bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Use of Small Panels in Screening Potential Wood Preservatives
Authors: Roe Thorndyke , Hochman Harry
Published: September 2009

The destructive action of marine wood boring organisms on structures submerged in sea water presents a major maintenance problem in harbors throughout the world. The replacement of wooden piling destroyed by these organisms is a costly operation and, in addition, removes a pier from use during repair.
Extending Service Life of Wood Piles in Sea Water
Authors: Wakeman C. M. , Whiteneck L. L.
Published: September 2009

Tens of thousands of wood piles are now in use, supporting marine structures. Many have been attacked by marine borers. This paper discusses the protection of wood piles in place by means of barrier coatings. The economics of the problem indicate that an expenditure for a barrier coating equal to the cost of the pile is warranted if the barrier will reasonably prolong the pile life. Results of field tests of barrier coatings are presented.
Determining Preservative Retention in Piling by Assay of Borings
Authors: Baechler R. H.
Published: September 2009

The purchase of treated wood under specifications calling for a determination of retention of preservative in a sample of designated size has become the standard practice of a number of users of treated poles.
Experimental Techniques and Equipment for Acoustical Fatigue Research and Development
Authors: Forney D. M.
Published: September 2009

A cursory review was made of some of the experimental techniques used for the study of fatigue properties of acoustically excited airframe structures with particular emphasis placed on laboratory equipment and apparatus being used. Discrete-frequency excitation devices are most generally used for much of the test work because of the considerable expense involved in operating the more desirable random-noise sources such as the turbojet engine. Proof testing with an engine facility is still regarded as a necessary step in the ultimate test of structural designs. Careful attention to experimental procedures is of paramount importance; otherwise, considerable error in test data and conclusions can easily occur. Much work remains to be done to improve techniques with the aim of getting better simulation of service environments. This will also involve the development of improved random-noise sources.
Non-Newtonian Behavior in Lubrication
Authors: Philippoff W.
Published: September 2009

According to the classical theory of lubrication, viscosity is assumed to be a constant, and the conditions leading to the formation of a liquid film capable of supporting a load in a bearing can be calculated by hydrodynamics. However, even in normal liquids, complications occur that may change the viscosity. For example, during the operation of a sleeve bearing, frictional heat is evolved which causes a decrease in viscosity. The viscosity changes its value both across the film and at the surface of the bearing.
Correlation Between Rheological Parameters Measured in Instruments of Different Geometries
Authors: Brodnyan J. G. , Gaskins F. H. , Philippoff W.
Published: September 2009

Treatments of the experimental data necessary to obtain the fundamental rheological parameters stress, strain, and rate of strain are presented, and some typical viscometers used to obtain flow data under steady-state conditions are described. With proper evaluation of the data, the same parameters are obtained independently of design and irrespective of whether the material exhibits Newtonian or non-Newtonian flow. As examples, flow curves are shown for such diverse materials as ASTM 103 oil, an 11 per cent solution of ethyl cellulose in cyclohexanone, a viscose solution, and five solutions of different concentrations of nitrocellulose in n-butyl acetate.

The manner in which elastic effects such as the normal stresses may be bserved in the various steady-state instruments is explained. Then, by examples, it is shown that such effects are not only quite large at high shearing stresses but may also be correlated independently of instrument. The examples used are five solutions of nitrocellulose in n-butyl acetate and seven solutions of different concentrations of polyisobutylene in Decalin.
Rotating Cylinder Viscometers for Gelled Materials
Authors: Russell R. J.
Published: September 2009

There is need to characterize the viscosity behavior of materials that have a yield value.
The Forced-Ball Viscometer and its Application to the Rheological Characterization of Mineral Oil Systems
Authors: Selby Theodore W. , Hunstad Norman A.
Published: September 2009

Investigation concerning the nature of mineral oils and mineral-oil polymer systems at moderately low temperatures has led to the development of the forcedball viscometer which is capable of precise delineation of the rheological properties of these systems. The gel structures which frequently develop, especially in the presence of some polymeric additives (1), 2 can be systematically and reproducibly degraded by the tech niques available with this viscometer. The forced-ball viscometer easily covers a shear rate range of from 50 to 15,000 reciprocal seconds at viscosities ranging from 20 to 4000 centipoises. Viscosities up to at least 500,000 centipoises can be measured at lower shear rates. The temperature range over which this instrument may be used is limited, in general, only by the bath temperatures that can be maintained. As will be shown, the viscometer is simple in operation and has been found durable and sturdy during several years' use.
Non-Newtonian Intrinsic Viscosity of Linear Macromolecules
Authors: Peterlin Anton
Published: September 2009

A survey of different theories of non-Newtonian intrinsic viscosity is given. Only the Gaussian coil has been treated up till now so that all results apply only to ideal solutions, that is, to solutions at Flory's θ point. Perfectly flexible coils without hydrodynamic interaction yield a constant intrinsic viscosity, [77]. The same applies to the case with hydrodynamic interaction when its change with coil deformation in flow is neglected. Anisotropy of hydrodynamic interaction, partial coil rigidity, and the change of hydrodynamic interaction with coil deformation individually yield an initial drop in intrinsic viscosity proportional to the square of the gradient. In the last case the gradient dependence can be calculated over the whole range of gradients. Intrinsic viscosity first decreases to a minimum, then rises again, eventually above the initial value, and reaches a limit nearly corresponding to that of similar rigid, rod-like particles at maximum orientation.
An Investigation of Low-Temperature Viscosity Characteristics of Motor Oils
Authors: Kohl G. A. , Skoglund R. D.
Published: September 2009

This paper presents viscosity data obtained on three Newtonian oils (ASTM Low-Temperature Reference Oils Nos. 1, 3, and 4) and two multigraded oils (ASTM Low-Temperature Reference Oils 5 and 6). These data were obtained using: (1) a modification of the ASTM D 1092 pressure viscometer, (2) a highrate-of-shear rotational viscometer, and (3) kinematic and Brookfield viscometers. An engine equipped with a constant-speed drive and cranking-torque measuring device was also used to determine the viscosity of the multigrade oils by using the Newtonian oils for calibration.

The differences among the data obtained with the various viscometers, the extrapolated viscosity at 0°F obtained from the ASTM Viscosity Temperature Charts, and the viscosities measured in the engine are discussed. The significance of this information with respect to the present SAE Motor Oil Classification system is considered.
Electrochemical Techniques for Predicting Galvanic Corrosion
Authors: Baboian Robert
Published: September 2009

The various electrochemical techniques for predicting galvanic corrosion behavior of metals are described. Each method is evaluated on the basis of practicality using specific galvanic couples as examples. The paper describes some serious shortcomings of the existing techniques and warns of the dangers of their improper use.
Laboratory Studies of Galvanic Corrosion of Aluminum Alloys
Authors: Mansfeld Florian , Kenkel J. V.
Published: September 2009

In a systematic study of galvanic corrosion of aluminum alloys the effects of the dissimilar metal, the solution composition, and area ratio have been evaluated using galvanic current and weight loss measurements. In 3.5 percent sodium chloride, galvanic corrosion rates of the aluminum alloys 1100, 2024, 2219, 6061, and 7075 decrease with the nature of the dissimilar metal in the order: silver > copper > 4130 steel ≫ stainless steel ≈ nickel > Inconel 718 ≫ Ti-6Al-4V ≈ Haynes 188 > tin > cadmium. Coupling to zinc did not lead to cathodic protection of the aluminum alloys as shown by weight loss data, although the aluminum alloys were the cathode in the aluminum-zinc couple. The potential difference of uncoupled dissimilar metals has been found to be a poor indicator of galvanic corrosion rates. Dissolution rates of aluminum alloys coupled to a given dissimilar material are higher in 3.5 percent sodium chloride than in tap water and distilled water where they are found to be comparable. The effect of area ratio AC/AA has been studied in 3.5 percent sodium chloride for area ratios of 0.1, 1.0, or 10. The galvanic curent was found to be independent of the area of the anode, but directly proportional to the area of the cathode. The galvanic current density has been studied in 3.5 percent sodium chloride for area ratios of 0.1, 1.0, or 10. The galvanic curent was found to be independent of the area of the anode, but directly proportional to the area of the cathode. The galvanic current density igA with respect to the anode has been found to be directly proportional to the area ratio (with respect to the anode has been found to be directly proportional to the area ratio (igA = = k1 AC/AA), while the dissolution rate), while the dissolution rate rA of the anode was related to area area ratio by rA = k2 (1 + AC/AA). The results obtained have been explained based on mixed potential theory. Electrochemical methods for measurements of galvanic currents are described in the Appendix.
Electrochemical Examination of Fused Joints Between Metals
Authors: Compton K. G. , Turley J. A.
Published: September 2009

Nine combinations of butt welded plates were studied in seawater for galvanic couple, dissimilar metal type behavior. The potential differences and corrosion currents were determined for the filler material, heat affected zone, and parent metal. In seven of the nine cases, the heat affected zone was found to be anodic to the parent metal. In only one case was there a prospect of cathodic protection from the parent metal to the weld.
Pitting of Galvanized Steel in Controlled Clean Air Environments
Authors: Spence J. W. , Haynie F. H.
Published: September 2009

Specimens of galvanized steel sheet were exposed to polluted and clean air in controlled environmental chambers having the capability to simulate diurnal conditions. Corrosion of the zinc films was essentially a linear function of time for each exposure condition. The range of weight losses for the polluted and clean air environments were unexpected approximately the same. However, uniform corrosion of the zinc occurred in the polluted exposures whereas pitting corrosion of the zinc was observed in the clean air exposures.

Scanning electron microscopy/microprobe analysis of the galvanized zinc surface was used to study the mechanism of initiation and propagation of pitting corrosion. Corrosion products were observed to localize and form a barrier that could accentuate an acidic condition within the pit. Pitting corrosion is thus accelerated by the difference in pH within and outside the pit. During the pollutant exposures pitting corrosion is prevented because the drastic difference in pH within and outside the pit. During the pollutant exposures pitting corrosion is prevented because the drastic difference in pH did not occur.
Measurement and Evaluation of Pitting Corrosion
Authors: Rowe L. C.
Published: September 2009

Pitting is a destructive form of localized corrosion that requires careful analysis and evaluation. Metal surfaces are examined first to identify and determine the extent of pitting, which may be described in terms of standard charts. Nondestructive tests may be used, but they have limitations. Pit depths provide more meaningful information and can be determined by microscopic measurement, depth gages, and other techniques. Statistical methods can be used to show the probability of pitting to estimate maximum pit depths or to show the relationship with time. The change in mechanical properties may also provide useful information.
Statistical Aspects of Crevice Corrosion in Seawater
Authors: Anderson D. B.
Published: September 2009

The natural variability in incidence and severity of oxygen concentration cell crevice corrosion in seawater systems has been shown to follow prescribed statistical patterns. These considerations have been used to develop a viable multiple crevice test method for assessing comparative alloy capabilities and for isolating specific geometrical and environmental effects. Test data developed by this method have also provided interesting insight into the corrosion mechanisms involved.
Report on ASTM Task Group for Determination of Elastic Constants
Authors: Ramberg Walter
Published: September 2009

In March, 1950, a Task Group, under the Subcommittee on Elastic Strength of Materials, of ASTM Committee E-1 on Methods of Testing, was appointed under the chairmanship of the author “to survey the work done in determining the elastic constants of materials and to recommend suitable methods for the determination of elastic moduli.”
Dynamic Methods for Determining the Elastic Constants and their Temperature Variation in Metals
Authors: Fine M. E.
Published: September 2009

In dynamic measurement of the elastic constants, the specimen is part of a vibrating system. An introduction to the theory is given and the various methods, ranging in frequency from a fraction of a cycle to 30 megacycles per second, arc critically reviewed. Dynamic methods are capable of giving precise results and arc more convenient than static measurements if the sample is small, brittle, has large creep effects, or if knowledge of the elastic constants as functions of temperature is desired. In most dynamic methods the internal friction of the sample may be measured in the same apparatus. Besides giving engineering information, dynamic-elastic measurements have proved valuable for investigating phenomena in metals.
The Present Status of Metallography
Authors: Gray R. J.
Published: September 2009

The metallographer has a prime responsibility as a member of a metallurgical or, in many laboratories, a materials team. In addition to his duties of specimen preparation and assistance in interpretation of microstructures, he must keep abreast of new techniques and developments or develop his own as they are needed.

The Space Age and particularly the problems of the Nuclear Age have climaxed the obstacles of this field. The daily remote handling of highly radioactive or toxic materials or both, which only a few years ago were textbook curiosities, has removed the “touch” formerly considered an essential part of the operation. Almost all the preparation and investigational steps performed in a conventional laboratory can be carried out by remote operations.

New techniques in revealing the microstructure in color by staining and anodizing are becoming very popular. Although the colors usually produced have enhanced the art tremendously, the benefit is not confined to beauty. Reaction mechanisms such as corrosion and diffusion as well as variations in crystallographic orientation have been understood more clearly from color interference patterns or basic color changes. This information can be recorded in the laboratory by adopting the present techniques in color photography.

The development of commercial equipment allied to the objectives of the metallographer has been a big help. The microprobe analyzer permits essential analyses of microscopic areas. Hot stage microscopy equipment allows us to view grain boundary movements and other features formerly confined to the imagination. Quantitative data are obtainable now in a fraction of time formerly required. Along with this development of commercial equipment, there have been “inlab” modifications which show great promise.

Many challenges remain and new ones can be seen in the near future. One in particular is the uncertainty of availability of well trained or professional metallographers. Current trends in metallurgy and materials science curricula seem to be decreasing the amount of metallographic training. If this trend continues, there will be an even greater requirement for “professional metallographers.”
Recent Advances in X-Ray Diffraction Topography
Authors: Weissmann Sigmund
Published: September 2009

With the aid of X-ray topography it has been possible to make considerable advances in the characterization and understanding of lattice defects in materials. While coarse lattice defects can be detected by methods based on reflectivity contrast, fine lattice defects can be revealed sensitively by methods based on phase contrast. Diffraction methods are being presented which supplement the topographic methods and render them more quantitative. Since lattice defects on a scale smaller than those resolvable by X-ray topographic methods can be disclosed by transmission electron microscopy, it is expected that for the detection of the defect structure of solids the X-ray and electron microscopy methods will be closely correlated in the near future. Such intimate correlation study is expected to gain in impetus in view of the recent development of high-power electron microscopes, namely, 500 and 1000-kw scopes, which permit the investigation of thicker specimens than was hitherto possible.
Progress in X-Ray Diffraction Data Compilations
Authors: McMurdie H. F.
Published: September 2009

Crystallography is a very active field for compilation efforts, the largest one being concerned with phase identification. The X-Ray Powder Data File and Crystal Data are the principle ones for this use. Structure Reports and Crystal Structures are the major continuous series reporting crystal structures. Details of the methods and procedures of producing data at NBS for the X-Ray Powder Data File are given.
The Case for a Universal X-Ray Diffraction Intensity Scale
Authors: Scott R. K.
Published: September 2009

A universal intensity scale, for X-ray diffraction, which will relate the intensity of the strongest line of any compound to the strongest line of a standard substance, is proposed for inclusion in the X-Ray Powder Data File. Corundum, alpha-aluminum oxide, is a suitable reference standard. Advantages of the scale, as well as some precautions in using it, are discussed.
Effect of Carbon Content on Transformation Structures of lron-22 Per Cent Nickel Alloys
Authors: Mihalisin J. R.
Published: September 2009

The structures of iron-22 per cent nickel alloys with carbon contents ranging from 0.007 to 0.14 per cent were studied by light and transmission electron microscopy. As the carbon content increased, the structures changed from random dislocation type to plate type with subcells. At the higher carbon levels, twinning was observed. A discontinuous increase in hardness with carbon content was noted which coincided with the onset of a well developed plate structure with sub-cells. Twinning appeared to have no significant effect upon hardness.
Microscopical Studies of Impact and Shock Loading of Metals and Fluorocarbon Polymers Immersed in Liquid Fluorine
Authors: Tiner N. A. , Asunmaa S. K.
Published: September 2009

Certain materials immersed in liquid fluorine or fluorine-containing liquid propellants explode or ignite when subjected to impact or shock loading. The pressure waves resulting from such loading may cause microstructural changes in the interior of materials. Under shock loading, tantalum, columbium, and titanium alloys exhibit discoloration on the specimen surface and dislocation cell structures within crystalline grains throughout the specimen. The commercial polytetrafluorethylene often causes explosive reactions. The shock waves propagating through the specimen cause pronounced microstructural changes by the formation of microvoids and spherulites. Electron microscopic studies reveal that these spherulites consist of regular arrays of thin (200 to 300 A thick) blade-like lamellae containing 20 A wide segments. These presumably are helices of fluorocarbon molecular chains formed similarly to Hoffman's model of chain folding and extended chain crystallization.
New Applications of Electron Probe Microanalysis
Authors: Brown J. D.
Published: September 2009

New and established applications of the electron probe microanalyzer are reviewed. A dominant theme apparent in recent publications is the complementary use of information from other analytical techniques with compositional data from the electron probe microanalyzer. The established applications which include the analysis of precipitates and inclusions, phase identification, homogeneity determinations, and diffusion studies are discussed, with emphasis on recent work. The analysis of low atomic number elements, very small quantities of materials, and thin films along with the applications to semiconductor technology are the important new areas of application during the past three years. Another important trend in the application of the electron probe microanalyzer is the rise of auxiliary techniques. Thus cathodoluminescence, sample currents, and Kossel microdiffraction studies are becoming important adjuncts in the analysis of microvolumes.
Development of Austenitic Stainless Steels with Improved Resistance to Elevated-Temperature Irradiation Embrittlement
Authors: Bloom E. E. , Weir J. R.
Published: September 2009

The effects of titanium in concentrations of up to 0.5 weight percent on the tensile and creep-rupture properties of unirradiated and irradiated types 304 and 304L stainless steel have been investigated. It was found that within this range an alloy containing 0.15 to 0.25 weight percent titanium has optimum postirradiation ductility. When this alloy is annealed 1 h at 925 C prior to irradiation, the postirradiation ductility is essentially independent of tension test temperature and increases as the strain rate is reduced in creep-rupture tests at 700 C. In contrast, the postirradiation ductility of standard types 304 or 304L stainless steel heat treated and irradiated under the same conditions decreases with increasing temperature or decreasing strain rate.

These effects appear to result primarily from the effect of titanium on the intergranular fracture process, making crack initiation or propagation, or both, more difficult and thus reducing susceptibility to the high-temperature irradiation embrittlement phenomenon.
Effects of Yttrium on the Structure and Post-Irradiation Tensile Properties of an Iron-Chromium-Aluminum Alloy
Authors: Roberts A. C. , Harries D. R. , Arkell D. R. , Dewey M. A. P. , Hughes J. D. H.
Published: September 2009

The effects of 0.86 percent yttrium on the structure and elevated temperature tensile properties of unirradiated and thermal reactor irradiated Fe-15Cr-4Al ferritic steel have been investigated. Yttrium reduces the grain coarsening tendencies of this alloy; the yttrium is present mainly as YFe 9 precipitates within the grains and generally aligned in the direction of rolling. Autoradiographic examination shows that the boron is concentrated at the grain boundaries of the yttrium free alloy, while the boron is primarily associated with the YFe 9 phase in the 0.86 percent yttrium alloy.

The tensile ductilities of the 0 percent yttrium alloy at temperatures ranging from 700 to 950 C are markedly reduced after irradiation at 50 or 650 C; the magnitude of the embrittlement is somewhat greater after irradiation at the higher temperature. This irradiation induced embrittlement is associated with failure along the grain boundaries. There are no significant reductions in the high-temperature ductilities of the 0.86 percent yttrium alloy after irradiation.

Optical and thin film electron microscope examinations suggest that the mechanism of the irradiation induced embrittlement in the 0 percent yttrium alloy is similar to that proposed for austenitic steels, namely, the stress induced growth of grain boundary helium bubbles produced as a result of the B10(n,α)Li7 reaction. The absence of a high-temperature irradiation embrittlement effect in the 0.86 percent yttrium alloy is considered to be primarily because of the association of most of the boron with the YFe 9 phase and, hence, the retention of the helium within the grains.
High-Temperature Embrittlement of AISI Type 316 Austenitic Stainless Steels after Irradiation
Authors: Weisz M. , Malkin J. , Erler J. , Andre J. P.
Published: September 2009

The results presented below are related to potential cladding materials for fast reactor fuel elements, that is, austenitic stainless steels and precipitation-hardened nickel alloys.

These materials were irradiated to a dose of 3 × 1021 nvt (E > 1 MeV) in different thermal reactors and to a dose of 1.6 × 1022 nvt (total dose) in a fast reactor. The irradiation temperature was about 700 C in thermal reactors and about 500 to 600 C in a fast reactor. After irradiation, tension tests and uniaxial stress rupture tests were performed at temperatures in the 600 to 800 C range.

For all alloys, high-temperature tests after irradiation have shown a more or less pronounced embrittlement, not recoverable by any post-irradiation annealing. This embrittlement is associated with intergranular wedge-type cracks initiating at triple points. For a given alloy, at a given temperature, the lower the rate of deformation, the more pronounced the embrittlement.

For Type 316 austenitic steels, we observed that the radiation induced hardening was low and disappeared at a maximum temperature of 800 C. The embrittlement was associated with a decrease in the nonuniform part of the elongation in tension tests and with a decrease in the elongation and duration in the tertiary stage of stress-rupture tests. Two types of factors were studied: 1. Those concerning the structural parameters: grain size, precipitation, prestraining, and chemical composition. 2. These concerning the actual conditions of irradiation.
Effects of Neutron Irradiation on Creep-Rupture Properties of Type 316 Stainless Steel Tubes
Authors: Standring J. , Bell I. P. , Tickle H. , Glendinning A.
Published: September 2009

The effects of irradiation in the Dounreay Fast Reactor and the Dounreay Materials Testing Reactor on the creep-rupture-properties of Type 316 stainless steel tubing were investigated. DFR irradiation produced a loss of rupture ductility but, in general, no change in creep strength in 650 C biaxial tests of solution-treated material. Cold-worked tubes suffered a loss of 550 C creep strength. Irradiation of solution-treated tubes at 650 C in DMTR caused a severe loss of high-temperature ductility and a tenfold reduction of creep rate both during and after irradiation. It is possible that an irradiation-induced carbide precipitation process is responsible for the increase of creep strength.
Rust Inhibitors—Their Evaluation and Performance
Authors: von Fuchs George H
Published: September 2009

The primary purpose of turbine oil rust inhibitors is to form water-repellent stable films on those exposed iron surfaces within the lubricating system and governor mechanism of steam turbines with which the lubricant comes in contact. Such additives are normally evaluated by ASTM Method D 665, but passing this test does not always assure satisfactory field performance. One reason is that some rust inhibitors, particularly those of the soap type, form loosely bound protective films which prevent adhesion of water only as long as it occurs suspended in an oil phase, but when the oil is absent, such films soon fail. A method to test the hydrolytic stability of rust-protective films is to expose them to the direct action of a continuously agitated water phase.

Another rust test not normally specified for turbine oils is the Naval Research Laboratories static water drop test. A greatly accelerated version of the NRL test is the so-called catechol test, based on the fact that the first corrosion product of iron is colorless, water-soluble ferrous hydroxide which in the presence of catechol is immediately converted to highly colored ferrous catecholate.

When in the D 665 rust test, distilled water is replaced by 0.1 N hydrochloric acid only those additives will stand up which form a closely packed chemically and hydrolytically stable film. The performance of the rust inhibitor is determined by the structure and size of its hydrophobic side chain as well as by the type and strength of the chemical bond formed with the reactive polar group of its molecules. In the complete absence of water, the reaction of rust preventives with iron surfaces is greatly retarded or even inhibited.

Rust inhibitors should also be subjected to other test criteria including their effect on oil oxidation. Even some of the best rust inhibitors will often seriously reduce the oxidation stability of the oil to which they are added because of their tendency to dissolve catalytically active metals such as copper and iron. The ideal rust inhibitor should have no harmful effects on oil life. Other test criteria to be considered are the effect rust inhibitors may have on the demulsibility, foaming and air-release characteristics of the oils; also their hydrolytic stability, chemical purity, and their compatibility with other oil additives.
Improvements in the Engine-Operating Sequence V Tests for MS Oils in Stop-and-Go Service
Authors: Potter R. I.
Published: September 2009

This paper describes the full-scale engine test techniques used in the “Engine-Operating Sequence V Test” and outlines improvements incorporated in 1962 for test control and oil consumption. A section of the paper is devoted to the effect of motor gasolines on varnish and sludge and their resulting rating levels. Data are also included on test repeatability and reproducibility with the designated reference fuels and reference oils.
Single-Cylinder Test Techniques for Engine Oils—Part One: CRC L-38 Test Work
Authors: Hall C. A. , Martin E. A.
Published: September 2009

In 1949, the Coordinating Lubricant and Equipment Research Committee of the Coordinating Research Council, Inc. (CRC) reviewed the need for an oil test engine that could be used as a research tool for the evaluation of engine lubricants. As part of this review, a symposium was held in St. Louis, Mo., to provide descriptions of the single-cylinder research test engines existing at that time. Five engines were suggested for consideration by this committee. Since no single engine contained all of the desired features for a research-type laboratory tool, however, the CRC Coordinating Lubricant and Equipment Research Committee organized the CLR Oil Test Engine Group to develop such an engine.
A New Look in Chassis Lubricants
Authors: Stucker J. B. , Toulmin H. A. , Herbenar E. J.
Published: September 2009

This paper covers the results of a survey of automobile and automotive parts manufacturers on their requirements for “extended-life” chassis lubricants. Opinions on the desired physical and chemical specifications varied rather widely. A substantial majority of those interviewed indicated a belief that the critical factor in “extended-life” lubrication is the seal rather than the lubricant. Screening test practice varied widely, but there was complete agreement that the final answer was to be found only in the vehicle under actual service conditions in the field.
Effect of Lubricant on Automatic Transmission Clutch Plate Durability
Authors: Davison E. D.
Published: September 2009

Clutch plate durability in an automatic transmission has been correlated with fluid-clutch plate coefficient of friction and clutch energy absorption. These values were computed from measurements taken during the dynamometer operation of a conventional engine and automatic transmission combination. The variables measured for these computations were transmission output shaft torque, output shaft speed, clutch drum speed, and clutch-apply pressure.
General Motors Rear Axle Lubricant Recommendations
Authors: Hunstad Norman A.
Published: September 2009

A solution to the problem of recommending rear axle lubricant to the car owner requires the availability of good quality products, together with identification of these products.

Rear axle lubricant of the MIL-L-2105B quality level is needed for General Motors cars. Some GM divisions will advise car owners to use MIL-L-2105B lubricants in 1963 cars. Such lubricants should be made available at retail outlets, and they should be clearly identified.
Test Criteria for Ford Passenger Car Rear Axle Lubricants
Authors: Gasvoda R. F.
Published: September 2009

The performance and physical tests used by the Ford Motor Co. in specifying requirements for passenger car rear axle lubricants are outlined. Lubricant designs based on these performance requirements are incorporated in axle lubricants to provide proper lubrication for an extended service period of 100,000 miles.
Designing and Fabricating with Textiles
Authors: Edman T.
Published: September 2009

The designing and fabricating of prosthetic textile materials for medical and surgical applications take into consideration the selection of the raw material, the manufacturing process, and the finishing.
Designing and Fabricating with Elastomers
Authors: Konkle G. M.
Published: September 2009

The term elastomer or rubber is applied to any material which is capable of recovering from large deformations quickly and forceably. A vast number of materials of widely different compositions fit this description. Polymers vary from products of the rubber tree to synthetic polymers consisting largely of the element sulfur. Finished products contain two to twelve ingredients in addition to the basic polymer. Each product differs in properties including physiological reactions.

The physical properties of a rubber part are determined by the type of polymer, the other ingredients used, and, to a lesser extent, by the fabricating technique. Proper choice of materials is essential for successful performance. The complex requirements of surgical implants make this a difficult and complicated problem which requires the combined efforts of medical specialists and elastomer experts.

Rubber can be fabricated into a large variety of useful shapes. Complex shapes of closely controlled dimensions can be formed by molding. Shapes of uniform cross section can be made continuously by extrusion. Rubber can be bonded to metal or coated on fabric for increased strength and stiffness. It can be made into sponge or foam of varying degrees of porosity.
Resistance of Polymers to Degradation
Authors: Atlas S. M. , Mark H. F.
Published: September 2009

Several factors contribute to the rate of degradation of organic polymers under the influence of chemical reagents such as acids, bases, oxygen, or ozone, and of micro-organisms or enzymes:

1. The presence and frequence of chemical bonds which react in principle with these ingredients. These are eventually severed by such action. Bonds of this type are: -C-O-, -C-S-, -C-N-, -C=N-, C=C, and -Si-O-, in contradistinction to -C-C-, which is much more difficult to attack.

2. The atoms or groups in the nearest proximity of these sensitive bonds which either activate or protect them. Such atoms or groups are F, Cl, OH, NH2, COOH, CH3, CF3, etc.

3. The supermolecular character of the polymer: oriented, amorphous, crystalline, folded, crosslinked, etc., which does not affect the intrinsic chemical reactivity of the sensitive bonds but influences very profoundly their accessibility and, therefore, the rate of actual degradation.

The discussion of these three factors gives a reasonable explanation of polymer stability, offers useful working hypotheses for improvements, and stimulates the proper selection of stabilizers.
Texture Development and Texture Gradients in Zircaloy Tubing
Authors: Tenckhoff E. , Rittenhouse P. L.
Published: September 2009

Basal (0002) and prism {100} pole figures for Zircaloy-2 tubing produced by different fabrication methods were determined after extrusion and final reduction on several layers of the tube wall. For various processing conditions, markedly different textures as well as significant texture gradients across the wall thickness were found. A concentration of basal poles toward the radial direction occurred if there was a preponderance of reduction in wall thickness. This also gave a strong texture gradient across the tube wall. A split of basal poles toward the tangential direction occurred if there was a preponderance of reduction in diameter. Here, nearly no texture gradient across the tube wall appeared. Tube reducing and ball swaging developed essentially similar textures when similar reductions were accomplished.
The Mechanical Properties of Zircaloy-2 Tubing Containing Circumferentially Aligned Hydride
Authors: Slattery G F
Published: September 2009

The effects of circumferentially aligned hydride on the transverse mechanical properties of Zircaloy-2 tubing have been determined. Test variables included the method of hydriding, electrolytic versus autoclaving in LiOH solution and the method of the test, ring tension versus closed-end tube burst. The investigation showed that the strength of the Zircaloy-2 decreased by 50 percent between room temperature and 400 C. To maintain adequate ductility above 200 C in hydrided Zircaloy-2 tubing tested under biaxial stress, it is necessary to specify an upper limit in the region of 400 ppm for hydrogen content. The least ductile condition cold is with an external hydride layer present and the ductility can be significantly improved if this layer is absorbed entirely into the tube wall. Under these conditions, the critical threshold for hydrogen embrittlement can be raised from 70 to 450 ppm H2 in the tube wall. Ring tension tests are not as sensitive to hydride embrittlement as the biaxially stressed tube-burst test.
Fatigue-Crack Growth and Propagation in 2.5Nb Zirconium Alloy Pressure Tubing
Authors: Pankaskie P. J.
Published: September 2009

Tubes of 2.5Nb zirconium alloy were fatigued in the tension-tension mode by cyclic internal pressures to cause axial crack growth and unstable fractures at room temperature. Pressure-cycle rates ranged from 400 to 3000 cph. Both the cold-worked and heat-treated conditions, before and after hydriding (200 to 300 ppm H2), were investigated. Exploratory tests were done to determine the effect of the axial length of the surface-stress-intensifying defect on fatigue-crack initiation, growth, and critical length at unstable fracture.

From short (≤tube-wall thickness) length defects, fatigue-crack initiation and growth will occur at nominal peak hoop stresses equal to or less than the estimated endurance limit (∼25,000 psi). For fatigue cracks initiated at the outer diameter surface, the shape of the crack front is semicircular. The number of stress cycles required to initiate fatigue cracking at the surface is inversely proportional to the square of the surface-defect length. Crack-growth rates, for non-hydrided tubing are proportional to (ΔK)5, and to (ΔK)4 after hydriding. There was a tendency for the critical crack length at unstable fracture to decrease with an increase in the number of fatigue cycles required to initiate fatigue cracking.

The fracture toughness of the heat-treated tubing before hydriding is less than for the cold-worked condition either before or after hydriding, and after hydriding the fracture toughness is further reduced.
Oxygen Embrittlement of Zirconium-Copper Alloys at High Temperatures
Authors: Kaden W. , Debray W.
Published: September 2009

Zirconium alloys exposed to temperatures above 450 C in oxygen-containing atmospheres, will be subject to oxygen diffusion from the oxide layer into the metal. An oxygen-enriched zone is formed having a lower ductility than the metal in the initial stage and therefore is suscepticle to cracks. The uptake of oxygen by the metal and the thickness of the oxygen-enriched zone were measured as a function of oxidation time and temperature. The results showed that the mechanical properties of the metal as a function of temperature and oxygen content agreed well with the observation that the formation of cracks stops when the crack end has reached a layer of reduced oxygen concentration and consequently increased ductility.
The Effect of Neutron Irradiation and Cold Work on the Strain-Aging Behavior of Zircaloy-2
Authors: Veevers K. , Rotsey W. B. , Snowden K. U.
Published: September 2009

The strain-aging behavior of annealed Zircaloy-2 in vacuum was studied as a function of deformation temperature, integrated fast-neutron dose, and degree of cold work. Strain aging occurred in the temperature range 200 to 500 C. Transmission electron microscopy showed that in the temperature range 300 to 450 C, dislocations were arranged in a cell structure, and that at 500 C two-dimensional hexagonal dislocation nets were present. Between 200 and 400 C, the strain aging was found to be due to the presence of oxygen; however, the origin of the strain aging between 400 and 500 C was not identified.

At 300 C the strain aging decreased with increasing neutron dose and decreasing amounts of prior cold work. Post-irradiation annealing experiments between 400 and 600 C increased the yield stress of the material at 300 C after irradiation at 325 C.
Creep of Zirconium from 50 to 850 C
Authors: Gilbert E. R. , Duran S. A. , Bement A. L.
Published: September 2009

Uniaxial tension creep tests have been conducted on polycrystalline alpha zirconium from 50 to 850 C to evaluate the stress and temperature dependence of the second-stage creep rate. Five domains of creep behavior were observed over this temperature range. From 50 to 300 C the activation energy for creep was stress-dependent increasing from approximately 30 to 75 kcal/mole when the stress was decreased from 800 to 400 kg/cm2. Between 300 and 400 C, the activation energy is approximately 70 kcal/mole. From 400 to 500 C, the activation energy increased from 70 to 105 kcal/mole with decreasing stress. From 500 to 700 C, the activation energy was lower with an average value of 66 kcal/mole, which was independent of stress and temperature. From 700 to 800 C, the activation energy was 100 kcal/mole independent of stress. The apparent activation energy decreased to a very low value above 800 C. This apparent decrease in the activation energy is caused by a structural instability which may be related to the alpha-to-beta phase transformation. The creep behavior of alpha zirconium was somewhat different, depending upon whether the specimen was obtained from material fabricated and heat treated in the alpha phase or the beta phase. The various mechanisms controlling the creep behavior in these domains are discussed. The high-temperature activation energies of 100 and 66 kcal/mole are similar to those observed in other hexagonal close-packed (hcp) metals when compared on a homologous temperature basis. The low-temperature creep behavior is analogous in some respects to creep in zirconium-base alloys Zircaloy-2 and 2.5 Nb zirconium which are used for pressure tubes and fuel cladding in water-cooled nuclear reactors.
The Significance of Irradiation-Induced Creep on Reactor Performance of a Zircaloy-2 Pressure Tube
Authors: Watkins B. , Wood D. S.
Published: September 2009

Zircaloy-2 has been used for pressure tubes in water reactors which operate in the temperature range 250 to 300 C. Irradiation enhances the creep rate under these conditions to such an extent that design must be based on creep rupture.

Insufficient data are available to allow a Larson-Miller extrapolation of the in-reactor creep-rupture strength, and in its place a limiting creep-strain criterion is proposed. The use of a strain limit in design of pressure tubes is discussed and both tubular and uniaxial creep-rupture data are presented. These show that the time to reach 2 or 3 percent strain is only about half the time to failure. Irradiation creep-rupture data are presented which indicate that irradiation substantially increases the strain at which tertiary creep commences and it is suggested that irradiation increases the rupture ductility.

Assuming that the in-reactor creep rate does not decrease with increase of testing time the anticipated creep strain under design conditions is of the order of 2 percent. This is well within the limit which could lead to operational restriction and the time to reach 2 percent strain is about half the time to reach failure in out-of-reactor creep-rupture tests. Thus even with this pessimistic approach there is no risk of a creep-rupture failure under design conditions.
The Effect of Texture on the Torsional Yielding of Zircaloy Tubing
Authors: Rittenhouse P. L.
Published: September 2009

Torsion tests were performed as part of a study of the effects of texture on the biaxial plastic properties of Zircaloy tubing. The torsion yield strengths varied widely from lot to lot of tubing and, in every instance, were higher than those predicted by conventional failure theories. Variation in yield strength is ascribed to the presence or absence of texture-strengthening in the plane acted upon by the torsion stresses. Evaluation of the effect of texture is provided by comparison of torsion-yield strength ratios that we developed by modification of the maximum-shear-stress failure condition.
Failure of Pressurized Zircaloy Tubes During Thermal Excursions in Steam and in Inert Atmospheres
Authors: Emmerich K. M. , Juenke E. F. , White J. F.
Published: September 2009

This work is part of a general study on the behavior of Zircaloy clad-UO2 fuel elements during a loss-of-coolant accident to a water-cooled industrial power reactor. The fuel pins have an internal pressure due to fission gases and may or may not be exposed to steam during the thermal excursion. The energy from the nuclear heating (nuclear afterheat) plus heat from the metal-water reaction may cause the reactor core to experience rapid heat-up to about 1400 C before emergency core-cooling systems become effective in reducing the core temperatures to below the normal operating temperatures. Analysis of such an incident requires an understanding of the mode of failure and the effects of internal pressure, rate of heating, and oxidation.

The temperature of failure for Zircaloy cladding material, heated in an inert atmosphere, was determined for different heating rates for tension specimens of sheet stock under constant load and for tubes with constant internal pressure. The temperature of failure (that is, 34 percent expansion for the tubes, and rupture for the tension specimens) was found to be heating-rate sensitive with higher failure temperatures occurring at higher heating rates. An analytical expression relating applied stress, the heating rate, the true strain at failure, and temperature of failure was derived through analysis of the data from these tests. The activation energy for second-stage creep in Zircaloy-4 obtained from this analysis is 78.5 kcal/mole.

Pressurized tests in a steam atmosphere were made at pressures from 0.040 to 0.141 kg/mm2 (57 to 200 psig) at heating rates from 0.1 to 300 C/s. Steam oxidation caused an increase in the temperature of failure. In addition, at low heating rates and low internal pressures the mode of failure changed from ductile failure (34 percent expansion) to brittle failure (burst). High pressures and high heating rates showed failure behavior similar to that observed in an inert atmosphere.