bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Analysis of an Intermodal Transportation Network in Korea from an Environmental Perspective
Authors: Kim Hwa-Joong , Chang Young-Tae
Published: January 2014

This article analyzes an intermodal transportation network for international container cargoes in Korea. The actual transportation situation in Korea is formulated by a linear programming model. The model is validated first by comparing the model output with actual performance, and then the model is extended by incorporating various externalities arising from inland transport modes such as air pollution, congestion, accidents, noise pollution, and wear and tear. Moreover, the model is extended for assessing the effects of complying with carbon taxation and emission trading schemes, which loom large in international shipping communities. Test results of the models using the data obtained from reliable sources are presented and policy directions are discussed from an environmental perspective.
Using an e-Delphi technique in achieving consensus across disciplines for developing best practice in day surgery in Ireland
Authors: Meshkat Babak , Cowman Seamus , Gethin Georgina , Ryan Kiaran , Wiley Miriam , Brick Aoifa , Clarke Erik , Mulligan Eadhbhard
Published: January 2014

Background: The benefits of day surgery are supported internationally by the provision of standards. However, standards from one health jurisdiction are not readily transferable to others as national health strategy, policy and funding are influencing factors. Objective: To determine, through consensus from experts in day surgery, a list of best practice statements for day surgery in Ireland. Methods: A three round e-Delphi technique. Professionals in surgery, anaesthesia, nursing and management involved in day surgery across all hospitals in Ireland were invited to participate as the expert panel. In round 1 a list of proposals for best practice were obtained from panel members. In round 2 experts were asked to rank each statement according to their importance on a nine point scale (1 = not important, 9 = high importance) using an online questionnaire. Consensus was set at 70%, meaning the items that 70% of people deemed to be important were carried over to round 3. A repeat online questionnaire was conducted with the remaining statements in round 3. Results: Round 1 provided 261 statements. These were grouped and reduced to 62 statements for ranking. Following the iterative process over the subsequent two rounds a final list of 40 statements were developed and grouped into six thematic areas. Conclusion: By using an e-Delphi process of gaining consensus among experts working in day surgical services, a list of best practice statements were developed.
Cultivation of the Ability to Innovate through the Construction of an Experiment Platform for Virtual Design and Manufacture
Authors: Wang Peijun , Luo Dabing , Li Lin , Cao Yongyan
Published: January 2014

Innovative experiment platforms provide an excellent and advanced practice environment for the cultivation of the ability to innovate, and help to improve the quality of teaching in experimental sessions. This paper describes the general structure and units of an experiment platform for virtual design and manufacture; this platform has been researched and developed independently. With the help of this experiment platform, multi-level and various innovative experimental projects can be implemented. The quality of the teaching of the basics of mechanics can thereby be improved using limited software and hardware resources.
Developing Students' Abilities in Engineering Design through the Teaching of Mechanism and Machine Theory
Authors: Jin Xie , Guangshuai Liu , Chaoming He , Yalin Luo
Published: January 2014

The development of students' abilities has attracted a lot of attention in engineering higher education. Reform of the curriculum is necessary. Based on an analysis of what abilities an engineer should have, some reforms to the teaching (contents and activities) of mechanism and machine theory (MMT) are presented in this paper. The new approaches aim to develop students' abilities in engineering design, including the ability to apply basic knowledge of science to engineering design, the ability to design and carry out experiments, the ability to make some engineering designs under realistic constraints, the ability to communicate effectively and function in a design team, the ability to use modern engineering tools, and the ability to identify and formulate an engineering problem. The outcomes of the reforms are also presented.
A Study of Ergonomics Education in Industrial Design Programs in Turkey
Authors: Cifter Abdusselam Selami , Eroglu Ilgim , Ozcan Kerem
Published: January 2014

Ergonomics education has been a stable element of undergraduate industrial design programs in Turkey; however, it is mainly for introductory purposes, in an effort to reflect the multidisciplinary nature of human and ergonomicfactorss. In this research, the effectiveness of ergonomics education given in industrial design departments in Turkey and possible improvement areas are investigated. The aim was to identify how students utilise ergonomics methods during their design projects and to examine the effectiveness of their ergonomics education. The students' points of view on the ergonomics modules they took were also sought. An online questionnaire survey was conducted with 79 undergraduate industrial design students from various universities in Turkey. The results are presented and discussed, and directions for further studies are suggested.
Teaching Engineering Graphics for Digital Design
Authors: Huaiwen Tian , Daiwei Dong , Kaiyin Yan , Ding Guofu
Published: January 2014

In the face of the requirement for professional skills in modern design processes such as mass customization and digital design techniques, our teaching of engineering graphics to engineering student needs to adapt. This paper proposes a new curriculum for an engineering graphics course, which combines traditional engineering graphics with modern digital design technologies. The paper highlights the need for training in innovative design, team cooperation and graphical communication.
OMT Associated With Reduced Analgesic Prescribing and Fewer Missed Work Days in Patients With Low Back Pain: An Observational Study
Authors: Prinsen Joseph K. , Hensel Kendi L. , Snow Richard J.
Published: January 2014

Context: Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) are considered the standard for establishing practice guidelines; however, they are expensive and time-consuming, and often the generalizability of the results is limited.

Objectives: To conduct an observational study using the findings of the American Osteopathic Association's Clinical Assessment Program (AOA-CAP) low back pain module, and to compare these findings with those of a major back pain–related RCT to determine the validity and generalizability of this pseudoexperimental model.

Methods: Data were abstracted from the AOA-CAP for Residencies platform from April 1, 2006, through October 5, 2007, with a diagnosis code consistent with low back pain. Process and outcome measures were compared after segregating a similar patient population to an RCT that compared “osteopathic spinal manipulation” with standard care.

Results: A total of 1013 medical records were abstracted and entered into the AOA-CAP low back pain module. Mean (standard deviation [SD]) age was 44.7 (15.9) years, and body mass index was 29.6 (8.1). The eligible patients comprised 415 men (41.0%) and 598 women (59.0%), and common comorbid disease was found in 69 patients (6.8%). Activities of daily living were limited in 402 patients (42.4%), whereas 546 (57.6%) had no limitations. Previous exacerbations of low back pain occurred in 653 patients (65.9%). Most patients had no sensory or proprioception deficit (729 [87.7%]), and motor function was normal in 636 patients (74.5%). Normal ankle and knee reflexes were found in 744 of 814 (91.4%) and 755 of 829 (89.0%) patients, respectively. Osteopathic manipulative treatment (OMT) was performed on the lumbar spine (576 patients [56.9%]), thoracic spine (411 [40.6%]), sacrum/pelvis (440 [43.4%]), rib (261 [25.8%]), and lower extremity (256 [25.3%]). A segregated patient cohort (n=539) showed statistically significant differences between patients who received OMT and those who did not with the use of analgesics, steroids, spinal injections, straight-leg raising, and days off or limited work duties.

Conclusion: The observational findings of the present study, which suggest that analgesic medication use is lower in patients who receive OMT, align with previous findings of RCTs and support the generalizability of these findings.
The “Diplomate in Osteopathy”: From “School of Bones” to “School of Medicine”
Authors: Gevitz Norman
Published: January 2014

This article is the second installment in a series of 6 articles on the history of and controversies related to the DO degree. This article examines how Andrew Taylor Still made the transition from informally training apprentices to launching a formal chartered institution—the American School of Osteopathy. In its first decade of existence, Still expanded both the length and breadth of the curriculum and transformed his college from what he called a “school of bones” to a “school of medicine.” As this shift was occurring, J. Martin Littlejohn, then the dean of the American School of Osteopathy, questioned whether the DO degree was the appropriate degree to award its graduates.
Orthotic Correction of Postural Unleveling in a Patient With Ankylosing Spondylitis
Authors: Lipton James A. , Mitchell Lisa J.
Published: January 2014

The authors describe the case of a patient with ankylosing spondylitis who was treated with orthotic devices for postural unleveling. The patient described specific pre-existing postural problems, both static and dynamic, that had been present for many years. A unilateral 9-mm gel heel lift was used, followed by custom-molded orthotic devices that incorporated the heel lift. The patient reported immediate resolution of these symptoms after orthotic treatment, as well as increased functionality and satisfaction in activities of daily living, which coincided with the leveling of his posture. The orthotic devices were used until the patient underwent total hip arthroplasty, at which point the orthotic treatment was discontinued.
Resistive switching characteristics of Au/P-doped NiO/Au segmented nanowires synthesized by electrochemical deposition
Authors: Lee Saeeun , Kim Donguk , Eom Hyeonjin , Kim Woo-byoung , Yoo Bongyoung
Published: January 2014

In this paper, we detail the synthesis and characteristics of Au/NiO/Au segmented nanowire-based resistive switching memory devices. The fabrication of the memory devices involves the step-by-step electrodeposition of Au–Ni–Au into an anodic aluminum oxide template followed by the thermal oxidation process to make NiO. The unipolar resistive change is observed in Au/NiO/Au nanowires exhibiting a set voltage of 0.6 V and a reset voltage of 1 V with a current compliance of 10 mA. Au diffused Au into NiO during the thermal oxidation lowers the resistance of NiO and the forming voltage. The change in the switching behavior from unipolar to bipolar is achieved by doping approximately 3 at. % phosphorous in the interface of NiO and a Au electrode.
Multiyear sea ice thermal regimes and oceanic heat flux derived from an ice mass balance buoy in the Arctic Ocean
Authors: Lei Ruibo , Li Na , Heil Petra , Cheng Bin , Zhang Zhanhai , Sun Bo
Published: January 2014

The conductive and oceanic heat fluxes and the mass balance of sea ice were investigated utilizing an ice mass balance buoy (IMB) deployed in the Arctic Ocean. After IMB deployment, the ice thinned from 1.95 m in late August to 1.46 m by mid‐October 2008. From then on, ice growth until mid‐June 2009 increased the ice thickness to 3.12 m. The ice temperature and consequently the conductive heat flux at the ice surface exhibited persistent high‐frequency variations due to diurnal and synoptic‐scale atmospheric forcing. These signals propagated downward with damped magnitude and temporal lag. The competition of oceanic and conductive heat flux dominated the low‐frequency variations of ice growth. However, high‐frequency variations in ice growth were controlled largely by the oceanic heat flux. From mid‐November 2008 to mid‐June 2009, the average oceanic heat flux along a track from 86.2°N, 115.2°W to 84.6°N, 33.9°W was 7.1 W/m2. This was in agreement with that derived from an IMB deployed in 2005, about 1.5° to the north of our buoy. We attributed the relatively high oceanic heat flux (10–15 W/m2) observed during autumn and early winter to summer warming of the surface ocean. Upward mixing of warm deep water, as observed when our buoy drifted over the shallow region of the Lomonosov Ridge (85.4°–85.9°N, 52.2°–66.4°W), demonstrated the impact of bathymetry on the oceanic heat flux under ice cover, and consequently on the basal ice mass balance.
Constraining surface carbon fluxes using in situ measurements of carbonyl sulfide and carbon dioxide
Authors: Berkelhammer M. , Asaf D. , Still C. , Montzka S. , Noone D. , Gupta M. , Provencal R. , Chen H. , Yakir D.
Published: January 2014

Understanding the processes that control the terrestrial exchange of carbon is critical for assessing atmospheric CO2 budgets. Carbonyl sulfide (COS) is taken up by vegetation during photosynthesis following a pathway that mirrors CO2 but has a small or nonexistent emission component, providing a possible tracer for gross primary production. Field measurements of COS and CO2 mixing ratios were made in forest, senescent grassland, and riparian ecosystems using a laser absorption spectrometer installed in a mobile trailer. Measurements of leaf fluxes with a branch‐bag gas‐exchange system were made across species from 10 genera of trees, and soil fluxes were measured with a flow‐through chamber. These data show (1) the existence of a narrow normalized daytime uptake ratio of COS to CO2 across vascular plant species of 1.7, providing critical information for the application of COS to estimate photosynthetic CO2 fluxes and (2) a temperature‐dependent normalized uptake ratio of COS to CO2 from soils. Significant nighttime uptake of COS was observed in broad‐leafed species and revealed active stomatal opening prior to sunrise. Continuous high‐resolution joint measurements of COS and CO2 concentrations in the boundary layer are used here alongside the flux measurements to partition the influence that leaf and soil fluxes and entrainment of air from above have on the surface carbon budget. The results provide a number of critical constraints on the processes that control surface COS exchange, which can be used to diagnose the robustness of global models that are beginning to use COS to constrain terrestrial carbon exchange.
Extremely intense ELF magnetosonic waves: A survey of polar observations
Authors: Tsurutani Bruce T. , Falkowski Barbara J. , Pickett Jolene S. , Verkhoglyadova Olga P. , Santolik Ondrej , Lakhina Gurbax S.
Published: January 2014

A Polar magnetosonic wave (MSW) study was conducted using 1 year of 1996–1997 data (during solar minimum). Waves at and inside the plasmasphere were detected at all local times with a slight preference for occurrence in the midnight‐postmidnight sector. Wave occurrence (and intensities) peaked within~±5° of the magnetic equator, with half maxima at ~±10°. However, MSWs were also detected as far from the equator as +20° and 60° MLAT but with lower intensities. An extreme MSW intensity event of amplitude Bw = ~± 1 nT and Ew = ~± 25 mV/m was detected. This event occurred near local midnight, at the plasmapause, at the magnetic equator, during an intense substorm event, e.g., a perfect occurrence. These results support the idea of generation by protons injected from the plasma sheet into the midnight sector magnetosphere by substorm electric fields. MSWs were also detected near noon (1259 MLT) during relative geomagnetic quiet (low AE). A possible generation mechanism is a recovering/expanding plasmasphere engulfing preexisting energetic ions, in turn leading to ion instability. The wave magnetic field components are aligned along the ambient magnetic field direction, with the wave electric components orthogonal, indicating linear wave polarization. The MSW amplitudes decreased at locations further from the magnetic equator, while transverse whistler mode wave amplitudes (hiss) increased. We argue that intense MSWs are always present somewhere in the magnetosphere during strong substorm/convection events. We thus suggest that modelers use dynamic particle tracing codes and the maximum (rather than average) wave amplitudes to simulate wave‐particle interactions.
A study on ionospheric scintillation near the EIA crest in relation to equatorial electrodynamics
Authors: Chatterjee S. , Chakraborty S. K. , Veenadhari B. , Banola S.
Published: January 2014

Equatorial electrojet (EEJ) data, which are considered as a proxy index of equatorial electric field, are analyzed in conjunction with equatorial ionosonde, total electron content (TEC) and scintillation data near the equatorial ionization anomaly (EIA) crest for the equinoctial months of high solar activity years (2011–2012) to identify any precursor index of postsunset evolution of equatorial electron density irregularities and subsequent occurrence of scintillation near the northern EIA crest. Only geomagnetically quiet and normal electrojet days are considered. The diurnal profiles of EEJ on the scintillation days exhibit a secondary enhancement in the afternoon to presunset hours following diurnal peaks. A series of electrodynamical processes conducive for generation of irregularities emerge following secondary enhancement of EEJ. Latitudinal profile of TEC exhibits resurgence in EIA structure around the postsunset period. Diurnal TEC profile near the EIA crest resembles postsunset secondary enhancement on the days with afternoon enhancement in EEJ. Occurrence of equatorial spread F and postsunset scintillation near the EIA crest seems to follow the secondary enhancement events in EEJ. Both the magnitude and duration of enhanced EEJ are found to be important for postsunset intensification of EIA structure and subsequent occurrence of equatorial irregularities. A critical value combining the two may be considered an important precursor for postsunset occurrence of scintillation near the EIA crest. The results are validated using archived data for the years 1989–1990 and explained in terms of modulation effects of enhanced equatorial fountain.
Seismic and geodetic evidence for grounding‐line control of Whillans Ice Stream stick‐slip events
Authors: Pratt Martin J. , Winberry J. Paul , Wiens Douglas A. , Anandakrishnan Sridhar , Alley Richard B.
Published: January 2014

The tidally modulated, stick‐slip events of Whillans Ice Stream in West Antarctica produce seismic energy from three locations near the grounding line. Using ice velocity records obtained by combining time series from colocated broadband seismometers and GPS receivers installed on the ice stream during the 2010–2011 and 2011–2012 austral summers, along with far‐field seismic recordings of elastic waves, we locate regions of high rupture velocity and stress drop. These regions, which are analogous to “asperities” in traditional seismic fault studies, are areas of elevated friction at the base of the ice stream. Slip events consistently initiate at one of two locations: near the center of the ice stream, where events associated with the Ross Sea high tide originate, or a grounding‐line spot, where events associated with the Ross Sea low tide initiate, as well as occasional high‐tide events following a skipped low‐tide event. The grounding‐line site, but not the central site, produces Rayleigh waves observable up to 1000 km away, through fast expansion of the slip area. Grounding‐line initiation events also show strong directivity in the downstream direction, indicating initial rupture propagation at 1.5 km/s, compared to an average of 0.150 km/s for the entire slip event. Following slip initiation, additional seismic energy is produced from two sources located near the grounding line: first at the downstream end of Subglacial Lake Engelhardt and second toward the farthest downstream extent of the ice stream. This evidence suggests that the stronger, higher‐friction material along the grounding line controls motion throughout the stick‐slip region.
Police Misconduct
Authors: Papazoglou Konstantinos
Published: January 2014

Police misconduct refers to any inappropriate behavior on the part of any police officer that violates police policy, morality, or/and the law, and may also entail some type of personal benefit for the police officer involved. In a police misconduct situation a police officer behaves in an improper, immoral, or/and illegal way that discredits his/her position. Police misconduct can be individual misconduct or organizational/institutional conduct that violates the law or ethical codes. The nature, causes, and prevention of police misconduct are discussed in this entry.
National Longitudinal Survey of Youth
Authors: Lynn Owens Jennifer
Published: January 2014

Criminology and criminal justice researchers employ data from numerous sources when conducting studies in the field of juvenile justice; however, two associated surveys of American youth have proven especially useful: the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 (NLSY79) and the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997 (NLSY97). The self‐report measures of deviant and delinquent behavior contained in both the NLSY79 and NLSY97 enable researchers to address some of the most fundamental questions in juvenile justice research and to explore topics as diverse as parental incarceration, peer relations, bullying, adolescent substance abuse, and youth employment.
Suicide, Assisted
Authors: Lopes Giza
Published: January 2014

This entry covers the topic of “assisted suicide.” The conceptualization and legality of different types of aid in dying are discussed and the main legal cases regarding each of these types are cited. The entry also covers, briefly, the implementation of “assisted suicide” in Oregon, Montana, and Washington and where possible it provides up‐to‐date facts about those who choose to die with the help of a physician. A brief history of the issue, a summary of public opinion on the matter, the main pro and con arguments, as well as the status of the law in other countries are also presented.
Quantitative Research
Authors: Shelley Gregory P.
Published: January 2014

Quantitative research involves the assignment of numbers to social concepts and then using these numbers to measure those concepts. Quantitative research is based in “positivism”—an approach to research with roots in the natural/physical sciences. The distinction between quantitative and qualitative research really boils down to the use of numerical versus non‐numerical data.
Money Laundering
Authors: Huff R. Michael
Published: January 2014

Money laundering is the federal crime of “transferring illegally obtained money through legitimate people or accounts so that its original source cannot be traced.” As its legal definition implies, money laundering is inextricably linked to the criminalized activity, or predicate crimes, it promotes or facilitates. Predicate crimes range from activities traditionally associated with organized crime to tax evasion to kidnapping. It has been noted that there are now, at the federal level, about “two hundred predicate offenses for money laundering, including terrorist finance.” Terrorist finance can now be treated as a predicate offense.
United Nations Role in International Criminal Justice
Authors: Piper Doshie , Alaniz Heather
Published: January 2014

This entry discusses the role that the United Nations plays in shaping international criminal justice, including defining international law, policing the international community, creating the International Court of Justice, and imposing sanctions on violators of international law.
International Guidelines on Victimization
Authors: Toggia Pietro
Published: January 2014

Victimization is a person's direct or indirect experience of physical, emotional, and psychological harm or loss of life or property in the hands of an offender. Victimization has become, particularly since the mid‐1980s, a momentous issue and a focal concern at the international, regional, and national level. Hence, the protection and fair treatment of victims and respect for their rights have increasingly gained global attention within the last two decades. In view of this, the need has arisen to establish standardized and uniform international guidelines on victimization; the United Nations (UN) and its agencies have spearheaded this global cause, with the cooperation of member states, nongovernmental advocacy groups, humanitarian organizations, community activists, and academic institutions. On November 29, 1985, the UN General Assembly issued a Declaration on basic principles of justice for victims of crime and abuse of power. This was the first step toward the universal recognition of victims of crime as well as victims of abuse of power.
Chesney‐Lind, Meda
Authors: Burke Alison S.
Published: January 2014

Meda Chesney‐Lind is firmly established as one of the leading feminist criminologists in the United States. Her attention and research efforts focusing on girls and women in the criminal justice system cover delinquency, gangs, and system responses to female crime. Chesney‐Lind is a prolific writer and researcher and many scholars believe her work, dedicated to delinquent girls, changed the course of criminology.
Federal Law Enforcement
Authors: Bumgarner Jeffrey B.
Published: January 2014

Federal law enforcement in the United States is unique among the world's national law enforcement communities in that it is characterized by narrow authorities and specialized functions, with considerable deference paid toward the police powers of the states. Even so, it is a large law enforcement community made up of dozens of agencies and over 100,000 officers and agents.
Crime and the Economy
Authors: Monticelli David M.
Published: January 2014

Crime and the economy are two measurable disciplines that are so intertwined that when one speaks of impacts on one it is difficult not to speak of impacts on the other. Retail companies measure theft in terms of “shrinkage,” insurance companies state that fraudulent claims cost millions of dollars each year and increase the cost of insurance, commercial and residential developers often take into account crime rates before starting new developments, and many investments—such as shopping centers—are eventually lost to crime because the cost of operating them is no longer profitable. Moreover, within the world economy, the impacts of crime in one nation are often felt in another, whether strong or weak, free or closed. There is also a political cost to crime as politicians opt for politically attractive programs while disregarding programs that provide long‐term economic growth and the subsequent benefits therefrom such as lower crime rates. This entry will explore the ways in which crime and the economy interact with each other in a number of select venues.
Police Handling of Crime Victims
Authors: Tucker Jane M.
Published: January 2014

Over the last 40 years, the treatment of crime victims has changed in the American criminal justice system. Once considered to be only witnesses in the adversarial criminal justice process, political and social movements have drawn attention to the rights of crime victims. This entry reviews the historical treatment of crime victims by police and the criminal justice process. Starting with the development of studies in victimology, the entry reviews social and political movements that made significant changes in the way law enforcement officers handle victims of crime. Specific attention is devoted to victims and crimes that have historically been ignored or minimized by the criminal justice system (i.e., women, children, rape, domestic violence, child abuse).
Critical Criminology
Authors: Schwartz Martin D. , DeKeseredy Walter S.
Published: January 2014

Critical criminology is an umbrella term that covers a wide range of theories and perspectives on crime, the definition of crime, and crime causation. What they all have in common is an opposition to the core propositions of mainstream, state‐supported, or traditional criminology. They find the origins of crime embedded in the economic structure of society, and in particular the unequal class system, the unequal race and ethnicity systems, and the unequal gender systems of modern societies, all of which result in unequal distributions of power and material resources. Within this framework, critical theorists might place their emphasis on any number of issues, some of which are explained here.
National Prison Congress
Authors: Hanser Robert D. , Bailey Sheldon D.
Published: January 2014

This entry details the emergence of the National Prison Congress, also sometimes referred to as the National Correctional Congress, which first met in 1870. The activities of this important historical governing body are outlined in this entry. Likewise, the involvement of well‐known persons in the history of American and European corrections is discussed, demonstrating the influential nature of the National Prison Congress to the field of corrections. Due to this historical event, the National Prison Association was established, which is known today as the American Correctional Association.
Social Learning Theory
Authors: Kleckner Danielle R.
Published: January 2014

Ronald L. Akers' theory of social learning builds on Sutherland's theory of differential association, and aims to explain the process of learning criminal behavior. According to the theory, there are four distinct components to learning criminal behavior, namely, differential association, definitions, differential reinforcement, and imitations.
Intellectual Property Theft
Authors: Warburton Christopher E. S.
Published: January 2014

Intellectual property right is the right to enjoy the benefits of ownership of intangible assets as a result of unique intellectual work. Intangible assets such as patents, copyrights, trademarks, and trade secrets, which confer exclusive rights on their owners to produce and market the unique attributes of their goods under specific conditions and for a legally defined period of time, do not have physical existence like machines and computers. But like machines and computers, which depreciate over a period of time, they also lose value over a period of time that is estimated by amortization. These rights can be violated through the theft of intellectual property, such as copyright and trademark infringement and counterfeiting.
International Crimes
Authors: Elechi Oko , Alaniz Heather , Piper Doshie
Published: January 2014

International crimes are acts that violate international criminal laws. Crimes such as war crimes, terrorism, human trafficking, arms trafficking, drug trafficking, money laundering, smuggling of cultural artifacts, genocide, piracy, and crimes against humanity are notable examples of international crimes. International crimes have been facilitated by globalization, under‐developed borders, and technological advances. International crimes are a major threat to world peace, global economy, security, and stability. Unlike transnational crimes, international crimes do not need to involve more than one country. Essentially, international crimes are capable of undermining the world order. Laws against international crimes are geared towards the protection and promotion of human rights and environmental causes.
Crimes Against Humanity
Authors: Okereke Godpower O. , Racheotes Peter
Published: January 2014

Crimes against humanity is a catch‐all phrase adopted by the international community to refer to crimes committed against civilian populations by individuals or governments on the basis of race, class, religion, ethnicity, and/or political views. Within the past 20 years, the United Nations has set up international criminal tribunals to bring people who commit these crimes to justice. The work of such tribunals in Yugoslavia, Rwanda, Cambodia, and other places, along with the efforts of the International Criminal Court, express the desire of the international community to hold people who violate international customary and humanitarian laws responsible for their actions.
Innocence Project
Authors: Murray Rebecca K.
Published: January 2014

The Innocence Project has become an integral mechanism in freeing individuals who have been wrongly convicted by the criminal justice system, along with other projects that form the Innocence Network. In addition to using DNA testing to demonstrate innocence that may result in exoneration, the Innocence Project has launched efforts to educate the public and criminal justice professionals of the risk of wrongful conviction, especially for the poor and people of color. The Project supports reforms that would reduce risk of wrongful convictions, primarily in the areas of eyewitness identification, forensic evidence, and interrogations. Wrongful conviction, which has been highlighted by the Innocence Project, has also affected the debate on capital punishment.
Retribution
Authors: Mikutis Megan J.
Published: January 2014

A controversial approach to punishment, retribution's roots lie firmly planted in ancient legal codes. Traditionally defined as “an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth,” retributive practices developed to include the revived interest in retribution of the 1970s. These practices, both past and present, includelex talonislaws, just deserts, and other forms of retributive justice. These newly formed derivatives of retribution are founded on the rationale that criminals deserve punishment for their actions, whatever the final outcomes of punishments (i.e., rehabilitation or deterrence). Today, in light of major criticisms, retributive justice is changing as alternatives are being considered.
Political Patronage
Authors: McGrath Michael
Published: January 2014

Political patronage is the practice of rewarding supporters of a political leader, party, or organization with jobs, contracts, licenses, or other forms of payment or assistance. Until the late nineteenth century patronage was not only legal in the United States, it was a widely accepted means of mobilizing voters, strengthening political parties, and implementing policy agendas. Public sentiment began to turn against patronage in the late nineteenth century with the growing concern over post‐Civil War corruption in Washington and in some of the country's largest cities. Civil service reforms, changes in municipal government, and court rulings have reduced the blatant “spoils systems” for job seekers which flourished in the nineteenth century, but other forms of patronage continue to exist at the local, state, and federal levels. Contracts, licenses, and other benefits can be given to those who have provided political or financial support for parties and elected officials.
Rioting in America
Authors: Elkins Alexander
Published: January 2014

This entry presents a history of rioting in America through critical analysis of two kinds of street justice: the mob and the police. It provides an overview of four periods—the Revolution, the antebellum era, 1865 to 1920, and 1920 to the present—and, for each, identifies the main grievances and aims of rioters and the structure of police work. The argument is that rioting has reflected a republican commitment to self‐rule as well as the local communal character of policing. For most of its history, the American mob tended to uphold, not challenge, established social hierarchies. This changed after 1920: police departments achieved enough autonomy to rise above the interests of the crowd, and minority citizens began to use extralegal street justice in significant number against the police.
Auburn System
Authors: Randol Blake
Published: January 2014

The Auburn system, also commonly referred to as the “congregate system” or “silent system,” established with the opening of New York's Auburn State Prison in 1817, and was widely implemented by a number of other states throughout the 1820s, 1830s, and 1840s. The Auburn system represented a departure from the colonial prison system and sought to rehabilitate convicts through routines of “industry, obedience, and silence,” which served as guiding principles for the Auburn model (Christianson 1998). There were numerable abuses that occurred under the Auburn system, including but not limited to grueling slave‐labor practices, corporal punishment, malnourishment, assault, rape, and failure to treat disease and other medical conditions. These reported abuses influenced New York Governor John Hoffman to institute penal reforms that led to the development of the Elmira Reformatory in 1876.
Due Process
Authors: Gentes Eric A.
Published: January 2014

This entry examines the doctrine of due process, which acts as an important limitation on the actions that government can take against persons, and is made applicable to the federal government through the Fifth Amendment to the US Constitution and to the states through the Fourteenth Amendment. The entry examines the doctrine's historical and legal development, beginning with English constitutional law; the requirements of procedural due process and substantive due process; and the debate about whether there is a constitutional basis for the latter.
Globalization and Crime
Authors: Marvelli David A.
Published: January 2014

This essay provides a general overview of the relationship between globalization and crime, focusing on the opportunities globalization affords criminals and terrorists, as well as the nexus between globalization, state governance, and transnational criminal and terrorist organizations.
Motion to Suppress
Authors: Wright Delmar P. , Persky David
Published: January 2014

This essay on motion to suppress presents an overview of the procedural context for the motion, its development rooted in precedent from the US Supreme Court, the procedural requirements to successfully present and argue the motion in the pretrial process, and a list of available exceptions to the exclusionary rule that can be raised in the motion hearing by opposing counsel. The essay also considers possible outcomes and benefits that may result from the introduction of a motion prior to trial.
Social Bonding Theory
Authors: Hodwitz Omi
Published: January 2014

Social bonding theory is a control theory built upon the assumption that people are inherently self‐interested; therefore, it seeks to explain why some people refrain from crime rather than engage in crime. The theory posits that offending behavior is caused by weakened or broken social bonds with law‐abiding people and institutions. Social bonds consist of four elements (attachment, commitment, involvement, and belief) and the presence of each element facilitates law‐abiding behavior. Social bonding theory caught the attention of theorists and researchers alike, resulting in a wide variety of empirical tests, heated debates, and theoretical growth. It is one of the more prominent control theories found in criminological literature.
Juvenile Street Gangs
Authors: A. Morgan Kirstin , W. Shelley Walter
Published: January 2014

Juvenile street gangs are often differentiated from other types of gangs (e.g., biker gangs, prison gangs) due to their less organized nature and younger and less committed member base. Most juvenile crime is committed in groups, making it essential to distinguish between gangs and groups. Responses to youth gangs can be categorized into three types, each of which contains different objectives: prevention (stop youth from becoming gang involved), intervention (get youth to leave the gang), and suppression (police efforts to minimize crime and delinquency through enforcement).
Effect of Defects Induced by 12C+ Ion Irradiation on the Fluorination of Pyrolytic Carbon Coating in Flinak Salt
Authors: Feng Shanglei , Li Li , Yang Xinmei , Zhou Xingtai , Bai Shuo , Sham Tsun Kong
Published: January 2014

Pyrolytic carbon (PyC) coating is deposited on IG‐110 nuclear graphite to protect it against the impregnation of molten Flinak salt. Raman spectroscopy, near‐edge X‐ray absorption fine structure (NEXAFS) spectroscopy, and X‐ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) are used to investigate the effect of defects induced by 12C+ ion irradiation on the fluorination of PyC coating in Flinak salt. Results show evidence for the formation of CF bond. And the defects induced by ion irradiation facilitate the fluorination of PyC coating in Flinak salt.
Increase Output Energy and Operation Frequency of a Triboelectric Nanogenerator by Two Grounded Electrodes Approach
Authors: Cheng Gang , Lin Zong‐Hong , Du Zuliang , Wang Zhong Lin
Published: January 2014

Triboelectric nanogenerator (TENG) generally operates using two‐electrodes to form a closed outer circuit loop without directly contacting ground. Here, a newly designed TENG, the two electrodes of which are grounded for doubling the energy output and the operation frequency, is introduced. The TENG operates in two modes: two‐channel mode in which the two electrodes are simultaneously connected to the ground, and single‐channel mode in which the two electrodes are alternately connected to the ground through a self‐triggered vibrating switch. Both modes doubles the total charges to be transported compared to the traditional ungrounded TENG. For the single‐channel TENG, about 30 current peaks with an output frequency of 50 Hz are generated in a single cycle at a motion triggering frequency of 2 Hz. The output energy at a load lower than 10 MΩ of the single‐channel TENG is enhanced, and the enhancing ratio is more than 100 at a load of 100 kΩ. The two electrodes grounded TENG provides a new strategy for effective use of the energy harvested from our living environment.
Expanding the Scope of the Organocatalytic Addition of Fluorobis(phenylsulfonyl)methane to Enals: Enantioselective Cascade Synthesis of Fluoroindane and Fluorochromanol Derivatives
Authors: Kim Young Sug , Kim Sun Min , Wang Bing , Companyó Xavier , Li Jing , Moyano Albert , Im Seoyoung , Tošner Zdeněk , Yang Jung Woon , Rios Ramon
Published: January 2014

Highly enantioselective cascade reactions for the synthesis of fluoroindanes and chromanols derivatives are described. The cascade reactions consisted of either a double Michael reaction or Michael–hemiacetal formation via the addition of fluorobis(phenylsulfonyl)methane (FBSM) to enals. The final products were obtained in good yields with excellent stereoselectivities.

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R2 and R2* are equally effective in evaluating chronic response to iron chelation
Authors: Wood John C. , Zhang Pinggao , Rienhoff Hugh , Abi‐Saab Walid , Neufeld Ellis
Published: January 2014

MRI relaxometry (R2, R2*) has generally replaced liver biopsy for estimation of liver iron stores in response to iron chelation, but there have been no longitudinal studies comparing R2 and R2* techniques. We use R2 and R2* liver iron concentration (LIC) estimates, transfusional iron burdens, and drug compliance data to calculate iron chelation efficiency (ICE) in patients undergoing a Phase II trial of SPD602. Fifty‐one patients underwent a baseline examination, 39 patients completed 1 year, and 26 patients completed 2 years. Baseline LICR2 and LICR2* estimates were unbiased, but had limits of agreement exceeding 50%, suggesting that these techniques cannot be interchanged with one another in the same patient. However, ICE estimates across the two techniques compared more favorably, with r2 values reaching 0.89 at 2 years. 95 confidence intervals for efficiency estimates were 0.0 ± 4.1%. These data indicate that clinical trial and clinical effectiveness data calculated using LICR2 and LICR2* estimates can be compared to one another, even though LIC estimates may be disparate on cross‐sectional analysis. While the choice of MRI assessment technique for clinical trials and for clinical management depends on many logistical considerations, one can have confidence comparing conclusions on clinical effectiveness. Am. J. Hematol. 89:505–508, 2014. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Mitochondrial variation among the aymara and the signatures of population expansion in the central Andes
Authors: Batai Ken , Williams Sloan R.
Published: January 2014

Objectives

The exploitation of marine resources and intensive agriculture led to a marked population increase early in central Andean prehistory. Constant historic and prehistoric population movements also characterize this region. These features undoubtedly affected regional genetic variation, but the exact nature of these effects remains uncertain.

Methods

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) hypervariable region I sequence variation in 61 Aymara individuals from La Paz, Bolivia, was analyzed and compared to sequences from 47 other South American populations to test hypotheses of whether increased female effective population size and gene flow influenced the mtDNA variation among central Andean populations.

Results

The Aymara and Quechua were genetically diverse showing evidence of population expansion and large effective population size, and a demographic expansion model fits the mtDNA variation found among central Andean populations well. Estimated migration rates and the results of AMOVA and multidimensional scaling analysis suggest that female gene flow was also an important factor, influencing genetic variation among the central Andeans as well as lowland populations from western South America. mtDNA variation in south central Andes correlated better with geographic proximity than with language, and fit a population continuity model.

Conclusion

The mtDNA data suggests that the central Andeans experienced population expansion, most likely because of rapid demographic expansion after introduction of intensive agriculture, but roles of female gene flow need to be further explored. Am. J. Hum. Biol. 26:321–330, 2014. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Reelin gene variants and risk of autism spectrum disorders: An integrated meta‐analysis
Authors: Wang Zhenling , Hong Yuan , Zou Li , Zhong Rong , Zhu Beibei , Shen Na , Chen Wei , Lou Jiao , Ke Juntao , Zhang Ti , Wang Weipeng , Miao Xiaoping
Published: January 2014

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a severe neurological disorder with a high degree of heritability. Reelin gene (RELN), which plays a crucial role in the migration and positioning of neurons during brain development, has been strongly posed as a candidate gene for ASD. Genetic variants in RELN have been investigated as risk factors of ASD in numerous epidemiologic studies but with inconclusive results. To clearly discern the effects of RELN variants on ASD, the authors conducted a meta‐analysis integrating case–control and transmission disequilibrium test (TDT) studies published through 2001 to 2013. Odds ratios (ORs) with 95% confidence intervals were used to estimate the associations between three RELN variants (rs736707, rs362691, and GGC repeat variant) and ASD. In overall meta‐analysis, the summary ORs for rs736707, rs362691, and GGC repeat variant were 1.11 [95% confidence interval (CI): 0.80–1.54], 0.69 (95% CI: 0.56–0.86), and 1.09 (95% CI: 0.97–1.23), respectively. Besides, positive result was also obtained in subgroup of broadly‐defined ASD for rs362691 (OR = 0.67, 95% CI: 0.52–0.86). Our meta‐analysis revealed that the RELN rs362691, rather than rs736707 or GGC repeat variant, might contribute significantly to ASD risk. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.