bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Time of an Obligation
Authors: Prichard H. A.
Published: October 2003

In discussing the fact that it takes time to perform an action, distinguishes statements such as ‘I shall do x’ from statements such as ‘I shall be under an obligation to do x’ and ‘I was doing x’ from ‘I was under an obligation to do x’. The truth of the ‘ought’ statements is independent of whether the action is done, as it is not necessary that one not do the action at the time required in order to be under an obligation to do it at that time. For some contrasts between ‘ought’ and ‘is’ statements, the obligation, such as the obligation to go to bed, refers to the future. The statement ‘I am under an obligation to go to bed’ is equivalent to ‘from now on I shall be under an obligation to go to bed’, and does not require either that I shall not do the action or that I have not done the action for it to be true.
The Psychology of Willing
Authors: Prichard H. A.
Published: October 2003

Often an action causes both evil and benefit for the agent. No general account can be given for what happens when one considers in light of this evil and benefit whether to undertake the action in question. Prichard maintains that in willing a movement, there are two acts of will. First, there is the willing to think more of what one shall gain in willing x (than one shall lose in willing x), which results from the desire to will x. Second, there is the willing of the change x.
The Price of Indifference
Authors: Helton Arthur C.
Published: October 2003

To prevent or mitigate refugee catastrophes, more effective international cooperation is needed in advance of crises. In this connection, new mechanisms are needed to marshal resources to promote the sustainable return of refugees and internally displaced persons, and successfully undertake post‐conflict recovery.

Where prevention fails, more can be done to protect the displaced and help them find new homes. A greater degree of concerted action is needed among governments, international organizations, and NGOs in order to ensure the human security of the uprooted.

Based on the experience of the last decade, institutional reform is a key determinant of effective cooperation. In particular, the author urges the consolidation of humanitarian functions within the U.N., and the creation of a single U.S. government Agency for Humanitarian Action, or AHA. As a first step in that direction, a proposal is made to establish Strategic Humanitarian Action and Research (SHARE), an operations‐oriented think tank designed to promote coherent responses and make humanitarian action more effective.

Whether it is called humanitarian diplomacy or something else, a new form of statecraft is clearly needed in order to conduct effective humanitarian action in today's world. Success in this humanitarian management endeavour would surely mitigate the refugee problem and help us to avoid paying the high human, economic, political, and security costs –— the price of indifference.
The Last Decade's Refugee Story
Authors: Helton Arthur C.
Published: October 2003

In the 1990s, new conflicts broke out, particularly in connection with the dissolution of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, as well as several places in Africa. Initiatives were invented and re‐invented, and policy responses reverted to a largely reactive mode.

Ethnic and internal conflicts, which produced displacement emerged as key features of the decade, and sorely tested the capacity of the international community to respond to crises of forced displacement. The so‐called ‘CNN effect”’ led to engagement as well as disengagement (Somalia) and the term ‘nation building’ came into vogue and then later became an epithet. At the outset of the twenty‐first century, refugee policy is driven by selective apathy and creeping trepidation.
Humanitarian Action and New Complexities in Refugee Protection: The Former Yugoslavia
Authors: Helton Arthur C.
Published: October 2003

The delivery of humanitarian assistance in the midst of armed conflict, the creation of putative safe areas, and arrangements for temporary relocation and stays abroad were policy innovations tested in the case of the former Yugoslavia over the past decade. While increasingly prevalent, ‘state building’ in connection with the return and reintegration of refugees resulted in uneven outcomes over the past decade. Despite the mixed outcomes, the international community is likely to resort to such approaches in the future. Recent experience, however, teaches that expectations relating to state building should be modest. But the UN system and other international organizations must strengthen their capacities to meet even modest expectations.
Variations on State Building and Refugees: Myth and Reality
Authors: Helton Arthur C.
Published: October 2003

During the 1990s, modesty in expectations remained the leitmotif of international humanitarian operations in places like Cambodia, Haiti, and East Timor. In Cambodia, human rights violations littered much of the recent past and remain a continuing problem. Following Operation Uphold Democracy in Haiti, a 1995 lessons‐learned report noted that there is no US government doctrine integrating the military component of a complex humanitarian operation with the civilian agencies responsible for recovery. As for East Timor, while quite limited as a policy precedent, it will probably be considered the paradigmatic test case for international state building.

Refugee policy needs to be more proactive, and a greater degree of international cooperation and a preventive orientation should animate humanitarian responses.
Purposes, Causes, and Reasons Explanations
Authors: Schueler G. F.
Published: October 2003

Why would anyone deny the belief‐desire account of reasons explanations? It is argued here that the real question is whether the purposive, and hence apparently teleological, nature of reasons explanations in the end must be understood in non‐teleological (and hence presumably purely causal or ‘mechanical’) terms.
Teleological Explanations of Actions
Authors: Schueler G. F.
Published: October 2003

It is argued here that reference to the agent's purpose or purposes is essential to action explanations and that in fact the belief‐desire theory presupposes such purposes in any case. Action explanations are thus essentially teleological. The suggestion is explored that reference to character traits can be used to meet ‘Davidson's Challenge’ to explain how reasons explanations could work without including a non‐teleological, causal mechanism.
Explanations in Terms of the Agent's Reasoning
Authors: Schueler G. F.
Published: October 2003

Practical reasoning has been misrepresented by the so‐called practical syllogism as not essentially involving evaluations. Correcting this error helps show why it is implausible to hold, as e.g. J. David Velleman and others have, that an underlying proper desire is always required to explain actions done on the basis of practical deliberation. The principle of charity is essential to making sense of the actions of others since it is essential to understanding what their reasons are when they act.
The Inherently Normative Nature of Action Explanations
Authors: Schueler G. F.
Published: October 2003

There is a crucial difference between explaining actions on the basis of the agent's actual or possible practical deliberation (the deliberative model) and explaining them on the basis of some motivating desire (the direct desire model). The former applies the model of one's own rational deliberation to others in roughly the way Dennett's ‘intentional stance’ model suggests. It views the agent as genuinely rational and requires ascribing evaluations to the agent whose actions are being explained. It also entails that action explanations are themselves irreducibly normative.
Liberal Democracy and the Critical Alternative
Authors: Dryzek John S.
Published: October 2003

Recounts the roots of the deliberative turn in democratic theory in liberalism and critical theory. Losing sight of its critical theory origins, deliberative democracy gains an ever‐closer association with the institutions of the liberal state. As an alternative, this chapter lays the foundations for an account of discursive democracy grounded in a critical theory of communicative action.
Minimal Democracy? The Social Choice Critique
Authors: Dryzek John S.
Published: October 2003

Some social choice theorists attempt to turn the science of politics against democracy in general and deliberative democracy in particular. They claim the arbitrariness and instability of democracy will be exacerbated by unconstrained deliberation. The response shows that there are mechanisms endogenous to deliberation that can respond to the social choice theory critique, emphasizing the construction of public opinion through the contestation of discourses in the public sphere and its transmission to the state by communicative means, including rhetoric.
Insurgent Democracy: Civil Society and State
Authors: Dryzek John S.
Published: October 2003

Comparative historical analysis of democratization is deployed to show that sometimes it makes sense to highlight the state as the best home for deliberative democracy, sometimes civil society, and sometimes both. Everything depends on the particular configuration of state imperatives and social movement interests, as well as the kind of inclusion that the state can offer to groups. Exclusive states sometimes prove surprisingly positive when it comes to the democratic vitality of the public sphere. Guidelines are developed for the strategic choices facing social movements.
Discursive Democracy in a Reflexive Modernity
Authors: Dryzek John S.
Published: October 2003

This chapter links the strands that have been developed into a coherent democratic theory. This theory is related to the idea of reflexive modernization.
The Demands of Liberal Education
Authors: Levinson Meira
Published: October 2003

Develops a liberal political theory of children's education provision. It argues that all children have a right to an autonomy‐promoting education, and that this right is best satisfied through a state‐regulated ‘detached school’ that aims to help children develop their capacities for autonomy. Parents have the privilege to direct their children's upbringing in substantial and pervasive ways, but they do not have the right to prevent their children from developing the capacity for autonomy. There are nonetheless ways to encourage parental involvement and permit school choice. Although political liberals suggest that autonomy is too divisive of an aim, and that liberal schools should simply promote civic virtue, political liberalism and political liberal education are shown to be both theoretically and empirically inferior to weakly perfectionist liberalism and liberal education. Correctly conceived, autonomy‐promoting education contributes to the development of civic virtue, nurtures children's capacities for cultural coherence as well as for choice, and promotes equality.
Introduction
Authors: Levinson Meira
Published: October 2003

The goal of this book is to develop a coherent liberal political theory of children's education provision. This goal is motivated by three observations: although people's intuitions about liberalism already guide their approach to education policy, their intuitions (and hence their policy stances) are often wrong; in liberal states, liberal political principles should and do have important ramifications for education policy; and educational outcomes have important ramifications for the health and preservation of the liberal polity. The book does not justify liberalism's value—instead takes that as given—but it does address the relationship between formal schooling and other forms of education, as well as discusses the difference between liberal and democratic theories of education.
The Development of Autonomy
Authors: Levinson Meira
Published: October 2003

Discusses the relationship between the exercise and development of autonomy and analyses their implications for liberalism and liberal education. Section 2.1 proves that since the liberal state values adults’ exercise of autonomy, it must also value children's development of autonomy. Section 2.2 argues that state paternalism towards children, in particular, state efforts to help children develop the capacity for autonomy even against their parents’ wishes, is consistent with liberal principles. Section 2.3 argues that parents have privileges rather than rights to control their children's upbringing, but that these privileges nonetheless offer ample scope for parents to exert independent paternalistic control. Finally, Section 2.4 argues that the liberal ideal of autonomy not merely permits but requires the intrusion of the state into the child's life, specifically in the form of compulsory, ‘detached’, autonomy‐driven schools.
Culture, Choice, and Citizenship: Schooling Private Citizens in the Public Square
Authors: Levinson Meira
Published: October 2003

Analyses the relationships between cultural coherence, cultural pluralism, civic education, and autonomy. Section 4.1 argues that the skills, habits, values, and beliefs that underlie the capacity for autonomy also underlie the capacity for citizenship; hence, education for citizenship and for autonomy are mutually reinforcing. Section 4.2 develops an ‘English’ model of political liberal education, contrasting it with an ‘American’ model developed in Section 4.3 and a ‘French’ model in Section 4.4. Section 4.5 concludes that all of these political liberal models of education, which attempt in different ways to balance cultural coherence and civic virtue without promoting autonomy, are inferior—on both theoretical and empirical grounds—to weakly perfectionist liberal education.
Schumpeter's Plea for Reasoned History
Authors: Freeman Chris , Louçã Francisco
Published: October 2003

The chapter summarizes some of the main characteristics of Schumpeter's evolutionism, discussing his own evolution in some detail, since the early days of the Methodenstreit between Menger and Schmoller, and the participation of Schumpeter along the Walrasian side.

Yet he tried to surpass what he recognized as the limits of that side: the analysis of capitalism from the point of view of statics, and consequently the understatement of the dynamic role of innovation, the main endogenous drive for change and adaptation of the economic system.

Schumpeter's non‐Darwinist evolutionism is analysed, and his contributions are compared to his main rival and bête‐noir, J. M. Keynes; in spite of the conflicting views of both men, some essential points of proximity are indicated: both interpreted modern industrial relations as part of a dynamic, nonlinear, complex system, emphasizing the emergence of uncertainty (Keynes) or change (Schumpeter).

Their closely related understanding of the cyclical nature of capitalism is indeed one of the crucial contributions of the first half‐century economics.
Nikolai Kondratiev: A New Approach to History and Statistics
Authors: Freeman Chris , Louçã Francisco
Published: October 2003

Nikolai Kondratiev was one of the Russian economists whose work had most impact on the academic profession in the early twentieth century; after following courses by Tugan‐Baranovsky, he joined in the development of new approaches to economic statistics.

As the natural follower of Clément Juglar, who first analysed the industrial or business cycle, he led the Institute of Conjuncture in Moscow in the twenties while analysing the statistics of long cycles in prices, interest rates, and trade in the principal countries.

Kondratiev was later a victim of one of the bloody purges of the Stalinist era and, after eight years in prison, was finally shot.

Yet his short period in the Institute and his rare publications, some of them translated into German and then into English, became known to many western colleagues: Simon Kuznets, Wesley Mitchell, Ragnar Frisch, Jan Tinbergen, and especially Joseph Schumpeter, who named the long waves of industrial change ‘Kondratievs’ or ‘Kondratiev cycles’.

Kondratiev became the only Russian‐born economist to be part of the foundation of the Econometric Society in spite of living in jail at that time and his contribution, his hypotheses and statistical demonstrations, and the fierce debate with his own colleagues at the Institute are discussed in detail in this chapter.
The Strange Attraction of Tides and Waves
Authors: Freeman Chris , Louçã Francisco
Published: October 2003

A number of recent authors challenged Kondratiev's tentative conclusions, using modern statistical and econometric techniques, or indicating alternative processes of causation—the case of W. Rostow, arguing for the long‐term evolution of relative prices, being one of the best known.

In an overview of the field, this chapter considers the available statistical and econometric techniques for the analysis of fluctuations, their theoretical underpinnings and the implicit structure they postulate: trend deviation techniques and other smoothing procedures, spectral analysis and other theory‐free devices, and simulation models are considered and criticized.

The chapter concludes that the apparent lack of statistical evidence for these long periods of characteristic change is frequently imposed by the very methods used to demonstrate their non‐existence, rather than by sensitive historical analysis of firms, markets, social institutions and their evolution.

Other authors who concentrated on the schedule of the rate of profit and discussed the social environment and processes of change that influence the lasting effects of clusters of radical innovations and the creation of new industries are reviewed.

Ernest Mandel, the forerunner of the revival of the Kondratiev hypothesis in the sixties, argued for a comprehensive approach to the phenomenon based on the dynamics of economic change and social conflict.
The Emergence of a New Techno‐Economic Paradigm: The Age of Information and Communication Technology (ICT)
Authors: Freeman Chris , Louçã Francisco
Published: October 2003

US technological leadership and domination of the world economy were further enhanced by the extraordinarily rapid rate of technical change and output growth in the semiconductor, computer, and telecommunications industries in which American firms played a leading role and to which American universities made a vital contribution.

Whereas some historians have cast doubts on the pervasiveness and the magnitude of the effects of earlier technological revolutions, such as the railways, few doubt the significance of the Information Technology Revolution and some, such as Castells, see it as ushering in a new type of economy and even a new civilization.

Just as in the 1920s the Hoover Report had stressed that changes in mass production technology and other business developments had given rise to a new style of management, so many economists and management consultants today stress the ways in which the new ICT infrastructure and especially the Internet are bringing in a new type of firm—the ‘network firm’ organizing both production and distribution in entirely new ways.

Great uncertainty still attends more profound social and political changes associated with ICT including the diminished capabilities of national governments to tax and regulate powerful multinational firms and the rise of a new culture of ‘virtual reality’.
The Engines of European Integration
Authors: Pollack Mark A.
Published: October 2003

The European Union is composed of its member states, yet these states have created and delegated increasing powers to a number of supranational organizations, including the executive Commission, the European Court of Justice and the European Parliament. Drawing from principal‐agent analyses of delegation, agency and agenda setting, this book seeks to analyse and explain the delegation of powers by governmental principals to supranational agents, as well as the subsequent role played by those agents in the process of European integration. The book is divided into two parts. The first part of the book analyses the historical and functional patterns of delegation to the Commission, the Court of Justice and the Parliament, suggesting that delegation to the first two is motivated by a desire to reduce the transaction costs of policy‐making, as predicted by principal‐agent models. By contrast, the delegation of powers to the Parliament fits poorly with such models, and primarily reflects the concern of member governments to enhance the democratic legitimacy of the Union. The second part of the book focuses on the role of supranational agents in both the liberalization and re‐regulation of the European market, and suggests that the Commission, Court and Parliament have played a causally important role alongside member governments as the ‘engines of integration’, but that their ability to do so has varied historically and across issue‐areas as a function of the discretion delegated to them by the member governments.
The Commission as an Agent: Delegation of Executive Power in the European Union
Authors: Pollack Mark A.
Published: October 2003

European Union governments have delegated executive and agenda‐setting powers to the Commission primarily to reduce the transaction costs of policy‐making, and they have designed complex control mechanisms to limit the discretion of the Commission in the policy process. Examines the record of delegation to the Commission throughout the EU's history, measuring the extent of delegation and Commission discretion across 35 different issue‐areas. Almost without exception, member states delegate to the Commission precisely the functions hypothesized by principal‐agent models, including most notably monitoring compliance, setting the legislative agenda and laying down expert and credible market regulations. Similarly, however, the Commission is closely monitored by member governments, which have adopted a carefully designed and calibrated system of appointment and censure mechanisms, ‘comitology’ or oversight committees and administrative law and judicial review by the European Court of Justice.
The Court of Justice as an Agent: Delegation of Judicial Power in the European Union
Authors: Pollack Mark A.
Published: October 2003

European Union governments have delegated judicial powers to the European Court of Justice primarily to monitor national compliance with EU law and to solve problems of incomplete contracting, and they have granted the Court extraordinarily wide discretion to do so.

Member‐state principals enjoy a comparatively small range of control mechanisms vis‐a‐vis the ECJ (e.g. the power of appointment, legislative reversal of Court judgments, and unilateral non‐compliance with those judgments). The Court's broad discretion has allowed it to pursue an integrationist agenda with little regard to the preferences of powerful member states or to the likelihood of legislative overruling. In response to such judicial activism, however, EU member governments have recently been more reluctant to delegate extensive new powers to the Court, which enjoys no jurisdiction in the area of Common Foreign and Security Policy and only partial jurisdiction in the area of Justice and Home Affairs.
Liberalizing Europe: The Commission, the Court, and the Creation of a European Market
Authors: Pollack Mark A.
Published: October 2003

The ability of supranational agents such as the European Commission and Court of Justice to influence policy outcomes in the European Union varies as a function of the control mechanisms established by member governments to limit supranational discretion. Examines three cases of market liberalization representing a range of control mechanisms, in the areas of external trade (negotiation of the Uruguay Round), competition policy (the De Havilland merger decision) and the free movement of goods within the Union (ECJ jurisprudence from Cassis de Dijon through Keck). Taken together, these three case studies suggest that the Commission and the Court have indeed been activist in their mission to establish a single European market, but also that their successes have been limited as a function of the control mechanisms established by member governments to control their discretion.
Regulating Europe: The Commission, the Court, and the Regulation of the European Market
Authors: Pollack Mark A.
Published: October 2003

The ability of supranational agents such as the European Commission and Court of Justice to influence policy outcomes in the European Union varies as a function of the control mechanisms established by member governments to limit supranational discretion. Examines three cases of market regulation representing a range of control mechanisms, in the areas of social regulation (the 1993 Working Time Directive), regional policy (the 1988 and 1993 Structural Fund Regulations) and equal pay for men and women (ECJ jurisprudence from Defrenne through Barber). Taken together, these three case studies suggest that the Commission and the Court have indeed been activist in their mission to establish regulations to govern the single European market, but also that their successes have been limited as a function of the control mechanisms established by member governments to control their discretion.
Order/Justice Issues at the United Nations
Authors: Roberts Adam
Published: October 2003

This chapter examines the order/justice issue within the institutionalized context of the UN. It asks whether the UN and its members have achieved a substantive consensus on the content of international justice, and concludes that the underlying tension evident in the UN Charter between rules designed to bolster interstate stability and those aimed at the promotion of justice still persist. Nevertheless, it also argues that the pursuit of various justice issues has long been seen as a legitimate part of UN activities; thus, despite the controversies such activities generate, the UN's interest in justice issues will continue.
Order, Justice, the IMF, and the World Bank
Authors: Woods Ngaire
Published: October 2003

Woods's chapter focuses primarily on procedural justice within the international financial institutions. She argues that the procedures adopted by these institutions are central to the debate about global economic justice, and thus it is essential to explore how these bodies make decisions and implement them. Her conclusions suggest that, notwithstanding recent and important reforms, the institutions still suffer from weaknesses in representation and accountability. Unless these bodies attend to these deficiencies, the range and scope of their activities should be circumscribed.
Order and Justice Beyond the Nation‐State: Europe's Competing Paradigms
Authors: Nicolaidis Kalypso , Lacroix Justine
Published: October 2003

The authors focus on the European Union both as a regional organization with distinctive norms and practices, and as a grouping of states that reflect specific individual traditions and views. The chapter describes two core paradigms: the national and the post‐national. The national paradigm is recognizably realist and state‐centric in approach. It suggests that the focus of external behaviour should be the promotion of order via traditional power‐political means and for traditional state‐based normative ends. The post‐national paradigm, however, reflects a more cosmopolitan understanding of global society in which Europe's institutional and substantive understanding of justice questions can be reflected in its policies beyond EU borders. These propositions are tested in three issue areas. The authors conclude that while the EU may have the capacity to shape an order/justice agenda beyond its borders, its members have not yet agreed what that agenda should be.
Order versus Justice: An American Foreign Policy Dilemma
Authors: Gaddis John Lewis
Published: October 2003

Gaddis primarily focuses on US dilemmas over the relationship between order and justice throughout the twentieth century. He argues that from the time of Theodore Roosevelt to that of Richard M. Nixon, a concern for order had superseded a concern for justice. After that time, and especially in the post‐Cold War era, these two concepts were finally to be brought together in ways that could be said to have been destabilizing world order. Nevertheless, once entwined, it has been difficult for the US to disentangle the promotion of order from justice even during its post‐September 11th struggle against terrorism. In order for the US to be successful in the promotion of its order and justice agenda, the author concludes that US hegemony needs to be coupled with legitimacy, consent, and a modesty of aims.
Parts of the Soul and the Psychology of Virtue
Authors: Bobonich Christopher
Published: October 2003

Plato's psychology in the Phaedo and the Republic is committed to a partitioning thesis that partitions the individual human being into a compound of distinct agent‐like parts. This chapter argues that the Laws abandons the Republic's theory of parts of the soul. I examine the Laws’ new theory of akrasia (weakness of will) and some of the implications of the Laws’ new psychology for broader issues in Plato's ethics.
On the Necessity of Origin
Authors: McGinn Colin
Published: October 2003

McGinn contests Mackie's reductive explanation of Kripke's claim that the origin of a thing constitutes a de re necessity (i.e. that a thing's origin is essential to it). On McGinn's non‐reductive alternative, a biological entity's origin is essential because its developmental continuity (e.g. from gametes to zygote to foetus to infant to child to adult) is. Moreover, the necessity of a biological organism's developmental continuity is distinct from the necessity of an artefact's constitution (e.g. this chair's being made of that particular bit of wood).
Conceptual Causation: Some Elementary Reflections
Authors: McGinn Colin
Published: October 2003

Building on the ‘weak externalist’ position suggested in ‘The Structure of Content’ and developed in Mental Content, McGinn considers the topic of conceptual causation: in particular, the intentionality involved in a concept bringing about a behavioural effect. McGinn's main thesis—that conceptual causation ‘involves’ intentionality in the sense that a ‘mental power comes harnessed to a worldly parameter’—relies heavily on a distinction between two features of causation: causal parameters (i.e. the context in which a causal event occurs: including the object, place, and time) and causal powers (i.e. the properties of the objects which ‘drive nature's motor’).
An a Priori Argument for Realism
Authors: McGinn Colin
Published: October 2003

McGinn presents an indirect, a priori argument for the conjunction of realism about the external world and realism about the mind. The argument is indirect because McGinn's principal targets are the alternative conjunctions that include some form of anti‐realism about either the external world (phenomenalism), the mind (behaviourism), or both: phenomenalism plus realism about the mind; realism about the external world plus behaviourism; phenomenalism plus behaviourism. McGinn argues that both of these anti‐realist positions are self‐refuting. ‘Behaviourism requires realism about material objects, since anti‐realism about material objects is inconsistent with behaviourism; but realism about material objects requires that behaviourism be false; so behaviourism is false.’ Moreover, ‘phenomenalism requires realism about the mind, since anti‐realism about the mind (behaviourism) is inconsistent with phenomenalism; but realism about the mind requires that phenomenalism is false, since it requires that behavioural statements not imply mental statements; so phenomenalism is false’. Therefore, McGinn concludes, we know a priori that ‘any argument (such as Dummett's) that purports to establish anti‐realism in either of these two areas has to be unsound’.
Critical Scientific Realism
Authors: Niiniluoto Ilkka
Published: October 2003

This book gives a systematic formulation of critical scientific realism by surveying varieties of realism in ontology, semantics, epistemology, theory construction, and methodology. According to the standard version of scientific realism, scientific theories are attempts to give true descriptions of mind‐independent and possibly unobservable reality, where truth means correspondence between language and reality. Critical realism adds to this view four important qualifications: our access to the world is always relative to a chosen linguistic framework (conceptual pluralism); all human knowledge about reality is uncertain and corrigible (fallibilism); even the best theories in science may fail to be true, but nevertheless, successful theories typically are close to the truth (truthlikeness); a part, but only a part, of reality consists of human‐made constructions (Popper's world 3). Niiniluoto combines Tarski's semantic definition of truth with his own explication of Popper's notion of verisimilitude, and characterizes scientific progress in terms of increasing truthlikeness. He argues in detail that critical scientific realism can be successfully defended against its most important current alternatives: instrumentalism, constructive empiricism, Kantianism, pragmatism, internal realism, relativism, social constructivism, and epistemological anarchism.
Realism in Ontology
Authors: Niiniluoto Ilkka
Published: October 2003

Ontological realism claims that at least a part of reality is ontologically independent of human minds. This view is compatible with physicalism (eliminative and reductive materialism), emergent materialism, and dualism, and even objective idealism, but incompatible with subjective idealism (solipsism, phenomenalism). This chapter defends ontological realism by interpreting Popper's doctrine of three worlds as a form of emergent materialism, which allows for the existence of human‐made cultural and social entities. Against nominalism and universalism, and contrary to essentialist assumptions about natural kinds, it is suggested that the basic furniture of the world consists of dynamically developing tropes or property instances.
Introduction: Social Movements, Contentious Actions, and Social Networks: ‘From Metaphor to Substance’?
Authors: Diani Mario
Published: October 2003

Charts recent developments in the exploration of social movements and collective action from a social network perspective. These include the contribution of networks to individual recruitment and participation; the study of interorganizational networks; the impact of the structure of a given community over the chances for the development of collective action, assessed both via empirical investigation and formal modelling. These developments are part of a growing attention within social theory for the micro–macro link, the relationship between structure and agency, and social mechanisms. The social network perspectives outlined in this book should not be of interest to social movement researchers only; the book aims to contribute to cross‐disciplinary exchange with social scientists, with broader interests in the network dimension of political analysis.
‘Leaders’ Or Brokers? Positions and Influence in Social Movement Networks
Authors: Diani Mario
Published: October 2003

Focusing on interorganizational networks, analysed with reference to the Italian environmental movement in the 1980s, this chapter challenges the assumption that social movements be necessarily decentralized and anti‐hierarchical. The position of different organizations within the environmental movement network is assessed in the light of two criteria , namely network centrality and brokerage. These measures reflect two different types of movement influence, based on the capacity to attract support for specific initiatives (centrality) and the capacity to connect sectors of a movement who hold different stances and worldviews (brokerage). These measures are differently correlated with external indicators of leadership like access to institutions and the media. The chapter also discusses the conditions under which centrality and brokerage positions tend to be occupied by the same actors or by different actors.
Contentious Connections in Great Britain, 1828–34
Authors: Tilly Charles , Wood Lesley J.
Published: October 2003

Combines network analysis and historical sociology to chart significant changes in patterns of social conflict (in particular, relationships of attack and claim making) among different social groups, including royalty, parliament, local and national officials, trade, and workers, in Britain in the early nineteenth century. Building block models based on the intersection of actors and events, the authors map networks of contention in national politics before and after the passing of the 1832 Reform Act, which increased the centrality of parliament in British politics. They highlight the process by which people, through collective action, not only create new forms of political repertoires but also forge relations to other actors, both at the local and the national level.
Networks, Diffusion, and Cycles of Collective Action
Authors: Oliver Pamela E. , Myers Daniel J.
Published: October 2003

Uses simulation models to explore network mechanisms in diffusion processes and protest cycles. The network dimension is taken into account, focusing on three processes: information flows, influence flows, and the construction of joint action. The repeatable and reversible nature of protest requires models of diffusion that focus on the spread of actions and not the spread of ideas across actors. Moreover, while diffusion processes tend to generate waves or cycles of events, not all waves of events arise from diffusion processes. The effect of network structure varies greatly depending upon the nature of a particular network process.
Movement in Context: Thick Networks and Japanese Environmental Protest
Authors: Broadbent Jeffrey
Published: October 2003

Presents a case for a network version of the concept of political opportunity structure, focusing on environmental movement activity in eight communities in Japan. Embeddedness in specific networks shapes political action much more strongly in densely knit societies like Japan than in Western, individualistic societies; in Japan, networks operate mostly in terms of block recruitment rather than individual recruitment, and this holds for both movements and local elites. In particular, vertical ties between elites and citizen strongly shape local political opportunities: it is the presence of ‘breakaway bosses’ (i.e. local leaders who take the protesters’ side) to prove the strongest predictor of success for collective action. The chapter also presents a distinctive theoretical framework, Integrative Structurational Analysis, to link structure and agency.
Beyond Structural Analysis: Toward a More Dynamic Understanding of Social Movements
Authors: McAdam Doug
Published: October 2003

Assesses the limitations of the structural paradigm for the investigation of the network‐participation link, and invokes a greater role for cultural analysis in the identification of recruitment and mobilization mechanisms. This general point is illustrated with reference to three specific ‘facts’ regarding the origins of protest and contention, conventionally associated with the standard structuralist argument: prior social ties as a basis for movement recruitment; established social settings as the locus of movement emergence; the spread of movements along existing lines of interaction. For each of these cases, the author identifies social mechanisms, which combine structural and cultural elements. Rather than rejecting the formalization and the quest for systematic patterns, to which network concepts and methods have so much contributed in recent years, the author calls for a more dynamic integration of cultural analysis and structuralist research strategies.
Rules, Reasons, and Norms
Authors: Pettit Philip
Published: October 2003

The essays selected here come in three packages. The first set of essays is concerned with the rule‐following, response‐dependent character of thought; the second, with the many factors to which choice is rationally responsive—and by reference to which choice can be explained—consistently being under the control of such reason‐giving thought; and the third, with the implications of this multiple sensitivity for how best to regulate human institutions with a view to securing a desirable normative order.
Introduction: In the Name of ‘Europe’
Authors: Featherstone Kevin
Published: October 2003

This introductory chapter defines the purpose of the book, which is to bring together recognized experts in the field to distinguish the conceptual meaning of ‘Europeanization’ and to analyse its empirical implications. In order to set the context it seeks to chart the uses of the term ‘Europeanization’ and to clarify how it will be used in the rest of the book. The aim is to provide some structure to the potential confusion of the uninitiated reader, whilst also mapping out key research areas. The main sections of the chapter are: A Typology of ‘Europeanization’; ‘Europeanization’ as a Conceptual Framework; ‘Europeanization’ as a Research Agenda; and Conclusion: The Utility of ‘Europeanization’.
Conceptualizing the Domestic Impact of Europe
Authors: Börzel Tanja A. , Risse Thomas
Published: October 2003

This chapter takes a ‘top-down’ perspective on how European integration and Europeanization more generally affect domestic policies, politics and polities of the member states and beyond. The emerging literature on the topic is used to develop some preliminary hypotheses on the conditions under which domestic change would be expected in response to Europeanization. Various propositions made in the literature are simplified, and topics needing further research are pointed out. The chapter proceeds in the following steps: first, what is meant by the ‘domestic impact’ of Europeanization is specified; second, the concept of ‘misfit’ is developed, and differential empowerment and socialization are distinguished as the two theoretical logics of domestic adaptation to Europe; third, the degree and direction of domestic changes to be expected by the two logics and causal mechanisms are discussed, focusing on the question of whether convergence or divergence is likely. The conclusion offers propositions on how differential empowerment and socialization relate to each other.
Variable Geometry, Multilevel Governance: European Integration and Subnational Government in the New Millennium
Authors: Goldsmith Mike
Published: October 2003

The creation of the European Union, and the associated process of economic, political, and social integration that has accompanied it, has changed the nature of nation state and subnational politics as it had been known for at least two centuries. This chapter starts by reviewing three of the models that have been used to conceptualize the different ways in which EU integration has occurred . The state-centred, supranational and multilevel governance models. Next it offers a conceptualization of Europeanization. In the following three sections (Subnational Government in the EU Context; EU Regional Policy and Subnational Government; and The Operation of EU Regional Policy) it goes on to evaluate some of the changes that have occurred, which have resulted particularly in changing forms of subnational politics within the European Union. Most specifically it examines the extent to which the essential distinction between northern and southern European styles of local politics is being undermined by the process of European integration and policy Europeanization. The chapter concludes by evaluating the extent to which ideas such as variable geometry and multilevel governance remain useful concepts in aiding understanding of the processes of change through which EU territorial politics are currently passing.
Europeanization Goes East: Power and Uncertainty in the EU Accession Process
Authors: Grabbe Heather
Published: October 2003

The candidate countries of central and eastern Europe (CEE) have been taking on all the obligations of European Union (EU) membership for some ten years now, so the domestic effects of transferring policies and institutions to them are likely to be comparable to the effects of the EU on its current member states, although the political relationship between the applicants and the EU is very different, which affects how Europeanization occurs. This chapter examines just one domain of Europeanization in relation to CEE candidates. Public policy. The first section sets out a prima facie case for extending the study of Europeanization to include the EU effects in CEE, arguing that the effects are likely to be similar in nature, but broader and deeper in scope. The second section discusses how theoretical and empirical work on Europeanization in the fifteen EU countries can usefully be applied to the applicants for membership, particularly the CEE countries that have sought to join since 1989; it sets out a typology of routes of influence through which the EU can affect domestic changes in CEE. The third section presents an analysis of two major reasons why Europeanization is different in the case of central and eastern European countries: the first reason is that they are candidates rather than members of the Union, in an asymmetrical relationship which gives the EU more coercive routes of influence in domestic policy-making processes, and the applicants a stronger incentive than existing member states to implement EU policies because they are trying to gain admission yet cannot influence EU policy making; the second reason is the uncertainty built into the accession processes, which has at least five dimensions.
Understanding Human Knowledge
Authors: Stroud Barry
Published: October 2003

A collection of seminal papers written by eminent epistemologist and metaphysician Barry Stroud, published over the past 35 years. The main task Stroud explores in the essays is, as the title suggests, the one of understanding human knowledge as it is pursued in philosophy. Stroud defends the distinctive thesis that scepticism has a unique central place in epistemology in that it is to be regarded as a criterion both for posing the right kind of questions philosophical theories of knowledge face and for the postulation of answers to these questions. The second main theme of the book, equally intrinsically related to its overall target, is the possibility of the ‘transcendental’, broadly Kantian, project of establishing the distinctive perceptual and conceptual relationship between persons on the one hand and the world on the other. Stroud emphasizes the special invulnerability of certain aspects of our conception of the world that accompanies the conglomerate of these relationships.
Scepticism and the Possibility of Knowledge
Authors: Stroud Barry
Published: October 2003

The first essay of Stroud's collection may serve as an introduction to the guiding theme taken up in the other essays. Stroud examines the reasons why some epistemologists find unintelligible or ill‐formed not only the challenge of scepticism itself but also theories of knowledge that give positive answers to the question out of which scepticism arises. He attempts to show that responses to scepticism along these lines are either superficial or off target, and makes a case for the belief that recognition of this fact is a genuine advance towards epistemological and philosophical understanding.
Transcendental Arguments
Authors: Stroud Barry
Published: October 2003

An exploration of the possibility of Kantian‐style a priori arguments to the conclusion that we know many of the things we think we know and that our having such knowledge is a precondition of our ability to think anything at all. Such a conclusion would both answer the challenge of scepticism and explain its perceived depth. Stroud, however, casts doubt on the possibility of success of such a project, if it is severed from the idealism in which it has been previously embedded.