bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Fixing English
Authors: Machan Tim William
Published: November 2023

One of the courses I regularly teach is the History of the English Language. This is a curricular staple in many universities that offer advanced degrees in English language and literature, and for its historical breadth and the range of language-related issues that it raises, it’s also one of my favorites. Inevitably, history of the language courses are structured chronologically, beginning with the Indo-European language and people of around 5,000 BC, moving through the Primitive Germanic grouping of about 2,000 BC to the Western Germanic grouping of about 500 BC, and proceeding from there to the beginning of Old English.
Bradwardine’s Revenge
Authors: Read Stephen
Published: November 2023

Suppose Socrates utters sentence (A): Socrates utters a falsehood and I claim, using sentence (B): Socrates utters a falsehood. Bradwardine agrees with this assessment, but considers the following objection: But if it is true that Socrates utters a falsehood, and Socrates says that, then Socrates utters a truth. His reply is: The minor premise is false, because Socrates does not utter the proposition proposed by you and conceded by me [that is, (B)], but another proposition just like it, namely (A).
Aristotle and Thrasymachus
Authors: Scott Dominic
Published: November 2023

There has been considerable interest recently in the kind of audience Aristotle is addressing in the Nicomachean Ethics and in the nature of the arguments that he uses. On the basis of some passages, it has been argued that he is not aiming to convert anyone who does not already aspire to the moral life; instead he demands that his audience must have been brought up with beliefs in the value of justice and the other virtues, beliefs to which he can appeal throughout the course of his argument.1 If one accepts this view, it is then tempting to see a strong contrast between his aims and those of Plato, especially in the Gorgias and Republic book 1. In these works we find interlocutors who deny the value of justice and claim thateudaimonia(‘happiness’) is to be found in pursuing its exact oppositeuntrammelled pleonexia. Proceeding dialectically and professing to use only premisses that they can accept, Socrates attempts to refute their challenge and steer them towards the life of justice.2
The Evolution of Knowledge
Authors: Papineau David
Published: November 2023

Human beings are one of the great success stories of evolution. They have spread over the globe and refashioned much of it to their own convenience. What has made this possible? Perhaps there is no one key which alone explains why humans have come to dominate nature. But a crucial part has surely been played by our high potential for theoretical rationality. Human beings far surpass other animals in their ability to form accurate beliefs across a wide range of topics, and many aspects of human civilization rest on this accomplishment. My aim in this essay will be to explain this ability from an evolutionary perspective. I want to understand how beings with our biological history came to be so good at theoretical rationality.
Rules and Reasoning in Stoic Ethics
Authors: Inwood Brad
Published: November 2023

Stoic ethics is often criticized for its impractical rigidity and pointless idealism. Its most prominent feature seems to be its proneness to paradoxical theses, such as claims that all moral errors are equal, that only the wise man is free, and that all human passions should be eliminated rather than moderated. Stoic ethics demands that human beings achieve perfect virtue and act accordingly; the alternative is the complete unhappiness from which all of us suffer. And yet at first sight it appears to offer very little in the way of realistic hope or guidance for people who wish to be happy. It seems to be an abstract and Procrustean dogmatism, which deduces from general principles conclusions which have little bearing on the kind of striving and thinking which normally characterizes ethics. It seems to leave little room for progress in an ethics which (like most others in the ancient world) is centred on the improvement of human character.
Discourse and Moral Responsibility in Biotechnical Communication
Authors: Jamieson Dale
Published: November 2023

We are living in the heart of the biotechnological revolution. Almost every day newspapers publish stories about new techniques and products that some scientist, venture capitalist, or major corporation hopes to develop and bring to market. Already biotechnology has a much larger effect on us than most people realize, particularly in the areas of food and medicine. If there were ever a time for an informed public debate about the uses and deployment of these technologies, it is the present. And yet I think that no such constructive debate is likely to occur. In my opinion, the development path of biotechnology will be determined by other imperatives than those that issue from meaningful public discourse. I shall try to explain why in this essay. The reasons are interesting, not just for understanding the development of biotechnology, but also because they generalize and apply to other complex, new technologies as well. Our kinds of societies are appallingly inept when it comes to rationally planning technological innovations and aligning them with our deepest social values.
All at Sea in Semantic Space: Churchland on Meaning Similarity
Authors: Fodor Jerry , Lepore Ernest
Published: November 2023

IT is old news that the identity conditions for contents, meanings, and the like are problematic, perhaps because there cannot be identity conditions for meanings unless there is an analytic/synthetic distinction, and there is n ’t. We are n’t proposing to consider whether the notion of content identity can be made metaphysically respectable. But we want to discuss a proposal about how to save semantics if it does turn out that ‘same meaning’ can ’t be reconstructed; it is one that is currently popular in both the philosophical and the cognitive science literature.1The idea is that the purposes semantic theories are supposed to serve do not actually require principles of content individuation; all they require is a notion of content similarity. On such a view, similarity of meaning is primitive relative to sameness of meaning, and the latter might be of interest only as a limiting case of the former; perhaps, indeed, a limiting case that is never achieved in practice. Meaning similarity is real and robust, there is a lot of it around, and it is metaphysically prior to synonymy. So the story goes.
Causation in the Philosophy of Mind
Authors: Jackson Frank , Pettit Philip
Published: November 2023

Causation has come to play an increasingly important role in the philosophy of mind, reaching its apotheosis in the doctrine that to be a mental state of kind K is to fill the causal role definitive of that kind of mental state: the typology of mental states is a typology of causal roles. However, ironically, there is, from this very functionalist perspective, a problem about how to understand the causal role of mental properties, those properties which make a mental state the kind of mental state that it is. This problem surfaces in one way or another in the debates over the language of thought (for instance, in the argument that only if intentional states have syntactic00ADlike structure can they play the required causal roles); over the explanatory role of broad content (for instance, in the argument that broad content is explanatorily irrelevant to behaviour because doppelgangers behave alike while possibly differing in broad content); and over the eliminativist implications of connectionism (for instance, in the argument that certain versions of connectionism falsify the propositional modularity component of the folk conception of the causes of behaviour).
The Study of Language and Language Acquisition
Authors: Yang Charles D
Published: November 2023

Fundamental to modern linguistics is the view that human language is a natural object: our species-specific ability to acquire a language, our tacit knowledge of the enormous complexity of language, and our capacity to use language in free, appropriate, and infinite ways are attributed to a property of the natural world, our brain. This position needs no defense, if one considers the study of language is an empirical inquiry. It follows, then, as in the study of biological sciences, linguistics aims to identify the abstract properties of the biological object under study—human language—and the mechanisms that govern its organization.
A Variational Model of Language Acquisition
Authors: Yang Charles D
Published: November 2023

It is a simple observation that young children’s language is different from that of adults. However, this simple observation raises profound questions: What results in the differences between child language and adult language, and how does the child eventually resolve such differences through exposure to linguistic evidence? These questions are fundamental to language acquisition research. (6) in Chapter 1, repeated below as (14), provides a useful framework within to characterize approaches to language acquisition:Language acquisition can be viewed as a function or algorithm, ℒ, which maps the initial and hence putatively innate state (𝒮0) of the learner to the terminal state (𝒮T), the adult-form language, on the basis of experience, E, in the environment.
Grammar Competition in Children’s Syntax
Authors: Yang Charles D
Published: November 2023

Hackel’s proposition that ‘ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny’, which has been drifting in and out of fashion in biology, may well be vindicated in the ontogeny of human language, with a twist. If language is delimited in the finite space of Universal Grammar, its ontogeny might well recapitulate its scope and variations as the child gradually settles on one out of the many possibilities. This is exactly what the variational model leads one to expect, and the present chapter documents evidence to this end. The variational model also serves another important purpose. If we survey the field of language acquisition, we cannot fail to notice an unfortunate gap between learnability studies and developmental studies. As far as we know, there is presently no formal model that directly explains developmental findings, nor any rigorous proposal of how the child attains and traverses ‘stages’ described in developmental literature. The variational model intends to fill this gap.
Typological Profile and Pronominal Systems of East Tucanoan and Arawak Languages
Authors: Aikhenvald Alexandra Y
Published: November 2023

The East Tucanoan impact on Tariana morphology mostly involves indirect dif-fusion. The few borrowed morphemes simply fit into the previously calqued patterns. This is consistent with our hypothesis that the coexistence of languages in long-term multilateral linguistic areas with stable multilingualism results in structural convergence—developing typologically similar structures and tending towards structural compatibility. We expect a considerable degree of structural isomorphism—that is, a one-to-one correspondence between various units of speech—to be the principal outcome of areal diffusion from East Tucanoan onto Tariana.
Nominal Categories and Diffusion
Authors: Aikhenvald Alexandra Y
Published: November 2023

In nominal morphology, the categories which underwent restructuring under the impact of indirect diffusion are the ones present in both Tucanoan and in Arawak languages. These categories—marked on the noun and within a noun phrase— include possession (§4.1); classifiers, genders, and animacy (§4.2), and number (§4.3). Nominal categories reanalysed and developed under the impact of East Tucanoan languages in Tariana are nominal past tense, and vocative forms for kinship terms (§4.4), and cases for core and oblique grammatical relations (§4.5). In §4.6 I consider the diffusional impact on the structure of numerals and in §4.7 on demonstratives. The last section, §4.8, contains a brief summary.
ΧαZρε καi πlει εV (AVI 2)
Authors: Wachter Rudolf
Published: November 2023

Between about 560 and 525 bc (i.e. in the Peisistratan era), many Athenian potters and painters produced a particular type of wine-cup, usually called the ‘little-master cup’ (Beazley 1932). Most of these are ‘lip-cups’. Some bear no figured decoration (‘plain’ cups),1many have figured decoration on the lip (Ext.: A, B) and a plain interior (Int.),2or a plain lip and inside a figure-decorated tondo, or, rarely, there is figured decoration inside and out. In a closely related type of cup, in which the lip is less clearly marked o• from the bowl and painted black, the handle zone is often decorated, mostly with several to many figures, the interior rarely (‘band-cups’).
Information Structure
Authors: Erteschik-Shir Nomi
Published: November 2023

This introduction to the role of information structure in grammar discusses a wide range of phenomena on the syntax-information structure interface. It examines theories of information structure and considers their effectiveness in explaining whether and how information structure maps onto syntax in discourse. Professor Erteschik-Shir begins by discussing the basic notions and properties of information structure, such as topic and focus, and considers their properties from different theoretical perspectives. She covers definitions of topic and focus, architectures of grammar, information structure, word order, the interface between lexicon and information structure, and cognitive aspects of information structure. In her balanced and readable account, the author critically compares the effectiveness of different theoretical approaches and assesses the value of insights drawn from work in processing and on language acquisition, variation, and universals. This book will appeal to graduate students of syntax and semantics in departments of linguistics, philosophy, and cognitive science.
Seman tic Accounts of Vagueness
Authors: Heck Richard G
Published: November 2023

Crispin Wright’s reflections on vagueness have, for nearly thirty years now, been a. touchstone for all serious work on it. His most recent efforts, beginning with the paper ‘On Being in a Quandary’ and continued in this volume, seem to me extremely important. What I want to do here, however, is not to try to evaluate his new: position, nor even to engage it directly, but instead to defend one of the more traditional views he criticizes, namely, the view that vagueness is a ‘semantic’ phenomenon. I am not at all sure this sort of view is right, but I think we need a better sense than we presently have of what might be wrong with it if we are to discover a better view. I will begin, however, by discussing another question that has obviously exercised Wright a great deal, namely, what is really wrong with Epistemicism and other views that are committed to the retention of bivalence even for vague predicates.
Polysemy and Meaning Chains
Authors: Taylor John R
Published: November 2023

The discussion so far in this book has been restricted to what we might call monocentric categories, where membership in the category is a function of similarity to a single prototype representation. This chapter extends the proto-type model, so as to render it applicable to a wider range of linguistic data. Many natural language categories, perhaps even the majority, exhibit a poly-centric structure, i.e. category membership is a function of similarity to one of several prototype representations. The multiple prototypes associated with the category are themselves related in what I shall call, adapting Wittgenstein’s metaphor, a family resemblance structure. Family resemblance categories will be illustrated on the examples of the lexical items climb(brieﬂy discussed in Fillmore 1982) and over(the topic of Brugman’s 1981 thesis). To conclude the chapter, some theoretical problems associated with the family resemblance model are addressed.
Category Extension: Metonymy and Metaphor
Authors: Taylor John R
Published: November 2023

In the last chapter we examined in some detail the structure of two poly-semous lexical categories in English, namely, those associated with the words climband over. Most lexical items are polysemous, to a greater or lesser extent. A polysemous item associates a phonological form with a number of more or less discrete though related meanings, which cluster in a family resemblance category. A major topic in the study of polysemy, therefore, concerns the kinds of links that can exist between meanings, and how it is that distinct meanings come to be associated in the ﬁrst place. In this chapter we look at two of the most important of these processes, metaphor and metonymy. Metonymy and metaphor are familiar concepts of traditional rhetoric. Metaphor, especially, has been the object of much research by linguists and literary scholars, and there is a vast literature on the subject. I begin, however, with the no less important phenomenon of metonymy.
Polysemous Categories in Morphology and Syntax
Authors: Taylor John R
Published: November 2023

Polysemy is generally regarded as a property of lexical items, and it was lexical polysemy that was the focus of previous chapters. But polysemy is not just a property of words. Other categories of language structure–morphological cat-egories of number and case, morphosyntactic categories of tense and aspect, the syntactic categories of sentence types, even, as we shall see in Chapter 10, pros-odic categories like intonation contours–may also exhibit a cluster of related meanings, and must thus count as instances of polysemy. In this chapter I want to suggest a family resemblance approach to some of these non-lexical categor-ies. As illustrations, I will take examples from morphology (the diminutive) and morphosyntax (the past tense), and conclude with a brief discussion of a syntactic construction (the yes–no interrogative). First, however, I want to introduce the kinds of issues involved with some brief remarks on case.
The Intrinsic Character of Causation
Authors: Hall Ned
Published: November 2023

There is surely something to the idea that the causal structure of a process is intrinsic to it-determined, that is, by the intrinsic natures of the events that make up the process, together with the ways in which they are juxtaposed with one another, together with the laws that govern that process. Consider a simple case.
Recombination, Causal Constraints and Humean Supervenience: An Argument for Temporal Parts?
Authors: Wasserman Ryan , Hawthorne John , Scala Mark
Published: November 2023

According to the doctrine of four-dirnensionalism, our world and every thing in it consists of stages or temporal parts; moreover, where an object exists at various times, it does so, according to the four dirnensionalist, in virtue of having distinct temporal parts at those times. While four-dimensionalism is often motivated by its pur ported solutions to puzzles about material objects and their persistence through time, it has also been defended by more direct arguments. Three such arguments stand out: (1) the argument from temporary intrinsics, (2) the argument from vagueness, and (3) the argument from recombination, Humean supervenience, and causal constraints. Not surprisingly, each of these arguments originates in the work of four-dimensionalism ‘s most prominent modern defender, David Lewis. The third of these arguments has received, by far, the least attention, critical or otherwise; it is now time to begin to address this imbalance.
Useless Content
Authors: Millikan Ruth
Published: November 2023

A central claim of teleological theories of content, certainly of my own teleological theory of content, has been that the content of a representation is determined, in a very important part, by the systems that interpret it. I should be more careful: ... by the interpreting systems with which the representation-producing systems have been designed to cooperate. Content is determined, in large part, by the ways these interpreting systems are designed to react to the representations presented to them. More exactly, content is determined by the rules or functions in accordance with which representations need to correspond to world affairs (to what they represent) if the responses of these interpreters are going to produce the effects they are designed to produce by way of normal mechanisms (LTOBC, VM).
Melissus And Parmenides
Authors: Palmer John
Published: November 2023

Association or even assimilation of the thought of Parmenides and Melissus has 1ong been standard in histories of early Greek philosophy. While certain of the more apparent differences between their two systems have always been recognized, some scholars have found reasons to criticize this traditional association at a deeper leve1. Most significantly, Jonathan Barnes has argued that Melissus, not Parmenides, should be credited with the invention of ‘real monism’, the thesis that exactly one thing exists. 1 This proposal served Barnes’s broader effort to effect a rehabilitation of Melissus’ reputation. 2
Infinitesimal Chances and the Laws of Nature
Authors: Elga Adam
Published: November 2023

The ‘best-system’ analysis of lawhood [Lewis 1994] faces the ‘zero-fit problem’: that many systems of laws say that the chance of history going actually as it goes-the degree to which the theory ‘fits’ the actual course of history-is zero. Neither an appeal to infinitesimal probabilities nor a patch using standard measure theory avoids the difficulty. But there is a way to avoid it: replace the notion of ‘fit’ with the notion of a world being typicalwith respect to a theory. Take a god’s eye view. Before you is the space time manifold: the distribution of local qualities to point-sized things and the spatiotemporal relations among those things. According to the thesis of Hu mean super venience, everything that is true of the actual world is made true somehow by this arrangement [Lewis 1986b: ix]. > In order to countenance laws of nature, a defender of the thesis is obliged to say how it is that this arrangement determines what laws there are.One proposal, the best-system analysis of lawhood[Lewis 1994], draws our attention to various deductive systems. Each system makes only true assertions about what happens, and (perhaps) also makes assertions about the chances of various things happening in various circumstances.
How to be a Neo-Moorean
Authors: Pritchard Duncan
Published: November 2023

My aim here is a somewhat ambitious one: to sketch the contours of a research project. In particular, what I ‘m interested in is whether we can add some flesh to a certain style of response to the problem of scepticism, one that has historically been the source of much derision but which, as we will see, derives support from a number of theses that one can find being defended in the current literature—so long, that is, as one integrates these theses into a coherent whole.
Serial Verb Constructions in Typological Perspective
Authors: Aikhenvald Alexandra Y
Published: November 2023

A serial verb construction (SVC) is a sequence of verbs which act together as a single predicate, without any overt marker of coordination, subordination, or syntactic dependency of any other sort. Serial verb constructions describe what is conceptualized as a single event. They are mono clausal; their into national properties are the same as those of a monoverbal clause, and they have just one tense, aspect, and polarity value. SVCs may also share core and other arguments. Each component of an SVC must be able to occur on its own. Within an SVC, the individual verbs may have same, or different, transitivity values.
Verb Serialization in Eastern Kayah Li
Authors: Solnit David B
Published: November 2023

Kayah Li is a member of the Karen subgroup of the Tibeto-Burman branch of Sino-Tibetan. Kayah Li, also known as Karenni, has an estimated 100,000 speakers, mostly in Kayah State (likewise also known as Karenni) of Burma with a small number in the adjoining part of Thailand. Kayah Li dialects are broadly divided into eastern and western; this chapter describes one variety of the eastern dialect, the variety locally known as kè k𝝴 ‘lower’, spoken in Mae Hong Son province of Thailand. For details about Eastern Kayah Li grammar and dialectology, see Solnit (1997).
The Activity of Matter in Gassendi’s Physics
Authors: Lolordo Antonia
Published: November 2023

Pierre Gassendi, the early seventeenth–century reviver of Epicurean atomism whom Boyle treated as one of the paradigmatic ‘mechanical philosophers’, embraced Epicurus’s claim that atoms have an intrinsic motive power and that matter is thus intrinsically active. He held that this claim could be acceptable to Christians so long as it is made clear that God is the original source of the activity of matter. Indeed, he argued that allowing the activity of matter is the only way to preserve the genuine secondary causation that is necessary for religion and morality.
The Epistemic Significance of Disagreement
Authors: Kelly Thomas
Published: November 2023

Looking back on it, it seems almost incredible that so many equally educated, equally sincere compatriots and contemporaries, all drawing from the same limited stock of evidence, should have reached so many totally different conclusions—and always with complete certainty.
The Early Stuart Masque
Authors: Ravelhofer Barbara
Published: November 2023

The Early Stuart Masque: Dance, Costume, and Music studies the complex impact of movements, costumes, words, scenes, music, and special effects in English illusionistic theatre of the Renaissance. Drawing on a massive amount of documentary evidence relating to English productions as well as spectacle in France, Italy, Germany, and the Ottoman Empire, the book elucidates professional ballet, theatre management, and dramatic performance at the early Stuart court. Individual studies take a fresh look at works by Ben Jonson, Samuel Daniel, Thomas Carew, John Milton, William Davenant, and others, showing how court poets collaborated with tailors, designers, technicians, choreographers, and aristocratic as well as professional performers to create a dazzling event. Based on extensive archival research on the households of Queen Anne and Queen Henrietta Maria, special chapters highlight the artistic and financial control of Stuart queens over their masques and pastorals. Many plates and figures from German, Austrian, French, and English archives illustrate accessibly-written introductions to costume conventions, early dance styles, male and female performers, the dramatic symbolism of colours, and stage design in performance. With splendid costumes and choreographies, masques once appealed to the five senses. A tribute to their colourful brilliance, this book seeks to recover a lost dimension of performance culture in early modern England.
Ghana: Indigenous Languages, English, and an Emerging National Identity
Authors: Anyidoho Akosua , Dakubu M E Kropp
Published: November 2023

Like most sub-Saharan countries, Ghana is highly multilingual and linguistically complex. But at the same time, the Akan language with its close relatives squarely occupies two-thirds of the country, and has had and continues to have a strong influence on the rest of it. Although it may well be true that the national geo-political borders were a colonial creation based more on the relations between the European colonizing powers than on the local situation, it is also a fact that today’s Ghana almost exactly coincides with the territory and sphere of influence of the Akan-speaking Asante (Ashanti) empire in the nineteenth century (Wilks 1993: 203). However this does not necessarily simplify the problem of the relationships between language, ethnic identity, nationalism, and the existence and nature of Ghanaian national identity, and might even be said to complicate it.
Cooperation and the We-Perspective
Authors: Tuomela Raimo
Published: November 2023

The ability to cooperate is one of the key elements in the success of the human species and it can even be claimed that this ability is an innate property of humans, because they have evolved in a group context. Cooperation will easily come about in situations in which it is intrinsically rewarding and does not involve an incentive to freeride. Simple coordination situations are of this kind.
The fundamental Conflict in Plato’s Gorgias
Authors: Doyle James
Published: November 2023

The action of Plato’s Gorgias is easily described. It is the late fifth century bc. Gorgias, the world-famous Sicilian orator, is visiting Athens. He has just for giving a display of his rhetorical virtuosity before an audience. He is with two friends and admirers— Polus, a young and avid student of rhetoric, and Callicles, a man of burning political ambition—as Socrates and his friend Chaerephon come upon the scene. After a brief opening conversation, Socrates talks at some length with Gorgias, Polus, and Callicles in turn. These three conversations are of increasing length and intensity; the last of them takes up well over half the dialogue and includes some bitterly hostile exchanges.
Psychic Disharmony: Philoponus and Epicurus on Plato’s Phaedo
Authors: Warren James
Published: November 2023

Many of the Hellenistic philosophers were avid and careful readers of Platonic dialogues. Epicurus was no exception. Despite his generally hostile attitude to other philosophers (and especially to the suggestion that he might have learnt anything from them), there is good reason to think that Epicurus read and thought seriously about Platonic works. One might imagine that to any philosopher living and teaching in Athens the Platonic corpus would have been both interesting and available. Further, given the evident interest in Plato’s writings shown by his various followers, we should assume that Epicurus himself was similarly aware of them.
The Plan of a Dictionary of the English Language
Authors: Johnson Samuel
Published: November 2023

The Plan of a Dictionary of The English Language; Addressed to the Right Honourable philip dormer, Earl of Chesterfield, One of His Majesty’s Principal Secretaries of State My Lord, When first I undertook to write an English Dictionary, I had no expectation of any higher patronage than that of the proprietors of the copy, nor prospect of any other advantage than the price of my labour; I knew that the work in which I engaged is generally considered as drudgery for the blind, as the proper toil of artless industry, a task that requires neither the light of learning, nor the activity of genius, but may be successfully performed without any higher quality than that of bearing burthens with dull patience, and beating the track of the alphabet with sluggish resolution. Whether this opinion, so long transmitted and so widely propagated, had its beginning from truth and nature, or from accident and prejudice, whether it be decreed by the authority of reason, or the tyranny of ignorance, that of all the candidates for literary praise, the unhappy lexicographer holds the lowest place, neither vanity nor interest incited me to inquire. It appeared that the province allotted me was of all the regions of learning generally confessed to be the least delightful, that it was believed to produce neither fruits nor flowers; and that after a long and laborious cultivation, not even the barren laurel had been found upon it.
Can reduced nutritional condition really cause narrowed growth bars?
Authors: Grubb Thomas C
Published: November 2023

Ptilochronology rests on the assumption that rate of feather growth is directly related to a bird’s nutritional condition and that, within limits, nutritional condition is related to net rate of energy intake. The more food, the better the nutritional condition and the greater the rate of feather growth. As Murphy and King (1991) stated in their evaluation of the method, it would be reassuring to have evidence supporting this assumption. I begin by providing experimental evidence with results from laboratory feeding trials of my own most frequently used study species, the Carolina chickadee (Grubb 1991, Figure 2.1a). I thank Robert A. Mauck for his help with this experiment. We tested the prediction that a known reduction in food intake below the ad libitum level would cause a reduction in the width of growth bars on induced feathers.
Nutritional consequences of self-cached food
Authors: Grubb Thomas C
Published: November 2023

In the temperate and boreal zones, animals from honey bees to beavers store food during the growing season for use during the winter when food is non-renewing. Birds are among the better-studied examples of such food-hoarders. During the last several decades, research has focused on two aspects of caching. The first line of work has searched for the mechanisms behind some birds’ apparently extraordinary ability to remember the location of and retrieve hundreds or even thousands of individual caches they have previously sequestered within their homerange. (Russell Balda, a pioneer of this line of research, once determined that Clark’s nutcrackers, his study animal, could remember where they had cached food considerably better than could his graduate students!) The second line of investigation has focused on the adaptive value, the fitness benefits, of caching and it is to this second line that ptilochronology has made a contribution. The four studies detailed below all demonstrate, through increased rate of induced feather growth, that birds derive a nutritional benefit from retrieving food items they have previously cached.
The CD of Life: the Genome
Authors: Noble Denis
Published: November 2023

Consider an example. Before writing this page, I relaxed by listening for the first time for a long time to one of my favourite pieces of music: the piano trio. I put the CD into my player and lay down on the sofa. As the music entered the slow movement, I cried. The emotional efifect of this piece of music, which I first heard live in a concert, is always very strong. We must all have our favourite pieces that have this efifect on us. The efifect does not always depend on the music itself. It can also depend on the context, the people we were with, and the significance of the event in our lives.
The Rhythm Section: the Heartbeat and other Rhythms
Authors: Noble Denis
Published: November 2023

The world market in computers is today counted in billions. With the be of hindsight it is easy to laugh at Thomas Watson’s prediction. I don’t. I experienced at first hand the kinds of computer that he was referring to. Even 16 years later, in 1959, computers were still very few in number –– massive, valve-based machines that took up vast space in university or industry basements and consuming so much power that, in post-war Britain, power itself was one of the factors limiting their use.
The Composer: Evolution
Authors: Noble Denis
Published: November 2023

There are 20–30 000 genes in the human genome, which combine to produce efifects at all levels of the organism. The number of ways they can combine is enormous, as we found in Chapter 2. There I used the comparison with a pipe organ. There is another human invention that has around the same number of components. This is the Chinese writing system, used also in Taiwan, Japan, and Korea, and formerly in some other East Asian countries. Chinese characters are stylised pictures that fitting into the space of a square. Strings of these squares can be used to represent sequences of words in a language. Each picture has a meaning; in some cases the meaning is easily related to the picture.
Parasomnias when going to sleep or waking up
Authors: Stores Gregory
Published: November 2023

Strange experiences when drifting off to sleep or when waking up are surprisingly common in both children and adults.

Although they can be alarming, they are very rarely of serious significance and almost always clear up before long.

Fact: Far from it. They are, in fact, very common, including in children, who may be particularly alarmed by them but may not mention them to their parents.
Psychological Therapy
Authors: Holroyd Kenneth A
Published: November 2023

Headache clinics may be located in primary care or in neurology, or serve as a regional or national multidisciplinary centre for headache problems not effectively managed elsewhere in the healthcare system (see also Chapters 2, 4, and 12). The clientele will vary with the referral base of a headache clinic. However, clientele of the headache clinic, especially the regional or national referral centre consists primarily of chronic headache disorders complicated by conditions that maintain pain and disability or render headache problems refractory to standard therapies.
Varieties of non-inflectional plurals
Authors: Acquaviva Paolo
Published: November 2023

Since ‘lexical’ can mean so many different things, we cannot take lexical plurality to be a self-explanatory concept which could support an unequivocal definition. It seems much more practical to begin by the simple observation that not all plurals are alike, and that we are more willing to describe as lexicalized some of them rather than others. Pre-theoretically, the most straightforward sense in which a plural is lexical consists in not being some thing else; namely, in not being the regular outcome of a deterministic grammatical rule. To start our survey, therefore, this chapter will describe and categorize the many different ways in which plurals can look non-inflectional because of listedness and lack of regularity.
Plurals and morphological lexicality
Authors: Acquaviva Paolo
Published: November 2023

Having reviewed the non-inflectional properties that plural nouns may have, we will now focus on what makes them lexical. The descriptive overview contained in this and in the next chapter will explicate in what ways a plural noun can involve knowledge of a word rather than knowledge of grammar.
Conclusion: Plurals and lexicality
Authors: Acquaviva Paolo
Published: November 2023

Throughout this book, l have been using the expression ‘lexical knowledge’ advisedly, skirting attempts to define the concept of lexicon or lexical item. The reason is that the lexicon is necessarily a multi-dimensional concept. Even understood simplistically as a repertoire of meaningful linguistic building blocks, it would have to encompass various kinds of listemes, each equally justified at different levels of analysis: syntactic, morphological, semantic, psychological (see Section 2.2). Por our investigation, there is no gain in isolating one dimension of analysis and decreeing that the units in that dimension are lexical items. The real issue is not the lexicon, but lexicality: the properties characterizing knowledge of substantive ‘words’, as opposed to constructional principles and to functional expressions with syncategorematic value. The study of plurality as an ingredient of nominality strongly suggests that what we know about words does not fall into a deterministic grammatical part and a totally idiosyncratic and non-linguistic lexical part. Rather, lexical knowledge is linguistic, not just encyclopaedic, and it is not disjoint from the knowledge encapsulated in the grammatical system but subsumes it in important respects.
Working in partnership
Authors: Callaghan Patrick , Playle John , Cooper Linda
Published: November 2023

Developing and sustaining positive therapeutic relationships with service users, their families, and other carers is central to the role of the mental health nurse. This is emphasized in England with the Chief Nursing Officer’s review of mental health nursing (Department of Health [DH] 2006a), in Wales within Standard 8 of Raising the Standard (Welsh Assembly Government 2005), in Scotland within Key Aim No. 4 (Promoting and Supporting Recovery) of the National Programme for Improving Mental Health and Well-Being (Scottish Executive 2003).
Risk assessment and management
Authors: Callaghan Patrick , Playle John , Cooper Linda
Published: November 2023

This chapter is designed to assist you in understanding and implementing effective risk assessment and management. The focus of the chapter is on adult mental health care. However, many of the principles can be applied to other groups. The chapter includes reference to government guidelines, research evidence, and good practice. Risk assessment must be undertaken systematically and risk management should set out clear strategies including the rationale and intended outcomes. The emphasis is on indi- vidualized care that engages the service user and their car- ers throughout.
Introduction
Authors: Docherty Charles , Mccallum Jacqueline
Published: November 2023

As a nursing student beginning the first year of your course you require theoretical knowledge of health and illness to explain how an individual person functions at a variety of levels, from the biological to the social and psychological. You will also learn some of the fundamental principles of caring and treatment, and through this become aware that nursing is a very practical profession, encompassing a large number of clinical skills that must be mastered. This theory and practice together constitute what you are required to learn and these are the skills that are needed for a term that you may have heard: ‘fitness for practice’ or ‘fitness for purpose,’ which, basically, means that at the end of your nursing education you have the skills, knowledge, and attitudes required to work as a nurse in your chosen branch. In the first year of the programme (referred to as the common foundation programme), there are common clinical skills that you are required to master prior to entering the second and subsequent years of your course (usually called the ‘branch’ years). This book has been specifically designed to enable you to learn and perform these valuable and necessary skills and give you the best start.
Land plants (Embryophyta)
Authors: Magallón Susana , Hilu Khidir W
Published: November 2023

Land plants (embryophytes) constitute a monophyletic group that is well supported by morphological and molecular characters. Numerous vegetative and reproductive traits directly associated with life on land characterize the group (1) (Fig. 1). Embryophytes are mainly diagnosed by the presence of multicellular sporophytes, cuticule, archegonia, antheridia, and sporangia, as well as by details of spermatozoid ultrastructure and cell division, and the presence of sporopollenin in spore walls (2). All living land plants are placed in four major taxa: Marchantiophyta (liverworts; 5000–8000 species), Bryophyta (mosses; ca. 13,000 species), Anthocerophyta (hornworts; 100 species), and Tracheophyta (vascular plants; 285,000 species) (3). theliving tracheophytes, in turn, are distributed in four groups. theearliest diverging lineage constitutes the Lycopsida (lycophytes, or club mosses; 1230 species), which is the closest relative to a clade that includes ferns and spermatophytes (seed plants). Ferns (sometimes called monilophytes; ca. 10,000 species) include whisk ferns, horsetails, and eusporangiate and leptosporangiate ferns. Spermatophytes include cycads (105 species), ginkgos (one species), conifers (540 species), gnetophytes (96 species), which are the gymnosperms, and angiosperms (Magnoliophyta, or Powering plants, 270,000 species). Angiosperms represent the vast majority of the living diversity of embryophytes. Here, we review the relationships and divergence times of the major lineages of embryophytes.
On (in)animate noun phrases
Authors: Hoop Helen De
Published: November 2023

‘Small people talk about people, average people talk about events, great people talk about ideas.’ The above philosophical saying has been challenged by linguists, who instead say: ‘All people talk about people.’ Indeed, statistical studies of spoken language have shown that the subject of most sentences is human, or at least animate. For example, Dahl (2000) reports that in a corpus of spoken Swedish about two thirds of all subjects are animate.
The Division of C-I and the Nature of the Input, Multiple Transfer, and Phases∗
Authors: Munakata Takashi
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, I argue that the language faculty is connected not to a single Conceptual-Intentional System (C-I) on the meaning side, but to two different external cognitive systems, a Conceptual System (C-S) and an Intentional System (I-S). Furthermore, I argue that these two systems compel the syntactic computational mechanism to make use of different types of syntactic inputs (lexical elements for a C-S and functional elements within the CP domain for an I-S) and produce corresponding syntactic outputs (i.e. phases). A syntactic derivation consists of two types of “phases” (lexical phases and functional phases). Consequently, Transfer should apply to these different types of phases separately (hence, multiply). In other words, I argue that the existence of phases is derived from interface conditions (IC) and the properties of external cognitive systems on the meaning side, which implies that phase status should be determined by these properties.
Rawls and Moral Psychology
Authors: Baldwin Thomas
Published: November 2023

In his obituary of John Rawls Ben Rogers remarked that after completing A Theory of Justice (TJ )¹ Rawls intended to develop his ideas on moral psychology.² In the event the debates aroused by TJ kept Rawls fully occupied and he never wrote an extended account of the subject. But there are discussions of it throughout his writings and it merits more attention than it has received (for example, the four-volume collection of papers on Rawls edited by Chandran Kukathas contains no papers directly on this theme³). My aims here are to elucidate Rawls’s conception(s) of moral psychology and then to explore critically some of the complexities and tensions inherent in his uses of it, especially those arising from its roles in his moral and political theories. Some of these questions are focused around the ‘problem of stability’, the problem of showing how a just society is likely to be stable because it provides a basic framework for the activities of its members which they recognize as congruent with their individual interests; and at the end of this paper I will discuss Rawls’s treatment of this issue, both in TJ and in his later writings, and, in this context, consider how far the moral psychology Rawls relies on to address this problem has an essential social dimension.
Inheritance and genetic counselling
Authors: Emery Alan E H
Published: November 2023

The muscular dystrophies are all genetic and may be inherited as: autosomal dominant (both sexes affected, transmitted from one generation to the next); X-linked recessive (males only affected, transmitted through females); autosomal recessive (siblings only affected).

Roughly 1 in 5000 individuals in the general population is severely affected with some form of muscular dystrophy.
Stress, Juncture, and Syllabification in Phonemic Description
Authors: Rischel Jørgen
Published: November 2023

In spite of numerous theoretical divergences, phonemic descriptions are, on the whole, considerably uniform in the basic framework. This is especially true of the large-scale activity in the USA in the last decades, which has had considerable influence elsewhere. The bulk of phonemic work reflects a tradition which has largely favoured the study of segmental units: vowels and consonants. The highly refined techniques of contrasting sounds by means of paradigmatic substitution and of classifying sounds on the basis of distribution and phonetic similarity have been evolved primarily for the purpose of setting up segmental phoneme inventories and transcribing texts in terms of these. Toneme systems have proved a fruitful field for the application of similar techniques, but certain phenomena—stress, pause, and the like—do not fit well into the framework.
Structural and Functional Aspects of Tone Split in Thai1,2
Authors: Rischel Jørgen
Published: November 2023

There is overwhelming evidence (from orthography, from earlier sources, from internal reconstruction, and from comparative work) that early Proto-Thai had an inventory of three tones functioning distinctively on a par with vowels and consonants to keep lexical items apart. A minimal set may suffice to demonstrate this: if we symbolize the tones of the proto-language by *A, *B, and *C, there isa three-way contrast between */khaa,A/ ‘leg’, */khaa,B/ ‘galangal (plant species)’, and */khaa,C/ ‘servant’.