bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Unraveling the hepatoprotective effects of blueberries in a hypercaloric diet-induced rat model of prediabetes by metabolomic and transcriptomic approaches
Authors: Nunes S , Viana S , Preguiça I , Alves A , Fernandes R , Jarak I , Carvalho R , Cavadas C , Rolo A , Palmeira C , Pintado M , Reis F
Published: August 2021

Background

We previously described protective effects of blueberry juice (BJ) against hepatic steatosis evolution in a hypercaloric diet-induced rat model of prediabetes; however, the underlying mechanisms, are still scarcely explored. Herein, we aim to elucidate the molecular pathways underpinning BJ hepatoprotection on the dysmetabolism evolution in a rat model of prediabetes.

Methods

A rat model of evolutive prediabetes [Male Wistar rats, 8 weeks old] was developed by ingestion of a high-sucrose (HSu, 35%) diet for 9 weeks (W9), supplemented with a high-fat diet (HF, 60%) for further 14 weeks (HSuHF, W23), vs control with standard diet. Half of the animals (n = 10/group) daily received BJ (25g/Kg BW, orally) between W9 and W23. Along with metabolic characterization, BJ effects on serum and hepatic metabolic surrogates were elucidated using a 1H NMR based metabolomic approach. Moreover, the liver expression of genes (RT-PCR) involved in insulin signaling, lipid metabolism, inflammatory response and mitochondrial respiration was also explored. Values are means ± S.E.M (ANOVA followed by post-hoc tests).

Results

HSuHF+BJ rats restored hepatic levels of betaine and tend to recover the depletion of glutathione content found in HSuHF animals’ livers. Moreover, BJ positively affected the hepatic mRNA expression of key enzymes and mediators involved in fatty acid oxidation, insulin signalling, inflammatory response, as well as mitochondrial respiratory chain-related genes, which were all downregulated (P < 0.05) in HSuHF animals’ livers.

Conclusions

Altogether, these molecular findings contribute to explain the mechanisms by which BJ elicits protection against hepatic steatosis and mitochondrial dysfunction induced by hypercaloric diets in the frame of prediabetes evolution.
Blueberry effects on prediabetic nephropathy—a preclinical in vivo approach
Authors: Vieira Pedro , Nunes Sara , Alves André , Preguiça Inês , Figueirinha Artur , Salgueiro Lígia , Gomes Pedro , Viana Sofia , Reis Flávio
Published: August 2021

Background

Prediabetic Nephropathy (PreDN) therapeutic arsenal remains scarce. Blueberries (BB) display insulin sensitizing, lipid-lowering, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects. Therefore, we aimed to assess the putative benefits arising from BB supplementation in experimental PreDN.

Methods

BB polyphenol (PP) content was assessed by HPLC/PDA/ESI-MSn. Twenty-four male Wistar rats were divided in three groups (n = 8) for 24 weeks: Control group (Standard chow, Sd), 45% High-Fat (HF) diet-induced PreDN group and BJ-treated group (HF+BJ) [25 g/kg BW per day from week 16 onwards]. Glycemic/insulinemic/lipidic profiles were examined. Renal function was assessed by serum/urinary measures of creatinine, albumin, uric acid and glucose. Kidney histological characterization was performed by Periodic Acid-Shiff and Gomori’s green trichrome staining. Relative gene expression (RT-PCR) was also evaluated (KIM-1, NLRP3). Values are means ± S.E.M (ANOVA/post-hoc tests). This work was approved by the ORBEA of iCBR-FMUC (9/2018).

Results

HPLC/PDA/ESI-MSn analysis revealed that the main PP’s present in BB are malvidin derivatives, quercetin-O-hexoside and caffeic acid. HF animals displayed increased BW, glucose intolerance, postprandial hyperinsulinemia, elevated circulating LDL-c, hepatic/renal lipidosis, mild impairments in renal function and histological lesions resembling the stages I/II of PreDN. Apart from ameliorating prediabetic glucose intolerance, BJ supplementation elicited hepatic lipid accumulation and increased gene expression of renal inflammasome and KIM-1 without major improvements on renal function and/or histopathology.

Conclusions

Even though BB was able to ameliorate prediabetic glucose intolerance, the BB dosage employed herein (25 g/kg BW) elicited deleterious effects in the kidney only perceived at a sub-clinical level.
Auditory cortex plasticity in musicians
Authors: Reis Cláudia , Teixeira Margarida
Published: August 2021

Background

The objective of this study was to verify wether it was possible to observe greater plasticity of the auditory cortex and greater benefits in terms of auditory processing, better discrimination, attention and identification of rare stimuli, in musicians, verified through the performance of Long Latency Auditory Evoked Potential, P300, with and without competitive noise, in musicians compared to non-musician.

Methods

20 individuals were divided into two groups: 8 in the musicians, and 12 in the control group. The P300 values were compared between the two groups and then between the results of the P300 with and without competitive noise, in both groups.

Results

When comparing the results without competitive noise, it appears that the average amplitude was higher in the group of musicians compared to the control group, in both ears. Latency was lower in the control group, only in the right ear. With competitive noise, in both groups, the average amplitude is lower, compared to the results of the P300 without competitive noise, both in the right ear and in the left ear, and this effect is more considerable in the group of musicians. Regarding latency, theaverage of the P300 with competitive noise, in both ears, with a greater increase in latency values, in the group of musicians.

Conclusion

Musicians show a greater cortical inhibition effect compared to non-musicians, demonstrating that the musician’s central auditory system shows greater activation, which can result in better performance in functions such as attention and discrimination, due to training by musical practice.
Effective elasticity of a medium with many parallel fractures
Authors: Adamus Filip P
Published: August 2021

We consider an alternative way of obtaining the effective elastic properties of a cracked medium. Similarly, to the popular linear-slip model, we assume flat, parallel fractures, and long wavelengths. However, we do not treat fractures as weakness planes of displacement discontinuity. In contrast to the classical models, we represent fractures by a thin layer embedded in the background medium. In other words, we follow the Schoenberg-Douma matrix formalism for Backus averaging, but we relax the assumptions of infinite weakness and marginal thickness of a layer so that it does not correspond to the linear-slip plane. To represent the properties of a fracture, we need a fourth order elasticity tensor and a thickness parameter. The effective tensor becomes more complicated, but it may describe a higher concentration of parallel cracks more accurately. Apart from the derivations of the effective elasticity tensors, we perform numerical experiments in which we compare the performance of our approach with a linear-slip model in the context of highly fractured media. Our model becomes pertinent if filled-in or empty cracks occupy more than one per cent of the effective medium.
Introducing Political Philosophy
Authors: Walton Andrew , Abel William , Kahn Elizabeth , Parr Tom
Published: August 2021

Should the state permit euthanasia? Should it prohibit recreational drug use? Should it ban hate speech? Should it grant members of minority groups exemptions from otherwise universal laws? When, if ever, should it intervene in the affairs of other states to prevent human rights abuses? All of these questions have been prominent in political debate over the last fifty years, and there remains plenty of dispute about them at the start of the 2020s. Political arguments about public policy are an apt subject of philosophical analysis—or, in other words, they present a prime opportunity to do some political philosophy. This book provides an introduction to political philosophy by theorizing about public policy. Each of the chapters draws on the tools of political philosophy to explore a distinct area of public policy. Each case identifies some of the moral threads that run through the public policy debate; explains the philosophical positions taken by the various sides; introduces the academic literature that supports these positions; and examines the strengths and weaknesses of the competing views.
7. Basic Income and Distributive Justice
Authors: Abel William , Kahn Elizabeth , Parr Tom , Walton Andrew
Published: August 2021

This chapter defends basic income. This policy requires the state to make regular cash payments to each member of society, irrespective of their other income or wealth, or willingness to find employment. It starts by describing three effects of basic income. The first is that it will raise the incomes of the least advantaged. The second is that it will protect against the threats of exploitation and abuse. The third is that it will remove one obstacle to finding employment. The chapter then explains the significance of these effects by drawing on ideas about distributive justice, emphasizing the relevance of John Rawls’s justice as fairness and Elizabeth Anderson’s democratic equality. It also considers the claim that basic income should be rejected because it would require the state to interfere with the lives of those who would be taxed to fund it, arguing that it is a mistake to oppose taxation in such a wholesale way. The chapter concludes with a reflection on the economic sustainability of basic income.
4. International organizations, states, and global governance
Authors: Scicluna Nicole
Published: August 2021

This chapter evaluates global governance and how it relates to international law. It addresses the role of international organizations in processes of global governance, charting their rise from the nineteenth century onwards. Two international organizations exemplify semi-legalized governance beyond the state: the United Nations and the European Union. Sovereign states, of course, continue to play a central role in the institutions, processes, and mechanisms of global governance. The chapter then explores the extent to which a state’s power, influence, and legitimacy are affected by factors such as its domestic political arrangements and its adherence to the liberal, Western values that underpin the postwar order. It also assesses whether the proliferation of legalized and semi-legalized global governance regimes amounts to a constitutionalization of international relations.
5. Compliance and enforcement in international law
Authors: Scicluna Nicole
Published: August 2021

This chapter assesses why international legal obligations are (or are not) complied with, and how they are (or are not) enforced. It begins by drawing a distinction between laws and norms. The chapter then examines the main explanations for international law compliance put forward by both international law and international relations scholars. These may be broadly grouped into two categories: instrumentalist explanations and normative explanations. The chapter also discusses the concept of state responsibility—that is, the body of rules governing when and how states may be held liable for violations of international law. International law-enforcement is indelibly shaped by the condition of international anarchy. According to the concept of self-help, an injured state may, under certain circumstances, unilaterally take countermeasures against the guilty party. Such measures may include sanctions, though these may also be ordered by the UN Security Council as a collective security measure. The international legal system also increasingly makes use of judicial procedures that approximate those found within states. In this connection, the chapter considers the role of courts and tribunals in adjudicating disputes and promoting compliance with international law.
14. The politics of international law
Authors: Scicluna Nicole
Published: August 2021

This chapter draws together the key themes of this book, using contemporary debates over the nature and future of international order, and explores likely sources of continuity and change in the politics of international law. It begins by expanding on the concept of international order and, more specifically, the so-called liberal international order that has framed international politics in the postwar period. The chapter asks whether and why the liberal international order is in crisis and how it is likely to evolve. It then turns to the rise of non-Western powers, a phenomenon that many observers have argued is contributing to the crisis of the current order. The focus is on what the changing balance of material power may reveal about the present and future of international law. Finally, the chapter offers some tentative conclusions about the politics of international law two decades into the twenty-first century.
12. Digital Policy-Making in the European Union
Authors: Newman Abraham L.
Published: August 2021

Digital technologies are transforming European societies, politics, and markets. Since the 1970s, the European Union has attempted to navigate these pressures through a package of digital policy-making. These efforts have targeted the dual missions of pan-European market-making, as well as market correction. Relying on a host of governance modes including the regulatory method, policy coordination, incorporated transgovernmental networks, and private governance, the European Union has tried to steer the new information society so as to both spur market growth and protect citizens against abuse. The ultimate success of these efforts has been encumbered by the overall complexity of the sector, where policy efforts quickly bleed over into other issue areas, such as competition policy and justice and home affairs, and have international consequences. Digital policy-making in Europe faces considerable challenges ahead, as EU institutions grapple with the rise of platform companies, disinformation campaigns, and transatlantic disputes over data privacy and the market power of US-based technology companies.
3. Voting Behaviour
Authors: Tillman Erik
Published: August 2021

This chapter examines theories and evidence of voting behaviour in Europe. Sociological models examine the role of political cleavages such as class in the development of long-term attachments between parties and voters. Rationalist models examine the sources of short-term changes in voting behaviour with spatial models focusing on the ideological congruence between parties and voters and performance voting models emphasizing evaluations of incumbent records in office. Recent decades have seen debates about a possible realignment of voter loyalties or a dealignment of voter attachments. The final section focuses on how the legacy of communism has structured the development of voting behaviour in East-Central Europe.
12. Politics and Markets
Authors: Robinson Neil , Worth Owen
Published: August 2021

The political economy of Europe has changed significantly in the last four decades because of globalization, the collapse of communism, and financial crises. This chapter first discusses the different varieties of capitalism that emerged in Europe after World War II. It looks at how they have been put under pressure by economic internationalization and the dominance of neoliberal ideas, which together have weakened economic management at nation-state level. The chapter also looks at the development of capitalism in Eastern Europe and explanations for variance in post-communist capitalist development. Finally, the chapter considers the challenges to the management of Europe’s political economy posed by the international financial crisis that dominated much of Europe’s politics after 2007, along with the initial response to the economic crisis caused by the coronavirus pandemic in 2020.
15. The Rise of Anti-Establishment Parties
Authors: Morini Mara
Published: August 2021

This chapter examines the rise of radical right-wing nationalist parties and radical anti-globalization, anti-austerity left-wing parties in Europe. Anti-establishment parties are not new; they have always been a feature of European politics. The ground was not seeded for their development and expansion, however, until social and cultural changes that began in the 1960s combined with the economic and migration crises of the 2000s. The chapter discusses historic anti-establishment parties and the new parties that have emerged over the last two decades. It discusses the nature of anti-establishment parties and describes contemporary radical-left and extreme-right parties. The label of ‘populism’ as applied to these parties is analysed. Using a comparative approach, the chapter examines why there has been a growth of support for anti-establishment parties and attitudes in the last decades, focusing on the development of a ‘populist moment’ in contemporary representative democracies.
3. Structural Realism
Authors: Mearsheimer John J.
Published: August 2021

This chapter examines why states pursue power from the perspective of structural realism. It considers a body of realist theories that argue that states have deep concern for the balance of power and compete among themselves either to gain power at the expense of others, or at least to make sure they do not lose power. This competition for power makes for a dangerous world where states sometimes fight each other. There are, however, important differences among structural realists. The chapter first explains why states want power and how much power they want before discussing the causes of war. These theoretical issues are illuminated with a case study that assesses whether China can rise peacefully according to offensive realism vs. defensive realism. Along the way, concepts such as the security dilemma, offence–defence balance, central war, buck-passing, unipolarity, bipolarity, and multipolarity, and deterrence are analysed.
8. Critical Theory
Authors: Roach Steven C.
Published: August 2021

This chapter examines the various assumptions of critical theory espoused by the Frankfurt school, with particular emphasis on how the Frankfurt school’s critiques of authoritarianism and repression influenced the critical interventions by International Relations (IR) theorists. The chapter focuses on two major strands of critical International Relations theory: normative theory and the Marxist-based critique of the political economy. After providing an overview of the Frankfurt school and critical IR theory, the chapter explores critical theorists’ views on universal morality and political economy. It then discusses Jürgen Habermas’s ideas in international relations and presents a case study of the Arab Spring. It concludes by analysing the concept of critical reflexivity and how it can show knowledge and social reality are co-produced through social interaction, and how this interaction can, in turn, produce practical or empirical knowledge of the changing moral and legal dynamics of prominent global institutions.
10. Feminism
Authors: Tickner J. Ann , Sjoberg Laura
Published: August 2021

This chapter examines feminist perspectives on international relations. It first provides a historical background on the development of feminist IR, paying attention to different kinds of feminist analyses of gender. It then considers feminist perspectives on international security and global politics, along with developments in feminist reanalyses and reformulations of security theory. It illustrates feminist security theory by analysing the case of the United Nations Security Council sanctions on Iraq following the First Gulf War. The chapter concludes by assessing the contributions that feminist IR can make to the practice of world politics in general and to the discipline of IR in particular.
1. Introduction: tradition and change
Authors: Blick Andrew
Published: August 2021

The Introduction asks: what do we mean when we talk about politics? On one level, politics is about the interactions between people. However, more specifically, it is about how a society is run. The term for this is ‘governance’. Governance involves who makes the decisions, how they make decisions, and how they put those decisions into effect. This first chapter relates this definition to the UK political system as it exists today. It provides a short analysis of the effectiveness of the UK system in terms of how it has evolved and what changes have been made over time. It takes a brief look at how the onset of the Coronavirus pandemic has shown up problems in the UK political system.
6. The party system
Authors: Blick Andrew
Published: August 2021

This chapter switches the focus to political parties. It looks at their individual roles and how they operate. The chapter discusses the parties that constitute the ‘party system’. It considers the two main parties operating at the UK level: the Conservative Party and the Labour Party. It also looks at the smaller parties, such as the Liberal Democrats. The chapter considers the political approach of the various parties and the type of support they attract. It also looks at how parties are funded. The chapter provides a number of theoretical perspectives to help with an analysis of political parties. These are: the extent to which parties pursue values or power; the respective roles of their members and leaders; groupings within parties; how far the UK has a two-party system or whether our definition of the party system should be revised; and the relationships between the various parities. The chapter then gives examples of how these ideas play out with specific focus on recent events involving the Conversative and Labour parties. The chapter asks: do members have too much influence over their parties? The chapter ends by asking: where are we now?
8. Referendums
Authors: Blick Andrew
Published: August 2021

This chapter starts with a definition of the term ‘referendum’. A referendum is a means of involving the public in political decisions via voting on specific issues such as leaving the European Union. The chapter focuses on the use of referendums at the local level. It sets out the key features of a referendum. Who is allowed to vote in referendums? What sort of questions are put to voters? Under want circumstances should a referendum take place on specific issues? What are the risks associated with holding a referendum? The chapter also looks at regulations surrounding referendums in the UK. The theoretical considerations that the chapter examines are the fact that a referendum subject tends to be controversial, the relationship between referendums and direct democracy and the implications of the results.
12. The nations and the union
Authors: Blick Andrew
Published: August 2021

This chapter explores the UK as a state which is made up of a number of diverse parts. These parts are Wales, Scotland, England, and the territory of Northern Ireland. Each part has its own characteristics which show through in the political and constitutional makeup of the UK as a whole. The chapter describes these different components. It discusses the various differences between them and looks at issues related to maintaining coherence. Using theoretical models, it analyses the nature of the UK as the state, the nation state, and the multinational state. It looks at the concepts of consociationalism, the unitary state, the union state, and federation. It provides a number of practical examples which demonstrate how these ideas operate in the real world. It also considers the Welsh language, territorial variation in the party system, the ‘English Votes for English Laws’ procedure in the UK House of Commons; and the ‘Barnett’ formular for the allocation of funding in the UK.
Foundations of European Politics
Authors: De Vries Catherine E. , B. Hobolt Sara , Proksch Sven-Oliver , Slapin Jonathan B.
Published: August 2021

Foundations of European Politics introduces important tools of social science and comparative analysis. The first part of the book acts as an introduction to the topic, looking at democratic politics and multilevel politics in Europe. The second part moves on to citizens and voters, considering issues related to ideology and voting decisions. Part III looks at elections and introduces electoral systems and direct democracy, representation, political parties, and party competition. The next part is about government and policy. The last part looks at the rule of law, democracy, and backsliding.
6. Electoral Systems and Direct Democracy
Authors: De Vries Catherine E. , Hobolt Sara B. , Proksch Sven-Oliver , Slapin Jonathan B.
Published: August 2021

This chapter starts off with an overview of the institutions that decide how citizens cast ballots, firstly, in elections, and secondly, directly for policy. The former is related to electoral systems and the latter to direct democracy. The chapter considers the implications of these institutions for party systems and political representation from the view point of the principal–agent framework. There is a large variety of electoral systems used in Europe. Most elections are held using the system of proportional representation. However, there are important institutional differences that need to be remembered. The chapter then goes on to examine the effects of electoral systems on the party system. This is carried out with electoral change over time in mind. Finally, the chapter turns to direct democracy and analyses the use of referendums, specifically with regard to the question of the European Union (EU).
7. Representation
Authors: De Vries Catherine E. , Hobolt Sara B. , Proksch Sven-Oliver , Slapin Jonathan B.
Published: August 2021

This chapter addresses the various concepts of political representation, such as substantive, descriptive, and symbolic. It then examines which institutions foster different types of representation. It presents two different visions of democracy: proportional and majoritarian. It considers what they imply for congruence and responsiveness. The chapter delves deeper into descriptive representation by looking at the representation of women across legislatures. When considering symbolic representation it looks at action taken by members of parliament. The chapter asks the basic question: to what extent, and in what ways, does a political system represent its citizens?
6. Security and Insecurity
Authors: Lawson Stephanie
Published: August 2021

This chapter assesses the general concept of security and the way in which issues come to be ‘securitized’. The security of the sovereign state, in a system of states, and existing under conditions of anarchy, has been the traditional focus of studies in global or international politics. Security in this context has therefore been concerned largely with the threats that states pose to each other. Over the last few decades, however, the agenda for security in global politics has expanded, and so too has its conceptualization. The chapter looks at traditional approaches to security and insecurity, revisiting the Hobbesian state of nature and tracing security thinking in global politics through to the end of the Cold War. This is followed by a discussion of ideas about collective security as embodied in the UN, paying particular attention to the role of the Security Council and the issue of intervention in the post-Cold War period. This period has also seen the broadening of the security agenda to encompass concerns such as gender security, environmental security, cyber security, and the diffuse concept of ‘human security’. Finally, the chapter provides an overview of the ‘war on terror’, raising further questions concerning how best to deal with non-conventional security threats.
9. Diplomacy and Foreign Policy
Authors: Lawson Stephanie
Published: August 2021

This chapter explores diplomacy and the conduct of foreign policy, which are fundamental to relations between political communities and have been practised for thousands of years. In the contemporary period, diplomatic and foreign policy practices usually involve fully professionalized state bureaucracies. But alongside formal state diplomacy, other important actors contribute as well, from Non-Government Organizations (NGOs) to special envoys or third-party mediators tasked with specific missions. There are also special forms of diplomacy such as ‘summit diplomacy’ and ‘public diplomacy’, both of which have assumed increasing importance in contemporary practice. Foreign policy behaviour itself is a closely related but distinctive field of study focusing on the strategies that states adopt in their relations with each other and which reflect, in turn, the pressures that governments face in either the domestic or external sphere. The chapter then considers the foreign and security policy of the EU which now has a role and an identity as an international actor in its own right. Finally, it presents a brief account of Wikileaks, which illustrates another very different kind of actor in the field.
11. Global Politics in the Anthropocene
Authors: Lawson Stephanie
Published: August 2021

This chapter studies how the scope of global politics has been extended over the last half century or so to include the impact of human industrial activity on the environment. The environmental movement and ‘green theory’ have grown out of concerns with the deleterious impact of this activity and the capacity of the planet to carry the burden of ‘business as usual’ in a world driven by the imperatives of endless growth. Many now believe that the impact on the earth’s systems is so significant that the present geological period should be recognized as the ‘Anthropocene’. Climate change is probably the most prominent issue associated with the Anthropocene at present, but it is not the only one. The chapter examines a range of issues in global environment politics, starting with the reconceptualization of the present period. It then moves on to an account of the environmental movement, the emergence of various ‘green’ ideologies and theories, and the politics of science. This is essential background for considering the role of the state and its sovereign powers in the context of global environmental politics.
Case Study
Authors: Gomes Jessica Luciano , Saraiva Miriam Gomes
Published: August 2021

This chapter explores the case study, which is a very common research method in the field of social sciences. Case studies are important because they provide the examination of samples of a larger atmosphere, therefore enabling researchers with a variety of possibilities: to deepen the analysis of a particular occurrence in the world, to contribute to an existing theoretical framework, and to serve as an instrument of comparative analysis. Although it might sound simplistic, the research framework for case studies usually has to satisfy a few key points. Case studies can be divided into separate categories: exploratory, descriptive, and explanatory. They are also directly related to the type of research question being posed from the traditional five types of survey questions: ‘who’, ‘what’, ‘where’, ‘how’, and ‘why’. One can often find case studies among both qualitative and quantitative approaches, focusing on a case study per se or on cross-case method.
Comparative Analysis
Authors: Cocq Céline C. , Szekely Ora
Published: August 2021

This chapter illustrates comparative analysis, which is simply defined as comparing and contrasting two or more phenomena in order to better understand them. Comparative analysis plays an important role in both academic and policy-related circles and can be useful in many different ways. While in the hard sciences it is possible to conduct experiments under controlled laboratory conditions, this is often impossible in social science. Social scientists must therefore find other ways of isolating and testing the impact of variables and understanding the relationships between them. Accordingly, the goal of comparative analysis is the comparison of phenomena — whether that means comparison within individual cases, among a small group of cases, or the analysis of large amounts of data — to identify key independent variable(s) and establish what link, if any, exists between them and the dependent variable(s). Comparative analysis can also be useful in establishing the nature of that relationship, assessing whether it is necessary, sufficient, or both. Moreover, cross-case comparison allows social scientists to build broad theories that are applicable in different contexts.
Concept Construction
Authors: Pierre-Marc Daigneault Louis Bélanger
Published: August 2021

This chapter highlights concept construction. All social sciences research projects, be they qualitative or quantitative, are dependent on concepts. The chapter first explains what concepts are and why social scientists should be self-conscious in the way they use them. It then describes the methodology of concept construction and presents three different ways to structure a concept. Finally, the chapter provides criteria to evaluate the quality of the concepts we have built ourselves or borrowed from others. Concept construction involves two basic operations beyond choosing a term to designate the concept: identifying the fundamental characteristics of the phenomenon of interest, and logically connecting these characteristics.
Contextual Analysis
Authors: Willems Auke
Published: August 2021

This chapter reflects on contextual analysis, which examines the environment in which a given phenomenon operates. Contextual analysis is used widely in social sciences, such as history, managerial and leadership studies, organizational theory, business studies, and political sciences. It is useful for identifying trends and topics within unstructured data (contexts). In a sense, contextual analysis helps create order out of chaos. The main aim of contextual analysis is to assess when and how contexts shape a social phenomenon and vice versa. Contexts can be, inter alia, historical, institutional, cultural, demographic, technological, psychological, ideological, ontological, and epistemological. A wide body of scholarship has developed on the topic of contextual analysis. The chapter reviews the literature briefly and identify clues and themes relevant to the social sciences.
Counterfactual Analysis
Authors: Sato Shunsuke
Published: August 2021

This chapter discusses counterfactual analysis. Counterfactual inference has been a major topic in methodological discussions in many disciplines such as political science, history, psychology, philosophy, and others. When social scientists attempt to assess hypotheses about the causes of phenomena, counterfactual propositions generally play an important role. Particularly in qualitative small-N research designs, counterfactuals are indispensable tools for causal analysis because all causal statements imply some kind of counterfactual. The theoretical statement ‘X causes Y’ implies that if X’s value were different, outcome Y would be different. Essentially, when scholars explain why a particular outcome Y occurred, they need to explain why Y happened, rather than other possible outcomes. When scholars make a proposition that includes necessary conditions, they clarify counterfactual implications: a logical format of necessary conditions — ‘if not X, then not Y’ — directly expresses a counterfactual’s consequent. Therefore, most social scientists inevitably use counterfactual analysis for various purposes. The chapter then looks at the criteria for evaluating counterfactual analysis.
Falsification
Authors: Earp Brian D.
Published: August 2021

This chapter evaluates falsification. Contemporary philosophers of science tend to look down on falsifiability as overly simplistic. Nevertheless, among many practising scientists, the notion is still regarded as a useful — if imperfect — heuristic for judging the strength of a hypothesis in terms of its ability to generate new insights when combined with careful observation. Falsification also relates to self-correction in science. Often, erroneous findings make their way into the literature. If subsequent researchers conduct the same experiment as the original and yet it fails to yield the same finding, they are often described as having ‘falsified’ (that is, shown to be incorrect) the original result. In this way, mistakes, false alarms, and other non-reproducible output is thought to be identifiable and thus able to be corrected. For self-correction in science through falsification, what is needed are ‘direct’ replications. The chapter then considers the importance of auxiliary assumptions.
Grand Theory and Middle-Range Theory
Authors: Ponjaert Frederik
Published: August 2021

This chapter differentiates between grand theory and middle-range theory. The study of social phenomena raises the twofold question about the internal and external validity of a hypothesis. A piece of research is internally valid when it describes the true state of affairs within its own setting. The extent to which its findings can be applied to other settings will determine its relative external validity. External validity is a product of the theoretical aspirations of the research. When grand in scope, theoretical aspirations reject the importance of specific variations and attempt to describe the true state of affairs in all settings. Conversely, a theory-building exercise with a mid-range scope is bound by a set of conditional statements. Whereas middle-range theory-building is rooted in generalizable empirical propositions, grand theory-building is based on internally consistent ontologies. On the one hand, grand theory favours highly abstract theorizing, which is fairly distinct from concrete empirical concerns. On the other hand, middle-range theories reflect more sociologically embedded theorizing, which strives to integrate theory and empirical variations over time and space.
Nomothetic and Idiographic Methods
Authors: Hayes Nicky
Published: August 2021

This chapter looks at nomothetic and idiographic methods. Knowing the purpose helps the researcher define the scope conditions of the research, and will also reveal whether the research should be nomothetic or idiographic. Nomothetic research aims to identify laws about human behaviour — the Greek word ‘nomos’ means ‘law’. It assumes that it is possible to discover regularities of influence or behaviour, allowing experts to predict the likely outcomes of possible actions or innovations. As such, it looks for general principles, not special cases. Idiographic research, by contrast, is all about exploring individuality or uniqueness. Idiographic research tends to focus on a single example, which might be a person, an event, a phenomenon, or an organization, and to analyse that example in-depth. As a result, idiographic methods are often used in case studies, and are characteristic of ethnographic research.
Operationalization
Authors: Mahé Anne-Laure , McLauchlin Theodore
Published: August 2021

This chapter describes operationalization, which refers to the intellectual operations the researcher undertakes to decide how to observe a concept in reality. This is a crucial step of the research process, as many concepts in the social sciences are too abstract to be immediately observed. The most important criteria of a successful operationalization are consequently the consistency between each step of the research design, from theory formation to data collection, and the degree to which the indicators effectively allow the researcher to gather observations that work well in the context under study. One way to synthesize these points is that operationalization should enable the researcher to respect the principle of double adequacy. First, the researcher’s conceptual argument and the operationalized data should correspond. Second, there is a need for adequacy between those data and the ‘reference reality’.
Prosopography
Authors: Hasselbalch Jacob A. , Seabrooke Leonard
Published: August 2021

This chapter discusses prosopography, which is defined as the investigation of the common background characteristics of a group of actors in history by means of a collective study of their lives. The etymology of the word suggests that prosopography is about describing or recording a person’s appearance or life, but prosopography differs from biography in that it analyses structured biographical data of groups of individuals that have something in common. Prosopography emerged primarily as a method for historical research. Outside of historical research, it is more commonly known as ‘group biography’ or ‘career-path analysis’. Prosopography has also been a key element of ‘field-based’ research on social groups and the sociology of professions, and is more of an approach than a method sui generis: it implies the systematic organization of data in such a way that connections and patterns that influence historical processes are revealed. The chapter then details the five stages of prosopography.
Survey Research
Authors: Morin Jean-Frédéric , Olsson Christian , Atikcan Ece Özlem
Published: August 2021

This chapter discusses survey research. Surveys are a very common method of data collection used by many social researchers. As such, they are used in public opinion polls to gauge political trends and trait, but also in marketing research examining consumer behaviour and feedback. Surveys are also a common data collection method in many social research projects. They are further used to evaluate needs, processes, and outcomes. Importantly, surveys are a unidirectional communication approach to collect data, which is very different from observational methods, semi-structured and structured interviews, or other types of data collection where the researcher takes an active role. Specifically, using surveys, participants are presented with a set of instructions and predetermined questions. The researcher is not expected to engage in any participatory interaction or in-depth conversation with participants.
Thematic Analysis
Authors: Morin Jean-Frédéric , Olsson Christian , Atikcan Ece Özlem
Published: August 2021

This chapter evaluates thematic analysis (TA), which is one of the oldest and most widely used qualitative analytic method across the social sciences. TA is a flexible method for identifying and analysing patterns of meaning — ‘themes’ — in qualitative data, with wide-ranging applications. The method has a long, if indeterminate, history in the social sciences, but seems likely to have evolved from early forms of (qualitative) content analysis. TA is now more likely to be demarcated and acknowledged as a distinct method; however, confusion remains about what TA is. The popularity of TA as a distinct method received a considerable boost from the publication of Using Thematic Analysis in Psychology by social psychologists Virginia Braun and Victoria Clarke in 2006, which has become one of the most cited academic papers of recent decades.
Ovarian follicular function is not altered by SARS–CoV-2 infection or BNT162b2 mRNA COVID-19 vaccination
Authors: Bentov Y , Beharier O , Moav-Zafrir A , Kabessa M , Godin M , Greenfield C S , Ketzinel-Gilad M , Ash Broder E , Holzer H E G , Wolf D , Oiknine-Djian E , Barghouti I , Goldman-Wohl D , Yagel S , Walfisch A , Hersko Klement A
Published: August 2021

STUDY QUESTION

Does the immune response to coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) infection or the BNT162b2 mRNA vaccine involve the ovarian follicle, and does it affect its function?

SUMMARY ANSWER

We were able to demonstrate anti-severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS–CoV-2) IgG in follicular fluid (FF) from both infected and vaccinated IVF patients, with no evidence for compromised follicular function.

WHAT IS KNOWN ALREADY

No research data are available yet.

STUDY DESIGN, SIZE, DURATION

This is a cohort study, composed of 32 consecutive IVF patients, either infected with COVID-19, vaccinated or non-exposed, conducted between 1 February and 10 March 2021 in a single university hospital-based IVF clinic.

PARTICIPANTS/MATERIALS, SETTING, METHODS

A consecutive sample of female consenting patients undergoing oocyte retrieval was recruited and assigned to one of the three study groups: recovering from confirmed COVID-19 (n = 9); vaccinated (n = 9); and uninfected, non-vaccinated controls (n = 14). Serum and FF samples were taken and analyzed for anti-COVID IgG as well as estrogen, progesterone and heparan sulfate proteoglycan 2 concentration, as well as the number and maturity of aspirated oocytes and day of trigger estrogen and progesterone measurements. Main outcome measures were follicular function, including steroidogenesis, follicular response to the LH/hCG trigger, and oocyte quality biomarkers.

MAIN RESULTS AND THE ROLE OF CHANCE

Both COVID-19 and the vaccine elicited anti-COVID IgG antibodies that were detected in the FF at levels proportional to the IgG serum concentration. No differences between the three groups were detected in any of the surrogate parameters for ovarian follicle quality.

LIMITATIONS, REASONS FOR CAUTION

This is a small study, comprising a mixed fertile and infertile population, and its conclusions should be supported and validated by larger studies.

WIDER IMPLICATIONS OF THE FINDINGS

This is the first study to examine the impact of SARS–Cov-2 infection and COVID-19 vaccination on ovarian function and these early findings suggest no measurable detrimental effect on function of the ovarian follicle.

STUDY FUNDING/COMPETING INTEREST(S)

The study was funded out of an internal budget. There are no conflicts of interest for any of the authors.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

CinicalTrials.gov registry number NCT04822012.
Chronic Stress Alters Astrocyte Morphology in Mouse Prefrontal Cortex
Authors: Codeluppi Sierra A , Chatterjee Dipashree , Prevot Thomas D , Bansal Yashika , Misquitta Keith A , Sibille Etienne , Banasr Mounira
Published: August 2021

Background

Neuromorphological changes are consistently reported in the prefrontal cortex of patients with stress-related disorders and in rodent stress models, but the effects of stress on astrocyte morphology and the potential link to behavioral deficits are relatively unknown.

Methods

To answer these questions, transgenic mice expressing green fluorescent protein (GFP) under the glial fibrillary acid protein (GFAP) promotor were subjected to 7, 21, or 35 days of chronic restraint stress (CRS). CRS-induced behavioral effects on anhedonia- and anxiety-like behaviors were measured using the sucrose intake and the PhenoTyper tests, respectively. Prefrontal cortex GFP+ or GFAP+ cell morphology was assessed using Sholl analysis, and associations with behavior were determined using correlation analysis.

Results

CRS-exposed male and female mice displayed anxiety-like behavior at 7, 21, and 35 days and anhedonia-like behavior at 35 days. Analysis of GFAP+ cell morphology revealed significant atrophy of distal processes following 21 and 35 days of CRS. CRS induced similar decreases in intersections at distal radii for GFP+ cells accompanied by increased proximal processes. In males, the number of intersections at the most distal radius step significantly correlated with anhedonia-like behavior (r = 0.622, P < .05) for GFP+ cells and with behavioral emotionality calculated by z-scoring all behavioral measured deficits (r = −0.667, P < .05). Similar but not significant correlations were observed in females. No correlation between GFP+ cell atrophy with anxiety-like behavior was found.

Conclusion

Chronic stress exposure induces a progressive atrophy of cortical astroglial cells, potentially contributing to maladaptive neuroplastic and behavioral changes associated with stress-related disorders.