bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
5. Rocks in the deep
Authors: Zalasiewicz Jan
Published: April 2017

It is over 6,000 km to the centre of the Earth, but our direct experience of its rocks goes to little more than 3 km below the surface in the deepest mines on Earth. ‘Rocks in the deep’ shows that we can find out more by assessing rock fragments brought from deeper levels by tectonic or volcanic processes; by analysing patterns of change in the gravitational and magnetic fields; by detecting seismic waves that have travelled through the Earth; or by recreating conditions of the deep Earth in the laboratory. It describes what is known about the lower crust, the upper mantle, the deep mantle, and the core.
6. Living rocks, evolving rocks
Authors: Zalasiewicz Jan
Published: April 2017

Life on Earth has been dated back to 3.8 billion years ago with organic carbon found in metamorphosed mudstones, but new evidence suggests it may go back even further. ‘Living rocks, evolving rocks’ describes the earliest rocks that show evidence of life, initially in anoxic conditions, such as stromatolites and banded iron formations. The Precambrian also saw widespread microbial mats growing across the seafloor. Around 550 million years ago there was a ‘Cambrian Explosion’ of metazoan marine organisms, including reef-builders and plankton rain, the consequences of which can be seen clearly in the rocks. Land-living organisms evolved in the Silurian and Devonian periods resulting in peat bogs and bone beds.
1. What is capitalism?
Authors: Fulcher James
Published: April 2017

‘What is capitalism?’ examines the different forms that capitalism has taken, from the merchant capitalism of the 17th-century, through capitalist production in the 19th, to the financial capitalism of the present day. As the investment of money to make more money, capitalism has long existed but it was when production was financed in this way that a transformative capitalism came into being. Capitalist production depends on the exploitation of wage labour, which also crucially fuels the consumption of the goods and services produced by capitalist enterprises. Production and consumption are linked by the markets that come to mediate all economic activities in a capitalist society.
The long interlude: (12th century to 7th century bc)
Authors: Bryce Trevor
Published: April 2017

In the early twelfth century bc, the Greek and Near Eastern worlds were shaken by a series of catastrophic upheavals that brought the Bronze Age to an end. ‘The long interlude’ outlines the period of Babylonian history spanning the centuries from the fall of the Kassite dynasty in the mid-twelfth century to the rise of the Neo-Babylonian kingdom in the late seventh. In the course of these centuries, a number of dynasties rose and fell in Babylonia, most of them weak and short-lived, reflecting the frequent ebb and occasional flow of Babylonia’s political and military fortunes. Environmental factors, new tribal groups, and the preservation of Babylonian cultural traditions are discussed.
Nebuchadnezzar’s Babylon
Authors: Bryce Trevor
Published: April 2017

Under Nebuchadnezzar, Babylon reached the height of its cultural, intellectual, and material splendour. Other cities of the kingdom also benefited greatly during his reign, especially in their material development. ‘Nebuchadnezzar’s Babylon’ re-creates Nebuchadnezzar’s royal capital using evidence from the archaeological record. It describes the layout of the city and the design and structure of Babylon’s palaces and temples built by Nebuchadnezzar and his father, Nabopolassar. The twelve-day New Year festival, which celebrated the arrival of spring and Marduk’s triumph over the forces of evil, is also explained. Finally, the ‘Hanging Gardens of Babylon’ are considered. Were they real or simply a fantasy?
Babylonia in later ages: (6th century bc to 2nd century ad)
Authors: Bryce Trevor
Published: April 2017

‘Babylon in later ages’ begins with Babylonia under Persian rule when Cyrus invaded in 539. He honoured, preserved, and maintained Babylon’s and Babylonia’s time-honoured traditions, cults, gods, and religious customs and sought to remove every trace of Nabonidus’s reign. Babylonia remained under Persian control until the year 330 when the final remnants of the Persian empire fell to Alexander the Great, who died in Babylon in 323. Then came the Seleucid empire under Seleukos, followed by control under the Parthians. Despite numerous changes in rule, the traditional elements of Babylonian religious life and some of the traditional elements of Babylonian intellectual life survived well into the first century ad.
5. Rigid plates of lithosphere
Authors: Molnar Peter
Published: April 2017

‘Rigid plates of lithosphere’ explains that because of the lithosphere’s strength, essentially rigid plates of lithosphere move with respect to one another across the surface of the Earth. Their rigidity allows their rates of relative motion and of their total displacements to be described by rotations about axes passing through the centre of the Earth, or poles of rotation. Global Positioning System (GPS) measurements corroborate the inferences drawn both from rates of seafloor spreading determined using magnetic anomalies and from directions of relative plate motion determined using orientations of transform faults and fault plane solutions of earthquakes along plate boundaries.
6. Tectonics of continents
Authors: Molnar Peter
Published: April 2017

‘Tectonics of continents’ shows that the much greater thickness of continental than oceanic crust makes continental and oceanic lithosphere behave differently. First, because crust is less dense and therefore buoyant, compared with the mantle, thick continental crust resists subduction into the asthenosphere. Slices of the upper part of the crust detach from underlying parts and become stacked atop one another to form a mountain range, like the Alps or Himalaya. Second, continental lithosphere is weaker than oceanic lithosphere and when put under stress it deforms. When the horizontal dimension of a region of continental crust is shortened, the crust thickens. Because of isostasy, thick buoyant crust stands higher than thin crust, creating mountain ranges. Various mountain ranges around the world are used to illustrate these principles.
1. ‘Slang’: the word
Authors: Green Jonathon
Published: April 2017

The exact etymology of the word ‘slang’ is unknown. ‘“Slang”: the word’ divides the possible origins and various theories behind the meaning of the term into three groups: (1) Romani; (2) Scandinavian; (3) variations on SE language or lingo or French langue. The shift in slang’s primary meaning of ‘vagrant jargon’ to ‘vulgar speech’ may be attributed to the long-established assumption that if slang is used by those outside social respectability it must be categorized as being outside the linguistic equivalent. The nature of slang—the marginal speech of marginal individuals—naturally makes its recording problematic, especially in its earliest period.
2. The laws of algebra
Authors: Higgins Peter M.
Published: April 2017

‘The laws of algebra’ explores the three laws that govern arithmetic operations and explains how these rules are extended so that they continue to be respected as we pass from one number system to a greater one that subsumes the former. The associative law of addition shows that that (a + b) + c = a + (b + c), and the associative law of multiplication is a(bc) = (ab)c. The distributive law tells us how to multiply out the brackets: a(b + c) = ab + ac. The commutative law of addition is a + b = b + a, a law that holds equally well for multiplication: ab = ba.
1. The ‘stuff’ of computing
Authors: Dasgupta Subrata
Published: April 2017

Computer science is the study of computers and their associated phenomena, but what are ‘computers’ and ‘associated phenomena’? ‘The “stuff” of computing’ explains that a computer is an automaton—an artefact designed to simulate and imitate certain kinds of human thought processes. The fundamental stuff of computer science is information and an alternative term for computing is ‘information processing’. This information can be ‘meaningless’ or ‘meaningful’. The unit of information in information theory is the bit (short for ‘binary digit’) and a byte consists of eight bits. But is information knowledge or data? Information, knowledge, and data can all be expressed by symbol structures and so computing is symbol processing.
5. Regular satellites in close up
Authors: Rothery David A.
Published: April 2017

Regular satellites of the giant planets have been described as ‘worlds in their own right’. ‘Regular satellites in close up’ describes the fascinating physical features and chemistry of Jupiter’s ‘Galilean moons’—Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto—before considering Saturn’s moons, Titan, Enceladus, and Iapetus, as well as Miranda and Ariel, the moons of Uranus, and Triton, a moon of Neptune. These moons have very distinct characteristics and some are widely regarded as better candidates than Mars for hosting extraterrestrial life. It concludes with a look towards future space missions to observe and examine these distant moons.
6. The moons of Mars
Authors: Rothery David A.
Published: April 2017

The moons of Mars—Phobos and Deimos—were first discovered in 1877 by the American Asaph Hall. ‘The moons of Mars: captured asteroids’ explains that Phobos and Deimos are small rocky bodies in synchronous rotation. They are far too small for their own gravity to pull their shapes into hydrostatic equilibrium. Their densities, just less than twice that of water, are too low for them to be solid rock. It is more likely that below the surface regolith, their interiors consist of chunks of loosely packed rubble. Spectroscopically, both Phobos and Deimos resemble asteroids that are believed to equate to a class of meteorite known as carbonaceous chondrites.
5. Technotopian or human-centred futures?
Authors: Gidley Jennifer M.
Published: April 2017

A vital question with regard to the future is how we deal with human futures. While high-tech futures are of interest to some futurists, many futures scholars are focused on the potential social, cultural, and environmental impacts of rapid unprecedented change, including exponential technological developments. ‘Technotopian or human-centred futures?’ describes two contrasting approaches to human futures and their inherent values and ethics: ‘human-centred futures’, which is humanitarian, philosophical, and ecological; and ‘technotopian futures’, which is dehumanizing, scientistic, and atomistic. It also considers the history of the struggle between these two approaches, which has been waged since at least the European Enlightenment, and still challenges us today.
Conclusion
Authors: Gidley Jennifer M.
Published: April 2017

Futures studies is the art and science of taking responsibility for the long-term consequences of our decisions and our actions today. The Conclusion proposes that once we know there is not one predictable future, we are freer to imagine alternative futures and work towards creating the futures we prefer—for self and humanity. The grand global challenges faced by humanity may seem insurmountable, but the sense of fear and hopelessness often comes from not knowing enough. By working collaboratively for positive change, whether in the area of climate change, alternative energy, humanitarian causes, health, economics, or transforming education, we can create a critical mass for creating positive futures.
4. Divine heroes: the epic tradition
Authors: Knott Kim
Published: April 2017

The story of Rama (or Ramayana) exists in thousands of written and oral versions. The most well known is the one attributed to Valmiki that was passed down to him by the sage Narada. ‘Divine heroes: the epic tradition’ summarizes the principle events of the account of the story of Rama as attributed to Valmiki. It is a study of kingship, but also of human roles and relationships. Do the many different versions and genres through which the story of Rama is communicated point to a more profound diversity—of Hindu traditions, communities, and practices, indeed of ‘hinduisms’, related loosely to one another by a narrative thread?
8. Crossing the black waters: Hinduism beyond India
Authors: Knott Kim
Published: April 2017

The location and stability of Hinduism has been challenged by the emigration of Hindus and the export of Hindu spirituality. ‘Crossing the black waters: Hinduism beyond India’ considers the extent to which Hinduism is an ethnic religion. Nearly all the world’s Hindus continue to live in India, where they represent about 78 per cent of nearly 1.3 billion people, and Nepal, where Hinduism is the state religion. There are Hindu communities outside India and Nepal, and as they have grown wealthier they have been able to build their own temples. Is Hinduism an ethnic religion or a universalizing religion with a message for all, regardless of birth and location?
5. The shaping of modern Sikhism
Authors: Nesbitt Eleanor
Published: April 2017

Contemporary Sikhism was formed by the views of a group of influential intellectuals and political activists. The intellectuals were the 18th-century Tat (pure) Khalsa, and they presented the Sikh teachings and practices of their own and previous generations as sharply differentiated from Hinduism. ‘The shaping of modern Sikhism’ tells the story of the Tat Khalsa in the context of 19th- and 20th-century Punjab, a period remembered for competing Sikh reformist movements and a time when key features of Sikhism took their current form, such as the Golden Temple and a distinctive Sikh marriage rite. The impact of British rule, the Akali movement, and 1947 Partition are also described.
2. The old regime and the causes of the Revolution (1876–1911)
Authors: Knight Alan
Published: April 2017

‘The old regime and the causes of the Revolution’ outlines the historical backdrop to the Revolution. Porfirio Díaz’s rule (1876–1911) proved crucial in the Revolution’s gestation. The Porfirian regime was strikingly successful: railway mileage increased from virtually none to 15,000; foreign direct investment grew more than thirty-fold; exports quadrupled; and GNP nearly tripled. However, Porfirian development did have a decisive—and negative—effect on Mexican (especially rural) society. Two related trends were crucial: the strengthening of the state and the commercialization of agriculture. The rise of liberal opposition in the run-up to the 1910 presidential election took the regime by surprise and provided the opening act of the Revolution.
2. How drugs work
Authors: Iversen Les
Published: April 2017

‘How drugs work’ outlines the basic mechanisms of pharmacology. Drugs are chemicals that can be naturally occurring or man-made, and which can be administered in a variety of ways. They can act on receptors—often highly specific proteins in cells which can up-regulate or down-regulate processes—or on other targets, such as DNA or enzymes. The molecular action of drugs can be investigated in a lab, but the effects on the whole organism are more important. Effective doses need to be determined, taking into account metabolic rates, drug interactions, and side effects. Prolonged drug use can cause tolerance and substance addiction.
2. Grasping light
Authors: Cottrell Geoff
Published: April 2017

‘Grasping light’ begins by explaining the workings of the human eye, which collects light from all directions. It goes on to introduce the main features of light, describing its dual personality: sometimes it behaves like a wave, and sometimes like a particle—a photon. Three models of light are then considered: geometrical optics, wave optics, and photon optics. Two vitally important attributes of telescopes are the light collection area and the diffraction-limited angular resolution. Lenses and mirrors are used to focus the collected light to create an image. An eyepiece is also required to see the image and the attribute of magnification is also explained.
4. Church
Authors: Balserak Jon
Published: April 2017

Calvinists believe Adam and Eve were the first church, established by God following their fall into sin in the Garden of Eden. Since that beginning, God has always maintained his church, though it has been attacked relentlessly by the world and the devil and, at various points in history, reduced to small groups of believers, usually identified as the ‘remnant’. ‘Church’ outlines the different church denominations that align themselves with Calvinism, such as Presbyterians and Anglicans, and the characteristics and purpose of the Calvinist church. Compared to Roman Catholic practices, Calvinists provide a simpler liturgy that involves preaching, singing, praying, and the celebrating of the two sacraments of Baptism and the Lord’s Supper.
7. Humanity and new humanity
Authors: Balserak Jon
Published: April 2017

Calvinism teaches that all human beings possess evil desires, which are suppressed through domesticating influences such as laws and social norms, and unleashed when these influences are removed. ‘Humanity and new humanity’ explains that the idea of original sin—the result of the fall of Adam and Eve—has deeply impacted the Reformed tradition. Although Calvinists agree that Adam’s sin affected all his descendants, they explain the transmission of his sin in different ways. Both the restraining of sin and the escape from enslavement to sin are things Calvinists explain by pointing to the idea of grace. Having become a Christian, the convert lives a new life in covenant relationship with God where prayer is essential.
5. Risky choices
Authors: Baddeley Michelle
Published: April 2017

When we decide to cross the road, buy a lottery ticket, or invest our money, the decision involves risk and uncertainty. ‘Risky choices’ looks at how economists usually think of risk as quantifiable—in the form of expected utility theory—but behavioural economists challenge this understanding of risk. Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky developed prospect theory, which could incorporate the anomalous behaviour identified by the Allais and Ellsberg Paradoxes. They argued that any decision-making theory should be able to explain the certainty, reflection, and isolation effects. Alternatives to prospect theory include Richard Thaler’s mental accounting model and the regret theory of Graham Loomes and Robert Sugden.
3. Historical views of infinity
Authors: Stewart Ian
Published: April 2017

‘Historical views of infinity’ focuses on historical attitudes to infinity in philosophy, religion, and mathematics, including Zeno’s famous paradoxes. Infinity is not a thing, but a concept, related to the default workings of the human mind. Zeno’s paradoxes appear to be about physical reality, but they mainly address how we think about space, time, and motion. A central (but possibly dated) contribution was Aristotle’s distinction between actual and potential infinity. Theologians, from Origen to Aquinas, sharpened the debate, and philosophers such as Immanuel Kant took up the challenge. Mathematicians made radical advances, often against resistance from philosophers.
7. Counting infinity
Authors: Stewart Ian
Published: April 2017

‘Counting infinity’ returns to the mathematics of infinity, discussing Cantor’s remarkable theory of how to count infinite sets, and the discovery that there are different sizes of infinity. For example, the set of all integers is infinite, and the set of all real numbers (infinite decimals) is infinite, but these infinities are fundamentally different, and there are more real numbers than integers. The ‘numbers’ here are called transfinite cardinals. For comparison, another way to assign numbers to infinite sets is mentioned, by placing them in order, leading to transfinite ordinals. It ends by asking whether the old philosophical distinction between actual and potential infinity is still relevant to modern mathematics, and examining the meaning of mathematical existence.
2. The fundamentals
Authors: Patrick Graham
Published: April 2017

‘The fundamentals’ investigates why the element carbon is so suited for the generation of so many compounds. Carbon has atomic number six, meaning it has six protons in its nucleus and six electrons around the nucleus, four of which are valence electrons held in the outer shell. Carbon achieves a stable, full outer shell of electrons by sharing electrons with other elements and other carbon atoms to form covalent bonds. The carbon–carbon bonds are one of the principle reasons why so many organic molecules are possible, including linear chains, branched chains, and rings. The naming of compounds and identification of structures is also explained along with stereochemistry, functional groups, and intermolecular and intramolecular interactions.
1. A brief history
Authors: Hand David J.
Published: April 2017

‘A brief history’ shows that measurement is at least as old as civilization. Different systems and different units of measurement were developed in different places, with the physical size of natural biological objects frequently being used as a basic unit. The key drivers for a uniform measurement system were trade, the industrial revolution, and scientific advance. In 1960 the Système International d’Units (SI units) was introduced, consisting of seven basic units: length (metre), mass (kilogram), time (second), electric current (ampere), temperature (degree kelvin), quantity of substance (mole), and luminous intensity (candela). Another twenty-two named units were defined as powers and combinations of these basic seven.
7. Measurement and understanding
Authors: Hand David J.
Published: April 2017

While the quest for increased accuracy may be driven by the needs of applications, the effort to achieve accuracy of measurement itself stimulates other developments, in terms of measuring instruments and systems, and in terms of the understanding of the very nature of measurement. ‘Measurement and understanding’ explains that there are two fundamental aspects to measurement accuracy: precision (how much repeated measurements fluctuate about a central value) and bias (any systematic departure from the underlying true value, affecting all repeated measurements). It also discusses measurement and statistics and how representational measurement leads to some very deep and powerful tools for constructing models and theories about how the world works.
Reasoning
Authors: Passingham Richard
Published: April 2017

Why do different intellectual abilities tend to cluster together? Do we think in language? Why are human beings so intelligent? ‘Reasoning’ considers these questions by looking at the processes involved in non-verbal problem solving, spatial relations, thought, and language. Fluid reasoning, needed for IQ tests, depends on the dorsal executive system. Reasoning with verbal material involves the semantic system and also engages the parietal cortex. One reason for human intelligence is that humans are taught in a language, meaning that they inherit knowledge and understanding cumulatively. This is possible because of the expansion of non-primary areas in the human brain: the language areas, semantic system, and dorsal executive system, and in the prefrontal cortex.
2. The imperial vision
Authors: Rady Martyn
Published: April 2017

‘The imperial vision: 11th to 16th century’ describes the efforts of key Habsburgs—such as Rudolf, Rudolf IV, Frederick III, and Maximilian—to expand their empire, sometimes under false pretences. By forging important documents, Rudolf IV gave his predecessors a pedigree that went back to classical Rome. Amplified by Frederick III and Maximilian I, an intertwined imperial and dynastic mystique made it hard to conceive of any other dynasty except the Habsburgs holding the office of emperor. The fight between Catholicism and Lutheranism under the rule of Charles V and the defence of Europe against the Turks are also described.
3. From antiquity to the Middle Ages
Authors: Sarris Peter
Published: April 2017

‘From antiquity to the Middle Ages’ describes the key challenges to Roman power in the east and west. The emergence of the post-Roman successor kingdoms in the 5th century constituted a direct challenge to the authority of the remaining Roman Emperor in Constantinople. Emperor Justinian’s reforms encompassed religion, the law, provincial administration, fiscal policy, and imperial ideology, but the early 6th century also saw the revival of warfare between the East Roman and Persian Empires. By Justinian’s death in 565, the Byzantine Empire was larger, but fragile and fiscally unstable. The reign of Heraclius and his holy war are described along with the early 7th-century Arab conquests that effectively destroyed the ancient world.
6. Text, image, space, and spirit
Authors: Sarris Peter
Published: April 2017

‘Text, image, space, and spirit’ considers the culture, literature, art, architecture, philosophy, and religion of the Byzantium Empire. Byzantine imperial ideology was predicated upon the concept of the absolute historical continuity of the Roman state. This profoundly conservative ideological impulse informed a broader tendency towards conservatism in Byzantine literary culture, which was a legacy from antiquity. The strongly conservative inflection to Byzantine culture was further intensified by the influence of the Church and also strongly impacted on art. However, there was much greater creativity than has often been supposed. The relationship between innovation and necessity is at its clearest with respect to Byzantine architectural and artistic development.
2. The arc of civilianization
Authors: Fidell Eugene R.
Published: April 2017

Since World War II, there has been an accelerating trend toward the assimilation of military and civilian legal systems, with military justice increasingly approximating civilian criminal justice. The trend has been resisted in some quarters, but now has enough momentum that it will continue—but how far? ‘The arc of civilianization’ outlines the similarities and disparities between military and civilian legal systems in different countries; explains the Uniform Code of Military Justice and the Manual for Courts-Martial; and shows how civilianization has occurred on multiple levels. The rule-making process itself usually involves civilian officials and in some countries the senior judge in a court-martial may not be a uniformed officer.
10. What about Guantánamo?
Authors: Fidell Eugene R.
Published: April 2017

‘What about Guantánamo?’ considers military commissions, which are a category of military tribunal. They are not courts-martial because they are not used to prosecute offenses committed by US military personnel. Traditionally, they have been used in three situations: where martial law has been declared, in occupied areas, and where permitted by the law of war. Hundreds of military commissions were conducted during and after the Civil War, and again after World War II to prosecute war criminals. They were revived after 9/11 by President George W. Bush to prosecute unlawful enemy combatants, with hundreds of captives transported from Afghanistan and other places to Guantánamo Bay, Cuba, where the vast majority were interrogated and simply imprisoned.
The challenges of citizenship, 1848–1920
Authors: Ware Susan
Published: April 2017

‘The challenges of citizenship, 1848–1920’ outlines the pressing issues of American life from the Civil War through to World War I. The activism of women such as Ida Wells-Barnet describes the struggle for African Americans to find political and economic justice after emancipation. Jim Crow segregation and hardening racial attitudes made free life for African Americans very difficult. The Civil War also acted as an important spur to industrialization. Immigration and female wage labor was central to this surge. The growth of higher education was an important precondition for women's new public engagement. The final push for suffrage, which was part of the larger Progressive era reform movement, is also described.
The world of eugenics
Authors: Levine Philippa
Published: April 2017

Early in the twentieth century, a powerful union of science and social policy emerged in countries across the world. Eugenics was a movement committed to using the principles of heredity and of statistics to encourage healthy and discourage unhealthy reproduction. Throughout the twentieth century, but especially in the earlier decades, eugenics played a significant role in shaping government policy. ‘The world of eugenics’ outlines the links between eugenics and social reform and the differences between positive and negative eugenics. It discusses how Nazism and eugenics became so closely connected; the rise of eugenics in science and culture worldwide; the approach to eugenics by different religions; and finally the forms of resistance to eugenics.
Eugenic intelligence
Authors: Levine Philippa
Published: April 2017

Nothing was more important for eugenicists than intelligence. A means to measure intelligence and identify feeble-mindedness was central to the policies that eugenics promoted. ‘Eugenic intelligence’ explains the definition and classification of feeble-mindedness that resulted in the segregation and incarceration of thousands of people. It outlines the origins of intelligence testing with French psychologists Alfred Binet and Théodore Simon in 1905 and the mass application of intelligence testing that informed the social policies of the early twentieth century. It also explores the belief that feeble-mindedness was the actual cause of undesirable social behaviors; explains the links between race and intelligence; and discusses the critics who rejected the principles behind intelligence testing and disavowed a purely hereditary understanding of intelligence.
Eugenic reproduction
Authors: Levine Philippa
Published: April 2017

Driven by the dream of improving humanity down the generations, the management of reproduction was the core activity for which eugenicists strived. Although they had many different visions, eugenicists all agreed that their central task was to create for the future a fitter world through healthier reproduction. ‘Eugenic reproduction’ outlines the policies employed worldwide to further this aim: marriage laws; encouraging reproduction through incentives designed to secure healthy and stable population growth among the fit; sex education to inspire responsible reproduction; artificial insemination; birth control; abortion; euthanasia; and sterilization. Sterilization remains the most widely recognized of negative eugenic measures. It was most notably implemented in the United States, Germany, and Scandinavia.
Eugenics after 1945
Authors: Levine Philippa
Published: April 2017

‘Eugenics after 1945’ clearly shows that the Nuremburg trials did not spell the end of eugenics, though they did tarnish its reputation considerably. Eugenic policies were simply renamed. The urge to improve, to direct, and to control human reproduction in an age of genetic expertise is unlikely to see eugenic desires and aims dissipate. Eugenics remains a movement yielding a variety of views and positions, many of them truly benevolent in intention if not always in application. The emphasis in modern eugenic practice is on individual choice and consumer preference. Proponents of the new reprogenetics hail the prospect of individuals choosing to enhance and improve their offspring, but what about those without the means to participate?
9. Worldwide effects and forecasting
Authors: Dunlop Storm
Published: April 2017

Observing the weather for purposes of forecasting is a worldwide enterprise. Routine measurements are made by national agencies in every country of the globe. These observations and their distribution are handled by international agreement and the World Meteorological Organization, a specialized agency of the United Nations. It has become obvious that events in one part of the world may have a great effect on weather experienced in distant regions. ‘Worldwide effects and forecasting’ considers these long-distance relationships between various atmospheric conditions—teleconnections—the most famous being El Niño. It also looks at the potential solar influence on Earth’s weather, as well as how chaos theory is used in ensemble forecasting.
5. Blood pressure and blood flow
Authors: Cooper Chris
Published: April 2017

The heart is the organ that pumps blood around the body. If the heart stops functioning, blood does not flow. The driving force for this flow is the pressure difference between the arterial blood leaving the heart and the returning venous blood. ‘Blood pressure and blood flow’ first considers how blood pressure is measured and how blood pressure can affect health. High blood pressure is called hypertension and low blood pressure hypotension. Chronic hypertension has serious long-term adverse health consequences, but can be treated with improved lifestyle choices and a range of medicines, including anti-hypertensive drugs, beta blockers, and ACE inhibitor drugs. The different molecules affecting blood flow are also considered.
Black holes and spin-offs
Authors: Blundell Katherine
Published: April 2017

Black holes influence and interact with their surroundings. Plasma lobes exhibited by some active galaxies are created by jets that are squirted out from the immediate surroundings of a black hole, outside the event horizon. When the jets impinge on the intergalactic medium, shock waves form within which spectacular particle acceleration occurs, and the energized plasma which originated from near the black hole, billows up and flows out of the immediate shock region. As the plasma expands, it imparts enormous quantities of energy to the intergalactic medium. ‘Black holes and spin-offs’ describes the powerful luminosity of quasars, their synchrotron radiation, and the much smaller microquasars.
Introduction
Authors: Goswami Usha
Published: April 2017

The ‘Introduction’ looks at recent developments in child psychology such as new techniques in brain imaging and genetics, and research into cognitive development and social/emotional development. The latter is intrinsically linked to cognitive growth. A key factor for infant development is the quality and quantity of language to which the child is exposed to. A child is an active learner. If children witness early learning environments at home and away from the home that are stable, responsively contingent and linguistically rich, then the brain will have the best opportunity for optimal development.
Introduction: the multiple dimensions of peace
Authors: Richmond Oliver P.
Published: April 2017

The ‘Introduction’ gives a brief historical sketch of the development of the notion of peace. The story of peace is as old as that of war. Historically, peace is seen as an absence of violence and a fleeting fragile state, with war seen as the natural state of humanity. This view should be challenged as much of history has been relatively peaceful and orderly. Peace can be sought domestically within the state, internationally via global institutions, or transnationally covering both domestic and international arenas. Peace may be either public or private. The practice and study of peace has made many advances throughout history yet the story of peace is rarely told.
4. The victors’ peace in history
Authors: Richmond Oliver P.
Published: April 2017

‘The victors’ peace in history’ examines the notion that peace comes from a military victory and is dominated by the victor in a conflict. This is the oldest understanding of the concept of peace. It can be unjust and coercive, but it may be orderly. It may also be inherently unstable. The victor’s peace framework has many flaws. It is subject to the issue of territorial and strategic over-extension and the inability to control the conquered. History has taught us that local consent and legitimacy is necessary for any victor’s peace to be long-lasting and stable.
7. The civil peace
Authors: Richmond Oliver P.
Published: April 2017

‘The civil peace’ describes a type of peace that is based on the idea that every person in society has the ability to mobilize for peace from a number of different perspectives which could be disarmament, international cooperation, or an aversion to violence, discrimination, or oppression. This peace can arise from localized organizations and their campaigns. It develops as these organizations, communities, and political actors merge around the need for social justice. This sort of peace is associated with civil campaigns against slavery, for the vote, for welfare, disarmament, or for enfranchisement of women. Civil peace has had a significant impact on the international scene.
5. Absurdism, protest, and commitment
Authors: Shepherd-Barr Kirsten E.
Published: April 2017

The decades 1960–80 witnessed a seismic shift in modern drama. The rage that came to define, and fuel, much of the drama in the 1960s and 1970s is directed at the audience. ‘Absurdism, protest, and commitment’ shows it is a post-war rage stemming from many sources: the Vietnam War, the Cold War, a feeling of betrayal by government and politicians, the Civil Rights Movement, Black Power, gay rights, feminism, the growing gap between rich and poor, and ethnic oppression. It is all about denying the audience what it expects of a play, provoking it out of real or perceived complacency, startling, and offending it. The plays of Pinter, Shepard, Beckett, Stoppard, Friel, and Fugard are discussed.
6. Testimony
Authors: Nagel Jennifer
Published: April 2017

Does listening to other people—or reading what they have written—supply us with knowledge in a unique or distinctive way? Do we need special reasons to trust people in order to gain knowledge from them? Some philosophers argue that testimony never actually provides knowledge. At the other extreme, some philosophers argue that testimony provides knowledge, and in a distinctive way. In this view, testimony is a special channel for receiving knowledge, a channel with the same basic status as sensory perception and reasoning. ‘Testimony’ explores both extremes, as well as the middle ground of reductionism, to identify the factors that matter most to how we absorb what people say.
Complex physical systems (CPS)
Authors: Holland John H.
Published: April 2017

‘Complex physical systems’ considers the characteristics of complex physical systems (CPS), which are often geometric (specifically, lattice-like) arrays of elements, in which interactions typically depend only on effects propagated from nearest neighbors. The elements of a CPS follow fixed physical laws, usually expressed by differential equations—Newton’s laws of gravity and Maxwell’s laws of electromagnetism are cases in point. Neither the laws nor the elements change over time; only the positions of the elements change. CPS show several properties: self-organized criticality, self-similarity, scaling, and power laws. Examples of these properties—such as, snowflake curves, fractals, networks, dynamics, and symmetry-breaking—are discussed.
1. Introduction
Authors: Marenbon John
Published: April 2017

For many, Thomas Aquinas is almost a synonym for medieval philosophy, locating it in Western Europe and principally from the early 13th to the mid-14th century. Medieval philosophy is also seen as a monolithic Church doctrine. The Introduction attempts to clarify three common misconceptions concerning medieval philosophy. First, medieval philosophy was practised all over the world. Second, considering the continuity of traditions, medieval philosophy can be seen to stretch from ad 200 to 1700. Finally, medieval philosophy is not theology in disguise. The four main branches of medieval philosophy are Latin Christian philosophy, as practised throughout Western Europe; Greek Christian philosophy, as developed in the Byzantine Empire; Arabic philosophy; and Jewish philosophy.
1. Puzzles
Authors: Sousa Ronald de
Published: April 2017

What is love? There are numerous synonyms each with their own nuance—philia, storge, agape, eros—but no single approach will suffice to make sense of it. We need to look at love from many sides. Eros is typically associated with intense sexual attraction and it is this that has inspired a greater number of poems, music, works of art—and crimes—than any other human condition. ‘Puzzles’ considers several questions in an attempt to comprehend this ‘condition’ that shapes and governs thoughts, desires, emotions, and behaviours: What can we love? How subjective is love? Do we love for reasons? Is love blind? Is love freedom, or bondage? Does love mar the purity of sex?
2. Epic
Authors: Allen William
Published: April 2017

Epic was a prestigious but also malleable and enduring ancient literary form. ‘Epic’ shows that in societies where warfare was endemic, a genre which both celebrated and explored such concepts as military heroism, loyalty, and masculinity would never lose its relevance or popularity. From Homer's Iliad and Odyssey— tales of the Trojan War and Odysseus' return to Ithaca — to Appollonius' Argonautica, Ennius' Annals, and Virgil's Aeneid, the classical epic settings of the mythical world of gods and heroes are described. The didactic epic, whose aim was to instruct the reader in subjects as varied as farming, hunting, philosophy, and science, is also considered.
Ideas
Authors: Dobson Andrew
Published: April 2017

‘Ideas’ explains the key ideas driving environmental politics. It begins with The Limits to Growth (1972) that questioned the long-term future of the Earth as a life-support system for humans. The concepts of ecological modernization, moral extensionism, ethics and the environment, deep ecology, and anthropocentrism are considered. It goes on to explain the ideology of ecologism and how it can be distinguished from conservatism, liberalism, socialism, feminism, and environmentalism. A central belief of ecologism is that aggregate growth must be reduced, and that this is very unlikely to be achieved by efficiency gains alone. The other core belief turns on the question of why (if at all) we should value the non-human natural world.
Mythology and history
Authors: Ansari Ali M.
Published: April 2017

‘Mythology and history’ describes the combined mythological and historical narratives that have had a powerful influence on contemporary Iranian identity. The mythological dynasties and stories were first written down in the 10th century by Abul Qasem Ferdowsi, in his epic poem Shahnameh, which has endured through the Muslim conquest and European Enlightenment due to its ethical function. Real historical figures, including Khosrow I and the Sasanian dynasty, are also described. The legacy of the ancient world for modern Iran can be discerned in four distinct areas: language; religion; and history; all of which contributed to the fourth: a distinct culture and ethical world view, based on an idea of justice.
3. From Stonehenge to skyscrapers
Authors: Blockley David
Published: April 2017

‘From Stonehenge to skyscrapers’ considers the history of structure as part of human progression. From the ancient structures of Stonehenge and the Egyptian pyramids through to the Renaissance, and from the early 18th century to the present day, it traces the emergence of the master mason and the increasingly separate roles of the architect and the engineer. From the Renaissance onwards, specialisms grew through new scientific knowledge, new materials, and new demands for structures. The engineering profession developed into a science-based capability to create some very large and breathtaking structures. But architects and engineers can never be professionally disassociated; they must and do work together to build buildings.
6. Such quantities of sand
Authors: Hall Christopher
Published: April 2017

‘Such quantities of sand’ looks at sustainability and considers three features of the global materials system that need fixing: carbon dioxide emissions, world energy supply, and finite material resources. All societies, however diverse, are comprehensively and universally dependent on material artefacts. The scale of global material flows is enormous, and now greater than for all of human history. In a finite world, there are limits and so it is wise, on some timescale, to favour a circular economy of closed systems (repair, re-use, recycle) over open systems (extract, make, use, discard). Whatever else we do, it helps if we reduce the rate of flow of materials through the economy (use less, use longer).
Changing perspectives
Authors: Luck Martin
Published: April 2017

It is now more realistic to see hormones as a collection of biologically active chemicals, each of which just happens to cause one cell to change its behaviour in response to another, rather than individually identifiable chemical signals, secreted in one place in the body and acting in another. The endocrine system and hormones have evolved to become extremely complex. ‘Changing perspectives’ shows that there are abundant examples of how contemporary understanding of hormones has been exploited to detect, prevent, treat, and cure disease. Hormones have also been used to improve human and animal performance, and, in the case of sport, sometimes abused. Future hormone research and potential future applications may challenge our ethical views.
Genes of small effect
Authors: Slack Jonathan
Published: April 2017

‘Genes of small effect’ considers unidentified genes whose variants collectively affect some characteristic of interest. Many aspects of living organisms depend not on the action of a few genes, but on the actions of many, each having a small effect on the overall characteristic. This assumption has been used successfully to inform the breeding of agricultural animals and plants. But some of the concepts have also been very controversial when applied to human beings. The heritability—the proportion of the variance in a population attributable to genetic variation—of human height, serious mental illness, and IQ is considered along with results from genome wide association studies.
Microbial diversity
Authors: Money Nicholas P.
Published: April 2017

‘Microbial diversity’ considers the vast array of microorganisms—the smallest forms of life—which exist everywhere. The three primary groups of microorganisms are bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes. Bacteria and archaea are prokaryotes with their genetic material held in a single chromosome. In eukaryotes, most of the genome is held in multiple chromosomes. Over 11,000 species of bacteria have been identified using microscopic identification of cell shape and metabolic activity, Gram-staining techniques, and genetic identification of RNA and DNA sequences. There are 500 named species of archaea, divided into two phyla: the euryarchaeota and the crenarchaeota. There are eight supergroupings of eukaryotes, all of them include single-celled organisms, and five are entirely microbial.
How microbes operate
Authors: Money Nicholas P.
Published: April 2017

‘How microbes operate’ considers the mechanisms that sustain prokaryotic and eukaryotic microorganisms. All active cells must be supplied with water and an energy source. Absorption of water is essential, even in extremely dry or salty habitats, because the enzymes that catalyse biochemical reactions in cells do not work unless they are hydrated. Sunlight powers the metabolism of photosynthetic microbes and others glean chemical energy from a plenitude of terrestrial sources. Extremes in temperature, acidity, and other environmental variables place additional constraints upon microbial life, but bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotic microorganisms thrive in most places where liquid water is available.
Microbial ecology and evolution
Authors: Money Nicholas P.
Published: April 2017

Many ecosystems are wholly microbial and the activities of microorganisms provide the biochemical foundation for plant and animal life. ‘Microbial ecology and evolution’ describes how plants depend upon the complex redox reactions of microbes that fertilize the soil by fixing nitrogen, converting nitrites to nitrates, enhancing the availability of phosphorus and trace elements, and recycling organic matter. Eukaryotic microorganisms are similarly plentiful and essential for the sustenance of plants and animals. Bacteria, archaea, and single-celled eukaryotes are the masters of the marine environment, harnessing the energy that supports complex ecological interactions between aquatic animals. Bacteria and archaea form 90% of the ocean biomass and surface waters are filled with eukaryotic algae.