bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Apostasy in Islam
Authors: Keles Ozcan
Published: July 2023

As the first of the two empirical chapters, Chapter 3 looks at how and why the social movement practice of Hizmet produced socially transformative Islamic knowledge on human rights that amounted to a reinterpretation (ijtihad) of the premodern Islamic doctrine on apostasy—one of the two most contested issues in the context of Islam and human rights. It does so by tracing the interplay within and between Hizmet’s doings and sayings over an expansive temporospatial axis. The chapter shows how and why this outcome ensued organically, unassumingly, and unintentionally by combining production, assimilation, legitimisation, and articulation of the emergent reinterpretation into one relational process where knowing arose from the ‘doing-body’ to the ‘thinking-mind’ rather than vice versa. Accordingly, this form of knowledge production accounts for the changing of sensibility as well as scriptural justification through the symbiotic relationship between two movements: internalisation and externalisation aided by cognitive compromise and dissonance.
In the Shadow of Vietnam
Authors: Fibiger Mattias
Published: July 2023

This chapter argues that the September Thirtieth Movement plunged Indonesia into crisis and inaugurated a critical juncture in which Suharto launched his Cold War. The Indonesian army orchestrated an anticommunist politicide in which a broad coalition of civil society groups participated. Suharto also set in motion a slow-moving coup d’état that entailed efforts to undermine Sukarno, forge a political coalition, establish institutional authority, and secure international support. Indonesia’s deepening economic crisis provided a critical point of leverage. Suharto and the army worked to starve the Sukarno regime of international capital and exacerbate the misery that drove hundreds of thousands of Indonesians onto the streets to protest. By March 1966, Sukarno had relented and signed the Supersemar entrusting Suharto with the authority to restore order.
The Nature of Suffering and the Goals of Nursing
Authors: Coyle Nessa
Published: July 2023

The authors of this text share the qualitative experiences of those who suffer, accompanied by the best available evidence, expert insights, and case-based scenarios that guide nurses through the challenges and rewards of their everyday duty to care. This current edition builds on the seminal work of Drs. Betty Ferrell and Nessa Coyle, including expanded content in light of the health and social care changes that continue to emerge from the COVID-19 pandemic. This book focuses not only on the suffering of persons with serious illness and those who care for them but also provides in-depth reflections on the suffering of nurses, suffering in humanitarian crises, the healing and wholeness possible in the context of suffering, and the suffering of marginalized communities across biopsychosocial domains. The tenets of suffering are summarized in the closing chapter to provide pragmatic guidance for nurses to achieve whole-person and whole-people care.
The Nature of Suffering and the Practice of Nursing
Authors: Lazenby Mark
Published: July 2023

This chapter explores the nature of unchosen and unwanted suffering and how nurses, in their everyday practice, can respond. When one suffers, and the suffering is unchosen and unwanted, it has no object. Objects are those things that supply meaning in language. Objects are thus shared. When suffering has no object, the sufferer can believe that no one else has access to the sufferer’s suffering: the knowledge of objectless suffering is in the sufferer’s mind alone. However, nurses, through their assessments, can identify and name a sufferer’s suffering, assuring the sufferer that their suffering is not “only in their minds.” That is, nurses take a radically objectless, private experience (namely, unchosen and unwanted suffering) and bring it out into the public for others—family, friends, other health care providers—to access and address it. By making an objectless, private experience nameable and knowable to others, nurses are present with sufferers in their suffering. This presence is ultimate compassion: to be with (com) another in their suffering (passion). An example from the care of a person diagnosed with cancer illustrates the argument.
Spiritual and Religious Perspectives About Suffering
Authors: Taylor Elizabeth Johnston
Published: July 2023

Spiritual and religious (S/R) beliefs about suffering can provide hope and comfort; they can also create distressing inner struggle. Because S/R beliefs inherently provide a lens through which sufferers interpret their challenge, it is important for nurses to have an understanding about the diverse S/R beliefs related to suffering. This chapter presents Park’s theory about meaning making in response to trauma as a means for understanding the process generating S/R struggle. After providing an overview of S/R beliefs related to suffering, especially focusing on the theological constructs of God-image and theodicy, suggestions are offered for how nurses can sensitively care for those with S/R struggle.
Pain and Suffering
Authors: Paice Judith A. , Ferrell Betty R.
Published: July 2023

Suffering is so closely aligned with the experience of pain that the words “pain and suffering” are often used in tandem throughout much of the literature and in clinical practice. The problems posed by pain and the overall experience of suffering are commonly described as “whole person” events impacting dimensions of physical, psychological, social, and spiritual well-being. This chapter explores dimensions of suffering for people living with pain and the role of nurses to be fully present and to respond to pain and suffering. Expert nursing care to respond to suffering requires comprehensive patient assessment, use of evidence based pharmacological and integrative therapies, and close collaboration with interdisciplinary colleagues to respond to all of the dimensions of suffering for patients experiencing pain in serious illness and at the end of life.
Healing and Wholeness in the Face of Suffering
Authors: Koithan Mary , Jo Kreitzer Mary
Published: July 2023

This chapter examines suffering from the perspective of integrative health and healing, focusing not only on relief of the underlying causes of suffering but also strategies that support and facilitate a wholeness and flourishing. Consistent with the position that suffering is a condition of the embodied whole and reflective of the being’s potential for fulfillment, suffering is identified as a condition possible in all living sentient beings as illustrated in three case studies that include an individual expression of suffering within a patient, planetary suffering that is currently witnessed globally, and professional suffering that emerged in the face of the recent SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. The principles of integrative nursing frame a description of practical ways nurses can reduce suffering and support healing across all levels of the experience, whether caring for patients and families or facilitating healing through political action and advocacy.
Printing the Lauda spirituale
Authors: Bernstein Jane A.
Published: July 2023

This chapter explores the lauda books published in Rome, the primary publishing center of this popular form of vernacular devotional music during the post-Tridentine era. It considers a dozen closely related lauda editions intimately connected with Filippo Neri’s Congregation of the Oratory. Issued by five different presses over a span of over forty years, these spiritual song publications offer a fascinating glimpse into the printing practices of three generations of Roman bookmen. The various book forms, layouts, and formats of these editions not only reflect the structure and style of this functional music, but also their projected use for different audiences by Neri and his followers.
Feminist Articulations
Authors: Hardt Michael
Published: July 2023

This chapter tracks how activist-scholars in the early 1970s developed a notion of articulation as an analytical and organizational principle. The propositions of the concepts of capitalist patriarchy and racial capitalism theorized how relatively autonomous structures of power are intertwined and mutually constitutive. Theorists and activists then extended this complex relation to not just two but numerous structures of power. At the same time, they insisted that the process of articulation must describe not only the links among structures of power but also those among struggles for liberation. One key, challenging mandate that emerged from these various organizational propositions is that there can be no priority among struggles that are to be articulated together.
Antinuclear Democratizations
Authors: Hardt Michael
Published: July 2023

In 1975, a popular encampment in the forest near Wyhl, Germany, successfully blocked the construction of a nuclear power plant. One important development within the encampment was to seek the conditions for more democratic decision-making, in part by democratizing science. The various antinuclear movements of the 1970s shared the project of seeking out better mechanisms for democratic participation, although this took different forms. The Clamshell Alliance, for instance, which aimed to stop the construction of a nuclear reactor in Seabrook, New Hampshire, experimented with new forms of democratic participation and organizing within the movement. These experiences were significant, in part, for demonstrating the democratic potential of encampments.
Dual Strategy and Double Organization
Authors: Hardt Michael
Published: July 2023

In contrast to the clandestine armed struggle organizations, some groups attempted to create double organizations that could, at once, defend the population and the movement against violent repression and develop democratic political projects. The Black Panther Party in the United States, Autonomia in Italy, and Devrimci Yol in Turkey pursued versions of this dual strategy. There was necessarily a tension within these organizations between the centralized and hierarchical forms required for the military side and the decentralized democratic forms for the political side. Although all of these groups were eventually defeated by state repression, their experiments provide important examples for organizations pursuing democratic social projects under conditions of repression.
Introduction
Authors: Wendler David S.
Published: July 2023

This chapter provides an overview of the book. It explains the nature of moral status and describes common intuitions which suggest that human beings are morally more important than animals. To be comprehensive across different moral theories, degrees of moral status are characterized broadly in terms of some individuals’ interests, rights, or claims being stronger than the analogous interests, rights, or claims of other individuals who possess moral status. The chapter then discusses the implications of degrees of moral status for our treatment of animals and for superbeings’ treatment of us. This discussion explains why it matters whether there are degrees of moral status.
Thanks for Your Service
Authors: Feaver Peter D.
Published: July 2023

What explains the high levels of public confidence in the US military, and does high confidence matter? Proprietary survey data show that confidence is partly based on public beliefs about the military’s high competence, adherence to high professional ethics, and a determination to stand apart from the bitter divisions of partisan politics. However, confidence is also propped up by other factors that do not fit neatly within this comfortable story of complete deservedness. It is shaped by partisan considerations—in particular a partisan blame game in which the military is at least a passive participant—and by social desirability bias, the idea that some individuals express confidence in the military because they believe that it is the socially approved attitude to hold. The still-high confidence the military enjoys today could well be more tenuous than a superficial glance at poll numbers might suggest. Confidence matters because it reinforces support for raising and maintaining the defense forces the country needs and support for using the military to defend important national interests. High confidence is not an unalloyed benefit, however, since it can lead to a desire to use the military in the service of policies where the military tool may not be as well suited. Even more problematically, high confidence does not bring with it an understanding of or support for the best practices in democratic civil-military relations and can even lead to situations where the military is put on a pedestal from which it might look down on civilian society.
Performance, Professional Ethics, and Public Confidence in the Military
Authors: Feaver Peter D.
Published: July 2023

Public confidence in the military is driven in part by public estimations of how competent and ethical the military is. Priming the public with information about poor operational performance and prominent ethical missteps has modest but discernible negative effects on the level of confidence the public expresses in the military. Public confidence is easier to nudge downward than upward. These nudges appear to operate by changing whether the public thinks the military is good at its job, even if the nudge is discussing the ethical standing of the military. Poor operational performance and prominent ethical missteps could eventually lead to an erosion of public confidence.
Leviathan’s Theophany
Authors: Orlov Andrei A.
Published: July 2023

The first chapter, “Leviathan’s Theophany,” explores the depiction of Leviathan in the Apocalypse of Abraham, paying special attention to the theophanic features of the monster and their connection with biblical and rabbinic understandings of Leviathan’s apparitions as theophanies. The chapter argues that the Apocalypse of Abraham presents Leviathan in an anti-theophany, a revelation of the underworld’s ruler. In its theophanic guise Leviathan is envisioned as a living embodiment of the divine mysteries, many of which have been preserved by God since the beginning of creation only to be revealed fully in the eschaton to the elect. The book demonstrates that this symbolism of reified divine knowledge, embodied in the primordial monster, is deeply rooted in ancient understandings of the divine knowledge as the reality that is objectively present in otherworldly realms.
Reimagining Civic Education
Authors: Nelsen Matthew D.
Published: July 2023

This chapter leverages historical analyses to explore the historical foundations of civic learning to better understand how we arrived at the types of civic education courses that are ubiquitous in schools throughout the United States today. Drawing from observations of classrooms and interviews with teachers and students, it then reimagines what civic education could look like in the United States. It argues that classrooms that incorporate critical categories of knowledge—those that center the agency and collective action of marginalized groups—and historically grounded conversations about politics are conducive to fostering political empowerment. In the process, the chapter highlights areas where these pedagogies overlap with critical race theory (CRT). By examining the interconnectedness of the many pedagogies that have sought to recognize the experiences of marginalized groups, the chapter shows that racial conservatives have always viewed the pursuit of racial equality in the realm of education as a threat to their own political power.
Conclusion
Authors: Nelsen Matthew D.
Published: July 2023

Chapter 7 centers insights of high schoolers and teachers in order to reimagine the potential of civic education within our schools. These reflections from teachers and students immersed in social studies courses on a daily basis suggest that our best hope for ensuring more politically empowering civic learning experiences must draw from the insights or those actively working within and beyond political institutions to secure fundamental democratic ideals. Teacher preparation programs and neighborhood-level institutions can play a critical role in helping educators develop these critical categories of knowledge. Of course, in calling for investment in civic education, we must ensure that we are also investing in our schools. Throughout the United States, widespread school closures are wearing away at the civic infrastructures of entire communities and undermining pluralist democratic ideals. Investing in civic education means reinvesting in our schools, our neighborhoods, and our democracy.
Abduction
Authors: Atkins Richard Kenneth
Published: July 2023

Peirce explicitly states that he had not clearly recognized abduction as a distinct genus of inference until after 1900. Whereas he had spent decades investigating deductive and inductive inference, his reflections on abduction are not as sustained. As a consequence, Peirce appears to propose different functions for abductive inference, most notably the function of generating new hypotheses and the function of identifying which hypothesis is the most pursuit-worthy. Moreover, those hypotheses which are the most pursuit-worthy may be pursuit-worthy because they seem most likely to be true or because they are the best to put to the test first. A hypothesis may be the best to test first, even though one doubts it is true. This chapter proposes a novel account of abduction as perceptive judgment regarding which hypotheses explain phenomena, which hypotheses are the best to pursue in testing, and which hypotheses are the most likely to be true. Peirce’s account of abductive strength is examined, and objections to abduction’s validity are addressed.
A Vivisection
Authors: Latsis Dimitrios
Published: July 2023

Chapter 1 covers the gradual formation of a useful past for cinema as it took root in trade journals, scientific articles, and pamphlets dealing with what we would now call precinema, the first monographs and manuals on film technique up to 1925. More than mere first drafts of history written for an audience of trade professionals, these ephemeral publications explored debates like periodization, cultural nationalism, controversies among inventors over precedence, and the modelling of film history on the history of theater and literature, as well as the personal and professional contestation over who would control and shape the nascent industry’s past for posterity. Writers in this period debated the past with a keen eye on future developments: what cinema had been was therefore valued as an object lesson for what it could still become. What these writers lacked in perspective due to their nearness to the events they described, they tried to make up for in utopian pronouncements about the medium’s potential. Despite the pronounced teleology, obvious biases, and overall lack of rigor, those who ventured to tell the story of cinema’s growth while it was still an emergent art set up a framework that all future historians would have to follow or at least contend with.
Programming the Classics
Authors: Latsis Dimitrios
Published: July 2023

This chapter traces the emergence of a cinematic canon by looking at the phenomenon of film revival as an industry practice aimed at buttressing a studio’s cultural cachet while generating profits from its back catalog. Organizations that operated parallel to the industry like the National Board of Review and the broader Better Films movement had a major hand in promoting rereleases as an integral part of repertory cinema programming, as did individual pioneers who in the waning years of the silent era dusted off their old reels and went on the road to share anecdotes and tall tales about the old days and wax poetically about what one commentator described as “fil-lum[s] of vintage rare.”
The Future-Past of Moving Images
Authors: Latsis Dimitrios
Published: July 2023

This chapter tells the story of early collectors, amateur and armchair archivists, and the decisions that went into selecting landmark films, documents, and artifacts for preservation at a time when a generalized benign neglect and obsession with the next best thing reigned over filmdom, a time not unlike today. It uncovers crucial precedents to the first American film archives that were founded in the 1930s by looking at successful and unrealized proposals by private and institutional stakeholders for motion picture halls of fame, time capsules, national repositories, and early advocacy within an industry whose material past was rapidly disappearing. Even though few of these efforts bore fruit, the extensive discourse around preservation, including the gradual realization that old films might be worth holding on to for their innate material and aesthetic value rather than as evidence of historical events and personalities, would prove formative for archivists like Iris Barry and Henri Langlois.
Learning and Earning
Authors: Latsis Dimitrios
Published: July 2023

This chapter expands Dana Polan’s inquiry into early educational initiatives sponsored by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, institutions of higher learning like the University of Southern California, or individual producers like Joseph Kennedy, and looks at how film history entered the university. While a minor part of an emerging curriculum that privileged technical and business skills, history was integrated into courses large and small some four decades before the development of the first fully-fledged majors in the 1960s. The scant traces they left behind, including syllabi, publications, and even student essays, provide a fascinating glimpse into film pedagogy and how it shaped and was shaped by an industrial history of cinema.
“Vera pietas veram confessionem parit”
Authors: Scheuers Timothy R.
Published: July 2023

This chapter reveals how Calvin’s staunch position and firm rhetoric against Nicodemite behavior were significantly shaped by personal interactions with Reformed mentors, especially Farel and Bucer, as well as by tense exchanges with erstwhile friends and fellow refugees at a time when his own Protestant beliefs were still in their infancy. Specifically, it examines a critical question that contributed to the dilemma faced by Calvin and the reformers, namely, whether the choice of Nicodemism represented a valid type of spirituality that deemed all external forms of religion “indifferent,” and therefore a matter of private interpretation, or whether the “dissimulation” of one’s internal commitments necessarily violated the dictates of conscience and was thus a violation of genuine piety. This chapter illustrates how this critical question pervaded the reformers’ discussions and disagreements surrounding the issue of Nicodemism, producing distinctive conceptions of the important relationship between confession, conscience, and the rule of charity.
Religious Minorities, Mobilization, Protest, Conflict, and Violence in Theory
Authors: Basedau Matthias , Fox, and Jonathan , Zellman Ariel
Published: July 2023

This chapter addresses the theories surrounding the causes of mobilization, protest, conflict, and violence by minorities in general as well as the religious conflict literature. We use these literatures to support our argument that grievances are an important cause of conflict by religious minorities, as well as other types of minority. We discuss critiques of this argument and demonstrate that these critiques overlook important factors and, when examined closely, lack empirical evidence to support many of these critiques. For example, most who claim to demonstrate empirically that grievances do not predict conflict as well as other factors do not include measures for grievances in their studies. Similarly those who argue grievances are ubiquitous, and therefore irrelevant, miss that grievances vary significantly across groups.
Genocide in Rwanda and Its Aftermath, 1994–1996
Authors: Bradley Miriam
Published: July 2023

Chapter 5 examines the international humanitarian response to genocide in Rwanda and to subsequent refugee flows to neighbouring countries. From April to July 1994, up to a million Rwandans were killed in a state-led effort to destroy the Tutsi minority in the country. The international community failed to provide a political, diplomatic, or military response to prevent or halt the genocide but played a significant role in the aftermath. During and immediately after the genocide, around 2 million Rwandans fled to neighbouring countries, and international humanitarian agencies quickly arrived, setting up and running camps in Burundi, Tanzania, and especially Zaire (now the Democratic Republic of the Congo) until 1996. The génocidaires gained control of the aid distribution systems within the camps and taxed, diverted, and stole aid. Aid agencies faced a dilemma: maintaining the camps meant they were sustaining not only civilian refugees but also those who had perpetrated the genocide, but closing the camps risked punishing the civilian majority for the crimes of the génocidaire minority. From the perspective of the new government in Rwanda, however, the United Nations Refugee Agency (UNHCR) and the other international agencies running the camps were not simply aiding refugees but also supporting the military struggle of the génocidaires. Ultimately, the Rwandan army closed the camps by force, massacring tens or hundreds of thousands of refugees and destabilizing Zaire. Had the aid agencies closed the camps before this happened, they would likely have saved many thousands of lives.
Shifting Parameters of Humanitarian Emergencies
Authors: Bradley Miriam
Published: July 2023

Chapter 15 examines some of the ways in which the category of ‘humanitarian emergency’ has expanded and what that has meant for the goals pursued under the rubric of humanitarianism and the means and methods used to pursue them. It first argues that, as international humanitarian agencies devote an increasing share of their efforts to protracted crises, they have also expanded their goals beyond the emergency present and the boundary between humanitarianism and development is frequently blurred. Second, the chapter outlines the urban turn in international humanitarian response and argues that, here, we see a blurring of the boundaries between humanitarianism and development and of those between humanitarianism and peace-building. Third, the chapter considers how some international humanitarian agencies are working on ‘home’ territory in Europe, where they often seek to limit their role as direct providers of assistance, instead emphasizing advocacy, and sometimes compromising their commitments to neutrality as they demand significant policy changes. Finally, the chapter turns to the efforts of international humanitarian agencies to support migrants, arguing that advocacy also plays a central role here both as part of a strategy to pressurize authorities to meet their obligations and also as a means by which humanitarian actors seek to avoid complicity with the very structures (securitized border control, immigration detention, etc.) that are causing suffering.
Government and Civil Society in Affected States
Authors: Bradley Miriam
Published: July 2023

Chapter 19 examines the relationships between international humanitarian agencies, on the one hand, and government and civil society in the states affected by humanitarian emergencies on the other. States have the primary responsibility to protect their populations from violence and to assist the victims of emergencies occurring on their territory. Where states are unable, or unwilling, to protect and assist the population, international humanitarian agencies have a role to play. In general, international humanitarian agencies need the consent of the state to operate on its territory, but the state should not arbitrarily withhold consent. Where international humanitarian agencies are operational, the state often still has a role to play in providing and regulating assistance, and international agencies need to engage with the state on a range of different issues. However, the nature of their relationship with the state can differ, and this chapter outlines three main ways of working in relation to the state: substituting for the state, supporting the state, or holding the state to account. Civil society actors also play an important role in humanitarian response, but local and national non-governmental organizations receive only a small percentage of international funding. This chapter explores their role and the humanitarian localization agenda, which seeks to transfer power and resources from international actors to local and national actors. It discusses progress in implementation of the agenda and outlines the main critiques of efforts to localize humanitarian response.
Conclusion
Authors: Bradley Miriam
Published: July 2023

The concluding chapter reflects on the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on international humanitarianism. The pandemic has, in many respects, exacerbated humanitarian need and initially seemed to have the potential to transform international responses to humanitarian crises. In practice, however, the sector has largely returned to business as usual. The long-term impacts remain to be seen, but the pandemic does appear to have helped to accelerate moves to localize humanitarian response and to increase the use of cash programming and tech solutions. Even in these areas, however, the effect of the pandemic has been to further pre-existing trends rather than to transform the ways in which the humanitarian sector works.
Discoveries
Authors: Stone Dan
Published: July 2023

ITS provides snapshots of some of the most vivid and poignant moments of twentieth-century European history. To illustrate this variety, this chapter introduces four separate sets of documents. Doing so gives a sense of the range of ITS holdings and the uses to which they can be put, and also indicates that ITS contains a huge variety of source material that allows us to approach ostensibly well-known pasts from a fresh perspective. They are: the newspaper Polish Jew, produced in New York between 1942 and 1945; the eyewitness accounts of Auschwitz provided by inmate-physician Dr Otto Wolken to the Polish Mission of the UN War Crimes Commission after the liberation of the camp; the case of Natalia Skibińska, a Polish girl whose whereabouts were traced by the Child Search Branch, leading to an intense correspondence between her, her mother, her German foster parents and ITS; and the postwar statements given to war crimes investigations teams by British POWs who had been held in camp E715 at Monowitz, or Auschwitz III, where they witnessed the Nazis’ slave labour and murder policies at first hand.
Columns of Misery
Authors: Stone Dan
Published: July 2023

This chapter describes the experiences of those who were sent on the so-called ‘death marches’ as the concentration camps under threat of being overrun by the Red Army were evacuated and their inmates sent west to camps still operating in Germany. As concentration camp inmates passed through villages and towns throughout Germany and Austria, the victims of Nazism appeared in daylight in just about every small place. The death marches constituted a ‘societal crime’. Here the examples widen the story from Auschwitz and Gross-Rosen to encompass the camp system in general. This allows us to capture something of the general scene in Germany at the end of the war as we follow some of the same routes trodden by the ITS fieldworkers as they set about to discover the details of the death marches. The chapter then examines the ‘liberation’, using the ITS archives. Irrespective of the circumstances, it quickly becomes clear that for most survivors, initial feelings of joy were almost immediately tempered by a realization of the devastation that had befallen their families and communities, and fear at what the future might hold.
Forming a Study Group
Authors: Israel Jonathan I.
Published: July 2023

When the aspiring young Spinoza of the late 1650s switched from Bible studies and dispute with the rabbis to Cartesianism and pure philosophy, probably during or around 1657, he was embarking on an important change in his life. But it is crucial to be clear as to whether this was a retreat from an engaged activist subversion of religious authority into the quieter realm of pure philosophizing, far from the public gaze, or, as argued here, an amalgamation of philosophy with activist critique of religious authority that in important respects continued his campaign of 1655–6 against religious authority welding the two strands into a subversive political as well as anti-church strategy.
Voorburg (1663–1664)
Authors: Israel Jonathan I.
Published: July 2023

By the late spring of 1663 when moving to Voorburg, Spinoza felt exposed to disturbing risk in more ways than one, finding himself precariously positioned, almost trapped, in opposition to the entire prevailing edifice of religious authority, theology, and philosophy. Contrary to Oldenburg’s urging, he preferred to err on the side of caution rather than risk publishing a text like the Korte Verhandeling bound to severely antagonize the theologians, synods, universities, city magistrates, and ultimately the States of Holland. Equally, he found himself in collision to a degree with the more narrowly empiricist scientific culture of Bacon, Boyle, Steno, and Oldenburg, clashing with their experimental science whose methods and assumptions he endorsed in part but whose underlying theological premises and implacably non-committal, eclectic, and tentative attitude to what he called sound philosophy he felt firmly at odds with. He would soon be on the verge too of finding himself at odds with the Republic’s powerful Cartesian faction.
Invasion, Slump, and Comets (1665–1666)
Authors: Israel Jonathan I.
Published: July 2023

Convinced by 1665 that confronting the militant Calvinist faction and the role of Reformed theology in Dutch society and the Calvinist-Orangist alliance against de Witt’s “True Freedom” now mattered more than continuing with his Ethics, Spinoza at this point left the latter aside and, as he explains in a letter to Oldenburg, began writing his Tractatus Theologico-Politicus. This chapter also recounts Spinoza’s response to the Munsterite invasion of the United Provinces, and his involvement as well as that of Oldenburg, Huygens, Hevelius, and others in the great comet controversy of 1664–5
The Tragedy of the Brothers Koerbagh (1668–1669)
Authors: Israel Jonathan I.
Published: July 2023

This chapter considers the significance for Spinoza’s life and work of the tragic Koerbagh affair of 1668–9 which ended with the suppression of the Koerbaghs’ books and Adriaan Koerbagh’s trial, imprisonment, and death in prison. The chapter notes that Adriaen and Johannes Koerbagh have been relatively little discussed in English-language scholarship and, when they are, are often incorrectly characterized as disciples of Hobbes. The difference between following Hobbes and following Spinoza is here strongly emphasized. The brothers had notable links with the Amsterdam Collegiants but were also critical of them. Although the Koerbaghs were part of a close network, with lasting intellectual ties especially to Spinoza, Van Berckel, Bouwmeester, and Meyer, Adriaan, evincing something of a “martyr” temperament, willingly took the entire dire consequences of his defiant rashness in publishing his books upon himself alone.
Spinoza Completes his Philosophical System
Authors: Israel Jonathan I.
Published: July 2023

This chapter considers how the different parts of Spinoza’s philosophy hang together and the close interaction on various levels of his principal philosophical work, the Ethics, with his two political treatises, the TTP and the TP. It looks at the relationship between human rationality and our efforts to restrain the damaging emotions and undesirable behaviour. It examines the roles of the concepts of “multitude” and “the people’ in his thought. It also briefly considers Spinoza’s place in the history of the “general will” tradition and in the wider canon of Western political thought, including his relationship to Hobbes and Rousseau as a political thinker.
Denying the Supernatural
Authors: Israel Jonathan I.
Published: July 2023

A key issue for the early modern mind was the question of whether supernatural things apart from the Almighty exist. To most people it was self-evident, as it had been to virtually all cultures and peoples in the past we know of, that the supernatural sphere is tangible, impinging, not just real but unavoidable, among the most decisive and powerful realities human beings confront. The New Testament in addition strongly supports belief in Satan, angels, the realm of demons, exorcism, and the intervention of the diabolical into human life. Hence, much was at stake and here, as so often, Spinoza had the entire weight of the past and current belief and thinking (with partial exception of Hobbes), firmly against him. During the seventeenth century’s last quarter the question of the supernatural figured among the foremost of the Reformed Church’s concerns in its battle to block the creeping progress of rationalization, mathematization, secularization, and radical thought.
Creeping Diffusion
Authors: Israel Jonathan I.
Published: July 2023

This chapter explains the background to the first printed account, dating from 1673, of “Spinozism” as a philosophical movement and subversive sect that rejects all religions and seeks to reform all morality and society, the text La Religion des Hollandois by Lieutenant-Colonel Giovanni Battista Stoppa (1623–92), or Jean-Baptiste Stouppe, as the French called him. It relates his role in the French occupation of Utrecht and connection with the head of the Catholic Church in the United Provinces, Johannes van Neercassel. It also continues with the account of the clandestine editions of the TTP by Rieuwertsz and the early penetration of Spinoza’s thought into England, with more on Baxter and Stillingfleet.
Last Days, Death, and Funeral (1677)
Authors: Israel Jonathan I.
Published: July 2023

This chapter describes Spinoza’s last days and letters, his death and funeral at the New Church in The Hague, what happened to his remains, and the lull before the storm that followed his death. It recounts the inventorying of Spinoza’s books and possessions and the auction of his library, microscopes, and lens-cutting equipment at The Hague. It examines too the roles played in the drama that now unfolded of Tschirnhaus, Schuller, Steno, Neercassel, the papal Inquisition, and Leibniz, and recounts the discussions surrounding the publication of Huet’s Demonstratio evangelica and explains why this work had a special status among the attempts to demolish Spinoza’s thought.
How Naturalists can Give Internalists What They Really Want (or Need!)
Authors: Antony Louise
Published: July 2023

Epistemological internalists have a problem about perceptual knowledge: how can perceptual experience both provide faithful information about the external world and justification for empirical belief? This is Sellars’s famous problem about “the given.” Chapter 12 argues, first, that this problem is not just for internalists—a version of it arises for naturalistic externalists. But, second, it argues that the problem can be solved within naturalistic bounds, by appealing to a category of causal relations called “intelligible causation.”
Constructing Ideals and Practices in Renaissance Port Cities
Authors: Stevens Crawshaw Jane L.
Published: July 2023

This chapter situates Genoa and Venice against the backdrop of literature on the designs of ideal ports during the Renaissance. Using Renaissance architectural theory, in particular, the work of Antonio Averlino [c.1400–1469], known as Filarete, and his plans for Plusiopolis, it considers the influence of ideals on the form of major ports of the Italian peninsula and the broader Mediterranean. The second section of this chapter assesses characterizations of port societies and the challenges posed to community health, as well as urban and natural environments, by their cosmopolitan and often-transient population. The chapter ends with a comparison between the port structures and society of Genoa and Venice, dilating on the ways in which these cities were shaped by influences from ideal architecture and the models of ports beyond their borders.
Island Biogeography
Authors: Whittaker Robert J. , Fernández-Palacios José María , Matthews Thomas J.
Published: July 2023

Island Biogeography: Geo-environmental Dynamics, Ecology, Evolution, Human Impact, and Conservation provides a synthetic review covering islands as model systems in the life sciences. It is centred on the study of the geographical distribution of biodiversity and how it changes through time, understood through the medium of island biotas and ecosystems. It comprises four parts devoted in turn to: island environments; ecology; evolution; and human impact and conservation. It describes the origins and dynamics of different island types and the key characteristics of island environments that shape their biotic characteristics. It identifies key theories of island ecology and reviews progress towards their evaluation and development. It sets out the essential building blocks of island evolution and the emergent patterns of insular endemism and of island evolutionary syndromes in animals and plants. It reviews how island geo-environmental dynamics are of crucial relevance to understanding and developing improved explanatory and predictive models of their ecological and evolutionary dynamics. It reviews the application of island theory to fragmented ecosystems. It describes the spread of human societies across the islands of the world and the impact of these and subsequent human colonization events on the environments, biotas, and sustainability of societies on islands. It reviews evidence of anthropogenic extinction on islands, identifying key extinction drivers and threats to existing native species and ecosystems, and ways in which island evolution may make island species particularly vulnerable to certain external influences. It considers the distinctive conservation challenges and solutions that may be effective on islands.
Troubled by Faith
Authors: Davies Owen
Published: July 2023

The early nineteenth century witnessed the birth of psychiatry, a new medical science that fundamentally changed how mental illness was labelled and understood. Troubled by Faith explores how psychiatrists not only thought they were agents of modernity but that they could also explain the occult mysteries of the past. They bristled with confidence that, in an era of unprecedented change, unlocking the secrets of the mind was essential to an ordered and progressive society. And a progressive society was one that did not believe in witches, ghosts, and fairies, and did not exhibit excited religious emotions and divine communications. Through examining the extensive psychiatric literature from Europe and America, Troubled by Faith charts how once widely-held popular beliefs were pathologized, and how this fundamentally impacted on the notion of criminal and legal responsibility. In the second half of the book, we listen to the voices of asylum patients as recorded in case books. The asylum was an extraordinary cultural space where under one roof prophets, messiahs, the bewitched, and the haunted mixed, and people wrestled with angels, devils, imps, and witches. It was a place filled with talk of infernal machines and sinister electrical forces. Whether seriously ill and deluded, or sane and lucid in their beliefs and imaginings, patients’ experiences were, nevertheless, reflective of a society being transformed by technology and yet still rooted in the supernatural.
Between Heaven and Hell
Authors: Davies Owen
Published: July 2023

The religious notions and beliefs expressed by individual asylum patients were sometimes idiosyncratic and based on personal experiences, fears, and preoccupations. It is clear from examining hundreds of case notes, though, that their hallucinations, delusions, anxieties, and dreams often reflected the social and religious environment at the time as well as deep-seated fears of salvation and damnation. Broad differences between the theologies of Catholicism and Protestantism reveal themselves in some respects, but both faiths were undergoing change, adaptation, and expansion. Evangelicalism emerges as a strong theme. Patients’ convictions that they were divinities, and those who claimed communication with angels, devils, and prophets, demonstrate a rich, shared popular religion of the imagination that often transcended the doctrinal and liturgical differences of diverse Christian faiths.
Who Will See It?
Authors: Rublack Ulinka
Published: July 2023

Heller’s letters to Dürer do not survive. This chapter begins with the experiment to imagine how Heller would have responded to the artist’s demands to raise the fee, and is based in tone on two surviving letters the merchant wrote to Dürer’s friend Pirckheimer. It shows how Heller tried to hurt Dürer’s public honour and why honour was so important in this age. It also shows how Heller’s parsimony began to annoy Dürer and make him doubt the value of painting a central panel for an altarpiece altogether, as it remained hidden from view most of the year, unless art enthusiasts paid to have the wings of the altar opened.
Spending on Style
Authors: Rublack Ulinka
Published: July 2023

Hans Fugger and his family similarly invested in fashionable headwear. This chapter compares how much he and other elite families spent on fashion and other decorative projects in comparison to paintings. It takes us further into a world which is remote from our own understanding of what counts as ‘art’. Specific headwear and artificial hairpieces became extremely sought after. Elite women could become well known for inventing styles that turned into an international fashion. The chapter explores the materiality of feathers, their itinerary as trade goods and the affects it inspired. It furthermore investigates the Nuremberg inventory of Willibald Imhoff, a major collector of Dürer paintings in the age before the revival of interest in Dürer´s paintings.
The Garden of Eichstätt
Authors: Rublack Ulinka
Published: July 2023

Hainhofer’s first diplomatic mission on behalf of Wilhelm led him to the Bishop of Eichstätt. The bishop was one of the most noted art lovers in Germany at the time and is now mostly remembered for his famous garden, the first to be fully documented in print. It abounded with exotic flowers, such as tulips, that were becoming available through Dutch merchants at the time. Hainhofer’s detailed relation and his correspondence allows us to reveal another highly cultivated collector who—like Fugger—did not care much for painting. We encounter his philosophy and his politics, for the bishop used the connections he was able to forge across religious faiths through a love of art to protect his tiny territory from being overrun by soldiers in the eventuality of the confessional war which he anticipated.
The Ones Without the Manners
Authors: Gilbert Nora
Published: July 2023

This chapter discusses several of Jane Austen’s Regency-era novels of manners (Sense and Sensibility [1811], Pride and Prejudice [1813], and Mansfield Park [1814]) along with three midcentury Victorian novels (Charles Dickens’s Dombey and Son [1846–48], Elizabeth Gaskell’s Mary Barton [1848], and William Thackeray’s The Newcomes [1854–55]) that follow Austen’s lead in positioning their runaway women as secondary characters who are related to the female protagonist in some way, and whose scandalous subplots are (at least ostensibly) meant to show the protagonist what not to do and how not to behave. But there are also ways in which each of these texts pushes back on its own cautionary messaging, and subtly suggests that it is the Social World’s stringent set of rules and expectations, rather than the woman who runs away from them, that is the real social problem.