bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
How Conservation Strategies Contribute to Sustainable Development
Authors: McNeely Jeffrey A.
Published: August 2009

The world is now so tied together by flows of energy, information, and commodities, that action in one part of it is likely to have implications for many other parts. Numerous biological resources — particularly wildlife and forests — are being depleted more by foreign demand than by direct local consumption. Money earned by depleting resources is then often invested in imported industrial products, which themselves may have had negative environmental impacts in the country of their production. As examples we may cite certain pesticides which, on being banned in the countries of their production, are exported to others.
Research in Tropical Protected Areas: Some Guidelines for Managers
Authors: Thorsell James W.
Published: August 2009

A major reason for establishment of parks and reserves is to provide secure areas for long-term studies on the biophysical components of The Biosphere. Research, therefore, should be seen as a legitimate and essential, indeed routine, activity in most protected areas, and particularly in the biologically rich reserves in the tropical countries. But, as with any other use, research needs to be planned and the execution of its results effectively managed. Protected-area management authorities must accordingly have a clear policy of what research they will actively encourage and how to ensure that the results are applicable by management. This paper reviews the range of research topics for which tropical protected areas provide opportunities, and suggests some guidelines on how the protected-areas management authority can most effectively direct and utilize the results of research programmes.
Plants and the Future of Man
Authors:   HRH The Prince of the Netherlands
Published: August 2009

My contribution to the crusade for the perpetuation of all life on Earth, indeed for the very tools for survival if the situation becomes more critical, has been the opportunity to put the case for conservation of Nature and natural resources over to the public in general, and also to present it to the great decision-makers of our time—the men and women who have such mighty power for good or evil, and on whose vision and actions the future of Man depends. I have been able to do this because of the dedicated support I have received from my colleagues in the World Wildlife Fund (WWF), and from our sister organization and scientific adviser, the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), all working in close partnership.
Stress Tolerance of Ecosystems
Authors: Jernelöv Arne , Rosenberg Rutger
Published: August 2009

It is conventionally argued that a stable ecosystem, namely one with high species-diversity and high constancy in physical parameters, is less sensitive to additional stress than a system with varying physical parameters and low species-diversity. By this logic, the Baltic would be more susceptible to additional stress, such as that of pollution, than the North Sea.

Examples of irreparable damage to some of the most stable ecosystems in the world, such as coral reefs and tropical rain-forests, suggest, on the contrary, that these systems are more vulnerable than low-diversity ecosystems, such as a brackish-water zone in the mouth of a river or a coniferous forest in a temperate region.

Studies of stress tolerance in estuaries showed that the species already living under stress, such as that of reduced and changing salinities, were more tolerant to pollution than species in a less fluctuating environment. This adaptability to environmental changes seems to be characteristic of ecosystems with a low degree of individual specialization and high genetic diversity (i.e. a large number of alleles). Following this conclusion, we question the underlying assumptions in the statement that for example the Baltic Sea, which can be regarded as a large estuary, is an area particularly susceptible to stress; purely marine ecosystems are probably more sensitive.

Ecosystem stress-tolerance should be made a top priority in ecological research; this is a necessity inter alia for future localization of industries, in order to minimize their effects on the environment.
The Effects of the Wood-boring Isopod Sphaeroma terebrans on the Mangrove Communities of Florida
Authors: Rehm Andrew E.
Published: August 2009

Investigations conducted along the west coast of Florida from Tampa to Cape Sable have shown that mangroves are confined to the upper portion of the intertidal zone by the wood-boring isopod, Sphaeroma terebrans Bate. As a result of this activity, mangroves are unable to become established throughout the intertidal zone and to extend shorelines in their usual manner.

The attack on mangroves is most severe from Marco to Cape Sable, and is probably the single most important factor responsible for the erosion that is currently occurring along this section of coastline. Throughout its length, tides, temperature, and salinity, appear to influence the severity of the attack on mangroves by S. terebrans.

Mangrove-dominated estuaries from Tampa to Cape Sable serve as nursery areas and feeding grounds for several commercially important marine fishes and Crustacea. The continual loss of mangroves as a result of S. terebrans activity, erosion, and human interference, may well decrease the extent to which these vital estuaries can be used as nurseries by commercially important species.
The Role of Scientists in Achieving a Better Environment
Authors: Malone Thomas F.
Published: August 2009

Roles or expressions of attitude which scientists should play or display in achieving a better environment for Man and Nature need to include (1) a positive and optimistic viewpoint, (2) a proper perspective in time-dimensions, (3) identification of major developments that have profoundly influenced our view of ourselves as humans, (4) development of a rational conceptual framework within which to arrange the activities required to influence the human environment (involving the four basic processes of energy provision, materials-cycling, life-cycling, and information leading to decision-making), (5) relating of these four basic processes to linking Man far more propitiously than latterly to his environment, (6) effective interaction among disciplines and concomitant advising of decision-makers, (7) developing sophisticated insight into the array of societal issues that confront mankind, and (8) tackling the set of environmental hazards that are particularly critical in developing countries.

The paper ends with an appeal to all ‘to reaffirm a robust faith in the destiny of Man.’
Surface-mine Rehabilitation in the American West
Authors: Cook C. Wayne
Published: August 2009

The rehabilitation plan for a surface-mined area should be in detail and prepared as part of the mining plan. The area to be disturbed should be identified as to its vegetation-types and potential for rapid and complete restoration. The rehabilitation plan should show, by means of topographic maps or three-dimensional maps prepared before the advent of mining, the general lay of the terrain and the reconfiguration after mining. Such maps will indicate how soil-slope regulations are being met, how aesthetic acceptability can be evaluated, and how ecological response-units for revegetation can be characterized.

In order to prepare a detailed revegetation plan before mining, the following maps and information are needed: (1) a topographic map, (2) a soil-series map, (3) a vegetation-cover map, and details concerning (4) the wildlife that inhabits the area, (5) the prevailing climatic conditions such as wind and the amount and form of precipitation, and (6) the character of each geological stratum that lies above the coal-seams or whatever is to be mined—including its structure, depth, and possible toxicity.

The detailed revegetation plan should identify where the topsoil or other plant-growth medium will be obtained, so that it can be stockpiled to be redistributed over the spoil material. Fine sandy loams, silty clay soils, and soils that are high in toxic elements or low in organic matter, should be avoided. It is recommended that topsoil material be redistributed over the spoil material to a minimum depth of 18 to 24 inches (457 to 610 mm), in order to furnish adequate depth for root concentration and for storage of reserve moisture following the spring snow-melt. The seedbed should be firm and free from competitive weeds. On harsh sites, water-holding basins or contour trenches should be constructed.

The method of seeding should include either drilling or broadcasting the seed, with due provisions for seed coverage by soil, and the addition of fertilizers and mulches where appropriate. The selection of species should include both native and introduced species that are adapted to the site. A wide diversity of life-forms and species should be included, to ensure stabilization of the area and furnish the wildlife habitat requirements. The season of seeding should be the period prior to the incidence of the most dependable precipitation in the area. The quantities of different seeds in the mixture and the overall amount employed will vary from site to site and with the method of planting. Generally speaking, poorer sites require more seed than favourable sites, and broadcasting requires about twice as much seed as does drilling.

Direct on-site costs for reclamation may vary from $250 to as much as $2,750 per acre (0.405 ha), depending upon saving and distributing the topsoil, shaping the overburden, seed-bed preparation, planting, fertilization, drainage control, mulching, and irrigation.
Declaration of Brussels on Human Well-being in Cities
Authors:   World Environment and Resources Council, Laconte Pierre
Published: August 2009

Most of the large cities of the world are in trouble, and yet in the decades to come a vast additional number of people will live in cities. Enormous population increase produces the steep graphs we are familiar with, yet the graphs showing urbanization are even steeper, due to the migration from country to city.
The Extent and Location of Nature Conservation Areas
Authors: Helliwell D. R.
Published: August 2009

This paper reviews very briefly the main factors of relevance in determining the optimal distribution of nature conservation areas within a region or country. Whilst much will depend on the existing location of areas of high conservation value, the selection of an appropriate strategy for nature conservation within a region will also depend on the likely effects of isolation between conservation areas—which, in turn, will depend to some extent on the types of plants and animals that are to be conserved.

Considering a number of alternative patterns of conservation areas, it is concluded that patterns which combine a minimum of fragmentation with extensive regional coverage are likely to be preferred to more fragmented patterns involving the same total area of land.
Restoration of Seagrasses: With Economic Analysis
Authors: Thorhaug Anitra , Austin C. Bruce
Published: August 2009

The technique of restoration of populations of land plants is an old one that is well understood by scientists, agronomists, forestry experts, and the general public. However, only recently has attention been turned to restoring underwater areas with socalled seagrasses. From 1947 onwards, attempts have been made to restore suitable marine areas by using important species; however, only very recently (from August 1973) have large-scale restoration projects been undertaken.

The efforts that have been made to replant various seagrass species by different techniques are reviewed, but only two seagrasses, Zostera noltii and Thalassia testudinum, have been restored on a large scale. Both of these can be restored successfully; however, the seeding method of Thalassia appears to be the most practical operation of all, and the most potentially valuable for future research into large-scale restoration, as it allows flexibility of location and of depth of transplantation, and involves the minimum of damage to the donor site. It also ensures the most rapid regrowth, besides being in the long run the most economical method yet devised of restoring a seagrass community. An economic model (see Technical Appendix to this paper) and analysis for restoration costs are given and finally a wide range of uses of restoration of such beds of seagrasses are enumerated.
The International Register of Potentially Toxic Chemicals (IRPTC) of UNEP
Authors: Kucherenko Alexander I. , Huismans Jan W.
Published: August 2009

Until recently there has been no international register or international network linking national registers for the exchange of information on, and for, chemical hazard assessment and control. The International Register of Potentially Toxic Chemicals (IRPTC) was established by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) in 1976 and is now in full operation.

The objectives assigned to the Register concern the establishment of a global network of contributing partners through which it can develop its data-bank containing relevant information for an assessment of environmental hazards caused by chemicals, and disseminate this information to decision-making bodies, national authorities, international organizations and other institutions, and to the scientific community that is concerned with the evaluation and control of chemicals in the environment.

The IRPTC operations involve preparation of data profiles for chemicals, the development of a computerized data storage and retrieval system, a query–response service, and the publication of a 4-monthly Register Index, a periodical Bulletin, and other documents. These contain information on chemicals, international and national activities related to issues of chemical safety, and also legislative and regulatory measures for protection of the health of humans and of the environment from the noxious effects of chemicals.
The Ecological Century
Authors: Worthington E. Barton
Published: August 2009

The historical perspective is becoming ever more important in scientific research and development—especially in regions of rapid political and social change, such as former colonial empires, where the past is readily forgotten. Therefore this essay attempts to reconstruct the evolution of Ecology as the scientific basis for environmental conservation and human progress, as seen through the eyes of a biologist who has exercised that science during a number of tasks in various parts of the world over most of the twentieth century.

From its beginnings in evolutionary thinking during the nineteenth century, ecology emerged from natural history at the beginning of the twentieth. At first the running was made by botanists; but this was soon followed by zoologists, who dealt with more mobile communities. The first quarter-century was mainly exploratory; the second was mainly descriptive (although biological exploration was still dominant in the tropics). The third quarter saw ecology developing into an experimental science, and, as the environmental revolution got into its stride, ecology became organized both nationally and internationally.

Although the term is now often misused and sometimes misunderstood by laymen, the last quarter-century is seeing the wide application of ecology in environmental and human affairs, and this gives some assurance that the twenty-first century will not become one of chaos. The Author expresses the hope that experienced practising ecologists will in future give higher priority to applying what they already know than to learning more and more about less and less.
World Campaign for the Biosphere
Authors: Worthington E. Barton
Published: August 2009

The Devil's Advocate, who is a cynic, points to many international programmes which are related to The Biosphere, whether past or ongoing. He asks what a World Campaign for The Biosphere could do beyond attempting to coordinate the coordinators.

The Archangel answers by drawing attention to the success of such programmes in stimulating activity on many important subjects and fronts. But the critical situation of the world now demands more. He therefore hopes that all who have at heart the future health, wealth, and happiness, of mankind, which can only flourish in a healthy Biosphere—whether they be pessimists or optimists—will support the Campaign with all the means at their disposal.

For the purposes of the Campaign, The Biosphere can be defined in summary as ‘the peripheral envelope of the Earth in which living things exist naturally’. Thus it includes parts of the geosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere—and, most important, it includes mankind as the pandominant member of the animal kingdom.

As to a starting-date for the Campaign, there is a case for deferment owing to the time necessary for preparing and approving a programme and then establishing a network organization for putting it into operation. However, considering the urgency of the problems at issue and the timing of related programmes, there is a stronger case for starting now, in 1982, and for including the preparatory phase within the Campaign, which would then commence with the second decade of UNEP.

Four aims are included in the Draft Declaration about the Campaign: (1) education and allied activities, (2) scientific understanding, (3) practical activities, and (4) accommodation of humanity to The Biosphere. The aims (1), (2), and (3), should go forward hand-in-hand in order to achieve (4). The main emphasis could be on (1); but as (2) is already the subject of several international programmes, (3), which provides good material for (1), should also receive emphasis. Meanwhile, much careful discussion will be needed in order to prepare a plan that will be acceptable to participating organizations.
The Biosphere Reserve: A Tool for Environmental Conservation and Management
Authors: Batisse Michel
Published: August 2009

The concept of ‘biosphere reserve’ emerged from the programme of Man and the Biosphere (MAB) of which it constitutes an essential part. This paper describes how the concept has progressively evolved as the Programme was being implemented, and as the multiple objectives and characteristics of Biosphere Reserves were clearly identified.

The primary function of Biosphere Reserves remains the in situ long-term conservation of plant and animal genetic resources, together with research on ecosystem management and conservation, monitoring of changes in The Biosphere, training of specialists, and environmental education. They are being progressively integrated into a world-wide network of ‘representative ecological areas’ that is intended to cover all major representative natural and semi-natural ecosystems.

The paper stresses the flexibility and versatility of the new concept, and gives examples of how this concept is being implemented. It underlines current trends in the building-up of the international network, which now includes 214 Biosphere Reserves in 58 countries, and the future prospects for its full development. The paper also suggests that the direct involvement of the local population in the management of Biosphere Reserves, together with the maintenance of research and monitoring activities in them, constitute the best guarantee for long-term conservation of genetic resources on a world-wide basis. It announces the proposed ‘International Conference on Biosphere Reserves’, which it is hoped can be held in Minsk (USSR) in the autumn of 1983.
Our Global Environment and the World Campaign for the Biosphere
Authors: Polunin Nicholas
Published: August 2009

After a requested account of how, starting from his student days, he had come gradually to ‘care about our Only One Biosphere’ and think globally (even if commonly acting only locally), the Author presents his ‘thoughts on what might best be done to [foster a World Campaign for the Biosphere] and make it operationally effective’. This Campaign should be world-wide and have the objective of educating everybody everywhere to full realization of the following facts and their often imperatively grave implications: (1) The Biosphere constitutes a single integrated whole of which all parts are often intricately interdependent, (2) we humans form an integral part of the Biosphere but are becoming far too numerous and heavily dominant for its or our own good, (3) we are absolutely dependent on the health of the Biosphere for our own subsistence and more as it constitutes our sole life-support, (4) The Biosphere in part or even in toto is in several ways fragile, but (5) it is gravely threatened by various human activities and out-sized capabilities such as those of nuclear weaponry which are said to be sufficient to destroy our civilization several times over, and conceivably even the entire Biosphere.

The second, longer part of the article is devoted to consideration of the following chosen ‘round dozen’ recommended activities through which it is thought the Campaign might best be advanced, at least in its early stages: (1) Publishing and broadcasting pertinent information and support by all appropriate means; (2) Using other vehicles of desirable publicity, including posters and stickers; (3) Instructive advertising and audienceattracting showmanship; (4) Books on the Biosphere and illustrated study manuals; (5) Specialist research and its vigorous application; (6) Need to control human numbers and behaviour; (7) National Parks, Biosphere Reserves, and Biological Gardens, etc.; (8) Pertinent conferences, meetings, and other ‘free’ deliberations; (9) Need to change human attitudes and priorities; (10) Need to establish due ethics and laws; (11) Institutional and organizational involvement towards survival; and (12) ‘Guardians of the Biosphere’ recognition and awards.

The above 12 points largely follow those presaged in the Editorial in our preceding issue, since completion of which it has emerged that this Campaign should be socalled (without reference to any time-scale), and that it might best be furthered by two United Nations agencies, an intergovernmental one, and at least one nongovernmental one—all hopefully working in concert.
Major Requirements for Environmental Education
Authors: Biswas Margaret R. , Biswas Asit K.
Published: August 2009

Environment can be better managed only if people have understanding and appreciation of it. This can be achieved only through environmental education, and that is one reason why environmental education is so important and essential at present. Another is to understand our complete dependence on The Biosphere as our only life-suppert and safeguard it against increasing population-pressures.

The basic aim of environmental education is to make individuals and communities understand the complex nature of natural and Man-made environments resulting from the interaction of their biological, physical, social, economic, and cultural, aspects. There are several major requirements which are likely to contribute to its success. These are interdisciplinarity, interrelatedness, flexibility, non-dogmatism, problem anticipation, emphasis on problem-solving, and ‘practise what you preach’.

Environmental education alone and by itself will not solve all environmental problems, but environmental education is a prerequisite for better environmental management and, ultimately, for safeguarding The Biosphere.
Impact of Utilization of Natural Resources on Forest and Wooded Savanna Ecosystems in Rural Ghana
Authors: Dorm-Adzobu Clement
Published: August 2009

The enthusiasm with which Ghana's natural resources, particularly mineral and forest products, have been exploited during the past century, has resulted in serious environmental degradation in many of the resource-rich areas. The impression has been created, and accepted, that the existence of these resources constitutes a sound basis for social and economic development, and precipitous steps have therefore been taken to utilize these resources—irrespective of the consequences on the natural environment. The present situation is that the costs of utilizing the country's forests, minerals, and soils, are obviously high, when estimated in terms of environmental degradation, and even higher, when calculated in terms of risk of depletion.

There is evidence of the realization, particularly among decision-makers, of environmental and ecological harm having been done through past development, and although there is general concern over inadequate ‘resources’ to rectify existing damages, steps are being taken to ensure long-term integrated management in the future of the country's remaining resources. For example, a national Environmental Protection Council has been established to coordinate all activities relating to the environment, and to advise the government in environmental matters (Dorm-Adzobu, 1980). One of the major concerns of the Council is the education of the public, to understand and appreciate the values of a healthy environment.

Faced with the necessity to combine development and environment in the use of natural resources, developing countries, most of which are basically concerned with nursing ailing economies, have a difficult decision to make—a decision which will not only affect the present developmental process but also have implications for the future. In the interests of a sustained future, such a decision must be based on a serious consideration of the conservational and socio-cultural aspects of natural resource use.
Desert Ecosystems: Their Resources in Space and Time
Authors: Crawford Clifford S. , Gosz James R.
Published: August 2009

The dynamics of desert ecosystems control levels of resources that are essential to the survival of desert biotas. Because precipitation is both low and relatively unpredictable in arid regions, the climates, topographies, and soils, of these areas present formidable constraints to resource availability in space and time. And for the same reason, the processes of production, consumption, decomposition, and nutrient-cycling in deserts are also highly irregular and difficult to predict with accuracy. For example, global models relating actual evapotranspiration to primary production and decomposition apply poorly in arid regions.

Surprisingly great amounts of carbon are stored in desert soils, particularly in caliche deposits which represent a major ‘sink’ of carbon from the atmosphere. In Arizona desert soils, inorganic carbon exceeds organic carbon by a factor of > 10. Direct use of organic carbon is made principally by organisms that break down desert litter and simultaneously cause relatively high rates of nitrogen mineralization. While nitrogen is traditionally considered deficient in arid environments, its flux is considerable because of high rates of gain by fixation and loss by denitrification and volatilization. Nitrogen accumulates in ‘islands of fertility’ beneath desert shrubs where it becomes relatively available because of (i) its high concentration in plant litter, and (ii) reduced activity of any aromatic modifiers that retard decomposition.

It is misleading in deserts to relate nutrient availability to yearly averages, as nutrients may become highly available following pulses of ‘effective’ precipitation. Moreover, mineralization and subsequent availability to plants of phosphorous, the ‘master element’ in nutrient cycling, are moderately independent of nitrogen mineralization and can proceed rapidly. Clearly, the case for nutrient deficiency in deserts may be overstated.

Consumption of primary production has varying effects on rates of resource availability in desert ecosystems. Generally weak regulation of primary production is predicted for consumers of green vegetation, except occasionally during early drought. Carnivores should exert variable controls over their prey, while pollinators, seed-eaters, and detritivores—most of which are strongly soil-associated—should have the greatest impacts on primary production and nutrient cycling.
The Imperative of Disarmament
Authors: Tolba Mostafa Kamal
Published: August 2009

You have heard many eloquent arguments in favour of disarmament, but the deliberations of this Assembly have served to show the watching world that in 1982 we are still where we were in 1978—facing the same stark choice of survival or annihilation.

Modern weapons have the deadly capacity not merely to wipe out cities, industries, and even entire populations, but also to destroy the life-giving systems on which we all depend. I am convinced that the need to preserve our shared environment provides the most persuasive argument for nations to stop this dangerously escalating spiral of the arms race.
Comparison of Parks, Reserves, and Landscape Protection, in Three Countries of the Eastern Alps
Authors: Barker Mary L.
Published: August 2009

Conservation policies adopted in the Provinces of Tirol (Austria), Salzburg (Austria), Bavaria (West Germany), and Südtirol–Alto Adige (Italy), reflect the specific constitutional settings, management fields, and regional planning strategies, of these four regions in the eastern European Alps. Despite differences in historical–political heritage, their conservation programmes exhibit a number of similarities:

1. Early conservation efforts by local communities were justified on the basis of perceived economic benefits, while those of organized conservation groups were directed towards establishing reserves with the objective of strict preservation.

2. Government involvement in conservation increased in the 1970s, when comprehensive legislation covering Nature protection and regional planning was enacted by provincial authorithies.

3. Much of the land in projected and existing parks or reserves remains in private ownership, and long-held traditional land-use rights are upheld.

4. Reserves are established under individual legal ordinances which specify prohibited practices, allowable uses, and permit approval procedures. A land-use zoning approach is used only in the management of National Parks.

5. Provincial legislation requires the integration of Nature protection into regional planning policies and programmes (e.g. the Bavarian Recreational Landscape Plan). Efforts to integrate government programmes on an international level have been limited to discussion and consultation.

The controversy surrounding the proposed Hohe Tauern National Park (Austria) illustrates that, within a setting of long-established vested interests, it is difficult to reach agreement between provincial governments (with their power-utility corporations), local communities (with their economic self-interest), and environmental groups (with their often strict preservation philosophy).
Evaluation of a Natural Park System
Authors: Framarin Francesco
Published: August 2009

The Author's method of evaluating a natural park system is based on that devised and used some 10 years ago by the National Park Service of the USA (i.e. exactly a century after the institution of the first national park of that country and of the world, Yellowstone). In the American evaluation of 1972, serious gaps and inadequacies were identified in the national park system of the USA, which until then did not grow as a ‘system’ but rather as an aggregation. However, that system and its features are not described or commented on, but only the method itself is described.

Then the method is applied to a much smaller (Italian) region—Piedmont—in which the ‘natural parks and reserves system’ has only recently been planned and is beginning to be set up—generally with good individual choices, but apparently without any other sound criterion. The Author finds that the method is still meaningful and useful and, after a brief description of Piedmont in so far as the method requires it, he expounds his main conclusions about the inadequacies of the system and the possible remedies.

Finally, the method is briefly examined in a general way and some remarks are made about it, in order to point out its main merits, which are its synthesizing capacity and its simplicity: so appealing are they, that it is felt necessary to give some warnings about its limitations, which include lack of consideration of sizes of areas, their number, and their distribution.
The Case for High-forest National Parks in Ghana
Authors: Asibey Emmanuel O.A. , Owusu J. G. K.
Published: August 2009

Implementation of a conservation policy of preserving representative samples of all the natural ecosystems in the country has led to the establishment, from 1974, of two high-foresi national parks, namely the Bia and the Nini-Suhien, of an area now totalling 252 square kilometres or 0.3% of the original high-forests of Ghana. Continuing pressures to permit logging and other forms of exploitation for short-term cash benefits suggest that, unlike the national parks in the savanna zone, the need for high-forest national parks is yet to be fully appreciated.

High-forest national parks are vital as:

– A reference-base for scientific studies and for comparison with forests that have been modified through logging, sylviculture, and farming; they may thus provide data for decisions on the most desirable future management of high-forest areas;

– A genetic bank for the most important timber trees and for rare and endangered species and other taxa of fauna and flora;

– A focal point for the breeding and spreading of wild animals which are widely exploited for meat throughout Ghana;

– As a tourist and recreational asset; the high-forest itself is the chief tourist resource within the high-forest zone, providing a unique atmosphere for relaxation and outdoor recreation; and

– As an educational, cultural, ecological, and scientific, heritage of the greatest importance.

Internally, therefore, the policy of creating and maintaining high-forest national parks needs to be strengthened against political and economic pressures, with pursuit of a vigorous effort at educating decision-makers and the general public to an understanding of the many intangible values of natural forests. Externally, a common habitat-conservation policy for the West African subregion is urged—not only to prevent smuggling of protected, rare, and endangered, species across national borders, but also because the environmental consequences of the abuse of Nature recognize no such national frontiers.
Towards Comprehensive Conservation of Environmentally Significant Areas in the Northwest Territories of Canada
Authors: Fenge Terry
Published: August 2009

A wide legislative base is available to conserve Environmentally Significant Areas in the vast Northwest Territories of Canada. However, existing conservation reserves have been designated in an ‘incremental’ fashion, without reference to a guiding plan. Intensive industrialization through hydrocarbon development and increased harvesting of renewable resources are threats to the integrity of many ESAs.

An anticipatory and comprehensive policy to conserve Environmentally Significant Areas (ESAs) in advance of industrialization is required, but developing such a policy will be difficult, owing to the complex political and jurisdictional ‘environments’ in northern Canada. Despite these problems, the recently announced Northern Landuse Planning Policy could be a vehicle for the implementation of a comprehensive conservation policy for ESAs, if only the institutional structures and processes that will accompany this policy are adequately designed.
Conservation in Our Changing World
Authors: Slatyer Ralph O.
Published: August 2009

Conservation must be set in a context in which it is recognized that:

(i) Overall human impact on The Biosphere is the product of the number of people on Earth multiplied by the average impact per person. Both of these factors are continuing to increase although there is already compelling evidence that the present level of impact is exceeding the carrying capacity of the planet.

(ii) The ability of the Earth's natural systems to tolerate different types of impacts varies from place to place. Not surprisingly it is in the world's tropical and arid regions, where rapid population-growth often coincides with ecological systems which are less able than most others elsewhere to tolerate intensive utilization, that many of the world's most intractable ecological problems are found.

(iii) All countries must endeavour to minimize population growth and reduce the environmental impact per person until the overall global impact is reduced to a level at which all peoples can expect to be able to have a comparable but ecologically sustainable level of impact.

(iv) Achieving sustainable levels of impact will require an unprecedented degree of international cooperation. This will involve at its core due recognition that ecologically sustainable development can best be achieved in conjunction with continued economic and social development. It will also require due recognition of how new, ecologically sustainable, technologies will often be the key to ensuring that such continued development is indeed ecologically sustainable.

(v) There is at present insufficient recognition in the industrialized, i.e. ‘developed’, countries that their failure to pay ecologically realistic prices makes it extremely difficult, if not impossible, for commodity producers to follow ecologically sustainable practices. The consequence is land degradation in countries that are dependent on commodity exports, and a diminished or degraded global environment overall.

(vi) There is a strong case for preserving Antarctica from development because of its importance in influencing global weather and climate, and because of its ecological fragility and biological uniqueness. To preserve it as a wilderness will be an important test of international resolve to manage such resources as are still accessible in the rest of the world in an ecologically sustainable manner.
Fertilizer Use and Environmental Policy in Agriculture: A Socio-economic Study in Greece
Authors: Fanariotu Ioanna N. , Skuras Dimitrios G.
Published: August 2009

The growing interest in environmental impacts of agriculture calls for effective agricultural policies to confront the expanding use of chemical fertilizers. Environmental policies in agriculture should be based on evidence concerning the factors influencing fertilizer usage.

A hierarchical loglinear analysis of some social and economic factors showed that age, education, farm size, and employment status, all exert an independent effect on fertilizer usage. In addition, age and education exert a joint effect on fertilizer usage. It is found that the categories most likely to use high rates of application of fertilizer, at least in Greece, are full-time farmers 56 to 65 years old, well-educated or with small-sized holdings.

The EEC's socio-structural policy for agriculture is examined in the light of the above findings. It is concluded that the policy could form the core for an effective environmental policy in agriculture. However, areas are pointed out for the formulation of improved policy with avoidance of mistakes.
Nitrogen and Phosphorus Removal-capacity of Four Chosen Aquatic Macrophytes in Tropical Freshwater Ponds
Authors: Tripathi Brahma D. , Srivastava Jaya , Misra Kiran
Published: August 2009

The nutrient removal-capacity of four chosen aquatic macrophytes was tested in both natural and laboratory conditions. Laboratory experiments were performed under controlled conditions using ‘microcosm’ methods wherein the plants were grown in three different nutrient concentrations. For field experiments, three ponds were selected that had different levels of plant nutrient concentrations and accordingly were treated as polluted, moderately polluted, and relatively unpolluted, respectively, the object being to study the nutrient removal-capacity of chosen aquatic macrophytes living in ‘natural’ conditions. For the present investigation, four common and widespread aquatic plants growing in all three ponds were chosen: Water-hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes [Mart.] Solms), Water-lettuce (Pistia stratiotes L.), Round-leafed Water-fern (Salvinia rotundifolia Willd.), and Lesser Duckweed (Lemna minor L.). These plants were selected also because of their frequent presence in aquatic bodies in the region and their high reproductive capacity.

From the results it is revealed that, during the summer and rainy seasons, the highest content of nitrogen was removed by the Eichhornia, followed by the Pistia > Lemna > Salvinia, while during winter the highest content of nitrogen was removed by the Eichhornia followed by the Lemna > Pistia > Salvinia. Higher phosphorus removal was found in summer than in the rainy or the winter season. Phosphorus removal by the macrophytes was in the order of the Eichhornia > Pistia > Lemna > Salvinia, during the summer and rainy seasons, whereas the highest content of phosphorus was removed by Lemna in the winter months.

The nutrient removal-capacity was rated to be highest by the Water-hyacinth, followed by the Pistia, then the Lemna, and lowest by the Salvinia. It was also evident that the nutrient removal increased with increasing nutrient concentration in the wastewater. The removal of nitrate by the selected macrophytes ranged from 42.0% to 96.2%, while phosphate removal ranged from 36.3% to 70.2%. A positive and significant correlation was obtained between the concentration of nitrate and phosphate in the waters and plant tissues that were studied, and it is thought that a useful strategy to employ might be to grow the Eichhornia and the Lemna together at least where winter temperatures were likely to be low enough to favour the Lemna at that season, though at other times it is apt to be a nuisance.
Philippine Tubbataha Reef National Marine Park: Status, Management Issues, and Proposed Plan
Authors: White Alan T. , Palaganas Vergilio P.
Published: August 2009

Historically, remote islands and marine resources have been free for those willing to venture into their areas. Until recent years, many such islands have been effectively managed by their remote locations and any native humans. But nowadays, under-use is turning into destructive over-fishing and plundering, because there is no surveillance. Many marine parks in South-east Asia are facing the same problems as Tubbataha (White, 1989; Arquiza, 1990). Sustainable management in these areas is a challenge, especially where there are no local authorities or communities to take immediate control.

Field surveys at Tubbataha Reef in 1984 and 1989 have revealed a dramatic decline in the coral-reef quality from the incidence of dynamite fishing, the use of sodium cyanide for the aquarium and live-food fish trades, and the dropping of large anchors. Sea-turtles and seabirds are also endangered.

Solutions in areas such as Tubbataha will require organization beyond the grasp of local residents in the islands, who have traditionally had little formal government. Although they are aware of the problem, they are faced with outsiders and intruders who do not respect their conservatism. National government and/or nongovernment organizations can play a role in management, while being careful not to alienate the positive force and management control of the local communities (White, 1988a). Such issues require sensitive planning and community-based approaches that are directed at education, organization, and the involvement and building of local responsibility.

The management plan for Tubbataha Reef National Marine Park should have three thrusts and concomitant strategies: (1) to curtail immediate resource-destruction through the deployment of a team of educators, community organizers, and law-enforcement officers; (2) to articulate and implement a Park zonation plan which includes traditional fishing areas, sanctuaries, and buoys for anchoring; and (3) to implement a community development programme which will systematically integrate the adjacent fishing community into the Park management efforts and give the fishermen due responsibility in this process.
Environment and Development: Attitudinal Impediments to Policy Integration
Authors: Gale Robert J.P.
Published: August 2009

Attitudes towards the concept of sustainable development—an approach to development which integrates economic, social, and environmental, considerations in development planning and decision-making—are evaluated according to six sectors of public interest: the private sector, the general public, government, the academic and research sector, labour, and the voluntary sector.

The study is empirical. Attitudinal data are gathered from a content analysis of public briefs submitted in 1983 and 1984 to the Royal Commission on the Economic Union and Development Prospects for Canada. For each sector, attitudes towards development planning are assessed, with particular attention given to attitudes affecting the integration of economic and environmental considerations in development planning.

The study shows that a commitment to private-sector views is strongly, although negatively, related to environmental concern. Private-sector interventions are not only the least sympathetic of all six sectors towards the integration of economic and environmental policies, but the majority of interveners in this sector are opposed to the very concept. Given this, there are major attitudinal obstacles to the acceptance of the concept beyond the rhetorical level.
Environmental Economics: Can Economics Help Mother Earth?
Authors: Shaw W. Douglass
Published: August 2009

Ecologists and environmentalists have long been at odds with economists over whether economic theory and practice helps or hinders environmental protection and improvement. This paper suggests that the specific field of environmental economics has contributed a great deal to the potential for environmental improvement, particularly with recent improvements in techniques which attempt to value environmental goods. The basic tenets of environmental economics are reviewed, including the tradable emissions-permits approach, and then specific recent applications of the permit system in the United States of America are presented.

The two basic valuation techniques, travel cost and the contingent valuation method (CVM), are briefly discussed, along with the shortcoming of the travel cost approach in obtaining ‘intrinsic’ values for environmental goods. This paper describes results from experimental economics which support the use of the CVM in estimating intrinsic values for environmental resources. In a new study, subjects in a laboratory experiment pay to prevent the destruction of a plant. This finding should appeal to the environmentalist and ecologist. Lastly, recent developments in macroeconomics and general equilibrium models which incorporate pollution and resource degradation variables, are shown to contribute positively to the goal of global environmental improvement.
Problems Related to Conservation of Coniferous Forest in Norway
Authors: Korsmo Harald
Published: August 2009

In this paper, it is argued that the Norwegian Government must tackle the problems related to the conservation of coniferous forests more seriously and urgently than hitherto, and not let this important task be governed by commercial interests. A national plan based on political, non-scientific motives will not safeguard these ecocomplexes and their component ecosystems and the endangered species found in them.

A practical way to solve the time-consuming disagreements between environmental authorities and forest owners would be to guarantee full compensation, and to start paying for sites of high conservation interest immediately. This compensation must ensure that the forest owners can fulfil such financial commitments as they already have. An alternative would be the exchange of privately-owned forest for public forest land, including forests owned by ‘The Educational Fund’.

The Ministries involved must learn to cooperate in such work. If they do not, Norway's credibility in environmental matters may suffer. Solutions must be reached which do not put sectorial interests before national or international environmental values, and which guarantee the protection of a representative selection of coniferous forests according to scientific principles.