bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
An Innovative Partnership Approach for Environmental Management and Pollution Prevention
Authors: Erten-Unal Mujde , Aydlett Guy M.
Published: July 2017

This paper discusses an innovative partnership that was formed in the USA between a higher education institution and a regulatory agency to assist small and medium-sized industries begin pollution prevention and waste minimization programmes within their facilities. The partnership targeted two types of industries for its pollution prevention incentives programme. Four on-site assessments were performed within the marine maintenance/ship repair industry and six on-site assessments were provided within the commercial printing industry The project provided these businesses with direct on-site technical consultation on waste reduction, at no cost. The sources and quantities of waste generation at the selected marine maintenance facilities were determined. Current waste management methods and technologies were reviewed and possible alternatives for the reduction or elimination of solid and hazardous waste, wastewater discharges, and air emissions were evaluated. Proposed waste minimization recommendations include loss prevention and good housekeeping, hazardous solvent source reduction, waste segregation, installation of aerosol recovery systems, recycling of available markets, and proper flow measurement of all materials and waste streams. Economic incentives have been addressed for several of the suggested recommendations to encourage facility implementation. Environmental regulations governing waste management and promoting waste minimization were discussed, along with the importance of proper environmental training. This project complemented and supplemented existing pollution prevention programmes by working with the state regulatory agency and industries to serve as an expansion of service at the local level.
Staff Development in Professional Education—Cooperation in a Competitive Environment
Authors: Browell Sue
Published: July 2017

This paper considers the development of course tutors within further education colleges and universities in the North East of England who have academic responsibility for managing professional courses approved by the Institute of Personnel and Development (IPD). It therefore discusses the link between several educational institutions and the collective relationship between the educational institutions and a professional body It details the Institute's policy on continuing professional development and, in particular, the implications for course tutors. The reasons why it was necessary for further education and higher education institutions to cooperate in the first place are examined within the context of the professional institute – the collaboration is driven by the local branch of the professional body rather than by the educational institutions themselves. The challenges initially facing such an innovative project are explored and current challenges are reviewed. Finally, the achievements of the group are discussed and future objectives are outlined.
Funding the Commercialization of University Innovations
Authors: Geisler Charles H.
Published: July 2017

The results of a recently published survey of university technology transfer managers indicate that many US universities and academic research institutes are now experiencing increases in the licensing of their patented technologies to commercial entities, resulting in the creation of new companies offering high-paying jobs and significant potential for impact on the local and national economy. What distinguishes these universities and their technology transfer efforts appears to be a strong and continuing focus on the value of their technologies, a university policy which recognizes and encourages the entrepreneurial efforts of their faculty and, most importantly, the creation of, or access to, a business support system which understands how modern technology-based industries operate. This business support activity is most significant in identifying the needs of industry and developing an awareness of the importance of responsiveness in dealing with corporate leaders and decision makers. This paper looks at some of the more significant trends referred to above, outlines the characteristics of the more aggressive (and successful) technology transfer organizations, and discusses a variety of programmes which have been evolved to enhance or accelerate the commercialization of university developed innovations.
Stakeholders and Tourism Education
Authors: Cooper Chris , Westlake John
Published: July 2017

This paper outlines three new approaches which demonstrate the emergence of a new paradigm for tourism and hospitality education. Analysis of stakeholders provides insights into the legitimacy of those who seek to influence the educational process, in particular the tourism and hospitality sector, government, faculty members and students. Stakeholders can be seen to have two main roles in the educational process: first to influence the strategic direction of education via curriculum planning; and second, to measure performance, in particular through the quality management process. This paper details the main issues and stages involved in the adoption of these new concepts for tourism and hospitality education and the implications for the relationship between industry and higher education.
Industrial Influences on the Development of the Communication of Science in the UK
Authors: Gornall Lynne , Thomas Brychan
Published: July 2017

The paper traces the role of industrial influences on the development of the ‘public understanding of science’, showing the initiatives as aspects of wider debates, articulated by key figures and groups in the field. In the contemporary context, this is related to the 1993 national strategic review of UK science and technology policy and the development in universities of the new field of ‘science communication’.
The University of Technology Supporting Innovation in Small Firms
Authors: Wallace J. G.
Published: July 2017

An analysis aimed at discovering the appropriate structures for innovation and combining them in a system which maximizes the innovative capacity of a country requires the adoption of a variety of perspectives. An approach focusing on universities of technology and innovation in small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) in contemporary Australia contributes another, inevitably partial view but provides a striking illustration of the complexity and variety of the interrelationships involved. The impact of recent federal government policies on industry and the role of universities is described in the context of a recent election campaign. Universities of technology are identified as particularly well suited to interaction with business and industry. This is exemplified with reference to Swinburne University of Technology Theoretical frameworks that accommodate the complex interactions are discussed. Finally, the absolute necessity of positive individual and group relationships for successful outcomes is highlighted.
The Universität Dortmund: An Agent of Structural Change in its Region
Authors: Krieger Fritz , Stratmann Silke
Published: July 2017

At the turn of the millennium the German ‘land’ of Nordrhein-Westfalen is one of the more interesting academic landscapes in Europe. With over 40 universities, universities of applied sciences, and academies it has an unusual density of institutions of higher education. The great majority are ‘young’ universities. In particular, those in the conurbation of the Ruhr Area (the industrial heartland of Nordrhein-Westfalen) have to meet demands that go beyond what Humboldt expected from German academia. The Ruhr Area, with both its economic potential and the problems that seem to be endemic in regions of early industrialization, has set its hopes for regional revitalization on the universities. This paper examines in detail the example of the Universität Dortmund, which is located in the eastern part of the Ruhr Area, and focuses on how it has been helping to bring about structural change in that region.
Bringing SMEs to the University
Authors: Linde Lisbeth Tved
Published: July 2017

This paper addresses the difficulties that a university has to overcome if it is to interact successfully with firms and other organizations in its region. Various means of overcoming these difficulties are described. Involving small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) in university–industry cooperative activities is, however, especially problematic. The author argues that this can be achieved in a relatively simple way by the construction of networks organized around a university's core research areas. She describes and assesses the practical experiences arising from Aalborg University's implementation of a number of such networks, highlighting the benefits to SMEs and key aspects of the administrative structure that have ensured its success.
Structural Change, Sector Disaggregation and Electricity Consumption in uk Industry
Authors: Ang B.W. , Skea J.F.
Published: July 2017

This paper discusses the decomposition technique for identifying the relative contributions of output growth, structural change and energy intensity to changes in industrial energy consumption. Apart from providing a deeper understanding of evolving patterns of energy consumption, such studies may have a role to play in assessing the degree to which policies and measures have contributed to the achievement of energy and environmental goals. However, there are a number of problems associated with the technique that the analyst needs to be aware of in using it and in interpreting the results it gives. These problems are discussed through analyzing the data on electricity consumption in UK industry. In particular, the problem associated with sector disaggregation is dealt with in detail.
The Impact of Crude Oil Price Volatility on Agricultural Employment in the United States
Authors: Uri Noel D.
Published: July 2017

This study addresses the question of whether fluctuations in the price of crude oil have affected agricultural employment in the United States. After reviewing previous assessments of the issue, the existence of an empirical relationship between agricultural employment and crude oil price volatility is established using cointegration tests. Subsequently, the nature of the relationship is estimated with the results suggesting that at least three full years are required before the measurable impacts of a percentage change in the real price of crude oil on the change in agricultural employment are exhausted. Finally, the structural stability of the functional relationship between the change in agricultural employment and the volatility of the price of crude oil, the percentage changes in expected net farm income, realized technological innovation, and the wage rate is examined.
Household Energy in Annangland: Its Crisis, Consequences and Reversal Strategies
Authors: Okoji Maurice A. , Moses Julia
Published: July 2017

The daily use of fuelwood in both rural and urban areas in Annangland, the amount carried daily to the latter areas and its rising price in the towns aroused the authors' interest in the supply of firewood in Annangland. A survey was conducted in four of the six local-government areas of the region. The immediate result was that the level of supply had reached a crisis stage. Causes of the crisis, its impact on the environment and those that use it directly, as well as means of reversing the crisis were than studied and analysed. To stem the threatening ecological disaster, research with the active participation of the communities, from the planning stage to the use of the product of research, is crucial.
Limited Predictability and the Greenhouse Effect – A Scientific Review
Authors: Wiin-Nielsen A.
Published: July 2017

The concept of limited predictability is reviewed followed by simple examples illustrating the sensitivity to small changes in the initial state and/or the forcing of a non-linear system. Limited predictability applies to almost all non-linear systems, and the concept is therefore important to geophysical systems governed by non-linear model equations. The limited predictability determines the upper limit to operational weather forecasts, but it will also be demonstrated that it has an impact on the determination of the effect of changes in the forcing of the system. The general strategy applied by researchers to estimate the atmospheric greenhouse effect is reviewed. It will be demonstrated that the adopted strategy, due to prescribed changes in the forcing of the climate system, is also influenced by limited predictability in the sense that predicted changes are much larger than observed changes in the temperatures at the surface of the Earth. It is therefore very unlikely that the predictions are reliable. The inclusion of the sulphur-aerosol effects are also discussed with the conclusion that although these cooling agents reduce the greenhouse warming, they do not behave as expected in the sulphur-rich and sulphur-poor regions.
Approximate hierarchical modelling of discrete data in epidemiology
Authors: Breslow Norman , Leroux Brian , Platt Robert
Published: July 2017

Hierarchical models are used in epidemiology to estimate and analyse multiple, related relative risks. Examples include meta-analyses of series of 2 × 2 tables and mapping of spatially correlated disease rates. Empirical transform and penalized quasilikelihood procedures, both of which may be implemented using standard programs for mixed model analysis, provide satisfactory approximate inferences for these problems when cell frequencies are large. Simulation studies show that, in certain situations involving small cell frequencies, penalized quasilikelihood provides satisfactory estimates of variance components and regression coefficients whereas the empirical transform approach does not.
Statistical methods for population pharmacokinetic modelling
Authors: Racine-Poon Amy , Wakefield Jon
Published: July 2017

A principal aim of population pharmacokinetic studies is to estimate the variance components associated with intra- and inter-individual variability in observed drug concentrations. The explanation of the inter-individual variability in terms of subject-specific covariates is also of great importance. Pharmacokinetic models are nonlinear in the parameters and estimation is not straightforward. Within this paper we review a number of estimation approaches which have been suggested for population pharmacokinetic analyses. We distinguish between Bayesian and non-Bayesian and fully-parametric, semi-parametric and nonparametric methods.
Invited review: MDP and other muropeptides — direct and synergistic effects on the immune system
Authors: Traub Stephanie , von Aulock Sonja , Hartung Thomas , Hermann Corinna
Published: July 2017

Muropeptides are breakdown products of peptidoglycan (PGN) of Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria. They are released during bacterial growth and division, as part of the host response by lysozyme and amidases, or upon antibiotic treatment. After phagocytosis of bacteria or bacterial breakdown products by host immune cells, the muropeptides trigger intracellular signaling cascades, leading to altered gene expression and activation of the immune response. Numerous muropeptides and derivatives have been synthesized chemically to characterize their immunostimulatory effects and adjuvant activity. Muramyl dipeptide, a natural partial structure of PGN, is the minimal structure with adjuvant activity. This review discusses the structure and occurrence of muropeptides and gives a broad overview of their inflammatory and adjuvant activity and the possible involvement of receptors in these responses.
Heat stress response results in increased macrophage inflammatory protein-2 concentration in a lipopolysaccharide-exposed macrophage cell line
Authors: Garekar Swati , Heidemann Sabrina M. , Glibetic Maria
Published: July 2017

Pretreatment with heat confers cardiopulmonary protection in endotoxemic animals. This mechanism may be through suppression of pro-inflammatory mediator production. The objectives of this study were to determine the effect of heat stress on tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and macrophage inflammatory protein-2 (MIP-2) in a lipopolysaccharide-exposed macrophage cell line and to study the relationship between TNF-α and MIP-2 production. Heat pretreatment resulted in decreased TNF-α transcription and translation by lipopolysaccharide-exposed macrophages; and increased MIP-2 concentration without additional effect in transcription. Administration of TNF-α antibody prior to exposure to lipopolysaccharide resulted in increased MIP-2 concentration suggesting that TNF-α acts to down-regulate MIP-2 production. The mechanism by which heat stress causes an increase in MIP-2 concentration may be secondary to its suppressing effect on TNF-α production.
Inflammatory, coagulatory and circulatory responses to logarithmic increases in the endotoxin dose in the anaesthetised pig
Authors: Lipcsey Miklós , Larsson Anders , Eriksson Mats B. , Sjölin Jan
Published: July 2017

Although porcine intravenous endotoxin shock models are widely employed in experimental sepsis, endotoxin dose-effect studies are scarce. Our primary aim was to establish the dose response to increasing endotoxin doses in inflammatory, coagulatory and haemodynamic effect variables, as well as to determine the optimal time point for assessment in a pig model. A secondary aim was to study pathophysiological covariations between the different responses. Twenty anaesthetised piglets received endotoxin intravenously in doses of 0.063 ( n = 3), 0.25 ( n = 3), 1.0 ( n = 3), 4.0 ( n = 3), 8 ( n = 3) and 16 µg/kg/h ( n = 2). In addition, non-endotoxin piglets constituted a control group (n = 3). Physiological variables were registered and blood samples analysed for TNF-α, IL-6, leukocyte, platelet and haemoglobin concentrations hourly for 6 h. Increases in the endotoxin dose induced significant log—log cytokine responses as well as log—linear leukocyte and platelet responses. Significant log—linear responses were observed for circulatory parameters, plasma leakage, hypoperfusion and pulmonary compliance. Significant covariations in the responses were noted. In conclusion, there were log—log or log—linear responses to endotoxin suggesting a greater effect of a given dose at lower pre-existing endotoxin concentrations and lower doses of ≤ 1 µg/kg/h may be of advantage in experiments designed to study potential anti-endotoxin effects of experimental drugs or measures.
Invited review: Tolerance to microbial TLR ligands: molecular mechanisms and relevance to disease
Authors: Medvedev Andrei E. , Sabroe Ian , Hasday Jeffrey D. , Vogel Stefanie N.
Published: July 2017

Many host cell types, including endothelial and epithelial cells, neutrophils, monocytes, natural killer cells, dendritic cells and macrophages, initiate the first line of defense against infection by sensing conserved microbial structures through Toll-like receptors (TLRs). Recognition of microbial ligands by TLRs induces their oligomerization and triggers intracellular signaling pathways, leading to production of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines. Dysregulation of the fine molecular mechanisms that tightly control TLR signaling may lead to hyperactivation of host cells by microbial products and septic shock. A prior exposure to bacterial products such as lipopolysaccharide (LPS) may result in a transient state of refractoriness to subsequent challenge that has been referred to as `tolerance'. Tolerance has been postulated as a protective mechanism limiting excessive inflammation and preventing septic shock. However, tolerance may compromise the host's ability to counteract subsequent bacterial challenge since many septic patients exhibit an increased incidence of recurrent bacterial infection and suppressed monocyte responsiveness to LPS, closely resembling the tolerant phenotype. Thus, by studying mechanisms of microbial tolerance, we may gain insights into how normal regulatory mechanisms are dysregulated, leading ultimately to microbial hyporesponsivess and life-threatening disease. In this review, we present current theories of the molecular mechanisms that underlie induction and maintenance of `microbial tolerance', and discuss the possible relevance of tolerance to several infectious and non-infectious diseases.
Invited review: Roles for accessory molecules in microbial recognition by Toll-like receptors
Authors: Miyake Kensuke
Published: July 2017

The Toll family of receptors recognizes a variety of microbial products and triggers immune responses. Recent progress has revealed a requirement for accessory molecules in microbial recognition by Toll-like receptors. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) recognition requires LPS binding protein (LBP), CD14, and MD-2. MD-2 is directly involved in ligand-binding and subsequent receptor activation, whereas LBP and CD14 control ligand presentation to the receptor complex, Toll-like receptor (TLR4)/MD-2. CD14 and LBP influence the amplitude of LPS responses and LPS-induced type I interferon production. TLR2 is also reported to require similar accessory molecules. Innate immune responses to microbial products driven by TLRs are controlled by accessory molecules working upstream of TLRs.
Invited review: Diversity of endotoxin and its impact on pathogenesis
Authors: Trent M. Stephen , Stead Christopher M. , Tran An X. , Hankins Jessica V.
Published: July 2017

Lipopolysaccharide or LPS is localized to the outer leaflet of the outer membrane and serves as the major surface component of the bacterial cell envelope. This remarkable glycolipid is essential for virtually all Gram-negative organisms and represents one of the conserved microbial structures responsible for activation of the innate immune system. For these reasons, the structure, function, and biosynthesis of LPS has been an area of intense research. The LPS of a number of bacteria is composed of three distinct regions — lipid A, a short core oligosaccharide, and the O-antigen polysaccharide. The lipid A domain, also known as endotoxin, anchors the molecule in the outer membrane and is the bioactive component recognized by TLR4 during human infection. Overall, the biochemical synthesis of lipid A is a highly conserved process; however, investigation of the lipid A structures of various organisms shows an impressive amount of diversity. These differences can be attributed to the action of latent enzymes that modify the canonical lipid A molecule. Variation of the lipid A domain of LPS serves as one strategy utilized by Gram-negative bacteria to promote survival by providing resistance to components of the innate immune system and helping to evade recognition by TLR4. This review summarizes the biochemical machinery required for the production of diverse lipid A structures of human pathogens and how structural modification of endotoxin impacts pathogenesis.
Selective effects of serum on bacterial LPS-induced IL-6 and nitric oxide production in murine peritoneal macrophages
Authors: Hirohashi N. , Richards M. , Morrison D.C.
Published: July 2017

In lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-dependent activation of human monocytes, the primary function of serum has been thought to provide a source of LPS-binding protein (LBP) for complex formation with LPS preparatory to CD14 binding and initiation of signal transduction. In this report we have investigated the contribution of serum factors in the mouse macrophage response to LPS. Our results show that the production of interleukin-6 (IL-6) by in vitro LPS-stimulated mouse peritoneal macrophages is suppressed in the presence of serum. In contrast, optimal production of nitric oxide (NO) by LPS-stimulated macrophages requires the presence of serum. Detailed kinetic studies indicate that these observations are not exclusively the result of differences in the time course of NO secretion. These findings contrast with equivalent studies carried out using human PBMC, where, under identical conditions of in vitro culture, the presence of serum markedly potentiates LPS-dependent IL-6 production. We have confirmed by RT-PCR, using specific primers for IL-6 and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), that the effects observed are manifest primarily at the level of mRNA expression. Enhancement of NO responses and suppression of IL-6 responses are both dependent upon serum concentration. These potentiating and inhibiting effects of serum are less apparent with a second microbial stimulus (heat-killed Staphylococcus aureus). Collectively, these results indicate that serum effects on mouse macrophages are multifactorial and, depending upon the particular macrophage response to be measured, can be either enhancing or suppressing. These findings would not, therefore, support the concept of an obligatory role for LBP (and by inference CD14) in the in vitro mouse macrophage response to LPS.
Clinical Supervision in Adventure Therapy: Enhancing the Field through an Active Experiential Model
Authors: Gass Michael A. , Gillis H. L. “Lee”
Published: July 2017

Supervision of therapeutic practice is one of the central professional elements of mental health practitioners. Supervision provides growth for therapists in their respective professional fields, more effective therapy for clients, and some measure of ethical protection for the welfare of clients and the public at large. However, therapists who utilize adventure therapy are often at a loss for experiential supervision models that value the active approach they use with their clients. The ENHANCES supervision model was developed to provide experiential adventure therapists with a contemporary model of supervision that removes the limitations of more traditional supervisory practices. Two case presentations illustrating the ENHANCES model are included in this article.
Michel Foucault Goes Outside: Discipline and Control in the Practice of Outdoor Education
Authors: Bowdridge Michael , Blenkinsop Sean
Published: July 2017

This paper is concerned with if, and how, measures of discipline and control are involved in outdoor and experiential education. Using the work of the French philosopher Michel Foucault, author of Discipline and Punish (1975), we shall explore how educational practice may be used to control people and to render them into “docile bodies.” We follow this with an examination of what Foucault calls the three means of correct training used for the creation and maintenance of docile bodies: hierarchical observation, normalizing judgments, and examination. Through the use of examples we will proceed to argue that outdoor and experiential education programs do exercise mechanisms of control that may at times operate contrary to purported goals. Thus, using Foucault as our guide, we examine the question of discipline and control, together with the concomitant issue of the relations of power within our society. While recognizing that discipline and control are, at times, necessary and desirable, we will argue that outdoor and experiential educators should understand how negative relations of power operate so that they may avoid unwittingly incorporating them into their practices and programs.
A Meta-Analysis of the Impact of Service-Learning on Students
Authors: Celio Christine I. , Durlak Joseph , Dymnicki Allison
Published: July 2017

Service-learning (SL) has become a popular teaching method everywhere from elementary schools to colleges. Despite the increased presence of SL in the education world, it is still unclear what student outcomes are associated with SL programs and what factors are related to more effective programs. A meta-analysis of 62 studies involving 11,837 students indicated that, compared to controls, students participating in SL programs demonstrated significant gains in five outcome areas: attitudes toward self, attitudes toward school and learning, civic engagement, social skills, and academic performance. Mean effects ranged from 0.27 to 0.43. Furthermore, as predicted, there was empirical support for the position that following certain recommended practices—such as linking to curriculum, voice, community involvement, and reflection—was associated with better outcomes. Current data should be gratifying for educators who incorporate SL into their courses, and should encourage more SL research to understand how students benefit and what conditions foster their growth and development.
Teachers, Editors, and the Communication Art
Authors: Casey Ralph D.
Published: July 2017

The old-style curriculum does not meet the challenge of the new world, says the director of the School of Journalism at the University of Minnesota in urging educators to keep abreast of liberal and responsible leadership in the communications field.
News Notes
Authors: Miller Douglass W.
Published: July 2017

News for inclusion in this section… activities of schools and departments of journalism, staff appointments and changes, curricular developments and the like… must reach Professor Miller, School of Journalism, Syracuse University, by the first of the month preceding publication. News for the June issue must reach him by May 1.
Radio and Newspaper Reports of the Heirens Murder Case
Authors: Gottlieb Lillian
Published: July 2017

This study was suggested by the Research Department of the Columbia Broadcasting System and conducted by the Columbia University Bureau of Applied Social Research under direction of Professor Paul F. Lazarsfeld. The author is a member of the bureau's staff.
The Rise of Photojournalism in the United States
Authors: Mich Daniel D.
Published: July 2017

The executive editor of Look magazine and co-author of The Technique of the Picture Story traces the development of the newspaper illustration into a means of communicating a complete account of an event with a minimum of words.
An Annotated Bibliography of Journalism Subjects in American Magazines
Authors: Swindler William F. , Reddick Dewitt C. , Price Granville
Published: July 2017

Newsprint shortages constituted the biggest trade news in American journalism in this quarter, as a Congressional inquiry and grand jury investigations carried the search as far as Canada and Alaska. In the field of radio there was some prospect of a general revision of the Communications Act by Congress, with both radio broadcasters and the FCC arguing against certain proposed changes. The so-called Hut chins report on press freedom continued to stir controversy, and spectacular developments in mechanical production of newspapers eliminating some of the standard procedures of the present were under serious study as American journalism still sought to stabilize its postwar economic position– W. F. S.
Language Contact in Bilingual Two-Year-Olds and Code-Switching: Language Encounters of a Different Kind?
Authors: Lanza Elizabeth
Published: July 2017

Language contact in the speech of children acquiring two languages simultaneously has been claimed to be qualitatively different from that of older more mature bilingual speakers, that is, of their code-switching. This article argues for the position that these patterns of language contact are in fact language encounters of the same kind. The grammatical properties of the young bilingual child's mixed utterances must be analyzed in light of the pragmatic dimensions of language use. Moreover, the type of mixing that occurs may be the result of a general imbalance in language input. Such an imbalance may affect language processing resulting in language dominance. Finally, current work in code-switching, which delineates constraints on language contact, also lends support to the stand that there is no qualitative difference between the mixing patterns of young bilingual two-year-olds and that of more mature bilingual speakers.
Borrowed Nouns; Bilingual People: The Case of the “Londrali” in Northern Cyprus
Authors: Adalar Nevin , Tagliamonte Sali
Published: July 2017

In this paper we provide a quantitative analysis of the behavior of nouns in two generations of speakers from a bilingual community in northern Cyprus. Diagnostics from three areas of grammar—phonology, morphology, and syntax—provide corroborating evidence that when a lone noun, of either English or Turkish origin, appears in contexts in which it is surrounded by the other language, it patterns systematically in accordance with its counterparts in that other language. On the other hand, when a lone noun, either English or Turkish, appears within a multiword fragment of English or Turkish, it patterns overwhelmingly with the language of its etymology. The strikingly different grammatical patterns highlight the fact that they represent two different types of behavior: borrowing in the former; codeswitching in the latter. These findings demonstrate that empirical investigation can disambiguate the community-specific status of language contact phenomena. Further, contrastive analysis across generations reveals that although the generations differ in the frequency with which they use Turkish and English, they employ the same strategies when they do. These strategies have far more to do with their preferred language of discourse, than with any purely linguistic factor.
A general EM approach for maximum likelihood estimation in mixed Poisson regression models
Authors: Karlis Dimitris
Published: July 2017

An EM type algorithm for maximum likelihood estimation is proposed for the case of mixed Poisson regression models. The algorithm makes use of the mixture representation of such models. Two members of this family are examined in depth, the negative binomial regression model and the Poisson-inverse Gaussian regression model. Closed form expressions are derived for both models leading to easily programmable algorithms. Especially for the case of the Poisson-inverse Gaussian model no special numerical techniques are needed. The algorithms are applied to a real data set concerning crime data from Greece.
A survey of Monte Carlo algorithms for maximizing the likelihood of a two-stage hierarchical model
Authors: Booth James G , Hobert James P , Jank Wolfgang
Published: July 2017

Likelihood inference with hierarchical models is often complicated by the fact that the likelihood function involves intractable integrals. Numerical integration (e.g. quadrature) is an option if the dimension of the integral is low but quickly becomes unreliable as the dimension grows. An alternative approach is to approximate the intractable integrals using Monte Carlo averages. Several different algorithms based on this idea have been proposed. In this paper we discuss the relative merits of simulated maximum likelihood, Monte Carlo EM, Monte Carlo Newton-Raphson and stochastic approximation.
Guest Editorial

-Nurse Education and Infection Control
Authors: Watson Roger
Published: July 2017

There has rarely been a time, since the late 1960s, when nursing and nurse education have not been in the process of change. First the management of nursing was flattened and the lines of accountability made more visible and there have since been many variations on this theme. In nurse education there was a move away from the schools of nursing based in teaching hospitals through the formation of colleges of nursing in the 1980s. Then, the most radical change in nurse education, the wholesale move into the higher education sector in the 1990s with the advent of Project 2000 (UKCC 1987).
An Outbreak of Multi Resistant Klebsiella in ITU
Authors: Greaves Catherine
Published: July 2017

An outbreak of a multi resistant Klebsiella (MRK) involving 4 patients, two of whom died and one became seriously ill, prompted a thorough review of infection control practices in ITU.
Prevention of cross infection in variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (vCJD)
Authors: Dealler Stephen
Published: July 2017

Currently there is inadequate information available to be sure of either the risks involved in vCJD or the effectiveness of practices that may prevent these risks. However, simply because the disease is fatal and has no treatment, we must estimate the risks using information that is available and take actions that would seem reasonable for the costs and work that may be incurred. Currently it is not possible to use the adequate evidence based practices (Ayliffe 2000) that we are used to and, seemingly valueless actions at this time may need to be taken. Most of the cases of vCJD we will see were already infected in 1989 when it became apparent that the risk from food was unacceptably high. Similarly infection control precautions in humans may need to be taken well in advance of the proof of their value and as such we must demonstrate from information that we have available that these practices are reasonable.
Bacterial resistance to disinfectants
Authors: Russell AD
Published: July 2017

A ntiseptics and disinfectants (biocides) are widely employed in controlling hospital infection. Their activity depends upon several factors, notably concentration, period of contract, pH, temperature, the type, nature and numbers of microorganisms to be inactivated and the presence of organic soil or other interfering material.

Bacteria vary considerably in their response to antiseptics and disinfectants. Bacterial spores are the least susceptible, followed by mycobacteria (including glutaraldehyde-resistant Mycobacterium chelonae) and then by Gram-negative bacteria, notably pseudomonads. Gram-positive cocci, including antibiotic-resistant staphylococci, are readily inactivated by disinfectants. Enterococci, including vancomycin-resistant strains, are also susceptible but somewhat less so than staphylococci.

Resistance is often intrinsic in nature, but may be acquired either by mutation or by the acquisition of genetic elements. Disinfectant rotation is practised in several hospitals but the issue remains contentious, although hospital isolates are often more resistant to biocides than laboratory or ‘standard’ strains.
Environmental organisms from different hospital wards
Authors: Dancer S , Raeside J , Boothma M
Published: July 2017

T hree clinical wards in the same hospital, High Dependency (HDU), Care of the Elderly (CE) and Acute Psychiatry (AP), were screened for environmental organisms. The screening programme ran for four weeks and targeted comparable sites from all three units. Floor areas were similar, as were staffing levels, cleaning schedules, infection control policies and patient numbers.

Organisms such as coagulase-negative staphylococci, Bacillus spp., coliforms, oxidase-positive Gram-negative bacilli, Clostridium difficile, enterococci, various fungi and Staphylococcus aureus were isolated. Staphylococci and Gram-negative bacilli were tested against clinically appropriate antibiotics. There was little variation in diversity or density of organisms from any of the wards, except for significant differences in antibiotic susceptibilities of the organisms (P<0.0001 HDU v AP, P=0.0057 CE v AP and P=0.0365 HDU v CE).

From HDU, 49% (of 43) isolates were resistant to four or more antibiotics and from CE, 37% (of 54) isolates were resistant to four or more. From AP, just 2% (of 52) were resistant to four or more antibiotics. 9% HDU organisms were fully susceptible, as compared with 20% of those from CE and 27% from AP.

Antibiotic data (in Defined Daily Doses (g)/100 bed-days) showed that HDU consumed over 12 times more antibiotics than CE, which in turn consumed twice as much as AP; these were mostly intravenous broad-spectrum agents for HDU, as opposed to oral preparations for the other two wards (Chi-square for each ward for linear trends by level of antibiotic intake were all P<0.0001).

It was concluded that the only significant difference between environmental bacteria from wards of varying specialities in this hospital is their resistance to antibiotics. Heavy use of antibiotics in a hospital unit, as demonstrated by antibiotic consumption data, may be associated with increased antibiotic resistance in environmental organisms originating from that unit.
The history of infection control: Robert Koch – father of medical microbiology part 2
Authors: Newsom SWB
Published: July 2017

T his is the seventh in a series of articles outlining the key developments in the history of infection control. The articles first appeared in the ISSM Journal.
Topical antimicrobial therapy with tea tree oil: fact or fantasy
Authors: Riley TV
Published: July 2017

T his paper reviews briefly the evidence that tea tree oil may be suitable as a topical antimicrobial agent. Tea tree oil is the essential oil extracted by steam distillation from the Australian native tree Melaleuca alternifolia. It has a long history of use in Australia, and has emerged as a possible topical antimicrobial because of antimicrobial resistance to conventional agents. The history, production and chemistry of tea tree oil are described. The in vitro antimicrobial activity of tea tree oil has now been reported in numerous papers, and there is good evidence for antibacterial, antifungal and, to a lesser extent, antiviral activity. What is lacking is sufficient numbers of clinical trials to verify this efficacy in vivo.

Tea tree oil is only safe to use as a topical agent and although skin sensitivity has been a concern, the evidence for this is not strong. However, long-term usage studies are still required. Based on the published data, tea tree oil may prove to be a very useful topical antimicrobial and there is a role for infection control practitioners in the validation of its use in clinical practice.
Healthcare governance and the modernisation of the NHS: infection prevention and control
Authors: Pratt R , Morgan S , Hughes J , Mulhall A , Fry C , Perry C , Tew L
Published: July 2017

Q uality is central to the government's programme for modernising the NHS and clinical quality is at the heart of this agenda. The recent introduction of corporate governance with controls assurance and clinical governance in the NHS has established a framework for providing such excellence in clinical care.

Governance applies to all healthcare activities and provides an ideal opportunity for infection prevention and control practitioners to improve the quality of their service and reduce the risk of patients acquiring preventable healthcare-associated infections (HAI).

This paper will discuss the introduction of governance in the NHS, describe the key principles of clinical governance and relate these to infection prevention and control.
The history of infection control: Pasteur the lynch-pin
Authors: Newsom SWB
Published: July 2017

T his is the eighth in a series of articles outlining the key developments in the history of infection control. The articles first appeared in the ISSM Journal.
Developing effective clinical practice: preventing hospital-acquired, catheter-associated urinary tract infections — a step-by-step approach
Authors: T Heath , V Duncanson
Published: July 2017

E fforts to establish evidence-based, clinically effective practice are central to the quality improvement programmes of most NHS organisations. In spite of this, there appears to be widespread recognition that practice change is complex and notoriously difficult to bring about. This article describes one organisation's attempt to prevent hospital-acquired, catheter-associated urinary tract infections and the framework used to facilitate successful Trust-wide changes in practice. The framework, which takes the form of a practical eight-step approach based on the principles of audit, surveillance and effective change management, is offered as a tool to assist other organisations in their pursuit of clinical excellence.
Guidelines for contributors
Authors: Millward Sue
Published: July 2017

The editors welcome papers that contribute towards the development and understanding of infection control theory and practice. Manuscripts up to 3,000 words that address issues of infection control clinical practice, scientific research, education and management are encouraged. Short papers of between 1,000 and 2,000 words and correspondence (up to a maximum of 300 words) are also welcomed.

The British Journal of Infection Control cannot consider articles that are not original or have been submitted elsewhere, and the exclusive right to the manuscript should be stated in an accompanying letter. Contributors will be asked to assign copyright to the ICNA.
Achieving Meaningful Learning in Health Information Management Students: The Importance of Professional Experience
Authors: Marks Anne , McIntosh Jean
Published: July 2017

Learning is a complex process, not merely a transfer of information from teacher to student. For learning to be meaningful, students need to adopt a deep approach, and in the case of vocational students, to be given the opportunity to learn experientially. Health information management is a practice profession for which students are educated through theory at university and professional experience in the workplace. This article discusses how, through the process of experiential learning, professional experience can promote reflective thinking and thus deep learning, that is, the ability to integrate theory and practice, as well as professional and personal development in health information management students.
Mechanical Behavior of Polyester Nonwoven Composite Films
Authors: Said Magdi A. , Thomas V.
Published: July 2017

Films reinforced with nonwoven fabric are being considered for the development of a material suitable for long duration scientific balloons under a program managed by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). Nonwoven fabrics provide a relatively high strength to weight ratio compared to other woven fabrics or homogeneous films. Nonwovens also have better crack propagation resistance and rip stop capabilities when compared to similar light weight, high strength materials. If joining is required, such as in the case of scientific balloons, nonwovens have an advantage over polymeric thin films since they can utilize traditional textile methods as well as other methods such as heat sealing, adhesives, and ultrasonic means. Nonwovens, however, lack the barrier properties required for helium filled scientific balloons. Because the fabric is porous, it must be laminated to provide the gas barrier capabilities required in these applications. A set of polyester nonwovens, with and without a scrim, were laminated with thin biaxially oriented polyethylene terephthalate (PET) film as a barrier; their mechanical properties were compared to that of the individual layers. The data indicate that, while maintraining the low weight characteristics, there is a net increase in the strength and toughness of the composite film compared to that of the nonwoven fabric or the PET film alone.