bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Etic
Authors: Hwang Wei‐Chin , Ting Julia Y.
Published: October 2013

The words
etic
and
emic
were originally coined by the linguistic anthropologist Kenneth. Etic was derived from the term “phonetic,” and refers to units of sound that are not distinctive to a particular language. Emic was derived from the term “phonemic,” which refers to the units of sound that are distinctive to a particular language. Since their original usage, these terms have been modified and used in various ways and by different fields of study.
Factor Analysis
Authors: Beins Bernard C.
Published: October 2013

Factor analysis is a multivariate statistical technique that permits a researcher to identify factors or latent variables that underlie a data matrix. Measurements (e.g., test scores, responses in survey research) may correlate with one another because a factor (or latent variable) is associated with each of them. Through this statistical approach, the researcher can use the intercorrelations to explain the structure of data with a small number of concepts (i.e., fewer factors than original items). In addition, the investigator can calculate scores for each of the factors rather than needing to evaluate the entire set of measured variables.
Field Dependence
Authors: Abrams Jasmine , Z. Belgrave Faye
Published: October 2013

Field dependence is a cognitive style characterized by global methods of thinking, problem solving, learning, and relating to others. The field‐dependent/field‐independent (FDI) dimension of cognitive style is well known among education researchers and is the most dominant conceptualization of cognitive style. This conceptualization has been used to describe learners on a continuum, with field dependence on one end of the spectrum, field independence on the opposite end, and field mixed or neutral in the middle.
Forgiveness
Authors: Mullet Etienne , Neto Félix
Published: October 2013

Forgiveness has been defined as the “forswearing of negative affect and judgment by viewing the wrongdoer with compassion and love, in the face of a wrongdoer's considerable injustice”. Since the end of the 1990s, forgiveness has increasingly attracted the attention of social psychologists and political scientists. This is largely due to the fact that forgiveness has empirically proven to be an efficient way for durably transforming, and even ending, interpersonal conflicts as well as intergroup conflicts. In modern, multicultural societies, misunderstandings and conflicts may arise between persons from different cultural or religious backgrounds. Thus, it is important to explore the possibly diverse meaning forgiveness may have among different populations.
Gardiner, Harry W
Authors: Abi‐Hashem Naji , Driscoll Elizabeth G.
Published: October 2013

A prominent speaker, educator, and researcher on topics related to cross‐cultural psychology and their application to human development, Harry Gardiner is considered a leading advocate of the need for a stronger partnership between cultural psychology and psychological anthropology for the sake of establishing empirically based theories of human development within distinct cultural settings.
Gender Identity
Authors: Shelton Kimber , Dispenza Franco
Published: October 2013

Social science literature has taken strides to differentiate the terms
sex
and
gender
. The term
sex
connotes the anatomical, physiological, endocrinological, genetic/chromosomal, and other biological materials that create the diverse phenotypic elements of human beings. Gender is a socially‐constructed phenomenon; traditionally defined by the social and cultural characteristics assigned to male or female, and masculinity or femininity. Gender identity is the individual's sense of self as a gendered person and the adoption of, or adherence to, the emotional, cognitive, and behavioral distinctions associated with one's gender.
Goodness of Fit
Authors: Crosby Vivian M. , Navsaria Neha
Published: October 2013

The term
goodness of fit
is used to demonstrate the degree of compatibility between an individual's temperament and his or her environment. When an individual's temperament and other characteristics match up to the demands and expectations of the environment, goodness of fit results; consonance associated with this goodness of fit is conducive to an individual's optimal development. Conversely, when an individual's temperament and other characteristics do not match up with environmental demands and expectations, poorness of fit can result; the dissonance that occurs as a result of this poorness of fit can lead to stunted or disordered development and maladjustment.
Great Divide Theory
Authors: Serpell Robert
Published: October 2013

Traced the origin of the expression “great divide” to the seminal paper on the consequences of literacy, and noted that a number of other works published in the 1960s gave the idea great visibility, including
The Savage Mind
,
The Gutenberg Galaxy
,
Preface to Plato
. In analyses of the cultural and psychological correlates of literacy, the concept of a great divide postulates a radical difference between the worldview of people who are literate and people who are not, the latter variously described as “pre‐literate,” “traditional” vs. “modern,” or more tendentiously as “primitive” vs. “civilized,” “simple” vs. “advanced,” or, with a sharper explanatory focus, as “pre‐logical” vs. “logical,” “pre‐rational” vs. “rational,” “pre‐analytic” vs. “analytic,” “concrete” vs. “scientific,” “oral” vs. “visual,” or “mythopoeic” vs. “logico‐empirical.”
Greenfield, Patricia Marks
Authors: Rich Grant J.
Published: October 2013

Patricia Marks Greenfield, cultural and developmental psychologist, was born July 18, 1940 in Newark, New Jersey. She is the daughter of David Marks, Jr., an insurance agent, and Doris (Pollard) Marks. She married physician Sheldon Greenfield in 1965 and has a daughter Lauren, a noted photographer, and a son, Matthew.
Grounded Theory Methodology
Authors: Priya Kumar Ravi
Published: October 2013

The overarching research goal for which grounded theory methodology (GTM) is used is to understand the basic social processes that underlie a phenomenon in socially or experientially relevant domains of human life. It is also a popular methodology adopted by qualitative researchers in social science disciplines and medical and health sciences. In psychology too, its popularity and use are gaining momentum as literature documenting detailed procedures about conducting grounded theory research is readily available.
Groupthink
Authors: Shiraev Eric , Levy David
Published: October 2013

Groupthink is an excessive form of concurrence seeking among members of a group during decision making. conducted early research on this subject and referred primarily to groups of high prestige that are tightly knit, particularly in policy making. Janis found that individuals in specific group decision‐making situations tend to adhere to their shared views so strongly that they ignore information inconsistent with those views. Group members thus suppress personal doubts, silence dissidents, and follow the group leader's suggestions. Groupthink often leads to the group's distortion of reality, risky decisions, and even immoral or disastrous results. High cohesiveness of the group, the organizational structure within which the group operates (such as strong leadership), overestimation of the group's power and abilities, closed‐mindedness, and pressures toward uniformity, stressful outside conditions, or the perception of opportunity may contribute to groupthink. Since the 1970s, hundreds of empirical studies, case analyses, and summaries have been published on groupthink describing its impact on decision making.
Happiness
Authors: Misra Girishwar
Published: October 2013

The quest for happiness, a good life, and a vision for the future has been one of the core and pervasive concerns among all civilizations. It addresses the basic existential question: What does one want from life? The answer, as the Dalai Lama maintained, is that the main purpose of life is happiness. While connotations of happiness in various languages and cultures show many shades of positive experiences and states of mind, happiness is generally characterized by (a) a positive state of mind (e.g., feelings of contentment, exuberance, joy, and tranquillity) at the individual level and attaining the common good at the societal level, and (b) a view of life as satisfying.
Hardiness
Authors: Chao Ruth Chu‐Lien , Northart Dayna
Published: October 2013

Hardiness refers to a personality trait characterized by a tendency to be deeply involved or a need to be in control. Hardiness is also a set of attitudes and skills that promote resiliency even under stressful circumstances by enhancing performance, leadership, and health. Research has shown that individuals with higher levels of hardiness tend to be more persistent. In psychology, hardiness is a well‐established concept supported by more than 20 years of theory, research, and practice. But in cross‐cultural psychology, hardiness should be contextualized to individuals’ cultural environment.
Holocultural Method
Authors: Mio Jeffery Scott
Published: October 2013

The holocultural method is an attempt to test universal aspects of culture and behavior through comparison between societies.
Hsu, Francis L. K
Authors: Keith Kenneth D.
Published: October 2013

Francis L. K. Hsu was born in 1909 in Liaoning Province (Manchuria) in China and immigrated to the United States not long before World War II. A graduate of the University of Shanghai, he went on to the London School of Economics and Political Science where he completed a doctoral degree in anthropology. He taught at Columbia University in New York City and Cornell University in Ithaca, New York, before moving in 1947 to Northwestern University (becoming the first non‐white faculty member), where he remained for 31 years. Following his retirement Hsu served as director of the Center for Cultural Studies in Education at the University of San Francisco, and as senior specialist at the East‐West Center of the University of Hawaíi. He was president of the American Anthropological Association in 1978.
ICD‐10
Authors: Moreira‐Almeida Alexander , de Freitas Araujo Saulo
Published: October 2013

In 1992 the World Health Organization (WHO) published the section on mental disorder (chapter V) of the
International Classification of Diseases
, 10th revision (ICD‐10). The ICD‐10 has appeared in several versions, such as for clinicians in mental health settings, for research, and for use in primary care.
Identity Denial
Authors: Huynh Que‐Lam
Published: October 2013

Identity denial is a type of social identity threat that occurs when an individual is not recognized as a member of a group to which he or she belongs. In other words, acceptance as part of an important ingroup is in jeopardy in identity denial situations. Typically, individuals are denied ingroup status because they do not resemble a prototypical group member, so their common ingroup identity is called into question or unrecognized by fellow group members. Identity denial is sometimes a subtle, exclusionary experience, sometimes a blatant questioning of belonging. Within recent years, there has been a growing empirical literature in psychology on denial of American identity for visible ethnic and racial minorities (e.g., Asian Americans, African Americans, and Latino/as).
Idiocentrism
Authors: Caldwell‐Harris Catherine L.
Published: October 2013

Idiocentrism refers to a set of personality traits indicating an individualistic orientation. Idiocentric people define themselves as relatively autonomous and self‐reliant. In social relations, they pursue their own goals and are generally motivated by their own preferences, rather than group goals and social norms. In interactions with others, they may often follow exchange theory, using money to ensure equal exchanges, rather than communal sharing of resources or reciprocation of favors. Idiocentric people are frequently concerned with universal human rights and may be critical of those who practice favoritism toward family and ingroup.
Indigenization
Authors: Pickren Wade E.
Published: October 2013

The process whereby a local culture or region develops its own forms of knowledge and practice, either by developing them from within that culture, or by importing knowledge and practices developed elsewhere and combining them with local concepts, is called
indigenization
. In historical perspective, humans have always engaged in trade, populations have always been on the move, technologies have been developed and shared, and knowledge has been transformed to fit time and place. These historical processes indicate that it is perhaps a human impulse to cross boundaries to establish contacts and make exchanges across cultures. Histories of trade, commerce, and civilizations provide support for this thesis.
Internationalization
Authors: Chao Ruth Chu‐Lien , Wang Canzi
Published: October 2013

Internationalization originally referred to the process of increasing involvement of enterprises in international markets. As globalization becomes an unstoppable trend in the world, cross‐cultural interaction has become more and more common. Therefore, individuals, families, groups, institutions, and societies must adapt to the rapid change that globalization brings. For example, the increasing number of international students in Western universities has greatly challenged and affected traditional Western teaching methods, performance evaluation methods, and domestic students’ and faculties’ perceptions of cross‐cultural interaction.
International Congresses of Psychology (International Union of Psychological Science)
Authors: Chernoff Nathalie L.
Published: October 2013

The International Congresses of Psychology were the first self‐consciously international body to draw individuals from across the globe for the exclusive purpose of discussing the subject of psychology. The proceedings of these meetings thus provide a view into the active process whereby psychologists from different countries met one another and communicated their conceptions of psychology as a subject and discipline. These Congresses were also instrumental in delineating different practices of the discipline along national, geographic lines. At the international Congresses a psychologist was a representative for his or her nation's brand of psychology. The congresses were an important venue where competing ideologies were discussed and where representatives of different nations forged an international culture of psychology.
Intracultural Communication
Authors: Abi‐Hashem Naji , Peterson Christa E.
Published: October 2013

Intracultural communication is a meaningful exchange between members of the same social group or of groups with similar cultural properties. Such groups may be distinguishable from the mainstream society on the basis of race, ethnicity, tradition, values, religious faith, economic level, gender, age, or other traits and abilities. Culture and communication are closely related. The more people share in common, the easier their connections. Discomfort and unease in interpersonal or inter‐ and intra‐group relationships result from sociocultural differences. That is, we are naturally more comfortable dealing with people who are similar to ourselves and more anxious when dealing with people who are different. Communicating cross‐culturally requires self/other awareness, empathy skills, and adaptability.
Irreversibility
Authors: Kaji Akiko
Published: October 2013

Irreversibility in developmental psychology describes a cognitive inability to think in reverse order while manipulating objects and symbols. According to Hamilton and, developmental theorist Jean Piaget believed that changes in behavior occurring during development are a result of cognitive changes in children's ability to reason about the world around them. discussed irreversibility and reversibility as cognitive changes useful for differentiating developmental stages and claimed that children do not grasp the concept of reversibility until they reach the concrete operational stage, between 7 and 11 years of age.
Jahoda, Gustav
Authors: Serpell Robert
Published: October 2013

Born in 1920 in Vienna and educated in Vienna, Paris, and the University of London (sociology and psychology), Gustav Jahoda conducted pioneering research into cross‐cultural psychology at the University of the Gold Coast (now Ghana) from 1952 to 1956, then joined the department of psychology at the University of Glasgow, Scotland as senior lecturer in social psychology. In 1964, he was appointed professor at the University of Strathclyde, Scotland, where he founded the psychology department and continues to serve as emeritus professor. In 1970 he was elected President of the International Association of Cross‐Cultural Psychology, and in 1980 he authored a chapter on theoretical and systematic approaches in the first edition of theHandbook of Cross‐Cultural Psychology.
Jealousy, Romantic
Authors: Miller Richard L. , Benz Joseph
Published: October 2013

Jealousy is an aversive emotional reaction experienced when a person is either threatened by loss (suspicious jealousy) or experiences actual loss (fait accomplijealousy) of an important relationship to a rival. In exploring the origins of jealousy, suggested that jealousy may have originally evolved outside the mating context as sibling rivalry in response to differential access to parental attention and resources. She suggested that the emotion may have later generalized to the attention and resources provided by friends and mates. Research with children has found that older siblings often display jealousy toward a new arrival in the family that can be observed as early as infancy. Infants as young as six months show distress when parents direct their attention away from the child toward a lifelike baby doll but not when attention is directed toward non‐social toys. Also, eight‐month‐old children attempt to distract their mother when she stops interacting with them and interacts with another child.
Jilek, Wolfgang G
Authors: Draguns Juris G.
Published: October 2013

Wolfgang G. Jilek was born on November 25, 1930 in Tetschen, now Decin, in northern Czech Republic. His first language was German and his family's national identity Austrian. He is a Canadian citizen through immigration, and the Austrian government re‐conferred Austrian citizenship on him due to scientific merit. Jilek studied medicine at the Universities of Munich, Vienna, and Innsbruck. In Vienna, Viktor Frankl was one of his teachers and became a lifelong friend. Jilek received the Doctor of Medicine degree from the University of Innsbruck in 1956. He obtained specialized training in psychiatry at the Burgholzli Psychiatric University Clinic in Zurich, where a major long‐term influence was Manfred Bleuler; and at the General Hospital and Queen Mary Veterans Hospital, both in Montreal. He also holds master's degrees in social psychiatry and social anthropology from McGill University and University of British Columbia respectively. Jilek is an honorary member of the Austrian and German Societies for Ethnomedicine and an honorary advisor to the Transcultural Psychiatry Section of the World Psychiatric Association, which he served as secretary and chairperson for 16 years.
Keats, Daphne M
Authors: Lonner Walter J.
Published: October 2013

Daphne M. Keats, born December 17, 1925, has been a long‐time contributor to cross‐cultural psychology. Her scholarly contributions as well as her organizational activities have been impressive. For instance, in the early days of the International Association for Cross‐Cultural Psychology (IACCP) she was a tireless worker in revising the first major IACCP constitution. For all that she has done, in 1996 the association bestowed upon her the title of Honorary Fellow. Daphne earned both her Ph.D. and M. Ed. from the University of Queensland and her B.A. from the University of Sydney. Since 1970 her career was centered in the School of Psychology at the University of Newcastle, where she currently holds the position of Conjoint Professor of Psychology. She is a life member and Fellow of the Australian Psychology Society, and was APS President in 1985–1986.
Keller, Heidi
Authors: Draguns Juris G.
Published: October 2013

Heidi Keller was born in Talling, Rhineland‐Palatinate, Germany. She obtained her diploma in psychology at the Psychological Institute of the University of Mainz, Germany, received a Ph.D. at the Institute of Biology at the same university, and was granted habilitation in psychology in 1982 at the Technical University of Darmstadt, Germany. She held research and academic appointments at the Universities of Mainz, Darmstadt, and Augsburg prior to being appointed professor of psychology and head of the Department of Culture and Development at the University of Osnabruck, Germany in 1984, where she is also director of the research unit for Culture, Learning, and Development at the Lower Saxony Institute of Early Childhood Education and Development. Keller held the Nehru Professorial Chair at the University of Baroda in India and taught at the University of Costa Rica in San Jose and the University of California, Los Angeles. She was also a Fellow in Residence at the Netherlands Institute of Advanced Studies in 2000–2001. In 2008‐2009 Keller served as president of the International Association of Cross‐Cultural Psychology.
Kleinman, Arthur
Authors: White Jill
Published: October 2013

Arthur Kleinman (b. 1941) is the Esther and Sidney Rabb Professor of medical anthropology and cross‐cultural psychiatry at Harvard University and director of Harvard's Asia Center. After obtaining a degree in medicine from Stanford University in 1967, Kleinman pursued a series of postdoctoral research fellowships at the National Institutes of Health (NIH), the U.S. Naval Medical Research Unit in Taipei, and the Comparative Study of Medicine in the Department of History of Science at Harvard from 1968 to 1972. He then completed a three‐year psychiatric residency at Harvard Medical School while simultaneously earning an M.A. in social anthropology at the same institution. Following a brief tenure at the University of Washington, where he was head of the division of cultural psychiatry and jointly appointed in the department of anthropology, Kleinman accepted a position at Harvard University in 1982. From 1991 to 2000 he chaired Harvard Medical School's Department of Social Medicine and from 1993 to 2002 he held the Maude and Lillian Presley Professorship there. His influence on the department and medical school is attested to by the global and cultural foci of the following two chairspersons, both students of Kleinman, and both M.D.s with Ph.D.s in anthropology (JimYong Kim and Paul Farmer).
Klineberg, Otto
Authors: Pickren Wade E.
Published: October 2013

Otto Klineberg was one of the most respected and admired figures in the history of American psychology. Klineberg was born in 1899 in Quebec City to parents who had been brought to Canada as children. In a family that emphasized education, Otto attended Montreal public schools and then McGill University, the premier English‐language university in the city. He earned a First Class Honors degree at McGill in philosophy and psychology. Although McGill did not have a first‐rate psychology program at that time, Klineberg fell in love with psychology. A Prince of Wales Gold Medal scholarship paid for his master's degree at Harvard University, where he was exposed to the emerging social psychology of Floyd Allport.
Kohlberg, Lawrence
Authors: Rich Grant J.
Published: October 2013

Lawrence Kohlberg was born October 25, 1927 in Bronxville, New York. From a wealthy family, he attended the famous Phillips Academy, a private, exclusive high school. After high school, at the end of World War II, he volunteered on a ship smuggling Jewish refugees from Europe to Palestine through a British blockade. After capture and internment at Cyprus, he escaped and fled to a kibbutz (collective farm) in Palestine, returned to the United States, and joined another group that relocated refugees.
LaFromboise, Teresa
Authors: Puente Antonio E.
Published: October 2013

Teresa LaFromboise, born in the United States in a small rural town in southern Indiana, is of the Miami Tribe of Indiana. Her great‐grandmother inspired her to understand and embrace her American Indian heritage. The day after receiving a B.A. from Butler University (1971), she embarked on a teaching career at Mother Superior of St. Ann's at Turtle Mountain Ojibwa reservation in Belcourt, North Dakota. While teaching there, LaFromboise obtained a Masters in Elementary Education at the University of North Dakota (1975) and then went to Saginaw Chippewa in Central Michigan as an “Indian culture” teacher and middle school counselor at Mt. Pleasant School.
Language Interpretation
Authors: Brisset Camille , Leanza Yvan
Published: October 2013

Language interpretation is about enabling dialog between parties using different languages. Not to be mistaken for translation, which is conventionally used for written language, interpretation is orally conveying discourse from one language to another during a conversation. This practice is best known to the general public in the context of conferences (in international institutions for example) or speeches carried via news media. After World War II and the Nuremberg trials, the first international event with systematic simultaneous interpretation, conference interpreting has received much scientific attention, especially from linguistic (to explore translation equivalence issues) and cognitive (from psychology and neuroscience, to explore the cognitive processes associated with translation) perspectives.
Language
Authors: Kreiner David S.
Published: October 2013

Language is a system that simultaneously serves two functions: communication and mental representation. Unlike other communication systems, language serves as a way of mentally representing the world. Unlike other representational systems, language serves as a sophisticated communication tool.
Levels of Inference in Cross‐Cultural Research
Authors: Poortinga Ype H.
Published: October 2013

The interest of a data set lies in the explanation or interpretation that is derived from it. On the basis of the observation of some events researchers makegeneralizationsorinferencesabout other, non‐observed, events which usually cover a much broader or inclusive range. As a rule cross‐cultural data are collected on individuals who are nested in various cultural populations. A distinction can be made between interpretations at the cultural level and at the individual level. The entry in thisEncyclopediaabout hierarchical linear modeling deals with this distinction; here the focus is on the individual level.
Lonner, Walter J
Authors: Abi‐Hashem Naji
Published: October 2013

Walter J. Lonner, professor emeritus of psychology at Western Washington University, Bellingham, Washington, has made extensive contributions to cross‐cultural psychology. Throughout his career, Lonner has been active in development of a subfield of psychology that, since the 1960s, has made the discipline more inclusive, aware, and culturally‐sensitive. After obtaining a B.A. and M.A. from the University of Montana, he pursued the Ph.D. at the University of Minnesota, where he became increasingly interested in the effects of culture on basic psychological processes. Influenced and encouraged by graduate school professors, and increasingly concerned about the lack of cultural perspectives in the field of psychology, he conducted his doctoral research in Europe in the mid 1960s. Shortly after his return to the United States and earning his Ph.D. in 1967, he joined the faculty at Western Washington University (then Western Washington State College) in 1968, where he continued to shape his career around the interface between psychology and culture. His overriding concern, that the influence of culture on people's lives around the world had not been systematically accounted for in psychological theory or application, was then shared by a small yet growing number of psychologists in various countries.
Malinowski, Bronislaw
Authors: (Hans) Bakker J. I.
Published: October 2013

Bronislaw Malinowski (1884 − 1942) was a well‐known Polish‐British‐American anthropologist who became famous for his first book (1922/1984),
Argonauts of the Western Pacific
, which discussed the Kula Ring. The Kula Ring is a fascinating topic because it so clearly shows that in pre‐modern, traditional economics many of the so‐called “laws” of neo‐classical economics clearly do not apply in any simple, straightforward manner. The Trobriand Islands, just east of Papua New Guinea, were his object of study. His research in the modernist tradition has been critiqued by postmodernist thinkers who would like to recast the epistemological basis for social anthropology. Malinowski the “fieldworker” and Malinowski the “theoretician” have sometimes been replaced by Malinowski “the anti‐hero” in some of the postmodernist accounts. Publication of Malinowski's
Diary
(1967) contributed to the controversy. For those who believe that striving for some degree of objectivity in ethnographic monographs is possible, Malinowski still represents a founder of the kind of fieldwork that constitutes the bedrock of solid anthropological work. Much of the rhetoric against Malinowski ignores his path‐breaking innovations. pointed out: “… it is often a great deal easier to criticize one's intellectual heritage than to acknowledge one's inheritance”.
Malnutrition
Authors: Pilisuk Marc
Published: October 2013

Cultural beliefs and practices often revolve around food harvesting and eating, but the richness of culture recedes when life is reduced to a struggle for food. Malnutrition is the world's greatest public health problem. It is widespread in developing countries but is also a problem in industrialized countries. Nine hundred twenty‐five million people do not have enough to eat and 98 percent of them live in developing countries.
Masculinity‐Femininity
Authors: DeSouza Eros
Published: October 2013

During most of the twentieth century, masculinity‐femininity (MA) followed a trait‐based approach. In the first half of the century, the one‐dimensional perspective dominated the field, so that the more masculine one was, the less feminine one would also be. However, in the second half a shift occurred, giving way to a two‐dimensional perspective in which masculinity and femininity were two independent dimensions. For example, both thePersonal Attributes Inventoryand theBem Sex Role Inventorydefined the dimension of masculinity in terms of instrumental or agentic traits (e.g., independence and assertiveness), whereas they defined femininity in terms of communal or expressive traits (e.g., nurturing and caring). Bem also introduced the concept of androgyny (i.e., individuals with high levels of both masculinity and femininity) and viewed it as the key to optimal mental health. shifted from a trait‐based approach to schemas, so that androgynous individuals were aschematic (i.e., they did not categorize the social environment strictly in terms of maleness or femaleness), showing much more flexibility in their lives than gender‐schematic individuals. meta‐analytic studies showed that masculinity was much more strongly linked to psychological wellbeing and adjustment than femininity. Thus, the claim of androgyny as the index of mental health was not supported.
McCrae, Robert R
Authors: Keith Kenneth D.
Published: October 2013

Robert R. McCrae was born in Maryville, Missouri in 1949. He received the B.A. in philosophy from Michigan State University in 1971, then went on to complete the M.A. (1974) and Ph.D. (1976) in personality psychology at Boston University. Following two years of research on smoking and personality at the University of Massachusetts, he joined the Gerontology Research Center of the National Institute on Aging (NIA), National Institutes of Health, in Baltimore, Maryland, first as a senior staff fellow, and then as research psychologist. He remained at NIA from 1978 until his retirement in 2009.
Measurement Invariance
Authors: Chen Fang Fang
Published: October 2013

Measurement invariance in cross‐cultural research involves testing the equivalence of a measured construct in two or more cultures. It assures that the same constructs are being assessed across different cultural groups. With continuous variables, the most frequently used technique for testing measurement invariance is confirmatory factor analysis, investigating both covariance and mean structures. During the last decade, confirmatory factor analysis has been frequently conducted to examine if a factor structure is similar in different cultures.
Mental Health
Authors: Tan Josephine C. H.
Published: October 2013

Mental health is primarily a Western concept. Mental status is measured on a continuum which is anchored by disabling mental illness at one end and mental health at the other. In between are “mental health problems” experienced by many individuals at different points in their lives. Hence, mental health can be described as the absence of mental illness. Western models of mental illness have traditionally pointed to medical, psychological, and/or social factors to explain the origin of mental illness, but have evolved over time to incorporate recognition that cultural factors also play an important role.
Mental Number Line
Authors: Fischer Martin H.
Published: October 2013

The speed of processing in simple number tasks, such as magnitude comparison (“which number is larger?”), reveals much about the cognitive representation of numbers. Three effects, in particular, point to a “mental number line” as the universal representation of number meaning in our minds. First, we usually find that the time to discriminate two numbers decreases with increasing numerical distance between them: we know that 8 is larger than 2 before we know that 4 is larger than 2. This distance effect holds regardless of number format (digits, words, dot patterns, Roman numerals), stimulus modality (visual, auditory), or response modality (verbal, button press). Second, if we hold the distance between numbers constant (as in the pairs 4 − 2 vs. 8 − 6) we need less time to process small than large numbers, and are also more accurate (the size effect). Finally, varying their spatial arrangement (4 − 2 vs. 2 − 4) often reveals faster responses with smaller numbers on the left and larger numbers on the right side. This spatial‐numerical association of response codes (SNARC) effect does, however, depend on cultural factors.
Metacognition
Authors: Padakannaya Prakash
Published: October 2013

The term
metacognition
was introduced to refer to knowledge concerning one's own cognitive processes and products or anything related to them, including active monitoring and regulation of these processes. Metacognition (MC) is a higher order cognitive phenomenon. If cognition is concerned with information processing, thinking, and problem solving, MC refers to deliberate control and monitoring of these cognitive processes. Thus, it is awareness of one's own thinking or “cognition of cognition” that enables one to monitor and regulate cognitive processes. Cognitive neuroscience associates MC with the prefrontal cortex which receives and monitors sensory signals from other cortical regions and implements control through feedback loops.
Minority Group‐Affiliation Hypothesis
Authors: Goforth Anisa N.
Published: October 2013

The minority group‐affiliation hypothesis contends that when a bilingual person is speaking the language of his or her minority group, that person will be more likely to behave in a manner that perpetuates the majority culture's stereotypes of the minority group. In other words, a bilingual person will adopt the stereotypical behaviors of the minority group when he or she is speaking the language associated with that group .
Misra, Girishwar
Authors: Srivastava Ashok K.
Published: October 2013

Girishwar Misra (b. 1951), is a leading cultural psychologist from India and currently teaches psychology at the University of Delhi. The teaching of psychology in Indian universities started under British colonial rule in 1916, predominantly following the Wundtian tradition and subsequent developments in North America. This tradition gave prominence to the physical science model, for which culture was a confounding variable and a source of error that needed to be controlled. However, several endogenous and exogenous developments during the last two decades have paved the way for the emergence of an interdisciplinary, culturally informed perspective on psychology as a socially conditioned endeavor using plurality in its approaches and recognizing the limitations of the traditional model. Misra represents this new tradition of psychological thought and has contributed substantially toward the development of cultural psychology.
Moghaddam, Fathali M
Authors: Abi‐Hashem Naji
Published: October 2013

Fathali Moghaddam is a professor in the Department of Psychology at Georgetown University (USA) and director of the Conflict Resolution Program at the Department of Government in the same university. He is also a Senior Fellow at the Center for Interdisciplinary Policy, Education, and Research on Terrorism at Stanford University and serves as an external expert at the London School of Economics and Political Science.
Morality
Authors: Vauclair Christin‐Melanie
Published: October 2013

One aim of an encyclopedia is to define concepts; however in the case of morality this is a challenging task. The problem is that the meaning of morality is ambiguous and controversial. It can be understood in both a descriptive and normative way. This means that psychologists may simply describe norms of right and wrong conduct of individuals in different societies without making claims about what is objectively right or wrong. Alternatively, psychologists may make claims about what is objectively right or wrong and study whether individuals in different societies conform to these ideas about morality. Hence, there is considerable disagreement among psychologists on what exactly morality is, with important implications for its conceptualization and measurement in cross‐cultural research.
Müller‐Lyer Illusion
Authors: Keith Kenneth D.
Published: October 2013

The Müller‐Lyer illusion is an apparently simple visual illusion, first described by Franz Müller‐Lyer in 1889. Although lines (a) and (b) are identical in length, many viewers perceive (a) as longer than (b). However, despite the fact that introductory psychology textbooks generally present this phenomenon as if it were universal, researchers have known for more than a century that it is not. The British scientist W. H. R., on a Cambridge University expedition to the Torres Straits, between New Guinea and northeastern Australia, tested local people on visual perception tasks, including the Müller‐Lyer. He also gathered similar data from the Todas of rural India and from urban dwellers in England.
Munroe, Ruth Hagberg
Authors: Munroe Robert L.
Published: October 2013

Ruth Hagberg Munroe was born in Youngstown, Ohio in 1930. She graduated from Antioch College, was trained in measurement and statistics (Ed.M.) and human development (Ed.D.) at Harvard University, and in 1964 became a member of the founding faculty at Pitzer College in Claremont, California. There, she helped to build a new institution and devotedly and successfully taught at the school for the rest of her career. Her primary professional affiliation was with the International Association for Cross‐Cultural Psychology. She served for six years as its secretary‐general, and in 1996 was named an Honorary Fellow of the organization. She died in Claremont in 1996.
Murphy, Henry Brian M
Authors: Draguns Juris G.
Published: October 2013

H. B. M. Murphy was one of the founders of transcultural psychiatry as a distinct and cumulative subdiscipline. He was born on September 17, 1915 in Edinburgh, Scotland and graduated from the University of Edinburgh Medical School with M.B. and Ch.B degrees in 1938. Service in the Royal Army Medical Corps soon followed, and after World War II Murphy went to work for United Nations agencies providing medical services for East European refugees stranded in displaced persons camps in Germany. He soon discovered that many of the medical problems presented by refugees had a psychological meaning and origin, which often differed across nationalities and cultures. This insight formed the basis of his first major transcultural publication, an edited volume on flight and resettlement. It focused on refugees’ problems of adaptation prior to and following resettlement and related them to culturally distinctive and often traumatic experiences in their countries of origin. Murphy pursued these interests while obtaining a diploma in public health at the London School of Public Health in 1952.
Music Perception
Authors: Prieto José M.
Published: October 2013

Carl E Seashore (1866 − 1949) was the first psychologist who made efforts to analyze the musical medium in the laboratory, with an emphasis on physical sound. introduced the notion of “musical mind,” which, he said, is “… first of all a normal mind. What makes it musical is the possession, in a serviceable degree, of those capacities that are essential for the hearing, the feeling, the understanding, and ordinarily … with a resulting drive or urge toward music.”
North American Indigenous Psychology
Authors: King Jeffrey
Published: October 2013

North American Indigenous Psychology (NAIP) is the study and practice of the distinctive aspects of mind and behavior among North American indigenous peoples.
Obedience
Authors: Shiraev Eric , Levy David
Published: October 2013

Obedience is a form of conformity by which a person simply follows orders given by others. Obedience to authority is defined as following orders given by an authority figure. This type of behavior is usually based on a belief that those with authority have the right to issue requests and give such orders. Historically, obedience to authority was generally regarded across cultures as a kind of virtuous behavior and an important foundation of social order. Cultural traditionalism is generally associated with obedience to authority. Disobedience of children to parents, wives to their husbands, slaves to their owners, and subjects to their rulers were commonly qualified as immoral behavior. The development of modern industrial society was associated with a re‐orientation in socialization practices and a greater cultural emphasis on individual responsibility, personal rights, and freedom to choose. Even in non‐traditional cultural settings, certain political ideologies, as research shows, seem to be associated with obedience. Authoritarian societies generally promoted obedience as an important socialization outcome. In totalitarian societies, obedient reactions were reported to be more frequent than in democratic societies.
Organizational Climate
Authors: Lowery Meghan R.
Published: October 2013

Organizational climate is a set of shared perceptions among employees in an organization about their behaviors, attitudes, and feelings. Organizational climate is, in part, differentiated from organizational culture by the depth and stability of core beliefs. Organizational climate tends to be more unstable, based on perception, and is developed through employee behaviors and attitudes. Lewin, Lippitt, initially outlined the concept of organizational climate. These researchers distinguished among three types of identifiable climates: autocratic, democratic, and laissez faire. This early foray into describing organizational climate is more easily recognizable as what more modern literature identifies as types of managerial styles, rather than true climate. Further research explored many different dimensions of climate.
Organizational Culture
Authors: Hannon Geraldine Y. , Nadler Joel T.
Published: October 2013

Organizational culture is a reflection of the attitudes, beliefs, and values of an organization. These values and norms for behavior are shared by members within the organization and influence behavior and interaction inside and outside the organization. Organizational culture is a group‐level construct that is socially constructed through the shared history and experiences of the individuals within an organization. Organizational culture often guides an organization's values, standards, behavioral norms, and pursuit of goals on an organizational level. On an individual level, organizational culture guides acceptable behaviors and expectations. Organizations with a healthy organizational culture are characterized by strong values favoring productivity, fairness, communication, personal development, and pride. Organizations with healthy cultures are associated with profitability, growth, efficiency, and worker satisfaction and loyalty. Additionally, a strong organizational culture (clearly defined and communicated values and norms) is associated with more successful and productive organizations. Organizations with a weak organizational culture (poorly communicated, ambiguous values and norms) often are less efficient and require more complex bureaucracies to communicate goals and expectations.
Organizational Structure
Authors: Nadler Joel T. , Murphy Lauren M.
Published: October 2013

Organizational structure refers to the specific design of a company or group in regard to the ways in which management is arranged, the way decisions of the organization are made, the ways employees or members interact with one another, and the ways the organization interacts with other organizations. Understanding the differences between the various types of organizational structures is important in order to choose what type of structure would be best for an organization. Choosing the best organizational structure can lead to more productive workers, a better work environment, and a more effective organization. However, a disorganized structure can lead to a loss of production, a strained and stressful work environment, dissatisfied workers, and an inefficient organization. Theories of organizational structures fall into three broad areas: Classical Organization Theory, Humanistic Organizational Theory, and Contingency Organizational Theory.
Pandey, Janak
Authors: Keith Kenneth D.
Published: October 2013

Janak Pandey, born June 10, 1945, completed the B.A. in psychology in 1962 at Ranchi University and the M.A. in psychology in 1964 at Patna University, both in India.
Parapsychology
Authors: Abi‐Hashem Naji
Published: October 2013

Parapsychology is an interdisciplinary attempt to examine beyond‐the‐normal and atypical occurrences in life. In other words, it is the discovery and evaluation of para‐natural domains and supra‐natural phenomena. These phenomena, whether actual or purported, are not currently or fully explicable by the framework of mainstream scholarship or conventional science. Interest in the unusual and fascination with the extraordinary are as old as human civilization itself.
Parentification
Authors: Hooper Lisa M.
Published: October 2013

Following early exploration of the reciprocal and dialectical nature of parentification – parents acting as children, and children acting as parents – and Boszormenyi‐Nagy and expanded its discussion. Family and ecological systems theoreticians, clinicians, and researchers proposed the construct of parentification to describe systemic processes, roles, and responsibilities evidenced in families who are functioning poorly and in many cases pathologically. In the context of those early writings, and in more recent times, parentification has been defined as a type of role reversal, boundary distortion, boundary crossing, inverted hierarchy, and problematic family structure among parents and other family members in which children and adolescents are given developmentally inappropriate and excessive levels of responsibility in the family of origin.