bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Pectinesterase and polygalacturonase in changes of pectic matter in olives (cv. Hojiblanca) intended for milling
Authors: Mínguez‐Mosquera Isabel , Gallardo‐Guerrero Lourdes , Roca María
Published: November 2006

Virgin olive oil is a highly valued product, and it is important to optimize extraction yield. The pectic composition and the related enzymatic activities, present in the raw material, are variables that may affect that process. The pectinolytic activities producing modifications in the pectic matter of olive fruits (variety Hojiblanca) during ripening and the associated changes in texture were studied. Pectinesterase (PE) activity increased with ripeness until reaching a peak when anthocyanin synthesis in the fruit became marked (turning color stage). From then on, it decreased. In contrast, polygalacturonase (PG) activity in the ripe‐green fruit decreased sharply when anthocyanin formation began (small reddish spots stage) and then increased, reaching a maximum in the ripe‐black fruit. Parallel changes were noted in the texture and pectic content of the olives, related to endo‐ and exo‐PG enzymatic activities, together with a decrease in the degree of esterification of the pectic matter, which could be associated with PE action. The distribution of the pectic fractions in the raw material and the changes in them during the olive oil extraction process showed the role of PE and PG in the fruits that was related to the yield of extracted oil.
Reduction of fatty ester Δ2‐isoxazoline heterocycles. Preparation of fatty esters containing the β‐hydroxy ketone moietyheterocycles. Preparation of fatty esters containing the β‐hydroxy ketone moiety
Authors: Kenar James A.
Published: November 2006

Fatty ester compounds containing the β‐hydroxy ketone moiety were prepared in good yields from their corresponding fatty Δ2‐isoxazoline heterocyclic precursors by a reductive hydrogenolysis‐hydrolysis procedure using Raney nickel as catalyst. By this methodology, C‐17, C‐18, and C‐19 straight‐chain fatty methyl esters containing the 10‐hydroxy 12‐keto moieties were prepared in 73, 83, and 92%, respectively, from their corresponding isoxazoline fatty ester compounds. Two other 10‐hydroxy 12‐keto C‐12 and C‐14 fatty ester compounds were prepared in 84 and 92% yield, respectively. The C‐12 β‐hydroxy ketone contains a phenyl ring at C‐12, whereas the C‐14 β‐hydroxy ketone compound has two methyl substituents at C‐13. GC‐MS using electron impact ionization was used to determine the hydroxyl and ketone positions after conversion of the hydroxyl group into its corresponding trimethylsilyl ether. The precursor fatty ester Δ2‐isoxazolines used in this study are readily available in one step from a 1,3‐dipolar cycloaddition reaction between nitrile oxides and methyl 10‐undecenoate. This overall two‐step sequence, 1,3‐dipolar cycloaddition followed by reductive ring opening, represent a convenient method to construct fatty ester compounds in good yields containing the β‐hydroxy ketone functionality, an outcome not easily accessible by other methods.
Hydrolysis of palm olein catalyzed by solid heteropolyacids
Authors: Yow C. J. , Liew K. Y.
Published: November 2006

The hydrolysis activity of superacids on palm olein, including tungstophosphoric acid and molybdophosphoric acid and their partially ion‐exchanged cesium (Cs) salt, were investigated and compared with macroporous cation‐exchanged resin and aluminum‐incorporated mesoporous molecular sieve. The activities of the superacids supported on the resin and silica were also determined. The reactions were carried out in a stirred batch reactor with continuous steam injection at temperatures from 140 to 180°C. The reaction kinetics, obtained by regression, are first order with respect to TG of the superacids and Cs salts. Of the catalysts studied, the superacids loaded onto cation‐exchanged resins were the most active on a weight basis. However, in terms of the turnover number per acid site, the Cs salt of tungstophosphoric acid had 13 times the activity of the cation‐exchanged resin. The original superacids had lower activities than the Cs salts in terms of their turnover number. The observations are qualitatively in line with the higher acid strengths of the catalysts, as confirmed by the low activity of the aluminum silicate mesoporous molecular sieve, which is known to have a high concentration of low‐to moderate‐strength acid sites. The activation energy of the reaction with the Cs salts was ∼49 kJ mol−1. This is rather low as compared to that catalyzed by the cation‐exchanged resin.
Effect of droplet size on lipid oxidation rates of oil‐in‐water emulsions stabilized by protein
Authors: Lethuaut Laurent , Métro François , Genot Claude
Published: November 2006

In emulsions lipid oxidation is mainly influenced by the properties of the interface. The aim of this work was to investigate the effects of droplet size and interfacial area on lipid oxidation in protein‐stabilized emulsions. Emulsions, made of stripped sunflower oil (30% vol/vol) and stabilized by BSA were characterized by surface area values equal to 0.7, 5.1, and 16.3 m2·cm−3 oil. The kinetics of O2 consumption and conjugated diene (CD) formation, performed on emulsions and nonemulsified controls, showed that emulsification prompted oxidation at an early stage. On condition that oxygen concentration was not limiting, the rates of O2 consumption and CD formation were higher when the interfacial area was larger. Protein adsorbed at the interface probably restrained this pro‐oxidant effect. Once most of the O2 in the system was consumed (6–8 h), CD remained steady at a level depending directly on the ratio between oxidizable substrate and total amount of oxygen. At this stage of aging, the amounts of primary oxidation products were similar whatever the droplet size of the emulsion. Hexanal and pentane could be detected in the headspace of emulsions only at this stage. They were subsequently produced at rates not depending on oil droplet size and interfacial area.
Properties, composition, and analysis of grain sorghum wax
Authors: Hwang Keum T. , Cuppett Susan L. , Weller Curtis L. , Hanna Milford A.
Published: November 2006

Grain sorghum wax has been judged to be a potential source of natural wax with properties similar to carnauba wax. Approximately 0.16–0.3% (w/w) wax can be extracted from grain sorghum depending on the efficiency of the organic solvents. Although the melting points of carnauba wax and sorghum wax are similar, i.e., 78–86 and 77–85°C, respectively, they differ in acid values, i.e., 2–10 and 10–16, respectively, and saponification numbers, i.e., 77–95 and 16–49, respectively. Improved knowledge of the properties, composition, and analysis of grain sorghum wax would assist in efforts for industrial application of this product. Major components of sorghum wax are hydrocarbons, wax esters, aldehydes, free fatty alcohols, and FFA. The hydrocarbons consist mainly of C27 and C29, and the aldehydes, alcohols, and acids are mainly C28 and C30. The wax esters are mostly esters of C28 and C30 alcohols and acids.
Partitioning of ρ‐tocopherol in aqueous mixtures of TAG and isolated muscle membranes
Authors: Sigfusson Halldor , Hultin Herbert O.
Published: November 2006

To study the uptake of ρ‐tocopherol by aqueous suspensions of membranes isolated from chicken muscle and the partitioning of the antioxidant in mixtures of chicken TAG and membranes, ρ‐tocopherol was added to suspensions of these components and they were centrifuged. In an aqueous suspension of membranes only, the tocopherol uptake increased linearly with tocopherol concentration, at about 50% of the added ρ‐tocopherol at all concentrations. The incorporation of tocopherol into the membranes was independent of incubation temperature in the range of 0–37°C. Studies with aqueous mixtures of membranes and TAG suggested a very low exchange of tocopherol between the different lipid fractions upon mixing when the tocopherol resided initially in one lipid fraction. Adding ρ‐tocopherol in ethanol favored incorporation of the antioxidant into the membranes; little antioxidant was incorporated into the membranes when it was added to the suspensions in oil. The results suggest that partitioning of exogenous ρ‐tocopherol between TAG and membrane lipids in muscle foods may be controlled in part by proper selection of the solvent in which it is added.
Factors affecting oil extraction/water adsorption in sequential extraction processing of corn
Authors: Hojilla‐Evangelista Mila P. , Johnson Lawrence A.
Published: November 2006

The sequential extraction process (SEP) uses ethanol to extract oil and protein from cracked, flaked, and dried corn, and the dried corn simultaneously dehydrates the ethanol. Value‐added co‐products are possible, potentially making production of fuel ethanol more economical. The effects of solvent‐to‐corn (S/C) ratio, corn moisture content (MC), and number of extraction stages on ethanol drying, oil recovery, and protein loss during the simultaneous oil extraction/water adsorption step of SEP were evaluated. Extractions were carried out by using both aqueous ethanol and ethanol/hexane blends at 56°C. The S/C ratios tested were 3∶1, 2∶1 (control), 1.5∶1, and 1∶1 (w/w). More anhydrous ethanol, greater oil yields, and less co‐extracted protein were obtained with higher S/C ratios. Less anhydrous ethanol and lower moisture adsorption capacities were obtained when the corn MC was ≥1.12%. Oil yields gradually decreased with drier corn, whereas protein loss increased when corn MC was <1.12%. Reducing the number of extraction stages from seven (original SEP) to five did not affect ethanol drying capability, oil yields, and protein co‐extracted with oil. Using ethanol/hexane blends resulted in more anhydrous ethanol, higher oil yields, and less protein co‐extracted with oil.
Long‐chain fatty ammonium quaternaries in papermaking
Authors: Koskela Juha P. , Hormi Osmo E. O.
Published: November 2006

A series of long‐chain quaternary ammonium halogen esters (UKK‐chemicals), quaternary dimethyl tallow epoxypropyl ammonium halogens (EPK1), quaternary ditallow methyl epoxypropyl ammonium halogens (EPK2), and EPK2 oligomers (EPK2P) were synthesized. At acidic, neutral, or slightly basic conditions, EPK1‐, EPK2‐, EPK2P‐, and UKK‐chemicals operate as cationic chemicals. They can be used, for example, as stock sizings, surface sizings, or fixatives. Stock sizing, surface sizing, and fixative experiments indicate that EPK1‐, EPK2‐, EPK2P‐, and UKK‐chemicals function at least as well as or better than the corresponding synthetic chemicals used in papermaking.
Separation of oil constituents in organic solvents using polymeric membranes
Authors: Koike S. , Subramanian R. , Nabetani H. , Nakajima M.
Published: November 2006

Different types of commercial nonporous (reverse osmosis and gas separation) polymeric membranes were screened for their abilities to separate FFA, MG, DG, and TG from a lipase hydrolysate of high‐oleic sunflower oil after diluting it with organic solvents (ethanol and hexane). Cellulose acetate (CA) (NIR‐1698) membrane gave the largest difference in rejection between FFA and glycerides and high flux in oil/ethanol mixtures. In the hexane system, the values of permeate flux and rejection were generally lower than those in the ethanol system. The silicone‐polyimide composite membrane (NTGS‐2100) gave the highest flux and rejections of solutes (70.2% for FFA, 94.4% for TG) in oil/hexane mixtures. In the ethanol system with the CA membrane, TG had the highest rejection (98%) followed by DG (90%) and MG and FFA (50–70%) when the oil concentration was varied from 6.3 to 45.8%. A discontinuous diafiltration process (16 batches) using the CA membrane with ethanol changed the composition of the oil from 31∶28∶9∶32 TG/DG/MG/FFA to 65∶30∶1∶4. The results of this study showed that oil constituents can be separated in suitable solvents using appropriate nonporous membranes.
Linseed oil and mixture with maleic anhydride: 1H and 13C NMR
Authors: Solladié‐Cavallo A. , Senouci H. , Jierry L. , Klein A. , Bouquey M. , Terrisse J.
Published: November 2006

It was shown that 1H NMR allowed a rapid determination of the ratio of the linolenic residues over all the others (linoleic + oleic + saturated) and 13C NMR allowed a rapid determination of the ratio of linolenic over (linoleic + oleic) residues as well as the linoleic/oleic ratio in a few minutes on less than 20 mg of crude LO. After thermal treatment (220°C for 2 h, followed by cooling to room temperature), a 1∶1 mixture of linseed oil (LO) and maleic anhydride (MA), which was a suspension, became limpid and remained limpid. Moreover, the viscosity of the mixture was higher than that of pure LO treated in the same way. It was shown by 13C NMR and quantitative recovery of the constituents (LO and MA) through solvent separation that no reaction occurred between LO and MA during this thermal treatment. This result is in accord with DSC analysis of such a 1∶1 LO/MA mixture that exhibited an exothermic effect too small (about 34 kcal/mol) to correspond to formation of a C−C bond.
TLC as a tool for quantitative isolation of conjugated trienoic FA
Authors: Devi P. Sita
Published: November 2006

Conjugated trienoic FA—α‐eleostearic, β‐eleostearic, and punicic acids—were preferentially isolated in pure form from the total methyl esters of the respective oils by simple silica gel TLC using hexane/diethyl ether as the mobile phase (94∶6). The subsequent saponification of the separated methyl ester fractions upon cooling at −20°C yielded individual acids in crystalline form. Melting points, conventional UV spectroscopy, and GLC confirmed the identity of the conjugated trienoic FA. The method finds potential application in benchscale reaction optimization using pure FA and in the preparation of standard reference materials of these acids, as these oils are widely used in the coatings industry.
Tocol‐derived minor constituents in selected plant seed oils
Authors: Abidi S. L.
Published: November 2006

Various crude and processed seed oils were analyzed for tocopherols (T) and tocotrienols (T3) by reversed‐phase HPLC with fluorescence detection (FL). The oils included processed canola oil, crude corn oil, crude milkweed oil, crude palm oil, crude/processed rice bran oils, crude/processed soybean oil, crude/processed sunflower oil, and related modified oil, crude/processed sunflower oil, and related modified oil varieties. The HPLC system consisted of a pentafluorophenylsilica (PFPS) column and a mobile phase of methanol and water. The results of comparative methodological studies with rice bran oils and milkweed oils indicated that the reversed‐phase PEPS‐HPLC method in conjunction with the use of less hazardous solvents proved to be superior and a viable alternative to the conventional normal‐phase HPLC method. Unlike the traditional nonpolar octadecylsilica phase, which fails to resolve β‐γ pairs of T and T3, HPLC with the unique polar PFPS column enables separations of all compounds of interest. Except for palm oil, βT and γT were detected in all other crude oils. Although most milkweed oils contained moderale levels of βT and γT, the βT species was present in relatively low abundance in edible oils despite the observation of fairly high concentrations of γT in the latter oils. βT3 and γT3 were detected along with αT3 and σT3 only in palm and rice bran oils. Tocolderived antioxidant distribution data for zero‐time processed oils provided potential utility in correlation studies of frying quality and stability. The variable distribution data for crude oils shed some light on market profitability of oilseeds with rich sources of vitamin E‐related minor constituents.
Purification of steryl esters from soybean oil deodorizer distillate
Authors: Hirota Yoshinori , Nagao Toshihiro , Watanabe Yomi , Suenaga Masaharu , Nakai Seiichi , Kitano Aktohiro , Sugihara Akio , Shimada Yuji
Published: November 2006

Soybean oil deodorizer distillate (SODD) contains steryl esters in addition to tocopherols and sterols. Tocopherols and sterols have been industrially purified from SODD but no purification process for steryl esters has been developed. SODD was efficiently separated to low b.p. substances (including tocopherols and sterols) and high b.p. substances (including 11.2 wt% DAG, 32.1 wt% TAG, and 45.4 wt% steryl esters) by molecular distillation. The high b.p. fraction is referred to as soybean oil deodorizer distillate steryl ester concentrate (SODDSEC). We attempted to purify steryl esters after a lipase‐catalyzed hydrolysis of acylglycerols in SODDSEC. Screening of industrially available lipases indicated that Candida rugosa lipase was most effective. Based on the study of several factors affecting hydrolysis, the reaction conditions were determined as follows: ratio of SODDSEC/water, 1∶1 (w/w); lipase amount, 15 U/g reaction mixture; temperature, 30°C. When SODDSEC was agitated for 24 h under these conditions, acylglycerols were almost completely hydrolyzed and the content of steryl esters did not change. However, study with a mixture of steryl oleate/trilinolein (1∶1, w/w) indicated that about 20% of constituent FA in steryl esters were exchanged with constituent FA in acylglycerols. Steryl esters in the oil layer obtained by the SODDSEC treatment with lipase were successfully purified by molecular distillation (purity, 97.3%; recovery, 87.7%).
Analysis of regiospecific distribution of FA of TAG using the lipase‐catalyzed ester‐exchange
Authors: Negishi Satoshi , Arai Yuri , Shirasawa Seüchi , Arimoto Shin , Nagasawa Takeshi , Kouzui Hiroyuki , Tsuchiya Kinya
Published: November 2006

A very simple and versatile GC method has been developed that can be utilized for quick analysis, in many samples, of the FA compositions at the sn‐2‐ and sn‐1,3‐positions of TAG. By using the lipase‐catalyzed, sn‐1,3‐regioselective esterexchange reaction of TAG with ethyl acetate, followed by direct injection of the crude reaction mixture into the GC apparatus without any pretreatment, the FA located at the sn‐2‐position could accurately be analyzed as a TAG derivative in which the sn‐1,3‐positions were substituted by an acetate residue. Furthermore, the FA located at the sn‐1,3‐positions could simultaneously be analyzed as the corresponding ethyl ester derivatives using this method. The reliability of the analytical method was compared with conventional methods by analyzing the TAG consisting of caprylic acid (C) at the sn‐2‐position and oleic acid (O) at the sn‐1,3‐positions, giving comparable analytical results. The present method was applied to the analysis of the structured lipids CCD and CCE, consisting of TAG as a major component in which C and the highly unsaturated FA, DHA (D) or EPA (E), were specifically bound at the sn‐2‐ and the sn‐1,3‐positions, respectively.
Reconstitution of single molecular species from isolated subunits of glycinin
Authors: Zhang Guoyan , Tsunokawa Satoshi , Hayashi Yukako , Matsumoto Shinya , Matsumura Yasuki , Mori Tomohiko
Published: November 2006

Ion‐exchange HPLC systems using POROS 20 HQ and Mono Q HR 10/10 columns were applied to isolate glycinin subunits under denaturing conditions. Analyses by SDS‐PAGE, N‐terminal amino acid sequence, and sucrose density gradient centrifugation showed that the pseudoglycinin from the highly purified homo‐subunit, A3B4, was reconstituted. The A3B4 pseudoglycinin was similar to the native glycinin with respect to molecular size, subunit structure, and secondary structure. The hexameric pseudoglycinin dissociated into trimers after long storage at pH 7.6.
Low‐palmitic, low‐linolenic soybean development
Authors: Cherrak C. M. , Pantalone V. R. , Meyer E. J. , Ellis D. L. , Melton S. L. , West D. R. , Mount J. R.
Published: November 2006

Plant breeding research efforts are currently focused on developing breeding procedures to decrease the saturated FA palmitic acid (16∶0) and the PUFA linolenic acid (18∶3) in U.S. soybean cultivars. Soybean oil with lower 16∶0 may provide cardiovascular benefits to health‐conscious consumers, and lower 18∶3 could contribute to better flavor and stability of the oil. The purpose of this study was to determine genetic parameters that indicate the potential for breeding success and to characterize the correlated effect of the incorporation of the modified oil traits on the agronomic and seed quality traits of a soybean breeding population formed from a cross between the soybean cultivar Anand (normal) and germplasm N97‐3708‐13 (low 16∶0, low 18∶3). Although lines with only one modified oil quality trait (low 16∶0 or 18∶3) are useful as parents, commercial utilization requires productive cultivars with the combination of both oil traits. This paper shows the ease with which they may be combined with seed yield and other traits. Measurements were obtained from 179 F2 single plants grown in 1999 and 121 F2∶4 lines grown in replicated plots in 2000. Modified FA lines were developed with ca. 4% 16∶0 and 18∶3, respectively. Very weak positive correlations were found between 16∶0 concentration and seed yield (r=0.12) and between 16∶0 and seed oil concentration (r=0.13). No correlation was found between 18∶3 levels and seed yield, or between 18∶3 levels and seed oil concentration. These results indicate that breeding for reduced 16∶0 and 18∶3 should not have a negative impact on seed yield or oil concentration. 16∶0 and 18∶3 had moderately high heritabilities of 0.65 and 0.73, respectively. This indicates that breeders using low 16∶0, low 18∶3 germplasm in crosses with normal, elite lines can expect to recover low 16∶0 and low 18∶3 in pure line progenies via selection and generation advancement of F2 individuals that express low levels of these FA.
Air exposure time of olive pastes during the extraction process and phenolic and volatile composition of virgin olive oil
Authors: Servili Maurizio , Selvaggini Roberto , Taticchi Agnese , Esposto Sonia , Montedoro Gianfrancesco
Published: November 2006

The time of exposure of olive pastes to air contact (TEOPAC) during malaxation was studied as a processing parameter that could be used to control endogenous oxidoreductases, such as polyphenoloxidase, peroxidase, and lipoxygenase, which affect virgin olive oil quality. Phenolic and volatile compounds were analyzed in the oils obtained using progressive TEOPAC at three ripening stages of olives. Multivariate statistical analysis was applied to the raw data. The phenolic concentration of virgin olive oil progressively decreased with increasing IEOPAC. On the contrary, a positive relationship was found with the concentration of several volatile compounds responsible for virgin olive oil aroma. The effect of TEOPAC, however, was strictly related to fruit ripening.
Simultaneous synchrotron radiation X‐ray diffraction‐DSC analysis of melting and crystallization behavior of trilauroylglycerol in nanoparticles of oil‐in‐water emulsion
Authors: Higami M. , Ueno S. , Segawa T. , Iwanami K. , Sato K.
Published: November 2006

Crystallization, polymorphic transformation, and melting behavior of nanoparticles of trilauroylglycerol (LLL) in oil‐in‐water (O/W) emulsion were examined initially by DSC, and then by simultaneous synchrotron radiation small‐angle (SAXS) and wide‐angle (WAXS) X‐ray diffraction and DSC (SR‐SAXS /WAXS/DSC). The O/W nanoparticles emulsions having average diameters of 42 to 120 nm were prepared by application of mechanical shear using a high‐pressure homogenizer. The following results were obtained: (i) The DSC study showed that the melting temperature of the stable β form of LLL was reduced from 46.7 (bulk) to 26.5–44.0°C (nanoparticles); this variation as assumed to be due to the size distribution of the nanoparticles. Crystallization temperature was also reduced from 18.9 (bulk) to −9.5±0.5°C (nanoparticles). These results were consistent with those of previous studies of nanoparticles of fats obtained in the O/W emulsion. (ii) The results obtained by the SR‐SAXS/WAXS/DSC technique during the cooling process to −20°C showed that the first‐occurring polymorph of LLL in the bulk liquid was β′, whereas α was first nucleated and transformed to β′ around −10°C during cooling in the nanoparticles. (iii) The SR‐SAXS/WAXS/DSC data taken during the heating process from −20°C after the crystallization showed that β′ transformed to β around 0°C and that the melting of β started at 30°C and ended at 44°C. The present study showed that forming nanoparticles of LLL in the O/W emulsion having the diameters of 42 to 120 nm reduced the melting and crystallization temperatures and increased the transformation rate of α→β′→β in comparison to the LLL crystals formed in the bulk phase.
Effects of purification process on rheological properties of catfish oil
Authors: Sathivel Subramaniam , Prinyawiwatkul Witoon , Negulescu Ioan I. , King Joan M. , Basnayake B. F. A.
Published: November 2006

Effects of oil refining steps (degumming, neutralizing, bleaching, and deodorizing) on rheological properties of catfish oil were investigated. Four rheological models (Newtonian, Bingham, Herschel‐Bulkley, and Casson) were used to fit the experimental data. Refined catfish oil behaves like a Newtonian fluid. Based on the Casson model, the yield stress values of oils gradually decreased after each refining step. The highest shear rate index (0.904) was observed in the deodorized oil. The Casson model was used to predict rheological properties because it works well at both lower and higher shear rates.
Pyrrolizidine alkaloid content in crude and processed borage oil from different processing stages
Authors: Wretensjö Inger , Karlberg Bo
Published: November 2006

The pyrrolizidine alkaloid content of crude borage oil and borage oil from different processing stages was determined by GC‐MS. The results showed that no pyrrolizidine alkaloids were present above a detection limit of 20 ppb. The reduction factors for pyrrolizidine alkaloids at various stages in the oil refining process were determined by means of spiking experiments using the commercially available pyrrolizidine alkaloid crotaline. It was shown that the pyrrolizidine content in crude borage oil was reduced overall by a factor of about 30,000 in the refining process.
Enzymatic enrichment of astaxanthin from Haematococcus pluvialis cell extracts
Authors: Nagao Toshihiro , Fukami Tadashi , Horita Yoshiharu , Komemushi Sadao , Sugihara Akio , Shimada Yuji
Published: November 2006

An industrially available preparation of astaxanthin (Ax) from Haematococcus pluvialis contained 41.6 wt% acylglycerols and 24.9 wt% FFA in addition to 14.6 wt% Ax, which was a mixture of free and FA ester forms (free Ax/Ax monoesters/Ax diesters=4.9∶80.3∶14.8, by mol). Enrichment of Ax by a two‐step process was attempted. The first step was hydrolysis of acylglycerols with Candida rugosa lipase: A mixture of 1.0 kg H. pluvialis cell extracts, 1.0 L water, and 50 U/g‐reaction mixture of the lipase was agitated at 30°C for 42 h. The degree of hydrolysis of acylglycerols reached 94.4%, but Ax esters were not hydrolyzed. Removal of FFA from the resulting oil layer by molecular distillation enriched the content of Ax esters to 40.8 wt5 (named Ax40). The second step was enzymatic conversion of Ax esters to free Ax, which successfully proceeded in the presence of ethanol (EtOH). When a mixture of 50.0 g Ax40, 8.2 g EtOH (5 molar equiv. against FA), 58.2 mL water, and 1500 U/g‐mixture of Pseudomonas aeruginosa lipase was stirred at 30°C for 68 h, the free Ax content increased to 89.3 mol%. Free Ax was efficiently recovered by precipitation with n‐hexane. The purity of Ax was thereby raised to 70.2 wt% with a 63.9% overall recovery of the initial content in the cell extracts.
Total and polar lipids in soybean protein meals
Authors: Wu Yingzi , Wang Tong
Published: November 2006

Soybean protein meals obtained by various oil extraction methods have different neutral oil content, and they may contain differnet amounts of polar lipids. Three soy protein meals obtained by different processing methods were extracted by two solvents consecutively, chloroform/methanol (2:1, vol/vol) and water‐saturated butanol, for total lipid analysis. The organic flour (i.e., ground soybean) containted 15.52% total lipids; the high protein dispersibility index flour from extrusion‐expelling processing and the white flour from conventional solvent extraction contained 11.20 and 1.84% total lipids, respectively. Organic flour contained more polar lipids than the other two protein meals on a dry‐weight meal basis. Chloroform/methanol extracted most of the lipid from the meals, whereas water‐saturated butanol resulted in an extract with more polar lipids than that from chloroform/methanol extraction.
Effect of temperature and pressure on the speed of sound and isentropic bulk modulus of mixtures of biodiesel and diesel fuel
Authors: Tat Mustafa E. , Van Gerpen Joh H.
Published: November 2006

The density and speed of sound of blends of biodiesel with No. 2 and No. 1 diesel fuels were measured from atmospheric pressure to 32.46 MPa at temperatures of 20 and 40°C. The isentropic bulk modulus was calculated from these quantities. The results show that the density and isentropic bulk modulus can be accurately modeled as having a linear variation with blend percentage. Speed of sound is better correlated by a second‐order equation. Correlation equations are given and a blending rule is developed that allows the density, speed of sound, and isentropic bulk modulus of blends to be calculated from the properties of the biodiesel and diesel fuel.
Thermal degradation of FA and catfish and menhaden oils at different refining steps
Authors: Sathivel Subramaniam , Prinyawiwatkul Witoon , Negulescu Ioan I. , King Joan M. , Basnayake B. F. A.
Published: November 2006

The thermal degradation (weight loss) of individual FA and of catfish and menhaden oils collected from different refining steps was investigated by thermogravimetric analysis. The heat resistance of FA was partially dependent on chain length and degree of unsaturation. The weight loss of catfish and menhaden oils increased with increased heating temperatures, regardless of the oil refining process. All oil samples (except crude catfish oil) were decomposed after the heating temperature reached 550°C. Based on the thermogravimetric curves, the following thermal stability sequence at different refining steps for both catfish and menhaden oils was proposed: crude > degummed > neutralized > bleached > deodorized oils.
Utilization of waste activated bleaching earth containing palm oil in riboflavin production by Ashbya gossypii
Authors: Park Enoch Y. , Kato Ai , Ming Hwa
Published: November 2006

Waste activated bleaching earth (ABE) discharged by an oil refinery plant, which contained 40% palm oil, was used for riboflavin production by a culture of the filamentous fungus Ashbya gossypii. When 188 g/L waste ABE containing 75 g/L palm oil was added to the culture, 80% of the palm oil was consumed after 4 d, and the riboflavin concentration reached 2.1 g/L after 10 d of culture. This concentration was almost 1.5 times higher than for cultures grown on pure palm oil, in which case only 68% of the palm oil was consumed. Before the culture was initiated, the surface of the waste ABE was smooth and resembled clay that was covered with palm oil. After the culture, the oil content decreased to 8%. The black color of waste ABE gradually faded and turned yellow, with the ABE finally forming a yellow powder. Eighty percent of the riboflavin produced during the culture period was transferred to oil‐depleted waste ABE and the waste‐oil‐depleted ABE had 14 mg of riboflavin/g of oil‐depleted waste ABE. The waste ABE containing waste palm oil was suitable for use as a raw material for the production of value‐added riboflavin. Thus, this research might provide a good model for the reuse of waste resources containing vegetable oil.
A laboratory study for developing an aqueous process to make skimmed soymilk
Authors: Xu Lei , Kumar Ashwani , Lamb Karen
Published: November 2006

Soymilk was extracted from soybeans at room temperature, using water‐to‐bean ratios of 10∶1 and 30∶1 to obtain two different protein concentrations. Defatting of soymilk by centrifugation was studied with a focus on the effect of protein concentration. A kinetic model, with a rate constant k and a fat‐protein binding constant K, was established by linear regression to describe the defatting process in both cases. Ahigh water ratio resulting in a low protein concentration was favorable to defatting. Based on these results, an aqueous process was developed for the production of skimmed soymilk, consisting of grinding, extraction, cooking, centrifugation, and ultrafiltration. The product obtained had about 3 wt% protein and 0.3 wt% fat and thus qualified as skimmed soymilk.
Lipase‐catalyzed synthesis of structured triacylglycerides from 1,3‐diacylglycerides
Authors: Wongsakul Sirirung , H‐Kittikun Aran , Bornscheuer Uwe T.
Published: November 2006

A new method for the lipase‐catalyzed synthesis of structured TAG (ST) is described. First, sn1,3‐dilaurin or‐dicaprylin were enzymatically synthesized using different published methods. Next, these were esterified at the sn2‐position with oleic acid or its vinyl ester using different lipases. Key to successful enzymatic synthesis of ST was the choice of a lipase with appropriate FA specificity, i.e., one that does not act on the FA already present in the sn1,3‐DAG, but that at the same time exhibits high selectivity and activity toward the FA to be introduced. Reactions were performed in the presence of organic solvents or in solvent‐free systems under reduced pressure. With this strategy, mixed ST containing the desired compounds 1,3‐dicaprylol‐2‐oleyl‐glycerol or 1,3‐dilauroyl‐2‐oleyl‐glycerol (CyOCy or LaOLa) were obtained at 87 and 78 mol% yield, respectively, using immobilized lipases from Burkholderia cepacia (Amano PS‐D) in n‐hexane at 60°C. However, regiospecific analysis with porcine pancreatic lipase indicated that in CyOCy, 25.7% caprylic acid and in LaOLa 11.1% lauric acid were located at the sn2‐position. Oleic acid vinyl ester was a better acyl donor than oleic acid. Esterification of sn1,3‐DAG and free oleic acid gave very low yield (<20%) of ST in a solvent system and moderate yield (>50%) in a solvent‐free system under reduced pressure.
Protein fractionation and properties of salicornia meal
Authors: Victor Wu Y. , Sessa David J.
Published: November 2006

Salicornia bigelovii Torr. is an annual salt‐marsh oilseed plant. Hexane‐defatted salicornia meal was extracted sequentially with 0.5 M sodium chloride (2x), water, 70% ethanol, and 0.1 N sodium hydroxide (2x). Each sodium chloride extract was dialyzed against deionized water and centrifuged to separate a water‐soluble fraction (albumin) from a salt‐soluble fraction (globulin) before freeze‐drying. Ethanol extracts and neutralized sodium hydroxide extracts (glutelin) were dialyzed against water and freeze‐dried. Globulin accounted for the highest amount of protein nitrogen, followed by glutelin and albumin. SDS‐PAGE of reduced albumin, globulin, and glutelin showed a number of protein bands. Nitrogen solubility of defatted salicornia meal from pH 2 to 11 indicated a minimum solubility of 22%, around pH 4.5. Nonprotein nitrogen of defatted meal was 23% of total nitrogen, higher than defatted soybean, sunflower, and rapeseed meals. Albumin had the highest proportion of lysine and sulfur amino acids per 16 g nitrogen among all the fractions analyzed.
How is chemical interesterification initiated: Nucleophilic substitution or α‐proton abstraction?
Authors: Liu Linsen
Published: November 2006

Esters of carboxylic acids including 2‐methylhexanoic, 2‐methylbutyric, 2,2‐dimethyl‐4‐pentenoic, palmitic, and oleic acids were tested as substrates in methoxide‐catalyzed interesterification and transesterification. The aliphatic acid esters participated in the ester‐ester interchange upon addition of catalytic sodium methoxide. Their isopropyl esters also produced methyl esters on heating with sodium methoxide. The esters of α‐methyl‐substituted acids did not participate in the ester‐ester interchange. Their isopropyl esters did not react with methoxide to produce methyl esters. However, upon addition of methanol with sodium methoxide, their methyl esters were produced. These results indicate that the first step in interesterification is possibly that methoxide abstracts the α‐hydrogen of an ester to form a carbanion. Interesterification is then likely completed via a Claisen condensation mechanism involving the β‐keto ester anion as the active intermediate. The β‐keto ester anion contains positively charged ketone and acyl carbons that are active sites for nucleophilic attack by anions such as methoxide and glycerinate, which would produce a methyl ester or rearrange acyls randomly. On the other hand, transesterification is a nucleophilic substitution by methoxide at the acyl carbon in the presence of methanol.
DSC and synchrotron‐radiation X‐ray diffraction studies on crystallization and polymorphic behavior of palm stearin in bulk and oil‐in‐water emulsion states
Authors: Sonoda T. , Takata Y. , Ueno S. , Sato K.
Published: November 2006

The crystallization and polymorphic behavior of palm stearin (PS) in a bulk state and in oil‐in‐water (O/W) emulsion droplets (average diameter, 1.7±0.3 μm) was observed by using DSC, optical microscopy, and in situ X‐ray diffraction with synchrotron radiation (SR‐XRD). For the bulk sample the DSC measurements revealed three main exothermic peaks at approximately 31 (large), 21 (small) and 3°C (medium) on cooling, and broad endothermic peaks at approximate −3 (small), 8, 15 to 25 (medium), and 37 and 53°C upon heating. The SR‐XRD patterns taken during cooling from 60 to −5°C clarified that the DSC exothermic peaks around 31 and 3°C corresponded to crystallization of the α form of high‐melting and low‐melting fractions, respectively, and that the occurrence of β′ corresponded to the small exothermic peak around 21°C. The XR‐XRD patterns taken during heating from −5 to 60°C demonstrated that the DSC endothermic peaks corresponded to the following transformation processes: melting of α of the low‐melting fraction (−3°C), melt‐mediated transformation from α to ∇′ (15–25°C), melting of β′ (36°C), and melting of β (53°C) of the high‐melting fraction. As for the O/W emulsion sample, the DSC and SR‐XRD measurements during the cooling and heating processes exhibited basically the same behavior as that of PS in the bulk state, except that β′ did not crystallize during the cooling process, and the temperatures of crystallization of α, melt‐mediated α→β′→β transformation, and melting of β were lower in the emulsion droplets than in the bulk state.
Impact of oxidized off‐flavor of ice cream prepared from milk fat
Authors: Shiota M. , Takahashi N. , Konishi H. , Yoshioka T.
Published: November 2006

The influence of light‐induced oxidation on ice cream quality was investigated by monitoring hydroperoxide formation of the oil fraction, sensory evaluation for oxidized off‐flavor, and gas GC‐MS analysis of developed volatile aldehydes following steam distillation/extraction of ice cream. Two ice cream samples containing 14.3% milk fat prepared from different milk fat materials, and a sample with 1000 ppm tocopherol added were exposed to 650 lx fluorescent light at −20°C. Ice cream prepared from each milk material showed a different time dependence for peroxide formation, and the addition of tocopherol reduced hydroperoxide formation. The correlation coefficient (r2) between the PV and the sensory score was 0.483 (n=9), and the r2 between the total concentration of 10 volatile aldehydes developed during light exposure and the sensory score was 0.365. Among the 10 aldehydes, however, the highest correlation observed was between the amount of trans‐2‐decenal and the sensory score (r2=0.864, n=9), and lowest correlation was between the amount of hexanal and the sensory score (r2=0.302, n=9). These results suggest that exposure of ice cream in the frozen state to fluorescent light produces a unique composition of volatile aldehydes related to flavor deterioration induced by photooxidation of the milk fat in ice cream.
Products of the surface oxidation of methyl linoleate
Authors: Tekin Aziz , Hammond Earl G.
Published: November 2006

Methyl linoleate with 5% by weight of methyl palmitate as an internal standard was deposited as a monolayer (20% by weight) on Silica gel H and oxidized at 7,25, and 40°C. Oxidation was followed by iodometric PV practiced directly on aliquots of the silica gel. Lower temperatures gave higher PV maxima but after longer times. Oxidation of methyl linoleate at all three temperatures followed first‐order kinetics, and the energy of activation was 15.0 kcal/mol. The products recovered from the chloroform‐acetic acid layer of the peroxide determination were analyzed by GC and identified by El‐ and CI‐MS. Calculation based on methyl palmitate as an internal standard showed that the total peak area decreased to about 40% that of the original methyl linoleate when the residual methyl linoleate was reduced to less than 2%. The chief nonscission products (NSP) of linoleate oxidation were epoxy, hydroxy, hydroxy‐epoxy, dihydroxy, and trihydroxy methyl esters. The greatest NSP concentrations were obtained about the time of the greatest PV, and the yield at 40°C was greater than those at 7 and 25°C. Scission products (SP) increased rapidly until the greatest PV was reached. After this time, SP declined slightly and plateaued at 40°C, but at 7 and 25°C, SP continued to increase slowly with further oxidation.
Composition and seasonal variation of fatty acids of Diplodus vulgaris L. from the Adriatic Sea
Authors: Varljen Jadranka , Baticic Lara , Sincic‐Modric Gordana , Obersnel Vojko , Kapovic Miljenko
Published: November 2006

Muscle tissue from the common two‐banded sea bream Diplodus vulgaris L. originating from the Adriatic Sea, Croatia, was analyzed. The FA composition of neutral (TAG) and polar (PE, PC, PI/PS) lipid classes was determined, as well as the lipid and water contents during winter and summer periods. Both the total lipid and water contents were higher in the winter period. We identified 16 different FA. The major constituents of the total FA in both seasons were saturates: palmitic (16∶0) and stearic acids (18∶0); monoenes: oleic (18∶1n−9) and palmitoleic acids (16∶1n−7); and polyunsaturates: arachidonic acid (20∶4n−6), EPA (20∶5n−3), and DHA (22∶6n−3), but their amounts and ratios differed significantly between the two seasons and between lipid fractions. The FA composition showed a noticeable pattern of seasonality that reflected fluctuations mainly in TAG. The diminution of the monounsaturated FA content in the summer was clearly followed by an increase in PUFA content. Diplodus vulgaris is a good source of natural n−3 PUFA and would therefore be suitable for inclusion in highly unsaturated low‐fat diets.
Analyzing seed weight, fatty acid composition, oil, and protein contents in Vernonia galamensis germplasm by near‐infrared reflectance spectroscopy
Authors: Baye Tesfaye , Becker Heiko C.
Published: November 2006

Vernonia galamensis is a potential new industrial oilseed crop from the Asteraceae family. The interest in this species is due to the presence of a high vernolic acid content of its seed oil, which is useful in the oleochemical industry for paints and coatings. The development of a rapid, precise, robust, nondestructive, and economical method to evaluate quality components is of major interest to growers, processors, and breeders. NIR reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS) is routinely used for the prediction of quality traits in many crops. This study was conducted to establish a rapid analytical method for determining the quality of intact seeds of V. galamensis. A total of 114 Vernonia accessions were scanned to determine seed weight, FA composition, oil, and protein contents using NIRS. Conventional chemical analysis for FA composition, total oil, and protein contents were performed by GC, Soxhlet extraction, and the Dumas combustion method, respectively. Calibration equations were developed and tested through cross‐validation. The coefficient of determination in cross‐validation for FA ranged from 0.47 (linoleic acid) to 0.55 (vernolic acid), and for oil, protein, and seed weight from 0.71 (oil) to 0.86 (seed protein). It was concluded that NIRS calibration equations developed for seed weight and seed quality traits can be satisfactorily used as early screening methods in V. galamensis breeding programs.
Solvent‐free enzymatic synthesis of structured lipids containing CLA from coconut oil and tricaprylin
Authors: Rocha‐Uribe Alejandro , Hernandez Ernesto
Published: November 2006

Lipase‐catalyzed acidolysis of different TAG with CLA was performed to produce structured lipids (SL) containing CLA. An immobilized lipase from Mucor miehei (Lipozyme IM, Novo Nordisk Inc., Franklinton, NC) was used as the biocatalyst in a solvent‐free system. Conconut oil and tricaprylin, which are sources of medium‐chain FA, were the starting substrates, and a mixture of FFA (MFFA) containing 73% CLA was the donor of the acyl groups. For each TAG, four different ratios of TAG/MFFA were blended to prepare about 500 g of mixture containing 10, 20, 30, and 40% CLA (w/w). Each blend was reacted with 5% lipase at 65°C for 48 h under nitrogen. Over the range of TAG/MFFA ratios examined, CLA was incorporated effectively by the enzyme. Lipozyme IM exhibited no special preference for any particular FA, since the incorporation of FA was proportional to their concentration in the system. FFA, PV, p‐anisidine value (p‐AV), iodine value (IV), and saponification number (SN) were evaluated for all the SL. FFA, PV, and p‐AV depended on the purification process and showed no significant deterioration of SL with respect to the original TAG, whereas IV and SN depended on the composition of the SL, mainly the CLA content.
Phenolic antioxidants in beans and their effects on inhibition of radical‐induced DNA damage
Authors: Madhujith Terrence , Amarowicz Ryszard , Shahidi Fereidoon
Published: November 2006

Four bean varieties with different hull colors (white, brown, red, and black) were extracted with 80% acetone and evaluated for their antioxidant potential. Red, brown, and black bean extracts were able to effectively retain supercoiled DNA against 2,2′‐azobis(2‐methylpropionamidine) dihydrochloride (AAPH)‐induced radical damage at the concentration levels (5, 10, 50, and 100 ppm) tested. Delphinidin, cyanidin, and procyanidins B2, C1, C2, and X were identified in red, brown, and black bean hull extracts, whereas white bean hull extract contained only a small amount of flavonoids. Vanillic, caffeic, p‐coumaric, ferulic, and sinapic acids were the main phenolic acids identified in bean hull extracts.
Buster Keaton and the South: The First Things and the Last
Authors: BILTON ALAN
Published: November 2006

Of all the great silent film comedians, it is Buster Keaton who most completely inhabits and exemplifies the machine age, perhaps because, unlike other performers, Keaton repeatedly foregrounds the notion that the movie camera itself is a machine, one more device in an automated jungle of sprockets, cranks and motors. Certainly, no other comedian of the period seems so aware of the essentially mechanical nature of the medium, its specifically machine-made possibilities and absurdities; with its flattened space, accelerated tempo and discontinuous leaps in time and space, film acts as a kind of technological synonym for modernity, a modernity in which Keaton's poetic engineering and ingenuous modes of transport appear wholly, indivisibly, at home.