bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
CarrancistaPropaganda and the Print Media in the United States: An Overview of Institutions
Authors: Smith Michael M.
Published: July 2006

Despite the voluminous body of historical literature devoted to the Mexican Revolution (1910-1920) and U.S.-Mexican diplomatic relations, few works address the subject of revolutionary propaganda. During this tumultuous era, however, factional leaders recognized the importance of justifying their movement, publicizing their activities, and cultivating favorable public opinion for their cause, particularly in the United States. In this regard, Venustiano Carranza was especially energetic. From the inception of his Constitutionalist revolution, Carranza and his adherents persistently attempted to exploit the press to generate support among Mexican expatriates, protect Mexican sovereignty, secure recognition from the administration of Woodrow Wilson, gain the acquiescence–if not the blessing–of key sectors of the North American public for his Constitutionalist program, enhance his personal image, and defend his movement against the criticism and intrigues of his enemies–both Mexican and North American.
Know-How and Nationalism: Colombia's First Geological and Petroleum Experts, c. 1940 - 1970
Authors: Murray Pamela
Published: July 2006

Despite its vital role in Latin America's ongoing struggle for economic development, Latin-American scientific and technical education remains a neglected topic among historians. Authors also tend to view it in simplistic terms. While some have seen scientific and technical institutes as agents of Latin America's “dependency” on the North Atlantic world, others have seen them as vehicles of Progress, or have stressed the way in which graduates (scientists and technical professionals) have acted as “anti-dependency guerillas.” Evidence from Colombia, however, confounds any simple view. The founding of the country's first program for geological and petroleum engineers at the National School of Mines in Medellín reflected nationalistic desires to increase Colombian control over the oil industry and subsoil resources in general. Yet, Colombia's national energy policies have not led to state control of the industry as in the case of other major oil-producing countries, i.e., Mexico. What explains this apparent gap between desires and deeds? The following essay seeks an answer by tracing the origins of the geological and petroleum engineering program as well as the ideas and activities of graduates who have been directly involved in developing their country's oil and other resources. Above all, it highlights Colombians' pragmatic approach to development concerns.
Reconsidering Recruitment in Imperial Brazil
Authors: Kraay Hendrik
Published: July 2006

Third Sergeant Wenceslau Martins Leal may have misunderstood his orders for 18 July 1888 but his greater mistake was, in fact, carrying them out too well. With his patrol from the Sixteenth Infantry Battalion, he reported to the police subdelegate of Salvador’s São Pedro parish at 7:00 p.m. and received orders to arrest and take to the fort “all the vagrants that he could find, for the time had come for impressment [recrutamento forçado].” Because the subdelegate did not limit the number of men to be impressed and pointed out the best places to find such “vagabonds”—Dois de Julho Square and the nearby alleys—Leal concluded that he had unlimited authority to put his ten men to work on this “arduous task.” It only took an hour. In a first sweep, they picked up thirty-five men; in a second, seventeen more. Two resisted “tenaciously” and had to be forcibly subdued. By 8:00, the duty officer had developed serious misgivings about the large number of prisoners arriving at the fort. He checked with the subdelegate who denied having given such orders in the first place and released the detainees. An indignant Leal justified his actions on the grounds that he had merely followed orders to the best of his ability.
Maderismo or Mixtec Empire? Class and Ethnicity in the Mexican Revolution, Costa Chica of Oaxaca, 1911
Authors: Chassen-López Francie R.
Published: July 2006

On 18 May 1911, the indigenous Mixtec peasants of Pinotepa Nacional, Oaxaca, rose up against the local cacique and ranchers who had dispossessed them of their ancient communal lands. Thus began not only the lone agrarian rebellion in the state of Oaxaca but also the only attempt to revive a pre-Columbian indigenous empire during the Mexican Revolution. The study of this remarkable episode situates Oaxaca, a state previously thought to be peripheral to this major social upheaval, within the main currents of revolutionary activity.

As in the case of other revolutionary movements, the arrival of Maderista revolutionaries from a neighboring state, in this case Guerrero, triggered the peasant mobilization in Pinotepa Nacional, unleashing social tensions in the area. Although an overwhelmingly rural state in 1910, the Revolution in Oaxaca has generally been characterized by the absence of agrarian protest. Recent studies have found the precursor and Maderista movements in Oaxaca to be predominantly middle class, either urban or rural, seeking social mobility, wider political participation, and greater local autonomy. Nevertheless, the study of the events of May 1911 on the Oaxacan coast reveals a struggle that pitted an agrarian, indigenous movement against a middle class, rancher-style revolution.
Comunas and Indigenous Protest in Cayambe, Ecuador
Authors: Becker Marc
Published: July 2006

The 1930s was a period of slow and painful capitalist formation in the Ecuadorian highlands. Marginalized Indigenous peoples who lived in rural areas particularly felt this economic transition as modernizing elites utilized their control of state structures to extend their power to the remote corners of the republic. It was also a time of gains in social legislation, including new laws which dealt with the “Indian problem.” One of the primary examples of this type of legislation was the 1937 Ley de Comunas which extended legal recognition to Indian communities. In certain parts of the country such as in the central highland province of Chimborazo, Indigenous peoples quickly embraced this comuna structure and formed more comunas than any other area of the country (see Map 1). In similar situations in the neighboring countries of Colombia and Peru, Indian villages also used legal frameworks which the government imposed on their communities to petition for ethnic and economic demands.
Dubious Loyalty: The Paraguayan Struggle for the Parana Frontier, 1767-1777
Authors: Cooney Jerry W.
Published: July 2006

For nearly three centuries, thevecinosof colonial Paraguay defended Spanish interests in the Upper Plata. Turbulent as they were, protesting with violent regularity against unpopular governors and official policies, these “hijos del país” have traditionally been portrayed as the bedrock from which the Paraguayan people and identity sprang. Offspring of the Spanish conquerors of the 1500s and their guaraní consorts, the “mancebos de la tierra,” possessed the full rights of Europeans. They guarded their noble status jealously, while dominating the rural society of the province. With the passage of time their numbers increased, providing the manpower for Paraguay's eighteenth century frontier expansion. In the course of Paraguay's colonial development, vecinos bore the brunt of the militia defense of the province, “a su costa y minsión,” in an unrelenting struggle against nomadic Indians and the putative designs of neighboring Lusitanians.
Street, Block, and Neighborhood: Residency Patterns, Community Networks, and the 1895 Argentine Manuscript Census
Authors: Baer James A.
Published: July 2006

Latin American social historians often decry the lack of statistical material available in the region. In some countries national censuses were not taken in the nineteenth century, and municipal information for the period is hard to locate. The lack of data makes it difficult to investigate such questions as family size, mortality, employment, and residency among those groups which were least likely to provide written records of their lives. As a result, many studies are limited by the availability of data. Recently, however, Latin American social historians have begun to propose additional questions, plumbing the potential of those sources which are available.
Mexican Society and the Franciscan Order in a Period of Transition, 1749-1859
Authors: Morales Francisco
Published: July 2006

Four years before the suppression of male religious orders in Mexico (1859) the Minister of Justice and Ecclesiastical Affairs, Ezequiel Montes, asked the provincials to inform him on the number of friars, their activities and their monasteries' properties (December 22, 1855). The data, which began arriving to the Minister in January 1856, provides some of the most complete information on the nineteenth century Franciscans in Mexico. Comparing this data with what is available for the end of eighteenth century we can draw the following comparative table.

A quick glance at these figures reveals the great deterioration through which the order had gone in a period of seventy years. From 1786 and 1856 the Franciscans had lost three fifths of their members, two fifths of their monasteries and four fifths of their missions. It can be pointed out as a counterweight that, during the same period, two colleges of Propaganda Fide were founded: Orizaba in 1799, and Zapopan in 1812.l But it also should be noted that during the same time a province disappeared, Yucatan.2 The general conclusion, then, is that in no other period of their presence in Mexico, had the Franciscan
Reassessing Cardenismo: The Mexican Right and the Failure of a Revolutionary Regime, 1934-1940
Authors: Sherman John W.
Published: July 2006

In spring 1939 Sonoran ranchers shared with one another the latest mockery of Mexico's president, whom they ridiculed astrompa chula—a reference to his fat lips. It came in the form of a poem:Siervo de los rusos, patrón de extranjeros,que a los mexicanos has dejado en cueroscomo una consecuencia de tu obstinaciónque es madre y señora de tu entendimiento.Por que es muy difícil que pueda un jumentoaceptar alguna rectificatión.Confórmate, hermano, con volver a Uruapán,piensa que a los brutos de cierto los matan,y si has de hacer algo en nuestro favor,una cosa puedes de qué estar ufanocórtale las uñas a tu ilustre hermano,Lombardo Toledano.
Cristobal Del Castillo And The MexicaExodus
Authors: Christensen Alexander F.
Published: July 2006

The history of it was saved, but it was burned when Itzcoatl ruled in Mexico. A council of rulers of Mexico took place. They said: ‘It is not necessary for the common people to know of the writings; government will be defamed, and this will only spread sorcery in the land; for it containeth many falsehoods.’

Fray Bernardino de Sahagún's account of the process by which the Aztec rulers edited their past indicates the magnitude of bias that we may expect to find in historical accounts of pre-Columbian Mexico. Even if this holocaust, and later official manipulation, did produce a single, authorized version of Aztec history, there are many conflicting accounts of events extant today. This is the result of several processes. First and foremost, all of the surviving histories were written in the Roman alphabet after the Conquest. None were direct “translations” of pre-Conquest books; rather, they were new versions of the inherently flexible oral traditions that accompanied these books. Second, different accounts reflect differing regional biases. Itzcoatl may have destroyed conflicting Mexica views of their own past, but many of the chroniclers were from places that were historic enemies of the Mexica, or at best uneasy friends, such as Tlatelolco, Tetzcoco, and Chalco. Each of these accounts preserves some local bias. Third, “history” was consciously recast to reflect current needs. This happens in all cultures, even the Western European tradition, which has traditionally claimed to seek objectivity in the recording of past events. Yet even if exact events are recorded, it is never possible to eliminate all selective bias: at the very least, one cannot record everything that happened. The historian's job is to record what he judges to be important, and structure it within a coherent narrative. In Mesoamerica, this narrative reflected the present as much as it did the past. Because of the cyclical nature of time, future events were bound to reflect past ones. Therefore, written histories were structured so that this was so. Exactly what happened and what should have happened blended into each other, and no need was felt to distinguish between the two.
The Contribution of Bishop Juan De Zumárraga to Mexican Culture
Authors: Hanke Lewis
Published: July 2006

The Commemoration of the four hundredth anniversary of the death of Juan de Zumárraga signifies more than the pious recollection of the contributions to New World culture of this great Franciscan, great Spaniard and great American. For the study and contemplation of his works plunges us once again into the heat and conflict of the Spanish conquest of America, even though Columbus first landed over four hundred and fifty years ago. No one who attempts to study and to interpret this extraordinary event can ignore the life of Zumárraga, nor can he fail to confront the pressing problem which this energetic and able bishop confronted and attempted to solve—how could the Indians be saved?
The Books of Don Fray Juan De Zumárraga
Authors: Carreño Alberto María
Published: July 2006

The Subject of this Study lends itself to a threefold interpretation: it can refer to the books which Zumárraga himself wrote, or to the books which he edited and published, or to those which made up his library, in all probability the first library that existed in New Spain. However it be taken, a study of “The Books of Zumárraga” will give us a glimpse of one of the objects of the invincible zeal that inspired him in his broad vision of his duties as bishop and missionary, as the guide of souls and the father of his flock, occupied with all the necessities of the natives that dwelt within the immense territories comprised in his diocese.

In fact, the constitutive elements of his diocese were two: the conquerors and the conquered. The former, as was to be expected, had their full share of the spiritual defects which the lower nature of any army on active service seems all too prone to exhibit. These faults became even worse among the conquistadores of Mexico when their active service was done and they began to lead a soft, idle life that in many cases incited all their concupiscences.
Fray Isidro Félix de Espinosa: Companion and Biographer of Margil
Authors: McCloskey Michael B.
Published: July 2006

To one who studies the career of Fray Isidro Félix de Espinosa, the strangest fact of all lies in finding that so little was known of him for a century and a half after his death. When Don José Beristain y Souza finally issued his Biblioteca Hispano Americana Setentrional in 1819, all his knowledge of Fray Isidro was summed up in these few lines:

Espinosa (Fr. Isidro Félix)—Native of the city of Querétaro, of the Province of S. Peter and S. Paul of Michoacán, of the Order of S. Francis. Preacher, missionary apostolic, guardian, and chronicler of the College de Propaganda Fide of the Holy Cross of Querétaro; censor of books for the Tribunal of the Inquisition. He was as tireless in his preaching of the Divine Word as he was in perpetuating the apostolic deeds of his brethren; and due to that fact was worthy of being termed “the Julius Caesar of the Gospel in New Spain.” For, like that Roman, he fought by day (though better battles) and wrote by night.
José María Roa Bárcena: Mexican Writer and Champion of Catholicism
Authors: Hammond John Hays
Published: July 2006

The History of nineteenth-century Mexico presents a strange succession of violent changes, political and social upheavals, bitter struggles among rival factions whose aims and ideals were often ill-defined and illusory. The infant republic found that the gaining of its independence was only the beginning of its troubles. The bane of personalism was never to abandon the Mexican political stage, and the ambitions of individuals, to a large extent, were to guide the destinies of the entire nation. José María Roa Bárcena, whose life embraced the last three quarters of the century, was one of the most prominent figures of those troubled times. A man of action, integrity of character, and no small intellectual gifts, he entered resolutely into the struggle between liberals and conservatives, leaving the stamp of his personality on the history of the period.
The Human Aspect of Aves Diplomacy: An Incident in the Relations between the United States and Venezuela
Authors: Gray William H.
Published: July 2006

Veracity, Cupidity and Amity were important factors in the dispute between the United States and Venezuela over the guano on little Aves Island. Less than a mile long and only a few hundred yards wide, the islet caused a war of words out of all proportion to its size. The United States wanted to protect its citizens in their right to gather the residue of bird droppings on that bit of land in the tropic Caribbean which apparently belonged to nobody, while Venezuela considered the same mite of oceanic desert, which is located some three hundred miles north of Margarita Island, as a part of its patrimony inherited from Spain.
Junípero Serra, O.F.M., in the Light of Chronology and Geography (1713–1784)
Authors: Geiger Maynard
Published: July 2006

Padre Junípero Serra, O.FM., Apostle of California and candidate for sainthood, is a many-sided personality. His reputation for sanctity alone has caused one of the greatest research projects in Spanish mission history in this century. His activity as an empire-builder and administrator is a fascinating theme for many writers. Best known as an apostolic missionary among the Indians, he was also a penetrating professor and a much-sought preacher. It would be impossible, even in a more extended paper, to consider every facet of the personality and all the interests of the apostolate—ranging from mail routes to mission methods—of this remarkable, dynamic man. His writings include the whole gamut of existence from rocks to the Holy Trinity. He moved as easily on the frontier as in the classroom. Though he aspired to high sanctity, he could remain quite human, even indulging in an occasional pleasantry.
A Reconsideration of Spanish Colonial Culture
Authors: Lanning John Tate
Published: July 2006

The interpretation of Spanish colonial history has ever ranged to extremes. A political observer once remarked that on the subject of James G. Blaine men went crazy in pairs. And on the subject of Spain Spaniards have shown the same flair from Charles V to Franco. How else can we reconcile “the proud Spaniard” so fixed in popular psychology and the revealing verse of Batrina?

Hearing a. man speak, it is easy to tell where he first saw the light of day.

If he praises England, he will be an Englishman;

If he speaks evil of Prussia, he will be a Frenchman;

If he speaks evil of Spain, he is a Spaniard.
Literary Contributions of Catholics in Nineteenth-Century Mexico
Authors: Steck Francis Borgia
Published: July 2006

Two Poets, both laymen, stand out like brilliant stars on Mexico’s firmament, shedding the luster of the faith they loyally professed on the land they loved with equal loyalty, unfolding for Mexico’s glory the wealth of their poetic genius at a time when the storm clouds were gathering visibly and days of gloom and sorrow lowered over the Church and the faith to which their native land owed so much of her high and enviable culture. The two laymen in question are Manuel Carpio, who died in 1860, and José Joaquín Pesado, whose death occurred a year later. It is generally granted that Carpio and Pesado will always be cited in the history of Mexican literature as the leading revivers and exponents of classicism in their native land, without breaking away completely from the more popular and appealing forms of romanticism. It may be said that, as classicists, Carpio and Pesado took up and brought to fruition the movement begun by Martinez de Navarette and Sánchez de Tagle a half century earlier.
Fray Alonso De La Vera Cruz and the Beginnings of Philosophic Speculation in the Americas
Authors: Reinhardt Kurt F.
Published: July 2006

The perusal of some of the more recent publications in the field of philosophy that have come out of Mexico and South America, such as the works of Oswaldo Robles and P. Derisi, forces upon the North American reader the realization that the European philosophic tradition in the form of the philosophia perennis was firmly established on this continent several centuries before philosophy began to fulfill its vital function in the curricula of the colleges and universities of North America or, more exactly, 235 years before William Brattle offered the first course in philosophy at Harvard College.
Origin of the Franciscan Order in Colombia
Authors: Robledo Gregorio Arcila
Published: July 2006

The Renowned Tertiary of St. Francis, Christopher Columbus, aided by another tertiary, Queen Isabel of Castile, and the Franciscans of La Rábida, discovered the New World on October 12, 1492. It is not established whether or not on his first journey he was accompanied by a priest, although there are several statements to this effect; but it is now historically certain, with the investigations of Father Angel Ortega, O.F.M., that on his second voyage (1493) the Admiral was accompanied by the Franciscans, Fray Rodrigo Pérez, Fray Juan Bermejo and Fray Juan Tisín, and, quite probably, Fray Juan Pérez also (the Guardian of La Rábida, who was the first to recognize and patronize his genius), as well as Fray Antonio de Marchena, cosmographer, Provincial and his counsellor at the Court. Of the latter the Admiral later wrote to the Catholic Kings: “To him Your Majesties owe the possession of the Indies.” These were the auspicious beginnings of the Seraphic Order in the New World.
The Indian Policy of Portugal in America, with Special Reference to the Old State of Maranhão, 1500–1755
Authors: Kiemen Mathias C.
Published: July 2006

Bitter experience had proved to the Jesuit superiors, especially to Father Vieira, that it was impossible at the time to obtain and enforce legislation in accordance with their desires. Consequently, when new laws on the Indians were passed from 1686 to 1693, the Jesuits, now ready to yield from their former unbending attitude, raised no objections.
The First Franciscans of Brazil
Authors: van der Vat Odulfo
Published: July 2006

In the Year 1584, the Minister General of the Franciscan Order, Father Francisco Gonzaga, enjoined on Frei Melquior de Santa Catarina, a Portuguese Franciscan, the task of founding in the “Land of the Holy Cross,” the Custody of St. Anthony. Frei Melquior and his companions arrived in Brazil the following year, 1585, and the first friary established by them was that of Nossa Senhora das Neves in the city of Olinda, the capital of the Captaincy of Pernambuco.
The Franciscan “Mission” to San Fernando College, Mexico, 1749
Authors: Geiger Maynard
Published: July 2006

The Year 1949 is the two hundredth anniversary of the leave-taking from their native land for American missionary endeavors, of the Mallorquin Franciscans, Junípero Serra, Francisco Palóu, and Juan Crespí. They were, however, but a threesome among the thirty-three who comprised the entire group or “mission” that sailed from Cádiz in the latter part of 1749. The coming anniversary, therefore, suggests the proper occasion to study from the original sources, the methods, chronology, and personalities involved in that great missionary enterprize that meant so much for the Americas. The greater part of the material of this article is based on the expediente, No. 5546, of Contratación, located in the Archivo de Indias, Sevilla, Spain. It is entitled: “Mission de Sn. Franco, para el Collegio de Sn. Fernando de Mexico. Año de 1749.” The writer found it at Sevilla in the fall of 1946.
Viceroy Francisco de Toledo and the Just Titles of Spain to the Inca Empire
Authors: Hanke Lewis
Published: July 2006

The best example of the effect produced by Fray Bartolomé de las Casas’ theoretical writings concerning the just title Spain held to America occurred in Peru during the rule of Viceroy Francisco de Toledo, wise law-giver, energetic administrator, and greatest viceroy Spain ever sent to Peru, who laid the basis for Spanish rule there during the years 1569–1582. Before his coming, Peru had had a most turbulent and bloody history, and Toledo arrived with one great aim—to establish without question in this territory the position of the King of Spain. One of his earliest acts was to execute the Inca, Lord Tupac Amaru, the Indian leader who refused to accept Spanish rule. Presently, with a view to establishing Spain’s juridical title to Peru, he undertook an extensive historical investigation which attempted to demonstrate the unjust nature of the Inca regime and thus demolish the doctrines of Las Casas.
Two Unknown Manuscripts Belonging to Early California
Authors: Piette Charles J. G. Maximin
Published: July 2006

In a preceding article we have tried to draw a provisional list of the diarios describing the voyages of exploration and the life of the pioneers of Upper California during the period covering the years 1769 to 1784. We should now like to introduce two new documents which have hitherto been unknown. They bring to a fitting completion the list of Crespi’s diarios, first by adding a sensational new item; and, secondly, by giving us a new transcript of the five diarios up to 1772, which is decidedly superior to the copy of Palou-Figueroa, either in manuscript or in the México and San Francisco editions. Furthermore, as a result of this discovery, we can infallibly re-assemble the complete text of Serra’s original Diario, which has been missing until today.
The Franciscan Provinces of South America
Authors: Habig Marion A.
Published: July 2006

The first Franciscan to enter the present Ecuador was the well known Fray Marcos de Niza, who accompanied the conqueror Benalcázar from Caxamarca, Peru, to Quito in 1533, and thence returned to Mexico. There, it seems, he was instrumental in sending the first Franciscan missionaries not only to Peru but also to Ecuador. In 1534, the year in which the city of Quito was founded, the Father Commissary Fr. Juan de Granada sent three friars from Mexico to Ecuador: Fr. Jodoco Ricke (de Rycke) de Marselaer, Fr. Pedro de Gosseal, and Fr. Pedro Roqueñas.

In the same year Fr. Jodoco began the founding of the famous Franciscan church and friary in Quito. They were only small and poor structures then, and it took more than a century before the present church and friary were completed. The first doctrinas to be founded outside of Quito were Santa Clara de Pomasqui, San Juan de Cotocollao, and San Jorge de Perucho. Additional friars soon joined the original group, and under Fr. Jodoco’s direction friaries were founded also at Cotocollao, Guano, Pasto in southern Colombia (probably in 1549), Cuenca, and Loja.
Francisco Bramon’s el Triumpho de la Virgen
Authors: Benwell Frank Paul
Published: July 2006

THIS ONE-ACT AUTO, El triumpho de la Virgen, comprises most
of Book III of Francisco Bramón’s Los sirgueros de la Virgen sin
original peccado, a pastoral novel published in Mexico in April,
1620. It was presumably performed immediately following Mass in the chapel
of the Virgen de los Remedios in celebration of this patron saint of Mexico
City.
Attitudes and Cultural Patterns in Spanish
Proverbs
Authors: Raymond Joseph
Published: July 2006

AS A MAN’S SPEECH MIRRORS HIS THOUGHTS, so do a people’s proverbs reflect
dominant attitudes and cultural patterns. Many observers have felt that the
enormous store of Spanish proverbs should afford great insight into the
Spanish way of life. Yet, to the writer’s knowledge, no one has attempted
systematically to demonstrate or to reject this notion. The purpose of this
paper is to arrange into an over-all picture certain prevalent attitudes and
cultural patterns suggested in Spanish proverbs. The original proverbs
supporting these patterns are quoted in footnotes. Examples are suggestive,
but no means exhaustive, since in many cases the list would number several
hundred items.
Tenth Muse
Authors: Royer Fanchón
Published: July 2006

The room was rude and probably a little damp, because of the altitude and the prodigious rains sustained on the sierra, but it was also substantial, thick-walled in adobe and floored with the great rough bricks universally used in the period. Heavy, hand-hewn beams supported the weight of the sloping roof, made snug by countless overlapping tiles. The gloom of the rude chamber was candle-spotted, revealing, if dimly, its meagre but heavy furnishings; and a hearth fire must have contributed additional brightening, since it was nearing the very coldest season in the highlands, November. It was November 12 and approaching midnight in the Year of Grace, 1651.
The Franciscan Contribution to Mexican Culture
Authors: Rios Eduardo Enrique
Published: July 2006

Three centuries of fertile activity from San Fernando to Isabel la Católica place Spain in a prominent position among the nations of Europe. From being the source of revelation and interpretation of Eastern Culture, she becomes on the eve of the discovery of America, the disseminator of Western Culture.

At the end of the fifteenth century, Spain finds itself prepared to accomplish its high historic mission. Armed with a powerful Christian Faith, victorious in its secular struggle against the Moors, unified spiritually and politically, but nevertheless yearning for deeds of prowess and adventure, Spain feels the imperative necessity of spreading over the New World its spiritual abundance.
Literary Contributions of Catholics in Nineteenth-Century Mexico
Authors: Steck Francis Borgia
Published: July 2006

A Phase of American history that calls for a more adequate appraisal is the role played by Catholics in the cultural life of Mexico during the nineteenth century, from Hidalgo’s dash for independence in 1810 to the collapse of the Díaz regime in 1910. It is commonly believed that during these hundred years Catholics in Mexico were dolefully sitting on the sidelines and sucking their thumbs, wistfully waiting for a chance to enter once more and enrich with their contribution the temple of national culture. So many imagine that Catholics in nineteenth-century Mexico, being fettered politically and black-listed socially, manifested little interest and made no worthwhile contributions along cultural lines. Belonging generally to the so-called “conservative” party in the political arena, they are supposed to have been debarred from the cultured “liberal” circles of the day and for this reason remained inarticulate, contributing nothing of real importance and enduring value to the culture of independent Mexico and exerting no appreciable influence on contemporary literature, art, science, and education.
The Franciscan Provinces of Spanish North America
Authors: Habig Marion A.
Published: July 2006

A Survey of the history of the Franciscan Provinces and Mission Colleges of Hispanic America, particularly of the colonial period, it seems to the writer, will be a contribution to historical scholarship inasmuch as it will point the way for further investigations by those who are devoting or who wish to devote themselves to historical research.

To many others who perhaps have heard only of the Franciscan Missions of California, such an outline will convey a faint idea at least of the magnitude and extent of the missionary work which has been carried on by the sons of St. Francis in the vast Spanish and Portuguese portions of the New World.
In Quest of Serrana
Authors: Geiger Maynard
Published: July 2006

When Father Bartolomé Lledó, parish priest of St. Peter’s Church, Petra, Mallorca, entered another name into the baptismal register on Nov. 24, 1713, he automatically became the originator of “Serrana” as we will henceforth call Serra literature. He wrote but five succinct lines in current Mallorquín and no doubt looked upon it as a routine though obligatory task. The subject of his entry might have turned out to be no more than a God-fearing, industrious Mallorcan farmer and thus the body of Serrana would have remained just five lines of Mallorquín. But by the time another priest, Father Francisco Palou, on Sept. 5, 1784, at the Indian mission of San Carlos de Monterey, in California, wrote an unusually long death record in the libro de difuntos, events fraught with significance in Church and State had occurred. Miguel Joseph Serra had died as Fray Junipero Serra, founder and Presidente of the California missions. Seventy full and energetic years had passed, packed with thoughtful plans, arresting drama, and ceaseless activity in which oratory, authorship and practical administration were happily blended. Seventy years of Serrana had come into existence.
Chile and Hispanic-American Solidarity, 1810–1830
Authors: Marcus Elliot A.
Published: July 2006

The Recent sweeping innovations in the Organization of American States and the provisions of the Treaty of Mutual Assistance constitute in certain respects a return to the political concepts of Bolívar’s Americanism. Through the present study of these early ideas as they existed in Chile we hope to show that the modern Pan-American movement had its origin in the early nineteenth-century ideals of Hispanic-American solidarity.
Some Historical Values in a Famous Mexican Novel
Authors: Knapp Frank A.
Published: July 2006

Los bandidos de rio frio, the famous Mexican “costumbrista” novel set in the decades prior to the middle of the nineteenth century, has been considered the outstanding production of its author, Manuel Payno y Flores (1810–1894). Critics of Spanish American literature frequently have dissected the work for merits and defects primarily from a literary standpoint, although many of them have called attention to its unusual sociological-historical elements. Professor J. R. Spell has ranked it, along with other novels of Payno, the best social presentation of Mexico through a fiction medium since Francisco J. Lizardi’s El Periquillo Sarniento, while Antonio Castro Leal has stated that “the spectacle is so rich and varied that it may well be said that the novel is the painting of an entire epoch.”
La Generala
Authors: Royer Fanchon
Published: July 2006

Some twenty years after cortés consolidated the Conquest, New Spain experienced its most serious Indian uprising. This was the Mixtón War, which flared up unexpectedly in New Galicia during the rule of Mexico’s first and very celebrated Viceroy, Antonio de Mendoza. The immediate cause of the insurrection was the relapse into paganism of the chieftains of those tribes inhabiting the area surrounding Tlaltenango, situated inconveniently close to Guadalajara. Here the obnoxious rites of the pre-Conquest religions were suddenly re-established, and, before the Imperial Government at Mexico City awakened to the extent of this threat to the general peace, large numbers of tribesmen had been drawn into the dismaying retrogression and commenced violent aggressions against the colonists and the friendly Christian Indians of that section.
Emilia Pardo-Bazan and the Americas
Authors: Hilton Ronald
Published: July 2006

The centenary of the birth of Doña Emilia Pardo-Bazán in 1852 is being celebrated with an enthusiasm which indicates that at last her remarkable qualities are properly appreciated. Most of the centenary celebrations stress her creative work as the author of the novels Los Pazos de Ulloa and La Madre Naturaleza. Her fictional writings are so distinguished that there is a tendency to forget that her historical and critical works are unusual and worthy of study. It may be relevant to note here that she wrote several books about the Franciscan movement and that she was a member of the Third Order of Saint Francis. Her two-volume San Francisco de Asís (1882) was highly praised by Pope Leo XIII, and she celebrated the fourth centenary of the discovery of America in her study Los Franciscanos y Colón (1892).
Chile and Hispanic-American Solidarity, 1830–1865
Authors: Marcus Elliot A.
Published: July 2006

The Regional Security provisions of the Rio Treaty of Mutual Assistance dealing with individual and collective defense, along with the structural and juridical reorganization of the inter-American system of Bogotá in 1948, constitute to a certain degree a return to Bolivarian political concepts of a Hispanic-American union or confederation. This was the dominant theme and leitmotiv of inter-American relations from 1830 to 1865. It is our purpose in this present study to present the attitude and position of Chile towards these expressions of hemisphere solidarity during this period of the mid-nineteenth century.
“Water” in Mexican Place Names
Authors: Raymond Joseph
Published: July 2006

Water is a Prominent Theme in Mexican place names. Of at least 50,000 Indian toponyms, an untold number of references are made to water: its abundance, scarcity, shape, size and quality (i.e., color, taste and purity for drinking).

A study of Mexican place names makes it apparent that the proper distribution of water is historically one of the basic problems confronting the country; this is indirectly substantiated by many allusions to aqueducts and to the question of water ownerships in a given place. Rivers, too, play an important part in Mexican toponyms; the same applies perhaps more so to springs. Vegetation and fauna frequently are identified with hydronyms in Mexican place names. Diverse actions are associated with another group, while stones and soil figure in still another class. Canoes appear in another cluster of place names.
What Is “Latin America”?
Authors: Ryan Edwin
Published: July 2006

What have we in mind when we speak of “Latin America”? The designation is frequently employed but it seems to convey a variety of notions and the vagueness and inaccuracy with which it is associated have generated a confusion which if persisted in may prove dangerous. Many persons appear to believe that “Latin America” designates a region extending from the Rio Grande to Cape Horn in which all or nearly all the inhabitants are “Latins” (whatever that means) who speak Spanish and whose customs are substantially alike. Some persons have advanced beyond that grotesque misconception to the point of realizing that there are some differences among the “Latin Americans”, that not all of them speak Spanish, and that statements true of one part of the region are not true of other parts. But that is about as far as many of our citizens advance, and even those who have arrived at a realization that “Latin America” is not a single homogeneous place seem to retain the notion that nevertheless “Latin America” can be dealt with without regarding the differences, some of them profound, that distinguish, let us say, Ecuador from Argentina or Guatemala from Venezuela.
The Generation of ’Eighty
Authors: McGann Thomas F.
Published: July 2006

Before the argentine revolution of 1810, land was the principal source of wealth and the sanction of social position in the otherwise resourceless Viceroyalty of the Rio de la Plata. The revolution of May did not significantly alter the fundamental social, political and economic relationships between the masses of the people, the landowners and the soil. And although the administration of Rivadavia in the 1820’s and the dictatorship of Rosas in the next two decades were poles apart in their philosophies of society and government, each bore the same fruit in the further concentration of land in the hands of a relatively few men. After the fall of Rosas and the return of the exiled unitarios in 1852, the position of the landed gentry was not changed, despite the work of men like Urquiza, Mitre and Sarmiento, who applied themselves to the task of awaking Argentina from its long sleep of reaction. These victorious leaders were liberal and pragmatic, but there was no Argentine Homestead Act during their administrations. They accepted the land system as it was and tried to build upon it by spinning out the means of communication and transportation and technical development that would make it workable and by bringing in immigrants to make it fruitful. Aside from the establishment of a few colonies, the methods of land distribution and the laws of landownership remained essentially unchanged. Indeed, the governments that came after the Rosas regime, needful of revenue and concerned with the white elephant that was the government domain, embarked on much the same types of real estate deals as had the tyrant. In one case, in 1857, the government leased 3,000,000 hectares of land to 373 people; in 1867 Mitre’s government sold this land on easy terms to its renters.
Don Joaquin Garcia Icazbalceta
Authors: Carreño Alberto María
Published: July 2006

On September 11, 1875, a select group of intellectuals met in the house of Don Alejandro Arango y Escandón. They came for the purpose of organizing and constituting in Mexico the Academia Mexicana Correspondiente de la Real Española. The group was made up of Don José María Bassoco, Don Alejandro Arango y Escandón, Don Casimiro del Collado, Don Francisco Pimentel, Don José Sebastián Segura, Don Manuel Peredo, Don José María Roa Barcena, Don Manuel Orozco y Berra, and Don Rafael Angel de la Peña. Also among them was a man in the prime of life : strong of body, with a kind but penetrating gaze, totally without affectation, yet extremely persuasive; his whole manner attractive and distinguished. What was he doing among all these others whom Fame had already made her chosen favorites, since this man always modestly recalled the fact that he had never had the opportunity of attending a public school? Yet that same gentleman was to become the very soul of this scholarly body, even though he insistently declared the contrary through the succeeding years; the succeeding years in which he was to mount that height in which his name would live both within and without our country from generation to generation. This genius in the world of letters was Don Joaquín García Icazbalceta.
Gaetan Souchet D'Alvimart, The Alleged Envoy of Napoleon to Mexico, 1807–1809
Authors: Houdaille Jacques
Published: July 2006

When in 1808 Napoleon replaced the unfortunate Bourbon King, Charles IV, by his own brother Joseph Bonaparte on the throne of Spain, he undoubtedly was not unmindful of the Spanish possessions in America. Without them Spain would be no more than a second rate power. Mexican silver must have lured the French Emperor, who like all conquerors was in constant need of money. The wealth of the Indies was one of the arguments he used in order to convince Joseph to give up the Crown of Naples for that of Spáin. Furthermore, it had been for many years the dream of French merchants to trade with the distant and wealthy lands which the poorly documented work of the Abbé de Raynal, Histoire Philosophique … had made quite popular in Europe by the end of the eighteenth century.
A Bibliography of British Travel Books on Argentina: 1810-1860
Authors: Trifilo S. Samuel
Published: July 2006

Books of travel and books inspired by travel have probably been more popular in Great Britain than any other literary form, with the exception of novels.

This was especially true in the nineteenth century, when travel, owing to the lack of today's facilities, was reserved for the relative few. During that period, photography had not yet replaced the written word, as is happening in our own generation. The nineteenth-century Englishman wandered through the medium of a travel book and not through newsreels, travelogues, and even full-length movies. Today, the Englishman, like the American, is able to sit in his living room and see the world on his television screen. He is not dependent on literature to the extent that his grandfather or great-grandfather was. For the Englishman of the nineteenth century, therefore, travel literature was very important. Often, these books furnished the only source of information concerning strange lands and strange peoples.
Gladstone and Jamaica
Authors: Knaplund Paul
Published: July 2006

Early in his political life the famous British statesman, W. E. Gladstone, had close contact with colonial problems. His maiden speech in the House of Commons, June 3, 1833, was a defense of his father against charges that slaves were mistreated on the Gladstone plantations in Demerara; his first government post was that of Parliamentary Undersecretary of State for the Colonies; before the end of the 1830's he had served on many committees which studied questions relating to the colonies; and in 1846 he was Secretary of State for War and the Colonies. In 1835 and again in 1849 he drafted pamphlets on the British colonial empire; by mid-nineteenth century he was a leading advocate of colonial self-government; and his speech “Our Colonies” at Chester, November 12, 1855 (published as a pamphlet), was a clear statement of his creed that “ freedom and voluntaryism ” should govern the relationship between Britain and the overseas portions of the British Empire. While in later years noncolonial issues received most of his attention, he never abandoned his faith in freedom as the basic remedy for intra-imperial problems. In the closing years of his political career he fought magnificently but vainly to apply that principle of freedom (which had stilled colonial discontent) to the age-old Irish question.
Colonial Music in Colombia
Authors: Stevenson Robert
Published: July 2006

The list of memorable European musicians working in New Granada begins with a chance arrival at Cartagena in 1537—Juan Pérez Materano. Dispatched from Spain with a royal appointment to head the music in a Mexican or Central American cathedral, he landed first at Cartagena. In a letter to Charles V dated October 7, 1537, the Cartagena civil officials laud his voice and bearing: these have proved so agreeable during his stopover that they have prevailed upon him to stay and to become chantre of the already functioning Cartagena cathedral, rather than continuing to Yucatán. Arriving between first and second bishops of Cartagena, Pérez Materano found a wooden cathedral but with a “very imposing and good”corodominated by an elegant choirbook stand. By the time this primitive cathedral was burned in February of 1552, he was already teaching or was soon to teach Juan de Castellanos, the imitator of Ercilla. Castellanos in his long poem on the foundation of New Granada calls Pérez Materano a “Josquin dez Prez” in theoretical knowledge.
Plácido Vega: A Mexican Secret Agent in the United States, 1864–1866
Authors: Miller Robert Ryal
Published: July 2006

Mexico in the 1860's was torn by bloody civil war between liberals and conservatives, aggravated by the intervention of thousands of French troops who supported the conservative faction. This latter group set up a monarchy in Mexico headed by Emperor Maximilian von Hapsburg and soon controlled most of the country. However, the liberals and republicans under President Benito Juárez were never completely conquered; they eventually rallied and their triumph was symbolized by the execution of Maximilian in 1867. The European intervention forced President Juárez to seek aid from the United States, and he dispatched several secret agents north with orders to secure arms, men, and moral support for his government.