bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Attitudes Toward Mental Illness: the Construction of the Libertarian Mental Health Ideology Scale
Authors: Nevid Jeffrey S. , Morrison James
Published: March 2007

The present study was an attempt to construct an attitude scale to measure the radical psychosocial or libertarian position about "mental illness" and mental health practices. Scale items received high ratings for descriptiveness of the libertarian mental health ideology. A preliminary questionnaire was then submitted to mental health respondents and results showed that each finally selected scale item ( a) distinguished significantly between extreme scorers on a dimension of strength of identification with a "Szaszian- libertarian" posi tion ; and (b) loaded at a .4 level or higher on factors derived in a principal components factor analysis. The factor analysis defined four scale factors: Mental Illness Mythology (MIM), Anti-Medical Model (AMM), Social De viance Control (SDC), and Anti-Coercive Treatment (ACT). Scale factor and total scores were predictably related to self-reports of psychiatric orientation and endorsement of a libertarian position in making judgments about case materials. Scale reliability data, item-total correlations, and inter-factor and factor-total correlations supported the general utility of the total score as a representative libertarian measure.
Dynamics of Peak Performance
Authors: Privette Gayle
Published: March 2007

Are there common elements in experiences of high level performance in different activities? This exploratory study initiates a research basis for understanding superior use of human potential. Peak performance, defined operationally as behavior that exceeds one's predictable level of functioning, represents superior use of potential in any human endeavor. Examined were episodes of peak performance reported by adult subjects in four groups: psychology, creative arts, adult education, and graduate counseling. Factor analyses and ANOVA of factor scores were used to compare reported experiences of superior funcioning with those of average behavior. Results indicated that peak performance is an independent entity with distinguishing phenomenological dimensions. These dimensions of peak performance include : ( a) absorption and clarity which comprise clear focus upon both object and self, ( b) sponteneity and unrestrained behavior, and (c) expression of self.
Toward a Somatic Understanding of Self
Authors: Ginsburg Carl
Published: March 2007

In a recent article Leonard Geller (1982) criticized the concept of self-actualization as developed by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow on both theoretical and empirical grounds. His critique is based upon an assumption of a psychosocial understanding of self and a linear thinking approach to the human context. In this article it is argued that the use of the term "self" in the human potential movement is fundamentally somatic, and that linear thought as it is usually understood is inappropriate to understanding concepts such as self and autonomy as well as any living system. The roots of such a somatic understanding are explored in systems biology and the formalizations of a logic of self-reference. A development notion of self-image is then sketched based on self-distinction as the central element.
My Problems in Understanding Human Beings
Authors: Yamamoto Kaoru
Published: March 2007

What follows is a narrative of the mistakes I have been making in understanding what inquiry into human affairs ought to be. Basically, all the trouble seems to stem from my underestimating what human beings are and can be.
On Focusing
Authors: Friedman Neil
Published: March 2007

This article is for students and teachers, clients and therapists, workshop participants and leaders. In it I describe and present examples offocusing. Focusing is a gentle, powerful, and nonintrusive method of self-help and therapy developed by Eugene Gendlin. My aim is practical: to improve focusing practice. Readers who want more theoretical material are referred to Friedman (1982a), Gendlin (1981), and works listed in the references. For those who want to try focusing, I have included a set of instructions as an appendix. These instructions can be introduced to groups, in dyads, and in therapy. They also can be tape recorded if one wants to use focusing for self-therapy.
Person-Centered Approach as Conscientizacao
Authors: O'Hara Maureen
Published: March 2007

In Carl Rogers on Personal Power (1977), Rogers devotes almost a whole chapter to what he sees as remarkable similarities between "person-centered approaches" and the pedagogical strategies of Brazilian educator, Paulo Freire. During the last 13 years I have heard such similarities debated in almost every context in which the social and political implications of person-centered approaches are considered. Many Rogerians and other North American humanistic psychologists believe there is a similarity. Freirians and many Third World humanistic psychologists often disagree. This article introduces some new reflections on the work of both men that might be useful to those committed to a search for a more humane world. I hope to establish that the differences of opinion regarding the work of the two men are legitimate, that is, they are based in real differences. However, I also want to show it possible to reconcile these differences by considering the deeper underlying precepts of Freire and Rogers. Through examination of large group person-centered workshops I suggest that a reconsideration of what may be at the base of the ideas of the two men could point the way to possible new discoveries about our human nature and our human future.
Two Patterns of Transcendence
Authors: Wilber Ken
Published: March 2007

This article is a response to Michael Washburn's "Two Patterns of Transcendence," in which he maintains that there are two dominant but incompatible paradigms in transpersonal psychology: Jung's Analytic Psychology and Wilber's Spectrum Psychology. The conclusion of this article is that the two psychological paradigms are not incompatible, and that the Jungian model can, in essential respects, be incorporated into the spectrum model.
Armageddon Theology and the Risk of Global War
Authors: Kierulff Stephen
Published: March 2007

Millions of Americans, primarily premillennialist fundamentalist Christians, believe that God has foreordained a global nuclear war as the precursor to the Second Coming of Christ. Apocalyptic religious beliefs would be of less consequence were it not for the fact that after being given computer warning of an apparent nuclear attack, U.S. personnel in the midst of the electronic loop have just a few minutes to decide whether or not to launch missiles in retaliation. Early warning computer systems have malfunctioned in the past, and religious convictions about the inevitability of a nuclear war could incline a person to make the disastrous error of believing an erroneous computer warning to be correct. In the U.S. military, access to nuclear devices and authorization to participate in their "delivery" is controlled by the Personnel Reliability Program (PRP). For the sake of global safety, American psychologists and psychiatrists, under the auspices of the PRP, should be engaged in screening out personnel who are convinced that a nuclear attack against Russia would accord with God's will.
The Riddle of Consciousness and the Changing Scientific WorldView
Authors: Sperry Roger W.
Published: March 2007

Centuries-old determinist traditions of scientific materialism are currently challenged in an unprecedented outburst during the past two decades of emerging new paradigms, new worldview "visions," new approaches to consciousness and to reality, and other transformative trends including an all-time high in favor of holism over reductionism. These revisionary developments are traced to sources in the preceding cognitive revolution and its changed concepts of consciousness and causation. Anew reciprocal "two-way" mode of causal determinism, required to shift mental states into an ineliminable causal role, is a common underlying factor. This bidirectional model is upheld to be a more complete and adequate paradigm for all casual explanation and understanding, giving science a new approach to the ultimate nature and meaning of existence with a new set of answers to some of today's thorniest issues.
Psychological Characteristics of the Literary Genius
Authors: Hale Carl S.
Published: March 2007

Literary genius is a multi-layered aptitude that consists of many unique cognitive, affective, perceptual, motivational, interpersonal, and state-dependent attributes, including the challenging of orthodox thinking, fertility of ideas, compulsive discipline and hard work, tolerance of ambiguity, innocence of perception, immersion in the present moment, intellectual diversity, an internal locus of evaluation, and sensitivity to nuances. The primary role of the creative genius in society is to hasten the development of authentic human values, which often requires these men and women to partially or completely withdraw from mainstream society. The extreme individualism of these people allows them to discover human values that are then used to revivify eroding or procrustean social structures. Creative writers provide the covert foundation for social change and spiritual transformation, which requires that they remain loners who are totally dedicated to their creative work.
What Understanding and Acceptance Mean to Me
Authors: Rogers Carl R.
Published: March 2007

In this article, Carl Rogers discusses what he had learned about understanding and empathy. He learned that acting as though he were something that he was not was unhelpful in relationships. He learned that accepting himself, permitting himself to understand others, accepting others, and being open to the realities of life as they were revealed in himself and in others was helpful. He leamed that acceptance and understanding reduced his desire to rush in and fix things, and that persons have a basically positive direction. He illustrated his comments with examples from his life and teaching.
Humanistic Psychologyaq in Japanese Corporations: Listening and the: Small Steps of Change
Authors: Ikemi Akira , Kubota Shinya
Published: March 2007

This article discusses the advent of humanistic psychology and some of its training in Japanese corporations. The social context of such a movement is presented. Research data indicate that workers who perceive their supervisors as having strong person-centered attitudes exhibit less fatigue, depression, and anxiety than those who do not. The data point to the importance of reflecting on how we interact with others and how we may change some aspects of our behavior to create a more human environment for ourselves and others. The second part of this article discusses the effects of teaching experiential (active) listening in corporations to people in managerial positions. One study conducted by the first author is reviewed, showing increased empathy, unconditional positive regard, and genuineness between the first and last sessions of training. Finally, some illustrations of changes in the work environment as a result of training are presented. Listening to others, if done with care, may create small steps of change toward a more human environment in work situations.
Sex Therapy for Vaginismus: A Review, Critique, and Humanistic Alternative
Authors: Kleinplatz Peggy J.
Published: March 2007

Vaginismus has typically been treated using behaviorally oriented sex therapy. The treatment of choice has been systematic desensitization with the use of graded vaginal dilators. The prevailing model is described, and its underlying assumptions and implications are explored and evaluated. A critique of the conventional treatment paradigm is offered. An alternative way of understanding sexual problems and how to deal with them in therapy originates in existential-experiential psychotherapy. Although this model has been applied to the study and treatment of sexual concerns infrequently, this approach may be of particular value to sex therapists. The conception of the problem, the goals of therapy, and therapy process are described from this perspective. Therapists working with such a model attempt to promote awareness, choice, embodiment, sexual potential, and integration. A case illustration of therapy with a client presenting with vaginismus is presented. The advantages of using an experientially oriented approach are discussed.
Of Mountains and Routes Over Them: A Survey of Theories of Industrial Relations
Authors: Dabscheck Braham
Published: March 2007

This paper compares and contrasts five theoretical approaches to the study of industrial relations. They are Dunlop's systems model, pluralism, Marxism, cor poratism, and theories of regulation. In examining these competing theories atten tion is directed to the notion of the public interest, the role of the state, and the level of analysis. The paper concludes that the concept of the public interest has no useful analytical role to play in a theory of industrial relations, that the state should be viewed as an independent variable, and that a disaggregated societal-based model should be employed. Finally, the role of any institution, or part of the system, needs to be viewed in terms of its interaction with the total system, or other institutions or parts of the system.
Shoring up the System: The ALP and Arbitration in the 1940s
Authors: Sheridan Tom
Published: March 2007

The years immediately after the Second World War witnessed over-full employment in the Australian economy. The workforce, backed by public opinion, sought to reap gains in employment conditions after years of restraint. High on the unions' official agenda was reform of the federal arbitration system, which dominated the wage-fixing process. In 1947 the ALP government amended the Conciliation and Arbitration Act. Although endowed with unprecedented constitutional and political authority, the Chifley government failed to meet the main expectations of its union constituents. The system remained centralized and dominated by a small bench of judges. Chifley's appointments to the bench failed to depart from the conservative norm. The Labor government's overwhelming motivation was to hold down wage costs and cushion the economy from the shock of industrial labour's newfound bargaining power.
The Vehicle Industry Occupational Health and Safety Award, 1986
Authors: McDonald Michael
Published: March 2007

Before 1986 the regulation of occupational health and safety fell solely within the domain of the states, both through legislation and the activities of state inspectorates. This pattern of regulation was broken in 1986 with the making of the Vehicle Industry Occupational Health and Safety Award by the Australian Conciliation and Arbitration Commission. This article examines the enforcement provisions of the award, and, in particular, the extent to which these provide lower standards of regulation than the provisions of the Victorian Occupational Health and Safety Act, 1985. An examination of the award also discloses a complex interphase of activity between state inspectorates, which will have certain residual activities under state legislation not affected by the award, and members of the federal Arbitration Inspectorate, who have the task of enforcing the award. The article concludes that the federal inspectorate has neither the resources nor the expertise to properly enforce an award regulating occupational health and safety.
Muslims and Christians in Lebanon: Common Views on Political Issues
Authors: AZAR FABIOLA , MULLET ETIENNE
Published: March 2007

The aim of the study was to examine the extent to which members of six different communities in Lebanon (Catholic, Druze, Maronite, Orthodox, Shiite, and Sunni) share common views about some of the main political issues facing the country, as presented in the press, on the radio, and on television. Participants from the six communities were to read 15 statements regarding political life in the country (for example, `A balance of religious communities is indispensable in a country like Lebanon') and rate their degree of agreement with the content of each statement. The members of the six communities largely agreed as regards the degree of personal support they attributed to each proposition. In addition, the mean responses were the same irrespective of the source (president or prime minister) to which the statements were attributed. Only two issues caused mild disagreement between communities: the establishment of secularism in the country, and confidence in the state. Finally, a structural analysis showed that the ratings were structured around three main factors: views regarding the Palestinians, views regarding Syria, and views regarding Lebanon and its institutions.
Better to Fight Another Day: A Pre-Theory of Insurgent Coalitions
Authors: Maranto Robert
Published: March 2007

The defense provided by interstate alliances operating in peacetime has often been considered a collective good subject to the free-riding and underprovision common to such goods I argue that within certain poorly integrated insurgent alliances, the exhaustion of allies may be a good valued almost as highly as the eventual collective victory. Coalition members might therefore limit their own participation in the conflict while encouraging allies to fully commit the lives of their supporters. Such free-riding is probably not common, however, partly because an organization's participation in the collective struggle offers important political and military benefits which are not collective in nature.
Review Essay : The Uses and Abuses of Geopolitics
Authors: Østerud Øyvind
Published: March 2007

Three recent books illustrate the variety of contemporary interpretations of geopolitics G Parker presents the terminological tradition, originating among Europeans (Kjellén, Ratzel, Mackinder), as an expression of the late nineteenth century spirit, continuing in a German inter-war version (Haushofer) often accused of having inspired Nazi strategies, and with a modern American interpretation (Spykman, Kissinger) But there is also a more detached, French interpretation: the tradition of Yves Lacoste and the Hérodote-group, which in a recent collection edited and translated by P Girot and E Kofman is presented as a modern alternative to the great power view of geopolitics Finally, geopolitics may also be seen simply as a label for the study of the relationship between geography and politics The recent survey by P O'Sullivan presents methods and issues in this kind of political geography This review essay takes these three views of geopolitics as points of departure for some reflections on the geopolitical tradition and its present relevance.
Defense Spending and Economic Growth in Subsaharan Africa: An Econometric Investigation
Authors: Gyimah-Brempong Kwabena
Published: March 2007

A four equation - growth rate, defense burden, skilled labor rate, and investment rate - simultaneous model is used to investigate whether increased defense burden increases or decreases economic growth and the channels through which defense burden influences economic growth in Less Developed Countries (LDCs). The model is estimated using cross national data for 39 Subsaharan African countries during the 1973 to 1983 period from ACDA data sources. The estimation procedure is three stage least squares. Defense burden affects economic growth directly through increased demand, technological spin-off, and modernization of attitudes and indirectly through increased supply of skilled labor and decreased investment. The positive effects defense burden has on growth are swamped by the negative effect it has on growth rate through decreased investment. We calculate a defense burden/growth rate multiplier of -0.12. When we re-estimate the model using SIPRI data sources, the qualitative results remain unchanged. The implication of this result is that African countries cannot use increased defense spending to stimulate economic growth because there is a trade-off between high defense burden and economic growth.
Towards a Comparative Study of Peace Ideas: Goals, Approaches and Problems
Authors: Harle Vilho
Published: March 2007

The paper sees a recent increase in studies on peace ideas as a positive phenomenon, but suggests that scholars should concentrate their efforts on specific questions and on an inter-cultural comparative analysis of peace ideas. Goals, approaches, and problems of such comparative study are discussed on the basis of earlier works on (the history of) peace ideas. The need for comparative analyses is documented by the suggestion of several ways in which a comparative approach can contribute to and improve the quality of studies in this field. Five approaches to comparative studies are discussed: (a) descriptive, (b) typologizing, (c) testing an idea or a hypothesis, (d) application of a common denominator and (e) the method of question and answer. Finally, both practical and methodological problems encountered in such an enterprise are identified. It is suggested that the methodological problems of applying similarities/dissimilarities and of comparability itself will require considerable systematic effort if a common denominator applicable to peace ideas in different cultures and periods is to be found. This common denominator would enhance not only the comparative study of peace ideas but might equally well contribute to establishing the identity of Peace Research in general.
The Logic of Deterrence
Authors: Tunander Ola
Published: March 2007

This article deals with rules and paradoxes of the modern deterrence system and with its transformation into language. It has always been possible to interpret military activities as a body-language of states, as a show of force with which to threaten or convince an opponent. The development of nuclear forces has made this communicative aspect essential for military activities, because war and preparations for war are now less a question of defeating the opponent, and more a power conversation at the brink of the apocalypse. This has been illustrated by the Cuban Missile Crisis in the 1960s and the deployment of intermediate-range missiles in the 1980s. It is a dialogue or dispute: doctrine versus doctrine and strategy versus strategy using steel and electronics. Furthermore, there is no unified point of reference for this conversation. The paradoxes of the modern deterrence system exclude a defined `reality' that this conversation would refer to. Missiles can be developed with ambiguous interpretations referring to both the possible and the impossible war, to the uncertainty of escalation, but this point of reference has no real meaning outside the discourse of the Flexible Response doctrine. The system of deterrence has become self-referring - a communicative sphere - a reality of its own with specified rules from which nobody is prepared to escape. The only possibility seems to be to redefine some of these rules, giving them another meaning.
Global Water Issues Confronting Humanity
Authors: Falkenmark Malin
Published: March 2007

Water's central role in the biosphere implies that several of the large issues confronting humanity are in fact related to water: pollution, desertification, water scarcity-related conflicts, water-logging of mismanaged agricultural lands, forest die-back, eutrophication, and fish kill, to mention a few. The article identifies a number of reasons why man has not been able to solve water-related problems at lower hierarchical levels: complexity of water vs. simplicity with which it is being addressed; impact as non-professional perceptual differences leading to widespread communication problems; deep involvement of water in the generating, spreading and growth of environmental disturbances; and upstream/downstream dichotomies in international river basins. The global policy dimensions of water are clarified: on the one hand, the global circulation system of a resource that incessantly transcends international boundaries; on the other, the fact that water problems are common to all countries. After selected examples of past efforts in global problem-solving, the discussion concentrates on the UN Water Conference in Mar del Plata in 1977 and the extremely weak follow-up of its many recommendations and resolutions. The explanation is sought in pitfalls and barriers similar to those operating at lower hierarchical levels. Special emphasis is placed on decision-makers' tendency to react to perceived rather than predicted problems, on an almost extreme administrative fragmentation, and on the general absence of a body combining overall overview with overall responsibility in the field of water. The article closes with the pessimistic observation that there are indeed limited alternatives to global policy-making, and that there is not much time for delay. Mankind will have to pay the price in terms of quality of life and futures foregone.
From Maude Royden's Peace Army to the Gulf Peace Team: An Assessment of Unarmed Interpositionary Peace Forces
Authors: Weber Thomas
Published: March 2007

From Maude Royden's `Peace Army' in the 1930s to the recent Gulf Peace Team, there has been a rich but little known history of attempted unarmed interpositionary peace-keeping. Most of these initiatives have stalled at the proposal stage primarily because of a lack of money and the absence of international organizational and logistical support. The Gulf Peace Team was perhaps the least well thought through attempt; however, it did manage, for the first time, to place a group of peace campaigners between belligerents in a time of war. It would appear that with the passing of time gains have been achieved on the physical plane - the attempts are increasingly getting volunteers closer and closer to the interpositionary ideal. However, the corresponding analytical gains have not been made. It is doubtful whether independent interpositionary peace-keeping ventures will ever be able to command the economic and logistical resources required and, more importantly, raise enough volunteers to achieve a critical mass that would make a difference in terms of preventing or stopping hostilities. It would appear that the most appropriate tasks for those advocating the establishment of such `forces' are in the realms of peace-keeping limited to non-violent escort duties and the like (that is, small-scale interventionary rather than large-scale interpositionary peace-keeping), and especially peace-making and peace-building, while continuing in their efforts to encourage the establishment of local peace brigades and to interest the United Nations in the creation of a truly non-violent and unarmed peace-keeping force.
Gene Sharp's Theory of Power: A Feminist Critique of Consent
Authors: McGuinness Kate
Published: March 2007

Gene Sharp's theory of consensual power is analyzed in terms of the claims it makes about power and the potential for effectively altering social oppressions by applying it to a particular set of power relations: gender relations. Gender relations constitute a deeply rooted and pervasive system of oppression - patriarchy. It is argued that power in gender relations is not based on consent in several significant ways, thus challenging the relevance of Sharp's theory of power in this set of power relations. The analysis is in three parts: (1) it draws on Pateman's argument that women are not fully constituted individuals in civil society to illustrate some limitations to the role of consent; (2) it makes a schematic link between Lipsitz & Kritzer's criticism of Sharp based on their consideration of power in terms of the aims of a ruler and two feminist perspectives: Guillaumin's discussion of the appropriation of women's bodies in patriarchy and Kelly's feminist theory of sexual violence; both theorists offer evidence that power in gender relations is not consensual; and (3) the possibility of shared political culture, upon which consent is predicated, is questioned by contrasting it with the work of Gilligan and Margolis (1989), who describe the very different worlds that are shaped by women's and men's experiences. The author concludes that Gene Sharp's theory of power has little value either in terms of adequately characterizing power in gender relations or in terms of offering a way to alter the system of social oppression known as patriarchy. Sharp's is a male-biased theory of power that fails seriously to consider women's experiences.
The International Dimensions of Ethnic Conflict: Concepts, Indicators, and Theory
Authors: Carment David
Published: March 2007

One of the growing debates among students of international politics concerns the precise linkage between ethnic conflict and international conflict. The present investigation attempts to contribute to this dialogue in three ways. First, prior studies of ethnic conflict and international relations are reappraised in terms of the central concepts and presumed causal linkage, leading to several changes in approach. Specifically, a typology of ethnic conflicts is devised deductively, including a rank ordering of types of ethnic conflicts in terms of the impact they have on levels of international violence. Second, testing focuses on the presumed ordering of ethnic conflicts from anti-colonial, secessionist and irredentist utilizing data from the International Crisis Behaviour Project on cases in the period 1945-81. A set of bivariate and multivariate indicators and an index of violence are used in the assessment of the proposed impact ethnic conflicts have on interstate violence. Four of the five propositions are confirmed. Third, the paper offers some preliminary conclusions about the policy and theoretical implications of the international dimensions of ethnic conflict, including directions for future research.
The Dilemmas of Democracy and Foreign Policy
Authors: Harriott Howard H.
Published: March 2007

In Democracy and Foreign Policy, Miroslav Nincic takes to task, in a laudable and highly analytic way, the political realist's view of the relationship between a democracy and the conduct of its foreign policy. A consequence of the perspective of realists is that most of their arguments lead to the view that the conduct of foreign affairs should be left solely to the experts with as little interference as possible from citizens and non-experts within government. A battery of plausible and contentious realist arguments is opened up to challenge by Nincic. A critical assessment and appraisal of Nincic's counterarguments is provided, indicating their virtues and some of their weaknesses. Some possible strengthenings of his case are also discussed, particularly from the standpoint of recent work in peace research.
Contraction and Detraction: Non-Equilibrium Studies of Civil-Military Relations
Authors: Skauge Tom
Published: March 2007

In theories on civil-military relations a main question has been how to draw a line between technical-neutral issues intended for the military to decide and issues that the politicians should deal with. Samuel Huntington's formula for reaching an equilibrium between military autonomy and political control was `objective civilian control' through maximizing military professionalism. This article suggests that Huntington's ideal-typical concepts are not adequate for empirical research if we are to uncover the changing borderline between administrative and political spheres. This is at least true when we focus on society characterized by non-intervention from the armed forces and relatively stable political conditions in a historical period of deterrence. The author introduces the concepts `contraction' and `detraction', which have been useful in studies of administration and professional autonomy in civilian sectors. These concepts are used to describe changing civil-military relations in Norway since 1952. The article puts forward some proposals for conditions internal to the political-administrative system necessary for detraction and contraction processes. For detraction processes, some degree of consensus is needed at the political level. A second condition for detraction processes might be hegemony of one profession in the administrative structures. A third condition might be a degree of homogeneity in normative belief and knowledge structure among members of the dominant profession. Internal conditions for contraction processes might be the other way around, i.e. breakdown of consensus in political institutions, alternative expertise in the administration and split in the dominant profession.
Global Change, Environmental Security, and the Prisoner's Dilemma
Authors: Soroos Marvin S.
Published: March 2007

Environmental problems, including the recent concern with the `global change' problematique, now occupy a prominent position on international agendas and are recognized as a legitimate concern of peace research. Numerous scholars, policy-makers, and activists have proposed broadening use of the concept security beyond its traditional geopolitical and military focus to take into account environmental threats that seriously jeopardize human well-being. This article examines arguments that have been made both for and against use of the concept `environmental security'. To assess the utility of this approach, the core concept `security' is defined in terms of threats and vulnerabilities. Strategies for enhancing security are distinguished on the basis of whether they are designed (a) to reduce threats or vulnerabilities and (b) to be carried out unilaterally or collectively. Parallels are drawn between the options available to achieve military and environmental security with reference to the Prisoner's Dilemma game, which has been used widely to explain why states seek military security through counterproductive arms buildups rather than through a potentially much less costly strategy of mutual arms reductions. While the logic of the Prisoner's Dilemma did not prevail in the successful negotiations on protecting the ozone layer, it may become a significant factor in international efforts to address the problem of climate change. The larger question for peace research is whether the pursuit of environmental security can be channeled into cooperative arrangements that promote sustainable development rather than self-serving, nationalistic ventures that will heighten international conflict and perpetuate international injustices.
Mediator Impartiality: Banishing the Chimera
Authors: Smith James D. D.
Published: March 2007

It has often been said that one major factor determining the success of third party mediation efforts is their perceived impartiality, but the importance of impartiality to successful mediation has recently come into question (Bercovitch et al., 1991; Wehr & Lederach, 1991). This paper attempts to argue that it is nevertheless crucial under certain conditions. It will become clear that there is more than one style of mediation (a fact which is often neglected in comparative studies) and that a failure to distinguish these styles in future will have a severe impact on the validity of any study of mediation effectiveness. On this basis, research in future should be directed first towards distinguishing particular styles of mediation, and second towards studies of their effectiveness. Finally, it will be shown that mediator impartiality may indeed be less important to powered, coercive mediation, but in a non-coercive, private, and voluntary mediation, impartiality is vital to success.
The Limits and Promise of Environmental Conflict Prevention: The Case of the GEF
Authors: Payne Rodger A.
Published: March 2007

Sustainable development practices should be embraced not only to forestall environmental destruction and resource exhaustion, but also to prevent conflicts apparently triggered by these causes. Unfortunately, environmentally-caused conflicts are perhaps most likely to erupt in the world's poorest states, which are least capable of pursuing sustainable development without substantial external aid. The global assistance burden is felt primarily by multilateral developments agencies, such as the World Bank, which distributes more than USD 20 billion annually. Interestingly, the Bank acts as Trustee for the sizable Global Environment Facility (GEF) which was specifically designed to add environmental dimensions to projects funded for more general development purposes. Ironically, before the GEF was created, the World Bank was long criticized for funding unsustainable development, for ignoring its own environmental standards, for making decisions without the input of affected parties or non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and for withholding vital project information from potential critics, such as transnational environmental groups. While the danger of financing unsustainable projects and overlooking environmental standards is obvious, denying access to decision-making and program information also undermines environmental progress. In short, sustainable development depends upon the free flow of information and multiple inputs into decision-making. This article explores whether the GEF can be expected to identify and fund significant environmental projects in conflict-prone regions. It also examines the politics of GEF decision-making, with an emphasis on transparency, accountability, and participation.
Beneath the Surface: Regime Type and International Interaction, 1953-78
Authors: Leeds Brett Ashley , Davis David R.
Published: March 2007

The empirical finding that democracies do not fight each other has long suggested that regime type influences international behavior. In the research reported here, we demonstrate that the democratic peace is only the most visible manifestation of the impact of domestic political structure on international relations. We consider the complete range of cooperative and conflictual interaction of each state in the international system with every dyadic partner in its politically relevant international environment between 1953 and 1978. We demonstrate a strong and consistent relationship between regime type and foreign policy behavior, both at the monadic and the dyadic level. States with more democratic characteristics tend to behave more cooperatively and less conflictually in the international system; these tendencies intensify when democratic states interact with other democracies. Meanwhile, non-democracies tend to treat democracies with more conflictual and less cooperative behavior. The influence of the internal institutional structures of states on their external behavior extends well beyond decisions to go to war. The empirical findings reported herein suggest that future research will benefit from increased attention to the relationships among state structure, leaders' incentives, foreign policy behavior, and international outcomes.
Conflict among Former Allies after Civil War Settlement: Sudan, Zimbabwe, Chad, and Lebanon
Authors: Atlas Pierre M. , Licklider Roy
Published: March 2007

The interesting theoretical question about civil war in general is not why it begins (the possible reasons are surely too many to enumerate) or why it stops (all sorts of contingent explanations from simple fatigue to outside force may apply) but why it so often does not resume when it might. We need to comprehend this process of conflict transformation, whereby the conflict either becomes less important or is pursued without using mass violence. Understandably, most analyses and prescriptions for peacemakers focus on relationships between former enemies and attempts to reduce incentives for them to take up arms again. However, a recent analysis of four negotiated settlements of civil wars (Sudan in 1972, Zimbabwe in 1980, Chad in 1987, and Lebanon in 1989) reveals that in all four cases the critical conflict was actually between former allies. The compromises required in negotiated settlements, combined with the other problems of post-civil war societies, make such conflicts likely. In some cases they led to violence; in Zimbabwe and Lebanon conflict again reached the level of civil war. However, the ironic results was that the countries that had experienced the most violence subsequently produced new settlements which essentially confirmed the original ones and appear to be holding. In Sudan, interallied violence was quite low, but the result was that the government changed its policy, the first settlement was undermined, and the original civil war began again. Outsiders should not assume either that wartime cooperation will continue in peace or that `normal' peacetime behavior will naturally appear of its own accord. Indeed, they should probably anticipate that ad hoc wartime alliances are likely to dissolve with the risk of renewed civil violence.
Modelling War
Authors: Bellany Ian
Published: March 2007

A simple, general mathematical model for modern war is presented. The form of the model is Lanchester but its derivation owes approximately equal amounts to classical operational research and to later ideas associated with theoretical ecology - especially the concept of `carrying capacity'. Solutions to the equations corresponding to stalemated, steady-state outcomes in theatre are concentrated on, with empirical justification derived from the unduly neglected databased work of Voevodsky. Prolongation and stalemate are seen as the default state of modern war. War termination is discussed as a consequence of `mutually (but not equally) hurting stalemate'. Examples are given of how, in certain circumstances, stalemate may be pre-empted in theatre by striking at non-battlefield targets and light is cast on the late 20th-century strategic trend towards conducting war preponderantly from the air.
Disadvantage and Neighborhood Violent Crime: Do Local Institutions Matter?
Authors: PETERSON RUTH D. , KRIVO LAUREN J. , HARRIS MARK A.
Published: March 2007

This article explores whether local institutions matter for controlling neighborhood violence. Disadvantaged neighborhoods have difficulty attracting and maintaining conventional institutions that help control crime. At the same time, institutional settings that are conducive to violence are more prevalent. This article assesses whether certain local institutions provide a mechanism linking economic deprivation and residential instability to criminal violence. Rates of total and individual violent crimes are examined for census tracts in Columbus, Ohio for 1990. The findings show that communities may reduce violent crime somewhat by developing a larger base of certain types of local institutions (e.g., recreation centers) and preventing the encroachment of others (i.e., bars). Still, such institutional mechanisms do not explain why economic deprivation and residential instability are strongly linked to violent crime. This suggests that efforts to substantially reduce violence in local communities must counter the macro-structural forces that increase economic deprivation and lead to innercity decline.
Race, Crime, and the American Dream
Authors: CERNKOVICH STEPHEN A. , GIORDANO PEGGY C. , RUDOLPH JENNIFER L.
Published: March 2007

Although strain and social control theories assign a central role to the influence of the American dream on criminal behavior, little research has examined its impact on African Americans. Furthermore, while the criminology literature is replete with studies of the influence of aspirations and expectations on behavior, few of these have exphasized the economic goals so central to the core tenets of the American dream. In contrast, this study is based on a sample approximately half African American and measures the American dream in economic terms. The findings indicate that African Americans maintain a stronger commitment to the American dream than do Whites, but the nature of its influence on behavior offers little support for social control theory among either Whites or Blacks. Its effect is, however, consistent with strain theory, but only among Whites. The implications of the inapplicability of both strain and control theories to African Americans are discussed.
“If You Love Me, Keep My Commandments”: A Meta-Analysis of the Effect of Religion on Crime
Authors: BAIER COLIN J. , WRIGHT BRADLEY R. E.
Published: March 2007

Do religious beliefs and behaviors deter criminal behavior? The existing evidence surrounding the effect of religion on crime is varied, contested, and inconclusive, and currently no persuasive answer exists as to the empirical relationship between religion and crime. In this article, the authors address this controversial issue with a meta-analysis of 60 previous studies based on two questions: (1) What is the direction and magnitude of the effect of religion on crime? (2) Why have previous studies varied in their estimation of this effect? The results of the meta-analysis show that religious beliefs and behaviors exert a moderate deterrent effect on individuals' criminal behavior. Furthermore, previous studies have systematically varied in their estimation of the religion-on-crime effect due to differences in both their conceptual and methodological approaches.
A Comparison of Two Delinquency Predicting Instruments
Authors: Bothman Richard W. , Hartinger Walter , Richardson Harold
Published: March 2007

A group of 100 adjudged juvenile delinquents, between the ages of twelve and seventeen, were rated on the Kvaraceus Delin quency Proneness Check List and the Glueck Social Prediction Table. Material was obtained from the records of the Santa Clara County (Calif.) Juvenile Probation Department. The scores on the check list were compared with the scores on the table. A correlation of .70, significant at the .01 level, was found. Neither instrument diagnosed delinquency at the expected level. Although case records used were as complete as most available, a shortage of adequate data was noted for many of the cases, insofar as material required by those measuring devices was concerned.
Arrests of Self and Friends as Indicators of Delinquency Involvement
Authors: Hardt Robert H. , Peterson Sandra J.
Published: March 2007

It has been proposed that the identification of boys with delinquent commitments might be indexed more appropriately by the official delinquency records of a boy's friends than by the boy's own records. This hypothesis was examined within a population of seven hundred junior-high-school boys by collating information from police records with responses from a question naire survey which contained sociometric items, a self-report delinquency scale, and an attitudinal index of delinquency commitment.

The findings indicate that a boy without a police record but with friends who are officially delinquent is likely to have a high delinquency commitment. However, a boy with a police record who has friends without records is also likely to have a high delinqueny commitmcnt. It is suggested that the combined use of the arrest reccords of the juvenile and of his friends promises to provide a much better means of identifying boys with differential commitments than the use of either measure alone.
Opportunities for Action Research in Community Correction
Authors: Montilla M. Robert
Published: March 2007

The Model Community Correctional Program is a two-year planning project funded by the Law Enforcement Assistance Administration. It uses the "systems approach" to identify and evaluate the roles of the many public and private agencies which affect or "interface" with correctional agencies. The project goal is to involve community agencies in evaluation and planning activity in order to develop support for action programs. The results so far are highly encouraging, defining a much needed place for action research in local government.
Problems in Modeling and Measuring Recidivism
Authors: Blumstein Alfred , Larson Richard C.
Published: March 2007

Despite the fundamental character of recidivism as a measure of correctional effectiveness, and its wide use in all aspects of the theory and operations of the crime control process, there is sur prising misconception regarding its use and measurement. This paper uses probabilistic models to examine two types of potential misconception. The first arises from alternative definitions of recidivism based on the stage in the criminal justice process at which recidivism is measured. The second arises from alternative methods of sampling criminal careers. The analysis helps to clarify possible interpretations of recidivism data, including those reported by the FBI under "Careers in Crime."