bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Meta‐Analysis
Authors: Franke George R.
Published: January 2015

Meta‐analysis
is the quantitative analysis of empirical research results. Unlike traditional literature reviews, meta‐analyses focus on
effect sizes
. An effect may be a response to stimuli, a correlation between variables, or a variety of other study results. A meta‐analysis shows the range and variance of effect sizes across multiple studies, summarizes the average effect size and tests it for significance, and may reveal moderators that systematically vary the strength of the effect. The results can guide management practice, inform public policy decisions, and indicate where future research efforts may be most productive. The value of meta‐analysis underlies its widespread use across hundreds of published applications in marketing, management, and related fields.
Multi‐Level Modeling
Authors: Evanschitzky Heiner , Backhaus Christof
Published: January 2015

Whenever research is concerned with the analysis of relationships between lowerlevel units (e.g., individuals) and the higherlevel unit they belong to (e.g., group), a hierarchical – multilevel or nested – data structure occurs. In such cases, multi‐level modeling (MLM) approaches, also known as hierarchical linear modeling, are suited to empirically assess respective data structures in a methodologically correct way. The article gives an introduction to the background of multilevel modeling, outlines the methodological procedure for the basic case of a two‐level model, and provides an outlook to more advanced applications of MLM.
Neuromarketing
Authors: Saad Gad
Published: January 2015

Neuromarketing utilizes apparatuses from the neurosciences (e.g., functional magnetic resonance imaging or electroencephalography) to investigate individuals' response to marketing stimuli. The assumption is that such data will garner insights beyond those obtained via more traditional methods. Brain activation patterns are contrasted across two states: when performing an experimental task (e.g., viewing an advertisement) versus in a control condition. By mapping the changes in the chosen substrate (electric/magnetic signals, blood flow, or blood oxygenation), researchers infer the brain regions that were differentially engaged during the task. Some critics have argued that this paradigm amounts to little more than a search for “pretty brain images” followed by post hoc explanations while supporters propose that the paradigm will unlock many mysteries of the consumer's mind.
Niche Marketing
Authors: Chaston Ian
Published: January 2015

Niche marketing
(or “focused marketing”) is concerned with identifying a small but well‐defined area of a market which permits a firm to offer a specialist product or service which is specifically designed to satisfy the unique needs of a small group of customers.
Noise
Authors: Yorke David
Published: January 2015

Noise occurs when the recipient of a message devises a meaning different from that intended by the communicator.
Orientations in Marketing
Authors: Boichuk Jeffrey P. , Menguc Bulent , Auh Seigyoung
Published: January 2015

The authors propose a 2 × 2 taxonomy that can be used as a tool to systematically review the marketing literature on orientations within firms. Specifically, they delineate previous research in the area based on two continuums: (i)
level of analysis
: organization or individual and (ii)
continuity
: state‐like or trait‐like. Referring to influential research in the area, the authors apply their framework to the research streams of market orientation and customer orientation. While space limitations preclude discussion of the many other orientations studied in marketing, the ideologies discussed herein can be readily applied elsewhere. A primary contribution of this passage is the organizing guide it provides marketing academics, which can be used to advance research on orientations in marketing.
Panel Data
Authors: Jones Chris
Published: January 2015

Panel data refers to a cross section of observations sampled repeatedly over a period of time.
Place Marketing
Authors: Guido Gianluigi
Published: January 2015

Place marketing can be defined as a series of persuasive activities carried out by a strategic subject (made of both public and private organizations) aimed at reshaping expectations, changing the priority of desires, and acting on experiences of interaction with the local territorial system by internal users (e.g., residents and firms) and external ones (e.g., tourists and investors), in a way to persuade them to collaborate.
Price Bundling
Authors: Grundström Christina
Published: January 2015

Price bundling involves selling a package of products (goods and or services) at a lower price than if the products were priced and sold separately. Price bundling is closely related to bundling and is a common means to differentiate a company's offerings, regardless of type of product. The assumption in marketing theory that there is perfect information, that is, both parties involved in a transaction share the same information, often is an unrealistic condition. More frequently there are imbalances or non‐perfect conditions allowing for price discrimination. Price discrimination, which can be classified as direct, semi‐direct, and indirect, can be related to bundling. Setting an appropriate price for a bundle requires in‐depth knowledge of customers' needs. If done appropriately, the utility will be optimized. To achieve this there may be a need for a decrease in price of a bundle to compensate the loss in value and need satisfaction if the bundle consists of products with unequal vale or need satisfaction.
Price Image
Authors: Zielke Stephan
Published: January 2015

Price image is often defined as the buyer's attitude toward price on the assortment‐level or the price‐level perception of a retail store. Streams in price image research focus on the integration of information in forming an overall store price image, the specific role of different information cues (e.g., price advertising, price guarantees, or store design cues) in this process, and the conceptualization of price image as a multidimensional latent variable. The latter research stream requires an extended definition of the price image construct. According to this view, price image can be defined as a multidimensional latent variable, consisting of several cognitive dimensions related to beliefs about a company's pricing activities and anticipated emotions associated with these beliefs.
Quasi‐Experiment
Authors: Ellen Pam Scholder , Fitzgerald M. Paula
Published: January 2015

Quasi‐experimental designs are primary data collection methods that seek to infer causality in a setting that does not allow the researcher to randomly assign test units to experimental conditions. Quasi‐experiments are useful when researchers are interested in a phenomenon that occurs in a complex environment that cannot be well‐replicated in a laboratory setting. Because random assignment is not used, the onus is on the researcher to explicitly address how he or she has controlled for other explanations of the observed effects. Thus, the researcher gives careful consideration to including procedures that create equivalence among experimental and control groups and/or measuring and statistically adjusting for extraneous variables.
Radio Frequency Identification (
RFID
)
Authors: Sparks Leigh
Published: January 2015

Radio frequency identification (
RFID
) has seen increased implementation in many sectors, including retailing. Combining radio‐enabled tags/labels and readers,
RFID
offers the potential for item‐level ‘always‐on’ product identification, though at some cost (financial and management). For retailers, there are benefits to be gained in visibility and productivity enhancements in supply chains and stock control.
Resource‐Based View (
RBV
)
Authors: Chaston Ian
Published: January 2015

Resource‐based view (
RBV
) of the firm is a concept which proposes that in increasingly competitive markets where all firms understand customer needs, differentiation can only be achieved by the organizations focusing on and exploiting some form of superior internal organizational capabilities (or “competences”).
Retailing Evolution
Authors: Sparks Leigh
Published: January 2015

Retailing has evolved from being the passive recipient of manufacturers' production and distribution, to become the dominant and controlling influence in the supply of consumer products. Consumer‐led and retailer brand‐focused, modern retailing provides for consumer needs in a multitude of ways and places, and through retail shops (and web sites) of all sizes and shapes.
Salience
Authors: Guido Gianluigi
Published: January 2015

A marketing stimulus is salient with respect to other stimuli – and, therefore, is able to activate as much as four times more memory – in two cases: either when it is incongruent, in a given context, with respect to the perceivers' mental schemata (so‐called salience in a narrow sense, or in‐salience); or when it is congruent, in a given context, with the perceivers' personal objectives (so‐called relevance, or re‐salience). In both cases, stimuli are more likely to be perceived and memorized, since consumers, respectively, involuntarily or voluntarily allocate to them a relatively higher quantity of cognitive resources.
Servicescape
Authors: Daunt Kate L.
Published: January 2015

The term servicescape refers to the physical environment of a service firm. Identified facets of servicescapes include a) ambient factors (sounds, colours, scents and lights), b) signs, symbols and artefacts (signage, decorations and objects) and c) spatial layout and functionality (the physical arrangement of equipment and furniture). Services marketing academicians widely accept that servicescapes represent a form of environmental stimuli that drive customers and employees cognitive, emotional and physiological responses which in turn affects individuals' behaviours.
Standardization
Authors: Fastoso Fernando
Published: January 2015

Standardization refers to the international marketing practice of using similar or identical marketing strategies and tactics across countries and stands in contraposition to adaptation or localization. Standardization is seen as necessary on the basis of international consumer and market convergence and beneficial for companies as it delivers economies of scale and global brand image building. Recent research has also shown that under specific conditions standardization can have a positive impact on company performance.
Supply Chain
Authors: Grundström Christina
Published: January 2015

The term supply chain refers to all organizations involved in moving a product (good or service) from its initiation/birth until it reaches its final customer, be it a consumer or an organizational buyer. A channel of distribution is a special type of supply chain. Recycling is often made part of the supply chain. Quite often only parts of a supply chain are studied at one time and the study is made from one organization's perspective. When looking from an organization towards a supplier it is called to view the chain upstream, and downstream when the view is towards the customer. Studies of supply chains include besides raw material or supplies, various types of financial transactions, knowledge exchange, adaption and social relations. Due to various reasons, companies may choose to move, also called to integrate, up or down the supply chain. A move up the supply chain for a certain company involves taking over activities and responsibilities previously carried out by one or more suppliers. A move down the supply chain may involve making products more complete before moving them on to the next step.
Sustainability
Authors: Varey Richard J.
Published: January 2015

Sustainability is the performance standard for society living within Earth's replenishable budget of resources. This requires decoupling of development (enhanced natural and social capital) from economic growth and environmental damage. Such a society is humane, cultured, and socially rewarding. Sustainability encompasses the entire range of human values, and intragenerational and intergenerational standards of quality of life.
Sustainable Competitive Advantage
Authors: Chaston Ian
Published: January 2015

S
ustainable
C
ompetitive
A
dvantage defines the business and marketing strategies that have been selected by the organization with the aim of achieving long‐term superior performance in the market place.
Unintended Consequences of Marketing
Authors: Mariussen Anastasia
Published: January 2015

Although unintended consequences of marketing can be both positive and negative in nature, the marketing literature primarily focuses on positive marketing outcomes and pays less attention to negative unanticipated effects of marketing. Meanwhile, negative unintended consequences can occur through the entire marketing supply chain and can span across macro, micro, and internal or firm environments. This article defines unintended marketing consequences, demonstrates their variety by drawing on multiple examples, and briefly summarizes how unintended consequences of marketing can be proactively addressed and eliminated.
Unique Selling Proposition
Authors: Farrell Andrew M. , Lee Nick
Published: January 2015

A unique selling proposition (
USP
, also known as unique selling point) is something typically encountered in
A
dvertising and communications.
Value (Perceived)
Authors: Sánchez José Ángel López
Published: January 2015

Creating superior perceived value is acknowledged by academics and practitioners to be crucial for a firm's survival and success. This entry gives a brief explanation of what is understood by perceived value in the marketing domain, trying to capture the essence of its richness and complexity. It also identifies key recurring issues related to this concept.
Virtual Reality
Authors: Page Kelly L.
Published: January 2015

This article provides a review of virtual reality, and how virtual reality is used in differing sectors to facilitate immersive experiences for learning and design.
Boundary Spanning
Authors: Hopkinson Gillian C. , Zolkiewski Judy
Published: January 2015

Boundary spanning describes the location and activities of those organizational members who have contact, on behalf of the firm, with external actors.
Causal Research/Causation
Authors: Martínez‐López Francisco J. , Gázquez‐Abad Juan C.
Published: January 2015

Causal considerations are fundamental to understand reality and vital part of scientific progress along time (Pearl, 2000), so central to the mission of management and marketing sciences (e.g., Hunt, 2002).
CRM
Strategy
Authors: Karantinou Kalipso
Published: January 2015

The term “customer relationship management” emerged in the information technology vendor community in the mid‐1990s to refer to technology‐based solutions facilitating the management of customer data and the customer‐firm interface. In the academic community,
CRM
is associated with Relationship Marketing and is described as ‘information‐enabled relationship marketing’. The belief that
CRM
activities can enhance firm performance and that developing customer relationships can lead to profitability, led to an explosion of interest in the study and practice of
CRM
by both academics and executives, with many firms implementing
CRM
programs. Although the conceptual underpinnings of
CRM
are hardly questioned, the lack of agreement about what
CRM
should include, the conflicting implementation results, and some highly publicized failures, have created substantial concern and skepticism. The root of the problem appears to be in the implementation of
CRM
, which is proven challenging for firms. The mere implementation of
CRM
technology does not lead to the desired effect; it is instead the key reason for
CRM
failure.
CRM
should be positioned at a strategic level to yield positive results, complemented by a customer relationship orientation, and facilitated by a number of changes in organizational processes and alignment of these processes with technology.
Experimentation
Authors: Fitzgerald M. Paula , Ellen Pam Scholder
Published: January 2015

An experiment is a primary research method intended to test cause and effect relationships. Researchers systematically manipulate (or change) the variable hypothesized to be the cause and then measure the variable hypothesized to be the effect. Respondents are randomly assigned to a treatment or a control group. Good experimentation focuses on designing methods that maximize internal validity of the results.
Factorial Experimental Design
Authors: Ellen Pam Scholder , Fitzgerald M. Paula
Published: January 2015

Factorial experimental designs have the advantage of testing the impact of two or more different independent variables at one time. These designs allow researchers to explore mediator and moderator effects and, as such, are often chosen by social scientists interested in theory development and testing.
International Marketing Environment
Authors: Yamin Mohammed
Published: January 2015

The Marketing Environment is commonly defined as the set of actors and forces that influence the success of a company's marketing program.
Marketing
Authors: Leverick Fiona
Published: January 2015

Marketing was apparently taught as a business subject as far back as 1902, at the University of Wisconsin, although the first textbooks on the subject were not written until several years later.
Marketing Ethics
Authors: Marsden David
Published: January 2015

Marketing ethics is the branch of knowledge
Marketing Information Systems
Authors: Cedrola Elena
Published: January 2015

A marketing information system can be defined as an integrated and interactive structure of people, equipment and procedures, designed to collect, classify, analyze, evaluate and distribute timely, relevant and accurate information to support decision‐making processes. The key areas of MKIS are: the internal company record system, the marketing intelligence system, the marketing research system, and the marketing decision support system.
Marketing Mix
Authors: Kasabov Edward
Published: January 2015

The term “marketing mix” was first used by
Neil Borden
to describe a list of important ingredients that constitute marketing programs. The marketing mix came to describe closely related decisions that managers make within the remit of marketing. Diversity of opinions has marked thinking about the marketing mix from the outset, and there is a lack of consensus about the components, usefulness, and applicability of the mix. Borden's own list is probably the longest, but the best known and the most widely used marketing mix is
McCarthy
's four Ps framework consisting of product, price, promotion, and place. The four Ps have been widely criticized as simplistic and misleading, especially in areas of services, relationship, and business‐to‐business marketing. More recent elaborations of the marketing mix include
Booms
and
Bitner's
services marketing mix (also referred to as the extended marketing mix). Even though academics have empirically demonstrated the importance of the mix to practitioners, some marketing theorists have questioned or even rejected it.
Marketing Planning
Authors: McDonald Malcolm
Published: January 2015

Marketing planning is simply a logical process for scheduling and costing out what has to be done to achieve a specific set of objectives.
Political Marketing
Authors: Harris Phil
Published: January 2015

Political marketing as a concept and practice has its early origins in the United States and was first regularly used as a territorial definition within marketing by Kelly (1956).
Qualitative Research
Authors: Wright Len T.
Published: January 2015

Qualitative research is a form of inquiry leading to theory building as a result of empirical insights.
Sales Territory
Authors: Le Meunier‐FitzHugh Kenneth
Published: January 2015

Sales territories are the customers allocated to a salesperson or group. Territories can be organized either by geographical area or by product/customer grouping. The selection of the structure for a territory will depend on the balance of costs of implementation against the benefits gained by the customers and organization.
Social Marketing
Authors: Deshpande Sameer
Published: January 2015

Social marketing is a behavior‐management framework that applies commercial marketing principles to solve social problems. A social marketing manager makes a fourfold offer to the target audience (product, price, place, and promotion) in exchange for adopting desired behavior. Social marketing is audience‐oriented, research‐oriented, and bottom‐line‐oriented.
Strategic Planning
Authors: Littler Dale , Rudd John
Published: January 2015

Strategic planning is generally regarded as a structured approach to the formulation of corporate or business strategy. It is widely recognised as a process, that produces a strategic plan and involves a series of
sequential steps; however this perspective has received criticism. Organizations view strategic planning as a
mechanism to help deal with environmental uncertainty.
Business‐to‐Business Marketing
Authors: Eng Teck‐Yong
Published: January 2015

The study of business‐to‐business marketing is at the core of creating business value in interfirm relationship management. Business marketing has advanced from understanding the nature of interaction in a dyad relationship to complex and strategic collaboration among firms in a network of relationships such as in strategic alliances, business partnerships, and functional collaboration (e.g., new product development alliances, supply chains, research and development collaboration). Such complex networks of relationships may include intra‐ and interfirm interdependence of functions, and they can have implications for business exchange, relationship development, and performance outcomes. Managers must therefore manage interfirm relationships be it, business customers, suppliers, government agencies, or research institutes to fulfil specific business objectives. Insights from business marketing can help firms to create business value and opportunities through interaction and relationship management in the business network. This article provides a comprehensive overview of empirical evidence on the numerous challenges and strategies for business relationship development and management.
Above‐the‐Line
Authors: Littler Dale
Published: January 2015

Traditionally, Marketing Communications were divided into above‐ and below‐the‐line, with Advertising being in the former category and all other marketing communications being categorized as below‐the‐line.
Acculturation
Authors: Lindridge Andrew
Published: January 2015

Acculturation represents a change in a culture that arises from two differing cultures inter‐acting with each other, typically through migration. This article explores what acculturation is and its implications for an individual, group and society.
Adaptive Strategy
Authors: Littler Dale
Published: January 2015

This is one of three original strategic styles, the others being the entrepreneurial and planning (
see
Entrepreneurial Strategy, Planning Style), suggested by Mintzberg (1973).
Adoption Process
Authors: Littler Dale
Published: January 2015

The consumer adoption process for an innovation is typically represented as a number of stages consisting of, in the order through which they are passed: awareness, when the consumer first becomes knowledgeable about an innovation either passively or through an active search; information search, when the consumer is stimulated to acquire more details about the innovation; evaluation, when the consumer assesses whether or not the innovation satisfies his/her requirements, often against competing possibilities; trial, when either physically or vicariously the consumer tries out the innovation in a way that minimizes the risk; and finally adoption or rejection.
Advertising
Authors: Lewis Barbara R.
Published: January 2015

Advertising is a paid form of nonpersonal presentation and communication about an organization and/or its goods and services, by an identified sponsor, that is transmitted to a target audience through a mass medium.
Affective Stage
Authors: Yorke David
Published: January 2015

Marketing Communications models, which state that a target buyer or customer moves along a spectrum from a state of ignorance or unawareness of an organization and/or its products or services to ultimately making a purchase, comprise three principal stages, namely, the Cognitive Stage, affective stage, and Conative Stage (or behavioral).
Behavioral Perspective
Authors: Healey Mark P.
Published: January 2015

The behavioral perspective views the actions of Customers as determined by the setting or situation in which consumption takes place, rather than by internal mental processes such as Attitudes or intentions.
Benefit Segmentation
Authors: Mitchell Vincent‐Wayne
Published: January 2015

Benefit segmentation is the division of a market according to the benefits consumers want from a product.
Brand Extension
Authors: Healey Mark P.
Published: January 2015

A brand extension is a new or modified product or service that is marketed and promoted with strong associations with a preexisting brand, in order to infer the positive associations customers hold for the existing brand on the new or modified offering.
Brand Image
Authors: Littler Dale
Published: January 2015

A consumer builds up associations with a brand based on personal experience, word‐of‐mouth (
see
Word‐of‐Mouth Communications), Advertising, and promotion.
Buy–Feel–Learn Model
Authors: Yorke David
Published: January 2015

The buy–feel–learn (
BFL
) model in Marketing Communications suggests that in some situations buyers/customers do not follow the logical learn–feel–buy sequence.
Buyers
Authors: Karantinou Kalipso
Published: January 2015

In the context of organizational buying, buyers are those individuals with authority and formal responsibility to make purchases. In many cases, however, they are not the only ones involved in decision‐making; end users, initiators, deciders and gatekeepers are other identified roles within the decision making unit. The importance of the buyer can vary depending on the organization's philosophy and attitude toward the purchase function and the level of risk associated with the purchase. A significant and often overlooked role of buyers is managing relationships with suppliers, which requires substantial effort and resources. Buyers in business‐to‐business contexts have traditionally been assumed to be rational and unbiased, but internal politics, power balances, personal goals and a desire for intra‐organizational political gain can significantly affect buyers and the buying function within an organization.
Communications Objectives
Authors: Lewis Barbara R.
Published: January 2015

The objectives of Marketing Communications are concerned primarily with information and education about companies and their products and services, and ultimately with consumer purchase and satisfaction, together with achievement of corporate goals such as profits, return on investment, growth, and market shares (seeMarket Share).
Confidence Intervals
Authors: Greatorex Michael
Published: January 2015

Estimates of population parameters, for example, the population mean, based upon data from a sample are often required.
Consumerism
Authors: Mitchell Vincent‐Wayne
Published: January 2015

Consumerism involves those activities of government, business, independent organizations, and consumers themselves which help protect consumers against unfair or unethical business practices.
CUE
Authors: Yorke David
Published: January 2015

A cue is a non‐verbal signal communicated by a person, a product, or service that serves to give direction to customer drives or motives.
Culture and Social Identity
Authors: Lindridge Andrew
Published: January 2015

Culture represents a collection of beliefs, norms, rules and values that determine not only how we behave but also how we see ourselves. Ultimately then an individual can be seen as a product or the culture they exist within, which then dictates how we behave in a manner that reinforced a desired sense of self‐identity. This culturally derived self‐identity can encompass three categories: the private self (where the individual is motivated to meet their own individual needs), the collective self (where the individual is motivated to please and satisfy a wider group's needs, such as the family) and the public self (where the individual is motivated to please either the group they belong to or present an image of themselves that they feel reflects who they are). Ultimately these identities are linked to collectivist and individualist cultural systems.
Customers
Authors: Karantinou Kalipso
Published: January 2015

The concept of customer is closely associated with the concept of marketing and the concept of exchange. Marketing is concerned with satisfying customer needs and with facilitating exchanges in a variety of different contexts. Customers can be individuals or social units involved in selecting, acquiring, consuming and disposing of products, services, experiences, and ideas, exchanging money, information, status, and feelings in the exchange process. The utilitarian exchange theory views customers as rational in their behavior, free from external influences and possessing complete information on alternatives available to them in exchanges. Research into customer buyer behavior nevertheless reveals a different picture: customers are sometimes irrational, motivated by tangible as well as intangible rewards, by internal as well as external forces, basing their choices on incomplete information, and settling for less than optimum gains in their exchanges, guided by utilitarian but also symbolic aspects in their decisions.
Descriptive Statistics
Authors: Greatorex Michael , Freeman Jim
Published: January 2015

Unless the sample in a market research project is very small, the data will be tabulated and analyzed using a computer.
Differentiation Strategy
Authors: Littler Dale
Published: January 2015

This is the alternative generic strategy (
see
Generic Strategies) to the Cost Leadership Strategy.
Direct Mail
Authors: Yorke David
Published: January 2015

Direct mail is a part of
D
irect
M
arketing and, specifically, is Advertising that is sent directly to the mailing address of a target customer.
Disintermediarization
Authors: Littler Dale
Published: January 2015

Disintermediarization refers to the process whereby marketers bypass traditional intermediaries, such as retailers, to sell directly to the final customer/purchaser.
Diversification
Authors: Littler Dale
Published: January 2015

Diversification is regarded as the option involving the greatest risk in Ansoff's.
Electronic Commerce
Authors: Newman Andrew
Published: January 2015

This term has been widely used to describe various forms of electronic business interactions between two or more parties.
Electronic Data Interchange (
EDI
)
Authors: Newman Andrew , Bruce Margaret
Published: January 2015

Electronic data interchange (
EDI
) refers to computer‐to‐computer exchange of standard business documentation in machine‐processable form, between the retailer and the wholesaler and/or manufacturer.
Emergent Strategy
Authors: Littler Dale
Published: January 2015

In analyzing the process of strategy formation, a distinction has been made between deliberate and emergent strategies.
Equivalence
Authors: Sinkovics Rudolf R.
Published: January 2015

Equivalence refers to the comparability of data at the measurement level. If cross‐national or cross‐cultural data that have been collected from various international market contexts are considered equivalent, no biases are challenging the comparability of their scores.
Etic–Emic Dilemma
Authors: Lindridge Andrew
Published: January 2015

The terms etic and emic are widely used methodological themes in cross‐cultural research, describing how a cultural phenomenon can be assessed. How the researcher measures differing cultural behaviors ultimately has implications for the nature of the research gathered. Based on this recognition, researchers can take two perspectives on how they view culture – the etic (which views the culture being studied from the perspective of the researcher's own culture, and therefore assumes cultural superiority on the researcher's behalf) and emic (which views the culture being researched solely from the perspective of the culture being studied). The two approaches that offer advantages and disadvantages.
Evoked Set
Authors: Banister Emma
Published: January 2015

The evoked set refers to the number of alternatives (e.g., products and brands) that are considered by customers during the problem‐solving process.
Exhibitions
Authors: Yorke David
Published: January 2015

Exhibitions or trade shows are an element in the marketing
C
ommunications
M
ix.
Experience Curve
Authors: Littler Dale
Published: January 2015

The experience curve suggests that, as a firm accumulates “experience,” its real costs will decline at a predictable rate.
External Audit
Authors: Yorke David
Published: January 2015

The external audit consists of collecting and analyzing information on the different aspects (economic, social, legal, technological, political, etc.) of the environment within which the organization is operating, with a view to identifying, for example, motives for and against becoming an exporting organization.
Factor Analysis
Authors: Greatorex Michael
Published: January 2015

Factor analysis, a type of multivariate analysis, is concerned with the interrelationships within a set of variables and with reducing the variables required to represent a set of observations.
Feel‐Buy‐Learn Model
Authors: Yorke David
Published: January 2015

The feel‐buy‐learn (FBL) model in Marketing suggests that in particular situations buyers/customers do not follow the traditionally conceived learn‐feel‐buy sequence of communications.
Feminism
Authors: Marsden David
Published: January 2015

Feminism is the umbrella term for a number of different theories concerning the status and role of women in society, the main ones being liberal, radical, Marxist, and black feminism.
Free Sample
Authors: Littler Dale
Published: January 2015

The provision of a free sample, particularly of a new product, is a means of encouraging trial.
Frequency
Authors: Yorke David
Published: January 2015

As part of their advertising programs, organizations have to decide which media to use, and a major consideration here is the desired frequency, that is, the number of times within a specified period that an average person, household, or organization is exposed to the advertising message.
G
alton's Problem
Authors: Lindridge Andrew
Published: January 2015

Is it possible to compare two cultures or peoples who although may live in distinct countries may have some level of knowledge of each other? Knowledge which may affect sample group independence? The problems and opportunities this presents is discussed with the context of Galton's Problem.
Generic Strategies
Authors: Littler Dale
Published: January 2015

These are a menu of broad or general strategies which can be applied by different organizations in different contexts.
Geodemographics
Authors: Mitchell Vincent‐Wayne
Published: January 2015

Geodemographic groups of consumers (i.e., identified by geographic and demographic variables), referred to as geodemographic classifications, are built on the premise that people who live in similar neighborhoods are likely to have similar purchasing and lifestyle habits.
Global Strategy
Authors: Littler Dale
Published: January 2015

A global strategy can be considered as a coherent overarching strategy for the parts of the world in which an organization operates.
Guarantees
Authors: Healey Mark P.
Published: January 2015

Guarantees can be employed as a technique for reducing perceived risk and thus increasing purchase intentions/likelihood.
High Street Retailing
Authors: Greenland Steve , Newman Andrew
Published: January 2015

High street retailing refers to retail activity in the traditional shopping areas of town, city, urban, and suburban locations.
Impulse Purchasing
Authors: Newman Andrew
Published: January 2015

abstract

Impulse purchasing refers to the act of buying an item of merchandise without prior consideration or premeditation, but taking the decision to buy “on the spur of the moment.”
Inbound Communications
Authors: Yorke David
Published: January 2015

Communications in
D
irect
M
arketing may be either inbound or outbound (
see
O
utbound
C
ommunications).
Indirect Communications
Authors: Yorke David
Published: January 2015

M
arketing
C
ommunications may be either direct, for example, personal, face‐to‐face, verbal, or in writing with the targeted buyer, customer, or consumer; or indirect where it is intended that the target will receive a communication message through an appropriate impersonal channel.
International Marketing Culture
Authors: Sinkovics Rudolf R.
Published: January 2015

International marketing culture refers to the diversity of cultural dimensions across countries and the impact of these differences on company strategy, planning and performance. Cultural aspects of marketing are widely discussed around dimensions of the international marketing environment and in relation to the international marketing mix. A key issue is the perennial debate about standardization versus adaptation.
International Marketing Organization
Authors: Sinkovics Rudolf R.
Published: January 2015

International marketing organization refers to the decision on a suitable organization structure for the effective orchestration of international marketing activities. The four basic principles entail different forms of divisionalization: the international division, the product division, geographic division, and the functional structure.
International Organizational Structure
Authors: Yamin Mohammed
Published: January 2015

The treatment of the structural issues within International Marketing is highly influenced by the dominant paradigm in organizational theory.
International Strategic Alliances
Authors: Yamin Mohammed
Published: January 2015

An alliance is any contractual or cooperative relationship between two organizations for a specific purpose.
Interpersonal Communications
Authors: Lewis Barbara R.
Published: January 2015

Interpersonal communications are the basis of informal channels of Marketing Communications, sometimes referred to as Word‐of‐Mouth Communications, when consumers/buyers pass on information to each other about, for example, products/services or marketing organizations.
Latent Demand
Authors: Littler Dale
Published: January 2015

Traditionally, latent demand exists where there are no products or services to meet the requirements of customers.
Logistics
Authors: Newman Andrew
Published: January 2015

The term logistics has origins in the military and in this context refers to the art of movement and supply of troops.
Macro Marketing
Authors: Lewis Barbara R.
Published: January 2015

Macro marketing embraces marketing's role in society and can be defined as “the delivery of a standard of living to society.”
Mail Order
Authors: Greenland Steve , Newman Andrew
Published: January 2015

Mail order is most readily associated with catalog shopping. Goods are selected from the catalog assortment and orders mailed or telephoned through to the retailer or a local agent.
Market Penetration
Authors: Littler Dale
Published: January 2015

This is one of the strategies identified in
A
nsoff's directional policy matrix (
see
G
rowth
V
ector
M
atrix).
Marketing Communications
Authors: Lewis Barbara R.
Published: January 2015

Organizations are involved in a range of marketing communications exchanges; for example, a manufacturer may communicate with its intermediaries, customers (existing and potential), and various publics.
Marketing Concept
Authors: Leverick Fiona
Published: January 2015

The marketing concept has been seen variously as a statement of the philosophy of marketing, an approach to doing business, or a broad umbrella governing business activity.
Marketing Control
Authors: Littler Dale
Published: January 2015

It is clear that effective strategic marketing management (
see
S
trategic
M
arketing;
M
arketing
M
anagement) suggests establishing predetermined targets against which actual performance can be assessed.
Marketing Decision Support Systems
Authors: Greatorex Michael , Mitchell Vincent‐Wayne
Published: January 2015

A marketing decision support system is an information system that allows marketing decision‐makers to interact directly with both databases and models.
Marketing Financial Services
Authors: Mitchell Vincent‐Wayne
Published: January 2015

Financial services marketing is a special case of the marketing of services.
Marketing Management
Authors: Leverick Fiona
Published: January 2015

The term “marketing management” is generally used to refer to the management activities undertaken in the practice of
M
arketing in organizations.
Marketing Organization
Authors: Littler Dale
Published: January 2015

In the early stages, many of the activities now associated with
M
arketing would have been undertaken by a number of different functions, often in an uncoordinated manner.
Multivariate Methods (Analysis)
Authors: Greatorex Michael
Published: January 2015

Multivariate methods of data analysis involve the consideration of relationships between more than two variables and, as such, extend
U
nivariate
A
nalysis and
B
ivariate
A
nalysis of data.
Online Consumption
Authors: Newman Andrew
Published: January 2015

Online consumption is the act of purchasing or consuming via a telephone line, which usually necessitates connection to the Internet and the use of a personal computer or digital television and web browser.
P
areto's Rule
Authors: Littler Dale
Published: January 2015

The 20/80 rule, based on a principle attributed to the Italian economist and political philosopher Vilfredo Pareto, suggests that the top 20% of products/customers account for approximately 80% of revenues/profits; or that 20% of users account for 80% of usage.
Perceived Risk
Authors: Lewis Barbara R.
Published: January 2015

The concept of perceived risk can be looked on as an extension of the general conceptual framework of the consumer decision‐making process, which may be described as problem‐solving activity in which a consumer attempts to identify product performance and psychological goals and to match them with products/brands.
Planning Style
Authors: Littler Dale
Published: January 2015

Planning is traditionally associated with a process (
see
Strategic Planning; SWOT Analysis) that involves formal analysis of the organization and its environment and the development of appropriate means of meeting the objectives that the organization has established.
Point of Purchase
Authors: Yorke David
Published: January 2015

Point of purchase is the place at which the purchase (by an individual or a group) of a product or service is made.
Primary Data
Authors: Greatorex Michael
Published: January 2015

Primary data are collected specifically to address a particular research issue.
Primary Research
Authors: Greatorex Michael
Published: January 2015

Primary research collects data specifically to address a particular research issue.
Product Portfolio
Authors: Littler Dale
Published: January 2015

The product portfolio covers all the products that a company markets.
Product/Service Profit Center
Authors: Yorke David
Published: January 2015

The traditional form of financial accountability in an organization is where profit centers are based on products or services, as opposed to customer profit centers.
Projective Techniques
Authors: Greatorex Michael
Published: January 2015

Projective techniques are a group of
Q
ualitative
R
esearch methods which are useful when it is felt that a typical direct questionnaire may not be appropriate in providing the information sought.
Realizable Demand
Authors: Littler Dale
Published: January 2015

The realizable demand is the actual demand that materializes during a specified period given the total marketing effort of the various firms in the market.
Reliability
Authors: Greatorex Michael
Published: January 2015

Reliability is the extent to which a scale, for example, in a marketing research questionnaire, produces consistent results if repeated measurements are made.
Retail Hierarchy
Authors: Worrall Steve , Newman Andrew
Published: January 2015

A retail hierarchy is the organization of stores within a chain according to size or sales per unit of area.
Retail Location
Authors: Greenland Steve , Newman Andrew
Published: January 2015

Retail location is one of the most important considerations facing the retailer.
Retail Positioning
Authors: Newman Andrew
Published: January 2015

Retail positioning aims to provide by differentiating the retailer from its competitors through a retail that appeals to and is readily identifiable by its specific target markets.
Retail Pricing
Authors: Worrall Steve , Newman Andrew
Published: January 2015

Retail pricing is the process of deciding the price to be charged to the customer for a product or service.
Retail Product Range
Authors: Worrall Steve , Newman Andrew
Published: January 2015

The retail product range is the assortment of goods and services offered for sale by a retailer.
Retail Promotion
Authors: Newman Andrew , Worrall Steve
Published: January 2015

Retail promotion involves communicating (by the retailer as opposed to the manufacturer) with the organization's target customers.
Secondary Data
Authors: Greatorex Michael
Published: January 2015

Secondary data are already available data that have been collected for some purpose other than the problem at hand.
Segmentation Variables
Authors: Mitchell Vincent‐Wayne
Published: January 2015

The segmentation model requires a selection of a basis for segmentation (the dependent variables) as well as descriptors (the independent variables) of the various segments.
Selective Retention
Authors: Yorke David
Published: January 2015

Retention of a positive message in the mind of a buyer/customer/consumer is a prime objective of Marketing Communications.
Self‐Concept
Authors: Banister Emma
Published: January 2015

The self‐concept provides a means to seek understanding of the actions and motivations of consumers.
Service Environment
Authors: Lewis Barbara R.
Published: January 2015

The service environment (or physical evidence) plays a key role in almost all service production and delivery (
see
Service Delivery); exceptions would comprise remote services such as communications and utilities.
Service Failure(s)
Authors: Lewis Barbara R.
Published: January 2015

Organizations should strive for zero defects in their Service Delivery, to get things right the first time.
Service Guarantees
Authors: Lewis Barbara R.
Published: January 2015

In the provision and delivery of services and service, as customers' expectations and company standards rise, organizations become competitive in the promises they make to customers.
Service Price
Authors: Lewis Barbara R.
Published: January 2015

The price of a service is not always readily known or available to the consumer.
Service Quality
Authors: Lewis Barbara R.
Published: January 2015

Service quality is critical for all organizations in the services sector (
see
Services Sector), and for the manufacturing sector in relation to customer service – before, during, and after sales.
Service Quality Gaps
Authors: Lewis Barbara R.
Published: January 2015

Service quality is variously defined, but essentially it is to do with meeting customers' needs and requirements and with how well the service delivered matches customers' expectations.
Service Quality Measurement
Authors: Lewis Barbara R.
Published: January 2015

In measuring service quality, organizations may often compare consumer expectations of service(s) with their perceptions of actual service delivered, rather than just assessing Customer Satisfaction with a particular service outcome.
Service Recovery
Authors: Lewis Barbara R.
Published: January 2015

Service organizations typically strive for zero defects in their Service Delivery, that is, 100% Customer Satisfaction, to get things right the first time.
Services Marketing
Authors: Lewis Barbara R.
Published: January 2015

Services marketing has evolved as a discipline for a number of reasons, in particular, an increasing acknowledgment that all organizations participate in Marketing Management and the growth of service industries in developed economies.