bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Serving More Segments and Offeig More Products
Authors: Enz Cathy A. , Potter Gordon , Siguaw Judy A.
Published: March 2007

A profit-enhancing strategy for hotels must begin by examining both the customer mix and the product-and-service mix of a particular hotel. Looking at the variety of products offered and the customers served in combination with historical information on profits and losses can help a manager understand more fully the connection among customers, products and services, revenues, costs, and profits. This study shows that properties with great product-and-service variety and serving a large number of customer segments had higher undistributed operating costs per available room than properties offering less variety and serving fewer market groups. At the same time, the greater the variety of products and services offered, the higher a hotel's departmental profit per available room and the higher its gross operating profit (GOP). That is, efforts to increase product-and-service variety increase costs, but those costs are fully offset by increases in GOP. Therefore, a hotel that expands its variety of products and services not only achieves an increase in revenues, but also has higher profitability than when it offers fewer products and services. In contrast, hotels that increase the variety of customer segments they serve did not experience increases in departmental profit and GOP. Thus, a hotel serving a large variety of customer segments may not recoup the costs of implementing that strategy.
Empirically Supported Treatments (ESTs) in Perspective
Authors: Waehler Charles A. , Kalodner Cynthia R. , Wampold Bruce E. , Lichtenberg James W.
Published: March 2007

There is a strong movement toward employing only evidence-based treatments or empirically validated treatments (EVTs) in delivering psychological services. This movement is affecting professional practice, research, and training now and will continue to be influential far into the future. Efficacious treatments attempt to respond successfully to three prominent realms challenging psychology’s professional integrity: practicing psychologists’ applications, scientific certainty, and marketplace demands. In addition, training efficacy and adherence to ethical principles must be considered regarding adopting EVTs. Although the successful blending of these domains holds forth great potential for enriching training and practice, consolidating these areas may obscure elements essential to each pursuit. This article reviews both the merits and concerns the EVT movement holds forth for the counseling psychology profession. Recommendations are offered for integrating EVT knowledge into coursework and practica training.
Counseling Psychology in Time and Place
Authors: Baker David B.
Published: March 2007

Viewed from the vantage point of history, the career contributions of Naomi Meara, Roger Myers, and Lyle Schmidt remind us of the influence of time and place. Examination of these contextual factors reveals the unique contributions of these pioneers and presents an opportunity to glimpse into the future. Looking forward or looking back, counseling psychologists appear to share a transcendent belief in the power and possibilities of satisfying human relationships.
Internship and Initial Job Placements in Counseling Psychology
Authors: Neimeyer Greg J. , Bowman Jason , Stewart Alan E.
Published: March 2007

A 26-year retrospective study was conducted on internship and initial job placements of counseling psychologists. The results indicated that university counseling centers consistently supported the highest percentage of the field’s predoctoral interns followed by Veteran Administration Medical Centers, other hospital settings, and community mental health centers. Initial job placements indicated relative parity among placements in academic, community mental health, counseling center, and private practice settings with Veterans Administration Medical Centers and other hospital settings accounting for significant percentages of the field’s initial job placements. In addition, changes in internship and job placements across time indicated that various contexts have waxed or waned in their contribution to the training and placement of counseling psychologists. Results are discussed in relation to the evolving identity of counseling psychology as a specialty and the contexts that support and challenge that development.
Family-Based Empirically Supported Interventions
Authors: Sexton Thomas L. , Alexander James F.
Published: March 2007

In this article, the authors evaluate family-based counseling interventions from the perspective of the Principles of Empirically Supported Interventions (PESI). At the broadest level of evidence, both the qualitative and meta-analytic reviews provide substantial support for the general efficacy of family-based interventions. At more specific levels of evidence, family-based intervention programs that target at-risk adolescents demonstrate clinical success with a variety of clients and problems, in many locales, when delivered by a range of interventionists. Finally, the authors provide some thoughts on the current state of family-based intervention research and the value of the PESI criteria for identifying and developing effective treatments, as well as guiding future family-based research.
Assessment in Counseling Psychology
Authors: May Therese M. , Scott Kathleen J.
Published: March 2007

There is some evidence that the role of psychological assessment in counseling psychology is changing. Relatively little is known about the specific aspects of current training in assessment, however. Training directors of American Psychological Association (APA) approved counseling psychology programs and APA-approved internship sites were surveyed to determine the extent of training in psychological assessment procedures. Results indicated that (a) clinical interview is the most widely used assessment procedure; (b) the role of vocational assessment is changing; (c) different assessment procedures are emphasized in academic and field training; (d) proficiency in different assessment procedures is expected at different points in training; and (e) some differences in the use of assessment procedures exist among internship settings, with counseling centers being the most divergent. Results suggest that to keep training efforts current, those involved in training counseling psychologists need to be aware of assessment skills needed in professional practice settings. Also, the basis for different emphases in academic and field training in this important area should be explored further.
Twenty Years of Feminist Counseling and Therapy
Authors: Enns Carolyn Zerbe
Published: March 2007

This article summarizes the history and current status of feminist counseling and psychotherapy. It describes the formation and development of feminist therapy during the 1970s, compares early commitments with aspects of change and maturation during the second decade, and reviews areas of agreement and disagreement during the 1980s and early 1990s. Initial feminist efforts resulted in the creation of an overarching philosophical framework for feminist psychotherapy. The second decade was marked by rapid expansion and the application of feminist therapy to diverse populations and problems as well as the integration of feminist philosophy with mainstream psychotherapeutic systems. Feminist therapists developed more complex models of personality, diagnosis, and ethical behavior and engaged in the examination and revision of early commitments. This review draws on the literatures of both social work and psychology and discusses the contribution of counseling psychologists to feminist therapy. It also addresses theoretical issues, research, training needs, and the role of advocacy and activism in feminist therapy.
Supervision of Predoctoral Graduate Research
Authors: Hoshmand Lisa Tsoi
Published: March 2007

A practice-oriented approach to research supervision is described, which emphasizes the application of clinical thinking and practice-oriented methods to inquiry and involves a process of learning by doing. The research interests, orientation, and learning response of the students who have experienced this research practicum are reported. It is concluded that a research practicum of this nature can engage the interest of those counseling students who are practice oriented and prepare them for a contributing role in research relevant to practice.
Factors Influencing the Stated Career Goals of Minority Graduate Students in Counseling Psychology Programs
Authors: PopeDavis Donald B. , Stone Gerald L. , Nielson Deanna
Published: March 2007

The purpose of this study was to determine the factors that influence the stated career goals that racial and ethnic minority graduate students in counseling psychology make while pursuing their graduate education. A national sample of 118 minority students, representing 50 training programs, participated. Participants completed a career goal instrument and a demographic questionnaire. Results indicated that most counseling psychology minority students preferred combined academic and practitioner career goals, whereas few were interested in pursuingfull-time academic careers; the presence of positive feedback and reinforcement of counseling skills were primary influences on career choices. Findings are discussed in terms of recommendations for training programs and future theoretically based studies.
Lessons from Two Randomized Experiments in Criminal Justice Settings
Authors: Feder Lynette , Jolin Annette , Feyerherm William
Published: March 2007

Experiments are known to be powerful tools in assessing the effectiveness of interventions. Notwithstanding this knowledge, randomized field trials have been little used in criminal justice settings. The researchers discuss their experiences implementing two experiments: one in a courthouse and the other in a police agency. Despite the different settings, common problems surfaced in both randomized field trials. The authors discuss obstacles faced in implementing and running experiments and suggest some strategies for avoiding these problems. It is the researchers' hope that such a candid discussion will help others to design and implement stronger experiments.
Evidence-Based Corrections: Identifying What Works
Authors: MacKenzie Doris Layton
Published: March 2007

Relatively few policy decisions regarding corrections use scientific evidence to assist in making informed decisions. This article emphasizes the importance of using evidence-based corrections if we are to be successful in reducing crime in the community. As an example of how scientific information can be used to make decisions, an assessment technique designed by University of Maryland researchers is used to assess the effectiveness of correctional strategies, interventions, and programs. This technique uses a two-step procedure for drawing conclusions about what works in crime prevention. Studies within each area (e.g., drug treatment, cognitive skills programs, educational programs) are assessed for scientific rigor. The scientific rigor score and the direction and significance of the results are used to draw conclusions about what works, what doesn't, what is promising, and what we don't know. The assessment technique is described and summaries of the findings from this assessment are presented.
Effective Services for Parolees with Mental Illnesses
Authors: Lurigio Arthur J.
Published: March 2007

This article is divided into four major sections. The first describes the factors that have resulted in persons with serious mental illnesses' (PSMIs') becoming a growing segment of the correctional population. The second explores the changing face of parole supervision and the implications of those changes for the care of PSMIs on parole. Section three discusses the prevalence of mental illnesses among adult prisoners and probationers and draws inferences from those data to the parolee population. Section three also explores mental health care for prison inmates and special programs for PSMIs on probation and parole. The article concludes with several suggestions for improving parole practices to meet the needs of PSMIs.
The “Hidden” System of Juvenile Control
Authors: Schwartz Ira M. , Jackson-Beeck Marilyn , Anderson Roger
Published: March 2007

Recently, critics of the deinstitutionalization movement have suggested that gains made in removing juveniles from institutions in the justice system may have been offset by corresponding increases in the use of institutions in other juvenile control systems (such as, mental health, child welfare, and chemical dependency). This article is based on a study of juveniles institutionalized in the mental health and chemical dependency systems in Minnesota. The findings, which show that substantial and increasing numbers of youths are being institutionalized in these systems, lend support to the claims of the critics and raise significant policy questions in the areas of juvenile justice, child welfare, health care, and juvenile law that need to be addressed by policymakers, practitioners, and researchers.
Race and the Impact of Juvenile Deinstitutionalization
Authors: Bortner M. A. , Sunderland Mary L. , Winn Russ
Published: March 2007

In a study of 32,000 referrals to juvenile court, the effects of a program to deinstitutionalize status offenders on detention decisions, intake screening, and final dispositions were examined. Although the results of a general comparison of preprogram and postprogram court actions showed relatively little change in court policies, the data did indicate a slight general trend toward less use of secure detention, a greater use of informal hearings, and a lower rate of juveniles placed on probation or in institutions. Differential treatment based on race was evident throughout the 5-year period. Whereas the rate of secure detention of black juveniles declined overall, it increased for black status offenders, especially females. There was a substantial decrease in the use of formal hearings and in the severity of final dispositions for all cases involving black juveniles.
Why Deinstitutionalizing Status Offenders is Pointless
Authors: Logan Charles H. , Rausch Sharla P.
Published: March 2007

A program to remove status offenders from secure facilities is evaluated in terms of both immediate objectives and underlying philosophy. We find only mixed success, at best, in achievement of immediate goals, while a critical examination of philosophical assumptions behind the national deinstitutionalization movement reveals inherent confusions and contradictions that make pointless any program that attempts deinstitutionalization without decriminalization and divestiture.
Who Ya Gonna Call? The Police as Problem-Busters
Authors: Eck John E. , Spelman William
Published: March 2007

Current police practice is dominated by two, competing strategies—“community policing” and “crime control policing.” Both are limited: they each apply a standard set of police tactics to a wide variety of differing circumstances; they focus on incidents, rather than the underlying problems which cause these incidents. Recently, two police departments have developed an alternative. Through “problem-oriented policing,” officers focus on these underlying causes. They collect information from numerous sources, and enlist the support of a wide variety of public and private agencies and individuals in their attempts to solve problems. Case studies in these departments show that use of the problem-oriented approach can substantially reduce crime and fear. In the long run, problem-oriented policing will require changes in management structure, the role of the police in the community and the city bureaucracy, and the limits of police authority.
Police Response to Runaway and Missing Children: A Conceptual Framework for Research and Policy
Authors: Maxson Cheryl L. , Little Margaret A. , Klein Malcolm W.
Published: March 2007

This article presents a framework for understanding police responses to runaway and missing children. Its principal components are (a) the legal context, (b) departmental policies and organization, and (c) perceived youth types. Police responses are affected by police perceptions of runaway youth relative to police responsibilities, departmental structure and policy regarding juvenile operations, and statutory constraints. Community characteristics and dispositional resources also influence police perceptions of missing youth cases, and, consequently, responses to them. Several objectives for future research are offered. These must be undertaken with a conceptual understanding of the interrelationships between law, community, department, police values and experiences, and adolescent behavior.
White-Collar Crime and Criminal Careers: Some Preliminary Findings
Authors: Weisburd David , Chayet Ellen F. , Waring Elin J.
Published: March 2007

The criminal career paradigm has become an increasingly important perspective in the study of street crimes, but it has generated little interest among scholars concerned with white-collar criminality. Behind this neglect lies a common assumption about white-collar criminals. Although street criminals are assumed highly likely to recidivate, white-collar offenders are thought to be “one-shot” criminals unlikely to be processed in the justice system after their initial brush with the law. This article examines the extent to which this image of white-collar criminals is reflected in the criminal records of defendants convicted under white-collar crime statutes. Findings show that white-collar criminals are often repeat offenders. The data also suggest that such offenders are likely to begin their “careers” later, and evidence lower frequency of offending than do street criminals. The article concludes by examining the implications of these findings for white-collar crime research and policy.
History Overtakes the Juvenile Justice System
Authors: Ferdinand Theodore N.
Published: March 2007

Many of juvenile justice's problems can be traced to the 19th century when parens patriae programs and facilities were established with little attention to their influence upon one another. As newer programs for status offenders were begun, older centers received mainly hardened delinquents, and their policies became more punitive. Without guidance or understanding whole systems grew punitive. A solution to this criminalizing of juvenile justice might entail a state-level department devoted to the treatment of delinquents in the community or in custodial facilities, and small facilities limited to 15-20 beds each, focusing on narrow segments of the delinquent population.
Doing Good and Looking Bad: A Case Study of Prison/Community Relations
Authors: Carlson Katherine A.
Published: March 2007

Research studies find that the objective impacts of prisons on their host communities are largely favorable. At the same time, residents of these communities often hold unfavorable attitudes toward their prison and community relationships with the institution may be poor. Using examples from an in-depth study of a new prison in a small town, one source of this disparity is sought in usual practices that would be found elsewhere as well. Corrections/community relations are likely to be influenced by the processes involved in prison siting and operations, and by differences in the premises underlying the judgments of local residents and corrections officials.
Who is in Jail? An Examination of the Rabble Hypothesis
Authors: Backstrand John A. , Gibbons Don C. , Jones Joseph F.
Published: March 2007

John Irwin's The Jail contends that jails are filled with petty offenders or persons who have committed no crime at all but who are socially offensive members of “the rabble.” However, the research reported here indicates that a large number of persons charged with seemingly serious crimes were incarcerated in two Pacific Northwest jail systems. Although more research is in order, this article suggests that Irwin's thesis may well be overstated.
A View of the Future: The Effect of Policy on Prison Population Growth
Authors: Joyce Nola M.
Published: March 2007

The prison population in Illinois is projected to increase from over 28,000 to nearly 45,400 by the year 2000. It will cost $1.2 billion for construction just to maintain prison crowding at 68% double and multicelling. This article examines the factors driving this growth, provides a projection of the future prison population levels, and simulates a variety of policy options that could lower the projections. This approach illustrates the usefulness of simulation models in showing decision makers the futures they may create.
The Intersection of Drug Use and Criminal Behavior: Results from the National Household Survey on Drug Abuse
Authors: Harrison Lana , Gfroerer Joseph
Published: March 2007

In 1991, questions on involvement in criminal behavior and being arrested and booked for a crime were added to the National Household Survey on Drug Abuse (NHSDA) to ascertain the relationship between drug use and criminal behavior. Analysis shows that drug use is a strong correlate of being booked for a criminal offense, but age is the more important correlate of criminal involvement. There were few differences in models predicting violent as opposed to property crime, although minority status was a more important predictor of violent crime, and poverty was a more important predictor of property crime. Cocaine use was the most important covariate of being booked for a crime in large metropolitan areas that were oversampled in the 1991 NHSDA.
The Effect of a Community Policing Management Style on Officers' Attitudes
Authors: Wycoff Mary Ann , Skogan Wesley G.
Published: March 2007

Quality management, a form of participatory management modeled on the theories of Edwards Deming, was implemented in the Madison, Wisconsin Police Department as a basis for the implementation of community policing. Personnel surveys conducted in 1987 and 1989 found a significant increase over time in the belief that the organization practiced participatory management. The increase in this belief was positively and significantly related to (a) satisfaction with work, the organization, supervision, and job growth potential; (b) perceived significance of work; (c) task identity; and (d) work autonomy. A composite measure of satisfaction was, in turn, significantly related to officers' receptivity to change.
“Angels in Marble”: Problems in Stimulating Community Involvement in Community Policing
Authors: Grinc Randolph M.
Published: March 2007

In 1990 the Bureau of Justice Assistance awarded grants to eight urban and suburban police departments for the purpose of establishing innovative neighborhood-oriented drug demand reduction projects. The projects varied in design and implementation, but all encountered the same implementation problems. The most perplexing of these problems was the inability of the police departments to organize and maintain active community involvement in their projects. The research examines the reasons for the inability of police departments to establish effective partnerships with community residents. The results of this analysis suggest that despite the apparent popularity of the community policing approach, community residents may not want closer interaction with the police nor the responsibility for maintaining social control.
Programmatic and Nonprogrammatic Aspects of Successful Intervention: New Directions for Research
Authors: Palmer Ted
Published: March 2007

This article first presents results of correctional intervention effectiveness based on 32 literature reviews and meta-analyses that, collectively, addressed 20 separate programmatic approaches such as educational training or group counseling. It then examines findings that illustrate the importance of nonprogrammatic factors such as staff characteristics, staff/client interactions, and setting. The article next introduces a proposed new direction for research: the study of programs as composites of programmatic approaches and nonprogrammatic factors. This new direction is needed to better understand why some interventions work and others fail. Finally, the article presents a “global approach” framework for implementing the proposed new research, and it discusses practical issues associated with it.
Coordinated Community Intervention for Domestic Violence: The Effects of Arrest and Prosecution on Recidivism of Woman Abuse Perpetrators
Authors: Tolman Richard M. , Weisz Arlene
Published: March 2007

This study explored the effectiveness of a coordinated community intervention designed to reduce domestic violence in DuPage County, Illinois. Police reports for all domestic violence calls within a 3-month period that indicated a male perpetrator of physical abuse against an intimate female partner were analyzed. The analysis examined the effects of arrest and prosecution on subsequent police calls and arrests within an 18-month period following the initial incident. Logistic regression analysis indicated that arrest significantly deterred subsequent domestic violence incidents. The deterrent effect of arrest did not deteriorate over the 18-month period and was most pronounced for those offenders who had a previous history of police involvement for domestic violence.
“Three Strikes and You're Out”: The Impact of California's New Mandatory Sentencing Law on Serious Crime Rates
Authors: Stolzenberg Lisa , D'Alessio Stewart J.
Published: March 2007

Using monthly data drawn from the 10 largest cities in California and an interrupted time-series design with nonequivalent dependent variables, the authors assessed the impact of California's “three strikes and you're out” law on the serious crime rate and on a control series measured as the petty theft rate. Overall, maximum-likelihood results indicated that the three-strikes law did not decrease serious crime or petty theft rates below the level expected on the basis of preexisting trends. Policy implications of these findings are discussed, and explanations are given as to why the effect of California's three-strikes law was inconsequential in 9 of the 10 cities examined.
The Implications of Crime Control Policy on HIV/AIDS-Related Risk among Women Prisoners
Authors: Marquart James W. , Brewer Victoria E. , Mullings Janet , Crouch Ben M.
Published: March 2007

This study examined the relationship between offense, prior drug taking, and HIV/AIDS-related risk behavior among women prisoners. Women drug offenders in this study engaged in numerous high-risk drug and sexual behaviors. Many had engaged in injection drug use and prostitution. Recent drug control policies, grounded in deterrence and based on harsh legal penalties, have led to the incarceration of numerous offenders who are low criminal risks but represent major public health risks on release. Criminal justice policies penalizing drug users may be contributing factors to the spread of HIV infection in the wider society.
Private Prisons, Criminological Research, and Conflict of Interest: A Case Study
Authors: Geis Gilbert , Mobley Alan , Shichor David
Published: March 2007

Possible conflicts of interest appear to be increasing in social science, medical, and legal scholarship. This article uses a case study of an alleged conflict of interest in regard to the privatization of prisons to call attention to what may be a need for criminologists and their professional journals to try to deal in an even-handed manner with the possibility of such conflicts.
Assessments and Intake Processes in Juvenile Justice Processing: Emerging Policy Considerations
Authors: Mears Daniel P. , Kelly William R.
Published: March 2007

Recent reforms have expanded the possibilities for gathering and sharing information during juvenile justice processing and have included calls for comprehensive assessments of all juvenile referrals. However, scant attention has been given to questions concerning the timing, goals, or uses of assessments; the structure and goals of intake; or the role of assessments at intake. These questions merit closer investigation because variation in assessment or intake goals and practices will likely constrain the efficiency or efficacy of juvenile processing. Using interview and survey data from a study of county-level intake processes in Texas, this study identifies and discusses their policy implications.
The Extraprofessional Life: Leisure, Retirement and Unemployment
Authors: Stebbins Robert A.
Published: March 2007

Many professionals seek to experience in their extraprofessional lives in leisure, retirement and unemployment the equivalent of the `spirit of professional work'. This maxim denotes the distinctive set of shared values, attitudes and expectations that form around a type of professional work, where the work itself is seen by its practitioners as socially important, highly challenging, intensely absorbing, and for these reasons and others, immensely appealing. It is argued that professionals who feel this spirit find it so powerful that they search for its equivalent in their extraprofessional lives. This remarkable, albeit relatively rare, orientation is found only in certain kinds of work and its equivalent is found only in certain kinds of leisure. These professionals, compared with most other workers, are generally inclined to spend much less time in leisure activities. But when they do engage in leisure, it too is distinctive. Professionals tend to find there another central life interest or two, which is also motivated by the experience of flow and undertaken in the company of other participants whose orientation to the interest resembles that of the spirit of professional work. The research reviewed in this article generally supports this proposition. The spirit, however, is more strongly felt in the spheres of leisure and retirement than in the sphere of unemployment. Still, even if some fail to find this spirit, every professional of both sexes and of all ages has access to it, in the sense that it inheres in the work itself.
Institutionalist Theories and Inter-Firm Alliances: The Transaction Cost, Competence and Evolutionary Debate Revisited
Authors: Bellon Bertrand , Niosi Jorge
Published: March 2007

The article compares the three major institutionalist schools, namely transaction cost economics (TCE), competencies theory (CT) and evolutionary theory (ET) of the firm, on a contemporary issue, that of strategic business alliances. The article finds that, based on different assumptions and perspectives, the three approaches shed light on different elements of strategic alliances. While most of their contributions are complementary, there are some clear oppositions among them. The authors conclude that a composite framework of the competencies and the evolutionary approaches, using some insights of TCE, provide the most comprehensive set of questions and hypothesis.
The Challenge of Responsibility for Sociology
Authors: Strydom Piet
Published: March 2007

Although leading thinkers of the late 20th century, stimulated by new social movements and public debate, have given currency in the 1970s and 1980s to a new version of the normative category of responsibility, sociology has been rather slow in appreciating the significance of this development. It is only in the wake of the Chernobyl accident, particularly in the 1990s, that the new concept has begun to attract the attention of sociologists, yet even today it is still not well understood. As a study in the sociology of morality that pursues a strand stretching from Durkheim to Habermas and beyond, this article seeks to contribute to the sociological appropriation of the concept of responsibility and to making it useful for the purposes of analysing contemporary society. On the one hand, it presents a theoretically suggestive typology of traditional individual, post-traditional individual and co-responsibility, while on the other, drawing on data generated by various research projects, it outlines a sociological analysis of responsibility as an important new master frame of our time.
Politics in the Schools: A Case for Partisan Board Elections
Authors: McCaffrey Michael D.
Published: March 2007

In this article the author contends that the selection of school board members through partisan elections can improve board effectiveness. Prior to developing his position through five propositions, he reviews the causes and effects of the traditional separation of politics and education in America and identifies a recent trend toward greater political awareness in the schools.
Leadership Style of Principals and the Professional Zone of Acceptance of Teachers
Authors: Kunz Daniel W. , Hoy Wayne K.
Published: March 2007

The concern of this study was to investigate the relationship between the perceived leadership style of principals and the "zone of acceptance" of teachers in professional matters. The results suggest that principals who exhibit strong Initiating Structure tend to have teachers with a substantial Professional Zone of Acceptance irrespective of the Consideration dimension of leadership.
The Complexity of Substantive Reform: Acall for Interdependence among Key Stakeholders
Authors: Young Michelle D. , Petersen George J. , Short Paula M.
Published: March 2007

The field of educational leadership in the United States faces serious challenges in the 21st century, including the shortage of principals and superintendents, the growing demands of leadership positions, the struggle for adequate resources, the increasing trend to seek leaders from outside of education, and the content and effectiveness of school leadership preparation and professional development. Although each of these challenges could be viewed as a separate issue that warrants sustained and serious attention, it is also important to point out their interdependencies. The challenges facing educational leadership are complex and interconnected. This article explores the challenges facing educational leadership from the position of university educational leadership preparation. The authors look inward and outward, seeking to understand the complex factors and interconnections that support and detract from quality leadership preparation. Moreover, the authors explore contexts in terms of the factors that produce them and their interdependencies with other issues and contexts.
Teacher Motivation and School-Based Performance Awards
Authors: Kelley Carolyn , Heneman Herbert , Milanowski Anthony
Published: March 2007

This article summarizes findings from a series of research studies on the motivational effects of school-based performance award programs on teachers in schools in Kentucky and the Charlotte-Mecklenburg (North Carolina) school district. Interviews and survey data were collected between 1995 and 1998. The research was framed by expectancy and goal-setting theories. The research findings suggest that teachers associate a variety of positive and negative outcomes with the programs, including the bonus. Teachers expressed a relatively high level of commitment to program goals. Teacher expectancy was an important predictor of school success, and expectancy was related to the presence of enabling conditions, prior success, and perceived fairness of the program. The findings suggest that program designers need to focus on setting realistic goals, providing enabling conditions for success, maximizing perceptions that achieving the goals will lead to positive outcomes, and minimizing stress reactions.
Do Political Ideologies Influence Education in the United States?
Authors: Kimbrough Ralph B.
Published: March 2007

This article is a preliminary consideration of the influence of political ideologies on education. Following a review of existing research on the politics of education, left-of-center and right-of-center influences are analyzed. The need for expanded research activity on the influence of political ideologies is posited and avenues for inquiry are explored.
Evolution in Research and Theory: A Study of Prominent Researchers
Authors: Griffiths Daniel E
Published: March 2007

The mode of scientific inquiry that was dominant in the 1950s and early 1960s is described, and the work of four prominent sets of researchers of that period is analyzed in an effort to determine the degree to which the research that was conducted actually followed the tenets of the prevailing philosophy. Then, the much more complicated conditions of the present are examined in the light of the multiple, divergent, and conflicting ideologies that are now being espoused. Four currently prominent sets of researchers are selected, and both the theoretical and methodological characteristics of their efforts are assessed. The general conclusion of the analysis is that the researchers of the present are ignoring the criticisms of functionalism as well as the new approaches being advocated, and they are still working loosely within the framework of logical positivism.
Departments as Different Worlds: Subject Subcultures in Secondary Schools
Authors: Siskin Leslie Santee
Published: March 2007

The objective of this article is to explore the role of academic departments within contemporary comprehensive high schools. It begins with an argument for research on the organization of schools that acknowledges high schools as fundamentally different from their elementary school counterparts, and suggests that departmental specialization and differentiation are key elements in understanding that difference. A two-stage exploratory study provides evidence of the department as the site of both a distinctive subject subculture within the school and a significant administrative unit of it.
Building an Ethical School: A Theory for Practice in Educational Leadership
Authors: Starratt Robert J.
Published: March 2007

During ordinary times, which are never ordinary, but especially during a period of school restructuring, educational administrators need to consider their responsibility to promote an ethical environment in their schools. This article develops three foundational ethical themes-critique, justice, and caring-as the pillars on which to build such a school
School Restructuring: The Superintendent's View
Authors: Mitchell Douglas E. , Beach Sara Ann
Published: March 2007

The restructuring of school organizations is a prominent theme in the educational reform movement, but the meaning of the term remains ambiguous. To clarify its meaning, local school district superintendents and key executives were asked how they interpret various approaches to school restructuring. Superintendent thinking and evaluation of eight distinctive approaches to restructuring were elicited through semistructured interviews. The viewpoints expressed offer contrasting assessments that are shaped by tensions between the saliency and explicitness of the issue, interest in performance improvement versus public confidence development, and concern for accountability versus a desire to enhance professional staff engagement. Contextual factors influencing strategic thinking included newness to the superintendency and perceived mandates for action. Policy implications for the future of restructuring are explored.
Fighting Fires in Educational Administration
Authors: Weick Karl E.
Published: March 2007

Educational administrators often invoke the metaphor of fighting fires to describe the nature of their work. Recent research on wild and firefighting illustrates that the use of this metaphor is unusually apt. Nuances associated with fire fighting shed light on subtle conditions in educational organizations that increase their vulnerability to failure. These parallels suggest five conditions that determine whether volatile conditions in schools will escalate or be contained
Computer-Based Simulations of the School Principalship: Preparation for Professional Practice
Authors: Maynes Bill , McIntosh Gordon , Mappin David
Published: March 2007

For more than a decade, the Department of Educational Administration (now Educational Policy Studies) at the University of Alberta, Canada, has been involved in the development and instructional use of computer-based simulations of the school principalship. The success of the simulations as an instructional tool has been attributed to theirability to "invite " students to suspend disbelief and thus to engage in the simulations as though they were real work. Recent developments, taking advantage of advances in technology and informed by experience with the simulations, have focused on further enhancements to this aspect of the simulations.
Metaphors of Educational Community: An Analysis of the Images that Reflect and Influence Scholarship and Practice
Authors: Beck Lynn G.
Published: March 2007

The idea that schools should function as communities is popular in education circles. It is also confusing, for the term community means different things to different people. This article argues that efforts to reduce ambiguity by linking the concept to clearly defined indicators may be short-sighted. Multiple meanings linked with the notion of community reflect the richness of this concept, the author contends, and these meanings should be explored and understood—not reduced or eliminated. Analyzing language used by academics and practitioners writing about community in school settings, the author demonstrates that the concept is both complex and reasonably coherent. Recognizing that this is so can only assist scholars who desire to better understand this phenomenon, she argues. Similarly, knowledge of the ways we make sense of being in and out of community can provide guidance to people seeking to create and sustain communal schools.
On the Rejection of Hotelling's Single Sample T
Authors: Lutz J.Gary
Published: March 2007

Multivariate hypotheses regarding the centroid of a single population can be tested using Hotelling's T2. Upon rejection of such an hypothesis, there seems to be no available technique by which the relative contribution of each variable to the rejection can be gauged. An examination of the derivation of the T2 statistic, however, shows that while T2 is the only nonzero eigenvalue of the matrix ND-1( X - μ0)( X - μ0)', the elements of its associated eigenvector define the weighting scheme used in combining the original variables for the purposes of the test. When adjusted to provide dimensionless numbers, these elements reflect the relative contribution of each variable to the rejection of the original hypothesis.
The Miniscat: Its Development and Some Evidence of Its Validity
Authors: Lynch Mervin D. , Edwards Thomas M.
Published: March 2007

The Miniscat designed as an elementary grade creativity test, includes word doublets (e.g., peanut and fly) to be responded to by a third word (e.g., butter). Items represent six different associative rule structures. Children in grades 1 and 3 were judged as high or low in creativity from their responses to a story completion test. High creativity examinees did have appreciably higher Miniscat scores than did low creativity examinees—an outcome supporting the validity of the test. Scores for grade 3 were higher than for grade 1 on one form of the test (form B) but not on another (form A). Girls scored higher than boys on form A but not on form B. Split-half reliability coefficients were high and consistent. Judges of creativity were themselves tested for creativity; their creativity scores were unrelated to their judgments of children's creativity—a finding that failed to support the notion that it takes a creative person to recognize one.
Preschool Application of the Metropolitan Readiness Tests: Validity, Reliability, and Preschool Norms
Authors: Rubin Rosalyn A.
Published: March 2007

910 subjects were followed from pre-kindergarten through the latter part of first grade. It was found that scores on the Metropolitan Readiness Tests (MRT) obtained prior to kindergarten entrance correlated .65 with MRT scores obtained one year later, at pre-first grade level. Pre-kindergarten MRT scores predicted late first grade achievement in reading, spelling, and arithmetic approximately as effectively as did MRT scores obtained at pre-first grade level. Pre-kindergarten MRT norms based on the study sample are presented.
The Effects of a Short Training Program on the Draw-a-Man Test Scores of Pre-School Children
Authors: Leviton Harvey , Kiraly John
Published: March 2007

Sixty-one preschool children consisting of experimental group one, ( N = 21), experimental group two, ( N = 24), and a control group, ( N = 16), served as subjects in a study designed to test the prediction that a preschool enrichment program could improve performance on the Harris-Goodenough Draw-A-Man Test. The results, which supported the prediction, were discussed in terms of the validity of the Draw-A-Man Test as a measure of intellectual ability. It was suggested that the test be used as an indicator of school readiness because of its sensitivity to readiness experiences rather than as an indicator of intelligence.
Spearman's Test Score Model: a Restatement
Authors: Ng K.T.
Published: March 2007

A re-examination of Spearman's (1910) paper led to the conclusion that he did not subscribe to a platonic distinction between true and error scores, or to the restrictive and empirically intractable postulate of constant true scores in repeated measurements with the same test. He argued instead for the reality of possible systematic variations in observed scores under repeated measurements, variations which required determination and not elimination, with an overlay of nonsystematic variations due to factors whose modes of operation were such as to baffle investigation and control. Spearman's distinction was a pragmatic one between the predictable and the unpredictable with theoretical overtones hitherto overlooked in psychometrics, and contained an implied plea for an experimental psychometrics.
Stability of Response Process and Response
Authors: Kuncel Ruth Boutin , Fiske Donald W.
Published: March 2007

The process culminating in the response to an item in a personality inventory affects the value of that response's contribution to test score. Some response components are inappropriate from the examiner's viewpoint. Interrelationships were predicted among inappropriate components of response process, relative locations of subject and item on an underlying trait continuum, and instability of response. The recurrence of inappropriate processes on retest was also predicted.

In group administration, subjects indicated whether, in responding to each item, they used any of six inappropriate components. All hypotheses were supported. Thus inappropriate components are a function of the subject as he interprets and reacts to the particular item and also are related to the instability of his response.
A Test for Homogeneity of Regression Without Homogeneity of Variance
Authors: McLaughlin Donald H.
Published: March 2007

A likelihood ratio test procedure is described for testing for homogeneity of regression coefficients and population means across treatment groups without assuming homogeneous error variances. Maximum likelihood estimation equations are obtained assuming the criterion scores to be normally distributed, and a method for their solution is described. Examples of situation for which the procedure is appropriate are given, and extensions of the procedure are discussed. The procedure has been used on hypothetical and real data.
A Non-Parametric Test for Increasing Trend
Authors: Cooper Martin
Published: March 2007

In this article, a new test for increasing or decreasing trend in a set of observations is presented. Rather than making specific paired comparisons, as in the Cox and Stuart tests for trend, the user of the new test makes comparisons of all possible pairs of observations. The advantage of this procedure is that, for a given number of observations, many paired-comparisons are made. This allows the researcher to examine increasing or decreasing trend when there is quite a small number of observations although, admittedly, the power of the test is low in such cases. A normal approximation is available for use with large samples.