bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Significance of Intentions
Authors: Tadros Victor
Published: September 2020

This chapter draws together and develops a range of arguments that an agent’s intentions make a difference to the permissibility of her actions. It considers both cases where one person either uses another, or another is useful to a person’s ends, as well as cases where a person performs an act that could be justified, but does so for bad reasons. Intentions ground permissibility and wrongness in both kinds of case, it is argued. Sometimes, the need to act on good intentions for one’s act to be justified explains why a person acts wrongly, even where her conduct could be justified..
Why It Is Wrong to Kill Non-Responsible Threats
Authors: Tadros Victor
Published: September 2020

This chapter argues that it is wrong to kill a non-responsible lethal threat, even where this is necessary to save the life of the person threatened. It clarifies the distinction between agent-neutral and agent-relative arguments for the permissibility of killing non-responsible threats. It clarifies the main agent-neutral argument against permissibility, and considers several objections to that argument. It then offers a new and decisive argument against permissibility on agent-neutral grounds. It then shows that agent-relative arguments in favour of permissibility fail.
Causation and Liability
Authors: Tadros Victor
Published: September 2020

This chapter is concerned with whether it makes a difference to a person’s liability to avert a threat whether she caused that threat or causally contributed to it. It argues against the view that causation is necessary for liability. It tentatively argues for the significance of causation to liability. It then considers a wide range of versions of the view that the magnitude of a person’s causal contribution affects the magnitude of her liability. It does so by exploring different ideas that people might have in mind when they claim that some causal contribution to a threat is greater or lesser. It defends mostly sceptical conclusions. In some cases, the magnitude of a person’s causal contribution to a threat may make a difference to her liability to defensive harm. But where this is true, it is normally because causation is relevant to something else, such as moral responsibility, that affects liability.
Involving patients and publics in healthcare
Authors: McKevitt Christopher , Fudge Nina , Pinel Clémence
Published: September 2020

Patients and patient organizations, and other members of the public and communities are widely recognized as important stakeholders in processes through which healthcare systems and services are designed, delivered, and monitored. Their involvement in these processes is promoted not only as a strategy to enhance the quality of systems and services, but also as an act of democratic participation. Yet putting involvement into practice is not straightforward. This chapter outlines the field of involvement in healthcare, focusing on some of the key areas of debate. These include definitions of involvement, the rationales put forward, involvement as represented in policy, and the methods used. The chapter summarizes some current key debates in relation to questions of who is involved, power, and evidence of effectiveness.
Perspectives on healthcare quality and safety
Authors: Russ Stephanie , Sevdalis Nick
Published: September 2020

This chapter offers an introduction to the recently developed applied health science fields of patient safety, improvement, and implementation sciences. Healthcare is a high-risk activity because of the complexity of its systems and processes. Errors arise frequently and these can impact negatively on patients by causing adverse events. Errors and adverse events are generally attributable to defective systems for organizing care, which create conditions in which errors arise. This represents a failure of risk management. Patient safety science takes a scientific approach to understanding why errors occur and how to prevent their occurrence or minimize their impact. Learning from analysis of patient safety incidents, through root-cause analysis, enables an organization or service to learn and avoid repeating similar failures in the future. Patient safety incidents represent one aspect of the wider problem of poor-quality care. Improvement science offers standardized tools and measurements that can be used to monitor and improve healthcare delivery. The Model for Improvement employs repeated Plan–Do–Study–Act (PDSA) cycles to quantify problems and to develop and test potential solutions. Engagement with stakeholders is an essential part of this process. Implementation science can contribute by providing methods to promote the uptake of new research evidence into healthcare practice. It can address the second translational gap by facilitating the widespread adoption of strategies for improving health-related processes and outcomes, and advancing knowledge on how best to replicate intervention effects from trials into real-world settings. These new scientific fields provide well-established approaches to addressing some of the key problems arising in healthcare. Modern public health needs to reap the benefits of these newly emerged sciences to address the burden of adverse events and harm that arises in the delivery of healthcare and to promote evidence-based practice.
Health services for health promotion and disease prevention
Authors: Smith Jenifer , Mapstone James
Published: September 2020

The importance of social and environmental factors in determining the health status of a population provides the context for the role of health services in health promotion and disease prevention. Health service providers play important roles as advocates, leaders, and partners in disease prevention and health promotion strategies. The initial sections of this chapter discuss the definition of prevention, levels of prevention, and the place of population-wide and high-risk approaches. It then discusses some of the public health skills that are required in prevention programmes, including assessing needs and priorities, evidence of effectiveness, the role of behavioural and implementation sciences, and the importance of evaluation. The chapter illustrates these principles using examples from communicable and non-communicable disease control.
Developmental Stages of the Law and of the Legal Process
Authors: Treiber Hubert
Published: September 2020

This chapter provides an overview of Max Weber's ideal-typical developmental stages of the law and of the legal process. These stages include charismatic revelation by law prophets; empirical lawmaking and lawfinding by legal honoratiores; imposition of law by the secular imperium and theocratic power; and specialist administration of justice by legally educated jurists, on the basis of scholarly and formally logical education. Here it is a question of developments which ultimately proceed in the West in the direction of rational law, if not always in a linear way, and in which Weber particularly emphasizes, if not overstates, the ‘role’ of logic. For one thing, the development of rational law can have both a material and a formal character; for another, the stage of highest rationality, where Weber's ideal-typical ‘system’ of law is to be found, has, it must be admitted, never actually been reached in history. Moreover, it is important to remember that Weber ‘did not want to write legal history’ in his ‘Sociology of Law’. Rather, his discussion of legal history always has to be read in the light of his cognitive interest, so that ‘when integrated into a sociological or theoretical system of the law, historical detail will always be a little different to what it was before’.
Conclusion
Authors: Treiber Hubert
Published: September 2020

This concluding chapter summarizes Max Weber's theory of legal rationalization. In the beginning is the word, in the form of the charismatic revelation of the law by legal prophets. Alongside Moses, Muhammad acts as an example to illustrate this, since Islamic holy law is a ‘book religion’ which was inspired prophetically. It is decisive for the further development of the law towards rationalization that a ‘secular law’, detached from the ‘holy commandments’ and from holy law, arises to settle disputes involving ‘conflicts of interest indifferent to religion’ and also that there is a successful ‘separation between ethics and law’. If secular law has separated itself from holy law, then two relatively autonomous paths of development become apparent: towards a ‘rational and formal law which is either more logical or more empirical in nature’, as could be observed, on the one hand, in continental Europe and, on the other, in Rome and in England. Instructively, Weber distils each of these two possibilities down to two contrasting ideal-types: theoretical legal education in universities (with an entirely novel carrier stratum of legal academics) and empirical craft-like legal training by practitioners (legal honoratiores, attorneys). One strand of development leads towards a ‘system’, and the other towards casuistry.
Creating Revolutionary Justice
Authors: Rendle Matthew
Published: September 2020

The first chapter provides the foundation for the rest of the book by charting the establishment of revolutionary justice. Although the Bolsheviks had a clear sense of the role of law in society and a clear desire to oversee legal reform, they did not have a coherent plan on exactly what they would do. Consequently, the new system emerged steadily through the year after October with the development of tribunals shaped by the Bolsheviks’ experiences of early trials and the intensifying civil war. This chapter examines the decrees that outlined the official role of tribunals, explores the experiences of the early trials, and looks at how tribunals started to operate in practice, both nationally and locally. It examines various reforms of the tribunal system and various types of tribunals, including press tribunals, provincial tribunals, and the Supreme Tribunal. From the start, tribunals were pitted against the secret police, the Cheka, and this too shaped how tribunals took shape. By late 1918, however, tribunals were firmly in place, with a structure that only changed minimally thereafter and a distinct role alongside the Cheka.
Conclusion
Authors: Rendle Matthew
Published: September 2020

The Conclusion outlines the various assessments of the impact and role of tribunals during the civil war. Starting with contemporary publications celebrating the important role of law as a revolutionary and transformative tool, it moves on to later Soviet and post-Soviet assessments. Noting that tribunals did not conform to easy stereotypes, the conclusion then summarizes the chapters before revisiting the key themes discussed in the Introduction in light of the subsequent discussion, arguing for the importance of law in revolutions and for the significance of a form of law in the Russian Revolution and civil war—revolutionary tribunals—that operated at the intersection of law and violence. It finishes by exploring the legacy of revolutionary tribunals for the later terror and show trials in Russia and its impact on the relationship between state and society where such practices must have added to the tensions and grievances emerging from Russia’s brutal civil war.
Introduction
Authors: Recasens Daniel
Published: September 2020

The chapter deals with the origin and phonetic causes of sound changes involving consonants, with the diachronic pathways connecting the input and output phonetic forms, and with models of sound change (e.g., Evolutionary Phonology, the Neogrammarian’s articulatory model, Ohala’s acoustic equivalence model). The need to use articulatory and acoustic data for ascertaining the causes of sound change (and in particular the palatalization and assibilation of velar, labial, and dentoalveolar obstruents) is emphasized. The chapter is also concerned with how allophones are phonologized in sound-change processes and with the special status of (alveolo)palatal stops regarding allophonic phonologization.
The Prosperity Gospel, Humanity, and the Problem of Judgement
Authors: Robbins Joel
Published: September 2020

The prosperity gospel is a type of Christianity that is currently popular in many parts of the world, but it is also a form of the faith that is difficult for anthropologists to accept on its own terms, since it often seems so obviously to be captive to globally dominant economic ideologies. It is also a kind of Christianity that many theologians find difficult to embrace. This chapter brings anthropology and theology together by looking at the contrasting ways in which the two disciplines reckon with their discomfort with a form of Christianity that is compelling to millions of people. It argues that anthropologists can learn new things about their own fundamental theoretical commitments by examining this contrast from the point of view of theological anthropology and the principled ways that theologians make judgements about the lives of others such as prosperity gospel Christians.
Anachronism as a Form of Metalepsis in Ancient Greek Literature
Authors: Bing Peter
Published: September 2020

This chapter discusses anachronism as a form of metalepsis and different ways of understanding anachronism in the ancient and modern worlds. The chapter begins by highlighting potential complexities in applying Genette’s model of metalepsis to ancient literature, drawing out the differences between the case of a character about to murder a reader in Cortázar’s ‘Continuity of Parks’ (discussed by Genette) and that of a character, Helen, blinding and then healing an author in Stesichorus’ Palinode. It then turns to anachronism, a phenomenon which renders synchronous things that, from a historical/chronological perspective, do not belong to a shared temporal plane, and can thus be understood as metaleptic when the time periods involved are ‘the world in which one tells’ (the present) and ‘the world of which one tells’ (often, in the ancient world, the remote heroic past). The chapter moves from a modern instance which highlights anachronism’s pointedly transgressive potential (the use of 1970s music in Brian Helgeland’s 1370s-set movie, A Knight’s Tale) to the dominant ancient discourse about anachronism, according to which most anachronism is inadvertent and the critic’s job is to correct it. But the chapter argues that despite this, ancient sources such as Plato’s Symposium do recognize a more artful use of anachronism and potential modes of audience response to it, and concludes by asking what a pointedly erudite astronomical anachronism in a poem of Theocritus tells us about the audience envisaged by its author.
Epilogue
Authors: Matzner Sebastian , Trimble Gail
Published: September 2020

The epilogue takes stock of the volume’s insights, reflects on the connections and tensions between the contributors’ individual approaches, and delineates how the kinds of critical intervention and conceptual recalibration offered here can set the scene for future interdisciplinary work. It sums up and explores the variations in perspective that remain in the light of the volume as a whole, while also sounding out the emerging common ground that can be established in spite of the sometimes irreducible—and productive—differences. It also draws out and comments on the recurring concerns of this volume—which cluster in particular around the issues of historically contingent reception aesthetics, dynamics of performance, affect, intermediality, narrative ontology, and differences between genres—in order to show how the volume as a whole advances the developing theoretical field of historical narratology. In doing so, it makes the case for the importance of expanding the scope and methods of narrative theory through incorporating specifically classical parameters of narration to confront and address some of the unsatisfactory dimensions of structuralist narratology. In this way, the epilogue also sketches avenues for future research and points out the ways in which the present volume seeks to set an agenda for new directions in classical and interdisciplinary scholarship.
Introduction
Authors: Anderson David
Published: September 2020

The introduction commences with a ‘detour’ into the history of landscape art and the picturesque, suggesting ways that this mode pre-empted what may seem like more modern ideas about the interference between perception and representation. This discussion is folded into a brief account of the so-called ‘spatial turn’ and the interventions of theorists including Doreen Massey and Marc Augé, establishing an immediate context for the work of Keiller, Sebald, and Sinclair. Suggesting a twin heritage of the ‘English Journey’ on the one hand and the French Surrealists and Situationists on the other, the introduction then offers the tension between amant and amateur as a way of characterizing the balance of exotic/everyday, plan/coincidence, and high-brow/low-brow in these figures’ work. It considers the role of pedestrianism and melancholia before closing with a discussion of Walter Benjamin and Gustave Doré’s ‘New Zealander’.
The Universal Model
Authors: Bui Ngoc Son
Published: September 2020

This chapter investigates the making of Vietnam’s 2013 Constitution. Compared with previous experience in Vietnam and with the experience in the other four socialist countries, the 2013 experience features the local adherence to universal norms in the process and substance of socialist constitutional change. This model of socialist constitutional change is, therefore, characterized as the universal model. The adherence to these universal norms informs and legitimatizes the process of the constitution-making. But, the global norms are contextualized by their intricate interaction with socialist, local elements: the party’s reformist program, legislature’s constituent power, party’s control of participation, and the party’s control of international involvement. Procedurally, the interplay of global and socialist factors results in a more open national constitutional dialogue and a less authoritarian paradigm of constitutional imposition. The three aspects of dissonance (internal to the socialist constitution of Vietnam, between the socialist constitutional ideals and external Vietnamese reality, and between the socialist and global constitutional norms) result in the pragmatic incorporation of universal ideas, principles, and institutions into the socialist Constitution of Vietnam, e.g. people’s constituent power, limited power, and human rights.
The Integration Model
Authors: Bui Ngoc Son
Published: September 2020

On December 8, 2015, the National Assembly of the Lao People’s Democratic Republic (LPDR) (or Laos) approved a new Constitution, replacing the 2003 one. This chapter focuses on that constitutional replacement through amendment. It demonstrates that Laos introduces progressive constitutional change—notably, the redefinition of the position, structure, and functions of state institutions, including the imposition of term limits on executive power holders; strengthened commitment to a market economy; new commitments to human rights protection, judicial independence, and adversarial trials; and the creation of new institutions, namely, the local people’s councils, the state audit, and the election committee—to facilitate the improvement of the socialist constitutional system which in turn promotes the improvement of the material well-being of the living conditions of the Lao multi-ethnic people. The adherence to the integration of the Lao multi-ethnic people legitimatizes the process and substance of constitutional change in this country. The Lao story, therefore, indicates the integration model of socialist constitutional change.
Introduction
Authors: van Schaaik Gerjan
Published: September 2020

This chapter presents some information on Turkey, where Turkish is the dominant language and where the majority of the population is Turk. Since the fall of the Ottoman empire in 1923 the language has undergone a series of dramatic changes, known as the language reform, which was inspired by ideological motives to free the Turkish language from foreign influences. Mainly words and grammatical elements from Persian and Arabic were replaced by “pure” Turkish forms. Furthermore, in this chapter it is specified how Turkish fits in the family of Turkic languages and what they have in common. The second section provides a basic inventory of linguistic notions, intended to facilitate an uncomplicated way of explaining the grammatical facts of Turkish.
Phonological variation *
Authors: van Schaaik Gerjan
Published: September 2020

The principle of “one letter—–one sound” introduced in the introduction of this chapter explains why Turkish writing is based on a phonological alphabet, and that such a system takes no account of a pronunciation that deviates from the spelling. For free or predictable variation rules can be set up describing the circumstances under which such variation occurs. Besides vowel reduction (stress induced) and differences in vowel quality (vowel length), phenomena such as contraction in rapid speech are discussed, as well as expansion—the way in which foreign words are adapted to the Turkish sound system and included in the vocabulary. The fully predictable effects of front and back vowels on the quality of certain consonants and other types of assimilation are treated in the final sections.
Pronouns
Authors: van Schaaik Gerjan
Published: September 2020

Besides an outline of how interrogative pronouns (those for people, things, location, reason, purpose, quality, quantity, etc.), personal, and demonstrative pronouns are inflected and used, a thorough discussion is devoted to their plural, possessive, and case-marked forms. Also the use of personal pronouns in invective expressions is elucidated, as well as the use of the possessive marker first-person singular to express affection or respect in addressing a person. Indefinite pronouns are not really a different kettle of fish, since most of them can be inflected throughout, and this holds for reflexive and reciprocal pronouns as well. The properties of the invariant suffix –ki(n) placed after a genitive case marker form the topic of the final section, in which special attention is given to possessive pronouns.
Postpositions
Authors: van Schaaik Gerjan
Published: September 2020

As function words postpositions play a very important role in the syntax of Turkish. These elements are regarded as lexical items conveying some kind of abstract meaning relevant for their complement. Most postpositions require the complement to take a fixed case marker; thereby excluding the accusative. A postposition plus its complement is called a postpositional phrase and functions as an adverbial phrase. There are various postpositions expressing spatial relations such as direction and location, another small group expresses temporal relations such as beginning, duration, end, and also excess, but a sizeable series of notions can be expressed by one particular postposition only: instrument, company, means of transportation, quality, quantity, inclusion, exclusion, difference, and the like. The final section describes the nominal and adjectival properties of a small number of postpositions.
Adverbs and their like
Authors: van Schaaik Gerjan
Published: September 2020

A popular method of classifying adverbs is by looking at what they modify: adjective or verb. Another criterion is whether or not the adverbial expression reflects an attitude of the speaker towards the content of his utterance. Both groups, objective and subjective adverbs, contain large numbers of lexical adverbs, all highly conventionalized. Other groups sharing these properties are adverbs of place and indeterminate adverbials. Adverbial phrases can be formed in several ways: by using an adjective, by drawing from the lexical stock of ready-to-use adverbs, by various forms of suffixation, and by reduplication. Adverbials based on the notions ‘with’ and ‘without’ deserve special attention, particularly with respect to possessive expressions. The final section discusses constructions based on kinship terms which do not follow the canonical suffix ordering.
Imperative forms
Authors: van Schaaik Gerjan
Published: September 2020

The smallest unit of a verb is its stem and it is this stem that is most frequently used as the imperative. There are other means as well, all based on a stem plus a suffix: a polite request is issued in two ways, depending on whether one or more persons are being addressed. A third form is the compelling request, being applied as encouragement or to convey a certain degree of impatience. A paraphrased request is formed by using, for instance, an affirmative of negated present-tense form or by a verb form expressing possibility. Instructions can also be given in a declarative form expressing present or future. A certain ‘imperative’ effect can of course also be achieved by using modal forms corresponding to ‘can’ and ‘may’.
Present, past, and future *
Authors: van Schaaik Gerjan
Published: September 2020

Turkish has a multifaceted verbal system which can be understood only if studied from within: it has two past- and three present-tense forms and one future tense. Although the notion of tense is used here, it should be taken with a grain of salt, for many verb forms are opposed along the lines of future versus non-future, completed versus ongoing action, or with or without temporal reference. Thus, Present-1 is typical for a non-completed action, Future for actions not yet begun, Past-1 denotes completed actions not witnessed by the speaker, whereas using Past-2 makes the speaker witness. Present-2 is a non-tense, since it does not relate to any moment in time, and Present-3 is used in formal speech. The place of the infinitive among tense forms is discussed and the final section goes into matters of meaning and interpretation.
Ordering patterns
Authors: van Schaaik Gerjan
Published: September 2020

After an extensive account of the basics of Turkish grammar, this chapter offers nothing but ordering principles: the first two sections are about the morphotactics of nouns and verbs, and noun phrase structure. All this is represented in tabular form. The ordering principles for noun phrases (including adverbial and postpositional phrases) in a clause is dealt with next, and thus, constituent order in nominal, existential, and verbal sentences is discussed in the third section. Dependent clauses are the topic of the fourth section, which also gives an overview of verbal linking suffixes to form such clauses. The final section shows that constituent ordering in verbal sentences can better be understood in terms of the pragmatic notions Topic and Focus than in terms of traditional distribution of Subject and Objects (SOV).
Subordination and embedding
Authors: van Schaaik Gerjan
Published: September 2020

As an introduction to subordination the various functions of the particle ki are presented. The central question is how sentences are used as subject, object, and predicate. First, predicates and subjects are discussed, followed by a thorough treatment of direct and indirect speech. This includes certain colloquialisms based on the optative. After this intermezzo the discussion is resumed for direct objects based on both infinitival as well as on finite forms. The choice between these depends on the semantics of the verb involved. Next, the relation between secondary predicates (small clauses) and raising phenomena is explained, which all form peculiar types of embedding. Furthermore, it is shown that there are seven verbal classes, each of which takes either one, two, or three types of complement, accordingly being expressed by one propositional or two predicational types of complementation. The final sections deal with passive and postpositional embeddings.
Boltzmann’s Equation
Authors: Cantor Brian
Published: September 2020

Thermodynamics describes the relationship between heat, work, energy and motion. The key concepts are the conservation of energy and the maximisation of entropy (or disorder) as given by the first and second laws of thermodynamics. Boltzmann’s equation explains how the entropy of a material is related to the disorder of its atoms or molecules, as measured by the probability or the number of equivalent atomic or molecular structures. This chapter examines thermodynamic properties such as internal energy, enthalpy and Gibbs and Helmholtz free energy; physical properties such as specific heat and thermal expansion coefficient; and the application of thermodynamics to chemical reactions, solid and liquid solutions, and phase separation. Ludwig Boltzmann’s early life as the son of a minor tax official in Austria is described, as are: his scientific career in a series of Austrian and German universities; his philosophical arguments with Ernst Mach and the phenomenalists about whether atoms do or do not exist; his increasing moodiness, paranoia and bipolar disorder; and his ultimate suicide while trying to recuperate from depression in Trieste.
The Gibbs-Thomson Equation
Authors: Cantor Brian
Published: September 2020

The external surface of a material has an atomic or molecular structure that is different from the bulk material. So does any internal interface within a material. Because of this, the energy of a material or any grain or particle within it increases with the curvature of its bounding surface, as described by the Gibbs-Thomson equation. This chapter explains how surfaces control the nucleation of new phases during reactions such as solidification and precipitation, the coarsening and growth of particles during heat treatment, the equilibrium shape of crystals, and the surface adsorption and segregation of solutes and impurities. The Gibbs-Thomson was predated by a number of related equations; it is not clear whether it is named after J. J. Thomson or William Thomson (Lord Kelvin); and it was not put into its current usual form until after Gibbs’, Thomson’s and Kelvin’s time. J. J. Thomson was the third Cavendish Professor of Physics at Cambridge University. He discovered the electron, which had a profound impact on the world, notably via Thomas Edison’s invention of the light bulb, and subsequent building of the world’s first electricity distribution network. William Thomson was Professor of Natural Philosophy at Glasgow University. He made major scientific developments, notably in thermodynamics, and he helped build the first trans-Atlantic undersea telegraph. Because of his scientific pre-eminence, the absolute unit of temperature, the degree Kelvin, is named after him.
The Elements
Authors: Mee Nicholas
Published: September 2020

Chapter 3 moves from the elements of the physical world to the elements of abstract geometry as set out in Euclid’s Elements. It looks at Euclid’s axiomatic method of building geometry step by step from a short collection of definite notions or axioms, and Plato’s allegory of the cave and the world of ideals. In his dialogue Timaeus Plato suggested that each element of matter, Earth, Air, Fire, and Water, is composed of tiny regular solids. He identified the fifth regular solid, the dodecahedron, with the cosmos. Aristotle described the fifth element as aether or quintessence. These ideas lay at the heart of western thought for about 2,000 years, and their influence can be seen in the medieval Christian world system, Renaissance artworks, and the writings of the astronomer Johannes Kepler.
The Wheel of Fortune
Authors: Mee Nicholas
Published: September 2020

Chapter 4 looks at the early development of the mechanical clock. The fully mechanical clock may have been invented in southern England around 1280, possibly at Dunstable Priory in Bedfordshire. One line of evidence derives from a commentary on Sacrobosco’s De Sphaera Mundi by Robertus Anglicus, written in 1271. The chapter discusses subsequent developments and, in particular, the life and work of Richard of Wallingford, who rose from humble beginnings to become Abbot of St Albans. In 1327 he wrote Tractatus Horologii Astronomici (Treatise on the Astronomical Clock). The manuscript was rediscovered by John North in 1965, and it has been used to reconstruct Wallingford’s clock, which is now on display in St Albans Cathedral.
Burning Down the House
Authors: Mee Nicholas
Published: September 2020

Algorithms are important in the modern world, but what is an algorithm? At school we learn algorithms called arithmetic, which is much easier in Hindu–Arabic rather than Roman numerals. Chaucer calls them augrim numbers. Augrim is a variant of algorithm and derives from the name of the ninth-century Persian mathematician al-Khwārizmī. In ‘The Miller’s Tale’ Chaucer tells of the scholar Nicholas with his augrim stones and astrolabe. This could be a caricature of Nicholas of Lynn. There was a long rivalry between those who performed calculations using arithmetic and those who used a counting table. The Exchequer gets its name from the similarity between a chess board and the counting table used to calculate taxes. For many centuries, debts were recorded on tally sticks. In 1834 the Houses of Parliament were destroyed when the vast collection of accumulated tally sticks were burnt, and the fire was immortalized by J. M. W. Turner.
Rampant Rabbits
Authors: Mee Nicholas
Published: September 2020

Fibonacci’s Liber Abaci (The Book of Calculation) is the most important book of mathematics from the Middle Ages. The book was dedicated to Michael Scott, a Scottish scholar who was the Imperial Astrologer to the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II. He was later described as a necromancer and was consigned to the eighth circle of Hell by Dante. Chapter 8 outlines the lives of Fibonacci and Michael Scott. Liber Abaci was key to the spread of Hindu–Arabic numerals through the Mediterranean and into Europe, and the book also includes a number of puzzles, the most famous of which is about breeding rabbits. The solution involves the number sequence now known as the Fibonacci sequence, which has many interesting properties that are still being studied.
The Big House
Authors: Bruce Steve
Published: September 2020

For centuries, Britain’s religious life benefited from the patronage of local grandees: in rural areas major landowners were obliged by custom and by law to support the churches, and in the growing towns and cities of the nineteenth century industrialists performed a similar role. Those social obligations collapsed abruptly in the early twentieth century with the decline of the Big House, the amalgamation of local firms into national and then international companies, the growth of democracy, and the rise of the welfare state. The personally religious wealthy continued to fund religion, but the breaking of local ties released those of little faith from any obligation to promote Christianity. That change seriously weakened the churches.
Migrant Christians and Pentecostalism in London
Authors: Bruce Steve
Published: September 2020

Religion remains relevant in secular societies when ethnic minority churches provide an accepting community for immigrants. This chapter discusses the socially adaptive roles of the Catholic Church for Irish immigrants in the first half of the twentieth century, the West Indian churches in the 1960s, and the West African Pentecostal churches that have grown in London and the south-east since the 1980s. Although similar in their social conservatism, West Indian and West African Pentecostalists differ in their attitudes to wealth. The West Indians used their Puritan ethics to encourage the self-discipline and frugality characteristic of the respectable working class. The West African churches are much more influenced by the ‘health and wealth’ gospel that argues that donating to the church will magically produce material benefits.
Ordinals by Abstraction
Authors: Hale Bob
Published: September 2020

The neo-Fregean programme in the philosophy of mathematics seeks to provide foundations for fundamental mathematical theories in abstraction principles. Ian Rumfitt (2018) proposes to introduce ordinal numbers by means of an abstraction principle, (ORD), which says, roughly, that ‘the ordinal number attaching to one well-ordered series is identical with that attaching to another if, and only if, the two series are isomorphic’. Rumfitt’s proposal poses a sharp and serious challenge to those seeking to advance the neo-Fregean programme, for Rumfitt proposes to save (ORD) from threatening paradox by avoiding dependence on an impredicative comprehension principle. However, such a principle is usually taken to be required by the neo-Fregean account of the cardinal numbers. Thus if neo-Fregean foundations for elementary arithmetic are to be saved, we must explain how we can avoid paradox for (ORD) in another way. In this chapter, the prospects for doing so are explored.
A Grammar of Akabea
Authors: Zamponi Raoul , Comrie Bernard
Published: September 2020

This grammar of Akabea is the first published descriptive grammar of a traditional language of the Great Andamanese family and the first grammar of a traditional Great Andamanese language written to current linguistic standards. Akabea died out in the 1920s, but was extensively documented in the late nineteenth century by two British administrators, Edward Horace Man and Maurice Vidal Portman. Although neither was a trained linguist, their material nonetheless provides a sufficient basis for a reliable analysis of Akabea grammar, especially its morphology and phrasal and clausal syntax, although there are inevitable limitations on our understanding of Akabea phonology, clause combining, and discourse structure. The published grammar is accompanied by an online appendix providing a diplomatic edition with commentary and analysis of the single most valuable resource for Akabea grammatical analysis, Portman’s Dialogues. For the first time, linguists will have access to an extensive and reliable grammatical description of a traditional Great Andamanese language, thus enabling Akabea to take its rightful place as an object of scientific study among the languages of the world. This is all the more important in that the language exhibits a number of cross-linguistically rare phenomena, such as a rich system of somatic (body-part) prefixes and the phenomenon of Verb Root Ellipsis, whereby under certain circumstances the root of a verb may be absent, leaving behind a grammatical word consisting solely of affixes. The work will also contribute to a deeper interdisciplinary understanding of the history and prehistory of the indigenous inhabitants of the Andaman Islands.
The Pursuit of Happiness
Authors: Narens Louis , Skyrms Brian
Published: September 2020

This is a preview and roadmap of the entire book
Early Utilitarians
Authors: Narens Louis , Skyrms Brian
Published: September 2020

Bentham on measurement of utility has a rich set of ideas. Edgeworth follows Bentham and contemporary psychophysics. Mill adds less than is usually supposed. Jevons ducks the issue. There are different stances taken toward interpersonal comparisons.
Harsanyi and Utilitarianism
Authors: Narens Louis , Skyrms Brian
Published: September 2020

Harsanyi gives a representation theorem for Utilitarianism within the von Neumann-Morgenstern framework. Utilitarianism is, in a sense, reborn on ordinal foundations. But there is a catch.
Where Do We Stand?
Authors: Narens Louis , Skyrms Brian
Published: September 2020

What is Utilitarianism? The answer is not obvious, and without and answer much that has been written about Utilitarianism is not meaningful. But measurement of hedonic value of episodes on a ratio scale opens up possibilities various kinds of product utilitarianism without interpersonal comparisons. And equilibration dynamics opens up the possibility of conventional interpersonal comparisons, and the use of the Utilitarian sum.
Creation, Action, and Sabbath
Authors: Cheetham David
Published: September 2020

What is the kind of action that a creational theology might endorse? The chapter sets up a contrast between strongly activist liberative views and a more sabbatical mood. Consideration is given to the work of Paul Knitter who has engaged extensively with the theme of creation for interfaith dialogue. However, contra Knitter, it is suggested that the quotidian is the arena par excellence for the practical sense because it happens to be the most common aspects of our lives. However, what kinds of praxis come into view? It is proposed that human work and activity (the vita activa) might be a form of creational soteriology. Finally, the chapter asks: What is the mood of a creational theology of religions? Our basic claim is that the underlying attitude generated by a turn to creation, and the ground for relations between creatures, is rest or Sabbath.
Creation, Sacrament, and Liturgy
Authors: Cheetham David
Published: September 2020

In this chapter we seek to extend the themes in the previous chapters in a more practical direction by considering liturgy, ritual, and embodiment in the immanent sphere. If we consider the world as a sacrament, and ‘form-making’ to be an ontological feature of the imago dei, then is the stage set for the shared making of rituals and symbols? That is, can a ritualized immanent sphere play host to interreligious meetings, and how does a complex ‘gothic’ space open up new territory? Can liturgy by improvised in the midst of particular moments and events? The chapter considers the advantages of rich liturgies for providing new opportunities for engagement.
Towards a Creational Theology of Religions
Authors: Cheetham David
Published: September 2020

The final chapter will draw on the elements from the foregoing chapters in order to outline a possible creational theology of religions. Underpinning the constructive enterprise will be the doctrine that has pervaded the book’s key reflections: creatio ex nihilo. The chapter will attempt to redirect into the context of creation and createdness some of the common philosophical and theological themes in debates on religious plurality. This is an exercise in philosophical theology rather than pure philosophy. The Sabbath is at the heart of a creational interfaith spirituality. Wisdom and blessing is cross-cultural and is the profound aspect that gives creation its ‘depth’ and vivifies the immanent. The creation, through its gifted creativity, wisdom, and worship, exceeds human and religious boundaries.
Introduction
Authors: Kahn Andrew
Published: September 2020

The Introduction explains how this book represents a new departure in the study of Mandelstam and, more broadly, reflects on what poetic difficulty means. It explains how the rise of structuralist poetics/subtext criticism and Judaic studies coincided with the rediscovery of Mandelstam, leading to an explosion of scholarly work on his poetics (essentially limited to his first two collections) and biography on those terms. Those paradigms have run their course, and work less well for the post-1930 writings because of fundamental changes in Mandelstam’s poetics that require new critical thinking. There are virtually no studies of his love lyric or the later poetry. A vast amount of new material (contextual, textual, and biographical) makes this the right time to produce a major study that sets out a revisionist picture of a poet who, far from being in retreat from his time, was an engagé in the task of cultural revolution.
The Political Culture of a Poet
Authors: Kahn Andrew
Published: September 2020

It has been an article of faith in Mandelstam studies that he conceived an early antagonism for Soviet life and became an outcast. This chapter surveys the political language of journalism and poetry from 1918 until the collision with Stalin in 1934. Combining literary analysis, biography, and a forensic survey of his publishing record, it analyses his ideological positions. The profile of the writer in this revisionist account is of commitment to cultural revolution and professional involvement. In the late 1920s as the Proletarian movement and class warfare became entrenched, he sought to establish his credentials as a writer ‘made’ by the revolution, courting controversy at the end of New Economic Policy with views on state-sponsored translation as a tool of progress. His defence of expertise as the right means to enlighten cut across political trends, leading to a clash with fellow writers and Stalin.
The ‘Slate Ode’
Authors: Kahn Andrew
Published: September 2020

The focus of this chapter is the ‘Slate Ode’ (1922). Widely regarded as one of the greatest poems in Russian, it has been read primarily as a subtextual palimpsest. The reading given in this chapter embeds the poem in a set of overlapping contexts, tracing the poem’s utopian language to the value systems of utopian socialist thought in which Mandelstam was steeped; situating it in the context of the Russian reception of Nietzsche, a key thinker for many Russian revolutionaries whose vision in the Genealogy of Morals of a new morality Mandelstam’s poem enacts; exploring its link to New Economic Policy discussion of the primitive economy and natural communism mirrored in the poem, as well as its connection to other thought systems such as mythical ideas of return and a vision of society that replicates the morality of early Christians. Psychological division marks the voice of the speaker who in these new conditions interrogates the sources of poetry and the poet’s own authority. Far from assuming that he can speak with the vatic certainty of the poet-lawgiver of the nineteenth-century Romantic tradition, the first-person speaker delves into the language of the unconscious and Orphic tradition.
Particle Detectors
Authors: Kolanoski Hermann , Wermes Norbert
Published: September 2020

The book describes the fundamentals of particle detectors in their different forms as well as their applications, presenting the abundant material as clearly as possible and as deeply as needed for a thorough understanding. The target group for the book are both, students who want to get an introduction or wish to deepen their knowledge on the subject as well as lecturers and researchers who intend to extent their expertise. The book is also suited as a preparation for instrumental work in nuclear, particle and astroparticle physics and in many other fields (addressed in chapter 2). The detection of elementary particles, nuclei and high-energetic electromagnetic radiation, in this book commonly designated as ‘particles’, proceeds through interactions of the particles with matter. A detector records signals originating from the interactions occurring in or near the detector and (in general) feeds them into an electronic data acquisition system. The book describes the various steps in this process, beginning with the relevant interactions with matter, then proceeding to their exploitation for different detector types like tracking detectors, detectors for particle identification, detectors for energy measurements, detectors in astroparticle experiments, and ending with a discussion of signal processing and data acquisition. Besides the introductory and overview chapters (chapters 1 and 2), the book is divided into five subject areas: – fundamentals (chapters 3 to 5), – detection of tracks of charged particles (chapters 6 to 9), – phenomena and methods mainly applied for particle identification (chapters 10 to 14), – energy measurement (accelerator and non-accelerator experiments) (chapters 15, 16), – electronics and data acquisition (chapters 17 and 18). Comprehensive lists of literature, keywords and abbreviations can be found at the end of the book.