bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Riding the Tide: Indigenous Knowledge, History and Water in a Changing Australia
Authors: Goodall Heather
Published: July 2008

Indigenous people's knowledge of their environments, often called Traditional Environmental Knowledge [TEK], is widely invoked today in many arenas of environmental analysis and natural resource management as a potential source of beneficial approaches to sustainability. Indigenous knowledge is most often discussed in this literature and practice as if it were a static archive of data, largely unchanging since the point of colonisation and/or modernisation in the area under study. This paper discusses the contested and relational nature of indigeneity and challenges the ahistorical conceptualisation of indigenous knowledge. It does so by drawing on the work of historians and anthropologists to argue that indigenous knowledge, about environmental and other matters, should be seen as a process rather than an archive. This approach offers a way to understand how indigenous knowledge of environments might continue to be meaningful and relevant in conditions of rapid environmental change. A case study of one such situation is the upper Darling River region in Australia, colonised by the British from the 1840s. Water courses, springs and water holes have been critically important both in the conservation of indigenous environmental knowledge and in shaping the way it has developed in interaction with the long and challenging conditions of colonisation. Tracing the historical changes in indigenous knowledge offers the possibility not only of identifying continuing viable alternatives to western agricultural or conservation strategies but also of identifying environmental change over the time of colonisation, particularly in relation to areas associated with the passage and use of water.
LACAN, THE PLAGUE
Authors: Roudinesco Elisabeth
Published: July 2008

Le 7 novembre 1955, à l'invitation du professeur Hans Hoff, qui dirige la Psychiatrisch-Neurologische Universitätsklinik, Jacques Lacan donne une conférence qu'il intitule ‘Le sens du retour à Freud en psychanalyse’. On ne connaît pas la version originelle de ce texte publié pour la première fois en 1956 et repris avec quelques variantes en 1966 sous le titre ‘La chose freudienne ou Sens du retour à Freud en psychanalyse’.

Dans cette intervention intitulée ‘Lacan, la peste’, présentée à Vienne en 2005, lors de la célébration du cinquantenaire de la conférence de Lacan, Elisabeth Roudinesco montre comment celui-ci fonde – à travers l'idée que Freud aurait apporté la peste lors de son voyage aux Etats-Unis en 1909 – le mythe d'une représentation révolutionnaire de la théorie freudienne qui colle avec ce qu'elle nomme ‘l’exception française'. La France est en effet le seul pays au monde où, avec les surréalistes, puis avec l'enseignement de Lacan, la doctrine de Freud a été regardée comme une pensée subversive, irréductible à toute forme de psychologie adaptative, au point d'être assimilée à une ‘épidémie’, semblable à ce qu'avait été la Révolution de 1789.

At the invitation of Professor Hans Hoff, Director of the Psychiatrisch-Neurologische Universitätsklinik, Jacques Lacan gave on 7 November 1955 a lecture entitled ‘The meaning of the return to Freud in psychoanalysis’. The original version of this paper is unknown though it was published for the first time in 1956 and reprinted in 1966, with some variants, with the title: ‘The Freudian Thing or the meaning of the return to Freud in psychoanalysis’.

In a conference entitled ‘Lacan, The Plague’, held in Vienna in 2005, Elisabeth Roudinesco shows how Lacan – through the idea that Freud would have brought the plague with him on his 1909 trip to America – created the myth of a revolutionary representation of Freudian ideas related to ‘the French exception’. France is indeed the only country in the world where – after Surrealism and Lacan' teaching – Freud's doctrine have been seen as a subversive theory, irreducible to any forms of adaptive psychology and assimilated to an epidemic like the French Revolution.
Epistemics for Forensics
Authors: Koppl Roger G. , Kurzban Robert , Kobilinsky Lawrence
Published: July 2008

Forensic science error rates are needlessly high. Applying the perspective of veritistic social epistemology to forensic science could produce new institutional designs that would lower forensic error rates. We make such an application through experiments in the laboratory with human subjects. Redundancy is the key to error prevention, discovery, and elimination. In the “monopoly epistemics” characterizing forensics today, one privileged actor is asked to identify the truth. In “democratic epistemics,” several independent parties are asked. In an experiment contrasting them, democratic epistemics reduced the rate at which biased observers obscured the truth by two-thirds. These results highlight, first, the potential of “epistemic systems design,” which employs the techniques of economic systems design to address issues of veracity rather than efficiency, and second, the value of “experimental epistemology,” which employs experimental techniques in the study of science.
Testimony as a Natural Kind
Authors: Michaelian Kourken
Published: July 2008

I argue, first, that testimony is likely a natural kind (where natural kinds are accurately described by the homoeostatic property cluster theory) and that if it is indeed a natural kind, it is likely necessarily reliable. I argue, second, that the view of testimony as a natural kind and as necessarily reliable grounds a novel, naturalist global reductionism about testimonial justification and that this new reductionism is immune to a powerful objection to orthodox Humean global reductionism, the objection from the too-narrow induction base.
Classification of Diabetes Mellitus and Other Categories of Glucose Intolerance
Authors: Zimmet Paul , Cowie Catherine , Ekoe Jean‐Marie , Shaw Jonathan
Published: July 2008

Accurate and appropriate classification of a disease is vital to its study and treatment. The classification of diabetes and other states of glucose intolerance has undergone a number of changes over the last few decades, reflecting progress in the understanding of the condition. The most recent update by the World Health Organization and American Diabetes Association has changed the classification from one based on treatment to one based on underlying pathological processes. Impaired glucose tolerance and impaired fasting glucose are included within this framework, recognizing the importance of these conditions as risk factors for both cardiovascular disease and future diabetes. This chapter details the changes made, and discusses the implications of the new classification.
Development and Life Cycle of a β‐Cell
Authors: Serup Palle , Nielsen Jens Høiriis
Published: July 2008

The understanding of the molecular biology of the pancreas β‐cell began 25 years ago with the cloning of the insulin cDNA, followed by the determination of the genomic organization and the identification of multiple
cis
‐ and
trans
‐acting elements in the 5′‐flanking region. The developmental biology of the pancreas started earlier but was put on hold until the molecular biological technology allowed approaching the questions raised some 30 years ago. A major breakthrough happened 8 years ago when disruption of the gene for an insulin gene transcription factor was found to ablate the development of the pancreas. This has greatly stimulated the search for new transcription factors and their regulation by growth and differentiation factors in order to understand the basal molecular mechanisms involved in the formation of the pancreas β‐cell and the perspectives for prevention, treatment, and cure of diabetes. The maintenance of an appropriate β‐cell mass depends on neogenesis from progenitor cells, proliferation of existing β‐cells, and β‐cell death. The balance between these processes is regulated by a complex interaction of metabolites, hormones, and growth factors. Under normal conditions there appears to be a close correspondence between insulin demand and the functional β‐cell mass. The function of the β‐cell is not only under acute regulation by nutrients following a meal but is also subject to regulation by chronic changes in the insulin demand as in pregnancy or obesity, which result in adjustment of the β‐cell number.
The Role of Energy Expenditure in the Regulation of Energy Balance
Authors: Ravussin Eric , Kozak Leslie P.
Published: July 2008

Throughout evolution, humans and animals have evolved redundant mechanisms promoting accumulation of fat (minimal energy expenditure and maximal food intake) during periods of feast to survive periods of famine. With the recent abrupt change in environmental conditions in which high fat food is constantly available and in which there is little need for physical activity (the current “pathoenvironment” or “toxic environment”), obesity has reached epidemic proportions in both industrialized countries and in urbanized populations around the world. Obesity results from a chronic imbalance between energy intake and energy expenditure. Hyperphagia, a low metabolic rate, low rates of fat oxidation, and an impaired sympathetic nervous activity characterize animal models of obesity. Similar metabolic factors have been found to characterize humans susceptible to weight gain. Despite the discovery of leptin more than 8 years ago and an unprecedented expansion of research efforts, our knowledge about the molecular mechanisms underlying obesity remains rudimentary. The cloning of genes corresponding to several mouse monogenic obesity syndromes and the subsequent characterization of the pathways involved have however shed some light, mostly on the regulation of food intake but much less on energy metabolism. This chapter will first state the premises of the regulation of energy balance, then review the variability of physiological mechanisms underlying the variability in energy balance, and finally summarize some of the important recent discoveries of the molecular mechanisms of energy expenditure.
Pancreas Transplantation
Authors: Robertson R. Paul
Published: July 2008

Pancreas transplantation was first begun for the treatment of type 1 diabetes in humans in 1966. Not many procedures were performed up to 1978 because of the low rates of graft survival. Thereafter, important improvements in immunosuppressive therapy developed, most notably the use of anti‐T‐cell agents and cyclosporine. These new drugs, combined with new surgical techniques and the selection of healthier recipients, led to a much greater use of pancreas transplant for therapeutic intervention. By the year 2000, over 14 000 pancreas transplantations had been performed worldwide. Successful pancreas transplantation restores normal glycemia and glucagon and symptom responses to hypoglycemia as well as stabilizes neuropathy and macrovascular disease. It can also reverse structural damage in kidneys. Quality‐of‐life studies demonstrate excellent acceptance of the procedure by patients.
Effect of Intensive Glycemic Control on Macrovascular Events in Patients with Diabetes Mellitus
Authors: Al-Harthi Abdulaziz R. , Herman William H.
Published: July 2008

Hyperglycemia is associated with cardiovascular disease. In patients with diabetes, cardiovascular disease is common and represents the major cause of morbidity and mortality. While there is strong evidence that intensive glycemic control reduces the risk of microvascular complications in patients with diabetes, its impact on cardiovascular disease is less clear. Meta‐analyses of randomized, controlled, clinical trials in both type 1 and type 2 diabetes have generally failed to demonstrate a statistically significant impact of intensive glycemic control on cardiovascular events. Unfortunately, none of the trials included in the meta‐analyses was designed to assess the impact of treatment on cardiovascular disease. It is possible that if the differences in HbA1clevels between treatment groups had been greater, the trials had been larger, and the follow‐up had been longer, the trials might have demonstrated cardiovascular benefit. It is also possible that hyperglycemia itself does not cause cardiovascular disease. The association between hyperglycemia and features of the metabolic syndrome, including abdominal obesity, insulin resistance, hypertension, hypertriglyceridemia, and low high‐density lipoprotein cholesterol, suggest many alternative causal pathways.
Arterial Hypertension in Diabetes: Etiology and Treatment
Authors: Bakris George L. , Tarif Nauman , Black Henry R.
Published: July 2008

Hypertension is highly prevalent among people with diabetes, especially those with type 2 diabetes. While the genesis of hypertension in diabetes is multifactorial, it is clear that early dysfunction of the vasculature, related, in part, to abnormalities in modulation of vascular tone by nitric oxide, heralds development of hypertension in such individuals. Presence of hypertension substantially increases the risk of adverse outcomes with regard to both the CV and renal systems. Once nephropathy becomes manifest, i.e. elevation in serum creatinine and macroalbuminuria, lowering of blood pressure to the recommended guideline goals slows kidney disease progression and reduces CV risk to a greater extent than does glucose control. Based on recent guidelines if systolic blood pressure is >15–20 mmHg above the goal, two drugs should be started, one of which should to be a diuretic. Clearly, angiotensin‐converting enzyme inhibitors and angiotensin receptor blockers have also demonstrated benefits in these patients when used in concert with diuretics. The positive outcomes with diuretics relates clearly to their ability to lower blood pressure, especially in volume‐expanded individuals, which is true of virtually all people with diabetes because of the effects of insulin on proximal tubular sodium reabsorption.
The Organization of Diabetes Care: Western Pacific Region (China and Hong Kong as Examples)
Authors: Chan Juliana C.N. , Cockram Clive S.
Published: July 2008

Asia is at the forefront of a global epidemic of diabetes. The region is receiving a double hit from a rising prevalence of young‐onset diabetes and from an aging population. The burden of diabetes and its complications threatens to overwhelm health care systems in the region, which contains 25% of the world's population. In this chapter, the need for new approaches and for the evolution of health care delivery from a predominant focus on treatment of acute illnesses to management of chronic diseases and health maintenance are discussed, using Hong Kong and China as examples. The problems are discussed as are some possible solutions that can be applied without major increase in public‐funding provision. Collaboration, both multidisciplinary and intersectoral, is emphasized.
The Economics of Diabetes Care: The Americas
Authors: Songer Thomas J. , Barcelo Alberto
Published: July 2008

Economic issues in diabetes care are garnering great attention throughout the world today. This attention has been particularly pronounced in recent years. Cost issues in diabetes are of interest now because of three current and significant influences that have long‐term implications. The first influence is the recognition that diabetes is a significant disease and one that is increasing. The second influence affecting diabetes economics is the advent of several new treatments and intervention strategies in diabetes care. Both pharmaceutical manufacturers and researchers have recognized the emerging epidemic of diabetes as an opportunity for change. Tremendous advances in diabetes research and care have been the result. The third influence is not specific to diabetes, but characteristic of the general prevailing winds affecting health care today. It is the worldwide push to implement health care reform. Over the last century, remarkable advances in life expectancy have been observed. As the priorities for health care have shifted from communicable diseases to noncommunicable diseases, expenditures for medical care have risen throughout the world.
Diabetes Cost: Sub‐Saharan Africa Perspective
Authors: Mbanya Jean Claude
Published: July 2008

Diabetes mellitus is emerging as a major health problem in sub‐Saharan Africa. The economic burden of diabetes mellitus on the patient, family, community, and nation is enormous. The gross national product varied from US$483 in Tanzania to US$3040 in South Africa, with the percentage of gross domestic product spent on health care ranging from 0.7% in Nigeria to 7.15% in South Africa. Theper capitaexpenditure is relatively low in international terms. It follows from these figures that the region has limited resources to invest in diabetes care. The limited availability of private medical insurance and the absence of a free national health service in most countries of the region mean that the burden of diabetes care is on the patient or the family. There is limited information on the economics of diabetes care in sub‐Saharan Africa. In Tanzania, about US$4 million would have been required to take care of all patients with diabetes in the year 1989–1990, which translates to US$138 per patient per annum. This sum is equivalent to 8.1% of the total budgeted health expenditure for that financial year and well above the allocated per capita health expenditure in Tanzania of US$2 for the year 1989–1990. In Cameroon, the average direct medical cost of treating a patient with diabetes in 2001 was US$489, with 56% of this cost spent on hospital admissions, 33.5% on antidiabetic drugs, 5.5% on laboratory tests, and 4.5% on consultation fees. The direct medical costs for treating all diabetic patients in Cameroon represented about 3.5% of the national budget for the 2001–2002 financial year. A rough estimate (published from Tanzania) of indirect cost of diabetes calculated as healthy life days lost by a diabetic patient because of premature death, disability before death, chronic disability, and acute illness due to diabetes was 4100 days per patient, of which 69% was due to premature mortality. There is a need for well‐targeted studies on the economic burden of diabetes from sub‐Saharan Africa. In a region with limited resources and where every decision should be seen in terms of cost and outcomes, the use of cost‐effectiveness and cost–benefit studies to evaluate the economic efficiency of diabetes treatment, interventions, and programs should be encouraged.
Prevention of Type 1 Diabetes
Authors: Harrison Leonard C. , Fourlanos Spiros , Every Alison L. , Honeyman Margo C. , Steptoe Raymond J. , Martinez Nathan R. , Jensen Kent P. , Funda David P. , Mannering Stuart I. , Colman Peter G. , Narendran Parth
Published: July 2008

Increasing knowledge of the cellular and molecular mechanisms of autoimmune pancreatic β‐cell destruction, together with proof‐of‐principle for therapeutic interventions in the nonobese diabetic mouse model, provides a platform for the prevention of type 1 diabetes in humans. The concept of prevention extends to people with clinical diabetes, not only to preserve residual β‐cell function but to prevent recurrent autoimmune disease after therapeutic β‐cell replacement or regeneration.

Primary prevention awaits the identification of environmental agents that trigger or promote disease on a background of genetic susceptibility. The last two decades have, however, witnessed clinical trials of a range of candidate agents for secondary prevention, predominantly in people with recently diagnosed diabetes. It can be argued that intervention is likely to be more effective in those at risk, identified by the presence of circulating islet antibodies. Strategies for secondary prevention encompass nonspecific immune suppression, nonspecific immune stimulation, nonspecific immune regulation, antigen‐specific immune regulation, and β‐cell protection. The shift has been away from nonspecific immunosuppressive drugs to more specific immunoregulatory agents. Preservation of C‐peptide secretion in the first year after diagnosis has been demonstrated in some randomized trials, but has not been sustained. Autoantigen‐induced immune regulation, which is safe and effective in animal models of autoimmune disease, requires further evaluation in at‐risk humans. The need for better surrogate immune and metabolic response markers, especially islet antigen‐reactive T‐cells, remains pressing. The prevention of type 1 diabetes will most likely occur incrementally, with increasingly specific and targeted agents being evaluated according to disease stage and risk, analogous to the evolving treatment regimens for cancer or HIV. This chapter describes the rationale and current approaches to the prevention of type 1 diabetes.
Active
X
Authors: Erenshteyn Roman
Published: July 2008

The chapter presents a review of ActiveX technology, a popular and efficient tool for the Internet community. ActiveX is a somewhat fuzzy term. It can be considered a brand name, and technologies grouped under this term are generally related to the Internet and the Web in some way, but it also can be included in almost all applications that require user interface. An ActiveX Control is a class, which is an effective way to create code that can be easily reused in future by the original developer or others. With ActiveX, a developer can design a complex control made out of others. As is true of other class, ActiveX Controls contain class members with defined properties, methods, and events. Historically, ActiveX grew of Object Linking and Embedding, a Microsoft technology. Today ActiveX technologies are usually built using Microsoft's Component Object Model. The interest in this topic has grown dramatically since 1995, mostly because of the development of advanced technologies for Web design. Technologies used for the development and implementation of e‐business and e‐commerce include VB‐scripting (Visual Basic), Java‐scripting, XML (extensive markup language), and Active Server Pages.
Business‐to‐Business (B2B) Electronic Commerce
Authors: Ray Julian J.
Published: July 2008

Electronic commerce has been a major driving force in the development of the Internet economy over the past few years and has attracted the attention of large and small businesses across the globe. Business‐to‐business electronic commerce is growing at an estimated rate of between 50% and 100% per year driven by unprecedented opportunities to reduce cost and increase the efficiency of various types of business processes. With an estimated global value of $430 billion in 2000, the total value of business‐to‐business electronic activity is expected to reach $8.5 trillion by the end of 2005; will exceed the value of business‐to‐consumer electronic commerce 15‐fold; and is expected to comprise 24% of all business transactions if the current trends persist. However, these numbers belie mixed experiences and degrees of success by organizations implementing electronic business systems. The initial rush to move into the digital business environment of the late 1990s has been replaced by a more cautious approach in which companies are carefully examining the rationale of developing mission‐critical systems using nascent technologies for which the benefits and risks are not clearly understood.

This chapter begins with a brief discussion on general business and technological foundations of business‐to‐business electronic commerce (e‐B2B). Following are sections describing the motivation for companies to participate in electronic business and the various e‐B2B strategies companies engage in, and a section on related technologies that have been employed in recent years. The final two sections examine some of the challenges associated with implementing e‐B2B systems that companies should consider and a perspective on the implementation experience to date.
Business‐to‐Consumer (
B
2
C
) Internet Business Models
Authors: Hamilton Diane M.
Published: July 2008

With the advent of the World Wide Web, some existing business models were revised and other, new models were invented. Some business models were revised by simply adding a new sales channel—the Internet. Others models were revised by adding value that could only be provided by the Internet itself, such as huge volume coupled with around‐the‐clock operation. Still others redefine a traditional business model in the virtual world. An example of this is the broadcast model, where the public gains free access and revenue is earned elsewhere (e.g., through advertising). The World Wide Web has also provided the catalyst for completely new models, which would not exist without the Internet, and which exist for the purpose of helping people to effectively access the Net. Examples of these new models include search engines and Internet service providers.
Computer Literacy
Authors: Bidgoli Hossein
Published: July 2008

This chapter provides a general computer literacy for readers with little or no computer background. It reviews the phenomenal growth of computers and then highlights their processing power and speed. Based on these two features, computers are classified into micro‐, mini‐, mainframe, and supercomputers. The chapter presents distinguishing factors that separate these computers from each other. Four classes of data processing are identified, including manual, mechanical, electromechanical, and electronic. The impressive speed, accuracy, storage, and retrieval capabilities of computers are reviewed and their basic operations are highlighted. The chapter introduces popular applications of computers and highlights five generations of computer technology. The chapter explores basic productivity tools, including word processing, spreadsheet, database, graphics, desktop publishing, financial planning, and project management and concludes with a series of guidelines for proper maintenance of a microcomputer system.
Databases on the Web
Authors: Yerkey A. Neil
Published: July 2008

This chapter describes how Web browsers are used to connect to databases. The emphasis is on those situations in which an organization wishes to provide live, dynamic, transactional data to persons outside the organization. The evolution of databases and technological requisites for connecting, retrieving, and displaying dynamic database data are considered, including the special demands that the Internet places on databases. The chapter briefly covers data normalization, relationships, and referential integrity. Examples of typical connection and processing approaches are given, such as Common Gateway Interface, Application Program Interfaces, Active Server Pages, PHP:Hypertext Preprocessor, and Cold Fusion.
Data Compression
Authors: Kim Chang‐Su , Kuo C.‐C. Jay
Published: July 2008

Data compression is the process of representing data compactly, which is a key technology enabling efficient storage and transmission of a large amount of multimedia data. Many data sources such as speech, audio, and video contain redundant information. By exploiting redundancies, data compression can reduce the number of bits required to represent data. The subject of data compression has been extensively studied since the late 1960's, and has found numerous applications. In this article, we classify data compression techniques into lossless and lossy ones, and describe the main concepts and algorithms for each class. Then, we survey application areas of text compression, speech/audio compression, and image/video compression.
Data Mining in
E
‐commerce
Authors: Braynov Sviatoslav
Published: July 2008

This chapter presents a survey of interesting data mining applications in e‐commerce. It starts with an analysis of e‐commerce data and the driving forces behind the success of data mining applications in e‐commerce. The basic notions and techniques of data mining are briefly explained. The chapter discusses Web mining, focusing on its most important field: Web usage mining. It shows how Web usage mining could be employed in recommender systems, customer profiling, and Web site evaluation. Also considered are applications of data mining in Web marketing and market basket analysis. The chapter concludes by summarizing current trends and discussing open problems.
Digital Communication
Authors: Heath Robert W. , Salvekar Atul A.
Published: July 2008

Digital communication is the broad area that deals with the transmission and reception of binary information across analog channels. Digital communication empowers the Internet since it is the primary mechanism for conveying information across the diverse media employed including optical fiber, copper wire, and air. This chapter summarizes the fundamental concepts of digital communication in an exposition that is independent of the transmission medium. The basic principles of digital communication are described, important concepts are highlighted, and the primary performance metrics and system constraints are summarized. Supplemental references to more complete treatments of digital communication systems are given.
Digital Economy
Authors: Singh Nirvikar
Published: July 2008

The digital economy refers to the general importance of information or knowledge in the economy, including e‐commerce as an important, but not the sole, component. The digital economy still has a relatively small direct share of the economy, but its importance is growing rapidly, and information technology can have significant impacts on other sectors of the economy. Business strategy in the information age includes greater possibilities for managing information, both as a product in its own right, and as information about other products and services. The organization of firms, as well as their interactions with consumers, changes as information becomes easier and cheaper to store, process, and transmit. The technological developments that make the information revolution possible have implications for intellectual property rights (especially those covered by patents and copyrights) and contracts. Other areas where government policies must adapt are contracts, privacy, antitrust, and international trade. Ultimately, the information revolution has profound implications for the organization of work and play and for all kinds of communities of interest.
Digital Identity
Authors: Reed Drummond , Kindall Jerry
Published: July 2008

Digital identity is an emerging technology and application category that revolves around the logical modeling of real‐world actors (such as people and companies) and their attributes and the permission‐based sharing of these attributes between actors on a network. Digital identity touches on consumer privacy and civil liberties issues and also has important implications for the relatively new concept of Web services and for enterprise application integration. This chapter explains the key concepts of digital identity (including identity documents, addressing, linking, negotiation, and trust services), explores the implications of the technology for related fields, looks at the current players in the identity market, and presents a vision of a future Identity Web.
Distance Learning (Virtual Learning)
Authors: Dede Chris , Brown‐L'Bahy Tara , Ketelhut Diane , Whitehouse Pamela
Published: July 2008

Internet‐based learning across distance has evolved from a long history of applying new technologies to empower education by transcending geographic barriers. Prior to the introduction of computer technologies in the 1960s, correspondence course and independent study models of distance education posed challenges to the learning process. During the next several decades, computers and telecommunications improved teaching and learning across distance, but they were used more to automate traditional models of educational delivery than to develop new forms of pedagogy. During the 1990s, however, widespread usage of the Internet transformed the nature of distance education. With the participation of many reputable universities and with increased research documenting effectiveness, distance learning is now a credible and viable mode of instruction. As interactive media continue to evolve, real and virtual educational experiences are increasingly interwoven into learning distributed through all aspects of work and life.
E
‐business
ROI
Simulations
Authors: Lewis, Edwin E.
Published: July 2008

This chapter addresses concepts that should be considered in simulating the financial environments and conditions that would affect corporate investments in e‐business projects. It discusses the creation of a basic, standard simulation structure and discusses a project‐centric and framework‐derived approach for collecting cost and benefit estimates. It emphasizes the specific complexities of e‐business projects and the need to recognize that complexity in creating and using simulations for a project analysis. It also provides several methodologies that can be used to prepare a simulation to improve outcome accuracy.
EnhancedTV
Authors: Krause Jim
Published: July 2008

Enhanced television is a type of interactive television service provided through analog or digital transmission. Users can experience varying levels of interactivity through single‐ and dual‐screen applications. Through enhanced programming, users can select icons on the screen or press buttons on their remotes to display additional information, visit Web sites, play games, or order products. Return channels must be used in order to send user responses to the appropriate destinations. To receive enhanced television, a basic system with certain components must be in place. Set‐top boxes are the primary devices used to decode enhanced TV broadcasts and allow users to interact with the content. PCs with special tuner cards can provide the same functionality.

Broadcasters and content creators are uniquely impacted by the rise of enhanced television. The tools and methods used to produce and deliver television programming are being updated to incorporate a means to embed enhanced content into the signal. Advertising, the historic means of generating revenue for broadcasters, is just one component in a new business model that includes pay‐per‐use, subscription fees, and T‐commerce.
E
‐systems for the Support of Manufacturing Operations
Authors: Lowson Robert H.
Published: July 2008

This chapter examines the strategic implications of e‐systems for manufacturing and a manufacturing strategy. A strategic perspective is used in order to appreciate both the nature and contribution of e‐systems to a manufacturing organization contemplating an e‐business operation. The components of an e‐manufacturing strategy are discussed and the opportunities and challenges involved are debated. One of these, the ability to operate distributed e‐manufacturing facilities, has a number of strategic implications. The chapter also considers how an e‐manufacturing strategy should be formulated and the choices involved. The concluding section offers an empirical case study aimed at demonstrating the potential of e‐systems for manufacturing.
Game Design: Games for the World Wide Web
Authors: Maxim Bruce R.
Published: July 2008

Computer game sales is a multibillion‐dollar‐a‐year enterprise. Internet access is available to more than 50% of homes in the United States and has created a global community of potential game players. Successful game design requires careful attention to the expectations of the intended group of users with regard to such elements as story line, use of multimedia, puzzles, interactivity, and artificial intelligence. With stand‐alone computer games, high‐resolution graphics and game performance are often their most attractive marketing features. Networked games provide users with the opportunity to interact with human opponents in widely scattered geographic locations. Some types of games are easier than others to adapt for delivery on the Internet. The World Wide Web has the potential to support the development, marketing, and delivery of computer games.
Groupware
Authors: Balthazard Pierre A. , Potter Richard E.
Published: July 2008

This chapter introduces readers to groupware. We begin with the “why” of groupware, an explanation of the difficulties of traditional group work. Then we present some traditional and more modern defining concepts of groupware. Our definition is that groupware is technology—typically software and networks—designed to support people working in groups. We combine some traditional and emerging concepts to categorize groupware, including whether it supports synchronous or asynchronous interaction, whether it is designed for collocated or geographically distributed groups, and whether it is accessible at any time from anyplace. Following are definitions and examples of groupware functionality. The next section focuses on management of groupware with the introduction of team theory, incorporated here to guide readers on how to map groupware functionality to organizational processes. The section then details some of the organizational management challenges that often accompany groupware adoption.
Guidelines for a Comprehensive Security System
Authors: Lenk Margarita Maria
Published: July 2008

Planning and managing the overall security of a distributed Internet‐related network is a complex process. There are many different stakeholders involved, different types of assets, and new kinds of threats each day. Assessing the “strength” of the comprehensive security system without an overall model may result in significant security vulnerabilities. This article presents a step‐by‐step process for organizational security teams to utilize for building and maintaining comprehensive security systems. These steps include establishing a quality security team, identifying the assets at risk, determining the threats to those assets, developing security controls, implementing the system, and continuously reviewing the assets, risks, and system for continued assurance.
Health Issues
Authors: Lukoff David , Gackenbach Jayne
Published: July 2008

Our lives have become intertwined with computer‐mediated communication. The Internet, arguably the most potent infotechnology ever created, is changing what it means to be human. It is having both positive and negative effects on health. The Internet is potentially a vehicle for expanding consciousness, yet is also a trigger of socially deviant behavior. Technology is having effects on child development and family dynamics that are just beginning to be recognized by health professionals. Some individuals use the Internet in dysfunctional ways that lead to social isolation and deteriorating work performance. Internet addiction and technostress are both new risks exacerbated by fast growth of the Internet. Repetitive stress injuries are another increasing health hazard associated with Internet and computer use. Health care is also being profoundly influenced by the expanding online delivery of medical and psychological services.
Internet Censorship
Authors: Hersberger Julie
Published: July 2008

As Internet access increases globally, challenges to Internet content and questions of who should have access to what material are growing at a rapid rate both in the United States and abroad. Access to certain subjects, especially those containing sexual content that encompasses both obscene materials and pornographic materials, are questioned in both the legal and ethical arenas and is the primary form that censorship takes as of now. Other subjects often challenged concern topics of hate speech, political speech, violent images, etc. A secondary level of censorship concerns the limiting of access to Internet information in the form of technology issues such as monitoring Internet use; encryption and deep linking are less notable but just as important to note. A growing body of legislative statutes and case law decisions provide a robust forum for discussion of key Internet access and censorship questions. As the Internet evolves and changes, these key issues of who controls access to what material (governance), who should have access to what (content regulation), who owns what (intellectual property), technology issues, and how to protect users (privacy and security).
Internet Literacy
Authors: Bidgoli Hossein
Published: July 2008

This chapter first provides a brief history of the information superhighway and the World Wide Web and discusses domain name systems. Navigational tools, search engines, and directories are explained, and then the Internet services that support electronic commerce will be explored. These services include electronic mail (e‐mail), discussion groups, Internet relay chat (IRC), instant messenger, and Internet telephony. The chapter then explains intranets and extranets as two popular applications and supporting technologies of the Internet and Web technologies. The similarities and dissimilarities of the Internet, intranets, and extranets will be explained and their applications will be explored. The chapter concludes with a survey of some of the popular applications of the Internet and Web technologies. This survey includes tourism and travel, publishing, higher education, real estate, employment, banking and brokerage firms, software distribution, healthcare, and politics. Other chapters throughout the
Encyclopedia
will further discuss most of the topics introduced in this chapter.
Inventory Management
Authors: Carrillo Janice E. , Carrillo Michael A. , Paul Anand
Published: July 2008

Effective inventory management is a crucial determinant of business success. Inventory links a firm's purchasing, supply and manufacturing functions with the important task of meeting customer demand. Although the benefits associated with carrying inventory typically include higher customer service levels and a buffer against supply uncertainties, the trade‐offs associated with the costs of excessive inventory can be great. Moreover, recent studies have shown that the long‐term implications of poor inventory management are far reaching, ultimately affecting both firm performance and market value. In this chapter, we provide an overview of the key factors of effective inventory management. We review the classical inventory management techniques along with more recently developed supply chain and e‐commerce practices. Furthermore, we discuss specific technologies that enable effective inventory management. Conclusions summarizing key managerial implications for inventory management are included at the end of the chapter.
Law Firms
Authors: Dennis Victoria S. , Simon Judith C.
Published: July 2008

The Internet is becoming a widely used resource for law firms. One of the most common features of the Internet has to do with the ease of conducting research. Some topics with significant resources on the Web include patent law, income tax law, real property law, litigation, alternative dispute resolution, electronic commerce, and legal ethics. The Internet is also becoming more commonly used for providing client services. In addition, it is being used for internal activities within law firms.
Legal, Social, and Ethical Issues
Authors: Himma Kenneth Einar
Published: July 2008

While the creation of the online world and associated information technologies have produced many benefits to individuals and communities, they have also created novel legal, social, and ethical problems that lack obvious precedents. The World Wide Web, for example, not only makes it possible for individuals to share valuable information, but also affords terrorists around the world a convenient way to communicate with one another. This chapter provides an overview of some of the most important legal, social, and ethical problems that have arisen in connection with use of the Internet.
Mobile Operating Systems and Applications
Authors: Mariga Julie R.
Published: July 2008

Mobile computing technologies are having an enormous impact on both companies and individuals. Companies have to face many issues related to mobile computing. Mobile computing, defined as a generalization of all mobile computing devices including personal digital assistants (PDAs, e.g., Palm Pilots, Pocket PCs), smart phones, and other wireless communication devices, will change dramatically in the next 2 to 5 years. Several factors remain to be determined, including which devices will best fulfill business objectives, which operating systems will these devices run, what other devices will they support, and what costs and security issues will be involved in their use. This chapter provides an in‐depth analysis of the three top platforms that are currently running the majority of mobile devices: (a) the Palm, (b) Microsoft Windows CE, and (c) Symbian operating systems. The chapter analyzes the strengths and weaknesses of each platform and review market share and future growth, concluding with a discussion of mobile applications.
Multimedia
Authors: Bargsten Joey
Published: July 2008

This chapter explores multimedia in artistic/cultural and digital terms and then describes the key technical elements and concepts of digital multimedia. Techniques and tools for creating and editing still images, motion images, and audio are discussed in detail—defining these media elements, then listing common editing approaches and suitable and/or popular software. Authoring tools for integrating various media elements are then discussed in depth, ranging from desktop publishing applications to Director, Flash, MAX, and DVD Studio Pro. Appendices and glossary are provided for extended information on various media file formats, sound terminology, etc.
Organizational Impact
Authors: Mendonca John A.
Published: July 2008

As the backbone of the digital economy, the Internet is an enabler of faster and cheaper communications that eliminate the boundaries of space and time. E‐commerce exploits this capability by developing new business paradigms and processes that change what organizations produce, how they operate, and how they are structured. The organizational impact of the Internet and e‐commerce includes adoption of new business models; changes in the competitive environment; introduction of new products and product delivery channels; opportunities for new organizational structures; altered customer and supplier relationships; and new ways to work. Leaders and managers are challenged to adapt to the changing environment, to manage the change effectively, and to react responsibly to social and ethical issues raised. Because of the failure of dot‐coms in the early years of E‐commerce, companies in the future will focus more on integrating processes into existing business and gaining financial benefit through better business alignment.
Personalization and Customization Technologies
Authors: Braynov Sviatoslav
Published: July 2008

This chapter surveys personalization and customization technologies. It starts with an analysis of user profiling and explains how user profiles can be used to generate personalized products and services. It explains some standard personalization techniques such as rule‐based filtering, collaborative filtering, and content‐based filtering. Web usage mining is also explained and it is shown how data mining can be used to learn customer behavior and to provide personalized content. Several applications such as adaptive Web sites, recommender systems, adaptive Web stores, and intelligent agents are discussed. The chapter concludes by summarizing current trends.
Research on the Internet
Authors: Piper Paul S.
Published: July 2008

The Internet was created by researchers and has continued to evolve according to their needs, although competing market forces are dictating alternative evolutions. Subject directories and search engines allow researchers access to relevant content. E‐mail allows researchers to co‐author and edit documents electronically, with limited constraints from time and distance. Electronic discussion groups keep researchers abreast of new developments in their field. Electronic texts have given researchers more timely information delivery, as well as critical interactivity. And libraries have embraced the Internet and have pioneered a number of research developments.Content on the Internet is varied in format and bias, which has shifted the responsibility of critique to the user. The tradeoff is that the Internet makes available to researchers information impossible to obtain elsewhere, material that is accessible without extensive (or any) cost, and material that represents a wider variety of opinion and cultural concern