bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Coach Education Related to the Delivery of Imagery: Two Interventions
Authors: Callow Nichola , Roberts Ross , Bringer Joy D. , Langan Edel
Published: August 2016

Two studies explored coach education imagery interventions. In Study 1, 29 performance coaches were randomly assigned to either an imagery workshop group (n = 13) or an imagery-reading comparison control group (n = 16). Pre and post intervention, coaches completed the CEAIUQ (Jedlic, Hall, Munroe-Chandler, & Hall, 2007) and a confidence questionnaire designed for the study. Further, coaches’ athletes completed the CIAIUQ (Jedlic et al., 2007) at pre and post intervention. Due to a poor response rate (n = 9), an exploratory case study approach was employed to present the data. Results revealed that, while all coaches found the workshop to be interesting and useful, with certain coaches, encouragement of specific aspects of imagery decreased as did confidence to deliver imagery. To overcome the limitations of Study 1, Study 2 employed a needs based approach. Five elite coaches completed a performance profile related to imagery and the CEAIUQ. Four individualized sessions were then conducted. Inspection of post intervention data indicated that the intervention increased encouragement of imagery use, imagery constructs identified as important by the individual coaches, and, when identified, confidence to deliver imagery. The results are discussed in terms of the importance of coach education from both an applied and research perspective.
The Role of Change in Athletes’ Careers: A Scheme of Change for Sport Psychology Practice
Authors: Samuel Roy David , Tenenbaum Gershon
Published: August 2016

Throughout their careers, athletes may encounter various changes that interfere with their existing “athletic status quo.” During these transitional periods, change can occur in diverse levels of the athletic experience. In this paper we introduce a “scheme of change for sport psychology practice” (SCSPP) to describe typical characteristics of athletes’ change-events and processes. The SCSPP focuses on: (a) the stages that unfold as athletes encounter and address changes in their careers, and (b) the psychological-therapeutic process that might facilitate an effective personal change. The process of change is evaluated in terms of its meaning and significance for athletes, the associated decisions athletes make, and fluctuations in cognition and affect. In addition, we describe a therapeutic framework that includes a number of processes of change as interventions, which may facilitate consultants’ attempts to guide athletes who experience change-events, and factors that moderate these attempts. Avenues for research and practical implications are also provided.
Do Athletes Claim Handicaps in Low Ego-Threatening Conditions? Re-Examining the Effect of Ego-Threat on Claimed Self-Handicapping
Authors: Finez Lucie , Berjot Sophie , Rosnet Elisabeth , Cleveland Christena
Published: August 2016

One hundred and three athletes participated in a motor task that was ostensibly designed to detect their physical ability (high ego-threatening condition) or provide pretesting data for an upcoming study (low ego-threatening condition) and were then given the opportunity to claim handicaps that could impair their performance on this task. Extending previous findings that high self-handicappers (i.e., athletes who scored high on the self-handicapping scale) and low self-esteem athletes engage in claimed self-handicapping in high ego-threatening conditions, the results reveal that they may also engage in this strategy in low ego-threatening conditions. In the low ego-threatening condition, athletes’ self-esteem and self-handicapping tendency explained together 33% of the handicaps they claimed.
Validation of the Differentiated Transformational Leadership Inventory as a Measure of Coach Leadership in Youth Soccer
Authors: Vella Stewart A. , Oades Lindsay G. , Crowe Trevor P.
Published: August 2016

This paper describes the validation of The Differentiated Transformational Leadership Inventory (DTLI) within a participation youth sports context. Three hundred and twenty-two athletes aged between 11 and 18 years completed the DTLI. Using a confirmatory factor analysis, the DTLI yielded an underlying factor structure that fell short of cut-off criteria for adjudging model fit. Subsequent theory-driven changes were made to the DTLI by removing the ‘high performance expectations’ subscale. Further data-driven changes were also made on the basis of high item-factor cross-loadings. The revised version of the DTLI was subjected to confirmatory factor analysis and proved to be a good fit for the obtained data. Consequently, a Differentiated Transformational Leadership Inventory for Youth Sport has been suggested for use within the participation youth sport context that contains 22 items, and retains six subscales.
A Qualitative Evaluation of the Effectiveness of a Mental Skills Training Program for Youth Athletes
Authors: Sharp Lee-Ann , Woodcock Charlotte , Holland Mark J.G. , Cumming Jennifer , Duda Joan L.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this investigation was to evaluate the effectiveness of a mental skills training (MST) program for male youth elite rugby athletes. Three focus groups were held with 21 under-16 male rugby athletes and four male coaches involved in the MST program to examine the quality of service delivery, athlete responses to the MST program, the mental qualities used by athletes, and its perceived influence on athlete performance. Following inductive-deductive content analysis, 40 subcategories and 16 categories emerged. Participants believed the MST program to be an interactive, well-planned program that increased athlete understanding of MST methods and awareness of MST strategies to manage rugby performance. Athletes thought it important that their coaches develop a greater knowledge and understanding of MST methods. Finally, athletes perceived the MST skills and methods they learnt through the MST program were transferable to other sports and areas of their life outside of rugby (e.g., school).
Using Personal-Disclosure Mutual-Sharing to Enhance Group Functioning in a Professional Soccer Academy
Authors: Evans Andrew L. , Slater Matthew J. , Turner Martin J. , Barker Jamie B.
Published: August 2016

The present study examined the effects of personal-disclosure mutual-sharing (PDMS) on a diverse set of group factors in a previously unexplored context. During a single bout of PDMS, 14 soccer-academy athletes voluntarily disclosed unknown personal stories to fellow teammates. Social identity, friendships identity content, results identity content, and collective efficacy were measured at baseline, post-PDMS, follow-up, and maintenance phases. In addition, team performance over the competitive season was assessed via goal difference and goal discrepancy. Data indicated that a short-term significant increase in friendships identity content and a sustained improvement in team performance occurred after the PDMS session, and social identity, results identity content, and collective efficacy remained elevated across all intervention phases. Data suggest that PDMS fosters immediate increases in aspects of team functioning that may exert a positive influence upon team performance. Future research would benefit from ascertaining the exact mechanisms in which PDMS encourages changes in team outcomes observed within the current study.
Issues Related to Drug Abuse in College Athletics: Athletes at Risk
Authors: Tricker Ray , Cook David L. , McGuire Rick
Published: August 2016

In recent years drug abuse by college athletes has received greater attention. Because of the recognition of the growing problem of drug use in athletics, the new NCAA drug testing policy, and recent deaths of elite athletes, the sport psychologist should be prepared to deal with this issue. In many college settings the sport psychologist may be expected to provide support with counseling or participate in the development of a drug abuse prevention program for student athletes. Therefore sport psychologists need to closely examine the factors that may predispose athletes toward using drugs, understand the role of prevention, and develop a thorough knowledge of positive, viable alternatives to drugs. This article addresses five important issues that relate to drug abuse in college athletics: (a) why athletes are at risk, (b) athletic leadership and its relationship to substance abuse, (c) the role of the sport psychologist, (d) issues related to the effectiveness of drug education for athletes, and (e) recommendations for athlete drug education programs.
Exposure and Response Prevention in the Treatment of an Okeanophobic Triathlete
Authors: Farkas Gary M.
Published: August 2016

An in vivo exposure and response prevention procedure consisting of seven treatment and generalization sessions was used to aid a 50-year-old woman with a lifelong fear and avoidance of swimming in the ocean. Subsequent to treatment, the subject, already a competent pool swimmer and an accomplished athlete, swam in the ocean, reduced her swim time by over 50%, and placed second in her age group while competing in a major triathlon. A 1-year follow-up indicated that she was still swimming in the ocean and participating in triathlons. The athlete/sport psychologist relationship is discussed in reference to the athlete’s compliance with treatment recommendations.
Response Distortion on Self-Report Questionnaires with Female Collegiate Golfers
Authors: Williams Jean M. , Krane Vikki
Published: August 2016

Self-report measures of psychological states are commonly used in sport psychology research and practice, yet the possibility of response bias due to social desirability (repressive defensiveness) often has been overlooked. The present study was designed to examine whether or not a significant relationship exists between social desirability and competitive trait anxiety and the CSAI-2 subscales measuring state somatic anxiety, cognitive anxiety, and self-confidence. The participants were 58 female collegiate golfers representing 13 NCAA Division I universities. Pearson product-moment correlations indicated that competitive trait anxiety (−.24), self-confidence (.45, .38), and cognitive anxiety (−.24) appeared to be influenced by social desirability distortion. If the present findings are replicated in future studies using the SCAT, CSAI-2, and other inventories, the field of sport psychology may need to reexamine some of the theoretical and application conclusions drawn from previous research in which no attempt was made to eliminate data from subjects who may have distorted their responses.
The Sport Psychology Program of the USA Women’s National Volleyball Team
Authors: Gipson Martin , McKenzie Thom , Lowe Steve
Published: August 2016

This paper focuses on our work as a performance-enhancement team of three providing services to the USA Women’s National Volleyball Team. We direct our efforts to both coaches and players to achieve systemic, self-sustaining improvements in team performance, with a secondary emphasis on services to individuals. To accomplish these goals we have provided seven primary services: (a) measurement of player and coach behavior, (b) improvement of player skill development activities, (c) enhancement of player performance, (d) enhancement of coach performance, (e) planning and management consultation, and (f) fund raising. We have received exemplary support for and cooperation with our efforts from coaches as well as players and have observed substantial desired changes in player and coach performance over the 1988 quadrennium.
The Use of Imagery by Athletes in Selected Sports
Authors: Hall Craig R. , Rodgers Wendy M. , Barr Kathryn A.
Published: August 2016

The use of imagery by athletes was assessed by administering a 37-item questionnaire to a sample of 381 male and female participants from six sports. The sample comprised competitors in the sports of football, ice hockey, soccer, squash, gymnastics, and figure skating. Athletes reported using imagery more in conjunction with competition than with practice. The motivational function of imagery was found to be important, but no substantial differences were evident between how athletes employ visual and kinesthetic imagery or how they use internal and external imagery perspectives. Athletes also indicated that they do not have very structured or regular imagery sessions. The level at which athletes were competing (recreational/house league, local competitive, provincial competitive, national/international competitive) was found to influence imagery use. The higher the competitive level, the more often the athletes reported using imagery in practice, in competition, and before an event.
Diffusion of Sport Psychology into Elite U.S. Swimming Programs
Authors: Blinde Elaine M. , Tierney James E.
Published: August 2016

This study explored in depth the process by which sport psychology ideas and techniques are diffused into elite-level swimming programs in the United States. Three stages in the diffusion process were examined: initial exposure, degree of receptivity, and rate of implementation. A questionnaire designed to measure this diffusion process was mailed to the 165 Level 5 coaches in the U.S. Sources through which coaches are exposed to sport psychology were identified, as well as factors influencing levels of receptivity and implementation. Intercorrelations among initial exposure, receptivity, and implementation were also examined and factors were identified that may reduce levels of receptivity and implementation. Findings suggest that despite only a moderate degree of exposure, coaches are generally receptive and willing to implement sport psychology into their programs. Major obstacles to both receptivity and implementation were generally related to structural aspects of amateur swimming in the U.S. or the sport psychology community. Identification of such factors can help the sport psychology community improve the process by which its knowledge base is diffused into the sporting community.
From Treatment to Health Enhancement: Psychosocial Considerations in the Exercise Components of Health Promotion Programs
Authors: Fahlberg Larry L. , Fahlberg Lauri A.
Published: August 2016

Health enhancement has been associated with the development of empowerment and self-responsibility among program participants. However, if not well planned and implemented, health promotion programs may be at odds with the development of these philosophical objectives. In fact there has been a recognition that traditional treatment approaches may be ineffective for enhancing health. This inadequacy currently seems apparent in the exercise and/or fitness component of programs. Lack of emphasis on enhancement processes may be exemplified by symptoms such as program dependency among participants. Therefore, if empowerment and self-responsibility are philosophical objectives of a program, methods must be congruent with this philosophy.
Affective Response Patterns of the Injured Athlete: An Exploratory Analysis
Authors: McDonald Susan A. , Hardy Charles J.
Published: August 2016

This study examined the affective response pattern of severely injured athletes. Five athletes from an NCAA Division I university athletic program were followed within 24 hours of injury for 4 weeks. On two nonconsecutive days a week at the same time and place, the athletes completed the Profile of Mood States and indicated their perceived percent rehabilitation. In addition, at the first meeting the athletes were given the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale and a demographic data sheet. At the final meeting the athletes completed an open-ended questionnaire designed to explore affective, cognitive, and behavioral reflections about rehabilitation. ANOVA indicated that affect significantly changed (p<.05) across the 4 week period. Post hoc analyses indicated that this change fits a two-stage process: Stage 1, Times 1−2; Stage 2, Times 3−8, with the two stages being significantly different from each other. The correlation between perceived rehabilitation and total mood disturbance was r=−.69, p<.0001. Correlations for each affective measure and perceived rehabilitation indicated that affective patterns of the rehabilitating athlete were highly related to the perception of rehabilitation, with negative affect diminishing and positive affect increasing as perceived rehabilitation increased.
The Social Psychology of Assertive Communication: Issues in Teaching Assertiveness Skills to Athletes
Authors: Connelly Deidre , Rotella Robert J.
Published: August 2016

This paper describes issues and strategies related to teaching social assertiveness skills to athletes. Social assertiveness is examined as a key ingredient for effective communication and athlete satisfaction. Communication difficulties and issues frequently encountered in working with athletes, relevant to assertiveness skills, are discussed along with examination of team member issues that athletes must confront in order to function effectively in assertiveness situations. Specific strategies for teaching assertiveness skills to groups and individuals are presented and include applications to various sport settings.
A Theoretical Paradigm for Performance Enhancement: The Multimodal Approach
Authors: Davies Simon , West John D.
Published: August 2016

This article familiarizes sport psychologists, counselors, and coaches with the multimodal approach to enhancing the performance of college athletes. The seven modalities of behavior, affect, sensations, imagery, cognitions, interpersonal relations, and biological functioning are examined. An individualized modality profile for a collegiate soccer player with performance problems is generated. Various applied intervention techniques are suggested to facilitate performance enhancement.
Perceptions of Psychological Momentum and Their Relationship to Performance
Authors: Miller Steve , Weinberg Robert
Published: August 2016

The present investigation examined perceptions of psychological momentum, situation criticality, and skill level and then determined the relationships between these variables and performance outcome in volleyball using archival data. Division I and beginning volleyball students completed questionnaires to determine perceptions of momentum. Different scenarios were provided in which situation criticality and perceived momentum were manipulated. Subjects responded to each scenario by rating which team they perceived to have a psychological advantage. Actual game situations in which one team came back from 3 points down to tie were analyzed to determine the outcome of the next five serves, 5 points, and the game at critical and noncritical stages. Results indicated that subjects’ perceived momentum had a psychological influence on the game but that only low-skill subjects perceived it as having an influence on performance. Momentum had minimal influence on subsequent performance in actual game situations.
Understanding Trust in the Performance of Complex Automatic Sport Skills
Authors: Moore William E. , Stevenson John R.
Published: August 2016

The concept of trust in performing complex automatic motor skills involves letting go of conscious controlling tendencies often learned during skill acquisition. Theories of motor control provide a framework for automatic selection and execution of movement sequences during skilled performance. Trust is viewed as a psychological skill in which the athlete releases conscious control over movements, thus allowing the automatic execution of the schema that have been developed through training. This paper defines and characterizes trust and its role in the performance of automatic sport skills, with the goal of suggesting a path for applied research concerning trust and sport skills performance.
Ethical and Professional Issues in Contemporary British Sport Psychology
Authors: Biddle Stuart J.H. , Bull Stephen J. , Seheult Carole L.
Published: August 2016

Associated with the rapid increase in the demand for, and supply of, sport psychologists in Britain, a number of ethical and professional issues have arisen. Although some of these may not be unique to Britain, they may shed light on important issues that can contribute to a wider, international dialogue. Specifically, the paper addresses issues associated with the establishment of the Code of Conduct and the Register of sport psychologists in Britain. In addition, the consultancy process is considered from what have been termed educational and clinical perspectives, with illustrative case-study examples. Future directions are discussed in the hope of stimulating informed debate in the international community of sport psychology.
Self-Regulation Training, State Anxiety, and Sport Performance: A Psychophysiological Case Study
Authors: Prapavessis Harry , Grove J. Robert , McNair Peter J. , Cable Nigel T.
Published: August 2016

A single-subject research design was used to test the effectiveness of a cognitive-behavioral intervention in reducing state anxiety and improving sport performance. The subject was a small-bore rifle shooter who suffered from high levels of competition-related anxiety. Initially, self-report, physiological, and behavioral measures of baseline state anxiety were obtained during competition. A 6-week intervention program was then implemented. This program included training in relaxation, thought stoppage, refocusing, coping statements, and biofeedback. An opportunity to practice using these procedures in competition was provided. Measures of state anxiety and performance were then obtained in a second competition. Results revealed that cognitive anxiety, somatic anxiety, gun vibration, and urinary catecholamines decreased whereas self-confidence and performance increased from baseline to treatment. The importance of examining multiple dimensions of state anxiety using a multimethod, idiographic approach is discussed.
The Effect of Mental-Imagery Training on Performance Enhancement with 7-10-Year-Old Children
Authors: Li-Wei Zhang , Qi-Wei Ma , Orlick Terry , Zitzelsberger Louise
Published: August 2016

Field studies investigating the potential benefit of mental-imagery training with young children have been lacking in the literature. The purpose of this investigation was to shed light on the appropriateness of mental training for children. Three groups of 7–10-year-old table tennis players participated in this study to assess the value of mental-imagery training, specifically with respect to children’s performance enhancement. The results indicated that children who used mental imagery experienced significantly greater improvement in the accuracy and technical quality of their shots than children in comparison groups. This study suggests that mental-imagery training, combined with videotaped images and relaxation, may be particularly promising for children.
The Nature of Group Goals in Sport Teams: A Phenomenological Analysis
Authors: Brawley Lawrence R. , Carron Albert V. , Widmeyer W. Neil
Published: August 2016

Much of the contemporary research and practical literature in sport and psychology that concerns goals focuses on individuals. Several reviewers, however, have called for more investigation into group goal setting. To accomplish this, a basic understanding of the everyday goals of sport teams is necessary. The purpose of this exploratory investigation was to examine the nature of group goals in intact sport teams. Athletes (N=154) from college and community teams (N=13) were asked to list up to five team goals for both practice and competitive situations. Content analyses showed that the overwhelming majority were general (>70%) rather than specific in nature. For practice situations, process goals predominated (89.9%), but for competitions, a balance existed between outcome (53.1%) and process (46.9%) goals. Further analyses of the practice goals showed that 66.1% related to skill/strategy, 29.3% to effort, and 4.6% to fitness. For the competition goals, 43.5% related to skill/strategy, 15.0% to effort, and 41.5% to outcomes. Implications of these results for practitioners and researchers are discussed.
1988 U.S. Olympic Wrestling Excellence: I. Mental Preparation, Precompetitive Cognition, and Affect
Authors: Gould Daniel , Eklund Robert C. , Jackson Susan A.
Published: August 2016

This study involved extensive interviews with all 20 members of the 1988 U.S. Olympic Wrestling Team about their performances in the Seoul Olympics. Qualitative research methodology and analyses were employed to acquire and preserve rich representations of these experiences. Mental preparation strategies, precompetitive cognition, and affect were examined by having the wrestlers respond to a series of questions about their all-time best match, worst Olympic match, and most crucial Olympic match. Considerable consistency was found across wrestlers’ responses regarding all-time best and worst Olympic matches whereas striking differences were found between the best and worst matches. For example, before best matches, wrestlers followed mental preparation plans and routines and were extremely confident, totally focused, and optimally aroused. They also focused on clear tactical strategies. Before worst matches, wrestlers were not confident, had inappropriate feeling states and experienced many task-irrelevant and negative thoughts, and deviated from preparation plans. These results are consistent with other research with Olympic athletes and suggest that precompetitive states play a critical role in competitive performance.
A Developmental-Educational Intervention Model of Sport Psychology
Authors: Danish Steven J. , Petitpas Albert J. , Hale Bruce D.
Published: August 2016

In this article Life Development Intervention (LDI) is described. It is an intervention based on a developmental-educational framework that fits the needs of practitioners from varied backgrounds and disciplines and opens the path to better communication among these practitioners. LDI can be used to enhance athletes’ performance both inside and outside sports. The assumptions underlying LDI are presented, the role of the LDI specialist is examined, and a framework for selecting intervention strategies is outlined. Particular attention is given to the importance of learning how to teach the transfer skills from one domain to another.
To Be Aware or Not Aware? What to Think about while Learning and Performing a Motor Skill
Authors: Singer Robert N. , Lidor Ronnie , Cauraugh James H.
Published: August 2016

The effectiveness of three learning strategies on achievement was compared in the learning and performing of a self-paced motor task. More specifically, investigated was the influence of (a) an awareness strategy (to consciously attend to the act and to what one is doing during execution); (b) a nonawareness strategy (to preplan the movement and perform the task without conscious attention to it; “to just do it”); (c) the Five-Step Approach (to systematically ready oneself, image the act, focus attention on a cue, execute without thought, and evaluate the act and the previous steps); and (d) a control condition (to use one’s own approach). Subjects (N = 72) received 250 trials to master a computer-managed ball-throwing task, and 50 more in a dual-task situation. The Five-Step Approach and nonawareness strategies led to the highest achievement, and the three strategies resulted in less radial error in comparison to the control condition.
Communication Skills Training for Interactive Sports
Authors: Sullivan Patricia A.
Published: August 2016

The development of interpersonal communication skills is an important aspect of psychological skill development in interactive sport athletes. This article presents a communication skills training program for interactive sport teams. Collegiate coaches of interactive sports implemented a series of seven interpersonal communication exercises with their teams to gain a preliminary perspective on the effectiveness of communication skills training. Overall, athletes’ responses in evaluating the program indicated that the communication exercises raised awareness levels of communication skills and competencies and also provided valuable opportunities to practice improving communication skills. Suggestions are provided for the continuation of communication skills training with athletes.
Organizing and Interpreting Unstructured Qualitative Data
Authors: Côté Jean , Salmela John H. , Baria Abderrahim , Russell Storm J.
Published: August 2016

In the last several years there has been an increase in the amount of qualitative research using in-depth interviews and comprehensive content analyses in sport psychology. However, no explicit method has been provided to deal with the large amount of unstructured data. This article provides common guidelines for organizing and interpreting unstructured data. Two main operations are suggested and discussed: first, coding meaningful text segments, or creating tags, and second, regrouping similar text segments, or creating categories. Furthermore, software programs for the microcomputer are presented as a way to facilitate the organization and interpretation of qualitative data.
The Role of Performance Profiling in Cognitive Behavioral Interventions in Sport
Authors: Jones Graham
Published: August 2016

This paper reports a case study of a successful cognitive behavioral intervention using performance profiling. The subject, a top-10 female racket sport player, had a problem with her temperament on court, becoming angry and frustrated in pressure situations. Performance profiling was used for three major purposes: (a) to aid the sport psychologist in identifying an appropriate psychological intervention, (b) to maximize the performer’s self-motivation to partake in and adhere to the intervention, and (c) to monitor any changes during the intervention. A multimodal stress management approach was adopted using a combination of component parts from the available packages. The performance profiling technique showed significant improvements in the performer’s ability to cope with pressure situations 3 and 6 months after the intervention.
Nutritional Need or Athletic Overconformity: Ethical Implications for the Sport Psychologist
Authors: Johns David P.
Published: August 2016

Overconformity in sport, as reported in the literature, suggests that athletes preparing for competition exhibit forms of positive deviance not because they disregard the social values of society but because they are willing to go beyond them. After examining the recent comments in the literature on overconformity as a form of positive deviance, this paper explores the possibility that the dietary intake associated with two sports, requiring weight control, may provide examples of such behavior. The paper provides two sports cases where the extreme measure takes the form of eating behaviors that go beyond what would be considered normal or healthy to meet the expectation of the sport. Such behaviors have serious implications for the practice of sport psychology. Intervention must go beyond the simple application of performance-enhancing techniques, and sport psychologists are encouraged to base their intervention on strong moral and ethical principles that place the health and well-being of the athlete before the outcome of performance.
Predicting Athletic Success: Issues Related to Analysis and Interpretation of Study Findings
Authors: Renger Ralph
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this paper is to reiterate the importance of testing for the predictive validity of regression and discriminant solutions in studies devoted to the prediction of athletic success. Two approaches to test for the predictive validity of regression and discriminant solutions, longitudinal and cross-validation, are reviewed. Statistical issues relating to predictive validity, including small case to predictor ratios, multicollinearity, and the limitations of stepwise regression are discussed. The paper also examines alternative methodologies that would enable researchers to obtain better estimates of predictive validity. Several studies in the prediction of athletic success that have reported high squared multiple correlation coefficients (R2) are reviewed. The purpose of this review is to demonstrate how various statistical limitations bring into question the conclusions drawn from these studies.
Performance Enhancement in Motocross: A Case Study of the Sport Science Team in Action
Authors: Collins David , Doherty Michael , Talbot Steven
Published: August 2016

Using an exemplar case study of an intervention completed in the sport of motocross, the authors attempt to demonstrate the advantages inherent in using integrated multidisciplinary approaches in the application of sport sciences to performance enhancement. The need for comprehensive, detailed, and well-planned interventions, which of necessity take time to both set up and implement, is also highlighted. In addition, the authors furnish examples of practical techniques that can be used to facilitate cognitive behavioral strategies in this type of sport. Implications for the preparation and training of applied sport psychology consultants are briefly discussed.
The Mental Readiness Form as a Measure of Competitive State Anxiety
Authors: Krane Vikki
Published: August 2016

Two studies were designed to test the validity of the Mental Readiness Form (MRF; Murphy, Greenspan, Jowdy, and Tammen, 1989) with collegiate athletes. In Study 1, male and female athletes completed the CSAI-2 and the original or a modified MRF within 60 minutes prior to competition. In Study 2, subjects completed two forms of the MRF with slightly different anchor terms, the CSAI-2, trait anxiety measures, and a social desirability scale. Overall, results indicated moderate to strong correlations between corresponding CSAI-2 subscales and MRF items, supporting its concurrent validity. The intercorrelations among MRF items were high, but were similar to the intercorrelations among CSAI-2 subscales. Correlations with trait anxiety also supported the concurrent validity of the MRF. None of the MRF scales or the CSAI-2 were significantly correlated with social desirability. The preliminary analyses in these studies provide initial support for the MRF as a measure of competitive anxiety when expediency is an important concern.
“Has-Beens” and “Wanna-Bes”: Transition Experiences of Former Major College Football Players
Authors: Parker Kathy B.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to gain insight into the experiences of former college football players upon exiting intercollegiate careers. The qualitative methodology of in-depth, dialogic interviewing was employed. Participants were 7 former NCAA Division I-A collegiate football players who completed their eligibility within the last 3 years and who were at least 8 months removed from collegiate competition. These participants were not under contract with any professional teams at the time of their interviews. Findings centered around the following themes: (a) the transition from high school to elite-level college football, and the change in the relationships participants had with their coaches; (b) the learning of behavior not positively transferable to the “real world”; (c) the power and control issues surrounding the major college football setting, and the manner in which participants perceived, and responded to, being controlled; and (d) the ways participants were experiencing posteligibility life.
The Effects of a Somatic Intervention Strategy on Competitive State Anxiety and Performance in Semiprofessional Soccer Players
Authors: Maynard Ian W. , Hemmings Brian , Warwick-Evans Lawrence
Published: August 2016

The primary aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of a somatic intervention technique. Subjects (N = 17) completed a modified version of the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory 2 (CSAI-2), which assessed both intensity and direction (debilitative-facilitative) of state anxiety within one hour of a soccer league match. During the match, player performances were evaluated using intraindividual criteria. Subjects were then allocated to control (n = 8) and experimental (n = 9) groups on the basis of their somatic anxiety intensity and direction scores. Following an 8-week intervention, subjects were again assessed during a second soccer match. A series of twoway analyses of variance with one repeated measure revealed significant interactions for cognitive anxiety intensity, somatic anxiety intensity, and somatic anxiety direction. This study provided further support for the “matching hypotheses” in that a compatible treatment proved most effective in reducing the targeted anxiety.
The Knowledge of High-Performance Gymnastic Coaches: Competition and Training Considerations
Authors: Côté Jean , Salmela John H. , Russell Storm
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study is to report the knowledge used in training and competition by 17 expert high-performance gymnastic coaches. A qualitative research methodology was used to collect and inductively analyze the data. The knowledge elicited for the competition component was categorized as competition site, competition floor, and trial competitions. These categories indicated that the coaches are minimally involved with the gymnasts in competition. The knowledge of the coaches elicited within the training component were categorized as coach involvement in training, intervention style, technical skills, mental skills, and simulation. Properties of these categories that were extensively discussed by the expert coaches, such as teaching progressions, being supportive, and helping athletes to deal with stress, are consistent with the literature on coaching and on sport psychology. Other aspects considered important in the sport psychology literature, such as developing concentration skills, were not discussed as thoroughly by the expert coaches.
Reflections on a 5-Year Consultancy Program with the England Women’s Cricket Team
Authors: Bull Stephen J.
Published: August 2016

This paper documents a 5-year sport psychology consultancy program with the England Women’s Cricket Team. The paper describes the method and content of sport psychology service provided and distinguishes between four phases of delivery: introduction and education in mental skills training, competition preparation and thinking, preliminary World Cup preparation, and final World Cup preparation and on-site provision. Service delivery was evaluated by the use of the Consultant Evaluation Form (Partington & Orlick, 1987), ongoing informal feedback from players and coaches, and a formal interview conducted after the World Cup. Reflections on successful and unsuccessful aspects of the program are provided. Overall, the sport psychology program was very well received and was considered instrumental in achieving the stated goal of winning the World Cup. The paper concludes with a number of recommendations for delivering extended sport psychology services to an international team.
Participation Motivation in Italian Youth Sport
Authors: Buonamano Roberto , Cei Alberto , Mussino Antonio
Published: August 2016

An important issue facing youth sport researchers is understanding why youth participate in sport programs. Most participation motivation studies have been carried out in the United States and in Anglophone countries such as the United Kingdom, Canada, and Australia. These studies have identified a fairly consistent set of motivational factors for participation. Starting from this premise, descriptive research on youth participation motivation is reported to verify if, in a Latin country with a sport culture different from Anglophone countries, the same set of motivational factors could be identified. Young athletes (N = 2,598, aged 9–18 years), involved in different sports, completed the modified Italian version of the Participation Motivation Questionnaire (Gill, Gross, & Huddleston, 1983). Factor analyses showed a set of motivational factors fairly consistent with the research conducted in Anglophone countries. Differences were found among participants in relation to gender, age, sport, parents’ educational level, and geographical area.
Sport Consultation: An Evaluation of a Season-Long Intervention with Female Collegiate Gymnasts
Authors: Cogan Karen D. , Petrie Trent A.
Published: August 2016

Applied sport consultants continue to offer intervention programs to athletes; however, research determining the efficacy of such programs has been lacking. This paper (a) briefly describes a season-long, multidimensional sport psychology intervention with a collegiate women’s gymnastics team, and (b) presents the results of the evaluation, examining the effectiveness of the program in reducing competitive state anxiety and increasing team cohesion, the two areas of evaluative focus. Results indicate that the intervention gymnasts had higher levels of social cohesion during the initial part of the competitive season than did control gymnasts. In addition, the intervention gymnasts reported decreases in cognitive and somatic levels from the end of the preseason through the middle of the competitive season. Findings are presented in relation to qualitative feedback provided by the coaches and gymnasts. Directions for future research and the intervention team’s evaluation of the program also are discussed.
Issues and Future Directions for Lifelong Physical Activity: The Physiological Perspective for Women
Authors: Wells Christine L.
Published: August 2016

The following article is a synthesis of current physiological research regarding women and physical activity with an emphasis on what that research means in regard to both performance and health. The first part is a discussion of the effects of heavy physical training on the menstrual cycle, with particular emphasis on the detrimental effects of hypoestrogenemia on bone. The second part of the paper is a discussion of the generally high prevalence of inactivity in American women and its relationship to the development of obesity, type II diabetes, hypercholesterolemia, hypertension, heart disease and cancer. The final section of the paper consists of a call for interdisciplinary and collaborative research by women investigators on issues of major importance to women.
Physical Activity: A Treatment Option for Binge Eating Disorder?
Authors: Crandall K. Jason , Eisenman Patricia A.
Published: August 2016

Binge eating disorder (BED) is a relatively new eating disorder that involves recurrent binge eating without compensatory purging behaviors such as using laxatives, excessive physical activity, and/or dietary restraint. Individuals diagnosed with BED exhibit both psychological and physiological problems that are distinct from bulimia nervosa and non-BED obese individuals. There has been little to no research examining the effects of physical activity on BED treatment. Since current BED treatment strategies have been less than successful, physical activity may be a positive addition to BED treatment. Therefore the objectives of this paper are 1) to raise the awareness of exercise professionals as to. the existence of BED, 2) explore the mechanisms that might support the utilization of physical activity as an adjunct treatment strategy for BED and 3) to prompt more interest among researchers and practitioners relative to using physical activity interventions with BED clients.
Women’s and Men’s Basketball: A Comparison of Sport Consumption Motivations
Authors: James Jeffrey D.
Published: August 2016

The current study was a measurement of whether or not females and males were equally likely to report being sport fans, and to identify whether the motives influencing the consumption of women’s college basketball were different than the motives influencing the consumption of men’s college basketball. Fans of women’s basketball and fans of men’s basketball were compared on nine sport consumption motives. Data for the project came from 318 fans attending women’s basketball games and 316 fans attending men’s basketball games. Based upon the results, men had significantly higher sport fan ratings than women. There were significant differences between females and males on two of the sport consumption motives, Aesthetics and Knowledge. Men reported a greater appreciation for the natural beauty in the game of basketball, and greater enjoyment of games because of their knowledge of basketball. There was no significant difference between the two motives rated highest by women and men, the Action in games and the opportunity to Escape from one’s daily routine. The reasons for watching and following a specific sport were similar for females and males, regardless of the sex of the athletes.
Supportive or Hostile? Teasing or Professional? Women Sportswriters Categorize Locker Room Interaction
Authors: Bruce Toni
Published: August 2016

Although previous researchers have described dimensions of women sportswriters’ locker room experiences or theoretically explored the challenge their presence poses to hegemonic masculinity, they have failed to adequately consider how they give meaning to their locker room encounters. Based on 33 in-depth interviews, participation at five Association for Women in Sports Media conventions and an analysis of published locker room stories, I determined the interpretive frameworks women sportswriters use to understand their experiences. Further, I show how emotional and physical reactions are profoundly influenced by the ways in which these women sportswriters categorize specific interactions. Despite the media and research focus on problematic “incidents”, I demonstrated that many male-female locker room interactions are positive or, at least, unproblematic. However, the continued salience of the locker room as a site supporting hegemonic masculinity is revealed in women sportswriters’ interpretations of the locker room as an always potentially threatening space.
Newspaper Coverage of Female Athletes Competing in Selected Sports in the 1996 Centennial Olympic Games: The More Things Change the More They Stay the Same
Authors: Vincent J. , Imwold Charles , Johnson J. T. , Massey Dwayne
Published: August 2016

This study was a comparison of how selected newspapers from Canada, Great Britain, and the United States reported on female athletes competing in four “gender-appropriate” sports with female athletes competing in four “gender-inappropriate” sports at the Centennial Olympic Games. The liberal feminist theoretical framework underpinning this study views equality of opportunity and individual liberty as an inevitable by-product of political, legal, and educational reform juxtaposed with a gradual social acceptance. Content Analysis was used to examine all the articles and photographs from the front pages and the sports sections of the newspapers. Based upon the data, female athletes competing in the “gender-appropriate” sports of swimming, gymnastics, tennis, and diving received more newspaper coverage than female athletes competing in the “gender-inappropriate” sports of soccer, softball, field hockey, and volleyball in terms of the average number of words per article and the average number of paragraphs per article. In addition, the “gender-appropriate” athletes were over-represented in the average number of photographs, the average number of photographs on the first page, and the average number of photographs on the top of the pages. Qualitative analyses of articles and photographs revealed a subtle but discernable amount of culturally stereotyped coverage.