bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Common Coaching Challenges and their Association with Coach and Contextual Characteristics
Authors: Reade Ian , Rodgers Wendy
Published: August 2016

This study asked a group of coaches about the major challenges they encounter in their coaching experience. The study was conducted with a group that had recently completed an introductory coaching course, but they had widely varied coaching experience, and coached male and female athletes in a variety of sports at multiple levels. We were interested in the extent to which the challenges were specific to the coaches’ context, or varied according to the age, education or experience of the coach. Our results showed that coaches face multiple challenges, but dealing with parents was commonly cited as the most challenging in all contexts, indicating that a generic coach education program on this topic could be effective. Other challenges tended to be associated with specific contexts and generic coach education programs may not be able to effectively prepare coaches for those challenges.
Preparing the Next Generation: Practical Tips for Mentoring Student Coaches During Internship
Authors: Murray Melissa A. , Zakrajsek Rebecca , Dieffenbach Kristen D.
Published: August 2016

Schempp, McCullick and Mason (2006) suggested gaining hands-on experience is the key element of coach development and the process of becoming a professional expert in the field. Cushion, Armour, and Jones (2003) also recommend the opportunity to observe more experienced coaches as a key experience in novice coach’s development. At the collegiate level in the U.S., a model similar to scholastic teacher training is the foundation for academic-based coaching education programs that seek to combine classroom-based education with experiential learning. In these programs student coaches are generally required to participate in field internship experiences in order to develop a strong art- and science-based approach to coaching. This internship experience is one of great importance, especially since expert coaches have identified having a quality mentor relationship early in their career as essential to their development as a coach (Nash & Sproule, 2009).
Coaching Philosophy: A Systematic Approach for Development
Authors: Witte Kelly S.
Published: August 2016

The main purpose of this article is to present a student-centered learning approach for developing a working coaching philosophy. The strategy provided is appropriate for coaching educators to use with students as well as practicing coaches to reflect on their own development through personal experience and practice. It stems from the constructivist approach to learning and guides the reader or student through an active process of recollection, reflection, and critical thinking. During this progression, a personal construct of understanding is created from impact moments that have occurred to-date involving their sport and/or coaching experiences which shape their own philosophy.
National Standards and Accreditation: How Both Have Changed and Improved the Coaching Education Program
Authors: Smith Judith L. , Hayduk Dina M.
Published: August 2016

This paper follows a coaching education program at a four-year institution from its inception to NCACE accreditation in 2005 and looks forward to reaccreditation and examines how the program changed to meet the National Standards of Sport Coaches. Along with curriculum changes, the major of the students selecting the coaching program has also changed. Lastly, the attainment of this national accreditation certification has influenced this coaching education program in terms of benefits, challenges, accountability and marketability.
Fighting the Enemy Within: Confidence-Boosting Coaching
Authors: Lauer Larry
Published: August 2016

Many athletes struggle with lack of confidence, especially in adverse situations. They lack the belief to use their overlearned skills, trust in their training, or just plain “go for it” and as a result become tight and hesitant in their performance. Coaches often struggle to help these athletes despite their expertise in teaching their sport. Unfortunately, coaches are not always equipped to deal with the psychological dynamics that create decrements in confidence, including perfectionistic thinking, self-presentation concerns, self-handicapping, and in general, harmful patterns of thinking. This article will describe the patterns of thinking that are troublesome for sustaining high confidence in pressure situations, and important principles and strategies for enhancing the confidence of athletes’ in and out of competition. Often, helping athletes deal with their lack of confidence comes down to focusing on controllable aspects of preparation and performance, developing new patterns of thinking, challenging old, negative habits, and accepting that doubts are normal for the high-achieving athlete. The objective will be to provide coach educators an opportunity to expand their own knowledge of coaching athletes to include confidence and composure.
One Step at a Time: Building Coach Ethics from the Ground Up
Authors: Dieffenbach Kristen D. , Lauer Larry , Johnson Dennis A.
Published: August 2016

Ethical concerns regarding fair play, coach athlete relationships, use of ergogenic aids, and the power dynamic inherent in coaching have been raised by those inside and outside the profession. Standards of coaching behavior and written coaching ethics are a part of most youth through elite level sport organizations. For example, the ethics code of the National Federation of High Schools and the U.S. Olympic Code of Ethics for Coaches are posted on the organization websites. Unfortunately, the “sticky” or gray situations that occur in real life often are not clearly covered in coaching ethical codes. The pressure to make decisions for reasons other than “right thing to do” is immense. These situations often do not have a straightforward answer, and the skills necessary to navigate the gray areas are often underdeveloped. This presentation discusses three approaches to teaching and reinforcing ethical thinking and problem-solving skills within different coaching education models. Best practices for teaching ethical guidelines both in and out of the coaching education classroom are discussed, and an emphasis is placed on the role of coaching education in teaching the skills critical for positive coach behavior.
Taking Strides Toward Prevention-Based Deterrence: USATF Coaches Perceptions of PED Use and Drug Testing
Authors: Judge Lawrence W. , Bellar David , Petersen Jeffrey , Gilreath Erin , Wanless Elizabeth
Published: August 2016

As national anti-doping organizations (NADOs) adopt preventative measures to complement detection-based deterrence methods, understanding coaches’ attitudes toward drugs in sport will take on a new importance. This study was conducted to measure coaches’ attitudes in the sport of track and field toward performance enhancing drug (PED) use and drug testing. A total of 254 track and field coaches (Age: 33.4 yrs ±9.7) completed a 51-item survey. Coaches who were certified reported they felt more knowledgeable about PED use (rs = .168, p = .004) and that they had learned about PED use and testing through the USA Track and Field (USATF) coaches education program (rs = .220, p < .001). USATF certified coaches also reported a stronger perception that the coach plays a key role in PED deterrence (rs = .158, p = .006). These findings suggest that national sport governing bodies (NGBs) like USATF have taken significant steps to educate prospective coaches on the topic of PED’s and drug testing and these measures have positively impacted coaches.
Perceptions of Collegiate Student-Athletes About Their Youth Sport Specialization or Diversification Process
Authors: Pantuosco-Hensch Lynn
Published: August 2016

The present study addressed the critical question of whether or not sport specialization is necessary for future collegiate participation. Male and female collegiate student-athletes were studied using a mixed method approach (N = 469). Athletes were studied using the Youth Sport Participation Questionnaire. The data obtained from the quantitative items and open-ended survey items were analyzed, triangulated, and summarized. On average, athletes did not specialize in sport until high school (M = 15.47 ± 3.49 years). Comparisons were made between participants using factorial ANOVAs based on gender, sport type and NCAA Division. Two significant first order interactions were noted between: (1) gender and sport type and (2) NCAA Division and sport type (p < .05). Specifically, males and females from individual sports specialized earlier than their counterparts from team sports. The individual sport participants from both Divisions I and III specialized sooner than team sport participants from both divisions. Three main effects also existed for gender, NCAA Division and sport type (p < .05). The perceptions and experiences of student-athletes based were evidence that specializing in sport may not be necessary, despite the increased sense of competition in youth sports. Practical implications will be provided for coaches and youth sport professionals.
Athletes’ Perceptions of a Coach Who Faked Confidence
Authors: Wilson Barrett , Short Sandra E. , Short Martin W.
Published: August 2016

This experimental study examined differences in athletes’ perceptions of a coach who faked confidence. The participants (n = 29) were elite hockey players from the Dallas Stars organization and North Dakota men’s hockey program. They completed a questionnaire after watching a video of a coach draw up a neutral zone forecheck. Participants then read a short scenario that explained that the coach was faking his confidence regarding his knowledge about the strategy he presented. The athletes then completed the same set of questions again. Paired-sample t-tests compared the athletes’ ratings before and after they were told that the coach was faking his confidence. The questions were about coach’s confidence (in general), the coach’s confidence in the strategy he presented, and the athlete’s perception that the coach would be confident in his ability to explain a different strategy. All values significantly decreased (p = .00) after the participants were told that the coach was faking confidence. From the qualitative data, three dimensions (i.e., confidence, knowledge, and presentation style) were prominent. These qualitative results provide insight as to why the athletes’ perceptions of the coach changed from positive (e.g., athletes’ perceived the coach was confident) to negative (e.g., athletes’ perceived that the coach was not confident) after finding out the coach was faking his confidence. Coaches should be aware that they can effectively fake confidence. However, if a coach were to fake it and “get caught,” then they should know that the athletes’ perceptions of them may become negative quickly.
The United States Soccer Federation’s National Youth License (NYL): A Measure of Coaching Efficacy
Authors: Quinn Ronald W.
Published: August 2016

The licensing of soccer coaches to coach at the teenage and adult levels have been in existence since the early 1970’s through the United States Soccer Federation (USSF) Coaching Schools. However, it has only been since 1995 that US Youth Soccer, an affiliate of the USSF created a child-centered curriculum to address the needs of children 12 and younger and the individuals who coach them, namely the parent-coach. To date over 5000 coaches have attended this five-day course. However, no such analysis has occurred to determine the impact and influence of this program on coaching efficacy. Coaching efficacy as defined by Feltz, Chase, Moritz, & Sullivan, (1999) “is the extent which coaches believe that they have the capacity to affect the learning and performance of their athletes.” The Coaching Efficacy Scale (CES) developed by Feltz, et al was used as the primary date survey instrument.
Essential Tools for the Evolution of Expertise in Coaching
Authors: Meeter Wesley , Dieffenbach Kristen
Published: August 2016

Stone, Stone and Sands (2005) noted the critical lack of sport science and research based coaching practices in the United States. They noted that current practices are commonly not based on a systematic approach to coaching that allows for both intentionally applied evidence based scientific principles and valid and reliable evaluation methods. Coaching is a profession that requires strong decision making skills, constant assessment, and consistent integration of new information for successful talent development and performance management. Like athletic talent development, the development of these professional skills and the overall development of coaching expertise takes time and deliberate effort (Schempp, 2006). Unfortunately, while formal coaching education program and sport science studies emphasize the physiological, technical and tactical sides of preparing athletes, less attention is paid to the formal development of critical thinking and self-assessment necessary for professional growth and development as a coach. Further, the prevalent grass roots ‘athlete to coach’ and ‘assistant to head’ mentorship models of coach development provide even fewer opportunities for the systematic and deliberate development of these crucial skills.
Legal Requirements and Responsibilities for Coaching Education Internships
Authors: Murray Melissa , Dieffenbach Kristen , sek Rebecca Zakraj
Published: August 2016

According to the National Coaching Report (NASPE, 2008), over 57 million youth participated in organized sport in 2006, with around eight million of those participating in interscholastic sport. While the NFHS has been a major advocate for coaching education in the interscholastic setting, the other 87% of the youth sport participants are likely being serviced by ill-prepared coaches. In response to the 1970s call for more prepared coaches (NASPE, 2008), collegiate institutions have created academic programs in coaching education. These academic programs seek to prepare qualified coaches at all levels of competition (e.g., youth, interscholastic, intercollegiate, professional, elite). In an effort to provide students with hands on, applied experiences, academic programs generally require some sort of internship. In a recent study, coaching education students reported having numerous opportunities to motivate, encourage, and build confidence in athletes during their internships (Dieffenbach, Murray, & Zakrajsek, 2010), all of which are interpersonal interactions. Given that interpersonal interactions are one of the most significant factors impacting athlete development and the athlete – coach relationship (Jowett, 2003; Jowett & Cockerill, 2003), student coaches are in a critical position. Therefore, these findings beg for a system of checks to be in place within the internship process, namely background checks, required health insurance, and university waivers. The purpose of this presentation is to discuss the regulations and policies in place to protect the student-athletes, student coaches, and university programs during internships in coaching education. Issues like legal responsibilities of the universities, background check policies and procedures, school district-specific requirements, and other policies in place will be discussed in an interactive session. The discussion will also highlight what other organizations (NGBs, NFHS) are doing or could be doing to aid in the protection of their athletes and coaches.
Sport as a Tool for Social Change within Undeserved Communities: A Description of the First Urban Soccer Collaborative National Youth Leadership Institute
Authors: Quinn Ronald W.
Published: August 2016

This presentation will describe through lecture and video the first Urban Soccer Collaborative National Youth Leadership Institute, a weeklong residence program held at Xavier University to assist future leaders within underserved communities. This program could serve as a model for teaching sport leadership and service to children between the ages of 14-18. The weeklong program consisted of a youth soccer coaching education certification course, goal-setting sessions, personal and career development workshops, service through soccer training, and a cultural experience via a field trip to the Freedom Center on the Underground Railroad. Upon completion of the program the students made a commitment to design and implement a service-learning project within their undeserved community within the calendar year. An update of their service projects will also be presented.
On the Right Track: Maximizing Educational Opportunities for Usatf Coaching Education
Authors: Judge Lawrence W. , Bodey Kimberly J. , Bellar David , Brooks Christine , Crawford Terry
Published: August 2016

In recent years, large scale sport organizations and national governing bodies have produced coaching education programs to prepare coaches to teach and mentor athletes. The purpose of this study was to examine: a) track & field coaches’ familiarity with the National Standards for Sport Coaches, b) the alignment of United States Track & Field (USATF) Developmental, Level I, and Level II coaching education programs with the National Standards for Sport Coaches, and c) the alignment of USATF Developmental, Level I, and Level II coaching education programs with coaches’ perceived needs for subject matter training. A 39-item survey was administered during a USATF certification course to measure coaches’ familiarity and perceptions. The results showed the vast majority of coaches (75.2%) were not familiar with the National Standards. At the time of assessment, the Developmental, Level I, and Level II courses were partially aligned with 25 of 40 standards at the Level 1, Level 3, or Level 5 accreditation levels. The courses were not aligned with 15 of 40 standards at any accreditation level. The majority of deficiencies existed in Domain 2: Safety and Injury Prevention, Domain 7: Organization and Administration, and Domain 8: Evaluation. While the USATF coaching education curriculum is partially aligned with many, but not all, of the national standards, the curriculum appears to contain subject matter training that coaches perceived as needed. Curricular revisions, including future directions of the USATF coaching education program, such as new courses and innovative use of technology, are presented.
Mapping the World of Coaching Science: A Citation Network Analysis
Authors: Rangeon Sandrine , Gilbert Wade , Bruner Mark
Published: August 2016

The purpose of the present study was to use citation network analysis to identify key publications and influential researchers in coaching science. A citation network analysis was conducted on references of English-language peer-reviewed coaching research articles published in 2007 and 2008 (n=141 articles; 3,891 references). Publications were coded for type (e.g., conceptual, empirical) and topic (e.g., efficacy, coach development). The structure of the field was revealed through the creation of a co-authorship network. Results show that coaching science is highly influenced by a small set of key publications and researchers. The results provide a unique overview of the field and influential authors, and complement recent overviews of coaching science (Gilbert & Trudel, 2004; Lyle & Cushion, 2010; McCullick et al., 2009).
Coach Education in Oman
Authors: AL-Busafi Majid
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this critical review is to propose a coach education system for Oman. The lack of any coach education system is one of the major obstacles confronting sport in Oman, which is an emerging “sport-interested” country (Zayed, 2004). The current review is based on two sources. First, an empirical investigation across Oman was conducted. Second, in order to learn from other notable coach-education systems, national and international coach-education systems were analyzed. Four data-gathering instruments were selected: questionnaire, interview, document analysis, and a research journal. Knowledge and understanding gained in these exercises were used to underpin a proposal for a coach education system for Oman that includes an accreditation structure, a curriculum outline, and a management system.
Guidelines for Sport Coaches on Core-Strengthening Techniques for Athletes: Improving Performance and Decreasing the Occurrence of Lower Back Pain
Authors: Brock Micailah , Huckleberry Sheri
Published: August 2016

This paper introduces the concept of dynamic isometrics in training athletes to improve core/postural-related movements while potentially decreasing the occurrence of injury manifested as lower back pain (LBP). Moreover, suggested resistance-training exercises are provided to guide the sport coach. Lower back pain is a common musculoskeletal injury that can be caused by imbalances between anterior and posterior muscle groups. Traditional exercises such as sit-ups and crunches are insufficient as preventatives because very few athletic movements are performed with weighted trunk flexion. Alternatively, sport coaches could implement dynamic isometric training, which closely reflects athletic activities, supports the principle of training specificity, improves balance and strength, and might decrease the occurrence of LBP (Hamlyn, Behm, & Young, 2007).
The Relationship Between Affect and Performance in Competitive Intercollegiate Tennis: A Dynamic Conceptualization and Application
Authors: Johnson Michael B. , Edmonds William A. , Tenenbaum Gershon , Kamata Akihito
Published: August 2016

A recently introduced probabilistic methodology (Kamata, Tenenbaum, & Hanin, 2002) was implemented in the current study to ascertain the idiosyncratic Individual Affect-related Performance Zones (IAPZs) of four intercollegiate tennis players. The current study advances upon previous empirical works by its use of multiple performance levels, use of athletes’ introspective affective intensity, and recording multiple data points duringcompetition. Results present within- and between-player comparisons, and highlight the dynamic nature of competitive athletic events. A brief discussion regarding the implications of this methodology and the pursuant results for sport psychology consultants is also proffered. Being idiosyncratic in nature, the observations from this study are not intended to generalize across samples, but rather to introduce how knowledge of the systematic and dynamic linkage between an individual’s affect and his or her performance can be uncovered and possibly used with individual athletes to facilitate more consistently optimal performances.
Clinical Sport Psychology Services Based in a Doctoral Training Clinic
Authors: Wolanin Andrew T.
Published: August 2016

Sport psychology has become an increasingly popular area of interest for psychologists and psychology students. In addition, it has become an integral part of many collegiate and professional organizations that rely on psychological services for both performance enhancement purposes as well as mental health services. A model for delivering sport psychology services through a doctoral training clinic from a practitioner-scientist perspective will be discussed, as well as the challenges that are faced from an organizational and professional perspective.
ACL Injury Rehabilitation: A Psychological Case Study of a Professional Rugby Union Player
Authors: Carson Fraser , Polman Remco C. J.
Published: August 2016

The aim of this case study was to investigate the emotional factors and coping strategies used by a professional rugby union player during rehabilitation from anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury. A dominant (qualitative) - less dominant (quantitative) mixed methodological approach was established concurrent with the athlete’s rehabilitation. Twice monthly interviews and a self-report diary were completed throughout the rehabilitation process. Six questionnaires were used to assess specific aspects of injury rehabilitation identified from previous literature, including emotional response, coping, social support, and perceived autonomy. Content analysis of each phase of the rehabilitation process established 34 higher-order themes split into two general dimensions: Influential Emotions or Coping Strategies. Findings highlight the benefit of problem-focused coping to improve autonomy and confidence. A sequential movement through a series of emotions (shock, depression, relief, encouragement, and confidence building) was also identified.
Alcohol Use and Exercise Dependence: Co-Occurring Behaviors Among College Students?
Authors: Martin Jessica L. , Martens Matthew P. , Serrao Holly F. , Rocha Tracey L.
Published: August 2016

Heavy alcohol consumption is a well-known health compromising addictive behavior. A lesser known addictive behavior that may cause physical and psychological harm is exercise dependence. Research has shown that heavy drinking co-occurs with other addictive behaviors, but until recently little was known about the co-occurrence of alcohol use and exercise dependence. The purpose of the current study was to examine this relationship and assess whether the co-occurrence could be accounted for by personality characteristics. Participants were 283 undergraduate students at a large, Northeastern university. All students reported consuming alcohol in the past 30 days and the majority (95.9%) reported exercising at least occasionally. Results indicated that alcohol use and alcohol-related problems co-occurred with exercise dependence and that personality characteristics did not fully account for the relationship. These findings have implications for clinicians and prevention specialists working with college students and provide several avenues for future research in an innovative area.
Efficacy, Mechanisms of Change, and the Scientific Development of Sport Psychology
Authors: Gardner Frank L.
Published: August 2016

The development and acceptance of any scientific discipline requires an ever-expanding and maturing empirical base. Yet despite vast scientific progress in allied domains of professional psychology, the field of sport psychology has remained fairly stagnant in its research progress and has overlooked major advances that could aid in the advancement of the discipline. This article discusses important issues related to the lack of efficacy of the traditional and long assumed “gold-standard” interventions for the enhancement of athletic performance, and compares the field’s empirical base to sister disciplines in psychology. Further, the lack of empirical studies examining rate of change, moderators of change, and mediators (mechanisms) of change is discussed, and suggestions are provided for a new research agenda in sport psychology that could expand its professional credibility and enhance its overall scientific development.
Evaluation of Mindful Sport Performance Enhancement (MSPE): A New Approach to Promote Flow in Athletes
Authors: Kaufman Keith A. , Glass Carol R. , Arnkoff Diane B.
Published: August 2016

The construct of mindfulness appears to be compatible with theories of flow and peak performance in sport. The present study assessed how Mindful Sport Performance Enhancement (MSPE), a new 4-week program, affected flow states, performance, and psychological characteristics of 11 archers and 21 golfers from the community. Participants completed trait measures of anxiety, perfectionism, thought disruption, confidence, mindfulness, and flow. They additionally provided data on their performances and state levels of mindfulness and flow. Analyses revealed that some significant changes in dimensions of the trait variables occurred during the training. Levels of state flow attained by the athletes also increased between the first and final sessions. The findings suggest that MSPE is a promising intervention to enhance flow, mindfulness, and aspects of sport confidence. An expanded workshop to allot more time for mindfulness practice is recommended for future studies.
How Parents Influence Junior Tennis Players’ Development: Qualitative Narratives
Authors: Lauer Larry , Gould Daniel , Roman Nathan , Pierce Marguerite
Published: August 2016

Junior tennis coaches commonly argue that parents must push their children and be very involved to develop their talent, despite the strain on the parent-child relationship that may occur from these tactics. To examine parental influence on talent development and the parent-child relationship, nine professional tennis players, eight parents, and eight coaches were retrospectively interviewed about each player’s junior development based Bloom’s three stages of talent development (1985). Results are presented through aggregated, nonfiction stories of three tennis development pathways: smooth, difficult, and turbulent. Smooth pathways were typical of parents who were supportive and maintained a healthy parent-child relationship while facilitating talent development. Difficult and turbulent pathways involved parents who stressed the importance of tennis and created pressure by pushing their child toward winning and talent development. For difficult pathways, parent-child relationships were negatively affected but conflicts were mostly resolved, whereas for turbulent pathways, many conflicts remained unresolved.
The Effects of Video Feedback on Coaches’ Behavior and the Coach-Athlete Relationship
Authors: Paul Meeûs Mathieu Simon , Serpa Sidónio , De Cuyper Bert
Published: August 2016

This study examined the effects of video feedback on the nonverbal behavior of handball coaches, and athletes’ and coaches’ anxieties and perceptions. One intervention group (49 participants) and one control group (63 participants) completed the Coaching Behavior Assessment System, Coaching Behavior Questionnaire, and Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 on two separate occasions, with 7 weeks of elapsed time between each administration. Coaches in the intervention condition received video feedback and a frequency table with a comparison of their personal answers and their team’s answers on the CB AS. Repeated-measures ANOVAs showed that over time, athletes in the intervention group reported significantly less anxiety and perceived their coaches significantly more positively compared with athletes in the nonintervention condition. Over time, coaches in the intervention group perceived themselves significantly more positively than coaches in the nonintervention condition. Compared with field athletes, goalkeepers were significantly more anxious and perceived their coaches less positively. It is concluded that an intervention using video feedback might have positive effects on anxiety and coach perception and that field athletes and goalkeepers possess different profiles.
Assessing Youth Sport Burnout: A Self-Determination and Identity Development Perspective
Authors: Harris Brandonn S. , Watson Jack C.
Published: August 2016

The utility of Deci and Ryan’s self-determination theory (1985) and Coakley’s unidimensional identity model (1992) has yet to be adequately assessed in understanding youth athlete burnout. This may be due to a lack of measures available to assess these relevant constructs in a youth athlete sample. Having such inventories would likely enhance practitioners’ ability to identify, prevent, and treat this phenomenon more effectively in young children. Therefore, the current study assessed the psychometric properties for modified burnout, motivation, and athletic identity inventories for a youth athlete sample. Participants included 88 youth swimmers ranging in age from 7 to 12 years, who completed measures assessing burnout, motivation, and athletic identity. Internal consistencies and exploratory factor analyses provided preliminary psychometric support for the use and continued evaluation of these revised measures with young athletes.
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Case Study of an Elite Rifle Shooter
Authors: Shearer David A. , Mellalieu Stephen D. , Shearer Catherine R.
Published: August 2016

While posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is most commonly associated with survivors of traumatic events (e.g., combat), PTSD can occur after any situation in which victims perceive that their life or safety is threatened. In sport, athletes often place themselves in dangerous situations and are also exposed to the same lifestyle dangers as the general population. The literature on PTSD among athletes is sparse, and consequently, it is possible that many (non-clinical) sport psychologists would fail to recognize the symptoms and may subsequently fail to refer the athlete to the appropriate professional for clinical assistance. In the following case study, we present an example of an athlete suffering from PTSD following a serious bicycle accident in which she sustained head and facial injuries. We briefly detail the nature of PTSD and discuss how sport psychology services can be implemented alongside a parallel clinical intervention program. Finally, we offer recommendations for practice when working with athletes with PTSD.
A Brief Educational Intervention Using Acceptance and Commitment Therapy: Four Injured Athletes’ Experiences
Authors: Mahoney John , Hanrahan Stephanie J.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to research the experiences of four injured athletes during their rehabilitation from ACL injuries and to examine the potential usefulness of an adapted ACT intervention in addressing individuals’ adherence to rehabilitation protocols and their general psychological well-being. We investigated the usefulness of a brief, 4-session ACT program adapted for educational purposes and presented data as case studies. The case studies suggested that (a) the injured athletes experienced a multitude of private events immediately following injury, throughout their recovery, and when approaching a full return to sport; (b) the injured athletes typically avoided these private events and engaged in emotion-driven behaviors; (c) an adapted ACT approach for educational purposes could be useful on at least a basic level to help injured athletes accept private events, commit to rehabilitation behaviors, and have some certainty about returning to sport; and (d) more could be done to address the needs of injured athletes beyond the structure of our 4-session educational intervention. We concluded that the ACT-based intervention, to a certain extent, educated injured athletes about how to meet the challenges of their recoveries and how to commit to their rehabilitations, as well as to exhibit behaviors that would potentially permit their successful reentries to sport.
Psychophysiology and Neuroscience in Sport: Introduction to the Special Issue
Authors: Zaichkowsky Leonard
Published: August 2016

While clinical psychology has embraced the importance of psychophysiology and neuroscience when considering the client condition, the field of sport psychology has been slower to consider the potential importance of this area for athletic clientele. Therefore, this special issue of the Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology was conceptualized and constructed to describe the current state of psychophysiological and neuroscience research and illustrate how clinical sport psychologists may, in the future, use technologies such as biofeedback/neurofeedback and physiological measurement (EMG, EEG, skin temperature, EDR, HR, HRV, respiration, and hormonal responses) with high-level athletes from a variety of sports for both performance enhancement and diagnosis and management of head injury. As Guest Editor of this unique special issue, I have written the present introduction to highlight the issue’s important mission. This introductory paper sets the stage for five informative and cutting-edge articles by leading professionals. In all, the articles cover an array of topics on psychophysiology and neuroscience in sport, such as (a) the theoretical underpinnings of biofeedback/neurofeedback, (b) the empirical application of such approaches, (c) the current state of efficacy with regard to this newer line of research and practice, and (d) the use of fMRI in understanding psychological processes in sport. I hope that this timely special issue provokes many additional questions and advanced research in our collective pursuit to assist athletes.
Setting the Balance: Using Biofeedback and Neurofeedback with Gymnasts
Authors: Shaw Lindsay , Zaichkowsky Leonard , Wilson Vietta
Published: August 2016

The present paper evaluated the efficacy of a biofeedback/neurofeedback training program to create an optimal preperformance state to improve gymnasts’ balance beam performance in competition. Training to increase heart rate variability (HRV) and sensorimotor rhythm while inhibiting theta was provided to 11 Division I gymnasts in 10 15-min sessions. Results of this uncontrolled study indicated that competition scores and scores from an independently judged video assessment improved throughout the training, beta decreased from preto postassessment, and there were no changes in HRV, sensorimotor rhythm, or theta. The withdrawal of training resulted in a decline of competition scores.
Introduction to the Special Issue on Sport Concussion: Clinical Best Practices for Assessment and Management
Authors: Mainwaring Lynda , Trenerry Max
Published: August 2016

This current special issue of the Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology was conceived and developed to provide a resource for clinicians who have contact with athletes who are at risk for or have sustained a concussion during sport participation. The special issue is part of an exciting two-issue series. This first installment contains papers from leaders in the field of sport concussion who review the frequency and mechanisms of concussion, models for managing concussion, the emotional aspects of concussion in sport, practical examples from a model sport concussion clinic, and the importance of sport concussion education and prevention. As Guest Editors, we hope that this timely and unique special series will be used by clinicians who help care for athletes and their families who have experienced concussion in their sport life.
Cerebral Concussion in Sport: An Overview
Authors: Echemendia Ruben J.
Published: August 2016

Sports-related concussions are ubiquitous in contact and collision sports at all levels of play and across a broad age range. Once thought to be a nuisance injury, it is now recognized that these brain injuries may lead to chronic neurocognitive impairment if not managed properly. This paper provides a broad overview of the research and clinical data that have emerged in this rapidly growing area. Included in the review are discussions of injury definition, pathophysiology, signs and symptoms, epidemiology, potential long-term consequences, assessment, and psychological factors. Issues of prevention and education are discussed in light of further increasing awareness of this injury.
A Model of Current Best Practice for Managing Concussion in University Athletes: The University of Toronto Approach
Authors: Comper Paul , Hutchison Michael , Richards Doug , Mainwaring Lynda
Published: August 2016

Along with the ever growing awareness among the scientific community and the general public that concussion is a serious health care issue at all levels of sport, with potentially devastating long term health effects, the number of concussion surveillance clinical monitoring programs has significantly increased internationally over the past 10–15 years. An effective concussion program (a “best practice” model) is clinically prudent and evidence-based, one that is an interdisciplinary model involving health professionals who manage, educate, and provide psychosocial support to athletes. The integration of neuropsychological assessment is a component of many present day programs, and therefore, the neuropsychologist is an integral member of the concussion management team. The University of Toronto Concussion Program, operational since 1999, integrates best practices and current evidence into a working model of concussion management for university athletes. The model uses an interdisciplinary approach to monitor and assess athletes with concussions, as well as to educate its athletes, coaches, and administrators. A research component is also integral to the program.
Exploring Indices of Disordered Eating Literacy in Male and Female Athletes: Knowledge Gaps and Lay Beliefs as Predictors of Attitudes Toward Help-Seeking
Authors: McArdle Siobhain , Moore Phil
Published: August 2016

The aim of this pilot study was to explore disordered eating (DE) literacy in male and female athletes and to examine whether any gender differences were present. A related aim was to examine the moderating effect of gender on the relationship between indices of DE literacy and attitudes toward help-seeking for DE. A nonclinical sample of 133 (37% male) athletes from a variety of sports and competitive levels were recruited to complete an online questionnaire addressing a range of topics linked to DE literacy. Chi-square analysis indicated no significant gender differences on indicators of DE literacy. Findings from the survey revealed a number of beliefs conducive to low or inappropriate help-seeking for DE. The results highlight the importance of exploring DE literacy in athletes to develop more targeted interventions for this specific population.
Children’s Motor Skill Learning is Influenced by Their Conceptions of Ability
Authors: Drews Ricardo , Chiviacowsky Suzete , Wulf Gabriele
Published: August 2016

The present study investigated the effects of different ability conceptions on motor skills learning in 6-, 10-, and 14-year-old children. In each age group, different groups were given either inherent-ability or acquirable-skill instructions before they began practicing a throwing task. Participants were blindfolded and were asked to throw beanbags at a target placed on the floor at a distance of 3 m. All participants performed 40 practice trials and received feedback about the accuracy of their throws after each trial. One day after practice, retention and transfer (greater target distance) tests without instructions or feedback were conducted to assess learning effects. Older participants generally had higher accuracy scores than younger participants. Importantly, instructions emphasizing the learnability of the skill resulted in greater throwing accuracy on the retention test than did those implying an underlying inherent ability. On the transfer test, the same effect was seen for the 14-year-olds, but not for the younger age groups, suggesting that adolescents may be more vulnerable to the threat of their inherent ability being exposed. The present findings demonstrate the importance of ability conceptions for motor learning in children and adolescents. They also add to the mounting evidence of motivational influences on motor skill learning.
Body Schema Disturbance in Adolescence: From Proprioceptive Integration to the Perception of Human Movement
Authors: Cignetti Fabien , Caudron Sébastien , Vaugoyeau Marianne , Assaiante Christine
Published: August 2016

There is evidence that adolescence is a critical period in development, most likely involving important modifications of the body schema and of the sensorimotor representations. The present study addressed this issue, by investigating the differences between adolescents and adults regarding the integration of proprioceptive information at both perceptual and postural levels and the visual recognition of human movement. Proprioceptive integration was examined using muscle-tendon vibration that evoked either a postural response or an illusory sensation of movement. The ability to recognize human movement was investigated from a paradigm where the participants had to discern between human movements performed with and without gravity. The study produced three main findings. First, the adolescents had larger postural responses to tendon vibrations than the adults, with visual information enabling them to reduce this exaggerated postural reaction. Second, the adolescents had a greater illusory perception of movement compared with the adults. Third, the adolescents had the same perceptual ability as adults in the human movement perception task. In conclusion, we were able to highlight notable differences between adolescents and young adults, which confirms the late maturation of multisensory integration for postural control and the privileged visual contribution to postural control.
Associations of Self-rated Fitness and Different Types of Leisure Time Physical Activity With Predicted Aerobic Fitness in 5979 Finnish Adults
Authors: Borodulin Katja , Lakka Timo , Laatikainen Tiina , Laukkanen Raija , Kinnunen Hannu , Jousilahti Pekka
Published: August 2016

Background:

In large population studies, comparisons of physical activity, self-rated fitness, and measured aerobic fitness are seldom reported. Measuring aerobic fitness is time-consuming and expensive, thus alternative methods are needed.

Objectives:

To investigate the recently established Polar Fitness Test (PFT) as a method to predict maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max, a measure of maximal aerobic power), to assess distribution of predicted VO2max by gender and age, and to compare predictions to self-reported leisure time physical activity and self-rated fitness level in a large Finnish population sample.

Methods:

The study population comprised 5979 men and women aged 25 to 74 years who participated in the National FINRISK Study. Subjects filled in standardized questionnaires assessing self-rated fitness level and total, conditioning, commuting, and non-conditioning leisure time physical activity. The PFT was performed by a trained nurse at the study site and was based on resting heart rate measurements, gender, age, height, weight, and self-reported physical activity. Healthy individuals and those with a self-reported cardiovascular disease were analyzed separately.

Results:

The mean predicted VO2max was 38.1 and 35.1 ml/kg/min in healthy men and women, respectively. In both genders, predicted VO2max declined significantly by age. Individuals with cardiovascular disease had lower VO2max predictions than healthy persons. Healthy men reported total leisure time physical activity slightly less than healthy women. Self-rated fitness level and conditioning and commuting leisure time physical activity were independently associated with predicted VO2max, while no correlation between non-conditioning leisure time physical activity and predicted aerobic fitness was found.

Conclusion:

PFT was a feasible method to predict aerobic fitness in a large population study and was related both to self-rated fitness and self-reported physical activity. Aerobic fitness was associated with conditioning and commuting physical activity, but not with non-conditioning physical activity.
Patterns of Activity Energy Expenditure Among Australian Adolescents
Authors: Booth Michael L. , Okely Anthony D. , Chey Tien , Bauman Adrian E.
Published: August 2016

This study examined the pattern of activity energy expenditure (AEE) among New South Wales (NSW) high school students in relation to age, sex, socioeconomic status (SES), place of residence, cultural background, season, participation in moderate- and vigorous-intensity and in organized and non-organized physical activity.

Methods:

Cross-sectional survey of a randomly-selected sample (N = 2026). Respondents self-reported their physical activity participation during a usual week in summer and winter.

Results:

Boys reported greater AEE than girls and, whereas AEE was greater among grade 10 than grade 8 boys, the reverse was true for girls. Boys reported the same AEE for summer and winter, but girls reported less AEE during winter. Both boys and girls reported spending the same proportion of their AEE in vigorous-intensity (72%) compared with moderate-intensity activity (28%) and in non-organized (60%) compared with organized activity. There was no clear association between urban/rural place of residence and AEE. Although AEE tended to be positively associated with SES among girls, there was no association among boys. Girls from Asian cultural backgrounds reported much lower AEE than girls from other cultural backgrounds.

Conclusion:

Patterns of energy expenditure among adolescent boys and girls should be considered in developing interventions to ensure needs are adequately met.