bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
From Oberlin to Berlin
Authors: Carter Marva Griffin
Published: January 2010

This chapter discusses how Will Cook satisfied his musical interest by seriously studying the violin from 1883 to 1887 at Oberlin Conservatory. It discusses how Will outgrew Professor Doolittle’s violin instruction and how he studied and enjoyed his stay at Berlin’s Hochschule für Musik under the Austro-Hungarian violinist Joseph Joachim. It then narrates Cook’s return to Washington after a year’s study in Germany as a musical phenomenon performing some of the masterpieces upon his violin with one hand, probably because he had depleted his funds and became ill. It discusses how Will made a dramatic name change by abandoning the middle name Mercer, in favor of Marion, in honor of his mother. It explains that Will changed his name for he heard Langston boasting about how he got his best features from his white ancestors. It shows that Cook’s racial consciousness and pride were dramatically sensitive aspects of his personality.
“Broadway, Here I Come!”
Authors: Carter Marva Griffin
Published: January 2010

This chapter begins by discussing how the Worth’s Museum in Manhattan initiated Will Cook into musical theater. It talks about how important Bob Cole was to Will Cook in learning the tricks of the theatrical trade. It also talks about Will Cook and Paul Laurence Dunbar’s collaboration in creatively composing songs. It also tells of Cook’s disappointment and depression after being told by his prospective producer that he must be crazy to believe that any Broadway audience would listen to Negroes singing Negro opera. It narrates how Cook gathered another group of talented blacks, succeeded in organizing Broadway’s first black musical-comedy sketch, and gained praise from their audience. It then talks about Abbie Mitchell’s life as Will’s wife. It explains that Will Cook formed and applied his own philosophy—African-Americans should no longer imitate, but rather adhere to their own cultural mores—into his own musical compositions.
The Pearl of the Orient Seas
Authors: Goldoftas Barbara
Published: January 2010

This introductory chapter offers an overview of the history of the over-exploitation of natural resources in the Philippines, the political context, and the role of the Catholic Church in the environmental movement at local level. It argues that the Philippines and many developing countries need an environmentalism which treats the conservation of natural resources as both an ecological and economic problem; which is appropriate for their particular ecosystems; and which addresses entrenched poverty, weak governance, and the implications of unequal land ownership.
China: In Times of Civil and Cold War
Authors: Yoshida Takashi
Published: January 2010

This chapter traces the history and memory of the Nanjing Massacre in China from 1945 to 1971. During the civil war, the main focus of both Nationalist and Communist governments was on defeating their current enemies rather than remembering the war against Japan. Locals in Nanjing, however, preserved their personal memories and the history of the atrocities by initiating studies of Nanjing within the framework of the Chinese official narrative.
China: The Nanjing Massacre and Patriotic Education
Authors: Yoshida Takashi
Published: January 2010

This chapter discusses the history and memory of the Nanjing Massacre in China from 1989 to the present. Beginning in 1989, the Communist Party strengthened its emphasis on education as a source of patriotism. Popular accounts of Nanjing became widely available to the public.
Epistemology and Teaching Styles: Different Forms, Same Message
Authors: Mertz Elizabeth
Published: January 2010

This chapter deals with the divergent teaching styles found in law schools. It looks at the variety of ways that a similar message about legal language is conveyed in today's law school classroom, ranging from a class dominated by lecturing to a modified Socratic method of teaching to a style characterized by shorter student-professor exchanges. This provides an opportunity to examine the nuances of discourse structure across different classes. Although surface features of classroom discourse differ among these classrooms, some interesting resonances are evident in other structural features of classroom language. These resonances provide subtle structural support for the underlying message about legal epistemology (and accompanying metalinguistic orientations) that is being conveyed to students.
On Becoming a Legal Person: Identity and the Social Context of Legal Epistemology
Authors: Mertz Elizabeth
Published: January 2010

This chapter considers what kind of person is created through the talk of the law school classroom and discusses the larger view of the world, of human selves and motivations, and of social context that are entailed in this creation. The chapter concludes by discussing the broader social implications of the underlying legal epistemology outlined earlier. Based on contemporary social theory, this chapter draws connections between U.S. legal language and the wider social system in which it is embedded.
Legal Language and American Law: Authority, Morality, and Linguistic Ideology
Authors: Mertz Elizabeth
Published: January 2010

This book has demonstrated that context matters to the understanding of law school training in a number of ways. In the classroom, aspects of the immediate context are crucial in the dynamics that create more and less inclusive discussions. These include, but are certainly not limited to, the demographic backgrounds of students and professors, the size and linguistic structuring of the class itself, and the status, history, location, and culture of the law school. Contextual cues in class also point the way to the shared epistemology that is conveyed in all of these classrooms, despite surface differences in discourse style. Finally, some kinds of context are ignored or omitted, creating a blind spot in the understanding of social conflict taught to law students. This chapter looks at the concepts of authority, morality, and linguistic ideology with respect to the teaching of law in law schools.
The End of Early Music
Authors: Haynes Bruce
Published: January 2010

Its performing traditions lost to time, early music has become the subject of significant controversy across the world of classical music and presents numerous challenges for musicians, composers, and even listening audiences. The studies of instruments and notes on early manuscript pages may help to restore early music to its intended state, yet the real process is interpretive, taking place within performers themselves. This book is about historical performance practice in its broadest sense. The book begins by identifying the most common performing styles, using and comparing sound recordings from the past. To help musicians distinguish between Period and Romantic styles, the book engages with the most current and controversial topics in the field in defining the differences between them. Throughout, it presents many compelling arguments for using pre-Romantic values as inspiration to re-examine and correct Romantic assumptions about performance. From Werktreue and the Urtext imperative to formality in ritualized performances and authenticity as an industry standard, this book offers straightforward explanations of the most significant questions in the field. Two chapters compare Baroque expression through rhetoric and gestural phrasing to the Romantic concept of autobiography in notes. The book argues that performances are more pleasing and convincing to contemporary performers and listeners not through the attempt to return to the past, but rather by endeavoring to revive as best we can the styles and techniques that originally produced the music.
When You Say Something Differently, You Say Something Different
Authors: Haynes Bruce
Published: January 2010

Music has different styles: on the conservative end are wedding, funeral, and most religious repertoire, in the middle is the relatively unchanging “canonic” music, and on the informal side is popular music, highly variable and constantly shifting. It used to be, back in pre-World War II days, that performing style in Romantic music would “demode” very slowly. In those days, there was only a single performing protocol, one style that “fit all” and was used for music of many different kinds of composition. It was only in popular music that musical styles developed and atrophied in the space of a year or less. Before the Romantic Revolution, however, concert music was much less stable. This chapter discusses musical style, innovation in music, chronocentrism, and the rise of pluralism in the music scene.
Classical Music’s Coarse Caress
Authors: Haynes Bruce
Published: January 2010

Romanticism arose along with other values that are the foundations of modern life, like human rights, democracy, the decimal system, the universal use of family names, marriage based on love, and street addresses. No wonder it is so pervasive. Musicians find themselves looking at rhetorical repertoire through a series of veils, consisting of axioms and dogmas, usually unspoken, that are so strong in their culture that they tend to distort and obscure everything that pre- Romantic people thought music was meant to do, or how they went about playing it: not just how to play a trill, but something as basic as how to read the page. This chapter discusses classical music and why the Romantics called music “classical”, canonism in music, Charles Burney's documentation of the beginnings of music history, what conservatories conserve absolute music (the autonomy principle), originality in music and music genius, attribution and designer labels, and repeatability and ritualized performance.
The Medium Is the Message
Authors: Haynes Bruce
Published: January 2010

The years 1760 to 1840 are usually associated with the Industrial Revolution. They also encompassed a series of significant musical developments that led from Galant music to the Romantic/Canonic aesthetic. During this period, every kind of musical instrument underwent a fundamental transformation from the Baroque type to the Romantic. String instruments were rebuilt, mainly in order to make them louder and reduce the overtones, giving them a rounder, thicker sound. Woodwinds were redesigned so that each semitone was played with its own dedicated tone hole; this meant adding keys to close those holes when they were not used. The general system of tuning changed fundamentally, as leading tones became high rather than low and a new simplifying universal tuning, equal temperament, became common. This chapter discusses Period instruments and the influence of musical instruments on performing style, violins, and hardware and software for Period instruments.
The Rainbow and the Kaleidoscope
Authors: Haynes Bruce
Published: January 2010

Romantic and modern phrasing is seldom based on small units, but is an integral element of legato style. The Romantic long-line or “climax phrase” is traditionally the length of a singer's or wind player's breath. Also called “the overarching phrase,” the “sweeping melodic line,” the “sostenuto,” and the “grande ligne,” the long-line phrase is essentially a dynamic shape, starting softly and building to one or more notes, often high and usually somewhere in the middle of the phrase (these are the “goals” or “climaxes”), then diminishing to the end. This chapter discusses figures and gestures, examples of melodic figures, gestures as the antiphrase orders or levels of meaning, and gesture and phrase inflection (individual note-shaping).
Passive and Active Musicking
Authors: Haynes Bruce
Published: January 2010

If music is to remain a living art, the concept of performer as arranger/co-composer must be revived. We should share the sense of freedom that musicians felt at the time, not just in arranging their own and other people's compositions, but in writing new ones. However, it will be something of a miracle to overcome our habitual canonic thinking, which constrains us to play the same pieces over and over again, like cover bands. The modern cover band typically imitates one of the famous rock groups of the late 1960s, like the Beatles or Led Zeppelin. Cover bands may wear the same clothes and hairdos, or act the same way as their models. The basic attribute of cover bands, however, is that they play someone else's music. This chapter discusses the cover band mentality, the border between composing and performing, improvisation by the performer, style-copying in composing, Period composition, the genius barrier, and designer labels.
Introduction
Authors: Haynes Bruce
Published: January 2010

Separation between compositing and performing has not always existed. Before the rise of Romanticism, improvisation and composition were normal activities for any musician. In a time when new pieces were in constant demand, being a composer was nothing special, just part of the process of producing music. But even if a musician did not always write their improvisations down, they had to know how to make up music on the spot. Without that ability, they could not play the music of the time. What hangs like a veil between the musicians of today and those of pre-Romantic times are the changes in ideals and mentality, the paradigm shifts that are symbolized by the Industrial Revolution that took place between about 1760 and 1840, and more specifically the French Revolution that began in 1789. This chapter discusses canonism and classicism in early music, musical rhetoric, and authenticity as a statement of intent.
Composition in the Playground
Authors: Marsh Kathryn
Published: January 2010

The foregoing chapters have explored the interrelationship of oral transmission and generative practices in children's musical play in school playgrounds within its social context. While some variation is inadvertent, it is clear that children also use deliberate processes of innovation to vary game material for a range of different social and aesthetic purposes, in some cases creating entirely new compositions. This chapter looks at case studies of particular groups of children to investigate the compositional strategies enacted by playground performers in the context of their musical play. These strategies are compared with innovative processes found in other orally transmitted performance genres and then used to challenge a number of the assumptions and models pertaining to children's musical creativity. The “mystery” of children's playground composition in performance is considered by focusing on their statements regarding their innovation with respect to playground singing games and other forms of musical play.
6 The Spirit of Governance
Authors: DUSINBERRE WILLIAM
Published: January 2010

Several instances of relatively benevolent conduct toward slaves, directed usually toward a house servant, a skilled artisan, a “family slave,” or a mixed-race person, can be discovered in the Polk family records. White women sometimes pressed their husbands or their sons to act more benevolently than they would otherwise have done. But expressions of genuine feeling for a black person were exceedingly rare, and the actions of the Polk men (and some of the women) were normally governed by self-interest — sometimes dressed in beguilingly paternalist language. The Polk family records lend little support to the view that the men in this family acted largely in consonance with the paternalist code that was supposed to govern their conduct.
11 Texas and the Mexican War
Authors: DUSINBERRE WILLIAM
Published: January 2010

Polk's grandfather Ezekiel, his father, Sam, and the president himself had all established slave plantations on the westward-moving frontier; and the expansion of plantation slavery into Texas held deep personal meaning for the president. Polk had always felt a need to prove himself, and the early humiliations he had experienced in governing his slaves may have contributed to the belligerence of the diplomatic and military policies through which he demonstrated his determination to show the Mexicans who was in control. By whipping a war resolution through the House of Representatives against the wishes of 35 percent of its members, President Polk planted the seeds of a towering political conflict over the aims of the war with Mexico: was slavery to be legalized in the territory west of Texas that Polk wished to seize?
Expansive and Cursory Presentation of Authorship in the Secular Short Story
Authors: Coxon Sebastian
Published: January 2010

The short story or ‘Märe’ is another kind of narrative poetry which appears inextricably linked to an oral tradition of storytelling but whose increasing popularity characterizes the German literary scene of the period 1220-90. The presentation of authorship in several ‘Mären’ was already observed in the context of Konrad von Würzburg's oeuvre, where the poetic strategies involved range from the expansive (Herzmaere) to the cursory (Schwanritter). This chapter explores just how far the short story as a genre relates to such self-conscious authorial practices, and whether or not there is any affinity to be discerned between these texts and the heroic epic.
Venice and Habsburg Imperial Policy
Authors: LAVEN DAVID
Published: January 2010

This chapter looks at the place Venice and its hinterland assumed within broader imperial policy. It examines its role both within Metternich's defensive and diplomatic strategy, and within debates on economic and commercial issues. Underpinning this discussion is a consideration of how the authorities in Vienna viewed Venetians (in the sense of both veneziani and veneti), and how Venetians viewed not only their Austrian rulers, but other neighbours both within and without imperial frontiers. It is stressed that Venetians were more likely to see fellow Italians from Trieste or Lombardy as threatening to their interests than the German-speaking officials who were largely responsible for taking decisions about the region.
Conscription
Authors: LAVEN DAVID
Published: January 2010

This chapter examines another widely-disliked Habsburg institution: conscription into the army and navy. It analyses the debates that went on surrounding the introduction of an annual levy in Venetia, and contrasts the way in which the Austrian system operated with the fashion in which that of the Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy functioned. It argues that, while most Venetians still loathed conscription under the Austrians, and often went to great lengths to avoid it, military service was less irksome than under the French.
Nuns, Abbesses, Saints, and their Monasteries, c.900–1200
Authors: Harrington Christina
Published: January 2010

By all accounts, much of the Irish women's religious life was little affected by the changes of the 10th, 11th, and early 12th centuries. The structure of the professions, for example, seems unchanged. The two types of nuns, the virgins and the penitents/widows, continued to exist. Nuns, nunneries, abbesses, female saints, and their monasteries were all flourishing during this period. The female houses, large and small, were still in place. The nuns' professions appear to have continued much as before. Female saints, major and minor, continued to be petitioned by worshippers of both sexes. The changes of these centuries are, against this background, initially invisible. They become more apparent, however, when the scholar turns to the question of relations between the sexes within monastic life, and concentrates particularly on the chronology in the hagiographical corpus.
‘Generous Eve’ and the Echoes of Reform
Authors: Harrington Christina
Published: January 2010

If the changes in Irish material are best explained as a response, albeit an ambivalent and resistant one, to reform ideas flourishing beyond its shores, there are further enquiries to be made. First there are the reforms themselves — the language, imagery, and methods used, a few points of which have already been encountered. Then there is the vexed question of transmission, for it is commonly asserted that Ireland was largely insulated from overseas movements; in fact it is standard to say that the Gregorian reforms only reached Ireland in the 12th century, and the Benedictine reforms in England are generally thought to have made no impact on Ireland at all. If the first two issues can be explained satisfactorily, the final question remains: does the thesis work, in a broader way, for Irish writing on women as a whole?
On the docket: Changing conventions in a Muslim court, 1965–1995
Authors: ROSEN LAWRENCE
Published: January 2010

This chapter uses the docket of a Moroccan court for thirty years to show how the types of cases have changed over time. The introduction of new ways of approaching evidence — especially through circumstantial evidence — and new forms of thinking about causation have entered the law. As a result, the argument is made, both historically and for the present, that Islamic law is ever-changing and creative.
The Oslo Accords
Authors: Watson Geoffrey R.
Published: January 2010

This book presents a legal analysis of the Oslo Accords. The book begins by rejecting suggestions that the Accords are non-binding political undertakings. It argues instead that they are binding international agreements between subjects of international law. The book next analyses Israeli and Palestinian compliance with the Accords. It concludes that each side has a mixed record of compliance, but that neither side has committed so serious a breach as to warrant termination of the Accords. Finally, the book offers some suggestions on how international law might help shape a final status agreement between the parties.
Before Oslo: A Brief Legal History of the Arab-Israeli Conflict
Authors: WATSON GEOFFREY R.
Published: January 2010

This chapter presents a brief legal history of the Palestinian–Israel conflict. Topics discussed include the origins of the conflict, the Balfour Declaration, the League of Nations mandate for Palestine, the founding of the state of Israel, and the Six-Day War of Jun 1967.
Kinetic Equations
Authors: Kopnin Nikolai B.
Published: January 2010

This chapter derives the kinetic equations for the two-component distribution function in a gauge-invariant form. The collision integrals for interaction of excitations with impurities, phonons, and with each other are written down. The gauge-invariant expressions for electron density, electric current, heat current, and order parameter are obtained. Kinetic equations for dirty superconductors are derived. Heat conduction in superconducting state is considered.
Vortex Dynamics in Dirty Superconductors
Authors: Kopnin Nikolai B.
Published: January 2010

The force exerted on a vortex from the environment is derived microscopically using the quasiclassical Green function formalism. The kinetic equation is solved for the distribution function of excitations driven out of equilibrium by the moving vortex. The flux flow conductivity in a dirty superconductor is calculated. The vortex viscosity appears to be much larger than what is predicted by the conventional TDGL model. The flux-flow conductivity is discussed as a function of temperature and the kinetic parameters.
Mean-Field Theory of Phase Transitions
Authors: Nishimori Hidetoshi
Published: January 2010

Methods of statistical mechanics have been enormously successful in clarifying the macroscopic properties of many-body systems. Typical examples are found in magnetic systems, which have been a test bed for a variety of techniques. This chapter introduces the Ising model of magnetic systems and explains its mean-field treatment, a very useful technique of analysis of many-body systems by statistical mechanics. Mean-field theory explained here forms the basis of the methods used repeatedly throughout this book. The arguments in the present chapter represent a general mean-field theory of phase transitions in the Ising model with uniform ferromagnetic interactions. Special features of spin glasses and related disordered systems are taken into account in subsequent chapters.
Image Restoration
Authors: Nishimori Hidetoshi
Published: January 2010

The problem of statistical inference of the original image, given a noisy image, can be formulated in a similar way to error-correcting codes. By the Bayes formula, the problem reduces to a form of random spin systems, and methods of statistical mechanics apply. This chapter shows that image restoration using statistical fluctuations (finite-temperature restoration or MPM) gives a better performance than the zero-temperature MAP if we are to maximize the pixel-wise similarity of the restored image to the original image. This produces the same situation as in error-correcting codes. Mean-field treatments and the problem of parameter estimation are also discussed.
Optimization Problems
Authors: Nishimori Hidetoshi
Published: January 2010

A decision-making problem is often formulated as the minimization or maximization of a multivariable function, an optimization problem. This chapter shows that the methods of statistical mechanics are useful to study some types of optimization problems including the number partitioning, the graph partitioning, the knapsack problem, and the satisfiability problem. All these problems are shown to be formulated and solved using the theory of spin glasses, in particular the replica method. Then, discussions are continued on the mathematical properties of simulated annealing, an approximate numerical method for generic optimization problems.
Bimolecular reactions, dynamics of collisions
Authors: Henriksen Niels E. , Hansen Flemming Y.
Published: January 2010

This chapter discusses the dynamics of bimolecular collisions within the framework of (quasi-)classical mechanics as well as quantum mechanics. The relation between the cross-section and the reaction probability, which can be calculated theoretically from a (quasi-)classical or quantum mechanical description of the collision, is described in terms of classical trajectories and wave packets, respectively. As an introduction to reactive scattering, classical two-body scattering is described and used to formulate simple models for chemical reactions, based on reasonable assumptions for the reaction probability. Three-body (and many-body) quasi-classical scattering is formulated and the numerical evaluation of the reaction probability is described. The relation between scattering angles and differential cross-sections in various frames is emphasized. The chapter concludes with a brief description of non-adiabatic dynamics, that is, situations beyond the Born–Oppenheimer approximation where more than one electronic state is in play. A discussion of the so-called Landau–Zener model is included.
The Early Latin Verb System
Authors: de Melo Wolfgang David Cirilo
Published: January 2010

Early Latin has archaic futures like faxō ‘I shall do’, archaic subjunctives like faxim I may do’, duim ‘I may give’, or attigās ‘you may touch’, and archaic infinitives like impetrāssere ‘to achieve’. These forms are already quite rare in Plautus; a generation later, in Terence, they are almost non-existent. This study focuses on such forms from a synchronic perspective. It examines their meaning, distribution over clause types, register, and productivity. In order to reach reliable conclusions, the book looks at the usage of ‘regular’ futures, subjunctives, and infinitives in the early period. Thus, morphosyntactic phenomena such as the sequence of tenses and the use of subjunctives in prohibitions are examined and compared with classical practice. The work contains diachronic elements as well. Not only does it discuss the reconstruction of elements of the Proto-Italic and Proto-Indo-European verb systems, but it also shows the patterns by which archaic forms were lost in classical and later Latin.
The Type attigās in Archaic Latin
Authors: DE MELO WOLFGANG DAVID CIRILO
Published: January 2010

Subjunctives of the type attigās clearly have old aorist stems, but the origin of the subjunctive morpheme remains unclear. As with the other extra-paradigmatic subjunctives the meaning is always non-past. Again we find the same restrictions of use: absence in commands and ut-clauses, but high frequency in prohibitions and subordinate nē-clauses. Like most other archaic forms they belong to an elevated register.
Organizing the Space of Knowledge
Authors: Jenkins Alice
Published: January 2010

Landscape metaphors tended to figure knowledge as an immense tract of country through which hardy and determined learners must struggle. But many efforts were made in the early 19th century to picture knowledge as a harmonious, balanced system, which could be mastered more gently, often simply by detached observation, and in these attempts too spatial models were widely and variously deployed. This chapter discusses some contemporary attempts to construct a model for laying out knowledge in comprehensible patterns. Opening and closing with a reminder via Middlemarch of some of the practical and ethical issues involved in organizing knowledge, the chapter moves on to use readings of Wordsworth's Guide through the Lakes and Coleridge's Biographia Literaria to highlight different ways of imagining knowledge as a visual spatial pattern. It focuses on the hub-and-ray pattern, where the observer is placed at the centre of a series of radiating lines each formed by items of knowledge, and the aerial view, which locates the observer high above an array of information which can have a more random distribution. Each model constructs a different power relationship between the observer and the knowledge spread below or around him. Radically differently from the landscape images in Chapter 1, though, all these models aspire to present knowledge in an atemporal form — to arrange it in such a way that no time is taken in assimilating it. These models respond to the challenge from mass education by trying to take the narrative out of knowledge and to render it as dehumanized pure form.
Disciplinary Boundaries and Border Disputes
Authors: Jenkins Alice
Published: January 2010

This chapter focuses on debates about the construction of boundaries between scientific disciplines in the period. Even as the physical sciences were rapidly separating into disciplines, each with its own dialect and infrastructure, voices were being raised against the process. One powerful objection to specialization was the early 19th-century sense that nature constituted a single uniform field, governed by a very small number of universal laws. Carving science up into artificial disciplinary areas ran counter to the way nature itself worked. A further objection to disciplinization was that specialisms meant exclusivity and yet it was vital to keep the educated general reader abreast of the new scientific knowledge and alive to the growing confidence of scientific claims to cultural authority. The chapter shows how geographical imagery was used in this argument, with rhetoric based on borders, battlefields, nations, and kingdoms widely deployed to increase the emotional pressure on both sides.
Aspiring to the Abstract: Pure Space and Geometry
Authors: Jenkins Alice
Published: January 2010

This chapter argues that geometry carried profound cultural significance for the early 19th century by representing space in its purest form. Geometry offered access to space set free from the clumsiness and limitation of human perception. Geometry's space of pure thought gave the most certain and secure rational knowledge possible and was used as a yardstick for other claims to truth and universality. Euclidean geometry had traditionally enjoyed enormously high prestige as the foundation not only for a scientific education but for any kind of systematic thought. Its authority was appropriated by many other discourses claiming cultural power. But by the early 19th century cracks were appearing in its status as groups with no geometrical training and no belief in its relevance to their educational needs denounced its prestige as a repressive outdated shibboleth. Even much more moderate writers, with vested interests in retaining geometry and other kinds of mathematical education at the heart of the British elite educational system, offered suggestions for reforming its teaching, and for making it more usefully applicable to the needs of industrial and technological workers. Geometry was the unlikely locus of important struggles in the class politics of education in the early 19th century: at stake was the privileging of ideal over actual space, and of abstract over practical science. Readings of contemporary writing on geometry are interwoven in this chapter with a study of Victorian geometry textbooks for both elite and artisan readers.
Chaos, the Void, and Poetry
Authors: Jenkins Alice
Published: January 2010

Previous chapters have explored ways in which early 19th-century writers valorized space as a fundamental of science, as a transcendental abstraction, and as a unified, homogeneous field which underlies the fragmentation of disciplinary formation. This chapter shifts the focus from space as reliable, ordered, and ideal to space as random, unstable, and chaotic. With this shift we move from science to pseudo-science, and from non-fiction prose to poetry — albeit a kind of poetry that has never had a place in the critical canon.
Graph structures: communities
Authors: Caldarelli Guido
Published: January 2010

This chapter provides an explanation and analysis of a series of algorithms commonly used to compute communities in complex networks.
Financial networks
Authors: Caldarelli Guido
Published: January 2010

Many applications of networks are nowadays aimed at the understanding of financial systems and institutions. This chapter presents some of them and discusses the results found.
Stochastic Dynamics In Hilbert Space
Authors: Breuer Heinz-Peter , Petruccione Francesco
Published: January 2010

This chapter contains the foundations of the stochastic formulation of continuous measurements carried out on an open quantum system. It shows that the time evolution of the state vector, conditioned on the measurement record, is given by a piecewise deterministic process in Hilbert space involving continuous time-evolution periods which are broken by randomly occurring, sudden quantum jumps. This so-called unravelling of the quantum master equation in the form of a stochastic process is based on a close relation between quantum dynamical semigroups and piecewise deterministic processes. The general theory is illustrated by means of a number of examples, such as direct, homodyne, and heterodyne photodetection. The chapter also treats the corresponding description of continuous measurements through stochastic Schr ö dinger equations and stochastic differential equations for the density matrix, as well as the stochastic representation of multitime correlations functions.
The Bridges of Medieval England
Authors: Harrison David
Published: January 2010

Medieval bridges are remarkable achievements of design and engineering comparable with the great cathedrals of the period, and are also proof of the great importance of road transport in the middle ages, and of the size and sophistication of the medieval economy. This book rewrites their history from early Anglo-Saxon England right up to the Industrial Revolution, providing insights into many aspects of the subject. Looking at the role of bridges in the creation of a new road system, which was significantly different from its Roman predecessor and which largely survived until the 20th century, the book examines their design. Often built in the most difficult circumstances — broad flood plains, deep tidal waters, and steep upland valleys — these bridges withstood all but the most catastrophic floods. The book also investigates the immense efforts put into their construction and upkeep, ranging from the mobilisation of large work forces by the old English state to the role of resident hermits and the charitable donations which produced bridge trusts with huge incomes. The evidence presented in this book shows that the network of bridges, which had been in place since the 13th century, was capable of serving the needs of the economy on the eve of the Industrial Revolution. This has profound implications for our understanding of pre-industrial society, challenging accepted accounts of the development of medieval trade and communications, and bringing to the fore the continuities from the late Anglo-Saxon period to the 18th century.
Change: 400–1250
Authors: HARRISON DAVID
Published: January 2010

If the situation on the Great Ouse and the Thames is representative of most of the rest of England — and it is likely that it is — it follows that the bulk of the pre-industrial bridge network had been built by the first half of the 13th century. This means that most of the bridges standing in 1750 were on the site of a bridge constructed before 1250. A network of bridges replaced fords and ferries as the main river crossings, and many of these new bridges were on different sites from those of the Roman river crossings. Together with major new centres, they were the focal points of a new road system which was significantly different from the Roman network. By the first half of the 14th century, the new road system can be seen in considerable detail, but it is likely that it had been established centuries earlier.
Keeping the Bridge Network in Use
Authors: HARRISON DAVID
Published: January 2010

It was one thing for skilled masons and carpenters to build an extensive network of well-designed, mostly stone bridges, and another to ensure that they remained in use. According to the traditional view, this was not possible. Documentary evidence suggests that medieval bridges were so often unsafe and so commonly left in disrepair that a ferry may have been regarded as safer and more reliable. This means that a fortune would be spent on constructing bridges, but that effort would be not put into maintaining and repairing them. The evidence supports the contrary view: through the power of the state and the self-interest, generosity, and enterprise of many individuals, vast resources were mobilised for the upkeep of bridges. As a result, the network of bridges was kept open to travellers. Most bridges at most times remained in use.
Funding Mechanisms
Authors: HARRISON DAVID
Published: January 2010

The bulk of the information available about bridges in England in the thousand years from the mid-8th to the mid-18th century relates to the efforts made to maintain and repair them. By the later middle ages, the repair of bridges was financed and organised in a variety of ways. Three main methods of funding bridge construction and maintenance are apparent. The first, wide category consists of methods involving state compulsion. The second method was the imposition of a toll on those crossing the bridge. Finally, the task could be left to private contributions. All general works on medieval bridges give examples of these methods of funding, but there has been no comprehensive consideration. Nor has there has been any attempt to assess the relative contribution each made to keeping the large network of bridges in repair, and how and why it changed over time.
Our Towns
Authors: Hinton James
Published: January 2010

This chapter returns to the wider female associational world, examining attempts to consolidate women's organizations around a non-partisan reformist agenda which reflected their conviction that, however extensively the state might or indeed should intervene, ongoing social problems would continue to provide fertile soil for middle-class social leadership. It examines the Women's Group on Public Welfare and its 1943 study of urban poverty, Our Towns; the local co-ordination of the women's movement through Standing Conferences of Women's Organisations; the role of the Townswomen's Guilds and the Soroptimists in these developments; and the limited wartime revival of feminism and efforts to promote independent women candidates in local elections. The ambition and self-assertiveness of this non-partisan feminine reformism was limited both by the inability of women to take on the male-dominated power of the political parties, and by the growing marginalization of philanthropic forms of authority as social work became increasingly professionalized in the welfare state.
Incorporation through Interpretation
Authors: Campbell Tom
Published: January 2010

The Human Rights Act 1998 (HRA) is widely regarded as a characteristically British compromise between giving human rights more weight in the United Kingdom polity and preserving the constitutional primacy of the House of Commons. Thus, the HRA gives the higher courts the power to declare an act of Parliament to be incompatible with the European Convention on Human Rights, but not to render it invalid. Only Parliament can change its own legislation, while courts, along with other ‘public authorities’, cannot override statutory law to achieve such objectives. This chapter argues that the impact of the HRA will severely diminish the effective authority of elected representatives of the British people. The HRA allows an open-ended amount of judicial activism that has the potential to remove control over a broad range of issues from the domain of ordinary, non-legal politics. This chapter also looks at issues surrounding judicial review of legislation on the basis of bills of rights and how its proponents have developed the idea of what counts as legal interpretation.
Human Rights in a Postnational Order: Reconciling Political and Constitutional Pluralism
Authors: Walker Neil
Published: January 2010

This chapter looks at the overall significance of human rights developments in the European Union (EU) domain for the Human Rights Act 1998 (HRA) of the United Kingdom. It argues that those who retain a healthy scepticism (rather than cynicism) about the beneficial consequences of the implementation of the HRA, and the possible hardening of its strong principle of favourable interpretation towards the European Convention on Human Rights catalogue, its judicial declaratory power of incompatibility, and its monitoring of executive and parliamentary prior compliance into a de facto system of domestic entrenchment, cannot afford to disregard the EU dimension. The development of the EU as a higher tier of government, with its own claims to democratic legitimacy, disturbs some of the empirical premises of this key aspect of the sceptic's argument. This chapter discusses the democratic critique of rights' constitutionalism, reconciliation of political and constitutional pluralism, and arguments in favour of reconciliation between democracy and rights constitutionalism in the European context.
Scepticism under Scrutiny: Labour Law and Human Rights
Authors: Fredman Sandra
Published: January 2010

Labour lawyers in the United Kingdom have been understandably sceptical of the role of the judiciary in the field of labour law. This chapter asks whether it is possible to construct rights so as to further rather than undermine the aims of social democracy. It uses the insights of the sceptical approach to move through scepticism towards a possible reconstruction of human rights in a social democratic context. First, the foundations of the scepticism of the role of human rights in the labour law context are considered. Surprisingly, even the most sceptical of social democratic labour lawyers believe strongly in the value of the International Labour Organisation. The Human Rights Act 1998 has begun to construct a framework for constraining the judiciary, both in respect of codification of rights and by giving Parliament the prime responsibility for protecting human rights, both in the original process of legislation and in having the final word on the matter.
Discrimination Law and the Human Rights Act 1998
Authors: McColgan Aileen
Published: January 2010

The Human Rights Act 1998 incorporates into British Law Article 14 of the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR), which provides that ‘the enjoyment of the rights and freedoms set forth in this Convention shall be secured without discrimination on any ground such as sex, race, colour, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, association with a national minority, property, birth or other status’. Article 14 has been widely, and rightly, criticised for its parasitic nature, the ECHR containing no free-standing prohibition on discrimination. This chapter examines the implications of incorporation of Article 14 for discrimination law in the United Kingdom. Currently, statute regulates discrimination on grounds of sex (including gender reassignment); race; disability; and (in Northern Ireland alone) religion and political opinion. In addition, specific statutory prohibitions are imposed in relation to some forms of work-related discrimination on grounds of trade union membership, enforcement of employment rights, etc. Discrimination on grounds of political or other opinion, social origin, property, birth, or other status is not generally prohibited.
Cue-Based Change: Inflection and Subjects in the History of Portuguese Infinitives
Authors: Pires Acrisio
Published: January 2010

This chapter analyzes two major instances of morphological change with syntactic effects in the behaviour of infinitives in Portuguese, and proposes an account for these changes in terms of a theory of acquisition that emphasizes the interaction between properties of Universal Grammar and the primary linguistic data. First, it discusses the origin of inflected infinitives in Old Portuguese and provides a new argument supporting one of the two major proposals for their origin, which argues that inflected infinitives developed from a previously finite verb form, and not from uninflected infinitives. Second, it analyzes the syntactic effects of the loss of inflected infinitives in contemporary colloquial Brazilian Portuguese, explaining why the loss of verbal inflection blocked the licensing of pro but not of overt subjects.
Morphology and Null Subjects in Brazilian Portuguese
Authors: Rodrigues Cilene
Published: January 2010

This chapter argues that null subjects in Brazilian Portuguese are quite different from null subjects in other Romance languages. Referential null subjects are permitted in matrix clauses if the verb is marked as first person singular; they do not occur in other contexts. Null subjects occur in embedded clauses with an inflected verb; however, these are not referential null subjects but rather control structures resulting from movement of the subject DP/NP. The loss of verbal inflection is correlated with changes in the properties of Brazilian Portuguese null subjects: reduced inflection prompts loss of referential null subjects.
Changes in Subject Case-Marking in Icelandic
Authors: Eythórsson Thórhallur
Published: January 2010

This chapter shows how two tendencies, Normative Sickness (NS) and Dative Sickness (DS), can coexist and what their relative domains say about the nature of syntactic change. It argues that NS and DS are conditioned by different factors: NS is motivated by syntax (structure), but DS is motivated by semantics (thematic roles). Specifically, it suggests that both changes can be accounted for in terms of a cue-based approach, on the assumption that case can be a cue in language acquisition. The chapter is organized as follows. Section 11.2 presents some basic facts about case-marking and thematic properties of subjects in Modern (Standard) Icelandic. Section 11.3 describes the domain of the two changes in Modern Icelandic and summarizes the results of two previous studies of the case alternations. Section 11.4 focuses on the diachronic development of the changes in Icelandic, and Section 11.5 contains some comparative evidence of similar changes in other languages. Section 11.6 attempts a ‘diagnosis’ of NS and DS, concluding that both ‘diseases’ involve morphosyntactic leveling of productive patterns attributable to frequency. Section 11.7 proposes a cue-based account of the changes in question in the spirit of Lightfoot (1999). Section 11.8 concludes the chapter.