bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Time‐budget data: Log‐linear and analysis of variance compared
Authors: Bakeman Roger , Forthman Debra L. , Perkins Lorraine A.
Published: June 2005

Analysis of variance (ANOVA) and log‐linear analyses of time‐budget data from a study of sloth bear enclosure utilization are compared. Two sampling models that plausibly underlie such data are discussed. Either could lead to an analysis of variance, but only one to a log‐linear analysis. Given an appropriate sampling model and appropriate data, there is much to recommend log‐linear analysis, despite its unfamiliarity to most animal behaviorists. One need not worry whether distribution assumptions are violated. Moreover, the data analyzed are the data collected, not estimates derived from those data, and thus no power is lost through a data reduction step. No matter what analysis is used, effect size should be taken into consideration. Multiple R2 can be used for ANOVA, but no directly comparable statistic exists for log‐linear analyses. One possible candidate for a log‐linear R2 analog is discussed here, and appears to give sensible and interpretable results. © 1992 Wiley‐Liss Inc.
Salivary cortisol assessment for stress detection in the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus): A pilot study
Authors: Dathe Holger H. , Kuckelkorn Bernd , Minnemann Dieter
Published: June 2005

Effects of introducing an unfamiliar female into an Asian elephant herd at Tierpark Berlin were monitored by means of salivary cortisol assessment. Saliva samples were obtained from a second female for comparative purposes. The period of familiarization was characterized by an enhanced cortisol level in both animals, with a maximum on the second day after joining. Cortisol returned to normal on the following day. Manipulations of the keepers caused a transitory increase on two other days. Possibilities for the use of this noninvasive method of stress monitoring in various management situations are indicated. © 1992 Wiley‐Liss Inc.
Management parameters affecting the reproductive potential of captive, female black rhinoceros,Diceros bicornis
Authors: Smith Russell L. , Read Bruce
Published: June 2005

With deterioration of the wild population over the last two decades, captive reproduction of black rhinoceros has become a high priority for zoological gardens. Several reproductive parameters of female black rhinoceros were analyzed with data from the international studbook, and compared to data from field studies. These analyses yielded comparisons for ages of females at first calving, length of birth intervals, and span of reproductive life. The implications for rhino productivity are discussed, and some suggestions for increasing productivity are presented. © 1992 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
The establishment and reproduction of a group of semifree‐ranging mandrills
Authors: Feistner Anna T. C. , Cooper Robert W. , Evans Siǎn
Published: June 2005

Mandrills, Mandrillus sphinx, colorful terrestrial primates from the tropical forests of West Central Africa, are poorly known in the wild. The formation at the International Medical Research Center of Franceville, Gabon, of a semifreeranging, cohesive, reproducing group of mandrills in a highly naturalistic setting provided a unique resource for the study of this threatened species. The acquisition and release of 15 mandrills into a 1.4 ha and then a 5.3 ha enclosure of natural gallery forest is described. Thirty‐three births in the group resulted in 23 surviving offspring over a period of six years. Apparent early reproduction in females was indicated by small size at conception, presence of several deciduous teeth at the time of first parturition, continued weight gain through subsequent births, and decreasing inter‐birth intervals. © 1992 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Reproductive status of cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) in North American Zoos: The benefits of physiological surveys for strategic planning
Authors: Wildt D. E. , Brown J. L. , Bush M. , Barone M. A. , Cooper K. A. , Grisham J. , Howard J. G.
Published: June 2005

Under the mandate of a Species Survival Plan (SSP), reproductive status was assessed in 128 cheetahs maintained in 18 different institutions in North America. A mobile laboratory research team evaluated cheetahs using anesthesia, serial blood sampling, electroejaculation (males), and laparoscopy (females). Biomaterials were also collected for parallel studies of genetics, nutrition, and health. There was no mortality, and cheetahs were capable of reproducing naturally after these intense manipulatory examinations. No marked differences were observed in reproductive or endocrine characteristics between proven and unproven breeders. However, males consistently produced teratospermic ejaculates, and cheetah sperm were compromised in conspecific or heterologous in vitro fertilization systems. Structurally abnormal sperm were found to be filtered by the oocyte's zona pellucida. More than 80% of the females were anatomically sound, but morphological and endocrine evidence suggested that ∼50% or more of the population may have had inactive ovaries at the time of the examination. Males ranging in age from 15 to 182 months produced spermic ejaculates, but motile sperm numbers/ejaculate and circulating testosterone concentrations were highest in males 60 to 120 months old. Parovarian cysts were observed in 51.5% of female cheetahs, but comparisons between proven and unproven subpopulations revealed that this abnormality likely had no influence on fertility. Fresh luteal tissue was not observed in any nonpregnant or nonlactating female, strongly suggesting that the cheetah is an induced ovulator. Overall survey results were discussed in the context of the etiology of reproductive inefficiency, especially with respect to the potential importance of biological versus management factors. Four high priority research areas in cheetah reproductive biology were identified: 1) continuous monitoring of ejaculate quality in the extant population, while studying the impact of pleiomorphisms on fertility; 2) determining the potential relationship between libido and androgen production (excretion) in males; 3) confirming the extent of cyclic, or acyclic, ovarian activity in females; and 4) continued development of assisted reproductive techniques for enhancing man‐agement. In summary, a multidisciplinary, multi‐institutional survey coordinated through the SSP is both possible and useful for generating a physiological and health database beneficial to driving further research and management initiatives. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Diseases of captive cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus): Results of the cheetah research council pathology survey, 1989–1992
Authors: Munson Linda
Published: June 2005

Knowledge of the diseases of cheetahs is essential to prevent and treat conditions that can modulate fertility and longevity. Toward this aim, a comprehensive pathology survey was conducted under a directive from the Cheetah Species Survival Plan. To date, 31 adult cheetahs and nine cubs from 16 zoological parks have been evaluated. Also, liver biopsies from 67 female cheetahs from 22 zoological parks were examined. Veno‐occlusive disease (VOD) affected 82% of deceased cheetahs and 51% of live female cheetahs, and was the cause of death in nine cheetahs. Glomerulosclerosis and nephrosclerosis affected 84% and 39% of the population, respectively, and caused renal failure in eight cheetahs. The severity of VOD and glomerulosclerosis increased with age, and was not associated with infertility. Chronic gastritis was noted in 91% of the study population, and 95% of these cases also had spiral bacteria. Feline infectious peritonitis caused the death of two cheetahs. Male cheetahs had testicular degeneration, atrophy, and/or spermatogenic arrest, but these cheetahs also had severe systemic illness. Most females did not have reproductive tract lesions that would cause infertility, including those with parovarian cysts. Ovarian histology suggested that infertile cheetahs were not ovulating. Most cubs died from pneumonia or other systemic infections. The results of this study indicate that serious diseases are prevalent in the North American cheetahs, but these diseases do not appear to be the cause of infertility in the population. However, these diseases do limit the life span and well‐being of cheetahs in captivity. Further research is needed to elucidate the causes of these diseases. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Exposure to FIV and FIPV in wild and captive cheetahs
Authors: Brown Eric W. , Olmsted Robert A. , Martenson Janice S. , O'Brien Stephen J.
Published: June 2005

Two RNA‐containing viruses, feline infectious peritonitis virus (FIPV) and feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV), have been observed to infect cheetahs. Although both viruses cause lethal immunogenetic pathology in domestic cats, only FIPV has documented pathogenesis in cheetahs. We summarize and update here a worldwide survey of serum and plasma from cheetah and other nondomestic felids for antibodies to FIV and FIPV, based on Western blot and immunofluorescence assays. FIPV exposure shows an acute pattern with recognizable outbreaks in several zoological facilities, but is virtually nonexistent in sampled free‐ranging populations of cheetahs. FIV is more endemic in certain natural cheetah populations, but infrequent in zoological collections. FIV exposure was also seen in lions, bobcats, leopards, snow leopards, and jaguars. FIV causes T‐cell lymphocyte depletion and associated diseases in domestic cats, but there is little direct evidence for FIV pathology in exotic cats to date. Because of the parallels with a high incidence of simian immunodeficiency virus in free‐ranging African primates without disease, the cat model may also reflect historic infections that have approached an evolutionary balance between the pathogen and immune defenses of their feline host species. Published 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Nutrition of Captive Cheetahs: Food Composition and Blood Parameters
Authors: Dierenfeld Ellen S.
Published: June 2005

Diet and nutrition of cheetahs was evaluated through survey, in conjunction with chemical analysis of feed and plasma samples, as part of a multidisciplinary effort to investigate underlying causes of low reproductive success in North American captive cheetah populations. Cheetahs consumed an average of 1.32 ± 0.4 kg of food daily, containing approximately 1,800 kcal, and maintained an average body mass of 36.7 ± 1.0 kg (n = 34). A commercially prepared horsemeat‐based mixture comprised the dietary staple in 10 of 13 zoos responding to the survey, with additional whole or carcass portions offered 1‐‐2 days per week to maintain variety and provide periodontal stimulation. Seven of 13 respondents fasted animals 1 day/week; five maintained no fast days. The primary meat product (n = 14 samples) contained: 58% crude protein, 28% crude fat, 7% total ash, 52 Iu/kg vitamin E, 9.7 Iu/g vitamin A, and 2,200 mg/kg taurine (dry basis). Mineral content of the same food item was: 1.9% Ca, 10.0 mg/kg Cu, 645.2 mg/kg Fe, 0.08% Mg, 22.6 mg/kg Mn, 1.3% P, 0.4% Na, and 127.8 mg/kg Zn. Nutrient levels, except vitamin E (and possibly Mg), met or exceeded recommendations established for domestic felids. Plasma α‐tocopherol, retinol, and taurine (18.1, 1.82, 128.4 μmol/L, respectively) concentrations were similar to normals for domestic felids, as were mean plasma mineral levels (n = 81; in mEq/L: 5.64 (Ca), 0.03 (Cu), 0.03 (Fe), 2.0 (Mg), 166.0 (Na), 12.3 (P), and 0.026 (Zn)). No gross physiological or dietary nutrient imbalances were evident from this survey. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Estimated number of snake species that can be managed by Species Survival Plans in North America
Authors: Quinn Hugh , Quinn Holly
Published: June 2005

A survey designed to estimate the number of snake enclosures available for Species Survival Plan (SSP) programs was distributed to all North American zoos containing 100 or more reptile and amphibian specimens. Of the 52 zoos surveyed, 44 (84.6%) responded, indicating that 790 (26.3%) of the 3,012 snake enclosures were available for SSP programs. Available enclosures were classified by size and existing themes to help define limitations of the potential SSP space. This spatial information was then used in conjunction with existing population genetics models to estimate that up to 16 snake species can be accommodated by SSP programs in these zoos collectively. Values used in the models were estimates of those for an average snake species with a generation time of 15 years, lambda of 1.15, with 26 effective founders, and an ne/n ratio of 0.3. It was further assumed that 90% of the genetic variation would be maintained in each species for a period of 100 years. Tactics to increase the number of species that SSP programs can accommodate include: increase reserve space, devote more space for SSP snakes, lengthen generation time, promote gene exchange with wild populations, goal SSP programs for less than 200 years, invest in short‐term programs, involve the private sector, build new enclosures, increase the number of snakes per enclosure, and encourage participation of non‐North American institutions. To maximize biological diversity in relation to captive carrying capacity, it is recommended that SSP programs represent both infraorders of living snakes and as many families within those infraorders as possible. Although not all 16 families of snakes are likely to be represented due to exhibit value, obtainability, and husbandry success, it may be possible to represent as many as nine families in 16 SSP programs. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Partial hydatidiform mole in a pregnant chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes)
Authors: Debyser Isolde W. J. , Soma Hiroaki , Zwart Peernel
Published: June 2005

Until now, the occurrence of hydatidiform mole in non‐human primates has not been documented. This report presents a case in which a stillborn fetus, associated with a partial hydatidiform mole, was found at necropsy in the uterus of a pregnant chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) which had suddenly died. Hydropic swelling of the chorionic villi and proliferation of trophoblastic cells were present. The trophoblast was stained enzyme‐immunohistochemically with human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) and pregnancy‐specific‐β1‐glycoprotein (SP1). The concentrations of hCG and SP1 in maternal serum were high, 1,350 mIU/ml and 1,000 ng/ml, respectively. The distribution of DNA content of the cytotrophoblast in the molar villi shifted from diploid to an aneuploid pattern. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Evidence for pseudopregnancy and induced ovulation in captive wolverines (Gulo gulo)
Authors: Mead Rodney A. , Bowles Mark , Starypan Greg , Jones Mike
Published: June 2005

Progesterone levels and vaginal smears were monitored to detect estrus and formation of corpora lutea during the first year of a 4‐year study of reproduction in captive wolverines. No evidence of spontaneous ovulation was detected during the first year, and most females did not attain complete vaginal cornification. Follicle stimulating hormone was used in subsequent years to induce estrus in several females, and human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) was used to induce ovulation. Females treated with hCG were artificially inseminated with fresh wolverine semen. Prolonged elevation of serum progesterone above 1 ng/ml was only observed in females that received hCG. The profiles and duration of the progesterone secretory pattern of these females closely resembled that of other mustelids that exhibit a prolonged delay of implantation. Progesterone remained below 1 ng/ml throughout the year in all females that did not receive hCG. No kits were produced. The data suggest that ovulation in this species is normally induced by coitus, and that pseudopregnancy can occur, lasting as long as pregnancy. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Use of space and activity budgets in relation to age and social status in a captive herd of American bison, Bison bison
Authors: Robitaille Jean‐François , Prescott Jacques
Published: June 2005

A stable herd of 11 captive American bison (Bison bison) of known ages and social rank was studied between June 18 and August 6, 1979 at the Jardin zoologique du Québec, Charlesbourg, Quebec. During the 8‐week study, the first author collected scan data of predefined behaviors and locations on all individuals of the herd. Space use analysis revealed extensive occupation of (and preference for) the barn and sand mound by higher‐ranking animals and calves, and the tendency for lower‐ranked individuals to use alternate, lower‐quality sites. Overall, the herd spent an average of 40% of the daytime resting, 25% standing, 23% feeding, and 12% walking/running and group exploring. High‐ranking individuals spent significantly more time standing and walking, and less time foraging than average. Most low‐ranking individuals spent significantly less time lying, and more time feeding than average. Calves spent significantly more time lying than average. The extra feeding time of low‐ranking individuals occurred mostly in early morning and mid‐day, when the high‐ranking individuals were mostly inactive. Our results suggest differential space and time use in relation to age and social status. The effects of resource limitations caused by captivity conditions, as compared with natural conditions, are discussed in regard to the activity and movement coordination of individuals in this particular captive herd. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Successful treatment of suspected erysipelas septicemia in a beluga whale (Delphinapterus leucas)
Authors: Calle Paul P. , Kenny David E. , Cook Robert A.
Published: June 2005

A 20‐year‐old male beluga whale (Delphinapterus leucas) was diagnosed with suspected acute septicemic erysipelas. Physical examination was unremarkable and no skin lesions were evident. Hematologic and serum biochemical abnormalities included mild anemia, a marked leukocytosis, an increase in the erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and moderate elevations of total protein, gamma globulins, blood urea nitrogen, and creatinine. Microtitration agglutination testing for Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae antibodies revealed seroconversion and elevated antibody titers associated with the clinical illness, presumptive evidence of an active E. rhusiopathiae infection. Treatment consisted of oral fluids, cimetidine, and a 25‐day course of ciprofloxacin hydrochloride. The whale made a rapid and uneventful recovery. None of the three female beluga whales that shared the pool with the ill male, nor male and female beluga whales maintained in a separate pool, became ill or showed serologic evidence of E. rhusiopathiae exposure. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
A note on the feeding habits of some uncommon sea stars
Authors: Anderson Roland C. , Shimek Ronald L.
Published: June 2005

Natural history, aspects of aquarium behavior, and the first dietary data of three widely distributed, but relatively uncommon, Northeastern Pacific sea stars,Poraniopsis inflata(Fisher, 1906),Lophaster furcilliger(Fisher, 1905), andCera‐master patagonicus(Sladen, 1889) are presented. Our observations and analysis indicatedP. inflataindividuals ate sponges, whileL. furcilligerate sponges and chopped fish, andC. patagonicusappears to be a substrate surface deposit feeder. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Relations between captive and noncaptive weights in anthropoid primates
Authors: Leigh Steven R.
Published: June 2005

This study explores the relations between captive and noncaptive (literature‐reported wild) adult weights in 53 anthropoid primate species. Based on recent studies of variation in growth among wild populations, it is expected that captive and wild weights are highly correlated. In addition, the lack of a relation between species size and captive and wild weights is anticipated. Differences between wild and captive weights are investigated. Correlations between captive and wild weights are high. Within groups of closely related species, correlations can be expected to average r = .95 for both males and females. At low taxonomic levels (within genera), correlations are not generally as high. However, captive and noncaptive intrageneric correlations are comparable to intrageneric correlations based solely on wild weights reported by different literature sources. Size appears to be unrelated to differences in captive and wild weights. Species that appear to be at elevated risk of obesity are identified. This analysis finds that deviations between captive and wild weights are positively related to growth duration (measured for captive primates). This finding implies that, in long‐growing species, wild weights may underestimate asymptotic size. Hypotheses explaining this phenomenon are developed. In general, extensive overlap in weight between samples of captive and wild primates is documented. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Perch color preference in juvenile green tree pythons, Chondropython viridis
Authors: Garrett Clay M. , Smith Brian E.
Published: June 2005

Green tree pythons, Chondropython viridis, are polymorphic for color as juveniles, commonly being primarily yellow or brown until becoming mostly green at about 1 year of age. We tested the hypothesis that the different morphs arose as a result of selection for differential background matching, yellow morphs selecting light‐colored backgrounds, and brown morphs selecting dark‐colored backgrounds. Twelve yellow and eight brown morphs were placed repeatedly in individual testing enclosures and allowed to choose between black and white or yellow and brown halves of a t‐perch. Trials showed that both color morphs preferred dark over light perches. We tentatively suggest that individuals chose dark‐colored perches for purposes of concealment. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Semen evaluation of giant pandas (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) at the Wolong Reserve
Authors: Chen Meng , Zhang Guiquan , Mainka Susan A.
Published: June 2005

Semen from 4 wild‐caught giant pandas (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) held at the China Conservation and Research Centre for the Giant Panda was collected (22 samples during 1991–1993) by electroejaculation, and evaluated for use in artificial insemination.

Semen characteristics (mean ± SD) recorded were as follows: semen volume–1.5 ± .9 ml (range—0.3–3.5); sperm density 1.5 ± 0.1 × 109/ml (range—0.24–4.2); motility 79 ± 10% (range—60–95); abnormal sperm 14 ± 5% (range—10–27); and pH 7.1 ± 0.2 (range—6.7–7.5).

There were significant differences from year to year (P < 0.05) in semen volume collected and in the percentage abnormal sperm in 1993 compared to other years. There were no significant differences among semen produced from the four different pandas.

Data collected were similar to reports for other giant pandas, and semen from all 4 giant pandas was considered suitable for use in artificial insemination. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Changes in incubation sharing in one pair of captive California condors (Gymnogyps californianus)
Authors: Harvey Nancy C. , Hartt Ernest W , Leete Allison J. , Preston Kris
Published: June 2005

Three years of behavioral data were collected on incubation behavior in one pair of captive condors (Gymnogyps californianus) at the San Diego Wild Animal Park. Data were collected from daily video tape reviews of the nest box. The amount of time each bird was in the nest box, and whether it was on or off the egg were recorded, along with any aggressive interactions observed in the nest. For the first 2 years, the female incubated the egg(s) significantly more than the male. During the third year, the male increased his incubation time on the egg, resulting in no difference between the two sexes in incubation time. Changes in male incubation behavior may be a result of several factors: increased compatibility between the pair, social maturation, and/or increased dominance on the part of the male. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Assimilation of new founders into existing captive populations
Authors: Odum R. Andrew
Published: June 2005

When new founders are added to an existing captive population, it is useful to establish a target number of offspring from each of these new founders that will maximize the amount of gene diversity retained in the captive population. This article presents a method for calculating an optimal number of offspring that should be produced from each new founder by considering the retention of founder genomes from dead and non‐reproductive founders. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Use of DNA fingerprinting in planning a breeding program for the riverine rabbit (Bunolagus monticularis)
Authors: Dippenaar S. M. , Ferguson J. W. H.
Published: June 2005

The riverine rabbit (Bunolagus monticularis) is an endangered and endemic species found within a small geographic range in semiarid southern Africa. A captive breeding program has been initiated for reintroducing rabbits into suitable but vacant habitat. DNA fingerprinting was used to identify individuals within a captive group suitable for inclusion in a larger captive breeding program. This methodology allowed the ranking of suitabilities of these individuals, and the results emphasize the need to capture wild rabbits over a wide geographic area for setting up a larger founder population. A statistical technique for inferring linkage between fingerprint probes was used. Fingerprinting methodology allowed a genetic basis for planning the captive breeding program. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Effects of exogenous prostaglandin‐F2α (PGF2α) on pregnancy status in white‐tailed deer
Authors: Becker Susan E. , Katz Larry S.
Published: June 2005

As part of a study to develop contraceptive methods for white‐tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), it was necessary to terminate pregnancies in some does. The abortifacient chosen was PGF2α. At 76 days or less of gestation, PGF2α administration (10 mg i.m.) did not decrease mean serum progesterone (P) concentrations, and only one doe of 13 aborted. Re‐administration of PGF2α (15 mg i.m.) on approximately day 97 of gestation (21 days after the first injection) did not alter mean serum P concentrations 6 days postinjection, and only one doe of 11 aborted. A third injection of PGF2α (25 mg i.v.) on approximately day 113 of gestation (16 days after the second injection) tended to decrease mean P concentrations by 1.4 ng/ml 2 days following treatment, and no doe of 11 aborted. A fourth injection of PGF2α (50 mg i.m.) on approximately day 124 of gestation (11 days after the third injection) decreased mean P concentrations by 2.9 ng/ml 2 days following treatment (P < 0.05), and two of 11 does aborted. Finally, a combination of 50 mg PGF2α and 15 mg betamethasone was administered i.m. to the remaining pregnant does on approximately day 140 of gestation (16 days after the fourth injection). Mean serum P concentrations decreased from 4.8 ± 0.4 ng/ml to 0.7 ± 0.2 ng/ml 3 days postinjection, a mean decrease of 4.1 ng/ml (P < 0.05). This treatment induced abortion in five of seven does. These data suggest that PGF2α alone, at a dose that causes luteolysis and pregnancy termination in cows and goats, does not do so in pregnant white‐tailed deer. However, a combination of betamethasone and PGF2α may prove to be an effective lu‐teolytic agent or abortifacient for white‐tailed deer. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Epidemiologic assessment of reproductive success and infant mortality in ruffed lemurs (Varecia variegata)
Authors: Weigler Benjamin J. , Feeser Patricia L. , Grant Sandra M. , Norris Cynthia A.
Published: June 2005

Retrospective epidemiologic evaluation of 27 years of colony data (1966–1993) from a large breeding center for ruffed lemurs (Varecia variegata) was used to quantitatively assess the risk imposed by different management variables on reproductive success (littering) and infant viability (litter death). Logistic regression analysis was used, both with and without a term to account for extra‐binomial variation in the data (random effects) associated with repeated assessments of individual lemur dams during the study period. Population‐based littering rates are defined and shown not to fluctuate substantially over time, although the proportion of females given the opportunity to breed was drastically reduced in 1986 due to changes in the species management strategy and limited breeding center space resources. No management‐related factors were found to be associated with littering success. However, young age of dam (odds ratio = 4.3, P = 0.016) and housing in natural habitat enclosures (odds ratio = 6.5, P = 0.003) significantly predicted complete litter mortality by 48 hr post‐partum. Varecia females >15 years of age (8 dams, 42 observation‐years) produced 18 litters and 37 infants, 31 of which survived at least 48 hr. Use of established epidemiologic methods to analyze data from existing colony records should be used to help direct the management of this endangered species toward maximally efficient goals, especially in light of current conservation resource limitations. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Non‐invasive giant panda paternity exclusion
Authors: Zhang Ya‐Ping , Ryder Oliver A. , Zhao Qing‐Guo , Fan Zhi‐Yong , He Guang‐Xing , Zhang An‐Ji , Zhang He‐Ming , He Ting‐Mei , Yucun Chen
Published: June 2005

Giant panda hair samples obtained by noninvasive methods served as a source of DNA for amplification of seven giant panda microsatellite loci utilizing the polymerase chain reaction. Thirteen giant pandas held in Chinese zoos were tested for identification of paternity. Some males listed as sires have been excluded as the biological father of captive‐born giant pandas. Because of the death of some potential sires, paternity is still not assigned for some giant pandas, although there is a high likelihood that paternity assignment could be made if postmortem samples are available for genetic analysis. The DNA microsatellite variation assayed by the test we have developed provides a rapid, highly informative, and noninvasive method for paternity identification in giant pandas. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Non‐invasive monitoring of ovarian function in several felid species by measurement of fecal estradiol‐17β and progestins
Authors: Graham L. H. , Goodrowe K. L. , Raeside J. I. , Liptrap R. M.
Published: June 2005

An extraction and assay procedure to measure fecal estradiol‐17β and progestin concentrations in several cat species was developed and validated for use for noninvasive monitoring of ovarian function. Fecal samples were collected over a range of 3–20 months from female tigers (three), lions (three), snow leopards (three), cheetahs (two), caracals (two), and domestic cats (five). Samples were extracted with 90% methanol, lipids removed with petroleum ether, and the estradiol and progestins in the methanol measured by radioimmunoassay (RIA). High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) fractionation and subsequent RIA of the fractions indicated that the estradiol‐17β antiserum cross‐reacted primarily with estradiol‐17β in the feces of lions and tigers and was assumed to be specific for estradiol‐17β in the feces of other species as well. However, there were several immunoreactive compounds, presumably progesterone metabolites, excreted in the feces which varied both quantitatively and qualitatively among species. The behavior of tigers, lions, cheetahs, and caracals was visually monitored during the collection period and frequency of sexual behaviors was positively correlated with increases in fecal estradiol in all species observed. The mean fecal estradiol‐17β peaks were as follows: tigers, 128.0 ± 13.1; lions, 186.0 ± 14.8; snow leopards, 136.7 ± 15.9; cheetahs, 140.9 ± 9.0; caracals, 24.5 ± 4.0; and domestic cats 158.9 ± 19.3 ng/gm. Fecal progestin concentrations rose significantly (P < 0.001) only after breeding or during pregnancy and were as follows: tigers, 5.6 ± 0.6; lions, 1.9 ± 0.1; cheetahs, 8.4 ± 1.1; and caracals, 2.4 ± 0.4 μg/gm. Fecal progestins were elevated for one‐half to two‐thirds of the gestation length during presumed pseudopregnancy but remained elevated throughout successful pregnancies. These results suggest that ovarian function can be monitored noninvasively in the family Felidae by the measurement of fecal estradiol‐17β and progestin concentrations. © 1995 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Monitoring ovarian function in scimitar‐horned oryx (Oryx dammah) by measurement of fecal 20α‐progestagen metabolites
Authors: Shaw H. J. , Green D. I. , Sainsbury A. W. , Holt W. V.
Published: June 2005

The feasibility of monitoring ovarian function in scimitar‐horned oryx (Oryx dammah) by measurement of fecal 20α‐progestagens was investigated. Fecal samples were collected daily or on alternate days over a 4–11 month period from five oryx during natural (n = 4) or synthetic PGF2α (cloprostenol)‐controlled (n = 1) cycles. Of the four oryx undergoing natural cycles, three had regular access to a vasectomised male, and mating dates were recorded. Ultrasonography was used to monitor changes in reproductive tract morphology in the female administered with cloprostenol. Neutral steroids were extracted from feces with methanol:petroleum ether (2:1 v/v) after first removing phenolic steroids with potassium hydroxide (1 M). The concentration of 20α‐progestagens in the methanol phase was measured by enzymeimmunoassay. Excretion of 20α‐progestagens in all females followed a cyclic pattern corresponding to the follicular and luteal phases of the ovarian cycle. Concentrations of fecal 20α‐progestagens were on average twentyfold greater during the luteal phase compared with the follicular phase. Mean (±SD) ovarian cycle length, based on fecal progestagen profiles, was 24.4 ± 2.2 days with mean (±SD) luteal and follicular phase lengths of 18.7 ± 2.8 and 5.7 ± 1.6 days, respectively. Mating by a vasectomized male occurred when 20α‐progestagen concentrations were still elevated or declining. Similarly, fecal progestagens did not return to follicular phase concentrations for 4–5 days after administration of cloprostenol, and a 4 day delay was observed between ovulation, as visualized by ultrasound scanning, and a rise in fecal 20α‐progestagens. These data suggest a time lag of approximately 4 days between reproductive events and changes in fecal 20α‐progestagen concentrations. We conclude that measurement of immunoreactive 20α‐progestagen concentrations in feces has limited application for predicting ovulation or accurately timing inseminations because of delay in steroid excretion, but will enable noninvasive monitoring of ovarian cycles in scimitar‐horned oryx for fertility assessment and for determining the outcome of artificial insemination programs. © 1995 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Breeding orange‐winged Amazon parrots in captivity
Authors: Millam J. R. , Kenton B. , Jochim L. , Brownback T. , Brice A. T.
Published: June 2005

Captive propagation of parrots for the companion bird trade provides a potential means of reducing the economic incentive to capture these birds from the wild. To test whether environmental and social manipulations might stimulate reproduction in captive, wild‐caught orange‐winged Amazon parrots (Amazona amazonica), we compared reproductive performance in pairs presented with nest boxes (controls) or nest boxes plus additional environmental and social manipulations (enriched group) consisting of misting, fruit supplementation, nest hole restriction, enlarged nest boxes, and pair separation/reunification. In the first breeding trial, in 1990, enriched pairs were more likely to lay eggs (six of seven enriched pairs vs. one of eight control pairs; P < 0.09). When treatments were reversed the following years (e.g., 1990 controls were exposed to enriched conditions in 1991), reproductive performance was not different between the groups (four of seven enriched pairs laid eggs vs. five of seven control pairs), although three pairs in the 1991 enriched group laid eggs which had not laid eggs before. These results are consistent with the idea that while enriched environments may enhance the probability of a first episode of egg laying in captivity, once pairs have laid eggs in captivity, little stimulation beyond that provided by nest box presentation is required to reinitiate egg laying. The environmental and social manipulations of the enriched conditions could be useful in increasing reproductive performance of captive Amazon parrots for the companion bird trade. © 1995 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Wounding aggression during the formation and maintenance of captive, multimale chimpanzee groups
Authors: Alford P. L. , Bloomsmith M. A. , Keeling M. E. , Beck T. F.
Published: June 2005

Although the multimale community is the natural social organization of chimpanzees, both wild and captive adult males have killed other adult males and infants in intercommunity conflicts and intragroup aggression. Despite the potential for serious aggression, the formation of captive, multimale social groups is desirable for the efficient, long‐term, humane housing of chimpanzees in socially and physically enriched environments and for the education of zoo visitors. The University of Texas Science Park (UTSP) has maintained multimale groups of chimpanzees for 14 years. In the UTSP outdoor corral housing, multimale/multifemale social groups of unrelated adult and adolescent chimpanzees (42 F, 46 M) were formed by a series of 397 individual introductions. Wounding aggression was minimal during introductions of females to males or other females and upon male‐male introductions of formerly single‐caged adolescent and young adult males having had long‐term prior visual familiarity. Serious wounding occurred during male‐male introductions when there were major discrepancies in the age and social experience of the subjects or when adult, socially experienced males were reintroduced to former group mates following lengthy separations. Male wounding in the eight established long‐term groups of 5–11 adults (2–7 males) averaged 1.4 episodes per male‐year of residence; 14% of male wounding episodes required surgical therapy. Adult wounding was significantly associated with the presence of one or more group females with maximally tumescent genital swellings. No male‐perpetrated infanticides occurred. Not all multimale groupings are successful, but the majority of formerly laboratory‐housed chimpanzees may live and reproduce safely in multimale groups. Experience with all‐male groups at UTSP suggests that bachelor groups are also practical for long‐term housing. © 1995 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
ISIS and studbooks, very high census correlation for the North American zoo population: A reply to Earnhardt, Thompson, and Willis
Authors: Flesness Nathan R. , Lukens David R. , Porter Stephen B. , Wilson Crispen R. , Grahn Larry V.
Published: June 2005

Earnhardt et al. (1995) ask (1) if the census data of ISIS are accurate enough for North American regional zoo collection planning, and (2) can the “raw” zoo records presently available from ISIS substitute for a formal studbook and be used directly for genetic and demographic analysis. To check census, they compared ISIS Abstracts with summary SSP© reports in AZA's Annual Report on Conservation and Science (AZA‐ARCS), assumed that they represented counts for the same population, and found only a moderate correlation (r = 0.835). We repeated their analysis and closely examined the 15 species with apparent census differences greater than 50. We find that most of the census differences arise because the two sources are not counting the same population. When nonzoo specimens are removed from census counts for just these 15 species, the overall correlation between ISIS and AZA‐ARCS (for the full 68 species) rises to 0.974. We conclude that ISIS census data are reasonably accurate for the North American zoo population. Earnhardt et al. (1995) find “raw” ISIS data unsuitable for genetic and demographic species management. This conclusion came from comparing 10 ISIS species datasets to the respective North American regional studbooks. We re‐examined the two taxa with the most reported discrepancies. For gorillas, studbook numbers on ISIS are indeed confused—in large part because multiple, conflicting studbook numbers are being assigned by different studbook keepers to individual specimens. For cinereous vultures, the large number of birth date discrepancies arise from records intentionally altered in the studbook, which substitutes arrival date for estimated or unknown birth dates of wild‐caught specimens. Whereas this studbook's minimum age convention may well be useful for certain analyses, we find that the ISIS data accurately reflects the holding zoo's records. We generally agree with Earnhardt et al. (1995) that at present, “raw” ISIS data for most species needs examination and “clean up” before they can be used for detailed genetic management. We believe that it would be extremely valuable and cost‐effective and continue improving zoo records and ISIS, so that the information is immediately useable for many management purposes. © 1995 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Clarification of genetic terms and their use in the management of captive populations
Authors: Lacy Robert C.
Published: June 2005

Some of the concepts, terms, and methods used in the genetic management of captive populations have not been defined precisely in the scientific literature and consequently have been misunderstood and misused. The definitions and interrelationships among gene diversity, effective population size, founder genome equivalents, inbreeding, allelic diversity, mean kinship, and kinship value are presented here. It is important to understand what populations and generations are used as the baselines against which losses of genetic variation are measured. Gene diversity and founder genome equivalents are defined relative to a source population from which founders of the captive population were randomly sampled. Inbreeding and allelic diversity are assessed relative to the founders. The potential gene diversity that would result from an equalization of frequencies of founder alleles retained in the population can never be achieved because, among other limitations, the random process of gene transmission will prevent equalization of allele frequencies even if animals are bred optimally. The gene diversity achievable with the population can be determined by iterative production of hypothetical offspring from the pairs with lowest mean kinship. The long‐term objective for offspring production from each animal is also thereby generated. Mean kinships should be recalculated with each real or hypothetical birth and death, because offspring objectives based on current mean kinships might correlate poorly with the optimal long‐term offspring objectives. © 1995 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Coronal flux rope catastrophe in the presence of solar wind
Authors: Sun S. J. , Hu Y. Q.
Published: June 2005

Previous studies of the equilibrium property and catastrophic behavior of coronal magnetic flux ropes assumed that the background field is potential and the background plasma is in static equilibrium. This paper abandons these assumptions and considers the effect of the background solar wind. For simplicity, we take a polytropic process approximation in the energy equation and confine ourselves to axisymmetrical problems in spherical geometry. Steady solutions are obtained by time‐dependent simulations for a system consisting of a magnetostatic helmet streamer astride the equator with a flux rope in it and a steady solar wind outside. The coronal flux rope is characterized by its azimuthal and annular magnetic fluxes and total mass. It is shown that the system possesses a catastrophic behavior. As the azimuthal or annular flux of the rope increases or the total mass in the rope decreases, the flux rope and the helmet streamer expand, the field lines in the outermost part of the streamer are gradually opened, and the originally static plasma there flows outward along the newly opened field lines and joins the solar wind. The magnetic energy of the system increases during this process. We find an energy threshold that is larger than the corresponding open field energy by about 8% if the field in the rope is close to force‐free. The gravity raises the threshold by an amount that approximately equals the magnitude of the excess gravitational energy in the rope. The flux rope sticks to the solar surface in equilibrium if the magnetic energy of the system is below the threshold, whereas it erupts otherwise. In the latter case, the flux rope is gradually accelerated and reaches a velocity that is slightly larger than the background solar wind velocity. We argue that such a catastrophe may serve as a physical mechanism for slow coronal mass ejections. A brief comparison is also made between the present case and the magnetostatic case in the catastrophic behavior of the system.
Rapid emplacement of the Kerguelen plume–related Sylhet Traps, eastern India: Evidence from 40Ar‐39Ar geochronology
Authors: Ray Jyotiranjan S. , Pattanayak S. K. , Pande Kanchan
Published: June 2005

We report for the first time 40Ar‐39Ar plateau ages for the Sylhet Traps of eastern India. Our results provide concordant ages for two samples, vertically separated by ∼200 m, from a tholeiite lava flow sequence. The ages are indistinguishable at 2σ confidence level indicating a rapid emplacement of these lavas. The weighted mean of the plateau ages associated with least errors, 116.0 ± 3.5 Ma, most likely represents the age of eruption. Clearly, the Sylhet Traps are contemporaneous with the Kerguelen plume generated Rajmahal and Bengal Traps. Our results in conjunction with the existing age data in the Rajmahal‐Bengal‐Sylhet igneous province suggest that the latter experienced widespread, and rapid emplacement of flood basalts at ∼118 ± 2 Ma. Such a large‐scale volcanism would have required a direct involvement of the Kerguelen plume, suggesting that the Kerguelen hotspot was located close to the eastern Indian margin during its initiation.
Deposition of atmospheric nitrous acid on alkaline snow surfaces
Authors: Beine H. J. , Amoroso A. , Esposito G. , Sparapani R. , Ianniello A. , Georgiadis T. , Nardino M. , Bonasoni P. , Cristofanelli P. , Dominé F.
Published: June 2005

The photolysis of atmospheric nitrous acid (HONO) is a significant source of OH radicals in remote and Polar Regions. HONO is produced in/on snow surfaces in a photochemical reaction from nitrate ions. In an attempt to quantify the production of HONO at a snow covered mid‐latitude location we made measurements of HONO fluxes for a 10‐day period at the Mt. Cimone (MTC) research station in the Italian northern Apennines (2165 m asl) during March 2004. Production fluxes under normal background conditions were small, and reached maximum values of 20 nmol m−2 h−1 on only two occasions. However, during a transport event of Saharan dust to MTC we observed deposition fluxes of up to −120 nmol m−2 h−1 of HONO on to the snow surface. The deposited Sahara dust had rendered the surface snow alkaline, so that large amounts of acids could be absorbed from the atmosphere.
Extinction‐ice water content‐effective radius algorithms for CALIPSO
Authors: Heymsfield Andrew J. , Winker Dave , van Zadelhoff Gerd‐Jan
Published: June 2005

Interrelationships between volume extinction coefficient (σ), ice water content (IWC), and effective radius (re), each dependent upon the particle size distribution (PSD) and temperature (T), are developed using in‐situ microphysical measurements at low and mid‐latitudes, remote sensing data, and model results. The ratio [], proportional to re, increases with T. Lower values of [] are observed near cloud top and base than within a cloud layer, although [] changes more with temperature than relative height within the cloud. For equivalent radar reflectivities (Ze) below about −28 dB, the minimum detectable with forthcoming spaceborne cloud radar, [] is a nearly constant value. IWC increases almost linearly with σ, with a temperature‐dependence noted.