bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Taking Away the Voting Powers from Controlling Shareholders: Evidence from the Chinese Securities Market
Authors: Yao Yi , Xu Li , Liu Zhiyuan
Published: August 2010

The main agency problem in the Chinese economy comes from a conflict between strong controlling shareholders and weak minority shareholders. In such economy, seasonal equity offerings (SEOs) are used as a means to exploit minority shareholders. This paper examines the effects of a regulation (the classified voting system [CVS]) that attempts to protect the interests of minority shareholders by excluding controlling shareholders from the voting process of SEOs. This results show that the rejection rate significantly increases after the CVS comes into effect. SEOs proposals are more likely to be rejected when perceived private benefits are high and security benefits are low, and when minority shareholders have higher bargaining power. Further, investors receive significantly higher post‐SEO stock returns for SEOs approved under the CVS than for those approved before the CVS.
A Comparison Between One‐Tier and Two‐Tier Board Structures in France
Authors: Millet‐Reyes Benedicte , Zhao Ronald
Published: August 2010

French companies operate in a unique environment characterized by the strong involvement of block shareholders such as families and banks. Furthermore, the French legal system allows firms to choose between a one‐tier or a two‐tier board structure. This study investigates whether this choice can affect the firm's operating and stock performance. Our regression results provide strong evidence that ownership and board structures are used together as corporate governance tools. In particular, the agency cost of debt is strongly affected by their interaction when institutional investors are also bank lenders. Our test results show that while family control has a negative impact on corporate governance, French institutional blockholders play a positive role as monitors of one‐tier structures. In contrast, they are more likely to misuse the two‐tier board system by promoting interlocked directorship, board opacity and their own interests as creditors. Our regression analysis reveals that foreign institutional investors do not have any impact on firm performance, regardless of board structure. Finally, we do not find any inverse relationship between board size and efficiency in France.
Compensation Consultants and CEO Pay: UK Evidence
Authors: Voulgaris Georgios , Stathopoulos Konstantinos , Walker Martin
Published: August 2010

Manuscript Type:Empirical

Research Question/Issue:This paper provides new evidence on the effect of compensation consultants on CEO pay.

Research Findings/Insights:We produce new evidence on the managerial power approach (MPA) to corporate governance by examining the influence of compensation consultants on CEO pay structures and the decision to hire a compensation consultant in the UK. We find evidence that is not consistent with the MPA. Contrary to the MPA predictions, we find that the positive effect of consultants on CEO pay levels mainly stems from an increase in equity‐based compensation. We show that consultants exert a negative influence on basic (cash) pay. In addition, we illustrate that the choice of hiring a consultant can be explained by economic determinants, e.g., firm governance characteristics. The existence of a powerful CEO does not increase the likelihood of hiring a pay consultant. The results are robust to several model specifications and tests for selection bias.

Theoretical/Academic Implications:The results indicate that compensation consultants may have a positive effect on the structure of CEO pay since they encourage incentive‐based compensation. We also show that economic determinants, rather than CEO power, explain the decision to hire compensation consultants. Overall, our results cast doubts on the conclusions of the MPA regarding the role of compensation consultants. Their role can be better explained within the optimal contracting framework.

Practitioner/Policy Implications:This study offers insights to the positive effect the hiring of a pay consultant could have towards the design of a CEO pay contract.
Child Abuse and the Bureaucratisation of Social Work
Authors: Howe David
Published: August 2010

Child abuse became a public issue in the early 1970s. The alleged failure of social workers and welfare agencies to prevent children being killed by their parents and caretakers led to changes in the practice and organisation in child abuse work. The way public inquiries and government departments framed the problem of child abuse produced solutions which were essentially legalistic and bureaucratic. No longer was the aim to rehabilitate poorly functioning families, but to protect children from dangerous parents. But in order to achieve this aim, it was first necessary to identify the factors that would allow child protection agencies to recognise which families were dangerous and which were not. Once these factors were identified, it was possible to develop administrative systems that would facilitate the collection and analysis of information obtained during the investigation of suspected families. These systems allowed welfare agencies to identify ‘high risk’ cases. During the translation of the problem of child abuse into a set of judicial and bureaucratic procedures, therapeutically orientated professional practices found themselves out-manoeuvered. The translation witnessed the production of social workers as ‘passive agents’, a new cognitive perspective on the problem of child abuse, and a contribution to the bureaucratisation of child care practice.
‘In God's hands’: Pentecostal Christianity, morality, and illness in a Melanesian society
Authors: Eves Richard
Published: August 2010

In preparation for the imminent end of the world, converts to new evangelical forms of Christianity among the Lelet of New Ireland must practise constant self‐scrutiny and self‐discipline. Previously wrongdoing was unproblematic if concealed; now signs of sin are keenly sought in self and others. Illness, as God's punishment, is a significant sign of sin. To be cured, the ill must be scrupulously virtuous – thus doubly introspective. This accent on moral agency makes illness a source of public and internalized shame, intensifying an impetus towards a new form of conscience. Illnesses and deaths undergo a tortuous process of evaluation, in the light of competing traditional, biomedical, and new religious views. The new has not swept away the old; rather, change is incorporated in ways that are difficult to predict. The development of an internalized conscience in Lelet converts, though theoretically likely, cannot be taken for granted.

Pour se préparer à la fin du monde à venir, les Lelet de Nouvelle‐Irlande convertis aux nouvelles formes du christianisme évangélique doivent pratiquer un auto‐examen et une autodiscipline de tous les instants. Si les méfaits du passés ne posaient pas de problème tant qu'ils restaient cachés, les signes du péché sont aujourd'hui recherchés avidement chez soi‐même et chez les autres. La maladie, châtiment divin, est un signe significatif de péché. Pour être guéri, le malade doit être rigoureusement vertueux, donc deux fois plus introspectif. Cet aspect de l'action morale fait de la maladie une source de honte publique et intériorisée, renforçant l'élan vers une nouvelle forme de conscience. Les maladies et les décès font l'objet d'évaluations tortueuses, à la lumière d'idées traditionnelles, biomédicales et néo‐religieuses concurrentes. Le nouveau a chassé l'ancien et le changement est intégré d'une façon difficile à prédire. Le développement d'une conscience intériorisée chez les Lelet convertis, bien qu'il soit théoriquement probable, ne peut cependant pas être tenu pour acquis.
Meyer Fortes and material culture: the published image and the unpublished resource
Authors: Insoll Timothy
Published: August 2010

Material culture is almost entirely absent in Fortes's writing on the Tallensi, presumably a correlate of his structural functionalist position. In contrast, his unpublished notebooks compensate for this apparent gap and have been of significant use for interpreting aspects of past material culture use and materiality in the archaeological record of the Tongo Hills of northern Ghana. This point is discussed with reference to Fortes's descriptions of iron and stone in Tallensi lifeways and the materiality of festivals and shrines. Thus Fortes's unpublished archive indicates the potential offered by the anthropologist's notebook as a multi‐disciplinary resource which perhaps might be paralleled in the notebooks of other anthropologists of the period.

La culture matérielle est presque entièrement absente des travaux de Fortes sur les Tallensi, probablement à cause de son point de vue fonctionnaliste structurel. Ses carnets de terrain non publiés viennent cependant combler cette lacune apparente. Ils se sont avérés précieux pour interpréter les usages passés de la culture matérielle et de la matérialitéà partir des archives archéologiques des Collines de Tongo, dans le Nord du Ghana. Ce point est discuté en faisant référence aux descriptions faites par Fortes du fer et de la pierre dans le mode de vie des Tallensi et de la matérialité des fêtes et des sanctuaires. Les notes non publiées de Fortes suggèrent ainsi le potentiel du carnet de terrain d'un anthropologue comme ressource multidisciplinaire, susceptible d'être comparée aux carnets d'autres anthropologues de la même période.
Theorizing social change
Authors: Dwyer Peter D. , Minnegal Monica
Published: August 2010

We outline primary features of a theoretical perspective on processes of social change in human systems that deals with broadly defined kinds of process, the nature of variants that are expressed and consolidate as change occurs, and, with specific reference to agency, the ways in which intentional actors are implicated in the changes that befall them. Our aim is to contribute to a general theory of process that is not prejudiced by the possible misrepresentation of outcomes arising in particular contexts (e.g. modernity), or the contexts themselves, as being causal processes. We direct attention to four problems of a methodological and ethical nature that may arise when analysts strive for generality.

Les auteurs ébauchent les premières grandes lignes d'une approche théorique des processus de changement social dans les systèmes humains, abordant des types de processus définis largement, la nature de variantes qui s'expriment et se consolident au fil des changements et, en faisant spécifiquement référence àl'agency, la manière dont les acteurs intentionnels sont impliqués dans les changements qui les affectent. Notre but est de contribuer à une théorie générale du processus qui n'est pas biaisée d'emblée par une possible erreur de représentation des résultats qui surviennent dans des contextes donnés (par exemple la modernité) ou des contextes eux‐mêmes, en tant que processus causaux. Nous consacrons notre attention à quatre problèmes de nature méthodologique et éthique qui peuvent se poser quand les analystes tentent de généraliser.
THE TREATMENT OF DELINQUENTS IN A THERAPEUTIC COMMUNITY*
Authors: Whiteley J. Stuart
Published: August 2010

Many accounts have been given of various types of delinquents treated by various community methods, even from 19th century sources. There is a danger that these are all classified together when the value of the Therapeutic Community is assessed.

It is necessary to understand what a Therapeutic Community is, its basic ideology and structure, and how a participant is affected and may react. The different reactions of different personality types to differing communities then have considerable bearing on essential selection for the appropriate treatment.

This article describes and analyses these factors.
SOCIAL DEFENCE AND THE UNITED NATIONS
Authors: Joyce James Avery
Published: August 2010

This paper is a description of the work of the United Nations in the field of the prevention of crime and the treatment of offenders. It shows the ways in which international co‐operation is developing, outlines some of the problems which face developing countries and suggests future trends and developments.
THE QUALITY OF PENAL TREATMENT
Authors: Oerton R. T.
Published: August 2010

Is the purpose of penology simply to reduce crime? Although this must clearly be one of penology's aims, it is suggested that several other considerations must guide and qualify it. These considerations appear to arise out of the special nature of the relationship which exists between crime and society, and out of society's need to preserve its humanity and its capacity for development and to investigate the root causes of crime.
PROBATION AND AFTER‐CARE SOME ASPECTS OF CASEWORK
Authors: Prins Herschel A.
Published: August 2010

The Editorial comment in the 1969 issue of this journal referred to the number of Government reports that appeared in 1968, and which could ‘drastically affect social policy and the machinery of local and central government’, especially as these issues relate to the treatment of offenders. One of the issues raised in this editorial was ‘whether or not the after‐care undertaken by the probation service should expand into family and community support; or, on the contrary, whether family and community support, as envisaged by Seebohm, should expand into the after‐care of individuals leaving institutions’.

This paper seeks to comment generally on some of these issues against the following broad background of:

The present ‘setting’ in which probation casework is carried out, the forces which influence this setting, and some of the implications which may arise from this.

The application of ‘generic’ principles of casework in connection with the particular needs of some delinquents, and the need for further thinking in this area.
Prosecution, Police and Public — A Guide to Good Gatekeeping?
Authors: Ashworth Andrew
Published: August 2010

Abstract: Some problems in deciding whether or not to prosecute a person against whom there is sufficient evidence are discussed, and it is argued that, as we move towards a reformed prosecution system, we do not know enough about the principles on which prosecution decisions are taken or ought to be taken. Thorough research is essential in order to satisfy members of society that the discretion is being exercised properly, and in order to provide greater guidance to police and prosecutors so as to improve consistency. Several alternatives to prosecution are then examined and, taking a cue from the relative infrequency with which many non‐police agencies resort to prosecution, it is argued that serious consideration should be given to the introduction of a fixed penalty system for minor property offences.
Why Support Prisoners' Family‐Tie Groups?1
Authors: LIGHT ROY
Published: August 2010

Abstract: A tem of imprisonment affects not only the person remanded or sentenced. The inmate's family and dependants are all too often the ones who suffer most. After decades of neglect the last five years have seen the generation of substantial interest in the wellbeing of prisoners' families. Positive reforms have resulted, but much remains to be done.
Mistaken Identification: Where Law Meets Psychology Head On
Authors: DAVIES GRAHAM M.
Published: August 2010

Abstract: In England and Wales, criminal convictions continue to be secured on the basis of identification evidence alone. The Devlin Report (1976) concluded that the process of identification was inherently fallible and recommended that such prosecutions should cease save in exceptional circumstances. Devlin also called for more psychological research on the identification process. Examples of such research are reviewed, together with cases of actual or alleged mistaken identification which exemplify the principles uncovered by this work. It is concluded that until Devlin's central recommendation is carried into law, miscarriages of justice based on mistaken identity are likely to continue to bedevil the English legal system.
Losing the Plot? Researching Community Safety Partnership Work Against Domestic Violence
Authors: RADFORD LORRAINE , GILL AISHA
Published: August 2010

Abstract: This article considers the role of feminist community activism and academic research in the context of contemporary crime reduction policy. We draw upon experiences and knowledge gained from our involvement in comprehensive evaluation studies of community responses to domestic violence against women (in two areas of the South East of England) completed in 1996 and in 2004, before and after the present government's crime reduction initiatives. We consider the perils and prospects for academic ‘experts’ and feminist activists, of the increased emphasis on ‘what works’ in crime reduction, and the development of new technologies of control, especially in the areas of risk management and performance and monitoring.
Forensic Science, Wrongful Convictions, and American Prosecutor Discretion
Authors: STEVENS DENNIS J.
Published: August 2010

Abstract: A hot controversy exists about the reliability of forensic science as reported by prime‐time drama television series in bringing violent criminals to justice. This exploratory research will show that neither forensics or its fictionalised (CSI Effect) accounts, nor substantial evidence secured by police investigators, shape prosecutor decisions to charge a suspect with a crime, which can often result in freeing guilty suspects and convicting innocent individuals. In the summer of 2006, 444 American prosecutors responded to a survey. The findings reveal that judges, juries, and defence lawyers are influenced more by prime‐time American drama forensic accounts than by the substantial documented evidence of a case. It was also discovered that regardless of the dangerous apprehension of violent criminals by the police, some suspects are never charged because of faulty prosecutor behaviour. One implication of these findings is that police officer alienation from the legal system is at an all‐time high, and that prosecutors lack professional supervision and personal motivation to represent the ‘people’, giving rise to vast human and legal rights violations of suspects and defendants.
Free floating in the cosmopolis? Exploring the identity‐belonging of transnational knowledge workers
Authors: COLIC‐PEISKER VAL
Published: August 2010

In this article I explore what I call the ‘identity‐belonging’ of transnational knowledge workers, a diverse group of serially migrating career professionals who have spent extended periods of time in at least three countries, usually following career opportunities. Unlike most recent writing on transnationalism, which focuses on enduring connections of migrants with their ‘home’ countries/places, here I explore a transnationalism that may transcend the national, and generally the territorial, principle, with repercussions for identity‐belonging. In this context, how transnational knowledge workers position themselves towards belonging to a nation and towards the idea of cosmopolitanism is of particular interest. From data collected through in‐depth interviews in Australia and Indonesia, I conclude that their globally recognized profession forms the central axis of their identity‐belonging, alongside a weak identification with their nation of origin. The feeling of belonging to and identifying with particular locales and local communities was articulated flexibly and instrumentally in association with professional and wider social networks, while no primordial territorial attachments could be identified.
Cross‐border, cross‐ethnic, and transnational networks of a trapped minority: Israeli Arab citizens in Tel Aviv‐Jaffa
Authors: MENAHEM GILA
Published: August 2010

In this article, I provide a framework for studying the transnational networks of minority members as a political phenomenon. I make two claims. First, it is necessary to take into account the state and its capacity to limit transnational networks if one is to capture, analytically, the full range of such networks. Second, it is important to extend the theoretical framework of transnationalism to include populations other than migrants and to account for networks established by national minority members whose loyalty to the state can be challanged. I offer a typology of networks organized along two major axes – the state in‐border–cross‐border axis and the ethnic or religious identity axis. These two axes yield different types of in‐border and cross‐border, intranational and transnational networks. I base these claims on an analysis of four case studies of cross‐border and cross‐ethnic networks maintained by Israeli Palestinian citizens in Tel Aviv‐Jaffa.
Parameter selection and testing the soil nitrogen dynamics model SOILN
Authors: Wu L. , McGechan M.B. , Lewis D.R. , Hooda P.S. , Vinten A.J.A.
Published: August 2010

Abstract. The SOILN model with a crop growth submodel for grass and cereal crops and the associated soil water and heat model SOIL were selected out of a number of similar models to simulate nitrogen cycling in a soil/crop system. The main parameter values required by the model were selected on the basis of a combination of field experiments and literature sources. Experimental data measured on grassland at Dumfries in the West of Scotland and on arable land at Bush Estate near Edinburgh were used to test the model. Simulated biomass yields and nitrogen contents of harvested biomass were in reasonable agreement with measured values for both grass and cereal crops. There were similar trends in accumulated leached nitrate between the simulations and experiments at the sites. Any discrepancy between simulated and measured nitrate leached appeared to correspond to similar discrepancies between simulated and measured water flow. The comparison between simulated and experimental results suggests that the model with the selected parameter values can simulate nitrogen and carbon cycling both in grassland and in arable land, and make convincing predictions about the effects of varying soil, crop, fertilizer and manure management practices. A basic sensitivity analysis carried out on the parameters determining the biological and biochemical processes showed the model predictions of annual N‐leaching are relatively insensitive to all but two of the plant parameters. However, the model predictions of annual N‐harvested and dry mass production are sensitive to numerous plant parameters.
Nitrogen losses following application of pig slurry to arable land
Authors: Weslien P. , Klemedtsson L. , Svensson L. , Galle B. , Kasimir‐Klemedtsson Å. , Gustafsson A.
Published: August 2010

Abstract. Emissions of ammonia (NH3) and nitrous oxide (N2O), and nitrate (NO‐3) leaching were measured in two field experiments following application of pig slurry at rates corresponding to 83–96 kg NH4‐N ha‐1 before sowing. In spring and in autumn 1994, slurry was applied by four methods: trenching (T), shallow injection (S), band spreading immediately followed by harrowing (B/H) and band spreading (B). NH3 emission measurements were made during the first week after application in both experiments. In the spring experiment N2O emissions and NO‐3 leaching were measured during 6 and 52 weeks after spreading respectively, and during 11 and 33 weeks after spreading in the autumn experiment. In spring, the increased N2O emissions (i.e. control subtracted) ranged from 0.27% (T) to 0.45% (B/H), and in the autumn study from 0.92% (T) to 1.14% (B/H), of applied NH4‐N, although showing no statistically significant differences. In order to validate the chamber measurements, a ‘megachamber’(21 m2) was used together with an infrared spectrometer. The emissions agreed well for (B/H), while (B) resulted in lower emissions compared with the smaller chambers. Emissions of NH3 were about one order of magnitude higher. In spring, (B) gave the highest emission, reaching 19.5% of applied NH4‐N, whereas (S), and (B/H) gave the lowest emissions, reaching 1.2 and 3.5% of applied NH4‐N, respectively. NH3 emissions in autumn were 15–20% lower compared with spring. In spring the increased nitrate leaching ranged from 10.1 (T) to 24.9 kg ha‐1 (B/H) and from 29.5 (B) to 37.8 kg ha‐1 (T) in the autumn experiment, showing no statistically significant differences. Estimations of indirect N2O emissions due to ammonia deposition and nitrate leaching, suggested that the N2O contribution from NH3 deposition was relatively small, while the indirect N2O emissions from NO‐3 leaching were of the same order of magnitude or higher than the direct N2O emissions.
A simple method for assessing leaching risk of bacteria through soils
Authors: Hossain A. , Townend J. , Killham K.
Published: August 2010

Abstract. Bacterial contamination of water is a problem worldwide and is often acute in developing countries where human and animal waste is disposed of on land for use as fertilizer or because of poorly developed sanitation systems. Studying leaching risk through soils is difficult when no suitable microbiological laboratory is available. A method using the movement of ZnO particles through soils as a surrogate for studying bacteria directly was tested. ZnO particles with a similar size to bacteria can readily be detected by chemical analysis. For a range of nine different soil textures, leaching rates of ZnO particles under near saturated conditions were significantly correlated with leaching rates of Escherichia coli cells (P=0.013). For both ZnO and E. coli, leaching was generally greatest through fine textured soils.
N‐utilization by maize (Zea mays L.) as influenced by crop rotation and field pea (Pisum sativum L.) residue management
Authors: Bahl G.S. , Pasricha N.S.
Published: August 2010

Abstract. A five year field experiment was conducted to assess the influence of crop rotation and field pea residue incorporation into the soil on maize yield. The data indicated a 30% increase in maize yield grown in rotation with field pea compared to when it was grown after wheat and a further increase of 35% when field pea residues were incorporated into the soil. The effect of field pea and residue incorporation was greater in the presence of fertilizer nitrogen indicating the enhanced capacity of the crop to utilize N from the residue. Legume residue management in sub‐tropical regions of the world, having coarse textured soils low in organic matter, could help to increase the yield of cereals besides saving some of the expensive fertilizer input.
Nitrate leaching from reseeded pasture
Authors: Shepherd M.A. , Hatch D.J. , Jarvis S.C. , Bhogal A.
Published: August 2010

Abstract. Nitrate leaching and soil mineral N status under grassland were measured on three contrasting soils, spanning winters 1995/96, 1996/97 and 1997/98, in Western England. The soils investigated were a freely draining silty clay loam (Rosemaund), a well drained loam (IGER 1) and a poorly drained clay loam (IGER 2). The effects of reseeding (ploughing and resowing grass) at IGER 1 and IGER 2 in autumn 1995 or 1996 were compared with undisturbed pasture. Reseeding at Rosemaund, in autumns 1995 or 1996, or spring 1996 was compared with undisturbed pasture of 3 sward ages (2, 5, >50 years).

Nitrate‐N leaching losses during the winter immediately following autumn reseeding ranged between 60 and 350 kg N ha–1 in 1995/96, depending on soil type, sward management history and rainfall. Losses were much less in the following winter when treatments were repeated (10–107 kg N ha–1).

Reseeding in spring had little effect on soil mineral N content or leaching losses in the following autumn, compared with undisturbed pasture. Similarly, leaching losses from autumn reseeds in the second winter after cultivation were the same as undisturbed pasture (1‐19 kg N ha–1). The effect of ploughing grassland for reseeding was relatively short‐term, in contrast to the effect of repeated annual cultivation associated with arable rotations.
Nitrous oxide emissions from grassland in an intensive dairy farm in the Basque Country of Spain
Authors: Merino M.P. , Estavillo J.M. , Pinto M. , Rodríguez M. , Duñabeitia M.K. , González‐Murua C.
Published: August 2010

Abstract. Intensively managed grasslands are potentially a large source of N2O in the North Coast of Spain because of the large N input, the wet soil conditions and mild temperatures. To quantify the effect of fertilizer type and management practices carried out by farmers in this area, field N2O losses were measured over a year using the closed chamber technique. Plots received two types of fertilizer: cattle slurry (536 kg N ha–1) and calcium ammonium nitrate (140 kg N ha–1). N2O losses were less in the slurry treatment than after mineral fertilizer. This was probably due to high, short‐lived peaks of N2O encountered immediately following mineral N addition. In contrast, the seasonal distribution of N2O losses from the slurry amended plot was more uniform over the year. The greater N2O losses in the mineral treatment might have been enhanced by the combined effect of mineral fertilizer and past organic residues present from previous organic amendments. Weak relationships were found between N2O emission rates and soil nitrate, soil ammonium, soil water content and temperature. Better relationships were obtained in the mineral treatment than in the slurry plots, because of the wider range in soil mineral N. Water filled pore space (WFPS) was a key factor controlling N2O emissions. In the > 90% WFPS range no relationships were found. The best regressions were found for the mineral treatment in the 40–65% WFPS range, 49% of the variance being explained by soil nitrate and ammonium content. In the 65–90% WFPS range, 43% of the variance was explained by nitrate only, but the inclusion of soil ammonium did not improve the model as it did in the 40–65% WFPS range. This fact indicates that nitrification is likely to be an important process involved in N2O emissions at the 40–65% WFPS.
Soils and ‘managed retreat’ in South East England
Authors: Hazelden J. , Boorman L.A.
Published: August 2010

Abstract. Much of the low‐lying farmland around the coastline of south‐east England was once inter‐tidal salt marsh, which was subsequently reclaimed from the sea and converted to farmland. It is becoming increasingly uneconomic to maintain the embankments which protect this land from the sea. ‘Managed retreat’ involves relocating the embankments further inland and recreating inter‐tidal habitat in front of them. Salt marsh not only provides a protective buffer for these sea walls by dissipating wave energy, but is also important as a habitat for birds and as a source of organic matter for fish and inter‐tidal fauna. When ‘managed retreat’ takes place, the creation of inter‐tidal habitat occurs on soils that have undergone physical and chemical changes, some of which are irreversible. However, the indications are that rapid sedimentation creates conditions in which salt marsh plants germinate and become established; soil salinity rises quickly to a level which restricts competition from terrestrial plants, and deposited sediment is relatively rich in available phosphorus. The physical properties of the old agricultural soil influence the subsequent development of creeks.
Previous cropping and soil mineral nitrogen as predictors of yield response of winter wheat to nitrogen on silt soils in United Kingdom
Authors: Rahn C.R. , Johnson P.A.
Published: August 2010

Abstract. The fertilizer nitrogen requirement of winter wheat was assessed in sixteen experiments on marine silt soils in Eastern England. Eight experimental sites followed potatoes (Solanum tuberosum), six vining peas (Pisum sativum) and two wheat (Triticum aestivum). The yield response to nitrogen fertilizer was much less following peas than potatoes or wheat, five sites following peas showed little response to more than 30 kg N ha–1. Previous crop explained some 79.7% of the variation in nitrogen optima. When autumn soil mineral nitrogen was also taken into account 81.9% of the variation in optimum nitrogen rate was explained (P<0.001). The study revealed noticeably higher levels of autumn soil mineral nitrogen following vining peas on some sites than those found elsewhere in the UK and as assumed in the standard national fertilizer recommendation system.
Soil particulate organic carbon under different land use and management
Authors: Chan K.Y.
Published: August 2010

Abstract. Changes in particulate organic carbon (POC) relative to total organic carbon (TOC) were measured in soils from five agronomic trial sites in New South Wales, Australia. These sites covered a wide range of different land use and management practices. POC made up 42–74% of TOC and tended to be greater under pasture and more conservative management than traditional cropping regimes. It was the form of organic carbon preferentially lost when soils under long‐term pasture were brought under cultivation. It was also the dominant form of organic carbon accumulating under more conservative management practices (direct drilling, stubble retained and organic farming). Across all sites, changes in POC accounted for 81.2% (range 69–94%) of the changes in total organic carbon caused by differences in land use and management. Significant differences were found between pasture and cropped soils in the carbon content in the <53 μm fraction, particularly for hardsetting soils. However, even with these, POC was a more sensitive indicator of change caused by land use and management practices than TOC. The current method for measuring POC involves dispersion using sodium hexametaphosphate. The dispersing agent was found to extract 4–19 % of the TOC, leading to a significant under‐estimation of POC.
Nitrate leaching from a shallow limestone soil growing a five course combinable crop rotation: the effects of crop husbandry and nitrogen fertilizer rate on losses from the second complete rotation
Authors: Johnson P.A. , Shepherd M.A. , Hatley D.J. , Smith P.N.
Published: August 2010

Abstract. The field experiment tested the effects of three management systems on nitrate leaching losses from a five crop rotation on the Lincolnshire Limestone in Eastern England. The Standard system was similar to farming practice in the area. The Protective system integrated individual practices which were expected to decrease nitrate losses (e.g. cover crops, cultivation delay in autumn and reduced intensity, manipulation of drilling dates and, during the first few years of the first rotation, straw incorporation). The Intermediate system was a compromise between the two extremes. All crops were grown at full and half recommended nitrogen rates. This paper reports data from the second full rotation (years 6–10), thus enabling the medium‐term effects of continued management practices to be investigated. Average annual nitrogen leaching losses at 49, 35 and 25 kg N ha–1 for Standard, Intermediate and Protective systems, respectively, were significantly different. The respective flow‐weighted average NO3 concentrations were 167, 131 and 96 mg l–1. Thus, adopting nitrate retentive practices through the rotation was able to substantially decrease losses. The Protective system was as effective as in the first full rotation, demonstrating that 10 years of such practices had not failed in the medium‐term. However, continued minimal cultivation caused serious problems of weed build‐up. The cost of weed control and yield loss caused by grass weeds made cereal production uneconomic in some years. Thus, rules for nitrate leaching control need to be tempered with practical and agronomic considerations. Also, few (if any) management techniques tested guaranteed that nitrate losses would be small in all years, as the interaction with winter weather, particularly rainfall, was of vital importance.
Effect of plot scale and an upslope phosphorus source on phosphorus loss in overland flow
Authors: McDowell R.W. , Sharpley A.N.
Published: August 2010

Abstract. Phosphorus (P) in overland flow is mediated by soil P, added P, erosion, and hydrological processes and their interaction as affected by landscape position and length of flow. We investigated the effect of flow path length (1 to 10 m long plots) on P transport in overland flow with and without a localized dairy manure application (75 kg P ha–1 added to the upslope end [0.5 m] of each plot) and simulated rainfall (7 cm h–1), at two sites within an agricultural watershed in Pennsylvania, USA. Particulate loss in overland flow was c. 20% greater from manured than unmanured plots due to the less dense nature of manure than soil. Increased soil moisture at Site 2 contributed to a greater loss of P compared to Site 1, both with and without manure; with most occurring as particulate P (60 to 90% of total P). Further, the selective erosion of fine particulates (24 to 34% clay) and P loss increased with plot length. From a management perspective our results demonstrate that the forms and amounts of P loss are greatly influenced by flow path length and interactions among antecedent moisture, soil P, and texture.
Temporal changes in the spatial distributions of some soil properties on a temperate grassland site
Authors: Shi Z. , Wang K. , Bailey J.S. , Jordan C. , Higgins A.H.
Published: August 2010

Abstract. Precision Agriculture seeks to match resource application and agronomic practice with soil and crop requirements as they vary in both space and time. Therefore, an understanding of both the temporal and the spatial components of variability is essential before decisions can be made about the feasibility of site‐specific management. In the present study, the spatial and the temporal components of variability in certain key soil properties of a grassland field were evaluated to assess the likely feasibility of adopting a site‐specific approach to grassland management. A 7.9 ha grassland field was selected for the study and soil samples were taken three times at regular 25 m intervals across the field over a two year period, and chemically analysed. Classical and geostatistical procedures were used to evaluate the spatial variability and the temporal stability of soil property distributions. Soil extractable P and K had the greatest within‐field variability and soil pH the least. Soil K distributions were also highly unstable over time and it was concluded that the optimal risk aversion strategy would be to apply uniform dressings of this nutrient to the entire field. In contrast, soil pH, P, Mg and sulphate distributions were not only temporally stable, but were also spatially correlated over reasonably large ranges. It was concluded that these properties might be managed in a site‐specific way based on the results of periodic soil testing in three clearly defined management sub‐units within the field. Over the two year period, C and N accumulated in the soil at surprisingly high rates on certain parts of the field but not in others.
Nitrate leaching from organic farms and conventional farms following best practice
Authors: Stopes C. , Lord E.I. , Philipps L. , Woodward L.
Published: August 2010

Abstract. This paper compares nitrate leaching losses from organic farms, which depended on legumes for their nitrogen inputs (66 site years) with those from conventional farms using fertilizers under similar cropping and climatic conditions (188 site years). The conventional farms were within Nitrate Sensitive Areas in England, but sites following special practices associated with that scheme were excluded. Nitrate losses during the organic ley phase (including the winter of ploughing out) were similar (45 kg N ha–1) to those from conventional long‐term grass receiving fertilizer N inputs of less than 200 kg N ha–1 (44 kg N ha–1) and from the grass phase of conventional ley‐arable rotations (50 kg N ha–1). Losses from conventional grass receiving higher N inputs were greater than from organic or less intensive grass. Nitrate losses following arable crops averaged 47 and 58 kg N ha–1 for the organic and conventional systems respectively, with part of the difference being due to the greater proportion of non‐cereal break crops in the latter. Thus under similar cropping, losses from organic systems are similar to or slightly smaller than those from conventional farms following best practice.
Comparisons of earthworm populations and cast properties in conventional and organic arable rotations
Authors: Scullion J. , Neale S. , Philipps L.
Published: August 2010

Abstract. Earthworms influence a wide range of soil properties. They are affected by practices that perturb the soil or change organic inputs. This study compared populations in UK organic and conventional rotations differing in such practices. Three farm pairs, ranging from stockless to arable‐grassland systems, were sampled on three occasions in each of two crop years. Additional farm pairs were sampled on a single occasion. Nine common earthworm species were grouped into three classes based on the depth ranges from which they were recovered. Cast and soil samples were taken from leys to compare aggregate stability, organic and nutrient content, and microbial biomass.  For similar rotation stages, populations of surface and shallow species classes were often larger in organic systems. In some comparisons the reverse was the case, particularly as the proportion of ley within each pair increased. System differences in biomass, but not abundance, could be attributed to the proportion of leys in rotations; individual earthworm weights were larger in conventional systems. Casts from both systems had markedly higher organic contents, stability, available P and K concentrations, and microbial biomass than underlying soil. This trend was more pronounced in conventional sites for nutrients and microbial biomass. Differences in populations and cast properties may have implications for soil fertility and wider ecosystem function.
Changes in soil properties under high‐ and low‐input cropping systems in Lithuania
Authors: Bu˘ienė A. , S̆lepetienė A. , S̆imanskaitė D. , Svirskienė A. , Butkutė B.
Published: August 2010

Abstract. To determine the effects of low‐input agriculture on soil properties, we compared several forms of arable land management in a rotation experiment lasting 8 years on a Cambisol in Lithuania. Conventional arable cropping with applications of inorganic fertilizers increased the potassium (K) status of the soil, but resulted in losses of nitrogen (N) from the soil by mineralization and leaching. With ley–arable integrated cropping, a similar fertilizer regime based on farmyard manure (FYM) augmented with inorganic fertilizers increased the phosphorus (P), K, organic matter and N in the soil, as well as increasing N loss by leaching. These two high‐input regimes were compared to three systems with less or no input. A reference treatment with no input, which produced small crop yields, maintained its nutrient status and organic matter. An organic regime receiving FYM and green manure lost only P, but maintained its K and N status, while a second organic regime in which the FYM was replaced by composted sewage maintained its fertility. The microbial activity varied somewhat from treatment to treatment, with the largest numbers of almost all groups of microorganisms in the reference treatment. All treatments led to decreases in fulvic acid, and the soil managed conventionally lost humic acid, too. The content of humic acid increased in the treatments where FYM was applied and in the reference soil, and the fraction bound to calcium increased in the integrated and the first organic treatments. The soil structures under the integrated cropping and second organic regime were the most stable. Of the low‐input systems, the second organic regime seemed the most sustainable.
Re‐defining tillage erosion: quantifying intensity–direction relationships for complex terrain
Authors: Quine T.A. , Zhang Y.
Published: August 2010

Abstract. Current tillage erosion models account for the influence of tillage direction in the magnitude of the soil transport coefficient. It is argued that a re‐modelling of tillage erosion is preferable in which the influence of tillage direction is separated from the soil transport coefficient, which is a measure of tillage intensity. This has been achieved here by developing a two‐dimensional tillage erosion model that incorporates tillage direction in the measure of slope and uses soil transport coefficients that are independent of tillage direction and based on relationships between transport and the slope in the direction that bisects tillage direction and the overturning direction. Mean tillage erosion, associated with a single pair of opposing tillage directions and pair of overturning directions, can be described by a two‐dimensional diffusion‐type equation if the dimensions are defined as the tillage direction and the direction perpendicular to tillage. Application of the model to a real‐world case allows quantification of the potential soil conservation benefits associated with optimization of tillage direction. The scope for amelioration is related to the ratio between the coefficients for transport in the direction of tillage and perpendicular to tillage. As this ratio approaches unity, the potential for amelioration reduces towards zero. For the study site investigated, use of the experimentally derived ratio of 0.66 indicated that a 12% reduction in tillage erosion could be obtained by ploughing across the dominant field slope as compared to ploughing up and down the dominant slope. For an implement with a coefficient ratio of 0.2 the reduction in tillage erosion intensity, associated with optimizing the tillage direction, reaches 28%. Nevertheless, such benefits must be considered in the context of other management considerations. The tillage direction that minimizes erosion is associated with lateral slopes of 10°, or more, over 20% of the field. To the land‐user this disadvantage may outweigh the soil conservation benefits.
Influence of sodium polyacrylate on the water‐holding capacity of three different soils and effects on growth of wheat
Authors: Geesing D. , Schmidhalter U.
Published: August 2010

Abstract. The effectiveness of sodium polyacrylate to increase soil water retention and to enhance growth of wheat under water deficit was evaluated. Water‐holding capacity of the soils was considerably increased only when the soil was amended with the polymer at a rate 3 g L−1. The effect on plant‐available water was greater at soil matric potentials up to −1000 hPa. The biomass and grain yield of plants without water deficit were increased by the polymer amendment, but decreased under severe water deficit stress. The polymer had no significant affect on plant N, grain N or grain Na content.
Carbon cycling and sequestration opportunities in temperate grasslands
Authors: Soussana J.‐F. , Loiseau P. , Vuichard N. , Ceschia E. , Balesdent J. , Chevallier T. , Arrouays D.
Published: August 2010

Abstract. Temperate grasslands account for c. 20% of the land area in Europe. Carbon accumulation in grassland ecosystems occurs mostly below ground and changes in soil organic carbon stocks may result from land use changes (e.g. conversion of arable land to grassland) and grassland management. Grasslands also contribute to the biosphere–atmosphere exchange of non‐CO2 radiatively active trace gases, with fluxes intimately linked to management practices. In this article, we discuss the current knowledge on carbon cycling and carbon sequestration opportunities in temperate grasslands. First, from a simple two‐parameter exponential model fitted to literature data, we assess soil organic carbon fluxes resulting from land use change (e.g. between arable and grassland) and from grassland management. Second, we discuss carbon fluxes within the context of farming systems, including crop–grass rotations and farm manure applications. Third, using a grassland ecosystem model (PaSim), we provide estimates of the greenhouse gas balance, in CO2 equivalents, of pastures for a range of stocking rates and of N fertilizer applications. Finally, we consider carbon sequestration opportunities for France resulting from the restoration of grasslands and from the de‐intensification of intensive livestock breeding systems. We emphasize major uncertainties concerning the magnitude and non‐linearity of soil carbon stock changes in agricultural grasslands as well as the emissions of N2O from soil and of CH4 from grazing livestock.