bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A Reappraisal Of Newton’s Itinerary
Authors: Meli Domenico Bertoloni
Published: November 2023

The analysis of the formation of Leibniz’s techniques and ideas provides us with stimulating material for re-examining Newton’s itinerary towards the Principia and his criticism of the Tentamen. Their rival interpretations are mutually clarifying in many respects, such as the problem of the infinitely small in mathematics, the notion of acceleration, and the analysis of orbital motion. The background and development of Newtonian mechanics have been investigated in great detail over the last few decades, especially after the works by A. Rupert Hall and Marie Boas Hall, John Herivel, Richard Westfall, I. Bernard Cohen, and Tom Whiteside.
Algebras of continuous functions
Authors: Garth Dales H , Hugh Woodin W
Published: November 2023

Let X be a non-empty, topological space. Then C(X) and C(X, ℂ) are the sets of continuous functions on X which are real-valued and complex-valued, respectively.
Open questions
Authors: Garth Dales H , Hugh Woodin W
Published: November 2023

In this final chapter, we collect some open questions that have arisen and have not been resolved in the course of our work.
Strepsiptera of Panama and Mesoamerica
Authors: Kathirithamby Jeyaraney
Published: November 2023

Strepsiptera are unique entomophagous parasitoids with free-living adult males and females that are neotenic and permanently endoparasitic in the host, except in the family Mengenillidae. The hosts include Thysanura, Blattodea, Mantodea, Orthoptera, Hemiptera, Diptera, and Hymenoptera. Of the 532 species described so far, 67 have been recorded from the Neotropics. The first instar larva is free-living and is the host-seeking stage of the parasitoid (Figs 27.2, 27.3). It usually parasitizes a host nymph (if the host is an exopterygote), or a host larva (if the host is an endopterygote). There have been reports that it also parasitizes host eggs (Linsley and MacSwain 19 57; Krombine 1967). When it enters the host it moults to an apodous second instar. The number of endoparasitic larval instars is not known for certain in most species except in Elenchus tenuicornis (Kirby), for which Kathirithamby et al. (1984) with correlated scanning and transmission electron microscopy showed that there are three. It is difficult to determine the number of endoparasitic larval instars because ecdysis does not follow apolysis; hence no exuviae (except that of the first instar) are found in the host. Nassonow (1910), Kirkpatrick (1937), Hassan (1939), Williams (1957), Baumert (1958, 1959), Kinzelbach (1967), Greathead (1968), Riek (1970), Kathirithamby (1978, 1982), and Waloff (19 81) estimated that there are one to seven instars. They based their estimates on such features as size increase owing to the lack of distinct morphological structures in the endoparasitic stages (Fig. 27.4).
Revisionary notes on the Fungus-growing Ants of the genus Cyphomyrmex, rimosus group (Hymenoptera: Formicidae: Attini)
Authors: Snelling Roy R , Longino John T
Published: November 2023

Cyphomyrmex Mayr, 1862, is a genus of fungus-growing ants belonging to the exclusively New World tribe Attini. Among the dozen genera presently recognized within the Attini, Cyphomyrmex is one of the most distinctive. The body is dull and, for the most part, without obvious sculpture, although a few obscure rugules may be present on the mesosoma. The first gastral tergum is without tubercles. Pilosity, except fat a few erect simple hairs on the mandibular region of the head, is usually closely appressed to the body surface and is scale-like in appearance; in a few species the pilosity is suberect, but then it is also broad and squamiform. The frontal lobes of the head are exceptionally broad, completely concealing the antenna! sockets, and the head is usually widest across the frontal lobes. Mesosomal spines are replaced in most species by low, blunt tubercles; in a few species even these are absent or nearly so. The biology of Cyphomyrmex is not very well known, even though some species are among the mostly commonly encountered terrestrial species. The ants themselves are small, of drab coloration, slow-moving, and often become immobile when disturbed, sometimes for several minutes. When an ant feigns death the appendages are drawn close to the body and the ant then seems to be nothing more than a small particle of soil or other debris. Colonies are small, probably not exceeding 500 workers and usually far fewer; numerous dealate females are often present within a colony but they apparently are non-reproductive. The colonies are commonly situated in soil or rotting wood on the ground, or distributed within leaf-litter. They may also be located in dead, decaying tree limbs, in matts of moss on tree trunks, or within epiphytic pseudobulbs.
Ecological differentiation in the Callitrichidae
Authors: Ferrari Stephen F
Published: November 2023

The most obvious and absolute difference between callitrichids and all other anthropoid primates is their small size, a characteristic which, along with other diagnostic features of their biology, is intimately related to an evolutionary process of specialization for the efficient colonization of marginal and disturbed forest habitats (Eisenberg 1978; Garber 1980b; Sussman and Kinzey 1984). All four callitrichid genera also share a range of morphological, physiological, ecological, and behavioural characteristics, many of which are discussed at length in other chapters of this book. The family is less homogeneous than it might seem, however, depending on the parameters chosen and how they are evaluated (Ferrari and Lopes Ferrari 1989). While all callitrichids are small, for example, they are not equally so. Body size, which plays a fundamental role in a primate’s ecology (Milton and May 1976; Clutton-Brock and Harvey 1977a), increases approximately six fold between the smallest (Cebuella pygmaea) and the largest (Leontopithecus chrysopygus) callitrichid species. This is consistent with body size variation within the Cebidae, if the number of genera is taken into account. The present overview of the data on callitrichid ecology reveals that such differences have probably played a fundamentally important role in the evolutionary history of a highly successful primate radiation.
Discussion: mutualism as pattern and process in ecosystem organization
Authors: Burns Thomas P
Published: November 2023

The papers collected in this volume vividly portray the varied forms of mutualism and cooperation among organisms in ecological communities. It seems wherever ecologists look closely and long enough, they discover mutualistic symbioses, as well as parasitism, predation, and apparent competition. These relationships among organisms and interactions between populations do not occur among every possible pair of species, nor are they likely to be distributed randomly. Interactive communities are organized. Organization is both a pattern and a process. The non-random distribution of relationships in communities confer patterns and these relationships are a continuing product of evolution and other processes by which communities become more or less organized. To find the common ground for empirical observations such as those of Yuma (Chapter 13 this volume) and theoretical models of mutualism such as that of Matsuda and Shimada (Chapter 14 this volume), as well as the other chapters in this volume, this chapter develops the idea that mutualism is a pattern and process in the organization of ecosystems.
Sea Urchins, Starfish, and Sea Cucumbers
Authors: Moyse J , Tyler P A
Published: November 2023

Echinoderms (Phylum Echinodermata), which include sea urchins, starfish, brittle stars, and sea cucumbers, have a distinctive radial pattern which may take the form of five arms radiating from a central disc or a more globular or cylindrical shape, again with structures arranged in five rays (or multiples of five) (Fig. 12.1). A few exceptional types have more than five radii and in others a bilateral shape has been superimposed on the basic radial plan. Echinoderms are relatively large invertebrates and, with rare exceptions, they are benthic (bottom living) and very slow moving.
Acorn-Worms and Sea Squirts
Authors: Knight-Jones E W , Ryland J S
Published: November 2023

Hemichordates comprise worm-like Enteropneusta (= Balanoglossida) and tentaculate Pterobranchia. Enteropneusts have gill slits, so are linked with chordates, particularly because they also have a dorsal, sometimes tubular, nerve cord in the collar. They lack a notochord, however, so are placed in a phylum separate from the Chordata. The ‘tornaria’ larvae of one family are like some echinoderm larvae. Pterobranchia are closely related to enteropneusts but the only pterobranchs known from Britain belong to a minute colonial genus, atypical of hemichordates.
Legs and locomotion of Carnivora
Authors: Alexander R Mcneill
Published: November 2023

Carnivora generally tend to have a humerus and metacarpals rather longer than those of similar-sized members of other mammalian orders. Cheetahs have long limbs for their body mass and bears and ferrets short ones. Cheetahs and dogs have large thigh muscles but bears and ferrets have small ones. The flexor muscles of the forefoot have remarkably long fascicles in cats (excluding the cheetah) and bears. Cats have retractile claws and some climbing carnivores can reverse their hind feet. Small carnivores stand and move like other small non-cursorial mammals, and large ones like other large cursorial mammals. The limited data that are available show no clear differences in speed between carnivores in general and other mammals. In conclusion, the legs and locomotion of carnivores as a group show few peculiarities, but there are striking differences between the specialized runners (cheetahs and dogs) and those carnivores with more mobile paws that have retained some climbing ability.
The relationship between reproductive and foraging energetics and the evolution of the Pinnipedia
Authors: Costa Daniel P
Published: November 2023

Marine feeding and terrestrial parturition are fundamental components of the life history of the Pinnipedia and present a series of trade-offs between the conflicting needs to feed the pup ashore and to maximize energy acquisition at sea. The Otariidae, eared seals, and the Phocidae, earless seals, have evolved different solutions to this problem. The phocids are capable of storing what is required for the entire lactation interval, whereas otariids must feed during the lactation interval. The evolution of these different patterns is related to co-variant traits such as metabolic rate, energy and oxygen storage capacity and body size. The interaction of these traits sets wider or narrower limits to such parameters as dive duration, duration of lactation, fasting ability, efficiency and amount of maternal investment and rate of prey energy acquisition. These factors may have been important in the evolution of the different life-history patterns of otariids and phocids. The phocid breeding pattern is quite economical, but one that limits the total nutrient and energy investment in the pup. In contrast, the otariid breeding pattern is quite expensive, but it allows the mother to provide more energy and nutrients to her pup. However, the separation of lactation from feeding may have enabled phocids to utilize a patchy, low-production, highly dispersed or distant prey resource as well as an unstable breeding substrate.
Micropalaeontology in Petroleum Exploration
Authors: Jones Robert Wynn
Published: November 2023

Many papers have noted the association between micropaleontology and petroleum exploration, but no book has ever provided a comprehensive and thematic treatment. This book attempts to do just that. It begins with an overview of pure micropaleontology, then treats the principles and practice of applied micropaleontology and sequence stratigraphy; case studies of applications in various geographic, geologic, and stratigraphic settings are given. The final section deals with applications outside petroleum exploration, with sections on environmental monitoring, coal mining, mineral exploration and exploitation, and engineering. Extensively illustrated and referenced, this book will benefit academic and commercial paleontologists.
Case histories in petroleum exploration II: carbonate systems
Authors: Jones Robert Wynn
Published: November 2023

This chapter deals with applications of micropalaeontology in petroleum exploration in carbonate systems. The examples are again selected so as to give a wide geographic, geologic and stratigraphic coverage and include the Middle East (Palaeozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic) and the Papuan Basin (Mesozoic and Cenozoic). Note that the Middle East Palaeozoic and Papuan Basin Mesozoic are essentially elastic systems.
Migration and Health in a Small Society
Authors: Hooper Antony , Huntsman Judith , Prior Ian A M , Salmond Clare E
Published: November 2023

Between 1965 and 1975, a large proportion of the population of Tokelau, a group of three tiny isolated atolls in the tropical South Pacific, migrated to New Zealand, where they became part of a cosmopolitan urban society. By 1985, two-thirds of all Tokelauans lived in New Zealand. This book traces the experience of the Tokelauans, both migrant and non-migrant, during the period 1965-85. The analysis is interdisciplinary, drawing upon historical, ethnographic, sociological, and epidemiological materials. Topics discussed include the ecology and history of Tokelau, the nature of Tokelauan culture and society, the problems of adaptation faced by migrants to New Zealand and their efforts to develop a viable Tokelauan community there, the impact of modernizing influences upon atoll society, changes in the health status of both migrant and non-migrant Tokelauans, and their relationship of social change to the health of the population. Special attention is paid to the hypothesis that the migrants' adaptation to modern urban society would lead to increased incidence of such chronic conditions as hypertension, coronary heart disease, asthma, and diabetes.
Parietal cortex area 5: a neuronal representation of movement kinematics for kinaesthetic perception and movement control?
Authors: Kalaska John F
Published: November 2023

The original title of this section of the symposium was ‘Interfacing body and environmental space’. In this chapter, I will examine cortical mechanisms of the representation of internal (somatic) space. This representation is essential for successful interaction with the environment (Hyvarinen 1982; Stein 1989; Soechting and Flanders 1990). I will briefly review evidence that cortical area 5 is an important component of the central representation of body posture and movement. Moreover, I will argue that area 5 represents movement in a co-ordinate system encoding kinematic parameters. Movement kinematics refers to all the externally measurable spatio-temporal parameters of movement, such as direction, velocity, and joint angle changes, that describe motion through space. These are distinct from the parameters of movement dynamics, such as the internal forces, joint torques, and patterns of muscle activity required to perform the movement.
Knowing where and knowing how to get there
Authors: Paillard Jacques
Published: November 2023

As a final comment, I would like to view the topic ‘Brain and Space’ from my own vantage point. I was first introduced to this field of research many years ago through the works of a neurologist, Henri Wallon, and those of a zoologist, Jean Piaget, who both became interested in the ontogenetic aspects of brain function. The former emphasized the importance of proprioceptive information’ as a foundation of both self and social identity through the development of emotional behaviour (Wallon 1949); the latter considered that the highest cognitive functions were rooted in basic sensorimotor machinery (Piaget 1971). As a psycho biologist by training, I became fascinated by these problems; by the question of how the spatial constraints that are specific to our terrestial environment have moulded our body architecture and its sensory and motor instruments; and in what way they have shaped our nervous system to cope with the quasi-euclidean space in which we live.
Behavioural ecology: the impact of parasitism
Authors: Keymer Anne E , Read Andrew F
Published: November 2023

Behavioural ecology is the study of the survival value of behaviour (Krebs and Davies 1987). One selective pressure that has received relatively little attention in behavioural ecology is parasitism. We might expect that if parasites have fitness consequences for their hosts, host behaviours that minimize the impact of parasites should be favoured. On the other hand, parasites should attempt to manipulate the behaviour of their hosts to maximize their own fitness. There thus exists the potential for both hostimposed and parasite-imposed selection to act on host behaviour. These two forces could act in opposition (‘conflict’) or in the same direction (‘coexistence’). In this chapter we explore the ways in which parasites can influence the action of selection on behavioural traits.
Subcortical mechanisms in cognition
Authors: Divac Ivan , Gunilla R , Öberg E
Published: November 2023

Most of the current knowledge about the human brain is derived from experiments of nature, such as neurological diseases, and from invasive experimentation on animals. Presently, we shall focus on experimental comparative neurology, with only occasional reference to clinical neurology. While drawing examples from a large and essentially consistent body of animal research, we will attempt to show that subcortical structures are implicated in functions which are not usefully labelled as either motor, sensory, or motivational/emotional. We shall again (Öberg and Divac 1979) refer to such functions as ‘cognitive’ in the broad sense of the word (Neisser 1966). This concept of cognition covers unconscious as well as conscious processes. Hence, it circumvents experimentally unwieldy, partly philosophical questions regarding degree of consciousness in animals and levels of consciousness in both neurologically intact and impaired humans. Cognition thus encompasses various steps in information processing: early as well as advanced stages of percept and memory formation, rudimentary associative processes as well as integrative reasoning, planning, and preparedness for action. Obviously, functional loss of any of these stages may result in neuropsychological impairment.
Acquired subcortical lesions in children
Authors: Pavāo Martins Isabel , M. Ferro José
Published: November 2023

There is little knowledge of the effects of subcortical lesions during childhood. While some series of acquired hemispheric lesions in children include cases with subcortical damage (Aram 1988; Cranberg et al. 1987; Van Dongen 1988), most studies focus mainly on the effects of the aetiology of lesions rather than on lesion site. However, there are isolated reports of subcortical aphasia (Aram et al. 1983; Ferro et al. 1982) and subcortical neglect (Ferro et al.1984) in children, just to state that their clinical presentation is identical to that of adult cases, and therefore to conclude that subcortical structures subserve similar functions in both children and adults. Yet, it is not known if these lesions produce a more severe deficit or harbour a different outcome when compared with lesions involving the cortical areas. This is particularly important if we consider that stroke in children causes mainly subcortical damage (Zimmerman et al. 1983). It is well known that acquired aphasia has a much better prognosis in children than in adults. The frequent localization of lesions to subcortical areas may therefore be an important factor in the prognosis.
Cortical hypometabolism and neuropsychological impairment in unilateral thalamic lesions
Authors: Baron J C , Levasseur M , Mazoyer B , Legault-Demare F , Mauguiére F , Pappata S , Jedynak P , Derome P , Cambier J , Tran-Dinh S , Cambon H
Published: November 2023

Recently, several studies using positron emission tomography (PET) or single-photon emission computerized tomography (SPECT) in subcortical stroke have revealed that a reduction in the cerebral metabolic rate of glucose (CMRglu) and oxygen (CMR02), and blood flow (CBF) frequently affects the ipsilateral cerebral cortex, relative to the contralateral side (for review, see Feeney and Baron 1986; Baron 1987, 1989; Pappata et al. 1990). Although it has been widely assumed that this remote effect on the ipsilateral cortex underlies the development of neuropsychological impairment such as ‘subcortical’ aphasia or neglect (Baron et al. 1986), only anecdotal or uncertain support has accrued to this hypothesis (Bogousslavsky et al. 1988; Perani et al. 1987; Metter et al. 1989); in addition, discrepancies such as the persistence of cortical metabolic asymmetry in neuropsychologically recovered patients (Baron et al. 1986; Perani et al. 1987) and the lack of it in neuropsychologically impaired patients (Cambon et al. 1987; Pappata et al. 1990), have been reported. This whole issue is crucial, since if it can be demonstrated that neuropsychological impairment is subtended by cortical hypometabolism, there could, according to the concept of diaschisis, be room for therapeutic intervention on rate and/or extent of functional recovery (Feeney and Baron 1986).
Breeding partnerships of two New World jays
Authors: Marzluff John M , Woolfenden Glen E , Fitzpatrick, John W , Balda Russell P
Published: November 2023

Two New World jays with different lifestyles, the Pinyon Jay (PJ) Gymnorhinus cyanocephalus and the Florida Scrub Jay (FSJ) Aphelocoma coerulescens (see drawing above), form long-term, monogamous breeding partnerships. PJ pairs.live in large flocks of breeders and prebreeders that roam widely over home ranges encompassing thousands of hectares, lack territories, and breed colonially (Marzluff and Balda 1992). FSJ pairs live alone, or with a few prebreeding offspring that act as helpers, in permanent territories, and individuals rarely move more than 1 or 2 km from their natal site during their entire lifetimes (Woolfenden and Fitzpatrick 1984, 1986). We discuss the establishment of long-term, socially monogamous pair bonds, the influence of mate fidelity on reproduction, and the factors that promote mate fidelity in these phylogenetically related, but ecologically dissimilar corvids. Although both species form long-term pair bonds, clear differences exist between many features of these partnerships. We conclude that the disparities result from marked differences in sociality, use of space and use of resources.
Economic, environmental, social, and policy issues in tree planting
Authors: Savill Peter , Evans Julian , Auclair Daniel , Falck Jan
Published: November 2023

While this book is devoted primarily to the scientific and technical aspects of silvi-culture, they are meaningless in isolation from the economic, environmental, and social frameworks within which decisions about plantation forestry are made. The purpose of this chapter is to describe the latter and to suggest the research and development priorities necessary to adapt current practices to future needs. The industrial wood production objective of the majority of the world’s plantation forests derives from a complex array of forces. Principal amongst these has been the perceived role of forest resources in economic development—eloquently enunciated by Westoby (1962), and subsequently reviewed by, amongst others, Douglas (1983), Westoby himself (1987), Byron and Waugh (1988), Binkley and Vincent (1992), Kanowski and Savill (1992), and Evans (1992) devoted a chapter to ‘Why plantations in tropical countries’.
The layout and design of plantation forests
Authors: Savill Peter , Evans Julian , Auclair Daniel , Falck Jan
Published: November 2023

In laying out plantations consideration must be given not only to the well being and economic management of the plantations themselves, but also to wider land use issues. This is particularly important for large plantation developments. Forests are no longer seen as places merely having physical, biological, and economic potential for growing wood, that need design features to protect them from fires and wind, and to provide access. Today, the plantation manager is more of a tenant of the land and a custodian of its other values and possible uses as well. This awareness emphasizes the obligation for wise use of the land set aside for forest plantations. Forests have visual and aesthetic values; they are habitats for many species of wild plants and animals. They have other economic and social functions, such as recreation, water gathering, hunting, and some forms of agriculture. Forest may, too, contain important archaeological features or be an integral part of a much prized landscape. These values can conflict with growing wood as an economic crop and, in achieving a balance, compromises must be made.
Nutrition and fertilizers
Authors: Savill Peter , Evans Julian , Auclair Daniel , Falck Jan
Published: November 2023

Attitudes towards the use of fertilizers in forests have changed considerably during the twentieth century, largely as a result of the great increase in planting and intensification of forest management. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries the accepted view that 'almost any soil can furnish a sufficient quantity of mineral substances for the production of trees' (Schlich 1899) contrasts with the now commonplace use of fertilizers to correct deficiencies. Miller (1981 a) contends that there is no great disparity between these outlooks. An understanding of nutrient cycling in forests has shown that while fertilizers can do much for forests before canopy closure, thereafter the nineteenth century ideas, which related to predominantly closed canopy forests, remain true. Such forests have efficient nutrient-conserving mechanisms but during the years before the canopy closes, while trees are accumulating nutrients to build a canopy, growth is dependent on the availability of soil nutrients. It is during this period that fertilizing and other practices developed in agriculture can be used by foresters to improve tree growth.
Spacing, thinning, pruning, and rotation length
Authors: Savill Peter , Evans Julian , Auclair Daniel , Falck Jan
Published: November 2023

The spacing between trees or stocking at which a crop grows affects the degree of competition in the stand. This influences mortality, total production per unit area, the size to which individual trees will grow, several aspects of wood quality, and sometimes susceptibility to pests and diseases. The value of timber and costs of management practices are both affected by spacing. A clear understanding of the effects of possible spacing and thinning regimes on production is one of the most important aspects of silviculture since they influence the end use of the timber and its profitability, and, as with species selection, are directly under a forester’s control.
Minor extinctions of the jurassic
Authors: Hallam A , Wignall P B
Published: November 2023

In their analysis of extinction periodicity, based on family-level data of marine extinctions, Raup and Sepkoski (1984, 1986; Sepkoski and Raup 1986) claimed to have recognised two events in the Jurassic, at about the end of the Pliensbachian and Tithonian stages; Scpkoski’s (1992a) update confirms these events. While of lesser significance than the ‘big five’ Phanerozoic extinction events, they provide key data for the periodicity hypothesis and accordingly must be considered in some detail.
Death at the Cretaceous Tertiary boundary
Authors: Hallam A , Wignall P B
Published: November 2023

It is unusual in science for a major advance to be traceable to the publication of a single paper, but without question the study of mass extinctions received a huge stimulus, and considerable media interest, from the seminal paper in Science by Luis Alvarez, his son Walter and two nuclear chemist colleagues (Alvarez et al. 1980). Although phenomena from outer space had been invoked on a few previous occasions to account for mass extinctions, they were disregarded because of lack of evidence in support. This situation was changed radically with the discovery of a significant positive anomaly of the platinum-group trace metal iridium at the Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary in Italy and elsewhere. This was held by Alvarez et al. to be most plausibly accounted for by the impact of an asteroid approximately 10 km in diameter. A few years later the impact hypothesis received strong support from an independent line of evidence, the presence of so-called shocked quartz at the K-T boundary in the North American Western Interior. Shocked quartz possesses distinctive multiple sets of lamellae which have only been recognised in rocks from well-established meteorite impact sites or at nuclear weapons test sites, and appears to signify the passage of shock waves under enormous pressures.
Cenozoic extinctions
Authors: Hallam A , Wignall P B
Published: November 2023

For the Cenozoic era there are a number of well-documented extinction events both in the marine and terrestrial realms, a few of which qualify as mass extinctions. Our knowledge of Cenozoic environments, considerably enhanced within the last few decades by an extensive programme of deep-sea drilling, is greater than that for earlier eras. A major contributor to this is the use of actualistic comparisons in palaeoecology, because of the relatively close affinities to extant taxa of the fossilised organisms. Accordingly it is to be expected that there should be a better prospect of understanding causal factors.
The Causes Of Mass Extinctions
Authors: Hallam A , Wignall P B
Published: November 2023

Raup and Sepkosk.is claim of a 26 my. extinction periodicity since the end of the Palaeozoic, already discussed in Chapter l, strongly suggests that, if true, there was only one prime causal factor. We have already noted how controversial this claim has proved to be, provoking a variety of criticisms embracing statistical methods used, radiometric dating, and the problems of paraphyly, which should raise doubts about at least the lesser extinction events. But even if, for the sake of argument, all the events are accepted as valid, there remain serious problems. Thus there are significant gaps in the periodicity, with no good evidence available from detailed scrutiny of well-marked extinction events in the CaUovian, Tithonian, Aptian, and mid-Miocene. Furthermore the Eocene-Oligocene boundary does not signify a short-term extinction event but is merely the conclusion of an ex.tended period of increased extinction rate lasting several million years. Raup and Sepkoski also missed a clear-cut extinction event in the deep sea at the end of the Palaeocene. They concede that no periodicity is apparent from their data for the Palaeozoic prior to the Late Permian, and Benton’s (1995) independent analysis, based on data from the second edition of The Fossil Record, fails to find any evidence supporting periodicity. We conclude that Phanerozoic mass extinctions were episodic rather than periodic in character, and could have had a multiplicity of causes.
Introduction. Changing perspectives: from natural history to behavioural ecology
Authors: Simmons Robert E
Published: November 2023

In the tangled bank, at the conclusion of his masterpiece The origin of species, Charles Darwin mused on the ecological forces that shape and continue to shape the species that live there: It is interesting to contemplate an entangled bank, clothed with many plants of many kinds, with birds singing on the bushes, with various insects flitting about, and with worms crawling through the damp earth, and to reflect that these elaborately constructed forms, so different from each other, and dependent upon each other in so complex a manner, have all been produced by laws acting around us.
Of mice and harriers: who wins the arms race?
Authors: Simmons Robert E
Published: November 2023

One of the frustrations of watching harriers ironically arises from one of their most interesting attributes—their long distance foraging behaviour. Unlike other raptorial birds which hunt by perching, soaring, hovering, or ambushing prey from short flights, harriers hunt by active flying—quartering over grassland and marshland for hours on end. Invariably birds eventually pass into the haze, crossing a lake to a distant and favoured marsh, or become a distant speck, quartering over reed beds and the lake shore fringes of their wetland habitat. Sometimes birds check in flight, wheeling around and momentarily hovering on sighting a fleeing mouse or bird, only to resume their foraging, eventually becoming so distant that the arms tire from holding binoculars to the eyes.
Mating patterns: polygyny and deception
Authors: Simmons Robert E
Published: November 2023

When Charles Darwin wrote in 1871 ‘Males that conquer their rivals do not win females independent of the choice of the latter’ he raised a question that has probably occupied more research in behavioural ecology circles than any other. How do females choose their mates and what cues do they use? Raptors, like all other sexually reproducing species, face particular problems when they choose their mates.
Free Radicals and Iron: Chemistry, Biology, and Medicine
Authors: Symons M C R , Gutteridge J M C
Published: November 2023

Iron is essential to most aerobic life-forms, facilitating transfer of both electrons and oxygen. It forms the active centre of many oxidases and oxygenases, and several anti-oxidants. The authors present a chemical and biomedical perspective of how reactions of iron complexes and free radicals may contribute to human health and disease, especially in reactions of oxygen and hydrogen peroxide. Iron is discussed in terms of valence, high- and low- spin complexes, ligands - notably haem, oxygen, and nitric oxide-, its role in oxygen activation, and its transport, storage, and utilization, especially in humans. The link between iron and free radicals, especially via Fenton chemistry, and the central role of these reactions is discussed. Free Radicals and Iron: Chemistry, Biology and Medicine is an accessible and comprehensive text describing a variety of reactions of iron in biological free-radical reactions. It presents both chemical and biochemical perspective, and should appeal to scientists and medical workers from many disciplines.
Homogeneous Flow
Authors: Whalley P B
Published: November 2023

Homogeneous flow is a particular model or picture of two-phase flow. In this model it is assumed that the two phases are well mixed and, more particularly, travelling with equal velocities. We will first examine the continuity equations
Pressure Drop in Two-Phase Flow-Overall Methods for Separated Flow
Authors: Whalley P B
Published: November 2023

In separated flow the phases physically flow with separate, different velocities, as illustrated schematically in Fig. 6.1. From eqn (5.4), the general equation for void fraction α is (6.1)α=11+(ug1−x ρgu1 x ρ1), with the velocity ratio ug/u1, often being called the slip ratio Thus, for homogeneous flow S is equal to unity. For separated flow S does not equal unity: it is usually greater than one, so that the gas is moving faster than the liquid phase.
Instabilities in Two-Phase Flow
Authors: Whalley P B
Published: November 2023

Two-phase flows are prone to various types of instability (see Ishii 1982). These can be divided into two classes: static instability and dynamic instability. A static instability is one where a small change in one of the independent variables leads to a large change in one of the dependent variables. Examples of static instability are listed below.
Boiling: Introduction And Pool Boiling
Authors: Whalley P B
Published: November 2023

Boiling can be divided into categories according to the mechanism occurring, and according to the geometric situation. The three mechanisms of boiling are:

(a) nucleate boiling, where vapour bubbles are formed (usually at a solid surface); (b) convective boiling, where the heat is conducted through a thin film of liquid-the liquid then evaporates at the vapour-liquid interface with no bubble formation; and (c) film boiling, where the heated surface is blanketed by a film of vapour-the heat is conducted through the vapour, and the liquid vaporizes at the vapour-liquid interface.
Objects and transformations in space
Authors: Marciniak Krzysztof
Published: November 2023

To represent solids we use points and vectors. The main difference between them comes from the fact that vectors represent the difference between two points, so they are not bound to any particular place in space; they have only direction and magnitude. We shall symbolically denote a vector with bold-face lower case letters, and points as bold-face upper case letters; standard letters have been reserved for scalars. A null vector will be denoted by O (no direction is defined for it). Note that the sum and the difference of vectors is a vector, the difference of points is a vector, but the sum of points does not make sense.
Surface of revolution of a tool
Authors: Marciniak Krzysztof
Published: November 2023

Suppose that a tool moves with a predefined feed rate and simultaneously rotates around its axis of symmetry. In typical cases when the rotational speed is much higher than the feed rate we assume that a tool can be represented by the surface of revolution defined by the revolving edges of teeth. Such a surface is defined by revolving a plane curve around the axis line in its plane (Fig. 8.1). The plane curve is called the pro.file curve and its various positions around the axis create meridians.
Sculptured surfaces machining on 3C milling machines
Authors: Marciniak Krzysztof
Published: November 2023

On NC milling machines with a control unit of type 3C a tool moves in such a way that the direction of the rotation axis remains unchanged. This kinematic constraint means that a tool movement may be uniquely defined by the movement of an arbitrarily chosen point C(t) on its rotation axis (Fig. 11.1). A trajectory shape depends upon the interpolators in the machine control unit (which are usually linear), but any tool trajectory may, in practice, be approximated by a polygon, so we may assume that any curve may represent a tool trajectory. A tool trajectory has to be calculated exactly (that is, approximately with a tolerance of 0.001 to O.Ql mm); a tool feed tate, on the other hand, may be calculated with an error of approximately 5o/o. This is why we are primarily interested in the design of a tool trajectory. A feed rate calculation is an independent task.
Flat elements for sheII analysis
Authors: Mohr G A
Published: November 2023

The analysis of structural shells is perhaps the most difficult finite element problem. The governing differential equations are relatively complicated, if known at all for some cases, so that the energy approach of preceding chapters is now virtually obligatory, and combination of the extensional and flexural strains into a single element formulation presents few immediate difficulties. If the element is curved, however, the extensional and flexural actions are coupled by radial strain components of the form w/Rx, where Rx is the radius of curvature of the shell measured in a plane parallel to the Z Yplane.
Finite element programming
Authors: Mohr G A
Published: November 2023

The present chapter introduces some practical aspects of modelling and programming with finite elements. Only a brief discussion is given to such aspects as equation solution techniques, of which there are many, and the reader is referred to specialist texts in these areas. The chapter includes programs for plane stress/strain, thin plate bending, and thick/thin doubly curved shells.
Potential flow, viscous flow and compressible flow
Authors: Mohr G A
Published: November 2023

At the close of Chapter 16 the Navier-Stokes, continuity, and thermal energy equations for fluid flow were introduced. The present chapter presents finite element formulations for a wide range of fluid flow problems governed by these equations. Of particular interest are the uvp or primitive variable formulations for Stokes flow. These have resulted in many new insights into the finite element method and can be extended to deal with convective, transient, and compressible flows. Chapter 20 then gives several worked examples and two programs for the analysis of fluid flows.
An Introduction to the Kinetic Theory of Gases and Magnetoplasmas
Authors: Woods L C
Published: November 2023

The aim of this book is to give a physical treatment of the kinetic theory of gases and magnetoplasmas, covering the standard material in as simple a way as possible, using mean-free-path arguments when possible and identifying problem areas where received theory has either failed or has fallen short of expectations. Examples are provided by strong shock waves, ultrasonic waves (high Knudsen numbers), and transport across strong magnetic fields. Examples of problem areas provided by strong shock waves, ultrasonic waves (high Knudsen numbers), and transport across strong magnetic fields. One of the paradoxes arising in kinetic theory concerns the fluid pressure. Collisions are necessary for a fluid force to result, yet standard kinetic theory does not entail this, being satisfied to bypass Newton's equations by defining pressure as a momentum flux. This omission usually has no adverse consequences, but with increasing Knudsen number, it leads to errors. This text pays particular attention to pressure, explaining the importance of allowing for its collisional nature from the outset in developing kinetic theory.
The Maxwellian Velocity Distribution
Authors: Woods L C
Published: November 2023

A concept of central importance in kinetic theory that remains to be introduced is that of the particle velocity distribution function, J(r, w, t). This is an extension of the notion of number density to the six-dimensional space—known as phase-space —obtained by adjoining physical space with velocity space. We proceed as in the first paragraph of §1.2.By a macroscopic point (r, w, t) in phase-space is meant an infinitesimal G-D volume, dv (c= drdw), centred at the point (r, w, t), and having an exterrnion sufficient to contain a very large number of particles of the species under consideration. The number density in this space is denoted by J(r, w,t), so that f dv is the number of particles in dv. We may treat f as being a continuous and differentiable function of its arguments.
Boltzmann’s Kinetic Equation
Authors: Woods L C
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we shall present and apply Boltzmann’s fundamental equation for the evolution of the velocity distribution function f. He derived it in order to explain how f approached the equilibrium distribution Jo discovered by Maxwell a few years earlier. His principal objective was to deduce the second law of thermodynamics by a purely mechanical argument. He managed this—at least for the case of a dilute gas—by proving a remarkable theorem, now known as the ‘H-theorem’. What is surprising about this theorem is that it establishes irreversibility analytically, using what seems to be a very innoxious (statistical) assumption about the behaviour of colliding molecules. Yet Newton’s laws of motion are reversible and the molecules in a tenuous gas of elastic spheres obey these laws. This apparent conflict was the cause of considerable scepticism amongst Boltzmann’s peers about the merit of his theorem, some of whom even questioned the reality of atoms.
Transport Across Strong Magnetic Fields
Authors: Woods L C
Published: November 2023

The first requirement in calculating the heat and momentum transport across strong magnetic fields is a kinetic equation accurate to second-order in the Knudsen number ∈. By a ‘strong’ magnetic field is meant one for which ω = ωτ ≫ 1. The product WE is an important parameter in the theory. We shall show that if ω∈ ≫ 1, second order transport dominates the process. This case, commonly obtaining in laboratory plasmas, yields some surprising results, including the possibility of (transient) heat flux up temperature gradients.
Heat Transfer
Authors: Zdravkovich M M
Published: November 2023

Circular cylinders have been used in a wide variety of arrangements and numbers in all sorts of heat-transfer devices. The heat-transfer coefficients are expressed in terms of related physical parameters such as the thermal conductivity and absolute viscosity. These parameters vary with temperature.
Multi-Tube arrays
Authors: Zdravkovich M M
Published: November 2023

It has been discussed in Vol. 1 that a most prominent feature of flow past circular cylinders and tubes is that the transition from laminar to turbulent flow takes place through a succession of transition states over a large range of Re. Each transition state is sensitive to disturbances such as free stream turbulence, proximity to other tubes or walls, wake interference, surface roughness, and tube oscillation, to mention only those relevant to tube arrays. The complexity of interstitial flow in closely spaced tube arrays stems from the fact that the flow is in the transition states and most of the aforementioned disturbances are present.
Phylogenetic Networks
Authors: Huber Katharina T , Moulton Vincent
Published: November 2023

Phylogenetic networks a.re a. generalization of phylogenetic trees that permit the representation of conflicting signal or alternative phylogenetic histories. Networks are clearly useful when the underlying evolutionary history is nontreelike. Recombination, hybridization, lateral gene transfer can all lead to histories that are not adequately modelled by a single tree. Moreover, even in case the underlying history is treelike, phenomena such as parallel evolution, model heterogeneity, and sampling error can make it difficult to represent the history by a single tree. In such situations networks can provide a useful tool for representing ambiguity or for simultaneously visualizing a collection of feasible trees. In this chapter, we will review some methods for network reconstruction that are based on the representation of bipartitions or splits of the data set in question. As we shall see, these methods are based on a theoretical foundation that naturally generalizes the theory of phylogenetic trees.
Introduction
Authors: Ferreirós J , Gray J J
Published: November 2023

The aim of this book of essays is to advance contemporary work in creating stronger links between the history and philosophy of mathematics. It has become clear through several conferences and publications that the present situation at the beginning of the twenty-first century is congenial to this kind of historico-philosophical enterprise. The editors have brought together an important international group of scholars whose contributions focus on the history and philosophy of modern mathematics, roughly from 1800 to 1970.
Processes of change in brain and cognitive development: The final word
Authors: Aslin Richard N
Published: November 2023

In this discussion, many of the key issues that emerged during the conference are critically evaluated. These include the correlational vs. causal nature of behavioral and neural data, the utility of animal models of development, the homogeneity assumption in models of brain activity, the value of computational models, of lesion studies, and of atypical populations, the mechanisms of brain plasticity, reorganization, and recovery, what is meant by the terms representation and generalization, the mechanisms of learning, and the ways in which these learning mechanisms are constrained.
Teichmuoller spaces
Authors: Fletcher A , Markovic V
Published: November 2023

This chapter introduces the idea of Teichmuoller spaces as equivalence classes of quasiconformal maps. We show how this is defined for the universal Teichmuoller space T (H), and then how this can be generalized for Teichmuoller spaces of Riemann surfaces. We define the Teichmu¨ller metric on Teichmuoller space. As an extended example, the Teichmu¨ller space of the torus is computed. We show how the Bers embedding can embed Teichmuoller space T (M ) into Q(M ), the Banach space of quadratic diﬀerentials on M , and how to use this embedding to view T (M ) as a complex Banach manifold modelled on Q(M ).