bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Journey beyond Belief'
Authors: Walsh Roger
Published: March 2007

"Journey Beyond Belief' is an autobiographical account of the experiences and understandings that emerged from a personal exploration of a variety of growth disciplines. The author traces his trajectory from a hard-nosed neuroscientist with no faith in things subjective or emotional through the repeated shattering of his belief systems to a recognition of the vast reaches and varieties of inner experience. Beginning with psychotherapy and progressing through a number of humanistic, group, and meditative disciplines, he began to appreciate the limited and limiting nature of many of his own and the culture's beliefs, experiences, and behaviors. He was repeatedly shocked by the extent to which he had underestimated the vastness and richness of the inner universe, by the extent to which the untrained mind is out of control and continuously creates encompassing and entrapping illusory realities, by the amount of unnecessary suffering which this causes, by the fact that it is possible to train the mind to degrees considerably beyond those usually recognized by Western psychology, and by the fact that, at least at their usually unrecognized esoteric core, the world's great religions represent roadmaps for mental training designed to induce transcendent states.
Humanistic Psychology and the Judeo-Christian Heritage
Authors: ap Iorwerth Geraint
Published: March 2007

Having "turned East" in the 1960s and 1970s, the human potential movement urgently needs to look again at the Judeo-Christian heritage, in all its richness and diversity, in order to get in touch with its roots in the West and, thereby, bring a whole new dimension to its work and continued growth. Similarly, dialogue with existential, humanistic, and transpersonal psychologies can revitalize the therapeutic and pedagogic aspects of the Judeo-Christian traditions, thus making them more relevant to contemporary society. Such cross-fertilization can be of great importance in the development of a truly Western "yoga" that is theologically and philosophically articulate, as well as psychologically and spiritually effective. Furthermore, closer cooperation between contemporary humanistic psychology and the radically anthropocentric tradition within Judaism and Christianity would bring to the human potential movement a much needed sense of tradition and continuity with the past, a deeper awareness of human historicity. Such cooperation also could demonstrate the importance of eschatology, as well as ontology, for a radical humanism.
A Marxist Theory of Self-Actualization
Authors: Lethbridge David
Published: March 2007

Numerous authors have recently criticized the concept of self-actualization, especially as it appears in the work of Rogers and Maslow. These critiques are reviewed, and an alternative theory from a Marxist historical materialist perspective is advanced. An attempt is made to utilize the psychology of Vygotski and Leontyev in the reconstruction of a logically consistent position on human nature and self-actualization. The theory is presented as a series of nine interlocking postulates, which are then elaborated in the form of successive short outlines.
Encountering and Integrating Kierkegaard's Absolute Paradox
Authors: Schneider Kirk J.
Published: March 2007

Kierkegaard's absolute paradox is proposed as the fundamental basis for a cohesive existential-phenomenological theory of perception. Absolute paradox is defined as a continuum of physical, intellectual, and emotional finitude (limitation) counterpoised by physical, intellectual, and emotional infinitude (freedom). After setting forth the tenets of this theory of paradox, the author explores its implications for the history of philosophical thought and individual and social psychology. In particular, he inquires as to why this paradox is so often denied and trivialized. He concludes that both philosophically and psychologically persons often fear paradox-even to a life-threatening degree-and therefore adopt polarized or extreme views. Finally, the author discusses integrated or balanced philosophical and psychological perspectives. He claims that such perspectives are possessed by persons who are able to encounter paradox and constructively transform what had once been denied or alien. The article is intended to reflect the spirit of Becker (1973), who urged that existential-phenomenological psychology (and in turn humanistic psychology) should strive to develop a more accessible, rigorous, and unified stance.

Only the paradox comes anywhere near to comprehending the fullness of life.—Carl Jung.
Human Science Research Methods
Authors: Barrell James J. , Aanstoos Chris , Rechards Anne C. , Arons Mike
Published: March 2007

In this work, we contribute to the human science research paradigm now emerging internationally by describing four major human science research methods: the experiential, hermeneutical, perceptual psychological, and phenomenological. Each author has contributed to the development and utilization of one of these methodologies, while remaining conversant with the others. We recognize the unique value of each, but also are convinced that the human science approach has now attained the level of sophistication that makes a comparative examination of its various methodologies a timely endeavor. We have begun that task in this article by summarizing how each methodology addresses a common phenomenon, that of the experience of anxiety. Specifically, we summarize each method with regard to its research purpose, its formulation of a research question, its means of data collection, and its data analytic procedures.

Although differences are evident, shared values and procedures are also clarified. All methods underscore the significance of (a) focusing on understanding human experience, (b) practicing impartiality during observations, (c) grounding the research in the life-world, and 4) clarifying the meanings that are lived from the perspective of one's own experiencing. It is our hope that this work will add to an in-depth understanding of what human science research means as well as offer concrete guidelines to carry out its form of research.
Two Patterns of Transcendence
Authors: Washburn Michael
Published: March 2007

This article sets forth two historically important ways in which the transcendence of the ego has been conceived. These two conceptions are called the "ladder to oneness" and the "spiral to integration." These conceptions are set forth by contrasting them on five critical issues: (1) whether transcendence is a developmental transition that moves straight to higher, transegoic levels or a transition that follows a spiral course that bends back upon itself, (2) whether transcendence is a purely progressive movement or a movement that involves regression at some point, (3) whether transcendence is a wholly immanent process or a process that involves contact with transcendent forces, (4) whether transcendence is primarily a matter of growth from within or transformation from without, and (5) whether transcendence ultimately leads beyond all selfhood or to a point at which a higher form of selfhood is achieved. Drawing on these contrasts, two general conclusions are drawn: (1) the two conceptions of transcendence reflect basic differences in Eastern (ladder to oneness) and Western (spiral to integration) perspectives, and (2) the two conceptions are logically at odds on certain fundamental points, which suggests poor prospects for a unified East/West paradigm of transcendence.
Empathy in Client-Centered Therapy
Authors: Bohart Arthur C.
Published: March 2007

While empathy is important in psychoanalytic, self-psychological, and client-centered therapies, its primary function is seen as different in each. For client-centered therapy, the major function of empathy is to create a certain kind of learning experience through which clients come to live and relate to themselves differently. Specifically, it is to help people develop the "skill" of learning to use experiential referents in making moment-to-moment life decisions. For psychoanalysis, empathy is used primarily to help the therapist (and subsequently clients) develop insight into client unconscious dynamics. For self psychology, empathy functions to strengthen self-structure. These functions are not incompatible. Self psychology, in particular, converges on the client-centered view of empathy's curative power, over and above its insight-enhancing function, though the two approaches explain this differently.
Perspectives on Scientism, Religion, and Philosophy Provided by Parapsychology
Authors: Tart Charles T.
Published: March 2007

Modern views of neural functioning hypothesize that we live in a largely automatized simulation of reality rather than being in direct contact with the world. Scientism, a view that distorts the scientific process to make it compatible with a materialistic philosophy, is an important component controlling the modern world simulation process. Some of its psychologically deleterious effects are discussed in relation to a belief experiment for discovering these effects on a personal level. Scientism cannot be dismissed simply because it is dis-spiriting, however. The facts of science cannot be rejected out of hand. Parapsychological research-thus plays a critical role in the transition from a modern to a postmodern view of human life; for, using the best kind of genuinely scientific method, its findings undermine scientism's claim to providing a total picture of life. In this way, parapsychological findings open us to serious consideration of a spiritual side to existence. The most solidly established parapsychological findings force us to consider a view of human beings that includes the possibility of Mind, without using the physical senses, sometimes reaching out directly, to touch other mindsoccasionally "perceiving" the state of the physical world and sometimes materially affecting it through volition alone, and sometimes foretelling a future that is materially unpredictable. Other parapsychological findings, less solidly established but still demanding consideration, suggest a view of the nature of Mind that includes its ability to heal the body in a psychic fashion, to observe the world from a location other than where the physical body is located, and possibly to survive physical death in some form.
Community Mediation Centers
Authors: Duffy Karen G. , Thomson James
Published: March 2007

We introduce the concept of community mediation centers as alternatives to the traditional, adversarial, and less humanistic court system. We make the case that mediation is indeed a humanistic dispute resolution process by first describing the benefits of the process and then by sharing results of a study we conducted using archival cases from an actual mediation center. The study examines the disputing person's Maslowian levels both before and after the mediation hearing. We found that need levels are higher in the Maslowian hierarchy after the hearing than before the hearing. We also address limitations of our study as well as suggest future directions for more research.
Death Knell of the Guru System?
Authors: Wren-Lewis John
Published: March 2007

This article proposes a radically new approach to the much discussed question of the relationship between claims to spiritual enlightenment and ethical behavior recently rekindled by disclosures of what seems to have been very unenlightened conduct in the private life of J. Krishnamurti, the one modern teacher most people assumed to be above such frailties. The approach is based on the author's personal experience of a lasting shift of consciousness following a close encounter with death in 1983, which leads him to contend that the transformation of which Krishnamurti spoke was not a change in personality but an opening of "depth-perspective" in the moment that puts all human feelings into new proportion in relation to actual enjoyment of eternity. The surest way to prevent such a change is to pursue spiritual development in the hope of achieving some ideal condition, which means that idealization of spiritual teachers is a trap not only for gullible seekers, as often maintained by skeptical psychologists, but even more for the teachers themselves. Krishnamurti saw this more clearly than most, yet seems to have been unable to avoid the trap. The need now is to abandon the whole master system in favor of a genuine experimental approach to spirituality with full up-front admission of failures as an essential requirement not only for any real research, but also for maintaining enlightenment itself.

When a guru's not engaged in meditation (meditation),

A-reciting of his mantra for the week (for the week),

His capacity for infantile inflation (-tile inflation)

Is enough to drive disciples up the creek (up the creek).

He will take the girls aside for tantric yoga (tantric yoga)

While celibacy is ordered for the chaps (for the chaps),

When he starts behaving like an angry ogre (angry ogre)

He claims it's just to make your pride collapse.

Oh with all these daily pujas to be done (to be done),

A disciple's lot is not a happy one (happy one).

-Gilbert & Sullivan

(channelled communication, a New Age update of the 'Policemen's Chorus" from The Pirates of Penzance, first written when this ancient spirit was split between two Victorian Englishmen in his last incamation).
Using Meditative Techniques in Psychotherapy
Authors: Kelly Gary F.
Published: March 2007

Although research evidence exists concerning the efficacy of meditation in psychotherapeutic settings, therapists and counselors are often unfamiliar with meditative techniques and their usefulness. Those in professional fields frequently lack ways of bridging the gap between what may represent the spiritual domain of life and the more pragmatic concerns typically presented by clients. This article presents a model that employs meditative approaches to enhance the therapy process for practitioners as well as their clients. The model is designed to provide a sequential approach to dealing with relaxation, self-awareness, inner control mechanisms, emotional felt senses, and intuition, within a nonreligious context. It is applicable to holistic and experiential perspectives on the process of psychotherapy.
A Time-Sensitive Existential Method for Assisting Adults in Transition
Authors: Brent John S.
Published: March 2007

Principles of time-limited psychotherapy can be compatible with an existential approach to assisting adults in transition. This is supported by presentation of a method derived from analysis of an interview with a client who had completed a series of existentially focused therapy sessions. The transcript was analyzed using concepts, such as temporality and authenticity, from Heidegger's Being and Time. The resulting method is presented as five thematic phases, involving intermittent sessions interspersed with ample time for clients' independent reading and self-reflection. The description of the phases, which includes concepts employed and suggestions for therapeutic intervention and readings, is organized around illustrative excerpts taken from the interview.
Age Discrimination and Compulsory Retirement in Australia
Authors: Reid Frank
Published: March 2007

An analysis of a decision of the New South Wales Anti-Discrimination Board that effectively raised the compulsory retirement age for females in New South Wales indicates an insignificant impact on participation rates of older women in that state. In view of similar evidence from the United States and Canada, it is likely that a national ban on compulsory retirement in Australia would also have minimal effects on participation rates of older persons. A ban is unlikely to have significant impacts on hiring and promotion opportunities for other employees, because the number of persons choosing to work past traditional retirement age is small; the impact on the flow of new hires is confined to a temporary transitional period; and the number of employees likely to postpone retirement would occupy only a fraction of the job opportunities created by the continuing dramatic decline in participation rates of older Australians. The small impact of a ban on participation rates also implies minimal impacts on personnel policies, productivity, labour costs and social expenditures on the aged. Since the economic impacts are insignificant, the desirability of prohibiting age discrimination and compulsory retirement should be decided primarily by human rights considerations.
The Metal Trades Industry Association, Bargaining Structures and the Accord
Authors: Thornthwaite Louise , Sheldon Peter
Published: March 2007

As part of his more general argument about employer reactivity in Australia, David Plowman has asserted that the disunity of Australian employer associations has inhibited their success in initiating policy debates or strategically reshaping bargaining structures. However, this paper, in examining the industrial relations strategies and policies of the Metal Trades Industry Association under the Accord, argues that the association seized substantial initiative in policy debates relating to bargaining structures and in influencing the pace and direction of change regarding the progressive implementation of enterprise bargaining in Australia. This had nothing to do with unity or disunity among employer groups, but related to factors internal to the association, its industry-and, in particular, the associa tion's evolving relationship with the industry's unions-and to circumstances regarding the public policy-making process.
Dimensions of Conflict Resolution in Ethnopolitical Disputes
Authors: Pearson Frederic S.
Published: March 2007

In this introduction to the special issue, the various dimensions of approaches to conflict resolution in identity disputes are explored. The implementation of existing peace accords in countries troubled by domestic fighting turns out to be a knottier policy problem than expected and subject to lingering distrust and miscommunication. The role of two sets of factors in bringing about agreement and/or implementation is explored: grass-roots versus elite initiatives and the identity versus instrumental nature of the negotiations. Factors such as the degree of preliminary dialogue and pre-bargaining, the involvement of officials versus civic representatives, concern about fear and distrust may be weighed against the more usual calculations of power balances, exhaustion, and stalemate in accounting for peaceful settlements. The interplay between these categories has a great deal to do with the prospects and outcomes of conflict management approaches and is the subject of the articles to follow. The studies were designed to test, utilizing a comparative case-study framework, which dimension, if any, turns out to be most influential in a series of local violent ethnopolitical disputes. Findings, while varied, point to the importance of grass-roots participation in the negotiation process.
Evaluating the Contributions of Track-two Diplomacy to Conflict Termination in South Africa, 1984-90
Authors: LIEBERFELD DANIEL
Published: March 2007

This article evaluates the political impact of three non-official, track-two initiatives aimed at resolving the conflict in South Africa. Meetings between white South Africans and the African National Congress (ANC) in the pre-negotiation period from 1985 to 1990 produced direct, substantive inputs into official, track-one decisionmaking regarding negotiations, as well as indirect inputs into public opinion and party politics bearing on questions of negotiated settlement. Track-two talks are credited with changing the political risks and rewards of official talks by legitimizing the negotiation option and desensitizing each side's constituents to talks with the enemy, by building latent support for track-one negotiations, by furthering incentive-creating political polarization over the issue of negotiation, and by encouraging the formation of liberal, pro-negotiation political parties and NGOs. Track-two talks prepared each side for track-one negotiations by clarifying conflict goals and post-conflict policies; by exploring common ground; by developing cadres of officials with experience in dialogue, some of whom developed a bureaucratic stake in an official negotiation process; and by communicating preconditions for track-one talks. The ANC and government each sought to use track-two talks to divide and weaken the other. A sense of South African identity emerged during track-two dialogues which reduced threat perceptions among white participants who communicated with central decisionmakers, and helped create a sense of negotiation possibility complementary to decisionmakers' sense that negotiation was necessary.
Applications of Systems Modelling in Peace Research
Authors: Mesjasz Czesław
Published: March 2007

Systems theory has contributed greatly to the development of peace and war-related studies. Originating approximately in the same period, each of these scientific movements has influenced the other to a degree that may seem astonishing to outsiders, and both have been divided by fierce methodological dispute. The parallel development has yielded several overlaps, among which an interesting coincidence can be observed. A number of the founders of General Systems Theory were also the forerunners of peace and conflict studies. On the basis of universal ethical motivations the first peace researchers attempted to create holistic methodologies and more detailed models enabling humanity to identify, and eventually to control, the processes leading to the outbreaks of war. Similar activities, albeit subdued by the political goals, were also carried out in government-sponsored strategic studies centres, where so-called systems analysis was elaborated. Numerous confusions have been made in the implementation of mathematicized systemic models into peace research. Attitudes have varied from naive fascination to absolute denial. In the first part of the present work an attempt to present a balanced opinion on systemic models m peace and conflict studies is worked out. Evaluation of the following concepts: game theory, computer simulation, field theory, entropy law, and catastrophe theory is carried out using the views of enthusiasts and critics. In the second part, the potential impact exerted upon peace research by complex systems studies are discussed. As the new models applicable in social systems investigations, the following proposals are evaluated: non-equilibrium thermodynamics, self-reference and autopoiesis, synergetics, and chaos theory.
Tension between the Strong, and the Strategies of the Weak
Authors: MOURITZEN HANS
Published: March 2007

How is the position of weak powers today affected by detente and emerging US-Soviet cooperation? More generally, what happens to the power position and the security strategies of the weak as tension fluctuates between the strong? What happens, in particular, to their ability and willingness to mediate between the strong and hence contribute to detente? A theoretical construct, a `constellation theory', is established in order to answer these questions. `Constellation' refers to the weak nation's basic set of relationships to the strong, be it a symmetric constellation, an alliance constellation or some other type. The expectations derived from the theory are confronted with observations of Swedish and Finnish strategies during the rising and high level of superpower tension in the first half of the 1980s. Only one minor deviation between expectations and observations is found, and this can be accounted for fairly well. The two neighbouring countries, with relatively similar domestic political systems (and similar archipelagos!) but involved in different constellations, are found to be affected in inverse ways by rising and high tension: Swedish policy is activated whereas Finnish policy is de-activated. This corroborates the theoretically justified belief in the explanatory power of the notion of `constellations'. In the concluding section, some speculations on weak powers in the alliance constellation are made. The results of this article should be seen as a criticism of the small state research which theorizes on `small states' (`weak powers') in general, without explicitly considering the constellations in which they are involved.
Peace through Parks: The Environment on the Peace Research Agenda
Authors: Brock Lothar
Published: March 2007

The environment has now become firmly established as an item on the agenda of peace research. However, perceptions of the interrelationship between peace and environmental issues differ widely. In order to prepare the way for systematic analysis of this interrelationship, four linkages are identified here: causal, instrumental, definitional and normative. Since environmental issues are not only to be treated as non-military threats to the security of societies, but can also work to promote cooperation and peace-building, the causal, instrumental and definitional linkages are sub-categorized as having positive and negative aspects. Environmental security is identified as a normative linkage designed to cope with the negative aspects of the other linkages. Whether this will lead to a militarization of environmental politics, or rather help to demilitarize security thinking remains an open question. The answer will depend very much on the positive aspects of the causal and instrumental linkages. Up to now, ecological cooperation has to be seen as a dependent variable reflecting the state of overall international relations. However, there are some indications that environmental cooperation may develop an Eigendynamik of its own and become an independent variable with influence of its own on world politics.
Is the Nuclear Non-Proliferation System a Regime? A Comment on Trevor McMorris Tate
Authors: BRZOSKA MICHAEL
Published: March 2007

It is often stated in academic analysis as well as in public discussions that there is a nuclear proliferation regime. The rather limited proliferation of nuclear weapons since the 1960s is then said to be the result of the erection and fairly successful working of this international regime. This view is criticized using a recent article in this journal as an example. One problem with the international regime approach is that proponents are often not very clear on who is in and who is out of regimes. In the area of non-proliferation, with its multitude of treaties, arrangements and policies, the distinction is especially difficult. It probably makes more sense to speak of several rather than just one international nonproliferation regime. While these regimes have important places in non-proliferation, analysis only looking at them misses important aspects. One is that national decision-making is influenced by norms around non-proliferation that are not international regimes. The neglect of norm-building reflects a major shortcoming of the international regime approach, namely its state-centeredness. This defect has consequences for the analysis of the importance of elements within the international non-proliferation area. Policy recommendations based solely on international regime analysis are misleading. Diplomats, policy-makers and the public concerned about nuclear non-proliferation are better advised if the problem is put into a larger perspective including both institutional and normative aspects.
Do Democracies Fight each other? Evidence from the Peloponnesian War
Authors: RUSSETT BRUCE , ANTHOLIS WILLIAM
Published: March 2007

The proposition that democracies rarely fight each other in the modern international system is increasingly accepted, and of great importance to theory and practice. Yet the reasons behind this phenomenon, and hence expectations as to how it may operate under other conditions, are still not well understood. This article systematically compiles information on wars and types of political systems in the world of ancient Greek city-states, and asks when and why democracies fought each other. A quantitative analysis of war-fighting patterns is inconclusive, but contextual examination of acts and perceptions as reported in ancient sources illuminates the motivations. Despite prominent exceptions, a norm against fighting other democracies was emerging and had some effect.
War Toys, War Movies, and the Militarization of the United States, 1900-85
Authors: Regan Patrick M.
Published: March 2007

Various themes in the scholarly literature have argued that an entrenched military is able to maintain its level of influence through the manipulation of perceptions of a hostile environment. While I argue that any alleged manipulation is generally not carried out under the guise of conscious `security policy', there is some evidence that the perception of an international threat can be and is maintained through the use of the media and entertainment outlets. Using the prevalence of war toys and war movies as indicators of societal symbols, I find that there is a consistent pattern between: (a) the trends of militarization in the USA, (b) public attitudes toward military spending and the expectation of a future war, (c) the popularity of war toys and movies, and (d) press reporting with pro-military themes. The correlation between war movies and societal militarization is 0.83; war toys and militarization 0.74; and press reporting with pro-military themes and militarization 0.44. These patterns appear to hold in the USA over the first 85 years of the 20th century, and not only lend credence to those arguments that suggest that a threat need not be existential for the military to remain `well prepared', but also point to areas that could help facilitate long-term demilitarization efforts.
Deterrence Stability with Smaller Forces: Prospects and Problems
Authors: Cimbala Stephen J.
Published: March 2007

Many scholars and policy-makers have assumed that reduction of US and Russian strategic nuclear forces to the lowest possible levels, perhaps to zero, is contributory to deterrence and crisis stability. This study tests a variety of reduced US and Russian nuclear forces, including hypothetical forces and START configurations, for their relative force advantage and for their ability to fulfil previously accepted standards of assured retaliation. It turns out that, as forces decrease towards very low levels, the Russian force falls behind the US force in operational flexibility and becomes much more vulnerable to surprise strikes without warning. Both forces maintain the ability to inflict historically unprecedented retaliatory damage even at the 1,000 warhead level, the lowest included here. The good news is that minimum deterrent forces rapidly run out of plausible targets, making them irrelevant for counterforce first strikes or for escalation dominance. The bad news is that minimum forces can become exclusively city attacking forces by default. Former adversaries now turned into potential partners in search of regional and global stability, the USA and Russia must safeguard the transition from a nuclear deterrence regime to a more disarmed world. The reduction of US and Russian arsenals to several hundreds of weapons is contributory to stability on the assumption that the British, French and Chinese nuclear weapons inventories undergo proportionate reductions also. A second assumption built into favorable prognoses for US and Russian reductions well below START levels is that nuclear proliferation can be constrained. Absent constrained proliferation and cooperative European and Asian nuclear powers, US and Russian force reductions below 1,000 warheads are ambiguously stable. Neorealist arguments in favor of well-managed proliferation understate the extent to which Cold War stability was overdetermined. US-Soviet nuclear deterrence rested on a substructure that included bipolarity and learned behavior modification for crisis management.
The Study of International Regimes
Authors: Underdal Arild
Published: March 2007

A team based at the University of Tübingen has contributed significantly to the recent development of the analysis of international rules and norms (often referred to as international regimes) that (are supposed to) govern given systems of activities. One of its major contributions has been to explore the usefulness of various problem and issue typologies for predicting and explaining regime formation. The team has also developed several original concepts, including that of a `regime-conducive foreign policy'. Moreover, it has been among the first in this field to combine intensive comparative research with extensive quantitative analysis of events data, and to formulate so-called `contextualized' propositions. This review briefly evaluates some of these contributions. It also examines the state of the art as summarized in the latest of the three volumes under review.
Immigration, Asylum, and Anti-Foreigner Violence in Germany
Authors: Krell Gert , Nicklas Hans , Ostermann Anne
Published: March 2007

In the early 1990s, Germany went through a difficult debate about changes in its generous asylum laws. Much more dramatic, however, were the increases in the number of violent attacks against foreigners (and also some Germans), mainly by alienated young males. The paper discusses both, the asylum migration and the ethnocentric violence, and also possible connections between the two. In the first part, we present a typology of the perpetrators and various theories which try to explain the new violence, such as: Nazi revival, modernization theory, a theory of civilizational crisis, political culture and dominance culture, and hegemonic masculinity/masculinity crisis. In the second part, we discuss the problems of mass migration and asylum applications, and in particular the debate about it. This debate has contributed indirectly to the violence, although it is not its root cause: through open racism, through scapegoating, and also through a polarization between the two major political camps. In this polarization, different ideological traditions have led to the denial of new dimensions of social reality: the reality of multiculturalism as well as the necessity of limiting and regulating migration. In the final section, we offer a number of suggestions as how to deal with both immigration and violence against foreigners.
Creating the `Ripe Moment' in the East Timor Conflict
Authors: Salla Michael E.
Published: March 2007

Analyzing the East Timor conflict by way of applying William Zartman's notion of `ripeness' and John Burton's `basic human needs' not only proves indispensable for pointing out the personalities, forces and dynamics that might contribute to a negotiated outcome of the East Timor conflict, but also to how these notions might be applied to intractable conflicts more generally. This paper argues that a means of breaking out of the present impasse in negotiations concerning the East Timor conflict is to create what Zartman calls the `ripe moment'. It is argued that the missing ingredient for the `ripe moment' in the case of East Timor is what Zartman calls a `formula for a way out'. Central in the development of such a formula is that parties build upon `basic needs' which they mutually recognize - `Type 1 needs' - and defer to a later stage of negotiations those `basic needs' where disagreement is found - `Type needs'. After criticizing Burton's notion of basic needs and the distinction intended to deal with the criticism of Burton's theory, it is argued that the likely initiators of the `formula for the way out' in the case of the East Timor conflict are what are referred to as pro-autonomy East Timorese. The significance of developing such a formula lies in its potential to become a focus of negotiations between the Indonesian government and representatives of pro-autonomy East Timorese - negotiations that are supported by the international community and expatriate East Timorese political organizations.
Rebellion, Violence and Revolution: A Rational Choice Perspective
Authors: Weede Erich , Muller Edward N.
Published: March 2007

There are many rebellions, fewer successful rebellions, and extremely few social revolutions. First, the relative frequencies of elite and mass rebellions are investigated. Because a rational choice approach finds it easier to explain elite rebellions and a deprivation approach seems tailored to the explanation of mass rebellions, the relative frequencies of these two types of rebellion favor rational choice. Second, the small number of mass rebellions is related to military issues, such as loyalty and defeat in war. Although military defeat in war is neither close to a necessary, nor to a sufficient condition of successful rebellion, it still might multiply its likelihood. Third, it is argued that the link between international rivalries and great revolutions via ruler discouragement and rebel encouragement is compatible with a rational choice approach. Because it is obviously so important in revolutions, nationalist and religious zealotry needs to be integrated into rational choice approaches to rebellion and revolution.
`Ours is the Way of God': Religion, Identity, And Intergroup Conflict
Authors: Seul Jeffrey R.
Published: March 2007

According to social identity theory, identity competition plays a central role in the inception and escalation of intergroup conflict, even when economic and political factors also are at play. Individual and group identity competition is considered a byproduct of individuals' efforts to satisfy basic human needs, including various psychological needs. Religions often serve these psychological needs more comprehensively and potently than other repositories of cultural meaning that contribute to the construction and maintenance of individual and group identities. Religions frequently supply cosmologies, moral frameworks, institutions, rituals, traditions, and other identity-supporting content that answers to individuals' needs for psychological stability in the form of a predictable world, a sense of belonging, self-esteem, and even self-actualization. The peculiar ability of religion to serve the human identity impulse thus may partially explain why intergroup conflict so frequently occurs along religious fault lines.
Racial Disparity in Arrest Rates as an Explanation of Racial Disparity in Commitment to Pennsylvania's Prisons
Authors: AUSTIN ROY L. , ALLEN MARK D.
Published: March 2007

The basic methodology of former studies of the net effect of criminal justice processing on racial disproportionality in America's prisons has the potential to advance understanding of this issue. But aggregation of data at the national level and/or over offenses among other weaknesses limits the utility of the previous findings. The authors employ positive aspects of the methodology of the studies in analyzing Pennsylvania data for 1991 to 1995. The total percentages of explained disproportionality are substantially lower than other studies. The same explained disproportionalities and those for individual offenses are also far lower than another study from national data, and low percentages of explained disproportionality for some offenses suggest that high levels of racial discrimination may be operative. In particular, implementation of the war on drugs seems fraught with injustice toward Blacks. Explained disproportionality is fairly stable over time, indicating reliability for the conclusion that racial discrimination in Pennsylvania's criminal justice system seems greater than some earlier studies show.
The Multiple Dimensions of Trust in Resident/Police Relations in Boston
Authors: STOUTLAND SARA E.
Published: March 2007

What is it about resident/police relations in poor urban communities that results in many community members' deep distrust in police? This question is addressed by applying a framework of the “four trust questions” to analyze the complexities of community members' perceptions of police and police action aimed at reducing youth violence in Boston's high-crime neighborhoods. To differentiate residents' multiple—and sometimes conflicting—expectations of police, trust is broken down into four questions about priorities, competence, dependability, and respectfulness. Based on more than 50 qualitative interviews with community members, findings reveal that many residents considered the police to meet their expectations of competence and dependability but not of shared priorities or respect. Respect, in particular, was important to residents, although they recognized a tension between police acting competently and respectfully.
Crime, Delinqueney, and Social Areas
Authors: Quinney Richard
Published: March 2007

Social area analysis was employed in an ecological study of crime and delinquency in a metropolitan area. It was found that crime rates were negatively correlated with economic status and positively correlated with racial status. Delinquency rates were negatively correlated with economic status and family status and positively correlated with racial status. The proportion of de linquency to crime was positively correlated with economic status and negatively correlated with family status and racial status. Further analysis according to the grouping of census tracts into social areas and racial areas revealed qualifications of the cor relations. The ecology of crime and delinquency has significance only when social structures are specified by measures which are related to a theoretical framework, as is the case with social area analysis. Finally, the rates and patterns of crime and delinquency appear to be related to characteristics and trends in contem porary society.
Adolescence, Commitment, and Delinquency
Authors: Polk Kenneth , Halferty David S.
Published: March 2007

This study is an empirical examination of the concept of "Youth Culture" and its relevance to the study of juvenile delinquency. Utilizing data from 410 male high school students in the Pacific Northwest, a factor analysis suggests three aspects of adolescence significant to our study: (1) involvement in activi ties with other adolescents; (2) engagement in activity and behavior aimed at school success, followed by college and a white-collar career; and (3) acceptance of peer over adult pres sures. While involvement, commitment, and rebellion appear to be relatively independent of each other, there was general con firmation of the hypothesis that trouble, including delinquency, lies negatively in the commitment and positively in the peer rebellion dimensions. The study suggests that, for some, delin quency might occur when the lowering of commitment to the relatively unidimensional definition of success available to ado lescents is followed by movement toward a peer culture which provides support for anti-adult attitudes and behaviors.
Group Processes and Collective Interaction in Delinquent Activities
Authors: Sherif Muzafer , Sherif Carolyn W.
Published: March 2007

Delinquent activities are viewed from the perspective of con verging research findings on the nature of groups and their impact on the behavior of members. Theory and research show the importance of group processes for adolescent behavior whether socially desirable or undesirable. Their examination helps to resolve some paradoxes and predict "unexpected events" that currently plague formulations on delinquency. As part of the effort to achieve generally applicable concepts for theory and research, the advantage is noted of using non-pejorative terms as research tools without the stereotyped connotations of labels such as "gang" or "delinquent subculture." Based on accumulating experimental and empirical findings, a summary account is given of (a) the circumstances and motives conducive to group forma tion and (b) the step-by-step formation of the group. The socially harmful and socially desirable impact of reference groups on the identified membership is sketched and the func tion and importance of adolescent reference groups in modern societies are examined. With reference to research findings on group formation, on adolescence, and on collective interaction, implications are drawn for research methods in the study of group processes.
Groups, Gangs, and Cohesiveness
Authors: Klein Malcolm W. , Crawford Lois Y.
Published: March 2007

This paper is concerned with selected qualitative differences between juvenile gangs and other groups which have been the more traditional subject of empirical research. Two factors in particular are emphasized: gang cohesiveness and gang-related delinquent behavior. We take the position that the sources of gang cohesiveness are primarily external to the group, in contrast to the findings on most groups previously studied. Gang delin quency, in addition to being the partial consequence of gang interaction, serves as an additional reinforcer of gang cohe siveness. After a brief review of the literature, we draw the conclusions that available concepts and approaches to the meas urement of group cohesiveness are somewhat insufficient for application to gang research. With the use of data drawn from a study of 576 male Negro gang members in Los Angeles we illustrate several alternate measurement procedures. We view these procedures as a first step toward a sorely needed investiga tion of the relationship between gang cohesiveness and gang delinquency.
Decision-Maker Attitudes and Juvenile Detention
Authors: Gottfredson Don M. , Gottfredson Gary D.
Published: March 2007

Preliminary steps toward development of an instrument for investigation of decision-maker attitudes in juvenile detention are described. A factor analysis of responses of ninety-two correc tional experts to twenty-five case examples identified two factors, interpreted as reflecting the use of detention for protection of the child (Factor J) and for protection of society (Factor 2). A second factor analysis, based on 141 subjects, confirmed the first. Police and probation officers differed in scores on both factors; police scored higher. Factor 2 scores were found to be associated with a classification of counties according to relatively high or low de tention rates; higher scores were associated with higher deten tion rates.
An Experimental Program for the Psychopathic Delinquent: Looking in the "Correctional Wastebasket"
Authors: Ingram Gilbert L. , Gerard Roy E. , Quay Herbert C. , Levinson Robert B.
Published: March 2007

Attempts at treating psychopathic offenders. in correctional institutions have generally met with frustration and failure. Re search with this type of individual has suggested a different approach, one which is action-oriented and employs non-verbal techniques. To test the efficacy of this approach a demonstration project was conducted at the National Training School for Boys. Comparisons between this program and the regular institution counseling approach support the de-emphasizing of verbal ther apy in favor of novel and exciting activities to more effectively manage the psychopath.
The Conception of Criminality Illustrated by a Stochastic Process Model for Deviant Behavior
Authors: Petersen Eggert
Published: March 2007

It is common knowledge that individuals vary regarding criminal tendency. That the surroundings vary correspondingly - as will become clear from the investigation described below - is less evi dent. The everyday view of criminality which is also widespread among scientists and theorists is namely "one-dimensional"- absolute and static. The concept of "criminal" (denoting criminal persons) is a pure Aristotelian classification, i.e., a collective name, deriving from one criterion of the fact that different individuals in widely different situations have shown widely different behavior. From a psychological point of view the con cept is without any actual contents. From a relativistic dynamic conception of criminality, however, criminality does neither char acterize the person in himself nor the current environment as such, but must be seen as an effect of the interaction between the person and the current environment.

By means of a stochastic model operating with parameters for the individual person, and parameters for the specific current environment, there is an account of how naval criminality may be described from a model of interaction given below.

The investigation introducing individual-centered stochastic models of interaction in criminology also illustrates the problems of comparison which criminology faces, together with the con ception of criminality.