bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
COMPARATIVE PREDICTION OF SUCCESS AND SATISFACTION IN HIGH SCHOOL CURRICULA
Authors: French John W.
Published: August 2014

Comparative Prediction Project. As a project intended to investigate the possibility of comparative prediction in school and college by means of pure‐factor tests, this investigation started out with three factor studies to complete the establishment of factors in areas thought to be important in academic work (RB‐53‐16, RB‐55‐22, RB‐54‐7). A ground‐laying bulletin discussed other comparative and differential prediction batteries, statistical methodology, and the presentation of results to counselors (RB‐55‐4). At the college level, a preliminary experiment was carried out with West Point cadets to select the most appropriate tests (RB‐51‐12, RB‐55‐6 or French, 1955) and a principal validity study involved tryout of the battery against major‐field grades at eight colleges (RB‐59‐10, RB‐59‐15 or French, 1961b, RB‐61‐7). At the high‐school level, a preliminary experiment was carried out with New Jersey vocational schools (RB‐56‐1). A memorandum has been issued on evaluation and presentation of results for the college and high‐school levels (RM‐61‐13). The present bulletin is the complete technical report on the high‐school study.

High‐School Study. A battery, consisting of 13 “pure‐factor” aptitude tests, 7 information (interest?) scores, and 10 personality factor scales, was given to beginning tenth graders in 49 Massachusetts high schools. The scores were validated against grades in the various academic and trade courses given during the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth grades. They were also validated against satisfaction with chosen curriculum. Multiple validities were computed to show the effectiveness of the tests for absolute prediction; those for academic subjects ranged from .34 for boys in social science through .60 for girls in English; those for trade courses ranged from .26 for auto repair through .71 for home economics. Validities for satisfaction were all very low. Estimated validities of predicted differences between course grades had a median of .31 for academic boys, .40 for academic girls, and .50 for trade courses. Corrections of these values for shrinkage and for the short length of the experimental tests are considered in the Appendix. It is concluded that these corrections can be ignored. The results forecast that a test battery of this kind by itself would have only moderate value for differential and comparative prediction in practice, but, when used in conjunction with school grades and other information, it would make a substantial contribution. Better differential prediction obtained in the college‐level study was recognized to have been brought about by the use of self‐report interest scales. These could be used equally well at the high‐school level.
FORMULA SCORING AND VALIDITY
Authors: Lord Frederic M.
Published: August 2014

Formulas are derived for a rather restricted, situation showing the decrement in test validity that might be expected from random guessing and the increment in validity that might be expected from a priori formula scoring. Numerical illustrations are given. The reduction in validity that occurs when formula scoring is abandoned is generally found to be small in terms of the usual correlational scale, but not necessarily small when considered in terms of the reduction in test length that could be achieved with the same sacrifice of validity.
AN INVESTIGATION OF FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH DROP‐OUT AND TRANSFER BY SCHOLARSHIP APPLICANTS
Authors: Cliff Norman
Published: August 2014

Scholarship applicants who dropped out of college or changed from full‐time to part‐time attendance after originally entering on a full‐time basis were contrasted with control students who spent three consecutive years in full‐time attendance at the same institution. The controls were also compared to students who transferred from one college to another of equal or lower cost.

The groups were compared on 11 measures of family financial status and socioeconomic level and also on SAT scores. Discriminant functions for discriminating Transfer and Drop‐out groups from the Controls were computed; these were significant only in the comparison of girls who transferred and Controls, but some individual variables showed differences which were significant. The principal difference between Drop‐out boys and Controls was in the finding that the former received less scholarship aid. Drop‐out girls were somewhat lower on all the socioeconomic variables. Transfer boys were different mainly through having lower SAT scores. Transfer girls came from rather high‐income families, received little in the way of scholarship aid, and their families contributed rather large amounts toward their college expenses. These differences are considered worth following up but not conclusive.
AN INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES MODEL FOR MULTIDIMENSIONAL SCALING
Authors: Tucker Ledyard R , Messick Samuel
Published: August 2014

A quantitative system is presented to permit the determination of separate multidimensional perceptual spaces for individuals having different viewpoints about stimulus interrelationships. The structure of individual differences in the perception of stimulus relationships is also determined to provide a framework for ascertaining the varieties of consistent individual viewpoints and their relationships with other variables.
AN INVESTIGATION OF SIMILARITIES IN PARENT‐CHILD TEST SCORES FOR EVIDENCE OF HEREDITARY COMPONENTS
Authors: Stafford Richard E.
Published: August 2014

The general hypothesis of this study states that certain psychological traits which have their scores distributed continuously may actually have an underlying genetic dichotomy which is masked by various other effects. To be more precise, three specific hypotheses state for each variable that: (1) there is a similarity between parents and their children unexplained by similarity between the parents; (2) this similarity may be explained by hereditary components, and (3) these hereditary components are of the discrete or segregated type of inheritance.

The population, consisting of 104 fathers and mothers and their teenage sons or daughters, was given eight psychological tests: Symbol Comparison, Word Association, Mental Arithmetic, Pitch Discrimination, Letter Concepts, Spelling, Identical Blocks, and English Vocabulary. Self‐reports of height and weight were also obtained. These data were analyzed both by correlational methods and dichotomic analysis. The latter is a new method designed for this study.

Parent‐child correlations have previously been inadequate for investigating the presence of hereditary components in mental tests, because it is impossible to assess the degree to which the correlations are due to environmental effects. However, the transmission of a trait determined by a gene located on the X chromosome results in a unique pattern of family correlation coefficients.
THE STABILITY OF THE SAT‐VERBAL SCORE SCALE
Authors: Stewart E. Elizabeth
Published: August 2014

In his 1961 report to the College Board, Wilks recommended that “The College Board should conduct a solid research effort to make an assessment of the extent of drift which may have occurred in the SAT‐Verbal scale since 1941.” In the present study, which is based on a design suggested by Angoff, raw scores on each of four old forms of SAT‐Verbal were placed on the reporting scale for a recent form so that the resulting scaled scores could be compared with the scaled scores derived when the old form was first administered in the College Board Admissions Testing Program. The data on the recent form were collected as part of the December 1963 administration of the Scholastic Aptitude Test; data on the old forms were retrieved from files for the April 1944, January 1948, March 1953, and February 1957 SAT administrations. For each of these forms, the scale derived by equating scores on the old form to scores on the December 1963 form was compared with the scale used for reporting scores on the old form.

The results may be summarized as follows:

For both the 1953 form and the 1957 form, the experimentally derived scales and the reporting scales differed by less than five points in the vicinity of the mean. The degree of agreement was good enough to warrant the conclusion that the SAT‐Verbal scale remained highly stable during the period from 1953 through 1963.

With the reservation that the standard errors of both the operational and the experimentally derived scales for the January 1948 form probably are relatively large, it may be concluded that the SAT‐Verbal score of a candidate tested in 1963 and scoring in the vicinity of 500 might be 20‐35 points higher than the score of a candidate of equal ability who was tested in 1948. Since the scale as it existed in 1953 was maintained through 1963, it may be inferred that the shift in the meaning of the scale took place between 1948 and 1953.

Scores on SAT‐Verbal reported in April 1944 may not have had the same meaning as scores reported in December 1963, but the methodological limitations inherent in the experimental equating of those two forms preclude any reliable quantitative assessment of whatever differences may exist between the scale of the early 1940's and the scale of the early 1960's.
A LADY IN DISTRESS: THE FLAT TIRE EXPERIMENT1
Authors: Bryan James H. , Test Mary Ann
Published: August 2014

The effects of observing a helping model upon subsequent offers of help were assessed in a naturalistic setting. Passing motorists were exposed to a contrived situation wherein a girl stood beside an auto which had a flat left rear tire. One half of the passing motorists had previously seen a young male helping a girl in a similar situation (model condition); the remaining motorists were not exposed to such helping behaviors. The presence of a model significantly increased the helping behaviors of motorists.
PLAY BEHAVIOR IN THE YEAR‐OLD INFANT: EARLY SEX DIFFERENCES1
Authors: Goldberg Susan , Lewis Michael
Published: August 2014

Thirty‐two boys and 32 girls, 13 months old, were observed with their mothers in a standardized free play situation. There were striking sex differences in the infants' behavior toward their mothers and in their play. Earlier observation of the mothers' behavior toward the infants at six months indicates that some of these sex differences were related to the mothers' behavior toward the infants. It was suggested that parents behave differently toward girls and boys, even as infants, reinforcing sex appropriate behavior. This study emphasizes the importance of observing the freely emitted behavior of the very young child.
ON THE PARALLELIZATION OF TRACE LINES FOR A CERTAIN TEST MODEL
Authors: Kristof Walter
Published: August 2014

For a special class of tests a model is presented which, as a distinguishing feature, assumes closure of the set of all item characteristic functions under multiplication and a certain exponentiation. It is shown that essentially unique parallelization of the set of corresponding trace lines is attainable if and only if all item characteristic functions are powers of each other. The required continuous and monotone transformation of the ability continuum is explicitly given. Upon transformation all item characteristic functions assume a unique functional form regardless of their initial form. The model rules out normal ogives as well as logistic functions as possible item characteristic functions after transformation.
EVALUATING DECEPTION IN PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH1
Authors: Stricker Lawrence J. , Messick Samuel , Jackson Douglas N.
Published: August 2014

This article reviews studies on the use of deception in psychological research, indicates other directions that such investigations might take, and suggests solutions to the problems posed by this tactic. Deception is widely used, but its efficacy is rarely evaluated. Subjects' suspicion is a useful index of effectiveness, and the only aspect that has been investigated so far. Many subjects may be suspicious of the deceptions in a study. This disbelief can be triggered by the experiment itself, operating in conjunction with the subjects' characteristics. Suspicion can affect the level of experimental performance or interact with it. The problems connected with this methodology may be minimized by improving the design of deception studies, by routinely assessing the effectiveness of the dissimulations, and by modifying data analyses.
THE CARDIAC RESPONSE TO A PERCEPTUAL COGNITIVE TASK IN THE YOUNG CHILD1
Authors: Lewis Michael , Dodd Cornelia
Published: August 2014

It has been argued that an important determinant of the cardiac response is the subject's intended transaction with his environment. The present study was designed to investigate whether cardiac deceleration would accompany the solution of a perceptual discrimination problem, and moreover, whether the degree of cardiac deceleration would be related to the accuracy of the response. Fifty‐one subjects, 44 months of age, were each given 20 trials of a matching figures task. This task required that S match a figure (called standard) to one of four variations (one of which was identical to the standard). ECG was continuously recorded along with the latency and the accuracy of the response. If the first response was incorrect, S was asked to choose again.

The results indicated four major findings. (1) There was a significant cardiac deceleration from the time S received the standard until he made his first choice. If the first response was correct, the cardiac rate, within 1‐3 beats, returned to resting level; however, if S was told to guess again, the cardiac rate remained decelerated. (2) Correct responses were associated with significantly greater cardiac deceleration than incorrect responses; however, both accuracy of response and amount of deceleration were correlated, with response time. (3) In general, the degree of cardiac deceleration was significantly correlated with general intellectual function as measured by a standard IQ test. (4) There were important and consistent sex differences in cardiac responsivity.

The results of this study suggest that for the very young female child, autonomic responsivity, specifically cardiac deceleration, is directly related to S's efficiency both in terms of her general intellectual functioning and her specific performance–the accuracy of her response.
TWO VARIABLES ASSOCIATED WITH DIFFERENTIAL PRODUCTIVE CULTURAL INVOLVEMENT AMONG LOWER‐CLASS NEGRO AND CAUCASIAN YOUNG MEN1
Authors: Hall William S.
Published: August 2014

This investigation deals with the relationship between productive cultural involvement, racial group membership, and personality among lower‐class young men. Level of culturally productive behavior and environmental press were employed as independent variables. The dependent variables were two aspects of personality–achievement orientation and locus of control. The sample consisted of 60 young men–30 Negroes and 30 Caucasians–all of whom had dropped out of school at some point in their lives. While found, racial differences seem secondary to differences reflecting different degrees of productive involvement.
OBSERVATIONS WITH SELF‐EMBEDDED SENTENCES USING WRITTEN AIDS1
Authors: Freedle Roy , Craun Marlys
Published: August 2014

Self‐embedded sentences of any degree beyond one are permitted by the syntactic rules of English, yet previous studies report that subjects typically reject these sentences as being ungrammatical and, in addition, often cannot recover the meaning of these sentences. The present paper investigated the possibility of introducing specially structured self‐embedded sentences as “aids” to the discovery of the structure of more complex self‐embedded sentences. The group of subjects who received these aids performed significantly better in discovering the subject‐verb and subject‐object assignments in the complex sentences (many achieved perfect scores) in contrast to subjects who did not initially receive these aids (these latter subjects obtained close to the minimum possible scores).
STATISTICAL NOTES ON RELIABILITY ESTIMATION1
Authors: Kristof Walter
Published: August 2014

Previous results on the sampling properties of test reliability coefficients are rather scarce. Most existing methods for reliability estimation are derived from parametric relationships by substitution of sample statistics for parameters. The statistical properties of estimators so obtained remain largely unknown. The present study is intended as a contribution to the sampling theory of reliability estimation under normality assumptions when a total test has been split into two, not necessarily parallel, parts. A maximum‐likelihood ratio test of a point hypothesis concerning the parameter value of coefficient alpha is derived. This method is then converted to yield confidence limits for the parameter at any chosen level of confidence. Worked examples are appended by way of illustration.
THE EFFECT OF THREE TYPES OF VISUAL IRRELEVANCY ON COMPLEX DECISION MAKING1
Authors: Landis Daniel , Slivka Robert M. , Silver Carl A.
Published: August 2014

The present study investigated the effects of visual information irrelevancy on complex decision making. Three types of irrelevancy were defined (clutter, noninformative irrelevancy and coding redundancy) and incorporated as independent variables in the research. Thirty male college Ss solved a set of static problems involving decision making with a known pay‐off, but where the output would be difficult for S to accurately estimate. Results indicated that, under the conditions of this study, irrelevancy is facilitative for decision making and the more random the irrelevancy, the more adequate the solution. These findings are discussed within the framework of a theory that postulates that irrelevancy aids in the figure‐ground articulation of the cognitive field.
THE IDENTIFICATION AND UTILIZATION OF MODERATOR EFFECTS IN PREDICTION SYSTEMS1
Authors: Rock Donald A.
Published: August 2014

Methodology was proposed and investigated with regard to (1) selecting both single and multiple moderators and (2) conditions under which we can expect a gain from the use of generalized nonlinear regression surfaces. A more general classification procedure which follows Tatsuoka's development was suggested as a means of combining information from both moderators and predictors into one probability statement.
PREDICTING MULTIPLE CRITERIA OF CREATIVE ACHIEVEMENTS WITH MODERATOR VARIABLES1
Authors: Rock Donald A. , Evans Franklin R. , Klein Stephen P.
Published: August 2014

A moderated regression technique was applied to two samples of males and females each of which had multiple predictor, moderator, and criterion information. One moderator was found that consistently identified a group of predictable individuals independent of both sex and the three creative achievement criteria. This moderator was a modification of the Drews sociability scale and it indicated that those individuals who had little or no inclination towards social functions tended to be considerably more predictable than the remainder of the sample or when the group was taken as a whole. Within the low social groups, girls appeared to be somewhat more predictable than boys on two of the three creative achievement criteria, however the greatest discrepancy appeared in the writing criterion where the girls were substantially more predictable. Finally, the low sociability groups were characterized by greater predictive accuracy regardless of whether “tailored” or overall prediction equations were used.
PERSONALITY AND ESTHETIC SENSITIVITY1
Authors: Carlson Rae , Parker Janet
Published: August 2014

In an exploratory study of affective responsiveness as a component of esthetic sensitivity 62 college Ss took the Allport‐Vernon‐Lindzey Study of Values and described on an antonym checklist their affective responses to photographs portraying “forces of nature.” One‐third of the group with extreme high and low AVL Aesthetic value scores were compared on measures of affective responsiveness and on Sensation‐Intuition and Perceiving‐Judging scales of the Myers‐Briggs Type Indicator As predicted, high esthetic value Ss were more acceptant of stimulus materials (p = .005), more often perceptive (p = .025) and intuitive (p = .05) types on the MBTI Results support a typological conception of esthetic sensitivity, and suggest that direct, “pre‐artistic” emotional responsiveness to phenomena expressed in art forms is a component of this personality pattern.
ASSESSMENT OF DISADVANTAGED ADOLESCENTS: A DIFFERENT APPROACH TO RESEARCH AND EVALUATION MEASURES1
Authors: Freeberg Norman E.
Published: August 2014

The suitability of available formal tests for individuals from culturally deprived, poverty‐level backgrounds has long been open to criticism by test specialists. The present study is an attempt to overcome a number of the claimed defects for a variety of cognitive and noncognitive measures by (1) “Tailoring” a battery of measures specifically to disadvantaged adolescent groups and (2) demonstrating their value based upon their psychometric characteristics and the logic of various research‐related findings.

A battery of 13 measures was administered to 256 male and female high school dropouts enrolled in a federally funded youth‐work training program. Item characteristics, levels of internal consistency, external validity based upon rating criteria, construct validity based upon factor analysis and the logic of a number of research findings with the individual measures–all present a pattern of results reasonable enough to warrant continued research application and development of these types of measures for appraisal of disadvantaged adolescents.
ATTENTION DISTRIBUTION AS A FUNCTION OF COMPLEXITY AND INCONGRUITY IN THE 24‐MONTH OLD CHILD1
Authors: Lewis Michael , Dodd Cornelia , Harwitz Marcia
Published: August 2014

Attentional distribution was studied as a means of observing schema formation and development. Fixation time, heart rate, activity, vocalization and smiling indicated that a schema for the human form is not fully developed by two years of age. Complexity, defined as number of elements, was effected in influencing attentional distribution. Further, data at 6 and 13 months indicated that only after an earlier schema is well formed is it possible to find a significant relationship to subsequent schema development.
WHERE IS THE PERSON IN PERSONALITY RESEARCH?1
Authors: Carlson Rae
Published: August 2014

Constraints upon inquiry in personality imposed by current research methods were examined by (a) a survey of empirical work published in two major personality journals and (b) a consideration of methodological and ethical issues raised in recent research criticism. Review of samples, research procedures, and social‐psychological context in 226 empirical studies revealed that current methodological practices are incapable of approaching questions of real importance in personality and involve serious problems beyond those noted in recent research criticism. Recent proposals for methodological reforms, largely directed toward control of unwanted variance and improvement of subject‐experimenter relationships, offer only partial solutions and require further consideration of the “personology of science.”
THE INTERPRETATION OF REGRESSION COEFFICIENTS IN A SCHOOL EFFECTS MODEL1
Authors: Linn Robert L. , Werts Charles E. , Tucker Ledyard R
Published: August 2014

Given a linear regression model relating a measure of student “output” to a measure of student “input” and a measure of a “school characteristic,” a model is presented for the interpretation of the regression coefficients. This model allows explicit predictions of the outcomes of alternate strategies of allocating resources to modify the school characteristic variable.
A RE‐EXAMINATION OF THE FAMILIARIZATION HYPOTHESIS IN GROUP RISK TAKING1
Authors: Teger Allan I. , Pruitt Dean G. , Jean Richard St. , Haaland Gordon A.
Published: August 2014

A total of 226 subjects at three universities participated in five separate studies which measured the effect on individual risk taking of increased familiarity with the problem situation. The results of all five studies failed to replicate the finding that individuals will take increased risk after they are given an opportunity to become familiar with the problem. These failures to replicate cast doubt on the hypothesis that the increase in risk after a group discussion is due to increased familiarity with the problems rather than to the effect of group interaction.
NEGOTIATION BY LEADERS IN THE PRESENCE OF THEIR DELEGATES AND BY DELEGATES IN THE PRESENCE OF THEIR LEADERS1
Authors: Kogan Nathan , Lamm Helmut , Trommsdorff Gisela
Published: August 2014

Following a preliminary testing session for assessing individual risk preferences on the choice‐dilemmas task, subjects (8 at a time) were constituted as 4 leader‐delegate dyads with status randomly assigned. Dyads reached joint decisions on half of the choice‐dilemmas items. Subjects were then recombined as all‐leader and all‐delegate groups. For half of these combinations, leaders were discussants and delegates were observers; roles were reversed for the other half. The discussants' task was to negotiate a consensus on all of the choice‐dilemmas items. Delegate discussants relative to leader discussants consulted more with their former dyadic partner and more often failed to achieve consensus (deadlock). Magnitude of risky shift did not differ significantly between leader and delegate discussants. However, delegate observers advocated higher risk levels than their leader discussants, whereas delegate discussants and leader observers did not differ in risk preferences. Discussant‐observer discrepancies in risk preference were consistent with differences in decision satisfaction. On the whole, the presence of observers seems to increase “loss of face” motivation in leaders and fears of sanction for deviation in delegates.
PESSIMISM‐OPTIMISM AND RISK TAKING IN INDIVIDUAL AND GROUP CONTEXTS1
Authors: Lamm Helmut , Trommsdorff Gisela , Kogan Nathan
Published: August 2014

Choice‐dilemmas items were administered with the customary risk‐taking (R) format (minimal acceptable odds to warrant recommendation of the desirable risky alternative) and with a pessimism‐optimism (P) format (estimation of the actual “real‐world” probability of success of the desirable risky alternative). Following individual testing to establish baseline levels, subjects were randomly assigned to either an R‐P or P‐R treatment. In the former, discussion to consensus was focused on the R dimension, and subsequent P judgments were made privately; in the latter, discussion to consensus was focused on the P dimension, and subsequent R judgments were made privately. Results indicated that the link between R and P was asymmetrical. The risky shift was produced only when discussion was oriented along the R dimension. In contrast, pessimistic shifts were obtained following both R and P discussions. Group‐induced pessimism was attributed to pooling or heightened realization of the “things that might go wrong” in pursuing a risky course of action.
AN INTERACTIVE‐COMPUTER PROGRAM FOR THE JOHNSON‐NEYMAN TECHNIQUE IN THE CASE OF TWO GROUPS, TWO PREDICTOR VARIABLES, AND ONE CRITERION VARIABLE
Authors: Carroll John B. , Wilson Gertrude F.
Published: August 2014

A program written in TELCOMP, an interactive‐computer language, is presented for doing all the necessary computations for the Johnson‐Neyman (1936) technique in the simplest case, starting from raw sums, sums of squares, and sums of cross‐products or from means, standard deviations, and correlations previously computed for the two groups. Computations are shown for three sets of data, two of which are from previous expositions of the method; it is noted that these previous expositions suffered from computational errors of major seriousness. The third set of data illustrates use of the method for investigating interactions between individual differences and treatments in such a way as to supplement the usual analysis of covariance procedures.
PRECISION OF PREDICTION1, 2
Authors: Browne Michael W.
Published: August 2014

Precision of prediction in multiple linear regression is examined. Two measures of predictive precision, predictive mean square error, d2, and the squared weight validity, w2, are employed. The use of an existing estimator of ε(d2) as an estimator of d2is proposed and the mean squared error of estimation of this estimator about d2is obtained. A significance test is given. Estimators of w2are derived and an asymptotic approximation for their variances is given. These estimators of w2are functions of estimators of p2, the squared multiple correlation coefficient, and of p4. The bias and mean squared error of estimation of some known estimators of p2and of a proposed estimator of p4are examined. Monte Carlo experiments are used to compare the proposed estimators of w2with an estimator due to Burket [1964]. An efficient procedure for generating w2and the estimates of w2is described. The mean squared errors of estimation of cross‐validation estimators of d2and w2are obtained and disadvantages of the cross‐validation procedure are discussed. An example is used to illustrate relationships between predictive precision and the number of predictors. The paper is primarily concerned with a random predictor model but results for a fixed predictor model are also given.
YOUNG CHILDREN'S IMITATION AND COMPREHENSION OF SENTENTIAL SINGULARITY AND PLURALITY1,2
Authors: Keeney Terrence J. , Smith Nancy D.
Published: August 2014

The number of the subject is marked in most third‐person sentences both in the subject‐noun (e.g., “dog/dogs”) and in the verb (e.g., “barks/bark”). The verb inflection for number is redundant with the noun inflection except in those rare instances in which the subject‐noun is not marked for number (e.g., “sheep/sheep”). Since the verb inflection for number is rarely crucial for determining the meaning of a sentence, and since number is marked in exactly the opposite manner in regularly formed verbs from the manner in which it is marked in regularly formed nouns, children might be expected to acquire the verb inflection for number relatively late in the course of language development. Sentences in which number was marked in (a) the verb only and (b) the subject‐noun and the verb were presented to a sample of 24 children 4 years of age in both imitation and comprehension tests. The results indicated that the children did not comprehend the verb inflection for number even when the noun was unmarked, making the verb inflection the only cue for number, Despite explicit training on the meaning of unmarked nouns, the children understood the unmarked subject‐noun as singular and responded to the entire sentence as if it were singular. At four years of age, the apparent number of the subject‐noun is the primary cue for sentential singularity or plurality.
NEGRO‐WHITE DIFFERENCES IN ADOLESCENT EDUCATIONAL GROWTH1
Authors: Rosenfeld Michael , Hilton Thomas L.
Published: August 2014

In contrast to past studies of Negro‐white differences, most of which have been cross‐sectional in design, this study compared longitudinally the academic growth of Negro and white students who attended the same high schools and were enrolled in the same curricula. As participants in a nationwide study of academic growth the students had taken a battery of ability and achievement tests in grades 5, 7, 9, and 11. At grade 5 the Negro students were one to two years behind the white students and on most tests–but not all–the gap increased over time. Analyses of covariance indicated, however, that usually the gap was no more than would be predicted on the basis of the initial differences in mean scores between the groups. The groups also differed appreciably in socioeconomic status.
A COMPARISON OF BAYESIAN ESTIMATES OF TRUE SCORE
Authors: Novick Melvin R. , Thayer Dorothy T.
Published: August 2014

Two Bayesian estimates of true score are compared numerically to evaluate their relative usefulness in applications. The first of these, due to Box and Tiao, is the mean of the posterior distribution with a particularly convenient prior distribution. The second of these, taken from a development due to Lindley, is the relative mode based on the indifference prior distribution suggested by Novick. The first estimate is found to be relatively convenient computationally while the second estimate is attained only by an iterative procedure. These two estimates are also compared with a natural asymptotic estimator which is even more convenient computationally and with Stein's simultaneous estimator. When reliabilities are low and sample sizes and the number of replications are small the Lindley estimate exhibits a total regression to the population mean while the Box‐Tiao mean estimate exhibits only a partial regression. This same result is obtained even when the sample estimate of reliability is negative. When reliabilities, sample sizes and numbers of replications are moderate there is little difference among the first three estimators, but unless the number of persons is large the regression effect is markedly smaller in the Stein estimate. Because of the uniformly good risk properties of the Stein estimate and its substantial difference from the other three estimators it is suggested that the asymptotic regression estimate and the Bayesian estimates based on improper prior distributions may not be acceptable for small numbers of persons.
MANIFEST ANXIETY AS A CONTRIBUTING FACTOR IN RELIGIOUS CONVERSION12
Authors: Spellmann Charles M. , Baskett Glen D. , Byrne Donn
Published: August 2014

This study investigated the relationship between manifest anxiety and religious conversion. Three groups of residents (N = 20 each) in a predominantly Protestant town were identified by the community's two ministers: those having had a sudden religious conversion experience, those having had a more gradual religious development, and those who were not religious at all. The Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale was administered to the members of each group. The gradual religious development group and the nonreligious group did not differ significantly from each other (t < 1.0) on manifest anxiety, but the religious conversion group obtained significantly higher scores on the MAS than the other two groups combined (t = 3.72, 57 df, p < .01).
VALIDATION BY THE MULTIGROUP‐MULTISCALE MATRIX: AN ADAPTATION OF CAMPBELL AND FISKE'S CONVERGENT AND DISCRIMINANT VALIDATIONAL PROCEDURE
Authors: Centra John A.
Published: August 2014

Campbell and Fiske advocate an approach to investigating validity that employs a matrix of intercorrelations among tests representing more than one trait, each measured by more than one method. This paper presents an application of the Campbell‐Fiske multitrait‐multimethod procedure. Referred to as validation by the multigroup‐multiscale matrix, this adaptation compares discrete groups of individuals and the scale scores that represent their responses to a multidimensional perceptual space. As used here, therefore, intergroup agreement on a set of perceptual scales is being assessed, and validity may be defined as the degree of similarity in responses by different constituent groups.

The application is illustrated by analyzing group perceptions of their college environment as indicated by the Institutional Functioning Inventory. Multidimensional scales assessing the viewpoints of faculty, administrator, and student groups at 17 colleges and universities comprised the multigroup‐multiscale matrix. Lack of agreement between the groups indicated scales that more likely reflect subjective interpretations of the environment rather than relatively objective environmental constructs. Convergent and discriminant information through the multigroup‐multiscale matrix, while not confirming the theory underlying the measurement, does nevertheless appear to provide useful insights into how a current instrument is operating and how it might be improved.
ACADEMIC DATA BANKS1
Authors: Godwin William
Published: August 2014

Three trends in education are likely to shape the needs of the schools of 1980 or 1990: the number of students in the formal educational system will expand greatly, the range of subjects offered by schools will be sharply increased, and individualized instruction will become common, if not universal. Such changes will pose at least two major difficulties: faculty and administrators will find it increasingly difficult to monitor adequately student progress, and students will find it increasingly difficult to select a realistic and adequate program of study from the bewildering array of disciplines and specialties available. Two important uses for automated academic data banks, then, will be to maintain adequate student records for faculty and administrators and to provide students with information and guidance in selecting their studies. With the growing complexity of the educational process, it will not be sufficient simply to replace file cabinets and course catalogs with computers and remote terminals. Data files will have to be developed which are capable of actively guiding and aiding users and which monitor their own contents for completeness and accuracy.
A RATIONALE FOR AN ASYMPTOTIC LOGNORMAL FORM OF WORD‐FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTIONS1
Authors: Carroll John B.
Published: August 2014

The lognormal distribution has been found to fit word‐frequency distributions satisfactorily if account is taken of the relations between populations and samples. A rationale for an asymptotic lognormal distribution is derived by supposing that the probabilities at the nodes of decision trees are symmetrically distributed around .5 with a certain variance. By the central limit theorem, the logarithms of the continued products of probabilities randomly sampled from such a distribution would have an asymptotically normal distribution. Two mathematical models incorporating this notion are developed and tested; in one, the number of factors in the continued products is assumed to be fixed, while in the other, that number is dependent upon a Poisson distribution. Psycholinguistic processes corresponding to these models are postulated and illustrated with reference to two sets of data: (1) word associations to the stimulus LIGHT, and (2) the Lorge Magazine Count. Reasonable fits to observed data or to underlying lognormal distributions are obtained but there remain certain problems in estimating parameters.
AN INVESTIGATION OF SOME OF THE EFFECTS OF “VERBAL LOAD” IN ACHIEVEMENT TESTS
Authors: Bornstein Harry , Chamberlain Karen
Published: August 2014

It was argued that the language used in multiple choice achievement test items should be no more complex than is necessary to test the examinee's knowledge of the subject matter. Excessive complexity might constitute a source of bias against people with limited verbal skills. A test of this hypothesis was made by comparing a simplified language version of STEP social studies test items against an “original language form” with junior and senior high school students in Oakland, California. About two‐thirds of the students were Negro. Mean reading comprehension scores fell at about the 30th percentile on national norms. Test results on both forms appeared to be internally consistent and in accord with general expectations for this student sample. There was, however, no support for the notion that the simplified language test version would yield different results. Test difficulty and relationships with reading comprehension scores and social studies grades were essentially the same for both forms.
A THEORETICAL STUDY OF TWO‐STAGE TESTING1
Authors: Lord Frederic M.
Published: August 2014

When items cannot be answered correctly by guessing, certain two‐stage testing procedures are about as effective over the ability range of interest as the “best” up‐and‐down procedures studied previously. When answers can be guessed correctly 20 percent of the time, no two‐stage procedure is found to match the “best” up‐and‐down procedures over this ability range. Feet‐on‐the‐desk designs for two‐stage procedures may produce poor results.
ON DISCOVERING YOUDEN RECTANGLES WITH COLUMNS OF TREATMENTS IN CYCLIC ORDER
Authors: Beall Geoffrey , Ferris John J.
Published: August 2014

We are concerned with the important class of Youden rectangles, or incomplete latin squares, with treatments in cyclic order. The most economical way to write such a design is to conceive the treatments of the first block, or row, in ascending order and the forward differences of that row. By a special algorithm involving diagonal addition of the differences, it is possible to determine rapidly whether a given arrangement of such differences, and hence of treatments, will give rise to a Youden rectangle.
CONVERGENT AND DIVERGENT MEASUREMENT OF CREATIVITY IN CHILDREN
Authors: Ward William C.
Published: August 2014

Fourth through sixth grade children were given two kinds of creativity measures–divergent measures in which the child named all the ideas he could that met a simple requirement, and convergent measures, adaptations of Mednick's Remote Associates Test, in which he attempted to find one word which was associatively related to each of three others. Divergent and convergent measures shared little variance, and the latter were strongly correlated with IQ and achievement. Moreover, convergent items requiring production of the correct association were strongly related to items requiring only recognition. It was argued that in children Remote Associates performance depends on evaluative abilities rather than the size of the associative repertoire.
A SIMPLE CONFIDENCE TESTING FORMAT1
Authors: Boldt Robert F.
Published: August 2014

This paper presents the development of scoring functions for use in conjunction with standard multiple‐choice items. In addition to the usual indication of the correct alternative, the examinee is to indicate his personal probability of the correctness of his response. Both linear and quadratic polynomial scoring functions are examined for suitability, and a unique scoring function is found such that a score of zero is assigned when complete uncertainty is indicated and such that the examinee can expect to do best if he reports his personal probability accurately. A table of simple integer approximations to the scoring function is supplied.
MEASUREMENT PROPERTIES OF SUBJECTIVE MAGNITUDE ESTIMATES OF WORD FREQUENCY1
Authors: Carroll John B.
Published: August 2014

Stevens' subjective magnitude estimation (SME) method was used in obtaining estimates of relative word frequency from two adult groups (15 lexicographers, 13 other adults) for 60 words ranging widely in objective frequency. Lexicographers rendered more reliable estimates, and their averaged data correlated more highly (.970) with objective log frequency than those of the second group (.923). The objective frequency of the first stimulus considered in the SME task is not related to an S‘s overall accuracy in predicting objective frequency, but accuracy is related to the S‘s tendency to perceive frequency ratios as relatively large. Subjective estimates measure something slightly different from what is indexed by currently available objective counts, and may be more valid measures of true word probability.
A RE‐EXAMINATION OF THE EFFECT OF MONAURAL STIMULATION UPON THE PERCEPTION OF VERTICALITY1
Authors: Baker A. Harvey , Cirillo Leonard , Wapner Seymour
Published: August 2014

A classic effect of sensory‐tonic theory–viz., apparent verticality shifts opposite the side of monaural sound–has been questioned in three more recent studies. In attempting to evaluate these “failures to replicate,” the present paper (a) elaborates upon certain findings only briefly reported earlier and summarizes additional findings which are supportive, (b) examines in detail the “failures to replicate,” and (c) offers a tentative reconceptualization of the problem (viz., that the original effect occurs under the original conditions but becomes attenuated under conditions thought to reduce degree of differentiation between self and object) and briefly reports two new studies bearing on this reconceptualization.
CONTRIBUTIONS OF SELECTED TRANSCRIPT INFORMATION TO PREDICTION OF LAW SCHOOL PERFORMANCE
Authors: Reilly Richard R.
Published: August 2014

Graduate and professional schools usually base their admissions decisions on a combination of test scores and on an overall index of undergraduate achievement such as cumulative grade‐point average or rank‐in‐class. The present study sought to investigate whether considering more specific indices of undergraduate performance, through a detailed analysis of college transcripts, could lead to increased accuracy in predicting law school performance. Stepwise multiple regression analyses, performed separately for each of two schools, resulted in the selection of the LSAT, social science GPA, and a moderator variable as the most useful predictors. Because of the effects of selection, however, caution was urged in interpreting the results.
ITEM‐RACE INTERACTION ON A TEST OF SCHOLASTIC APTITUDE
Authors: Angoff William H. , Ford Susan F.
Published: August 2014

Several samples of Black and White students were drawn from the 1970 PSAT administration in Georgia and studied for item x race interaction on both the verbal and mathematical sections of the test. When subsamples of candidates were drawn from their respective racial groups, matched on mathematical for the study of verbal items and matched on verbal for the study of mathematical items, there was an observable decrease in the size of the item x race interaction, suggesting that one factor contributing to that interaction was simply the difference in performance levels on the test shown by the two races. Further analyses demonstrated a moderate item x group interaction for Blacks native to different cities and a moderate item x group interaction for Blacks native to areas of different population density.
TESTING A LINEAR RELATION BETWEEN TRUE SCORES OF TOO MEASURES1
Authors: Kristof Walter
Published: August 2014

We concern ourselves with the hypothesis that two variables have a perfect disattenuated correlation, hence measure the same trait except for errors of measurement. This hypothesis is equivalent to saying, within the adopted model, that true scores of two psychological tests satisfy a linear relation. Statistical tests of this hypothesis are derived when the relation is specified with the exception of the additive constant. Two approaches are presented and various assumptions concerning the error parameters are used. Then the results are reinterpreted in terms of the possible existence of an unspecified linear relation between true scores of two psychological tests. A numerical example is appended by way of illustration.
AN EMPIRICAL EVALUATION OF FACTOR RELIABILITY1
Authors: Jackson Douglas N. , Morf Martin E.
Published: August 2014

The psychometric reliability of a factor, defined as its generalizability across samples drawn from the same population of tests, is considered as a necessary precondition for the scientific meaningfulness of factor analytic results. A solution to the problem of generalizability is illustrated empirically on data from a set of tests designed to measure facets of response styles and of personality dimensions. Parallel sets of measures based on personality scales defining each of seven factors were separately factored. Independent sets of component scores derived from the. orthogonal least squares fit to the oblique factor pattern matrix were computed, and these component scores were intercorrelated between the two sets, yielding factor reliabilities, whose values ranged from .65 to .85 (p < .0001, for each factor). A corresponding analysis based on scores derived from random binary data yielded nonsignificant factor reliabilities ranging from ‐.12 to +.07. It was recommended that such a test of factor generalizability be incorporated routinely into factor analytic investigations, particularly those employing Procrustes‐type rotations.