bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Introit
Authors: Ward Graham
Published: February 2022

This Introduction rehearses many of the key themes in the book through an examination of rhythm in Augustine’s De musica and De trinitate. In particular, it draws attention to the way Augustine avoids using the term ‘harmony’ (despite the English translations) because his attention is to the ‘interval’ between the rhythms of the created order (which is an order of love) and the divine, Trinitarian rhythm. For Augustine, this difference and yet consonance, governs the nature of written theology and the eloquence to which it must aspire. It is an eloquence in which the Word resonates within human language. The Introduction ends reflecting upon the writing of eloquent and mimetic theologies today and the attempt at such a composition that will follow in the subsequent chapters.
Are People and Computers in the Same Category?
Authors: Shneiderman Ben
Published: February 2022

A second contrast between AI and HCAI advocates is the issue of whether people are in the same category as computers or if they are distinct. The Stanford University AI-100 report states that “the difference between an arithmetic calculator and a human brain is not one of kind, but of scale, speed, degree of autonomy, and generality,” which suggests that humans and computers are in the same category. Some researchers claim that AI technologies do even more than empower people; these new technologies are the creators themselves. In contrast, many HCAI sympathizers believe that “People are not computers. Computers are not people.” Humans have bodies. Having a body makes you human. It puts us in touch with pain and pleasure, with sadness and joy. Crying and laughing, dancing and eating, lovemaking and thinking are all parts of being human. Emotions and passions are worth celebrating and fearing.
Science and Innovation Goals
Authors: Shneiderman Ben
Published: February 2022

The science goal is to understand computational agents and human perceptual, cognitive, and motor abilities so as to build computers that perform tasks as well as or better than humans. The innovation goal, some would call it the engineering goal, drives researchers to develop widely used products and services by applying HCAI methods. Lewis Mumford’s early writings are a guide to getting beyond the “obstacle of animism.” Successful designerss avoid mimicking human models and pursue supertools, tele-bots, active appliances, and control centers that support human control over technology, while ensuring high levels of automation. Another goal is to support human collaboration through shared documents and conferencing systems that bring people together.
Summary and Skeptic’s Corner
Authors: Shneiderman Ben
Published: February 2022

Developers often discuss four pairs of design metaphors: (1) intelligent agents and supertools, (2) teammates and tele-bots, (3) assured autonomy and control centers, and (4) social robots and active appliances. Successful designs seem to come from a combined strategy: employing automation for tasks for which machines produce reliable results, while leaving users the creative or safety choices that are important to them. Digital cameras offer a good example of supertools by using automated methods to choose the aperture, shutter speed, and reduce jitter, while allowing users to frame the photo, set the zoom, and click when they are pleased with the image preview. Tele-bots, such as drones, control centers for safety-first traffic management, and active appliances for home uses are all promising metaphors to guide developers of new consumer products and services.
Government Interventions and Regulations
Authors: Shneiderman Ben
Published: February 2022

While many industry leaders argue that government interventions and regulation will limit innovation, this is not always true. Government regulation of automobile safety and fuel efficiency was an enormous stimulant to innovation, producing benefits for the public and the car manufacturing companies. Government projects and funding of academic research can do much to accelerate development of new technologies such as HCAI. International competition to lead AI and HCAI research generates large national investments directed at national priorities like security, healthcare, business success, and societal problems. European efforts lead the way in protecting the right to an explanation, triggering extensive research in explaninable AI, while China’s Social Credit System tracks individual reputations. Although past US White House reports sought to avoid regulation, federal agencies have increasingly found useful ways to regulate and support key industries.
Assessing Trustworthiness
Authors: Shneiderman Ben
Published: February 2022

Measuring the more than thirty attributes of HCAI systems, like reliability, safety, and trustworthiness is very difficult. Objective measures seem unlikely, but subjective impressions from stakeholders such as researchers, developers, managers, and users may help to clarify whether the trustworthiness is increased or decreased after changes have been made, or to compare two competing products, such as is done by winetasting. The HCAI Trustworthiness Assessment Process suggests a way of developing a subjective evaluation scale. The proposed twelve-item HCAI Trustworthiness Scale relies on questions about whether a system has an audit trail, has passed software and fairness tests, and includes explainable user interfaces. It also has questions about internal and external review processes.
Personal Epilogue: How I Became Passionate about Human-Centered Approaches
Authors: Shneiderman Ben
Published: February 2022

As an increasing number of academics adopt an HCAI approach, there is still resistance and lack of interest from many researchers and practitioners. They wonder why I am so eager to expand AI research and development to include HCAI? Why do I think there is an alternative to the dominant themes so widely accepted by researchers, practitioners, business leaders, and policy-makers? I am eager to see changes in these broad communities which would recognize the need for and benefits from a human-centered attitude. These changes reflect my own shifts in thinking that began in my early days. I see the problems, dangers, and threats, but remain hopeful that the best is yet to come.
Introduction
Authors: Berman Carolyn Vellenga
Published: February 2022

The introductory chapter begins with a key event for Dickens and England: the burning of the Houses of Parliament in 1834, which paradoxically prompted Parliament to make its records public, ensuring their survival by circulating them widely in paper. Next, it establishes how Dickens as a novelist appeared to rival Parliament—representing the People better—and views his efforts in the context of transatlantic reform fiction, often addressing women readers. It introduces his uncle’s publication, the Mirror of Parliament, as a family venture, eavesdropping unofficially on power, along with parliamentary debates about copyright reform. Finally, it defines the Paper Age, contrasting print-capitalism to print-statism and comparing the imagined community of the nation to that of the People.
Mirror of Bleak House
Authors: Berman Carolyn Vellenga
Published: February 2022

This chapter highlights the satirical realism of Bleak House (1852–3) and traces the novel’s profound engagement with the Parliamentary Papers. After just seven numbers of Bleak House had appeared, the retired Lord Chief Justice Denman attacked Dickens for a belated show of reform, comparing his work unfavorably to the bestselling Uncle Tom’s Cabin. This chapter argues that Dickens attacked the Court of Chancery too late precisely to draw attention to the long period of time it had taken Parliament to reform Chancery. It reads Dickens’s critique of Chancery (and indirectly of the House of Lords) in light of the burning and rebuilding of the Houses of Parliament. It buttresses this case by reading Dickens’s “A Haunted House,” a sketch of the 1852 election. It argues that Bleak House holds out an unflattering mirror of Parliament, exposing its possibly constitutional failure, and finds the novel infused with traces of slavery and the slave trade as marks of British national shame.
Introduction
Authors: Bricker Andrew Benjamin
Published: February 2022

Satire and the law mutually shaped one another across the long eighteenth century. Satirists and their booksellers responded to the law by developing a variety of verbal evasions and publication ruses to duck the authorities. Verbal evasions particularly troubled the courtroom interpretation of libellous language. In response, the Crown and the courts refined legal procedures for the interpretation of verbal ambiguity that proved particularly perilous for satirists. Such doctrines often relied on abstract and idealized communities of readers and permitted prosecutors to gloss over the precise linguistic mechanisms that undergirded satiric meaning while also displacing actual jurors, who were traditionally responsible for interpreting the meaning of libellous language. The introduction closes with an overview of the chapters; a reflection on the methodology of legal history and the Law and Literature movement; and a consideration of how literary critics have defined satire.
Naming in the Courts
Authors: Bricker Andrew Benjamin
Published: February 2022

This chapter focuses on naming practices, and especially the use of gutted names, such as ‘J— S—’ for John Smith, in eighteenth-century satire. In 1713 the courts ruled that such ruses provided no defence for libel, yet satirists and their booksellers continued to employ such practices. Some satirists simply misunderstood the law—an important reminder that even misinterpretation should be a part of our understanding of how the law shapes social and literary practices. However, gutted names also served important commercial, aesthetic, and pseudo-ethical functions, if not legal ones, in eighteenth-century satire. The chapter concludes with Alexander Pope. Having openly named his victims in the Dunciad Variorum, Pope was forced to grapple with what was, at its core, a socio-literary rather than legal issue. In a clever turn, however, he did so by adopting the prosecutorial language of the courts and libel law.
Allegory in the Courts
Authors: Bricker Andrew Benjamin
Published: February 2022

This chapter focuses on allegory, which offered journalists and satirists a flexible tool for coded political criticism during the first decades of the eighteenth century. Allegory was a particular problem for prosecutors and plaintiffs, who were required to demonstrate that fictional names in allegorical worlds referred to real victims in England. Early on, the abandoned prosecution of Delarivier Manley for The New Atalantis (1709), an allegory (or secret history) of the Whigs and Queen Anne, revealed the limitations of courtroom procedures to link allegorical depictions to real-world individuals or institutions. As a result, allegorical satire flourished in the periodical press and especially in two of the most important journals of the 1710s and ’20s: The Craftsman and Mist’s Weekly Journal. The government failed to prosecute either periodical successfully until early 1729, when Chief Justice Raymond, building on the doctrine of ‘common intendment’, argued that jurors should rely on an abstract ‘generality of readers’ when confronted with allegory.
Keeping Out of Court III
Authors: Bricker Andrew Benjamin
Published: February 2022

By the mid-eighteenth century, the courts had largely devised effective procedures for handling verbal evasion and booksellers’ tricks. This final chapter brings together these legal developments to show how increased regulatory pressures accidentally promoted the ‘deverbalization’ of satire. Caricaturists, for example, used words sparingly, and their visual satires were therefore not subject to the same courtroom procedures that had enabled the prosecution of printed satire. In a similar way, the Stage Licensing Act (1737), which mandated the pre-performance regulation of play texts, also promoted deverbalization. Dramatic works from this period, and especially the plays of Samuel Foote, are teeming with non-verbal satire, especially pointed impersonations. However, dramatic regulation also created a loophole: physical and acoustic mimicry never showed up in the playscripts submitted for licensing, and plays could only later be subjected to post-performance censorship. The end result was deverbalized forms of visual and dramatic satire that were often, at least early on, almost impossible to regulate.
Obscene humour and sociability
Authors: Roth Carla
Published: February 2022

This chapter focuses on sexual and scatological humour, a type of humour typically perceived as gendered and located on the margins of acceptable speech. By tracing the circulation of such humour through conversations in St Gall, the chapter instead highlights the popularity of such material and the social esteem enjoyed by those who could draw on it to provide entertainment. By embedding obscene humour within its cultural and social contexts, the chapter moreover calls into question the notion that obscene humour represented a safety valve for men’s sexual aggressions against women. In the context of sociability, such humour instead worked as a kind of communicative currency and offered jokesters an opportunity to display their social skills, their proficiency in Latin, and their sexual experience.
Christian Thought in the Medieval Islamicate World
Authors: Rassi Salam
Published: February 2022

This book is the first monograph-length study and intellectual biography of ʿAbdīshōʿ of Nisibis (d. 1318), bishop and polymath of the Church of the East. Focusing on his works of apologetic theology, this study examines the intellectual strategies he employs to justify Christianity against Muslim (and to a lesser extent Jewish) criticisms. Better known to scholars of Syriac literature as a poet, jurist, and cataloguer, ʿAbdīshōʿ wrote a considerable number of works in the Arabic language, many of which have only recently come to light. He flourished at a time when Syriac Christian writers were becoming increasingly indebted to Islamic models of intellectual production. Yet he also composed many of his works during mounting religious tensions between Christians and Muslims following the official conversion of the Ilkhanate to Islam in 1295. In the midst of these challenges, ʿAbdīshōʿ negotiates a centuries-long tradition of Syriac and Arabic apologetics to remind his readers of the verity of the Christian faith. His engagement with this tradition reveals how anti-Muslim apologetics had long shaped the articulation of Christian identity in the Middle East since the emergence of Islam. Through a selective process of encyclopaedism and systematization, ʿAbdīshōʿ navigates a vast corpus of Syriac and Arabic apologetics to create a synthesis and theological canon that remains authoritative to this day.
Authority, Compilation, and the Apologetic Tradition
Authors: Rassi Salam
Published: February 2022

This chapter sets out the theoretical and methodological framework of this study. It outlines the Syriac-language works for which ʿAbdīshōʿ is chiefly known, followed by a full inventory of his extant writings. It then surveys his five main theological works and aspects of their afterlife. Three of these works comprise encyclopaedic summaries of church doctrine that were responsive to Muslim and Jewish critiques of Christianity. This chapter also outlines an approach to ʿAbdīshōʿ’s apologetic oeuvre that takes into account genre, language, composition, subject matter, and audience. The chapter argues that while his apologetics might appear as a patchwork of earlier sources, the practice of compilation was in fact part of a centuries-long catechetical tradition. Common to many churches under Muslim rule, this tradition sought to uphold and a stable canon of dogma and, consequently, a distinct religious identity. This chapter establishes a typology for such Syriac and Christian Arabic theological compendia, or summae. It also discusses the kinds of religious authority that ʿAbdīshōʿ sought to affirm through his apologetics—authorities that included earlier medieval Arabic Christian authors as well as patristic and late antique theological traditions. It explores points of contact and divergence between the types of apologetics that ʿAbdīshōʿ produced and comparable genres in the Islamicate world, Christian and non-Christian. Situating such works in a ‘shared lettered tradition’, an ‘intellectual koinē’, and a ‘religious cosmopolitanism’, the chapter argues that ʿAbdīshōʿ’s apologetics are rooted in symbols and motifs common to Muslims while simultaneously setting Christians apart from them.
Normativity
Authors: Raz Joseph
Published: February 2022

It is more or less common ground that an important aspect of the explanation of normativity relates it to the way Reason (our rational powers), reasons (for beliefs, emotions, actions, etc.), and reasoning, with all its varieties and domains, are inter-connected. The relation of reasoning to reasons is the topic of this chapter. It does not start from a tabula rasa. It presupposes that normativity has to do with the ability to respond rationally to reasons, and with responding to reasons with the use of our rational powers. The question is where does reasoning fit in? Raz compares two sketchy accounts of reasoning, judging their success in elucidating the concept and its role in the explanation of normativity. First he outlines the view that reasoning is an activity of searching for a justified answer or for a justification of the answer to a question. Some critical reflection on that view leads to what he calls the simple account, which takes reasoning to consist (broadly speaking) in responsiveness to perceived reasons. He illustrates ways in which the simple account is at odds with the concept of reasoning. Its merits depend on the thought that intentions, attempts, or actions can be conclusions of reasoning. Those who affirm that possibility often regard reasoning that has such conclusions as practical reasoning. Hence much of the chapter will be about practical reasoning. That would lead to a tentative endorsement of reasoning as a search for a justified answer, suggesting a different view of the place of reasoning in explaining normativity.
Can Basic Moral Principles Change?
Authors: Raz Joseph
Published: February 2022

This chapter considers the main arguments against the possibility that basic normative principles can change, and finds them wanting. The principal argument discussed derives from the claim that normative considerations are intelligible, and therefore that they can be explained, and their explanations presuppose the prior existence of basic normative principles. The intelligibility thesis is affirmed but the implication that basic change is impossible is denied. Subsumptive explanations are contrasted with explanations by analogy. Later in the chapter, other objections are considered more briefly: that normative properties are queer, that they are unconnected to the rest of reality, and therefore cannot play an explanatory role, etc.
Identity and Social Bonds
Authors: Raz Joseph
Published: February 2022

The chapter first argues that there is no problem about how to justify partialities (though there is a difficulty in justifying impartialities). Then it considers the role of consent in justifying rights and duties, using voluntary associations as a case in which consent has an important but limited role in doing so, a role determined and circumscribed by evaluative considerations. The values explain why consent can bind, and bind one to act as one does not wish to do and even as one judges to be ill-advised. That opens the way to an explanation of how value considerations relate to non-voluntary membership in socially constituted groups, generating rights and duties that to a considerable extent are independent of the individual’s aims and preferences.
Normativity and the Other
Authors: Raz Joseph
Published: February 2022

‘Participatory conditions’ take reasons generally or some broad classes of reasons to be valid only if people other than those who have those reasons, express approval or the absence of disapproval of the reasons in question. The chapter sketches a simple picture of value-based normativity, developing some aspects of it by commenting on one argument of Rawls, that justifies a participatory condition as the only alternative to intuitionism and consequentialism, and outlines the stages by which the simple picture accounts for concern for others, arguing that it validates the recognition principle that takes account of the fact that others are beings with their own view of themselves and their surroundings. The conclusion is that the sound aims that appear to support participatory conditions are met without them, and that participatory conditions derive their appeal from other principles like the recognition principle.
Courtly Encounters
Authors: Knox Philip
Published: February 2022

The aim of this chapter is to examine a number of different medieval English readings of the Rose that took place within what can be loosely described as a ‘courtly’ environment. Courtly reading practices are examined, including the difficult example of the Middle English poem Pearl. The main body of this chapter focuses on two pairs of texts that constitute, in different ways, examples of readers ‘answering back’ to an earlier reading of the Rose, asserting or disputing a collective attitude towards the text. They reveal one way in which the Rose carried out its work on late medieval culture, mobilizing different ideas about the place of literature in communal identity. Both pairs also cross national borders: Geoffrey Chaucer and Oton de Granson; Christine de Pizan and Thomas Hoccleve.
Knowledge, Desire, Nature
Authors: Knox Philip
Published: February 2022

This chapter moves to a discussion of how readers of the Rose encountered its vast learning, arguing that the Rose made available to fourteenth-century English writers new kinds of intellectually ambitious literary projects, even as it problematized the very knowledge poetry might be thought to transmit. Isolating one strand from the intellectual background of the Rose, this chapter focuses on the philosophical-poetic tradition that had been rejuvenated in the twelfth century by the Latin poets and commentators sometimes associated with the cathedral school of Chartres. Beginning with an exploration of university and clerical readers of the Rose, the chapter moves through an analysis of the learned representation of nature and sexuality in the French poem, before tracing the after-effects of this aspect of the text through the writings of John Gower, the poem Cleanness, the writings of William Langland, and, finally, Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales.
Trust, Distrust, and History
Authors: Levack Brian P.
Published: February 2022

The first part of this chapter deals with the theory of trust, explaining why it is more of an emotion than a rational calculation, evaluating to what extent it may be considered a moral, civic, or social virtue, and assessing the loss of freedom, the risks, and the vulnerability it entails. It also distinguishes between personal and institutional trust while at the same time illustrating the rhetorical connections between them. The second part of the chapter traces the gradual emergence of institutional distrust in England prior to 1660. There were early indications of this distrust in the sixteenth century, and they became explicit during the reign of Charles I (1625–49). The centerpiece of this section is a narrative of the growth of political distrust in the years leading up to and including the revolution of the 1640s. That section also deals briefly with the growth of distrust in legal, commercial, and ecclesiastical institutions, but mainly as those concerns related to the expression of political distrust.
Before the Victorians
Authors: Goldman Lawrence
Published: February 2022

This chapter is divided into two parts. The first deals with the pre-history of Victorian statistics, examining the development of political arithmetic in Britain and ‘statistik’ in German states from the seventeenth century. Both disciplines described state and society numerically, through the collection of leading numeral indicators. Both sought to calculate population, wealth, and overall national strength. The pioneering demographic work of John Graunt and William Petty is explained and the subsequent development of political arithmetic is sketched across the eighteenth century. Similarities rather than differences between the two socio-intellectual traditions are emphasized, and political arithmetic is related to an earlier British antiquarian tradition of social and natural description and compilation. In the second part, the origins of the British statistical movement in the 1820s and 1830s are explained in relation to a varied set of social and political reforms in this era, and the intensification of the role of the state. Reforms of parliament and the franchise, of local government and the poor laws, of education and factory regulation, as well as the abolition of slavery and the financial compensation of former slaveholders, required calculations. The state needed accurate data and this stimulated the institutionalization of statistical collection and analysis both inside government, in new organizations like the General Register Office that collected demographic data, and in statistical societies formed in 1833–4 in Cambridge, London, and Manchester, which studied the profusion of numbers caused by the data revolution of the 1830s.
Alexander von Humboldt
Authors: Goldman Lawrence
Published: February 2022

This chapter examines the intellectual influence over the Statistical Movement of the German naturalist, Alexander von Humboldt. Humboldt was a renowned traveller, geographer and natural historian who influenced Darwin. He was also the second Foreign Member of the Statistical Society of London after Quetelet. Several members of the Cambridge Network, including Babbage, Herschel, and Whewell, had met him. Humboldt gave these natural scientists a new methodology with which to work, based upon exact and copious measurements in the field, calculation subsequently, and the search for patterns and for the order of nature in the numbers reviewed. All the intellectual founders of British statistics in the 1830s practised ‘Humboldtian science’, whether John Herschel mapping the southern skies, William Whewell studying tides, or Richard Jones analysing the different types of land rents across the cultivated world. Humboldt’s conception of the unity of nature was close in spirit to the natural theology in which these men were educated in Cambridge and to which many still subscribed: that there was a unifying supernatural force that ordered the natural world. This natural order could be revealed by patient observation and the collection of evidence, whether in nature or in society. Some of the earliest statements of purpose from the Statistical Society of London demonstrate the influence of natural theology in the programme of its intellectual founders. As Humboldt roved the planet to discover the key to natural order, so statisticians would explore society to discover the numerical principles of social order.
Mapping and Defining British Statistics
Authors: Goldman Lawrence
Published: February 2022

This chapter provides evidence of the organization and extent of British statistics in the mid-Victorian period. It utilizes four types of evidence. First comes William Farr’s speech in Brussels in 1853 at the inaugural meeting of the International Statistical Congress where he surveyed the different parts of the British bureaucracy that collected statistics, including the 1851 Census. Next, the sojourn in London in 1860 of the President of the American Statistical Association, Edward Jarvis of Massachusetts, is used to demonstrate the existence of an extensive academic and governmental statistical culture. Jarvis’s manuscript autobiography and letters give evidence of, and commentary on, this culture which he greatly admired. He introduced it to the United States on his return. Thirdly, the chapter surveys the genre of statistical compilation in the work of two notable compilers, George Richardson Porter and J. R. McCulloch. Their respective works, The Progress of the Nation (1836) and the Statistical Account of the British Empire (1837), went through many editions and gave Victorians patriotic accounts in figures of the development of British society. Finally, inspired by the work of Michel Foucault, the chapter examines the several typologies of statistics published by the Statistical Society of London. These laid out the subject-matter of the discipline and the different types of statistics to be collected. It is argued that, over time, practitioners came to appreciate that statistics was not a new science in itself, but a technique of value to almost every other academic and social pursuit.
The General Law of Social Production
Authors: Cammack Paul
Published: February 2022

Marx’s general law of social production stems from his argument that capitalist competition gives rise to continued efforts to break each process of production down into ever-smaller constituent elements, without looking first at the ability of the human hand to perform new processes. This in turn compels workers to be versatile, flexible, and mobile in order to survive in the capitalist economy. In the advanced economies, and in particular in Europe, this tendency is hampered by the legacy of labour market and welfare institutions that protect workers from the impact of the changes in contracts, patterns of work, and forms of welfare or social protection that machine- and digital platform-led revolutions in production require. This chapter documents the intensive collaboration between the OECD, the World Bank, and the European Commission to secure welfare and labour market reforms with the objective of forcing ‘hard to reach’ groups such as youth or married women to enter the labour market or increase their participation. At the same time, these organisations advocate the replacement of ‘standard labour contracts’ with more flexible patterns of work, and a reduced onus on employers to offer permanence or rights to redundancy payments on dismissal. The chapter details efforts of these institutions to incentivise paid work, re-orient education towards work-related skills training and ‘employability’, and devise a ‘constitution’ for global competitiveness.
Women
Authors: Cohn, Jr. Samuel K.
Published: February 2022

In a number of venues, women appear more visible in chronicles and diplomatic dispatches than they had been in the Middle Ages as illustrated during the Savonarolan movement when women congregated in public places to debate for and against the friar’s prophecies and ideology. More striking was their increased appearance in popular revolt from their almost complete absence in popular revolt during the late Middle Ages in Italy. First, to defend their cities against occupying military regimes or in struggles for independence, women volunteered for non-combatant but dangerous roles of repairing fortifications, carrying messages across enemy lines, and scavenging the battle-fields to retrieve and nurse the wounded. More notable, they served as combatants and even leaders. During Pisa’s fifteen-year struggle for independence, a woman led two squadre of women fully armed who ‘valiantly’ fought against French and Florentine armies, and in Rome a woman led a fighting unit of men and women against an abusive military occupation of their city. Nonetheless, their increased involvement does not underlie sociological conclusions that women formed the back-bone of popular insurrection in ‘pre-modern’ Europe, determined by ‘their biological nature’ to defend their hearths. First, the mainstay of popular revolt in Italy, 1494–1559, was the male popolo, which comprised 89 percent of the revolts. Second, women’s courageous rebellious resistance came not in protecting their individual households from starvation but in defending their cities and territories from occupying armies.
Shopkeepers and Soldiers
Authors: Cohn, Jr. Samuel K.
Published: February 2022

This chapter continues the emphasis on change in popular revolt from the late Middle Ages to the period of military occupation during the Italian wars by concentrating on two dramatic innovations. First, a new tactic and battle-cry entered the lexicon of popular rebels, ‘Serre, Serre’, when shopkeepers initiated protest against their ruling regimes by locking their shops. Effectively, these were strikes of the middling sorts. Further tactics followed that initially remained non-violent. These included rebel processions often under religious subterfuges to avoid curfews or to position their forces in strategic positions. These could organize crowds in the thousands and united rebels across social classes, demonstrating their strength in numbers before their rulers. In these venues that snaked through cities with periodic assembly points, rebels could discuss strategies, agree upon points for negotiation, and script their demands. Such demonstrations did not have to await the nineteenth-century as sociologists presently suppose. The second is more surprising as an innovation: mutinies of soldiers usually from the lowest rungs of foot soldiers and galley men. Thus far, historians have found less than a handful of these from across Europe during the Middle Ages, whereas for the period of the Italian wars, they comprise 10 percent of the revolts found in this book’s samples (85 of 751). These were mainly economic protests, demanding unpaid wages, but they also included actions that would be rare in military protests today. In opposing their captains, they elected new ones from their own ranks and demanded rights to decide upon their future military campaigns.
The Jena Years
Authors: Beiser Frederick C.
Published: February 2022

This chapter concerns Herbart’s early education in Jena. Herbart was at the university there in his Wunderjahren, when Jena was the cultural heart of Germany. Herbart became the favorite student of Fichte, and attended all his lectures and joined the circle of his students. Already Herbart made some criticisms of Fichte: How could the ego posit a non-ego opposed to itself? This chapter also discusses Herbart’s early critique of Schelling, the prelude of his later break with idealism. Herbart charges Schelling with making the same mistake as Fichte; he assumes that the ego is essentially self-positing but then also claims that he opposes itself in positing a non-ego.
Swiss Sojourn, 1797‒1799
Authors: Beiser Frederick C.
Published: February 2022

This chapter discusses Herbart’s years in Switzerland, his time as a tutor to the children of the von Steiger family. It discusses the rumor that Herbart had already conceived the idea for his own system of philosophy. In these years Herbart developed some of his ideas for his later philosophy of education.
Bremen Sorrows, 1800‒1802
Authors: Beiser Frederick C.
Published: February 2022

This chapter discusses the crisis in Herbart’s personal and family life after his return from Switzerland. It covers Herbart’s Bremen lectures, where one can see signs of a break with Fichte and a growing sympathy for romanticism. There is also a discussion of Herbart’s encounter with and reaction to Pestalozzi. One section treats Herbart’s first book, his ABC of perception. This work anticipates Herbart’s later realism.
Early Years in Göttingen
Authors: Beiser Frederick C.
Published: February 2022

This chapter discusses Herbart’s early years as a professor at the University of Göttingen. It covers mainly the theses he wrote for his doctorate exam and habilitation. One section examines his inaugural dissertation where he outlines his views on Plato’s ideas; another section treats his short writings from 1802 to 1805.
Practical Philosophy
Authors: Beiser Frederick C.
Published: February 2022

This chapter is a detailed examination of Herbart’s Allgemeine praktische Philosophie, which was his chief work on ethics. It carefully considers the characteristic feature of Herbart’s ethics: its subordination of ethics to aesthetics. It examines the reasons Herbart gave for this perspective and his account of the difference between ethics and aesthetics. Herbart’s work was a systematic version of romantic aesthetics, making the fragmentary in romantic aesthetics into a unified system.
First Decade in Königsberg, 1809‒1819
Authors: Beiser Frederick C.
Published: February 2022

This chapter examines Herbart’s first decade in Königsberg where he was forced to take refuge from Napoleon. It investigates the Naturphilosophie behind his Königsberg dissertation, his Theoriae de attractione elemetorum principia metaphysica, which was an important work on the road to his mature metaphysics. It also considers Herbart’s growing alienation from the romantic movement and his critique of two romantic authors: Schelling and Steffans. One section considers his work on the origin of evil, and another treats his first political writings.
General Metaphysics
Authors: Beiser Frederick C.
Published: February 2022

This chapter is a close look at Herbart’s major work, his 1828 Allgemeine Metaphysik. It first looks at the first volume of the work, his long historical prelude which situated Herbart’s work in the early 19th century. It then examines each part of the second volume: his methodology (I), ontology (II), synechology (III), and eidology (IV). Special attention is paid to what Herbart means by “realism” and “idealism.”
Secular Separations
Authors: Kesselring K.J. , Stretton Tim
Published: February 2022

Chapter 1 examines the suits for separations that women and men made to such secular venues as the Privy Council and two of its ‘equitable’ offshoots, Chancery and the Court of Requests. The records of these bodies show people making private marital separation agreements independent of the church courts before and after the Reformation arrived in England (and well before the 1650s, the decade to which Lawrence Stone had attributed their advent). Wives and husbands developed complex trust arrangements, supported by courts of equity, to bypass the restrictions of both ecclesiastical settlements and common law coverture in ways that let them live apart.
Conclusion
Authors: Kapoor Ria
Published: February 2022

This conclusion understands the aftermath of an idea of the refugee that was reliant on a notion of self-determination that was not just limited to national independence but which aimed at transforming a hierarchical international order. Even as the emancipatory potential of self-determination dimmed, the prioritisation of the national pulpit has continued—even as the idea of who naturally belongs to the nation is undergoing a shift with recent citizenship laws—with impact on both humanitarian practice and the enjoyment of individual rights. India’s case is thus revealing of a wider trend, the right to asylum and the position of refugees subject to nation-state needs and desires, and ad hoc treatment used to break down rights that should accrue to all people. It thus asks if the question of refugees rests, above all else, on the collective identity of those receiving and offering assistance to them.
Introduction
Authors: Pipkin Amanda C.
Published: February 2022

The introduction asserts that Cornelia Teellinck, Susanna Teellinck, Anna Maria van Schurman, Sara Nevius, Cornelia Leydekker, and Henrica van Hoolwerff earned the support and appreciation of their religious leaders, friends, and relatives by seizing the tools offered by domestic religious study and worship and forming alliances with prominent ministers who supported Further Reformation as well as by fostering relationships with other well-connected, well-educated women including many other authors and printers. Studying these devout women’s writings, networks, and biographies reveals a vibrant community of women and men who deployed their religious education, connections, and talents to bolster the Dutch Reformed Church by generating a literary offensive that fostered the Further Reformation. This revival movement shared important similarities with those engendered by English Puritans and German Pietists due to the exchange of ideas among Protestants who attended foreign universities, traveled for trade or leisure, and migrated in the face of religious persecution. These include an emphasis on women’s responsibility to teach children the faith and to encourage the practice of piety at home, which offered women religious authority across these distinct Protestant traditions.
Before we begin
Authors: Townsend Peter
Published: February 2022

This opening chapter briefly introduces the concept that not only do imperfections occur across all aspects of modern technology and human behaviour, but, rather than being negative factors, they are instead absolutely essential for technological advancement. For the first few thousand years the pattern of human advancement was initially extremely slow, but it changed and exploded rapidly with the start of the industrial revolution during the last two centuries, and has been matched by an equivalent explosion in the world population. The chapter also emphasizes close parallels between scientific technology and human behaviour. This is excellent as it greatly aids understanding of the technologies, without the need for any prior scientific background. This level of presentation is key throughout the entire book.
A short log of technology from wood
Authors: Townsend Peter
Published: February 2022

Wood is rarely considered as a high technology material but, in reality, it is more important than modern examples of, say, semiconductors or optical fibres. A historical list of uses is discussed, with examples from ancient usage for archery to modern furniture, decorative inlays, new variants of heat reflective and building coolant structures, as well as being the basis of many building materials. Dendrochronology of wood grain is extremely valuable in archaeology and dating of musical instruments, such as violins. Trees are similarly a key resource for medical and food stuffs, as well as being a key factor in controlling atmospheric carbon dioxide. A refocus and preservation on forests and tree species is, therefore, an essential factor in combating climate change and decisions of land usage.
Key features of chemistry and solids
Authors: Townsend Peter
Published: February 2022

This chapter introduces simple ideas of chemical bonding with a focus on glass type materials. It includes the impact of additives and impurities on strength and colour of many minerals and transparent materials, and how the same dopant ions that produce colour can alter their chemical binding when heated. It notes that many of the visual changes are totally determined by the presence of impurities included in the material, at levels as low as parts per million. Hence, thermal changes in heating or cooling can generate different results in the same material. The consequences are visually recognizable and exemplified by materials such as ceramics, glass and enamels. The chapter offers insights into changing methods of glass manufacture, the role of ion size, and their specific ways of chemically binding together. No prior knowledge of the topic is required.
Photonics in the twenty-first century
Authors: Townsend Peter
Published: February 2022

Photonics is a broad topic describing light based systems that are part of a wide range of technologies which have recently emerged in commercial systems. The central effort has been associated with signal processing for fibre optics, as this necessitates developments of lasers, pulse coding, multi-wavelength transmission and repeater units that function simultaneously and independently for as many as 100 carrier wavelengths, before wavelength-dependent separation, detection and routing. This is a phenomenal achievement that enables all modern communication. The chapter explains the simplicity of the concepts and design of examples of the technology. There are also far more complex proposals, such as early stage examples of invisibility cloaking, and recent progress with advances in photonics in medicine for both diagnostics and treatment.
Imperfections in music
Authors: Townsend Peter
Published: February 2022

Music is a universal pleasure, but totally individual in terms of our hearing response, cultural background, and the pleasure that different performances and genres of music generate. Our hearing is also individual and varies with age and lifestyle. There are immense differences between instruments, musical scales (around 80), concert halls, audio electronics and broadcasting, plus each of us has a unique hearing response. This provides both originality and pleasure (or the reverse). All these various differences may be viewed as imperfections, or as the source that is essential to our enjoyment of music. For example, there are tangible compromises with instrument construction, such as the use of an equal temperament scale on keyboard instruments to allow one to play with different key signatures (in fact it is a highly imperfect, and significant, detuning imposed on a piano).
Housing the Powers
Authors: Adams Marilyn McCord
Published: February 2022

Medieval Aristotelian science treats perceived always-or-for-the-most-part functional regularities among macro-objects here below as explananda that require grounding in causal powers. This chapter traces and discusses ways in which that played out, focusing mainly on the works of Godfrey of Fontaines, Henry of Ghent, and John Duns Scotus. The Aristotelian defaults are to house functional powers in the macro-objects that exhibit the regularities and to lodge explanatory powers in transcendent objects only when that fails. Because some causal powers seem mutually incompatible, Aristotelian science offers us a sublunary universe populated with interacting substances of different natural kinds. Godfrey mounts bold arguments that if self-actuation were allowed anywhere, there could be no principled reason for not finding it everywhere. Henry and Scotus counter with instructive distinctions. But Scotus’ understanding of cosmic ordering leaves a question why we should not find self-actuation everywhere, as Leibniz later did.
Scotus and His Predecessors on the Metaphysics of Habits
Authors: Adams Marilyn McCord
Published: February 2022

In Chapters 5 and 6 “outsourcing the object” was about understanding—about the extent to which our having concepts of created things does or does not depend on our first having concepts of which God is the object. Chapters 7 and 8 also deal with views about outsourcing objects, rather than subjects—but objects of willing and action rather than of understanding and cognition. The main focus in Chapter 7 is on Duns Scotus and his conviction that human nature is the same in all its possible states—whether in Eden, in this world after the fall, or in life after death—and that only God is sufficient to make the divine essence present to a created intellect. In that way Scotus sees the possibility of that blessing as out-sourced to the free and contingent policies of God.
The Withdrawal Agreement, Part Five
Authors: Maluskova Zuzana
Published: February 2022

This chapter addresses Part Five of the Withdrawal Agreement, which contains the Financial Provisions. The financial settlement between the UK and the Union is based on continuation of financial rights and obligations deriving from the UK membership in the Union, in line with the principle pacta sunt servanda. The principle finds an expression in Article 70 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of the Treaties, which is recognized as a codification of customary international law. The Union’s budget related rights, obligations, or legal situations created through the UK’s membership in the Union were not affected by the withdrawal. The financial rights and obligations of the Member States derive from a complex system of financial provisions of the Treaties and secondary legislation, and also from agreements and commitments entered into by the Member States separately. The financial obligations relate to the revenue and expenditure under Union’s budget and to off-budget components.