bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Preparing for the Information Collection Rule
Authors: Pontius Frederick W.
Published: February 2018

The Information Collection Rule (ICR), proposed February 10, 1994, is the most ambitious nationwide effort to collect data over a fixed period of time ever attempted. The US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) is in the process of developing the final rule, which has been delayed because of technical and administrative issues. Promulgation of the rule is now anticipated in June 1995, with monitoring scheduled to begin in October 1995. It has been estimated that implementation of the rule will cost the water industry $130 million. An overview of the draft ICR was published in the October 1993 issue of the JOURNAL. The proposed ICR was consistent with the requirements summarized in that column, but several changes were made and discussed in a followup article in the June 1994 issue. As the final rule is prepared, the agency is developing additional changes and refinements to address weaknesses in the proposed rule and to ease implementation. The current thinking on several key issues is discussed here, and suggestions for preparing for the ICR are offered to utilities.
Selected processes for removing NOM: an overview
Authors: Jacangelo Joseph G. , DeMarco Jack , Owen Douglas M. , Randtke Stephen J.
Published: February 2018

GAC adsorption and membrane processes offer alternatives to enhanced coagulation for removing NOM.

As a result of the anticipated Disinfectants/Disinfection By‐product Rule, there has been increasing emphasis by the water industry on the removal of natural organic matter (NOM) from raw‐water supplies. Three important NOM removal options are coagulation, granular activated carbon (GAC) absorption, and membrane filtration. Of these three processes, coagulation is the most widely used in the water industry. But when coagulation cannot remove adequate concentrations of NOM so that disinfection by‐products can be controlled, other treatment technologies such as GAC and nanofiltration may need to be used Various aspects of each of these technologies are discussed.
Enhanced coagulation: its effect on NOM removal and chemical costs
Authors: Crozes Gil , White Patrick , Marshall Matthew
Published: February 2018

Coagulation pH appeared to be a determining factor for maximum NOM removal.

Several bench‐scale studies were conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of enhanced coagulation for controlling chlorination by‐products and to assess the impace of coaqulation pH preadjustment on total organic carbon (TOC) removal and plant operating costs. Tests were conducted on a variety of surface water sources with TOC values ranging from 2 to 1 mg/L. An iron‐based coagulant, such as ferric chloride, was consisitently more effective than alum in removing natural organic matter (NOM). Coagulation pH appeared to be a determining factor for maximum NOM removal when ferric chloride was used as a primary coagulant. Typically, preadjustment of pH at a value of 6.0 ± 0.2 increased NOM overall removal to as much as 65 percent and reduced the coagulant dose by as much as 60 precent. Enhanced coagulation led to higher overall operating costs, but preadjustment of pH with sulfuric acid reduced costs, by lowering the coagulant dosage as well as sludge production.
Preservation of trace metals in water samples
Authors: Creed John T. , Martin Theodore D. , Sivaganesan Manohari
Published: February 2018

Metal concentrations in nonacidified drinking water samples may decrease if the sample is held for two weeks.

Questions about trace metal preservation are resurfacing because the health effect risks associated with certain metals continue to drive the required reporting limits lower. Inductively coupled plasma‐mass spectrometry was used in this study to analyze preservation of samples containing trace metals. Metal concentrations in nonacidified drinking waters may decrease if the sample is held for two weeks. Acidification of these drinking water samples resolubilized the metals that had fallen out of solution. The preservation of metal samples within drinking waters by acidification to a pH of <2 effectively stabilized the metal concentration for 180 days.
Denitrification using a membrane‐immobolized biofilm
Authors: McCleaf Philip R. , Schroeder Edward D.
Published: February 2018

Denitrification using a membrane‐immobilized biofilm may offer a more economic nitrate removal method than conventional treatments.

Immobilized bacterial cell technology was applied, on a bench scale, to the selective removal of nitrate from contaminated water, together with the segregation of denitrifying bacteria and the carbon energy source from the treated water. The two‐chambered reactor, with a microporous membrane for bacterial cell immobilization, performed at an average denitrification rate of 5,800 mg nitrate‐nitrogen (NO3−‐N)/m2/d of membrane surface area. A carbon‐to‐nitrogen mass consumption ratio of 2.2 g organic carbon/gram nitrogen was observed, with a small degree of methanol contamination of the water being treated. A physical model for NO3−‐N removal based on Fick's law and the measured diffusion coefficient of nitrate through the immobilization structure gave a good correlation with experimental results.
Political Bias Obscured Assessment
Authors: Howell Dennis G.
Published: February 2018

As a water treatment professional with an Ohio Class III Water license, joint certification from the Ohio Department of Health Laboratory and the Ohio Environmental Protection Agency to perform various chemical and microbiological analyses, and 19 years of practical experience, the author takes issue with the tone and content of Velma Smith's Viewpoint in the January issue. The author discusses his objections to Smith's depictions of potable water treatment issues.
SHAKEN into action
Authors: Tanaka Sandra S.
Published: February 2018

Lessons learned from the Northridge quake honed LADWP's emergency response operation.

On Jan. 17, 1994, Los Angeles faced what has emerged as the most destructive urban disaster in US history—the 6.8‐magnitude Northridge earthquake. In addition to the loss of life and damage to structures, thousands of residents and businesses were crippled because they were without necessary utility services for up to 10 days following the quake. The Northridge earthquake taught us the value of preplanning for emergencies while allowing for flexibility in dealing with the unexpected. A written response plan provides a framework for staffing, outlining various responsibilities rather than identifying individuals in specific roles. But no amount of preparation can take the place of dedicated staff members who are willing to place their work above their personal needs.
Drinking water aluminum and bioavailability
Authors: Reiber Steve , Kukull Walter , Standish‐Lee Perri
Published: February 2018

Aluminum solubility and chemical changes that take place in the human intestine make ready assimilation of aluminum in drinking water unlikely.

This article discusses chemical considerations relative to aluminum uptake in the body and reviews aluminum concentrations, species, and distribution in natural and treated waters. The issue of bioavailability and the likelihood that aluminum in drinking water is more readily assimilated than other forms of aluminum is reviewed and rejected based on issues of solubility and likely chemical transformations that take place
IRP: a case study from Kansas
Authors: Warren David R. , Blain Gerald T. , Shorney Frank L. , Klein L. Jeffrey
Published: February 2018

Recharging a depleted aquifer is an integral part of the resource plan in Wichita, Kan.

Because current supplies will not adequately meet its needs beyond 2010, the city of Wichita, Kan., applied the integrated resource planning (IRP) process to develop a long‐term water resource plan. The plan is environmentally, socially, and economically acceptable to the community and holistically uses the city's local water resources on an “as‐available” basis. Key elements of the plan in addition to water conservation and watershed management are use of trichloroethylene‐remediated and high‐chloride groundwater, above‐base (excess) flow from the Little Arkansas River, expansion of a local wellfield, and recharge of a primary existing water source called the Equus Beds Wellfield. Overpumping by irrigators, industries, and municipalities during the last 40 years caused a drawdown storage volume in the Equus Bed Wellfield, which can hold 100 bil gal of water. Recharging the aquifer replenishes groundwater storage and minimizes flow of chloride‐contaminated water into the wellfield.
Destruction of DBP precursors with catalytic oxidation
Authors: Hand David W. , Perram David L. , Crittenden John C.
Published: February 2018

Although laboratory experiments demonstrated that photoassisted heterogeneous catalytic oxidation destroys DBP precursors, pilot testing will be required before the process can be deemed economically feasible for full‐scale use.

Catalyst screening experiments evaluated 15 titanium dioxide (TiO2) powders, including five commercially available samples and 10 experimental catalysts developed in the laboratory. Photoassisted heterogeneous catalytic oxidation (PHCO) experiments performed on two alum‐coagulated surface waters showed that increasing the contact time and incident light intensity destroyed more nonpurgeable organic carbon and decreased the disinfection by‐product formation potential. Economic analysis showed that PHCO using artificial light to activate the catalyst created high operations and maintenance costs and that using sunlight created high capital costs.
Computer‐generated optimal pumping schedule
Authors: Sadowski Elaine , Nitivattananon Vilas , Quimpo Rafeal G.
Published: February 2018

If the demand forecast is accurate, a computerized pumping schedule can save a utility money by responding quickly to shifts in demand.

In Pittsburgh, Pa., electricity costs are governed by a complicated tariff. A study of the city's water distribution system was carried out to determine whether pumping costs could be reduced through computer scheduling of pump operation. Analysis focused on a subsystem that includes six pumping stations and six reservoirs. Quadratic relationships between pumping rate and energy cost were used to determine the sequence and duration of pump operation. The software generates an hourly pumping schedule at each station. The program was run on the subsystem using historical demand and actual 1989 electricity bills. The comparison indicated the optimal solution could have saved 15 percent in energy costs. The computerized optimization package is being tested at one pumping station.
Protozoan monitoring: from the ICR to the ESWTR
Authors: Crockett Christopher S. , Haas Charles N.
Published: February 2018

Eliminating bias while balancing sensitivity and cost are important issues for ICR monitoring of Giardia and Cryptosporidium.

The proposed Information Collection Rule may require utilities to monitor source and finished waters for Giardia and Cryptosporidium and to use the data for compliance with treatment requirements imposed by the Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule. Variations in sample collection and analytical methods, water quality, weather conditions, and proposed averaging methods could result in widely varying detection limits; in certain cases detection limits could easily be inaccurately pushed beyond 100 organisms/100 L. The optimal balance between sample cost and laboratory analysis is achieved by examination of 1–3 membrane filters, depending on source water turbidity. Improved monitoring results and detection limits may prevent decisions to institute unnecessary and possibly expensive treatment.
Cryptosporidiosis and public health: workshop report
Authors: Juranek Dennis D. , Addiss David G. , Barlett Mary E. , Arrowood Michael J. , Colley Daniel G. , Kaplan Jonathan E. , Perciasepe Robert , Elder James R. , Regli Stig E. , Berger Paul S.
Published: February 2018

This workshop began an important collaborative effort to assess the threat of waterborne cryptosporidiosis to public health.

Representatives from 40 states and from regulatory and public health agencies, water utilities, and advocacy groups met last year to discuss prevention and control of waterborne cryptosporidiosis. Workgroups addressed surveillance systems and epidemiologic study designs, public health responses when oocysts are detected in drinking water, cryptosporidiosis in immunocompromised individuals, and water sampling methods and interpretation of results. The groups defined problems associated with these issues and developed strategies that could be used initially to manage these problems. An outgrowth of the workshop has been the formation of the Working Group on Waterborne Cryptosporidiosis, which holds regular teleconferences. In addition, several task forces are working to address strategies proposed in this report.
The D/DBP Rule: where did the numbers come from?
Authors: Roberson J. Alan , III John E. Cromwell , Krasner Stuart W. , McGuire Michael J. , Owen Douglas M. , Regli Stig , Summers R. Scott
Published: February 2018

Number crunchers helped D/DBP reg‐neg participants balance chronic chemical risks and acute microbial risks.

Because of the difficulties in balancing chemical and microbial risks in drinking water, a negotiated rule‐making process was used to develop the proposed Disinfectants/Disinfection Byproducts (D/DBP) Rule, the proposed Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule, and the proposed Information Collection Rule. During the process, negotiators were aided by the Technologies Working Group, which quantified the costs and benefits of various treatment alternatives. This article summarizes the technical analyses of D/DBP exposure reductions and the national compliance costs that were developed to support the negotiated rule‐making process.
Package plants for small systems: a field study
Authors: Campbell Susan , Jr. Benjamin W. Lykins , Goodrich James A. , Post Dallas , Lay Trudie
Published: February 2018

Most package plants surveyed for this article were in compliance, but recordkeeping was inadequate and standardized levels of operator certification were lacking.

A joint field study was conducted by AWWA and the Drinking Water Research Division of the US Environmental Protection Agency to evaluate existing small community systems that use package plant technology. Forty‐eight package plant systems representing a geographic and technological cross section were evaluated through an examination of historical water quality, financial records, site visits, and analysis of samples of raw and finished water. Most systems were performing adequately; however, a few were not in compliance with standards for turbidity or inorganic contaminants. Standardized levels of operator certification, knowledge and use of technical assistance, and good management practices were lacking in many systems. In addition, several systems would have difficulty complying with parts of the Disinfectants/Disinfection By‐products Rule or the Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule.
Biofiltration performance: part 2, effect of backwashing
Authors: Miltner Richard J. , Summers R. Scott , Wang Jack Z.
Published: February 2018

Backwashing a biological dual‐media filter with chlorinated water results in lower accumulations of biomass at the top of the filter and lower steady‐state removal of TOC, DBP precursors, and ozone DBPs.

In a biological dual‐media (anthracite–sand) filter, backwashing with nonchlorinated water did not affect the biomass attached to the media at the top of the filter or the control of total organic carbon, disinfection by‐product (DBP) precursors, or ozone DBPs. Backwashing a similar filter with chlorinated water, however, resulted in lower concentrations of biomass attached to the media at the top of the filter and lower steady‐state removal of the same parameters. A loss of some of the attached biomass at the top of the filter occurred immediately after backwashing with chlorinated water, but later in the filter cycle the biomass recovered to its prebackwashing concentration. Concurrent with this loss of biomass was an increase in the concentrations of ozone DBPs in the filter effluent; these also recovered to prebackwashing concentrations later in the filter cycle.
Removing Cryptosporidium using multimedia filters
Authors: Ongerth Jerry E. , Pecoraro Julie Proctor
Published: February 2018

Direct granular‐media filtration appears to provide a degree of control for Cryptosporidium oocysts, i.e., up to about 3 logs, during periods of optimal coagulation.

A pilot‐scale water filtration plant was used to measure removal efficiencies of Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts simultaneously. The 1‐gpm pilot plant using multimedia filters was operated in the direct filtration mode at 5 gpm/sq ft. Raw water was well conditioned by pH adjustment and alum coagulation. Carefully prepared and counted Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts were seeded into the raw water continuously during test filter runs. Plant performance was characterized by analysis of samples collected before and after filtration. After a ripening period, removals observed in the optimal runs for Cryptosporidium averaged from 2.7 to 3.1 logs, and removals for Giardia averaged from 3.1 to 3.5 logs.
Evaluating fluorspar for fluoridation
Authors: Peng Ching‐Gang , Qi Jian , Rubin Alan J.
Published: February 2018

Data from this study indicate that fluoridation with natural fluorspar could be practical if the raw water is of an appropriate quality.

There has been concern about the availability of commercial fluoride chemicals for publicly fluoridated water, coupled with potential problems of overdosing. Fluorspar, a mineral form of CaF2, may provide a more publicly acceptable approach with many advantages over other widely used fluoridation chemicals. This article describes work aimed at gaining insight into the dissolution equilibrium behavior of fluorspar under various conditions for its use in water fluoridation. By treating fluorspar as a blend of CaF2 and CaCO3, the dissolution equilibria were accurately predicted by a theoretical model that accounted for the effects of temperature, background calcium ion concentration, and initial pH. Experimental results and calculations both showed that the ultimate fluoride concentration was approximately 6.0 mg/L at room temperature. Effects of temperature and background calcium ion concentration were much more significant than initial pH. Fluoridation with natural fluorspar could be a practical process with influents of the appropriate quality.
Technical Note: Chlorination effectiveness for zebra and quagga mussels
Authors: Brady Thomas J. , Van Benschoten John E. , Jensen James N.
Published: February 2018

This research demostrated that the quagga mussel is more susceptible to chlorination than the zebra mussel.

A comparison of zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha) and quagga mussel (Dreissena bugensis) mortality from chlorine exposure is presented. The quagga mussel is a newly identified mollusk within the Great Lakes that is similar in appearance to the zebra mussel. During a full‐scale chlorination treatment, tests conducted in sidestream monitors showed significantly higher mortality for the quagga mussel. Times to 100 percent mortality for quagga and zebra mussels were 23 days and 37 days, respectively. The data suggest that chlorination programs designed to control zebra mussels should also be effective for controlling populations of quagga mussels.
Fractal dimensions of aggregates from shear devices
Authors: Jiang Qing , Logan Bruce E.
Published: February 2018

If more accurate estimates of coagulation kinetics are to be derived, future derivation of coagulation kernels must rely on incoporation of fractal dimensions into collision kernels.

Average fractal dimensions of aggregates of fluorescent microspheres were measured as a function of mean shear rate and ionic strength using a new technique that relies on simultaneous measurement of size spectra in terms of aggregate length and solid volume. To demonstrate that changes in ionic strength produced changes in particle stickiness, the authors determined that collision efficiencies of a monodisperse suspension varied between 0.0016 and 0.37 when NaCl concentrations ranged from 0.05 to 0.8 M. Average fractal dimensions of D1 = 1.11, D2 = 1.85, and D3 = 1.81, measured for aggregates produced under turbulent shear conditions using paddle mixers, were not a function of NaCl concentration.
A Friendly Revolt
Authors: Gaston John M.
Published: February 2018

Although the 1986 SDWA amendments made dramatic changes, primarily in the number of water quality regulations, the flurry of regulatory activity that started in late 1992 with the regulatory‐negotiation (reg‐neg) process has now died down. The reg neg eventually resulted in proposals for the Information Collection Rule (ICR), the Disinfectants/Disinfection By‐Products (D/DBP) Rule, and the Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule (ESWTR), but since these rules were proposed in early 1994, the regulatory process has slowly been grinding to a halt. The author suggests that given the regulatory gridlock in Washington, DC, perhaps this is the time to seize the moment and become a more self‐regulating industry.
What Do Customers Want?
Authors: Stanford Melissa J.
Published: February 2018

What perspectives do customers have on drinking water issues? How are they willing to participate in water utility decisions?

This discussion about what consumers really want was held June 18, 1995, in Anaheim, Calif. Moderator was Melissa J. Stanford, public policy and management consultant, 1569 Broad‐view Terrace, Columbus, OH 43212, formerly special projects coordinator for the Ohio Consumers' Counsel. Participants included Allen M.A. Buckingham, member of the board of directors of the American Association of Retired Persons, 6605 S. Sherman, Littleton, CO 80121; Tony Dearness, Consumers' Association of Canada, 267 O'Connor St., Suite 307, Ottawa, ON K2P 1V3; Robert E. Hurd, principal, Robert Hurd & Associates, 107 S. West St., Suite 102, Alexandria, VA 22314, formerly of Apogee Research Inc. in Bethesda, Md.; Bonnie N. Lam, Housing Services, City of Santa Ana, 500 W. Santa Ana Blvd., Suite 400, Santa Ana, CA 92701; and Jan Schrieber, marketing and communications manager for NuReality, 2907 Daimler St., Santa Ana, CA 92705.
Waterborne disease: 1993 and 1994
Authors: Kramer Micheal H. , Herwaldt Barbara L. , Craun Gunther F. , Calderson Rebecca L. , Juranek Dennis D.
Published: February 2018

For 24 years, a national surveillance system has helped to identify deficiencies in water systems and to evaluate the adequacy of current technologies for providing safe water for drinking and recreational activities.

For 1993–94, 17 states and one territory reported 30 disease outbreaks associated with drinking water, affecting an estimated 405,366 people. Ten of the 25 outbreaks for which the etiologic agent was identified were caused by Giardia lamblia or Cryptosporidium parvum, eight were caused by chemical poisoning, three by Campylobacter jejuni, two by Shigella spp., and one each by non‐O1 Vibrio cholerae and Salmonella serotype Typhimurium. Twenty (66.7 percent) of the 30 outbreaks were associated with well water. In addition, nine states reported 14 outbreaks of gastroenteritis associated with recreational water, which affected an estimated 1,437 people. Ten of these outbreaks were caused by Giardia or Cryptosporidium, three by Shigella spp., and one by Escherichia coli 0157:H7.
Determining quantitation levels for regulatory purposes
Authors: Sanders Paul F. , Lippincott R. Lee , Eaton Andrew
Published: February 2018

A quantitation level is proposed that should be quantifiable by a majority of laboratories.

The authors describe an approach for calculating quantitation levels (QLs) that does not require changes in current laboratory practices. The reliable detection level (RDL), when defined as twice the concentration of the method detection limit (MDL), provides adequate protection against both false‐positive and false‐negative detection decisions. When analyte concentrations are at the RDL, the corresponding precision in the instrument response is adequate for analytical purposes. Therefore, the RDL (as determined by a single laboratory) is a reasonable lower limit of quantitation for that laboratory. To determine an interlaboratory QL suitable for regulatory purposes, median interlaboratory MDLs were multiplied by a variable factor (usually 4–7, determined from actual laboratory performance data). More than 80 percent of the laboratories surveyed had RDLs less than or equal to the calculated QL, indicating that adequate quantitation was attainable at this level and that the QL should be suitable for regulatory purposes.
Conservation: It's Not Just for Big Systems
Authors: Rhorer Kyle
Published: February 2018

Why bother developing a water conservation program for a small system? The arguments in favor of water conservation programs for large systems are true for small systems as well. The author lists cost reduction, natural resource preservation and reduced burden to wastewater systems as benefits; time commitment and reduced revenue as drawbacks. Also discussed are steps to establish a conservation program: water audit, setting goals, budgeting and education.
Regulatory Compliance Using Membrane Processes
Authors: Pontius Frederick W.
Published: February 2018

Membrane technologies have emerged in recent years as a viable treatment alternative for utilities seeking to comply with new and pending US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) drinking water regulations. One reason this type of technology has become more appealing is that it has the potential to meet regulatory requirements for both microbes and disinfection byproducts using fewer unit processes than conventional treatment trains. The effectiveness of nanofiltration, ultrafiltration, and microfiltration for removing disinfection byproduct precursors is of particular interest in anticipation of more stringent regulations.
Membrane bioreactor: a new treatment tool
Authors: Urbain Vincent , Benoit Raymond , Manem Jacques
Published: February 2018

Preliminary results from a full‐scale plant in Douchy, France, show successful use of membrane bioreactor technology for denitrification and pesticides removal.

A new process that combines membrane bioreactor (MBR) technology and powdered activated carbon (PAC) has been developed at industrial scale. This process denitrifies, removes natural organic matter (NOM) and pesticides, and disinfects. Denitrification is carried out by heterotrophic bacteria using ethanol as a carbon source. PAC added to the bioreactor adsorbs pesticides and a fraction of NOM. The membrane keeps the solids and high‐molecular‐weight compounds in the bioreactor by separating them from the treated water. Ultrafiltration removes protozoa, bacteria, and viruses, thus achieving disinfection. Chlorine is added to the ultrafiltered water to maintain quality in the distribution system.
Biological stability of groundwater
Authors: Noble Peter A. , Clark Debbi L. , Olson Betty H.
Published: February 2018

A conventional treatment train with sand‐anthracite columns provided better biological stability to finished water than a conventional train with GAC or membrane filtration.

Conventional (e.g., coagulation, flocculation, and filtration) or membrane filtration treatment trains were used to remove organic compounds from groundwater. For the conventional train with sand–anthracite columns, the assimilable organic carbon (AOC) of the groundwater was reduced from 349 ± 127 μg/L C to 54 ± 51 μg/L C. For the membrane filtration train, there was no statistical difference between the AOC of the raw water influent (388 ± 126 μg C) and that of the membrane permeate (334 ± 156 μg/L C), suggesting that this treatment produced biologically unstable water. Similar results were obtained using the heterotrophic growth response (HGR) method. Comparison of the biostability methods showed that HGR was positively correlated with AOC (r = 0.52; P < 0.0001; n = 156), indicating that AOC only partially explains the ability of heterotrophic bacteria to grow in water samples.
Should Small Systems Worry About DBPs?
Authors: Cromwell John
Published: February 2018

Will the Disinfectant/Disinfection By‐Products (D/DBP) Rule be the next big concern for small systems? Not right away‐‐but awareness of the rule is enlightening for all and essential for a few categories of small systems. This article describes the various types of small systems that may require treatment changes to meet the D/DBP Rule.
Incremental and average cost methods in rate design
Authors: Mann Patrick C. , Beecher Janice A.
Published: February 2018

Integrating average cost and incremental cost methods in water rate design is not without problems but does offer advantages over a single‐method approach.

Debate continues over the practicality of integrating incremental and average costs in water rate design. State regulatory commissions and local agencies having jurisdiction over municipalities have traditionally used average or embedded costing in water rate design. Although employing marginal or incremental cost in water rate design is far from perfect, incremental cost results can be used both as the basis for determining rate differentials and a standard for setting specific rates. Rate designers should give serious consideration to integrating incremental and average costs in rate design.
Getting the Most From Your Plant
Authors: Dowell Kevin
Published: February 2018

For small systems, optimizing treatment processes or getting the most out of a plant rarely involves the application of cutting‐edge technologies. Basic training, good record keeping and motivation of operators and staff are the best ways of optimizing plant performance. This article discusses factors to consider when evaluating a plant's performance including dosing rates, influent volumes, wastewater/inflow ratio, effluent sensors, coagulant alternatives, training, and motivation of operators.
USEPA Issues Optional Language For Cryptosporidium
Authors: Pontius Frederick W.
Published: February 2018

Under the Information Collection Rule (ICR), large public water systems serving 100,000 people or more are required to monitor source water for Cryptosporidium. In some circumstances, finished water monitoring for Cryptosporidium is also required. Public notification for Cryptosporidium occurrence is not required under the ICR because monitoring data required by the ICR will be made available to the public. The US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) has issued optional language that water systems may include in public notices reporting that Cryptosporidium has been or may be detected in finished water. This paper summarizes the information that the USEPA recommends be included in a public health advisory. USEPA's optional public notice language for Cryptosporidium is also presented.
Firestorm response: a multiagency alliance
Authors: Riordan Raymond A. , Miller Cheryl
Published: February 2018

California agencies are cooperating to improve fire prevention and keep the lessons of the 1991 East Bay firestorm alive in the public's mind.

The devastating effects of the 1991 East Bay Hills firestorm provided many lessons for all agencies that responded, including the East Bay Municipal Utility District. Although the water system performed as designed, it became clear to responding agencies that planning and responding to emergencies cannot be done independently. Coordination among responding agencies was poor, but six public agencies affected by the firestorm have now formed an alliance to prepare for and respond to the next fire. In light of the resource limitations most agencies face today, such partnerships make good sense.
Fire protection rates refined in Maine
Authors: Woodcock Christopher P.N. , Lamie Normand R.
Published: February 2018

A task force established by the Maine PUC recommends new fire protection charges.

In response to assertions by Maine Public Utility Commission (PUC) staff members that private fire protection charges duplicated public fire protection charges and should be substantially reduced or eliminated, the Maine PUC established a Task Force to examine the issue. This article describes the approach the task force recommended for determining private fire protection charges, an approach that was adopted by the Maine PUC. The task force's alternative suggestion is also presented.
Conservation–oriented water rates
Authors: Cuthbert Richard W. , Lemoine Pamela R.
Published: February 2018

Conservation‐oriented rate structures, implemented in conjunction with an active water conservation program, may significantly reduce water use.

Increasing numbers of water utilities are using conservation‐oriented water rate structures to help promote efficient water use. Uniform rates, seasonal rates, inverted‐block rates, and excess‐use rates are used to provide pricing signals that promote water conservation, particularly among residential water users. These rate structures have been used successfully both to convey appropriate pricing signals and to help support broader conservation efforts. This article looks at several water systems that use conservation‐oriented rate structures and reviews changes in water use over time. Strategies and suggestions are offered for water utilities that are considering implementing one
Ion exchange with denitrified brine reuse
Authors: Liu Xiaosha , Clifford Dennis A.
Published: February 2018

An innovative brine reuse process reduced salt consumption and waste discharge by more than 90 percent compared with conventional ion exchange.

Ion exchange with chloride‐form anion resin is recommended as a best available technology for removing nitrate from drinking water. Disposal of spent regenerant brine remains a difficult problem, however. A pilot study focused on a new ion exchange process with batch biological denitrification and reuse of the spent brine. Spent regenerant brine from regeneration of the nitrate‐loaded ion exchange column was denitrified in a sequencing batch reactor using methanol as a carbon source. After denitrification, the spent brine was filtered, compensated with NaCl, and reused. Brine denitrification and reuse proved feasible only when using the nitrate‐selective triethyl‐ and tributyl‐amine resins. Compared with the conventional ion exchange process, brine reuse reduced the salt consumption and waste discharge by more than 90 percent.
Rapid Sand Filtration Demands Teamwork
Authors: DeWitt Gary
Published: February 2018

Small water systems present many challenges to designers as well as to the operators who must work with the facilities. Plant design must be based on raw water quality characteristics as well as on the needs of the community. Many types of filtration systems are available for use in small systems, but the design engineer must take such things as operator expertise and the physical arrangement of the system into consideration. Common problems such as loss of filter media can be addressed by the design engineer but ultimately designers and operators should work together so that a plant's theoretical design becomes an applied reality.
Using granular media amendments to enhance NOM removal
Authors: Collins M. Robin , Eighmy T. Taylor , Jr. James M. Fenstermacher , Spanos Stergios K.
Published: February 2018

Granular media amendments to slow sand filtration show promise in improving organic precursor removal.

Filters amended with anionic resin and granular activated carbon (GAC) achieved significantly higher (>75 percent) removals of organic carbon and trihalomethane formation potential during an 89‐day filter run than any other filter media combination studied. There was no significant difference in removal rate with GAC used as a surface or sublayer amendment. Treatment efficiencies of the aluminum oxide–, anthracite‐, and clinoptilolite‐amended slow rate filters could not be clearly distinguished from conventional slow sand filters with precursor removals <25 percent. Organic precursor removal by slow rate filters was considered a function of both the microbiological maturity and adsorptive capacity of the schmutzdecke and filter bed. Maintenance of elevated removals by resin‐ or GAC‐amended slow sand filters will eventually require the use of deeper amendment layers or frequent replacement or
Characterizing filter media mineral coatings
Authors: Merkle Peter B. , Knocke William , Gallagher Daniel , Junta‐Rosso Jodi , Solberg Todd
Published: February 2018

Characterizing filter media mineral coatings using analytical techniques from geological science helps unlock fundamental filtration phenomena.

Fundamental analytical techniques from the geological sciences were employed to characterize the surface coatings found on anthracite and sand filter media from a variety of full‐scale water treatment facilities. Attempts were made to relate the presence of various chemical surface coatings to the process chemistry used at the facility, the presence of various chemical species (e.g., manganese) in the raw water, or both. The authors also considered the role that such chemical oxide surfaces may play in the overall performance of filtration systems.
Operator certification
Authors: Rossiter David
Published: February 2018

Participants consider the history, status, and future direction of operator certification in North America.
Calibrating hydraulic network models
Authors: Ormsbee Lindell E. , Lingireddy Srinivasa
Published: February 2018

To a novice, careful calibration of a hydraulic network model may be as daunting a task as climbing Mt. Everest.

Although calibration should always be included in any hydraulic analysis, it is often neglected or done haphazardly. As a result, inappropriate data may be used or data errors may be overlooked, so the resulting hydraulic model is of limited value. The novice may see calibrating a hydraulic network model as a task as daunting as climbing Mt. Everest. This article presents a seven‐step method for use in calibrating a hydraulic network model. The last and most difficult step is microlevel calibration, which involves the adjustment of demand loadings and pipe roughnesses until computed and observed field pressures or flow rates are within reasonable agreement for various levels and extremes of demand, pumping, and storage. Various explicit calibration algorithms have reduced the need for trial‐and‐error procedures and have improved the reliability of the resulting calibration. There remains little justification for failing to develop good calibrated network models prior to network analysis.
Biological mechanisms in slow sand filters
Authors: Weber‐Shirk Monroe L. , Dick Richard I.
Published: February 2018

Bench‐scale investigations of particle removal mechanisms in slow sand filters identify bacterivory as the only significant biologically mediated particle removal mechanism.

Particle and E. coli removal mechanisms in slow sand filters were investigated at bench scale. Sodium azide (an inhibitor of oxidative phosphorylation) caused appreciable reduction in particle and E. coli removal; this indicated biological removal mechanisms were significant. Bacterivory was identified as the biological mechanism principally responsible for bacteria removal. There was no evidence of significant particle removal by attachment to biofilms.
Competition strategies for a public utility
Authors: Pontek Robert , Wehmeyer Mark
Published: February 2018

In Martin County, Fla., private sector involvement was part of the solution that kept a public water utility in charge.

Throughout the water and wastewater industry, public utilities face heightened competition from private contract operations and maintenance firms. Public utilities can successfully compete with private sector companies if—and only if—they are willing to embrace modern organizational concepts, employ technology as appropriate, and solicit and receive support from their employees. The governmental organization must also be willing to adapt and provide more responsive support (i.e., purchasing, fleet maintenance, and personnel).
Microbial/Disinfection By‐Products Rules on Expedited Schedule
Authors: Pontius Frederick W.
Published: February 2018

The US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) has been working to develop new regulations for microbes and disinfection byproducts (M/DBPs) since the early 1980s. The agency's drinking water program redirection effort in 1995 elevated the control of high‐risk microbial contaminants and resulted in the M/DBP cluster of rules becoming a top agency priority. The 1996 Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) amendments require the agency to meet aggressive deadlines for regulation of M/DBPs. Key milestones and deadlines in the regulation of disinfectants and DBPs (D/DBPs) are summarized in this article.
Public involvement helps supply project succeed
Authors: Plank R. David , Rogers Roddy , Shorney Frank L. , Novak Donald J. , Zion Robert R.
Published: February 2018

A Missouri utility invited public participation in a water supply planning project, and voters approved the bond issue to finance the project by a margin of 89 percent.

Completing a major water supply project in today's tangle of environmental, regulatory, legal, political, and property rights issues may cost utilities lots of time and money—and do little to boost their public image. City Utilities (CU) of Springfield, Mo., faced these challenges head on while investigating and implementing plans to develop a new 30‐mgd (0.114 X 106‐m3/d) water supply. The utility involved community leaders, water consumers, landowners, governing agencies, regulators, and the news media from planning through design to construction and startup. These efforts helped lead to a high‐quality project completed under budget and ahead of schedule. Such success is attributed largely to a thorough public involvement campaign resulting in wide public acceptance. Voters approved a $57.5 million bond issue to finance the project by 89 to 11 percent.
Communication strategies for pipeline construction
Authors: Price Neal , Melton James R. , Stift Michael T.
Published: February 2018

Effective communication and scheduling turned a pipeline construction project on a golf course into a win–win situation for the country club and the San Diego County Water Authority.

The San Diego County Water Authority has nearly completed a 3.4‐mi (5.5‐km), 72‐in.‐ (1,830‐mm‐) diameter potable water pipeline and associated facilities in northwest San Diego County, Calif. The north county distribution pipeline project includes the pipeline, three flow‐control and metering facilities, a 1‐mil‐gal (0.004 × 106–m3) prestressed‐concrete regulating structure, and a chlorine contact tank. The pipeline parallels and crosses two 24‐in.‐ (610‐mm‐) diameter potable lines that serve 85 percent of the daily water supply to Oceanside, Calif. Construction began in March 1995 and concluded late in 1996.
Regulating Filter Backwash Water
Authors: Pontius Frederick W.
Published: February 2018

The 1996 amendments to the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) require the US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) to regulate recycling of filter backwash water within the treatment process of a public water system. The agency must issue this regulation by August 2000, unless recycling of filter backwash water has been addressed in the Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule (ESWTR) before then.
Defining Leadership
Authors: Harmon Rick
Published: February 2018

Can individuals learn leadership skills? How can AWWA increase its leadership role?
Financial indicators measure fiscal health
Authors: Jordan Jeffrey L. , Carlson Christopher N. , Wilson James R.
Published: February 2018

Using financial ratios, the authors establish indicators that can be used to monitor a utility's financial performance.

As part of AWWA's QualServe program, utilities will require yardsticks that include system financial performance indicators. The purpose of this article is to provide a set of financial indicators to aid utility managers in their efforts to measure financial health and performance. Provided are readily available tools to track system financial performance to help assure the future viability of the system and the provision of water to the public.
Understanding protozoa in your watershed
Authors: Crockett Christopher S. , Haas Charles N.
Published: February 2018

A watershed must be understood at a fine level of detail until more is known about the sources, fate, and transport of protozoa.

To fully protect and control its watershed, a utility must own its reservoir systems and land reserves. Few utilities are in this position. The many others with limited or no watershed protection capabilities must identify all potential sources of contamination. A systematic approach enables identification of sources of protozoa and conditions that could lead to treatment challenges, and it enables utility personnel to make decisions more confidently about protection of source waters and consumers.
Distributing reclaimed water through dual systems
Authors: Okun Daniel A.
Published: February 2018

Dual distribution systems for nonpotable water reuse can help preserve high‐quality water supplies and reduce treatment costs.

Growing urbanization has put a heavy demand on limited sources of water for public community water supply systems. A proven conservation measure to help meet increasing demand is the reclamation of wastewater for nonpotable purposes. Reclaimed water can be used for landscape and recreational grounds irrigation, industrial processes, cooling towers, air‐conditioning, stack gas scrubbing, toilet flushing, construction, firefighting, and environmental enhancement such as maintaining urban stream flows and wetlands. Urban reuse requires dual distribution systems that use one system for potable water and another for reclaimed water. Dual systems are particularly appropriate for urban developments now being planned, but they can prove cost‐effective even for systems that must be retrofitted. The economies arise from savings in the acquisition and development of new water sources and facilities and in wastewater treatment and disposal. Because the public health risk from nonpotable reuse is minimal, public acceptance is high and even enthusiastic. Nonpotable urban reuse is an option worth consideration by municipalities seeking additional water supply to meet future needs.
State Activities Pay Off
Authors: Miller Ellen G.
Published: February 2018

This article discusses the benefits that can result from encouraging employees to attend events associated with the water industry, such as conferences and state‐sponsored training. Methods for achieving good returns from investing in employee participation are outlined.
Are You Warm Enough?
Authors: Hoffbuhr Jack W.
Published: February 2018

In his column, AWWA Executive Director Jack Hoffbuhr discusses the incendiary topic of global warming and the two opposing camps that debate its science. A brief review of global warming and the greenhouse effect is given, as well as a recommendation of how water suppliers should treat the debate and the contradictory research.
UV disinfection of small ground water supplies
Authors: Parrotta Marc J. , Bekdash Faysal
Published: February 2018

Ultraviolet light treatment is safe, effective, and cost‐competitive for small systems that do not require residual disinfection.

The US Environmental Protection Agency has critically analyzed disinfection technologies available to small public water systems. Future groundwater disinfection requirements are expected to affect many public groundwater supplies, including a large number of very small noncommunity systems. Because small water systems generally have fewer technical and financial resources to cope with new requirements, they will need the simplest and lowest‐cost techniques that enable them to comply with new drinking water standards. To address this issue, the agency studied ultraviolet light technology. This article summarizes availability, efficacy, operability, and costs of this technology as an option for small systems.