bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Calder´on-Zygmund Theory I: Ellipticity
Authors: Street Brian
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses a case for single-parameter singular integral operators, where ρ‎ is the usual distance on ℝn. There, we obtain the most classical theory of singular integrals, which is useful for studying elliptic partial differential operators. The chapter defines singular integral operators in three equivalent ways. This trichotomy can be seen three times, in increasing generality: Theorems 1.1.23, 1.1.26, and 1.2.10. This trichotomy is developed even when the operators are not translation invariant (many authors discuss such ideas only for translation invariant, or nearly translation invariant operators). It also presents these ideas in a slightly different way than is usual, which helps to motivate later results and definitions.
The Calder´on-Zygmund Theory II: Maximal Hypoellipticity
Authors: Street Brian
Published: November 2017

This chapter remains in the single-parameter case and turns to the case when the metric is a Carnot–Carathéodory (or sub-Riemannian) metric. It defines a class of singular integral operators adapted to this metric. The chapter has two major themes. The first is a more general reprise of the trichotomy described in Chapter 1 (Theorem 2.0.29). The second theme is a generalization of the fact that Euclidean singular integral operators are closely related to elliptic partial differential equations. The chapter also introduces a quantitative version of the classical Frobenius theorem from differential geometry. This “quantitative Frobenius theorem” can be thought of as yielding “scaling maps” which are well adapted to the Carnot–Carathéodory geometry, and is of central use throughout the rest of the monograph.
Criticism and Credit: How Deficit Implications Undermine Credit Allocation
Authors: Grimmer Justin , Westwood Sean J. , Messing Solomon
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines how the emergence of the Tea Party movement corresponds with a spike in antispending rhetoric among congressional Republicans, who criticized particularistic projects that other legislators use to cultivate a personal vote. After Barack Obama's election, Republican activists mobilized to oppose the Obama administration's policies and perceived government overreach—creating the Tea Party movement. The chapter uses two experiments to show how this criticism undermines credit for spending, causing constituents to be much less supportive of expenditures in the district. It also explains that the effect of the criticism extends beyond the experiment. Once budget criticism is introduced, it causes constituents to evaluate legislators who claim credit at high rates more negatively.
The Demise of the Plantation
Authors: Ruef Martin
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines how Southern blacks and whites confronted categorical—as well as classical—uncertainty, as the maintenance of plantation agriculture proved increasingly untenable. Social networks among emancipated slaves served as a key impetus to mobilization toward alternative organizational arrangements. The plantation had been developed on the assumption that its workforce was geographically immobile unless moved or sold by plantation owners and that kinship ties among slaves could be largely ignored in allocating and exchanging slave labor. When these assumptions were challenged by emancipation, large numbers of former slaves migrated in search of family members, guided by bits of news from kin or other members of the black community. The new agricultural forms created to replace the wage plantation also tended to have a foundation in familial networks, as black sharecroppers and rental farmers largely recruited labor on the basis of kinship ties.
Self-Undermining Rhetoric in the Past and Present
Authors: Levine Adam Seth
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers the prospects for political change in the face of communicative barriers to collective action. It begins to address this question by identifying several of the most well-known historical and recent moments in which there was large-scale mobilization on some economic insecurity issues. This discussion, in concert with the empirical findings in this book, helps clarify the prospects for political action (and policy change) on these issues. The chapter then uses the findings from the book to identify three types of people that are most likely to become active. It also talks about the implications of having this (narrower) set of people active as opposed to the full range of people that find the issues to be important. It concludes by reiterating how self-undermining rhetoric is a broad concept that can apply in many different situations beyond those considered herein.
Applications of Benford's Law
Authors: Berger Arno , Hill Theodore P.
Published: November 2017

This chapter provides a overview of the practical applications of Benford's law. These include fraud detection, detection of natural phenomena, diagnostics and design, computations and computer science, and as a pedagogical tool. In contrast to the rest of the book, this chapter is necessarily expository and informal. It has been organized into a handful of ad hoc categories, which the authors hope will help illuminate the main ideas. None of the conclusions of the experiments or data presented here have been scrutinized or verified by the authors of this book, since the intent here is not to promote or critique any specific application. Rather the goal is to offer a representative cross-section of the related scientific literature, in the hopes that this might continue to facilitate research in both the theory and practical applications of Benford's law.
The Materialism Controversy
Authors: Beiser Frederick C.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the so-called “materialism controversy,” one of the most important intellectual disputes of the second half of the nineteenth century. The dispute began in the 1850s, and its shock waves reverberated until the end of the century. The main question posed by the materialism controversy was whether modern natural science, whose authority and prestige were now beyond question, necessarily leads to materialism. Materialism was generally understood to be the doctrine that only matter exists and that everything in nature obeys only mechanical laws. If such a doctrine were true, it seemed there could be no God, no free will, no soul, and hence no immortality. These beliefs, however, seemed vital to morality and religion. So the controversy posed a drastic dilemma: either a scientific materialism or a moral and religious “leap of faith.” It was the latest version of the old conflict between reason and faith, where now the role of reason was played by natural science.
Trials and Tribulations of Clio
Authors: Beiser Frederick C.
Published: November 2017

The nineteenth century is often dubbed “the age of history.” One reason is because history, as an intellectual discipline, became a science in its own right. For mysterious reasons, yet to be explained, demonstrability, universality, and necessary were no longer regarded as prerequisites of knowledge. Somehow, even historical propositions about particular and contingent matters of fact could be scientific. How do we explain this revolution? Social and historical forces alone are not sufficient to give history its intellectual or philosophical legitimation. They give a powerful motive for such legitimation; but they alone do not provide it. That philosophical side of the story is much more complex, involving many interweaving narratives. This chapter tells but one of them, the simplest and most basic. It describes Clio's struggle for autonomy in the second half of the nineteenth century.
Candidate Emergence, Political Ambition, and Seat Value
Authors: Schiller Wendy J. , Stewart Charles
Published: November 2017

This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of the value of a Senate seat and a general assessment of the value that a Senate seat added to a state during this era of federalism. It argues that from a purely distributive standpoint, the value of a Senate seat was not high, but for political parties and business interests, the stakes were enormous for the maintenance of political organizations and control over local politics as well as the direction of national policies that affected state and local business interests. The chapter presents case studies from Pennsylvania and Rhode Island to illustrate the desire to use a Senate seat to consolidate state political control and reap the associated economic benefits. It also includes cases from Nevada and Wisconsin to demonstrate the role of national party policies in the dynamics of state-based Senate campaigns.
Senate Electoral Responsiveness under Indirect and Direct Election
Authors: Schiller Wendy J. , Stewart Charles
Published: November 2017

This chapter integrates findings on indirect elections with current scholarship on the impact of the adoption of the Seventeenth Amendment and onset of direct elections. It constructs a comprehensive counterfactual analysis that helps demonstrate what the political outcomes would have been with direct elections in place since the founding, and in contrast, what Senate elections would look like after 1913 if indirect elections were still in place. It also addresses the question of whether U.S. senators represented states as units and responded to state governmental concerns more under the indirect system than they do under direct elections. It argues that indirect election had little impact on the Senate's overall partisan composition prior to 1913. Contrary to widespread belief, had direct election been in effect during the years immediately preceding the Seventeenth Amendment's passage, Republicans, not Democrats, would have benefited.
Roman Scholars on Grammatical Gender and Biological Sex
Authors: Corbeill Anthony
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers how the Romans imagined that the earliest Latin speakers employed grammatical gender. From as early as Varro, scholars and grammarians occupied themselves with cataloguing the peculiarities of grammatical gender—instances, for example, when gender assignment seems counterintuitive, or where one noun can vary between masculine, feminine, and neuter. This scholarly activity, with little extant precedent in Greek tradition, finds Latin grammarians consistently placing great importance upon the identification of grammatical gender with biological sex. The chapter explains this fascination with “sex and gender” by analyzing the reasons posited for the fluid gender of nouns as well as the commonest practitioners of grammatical gender bending (in particular Vergil). It shows that by dividing the world into discrete sexual categories, Latin vocabulary works to encourage the pervasive heterosexualization of Roman culture.
Poetic Play with Sex and Gender
Authors: Corbeill Anthony
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines selected instances of grammatical gender-bending that occur in extant poetic texts, for most of which instances scholars both ancient and modern have largely chosen not to offer explanations. The passages chosen are meant to demonstrate the potential range of approaches that the poets could apply to the manipulation of grammatical gender. The chapter begins with a survey of visual evidence from antiquity to demonstrate that, with only apparent exceptions, personifications in ancient Rome are depicted with the sex that corresponds to the grammatical gender of the noun that describes them. It then considers poetic texts that provide various examples in which a poet plays with the notion of personification through the exploitation of a noun's gender. It concludes with an analysis of Catullus 6, where sensitivity to grammatical gender contributes to the riddling nature of the poem.
The Prodigious Hermaphrodite
Authors: Corbeill Anthony
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the change in attitudes toward the human hermaphrodite that extant texts depict as occurring in the transition between the periods of the late Roman Republic and early Roman Empire. It first considers Greek approaches to androgyny before explaining how the human hermaphrodite differed from other prodigies. It suggests that the slippery nature of their sexuality placed the hermaphrodites in the category of the religious sacred, capable of having unimaginable effects on the real world. The chapter also explores the concept of sacer and shows how the combination of the sacred and the mysterious finds analogues with the fluid-gendered nouns and the androgynous divinities of the Roman past. It concludes with an analysis of St. Augustine's discussion of the hermaphrodite, which unites the book's themes of grammar, divine power, human bodies with dual sexuality, and the origins of human culture.
The Political Machine
Authors: Smith Adam T.
Published: November 2017

This book investigates the essential role that material culture plays in the practices and maintenance of political sovereignty. Through an archaeological exploration of the Bronze Age Caucasus, the book demonstrates that beyond assemblies of people, polities are just as importantly assemblages of things—from ballots and bullets to crowns, regalia, and licenses. The book looks at the ways that these assemblages help to forge cohesive publics, separate sovereigns from a wider social mass, and formalize governance—and it considers how these developments continue to shape politics today. The book shows that the formation of polities is as much about the process of manufacturing assemblages as it is about disciplining subjects, and that these material objects or “machines” sustain communities, orders, and institutions. The sensibilities, senses, and sentiments connecting people to things enabled political authority during the Bronze Age and fortifies political power even in the contemporary world. The book provides a detailed account of the transformation of communities in the Caucasus, from small-scale early Bronze Age villages committed to egalitarianism, to Late Bronze Age polities predicated on radical inequality, organized violence, and a centralized apparatus of rule. From Bronze Age traditions of mortuary ritual and divination to current controversies over flag pins and Predator drones, this book sheds new light on how material goods authorize and defend political order.
Why Respect Religion?
Authors: Leiter Brian
Published: November 2017

The analysis has so far assumed that the moral foundation of the law of religious liberty is to be found in the idea of principled toleration. But are we entitled to that assumption? Martha Nussbaum, for example, has recently argued for the attitude of “respect” as the moral foundation of religious liberty. However, her account is ambiguous between two senses of respect. In one sense of respect (“minimal” respect), it is compatible with nothing more than toleration of religion; and in a different sense (“affirmative” respect, and which Nussbaum appears to want to invoke), it could not form the moral basis of a legal regime since religion is not the kind of belief system that could warrant that attitude.
The Law of Religious Liberty in a Tolerant Society
Authors: Leiter Brian
Published: November 2017

This chapter confronts the question of what to do about our Sikh boy and rural boy discussed in the introduction if there really is no reason to tolerate only the former's claim of conscience for carrying a weapon in places where that is ordinarily prohibited. It argues that both boys should be out of luck: that there should not be exemptions to general laws with neutral purposes, unless those exemptions do not shift burdens or risks onto others. It also considers whether the moral ideal of toleration, as articulated and defended in this book, is incompatible with state establishment or disestablishment of religion generally. The chapter argues that it is not, and that a tolerant state could, in principle, be either a religious or antireligious one.
Below the Subway: Taking Care Day In and Day Out
Authors: McClain Noah
Published: November 2017

This chapter moves up from the toilet, at least metaphorically, to the subway. The author and a fellow sociologist spent numbers of months researching the New York subway system, stimulated by the post-9/11 campaigns to increase security for passengers. They focused on the way security interventions meshed—or failed to mesh—with existing procedures of subway work, much of it already oriented toward enhancing safety of riders. They found out a great deal they did not anticipate about the way subways operate. They learned that because the system is already so thick with remedies, there is always a danger that new interventions will upset what is already in place. They observed that from the subway in particular, something of the way official provisioning of safety can indeed contradict safety as actual practice.
Wrong-Way Flights: Pushing Humans Away
Authors: Molotch Harvey
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on air travel, perhaps the most notorious venue of the security apparatus. We learn once again from the appliances and procedures, this time of the especially elaborate system of precautions in the post-9/11 world of flight, that much, in concept as well as in the detail, is quite beside the point. And some of it, as per pattern, runs counter to making things safe at all. The choices that have been made are just that, choices—explicable in the specifics of their moment in the United States' political and moral history. The chapter offers up alternative ways to deal with the fear of others' flying, ways that at the same time enhance other human goals, simple ones like convenience and complex ones like contentment. The trick is to offer a response to fear of flying through less odious forms of intervention—and indeed enhancements of pleasure.
Facing Katrina: Illusions of Levee and Compulsion to Build
Authors: Molotch Harvey
Published: November 2017

This chapter turns to New Orleans and the Gulf Coast to demonstrate command and disarray in the way that city meets river. It describes how threats from nature become part of the social-political apparatus—with the Katrina disaster the unhappy result. It has become rather common to observe that “there is no such thing as a natural disaster,” and Katrina is surely a poster child for that assertion. Much of the history of the New Orleans area was a kind Katrina in the making. Building levees, canals, and other infrastructural elements for the sake of safety yielded eventual mayhem. The chapter traces out some of the details of the “downward precautionary spiral.” Each effort at a fix leads to a successive effort of the same sort, accumulating not as a series of individual safety features but as vulnerability to events of catastrophic proportion.
Conclusion: Radical Ambiguity and the Default to Decency
Authors: Molotch Harvey
Published: November 2017

This chapter further draws out some larger lessons. In anticipating danger, we learn that people rely on prior understandings and capacities. Extant goals and routines go at the danger, like chemicals on the surface of an oil slick. This includes forces of authority, more or less on standby, that come to bear. They do their thing. So do individuals struggling to stay on their feet and get families and communities back on course—in a word, to regain prior levels of security. It can be that remediation creates more trouble than it solves—sometimes tragically. It is not always easy to know the difference, to be able to do something without making things worse. The chapter argues that there are principles to follow, as local and national imperatives, for dealing with impending threat. The key is to exercise massive bias toward making life better all along the way.
Exploring the Tea Party’s Commitment to Freedom and Patriotism
Authors: Parker Christopher S. , Barreto Matt A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the ways in which the Tea Party informs political attitudes and behavior. It begins by looking at how closely people who sympathize with the Tea Party adhere to themes that the movement often promotes: patriotism and freedom. Tea Party websites and rallies are often rife with patriotic imagery, including the American and Gadsden flags. While it is true that people who call themselves patriots take pride in wearing and displaying the flag, more authentic patriotism transcends simple displays of patriotic symbols. Patriotism instead, is more about putting the interests of the community or country before self. The chapter uses patriotism as a means of forcing a trade-off: freedom versus equality.
The Tea Party and Obamaphobia: Is the Hostility Real or Imagined?
Authors: Parker Christopher S. , Barreto Matt A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers the extent to which a positive orientation toward the Tea Party influences attitudes and opinions about the president beyond ideology, partisanship, general out-group hostility, and racism. It argues that Barack Obama's ascendance to the White House, and his subsequent presidency, triggered anxiety, fear, and anger among those who support the Tea Party because of what he represented: tangible evidence that “their” America is rapidly becoming unrecognizable. Even as Tea Party supporters railed against government spending, it seemed that their underlying frustration was with Barack Obama himself. This so called Obamaphobia appears to transcend simple policy disagreement, with many Tea Party supporters openly questioning the president's patriotism and his American citizenship on several occasions.
The Motor-Bike
Authors: Willis Paul E.
Published: November 2017

This chapter assesses how the motor-bike both reflected and generated many of the central meanings of the bike culture. It is one of the main elements of the culture's stylistic make-up. In a general and unspecific way, it was clear that the motor-bike was one of the main interests of the motor-bike boys in the club under investigation. Most of their activities were based on this interest. A large part of conversation was devoted to the motor-cycle: discussing new models, comparing performance, or describing in detail how repair jobs were done. Here, the chapter argues that the motor-bike was not simply one object in a random collection of objects and activities that occupy the life-space of an underprivileged group, but possessed an expressive function which highlights a distinctive and meaningful construction of culture through modern technology.
The Creative Age
Authors: Willis Paul E.
Published: November 2017

This chapter reveals the associations between the hippy culture and a certain kind of ‘progressive’ pop music. In sheer quantitative terms, there was a massive interaction between the two. The hippy's relation to this music was not arbitrary. They deliberately chose their musical environment — post Sergeant Pepper, ‘progressive’ music — and went to great lengths to preserve it and to exclude Top twenty and commercial music. Only specific kinds of music were chosen because they — and not others — were able to hold, develop, and return those meanings and experiences which were important in the hippy culture. Thus, they preferred a music which both attempted timelessness and an abstract, complex shape that could mirror and momentarily complete their attempts to encompass a post-capitalist timeless mysticism.
Restoring Four-Power Rights, Reviving a Confederation in 1989
Authors: Sarotte Mary Elise
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the Soviet restoration model and former German Chancellor Helmut Kohl's revivalist model. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) hoped to use its weight as a victor in the Second World War to restore the old quadripartite mechanism of four-power control exactly as it used to be in 1945, before subsequent layers of Cold War modifications created room for German contributions. This restoration model, which called for the reuse of the old Allied Control Commission to dominate all further proceedings in divided Germany, represented a realist vision of politics run by powerful states, each retaining their own sociopolitical order and pursuing their own interests. Meanwhile, Kohl's revivalist model represented the revival, or adaptive reuse, of a confederation of German states. This latter-day “confederationism” blurred the lines of state sovereignty; each of the two twenty-first-century Germanies would maintain its own political and social order, but the two would share a confederative, national roof.
Revisiting 1989–1990 and the Origins of NATO Expansion
Authors: Sarotte Mary Elise
Published: November 2017

This afterword focuses on the NATO expansion. NATO's future formed a key part of the negotiations on German unification. In early February 1990, James A. Baker III, Hans-Dietrich Genscher, and Helmut Kohl all discussed with Mikhail Gorbachev the prospect that if he allowed Germany to unify, NATO would not subsequently move eastward beyond its 1989 border, in other words, not even into East Germany. Gorbachev responded orally that any expansion of “the zone of NATO” would be “unacceptable,” but nothing was written down and no formal agreements were reached. Ultimately, the representatives of the United States and West Germany expertly outmaneuvered Gorbachev in the negotiations over German unification in 1990. They accomplished their goals of expanding NATO to East Germany and of leaving open the door for future expansion to Eastern Europe.
The Freedom of the Press
Authors: Gatti Hilary
Published: November 2017

This chapter first turns to the problem of writing histories, beginning with a major figure in the Catholic culture of France, Jacques Auguste de Thou, whose way of writing history brought him into conflict with his own church in terms that presaged future events such as the story of Paolo Sarpi or the ordeal of Galileo. It then turns to the poet and polemicist John Milton, a controversial figure who was closely identified with the English parliamentary struggles and civil war. The chapter reviews his works, particularly his Areopagitica: A Speech of Mr. John Milton for the Liberty of Unlicens'd Printing (1644), a pamphlet written in favor of the freedom of the press. It draws attention to one of the major themes of his Areaopagitica: his treatment throughout the work of the problem of schisms and sects.
Gateways and Gates in American Immigration History
Authors: Hsu Madeline Y.
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses how Asian Americans have featured most prominently in U.S. history in the Gold Rush period—as workers on the transcontinental railroad, and as the innocent victims of incarceration during World War II. The impossibility of Asians becoming U.S. citizens was established early in America's history. Much of immigration studies scholarship has usefully focused on the goal of restriction—the targeting of certain populations as unwanted in the United States. By focusing on restriction, however, the scholarship has neglected the selective aspects of immigration laws, which not only erected gates barring entry to unwanted persons but also established gateways that permitted admission to peoples deemed assimilable but also strategic, as determined by a variety of revealing rationales.
Parallel Weighings of Coins
Authors: Khovanova Tanya
Published: November 2017

This chapter presents solutions to generalizations of Konstantin Knop's puzzle for any number of minutes and any number of parallel scales. It first describes the similarity of the original puzzle with a multiple-pans problem: a coin-weighing puzzle involving balance scales with not two, but any number of pans. The notion of a coin's potential is defined next. The chapter then provides a solution to the parallel weighing problem in case there is an unlimited supply of real coins. Afterward, the chapter offers a solution to the original puzzle and its generalization for any number of minutes, and generalizes these results to the use of more than two scales in parallel. In addition, the find-and-label variation of this problem for any number of minutes is discussed, before the chapter concludes with a comparison of the find-and-label problem with the just-find problem.
Gallia Est Omnis Divisa In Partes Quattuor
Authors: Calkin Neil , Mulcahy Colm
Published: November 2017

This chapter presents a single unified proof for a certain move that could be performed on packets of cards which, when repeated four times, brought the cards back to their initial arrangement. That is, the move was “of period four.” The move gave rise to some interesting card effects, especially when applied just three times. At that time, the easiest known method for explaining how the move worked involved a decomposition of the packet into three parts. A decade later, a family of generalizations was stumbled upon, also of period four, with interesting consequences when applied only twice. This chapter arrives at proof which covers the whole spectrum of cases of period four, and it divides packets into four parts.
Tic-tac-toe on Affine Planes
Authors: Carroll Maureen T. , Dougherty Steven T.
Published: November 2017

This chapter introduces a new game of tic-tac-toe that fits squarely within the body of work inspired by mathematician Leonhard Euler's findings on the so-called “Graeco-Latin squares” and the surprisingly interesting problem of arranging thirty-six officers of six different ranks and regiments. In his 1782 paper on the subject, Euler begins with the thirty-six-officer problem and ends with a conjecture about the possible sizes of Graeco-Latin squares. The chapter first explains the rules for a game based on Euler's work, and then analyzes it from a game-theoretic perspective to determine winning and drawing strategies. Along the way, the chapter explains Euler's connection to the story.
The Politics of Migration and Citizenship
Authors: Herbst Jeffrey
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines how changing patterns of migration and the dynamics of citizenship laws both affect and reflect the abilities of African states to consolidate power. It shows that these two phenomena are interconnected because citizenship laws embody the identities that African states have tried to construct on the assumption that populations are no longer mobile. It argues that, contrary to conventional wisdom, African boundaries have fundamentally altered the nature of population movements across the continent. As a result, citizenship has acquired a salience that is often greater than the ties between ethnic groups separated by a border. However, African countries have not exploited the surprising firmness of their boundaries to develop innovative citizenship regulations that might establish a strong national bond between state and citizen. Because of this, a critical opportunity for state consolidation often has been lost.
Conclusion
Authors: Farrell Justin
Published: November 2017

This concluding chapter begins by summarizing key themes. It argues that the findings in this study raise supplementary questions that might be investigated in future studies about morality, technorationality, and policy conflict. It sets out questions that provide a good place to start for researchers and policymakers alike. These are, what is the role of science and technical expertise? Does it make a practical difference to stakeholders if they become more aware of their moral assumptions? How do we assess whether some moral arguments are more compelling than others? Does power rest in the logical cogency of an argument, as some moral philosophers might contend? The chapter also discusses the broader theoretical implications of this study for sociology.
Introduction
Authors: Grand Julian Le , New Bill
Published: November 2017

This book explores one of the major social questions of the twenty-first century: whether the government should save people from themselves. More specifically, it considers whether there are circumstances when the state, or the government of the state, should intervene to protect individuals from the possibly damaging consequences of their own decisions, even if those decisions affect only themselves, and even if the individuals concerned made the decisions while in full possession of their faculties and of all the relevant information. In other words, whether government paternalism can be justified. The book asks whether allowing the government to be the agent of paternalism creates a “nanny state” that invades the autonomy of the individuals concerned and potentially infantilizing them. Finally, it examines what form a paternalistic intervention should take and to what extent the rationale or consequences of government policies may be regarded as wholly or partly paternalistic.
What Is Paternalism?
Authors: Grand Julian Le , New Bill
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the various definitions of government paternalism and paternalistic policies that political philosophers and others have put forward, with particular emphasis on their strengths and weaknesses. It considers the three components of these definitions: there is interference in the individual's freedom or autonomy; such interference aims to promote the individual's own good; and there is an absence of individual consent. The chapter argues that all these components, especially the first, present conceptual difficulties. It suggests that paternalism must be defined not in terms of intervention or of its consequences, but in terms of (a failure of) individual judgment. It therefore proposes a definition that does not refer to coercion but instead incorporates this view of the government's intention. It concludes that government intervention is paternalistic with respect to an individual if it is intended to address a failure of judgment by that individual and to further the individual's own good.
A Theory of Immigration Backlash Politics
Authors: Abrajano Marisa , Hajnal Zoltan L.
Published: November 2017

This chapter introduces a theory that explains how immigration could lead to a broad white backlash that transforms the basic political leaning of much of white America. As anxiety about immigration has grown, white partisanship and politics have become increasingly affected by this issue, with more and more white Americans espousing a less generous, more indignant politics that seeks to punish immigrants who violate U.S. norms, and strives to cut off services and other public goods that could benefit them. The chapter describes a theory of immigration politics and examines how immigration could be reshaping the politics of white America. It argues that far from the country moving away from the use of race/ethnicity as a dividing line, immigration is actually leading to greater divisions and tensions—at least in the political sphere.
Introduction
Authors: Bowering Gerhard
Published: November 2017

This introductory chapter begins with a historical perspective of the Islamic world. Islam has grown consistently throughout history, expanding into new neighboring territories without ever retreating (except on the margins, as in Sicily and Spain, where it was expelled by force). It began in the seventh century as a small community in Mecca and Medina in the Arabian Peninsula, led by its messenger the Prophet Muhammad (d. 632), who was eventually to unite all the Arab tribes under the banner of Islam. Within the first two centuries of its existence, Islam came into global prominence through its conquests of the Middle East, North Africa, the Iberian Peninsula, the Iranian lands, Central Asia, and the Indus valley. In 2014, the year 1435 of the Muslim calendar, the Islamic world was estimated to account for a population of approximately a billion and a half, representing about one-fifth of humanity. The remainder of the chapter discusses the evolution of Islamic political thought; foundations of Islamic political thought; and Islamic political thought in the early Middle Ages (750–1055), high Middle Ages (1055–1258), late Middle Ages (1258–1500), early modern period (1500–1800), and later modern period (from 1800 to the present).
Qur’an
Authors: Bowering Gerhard
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses the historical origin and development, religious scholarship, political elements, and legacy of the Qur'an. The Qur'an, the holy book of Islam, is the most recent of the major sacred scriptures to have appeared in human history. It includes the prophetic proclamations of Muhammad (570–632) in Arabic, collected after his death in definitive written form and meticulously transmitted through the centuries. More than a billion Muslims around the globe consider the Qur'an to be the eternal word of God, who “sent down” the scripture as his final divine revelation and commissioned Muhammad to be the last prophet to proclaim his divine will for all of humanity to follow.
Shari‘a
Authors: Stewart Devin J.
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses the shari'a, the sacred law of Islam. Law is an essential feature of revealed religion in both the Qur'an and Islamic thought in general, and the term shari'a is used with reference not only to Islam but also to Judaism and Christianity, because all three are conceived as having a divinely given law. According to later jurists, 500 verses of the Qur'an, treat legal subjects, including matters relating to prayer, fasting, alms, pilgrimage, permitted food, marriage, divorce, inheritance, slavery, and trade. This represents roughly one-thirteenth of the sacred text. The chapter covers the law in the books; the source of the law; the two institutions that contributed to making the law central to Islamic societies and creating continuity over space and time: the madhhab, or the legal school and the madrasa, or college of law; legal education and careers; caliphs; judges and muftis; the impact of modernity; and political Islam.
The Abjurers, Their Crimes, and Their Property
Authors: Jordan William Chester
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on the abjurers themselves. The exile system was easier to accept in regions where multiple capital jurisdictions abutted one another, as they did on the continent, and where no one jurisdiction was receiving the whole mass of another jurisdiction's exiles. Some adjurers were caught up in circumstances and were perhaps harmless enough, but many were hardened criminals and opportunists, and all were so down on their luck upon their exile that they were susceptible to engaging in antisocial behavior of the most heinous sort. The discussions cover the abjurers' status and wealth, crimes suspected of the abjurers, and the fate of the abjurers' property.
Returning Home
Authors: Jordan William Chester
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on those English exiles who, in one way or another, returned to their homeland during the long thirteenth century. Men and women convicted of felonies in the regular courts in England and condemned to die could apply for and sometimes obtain royal pardons, because of circumstances or at a price or both, following conviction. Even those who flouted justice by fleeing and were outlawed had access to pardons for their outlawry on condition that they deliver themselves and stand trial on the original charge or charges. As with a pardoned outlaw, that a pardoned abjurer from sanctuary could be compelled to stand trial for his acknowledged crime, particularly if a kinsman of the victim, one with proper standing made a direct accusation or appealed him. The pardon did not nullify the abjurer's victim's right of appeal.
Introduction: Looking for Democratic Constraint
Authors: Baum Matthew A. , Potter Philip B. K.
Published: November 2017

This book examines how media and electoral institutions influence the extent of democratic constraint by shaping the flow of information from leaders to citizens. It asks why, when it comes to foreign policy, some leaders are seemingly constrained by public opinion, even in the earliest stages of policy formulation, while others are more insulated from it. It argues that the reliability of the flow of information from elites to the masses most directly determines the degree to which citizens can constrain their leaders. The book considers two aspects of democratic systems that affect both the generation and the flow of information about foreign policy by influencing the extent of independent political opposition and their ability to reach the public with their messages: political opposition and media access.
Coalition Stories: Cases from the Iraq Coalition
Authors: Baum Matthew A. , Potter Philip B. K.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the decisions of the United Kingdom, Spain, Germany, and Poland regarding whether they would join with the United States in the Iraq coalition, the goal of which was to remove Saddam Hussein from power. Among these countries, there was much variation in both key variables identified as the ingredients of constraint and in the extent to which leaders were responsive to pressure from either their domestic publics or the United States. The key lesson from these case studies is that democratic constraint is fragile and elusive. These cases point to a variety of means by which policy makers outmaneuvered a consistently antiwar European public. Media and partisan political opposition are clearly an important part of the overall story and, more significantly, are among the few factors that hold steady from case to case.
The Costs of In-Your-Face Politics for Political Trust
Authors: Mutz Diana C.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the consequences of perceived distance and incivility on levels of political trust. It suggests that people may also react to incivility for entirely different, more straightforward reasons. People are all too aware of the banality of shout shows they see on television, and they have made their disgust for this practice well known. If there is consensus that politicians and political advocates are not behaving admirably, then perhaps incivility in political discourse also affects public regard for politics and politicians more generally, despite its lack of any apparent effects on attitudes toward individual favored politicians. Televised portrayals of political conflict have received a particularly severe beating, with some pointing to media reports highlighting conflict as a source of greater political cynicism.
Real-World Contexts
Authors: Mutz Diana C.
Published: November 2017

This chapter looks at the characteristics of the experimental treatments that are used to manipulate incivility, as well as the kinds of people used in the experiments. Because of the high degree of control over the political content of the broadcasts, the participants involved in the conflicts, and the way in which the cameras covered the dispute, it is possible to draw strong causal inferences about the impact that incivility and camera perspective have on viewers' experiences of political conflict. Although the professional production quality meant that none of the subjects voiced suspicions about the programs themselves, it is still plausible that other, unidentified differences between the real world and this exchange may have altered the outcomes.
Who Watches This Stuff Anyway?
Authors: Mutz Diana C.
Published: November 2017

This chapter utitlizes survey data to address the issue of whether those who watch in-your-face politics in the real world are also those likely to be affected by it. By combining content analyses of forty different contemporary political programs with viewership data, the chapter gains some purchase on who watches political programs that include this kind of content as opposed to less in-your-face political programming. One would presume that the patterns of news consumption remains traditional—that is, that people who watch political television are those most interested in politics, the most partisan, and so forth. However, the greater variety of available political programming means that some of these demographic correlates may have changed.
Time-Reversal Imaging of Extended Source Terms
Authors: Ammari Habib , Bretin Elie , Garnier Josselin , Kang Hyeonbae , Lee Hyundae , Wahab Abdul
Published: November 2017

This chapter describes the use of time-reversal imaging techniques for extended source terms from far-field measurements. A target or a source term is called extended when its characteristic size times the operating frequency (wavenumber) is considerably larger than one. For the scalar wave equation, the main idea of time reversal is to take advantage of its reversibility in order to backpropagate signals to the sources that emitted them. The chapter focuses on the homogeneous isotropic elastic wave equation in a d-dimensional open medium with d = 2, 3. It first reconstructs shape changes of an extended target before introducing a number of algorithms and analyzing their resolution and stability for the linearized reconstruction problem. Finally, it discusses optimal control approaches for solving the nonlinear problem.
Barren and Pregnant Crises
Authors: Mulgan Geoff
Published: November 2017

This chapter describes the crisis that unfolded in the late 2000s, and how it changed the world's political economy. The crisis had its origins, like many others, on the edges of capitalism, in the household sector and land, and in the most dramatically unbalanced parts of the system, before spreading into every other part, freezing the flow of credit in the banks, and then precipitating a cascade of collapses. In retrospect, scholars can now see that the late 1990s brought a historic shift of surpluses away from production and toward finance, which, like any excess of predation, inevitably harmed the vitality of the system being preyed on.
The Essence of Capitalism
Authors: Mulgan Geoff
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses capitalism's origins, and how it has evolved. Capitalism has been defined in many ways, through its rules and laws, through the power it gives to investors and entrepreneurs, and through the flows of money, information, and goods that it supports. The chapter defines it as an idea—the relentless pursuit of exchangeable value—that had become a form of life. In this sense, it is starkly different from social systems that prioritize the conquest of territory, the saving of souls, or the brotherhood of man. But capitalism is a matter of degree. Societies can choose how capitalist they become, and how much they extend the capitalist idea into fields such as health or art.
The Nature of Change
Authors: Mulgan Geoff
Published: November 2017

This chapter provides a theoretical framework for understanding how capitalism might evolve. No one can easily design and then legislate an entirely new kind of economy. Nor can anyone simply assert different principles and hope that they will become real. Fundamental change occurs only when existing systems are seen to have failed, including by their own standards. Often that happens because of dynamics within the system. Many have analyzed the ways in which capitalism might be its own gravedigger, some disproven by history, others vindicated by it. Capitalism's success creates the conditions for change: forecasters predict a trebling of the size of the world economy and a doubling even in the old economies of Europe and the United States by 2050.
The Rise of Economies Based on Relationships and Maintenance
Authors: Mulgan Geoff
Published: November 2017

This chapter argues that although most people think of the economy as made up of stuff such as new cars, tins of food, or mortgages; or in many of the wealthier economies the dominant sectors are health, education, care, and the loosely defined territory of green industries and jobs, relationships are critically important in all of these fields. Pre-capitalist economies were mainly concerned with maintenance. Capitalism by contrast introduced linearity into the economy, with the idea of cumulative growth, and an economy based around things that are simply used and then disposed, generalizing what was always true of parts of the luxury economy. The chapter shows how, in the material economy, people increasingly aspire to homeostasis and equilibrium, just as they do in our physical bodies.