bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Epilogue
Authors: Price David H.
Published: February 2021

The epilogue traces the impact of the early Protestant Bibles on the explosion of an exceedingly popular new genre: the Bible emblem book, especially those by Bernard Salomon, Virgil Solis, Jost Amman, Tobias Stimmer, and Matthäus Merian. As was the case with Dürer, Cranach, and Holbein, the new Protestant Bible designs were reused and imitated in diverse theological contexts, thereby illustrating the dynamic cultural transfer across language and confessional borders. Solis’s woodcut illustrations, for example, appeared in German, Dutch, Latin, and English Bibles by both Protestant and Catholic translators. Remarkably, Protestant designs informed not only Catholic but also Jewish biblical art (the Amsterdam Haggadah of 1695). Though any concept of textual unity faded with the Reformation, the Bible image emerged as a significant visual source for common cultural knowledge and experience.
Introduction
Authors: Natale Simone
Published: February 2021

The introduction presents the main arguments of the book and the theoretical and historical background guiding the analysis, proposing a shift in approaches to artificial intelligence on the basis of a new assumption: that what machines are changing is primarily us: humans. It introduces the concept of “banal deception,” which describes deceptive mechanisms and practices that are embedded in media technologies and contribute to their integration into everyday life. Five key characteristics of banal deception are outlined and discussed: first, its everyday and ordinary character; second, its functionality and the fact that it always has some potential value to the user; third, its obliviousness, or the fact that the deception is not understood as such but taken for granted; fourth, its low definition, which refers to the fact that it demands participation from users in the construction of sense; and fifth, that banal deception is not just imposed on users but also “programmed” by designers and developers.
The Turing Test
Authors: Natale Simone
Published: February 2021

The relationship between AI and deception was initially explored by Alan Turing, who famously proposed in 1950 a practical test addressing the question “Can machines think?” This chapter argues that Turing’s proposal of the Imitation Game, now more commonly called the Turing test, located the prospects of AI not just in improvements of hardware and software but also in a more complex scenario emerging from the interaction between humans and computers. The Turing test, by placing humans at the center of its design as judges and as conversation agents alongside computers, created a space to imagine and experiment with AI technologies in terms of their credibility to human users. This entailed the discovery that AI was to be achieved not only through the development of more complex and functional computing technologies but also through the use of strategies and techniques exploiting humans’ liability to illusion and deception.
The ELIZA Effect
Authors: Natale Simone
Published: February 2021

This chapter focuses on ELIZA, the first chatbot program, developed in the 1960s at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology by Joseph Weizenbaum to engage in written conversations with users of the MAC time-sharing system. The program’s alleged capacity for conversation attracted the attention of audiences in the United States and the world, and Weizenbaum’s book Computer Power and Human Reasons (1976) drew readers from well outside his discipline of computer science. In the process, the program presented AI in ways that sharply contrasted with the vision of human-machine symbiosis that dominated approaches to human-computer interaction at the time. Drawing on Weizenbaum’s writings, computer science literature, and journalistic reports, the chapter argues that the impact of this alternative vision was not without consequence, informing the development of critical approaches to digital media as well as of actual technologies and pragmatic strategies in AI research.
Of Daemons, Dogs, and Trees
Authors: Natale Simone
Published: February 2021

This chapter examines how AI was embedded in a range of software applications from the late 1970s to the 1990s—a period marked by the emergence of personal computing. Focusing on diverse software artifacts such as computer daemons, digital games, and social interfaces, the chapter interrogates the ways developers introduced deceptive mechanisms within a wider framework promising universal access and ease of use for computing technologies, and how their doing so informed work that was aimed at improving the usability of computing systems. Their explorations of this territory involved a crucial shift away from considering deception something that could be dispelled by making computers more “transparent” and toward the full integration of forms of deception in the experiences of users interacting with AI.
A Child of the Interwar Period
Authors: Maes Ivo
Published: February 2021

Robert Triffin was born in 1911 in Flobecq, Belgium. It was a turbulent period. At the age of 24, the young Triffin had already lived through World War I, monetary and financial turmoil after the war, the Great Depression, the 1935 Belgian franc devaluation, and the rise of fascism. In this chapter, the early period of Triffin’s life is discussed. It focuses on his undergraduate studies at Louvain University, his doctoral studies at Harvard, and his early academic career. During these years, like many people of his generation, Triffin became a profound pacifist. Moreover, as an economist, he became convinced that the market economy was fundamentally unstable. Special attention is paid to his two major publications during these years: an article on the 1935 devaluation of the Belgian franc (Triffin made the calculations) and his PhD on monopolistic competition and general equilibrium theory.
Architect of the European Payments Union
Authors: Maes Ivo
Published: February 2021

In 1946, Robert Triffin went on to the International Monetary Fund, where he became head of the Exchange Control Division, before moving to Paris to lead the International Monetary Fund’s Representative Office in Europe. Thereafter, he was a special adviser to the (US) Economic Cooperation Administration in Paris. During these years, his focal point of interest was the European Payments Union (EPU). In his analysis of postwar Europe, Triffin emphasized that several structural factors, especially the low level of gold and dollar reserves and weak industrial capacity, impeded the successful operation of market forces. He favored a pragmatic regional approach with the EPU, giving priority to the abolition of bilateral trade and payment restrictions. Triffin played a key role in the EPU negotiations, especially with his proposal for the EPU unit of account.
Return to Belgium
Authors: Maes Ivo
Published: February 2021

In 1977, Robert Triffin decided to return to Belgium. He put forward two reasons: the invitation for a visiting professorship at the University of Louvain and, “most of all,” the opportunity to be involved, as an adviser at the European Commission, in the process of European monetary union. Triffin’s return to Belgium coincided closely with the advent of Roy Jenkins as European Commission president, who consulted Triffin regarding his monetary integration plans. Triffin was enthusiastic about the European Monetary System (EMS), which was established in 1979. With the support of the European Commission, especially Tommaso Padoa-Schioppa, he organized four international conferences on different aspects of its functioning. During the 1980s, Triffin promoted the development of the private European Currency Unit (ECU) market, especially the establishment of an ECU clearing system.
Epilogue
Authors: Maes Ivo
Published: February 2021

In his later life, Robert Triffin received wide recognition for his work. Especially his intellectual analyses with a focus on contemporary economic policy issues and his tireless fight for a true international monetary order were praised. In 1989, King Baudoin made him a baron. Triffin chose as his motto a paraphrase of Belgium’s national motto, transposing “Unity makes strength” into “Unity makes peace.” It is remarkable that throughout his life Triffin remained faithful to the ideals of his youth, a rare quality. The young Triffin was indignant about the Versailles Treaty, while the old Triffin fulminated against the Vietnam War. For him, economics was a way to contribute to a better world. He was never interested in high-level prestigious positions or financial gain. He was strongly attached to his independence and the pursuit of a better and more peaceful world. He was indeed a true monk in economist’s clothing.
Conclusions
Authors: Meier Paul F.
Published: February 2021

This concluding chapter summarizes some of the information presented for the twelve different energy technologies examined in the book. The first section explores current trends in energy and some of the driving forces affecting these trends. The second section examines the electric vehicle, the bridge that can connect the electric sector with the transportation sector. The third section examines the potential for reducing carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions in the United States by the use of renewable fuels. Following this, a summary of proven and potential reserves is presented for both nonrenewable and renewable energy types. Finally, a summary is presented for the land and energy footprint of each technology.
Beyond Replacing the Dead
Authors: Nakachi Mie
Published: February 2021

After 1955, the number of clinical abortions in the USSR rose steadily. Soviet doctors of women’s medicine began developing contraception to stop the prevalent practice of multiple abortions. However, their vision of preventing abortion as a way of improving the reproductive health of Soviet women increasingly contradicted the emerging pronatalism of the 1970s. As the introduction of contraception remained blocked, doctors again made it easier for women to get clinical abortions in the early stages of pregnancy. Key postwar practices would carry over into the post-Soviet era. Meanwhile, the reformed family law of 1968 brought only superficial improvement to the legal status of out-of-wedlock children. The one-parent pronatalism that allocated unequal parental responsibilities between the mother and father was largely unchanged from 1944 until 1991.
The Prominence of Culture in Economic Decisions
Authors: Camasso Michael J. , Jagannathan Radha
Published: February 2021

In this chapter, the authors discuss the way culture has been scrutinized and debated in the social science literature especially in the fields of international business and economics. Following a series of classical “deep” descriptions of six focal countries, they explore the many classifications of culture that have emanated from quantitative dimensional analyses including the work of Hofstede, GLOBE, Schwartz, and others. They then turn our attention to eight value dimensions that have been linked specifically to economic performance, including social capital and cooperation, trust, redistributive justice, work centrality, risk-taking, individual achievement, education/training, and the importance of labor force attachment. In both their discussions of deep description and dimensional analyses, the authors point up how these emic (qualitative) and etic (quantitative) analyses have been used to classify Sweden, Germany, Italy, Spain, India, and the United States.
Investigating the Cultural Transmission of Economic Values
Authors: Camasso Michael J. , Jagannathan Radha
Published: February 2021

Chapter 5 lays out the authors’ operational plan for testing the conceptual model and answering the three research questions posed in Chapter 1. Following a detailed treatment of cultural transmission as an intergenerational process that can help establish cultural exogeneity, they look closely at its influence on the transition to adulthood in a cross-national context. It is then demonstrated why generational transmission requires a naturalistic sampling approach to insure that associations among family members are captured. This chapter goes on to describe the three-stage sampling process and how it aids efforts to study cultural diversity and economic performance. The family interview methodology and interview schedule are introduced, as is a statistical profile of the selected families from each focal country. How well the naturalistic sampling comports with surveys of cultural values that rely on independent, individual observations is considered.
Conclusion
Authors: Gillett Rachel Anne
Published: February 2021

The conclusion reinforces the point made throughout the book that at times of great crisis, various Black networks in France and the francophone Atlantic found ways to transcend their differences. They did this through cultural production as well as political action. Yet this broader pan-African or pro-Black sense of solidarity coexisted with regional, political, and class affiliations, all of which found expression in music. Some of the complexity of these identities, in fact, found greater expression in music than in literature or politics; this complexity appears very clearly when one traces the musical activities of figures such as Wali Kané, Maïotte Almaby, or Paulette Nardal. The conclusion reflects on how their experiences impacted the following decades in their own lives and in French culture.
Introduction
Authors: Rudbøg Tim , Sand Erik Reenberg
Published: February 2021

Against the backdrop of previous research this introduction discusses the historical relevancy the Theosophical Society played in cross-cultural interchanges during the nineteenth century. While sharing a number of the imperialistic tendencies of Orientalist approaches to Asia, the Theosophical Society represents another important aspect of the reception of Asian cultures and ideas that in turn had an impact upon the original Asian contexts and later Western imaginations. Much more still needs to be uncovered about the Theosophical Society and its relation to Asia, as the introduction outlines, but it entertained its own particular esoteric imagination of “the East” as the primary source of an ancient wisdom, which played into (1) the Theosophical reception of ideas, (2) representations of “the East,” and (3) interactions with “the East.” These three areas constitute the core parts of the book and are outlined in this introduction.
Theosophy in the Bengal Renaissance
Authors: Johnson K. Paul
Published: February 2021

This chapter explores the Theosophical Society’s association with the Bengal Renaissance in India, which is a significant, yet quite unexplored, dimension of both movements. The chapter traces the rise and fall of Theosophical influence in Bengal, beginning with contacts between Bengali and American spiritualists in the early 1870s prior to the formation of the Theosophical Society. Two years before its move to India, the Society established correspondence with leaders of the Brahmo Samaj. After the move to India in 1879, personal contacts were developed through the travels to Bengal of Henry Steel Olcott and Helena Petrovna Blavatsky and the subsequent involvement of Bengalis in the Madras Theosophical Society headquarters. The role of Mohini Chatterji as an emissary of the Theosophical Society to Europe and America was the high point of this association, but by the early twentieth century, Aurobindo Ghose described the Theosophical Society as having lost its appeal to progressive young Indians.
Russia Resurrected
Authors: Stoner Kathryn E.
Published: February 2021

This book refutes the idea that Russia plays a weak hand well in international politics. The book argues instead that Russia under Vladimir Putin’s regime may not be as weak as is sometimes thought in the West. It takes a multidimensional approach in assessing Russian state power in international relations, going beyond metrics of power like relative strength of the economy, human capital, and size of the military, to also include the policy weight or importance of Russian firms and industries, as well as where, geographically, Russian influence has spread globally. The book includes fresh empirical data on the Russian economy, demography and human capital, and conventional military and nuclear weaponry capacities in Russia relative to other great powers like China and the United States. The book argues that realpolitik alone does not explain Russian foreign policy choices under Putin. Rather, Putin’s patronal autocratic regime and the need for social stability play an important role in understanding when and why Russian power is projected in the twenty-first century.
The Reproducibility Crisis
Authors: Alger Bradley E.
Published: February 2021

This chapter reviews and evaluates reports that scientists often cannot repeat, or “reproduce” published work. It begins by defining what “reproducibility” means and how reproducibility applies to various kinds of science. The focus then shifts to the Reproducibility Project: Psychology, which was a systematic effort to repeat published findings in psychology, and which gave rise to many of the present concerns about reproducibility. The chapter critically examines the Reproducibility Project and points out how the nature of science and the complexity of nature can stymie the best attempts at reproducibility. The chapter also reviews the statistical criticisms of science that John Ioannidis and Katherine Button and their colleagues have raised. The hypothesis is a central issue because it is inconsistently defined across various branches of science. The statisticians’ strongest attacks are directed against work that differs from most laboratory experimental science. A weak point in the reasoning behind the Reproducibility Project and the statistical arguments is the assumption that a multi-pronged scientific investigation can be legitimately criticized by close examination of one of its components. Experimental science relies on multiple tests and multiple hypotheses to arrive at its conclusions. Reproducibility is a valid concern for science; it is not a “crisis.”
The Land Company Experiment
Authors: Ablavsky Gregory
Published: February 2021

The first major federal effort to remake territorial property came through large sales to land companies. This chapter recounts this history through the stories of three land companies: the Tennessee Company, the Ohio Company, and the Miami Company. The Tennessee Company represented what the federal government hoped to avoid. Created by speculator Zachariah Cox, the Company purchased millions of acres of land in Georgia’s Yazoo sale. Cox then spent the next decade challenging federal authority, threatening Native nations, bamboozling investors with dubious title, and asserting his own sovereignty in the southern borderlands. When it created the Ohio and Miami Companies in the Northwest Territory, the federal government sought to avoid such outcomes. The two companies, headed by Rufus Putnam and John Cleves Symmes, promised to distribute title systemically while also preserving peace with Native peoples. Yet this supposedly mutually beneficial relationship did not work out. Both companies felt abandoned and betrayed by the federal government when war with the Northwest Indian Confederacy ensued. Yet, like the Tennessee Company, the Ohio and Miami Companies also both succumbed to the lure of profit on bare promises of future title, creating still more property confusion and uncertainty that fell to the federal government to resolve. The experiment’s failure led Congress to reject large-scale land sales as a viable solution to the territories’ property uncertainty.
The Rise of Federal Title
Authors: Ablavsky Gregory
Published: February 2021

The failure of federal efforts to reform title meant that federal officials in the territories found themselves, unwillingly, adjudicating conflicting claims to ownership, often in ad hoc, unplanned fashion outside of courts. This chapter describes three sets of adjudications of territorial land rights. The first involved conflicting assertions of different Native nations to ownership, as federal officials, as part of their effort to “extinguish” Native title, had to decide which nation owned which land. The effort led them to try to understand Native land laws in an effort to parse these claims. The second required wading into the land rights of the French habitants of the Illinois Country, where territorial officials similarly attempted to understand past French land law to confirm preexisting claims to title. The third concerned veterans of the Revolutionary War, who were promised land in the U.S. Military District in the Northwest Territory. Frequently defrauded out of their rights, these holders of the so-called bounty lands appealed to the U.S. Secretary of War to protect their title. In all three cases, the result was that federal officials distilled the territories’ plural sources of ownership into a single federal title issued under federal authority. This decades’ worth of difficult and unheralded legal and administrative work became the foundation for the federal land system, especially when the Harrison Land Act of 1800 codified the resolution to long-standing heated debates about the public lands.
How Emotional Ties Influence the Diaspora to Return
Authors: Williams Nick
Published: February 2021

Chapter 6 examines the role of emotional ties in fostering diaspora entrepreneurs to return and invest in their home country. The chapter utilises in-depth interviews with returnee entrepreneurs to B&H, Kosovo, and Montenegro, and draws on the theory of embeddedness. The chapter finds that while entrepreneurship is often considered to be a profit-maximising activity, in the case of returnee entrepreneurs to post-conflict economies, other motivations can be more prevalent. Indeed the analysis demonstrates that for entrepreneurs returning to post-conflict economies, an emotional attachment to the home country is the most important driver of activity. Furthermore, the desire for emotional gains influences investment activities over time, often leading to investment in family and friends, or activities which have a social impact.
Vectors and Functions and Operators
Authors: Autschbach Jochen
Published: February 2021

This chapter introduces – briefly – vectors and functions and the similarities between them, some basic linear algebra concepts, operators (including the del and Laplace operators), eigenvalues and eigenvectors &eigenfunctions, the scalar (dot) and vector (cross) product between two vectors, the scalar product between two functions, the concepts of normalization, orthogonality, and orthonormality. The concept of an operator is first introduced by considering the rotation and stretching or compression of a vector. It is then generalized to a mathematical prescription that changes a function into another function.
Orbital-based Descriptions of Electron Configurations, Ionization, Excitation, and Bonding
Authors: Autschbach Jochen
Published: February 2021

This chapter deals with quantitative aspects of molecular orbital (MO) theory: Construction of an orbital diagram, bonding and antibonding overlap, Koopmans’ theorem, orbital energies versus total energies, an explanation of the unintuitive ground state electron configurations seen for some neutral transition metals, and a discussion of orbital energy gaps versus electronic excitations and other observable energy gaps. Localized MOs show the chemical bonds expected from the Lewis structure more readily than the canonical orbitals obtained from solving the SCF equations. It is shown that the delocalization of localized, not the canonical, MOs shows whether a system is delocalized. Algorithms by which to obtain localized MOs are sketched.
Approximate Molecular Orbital Theory: The Hückel/Tight-binding Model
Authors: Autschbach Jochen
Published: February 2021

Huckel molecular orbital (HMO) theory is a simple approximate parameterized molecular orbital (MO) theory that has been very successful in organic chemistry and other fields. This chapter introduces the approximations made in HMO theory, and then treats as examples ethane, hetratriene and other linear polyenes, and benzene and other cyclic polyenes. The pi binding energy of benzene is particularly large according to HMO theory, rationalizing the special ‘aromatic’ behaviour of benzene. But there is a lot more to benzene than that. It is shown that the pi bond framework of benzene would rather prefer a structure with alternating single and double C-C bonds, rather than the actually observed 6-fold symmetric structure where all C-C bonds are equivalent. The observed benzene structure is a result of a delicate balance between the tendencies of the pi framework to create bond length alternation, and the sigma framework to resist bond length alternation.
Band Structure Theory for Extended Systems
Authors: Autschbach Jochen
Published: February 2021

The electronic structure of infinite periodic systems (crystals) is treated with band structure theory, replacing molecular orbitals by crystal orbitals. The chapter starts out by introducing the electron gas and definitions of the Fermi momentum, the Fermi energy, and the density of states (DOS). A periodic linear combination of atomic orbitals (LCAO) type treatment of an infinite periodic system is facilitated by the construction of Bloch functions. The notions of energy band and band gap are discussed with band structure concepts, using the approximations made in Huckel theory (chapter 12). One, two, and three-dimensional crystal lattices and the associated reciprocal lattices are introduced. The band structures of sodium metal, boron nitride, silicon, and graphite, are discussed as examples of metals, insulators, semi-conductors, and semi-metals, respectively. The chapter concludes with a brief discussion of the projected DOS and measures to determine bonding or antibonding interactions between atoms in a crystal.
Into the Future
Authors: McDowall David , McCleary Richard , Bartos Bradley J.
Published: February 2021

Chapter 6 introduces two conceptual issues that, in our opinion, will become important in the near future. The first involves the validity of statistical inference. Critics of the conventional null hypothesis significance test generally focus on the undue influence of sample size on p-values and the common misinterpretation of significance levels. Bayesian approaches address and, to some extent, solve both shortcomings. The second conceptual issue involves the use of control time series. As a rule, valid causal inferences require the use of a contrasting control time series. In most instances, no ideal control series is available; however, a synthetic ideal control series can sometimes be constructed from an ensemble of less-than-ideal control time series.
A New Strategy for Anti-Corruption
Authors: Rothstein Bo
Published: February 2021

Corruption in its various forms has turned out to be a resilient, sometimes well-organized, and well-entrenched enemy. It is difficult to trace any major results from the “good governance” programs the World Bank and other organizations have launched since the mid-1990s, the bulk of which have almost exclusively been guided by an economic approach called “the principal-agent” theory. It is argued that this theory is particularly ill-suited to the corruption problem. An alternative theory is presented based on the social contract tradition in political philosophy. This implies that corruption should be understood as a problem of collective actions which leads to very different policy recommendations for how countries can get corruption under control. The corruption problem is neither based in the historically inherited culture of a society, nor its legal system. Instead, most of the problem of corruption exists in what in organizations theory is known as “standard operating procedures.”
Getting to Sweden II
Authors: Rothstein Bo
Published: February 2021

Issues about corruption and other forms of bad government have become central in the social sciences. An unresolved question is how countries can solve the issue of transformation from systemic corruption to the quality of government. Based on Elinor Ostrom’s theory of common pool resource appropriation, a new theoretical model for explaining this type of institutional change is developed. Sweden during the nineteenth century is used as an illustration by showing how the country made a transition from being largely patrimonial, nepotistic, and corrupt to a modern, Weberian, efficient, and impartial state structure. In addition to the “national trauma” of losing a major war, this chapter stresses the importance of three additional factors in Sweden: previous changes in courts and the legal system; recognition of the problem by the main contemporary political actors; and the new liberal ideology that made an important impact on the Swedish political scene.
Opening the Gates
Authors: Golemon Larry Abbott
Published: February 2021

The fifth chapter explores how theological education was opened to women, African Americans, and working class whites. Congregationalist Mary Lyon founded Mt. Holyoke Female Seminary (1837) to provide a rigorous education built on the liberal arts, theology, personal discipline, and domestic work—all designed to produce independent women for missions. Other women, like Methodist Lucy Rider, founded religious training schools for women in their denominations. For African Americans, pioneers like AME Bishop Daniel Payne, who revived Wilberforce University (1856), developed a blend of liberal arts and theological education. W. E. B. Dubois fought for this model as the way to educate “the talented tenth” needed for racial uplift. The other model, pioneered by Samuel Armstrong at the Hampton Institute (VA) and Booker T. Washington at Tuskegee (Alabama), combined a religious training school with industrial work so that black pastors and teachers could be self-supporting. Finally, Bible colleges, like that of Dwight Moody, opened theological studies to working people with only a basic education. Emma Dryer brought practical, normal school approaches to the beginnings of the Moody Bible Institute (MBI) in Chicago. Under Dr. R. A. Torrey, MBI combined a literal reading of Scripture with experiential holiness, spiritual healing, end-times prophecy, and practical business methods—all of which marked the future fundamentalist movement.
Creating a Modern Profession
Authors: Golemon Larry Abbott
Published: February 2021

The sixth chapter analyzes theological schools that realigned themselves with the modern research university. Several narratives are explored: the struggle between Thomas Jefferson’s University of Virginia and seminary founders like John Holt Rice; the influence of the German university through immigrants like Phillip Schaff and theologians who studied abroad; the pragmatic adaptation of the German encyclopedia for organizing theological studies; the impact of the American university’s pragmatism, social sciences, and social reform on seminaries; and the influence of progressive education and the religious education movement on theological schools. University Divinity schools led this movement, especially the University of Chicago built by William Rainey Harper, but a number of independent schools, like Union Theological Seminary in New York, sought such realignment as “theological universities.” This realignment of theological schools had significant benefits, as it increased elective studies, developed specialized fields of ministry, and brought the social sciences to theological education. However, the realignment had unforeseen problems as it widened the gap between academics and those of professional practice; distanced faculty from interdisciplinary work and church leadership; replaced the Bible as a unifying discipline with “the scientific method”; and replaced the integrative role of oral pedagogies with scholarly lectures and the research seminar.
Introduction
Authors: Reichle Erik D.
Published: February 2021

This chapter provides an introduction to reading research and computer models. The chapter discusses the information-processing metaphors that have been used to study the human mind, drawing parallels between components of the latter and similar distinctions in computers (e.g., short- vs. long-term memory/storage systems). The chapter also introduces the modal model, or most commonly used metaphor for describing the human mind. The chapter then provides examples illustrating how behavioral experiments can be used to make informed inferences about the operation of the mind and its information-processing components. The chapter closes with a discussion of reading, including how it is similar and dissimilar to spoken language, and how the latter differs from other forms of communication (e.g., animal).
Models of the Reading Architecture
Authors: Reichle Erik D.
Published: February 2021

This chapter describes what has been learned about reading architecture, or how the mental processes that support word identification, sentence processing, and discourse representation during reading are coordinated with the systems that support vision, attention, and eye-movement control. The chapter reviews key findings that shed light on the nature of reading architecture, mainly using the results of eye-movement experiments. The chapter then reviews precursor theories and models of the reading architecture—early attempts to explain and simulate reading in its entirety. The chapter goes on to review a large, representative sample of the models that have been used to simulate and understand natural reading. Models are reviewed in their order of development to show how they have evolved to accommodate new empirical findings. The chapter concludes with an explicit comparative analysis of the models and a discussion of the empirical findings that each model can and cannot explain.
Synthesis
Authors: Reichle Erik D.
Published: February 2021

This chapter opens with a discussion of the limitations of current models of reading, and moves on to the reasons why more comprehensive models of reading are necessary to advance our understanding of the mental, perceptual, and motoric processes that support reading. The chapter then provides a comparative analysis of the various approaches that have been adopted to model reading, and how the theoretical assumptions of models of word identification, sentence processing, discourse representation, and eye-movement control might be combined to build a more comprehensive model of reading in its entirety. The remainder of the chapter then describes one such model, Über-Reader, and a series of simulations to illustrate how the model explains word identification, sentence processing, the encoding and recall of discourse meaning, and the patterns of eye movements that are observed during reading. The final sections of the chapter then address both the limitations and possible future applications of the model.
Ethnicity and “Muslim fraternity”
Authors: Türkmen Gülay
Published: February 2021

The chapter begins by introducing the case with the help of vignettes from the field. After setting the stage for the empirical puzzle, it goes on to the theoretical framework and situates the research question in the broader debates on religion and conflict, paying specific attention to religion’s role as a conflict resolution tool. It then ties these debates to the sociological literature on identity formation and ethnic boundary making and introduces the fourfold typology of religious and ethnic identities in the Kurdish conflict. To elaborate on the structural changes that have brought about these identity categories it turns to Bourdieusian field theory, discusses briefly the emergence of an autonomous religious field under the AKP, and familiarizes the reader with the actors in the political and religious fields in Turkey.
Liebig’s Law and Haber’s Tragedy
Authors: Kirchman David L.
Published: February 2021

The fertilizers commonly used by gardeners have many ingredients, but the biggest two are nitrogen and phosphorus, either of which can limit plant and algal growth. The idea that only one nutrient limits growth is encapsulated by Liebig’s Law of the Minimum, named after Justus von Liebig, a 19th-century German chemist. Liebig is also called the “father of fertilizer” because of his work on formulating and promulgating commercial fertilizers. However, he wasn’t the first to discover the Law, and he was wrong about the most important ingredient of fertilizers. This chapter outlines the arguments among limnologists, oceanographers, and geochemists about whether nitrogen or phosphorus sets the rate of algal growth and thus production of the organic material that drives oxygen depletion. The chapter discusses that the limiting nutrient varies with the type of aquatic habitat. In dead zones like the Gulf of Mexico, parts of the Baltic Sea, and Chesapeake Bay, bioassay experiments have shown that nitrogen is usually limiting. The nitrogen necessary for fertilizer and ammunitions comes from the Haber-Bosch process. The chapter reviews the life of one of the two German inventors, Fritz Haber, and how it was full of contradictions if not tragedy.
The Room Tone Song (Intermediate)
Authors: Weidenbaum Marc
Published: February 2021

The aim of this activity is to record a song in its most rudimentary, structural, and diagrammatic form. This is accomplished by employing nothing but the room tone of different spaces. The tone of one space serves as the song’s verse, and the tone of another space serves as the song’s chorus. Students are given what seems like little to work with in order to foster their compositional creativity and skill with a DAW. By stripping away some of the usual complicating factors in composition such as rhythm and pitch, the importance of form becomes more easily identifiable by learners.
Getting into Place/Space
Authors: Radford Laurie
Published: February 2021

The object of the activities outlined in this chapter is to experience the character and quality of the sound itself such as its pitch, duration, shape, gesture, timbre, and emotive impact. The following activities (Listening to Space, Writing Space, Capturing Space, and Thinking Space) explore some aspects of space that are important to embrace in music-making and provide exercises for a music and sound pedagogy that consider the “spatial” in music and sound art. Undergraduate and graduate students can become more comfortable with the basics of recording and working with a DAW while also developing an understanding of the role acoustic space plays in the recording process.
Making Signs Sound
Authors: Treß Johannes
Published: February 2021

This activity designed for students in Grade 8 aims to help learners translate visual impressions to sound. Learners are provided a graphical score as visual input first, then they go hunting for associative sounds from their immediate environment, which they record and edit afterwards. Finally, they integrate their samples into an experimental live performance of the graphic score using a dedicated hardware/software sampler. Engaging in this process results in learners improving their DAW fluency. The interdisciplinary nature of this project also reinforces the interconnectedness of various art forms and can help students to use other forms of art as inspiration in their future creative endeavors.
Field Recording and New Media Composition Basics (Advanced)
Authors: Walzer Daniel A.
Published: February 2021

Verbalizing the various qualities of a piece of art is a common way to describe the work without directly referencing it. By starting with a single descriptive word, students must begin to imagine the manifestation of the word visually and sonically. This activity challenges middle school to university learners to record a series of thematic sounds inspired by a photograph. Once compiled, the learner edits and arranges the sounds with a DAW to accompany the visual content. As students connect words with sounds and images, they begin to think compositionally and heighten their awareness to timbre. All the while, learners will strengthen their DAW skills.
Name that Synth Patch (Advanced)
Authors: Jones Simpson Misty
Published: February 2021

When looking through sound presets on keyboards, guitars, synths, or any sound generating device, it is common for the title of the preset to verbally foreshadow the sound. In this game-based activity designed for undergraduate students, learners reverse-engineer sounds determined by patch names created by their peers. Students must play their sounds and have their peers guess which name matches their sound. This activity is a useful exercise because it gets learners to more closely analyze why certain words are used to describe certain sounds. The collaborative naming process also gets students thinking about how others perceive things and how to reconcile differences in interpretation.
Affiliates and Non-Affiliates in Later Life
Authors: Bengtson Vern , Gonzales Gabrielle , Endacott Camille , Kang Samantha L. C.
Published: February 2021

The purpose of this study was to examine the types, meanings, and benefits of spiritual practices among older adults and to discuss their implications for well-being. In-depth interviews were conducted with 122 individuals, with an average age of 77. Of these, 102 were highly involved in churches or synagogues, and 20 were atheists, agnostics, secular humanists, or religiously indifferent. The chapter’s authors found a wide array of activities identified by respondents as spiritual practices, ranging from the anticipated (prayer, participating in corporate worship, reading) to the more novel (attending long-distance Bible study groups via Skype, watercolor painting). They also found an overlap between the religious and the nonreligious older adults in many spiritual practices. Most respondents reported that their spiritual practices had increased with age. Respondents perceived significant benefits from their spiritual practices. Too often, health practitioners have not been sensitive to the benefits of spiritual practices in the lives of older adults.
Religious Non-Affiliation and Objections of Conscience
Authors: Prusak Bernard G.
Published: February 2021

This chapter is concerned with the implications of growing religious non-affiliation for objections of conscience, which have proliferated lately in the culture wars of Western democracies. Through the eighteenth century, when the U.S. Constitution was framed, the concept of conscience was tightly bound to religion. This chapter’s leading question is: what force do claims of conscientious objection have in the context of growing religious non-affiliation? Underlying this question is a subtler one: what else might we lose when we lose religion? The chapter’s thesis is twofold. First, the public conception of conscience has changed under the pressure of both growing religious non-affiliation and growing religious pluralism. Second, the appeal to conscience is now much less powerful than it was when God figured more prominently in the picture. The buffer between citizen and state has become thinner, and the reasons to accommodate objections of conscience have become weaker.
Understanding and Responding to Non-Affiliation
Authors: Heft James L.
Published: February 2021

This chapter returns to the contents of the other chapters of the book and draws some tentative conclusions. At the outset, it presents some of the assumptions of the author as he approaches this topic, reviews briefly the literature on the now-outdated classic secularization thesis, and examines several historical factors that contribute to increasing non-affiliation for Catholics, including the impact and evaluations of the Second Vatican Council (Vatican II) and the possibility that we are entering a second axial age. After describing several current ways in which church people are reaching out to the non-affiliated, the chapter concludes on a hopeful note.
Value in the Development and Conclusion of Abstract Right
Authors: Moyar Dean
Published: February 2021

This chapter is a reading of “Abstract Right” that demonstrates the centrality of value and inference to the account. Hegel’s account unfolds private property as the immediate expression of the free will in the external world. When the argument turns toward the use of property, Hegel’s account of value comes to the fore as the universality of property ownership that is implicit in the right to use what one owns. While dealt with only briefly in the published Philosophy of Right, value gets a much more extensive treatment in the 1824–1825 lectures, where it becomes the main concept for understanding the process and result of the alienation of property. The chapter shows that the transition from alienation to contract brings Hegel’s account of mutual recognition to the fore along with an inferential equivalence form of value. Equivalence of value is a central dimension of punishment, but that equivalence can be secured only with the transition to the moral will.
The Living Good
Authors: Moyar Dean
Published: February 2021

This chapter provides the structural underpinnings of the overall system of Sittlichkeit that Hegel calls “the living Good.” The goal of this chapter is to put the preceding account of the inferential validity of right together with the model of life from Chapter 1. The chapter first explains the metaphysical claims in the introduction to “Ethical Life” as claims about value. The chapter provides a new interpretation of the identity of right and duties in “Ethical Life,” arguing that Hegel endorses both right-as-duty and right-as-return-on-duty. A template is developed for institutional rationality that consists of three steps needed to build a living institution. The model is illustrated through an analysis of Hegel’s treatment of the family, and the model is shown to provide a way to carry out an immanent critique of Hegel’s own account.
The Sovereignty of the Good
Authors: Moyar Dean
Published: February 2021

This chapter begins with a treatment of Hegel’s conception of the sovereignty of the State in the person of the individual monarch. It is argued that the sovereign authority is bound to the inferential articulation of the living Good. Hegel’s treatment of external sovereignty focuses on the welfare of the individual State in opposition to other States in an external form of recognition. The logic of recognition results not in a world State, but rather in a conception of world Spirit as the rationality of right in its development in time. World Spirit is best read as the unfolding of the Good rather than as a process set apart from morality. It is shown that the key conclusion of Hegel’s argument is the convergence of the State, religion, and philosophy. The chapter unpacks the bearing of this convergence claim on Hegel’s understanding of the relation of the State and religion, showing how religion functions as the bearer of the living Good at a higher level of spiritual practice. Hegel conceives of philosophy as an evaluative discipline that can both reconcile individuals to the rationality of the world and liberate both individuals and the social order.
The Treasured Five Move into the Later Nineteenth Century
Authors: Fenech Louis E.
Published: February 2021

This chapter examines the Panj Piare story in the works of Giani Gian Singh, specifically Panth Prakash (1880) and Tavarikh Guru Khalsa (1892–1921), and it situates this examination in the context of Gian Singh’s historical environment. This study of the Panj Piare narrative in these texts provides us with insight into the messages that Gian Singh was encoding throughout his prolific career, messages that were very much aligned with the trajectory that was plotted by the Sikh intellectual movements of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the Singh Sabha and the Tat Khalsa.