bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Transcriptional loops meet chromatin: a dual‐layer network controls white–opaque switching in Candida albicans
Authors: Hnisz Denes , Schwarzmüller Tobias , Kuchler Karl
Published: June 2009

The human pathogen Candida albicans is able to undergo a reversible switch between two distinct cell types called white and opaque, which are considered different transcriptional states of cells harbouring identical genomes. The present model of switching regulation includes the bistable expression of a master switch gene that is controlled by multiple transcriptional feedback loops. Here, we show that chromatin‐modifying enzymes constitute an additional important regulatory layer of morphogenetic switching. We identify eight chromatin modifiers as switching modulators. Extensive epistasis analysis maps them into at least two independent signalling pathways overlaying the known transcriptional network. Interestingly, we identify the conserved Set3/Hos2 histone deacetylase complex as a key regulator relying on the methylation status of histone H3 lysine 4 for switching modulation. Furthermore, we demonstrate that opaque to white switching is facilitated by the presence of adenine in vitro, but adenine has no effect on switching once the Set3/Hos2 complex is disrupted. Our observations postulate that chromatin modifications may serve as a means to integrate environmental or host stimuli through the underlying transcriptional circuits to determine cell fate in C. albicans.
The Role of Extracellular DNA in Autoimmunity in SLE
Authors: Su K.‐Y. , Pisetsky D. S.
Published: June 2009

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a prototypic autoimmune disease characterized by the expression of antibodies to DNA. These antibodies form immune complexes that can stimulate cytokine production as well as deposit in the tissues to incite inflammation and damage. For the formation of immune complexes, the availability of extracellular DNA in an immunologically relevant form is essential. While apoptosis has been implicated as the source of this nuclear material in SLE, as shown with in vitro or in vivo systems, extracellular DNA can originate from apoptotic as well as necrotic cells. In experimental models, the release of DNA occurs with the administration of cells induced to die, in vitro as well as the administration of agents to induce cell death in situ. This release can be influenced by the presence of inflammatory cells such as macrophages that can interact with dead and dying cells to modulate the translocation of DNA from the inside to the outside of cells. In vivo, both glucocorticoids and oestrogens can modify the extent of DNA release from the administration of dead and dying cells. Together, these findings indicate that the generation of extracellular DNA in SLE can result from cell death and that steps in this process represent potential targets for new therapies.
Post‐consolidation Immunotherapy with Histamine Dihydrochloride and Interleukin‐2 in AML
Authors: Romero A. I. , Thorén F. B. , Aurelius J. , Askarieh G. , Brune M. , Hellstrand K.
Published: June 2009

The initial chemotherapy in acute myeloid leukaemia (AML) comprises a first phase of induction and a second phase of consolidation. In the majority of patients, the induction treatment leads to complete remission (CR), defined as microscopic disappearance of leukaemic disease along with the return of normal haematopoiesis. However, despite the introduction of more efficacious consolidation regimens, a worryingly large proportion of AML patients in CR will subsequently experience relapses with poor prospects of long‐term survival. A relapse is assumed to be the result of expansion of residual leukaemic cells that have escaped the initial chemotherapy. The anti‐leukaemic functions of T cells and natural killer (NK) cells has formed the background to the use of interleukin‐2 (IL‐2), a T‐ and NK cell‐activating cytokine, with the aim to eliminate residual leukaemia and hence reduce the relapse rate in AML, but the clinical trials using IL‐2 monotherapy have yielded disappointment. A recent phase III study has demonstrated that post‐consolidation treatment with the combination of histamine dihydrochloride (HDC) and IL‐2 significantly prevents relapse in AML patients. Here we account for the preclinical background to the use of HDC/IL‐2 in AML along with a review of clinical results.
Feasibility, acceptability and cost of home‐based HIV testing in rural Kenya
Authors: Negin Joel , Wariero James , Mutuo Patrick , Jan Stephen , Pronyk Paul
Published: June 2009

Objective  To demonstrate the feasibility, acceptability and cost of home‐based HIV testing and to examine the applicability of the model to high HIV prevalence settings.

Methods  Quantitative, qualitative and cost data were collected during a home‐based HIV testing program in a high‐prevalence rural area of Kenya; data on age, gender and marital status along with HIV test results were collected. This was complemented with qualitative research including key informant interviews with counselors and program managers to highlight experiences and challenges. Direct costs of the interventions were estimated through the review of budgets and monthly expenditure sheets.

Results  Of 3180 15–49‐year olds exposed to a community awareness campaign, 2033 (63.9%) agreed to be visited by counselors, of whom 1984 (97.6%) agreed to be tested and receive the results. Adult HIV prevalence was 8.2% and married women were 4.8 times more likely to be HIV‐positive than those never married. Counselors reported feeling welcomed and noted the enthusiasm of the community towards testing. The total cost of the exercise was $17 569. The program cost was $2.60 for each of the 6750 community members, $5.88 for each person tested, and $84 per positive case detected.

Conclusion  This study suggests that home‐based HIV testing is feasible with high uptake, and has the potential to substantially expand access to HIV testing services. There is a strong economic case for the extension of such a screening program to other communities.
Risk factors for in‐hospital mortality of visceral leishmaniasis patients in eastern Uganda
Authors: Mueller Yolanda , Mbulamberi Dawson B. , Odermatt Peter , Hoffmann Axel , Loutan Louis , Chappuis François
Published: June 2009

Objective  To identify risk factors for in‐hospital mortality in patients treated for visceral leishmaniasis (VL) in Uganda.

Methods  Retrospective analysis of VL patients’ clinical data collected for project monitoring by Médecins Sans Frontières in Amudat, eastern Uganda.

Results  Between 2000 and 2005, of 3483 clinically suspect patients, 53% were confirmed with primary VL. Sixty‐two per cent were children <16 years of age with a male/female ratio of 2.2. The overall case‐fatality rate during pentavalent antimonial (n = 1641) or conventional amphotericin B treatment (n = 217) was 3.7%. There was no difference in the case‐fatality rate between treatment groups (P > 0.20). The main risk factors for in‐hospital death identified by a multivariate analysis were age <6 years and >15 years, concomitant tuberculosis or hepatopathy, and drug‐related adverse events. The case‐fatality rate among patients >45 years of age was strikingly high (29.0%).

Conclusion  Subgroups of VL patients at higher risk of death during treatment with drugs currently available in Uganda were identified. Less toxic drugs should be evaluated and used in these patients.
X‐Linked testicular feminization in the mouse as a non‐inducible regulatory mutation of the Jacob‐Monod type
Authors: Ohno Susumu , Lyon Mary F.
Published: June 2009

Testosterone and 5 α‐dihydrotestosterone normally induce alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) production in the mouse kidney. The following results suggest that the X‐linked testicular feminization (T fm) mutation in the mouse is a non‐inducible mutation of a repressive regulatory gene locus. Eleven affected XTfmY mice and 3 XTfm X+ heterozygous females, as well as their normal sibs, were challenged with 10 mg of either testosterone or 5α‐dihydrotestosterone and killed 5 days later. Kidney ADH of normal sibs were in the fully induced state, while no detectable kidney ADH activity was found in XTemY. In accordance with the X‐inactivation hypothesis, individual kidneys of heterozygous females showed extremely variable degrees of inducibility of kidney ADH.
Studies on the genetic polymorphism of the C'3 of human serum
Authors: Berg Ure , Noer Grethe , Heiberg Arvid
Published: June 2009

The results of screening sera from 136 healthy Norwegian blood donors by means of an agarose gel‐electrophoresis technique with respect to the phenotypes within the C'3 polymorphism are reported. The different phenotypes were easily recognized, and the distribution of phenotypes among unrelated individuals was in agreement with the expectancy from Hardy‐Weinberg equilibrium. A frequency of 0.14 for the postulated gene C31and of 0.84 for C32was found. In five of the 136 samples tested, rarer genes (two different) had apparently contributed to the phenotype.
FamiIial ano‐rectal anornaIy
Authors: Stein H. , Fried K. , Horner R. , Luttwak E. M.
Published: June 2009

The occurrence of an ano‐rectal malformation in both father and son, indicative of a possible dominant inheritance, is reported.
A new method of length analysis of the B group of chromosomes with special reference to the “cri‐du‐chat” syndrome
Authors: Moke Patricia , Headey D.
Published: June 2009

A new method of length analysis is used to assign deleted B chromosomes to either pair 4 or pair 5. The implications of this assignment are discussed with reference to problems of homology and the diagnosis of the cri‐du‐chat syndrome.
Studies of human chromosomes by DNA‐binding fluorochromes I. The normal chromosome complement
Authors: van der Hagen Carl Birger , Berg Kåre
Published: June 2009

Caspersson's method of labelling chromosomes with DNA‐binding fluorescent agents has been applied to the study of human chromosomes. Fluorescence distribution curves of normal metaphase chromosomes treated with quinacrine mustard (QM) were obtained by scanning transparent pictures of the labelled chromosomes in a Beckman Analytrol, an instrument normally used for scanning electrophoresis strips. Representative fluorescence distribution curves of the different chromosomes, as well as one complete “QM karyotype”, have been presented. The distribution curves of individual chromosomes appear to be characteristic and reproducible and it was concluded that the technique of fluorescent labelling holds great promise for identification of individual human chromosomes and chromosomal regions.
Recessive, sex‐I inked, progressive, oculocerebral degeneration
Authors: Jancar J.
Published: June 2009

Norrie's disease is a rare condition with a recessive sex‐linked mode of inheritance, blindness with progressive ocular degeneration, and mental retardation of varying severity. Deafness and epilepsy may occasionally occur.

The findings in a 42‐year‐old, male, mentally retarded patient suffering from Norrie's disease are reported. His family tree is noted and the differential diagnosis of this condition is discussed.
Ancestral state reconstruction analysis of hymenopteran sex determination mechanisms
Authors: ASPLEN M. K. , WHITFIELD J. B. , DE BOER J. G. , HEIMPEL G. E.
Published: June 2009

We provide the first phylogenetic evidence supporting complementary sex determination (CSD) as the ancestral mechanism for haplodiploidy in the Hymenoptera. It is currently not possible, however, to distinguish the evolutionary polarity of single locus (sl) CSD and multiple‐locus (ml) CSD given the available data. In this light, we discuss the seemingly maladaptive hypothesis of ml‐CSD ancestry, suggesting that collapse from ml‐CSD to sl‐CSD should remain a viable evolutionary hypothesis based on (i) likely weakening of frequency‐dependent selection on sex alleles under ml‐CSD and (ii) recent findings with respect to the evolutionary novelty of the complementary sex determiner gene in honeybees. Our findings help provide a phylogenetically informed blueprint for future sampling of sex determination mechanisms in the Hymenoptera, as they yield hypotheses for many unsampled or ambiguous taxa and highlight taxa whose further sampling will influence reconstruction of the evolutionary polarity of sex determination mechanisms in major clades.
Dietary flavonoids enhance conspicuousness of a melanin‐based trait in male blackcaps but not of the female homologous trait or of sexually monochromatic traits
Authors: CATONI C. , PETERS A. , SCHAEFER H. M.
Published: June 2009

Signalling theory predicts that signals should fulfil three fundamental requirements: high detectability, discriminability and, most importantly, reliability. Melanins are the most common pigments in animals. Correlations between genotypic and phenotypic qualities of the sender and size and morph of melanin‐based traits are known, but it is contentious whether melanin‐based colouration may signal any quality. We examined the effect of supplementing blackcaps (Sylvia atricapilla) with flavonoids, potent plant antioxidants, on plumage colouration. We demonstrate that melanin‐based colour can fulfil all requirements of signals of phenotypic condition. As predicted by sexual selection theory, flavonoid supplementation influenced only the sexually dichromatic black cap of males, whereas the female homologous trait and the sexually monochromatic back colouration remained unaffected. Using avian vision models we show that birds can estimate male flavonoid intake from colouration of males’ black cap. Because flavonoid ingestion can increase immune responsiveness in blackcaps, melanin head colouration may signal environmentally determined immune condition.
Male personality, life‐history strategies and reproductive success in a promiscuous mammal
Authors: RÉALE D. , MARTIN J. , COLTMAN D. W. , POISSANT J. , FESTA‐BIANCHET M.
Published: June 2009

Recent theoretical work suggests that personality is a component of life history, but links between personality and either age‐dependent reproductive success or life‐history strategy are yet to be established. Using quantitative genetic analyses on a long‐term pedigree we estimated indices of boldness and docility for 105 bighorn sheep rams (Ovis canadensis), born between 1983 and 1999, and compared these indices to their reproductive history from 2 years of age until death. Docility and boldness were highly heritable and negatively genetically correlated. Docile and bold rams survived longer than indocile and shy rams. Docility and boldness had a weak negative effect on reproductive success early in life, but a strong positive effect on older rams. Our findings highlight an important role of personality on reproductive success and suggest that personality could be an important component of life‐history strategy.
Generic concept in Chlorella‐related coccoid green algae (Chlorophyta, Trebouxiophyceae)
Authors: Luo W. , Pröschold T. , Bock C. , Krienitz L.
Published: June 2009

Using a combined set of sequences of SSU and ITS regions of nuclear‐encoded ribosomal DNA, the concept of the experimental algal genus Chlorella was evaluated. Conventionally in the genus Chlorella, only coccoid, solitary algae with spherical morphology that do not possess any mucilaginous envelope were included. All Chlorella species reproduce asexually by autospores. However, phylogenetic analyses showed that within the clade of ‘true’Chlorella species (Chlorella vulgaris, C. lobophora, and C. sorokiniana), taxa with a mucilaginous envelope and colonial lifeform have also evolved. These algae, formerly designated as Dictyosphaerium, are considered as members of the genus Chlorella. In close relationship to Chlorella, five different genera were supported by the phylogenetic analyses: Micractinium (spherical cells, colonial, with bristles), Didymogenes (ellipsoidal cells, two‐celled coenobia, with or without two spines per cell), Actinastrum (ellipsoidal cells within star‐shaped coenobia), Meyerella (spherical cells, solitary, without pyrenoids), and Hegewaldia (spherical cells, colonial, with or without bristles, oogamous propagation). Based on the secondary structures of SSU and ITS rDNA sequences, molecular signatures are provided for each genus of the Chlorella clade.
Exogenous Application of Glycinebetaine Modulates Activities of Antioxidants in Maize Plants Subjected to Salt Stress
Authors: Nawaz K. , Ashraf M.
Published: June 2009

The influence of exogenously applied glycinebetaine (0, 50 and 100 mm) as a foliar spray at different growth stages, i.e. vegetative, reproductive or both at the vegetative and reproductive stages on gas exchange characteristics, glycinebetaine (GB) and the activities of antioxidant enzymes, such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) and peroxidase (POD) was examined in plants of two maize cultivars, Golden and C‐20 grown under saline conditions. Salt stress caused a marked decrease in photosynthetic capacity, chlorophyll contents and SOD activity in both maize cultivars. However, activities of CAT and POD remained almost unchanged in both maize cultivars under salt stress. Accumulation of GB increased with an increase in exogenous level of GB, i.e. 100 mm GB spray caused a greater accumulation of GB in the leaves of maize plants than did 0 or 50 mm. Although exogenously applied GB enhanced photosynthetic capacity of salt‐stressed plants of both cultivars, it enhanced the activities of antioxidant enzymes, SOD, CAT and POD, in salt‐stressed plants of cv. C‐20 only. Overall, the adverse effects of salt stress on maize plants were alleviated by the exogenous application of GB at different growth stages, which up‐regulated photosynthetic capacity and the activities of some antioxidant enzymes.
Nursing competencies for physical assessment of the respiratory system in Japan
Authors: Shinozaki Emiko , Yamauchi Toyoaki
Published: June 2009

The purpose of this study was to establish the minimum essential Japanese nursing education health assessment competency levels, with particular emphasis on the respiratory system, from the viewpoint of clinical nurses and nurse educators. The design of this study was a quantitative descriptive study using the Delphi technique. The participants consisted of two groups, including 210 clinical nurses and 76 nurse educators. Questionnaires were sent three times to each group, along with summaries of each previous result. The respondents selected 29 competency items in the following categories: five structure and function items; six interview items; eight inspection items; one palpation item; six auscultation items; and three diagnostic test items. By releasing the results of this survey to nurse educators, it might be possible to improve the nursing curriculum. For clinical nurses, knowing these results will help them to bridge the gap between essential nursing education and clinical practice.
Improving mental health care for older people within a general hospital in the UK
Authors: Harrison Anthony , Brandling Janet
Published: June 2009

This article describes a participatory action research study aimed at improving the care of older people with mental health needs who are cared for in an older people's unit of a general hospital in the UK. A multicollaborative and interpretivist action research approach was adopted, whereby the researchers, managers, clinical staff, patients, and carers came together to identify the problems and their potential solutions. Focus groups, interviews, and observations of care were used to collect the data and to inform the action and development cycles and a grounded theory approach was used to analyze these data and to develop theoretical descriptions regarding the dynamics that occur within this setting. Four overarching themes were identified as contributing to the theoretical understanding of this type of care: cultural knowledge, contextual reality, giving care, and coping with “the problem”. Understanding the theoretical elements is of importance in assisting nurses, and others, to consider care that is person‐centred.
LONG‐TERM PROGNOSIS OF PATIENTS AFTER ENDOSCOPIC SPHINCTEROTOMY FOR CHOLEDOCHOLITHIASIS
Authors: Kageoka Masanobu , Watanabe Fumitoshi , Maruyama Yasuhiko , Nagata Ken , Ohata Akihiko , Noda Yuji , Miwa Ichita , Ikeya Kentarou
Published: June 2009

Introduction:  The aims of the present study were to clarify the long‐term prognosis of endoscopic sphincterotomy (EST) for choledocholithiasis and to evaluate the need for cholecystectomy after EST.

Methods:  Between 1993 and 2007, 262 patients who underwent successful EST for choledocholithiasis were followed up for more than 6 months). Eighteen patients had previously undergone cholecystectomy (Group A), 129 had a calculous gallbladder (GB) and underwent cholecystectomy after EST (Group B), 46 had a calculous GB in situ (Group C), and 69 had an acalculous GB in situ (Group D). Late complications, including recurrence of choledocholithiasis, acute cholecystitis and biliary carcinoma, were evaluated.

Results:  Of the 262 patients, late complications occurred in 34 patients (13.0%) and recurrence of choledocholithiasis occurred in 29 patients (11.1%). The rate of late complications was higher in Group C (23.9%) than in Group B (7.8%) (P < 0.001). The rate of recurrent choledocholithiasis was higher in Group C (17.4%) than in Group B (7.8%) (P < 0.05). Univariate analysis indicated that pneumobilia after EST was associated with the recurrence of choledocholithiasis (P < 0.001). Acute cholecystitis occurred in eight (7.0%) of 115 patients with intact GB. A gallbladder carcinoma was found after EST. Late complications were not serious and endoscopically or surgically manageable.

Conclusions:  EST for choledocholithiasis is safe and effective. Cholecystectomy after EST is recommended in patients with calculous GB, but is not necessary in patients with acalculous GB. Pneumobilia was associated with the recurrence of choledocholithiasis.
ENDOSCOPIC SUBMUCOSAL DISSECTION (TWO‐POINT FIXED ESD) FOR EARLY ESOPHAGEAL CANCER
Authors: Motohashi Osamu , Nishimura Ken , Nakayama Norisuke , Takagi Seiichi , Yanagida Naoki
Published: June 2009

Background:  We have been attempting to improve the safety, reliability and simplicity of endoscopic submucosal dissection for the treatment of early esophageal cancer and to shorten the time needed for this operation.

Methods:  The present study involved nine patients with well‐differentiated intramucosal early esophageal cancer over 20 mm in diameter. Two‐point fixed endoscopic submucosal dissection was carried out.

Results:  In all nine cases, the mucosal area to be dissected was successfully identified and kept under direct vision, allowing two‐point fixation of the mucosa with forceps and the hood during adequate counter‐traction. In this way, the respiration‐caused movement of submucosal tissue between the two fixing points was suppressed almost completely. Hemostasis and manipulation on blood vessels were easy with this procedure and dissection could be completed safely, without causing perforation.

Conclusion:  Endoscopic submucosal dissection with a transparent hood fitted with a mucosa‐holding forceps channel is highly useful, safe and simple when applied to the esophagus.
PRIMARY EXTRA‐AMPULLARY DUODENAL NEUROENDOCRINE CARCINOMA IN AN ADULT MALE
Authors: Bhandarwar Ajay H , S Utture Shivkumar , Nandu Bharat , Agarkhedkar Nikhil
Published: June 2009

A primary extra‐ampullary duodenal neuroendocrine carcinoma was found in a 40‐year‐old man who presented with upper abdominal pain and weight loss. Duodenoscopy and hypotonic duodenography revealed a protruding fungating mass with luminal occlusion at the third part of the duodenum (D3). Although the metastatic work‐up was normal, the tumor was inoperable intraoperatively, hence a palliative bypass was carried out followed by chemotherapy with 5‐fluorouracil and leucovorin. Examination of the biopsy by immunohistochemistry and ultrastructural study revealed it to be neuroendocrine in nature, expressing synaptophysin, chromogranin and cytokeratin and containing dense core cytoplasmic granules. However, there was no evidence of clinical endocrinopathy. The present case emphasizes the need for better detection, further analysis and evaluation of such rare cases to identify their clinical course and effective treatment modalities.
HERPES SIMPLEX ESOPHAGITIS IN THE ELDERLY
Authors: Bando Tomoki , Matsushita Mitsunobu , Kitano Motokazu , Okazaki Kazuichi
Published: June 2009

Herpes simplex esophagitis (HSE) occurs mostly in immunocompromised patients and rarely in immunocompetent patients. We encountered an elderly patient, a biologically immunocompromised patient with HSE who had characteristic endoscopic features and responded to acyclovir therapy. An 82‐year‐old woman presented with high‐grade fever and epigastric discomfort for several days. A diagnosis of bacterial pneumonia was made based on imaging studies and cultures. Despite antibiotic treatment, epigastric discomfort persisted. Endoscopy revealed multiple exudative and circumscribed shallow ulcers with slightly raised edges in the mid‐distal esophagus. Esophageal biopsy specimens showed multinucleated giant cells with Cowdry type A intranuclear inclusion bodies in epithelial cells, which were positive for herpes simplex virus‐type 1 DNA by polymerase chain reaction. Because a diagnosis of HSE was made, she was treated with acyclovir, resulting in esophageal mucosal healing. In elderly patients with esophageal symptoms, HSE should be considered.
CURRENT STATUS AND EVALUATION OF TRANSNASAL ESOPHAGOGASTRODUODENOSCOPY
Authors: Tatsumi Yoshihide , Harada Akiko , Matsumoto Takahiro , Tani Tomoko , Nishida Hiroshi
Published: June 2009

We reviewed the current status of transnasal esophagogastroduodenoscopy (EGD) with regard to tolerance, safety, feasibility and accuracy. Comparison of standard and ultrathin scopes and recently reported endoscopic techniques with transnasal insertion are also described as well as the current status of transnasal EGD in European countries compared with Japan. As several studies concluded that transnasal EGD can facilitate comfortable endoscopy without the need for sedative drugs, it has been tried in countries in which a relatively high number of unsedated EGD are carried out in daily practice. Long‐tube intubation of the jejunum with the assistance of transnasal EGD will also be a part of the daily practice in the near future. However, its safety and accuracy should be further investigated. Even a standard scope whose charge‐coupled device (CCD) has the same resolution as an ultrathin scope is superior to an ultrathin scope in terms of luminosity and resolution. Given the small number of procedures reported to date, the absolute complication rate of unsedated transnasal EGD is unknown. Methods of nasal anesthesia, as well as informed consent, indications and contraindications for transnasal EGD are not standardized. A guideline of transnasal EGD is under discussion by the Japanese Gastroenterological Endoscopy Society.
Estimating stochastic elasticities directly from longitudinal data
Authors: Haridas C. V. , Tuljapurkar Shripad , Coulson Tim
Published: June 2009

The elasticities of long‐run population growth rate with respect to vital rates are useful in studying selection on vital rates, and in evaluating management policy that aims to control vital rates. In temporally varying environments, elasticity is often calculated from simulations that assume a probability distribution for the environmental states. Here we develop a method to estimate elasticities directly from demographic data. Using a time‐series of demographic matrices and age‐structure we construct a consistent statistical estimator of elasticity that converges to the correct limiting value as the sample length increases. We also construct confidence intervals for elasticities from temporal data and suggest tools for testing hypotheses about the strength of selection. We use data on a natural population to show that our method can indeed accurately estimate elasticities using relatively short time series.
Reciprocal specialization in ecological networks
Authors: Joppa Lucas N. , Bascompte Jordi , Montoya Jose M. , Solé Ricard V. , Sanderson Jim , Pimm Stuart L.
Published: June 2009

Theories suggest that food webs might consist of groups of species forming ‘blocks’, ‘compartments’ or ‘guilds’. We consider ecological networks – subsets of complete food webs – involving species at adjacent trophic levels. Reciprocal specializations occur when (say) a pollinator (or group of pollinators) specializes on a particular flower species (or group of such species) and vice versa. Such specializations tend to group species into guilds. We characterize the level of reciprocal specialization for both antagonistic interactions – particularly parasitoids and their hosts – and mutualistic ones – such as insects and the flowers that they pollinate. We also examine whether trophic patterns might be ‘palimpsests’– that is, there might be reciprocal specialization within taxonomically related species within a network, but these might be obscured when these relationships are combined. Reciprocal specializations are rare in all these systems when tested against the most conservative null model.
Rushing for Gold: Mobility and Small‐Scale Mining in East Africa
Authors: Jønsson Jesper Bosse , Bryceson Deborah Fahy
Published: June 2009

African rural dwellers have faced depressed economic prospects for several decades. Now, in a number of mineral‐rich countries, multiple discoveries of gold and precious stones have attracted large numbers of prospective small‐scale miners. While their ‘rush’ to, and activities within, mining sites are increasingly being noted, there is little analysis of miners' mobility patterns and material outcomes. In this article, on the basis of a sample survey and interviews at two gold‐mining sites in Tanzania, we probe when and why miners leave one site in favour of another. Our findings indicate that movement is often ‘rushed’ but rarely rash. Whereas movement to the first site may be an adventure, movement to subsequent sites is calculated with knowledge of the many risks entailed. Miners spend considerable time at each site before migrating onwards. Those with the highest site mobility tend to be more affluent than the others, suggesting that movement can be rewarding for those willing to ‘try their luck’ with the hard work and social networking demands of mining another site.
The Problems with Patents: A Less than Optimistic Reading of the Future
Authors: Carolan Michael S.
Published: June 2009

This article examines a number of problems associated with patents. These are aspects of patents (and patent law) that are masked by conventional discourse that frequently equates strong patent protections with innovation and, ultimately, economic growth. This article will discuss: patents' links with knowledge and expertise; infrastructural requirements; innovation incentive structures; coercive tendencies (via high litigation and transactions costs); and global ‘harmonization' agreements (specifically TRIPs). In sum, it provides a glimpse of why patent law matters for understanding today's political economy and why global inequalities will continue to grow unless the international socio‐legal landscape changes substantially.
Superior detection of threat‐relevant stimuli in infancy
Authors: LoBue Vanessa , DeLoache Judy S.
Published: June 2009

The ability to quickly detect potential threat is an important survival mechanism for humans and other animals. Past research has established that adults have an attentional bias for the detection of threat‐relevant stimuli, including snakes and spiders as well as angry human faces. Recent studies have documented that preschool children also detect the presence of threatening stimuli more quickly than various non‐threatening stimuli. Here we report the first evidence that this attentional bias is present even in infancy. In two experiments, 8‐ to 14‐month‐old infants responded more rapidly to snakes than to flowers and more rapidly to angry than to happy faces. These data provide the first evidence of enhanced visual detection of threat‐relevant stimuli in infants and hence offer especially strong support for the existence of a general bias for the detection of threat in humans.
Young children's use of features to reorient is more than just associative: further evidence against a modular view of spatial processing
Authors: Newcombe Nora S. , Ratliff Kristin R. , Shallcross Wendy L. , Twyman Alexandra D.
Published: June 2009

Proponents of a geometric module have argued that instances of young children’s use of features as well as geometry to reorient can be explained by a two‐stage process. In this model, only the first stage is a true reorientation, accomplished by using geometric information alone; features are considered in a second stage using association (Lee, Shusterman & Spelke, 2006). This account is contradicted by the data from two experiments. Experiment 1a sets the stage for Experiment 1b by showing that young children use geometric information to reorient in a complex geometric figure without a single principal axis of symmetry (an octagon). In such a figure, there are two sets of geometrically congruent corners, with four corners in each set. The addition of a colored wall leads to the existence of three geometrically congruent but, crucially, all unmarked corners; using the colored wall to distinguish among them could not be done associatively. In Experiment 1b, both 3‐ and 5‐year‐old children showed true non‐associative reorientation using features by performing at above‐chance levels on all‐white trials. Experiment 2 used a paradigm without distinctive geometry, modeled on Lee et al. (2006), involving an equilateral triangle of hiding places located within a circular enclosure, but with a large stable feature rather than a small moveable one. Four‐year‐olds (the age group studied by Lee et al.) used features at above‐chance levels. Thus, features can be used to reorient, in a way not dependent on association, in contradiction to the two‐stage version of the modular view.
THE PROFIT–INVESTMENT–UNEMPLOYMENT NEXUS AND CAPACITY UTILIZATION IN A STOCK‐FLOW CONSISTENT MODEL
Authors: Chatelain Jean‐Bernard
Published: June 2009

This paper studies under which conditions the share of profit in value‐added, financial constraints on investment and capital shortage may foster unemployment and may limit the growth of capital and/or the growth of aggregate demand, in a stock‐flow consistent model. The efficiency of demand‐side versus supply‐side economic policies (decrease of the real interest rate and/or of the real wage, increase of the leverage ceiling constraint) depends on capital shortage and credit rationing, which are not necessarily simultaneous due to the effects of investment on aggregate demand and supply.
The Reformation of the Ministry in Fife, 1560–1640
Authors: McCALLUM JOHN
Published: June 2009

One of the most pressing tasks facing the Scottish Church after the Reformation in 1560 was the provision of a Protestant parish ministry. This was essential if parishes were to enjoy preaching and the sacraments, and if church discipline was to be imposed. It was also vital for inculcating Protestantism in the laity. Using the county of Fife as a case study, this article traces the progress made in providing ministers to parishes as well as the educational backgrounds and geographical mobility of the clergy. Although there were significant problems with the provision of sufficient ministers, leading to most parishes having to share a minister, few parishes were entirely vacant. Furthermore, considerable progress was made in providing university‐educated ministers from the outset, and even the first generation of ministers enjoyed relatively stable careers. Thus despite problems with quantity, the quality of the early Scottish reformed ministry was relatively high.
Kinship and Religious Politics among Catholic Families in England, 1570–1640
Authors: KELLY JAMES E.
Published: June 2009

Historians have argued that the Reformation provoked emotional turmoil amongst vast numbers of English men and women as they attempted to come to terms with the religious changes. Moreover, cases of family divisions between – to use partly anachronistic terms – Catholics and Protestants, are amply available. This article will examine the effect on Catholic families endeavouring to survive in an increasingly hostile legal atmosphere. As Catholics gradually awoke to the realization that no change in the established religion was coming soon, decisions had to be made regarding Mission strategy. Paramount was the issue of self‐definition, particularly for leading Catholic families. Through this politicizing process, hitherto close communities, networks and even families, such as that centred on the Barons Petre of Writtle in Essex, which incorporated as key members the Southcote family, were ripped apart. Nevertheless, it is here that are found both the faultlines within the Catholic community and also, paradoxically, the ideological glue that bound it together.
Large‐scale parallel 454 sequencing reveals host ecological group specificity of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in a boreonemoral forest
Authors: Öpik M. , Metsis M. , Daniell T. J. , Zobel M. , Moora M.
Published: June 2009

DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2009.03042.xCommentary p 279
Effectors of biotrophic fungi and oomycetes: pathogenicity factors and triggers of host resistance
Authors: Dodds Peter N. , Rafiqi Maryam , Gan Pamela H. P. , Hardham Adrienne R. , Jones David A. , Ellis Jeffrey G.
Published: June 2009

Many biotrophic fungal and oomycete pathogens share a common infection process involving the formation of haustoria, which penetrate host cell walls and form a close association with plant membranes. Recent studies have identified a class of pathogenicity effector proteins from these pathogens that is transferred into host cells from haustoria during infection. This insight stemmed from the identification of avirulence (Avr) proteins from these pathogens that are recognized by intracellular host resistance (R) proteins. Oomycete effectors contain a conserved translocation motif that directs their uptake into host cells independently of the pathogen, and is shared with the human malaria pathogen. Genome sequence information indicates that oomycetes may express several hundred such host‐translocated effectors. Elucidating the transport mechanism of fungal and oomycete effectors and their roles in disease offers new opportunities to understand how these pathogens are able to manipulate host cells to establish a parasitic relationship and to develop new disease‐control measures.
Development of the Gross Motor Function Classification System (1997)
Authors: Morris Christopher
Published: June 2009

To address the need for a standardized system to classify the gross motor function of children with cerebral palsy, the authors developed a five‐level classification system analogous to the staging and grading systems used in medicine. Nominal group process and Delphi survey consensus methods were used to examine content validity and revise the classification system until consensus among 48 experts (physical therapists, occupational therapists, and developmental pediatricians with expertize in cerebral palsy) was achieved. Interrater reliability (kappa) was 0.55 for children less than 2 years of age and 0.75 for children 2 to 12 years of age. The classification system has application for clinical practice, research, teaching, and administration.
Survival in cerebral palsy in the last 20 years: signs of improvement?
Authors: Strauss David , Shavelle Robert , Reynolds Robert , Rosenbloom Lewis , Day Steven
Published: June 2009

This study investigated the possibility of improved survival in cerebral palsy (CP) over a 20‐year period. Participants were 47 259 persons with CP receiving services from the State of California between 1983 and 2002. The person–year approach was used. This asks whether the probability of dying in a given calendar year changes over the study period after age and severity of disability are taken into account. An appreciable improvement over time was found in children with severe disabilities and in adults who required gastrostomy feeding. In these groups, mortality rates fell by 3.4% per year. Therefore, life expectancies reported in earlier studies should be increased by approximately 5 years if adjustments to 2002 mortality rates are made. For other persons with CP there was, at most, a small improvement over the 20‐year period. The results suggest there have been improvements in the treatment and care of the most medically fragile children. Gastrostomy feeding has become much more widespread over the past two decades, and the improved survival of persons with gastrostomies may reflect better understanding of their requirements.
Parents' perceptions of the quality of two intensive training programmes for children with cerebral palsy
Authors: Ödman Pia , Krevers Barbro , Öberg Birgitta
Published: June 2009

This study explored parents' perceptions of the service quality of two intensive training programmes and the association between perceived service quality and predefined influential factors. Parents of 31 males and 19 females with spastic, dyskinetic, and ataxic cerebral palsy (mean age 8y 7mo [SD 3y 7mo]; range 3–16y), and Gross Motor Function Classification System Level In=1; Level IIn=9; Level IIIn=8; Level IVn=20; and Level Vn=12 were included. Functional outcome had been evaluated previously with the clinical measures Gross Motor Function Measure‐88, the Pediatric Evaluation of Disability Inventory ‐Functional Skills, and the Self‐reported Individualized Goal Measure, before and after a 4‐week intensive training period (ITP). The two training programmes used were Lemo and Move&Walk. After the ITP, a telephone interview was performed with the same cohort, using the Patient perspective On Care and Rehabilitation process. Data on previous experiences, expectations, and severity of disability were collected before the ITP, and data on achieved expectations afterwards. Previous experiences of the training programme, high expectations of improvements, achieved expectations, gross motor capacity improvements, and intensive training at the child and youth rehabilitation centre were associated with increased probability of fulfilment of needs. Severity of disability was associated with decreased probability of fulfilment of needs and functional improvements. Most parents perceived high service quality, and achieved expectations were influenced by high service quality rather than by perceived functional improvements. This suggests that needs other than functional improvements must be explained and acknowledged.
Hand‐held dynamometry for muscle strength measurement in children with cerebral palsy
Authors: Crompton Jodi , Galea Mary P , Phillips Bev
Published: June 2009

The aim of this study was to investigate the reliability of hand‐held dynamometry for measuring isometric lower‐limb muscle strength in children with cerebral palsy (CP). Twentythree children (14 males, nine females) with CP (spastic diplegia; Gross Motor Function Classification System Levels I‐III) aged 5 years 7 months to 14 years 5 months (mean 9y 6mo [SD 2y 8mo]) attended two test sessions 1 week apart. A ‘make’ test, using a gradual build‐up of force to a maximum isometric contraction, was employed and peak values were normalized to body weight for analyses. Within‐session reliability was high with an intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) of 1,1>0.79 for all muscle groups, and there was acceptable between‐session reliability ICC>0.70 and measurement errors for hip flexors and extensors (measured in supine), knee flexors and extensors, and ankle dorsiflexors (with stabilization). Within‐ and between‐session reliability was poor (ICC<0.70) for hip extensors (in prone), knee extensors (20° flexion), ankle dorsiflexors (without stabilization), and ankle plantarflexors. Measurement error differed in each test and across limbs, with stabilization producing inconsistent reliability outcomes. Changes in strength measurements in children with CP should take into account measurement error for particular muscle groups. Changes should be determined for separate muscle groups and limbs, and reported relative to body weight. Different testing positions may be required for greater reliability.
Detecting language problems: accuracy of five language screening instruments in preschool children
Authors: Van Agt H M E , Van Der Stege H A , De Ridder‐Sluiter J G , De Koning H J
Published: June 2009

To identify a simple and effective screening instrument for language delays in 3‐year‐old children the reliability, validity, and accuracy of five screening instruments were examined. A postal questionnaire sent to parents of 11423 children included the Dutch version of the General Language Screen (GLS), the Van Wiechen (VW) items, the Language Screening Instrument for 3‐ to 4‐year‐olds, consisting of a parent form (LSI‐PF) and a child test (LSI‐CT), and parents' own judgement of their child's language development on a visual analogue scale (VAS). The response rate was 78% or 8877 children. Reliability (internal consistency) was found to be acceptable (α=0.67–0.72) for all instruments. Significant correlations between the screening instruments (r=0.29–0.55, p<0.01) indicated good concurrent validity. Accuracy was estimated by the sensitivity, specificity, and receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves against two reference tests based on parent report and specialists' judgement. If the test would classify approximately 5% of the population as screen‐positive, the mean sensitivity was 50%; assigning between 20% and 30% of the population as screen‐positive, the mean sensitivity was 77%. The sensitivity was lowest for the LSI‐CT (range 43–62%), whereas short instruments like the LSI‐PF, VW, and the one‐item VAS exhibited high levels of sensitivity (range 50–86%). The area under the ROC curves, ranged from 0.75 to 0.87. Apparently, short and simple parent report instruments like the LSI‐PF and the one‐item VAS perform remarkably well in detecting language delays in preschool children.
Magnetic resonance spectroscopy changes following haemopoietic stem cell transplantation in children with cerebral adrenoleukodystrophy
Authors: Warren Daniel J , Connolly Daniel JA , Wilkinson Iain D , Sharrard Mark J , Griffiths Paul D
Published: June 2009

X‐linked cerebral adrenoleukodystrophy is an aggressive, rapidly progressive disorder resulting in considerable morbidity and, left untreated, mortality. Patients typically present before the age of 10 years with progressive symptomatology including ataxia, spasticity, and focal neurological deficits. Current therapeutic options are limited, the treatment of choice being haemopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT). Intervention is beneficial to those children with early disease and characteristic magnetic resonance (MR) imaging changes. Developments in MR imaging have led to the incorporation of MR spectroscopy in the assessment tools; however, it is yet to be included in stratified assessment tools to guide treatment choice. Furthermore, there remains a paucity of outcome data on MR spectroscopy changes following HSCT. We describe our experience in two males with confirmed cerebral adrenoleukodystrophy treated, at the mean age of 5 years 6 months, with HSCT and report the pronounced spectroscopic changes observed following treatment. Both children, observed for a minimum period of 14 months following treatment, demonstrate complete reversal in previously deteriorating spectroscopy with marked increase in N‐acetyl‐aspartate (NAA)/choline (Cho) ratios and reduction in Cho/creatine (Cr) ratios following HSCT treatment with concomitant stabilization of clinical status.