bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Teaching Conceptual Metaphors to EFL Learners in the European Space of Higher Education
Authors: Gutiérrez Pérez Regina
Published: January 2016

The CEFR encourages a more effective international communication. Given that effective communication in a L2 involves the ability to use metaphors, this figure becomes of prime importance to the teaching of languages. The present study applies a methodology for teaching English metaphors and idioms following the tenets of Cognitive Linguistics (CL). It argues the importance of “metaphoric competence”, and, by a conceptual metaphor awareness method, it advocates the usefulness of teaching metaphors and idioms and its explicit inclusion in a language syllabus aimed at increasing proficiency in L2. This conceptual basis for language is almost entirely unavailable to L2 learners in course books and reference materials. This paper reviews the scope of metaphor and metaphoric competence in the context of second-language teaching and learning, and provides some tips on how to teach metaphors and idioms effectively in a foreign language context. By analizing the systematicity and experiential basis of the expressions subject of study, it offers some pedagogical suggestions and teaching material that can facilitate the acquisition of idiomatic expressions by raising awareness of the conceptual metaphors that underlie them.
Estimation of Joint and Interface Parameters for the Finite Element Analysis of Jointed Concrete Pavement Using Structural Evaluation Results
Authors: Maitra Swati Roy , Reddy K. S. , Ramachandra L. S.
Published: January 2016

In the analysis of jointed concrete pavement, it is necessary to appropriately model certain aspects of the pavement for accurate estimation of its structural responses. These include load transfer at joints (doweled and aggregate interlocked) and interface condition between slab and foundation. This paper presents a backcalculation method for estimating the joint parameters, both transverse and longitudinal, and the interface parameter along with the pavement layer moduli by using the results of structural evaluation of an in-service concrete pavement. The details of the structural evaluation using Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD) and the two-stage backcalculation procedure using a three-dimensional finite element (FE) model for jointed concrete pavement are discussed. Modulus of dowel support and modulus of interlocking joints are the transverse and longitudinal joint parameters respectively and the coefficient of friction between concrete slab and foundation is the interface parameter considered for the analysis. These parameters are the useful inputs in modeling jointed concrete pavement using finite element method.
Floodplain of the Orlice River (Eastern Bohemia, Czech Republic): The Natural Centre of Biodiversity
Authors: Vávra Michal
Published: January 2016

The article presents the main results of a field research carried out between 2012 and 2014. It is a comparison case study of vegetation diversity of pools and dead-end branches of the Orlice River in Eastern Bohemia, Czech Republic. The actual state of wetland vegetation is being compared to data from literature that is several decades old. Botanical survey was conducted in the study area located between the town of Hradec Králové and parishes of Malšovice, Malšova Lhota a Svinary. The research confirmed that dead-end river branches and oxbow lakes form potential refugia of biodiversity of vascular plants in the landscape context of the river area despite the fact that the River Orlice was fully regulated in the urban area of Hradec Králové and the surrounding parishes in the past. Nevertheless, the river area is of a natural character there and belongs to the Nature Park of Orlice since 1996. The local ecosystems are also a part of the important locality of the River Orlice and Elbe. The total of 449 taxons of vascular plants (on the level of species and sub-species) and species rich associations of aquatic and wetland plants were recorded in the study area. Conservation of the water regime in the fluvial landscape and suitable regulation interventions against some spreading invasive species are crucial for the continuing existence of the precious species composition. For this reason the article also includes some management steps.
Role of Plant Dominants on Abandoned Tailings Containment from Manganese-Ore Maining in Chvaletice, Eastern Bohemia, Czech Republic (Overview of Long-Term Case Studies)
Authors: Štefánek Michal
Published: January 2016

During long-term research (almost forty years) of tailings containment in Chvaletice (Eastern Bohemia) were also carried out studies on the role of each plant dominants in succession. This review presents the most interesting results of these studies.
Technical and Physical Activities of Small-Sided Games in Young Korean Soccer Players
Authors: Joo Chang H. , Hwang-Bo Kwan , Jee Haemi
Published: January 2016

Joo, CH, Hwang-Bo, K, and Jee, H. Technical and physical activities of small-sided games in young Korean soccer players. J Strength Cond Res 30(8): 2164–2173, 2016—The aim of this study was to examine the technical aspects and physical demands during small-sided games (SSGs) with different sized pitches in young Korean soccer players. Participants were randomly selected during a nationally held youth competition. Three different game formats were used: SSG8 (8 vs. 8 played on a small-sized field [68 × 47 m]), RSG8 (8 vs. 8 played on a regular-sized field [75 × 47 m]), and RSG11 (11 vs. 11 played on a regular-sized field). Eleven technical (ball touches, passes, and shots) and 6 physical demand variables (exercise frequency by intensity) were observed and analyzed. Same variables were also analyzed for the goalkeepers. As a result, SSG8 and RSG8 showed significantly greater numbers of technical plays in 5 and 4 variables in comparison to RSG11, respectively. In addition, although the exercise intensities increased slightly in both SSG formats, the amount was within the similar range as previous reports. In conclusion, the SSGs with reduced number of players may be referred in young players to effectively train them in technical aspects of the game by allowing greater ball exposure time without excessive physical demands. Various confounding factors such as pitch dimension should be carefully considered for training specific technical and physical variables in young Korean players.
Physical Characteristics Underpinning Lunging and Change of Direction Speed in Fencing
Authors: Turner Anthony , Bishop Chris , Chavda Shyam , Edwards Mike , Brazier Jon , Kilduff Liam P.
Published: January 2016

Turner, A, Bishop, C, Chavda, S, Edwards, M, Brazier, J, Kilduff, LP. Physical characteristics underpinning lunging and change of direction speed in fencing. J Strength Cond Res 30(8): 2235–2241, 2016—Lunge velocity (LV) and change of direction speed (CODS) are considered fundamental to success during fencing competitions; investigating the physical characteristics that underpin these is the aim of this study. Seventy fencers from the British Fencing National Academy took part and on average (±SD) were 16.83 ± 1.72 years of age, 178.13 ± 8.91 cm tall, 68.20 ± 9.64 kg in mass, and had 6.25 ± 2.23 years fencing experience. The relationship between anthropometric characteristics (height, arm span, and adductor flexibility) and measures of lower-body power (bilateral and unilateral countermovement jump height and reactive strength index) were examined in their ability to influence LV and CODS. In testing the former, fencers lunged (over a self-selected distance) to and from a force plate, where front leg impact and rear leg propulsive force were quantified; the lunging distance was divided by time to establish LV. Change of direction speed was measured over 12 m involving shuttles of between 2 and 4 m. Results revealed that LV and CODS averaged at 3.35 m·s−1 and 5.45 seconds, respectively, and in both cases, standing broad jump was the strongest predictor (r = 0.51 and −0.65, respectively) of performance. Rear leg drive and front leg impact force averaged at 14.61 N·kg−1 and 3 times body weight, respectively, with single leg jumps revealing an asymmetry favoring the front leg of 9 ± 8%. In conclusion, fencers should train lower-body power emphasizing horizontal displacement, noting that this seems to offset any advantage one would expect fencers of a taller stature to have. Also, the commonly reported asymmetry between legs is apparent from adolescence and thus also requires some attention.
Metabolic Demand and Internal Training Load in Technical-Tactical Training Sessions of Professional Futsal Players
Authors: Wilke Carolina F. , Ramos Guilherme P. , Pacheco Diogo A.S. , Santos Weslley H.M. , Diniz Mateus S.L. , Gonçalves Gabriela G.P. , Marins João C.B. , Wanner Samuel P. , Silami-Garcia Emerson
Published: January 2016

Wilke, CF, Ramos, GP, Pacheco, DAS, Santos, WHM, Diniz, MSL, Gonçalves, GGP, Marins, JCB, Wanner, SP, and Silami-Garcia, E. Metabolic demand and internal training load in technical-tactical training sessions of professional futsal players. J Strength Cond Res 30(8): 2330–2340, 2016—The aim of the study was to characterize aspects of technical-tactical training sessions of a professional futsal team. We addressed 4 specific aims: characterize the metabolic demands and intensity of these training sessions, compare the training intensity among players of different positions, compare the intensity of different futsal-specific activities (4 × 4, 6 × 4, and match simulation), and investigate the association between an objective (training impulse; TRIMP) and a subjective method (session rating of perceived exertion; sRPE) of measuring a player's internal training load. Twelve top-level futsal players performed an incremental exercise to determine their maximal oxygen consumption, maximal heart rate (HRmax), ventilatory threshold (VT), and respiratory compensation point (RCP). Each player's HR and RPE were measured and used to calculate energy expenditure, TRIMP, and sRPE during 37 training sessions over 8 weeks. The average intensity was 74 ± 4% of HRmax, which corresponded to 9.3 kcal·min−1. The players trained at intensities above the RCP, between the RCP and VT and below the VT for 20 ± 8%, 28 ± 6%, and 51 ± 10% of the session duration, respectively. Wingers, defenders, and pivots exercised at a similar average intensity but with different intensity distributions. No difference in intensity was found between the 3 typical activities. A strong correlation between the average daily TRIMP and sRPE was observed; however, this relationship was significant for only 4 of 12 players, indicating that sRPE is a useful tool for monitoring training loads but that it should be interpreted for each player individually rather than collectively.
Interval Running Training Improves Cognitive Flexibility and Aerobic Power of Young Healthy Adults
Authors: Venckunas Tomas , Snieckus Audrius , Trinkunas Eugenijus , Baranauskiene Neringa , Solianik Rima , Juodsnukis Antanas , Streckis Vytautas , Kamandulis Sigitas
Published: January 2016

Venckunas, T, Snieckus, A, Trinkunas, E, Baranauskiene, N, Solianik, R, Juodsnukis, A, Streckis, V, and Kamandulis, S. Interval running training improves cognitive flexibility and aerobic power of young healthy adults. J Strength Cond Res 30(8): 2114–2121, 2016—The benefits of regular physical exercise may well extend beyond the reduction of chronic diseases risk and augmentation of working capacity, to many other aspects of human well-being, including improved cognitive functioning. Although the effects of moderate intensity continuous training on cognitive performance are relatively well studied, the benefits of interval training have not been investigated in this respect so far. The aim of the current study was to assess whether 7 weeks of interval running training is effective at improving both aerobic fitness and cognitive performance. For this purpose, 8 young dinghy sailors (6 boys and 2 girls) completed the interval running program with 200 m and 2,000 m running performance, cycling maximal oxygen uptake, and cognitive function was measured before and after the intervention. The control group consisted of healthy age-matched subjects (8 boys and 2 girls) who continued their active lifestyle and were tested in the same way as the experimental group, but did not complete any regular training. In the experimental group, 200 m and 2,000 m running performance and cycling maximal oxygen uptake increased together with improved results on cognitive flexibility tasks. No changes in the results of short-term and working memory tasks were observed in the experimental group, and no changes in any of the measured indices were evident in the controls. In conclusion, 7 weeks of interval running training improved running performance and cycling aerobic power, and were sufficient to improve the ability to adjust behavior to changing demands in young active individuals.
Muscle Activation Patterns During Different Squat Techniques
Authors: Slater Lindsay V. , Hart Joseph M.
Published: January 2016

Slater, LV, and Hart, JM. Muscle activation patterns during different squat techniques. J Strength Cond Res 31(3): 667–676, 2017—Bilateral squats are frequently used exercises in sport performance programs. Lower extremity muscle activation may change based on knee alignment during the performance of the exercise. The purpose of this study was to compare lower extremity muscle activation patterns during different squat techniques. Twenty-eight healthy, uninjured subjects (19 women, 9 men, 21.5 ± 3 years, 170 ± 8.4 cm, 65.7 ± 11.8 kg) volunteered. Electromyography (EMG) electrodes were placed on the vastus lateralis, vastus medialis, rectus femoris, biceps femoris, and the gastrocnemius of the dominant leg. Participants completed 5 squats while purposefully displacing the knee anteriorly (AP malaligned), 5 squats while purposefully displacing the knee medially (ML malaligned) and 5 squats with control alignment (control). Normalized EMG data (MVIC) were reduced to 100 points and represented as percentage of squat cycle with 50% representing peak knee flexion and 0 and 99% representing fully extended. Vastus lateralis, medialis, and rectus femoris activity decreased in the medio-lateral (ML) malaligned squat compared with the control squat. In the antero-posterior (AP) malaligned squat, the vastus lateralis, medialis, and rectus femoris activity decreased during initial descent and final ascent; however, vastus lateralis and rectus femoris activation increased during initial ascent compared with the control squat. The biceps femoris and gastrocnemius displayed increased activation during both malaligned squats compared with the control squat. In conclusion, participants had altered muscle activation patterns during squats with intentional frontal and sagittal malalignment as demonstrated by changes in quadriceps, biceps femoris, and gastrocnemius activation during the squat cycle.
Functional Movement Screening Performance of Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu Athletes From Brazil: Differences Considering Practice Time and Combat Style
Authors: Del Vecchio Fabrício Boscolo , Gondim Denis Foster , Arruda Antonio Carlos Pereira
Published: January 2016

Boscolo Del Vecchio, F, Foster, D, and Arruda, A. Functional movement screening performance of Brazilian jiu-jitsu athletes from Brazil: differences considering practice time and combat style. J Strength Cond Res 30(8): 2341–2347, 2016—Brazilian jiu-jitsu (BJJ) is a grappling combat sport that athletes, lying (guard fighter) or kneeling (pass fighter) on the mat, attempt to force their opponents to submit. Brazilian jiu-jitsu practices may result in muscular imbalances, which increase the risk of injury. Instead, the Functional Movement Screen (FMS) is an evaluation routine that could be related to injury incidence and seeks to detect muscular imbalance and movement dysfunction. Thus, the aim of the study was to investigate the injury profile and the FMS score and their relationship, with consideration for the BJJ fight style. Sports injuries were recorded in the last 12 months of 33 BJJ athletes, and the statistical analyses were applied to a routine evaluation FMS and a score of 14 points or less was considered low performance in FMS. We used a logistic regression; the effect size (ES) was calculated, and 5% was assumed as the statistical significance level. Pass fighters showed a higher percentage of injuries on the thorax (24.24%) than did guard fighters (6.67%, p = 0.01). Upper limbs were the most injured part of the body (χ2 = 36.7; p < 0.001), and they were 79% of the injuries that occurred in training sessions (χ2 = 14.53; p < 0.001). Despite the lack of statistical differences in the FMS performance between guard and pass fighters (t = 1.97; p = 0.05), its magnitude was considered medium (ES = 0.77). There was an association between FMS and presence of injury (χ2 = 4.95; p = 0.03). Considering the FMS score as a predictor and the presence or absence of injury as the dependent variable, the data met a Wald coefficient of 4.55, p = 0.03 and Exp (B) = 5.71. The study found that almost half of the sample had injuries in the upper limbs and a quarter had injuries in the lower limbs in the last year. A poor FMS score was observed, and lower scores in the FMS were associated with a higher risk of injury in BJJ athletes.
Autoregulating Jump Performance to Induce Functional Overreaching
Authors: Claudino João G. , Cronin John B. , Mezêncio Bruno , Pinho João P. , Pereira Conrado , Mochizuki Luis , Amadio Alberto C. , Serrão Julio C.
Published: January 2016

Claudino, JG, Cronin, JB, Mezêncio, B, Pinho, JP, Pereira, C, Mochizuki, L, Amadio, AC, and Serrão, JC. Autoregulating jump performance to induce functional overreaching. J Strength Cond Res 30(8): 2242–2249, 2016—The purpose of this study was to determine whether autoregulating jump performance using the minimal individual difference (MID) associated with countermovement jump (CMJ) height could be used to regulate and monitor a training phase that elicited functional overreaching and tapering in team sport athletes. The participants were familiarized with the jump and then the CMJ height reliability was quantified to determine the MID. Countermovement jump height was assessed in the pretesting session (T0), at the end of 4 weeks of intensified training (T1), and after 2 weeks of tapering (T2). Eighteen national level U17 male futsal players were randomly allocated into the regulated group (RG; n = 9) and the control group (CG; n = 9). The RG performed 6 weeks of training with the training load regulated by mean height of CMJ with MID, whereas the CG performed the preplanned training. The differences between groups and across time points were compared by a 2-way analysis of variance. In the RG, the MID loading was increased in weeks 3 and 4 (8.2 and 14.5%, respectively; p < 0.001) compared with the preplanned loading of the CG during the overreaching phase. In the jump results, the RG significantly (p ≤ 0.05) reduced CMJ height during T1 (effect size [ES] = −0.31; 95% confidence interval [CI]: −0.58 to −0.02); however, there were no significant changes in the CG jump height at T1 and T2. At T2, the RG significantly increased CMJ height above baseline (ES = 0.30; 95% CI: 0.09 to 0.51). Researchers and practitioners could use this autoregulating method to regulate and monitor training load to achieve functional overreaching in youth futsal players.
Similarities and Differences in Pacing Patterns in a 161-km and 101-km Ultra-Distance Road Race
Authors: Tan Philip L.S. , Tan Frankie H.Y. , Bosch Andrew N.
Published: January 2016

Tan, PLS, Tan, FHY, and Bosch, AN. Similarities and differences in pacing patterns in a 161-km and 101-km ultra-distance road race. J Strength Cond Res 30(8): 2145–2155, 2016—The purpose of this study was to establish and compare the pacing patterns of fast and slow finishers in a tropical ultra-marathon. Data were collected from the Craze Ultra-marathon held on the 22nd and 21st of September in 2012 and 2013, respectively. Finishers of the 161-km (N = 47) and 101-km (N = 120) categories of the race were divided into thirds (groups A–C) by merit of finishing time. Altogether, 17 and 11 split times were recorded for the 161-km and 101-km finishers, respectively, and used to calculate the mean running speed for each distance segment. Running speed for the first segment was normalized to 100, with all subsequent splits adjusted accordingly. Running speed during the last 5 km was calculated against the mean race pace to establish the existence of an end spurt. A reverse J-shaped pacing profile was demonstrated in all groups for both distance categories and only 38% of the finishers executed an end spurt. In the 101-km category, in comparison with groups B and C, group A maintained a significantly more even pace (p = 0.013 and 0.001, respectively) and completed the race at a significantly higher percent of initial starting speed (p = 0.001 and 0.001, respectively). Descriptive data also revealed that the top 5 finishers displayed a “herd-behavior” by staying close to the lead runner in the initial portion of the race. These findings demonstrate that to achieve a more even pace, recreational ultra-runners should adopt a patient sustainable starting speed, with less competitive runners setting realistic performance goals whereas competitive runners with a specific time goal to consider running in packs of similar pace.
Physiological Demands of Competitive Sprint and Distance Performance in Elite Female Cross-Country Skiing
Authors: Carlsson Magnus , Carlsson Tomas , Wedholm Lars , Nilsson Mattias , Malm Christer , Tonkonogi Michail
Published: January 2016

Carlsson, M, Carlsson, T, Wedholm, L, Nilsson, M, Malm, C, and Tonkonogi, M. Physiological demands of competitive sprint and distance performance in elite female cross-country skiing. J Strength Cond Res 30(8): 2138–2144, 2016—The purpose was to investigate the relationship between elite females' competitive performance capability in sprint and distance cross-country skiing and the variables of gross efficiency (GE), work rate at the onset of blood-lactate accumulation (OBLA4mmol), maximal oxygen uptake (V̇o
2max), maximal speed (Vmax), and peak upper-body oxygen uptake (V̇o
2peak). Ten elite female cross-country skiers (age 24.5 ± 2.8 years) completed treadmill roller-skiing tests to determine GE, OBLA4mmol, and V̇o
2max using the diagonal-stride technique as well as Vmax and V̇o
2peak using the double-poling technique. International Ski Federations ranking points for sprint (FISsprint) and distance (FISdist) races were used as competitive performance data. There were correlations between the FISsprint and the V̇o
2max expressed absolutely (p = 0.0040), Vmax (p = 0.012), and V̇o
2peak expressed absolutely (p < 0.001) and as a simple ratio-standard (p = 0.049). The FISdist were correlated with OBLA4mmol (p = 0.048), V̇o
2max expressed absolutely (L·min−1) (p = 0.015) and as a simple ratio-standard (p = 0.046), and V̇o
2peak expressed absolutely (p = 0.036) and as a simple ratio-standard (ml·min−1·kg−1) (p = 0.040). The results demonstrate that the physiological abilities reflected by V̇o
2max and V̇o
2peak are indicators of competitive sprint and distance performance in elite female cross-country skiing. In addition, the ability to generate a high Vmax indicates the performance in sprint races, whereas the skier's OBLA4mmol reflects the performance capability in distance races. Based on the results, when evaluating the performance capacity of elite female cross-country skiers, it is recommended to use physiological variables that reflect competitive performance.
Barefoot Running Reduces the Submaximal Oxygen Cost in Female Distance Runners
Authors: Berrones Adam J. , Kurti Stephanie P. , Kilsdonk Korey M. , Cortez Delonyx J. , Melo Flavia F. , Whitehurst Michael
Published: January 2016

Berrones, AJ, Kurti, SP, Kilsdonk, KM, Cortez, DJ, Melo, FF, and Whitehurst, M. Barefoot running reduces the submaximal oxygen cost in female distance runners. J Strength Cond Res 30(8): 2348–2353, 2016—Being a competitive distance runner is, in part, attributable to a high V̇o
2max. However, running economy (RE) is a more robust indicator of distance running performance among endurance athletes of similar V̇o
2max levels. The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of unshod (barefoot) vs. shod (wearing shoes) running on RE (expressed as ml·kg−1·min−1) during three 5-minute submaximal running trials representing 65, 75, and 85% of V̇o
2max. Other physiologic and perceptual variables such as respiratory exchange ratio, lactate, heart rate, and ratings of perceived exertion were also chosen as dependent variables. We measured V̇o
2max in 14 recreationally active trained distance female runners (age = 27.6 ± 1.6 years; height = 163.3 ± 1.7 cm; weight = 57.8 ± 1.9 kg) who were completely inexperienced with unshod running. After initial testing, each subject was randomized to either unshod or shod for days 2 and 3. We analyzed the data with a 2-way (condition by intensity) repeated-measures analysis of variance. Submaximal oxygen consumption was significantly reduced at 85% of V̇o
2max (p = 0.018), indicating an improvement in RE, but not during the 65% or 75% trials (p > 0.05, both). No other dependent measure was different between unshod and shod conditions. Our results indicate that the immediate improvement to RE while barefoot occurs at a relatively high fraction of maximal oxygen consumption. For the recreational or competitive distance runner, training or competing while barefoot may be a useful strategy to improve endurance performance.
Comparison of Two Types of Warm-Up Upon Repeated-Sprint Performance in Experienced Soccer Players
Authors: van den Tillaar Roland , von Heimburg Erna
Published: January 2016

van den Tillaar, R and von Heimburg, E. Comparison of two types of warm-up upon repeated-sprint performance in experienced soccer players. J Strength Cond Res 30(8): 2258–2265, 2016—The aim of the study was to compare the effects of a long warm-up and a short warm-up upon repeated-sprint performance in soccer players. Ten male soccer players (age, 21.9 ± 1.9 years; body mass, 77.7 ± 8.3 kg; body height, 1.85 ± 0.03 m) conducted 2 types of warm-ups with 1 week in between: a long warm-up (20 minutes: LWup) and a short warm-up (10 minutes: SWup). Each warm-up was followed by a repeated-sprint test consisting of 8 × 30 m sprints with a new start every 30th second. The best sprint time, total sprinting time, and % decrease in time together with heart rate, lactate, and rate of perceived exertion (RPE) were measured. No significant differences in performance were found for the repeated-sprint test parameters (total sprint time: 35.99 ± 1.32 seconds [LWup] and 36.12 ± 0.96 seconds [SWup]; best sprint time: 4.32 ± 0.13 seconds [LWup] and 4.30 ± 0.10 seconds [SWup]; and % sprint decrease: 4.16 ± 2.15% [LWup] and 5.02 ± 2.07% [SWup]). No differences in lactate concentration after the warm-up and after the repeated-sprint test were found. However, RPE and heart rate were significantly higher after the long warm-up and the repeated-sprint test compared with the short warm-up. It was concluded that a short warm-up is as effective as a long warm-up for repeated sprints in soccer. Therefore, in regular training, less warm-up time is needed; the extra time could be used for important soccer skill training.
Caffeine Attenuates Decreases in Leg Power Without Increased Muscle Damage
Authors: Ribeiro Beatriz G. , Morales Anderson P. , Sampaio-Jorge Felipe , Barth Thiago , de Oliveira Marcio B.C. , Coelho Gabriela M.d.O. , Leite Tiago C.
Published: January 2016

Ribeiro, BG, Morales, AP, Sampaio-Jorge, F, Barth, T, de Oliveira, MBC, Coelho, GMdO, and Leite, TC. Caffeine attenuates decreases in leg power without increased muscle damage. J Strength Cond Res 30(8): 2354–2360, 2016—Caffeine ingestion has been shown to be an effective ergogenic aid in several sports. Caffeine administration may increase exercise capacity, which could lead to a greater degree of muscle damage after exercise. This was a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover study. Six male handball athletes ingested placebo (PLA) or caffeine (CAF) (6 mg·kg−1 body mass) capsules on 2 different occasions. Sixty minutes after ingestion of the capsules, serum CAF levels were evaluated. Thereafter, all participants performed a protocol of vertical jumps (VJs). The protocol consisted of 4 sets of 30 seconds of continuous VJs with 60 seconds of recovery between sets. Blood lactate (LAC) and creatine kinase (CK) levels were determined before and after the protocol. We found significant differences in serum CAF levels between PLA (0.09 ± 0.18 µg·ml−1) vs. CAF (6.59 ± 4.44 µg·ml−1) (p < 0.001). Caffeine elicited a 5.23% (p ≤ 0.05) improvement in the leg power compared with PLA. The CAF trial displayed higher LAC (p ≤ 0.05) compared with PLA (6.26 ± 2.01 vs. 4.39 ± 2.42 mmol·L−1, respectively) after protocol of VJs, whereas no difference in CK was observed between trials (p > 0.05). These results indicate that immediate ingestion of CAF (6 mg·kg−1 body weight) can reduce the level of muscle fatigue and preserve leg power during the test, possibly resulting in increase in LAC. There was no increase in muscle damage, which indicates that immediate administration of (6 mg·kg−1 body weight) CAF is safe. Thus, nutritional interventions with CAF could help athletes withstand a greater physiological overload during high-intensity training sessions. The results of this study would be applicable to sports and activities that require repetitive leg power.
Movement Profiles, Match Events, and Performance in Australian Football
Authors: Johnston Richard J. , Watsford Mark L. , Austin Damien J. , Pine Matthew J. , Spurrs Robert W.
Published: January 2016

Johnston, RJ, Watsford, ML, Austin, D, Pine, MJ, and Spurrs, RW. Movement profiles, match events, and performance in Australian football. J Strength Cond Res 30(8): 2129–2137, 2016—This study examined the relationship between movement demands, match events, and match performance in professional Australian football. Data were collected from 19 players using global positioning system units during 2 Australian Football League seasons. A range of movement demands and instantaneous power measures were collected. The players were divided into high-caliber (HC, ≥17/20) and low-caliber (LC, ≤8/20) groups based on the rating score by their coaches. A Mann-Whitney U-test, independent samples t-test, and effect sizes were used to determine whether any differences existed between the 2 groups. The HC group had a significantly higher match duration (7.2%), higher total distance (9.6%), and covered more distance and spent more time high-speed running per minute (12.7 and 11.9%). Although not significant, the effect sizes revealed that the HC group tended to have a higher mean metabolic power output (2.6%) and spent more time at the high power zone (7.9%). For the match event data, the HC group had significantly more involvements with the football. The results demonstrated the higher physical demands placed on the HC group. The findings suggest that analyzing instantaneous power measures can provide valuable information about the physical demands placed on team sport athletes to coaches and conditioning staff.
Heart Rate and Energy Expenditure in Division I Field Hockey Players During Competitive Play
Authors: Sell Katie M. , Ledesma Allison B.
Published: January 2016

Sell, KM and Ledesma, AB. Heart rate and energy expenditure in Division I field hockey players during competitive play. J Strength Cond Res 30(8): 2122–2128, 2016—The purpose of this study was to quantify energy expenditure and heart rate data for Division I female field hockey players during competitive play. Ten female Division I collegiate field hockey athletes (19.8 ± 1.6 years; 166.4 ± 6.1 cm; 58.2 ± 5.3 kg) completed the Yo-Yo intermittent endurance test to determine maximal heart rate. One week later, all subjects wore a heart rate monitor during a series of 3 matches in an off-season competition. Average heart rate (AvHR), average percentage of maximal heart rate (AvHR%), peak exercise heart rate (PExHR), and percentage of maximal heart rate (PExHR%), time spent in each of the predetermined heart rate zones, and caloric expenditure per minute of exercise (kcalM) were determined for all players. Differences between positions (backs, midfielders, and forwards) were assessed. No significant differences in AvHR, AvHR%, PExHR, PExHR%, and %TM were observed between playing positions. The AvHR% and PExHR% for each position fell into zones 4 (77–93% HRmax) and 5 (>93% HRmax), respectively, and significantly more time was spent in zone 4 compared with zones 1, 2, 3, and 5 across all players (p ≤ 0.05). The kcalM reflected very heavy intensity exercise. The results of this study will contribute toward understanding the sport-specific physiological demands of women's field hockey and has specific implications for the duration and schedule of training regimens.
Changes in Contributions of Swimming, Cycling, and Running Performances on Overall Triathlon Performance Over a 26-Year Period
Authors: Figueiredo Pedro , Marques Elisa A. , Lepers Romuald
Published: January 2016

Figueiredo, P, Marques, EA, and Lepers, R. Changes in contributions of swimming, cycling, and running performances on overall triathlon performance over a 26-year period. J Strength Cond Res 30(9): 2406–2415, 2016—This study examined the changes in the individual contribution of each discipline to the overall performance of Olympic and Ironman distance triathlons among men and women. Between 1989 and 2014, overall performances and their component disciplines (swimming, cycling and running) were analyzed from the top 50 overall male and female finishers. Regression analyses determined that for the Olympic distance, the split times in swimming and running decreased over the years (r
2 = 0.25–0.43, p ≤ 0.05), whereas the cycling split and total time remained unchanged (p > 0.05), for both sexes. For the Ironman distance, the cycling and running splits and the total time decreased (r
2 = 0.19–0.88, p ≤ 0.05), whereas swimming time remained stable, for both men and women. The average contribution of the swimming stage (∼18%) was smaller than the cycling and running stages (p ≤ 0.05), for both distances and both sexes. Running (∼47%) and then cycling (∼36%) had the greatest contribution to overall performance for the Olympic distance (∼47%), whereas for the Ironman distance, cycling and running presented similar contributions (∼40%, p > 0.05). Across the years, in the Olympic distance, swimming contribution significantly decreased for women and men (r
2 = 0.51 and 0.68, p < 0.001, respectively), whereas running increased for men (r
2 = 0.33, p = 0.014). In the Ironman distance, swimming and cycling contributions changed in an undulating fashion, being inverse between the two segments, for both sexes (p < 0.01), whereas running contribution decreased for men only (r
2 = 0.61, p = 0.001). These findings highlight that strategies to improve running performance should be the main focus on the preparation to compete in the Olympic distance; whereas, in the Ironman, both cycling and running are decisive and should be well developed.
Effect of Vitamin D Supplementation on Training Adaptation in Well-Trained Soccer Players
Authors: Jastrzębska Maria , Kaczmarczyk Mariusz , Jastrzębski Zbigniew
Published: January 2016

Jastrzębska, M, Kaczmarczyk, M, and Jastrzębski, Z. Effect of vitamin D supplementation on training adaptation in well-trained soccer players. J Strength Cond Res 30(9): 2648–2655, 2016—There is growing body of evidence implying that vitamin D may be associated with athletic performance, however, studies examining the effects of vitamin D on athletic performance are inconsistent. Moreover, very little literature exists about the vitamin D and training efficiency or adaptation, especially in high-level, well-trained athletes. The purpose of the current study was to investigate the effect of vitamin D supplementation on training adaptation in well-trained football players. The subjects were divided into 2 groups: the placebo group (PG) and the experimental group (SG, supplemented with vitamin D, 5,000 IU per day). Both groups were subjected to High Intensity Interval Training Program. The selection to the groups was based on peak power results attained before the experiment and position on the field. Blood samples for vitamin D level were taken from the players. In addition, total work, 5, 10, 20, and 30 m running speed, squat jump, and countermovement jump height were determined. There were no significant differences between SG and PG groups for any power-related characteristics at baseline. All power-related variables, except the 30 m sprint running time, improved significantly in response to interval training. However, the mean change scores (the differences between posttraining and pretraining values) did not differ significantly between SG and PG groups. In conclusion, an 8-week vitamin D supplementation in highly trained football players was not beneficial in terms of response to High Intensity Interval Training. Given the current level of evidence, the recommendation to use vitamin D supplements in all athletes to improve performance or training gains would be premature. To avoid a seasonal decrease in 25(OH)D level or to obtain optimal vitamin D levels, the combination of higher dietary intake and vitamin D supplementation may be necessary.
Acute Citrulline-Malate Supplementation and High-Intensity Cycling Performance
Authors: Cunniffe Brian , Papageorgiou Maria , O'Brien Barbara , Davies Nathan A. , Grimble George K. , Cardinale Marco
Published: January 2016

Cunniffe, B, Papageorgiou, M, O'Brien, B, Davies, NA, Grimble, GK, and Cardinale, M. Acute citrulline-malate supplementation and high-intensity cycling performance. J Strength Cond Res 30(9): 2638–2647, 2016—Dietary L-citrulline-malate (CM) consumption has been suggested to improve skeletal muscle metabolism and contractile efficiency, which would be expected to predispose exercising individuals to greater fatigue resistance. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of CM supplementation on acid-base balance and high-intensity exercise performance. In a double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study, 10 well-trained males consumed either 12 g of CM (in 400 ml) or lemon sugar-free cordial (placebo [PL]) 60 minutes before completion of 2 exercise trials. Each trial consisted of subjects performing 10 (×15 seconds) maximal cycle sprints (with 30-second rest intervals) followed by 5 minutes recovery before completing a cycle time-to-exhaustion test (TTE) at 100% of individual peak power (PP). Significant increases in plasma concentrations of citrulline (8.8-fold), ornithine (3.9-fold), and glutamine (1.3-fold) were observed 60 minutes after supplementation in the CM trial only (p ≤ 0.05) and none of the subjects experienced gastrointestinal side-effects during testing. Significantly higher exercise heart rates were observed in CM condition (vs. PL) although no between trial differences in performance related variables (TTE: [120 ± 61 seconds CM vs. 113 ± 50 seconds PL]), PP or mean power, ([power fatigue index: 36 ± 16% CM vs. 28 ± 18% PL]), subjective rating of perceived exertion or measures of acid-base balance (pH, lactate, bicarbonate, base-excess) were observed (p > 0.05). This study demonstrated that acute supplementation of 12 g CM does not provide acute ergogenic benefits using the protocol implemented in this study in well-trained males.
Passive Recovery Promotes Superior Performance and Reduced Physiological Stress Across Different Phases of Short-Distance Repeated Sprints
Authors: Scanlan Aaron T. , Madueno Maria C.
Published: January 2016

Scanlan, AT and Madueno, MC. Passive recovery promotes superior performance and reduced physiological stress across different phases of short-distance repeated sprints. J Strength Cond Res 30(9): 2540–2549, 2016—Limited research has examined the influence of recovery modalities on run-based repeated-sprint (RS) performance with no data available relative to the sprint phase. This study compared run-based RS performance across various sprint phases and underlying physiological responses between active and passive recoveries. Nine students (21.8 ± 3.6 years; 171.3 ± 6.4 cm; 72.8 ± 12.2 kg) completed 2 bouts (active and passive recoveries) of 10 × 20 m sprints interspersed with 30 s recoveries in a randomized crossover fashion. Sprint times and decrements were calculated for each split (0–5, 5–15, 15–20, and 0–20 m) across each sprint. Blood lactate concentration ([BLa−]), heart rate (HR), and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) were measured at various time-points. Passive recovery promoted improved performance times (p ≤ 0.005) and decrements (p ≤ 0.045) across all splits, and lower post-test [BLa−] (p ≤ 0.005), HR (bout 3 onwards) (p ≤ 0.014), and RPE (bout 4 onwards) when compared with active recovery. Performance differences between recoveries were less pronounced across the 0–5 m split. Temporal analyses showed significant (p ≤ 0.05) increases in sprint times and decrements primarily with active recovery. The present data indicate that passive recovery promoted superior performance across run-based RS, with earlier performance deterioration and greater physiological load evident during active recovery. These findings can aid the manipulation of interbout activity across RS drills to promote physiological overload and adaptation during training. Further, coaches may develop tactical strategies to overcome the detrimental effects of active recovery and optimize sprint performance in athletes during game-play.
Off-Ice Anaerobic Power Does Not Predict On-Ice Repeated Shift Performance in Hockey
Authors: Peterson Ben J. , Fitzgerald John S. , Dietz Calvin C. , Ziegler Kevin S. , Baker Sarah E. , Snyder Eric M.
Published: January 2016

Peterson, BJ, Fitzgerald, JS, Dietz, CC, Ziegler, KS, Baker, SE, and Snyder, EM. Off-ice anaerobic power does not predict on-ice repeated shift performance in hockey. J Strength Cond Res 30(9): 2375–2381, 2016—Anaerobic power is a significant predictor of acceleration and top speed in team sport athletes. Historically, these findings have been applied to ice hockey although recent research has brought their validity for this sport into question. As ice hockey emphasizes the ability to repeatedly produce power, single bout anaerobic power tests should be examined to determine their ability to predict on-ice performance. We tested whether conventional off-ice anaerobic power tests could predict on-ice acceleration, top speed, and repeated shift performance. Forty-five hockey players, aged 18–24 years, completed anthropometric, off-ice, and on-ice tests. Anthropometric and off-ice testing included height, weight, body composition, vertical jump, and Wingate tests. On-ice testing consisted of acceleration, top speed, and repeated shift fatigue tests. Vertical jump (VJ) (r = −0.42; r = −0.58), Wingate relative peak power (WRPP) (r = −0.32; r = −0.43), and relative mean power (WRMP) (r = −0.34; r = −0.48) were significantly correlated (p ≤ 0.05) to on-ice acceleration and top speed, respectively. Conversely, none of the off-ice tests correlated with on-ice repeated shift performance, as measured by first gate, second gate, or total course fatigue; VJ (r = 0.06; r = 0.13; r = 0.09), WRPP (r = 0.06; r = 0.14; r = 0.10), or WRMP (r = −0.10; r = −0.01; r = −0.01). Although conventional off-ice anaerobic power tests predict single bout on-ice acceleration and top speed, they neither predict the repeated shift ability of the player, nor are good markers for performance in ice hockey.
Examining the External Training Load of an English Premier League Football Team With Special Reference to Acceleration
Authors: Akenhead Richard , Harley Jamie A. , Tweddle Simon P.
Published: January 2016

Akenhead, R, Harley, J, and Tweddle, S. Examining the external training load of an English Premier League football team with special reference to acceleration. J Strength Cond Res 30(9): 2424–2432, 2016—Practitioners and coaches often use external training load variables such as distance run and the number of high-speed running (HSR) activities to quantify football training. However, an important component of the external load may be overlooked when acceleration activities are not considered. The aim of this study was to describe the within-microcycle distribution of external load, including acceleration, during in-season 1-game weeks in an elite football team. Global Positioning System technology was used to collect time-motion data from 12 representative 7-day microcycles across a competitive season (48 training days, 295 data sets). Training time, total distance (TD), high-speed running (HSR) distance (>5.8 m·s−1), sprint running distance (>6.7 m·s−1) and acceleration variables were recorded during each training session. Data were analysed for interday and interposition differences using mixed linear modeling. The distribution of external load was characterized by the second training day of the microcycle (5 days prematch) exhibiting the highest values for all variables of training load, with the fourth day (1 day prematch) exhibiting the lowest values. Central midfield players covered ∼8–16% greater TD than other positions excluding wide midfielders (p ≤ 0.03, d = 0.2–0.4) and covered ∼17% greater distance accelerating 1–2 m·s−2 than central defenders (p = 0.03, d = 0.7). When expressed relative to training duration and TD, the magnitude of interday and interposition differences were markedly reduced (p = 0.03, d = 0.2–0.3). When managing the distribution of training load, practitioners should be aware of the intensity of training sessions and consider the density of external load within sessions.
Neuronal Modulation in the Prefrontal Cortex in a Transitive Inference Task: Evidence of Neuronal Correlates of Mental Schema Management
Authors: Brunamonti Emiliano , Mione Valentina , Di Bello Fabio , Pani Pierpaolo , Genovesio Aldo , Ferraina Stefano
Published: January 2016

When informed that A > B and B > C, humans and other animals can easily conclude that A > C. This remarkable trait of advanced animals, which allows them to manipulate knowledge flexibly to infer logical relations, has only recently garnered interest in mainstream neuroscience. How the brain controls these logical processes remains an unanswered question that has been merely superficially addressed in neuroimaging and lesion studies, which are unable to identify the underlying neuronal computations. We observed that the activation pattern of neurons in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) during pair comparisons in a highly demanding transitive inference task fully supports the behavioral performance of the two monkeys that we tested. Our results indicate that the PFC contributes to the construction and use of a mental schema to represent premises. This evidence provides a novel framework for understanding the function of various areas of brain in logic processes and impairments to them in degenerative, traumatic, and psychiatric pathologies.

SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENTIn cognitive neuroscience, it is unknown how information that leads to inferential deductions are encoded and manipulated at the neuronal level. We addressed this question by recording single-unit activity from the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex of monkeys that were performing a transitive inference (TI) task. The TI required one to choose the higher ranked of two items, based on previous, indirect experience. Our results demonstrated that single-neuron activity supports the construction of an abstract, mental schema of ordered items in solving the task and that this representation is independent of the reward value that is experienced for the single items. These findings identify the neural substrates of abstract mental representations that support inferential thinking.