bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Hydrochemical characteristics of bulk meltwater from an entire ablation season, Longyearbreen, Svalbard
Authors: Yde Jacob C. , Riger-Kusk Mette , Christiansen Hanne H. , Tvis Knudsen N. , Humlum Ole
Published: July 2008

The ionic and isotopic characteristics of bulk waters emanating from the cold-based Longyearbreen, central Svalbard, in 2004 are examined to determine lithological, hydrological and glaciological controls on water composition, solute provenance and chemical denudation. The geology consisted of reactive coal seams and associated sedimentary rocks. Acidity caused by microbial-mediated oxidation of sulfides and, to a lesser extent, nitrogen-bearing minerals was neutralized by congruent dissolution of dolomite and incongruent weathering of silicates in open-system subglacial drainage channels. The ablation season was divided into an early melt season, a peak-flow period and a late melt season. The runoff distribution during these periods was 1.7%, 89.7% and 8.6%, respectively, whereas the solute flux distribution was 1.9%, 82.1% and 16.0%, respectively. Comparisons between different annual solute flux estimation methods indicated that extrapolation of peak-flow period data significantly underestimated both the early- and late-melt-season solute fluxes. About 3.8% of the solutes derived from sea-salt spray, 0.7% from acid aerosol deposition and 95.5% from crustal/organic sources. The physical and chemical conditions resulted in diffusion of CO2 rather than atmospheric drawdown. The cation-equivalent weathering rate and the crustal solute yield were 322 ΣmEq+m−2 a−1 and 22 t km−2 a−1, respectively, which are within the regional range of Svalbard. However, the chemical weathering intensity was as high as 940 ΣmEq+ m−3 owing to the relatively low specific discharge of 0.34 m a−1.
Educational and Conservation Value of Whale Watching
Authors: Stamation Kasey A. , Croft David B. , Shaughnessy Peter D. , Waples Kelly A. , Briggs Sue V.
Published: July 2008

Many people support whale watching on the basis that it enhances people's appreciation and awareness of the whales they are viewing and can lead to the protection of the species and of the environment generally. Because whale watching can directly impact on whales' behavior it is important that whale watching is beneficial for people's understanding of whales and for the conservation of whales. This article examines the educational and conservation value of the whale-watching experiences currently offered in New South Wales, Australia. The current education provided lacks structure, there are no clear conservation objectives, and there is limited addition to knowledge and conservation behaviors of whale watchers in the long term. Through improvement of the education provided during whale-watching experiences, it is argued that the whale-watching industry can become a more sustainable form of wildlife tourism and provide conservation benefits for whales and other forms of biodiversity.
Characteristics of Recreational Anglers in the Blackwood Estuary, a Popular Tourist Destination in Southwestern Australia
Authors: Prior S. P. , Beckley L. E.
Published: July 2008

Recreational anglers were interviewed in the Blackwood Estuary, Western Australia, to ascertain demographics, spatial and temporal patterns of use, expenditures, and attitudes to conservation and fisheries management. Although almost half of the angling groups encountered were tourist families staying in caravan parks, most anglers were male, 31–45 years old, with relaxation as the primary motive for fishing. On average, boat-based anglers fished more frequently than shore-based anglers and locals fished more frequently in the Blackwood Estuary than tourists. Expenditures by anglers on bait, tackle, and capital equipment were considerable. Although support for biodiversity conservation measures and fisheries management regulations was high, noncompliance with minimum size limits was common and further education of anglers appears to be necessary. The study has shown that for fisheries management purposes, any creel survey of the Blackwood Estuary should ensure that local anglers and boat-based anglers are adequately surveyed.
Oceans and Coastal Tourism: Integrating Tourism into Bioeconomic Models
Authors: Bull Adrian
Published: July 2008

Models of resource sustainability and exploitation have developed as an important management tool for both scientific debate and policy development. Most models are developed to reflect a single resource such as oil, or a single environment such as a river. Bioeconomic modeling of ocean
environments has become a major tool for the evaluation and management of fish stocks and fisheries, but rarely incorporates an interrelationship with other economic activities. This article extends a bioeconomic fisheries model by incorporating the economic and physical interrelationships
with coastal and marine tourism. Tourists are classified into three basic types (general, water sports, and recreational fishing) representing different interactions with the marine environment, fishing, and coastal communities; the outcome is an assessment of the impact and economic value
of tourism within these communities where there is, or has been, some dependence on fishing for their livelihood. A mixture of ECOSIM and STELLA modeling is used to show that certain types of tourism interact most positively with smaller scale fisheries in such a way as to compensate, at a
community level, for their inherently "lower efficiency" and higher cost basis than large-scale fishing. It is also demonstrated that it is possible to incorporate an analysis of common pool resource competition between user groups within this model (tourists' and fisheries' use of marine
resources) in such a way as to establish a viable numéraire for a tourism user-pays policy. The research is of particular interest in communities or regions where the decline of fish stocks or other problems with fisheries have resulted in regeneration policies (such as PESCA in the
EU) where tourism may be viewed as an alternative or complementary economic activity. The concepts of the model can apply equally to, for example, rural tourism in a land-based bioeconomy.
DEVELOPMENT OF PLANT FOR TREATMENT OF WORKING LIQUIDS USED FOR PROCESS PURPOSES
Authors: Trofimov Igor , Zubchenko Alexander , Suliman Aleksey , Maxymov Sergey
Published: July 2008

The questions of working liquids treatment using different methods are considered in this paper. Improved electric separator and hydraulic cyclone are developed for cleaning the liquids from mechanical impurities; the mobile unit is designed for cleaning the working liquids using the force fields. The results of experimental research of the aforementioned unit are represented.
A MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF TRAIN CONTINUOUS MOTION UPHILL
Authors: Bureika Gintautas
Published: July 2008

The determination problem of adhesion coefficient of locomotives’ wheels with rails is described in this paper. The use of methods of mathematical statistics and theory of probability provides wider possibilities for determining the most acceptable (suitable) value of the adhesion coefficient. The random factors influencing on this value are analysed. The use of the adhesion coefficient values based on reliable research results could help maintain uninterrupted (continuous) traffic of heavy freight trains and increase not only the carrying capacity, but also the volume of the transported goods. The paper considers a mathematical model of steady traffic of heavy freight trains pulled by upgraded locomotives of the series 2M62M on railway line with a gradient. The research results show that the actual values of the adhesion coefficient and the total resistance are distributed according to the normal distribution law. A mode of locomotive motion largely depends on the relationship between the total train's running resistance and locomotive tractive force. Finally, basic conclusions are given.
ECOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF USING BIOLOGICAL DIESEL OIL IN RAILWAY TRANSPORT
Authors: Lingaitis Leonas Povilas , Pukalskas Saugirdas
Published: July 2008

The number of various transport facilities used in Europe is rapidly growing. They release a big amount of pollutants into the atmosphere. Therefore, environment protection from these pollutants ejected by internal combustion engines is a key problem facing us today and which will be acute in the future. Biofuel is the only effective and widely used alternative fuel which can reduce pollution of the environment. The main aim of the present paper is to perform a comparative analysis of burnt gases of engines using rapeseed oil methyl ester and petroleum diesel oil and to determine ecological effectiveness of biofuel used in diesel locomotive engines in railway transport.
RESEARCH ON THE LIFETIME OF THE SWITCH AND ASSUMPTIONS OF INCREASING IT
Authors: Gailienė Inesa , Podagėlis Igoris , Slepakovas Olegas
Published: July 2008

The switch is the most complicated and expensive component of a superstructure of the railway track. It requires particular attention and maintenance. The lifetime of the switch depends on its operating conditions and on a lifetime of its separate components, mostly the tongue and the frog. Defects of these two components emerge considerably earlier than that of the others. Reliable, uninterrupted and safe railway traffic depends on condition of the switch components. Condition of the switch components depends on their maintenance and determination and elimination of the defects in time. A very important task is to assure qualitative, long‐lasting and cost‐efficient switch appliance. In order to realize these objectives it is necessary: to improve the switch construction; to use materials that should have improved physical and mechanical characteristics for the manufacture of the switch; to improve organization and performance of the switch maintenance and repair applying modern techniques and methods. In order to determine dependence of load amount on tongue, frog and stock rail wear, analysis of technical and running conditions of replaced switches in the stations of Lithuanian railway lines in 2002, 2003 and 2005, is presented in the article. Authors’ purpose is: to determine wear reasons of switch components; to examine load amount dependence on tongue, frog and stock rail wear and to submit the suggestions on improving the switch construction, installation and maintenance in order to increase the lifetime of the switch.
RISK ANALYSIS AND ASSESSMENT FOR TRANSPORTATION OF DANGEROUS FREIGHT
Authors: Batarlienė Nijolė
Published: July 2008

This work examines conditions to ensure safe transportation of dangerous freight, to manage and minimize the risk of carriage of such freight along the whole route. This article presents the probabilities in transport of dangerous freight, probability of possible damage and that of a possible accident, when transporting dangerous freight and a method of calculating costs of damage to the environment and that of calculating accident probability. The article points out the ways of reducing the risk of possible damage and probability of accident.
Expandable intramedullary nailing and platelet rich plasma to treat long bone non-unions
Authors: Galasso Olimpio , Mariconda Massimo , Romano Gaetano , Capuano Nicola , Romano Luigi , Iannò Bruno , Milano Carlo
Published: July 2008

Background

Roentgenographic and functional outcomes of expandable self locking intramedullary nailing and platelet rich plasma (PRP) gel in the treatment of long bone non-unions are reported.

Materials and methods

Twenty-two patients suffering from atrophic diaphyseal long bone non-unions were enrolled in the study. Patients were treated with removal of pre-existing hardware, decortication of non-union fragments, and fixation of pseudoarthrosis with expandable intramedullary nailing (Fixion™, Disc’O Tech, Tel Aviv, Israel). At surgery, PRP was placed in the pseudoarthrosis rim.

Results

The thirteen-month follow-up showed 91% (20/22 patients) of patients attaining bony union. The average time to union was 21.5 weeks. No infection, neurovascular complication, rotational malalignment, or limb shortening >4 mm were observed. The healing rate of non-unions was comparable to that observed in previous studies but with a lower complication frequency.

Conclusions

The combined use of self locking intramedullary nailing and PRP in the management of atrophic diaphyseal long bone non-unions seems to produce comparable results with less complications than previously reported. Further data are warranted to investigate the single contribution of PRP gel and Fixion nail.
Clinical significance of cardiac troponins I and T in acute heart failure
Authors: Ilva Tuomo , Lassus Johan , Siirilä‐Waris Krista , Melin John , Peuhkurinen Keijo , Pulkki Kari , Nieminen Markku S. , Mustonen Harri , Porela Pekka , Harjola Veli‐Pekka
Published: July 2008

Background:

Elevated cardiac troponin (cTn) levels are relatively common in acute heart failure (AHF).

Aims:

To evaluate the prevalence and prognostic significance of elevated cTnI and cTnT in AHF.

Methods:

FINN‐AKVA is a prospective, multicenter study in AHF. In this analysis, 364 non‐ACS patients with measurements of cTnI and cTnT taken on admission and 48 h thereafter were analyzed.

Results:

Of the 364 AHF patients, 51.1% had cTnI and 29.7% cTnT levels above the cut‐off value. Six‐month all‐cause mortality was 18.7%. Both cTnI (OR 2.0, 95% CI 1.2−3.5, p=0.01) and cTnT (OR 2.6, 95% CI 1.5−4.4, p=0.0006) were associated with adverse outcome. The mortality risk was proportional to the magnitude of cTn release. On multivariable analysis, Cystatin C (OR 6.3, 95% CI 3.2−13, p<0.0001), logNT‐proBNP (OR 1.4, 95% CI 1.0−1.8, p=0.03) and systolic blood pressure on admission (/10 mm Hg increase, OR 0.9, 95% CI 0.8−0.9, p=0.0004) were independent risk markers, whereas the troponins were not significantly associated with increased mortality.

Conclusions:

cTn elevations are frequent in AHF patients without ACS. cTnI is more often elevated than cTnT. Both cTnI and cTnT elevations are associated with increased mortality proportional to the degree elevation but they do not act as independent risk markers.
Multilateralism, Bilateralism, and Exclusion in the Nuclear Proliferation Regime
Authors: Verdier Daniel
Published: July 2008

I use the nuclear proliferation regime to show that dyadic diplomacy is not necessarily incompatible with the building of a multilateral regime; bilateralism is not the opposite of multilateralism, but an efficient component thereof. Although this point will not be new to most students of institutions, no general rationale has so far been offered on the complementarity of bilateral and multilateral diplomacy. Starting from a characterization of proliferation as the result of a large number of prisoner's dilemmas played out between states engaged in local dyadic rivalries, I demonstrate that it is possible for the superpowers to design an optimal mix of threats and bribes in which states with low compliance costs join the regime on the terms of the multilateral treaty alone; states with intermediate compliance costs need additional customized incentives, delivered through bilateral agreements; and states with high compliance costs are not only left out of the regime but also punished for nonparticipation. I draw a few comparative statics that I systematically test on Nuclear Proliferation Treaty (NPT) membership data. I discuss the applicability of the model to the currency, trade, and aid regimes.
Disaggregating Ethno-Nationalist Civil Wars: A Dyadic Test of Exclusion Theory
Authors: Buhaug Halvard , Cederman Lars-Erik , Rød Jan Ketil
Published: July 2008

Contemporary conflict research usually measures the influence of ethnicity on conflict by capturing ethnic constellations as country-based indices, such as ethnic fractionalization or polarization. However, such aggregated measures are likely to conceal the actual operation of actor-specific mechanisms. In this article, therefore, we introduce a disaggregated model that measures ethnic groups' access to power. We do so by disaggregating both ethnicity and conflict to the level of explicitly geo-coded center-periphery dyads. This procedure allows us to measure the power balance between politically excluded ethnic groups and dominant actors in terms of group sizes, distances between the center and the periphery, and the roughness of the latter's terrain. We rely on geographic information systems (GIS) to compute demographic and ethno-geographic variables. The dyadic analysis enables us to show that exclusion of powerful ethnic minorities increases the likelihood of conflict considerably. In addition, we show that the risk of conflict is positively associated with the extent of rough terrain in the peripheral group's home region and its distance from the political center.
Protecting Democracy in Europe and the Americas
Authors: Hawkins Darren
Published: July 2008

Especially since the end of the Cold War, the Council of Europe (CE) and the Organization of American States (OAS) have acted to protect democracy in their member states from erosion or reversals, with CE policies more robust than those in the Americas. What explains this variation? I develop an argument focusing on institutional permeability, or the extent to which those organizations are accessible to nonstate actors. Permeability consists of three dimensions: range of third parties allowed access, level of decision making at which access is granted, and transparency of IO information to those third parties. Higher levels of permeability are likely to produce higher levels of constraint on state behavior through increasing levels of precision and obligation in international rules and practices. Alternative explanations, summarized as regional democracy norms, domestic democratic lock-in interests, and the power of stable democracies cannot explain the variation in multilateral democracy protection. More broadly, this article suggests that “democratizing” IOs by allowing ever-greater access to nonstate actors is likely to result in stronger, more constraining international rules, even in areas where states most jealously guard their sovereignty, such as the nature of their domestic political institutions.
Chromatic discrimination in the presence of incremental and decremental rod pedestals
Authors: CAO DINGCAI , ZELE ANDREW J. , POKORNY JOEL
Published: July 2008

Signals from rods can alter chromatic discrimination. Here, chromatic discrimination ellipses were determined in the presence of rod incremental and decremental pedestals at mesopic light levels. The data were represented in a relative cone Troland space, normalized by discrimination thresholds measured along the cardinal axes without a rod pedestal. In the quadrant of cone space where L-cone relative to M-cone excitation increased, and S-cone excitation decreased, rod incremental pedestals degraded chromatic discrimination, and rod decremental pedestals improved chromatic discrimination. Discrimination in the other three quadrants of cone space was unaffected by the incremental or decremental rod pedestals. A second experiment measured chromatic discrimination under conditions where cone pedestals were matched to the appearances of the incremental and decremental rod pedestals. Based on the matching pedestal data, discrimination then could be measured independently along the cardinal axes using either chromatic [L/(L + M); S/(L + M)] or luminance (L + M) pedestal components. The discrimination data altered by the rod pedestals were similar to chromatic cone pedestals for L/M increment discrimination, but similar to luminance cone pedestals for S decrement discrimination. The results indicated that the rod and cone signals combined differently in determining chromatic discrimination for different post-receptoral pathways.
Reaction time measures of adaptation to chromatic contrast
Authors: PARRY N.R.A. , MURRAY I.J. , McKEEFRY D.J.
Published: July 2008

Simple reaction times (RTs) were measured to brief temporally blurred (total onset 570 ms) Gaussian isoluminant chromatic patches (s.d. 0.5°) whose chromaticities lay along the cardinal chromatic axes (0°, 90°, 180°, and 270° in MBDKL color space). Bipolar adapting stimuli were employed (0° versus 180° or 90° versus 270°). These were larger Gaussian blobs (s.d. 1°), modulating sinusoidally between the two hues at 1 Hz. Throughout, the background was illuminant “C” (x = 0.31, y = 0.316, L = 12.5). In a single run, a series of 64 or 32 stimuli were presented without adaptation, followed by 64 or 32 stimuli each of which was preceded by 3 s of adaptation, either along the same or the orthogonal chromatic axis. Finally, 192 or 128 RTs were recorded to measure the time course of recovery from adaptation. Both adapting and test stimuli were presented at fixed supra-threshold contrasts. The effect of adaptation was seen as a lengthening of the RT, which occurred in the first few seconds of the adaptation period. After cessation of adaptation, there was a similarly rapid shortening of RT, although full recovery took 60–90 s. Adaptation gain functions suggested that the S-(L + M) system was less prone to adaptation than L-M.
Twelve chromatically opponent ganglion cell types in turtle retina
Authors: ROCHA F.A.F. , SAITO C.A. , SILVEIRA L.C.L. , DE SOUZA J.M. , VENTURA D.F.
Published: July 2008

The turtle retina has been extensively used for the study of chromatic processing mechanisms. Color opponency has been previously investigated with trichromatic paradigms, but behavioral studies show that the turtle has an ultraviolet (UV) channel and a tetrachromatic visual system. Our laboratory has been working in the characterization of neuronal responses in the retina of vertebrates using stimuli in the UV-visible range of the electromagnetic spectrum. In the present investigation, we recorded color-opponent responses from turtle amacrine and ganglion cells to UV and visible stimuli and extended our previous results that UV color-opponency is present at the level of the inner nuclear layer. We recorded from 181 neurons, 36 of which were spectrally opponent. Among these, there were 10 amacrine (5%), and 26 ganglion cells (15%). Morphological identification of color-opponent neurons was possible for two ganglion cell classes (G17 and G22) and two amacrine cell classes (A22 and A23b). There was a variety of cell response types and a potential for complex processing of chromatic stimuli, with intensity- and wavelength-dependent response components. Ten types of color opponency were found in ganglion cells and by adding previous results from our laboratory, 12 types of opponent responses have been found. The majority of the ganglion cells were R+UVBG- and RG+UVB-color-opponents but there were other less frequent types of chromatic opponency. This study confirms the participation of a UV channel in the processing of color opponency in the turtle inner retina and shows that the turtle visual system has the retinal mechanisms to allow many possible chromatic combinations.
Toward public health nutrition strategies in the European Union to implement food based dietary guidelines and to enhance healthier lifestyles
Authors: Sjöström Michael , Stockley Lynn
Published: July 2008

This paper suggests strategies for implementing the EU food based dietary guidelines. Dietary guidelines have been developed and disseminated in many countries across the world. However, the EU guidelines are the first to include a specific section on implementation. The aims of the guidelines are twofold, 1) to provide food based dietary guidelines which can be used as a consistent communication tool and 2) as a springboard to planning, implementing, and evaluating public health nutrition strategies.

The report is not intended to be prescriptive. It aims to build upon a solid evidence base to provide practical and cost effective suggestions for developing public health strategies, which member countries can use and tailor to the social, cultural and health needs of their populations.

Diet and physical activity related diseases impose vast costs on the European economy. However, despite the enormous costs to healthcare systems and in terms of lost productivity, there have been a very few resources allocated in Europe to attempting to prevent these, rather than treating them.

The burden of disease exists in the majority of the population, and not in high-risk groups. The optimal public health strategy is thus to focus on the population as a whole, rather than targeting those with increased risk factors or pre-existing disease. Reviews have been carried out on the health impact effectiveness of various types of intervention to promote healthy eating and physical activity in the population. These conclude that the most effective interventions a) adopt an integrated, multidisciplinary, and comprehensive approach b) involve a complementary range of actions, and c) work at an individual, community, environmental and policy level. Information provision in isolation is not effective, and may exacerbate inequalities in health.

In some countries inequities in diet and physical activity are not only significant contributors to inequalities in health, but are increasing. Effective interventions to address inequities need to tackle the broader determinants of health, including social exclusion, social cohesion, environmental, and structural factors.

One of the most easily transferable frameworks for the development of public health strategies attempts to capture the individual, community, environmental and policy levels, by working through ‘target groups’, ‘settings’, and ‘approaches’. The Working Party has suggested outline strategies for each of the key target groups, setting and approaches which it has identified as having the potential for maximum reach and influence. The key characteristics of effective interventions for each of these is given.

Finally, the evidence base points to the importance of a co-ordinated, multisectoral and population wide strategy. In order to develop and implement such strategies, identifiable structures and mechanisms will be needed at a national level within member states.
Geographical distribution of the feedback between future climate change and the carbon cycle
Authors: Yoshikawa Chisato , Kawamiya Michio , Kato Tomomichi , Yamanaka Yasuhiro , Matsuno Taroh
Published: July 2008

We examined climate‐carbon cycle feedback by performing a global warming experiment using MIROC‐based coupled climate‐carbon cycle model. The model showed that by the end of the 21st century, warming leads to a further increase in carbon dioxide (CO2) level of 123 ppm by volume (ppmv). This positive feedback can mostly be attributed to land‐based soil‐carbon dynamics. On a regional scale, Siberia experienced intense positive feedback, because the acceleration of microbial respiration due to warming causes a decrease in the soil carbon level. Amazonia also had positive feedback resulting from accelerated microbial respiration. On the other hand, some regions, such as western and central North America and South Australia, experienced negative feedback, because enhanced litterfall surpassed the increased respiration in soil carbon. The oceanic contribution to the feedback was much weaker than the land contribution on global scale, but the positive feedback in the northern North Atlantic was as strong as those in Amazonia and Siberia in our model. In the northern North Atlantic, the weakening of winter mixing caused a reduction of CO2 absorption at the surface. Moreover, weakening of the formation of North Atlantic Deep Water caused reduced CO2 subduction to the deep water. Understanding such regional‐scale differences may help to explain disparities in coupled climate‐carbon cycle model results.
Fellows Celebrated at Joint Assembly
Authors: Anonymous
Published: July 2008

The 2008 AGU Fellows were presented at the recent Joint Assembly in Fort Lauderdale, Fla. A formal ceremony was held on 29 May 2008, during which President Tim Killeen introduced each Fellow and read a brief statement of the achievements for which each had been selected. The presentations were followed by a reception for meeting attendees and a banquet at which family members and close colleagues further feted the honorees.
A statistical study of large‐scale traveling ionospheric disturbances observed by GPS TEC during major magnetic storms over the years 2003–2005
Authors: Ding F. , Wan W. , Liu L. , Afraimovich E.L. , Voeykov S.V. , Perevalova N.P.
Published: July 2008

In this paper, we plot two‐dimensional total electron content (TEC) perturbation maps and investigate the statistical characteristics of large‐scale traveling ionospheric disturbances (LSTIDs) during major magnetic storms from 2003 to 2005. The TEC data were obtained from more than 600 GPS receivers in North America within the geographical latitudes of 25°N–55°N. We found a total of 135 cases of LSTIDs, with amplitudes of up to 3.5 TECU and a maximum front width of ∼4000 km. The mean value of periods, horizontal velocities, and azimuths are 1.8 h, 300 m/s, and 187° (7° west of south), respectively. The mean velocity is obviously slower than that observed at lower latitudes such as Japan. Of all the 135 LSTID events, 35 cases (26%) occurred in the nighttime with their possible source within the region of North America, according to the variation of magnetic H component observed in this region. In addition, the occurrence of LSTIDs peaks at 1200 LT and at 1900 LT. It is also pointed out that the UT dependence of the occurrence of auroral geomagnetic disturbances plays a major role in the forming of UT and LT dependence of the occurrence of LSTIDs observed at midlatitudes.
Echinochloa spp. in Australian rice fields—species distribution and resistance status
Authors: Pratley J. E. , Broster J. C. , Michael P.
Published: July 2008

Six Echinochloa species, i.e. barnyard grass (Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) Beauv.), awnless barnyard grass (E. colona (L.) Link), hairy millet (E. oryzoides (Ard.) Fritsch), prickly barnyard grass (E. microstachya (Wieg.) Rydb), Japanese millet (E. esculenta (A Br.) H Scholz), and channel millet (E. inundata Michael et Vickery), were detected in surveys of Australian rice fields in south-eastern Australia. Differences were detected in the rate of germination of species and this may affect the efficacy of herbicide treatments where mixes of species occur.
Phenotypic variation within E. crus-galli, such as size of panicles, size of spikelets, and degree of awning, sometimes makes identification difficult and may have implications for seed growers.
No instances of herbicide resistance were found in any Echinochloa species despite its widespread occurrence in other countries.
Effluent and nitrogen fertiliser effects on dry matter yield, nutritive characteristics, and mineral and nitrate content of turnips
Authors: Jacobs J. L. , Ward G. N.
Published: July 2008

The 2-pond system to treat and contain dairy effluent is commonplace on dry-land dairy farms in southern Australia. The first pond is a deep anaerobic treatment pond and the second a shallow aerobic pond where the liquid effluent is stored. This liquid effluent contains a range of nutrients that have the potential to influence forage dry matter (DM) yields, herbage nutritive characteristics, and mineral content of forages. The effect of applying second-pond dairy effluent to a summer turnip (Brassica rapa L.) crop over two consecutive summer periods was measured. In addition to the application of effluent, N fertiliser was also applied. Effluent was applied at three rates, 0, 30, and 60 mm ~7–8 weeks after turnips were sown each year, with fertiliser N applied at either 0, 25, 50, or 75 kg N/ha in combination with effluent rates immediately before effluent application. Turnips were assessed for DM accumulation, nutritive characteristics, and mineral and nitrate-N content. Effluent contained high concentrations of both potassium (K) (440–500 kg/ML) and sodium (Na) (637–766 kg/ML), with moderate levels of calcium (Ca) (177–180 kg/ML) and magnesium (158–213 kg/ML). Total N was higher in Year 2 (208 kg/ML) than in Year 1 (160 kg/ML), with the proportion of total N present as ammonia-N also higher in Year 2 (81%) than in Year 1 (57%). Dry matter yield responses for leaf and root were 20 and 11 kg DM/ha per effluent mm applied in Year 1 and 19 and 13 kg DM/ha.mm applied in Year 2, respectively. Total DM yield increases were 32 and 39 kg DM/ha.mm applied for Years 1 and 2, respectively. There was no effect of N application or interaction between effluent and N application in either year. For Year 1, nutritive characteristics were relatively unaffected by either effluent or N fertiliser application, while in Year 2, leaf crude protein content increased (P < 0.05) in a linear manner at 0.058% per mm effluent applied. The K and Na content of turnip leaves increased (P < 0.05) with effluent application in both Years 1 and 2, while the Ca decreased (P < 0.05) with effluent application in Year 2. Results from this study further emphasise the potential value of second-pond dairy effluent to increasing forage DM yield and improving the nutritive value of turnips. The data, however, question the value of using N fertiliser on its own or in combination with effluent to improve the same attributes. Dry matter yield responses to effluent were similar across both years despite contrasting climatic conditions, highlighting the ability of turnips to respond to limited moisture inputs.
Effect of grazing, gap dynamics, and inter-specific seedling competition on growth and survival of Vulpia spp. and Hordeum murinum ssp. leporinum
Authors: Tozer Katherine N. , Chapman David F. , Quigley Paul E. , Dowling Peter M. , Cousens Roger D. , Kearney Gavin A.
Published: July 2008

Vulpia (Vulpia spp.) and barley grass (Hordeum murinum ssp. leporinum Link) are invasive annual grass weeds of agricultural and natural ecosystems. Understanding how gap dynamics influence their growth and survival can improve management of these species in permanent pastures and minimise their negative effect on these ecosystems. We investigated the effects of gap size, timing of gap appearance, grazing method (continuous or rotational grazing), and species sown in the gap (vulpia and/or barley grass) on vulpia and barley grass establishment, growth, and survival. Total establishment of vulpia and barley grass increased with gap size, but grazing method and inter-specific seedling competition had little effect on their establishment. Survival and tiller production were generally greater in larger gaps, under continuous grazing, and for barley grass than for vulpia, but were not affected by sowing the weed species in mixtures. Timing of gap appearance had little effect on survival or tiller production. Individual plant biomass of the weed species was generally greater in larger gaps and for barley grass, but was not affected by grazing method or timing of gap appearance. There was little difference between grazing method or gap size in surface soil moisture and temperature. Photosynthetically active radiation recorded in gaps at the soil surface in rotationally grazed pastures was less than 20% of that in continuously grazed pastures and less in medium than in large gaps. Pasture height was also less under continuous grazing. From this study we concluded that these annual grass weeds can readily establish throughout autumn and winter in gaps, regardless of the grazing regime imposed. However, minimising bare ground during this time can significantly reduce their establishment. Post-establishment, rotational grazing was more effective than continuous grazing in suppressing their growth and survival throughout the growing season, most likely because of greater vegetation height, perennial grass content, and competition for light under rotational grazing. If annual grass weed populations are to be suppressed, it is necessary to use appropriate grazing management throughout the growing season, rather than focussing on the seedling establishment phase alone.
Atomic resolution structural characterization of recognition of histo-blood group antigens by Norwalk virus
Authors: Choi Jae-Mun , Hutson Anne M. , Estes Mary K. , Prasad B. V. Venkataram
Published: July 2008

Members of
Norovirus
, a genus in the family
Caliciviridae
, are causative agents of epidemic diarrhea in humans. Susceptibility to several noroviruses is linked to human histo-blood type, and its determinant histo-blood group antigens (HBGAs) are regarded as receptors for these viruses. Specificity for these carbohydrates is strain-dependent. Norwalk virus (NV) is the prototype genogroup I norovirus that specifically recognizes A- and H-type HBGA, in contrast to genogroup II noroviruses that exhibit a more diverse HBGA binding pattern. To understand the structural basis for how HBGAs interact with the NV capsid protein, and how the specificity is achieved, we carried out x-ray crystallographic analysis of the capsid protein domain by itself and in complex with A- and H-type HBGA at a resolution of ≈1.4 Å. Despite differences in their carbohydrate sequence and linkage, both HBGAs bind to the same surface-exposed site in the capsid protein and project outward from the capsid surface, substantiating their possible role in initiating cell attachment. Precisely juxtaposed polar side chains that engage the sugar hydroxyls in a cooperative hydrogen bonding and a His/Trp pair involved in a cation–π interaction contribute to selective and specific recognition of A- and H-type HBGAs. This unique binding epitope, confirmed by mutational analysis, is highly conserved, but only in the genogroup I noroviruses, suggesting that a mechanism by which noroviruses infect broader human populations is by evolving different sites with altered HBGA specificities.
Predicting the fate of a living fossil: how will global warming affect sex determination and hatching phenology in tuatara?
Authors: Mitchell Nicola J , Kearney Michael R , Nelson Nicola J , Porter Warren P
Published: July 2008

How will climate change affect species' reproduction and subsequent survival? In many egg-laying reptiles, the sex of offspring is determined by the temperature experienced during a critical period of embryonic development (temperature-dependent sex determination, TSD). Increasing air temperatures are likely to skew offspring sex ratios in the absence of evolutionary or plastic adaptation, hence we urgently require means for predicting the future distributions of species with TSD. Here we develop a mechanistic model that demonstrates how climate, soil and topography interact with physiology and nesting behaviour to determine sex ratios of tuatara, cold-climate reptiles from New Zealand with an unusual developmental biology. Under extreme regional climate change, all-male clutches would hatch at 100% of current nest sites of the rarest species,
Sphenodon guntheri
, by the mid-2080s. We show that tuatara could behaviourally compensate for the male-biasing effects of warmer air temperatures by nesting later in the season or selecting shaded nest sites. Later nesting is, however, an unlikely response to global warming, as many oviparous species are nesting earlier as the climate warms. Our approach allows the assessment of the thermal suitability of current reserves and future translocation sites for tuatara, and can be readily modified to predict climatic impacts on any species with TSD.
Egg colour mimicry in the common cuckooCuculus canorusas revealed by modelling host retinal function
Authors: Avilés Jesús M
Published: July 2008

Some parasite cuckoo species lay eggs that, to the human eye, appear to mimic the appearance of the eggs of their favourite hosts, which hinders discrimination and removal of their eggs by host species. Hitherto, perception of cuckoo–host egg mimicry has been estimated based on human vision or spectrophotometry, which does not account for what the receivers' eye (i.e. hosts) actually discriminates. Using a discrimination model approach that reproduces host retinal functioning, and museum egg collections collected in the south of Finland, where at least six different races of the European cuckoo (Cuculus canorus) coexist, I first assess whether the colour design of cuckoo eggs of different races maximizes matching for two favourite avian hosts,viz. the redstart (Phoenicurus phoenicurus) and the pied wagtail (Motacilla alba). Second, I assess the role of nest luminosity on host perception of mimicry by the same two hosts.Phoenicurus-cuckoo eggs showed a better chromatic matching with the redstart-host eggs than other cuckoo races, and in most cases can not be discriminated.Sylvia-cuckoo eggs, however, showed better achromatic matching with redstart-host eggs thanPhoenicurus-cuckoo eggs. Also,Motacilla-cuckoo eggs showed poorer chromatic and achromatic matching with pied wagtail-host eggs thanSylvia-cuckoo eggs. Nest luminosity affected chromatic and achromatic differences between cuckoo and host eggs, although only minimally affected the proportion of cuckoo eggs discriminated by chromatic signals. These results reveal that cuckoo races as assessed by humans do not entirely match with host perception of matching and that achromatic mechanisms could play a main role in the discrimination of cuckoo eggs at low-light levels.
Phylogenetic Signal in the Eukaryotic Tree of Life
Authors: Sanderson Michael J.
Published: July 2008

Molecular sequence data have been sampled from 10% of all species known to science. Although it is not yet feasible to assemble these data into a single phylogenetic tree of life, it is possible to quantify how much phylogenetic signal is present. Analysis of 14,289 phylogenies built from 2.6 million sequences in GenBank suggests that signal is strong in vertebrates and specific groups of nonvertebrate model organisms. Across eukaryotes, however, although phylogenetic evidence is very broadly distributed, for the average species in the database it is equivalent to less than one well-supported gene tree. This analysis shows that a stronger sampling effort aimed at genomic depth, in addition to taxonomic breadth, will be required to build high-resolution phylogenetic trees at this scale.
Sporadic Autonomic Dysregulation and Death Associated with Excessive Serotonin Autoinhibition
Authors: Audero Enrica , Coppi Elisabetta , Mlinar Boris , Rossetti Tiziana , Caprioli Antonio , Banchaabouchi Mumna Al , Corradetti Renato , Gross Cornelius
Published: July 2008

Sudden infant death syndrome is the leading cause of death in the postneonatal period in developed countries. Postmortem studies show alterations in serotonin neurons in the brainstem of such infants. However, the mechanism by which altered serotonin homeostasis might cause sudden death is unknown. We investigated the consequences of altering the autoinhibitory capacity of serotonin neurons with the reversible overexpression of serotonin 1A autoreceptors in transgenic mice. Overexpressing mice exhibited sporadic bradycardia and hypothermia that occurred during a limited developmental period and frequently progressed to death. Moreover, overexpressing mice failed to activate autonomic target organs in response to environmental challenges. These findings show that excessive serotonin autoinhibition is a risk factor for catastrophic autonomic dysregulation and provide a mechanism for a role of altered serotonin homeostasis in sudden infant death syndrome.
Accelerated Human Population Growth at Protected Area Edges
Authors: Wittemyer George , Elsen Paul , Bean William T. , Burton A. Coleman O. , Brashares Justin S.
Published: July 2008

Protected areas (PAs) have long been criticized as creations of and for an elite few, where associated costs, but few benefits, are borne by marginalized rural communities. Contrary to predictions of this argument, we found that average human population growth rates on the borders of 306 PAs in 45 countries in Africa and Latin America were nearly double average rural growth, suggesting that PAs attract, rather than repel, human settlement. Higher population growth on PA edges is evident across ecoregions, countries, and continents and is correlated positively with international donor investment in national conservation programs and an index of park-related funding. These findings provide insight on the value of PAs for local people, but also highlight a looming threat to PA effectiveness and biodiversity conservation.
The Structure of Mercury's Magnetic Field from MESSENGER's First Flyby
Authors: Anderson Brian J. , Acuña Mario H. , Korth Haje , Purucker Michael E. , Johnson Catherine L. , Slavin James A. , Solomon Sean C. , McNutt Ralph L.
Published: July 2008

During its first flyby of Mercury, the MESSENGER spacecraft measured the planet's near-equatorial magnetic field. The field strength is consistent to within an estimated uncertainty of 10% with that observed near the equator by Mariner 10. Centered dipole solutions yield a southward planetary moment of 230 to 290 nanotesla
R
M
3
(where
R
M
is Mercury's mean radius) tilted between 5° and 12° from the rotation axis. Multipole solutions yield non-dipolar contributions of 22% to 52% of the dipole field magnitude. Magnetopause and tail currents account for part of the high-order field, and plasma pressure effects may explain the remainder, so that a pure centered dipole cannot be ruled out.
MESSENGER Observations of the Composition of Mercury's Ionized Exosphere and Plasma Environment
Authors: Zurbuchen Thomas H. , Raines Jim M. , Gloeckler George , Krimigis Stamatios M. , Slavin James A. , Koehn Patrick L. , Killen Rosemary M. , Sprague Ann L. , McNutt Ralph L. , Solomon Sean C.
Published: July 2008

The region around Mercury is filled with ions that originate from interactions of the solar wind with Mercury's space environment and through ionization of its exosphere. The MESSENGER spacecraft's observations of Mercury's ionized exosphere during its first flyby yielded Na
+
, O
+
, and K
+
abundances, consistent with expectations from observations of neutral species. There are increases in ions at a mass per charge (
m
/
q
) = 32 to 35, which we interpret to be S
+
and H
2
S
+
, with (S
+
+ H
2
S
+
)/(Na
+
+ Mg
+
) = 0.67 ± 0.06, and from water-group ions around
m
/
q
= 18, at an abundance of 0.20 ± 0.03 relative to Na
+
plus Mg
+
. The fluxes of Na
+
, O
+
, and heavier ions are largest near the planet, but these Mercury-derived ions fill the magnetosphere. Doubly ionized ions originating from Mercury imply that electrons with energies less than 1 kiloelectron volt are substantially energized in Mercury's magnetosphere.
Newton's Ghosts
Authors: Golinski Jan
Published: July 2008

Ghostwalk
.
Rebecca Stott
. Spiegel and Grau, New York, 2007. 319 pp. $24.95. ISBN 9780385521062. Paper, $14.95. ISBN 9780385521079. Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London, £12.99. ISBN 9780297851363. Paper, £7.99. ISBN 9780753823576.

Alchemy, Isaac Newton, and suspicious deaths in 17th- and 20th-century Cambridge are among the ingredients of this historical novel.
Toxicity of Anthrax Toxin Is Influenced by Receptor Expression
Authors: Taft Sarah C. , Weiss Alison A.
Published: July 2008

Anthrax toxin protective antigen (PA) binds to its cellular receptor, and seven subunits self-associate to form a heptameric ring that mediates the cytoplasmic entry of lethal factor or edema factor. The influence of receptor type on susceptibility to anthrax toxin components was examined using Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells expressing the human form of one of two PA receptors: TEM8 or CMG2. Unexpectedly, PA alone, previously believed to only mediate entry of lethal factor or edema factor, was found to be toxic to CHO-TEM8 cells; cells treated with PA alone displayed reduced cell growth and decreased metabolic activity. PA-treated cells swelled and became permeable to membrane-excluded dye, suggesting that PA formed cell surface pores on CHO-TEM8 cells. While CHO-CMG2 cells were not killed by wild-type PA, they were susceptible to the PA variant, F427A. Receptor expression also conferred differences in susceptibility to edema factor.