bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Social Schemas and Perceptual Accuracy in Schizophrenia
Authors: BLUMENTHAL RICHARD , MELTZOFF JULIAN
Published: July 2011

Thirty schizophrenic and thirty normal males estimated distances between eighteen pairs of cut‐out figures representing neutral and hostile relationships and control rectangles at three different intervals under immediate and delay conditions. The following significant results for overall accuracy and direction of error (social schema effect) were obtained. Schizophrenics were less accurate than normals. All Ss were less accurate under delay, but schizophrenics were even more inaccurate in this condition. All Ss were less accurate as intervals increased. All Ss overestimated small intervals and underestimated large intervals and delay enhanced this effect. Neither neutral nor hostile figures had any effect on overall accuracy or direction of error. These results can be accounted for by the psychological deficit characteristic of schizophrenics and such psychophysical determinants as interval length and delay in judgments. The findings are discussed in terms of the relationship between procedural variations in experiments and complex intervening variables of a social or dynamic nature such as social schemas.
A Questionnaire Measure of Neuroticism using a Shortened Scale Derived from the Cornell Medical Index
Authors: Gibson H. B. , Hanson Ruth , West D. J.
Published: July 2011

Pilot work was conducted involving a review of the Cornell Medical Index (C.M.I.) as an instrument diagnostic of psychiatric and physical ill‐health, and making a selection from it on the basis of data obtained from two previous studies. An essential feature of this selection was to avoid items which referred directly to neurotically disturbed behaviour.

The items provisionally selected were administered as a questionnaire for mothers, first to a new pilot sample, and then to an experimental group about whom personal data had been established by interview and the occasional checking of records. The results were analysed by the method of principal components, and a new scale established. Scores of the mothers on this scale were validated against what was known of their psychiatric and physical health. The results suggest that the new Health Questionnaire is a useful instrument for the assessment of neuroticism in a situation in which the direct mention of the topic of neurotic disturbance would perhaps be unwise.
The Psycho‐dynamic Diagnosis and Treatment of Vocational Problems
Authors: BOREHAM J. L.
Published: July 2011

The procedure of providing reality‐testing opportunities for a client seeking vocational guidance is frequently obstructed by irrationalities in the client's thinking. This demands a psychotherapeutic orientation on the part of the counsellor.

Firstly a theoretical model is described for a psychodynamic diagnostic exploration in respect of such irrationalities.

Secondly a model for a therapeutic process within the limits of the vocational guidance situation is developed.

Some clients offer the possibility of direct therapeutic work focused on the phantasy content of the unconscious systems which are obstructing a rational resolution of the problem.

The function of psychological testing is discussed as a medium for two‐way communication between the client and the counsellor, and this process is demonstrated in two case examples.
Changes in Opinions About Education During the First Year of Teaching
Authors: MORRISON A. , McINTYRE D.
Published: July 2011

Teachers, whose opinions about education as expressed on scales of naturalism, radicalism and tender‐mindedness had been recorded at various stages during their training, again completed the three scales after teaching for one year. The article reports on the general finding of decreases in mean scores on the scales, and examines changes in opinions in relation to categories of teachers and to aspects of the schools in which they had served.
Self‐reported Delinquency among Schoolboys, and their Attitudes to the Police
Authors: GIBSON H. B.
Published: July 2011

An individually administered test battery was given to 94 boys in their 15th year at Grammar, Secondary Modern and Approved Schools. This involved a card‐sorting technique in which the boys indicated their (i) job preferences, (ii) leisure interests, (iii) attitude to the police, and (iv) admission of delinquent acts committed by boys known to them, by their friends and by themselves. The present report gives details of the attitude scale and the admission of offences in relation to the three categories of boys, separately.

The relationship of the attitudes and group membership to admission of offences was as expected from a review of similar studies in self‐reported delinquency.
The Structure Within Groups
Authors: LINDSAY J. S. B.
Published: July 2011

An analysis has been made of the formal sequences of conversation in a small closed therapeutic group over eleven sessions. Without any concern with the content of the conversation it has been possible to demonstrate significant dyadic, triadic and other multiple person situations, the effect of the therapist's remarks and of silences. It is inferred that such groups have a structured pattern of relationships contained within them and are not just a collection of dyads variously arranged.
Verbalization and Immediate Memory of Complex Stimuli in Normal and Severely Subnormal Children
Authors: BRYANT P. E.
Published: July 2011

Recognition and recall for stimuli varying in colour and shape were investigated in normal and severely subnormal children of equivalent mental age levels in three experiments. In each experiment half the children in each group were made to verbalize about the stimuli while the other half was not. The normal subjects tended to remember both dimensions more equally than the subnormals who tended to remember one dimension in preference to another when there was no verbalization. However, since verbalization improved the memory of the second dimension in severely subnormal subjects it is concluded that severely subnormals are handicapped in paying attention to more than one dimension.
The Effects of Dependency and Social Reinforcement upon Visual Behaviour during an interview*
Authors: EXLINE RALPH V. , MESSICK DAVID
Published: July 2011

Thirty‐four male college students categorized as to dominance or dependency in their control orientations towards others were given great or small amounts of social reinforcement for eye contact when speaking to an interviewer. Results showed Ss' eye contact with E when speaking to him to be a function of the interaction of social reinforcement and dependency orientation. Dependent Ss looked significantly more at E when given low as compared to high amounts of verbal social reinforcement, and also looked significantly more at E than non‐dependent Ss given low amounts of such reinforcement.

It is suggested that the results support a feedback rather than a reward model to explain the effect of social reinforcement on eye‐contact in discussion. Limits on the generality of the results were suggested. The results were also discussed in terms of Argyle & Dean's equilibrium theory of the emission of affiliative behaviours. Implications of the procedures and results for certain kinds of personnel selection were considered.
The Psychological Bases of Political Allegiance Among White‐Collar Males
Authors: STACEY B. G. , GREEN R. T.
Published: July 2011

Empirical research has established the demographic variables which distinguish the supporters of the major political parties. The present study was undertaken to explore further the psychological bases of political allegiance among white‐collar males. A factor analysis of sixty‐six variables constituting a questionnaire completed by 202 subjects showed that conservatism in this section of the population has many features. The following are of considerable importance: an intensely expressed patriotism, authoritarianism, élitism and anti‐egalitarianism, political, economic and social pragmatism. All these features contain a strong element of deference. Labour supporters are characterized by an egalitarian, anti‐élitist and cosmopolitan outlook. They also have a strong tendency to be anti‐authoritarian.
A Model of the Extremity, Confidence and Salience of an Opinion
Authors: LEMON N. F.
Published: July 2011

A model is described in this paper which interprets the extremity, confidence and salience of an opinion as different functions of the positively and negatively evaluated attributes ascribed to the object of this opinion. An experiment is described which tests the predictions of this model. The results of this experiment, while substantially confirming these predictions, also suggest that negatively evaluated attributes have relatively greater weight in this situation. The value of the model in explaining already established findings is discussed.
Personal Construct Theory and Social Work Practice
Authors: PHILIP ALISTAIR E. , McCULLOCH J. W.
Published: July 2011

In the rapidly expanding field of social casework there have been sundry attempts to study the influence of various factors on the professional interview. The present study has demonstrated the feasibility of investigating the conceptual processes involved in casework assessment using Kelly's theory of personal constructs. Two random samples of twenty‐five patients were drawn from a cohort of 511 persons who had attempted suicide in Edinburgh. The concepts used by a psychiatric social worker to describe these patients were intercorrelated and analysed using McQuitty's Elementary Linkage Analysis. Two main types of construct were elicited; the first relating to the impact of the patient on the psychiatric social worker; the second reflecting the professional formulation of the case.
On the Accuracy of Clinical Judgements
Authors: HORN JOHN L. , STEWART PATRICIA
Published: July 2011

Using only the information provided in MMPI profiles, thirteen clinical psychologists and sixteen trainees in clinical psychology attempted to assess the degree of psychoticism of 861 patients who had been admitted to a hospital or clinic and for whom a diagnosis of ‘psychotic’ or ‘neurotic’ had been made. The clinician‐judges were required to distribute their ratings over an eleven‐point forced‐normal ‘scale’. The correlations of each clinician‐judge with every other and with the diagnosis (‘psychotic vs. non‐psychotic’) were determined.

All correlations were positive. Those among the twenty‐nine clinician‐judges were of the order of 0·3 to 0·9, most being between 0·6 and 0·85. Most of the correlations of clinician‐judges with the diagnosis variable were in the 0·20 to 0·35 range. The first principal component among the correlations accounted for 85 per cent of the total variance. In a rotated, three‐factor solution one factor defined the dimension underlying the criterion judgements while the other two represented consistent influences which were largely independent of the final diagnosis. The nature of these influences could not be determined from the data in hand.
Some Transactional Perceptions of African Faces
Authors: BELOFF HALLA , COUPAR SIMPSON
Published: July 2011

In order to explore the perceptual component of attitude structure a group of women teacher‐training students was divided into those having positive and those having negative attitudes towards coloured people. The groups were presented with two perceptual tasks involving photographs of European and African faces. The tasks consisted of the resolution of perceptual ambiguities using a variable stereoscope and the Ames Thereness‐Thatness apparatus. It was predicted that the Ss for whom the African faces had negative valence would respond in a more vigilant style to bi‐racial stereograms, and would set the African faces farther away than the European ones with respect to a standard in the Thereness‐Thatness apparatus. For those with positive attitudes the hypothesis was that no differential response to the faces would be made. In general the predictions were confirmed.
The Association of Attainment and Sociometric Status with Reported Deviant Behaviour in a Progressive and a Traditional Junior School
Authors: GOOCH STAN , PRINGLE M. L. KELLMER
Published: July 2011

The total intake in one year (N = 262) of two junior schools was intensively and extensively studied over a four‐year period by means of a large variety of psychological and educational tests. One school practised a markedly ‘traditional’ approach to education, the other an equally definite progressive approach.

The present paper considers the incidence of deviant behaviour (subdivided into withdrawn and aggressive) in the two schools, as reported by teachers when the children (N = 231) were aged 11 years; and the relationship of such reported behaviour to measured intelligence at 9 and 11; progress in school subjects over a three‐year period; perseverance on a simple cognitive task at 8 and 11; sociometric ratings at 8 and 11; and assessments of behaviour given four years earlier by other teachers.

The reported incidence of ‘maladjustment’ in the progressive school was significantly lower than in the traditional school. The number of deviant children reported by the progressive school was in fact too small to permit reliable comparisons with the traditional school. Detailed investigation was therefore made of the latter sample only.

The main findings in respect of the children studied were as follows. Measured I.Q. had no association with reported deviance. Results on the perseverance test were equally negative. In terms of academic progress, significant differences were shown between the deviant and normal groups, and between the sexes. All deviant groups were shown in the sociometric rating to be significantly less popular than the normal groups. Finally, teacher ratings of the children at 7 and 11 years showed appreciable agreement, reaching statistical significance.
Verbal Conditioning as a Measure of Interpersonal Influence in Psychiatric Interviews
Authors: GELDER M. G.
Published: July 2011

Verbal conditioning techniques make it possible to measure interpersonal influence in experimental clinical interviews. Taffel's verbal conditioning technique was first used to measure the influence of the same interviewer on thirty‐two neurotic patients, thirty‐two schizophrenic patients and thirty‐two general hospital patients (‘normals’). Each diagnostic group was divided into two subgroups: one received verbal reinforcement, the other acted as a non‐reinforced control group. The three groups were matched satisfactorily. There were no differences between the groups when reinforcement was omitted. Both neurotic and normal Ss conditioned in response to social reinforcement but schizophrenic patients did not. The effect in the neurotic group outlasted the reinforcement, but in normal Ss it extinguished rapidly. In both groups, conditioning was greater for responses containing ‘I’. Conditioning was unrelated to neuroticism or extraversion. Patients did not become aware of the purpose and procedure of the experiment.

In the second enquiry twenty neurotic patients were divided at random into two well‐matched groups whose treatment differed in only one respect: half took part in a prior interview in which the interviewer attempted to form a ‘relationship’; the other half did not have this interview. The former group responded more in a subsequent conditioning experiment. However, this difference between groups was no longer present on the next day. The results could not be accounted for by the Ss' awareness of the purpose of the experiment and their conscious desire to please the interviewer. Provided conditions were very carefully standardized, results are reproducible.

The results are discussed in relation to the problems of measuring interpersonal influence in psychotherapy and the factors which determine the influence of doctor on patient. It is concluded that verbal conditioning techniques provide a sensitive way of measuring differences in susceptibility to interpersonal influence, but that verbal conditioning effects probably play only a minor part in changes observed in psychotherapy.
The Hysteroid Obsessoid Questionnaire: A New Validation
Authors: HOPE K. , CAINE T. M.
Published: July 2011

Total score on the Hysteroid Obsessoid Questionnaire (HOQ) is validated against an improved criterion. A measure of profile similarity is employed to determine whether the reliability of ratings is adequate for the validation of individual subtests of the HOQ.
Porteus Maze Differences Between Psychopathic and Non‐psychopathic Criminals
Authors: SCHALLING DAISY , ROSÉN ANNE‐SOFIE
Published: July 2011

Rule‐breaking, careless drawing and some other behaviours observed in the Porteus Maze test have been shown to differentiate between delinquent and non‐delinquent groups. In this study it was assumed that the frequencies of errors would be related to a classification along the dimension of psychopathy as defined by Cleckley (1955). Criminals were rated by psychiatrists for degrees of psychopathy. As expected, Ss with high ratings in psychopathy committed significantly more errors. The relationships between the error scores (Q‐scores) and some other variables are reported. Some modifications in the scoring are suggested.
The Effects of ‘Understanding’ from the Audience on Language Behaviour
Authors: LOEWENTHAL KATE
Published: July 2011

An experiment showed that subjects' descriptions of stimuli vary according to the amount of ‘understanding’ shown by the receiver of the descriptions. Messages become briefer and contain a smaller proportion of function words with increased understanding, and these tendencies are most extreme when the subject is addressing himself. An unsuccessful attempt was made to show that vocabulary becomes more ‘idiosyncratic’ with increased understanding from the audience. The experiment illustrates some of the ways in which the ‘closeness' of the audience can affect language behaviour.
Choice Reaction Time of Chronic and Acute Psychiatric Patients under Primary or Secondary Aversive Stimulation
Authors: KARRAS ATHAN
Published: July 2011

Three problems were studied using a two‐choice visual jump reaction time (RT) task: (a) chronic v. acute psychiatric Ss, (b) RT reduction and its extinction as a function of aversive noise or social censure, (c) whether noise onset or offset causes RT reduction.

For the main study each sex within each diagnosis had five independent treatments after a common practice session, four of which were analysed factorially: (a) Immediate Escape from noise (IE), (b) Delayed Escape (DE), (c) Social Motivation (SM), or (d) Social Control (SC). Each treatment had 65 per cent noise or censure trials and was followed by extinction trials like the practice session. It was found that (a) chronics were always slower than acutes, but improved as much, (b) noise reduced RT as much as social censure, (c) reduction depended on sound offset, (d) SM acutes extinguished more slowly than the other groups, and SM acute males more slowly than SM acute females, (e) SM chronics extinguished as rapidly as IE chronics. Extra control groups confirmed all but one of the findings, namely, that SM acute males extinguished more slowly than females.
Neuroticism, Distortion and Objective Manifestations of Anxiety in Males with Malignant Disease
Authors: HUGGAN R. E.
Published: July 2011

Data, in the form of responses of male cancer patients and controls to the Psychosomatic Research Battery, are presented. The emergent picture of the male cancer patient is of a personality type characterized by high Distortion scores, low Neuroticism and low Anxiety, where the measures of Anxiety used are susceptible to distortion. Where the Anxiety measures seem free from distorting influence the cancer patients are more anxious than the controls. Intercorrelations between devices measuring Distortion, Questionnaire Neuroticism and Anxiety and the Objective Anxiety Factor (U.I. 24) are also reported.
The Measurement of Psychoticism: a Study of Factor Stability and Reliability
Authors: EYSENCK S. B. G. , EYSENCK H. J.
Published: July 2011

An investigation is reported into the measurement of the personality dimension P (psychoticism), which has emerged from factorial and other empirical studies as a third dimension additional to E (extraversion) and N (neuroticism.) Large groups of normal men and women, and of male and female students, were administered an inventory containing 106 potential P, E and N items, and the results analysed in detail. It emerges that P, E and N factors are found, as predicted, in the factor analysis of the data; that reliable scales can be constructed from the available items for P; and that the factors found are relatively invariant from one sex to the other, and from one sample to others. It appears that N and P are not entirely independent, but correlate to a moderate extent. It is suggested that P might be a personality variable of interest in connexion with many experimental investigations; that it might determine differential performance, either alone or in conjunction with E and/or N; and that experimental studies of P in normal subjects might throw much needed light on the nature and meaning of psychoticism as a personality variable.
Anxiety, Speech Disturbances and Speech Rate
Authors: COOK MARK
Published: July 2011

A distinction is drawn between two types of anxiety that might affect speech. Previous work on speech disturbance and speech rate is reviewed in the light of this distinction. An experiment is carried out in which both types of anxiety are varied. A significant effect of one type of anxiety on certain types of speech disturbance is found. A significant interaction between both types of anxiety and speech rate is found. On the basis of these results, conclusions are drawn about the usefulness of speech disturbances as an indicator of anxiety.
Differential Conforming as a Developmental Process
Authors: SALMON PHILLIDA
Published: July 2011

The study was designed to assess the relation between maternal attitudes and children's conformity behaviour towards peers and adults. Tests of conformity, values and sociometric status were administered to 60 primary‐school boys. Their mothers filled in an attitude questionnaire yielding measures of acceptance‐rejection and control‐neglect. Results showed the predicted association between maternal rejection and a failure to conform predominantly to either peers or adults, together with a non‐acceptance of either peer or adult values. Differential conforming to peers and adults, and differential acceptance of peer and adult values were found, against prediction, to be unrelated to maternal control‐neglect. Both differential conformity and differential value acceptance, however, were associated with previous sociometric status. It is argued from these results that conformity behaviour can be meaningfully regarded in differential and in developmental terms.
The Efficiency of the Memory‐For‐Designs Test
Authors: TURLAND D. N. , STEINHARD MARGARET
Published: July 2011

The efficiency of the MFD in clinical diagnostic practice cannot be determined from studies which follow the design of the original standardization study. The present study investigates the test's efficiency by examining its performance in retrospect, using a complete sample of patients in a British psychiatric hospital who had been referred for a psychologist's opinion regarding brain damage. The MFD was found to produce fewer correct classifications, more misclassifications and more unclassified cases than the standardization data would have indicated. The sample base‐rates of the criterion variables were estimated and the effect of incorporating this information on the test's efficiency is discussed. Difference scores were found to be uncorrelated with age, but there was a significant correlation between MFD performance and an estimate of intelligence.
The MPI and the EPI: a Comparative Study on Depressive Patients
Authors: BAILEY JOHN E. , METCALFE MARYSE
Published: July 2011

The MPI and the EPI have been given together to 107 depressive patients at the time of their admission to hospital and again on discharge. These two questionnaires measure Neuroticism and Extraversion in a very similar way, but the similarity appears greater for Neuroticism than for Extraversion. On the EPI the mean Lie score for this group of patients is just over 4; the Lie score is inversely related to the N score, but bears no relation to the E score. The N and the E scales of the EPI are practically independent of each other.
Development of Verbal Abilities in Retarded and Normal Children as Measured by Stroop Test
Authors: DAS J. P.
Published: July 2011

The Stroop Test was administered to 102 low‐grade retardates and 208 normal school children in age‐groups of 10 to 15 years in order to bring out developmental differences. The retardates could name colours faster than reading words, and showed relatively less interference than normals in naming the colours of words. In these they functioned like the normal children at Grade 1 level. The reading speed and interference measures appeared to reflect stable individual differences which might be related to those in learning.
Further Data on Multiple‐choice versus Open‐ended Estimates of Vocabulary
Authors: FARLEY FRANK H.
Published: July 2011

A significantly greater vocabulary estimate with the multiple‐choice Synonyms test of the Mill Hill Vocabulary Scale than with the open‐ended Definitions test from that scale was obtained on four separate samples. The amount of common variance between the tests ranged from 52 to 71 per cent in the samples employed. The results were in line with traditional research on recognition v. recall memory. Caution is urged where the separate interpretation of the Synonyms and Definitions measures are concerned.
The Reliability of the Brook Reaction Test
Authors: KLINE PAUL
Published: July 2011

Two previous studies (Heim & Watts, 1966; Heim et al., 1967) have shown the Brook Reaction test to be a most promising instrument for the measurement of interests and certain aspects of temperament. However, because it is a form of word‐association test and is thus open‐ended, information concerning its reliability is essential, especially if it is to be used in practice, e.g. guidance or counselling, with individuals. There is one further point: this test is long (80 items) and is time‐consuming to score, even for experienced markers. It is possible that if the internal consistency were high, the test could be shortened without any loss of validity. It was therefore decided to examine the split‐half reliability of all the scales in the Brook test—both those concerned with interests and those with temperament.
The Effects of General Response Style on Measurement of Own Attitude and the Interpretation of Attitude‐Relevant Messages
Authors: WYER ROBERT S.
Published: July 2011

A study was performed to determine whether characteristics of recording responses on rating scales generalize across stimulus domains and if this could account for the apparent tendency to displace interpretations of attitude‐relevant communications either toward or away from one's own attitude. Two characteristics were investigated: the standard deviation of responses and their index of dispersion (an indication of the degree to which response categories are used with equal frequency). These characteristics were measured in three domains: judgements of general personality trait adjectives, own attitude toward Negroes, and the estimated favourableness of other persons' attitudes toward Negroes as inferred from statements attributed to them. Subjects whose ratings of trait adjectives had a low index of dispersion and a high standard deviation appeared to have more favourable attitudes toward Negroes, and also tended to interpret pro‐Negro and anti‐Negro statements as relatively more extreme. Further analyses supported the contention that the effects of own attitude on the interpretation of attitude relevant messages (cf. Manis, 1961) may be attributable to the generalization of response style characteristics across content domains and do not necessarily result from an attempt to reduce pressure to change one's own view by distorting the meaning of messages discrepant from this view.
Attribution of Responsibility as a Basis for Sanctioning Behaviour
Authors: SHAW MARVIN E. , REITAN HAROLD T.
Published: July 2011

The discrepancy between attribution of responsibility (AR) and assignment of sanctions (AS) was examined in two experiments. In the first experiment, four occupational groups (lawyers, policemen, military personnel, and ministers) were sampled. Mean differences between AR and AS (AR minus AS) were: lawyers, 0.54; policemen, 0.78; military personnel, 0.93; and ministers, 1.04 (P < 0.10). In no case was AS greater than AR. For all groups, sanctioning was influenced relatively more by the intensity of the outcome than was AR. Greater AR‐AS discrepancies occurred with lower‐ than with higher‐outcome intensities. A second study comparing AR and AS in a sample of college students supported these findings. These results were interpreted as showing that AR provides the basis for AS, but the extent to which the actor will be sanctioned is also influenced by other factors.
Trait Assessment Intercorrelation and Occupational Stereotypy
Authors: VENESS THELMA
Published: July 2011

Wishner (1960) refutes Asch's explanation of the findings of his warm‐cold experiments, in terms of the centrality and organizing power of the variable concept, by showing that the differential performance of subjects on a checklist, following exposure to one of the variable terms, is predictable from the independently ascertained correlations between the variable terms and the checklist terms. He obtained his independent intercorrelations by asking subjects to rate ‘instructors’ on series of scales, including warm‐cold, and correlating all pairs of ratings. This procedure is repeated but using four different occupational designations. As expected, many of the intercorrelations vary according to the occupation designated, and the occupation of ‘lecturer’ cannot be regarded as yielding typical intercorrelations (occupation was not specified in Asch's experiments). As a contribution to the conception of ‘implicit personality theory’, it is suggested that the organizing power of a trait can be identified in part by its power to modify the intercorrelations of other traits.
A Clinical Validation of the Stott Test of Motor Impairment
Authors: WHITING H. T. A. , CLARKE T. A. , MORRIS P. R.
Published: July 2011

A validation of the Stott (1966) test of motor impairment was attempted in both a clinical and a child guidance centre setting. Attention is drawn to similarities and discrepancies which exist between the medical diagnoses, the results of the test and subjective assessments of clumsiness.
Guilt, Self‐ideal Discrepancy, the Approval Motive and Recollections of Socialization: Some Interrelationships
Authors: BETHLEHEM DOUGLAS W.
Published: July 2011

A theory of the development of guilt in terms of learning theory is outlined. Several hypotheses deriving from it, together with some others, were tested by means of a questionnaire. No support was found for the critical hypotheses relating the development of guilt to punishment by the parent highest in affection, and to the mode of punishment employed. Other hypotheses relating self‐ideal discrepancy, approval need and guilt were verified.
Figure‐Ground Reversals in Authoritarians, Equalitarians, Yeasayers and Naysayers
Authors: BECKER GILBERT
Published: July 2011

To what extent does agreement response set invalidate conclusions based on correlations between F scores and a given criterion? was the question that generated the present research. Four groups of undergraduates were formed, representing cross‐classifications of high and low scorers (upper and lower thirds) on an original and a reversed F scale, and were tested for perspective‐reversal ability (Rubin figure) both before (maximal ambiguity) and after (non‐maximal ambiguity) becoming familiar with the stimulus. While all male group differences appeared random, female group differences suggested that high F scorers divested of yeasayers, and low F scorers divested of naysayers, differentially ‘tolerate ambiguity’ as predicted from authoritarian personality theory, and that the inclusion of yeasayers and naysayers (through non‐balanced scales) may decrease or increase group differences, depending on whether ambiguity is maximal or non‐maximal, respectively, but do not vitiate them.
Effect of Cultural Value of Time upon Recall
Authors: DEREGOWSKI JAN B.
Published: July 2011

Two groups of subjects were asked to recall a set of numbers which were presented to them in the context of a short story. Some of the numbers pertained to temporal phenomena, whilst others related to other non‐temporal events in the story. It was found that while there was a non‐significant difference between rural women and urban schoolboys in recall of numbers (other than price) not relating to temporal phenomena, a significant difference did occur in the case of the temporal phenomena, the rural women being inferior. It is argued that this experiment shows more clearly than time estimate experiments the effect of differing cultural values of time.
The Validity of the Brook Reaction Test
Authors: KLINE PAUL
Published: July 2011

The construct validity of the Brook Reaction Test was examined in a factor‐analysis of its interest and temperament scores together with scores from the 16 PF test and Ai3, a measure of the anal character. The factors emerging from the Varimax rotation confirmed the validity of the Brook interest scales but the temperament measures were not unequivocally supported.
Discriminating Violence Emanating from Over‐controlled versus Under‐controlled Aggressivity
Authors: FISHER GARY
Published: July 2011

An attempt to validate the O‐H (Over‐controlled Hostility) scale in distinguishing over‐controlled aggression from under‐controlled aggression, utilizing felons who were (a) chronically violent (UC‐V), (b) typically non‐violent but who acted out violently on one occasion (OC‐V), and (c) non‐violent (N‐V), was unsuccessful. The OC‐V tend to be white, whereas the UC‐V tend to be Negro, and Negroes consistently scored higher than whites. It is suggested that the O‐H scale, besides measuring control, is strongly influenced by a race‐related factor, possibly social alienation, and that such a variable must be taken into account in predicting over‐controlled aggression.
Is there a General Factor in Social Attitudes? Evidence from a Factor Analysis of the Conservatism Scale
Authors: WILSON GLENN D.
Published: July 2011

A principal components analysis of the Wilson‐Patterson Conservatism Scale using a sample of 200 English males, heterogeneous by occupation, is described. Results confirm the importance of a general factor called conservatism running through the test, and to the extent that the test is a representative sample of the entire field of social attitudes it can be asserted that it measures a general factor underlying that universe. It is suggested that the new item format of the C‐Scale may account for the fact that Eysenck's second factor (‘toughmindedness’) did not emerge clearly. The high split‐half reliability found in New Zealand was sustained with the British sample (0.93), and the slight correlation with age was also confirmed (r = 0.23).
The Rating of Psychotherapeutic Empathy: A Preliminary Study
Authors: SHAPIRO D. A.
Published: July 2011

Nine transcripts of recorded psychotherapy, representative of the nine stages of the Accurate Empathy scale, were ranked by 20 naive subjects for the degree of understanding shown by the therapist. A fair degree of concordance with the criterion scale was obtained.
MPI and MMPI Scores, Correlations and Analysis for a Military Aircrew Population
Authors: GOORNEY A. B.
Published: July 2011

This paper records MPI and MMPI mean scores, intercorrelation matrix and principal component analysis of a military aircrew cohort. Significant differences are shown between the scores of this highly selected group and the general population normative data. The principal components isolated in the MMPI, the intercorrelations between the individual scales of the MMPI and between the two inventories are, however, in accord with the findings of others on non‐flying populations.
Character Structure and Friendship Relations
Authors: KIPNIS DAVID , GOODSTADT BARRY
Published: July 2011

Friendship relations in terms of interpersonal influence, self‐disclosure and extent of social activities were studied among impulsive and non‐impulsive university students. The procedure involved having impulsive and non‐impulsive subjects bring a friend into the laboratory. Questionnaire and autokinetic studies of mutual influence revealed that impulsive subjects were less influenced by friends' judgements and dominated their good friends more than non‐impulsive subjects. Impulsive subjects also socialized more with their good friends and disclosed more intimate information about themselves than non‐impulsive subjects. In a second study it was found that the judgements of a male stranger had no influence upon impulsive subjects judgements, while a female stranger did influence their judgements. Both male and female strangers influenced the judgements of non‐impulsive subjects. Other findings were that friends resembled subjects in terms of impulsivity test scores. The findings are discussed in terms of the functional value of friendship for persons varying in impulsivity.
Sex Differences in the Perception of Friendly and Unfriendly Interactions
Authors: KING M. G.
Published: July 2011

A systematic study of judgements of social interactions along a friendly‐unfriendly dimension revealed marked cross‐sex differences. With same‐sex judgements, males judging male interactions and females judging females, no difference was found. In their judgements of female interactions, however, male judgements were linearly related to female judgements, but the latter scale had a far wider range. In their judgement of male interactions, females had a comparatively restricted range for friendly interactions, but differentiated as well as males in the very unfriendly range. Implications of these findings for systematic observation techniques are outlined and some implications of sex differences in social perception discussed.
The Communication of Inferior and Superior Attitudes by Verbal and Non‐verbal Signals*
Authors: ARGYLE MICHAEL , SALTER VERONICA , NICHOLSON HILARY , WILLIAMS MARYLIN , BURGESS PHILIP
Published: July 2011

Ratings were made by 120 subjects of 18 video‐tapes in which verbal and non‐verbal cues for Inferior, Equal and Superior were varied and combined in a 3 times 3 design. The typed messages (verbal alone) were rated by further subjects, as were video‐tapes of a performer reading numbers (non‐verbal alone); the two sets of cues alone had identical effects on ratings. In combination, both kinds of cue had a reduced effect, but it was found that non‐verbal cues now had 4.3 times the effect of verbal cues on shifts of ratings, and accounted for 10.3 times as most variance; verbal cues were only able to act as multipliers of consistent nonverbal cues. There was little evidence of double‐bind effects. Analysis of individual differences showed that females were relatively more responsive to non‐verbal compared with verbal cues, and that more neurotic subjects found the combination of Superior (non‐verbal) with Inferior (verbal) unpleasant, and responded more to verbal cues for Inferior‐Superior.
The Relationship Between Children's Preferences for and Knowledge about Other Nations
Authors: JOHNSON N. B. , MIDDLETON MARGARET R. , TAJFEL HENRI
Published: July 2011

A test of factual knowledge of about 10 nations was developed and applied to 96 Oxford children aged from 7 to 11, whose preferences for these nations had already been determined. The relationship between preference for and knowledge about other nations was found to be curvilinear in form and did not seem to be accountable for in terms of a similar relationship in environmentally available cues. Working‐class children displayed considerably less knowledge than middle‐class children. The causal implications of the findings are discussed.
A New Type of Personal Questionnaire Technique*
Authors: PHILLIPS J. P. N.
Published: July 2011

Shapiro has developed a method of constructing a questionnaire for an individual psychiatric patient, which gives a relatively coarse scaling of fluctuations in a fairly large number of his own symptoms, expressed in his own words, and calibrated by himself. It has been pointed out that this is only one member of a general class of such techniques: the present paper describes another, suitable for obtaining relatively precise (interval) scalings of a fairly small number of symptoms.

For each symptom (i) statements are derived, in consultation with the patient, representing graded levels of its possible intensity and (ii) optionally, a preliminary scaling of this set of statements may be obtained by the patient's making paired comparison judgements of the differences between these levels. Then (iii) on each occasion when a scaling of the current level of the symptom is required, the patient makes paired comparison judgements of the difference between it and each of the statements in turn (an estimate of the level on each such occasion being given by the average of these judgements). After all the data have been collected the significance of changes in the level of the symptom is assessed by means of a final analysis of variance, which also checks the preliminary scaling of statements and tests for systematic inconsistencies in the patient's responses.

ALGOL 60 programs to check, analyse and graph the results are reported, and a clinical example presented, together with supplementary statistical analyses to answer further questions of clinical relevance which typically arise.
Some Data on the Persian Translation of the EPI
Authors: MEHRYAR A. H.
Published: July 2011

Preliminary data are reported regarding a Persian translation of the EPI (Form A). The test is found to have a satisfactory degree of reliability and validity in its new context. Iranian subjects, both normal and abnormal, are found to score significantly higher than their British counterparts on both N and L scales. The Extraversion scale is found to be virtually independent of the other two scales and, unlike them, is not affected by instructions to fake good or bad. The findings are discussed and interpreted in the light of other cross‐cultural findings with the Inventory.
Scales for a British Personality Differential
Authors: WARR PETER B. , HAYCOCK VALERIE
Published: July 2011

A classification of judgement situations is outlined which highlights the need for different investigations to examine different sets of response dimensions. Work is needed in the most general case to develop appropriate scales which can be used in investigations into judgements of people. A study is described which employed orthodox procedures to elicit adjectival qualifiers from a sample of British subjects, and to produce a usable set of personality differential scales. The factor structure of these scales is examined in two separate analyses.

In both cases a six‐factor solution appears most appropriate, such that two variants of Evaluation, Potency and Activity are present. The relevance of this finding for cross‐cultural studies of personal judgement is discussed: perhaps the same major components (Evaluation, Potency and Activity) will emerge in all cultures, whilst the secondary variants (as, for example, a smaller evaluative factor) will be dependent upon cultural differences.
A Further Type of Personal Questionnaire Technique*
Authors: PHILLIPS J. P. N.
Published: July 2011

Shapiro has described a method of constructing a questionnaire for an individual psychiatric patient to scale changes in the severity of his symptoms. This is only one of a general class of such techniques: a second type has been dessribed elsewhere; the present paper describes a third.

For each symptom (i) statements are devised representing graded levels of its severity, and (ii) an ordinal scaling of the statements is obtained from the patient, (iii) On each occasion when a scaling of the current level of the symptom is required, the questionnaire is administered by presenting each of the statements to the patient in turn, and asking him to say whether he feels better or worse than indicated by it. (iv) After every administration the responses, which may be either consistent or inconsistent, are scored. Consistent sets of responses constitute an ordinal scaling of the current severity of the symptom: inconsistent ones (the possibility of which affords a check on reliability) are scored by a method which is the same as that of Slater for dealing with pair comparison preference judgements. Certain further procedures for dealing with inconsistent responding are described, and a scheme for computer scoring briefly reported.

The technique is illustrated by a case, and compared with Shapiro's original method.
The Effect of an Approval‐Seeking Induction on Eye‐Contact in Dyads
Authors: PELLEGRINI ROBERT J. , HICKS ROBERT A. , GORDON LANCE
Published: July 2011

In support of the hypothesis that interpersonal proximity may operate as an instrumental affiliative act, Rosenfeld (1965) found that subjects assigned an approval‐seeking role sat significantly closer to a confederate than did subjects assigned an approval‐avoiding role. The present study was designed to determine whether, with physical proximity held constant, the effects of such role inductions might be manifested in another response mode—eye‐contact (EC) behaviour. This possibility is suggested by Argyle & Dean's (1965) Affiliative Conflict Theory which states that when one means of regulating intimacy in a social encounter (e.g. adjustment of physical proximity) is not available, the affiliative intentions of interactants should be expressed in other behaviours (e.g. eye‐contact). Thus the specific purpose of this study was to test the proposition that with physical proximity held constant, an assigned approval‐seeking role will enhance EC while the opposite effects will follow from an assigned approval‐avoiding role.
The Interpretation of Pauses by the Listener*
Authors: COOK MARK , LALIJEE MANSUR
Published: July 2011

It has been suggested (Maclay & Osgood, 1959) that filled pauses (FPs) are signals by the speaker that he has not finished, even though he has paused; previous work (Lalljee & Cook, 1969) has not confirmed this. It was decided to test the hypothesis again, by determining whether FPs were interpreted by listeners as meaning that the speaker had not finished. The listeners were asked to decide when the speaker had finished his utterance, and silent and filled pauses were inserted to see whether this affected their decision. According to the hypothesis, they should think the speaker has finished if a silent pause occurs in the utterance, and should not think he has finished if an filled pause occurs.
The Factorial Structure of Juvenile Delinquency: A Study of Self‐Reported Acts
Authors: GIBSON H. B.
Published: July 2011

An individually administered test of self‐reported delinquency was given to 402 boys aged 14–15 years, following pilot work published earlier. The results were analysed factorially and related to a measure of social handicap on which the boys has been rated some years previously, and to the boys' records of criminal conviction. A large general factor of delinquency was found and several specific factors. The general factor was related to social handicap and criminal conviction, but the specific factors showed differences in their relations to these two social variables. Second‐order factors were also extracted and the first two generated a hypothesis concerning the interaction of handicap and conviction which was tested empirically on the data.