bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Molecular Symmetry
Authors: Li Wai-Kee , Lee Hung Kay , Ng Dennis Kee Pui , Cheung Yu-San , Mak Kendrew Kin Wah , Mak Thomas Chung Wai
Published: January 2019

This chapter presents 23 problems covering the subject of molecular symmetry, along with the corresponding solutions.
Molecular Geometry and Bonding
Authors: Li Wai-Kee , Lee Hung Kay , Ng Dennis Kee Pui , Cheung Yu-San , Mak Kendrew Kin Wah , Mak Thomas Chung Wai
Published: January 2019

This chapter presents 52 problems covering the subject of molecular geometry and bonding, along with the corresponding solutions.
Crystal Field Theory
Authors: Li Wai-Kee , Lee Hung Kay , Ng Dennis Kee Pui , Cheung Yu-San , Mak Kendrew Kin Wah , Mak Thomas Chung Wai
Published: January 2019

This chapter presents 41 problems covering the subject of crystal field theory, along with the corresponding solutions.
Crystal Structure
Authors: Li Wai-Kee , Lee Hung Kay , Ng Dennis Kee Pui , Cheung Yu-San , Mak Kendrew Kin Wah , Mak Thomas Chung Wai
Published: January 2019

This chapter presents 47 problems covering the subject of crystal structure, along with their corresponding solutions.
Bioinorganic Chemistry
Authors: Li Wai-Kee , Lee Hung Kay , Ng Dennis Kee Pui , Cheung Yu-San , Mak Kendrew Kin Wah , Mak Thomas Chung Wai
Published: January 2019

This chapter presents 19 problems covering the subject of bioinorganic chemistry, along with their corresponding solutions.
Causation, Explanation, and the Metaphysics of Aspect
Authors: Skow Bradford
Published: January 2019

This book aims to answer the following questions: what is the difference between a cause and a background condition? What is it to manifest a disposition? Can dispositions be extrinsic? What is the most basic kind of causation? And, what might a structural explanation be? Each chapter takes up a subset of these questions; the chapters are written to be readable independently. The answers defended rely on three ideas. Two of those ideas use a distinction from the study of lexical aspect, namely the distinction between stative verbs and non-stative verbs. The first idea is that events go with non-stative verbs, in the sense that “If S, then an event occurred in virtue of the fact that S” is true when the main verb in the clause going in for “S” is non-stative. The second is that acting, doing something, goes with non-stative verbs, in the sense that “In Ving X did something” is true iff V is a non-stative verb. The third idea is about levels of explanation: “(A because B) because C” does not entail “A because C.”
Dispositions: Intrinsicness and Agency
Authors: Skow Bradford
Published: January 2019

The core claim of this chapter is that dispositions must be dispositions to act. That is, in Ving something manifests a disposition only if in Ving it did something. This claim is defended and then used to evaluate the thesis that there exist extrinsic dispositions. Many alleged examples of extrinsic dispositions are shown to fail because their success is inconsistent with the core claim. Other examples are consistent with the core claim, but the connection between dispositions and action suggests a defensible fallback version of the Intrinsicness Thesis, according to which something can manifest an extrinsic disposition only by manifesting an intrinsic one.
Continued Fractions
Authors: Reutenauer Christophe
Published: January 2019

Basic theory of continued fractions: finite continued fractions (for rational numbers) and infinite continued fractions (for irrational numbers). This also includes computation of the quadratic number with a given periodic continued fraction, conjugate quadratic numbers, and approximation of reals and convergents of continued fractions. The chapter then takes on quadratic bounds for the error term and Legendre’s theorem, and reals having the same expansion up to rank n. Next, it discusses Lagrange number and its characterization as an upper limit, and equivalence of real numbers (equivalent numbers have the same Lagrange number). Finally, it covers ordering real numbers by alternating lexicographical order on continued fractions.
Words and Quadratic Numbers
Authors: Reutenauer Christophe
Published: January 2019

This chapter offers an overview of words and quadratic numbers, and in particular ordering the conjugates of a Christoffel word. Within this topic the reader learns that the reversal of a Christoffel word is a conjugate, and that the lower and upper Christoffel words of the same slope are the smallest and the largest in their conjugation class. The chapter discusses computation in terms ofMarkoff numbers of the quadratic real number which has a periodic continued fraction with periodic pattern equal to a Christoffel word written on the alphabet 11, 22. It also reviews computation of theMarkoff supremum of a periodic biinfinite sequence, and of theLagrange number of a periodic sequence, both having a periodic pattern as above.
Markoff’s Theorem for Approximations
Authors: Reutenauer Christophe
Published: January 2019

This chapter provesMarkoff’s theorem for approximations: if x is an irrational real number such that its Lagrange number L(x) is <3, then the continued fraction of x is ultimately periodic and has as periodic pattern a Christoffel word written on the alphabet 11, 22. Moreover, the bound is attained: this means that there are indeed convergents whose error terms are correctly bounded. For this latter result, one needs a lot of technical results, which use the notion of good and bad approximation of a real number x satisfying L(x) <3: the ranks of the good and bad convergents are precisely given. These results are illustrated by the golden ratio and the number 1 + square root of 2.
Numerology
Authors: Reutenauer Christophe
Published: January 2019

This chapter gives several examples, which may help the reader to work in concrete terms with Markoff numbers, Christoffel words, Markoff constants, and quadratic forms. In particular the thirteen Markoff numbers <1000 are given, together with the associated mathematical objects considered before in the book:Markoff constants, Christoffel words, the associated matrices by the representation of Chapter 3, theMarkoff quadratic numbers whose expansion is given by the Christoffel word, the Markoff quadratic forms. Some results of Frobenius, Aigner, andClemens are given. In particular thematrix associated with a Christoffel word may be computed directly from its Markoff triple.
Lyndon Words and Christoffel Words
Authors: Reutenauer Christophe
Published: January 2019

This chapter covers the lexicographical ordering of lower Christoffel words, which is equivalent to the ordering by their slopes (Borel and Laubie). Lower Christoffel words are particular Lyndon words. They are maximum for the lexicographical order among Lyndon words of a given slope (Borel and Laubie). They are, together with the upper Christoffel words, the only unbordered finite Sturmian words (Chuan). They are exactly the Lyndon words which are Sturmian words (Berstel and de Luca). The standard factorization of a lower Christoffel word is obtained by cutting before the smallest lexicographical suffix. Finally, they are exactly the Lyndon words which are equilibrated (Melançon).
Stern–Brocot Tree
Authors: Reutenauer Christophe
Published: January 2019

Christoffel words have a strong connection with continued fractions of rational numbers, as was recognized by Christoffel. They are in some sense equivalent to them, being a way to encode the expansion of these numbers into continued fractions. The Stern–Brocot tree is another way to compute continued fractions. Among other things in this chapter, equivalence is shown between semi-convergents of rational numbers, nodes in the Stern–Brocot tree, palindromic prefixes of centralwords, points on the frontier of the convex hull of some subset of Z2 associatedwith a rational number, and special points relative to a half-line of rational slope.
Conjugates and Factors
Authors: Reutenauer Christophe
Published: January 2019

Christoffel words are naturally cyclic objects. They may be defined by the Cayley graphs of finite cyclic groups. They have many characterizations through their conjugation classes; among them, one is obtained using the Burrows–Wheeler transform (Mantaci, Restivo, and Sciortino); another one is due to Pirillo. The sets of their circular factors have many remarkable properties; in particular the number of them of length k is k+1, if k is smaller than the length of the Christoffel word, and it is a characteristic property (Borel and the author), reminiscent of the similar property of Sturmian sequences. A related characterization, similar to that of Droubay and Pirillo for Sturmian sequences, rests on the count of palindromic factors. The set of finite Sturmian words, that is, the set of all factors of all Christoffel words, coincides with the set of balanced words (Dulucq and Gouyou–Beauchamps).
Bases and Automorphisms of the Free Group on Two Generators
Authors: Reutenauer Christophe
Published: January 2019

The chapter begins with a self-contained exposition of the theory of Nielsen on the free groupwith two generators: bases of F(a, b),Nielsen’s criterion for automorphisms of F(a, b), It also coversNielsen’s theoremon abelianization of these automorphisms andWeinbaum’s theorem on representatives of the group of automorphisms modulo the subgroup of inner automorphism. Perrine’s theorem on bases of the derived group of SL2(Z) and Markoff triples is deduced, and a very simple and efficient algorithm for detecting bases of F(a, b) is given (Séébold, Kassel, the author). Positive automorphisms of F(a, b) are characterized (Wen andWen) and shown to coincide with Sturmian morphisms (Mignosi, Séébold).
As Long as it Glitters
Authors: Ingvardson Gitte Tarnow
Published: January 2019

This chapter considers the phenomenon of mixed hoards, containing both minted and non-minted silver, from the Baltic island of Bornholm. Rather than following a general Scandinavian trend towards coin-only hoards, on Bornholm mixed hoards dominated until the twelfth century. They are often interpreted as signifying a somewhat primitive bullion economy, within which coins, ingots, jewellery, and scrap silver were traded and treated equally as a means of payment. In this chapter, this interpretation is re-evaluated. Six in-depth case studies are presented, providing a rich narrative context for each hoard. This reveals how mixed hoards with varying compositions and depositional contexts occupied different economic spheres, relating to the monetary, productive, and ritual uses of silver. Hoards should not be seen as a uniform phenomenon, but as mirrors reflecting individual life stories.
On Silver Fragmentation
Authors: Bogucki Mateusz
Published: January 2019

This chapter asks: to what extent do different methods of recovery affect the discovery and recording of hack-silver? The question is approached through the case study of the early eleventh-century silver hoard from Mózgowo, Poland, recovered through different techniques in three chronologically distinct phases from the nineteenth century to 2012. Study of the weight of silver pieces recovered on each occasion indicates that the degree of silver fragmentation reflects the method of recovery: the lightest pieces of silver were recorded through modern excavation, slightly heavier pieces through recent metal-detecting and the heaviest by recovery after ploughing in the nineteenth century. The implication is that data relating to both older discoveries and recent metal-detected hoards will contain biases that impact the reliability of metrological data.
Royalty and Renewal in Viking Age Ireland
Authors: Woods Andrew R.
Published: January 2019

This chapter examines the relationship between coinage and kingship in early medieval Ireland. First, the Hiberno-Scandinavian coinage produced in Dublin is contextualized within a discussion of the use of silver in Ireland between the tenth and twelfth centuries. The chapter then discusses the coinage’s organization and administration. Study of coin weight and silver fineness, alongside evidence for currency renewal (the demonetization of official coins, and the issuing of a new type), reveals that the coinage constituted a well-regulated currency that was effectively monitored by successive kings of Dublin. Examination of the timings of currency renewals reveals that, rather than being overtly political, they were motivated by commercial viability, with the aim of facilitating trade around the Irish Sea.
The Rise of Spiritual Economies in Late Viking and Early Medieval Scandinavia
Authors: Gullbekk Svein H.
Published: January 2019

With this chapter, the book moves to consider the role of precious metals within non-monetary economies. It compares attitudes to wealth in Scandinavia before and after the widespread adoption of Christianity, and argues that new Christian doctrines encouraged coin use within an ‘economy of salvation’. Harnessing archaeological evidence of coins found beneath the floorboards of Scandinavian churches, the chapter argues that Christian parishioners made regular offerings of low-denomination coins in exchange for salvation. Dating evidence suggests that this practice began in the late eleventh century, but expanded during the twelfth, and thus occured against a backdrop of wider societal monetization; indeed, devotional offerings of coins were one means for the church to raise revenues. This process reveals how the meaning and function of coins were transformed as they moved from the profane to ritual spheres.
A Viking Age Gold Hoard from Essu, Estonia
Authors: Oras Ester , Leimus Ivar , Joosu Lauri
Published: January 2019

This chapter presents in full the small gold hoard from Essu, north-east Estonia, on the Vikings’ Austrvegr (eastern route). The hoard was found in a peat bog in the nineteenth century, and comprised six gold pendants dating to around the last quarter of the ninth century. This chapter provides a detailed analysis of the six pendants—one Arabic dinar-pendant and five pendants decorated with filigree and granulation—discussing their decoration and cultural parallels. Results from recent Scanning Electron Microscopy-Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy (SEM-EDS) analysis cast new light on the pendants’ production, alloy content, and use-wear. It is suggested that the filigree pendants were manufactured within Scandinavia and originally formed part of an elaborate female necklace, while the dinar-pendant reached Estonia via the Nordic countries. Overall, the hoard illustrates the prominence of gold within the Viking Age display economy. The chapter concludes by discussing the significance of the hoard from a gender perspective, relating it to a wider group of Viking Age ritual deposits of gold female jewellery sets (so-called ‘themed deposits’).
The Importance of Containers for the Deposition and Non-Retrieval of Silver Hoards
Authors: Gruszczynski Jacek
Published: January 2019

This chapter investigates the reasons for the deposition and non-retrieval of Viking Age silver hoards, focusing on the two areas with the biggest hoard concentrations in the Baltic zone: Gotland and Pomerania (the southern shore of the Baltic sea area in modern-day northern Germany and Poland). The chapter advances a new model for determining the possible reasons for hoard deposition and non-retrieval, arguing that hoards intended for retrieval were placed in containers, with containerless hoards likely deposited for ritual motives, without the intention of recovery. The impact on local soil chemistry on the preservation of hoard containers is considered. The evidence for containers is then integrated with analysis of the weight of hoards and local settlement archaeology. A key finding is that, on Gotland, the practice of symbolically depositing small silver hoards on ‘broken fields’ (newly established farms) was widespread.
The Rent Curse
Authors: Auty Richard M , Furlonge Haydn I
Published: January 2019

This book analyses the political economy of economic development using two stylized facts models of rent-driven growth. The models show that: (i) the resource curse is a variant of a wider rent curse that can be driven by geopolitical rent (foreign aid), labour rent (worker remittances), or regulatory rent (government manipulation of relative prices); (ii) the rent curse is caused by policy failure and is avoidable; (iii) the global incidence of the rent curse varies over time, which reflects development policy fashions; and (iv) the intensity of the rent curse also varies with rent linkages. Rent cycling theory posits that low rent incentivizes the elite to grow the economy to become wealthy, whereas high rent encourages siphoning rent for immediate enrichment at the expense of sustainable and diversified economic growth. The contrasting incentives trigger divergent policies and structural change. Low rent motivates the efficient allocation of inputs in line with the economy’s comparative advantage in labour-intensive exports, which drives: structural change; rapid egalitarian economic growth; and incremental democratization. High rent, however, elicits contests to capture rent for immediate enrichment so the economy absorbs rent too quickly. The economy experiences Dutch disease effects that expand a subsidized urban sector whose rent demands outstrip supply, resulting in a staple trap and a protracted growth collapse. The economy fails to diversify competitively and depends for growth on expanding rent rather than on competitive diversification that boosts productivity. The book uses the models to explain why many developing countries in Latin America, Sub-Saharan Africa, and the Gulf followed a staple trap trajectory and draws on East Asia and South Asia for reform.
Introduction and Overview
Authors: Mattli Walter
Published: January 2019

A key component of the infrastructure of global capital markets—exchanges—has undergone dramatic transformations since the start of the twenty-first century. Two are particularly notable. First, traditional floor trading and ‘market-making’ by humans have been replaced by supercomputer interactions and algorithmic high-speed trading. And, second, previously centralized domestic exchange structures have become decentralized or fragmented, with many exchanges and alternative trading platforms competing for business. This chapter introduces a unique set of chapters by leading scholars, industry insiders, and regulators shedding light on how these changes have impacted on core public policy objectives such as investor protection, reduction of systemic risk, fairness, efficiency, and transparency in markets for the benefit of society at large.
A Case Study in Regulatory Arbitrage and Information Asymmetry
Authors: Bodek Haim
Published: January 2019

While much of the public debate surrounding high frequency trading (HFT) and algorithmic trading has centred on speed, less has been said about the circumvention of regulation via special order types—complex and often non-transparent ways for high frequency traders to interact with exchange markets and other trading venues, allowing them to achieve a favourable execution position at the expense of other market participants. This chapter documents the special order types used by high frequency traders, the absence of adequate disclosure by exchanges, and the problematic interaction between order types designed to accommodate HFT strategies and the order types typically employed by public investors and agency brokers.
The FX Race to Zero
Authors: Marcus Dan , Kellerman Miles
Published: January 2019

This chapter traces how technological changes have affected the structure and operation of currency markets, and examines the issues associated with these developments. These changes have caused significant concern within the industry and raise complicated questions about whether additional regulation is necessary. Nevertheless, they have received relatively little theoretical or empirical attention in comparison to similar developments in equities markets. To address this gap, the chapter outlines the primary market structural issues in foreign exchange markets, including potentially abusive trading techniques, last look, and perverse incentives to monetize access to speed and information. Further, the chapter provides an example of a high frequency latency arbitrage opportunity and discusses the potential mitigating impact of a randomized delay mechanism. This is followed by an analysis of recent regulatory efforts to address these issues in the UK, the EU, and the US, in addition to a review of industry-led initiatives to establish best practices for algorithmic traders and venue operators. The chapter concludes by discussing key questions and constraints for future research.
What has Changed in Four Years?
Authors: Battalio Robert
Published: January 2019

This chapter revisits the findings of Battalio, Corwin, and Jennings (2016), who used public order routing data to examine the order routing of several large retail brokerages in 4Q2012. They found that brokerages generally employed one of two order routing strategies: they appeared either to route all customer orders in a given stock to a market maker (wholesaler), or to route marketable orders to wholesalers and nonmarketable orders to exchanges that offer relatively large liquidity rebates. Importantly, the researchers also provided empirical evidence suggesting that routing orders in a manner that maximizes order flow payments can result in diminished execution quality. This chapter examines the extent to which retail broker order routing decisions and patterns have changed since 2012. It finds that despite increased public and regulatory scrutiny, the practice of routing retail orders to maximize order flow payments remains pervasive.
Legal Liability for Fraud in the Evolving Architecture of Securities Markets
Authors: Dolgopolov Stanislav
Published: January 2019

This chapter analyses the reach of legal liability for securities fraud in the United States in relation to certain types of abuses often associated with high frequency trading strategies. The nature of algorithmic and high-frequency trading presents new challenges for establishing legal liability for fraud in securities markets. It specifically examines the reach of legal liability in relation to two, sometimes overlapping, entities: marketplaces and proprietary traders. Through an examination of various informational asymmetries in securities markets, including the order type controversy, this chapter finds that establishing liability for securities fraud is significantly murkier for proprietary traders than for marketplaces. Subsequently, this study addresses potential approaches to the reach of liability to traders and discusses mechanics and proper characterization of the underlying harm.
Regulating High Frequency Trading and Dark Liquidity in Australia
Authors: Medcraft Greg
Published: January 2019

This chapter focuses on how the Australian Securities and Investment Commission’s general regulatory approach has informed its response to the challenges facing investor trust and confidence as a result of high frequency trading and the growth in dark liquidity. Technological change, increasing competition, and globalization mean that financial markets are changing more rapidly than ever before, posing a number of challenges from a regulatory perspective. This is particularly true for exchange markets: innovation and advances in information technology are delivering lower costs for investors, yet alongside these positive developments is a need for continued testing, monitoring, and accountability. In this context, the chapter discusses ASIC’s responses to both real and perceived problems in the market, as well as the changes stimulated by ASIC’s actions.
High Frequency Trading and Circuit Breakers in the EU
Authors: Kern Steffen , Loiacono Giuseppe
Published: January 2019

This chapter reviews the fundamental workings of the EU regulatory framework and its implications for high frequency trading (HFT) and the latest findings on the market realities in the EU. Over the last decade, securities trading landscapes have undergone significant change, with the emergence of HFT being one of the most important developments in this context. At the same time, the EU has made landmark legislative advances with the aim of increasing investor protection, market order, and financial stability, and of containing risks in those areas. As the new MiFID2 legal framework takes effect, a wealth of new data and evidence will become available in coming years that will improve understanding of HFT patterns, the effectiveness of circuit breakers, and their optimal calibration.
A Framework for Responsive Market Regulation
Authors: Baikie Timothy , Stern Tracey , Greenglass Susan , Jensen Maureen
Published: January 2019

This chapter submits that a regulator’s raison d’être is not simply to react to market issues but to be proactive and to follow and to understand the changes and the business decisions in the market. Regulators must be able to change and foster a responsive regulatory climate that allows innovation to occur, while ensuring that core principles such as investor protection are preserved and that the impact of any change is monitored. To that end, the chapter highlights the role of the Ontario Securities Commission in the Canadian regulatory landscape, and details how it has addressed the multitude of challenges posed by recent developments in Canadian capital markets, including the growth in dark liquidity and the emergence of high frequency trading.
Pleasure
Authors: Goldman Alan H.
Published: January 2019

Three irreducible kinds of pleasure are distinguished: sensory, intentional (taking pleasure in an object), and pure feeling. Each has its distinct opposite in pain or distress. None is the typical end of desire or motivation, although pleasant thoughts are components of desires. Sensory pleasure is of value to subjects, but only a very partial component of a good life. Intentional pleasure is a byproduct of activities and objects we aim at, and again only a partial measure of well-being. The pure feeling of pleasure is the rare warm glow we feel when we are lucky enough to receive very good news. Thus pleasure of any kind, sought directly only in such areas as food and sex, may be necessary for a good life, but, unless we are Don Juan, never sufficient.
The Remarkable Story
Authors: Osterlind Steven J.
Published: January 2019

This chapter introduces the extraordinary story of “quantification,” the perception of seeing things—both the everyday and the extraordinary—through the lens of quantifiable events (i.e., via odds, probability, and likelihood). This concept arose when people learned how to measure uncertainty, through the development of probability theory. The chapter presents many examples of using probability for measuring uncertainty and sets the historical context for the following chapters by showing how the idea of quantification developed during a relatively brief period in history, roughly from the end of Napoleonic era through the start of World War I. This era saw a torrent of mathematical developments, specifically, the invention of probability theory, the bell curve, regressions, Bayesian conditional probabilities, and psychometrics. The chapter also explains that this book is not a history of probability theory but a story of how history and mathematics came together to fashion the current worldview.
The Patterns of Large Numbers
Authors: Osterlind Steven J.
Published: January 2019

This chapter advances the historical context for quantification by describing the climate of the day—social, cultural, political, and intellectual—as fraught with disquieting influences. Forces leading to the French Revolution were building, and the colonists in America were fighting for secession from England. During this time, three important number theorems came into existence: the binomial theorem, the law of large numbers, and the central limit theorem. Each is described in easy-to-understand language. These are fundamental to how numbers operate in a probability circumstance. Pascal’s triangle is explained as a shortcut solving some binomial expansions, and Jacob Bernoulli’s Ars Conjectandi, which presents the study of measurement “error” for the first time, is discussed. In addition, the central limit theorem is explained in terms of its relevance to probability theory, and its utility today.
The Bell Curve Takes Shape
Authors: Osterlind Steven J.
Published: January 2019

This chapter tells how quantification as an idea in spirit is moving across the Atlantic to the new country of the United States, and its relevance to the signing of the Declaration of Independence. Probability theory begins to take off with Abraham de Moivre as he investigates distributions for numbers. He devises a histogram and begins a study of “errors” in a distribution in his Doctrine of Chances. Three terms are explained: “probability,” “odds,” and “likelihood.” What made the advances in mathematics, statistics, and especially probability theory so prominent was both the sheer volume of new ideas and the absolutely torrential pace at which these developments came.
Evidence and Probability Data
Authors: Osterlind Steven J.
Published: January 2019

This chapter discusses evidence and probability data with particular attention on Bayesian estimation. The Protestant ethic slowed probability developments in the United States, but the idea of quantification continued apace in England and on the Continent. In particular, Thomas Bayes invented a simple but profound mathematical means to connect outcomes with causes with conditional probabilities and Bayesian estimation. The chapter explains conditional probabilities and Bayesian logic, giving several examples, including incidence of accurate cancer diagnosis with inexact diagnostics. The chapter also introduces Bayes’s magnum opus An Essay Toward Solving a Problem in the Doctrine of Chances and gives his example of rolling billiard balls on a billiard table to show Bayes’s theorem.
Probably a Distribution
Authors: Osterlind Steven J.
Published: January 2019

This chapter is all about Carl Gauss, his life, and his accomplishments, including his work in plotting the orbits for Ceres, which he did while still a teenager and which set his reputation. The chapter tells, too, how and when he invented and used his method of least squares and of his dispute with Legendre on who invented it first. One of his most significant accomplishments is his devising (and proof) of the normal probability density function, or, more familiarly, the standard normal curve. This is described and its import and application to modern times is discussed. Also, there is a brief discussion of biographical events and details of his life, such as his reclusive nature in his hometown of Göttingen, and his caring for his ailing mother and then his first and second wives. Some details of his impact today and lasting accomplishments are also provided.
Average Man
Authors: Osterlind Steven J.
Published: January 2019

This chapter discusses the history and innovations that prompted people toward quantification after the Congress of Vienna ended the French Revolution and the era of Napoleon; this marked the beginning of the Enlightenment, wherein tremendous intellectual developments happened, specifically, in codifying probability theory. Two curious inventions had an unexpected effect on advancing quantification: the stereoscope and the slide rule. Each advanced mathematical development, and both were great levelers of society, bringing together experienced mathematicians and ordinary people. Jacques Quetelet, a mid-nineteenth-century French astronomer and mathematician, pursued the intention of bringing quantification into the contemporary society, following his mentor Laplace. He attempted to describe “l’homme moyen” (“the average man”). He collected data on all kinds of social phenomena (e.g., crime statistics). His work led to the display of the bell-shaped curve. Also described is his idea of plotting data as a means to understand phenomena and hence preserve social order over chaos.
Regression to the Mean
Authors: Osterlind Steven J.
Published: January 2019

This chapter focuses on two events that started the transformation to a quantifying worldview for the general public: (1) developments in transportation, especially the invention of the train (meaning people and goods could travel further) and (2) the consequent tremendous economic expansion which led to a full-blown industrial revolution, first in England and then in America. Work by Charles Darwin showed the broadening impact of quantitative thinking on the discipline of sociology. The chapter also discusses the accomplishments of Francis Galton, including his landmark work Hereditary Genius, the invention of Galton’s bean machine (“quincunx”), which demonstrated the central limit theorem, and his Anthropometric Laboratory, which he set up at the International Health Exhibition to measure mental faculties. Galton also discovered the concept of correlation and “reversion to the mean,” evolving the latter into “regression to the mean,” and invented many other statistical concepts, such as quartile, decile, and ogive.
Interrelated and Correlated
Authors: Osterlind Steven J.
Published: January 2019

This chapter describes quantifying events in America and their historical context. The cotton gin is invented and has tremendous impact on the country, bringing sentiments of taxation and slavery to the fore, for state’s rights. Events leading to the American Civil War are described, as are other circumstances leading to the Industrial Revolution, first in England and then moving to America. Karl Pearson is introduced with description of his The Grammar of Science, as well as his approach to scholarship as first defining a philosophy of science, which has dominated much of scientific research from the time of the book’s publication to today. Pearson’s invention of the coefficient of correlation is described, and his other contributions to statistics are mentioned: standard deviation, skewness, kurtosis, and goodness of fit, as well as his formal introduction of the contingency table.
Discrepancy to Variability
Authors: Osterlind Steven J.
Published: January 2019

This chapter describes quantification during the late nineteenth century. Then, most ordinary people were gaining an overt awareness, and probability notions were seeping into everyday conversation and decision-making. However, new forms of abstract mathematics were being developed, albeit with some opposition from Lewis Carroll (Charles Dodgson), who wanted to preserve traditionalist views of Euclidian geometry. The chapter introduces William Gossett, who worked in the laboratory of the Guinness brewery and developed “t-distribution,” which was published as “Student’s t-test.” It also describes his friendship with Sir Ronald Fisher, who developed many statistical hypothesis testing methods, published in The Design of Experiments, such as the ANOVA procedure, and the F ratio. Fisher also developed many research designs for hypothesis testing, both simple and complex, including the Latin squares design, as well as providing a classic description of inferential testing in the thought experiment called “the lady tasting tea.”
Psychometrics and Psychological Tests
Authors: Osterlind Steven J.
Published: January 2019

This chapter is devoted to describing the notables of psychometrics and psychological testing and how their efforts contributed to quantification. By this point, quantification is decidedly moving into realms of psychology and sociology. This chapter focuses on the largest evidence for this: educational testing and psychological testing. It addresses the very personal nature of such tests, and cites many kinds of such test, including in the cognitive behavioral and psychomotor domains. A very brief introduction to reliability and validity is given, with a focus on psychometric analyses. Most of the chapter is devoted to describing the contributions of four individuals who were instrumental to founding modern testing: Francis Galton, Wilhelm Wundt, James McKeen Cattell, and Alfred Binet.
The Arts and the Age of the Chip
Authors: Osterlind Steven J.
Published: January 2019

This chapter provides the capstone to this book’s argument that humankind has adopted quantification as a worldview. It describes how quantification has permeated our lives, far beyond just academic formulas to all domains, whether mathematical or otherwise. Examples are given first from the intersection of mathematics and art in da Vinci’s drawings. Next, the connection between mathematics and music is made, with a discussion of J. S. Bach’s The Well-Tempered Clavier and music theory’s circle of fifths. The chapter then provides an elementary explanation of artificial intelligence (or AI, as it is commonly known) with Bayesian logic, and a discussion of Nick Bostrom’s idea’s that the possibility of a computer having “superintelligence” poses a supreme danger to humanity. In addition, the chapter describes Max Tegmark’s innovative work in astrophysics and his belief in a wholly mathematical universe as part of a larger four-system multiverse.
The Sum of It All
Authors: Osterlind Steven J.
Published: January 2019

This concluding chapter reviews the long road to quantification, drawing especially on ideas introduced in Chapter 1, but also mentioning highlights from the other chapters. It considers two thought experiments, where a thought experiment is defined as an investigation into a scientific question that is carried out only in the imagination. The first is, suppose quantification had not taken place and we had not transformed our worldview to it. The second is, from our current quantified worldview, how we might evolve in the future? The chapter concludes with a quote from Shakespeare’s King Lear is given, describing a state of internal happiness.
Lovely LISA
Authors: Mee Nicholas
Published: January 2019

The European Space Agency (ESA) has plans to build a space-based gravitational wave detector known as LISA. The recent LISA Pathfinder mission has demonstrated that the technology required for LISA will be sufficiently sensitive to detect gravitational waves. LISA will detect events that are invisible to LIGO and other Earth-based gravitational wave detectors. These include the mergers of distant supermassive black holes.
Animated Atom Boy
Authors: Mee Nicholas
Published: January 2019

The concept of the atom dates back to the speculations of Democritus and other Ancient Greek philosophers, but it was only in modern times that atoms were shown to exist and physicists began to investigate their structure. Rutherford’s team in Manchester discovered the atomic nucleus and Rutherford proposed that atoms consist of a tiny positively charged nucleus surrounded by negatively charged orbiting electrons. Rutherford and his colleagues went on to discover the nucleus is composed of protons and neutrons. It is now possible to produce pictures of atoms using the scanning tunnelling microscope (STM) invented by Binnig and Rohrer.
Forces of the World Unite!
Authors: Mee Nicholas
Published: January 2019

The structure of matter and the forces that are important in particle physics are now understood in terms of the Standard Model, which is currently being tested at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC). Since the 1930s, physicists have used particle accelerators to investigate the structure of matter. Three forces are important in particle interactions, the strong force, the weak force and the electromagnetic force. The weak and electromagnetic forces are now recognized as two components of a unified electroweak force. The strong force and the electroweak force act on a small collection of fundamental particles that include quarks, the subcomponents of protons, neutrons and many other particles. The final missing piece of the Standard Model, the Higgs boson, was discovered by the LHC in 2012.
Alchemical Furnaces of the Cosmos
Authors: Mee Nicholas
Published: January 2019

The Sun and other stars generate energy by nuclear fusion processes that convert hydrogen into helium. Eddington was first to suggest the conversion of hydrogen into helium might fuel the stars. At the time stars were thought to have a composition similar to that of the Earth, which cast doubt on Eddington’s idea. Cecilia Payne corrected this misconception and showed the Sun and stars are actually formed of hydrogen and helium with only traces of other elements. Bethe and Crichfield devised mechanisms for how hydrogen nuclear fusion takes place in stars. In more massive stars, such as Betelgeuse, helium is converted into carbon and oxygen. We now know that all the elements beyond helium are created in the stars.
Diamonds in the Sky!
Authors: Mee Nicholas
Published: January 2019

After consuming their nuclear fuel, most stars lose their outer envelopes and all that remains is the collapsed core of the star, an object known as a white dwarf. Ever since Galileo pointed a telescope at the night sky, each advance in telescope making has resulted in sensational discoveries. Alvan Clark & Sons ground some of the biggest telescope lenses ever made. Alvan Graham Clark discovered Sirius B while testing one of these lenses. Eddington deduced that Sirius B has a size similar to that of the Earth, but with the mass of the Sun, and was an example of a new class of stars—white dwarfs. The easiest white dwarf to see with a telescope orbits the star Keid. In Star Trek, the planet Vulcan orbits the star Keid A.
From the Leviathan to the Behemoth
Authors: Mee Nicholas
Published: January 2019

The world’s biggest telescopes are reflectors and every increase in size has given us a new perspective on the universe. The Rosse telescope, built in the middle of the nineteenth century by Lord Rosse in County Offaly, Ireland, was nicknamed the Leviathan of Parsonstown. It was the world’s biggest telescope for over half a century. Rosse’s drawings of the celestial objects that he viewed through the telescope were widely circulated. His drawing of the Whirlpool Galaxy is thought to have inspired Van Gogh’s painting Starry Night. The European Southern Observatory (ESO) is now constructing the Extremely Large Telescope (ELT) in Chile. It will be the largest telescope in the world when completed.
The Crab and the Jellyfish
Authors: Mee Nicholas
Published: January 2019

Supernova explosions have been recorded as guest stars for thousands of years, but their true nature was only revealed in the twentieth century, largely through the work of Baade and Zwicky. Following Hubble’s determination of the distance to the Andromeda Galaxy, Baade and Zwicky established a new class of extremely bright stellar outburst that they named supernovae. They realized that such explosions in distant galaxies were comparable to the occasional guest star reported in the historical records including stars recorded by Tycho and Kepler. We now know that very large stars that have consumed their nuclear fuel may explode and produce a supernova. The star may be completed destroyed in the eruption or its core may collapse to form a neutron star or black hole.
The Ultimate Heavy Metal Space Rock
Authors: Mee Nicholas
Published: January 2019

Pulsars were discovered by Jocelyn Bell during her PhD research in 1967. Tommy Gold suggested these radio signals are generated by rapidly spinning neutron stars and was proved correct when a pulsar was identified in the Crab Nebula, which is the remnant of a supernova seen in 1054. The original signal detected by Bell has become a cultural icon since being used as the cover art for an album by rock band Joy Division.
Pan Galactic Gargle Blaster
Authors: Mee Nicholas
Published: January 2019

The sources of short gamma ray bursts (GRBs) have been identified with neutron star merger events. Hulse and Taylor discovered the first binary neutron star in 1974. By monitoring the pulsar in this system the orbital characteristics of the system have been determined with great accuracy. This has led to tests of general relativity, including the first confirmation of the existence of gravitational waves. The emission of this radiation is gradually bringing the two neutron stars together. They will collide and merge in about 300 million years.
Raise Your Glasses to the Skies!
Authors: Mee Nicholas
Published: January 2019

Many exoplanets have been discovered in recent years by searching for regular dips in brightness of a star as a planet passes across its face. NASA’s Kepler Space Telescope was launched to search for exoplanets using this planetary transit method. Kepler monitors 145,000 stars and has so far discovered over 2500 exoplanets. The planetary transit method has also been used to find a family of seven planets around a nearby red dwarf star that has been named TRAPPIST-1.
Life, But Not as We Know It!
Authors: Mee Nicholas
Published: January 2019

One of the biggest open questions is whether life is unique to Earth or whether it exists elsewhere. Science fiction authors have speculated about lifeforms that are very different to the life that we are familiar with. These speculations include silicon-based lifeforms on Star Trek, Fred Hoyle’s sentient Black Cloud and even nuclear lifeforms on neutron stars in the novel Dragon’s Egg. Several bodies in the Solar System have been proposed as possible homes to life. These include Mars and the satellites of Jupiter and Saturn, several of which are believed to have subsurface oceans. The most intriguing possibilities are Europa, Enceladus and Titan.
Where Is Everybody?
Authors: Mee Nicholas
Published: January 2019

With so many stars in the galaxy, it might be assumed there must be advanced alien civilizations out there somewhere, but Enrico Fermi pointed out that if this were the case we should have been visited long ago, yet there is no evidence that this has happened. This puzzle is known as the Fermi paradox. Several explanations have been proposed. One possibility is that advanced civilizations do arise, but rapidly disappear due to their self-destructive tendencies. Another possibility is the zoo hypothesis—the aliens are here, but do not reveal themselves. There is also the rare Earth hypothesis which claims the Earth has unique features required for the evolution of intelligent life, so we really are the first advanced civilization in the galaxy.
Advice to Christian Philosophers
Authors: Plantinga Alvin
Published: January 2019

In this foundational essay for recent Christian philosophy, Alvin Plantinga offers “advice” specifically to Christian philosophers and, by extension, to any religious philosophers who wish to find a way to integrate their faith with their philosophical practice. After considering philosophical challenges to Verificationism, Plantinga moves on to consider core issues in the epistemology of religious belief and philosophical anthropology. Plantinga defends the idea that Christians can legitimately start with their religious beliefs, rather than being required to begin with supposedly neutral or objective claims upon which their religious belief must be shown to depend. Drawing deeply on the theological framework of John Calvin, Plantinga concludes that Christian philosophers should display more autonomy, more integrity, and Christian courage in their philosophical work.
On Divine Dedication
Authors: Taliaferro Charles
Published: January 2019

This is a chapter on the nature, value, and scope of what is involved in dedications, both among persons and, ultimately, in dedicating something (or someone) to God. The relevant concepts in the philosophy of dedication are developed: the intentionality involved, the importance of sincerity, the notion of a dedicatory good, and so on. In ideal cases, a dedication honors both the donor and recipient of the dedication, and enhances the value and meaning of the object (thing, event, activity, or even the life of a person) donated. The chapter concludes with exploring what is involved in the dedication of time to the God of Christianity.