bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Effect of Growth on Drag in Young Swimmers
Authors: Toussaint Huub M. , de Looze Michiel , Van Rossem Bas , Leijdekkers Marijke , Dignum Hans
Published: August 2016

In this study the relationship between morphological data and active drag, as measured on the MAD system (system to measure active drag), and the effect of a 2.5-year period of growth was examined in a group of children (mean age at the start of the study, 12.9 years). During this period the children showed a mean increase in height from 1.52 to 1.69 m, and in weight from 40.0 to 54.7 kg. Also the body cross-sectional area (Ap), previously reported to relate strongly to drag in a group of adult swimmers, showed an increase in size of 16%. However, the drag did not change; the mean drag force for all subjects swimming at 1.25 m•s−1 was 30.1 N (±2.37) in 1985 and 30.8 N (±4.50) in 1988. The increase in height resulted in a decrease in the Froude Number (Fr) and hence in a decrease in wave-making resistance. Furthermore, form indices derived from ship-building technology demonstrated changes that indicated a more streamlined body form. Therefore it was concluded that during growth a complex process takes place in which different factors determining drag, such as height, body shape (Cd), and Ap, change in directions, having opposite effects on drag.
Techniques Used by Elite Women Gymnasts Performing the Handspring Vault at the 1987 Pan American Games
Authors: Takei Yoshiaki
Published: August 2016

The purposes of this study were (a) to determine the mechanical factors associated with successful performance of women’s handspring vault and (b) to contrast the findings to those of men to gain insight for improvement of performance. The subjects were 24 female gymnasts in the 1987 Pan American Games. Significant correlations indicated that the following were important determinants for successful results: (a) large horizontal velocity (VH) and distance of hurdle; (b) large vertical velocity (Vv) at touchdown (TD) on board, a large change of Vv on board, and a short time of board contact; (c) large VH and Vv at takeoff (TO) from board; (d) short time of horse contact; (e) large VH and Vv at TO from horse; (f) high body CG at TO from horse; and (g) great distance and height and a long time of postflight. Comparisons revealed that women had significantly smaller VH and Vv at TD on horse and departed from it with significantly smaller VH and Vv than men. This resulted in significantly less height and distance as well as a shorter time of postflight for women even after adjusting for horse height and subject physique.
The Gait Patterns of Olympic Dressage Horses
Authors: Deuel Nancy R. , Park Jong-Jin
Published: August 2016

Limb contact variables of the gaits of dressage horses were determined for competitors at the 1988 Seoul Summer Olympic Games in the team and individual dressage competitions. Two 16-mm motion picture cameras filming at 100 fps were aimed perpendicular to the plane of equestrian motion along the HXF and MXK diagonals of the standard dressage arena. Eighteen competitors in team dressage were filmed during the Grand Prix test while executing the extended walk, extended trot, and left lead extended canter. Fifteen horses selected as finalists for individual dressage medals were filmed during the Grand Prix Special test executing the extended trot, one-stride canter lead changes, two-stride canter lead changes, and the left lead extended canter. Velocities of the extended walk, extended trot, and extended canter were positively related to stride length. Velocities of the Grand Prix extended walk and Grand Prix Special extended trot were positively related to stride frequency. Limb contact patterns of the extended walk stride appeared to have relatively little importance in scoring. Certain characteristics of the extended trot and extended canter were strongly related to scores attained in Grand Prix Special dressage tests, with highest scores achieved by horses with the longest, fastest strides. For canter strides involving lead changes, no limb contact variables were detected that were significantly related to scores. This study provided the first objective documentation of the limb contact patterns of the walk, trot, and canter of world-class dressage horses.
Bone Mass, External Loads, and Stress Fracture in Female Runners
Authors: Grimston Susan K. , Engsberg Jack R. , Kloiber Reinhard , Hanley David A.
Published: August 2016

Increased incidence of stress fracture has been reported for amenorrheic runners, while some studies have reported decreased spinal bone mass in amenorrheic runners. Based on results from these studies, one tends to associate decreased spinal bone mass with an increased risk of stress fracture. The present study compared regional bone mass and external loads during running between six female runners reporting a history of stress fracture (seven tibial and three femoral neck) and eight female runners with no history of stress fracture. Dual photon absorptiometry measures indicated significantly greater spinal (L2-L4) and femoral neck bone mineral density in stress fracture subjects (p<0.05) but no differences between groups for tibial bone density. Normalized forces recorded from Kistler force plates indicated significantly greater vertical propulsive, maximal medial, lateral, and posterior forces for stress fracture subjects during running (p<0.05).
Relationships between Ground Reaction Force and Tibial Bone Acceleration Parameters
Authors: Hennig Ewald M. , Lafortune Mario A.
Published: August 2016

Using data from six male subjects, this study compared ground reaction force and tibial acceleration parameters for running. A bone-mounted triaxial accelerometer and a force platform were employed for data collection. Low peak values were found for the axial acceleration, and a time shift toward the occurrence of the first peak in the vertical force data was present. The time to peak axial acceleration differed significantly from the time to the first force peak, and the peak values of force and acceleration demonstrated only a moderate correlation. However, a high negative correlation was found for the comparison of the peak axial acceleration with the time to peak vertical force. Employing a multiple regression analysis, the peak tibial acceleration could be well estimated using vertical force loading rate and peak horizontal ground reaction force as predictors.
Friction Measurement in Tennis on the Field and in the Laboratory
Authors: Van Gheluwe Bart , Deporte Eric
Published: August 2016

Tennis movements are characterized essentially by lateral displacements, thus external load on the lower extremities is created predominantly by friction generated between shoes and playing surfaces. This study analyzed the behavior of frictional forces and torques produced during an open stance forehand using various playing surfaces and different sport shoes. The frictional data were obtained from 12 advanced players returning a tennis ball fired from a ball machine and hitting a large Kistler force plate located at the base line of the tennis court. Using statistical ANOVA techniques, friction was found to be more sensitive to the choice of playing surface than to the choice of tennis shoe. “Fluid” type surfaces displayed the lowest frictional values in most cases. Additionally, comparison of the frictional data collected during the forehand with the measurements from a standardized laboratory test demonstrated that extrapolation of friction results from laboratory to real field conditions may lead to erroneous conclusions.
The Unstable Ankle: A Combined EMG and Biomechanical Modeling Study
Authors: Karlsson Jon , Peterson Lars , Andreasson Gunnar , Högfors Christian
Published: August 2016

A device to simulate ankle motion associated with inversion ankle injury was constructed. This device consists of a trap door that can be tilted 30° from the horizontal plane. Surface EMG electrodes were placed over the peroneus brevis and peroneus longus muscles. The time measured from the tilting of the plate to the first muscular response on the EMG was defined as the reflex time. Twenty individuals with unilateral ankle joint instability were tested. The mechanical ankle joint stability was measured using standardized radiographic measurements, taking into account anterior talar translation and talar tilt. The mean anterior talar translation was 5.9 mm and the mean talar tilt was 3.2° in the stable ankles, compared to 12.7 mm and 10.5° for the unstable ankles. The mean reflex time was 68.8 ms (peroneus longus) and 69.2 ms (peroneus brevis) in the stable ankles as compared to 84.5 ms (peroneus longus) and 81.6 ms (peroneus brevis) in the unstable ankles. Important factors influencing functional instability are discussed.
A New Electromechanical Ski Binding with Release Sensitivity to Torsion and Bending Moments Transmitted by the Leg
Authors: Neptune Rick , Hull Maury L.
Published: August 2016

This paper describes the design of a new electromechanical ski binding whereby release in both twist and forward bending is controlled electronically and the release level in twist is modulated electronically based on the neural stimulation of muscles in the quadriceps group. To provide signals for controlling release in the two modes, the binding incorporates two dynamometers. Each dynamometer measures loads that have been shown to correlate strongly (r2>0.90) to torsional and bending moments at the lower leg injury sites. Although the binding consists of both a toepiece and heelpiece, the toepiece does not permit release of the boot from the ski in the twist mode but rather serves as one of the dynamometers. Consequently the heelpiece was designed to provide the release function in both modes. Release is realized by a low-force solenoid that actuates a multilink trigger mechanism. To prove feasibility, a prototype was constructed and evaluated.
The (Re)Shaping of the Israeli Sport Media: The Case of Talk-Back
Authors: Galily Yair
Published: August 2016

From its explosive development in the last decade of the 20th century, the World Wide Web has become an ideal medium for dedicated sports fanatics and a useful resource for casual fans, as well. Its accessibility, interactivity, speed, and multimedia content have triggered a fundamental change in the delivery of mediated sports, a change for which no one can yet predict the outcome (Real, 2006). This commentary sheds light on a process in which the talk-back mechanism, which enables readers to comment on Web-published articles, is (re)shaping the sport realm in Israeli media. The study on which this commentary is based involved the comparative analysis of over 3,000 talk-backs from the sports sections of 3 daily Web news sites (Ynet, nrg, and Walla!). The argument is made that talkbacks serve not only as an extension of the journalistic sphere but also as a new source of information and debate.
Demographics and Usage Profiles of Users of College Sport Message Boards
Authors: Clavio Galen
Published: August 2016

Internet-based sport communication mediums represent a crucial area of scholarly inquiry for the field. The continuing growth in popularity of blogs, message boards, and other Internet-specific types of sport communication presents sport communication scholars with a plethora of avenues for research. This commentary examines one such avenue, through a survey administered to users on 14 college sport message boards. Survey results indicated that message-board users were primarily male (87.8%) and White (90.8%) and possessed at least an undergraduate degree (76.0%). In addition, 42.2% of users reported a household income of $100,000 or more per year. The analysis of the resulting demographic and usage data highlights some of the key aspects of this sample of users, including information relating to race, gender, income, education level, and salience of message-board use by both subscribers and nonsubscribers. These and other factors are presented as potential areas of future scholarly inquiry for sport communication researchers.
Public Perceptions of Steroid Use in Sport: Contextualizing Communication Efforts
Authors: Becker Amy B. , Scheufele Dietram A.
Published: August 2016

Recently, the controversy surrounding the use of steroids and performance-enhancing drugs by Olympic and professional athletes has captured the media spotlight, in part as a response to the very public and pervasive steroids scandal plaguing Major League Baseball (MLB). This article examines trends in Americans’ attitudes toward the use of steroids and performance-enhancing drugs in Olympic and professional sport as a way to better understand the messaging challenges that policy makers, players, managers, coaches, and publicists face when trying to influence the media agenda. As the poll data presented suggest, Americans feel that the incidence of performanceenhancing- drug use in professional sport is significant, especially in MLB. Furthermore, Americans suggest that the leadership of various professional sports is not doing enough to combat the use of steroids and performance-enhancing drugs by top competitors.
Basketball and Cultural Representations in the Media: An Analysis of the French Sport Magazine Maxi Basket
Authors: Vivier Christian , Monier Brice , Rose Lois
Published: August 2016

At the end of the 1980s, representations of French basketball underwent radical changes. Basketball games lost their small-town atmosphere and became theater: grandiose shows, dramatized by the media, which became a part of French public life. The aim of this study was to evaluate the influence of American “basketball culture” on the representations of young French readers by analyzing the front covers of Maxi Basket, the magazine that has dominated the basketball press since it first appeared on newsstands in September 1982. The magazine clearly illustrates the movement of the French game of basketball toward theatricalization, commercialization, television coverage, and globalization, similar to the American game. The arrival of American basketball in France and its subsequent integration, a strong marker of the “Americamania” of the ’80s, was a symptom of the dialectical link that connected the manufacture of material goods with the production of cultural goods.
A Case-Study Analysis of NCAA Division I Women’s Basketball Tournament Broadcasts: Educational or Commercial Activity?
Authors: Southall Richard M. , Nagel Mark S.
Published: August 2016

Over the past few years the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I women’s basketball tournament has drawn larger crowds, generated increased television ratings, and attracted higher levels of advertising spending. Division I women’s basketball is now viewed as the women’s “revenue” sport. In light of the limited analysis of the organizational conditions that frame college-sport broadcast production, this case study examines the impact of influential actors on the representation process of big-time college-basketball telecasts. Using a mixed-method approach, this article investigates production conditions and processes involved in producing women’s basketball tournament broadcasts, examines the extent to which these broadcasts are consistent with the NCAA’s educational mission, and considers the dominant institutional logic that underpins their reproduction. In so doing, this case study provides a critical examination of women’s basketball tournament broadcasts and how such broadcasts constitute, and are constituted by, choices in television production structures and practices.
The Power of the Local in Sports Broadcasting: A Cross-Cultural Analysis of Rugby Commentary
Authors: Desmarais Fabrice , Bruce Toni
Published: August 2016

This article explores how local pressures intersect to produce differing broadcasts in 2 cultural contexts. This is achieved via a cross-cultural analysis of a decade of televised rugby union matches between France and New Zealand and interviews with leading commentators in both countries. The authors argue that although the overarching commercial imperative to capture audiences might be the same in both countries, and despite global tendencies toward homogenized presentation of sports events, there are local differences in expectations about which kinds of audiences should be captured, and these lead to different practices and emphases in the live broadcasts. The authors suggest that in each country, broadcasts are the result of a complex set of pressures that interact to produce broadcasts with “local” flavor and characteristics.
Framing of Sport Coverage Based on the Sex of Sports Writers: Female Journalists Counter the Traditional Gendering of Media Coverage
Authors: Kian Edward M. , Hardin Marie
Published: August 2016

This study examined effects of the sex of sports writers on the framing of athletes in print-media coverage of intercollegiate men’s and women’s basketball tournaments. The number of articles by female and male authors and the frames used were analyzed. Descriptors of players, coaches, and both tournaments in articles from CBS SportsLine, ESPN Internet, The New York Times, and USA Today were coded with the authors’ names initially hidden. Results showed that female journalists were more apt to cover women’s basketball, and men predominantly wrote about men’s basketball. The sex of writers also influenced the ways female and male athletes were presented. Male writers were more likely to reinforce gender stereotypes by praising the athleticism of male athletes. In contrast, female writers more often framed female athletes for their athletic prowess. The results suggest that female sports writers can make some difference in framing, but institutional structures minimize their impact.
Public Relations Evaluation in Sport: Views From the Field
Authors: Stoldt G. Clayton , Miller Lori K. , Vermillion Mark
Published: August 2016

The purposes of this study were to gain insights regarding how sport public relations practitioners in the United States define public relations goals, identify linkages between the public relations function and overall organizational goals, and evaluate public relations’ effectiveness. Using a modified approach to a method first employed by Hon (1997, 1998), the investigators queried 30 public relations professionals in diverse sport settings. Findings indicated that achieving some sort of outcome with an intended audience, although those outcomes varied, was the most common goal. Respondents also indicated that there were linkages between public relations and organizational goals, although the nature of those linkages was not always specified. The most common method of evaluating public relations was tracking media coverage.
The Media and Sports Corruption: An Outline of Sociological Understanding
Authors: Numerato Dino
Published: August 2016

This article focuses on the role of the media in the processes of diffusion, maintenance, and undermining of corruption in sports, particularly soccer. Drawing chiefly on various illustrative examples of several recent cases of corruption and the existing academic literature on the topic, the article demonstrates how the media function as both an enemy and a facilitator of corruption in sports. Both micro- and macrosocial analytical dimensions for potential future research on the relationship between the media and corruption are proposed and discussed.
Athlete-to-Athlete Verbal Aggression: A Case Study of Interpersonal Communication Among Elite Australian Footballers
Authors: Kerr John H. , Grange Pippa
Published: August 2016

This case study examined interpersonal communication in sport in the form of verbal aggression among elite athletes in the Australian Football League (AFL). It focused on the experience and motivation of athletes who use athlete-to-athlete verbal aggression and the responses of athletes who have been the targets of verbal aggression during games. In addition, the reasons athletes have for not engaging in verbal aggression were also examined. Purposive sampling procedures produced a select sample of elite male athletes known for their aggressive approach to playing Australian football. Qualitative methods and deductive analysis procedures, informed by J.H. Kerr’s categories of sport aggression, were used to interpret the interview data. Meaningful insights into verbal aggression in the AFL were obtained. Based on the underlying motivation, interview transcript descriptions of incidents were identified as examples of power, thrill, and anger verbal aggression.
Women’s Sports Coverage in Israel: Perception Versus Reality
Authors: Tamir Ilan , Galily Yair
Published: August 2016

With a focus on the question of public interest, the study investigated editing considerations of women’s sports coverage in written daily newspapers in Israel. To examine sports readers’ views regarding the coverage of women in sports sections, and to compare them with the views of sports editorial boards, a representative survey was conducted among male and female readers of sports columns and among male and female sports writers responsible for coverage. The research findings indicate a lack of connection between the various ends of the media process. Although sports editors of the 3 biggest dailies in Israel claim that there is little interest in women’s sports among sports column readers, the study found that public interest in women’s sports is far from insignificant. In fact, newspaper consumers who read the sports column would like to see more extensive coverage of women’s sports.
Framing Gender and Disability: A Cross-Cultural Analysis of Photographs From the 2008 Paralympic Games
Authors: Buysse Jo Ann M. , Borcherding Bria
Published: August 2016

DePauw’s (1997) theoretical construct of sport and how we view the body focuses on three socially constructed ideals of physicality, masculinity, and sexuality. Those who do not fit into these ideals are marginalized when it comes to sport participation and media coverage. In this study the authors examined photographs from 12 print newspapers in five countries during the 2008 Paralympic Games in Beijing to determine how Paralympic athletes were treated. They examined the number of photographs and the content of each to determine whether athletes with disabilities are portrayed as tokens who are marginalized or treated as elite athletes. The findings support DePauw’s construct and point to gender and disability differences and hierarchy in print-media photographs.
Reading Carlos Tevez: Football, Geography, and Contested Identities in Manchester
Authors: Wise Nicholas , Harris John
Published: August 2016

Carlos Tevez is an Argentinean football player who plays for Manchester City in the English Premier League. Having previously played for City’s fierce local rivals, Manchester United, he has forged an interesting identity in the city. This study analyzes the various meanings allotted to him, with emphasis on his presence surrounding the construction of alternative (re)presentations of Argentina in the local (Manchester) and national (England) media. A host of newspaper articles surrounding his transfer to Manchester City and the first derby match of the season was used as the base for this study. The conceptual approach incorporates imaginative geographies of sport, relating to how individuals create contested identities of place.
User- Versus Mainstream-Media-Generated Content: Media Source, Message Valence, and Team Identification and Sport Consumers’ Response
Authors: Kwak Dae Hee , Kim Yu Kyoum , Zimmerman Matthew H.
Published: August 2016

Despite the growing interest in social media and user-generated content, both academics and practitioners are struggling to understand the value and consequences of social media (e.g., blogs). This study employed a 2 (media source: mainstream/ social media) × 2 (message valence: positive/negative) × 2 (team identification: high/low) between-subjects design on source credibility and attitude toward an article. Positive and negative messages about the university’s varsity men’s basketball team were presented in either the mainstream media (sport magazine) or a user-generated format (blog). The results revealed that message valence had a significant main impact on triggering biased source evaluation and attitude toward the message. In turn, media source had a significant main effect on source expertise, but no main effects were found for trustworthiness and attitude. Team identification moderated the effect of media source on cognitive processing, suggesting that highly identified fans evaluated mainstream content more favorably, whereas less identified fans preferred user-generated content.
Meeting Relationship-Marketing Goals Through Social Media: A Conceptual Model for Sport Marketers
Authors: Williams Jo , Chinn Susan J.
Published: August 2016

Sport industry marketers have long understood the importance of nurturing customer relationships. The new challenge is how best to face the shifts in customer relationship marketing posed by sports organizations and proactive consumers, or “prosumers.” In this article, the elements of the relationship-building process are presented with a focus on communication, interaction, and value, concepts identified in Gronroos’s (2004) relationship-marketing process model. An expanded version of Gronroos’s model is developed to include prosumers and to describe the interactions that occur through social-media exchanges. The value of specific social-media tools and Web 2.0 technologies in helping sport marketers meet their relationship-marketing goals is also discussed. Finally, directions for future research employing the expanded model are suggested.
Understanding Professional Athletes’ Use of Twitter: A Content Analysis of Athlete Tweets
Authors: Hambrick Marion E. , Simmons Jason M. , Greenhalgh Greg P. , Greenwell T. Christopher
Published: August 2016

The online social network Twitter has grown exponentially since 2008. The current study examined Twitter use among professional athletes who use Twitter to communicate with fans and other players. The study used content analysis to place 1,962 tweets by professional athletes into one of six categories: interactivity, diversion, information sharing, content, promotional, and fanship. Many of the tweets fell into the interactivity category (34%). Athletes used Twitter to converse directly with their followers. Those with the most followers had more interactivity tweets. A large percentage of tweets (28%) fell into the diversion category, because many of the tweets involved non-sports-related topics, and relatively few of the tweets (15%) involved players discussing their own teams or sports. In addition, only 5% of the tweets were promotional in nature, indicating that professional athletes may not be taking advantage of the promotional opportunities Twitter may provide.
“One of These Things Is Not Like the Others”: Linguistic Representations of Yao Ming in NBA Game Commentary
Authors: Lavelle Katherine L.
Published: August 2016

The re/production of Chinese cultural identity is often fraught with contradictions. When China’s Yao Ming was drafted Number 1 in the National Basketball Association (NBA) draft, he was supposed to reinforce and transcend Chinese/ Asian identity. Yao’s entrance into the NBA signaled a new understanding of Asian identity in the United States. To study this phenomenon, the author examined commentary from television broadcasts of U.S. NBA games featuring a prominent Asian athlete (Yao Ming) using critical discourse analysis. Analysis of 13 games from Yao Ming’s 2nd and 3rd seasons revealed that Yao is linguistically constructed as a panethnic Asian/Chinese person. In addition, the analysis upholds the stereotypes that Asian people are a “model minority” and unfit to play professional sports. Given the dearth of Asian players in the NBA, how do linguistic representations of Yao Ming in game commentary reinforce Asian and Chinese cultural stereotypes or create a new identity of China?
Classifying the Digital Athletic Body: Assessing the Implications of the Player-Attribute-Rating System in Sports Video Games
Authors: Baerg Andrew
Published: August 2016

Although other digital-game genres have received increasing amounts of scholarly attention, the digital sports game remains relatively unexamined. This essay explores one of the most prominent and nearly ubiquitous features of the digital sports game, the player-attribute-rating system. By explaining the nature of the rating system and how it functions and then situating it in a theoretical and historical context, the author traces out some of the implications of the system’s operation. As part of this argument, the essay examines Electronic Arts’ popular football action simulation, FIFA Soccer ’09, as a case study to illustrate how the rating system positions gamers to understand sport in and through this new medium.
Using Stewardship to Cultivate Fandom Online: Comparing How National Football League Teams Use Their Web Sites and Facebook to Engage Their Fans
Authors: Waters Richard D. , Burke Kimberly A. , Jackson Zachary H. , Buning Jamie D.
Published: August 2016

Social-media consultants and strategic communication firms have promoted the use of social media by organizations because of their supposed advantages for developing relationships and online communities around the brand. However, critics have challenged these supportive voices because of organizations’ limited control over the sites’ design and the lack of demonstrated return on investment for social-media endeavors. Using the 26 National Football League (NFL) teams with an official Facebook presence, this study compares how public relations practitioners use the NFL teams’ Web sites and Facebook pages to cultivate relationships with fans using stewardship strategies promoted by public relations literature. Results indicate that the NFL teams overwhelmingly favor their own Web sites for relationship-building endeavors over Facebook for 27 of the study’s 33 measures. Explanations for the divergence from consultants’ advice are discussed and grounded in new-media and sports communication research from various scholarly perspectives.
Sports Media Decision Making in France: How They Choose What We Get to See and Read
Authors: Gee Bridget L. , Leberman Sarah I.
Published: August 2016

This qualitative exploratory case study redresses the deficit of sports media research in France by undertaking a study of those responsible for the production of sports media content. The central question was, What role do sports media producers play in perpetuating dominant ideologies in sport? Participants were experienced male and female sports content decision makers from major French national television and print media. Data were collected through 9 individual semistructured interviews. The findings highlight how sports are selected for coverage, why women’s sport receives less coverage, and who is responsible. There is an indication that women’s sport is subject to much harsher editorial selection criteria than men’s. The similarities and differences between France and other countries are also discussed. Conclusions were drawn on what role the makers of sports media content have in reproducing this hegemonic masculinity so inherent in sports coverage.
The Nationalistic Revolution Will Be Televised: The 2010 Vancouver Olympic Games on NBC
Authors: Angelini James R. , Billings Andrew C. , MacArthur Paul J.
Published: August 2016

A population of NBC’s primetime coverage of the 2010 Vancouver Olympics (64 hours) was analyzed to determine differences between the media treatment of U.S. and non-U.S. Olympians. Results showed that U.S. athletes were highlighted at three to four times to rate their successes would suggest. In addition, American athletes were more likely to be depicted as succeeding because of their intellect, commitment, and consonance while non-American athletes were more likely to be depicted as failing because they lacked the strength and skill of other athletes. From a personality/physicality standpoint, American athletes received enhanced comments about their outgoing/extroverted nature while non-American athletes received more comments about the size and parts of their bodies. Ramifications for framing theory and Olympic nationalism research are articulated.
Perceptual Biases and Behavioral Effects Among NFL Fans: An Investigation of First-Person, Second-Person, and Third-Person Effects
Authors: Spinda John S.W.
Published: August 2016

This study explored first-, second-, and third-person effects related to the outcome of televised National Football League (NFL) games among an online sample of NFL fans (N = 646). Overall findings indicated that first-person and second-person perceptual biases were projected toward comparison groups that were labeled as fans of other NFL teams or as the average person. In addition, support was found for both first and second-person behavioral effects in the form of postgame Basking In Reflected Glory (BIRGing) and Cutting Off Reflected Failure (CORFing) behaviors. However, the strength of NFL fans’ team identification was a more robust predictor of these effects than NFL fans self-reported BIRGing/CORFing behaviors. These findings support the hypothesis that self-enhancement processes (i.e., BIRGing/CORFing) are usurped by self-categorization processes when a social identity is made salient (i.e., NFL team identification). Areas of future research and limitations are also addressed.
#WorldSeries: An Empirical Examination of a Twitter Hashtag During a Major Sporting Event
Authors: Blaszka Matthew , Burch Lauren M. , Frederick Evan L. , Clavio Galen , Walsh Patrick
Published: August 2016

Sport organizations, teams, and athletes are growing constituencies that use socialmedia platforms such as Facebook and Twitter to engage in dialogue with their respective audiences. The purpose of this study was to examine Twitter hashtag use during a major sporting event. Specifically, this study analyzed #WorldSeries during the 2011 World Series. The study employed a content-analysis methodology to determine who was using the hashtag and how it was being used. Using systematic sampling, 1,450 tweets were analyzed. The results demonstrated that #WorldSeries was being used predominantly by laypersons to express fanship, as well as interactivity. When individuals were being interactive with this hashtag, they were doing so mainly with MLB/league officials and other laypersons. Most of these interactive tweets were also expressions of fanship. The implications of these findings are discussed further.
Networked Fandom: Applying Systems Theory to Sport Twitter Analysis
Authors: Clavio Galen , Burch Lauren M. , Frederick Evan L.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to employ systems theory to analyze the social network of a Big Ten football team’s Twitter community. An identifiable network was found among the observed actors (N = 139), with fan accounts composing the largest percentage of the network. The number of observed reciprocal interactions was low, only 11.8% of the interactions and only 21.5% of the nodes. Traditionalmedia accounts frequently interacted with other media accounts, while fans interacted primarily with other fans. Overall, nontraditional-media accounts’ users were most focused on interactivity. Team-related accounts were almost nonexistent in the interactive network. A systems-theory-based network was found in terms of input, transformation, and output components. The feedback loop was the weak link in the network, indicating a possible lack of importance of direct feedback in Twitter social networks.
Integrated Impression Management in Athletics: A Qualitative Study of How NCAA Division I Athletics Directors Understand Public Relations
Authors: Pratt Angela N.
Published: August 2016

Intercollegiate athletics directors (ADs) in the United States are high-profile representatives of their departments and universities. Their publics include media, sponsors, donors, fans, faculty, students, and government officials. However, few studies have explored ADs from a public relations perspective, especially regarding their understandings of public relations. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to learn how ADs understand public relations in the context of their athletics departments. A phenomenological approach was used to pursue this purpose. In-depth interviews were conducted with 12 National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I ADs. Their transcripts were analyzed using comparative-analysis procedures. The findings show that the participants understand public relations as integrated impression management: a combination of image, message, and action/interaction. Integrated impression management ties into ideas from Goffman (1959), as well as systems theories of public relations. However, the results also imply that ADs do not necessarily separate public relations from other disciplines such as marketing.
Framing the Octagon: An Analysis of News-Media Coverage of Mixed Martial Arts
Authors: Santos Carla A. , Tainsky Scott , Schmidt K. Alexander , Shim Changsup
Published: August 2016

To date, scholarly attention to mixed martial arts (MMA) and the Ultimate Fighting Championship organization has been limited. This study sought to address this gap in literature by focusing on the news media’s framing of public officials’ discourse concerning MMA. In so doing, the study addressed the entanglement of news media, sport, and contemporary political maneuvering. Overall, findings suggest two dominant media frames: leveraging of sociopolitical capital to protect societal values and leveraging of sociopolitical capital to advocate for legislation. Specifically, the authors propose that news media have framed and reframed MMA as a succession of moral threats and reassurances that are given voice by public officials in the name of protecting the citizenry.
Coach Verbal Aggression: A Case Study Examining Effects on Athlete Motivation and Perceptions of Coach Credibility
Authors: Mazer Joseph P. , Barnes Katie , Grevious Alexia , Boger Caroline
Published: August 2016

Team sports have become a vital informal learning setting in which athletes are taught, motivated, and mentored by their coaches. This experimental study examined the effects of coach verbal aggression on athlete motivation and perceptions of coach credibility. Results revealed that athletes exposed to a verbally aggressive coach were significantly less motivated and perceived the coach as less credible than athletes who were exposed to a coach who used an affirming style. With respect to credibility, athletes perceived a verbally aggressive coach as significantly less competent, trustworthy, and caring than a coach who used an affirming style. Implications and areas for future research are discussed. Case-study questions are presented for discussion by scholars and students.
Interview With Chris Yandle, Assistant Athletic Director of Communications, University of Miami Athletics
Authors: Boatwright Brandon
Published: August 2016

Chris Yandle is in his first year as the director of communications at the University of Miami, joining the Hurricanes program on July 14, 2012. Yandle serves as the Hurricanes’ primary football contact and also oversees day-to-day operations of the athletics communications office. Since arriving in Miami, he has implemented a communications style guide for clean, consistent style usage across all platforms and a streamlined social-media approach that has seen Hurricane sports Twitter followers surpass 30,000 and its Facebook page reach 200,000 likes. He also oversees social-media education of Hurricanes student-athletes, coaches, and staff.
Protein and Amino Acid Needs of the Strength Athlete
Authors: Lemon Peter W.R.
Published: August 2016

The debate regarding optimal protein/amino acid needs of strength athletes is an old one. Recent evidence indicates that actual requirements are higher than those of more sedentaty individuals, although this is not widely recognized. Some data even suggest that high protein/amino acid diets can enhance the development of muscle mass and strength when combined with heavy resistance exercise training. Novices may have higher needs than experienced strength athletes, and substantial interindividual variability exists. Perhaps the most important single factor determining absolute protein/amino acid need is the adequacy of energy intake. Present data indicate that strength athletes should consume approximately 12-15% of their daily total energy intake as protein, or about 1.5-2.0 g protein/ (approximately 188-250% of the U.S. recommended dietary allowance). Although routinely consumed by many strength athletes, higher protein intakes have not been shown to be consistency effective and may even be associated with some health risks.
The Nutritional Habits of Young Adolescent Swimmers
Authors: Berning Jacqueline R. , Troup John P. , VanHandel Peter J. , Daniels Jack , Daniels Nancy
Published: August 2016

Dietary food records from adolescent male and female swimmers participating in a national developmental training camp were analyzed for nutrient density. The mean caloric intake was 5,221.6 kcal for males and 3,572.6 kcal for females. The distribution of calories between carbohydrates, protein, and fat was not ideal for athletes trying to optimize performance. These young swimmers consumed too much fat and not enough carbohydrate. They consumed more than the RDA of vitamins A and C, and thiamine, riboflavin, and niacin; however, some concern is expressed for females who did not meet the RDA for calcium and iron. This study shows that although a group of adolescent swimmers may be consuming enough nutrients, individual swimmers may have very poor dietary habits and thus may not be providing adequate fuel or nutrients for optimal training or performance.
Comparison of Four Methods to Assess Body Composition in Black and White Athletes
Authors: Hortobágyi Tibor , Israel Richard G. , Houmard Joseph A. , O'Brien Kevin F. , Johns Robert A. , Wells Jennifer M.
Published: August 2016

Four methods of assessing body composition were compared in 55 black and 35 white, Division 1, American football players. Percent body fat (%BF) was estimated with hydrostatic weighing at residual volume, corrected for race; seven-site skinfolds (7 SF), corrected for race; bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA); and near-infrared spectrophotometry (NIR). Percent body fat with HW in blacks (mean = 14.7%) and whites (19.7%) did not differ (P > .05) from %>BF with 7 SF (blacks, 14.7%; whites, 19.0%). In relation to HW, BIA significantly (P < .05) overpredicted (blacks: 20.1%, SEE = 3.2%; whites; 22.3%, SEE = 4.3%) and NiR underpredicted %BF (blacks; 12.6%, SEE = 3.9%; whites; 17.7%, SEE = 3.6%). The contribution of BIA variables (resistance, phase angle, conductance) and NIR optical density to predict %BF was trivial compared to body mass index. It appears that race may not substantially influence %BF prediction by NIR and BIA. It was concluded that when considering the cost and expertise required with NIR and BIA, SF measurements appear to be a superior alternative for rapid and accurate body composition assessment of athletes, independent of race.
Predictive Accuracy of Three Field Methods for Estimating Relative Body Fatness of Nonobese and Obese Women
Authors: Heyward Vivian H. , Cook Kelly L. , Hicks Virginia L. , Jenkins Kathy A. , Quatrochi Joseph A. , Wilson Wendy L.
Published: August 2016

Three methods of body composition assessment were used to estimate percent body fat (%BF) in nonobese (n=77) and obese (n=71) women, 20-72 yrs of age, Skinfolds (SKF), bioelectrical impedance (BIA), and near-infrared interactance (NIR) methods were compared to criterion-derived %BF from hydrostatic weighing (%BFHW). Nonobese subjects had < 30% and obese subjects had >30% . The Jackson, Pollock, and Ward SKF equation and the manufacturer's equations for BIA (Valhalla) and NIR (Futrex-5000) were used. For nonobese women there were no significant differences between mean %BFHW and %BFSKF, %BFB1A, and %BFNIR. The rs and SEEs were 0.65 and 3.4% BF for SKF, 0.61 and 3.6% BF for BIA, and 0.58 and 3.7% BF for NIR for nonobese subjects. For obese women, mean %BPHW was significantly underestimated by the SKF, BIA, and NIR methods. The rs and SEEs for the obese group were 0.59 and 3.4% BF for SKF, 0.56 and 3.5% BF for BIA, and 0.36 and 3.9% BF for NIR. The total errors of the equations ranged from 5.6 to 8.0% BF in the obese group. It is concluded that all three field methods accurately estimate %BF for nonobese women; however, none of the methods is suitable for estimating %BF for obese women.
Effects of Carbohydrate Loading and Weight-lifting on Muscle Girth
Authors: Balon Thomas W. , Horowitz Jeffrey F. , Fitzsimmons Karen M.
Published: August 2016

Bodybuilders have used different carbohydrate loading regimens in conjunction with resistance exercise prior to competition in the belief that this would result in increased muscle size. To investigate this possibility, muscle girth measurements were obtained from nine weight-trained males before and after a control (standard isocaloric diet) and an experimental trial (carbohydrate loading). The latter regimen consisted of 3 days of intense weight-lifting while the subjects ingested a diet of 10% carbohydrate (CHO), 57% fat (F), and 33% protein (P), followed by 3 days of light weight-lifting and a day of rest while ingesting a diet of 80% CHO, 5% F, and 15% P. The control trial consisted of an identical weight-lifting regimen while subjects ingested an isocaloric (45 kcal/kg BWIday) diet. Body weight and girths (forearm, upper arm, chest, thigh, waist, and calf) were obtained before and after each trial in a relaxed and flexed state. The results indicated that an exercise/carbohydrate loading regimen had no significant effect on muscle girth as compared to the control trial. It is concluded that CHO loading has no additional advantage to enhancing muscle girth in bodybuilders over weight-lifting alone.
Dietary Intake and Thiamin, Iron, and Zinc Status in Elite Nordic Skiers during Different Training Periods
Authors: Fogelholm Mikael , Rehunen Seppo , Gref Carl-Gustav , Laakso Juha T. , Lehto Jari , Ruokonen Lnkeri , Himberg Jaakko-Juhani
Published: August 2016

This study evaluated how different training periods affect dietary intake and biochemical indices of thiamin, iron, and zinc status in elite Nordic skiers. Subjects.were 17 skiers and 39 controls, ages 18-38 yrs. Dietary data were collected by 7-day food records at 3-month intervals. Coefficient of variation (CV) was used to indicate magnitude of seasonal changes. Energy intake for the year (28 food record days) was 3,802 kcallday (CV 19.1%) in male skiers, 2,754 kcallday (CV 3.7%) in male controls, 2,812 kcallday (CV 9.1%) in female skiers, and 2,013 kcallday (CV 5.9%) in female controls. CVs for thiamin, riboflavin, vitamin C, calcium, magnesium, iron, and zinc intake were 14.1-23.9% (male skiers), 2.9-15.0% (male controls), 4.8-24.5% (female skiers), and 4.3-1 1.5% (female controls). Seasonal changes in energy, carbohydrate, and micronutrient intakes reflected energy expenditure in male endurance athletes particularly. Erythrocyte transketolase activation coefficients and serum ferritin and zinc concentrations did not differ between skiers and controls. Seasonal variations in these biochemical indices of nutritional status were of the same magnitude in skiers and controls, despite large changes in skiers' physical activity.