bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Colloidal Properties of Clay Suspensions
Authors: Lewis W.K. , Thompson W.I.
Published: June 2014

Clays consist predominantly of hydrated silicates of alumina. The formulais frequently assumed to be Al2O3 * 2Si02*2H20, and certain of

I. North Carolina. Low plasticity.

II. Same as I, after washing. Low plasticity.

III.Tennessee. Good plasticity.

IV. Pennsylvania flint fireclay. Low plasticity.

V. Laredo, Texas. Very plastic. CaO/Na2O corrected for COa.

VI. San Antonio, Texas. Fine grained, highly plastic. Moisture and COawere determined together at 18.8 per cent.

VII. Selected crude bentonite, California.

them undoubtedly have substantially this composition, but in general the ratioof silica to alumina is considerably higher. However, they always contain waterof chemical constitution, as shown by Table 1.
Effects of Temperature, Pressure and Water-cement Ratio on the Setting Time and Strength of Cement
Authors: Craft B.C. , Johnson T.J. , Kirkpatrick H.L.
Published: June 2014

Petroleum engineers are displaying considerable interest in the problems ofcementing oil wells, especially in the Gulf Coast and California areas, wheresteep temperature gradients are encountered and where wells are being drilledto greater depths. Deep drilling, that is, at depths in excess of 7000 ft., hasbeen undertaken in these areas only in the last few years and with this trendoil-well cementing requires more technical treatment.

It is not the purpose of this paper to describe the scope and application ofcement operations in the oil industry or to give the standard specifications, methods of sampling and testing of portland cement. The various testing methodshave been described by the American Society for Testing Materials!, Uren, Tickell and Wankowski and Rakestraw and Parsons The latter authors have alsodescribed in detail the methods of cementing.

The authors realize that it is impossible to reproduce in the laboratory thescale of forces and dimensions that exist at great depths, but an attempt hasbeen made to scale down these dimensions proportionally. The selection ofproblems to be studied was based largely upon the practical questions asked byseveral of the largest operators in these fields. All cements used in theseexperiments met the specifications of the American Society for TestingMaterials.
New Type of Dynamometer for Study of Pumping Problems
Authors: Kemler Emory
Published: June 2014

The problem of determining the most desirable operating conditions of anoil-well pumping unit or rig front, the selection of the proper material andsize of sucker rods, and the design of a pumping unit require that sucker-rodloads be known with a reasonable degree of accuracy. The segregation of riglosses, the proper selection and operation of prime mover and reduction unit, and the analysis of the operation of subsurface equipment require a knowledgeof polished-rod horsepower. The investigation of such problems as theinstantaneous stresses set up in a pull-rod line or backside crank installationwhen the well is suddenly hooked on, a study of such problems as the effect ofanchoring the tubing on rod load, tubing stresses and rod horsepower, and ananalysis of the effect of subsurface equipment on rod loads make it necessaryto have a dynamometer that is rugged, which can follow the sudden changes inload without any lag or damping effect, which will record the load in its trueposition with respect to polished-rod movement, and which will give a cardlarge enough to allow the desired effects to be measured accurately.

The inadequacy of the spring or fluid-pressure type of dynamometers has beencovered in detail. The data given show that dynamometers of the spring orfluid-pressure type exert a damping action on the peak loads and the inertiaand friction of their load-indicating mechanism introduces a phase lag inrecording the load. A dynamometer of that type will not give the load in thecorrect amount and will not record it in its true position with respect tostroke or time.

New Type of Dynamometer

Fig. 1 shows a magnetic strain-gage type of dynamometer, to be described inthis paper. The strain gage A is used for measuring the load in the polishedrod, a washer B and knife edge C take care of initial misalignment and reducebending in the compression tube of the strain gage. The complete instrument canbe transported in the carrying case E.
Efficiency of Flowing Wells
Authors: May Cecil J.
Published: June 2014

The importance of a knowledge of the physical laws involved in theproduction of oil from a reservoir has come to be generally realized in recentyears and it is therefore unnecessary to elaborate on the many problems whichstill await complete solution. Among them the vertical flow of mixtures of oil and gas has attractedconsiderable attention and a number of papers have appeared in the literaturefrom time to time. The complete solution of the problem would cover suchaspects of oil-field technology as the calculation of bottom-hole pressuresfrom purely surface data; the estimation of natural flowing lives; the designof gas-lifts and the selection of tubing for natural flow, and so on. It isstill true, however, that the results so far published have not beenparticularly consistent and there are no generally accepted data available ofuniversal applicability. It is, in fact, by no means easy to obtain asufficiently wide range of variables under the operator's control to determinethe laws of flow without ambiguity and much of the published research has beendirected towards the solution of the specific problems of individual fieldsrepresenting only a partial treatment of the whole subject. It was with asimilar object that work was commenced on the Masjid-iSulaiman field of theAnglo-Persian Oil Co. towards the end of 1930 and has since continued asopportunity offered.

Of course, the results obtained cannot necessarily be applied elsewhere withoutmodification and, in some cases, considerable extension. At the same timeconditions in this field are somewhat unusual in allowing certain aspects ofthe problem to be isolated and examined without the disturbing effects of alarge number of independent or partially independent variables. For example, since the field is under unit control, it is possible to maintain steadyconditions on any particular well over long periods.
Economical Selection of Sucker Rods
Authors: Wescott Blaine B. , Bowers C. Norman
Published: June 2014

Marked improvement in the serviceability of sucker rods has been effected inthe last two years, partly because of the insistent necessity for greatereconomy in the operating costs of crude oil production growing out of thegeneral industrial depression and partly because many of the recently developedfields have imposed more severe operating conditions upon both surface andunderground equipment. The latter is particularly true of Kansas, wherepractically all of the oil produced is associated with damaging amounts ofhydrogen sulfide brine and where the method of establishing potentialproduction demands equipment capable of being operated at maximum capacitywithout interruptions. The decline of flush production in the Oklahoma Cityfield created new problems in deep-well pumping on a scale heretofore unequaledand the increased proportion of water it has been necessary to produce in thefields of the Greater Seminole area presented conditions that were acutely inneed of betterment. The problem in the latter fields was complicated by theshift towards sulfide characteristics, which accompanied water encroachment, and it is probably true that nowhere, at the present time, are pumpingconditions generally as severe as in this territory. The Mid-Continentdistrict, therefore, has become the proving ground for the numerous materialsthat have been proposed for sucker-rod fabrication. The information thatultimately will be obtained from an unprecedented amount of fieldexperimentation will pay ample dividends when the decline of East Texasincreases the demand for the vast reserves of sour crude in West Texas. It is arare occurrence in industry that the use of such a simple piece of equipment asa sucker rod presents so complicated a problem for solution.
A Method of Estimating Oil and Gas Reserves
Authors: Katz D.L.
Published: June 2014

In the management of oil properties, it is always desirable to know thefuture behavior of oil wells and oil reservoirs. Some estimation of thequantity of oil and gas that will be produced must be made as a basis fordecisions on possible returns on investments in lifting equipment, drilling ofadditional wells, and other operating expenditures. In new or wildcat areas, operating expenditures are considered highly speculative, but in the completionof partly drilled and the operation of producing fields it is good business toremove as much speculation as possible. An accurate knowledge of oil and gasreserves in such cases would solve many management problems.

The term" oil reserves" usually signifies the future ultimate recoverywithout specifying the method of production. Thus with changing methods andinnovations in the production industry, reserves of any definite reservoir maybe increased. by increasing the portion of oil recovered. The usual reserveestimates are made by comparisons of well and formation characteristics, byusing a percentage recovery on the oil content of the formation volume usingporosity data, by extending production curves on non-prorated wells, or byextending bottom-hole pressure-production curves. The most reliable methodwould appear to be one that would estimate the initial quantity of oil and gaspresent and then obtain percentage recovery values for various productivemethods and formations from experience.

It is the purpose of this paper to describe a method of estimating the initialquantity of oil and gas present in a reservoir. The method is based on fieldoperating data and the properties of crude oil-gas mixtures. The principlesinvolved, the data required, the assumptions necessary, and an example of themethod will be given. The method is entirely independent of sand volumes andformation porosities.
The Sucker-rod Pump as a Problem in Elasticity
Authors: Kendrick John F. , Cornelius Paul D.
Published: June 2014

This paper is a progress report of a study the authors are making of thesucker-rod pump, considered as a vibrating system with one degree of freedom, with forced vibrations and with viscous damping. Dr. S. Timoshenko's formula isgiven, defining such a system. Each factor is considered in respect to theproblem of operating sucker rods, and the zone is pointed out in which themathematics do not apply to the sucker-rod pump, because of its variable mass.This general theory is interpreted in the light of nearly two years of testingwells in the field, and correlating the results of other tests.

The motion of the pumping mechanism is a vibration. The string of sucker rodsvibrates with a natural frequency. The motion of the plunger is the result ofadding together these two vibrations, and is modified by a damping or frictionfactor. The controlling factor appears to be the ratio of the period of thenatural vibration of the rod string to the period of the vibration of the pump.The first conclusion is that a definite value of this ratio, which is belowresonance and is probably not greater than 0.5, should not be exceeded in orderto assure satisfactory performance from the sucker rods. The second conclusionis that the component parts of the pumping equipment should be selected to givethe smallest practical period of the natural vibration, and when this does notpermit operation at a safe speed and give the required plunger displacement, alonger polished-rod stroke should be used.

While the quantitative results are but rough approximations, the qualitativeanalysis of pumping problems on this basis promises to be of considerable valuein diagnosing the cause of poor performance and prescribing suitableremedies.

The trouble that results, whenever it becomes necessary to crowd the sucker-rodpump, to take potentials or to handle increasing volumes of water, isresponsible for the belief that this type of pump is not equal to present dayneeds, and that it is only a question of time before some other pumping devicewill take its place.
Determination of Fluid Level in Oil Wells bv the Pressure-wave Echo Method
Authors: Walker C.P.
Published: June 2014

Determining the distance to remote objects by observing the time requiredfor sound to traverse the intervening space is an old practice. Attempts havebeen made to use this method for determining the fluid level in oil wells butas far as the writer is aware it was not found to be practicable, becausevibrations in gas in the audible frequency range do not travel as well and asfar as low-frequency pressure waves, which are capable of transmitting agreater amount of energy than can be transmitted by audible waves. Wood, in hisbook "Sound," states that in a given medium the range of soundtransmission will vary inversely as the square of the frequency. The fact thatthe sound from a whistle having a low tone has a much lower attenuation ratethan that from a whistle of high pitch is well known. Also, the pressure wavescaused by cannon fire often rattle windows at points so distant that no soundof the cannon is heard.

In 1932 P. E. Lehr and H. T. Wyatt, of the Shell Oil Co., experimented with theprinciple of the concussion, or pressure-wave echo, method of determining fluidlevels in oil wells. They released compressed gas into the top of the casing, thereby creating a pressure wave, which traveled down the well and back again.Their experiments proved conclusively that, with the properapparatus forrecording the echoes and determining the velocities at which the waves travel, the method could be used successfully for determining fluid levels in oilwells. Wells are often equipped with from one to three tubing catchers andthese together with the top of the liner are frequently above the fluid. Eachof these obstructions reflects a part of the pressure wave. In such wells theremay be, therefore, as many as five pressure-wave reflections. Thus it isobvious that in order to identify the various reflections and to determinethere from the fluid level in a well it is necessary to obtain a graphic recordof these reflections.
Can the Rule of Capture Be Rationalized?
Authors: Oliver Earl
Published: June 2014

The A.I.M.E. Stabilization Committee was named in 1932 to ascertain whethersome practical substitute could be devised for the Rule of Capture, which wasgenerally credited with being the major cause of instability in the PetroleumIndustry. After considerable inter committee correspondence a letter wasreceived from E. DeGolyer under date of Jan. 25, 1935, in which he discussedthe possibility of modifying rather than discarding the Rule of Capture.
Governmental Regulation of Oil Production
Authors: Ely Northcutt
Published: June 2014

The subject of this paper implies three questions: whether regulation isnecessary; if so, what sort of regulation is wise; and, finally, by whatgovernment the power to regulate is to be exercised.

In the year 1937 emphasis falls on the third of those questions.

This contrasts with the situation prevailing a dozen years ago, when thequestion was whether regulation was necessary at all; and with the situation afew months ago, when the third question seemed answered by the Supreme Courtdecisions on the National Recovery Act, Agricultural Adjustment Act and GuffeyCoal Control Act, and by the ratification of the Interstate Oil Compact. Itthen appeared settled that the State, and not the Federal Government possessedthe regulatory powers and, granting that conservation measures are a recognizednecessity, the problem seemed to be to develop the wisest kind of regulationthat the Constitution would permit.. Today, by virtue of developments duringthe first months of 1937, the oil industry is faced again by the question ofwhether the Federal Government is to have power to control its operations, along with those of the other basic industries.

Developments in Governmental Control

There have been three recent developments. The dominating one is thePresident's? proposal that he be authorized to increase the size of the SupremeCourt to 15 members. The implications of that plan ought to be perfectly plainto the oil industry. This suggestion is made in lieu of offering an amendmentto the Constitution, to reverse the Supreme Court decisions mentioned. In thosedecisions the Court held that production does not constitute commerce, andhence that the Federal power to regulate interstate commerce does not extend tothe regulation of production.' These holdings were contrary to the Government'scontention that the stream of commerce begins in the factory and ends with theconsumer and may be regulated at any point from beginning to end.
Acreage and Potential Factors in Allocation
Authors: Stephenson Eugene A.
Published: June 2014

The writer apologizes for presenting this very elementary analysis of oneaspect of proration, but a search of the literature failed to disclose anyconcrete illustrations of the effect of various proration formulas upon theallowable oil produced by tracts of different sizes. Many engineers havedoubtless made somewhat similar calculations and are fully acquainted with theresults.

The various allocation formulas that are in use are based on one or more of thefollowing factors:wide-open well potential,potential through anorifice,uniform well allowable,acreage,sand thickness,bottom-hole pressure,productivity index, andvolumetric displacement.

Of these, the unrestricted potential formula, or open-flow test, and theuniform well allowable are commonly regarded by engineers as those least likelyto give each producer his proportionate share of the oil or gas, as representedeither by acreage or by sand thickness, or both, except when the wells arelocated on tracts of large size.

Unless the mechanical equipment that may be used during the potential test andthe method of taking the test are both specified, the net result of thepotential formula is to practically force the operators to use specialequipment and adopt special procedures prior to and during the potential test, so as to secure the largest possible allowables. Much ingenuity and skill havebeen devoted to this problem, but the general effect is to permit excessiveallow ables for very small tracts, and stimulate unnecessary drilling.

It is interesting to compare some of the high yields from the Wilcox horizon atOklahoma City with each other, as an illustration of the effect of anallocation factor based solely on potential (Table 5']. One of the glaringinstances is a well on a 72-acre lease, which had produced, as of September1936, at the rate of almost 3,000,000 bbl. per acre. This is at least twice asmany barrels as could have been present under the property if the reservoir hadconsisted of a tank of oil 200 ft. deep and 72 acre in area.

Numerous combinations of acreage, potential, bottom-hole pressure, sandthickness, etc., have been proposed and are in use in various fields.
Review of Developments at Kettleman Hills
Authors: Collom R.E. , Watson C.P.
Published: June 2014

Various chapters already written in the history of development of the NorthDome of Kettleman Hills are monotonously identical in the one underlying themeof conservation of oil and gas. Discovered on Oct. 4, 1928, by MilhamExploration Co. with its wildcat Elliot No.1, the field has been subjected topractically every modern form of production restraint in the name ofconservation. The record thus far developed shows that conservation was had fora time, at a price; and that unitization must be blessed by single ownership or100 per cent participation to be effective. In fact, incomplete unitizationplaces a heavy handicap upon its participants in the competitive developmentthat follows.

Shut-in Agreement of July 25, 1929

Not long after discovery at Kettleman but after the Continental Oil Co. and theStandard Oil Co. had completed several producing wells in the discovery group, came the so-called Shut-in Agreement negotiated at the instance of theDepartment of the Interior. This agreement became effective July 25, 1929. Thefundamental purpose of the agreement was to prevent bringing on production ofsome 30 wells then being drilled and forestall a flood of Kettleman oil on themarket. A cooperative scheme was developed whereby wells in the discovery groupwould continue to produce. Two of them could not be shut in. Drilling wellswould be completed to a water shutoff in top of Temblor and operationssuspended. Producing wells would contribute the value of 10 to 25 per cent oftheir production to the owners of suspended qualifying wells. The percentagerate of drainage contribution was left to a committee or umpire. Some acreagewas not placed under the agreement. This same acreage later did not come intothe Kettleman Unit Agreement. Several wells on this acreage did not contributeto the drainage fund.

The total amount of oil produced during the 17 months of the shut-in agreement, by Milham, Continental and Standard from wells in the discovery group, was5,297,262.22 bbl. The total amount paid out in "drainage" contributionswas $2,046,048.18, representing sales value of 1,266,044.06 bbl. of oil.
Effect of Temperature on the Gel Strength of Some Gulf Coast Drilling Muds
Authors: Routh B.I. , Craft B.C.
Published: June 2014

A study of the effects of temperature on the gel strength of drilling mudsis a natural outgrowth of the present era of deep drilling. The control of thegel solids is now considered important because it affects the wall-buildingqualities; the suspension of weighting material; the removal and release ofsand, cuttings, and gas; and the control of caving formations.

With regard to the effect of temperature on gel strength Herrick states: "Temperature variation within ordinary limits does not have much effect onyield points." Lewis, Squires and Thompsons investigated one clay and foundno marked change with temperature in either yield point or mobility. Reed foundthat potassium bentonite showed a great increase of gelation with increase intemperature and qualitatively there occurred a marked increase in viscosityupon heating.

The apparatus used in these experiments consisted of a Stormer viscosimeter, Marsh funnel viscosimeter, rectangular and cylindrical shearometers, Mudwatehydrometer, and other minor laboratory equipment. The various methods ofmeasuring viscosity and gel strength have been extensively described by Evansand Reid.

Effect of Temperature on Gel Strength

At the time these experiments were performed, the Stormer viscosimeter wasconsidered the most practical and accurate instrument for measuring gelstrengths and therefore was employed. The initial gel strength was taken as theweight that produced rotation of the Stormer spindle immediately after the mudwas replaced in the test cup, or at zero time after agitation. The 10-minutegel strength was the weight that produced rotation after the mud had set for 10minutes.

T.P. 961
Viscosity Characteristics of Clays in Connection with Drilling Muds
Authors: Broughton G. , Hand R.S.
Published: June 2014

For the past few years a great amount of work has been done on the viscositycharacteristics and gelation of clay suspensions, much of which has beenreported in papers published by the Institute. Important reviews have been madeelsewhere by Evans and Reid, Marshall and Clews, Macey and Rigby, the last twoon the general properties of clay. It is unnecessary, therefore, torecapitulate past work beyond recalling that three explanations for the highviscosity and gelation of clay suspensions have been put forward. For lack ofmore exact nomenclature, these may be called the water hull, mechanicalinterference and attraction-repulsion theories. The first pictures the clayparticles as surrounded by relatively rigid water envelopes, which increaseeffective volume; the second emphasizes the mechanical interference of platyparticles or their agglomerates; while in the third the particles are assumedto be held relatively rigidly at a distance from each other determined by thebalance between the attractive (van der Waal's) forces and the electricalrepulsions of the charges. This article presents fresh data on claysuspensions, particularly on the influence of previous flow history of thesuspensions, specific contra-ions, temperature, solvation and particle size, inan attempt to contribute to the solution of the problem.

Experimental Procedure

Preparation of Samples.-Suspensions of the raw clays were prepared by addingthe clay to water with vigorous stirring and allowing the mixture to stand forseveral hours. In bentonite suspensions, the sand that settled was removed.Many of the suspensions were put through a homogenizer for deflocculationbefore use. The suspensions containing alcohol and pyridine were prepared bygradually adding a known quantity of the C.P. reagent to the clay, shakingafter each addition. They were then allowed to stand for two days beforemeasurements were taken. All concentrations are expressed on a weight per centbasis.

T.P. 1002
Relation of Gas-well Spacing to Ultimate Recovery
Authors: MacRoberts D.T.
Published: June 2014

This paper embodies the results of theoretical studies concerning gasreservoirs, especially the effect of drilling programs of various intensitiesupon pressure depletion and ultimate recoveries. The primary objective has beento determine the net quantity of recoverable gas that could be obtained as aresult of each additional well, in comparison with the gas that might besecured from a single well ideally placed with respect to both acreage andgeological structure. No method is yet known whereby the relative merits ofintensive and sparse drilling can be compared experimentally; a reservoir musteither be drilled closely or developed with wide spacing, but both programscannot be conducted simultaneously. Hence, the analytical method seems to bethe only approach to the problem.

While the present state of our theoretical knowledge does not offer a precisesolution to the problem of gas flow in sand bodies, it takes such appropriatecognizance of the limitations of the methods used as to restrict any answerobtained to the realm of engineering accuracy. In solving the problem for theaverage gas field, it was found that practically the same answers resulted asto pressure distribution, regardless of the size of the drainage radius, eventhough the latter was assumed to vary from a few feet as a minimum to that ofthe entire reservoir as a maximum. Such limits represent extreme possibilities;therefore, the practical conditions that are associated with normal developmentprograms, in which wells are placed in the center of tracts varying in sizefrom 40 to 640 acres, will of necessity result in less extreme variations thanthose indicated in the tables accompanying this paper. Stated more concisely, the amount of gas unrecovered at abandonment (of the particular field used forillustrative purposes) will lie somewhere between 4.6 and 6 per cent of thetotal original content, no matter how intensively the field is drilled.

Gas reservoirs may be divided into two general types, those in which the energyis intrinsic, and those of which the energy is extrinsic.

T.P. 868
Application of Vaporization Equilibrium Constants to Production Engineering Problems
Authors: Katz Donald L.
Published: June 2014

The equilibrium constants developed by Souders, Selheimer and Brown havebeen very useful tools in predicting vapor-liquid equilibria during the pastfive years. Their equilibrium constants were computed by assuming idealsolutions and recognizing the deviations of vapors from ideal gas laws. Thesame fundamental concepts were used by Lewis and co-workers for predictingvaporization phenomena by means of fugacities.

The equilibrium constants are a function of temperature and pressure andmight be considered as replacing the ratio of the vapor pressure to the totalpressure of Raoult's law. They may be used to compute the vapor or saturationpressure of a liquid or the dew point of a vapor for any pressure ortemperature from the analysis of the mixture much as Raoult's law is used.Likewise, the quantity of a mixture that will vaporize at any equilibrium.temperature and pressure and the composition of the vapor and liquid may becalculated.

The purpose of this paper is to review the available equilibrium data ofinterest in petroleum production, to discuss the auxiliary physical propertiesof the hydrocarbons, and to present typical uses of the equilibrium constants.The particular applications chosen are the computation of the results of stageseparation of crude oil and natural gas, the calculation of a pressure-volumecurve of a crude oil-natural gas mixture, and information gleaned from aconsideration of reservoir equilibria.
A Design for More Effective Proration
Authors: Pogue Joseph E.
Published: June 2014

Over a period of years the writer has presented a number of studies onvarious aspects of proration, in a progressive attempt to analyze criticallyand constructively the economic complexities of this interesting institution, which in a decade has revolutionized the economics of oil production in theUnited States. In the course of the investigations leading to these papers, thechanging nature of proration and the principles underlying its evolution havegradually become clear, so that it is now possible to depart from theanalytical method and to construct a synthesis of the steps that, if furtheredby the industry, should carry proration past the economic hazards that stillsurround it to the goal of maximizing the value of the petroleum resource tothe industry and the public alike.

Nature of Proration

Proration literally means the allocation of demand among competing producerson a pro rata basis, but the term now carries a much broader significance forit is employed to describe the entire process by which the production of crudeoil in the United States is regulated. There is naturally much confusion ofthought on the subject, for proration is an evolving system of control basedupon principles of conservation and equity and embracing a body of practicesthat are tending to adjust themselves to the needs of the situation but aresubjected to varying and divergent influences in the process. As it is nowconstituted, proration is a planned production measure designed to preventwaste, insure ratable takings, and balance supply and demand.

T.P. 1028
Development of the Turner Valley Gas and Oil Field
Authors: Taylor Vernon
Published: June 2014

Canada's oil production is obtained almost entirely from the Turner Valleygas and oil field, in the Province of Alberta. This field, about 30 milessouthwest of the city of Calgary and approximately 115 miles north of theUnited States border, supplied 92 per cent of production in Canada during 1937. In 1938 considerable development took place in this field and total productionfor the year amounted to 6,688,716 bbl., an increase of 3,922,146 bbl. over theproduction in 1937, which increased the percentage of production toapproximately 97 per cent of Canada's total. In the British Empire, Canada'sproduction is thus comparable to that of Bahrein Island and Burma, each ofwhich produced approximately 7,800,000 bbl. in 1937, being second to Trinidad'sproduction of 15,500,000 bbl. The total production of the British Empire inthat year amounted to 2.07 per cent of the world's total.

History

Development of the Turner Valley field commenced in 1913, when a well wasstarted near a gas seepage on the banks of the South Fork of Sheep River in thecentral part of the Valley. This well found small quantities of a light crudeoil in beds of Upper Cretaceous age and precipitated a wild boom in 1913–1914 which ended with the beginning of the Great War in 1914. A small amount ofdrilling was done in the years from 1914 to 1922 and a few wells found smallcrude-oil production in the upper sands.

In 1922 a few wells were started, including the Royalite Oil Company's No. 4 well (R, Fig. l), which became the discovery well of naphtha production fromthe Paleozoic limestone. In October 1924, this well was completed at a depth of3740 ft., being approximately 300 ft. in the limestone, with an initial flow of600 bbl. of 72? A.P.I. gravity naphtha and 20,000 M cu. ft. of gas per day.Intense activity was not started until the latter part of 1928, when the OkaltaNo. 1 well (Q, Fig. 1) was drilled, with an initial production of 500 bbl. ofnaphtha per day. This well was only 1? miles from Royalite No. 4, but it wasapproximately 1300 ft. lower on structure and potentialities of the field wereconsiderably increased.

T.P. 1099
Effect of Pressure Reduction upon Core Saturation
Authors: Botset H.G. , Muskat M.
Published: June 2014

Any information that will increase the accuracy of our knowledge of theconditions prevailing in petroleum reservoirs should be of direct value in thedetermination of the proper operating technique as well as in the estimation ofreserves and of ultimate production. The obvious method of obtaining thisinformation is by studying a sample of the reservoir rock and its contents. Inany such study, the problem of primary importance and maximum difficulty isthat of getting the core to the surface in such a manner that its originalfluid content is undisturbed, which has so far proved to be an impossible task.Though it might be rash to say this will never be done, it is certainly safe toassume that a method for the recovery of a core at the surface in itsundisturbed original state may not be developed in the immediate future, andcertainly will not be forthcoming without a great deal of costlyexperimentation.

Therefore any information that may be obtained that will help to correlate thestate of a core (its fluid saturation) at the surface with its condition at thetime it was drilled should be of value to the petroleum industry. Theexperiments described in this paper were undertaken with the purpose ofdetermining, if possible, any relationship that might exist between thesaturation of a core at the surface and its original fluid content. Noconsideration has been given to the question of contamination by penetration ofdrilling water, since this problem has been extensively studied by otherinvestigators. Furthermore, it was regarded as outside the scope of theseexperiments, which were concerned only with the effect of pressure reductionupon the liquid content of cores.

In an experimental study of this sort involving a large number of variables, accurate control of all factors is very important. The essential and obviousprocedure is to vary systematically one factor or condition while keeping allthe others constant, which necessarily involves a rather protracted andsometimes tedious experimental program.

T.P. 1025
Multistage Stabilization of Crude
Authors: Gibson H.S.
Published: June 2014

A process that has come to be known locally as ?multistagestabilization" has been developed in the Haft Kel field of theAnglo-Iranian Oil Co. in southwest Iran, for the recovery of casingheadgasoline. It consists in releasing the dissolved gases from the crude bystages, a practice common in many fields, but which, so far as is known, hasnowhere been carried to the extent to which it is employed in Iran. It has beenin use there for nearly nine years, during which time some 200 million barrelsof crude have been handled by the process. This process of gasoline retentionconsists in preventing the greater part of the casinghead gasoline hydrocarbons(the butanes and pentanes) from ever leaving the crude, instead of allowingthem to be vaporized and then recovered from the lighter gases by the usualcompression or absorption processes. Its efficiency is fully equal to thatobtained by the absorption process; its disadvantage is that it increases thequantities of ethane and propane in the crude sent to the refinery, but withthe growing demand for propane this drawback is vanishing.

When casinghead gasoline is recovered as a separate liquid in the Iranianfields, it is blended with the crude, as the only outlet is through therefinery, and the crude-oil pipe line offers the cheapest means oftransportation. It is under these conditions that the retention of the butanesand pentanes in the crude by multistage stabilization is a most attractiveprocess, possessing as it does the following advantages:extremesimplicity,low first cost,easy installation,practically 100 percent operating-time efficiency,no operators required,no water orother services required,negligible maintenance,once established, verylittle routine testing is necessary.

The one essential for reasonably efficient multistage stabilization is that theflowing pressures of the wells should be relatively high; i.e.,' they shouldnot be less than about one-third the saturation pressure of the crude in thereservoir. This is a very general statement, of course, and much depends on thetype of crude and its temperature.

T.P. 1085
Principles of Well Spacing
Authors: Muskat Morris
Published: June 2014

Although the problem of well spacing is one of the most important involvedin the production of oil, it must be considered at the present time as stillsubject to further development. The published literature on this question is sovoluminous that we cannot enter here into a review of it, except to refer tothe recent papers by L. L. Foley and E. A. Stephenson, where other referencesare cited. However, a decisive and conclusive answer to the problem of wellspacing in any general form does not seem to have been developed. And while weshall be unable to present the desired solution in the present paper, it isnevertheless felt that the material to be given here not only provides thephysical ground work for the ultimate solution, but shows qualitatively theessential factors that enter the well-spacing problem.

Field studies of the well-spacing problem, in which the ultimate recoveriesfrom different fields with different well spacings have been compared, havegenerally suffered from the lack of knowledge as to the similarity of theinherent characteristics of the producing reservoirs being compared, such asthe sand volumes, the sand porosities, the sand permeabilities, the originalreservoir pressures, the presence or absence of gas caps, the presence orabsence of effective water drives, and the economic limits of production ratesat which the various fields were considered to have yielded their ultimaterecoveries. Certainly no one who is evaluating originally the economicsignificance of any oil reservoir would deliberately ignore these phases of theproblem. And it is equally certain that no one would reasonably expect theultimate recoveries from two reservoirs, even with the same well spacing, to beidentical regardless of these other factors.

More reliable results might be expected from comparisons of the recoveriesobtained from different leases with different well spacings, but producing fromthe same reservoir sand. Unfortunately, however, even conclusions for suchstudies may be subject to serious errors.

T.P. 1086
Visual Studies of the Flow of Air-water Mixtures in a Vertical Pipe
Authors: Cromer Sylvan , Huntington R.L.
Published: June 2014

The need for a clear understanding of the physical nature of the flow ofgas-liquid mixtures in vertical pipes is ever becoming more apparent. This typeof flow is encountered when gas and oil are produced from a well; when water isremoved from gas wells with siphon lines and when liquids are elevated by meansof air or gas lift. Although a number of investigators have published data onthe flow of gas-liquid mixtures, in only a few cases has the experimental setupbeen devised to permit visual study. In the fields of heat transmission, suchas the boiling of liquids and the study of the critical phenomena of thehydrocarbons, researchers have been able to throw additional light onheretofore unexplainable happenings through actual observation in glassapparatus. This investigation was therefore undertaken in order to obtainqualitative as well as quantitative results for air-water flow.

Experimental Apparatus and Procedure

The flow column used in these tests was made of standard 2-in. pipe and wasapproximately 98 ft. in height. Pyrex observation sections 2 ft. long havingthe same internal diameter as the wrought-iron pipe were placed at 14-ft.intervals in the column. The bottom of the tube was cut off square andterminated in the mixing chamber. No perforated nipple or foot-piece of anykind was used. To the top of the column was fastened a semicircular return bendhaving a 4-ft. radius.

The flow column was supported by a standard cable-tool drilling derrick intowhich were built observation platforms at each Pyrex section.

T.P. 1080
Development and Application of Subsurface-pressure Data in Kettleman Hills
Authors: McAllister E.W.
Published: June 2014

The decision of the California Oil Umpire's office to accept well potentialsestablished from subsurface-pressure data has brought to the attention of manyoperators for the first time the application of such data to productionproblems. This paper reviews the development and application ofsubsurface-pressure data in Kettleman Hills, where these data have been used inproduction work since 1932.

The Kettleman Hills field was discovered in October 1928. The firstsubsurface-pressure surveys were made early in 1932 and by the middle of 1933the two major operators in the field were making routine pressure runs in theirrespective wells. Shortly thereafter, these companies agreed to exchangepressure data, and later a third company entered into the agreement. This madeit possible to analyze the effects upon the reservoir pressure of pastproduction practices, which are discussed in the latter part of thereport.

It is interesting that many of the applications of subsurface-pressure datadiscussed herein were anticipated by C. L. Clarkt and C. B. Kimberlint in areport2 dated March 1933.

Productivity Index

In the majority of individual well problems involving the use ofsubsurface- pressure data, it is necessary to use a factor known as the" productivityindex," which indicates the ability of a well to produce and represents thenumber of barrels of oil or oil and water per day that will enter the well borefor each pound per square inch pressure drop made opposite the producinginterval of the well. The productivity index may be determined from pressureand production data for one or more rates of flow and a static or shut-inpressure surveyor from production and pressure data for two or more rates offlow. Productivity indices may be based upon either net oil or total fluidproduction. All indices referred to in this report are based upon netoil.

The value of the productivity index for Kettleman Hills wells decreasesgenerally with time and it is not uncommon for the index to vary in value atany specific time for various rates of flow. The decline of the productivityindex may be attributed partly to the loss of reservoir pressure. As thereservoir pressure decreases, gas originally in solution is released from theoil, congesting the flow of fluids through the formation and increasing theviscosity and surface tension of the oil; thus the flow resistance of thefluids through the formation is increased, resulting in a decrease of theproductivity index.

T.P. 1303
Characteristics and Application of an Oil-base Mud
Authors: Hindry Horace W.
Published: June 2014

This paper presents the ingredients composing a type of oil-base mud thathas been successfully used in drilling oil horizons in California, the effectof ingredient concentrations on physical properties, methods of handling at thewell and possible advantages of a waterless drilling fluid with excellentplastering properties.

Introduction

An oil-base mud is a rotary drilling fluid in which oil has been substitutedfor water as the principal liquid ingredient. In recent years such a mud hasbeen developed and used successfully for drilling the oil horizons of wells invarious California fields. There are several types of oil-base mud, but onlythe type that is currently used to any appreciable extent will be considered atthis time.

The oil-base drilling-mud compositions used by Shell Oil Company, Incorporatedhave been covered by several patent applications on which patents are expectedto issue at an early date.

The purpose of this paper is to present data on the fundamental design of themud; the ingredients used and their specifications; the effect of ingredientconcentration on physical properties; the selection of the proper mud; thefacilities needed for handling the mud; and a general discussion on drillingwith oil-base mud.

In view of the early stage of development of oil-base mud, the great number ofvariables, and the almost unlimited possible combinations of these variables, which in turn require extensive laboratory study, there are certainirregularities and omissions in the data presented here. However, it isbelieved that sufficient data are at hand to permit a fairly complete analysisof the characteristics of oil-base muds. In view of the excellent plasteringproperties of oil-base mud when properly proportioned, its use should:minimize the possibility of impairing the natural flow potentialities of theproducing horizon such as that resulting from infiltration of water fromwater-base mudspermit smaller clearances for setting liners, since themud sheath has no appreciable thicknesseliminate the possibility ofclogging the perforations of the liner with thick mud sheathfacilitatethe removal of the mud sheath from the walls of the hole, for its mud sheathhas no appreciable strengthassist in drilling through formations, such as "heaving shale," where water wetting appears to be a source ofdifficultypermit cores to be obtained without contamination from drillingwater.

Fundamental Design of an Oil-Base Mud

In the design of any rotary drilling mud it is necessary to select materialsthat will fulfill the following requirements:act as the liquid medium andregulate the viscosity;impart initial and final plastering properties;give gel strength and structure in order to prevent settling;serve as aweighting material.

T.P. 1322