bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Recommendations for Land Disposal of Oil Spill Cleanup Debris
Authors: Farlow JS
Published: March 2009

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Office of Research and Development (ORD) has sponsored a number of studies relating to effective and environmentally appropriate methods of disposal of oil spill debris. Although some of these studies are still in progress, enough has been learned so that both research and operations personnel agree that sound technology for the land disposal of oily wastes does exist today.

This paper presents practical recommendations to help local officials and cleanup contractors select a suitable disposal strategy, short descriptions of the actual disposal methods, and references to literature containing detailed how-to-do-it information.

Thermal oxidation processes (burning, incineration, and pyrolysis) are only briefly mentioned. The land disposal methods of land cultivation, sanitary landfilling, and direct burial are discussed in more detail, together with their monitoring implications. Tables are presented of potential problems and solutions, site selection criteria, and comparisons between the land disposal methods (advantages, applicability to debris types, environmental considerations, and costs).
Emergency Disposal of Oil Spill and Wastes in Northern and Central California
Authors: Caron DD
Published: March 2009

The objectives of this paper are (1) to determine the degree to which the disposal of oil spill wastes in the northern half of California is a problem, (2) to make specific recommendations as to how the disposal situation might be improved, and (3) to put forth general theories as to why the problem exists. The paper, following an information section for those unfamiliar with northern California, is organized so that each objective is examined in turn. Thus, the first section describes the system being analyzed; the second, third, and fourth sections are entitled, respectively, “The Disposal Situation,” “Recommendations,” and “Why Is There a Problem?”

The paper finds there is a very serious potential problem in the disposal of oil spills wastes outside the immediate San Francisco Bay area. Specific recommendations for improvement are made and hypothesis as to why the problem exists are given.
Mobile System for the Detoxification/Incineration of Cleanup Residuals from Hazardous Material Spills
Authors: Tenzer R , Ford B , Mattox W , Brugger JE
Published: March 2009

The U.S. EPA field-use, mobile system for incinerating/detoxifying the residuals from hazardous materials and oil spills is self-contained on three aligned semitrailers, with only water and fuel required to be supplied externally. The system is designed to meet federal regulations (40 CFR 761) for the incineration of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), namely, a 2-s dwell time at 1200°C (±100°C) and 3 percent excess oxygen with a combustion efficiency of 0.99 defined in terms of the difference in the concentrations of carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide divided by the concentration of carbon dioxide in the flue gas. The feed system, kiln (1000°C, 4.9 m long, 6.7 m3 volume, cocurrent flow, 1-h nominal residence time for solids), and ash handling unit, are mounted on the first trailer. The ash is safe for disposal in a sanitary landfill. The gases and vapors are ducted to a secondary combustion chamber (1200°C, 11 m long, 15.2 m3 volume, 2.2-s residence time, high turbulence (Reynolds number greater than 3 × 104)) mounted on the second trailer, where combustion is completed. The flue gas is water-quenched to 80°C (water saturated) in a venturi section of a unit that conducts the vapor to the third trailer on which are mounted a cleanable high efficiency particulate filter (movable, fluid-washed, fiber-glass belt), vane-type droplet eliminator, mass transfer unit (caustic-scrubbed, packed tower), demister, induced draft blower (2300 mm of negative water pressure) with a 125 hp diesel drive, sound suppressor, stack (3.7 m3(standard)/s flow (7200 ft3 (standard)/min = 7200 FCFM)), and diesel-driven alternator. The system operates under negative pressure. Appropriate control and monitoring instrumentation is included. The system meets state standards for hauling on interstate highways. The processing capacity of the incineration system is: 285 litres/h (75 gal/h) of No. 2 diesel fuel or material of equivalent Btu content, 4000 kg/h (9000 lb/h) of dry, slightly contaminated sand (plus the required diesel or other fuel), or 640 litres/h (170 gal/h) of slightly contaminated water (plus the required fuel). Graphs are provided to show what combinations of fuel and of liquids or solids that have a fuel value can be accepted when these are mixed with water and inert material. The secondary combustion chamber will almost always be fired with diesel fuel (95 litres/h (25 gal/h)). Except when the material to be detoxified has a heating value equivalent to that of fuel oil (and can be fed through the kiln burners), these burners will require from 20 to 285 litres/h (5 to 75 gal/h) of diesel fuel to provide the proper heat release in the kiln. The total heat release within the system is nominally 15 million Btu/h. The quench water requirement is about 65 litres/min (17 gal/min). Electric power (440 V AC, 3 phase) is provided by an on-board 150-hp diesel alternator, which need not be used when utility lines are nearby.
Use of Toxicity Tests in Regulating the Quality of Industrial Wastes in Canada
Authors: Pessah E , Cornwall GM
Published: March 2009

Federal controls on industrial liquid effluents in Canada are developed through consultative government-industry task forces. These controls are technology based (the best practicable technology) and include chemical parameters and a toxicity (acute lethality) limit.

The toxicity test provides a means of integrating the combined effects of a multitude of chemical constituents, a practical, yet indicated alternative to comprehensive (exhaustive) chemical analyses on the increasingly complex effluents. A simple 96-h mortality bioassay using rainbow trout is presented that is typical of those appearing in Canadian regulations. This, in combination with analysis of a few selected chemical parameters, offers an efficient and effective means of regulating effluent quality at the source.

There is a need for standardized sublethal, rapid-response tests to facilitate greater efficiencies in both routine monitoring and wastewater characterization.
Monitoring, Analysis, and Control of Toxic and Hazardous Materials in the Chesapeake Bay
Authors: Bostater CR , Pepino RV , Roland JV
Published: March 2009

The Chesapeake Bay Program of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, with cooperation and input from the states of Maryland and Virginia, has developed and is now implementing a toxicant plan of action for monitoring, analysis, and control of toxic and hazardous substances in the Chesapeake Bay estuarine system. Six tasks have been identified in the initial plan. They include: 1. Baseline monitoring of water, sediment, and biota for toxic pollutants in order to assess the current state of the Chesapeake Bay. 2. A source assessment of toxic substances in order to estimate the inputs of toxic pollutants to the region. 3. Determination of the fate, transport, and transformation of toxic substances by physical and chemical processes through the estuarine environment. 4. Effects studies to determine toxicity values and water quality criteria for substances that may accumulate in the food chain and that adsorb to sediment particles. 5. Intensive investigations of small watersheds with the goal of deriving a materials balance model for toxic inputs to the system. 6. The submission of recommendations for implementation that are based on technical reports to management and regulatory agencies.

Ideally, data generated from samples taken in the environmental compartments, that is, bottom sediments, interstitial water, benthic flora and fauna, fluid mud, suspended sediment, nekton, plankton, and the atmosphere can allow for the development of a toxicological profile at selected sampling stations, as well as supply the first integrated Bay-wide baseline data base for toxic substances.

The source assessment task involves effluent monitoring for toxic pollutants, non-point source watershed monitoring, and the measurement of tributary inputs of potential hazardous substances.

The rationale for a toxicological profile monitoring approach is described along with the toxicant plan of action.
Effects of UV-B on Algal Growth Rate and Trace Gas Production
Authors: Hannan PJ , Swinnerton JW , Lamontagne RA , Patouillet C
Published: March 2009

Cultures of Phaeodactylum tricornutum were exposed to combinations of visible and ultraviolet-B (UV-B) light intensities in the laboratory, the ultraviolet light (UV) sources being fluorescent lamps whose peak emission was at approximately 310 nm. Filters of cellulose acetate and Mylar were used to attenuate the UV-B intensity, the latter absorbing all the radiation in the 310 nm region. The growth rates of the algae were calculated from chlorophyll analyses made during the exponential growth of the cultures, and trace gas measurements were made after a fixed time (44 h).

Algal cells exposed to a UV-B flux approximately one-fifth that of average sunlight intensity, with visible light intensities optimal for photosynthesis, underwent a 20 percent reduction in growth rate and were completely inhibited by UV fluxes half that of sunlight. A major finding of the trace gas analyses was that carbon monoxide (CO) formation was relatively constant over the range of UV fluxes imposed. Previous experiments with outdoor exposures had produced CO in concentrations of an order of magnitude higher. It appears that UV-B was not the causative agent for the unsually high CO production resulting from exposure of the algae to sunlight.
Lumbriculus variegatus, a Benthic Oligochaete, as a Bioassay Organism
Authors: Bailey HC , Liu DHW
Published: March 2009

The potential of the freshwater oligochaete Lumbriculus variegatus as a bioassay organism was investigated using various heavy metals and organic compounds as toxicants. Except in the cases of the pesticides tested, the sensitivity of this organism to chemical toxicants compared well with that reported for various fish and other invertebrate species. In addition, L. variegatus exhibited highly visible sublethal responses, such as color changes and fragmentation, to many of the chemicals tested. Lumbriculus variegatus can be cultured under laboratory conditions with little effort.
Assimilation Efficiency and Clearance of Trichlorobenzenes in Rainbow Trout
Authors: Smith AD , Griffith TJ , Orr DE , Ozburn GW
Published: March 2009

A unique experimental approach has been applied to a study of the bioaccumulation dynamics in rainbow trout fed a single meal containing trichlorobenzenes (TCBs). The technique involves the incorporation of a radioactive chemical marker in the diet, in addition to the chemical of interest (TCB). The marker chemical permits an estimate to be made of the assimilation efficiency of TCB in food. The assimilation efficiency can then be used, in conjunction with a series of direct analyses for TCB body burdens, to describe tissue clearance dynamics in terms of individual fish.

Trout given a pulse dose meal containing 50 ppm TCB assimilated approximately 61 percent of the chemical. Individual fish were capable of clearing more than 90 percent of the TCB sequestered in their tissues within 174 h after dosing.
A New Technique for Automatic Monitoring of Fish Ventilatory Patterns and Its Possible Use in Screening Tests for Chronic Toxicity
Authors: van der Schalie WH
Published: March 2009

Laboratory determinations of maximum acceptable toxicant concentrations (MATC) for fish are currently derived from long-term chronic toxicity tests. Recent evidence suggests that toxicant levels near the MATC will induce measurable changes in fish ventilatory patterns in a relatively short period of time. Unfortunately, most ventilatory data are analyzed manually; this greatly limits the amount of data that can be analyzed. A computerized system is described that records and analyzes ventilatory data from the bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus). A total of 1174 min of data was gathered from 22 acclimated fish that had not been exposed to toxicants. The computer-analyzed results were 0.7 percent below the opercular rate values and 39.0 percent below the coughing rate values determined by visual examination of the same ventilatory patterns. Whole-body movements of the fish, which can mask the ventilatory patterns, were present in only 0.4 percent of the data. The computer detected 25 percent less movement than was seen visually. The potential for using this system in a toxicant screening test with bluegills and other fish is discussed.
Temperature Tolerance Determinations for Daphnia
Authors: Goss LB
Published: March 2009

First immature instar and adult egg-carrying Daphnia pulex Leydig acclimated from 5 to 30°C, at 5°C intervals, and Daphnia magna Straus acclimated from 5 to 25°C, at 5°C intervals, were instantaneously immersed at 30 and 35°C and observed for mortality. Observations were made at 0.5, 1, 2, 4, and 8 h after immersion and every 8 h thereafter until 95 percent mortality occurred. Twenty organisms were used in each test, and the tests were carried out in temperature-controlled water baths. Filtered lake water was used for culture and testing.

Adult egg-bearing D. pulex and D. magna were more sensitive to the upper lethal temperatures than their respective immature forms, which indicates that mature egg-carrying forms should be used for determining temperature tolerance levels. The results also indicated that organisms held in laboratory cultures for extended time periods at constant temperatures have decreased upper temperature tolerance limits, in comparison with organisms adapted to the fluctuating temperatures of natural environments, which have been laboratory acclimated for shorter time periods.

Shortcomings in the methodologies of previous thermal tolerance studies on zooplankton are discussed, and recommendations are made as to how these methods can be improved.
A Model for Dynamic Crack Propagation in a Double-Torsion Fracture Specimen
Authors: Popelar CH
Published: March 2009

A simple one-dimensional mathematical model for rapid fracture and crack arrest in a double-torsion fracture specimen is developed. The model indicates that the crack speed is limited by the torsional wave speed, which depends upon the shear wave speed and the cross-sectional geometry. By appropriate design of the specimen, it appears that some control can be exercised over the portion of the fracture toughness-crack speed relation that the crack tip samples. Analyses are performed for both speed-independent and speed-dependent fracture toughnesses. Qualitatively the predicted crack history for this specimen has many of the characteristics predicted and measured in the more traditional specimens.
Dynamic Fracture Analysis of Notched Bend Specimens
Authors: Mall S , Kobayashi AS , Loss FJ
Published: March 2009

A dynamic finite-element code was used to determine dynamic initiation fracture toughness, KId, in 25.4-mm-thick (1 in.) notched bend specimens of A533B steel and a 15.9-mm-thick (5/8 in.) dynamic tear specimen of 6061 aluminum alloy. These specimen types can reflect varying dynamic fracture response due to differences in test temperature, specimen geometry, and material as well as notch tip sharpness. Measured load-time histories were applied to the tup as modeled by finite elements, and the dynamic stress-intensity factor was computed by a calibrated crack opening displacement procedure. Dynamic stress-intensity factors were also computed by the ASTM Test for Plane-Strain Fracture Toughness of Metallic Materials (E 399-74) using a load based on local dynamic strain measurements and a static K calibration.

Reasonable agreements between measured and computed dynamic strains in the vicinity of the crack tip verified the accuracy of the dynamic finite-element model. The attendant agreement between measured versus computed time-varying dynamic stress-intensity factors also verified, for the first time, the applicability of ASTM E 399-74 for computing dynamic initiation fracture toughness, KId, on the basis of local dynamic strain measurements.
Dynamic Photoelastic Determination of the ˙a-K Relation for 4340 Alloy Steel
Authors: Kobayashi T , Dally JW
Published: March 2009

A method of direct determination of the instantaneous stress-intensity factor associated with running and arrested cracks in steels has been developed at the University of Maryland. Birefringent coatings have been applied to the proposed ASTM standard crack arrest compact specimens of oil-quenched and tempered 4340 steel. Isochromatic fringe patterns during crack propagation and crack arrest have been photographed successfully with an ultrahigh-speed Cordin camera and specially designed high-intensity and short-duration Xenon lamp system.

In this paper a detailed description of the experimental apparatus, the method of isochromatic fringe analysis technique, and an examination of behavior of the stress-intensity factor during crack propagation and after arrest are presented.
Analytical Interpretation of Running Ductile Fracture Experiments in Gas-Pressurized Linepipe
Authors: Freund LB , Parks DM
Published: March 2009

Ductile crack propagation in pneumatically pressurized pipelines is an extremely complex process, involving interactions between the fracturing pipe, the escaping gas, the covering backfill, and mechanical crack arresters, if any are present. In order to extend the experience gained through testing programs to the design of pipelines, it appears to be necessary to develop theoretical models of the process based on simplifying assumptions which are consistent with the available experimental data. Over the past several years, the American Iron and Steel Institute has conducted a full-scale test program on propagating shear fractures in pneumatically pressurized linepipe, and many measurements have been made of crack motion, pipe wall deformation, pressure loading, fracture toughness, etc. The relevant data are reviewed, and some implications for modeling pipe wall plasticity, gas flow and escape, and backfill resistance are considered. Pipe wall deformations are assumed on the basis of test data, and the contributions to an overall energy balance equation due to individual deformation components are computed in the spirit of upper-bound calculations of plastic limit load analysis. It is concluded that for ductile materials the resistance of the pipe wall material to axial inplane stretching near the crack tip is a major contribution to the total structural and inertial resistance to the gas pressure driving force, and relative magnitudes of other resistance terms are also estimated for the case of no backfill. The capacity for soil backfill to dissipate the work of the driving force is also considered, and it is concluded that for soils with low cohesion the inertial resistance of the backfill is much greater than the resistance due to soil strength.
Laboratory Testing and Monitoring of Stray Current Corrosion of Prestressed Concrete in Seawater
Authors: Cornet I , Pirtz D , Polivka M , Gau Y , Shimizu A
Published: March 2009

Stray current corrosion of prestressed concrete beams was investigated in the laboratory by exposing 40 specimens 6.4 by 6.4 by 122 cm (2.5 by 2.5 by 48 in.), prestressed by a central high-strength steel wire to 1.86 × 109 N/m2 (270 ksi), in seawater. The steel wire was made anodic to a copper cathode, with steel current densities maintained at fixed values between 27 and 915 mA/m2 (2.5 and 85 mA/ft2).

Monitoring was done by measuring steel potential relative to a silver/silver chloride reference electrode with current on, weekly, and with current off, biweekly. Beams were examined visually biweekly; the presence of rust spots and longitudinal cracks was noted, and lengths of cracks were measured, for exposures which ranged between 8 and 83 weeks. After exposure, the prestressing wire was tensioned to failure.

Reductions in breaking strength of 70 percent were observed in 25 weeks' exposure at 915 mA/m2 (85 mA/ft2), with lesser reductions in strength for shorter exposures and lower current densities.

Ampere-hours did not correlate satisfactorily with the reduction in breaking strength of the wire. Potentials measured with current on or off indicated that corrosion was occurring, but gave no quantitative indication of the reduction in breaking strength. Resistance measurements of the electrochemical circuit did not relate to the extent of corrosion damage. Time to change in potential of the prestressing steel did correlate with time for initiation of steel corrosion. Existence and length of longitudinal cracks in the concrete beam did not correlate quantitatively with the reduction in breaking strength of the prestressing steel.

After the tension test, beams were notched lengthwise with a saw and opened. The prestressing wire was then examined to determine the distribution and extent of corrosion. Quantitative estimates of the corroded length were made. Qualitatively, where there was considerable localized corrosion attack, there was great reduction in breaking strength for a given number of ampere-hours' exposure. Where the corrosion attack was well distributed, an equal number of ampere-hours gave less reduction in fracture strength.

Stray electrical currents can cause serious deterioration in the strength of prestressed concrete structures, as measured by testing to destruction. However, none of the methods of monitoring used in this investigation can predict the extent of the damage quantitatively.
Effect of Spectrum Editing on Fatigue Crack Initiation and Propagation in a Notched Member
Authors: Socie DF , Artwohl PJ
Published: March 2009

A method for eliminating small, nondamaging cycles from irregular loading histories is described. Analytic estimates of crack initiation, crack propagation, and total fatigue lives are compared to experimental data for full and edited load histories from the Society of Automotive Engineers Cumulative Fatigue Damage Test Program. Load histories edited to have equal crack initiation lives do not have equal crack propagation lives.
Concepts and Implementations in X-Ray Intensification
Authors: Bates CW
Published: March 2009

X-ray image intensification (XRII) is discussed from a historical perspective in terms of the input scintillator, the electron optics, and the output phosphor screen. The basic concept and physical appearance of XRII has changed little since its introduction nearly 30 years ago. It is characterized by a minified output image. The minified output image was chosen so that additional brightness gain of approximately 100 times could be obtained. However, this design choice of obtaining additional brightness gain through the minification of the output image size has locked the XRII to inverting-type electrostatic-focused electron optics which require cylindrical symmetry, long electron trajectories, weak cathode field strength, and curved input screen. Nevertheless, significant improvements in the preformance of XRII have been made in the past 10 years. Primarily, these improvements were made through the use of improved X-ray-sensitive input screen phosphors, electron optics, and output screens. The improvements have led to the consideration, design, and construction of a novel proximity-type XRII. This device has the main advantage of fewer sources of unsharpness so that this advantage can be traded for higher MTF performance or dose reduction performance. In addition, the size and shape of this device are not restricted as in the case of current minifying-type X-ray image intensifier tubes. Various systems applications employing this device, such as in simple direct-view intensified panel-like fluoroscopy, low-dose TV fluoroscopy, and direct radiographic miniaturization, are discussed.
X-Ray-Sensitive Television Camera Tubes
Authors: Jacobs JE
Published: March 2009

This presentation is concerned with television camera tubes that respond directly to incident penetrating radiation. In its simplest form, the camera tube consists of a layer which converts the incident penetrating radiation field into a charge pattern which is scanned by an electron beam to form an image that is displayed using conventional closed-circuit television (CCTV) techniques. Such a tube has a number of advantages, the principal one of which is its simplicity. With this simplicity, however, in terms of the number of elements involved, come a number of problems which to date have essentially kept such an approach to X-ray imaging from commercial application. It is the purpose of this presentation to detail the advantages, disadvantages, and difficulties in the implementation of the X-ray-sensitive television camera tube.
Beam Filtration in Diagnostic Radiology
Authors: Siedband MP
Published: March 2009

The spectrum of energies produced by an X-ray tube has a very broad distribution. Each imaging requirement will have an ideal monochromatic energy or narrow band of energies which will yield good image contrast and minimum patient exposure. The energy distribution can be altered by such techniques as operating the tube at constant potential, by the use of k-edge filters which have a greater energy attenuation above a particular value, or by the use of copper foil filters which tend to have a greater absorption of lower energies to reduce patient incident exposure. Beam filtration should vary with the application, in particular, as a function of the voltage applied to the X-ray tube. It is obvious that filtration appropriate to low-voltage operation will not be optimum for high-voltage operation of the same tube. Another constraint is imposed by limitations of tube anode dissipation. As beam filtration is increased (as in the case of chest radiography), anode dissipation per exposure must also increase and becomes a practical limit to the increase of beam filtration.
Cold Neutron Imaging for Gas Turbine Inspection
Authors: Stewart PAE
Published: March 2009

Cold neutron radiography has a number of attractive features which make it particularly suitable for solving some specific problems in gas turbine development, connected with fuel, oil or hydraulic systems. Other hydrogenous materials are also rendered clearly visible by this technique.

This paper describes preliminary work to determine image quality using cold neutrons with a range of test objects, including an oil penetrameter, engine accessory components and a full-size static Rolls-Royce ‘Viper’ gas turbine. This work was carried out on the C1 residual cold neutron radiographic beam port at the ‘Herald’ research reactor (5 MW) at the U.K. Atomic Weapons Research Establishment at Aldermaston in June 1975.
Computerized Fluorodensitometry Using a Solid-State Matrix Camera
Authors: Ziskin MC , Philips CM
Published: March 2009

Conventional televised fluoroscopy enables real-time visualization of dynamically changing structures within the body provided there is adequate radiologic contrast between the object of interest and its immediate surround. Under special conditions, such as in arteriography, injection of a contrast agent into the structure being studied enhances its visualization. Where applicable, greatest contrast enhancement is provided by image subtraction. In our experience, because of the intrinsic noisiness of television (TV), radiologic contrast had to exceed 5 percent for visualization by any of the aforementioned techniques.

In order to measure a 1 percent X-ray transmission variation, we have replaced the vidicon camera with a Reticon solid-state matrix camera. This camera contains a 32 by 32 photodiode array with an intrinsic noise level far below that of standard TV. However, a fixed-pattern pixel noise due to differing pixel sensitivities must be canceled out. This is easily performed by subtraction with a dark-field pixel pattern previously stored in a computer. The frame rate of the camera can be varied from 15 to 100 Hz.

The video signal is digitized and entered into a LINC-8 digital computer for densitometry. The primary use of this system to date has been in the measurement of pulmonary pulsations in monkeys. These pulmonary pulsations are small variations in X-ray transmission through the chest due to the change in blood content of the lungs during each heartbeat. A decrease in the amplitude of pulmonary pulsations is a potentially important diagnostic sign in the clinical evaluation of cardiac failure and in early lung cancer.
Air Infiltration Reduction Through Retrofitting
Authors: Harrje DT , Mills TA
Published: March 2009

This paper documents and compares the air infiltration levels experienced in five Twin Rivers townhouses before and after retrofit. The technique used to measure air infiltration rates was the tracer gas method, which relied upon automated equipment. Weather data as well as 5-min interval air infiltration measurements were used in the comparisons.

Analysis techniques included multiple regression, polar plotting, stemleaf plotting, and detailed comparisons of infiltration rates as influenced by temperature differences inside-to-outside the dwelling.

The results indicate that: the retrofitted townhouses are noticably less sensitive to wind direction, showing little or no increase in infiltration when the wind directly impinges on building surfaces; the post-retrofit infiltration rates average 36 percent less than the preretrofit data, with individual houses experiencing as much as a 48 percent decrease; and basement and attic retrofitting appear to be very influential in achieving the greatest reductions in air infiltration rates.
Wintertime Infiltration Rates in Mobile Homes
Authors: Goldschmidt VW , Leonard RG , Ball JE , Wilhelm DR
Published: March 2009

The infiltration in mobile homes can be reduced by treatments such as caulking or adding a special sheathing board material. Present standards set limits on the infiltration rates in mobile homes. Reduction in infiltration rates are accompanied by reductions in heating, ventilating and air-conditioning (HVAC) equipment sizing and operation cost. Unfortunately, there is a general lack of actual field data to determine infiltration rates of mobile homes and the general dependence of infiltration on wind and temperature differences.

A field test setup including two unoccupied mobile homes is described. The facility permits a measure of weather, consumption, infiltration rate, and surface temperatures. Data are now presented comparing the winter performance of the two mobile homes. The homes are identical on all counts except that one is treated with a special sheathing board while the other is caulked. The data indicate a general parabolic dependence of infiltration on wind (and a linear dependence on temperature difference) with consistently lower values of infiltration rate for the board-sheathed home than for the caulked home.
Moisture Interactions in Light-Frame Housing: A Review
Authors: Schaffer EL
Published: March 2009

Though airchange or infiltration can significantly affect energy use, altering interior moisture can influence energy use as well as other performance characteristics. An assessment of the moisture interaction is made as related to health and comfort of the occupants, fire safety, durability and maintainability, and design and construction of light-frame housing. A discussion of significant interactions includes shortcomings and recommendations.
Analysis of Tosco II Oil Shale Retort Water
Authors: Haas FC
Published: March 2009

A sampling and analysis program for Tosco II oil shale retort water was conducted at the Tosco Corporation's 21 773-kg (24-ton)-per-day pilot plant near Golden, Colorado. The sampling and sample storage procedures are presented along with the analyses for common ions and trace metals. The substantial amounts of organic material present were separated by pH extraction and characterized as organic acids, organic bases, neutral oils, and phenolic material.
Determination of Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Wastewater from Coal Liquefaction Processes by the Gas Chromatography-Ultraviolet Spectrometry Technique
Authors: Robbins WK , Searl TD , Wasserstrom DH , Boyer GT
Published: March 2009

One of the classes of compounds that may be present in wastewater from coal conversion plants is polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH). Since 13 PAHs containing from three to six condensed rings are on the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) list of priority pollutants, an analytical method has been developed for the determination of PAHs in process waters from coal liquefaction processes. This method utilizes the well-established gas chromatography-ultraviolet spectrometry (GC-UV) technique to determine the 13 at the 0.1 ppb (micrograms per litre) level and higher. Isomers and twelve additional PAHs are routinely measured, and the technique may be extended as necessary to cover other compounds as well.

In the method, each wastewater sample is spiked with [14C]phenanthrene, [14C]benz[a]anthracene, and [14C]benzo[a]pyrene prior to extraction with methylene chloride. The methylene chloride phase is then washed with aqueous acid and base to remove phenols, organic acids, and basic nitrogen compounds. The methylene chloride neutrals are then solvent exchanged into cyclohexane, and the cyclohexane phase is extracted with N-methylpyrrolidone (NMP). A PAH-rich fraction suitable for GC-UV measurement is obtained by dilution of the NMP with water and back extraction into isooctane. In the GC-UV measurement step, the PAHs are separated by gas chromatography and the component fractions trapped. After dissolution of the PAHs from the traps, ultraviolet absorption measurements are made for the individual PAHs. Peaks containing the carbon-14 internal standards are assayed for radioactivity, and the ratio of the final to the initial radioactivity is used to quantitate the data.

With this technique, the effect of the coal type and the reaction conditions can be determined. Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbon analyses of several raw wastewaters obtained from coal liquefaction pilot plants are presented and discussed.
Multicomponent Methods for the Identification and Quantification of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in the Aqueous Environment
Authors: Griest WH , Maskarinec MP , Herbes SE , Southworth GR
Published: March 2009

The development of sensitive and specific analytical methodology for the determination of the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) content of aqueous samples is critical to studies defining the discharge, distribution, persistence, and fate of PAHs in the aqueous environment. Multicomponent PAH analysis methods developed in this laboratory for freshwater streams and rivers and the application of these methods to samples from the aqueous environment around a coal coking plant are discussed.
Analysis of Leachates from Selected Fossil Energy Wastes for Certain EPA Criteria Pollutants
Authors: Gulledge WP , Webster WC
Published: March 2009

Leach test results from three extraction procedures are presented and discussed as they relate to possible regulation of fossil energy wastes under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act. Under the Phase II testing program conducted by ASTM Committee D-19 on Water, through its Subcommittee D19.12 on Pollution Potential of the Leaching from Solid Wastes, data have been obtained on the leachate characteristics of 19 fossil energy wastes. The data show a wide variation in values obtained by several different laboratories for a given waste and extraction procedure. Using a level of ten times the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's Proposed Interim Primary Drinking Water Standards as a basis for determining hazard potential, the levels of heavy metal ions leached from the fossil fuel wastes tested occasionally exceeded the point of violation for all three extraction procedures.
Selective Gas Chromatographic Detection of Vapor-Phase Organics in Ambient Air
Authors: Bozzelli JW , Kebbekus BB
Published: March 2009

High-resolution capillary-column gas chromatography (GC) efficiently separates the many organic compounds that exist in ambient air. However, the identification of these compounds by retention times alone is difficult. The response ratios of sample components on several different types of GC detectors can be used to identify selected peaks more positively. Electron capture (ECD), photoionization (PID), and flame ionization (FID) detectors have been evaluated in this study. Samples split between an ECD and FID are readily analyzed for such electron-capturing species as carbon tetrachloride and tetrachloroethylene. Replicate samples are run on a PID for identification of peaks due to aromatic compounds and other unsaturated materials. This system of three detectors gives sufficient information to confirm the identity of the compounds that have been chosen for quantitation.
Origin of Carbonaceous Species in the Atmosphere Deduced by Radiocarbon
Authors: Currie L
Published: March 2009

A review is given of the use of radiocarbon as a direct measure of the relative importance of natural and anthropogenic sources of carbonaceous gases and particles. Through the use of a specially designed, low-level gas proportional counting system, the biospheric (living) carbon fraction has been determined in selected chemical species containing as little as 5 mg of carbon. The species of interest include those that are climatically active and those that have an impact on air quality, such as methane, carbon monoxide, nonmethane hydrocarbons, and carbonaceous particles.

Major factors considered in the interpretation of the radiocarbon data include the chemical and isotopic composition of carbonaceous sources, and natural and man-induced perturbations of biospheric radiocarbon. In order to ensure reliable conclusions, therefore, we have incorporated chemical and size selectivity and data on the recent history of radiocarbon fluctuations. Exploratory studies on selected urban and rural aerosol samples have thus far reflected the dominance of man's activities for the urban locales. This has been seen in the large fossil carbon content of particles from cities having only natural biospheric sources, and in the large biospheric carbon content of urban (Portland, Ore.) particles collected during periods of wood and grass burning.

Measurement advances, including the development of multiple counter systems and accelerator mass spectrometry, promise increased utilization of natural radiocarbon as an environmental tracer, in addition to its application to the rarer atmospheric components.
An Overview of the Use of Short-Term Bioassays in Evaluation of Atmospheric Pollutants
Authors: Waters MD
Published: March 2009

The screening of complex atmospheric mixtures for potential biological hazard presents special problems in sampling, analysis, and interpretation. Recent efforts emphasize a close coupling of chemical (fractionation) and biological (bioassay) techniques. Most of these studies have been performed on air particulate samples; far less attention has been directed toward vapor-phase and gas-phase samples. The most commonly employed short-term test has been the Ames Salmonella/microsome assay.

Current studies on particulate components favor a combination of size-selective sampling with chemical analysis and bioassay, to provide a more direct relationship between the data obtained and the potential inhalation hazard. When possible, multiple agents are identified and bioassayed in carefully defined chemical fractions. Iterative application of bioassay and chemical fractionation thus facilitates identification of individual chemical species that display biological activity.

In the area of quantification and interpretation, complex atmospheric mixtures present additional challenges, including the possible masking of mutagenic activity by toxicants contained within the mixture, differential metabolic activation, and detoxification. Important concerns to be addressed in estimating a sample's toxicity include questions of biological availability and dosimetry. Answers to such questions determine our ability to estrapolate in vitro results to the in vivo situation.
Austeno-Ferritic Stainless Steel Castings—A Future Solution to Many Corrosion Problems
Authors: Jōly A
Published: March 2009

The austeno-ferritic steels are derived from the classical austenitic steels by increasing the percentage of some α-retaining elements (mainly chromium or molybdenum). Because of their two-phase structure, these steels offer a range of particularly interesting properties.

As far as mechanical characteristics are concerned, the yield strength and tensile strength of austeno-ferritic steels are much higher than those of the austenitic grades. Moreover, the austeno-ferritic steels combine very good processing abilities (molding, casting, welding, machining) with excellent resistance against different kinds of corrosion such as pitting, crack, stress, and intergranular corrosion.

In the production of cast valve and pump bodies the austeno-ferritic stainless steels are particularly suitable where difficult problems of corrosion are to be resolved in handling of sulfuric and phosphoric acids, seawater, natural gas, etc.
Production and Properties of Valve Bodies Made of Stabilized Chromium-Nickel Steel Castings for the Charge in Nuclear Power Stations
Authors: Achtelik K
Published: March 2009

Castings used in nuclear power stations are subject to extremely high quality specifications. The example of cast steel housings with a unit weight of 1.7 metric tonnes made of a steel similar to ASTM A296, Grade CF-8C, is used to show that by consistent application of foundry practice castings can be produced that meet the highest requirements.

In castings a basic distinction is made between systematic and statistical flaws: Systematic flaws are defined as those occurring at one and the same point in all castings made from one and the same pattern, such as shrinkage and cracks. These flaws are predictable and, therefore, avoidable through proper preparation of casting technique and exact application of good foundry practice. Statistical flaws are defined as flaws distributed at random over the casting, such as gas holes and nonmetallic inclusions. While it is true that these flaws are not predictable, they can be influenced to a considerable degree through well-directed measures in designing the gating technique. Such measures are described.

The effectiveness of the preceding measures is shown on the basis of the extent of repair to the trial castings and the influence of corrective actions on the extent of repair.

German rules prescribe a notch impact strength of not less than 80 J as an average of three specimens of austenitic steel grades, where the notch impact strength of the individual specimen should not fall below 67 J. It is shown that the carbon content must be kept as low as possible and a niobium/carbon ratio of approximately 8:10 must be attempted. These aspects were taken into consideration when establishing the melting analysis. The tensile properties and the notch impact strength are given for wall thicknesses of 60, 100, and 300 mm. Investigations on construction welds confirm the influence of the niobium/carbon ratio on the notch impact strength values of weld deposits.

Castings meet high safety requirements equally as well as components made by other production processes, with advantages such as freedom of design, optimum flow design, and direction-independent material properties.
Predicting and Evaluating Ferrite Content in Austenitic Stainless Steel Castings
Authors: Leger MT
Published: March 2009

The amount of ferrite in a stainless steel casting depends not only on the average chemical composition but also to a great extent on the segregation of γ-formers and α-formers, which is controlled by the solidification and cooling rates in the mold, and hence on the thickness of the casting.

The study first demonstrates the combined influence of chemical composition and thickness on the ferrite content measured in stepped bars of 5- to 60-mm thickness made of steels with compositions similar to that of the French Z6 CND 18 12-M (or American CF8M) grade, leading to an improved empirical prediction formula taking thickness into account.

The second part of the study proposes a dilatometric method for ferrite measurement that offers the advantages of performing the measurement on a volume and of not being affected by phase morphology. The ferrite content is calculated from the measurement of the linear expansion coefficient of the specimen and prior knowledge of the respective expansion coefficients of the phases present (austenite and ferrite) which are related to the composition of each of these phases. On the basis of microprobe analyses and measurements of the expansion coefficients of single-phase specimens, we have prepared nomographs making it possible to predict these coefficients on the basis of the average composition.
Influence of Long-Time Aging of CF8 and CF8M Cast Steel at Temperatures Between 300 and 500°C on Impact Toughness and Structural Properties
Authors: Trautwein A , Gysel W
Published: March 2009

The object of this work was to investigate the influence of long-time aging at elevated temperatures between 300 and 500°C and aging times up to 65 000 h on the impact toughness and the structural properties of CF8 and CF8M cast steels. The results are derived from 18 production heats with varying chemical analysis and varying contents of ferrite.

The observed aging effect is based on the 475°C embrittlement of the ferritic phase of these steels. In the range between 300 and 400°C the embrittlement is very uniform and can be described by a thermal activated process with the low activation energy of about 24 000 cal/mol. The activation energy permits a physically accurate description of the time-temperature relation of the aging process and a precise interpretation of the results. For the actual material performance the content of ferrite is of great importance.

Additional investigations studied the influence of aging on the ductile-to-brittle transition of impact toughness. It shows that with increasing aging not only the transition shifts to higher temperatures, but also a lowering of the upper shelf occurs. This effect can be mathematically described by means of three parameters which are aging-dependent. Basically, it allows prediction of the influence of aging on the ductile-to-brittle transition for arbitrary aging conditions.
Comparison of the Properties of the HK-40 and HP-45 Cast Heat-Resistant Alloys
Authors: Roach DB , VanEcho JA
Published: March 2009

During the past ten years, considerable interest has developed in the use of the HP-45 alloy for high-temperature furnace components, and this alloy has replaced the conventionally used HK-40 alloy in some critical applications. The wide use of the HP-45 alloy, however, has been retarded by the scarcity of long-time creep-rupture data.

This paper presents the results of different research programs conducted at Battelle over the past several years and compares the properties of the HP-45 and HK-40 alloys. Included are comparisons of the short-time tensile and long-time creep-rupture properties, the effects of long-time exposure on the tensile and impact properties, the elastic properties, and the surface and microstructural stability of the two alloys. Creep-rupture comparisons are based upon the results of tests of up to 10 000-h duration at 871, 982, and 1093°C (1600, 1800, and 2000°F) on three commercially produced heats of each alloy.