bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Breast Cancer Prevention and Treatment with Dietary Agents Affecting Angiogenesis: Progress and Promise
Authors: Anupam Bishayee
Published: March 2011

Breast cancer, a worldwide epidemic, remains the second leading cause of cancerrelated death in women in the USA. High priority should be given to research aimed at the identification and development of natural agents that prevent and control breast cancer. Angiogenesis, the formation of new capillaries from preexisting blood vessels, is a key component in breast tumor insurgence. There are multiple biochemical and molecular steps involved in breast tumor angiogenesis and each step provides a challenge and opportunity for therapeutic intervention. A wealth of evidence links dietary habits with risk and behavior of breast cancer. Several food constituents have been shown to possess potent growth inhibitory effects on breast cancer cells in vitro and preventive or suppressive action on mammary gland cancer in vivo, supporting numerous epidemiological findings. Inhibition of angiogenesis appears to be a common and novel mechanism for these food-derived agents. This chapter highlights the role of angiogenesis in breast cancer and how chemically diverse dietary agents prevent or treat breast cancer by targeting various components of angiogenesis. The benefits, challenges and future directions in the use of antiangiogenic dietary compounds in the prevention and intervention of breast cancer are also discussed.
Angiogenesis in Cancer: Therapeutic Targets and Angiogenesis Inhibitors
Authors: Ana R. Quesada  , Miguel Angel Medina
Published: March 2011

Angiogenesis plays an essential role in tumor growth, invasion, and metastasis. Angiogenesis inhibition has been proposed as a general strategy to fight cancer. The initial pessimism about the usefulness of the antiangiogenic therapeutic approach for cancer, turned out into an increasing interest in the development of antiangiogenic compounds after the first approval of an antiangiogenic therapy in 2004. The formation of new blood vessels is a complex multi-step process, including endothelial cells activation by the angiogenic signal and their stimulation to synthesize and release degradative enzymes allowing them to migrate, proliferate and finally differentiate to give rise to capillary tubules. The discovery and pharmacological development of future generations of angiogenesis inhibitors will benefit from further advances in the understanding of the mechanisms involved in human angiogenesis. In this chapter, the different therapeutic targets for angiogenesis intervention are discussed with emphasis on the clinical developmental status of antiangiogenic drugs.
Receptor Tyrosine Kinases in Human Schwannoma
Authors: Oliver Hanemann C , Ammoun Sylwia
Published: March 2011

This review focuses on altered signaling pathways in schwannoma and identification of
molecular markers. Platelet derived growth factors PDGFR and ErbB family of receptor kinase are
overexpressed in the schwannoma. PDGFR-β inhibitors with a specific inhibitor AG1296 completely
inhibited both basal and PDGF mediated proliferation of human scwannoma cells. Sorafenib, a
PDGFR inhibitor currently applied for advanced renal cancer treatment also effectively reducing
tyrosine kinase activity and decreased cell proliferation in human schwannoma cells at low
concentration. This suggests that this drug could be a promising tool in the treatment of schwannoma.
Angiogenesis and Lung Cancer: Antiangiogenic Agents and Therapy
Authors: Mai Har Sham  , Kexia Cai
Published: March 2011

Pathological angiogenesis, a hallmark of cancer, is a rational target for the treatment of lung cancer which is the most lethal cancer worldwide. In this article we reviewed angiogenesis targets that have potential applications for lung cancer treatment, including endogenous angiogenesis inhibitors and molecules in proangiogenic signaling. With an ever-growing list of angiogenesis activators and inhibitors, a better understanding of the molecular basis of angiogenesis offers various targets for antiangiogenic cancer therapy. A number of therapeutic strategies, including gene therapy approaches, have been explored in preclinical models with direct and indirect angiogenesis inhibitors. Gene therapy approaches with emphasis on viral vectors for lung cancer are discussed here. Recent advances in clinical application in lung cancer treatment with antiangiogenic therapy are also reviewed. Some small molecule inhibitors have given hope to lung cancer patients in clinical trials, these are also described. In this article, we aim to bridge the gap between basic science understanding of angiogenesis mechanisms and clinical applications of our current knowledge in lung cancer treatment.
Angiogenesis and Gastric Cancer: Molecular Pathways & Therapeutic Targets
Authors: C. Moser  , O. Stoeltzing
Published: March 2011

Gastric cancer is a leading cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide. Despite recent improvements in surgical techniques, as well as in adjuvant and neoadjuvant treatment strategies, involving chemotherapy and radiotherapy, gastric cancer remains a therapeutic challenge. Due to the rapid occurrence of systemic metastasis, advanced gastric cancer is associated with a poor prognosis. However, progresses in defining molecular biology and carcinogenesis have recently led to a successful development of molecular targeting agents that substantially may improve survival and quality of life for many cancer patients. Regarding gastric cancer, various molecular pathways and signaling components have been identified that promote angiogenesis, metastasis, and cell growth, hence offering multiple targets for therapeutic intervention with new targeting agents. Such molecular targeting agents are currently being developed and clinically evaluated.

In this chapter we describe the current status of targeted therapies for treatment of gastric cancer, particularly focusing on antiangiogenic treatment strategies. Moreover, other novel agents including EGFR inhibitors, promoters of apoptosis, cell cycle inhibitors and matrix metalloproteinase inhibitors will be discussed. Encouraging results from clinical trials evaluating these compounds have provided novel opportunities in the therapy of gastric malignancies that will probably help to significantly improve the prognosis of gastric cancer patients in the near future.
Angiogenesis and Breast Cancer: Targets and Therapies
Authors: S. Martin  , H. Evans
Published: March 2011

Angiogenesis is one of the key rate limiting factors in tumor growth. The concept of antiangiogenic therapy was first considered over 50 years ago but the first antiangiogenic therapy for breast cancer was only given regulatory status in 2008. A large number, and diverse range, of therapeutic agents are, however, currently in development for use in breast cancer with results suggesting great promise. Some of these agents directly target molecules in the angiogenic cascade and others have secondary antiangiogenic effects as a consequence of inhibition of target molecules that are not directly involved in the angiogenic process. Here some of the agents currently under development are discussed together with other, currently hypothetical, targets.
Translational Studies on the Bone Marrow Microenvironment in Multiple Myeloma: Experimental Models and Emerging Therapeutical Strategies
Authors: Pierfrancesco Tassone  , Teresa Calimeri  , Marco Rossi  , Maria Teresa Di Martino  , Paola Neri  , Pierosandro Tagliaferri
Published: March 2011

The human bone marrow microenvironment (HBMM) plays a crucial role in the pathogenesis, growth, survival and drug resistance of multiple myeloma (MM) cells. The growing number of information about the HBMM in MM has allowed the definition of a new paradigm and the design of novel approaches against this disease, taking in account the need to target not only tumor cells but also the non-tumor compartment. Novel drugs such as thalidomide, lenalidomide or bortezomib are one example of these new strategies and have already been included in clinics. However, the lack of adequate experimental models for the study of both compartments has significantly limited the identification of new targets as well as a wide screening of several new investigational drugs. Therefore, novel preclinical models recapitulating the HBMM together with genomic studies might provide new insights into mechanisms of new drugs and their molecular targets.
Targeted Therapy in Renal Cell Carcinoma
Authors: Gasparini G. , Longo R.
Published: March 2011

Renal cell carcinoma (RCC) is diagnosed in approximately 170,000 patients worldwide annually, resulting in 82,000 deaths. The 5-year survival rate for metastatic RCC (mRCC) is < 10% and up to 30% of patients treated with radical nephrectomy are at risk of relapse. Cytokine therapy, such as interferon-a (INF-a) and interleukin-2 (IL-2), has been the standard of therapy for mRCC for many years. Recently, the better understanding of the molecular pathogenesis of RCC has led to the development of a number of new targeted drugs, particularly anti-VEGF (vascular endothelial growth factor) drugs and mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) inhibitors that have been approved for the treatment of advanced disease, and many other compounds are undergoing preclinical or early clinical evaluation.

However, several questions remain to be addressed, including: The identification of the optimal methodological approach in the clinical development of these new agents and of the best clinical setting to evaluate them, the identification of the optimal schedule of treatment and of surrogate predictive markers of activity that could lead to a better selection of patients, the evaluation of these agents in other histological subtypes, particularly papillary and chromophobe RCC, and finally, the management of new emerging toxicity.
Surrogate Markers of Antiangiogenic Therapies
Authors: Boven Epie , R. Meijerink Martijn , Vroling Laura
Published: March 2011

The development of antiangiogenic compounds for the treatment of cancer has indicated a need for new clinical tools to evaluate their efficacy, to assess the optimal dose with minimal side-effects and to early select patients who might benefit from antiangiogenic therapies. The use of so-called surrogate biomarkers of angiogenesis and antiangiogenic drug activity in the clinic does not yet belong to the standard of care. Most research has been dedicated towards introduction and refining of imaging techniques, the detection of circulating angiogenic factors and/or related molecules, and characterization and measurement of circulating endothelial cells and early progenitor cells. This chapter will discuss the various possibilities and their limitations illustrated with clinical data on antiangiogenic therapies in cancer patients.
Flood Risk Assessment and Management
Authors: Han Dawei
Published: March 2011

Floods are devastating natural disasters with a significant impact on human life and the surrounding environent. Flood Risk Assessment and Management should serve as an Ideal textbook on analytical flood risk assessment and management, and is intended for lecturers, undergraduates and postgraduates in civil engineering, geography, environmental science, earth sciences, and related disciplines. This book is based on the lecture notes taught at the University of Bristol to students undertaking a Masters course in civil engineering. All chapters are supplemented with challenging questions, answers and solutions.
Frequency Curve Fitting
Authors: Dawei Han
Published: March 2011

Floods are complex and flood records tend to have errors. The two important points in flood frequency analysis are ‘1) All flood frequency curves are wrong, but some are useful; 2) ‘All data are wrong, but some are useful.’ The uncertainties with the frequency curve fitting can be reduced by various techniques to avoid overfitting and under-fitting.
Historical and Palaeo Floods
Authors: Dawei Han
Published: March 2011

In statistics, the longer the records are, the more accurate the statistical estimation would be. Historical and palaeo floods are important complementary data sources to instrumental floods. They should be integrated together to provide improved flood frequency estimations.
Pooled Flood Frequency
Authors: Dawei Han
Published: March 2011

Hydrologically similar sites are pooled together to provide much longer records than those at the investigation site. Some key catchment attributes (descriptors) are used in establishing a pooling group through initial selection, discordancy check and heterogeneity test. The growth curve can be derived from the weighted contributions of individual group members.
Real-Time Flood Forecasting
Authors: Dawei Han
Published: March 2011

Flood forecasting is a non-structural measure in flood risk management. Real-time flood forecasting provides valuable information for flood warning services so that the general public and emergency agencies would have sufficient time to prepare counter-measures against the impending floods.
Flood Risk Mitigation
Authors: Dawei Han
Published: March 2011

There are structural and non-structural flood mitigation measures. Risk and uncertainty analysis is the foundation for designing and choosing appropriate flood mitigation options. The socioeconomic analysis is becoming increasingly important in the future.
"Omics": Will Regulation and Activism Stifle Its Potential?
Authors: I. Miller Henry
Published: March 2011

National and international regulation of recombinant DNA–modified, or “genetically engineered” (also
referred to as “genetically modified,” or GM), plants, including those with enhanced abiotic stress tolerance, is
unscientific and illogical, a lamentable illustration of the maxim that bad science makes bad law. Instead of
regulatory scrutiny that is proportional to risk – a fundamental principle of regulatory oversight of any product or
activity – the degree of oversight of genetically engineered organisms is actually inversely proportional to risk.
The current approach to regulation, which captures organisms to be field tested or commercialized according to
the techniques used to construct them rather than their properties, flies in the face of scientific consensus. This
approach has been costly in terms of economic losses and human suffering. The poorest of the poor have suffered
the most because the hugely inflated development costs of genetically engineered plants and food have prevented
robust development of new plant varieties with enhanced abiotic stress tolerance and other desirable
characteristics. An approach to the regulation of field trials, known as the “Stanford Model,” is designed to assess
risks of new agricultural introductions, whether or not the organisms are genetically engineered, and independent
of the genetic modification techniques employed. It offers a scientific, rational, risk–based basis for field trial
regulations. Using this sort of model for regulatory review would not only better protect human health and the
environment but would also permit more expeditious development and more widespread use of innovative, new
plants and seeds.
Omics Approaches for Abiotic Stress Tolerance in Plants
Authors: K. Subudhi Prasanta
Published: March 2011

Plant growth and productivity are limited by various types of abiotic stresses. While significant
advances have been made in understanding the plant adaptation in stress environments, there are still challenges
to translate this acquired knowledge for improved crop performance and productivity under stress environments
due to complex genetics involving multitude of genes and stress tolerance mechanisms and interaction with
numerous environmental factors pose. Different omics technologies have evolved during the last few decades to
systematically analyze and correlate the changes in the genome, transcriptome, proteome, and metabolome to the
variability in plant’s response to abiotic stresses. This chapter will provide an overview of various omics
technologies and their application to increase the chances of developing abiotic stress tolerant plants. Although,
we foresee significant potential of these innovative tools in making genetic improvement, challenges in
integrating the vast amount of high throughput omics data should be overcome to understand the genetic network
involved in abiotic stress tolerance.
Plant Responses to Abiotic Stresses: Shedding Light on Salt, Drought, Cold and Heavy Metal Stress
Authors: Tuteja Narendra , Singh Gill Sarvajeet , Tuteja Renu
Published: March 2011

Agriculture using genetically modified crops is emerging as an effective measure to counteract the
negative impact of abiotic stresses on crop production. Abiotic stresses mainly salt, drought, cold and heavy
metals are the major cause of crop failure which restrict crops to reach their full genetic potential. Salt, drought
and heavy metals exert their negative impact essentially by disrupting the ionic and osmotic equilibrium of the
cell, whereas, cold causes mechanical constraint to the membrane. Plants respond to abiotic stresses through
multifaceted molecular signaling pathways. Therefore, understanding of molecular signaling pathways and
identification of key molecules and their specific roles is important for crop improvement. Several genes
responsible for abiotic stress tolerance have been identified which code for antioxidants, enzymes that modify
lipids in the cell membrane, stress-response transcription factors, proteins that maintain ion homeostasis, heat
shock proteins, or enzymes that synthesize important stress-response compounds. Transgenic plants having some
of these genes have been produced and found to be abiotic stress tolerant. Present chapter reviews the plant
responses to abiotic stresses such as salinity, drought, cold and heavy metal stresses and tolerance mechanisms
through omics approaches.
Genomic Overview of Ion Transporters in Plant Salt Tolerance
Authors: Brini Faical , Feki Kaouther , Khoudi Habib , Hanin Moez , Masmoudi Khaled
Published: March 2011

Salinity is one of the most severe environmental stresses affecting plant productivity worldwide. In
many plant species, salt sensitivity is associated with the accumulation of sodium (Na+) in photosynthetic tissues.
Adaptation of plants to salt stress (i.e. resumption of growth after exposure to high soil salinity) requires cellular
ion homeostasis. To prevent the accumulation of Na+ in the cytoplasm, plants have developed three mechanisms
that function in a cooperative manner, i.e restriction of Na+ influx, active Na+ extrusion at the root-soil interface,
and subsequent vacuolar compartmentalization without toxic ion accumulation in the cytosol. Sodium ions can
enter the cell through several low- and high-affinity K+ carriers. Voltage-independent, non selective cation
channels (NSCC) provide a pathway for the entry of Na+ into plant cells. Some members of the HKT family
(High Affinity K+ transporter) function as sodium transporter and contribute to Na+ removal from the ascending
xylem sap and recirculation from the leaves to the roots via the phloem vasculature. Sodium extrusion is
presumed to be of critical importance for ion homeostasis and salt tolerance of glycophytes. Na+ sequestration
into the vacuole depends on expression and activity of Na+/H+ antiporter that is driven by electrochemical
gradient of protons generated by the vacuolar H+-ATPase and the H+-PPase. However, we have a limited
molecular understanding of the overall control of Na+ accumulation, the role of each transporter and salt stress
tolerance at the whole plant level. Genomics and functional genomics provide a new opportunity in addressing
the multigenicity of the plant abiotic stress response through genome sequences, stress-specific transcript
collections, protein and metabolite profiles, their dynamic changes and protein interactions. In this review, we
analyze available data related to omics and plant abiotic stress responses in order to enhance our understanding
about how salinity and other abiotic stresses affect the most fundamental processes of cellular function which
have a substantial impact on plant growth development.
Transcriptomics Identifies Cold Stress Determinants in Arabidopsis
Authors: Einset John
Published: March 2011

During the last forty years, researchers have had the working hypothesis that genes upregulated by low
temperatures protect plants from cold stress. When cDNA cloning technologies were developed about twenty
years ago, cold-responsive genes such as genes for CBF/DREB transcription factors could be identified in
Arabidopsis. The next step was to use microarray technologies to identify cold-regulated genes as a way to
improve our understanding of cold tolerance. Unfortunately, there have been several problems with this approach;
1) upregulation of mRNA levels is only one of many mechanisms for the control of gene expression in plants, 2)
published microarray results have not always been repeatable by other labs, 3) there has been a heavy emphasis
on cold-regulated transcription factor genes to the exclusion of other important determinants, 4) the cold
treatments used in several laboratory studies have not always been comparable to natural stress conditions and 5)
there has often been a lack of follow-up research, using mutants to prove through functional genomics that
specific genes are actually involved in cold tolerance. An alternative transcriptomic approach to identify genes for
cold tolerance is chemical genetics based on glycine betaine treatments, using transcriptomics followed by
functional studies with mutants. This approach was validated first for the RabA4c GTPase involved in membrane
trafficking and has also identified a bZIP transcription factor and FRO2 ferric reductase. In conclusion, although
transcriptomics has identified some determinants of cold stress tolerance, there still exists large gaps in our
knowledge of this important process.
Transcriptome Analysis of Polyamine Overproducers Reveals Activation of Plant Stress Responses and Related Signalling Pathways T
Authors: Marco F. , Altabella T. , Alcazar R. , Cuevas J. , Bortolotti C. , Gonzalez M.E. , Ruiz OA , Tiburcio A.F. , Carrasco P.
Published: March 2011

Polyamines have been proposed to regulate multiple aspects of plant development and stress responses.
In most of the cases, they interact with other signaling pathways to exert their action. Here we describe
transcriptomic analyses that have lead to the identification of physiologically relevant interactions between
polyamines and other hormones, such as abscisic acid, during the response to abiotic stress. Overall, these studies
reinforce the premise that polyamines are regulatory signaling molecules which mediate by intricate cross-talks
with hormonal pathways in response to different environmental stimuli.
Rhizotoxic Ions: ‘Omics’ Approaches for Studying Abiotic Stress Tolerance in Plants
Authors: Zhao Cheng-Ri , Y Yamamoto Yoshiharu , Koyama Hiroyuki
Published: March 2011

Rhizotoxic ions inhibit root growth, resulting in reduced yield of various crop plants. It is thus
improvement of tolerance of roots to rhizotoxic ions, one of the most important targets in plant breeding, to
improve the productivity of crops in various soil types. Molecular breeding such as marker assisted selection and
transgenic breeding would be promising approaches in current plant breeding, while identification of critical
genes is needed to realize these approaches. In this chapter, we introduce recent progress of transcriptomics and
other -omics studies for complex response of plant roots to rhizotoxic ions, and those that for identifying critical
genes for tolerance to rhizotoxic ions.
Abscisic Acid in Abiotic Stress Tolerance: An ‘Omics’ Approach
Authors: C. Bansal Kailash , K. Lenka Sangram , Tuteja Narendra
Published: March 2011

Abiotic stresses impair crop production on irrigated land worldwide. Overall, the susceptibility or
tolerance to the stress in plants is a coordinated action of multiple stress responsive genes, which also cross-talk
with other components of stress signal transduction pathways. Plant responses to abiotic stress can be determined
by the severity of the stress and by the metabolic status of the plant. Abscisic acid (ABA) is a phytohormone
critical for plant growth and development and plays an important role in integrating various stress signals and
controlling downstream stress responses. Plants have to adjust ABA levels constantly in response to changing
physiological, metabolic and environmental conditions. To date, the mechanisms for fine-tuning of ABA levels
remain elusive. The mechanisms by which plants respond to abiotic stresses include both ABA-dependent and
ABA-independent processes. Various transcription factors such as DREB2A/2B, AREB1, RD22BP1 and
MYC/MYB are known to regulate the ABA-responsive gene expression by interacting with their corresponding
cis-acting elements such as DRE/CRT, ABRE, and MYCRS/MYBRS, respectively. Due to polygenic nature of
the trait, it is becoming important to apply genome wide tools for precise understanding of the mechanisms and to
ultimately improve stress tolerance in crops plants. This chapter describes the ABA-induced stress response
pathway and the application of ‘omics’ technologies to unravel the complex mechanisms governing abiotic stress
tolerance in plants.
The Role of RNA Silencing in Plant Stress Responses
Authors: Tuan Le Ngoc , Wang Ming-Bo
Published: March 2011

RNA silencing is an evolutionarily conserved mechanism in eukaryotes that control gene expression
through small RNA-guided RNA degradation, translational repression and DNA methylation. Plants have
evolved multiple small RNA pathways that have been demonstrated to play an essential role in developmental
regulation and defence against invasive nucleic acids such as transposable elements and viruses. Recent studies
have provided evidence that the different small RNA pathways play a more diverse role in plant defence against
biotic and abiotic stresses. These findings are likely to result in new platforms for engineering stress tolerant
crops in the future.
Index
Authors: Tuteja Narendra , Singh Gill Sarvajeet , Tuteja Renu
Published: March 2011

Full text available.
Cultural Relativism
Authors: Alan Cohan John
Published: March 2011

There are tremendous variations in how people carry on their lives across cultures. All cultures have
some sort of system of “public morals” or norms or rules that provide a structure that guides behavior. Cultural
relativism holds that moral principles are relative, so that there is no such thing as a “one-size-fits-all” morality.
The forms under which good and evil appear are different. By coming to know the presuppositions of people, we
can better understand their moral perspective. We will discuss idea that, despite variations in behavior patterns
among cultures, there are certain basic moral concepts recognized by all peoples-e.g., respect for life and
property, some form of religious faith. All societies have some means of dealing with social outcasts, criminals,
cheats and the like. The dilemma of cultural relativism is whether it is appropriate to interfere with practices of
other cultures that we regard as morally repugnant. Today the activities within one culture can affect people in
other cultures-most notably in the arena of environmental pollution. People have a limit as to what sort of things
they will tolerate in other cultures. All nations condemn genocide, slave trade, torture, the use of human subjects
for experimentation, and summary execution. In studying diverse cultures we should keep an open mind in taking
in the practices that we might find offensive or repugnant or even barbaric. Change is particularly difficult when
cultures sincerely believe, as they do, that their moral practices are sound, well-founded and of fundamental
importance to their very identity as people.
Apollonian and Dionysian Cultures
Authors: Alan Cohan John
Published: March 2011

Ruth Benedict (1934) opened up a whole line of thinking regarding two types of culture: Apollinian
and Dionysian. Dionysian cultures exhibit certain extremes in behavior, and there is importance ascribed to
dreams and visions, also to self-fulfillment, self-expression, rights, liberties and individual accomplishment.
Moreover, the idea of escape from the five senses through altered states of consciousness, intoxication, torture,
self-mutilation, deprivation, etc. Dionysian cultures are imbued with magical thinking, i.e., the belief that
thoughts, words or actions have causal power. Dreams and visions are very important because they are thought to
contain messages from the spirit realm or direct visitations from ancestors. The contradiction in Dionysian
cultures is that they tend to be tenaciously tradition-bound-yet at the same time they seek to escape from
limitations through supernatural experiences, ecstatic trances, orgiastic ceremonies, and other excessive behavior
that, at least under everyday circumstances, would be frowned upon. Paradoxically Dionysian cultures celebrate
harmony and cooperation, and yet individuality, which at times can be a threat to unity.

Apollinian cultures, in contrast, embrace moderation, steadfastness, conservatism, conformity, measured
attitudes, precedent and tradition. There is distrust of individualism and emotionalism. Power comes from cult
membership, verbatim ritual, conformity, sobriety, suffering, self-denial, introvertism, and moderation.
Mana
Authors: Alan Cohan John
Published: March 2011

The idea of mana permeates the customs of many cultures, including modern cultures. Mana provides
the theoretical basis for such beliefs as animism, totemism, witchcraft, and sorcery. Mana is the means by which
power is transmitted from one being to another. It means, roughly speaking, power, but a force altogether distinct
from physical power-a power associated with a spirit, a totemic ancestor, or other supernatural agency. All things
are thought to possess a “vital essence” that can be transferred by contact. Mana is thought to be expressed most
notably through thoughts and words, and this is evident in shamanic healing, folk medicine, or simply prayer
intended for healing. The conviction of a person uttering an incantation is thought to be an element relating to the
efficacy of a prayer, curse or ritual. There is widespread belief that mana subsists in names, as well as in artifacts,
tools and weapons. A club or spear of a great warrior, for example, is the abode of powerful mana. Objects such
as amulets and charms are thought to be imbued with mana, either intrinsically, or after being consecrated for
certain purposes, usually for the purpose of averting evil or to secure good fortune.
Totemism
Authors: Alan Cohan John
Published: March 2011

In this chapter we discuss the concept of totemism. Totems are animals, plants or natural phenomena (a
mountain, stream, volcano, etc.) which which a group will identify. Tribes often believe they are literally
descended from their totems. The totem might be regarded as a guardian, helpmate, or a source of strength to the
people. Often a people’s mythology will attribute special qualities to totemic animals-e.g., that they possessed
remarkable powers which transformed chaos of the universe into order. Some totems reflect the economic and
social importance of the objects concerned-e.g., the sea might be the totem. Totems are objects of reverence and
fear-the totem is subject to rituals and taboos, violation of which has dire and immediate consequences. Usually
the totemic species cannot be killed or eaten, except for communion-type ceremonies. For instance, for many
aborigines in Australia, the kangaroo or iguana is their totem. Totemic beliefs reveal a peoples’ philosophy of
life, their morals, their spirituality. In modern cultures totems are seen in flags and mascots. Modern society
embraces totemism in many ways-e.g., national flags, mascots for sports teams, and the tendency of people to
think of their homeland in endearing, reverential terms.
Hunting and Cultivation Rituals
Authors: Alan Cohan John
Published: March 2011

Primitive cultures have a striking relationship with animals, and remarkable rituals associated with
hunting. Animals not only provide meat, but also hides and fur, and bones for fashioning into artifacts and
ceremonial objects. Two broad areas of hunting rituals are one pertaining to “bribing” or coaxing animals to
present themselves to the hunters; and the other involves appeasing the spirits of the animals once they have been
slain. When animals are hunted, they are usually treated in a distinctive, reverent manner, partly to propitiate the
ghosts of the animals, so as not to be harmed by them. Many cultures also show great respect to plants grown for
food: In Papua New Guinea, for example, yams, a major food staple, are carefully attended to, and people talk to
a yam as if it were human. The practice of reciting magical spells on traps, in order to attract game, is practiced in
many cultures. In numerous cultures, ceremonies take place in preparation for the whaling season, including
ceremonial launching of the boats, singing of whaling songs, donning of new clothes, and performing a ritual of
“spearing” the woman whom they designated to represent a whale. Bears seem to be more venerated than any
other hunted animal in the world. Elaborate ceremonies surround bear hunting. Bears have high intelligence, they
walk in a human-like manner, they sit down against a tree with their paws, like arms, at their sides and perhaps
one leg drawn up under their body. They exhibit a wide range of emotions that are very humanlike. The Nivkh
people celebrate the Bear Festival, which involves a ritual sacrifice of a bear to was to commemorate deceased
ancestors, or on special occasions. In the disposal of the bear’s remains, there is great respect accorded the bones,
which are ceremoniously and carefully buried intact in proper position. The Motu in Papua New Guinea treat tuna
with great reverence, and have elaborate preparations for the fishing season, including fasting, ritual bathing,
singing, and dancing. They bless the fish before killing them. If a tuna is accidentally knocked against the side of
the canoe, the fisherman must go down on his knees and kiss the fish; otherwise no more will enter the nets that
day. Cattle and other livestock are treated with reverence in India, Northeast Africa, and other regions. Native
Americans in the North Pacific have revitalized the First Salmon Ceremony, an aboriginal “first fruits” ritual,
involving elaborate preparation and ceremonies to welcome the salmon. Protocols carefully prescribe the manner
of fishing, cooking, eating, and disposal of fish bones. Reindeer breeders in Siberia practice a communal reindeer
sacrifice in order to insure food, happiness, health and prosperity.
Shamanism: The "Wounded Healer"
Authors: Alan Cohan John
Published: March 2011

Shamanism is a widespread healing discipline, grounded in animism. Healing, divination, rain-making
and settling disputes are among the shaman’s duties. Many people rely on shamans for primary health care and
spiritual guidance. The mind, body and spirit are treated as a unit by shamans. The shaman will seek to determine
the supernatural cause of an illness. This can be anything from the violation of a taboo or some other
transgression against the supernatural world, possession by an evil spirit, sorcery practiced by an enemy, or the
actions of an offended ancestral ghost.
Trance and Possession States
Authors: Alan Cohan John
Published: March 2011

Trance and possession states are a worldwide phenomena, usually voluntarily induced. Practically
everyone has at one time or another fallen into a trance or possession state, either spontaneously or induced by
drugs or by circumstances such as extreme stress, physical exertion or deprivation. In the West, trance and
possession phenomena are for the most part associated with bad things-demonic possession, madness, insanity.
But in many cultures trance and possession states are customary in religious ceremonies, rites to cure illness,
rituals to attain communion with ancestral spirits, totemic guardians, and a means of practicing mediumship and
prophesy-and are even regarded as a social responsibility. For instance, after a successful pig hunt, hunters in
Papua New Guinea will seek to enter a trance to fulfill a social responsibility of giving what the spirits ask as a
reward for providing a successful hunt. In many cultures, mediums and other channelers are thought to have a
heightened perception of spiritual truths. There is a continuum of sorts, a trance being a slight alteration of
consciousness, whereas possession is a “deep trance” in which the individual seems to be somewhat taken over
by a supernatural agency. Some possession states are hysterical in nature in that the individual might lose control
over equilibrium, and may tend to strike out threateningly towards others, engage in self-inflicted violence, or
become blind, deaf, and entirely unresponsive during the episode. In many cultures trance and possession states
are normal and empowering features of everyday human life, while psychiatrists in the West often regard such
states, for the most part, as a mental disorder. In any event, all cultures regard an involuntary, uninvited trance or
possession state to be undesirable and dysfunctional. Trance dances are known in many cultures and function to
release emotional tension, to escape everyday worries, to provide a catharsis for primal instincts and patterns, or
to provide a profound religious and spiritual experience. In many parts of the world it is normative for women to
occasionally fall into a trance or possession state as a kind of protest or a way of seeking redress for their feelings
of powerlessness and low status. Trance and possession states are quite common and widespread in charismatic
Christian healing services. Extreme involuntary possession-demonic possession-is indicated by violent,
aggressive behavior, a distinct experience of being controlled by an alien force, a change of voice, convulsions,
intermittent states of unconsciousness, superhuman strength, and obscene behavior. Its emergence is usually
gradually, and many believe is prompted by either witchcraft or by the victim’s conscious or unconscious inviting
of evil spirits. In chronic cases rituals in the form of exorcism will be performed by a priest, shaman, or medicineman.
Death by Suggestion: Voodoo Death, Taboo Death, and Pointing the Bone
Authors: Alan Cohan John
Published: March 2011

A phenomenon seen in primitive cultures is the occurrence of death by suggestion, in which strong
cultural beliefs-in the violation of a taboo, for instance-cause people to believe that they will suffer imminent
death or serious illness. The efficacy of these beliefs might best be explained by the phenomenon of autosuggestion
whereby the subject has become convinced that death is inevitable, and for all intents and purposes
gives up hope. A similar phenomenon has been reported in combat zones whereby soldiers may die of a
combination of anguish, confusion and severe mental and physical shock. In communities that experienced the
black plague in previous centuries many people died simply of fear of contracting an otherwise innocuous illness.
Cancer patients informed of their condition are known to die, as if hexed, before the malignancy develops to the
point where it could cause death. Voodoo is both a folk medical system and a means of casting spells. “Taboo
death” is a phenomenon whereby people will die as a consequence of violating some taboo: People of many
cultures believe that taboo violation carries automatic repercussions, even if inadvertent or accidental. The
individual may well undergo a sense of panic, hopelessness and stress resulting in death in a few hours upon
learning he has violated the taboo (e.g., eating a tabooed food, accidentally eating out of the chief’s bowl).
Another form of death by suggestion is “pointing the bone,” whereby someone with evil designs literally points a
bone at a targeted victim. Pointing the bone is thought to be so potent that the victim will be literally scared to
death, gripped by paralyzing fear, and may start to get extremely weak and die.
Dealing with Conflicts, Aggressive Impulses, Enemies and War
Authors: Alan Cohan John
Published: March 2011

This chapter discusses the importance of aggression, in its various modes, not only as a means of
resolving conflicts, but as something important for group cohesion. Humans beings are universally capable of
aggressive behavior. A common theme is that if a harm has been done, the injured party or group feel they must
seek vengeance-by ceremonial fighting, revenge by sorcery, open discussion and argument, apology and
forgiveness, settlement of disputes at ceremonial feasts, by the payment of compensation, or other means. Many
groups believe that it is important to sustain traditional enmities with other groups, to promote solidarity within
the clan. A mild form of conflict is known as petty wrangling, perhaps consisting of teasing or arguing over
various privileges or prerogatives. In some cultures people will openly engage in violent displays of emotion-e.g.,
fights between spouses out in the open-with the expectation that others will intervene and prevent the situation
from escalating. Adultery is a common source of conflict-and is remedied by monetary compensation in some
cases and death of the offending party. An ancient and widespread way of settling conflicts is wergild, or blood
money, presently operative in many regions. Retaliation for acts of sorcery is quite common: For example, the
victim will engage in countermeasures to cast a spell on the suspected sorcerer. A pervasive phenomenon is the
idea of collective responsibility: This entails that people are collectively responsible for the acts of others in their
clan-for the individual only functions as a member of the group, there is tremendous strength of bond, and group
consciousness is more important than individual consciousness. A man’s improper sexual advances against a girl
from another tribe, for instance, may embroil whole villages until vengeance is exacted. Collective responsibility
even entails the idea that revenge can be exacted against anyone in the wrongdoer’s tribe. Collective
responsibility is the philosophy of modern day terrorists: the indiscriminate targeting of civilians of the enemy is
justified because they are collectively responsible for the policies of their government. In many cultures the
expression of anger or conflict, particularly by women, is highly improper, and emotional outbursts must be kept
in check. In many of these cultures there are periodic “rituals of rebellion,” in which people will express their
pent up anger at rulers and chiefs, or women at the men, singing and dancing lewdly. Rather than being socially
disruptive, these rituals are ways of integrating groups and forming social balance. Dueling in the West was a
long-standing mode in which men would resolve insults and minor disputes that impugned their honor. Lynching
in America was also a method by which mobs would enforce a code of honor by taking the law into their own
hands. In modern cultures today conflicts often take the form of vehement and unpleasantly sharp verbal attacks
against adversaries-in politics and other contexts.
Treatment of the Dead
Authors: Alan Cohan John
Published: March 2011

There are diverse cultural and religious values concerning how people show respect for the dead, and
in beliefs about what happens to the soul after death. All cultures apparently believe that the body of the deceased
has a certain status that needs to be respected, as well as grave sites. In many cultures anyone’s death, except
perhaps for the very old, is attributed to sorcery. This may entail a revenge expedition or demand for
compensation. Ancestral worship is both an ancient and modern practice. The belief that the soul continues to live
after one dies extends to the idea that dead ancestors interact with the living in one way or another, that they take
an interest in the lives of loved ones, that they appreciate the prayers of the living. Ancestral shrines are often
built as a place to worship ancestors. Ancestors to whom obligations have not been discharged are liable not only
to withhold their guidance, but can be potentially dangerous by sending illness and disaster. The belief in ghosts
is widespread in primitive and modern cultures alike, and it is not uncommon for people to believe that they are
being harassed by ghosts in their homes. In honoring the dead, all cultures, now as in ancient times, have customs
regarding funeral rites and mourning, each unique in its own way, ranging from rock burial, cremation,
mummification, embalming, or feeding the corpse to carnivorous animals. A famous cremation ritual in Bali
involves a dance with strong emotional outbursts and the outright abuse of the corpses, and it is expected that
people will engage in the overt expression of hostility towards the deceased. Where practiced, mortuary
cannibalism is motivated by the belief was that by consuming another’s flesh, one acquires some characteristic of
the person eaten. In some cultures it is the custom to burn a dead person’s house and personal belongings, burn or
give away crops planted by the deceased, and avoid using the dead person’s name. In numerous cultures there is
great reverence shown for the skull of the deceased. Sometimes, after burial and the lapse of time, skulls are
unearthed in mortuary ceremonies, decorated and then given a secondary burial in caves or other sacred places. In
Madagascar there is a custom to open ancestral tombs for the purpose of rewrapping the corpses with new silk
shrouds every six or seven years.
Potlatches
Authors: Alan Cohan John
Published: March 2011

The social practice known as potlatches prevails to this day primarily among tribes of the North
American Indians and cultures of Melanesia. Potlatches are part of an economic system that is based on
compulsory gift-giving. Potlatches are given to display wealth of the host, to distribute gifts to mark a milestone-a
funeral, a wedding, initiation, the conferral of a title, the completion of a project, or as a means of addressing
grievances or announcing a vendetta. Potlatches involve feasting, dancing, giving of gifts by the host, and selfglorifying
speeches by the host and his cohorts. There tends to be a conspicuous display of wealth, and this may
involve the destruction of property as a way of validating rank or status. Gifts are such things as cloth, blankets,
pots and pans, clocks, sewing machines, tables, shawls, and consumables such as meat, fat and skins. The gifts
are supposed to be a demonstration of the excess or abundance that the host has available. Potlatches are
analogous to the practice of giving a lavish party is a means of displaying wealth and garnering the admiration
(and envy) that it invariably evokes. Potlatches are regarded by the people as crucial to gain prestige in the
community.
Status, Prestige, Recognition-the Need for Social Approval
Authors: Alan Cohan John
Published: March 2011

All people have the need for status, prestige and social approval, often expressed and manifested in
diverse ways, such as the potlatches discussed in the preceding chapter. The ways people seek acceptance in
one’s group and acquire esteem, prestige, and power in the community, take different forms-varying from merit
achieved after a successful fishing expedition, to performers of a dance carried out with exceptional skill, to
winning races, matches or sporting contests. The possession of certain goods will confer prestige on the owner,
although the item might be relatively insignificant to outsiders. For example, in parts of Papua New Guinea the
most highly prized item of prestige is a pair of rounded pig’s tusks, which are worn on ceremonial occasions only
by elderly. Prestige may come from the right to certain names, or the right to perform certain rituals. Prestige may
come from various honors, titles, or powers conferred by inheritance, such as the right to use certain songs and
dances, or to use particular kinds of magic. Prestige may come from membership in certain clubs or, in
Melanesia, the local secret men’s society. In Asian cultures social approval is associated with the concept of
“face.” Losing face, by committing a socially disapproved act, is so humiliating that people can be driven to
suicide.