bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Alone
Authors: Harker Brian
Published: June 2022

This chapter treats the period from late 1927 to 1930, a turbulent time of gratifying triumphs and frustrating reversals for Buck and Bubbles. When they returned to Nat Nazarro, he loosened his grip somewhat, allowing them to perform without him for the first time, or, as he put it in one of his ads: alone. They quickly accumulated major victories resulting in a lucrative three-year contract with RKO. They also made their first movies in Hollywood, a series of comedy two-reelers for Pathé Studios, and the following year made a brief tour of England. During this time, they again tried to free themselves from Nazarro, and, at one point, from another would-be manager who won their contract at a public auction. After much turmoil the case was finally settled by arbitration. As before, the team returned reluctantly to Nazarro’s management.
Dreams Fulfilled
Authors: Harker Brian
Published: June 2022

This chapter tells how in 1931 Bubbles saw the fulfillment of two lifelong dreams: attaining headliner status and performing with the Ziegfeld Follies. After more than ten years in New York vaudeville, Buck and Bubbles had still been denied the honor of appearing as headliners despite being the most popular and critically acclaimed act on nearly every bill. Bubbles became so discouraged that in February 1931 he decided to quit show business. But the next day he arrived at Loew’s State to see his and Buck’s names up in lights. On that same day the Ziegfeld office called asking Buck and Bubbles to appear in the Follies of 1931. Considering these events to be a miraculous affirmation of his entertainment career, he recommitted himself to his chosen profession.
Full Fathom 5000
Authors: Bell Graham
Published: June 2022

This book is about a voyage which began the systematic exploration of the deep sea. Between 1873 and 1876, HMS Challenger sailed around the world and collected animals living a mile or more below the surface of the ocean. Conditions at these depths are unlike those anywhere else on Earth: crushing pressure, freezing cold and perpetual darkness. The animals that live there are equally extraordinary, but hardly any had ever been seen before. The Challenger expedition was a landmark in the history of science because it added a whole new fauna to the diversity of life, besides mapping the physical properties of the world ocean for the first time. The opening sections of the book set out how this extraordinary voyage was first conceived and planned. The middle sections follow the track of the voyage itself and describe the strange and hitherto unknown animals that the ship hauled up from the sea floor. It also describes the scientists and sailors who made the voyage, and how they contributed in different ways to its success. The closing sections deal with the varying fates of these men, and how the specimens they collected became the basis of our current knowledge of life in the deep sea.
Introduction
Authors: Gill Bates
Published: June 2022

Opening with the question “What does China want from the world?” this chapter introduces the six fundamental drivers that increasingly shape Chinese foreign policy in the Xi Jinping era: legitimacy, sovereignty, wealth, power, leadership, and ideas. The chapter also outlines the book’s key motivations: to explain the fundamental objectives underlying Beijing’s international behavior and make them plainly understood; to provide a comprehensive and up-to-date catalog of the People’s Republic of China toolkit abroad, including in the economic, diplomatic, political, military, cultural, and ideational realms; and to clarify both the opportunities and challenges facing China’s global ambitions. Now a decade into Xi’s leadership, China is better positioned than ever before to realize its grand ambitions and has the potential to transform global affairs more in the next 10 years than it has over the past 30. As such, a clear understanding of the objectives driving Beijing’s foreign policy is needed now more than ever.
Opportunities机遇
Authors: Gill Bates
Published: June 2022

This chapter describes the “period of strategic opportunity” that Chinese leaders saw before them—roughly the 20 to 25 years between the late 1990s and 2020—which would, in their view, favor China’s rise and establish the foundation on which to realize the long-standing aspiration of restoring China’s greatness—the “China Dream.” The chapter places Xi Jinping’s ascent to power within the larger context of that national dream and explains how Xi’s background and life experiences have shaped his leadership in pursuit of it. The chapter then outlines the many steps Xi has taken, both at home and abroad, to consolidate Party power, assert PRC interests more confidently, and lay the foundation for national rejuvenation in his first 10 years as paramount leader.
Perspectival Realism
Authors: Massimi Michela
Published: June 2022

What does it mean to be a realist about science if one takes seriously the view that scientific knowledge is always perspectival, namely historically and culturally situated? In Perspectival Realism, Michela Massimi articulates an original answer to this question. The result is a philosophical view that goes under the name of ‘perspectival realism’ and it offers a new lens for thinking about scientific knowledge, realism, and pluralism in science. Perspectival Realism begins with an exploration of how epistemic communities often resort to several models and a plurality of practices in some areas of inquiry, drawing on examples from nuclear physics, climate science, and developmental psychology. Taking this plurality in science as a starting point, Massimi explains the perspectival nature of scientific representation, the role of scientific models as inferential blueprints, and the variety of realism that naturally accompanies such a view. Perspectival realism is realism about phenomena (rather than about theories or unobservable entities). The result of this novel view is a portrait of scientific knowledge as a collaborative inquiry, where the reliability of science is made possible by a plurality of historically and culturally situated scientific perspectives. Along the way, Massimi offers insights into the nature of scientific modelling, scientific knowledge qua modal knowledge, data-to-phenomena inferences, and natural kinds as sortal concepts. Perspectival realism offers a realist view that takes the multicultural roots of science seriously and couples it with cosmopolitan duties about how one ought to think about scientific knowledge and the distribution of benefits gained from scientific advancements.
The short tale of a long journey
Authors: Massimi Michela
Published: June 2022

This chapter explains the rationale for the book and introduces the notion of ‘scientific perspective’ that is used in the following chapters. The historical and multicultural motivations behind the view called ‘perspectival realism’ are presented, together with the main highlights and a general introduction to the view.
A tale from the ice, the sea, and the land: climate modelling
Authors: Massimi Michela
Published: June 2022

This chapter introduces a second case study for perspectival modelling: the multi-model ‘ensembles’ in the 2013 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Fifth Assessment Report, Working Group 1 (AR5-WG1). It underlines the multifactorial nature of the phenomenon ‘global warming’ and how it in itself is the result of perspectival data-to-phenomena inferences that require a plurality of epistemic communities to work together. Such inferences are perspectival in bringing together a plurality of scientific perspectives, from dendroclimatology to palaeoclimatology and geothermal physics, among others. This perspectival pluralism is key to the reliability of the inferences from datasets and the justification of the knowledge claims advanced about global warming. The IPCC AR5-WG1 climate modelling is another example of perspectival modelling in being exploratory and delivering knowledge of what is possible. The purpose of this complex modelling exercise is not just to reliably establish that global warming is occurring, but also how fast it has occurred since the pre-industrial era, and, most importantly, to project how fast it may occur in the future depending on a number of greenhouse gas (GHG) Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs). Climate models illustrate what I call physical conceivability as a guide to possibility: they invite us to physically conceive of a number of GHG concentration scenarios so as to deliver knowledge of what might be the case about global warming in the year 2100, for example.
Evolving natural kinds
Authors: Massimi Michela
Published: June 2022

This chapter elucidates the nature and role of ‘truth-conducive conditionals-supporting inferences’ over time, seeing these inferences as joining the dots among modally robust phenomena and their lawlike dependencies. It is this inferential game that ultimately underpins the Neurathian strategy of NKHF. To illustrate this point, the chapter delves into an example taken from the history of the electron. It reconstructs how J.J. Thomson arrived at the identification of the charge-to-mass ratio for what he called a ‘corpuscle’ working on cathode rays around 1897 and the role of situated epistemic communities including glass-blowers and kelp-makers behind this discovery (Section 10.2). It turns then to a different perspective within which Grotthuss and later Helmholtz and others were studying the phenomenon of electrolysis (Section 10.3). And it briefly examines the influential treatment of the electric charge as a natural unit by Planck and the emerging quantum perspective (Section 10.4). These historical details feed into the philosophical analysis in the rest of the chapter, which returns to the notion of perspectival models as inferential blueprints and modally robust phenomena (Section 10.5). It illustrates how Grotthuss’s chain model and Thomson’s model of the Faraday tubes acted as inferential blueprints to support truth-conducive conditionals-supporting inferences. Section 10.7 zooms into the details of one such chain of conditionals-supporting inferences. The division of modal labour between indicative and subjunctive conditionals described in Chapter 5 is here applied to tease out and exemplify how our knowledge that there is an electric charge is the outcome of epistemic communities across scientific perspectives engaging in an inferential game of asking for reasons as to why any particular grouping of phenomena hangs together.
Climate Politics and Social Change
Authors: O’Brien Karen , Milkoreit Manjana
Published: June 2022

Successfully meeting the ambitious targets of the Paris Agreement on climate change calls for both social change and systems change. How can political will and timely action be activated to meet these targets? This chapter explores the potential for linking both cognitive and quantum approaches to climate politics and social change. Approaching climate change as a multiscale process of meaning making, the chapter discusses quantum social change as well as cognition in climate change governance. It presents three brief case studies to describe the importance of language in climate politics, highlighting the nonlocal effects and pointing to the importance of being able to imagine and enact alternatives meanings, as well as the power of individuals to influence the social wave function. The chapter concludes with reflections on the complementarity of quantum and cognitive approaches to climate politics.
Introspection Redux
Authors: Orlando Leonardo
Published: June 2022

Building on new trends in neuroscience and philosophy of mind, this chapter provides a roadmap for incorporating consciousness into social research, by introducing a method of guided introspection that has the potential to revolutionize our understanding of agency. This method, whose epistemological situation is isomorphic to that of quantum physics, enables researchers to gain insight into the structures of decision-making processes. Such an endeavor is extremely relevant for social science, as it could lead to a new understanding of the dynamics of conflict, cooperation, political polarization, radicalization, violent extremism, and terrorism, as well as of the processes of social transformation required to cope with climate change. Moreover, bringing consciousness into social research could foster ongoing biological, evolutionary, and neuroscientific approaches to the social. Thus, through the introduction of the “phenomenal consciousness” of actors, it is shown how we can dive into the fountainhead of human agency and map mental processes.
The Second Movement
Authors: Bernstein Lawrence F.
Published: June 2022

Chapter 4 identifies the form of the second (Andante) movement as alternating variation form, a design invented by Josef Haydn. Two themes—both composed earlier—appear in opposing modes, followed alternately by variations. A specific prototype for this movement is identified in Haydn’s “Drumroll” Symphony. Mahler’s first theme flows freely in a Schubertian manner; its variations add an expansive, lyrical countermelody. The second theme is more energetic, and its variation becomes developmental. In combining a free-flowing, Schubertian melody with the more rigid protocols of alternating variation form, Mahler allows the Schubertian aesthetic to prevail. Although audiences generally received it approvingly, Mahler was dissatisfied with this movement, particularly with the intensity of its contrast with the first movement. Mahler attempted to ameliorate the contrast between the first and second movements by mandating a five-minute pause between the first and second movements.
How to Complete the Symphony
Authors: Bernstein Lawrence F.
Published: June 2022

We know that Mahler put the Second Symphony aside for five years but resumed work in 1893, completing the three inner movements. In Chapter 8, we learn that he still lacked a text for what he planned as a choral finale. In March 1894, he attended the funeral of Hans van Bülow. There he heard a chorale on Friedrich Klopstock’s poem Auferstehen about resurrection. It provided a moment of epiphany regarding the needed text for the finale. According to his friend Josef Foerster, Mahler began composing the finale the same day and completed it in relatively short order. The Viennese psychoanalyst Theodor Reik, however, offered an alternative view of Mahler’s epiphany. Citing the annihilating criticism von Bülow levelled at the first movement of Mahler’s symphony, Reik suggested that Mahler unconsciously wished for the conductor’s death, and it was the fulfilment of that wish that expedited work on the finale.
The Last Movement, Part 3: Collapse, Climactic Resolution, a Stunning Reversal, and Celebration
Authors: Bernstein Lawrence F.
Published: June 2022

Chapter 11 examines the symphony’s denouement. Dramatically, the chorus sings Mahler’s music for Klopstock’s Auferstehen, the statement of traditional Christian eschatology Mahler heard at von Bülow’s funeral. The music begins with a complete returning-note figure, providing sublime satisfaction for listeners who realize that the many incomplete renditions of this figure insinuated the need for its completion here. The succeeding music confirms this powerful resolution. Christian resurrection renders life meaningful after death. The symphony could end here but for an important loose end: we still don’t know the significance of the sensual English horn theme. Stunningly, Mahler upends the choral climax and provides another, more compelling conclusion. The contralto sings the sensual music to Mahler’s verses, which offer a secular-leaning eschatology: immortality is gained not through judgment, but by striving for love. The symphony ends with a love duet in the manner of Tristan, and a powerful statement of the Immortality motive from Siegfried.
Jews in Armenia in the Ancient Period (First Century BCE to Fifth Century CE)
Authors: Stone Michael E. , Topchyan Aram
Published: June 2022

The first Armenian literary source to mention Jews in Armenia is the history ascribed to P‘awstos Buzand (fifth century CE). The long passage that refers to multitudes of Jewish families concerns the invasion of the country by Persian troops in 368/9, when almost all significant Armenian cities were ruined and their inhabitants, exclusively “Armenians and Jews,” were taken to Persia. Though P‘awstos’s information should not be accepted at face value, it is clear that if the Jewish settlement in Armenia were not substantial, he would not have mentioned it at all. One should also suppose that the Armenian word hreay means both “Jew” and “Judaizer.” P‘awstos says those Jews had been brought to Armenia from Palestine by the Armenian king Tigran II. Greco-Roman sources, too, seem to corroborate this fact (though in relevant passages they do not specifically refer to “Jews”). Furthermore, it seems that, even after 368/9, a considerable number of Jews continued living in Armenia. There is evidence in later sources, both Armenian and foreign, about Jewish inhabitants in Armenia in the Middle Ages. The most striking corroboration of the presence of Jews in medieval Armenia is the recently discovered Jewish cemetery of the thirteenth–fourteenth centuries in the village Ełegis of the Vayoc‘ Jor district of the Republic of Armenia.
State Capacity and Social Investment
Authors: Bogliaccini Juan A. , Madariaga Aldo
Published: June 2022

Latin America has been historically characterized by a focus on compensatory social policies, state capacity problems, and unstable political coalitions impairing political and policy sustainability. In the 1980s–1990s socioeconomic transformations and a new international policy agenda put emphasis on skills creation. Considering skills creation as a key component of a social investment agenda, this chapter sheds light on how Latin American countries have engaged with this agenda and a legacy of low demand for skilled labor and chronic educational coverage and quality problems. The authors analyze one crucial scope condition for social investment expansion: state capacity. Looking at four countries with different state capacity levels and diverse reform outcomes—Bolivia, Guatemala, Chile, and Uruguay—they argue that state capacity is a necessary, but not a sufficient, condition for skills creation social investment. State capacity matters at two crucial moments of the policymaking process: first, as a background variable that affects reform efforts and, second, during the policy implementation period. A second necessary but insufficient condition is how partisan coalitions interact with policy legacies. The authors show that only the two conditions together allow Latin American countries to advance social investment reforms in a sustainable fashion.
“Awakened in a New World”
Authors: Smith Eric C.
Published: June 2022

This chapter recounts the end of John Leland’s life and considers his place in American religious history. Leland lived a remarkably long life—he was nearly eighty-seven when he died—during some of the most eventful decades of American history. His almost seventy years in the public eye allowed Leland to witness, and participate in, sweeping transformations in American society. These included the achievement of religious disestablishment in both Virginia and New England, the ascendancy of popular revivalism in American religious culture, the promotion of radical individualism in Baptist Christianity, the wide-scale rejection and modification of Calvinistic theology, the rise of denominationalism and voluntary evangelical societies, the ascendancy of evangelicals in American politics, and more.
Conclusion
Authors: Radnitz Scott , Mylonas Harris
Published: June 2022

In this concluding chapter, Radnitz and Mylonas summarize and synthesize the major insights from the preceding chapters and look ahead. The chapter argues that fifth-column politics is highly adaptable and rests on familiar constructs that political actors can selectively invoke. It highlights the ambiguities of distinctions between insiders and outsiders as well as claims based on ideological or ethnic markers. It focuses attention on causal processes at the state, rather than international, level, as political contenders seek to boost the fortunes of their party or faction by dividing or weakening rival coalitions. The chapter points out counterintuitive patterns and unanswered questions about fifth-column politics, which provide the basis for a future research agenda. It concludes by considering how global developments, including the Covid-19 pandemic and mass migration, are likely to influence fifth-column politics in the coming years.
Comparative Context
Authors: Ong Lynette H.
Published: June 2022

Chapter 7 compares China’s experience with South Korea and India, tracing the effect of the changes in state relationships with criminal and civil society on the exercise of everyday state power in these two countries. Authoritarian South Korea in the high-growth era most closely resembles that of contemporary China where the principal‒agent relationship meant the state wielded power over criminal groups. After its transition to a democracy in 1987, the state turned a blind eye to covert private violence insofar as it attained societal compliance. In contrast, the Indian state and criminals are entangled in patron‒client ties. Criminals or goondas become informal sovereigns, who provide public services in slums and deliver vote banks to local politicians. The state’s interactions with rural society are intermediated by local influential brokers, hampering the state’s capacity to influence political behavior directly. State power in India is further checked by a raucous organized civil society.
Saving the Nation’s Face
Authors: Feinstein Yuval
Published: June 2022

This chapter discusses the emergence of rally-round-the-flag outcomes during four military confrontations: the Cuban Missile Crisis, the Mayaguez incident, the invasion of Panama, and the Iraq War. The chapter describes the historical context of each event, how the event unfolded, the public reaction of the president, the reactions of other politicians and the media, and the public’s reaction. The analysis highlights the importance of presidential nation-affirming rhetoric, which propagated a public desire to restore collective honor and gain the respect of other nations via military action against enemies. However, a comparison to three events that did not evoke rallies (i.e., the invasions of the Dominican Republic, Cambodia, and Grenada) reveals that, by itself, nationalist presidential rhetoric is insufficient for the emergence of a rally. Instead, in all cases that generated rallies, a feeling of collective humiliation already existed among the public due to previous military defeats or diplomatic fiascos, leading most of the public to embrace presidential rhetoric that promised to restore honor and prestige through military action against enemies.
Chivalrous Struggles
Authors: Feinstein Yuval
Published: June 2022

This chapter discusses a distinct path to the emergence of a rally-round-the-flag result, which does not require a preexisting public feeling of collective humiliation. Instead, a request by the international community from the United States to lead an effort to restore the world order charges a militarized conflict with a high symbolic value for collective honor and prestige because that call puts the moral and military supremacy of the United States and its unique status as a global leader to the test. However, the investigation in this chapter also reveals that, by itself, a request for the United States to lead the free world in war is insufficient for the emergence of a rally. Three necessary conditions for the emergence of a rally are a US president who publicly embraces the role of leading the free world and the existence of an opponent who is willing to put up a fight against the United States, and which the US public recognizes as a national enemy. The chapter reaches these conclusions by comparing the public reaction to the Gulf War with the reactions to the Korean War, and the US military interventions in Somalia and Haiti.
Strategic Philanthropy and International Strategies
Authors: Levi Ron , Dinovitzer Ronit , Wong Wendy H.
Published: June 2022

This chapter focuses on the Ford Foundation’s grantmaking in the field of legal education. Relying on budget data from the 1950s to the 2000s, we find that the Ford Foundation’s investments in law schools and legal education promoted the reliance on legal expertise for addressing problems of governance, both within the US and abroad. Across different political eras, this notably included the fields of human rights, social justice, international law, trade and commerce, and international development. Internationally, these investments also helped to build greater autonomy for lawyers and legal education from the state. The chapter further demonstrates how the Ford Foundation’s investments were often internationally directed in ways that encouraged law schools to create links between US-based law professors and elites abroad. The chapter further concludes that through grantmaking to law schools and legal education, the Ford Foundation has invested in models of legal expertise as foundational to statemaking.
Transnational Legal Networks and the Reshaping of Legal Education in Latin America
Authors: Couso Javier
Published: June 2022

This chapter assesses a unique transnational legal network called “Seminario en Latinoamérica de Teoría Constitucional y Política” (Latin American Seminar on Constitutional and Political Theory), also known as SELA, which brings together legal scholars from Latin America’s most important law schools and one of the United States’ most prestigious centers of legal education, Yale Law School. Due to a number of features analyzed in the chapter, the author argues that SELA represents one of the most consequential networks contributing to global legal education in Latin America in the last twenty-five years. In fact, throughout this period, SELA has managed—in a persistent and gradual way—to contribute to reshaping Latin America’s legal academy, as well as to propagate the values of liberal legalism in the region. Furthermore, its capacity to adapt to changing global and regional circumstances and, in particular, its ability to absorb new paradigms and methodological perspectives, has ensured its survival for a quarter of a century. Finally, the chapter emphasizes the fact that transnational networks of legal academics from the North and the South such as SELA represent sites that do not just play the ostensible role of serving as meeting points where scholars discuss their research, but, in the case of young legal academics from the Global South, these networks allow them to share their plight with colleagues similarly situated, something which, in turn, provides them with strategies and support in their struggle for recognition and academic consolidation in their home countries.
The Unstoppable Force, the Immovable Object
Authors: Vieira Oscar Vilhena , Ghirardi José Garcez
Published: June 2022

This chapter discusses the unique challenges posed by democratization and globalization to many emerging countries. Those phenomena have compelled them to find suitable answers to the often competing imperatives of fostering social justice and enhancing economic performance. It explains how fast-paced changes in the global economy have pushed countries to rapidly adjust to a radically transformed international marketplace, which has been characterized by a tendency to widen social inequality within individual countries. The chapter also reviews the language of rights that has become a chief vehicle in the struggle against social disparity since Brazil’s return to democratic rule and the enactment of the 1988 Constitution. The chapter provides a brief overview of the origins of Brazil’s law schools, created in 1827 by an imperial decree to provide the newly independent country with a much-needed legal bureaucracy. The chapter recounts how Brazil proved it was capable of educating its own legal and political elite and discusses the current challenges to legal education in Brazil by examining the pioneering experience of FGV Direito SP, founded in 2002, as an illustration of the difficulties in implementing a new paradigm for law schools in the emerging South.
Cross-Border Student Flows and the Construction of International Law as a Transnational Legal Field
Authors: Roberts Anthea
Published: June 2022

This chapter explains how the global flow of students shape the production and diffusion of knowledge in international law as a transnational legal field. It highlights the crucial role education plays in shaping an individual’s approaches and networks and how education represents a meaningful form of soft power through which academics in some states are able to diffuse ideas, materials, and approaches across borders. The chapter also mentions Oscar Schachter, who called the professional community of international lawyers an invisible college whose members were dispersed throughout the world but still engaged in a continuous process of communication and collaboration. The chapter describes the transnational field of international law as a divisible college of international lawyers that is marked by patterns of difference and dominance. It looks at distinct profiles of international law academics in different states.
On Dangerous Ground
Authors: Poling Gregory B.
Published: June 2022

The book explores the history of U.S. involvement in the South China Sea disputes from the late nineteenth century through the present day. The work seeks to explain which U.S. national interests best explain its positions on the disputes over the course of more than a century. It determines that two have been most abiding: defense of freedom of the seas and the credibility of U.S. alliance commitments, particularly to the Philippines. As a result, the book examines not just the evolution of the South China Sea disputes but how those intersected with monumental shifts in the law of the sea and the state of the U.S.-Philippines alliance over the course of the twentieth century. The book also serves as a general history of the territorial and maritime disputes, providing a comprehensive overview of the factors that drove each party to stake claims, undertake new occupations, and occasionally resort to the threat or use of force. These threads come together in a forward-looking analysis of the current state of play and options for the United States and like-minded partners to pursue their long-standing interests in the face of a status quo which China has radically altered in just a few short years.
On Revolutions
Authors: Beck Colin J. , Bukovansky Mlada , Chenoweth Erica , Lawson George , Nepstad Sharon Erickson , Ritter Daniel P.
Published: June 2022

On Revolutions integrates insights from diverse fields—civil resistance studies, international relations, social movements, terrorism—to offes new ways of thinking about the study of revolution. Conventional lines of thought draw on a number of categorical distinctions: social versus political revolutions, structure versus agency, violent versus nonviolent strategies, domestic versus international factors, and success versus failure. In contrast, the book outlines an approach that reaches beyond these dichotomies. Revolutions are not just political or social—they feature many types of change. Structure and agency are not mutually distinct—they are mutually reinforcing processes. Contention is not just violent or nonviolent—it is a messy process that usually involves both strategies. Revolutions do not just succeed or fail—they achieve and simultaneously fall short. And causal conditions are not just domestic or international—they are dependent on the interplay of each. The merit of this approach is demonstrated through consideration of a wide range of cases. The volume also explores new opportunities for conceptual thinking about revolution, provides methodological advice, and engages with the ethical issues that exist at the nexus of scholarship and activism. Taken together, these innovations chart a new path for revolution studies.
Triumph over Adversity
Authors: Anderson Lisa
Published: June 2022

Authored by one of the doyens of Middle East studies, this chapter reflects on the state of the subfield. It imparts why the current study of MENA politics represents both a turning point and a point of departure. It highlights how regional scholars have also wrestled with unique concerns, such as wrenching impediments to research—including poor data quality and dangerous field sites—as well as entrenched biases in mainstream political science, which made off-the-shelf theories and methods sometimes unsuitable to regional inquiry. Questions about ethical research practices have also loomed large, making MENA political scientists superbly wary about the pitfalls and payoffs of their craft. In all, this concluding chapter argues that regional specialists have successfully championed the practice of political science in a region long viewed as resistant to conventional analysis, while pointing out new directions for the discipline.
The Presupposition Effect
Authors: Blome-Tillmann Michael
Published: June 2022

Previous chapters of the book have highlighted that there is increasing agreement in the literature that differences in our willingness to ascribe ‘knowledge’ in problem cases doesn’t vary with practical factors or stakes. Instead, the mentioned willingness has been argued to vary with the salience, concreteness, and vividness of error-possibilities. This chapter argues that salience, concreteness, and vividness—as well as stakes—are not what ultimately drive our truth-value intuitions in the relevant cases. Instead, what drives our intuitions are the pragmatic presuppositions at the context of ascription. The chapter calls the effect uncovered the Presupposition Effect and shows how it offers elegant explanations of a vast amount of recent experimental findings on ‘knowledge’-attributions. Along the way, the chapter offers a novel account of concessive ‘knowledge’-attributions.
Nietzsche, Nihilism, and the Paradox of Affirmation
Authors: Gemes Ken
Published: June 2022

This essay addresses the questions of what exactly is nihilism, how did nihilism become Nietzsche’s central concern, and what is the meaning of his notion of ‘the affirmation of life’, his self-designated response to nihilism. The general conclusion reached is that, while Nietzsche had a fairly detailed and compelling account of the nature and development of the problem of nihilism, his thoughts on the solution, on life-affirmation, were substantially less coherent and hence less compelling. Nietzsche notoriously boasted that he was the very first to experience nihilism in its full depth, and the first to get beyond it. This essay, while endorsing the first part of the claim, questions the latter while hopefully allowing us to see why Nietzsche himself thought he provided some means to overcoming nihilism.
Nietzsche as a Christian Thinker
Authors: Came Daniel
Published: June 2022

The aims of this paper are threefold: (i) to develop and defend a reading of Nietzsche that ascribes to him a pervasive concern with the problem of theodicy; (ii) to argue that it follows from Nietzsche’s interest in theodicy that he is complicit with the putatively life-denying presuppositions of Christianity, which he attacks and from which he seeks fully to detach himself; and (iii) to assess Nietzsche’s later attempts to move away from the project of theodicy in the direction of a notion of life-affirmation that is free from the negative valuation of life inherent in his earlier approach. According to the interpretation of this later view that advanced here, Nietzsche comes to adopt a deflationary position in respect of the whole question of theodicy.
Proto-Uralic
Authors: Sámmol Ánte Luobbal Sámmol
Published: June 2022

The chapter presents an overview of the common protolanguage of all Uralic languages: its phonematics, morphology, morphosyntax, and lexicon. Uralic comparative linguistics is a highly developed field of research, and many aspects of the structure of Proto-Uralic can be reconstructed reasonably well. However, there are still problems and lacunae, owing to the shallow philological record and the highly uneven state of research and description of present-day Uralic languages. Beside the attempt at a systematic reconstruction of the structure of Proto-Uralic, the chapter also presents a brief critique of some misguided principles of explanation which have become well-established in mainstream reconstructions of Proto-Uralic morphology and syntax, such as the tendency to base morphological reconstructions almost exclusively on phonological correspondences. The chapter ends with a critical analysis of diverse hypotheses concerning the possible relatedness of Uralic with other language families.
The divergence of Proto-Uralic and its offspring
Authors: Saarikivi Janne
Published: June 2022

The chapter deals with the dispersal of Proto-Uralic into reconstructible intermediate protolanguages, from which the current Uralic languages can easily be derived: Proto-Saamic, Proto-Finnic, Proto-Mordvin, Proto-Mari, Proto-Permic, Proto-Samoyedic and the three Ugric languages or language groups traditionally conflated into a subtaxon: Proto-Hungarian, Proto-Mansi, and Proto-Khanty. The Uralic intermediate protolanguages are localized and dated on the basis of loanword strata, areal linguistics, and toponymy. The chapter also discusses the prehistory of each proto-language in terms of speaker populations and their contacts with other ethnic groups, in the light of archaeological evidence of their subsistence and possible migrations. The chapter includes maps and diagrams illustrating the original speaking areas and dispersal of the intermediate protolanguages.
Language policy in Russia
Authors: Zamyatin Konstantin
Published: June 2022

The chapter offers an overview of the language policy of Russia, with a special emphasis on its effects on Uralic minority languages. The structure of the first part of the chapter is chronological: it starts from the period when the Finno-Ugric peoples were first integrated into the Russian political realm and consequently overviews the language policies of the Russian Empire, the Soviet Union, and then a democratizing and present-day authoritarian Russia. The second part of the chapter is about regional language policies, especially from the point of view of language revival and the role of minority languages in education. First, it presents an overview of some common trends in regional policy development and then discusses differences in the language protection regimes of the Uralic languages in individual regions. Despite the common general framework, some regions were more successful in pursuing their language policy goals than others.
Saami
Authors: Koponen Eino
Published: June 2022

This chapter provides an introduction to the Saami languages, a chain of indigenous language varieties constituting the westernmost branch of Uralic, especially their reconstructible proto-form, Proto-Saamic, its genesis and central features. Proto-Saamic, a sister language of Proto-Finnic, was probably spoken (also) south of the historical Saami areas (“Lapland”) in the North of Fennoscandia, and its genesis and emergence from Northwest Uralic may have involved contacts with other, partly unknown languages. The chapter briefly describes the main features of Proto-Saamic and the Saami languages, phonology (developments in the vowel and consonant system, consonant gradation, phonotactics and word structure), morphology (case, number, person, tense, mood, the origins of the characteristically rich derivation system), syntax, and lexicon.
Finnish, Meänkieli, and Kven
Authors: Laakso Johanna
Published: June 2022

Finnish, a language descending from diverse Northern Finnic dialects of the area which until 1809 belonged to Sweden, is a national language in Finland and also spoken by migrant diasporas in other countries, especially in Sweden. Two varieties which linguistically belong to the continuum of the Finnish Far North dialects, Meänkieli in Sweden and Kven in Norway, are now officially recognized and codified as minority languages. This chapter will briefly describe the development of Finnish, with special respect to its heterogeneous dialectal basis. The major part of the chapter will focus on the structure and characteristics of Finnish, Meänkieli, and Kven, especially those features which distinguish them from other Finnic languages. The chapter ends with a glossed text example.
Ingrian
Authors: Markus Elena , Rozhanskiy Fedor
Published: June 2022

The chapter gives a concise description of Ingrian, a minor unwritten northern Finnic language currently classified as nearly extinct. Ingrian is spoken in the western part of the Leningrad province of the Russian Federation. Of the four original dialects, two are still alive: Soikkola Ingrian and Lower Luga Ingrian. According to the authors’ estimation, the number of fluent speakers is no more than fifty; their number is rapidly decreasing. All the speakers are bilingual, and the language is not being passed to following generations. The description is based on the data from Soikkola Ingrian recorded by the authors in 2006–14. The chapter addresses the most important aspects of Ingrian, including a typologically rare ternary contrast of consonant lengths and a rich system of morphophonological alternations.
Votic
Authors: Markus Elena , Rozhanskiy Fedor
Published: June 2022

The chapter gives a concise description of Votic, an almost extinct unwritten southern Finnic language. The remnants of the Votic population live in a few villages in the Leningrad province of the Russian Federation. The language is moribund: there are no more than five speakers left and the average age of the speakers is more than eighty. The description is based on the data from the Luuditsa variety of Western Votic. Most of the data comes from field recordings made by the authors in 2001–14. The chapter addresses the most important aspects of Votic, including the vowel harmony, reduced final vowels, replacement of 3pl verbal forms with impersonal forms, and others.
Seto South Estonian
Authors: Pajusalu Karl
Published: June 2022

South Estonian (SE) is a historical Southern Finnic language spoken in southern Estonia and adjacent areas. The core forms of SE are Võro and Seto, the western dialect of SE is called Mulgi, and the northern dialect of SE is Tartu. There also were SE Leivu and Lutsi language islands in Eastern Latvia and Kraasna in the Southern Pskov Region in Russia. Although the SE varieties clearly differ from Northern and Standard Estonian at all levels of language structure, they have not been officially recognized as languages. South Estonian displays most of the phonological and morphosyntactic features which are characteristic of Southern Finnic, such as ternary quantity alternation, velar vowel harmony, comitative and terminative cases, grammatical devices for expressing reported evidentiality, i.e. reported commands. SE vocabulary shows long-lasting contacts with Baltic and Slavic languages. This chapter describes Seto, a characteristically SE variety whose speakers have a distinct ethnic identity.
Mari
Authors: Saarinen Sirkka
Published: June 2022

Mari (in older literature also known as "Cheremis"), a minority language in European Russia, comprises two closely related languages, Meadow and Hill Mari, differing from each other mainly in phonology, and to some extent, in morphology. Mari has nine to ten cases marked with suffixes, some of which are derived from Proto-Finno-Ugric and some historically compound suffixes or borrowings. Mari has three moods, three simple tenses, and four compound past tenses. Half of the past tenses express non-experienced action. Mari has a rich system of derivational suffixes. Instead of subordinate clauses different non-finite constructions are used. Syntactically Mari is a SOV language. During its history Mari has been most strongly influenced by the Turkic languages Chuvash and Tatar. Because of this Mari has several hundred, in some dialects even over 2,000 loanwords from Turkic. Also, derivational suffixes and even some inflectional morphemes have been borrowed.
Permic
Authors: Klumpp Gerson
Published: June 2022

This chapter provides historical and structural background information on shared innovations of the two Permic sub-branches, Komi and Udmurt. The Permic languages are closely related. According to the evidence of loanwords from Western Turkic, Komi split off from Proto Permic towards the end of the first millenium AD. The languages share the same phoneme inventories, the same case systems, they developed parallel evidential past-tense forms, and, of course have a common lexical stock. However, from a syntactical point of view they show clear differences: while Udmurt is strictly SOV and more often aligns with its Turkic neighbours, Tatar and Chuvash, Komi is less strictly SOV and parallels more often Russian structures. In addition to presenting common Permic traits, this chapter also aims at defining some differences from the other two Uralic branches of the larger Volga-Kama area, Mari and Mordvin.
Komi
Authors: Kuznetsov Nikolay
Published: June 2022

The Komi language belongs to the Permic group of the Finno-Ugric language family and displays typical Permic features such as a rich case system; in comparison with its sister language Udmurt, it is more clearly marked by Russian influences but also by contacts with Nenets and language varieties of a Finnic type. Komi has two mutually intelligible written standards, Komi-Zyryan and Komi-Permyak. Komi speakers traditionally live in the north-east of the European part of Russia, the majority of Zyryans in the Komi Republic and the Komi-Permyak in the Komi-Permyak District in the Perm Krai. There are also traditional Komi settlements on the Kola peninsula and in western Siberia. Komi has an official status in the Komi Republic, but its speaker numbers tend to decrease. This chapter mainly focuses on the description of Standard Komi-Zyryan, with some additional remarks about Permyak.
Selkup
Authors: Kazakevič Olga
Published: June 2022

Selkup (in older literature also known as "Ostyak Samoyed") is an indigenous language with some 600 speakers and semi-speakers, very few of whom are children. Practically all speakers reside in the north of Western Siberia. Selkup has had restricted written use for about 150 years; from the late 1930s on the orthography is based on Cyrillic script. Northern Selkup dialects show variation in both phonology and morphology. Here a description of the Middle Taz dialect will be given, and specific features of the other local dialects of Northern Selkup will only be mentioned. This chapter will describe the Middle Taz Selkup phonology with its forty-one vowels and sixteen consonants, rich morphonology, derivation and inflection, and syntax (special attention will be paid to the word order, which is often described as SOV, although in practice, the word order in Selkup is not very strict). The chapter ends with a glossed text example.
Prosody
Authors: Pajusalu Karl
Published: June 2022

Finno-Ugric languages have been called quantity languages, because most of them have a phonological opposition of short and long durations. Finno-Ugric languages are usually characterized by a fixed word-initial stress and distinctive quantity alternations. The most thoroughly studied Finno-Ugric languages, i.e. Hungarian and Finnish, have indeed such prosodic characteristics. However, several Finno-Ugric languages are characterized by various patterns of rhythmic word stress, quantity oppositions which co-occur with tonal cues, a tendency for stress- or foot-timing, etc. Such prosodic oppositions have an important role in complex morphophonological word paradigms. Sentence intonation is usually falling in the Finno-Ugric languages. Nevertheless, recent studies, such as on Hungarian and Estonian, indicate that there is a rather complicated interaction between the focus structure, syntax, and sentence prosody.