bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Generation and Screening of Oxime Libraries Addressing the Neuronal GABA Transporter GAT1
Authors: Kern Felix T. , Wanner Klaus T.
Published: November 2014

The objective of the present study was to transfer the concept of library screening by MS binding assays, so far applied to pseudostatic hydrazine libraries, to static oxime libraries to screen for new potent inhibitors of mGAT1, the most abundant GABA transporter in the central nervous system that represents a validated drug target for the treatment of epilepsy. Library generation was performed by reaction of guvacine derivatives possessing a hydroxylamine functionality with various sets of four aldehydes. After dilution, the libraries were screened by competitive MS binding assays. Deconvolution experiments allowed hits in the most active libraries to be identified, and they were resynthesized for biological evaluation. That way a series of compounds was identified that displayed binding affinities ≥8.00 (pKi) at mGAT1, one of which was found to be the most potent mGAT1 inhibitor known to date in a functional GABA uptake assay with a pIC50 value of 8.27±0.03.
Fine‐needle aspiration biopsy of secondary neoplasms of the thyroid gland: A multi‐institutional study of 62 cases
Authors: Pusztaszeri Marc , Wang He , Cibas Edmund S. , Powers Celeste N. , Bongiovanni Massimo , Ali Syed , Khurana Kamal K. , Michaels Paul J. , Faquin William C.
Published: November 2014

BACKGROUND

Secondary neoplasms of the thyroid gland (SNTGs) are uncommon, and it is important to recognize them in thyroid fine‐needle aspiration biopsy (FNAB).

METHODS

The authors report a cohort of 62 SNTGs from 7 institutions in the United States and Europe. Patients were identified retrospectively by searching through medical records of the respective institutions. All initial diagnoses were rendered by FNAB.

RESULTS

SNTGs represented 0.16% of all thyroid FNABs and were more frequent among women (ratio of women to men, 1.2:1.0). The mean patient age was of 59 years (range, 7‐84 years), the mean tumor size was 3 cm (range, 0.9‐7 cm), and the mean interval from diagnosis of the primary tumor was 45 months (range, 0‐156 months). Eighty‐seven percent of SNTGs were diagnosed as malignant by FNAB, and there was a specific SNTG diagnosis in 93% of patients. Immunocytochemistry and flow cytometry, which were used in 30% of patients, were useful ancillary studies. Adenocarcinomas (n = 23; 37%) and squamous cell carcinomas (SCCs) (n = 22; 35.5%) represented the majority of SNTGs, followed by lymphoma (n = 5; 8%), melanoma (n = 5; 8%), adenoid cystic carcinoma (n = 3; 5%), and various sarcomas (n = 3; 5%). Adenocarcinomas originated from the kidney (n = 9; 39%), lung (n = 6; 26%), breast (n = 5; 22%), and colon (n = 3; 13%). SCCs originated mostly from the head and neck (n = 13; 59%), followed by lung (n = 3; 13%), esophagus (n = 3; 14%), and unknown primary sites (n = 3; 14%).

CONCLUSIONS

Adenocarcinomas from the kidney, lung, breast, and colon along with SCCs represent the majority of SNTGs. The current results indicate that FNAB is a sensitive and accurate method for diagnosing SNTG; however, diagnostic difficulties can occur. Knowledge of clinical history and the judicious application of ancillary studies can increase the sensitivity and accuracy of FNAB for detecting SNTGs. Cancer (Cancer Cytopathol) 2015;123:19–29. © 2014 American Cancer Society.
A Poly(3,4‐ethylenedioxypyrrole)–Au@WO3‐Based Electrochromic Pseudocapacitor
Authors: Reddy B. Narsimha , Kumar P. Naresh , Deepa Melepurath
Published: November 2014

A poly(3,4‐ethylenedioxypyrrole)–gold nanoparticle (Au)–tungsten oxide (PEDOP–Au@WO3) electrochromic supercapacitor electrode capable of optically modulating solar energy while simultaneously storing/releasing energy (in the form of charge) was fabricated for the first time. WO3 fibers, 50 to 200 nm long and 20 to 60 nm wide, were synthesized by a hydrothermal route and were electrophoretically deposited on a conducting substrate. Au nanoparticles and PEDOP were coated over WO3 to yield the PEDOP–Au@WO3 hybrid electrode. The inclusion of Au in the hybrid was confirmed by X‐ray diffraction, Raman spectroscopy, and energy‐dispersive X‐ray analyses. The nanoscale electronic conductivity, coloration efficiency, and transmission contrast of the hybrid were found to be significantly greater than those of pristine WO3 and PEDOP. The hybrid showed a high specific discharge capacitance of 130 F g−1 during coloration, which was four and ten times greater than the capacitance achieved in WO3 or PEDOP, respectively. We also demonstrate the ability of the PEDOP–Au@WO3 hybrid, relative to pristine PEDOP, to perform as a superior counter electrode in a solar cell, which is attributed to a higher work function. The capacitance and redox switching capability of the hybrid decreases insignificantly with cycling, thus establishing the viability of this multifunction hybrid for next‐generation sustainable devices such as electrochromic psuedocapacitors because it can concurrently conserve and store energy.
Advanced Biorefinery based on the Fractionation of Biomass in γ‐Valerolactone and Water
Authors: Fang Wenwen , Sixta Herbert
Published: November 2014

We suggest for the first time the use of γ‐valerolactone (GVL)/H2O as solvent and reaction medium for the fractionation of wood to recover pure cellulose, uniform sugar components from hemicellulose, and a pure lignin fraction. The yield of the pulp residue could reach 40.3 % with a high cellulose purity of 90.3 %.
A lack of response of the financial behaviors of biodiversity conservation nonprofits to changing economic conditions
Authors: Larson Eric R. , Boyer Alison G. , Armsworth Paul R.
Published: November 2014

The effectiveness of conservation organizations is determined in part by how they adapt to changing conditions. Over the previous decade, economic conditions in the United States (US) showed marked variation including a period of rapid growth followed by a major recession. We examine how biodiversity conservation nonprofits in the US responded to these changes through their financial behaviors, focusing on a sample of 90 biodiversity conservation nonprofits and the largest individual organization (The Nature Conservancy;TNC). For the 90 sampled organizations, an analysis of financial ratios derived from tax return data revealed little response to economic conditions. Similarly, more detailed examination of conservation expenditures and land acquisition practices ofTNCrevealed only one significant relationship with economic conditions:TNCaccepted a greater proportion of conservation easements as donated in more difficult economic conditions. Our results suggest that the financial behaviors ofUSbiodiversity conservation nonprofits are unresponsive to economic conditions.
Aftershock collapse vulnerability assessment of reinforced concrete frame structures
Authors: Raghunandan Meera , Liel Abbie B. , Luco Nicolas
Published: November 2014

In a seismically active region, structures may be subjected to multiple earthquakes, due to mainshock–aftershock phenomena or other sequences, leaving no time for repair or retrofit between the events. This study quantifies the aftershock vulnerability of four modern ductile reinforced concrete (RC) framed buildings in California by conducting incremental dynamic analysis of nonlinear MDOF analytical models. Based on the nonlinear dynamic analysis results, collapse and damage fragility curves are generated for intact and damaged buildings. If the building is not severely damaged in the mainshock, its collapse capacity is unaffected in the aftershock. However, if the building is extensively damaged in the mainshock, there is a significant reduction in its collapse capacity in the aftershock. For example, if an RC frame experiences 4% or more interstory drift in the mainshock, the median capacity to resist aftershock shaking is reduced by about 40%. The study also evaluates the effectiveness of different measures of physical damage observed in the mainshock‐damaged buildings for predicting the reduction in collapse capacity of the damaged building in subsequent aftershocks. These physical damage indicators for the building are chosen such that they quantify the qualitative red tagging (unsafe for occupation) criteria employed in post‐earthquake evaluation of RC frames. The results indicated that damage indicators related to the drift experienced by the damaged building best predicted the reduced aftershock collapse capacities for these ductile structures. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Mild chronic kidney disease is associated with cognitive function in patients presenting at a memory clinic
Authors: Romijn Marloes D.M. , van Marum Rob J. , Emmelot‐Vonk Mariëlle H. , Verhaar Harald J.J. , Koek Huiberdina L.
Published: November 2014

Objective

In dialysis‐dependent and severe chronic kidney disease (CKD) patients, cognitive impairment is found in 16–29%. In community‐dwelling population without dementia mixed results have been observed. We investigated the relationship between renal function and cognition in patients from a memory clinic.

Methods

We performed a cross‐sectional study of consecutive patients from a memory clinic between 2005 and 2009. Renal function was estimated with the Modification of Diet in Renal Diseases (MDRD) and Cockcroft‐Gault (CG) formulas, and categorized into ordinal groups: reference ≥60 ml/min/1.73 m2, mild CKD 45–59 ml/min/1.73 m2 and moderate CKD <45 ml/min/1.73 m2. Cognitive function was dichotomized (Mini‐Mental State Examination (MMSE) ≥24 vs. <24). We performed multiple logistic regression analyses with adjustment for potential confounders.

Results

The cohort comprised 581 patients (mean age 77 ± 10 years). With the MDRD, there were 74 (12%) cases with moderate CKD and 108 (18%) with mild CKD. With the CG, these prevalences were 144 (30%) and 130 (27%). In mild CKD patients, a significant relationship was found between cognitive function and CKD according to the MDRD‐formula [adjusted OR 2.10; 95%CI 1.09–4.05]. In moderate CKD patients, no significant adjusted associations were found. In patients without dementia, significant adjusted associations were found between CKD and MMSE (MDRD: mild CKD [OR 5.09; 95%CI 1.17–22.14] and moderate CKD [OR 5.03; 95%CI 1.10–22.98]; CG: mild CKD [OR 6.16; 95%CI 1.17–32.50] and moderate CKD [OR 5.60; 95%CI 1.01–30.91]).

Conclusion

This study showed a significant association between mild CKD and impaired cognitive function in patients from a memory clinic, especially in patients without dementia. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Encoding and retrieval along the long axis of the hippocampus and their relationships with dorsal attention and default mode networks: The HERNET model
Authors: Kim Hongkeun
Published: November 2014

The encoding of sensory input is intertwined with external attention, whereas retrieval is intrinsically related to internal attention. This study proposes a model in which the encoding of sensory input involves mainly the anterior hippocampus and the external attention network, whereas retrieval, the posterior hippocampus and the internal attention network. This model is referred to as the HERNET (hippocampal encoding/retrieval and network) model. Functional neuroimaging studies have identified two intrinsic large‐scale networks closely associated with external and internal attention, respectively. The dorsal attention network activates during any externally oriented mental activity, whereas the default mode network shows increased activity during internally oriented mental activity. Therefore, the HERNET model may predict the activation of the anterior hippocampus and the dorsal attention network during the encoding and activation of the posterior hippocampus and the default mode network during retrieval. To test this prediction, this study provides a meta‐analysis of three memory‐imaging paradigms: subsequent memory, laboratory‐based recollection, and autobiographical memory retrieval. The meta‐analysis included 167 individual studies and 2,856 participants. The results provide support for the HERNET model and suggest that the anterior–posterior gradient of encoding and retrieval includes amygdala regions. More broadly, humans continuously oscillate between external and internal attention and thus between encoding and retrieval processes. These oscillations may involve repetitive and spontaneous activity switching between the anterior hippocampus/dorsal attention network and the posterior hippocampus/default mode network. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Fundamentals of Systems Engineering at NASA
Authors: Chamberlain Robert G. , Shishko Robert
Published: November 2014

The fundamental concepts and process of systems engineering as they apply in the context of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration are described. In particular: Systems and systems engineering are defined, and the objectives of systems engineering are discussed. The doctrine of successive refinement is presented, and the associated spiral model of the systems engineering process is described. The various phases of the project cycle for major systems acquired by NASA are examined.

This paper is based on material being prepared for the first draft of the NASA Systems Engineering Handbook. Consequently, the authors are seeking constructive criticism.
THE NASA SYSTEMS ENGINEERING TRAINING PROGRAM
Authors: Pivirotto Donna
Published: November 2014

NASA has instituted a Systems Engineering Training Program as part of its Program and Project Management Training Initiative (PPMI). The PPMI has several elements, including Project Management, Program Control, Human Development and Systems Engineering. PPMI also includes special training such as Source Evaluation Boards, SRM&QA, TQM, and Program/Project Management shared experience workshops. The Systems Engineering Training Program develops and delivers systems engineering courses NASA‐wide. In addition, the program includes an intercenter working group which holds monthly videocons to exchange information on system engineering techniques and practices NASA‐wide. A NASA Systems Engineering Handbook is being developed which will:

Represent a basic NASA‐tailored systems engineering process.

Provide reference pointers to material on systems engineering techniques, technologies and practices.

Provide documentation of material which will be used in the courses offered by NASA.
SPECIFICATION OF A SYSTEMS ENGINEERING FRAMEWORK FOR A SEAMLESS SYSTEMS ENGINEERING PROCESS
Authors: Krimm Ronald C.
Published: November 2014

In putting a Systems Engineering methodology and associated processes in place, it was determined that computer automation was essential as manual techniques were complicated, time consuming and generally not feasible. A project has been established to define, prototype and demonstrate a viable concept to specify a Systems Engineering environment. A core capability, the requirements management process, was selected as the starting point with provisions for integration of the other Systems Engineering elements. An evolutionary development approach is planned based on a successful proof‐of‐concept prototype demonstration. Special attention will be given to the integration of software management within a Systems Engineering structure.
SYSTEMS ENGINEERING ROLE IN PROCESS MANAGEMENT
Authors: Sarris Anthony K.
Published: November 2014

To improve the efficiency of American industry, it is necessary to create an environment to manage and control the processes that enable the creation, deployment, operation, support and disposal of complex systems. Steps toward realizing that environment include: process definition, organizational development, assignment of responsibility, and personnel training. Automated support tools are essential to assist with the definition and management of the environment, as well as with personnel training. The tools must include: a broad range of modeling elements, a 3‐schema representation system, stored content (e.g. database) and application logic acquisition tools, and a commonsense knowledgebase for product definition. This paper will provide a background regarding these requirements and will describe efforts to meet the requirements through the development and application of advanced information system technologies.
MAPPING SYSTEMS ENGINEERING PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES TO COMMERCIAL SECTOR ACTIVITY
Authors: Iliff Randall C.
Published: November 2014

The Systems Engineering (SE) process provides a valuable mechanism for management of complex developmental programs but application has been almost exclusively limited to the Defense sector. One of the key challenges facing the SE community is to extend these capabilities to applications in the Commercial sector. There are many fundamental differences in the conduct of operations between these two sectors.

However much we believe in the basic systems engineering process, these differences must be considered when we speak of “exporting” techniques. Individual elements of the SE process must be packaged in such a way that they can be selectively applied, and must clearly be seen as providing a positive return on investment.

This paper offers a basic framework with which to identify the elements of SE in the Defense sector, a general comparison with the equivalent activity in various portions of the Commercial sector, and observations regarding implementation strategy and opportunities.
A CASE STUDY: THE PRACTICE OF SYSTEMS ENGINEERING ON THE E‐3 AWACS RADAR SYSTEM IMPROVEMENT PROGRAM
Authors: Hyer Scott A.
Published: November 2014

A program currently being conducted to upgrade the radar within the United States Air Force (USAF) E‐3 Airborne Warning and Control System (AWACS) serves to illustrate examples in modern day systems engineering practices. Of particular interest are efforts in the traceability and interpretation of requirements, the design and verification of interfaces, the reduction of risk with a brassboard flight program, the design review process, the integration of the system, and the leadership and coordination applied to the many engineering and management disciplines which were involved. This paper will examine approaches taken to solve problems in these areas and why these approaches were effective. Examples are presented to bridge the gap between ideals and reality and to reinforce the main objectives of each approach.
RELIABILITY MODELING OF HARDWARE/SOFTWARE SYSTEMS TO SUPPORT ARCHITECTURAL TRADE‐OFFs
Authors: Goddard Peter L. , Friedman Michael A.
Published: November 2014

Developing complex systems to meet the demands of the current military and commercial marketplaces requires careful architectural design to ensure optimal robustness within the expected use environment. Modeling the reliability of systems that combine hardware and software elements to achieve needed system functionality has been difficult or impossible due to the paucity of techniques for including software and the effects of software failures into system reliability models.

This paper reports on and extends the research into system and software modeling techniques which was recently completed by the authors for Hughes Aircraft Company under contract to the U. S. Air Force, Rome Laboratory. An overview of the reliability model development process for combined hardware/software systems which focuses on creating a model which accurately includes the impact of software is provided. A brief discussion of how to use the results of the modeling to assess alternative design approaches is included.
DEVELOPMENT AND IMPLEMENTATION OF AN INTEGRATED SYSTEMS ENGINEERING ENVIRONMENT
Authors: Harwell R.M.
Published: November 2014

In 1989, Lockheed established a plan to develop an Integrated Systems Engineering Environment which would help us integrate and manage the requirements development process through fluid interfaces among advance design, operations analysis, and design management tools. The ultimate goal is to enable systems engineering (SE) to better meet its objective – To assure the fully integrated development of a product (under controlled cost/schedule constraints) which meets the customer's needs. A System Specification, including system architecture has been developed and feasibility proofing of concepts completed. Several software houses have expressed interest in coding and marketing the system as a commercial systems engineering tool.
CATALYST: AUTOMATING SYSTEMS ENGINEERING IN THE 21ST CENTURY
Authors: Comer Edward R.
Published: November 2014

This paper describes the concept for a future automated environment supporting systems engineering, named Catalyst. Catalyst will enhance the effectiveness of the systems engineering process to produce more successful, higher quality systems. Sponsored by the Air Force Rome Laboratory, the Systems Engineering Concept Demonstration Program researched the needs and defined the requirements and conceptual design of Catalyst. The paper discusses the operational concept, architecture, and important features and characteristics for Catalyst.
SYSTEM ENGINEERING CONCEPT DEMONSTRATION (SECD) PROCESS MODEL
Authors: Ortiz Alberto
Published: November 2014

This technical paper will present a summary of the SECD Process Model Task sponsored by Rome Laboratory at Griffiss Air Force Base, New York. An introduction to the SECD Program is presented in the “SECD ‐ Overview” [LaMonica 1992]. The SECD Process Model is a system acquisition and development model with emphasis on system engineering activities over the entire system life cycle. The Process Model is a graphical and textual representation of the system engineering life cycle activities, agents, flows, feedbacks, and work products. This interactive Process Model provides a multidimensional view of government acquisition and contractor development activities. In the context of the SECD Program, the Process Model validates the System /Segment Specification (SSS) requirements and demonstrates coverage and completeness of the system engineering process.
COMPUTER‐AIDED SYSTEM ENGINEERING TOOLS —THE DESIGN SRATM FAMILY OF TOOLS
Authors: Elliott Michael W. , Vickers Archie D.
Published: November 2014

The authors and others at PRC have developed a family of computer‐automated system engineering (CASE) tools which support system requirements analysis, automatic specification preparation, requirements traceability, and rapid access to system engineering reference data. The tools include the following:

Design SRATM (requirements analysis tool)

Spec WriterTM (automatic specification tool)

SpecREFTM (digital image library access)*

SpecTRACETM (requirement traceability)*

SpecEditorTM (specification editing tool)*

These tools have been developed specifically to support the DOD system requirements analysis (SRA) process. They are also used in commercial systems engineering applications.

Elements of the SRA process and their specific implementation in PRC CASE tools described in this paper include the following:

Functional analysis and decomposition

Requirements allocation

Design constraint analysis

Automatic specification preparation

Requirements verification support

Requirements traceability

* Currently in development.
INCORPORATING ACTIVE ADVICE AND GUIDANCE IN HUMAN‐COMPUTER INTERACTION
Authors: Ramparany Fano , Minor Earl
Published: November 2014

Computer systems supporting complex human activities or complex processes require user interfaces that can build and maintain explicit models of the user, the process, and the system itself.

Such interfaces could adapt to the user, and could provide focused advice and guidance support at any point during the process. We qualify such adaptive user interfaces as “intelligent”.

Benefits which are expected from intelligent interfaces include a drastic reduction in the learning time required to efficiently use the environment, and efficient teaching of how to conduct the process for novice users.

In this article, we propose a generic architecture for designing intelligent user interfaces1

The main components of this architecture are:

a task scheduler

an activity selector

an activity configurer

a process context modeler

the interface with the domain process specific modules and functions.

These components and their organization are described.

An implementation of an intelligent user interface using this architecture will be presented. This user interface was built for the Knowledge Engineering Workbench (KEW), developed within the Esprit project ACKnowledge [MSW89]. KEW is a workbench that integrates complementary tools and techniques dedicated to knowledge acquisition.
THE EVOLUTION OF SYSTEMS ENGINEERING
Authors: Reilly Norman B.
Published: November 2014

Over the past forty years, systems engineering has methodically evolved through the Staircase, Early Prototype, Spiral and Rapid Development models. The evolution is characterized by successively deeper penetrations of prototyping concepts into the traditional staircase paradigm. Early prototyping penetrates to the requirements level. The spiral model penetrates to the design level. Rapid Development, the newest innovation, engulfs the entire process resulting in repeated operational deliveries. Each paradigm continues to have its useful niche, but selection of the wrong model for a given task invariably enhances the probability of failure. There is a need for continued education and acceptance of the newer approaches within the technical management and systems engineering communities.
Special Training Needs of system Engineers
Authors: Brinn Derek E. Mc
Published: November 2014

The objectives of this paper are to (1) show that Systems Engineering embraces two distinct disciplines, that each has distinct training needs, that the training needs of the system architect/optimizer are not currently being satisfied, and that both industry and academia would benefit from rectifying the situation and (2) describe the nature of the training needs and how they might be supplied.
SYSTEMS ENGINEERING AT THE U.S. MILITARY ACADEMY
Authors: Kays James L.
Published: November 2014

This paper describes the rationale, structure and operational concept for implementing an undergraduate systems engineering program at the U.S. Military Academy. The rationale for the program derives from the purpose and vision of the Academy and from the needs of tomorrow's Army. The structure of the program is influenced by leading systems engineering programs in the nation and the constraints of the Academy curriculum. The implementation of the program serves the needs of cadet education, faculty development and linking the Academy to the industry it serves – the U.S. Army.
THE PROJECT AS AN INTEGRATING ELEMENT OF A MASTER PROGRAM IN SYSTEMS ENGINEERING
Authors: Brown Ian T , Chia David T H , Doukas Louis
Published: November 2014

Abstracts

At the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology graduate engineers from all engineering disciplines undertake a Master Degree program in systems engineering which introduces these experienced engineers to the concepts and processes used in systems engineering practice. The integration of these concepts and processes into the real world of technology systems and in particular into the world of the individual course participant depends heavily on the successful completion of a minor thesis project. Our experience in the management of 105 systems engineering projects has identified a number of problems and success factors and has led to the development of a procedure for the successful management of these projects.
Structured Techniques: Where's the Payoff?
Authors: Silves Michael
Published: November 2014

Much discussion and hand wringing has gone on about formal approaches to software development. Over the years a number of apparently disparate approaches to software development have appeared on the scene. This paper attempts to make some sense out of the whole thing by looking at the history of software development methods from the perspective of methods as partitioning tools. It traces the history from structured programming through data modeling focusing on advantages and foibles of the various approaches. The underlying theme is that an organized methodology is neither good nor bad; it is merely necessary.
777 OPERATIONAL REQUIREMENTS DEVELOPMENT METHODOLOGY
Authors: Underwood Hubert H.
Published: November 2014

This paper addresses a formal methodology for the 777 Airplane operational requirements development. The advantages of a formal model are explored and the tool set utilized is discussed. The extensions in definition of the operational requirements and the traceability and interdependence of the functional and performance requirements are shown.

Layered state and transition diagrams showing operational sequences and related requirements illustrates the methodology.
1.5.1 TEAM WORKSHOPS: A SYSTEM ANSWER TO IPT ISSUES
Authors: Sheard Sarah A. , Popick Paul R. , Van Scoyoc Thomas G.
Published: November 2014

In an Integrated Product Team environment, the systems engineering focus can be diluted unless specific steps are taken to focus the key people working on each team, and to improve their understanding and teamwork. Team Launches and Team Workshops have been created to educate teams just coming under contract and ongoing teams, respectively. The workshops teach team techniques in a structured, facilitated setting, over a two‐ to four‐day period, during which teams concentrate on establishing system and project goals, roles, responsibilities, and plans. This paper describes the agendas and processes involved in producing Team Launches and Team Workshops.
1.5.3 MULTIMEDIA DOCUMENTATION FOR THE SOFTWARE MAINTAINER
Authors: Garthwaite Jean D. , Huff George A.
Published: November 2014

In the DOD, eighty percent of the life‐cycle cost of a software‐intensive system is for maintenance, and the cost of fixing software increases by an order of magnitude as it is passed from developer to maintainer. Much of the requisite knowledge about the system's mission, software structure, and maintenance tool set and procedures resides with the developers of a software‐intensive system. While some of this knowledge may actually be documented, it is seldom readily accessible and software maintainers must painstakingly rediscover it. To reduce the learning curve among software maintainers and the associated life‐cycle costs for specific systems, new software documentation approaches must be developed.

This paper describes the HAC/RMPE Software Maintenance Tutor, a multimedia prototype which has proved effective in capturing system‐specific developer knowledge in a form that is useful to the maintainers. The tutor was built for the Higher Authority Communication/Rapid Message Processing Element (HAC/RMPE) and has been in use since September 1993 as a means of familiarizing new personnel with the HAC/RMPE software. New materials are continually being added. The tutor combines elements of a training system and an on‐line performance aid, and represents a unique approach for supplementing the software maintenance training process.

The HAC/RMPE Tutor shows promise for filling a critical gap in the training of software maintainers and thereby reducing the overall system life‐cycle cost. It also represents a generic form of multimedia documentation which has applications in many other domains.
6.3.4 FDA GOOD MANUFACTURING PRACTICES (GMP) FOR MEDICAL DEVICES
Authors: Farrell Gerald N.
Published: November 2014

The objective of the presentation is to discuss the Food and Drug Administration change to the Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) rules. The proposed changes have a direct relationship to and integration of System Engineering processes and methods. As systems become more complex, procedures must be followed that organize and discipline the structure of development. Design controls must be enacted that increase the safety and effectiveness of medical devices. The FDA is in the process of changing these rules so processes must be defined and followed. It also puts the FDA development and production requirements more in line with ISO 9000. As stated by FDA, ISO 9000 has been incorporated into the new rules, but the new rules go much further.

As evidenced by the following, the processes that are being enacted by FDA are not new in structure or content, but emphasize the need for the engineering community to define the development and design processes and follow them. The objective of the presentation is to educate the system engineering community on the regulatory constraints that are being enacted by another government agency, the Food and Drug Administration. It is intended that the participant of the presentation will come away with an understanding that the FDA is enacting rules that directly apply to the system engineering process and disciplines associated with system design and development.
2.1.2 Spacecraft Performance Requirements Tracking and Verification for the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission
Authors: Carter Ruth Chiang , Hendershot James E.
Published: November 2014

The Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) is a joint United States and Japan observatory program that will conduct systematic measurements of tropical rainfall required for major strides in weather and climatic research. The TRMM satellite is scheduled for launch in August 1997 aboard a Japanese H‐II rocket. Although significantly along in the requirements development process, a decision was made in June 1994 to initiate an automated computer‐based requirements tracking and verification system. The automated computer‐based system facilitated the task of insuring all top‐level system requirements were properly addressed in subsystem level documentation and subsequently verified through uniquely identifiable verification activities.

The Requirements Tracking System (RTS), a PARADOX for Windows based relational data base tool for managing project requirements, was chosen due to its low cost, flexibility, and favorable use on other Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) projects. Considerable time was invested creating the initial data base. The four step process involved electronically importing existing requirements specifications, isolating and classifying each requirement, allocating top‐level requirements to subsystems, and establishing the child‐parent relationship between each requirement. The completed data base helped to identify top‐level requirements without corresponding subsystem requirements (childless parents) and subsystem requirements without corresponding parents (orphans). Each requirement was addressed individually to insure total traceability of TRMM project requirements.

In order to insure that each requirement developed for the in‐house designed and built TRMM satellite was addressed by subsystem designers, spacecraft performance requirements verification matrices were developed. At the subsystem level, specific test procedures, analyses, and demonstration/inspection activities were tied to each subsystem requirement. Subsystem level verification activities were then used to assess the design implementation(s) selected for top‐level space segment requirements. The verification matrices will be used during upcoming verification activities to insure compliance with requirements as well as analyze potential implications of non‐compliance or test failure.
1.2.1 AUTOMATED REQUIREMENTS EXTRACTION GENERATES PRODUCTIVITY IMPROVEMENTS
Authors: Black J. Emmett
Published: November 2014

Extraction of requirements from customer specifications has long been a tedious, time‐consuming and error‐prone manual effort. This is further compounded by the tendency for requirements to be vague and fuzzy things which are difficult to manage.

Automated support may be facilitated by use of a system which places customer specifications into an easily navigated, enriched information resource, and which automatically and consistently extracts candidate requirements and issues from specifications while creating links to the original source documentation. Requirements become tangible objects which can be easily reviewed, adjudicated and managed, thus significantly improving productivity and overall quality in requirements capture.

We describe a scenario demonstrating how such a system has been used to provide automation and support to the earliest phases of systems engineering, and provide some measurement of productivity improvement.
1.2.2 COTS INTEGRATION IN SOFTWARE SOLUTIONS A COST MODEL
Authors: Ellis Tim
Published: November 2014

In today's global marketplace, software solutions are not only composed of newly developed code, but may also consist of one or more Commercial Off The Shelf (COTS) software products which provide existing functionality. More and more customers are requiring the use of COTS software products whenever possible.

In COTS based solutions, more functionality is bought rather than made. This reduces the software development cost but at the same time increases the amount of integration work. It is extremely difficult to estimate the effort to integrate various COTS products into one seamless solution. Past experience at Loral Federal Systems (LFS) has shown that the traditional method of using Source Lines of Code (SLOC) as an estimation technique in the COTS arena does not yield accurate results. This paper will describe the construction and implementation of a bid cost model which uses Function Point Analysis and the identification of COTS cost drivers to help estimate the COTS integration effort.

The model is not a paper model, but an actual database application with a Graphical User Interface (GUI). This effort was supported financially by LFS.
5.2.1 NOT INVENTED HERE: THE MOVEMENT FROM INTERNALLY DEVELOPED TOOLS TO DOORS FOR REQUIREMENTS MANAGEMENT
Authors: Rundlet Nancy , Miller William D.
Published: November 2014

AT&T organizations in the nineties are challenging the previously conventional wisdom of using proprietary, internally developed tools for the requirements management of products and services. The Dynamic Object‐Oriented Requirements System (DOORS) is an enabling technology for AT&T to extend the reach of requirements management throughout projects to provide improved systems engineering integration and control. This paper documents templates for value and cost models to compare DOORS to AT&T internally developed tools. DOORS provides a path to gracefully and economically move from uncoupled or loosely coupled internal tools to an integrated environment that binds the information operated on by other functional engineering and non‐engineering disciplines. In the drive to improve competitiveness, AT&T's executive management insists that work performed in organizations add the most value at the least cost to make the corporation's products and services more competitive in quality, capabilities, timeliness, and cost. Internally developed tools have no market test to provide the information of their value and true costs. DOORS is a commercially supported product that meets such a market test.
6.1.2 USE OF PROTOTYPING IN DEVELOPING OPERATIONAL SYSTEMS
Authors: Sary Charisse
Published: November 2014

Prototyping has matured from primarily a risk‐mitigation strategy to an approach to iteratively developing operational systems. With the push to develop “faster, better, cheaper” systems, prototyping has emerged as a viable approach to meet these needs. Prototyping can be viewed as an iterative process that includes rapid, research, testbed, and operational stages or can be part of an evolutionary development process. When used properly, prototyping can improve productivity and reduce the cost of rework as the system evolves. Probably the best example of an evolutionary process is the spiral life cycle. This life cycle was conceived as a risk‐reduction approach in response to perceived shortfalls with the waterfall approach to development. This paper describes prototyping experience at Computer Sciences Corporation, mostly gained on the Systems, Engineering, and Analysis Support (SEAS) contract with NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center.
1.3.4 The Systems Challenge Posed by the Desire for Re‐Usability
Authors: Cox John E.
Published: November 2014

Shortened product cycles, reduced development costs and increased market share are conceptual benefits of system component re‐usability.

Applying this approach to certain classes of complex systems without appropriate safeguards incurs substantial risk of system failure. There are steps that can be taken in the initial phase of a program to minimize this risk and predict that performance of the system will be within the customer's window of expectation.

This paper describes the types of system where re‐usability can be a problem and discusses the system engineering steps that can be taken to ensure expected benefits from re‐use.
2.3.3 Risk and Opportunity Management and the Project Cycle
Authors: Forsberg Kevin , Mooz Harold
Published: November 2014

System engineering, as a function, is responsible for oversight of risk and opportunity management of a project. Design engineering is likewise responsible for risk and opportunity management at the Configuration Item level and below. Any complete process model, designed to illustrate engineering responsibilities, must emphasize the risk and opportunity aspects of system engineering management, and must illustrate these important activities in the context of the overall system engineering process. The model presented in this paper meets these objectives.

The evolving baseline for the technical aspects of the project cycle can be illustrated during decomposition and definition process in a set of descending steps, and during the integration and verification process in a set of ascending steps. This representation creates a “Vee,” with the evolving baseline represented by the legs, or core, of the “Vee.” Risk and opportunity management activities, which are essential to the process, are shown as supporting activities off the core of the “Vee.”

Use of a “Vee” model was introduced in our paper presented at the first NCOSE symposium in Chattanooga in October 1991. The “Vee” model illustrates the end‐to‐end involvement of system engineering in the development process, emphasizes the use of risk reduction and opportunity enhancement techniques, and encourages the implementation of concurrent engineering (including integrated product teams).

During the past three years we have gained valuable experience in using this model as the heart of our System Engineering and Project Management training and consulting with major government and commercial clients. As a result of this highly illustrative model we have experienced considerable success in conveying the intricacies of the system engineering process to system engineers, project and program managers, and executives.

As noted in our 1991 paper, others have considered a “Vee” project model in the past, but they only considered the core of the “Vee.” The enthusiastic acceptance of our model by many professionals is based on the power of the model in providing visualization of the complete development process. Key features of the model are: 1) Only the activities on the core of the “Vee” are part of the evolving baseline managed under configuration control, 2) project risk and opportunity management activities are off‐core activities external to the current baseline, and 3) time and baseline maturity move to the right, which helps illustrate the impact to the approved baseline caused by users with changing requirements.

Enhanced graphics and lessons‐learned examples have been included to provide full understanding of how these concepts are used to drive toward optimum solutions based on value, risk, and opportunity.
5.1.2 DEVELOPMENT AND EVOLUTION OF AN INTEGRATED PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT SYSTEM/CENTER AT THE SPACE AND MISSILE SYSTEMS CENTER
Authors: Rountree Richard C. , Guillen Andrew T. , Lee Evelyn
Published: November 2014

An Integrated Product Development Center (IPDC) was developed at the Air Force Space and Missile System Center (SMC) and achieved Initial Operational Capability (IOC) in June 1994. The IPDC provides a computer‐aided environment to accomplish systems engineering and program management activities characteristic of Integrated Product Development (IPD) implemented within the Air Force. The IPDC serves as the nucleus of an overall IPD System (IPDS), connecting Integrated Product Team (IPT) members internal and external to SMC, and facilitating and encouraging a “paperless”, efficient, and cost‐effective environment. Initial emphasis was on establishing a collaborative work environment and providing acquisition support tools for IPTs. Users of the IPDC expressed general satisfaction with the center, its initial usage in its first three months exceeded 80 percent of its daily availability. The paper addresses the conceptualization of the IPDS/C, the systems engineering process applied to identify its requirements, design, and current and planned user environments.
7.3.1 SUGGESTIONS FOR REQUIREMENTS MODEL ROBUSTNESS
Authors: DeFoe Joseph C. , Sheard Sarah A.
Published: November 2014

The behavior implied by a set of requirements must be modeled to ensure that a system built as specified will meet user needs and expectations. Requirements modeling explores possible operational scenarios to establish which capabilities the system must have to be effective.

Requirements modeling can be done either implicitly, in the heads and on the white boards of the team producing the requirements, or explicitly, using any number of formalisms and tools. In either case, specific strategies and ground rules must be employed if the model is to properly explore the operationally necessary, externally observable behaviors of the system.

This paper presents a set of such strategies to consider when developing a requirements model. Strategies that lead to a robust model help ensure the final system will be operationally suitable. Examples of systems for which the requirements seem to have been insufficiently modeled are used to illustrate the need for a process that accounts for varied external behaviors, perceived concurrencies, synchronization lags, real world objects, and expresses what the system must do, not how it is do it.
7.3.2 REQUIREMENTS MANAGEMENT AND DATABASES THE F‐22 PROGRAM SOLUTION
Authors: Reed Michael A.
Published: November 2014

The complexity and extreme costs which drive a major system development effort have forced an increasing dependency on joint prime contractor efforts. When this fact is combined with the necessity for a structured requirements development and management process, the need for more efficient and standardized method for managing requirements is evident. This paper proposes a more synergistic alternative to what is normally a disconnected, word processor oriented and subcontractor dependent process.
7.3.3 A SET THEORY MODEL FOR ANOMALY HANDLING IN SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS ANALYSIS
Authors: Carson Ronald S.
Published: November 2014

A mathematical model for system requirements analysis (SRA) is developed utilizing elementary set theory. The model provides a means to explicitly treat unwanted or unexpected conditions that may be experienced by the system being analyzed. The SRA model can also be used to derive completeness criteria for the development of system states, as well as the completeness of the SRA itself. The requirement antecedents (the “under what conditions” for each function and performance requirement) are categorized in accordance with their associated consequences. Although generally applicable, the model finds its highest utility in the area of software requirements because of their unique design processes which focus on system states. As such, a relationship with software development “formal methods” is described.