bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Diffusion‐weighted interleaved echo‐planar imaging with a pair of orthogonal navigator echoes
Authors: Butts Kim , de Crespigny Alex , Pauly John M. , Moseley Michael
Published: March 2007

This work describes a diffusion‐weighted (DW) interleaved echo‐planar imaging (IEPI) method for use on either conventional whole‐body scanners or scanners equipped with highspeed gradient and receiver hardware. In combination with cardiac gating and motion correction with a pair of orthogonal navigator echoes, the presented method is time‐efficient, compensates for patient motions, and is less sensitive to image distortions than single‐shot methods. The motion‐correction scheme consists of correction for constant and linear phase terms found from the orthogonal navigator echoes. The correction for the linear phase term in the phase‐encode direction includes gridding the data to the Cartesian grid. The DW IEPI was used to image a phantom rotating about the slice‐select direction, and motion correction was performed to eliminate ghost artifacts arising from motion in either the readout‐ or phase‐encoding directions. DW IEPI with motion correction was performed on a normal volunteer and on a patient with a 26‐day‐old region of ischemia over much of the right hemisphere.
Self-Directed Adult Learning: A Critical Paradigm
Authors: Brookfield Stephen
Published: March 2007

Research into self-directed learning constitutes a chief growth area in the field of adult education research in the last decade. This paper argues that the propensity and capacity of many adults to conduct self-directed learning projects is now well proven, and that researchers should now infuse a spirit of self-critical scrutiny into this developing field of research. The paper advances four criticisms regarding the current state of self-directed learning research and offers suggestion for shifts in the research paradigm governing this field. The criticisms voiced refer to (1) the emphasis on middle class adults as the sampling frame for studies of this mode of learning, (2) the almost exclusive use of quantitative or quasi-quantitative measures in assessing the extent of learning and the concomitant lack of attention to its quality, (3) the emphasis on the individual dimensions of such learning to the exclusion of any consideration of the social context in which it occurs and, finally, (4) to the absence of any extended discussion of the considerable implications raised by these studies for questions of social and political change.
Freedom's Crucible: William T. Richardson and the Schooling of the Freedmen
Authors: Rachal John R.
Published: March 2007

Early in the Civil War, the Sea Islands near South Carolina and some 10,000 slaves fell into Union hands. Abolitionists saw an opportunity to aid these newly freed slaves. In what became known as the Port Royal Experiment, northern volunteers became teachers and plantation superintendents. This was perhaps the first federal involvement, though indirect, in adult basic education. Literacy education became an important aspect of the "Experiment," largely through William T. Richardson, a member of the American Missionary Association. He founded teaching in night schools for the freed slaves and promoted adult classes among A.M.A. teachers. His work with this unique adult population offers a provocative first-person look at a chapter in adult basic education's history.
Dropout Prediction Within a Broad Psychosocial Context: An Analysis of Boshier's Congruence Model
Authors: Garrison D. R.
Published: March 2007

One of the best known conceptualizations of dropout in adult education is Boshier's congruence model. This model, however, based largely on self concept incongruency variables, has been criticized for its psychological reductionism. In addition, the model's generalizability has been questioned because it was based upon a single study using a sample of university continuing education students. To test the validity of these criticisms and determine the relative power of the incongruency variables in predicting dropout behavior, this study analyzed Boshier's constructs in concert with a variety of other socioeconomic and psychological variables using a population of adult high school completion students. The results revealed that not only were the incongruency variables poor predictors of dropout for this sample of adult learners, but that dropouts had less self/other incongruence. This finding brought into question the adequacy and generalizability of the congruence model in explaining adult dropout behavior. It was suggested that dropout studies be approached from a holistic psychosocial perspective and that generalization be limited to situationally specific populations.
Program Planning As Technology In Three Adult Education Organizations
Authors: Burnham Byron R.
Published: March 2007

Program planning models abound in the literature, but what is absent is a framework in which models can be related to one another and to the organizations which perform program planning. This study borrows and reformulates the concept of technology from organization theory and applies it to program planning in an attempt to explain variability in practices examined in three adult education units. A framework of adult education technology is developed and then compared. A combination of interviews, organization history, and record and report analysis provided the comparative data. It was found that program planning (technology) did vary among organizations, however, the framework of technologies employed was not sufficient to describe the mixed types of technology encountered.
Cost-Benefit Analysis of Employee Training: A Literature Review
Authors: Blomberg Robert
Published: March 2007

This article reviews current literature related to cost-benefit analysis of employee training programs. After a conceptual stage is set and the meaning of terms is clarified, methodologies for measuring costs and benefits, and problems related to this process are discussed. Primary and secondary beneficiaries of training are identified. The need for distributional assignments of costs as a function of benefit is described. Following the identification of problems inherent in cost-benefit research, concluding comments focus on the need for practical applications of cost-benefit research.
Structural Determinants of Publicly Subsidized Adult Education
Authors: Nordhaug Odd
Published: March 2007

The article reports a study of structural determinants of the volume of publicly subsidized adult education activity in Norwegian municipalities. The structural determinants comprise material structures, population structures, and collective economic resources. Hypotheses for the relationship between indicators of these structures and the local amount of adult education activity are elaborated and a multivariate empirical analysis is presented.
How Pregnant Women Learn About Selected Health Issues: Learning Transaction Types
Authors: Strychar Irene M. , Griffith William S. , Conry Robert F. , Sork Thomas J.
Published: March 2007

Understanding the nature and scope of learning during pregnancy is the basis upon which educators can assist pregnant women during their learning as well as have a positive effect on pregnancy outcome. The purposes of this research were to determine how women learn about weight gain, alcohol consumption, and tobacco use during pregnancy and to identify the relationship between learning, knowledge, and health behaviors. Learning transaction types were developed for this study and provide adult educators with a profile of the environmental learning circumstances of pregnant women. Development of learning transaction types was based upon an adaptation of Tough's concept of planners and Knowles's concept of self-directed learners. Transaction types consisted of the following components: time in learning, settings of learning, and initiators of the learning episodes. The ex post facto research design involved one hour interviews with 127 women at eight hospitals. The majority of women had spent most of their time engaged in other-initiated learning episodes in the one-to-one and nonhuman settings. Learning transaction types were not associated with health behaviors, but were associated with knowledge about smoking issues.
Transportation in Orbit
Authors: Fox Mott George
Published: March 2007

Transportation has now no geographical frontiers. Its role is so vital to modern civilization that it has become more than a service function—it has become a partner of the government, the commerce, and the society which it serves and represents the occupation and livelihood of a large section of the population as well. Having developed piecemeal, it has been subject to patchwork regulation and is uneven in its performance. By the nature of the dilemmas facing the industry, transportation administration and co-ordination lag far behind transportation technology. This state is critical today, and a renaissance in transportation has been taking place and is on the verge of great acceleration. Many leaders in transportation areas are active in planning for and carrying out improvements in transportation policy and operation. Many inequities and operational lags need to be corrected. Common carriers, the backbone of the system, are operating under financial, political, and manpower difficulties. The rivalry of air and highway carriers has faced the railroads with competition which their heavily regulated quasi-public-utility status has not helped them to meet. Full advantage cannot be taken of technological improvements, due to regulations which are now inequitable or inappropriate or simply unworkable or unwieldy. Labor, from an embattled position at the beginning and during the flush period of transportation expansion, has now become an equal protagonist with management in the transportation system. Transportation labor and management have not yet reached full co-ordination for total utilization of their resources. Transportation capital has not been freed of its fetters; costing and pricing have become increasingly unrealistic and inoperative in the market place. Political pressures now carry equal weight with economic and service factors. Transport leaders in a pool of experience and knowledge are aware of the imperfections of the system, and many of them have sound plans for replacing dislocation and loss with co-ordination, profit, and the full service efficiency the system is capable of offering.
The Causes of Peace and Conditions of War
Authors: Fox William T.R.
Published: March 2007

What makes wars end ("the causes of peace") and what keeps wars from ending ("the conditions of war") has been much less studied than what makes wars start ("the causes of war") and what keeps wars from starting ("the con ditions of peace"). Past inattention to war termination prob lems is variously explained by political scientists' concern with war avoidance, strategists' concern with victory and deter rence, and pervasive doubts that thermonuclear war can be kept from running its full course. Protracted, large-scale, non- atomic asymmetrical war—limited for the major power par ticipant but unlimited for the local, post-colonial minor power —and apocalyptic thermonuclear exchange are the two types of war which mainly concern students of war termination. Although there is brief reference to forces making the par ticipants in thermonuclear war strenuously seek early termina tion, if only to save their cities, the main emphasis is on war termination in large-scale, limited war. The problem is dis cussed chiefly from the point of view of a major power seeking to take a "turn toward peace," eschewing victory but unwilling to accept defeat. Factors favoring termination are discussed in terms of the world political pressures for peace, constraints keeping the two sides from using fully the coercive force avail able, competing high-priority domestic policy objectives, the translation of battlefield results into more realistic expecta tions and moderated war objectives, the continuous calculus of sacrifices still to be made and gains still to be realized, and the problem of making peace proposals which are both understood and acceptable.
A Living Wage
Authors: Fusfeld Daniel R.
Published: March 2007

The only effective way to eliminate poverty in the United States is to pay all workers a living wage, defined as one that would enable a worker to maintain an urban fam ily of four in health and decency. In 1972 that implied a minimum wage of 3.50 dollars per hour. Such a minimum wage would have important repercussions on the low wage industries and the workers they employ. The impact on busi ness firms can be eased by special tax and loan programs. The most important problems will arise from loss of jobs as the low wage industries adapt to the high minimum wage. A three-pronged program is called for: ( 1 ) full employment, (2) public service employment and (3) education and train ing. A sharply accelerated equal opportunity employment program will also be needed, because many low wage workers are Blacks, Latins and women. This program implies a re distribution of income in favor of the low wage worker that could be negated by wage increases for other workers, trigger ing price increases throughout the economy. Reduced income taxes for workers with annual incomes above 7,000 dollars and up to perhaps 15,000 dollars will be needed to overcome that effect. The net result would be an end to poverty and to many of its social evils.
A World of Unequal Incomes
Authors: Kravis Irving B.
Published: March 2007

Income inequality is usually greater in poor countries than in rich countries. Among rich countries, in comes tend to be more equally distributed in those countries which have relatively homogeneous populations, for example, in Denmark. Socialist countries have more equality in income distribution than other countries. These facts suggest that, among nonsocialist countries, incomes should become more equal as the level of income rises. Generally, this has indeed been the historical experience of the advanced industrial coun tries in the last century or so. However, it is possible that income distribution became less equal at an earlier stage of development. This hypothesis of inequality widening and then narrowing as per capita incomes rise is supported by current comparisons of inequality in different countries. This would be consistent with a tendency for income inequality to increase over time in a number of today's less developed coun tries (LDCs). It is possible, particularly where the rate of growth in per capita gross national product ( GNP ) is not rapid, that the real as well as the relative income of the lower income groups may decline. The degree of inequality in the world as a whole seems to be greater than that found within most countries. There does not appear to have been very much change in the degree of world income inequality in the last quarter century.
Measured Inequality of Income: What Does It Mean and What Can It Tell Us?
Authors: Lampman Robert J.
Published: March 2007

What can be called the American standard method of reporting income inequality needs to be seen as a highly simplified treatment of a complex matter. Broad gen eralizations, particularly with regard to changes in inequality over time, are to be mistrusted. Special purpose distributions, including one on the distributional effects of a broadly con ceived system of transfers, might be more useful than the one overall distribution. The latter does not significantly help in understanding the causes of, and justifications for, existing income inequalities. It has had only limited use as a per formance indicator for the national economy and is seldom referred to when decisions about specific legislative measures that have redistributional effects are made. This may be because public concern does not focus upon overall income equality as such, but upon particular differences.
Assessing the Nature and Dimensions of the Drug Problem
Authors: Kupperstein Lenore R.
Published: March 2007

Over the years, various attempts have been made to define, describe and measure the nature and dimensions of psychoactive drug use in the United States. The purpose of this article is to address the problems of definition associated with the traditional concept of "drug abuse"; to examine the various formulations of "the drug problem"; to assess the efficacy of the survey method and other research techniques currently utilized to estimate the nature and extent of drug use; and to report on some of the efforts made by the National Commission on Marihuana and Drug Abuse to provide guidance and direction in this area to researchers and policy makers alike.
Social Mobility and Social Participation
Authors: Sewell William H.
Published: March 2007

This article examines the charts and tables contained in chapter 11 of Social Indicators, 1976 covering a wide range of social behavior under the general topic "Social Mobility and Social Participation." The topics covered include educational and occupational mobility, voting in national elections, volunteer work, charitable giving, participation in community organizations, views on religion, and feelings of anomie. Most readers will agree that this is a potpourri of topics but that all have bearing on the well-being of citizens. There would be less agreement on the significance of most of the indicators for public policy. The factual conclusions that can be drawn from the tables and charts are discussed and additional information from recent research on some of the topics is presented—particu— larly on educational and occupational mobility, voting and political behavior, and participation in community organizations.
Black Political Empowerment in Atlanta: Myth and Reality
Authors: Jones Mack H.
Published: March 2007

Much of the scholarly literature on black political life in the United States may be appropriately classified as atheoretical. This paper develops a theoretical framework for understanding black politics and assessing black power in America. The distinguishing characteristic of black political life is the subordination of blacks by whites and the concomitent institutionalized belief that white domination is a function of the inherent superiority of whites. Given this as a frame of reference, the evolution of black political power in Atlanta is traced. The discussion is divided into two periods, the first beginning in 1965 and extending to 1973, when Atlanta elected its first black mayor, and the second covering the first four years of the latter's incumbency.
Americans in the Global Learning Process
Authors: Rhinesmith Stephen H.
Published: March 2007

A new international, economic, social, and political order will rest upon shared perceptions of common global problems and their best solution. These shared perceptions will be developed when Americans and others can reach beyond their own traditional cultural perspectives and overcome their initial psychological anxieties when approaching the challenges of a global society. While it is doubtful that these concerns can ever be modified to the extent necessary to build a culturally-integrated world, public policymakers and educational leaders must realize that enabling Americans to contribute to an interdependent world is not just a matter of more information, but involves a much deeper issue affecting the values, beliefs, attitudes, and lifestyle of the American people. The task to be undertaken is no less than a cultural transition and the peace of the United States and the world depends upon how successfully it can be achieved.
Handguns in the Twenty-First Century: Alternative Policy Futures
Authors: Zimring Franklin E.
Published: March 2007

This article speculates about public policy toward handguns in the United States a generation in the future. Two mutually exclusive national policies are described. The first policy, federal support for state and local varia tion in handgun control, represents a logical extension of historical trends in federal firearms control since the 1930s. The second policy, federal commitment to reduce substantially the availability of handguns nationwide, would represent a significant departure from previous federal regulatory ap proaches. This more stringent regulatory approach might evolve from increasing interdependence, continuing high rates of handgun violence, and public perception that hand gun control based on state and local variation is fundamentally unworkable. Public attitudes toward handguns as instruments of household self-defense are one key leading indicator of future federal policy directions. If the handgun in the house remains a respectable means of self-defense, restrictive proposals at the national level are probably doomed. A future decline in the social status of the loaded handgun in the home would create a policy climate more favorable to sharp reduction of the civilian handgun inventory.
Inflation: Cancer on the American Body Politic
Authors: Staats Elmer B.
Published: March 2007

Inflation is a signal that a serious malfunction exists in the American economy. Given that this malfunction will not necessarily correct itself, some form of intervention by policymakers is necessary. Price increases in the health, housing, and higher education sectors have caused a great deal of hardship with some individuals unable to obtain adequate health care, others unable to purchase a home, and still others unable to attend college. In addition, state and local government has been hard hit and the rising price of oil has made life very difficult for many. For the economy as a whole, inflation has led to confusion in economic decision making, distorted the tax system, and increased the risks to investment and innovation. Although our current inflation has not meant falling real income, the growth of income has been slower than in the 1960s because inflation has helped to depress the level of savings and investment. Inflation has also redistributed income, not systematically, but haphazardly. Fiscal restraint and close coordination between federal and monetary authorities is necessary if inflation is to be brought under control. However, fiscal restraint will not be easy both because cuts in federal expenditures will exacerbate the problems people now face in the markets for such items as health and housing and because a large share of the budget is indexed to the consumer price index. Changes should be made in this indexing procedure. In addition, every effort to reverse the decline in productivity should be made, if inflation is to be brought under control.
Decentralization and Economic Growth
Authors: TEUNE HENRY
Published: March 2007

This article addresses the question of whether political decentralization is compatible with economic growth. Although the so-called causes of economic growth are indeterminant, governmental centralization has clearly been associated with it for more than a century in industrialized Western democracies. Arguments have been made for the functions of government in facilitating and integrating national markets. The position of this article is that beginning in the 1960s governmental centralization began to shift its role from a contributing to a dampening factor in the processes of economic growth. In fact most of the Western democracies are attempting to reverse the long-term trend of central governmental concentration, whether or not this fosters economic growth.
Men at Middle Age: Developmental Transitions
Authors: TAMIR LOIS M.
Published: March 2007

The transition to middle age can simultaneously be a time of peak performance and a time of psychological setbacks in the lives of men. In the process of preparing for the second half of life, the man must deal with health issues, his imminent death, self-assessment, his sex role, and his responsibilities to future generations. The working through of these tasks is reflected in the work, family, and social lives of men at this stage. At the work place the man must either accept his failure to achieve his long-term goals or he must decide if having reached his goals has been worth the effort. Many men, as a result, disengage from the work place as their major source of personal fulfillment. On the other hand, interpersonal relations begin to come to prominence at the middle-age transition. The marital bond and sense of social connectedness felt by the individual become more integrally related to personal well-being at this time. The policy makers and corporate enterprises so entwined in the lives and well-being of men need to take into account these issues of middle age in order to ease the transition and to avoid the necessity of making a painful choice between occupational and interpersonal fulfillment.
Public Management in the 1980s and Beyond
Authors: KRAMER FRED A.
Published: March 2007

Critics of public management lament government's failure to use more businesslike methods. This criticism implies that the private sector is better managed than the public sector. Although this is not always the case, there are many techniques that have proved successful in the private sector that can be applied to public management problems. Public management traditions are changing. More sophisticated measures of program effectiveness are being developed. Some aspects of competition can be harnessed for better public management. Public managers are increasingly aware of such techniques and have used them when there has been political support. Under conditions of fiscal stress, for example, political forces have sometimes encouraged managers to use the spirit of budget reforms rather than just the rationalistic facade of such reforms. New public management techniques will be used only if political support for the consequences of these techniques can be mobilized.
The Demography of Refugees
Authors: HUYCK EARL E. , BOUVIER LEON F.
Published: March 2007

This article focuses on the numbers of refugees in the world by major areas. It gives some background on refugee movements and characteristics in order to suggest parameters of future movements, and especially of those that may have implications for the United States with respect to (1) assistance programs in situ or (2) acceptance of refugees into the United States.
The Nuclear Freeze and the Politics of Illusion
Authors: LEHMAN JOSEPH D.
Published: March 2007

The advent of the Reagan administration brought about a radically new approach to the issue of nuclear arms control. Some have said that this new approach is really going to destroy the process altogether, while others believe it to be a more realistic and thus more promising opportunity for real arms reduction. One of the negative reactions has been the rise of the nuclear freeze movement. The constituent groups of this movement are diverse but share a common trait: they depend on, or deal in, illusion. For that is what arms control was under SALT, and is under the freeze. These groups are a large number of more or less sophisticated but genuinely concerned and fearful citizens; a group of opportunistic politicians; and the arms control community-in-exile. Unless and until these groups recognize the failures of the past and the necessity of abandoning self-delusion, we will inevitably repeat our mistakes, and arms control will again put form before substance.
Here Today, Gone Tomorrow—Nuclear Deterrence in the 1990s?
Authors: KUPPERMAN ROBERT H. , van Opstal Debra
Published: March 2007

The United States faces a curious yet profound dilemma: we want to reduce the world's nuclear weapons but do not know how to do so without increasing rather than decreasing the threat that these weapons will be used. More and better of everything is clearly no answer; but it is not axiomatic that less is always more secure. Indeed the danger with small nuclear forces is that even marginal alternation in agreed-upon numbers can create a possibly decisive difference in the real balance of power. Nor does a defensive strategy—specifically the use of antiballistic missile systems—offer the technological panacea to render nuclear weapons obsolete. All systems leak; the question is, How badly? Anything much less than a perfect defense would more likely fuel an arms race—resulting in escalation on both the offense and the defense—than end it. In the end, what we need are analytically derived combinations of offense and defense by which we can realistically achieve dramatic weapons reductions without commensurate reductions in national security.
The Case for Disarmament: Some Personal Reflections on the United States and Disarmament
Authors: PRICE CHARLES C.
Published: March 2007

Nuclear war would represent an unparalleled catastrophe for civilization. Even preparation for it wastes resources, drains the world economy, breeds hatred, fear and suspicion, degrades moral principles, and demeans respect for human life. The United Nations has proved inadequate to prevent war. Arms control is merely an effort to manage the war system, not to end it. Deterrence is bound to fail eventually, and U.S. military policy has already shifted to preparation for nuclear war. In a 1961 Joint Statement of Agreed Principles for Disarmament Negotiations, the United States and the USSR agreed (1) to abolish all national military establishments, (2) to strengthen the United Nations for peacekeeping and conflict resolution, and (3) to establish an International Disarmament Organization with the right of unrestricted access to monitor the agreement. After two decades of U.S. obstruction, it is time to establish a vigorous U.S. effort to elaborate and update the Agreed Principles as the foundation for an effective, acceptable alternative to war. The development of effective institutions to establish disarmament in a peaceful world and to manage the economic, political, and social challenges of the increasingly interdependent world community demands active and dedicated attention.
Impacts of the High Technologies on Vocational and Technical Education
Authors: GROFF WARREN H.
Published: March 2007

The industrial nations of the world are in the turbulent times of a structural shift from an industrial society to a technological society. This shift is evident in the unprecedented rate and scope of change in science and technology. The infusion of high technologies that constitute the automated factory or the factory of the future is having and will continue to have a profound impact on vocational and technical education. Institutions of secondary and postsecondary occupational education must develop processes to (1) plan and manage strategically, (2) upgrade curriculum and methods of instruction to reflect state-of-the-art technology, (3) develop programs that focus on human resource development, and (4) demonstrate an adequate return on investment in terms of value added to individuals and society. These issues must be addressed if there is to be a closer relationship between occupational education and the economy, and if this nation's people are to be the beneficiaries of science and technology.
Deinstitutionalization and Welfare Policies
Authors: LERMAN PAUL
Published: March 2007

Before America began creating a federally based welfare state in the 1930s, most publicly funded responses to social problems had an institutional bias. The ways in which the welfare programs initiated 50 years ago have helped to influence institutional trends, and are likely to continue doing so in the future, constitute the major focus of this analysis. Four special problem groups are assessed from a historical perspective: (1) the dependent aged and the movement from local almshouses and state insane asylums to nursing homes; (2) the mentally ill and the movement from state hospitals to a variety of local medical and nonmedical residences; (3) the developmentally disabled—formerly the mentally retarded—and the movement from state schools to private community residential facilities; and (4) the dependent/neglected and delinquent youth and the movement away from orphan asylums and training schools to group homes, treatment centers, adolescent psychiatric units, halfway houses, and outdoor camps. Recent trends and projections, as well as present and future policy issues, are assessed.
Civil Religion in an Uncivil Society
Authors: DEMERATH N. J. , WILLIAMS RHYS H.
Published: March 2007

Civil religion denotes a religion of the nation, a nonsectarian faith that has as its sacred symbols those of the polity and national history. Recent scholars have portrayed it as a cohesive force, a common canopy of values that helps foster social and cultural integration, but this perspective may now be at odds with a complex reality. Ours is an increasingly differentiated society with the rise of group politics and subcultures. The forms of civil religion remain, but the cultural cohesion it purportedly reflects is dissolving. Civil-religious discourse has become a tool for legitimating social movements and interest-group politics. A critical examination of the current uses of civil religion must lead to a critical reanalysis of the society at large as well as the concept itself.
Stability and Partnership in the Maghreb
Authors: LAÏDI ZAKI
Published: March 2007

This article assesses Soviet policy in the Maghrebian region, comprising Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, and Mauritania. It discusses Maghrebian regional dynamics, as well as specific Soviet relations with Algeria and Libya. Soviet policy is primarily one of caution, because of U.S. interest in the region and because the region is not of strategic significance to Moscow. Soviet regional influence is weaker than that of the United States or France. Soviet-Maghrebian relations in the economic and military spheres are based on a reciprocity of needs and expectations.
Basic Data Concerning Immigration into the United States
Authors: SIMON JULIAN L.
Published: March 2007

This article provides a wide range of data measuring the volume of international migration into and out of the United States and describing the immigrants' demographic and labor market characteristics. Data from Canada, Australia, Great Britain, and Israel show a pattern consistent with that of the United States. The volume of immigration, both relative to population size and in absolute numbers, is lower than it was at the turn of this century. Present-day immigrants, like immigrants always and everywhere, tend to be youthful adults who have not yet attained full family size. Contemporary immigrants tend to be substantially more concentrated in the professional and highest education groups than the native labor force, with a slightly higher concentration in the lowest education groups as well. Immigrant groups generally have higher labor force participation than native groups. Their fertility is no higher, and in most groups is lower, than the natives'. These demographic and behavioral characteristics emerge despite the fact that only a very small proportion of present-day immigrants into the United States are admitted through skill preferences, whereas most are admitted for family reconstitution.
Introduction: The Global Dimensions of the Employment Issue
Authors: PFALLER ALFRED
Published: March 2007

The resurgence of mass unemployment on a global scale is closely associated with the slowdown of worldwide economic growth to which the labor markets have not yet adjusted. The global character of the problem can be approached under the perspective of increased interdependence of national economies, which might require more coordinated growth policies. On the other hand, lack of coordination appears as less central to those who diagnose the breakdown of the whole postwar syndrome of mutually reinforcing growth-conducive conditions. To reestablish a new growth syndrome might even require restrictions on the trend toward internationalization. Either approach is represented in various shades among the articles in this volume, some of which also focus on the adjustment of national labor markets to the condition of slow worldwide growth. An additional theme brought up in this volume is the importance of political priorities for dealing with the challenge of global unemployment.
Neighborhood, Family, and Jobs— Necessary, But Not Sufficient
Authors: STEELE MARILYN
Published: March 2007

There is an assumption that youth violence will wane if we support family-substitute networks whose members are employed in neighborhood services. However, too narrow a focus on family, neighborhood, and jobs fails to address academic and employment skills as preconditions for employment and fails to address preconditions for well-run grass-roots organizations. High-risk youth often experience not one but several problems, including low self-esteem, poor school performance, drug and alcohol use, early sexual activity, teen pregnancy, and dropping out of school. The financial resources for an attack on these problems flow to the states, which are in poor positions to address these issues because state human service agencies often fail to coordinate their programs or monitor the outcomes of their grants. The Mott Foundation's experience suggests that varied well-managed and well-monitored community-oriented programs can influence high-risk young clients positively. While the role of foundations is to support research and demonstration projects, a larger source of program support is the government, whose policymakers should be aware of all conditions necessary for programs that may favorably affect young lives.
State Constitutions in the Federal System
Authors: KINCAID JOHN
Published: March 2007

State constitutionalism has undergone a certain revitalization in recent decades due to the efforts of state electorates and officials to reform and modernize state government, the willingness of many state high courts to redevelop state constitutional law as an independent body of law, and the expansion of federal constitutional law requiring adjustments in state constitutional law. State constitutions remain important as instruments of local self-government even though the field of state constitutional choice has been circumscribed by federal constitutional law. A basic distinguishing characteristic of state constitutions is their reliance on direct popular consent and control. This characteristic is a matter of conflict in state constitutional change because it produces long and detailed constitutions subject to easy popular amendment. Despite reform efforts to streamline state constitutions and limit majoritarian influences, most state electorates continue to prefer more consent and control of government under state constitutions than are available under the U.S. Constitution.
The Public Employee's Stake in State Constitutional Rights
Authors: FRIESEN JENNIFER
Published: March 2007

The idea that public employees are able to assert any constitutional rights against their government employers is a relatively recent development in American law. Federal constitutional law no longer permits the wholesale invasion of public employee rights to free speech, though it still reflects a tendency to treat public employees as second-class citizens. State constitutional law is just beginning to make contributions to the public employee's rights of privacy, equality, and free speech. State constitutional guarantees that protect these three interests tend to be more explicit and, therefore, potentially more protective of employee liberties than federal law. Enforcement of these state guarantees, however, is seriously hampered by lack of legislative enthusiasm. State legislators should fulfill their solemn oath to protect and defend the state constitution by enacting laws that provide compensation for victims of unconstitutional acts.
Localism in State Constitutional Law
Authors: BRIFFAULT RICHARD
Published: March 2007

It is a truism of state constitutional law that states have plenary authority over local governments. Some scholars believe that giving local governments more power would be an appropriate reform. A review of the school finance and exclusionary zoning litigations of the past two decades, however, indicates that local governments have considerable autonomy and that many state courts are committed to notions of local control. This state court commitment to localism has frequently been grounded in concerns for protection of the home and family. Such localism is problematic given the limited fiscal capacity of many localities and the external effects of certain local actions. Many localities would, in fact, be better off if the states were compelled to assume greater oversight and fiscal responsibility for local affairs.
Social Care: Family and Community Support Systems
Authors: CANTOR MARJORIE H.
Published: March 2007

The growing number of elderly is bringing about dramatic changes in family life, in the nature and extent of interventions necessary to support an aging population, and in our notions about respective roles of family and community in providing for these needs. Although most older people manage independently with only the ordinary assistance family members provide each other, growing numbers of the oldest old and persons suffering from frailty and incapacity require more extensive social care. The term “social care” is often used synonymously with “formal community services,” but the concept is broader, also encompassing informal family care. Social care is directed toward needs critical to independence: socialization and self-development, help in tasks of daily living, and assistance with personal care. At present, older people prefer that social care be provided within a family context, turning to formal community interventions only when families are unable to provide the required assistance. But given increases in numbers of working women, the restructuring of the family, and changing attitudes about the community's role as service provider, a more carefully articulated partnership between family and community will be required in the future.
East German Traditional Centralism: An Alternative Route to Economic Reconstruction
Authors: BRYSON PHILLIP J.
Published: March 2007

This article is a response to the question of why the German Democratic Republic (GDR) has not demonstrated any inclination to adopt economic reforms, although most socialist countries have. Since the early 1980s, the GDR has made extensive efforts to refine its planning organization and techniques. Continual changes, less dramatic than those announced by the Soviet Union and some other socialist countries, were long considered plan perfecting rather than economic reform. This article reviews some highlights of the East German plan amelioration effort and attempts to show how the success achieved by Planvervollkommnung has been at least partially responsible for the GDR's reluctance to embrace glasnost and perestroika. The prospects for change in the current GDR position are discussed. The East German determination to avoid fundamental, systemic change persists, and there is as yet no acknowledged willingness to adopt market-oriented economic reform or pursue dramatic changes in property rights. One should observe, however, that the GDR has since the beginning retained a private handicrafts sector and private ownership of land.
Reviewing Bilingual-Education Research for Congress
Authors: MULHAUSER FREDERICK
Published: March 2007

What does research say about how to teach the large number of young people in U.S. schools who have limited proficiency in English—should they be taught in their native language or not? Former Education Secretary William Bennett read the evidence as negative and beginning in 1985 proposed to eliminate any native-language requirement from the federal bilingual program. Others read the evidence differently. At the request of Congress, the U.S. General Accounting Office assessed the validity of the department's interpretation of the research, using an expert panel to examine published reviews. The experts generally believed there was evidence for the legal requirement that native language be used to the extent necessary to meet two goals, learning English and keeping up in schoolwork in all subjects. Feasibility, not effectiveness, proved to be the main issue, however, when Congress acted to broaden potential funding for non-native-language programs in 1988.
The Newton Alternative to Bilingual Education
Authors: PORTER ROSALIE PEDALINO
Published: March 2007

A twenty-year debate has divided educators over the question of the use of the native language in the education of language-minority children whose English-language skills are not developed enough for regular classroom work. The dramatic increase in the number of these children — refugees, legal and illegal immigrants, and the native born — together with the diversity of languages and ethnic groups represented dictates a need for a variety of educational solutions. The Newton, Massachusetts, public school district has developed a model program that, without relying on the use of the native language, provides a comprehensive array of services. The program goals are clear, closely focused, and have the understanding and approval of teachers and parents. Newton's program responds to the needs of language-minority children from thirty different language origins and a very wide range of socioeconomic backgrounds. Its main features can be implemented, partly or entirely, in other school districts with similarly diverse populations.
Population Change in a Rural Area of Bangladesh, 1967-87
Authors: MENKEN JANE , PHILLIPS JAMES F.
Published: March 2007

The Matlab subdistrict of Bangladesh is unique in the developing world in the extent of demographic data available over a long time period, during which a serious famine occurred and a family planning program that employed village women as home visitors was introduced within the context of maternal and child health services. These data demonstrate that fertility in this population is well below the maximum biologically feasible, primarily due to the long and intense breast-feeding practiced, that seasonality of births is pronounced, and that fertility drops in response to drastic food shortage. Sex differences in mortality favor males, but during famine the disparity was reduced. Despite arguments that family planning programs are ineffective and use resources that could be applied in areas more relevant to development, the Matlab family planning program has led to both reduced fertility and reduced mortality and may be changing the status and roles of women.
International Oil: The Scandinavian Dimension
Authors: DAVIS JEROME D.
Published: March 2007

The recurrent energy crises of the past 17 years and the not unrelated rapid development of North Sea oil and gas reserves have had an impact on all the Scandinavian countries, both those with offshore interests and those without. Yet despite calls for Nordic cooperation in this field, such cooperation is virtually nonexistent. It is argued here that this failure is due to the nature of the international oil and gas regime. The analysis is based on four arguments: (1) there is an international oil and gas regime; (2) the dynamics of this regime do not necessarily further intergovernmental cooperation; (3) the current moribund status of Scandinavian cooperation can be ascribed to the nature of this regime; and (4) while the future is uncertain, there is little basis for hope that cooperative institutions can be designed to conform to the diverse expectations of the states involved.