bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Jurists and Theologians
Authors: Raphael D D
Published: November 2023

A history of the concept of justice would include much of interest from Roman law and from patristic and scholastic philosophy. I know little of those fields of learning but I must mention a few salient points.

The corpus of Roman law that was consolidated by direction of the Emperor Justinian includes a dictum of the jurist Ulpian (third century AD) that had become the standard definition of justice:lustitia est constans et perpetua voluntas ius suum cuique tribuendi(‘Justice is the constant and permanent will to render to each person what is his right’). Earlier instances of the idea speak simplyof suum cuique tribuere(‘rendering to each person what is his’); Cicero uses the phrase on several occasions. Ulpian’s definition summarizes the task of a judge in disputes of civil law, and I imagine that this is what was originally intended. One can, however, stretch the shorter formulation to cover the judicial task in criminal trials, too, if one understandssuum (‘what is his’) to mean ‘his due’ and to include ‘what he deserves’ as well as ‘what is owed to him’. The definition is, of course, a bare form. If it is a sow1d definition it will embrace all instances of justice, but it does not tell us how it is to be applied: it does not specify what makes a particular good (or a particular evil as a punishment) thesuumof a particular individual in such and such circumstances. Still, it serves a useful purpose in encapsulating the judge’s function within a concept that analyses the simple, vague term ‘justice’.
Hastings Rashdall
Authors: Raphael D D
Published: November 2023

In the history of utilitarianism Sidgwick’s elaboration of the classical theory was followed by a version which held that happiness is not the sole intrinsic good. The exponents of this view were G. E. Moore inPrincipia Ethica(1903) andEthics(1912), and Hastings Rashdall inThe TheoryofGood and Evil(1907). Both acknowledged the influence of Sidgwick on their thought. Rashdall gave his theory the name of Ideal Utilitarianism and this term has been used by later scholars to describe the theory of Moore too, though Moore himself did not use it.
David Miller
Authors: Raphael D D
Published: November 2023

David Miller’s Social Justice was published in 1976, a few years after John Rawls’sA Theory of Justice,but I think it is appropriate to discuss Miller first. The main substance of his book was written before Rawls’sTheoryappeared, and while Miller added in the published version an account of Rawls, with critical discussion, he saw no grow1ds to doubt or modify his own contribution to the subject. Another, more cogent, reason for considering Miller’s views first is that they continue the line of tradition that I have traced in the preceding chapters of this book; in particular, they follow on naturally from Perelman’s treatment. I do not think that Miller was at all influenced by Perelman, but his account is in fact of the samegenre,though much more thorough, and his conclusions turn out to be similar to Perelman’s in giving a sociological explanation for the differences in the prominent notions of justice. But whereas Perelman did not explicitly acknowledge, or perhaps recognize, the sociological character of his conclusion, Miller moves into sociology deliberately and with scholarly examination of relevant sociological writings.
Eighteen twelve and after
Authors: Westwood J N
Published: November 2023

In his War and Peace, Tolstoy portrayed the 1812 war against Napoleon as one of those rare moments in Russian history when almost all people, serfs and lords, merchants and bureaucrats, put aside their mutual suspicions and realized that they were all Russians. The new unity was not quite as flawless as that, but Russia, sometimes called ‘a state without a people’, did seem to act as one nation for a few precious months, and never quite forgot the experience.
1905
Authors: Westwood J N
Published: November 2023

To say that Nicholas II lacked the personal defects required of an effective leader would be excessively kind. All the same, this was a man of great courtesy and consideration for others, a man of modesty, an exemplary father, and a good husband. But family happiness has never yet saved a dynasty. The lives of Nicholas and Alexandra were tragic because both had endearing qualities and both found themselves playing roles for which they were quite unfitted.
Consolidation and ossiﬁcation
Authors: Westwood J N
Published: November 2023

Despite the suffering, the war years were in one sense easier years because, as in 1812, the state and the people grew closer. At the end of the war there was a more relaxed atmosphere, which Russians hoped would continue. Instead, there was a return to the old ways. Unlike most of the other ex-belligerents, the USSR turned its back on change and returned to the 1930s. The western influences that had penetrated during the war were one of the prime objects of attack. ‘Soviet patriotism’, which resembled Russian chauvinism, was propagandized at the same time as western books, films, music (especially jazz), and technical or social achievements were vilified. In a 1947 admonition to Soviet writers, Zhdanov expressed himself in terms worthy of Nicholas I’s publicists:
Shocks and therapies
Authors: Westwood J N
Published: November 2023

The 1989 census had indicated that 51 per cent or 147,386,000 of the USSR’s population lived in the Russian Republic. The next biggest republic, the Ukrainian, contained 18 per cent, and the other republics had much smaller populations. With the exception of the three Baltic states and Georgia, the former union republics had agreed in late 1991 to form the Commonwealth of Independent States.
Introduction to Part I
Authors: House Jim , Macmaster Neil
Published: November 2023

One of the central problems that is explored in Part I is how and why particular forms of state repression and counter-insurgency which were developed in colonial North Africa were imported and adapted to the conditions existing in metropolitan France.
Papon and the Colonial Origins of Police Violence
Authors: House Jim , Macmaster Neil
Published: November 2023

In March 1958 the French government, faced with a crisis in the Paris police force, flew Maurice Papon from Algeria into the capital to provide strong leadership to the Prefecture of Police and to accelerate the battle against the Front de libération nationale. During the remaining four years of the Algerian War Papon was the architect of a novel and far-reaching police and intelligence system. The purpose of this chapter is to examine the origins of this ‘Papon System’ by following the career of the Prefect from Vichy through the politically unstable years of the Fourth Republic. The aim is not to provide a comprehensive biography of Papon but to take note of those key experiences through which he built up expertise in counter-insurgency and, in particular, techniques for the policing of minority populations and nationalist insurgents that he would adapt later to the Paris context. Secondly, throughout this period (c.1940–58), Papon shared the traditional culture of the prefectoral corps which, as loyal servants of the Republic, affected to stand independent of party politics.
The FLN Counter-State and Police Repression, 1958–1961
Authors: House Jim , Macmaster Neil
Published: November 2023

In March 1958 the government of Félix Gaillard was shaken by serious unrest within the ranks of the Paris police force, a crisis that led to the removal of the Prefect of Police Lahillone and his replacement by Maurice Papon. On Thursday 13 March a mass rally to protest about failure to pay a ‘danger bonus’ got out of hand and some 2,000 officers, incited and led by right-wing elements, marched from the Prefecture to the National Assembly shouting, ‘Dides au pouvoir!’, ‘Fellagas assassins!’, and anti-Semitic slogans. The Palais Bourbon was invaded and the session of parliament had to be suspended. An emergency Cabinet meeting the following day appointed Papon as Prefect of Police on the recommendation of the Interior Minister, Bourgès-Maunoury.
The Police Crisis and Terror, July to 16 October 1961
Authors: House Jim , Macmaster Neil
Published: November 2023

By the summer of 1961 the Algerian War was reaching a tense and critical phase, with negotiations between the French government and the Gouvernement provisoire de la République algérienne (GPRA) at Évian (20 May to 13 June) and Lugrin (20–8 July). The ongoing talks and the prospect of Algerian independence, far from creating a situation in which both sides could readily agree to a cessation of hostilities, a reduction in armed conflict and loss of life so as to establish a positive ambience for negotiation, generated a phase of profound political instability in which both sides were riven by internal divisions.
Introduction to Part II
Authors: House Jim , Macmaster Neil
Published: November 2023

As Part I showed, the repression of 17 October 1961 represented the paroxysm of routinized state violence carried over and adapted into the metropolitan sphere. We also saw that Papon was relatively successful in working around the potential limits due legal process placed on repressive intervention and circumvented opposition within sectors of the state apparatus and among elected officials. This routinization of state violence also stemmed from the long-term absence of influential counter-balances within civil society. This absence is a key issue for the historian seeking to understand the reactions to anti-Algerian repression after 17 October, and the short and longer term impact of such reactions relating in particular to the memorial afterlives of the events.
Fragmented Reactions to State Violence, September–November 1961
Authors: House Jim , Macmaster Neil
Published: November 2023

Analysts have tended to assume that, because the events of 17 October soon largely disappeared from political and media debate, this must have been because there had been few protest reactions at the time. As we shall see, the picture in late 1961 was rather more complex, with the tensions and power relations already highlighted in the previous chapter resulting in the marginalization of the FLN, a fragmented left, and public opinion hostile to Algerians. The analysis now turns to the impact of these factors on the forms and levels of reactions to anti-Algerian repression that culminated on 17 October.
The Marginalization of 17 October 1961(1961–1968)
Authors: House Jim , Macmaster Neil
Published: November 2023

This chapter discusses further key developments that contributed to the political marginalization of the October events. To do so, we need to extend the time-scale after October 1961 to include the five-month period of greater anti-fascist unity on the left separating 17 October from Charonne (8 February 1962). This allows for a clearer understanding of the context in which the Charonne killings—and the reactions to them—took place, and a firmer assessment of the markedly more significant protests after Charonne than after 17 October. The analysis then follows the impact of the decision by the Communist left to commemorate Charonne, a politically charged investment that further eclipsed the visibility of 17 October, giving the two events very different afterlives.
Emergent Memories, 1980–1997?
Authors: House Jim , Macmaster Neil
Published: November 2023

This chapter assesses how and why the visibility of the events of 17 October gradually resurfaced in political and media debate between 1980 and 1997, in the light of political and social developments in both France and Algeria. Whereas in the 1960s and 1970s, low-level transmission of memory regarding 17 October took place mostly on an inter-personal basis within the family or radical left organizations and movements, in the 1990s, building on the impact of the antiracist movements of the 1980s that saw descendants of Algerian migrants emerge as significant collective political actors in France, new groups formed with a strategy of bringing the memories of 17 October onto the public stage. Their aim was to formulate specific demands for official recognition, truth, and justice and to transmit an awareness of 17 October to wider sectors of French society.
Pleasures
Authors: Hendy David
Published: November 2023

So much campaigning, so many years of complaining. Sometimes it was easy to forget that for most listeners, most of the time, the pleasures to be gained from Radio Four outweighed all the irritations. They did, after all, stick with it. Sometimes they expressed their utter devotion to it. Even for producers who could see nothing but bureaucracy, penny-pinching, and job losses all around them at the BBC, Radio Four still offered a place where good programmes survived and new ones might be conjured up from time to time. So after describing all the provocations and the rows, there is a need to redress the balance.
Empire Families
Authors: Buettner Elizabeth
Published: November 2023

What was life like for the British men, women, and children who lived in late imperial India while serving the Raj? Empire Families treats the Raj as a family affair and examines how, and why, many remained linked with India over several generations. Due to the fact that India was never meant for permanent European settlement, many families developed deep-rooted ties with India while never formally emigrating. Their lives were dominated by long periods of residence abroad punctuated by repeated travels between Britain and India: childhood overseas followed by separation from parents and education in Britain; adult returns to India through careers or marriage; furloughs, and ultimately retirement, in Britain. As a result, many Britons neither felt themselves to be rooted in India, nor felt completely at home when back in Britain. Their permanent impermanence led to the creation of distinct social realities and cultural identities. Empire Families sets out to recreate this society by looking at a series of families, their lives in India, and their travels back to Britain. Focusing for the first time on the experiences of parents and children alike, and including the Beveridge, Butler, Orwell, and Kipling families, Elizabeth Buettner uncovers the meanings of growing up in the Raj and an itinerant imperial lifestyle.
Long Periods
Authors: Gee Austin
Published: November 2023

Abalain, Hervé. Le Pays de Galles: Identité, modernité [Wales: Identity, Modernity] (Crozon: Éditions Armeline, 2000), 300p.Anderson, David. ‘John Muir birthplace, Dunbar’ [history of the site at 126–28 High Street], Transactions of the East Lothian Antiquarian and Field Naturalists’ Society 24 (2000), 1–7.Andrews, D.D. (ed.) ‘Historic buildings notes and surveys 1998’, Essex Archaeology and History 3rd ser. 30 (1999), 232–49.Aughton, Peter. Bristol: a people’s history (Lancaster: Carnegie, 2000), vi, 266p.
England 1066–1500 A: General
Authors: Crouch David
Published: November 2023

Ambrisco, A.S. ‘Cannibalism and cultural encounters in Richard Coeur de Lion’, Journal of Medieval and Early Modern Studies29:3 (1999), 499–528.Britnell, Richard H. ‘Introduction’ [Daily life in the middle ages], A23, 1–4. 941. Hallam, Elizabeth (ed.) Chronicles of the age of chivalry(London: Salamander, 2000), 320p. [Brief extracts from chronicles with brief essays on varied subjects.]Higgins, Iain Macleod. Writing east: the ‘travels’ of Sir John Mandeville(Philadelphia (PA): University of Pennsylvania Press, 1997), ix, 335p.Morley, Beric M.; Miles, Daniel W.H. ‘Nave roof, chest and door of the church of St Mary, Kempley, Gloucestershire: dendrochronological dating’, Antiquaries Journal80 (2000), 294–6.
Britain 1815–1914
Authors: Taylor miles
Published: November 2023

Briggs, Asa.‘Britain 1900’, History Today 50:12 (2000), 31–37. 2633. Davis, John. ‘Modern London’, A210, 125–50.Ifans, Dafydd. ‘Francis Kilvert and Wales’, Transactions of the Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion ns 6 (1999), 66–89.Clinton, Catherine (ed.) Fanny Kemble’s journals(Cambridge (MA): Harvard University Press, 2000), 201p.Knox, William W. The industrial nation: work, culture and society in Scotland, 1800–present (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1999), xv, 368p.Matthew, Colin. ‘Introduction: the United Kingdom and the Victorian century, 1815–1901’ [The nineteenth century: the British Isles 1815–1901], A145, 1–40.Matthew, Colin. ‘Conclusion: fin-de-siècle ’, A145, 293–99.Pugh, Martin. Britain since 1789: a concise history (Basingstoke and New York: Macmillan and St Martin’s Press, 1999), x, 254p. [1st published as Storia della Gran Bretagna, 1789–1990(Roma: La Nuova Italia Scientifica, 1997).]
Medieval Wales
Authors: Pryce Huw
Published: November 2023

Arnold, Christopher J.; Davies, Jeffrey L. Roman and early medieval Wales (Stroud: Sutton, 2000), viii, 216p.Davies, R. Rees. ‘Owain Glyn Dŵr a’i apêl’ [Owain Glyn Dwr and his appeal], Y Traethodydd155 (2000), 198–209.Davies, R. Rees. ‘Shakespeare’s Glendower and Owain Glyn Dŵ r’, The Historian[London] 66 (2000), 22–25.Jones, John Gwynfor. ‘Owain Glyndŵr a gwrthryfel y Cymry 1400–1415’ [Owain Glyndwr and the revolt of the Welsh 1400–1415], Taliesin 110 (2000), 24–40.White, Richard. ‘Caernarfon and the origins of the kingdoms of Gwynedd’, Caernarvonshire Historical Society Transactions 61 (2000), 23–39.Wyatt, David. ‘Gruffudd ap Cynan and the Hiberno-Norse world’, Welsh History Review 19:4 (1999), 595–617.
Ireland To c .1640
Authors: Davis Virginia
Published: November 2023

Altholz, Josef L. (ed.) Selected documents in Irish history(London: M.E. Sharpe, 2000), viii, 152p.Archaeological inventory of County Cork, volume 4 (Dublin: Stationery Office, 2000).Duffy, Seán; et al. Atlas of Irish history (Dublin: Gill & Macmillan, 1997), 144p.Ivic, Christopher. ‘Incorporating Ireland: cultural conflict in Holinshed’s Irish Chronicles ’, Journal of Medieval and Early Modern Studies 29:3 (1999), 473–98.Lydon, James. ‘Historical revisit: Edmund Curtis, A history of medieval Ireland(1923, 1938)’, Irish Historical Studies31(1999),535–48.
Ireland Since c .1640
Authors: Cunningham Bernadette
Published: November 2023

Anonymous. ‘Major accessions to repositories relating to Irish history, 1997 and 1998’, Irish Historical Studies31 (1999), 558–61.Anonymous. ‘Public Record Office of Northern Ireland: recent accessions of interest to the social and economic historian’, Irish Economic and Social History 27 (2000), 75–76.Brennan, Michael. Dearc Fhearna its history and environs: Dunmore caves an epitome of local history (Ballyfoyle: The author, 2000), 64p.Browne, Bernard. Living by the pen: a biographical dictionary of County Wexford authors (Old Ross: The author, 1997), iv, 168p.Canavan, Tony. ‘The profession of history: the public and the past’, A188, 226–41.
Empire To 1783
Authors: Bowen H V
Published: November 2023

Appiah, Kwame Anthony; Gates, Henry Louis (Jr.) (eds.) Africana: the encyclopedia of the African and African American experience (New York: Basic Civitas Books, 1999), xxxvii, 2095p.Armitage, David. ‘The British conception of Empire in the eighteenth century’, A6, 91–107.Bailyn, Bernard. ‘The first British empire: from Cambridge to Oxford. An essay-review of The Oxford History of the British Empire, volume I: The Origins of Empire: British Overseas Enterprise to the Close of the Seventeenth Century, and volume II: The Eighteenth Century’, William and Mary Quarterly 57:3 (2000), 647–59.Bowen, H.V. ‘400 years of the East India Company’, History Today 50:7 (2000), 47–53.
Dryden and Pope
Authors: Ricks Christopher
Published: November 2023

Augustan poetry is remarkable for its literary allusion; the poetry creates meanings, comprehends judgements, and animates experiences, by bringing into play other works of literature and their very words. This is ‘the Poetry of Allusion’, to cite the subtitle of Reuben Brower’s Alexander Pope.1 I should like to consider the implications of J. B. Broadbent’s words: ‘Literary allusion can be a lesson in the abuse of authority, as well as in the generous spending of an inheritance. We need an essay on “The poet as heir”.’2
Plagiarism
Authors: Ricks Christopher
Published: November 2023

When the President—the previous President—of the British Academy invited me to give this lecture, I took up the terms in which he had written, and proposed the subject of plagiarism: ‘It relates to “scholarly debate”; it has “general public interest”; and I even like the dark thought that it’s something “the Academy exists to promote” …’. Judge then of my pleasure when, in his Presidential Address for 1997, the President announced that the lecture would be ‘on “Plagiarism”, not a subject which the Academy exists to promote, but one in which we all have an interest’.1
University Life
Authors: Caine Barbara
Published: November 2023

Although they are closely associated with the world of established English universities, particularly Cambridge, the Stracheys, unlike the families of some of Lytton’s close friends, the Stephens, for example, or the Keynes, had no traditional connection with the English universities. One or two Stracheys with a particular interest in mathematics had gone to Cambridge in the sixteenth or seventeenth centuries, but they were rare exceptions. Until the second half of the nineteenth century, British universities with their largely classical curriculum offered little to a family interested primarily in science, engineering, and imperial administration.
Work, Income, and Changing Career Patterns
Authors: Caine Barbara
Published: November 2023

The changing social status of the Strachey family, particularly the decline from the landed origins of his parents in the eighteenth century to their professional upper middle-class position in the nineteenth, was a subject of great interest and some regret to Lytton Strachey. He was impressed by the energy and the will evident in his parents and their contemporaries, but disliked their values, their taste, and many aspects of their way of life—symbolized as it was for him by the family’s massive, ‘portentous’, ugly, and inconvenient house at 69 Lancaster Gate.
Introduction
Authors: Barber Alex
Published: November 2023

Because it has no established usage, the phrase ‘epistemology of language’ can suggest any of a number of different agendas. But speaking broadly, there seem to be two levels at which epistemology bears on language.
Grasping Objects and Contents
Authors: Elugardo Reinaldo , Stainton Robert J
Published: November 2023

Imagine Andrew walks into a room, holds up a cigarette, and says ‘From France’ to Sylvia. We think it is obvious that, in this case, Andrew could easily convey a proposition. Let us agree that Andrew communicates, about the cigarette, that it is from France. A singular proposition. He can do this because, as will be obvious to both Andrew and Sylvia, what Andrew means clearly is not the property λx. from-France(x). How could he mean that? Thus, to treat him as co-operating, Sylvia must ﬁnd a proposition meant, and the most obvious one is precisely this singular proposition. Supposing that what is communicated is this proposition, consider now what expression was produced.
Ignorance of Meaning
Authors: Segal Gabriel
Published: November 2023

An argument is available to demonstrate that the cognitive content a subject associates with a term differs from the term’s Burgean social content. I show that the same argumentative strategy can be used to argue that cognitive content is holistic. After defending this application of the strategy, I discuss the ramifications of this holistic conclusion for both first-personal knowledge and scientific knowledge of meaning.
What is the Acquisition Argument?
Authors: Miller Alexander
Published: November 2023

Semantic realism, as I shall understand it in this paper, is the combination of the views (1) that sentential understanding is constituted by grasp of truth conditions and (2) that the notion of truthwhich figures therein is essentially epistemically unconstrained. In a single slogan, understanding a sentence consists in some cases in grasp of potentially recognition-transcendent truth conditions. For example, a semantic realist about the past holds that our understanding of ‘Caesar sneezed fifteen times on his 19th birthday’ consists in grasp of its truth condition,where this is capable of obtaining even though there is no guarantee that we shall be able, even in principle, to recognize that that is so.
Crucial Factors in the Origins of Word-Meaning
Authors: Steels L , Kaplan F , Mcintyre A , Looveren J Van
Published: November 2023

We have been conducting large-scale public experiments with artificial robotic agents to explore what the necessary and sufficient prerequisites are for word-meaning pairs to evolve autonomously in a population of agents through a self-organized process. We focus not so much on the question of why language has evolved, but rather on how. There are many good reasons to use language once it has come into existence; for example, for establishing and maintaining group coherence, for transmission of cultural knowledge such as tool use, etc. But these reasons only explain why verbal behaviour is reinforced. They do not explain how this verbal behaviour might emerge or become complex. Our hypothesis is that when agents engage in particular interactive behaviours that in turn require specific cognitive structures, they automatically arrive at a language system. This interactive behaviour should be a natural outgrowth of co-operative behaviour (if this were not the case, the behaviour would be unlikely to emerge),
Creations of Pre-Modern Human Minds: Stone Tool Manufacture and Use by Homo habilis, heidelbergensis, and neanderthalensis
Authors: Mithen Steven
Published: November 2023

Modern humans, Homo sapiens, first appear in the fossil record 130,000 years ago in East Africa. By 100,000 years ago their skeletal remains are found in Southern Africa and the Near East. During the next 60,000 years they colonize the Old World, seeming to reach Australia by 55,000 years ago and Europe by 40,000 years ago. Quite when they entered the Americas remains unclear; some archaeologists believe there is evidence for occupation at least 30,000 years ago, but others place colonization closer to 12,500 years ago.
Introduction
Authors: Kershaw Ian
Published: November 2023

Nazi social aims were extraordinarily ambitious. They amounted to no less than a revolution in attitudes and values, a transformation of subjective consciousness more than of objective realities. The German people were to be mobilized in the cause of the nation through the replacing of all class, religious, or regional allegiances by massively intensified national self-awareness. Given the depth of the cleavages in German society, only briefly overcome in the patriotic euphoria of 1914, a movement aiming to ‘educate’ national unity into the people would inevitably have to employ a high level of manipulation coupled with an even higher degree of repression of unbending, ‘nonconformist’ attitudes.
Reactions to the Persecution of the Jews
Authors: Kershaw Ian
Published: November 2023

The significance of the Jewish Question for the ‘broad mass’ of the German population in the Third Reich is a complex issue which has prompted frequent speculative generalization but little systematic exploration. Alongside the apologetic, much heard in Germany since the end of the war, that the persecution of the Jews could be put down to the criminal or insane fixations of Hitler and the gangster clique of top Nazis around him in the face of widespread disapproval by the mass of Germans in so far as they knew and understood what was going on, exists the counter-generalization, favoured by some Jewish historians, of a German people thirsting for a ‘war against the Jews’, in which anti-Semitism, based on a centuries-old tradition of persecution, played a central role in providing Hitler’s support from the German people and in motivating the popular adulation of the Fuhrer.
The Economic Pressures of War
Authors: Kershaw Ian
Published: November 2023

The nub of the Nazi social message was that Germany’s former class-ridden society had been replaced by a class- and status-transcending ‘national community’ (Volksgemeinschaft), where the only differences between equal members of the nation were those resulting from ability and achievement. From what we saw in earlier chapters which explored the subjective responses of the peasantry, the working class, and varied sections of the middle class, the most obvious propaganda failure of the Nazis was their inability, in the light of the social and economic reality of the Third Reich, to make this social message sound convincing.
Popular Opinion and the Extermination of the Jews
Authors: Kershaw Ian
Published: November 2023

The fate of Bavarian Jews after ‘Crystal Night’ mirrors closely that of Jews from other parts of the Reich. By the beginning of the war, following the massively accelerated emigration after the pogrom, some 10,000 Jews—less than a third of the Jewish population of 1933—remained in Bavaria (excluding the Palatinate ). The social isolation of these Jews was all but completed during the first war years.
Lord Cromer
Authors: Owen Roger
Published: November 2023

In the heyday of Empire just before the First World War, Lord Cromer was second only to Lord Curzon in fame and public esteem. In the days when Cairo and Calcutta represented the twin poles of British power in Asia and Africa, Cromer's commanding presence seemed to radiate the essential spirit of imperial rule. In this first modern biography Roger Owen charts the life of the man revered by the British and hated by the Egyptians, the real ruler of Egypt for nearly a quarter of a century. A member of the famous City banking family of Baring Brothers, Cromer in his youth seemed set to be, if not the black sheep of the family, distinguished mainly by lack of academic ability and a taste for the fashionable pursuits of his day. His first military posting, to Corfu, was welcomed by him on account of the excellent shooting to be had in the region. Roger Owen shows how, almost imperceptibly, his commitment to public service grew, due in part at least to his relationship with Ethel Errington who, after long delay, became his first wife. From the island outposts of the old British Empire, to India, the jewel in its crown, and finally to the new Empire in Africa, Cromer represented the might of Britain's Empire. Few imperial administrators had either his range of experience or his long practice of ruling different non-European peoples, at a time when the whole notion of Empire itself entered more and more into the metropolitan political debate. Roger Owen makes extensive use of Cromer's official correspondence, family papers, memoirs, and the personal letters of his friends and colleagues to explore all aspects of Cromer's life in imperial government. He examines his innovative role in international finance and his energetic re-engagement with Britain's troubled political life following his formal retirement in 1907. Finally, he assesses the sometimes bitter legacy of imperial rule left by Cromer.
Compound Pronouns :Other Person Categories Disqualified
Authors: Cysouw Michael
Published: November 2023

There is a recurrent claim in the literature that even more person categories are attested in the form of so-called COMPOUND PRONOUNS (Forchheimer 1953: 132-5; Hage’ge 1982: 112; Wiesemann 1986a: viii; Noyer 1997: 148-54). Compound pronouns are a special kind of compound made up from two personal pronominal elements. In some languages such pronominal compounds are (semi-)grammatical zed, which leads to very large pronominal paradigms. Some authors propose to interpret these compound pronouns on a par with the singular and plural pronouns: It seems as if there are three contrastive levels in the pronominal system: singular simple pronouns contrasting to plural simple pronouns; and plural simple pronouns contrasting to complex [compound] pronouns. (Voorhoeve 1967: 428)When these compound pronouns are included as part of person domain, this leads to extremely large paradigms of person. For example, when simple and compound pronouns are taken together, then there are up to nineteen different person markers in Ghomala’, a Grassfields language in Cameroon. This paradigm made Wiesemann claim that Ghomala’ has ‘the most complex pronoun system as far as person categories are concerned’ (Wiesemann 1986a: viii). However, I doubt whether these compound pronouns are really special person markers. In this chapter, I will review the available descriptions of such compound pronouns, only to conclude that they are indeed a special kind of pronoun (and not normal compounds) but that the claim for special person categories is rather weak. Until more specific descriptions of these compound pronouns become available, it seems best not to consider them as specific person markers.
The Diversity of Restricted Groups : A Survey of Dual Person Marking
Authors: Cysouw Michael
Published: November 2023

It has often been claimed that duals are most prominent in the marking of ‘we’. The oldest of these observations was made by Wilhelm von Humboldt in his paper on the dual: Some of these languages take the perspective of duality from the speaking and the addressed person, the I and YOU. In these languages, the dual is part of the pronoun and only extends into the rest of the language as far as the influence of the pronoun reaches; it is restricted sometimes to the pronoun of the first person plural only, to the concept of WE (von Humboldt 1994 [1827]: 156; my translation).Whether this is true or not (I will come back to Humboldt’s claim in Section 7.3.4), there is much more variation in the paradigmatic structure of dual marking in the pronominal domain, a variability for greater than Humboldt could acknowledge-given the available grammatical descriptions of his time. This chapter will mainly present a survey of this variability of linguistic structure, the facts that every theory of linguistic structure will have to deal with. This chapter starts off in Section 7.2 with a short note on terminology and on the method that is used to make a typology of the variation. Subsequently, the various forms of dual marking will be discussed. First, I will deal with paradigms that do not distinguish inclusive from exclusive in Section 7.3.
‘Honorable and Honoured Citizens’: War Veterans of the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Eras under the Second Empire
Authors: Hazareesingh Sudhir
Published: November 2023

ON 15 August 1866, the 1,100 inhabitants of the small village of Foix (Nord) awoke to the sound of Church bells ringing vigorously. As in every town and village in the country, the peals were marking the official celebration of the Saint-Napoleon, France’s national festivity, as well as the Catholic fete of the Assumption. For Dumont, the mayor of Foix, the day began normally enough with a distribution of bread and meat to the poorer members of his commune. The prefect of the Nord had sent a memorandum to remind him-not that he needed reminding-that the Emperor Napoleon III attached ‘special importance’ to the relief of the needy on 15 August. At mid-morning he welcomed the fonctionnaires and eminent citizens of the commune into the mairie. The municipal councillors, members of the Office of Charity, and the Medailles de Sainte-Helene, the former military servicemen of the First Republic and Empire, talked animatedly for a while, and then lined up in preparation for the traditional procession to Church.
Syllable Structure And Syllabification
Authors: Watson Janet C E
Published: November 2023

This chapter examines the syllable structure and syllabification of San’ani and Cairene. I begin by discussing the syllabic skeleton and present arguments in favour of moraic theory over X-slot (or onset–rhyme) theory. Within the consideration of syllable structure, I discuss the analysis of apparent CVCCC syllables in San’ani in view of the fact that syllables in Arabic are commonly held to be maximally bimoraic. I support the proposal that syllables in Arabic are maximally bimoraic and claim that CVCCC syllables in San’ani can be properly analysed as marked variants of CVCC syllables: the only two consonants which occur in final position in CVCCC syllables, t š , are exceptionally linked to a single conso-nant slot. Under syllabification, I consider four syllable-related processes in the dialects: epenthesis, glottal stop prosthesis, closed syllable shortening, and syn-cope. While syllable-related processes are strictly structure-preserving in Cairene, in San’ani, closed syllable shortening and syncope are not always structure-pre-serving: word-internal CVVC syllables are attested optionally in derived envir-onments, and syllables with initial clusters of up to three consonants—many of which disobey the Sonority Sequencing Principle—arise as a result of syncope. I demonstrate, however, that syllables are maximally bimoraic at the postlexical as well as the lexical level in San’ani as in Cairene, and that word-internal CVVC syllables in San’ani arise from Adjunction-to-Mora by which a syllable-final mora comes to dominate two constituents, VC, exceptionally (Broselow 1992: 14). In the case of derived initial consonant clusters, I argue that syncope frequently deletes the vowel of a syllable, but not the mora. Where the initial consonant (the consonant to the left of the syncopated vowel) is more sonorous than the following consonant (the consonant to the right of the syncopated vowel), the freed-up mora reassociates with the initial consonant; where the initial consonant is less sonorous than the following consonant, on the other hand, the mora is deleted together with the vowel. Thus, while only vowels are lexically stipulated as syllable peaks in San’ani, syllabic consonants arise post-lexically, particularly in word-initial position.
Anatomy of an Anxious Institution: Plague and Seasonality
Authors: Felling Margaret
Published: November 2023

Although founded in 151 8, the College was still, at the end of the sixteenth century, a comparatively new incorporation as a fully functioning entity, unsure of its ground and its relationships. Its records were kept both for public consumption and for self-justification. The College’s ‘privileges’ could not be taken for granted. As we shall sec repeatedly, its dealings with irregular practitioners virtually defined its institutional life and its connections with the outside world. In many respects of course, its appeals to statutes, and the verbatim records of examinations of irregulars, are little different in kind from the activities of the London craft companies. For the College, however, these proceedings were more individualized. ‘Test’ cases, a hazard for all occupational corporations, could pose a greater threat; the College’s chief sources of power, the crown and the Privy Council, could also be the chief sources.
Initiation and Pursuit: Sources of Information far a Capital in Flux
Authors: Felling Margaret
Published: November 2023

This chapter provides what is in effect a case-study of the powers of search exercised by early modern occupational corporations, especially as experienced by those under surveillance. But it is necessary to counteract any lingering impression that the College was well integrated in the wider world of work, or of its supervision, owing to its force as a regulatory body. We have seen that censorial activity dominated the life of the College, and went far towards defining it as an institution. However, as this chapter will make clear, a good proportion of this activity took place not because of the College’s assiduity in search, but because Londoners saw the College as a potential resource in the management of their own affairs. In what follows, we will seek to assess the significance of the censorial confrontation as an episode in the life of a practitioner and, in particular, how this confrontation might have come about.
Irregular Practitioners: A Wilderness of Mirrors
Authors: Felling Margaret
Published: November 2023

How typical was Brovaert of the irregular practitioners pursued by the College in London? As we shall sec, he was certainly typical in being male. It was probably of the majority in being relatively young, and, perhaps, at about 31, not as young as the College implied. He was not unusual either in pleading temporary necessity for his practice, and ignorance of the College’s authority was also a common plea. However, the comparative decorum and coherence of the confrontation between Brovaert and the College were closer to the ideal than the usual reality-and, indeed, the ensuing realities in the case of Brovaert.
Active Patients: Patrons and Parties to Contract
Authors: Felling Margaret
Published: November 2023

We have already, in previous chapters, found patients, potential and otherwise, and of varying social status, engaged in a range of activities monitoring, health-seeking, exercising patronage, making contracts, and seeking redress. The present chapter gives more direct attention to these activities. It has also been suggested that there is a danger of anachronism in viewing such patients inclividualisticalJy, as one half of a one-to-one patient-practitioner relationship. However tempting it might be, this is not a satisfactory way of redressing the balance in favour of the active early modern patient. Of course, even ‘passive’ patients merit historical attention; but the active patient has to be recognized as a historiographical construct as well as, arguably, a historical reality specific to certain times and places.
The Effects of Confrontation: Demeanour, Penalties, and Patronage
Authors: Felling Margaret
Published: November 2023

In earlier chapters, we have looked at both parties to the confrontation between College and irregular, and at how and why the confrontation arose. The natural desire of the observer, as of the College, is for a result, or at least for closure. However, we have also had to recognize the limits of the College’s connections with the wider world of London medicine, and with the structures of male authority, which make inconclusiveness the likelier outcome. In terms of the practice of medicine in London as a whole, we have seen that the irregulars were not fully representative, let alone fully inclusive. Even with respect to the irregulars as individuals, contemporary experience, and the historical record, would suggest that any legal or quasi-legal civil proceeding was likely to be open-ended. Thus, to ask what the outcorne was of the confrontations between the College and the irregulars is almost misconceived.
Introduction
Authors: Wheeler Max W
Published: November 2023

Catalan is a member of the Romance family of languages—modern forms of the Latin language which spread from Rome to much of Europe in the wake of the Roman empire around the beginning of our era. The territories where Catalan is natively spoken cover almost 60,000 km2, of which 96.2 per cent lies within Spain.
Word Phonology and Phonologically Conditioned Allomorphy
Authors: Wheeler Max W
Published: November 2023

Catalan participates in the areal phenomenon (along with Spanish, Basque, and some Occitan varieties) of voiced obstruent stop lenition. In Catalan the pattern usually described consists of voiced fricatives (or approximants) in onsets after continuant segments ([ +ont]), and voiced plosives in all other contexts (see details of these in (8)). In simple terms, /b/ has allophones [b] and [β], /d/ has allophones [d] and [ð], and /g/ has allophones [g] and [γ]. This allophonic distribution, traditionally labelled ‘lenition’, has received some attention in recent work on Catalan phonology, without, however, being the object of a detailed account. To introduce the analysis and interpretation offered here I set out a list (1) of eight issues in Catalan lenition that have arisen in treatments of Catalan phonology.
Comparative and Noncomparative Desert
Authors: Miller David
Published: November 2023

In this chapter I want to investigate to what extent and in what ways desert judgements involve comparisons between persons. When we say that someone deserves a benefit or a burden, either in order to defend the status quo or in order to advocate changing it so that the person referred to gets what he or she deserves, are we explicitly or implicitly comparing the subject of our judgement to others? This is not a question that admits of an easy answer. As we shall see, there are at least two dimensions along which we can interpret desert judgements either as comparative or as noncomparative, generating four possibilities altogether, and some of the perplexity that surrounds this most slippery of concepts may stem from running these different cases together.
The Olympic Village: A Redevelopment Marathon in Greater Athens
Authors: Delladetsima Pavlos-Marinos
Published: November 2023

The city of Athens will host the 2004 Olympic Games, and the city is currently (2002) under considerable preparatory stress. The Olympic Games are considered to be a turning-point for Athens-as well as for Greek society and the economy as a whole. They constitute both a major challenge and an exceptional shift in economic investment priorities and in the city’s social and organizational affairs.
Gambling Politics or Successful Entrepreneurialism? The Orestad Project in Copenhagen
Authors: Andersen John
Published: November 2023

Denmark is commonly regarded as a relatively egalitarian society. Although at the national level the relative strength of the Danish welfare regime serves to explain why the thesis of a general social polarization cannot be supported, there are important pockets of deprivation at the local level. In the Greater Copenhagen area, the inequality between affluent neighbourhoods dominated by owner-occupants and those with a high concentration of social housing units has grown in recent decades.
Essence, etc.*
Authors: Saussure Ferdinand de
Published: November 2023

As soon as one adopts an unambiguously instantaneous viewpoint, one inevitably realizes that nothing in a language state can be termed phonetic. However (1) each so-called phonetic fact which exists in the grammar of a language at a given moment is indeed phonetic if it is considered in comparison with another period (if one begins by formulating things in a quite different way). This however implies that we are no longer adopting the momentary perspective and are combining two viewpoints which should certainly not be combined.
Synchronic phonetic rules
Authors: Saussure Ferdinand de
Published: November 2023

A compound is formed from marut- and another word. A ‘phonetic’ rule governs the behaviour of the t. A compound is formed from dvI¯pin- and another word. A ‘morphological’ rule means that the starting point is dvI¯pi-, then a ‘phonetic’ rule governs the behaviour of the i.
Actual ‘parole’ and potential ‘parole’
Authors: Saussure Ferdinand de
Published: November 2023

It is the opposite of parallelism or potential parole, or a group of elements created and associated in the mind, or the system within which an element has an abstract existence among other potential elements. Any type of vocal element (and as we shall see, any type of morphological element) is inherently bound to exist within two systems: one in which it is definable with respect to what follows and precedes, and one in which it is definable with respect to .
Index21*
Authors: Saussure Ferdinand de
Published: November 2023

The basic form of a judgement ‘this is that’ is open to countless criticisms, because of the need to say in relation to what ‘this’ or ‘that’ is identified and determined, no object being naturally bounded or given, and no object evidencing being. This general uncertainty may be dispelled by setting out the four forms of existence of langue.