 10) is the source of the text given below. He has also put me in his debt by verifying a few points and sending me paper rubbings of individual fragments where the photograph left the reading in doubt. The stone itself is now, thanks to Mr. Benaki, in Alexandria Museum.
A Roman Silver Helmet in the Toledo (Ohio) Museum of Art
Authors: Vermeule Cornelius C.
Published: May 2006

In 1958 Edward Drummond Libbey presented the helmet published here to the Toledo Museum of Art (pls. I, II). Its importance warrants at least a brief notice. The helmet is lifesize, that is it can be readily worn by a present-day person of average size. Excepting the possible loss of two ornaments (rosettes) at the sides of the browpiece or area where the pivots of the visor would be, if the helmet had one, the helmet is in nearly perfect condition. The metal is silver of good quality; the ornaments on top, on the browpiece and on the cheekpieces are also silver, with goldfoil coverings.
The Fiscus in the First Two Centuries
Authors: Millar Fergus
Published: May 2006

The early Principate tends to be interpreted in terms of the constitutional forms in which it was clothed and the administrative innovations which it brought, to the neglect of those, largely unchanged, social and economic factors which shaped the actual working of Roman politics. In no area has this tendency been more obvious than in works dealing with the Fiscus, which has thus been seen as an alternative ‘state treasury’ created at a given moment, by Augustus, perhaps in 21 or 20 B.C., by Tiberius, or by Claudius, which absorbed the revenues of the imperial provinces, and some indirect taxes. It is also seen as an administrative unit (like a Treasury, or a University Chest) concerned with the handling of an area of public finance.
An Augustan Document Recovered
Authors: Turner E. G.
Published: May 2006

Since its publication in 1930 by G. Vitelli and M. Norsa (Bull, de la Soc. roy. d'Alexandrie n.s. VII, 1930, 9 ff.) the text conveniently known as the ‘Boule’ papyrus, or (to give it the serial number under which it was republished) PSI 1160 (x, 1932), has been the centre of a furious controversy. Is the text an official document from the Egyptian archives, or is it non-documentary, whether that means ’rhetorical exercise’, suasoria, or semi-fictional narrative ? H. A. Musurillo's admirable collection The Acts of the Pagan Martyrs (Oxford, 1954) sums up present views and excuses me from giving a bibliography.

One important piece of evidence has, however, been strangely neglected, namely the language of the text. It can, I think, be demonstrated that PSI 1160 is a Greek translation of a Latin original. The decisive point is the grammatical form of the sentences in col. 11, in which φημὶ ταύτην φροντιεῖν ἴνα μὴ beginning in line 1 continues to govern subjunctives down to the end of line 14. A total of seven finite verbs in the subjunctive occur in these lines, all owing their mood to this introductory phrase, a phrase never repeated or reinforced even though there are two breaks of sense sufficiently distinct for Musurillo to mark one with a colon, and one with a full stop.
Rome, Aphrodisias and the Res Gestae: The Genera Militiae and the Status of Octavian
Authors: Linderski J.
Published: May 2006

When in the autumn of 44 Octavian embarked on his perilous journey as heir to Caesar's mantle he and his soldiers were branded as brigands or extolled as saviours of their country. What was their legal status ? Most modern historians, fascinated with naked power, tacitly dismiss this question as utterly frivolous. They are fully satisfied with Ciceronian epithets. Octavian and Cicero were not. The Roman doctrine of the genera militiae afforded Octavian a comfortable legal niche at each stage of his career. It allows us to comprehend the intricate manoeuvres in the senate at the turn of 44 and 43 B.C.; it also sheds light on the crowning coup of Octavian when he led Italy as a dux against Antonius and the Queen. But this antiquarian doctrine, attested only in late authors, could easily be dismissed as an artificial construct far removed from real life. Historical puzzles lie dormant and insoluble until a spark of insight creates an instant enlightenment. And the spark comes from Aphrodisias, from the new documents published in an exemplary way by Joyce Reynolds, Aphrodisias and Rome (1982). It comes in the shape of a new puzzle.
Lactantius and Constantine
Authors: Barnes T. D.
Published: May 2006

Flavius Valerius Constantius, the senior reigning emperor since Diocletian and Maximian had abdicated on 1 May 305, died at Eburacum on 25 July 306. At once his entourage and army proclaimed Augustus the son who stood beside his death-bed, and invested him with the purple. Constantine, however, with a subtlety beyond his years, contented himself with obtaining recognition as a Caesar from Galerius, who now, as the senior emperor, possessed the right of appointing new imperial colleagues. Constantine's modesty or foresight was soon repaid. On 28 October 306 the praetorian guard and people of Rome raised to power Maxentius, the son of Maximian. Severus, Augustus in the west since Constantius' death, marched on Rome to suppress the insurrection, but was forced to retreat by the desertion of his troops, besieged in Ravenna and inveigled into surrender by Maximian, who had emerged from retirement to aid his son.