bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
6 The Changing Pattern of Undernutrition in India: A Comparative Analysis Across Regions
Authors: Viswanathan Brinda , Meenakshi J. V.
Published: May 2008

This chapter analyses the changes in prevalence of under-nourishment between the 1980s and 1990s at the national and sub-national levels in India, focusing on the rural-urban comparisons. There has been an apparent increase in the prevalence of under-nourishment over time in rural India, while in urban areas, the prevalence has remained unchanged, or has declined. Also, over time, average intakes in urban areas have surpassed those in rural India in most states. At the same time, there appears to be a decline in the within-state inequalities in energy intakes between 1983 and 1993/94, but an increase (especially in urban areas) between 1993/94 and 1999/2000.
9 The Impact of Domestic and International Commodity Price Volatility on Agricultural Income Instability in Ghana, Vietnam, and Peru
Authors: Rapsomanikis George , Sarris Alexander
Published: May 2008

This chapter focuses on estimating agricultural income uncertainties for a number of different household types in Ghana, Vietnam, and Peru. The results indicate that market and non-market uncertainties significantly affect the variability of agricultural income of households in these countries, and especially households that are specialized in a few commodities. However, under current policies, almost all of their income variability is due to domestic factors, with international prices not contributing much, at least in the short run. Wider exposure to international markets would increase the income variability of producers who have been subjected to domestic market stabilization policies in Ghana and Vietnam, while it would decrease it in the case of Peru.
11 An Analysis of the Potential Impact of the Current WTO Agricultural Negotiations on Government Strategies in the SADC Region
Authors: Hodge James , Charman Andrew
Published: May 2008

This chapter aims to help identify how the Agreement on Agriculture (AoA) could potentially constrain government action to achieve food security in the Southern African Development Community (SADC). It considers the potential impact of the proposed tariff and subsidy reduction modalities of the current round of WTO negotiations. The main focus is on the possible direct effects of the AoA, in terms of proposed reductions to domestic subsidies and tariffs, on food security in SADC countries. The chapter contends that while the potential impact of tariff reductions is minimal, given the LDC status of several countries in the SADC grouping and the extent of ‘water’ in the current country tariff structures, the longer term impact on food security policy options of SADC members is of greater concern. The chapter further highlights the comparatively low levels of public investment in the agricultural sector and the significant reductions of state support which have taken place over the past decade as a consequence of economic liberalization. It argues that the low level of investment in agriculture poses a significant threat to future regional food security.
Tampering with the ‘Sleeping Dogs’: Britain and Macedonia 1878–1935
Authors: Livanios Dimitris
Published: May 2008

This chapter analyses British foreign policy towards Macedonia from the 1870s to the mid-1930s, and argues that in the interwar years, Britain had no vital interests in the region apart from the preservation of the status quo, which was perceived as the only way of maintaining peace ‘in their time’. Consequently, Britain approached the Macedonian Question from a purely strategic point of view that prompted it to defend the Peace Treaties, and resist attempts to recognize a ‘Bulgarian minority’ in Yugoslavia. The chapter also examines the range of opinions on the appropriate solution of the Macedonian Question that existed between the centre (London) and the periphery of the Foreign Office (the British legations at Sofia and Belgrade), and demonstrates that in many cases much friction was produced over the policy that Britain ought to be pursuing in the Balkans.
A Loveless, but Necessary, Entanglement
Authors: Livanios Dimitris
Published: May 2008

This chapter offers some concluding remarks about the British connection to the Macedonian Question in the 1940s. It discusses the main parameters of British strategic thinking about Macedonia, including the preservation of the post-1918 state structure in the Balkans, and their opposition to a Balkan federation, and places their views within their historical context. It is argued that British involvement in the relations between Bulgaria and Yugoslavia — prompted always by necessity and not choice — was due solely to the need to protect the territorial integrity of Greece, the only British vital interest in the Balkans. In that context, the British viewed with profound suspicion Tito's plans about Macedonian unification and a Bulgar-Yugoslav federation, and were determined to prevent them from materializing, both when they felt they could, and also when their ability of doing so had diminished.
Truth's Role in Understanding
Authors: Peacocke Christopher
Published: May 2008

Truth and reference play an essential part in the nature of meaning, intentional content, and understanding. Meaning, intentional content, and understanding cannot be elucidated solely in terms their relations to evidence, justification, inference, or consequences. A conception of understanding as involving truth and reference has significant explanatory powers that are unavailable if this role of truth and reference is neglected. This chapter argues for these claims directly in the case of some contents whose subject matter is the non-mental spatiotemporal world. It examines detailed proposals that aim to elucidate meaning, content, and understanding independently of truth and reference; to consider respects in which these proposals fail where their truth-involving rivals succeed; and to propose some elements of a positive account of meaning, content, and understanding for the subject matter of the non-mental spatio-temporal world.
The First Person as a Case Study
Authors: Peacocke Christopher
Published: May 2008

This chapter takes the first person as the subject matter for a case study of the thesis of the preceding chapter — the thesis that the fundamental reference rule for a concept contributes essentially to the explanation of the norms distinctive of that concept. There are two aims in this exercise. One is to suggest ways in which the extraordinarily rich and philosophically interesting epistemic phenomena exhibited by such an important concept as that of the first person can be explained by its fundamental reference rule. The other aim is to consider a much more general issue that arises about the individuation of certain concepts — input or output is more fundamental than the other in the individuation of the first-person concept, or is some third position correct, a position that can explain the role of the first person both on the input and on the output sides. It is argued that the reference rule is more fundamental than either the input-oriented or the output-oriented accounts of individuation; and that it can explain phenomena that pose difficulties for those accounts.
Introduction
Authors: Wedgwood Ralph
Published: May 2008

This chapter first introduces one of the main ideas of the book — that the normativity of the intentional is the ‘key to metaethics’. It is suggested that this idea naturally captures a kind of Platonism about the normative. It then compares the theory that is outlined in the rest of the book with the best-known alternative theories (such as expressivist and constructivist theories, the theories built around a ‘conceptual analysis’ of normative concepts, the naturalist theory that is known as ‘Cornell moral realism’, and quietist forms of realism). Finally, it gives a summary of the contents of later chapters, and makes some comments on the philosophical method that is used in the rest of the book.
Thinking About What Ought To Be
Authors: Wedgwood Ralph
Published: May 2008

This chapter introduces the broadly semantical issues that are the focus of Part I of the book: how are we to give an account of the meaning of normative statements, and of the nature of the mental states (‘normative judgments’) that such statements express? Sections 1.1 and 1.2 clarify the sort of (non-circular but not necessarily reductive) account that is needed. Then the remaining sections argue that normative judgments have a very special feature: they have an essential or ‘internalist’ connection to motivation and practical reasoning. Any adequate account of the meaning of normative statement and of the nature of normative judgments must somehow explain why this sort of internalism is true.
Causal Theories and Conceptual Analyses
Authors: Wedgwood Ralph
Published: May 2008

This chapter considers two other rival accounts of normative statements. First, it considers the account of ‘Cornell moral realism’ which is based on applying the causal theory of reference to normative terms. Secondly, it considers the accounts of David Lewis, Frank Jackson, Philip Pettit, and Michael Smith, which are based on the attempt to give a ‘conceptual analysis’ of normative statements. It is argued that both of these approaches fail, largely because they cannot accommodate the sort of ‘internalism’ that was argued for in Chapter 1.
Conceptual Role Semantics
Authors: Wedgwood Ralph
Published: May 2008

This chapter gives an account of one normative concept — namely, the concept that is expressed by the practical ‘ought’. First, it is argued that this sort of ‘ought’ must be interpreted as a propositional operator. Then a version of ‘conceptual role semantics’ is given for this concept, modelled on a plausible sort of semantics for the logical constants. This account can explain the internalist connection between normative judgments and motivation. It can also explain the truth conditions of normative propositions: it entails a version of the ‘fitting attitude (FA) analysis’; very roughly, it ought to be that p if and only if it is correct for the relevant agent to incorporate the proposition that p into her plans about what to do at the relevant time.
Context and the Logic of ‘Ought’
Authors: Wedgwood Ralph
Published: May 2008

This chapter examines how this semantic account can be developed in order to enable it to deal with some other semantic issues. First, this account can give a good account of deontic logic (the logic of ‘ought’). Secondly, it can explain the way in which terms like ‘ought’ are systematically context-sensitive and express different concepts in different contexts of utterance. Finally, it can explain the logical relations between ‘ought’ and ‘best’: for every sense of ‘ought’ there is a corresponding sense of ‘best’, such that something ought to be the case if and only if it is necessary for the best state of affairs. Because the relevant sorts of ‘ought’ and ‘best’ are systematically context-sensitive, this logical relationship between ‘ought’ and ‘best’ does not entail any controversial sort of consequentialist or teleological theory.
The Metaphysical Issues
Authors: Wedgwood Ralph
Published: May 2008

This chapter explains the metaphysical concepts that will be used in Part II of the book: the concepts of a ‘constitutive account’ of a property, of essence and metaphysical necessity, and of supervenience and realization.
Irreducibility and Causal Efficacy
Authors: Wedgwood Ralph
Published: May 2008

This chapter argues for two corollaries of this metaphysical conception. First, normative facts, properties, and relations are irreducible and sui generis: they cannot be reduced to natural facts, properties, or relations. (The argument for this corollary relies on an argument that George Bealer has given against functionalism in the philosophy of mind.) Secondly, contrary to what many philosophers hold, they are causally efficacious, and enter into causal explanations of contingent facts about what happens in the world. This view of normative facts as causally efficacious can be defended against objections in much the same way as philosophers of mind have defended mental causation (i.e., the view that mental states are causally efficacious); it is compatible with the modest sort of naturalism that claims that all causal facts are realized in (but not necessarily identical to) natural facts.
Disagreement and theA Priori
Authors: Wedgwood Ralph
Published: May 2008

This chapter traces out some implications of this epistemological account. First, it is explained how the account developed in Chapter 10 implies that under favourable conditions, normative truths are knowable a priori; but they are a special case of the a priori, differing in important ways from other forms of a priori truths, such as logical and mathematical truths. The remainder of the chapter is devoted to a further problem: the existence of widespread and persistent disagreement about normative questions. It is argued that it can be rational to persist in one's normative belief, even if those who disagree with one's belief include thinkers who are equally intelligent, thoughtful, and well informed about the non-normative facts (i.e., thinkers who are one's ‘epistemic peers’). Contrary to what some philosophers might assume, this view is quite compatible with the realist conception of the normative that this book is designed to defend.
Postscript The Modern Legacy of Coptic Christology
Authors: Davis Stephen J.
Published: May 2008

This chapter presents two illustrative case studies — one from the early modern period and one from the late 20th and early 21st century — in order to show how Egyptian Christians have continued to envision and enact the Incarnation in ritual settings such as monastic practice and the liturgy. The first example comes from a moment of ecclesiastical encounter between East and West in the 17th century. In 1672, the patriarch of the Coptic Church, Matthew IV (fl. 1660–76 ce), composed a Refutation of the Calvinists, in which he responded to a French Catholic petition to speak out against Protestant eucharistic Christology. The second example involves Mattā al-Miskīn's (‘Matthew the Poor’, 1919–2006) publication of a series of sermons and theological tractates in which he presents not only the eucharist but also the entire life of the church as ‘a manifestation of Christ's Incarnation on earth’.
On Nature and Providence: Readings in Herodotus, Protagoras, and Democritus
Authors: Osborne Catherine
Published: May 2008

This chapter discusses extracts from the Apocryphal book of Jubilees, Herodotus' Histories, and Plato's Protagoras. It explores the idea that myths and stories serve to construct one's understanding of nature, appealing to what appear to be value-free facts, but telling a story that attaches significance to those facts as morally relevant or irrelevant considerations. Nature appears as provident and wise, or as improvident and hostile. The portrayal generates in the reader either a sense of fellow-feeling and care for the environment, or a sense of justified aggression. Narrative can be used to manipulate the reader's perception of his/her place in the world, and of the value and purpose of moral precepts.
On the Disadvantages of Being a Complex Organism: Aristotle and the scala naturae
Authors: Osborne Catherine
Published: May 2008

Does Aristotle have a scala naturae in which humans are ranked higher than the other animals? Is it better to be human than to be something else? This chapter shows that Aristotle's sequence of functions of the soul is not ordered in terms of honour but in terms of distribution. Greater complexity is not a mark of superiority. The animals' lack of what Aristotle called eudaimonia does not mean that they are lacking in happiness or success in their own pursuits. Rather, simplicity is an ideal; psychological complexity is (for Aristotle) a mark of things that fall short of perfection, as is evident from his discussion of the complex motions of the planets. Texts discussed include Metaphysics A, De anima, Nicomachean Ethics X, De partibus animalium, De Caelo, De incessu animalium, and Aristotle's discussion of slaves and women in Politics.
On Eating Animals: Porphyry's Dietary Rules for Philosophers
Authors: Osborne Catherine
Published: May 2008

This chapter explores the reasons why Porphyry's De abstinentia recommends refraining from killing and eating animals. These reasons include the idea that meat is a luxury which is not conducive to good philosophy. It is suggested that all forms of special diet, including the choice of a vegetarian diet in parts of the world where the natural resources yield game, fish, or grazing rather than edible crops, depend upon the availability of choice among a surplus of different foodstuffs. Hence, the opportunity to choose a distinctive diet, whether meat or vegetarian, as opposed to using the whatever the locality affords naturally, presupposes some degree of affluence, and perhaps exploitation of labour and natural resources so as to import goods at below their true cost from those who are not in a position to choose.
Conclusion
Authors: Osborne Catherine
Published: May 2008

This brief chapter draws out the implications of the earlier chapters, particularly in respect of the fact that even where it appears that morality is responsive to natural facts which can be determined first by biology, in reality there are no such facts, and their relevance is not given in nature. The relevance of certain facts is determined by our moral outlook, and different moral outlooks seem to be available. However, the chapter suggests that not all moral outlooks are equally sound. This is not because one is more true to some independent facts of nature, but one is more true to independent facts of moral truth, about the more noble and generous outlook towards our fellow creatures; this is where the distinction between the humane and the sentimental is drawn.
God's Wars
Authors: Donagan Barbara
Published: May 2008

This chapter begins with a brief discussion of two parts of the law of war: the first, ius ad bellum, addresses the theory of war, of situations wherein it is morally permissible to resort to arm; and the second, ius in bello, addresses conduct in war and the rules for moderating and regulating it. It then discusses the justifications for war within the context of Christianity. It is argued that acceptance of traditional justifications of just war in England in the first half of the 17th century was partly the result of national perception of embattled Protestantism. The rhetoric of godly warfare and saints in arms was already familiar, as was the call for radically changed, morally reformed soldiers that was later to be heard in the armies of both sides.
The Means of Violence
Authors: Donagan Barbara
Published: May 2008

This chapter discusses weapons used in the English civil war. Civil war armies used a transitional mixture of firearms and ‘muscle-powered weapons’ ranging from heavy artillery to clubs. Even the bow and arrow marginally survived this time, although these seem to have been most useful as a means of sending propaganda messages in and out of besieged strongholds. Officers carried pistols and swords, as did the cavalry, and royalist cavalry sometimes added a small pole-axe; dragoons — mounted foot soldiers on inferior horses — usually carried firelock muskets or carbines as well as swords; and foot regiments were composed of musketeers (normally with less advanced matchlock muskets) and pikemen, both of whom also carried swords. Homely weapons played a larger part early in the war than they did after it had settled down and supplies and logistics had improved.
Knowledge and Confusion
Authors: Donagan Barbara
Published: May 2008

This chapter discusses army intelligence during the English civil war. The war both facilitated and complicated intelligence gathering and analysis — a process that revealed again the distinctive intimacy of this war in which language formed no barrier, troops were volatile, prisoners were regularly exchanged, and clothing was a shaky guide to affiliation, and in which civil society, with its poor transients, messengers, and travelling civilians coexisted alongside armies, as did family links and friendship between enemies. The blurred boundaries between civil and military society aided information gathering, while the technological limits of communications and the confusions of war reinforced the need for it. Intelligence, once obtained, had to be translated into purposive military action. Generals and their councils of war made the best plans they could on the basis of information received, and as needs changed they dispatched aides de camp with revised orders.
War and Civil War
Authors: Donagan Barbara
Published: May 2008

This chapter examines the ways in which the laws of war applicable between nations were justified, adapted, and sustained in a civil war, and then looks at the regulations designed to produce an orderly and effective fighting force. The codes of war that covered the law of conduct in war (ius in bello) were of three kinds. First, the laws of God, nature, and nations covered the conduct to be expected of reasonable, moral men. Their authority crossed national and confessional boundaries, but it particularly behooved Christians to observe them. They were equally relevant to Catholic and Protestant, English and foreigner. Second, the laws of war, professionally specialized and largely customary, were also international, although there might be local variations of detail. Both the laws of God, nature, and nations and the laws of war were uncodified and unwritten. Only the third category of rules, those covering internal army discipline — the articles or ordinances of war — constituted a body of written law.
Soldiers' Law
Authors: Donagan Barbara
Published: May 2008

This chapter examines the laws of war in the 17th century. It argues that the English civil war represents a stage on the way to modern codified rules that regulate conduct in war. English practice in the 1640s, with its striking mixture of harshness and restraint, reflected a reality that later codifiers and theorists have continued to grapple with; the demands of ‘military necessity’ and of moral criteria have continued to coexist uneasily. The laws of God, nature, and nations; the laws of war; and the evolution of English articles of war are discussed.
Theory and Practice
Authors: Donagan Barbara
Published: May 2008

This chapter focuses on theory and practice of the laws of war in the 17th century. The laws of war were mixed in nature, form, and purpose, but they presented a comprehensive and impressive body of moral, legal, and professional rules. These rules incorporated exceptions or, less formally, could be bent to suit circumstances. The means of enforcement and execution of justice are discussed.
Armies
Authors: Donagan Barbara
Published: May 2008

This chapter discusses the armies of the civil war. The armies of the civil war were large by contemporary English standards. In 1628, it was estimated that 24,000 men were necessary for an offensive war, the same number as that raised for defence against the Armada. In 1626, 20,000 to 30,000 men had been accounted for in a great army, and 50,000 ‘a royal Army’. In the 1640s, the numbers of men in arms greatly exceeded these earlier figures, but the totals are and will remain elusive. Demographically speaking, the military presence in England in the 1640s, although of shorter duration, was comparable to that in Germany during the Thirty Years' War and was spread over a much smaller geographical area. Two armies of 60,000 in England would, in any single year, have accounted for roughly 2.4% of a total population of some 5,100,000; even if the estimate is slashed by half, they still account for 1.2%.
Officers
Authors: Donagan Barbara
Published: May 2008

This chapter discusses officers in the civil war. The test of good officers lay in what they could get out of their soldiers: in how intelligently they deployed them, in what they successfully demanded of them, and in how well they controlled them. Some commanders drew recruits for reasons of family, region, reputation, and religion, but they kept them partly by force of character, partly by fulfilling hopes of reward, and partly by care for their welfare that sometimes led to affection. Civilians in turn benefited from good officers who enforced discipline and kept their men reasonably contented. However, even the best of officers could be defeated by conditions beyond their control, of which the most prevalent was lack of money to pay their men. The making of an officer, bad officers, and the power of officer leadership are discussed.
Making Time for the Past
Authors: Clarke Katherine
Published: May 2008

This book is about time and local history in the Greek world. It argues that choices concerning the articulation and expression of time reflect the values of both those who ‘make’ it and their audiences. This study ranges from the widespread awareness of time's malleability and the perceived value of the past by the citizens of the Greek polis to the formal analysis of time-systems in Hellenistic scholarship. It addresses the development by historians of ways to articulate the long span of historical time, from the chronologies developed by those who wrote universal narratives to those whose stories were about the individual polis. The negotiation of time is of interest in any social context, but it carries particular resonance in the world of Greek poleis, where each community had its own calendar and ran to its own time. Both the articulation of time and the establishment of ‘shared’ histories have been seen as modes of self-expression for communities. An exploration of their intersection is, therefore, especially illuminating. By focusing on city-history, the creation of the past within a restricted community, it is possible to examine more closely the dynamics of how time and the past were ‘made’. Therefore, this study brings together the wider theme of ‘managing time’, with an exploration of how history was created at a local level, within a civic context. It looks at the construction of the past as a social activity, which both reflects and contributes towards the sense of a shared, civic identity.
Introduction
Authors: Clarke Katherine
Published: May 2008

This chapter discusses different forms of temporal calibration and articulation, as well as the complementary nature of natural time and culturally-determined time. After introducing some philosophical problems concerning the nature of time, it examines evidence for the proposition that time as a malleable and constructed concept was familiar within the everyday life of the Greek polis, through the plays of Aristophanes and publicly displayed inscriptions. The connections between time as mapped out on a recurring annual cycle through the calendar and historical time which spans the past of a place are also considered.
Making a business of time
Authors: Clarke Katherine
Published: May 2008

This chapter focuses on chronography, that is, the scholarly field which concerns the organization and articulation of time. It examines the extant fragments of the ancient chronographic tradition, which was initially dominated by competitive culture of Hellenistic scholarship, and by figures such as Eratosthenes of Cyrene and Apollodorus of Athens. Methodological problems, such as that of generic classification, are addressed throughout. The chapter deals first with works concerning Greek city-calendars, especially the festival calendars, before moving on to those which focus on the articulation and expression of linear, historical time. Here are treated issues of synchronism; the establishment of important dates, such as that of the fall of Troy and the acme of Homer; the correlation of fixed chronological markers with continuous systems, such as lists of eponymous magistrates, kings, or Olympic victors; the development of universal chronologies; and the notion of literary time-frames.
2 Universals Constrain Change; Change Results in Typological Generalizations
Authors: Kiparsky Paul
Published: May 2008

This chapter presents an absolute explanation for universal patterns. The following criteria should converge to identify true universals: (1) universals have no exceptions (for what does not arise by change cannot be subverted by it either). That is, they are violable only in virtue of more highly ranked universal constraints. (2) Universals are process-independent. (3) Universals can be manifested in ‘emergence of the unmarked’ effects. (4) Universals constitute pathways for analogical change. (5) Universals are embedded in grammars as constraints and can interact with other grammatical constraints. Choosing as testing grounds Binding Theory and split ergativity in morphosyntax, and voicing neutralization and sonority in phonology, it is argued that criteria do converge rather cleanly in each case.
11 Emergent Serialization in English: Pragmatics and Typology
Authors: Hopper Paul J.
Published: May 2008

This chapter examines the take NP and construction to show how a close study of the distribution of a construction in discourse leads to a view of grammar as something fluid and unstable, that is, as emergent from, and inseparable from, its discourse environment. Verb serialization, in this view, would then be one part of an entire range of possible uses of the first verb, some of which have become grammaticalized, and which are in turn part of a general process whereby a word with a wide range of meanings projects subsequent stretches of discourse, ‘captures’ them, and hauls them into its scope. Verb serialization is thus, to the extent that it is not a borrowed feature, an emergent process.
12 Universals and Diachrony: Some Observations
Authors: Nichols Johanna
Published: May 2008

This chapter reviews the preceding chapters in this volume. It says that although each one makes an original claim, none of them is sufficiently concerned with replicability and falsifiability to enable linguists to make one confident that the claims are valid generalizations about language or grammar. Falsifiable claims and rigorous, replicable, and sizable cross-linguistic surveys of relevant phenomena and their origins are needed before we can make confident pronouncements on the relationship between language universals and language change. This means that progress in this field requires thorough description and documentation of all languages; full comparative-historical description and reconstruction, with explicit accounts of changes, for very many languages and families; and a robust framework-neutral terminology and theoretical apparatus.
Introduction
Authors: Cousens Roger , Dytham Calvin , Law Richard
Published: May 2008

This introductory chapter serves two main purposes: to explain the structure of the book and to introduce the terminology to be used. It discusses the key terms that have been applied to dispersal, such as trajectory, population, and community; points out ambiguities and overlap; and states the definitions which are used in the book.
Contribution of the parent plant to dispersal
Authors: Cousens Roger , Dytham Calvin , Law Richard
Published: May 2008

This chapter considers aspects of the maternal parent, other than the tissues immediately around the seed, which contribute to the distances dispersed by plant propagules. It shows how plant phenotype, the abiotic environment, competition, and herbivory all help to determine where the trajectories of propagules begin. Plant phenology dictates when the force required separating the propagule from its parent is at a minimum, and therefore when the trajectory is likely to begin. This can be critical for the survival of animal vectors as well as for movement of seeds contained in fruits. In some cases, the parent provides an additional force to launch the propagule away from its parent.
Attributes of propagules that aid dispersal
Authors: Cousens Roger , Dytham Calvin , Law Richard
Published: May 2008

This chapter discusses traits that determine dispersal of propagules by different vectors. It pays special attention to dispersal by air, water, animals, and humans, since these vectors have received the greatest attention in scientific literature. It is clear from morphological and chemical traits that many species have evolved an enhanced ability to be dispersed by particular vectors. However, propagules may be moved by a number of vectors, both physical and biological. There is variation in these traits between species, between and within populations, and among propagules on the same plant. Mass, volume, and area determine the propensity of any propagule to be moved in air and water. Dispersal on the outside of animals is correlated with propagule shape, mass, and adhesive ability, while size relative to the mouth of the animal and chemical constituents determine which species will be ingested and how long they might be carried.
Patterns of dispersal from entire plants
Authors: Cousens Roger , Dytham Calvin , Law Richard
Published: May 2008

This chapter discusses approaches that have been used to understand how particular shapes and scales of propagule distributions arise around a parent plant. It begins by contrasting two different methods of collecting dispersal data and two fundamentally different ways of presenting the results. It is shown that the frequency distribution of dispersal distance approaches zero at the source, increases to one (or more) maximum, and declines rapidly to a long tail. In contrast, the density of the seed rain declines rapidly with distance, being greatest close to the source plant. Examples are given of models that are being developed to predict dispersal by multiple vectors and over the entire dispersal season. The chapter concludes with a discussion of research methodologies, since these are critical to the success of future empirical research.
Invasions and range expansion
Authors: Cousens Roger , Dytham Calvin , Law Richard
Published: May 2008

This chapter explores the spatial dynamics of invading species, paying particular attention to the patterns formed as they spread, i.e., the rate of increase of the area invaded and the rate at which their boundaries move. The development of models for population expansion — comprising a range of structures and assumptions both simple and complex — is reviewed. Rare long distance dispersal events are shown to dictate the rate of spread, the pattern in population margins, and the distribution of genotypes. Movement through heterogeneous landscapes is shown to be further affected by the connectivity and distribution of suitable patches.
Propagule dispersal and the spatial dynamics of populations and communities
Authors: Cousens Roger , Dytham Calvin , Law Richard
Published: May 2008

This chapter considers the signal of local dispersal which sits inside maps of the locations of individuals, and introduces spatial statistics as measures of spatial structure. It shows how dispersal plays a fundamental part in local population dynamics. Dispersal is also shown to have important implications for the outcome of local spatial competition between two species, the dynamics of metapopulations, and the structure of multispecies communities. Local dispersal causes clumping, slows down changes in density, and affects the asymptotic state ultimately achieved by a population. When different species compete, dispersal over greater distances gives a species an advantage which can eliminate competitive coexistence which might otherwise occur. However, in the presence of spatial environmental heterogeneity, where too much dispersal can move offspring away from favourable parts of the environment, dispersal over intermediate distances can allow faster population growth than dispersal over either short or long distances.
The evolution of dispersal
Authors: Cousens Roger , Dytham Calvin , Law Richard
Published: May 2008

This chapter provides both a flavour of, and some insight into, the evolutionary forces at work shaping the amazing diversity of dispersal strategies seen in plants. For all plants, there is a tension between the advantages of a sedentary or short-distance dispersal strategy and those of a more dispersive one. The selective forces that act to increase or decrease evolved dispersal rates or distances are reviewed. The dispersal strategy adopted by a plant species is clearly shaped by a long history of interacting and competing forces. The relative strengths of these forces will inevitably wax and wane, and the interactions between them shift to change the overall selective pressure to disperse.
Concluding remarks
Authors: Cousens Roger , Dytham Calvin , Law Richard
Published: May 2008

This short concluding chapter first summarizes the book's take-home messages from the three sections of the book, and then lists some recommendations for future research.
3 The International Mobility of Technical Talent: Trends and Development Implications
Authors: D'Costa Anthony P.
Published: May 2008

This chapter charts the complex dynamics of the movement of technical talent in the world economy and assesses broadly the impact of such mobility on both sending and receiving countries. Based on secondary data and primary information from the Indian and Japanese information technology industries, the study presents a global view of the movement of talent and its development and policy implications. By synthesizing disparate data and the multifaceted processes and outcomes of international mobility, the chapter examines some of the distributional issues of gains and losses in both sending and receiving countries.
4 Global Mobility of Talent from a Perspective of New Industrial Policy: Open Migration Chains and Diaspora Networks
Authors: Kuznetsov Yevgeny , Sabel Charles
Published: May 2008

The chapter views migration of skills from a perspective of new industrial policy. It introduces two types of search networks: open migration chains and diaspora networks. Migration chains are sequences of educational or job opportunities which allows a migrant to move to progressively complex educational and job tasks necessary to work in the global environment. Diaspora networks are networks of members seeking to advance their collective goals, often (but not necessarily) for the benefits of home countries. Open migration chains are functional equivalent to value chains: they emphasize upgrading of individual human capital. ‘Diaspora networks’ are about concerted action and clubs. They can be viewed as tools to upgrade open migration chains exactly the same way as a supplier development programme is a concerted action to upgrade value chains.
7 Student Migration to the United States and Brain Circulation: Issues, Empirical Results, and Programmes in Latin America
Authors: Angel‐Urdinola Diego F. , Takeno Taizo , Wodon Quentin
Published: May 2008

High-skilled student migration may lead to a brain drain for developing countries. After a brief review of the literature, this chapter provides an analysis of patterns of student migration to the US. Estimates based on panel data for fifty countries over the period 1990-99 provide some limited evidence on brain drain or gain, although Latin America may be more vulnerable than other regions to brain drain. In order to fight brain drain, programmes can however be implemented in order to ensure that students who have migrated abroad return to their country of origin. Examples of three programmes implemented in Colombia and Mexico that aim to mitigate the risk of brain drain into a gain, or more generally, to optimize ‘brain circulation’ are provided.
11 Talent Mobility in the Global Economy: Europe as a Destination
Authors: Cervantes Mario , Goldstein Andrea
Published: May 2008

This chapter explores Europe's position in attracting foreign talent relative to other OECD regions. It focuses on the international migration of talent embodied in students and in highly skilled migrants and also provides scattered evidence on other types of talent through three case studies — on South Africa (as a sending country of nurses), economics (a social science with important fallouts on the rest of society), and football (soccer) players (a type of global cultural talent). Based on evidence of flows of university students as well as on the stocks of highly skilled people in OECD countries, it argues that Europe is more attractive, in quantitative terms, to talent from other developed countries than to talent from developing countries. It also argues that Europe's relative lack of attractiveness to highly skilled migrants from developing countries is related to historical, economic, and institutional factors. Among these are the structure of labour markets in several EU countries, restrictive product market regulations and barriers to entrepreneurship, the fact that Europe's immigration policies have only recently moved to favour the highly skilled after focusing family reunification and asylum migrants, and that Europe's higher education sector, while attractive to students from developed countries, appears to be less attractive/open to students from outside the EU.
1 Religion and Politics: The West, Islam, Byzantium
Authors: Black Antony
Published: May 2008

Early Christianity saw church and state as separate. Early Islam conceived a single 'umma under a single caliphate. It prescribed an all-embracing Shari'a. But after Constantine Christianity brought church and state together. In the Byzantine East, the emperor was assigned a divine mission. The Western church insisted on the clergy's independence. Some in the West tried to subordinate state to church, or vice versa; but the main trend was towards separation, and political thought became more secular. In Islam, the 'ulama became separate from the sultan but the relationship was not defined. Orthodox Jurists sought reintegration of religion and government. Separation between religion and politics in principle found little support. Christians, who had started as pacifists, adopted holy war and religious persecution; Muslims favoured limited toleration. There was thus both convergence and divergence between the two cultures: church and state.
8 The Origins of Western Political Thought
Authors: Black Antony
Published: May 2008

The problem of church and state initiated the development of Western political theory in Aquinas, John of Paris, and Marsilius. One difference between European and Islamic thought was the European idea of a natural law which applied to, and could be known by, all humans. Islamic ethics derived solely from the Shari'a which was known only to Muslims and in which rights and duties differed according to religious affiliation. Another difference was the European prioritization of liberty. Natural law and liberty led to a doctrine of human rights. The modern Western idea of the state was based on a distinction between religion and politics, church and state. Aristotle's Politics helped legitimize partially democratic city republics. These did not exist in Islam.
4 Is there a Post‐Washington Consensus Consensus?
Authors: Stiglitz Joseph E.
Published: May 2008

If there is a consensus today about what strategies are most likely to promote development in poor countries, it is this: the ‘Washington Consensus’ — the oversimplified rendition of policies recommended by international financial institutions and the US Treasury — did not provide the answer. This chapter reviews the tenets of the Washington Consensus and shows why its orthodox recipes failed to generate economic growth in the countries that applied them. It goes on to outline the ‘post-“Washington Consensus” Consensus’, which has emerged as a result of the growing dissatisfaction with the Washington Consensus failures. Aspects include: the agreement that a successful development strategy cannot come only from Washington but must include the developing world in a meaningful way; one-site-fits-all policies are doomed to fail; countries should be given room to experiment, use their own judgment, and explore alternatives; development requires a balanced role between the state and the market and the strengthening of the institutions in each; and finally, success must be measured not only in GDP, but also must account for distribution as well as social and environmental sustainability.
6 A Broad View of Macroeconomic Stability
Authors: Ocampo José Antonio
Published: May 2008

This chapter recommends a broad concept of macroeconomic stability, whereby ‘sound macroeconomic frameworks’ include not only price stability and sound fiscal policies, but also a well-functioning real economy, sustainable debt ratios, and healthy public and private sector balance sheets. These multiple dimensions imply the use of multiple policy instruments. The chapter elaborates a framework for developing countries that involves active use of countercyclical macroeconomic policies (exchange rate, monetary, and fiscal), together with capital management techniques (capital account regulations and prudential rules incorporating macroeconomic dimensions). It also explores the role of international financial institutions in facilitating developing countries' use of countercyclical macroeconomic policies.
8 Sudden Stop, Financial Factors, and Economic Collapse in Latin America: Learning from Argentina and Chile
Authors: Calvo Guillermo A. , Talvi Ernesto
Published: May 2008

This chapter shows that the Russian 1998 crisis had a big impact on capital flows to Emerging Market Economies (EMEs), especially in Latin America, and that the impact of the Russian shock differs quite markedly across EMEs. To illustrate this statement, the polar cases of Chile and Argentina are compared. While Chile exhibited a significant economic slowdown after August 1998, it did not suffer the excruciating collapse suffered by Argentina, where even the payments system came to a full stop. This difference is attributed to the fact that Chile is more open to trade than Argentina, and that it appears to suffer much less from balance-sheet currency-denomination mismatch that was rampant in Argentina before the 2002 crisis (due to large domestic liability dollarization). The chapter is essentially descriptive but is in line with and, thus, complements econometric studies like Calvo, Izquierdo, and Mejia (NBER Working Paper 10520). The final section addresses policy issues in light of the chapter's findings and conjectures.