bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Tactical Symbology Standards
Authors: Kirkpatrick Mark , Dutra Lisa A. , Lyons Robert A. , Osga Glenn A. , Pucci John J.
Published: January 2009

CRT displays aboard U.S. Navy ships use a standardized monochrome Naval Tactical Data System (NTDS) symbol set to represent properties of symbols such as platform type (e.g. Aircraft Carrier, Combat Air), environment (e.g. air, surface, subsurface), and identification (e.g. hostile, friendly). A color symbol set has been proposed in NATO Standardization Agreement 4420, Display Symbology and Colours for NATO Maritime Units (1990). The U.S. Navy is currently considering ratification of this Standardization Agreement (STANAG). Empirical comparisons of operator performance using the NTDS symbology versus those using the color-filled NATO STANAG symbology were conducted. Two additional experimental symbologies were also created. The first, called NTDS Equated, is a color version of the NTDS symbol set, and the second experimental symbol set, called NATO Outline, is a color outline version of the color filled NATO STANAG symbol set. Test subjects were asked to find (hook) specific symbols during a tactically relevant scenario.

Time to the first correct hook and percentage of correct hooks were subjected to analyses of variance (ANOVA). Experimental results revealed that the NATO STANAG symbol set outperformed all other symbol sets in terms of symbol recognition time, and outperformed the NTDS Standard symbol set for symbol recognition accuracy as well. The results indicated that tactical information can be transferred more quickly and accurately to watch standers through effective use of symbol coding. Test subjects familiar with the NTDS symbology expressed a preference for the color symbol sets in opinion surveys administered after the experiment. General conclusions resulting from comparisons across symbol sets were that color fill was more effective than color outline, and that operator performance gains were achieved as a result of color coding and greater information content on the symbol. This paper presents the human performance assessment that was conducted, the results, and the implications of the findings for ratification of NATO STANAG 4420.
Human Factors and the Automated Highway System
Authors: Alicandri Elizabeth , Moyer M. Joseph
Published: January 2009

The Intelligent Vehicle-Highway System (IVHS) is an important and broad ranging Department of Transportation program to reduce congestion and increase safety on the nation's highway system. The Automated Highway System (AHS) represents the full realization of one IVHS subsystem, Automated Vehicle Control Systems. Efforts are underway to define and resolve critical human factors questions related to the AHS. As part of the process, human factors issues will be identified through development of hypothetical AHS scenarios. This requires a generic AHS scenario be presented, and affiliated human factors issues identified.
Safety, a Strategic Tool for Improving Manufacturing Systems
Authors: Sawhney R.S. , Knight L.J.
Published: January 2009

Often, manufacturing systems operate under the common perception that safety projects are generally detrimental to successful manufacturing operations. On the contrary, emphasizing safety on all levels of a corporation can not only create an overall more positive attitude in the workplace while reducing worker's compensation and insurance costs, but it can also improve the manufacturing capabilities of an organization

Within this paper, a model is presented which can prove safety-related ventures can be lucrative in measurable manufacturing terms. The model shows that accepting safety-related projects and approaching safety standards more positively will actually improve manufacturing strategy components such as quality, productivity, utilization, and reliability. It also includes redefining the mission statement of the corporation, developing a manufacturing strategy emphasizing safety, and implementing safety measures in all aspects of the corporation. Such evaluations in measurable terms will result in greater percentages of safety projects being accepted because relevant information will be communicated to managers in terms they can easily understand.

Results indicate that there is a correlation between implementing safety projects and the improvement of manufacturing capabilities. Therefore, one can infer that safety, like quality, cost, and time, is a strategic tool to be used for improving manufacturing, and not merely a tangential issue.
Developing Behavioral Phenomena Test Benches
Authors: Monk Donald L. , Swierenga Sarah J. , Lincoln Janet E.
Published: January 2009

A research and development program is underway to produce an innovative design support system for crew station designers. Known as the Performance Visualization Subsystem of the Computer Aided Systems Human Engineering Program (CASHE: PVS), this design tool will have data visualization and prototyping capabilities that will enable designers to “go beyond” the human perception and performance information available in the PVS database. Interactive software modules (called test benches) are being developed to allow designers to explore behavioral phenomena under different stimulus and response conditions. The objective of this paper is to describe a method we have used to translate the information in the PVS database into test bench specifications for software development. The basic approach in test bench design is: 1) to rely on standardized tasks and conditions where possible and 2) to provide designers with pedagogical illustrations of perceptual and performance effects. The procedures used in developing test bench specifications included identifying good candidates for test bench simulations, prioritizing the set of proposed test benches according to selection criteria developed by the design team, and recruiting subject matter experts to generate test bench specifications that will be used by the software engineers to implement the test bench code. The result of this effort will be a commercially available software product that will help crew station designers more effectively understand and apply human factors principles in the design process.
Human System Integration (HSI) and Manprint Requirements and Tools
Authors: Malone Thomas B. , Heasly Christopher C. , Kirkpatrick Mark , Perse Randy M. , Vingelis Patricia J. , Welch Daniel L.
Published: January 2009

The U.S. Army Human Engineering Laboratory (USAHEL) approach to HSI in the early stages of materiel development is to base the process for accomplishing HSI/MANPRINT on the HFE front-end analysis methodology as described in MIL-H 46855B. The USAHEL under contract with Carlow International Incorporated is developing an HSI standardized and formalized process tied to the events, activities, products and milestones for all phases of the WSAP and incorporating a set of automated tools and information systems to support the application of the HSI process. The system, including the process, associated tools and information resources, have been designated the HSI Integrated Decision/Engineering Aid or IDEA. A major element of IDEA then is the standardized and formalized HSI process tied to the events, activities, products and milestones of each phase of the WSAP as directed in DoD 5000.1, 5000.2, and 5000.2M, and incorporating a set of automated tools to support the application of the HSI process. The HSI process architecture contained in IDEA is an interactive graphic which has the following characteristics: a) it is integrated with the WSAP activities, products and requirements for each WSAP phase; b) it defines and describes HSI activities, events, inputs/outputs, products and methods for each WSAP phase, and provides guidelines on the application of the activities and methods and on the contents and format of the products; c) it incorporates the tools required to apply the HSI methods and to accomplish the HSI activities; d) it is focused on personnel readiness and effectiveness requirements; e) it addresses the development of a new system, a non-development item (NDI), or product improvement; and f) it provides a formal mechanism for getting HSI issues and concerns addressed early in system acquisition.
Heavy Vehicle Driver Workload Assessment: Lessons from Aviation
Authors: Kantowitz Barry H.
Published: January 2009

Assessment of heavy vehicle driver workload can benefit from earlier research on pilot workload. Four workload issues are particularly salient: performance, methodology, measurement, and conceptual problems. Since an airplane is not a heavy ground vehicle, and since there are many differences between pilots and truck drivers, aviation workload tools cannot be applied to ground vehicles without some caveats. A summary of ten lessons learned from aviation workload is given.
Human Factors and Safety Issues Associated with Actinide Retrieval from Spent Light Water Reactor Fuel Assemblies
Authors: Spelt P. F.
Published: January 2009

A major problem in environmental restoration and waste management is the disposition of used fuel assemblies from the many light water reactors in the United States, which present a radiation hazard to those whose job is to dispose of them, with a similar threat to the general environment associated with long-term storage in fuel repositories around the country. Actinides resident in the fuel pins as a result of their use in reactor cores constitute a significant component of this hazard. Recently, the Department of Energy has initiated an Actinide Recycle Program to study the feasibility of using pyrochemical (molten salt) processes to recover actinides from the spent fuel assemblies of commercial reactors. This project concerns the application of robotics technology to the operation and maintenance functions of a plant whose objective is to recover actinides from spent fuel assemblies, and to dispose of the resulting hardware and chemical components from this process. Such a procedure involves a number of safety and human factors issues. The purpose of the project is to explore the use of robotics and artificial intelligence to facilitate accomplishment of the program goals while maintaining the safety of the humans doing the work and the integrity of the environment. This project will result in a graphic simulation on a Silicon Graphics workstation as a proof of principle demonstration of the feasibility of using robotics along with an intelligent operator interface. A major component of the operator-system interface is a hybrid artificial intelligence system developed at Oak Ridge National Laboratory, which combines artificial neural networks and an expert system into a hybrid, self-improving computer-based system interface.
Individual Differences in the Performance of a Process Control Task
Authors: Huey Beverly Messick , Boehm-Davis Deborah A.
Published: January 2009

The allocation of functions and tasks to humans and machines is seldom considered as a step in system design. In those cases where function allocation is considered, it is usually based on fixed schemes for all operators; however, it is possible that the optimal allocation scheme is not the same across individuals. In this research, two studies employed a pasteurizing plant simulation to investigate the effect of gender, age, education, and experience on system performance. Results of the first study revealed individual differences between males and females. However, gender was confounded with education and age. Because this confound could not be removed with the available subject pool, a second study was conducted to separate the effects of age and education on performance. In this latter study, analyses revealed significant individual difference on performance. These data suggest that individual difference variables need to be examined more fully in the system design process.
Diversity in Field-Articulation and Its Implications for Human-Computer Interface Design
Authors: Stanney Kay M. , Salvendy Gavriel
Published: January 2009

The objective of this study was to investigate individual differences in cognitive styles related to spatial ability in order design computer interfaces which accommodated low spatial users. Seventy-four subjects were tested on spatial, visual and verbal cognitive tests. From the results of these tests, (12) subjects were selected and classified as low spatial/verbalizers and (12) as high spatial/visualizers. The two subject groups were tested on three interface designs: a graphical layout and an outline format, both intended to accommodate low spatial users, and a conventional hierarchical menu design. For each interface, the subjects completed (50) information search tasks. Duncan's Multiple Range comparisons (p<0.05) between the three interface designs indicated the following: in accordance with past studies, the performance of verbal subjects was 18% inferior to that of spatial subjects on the conventional interface which required subjects to self-induce the hierarchical system structure; by designing a graphical interface which provided the system structure and an interface with an outline format which eliminated the need for structuring, no differences were detected between the verbal and spatial groups. The implication was that the influences of individual differences in spatial ability on computer performance can be overcome by cognitively tailored interface designs.
Communication Media Acceptance in Organizations: An Alternative Research Model
Authors: Taha Lilas H. , Caldwell Barrett S.
Published: January 2009

This paper describes an alternative approach to examining the role of situational, technological, and physiological factors in electronic media use in organizations. Existing models of media use tend to focus on one dimension of the communication process. Major theories discussed are Social Presence (Short, Williams, and Christie, 1976), Information Richness (Daft and Lengel, 1984; 1986), and Social Information Processing (Fulk, Steinfield, Schmitz, and Power, 1987). The authors” perspective derives from a combination of elements of these theories. In our view, communication media use is affected by interactions of three dimensions of factors: media characteristics, situational demands, and individual and organizational acceptance. The authors” current research is briefly described, with a sample of results which support the hypotheses of multidimensional interactions in acceptability of communication media in organizations.
A Process for Developing Functional Generic Models for Determining Personnel Requirements
Authors: Hendrick Hal W. , Grabowski Martha
Published: January 2009

A process for developing a practical, yet valid and easy to use model for determining personnel requirements is described. A step by step process, developed and validated by the authors is explained. Critical macroergonomic variables that must be made explicit and considered in the process are noted. Practical “lessons learned” by the authors in applying the model are given. The use of the model as a management tool in considering operational alternatives is illustrated.
Considerations in the Design of Future Retail Point of Service (POS) Terminal Systems
Authors: Hoffman Mark S.
Published: January 2009

Research studies were conducted in three types of retail stores: supermarkets, discount stores, and department stores. The purpose of these studies was to determine how cashiers and associates spend their time servicing customers, the inter-relationships between physical and cognitive workloads, and how these affect system performance. A detailed task analysis of the cashier's activities comparing performances in these stores was completed. Commonalties and differences in task performances were identified and measured. Task performances were grouped into one of three types: physical, POS, and management. The results showed that physical tasks were performed 39% of the total hour in a supermarket, 57% in the discount store, and 25% in the department store. Physical tasks are those most often identified in ergonomic research. Management tasks were more frequent in the department store; these tasks captured redundant information, i.e. tender approval identification that was already available in system files. These results provide a map for identifying and applying macroergonomic research techniques to integrate POS systems with new features into the retail industry.
Cross Cultural Validation of a Function Analysis Model for Determining Minimal Safe Crew Size on Maritime Vessels
Authors: Hendrick Hal W. , Grabowski Martha
Published: January 2009

As part of a project for the National Research Council, a functional analysis model previously was developed and initially validated on two large maritime vessels for determining minimum safe crew size. The present study collected operations and maintenance data for all functions performed in port, in restricted waters, and at sea for three voyage profiles for two identical tankers. Structured interviews with crew members were used to collect the data. One ship was crewed by an all Korean crew; the other by Italian officers and Philippine seamen. Results from the two independent applications of the model were highly consistent for both qualitative and quantitative crew requirements. These results provided further validation both for the model and the method of data collection. The model then was used to project changes in crew requirements for different voyage profiles, thus demonstrating its utility as a management tool. Cultural differences in operations management were noted.
The Role of a Group-Centered Approach in the Development of Computer-Supported Collaborative Design Technologies
Authors: McNeese Michael D. , Zaff Brian S. , Brown Clifford E. , Citera Maryalice , Wellens A. Rodney
Published: January 2009

Collaborative groups, by their very nature, involve the interactions of many participants which can vary in time, place, culture, knowledge, and ability. The design of collaborative technology for work groups must occur in conjunction with the users while avoiding the dangers of technology-centered product development. This paper focuses on applying a group-centered approach to the development of Computer-Supported Collaborative Work (CSCW) products. This approach emphasizes the importance of team members” participation in the design process such that the resulting technology is centered around the users” needs and capabilities. By allowing collaborative groups to elaborate on real issues related to their actual work context, and to suggest specific ways to improve their work, a group-centered approach to the design of CSCW systems can be realized. The utilization of the Advanced Knowledge And Design Acquisition Methodology (AKADAM), consisting of concept mapping and design storyboarding techniques, was suggested as a basis for achieving this level of team participation. The concept mapping technique elicited insights into the collaboration process, identified problem areas, and generated suggestions for improving group work. With the aid of the design storyboarding technique, these suggestions for improvement can be directly translated into CSCW tools.
Swimming Pool Diving Accidents: Human Factors Analyses of Case Study Data
Authors: Laughery Kenneth R. , Young Stephen L. , Rowe Anna
Published: January 2009

As many as 350 serious spinal cord injuries occur in the United States every year as a result of diving into swimming pools. While there is substantial data on the demographics of injured divers and the events surrounding their injuries, there has been little analysis of the human factors issues associated with this type of accident. Data from 12 swimming pool diving accidents were analyzed in terms of their human factors issues, and the data revealed a number of consistent findings. By virtue of the fact that pools are fairly common, people generally perceive them to be safe. Compounding this sense of security are several interesting perceptual issues about the water depth and the potential risks. People inherently overestimate distances under water, and this effect is exacerbated by cloudy water. Also, all of the divers in this study were young males, who tend to be excessively optimistic and who hold an unrealistic sense of control over potential hazards. This characteristic of male divers was substantiated by the fact that, even when they knew the water was shallow, they unsuccessfully attempted a “shallow dive”. In addition to these perceptions and control factors, there appears to be a lack of appreciation of the hazards associated with diving into swimming pools. Quadriplegia or death are not commonly perceived to be a consequence of diving. Several suggestions are offered which could lead to a reduction in the number and magnitude of swimming pool diving accidents. One approach is to provide an appreciation of the hazards and consequences associated with diving so people can exercise reasonable judgment about when and where to dive.
A Warning Label for Scaffold Users
Authors: Johnson Daniel
Published: January 2009

The purpose of this research project was to develop a warning label which would: a) alert scaffold workers to the potential of danger when working on scaffolds, and b) to increase the likelihood they would seek out and read the safety guidelines supplied with the scaffolds. A warning was developed and tested on 150 potential users. It significantly increased subjects' behavioral intentions to seek safety information before working on a scaffold they had not been on before. This was true for inexperienced and experienced scaffold workers. This effect was not found for scaffolds the subjects supposedly had been on before. Highly experienced workers were less likely to comply with the warning than less experienced workers. It was concluded that the warning would increase the use of safety guidelines by those working on a scaffold that was new to them. But a new warning on a scaffold a worker had already been on would have no effect on the reading of safety guidelines.
Warning Compliance: Effects of a Video Warning Sign and Modeling on Behavior
Authors: Racicot Bernadette M. , Wogalter Michael S.
Published: January 2009

The effectiveness of warnings and social influence (modeling) for improving safety behavior was examined in a laboratory setting. Although training programs aimed at improving safety behavior in the workplace frequently use videotapes with models portraying safe and unsafe behaviors, the effectiveness of training interventions of this type are rarely evaluated nor have results been published in the research literature. Training to increase safety behaviors can translate into large savings to an organization in terms of reductions in equipment damage, cost of liability litigation, and decreases in injury to both consumers and employees. The present research examined the effects of a posted (video) warning, video role-modeling, and a voice warning on compliance with safety behaviors. Participants were randomly assigned to one of three conditions, warning alone, warning and exposure to a video model performing the appropriate safety behaviors, or warning, video modeling, and a voice warning. The results showed that behavioral modeling presented through a video display significantly enhanced behavioral compliance compared to a video sign warning alone. The addition of a voice warning did not further increase compliance due to ceiling effects produced by the powerful influence of the modeling. Implications of this research for safety training programs and forensic human factors as well as suggestions for future research are discussed.
Tools for Communicating with Chemical Information: A Cognitive Engineering Analysis
Authors: Zachary Wayne , Hicinbothom James
Published: January 2009

A major challenge for human factors is designing specialized systems to mesh with the domain expertise and mental representations of the system users. Systems for computational chemistry are an important example. Chemists use chemical structure diagrams (CSDs) as part of their basic language of communication, along with chemical formulae, narrative text, graphs and charts. Current computer tools for communicating with CSDs in written contexts are often found by chemists to be incomplete, difficult to use, and offering inappropriate functionality. This problem arises from ineffective human computer-interfaces that, in turn, can be traced to a lack of understanding on how skilled chemists use, think about, and communicate with CSDs. A formal cognitive human factors analysis is applied to address this deficiency. The analysis is developed through critical incident interviews, question-answering protocols, and thinking aloud protocols. Its results include a GOMS-type cognitive model of the drawing/manipulation process and of the conceptual strucutres underlying that process. Existing CSD drawing tool interfaces can be seen to provide little support for the conceptual structues or cognitive processes identified. The model developed in this research is being used to develop a user-oriented HCl for chemical structure manipulation systems.
Auditory Perception
Authors: Haas Ellen C.
Published: January 2009

Auditory perception involves the human listener's awareness or apprehension of auditory stimuli in the environment. Auditory stimuli, which include speech communications as well as non-speech signals, occur in the presence and absence of environmental noise. Non-speech auditory signals range from simple pure tones to complex signals found in three-dimensional auditory displays.

Special hearing protection device (HPD) designs, as well as additions to conventional protectors, have been developed to improve speech communication and auditory perception capabilities of those exposed to noise. The thoughtful design of auditory stimuli and the proper design, selection, and use of HPDs within the environment can improve human performance and reduce accidents.

The purpose of this symposium will be to discuss issues in auditory perception and to describe methods to improve the perception of auditory stimuli in environments with and without noise. The issues of interest include the perception of non-speech auditory signals and the improvement of auditory perception capabilities of persons exposed to noise.

The first three papers of this symposium describe the perception of non-speech auditory signals. Ellen Haas defines the extent to which certain signal elements affect the perceived urgency of auditory warning signals. Michael D. Good and Dr. Robert H. Gilkey investigate free-field masking as a function of the spatial separation between signal and masker sounds within the horizontal and median planes. Jeffrey M. Gerth explores the discrimination of complex auditory signal components that differ by sound category, temporal pattern, density, and component manipulation.

The fourth paper of this symposium focuses upon the improvement of auditory perception capabilities of persons exposed to hazardous noise, and who must wear hearing protection. Special HPD designs, as well as additions to conventional protectors, have been developed to improve speech communication and auditory perception capabilities of persons exposed to noise. Dr. John G. Casali reviews several new HPD technologies and describes construction features, empirical performance data, and applications of each device.

These papers illustrate current research issues in the perception of auditory signals. The issues are all relevant to the human factors engineering of auditory signals and personal protective gear. The perception of auditory stimuli can be improved by the thoughtful human factors design of auditory stimuli and by the proper use of HPDs.
Telephone Service Center Call Duration Improvement
Authors: Warren Robert E.
Published: January 2009

Call handling duration in a telephone service center was substantially improved by providing users easier access to mainframe data systems. Switching from a system that allowed access to only one system at a time to one that provided a separate window for each system produced an estimated 7% improvement in call handling duration. The improvement was most marked for those calls which required multiple system access.
Out of Site, Still in Mind? A Case Study in Video Mediated Communication
Authors: Harrison Beverly L. , Chignell Mark H. , Baecker Ronald M.
Published: January 2009

Video mediated communication alters our perception of the way in which we interact and communicate. In contrast to face to face or audio only (e.g., telephone) communication, there is relatively little systematic research on the effect of video conferencing on communication within groups of people at dispersed locations (Harrison, 1991b; Harrison et al, 1992b; Sellen, 1992; Wolf, 1988; Cohen, 1982; Short, Williams, and Christie, 1976). In this paper we describe a study of how participants at three distant locations perceived differences between face to face (within site) and video mediated (between site) communication. Results indicate that participants perceived between site, mediated communication to be unnatural and uncomfortable. They felt there were problems with gaining floor control and with conversation flow. Additionally, participants perceived the between site, mediated communication to be less interactive, less social, and less enjoyable than the face to face, within site communication. The insights gained through this and other case studies, summarized here, will be used to guide our future research. This study is one in a series of field trials and controlled experiments aimed at understanding the human factors issues associated with video communication and the design of such systems.
Catch a Rising Tone: Selecting a Tone for a New Calling Service
Authors: Fusco Marc E. , Katz Robert B.
Published: January 2009

The tone used in the new service Caller ID on Call Waiting (CIDCW) must be reliably detected by customer premises equipment (CPE), so that it can prepare to receive caller ID data, and it should alert customers to new calls but without being annoying. To help select a tone, the first experiment of this study examined the acceptability of a series of high-frequency dual tones that might be able to perform the required CPE signaling. Subjects were presented with the tones under circumstances in which they would typically be heard (while talking and listening over the telephone) and rated the sound quality of the tones. Long bursts of tones were presented as well as short bursts prepended or appended to the 440-Hz tone used in Call Waiting service. The results suggested that customers may find high-frequency dual tones acceptable. To determine acceptable parameters of tones, in the second experiment, subjects rated the loudness of selected tones as their length and power were varied.
Virtual Reality and Human Factors
Authors: Thomas John C. , Stuart Rory
Published: January 2009

The terms “Virtual Reality”, “Artificial Reality”, and “Cyberspace” have been prevalent in the popular press recently. There has also been considerable professional interest. (See Table 1 of recent conferences). This field is an outgrowth of three factors: 1) increases in available technologies of display, storage, and CPU along with new interface devices. 2) increases in the awareness of the importance of the “user interface” and 3) an increase in the awareness of the need for better means of collaboration.

While “Virtual Reality” is arguably not completely new, it is only in the last few years that these technological and social trends mentioned above have resulted in the growth of “Virtual Reality” as a field.

We argue that “Virtual Reality” is an important phenomenon for the human factors community in at least three distinct ways. First, like other new technologies, Virtual Reality requires human factors research to reach its full potential. Second, Virtual Reality offers the human factors professional an important new tool of investigation. Third, as a tool of communication and collaboration, virtual reality may serve as a medium for collaborative design and/or a means for communicating the results of human factors issues.
A Usability and Diary Study Assessing the Effectiveness of Call Acceptance Lists
Authors: Chin John P. , Herring Richard D. , Familant M. Elliott
Published: January 2009

Nuisance or unwanted calls have always been a problem to subscribers of phone services. One possible solution is a network based service that allows subscribers to control the calls they receive by using a call acceptance list. When the call acceptance list is activated, all callers not on the list would be automatically routed to a voice messaging system. Those callers on the list would be allowed to ring the subscriber's telephone. This study assessed the effectiveness of call acceptance lists in reducing unwanted telephone calls. Participants used a prototype telephone-based interface to establish a list of telephone numbers from which they would always accept calls. At the same time, they logged each of their incoming calls in a diary, recording the telephone number that originated the call, and whether they wished to receive the call. The call acceptance list significantly reduced the number of unwanted calls from 12% to 1%. However, this list also substantially reduced the number of wanted calls answered by the subscriber from 88% to 33%. Although a call acceptance list appears to be effective in blocking unwanted calls from reaching the subscriber, the list would also route a substantial number of wanted calls to voice messaging. If the majority of the calls are wanted, the results of this experiment suggest that a call rejection list would be a more effective method for preventing unwanted calls. Fewer wanted calls would be rejected while preventing unwanted calls from ringing through.
Masking between Spatially Separated Sounds
Authors: Good Michael D. , Gilkey Robert H.
Published: January 2009

The development of optimal three-dimensional auditory displays requires a more complete understanding of the interactions among spatially separated sounds. Free-field masking was investigated as a function of the spatial separation between signal and masker sounds within the horizontal, frontal, and median planes. The detectability of filtered pulse trains in the presence of noise maskers was measured using a cued, two-alternative, forced-choice, adaptive staircase procedure. Signal and masker combinations in low (below 2.3 kHz), middle (1.0–8.5 kHz), and high (above 3.5 kHz) frequency regions were examined. As the sound sources were separated within the horizontal plane, signal detectability increased dramatically. Similar improvement in detectability was observed within the frontal plane. As suggested by traditional binaural models, interaural time cues and interaural intensity cues are likely to play a major role in mediating masking release in both the horizontal and frontal planes. Because no interaural cues exist for stimuli presented within the median plane, traditional models would not predict a release from masking when the stimuli are separated within this plane. However, with high frequency signals, masking release similar to that observed in the horizontal and frontal planes could be observed in the median plane. The current literature suggests that sound localization in the median plane may depend on direction-specific spectral cues that are introduced by the pinna at high frequencies. The masking release observed here may also depend on these “pinna cues.”
Some New Perspectives for Introducing Human-Systems Integration into the System Development Process
Authors: Pew Richard W.
Published: January 2009

As further background for this Special Issue, this paper introduces a sampling of the findings of a National Research Council Committee on Human-Systems Design Support for Changing Technology. The paper introduces the Incremental Commitment Model of system development that was designed to accommodate the needs of the human-system integration (HSI) community. The committee viewed effective integration of human-system issues as requiring (a) stakeholder satisficing—solutions that meet acceptability criteria of all stakeholders; (b) incremental growth of system definition and stakeholder commitment; (c) iterative and concurrent system definition and development; (d) HSI risk analysis and risk management in concert with that of the other engineering disciplines involved in a project; and (e) HSI outcomes or deliverables designed specifically to be shared and understood by the other stakeholders. As the committee members looked to the future, they envisioned a point when it would be possible to develop a fully integrated HSI development methodology. They also foresaw a time when HSI might become an independently recognized discipline and more HSI specialists would be qualified to lead project teams, placing the discipline in a more commanding role in the system development process.
Capturing the Context of Use to Inform System Design
Authors: Evenson Shelley , Muller Michael , Roth Emilie M.
Published: January 2009

New system design often focuses on opportunities afforded by technology without careful analysis of the needs of the people and work involved. A strong consensus has been found across diverse design traditions regarding the need for in-depth analysis of the context of use to inform system design. Analysis of context of use encompasses identifying and characterizing the range of situations that can arise, the demands they impose, and the motivations and activities of the people involved. This paper presents three case studies in which context of use analysis was a key part of successful system design. The three case studies represent work-centered design, emerging from cognitive engineering and cognitive systems engineering; interaction design, emerging from industrial and communication design; and participatory design, emerging from the Scandinavian labor movement. The case studies highlight commonalities in experience and core tenets across traditions. They argue for the importance of incorporating context of use analyses as part of the systems engineering process and illustrate a variety of approaches for context of use analysis.
Human Views for MODAF as a Bridge Between Human Factors Integration and Systems Engineering
Authors: Bruseberg Anne
Published: January 2009

The paper describes the human views for the UK Ministry of Defence Architectural Framework (MODAF) as essential concepts to enable a common modeling approach between the fields of systems engineering and human factors integration. Human views express high-level human factors design decisions through a systems engineering modeling approach to better communicate human-related design concerns to engineers and to enable early application of human factors methods in the systems engineering process. Integration barriers attributable to differing approaches between human factors integration and systems engineering are outlined. Cognitive systems engineering is considered under the umbrella of human factors integration. The paper discusses how selected cognitive systems engineering approaches and methods provide an invaluable resource in supporting the underlying philosophy and application of the human views as part of MODAF.
Reducing and Mitigating Human Error in Medicine
Authors: Morrow Daniel , North Robert , Wickens Christopher D.
Published: January 2009

Although precise definitions and models of human error in medicine remain elusive, there is little doubt that adverse events, sometimes involving human error, threaten patient safety and can be addressed by human factors approaches to error. In this chapter, we combine an information-processing framework that identifies perceptual, cognitive, and behavioral requirements of operators involved in health care activities with a system-based perspective that helps define when these needs are met by the health care context. We focus on errors and adverse events related to four broad areas of medical activities: medical device use, medication use, team collaboration, and diagnostic/decision support. For each area, we review evidence for specific error types, operator and system factors that contribute to these errors, and possible mitigating strategies related to design and training interventions that enable health care systems to better meet operators' perceptual, cognitive, and behavioral needs. This review reveals progress in identifying sources of human error and developing mitigating strategies in the areas of medical device and medication use, in part because of tools from human factors engineering that identify user needs and how to design environments to support them. Much less is known about how error emerges from work practices in complex settings, such as collaboration among team members. There is a need for theoretical frameworks to analyze error in the context of routine work practices. Such frameworks will bridge cognitive analyses of individual operators and tasks and more comprehensive theories of organizations, to guide interventions that target medical error at multiple levels.
Improving Product Safety and Effectiveness in the Home
Authors: Boehm-Davis Deborah A.
Published: January 2009

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention report that accidents rated as the fifth leading cause of death in 2002. A large proportion of these accidents occur in and around the home. For 2003, the Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) estimated that just under 11 million injuries were caused by children's nursery equipment; toys; sports and recreational equipment; home communication and entertainment; household containers; yard and garden equipment; home workshop equipment; home maintenance; general household appliances; heating, cooling, and ventilation equipment; home furnishings and fixtures; and home structures and construction materials. Even those products that are safe to use may not be designed to allow the user to be maximally effective when using those products. This chapter describes a framework that can provide a foundation for understanding the components that play a role in making products safe and effective, a process that can be used by designers to ensure a consideration of the components of the framework, and a discussion of the extent to which consumers select products based on these features. Difficulties in conducting research in this area are identified, as well as some directions for future work.
Task Interruptions
Authors: Trafton J. Gregory , Monk Christopher A.
Published: January 2009

We review both the theoretical and applied research on task interruptions. We provide a brief task analysis of interruptions and resumptions, discuss how and why they are disruptive, and show how multiple theories attempt to explain the interruption and resumption process. We also review a great deal of the empirical work and show how it fits into previous theoretical accounts. Finally, we discuss what factors make interruptions more or less disruptive as well as theory-based recommendations for reducing the disruptiveness of interruptions.
Research-Based Guidelines for Multimedia Instruction
Authors: Mayer Richard E.
Published: January 2009

For the past two decades, my colleagues and I at the University of California, Santa Barbara, have been investigating ways to improve learning with multimedia instructional materials. In this chapter I share the fruits of our efforts, based on 70 experimental comparisons between multimedia lessons that are consistent or inconsistent with a particular design principle. Overall, I review 10 research-based tactics for how to design multimedia instructional materials, such as Web-based lessons and paper-based instructional manuals.
Forensic Human Factors: People, Places, Products
Authors: Zackowitz Ilene , Vredenburgh Alison
Published: January 2009

Forensic human factors (HF) consultants apply the science of human factors to litigation. After someone has been injured and a lawsuit has been filed, attorneys will often seek the expertise of forensic HF consultants to analyze the incident and determine if features of the person, place, or product involved were causal factors in the incident. In this chapter we describe the conventions, guidelines, and procedures involved in a typical forensic HF case. In addition, we describe the human factors content areas that are most frequently addressed over the course of an HF evaluation.
Handheld Electronic Devices
Authors: Lewis James R. , Commarford Patrick M. , Kennedy Peter J. , Sadowski Wallace J.
Published: January 2009

From PDAs to cell phones to MP3 players, handheld electronic devices are ubiquitous. Human factors engineers and designers have a need to remain informed about advances in research on user interface design for this class of devices. This review provides human factors research summaries and research-based guidelines for the design of handheld devices. The major topics include anthropometry (fitting the device to the hand), input (types of device control and methods for data entry), output (display design), interaction design (one-handed use, scrolling, menu design, image manipulation, and using the mobile Web), and data sharing (among users, devices, and networks). Thus, this review covers the key aspects of the design of handheld devices, from the design of the physical form of the device through its hardware and software, including its behavior in networks.
Modular Control of Pointing beyond Arm's Length
Authors: Berret Bastien , Bonnetblanc François , Papaxanthis Charalambos , Pozzo Thierry
Published: January 2009

Hand reaching and bipedal equilibrium are two important functions of the human motor behavior. However, how the brain plans goal-oriented actions combining target reaching with equilibrium regulation is not yet clearly understood. An important question is whether postural control and reaching are integrated in one single module or controlled separately. Here, we show that postural control and reaching motor commands are processed by means of a modular and flexible organization. Principal component and correlation analyses between pairs of angles were used to extract global and local coupling during a whole-body pointing beyond arm's length. A low-dimensional organization of the redundant kinematic chain allowing simultaneous target reaching and regulation of the center of mass (CoM) displacement in extrinsic space emerged from the first analysis. In follow-up experiments, both the CoM and finger trajectories were constrained by asking participants to reach from a reduced base of support with or without knee flexion, or by moving the endpoint along a predefined trajectory (straight or semicircular trajectories). Whereas joint covaried during free conditions and under equilibrium restrictions, it was decomposed in two task-dependent and task-independent modules, corresponding to a dissociation of arm versus legs, trunk, and head coordination, respectively, under imposed finger path conditions. A numerical simulation supported the idea that both postural and focal subtasks are basically integrated into the same motor command and that the CNS is able to combine or to separate the movement into autonomous functional synergies according to the task requirements.