bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Water Quality Assessment and European Water Framework Directive
Authors: Scott E. Marian , Gemmell J. Campbell
Published: January 2013

Water quality assessment is carried out in a spatiotemporal framework, following guidelines and procedures described by regulations such as the EU Water Framework Directive (WFD) (2000) and the US Clean Water Act (1972, and those that follow). This assessment presents a number of statistical challenges, some of which are highlighted in this article.
Precautionary Principle
Authors: Grandjean Philippe , Keiding Niels
Published: January 2013

The
precautionary principle
is a term used about a set of statements all expressing the general intention that, in environmental risk policy, it is prudent to not always wait for definitive proof of harm before taking regulatory action. We present the concept and outline its relation to scientific discovery and statistical uncertainty.
Extremes: Spatial Nonstationary Statistical Modeling
Authors: Peng Liang , Zhang Zhengjun
Published: January 2013

Data in environmental studies often appear to be both spatially correlated and nonstationary. Recent extreme events in climate call for more advanced statistical models and inference procedures to deal with spatial extremes. We review some methodologies proposed in the literature and discuss some challenging theoretical and practical questions.
Tail Dependence Functions, Statistical Inference for
Authors: Peng Liang , Zhang Zhengjun
Published: January 2013

Predicting extreme events plays an important role in environmental risk management. Tail dependence functions are naturally adopted in statistical inference of extreme events. In this article, we review some methodologies proposed in the literature.
Spatial and Space‐Time Threshold Exceedances
Authors: Angulo José M. , Madrid Ana E.
Published: January 2013

Threshold exceedance sets, defined by the coordinates where a certain critical level is exceeded, are of interest in many application fields in relation to risk analysis including deophysics, environmental sciences, engineering, astrophysics, finance, and insurance, among many others. In particular, many risk indicators can be formulated based on certain structural properties of threshold exceedance sets.

This article is structured in two parts. The first part reviews the two main approaches to describe the stochastic behavior of temporal threshold excesses, namely, the generalized Pareto distribution and nonhomogeneous Poisson processes, and collects references to some recent developments in the spatial and spatiotemporal contexts. The second part refers to some aspects of interest in relation to the structure of spatial threshold exceedance sets: on the one hand, geometrical measures such as the hypervolume and the Euler characteristic, which are related with certain probabilities of extremal occurrences; on the other hand, two different types of point processes, respectively based on centroids of connected components and on boundaryA‐exit points, which can be used depending on the specific structural properties of interest under study. The article concludes with a discussion and an illustration in the spatiotemporal context.
Wind Turbines, Birds, and Bats
Authors: Warren‐hicks William J. , Warren‐hicks W. Colin
Published: January 2013

Wind energy produced by wind turbines is a form of green energy. Wind turbines are generally thought to be a positive force for the environment, however, they bring their own controversies to the environmentally couscous community table. Where wind turbines are not thought to contribute to global warming or cause headline news stories of mass tragedy, the turbines' blades have been consistently correlated to bird and bat fatalities.
Hydrological Frequency Analysis
Authors: El Adlouni Salaheddine
Published: January 2013

This article presents a detailed review on developments related to hydrological frequency analysis (HFA). All the HFA steps for hypothesis testing, probability distribution tails, and parameter estimation are discussed. These developments on HFA concern nonstationary models in order to consider the effect of covariates on extreme quantile estimation. Such an approach allows one to reduce uncertainty when estimating return period events.
Hydrological Frequency Analysis, Regional
Authors: Ouarda Taha B. M. J.
Published: January 2013

The optimal design and operation of hydraulic structures relies on the availability of appropriate estimates of hydrological variables at the local and regional levels. Regional frequency analysis is commonly used for the estimation of hydrological or meteorological events (such as floods) at sites where little or no data are available. A number of methodologies have been developed for the regional analysis of hydrological events, with different target hydrological variables, assumptions, limitations, data needs, and outputs. This article presents a review and classification of recent developments in regional hydrological frequency analysis with a focus on the strengths and potentials of the various theories.
Kriging, Asymptotic Theory
Authors: Du Juan
Published: January 2013

The fixed‐domain asymptoic theory regarding the impact of misspecified covariance structure on the optimality of spatial interpolation is reviewed. Conditions in terms of equivalence of measures, similar tail behavior of spectral densities, and the distance of variances after orthogonalization are provided to ensure the pseudo‐BLP to be asymptotically optimal and the assessment of the mean squared error to be comparably accurate.
Covariogram, Examples of
Authors: Hu Juan
Published: January 2013

Covariogram is a term for covariance function of a second‐order process and is instrumental for spatial interpolation. This article provides some examples of isotropic covariograms for stationary‐spatial processes that have been used in kriging.
PredictiveScores
Authors: Gneiting Tilmann
Published: January 2013

Predictive scores assess the quality of forecasts, by assigning a numerical score based on the forecast and on the event or value that materializes. Probabilistic forecasts take the form of a predictive probability distribution. Their evaluation calls for the use of proper scoring rules, such as the logarithmic score or the continuous ranked probability score. Effective point forecasting requires a directive in the form of a target functional, say a quantile or the mean of the predictive distribution. It is then critical for the scoring function to be decision theoretically consistent, so that the expected score is minimized when following the directive. For example, the squared error is consistent when the point forecast is desired to be a mean, and the absolute error is consistent when we seek a median.
Uncertainty Quantification, Physical Models
Authors: He Xian , Zhang Hao
Published: January 2013

A physical model refers to a deterministic mathematical model that is built partially based upon physical or biological principles. Because it is deterministic, it is vital to quantify the uncertainty of its output. The ensemble is a common method for a model whose output can be simulated efficiently. For those models that are more computationally demanding to simulate, statistical emulation and stochastic differential models are two useful approaches. This article briefly reviews these methods.
Z
ero‐
I
nflated
C
ount
T
ime
S
eries
Authors: Ray Bonnie K. , Thomas Sarah J.
Published: January 2013

This articles describes an observation‐driven approach to modeling univariate time series of counts that have an overabundance of zeros. A series of daily counts of excess pollution levels observed at air monitoring stations in and around Houston, TX is used to illustrate the ideas.
Bartlett Test
Authors: Hallin Marc
Published: January 2013

The standard test for homogeneity of covariance matrices, known as the
Bartlett test
, is notoriously sensitive to violations of Gaussian assumptions. Its asymptotic behavior under non‐Gaussian densities and its robustification (
validity‐robustness
and
efficiency‐robustness
) have been the subject of an abundant literature, which we briefly review.
A
symptotic
R
elative
E
fficiency (
ARE
)
Authors: Hallin Marc
Published: January 2013

The purpose of asymptotic relative efficiency is to compare two statistical procedures by comparing the sample sizes,
n
1
and
n
2
, say, at which those procedures achieve some given measure of performance; the ratio
n
2
/
n
1
is called the
relative efficiency
of procedure one with respect to procedure two. Finite‐sample evaluations being difficult or impossible, a sequence of measures of performances requiring that those sample sizes go to infinity is generally considered. If those measures of performance are indexed by
n
, say, so that
n
1
and
n
2
take the form
n
1
(
n
) and
n
2
(
n
), the limit lim

n
→∞

n
2
(
n
)/
n
1
(
n
), if it exists, is called the
asymptotic relative efficiency
of procedure one with respect to procedure two.
Independent Component Analysis
Authors: Oja Hannu , Nordhausen Klaus
Published: January 2013

Independent component modelshave gained increasing interest in various fields of applications in recent years. The basic independent component model is a semiparametric model assuming that ap‐variate observed random vector is a linear transformation of an unobserved vector ofpindependent latent variables. This linear transformation is given by an unknownmixing matrix, and one of the main objectives ofindependent component analysis(ICA) is to estimate anunmixing matrixby means of which the latent variables can be recovered. In this article, we discuss the basic independent component model in detail, define the concepts and analysis tools carefully, and consider two families of ICA estimates. The statistical properties (consistency, asymptotic normality, efficiency, robustness) of the estimates can be analyzed and compared via the so calledgain matrices. Some extensions of the basic independent component model, such as models with additive noise or models with dependent observations, are briefly discussed. The article ends with a short example.
Quantile RegresssionThis article has been prepared for the Statistical Theory and Methods section of the
Encyclopedia of Environmetrics
edited by Abdel El‐Shaarawi and Walter Piegorsch. The research was partially supported by NSF grant SES‐0850060.
Authors: Koenker Roger
Published: January 2013

Classical least squares regression may be viewed as a natural way of extending the idea of estimating an unconditional mean parameter to the problem of estimating conditional mean
functions
; the crucial link is the formulation of an optimization problem that encompasses both problems. Likewise, quantile regression offers an extension of univariate quantile estimation to estimation of conditional quantile functions via an optimization of a piecewise linear objective function in the residuals. Median regression minimizes the sum of absolute residuals, an idea introduced by Boscovich in the eighteenth century, and developed by Edgeworth in the nineteenth century.

The asymptotic theory of quantile regression closely parallels the theory of the univariate sample quantiles. Computation of quantile regression estimators may be formulated as a linear programming problem and efficiently solved by simplex or barrier methods. A close link to rank‐based inference has been forged from the theory of the dual regression quantile process, or regression rankscore process. Recent work has extended quantile regression into time‐series, spatial models, survival analysis, and nonparametric estimation.
Normal and Multinormal Distribution
Authors: Hallin Marc
Published: January 2013

We briefly summarize the definitions of univariate and multivariate normal distributions, along with some of their main properties.
Poisson Distribution
Authors: Hallin Marc
Published: January 2013

The random variable
X
taking values 0,1,2,…,
x
,… with probabilities
p
λ
(
x
) = e
−λ
λ

x

/
x
!, where is called a
Poisson variable
, and its distribution a
Poisson distribution
, with
parameter
λ. The Poisson distribution with parameter λ can be obtained as the limit, as
n
 → ∞ and
p
 → 0 in such a way that
np
 → λ, of the binomial distribution with exponent
n
and parameter
p
. The family of Poisson distributions indexed by is an exponential family, with natural parameter logλ and privileged sufficient and complete statistic
X
. Poisson distributions are often used in the modeling of count data for “rare events.” As such, they also play a fundamental role in the so‐called Poisson processes.
Nanotechnology: Environmental Applications
Authors: Pelaez Miguel , Han Changseok , Choi Hyeok , Sharma Virender , Byrne Anthony J. , Dunlop Patrick S.M. , Romanos George , Falaras Polycarpos , Dionysiou Dionysios D.
Published: January 2013

Nanomaterials are receiving particular interest due to their novel physical and chemical properties, which are important for a wide range of applications, including environmental remediation. This article presents an overview of the currentadvances on the most relevant nanomaterials and nanotechnologies employed for environmental remediation. Particular emphasis is given to nanostructured semiconductors for photocatalysis; the use of nanomaterials such as nano‐silver, single‐walled carbon nanotubes, fullerenes, and titania for disinfection purposes; reactive metal nanoparticles, in particular zero‐valent iron; ferrate and membrane nanotechnologies. These nanomaterials and nanotechnologies have been used for water and air purification or for the remediation of contaminated groundwater, soil, and sediments.
Water supply and treatment
Authors: Nfodzo Prince , Dionysiou Dionysios D. , Choi Hyeok
Published: January 2013

Human activities and freshwater pollution have impaired the supply of good quality water to majority of the world's population. It is anticipated that there will be a global water crisis by 2030 if definite measures are not taken to curtail the current trends. High population growth rate, increasing urban drift, economic growth, and climate changes are the key factors contributing to the water crisis. The development of sustainable water treatment systems with innovative approaches to planning, design, operation, and maintenance of water infrastructure is imperative, while an integrated management of water and energy can be a new paradigm shift toward sustainability. Going beyond removal of conventional contaminants using coagulation–flocculation–sedimentation–filtration processes, advanced treatment technologies including advanced oxidation, membrane separation, and activated carbon adsorption processes have been adopted to address emerging issues associated with the presence of toxic chemicals in water as well as aesthetic aspects (odor, color, and taste) of water quality. Recently, nanotechnological approaches have emerged as breakthrough technologies for improving water quality with less effort and materials. Meanwhile, more basic approaches employing the concept of water conservation, reclamation, recycle, and reuse might be a better solution to the ever increasing scarcity of good quality drinking water.
Similarity Theory
Authors: Sorbjan Zbigniew
Published: January 2013

A general method of finding universal relationships between physical variables is described. The approach is illustrated by several examples, such as finding the period of an ideal pendulum, velocity profile near a flat surface, and characteristic of the atmospheric surface layer.
Covariance Matrix Estimation (High Dimensional)
Authors: Pourahmadi Mohsen , Biao Wu Wei
Published: January 2013

The article concerns estimation of high‐dimensional covariance matrices. In this case, the sample covariance matrix estimate is typically not consistent. For an improvement, we present various regularization procedures including shrinkage, penalized likelihood estimation, Cholesky decomposition, sparse principal component analysis, and elementwise shrinkage by banding, tapering, and thresholding.
Fish Habitat
Authors: Koops Marten A. , Chu Cindy
Published: January 2013

Fish habitat is composed of the physical, chemical, and biological features of the environment that allow fish to survive, grow, and reproduce. This may involve migration among different habitats as fishes complete portions of their life cycle. The destruction and degradation of fish habitat is one of the greatest threats to freshwater and marine fishes. Fish habitat stressors ultimately affect populations through processes acting on survival, growth, and reproduction. Fish habitat indicators and indices describe the suitability of an environment for fishes on the basis of physiological, behavioral, or ecological preferences. A number of modeling approaches have been used to determine the effects of habitat availability on fishes, including bioenergetic, matrix, individual‐based, trophodynamic, and ecosystem models. The geophysical and biological attributes of fish habitat, combined with both upstream and landscape effects, truly necessitates an ecosystem approach to the management of fish habitat.
Spatially‐Explicit Capture Recapture Methods
Authors: Gopalaswamy Arjun M.
Published: January 2013

Animal density is a parameter of basic interest to field biologists. But owing to logistical and analytical constraints, estimating animal density has been very challenging. Spatially explicit capture–recapture (SECR) models were developed to address this particular, long‐standing problem. In this article, some of the important “milestones” in the SECR literature are discussed. The basic idea in SECR models is to include information about locations of animal captures into the modeling so that density is estimated directly. The early SECR type of approach involved estimation of density via simulations and inverse prediction. The first direct SECR estimator was likelihood‐based, which was more flexible and allowed for inclusion of covariates. In parallel began the development of Bayesian versions of the SECR models. These allowed for greater flexibility and for extensions which could, in addition, also estimate population vital rates. SECR models have witnessed several applications, ranging from analysis of camera‐trap data on large cats to acoustic signal data from birds. The future of SECR models is expected to go far beyond density estimation. It has great potential to answer some long‐standing questions about how behavioral processes drive population dynamics in wild animals.
Dynamic Modeling
Authors: Dowd Michael
Published: January 2013

Dynamic modeling describes the quantitative representation of time‐dependent systems, usually as systems of differential equations or discrete versions thereof. Dynamic models may be nonlinear, high dimensional, spatially explicit, and can exhibit complex behavior. They are most commonly deterministic, but can be stochastic. They are key elements for many scientific disciplines, and the foundation for environmental prediction. Dynamic modeling in environmetrics considers uncertainty analysis, as well as inference on the state of the system and its parameters using available observations.
Variable Selection via Regularization
Authors: Li Runze , Cui Hengjian
Published: January 2013

Variable selection has been an active research topic since the 1970s. There are hundreds of publications on variable selection. This entry describes regularization methods for variable selection developed in the recent literature. The regularization methods include classical variable selection criteria such as AIC and BIC and modern variable selection approaches such as LASSO, SCAD, and LARS.
False Discovery Rate
Authors: Cocchi Daniela , Ventrucci Massimo
Published: January 2013

The false discovery rate is the expected value of the ratio of wrongly rejected null hypotheses over the total rejected null hypotheses. In modern multiple testing applications, especially in cases where the number of tests is large, methodologies based on the control of the false discovery rate have proved to be more powerful than classical multiple comparison procedures.
Boycotts
Authors: Forno Francesca
Published: January 2013

In a boycott, one or more parties attempt to achieve certain goals by urging individuals to refrain from purchasing certain goods or using certain public services. Unlike other forms of action utilized by social movements, such as demonstrations and other unconventional activities, boycotts aim to activate the political agency embedded in consumption practices, by stimulating individuals to use marketplace means to achieve what may or may not be marketplace ends.
Claims‐Making
Authors: Lindekilde Lasse
Published: January 2013

Claims‐making refers to the process of performing or articulating claims that bear on someone else's interests. In its simplest form an instance of claims‐making includes two actors—a subject (claimant) and an object (addressee)—and a verbal or physical action (demanding, protesting, criticizing, blaming etc.). In the context of social movement studies and contentious politics, claims‐making has most often referred to the conscious articulation of political demands in the public sphere, thus leaving aside more private or hidden forms of political claims‐making such as voting and lobbyism.
Confessional Protest
Authors: Young Michael P.
Published: January 2013

The social movement term “confessional protest” originates in Michael P. Young's work on the rise of national social movements in the United States in the 1830s (Young 2002; Young & Cherry 2005; Young 2007). Young argues that the first sustained and interregional social movements in US history were shaped by a particular form of protest that called Americans to bear witness against particular sins such as slavery and intemperance. He terms this form of religious and political dissent confessional protest, and argues that religious forces, not political institutions, were decisive in the emergence of the national social movement in the United States. Arguing against Tilly's state‐centered explanation of the rise of the national social movement, Young presents a cultural explanation that hinges on the combination of the intensive and extensive evangelical schemas of public confession and special sins (Tilly 1986, 1995; Young 2002). In
Bearing Witness Against Sin
, Young demonstrates how temperance, antislavery, and the beginning of the women's rights movements emerged as evangelicals joined together in this particular form of religious dissent fusing intensive projects of personal redemption with extensive projects of particular national reform. This interlacing of intimate responsibility and far‐flung social problems fueled the first national wave of social movements in the United States. These confessional protests emerged as two religious movements driving the Second Great Awakening started to interact: the “new measure” religious revivals associated most closely with Charles Grandison Finney and an emerging network of national benevolent societies including the American Tract Society and the American Home Missionary Society. Evangelicals closely associated with new measure revivals and the increasingly rationalized work of organized benevolence spearheaded the wave of protest. In the late 1820s and early 1830s, the popular religious revivals of the upstart or populist sects and those influenced by them came into contact with the agencies of benevolent societies centered in the northeastern cities (Hatch 1989). The combination proved radical. As public confessions, the dramatic centerpiece of the populist revival, became central to the specialized campaigns of organized benevolence, a wave of social movements independent of ecclesiastical order broke across the United States. This unprecedented national wave of social movements emerged as hundreds of thousands of Americans joined together bear witness against special sins. Although religious in origin, these movements quickly became secular forces pushing for political reform (Young & Cherry 2005).
Discursive Opportunity Structure
Authors: McCammon Holly
Published: January 2013

In 1999, Koopmans and Statham introduced the term “discursive opportunity structure” (DOS) to identify ideas in the broader political culture believed to be “sensible,” “realistic,” and “legitimate” and whose presence would thus facilitate reception of specific forms of collective action framing—forms, that is, that would align well with these pre‐existing ideational elements (1999: 228). The notion of DOS, therefore, provides social movement scholars with a conceptual tool to understand which social movement frames are likely to have the greatest capacity to mobilize existing and new recruits, to convince the public of a movement's demands, and to persuade authorities to alter policy and practices in line with the movement's agenda. The conceptualization of discursive opportunities synthesizes theories of social movement framing and political opportunity structure. Framing theory by itself is limited in its ability to explain why some collective action frames are more successful than others. Political opportunity theory, while drawing our attention to political‐institutional opportunities for successful movement mobilization, tends to neglect cultural dynamics that also play a pivotal role in movement outcomes. Discursive opportunity structures reveal that cultural elements in the broader environment facilitate and constrain successful social movement framing.
Ecological Conditions/Determinants
Authors: Zhao Dingxin
Published: January 2013

Human activities are always undertaken in certain places. The natures and the spatial configurations of those places, either as built or natural environments, will shape the ways in which the places are used and understood. More specifically, they shape the spatial activities of the people who live in or use the place, pattern the ways in which information is transmitted and people are encountered, and affect the feeling and understanding of people toward the places. We may call the patterns of interaction between humans and the physical (built or natural) environment, as well as the patterns of interactions among humans under a certain physical environment, ecological determinants.
Electronic Protest
Authors: Carty Victoria
Published: January 2013

Over the past decade there has been an explosion of user‐friendly, high‐speed, and low cost opportunities for electronic protest via new technologies. E‐mail, web sites, chat rooms, blogs, and bulletin boards enable efficient new forms of communication, organization, and mobilization, and low operating costs enable people to support causes they may not be willing or able to do offline (Bimber 1998; Earl & Kimport 2008). Electronic activism, sometimes referred to as cyberactivism or e‐activism, assists in the mobilization of social movement actors to either sustain efforts of ongoing groups or to create new groups and/or campaigns. In some cases the purpose is to promote activism exclusively online (e‐movements), in others it is to encourage locally based disruptive tactics on the ground, and in others to enhance social movement organizations (SMOs) with an online presence through consciousness raising and advocacy (Veigh 2003).
Europeanization and Social Movements
Authors: della Porta Donatella
Published: January 2013

Europeanization indicates not only the construction of the institutions of the European Union (EU), but also the changes in the politics and policies of the member states. Studies of Europeanization look at the impact of the European Union on the national systems of the member states, addressing processes of resistance, transformation, and adaptation to EU policies and norms in member states, shifting attention from the supranational level to multi‐level governance. Linked to this is the notion that public policies are produced in a complex system where several norms and implementing agencies interact.
Free Rider Problem
Authors: Oliver Pamela
Published: January 2013

A free rider is someone who gains the benefit of a collective or public good without contributing to the cost of its provision. The term was introduced to social scientists by Mancur Olson'sThe Logic of Collective Action, which argued that the problem of motivating collective action is equivalent to the problem of motivating private contributions to a public or shared good. Olson's use of the term is structural: a person is a free rider if they benefit from a public good without contributing to it, regardless of their awareness of the possibility of contributing. A more restricted meaning refers to conscious free‐riding, in which a person prefers to benefit from the actions of others.
Geography and Social Movements
Authors: Routledge Paul
Published: January 2013

During the 1970s, and drawing from Marxism and feminism, the discipline of geography inquired into socio‐spatially constituted inequalities and injustices. However, it was not until the early 1990s that a direct and sustained engagement with the geographies of social movements began (e.g., Routledge 1993; Miller 2000; Nicholls 2007). Although engaging with the theoretical traditions of resource mobilization and political process (e.g., Miller 2000; Nicholls 2007), and new social movements (e.g., Routledge 2000), geographers have been concerned with the
lack
of engagement with geography in social movement studies, arguing that geographical (spatial) understandings of social movement practice are crucial to the interpretation of contentious action. Movements act from space, politically mobilizing from the material conditions of their (local) spaces; movements act on space appropriating it with a group identity; movements act in space, such as taking to the streets for protests, or occupying land; and movements make space: creating conditions to expand public political involvement, for example through the creation of solidaristic alliances (Dikeç 2001). As I will discuss below, social movements negotiate multiple spatialities in their prosecution of conflict. These include the politics of place and socio‐spatial positionality, spatial inequalities, the politics of scale and networking (Nicholls 2007; Leitner, Sheppard, & Sziarto 2008).
High and Low Risk/Cost Activism
Authors: McAdam Doug
Published: January 2013

Lost in the generic concept “social movement” is the extraordinary diversity of types of movements (e.g., revolution, terrorism, religious revivals, peasant insurrections, cults, etc.). Similarly movement activism comes in a dizzying variety of forms. While the term “movement activist” tends to conjure up images of marchers in the street or maybe even suicide bombers, the concept applies equally well to someone who signs an online petition in support of a movement initiative or makes a $10 donation to the Sierra Club.
Identity Fields
Authors: Benford Robert D.
Published: January 2013

The term identity fields merges two influential social movement concepts: movement framing processes and collective identities. A fundamental and ubiquitous aspect of social movement framing processes involves the avowal and imputation of characteristics relevant to at least three generic sets of actors within the
multiorganizational field
that comprises a particular social movement arena: protagonists, antagonists, and audiences. Hunt, Benford, and Snow (1994) refer to the clustering of these socially constructed movement actor categories as
identity fields
. Identity fields are constructed throughout the life‐course of a social movement as its participants identify a problem and attribute blame or causality (Snow & Benford 1988), as they seek to mobilize support for their cause by employing various frame alignment strategies (Snow et al. 1986), as they respond to criticisms and other attacks from countermovements, the media, and targets of change (Benford & Hunt 2003), and as they talk with one another to reflect on and redefine movement successes and failures (Hunt & Benford 1994).
Identity Work Processes
Authors: Einwohner Rachel L.
Published: January 2013

The study of identity and social movements has been heavily influenced by the symbolic interactionist perspective, which stresses the active construction of meaning in human interaction. Thus, scholars recognize that the identities that are relevant to social movements are not simply pre‐existing sets of characteristics that individuals bring with them to the mass march or meeting hall; instead, these identities are actively created, debated, and sometimes even unmade and established anew in the course of collective action. Of course, all of this activity takes work. The concept of
identity work
in social movements therefore refers to all the work involved in creating, displaying, and managing the identities that are relevant to collective action. The term is borrowed from Snow and Anderson's (1987) discussion of identity work among the homeless, which demonstrates the ways in which homeless people construct and maintain positive personal identities that are distinct from the negative labels assigned to them by the public. It is also related to Hochschild's (1979, 1983) concept of “emotion work,” which references the management of emotion in accordance with social norms about the situationally appropriate display of feelings.
Interest Groups and Social Movements
Authors: Csíař Ondřej
Published: January 2013

This entry elaborates the conceptual similarities and differences between interest groups, social movements, and social movement organizations (SMOs). First, two views of their relationship are presented, followed by an abbreviated description of the main contributions to their conceptualization. Although, according to an important part of the available scholarship, contemporary SMOs and interest groups share many common features, the entry concludes by summarizing differences between the two concepts.
Media and Social Movements
Authors: Rohlinger Deana , Vaccaro Christian
Published: January 2013

Mass media refer to any medium used to diffuse mass communication. Generally speaking, mass media include eight mediums: radio, television, newspapers, magazines, books, recordings, movies, and the Internet. Mass media are relevant to the study of social movements because they carry movement ideas to a broad audience and give activists leverage in institutional and political processes. More specifically, mass media are important to social movements because they legitimate movement issues, provide social movements an opportunity to shape public understandings of political problems, and mobilize a broader public to action. Mass media coverage legitimates movement issues and claims. News media, for instance, set the public agenda by, first, choosing what events and social problems are relevant to the citizenry and, then, focusing public attention on these events and problems. Media coverage of social movement ideas and organizations is legitimizing because it indicates to the broader public that a movement represents credible claims. A publication of a book can have a similar affect. Ralph Nader's book,
Unsafe at Any Speed,
exposed the reluctance of car manufacturers to spend money on safety features (such as seat belts) and supported Nader's efforts to mobilize a consumer rights movement. Mass media offer frameworks for understanding the causes of and solutions to political problems (Gamson 1992; Benford & Snow 2000). Social movements, then, that garner media attention have an opportunity to shape public perceptions of political problems and affect broader debate. Mass media can also mobilize a broader population to action. Social movement frameworks disseminated via mass media identify motivations for and targets of collective action. For example, radio played an important role in strike campaigns of textile workers between 1929 and 1934. Music broadcast throughout the South articulated the concerns of textile workers (such as low wages and family subsistence) and identified the root causes of these problems (i.e., exploitative owners and domineering managers). This music and Franklin Roosevelt's “Fireside Chats,” which indicated support for industrial workers and improved working conditions, helped mobilize workers (Roscigno & Danaher 2001).
Multiculturalism and Social Movements
Authors: Rojas Fabio
Published: January 2013

Multiculturalism is a movement advocating the representation of multiple cultures in education, government, and other institutional settings. Multiculturalists are motivated by ethical and practical considerations. Ethically, multiculturalists believe that it is unjust that social institutions only recognize a single cultural group. States, for example, have an obligation to recognize all citizens and their traditions, not merely those that have traditionally controlled the state. Multiculturalists also believe that individuals and groups benefit when they are exposed to multiple cultures. Individuals may become more tolerant if they know about ethnic groups aside from their own. Groups that have been historically repressed may benefit from having their voices heard in schools or government, and thus decrease the stigma associated with being from a particular group. It is also argued that recognition of multiple cultures reduces conflict because nondominant groups are not forced to completely assimilate the dominant culture.
Multiorganizational Fields
Authors: Klandermans Bert
Published: January 2013

Movement organizations are embedded in multiorganizational fields (Curtis & Zurcher 1973; Klandermans 1992). Multiorganizational fields can be defined as the total possible number of organizations with which the movement organization might establish specific links. A social movement organization's multiorganizational field can be broken down into sectors that are supportive, antagonistic, or indifferent. The first is described as the movement organization's alliance system, consisting of groups and organizations that support it; the second as the organization's conflict system, consisting of groups and organizations that oppose it—including countermovement organizations. Alliance systems provide resources and create political opportunities; conflict systems drain resources and restrict opportunities. The boundaries between the two systems remain fluid and may change in the course of events. Organizations that try to keep aloof from the controversy may choose or be forced to take sides. Coalitions can fall apart and former allies can become opponents.
New Left and Social Movements
Authors: Flacks Richard
Published: January 2013

The term “New Left” came into use in the late 1950s, when it was adopted by British intellectuals who came together after the Khruschev revelations about Stalin and the Soviet invasion of Hungary and the British invasion of Suez. Politically, this group shared a rejection of both Stalinism and the rightward drift of social democracy and a determination to oppose the political framework defined by the cold war.
Organizations, Congregation‐Based
Authors: Walker Edward T.
Published: January 2013

Congregation‐based community organizations (CBCOs) are local organizations active in low‐ or moderate‐income communities that build upon the existing infrastructures of diverse religious congregations in order to develop the civic and political power of local residents. Typically, individuals may only participate in a CBCO by virtue of being a member of a participating congregation. Although such groups represent only one of the two dominant models for organizing local communities (McCarthy & Walker 2004), CBCOs are a major force in local (and, increasingly, state and national) civic and political discourse. Indeed, it is worth noting that current US president Barack Obama was trained as a South Side Chicago community organizer through the faith‐based Gamaliel Foundation.
Police Riots
Authors: Peterson Abby
Published: January 2013

Researchers remind us that most political acts of protest do not result in violence. However, when violence does break out authorities, protesters, and the general public alike are eager to place the blame on some party to the events. But it is often difficult to determine who was “responsible” for the violence when it does occur, or who lay behind its escalation. Responsibility is most readily assigned to protesters. However, activists are not the sole actors in riots, however instrumental to its outbreak they may be. Violence arises out of an interaction between protesters and responding authorities. Research since the 1960s suggests that police authorities often bear a major part of the responsibility (e.g., Waddington 1991; Skolnick & Fyfe 1993; della Porta 1998).
Political Alignments and Cleavages
Authors: Damen Marie‐Louise
Published: January 2013

In social sciences, cleavages are a way to describe the political landscape along the fault lines of society. Cleavages structure the organizational field and its constituency, creating a supply and demand for politics (Lipset & Rokkan 1967). Cleavage theory occupies a central place in literature on conventional political participation, but is remarkably absent in literature on unconventional political participation (but see Kriesi et al. 1995). In explanations of conventional political behavior, cleavages supposedly affect party politics and citizens' political beliefs and attitudes (Bartolini & Mair 1990; Deegan‐Krause 2006; Lipset & Rokkan 1967). Transposed to unconventional political behavior, cleavages shape mobilization potential, or the “demand‐side” of protest, and mobilizing structures, or the “supply‐side” of protest (Klandermans 2004; Klandermans & Van Stekelenburg 2010). Thus, cleavages can be found in both conventional and unconventional politics. In order to understand political conflicts, we have to study cleavages in both conventional and unconventional politics.
Political Economy and Social Movements
Authors: Stanley Jason
Published: January 2013

The analysis of the interplay of capitalism and politics—in other words, political economy—played an extremely important role in many of the seminal, English‐language studies of social movements and revolutions written by social scientists during the 1970s and 1980s (e.g., Paige 1975; Schwartz 1976; Piven & Cloward 1977; McAdam 1999). These studies had the effect of radically reorienting the academic study of movements, revolutions, and political conflict generally. The field moved away from primarily psychological and social‐psychological treatments of political protest—studies that often cast a very negative light on protest—to more sympathetic analyses that emphasized the importance of resources, power, solidarities, and opportunities for movements. But all this is now common wisdom among students of movements. What has been largely forgotten is that these same studies tended to emphasize the effects of capitalism on movements. The dynamics of capitalism figure prominently in these studies, sometimes constraining and sometimes inciting or enabling disruptive collective action. By capitalism, these authors generally mean a mode of production in which a class that owns the means of production (capitalists) employs a class that must sell its labor power in exchange for a wage or salary (workers), and in which market competition among capitalists leads them to reinvest part of the surplus (or profits) in the production process (i.e., capital accumulation). The dynamics of capitalism that these authors emphasize include processes directly linked to market competition and capital accumulation, especially the proletarianization (or commodification) of labor, the commodification of productive forces generally, the concentration and centralization of capital, and periodic crises.
Social Psychology of Movement Participation
Authors: van Stekelenburg Jacquelien , Klandermans Bert
Published: January 2013

The social psychology of movement participation is concerned with the question as to why people participate in social movements. As social psychology explores the causes of the thoughts, feelings and actions of people—and primarily how these are influenced by social context—it has a lot to offer to the study of movement participation.
Politicized Identity
Authors: van Stekelenburg Jacquelien
Published: January 2013

Politicization of identities is key to the dynamics of contention. Protest movements are built on politicized identities and they are populated by people with politicized identities. Politicization of identities is simultaneously a characteristic of collectivities
and
people. There exists a division of labor between students of politicization of identities. Sociologists tend to study politicization at the collective level on the supply side of contentious politics, while social psychologists typically focus on the individual level of politicization at the demand side of politics (cf. Klandermans 2004). The politicization of the supply side of protest refers to the characteristics of protest movements. Is it a movement people can identify with? Is the movement able to frame personal problems into political claims? The politicization of demand refers to the potential of protestors in a society. It relates to the problems people perceive in a society and whether people attach political meaning to these problems. In order to understand how the division of labor conceptually and empirically affects the study of this phenomenon, we will briefly elaborate on the concept of identity.
Postmaterialism and Social Movements
Authors: Miller Peter
Published: January 2013

Postmaterialism is a general theory of value change, developed in large part by Ronald Inglehart. It describes a shift in individual and societal priorities from survival‐based needs to needs related to self‐expression. Two hypotheses describe the underlying logic of this change in values. First (the
scarcity
hypothesis), an individual's priorities reflect the larger context insofar as the individual places the highest value on those things which are in short supply. Second (the
socialization
hypothesis), there is a time lag between the context and the individual's value priorities, largely because one's basic values reflect the context of one's pre‐adult years (Inglehart 1990: 68). Consider each of these hypotheses. First, scarce resources form, to a large degree, an individual's perspective on the world. Consider the lengths a starving man would go to to acquire food. We would expect him to not be dissuaded by laws banning theft if his life was on the line. However, we would expect a man who has no fear of starvation to have a contrasting view of the world, due to the latter's material security. Second, the shift in priorities is not immediate. Giving a starving man a single loaf of bread will probably not cause the man to turn his attention away from an all‐consuming search for food, but a sustained trajectory toward material security may cause the man to shift his attention away from the search for food. Conversely, reducing one's material security can, over time, lead to a reversal in value priorities away from postmaterial needs for self‐expression. Thus the cultivation of postmaterialist values is dependent upon contextual factors including the level of material security during one's upbringing, but also the economic conditions during the time of a survey measuring the prevalence of postmaterial values (Duch & Taylor 1993).
Public Order Management Systems
Authors: Rafail Patrick
Published: January 2013

Public order management systems (POMS) are “the more or less elaborated, more or less permanent organizational forms, their guiding policies and programs, technologies, and standard policing practices that are designed by authorities for supervising protesters' access to public space and managing them in that space” (McCarthy & McPhail 1998: 91). Variations in the features and styles of policing protest have received extensive analyses in recent years, but comparatively little systematic attention has been paid to the organizational structures that institutionalized police practices are embedded within. Three major components of POMS are apparent in contemporary Western democracies: (1) spatial and temporal restrictions on protest, grounded in a widespread adoption of advanced permitting systems; (2) training regimens and technologies designed to help the police more effectively contain and control demonstrations; (3) an emphasis, at least rhetorically, on the police negotiating with key participants and organizing groups before and during events.