bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Energetic analysis of the relevance of WAF preparations to field mixing conditions
Authors: Whittlesey Robert W. , Morse Timothy L. , Morrison Ann Michelle
Published: December 2017

Water accommodated fractions (WAFs) are standard laboratory preparations used in toxicity testing to simulate oil exposure in the water column. A traditional WAF is commonly created by mixing water with oil in an aspirator bottle using a stir bar without a vortex (i.e., low energy WAF or LEWAF). However, following the Deepwater Horizon accident, a new “High-Energy Water Accommodated Fraction” (HEWAF) was developed to represent the increased mixing energy from breaking waves. A HEWAF is generated using a commercial food blender to mix an oil and water solution, and the resulting chemical exposure from HEWAFs can be significantly different from the exposure resulting from LEWAF preparations. Consequently, assessment of the relevance of HEWAF toxicity test preparations to surface conditions in the field requires understanding how the energetics of the HEWAF preparation compare to the energetics in the ocean in general, and to the oil spill to which the test data are being applied. This study focused on the use of the HEWAF method used on the Deepwater Horizon oil spill. We measured the mixing intensity, or turbulent dissipation rate, generated in HEWAF and LEWAF preparations and compared the results to published turbulent dissipation rates for a variety of oceanic locations and conditions. The results indicate that HEWAFs subject the oil and water mixtures to a mixing intensity that is greater than 60,000 times more intense than the mixing intensity that has been recorded from breaking waves, and, on the basis of mixing intensity alone, even LEWAF preparations are over 7 times stronger than a breaking wave. Understanding the relevance of HEWAFs to environmental conditions is essential to ensure appropriate application of laboratory toxicity tests of oil exposure.
Development of a Systematic Method for Defining the Stages of Weathering for Crude Oils Released into the Environment
Authors: Cook Linda , Benton Laurie , Brown John , Boehm Paul
Published: December 2017

Weathered oil is a term that is often used without communicating the degree of weathering and components that still remain. The subjective use of vague and often inaccurate weathering terms (i.e., lightly, moderately, heavily, or extensively weathered) often leads to misperceptions or misinformation about potential persistence and potential toxicity of oil residues observed in the environment. A semi-quantitative approach is needed for defining the stages of weathering, without adjectives, for oil released into the environment. MC252 oil from the Deepwater Horizon accident was evaluated to develop such an approach. The weathering of MC252 oil started immediately after release; during its 1,500 meter ascent to the sea surface most of the water soluble components partitioned into the water column. Once on the sea surface, the oil continued to weather via evaporation, dissolution, photo-degradation, and biodegradation. After reaching the shoreline, weathering continued and biodegradation became more pronounced. Extensively weathered and biodegraded MC252 oil samples have been collected on the shoreline and in some cases show a complete loss of resolved n-alkanes and near complete loss of PAH components, while still maintaining identifiable MC252 characteristics. At the same time that compounds have been lost due to degradation, others (e.g., some oxygenated compounds) have been formed as part of the weathering processes. The hydrocarbon chemistry data associated with more than 800 weathered MC252 oil samples were evaluated and quantitative metrics were developed to aid in defining the weathering stages. Sample GC/FID chromatograms were digitized and multiple chromatographic features (e.g., peak height to UCM height) were captured quantitatively. Together, the chemistry and chromatograms were analyzed to define seven (7) stages of weathering providing researchers with an objective means of discussing the weathering for oil after its release to the environment.
Evaluating Oil Spill Risks through Stochastic and Deterministic Trajectory Modeling
Authors:   Chevron ETC
Published: December 2017

Oil spill risks associated with oil and gas exploration and production are changing as industry moves to deeper water. Computer-based modeling is typically used to quantify the fate and trajectory of sub sea releases (e.g., well blowouts). Stochastic modeling has become common as computational resources have grown, allowing for a large number of combinations of met ocean parameters to be evaluated. Simulating many potential realizations of a single discharge event allows for the calculation of spatially varying probabilities of oiling due to natural variability in the prevailing wind and current, but this needs to be treated separately from the likelihood of the sub sea release occurring to appropriately evaluate the oil spill risks of the offshore activity. Some industry guidance explicitly recognizes that the likelihood of a discharge event occurring is independent of the natural variability of the environmental setting and correctly treat these items as statistically independent; however, this distinction is sometimes lost in practice. In these instances, the resulting oil spill risk assessments may inadvertently be based on highly improbable combinations of release conditions and met ocean forcing.

A transparent and robust risk-based oil spill risk assessment needs to explicitly communicate the differences between the likelihood of a release event occurring and the probabilities of the potential trajectories that could result under different combinations of met ocean parameters. This poster uses a hypothetical deepwater blowout to illustrate how stochastic and deterministic modeling can be combined to characterize the probability distribution associated with the (variable) potential consequence of a discharge event. The proposed modeling strategy allows for the set of trajectories generated by stochastic modeling to be ranked based on various metrics of interest (e.g., volume of water column swept, area of surface slick, or volume of oil ashore) so the distribution of potential consequence can be evaluated. Following recently industry guidance (IPECA-OGP), it is suggested that the most probably deterministic trajectory be paired with statistical analysis, although the strategy allows for an identifiable amount of conservatism to be incorporated into the analyses by selecting one or more other trajectories for detailed impacts assessment.
Development of the Cold Weather Training Courses
Authors: Fraser-Smith Kate , Nevin Andrew
Published: December 2017

With the increasing interest to drill in extreme cold environments and the existing drilling and production of oil in extreme cold weather locations, the extent of cold regions operations are expected to increase. OSRL tasked its Cold Weather Working Group to assess and build on its capability to maintain a suitable level of competence to deliver the response services required by its members.

The subsequent action was the design and delivery of a five day cold weather Standard Course and Continuation Course to OSRL staff, Global Response Network (GRN) members and industry. The courses were designed using the cold weather knowledge and experience that OSRL staff gained through their secondments in Sakhalin, Kazakhstan and Alaska. GRN members, in particular Eastern Canada Response Centre (ECRC) and Alaska Clean Seas (ACS), were also instrumental in the design and delivery of the courses.

The paper will seek to present how knowledge collaboration and impartation has been integrated throughout the full training cycle which includes the preparation phase of the courses, the delivery phase in Canada with the delegates from GRN members and industry, and the evaluation phase with a view for future development courses. Much research has been conducted on theory and methods of response to oil spills in extreme cold weather environments and the challenges that can arise such as the safety elements of working on ice and in remote locations.

In conclusion, the paper will highlight the elements of the Standard and Continuation Courses that are implemented into the training cycle in order to increase, and thereafter, maintain OSRL's competence and industry's preparedness.
Refractive index matched visualization and particle image velocimetry measurements of initial breakup of turbulent oil jet
Authors: Xue Xinzhi , Katz Joseph
Published: December 2017

Subsurface oil well blowouts create buoyant, immiscible jets and plumes. Turbulent breaks jets into oil droplets with sizes ranging from several millimeters to sub-microns. The fate of oil droplets largely depends on their sizes. The physics of single thread of fluid breaks into several smaller droplets in low Reynolds number and Ohnesorge number can be well explained by Plateau-Rayleigh instability. However, when Reynolds number and Ohnesorge number are high, namely the atomization regime, the physics of high-speed jet fragments into a wide range of droplets is not well understood. Because of the opaque nature of crude oil, it is difficult to visualize and optically quantify the process of initial jet breakup and droplet generation within the zone of flow establishment (less than 10 nozzle diameters downstream). In order to overcome this issue, in this experimental study, two immiscible fluids (silicone oil, 64% v/v sugar water solution) with a matching index of refraction of nD=1.4015 are used as surrogates of crude oil and seawater. High speed visualization and particle image velocimetry (PIV) are implemented to study vertical turbulent oil jets of varying Reynolds and Ohnesorge numbers, all falling in the atomization range. The refractive index match enables light to pass through the test sample region with little refraction, thus providing undistorted images for flow visualization and quantitative measurements. The kinematic viscosity ratio voil/vaq = 5.64, density ratio ρoil/ρaq = 0.83, and interfacial tension σ = 28.8 mN/m between silicone oil and sugar water solution are closely matched with those of crude oil and seawater. Entrainment of the aqueous phase by the high speed oil jet can be clearly shown by PIV. Using fluorescent dye in the oil phase, jet fragmentation morphology can be captured simultaneously with PIV images.
The Direct Quantitative Measurement of In-Situ Burn (ISB) Rate and Efficiency
Authors: Panetta Paul D. , Byrne Richard , Du Hualong
Published: December 2017

In-situ burning (ISB) is an important tool to remove oil from the environment. During ISB, it is important to know the volume reduction of oil for the overall accounting of the spilled oil, as a metric for operational decisions, and to account for the ISB portion of the oil budget. The burn rate depends on the type of oil, degree of emulsification and weathering, estimated thickness, weather conditions, and size of the burn area. Furthermore, each spill has a unique physical environment and oil properties that affect burn efficiency and rate. The volume of oil consumed during ISB is typically computed using a manual, coarse, time integration of the instantaneous burn area based on visual observations and a characteristic burn rate. The area is typically estimated in the field using known boom geometry and visual inspection of the fire-water interface, and recorded manually.

We have developed methods to measure the instantaneous consumption of burning oil and thus the oil burn rate by integrating direct measurements of thickness using acoustics sensors in the water under the slick with direct measurements of the area of the burning oil using infrared and visible light images from cameras above the burning oil. Data were collected during the burning of several oils and petroleum products including ANS, rock, diesel, and hexane. The acoustic thickness measurement took into account the high temperature gradient in the oil and combined with multi camera automated burn area estimates yielded an instantaneous measurement of the volume of oil consumed while burning.

We were able to identify the buildup of the burn, the active burning phase, and in the case of confined burns the vigorous burning phase. Knowing the instantaneous thickness and surface area during burning allowed us to directly calculate the burn rate and to study the dynamics of ISB. We are working on validating the burn rate and efficiency with direct measurements of the weight of the oil and residue before, during, and after burning. The authors believe these are the first direct measurements of slick thickness using acoustics during ISB.
Establishing New Best Response Standards through Positive Communication: A Look at Best Response Criteria 20 Years Later
Authors: Vihonski LT David , Plourde Kristy , Porter LT Donald , Erickson LCDR Ryan
Published: December 2017

When Kuchin and Hereth published the best response criteria at the 1999 International Oil Spill Conference, there was finally a concrete measure of success for response to oil spills. This criterion has been used since then by leaders of spill response operations to assist them in ensuring that they are maximizing the effectiveness of the response to an oil spill. One of the trends noted in their work was that not all of the criteria were the same when measured against each other. In particular, Kuchin and Hereth highlighted that Incident Commanders (ICs)/emergency responders should have focused more heavily on public communication and stakeholder service and support. This still holds true today with the increased demand for 24/7 updates in the news and on social media. When the ICs/emergency responders do not devote a significant amount of time communicating with the public and stakeholders through any and all available means, they are often not successful in a response. This paper addresses some of the overall changes to the response environment that affect Kuchin and Hereth’s best response criteria, discusses the changes in the measures of success, and provides recommendations for ICs/emergency responders to consider during an incident response. The goal is to assist ICs/emergency responders in being successful during their incident responses in the future through setting a new best response standard.
OIL BEHAVIOUR AND THE RESPONSE TO A SUNKEN OIL SPILL OF SLURRY IN QUINTERO BAY, CHILE
Authors: Piraino E. , Owens E. , Rios J. , Graham A.
Published: December 2017

Slurry oils are one of the few groups of oils that have a density greater than full salinity seawater. Slurry spills at sea are rare, but when they do occur, the response can be difficult, with low final recovery rates. Oil spill response planning and recovery techniques have been refined over many years and the research and development of most methods has been underpinned by the principle that oil floats on water. This recent case study provides an example of the behavior of a slurry spill and the subsequent response operations. A leak of an API gravity 4° slurry occurred from a submarine pipeline in Quintero Bay, Chile, on 14th May 2016. The oil sank to the adjacent sea bed and covered an area of approximately 10,000 m2 in water depths of 18–22 m. The initial response involved over 20 dry-suit divers with surface air to recover the oil with vacuum hoses. These were then supplemented by four diver-operated vacuum dredges. Fortunately weak bottom currents did not redistribute the oil; nevertheless “sea bed booms” were deployed around the perimeter to prevent migration. These “booms” were initially a screen mesh that was later supplemented by sturdier metal frame screens deployed around the zone of the sunken oil in a zigzag configuration. Baseline benthic sediment samples were collected from the adjacent unaffected area and subsequently from the treatment area after completion of operations. A benthic SCUBA SCAT survey using a track-line positioning system was conducted to systematically document the distribution of the oil and post-treatment systematic ROV survey ensured that the end-point oiling conditions had been achieved.
Recent Research and Development Testing Conducted at Ohmsett – The National Oil Spill Response Research and Renewable Energy Test Facility
Authors: Meyer Paul
Published: December 2017

Abstract 2017-321

The Department of the Interior’s Bureau of Safety and Environmental Enforcement (BSEE) National Oil Spill Response Research and Renewable Energy Test Facility, Ohmsett, plays a critical role in advancing oil spill response capabilities through research, development, testing, and training. Ohmsett’s 10 million liter (l) saltwater wave tank provides an independent venue to conduct research and development with full-size response equipment using real oil, in realistic, repeatable conditions.

This paper will discuss recent research and development conducted at Ohmsett, including: Remote sensing of surface oil by BSEE, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), the United States Army, the United States Coast Guard (USCG), and the United States Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA); using acoustics to measure oil slick thickness; creating large volumes of emulsions for Ohmsett tests; mechanical recovery of chemically treated, undispersed oil; skimmer testing in diminishing slick thickness; a USCG and BSEE test of a skimmer ice management system; and an autonomous skimmer development.

This paper will summarize the setup and methodology used during recent testing, training, and research conducted at Ohmsett. Reports of BSEE funded oil spill response research can be found at https://www.bsee.gov/site-page/master-list-of-oil-spill-response-research.
EVALUATION OF OLEOPHILIC SKIMMER PERFORMANCE IN DIMINISHING OIL SLICK THICKNESSES
Authors: McKinney Kristi , Caplis John , DeVitis Dave , Van Dyke Keith
Published: December 2017

ABSTRACT 2017-086

ASTM F2709-15 “Standard Test Method for Determining a Measured Nameplate Recovery Rate of Stationary Oil Skimmer Systems” has become the standard for testing the performance of stationary skimmers. This standard specifies testing the skimmer in “ideal conditions” in order to measure a skimming system’s maximum performance. These ideal conditions are created by testing the skimmer in calm conditions and allowing the skimmer to recover either in pure oil or in a thick layer of oil on water. When testing the skimmer in oil and water, the skimmer recovers oil in a starting oil thickness of 75mm and continues recovery until the oil thickness reaches 50mm. Performance values obtained from this test include measured nameplate recovery rate (NRR) which is the maximum rate at which the skimmer system can recover and process oil under ideal conditions, and the recovery efficiency (RE) which is the percentage of oil collected to total fluid collected.

In actual oil spills it cannot be assumed that a skimmer will encounter enough oil to continuously conduct recovery operations in 50–75mm of oil. As these performance values are becoming a tool used by regulators to verify the capabilities of response equipment listed in oil spill response contingency plans, it is important to understand if and how a skimmer’s performance will vary as oil slick thickness changes. To explore this question, the Bureau of Safety and Environmental Enforcement (BSEE) and Ohmsett - The National Oil Spill Response Research and Renewable Energy Test Facility, recently conducted independent performance testing of two oleophilic skimming systems to better understand the relationship between oil recovery rate, recovery efficiency, and different oil slick thicknesses. Skimmers were tested in various oil slick thicknesses ranging from 75mm down to 6mm at the Ohmsett facility. Skimmers were tested in a type I refined test oil as defined by the ASTM F631-15 “Standard Guide for Collecting Skimmer Performance Data in Controlled Environments.”

Testing results suggest that reduced oil thicknesses do indeed have a significant impact on the measured recovery capabilities of a skimmer. This paper outlines the final testing results, and discusses the potential implications of using ASTM F2709-15 performance values in conjunction with various oil spill response planning standards for mechanical oil recovery equipment.
VERIFICATION OF A MARINE POLLUTANT SURFACE PLUME MODEL FOR USE IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF AUTONOMOUS VEHICLE TRACKING SYSTEMS
Authors: Fitzpatrick Laura M. , Trimble A Zachary , Bingham Brian S.
Published: December 2017

A marine pollutant spill environmental model that can accurately predict fine scale pollutant concentration variations on a free surface is needed in early stages of testing robotic control systems for tracking pollutant spills. The model must reproduce, for use in a robotic control system simulation environment, the fine-scale surface concentration variations observed by a robot. Furthermore, to facilitate development of robotic control systems, the model must reproduce sample spill distributions in minimal computational time. A combination Eulerian-Lagrangian type model, with two tuning parameters, was developed to produce, with minimal computational effort, the fine scale concentrations that would be observed by a robot. Multiple model scenarios were run with different tuning parameters to determine the effects of those parameters on the model’s ability to reproduce an experimental measured pollutant plume’s structure. A qualitative method for analyzing the concentration variations was established using amplitude and temporal statistical parameters. The differences in the statistical parameters between the model and experiment vary from 69%–316%. After tuning, the model produces a sample spill, which includes a high frequency concentration component not observed in the experimental data, but that generally represents the real-time, fine scale pollutant plume structure and can be used for testing control algorithms.
Oil Spill Response Technologies (OSR) Since Macondo – A Review of Improvements and Novelties
Authors: Rowe Jill , Morandi Alicia , Li Zhengkai , Walker Ann Hayward , Joeckel John , McPeek Melinda , Blanc Philippe , Basseres Anne
Published: December 2017

A surge in oil spill response technology projects occurred in the five years following the Deepwater Horizon (DWH). To assess the alignment of advances with identified research and technology needs and identify improvement points, Total SA conducted a review of oil spill response (OSR) technology projects conducted since 2010. Of specific interest was the extent to which R&D projects advanced the Technology Readiness Level (TRL), the need for additional improvements in, and the degree of stakeholder acceptance of the full range of OSR technologies. The paper describes a broad approach to the review of existing reports on the use and effectiveness of various OSR technologies: natural attenuation, surface and subsea dispersants, in-situ burning, herders, oil sensing and tracking, mechanical containment and recovery, bioremediation, shoreline cleanup, waste management, and spill response planning. Each of these technologies fulfills a role in a systematic approach to oil spill response. An underlying premise to achieve a successful response is the active, appropriate use of all OSR technologies to mitigate a spill event.

The key objectives of this work were to review recent literature on OSR technology work since 2010; discuss improvements in oil response technologies since 2010; determine the Technical Readiness Level (TRL) of different technologies; determine stakeholder acceptance level (SAL) for different technologies, and summarize improvement points where further research and development could occur. The key questions addressed in this project included determining how much previous and current research has or will result in improvements to oil spill response, and what domains in our knowledge and equipment would still benefit from additional improvement with future R&D.

This paper summarizes one technology covered in the study report, i.e., dispersants. The authors highlight some research activities and improvements in dispersant technology since Macondo, and the TRL and SAL of dispersants. Through this review, some key research activities regarding OSR technology that would benefit from further development are identified.
Advances in Remote Sensing Research on Oil and Ice from the IOGP Arctic Oil Spill Response Technology JIP
Authors: Palandro David , Mullin Joseph
Published: December 2017

ABSTRACT (2017-044)

The IOGP Arctic Oil Spill Response Technology Joint Industry Program’s Remote Sensing Technical Working Group was initiated in 2012 with the objective to expand the oil industry’s detection and monitoring capabilities for spills on, under, around or in ice. The first phase produced two state-of-knowledge reports assessing sensor capabilities above and below the ice. A key finding from these studies was that many existing remote sensing platforms and sensors originally developed for oil on open water can also provide effective sensing in a broad range of ice conditions. The second phase covered an integrated experiment that included sensor testing in a cold basin, followed by modeling to determine potential applicability of different sensors in a wider range of sea-ice conditions. Five above-ice (Frequency Modulated Continuous Wave Radar (FMCW), ground penetrating radar (GPR), visible and infrared cameras and laser fluorescence polarization [LP] sensor) and seven below-ice (high dynamic range optical camera, visible and infrared spectrometer, LP sensor, broadband and narrowband sonar and multibeam echo sounder) sensors were tested with varying ice thickness and oil concentrations at the US Army Corps of Engineers Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory (CRREL) over a three-month period. All of the sensors used during this experiment showed some ability to detect oil on, in, or below ice under certain conditions and major advances in the knowledge of sensor applicability were made. Three follow-on projects (late 2016) include an operations guide providing a concise operationally oriented review of the different sensor technologies in key oil and ice scenarios, and additional field testing with medium to long-wave infrared, and the FMCW radar.
Oil in and under Ice Detection using Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
Authors: Palandro David , Nedwed Tim , Altobelli Steve , Fukushima Eiichi , Conradi Mark , Sowko Nick , DeMicco Erik
Published: December 2017

ABSTRACT (2017-387)

The application of existing remote sensing sensors and technologies for the detection of oil in and under ice is an ongoing and active research area. Currently, the suite of sensors that have and are being tested include acoustic, radar, optical and fluorosensors. Another technology being tested is Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) in the earth’s magnetic field. NMR to detect oil in and under ice has undergone extensive testing since 2006 and results to date have been promising. Field tests performed using a prototype 1 × 1 m flat transmitting/receiving antenna coil have differentiated seawater and Crisco® oil, a crude-oil surrogate. Research has been focused on scaling-up the 1 m2 prototype to increase the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) and allow the sensor to detect oil beneath ice that is up to 1 m thick. The coil currently being tested has a diameter of 6 m in a modified figure-8 pattern. This coil was being tested at Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory (CRREL) in Hanover, New Hampshire, USA. The final phase of feasibility testing was completed in late 2016 with the use of a ruggedized NMR system flown under a helicopter over a pond. The ruggedized NMR system was able to detect a 1.0 cm thick layer of a crude oil surrogate under ~ 110 cm of simulated ice.
Challenges of OPA and NMSA Related Responses in the National Marine Sanctuary of American Samoa: NO.1 JI HYUN
Authors: Symons Lisa C. , Paulin Joseph , Peau Atuatasi Lelei
Published: December 2017

ABSTRACT: 2017-226

Fa’a-Samoa (the Samoan way) is a living tradition and continues to define the Samoan way of life. It is the foundation of Polynesia’s oldest culture - dating back some 3,000 years. Fa’a-Samoa is interconnected with Samoan lands and waters and by sharing the intact and vibrant traditions, values, and legends that connect the Samoan people to the land and sea, the local community plays an INTEGRAL role in the protection and preservation of natural and cultural resources of the area. Fa’a-Samoa places great importance on the dignity and achievements of the group rather than individuals.

On April 14, 2016, the 62 ft. FV NO1 JI HYUN lost the main engines and grounded off the west side of Aunu’u Island in the National Marine Sanctuary of American Samoa (NMSAS). This area is of ecological and cultural significance for the local residents using hook-and-line, casting nets, spearfishing (non-scuba assisted) and other non-destructive fishing methods including those traditionally used for sustenance and cultural purposes such as gleaning, ‘enu and ola. The village on Aunu’u was extremely wary of inclusion of the waters of Aunu’u in the expansion of the sanctuary being concerned about loss of control of their traditional uses of the nearshore environment.

In what became an extension of Fa’a-Samoa, the United States Coast Guard (USCG), the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and the American Samoa Territorial government worked, together to address both the pollution hazards from the incident and the impact to the coral reef ecosystem even after the fuel was removed. While a relatively straight forward response were it to happen in the continental U.S., severe weather (Tropical Cyclone Amos), high winds and swells, limitations on site access, daylight high tides, and availability of resources to include tugs, tow lines and trained personnel made this quite challenging. Three removal attempts occurred under Oil Pollution Act (OPA) authorization and three efforts occurred under the National Marine Sanctuaries Act (NMSA), with guidance from a professional salvage master.

This prolonged 4-month response has prompted some new dialogue and hopefully new commitment to increase preparedness and spill response capabilities within the territory. The designation of the NMSAS allowed for the use of the combined authorities of OPA and the NMSA, forging new path that protects and preserves both the natural and cultural resources of the region from the impacts of pollution and from future groundings whether large or small.
Strengthening Preparedness and Response Decision-Making At the Local Level: Adaptations to Manage Better and Suffer Less
Authors: Walker Ann Hayward
Published: December 2017

Decisions about response strategies to mitigate threats to people and the environment from an oil spill must be made rapidly because an oil spill on water is dynamic. Science to inform the decision making process is applied when possible; but ultimately decision makers rely on their judgement, available technical knowledge, advisors and experience, and contingency plans to inform their time-critical choices. Given real-time needs, it’s important to organize approval and support for decisions pre-spill, including stakeholder inputs about potential risks and benefits of response actions. Oil spill stakeholders include those with the legal authority to make decisions, those who could be affected by decisions, and those who have knowledge to contribute to the decision making process, such as practitioners, researchers, scientists and engineers, in addition to the public at large. The Deepwater Horizon National Incident Commander observed in late 2010 cautioned that our options going forward are to adapt, manage or suffer. The paper discusses oil spill stakeholders and their roles in preparedness and response decisions. Adaptations are proposed to increase and strengthen support for oil spill decisions at the regional and local levels, e.g., Regional and Area Contingency Plans in the US, response actions and technologies, particularly dispersants, as well as to speed recovery and promote community and environmental resilience. Examples of proposed practices also are provided.
Joint Industry Sponsored Effort to Evaluate Post-Macondo Dispersant Research
Authors: Coolbaugh Thomas , Hague Emily , Cox Rob , Varghese Geeva
Published: December 2017

As an outcome of the creation of the American Petroleum Institute’s (API) Oil Spill Prevention and Response Joint Industry Task Force (OSPR JITF) following the Macondo oil release, and with support from the IPIECA-IOGP Oil Spill Response JIP, a team was formed to evaluate emerging dispersant-related research. It was clear that there was a need to interact with research and development consortia and other oil spill response-related research groups to provide input and potential guidance in order to encourage real world relevance, especially since the Gulf of Mexico Research Initiative (GoMRI) had been created with a funding level of $500 million over a 10 year period.

A specific outcome of the effort has been a review of research papers on dispersant fate and effects published post-Macondo. The main objective was to review results of recent dispersant research with a goal of providing a link to existing dispersant knowledge and to spill response management questions facing spill response planners in the post-Macondo environment. This effort was viewed as an opportunity to solidify a working relationship between federal government and industry personnel and academic researchers in an area of oil spill-related research that would be important for the foreseeable future.

Dispersants are one of the tools that may be used to respond to oil spills, especially to those that are large and offshore. When used appropriately, dispersants may prevent slicks from reaching shorelines and adversely impacting sensitive coastal ecosystems. The use of dispersants during the Macondo incident resulted in an increased awareness of their use, especially among the academic community and the general public.

The review panel had a primary goal to identify recurring misunderstandings and inconsistencies that might arise due to researchers’ inexperience with the real-world aspects of oil spills, spill response, and the way in which dispersants are designed to be used (spraying on slicks, usually in offshore waters) or with applicable oil toxicity research standards (e.g., use of appropriate dispersed oil concentrations during studies). The objectives were to identify:Potential problems for researchers so that they can be avoided in ongoing studiesEvaluate and share potentially misleading results, especially as they might influence global dispersant regulations inappropriately

The paper will review results to date and highlight those areas that are viewed to be the most consistent and problematic (e.g., the inappropriate use of nominal versus measured exposure conditions, a focus on dispersant rather than dispersed oil toxicity).
Subsea Dispersant Injection (SSDI) - Summary Findings from a Multi-Year Research and Development Industry Initiative
Authors: Brandvik P.J. , Johansen Ø. , Davies E.J. , Leirvik F. , Krause D.F. , Daling P.S. , Dunnebier D. , Masutani S. , Nagamine I. , Storey C. , Brady C. , Belore R. , Nedwed T. , Cooper C. , Ahnell A. , Pelz O. , Anderson K.
Published: December 2017

New and novel results regarding effectiveness and use of subsea dispersant injection (SSDI) are presented in this paper. These findings are relevant for operational guidance, decision making and improvement of models of subsea releases of oil and gas. More specifically, the paper presents data from a comprehensive set of laboratory experiments to measure the initial formation of oil droplets and gas bubbles from a subsea blowout with and without SSDI.

Many subsea blowout scenarios for oil and gas will form relatively large oil droplets (multiple millimeters) which rise rapidly through the water column to possibly form thick slicks on the ocean surface, potentially very near the source. On the other hand, smaller oil droplets (< 500 microns) rise more slowly and can stay suspended in the water column for days to weeks.

Our laboratory studies examined the influence of different variables on the initial oil droplet size including oil release velocity, dispersant dosage, dispersant injection method, oil temperature, pressure, gas-to-oil ratio, oil type, and dispersant type. Results revealed that dispersant injection is highly effective at reducing droplet size. SSDI has, for this reason, a potential to reduce floating oil and associated volatile hydrocarbons that may threaten worker health and safety. Reduced surfacing may also reduce the amount of oil that reaches ecologically sensitive shoreline environments. Oil that disperses into the water column, as small droplets, may cause temporarily elevated exposure to marine organisms, but these droplets rapidly dilute and later naturally degrade. Dispersed oil dilutes in three dimensions rather than only the two dimensions available for surface oil, and mostly one dimension available to shoreline oil.

Our data fit a modified Weber scaling algorithm that predicts initial oil droplet size for both laboratory and field scales. Predictions indicate that SSDI can reduce oil droplet sizes by an order of magnitude for field scales like those experienced in the Deep Water Horizon.

In summary, this paper shows that SSDI applied to a subsea blowout is a highly efficient oil spill response tool that, under the appropriate conditions, can substantially delay oil surfacing, reduce the amount of surfacing and reduce the persistence of surface slicks by reducing oil droplet size. The net result is enhanced worker safety and health as well as reduced oil impacts on the surface and shoreline.
Ongoing Research on Herding Agents for In Situ Burning in Arctic Waters: Laboratory and Test Tank Studies on Windows-of-Opportunity
Authors: Buist Ian , Cooper David , Trudel Ken , Zabilansky Len , Fritt-Rasmussen Janne
Published: December 2017

Researching the use of herding agents to contain and thicken oil slicks for in situ burning in Arctic waters continues under the auspices of the International Association of Oil and Gas Producers (IOGP) Arctic Oil Spill Response Technology-Joint Industry Programme. In 2014/2015 laboratory and test tank studies were conducted on defining potentials for effective herder use. The objective of these experiments was to determine the window-of-opportunity for two commercially available herders (ThickSlick 6535 and OP 40) to contract slicks of weathered oils to ignitable thicknesses. The experiments involved a range of crude oils that were quantitatively evaporated and emulsified (ANS, Endicott, Grane and Terra Nova). Small and medium-scale herding experiments (1-m2 quiescent pans, Dynamic Film Performance tests on a Rocking Shaker, 10-m2 quiescent pools and tests in an indoor wind/wave tank) were carried out at the SL Ross laboratory in Ottawa, ON. Larger-scale tests were conducted in 28.5-m2 quiescent refrigerated pools at the US Army Corps of Engineers Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory (CRREL) in Hanover, NH. The purpose of these experiments was to determine at what point (defined by oil type, evaporation and emulsion water) the herders could no longer contract the slicks to an ignitable thickness in cold ice-free water and slush ice. Some laboratory tests involved burning the herded slicks under a fume hood.
Aerial Application of Herding Agents can Enhance In-Situ Burning in Partial Ice Cover
Authors: Potter Stephen , Buist Ian , Cooper David , Aggarwal Srijan , Schnabel William , Garron Jessica , Bullock Robin , Perkins Robert , Lane Peter
Published: December 2017

In situ burning (ISB) aided by herding agents is a promising tool for oil spill response in Arctic waters. An advantageous aspect of the herder mediated ISB approach is that the application of herders as well as the subsequent ignition of the slick could potentially be carried out from aerial platforms. This could obviate the need for personnel to conduct operations on the surface near the burn, as well as reduce the response time required to mobilize the spill response equipment, especially in challenging Arctic conditions. In the last decade, several laboratory and field-scale tests have been conducted to prove the efficacy of herder-assisted ISB operations, sometimes achieving burn efficiencies greater than 90 %. However, there have been no field tests of aerial herder application followed by ignition. This paper presents results from a series of field experiments performed in a custom-built test basin 50 km northeast of Fairbanks, Alaska, in April 2015. A helicopter was employed to first apply herding agents (Siltech OP-40 or ThickSlick 6535) to Alaska North Slope crude oil slicks in simulated drift ice conditions, and then ignite the herded slicks using a Heli-torch. Two of five test burns yielded measurable outcomes, resulting in 70% - 85% removal of the test oil as it was drifting freely. Three of five test burns did not yield reliably measurable results, as wind action at the site prevented an accurate measurement of free-drifting burn efficiency. An unmanned aircraft, carrying prototypical payloads for herder spraying and in situ burn ignition was also tested. This is the first time successful aerial application of herders for ISB in the Arctic or elsewhere has been accomplished, and furthers the development of better tools for oil spill response in Arctic waters and beyond.
Natural Resource Damage Assessments: Is Cooperation a Good Thing?
Authors: Haddad Robert , Israel Brian D.
Published: December 2017

It has been nearly 55 years since the United States enacted the Clean Water Act (CWA) in which natural resource damages (NRD) were codified.1 The NRD cause of action, originally derived from the public trust doctrine and common law, was later integrated into the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) in 1980 and into the Oil Pollution Act (OPA) in 1990. In response to the establishment of CERCLA and OPA, the U.S. Department of the Interior (DOI) was charged with developing and promulgating NRD regulations under CERCLA while the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) was charged to do so under OPA.

Originally, DOI’s approach to assessing NRD under CERCLA emphasized monetary compensation, as this was a simple common denominator. Later, under OPA, NOAA’s regulations allowed NRD to be determined by, and compensated with, an ecological currency, e.g., using a Habitat or Resource Equivalency Approach (HEA2, REA3). This focus on putting restoration front and center in NRD assessments (NRDAs)4 was ultimately integrated into the DOI regulations in 2008.

A critical and evolving aspect of NRDAs has been the concept of cooperation between the responsible party (RP) and the trustees in undertaking the NRDA (e.g., Israel 2006a; Connor and Gouguet 2005; Reinharz et al. 2005). This approach, supported by NOAA and others, is an effective means to identify and resolve legal uncertainties through stipulations and create working relationships that effectively focus on assessment resolution and restoration implementation; the ultimate outcome being a more rapid path to restoration and a significant decrease in litigation and other transactional costs.

Over the past decade, the benefits of cooperative assessments have been questioned. It has been suggested that cooperative NRDAs do little to move the process forward in a timely manner. It has been further implied that cooperation equates to RPs paying up front for the cost of the assessment while the trustees conduct the assessment. In truth, both perspectives are correct, the reality being that cooperation means different things to different people.

In this paper, we examine the historical underpinnings of the NRDA regulations, how this led to the development of the cooperative, restoration-based NRDA process, and the pros and cons of the cooperative NRDA process. We identify some of the inherent political, technical, cultural, and legal challenges with the cooperative NRDA paradigm as well as some of the benefits. Finally, we discuss the advantages and disadvantages of cooperation in the context of future NRDA cases, with an eye towards identification of specific processes that may help better understand or predict if cooperation is the best path forward for resolution of NRD liability.
To Remove or Not to Remove? Dealing with pollution risks from ship wrecks
Authors: Whittington Mark , Zhang Ann , Campion David
Published: December 2017

Abstract (ID: 2017-155) ABSTRACT

The navigational and environmental risks posed by ship wrecks have presented a challenge to governments and the maritime industry for decades. In more recent years a consensus has developed worldwide based on assessing these risks and undertaking measures proportional to the severity of those risks. This approach has been formalised in the Nairobi International Convention on the Removal of Wrecks 2007.

With recent developments in salvage technology and equipment, the options for pollutant removal from wrecks, and the removal of entire wrecks, are becoming viable for scenarios which were previously deemed infeasible. Together with a general heightened environmental concern worldwide about impacts to the marine environment, decision-making on wreck removal and associated pollutants is under the spotlight.

Based on ITOPF’s extensive experience providing advice on pollution mitigation and environmental risks posed by wrecks, this paper examines recent issues in the treatment of wrecks. The authors highlight some key concerns regarding the equitable treatment of wrecks and argue that a more rigorous, technically-based decision making process be adopted and promoted to ensure clarity and consistency for all parties.
Improving Biological Assessments and Consultations for Regional Response Team Preauthorization Plans: An Example with Federal Region 4 Gulf of Mexico and South Atlantic
Authors: Huyser Matthew , Boyd LCDR Kevin , Bejarano Adriana C. , Michel Jacqueline
Published: December 2017

Immediately following the unprecedented use of dispersants in response to the Deepwater Horizon (a.k.a. MC252) incident, the National Response Team (NRT) issued a memorandum to NRT members and Regional Response Team (RRT) co-chairs recommending review and revision of all dispersant preauthorization plans. During this review process, the Regional Response Team 4 (RRT4) (North Carolina to Mississippi) determined that the Endangered Species Act (ESA) Section 7 consultations would likely require further revisions and that the assessment should also be prepared to request consultation in accordance with Section 305(b) of the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act (MSA) (i.e. Essential Fish Habitat (EFH)).

The RRT4 Science & Technology Committee Biological Assessment Workgroup developed a functional outline that included narrowing the focus of the assessment to evaluate only oil spill scenarios where dispersant is applied under preauthorized protocols and locations. An analysis of oil spill incidents using U.S. Coast Guard Marine Information for Safety and Law Enforcement (MISLE) data was performed to develop spill scenarios, each with dispersant response scenarios using the NOAA Dispersant Mission Planner (DMP2). The General NOAA Oil Modeling Environment (GNOME) model was used to quantitatively describe the average concentration of oil within the water column at different time steps. In close coordination with the Services, species and habitats were selected for evaluation based on their likelihood to occur in the proposed preauthorized geographic area, with effects of the action assessed for species groups. The same framework was used in preauthorization planning for in-situ burning. The summation of these steps resulted in a swift and cost-effective biological assessment process that incorporated both response tactics.

Initiating or revising biological assessments and consultations to oil spill contingency plans will continue to expand beyond preauthorization for alternative countermeasures under the National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan (NCP) Subpart J). The RRT4 efforts contribute to the body of practical practices as national recommendations continue to be developed.