bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Incarceration and the Community: The Problem of Removing and Returning Offenders
Authors: Clear Todd R. , Rose Dina R. , Ryder Judith A.
Published: March 2007

Prior research has established that the characteristics of “places” are an important aspect of public safety and local quality of life. Growth in the rates of incarceration since 1973, combined with social disparity in the experience of imprisonment among certain groups, has meant that some communities experience concentrated levels of incarceration. This article examines the spatial impact of incarceration and explores the problems associated with removing and returning offenders to communities that suffer from high rates of incarceration. The study analyzes data from a series of individual and group interviews designed to reveal the experiences and perspectives of a sample of 39 Tallahassee, Florida, residents (including ex-offenders) who live in two high-incarceration neighborhoods. The authors then provide a series of policy recommendations to offset some of the unintended consequences of incarceration. The article concludes with research priorities for further study.
Interest Groups and Criminal Law: The Case of Federal Criminal Code Revision
Authors: Stolz Barbara Ann
Published: March 2007

Although the role played by interest groups in public policy formation has been well documented, systemic empirical research on their impact on criminal justice policy is missing. To begin to fill this gap in the literature this article addresses the following questions: Who has attempted to influence federal criminal code revision efforts? Which groups did participants perceive to be influential? What techniques and situational factors enhanced a group's ability to influence the legislation successfully?
The Ethics of Selective Incapacitation: Observations on the Contemporary Debate
Authors: von Hirsch Andrew
Published: March 2007

With growing attention to “selective incapacitation” strategies, the issue of the fairness of prediction-based sentencing has revived. Some recent advocates of such strategies have argued that predictive sentencing is just, because the criteria for prediction (particularly, the offender's prior criminal history) coincide or overlap with the criteria for deserved punishment. This article contends that such claims are mistaken: that, in fact, the criteria for prediction and for desert differ significantly in the degree of emphasis that may be placed on the prior criminal history, and in the type of information about that history which may appropriately be used. The article also criticizes recent arguments that desert furnishes only broad outer limits on punishments, within which predictive determinations may fairly be used. It is concluded that the tension between selective incapacitation and desert cannot be ignored; and that the use of selective-incapacitation strategies in sentencing entails sacrifices of equity for offenders.
Treatment and the Role of Classification: A Review of Basics
Authors: Palmer Ted
Published: March 2007

This article reviews the nature of treatment and its socially centered as well as offender-centered goals, and focuses on “positive treatment programs” (PTPs) as distinguished from “drastic rehabilitation approaches.” The effectiveness of PTPs in reducing illegal behavior (treatment's socially centered—and primary—goal) is discussed, and major factors underlying the “nothing works” versus “something works” controversy are outlined. Current areas of disagreement and agreement between treatment skeptics and treatment proponents are then summarized. The rationale, assumptions, goals, and major approaches to classification for treatment purposes are reviewed, as are its main advantages and current limitations. Finally, several false assumptions, stereotypes, and misunderstandings regarding treatment and its future possibilities are noted, as are its undeniable limitations as well as unique potentials.
Juvenile Diversion: A Look at the Record
Authors: Polk Kenneth
Published: March 2007

A recent article by Binder and Geis (1984) observed that the negative response to diversion on the part of sociologists is at variance with the actual record of juvenile diversion, and concluded that this response results from disciplinary narrowness, distrust of police, and overidentification with the underdog. An alternative explanation is that sociologists are, in fact, responding precisely to the empirical record available regarding diversion. That record suggests that although some research reports positive effects of diversion, it is difficult to ignore the data which show that diversion programs may either have no effect or may possibly even be harmful. That record indicates that diversion may not be achieving its stated goal of diverting offenders away from the juvenile justice system, but instead may be a device for expanding both the size of the juvenile justice system and the forms of behavior that come under its control. An argument can be made grounded in data which suggests that diversion programs may be taking on particular functions with respect to girls, and thus may be leading to unanticipated forms of hidden sexism. In gathering data and in making these arguments, sociologists may not be engaged as much in some antidiversionist frenzy as they are expressing their concern for the drift of an important policy away from its intended course.
Is Violent Crime Intraracial?
Authors: Wilbanks William
Published: March 2007

The commonly accepted view that violent crime is intraracial as opposed to interracial is reexamined. Victim survey data on perceived race of offender are used to suggest that the issue of intraracial versus interracial crime should be examined from four perspectives: white offender's choice of victim (e.g., white or black); black offender's choice of victim; white victim's perception of race of offender; and black victim's perception of race of offender. A Detailed analysis of victimization survey data indicates that violent crime in the United States (robbery, assault, and rape) is intraracial from three perspectives (whites chose other whites as victims, whites were largely victimized by other whites, and blacks were largely victimized by other blacks). However, black offenders were more likely to choose white victims in robberies, assaults, and rapes. Tentative and alternative explanations for this previously unexamined fact of interracial crime are suggested.
Old and New Tools for the Modern Probation Officer
Authors: Erwin Billie S.
Published: March 2007

This article presents an overview of the Georgia evaluation of intensive supervision, along with early results from a subsequent pilot study that added electronic monitoring as a special enhancement for drug offenders. While the findings are preliminary, the article includes a discussion of the electronic monitoring experiment as seen through the eyes of project staff. From a broader perspective of general management and literature, the author makes some analogies to changes in the field of criminal justice. The article concludes with some thoughts about future directions in the role of the modern probation officer, blending technological advances with human skills.
Conditions That Permit Intensive Supervision Programs to Survive
Authors: Petersilia Joan
Published: March 2007

The Bureau of Justice Assistance (BJA) has provided funding to jurisdictions across the nation to participate in an Intensive Supervision Probation/Parole Demonstration Project. The demonstration project is designed to be a field test of a model based on the Georgia Intensive Supervision Program (ISP), which essentially requires much closer control and monitoring of serious offenders than regular supervision imposes. Sites were instructed to implement the basic Georgia ISP model but to tailor the program specifics to their local needs, resources, and clientele. Over two years have passed since the initial demonstration projects were funded. Some of these have fared well; others have been or are being phased out; and some are surviving, but with uncertain futures. This article identifies the nine conditions that seem to have been critical to the implementation and viability of ISPs. It further argues that how the ISP was developed and implemented affects its survival (and ultimate success) as much or more than its content does.
Reexamining Community Corrections Models
Authors: Lawrence Richard
Published: March 2007

Historically, community corrections has been based on models of diversion, advocacy, and reintegration. Increases in crime and more high-risk offenders being sentenced to probation have led to emphases on control and surveillance, and “just deserts,” adversary, and restitution models have replaced the original models. The author argues for strategies of internalization, reintegrative shaming, and victim-offender reconciliation for a comprehensive community corrections model promoting change in the offender, the correctional process, and the community.
The Effects of “Tough” Drunk Driving Laws on Policing: A Case Study
Authors: Kinkade Patrick T. , Leone Matthew C.
Published: March 2007

In 1982, California passed into law severe sanctions for driving while intoxicated. The effects of these law changes on policing were investigated. Using limited time series and elite interview methodologies, it was found that the law's passage was related to reduced arrest rates for several misdemeanors, including driving under the influence.
Research Note: The Role of Differential Experience with the Criminal Justice System in Changes in Perceptions of Severity of Legal Sanctions Over Time
Authors: Apospori Eleni , Alpert Geoffrey
Published: March 2007

This research tests the hypothesis that experience with legal sanctions raises one's perceptions of severity of punishment. Perceptions were measured among a group of adults after their arrest and the imposition of sanctions. The findings indicate that, overall, respondents raised their perceptions after their encounter with the criminal justice system. Particularly, among those who received more severe sanctions, a significantly higher number raised their perceptions as compared to those who lowered them. Among those who received lighter punishments, no significant difference was found between those who raised and lowered their perceptions. The implications for the deterrence doctrine are discussed.
Research on the Fear of Crime: Perceptions and Realities of Crime in Japan
Authors: Ito Koichiro
Published: March 2007

Perceptions of crime do not necessarily reflect its realities. The leading works in Anglo-American criminology have focused on this asymmetry between perceptions and realities of crime. Although Japanese academics have conducted sporadic studies on the fear of crime, this area of research has not yet reached a mature stage. The public perception of Japan as a safe and secure country might explain this lack of research. At present, most people do not think of crime as common in their communities. The mass media, however, has focused on topical incidents of crime as representations of change in community order. Complex mechanisms function in and out of the community that should be explored to advance serious study on the fear of crime in Japan.
Juvenile (In)Justice and the Criminal Court Alternative
Authors: Feld Barry C.
Published: March 2007

The juvenile court has been transformed from an informal, welfare agency into a scaled-down, second-class criminal court as a result of a series of reforms that divert status offenders, waive serious offenders to adult criminal courts, punish delinquent offenders, and provide more formal procedures. There are three plausible policy responses to juvenile courts that punish in the name of treatment and deny elementary procedural justice: (a) restructure juvenile courts to fit their original therapeutic purpose; (b) accept punishment as the purpose of delinquency proceedings, but coupled with criminal procedural safeguards; or (c) abolish juvenile courts and try young offenders in criminal courts with certain substantive and procedural modifications.
Research Note: An Evaluation of Juvenile Sexual Offender Treatment
Authors: Lab Steven P. , Shields Glenn , Schondel Connie
Published: March 2007

Although interest in the treatment of juvenile sexual offenders has increased significantly in recent years, there are still few programs specifically geared toward these youths and few of the existing programs have been evaluated. This article presents an evaluation of one court-based program. The results show that youths handled in the program fare no better than youths processed through normal, nonoffense specific programming. These results suggest that the growth of interventions has proceeded without adequate knowledge of how to identify at-risk youths, the causes of the behavior, and the most appropriate treatment for juvenile sexual offending.
The Impact of Shock Incarceration Programs on Prison Crowding
Authors: MacKenzie Doris Layton , Piquero Alex
Published: March 2007

The impact of shock incarceration programs on prison crowding in five states was examined using a model to estimate bed space loss or savings. Recidivism rates, duration of imprisonment, dismissal rates, and program capacity were used to estimate the programs' impact if the probabilities that the offenders would have been in prison or on probation were varied. Results indicated that if the goal of a short-term incarceration program is to reduce prison crowding, it must be carefully designed and monitored with this purpose in mind.
The Consequences of Jail Crowding
Authors: Kinkade Patrick , Leone Matthew , Semond Scott
Published: March 2007

Over the past 20 years, there has been an enormous increase in American jail populations. The most frequently documented result of this increase has been overcrowding in jail facilities. Many also hypothesize that an array of secondary problems for the jail have arisen from such crowding. A nationally representative sample of sheriffs was questioned about 13 of these problems in relation jail crowding within their respective facilities. It was found that although many problems are perceived as related to over-crowding by this study group, others are not believed to be as problematic as is typically assumed. Policy implications of these perceptions are discussed.
Enforcing Social Responsibility and the Expanding Domain of the Police: Notes from the Portland Experience
Authors: Williams EJ
Published: March 2007

The relative impotence of traditional, reactive policing methods against changes in the incidence and distribution of street crime and disorder has been a driving force behind community policing. In the process of applying community policing problem-solving strategies toward the “root causes” of this problem, adopting police organizations are finding that they must address a host of noncrime-related actions, as well as some inaction of a range of actors in the community that are perceived by the police and others to either contribute to or facilitate the escalating street chaos in urban environments. In so doing, community police organizations find that they must expand their domain to include the enforcement of social responsibility.
Constructing/Becoming History
Authors: Costa Ricardo Lionel , Mozejko Danuta Teresa
Published: March 2007

The analysis of historical discourse from the perspective of the conditions of its production and imposition allows the text to be located within the framework of the struggle for power, one of the privileged mechanisms of which is the elaboration and setting in circulation of senses. When studying the Historia de San Martín y de la emancipación sudamericana written by Bartolomé Mitre (1887-8) from this standpoint, it is seen that the elaboration and proposal of the figure of a hero cannot be reduced to the operation of recuperating the past. On the contrary, it is a procedure that puts at stake the ability to construct history, taken as a capacity to make a version of the facts prevail, and, also, to become history, in that the imposed vision of what happened legitimates the place and the function of a faction of the leading class in the process of organization of the nation. Constructing/becoming history, especially in foundational moments, constitutes, in short, a mechanism through which, independently of any consciously developed projects, this class faction elaborates and imposes a definition of identity (nation), of organization of power (state) and of those `naturally called upon' to lead.
Social Exclusion and Knowledge
Authors: Elízaga Raquel Sosa
Published: March 2007

This article offers a critical examination of the repercussions of the different ways in which the poor have been defined and positioned by the governments and the international organizations that fund them, resulting in the application of rigid and homogeneous categories, as well as wrong and inconsistent policies for fighting poverty. At the same time, the article points out that efforts have been made recently to understand the specific demands for social justice, equity, tolerance, and respect for diversity, as well as for true integration, put forward by the excluded populations. In this respect, the author calls for an acknowledgement of the phenomenon of exclusion as the condition which adds to poverty the impossibility of fully participating in social life and exercising citizenship. To be excluded means more than just being poor. It means being absent from the political action that defines a society's path at a given time and in a given territory. The author concludes with a declaration of the need to revise and reformulate our understanding of the forms taken by the excluded populations' presence in society, with recognition of those populations' diversity, contradictory expressions, demands and exercise of rights, as a basis for formulating policies that will effectively support the right to collective well-being and hope.
Innovative Health Technologies and the Social: Redefining Health, Medicine and the Body
Authors: Webster Andrew
Published: March 2007

This paper explores the growth and social implications of what are regarded as highly innovative technologies in health. Conventional medical sociology and the sociology of health have had a very uneven engagement with technology, apart from sustained feminist critique of reproductive technologies. More recent analyses developed within the sociology of the body and especially in science and technology studies (STS) have provided new insights into the meaning of health, illness and disease and the way these are mediated by and changed through technological development. Through an examination of recent work the paper argues that current sociological analysis points towards a qualitative shift in the relation between innovative health technologies (IHTs), the body, identity and wider social processes. These changes are especially linked to two increasingly related IHTs - genetics and informatics - and the ways that they reconfigure the social boundaries between the `biological' and the `social' and so between medicine and society. The paper concludes by discussing the implications for the future research agenda within STS, especially in terms of the relationship between the social and the technical.
The Metamorphosis of the Marginal: The Debate Over the Informal Sector in Latin America
Authors: Cortés Fernando
Published: March 2007

The concept of informal sector is polymorphous. For some, it is a response to the bureaucratic entanglements that smother the productive forces capable of leading a country on to the road to competitive capitalism; for others, it is merely a set of activities that fall between the cracks of an incomplete and sluggish capitalism; a third interpetation of this phenomenon argues that it is a strategy on the part of capitalist enterprises to submerge or refunctionalize part of their production in order to minimize costs; finally, it has been altogether disassociated from underdevelopment and seen as part and parcel of the globalization of the world economy.

In this paper, I show the intellectual journey that links the old theory of marginalization in Latin America to the views now in good currency. From a conception of the marginalized as a burden to be incorporated into societies as a condition for overcoming underdevelopment, we have evolved to one that sees these as bearers of a societal project that promises to launch Latin America on the path to capitalist development. The paper shows, further, that these different views - whether marxist or neoliberal - share the same empirical indicators of marginalization.
Administrative Man: Origin or Pawn in Decision Making?
Authors: Bridges Edwin M.
Published: March 2007

In this article the author points out that existing empirical and theoretical work concerned with administrative decision making either ignores or scantly treats how subordinates' goals intrude into and influence administrative decisions. The author elaborates a three-fold typology to show several ways in which the administrator's decisions can be guided, shaped, and even controlled by subordinates.
Assessing Organizational Output: A Framework and Some Implications
Authors: Immegart Glenn L. , Pilecki Francis J.
Published: March 2007

In this article the authors collate some of the existing notions about the outcomes of organizational activity into an output analysis framework. From this scheme are drawn implications for organizational practice.
An Investigation of the Politics of Education Using Two Theories of Social Organization as a Conceptual Guide
Authors: Miskel Cecil , Meisner Robert , St.Clair Kenneh
Published: March 2007

The rationale for the study was developed by merging exchange and power theories of social organization. The levels of activity, interaction, and sentiment of superintendents, board of education members, and community leaders were investigated in relation to four school bond referenda.
The Geographic Distribution of Schooling Benefits: Implications for Public School Finance
Authors: Holland David W. , Tweeten Luther G.
Published: March 2007

The proportion of local, state, and federal revenues for blic elementary and secondary schooling has become increasingly weighted toward nonlocal revenue sources. The questions addressed in this article are how much of the cost of public school ing should be financed at the local, state, and federal levels and what are the appropriate decision criteria? To partially answer these questions a school funding model was developed in which revenue sources were aligned with the expected geographical distribution of schooling benefits.
A Communication Perspective of a School Bond Failure
Authors: McCain Thomas A. , Wall Victor D.
Published: March 2007

Voters have been rejecting school bond tax levies with increasing regularity. A communication perspective was utilized to examine one school district that three times voted down funds for much-needed school facilities. Acceptance of the bond proposal was found to be significantly related to voter attitudes towards school officials, the nature of the campaign contact, and voter's involvement in the school system.
Job Satisfaction among Secondary School Administrators
Authors: Schmidt Gene L.
Published: March 2007

The purpose of this study was to test Frederick Herzberg's Motivation-Hygiene Theory with public school administrators. The sample was randomly drawn from administrators in the 132 high schools in the Chicago, Illinois, suburban area. The data indicated the sample of administrators reported sequences of events that fit consistently with the Motivation-Hygiene Theory. The data lead to the conclusion that administrators are highly motivated by achievement, recognition, and advancement, but not very much by salary, good interpersonal relations, effective policy and administration, and supervision, which are so often used as motivators. Factors such as salary, interpersonal relations, policy and administration, and supervision were observed to be highly dissatisfying to the administrator, however, when not effectively present.
Service and Maintenance Orientation in a Junior High School Organization
Authors: Gross Edward , Popper Samuel H.
Published: March 2007

In their exploratory interview-study of personnel connected with one junior high school, the authors found that the service and maintenance orientations of teachers and administrators are characteristic of the organization rather than of the particular people in it. They suggest that the internalization of professional goals among school people may inhibit the substitution of means for ends in circumstances where goal conflict is present. Mr. Gross is professor of sociology and industrial relations; Mr. Popper is associate professor of educational administration; both men are at the University of Minnesota in Minneapolis.
The Meaning of Administrative Support
Authors: Arends Richard I.
Published: March 2007

During the past decade a small but consistent literature has evolved that emphasizes the importance of administrative support for educational change efforts. Yet no empirical definition exists as to the meaning of administrative support nor have specific behaviors deemed supportive been identified with much precision. Knowledge about the nature of administrative support has implications for administrators who desire to promote change in their own organizations and also for those who plan and conduct administrative training programs.
A Social-Psychological Grounded Theory of Teacher Stress and Burnout
Authors: Blase Joseph J.
Published: March 2007

This article presents a social-psychological model of teacher stress and burnout which emphasizes the importance of teacher performance variables and cycles of teacher-student interactions that develop over time. The theoretical statements that serve as the basis of the framework proposed in this report have been extracted and refinedfrom the Teacher Performance-Motivation Theory (TP-M Theory), a data-based, grounded theory developed directlyfrom a study of public school teachers.
Evolution in Practice
Authors: Hess Fritz
Published: March 2007

The conditions that prevailed in the practice of administration in 1959 are reconstructed. A number of significant influences that developed during the period 1959-1981 are identified and discussed in detail, and the impact of these influences on schools as well as upon those who are charged with administering schools is assessed. The thesis is advanced that the assumptions on which administrative practice was based in 1959 have been totally reshaped by the events of the intervening years, and as a result, roles of educational leaders today have been redefined in ways that require incumbents to be far more political and advocative in their behavior, while functioning in an atmosphere of greater stress and conflict.
Restructuring Educational Governance: A Challenge of the 1990s
Authors: Swanson Austin D.
Published: March 2007

The author argues that there is a critical need for research and scholarship into the impact of educational governance structures (the formal arrangements for making and administering public policy on education) on the native and quality of decisions made and the degree of success in implementing those decisions. The author notes the new directional shift of the current educational reform movement from a centralized bureaucratic emphasis to a more decentralized quasi market orientation and links them to similar societal trends associated with the information age revolution. A framework for conceptualizing the problem of allocating decision-making authority about education among interested parties is presented an (discussed using illustrations from the United States, England, and Australia. Research issues are identified.
Searching for the Golden Fleece: The Epic Struggle Continues
Authors: Achilles C. M.
Published: March 2007

Educational administration has been subject to considerable criticism recently and there has been a resultant rush to identify ways to improve the field and preparation programs. How different are the problems and projected remedies in the 1990s from the issues in the 1950s? Using programs and studies (n = 8) spanning approximately 1950-1990 as a basis for analysis and comparison, it seems that the new wave of ideas (1980-1990) is substantially the same as the earlier ideas. Will the 1950s models be the vision for the 21st century, or must those who prepare educational administrators seek new models? Change in educational administration preparation models seems to be an epic task.
Integrating Students with Moderate and Severe Disabilities: Classroom Teachers' Beliefs and Attitudes about Implementing an Educational Change
Authors: Janney Rachel E. , Snell Martha E. , Beers Mary K. , Raynes Maria
Published: March 2007

Interviews were conducted with 26 classroom teachers from five school districts to investigate their beliefs and attitudes about implementing integrated special education services for students with moderate and severe disabilities. These teachers' views toward integration focused on four aspects of the change: its purpose, the clarity of its implementation methods, the effort it would require of teachers, and its rewards. The ways teachers' beliefs and attitudes affected the manner in which the change was implemented and the way those beliefs and attitudes were altered through experience are described. Steps administrators could take to ensure that this complex change is broadened and sustained are discussed.
Leadership as an Organizational Quality
Authors: Ogawa Rodney T. , Bossert Steven T.
Published: March 2007

In this article, leadership is conceptualized as an organizational quality. Adopting a perspective on organizations offered by institutional theory, the authors offer a view of leadership that builds on the following points: Leadership flows through the networks of roles that comprise organizations. The medium of leadership and the currency of leadership lie in the personal resources of people. And, leadership shapes the systems that produce patterns of interaction and the meanings that other participants attach to organizational events.
Educative Accountability Policy Research: Methodology and Epistemology
Authors: Macpherson R.J.S.
Published: March 2007

This article shows that accountability policy research has tended to use systems theory, an objectivist view of social reality, and logical empiricism to identify performance indicators of learning. It makes the case that policy knowledge production should permit a more holistic and causally interdependent view of teaching, learning, and leadership services. It argues that the accepting of responsibility in education obliges leaders to provide reasonable and coherent forms of accountability in a context of formative evaluation, educative reporting relationships, and politically sensitive planning. It then offers a methodology whereby accountability policies can be developed in a demonstrably educative manner. This methodology reflects a consequentialist moral theory, argues for the reconciliation of stakeholder perspectives through their active engagement, and applies a nonfoundationalist account of knowledge production.
Risk and Reward: Perspectives on the Implementation of Kentucky's School-Based Performance Award Program
Authors: Kelley Carolyn , Protsik Jean
Published: March 2007

This study provides a qualitative analysis of the Kentucky school-based performance award program. The study suggests that teachers were motivated by the program to modify teaching approaches to enhance student performance. The program also appears to have created relatively high levels of stress among teachers. Teachers and principals at six award-winning Kentucky schools reported attitudes and behaviors consistent with expectancy theory, goal-setting theory, and contingency theory.
Superintendents' Perspectives on the Involuntary Departure of Public School Principals: The Most Frequent Reasons Why Principals Lose their Jobs
Authors: Davis Stephen H.
Published: March 2007

Few studies have examined factors relating to ineffective school leadership. Such knowledge can help principals refine leadership behaviors and enhance job security. This study used experiences and perceptions from 99 California public school superintendents to examine the reasons why some principals lose their jobs. Superintendents' perceptions were compared with situational contexts and organizational outcomes. The results show that a principal's interpersonal relationships outweigh any other factor related to involuntary departure. In contrast to other studies, factors related to administrative skill were less important in explaining why principals lose their jobs. Low student achievement, failure to maintain a safe campus, or resistance to change had little influence on superintendents' decisions to remove a principal. Few differences in the reasons for involuntary departure were associated with district size or type. The relationship between certain organizational outcomes and the most frequent reasons for involuntary departure were not clear. Thus, the principal's effect on organizational outcomes appears to be indirect.
Transgression and Forgiveness in an International School: A Nonmodern Case Study
Authors: LaMagdeleine Donald R. , Kramer Bruce H.
Published: March 2007

The authors begin by arguing that Dewey's theory includes a healthy respect for both positivist science and postmodernism 's emphasis on the need for context. They label this perspective nonmodern, following Latour's use of the tern, and present and analyze a student discipline case in an international school. Two graduating seniors planted the same racist reference in their yearbook personal statements. Besides the damage done to the school's culture of internationalism, both students were threatened with violence unless the principal defused the crisis. He did so by following the procedures stipulated in the discipline policy but also by fashioning an impromptu confession-and-forgiveness hearing within a special student council meeting. The authors argue that the solution was generally judged appropriate because it covered both the modern and postmodern aspects of the situation. This case suggests that for principals and superintendents, nonmodern thinking is more appropriate than strictly modern or postmodern approaches.
The Measurement of Growth
Authors: Lord Frederic M.
Published: March 2007

A regression formula is derived for estimating a student's true gain from his initial and final test scores. A formula is given for the reliability of estimates thus obtained. A numerical example is given, illustrating some marked inadequacies of the simple, "common-sense" procedure that estimates gain by subtracting initial from final score. A convenient graphic procedure is presented for grouping all examinees tested according to the size of their estimated true gains.
Consensus Among Judges as a Function of Amount of Information
Authors: Nystedt Lars
Published: March 2007

The present research was designed to study whether amount of information and kind of information available to the judges affect the consensus among judges. Two experiments were performed, where the consensus was analyzed by the lens model equation, which has been related to the non-criterion situation by Naylor and Schenck (1966). The amount of information (two, four, and six tests) was found to have an effect on the consensus, whereas type of information available (access to the validities of the tests and their intercorrelations or not) did not have a significant effect on the consensus. The results imply that consensus among pairs of judges decreases when number of tests increase. However, the difference between four and six tests was not significant in one of the experiments. The changes in consensus as the number of tests increased was mainly a function of a decreased matching between a pair of judges with respect to the linear aspects of their judgment processes. A further analysis of the linear aspects of the judges' judgment processes indicated that policy similarity contributed more to consensus than policy consistency. The contribution of the nonlinear aspects of the judgment process to consensus was negligible in these experiments.
The Effects of Item Discrimination on the Standard Errors of Estimate Associated with Item-Examinee Sampling Procedures
Authors: Barcikowski Robert S.
Published: March 2007

A Monte Carlo study was conducted using item-examinee sampling procedures to examine the standard error of estimate for a given test's mean and variance. The main variables considered were test length, item difficulty, and item discrimination. The results indicate that optimal estimates, i.e., smallest standard error, of both mean and variance from a single item-examinee sampling plan may not be possible.
A Comparison Between Right and Wrong Answers on a Multiple Choice Test
Authors: Powell J.C. , Isbister Alvin G.
Published: March 2007

A test was developed so that right and wrong answer subtests could be compared. A clear pattern emerged which supported the a priori construct validity assumptions. The results were sufficiently conclusive to apparently refute the assumption often made or implied that "wrong answers contain no achievement information not included in the right answers or subtests thereof."
The Effect of Item Format on Reliability and Validity: a Study of Multiple Choice and True-False Achievement Tests
Authors: Frisbie David A.
Published: March 2007

A sample of 529 nonurban high school students each responded to one of four test forms which differed in subject matter (natural science or social studies) and item form order (true-false items before or after multiple choice). The ratio of the number of true-false to multiple-choice items attempted in the first eight minutes of testing was 3:2. The reliabilities of the multiple-choice tests were significantly greater than those of the empirically-lengthened true-false tests. The disattenuated correlation coefficients for three of the four tests were significantly less than 1.00. Conclusions and explanations are discussed.
The Relationship of Parental Marital Status to Measures of the Cognitive Vocational Maturity of Delinquents
Authors: Woodbury Roger , Pate Dove Henry
Published: March 2007

The study compared the differences in scores on each of the six areas of The Cognitive Vocational Maturity Test (CVMT) (Westbrook, Parry-Hill, and Woodbury, 1972) between two groups of delinquents: parents living together and parents divorced. A random sample of 42 adjudicated delinquents was administered the CVMT, and parental marital status was obtained from school social records. Analyses of variance and F tests indicated significant differences (p ≤ .01) between the groups on the CVMT scores of Fields of Work, Work Conditions, Educational Requirements, Attributes Required, and Duties. Results suggest that delinquents with divorced parents possess less knowledge about careers and their attributes than do delinquents whose parents remained married. The results lend support to the idea that vocational maturity is influenced by aversive parent-child relationships in the families of delinquents.
An Empirical Investigation Comparing the Effectiveness of Four Scoring Strategies on the Kuder Occupational Interest Survey Form DD
Authors: Olejnik Stephen , Porter Andrew C.
Published: March 2007

Responses to the Kuder Occupational Interest Survey by 3983 males from nine occupational groups provided the data to compare the accuracy of four scoring strategies: lambda coefficients, currently used by the test publisher, chi-square weights and two applications of multiple discriminant analysis. An analysis of variance test of the percentage of individuals correctly identified by each technique indicated that no statistically significant differences existed between the strategies. The study therefore provided empirical evidence supporting the continued use of the lambda weighting procedure for the scoring of the Kuder OIS.
Computer Programs for Robust Analyses in Multifactor Analysis of Variance Designs
Authors: Games Paul A.
Published: March 2007

Robust analyses of multifactor analysis of variance data may be secured even when assumptions are violated, by use of a set of five programs. ANOVR produces means, the summary table, group variances, the variance-covariance matrix on repeated measures, and tests most assumptions. FOLUP tests any set of pairwise contrasts of means, while COMCON tests any set of complex contrasts. Both latter programs permit solutions using heterogeneous group variances, or using a heterogeneous variance-covariance matrix from repeated measures, as well as conventional solutions using mean squares from the summary table. ANOVR produces the Box-Geisser-Greenhouse index when there is just one repeated measure factor, while PVCVRL will produce corresponding indices when there are two or more such factors. BARTKI produces output that generates the robust and flexible Bartlett and Kendall test for homogeneity of variances. Intelligent use of the set of programs frees the user from most assumptions of AOV.
A Computer Program to Test a Repeated Measures Hypothesis Using Hotelling's One-Sample T2 Statistic
Authors: Vitaliano Peter P. , Halperin Silas
Published: March 2007

The extent and direction of bias in an approximate test ( TA2) of a one-way repeated measures hypothesis was studied. Monte Carlo methods were used to simulate nine multinormal parent populations. Five thousand samples were drawn from each population and an F statistic (transformed from TA2) was calculated for each sample. Nine sampling distributions, each containing 5,000 Fs, were then observed. TA2 was shown to be very conservative—the proportions observed in the upper tails of the nine distributions were much smaller (in most cases one-half the size) than the proportions expected. The exact T2 test was also presented along with the description of a program which computes this statistic. The program is recommended, over available package programs, because it requires minimum input.
The Predictive Validity of the WPPSI With Israeli Children1
Authors: Lieblich Amia , Shinar Maya
Published: March 2007

Sixty-two first grade children in Israel were tested on the WPPSI, and most of them were retested a year later using objective measures of Reading and Arithmetic. The scores of the intelligence and achievement tests were correlated to provide estimates of the predictive validity of the WPPSI. Results revealed the Israeli WPPSI to be highly valid for prediction of school achievement.
A Comparison of the Wrat and the Piat With Learning Disability Children
Authors: Baum Dale D.
Published: March 2007

This study was concerned with the comparative performance of learning disability children on the WRAT and the PIAT. Correlations between corresponding subtests of the two instruments were quite high for Reading and moderately high for Spelling and Arithmetic across four age levels (7 to 8, 9, 10, and 11 year olds). It was concluded that the utility of the PIAT is as promising as that of the WRAT, although diagnosticians using the PIAT may wish to exclude the Reading Comprehension subtest, as this subtest tends to be measuring the same skills as Reading Recognition at the lower grade levels.
The Path Analysis of Complex Recursive Systems
Authors: Turner Charles F.
Published: March 2007

Methods for the path analysis of complex (i.e., not fully recursive) causal models are briefly discussed. A computer program which simplifies analysis of such models and provides an option for automatically deleting marginal paths is described.
A Revised Fortran IV Program for Three-Mode Factor Analysis
Authors: Walsh James A. , Walsh Roberta
Published: March 2007

This program is a FORTRAN IV revision of an earlier three-mode factor analysis program. The earlier program used a tape-based routine to implement large storage requirements. The present version, which uses a main program-subprogram structure and core storage, is written in a sufficiently general form as to be easily convertible to most machines having a FORTRAN IV compiler.
Highest Column Entry Hierarchical Clustering a Redevelopment and Elaboration of Elementary Linkage Analysis
Authors: McQuitty Louis L. , Koch Valerie L.
Published: March 2007

A relatively reliable and valid hierarchy of clusters of objects is plotted from the highest column entries, exclusively, of a matrix of interassociations between the objects. Having developed out of a loose definition of types, the method isolates both loose and highly definitive types, and all those in between. Results from one kind of test items produces a matrix of interassociations between interpersonal concepts over emotions for every individual. The above results indicate that the pairs of concepts between which the highest entries mediate report a wealth of information about the emotional organization of interpersonal concepts. Highest column entry pairs of concepts can serve as items in building a test to assess individual differences in an area of behavioral organizations.
Reliability and Validity of Item Option Weighting Schemes
Authors: Echternacht Gary
Published: March 2007

This study compares various item option scoring methods with respect to coefficient alpha and a concurrent validity coefficient. The scoring methods under consideration were: (1) formula scoring, (2) a priori scoring, (3) empirical scoring with an internal criterion, and (4) two modifications of formula scoring. The study indicates a clear superiority of the empirically determined scoring system with respect to both coefficient alpha and the concurrent validity.
Individuality of Item Interpretation in Interchangeable Acl Scales
Authors: Fiske Donald W. , Barack Leonard I.
Published: March 2007

After responding to each adjective in a check list, subjects gave a synonym. Sets of such synonyms showed considerable diversity. Using the first and second modal synonyms, respectively, in each such set, two new scales were formed for each of five variables. In another sample, these new scales had reliabilities comparable to those for the original scales and to the intercorrelations among the scales. For each triad of scales, the patterns of correlations with other scales converged closely. Despite the individuality of interpretations, the item sampling produced parallel, practically interchangeable scales. Each subject may be considered to be responding to his personal scale which corresponds roughly to those for other subjects.
The Development of the Defense Language Aptitude Battery (Dlab
Authors: Petersen Calvin R. , Al-Haik Antoine R.
Published: March 2007

The purpose of this research was to develop and to validate a language aptitude battery for use by the Defense Language Institute (DLI) which offers training in over 50 foreign languages. Predictor and criterion measures were collected on DLI students in 12 languages. Items were selected and grouped through canonical factor analysis of an experimental item pool. Validity was established through prediction of grades. These validities were then compared with those of other tests and predictor variables. The results were that the new battery (DLAB) did produce consistently higher validities than did other predictors. Although differential prediction by language was also investigated, evidence that it can be achieved was not found in this study.
Violation of Assumed Normality in Traditional Multidimensional Scaling
Authors: Subkoviak Michael J. , Farr S. David
Published: March 2007

Traditional multidimensional scaling is a two-stage procedure. Thurstone's comparative judgment model is often used in the initial stage to determine the perceived distance between pairs of objects, under the assumption that the perceived distance between each pair is normally distributed across a population of subjects. These distances are used in the second stage to construct a geometric configuration of the objects in multidimensional space. A stimulation method was employed to study the effect of nonnormally distributed distances on the accuracy of the recovered configuration. Accurate configurations were generated from a variety of nonnormal distributions. Thus, the multidimensional scaling procedure appears to be robust with respect to violations of the normality assumption inherent in the comparative judgment model.