bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Applying Functional Assessment in General Education Classrooms
Authors: Larson Pamela J. , Maag John W.
Published: December 2008

Functional assessment involves generating hypotheses about the purpose a behavior serves and the environmental variables maintaining it in order to develop effective and efficient interventions. Functional assessment has been used extensively with students with severe disabilities in special education settings. However, few applications of functional assessment have been reported with students with mild disabilities in general education classrooms. The purpose of this article is to address the use of functional assessment in general education classrooms with students with mild disabilities. We present the theoretical foundations of functional assessment, describe the procedures involved in conducting a functional assessment, discuss some of the obstacles to applying functional assessment in general education classrooms, and make recommendations for the future use of functional assessment in general education classrooms with students with mild disabilities.
Bank Hegemony Research and its Implications for Power Structure Theory
Authors: Silfen Glasberg Davita
Published: December 2008

This paper reviews case studies of bank hegemony research, illustrating the challenges it poses for power structure theory to develop a more dynamic model of power and to take into account modern organized capital flow relationships, both locally and globally.
The Chilean "Economic Miracle": An Empirical Critique
Authors: Petras James , Vieux Steve
Published: December 2008

The Pinochet regime in Chile has claimed numerous economic achievments, including vigorous growth, intelligent and innovative management of debt and poverty, and an exemplary approach to privatization. This paper examines empirically the historical record of the Pinochet regime in each of these areas. It concludes that the claims of the regime cannot be sustained. The neo-liberal policies of the post-Pinochet Aylwin government are described, together with the institutional context in which these policies are being carried out. Aylwin neo-liberalism is likely to produce economic and social outcomes similar to those of the Pinochet regime. The political consequences of this course are briefly explored.
Toward a Historical Sociology of Working-Class Formation
Authors: Spohn Willfried
Published: December 2008

Following the enormous international expansion of labor history, comparative approaches have been developed to systematize and explain the peculiarities of national patterns of working-class formation. One of the most fully elaborated recent approaches in this area is the collective investigation by Ira Katznelson, Aristide Zolberg, and associates (1986). Conceptually, this approach follows Jürgen Kocka's Weberian-Marxist class model in reducing E. P. Thompson's cultural Marxist class notion to only one analytical level amongst others. I argue that this approach is limited its failure to adequately integrate the cultural and moral bases of working-class formation in relation to the legitimacy of the social order. I exemplify this criticism, first, by referring to the strength of Thompson's interpretative method in The Making of the English Working Class; second, by indicating some weaknesses of Jürgen Kocka's analytical method in his recent social history of the German working class; and third, by suggesting some comparative cultural hypotheses for explaining the different English and German patterns of working-class formation.
The Chosen Few: Nightline and the Politics of Public Affairs Television
Authors: Hoynes William , Croteau David
Published: December 2008

Much research has been done on the culture and politics of print and broadcast news media to better understand why the U.S. news media has failed in its democratic mission of keeping the citizenry adequately informed. However, relatively little work has focused on television public affairs programs as a forum for political discussion. We explore this genre of program by examining the guest list of 865 editions of ABC News Nightline (1/1/85 to 4/30/88). It is argued that by limiting the range of guests and issues on the program, Nightline is able to legitimize certain political positions, narrow the range of discourse, and certify elite spokes-people. This results in the portrayal of a climate of domestic political consensus and the promotion of an agenda paralleling that of the U.S. government.
The Origins of Fordism: The Introduction of Mass Production and the Five-Dollar Wage
Authors: Dassbach Carl H. A.
Published: December 2008

The introduction of moving assembly and the five-dollar wage at the Ford Motor Company are examined to demonstrate that these were not, as is generally claimed, separate responses to two problems — the inability to meet demand and labor turnover — confronting the company at the time. By tracing changes in the organization of production and productivity at Ford, I show that labor turnover and the inability to meet demand were interrelated; the fundamental solution to both was mass production, and the five-dollar wage policy was implemented to prevent a massive increase in labor turnover resulting from mass production. The final section examines the distinctive features of Fordism as a strategy for labor control, as well as the new problems of labor control created by Fordism.
Race, Class, and the Differential Application of Bank Bailouts
Authors: Sitfen Glasberg Davita
Published: December 2008

This paper presents a comparative analysis of state intervention in two recent bank crises and suggests that factors other than those that are the focus of existing theories of the state may be important in defining the meaning of "too big to fail." In particular, social characteristics such as the race and class of each bank's respective constituents stood out as differentiating dimensions in the politics of the bailout process. This suggests that when we attempt to define the meaning of "too big to fail," or to understand the politics of finance more generally, we should look not only at the characteristics of the banks themselves but also at the characteristics of their customers.
Local State Reform and Class Struggle: The Case of Toledo, Ohio
Authors: Stoecker Randy , Schmidbauer Mary
Published: December 2008

This paper discusses how Toledo city government changed from a mayor-ward council system, to a city manager with a proportional representation council system, to an at-large council-manager system. We draw from research on the structural location of the local state in the overall state system and its role in contradiction management, capitalist-labor struggle for control of the local state, and the early 20th century municipal reform movement in the United States to explain the outcomes of Toledo reform struggles. Our research supports the propositions that capitalists will attempt to depoliticize the local state while labor will attempt to politicize the local state. It also shows that labor is able to politicize the local state structure only when it is unified and capitalists are divided.
Marx, Class Consciousness, and the Transition to Socialism
Authors: Baxter Dave
Published: December 2008

The purpose of this paper is to trace, first, the traditional Marxian argument (in Capital, Volume 1, and the "Communist Manifesto") regarding the evolutionary development of the capitalist system and the concomitant emergence of a revolutionary class-consciousness. It will be suggested that these arguments are theoretically incompatible with other assumptions Marx makes regarding the role of the state. Second, an alternative argument will be outlined focusing on comments Marx made concerning the revolutionary potential of self-managed cooperative enterprises. It will be argued that this latter argument provides valid conceptual grounds for a new strategy leading to the establishment of socialist society.
Medical Authority and Its Discontents: A Case of Organized Non-Compliance
Authors: Emke Ivan
Published: December 2008

This research explores a particular case study of the regulation of bodies within a discourse of knowledge and provides examples of resistance to such control. Following Foucault, there has been increasing interest in how discourses of knowledge exert regulatory power over bodies and how the site of social control becomes the body itself. This paper is especially interested in how AIDS activism illustrates the power struggle between medical authority and patient non-compliance. In concrete terms, the discussion includes: the surveillance of the body and the concern over medical compliance as affirmations of the power of medical authorities; examples of organized resistance to this discourse of knowledge; the resistance activities of people with AIDS (PWA) groups and AIDS activists; and the implications and possible directions of this model.
Between Leninism and Radical Pluralism: Gramscian Reflections on Counter-Hegemony and the New Social Movements
Authors: Carroll William K. , Ratner R.S.
Published: December 2008

The rigidities of Leninist views on socialist politics may have consigned orthodox Marxism to the status of historical relic, but equally problematic is the radical pluralist disavowal of any materially-grounded, unifying basis for counter-hegemony. The main features of these two perspectives are contrasted with a Gramscian viewpoint that arguably offers the best prospect for analyzing contemporary movement politics and strategizing about social change. This approach retains the insights of historical materialism, avoids the pitfalls of radical pluralism, and remains open to ongoing transformations in culture, politics, and capitalism.
Modernism, Postmodernism, and the New World (Dis)order: A Dialectical Analysis and Alternative
Authors: Wallach Bologh Roslyn , Mell Leonard
Published: December 2008

This paper offers a critique of postmodernism as it attempts to become a metatheory for the politics of difference or identity politics, and of postmodernism's tendency to conflate Marxism or dialectics with modernism. In contrast we distinguish between modernism, postmodernism, and a dialectical tradition that offers an alternative to both. We argue that the postmodern theory of language constitutes a form of nominalism that parallels the nominalism of speculative, monetarist capitalism and that postmodernism's understanding of language as a "play of power" corresponds to the political realism of contemporary international relations. This metatheory of postmodernism helps to undermine the development of any rational alternative to contemporary political economy and the current world (dis)order.
On The Fire Brigade: Why Liberalism Won't Stop the Anti-Gay Campaigning of the Right
Authors: Johnston Susan
Published: December 2008

This research contends that the rhetorical strategies employed in the Right's anti-gay battles have significant political implications. The Right defines queers as pathological behavior. Further, the Right's discursive attacks on queers simultaneously undermine the logic and legitimacy of civil rights. Analysis of discourse from the 1992 anti-gay campaign in Oregon shows that queer responses depend on liberal political theory, defend the status quo and do not de-pathologize queer sex; they ultimately re-enforce the Right's agenda.
Anti-Communism, Homophobia, and the Construction of Masculinity in the Postwar U.S
Authors: Epstein Barbara
Published: December 2008

During the late forties and through the fifties the U.S. was swept by a number of panics, of which anti-Communism and homophobia were prominent. This article examines these fears, and the parallels between them, in an effort to locate some sources of those anxieties. The article argues that the discourses about homosexuality and Communism became vehicles for the expression of concerns that lay closer to home and were more difficult to talk about-in particular, for the expression of fears about the decline of masculinity in the U.S.
Hegemonic Discourse in an Oppositional Community: Lesbian Feminists and Bisexuality
Authors: Ault Amber
Published: December 2008

This paper analyzes hostility toward bisexual women within lesbian feminist discourse. Based on interviews with feminist lesbians, this study uses a deconstructive approach to explicate the resonance of lesbian objections to women identifying themselves as bisexual with broader, dominant discourses on gender, sexuality, and racial purity—discourses that feminists often criticize as oppressive. The article identifies several specific discursive "techniques of neutralization" through which some lesbians construct bisexuals as "deviant others" against which the lesbian subject is defined as socially central, personally integrated, and morally pure. Broadly, the study analyzes marginalization within a marginalized community and the imbrication of dominant discourse in politically oppositional communities.
Visualizing Deviance in Post-Reagan America: Magic Johnson, AIDS, and the Promiscuous World of Professional Sport
Authors: Cole Cheryl L. , Denny Harry
Published: December 2008

In this paper we explore the maintenance of the duplicitous discourse of heterosexual AIDS by examining how identities are articulated as threatening through the modem "logic of containment" that underlies the discursive formation around AIDS. Specifically, we examine the mainstream media's coverage of Magic Johnson's announcement that he had tested positive for HIV antibodies. We suggest that Johnson's HIV status is codified through the pro-family agenda, the war on drugs, and anti-welfare strategies established under Reagan so as to render deviance visible and contain AIDS in the national imaginary. This narrative simultaneously produces a white, heterosexual "general public" that is compassionate, responsible, safe, and threatened, while obscuring the responsibility of multinational capitalism and the Reagan-Bush administration for the erosion of social welfare programs and the neglect of AIDS.
Globalization, Free Trade, and Canadian Labor
Authors: Broad Dave
Published: December 2008

The increasing globalization of capital is dramatically impacting countries, communities and employment. This essay considers its impact on Canada in the context of North American free trade. Canada, with its dependent economy but more developed welfare state than Mexico or the United States, has perhaps more to lose from free trade than its partners. The threat to jobs and working conditions is discussed, along with possible policy solutions to safeguard employment and labor standards.
From Protectionism to Free Trade: Mexico's Problematic Transition
Authors: Gutiérrez Haces M. Teresa
Published: December 2008

This article discusses problematic aspects of the transition in Mexico from the previous protectionist/import substitution economic development model to the free trade oriented policy associated with the North American Free Trade Agreement. This transition has required major institutional, legislative, economic, political, and social changes.
Class, Self-Perception, and Racial Group Identification Among African Americans
Authors: Grimes Michael D. , Jenkins Pamela J. , Reavis Rebel M.
Published: December 2008

This paper examines the saliency of class location for African Americans employing Barrera's (1979) model of multi-racial/ethnic capitalist societies. It employs data from the National Survey of Black Americans to test hypotheses linking class location to two important consequences of the life chances of members of the African-American minority: self-perception and racial group identification. Wright's (1985) exploitation-based model of the class structure of advanced capitalist society is employed to measure class location. The results reveal that class location is a significant predictor of both self-perceptions and levels of racial group identification among African Americans.
The Decline of South Africa's Civic Organizations, 1990-1996
Authors: Seekings Jeremy
Published: December 2008

Strategic choices were an important factor in the decline of neighborhood-based civic organizations in South Africa's black townships during the process of democratization. But these strategic choices need to be understood in terms of the initial character of civic organizations as a "popular" rather than "social" movement in the 1980s, and the changes in the political context in the early and mid-1990s. During 1990-92 civics sought to define distinct roles for themselves representing the "community" or "civil society." But they did so within a conceptual framework that ignored, and could not accommodate, the emergence of "political society" (i.e., a party system, competitive elections and representative government) at the local level. This ensured their marginalization during 1994-96.
Work, Workfare, and Contention in New York City: the Potential of Flexible Identities in Organizing Opposition To Workfare
Authors: Krinsky John
Published: December 2008

In the past two years, workfare has expanded and changed in New York City. From a program requiring 10,000 welfare recipients to work, look for work, or enter education or training programs, it has mushroomed into a program requiring nearly 40,000 recipients at any one time to work for City agencies or contracted nonprofits. The program is set to expand further. Workfare workers represent a new, flexible public workforce whose presence undermines pay and labor standards throughout the municipal employment sector. Workfare workers enjoy little protection, and do not have the right to collectively bargain. This paper examines recent efforts by unions and community organizations to organize workfare workers. Situating the discussion in recent developments in economic sociology, class analysis, and social movement research, it draws on interviews with activists to ask how the uncertainty of flexibility can become an asset to organizing, rather than just an obstacle to it.
A survey of visual guidance aids for aircraft
Authors: Ferguson H.M. , Mainwaring G.
Published: December 2008

The paper first summarizes the visual information required to enable the pilot of an aircraft to close and hold a desired course. It then describes various visual aids which have been proposed or used, identifying three principal types, namely 'geometric' (patterns and indicators), 'photometric' (colour and brightness assessment or matching) and 'flashing' (including sequential flashing to produce a running sign). Composite devices using more than one of these types are included, but a distinction is drawn between these devices and those which are, for example, coloured or flashed merely to increase their conspicuity. 'Stop' indicators for aircraft parking, though not strictly tracking aids, are also included.
A physiological appraisal of the revealing power of street lighting installations for large composite objects
Authors: Hentschel H.J.
Published: December 2008

Dunbar's values of the luminance difference threshold under street lighting conditions are confirmed by new measurements showing the influence of motion of the object, exposure time and probability of recognition. The visibility of the standard test object under dynamic conditions and under the influence of disability glare is derived, leading to the revealing power. There is evidence that the limitation of disability glare must not be defined using a single visual function, but should be related to the value of revealing power. The statistical treatment of the revealing power of large composite objects such as pedestrians leads to reasonable values of revealing power. It is proposed to use this single figure as a figure of merit for appraising the quality of a street lighting installation taking into account the individual physiological aspects of average luminance level, luminance distribution, disability glare and contrast rendering.
Artificial sunlighting for leisure and recreation
Authors: Ruff H.R.
Published: December 2008

A need for indoor facilities for sunbathing during bad weather has been suggested by hoteliers. A survey of natural conditions and the main photobiological effects of sunbathing has been made and a trial based on the observations carried out. Indirect lighting provided a blue 'sky', sunlight was simulated by directional lighting, and the main photobiological irradiation was supplied by independently controlled u.v. sources. The data obtained were applied to a full-scale trial in a 40 ft airhouse; the skin sensitivity and user reaction of seventy-five volunteers were studied and basic design parameters were deduced. Using these data two indoor solaria have been constructed in the UK. Details of the installations and customer reactions are given.
Application of photoconductive cells in portable photometers
Authors: Guha S.K.
Published: December 2008

The principle and operation of a photometer using photoconductive (cadmium sulphide) cells are described. Some limitations of the instrument were detected and these are discussed in relation to the photoconductivity of CdS cells. Some inherent characteristics of the dynamic equilibrium of a CdS cell, which apply under all conditions, make it difficult to keep this type of photometer in calibration. Suggestions are outlined to help users to overcome these difficulties, and modifications are proposed for future designs.
Terminology for flashing light signals
Authors: Holmes J.G.
Published: December 2008

The growth in the technology of flashing lights has led to mixed use of words to describe the quantities and the effects. A consistent series of terms is presented, with a clear difference between the subjective (apparent) quantities and the objective quantities which may be the actual values or the nominal equivalent values obtained by calculation from some agreed formula. New definitions are given for some terms such as conspicuity, flash exposure or multiflick flash.
Road lighting and the role of central government
Authors: Duff J.T.
Published: December 2008

The history of road lighting is briefly traced. Central government did not play an active role until the Departmental Committee of 1935-37. Its influence on subsequent BSI Codes of Practice and its relevance to current international thinking are considered. The role of central government in finance, administration, design and practice is discussed. The paper deals with aspects such as international theory and practice and its relevance to Britain; road surface luminance, uniformity and glare restriction as related to cost; the effect of lighting on night accidents; a comparison of SOX and linear 1.p. sodium sources for motorways and trunk roads, along with the influence of central government on technical standards and hardware. Finally economic aspects are dealt with.
Certification of lighting equipment
Authors: Kember R.C. , Greenhill J.E.
Published: December 2008

For users certification by a national licensing authority gives assurance that equipment complies with national or international specifications. For manufacturers certification also indicates that factory procedures are adequate to provide a consistent product. Until recently many countries have relied on type approval based on samples submitted by manufacturers, but certification requires evidence that the whole production will be satisfactory. Certification also requires routine tests to be applied to production and manufacturers' quality control procedures and records are subjected to surveillance by the national licensing authority. It has been proposed that manufacturers' test facilities be supervised by the licensing authority for type approval, to ease the load on the authority's own facilities.
Relationship between two systems of glare limitation
Authors: Bellchambers H.E. , Collins J.B. , Crisp V.H.C.
Published: December 2008

The glare ratings of 17 commercial luminaires have been calculated and compared for the British and German systems of discomfort glare limitation. For some circumstances it is clear that there are considerable differences between the two systems but simple conversion tables are derived relating to room surface-reflectance and flux fraction ratio, which when applied enable a basic linear relationship between the two glare ratings to be used for most practical circumstances.
Electronics in lamp circuits
Authors: Smulders H.A.G.S.
Published: December 2008

About a decade ago, when semiconductors for higher wattages were first marketed on a large scale, attempts were made to replace the conventional copper/iron ballast for gas discharge lamps by semiconductor circuits. It was thought that low power losses and small size were a great asset. Attempts to apply semiconductor circuits for current stabilization in the ballast failed, but for economic rather than technical reasons. The work did however result in a few specific uses. For example, where the normal 50/60 Hz a.c. mains is not available semiconductor ballasts can be used to advantage, as in trains and buses. For important secondary uses of the ballast which make the ballast cumbersome and expensive, such as igniting and re-igniting lamps, electronic circuits may be used.
The light switch in buildings
Authors: Crisp V.H.C.
Published: December 2008

The paper reviews recent work at the UK Building Research Establishment aimed at deciding if there is a significant potential for saving energy used for lighting in buildings. This necessarily involves examining the ways in which building occupants use their switching facilities and hence their lighting. The savings which might accrue from automating lighting controls are discussed, with particular reference to daylight linking, and suggestions made for more sophisticated methods of manual switching.
Variability of contrast rendering factor in lighting installations
Authors: Boyce P.R.
Published: December 2008

The paper describes a series of measurements of contrast rendering factor (CRF) by two methods for a number of positions in ten different lighting installations. The ten targets used are representative of written and printed material found in offices. The results show that the major factors determining the value of CRF are the position of measurement and the specularity of the target material. The light distribution of the luminaires is relatively unimportant. These conclusions can be reached from measurements of CRF either as a ratio of relative visibilities or as a ratio of luminance contrasts.
Lighting of occupants and objects within an interior
Authors: Bean A.R.
Published: December 2008

The IES Code relies on the specification of horizontal illuminance for the majority of lighting installations. From the earliest days it was realized that the illuminance on other surfaces was also impartant. The paper considers the suggestion that for overhead lighting installations a vector/cylindrical illuminance ratio might be more informative than the vector/scalar illuminance ratio already used. Values of vector/scalar illuminance ratio and vector/cylindrical illuminance ratio are calculated for situations in which a figure is viewed under two quite different light distributions and for two reflectance combinations. The vector/ cylindrical illuminance ratio is shown to be marginally better than the vector/ scalar illuminance ratio for controlling the modelling properties of an installation. It is argued that, in addition, cylindrical illuminance is a more useful quantity than scalar illuminance.
Minimization of the screen effect in the integrating sphere by variation of the refection factor
Authors: de Visser A.C.M. , van der Woude M.
Published: December 2008

The screen error of the integrating photometer has been analysed (Ulbricht sphere) by means of a numerical model consisting of a set of linear equations. The model has been verified by means of a set of measurements. Using this model in an optimization program axial symmetric patterns have been calculated for the reflection factor that produce minimum screen errors. By implementation of these patterns of the reflection factors it is possible to increase considerably the accuracy of the integrating sphere for light sources with arbitrary intensity distribution.
Lighting and perceived guilt
Authors: Aspinall P.A. , Dewar J.
Published: December 2008

Under six lighting conditions an "accused" was assessed for perceived guilt by observers listening to different taped evidence over headphones. The split-plot experimental design ensured that each observer heard three types of evidence about three different accused for one fixed lighting condition. A significant interaction effect was found between lighting and evidence. Subjective judgements following evidence in favour of the accused were found to be influenced by lighting. However the mean and variance of these judgements suggested the lighting had been influential when considerable observer uncertainty existed despite the apparent favourable nature of the evidence. No simple vector or scalar lighting measure could account for the results although there was evidence that perceived guilt was related to the pupil diameter of the accused under the different lighting conditions.
Limiting ratios of luminance and illuminance
Authors: Lynes J.A.
Published: December 2008

The limiting illuminance ratio recommendations in the 1977 IES Code are reviewed. The following alternative criteria are proposed: (a) the current ceiling/task illuminance ratio limits should be replaced by a recommendation that the ratio of ceiling luminance (asb) to task illuminance (lux) should lie between 0.2 and 0.6; (b) the current lower limiting wall/task illuminance ratio (0.5) should be supplemented by a recommendation that the ceiling luminance (asb) should not exceed the wall illuminance (lux); and (c) there should be no upper limiting wall/task illuminance ratio; the limiting glare index would effectively control this ratio. A simple device is described for measuring ratios of ceiling luminance to wall or task illuminance.
Observations of the manual switching of lighting
Authors: Boyce P.R.
Published: December 2008

Observations of lighting switching behaviour were made in two offices during one week in winter and one week in summer. A number of consistent patterns of lighting switching were found although it was apparent that basically switching was a matter of individual initiative. When switching did occur the factors determining when and where, were the availability of daylight, the level of occupancy of the room, the conditions pertaining when people entered the room, the existence of sunlight as opposed to daylight and the ease with which switching could be accomplished and related to the organisation of the office. Some methods by which switching lighting in response to daylight variations may be encouraged are suggested.
The visibility, colour and measuring requirements of road signs
Authors: Lozano Roberto D.
Published: December 2008

This paper reviews the requirements for colour and SCIL values in the specification of retroreflective materials employed in road signs. Visibility, legibility, colour, luminance are some of the factors analysed. Based on this analysis several conclusions are given. They support the thesis that the main point is 'the minimum necessary' and not 'the best possible' for a specification in a standard.
The application of CRF to office lighting design
Authors: Boyce P.R. , Slater A.I.
Published: December 2008

Veiling reflections reduce task visibility and may cause visual discomfort. They can be quantified by the Contrast Rendering Factor (CRF). The factors determining the magnitude of the CRF are each dealt with in turn using data derived from various published studies. The presence of a high luminance in the offending zone is shown to be the chief cause of low CRF. A minimum CRF standard of 0.7 for written tasks on matt or semi-matt paper is proposed for offices. The calculation and measurement of CRF is briefly discussed and a simple method of field measurement suggested. Some general guidelines for good CRF design are proposed. The use of a small number of efficient luminaires arranged in a regular linear array in a room with high reflectance surfaces, together with low specularity visual tasks, is advocated.
The luminance distribution of an average sky
Authors: Littlefair Paul J.
Published: December 2008

Daylight in buildings can save energy by reducing artificial lighting energy consumption. An accurate estimate of internal daylight availability is required for energy use predictions and to include the effect of window orientation this must be based on an adequate model of sky luminance distribution. For such energy calculations the 'average sky' (based on measurements for a wide range of real skies) is recommended as a replacement for the CIE overcast sky. This paper analyses luminance data obtained by Wegner to show that the luminance distribution of an average sky is of the form L = ae-by + c where y is the angle in degrees between the sun and the element of sky under consideration, b is approximately 0.025 and a and c are functions of solar altitude alone, and, significantly, do not depend on the altitude of the element of sky. Using this formula together with a direct solar component the paper derives expressions for horizontal and vertical illuminances, and the average illuminance inside a side-lit room; and briefly outlines further work, under way at BRS, to evaluate the model for weather conditions in the UK and to apply it to problems of daylighting design.
Skylight availability under typical nebulosity conditions
Authors: Kittler Richard
Published: December 2008

A thorough study of skylight availabilities under arbitrary atmospheric and cloudiness conditions has suggested that the exterior illuminance levels are dependent on the cloud types and their sky cover with regard to whether the presence or absence of sunshine characterises the local daylight climate. Recent Japanese measurements seem to confirm independently the Czechoslovak and Russian data. Thus the more systematic and radiation-based empirical relations for skylight illuminances under main sky and cloudiness types are justified.
Investigations on the required luminance in tunnel entrances
Authors: Adrian W.
Published: December 2008

The method described to derive the luminance in the entrance zone of tunnels has been based on physiological considerations of the adaptational processes taking place when approaching a tunnel. The driver's adaptation can be sufficiently approximated by the luminance prevailing in the entrance he is fixating and the superimposed equivalent veiling luminance Lseq caused by the surrounding field. The required luminance level in the entrance zone can be obtained by postulating that a 10' object of a defined contrast should be visible as the straylight reduces the contrast in the eye of the approaching driver. Additional investigations were carried out in which the observer had to evaluate subjectively the entrance luminance in simulated tunnel scenes because it was uncertain what contrast of the object could serve to sufficiently describe the visual task. It was shown that levels rated to provide between fair and good safety conditions almost coincided with the visibility of 10' target with C = 0.25. With this criterion the required entrance luminance L2 results as a rule of thumb to be twice the measured or calculated veiling luminance Lseq. A decrease of safety demands to "fair" nearly corresponding to C = 0.3 would allow L2 to be reduced to two-thirds of that value.
Solid state based tubular fluorescent lamp ballast
Authors: Mizuno Toshiaki
Published: December 2008

Fluorescent lamp ballast that has no transformer is obtained by use of a transistor inverter. The inverter has two small inductors, two capacitors, a power transistor and control circuit. The control circuit drives the power transistor with appropriate duty factor, and high frequency power of 15-25 kHz is generated to operate the lamp. The control circuit has a function that keeps the lamp power or light output at a preset value. Hence, the ballast has a good regulation against the supply voltage fluctuation. The function of the control circuit is also useful for dimming or light controls. The ballasts for 40-80 W lamps with 100 V supply are obtained with light weight and high efficacy.
Lighting energy conservation: simple analytic methods with time-lapse photography
Authors: Rea M.S. , Jaekel R.R.
Published: December 2008

Although time-lapse photography offers great potential for providing information on lighting energy conservation, it has been undeveloped because the quantity and detail of the data demand a great deal of time for analysis. Two simple analytic procedures are described to make time-lapse photography more useful: (1) a sampling procedure for data reduction, and (2) a formula for computing wasted lighting energy based upon occupancy and light usage. It is argued that poor utilisation of lighting energy can be addressed with these procedures.
The effective maintenance of lighting installations in a large organisation
Authors: Payne D.J.
Published: December 2008

The Department is responsible for the design, installation and subsequent maintenance of electrical services, including lighting, in approximately 3,500 premises including major public buildings. For the maintenance workload to be carried out effectively and within appropriate financial limits maintenance procedures and standards have to be established although, of necessity, standards will vary. The quality of the original design and installation work will influence the maintenance standards and ease of access and reliability are other factors that affect the level of maintenance achieved. The implications of the Health and Safety at Work Act and the need to conserve energy also have a significant impact on maintenance work.
Extending the life of low-power high-pressure sodium lamps
Authors: Denbigh P.L.
Published: December 2008

As new low power ratings of high pressure sodium lamps were designed and developed it was found that lamp lives were unexpectedly short compared with higher power ratings. The principal feature of failed lamps was extensive blackening of the arc tube with emitter material from the electrodes. Improvements to electrode construction and emitter processing offered some improvements but lamp lives were still not satisfactory. A detailed study was made of the processes occurring in the region of the electrode when the lamps were started. This revealed that sodium amalgam in electrical contact with electrode assemblies was causing the lamps to act temporarily as rectifiers, for time periods of up to two minutes, after the lamps were switched on. A new type of end plug was designed to prevent electrical contact between the sodium amalgam and the electrode assembly. Optimised 70W high-pressure sodium lamps made with this new end plug have been found to live six times longer than lamps containing the usual end construction.
Thermochemical parameters for use in modelling metal halide lamps
Authors: Mucklejohn S.A. , O'Brien N.W.
Published: December 2008

We derive the thermochemical parameters required for the calculation of chemical composition in the plasma region of high-pressure discharge lamps. The process is illustrated by studies on tin(II) chloride, yielding the temperature variation of the Gibbs free energy of formation of SnCl2(g) from Sn(g) and Cl2(g). The influence of thermochemical data on the calculated chemical composition is discussed.
The design, construction and performance of an incandescent light source with a transparent heat mirror
Authors: Goldstein I.S. , Fontana R.P. , Thorington L. , Howson R.P.
Published: December 2008

We discuss the factors in the design of an economical incandescent light source using a filter envelope which directs heat back to the filament but allows light to be transmitted. Achievement of the necessary performance requires a new concept in the design of the lamp and a high-performance coating. The use of reactive sputtering to prepare dielectric-silver-dielectric filters into pressed glass semi-ellipses gives a 60% increase in luminous efficiency as compared with a standard unit.
Visual inspection of sealing rings—a case study on lighting and visibility
Authors: Kokoschka S. , Bodmann H.W.
Published: December 2008

The visual inspection of sealing rings for quality control is studied with regard to lighting requirements and visibility assessment. Laboratory experiments and field studies suggest an unconventional lighting scheme for optimum contrast rendering of defects. A visibility analysis provides hints for improving the probability of detection.
Practical implications of a new visual performance model
Authors: Rea M.S.
Published: December 2008

Recommendations of illuminance are imprecise for specifying visual perfomance in lighted environments. A more exact method of determining visual performance in alphanumeric reading tasks has now been proposed. Predictions of visual performance over the range of lighting levels and task contrasts commonly experienced in commercial environments are possible with the model. Predictions of age-related changes in visual performance are also possible. Examples are provided. The model is based on the philosophy of psychophysics of lighting first described and implemented experimentally by Weston fifty years ago, but it and the study on which it is based go further. It is important that practitioners understand this philosophy and that future studies also adhere to its principles.
Lighting for the partially sighted in a residential home
Authors: Boyce P.R.
Published: December 2008

Manchester House is a residential and holiday home run by the Jewish Blind Society for the blind and partially sighted. A significant proportion of it was relit in 1982. The new installations are characterised by a uniformly distributed high illuminance and freedom from discomfort glare. This paper describes the results of a survey of the lighting conditions at Manchester House, undertaken to assess the extent to which the lighting meets the residents' needs. The data obtained showed that the lighting in Manchester House meets or exceeds all the appropriate recommendations and is considered good or adequate by the vast majority of residents. What few complaints there are concern over-brightness rather than insufficient light. There is little doubt that these few complaints could be eliminated by arranging more flexible switching of the lighting installations in the dining room and corridors and providing a dimming facility for the bedhead lamps. Overall, it is concluded that the lighting of Manchester House could serve as a model for other homes for the elderly partially sighted.
A physiological phenomenon and its implications for lighting design
Authors: Perry M.J. , Campbell F.W. , Rothwell S.E.
Published: December 2008

Understanding of the processes and mechanisms of vision has advanced enormously in recent years. Despite this, there are only tenuous links between current lighting design practice and visual science. This is an unsatisfactory state of affairs since, at face value, lighting design should seek to optimise the performance of the visual system. This paper describes an experiment investigating changes in response time of subjects detecting movement of a pointer, with decreasing adaptation luminance. A physiological explanation of the results is suggested and the implications for lighting design are discussed.
Visibility at a tunnel entrance: Effect of temporal adaptation
Authors: Bourdy C. , Chiron A. , Cottin C. , Monot A.
Published: December 2008

We describe a dynamic study of the effect of temporal adaptation on the detection threshold for an object (disk or gratings) in continuously variable luminous surroundings. Two types of visibility threshold were determined: dynamic thresholds, in a nonadapting situation (temporal effect); static thresholds, in conditions of steady adaptation. Two different profiles simulating variations in the luminous surroundings were tested. A transitory increase in the curve of relative threshold versus time was observed. The overshoot amplitude and the position of its maximum in time vary with the test and the luminous profiles selected. The effect of temporal adaptation, evaluated from the overshoot parameters, could play a significant role in practice and lead lighting engineers to enhance luminous levels in the first few hundred meters inside the tunnel entrance.
The effectiveness of light switch reminders in reducing light usage
Authors: Rea M.S. , Dillon R.F. , Levy A.W.
Published: December 2008

A carefully controlled field study has shown that reminder stickers attached to light switch plates reduce lighting energy consumption in private offices. The magnitude of the energy savings is large enough for the switch stickers to be cost effective in 10 weeks or less. A questionnaire administered at the end of the study showed that people were generally receptive to the switch stickers as reminders for saving energy.
Constraints on reflectance in artificial sky domes
Authors: Littlefair P.J. , Lynes J.A. , Stupple S.P.
Published: December 2008

Reflective dome type artificial skies are effective tools in daylight research and design, but need careful design if they are to reproduce a desired sky luminance distribution faithfully. In particular, inter-reflection within the dome can make the sky luminance distribution too uniform; the higher the dome reflectance the worse this problem is, despite a widespread assumption that high reflectance is desirable. This paper gives a general method for estimating the magnitude of this inter-reflection. It shows, for example, that a winter CIE clear sky luminance distribution cannot be obtained inside a dome of reflectance greater than 0.6. A CIE standard overcast sky can however be achieved inside a dome of high reflectance, provided considerable care is taken in the design of the rest of the artificial sky.
Compact fluorescent lamp behaviour under square-wave voltages and other unusual supply conditions
Authors: Di Fraia L. , Salemme F.
Published: December 2008

The electrical, photometric and colorimetric behaviours of two types of compact fluorescent lamp have been examined under the following unusual supply regimes: square-wave voltage of various amplitude and frequencies; voltage wave forms produced by applying the phase-control dimming method; dimmed operating conditions produced by the 'auxiliary inductance' method. The results suggest that practical benefits may accrue from the application of novel control techniques, especially in view of the increasing efficiency and decreasing first cost of power electronic components, and the increasing cost of electrical energy.
Alternative subdivision for the sky vault
Authors: Lynes J.A.
Published: December 2008

An alternative to Tregenza's recent scanning pattern for sky photometry is presented and discussed.
Visibility of targets: Model for calculation
Authors: Adrian W.
Published: December 2008

The introduction of the visibility level as a criterion for the obtainable visual information necessitates a metric to allow its quantification. On the basis of Adrian's, Aulhorn's and Blackwell's data a method has been developed to compute the luminance difference thresholds ΔL of visual targets of variable size and positive and negative contrast. Another parameter relevant to ΔL is the observation time to cope with practical viewing conditions in which fixation was found to be restricted to 0.1 to 0.2 s. The effect of age on the threshold contrast and that of disability glare has been incorporated. The numerical description allows the determination of the visibility level VL of objects in the visual field. A practical example of how to obtain VL is presented.
Daylight measurement in models: New type of equipment
Authors: Tregenza P.R.
Published: December 2008

Standard laboratory methods for predicting daylight illumination in buildings involve model testing in large artificial skies. Usually only one sky luminance distribution can be simulated. In the equipment described in this Note, the sky is divided into a large number of zones, and the daylight coefficients are measured. The illuminance beneath any sky luminance distribution can then be found by multiplying the coefficients by the appropriate sky luminance values. The equipment serves also as a computer-controlled heliodon which permits measurement of building illuminance under direct sunlight.