bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Methods of Valuing Oil Lands
Authors: Requa M.L.
Published: June 2014

This paper is abstracted from the report of the ‘Appraisement Committee ofthe Independent Oil Producers’ Agency, of which the writer was Chairman. Theother members of the committee were M. V. McQuigg and R. S. Haseltine. ToThomas Cox, engineer in charge of the investigation, and to his efficient staffof assistants, is due the credit for the detail work necessary in carrying outthe plan of the Committee. It treats only of the valuation of the lands, wells, and piping, without going into details of equipment and other features.

It was recognized, early in the operation, that the value of oil lands was thevalue of oil to be extracted and marketed, less the costs attendant thereon.Referring this back to the costs in cents per barrel, it became obvious thatsurface improvements, absolutely necessary in the production of oil, from wellsthen drilled, had no separate and independent value aside from the value of theland, but that any excess equipment, not necessary for the production of oilfrom present wells, such as drilling tools, well casing, etc., should be givena present condition value.

In valuing the properties of the Independent Oil Producers' Agency, theCommittee has considered the following facts:That from each property there will ultimately be produced a certain totalquantity of oil.That in the production of that oil a certain total quantity of money will beexpended.That a certain total amount of money will be received from the oil.That the total net receipts will be the total gross receipts less the costof development and production.That the present value of the net receipts must be such an amount that wheninvested by a purchaser it will be returned with 8 per cent. interestadditional during the life of the property.

The initial procedure consisted in making a general reconnaissance of theentire district in which the property was located and determining thelithological and structural conditions underlying the area.

AIME 059–49
A Concrete Example of the Use of Well Logs
Authors: Bates Mowry
Published: June 2014

The following example of the practical application of engineering geology isof interest in that it demonstrates the advantage of keeping accurate recordsof all wells, whether drilled by one's self or by others, together with theadvantage gained by gathering such data during the process of development. Thefault described was found in the autumn of 1915, during the hurried developmentcaused by the discovery of the famous Gusher Bend pool in Red River Parish, Louisiana. The writer was at the time employed by one of the operatingcompanies as geologist, and the example is a portion of the routine work.

Location

The oil fields of northern Louisiana and east Texas are located in Caddo, Bossier, De Soto and Red River Parishes, Louisiana, and Marion County, Texas. Avery narrow strip of the eastern portion of the latter is productive. Theproducing oil pools are known as the Caddo Field, in the northern part, and theDe Soto-Red River Field, in the southern. The two fields are 60 miles apart.There are several gas fields between them, but no important supply of oil hasbeen found, though there are several producing wells in the Anona chalk, locally called the Chalk Rock, in the Elm Grove gas field in Township 16 North, Range 11 West (see Plate 1).

General Geologic and Structural Features

The general geology of northern Louisiana has been excellently described byA.C. Veatch in Professional Paper No. 46, U.S. Geological Survey; by G.D.Harris, Bulletin No. 429, U.S. Geological Survey; and later by George C. Matsonand Oliver B. Hopkins in Bulletins No. 619 and 661C, U.S. GeologicalSurvey.

AIME 061–52
Staggering Locations for Oil Wells
Authors: Johnson Roswell H.
Published: June 2014

The prevailing system of locating wells on a rectangular basis, as shown inFig. 1-A, has developed because of the exigencies of offsetting at boundarylines. When, however, a very large tract is being drilled, it is often possibleto abandon this inferior method for the superior arrangement known as"staggering," which is illustrated in Fig. 1, Band C. The advantages ofthe triangular over the rectangular method are evident from Fig. 2, computed onthe basis of one well to 10 acres (4 ha.). With the triangular system, no landis more than 409.4 ft. (124.8 m.) from a well, while with the rectangularsystem, 14,400 sq. ft. (0.33 acre or 0.13 ha.) lies more than that distancefrom a well.

The purpose of this contribution is to assist the producer in planning thestaggering arrangement of wells. Some companies, in staggering wells, haveretained the same distance between the rows as between the wells in the row(Fig. 1-B), but to get equal distances between any two adjacent wells, which isdesirable in order to yield maximum drainage, the triangles must beequilateral, which necessitates the shortening of the distance between the rows(Fig. 1-C), making the quincunx arrangement, as customary in arranging tankfarms.

The formulas for computing the distance between wells thus arranged werederived from Fig. 3, representing a well surrounded by the six nearest wells;the dot-dash line midway between the central and the surrounding wellsoutlines, the hexagon drained by this well. This hexagon consists of 12 righttriangles, each of the triangles having as its altitude one-half the distancebetween the wells (r), and as its base one-third the distance between the rows(y). The hexagonal area drained by each well therefore reduces to ry.

AIME 061–54
Petroleum Resources of Great Britain
Authors: Veatch A.C.
Published: June 2014

The Midlands of England contain large areas of important oil lands, which, however, will not become of commercial importance for at least 5 years, becausethe ownership of the oil has become a political issue. In Great Britain, exceptin certain special areas, all minerals, except for gold and silver, belong tothe surface owner. The leasing of minerals on the large estates is a verycomplicated business, as the family solicitors have many forms and formalitiesthat must be observed. In the case of one of the large estates, the principalrevenues of which for several hundred years have been from coal leases, theaverage time between the agreement on terms for a coal lease and the signing ofthe same has been 8 years. In 1916, one coal lease on this estate had beenpending for 15 years, and was still unsigned, although the important terms hadbeen agreed upon 15 years previously.

Under war conditions, and considering the extreme importance that theproduction of petroleum in England would have had, such delays could not betolerated. Most of the British landlords, relying on the almost universalopinion of their own countrymen that there were no commercial deposits ofpetroleum in Great Britain, were prepared to give all their oil rights to thegovernment, but they feared that such action might establish a precedent withrespect to coal. For years the Labor Party and extreme radicals have protestedagainst the payment of royalties to landlords on coal. The government, therefore, introduced a bill taking over all the oil rights and providing forthe payment of a small royalty to the landlords, to safeguard the principle ofcompensation in case the coal mines should ever be nationalized. The provisionof this bill, with respect to the payment of royalty to landlords, was defeatedby a vote of 44 to 35 in a night session of the House of Commons on Oct. 25,1917, when most of the members were absent, but when a group of labor membersand extreme radicals were present.

AIME 065–05
Petroleum in the Argentine Republic
Authors: Herold Stanley C.
Published: June 2014

At the present time five localities in the Argentine Republic are known tobear direct evidences of the presence of petroleum. The segregation of theselocalities is more or less arbitrary inasmuch as minor indications may be foundto extend from one locality to the other at no regular distance apart, especially in the northern and western part of the republic. These localitiesare listed as follows: North Argentine-Bolivian region, Salta-Jujuy district, provinces of Mendoza and Neuquen, Comodoro Rivadavia, and the Gallegos-PuntaArenas region.

Economic conditions attract us to the possibilities of developing these andother regions of countries in the southern hemisphere. Development work will, naturally, be undertaken first in such localities as present directmanifestations of the presence of petroleum; "hidden fields" may exist, but, unless discovered by accident, their development will be left to thelast.

The problems to be solved in the development of the petroleum resources of theArgentine republic are mainly of stratigraphy, structure, and transportation.We are not here concerned with the unfavorable climate of the countries to thenorth in the tropics where, for us of the "far north," life hangs by athread ready to be severed by a mosquito, gnat, or tropical germ.

North Argentine-Bolivian Region

The North Argentine-Bolivian region has already been described by the author.Geographically and geologically this is admittedly one field extending fromArgentine into Bolivia. It is not necessary to repeat here the variousconditions pertaining to this field, though the summary may be quoted asfollows:

Extending from northern Argentine northward into central Bolivia is a belt ofpetroleum seepages. On account of the remoteness of the district it has, heretofore, been little considered by oil operators. The regional geology iscomparatively well understood but the local features have not been carefullydetailed.

Development work in the past has been done on an unscientific basis and has ledto failures.

AIME 065–08
Rise and Decline in Production of Petroleum in Ohio and Indiana
Authors: Bownocker J.A.
Published: June 2014

The existence of petroleum in the rocks of Ohio and Indiana seems to havebeen first shown by wells dug for salt. The fuel, however, was objectionableowing to its odor and inflammability. Not until the Drake well was drilled in1859 did the people appreciate the value of rock oil, and then they at oncebegan plans to secure the coveted fuel. The first successful well in these twostates was near Macksburg, in southeast Ohio, where at a depth of 59 ft. (17m.) oil was found in commercial quantity (1860). A year later this fuel wassecured on Cow Run, in the same county, and at about the same time in Noble, Morgan and perhaps other counties in that part of Ohio.

The second great step in the production of oil in Ohio and Indiana was taken in1884 when the reservoir of natural gas in the Trenton limestone of northwestOhio was tapped, and where a year later oil was secured in the same formation.Petroleum in this limestone was obtained in Indiana in 1889.

The third step in the production of oil in Ohio and Indiana is associated withthe Clinton sand of Ohio. Natural gas in large volume was discovered in thatrock at Lancaster, in 1887, and the area has been extended until it has becomethe largest individual producer in the world. The presence of natural gas insuch great volume all but demonstrated to the driller that oil lay hidden nearby. Soon the search for it was started but not until 1899 was petroleum incommercial quantity found in the Clinton sand, and a large pool was not locatedin it until 1907.

The fourth step in the development of the industry was taken in 1913, when thepool in Sullivan County, in western Indiana, was opened. The producing rock isthe Huron sandstone, which is the topmost member of the Mississippiansystem.

AIME 065–15
Genetic Problems Affecting Search for New Oil Regions
Authors: White David
Published: June 2014

In these days, when detailed investigations of stratigraphy, structure, andsand conditions so frequently result in the discovery of new oil fields, andapplause from oil companies and the public, geologists do well to walk humbly, and punctiliously to admit that the geologic principles controlling thedistribution of oil and gas have as yet been discovered only in part, and thatwhat remains yet to be learned is probably vastly more than what is alreadyknown. The few experiments already attempted have been fragmentary, andsomewhat desultory, and however positive each of us may be with respect tocertain theoretical conclusions, many of the fundamental questions as to theorigin and mode of occurrence of petroleum are subject to radical disagreement.Of the chemical changes attending the generation of petroleum from organicmatter, little is actually known. Most of the postulated formulas are liable tobe misleading, through ignorance of essential factors. Open-mindedness istherefore a prime essential at the present stage of our science. Nevertheless, adopting the hypothesis that oil originates in some manner fundamentallyconnected with the organic theory, and in possible departure from suchopen-mindedness, the writer will pay no attention to the so-called inorganictheory, since every attempt to apply this theory to the study of old oilfields, or to the discovery of new ones, affords cumulative evidence of itsinadequacy.

In this paper, some of the factors affecting the occurrence of petroleum thatthe writer believes worthy of consideration by the prospector for oil in anynew region will be discussed. Some of these, which are less generallyunderstood, will be considered somewhat in detail. Other points, thesignificance of which cannot now be determined, require more field study, andfor that reason are here brought to the attention of the field geologist. Onthe other hand, certain theoretical points which do not bear especially on theoil possibilities of a new region will be given little or no attention. Themain topics that will be discussed are:sufficiency of carbonaceousdetritus and residues in the oil-forming rocks;stage of carbonization ofthe organic matter in the oil-bearing formations;folding of the strata;thickness of sedimentary formations;conditions of deposition.

AIME 065–21
Oil-field Brines
Authors: Washburne Chester W.
Published: June 2014

Recently, Messrs. Mills and Wells published a thorough chemical study of thewaters associated with oil in parts of the Pennsylvania, Ohio, and WestVirginia region. Many of their conclusions are of general application and thewriter wishes to discuss some of these.

Messrs. Mills and Wells show that the composition of the deep brines of theAppalachian fields is such as would be produced by the evaporation of sea waterand the precipitation of sodium chloride, combined with reactions withhydrocarbons and other substances. The brines are altered, also, byconsiderable mixing with meteoric water. They give good reasons for believingthat the concentration of the brines was produced by evaporation in the rockpores induced by migrating gas, much of which probably escaped to the surfaceof the ground.

This hypothesis was considered by the writer in a former paper, in which mainstress was laid on a second hypothesis, that the excess of chlorine in the deepbrines may have been due to the entrance of solutions rich in magnesium andcalcium chloride which ascended from a deep, possibly intratelluric, source.Messrs. Mills and Wells present good arguments for the first hypothesis.Underground evaporation by ascending gases probably will be accepted as thebest available explanation of the concentration and composition of deep wellwaters.

They have not considered the possibility that salt waters in deep sands may beconcentrated by the diffusion of water vapor through gas into shale. The writerhas given reasons for believing that capillary forces concentrate gas and oilin the larger openings of rock, such as the pores of sandstones embedded inshale. The gas underground must be nearly saturated with water vapor at alltimes, because it always is in contact with the interstitial water of enclosingshales and of the sandstone.

AIME 065–28
Secondary Intrusive Origin of Gulf Coastal Plain Salt Domes
Authors: Matteson W.G.
Published: June 2014

The origin of the salt domes of the Gulf coastal plain has been investigatedby many of the most able geologists, but the problem cannot be said to havebeen satisfactorily solved. Since 1860, numerous theories have been presented, only to be discarded, at least in part, as more complete information revealedtheir fundamental weakness.

Real progress toward solution dates from 1902, when Hill advanced the theory ofsecondary deposition of the domal materials from saturated solutions of hotsaline waters ascending from great depths under hydrostatic head alongstructural lines of weakness. Shortly thereafter, Harris, using Hill'shypothesis as a basis, explained the doming and pronounced uplift associatedwith these salt cores as the result of forces exerted by growing salt crystals.This was a marked advance over the ideas of Coste and Hager, since no evidenceof igneous intrusives, as they assumed to explain the uplifts, had been foundassociated with the domes. Harris developed his theory until it offered suchapparently plausible explanations of so many details of dome phenomena that hishypothesis and conclusions received widespread acceptance, despite some seriousobjections, and today his theory, somewhat modified, is considered by many ableinvestigators to be the best explanation of the origin of these domes.

The immense production of oil per acre, the recognition of the high lubricatingquality of the oil, the development and recognition of the efficiency andadvantages of oil-burning vessels, with the subsequent exceptional demand forfuel oil, and the resultant advance in the price of coastal crude, have beenresponsible for a prospecting and development campaign throughout the coastcountry, during the last 5 years, that has seldom been equaled when the presentdepth of drilling is taken into consideration.

AIME 065–29
Determination of Pore Space of Oil and Gas Sands
Authors: Melcher A.F.
Published: June 2014

The present paper is a progress report on an investigation of the physicalfactors of oil and gas and especially of their sands?, such as pore space, sizeof pores or permeability, retentivity, viscosity of the oil, temperature, pressure, thickness and area of the pay sand, water relations, and capillarity.The purpose is to determine as many of these physical factors as possible, andto ascertain the relations existing, directly or indirectly, between thesephysical factors and the production of oil and gas. As yet only pore space? andsize of grains of pay sands have been investigated, although an apparatus hasbeen designed to determine the permeability of a sand to oil, water, or gasunder definite drops of pressure between the entrance face and exit face of thesample.

Messrs. E. W. Shaw, R. Van A. Mills, D. Dale Condit, G. B. Richardson, G. C.Matson, and C. H. Wegemann collected the samples upon which the physicaldeterminations were made. Acknowledgment is made to my colleagues of the UnitedStates Geological Survey for many suggestions and criticisms; to Mr. Mills forthe production data given of the oil wells from which some of the samples werecollected; to Mr. A. W. McCoy of the Empire Gas and Fuel Co., Bartlesville, Okla., for many ideas.1 Sand is used in this paper with the meaning of oil and gas pay sands asthey exist in nature, either coherent or incoherent. The sand samples tested inthis paper were coherent.The pore space of a rock can be divided into two kinds, the total porespace and the effective pore space. The total pore space is the totalinterstitial space and includes not only the communicating pores, but anyisolated pores that may exist. The effective pore space, On the other hand, isrelative, depending on such factors as the constitution of the liquid, the sizeof the pores, the material of the rock, temperature, pressure, and otherconditions. It is apparent that the total pore space is a maximum limit for theeffective pore space. The method described in this paper determines the totalpore space.

AIME 065–43
Possible Petroleum Reserves of Philippine Islands
Authors: Pratt Wallace E.
Published: June 2014

The Philippine Islands have produced no oil commercially; nevertheless, oilis known to be present at various places in the islands. Although all attemptsto produce oil commercially have failed, no intelligent, persistent explorationhas been carried out. The Richmond Petroleum Corpn. (a subsidiary of theStandard Oil Co. of California) and a syndicate headed by Ralph Arnold are atpresent engaged in exploring Bondoc Peninsula in Tayabas Province, one of thepromising Philippine areas, in a manner that promises to test the petroleumpossibilities adequately and intelligently.

How can the petroleum resources of an entirely undeveloped area like thePhilippines be estimated, where not even the areal extent of the variousgeologic formations is known? Obviously no calculated figure for assured futureproduction can be derived. Yet a study of the evidence of the occurrence ofpetroleum, the character of the possible reservoir beds, the probable sourcerocks, the character and size of favorable structures, and the area over whichpetroleum-bearing rocks are known to occur, will throw some light on thequestion. The fact that rocks of the same geologic age and similar compositionhave been explored and are producing in Borneo, Sumatra, and Java to the southand in Formosa and Japan to the north also affect the problem, so that one canobtain some idea of the quantity of petroleum that may reasonably be expectedfrom the Philippines. It is this measure of the possibilities rather than adefinite calculation of petroleum reserves that is presented herewith.

This paper will not attempt to describe, nor even to enumerate in detail, the occurrences of petroleum in the Philippines, as such data have already beenpublished.

AIME 068–78
Present Conditions in Mexican Oil Fields and an Outlook Into the Future
Authors: Garfias Valentin R.
Published: June 2014

The various phases of the Mexican oil industry have received so muchpublicity that there is little to add to the discussion of present and futureproduction, extent and importance of prospective fields, and status ofpetroleum legislation, to mention but a few of the angles of the Mexican oilproblem. However, out of this wealth of information, which is generally ofcontradictory nature, the average petroleum man is at a loss to know somethingdefinite regarding the various questions involved; so, keeping the foregoing inmind, it has been the writer's aim to record in a concise form the mostreliable and up-to-date information regarding the salient features of theMexican oil situation.

Present Status of Mexican Oil Industry

Production During 1921

The Mexican oil fields, during 1921, produced in round numbers 203,000,000bbl. of which 176,000,000 bbl., or 86 per cent., were exported, the bulk ofthese exports, or about 73.3 per cent., going to the United States. The Mexicanexports were divided by grades as follows: Light crude, 47.0 per cent.; heavycrude, 22.0 per cent.; tops, 3.5 per cent.; fuel oil from light crude, 24.0 percent. The balance, or 3? per cent., includes the bunker fuel shipments and thecoastwise trade in Mexico, which is not classified as to grades. The figuresshow that, in importance, the light-oil fields form about 75 per cent. of theMexican petroleum industry.

The production of the Panuco field has followed the general history of theAmerican fields, and its gradual decline, which is at present foreshadowed, maybe estimated as well as its ultimate economic life. On the other hand, thebehavior of the light-oil fields to the south is unlike any in the world so fardiscovered, and as a result we have concentrated overproductions followed bysudden droughts, both sometimes equally unexpected. The coming in of two orthree gushers within adequate pipe-line facilities will flood the market with100,000 bbl. or more a day, while the flooding by water of a particular poolwill, in a few weeks, remove from the market one-half the total production ofthe Mexican fields.

AIME 068–68
Evaluation of Casinghead Gas
Authors: Bradley Oliver U.
Published: June 2014

The conditions affecting the supply of casinghead gas, the different degreesof productivity, the difficulty of determining the quantities utilized, and theevaluation of the gas in casinghead-gasoline units and related data, having aneconomic bearing on the industry as a whole, are important questions and offeran interesting field for study.

Casinghead-gas data have been gathered in some of the oil fields of Oklahomawhere testing work has been done regularly and the volumes of casinghead gaswere available. The area covered embraces 219 scattered leases in 29 townships, with a total of 18,039 acres and 1921 wells. The accompanying table givesspecific locations of the areas under consideration, number of leases, rangedepth of wells, average age of production, sand depths and oil production data.The results of this investigation are set forth in the accompanying charts, showing volumes of casinghead gas in 6-month periods from Jan. 1, 1918, to June30, 1921, when full record was available, production of casinghead gasoline, average productivity of the gas in gallons per thousand cubic feet, averageprice of the gas and the market price of the casinghead gasoline. The casesenumerated in the table and the data shown in the graphs do not represent thegreater part of oil or casinghead gas production from anyone township, nor arethe leases contiguous. The properties in each township, however, may beconsidered as typical of general conditions, such as the date of completion ofwells, depth, character, and thickness of oil sand, time of pumping, presentoil production, vacuum carried on wells, and usual operating practices.

It was deemed advisable to subdivide the time into 6-mo. periods, as it wasimpracticable to make the tests more frequently, furthermore 6 mo. is probablythe minimum period within which there would occur a noticeable increase in theproductivity of the gas.

AIME 070–63
The Elliott Core Drills
Authors: Elliott J.E.
Published: June 2014

In connection with a symposium on core drills, it may be of some value tooutline briefly the evolution of the double barrel core drill.

The single barrel core drill, or Texas barrel, has been described a numberof times and is undoubtedly merely an evolution of the fishing tool known as abasket. The single barrel drill has served its purpose, its use is decliningand it will not be further discussed in this paper.

Jan Koster appears to have been the inventor of the double barrel core drillfor use in loosely consolidated formations. So far as can be learned at thisdate his invention was necessitated by the desire of the Holland GeologicalSurvey to obtain cores in localities where the diamond drill was unsuccessfulby reason of the unconsolidated nature of the formations to be penetrated. Inthe "Memoirs of the Government Institute for the Geological Exploration ofthe Netherlands," W. A. J. M. van Waterschoot van der Gracht says,"this device (the Koster drill) works admirably well in the boring atBaarlo; we succeeded in obtaining a section of many hundred meters of cores, out of sandy clays and scarcely coherent sands."

No attempt to introduce the Koster drill into the oil fields of this countrywas made until 1919, when the Shell Co. of California obtained one and testedit in shallow exploration work in an area near what is now the Santa Fe Springsoil fields.

The Koster drill appeared to be a step in the right direction, although itsperformance was not satisfactory, due chiefly to inadequate surface equipment.The cores obtained with it were usually short, because the opening to the innerbarrel usually became plugged before the barrel was filled with core. The ShellCo. of California made several changes in the design of the barrel whileoperating in the area mentioned above, and later at Coalinga, but apparentlywithout obtaining complete satisfaction from the drill, as a punch core drillwas used by that company during the intensive drilling campaign at Long Beachin 1921.

The original Elliott core drill, as used by the Elliott Core Drilling Co.from 1921 to 1924, was somewhat similar in design to the Koster drill, butadapted to the taking of cores at considerable depth and with several changesmade necessary by California practice in rotary drilling and Californiaformations.
Use and Limitations of Vacuum in the Recovery of Oil
Authors: Lindsly Ben E.
Published: June 2014

Figure 1 represents an idealized layout of a vacuum system, the letteredsections of the pipe line, a, b, c, d and e, varying in size according to thevolume of gas to be handled. Thus the section a carries the gas from 16 wells, b from 8 wells, c from 4 wells, d from 2 wells and e from 1 well. The vacuumplant is shown to discharge into a distributing line marked f, which usuallycarries the gas under a few pounds pressure to the various points on the leasewhere the gas is utilized for lease operations.

The term vacuum, as used in the oil and gas industry, is a relative termwhich has as its base the atmospheric pressure of the locality underconsideration.
Advantages of Unit Operation in New Pools
Authors: Dunn I.L. , Lewis James O.
Published: June 2014

By unit operation is meant the developing and operating of oil pools underone management so as to make possible the application of the best principles ofbusiness, engineering, and science. The proposal is to do away with thedivision of ownership of the oil underground based upon property lines at thesurface and to recognize the fact that a pool of oil is a natural andindivisable unit that should be operated as such for the common good. But asunit operation upsets the customs of the industry and affects public policy, itis encumbent upon those of us who advocate it to show beyond reasonable doubtthat unit operation will result in worthwhile gains to both the property ownersand to the public. The purpose of the writers is to set out briefly theirconceptions of the benefits to be derived from unit operations in new poolswithout reference to any of the proposed means of consolidating the properties.Use is made of both their own experiences and of the proposals of the manyothers who have written or spoken on this subject.

Natural conditions vary widely in the different oil fields, and the exactmethods of unit development and operation must be varied accordingly. Also theeconomic value of unit operation will vary, being exceedingly large under someconditions and much less under others. It is not possible nor desirable in thispaper to cover more than the commoner conditions and to illustrate by someexamples, nor is this paper to be considered more than a preliminarypresentation on the subject for present methods of the industry are based uponcompetitive recovery, and it therefore is necessary for the industry to developby research and experience new concepts and methods for operating undernon-competitive conditions.

The most common type of oil pool is the one sand pool. The size may be froma few acres to several square miles. The oil is saturated with gas dissolvedunder pressure and the oil area is surrounded by water. When the pressure hasbeen taken off the pool, the production declines and leaves the largerproportion of the oil to be recovered by artificial means. Sometimes thesurrounding water encroaches and flushes much of the oil out of the sand, butmost commonly such encroachment is negligible. Less commonly there will be anexcess of gas not held in solution, which will be found as an area of free gasoverlying the oil or occupying the higher parts of the structure.
Increasing Recovery and Its Economic Effects
Authors: Clarke H.C.O. , Lowe H. J.
Published: June 2014

The development of present methods has been a gradual outgrowth of extensiveobservation, both scientific and practical, of conditions surrounding theaccumulation and extraction of oilbodies. Until comparatively recently, ourknowledge of many of these factors had hardly gone beyond the experimentalstage. We are now well into the transitional period between the experimentaland practical, and it appears certain that the use of the gas, air, waterdrives, possibly the mining process and improvement of operating equipment havebeen developed to a point where their commercial application on a large scalewill bring satisfactory results, having a wide and lasting effect on the oilindustry throughout the world. Because of its comparative newness and itsappeal to the imagination, the restoration of rock pressures is more in thepublic eye than are many routine production processes and methods that may beof equal or greater aggregate importance and which must be extended and furtherimproved to keep pace with the times. Inasmuch as we are now concerned with thesalvaging of oil in developed pools, no consideration will be given to newproperties.

In many of the so-called "hydrostatic" or natural water-drive pools, the existing well spacing is such that it is highly probable that maximumrecoveries, under present methods, are not being obtained. Large quantities ofwater carrying comparatively small amounts of oil, handled with present liftingmethods, bring such limited returns that additional expenditures in new wellsand equipment apparently cannot now be justified from a ledger standpoint. Itis reasonable to suppose that coning has taken place in many wells of thischaracter and particularly so in wells, which may have bottom waterdifficulties. In many cases, the sands may be water-logged. This hasundoubtedly curtailed production in many instances but the measure of the wellsunder these conditions should not be necessarily accepted as a measure of theproductive possibilities of the sands. Many of us can cite specific instancesof profitable late close-drilling in water-flooded areas and also instancesthat might justify additional drilling.
Effect of the Gas-lift on the Physical Properties of Oil
Authors: Brandenthaler R.R.
Published: June 2014

Petroleum producers in the Mid-Continent field, up to the present time, havebeen more concerned with the mechanical operation and efficiency of thegas-lift than with its possible effects on the physical properties of the oil.As a result few specific data are available on the subject and contradictoryopinions exist. Some operators are positive that the gravity of the oil isdecreased, while others present data which definitely show that the gravity ofthe oil is increased. In other localities, some operators have given carefulattention to the effect of the gas-lift on the gravity of the oil. When theemulsions formed have given much trouble, the problem has usually been dodgedby placing the well on the pump.

Certain Fundamentals

Certain fundamental results may be expected under ordinary conditions andwith all types of crude oil, when gas is the prime mover of oil in producingformations. For example, the gravity of oil will decrease as the rock pressurein the producing formation declines, the change being greater in the highergravity oils.

Furthermore, the character of emulsion formed is primarily dependent on thekind of oil, thus more refractory emulsions are formed from asphaltic-baseoils, less refractory from mixed-base oils, and the least refractory fromparaffin-base oils. However, refractory emulsions are sometimes formed fromparaffin or mixed-base oils that are difficult to treat by ordinary methods, especially by electrolytic processes. With oils having the same base, those oflighter gravity are less subject to the formation of emulsions, especially ofrefractory emulsions.

There are two types of emulsions formed; namely, water-in-oil emulsions andoil-in-water emulsions. The former are the more common; in fact, very fewexamples of oil-in-water emulsions have been noted in the oil fields. Theamount of water produced with the oil influences the percentage of emulsionformed. Agitation and velocity of flow play an important part in the forming ofemulsions.
Handling Recirculated Gas
Authors: Gibbs R.D. , Taylor C.C.
Published: June 2014

The gas-lift, or circulation of gas for the production of crude oil, nowincludes the gas operator in field production activities to a greater extentthan ever before. It is the purpose of this paper to show the scope of hisactivities and to discuss the various means of handling and treating the largequantities of gas which are now of a somewhat different nature than formerly.The extent of the stripping action of circulating gas on oil must be discussed, as this can be governed somewhat by the method of treatment of the recirculatedgas.

Change in Gas-Decline Curve Under Circulation

Before the advent of the gas-lift, the gas-production curve of a fieldshowed a peak during the flush production with a rapid decline as the wellswere put on the pump and then a long steady decline curve of a relatively smallvolume of rich gas for the life of the field. Under the gas-lift method ofproduction, instead of having the sharp decline at the end of the flushproduction period, sufficient circulating gas to keep up the required totalgas-oil ratio would be turned to the wells. The gas-production curve thenassumes a long gradual decline, giving a large volume of gas for treatment forseveral years to come.

The gas-decline curve will not follow that of the oil, as the lowering ofthe rock pressure by the steady production of oil and gas from the sand willmake it necessary to continue using the large tubing and to circulate largevolumes of gas in order to keep the back-pressure against the sands as low aspossible.

A Complicated Distributing System

In tracing the flow of the gas from the time it leaves the well until itagain enters through the casinghead, under high pressure, we get a very goodidea of the complex distributing and regulating system that must be installedand the large treating and compression plants that are necessary (see Fig.1).
Relation of the Air-gas Lift to Gas-oil Ratios and Effect on Ultimate Production
Authors: Lake F.W.
Published: June 2014

The ultimate production from a natural reservoir of petroleum is inverselyproportional to the gas-oil ratios existing during the producing life of thereservoir whenever gas is the major expulsive force in the recovery. In otherwords, in the period during which gas is the major expulsive force the ultimateproduction will be increased if the gas-oil ratio is decreased, and vice versa.This condition prevails in the greater number of the present producingdistricts.

While this relation is difficult to prove from actual operation, on accountof the present paucity of detailed observations, it must be admitted after astudy of the forces and conditions governing the recovery of petroleum fromnatural reservoirs. Where gas and oil exist under pressure in sand intersticesand water movement is not freely possible, the force expended in moving the oilto the well is the expansion and movement of the gas through the pressuredifferential existing between the interior of the reservoir and the well. Ifpressure and solution conditions in the untapped reservoir are such that therelation between gas and oil volumes at atmospheric conditions is as 100: 1;and if during the producing period, until the gas is exhausted, the relationbetween the gas and oil volumes produced is 300: 1, it follows that onlyone-third of the oil has been produced and the remaining two-thirds cannot berecovered unless some extraneous force is introduced into the reservoir. Thisserves to illustrate the importance of gas-oil ratio control during normalproducing operations.

Gas-Oil Ratio Control

Eliminating natural conditions in a reservoir, which govern gas-oil ratios, such as the physical properties of the oil and gas, the physicalcharacteristics of the reservoir strata and the original pressure and solutionconditions in the reservoir, which cannot be controlled by operation practice;and also eliminating operating conditions that apply to the reservoir as awhole, such as well spacing, well locations, relative-completion dates, variouspenetrations and drilling practice; there remains but one condition in eachwell that influences the gas-oil ratio and that is subject to control byoperation practice.
Relative Advantages and Costs of Electric Power in Lease Operations
Authors: Murphy L.J.
Published: June 2014

The production of crude oil in the United States is exceeding consumption byone-quarter million barrels per day and, with the possibilities of West Texas, this condition of overproduction, unless controlled, is likely to continue forsome time. The resulting low price of oil has caused the operator to observeclosely his lease operating costs. The installation of more efficient andreliable machinery has followed and it can well be said that the art ofproducing oil is on the threshold of a new era. In this advancement electricityhas played a leading part.

This paper covers only the problem of electricity as applied to leaseoperation and does not consider other phases of the industry, such as drillingand pipe-line pumping, in which electric power has been utilized economically.In considering electrification of pumping wells, the first question theoperator asks is whether or not his costs will be reduced and the secondquestion is whether or not the production will be increased. The thirdquestion, although in effect it is closely allied to the first, is the cost ofpower. The last question can be answered only after a thorough analysis ofoperating conditions and a study of the power rates prevailing in theparticular field under consideration. Within the past few years, the powercompanies have realized the desirability of a steady 24-hr. pumping load, havemade their rates for oil-field service particularly attractive, and in generalhave shown splendid cooperation in assisting the oil companies in thesatisfactory application of electric power to their leases.

When everything is taken into consideration, the first cost is practicallythe same for electric drive as for gas engines when pumping on the beam withindividual motors. This cost, at prevailing prices, should averageapproximately $2200 to $2400 per installation when using 15 to 35-hp., two-speed pumping equipment, including motor and control, countershaft, motorhouse, belt, installation charges, and a prorated portion of the cost oftransmission lines and transformers for serving a number of wells. Since thereis practically no difference in the cost of the two installations, it isevident that electricity, to justify its consideration, must have a loweroperating cost or produce more oil.
Handling Congealing Oil and Paraffin Problems in the Appalachian Fields
Authors: Brewster Frank M.
Published: June 2014

The handling of congealing oils and paraffin is a serious problem in the Appalachian fields, particularly because the small amount of oil produced perwell makes the removing of paraffin a very costly operation per barrel. Fewoperators realize or have any means of knowing just how much production is loston account of paraffin depositing over the face of the sand and plugging thepores of the sand; but where paraffin has been removed the production increasesindicate that this loss has been considerable.

Many operators believe that paraffining is confined to the tubing andpumping equipment, but it is evident that the most serious damage occurs on theface of the sand and a short distance back in the pores. This paper is anattempt to disseminate information on methods and processes in use in theEastern fields for combatting losses of production and operating difficultiescaused by deposition of paraffin in the pores, on the walls, on the tubing andon other pumping equipment. Mills covers this subject so thoroughly thatexcerpts, abstracts and quotations from his work have been used freely in thispaper.

Nature of Paraffin

Mills states: "The so-called paraffin that collects in oil wells, and inthe pores of the producing sands immediately around the wells, is generallymade up of amorphous wax or uncracked paraffin, asphalt, or other gummyhydrocarbons mixed with more or less water, oil and inorganic silt. Some of thesamples of this ‘paraffin’ collected from oil wells in different fields andexamined by the Bureau of Mines contains as much as 20 per cent. by weight of water and inorganic silt, whereas other samples are composed entirely of waxyhydrocarbons and oil. The inorganic silt accompanying this ‘paraffin’ is mostly fine sand, clayey materials, common salt and finely disseminated precipitatesof calcium and magnesium carbonates. Sulfates of calcium, barium and strontiumare less common constituents of paraffin."
Effect of Repressuring Producing Sands during the Flush Stage of Production
Authors: Foran E.V.
Published: June 2014

The repressuring of oil-producing formations during the flush stage ofproduction, although requiring primarily the same procedure as operations onformations where the gas pressure has been depleted, offers several advantagesof major importance, the value of which has not heretofore been demonstrated.It is the purpose of this paper to present an account of some recent operationsof this character and the economic effects on the properties where they wereapplied.

The principal objective in all repressuring operations is to secure aneffective diffusion of the input energy to all parts of the producing sand. Ifthis can be accomplished, success is assured during the remainder of the lifeof the property; if not, it will be temporary only and will be followed bydifficulties, and the maximum possible recovery will not be obtained.

During the past year in Texas, the Cook pool in Shackelford County, and theTurbeville pool in Archer County, while still in their flush stage ofproduction, have been subjected to repressuring operations to observe theirreaction to this process during the early stage of their productive periods.The repressuring operations carried on in each of these pools will be discussedseparately in this paper in order to show peculiarities which were present inone pool but were not observed in the other.

Turbeville Pool

The Turbeville pool is in Archer County, about 30 miles south of WichitaFalls. The productive sand varies in thickness from 10 to 30 ft., the averagebeing about 16 ft. The depth of the sand varies from 1450 to 1530 ft. Thedeveloped productive area to date is approximately 200 acres, but the limits ofthe pool have not yet been proved. The sand varies considerably in differentparts of the pool with respect to both porosity and permeability. The gravityof the oil varies from 39 to 41? A. P. I. There were some wells which flowedfor a few days after completion but during 1927 all production was secured bypumping.
Sucker-rod Strains and Stresses
Authors: Lake F.W. , Brett H.A.
Published: June 2014

With each year bringing the exploration of deeper and deeper producinghorizons in the effort to maintain production, the problem of lifting the oilto the surface is continually becoming more difficult. Flowing and gas-liftwells eventually decline to such a point that pumping is necessary. Theincreasing loads on sucker rods resulting from deeper pumping operations areapproaching the ultimate strength of the rods with consequent reduction in thefactor of safety. With this diminishing factor of safety, the vibratorystresses causing fatigue, crystallization, and ultimate fracture become moreimportant. These vibratory stresses are the result of varied pumping conditionswhich, if properly understood and investigated, may be eliminated to a greatextent. To accomplish this purpose, a recording dynamometer has been developedwhich gives an indicator card showing the actual load on the polished rod ateach point of the pumping cycle.

Recording Dynamometer

The instrument consists of a dynamometer head of the piston and cylindertype filled with castor oil, and a recording device, the movable card holderbeing connected with the dynamometer through a system of levers and the hollowspring gage connected with the fluid chamber of the dynamometer by ahigh-pressure flexible tube. The dynamometer head is hung from the beam with anordinary hanger and lugs on the cylinder, while the piston is attached to thepolished rod. The movable card holder actuated through levers moves in avertical direction proportionate to the movement of the polished rod. Therecording arm of the hollow spring gage inscribes on the card the pressure atall times. Thus by proper scales, the indicator card gives the load on thepolished rod at all points in the pumping cycle. Fig. 1 shows the hookup of therecording dynamometer at a pumping well.