bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Role of Guest-Word Properties∗
Authors: Grosjean FrançOis
Published: November 2023

This chapter is best introduced by an anecdote. Olivier, a 5-year-old French-English bilingual boy, comes up to his mother and is overheard by a bilingual onlooker as saying, “Maman, tu peux me tailler mes chaussures?” (Mummy, can you sharpen my shoes?). With no apparent hesitation, the mother kneels down and starts to tie his shoelaces, while the onlooker strives to understand what Olivier said: “tailler des chaussures (sharpen shoes)? No, that doesn’t make sense ... ah, he’s asking to have his shoes tied.” Any reader who knows both English and French will have understood the predicament the onlooker was in: by inserting the English “tie” into his French sentence and adapting it morphologically and phonetically, Olivier unwittingly brought the English guest word (“tier”) into conflict with an existing word in French (“tailler”) and led the onlooker down a word recognition garden path. The mother, used to hearing Olivier employ “tie” in French, accessed the English meaning with no problem and went about the job of lacing Olivier’s shoes. In the present study we will explore the underlying processes that take place when bilinguals have to recognize different types of guest words such as the word “tie” in the above example.
Urban Narratives of Modernity
Authors: Hanssen Jens
Published: November 2023

In the modern Arab world ‘[t]he newspaper is a "second articulation’‘ of the city’. This articulation is not restricted to providing information or establishing an urban mode of communication. Rather the press act[s] on the city: at certain times it becomes the city itself ... If the paper seeks to be the artful image of the city, it invites the city to incarnate the paper. Tirelessly, it exhorts the city to repeat these ready-made phrases, to resemble these many pictures on each page, to conform to these models of behavior, to remake its universe to these specifications. The exhortation re-echoes in successive readings and group discussions in coffee shops. The junior official begins his day going through the whole bundle, before even tasting his horse bean sandwich. On finishing his day he would not think of going back to his home neighborhood without a periodical, or preferably several, under his arm. Until quite late at night porters, artisans, the people of modest station will solemnly spell out these communications laden with modern power. The city has become information; information rebuilds the city.
Introduction
Authors: Brown Archie
Published: November 2023

No one in 1985 expected that within the space of seven years Communist rule would have ended in Europe and the Soviet Union would have ceased to exist. Yet when this happened, there was no shortage of observers who were quick to see such an outcome as little short of inevitable. It is true that a system as inefficient in many (though not in all) respects as that of Communism could not have lasted for ever, but it was also a system that had seen off numerous threats over seventy years and one which had strong political as well as military defences.

Various oversimplifications or misunderstandings concerning perestroika and the end of the Soviet Union have gained more currency than they deserve. Among them have been the idea that the Soviet system was on its last legs and doomed to imminent collapse by the 1980s; the rather different view that the transformation of the Soviet system, the ending of the Cold War, and the breakup of the USSR were mainly brought about by the Reagan Administration; the no less fallacious notion that Boris Yeltsin was primarily responsible for dismantling a Communist system in Russia; as well as the widespread misconception that Yeltsin’s rule was a continuation of perestroika but in a more democratic form. Each of these oversimplifications or fallacies will be discussed at various points in this book and, in particular, in the final chapter.
The Story of ‘Fred’
Authors: Jackson Frank
Published: November 2023

Captains of fishing fleets draw closed figures on maps to indicate where they think the fish are. In the terminology of representation, they represent where they think the fish are by dividing a map into a region where the fish may be according to them, and a region where, according to them, there are no fish. They do the same sort of thing using words, as in ‘The fish are somewhere inside the rough circle I have just drawn on the map’ or ‘The fish are in the area between so and so latitudes and such and such longitudes’ or ‘The fish are five miles ahead’. Words and sentences represent much as maps, diagrams, semaphore and the like do, and they do so by making divisions among possibilities.
Brecht and Political Theatre: The Mother on Stage
Authors: Bradley Laura
Published: November 2023

This production history of The Mother provides substantial new insights into Bertolt Brecht’s theatre and drama, his impact on political theatre, and the relationship between text, performance, and politico-cultural context. As the only play which Brecht staged in the Weimar Republic, during his exile, and in the GDR, The Mother offers a unique opportunity to compare his theatrical practice in contrasting settings and at different points in his career. Through detailed analysis of original archival evidence, Bradley shows how Brecht became far more sensitive to his spectators’ political views and cultural expectations, even making major tactical concessions in his 1951 production at the Berliner Ensemble. These compromises indicate that his ‘mature’ staging should not be regarded as definitive, for it was tailored to a unique and delicate situation. The Mother has appealed strongly to politically committed theatre practitioners both in and beyond Germany. By exploiting the text’s generic hybridity and the interplay between Brecht’s ‘epic’ and ‘dramatic’ elements, directors have interpreted it in radically different ways. So although Brecht’s 1951 production stagnated into an affirmative GDR heritage piece, post-Brechtian directors have used The Mother to promote their own political and theatrical concerns, from anti-authoritarian theatre to reflections on the legacies of state Socialism. Their ideological and theatrical subversion have helped Brecht’s text to outlive the political system that it came to uphold.
Indo-European Flora
Authors: Mallory J P , Adams D Q
Published: November 2023

As with animals, there is also an extensive reconstructed vocabulary relating to the various forms of plant life in Proto-Indo-European.

The general name for ‘tree’, *do´ru, is attested in eleven different groups, either under its root form (e.g. OIr daur ‘oak’, Grk do´ru ‘tree trunk; wood; spear’. Hit ta¯ru ‘tree, wood’. Av da¯uru ‘tree, tree trunk; wooden weapon’. Skt da´¯ru ‘wood’. Toch AB or ‘wood’) or in derivation (NE tree is a derived form as are, e.g. Grk drus ‘tree, oak’, OCS druva ‘wood’, Alb dru ‘wood, tree’, drushk ‘oak’, OCS dreˇvo ‘tree’). In Celtic and Greek, it tends to mean specifically the ‘oak’ and has religious connotations, e.g. a druid is a ‘tree-knower’.
Taking Gardens Seriously
Authors: Cooper David E
Published: November 2023

The volume of philosophical writings about gardens in recent years is modest—so modest that their authors typically begin, as I am now doing, by remarking on the relative neglect of the garden by modern philosophy. This neglect partly explains why the title of my book starts with the indefinite article. In the absence of a substantial literature, there simply does not exist, within the philosophical community, a shared perception of a ‘discipline’—the philosophy of gardens—replete with well-defined ‘problems’, ‘methods’, and ‘research programmes’. One may speak of, and write about, the philosophy of mind—or of science or of art—but not, in an analogous way, of the philosophy of gardens.
Collateral Immunity in War and Terrorism
Authors: ( Tony ) coady C A J
Published: November 2023

The phrase ‘collateral damage’ is one of those euphemistic phrases that help to sanitize the horrible reality of war and other employments of political violence. It has taken its place along with ‘surgical strike’, ‘revisiting the area’ (i.e., renewed bombing), and ‘neutralizing assets’ as part of the linguistic camouflage that contemporary war-fighters use to disguise the human and moral costs of what they do. Perhaps the most astonishing military euphemism is that recently coined to describe a bomb that missed its ostensible target and hit a residential area: ‘seduction off the target’.
Airpower and Non-combatant Immunity: The Road to Dresden
Authors: Garrett Stephen A
Published: November 2023

In late 1944, during the last months of World War II, British and American military planners proposed the following scheme, code-named Thunderclap, for bringing the war against Germany to a final conclusion. Thunderclap envisioned a joint assault by several thousand British and American bombers on the German capital of Berlin in which there would be round-the-clock bombing over a period of four days and nights. The expectation was that this type of cataclysmic assault would totally shatter the German people’s will to continue the war. In order to accomplish this objective, the explicit military premiss behind Thunderclap was that much, if not most, of Berlin would be reduced to smoking rubble.
Introduction
Authors: Bergonzi Bernard
Published: November 2023

I have been reading Graham Greene all my adult life—I still have the original edition of The End of the Affair that I bought when it appeared in 1951—and have been writing about him for many years. Some time ago I realized that I had accumulated enough essays and reviews on him and his work to make into a short book. When I went over this material, though, it was evident that it would need more attention for anything coherent to be made of it, and I was disinclined to make the effort; as much as anything because I realized that I had never properly made up my mind about aspects of Greene. Then I was provoked by the publications and discussions that marked the centenary of his birth in 2004. I disagreed with much of what was said, but it was a creative dis- agreement that gave me some fresh ideas and led me to write the present study, which is a new (and, I hope, original) work, though some of it draws on previously published writing. A lot of the centenary material was of a promotional kind, even if it appeared as literary journalism, acclaiming Greene as a great British novelist and a national asset, who had achieved a global reputation (and there are not many modern English writers of whom that can be said). This praise was echoed by some of Greene’s co-religionists, who, after swallowing hard, acclaimed him as a great Catholic novelist.
Mexico
Authors: Bergonzi Bernard
Published: November 2023

In spring 1938, while Brighton Rock was still in the press, Greene went to Mexico. He had been commissioned by a publisher to write a book on the state of the Catholic Church in that country, where for several years it had been persecuted by a fiercely anti-religious government. He spent some weeks travelling in the remoter regions, often in great discomfort, and produced two of his best books. The Lawless Roads, the one he had been commissioned to write, is as much an autobiographical exploration as a survey of conditions in the country, while The Power and the Glory is one of his most popular novels, and at the same time one of the most profound. The Lawless Roads is a complex and artful text. It is very literary, drawing on Greene’s extensive reading, but the prose is vivid, conveying physical sensations with painful immediacy. A lighter note some- times appears, as when he discovers a community of Mexicans who are all called ‘Graham’ or ‘Greene’. There is a strong Catholic emphasis: the narrator makes efforts to hear Mass and sometimes attends Benediction as well; he goes to Confession when he is moving into a dangerous phase of his journey, and he recites ‘Hail Marys’ when he is scared in a storm.
Introduction
Authors: Boghossian Paul A
Published: November 2023

It is appropriate that Part I should open with “The Rule-Following Considerations” since that essay contains, in condensed form, a statement of most of the central claims that are expanded upon by the other papers in that section.

RFC was the result of an invitation by the journal Mind to write a “State of the Art” article on the flood of literature that was being produced in the 1980s in response to Saul Kripke’s brilliant Wittgenstein on Rules and Private Language. It contains almost no Wittgenstein exegesis but a great deal on the relevance of Kripke’s arguments to a raft of foundational issues in the philosophies of mind and language. Ironically, it also contains almost nothing about rule following per se. The reasons why are hinted at in RFC but emerge most clearly in the essay that closes Part I (“Epistemic Rules”), an essay that was written shortly before the present volume went to press.
The Transparency of Mental Content
Authors: Boghossian Paul A
Published: November 2023

It is an undeniable feature of the notion of meaning— obscure as that notion is— that meaning is transparent in the sense that, if someone attaches a meaning to each of two words, he must know whether these meanings are the same.

As the surrounding discussion makes clear, Dummett’s claim isn’t merely the fairly weak thesis that, for any two expressions in a person’s repertoire, it must be possible for that person to come to know whether or not they mean the same. Rather, the claim is that it must be possible for that person to come to know such a fact purely introspectively, without the benefit of further empirical investigation—a priori, as I shall also occasionally put it.
What the Externalist Can Know A Priori
Authors: Boghossian Paul A
Published: November 2023

Even after much discussion, it remains controversial whether an externalism about mental content is compatible with a traditional doctrine of privileged self-knowledge. By an externalism about mental content, I mean the view that what concepts our thoughts involve may depend not only on facts that are internal to us, but on facts about our environment. It is worth emphasizing, if only because it is still occasionally misperceived, that this thesis is supposed to apply at the level of sense and not merely at that of reference: what concepts we think in terms of—and not just what they happen to pick out—is said by the externalist to depend upon environmental facts. By a traditional doctrine of privileged self-knowledge, I mean the view that we are able to know, without the benefit of empirical investigation, what our thoughts are in our own case. Suppose I entertain a thought that I would express with the sentence ‘Water is wet’.
Analyticity Reconsidered
Authors: Boghossian Paul A
Published: November 2023

This is what many philosophers believe today about the analytic/synthetic distinction: In his classic early writings on analyticity — in particular, in “Truth by Convention,” “Two Dogmas of Empiricism,” and “Carnap and Logical Truth” Quine showed that there can be no distinction between sentences that are true purely by virtue of their meaning and those that are not. In so doing, Quine devastated the philosophical programs that depend upon a notion of analyticity—specifically, the linguistic theory of necessary truth, and the analytic theory of a priori knowledge.
Epistemic Analyticity: A Defense
Authors: Boghossian Paul A
Published: November 2023

The paper is a defense of the project of explaining the a priori via the notion of meaning or concept possession. It responds to certain objections that have been made to this project—in particular, that there can be no epistemically analytic sentences that are not also metaphysically analytic, and that the notion of implicit definition cannot explain a priori entitlement. The paper goes on to distinguish between two different ways in which facts about meaning might generate facts about entitlement—inferential and constitutive.
Of Mice and Men: Equality and Animals
Authors: Vallentyne Peter
Published: November 2023

I shall address a problem that can arise for a certain kind of egalitarianism once sentience is recognized as a sufficient condition for moral standing and speciesism is rejected.
Introduction
Authors: Miller Christian B
Published: November 2023

The publication of these selected papers by Philip L. Quinn is intended to honor one of the leading philosophers of religion in the twentieth century. PhilipQuinn died on November 15, 2004 at the age of 64, leaving behind an immensely impressive legacy of publication, service, and intellectual achievement. My goal in this brief introduction is twofold: first, to sketch briefly some of the life of this remarkable man; and second, to provide an overview of the papers that make up this collection. The papers themselves have been organized around the following central topics in Quinn’s research: Religious Ethics, Religion and Tragic Dilemmas, Religious Epistemology, Religion and Political Liberalism, Christian Philosophy, and ReligiousDiversity
Moral Obligation, Religious Demand, and Practical Conflict
Authors: Quinn Philip L , Miller Christian B
Published: November 2023

Almost all philosophers would concede that conflict among what are often described as prima facie moral obligations is possible and sometimes occurs. The question of whether there can be conflict among what are described, by contrast, as actual moral obligations is vexed. Some philosophers argue that such conflicts do occur, or at least are easily imaginable, and hence are possible. Others argue that such conflicts cannot occur, or at least could not occur from the perspective of an ideally complete and adequate moral theory. The arguments on both sides of the question are impressive. In my opinion, the philosophical contest so far has resulted in a standoff. Be that as it may, it is worth noting that, if such conflicts were to occur, they would be, as usually conceived, internal to the moral realm. In this paper I discuss the possibility that there are conflicts between moral obligations and other practical requirements rooted outside the moral realm altogether. In particular, I intend to take seriously the possibility of conflict between actual moral obligations and the demands of religious living imposed by divine fiat. Many philosophers, myself included, have been tempted to assimilate all such religious demands to moral requirements and for that reason to suppose that a divine command theory might be needed to account for at least part of the moral realm. But I now think that giving in to this temptation is likely to misrepresent, if not mask completely, an important philosophical issue by portraying all possible conflicts between moral obligations and religious demands as internal
Tragic Dilemmas, Suffering Love, and Christian Life
Authors: Quinn Philip L , Miller Christian B
Published: November 2023

It has been one of the pretensions of philosophy, Bernard Williams tells us, that it can answer the question of how one should live. Many philosophers have tried to answer the question by proposing ethical theories. Williams advocates an alternative procedure. As he sees it, the aim of ethical thought ‘‘is to help us to construct a world that will be our world; one in which we have a social, cultural, and personal life.’’ But we need plans for the construction, and they should be as detailed as we can make them. Drawing up such plans is bound to make heavy demands on our resources of understanding and imagination.
Bio-Physicality
Authors: Smith Virginia
Published: November 2023

Dirt is only matter out of place, and is neither ‘good’ nor ‘bad’. Nature does not care what we think, or how we respond, to matter in all its forms. But as a species we do care, very deeply, about our own survival. A dense mass of human history clusters around the belief that dirt is ‘bad ‘, and that dirt removal (cleansing) is always ‘good’. The old Anglo-Saxon word ‘clean’ was used in a wide variety of situations: it was often blatantly humancentred or self-serving in a way we might call ‘moral ‘; but it was also used more objectively as a technical term, to measure or judge material things relative to other things. It was thoroughly comprehensive, and unquestioned.
The Cosmetic Toilette
Authors: Smith Virginia
Published: November 2023

This is really the story of ‘ellu’, an ancient Mesopotamian word meaning a type of glittering, strikingly luminescent, or beautiful cleanliness—a powerful, non-ascetic, pre-Christian image of beauty that was entirely guilt-free. The cosmetic routine now called ‘pampering ’—baths, aromas, facials, manicures, pedicures, hairstyling, and costuming, conducted in sensuous surroundings with or without groups of friends—emerged at both ends of Eurasia during the Bronze Age from c.4000 bce, along with most of the necessary tools and raw materials.
Roman Baths
Authors: Smith Virginia
Published: November 2023

The Roman baths and aqueducts cleansed and scoured more people in western Eurasia than any previous civilization—over 12 million bodies, if even only a quarter of the imperial population lived in cities and were regular bathers; and historians have rightly viewed them as one of the linchpins of Roman life. The only viable conclusion from Roman baths is that cleanliness was an integral part of the Roman ‘civilizing process’, and that an ultra-clean, well-groomed body was their badge and symbol of citizenship. But bathing was only one part of a whole regime of grooming and hygienic self-care for which expert written advice was now given by, among others, Ovid, Celsus, and Galen.
The Security Council In The Post-Cold War World
Authors: Greenstock Jeremy
Published: November 2023

The UN Charter places the primary responsibility for maintaining international peace and security on members of the Security Council, acting on behalf of the whole membership. The intention of the founders in 1945 was to establish a collective approach to matters of peace and war and to deter individual states from taking matters into their own hands. The founders were confident in their expectation that member states of the UN, with the searing experience of two world wars fresh in their minds, would see it as being in their interests to respect the Charter, including Article 25.1 This responsibility is regularly proposed for re-quotation in Security Council resolutions, usually with the aim of reminding particular states that national objectives must be subordinated to the collective interest.
The Security Council And East Timor
Authors: Walsh Peter Carey With The Assistance Of Pat
Published: November 2023

The former Portuguese colony of East Timor, now the Democratic Republic of Timor Leste (Republica Democrática Timor Leste/RDTL), should have become an independent state on 15 October 1978. This was the date fixed by the Portuguese Council of the Revolution for the final transfer of power from Lisbon to a proposed Timorese National Assembly elected by popular mandate, an arrangement which, it was widely acknowledged even by the Indonesians, had the overwhelming support of the majority of Timorese.
The Security Council And The Afghan Conflict
Authors: Dorronsoro Gilles
Published: November 2023

The conflict in Afghanistan has persisted in various forms since 1979, making it one of the longest conflicts since 1945. Twice, foreign powers intervened militarily (the USSR from 1979 to 1989; and the US from 2001 to the present), while neighbouring countries – notably Pakistan, Uzbekistan, and Russia – have continuously supported different armed Afghan military movements. The Afghan conflict is a good case study by which to analyse the role of the UN Security Council, with the conflict spanning a pivotal period of evolution in the international system.
The Georgian problem revisited
Authors: Hale Mark , Reiss Charles
Published: November 2023

What have we learned from the discussion up to this point? We have learned that we should expect there to be a correct model of each I-language and that it is the linguist ‘s obligation to try and choose among competing, extensionally equivalent models. We also discussed ways to go about this—by looking at acquisition and by building a general linguistic theory, one that holds for all languages.
A Return to the Theory of the Verb Be and the Concept of Being
Authors: Kahn Charles H
Published: November 2023

The recent reprinting of my book The Verb ‘Be’ in Ancient Greek by Hackett, thirty years after its appearance in 1973, gave me the opportunity to rethink and reformulate the theoretical framework for my description of the Greek verb. Since the audience for the reprinted book will inevitably be restricted, I present here a more accessible, slightly revised version of the new (2003) introduction. In the original 1973 book the theoretical discussion was far too long and not always consistent. What follows is a more concise and, I hope, more coherent version of my theoretical account of einai.
Parmenides and Plato Once More
Authors: Kahn Charles H
Published: November 2023

This seems a happy occasion to return to Parmenides, in order both to clarify my own interpretation of Parmenidean Being and also to emphasize the affinity between what I have called the veridical reading and the account in terms of predication that Alex Mourelatos gave in his monumental The Route of Parmenides. It is good to have this opportunity to acknowledge how much our views have in common, even if they do not coincide.
Amphibian diversity and life history
Authors: Crump Martha L
Published: November 2023

Over the past 350 million years, amphibian descendents of lobe-finned fishes have radiated into most habitats on Earth. In doing so, they have acquired spectacular and sometimes bizarre physiological, morphological, behavioral, and ecological attributes that mold their innovative life histories. Amphibians have highly permeable skin, which makes them both vulnerable to losing water and able to absorb water. Their eggs, covered with jelly capsules rather than hard shells, lose water rapidly. For these reasons, amphibians require relatively moist environments.
Aquatic mesocosms
Authors: Semlitsch Raymond D , Boone Michelle D
Published: November 2023

We have often told our students that any experiment can be easily criticized for lack of realism because all experiments, whether in the laboratory or field, by design are contrived by humans and are not natural. However, in spite of such criticism the more challenging issue is coming up with new venues or innovative designs to answer important ecological or conservation questions and to balance trade-offs. As amphibian ecology has become more experimental, we have been confronted with numerous trade-offs concerning the choice of venue, design, realism, and replication. Each choice is often coupled with benefits as well as limitations. As in many rapidly developing fields, criticism is an expected and healthy process that pushes investigators to think about their choices and develop solutions. The use of mesocosms in studies of aquatic ecology across an array of taxonomic groups has been central in that debate (e.g. Kimball and Levin, 1985; Carpenter 1996; Schindler 1998). Within the field of amphibian biology, a number of reviews also have stimulated a healthy discussion on the use of experiments (Hairston 1989a, 1989b), and in particular, use of mesocosms (e.g. Jaeger and Walls 1989; Rowe and Dunson 1994; Skelly and Kiesecker 2001; Skelly 2002).
Movement patterns and radiotelemetry
Authors: Madison Dale M , Titus Valorie R , Lamoureux Victor S
Published: November 2023

There is no greater need for details on the year-round movements and refuges of amphibians in their natural habitats than today, mainly due to the pressure to develop lands for human habitation, agriculture, and commerce, and to define better wetland/buffer zones to protect amphibian communities. Unfortunately, there is a dearth of information on habitat use for most amphibians due to their relatively small size and secretive nature. Efforts to track individuals using radioisotopes began decades ago (Madison and Shoop 1970), and other techniques have followed, including fluorescent powder, spool tracking, radiotelemetry, and harmonic radar, but for most amphibians details on habitat use through the annual cycle are still lacking. The recent surge in radiotelemetry use is providing new insights into habitat use and movements, but only a few studies have addressed whether the data might reflect transmitter transport, attachment, implantation, or the periodic disturbance of the investigator.
Trafficking in History
Authors: Wright Patrick , Krauze Andrzej
Published: November 2023

In May 1974 the sixth Earl of Rosebery died. Millions of pounds in death duties promptly fell due, and the future of the Rosebery estate came into question just as quickly. At the centre of this estate stood Mentmore Towers, a florid country house near Aylesbury in Buckinghamshire. Mentmore was built for Baron Meyer Amschel de Rothschild in the mid-nineteenth century and designed by Sir Joseph Paxton—an architect then at the height of his controversial eminence as designer of Crystal Palace.
Moving House in a Welfare State
Authors: Wright Patrick , Krauze Andrzej
Published: November 2023

May Alice Savidge used to live, modestly enough, in Ware, Hertfordshire. For twenty years she inhabited one half of an old building that also housed a bakery. Things have changed and Miss Savidge now lives up on the coast of north Norfolk, a resident of Wells-Next-the-Sea. Miss Savidge, obviously enough, has ‘moved house,’ but she has done so in a way that finds new meaning in this phrase. While she now resides in a different town, Miss Savidge continues to live in the same house. She has ‘moved house’ in a literal sense, taking her home with her.
Earliest personal ornaments and their significance for the origin of language debate
Authors: D’Errico Francesco , Vanhaeren Marian
Published: November 2023

When did humans acquire the characteristics we normally associate with ‘‘humanness’’: language, use of symbols, art, religious thought? These behaviors leave little or no trace on human remains and it is the archeologist’s job to identify and date the signs of their emergence in our ancestors’ material culture.
A “language-free” explanation for differences between the European Middle and Upper Paleolithic Record
Authors: Roebroeks Wil , Verpoorte Alexander
Published: November 2023

On current evidence, the archeological record starts at around 2.6 million years ago, when hominins were making stone artifacts in eastern Africa, probably in the context of the exploitation of large ungulate carcasses (Domínguez-Rodrigo et al. 2005). These first stone tools were produced approximately 4 million years after the split of the human lineage from the chimpanzee line (Stauffer et al. 2001; Cela-Conde and Ayala 2003). Together with the hominin fossil record, the archeological record constitutes a unique archive of long-term changes in hominin behavior in various domains, such as dietary strategies, range expansion and contraction, and material culture.
How varied typologically are the languages of Africa?
Authors: Cysouw Michael , Comrie Bernard
Published: November 2023

Our aim in this chapter is to investigate to what extent it is possible to pick up signals of prehistoric events by studying the distribution of typological diversity across the languages of Africa. The chapter is experimental, in the sense that it aims to test a particular method rather than to assume that the method in question is valid. The results of the investigation will show that, while there are clear limitations especially as one goes further back into history, nonetheless there are clear signals of prehistoric events that can be traced in the geography of typological diversity in Africa. Our aim is not to develop a method that will replace other methods, in particular the comparative method in historical linguistics (Campbell 2004), but rather to see what contributions can be made in specific areas by other methods, in this particular case areal typology.
Aporiai 9–10
Authors: Wildberg Christian
Published: November 2023

Metaphysics  B is a string of condensed sketches of considerations related to highly abstract and difficult philosophical problems; in order to do justice to this highly idiosyncratic piece of writing and determine its most likely sense, it is paramount to pay very close attention to the text—not only the variants introduced in the course of the text’s transmission, but also its at times contorted syntax and subtle sarcasm. The way to proceed is slowly, by first offering a translation of the text of the aporiai and notes which discuss purely philological problems (A sections). There follows a detailed commentary (B sections) which first takes the wording of an aporia’s introduction in chapter 1 of Book B into account and then proceeds to discuss the component parts of the aporia’s theses and antitheses. For the sake of clarity, the text is broken up into lemmata, essentially repeating the translation offered earlier. Hopefully, this procedure will leave an impression not of redundancy but of greater accessibility and transparency. The commentary parts segue into short synopses of the aporia’s argument (sections C).
Aporia 12 (and 12 bis)
Authors: Mueller Ian
Published: November 2023

I shall divide my discussion into two parts, the first concerning aporia 12, which occupies all of B 5, the second and briefer concerning B6; 1002b12–32, which I shall call aporia 12 bis.
Through A Lens, Darkly
Authors: Brasier Martin
Published: November 2023

I felt obliged to stop the vehicle owing to a growing sense of déjà vu. My students and I had been motoring along the road from Durness to Loch Assynt in north-west Scotland, snaking up a mountain pass through the famous Pipe Rock—a pile of fossilized seaside some forty furlongs thick. This Pipe Rock was a buff to fesh-pink sandstone packed here and there with worm tracks shaped like the pipes of Pan. But it was not the pipes that got me. It was the panorama of rock and bog, lying alongside the road from Kylesku to Inchnadamph.
Nicomachean Ethics VII. 4: Plain and Qualified akrasia
Authors: Lorenz Hendrik
Published: November 2023

Aristotle ‘s audience would have been readily familiar both with an absolute use of the word κραα ( ‘lack of control ‘), and of related words, and with an augmented use governing a genitive. Xenophon employs κραα language in both ways, thinking of the κρατ( ‘the person who lacks control ‘) spoken of absolutely as a character type identified by lack of control over, or weakness in relation to, bodily pleasures and pains or discomforts.
Dispositions, Causes, and Reduction
Authors: McKitrick Jennifer
Published: November 2023

Dispositionality and causation are both modal concepts which have implications not just for how things are, but for how they will be or, in some sense, must be. Some philosophers are suspicious of modal concepts and would like to make do with fewer of them. But what are our reductive options, and how viable are they? In this paper, I try to shut down one option: I argue that dispositions are not reducible to causes.
Structural Properties Revisited
Authors: Bird Alexander
Published: November 2023

Monistic dispositional essentialists (or dispositional monists) hold that all fundamental sparse (i.e. natural) universals have essences that are dispositional. Thus all properties either have a dispositional essence or are not fundamental or are not natural.
Consensus, Coercion and Popular Opinion in the Third Reich: Some Reflections
Authors: Kershaw Ian
Published: November 2023

Remarkably, research on the social history of the Third Reich did not begin in earnest until the 1970s. When it did, the issues of consensus and coercion were a central theme, and any assessment of those was inevitably related to the findings of the early work which was starting to be undertaken at that time into popular attitudes towards the Nazi regime and patterns of behaviour among ordinary Germans.
Poland: The Silence of Those Deprived of Voice
Authors: Kula Marcin
Published: November 2023

Some years ago Nathan Wachtel wrote a book in which he attempted to reconstruct the view the Peruvian Indians had of their world destroyed by the European conquest. We ought to write a similar book on the view of the world held by people who experienced the communist system. The importance of the subject and the need for research in this area is evident; it is, after all, one of the most interesting questions concerning the history of communism. Historians, however, cannot just repeat intuitively that ‘the people’ were ‘against’, which, in any case, if referred to the whole period, would simply be wrong, just as it would not be true that people were ‘for’ or ‘against’ on every question. In reality they could be ‘in favour, but against’.And they could be against in their thought, but in fact collaborate fully with the establishment in both words and deeds.
Tacit Minimal Consensus: The Always Precarious East German Dictatorship
Authors: Lindenberger Thomas
Published: November 2023

Among the communist dictatorships newly erected under Soviet auspices after 1945 the GDR stood out because of a double claim to be exceptional. To begin with, it was a polity which could never claim to represent the one and only nation state of the people inhabiting it. On the contrary, it was the product of the partition of a nation and its society and their splitting up into two states competing for the legitimate right to represent the German nation, or what had remained of it, after the self-inflicted catastrophe of genocide and the Second World War. At the same time, the late SED state could ‘claim’ to have come closest to realizing the blueprint of a socialist people’s state according to Marxist-Leninist dogma, probably sharing this lead position with the Č SSR [Czechoslovakia]. It had the strongest economy, providing its citizens with the highest level of affluence among the states of the Comecon. But at the same time it was the least sovereign in terms of national autonomy, hosting a foreign army of 500,000 and serving as the strategic glacis area in the worst-case scenarios of its power centre, the Soviet Union. In the case of the GDR, it was not just non-war and thereby the survival of the people inhabiting the country which was safeguarded by atomic deterrence, but the very existence of the country itself. The unpopularity of communist rulers in any country set aside, it was this predicament which rendered the legitimacy of the East German dictatorship precarious in an exceptional way.
Anaerobic culture methods
Authors: Willis A T
Published: November 2023

A variety of methods is available for the culture of anaerobic organisms.

Exclusion of oxygen from part of the medium is the simplest method, and is effected by growing the organisms within the medium as a shake or fluid culture.

When an anaerobic atmosphere is required for obtaining surface growths, anaerobic jars and cabinets provide the routine methods of choice.
Chemotaxonomic methods
Authors: Shah H N , Gharbia S E , Lawson P A
Published: November 2023

The taxonomy of major groups of anaerobic bacteria such as B(fidobacterium, Bacteroides, Eubacterium, Fusobacterium, Peptostreptococcus, and several others has until recently been unsatisfactory. Many of these taxa have been defined primarily on the basis of morphological and physiological characteristics but have undergone considerable taxonomic improvements since the introduction of acid end-products analysis.
Immunochemical methods
Authors: Poxton I R
Published: November 2023

As in any branch of modern bacteriology, immunological techniques are used for a vast and increasing number of applications. The applications in the past were mainly in medical microbiology, especially in the diagnosis of disease, in epidemiological typing, and in the fundamental investigation of pathogenic mechanisms. In the future this trend is likely to continue, but the exploitation of immunological methods for the detection and quantitation of any bacterial component or product is likely to increase. In anaerobic bacteriology, however, it is by no means an area of great activity. Many workers have been disillusioned by the complexity of the subject, and it is true to say that much of the past work has been greatly compromised by a lack of appreciation of the complexity of the antigenic composition of anaerobes. They are no more complex than aerobes but, especially for the Bacteroides spp., there are no traditional serotyping schemes available as there were for theenterobacteria, and attempts at extrapolating from enterobacterial serology have been largely unsuccessful. Apart from certain clostridial infections there is little evidence of a one organism/one disease relationship and again this has confused the unwary.
Prediction of transmembrane protein topology
Authors: Heijne Gunnar Von
Published: November 2023

Membrane proteins fulfil many critical cellular functions, and make up a large fraction of all proteins. In fact, it has recently been estimated that as many as 35–-40% of all yeast genes may code for integral membrane proteins (1,2). Yet, only a handful of high resolution membrane protein three-dimensional structures are known, making it even more important to extract as much structural information as possible from the amino acid sequences. This chapter will focus on the topology prediction problem: how to identify transmembrane segments and how to predict the overall orientation of the protein in the membrane.
Comparative modelling of proteins
Authors: Srinivasan N , Guruprasad k. , Blundell Tom L
Published: November 2023

The prediction of protein three-dimensional (3D) structure from amino acid sequence is most successful when the structures of one or more homologues are known. Structural information can then be extrapolated to the new sequence and a 3D model may be derived, well before the structure of the new protein is determined by X-ray crystallography or NMR. This approach is most appropriately known as comparative modelling, but is also referred to as homology modelling, or knowledge-based modelling.
Modelling protein conformation by molecular mechanics and dynamics
Authors: Karpen Marye , Brooks iii charles L
Published: November 2023

Molecular mechanics and dynamics are used extensively in protein structure prediction, complementing experimental approaches and database (‘knowledge-based’) analyses. These methods are able to predict conformation at the atomic level. This high degree of resolution, however, carries a large computational cost. Hence limits are often placed on system size, the extent of conformational space searched, and the length of simulations. None the less, molecular mechanics and dynamics approaches are able to address many important protein structure prediction problems.
Docking ligands to proteins
Authors: Shoichet Brian k.
Published: November 2023

A docking method seeks to find ways of fitting two molecules together in favourable configurations. This simple goal is actively pursued because of its central role in two very practical areas of research: structure-based drug discovery and the molecular modelling of biological function. Sadly, our understanding of how molecules recognize one another is still rather poor. Both the importance of the field, and our limited grasp of its intricacies, have lead to a great number of proposals for solving what is often called ‘the docking problem.’ None of them is complete. For clarity’s sake, I will discuss ways to approach docking problems as if there was a right way, and we knew what we were doing. Sometimes there isn’t and we don’t. Buyer beware.
Affinity separations of proteins
Authors: Matejtschuk Paul , Feldman Peter A , Rott, Jacky , More John
Published: November 2023

Probably the greatest proportion of affinity-based separations reported in the scientific literature involve proteins. There are literally thousands of references to the isolation, characterization, and utilization of proteins that rely upon affinity-based interactions for successful separations (1). This being the case it would be impossible to cover adequately here all of the methodologies documented, nor is it the purpose of this chapter merely to review the application of affinity chromatography to protein chemistry. In this chapter we will present the common techniques used for the affinity extraction of proteins and give examples of these from our own experience, such that the general principles of each group of separations can be outlined for readers to follow and apply to their own experimental situations.
Peptide mapping
Authors: Morrice Nick A , Carrey Elizabeth A
Published: November 2023

This chapter will cover the processes necessary to generate a peptide map, including the fragmentation of the protein of interest, the separation of the resulting peptides (oligopeptides of various lengths), and their identification and analysis. Strategies that generate a literally two-dimensional ‘map’ using electrophoretic methods will be described in Section 3.5. Every biochemistry textbook describes the use of such maps, for example the early use of paper chromatography to demonstrate that there is a difference in sequence between normal haemoglobin and the mutant form that causes sickle-cell anaemia. Improvements in the separation and analytical methods now available to us mean that peptide ‘maps’ may be used to obtain information, such as the actual sequence. from the individual peptides. A series of separation steps, based on standard protein chemistry, can each contribute a ‘dimension’ to the map and inform us about the properties of the peptide. The strategy to be adopted therefore has implications for the results that can be obtained, since the second or third dimension uses material that has been generated in an earlier separation step.
Brewery fermentations with dried lager yeast
Authors: Muller R E , Fels S , Gosselin Y
Published: November 2023

Dried yeast offers several advantages in storage and handling over fresh wet yeast. The brewing performance of a yeast propagated and dried using a specific technology was compared with that of the same strain of fresh yeast from pilot brewery fermentations. The gravity profiles of the two types were almost identical, requiring a similar time to reach the same attenuation limit. Flocculation was also unaffected and the suspended cell concentrations observed throughout the fermentations were the same. Analytical flavour profiles and flavour profiles of the beers produced with both types of yeast were within normally expected variation.
Use of topology to measure protein-induced DNA bend and unwinding angles
Authors: Lutter Leonard C , Drabik Christopher E , Halvorson Herbert R
Published: November 2023

This chapter describes details of the rotational variant method for measuring protein-induced changes in bend and unwinding angles. To summarize the approach, a series of plasmids is constructed such that each contain tandem repeats of the binding site for a protein that bends its site upon binding. The members of the series differ by the progressive addition of single base-pair increments to the repeat length, meaning that the rotational setting between adjacent binding sites differs by 34" when a construct with an n base pair repeat is compared with one with an n + 1 base-pair repeat. Binding of the protein to this series of plasmids induces a family of superhelices with pitches based on the repeat length, and relaxation by topoisomerase causes a change in the DNA linking number that reflects the specific form of superhelix generated in each plasmid. The set of differences between the linking numbers of a plasmid with and without bound protein can then be used to calculate the bend induced, as well as any change in duplex winding upon protein binding. The advantage of this method is that the measurement derives from first principles and requires no comparison standards. Details of the conceptual basis of the approach as well as a short description of the methodology are published in Letter et al. (1). This chapter expands on the methods needed to perform such a measurement. In addition, improvements developed since that publication will be described, as well as ongoing efforts aimed at further facilitating the method.