bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Understand Your Audiences
Authors: Meredith Dennis
Published: August 2021

Contrary to what many researchers believe, lay audiences see scientists in a very positive light, meaning that they have a natural credibility. Researchers need to understand audiences in order to communicate effectively. Audiences are “need-to-knowers,” concentrating on topics that are particularly relevant to them. They also communicate within their own values, so scientists need to use communication strategies that take such personal values into account. Scientists also need to “pop their perceptual bubbles” that prevent them from understanding audiences. That is, they need to understand that audiences are not as engaged in science as they are and that their egos should not lead them to use technical terms when communicating with lay audiences.
Organize Dynamic Multimedia Presentations
Authors: Meredith Dennis
Published: August 2021

Researchers can synergistically increase the impact of their text, audio, and visuals by integrating them into multimedia packages that present their work in a coherent framework. Multimedia presentations can take many forms. These might include virtual tours of a laboratory or center, explanations of a specific research discovery or research program, or multimedia explorations of a topic. Producing multimedia packages requires not only understanding video and audio production techniques, but also forming production teams to plan, execute, and market the multimedia package. A marketing plan can be done in consultation with your public information officer, committees, administrators, and others. After a multimedia package is debuted, it should be periodically reviewed and feedback invited to improve and update the package.
Should You Be a Public Scientist?
Authors: Meredith Dennis
Published: August 2021

Deciding whether to be a “public scientist”—using the media spotlight to highlight important issues—means deciding whether one is a natural explainer. Also, it must be decided how much time and effort can be committed to such outreach and how it impacts research and other activities. Explaining research does offer satisfactions, in that the researcher is contributing to public understanding of science. One problem is that the coverage of science and technology is small and shrinking. That said, opportunities to reach the public directly through websites and social media are considerable. The role of public scientists and the importance of explaining research in general are becoming ever more critical because failure to bridge the information gulf between researchers and the public will hamper, perhaps tragically, our ability to solve the massive global problems we face—climate change, resource depletion, ecological damage, food security, and disease.
Disorienting Empire
Authors: Dufallo Basil
Published: August 2021

Disorienting Empire is the first book to examine Republican Latin poetry’s recurring interest in characters who become lost. The book explains the prevalence of this theme with reference to the rapid expansion of Rome’s empire in the Middle and Late Republic. It was both a threatening and an enticing prospect, the book argues, to imagine the ever-widening spaces of Roman power as a place where one could become disoriented, both in terms of geographical wandering and in a more abstract sense connected with identity and identification, especially as it concerned gender and sexuality. Plautus, Terence, Lucretius, and Catullus, as well as the “triumviral” Horace of Satires, book 1, all reveal an interest in such experiences, particularly in relation to journeys into the Greek world from which these writers drew their source material. Fragmentary authors such as Naevius, Ennius, and Lucilius, as well as prose historians including Polybius and Livy, add depth and context to the discussion. Setting the Republican poets in dialogue with queer theory and postcolonial theory, the book brings to light both anxieties latent in the theme and the exuberance it suggests over new creative possibilities opened up by reorienting oneself toward new horizons and new identifications—by discovering with pleasure that one could be other than one thought. Further, in showing that the Republican poets had been experimenting with such techniques for generations before the Augustan Age, Disorienting Empire offers its close readings as a preface to the interpretation of Aeneas’s wandering journey in Vergil’s Aeneid.
Catullan Wanderings
Authors: Dufallo Basil
Published: August 2021

A symbol of disorientation par excellence, the Cretan Labyrinth has become an emblematic image of Catullus’s longest extant work, his “epyllion,” poem 64, on the marriage of Peleus and Thetis. Chapter 4 argues that due to this depiction and others like it of wandering and roaming in the spaces of Rome’s ever-growing empire, Catullus’s oeuvre represents the culminating example of the Republican poets’ interest in becoming lost as a theme related to expansion. After tracking the theme in the fragmentary “neoteric” poets Cinna, Calvus, Caecilius, and Varro of Atax, this chapter proceeds via a series of specific Catullan examples. In poem 22, Catullus underscores the disorientation of the erring self as a special concern by calling attention to each person’s self-delusional error (20). Catullus depicts a disorienting epic-style journey to Asia Minor, a site of Roman expansion, in another “epyllion” on the eunuch priest of Cybele, Attis (poem 63). Poem 61 represents the roaming, androgynous marriage god Hymen as responsible for producing youths to guard Rome’s imperial borders. The wandering course of the Argonauts in poem 64 again directs attention toward Rome’s imperial ambitions in the Greek East, while the fearful errores of the Cretan Labyrinth link the myth of Theseus to the Argonautic story so as to make wandering an ambiguously unifying theme of the poem as a whole. Such geographical movements become unstable analogs in Catullan verse for internal transitions from love to hate, erotic and familial attachment to isolation and abandonment, and even male to female.
Caesar’s Mistakes and Horace’s Errores
Authors: Dufallo Basil
Published: August 2021

Although the book’s main concern is with Latin poetry of the Republic proper, Chapter 5 extends its analysis into the “Triumviral Period” (44–29 BCE) and thus closer to the Augustan Age. As Rome fell into a new round of bloody civil conflicts through which two essentially monarchic rulers—first Julius Caesar and then Octavian/Augustus—sought dominion over the whole empire, the poetic conceit of making one’s way through disorienting circumstances became freighted with new meaning. Vergil in the Aeneid was not the only poet to adopt this conceit in response to these events. But recognizing as much requires a different understanding of how the theme of becoming lost relates to the expansion of Roman power and the interplay between Greek and Roman culture. Rather than use the motif to figure travel in far-flung areas of the empire, Horace’s Satires, book 1, with its Epicurean satirist personae vulnerable to some of the same charges of queer attitudes and behaviors as Lucretius, limits its ramblings geographically to Rome and Italy. In doing so, however, it makes them into a means of suggesting the stable—and potentially universal—power of the man already dominant in the whole of the Western empire: Octavian. Horace’s presentation involves a skillful handling of Octavian’s links to the divine, particularly the divinity of his deceased adoptive father, Julius Caesar, whose worship Octavian himself had already introduced into state-sponsored cult. Satires 1 thus reveals awareness of the empire-wide projection of power on which Octavian’s position of leadership was coming to depend.
Epilogue
Authors: Dufallo Basil
Published: August 2021

Vergil’s Aeneid has so successfully canonized Aeneas as the paradigmatic Roman hero, in whom Augustan audiences must have seen their own struggles mirrored, that it can be easy to lose sight of the fact that Vergil had to contend not only with the exigencies of his present-day social and political context, but also with the potential for his subject matter to derail itself, go off course onto potentially less successful pathways that the earlier literary tradition had opened up for it. Vergil’s poetic choices about his portrayal of Aeneas’ disorientation are in this sense reorientations of a poetic past that could have resulted in a very different Aeneas from the one whom Vergil does present. By way of rounding off this book—and suggesting some possible avenues for future research—the epilogue considers a number of specific connections between the Republican poetry treated in the earlier chapters and aspects of Vergil’s epic.
Introduction
Authors: Adolphe Bruce
Published: August 2021

The Introduction explains the purpose and method of the book: to improve the musical imagination through creative, fun exercises based on improvisational theater games that have been reimagined for musicians. A sense of playfulness and spontaneity is central to this approach. The primary goal of developing the mind’s ear is to improve the ability to imagine and remember music in silence and to be able to hear in the mind music that is printed on the page without the aid of instrument. It is essential to attend to the musician’s inner life, to explore emotions in relation to musical expression, rather than only emphasize the physical challenges of instrumental technique. Strengthening emotional memory as actors are trained to do, as well as deliberately exercising the imagination and the mind’s ear will lead to more meaningful performances, more personal compositions, and will enrich the listening experience. The introduction also addresses related concepts in subsections: Something to Say; On Interpretation; On Performing New Music; Hearing in Silence.
Exercises Involving Groups
Authors: Adolphe Bruce
Published: August 2021

There is an actor in every musician, and these exercises tap into the theatrical nature of music-making. Closer to pure theater games than the other exercises in this book, the exercises in this brief but essential section provide a variety of ways for groups to explore musical and theatrical expressivity without needing to play musical instruments. The exercises here are fun yet challenging experiments that consider issues of tempo, range, dynamics, phrasing, silence, ensemble coordination, communication, conducting, improvised counterpoint, and much more, through the use of spoken text, improvised speech, noises, and movement. These exercises might be used as warmups before group rehearsals, whether of a chorus, chamber ensemble, band, or orchestra. They are designed to support positive group interaction and build trust and confidence while having fun and learning together.
Exercises in Composing
Authors: Adolphe Bruce
Published: August 2021

This part is designed primarily with composers in mind, yet while experience writing music would be helpful here, it is not absolutely required to enjoy doing these exercises. The exercises may be done by an individual alone, and they are also useable in a composition class, private lesson, theory seminar, or improvisation workshop. Part V opens with an essay about creativity in general that also explores ideas of truth and beauty in music. Beauty is not discussed in a mundane sense—not in the sense of prettiness or loveliness—but rather the concept of Beauty within music composition as it is embodied in the relation of the parts to the whole, a sense of proportion, and the aptness of technique to the idea expressed. This is followed by a series of exercises designed to inspire musical creativity. These involve a range of approaches, including: imitating models; channeling composers; creating alternatives to existing music; using spoken text as subtext for composition; stylistic juxtapositions and confrontations; altering parameters such as meter; rewriting pre-existing music; using structural analysis to create new music; cutting and pasting; group composing games; versions and variations of a phrase; deceptive endings, detours, and interruptions; and music based on physical manifestations of emotion discovered through acting.
The Critique of Commodification
Authors: Hermann Christoph
Published: August 2021

The chapter traces the intellectual history of the term “commodification” and presents major arguments against commodification from different strands of literature. Commodification was introduced into academic discourse in the 1970s by Marxist scholars who analyzed the transformation of culture, the emergence and spread of capitalism, as well as the nature of the welfare state. The term was then picked up by non-Marxist academics in various disciplines, usually to criticize certain kinds of monetary exchange or specific markets rather than capitalism per se. The chapter identifies three major strands of literature with distinctive arguments against commodification: the moral, pragmatic, and materialist critiques. It argues that only the materialist critique is able to see that commodification threatens the livelihood of people and the environment. After discussing differences between the three approaches, the chapter points to an important commonality: all critics of commodification believe that commodification has gone too far in recent decades.
A Theory of Commodification
Authors: Hermann Christoph
Published: August 2021

This chapter presents a novel theory of commodification. According to Marx, commodification is a process by which exchange value comes to dominate use value. Markets, money, and profit-orientation are instruments that facilitate the subjugation of use value to exchange value. However, the book takes market value, rather than exchange value, as the denominator of use value. Market value depends on supply and demand and is open to manipulation and speculation. The chapter, furthermore, argues that commodification is a process and, subsequently, distinguishes between formal, real, and fictitious commodification. Typically, real commodification (the transformation of goods and services) follows formal commodification (the imposition of a price), but in some cases products first have to be standardized in order to become commodities that can be exchanged on a market. Fictitious commodification, i.e., the introduction of quasi-markets in public services and the transformation of service users into consumers, prepares the ground for formal and real commodification.
Consequences of Commodification
Authors: Hermann Christoph
Published: August 2021

This chapter explores the major consequences of commodification. It does so by focusing on five spheres that are crucial for social reproduction—healthcare, (higher) education, public utilities, housing, as well as food and agriculture. It then highlights twelve tendencies associated with commodification: the exclusion of potential users; neglect of needs that are not backed by sufficient purchasing power or cannot be satisfied in a profitable manner; focus on those needs whose satisfaction promises high profits, frequently at the cost of needs that are less lucrative; focus on short-term profits at the cost of long-term sustainability; privatization of profits and collectivization of costs; standardization and homogenization; bureaucratization and expansion of management/administration; sacrificing quality for profitability; manipulation and speculation; growing inequality; the marginalization of motivations not based on profit; and more commodification.
Rediscovering Use Value
Authors: Hermann Christoph
Published: August 2021

This chapter rediscovers use value as an essential category for understanding commodification and capitalism more generally. The distinction between use value and exchange value goes back to ancient Greek philosophy and it played an important role in classical political economy. However, with the invention of marginal utility in the late nineteenth century, use value moved from the center to the fringes of economic thinking. Even where it survived, such as in Marxist scholarship, there was considerable disagreement about the role of use value in a critical political economy. The chapter, furthermore, explores the value of nature and by doing so unveils the shortcomings of the concept of marginal utility. One problem is that marginal utility denies the existence of collective value. Following Polanyi, the chapter argues that products not only have individual value, but also have a social and ecological utility. And social and ecological utility can differ considerably from individual valuation.
The Eye and the Whip
Authors: Lagunes Paul
Published: August 2021

Corruption vulnerabilities exist where government officials have power over the provision of goods and the imposition of costs. Building permits and infrastructure contracts are examples of state-issued goods. Traffic tickets and tax liabilities are examples of costs levied by the state. These and other corruption vulnerabilities turn to actual threats when officials calculate that the benefits of abusing their power are greater than the penalties associated with getting caught. By a similar logic, the formula for corruption control requires increasing the probability of detecting corruption (that is, of activating the eye) through enhanced monitoring and then credibly threatening to apply the appropriate penalty in response to wrongdoing (cracking the whip). Notably, the common policy response to corruption often emphasizes only the first of the two mechanisms. Governments prioritize transparency measures but avoid the risks associated with confronting corruption. Therefore, as a means to improve on the current state of affairs, this book examines distinct approaches to promoting accountability, especially accountability among the set of unelected officials responsible for regulating the built environment. It analyzes the results of field experiments on corruption control conducted in the City of Querétaro in central Mexico, urban and peri-urban districts in Peru, and two of New York City’s boroughs. The book contributes evidence-based recommendations for how societies can go about fighting bureaucratic corruption.
Introduction
Authors: Ball Carlos A.
Published: August 2021

The Introduction explains why principled constitutionalism in matters related to federalism, separation of powers, and free speech is likely to advance progressive causes and movements over the long run. The Introduction urges progressives to be principled in these matters not only because being principled is good in and of itself, but also because consistently defending these principles, regardless of which party controls the federal government, makes it more likely that the principles will be available to help protect democratic institutions and subordinated minorities from future autocratic governments in the Trumpian mold. If progressives want to rely on federalism, separation of powers, and free speech principles to resist future autocratic and nationalist presidents, they would be well-served by defending and fortifying those principles regardless of which party or individuals control the federal government at any given time.
Epidemiology and Informed Consent
Authors: Mastroianni Anna C. , Kahn Jeffrey P.
Published: August 2021

This chapter focuses on informed consent, which is a central concept and practice in the protection of the rights and interests of both patients receiving clinical care and individuals participating in research. It addresses the commitment to the ethical principles underlying informed consent that dates back to the early twentieth century, as reflected in many countries' laws governing the physician–patient relationship. It also recounts how informed consent was codified into national policies and international guidelines and standards for research on human subjects. The chapter explores the parallel origins of informed consent and its applications, which are based on distinctions between clinical practice and research and do not naturally apply to or readily translate to epidemiology. It outlines the requirements for consent that have been and are treated differently in epidemiology depending on the type of activity and sometimes the practicability of seeking consent from participants.
Understanding the Ethics of Risk as Used in Epidemiology
Authors: Silva Diego S.
Published: August 2021

This chapter analyzes the concept of risk that is central to epidemiology, since the study of disease or health of populations necessarily requires assessing and determining the probability of the factors that may increase or decrease the likelihood of disease or health. It argues that the purportedly non-normative understanding of risk in epidemiology fails to capture separate but interrelated points, such as the description of risk assessments. It also discusses the importance of risk to a population for disease p to understand the political or economic values that help create the context that led to the increased risk. The chapter delves into the ethical significance for epidemiologists to help analyze and explain who imposed risk onto whom and in what ways this risk imposition occurred. It cites a normative sense of risk in epidemiology, which appeals to most theories of justice and makes sense of the ethics of causation in either more modest or stronger terms.
Ethics, Epidemiology, and Changing Perspectives on AIDS
Authors: Levine Carol
Published: August 2021

This chapter highlights the current state of HIV/AIDS care that fits Lewis Thomas’s 1971 definition of a “halfway technology.” It explains halfway technology as an intermediate stage between “nontechnology” and as a supportive medical care that does little to affect the course of disease, while “high” or “transformative technology” depends on advances in basic sciences. It also clarifies that transformative technology included immunization, chemotherapy, and antibiotics, while halfway technologies included dialysis, organ transplants, and mechanical ventilation. The chapter focuses on AIDS, which is as much a concern in the twenty-first century as it was forty years ago. It elaborates how the AIDS epidemic is ravaging African countries, such as South Africa and Nigeria; spreading in parts of Asia, such as Thailand and the Philippines; in Eastern Europe in countries like Russia and Ukraine; and in Caribbean and Central American countries.
Fitness Effects of Parasite Infection in Birds
Authors: Dunn Jenny C. , Hawley Dana M. , Huyvaert Kathryn P. , Owen Jennifer C.
Published: August 2021

Parasites and pathogens inherently cause harm to their hosts, but the degree to which that harm causes notable fitness costs for an individual host can be highly variable. While some effects of parasites on host fitness are drastic and immediate in nature, a growing body of evidence suggests that even parasites that cause chronic and subclinical infections can still have notable negative fitness consequences for hosts by reducing the probability of long-term survival and reproductive success. This chapter considers the ways in which fitness effects of infection are typically evaluated in birds and then examines the impacts of parasites and pathogens on diverse fitness-relevant traits in birds, including survival and components of reproductive success. Because fitness effects associated with infection can be highly variable and context-dependent, the chapter highlights some of the characteristics of parasites, hosts, or the environment likely to influence the extent of fitness effects of infection on avian hosts. The potential influence of abiotic factors such as climate and nutritional stress on the fitness impacts of parasites has not yet been well studied in birds but represent an important area for future research. Overall, understanding the individual-level fitness consequences of parasite infection is critical because these effects ultimately contribute to a population’s growth potential and determine the strength of selection that parasites place on host populations.
Community-Level Interactions and Disease Dynamics
Authors: McCoy Karen D.
Published: August 2021

An ecological community includes all individuals of all species that interact within a single patch or local area of habitat. Understanding the outcome of host–parasite interactions and predicting disease dynamics is particularly challenging at this biological scale because the different component species interact both directly and indirectly in complex ways. Current shifts in biodiversity due to global change, and its associated modifications to biological communities, will alter these interactions, including the probability of disease emergence, its dynamics over time, and its community-level consequences. Birds are integral component species of almost all natural communities. Due to their ubiquity and specific life history traits, they are defining actors in the ecology, evolution, and epidemiology of parasitic species. To better understand this role, this chapter examines the relative importance of birds and parasites in natural communities, revisiting basic notions in community ecology. The impact of changes in diversity for disease dynamics, including the debate surrounding dilution and amplification effects are specifically addressed. By considering the intrinsic complexities of natural communities, the importance of combining data from host and parasite communities to better understand how natural systems function over time and space is highlighted. The different elements in each section of the chapter are illustrated with brief, concrete examples from avian species, with a detailed example from marine bird communities in which Lyme disease bacteria circulate.
Land Use Change and Avian Disease Dynamics
Authors: Murray Maureen H. , Hernandez Sonia M.
Published: August 2021

Birds live on a human-dominated planet. Over half of Earth’s ice-free land area has been modified by anthropogenic disturbance including deforestation, agriculture, and urbanization, impacting ecosystems around the world. Disturbances associated with these land use types, such as habitat loss, fragmentation, and pollution, influence the dynamics between birds, their pathogens, and the environment they share. Such shifts in disease dynamics can arise through the impacts of land use change on aspects of hosts, vectors, and/or pathogens, including vector and host abundance, behavior, and physiology, and through pathogen persistence in the environment. To address this complexity, the major causes of land use change that can impact birds across diverse ecosystems are described. The chapter then discusses key changes associated with land use change such as habitat loss, pollution, and anthropogenic resources that are relevant to avian disease ecology. These key changes are followed by a synthesis of documented changes in avian health with urbanization, the fastest growing type of land use change on Earth. The chapter closes with relevant implications for One Health systems and future directions for advancing avian disease ecology in rapidly changing landscapes.
Law, Morality, and the Existence of Human Rights
Authors: Alexy Robert
Published: August 2021

In the debate between positivism and non-positivism, the argument from relativism plays a pivotal role. The argument from relativism, as put forward, for instance, by Hans Kelsen, says, first, that a necessary connection between law and morality presupposes the existence of absolute, objective, or necessary moral elements and, second, that no such absolute, objective, or necessary moral elements exist. The reply presented here is that absolute, objective, or necessary moral elements do exist, for human rights exist, and human rights exist because they are justifiable. The analytical basis of the justifiability thesis is a distinction between eight approaches. The first six have more defects than strengths, but there are two approaches that are able to solve the justification problem to a sufficient degree.
Jürgen Habermas’s Theory of the Indeterminacy of Law and the Rationality of Adjudication
Authors: Alexy Robert
Published: August 2021

Every theory of legal argumentation has to determine the relation between legal certainty and correctness, which essentially includes justice. This, in turn, requires that the specific character of legal argumentation be expounded. The special case thesis, developed in A Theory of Legal Argumentation (1989), is an attempt to achieve both. The thesis says that legal discourse is a special case of general practical discourse. Habermas criticizes the special case thesis in his book Between Facts and Norms (1996). Counterarguments against four of his objections are presented in this chapter. They concern the relation between legal and moral discourse, the rules and forms of legal discourse, the problem of unjust law, and the question of whether general practical arguments acquire a specific legal nature in legal discourse.
Reproducible Research
Authors: Hector Andy
Published: August 2021

One of the key features of scientific research is that results should be reproducible, and the same goes for the statistical analyses that the results are based on. Unfortunately, over the last decade or so we have discovered that a worrying amount of our work is not reproducible (or replicable—these terms are sometimes used for different aspects of the problem but are also often used interchangeably). The causes of this reproducibility crisis are complex and act at many points of the research process, but improving how we go about our statistical analysis will certainly help.
Estimation
Authors: Hector Andy
Published: August 2021

Statistics is all about signal and noise. The analysis of Darwin’s maize data presented earlier focused initially on description. This chapter focuses on estimating the differences in height and testing whether we think there is an effect of the pollination treatments. The goal is to estimate the mean heights for the two treatments in Darwin’s experiment and the difference between them, and to calculate various measures that quantify our confidence (and, on the flip side, uncertainty) in the estimates, which we can use to judge whether they appear to be different or not.
Regression
Authors: Hector Andy
Published: August 2021

This chapter extends the use of linear models to relationships with continuous explanatory variables, in other words, linear regression. The goal of the worked example (on timber hardness data) given in detail in this chapter is prediction, not hypothesis testing. Confidence intervals and prediction intervals are explained. Graphical approaches to checking the assumptions of linear-model analysis are explored in further detail. The effects of transformations on linearity, normality, and equality of variance are investigated.
Testing
Authors: Hector Andy
Published: August 2021

This chapter reanalyses the Darwin’s maize data that were introduced in earlier chapters. Here, t-tests and confidence intervals are used and compared with the ANOVA approach. Confidence intervals are introduced as a way to quantify confidence in estimates. The key assumptions underlying both the t-test and ANOVA analyses are assessed using R’s default residual-checking plots.
Regulatory Coherence Requirements in Investment Treaty Arbitration
Authors: Foster Caroline E.
Published: August 2021

Part IV comprises two chapters, Chapter Seven and Chapter Eight. These chapters focus on investment treaty arbitration. Chapter Seven identifies the regulatory coherence tests emerging under each of the core investment protection guarantees. Fair and equitable treatment guarantees require host States’ regulatory measures to bear reasonable relationships to rational policies. National treatment guarantees call for a reasonable nexus to a rational government policy. The law on expropriation increasingly incorporates the understanding that reasonable measures adopted in good faith to address a real public health or environmental concern are ‘for a public purpose’. These tests all tend to accommodate domestic level decision-making, allowing room for the operation of democratic processes rather than envisaging an international legal override. This will assist with traditional procedural justifications for authority at the domestic and international level.
Proportionality in Investment Treaty Arbitration
Authors: Foster Caroline E.
Published: August 2021

Chapter Eight continues Chapter Seven’s examination of regulatory coherence tests in investment treaty arbitration, turning the analysis to the controversial idea of relying on proportionality testing. The principle of proportionality is promising as a concept that could assist in the substantive balancing of international legal interests and the better co-ordination of domestic and international authority. However the difficulty with the adoption of proportionality testing by international courts and tribunals is precisely that it calls, when needed, for a value judgement to be taken as a matter of international law on the relative merits of the legal interests at stake. Proportionality testing does not ultimately accommodate domestic decision-making in the same way as many other regulatory coherence tests like those addressed in Chapter Seven and prior chapters. International courts and tribunals are rightly wary of such a concept. Proportionality is not accepted as a general head of review in common law jurisdictions and does not qualify as a general principle of law. The introduction of proportionality through international adjudicatory process is likely to undermine rather than enhance the procedural justification of international law’s legitimacy claim. The chapter proposes three ways in which proportionality testing should be refocused, if it is to be employed.
From Worm to Wyvern
Authors: Ogden Daniel
Published: August 2021

How did the classical dragon, essentially just a massive snake in form, a worm, evolve, in early Christian culture, into the very particular fantasy creature we know as a ‘dragon’ today in the West? It is argued that the dragon acquired its animalian head and more bulbous central body from another well-established creature of classical fantasy, the ancient sea-monster (kētos), this by virtue of the fact that, whilst dragon and sea-monster had remained largely distinct creatures in classical culture, they had been confounded by the Septuagint. Its wings, however, and probably too in effect its two legs (the latter placed in the position of the sea-monster’s front flippers), it derived rather from demons and the Devil, the latter being associated with snakes already in the Old Testament, and then spectacularly so in the New Testament’s Revelation. By the ninth century AD these two developments had crystallized in the wyvern-type dragon.
Conclusion
Authors: Ogden Daniel
Published: August 2021

The brief Conclusion directs readers to the way in which the preceding book has addressed the questions set out in the Introduction, namely, whence the dragon familiar in the modern West derives, both in terms of its form and in terms of its typical narratives. The issue of form is chiefly addressed in Chapters 1, 3, 4, 5, and 10; that of the dragon’s typical narratives and associated motifs is chiefly addressed in Chapters 1, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 11. It is noted that, across the three major groups of narratives considered in the volume, those of Graeco-Roman antiquity, those of hagiography, and those of the medieval Germanic world, six core motifs are shared by all, namely: the dragon’s marauding nature, its fieriness, its pestilential breath, its cave-home, its control of a water-source, and, a less prominent one, its generation from a human corpse. Within its narrative, the dragon is a creature of destruction; beyond it, it is a creature of integration.
Development and Environment in Early World Trade Debates
Authors: Cordonier Segger Marie-Claire
Published: August 2021

This chapter discusses and analyses the history of development and environment concerns, in an international trade context, and in doing so, builds a timeline (between 1947 and 1994) which traces the development of conversations and debates around these issues at the international level. It begins by discussing the context and time period within which development concerns became part of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) debate, and then proceeds to a discussion of the sources of conversations around environmental concerns. It concludes by discussing how at the start of the new World Trade Organization (WTO) (in 1994), tensions existed between constituencies interested in trade-led economic growth, constituencies seeking trade to support development and countries wishing to make links between trade and the environment.
Sustainable Development in the 2001 WTO Doha Round Debates and Beyond
Authors: Cordonier Segger Marie-Claire
Published: August 2021

In this chapter, it is argued that in the 2001 Doha Declaration launching the new trade negotiations and in subsequent dispute settlement decisions, the World Trade Organization (WTO) member States and dispute settlement mechanism (DSM) have made small steps to integrate social and environmental considerations into the work of the WTO, but progress is limited. In particular, certain exemptions have been expanded and clarified (more through subsequent disputes than through negotiations), States have agreed on frameworks for negotiations that could both liberalize trade in environmental goods and services and reduce subsidies that encourage over-fishing, and potentially also encourage greater cooperation on trade-related environment and social development challenges. Influential WTO disputes are canvassed, and concerns with regards to process and production methods (PPMs) and related technology transfer opportunities are discussed briefly. It is also demonstrated that these steps, as critiqued in legal scholarship, reveal real limits to the WTO’s progress.
Sustainable Development in the WTO Institutions and Trade Policy Review Mechanism (TPRM)
Authors: Cordonier Segger Marie-Claire
Published: August 2021

This chapter begins with discussions on the state of sustainable development in the World Trade Organization (WTO), noting that progress on integrating social and environmental considerations into WTO law and policy remains poor. It then discusses the WTO’s Trade Policy Review Mechanism (TPRM), and how its role has evolved from being a WTO review mechanism focused on economic policies alone, to providing a platform for discussions on trade and sustainable development. These discussions have revealed that WTO member States belong to one of three main schools of thought; First, some WTO members remain adamant that sustainable development is purely a domestic policy issue, or argue that all social and environmental considerations, including the potential impacts of trade, should remain only in the domestic law and policy arena; Second, several WTO members such as Canada and the US recognize openly that sustainable development is an objective of the WTO Agreements, and note that as such, it is relevant to the interpretation of the treaties; Third, further WTO members such as the European Commission also recognize that trade will not automatically deliver on a sustainable development objective, and link their commitment to the objective with the need for better integration of environmental and social considerations into trade and development policy.
The Effects of Compulsory Voting on Individuals
Authors: Singh Shane P.
Published: August 2021

This chapter empirically tests the expectation that compulsory voting moderates the effects of orientations toward democracy on political attitudes, behavior, and sophistication. It first employs cross-national survey data from the AmericasBarometer and the Comparative Study of Electoral Systems to estimate multilevel models. It also uses cross-cantonal data from the Swiss Election Study, and novel survey data from Argentina collected for this book. The analyses of the Swiss and Argentine data leverage age-based thresholds in the application of compulsory voting with discontinuity models. Results suggest that, in line with the predictions of the theory advanced in Chapter 3, compulsory voting polarizes behavior and attitudes, and broadens gaps in political sophistication levels, among those with negative and positive orientations toward democracy.
Borderlands
Authors: Del Sarto Raffaella A.
Published: August 2021

The book proposes a profound rethink of the complex relationship between Europe—defined here as the European Union and its members—and the states of the Mediterranean Middle East and North Africa (MENA), Europe’s ‘southern neighbours’. These relations are examined through a borderlands prism that conceives of this interaction as one between an empire of sorts that seeks to export its order beyond the border, and the empire’s southern borderlands. Focusing on trade relations on the one hand, and the cooperation on migration, borders, and security on the other, the book revisits the historical origins and modalities of Europe’s selective rule transfer to MENA states, the interests underwriting these policies, and the complex dynamics marking the interaction between the two sides over a twenty-year period (1995–2015). It shows that within a system of structurally asymmetric economic relations from which Europe and MENA elites benefit the most, single MENA governments have been co-opted into the management of border and migration control where they act as Europe’s gatekeepers. Combined with specific policy choices of MENA governments, Europe’s selective expansion of its rules, practices, and disaggregated borders have contributed to rising socio-economic inequalities and the strengthening of authoritarian rule in the ‘southern neighbourhood’, with Europe tacitly tolerating serious violations of the rights of refugees and migrants at its fringes. Challenging the self-proclaimed benevolent nature of European policies and the notion of ‘Fortress Europe’ alike, the findings of this study contribute to broader debates on power, dependence, and interdependence in the discipline of international relations.
Restructuring the Socio-Economic and Political Order in the Mediterranean Middle East
Authors: Del Sarto Raffaella A.
Published: August 2021

The chapter assesses the impact of European policies on the Mediterranean Middle East, and more specifically the restructuring of the socio-economic and political order in MENA states promoted by these policies. These processes must be considered in the broader context of Western policies towards the region at large, including those adopted by international financial institutions and other Western countries such as the United States. The chapter principally focuses on trade and economic relations in the broad sense, as well as the cooperation on migration, security, and border management. It also investigates whether, and to what extent, European policies have contributed to rising socio-economic inequalities and the strengthening of the largely authoritarian regimes in the MENA region (in the event that they have not been overthrown).
Conclusions and Outlook
Authors: Del Sarto Raffaella A.
Published: August 2021

The concluding chapter synthesizes the empirical and theoretical findings presented in the book. It discusses the study’s findings on the interaction between Europe and the Mediterranean Middle East—Europe’s southern borderlands—by pointing to the plainly adverse impact of European policies on the region. This chapter also considers the book’s findings in relation to the academic literature while briefly reflecting on their comparability with other world regions. The chapter concludes by raising the question of future prospects for Europe’s relations with its southern neighbours, particularly when Europe’s diminished power of attraction, the increasingly influential position of other actors in the Middle East, and the policies and responsibilities of MENA governments themselves are taken into consideration.
Evolution of the Prefrontal Cortex in Non-human Primates
Authors: Passingham Richard E.
Published: August 2021

The primate prefrontal (PF) cortex evolved in phases. The first PF granular areas emerged as early primates and their closest ancestors adapted to an arboreal life. These areas improved the use of vision to search for foods and decide whether they were edible. Another phase of PF evolution occurred in anthropoids as they adapted to a diurnal life. They increased in body size and foraged over large distances, using foveal vision to search for resources. This exposed them to new competitors and encouraged social grouping, the advantage being that there are many eyes on the lookout for danger. The brain expanded in relation to the size of the body (encephalization) and the cortex expanded as a proportion of the brain (corticalization). At the same time, new PF areas emerged.
The Pragmatic Metaphysics of Belief
Authors: Schwitzgebel Eric
Published: August 2021

On an intellectualist approach to belief, the intellectual endorsement of a proposition (such as ‘The working poor deserve as much respect as the handsomely paid’) is sufficient or nearly sufficient for believing it. On a pragmatic approach to belief, intellectual endorsement is not enough. Belief is behaviorally demanding. To really, fully believe, you must also ‘walk the walk.’ This chapter argues that the pragmatic approach is preferable on pragmatic grounds: It rightly directs our attention to what matters most in thinking about belief. A pragmatic, walk-the-walk approach to belief better expresses our values, keeps our disciplinary focus in the right place, and encourages salutary self-examination.
Body schema and body image in motor learning: refining Merleau-Ponty’s notion of body schema
Authors: Tanaka Shogo
Published: August 2021

The aim of this chapter is to explicate the interrelated roles of body schema and body image in motor learning and to shed light on the phenomenology of body image from a fresh perspective. The chapter revisits how Merleau-Ponty conceptualized body schema in terms of the lived body. Second, the chapter will have a short review of the scientific research on motor learning. And then, comparing with Gallagher and Cole’s analysis of Ian Waterman, the chapter examines the symptom of Schneider, the case of whom Merleau-Ponty referred to in considering the function of body schema. The argument presented in the chapter will show that Merleau-Ponty’s idea crucially lacked the theoretical distinction of body schema and body image, though his idea of ‘intentional arc’ involved a certain aspect of the latter. And finally, the chapter comes back to the theme of motor learning in order to describe the roles of body schema and body image in the actual process of motor learning. On the one hand, this chapter aims to brush up the phenomenology of embodiment by refining Merleau-Ponty’s notion of body schema. But on the other hand, it also aims to push forward the sciences of motor learning from a theoretical perspective.
Growing up a self: on the relation between body image and the experience of the interoceptive body
Authors: Drysdale Rosie , Tsakiris Manos
Published: August 2021

Experimental research on self-recognition has largely focused on four different populations: human infants, non-human primates, neurotypical adults, and neuropsychiatric patients. Across these populations, the question has been on the mechanisms that may enable an explicit form of recognizing one’s own image or appearance. At the same time, research in this area has recognized the fact that the other side of the embodiment, not that of the seen body but that of the felt body, has been largely ignored, both in the adult literature and more so in developmental studies. This chapter reviews relevant, but scarce, evidence on the relation between interoceptively and exteroceptively driven body awareness in early life and adulthood and puts forward a framework that articulates how we grow a self from the inside-out, with important implications for our understanding of body image and emotional awareness.