bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
16
Authors: Clorinda Matto De Turner
Published: November 2023

Don Fernando found Manuel still immersed in the impressions left by Margarita’s sudden departure. “Hello there, Don Manuel,” he said as he entered the room and held out his hand to the young man. “Excuse me for coming at this inopportune time, Don Fernando, but in cases like this the urgency of our business has to serve as an open sesame, ”Manuel answered, shaking his friend’s hand. “Please, no formalities, Don Manuel. You know I’m your friend, and that should be enough,” said Don Fernando, pulling up a chair and inviting the young man to sit down. “I do know that, and without that friendship I’d have gone crazy: the awkward situation in which I stood with you after that attack; all the delicate and contradictory matters that have developed since I came to this town, where the leading citizens respect neither law nor religion; and everything I’ve been thinking and meditating-it’s enough to drive anyone mad.”
20
Authors: Clorinda Matto De Turner
Published: November 2023

Dona Petronila had visited the Marfns not only to introduce Teodora and bring the news from Saucedo, but also to ask Don Fernando to intercede with the new subprefect; and therefore, as soon as Martina, the sexton’s wife, had left, she said, “My dear Don Fernando, “I do know him, but very slightly; still... what did you have in mind?”“Too bad! I wanted a letter to certify that my friends Teodora and Don Gaspar are worthy citizens entitled to be treated with respect. After all that’s happened, you can imagine how those poor folks are trem bling when they think they may get other boorish visitors like that colonel,” said Dona Petronila, fastening her shawl. “I’m sorry to say I can’t help you directly, but I’ll try to use the influence of a friend,” Marin answered. “Salas is related to the new subprefect,” Lucia pointed out. “Yes, but I don’t plan to appeal to him but to Guzman, because he’ll help me to work on behalf oflsidro Champi.” ‘‘And meanwhile you, Dona Petronila, could see how Don Sebastian might take care of this matter of the sexton,” Lucia recommended.
Riis and Charity Writing
Authors: Andal Keith G
Published: November 2023

Though in many ways Jacob Riis’s How the Other Half Lives follows in the tradition of nineteenth-century charity writing, portions of his book are unlike any previous American writings on poverty. His description of the infamous Mulberry Bend is one. It is touristic.

What a birds-eye view of “the Bend” would be like is a matter of bewildering conjecture. Its everyday appearance, as seen from the corner of Bayard Street on a sunny day, is one of the sights of New York.
The Touristic Ethic and Photography
Authors: Andal Keith G
Published: November 2023

When How the Other Half Lives was advertised, it was not marketed strictly as a reform piece, exclusively as “an indictment of the tenement system.” One advertisement for the book declared:

No page is uninstructive, but it would be misleading to suppose the book even tinctured with didacticism. It is from beginning to end as picturesque in treatment as it is in material. The author’s acquaintance with the latter is extremely intimate. The reader feels that he is being guided through the dirt and crime, the tatters and rags, the byways and alleys of nether New York by an experienced cicerone. Mr. Riis, in a word, though a philanthropist and philosopher, is an artist as well. He has also the advantage of being an amateur photographer, and his book is abundantly illustrated from negatives of the odd, the out-of-the-way, and characteristic sights and scenes he has himself caught with his camera. No work yet published—certainly not the official reports of the charity societies—shows so vividly the complexion and countenance of the “Down-town Back Alleys,” “The Bend,” “Chinatown,” “Jewtown,” “The Cheap Lodging-houses,” the haunts of the negro, the Italian, the Bohemian poor, or gives such a veracious picture of the toughs, the tramps, the waifs, drunkards, paupers, gamins, and the generally gruesome population of this centre of civilization.
Self-Esteem and the Tough
Authors: Andal Keith G
Published: November 2023

Riis has a strange investment in the tough—what we would today call the thug. “I have certain theories concerning toughs which my friend the sergeant says are rot,” Riis declares in Out of Mulberry Street.’ For one thing, he claims that he prefers the tough to the pauper, despite the fact that the tough regularly robs, injures, and even kills, while, as Riis admits, the pauper is rarely violent. Riis has no illusions about his favored subject: within half an hour after a camera session with an accommodating gang of toughs, Riis found at the police station “two of my friends … under arrest for robbing a Jewish pedlar who had passed that way after I left them, and trying to saw his head off, as they put it, ‘just for fun’” (168–169). It was one thing to romanticize or sympathize with harmless “street Arabs” and mischievous newspaper boys, as Charles Loring Brace and Horatio Alger did. It was another to spend time with and entertain an empathy for the accomplished tough, thief, or gang member, as Riis does.
The Shape and Limits of the Church’s Contributions to Democratization
Authors: Burgees John P
Published: November 2023

In retrospect, it appears that the democratization of Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union was historically inevitable. At the time, however, the events beginning with the “new thinking” of Mikhail Gorbachev and coming to symbolic climax in the dismantling of the Berlin Wall took the entire world by surprise, most especially the very people living under communism.
Marcel and Bisiach: The Language of Awareness
Authors: Mcginn Colin
Published: November 2023

To casual inspection, the history of the universe would appear to have been marked by three great upsurges. In the beginning, came matter in spaceparticles, planets, galaxies. Physics is the science of this primordial being: it seeks to say what the laws of matter are, and (if possible) how matter came to exist in the first place. After this initial upsurge, nothing essentially novel came on the scene for an unconscionably long time. Then living organisms arrived. Self-replicating macromolecules begat single-cell organisms, which led eventually to big, complex, warm animals like ourselves. Matter became intricately arranged into living forms. Biology is the science of this new arrival, and evolutionary biology the study of how it came about. The third major upsurge was consciousness. Now here was a genuine novelty, scarcely predictable from what preceded it. Consciousness would need a science all of its own, as special as it is, a science that would try to understand its inner workings, why some things have consciousness and some don’t, how it emerged from what came before, how it develops in the individual, how it relates to behavior, and so on. Psychology sounds like a good name for such a science: the systematic study of perhaps the most remarkable of nature’s products.
Nagel: The View from Nowhere
Authors: Mcginn Colin
Published: November 2023

In his introduction to this important book, Thomas Nagel writes: “There is a persistent temptation to turn philosophy into something less difficult and more shallow than it is” (p. 12). No one could accuse Nagel of shallowness; nor is his book easy reading. He tackles some of the hardest problems in philosophy with unblinking determination: the mind-body problem, the Self, the possibility of objective knowledge, thought and reality, freedom of the will, the status of moral value, the happy life and the moral life, death and the significance of living. His treatment of these issues is consistently illuminating, elegant, and provocative; and he is properly modest in the face of the problems. It is hard to see how one could become one of those philosophers who are “sick of the subject and glad to be rid of its problems” (p. 11) when there are philosophy books like this to read. The View from Nowhere is alive with the true spirit of philosophy.
McGinn: Out of Body, Out of Mind
Authors: Mcginn Colin
Published: November 2023

Take our own nature as conscious beings—something of unique fascination to us all. We want to know, among other things, how our consciousness levers itself out of the body. We want, that is, to solve the mind-body problem, the deep metaphysical question about how mind and matter meet. But what if there is something about us that makes it impossible for us to solve this ancient conundrum? What if our cognitive structure lacks the resources to provide the requisite theory? That would be distressing news for the knowledge-manufacturing industry. And the bringer of the news might expect the opprobrium that traditionally greets the unwelcome messenger: Don’t say that.
Sacks: Outpouchings
Authors: Mcginn Colin
Published: November 2023

It could be said that Oliver Sacks put neuropathology on the literary map. His first book, Awakenings, about the stunning effects of the drug L-dopa on patients afflicted with a form of Parkinsonism, attracted considerable critical acclaim from the literary world and “inspired” Harold Pinter’s rather ponderous play A Kind of Alaska. Sack’s second book, A Leg to Stand On, was similarly well received. He has published a number of short pieces in the London Review of Books, as well as in its elder American sibling, several of which are reprinted in the present collection, along with twelve previously unpublished pieces. (His book Migraine seems to have excited rather less popular interest, no doubt because it is a less popular kind of book.) Yet the scientists of the nervous system do not seem to have been similarly impressed. When I asked a colleague in neuroanatomy what he thought of Sack’s work he said he had never heard of him, and the neuroscientists I consulted who had heard of him were not inclined to attach any scientific importance to his writings. Unanimity between the two cultures is nor perhaps to be expected, but in the present case the reason for this asymmetry of esteem lies deeper than mere difference of interest. The problem is that it is quite unclear what Sacks is doing.
Singer: Eating Animals Is Wrong
Authors: Mcginn Colin
Published: November 2023

I have been persuaded of the rightness of the moral position advocated in Peter Singer’s Animal Liberation for the past twenty years. There is, in my view, no moral justification whatever for the human exploitation of animals. I was convinced of this principally by reading the path-breaking book, Animals, Men and Morals (1971), edited by Stanley and Roslind Godlovitch and John Harris. Singer acknowledges his debt to this pivotal work as well as to personal contact with some of the contributors, and his own 1975 book, of which there is now a welcome second edition, is largely a sustained workingout of the moral perspective developed by these earlier thinkers. I have to declare that, in my opinion, the arguments Singer mounts, and the facts he marshals, constitute a definitive and unanswerable case for the thesis that our treatment of animals, in every department, is deeply and systematically immoral. Becoming a vegetarian is only the most minimal ethical response to the magnitude of the evil. What is needed is a complete revolution in the way we deal with other species. Do not expect, then, to find me in any way “balanced” on the question: this is not really an issue on which there are two sides. It’s a won argument, as far as I’m concerned-in principle if not in practice.
Representing America
Authors: Erkkila Betsy
Published: November 2023

Whitman’s major work during the 1870s and 188os was not in poetry, but in prose-in the political pamphlet Democratic Vistas,his Memoranda During the War,and his personal reflections on his life and times in Specimen Days,which was published in 1882. Based on his Civil War notebooks (1861-65) and a series of notes he took during his trips to Timber Creek between 1875 and 1881 and his trips to the West, Canada, Boston, and New York between 1879 and 1881, Specimen Daysis, as Whitman said, a “prosejumble” (Corr.,III, 301). At the beginning of the volume, in a note written a few days before Independence Day 1881, Whitman resolved “to go home, untie the bundle, reel out diary-scraps and memoranda, just as they are, large or small, one after another, into print-pages, and let the melange’s lackings and wants of connection take care of themselves....
Holding the Line in Greece
Authors: Jones Howard
Published: November 2023

The background of the Greek civil war of 1946-49 was extremely complex. Much of the unrest stemmed from the dictatorship of General John Metaxas from 1936 to early 1941, followed by the German occupation of World War II. After Nazi liberation, British military forces put down a communist uprising in the December Revolution of 1944, which culminated in an uneasy truce at Varkiza the following February. At the Potsdam Conference of July 1945, the Soviets complained about the British troop presence in Greece and about the Greek government’s harsh policies toward dissenters. In the postwar period, the government in Athens seemed unresponsive to the people’s needs, thereby exacerbating longstanding economic and political problems and contributing to an atmosphere conducive to violence. The central question was whether King George II, who had gone into exile first to London and then to Cairo, should reoccupy the throne. This matter became the subject of bitter debate between forces on the left and right; many people believed that the principal issue was whether the small group of communists in the country could take over the government and tie it to Moscow. Indeed, former leaders of EAM were now exercising influence through the Greek Communist party (KKE).
The Need for American Military Assistance
Authors: Jones Howard
Published: November 2023

By the time the President announced the Truman Doctrine, the military situation in Greece had taken a turn for the worse. The Greek army’s first campaign against the guerrillas began in April 1947 with an attack on enemy strongholds near the Gulf of Corinth in central Greece. Bad weather at first brought operations to a halt, but by the middle of the month government soldiers had resumed their move northward through Thessaly and western Macedonia. As the army advanced toward the frontier, it intended to isolate and crush the guerrillas or drive them out of the country and seal the border—over 600 miles in length, desolate, rough, and largely unmarked. To break down resistance, the government authorized the minister of war to grant amnesty to guerrillas who surrendered, leaving those captured to courts-martial. But as the weeks passed, the offensive bogged down due to lack of organization and sheer inability to sustain the operation.1
The Joint U.S. Military Advisory and Planning Group
Authors: Jones Howard
Published: November 2023

By early November the Truman administration was moving toward the establishment of an advisory and planning group in Greece. Following the President’s approval of the program, the National Security Council worked out the details. The group would be comprised of ninety officers and eighty enlisted men divided among the army, navy, and air force, and would be part of the military section of the aid mission but have direct communications with the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The head of USAGG as senior army officer would be director of planning and operations and responsible to the chief of the American mission. Final authority, however, would rest with the ambassador, who would approve decisions and continue to deal with the Athens government on high policy. Military matters relating to such policy would come to his attention by the director and through the mission chief’s office. Forrestal, now secretary of defense, directed the joint chiefs to select the men for the operational advisory task force.
Corollaries of a Global Strategy
Authors: Jones Howard
Published: November 2023

The chief corollary of the new global strategy was that the United States could not overextend itself in one country. This was a difficult tendency to control. In early 1948, problems were erupting all over the world that affected American interests: the Soviet coup of February in Czechoslovakia along with continuing economic and political desperation in Europe, which would encourage congressional approval of the Marshall Plan in April; unrest in the Middle East over the impending division of Palestine; growing tension in Berlin; indications of a rift between Yugoslavia and the Soviet Union that could have widespread ramifications; the movement toward the establishment of a military pact in Europe; and the intensifying civil war in China. Greece was only one part of the picture: every decision in that country hinged upon holding the line against the communists in other places as well. More than a few observers, however, continued to insist that the Cold War would be won (or lost) in Greece. The government in Washington had to resist immense pressures from those who wanted to send combat troops.
The Retributivist Backlash
Authors: Moore Kathleen Dean
Published: November 2023

How pardons are understood and how they are used depends, to a large extent, on the values and procedures inherent in a system of punishment. The 1970s in the United States saw an important change in the predominant theory of punishment-the decline of the rehabilitationist model and its replacement by a view of punishment that more closely approximates retributivist ideals. That change set the stage for a new view of the role pardons should play in the U.S. system of justice.
How to Distinguish Forgiveness, Mercy, and Pardon
Authors: Moore Kathleen Dean
Published: November 2023

In Part II, I argued that retributivism can define an important role for pardon, as an official act that removes the consequences of a criminal conviction. But what about those qualities that are so often associated with pardon-forgiveness and mercy? Can the principles of retributive justice make sense of them?

The issue has always been a difficult one for retributivism. “Retributive justice” is a comfortable phrase; the two words fit harmoniously together.
Intuitionism, Pluralism, and the Foundations of Ethics
Authors: Audi Robert
Published: November 2023

Ethical intuitionism is historically important, widely referred to, and generally considered a major position in the foundations of ethics. But it is not widely discussed in depth. This is in part because, although it is held by some leading philosophers, its resources are often underestimated. It is certainly conceived divergently among ethical theorists, and those who find its central elements compelling may often think it easier and better simply to argue for their position under another name than to indicate what kind of intuitionism they hold and defend their position under that rubric. My aim here is to clarify intuitionism, to bring out some of its strengths and weaknesses, and to reassess the case for giving it a more significant place in contemporary ethical theory.
Annotated Literal Translation of the Libretto
Authors: Marissen Michael
Published: November 2023

The purpose of this translation is to present Bach’s St. John Passion libretto in as close to a literal rendition of the German as is possible in American English (including some shifts from past to historical present tense that Luther took over from the New Testament’s Greek). The style and syntax will therefore often leave a great deal to be desired. The translation is also designed to make as convenient as possible a line-by-line comparison of the German and English texts.

Luther’s translation of the gospel of John’s passion narrative and mine of Luther’s are printed in italics. Luther’s text and, therefore, my translation do not necessarily correspond to any of today’s English or German translations of the Bible.

The libretto’s chorale responses to the biblical narrative are set in bold type, and the aria and arioso responses in regular type.

Many published translations of Bach’s St. John Passion were designed to accommodate foreign-language renderings of the work (e.g., they focus on aligning syllabic with musical rhythms, particularly in the arias and chorales). For these and other reasons, such translations often substantially alter the meanings of the German libretto and thus hamper proper interpretation of the work.
Assembling the Elements
Authors: Haji Ishtiyaque
Published: November 2023

I began in chapter with an array of cases that motivates some challenging puzzles about moral appraisability. The resolution of many of them turned, in the end, on getting clear about the conditions that are to be satisfied if a person is to be morally appraisable for his or her actions. I have argued that three conditions are particularly germane: a control condition that says, loosely, that the person’s action must be under her control; an epistemic one that requires, roughly, that the person not be relevantly ignorant of what she is doing; and an authenticity condition that, in broad strokes, states that the person’s action issue from an evaluative scheme-the cluster of motivational and doxastic elements required for evaluative reasoning-that is “truly her own” or authentic.
On Being Appraisable for the Thoughts of One’s Dream Self
Authors: Haji Ishtiyaque
Published: November 2023

Can we be deserving of moral blame (or praise) for what we think, visualize, or imagine in our dreams? Right at the outset, this moral dream problem smacks of philosophical misgivings. It might, after all, plausibly be urged that all moral appraisability ultimately traces to appraisability for actions, and just as there is a stark difference between one’s intentionally gazing at a sunset and one’s dreaming that one so does, so there is a difference between one’s purposely undertaking the mentalact of imagining one’s engaging in adultery and one’s dreaming that one engages in adultery.
Introduction
Authors: Butchvarov Panayot
Published: November 2023

By skepticism about the external world I shall mean what Hume called skepticism with regard to the senses, that is, with regard to our knowledge through sense perception of the existence and qualities of bodies, of material objects. The problem such skepticism poses has dominated modern philosophy ever since the discovery, in the sixteenth century, of Sextus Empiricus’s manuscripts,1 and arguably it also dominated ancient Greek philosophy at least after Aristotle.
Metaethics and Methodology
Authors: Timmons Mark
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, my central aim is to clarify the sorts of second-order, metaethical issues and arguments that this book is about. In the past decade or so, significant changes have taken place in just how metaethics is conceived and practiced. These changes in conceptions of the content and method of metaethical inquiry are important for reasons that will become apparent as we proceed. So it will be useful to spend part of this chapter going over some metaethical history and explaining, in broad outline, the methodological approach to be followed in this book.
In the Houses of the Holy
Authors: Fast Susan
Published: November 2023

This volume examines the powerful ways in which identity can be shaped by rock music. Through the music, imagery and discourse surrounding one of the most innovative and commercially successful rock bands ever, Susan Fast probes such issues as constructions of gender and sexuality, the creation of myth and the use of ritual, the appropriation of Eastern musics and the blues, the physicality of the music, and the use of the body in performance. The band's influence is examined through socially-situated musical analysis, as well as an ethnographic study of Led Zeppelin fans. Fast draws on academic and journalistic writing as well as a new interview with band member John Paul Jones. Specific pieces examined include "Dazed and Confused," "Kashmir," "Stairway to Heaven," and "Whole Lotta Love."
Rancagua. — Osorio—Juan Fernandez. — Juan Enrique Rosales. — His daughter Rosario. — My mother is imprisoned— Felipe Santiago del Solar.
Authors: Rosales Vicente Pérez
Published: November 2023

In the summer, then as now, many of Santiago’s families, in search of relaxation and better air, would trade the comforts of their aristocratic homes for the rustic and uncomfortable hole in the wall that was their country house or for the no less uncomfortable lodgings that they took in one of our seaports, where they went to bathe, to dodge the waves, and to look at the ships, and for the ladies to collect little seashells to take back to Santiago as presents for their friends.
The Baron de Mackau and the corsair Quintanilla. —My voyage to France. —Rio deJaneiro—Le Havre. — The Paris if yesteryear. —Maria Ma!ibrdn Carda. —A young son if Fernando VII. —The Duchesse de Berry. — Sivela’s school. — The mathematician Vallejo. — Don Andris A. de Gorbea. — Don Leandro Ferndndez Moratin. — Don Silvestre Pinheiro Ferreira, our civics teacher. — Romanticism. —Alexandre Dumas. — General San Martin in France. —General Morillo.
Authors: Rosales Vicente Pérez
Published: November 2023

Among the European nations whose ships began to frequent our coast as soon as our war of independence permitted it, England and France were the most eager to gain the friendship of the new state that was just opening its coveted ports to the fruits of foreign industry.
Symptoms of the July Revolution of I830.— Thernnquest of Algeria. — The July Revolution. —More on the Duchesse de Berry. — The ridiculous finale to the Parisian visit of the Dey of Algiers.
Authors: Rosales Vicente Pérez
Published: November 2023

Charles X of France, a king whose passion was the hunt, was punctilious in his religious devotions and strongly attached to the rights and privileges enjoyed by his predecessors before demagoguery and ungodliness had come, as he used to say, to shake the foundations of the peaceful and legitimate throne of his forefathers. He could not bear having occasionally to steal precious time from the pleasures of the chase and those of hearing his mass in the comfort of his royal chapel in order to attend to the affairs of state, and even less could he bear having to put up with the blasphemous authority exerted over him by parliament by virtue of an outlandish political institution called a constitution. He was old, none too bright, more good-hearted than ill-intentioned; and his reluctance to yield to the enlightened political demands of the age.
The Teno Hills. —Flogging.—Bandsof thieves. —Pay dirt.—Locusts and the Agricultural Society.— The new decor painter for SantiagoS theater.—Sarmiento, Tejedor, and Argentine literature.
Authors: Rosales Vicente Pérez
Published: November 2023

Back in 1847 I was renting Comalle, a ranch belonging to that distinguished writer and stern public official who, when he governed Curic6, where it was located, used to write his friend Luis Labarca whenever a rebellion threatened, ‘‘I’ll soon go and make those rascals tremble at the sound of my carriage wheels.”47 At that time Comalle and the dense forests of Chimbarongo, as they call them nowadays, were the lair of some famous bandits who skinned their victims48 and whose awful raids made the Teno Hills a fearful place;
The settlement at Llanquihue. — Early stages in its development. — Its enemies. — The acting immigration agent is arrested. — Progress of the settlement.
Authors: Rosales Vicente Pérez
Published: November 2023

In Chile there is a great difference between the climate of the northern regions and that of the southern ones. The former are plagued by extreme dryness; the latter, by its opposite. In the north, roads are the arteries of communication; in the south, rivers and channels. It comes as no surprise that just as the north breeds men who, as we say, live and die on horseback, so the south produces the hardiest and boldest seamen. Nothing could be easier, safer, and more pleasant than navigation on the channels that connect San Carlos de Chiloe with the calm waters of Cayenel: they are wide enough and more than deep enough for every kind of vessel, with regular tides and a constant succession of harbors, or rather a single continuous harbor where one need only drop anchor to be secure. In the Chacao Channel there is a single threatening rock at the strait ofJunta Remolinos; but since it is clearly visible and lies al most a mile off shore, it offers no danger whatsoever. Anyone sailing
Government of the state of Hamburg. — How the 4% tax on personal property is collected. — The kindergarten. — Emigration agents and emigration. — What different nations do to foster it. — The Chilean agent in Hamburg encounters serious difficulties in sending emigrants to Chile. — His polemic with the Allgemeine Aeitung of Augsburg. — The necessary bases for an immigration project. — Spain. — The legendary accounts of the Gran Capitan. — The waters of Franzensbad. — The Russians. — Francisco Javier Rosales. — Abd-el-Kader. — The End.
Authors: Rosales Vicente Pérez
Published: November 2023

In September 9, 1855, at a season of the year when tender shoots on our trees proclaim the arrival of our joyful springtime and when nature begins to put away her finery so as to bear the harsh winter of northern Europe, I arrived in the beautiful, rich, and free Hanseatic city of Hamburg. This ancient and formidable fortress, the strength of whose
Introduction
Authors: Goldstein Jeffrey
Published: November 2023

Violent entertainment is never absent for long from the public agenda. Today violent entertainment is much in the news on both sides of the Atlantic and around the world. Much publicity has been given to studies of violence in children’s television, and to the fear that violent films and video games have given rise to recent murders by young boys in England, the Netherlands, Norway, and the United States. According to Market Focus: Toys (Feb. 1995), “if there is one issue confronting toymakers and entertainment producers right now, it is the level of violence that children are exposed to in the course of their daily lives and what role they play in promoting that.” As this is written, politicians in Washing ton are considering legislation to limit violent entertainment in television, film, video games, and pop music. The United States and Canada have decided to require a V-chip on all new television sets to enable violent offerings to be filtered out. The device is also under consideration by the European Parliament.
The Broadcasting of Cellular Information
Authors: Loewenstein Werner R
Published: November 2023

Toward the end of the second billennium of the evolutionary calendar, the prin­cipal players of the intercellular game were in place. These belonged to the Maxwellian fraternity of transmitters who had served the cells so well during their monistic age. By then, several members of that fraternity had reached peak form and were ready to strike out for greener pastures. In partnership with messenger and signal molecules, these protein demons eventually would stretch a communication network between the cells, with tentacles spreading out everywhere, vastly expanding their original internal networks.
The Theory-Observation Distinction III The Third Distinction
Authors: Kukla Andre
Published: November 2023

Here’s a way of drawing the theory-observation distinction that seems to avoid both the devastation of van Fraassen’s distinction and the chancy dependence on empirical results of Fodor’s distinction. Let’s suppose that theories are formulated in such a way that their singular consequences are about the occurrence or non occurrence of events. Van Fraassen, for his part, is willing to admit that statements about objects are intertranslatable with statements about events: “There is a molecule in this place” and “The event of there-being-a-molecule occurs in this place” are merely notational variants (van Fraassen 1980, 58). Let OX be the proposition that an event of type X occurs. If X is the decay of a particle of type A, then OX is the proposition that an A-particle decays. Also let E(T, “X”) be the event (type) that theory T refers to as “X”. If Tis true, then E(T, “X”) = X. For instance, if current particle physics is true, then it’s also true that the event that current particle physics refers to as “the decay of an A-particle” is the decay of an A-particle. But this identity may fail for false Ts. Consider, for example, the false theory that identifies certain types of shimmering reflections with the presence of ghosts. Then, a particular type of reflection may very well be the type of event that this theory refers to as “the presence of a ghost”, but the reflection wouldn’t be a ghost.
Patterns of Scientific Controversies
Authors: Kitcher Philip
Published: November 2023

Current thinking about scientific controversies is dominated by two models. one, popular among logical empiricists and their intellectual descendants, proposes that scientific controversies are ultimately settled by experimentation, evidence, and the exercise of reason. The principal rival to this rationalist model, which I shall christen the anti-rationalist model, supposes that context-transcendent canons of reason and evidence have no power to resolve major scientific controversies. Both models come in simplified and more sophisticated versions, and in recent years much ink has been spilled by sophisticates on one side deriding the oversimplifications made by the other.
The Concept of the Individual and the Idea(l) of Method in Seventeenth-Century Natural Philosophy
Authors: Machamer Peter
Published: November 2023

The sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries saw the introduction of many changes in Europe. Indeed, in many ways it was the dawn of the modern world that is still with us. Not the least important of these was a change in a person’s awareness of self, and a concomitant social belief in the individual as a the locus of power.1A person’s conceptions of the relations of an individual human being to other persons, social institutions, and the natural world changed, as did the descriptions, metaphors, ideals, and values by which one conceived oneself. Epistemologically, socially, and economically, the individual was forced into the center of the new order of things. The reasons behind this rise of individualism are many. It was the time, as Karl Marx (1845) said, of the break from feudalism to original capitalism; from, as Alexandre Koyre (1957) said, a closed world to an infinite universe; yet too, as Max Weber (1904— 1905, p. 179) put it, from organic social organization in a fiscal monopolistic form to individualistic motives of rational legal acquisition by virtue of one’s own ability and initiative. As empires gave way to nation states, and as relatively homogeneous elitist intellectual and theological traditions collapsed into narrowly defined sectarianisms and intellectual anarchy, people were forced into new beliefs and institutions, and back into themselves in order to justify and rationalize them.
A Rational Controversy over Compounding Forces
Authors: Freudenthal Gideon
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, I attempt first to clarify the concept of “scientific controversy” in general, and then apply it to one historical case.” The interest in scientific controversies as a phenomenon sui generis is relatively new. of course, the fact that controversies arise in science was not just recently discovered. However, in a traditional interpretation of science, controversies should not have arisen. Conceiving of science as proceeding from a firm foundation of indubitable facts on the one hand, and according to evident logical principles on the other, there was only one path to follow, and this led toward truth. Disagreement resulted from error of one side (or both). “Legitimate scientific controversies” seemed to be an oxymoron. In more recent approaches, science is conceived of as a complex social system. Institutions and the involved economic and political aspects, instrumental practices, power, and rhetoric come to the fore, rather than theory and justification. Theories now appear entrenched in practice, and since no clear-cut decision on individual truth claims is possible, it is widely accepted that all knowledge results from a (more or less controversial) “negotiation” both among practitioners of one group and also across the borders of such groups. However, the fact that science is a messy business does not recommend that the means of its study should be blunt and its historical narrative undifferentiated; on the contrary I propose therefore an analytical approach to science, especially to scientific controversies, that clearly distinguishes between the means of study and its object.
The Dangerous Method: Trying To Write It Right the First Time
Authors: Elbow Peter
Published: November 2023

There are obvious attractions to a writing process where you avoid the complications of the last two chapters and try to get your piece right the first time. You don’t have to make such a mess with raw writing, you don’t have to write in the dark without knowing where you are going, you don’t have to engage in extensive revising-just a little tidying up, perhaps, at the end. No wonder most people instinctively try to write this way. Why keep on writing when you know something is wrong and will have to be changed? It feels obvious that you should stop and cross it out now and not go on to the next bit till you get this bit right.
Working On Writing While Not Thinking About Writing
Authors: Elbow Peter
Published: November 2023

While Abby fails to communicate, I examine her language with all my attention. As soon as minimal communication occurs, I ignore her language and all my attention slides through it, past it, to the meaning, to the nonlinguistic reality, to the question of whether to call the hospital. When the glass is fogged up, we look at the glass. The glass is all we can see. As soon as it gets unfogged, we ignore it and see through it to the scene outside. You will help your writing if you can find occasions when the job you are doing matters a lot but the quality of the writing doesn’t matter at all-occasions when you pay no attention to the glass and look only at the scene beyond it. A good example is if you are trying to make up your mind about which of two jobs to take and after sitting and stewing and not getting anywhere for a few days, you finally decide to spend a couple of hours writing out all your thoughts and feelings. You don’t try to make an orderly presentation or argument, you just write and write until your thoughts and
Cut-And-Paste Revising And The Collage
Authors: Elbow Peter
Published: November 2023

One of the great advantages of an approach to writing where you make a mess during the first half is that you have to clean up that mess before you are done. You can’t let yourself slip into halfhearted, soft-minded revising where you just tidy things up and call it a day. Making a mess means that your revising tool is not a touch-up brush, to start with anyway, but a chain saw. It means that you can’t possibly revise without stopping and thinking hard about what you really mean, about what you are trying to accomplish-even if you think you already made those decisions. The main message about revising in this book is that it is a lot of work.
The Lost Step: Getting Rid Of Mistakes In Grammar
Authors: Elbow Peter
Published: November 2023

I suppose I shouldn’t talk about “getting rid of mistakes in grammar” because I’m not just talking about grammar strictly defined but also about punctuation, spelling, and mechanics; and because these things are really conventions of usage rather than matters of absolute correctness or error. W’hether a given usage is a “mistake” or not often depends on the audience and the situation. But I would rather talk crudely about grammar and right and wrong since that is the way most of us experience this whole business and that is the way we are going to have to come to terms with it.
Audience as Focusing Force
Authors: Elbow Peter
Published: November 2023

I prepared my lecture carefully. I arrive and start in and suddenly realize I have the wrong approach. I thought carefully last night about what I was going to say and worked out a focus, but now that I see my audience I realize it’s the wrong focus for them. The presence of the real audience gives a new orientation to the material in my head. A teacher is asked a hard question in class. He thinks for a few seconds and then turns around and walks to the corner of the room, hunches over a bit, closes his eyes and scrunches up his face and thinks silently for a full minute-perhaps two. Then he comes back and cheerfully tells what he has figured out.
Hysterical Ties Gwendolyn Brooks and the Rise of a “High”Neomodernism
Authors: Smethurst James Edward
Published: November 2023

The project of connecting Langston Hughes’s Montage of a Dream Deferred to the “red”spirit of the 1930s is relatively easy owing to the existence of Hughes’s “revolutionary”poetry of the 1930s (with direct appeals to class consciousness, worker solidarity, proletarian revolution, and antifascist unity), published in unquestionably radical (often Communist) journals that can then be compared to his work in the late 1940s and early 1950s. Discussing Gwendolyn Brooks in this manner is obviously far more difficult, despite her association with Left-influenced organizations and individuals, since she does not have a similar body of overtly “radical”work. Nonetheless, on careful examination it is possible to see how Brooks’s “high”neomodernist style in Annie Allen (1949), where there is a deliberate attempt by an African-American narratorial consciousness to create an “international”modernist documentation of the African-American subject, develops directly out of the formal and thematic concerns of the late 1930s and early 1940s transposed into the context of the “high”cold war. In many respects, Brooks is the cold-war poet of anger and self-repression par excellence.
Site and Landscape Characterization for Ecological Studies
Authors: Grigal David F , Bell James C , Ahrens Robert J , Boone Richard D , Kelly Eugene F , Monger H Curtis , Sollins Phillip
Published: November 2023

There is growing awareness of the importance of adequately defining the environment when conducting ecological studies. Our objective in this chapter is to present the rationale and procedures for describing soils and landscapes (sites) for such studies. We use the term site characterization to refer to the entire suite of soil biogeophysical descriptors that places a site into an environmental context. A primary goal of any environmental study is to understand a phenomenon or set of linked phenomena, whether attributes or processes. Macro- and microclimate, soil, and landscape properties influence both ecosystem attributes and processes. To understand our own data or those of others, we must understand the environment in which they were collected. In addition, we are increasingly called upon to apply our research results to land management issues. Extrapolation from study sites can be either statistically rigorous or qualitative. Both understanding and extrapolation demand good site characterization.
Soil Carbon and Nitrogen Pools and Fractions
Authors: Sollins Phillip , Glassman Carol , Paul Eldor A , Swanston Christopher , Lajtha Kate , Heil Justin W , Elliott Edward T
Published: November 2023

Soil organic matter (SOM) is important as a major source of most nutrients, especially nitrogen (the one major plant nutrient not supplied by weathering), and as a source of cation exchange capacity, especially in highly weathered soils. SOM also contributes to good soil structure, thus promoting drainage, water-holding capacity, aeration, and root penetration, and provides strong control of soil pH, especially in highly weathered soils. In addition, soil organic matter is a major global C source and sink. Jenkinson et al. (1991) calculated that an increase in global temperature of 0.03 °C/yr could increase CO2 release from soil by about 1 Gt C/yr over the next 60 years; by comparison, fossil fuel burning currently releases about 5 Gt C/yr.
The Determination of Microbial Biomass
Authors: Paul Eldor A , Harris David , Klug Michael J , Ruess Roger W
Published: November 2023

The soil biota represents 1-3% of the soil carbon and 3-5% of soil nil trogen. The microbial component, often ranging from 100 to > 1000 µ,g C g-1, is usually considered to contain those soil organisms not visible without magnification. It includes nematodes, protozoa, filamentous and yeast forms of the fungi, microalgae, and bacteria. The bacteria, in turn, contain great diversity, including the actinomycetes, archae, and chemo- and photolithotrophs plus many still uncultured forms. Often the effects of climate, landscape, soil type, and management on ecosystem functioning and nutrient dynamics in the environment are most easily interpreted through the highly responsive microbial component. Microbial biomass acts both as a nutrient reservoir and as a catalytic force in decomposition, and is crucial for understanding nutrient fluxes within and between ecosystems (Smith and Paul 1990). Microbial biomass can also be a sensitive indicator of environmental toxicity attributable to pesticides, metals, and other anthropogenic pollutants. Because microbial biomass is a sensitive indicator of many belowground components and interactions, it is an important measurement for cross-site comparisons in ecosystem studies.
Cantata 60
Authors: Chafe Eric
Published: November 2023

ONE OF THE RUNNING THEMES OF this book has been that the endings of many Bach cantatas—above all their sense of completeness or incompleteness—reflect the extent to which their theological concerns are oriented toward eschatological or present perspectives. In this respect, the tonal “directions” of Cantatas 21 and 77 can be considered opposite each other. In Cantata 21 the overall C minor—major shift and the pattern of increasing “sharpness” in the movement keys that leads to the C major of its final chorus mirror the idea of a progression from worldly tribulation to the anticipation of eternity. In contrast, the change from a weakened G major to a real but incomplete G minor over the course of Cantata 77 delineates a downward progression from God to humankind that expresses the hope of eternity in terms of life on earth. The final chorus of Cantata 21 is one of the closest approaches Bach ever made to the representation of eschatological fulfillment, whereas the final chorale of Cantata 77 is, as we saw, tonally incomplete and most likely associated with the idea of human imperfection. In terms of traditional hermeneutics, the one work represents transcendence of the Old Testament framework (part 1 of Cantata 21) by means of the message of the Gospel (part 2 of that work), while the other centers on the meaning of the Law as given in the Old and New Testaments, building its entire design around the inability of humanity to fulfill it and the acknowledgment of that inability as the prerequisite to salvation.
Probable Inferences versus Probable Conclusions
Authors: Kyburg Henry E
Published: November 2023

A Distinction

In “Aspects of Scientific Explanation” and “Deductive Nomological vs. Statistical Explanation,” (Hempel 1961, 1965), Hempel drew attention to a distinction that even now, nearly forty years later, is insufficiently appreciated. This is the distinction between uncertain inference, and inference about uncertainty. Hempel even introduced a useful notation to embody the distinction.
The Paradoxes of Hempelian Explanation
Authors: Fetzer James H
Published: November 2023

Among Carl G. Hempel’s most admired achievements were his contributions to the theory of induction, including the paradoxes of confirmation, and his contributions to the theory of explanation, especially the covering-law model (Hempel 1965). The purpose of this presentation is to suggest that Hempel’s work on the theory of induction can shed light on his theory of explanation, where there appear to be explanatory counterparts to the paradoxes of confirmation that illuminate certain inadequacies in the covering-law model. I shall propose that these “paradoxes of explanation” clarify connections between causation and explanation and also indicate the direction a more adequate theory may be found.