bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Intellectual Virtues and Vices
Authors: Tanesini Alessandra
Published: July 2021

This chapter sets out the philosophical foundations of the proposed account of virtues and vices of intellectual self-appraisal. It explains the nature of intellectual vices in general by distinguishing between sensibilities, thinking styles, and character traits. Subsequently, it describes the specific features of the epistemic vices of self-appraisal. The chapter supplies an account of what makes epistemic vices vicious, and argues in favour of a motivational view. In the author’s view the vices of intellectual self-appraisal are impairments of epistemic agency caused by motivations, such as those of self-enhancement or impression management, that also bring other epistemically bad motives in their trail. Such motivations bias epistemic evaluations of one’s cognitive abilities, processes, and states. These appraisals, in turn, have widespread negative influences on agents’ epistemic conduct as a whole.
Intellectual Humility, Proper Pride, and Proper Concern with Others’ Esteem
Authors: Tanesini Alessandra
Published: July 2021

This chapter provides accounts of four character traits: intellectual modesty and acceptance of intellectual limitations (which together constitute intellectual humility); proper pride in one’s epistemic achievements and proper concern for one’s intellectual reputation. It argues that these are intellectual virtues. The main difference between humility (as comprising of modesty and of acceptance of limitations) on the one hand, and pride and concern for esteem on the other, lies in the nature of social comparisons on which they are based. Humility relies on appraisals of the worth of one’s qualities that might be gauged by comparing oneself to other people and which are driven by a concern for accuracy. The chapter also makes a case that overlapping clusters of attitudes serving knowledge and value expressive functions are the causal bases of these character traits.
Harms and Wrongs
Authors: Tanesini Alessandra
Published: July 2021

The vices of superiority and of inferiority comprise evaluations of one’s own intellectual abilities, competencies, and skills for their intellectual worth that track the effectiveness of these qualities in defending the ego or gaining social acceptance rather than appraising them for their epistemic value. There is, therefore, something inherently self-deceptive about these vices. This chapter discusses some of the ways in which vices of inferiority and superiority obstruct effective and responsible inquiry. These vices are shown to distort self-trust, obstruct self-knowledge, and to cause harms to other agents and to the epistemic community as a whole. It is also argued that these vices are causally responsible for numerous moral wrongs.
Wrongs, Responsibility, Blame, and Oppression
Authors: Tanesini Alessandra
Published: July 2021

This chapter addresses the question of moral and epistemic responsibility for intellectual vices and the beliefs that stem from them. It distinguishes three aspects of responsibility: accountability, answerability, and attributability. It argues that people are accountable but not fully answerable for their intellectual vices that are also attributable to them. Nevertheless, the chapter also cautions against blaming (in the sense of resenting) those who are blameworthy because one might lack the standing required to blame others. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the importance of taking responsibility for oneself and the importance for self-respect of adopting this stance.
Living Longer Better
Authors: Alessi Charles , Chambers Larry W. , Gray Muir
Published: July 2021

Ageing is not a cause of major problems till the later nineties. The problems we fear—dementia, disability, and dependency are due to three other processes: loss of physical fitness, which starts long before old age, diseases, many of which are preventable, and pessimistic attitudes. Both lay people and our professional colleagues have difficulty with the meanings of dementia, Alzheimer’s disease, vascular dementia, and cognitive ageing and use these terms in different ways, often incorrectly. Now is the time to use your assets—preserving and increasing your brain reserve to reduce your risk of dementia. The fitness gap can be closed at any age by increasing both physical and social activity. There is no upper age limit for prevention. The steps we recommend for reducing the risk of dementia will also help you reduce the risk of other diseases, keep you fitter, and help you feel better, and are equally relevant for people who have already developed mild cognitive impairment or dementia.
Keep Your Brain Tissue Healthy
Authors: Alessi Charles , Chambers Larry W. , Gray Muir
Published: July 2021

This chapter starts by advising how to reduce the impact of stress. When stress becomes long term, the immune system becomes less sensitive to cortisol, and since inflammation is partly regulated by this hormone, this decreased sensitivity heightens the inflammatory response and allows inflammation to get out of control, increasing our risk of many diseases. You can reduce your stress yourself through a variety of methods, including physical activity and mindfulness-based stress reduction. Adequate sleep is also a major factor that can improve cognitive abilities and reduce the risk of dementia, and this chapter outlines what we need to know about sleep cycles, insomnia, and sleep disordered breathing, and how to sleep more and sleep better. The chapter then covers how to protect your brain from over medication (polypharmacy). It finishes by discussing how to maintain and indeed increase your levels of physical activity, and how increasing physical activity has both direct and indirect effects on the brain.
Reading Science Articles
Authors: Nolan Deborah , Stoudt Sara
Published: July 2021

This chapter covers how to read about data in a variety of journals and magazines and learn from how another author organizes and writes about their findings. This chapter also demonstrates how a reader can identify the main components of a data analysis and examine how an author brings these components together to form a logical and compelling argument. Examples include templates for use in organizing and writing about findings.
Reading Materials Written for Broader Publics
Authors: Nolan Deborah , Stoudt Sara
Published: July 2021

This chapter covers how to read about data with a focus on narrative as an important first step to writing for other publics. Examples include press releases and blog posts as outlets for researchers to write for broader audiences. This chapter also provides tips for identifying elements (e.g., the five Ws) and mapping the organization (e.g., the inverted pyramid) of press releases and identifying the motivation of, and argument strategies used in, blog posts.
Communicating Through Statistical Graphs
Authors: Nolan Deborah , Stoudt Sara
Published: July 2021

This chapter addresses how to create statistical graphs that are effective in communicating findings. This includes how to select an appropriate type of plot to reveal underlying structure in the data, facilitate important comparisons, and create a context for interpreting the distributions and relationships observed. The chapter also covers how to read common univariate and bivariate plots, pay attention to the details in making and interpreting plots, and create plots that help make a convincing argument.
Playing the Market
Authors: Heinemann Kieran
Published: July 2021

At the dawn of World War I (WWI), the British stock market was the preserve of a wealthy elite, and most people in finance and politics agreed that it should stay this way. By the end of the century, Britain had more individual shareholders than trade union members. This book explores the financial, political, and cultural forces that brought about this dramatic change in British society. By capturing the voices and experiences of everyday investors, this study brings to life the history of Britain’s vibrant stock market culture: from the mass investment in war bonds during WWI, through the expansion of the financial press in the post-war decades, to the ‘popular capitalism’ of Margaret Thatcher’s Conservative Party during the 1980s. Throughout the century, the stock market came to play an ever larger role in people’s lives through pension funds and life insurances. But as financial securities lost their age-old stigma of being either immoral or suitable only for the upper classes, the markets also became a popular pastime for millions of Britons who were seeking higher than average returns and a similar thrill of risk and reward to that of gambling on horses or the football pools. Playing the Market forcefully reminds us that gambling is not—as many financial professionals would have us believe—a parasitical element to the otherwise rational and prudent sphere of modern finance. Instead, it is one of its constituent features and explains why until this day, the stock market is either criticized or celebrated as a casino.
Introduction
Authors: Heinemann Kieran
Published: July 2021

The book gains new insights into the history of Britain’s stock market by foregrounding the power of popular knowledge and specific market practices from a ‘bottom-up’ perspective. Alongside high-level financiers, the voices of the small-scale participants of the market will be heard, an approach that yields a subtle narrative of cultural change and adaptation. Throughout the century, a popular knowledge of the stock market was promoted by the financial press and by numerous investment guides that sold millions of copies. This exposure to the market in everyday life has been overlooked by other accounts preoccupied with intellectuals and economists, Westminster politics, and the engine rooms of high finance. Contextualizing specific financial practices of retail investors offers a better understanding of how the stock market captured the public imagination. In doing so, Playing the Market takes issue with the way the investing public has been conceptualized in the existing literature: all too often the actual investors are either absent from the narrative or are implied to be a homogenous group of rational actors who consciously adjust to changing economic parameters. However, if we listen to their voices and stories, the diversity of attitudes towards investment and speculation comes to the fore as well as the inherent difficulty of distinguishing between the two categories. What some investors considered a perfectly legitimate way of making money, others may have viewed as immoral profiteering. The ensuing moral debates over the social value of buying and selling financial securities mattered profoundly for the legitimacy and popularity of capitalism.
Bucket Shops and Outside Brokers
Authors: Heinemann Kieran
Published: July 2021

In order to finance World War I, the British government sold war bonds to millions of investors and savers, thereby prompting a wider interest in financial securities including stocks and shares during the interwar period. Faced with a large intake of investment newcomers, the City of London was anxious of ‘amateur’ involvement in the market. The largest securities market, the London Stock Exchange, restricted access to small investors where possible, which pushed much of the new retail activity to the market fringes. Here, ‘outside brokers’ and ‘bucket shops’ catered for investment newcomers, the more gullible of which fell prey to fraudulent share pushers. Scholars have entirely overlooked this vibrant grey market for financial securities. But it was here—and not just at the organized exchanges—that ever more people made their first experiences with the ups and the downs of the stock market, most prominently in the great crash of 1929. This new perspective brings a sharper contour on some fundamental challenges that Britain’s financial landscape was facing in the interwar period: a large intake of new investors, a resurgence of financial fraud, and a new struggle over the distinction between speculation and gambling. The City’s response to these challenges can be described as financial paternalism. After a surge in political democratization, there was very little appetite to enfranchise ordinary people in the stock market. Instead, institutions like the Stock Exchange deliberately took a conservative stance on the ‘democratisation of investment’.
Introduction-Reconstructing Scientific Pasts
Authors: Perillán José G.
Published: July 2021

The universe is made of stories, not of atoms.1

—MURIEL RUKEYSER

Graduate work in both physics and history taught me to use highly specialized research methods to rigorously search out truth and eradicate myths. In spring 2012, I brought this mindset with me as I sat down for lunch with physicist Pierre Hohenberg at the Apple Restaurant near Manhattan’s Washington Square Park. Pierre was a brilliant physicist and a family friend. Toward the end of his life, he was particularly invested in work on the foundations of quantum theory....
Myth-Historical Tensions
Authors: Perillán José G.
Published: July 2021

Chapter 1 examines the origins of “myth-history” as a narrative category and the purposes for which it is employed. The term myth-history has been used by some physicists to self-consciously distinguish the informal stories they tell from scholarly histories. These scientist-storytellers are not admitting wrongdoing. They are aware of the deficiencies in rigor underlying their myth-histories, yet they reserve the right to filter out historical details for science’s greater good. This chapter sets the context for the rest of the book by establishing scientists’ diverse intents and justifications for writing myth-histories. The discussion is careful not to depict the relationship between myth and history as a polarized conflict. Instead, a more reflective discourse is sought, a common ground to appreciate the power of myth-histories as a distinct mode of storytelling. This framing challenges scientist-storytellers and historians to think critically about the effects of the stories they tell.
Demarcating Seismic Uncertainties
Authors: Perillán José G.
Published: July 2021

In the early morning hours of April 6, 2009, a devastating earthquake struck the city of L’Aquila, Italy, killing hundreds of people. Many of L’Aquila’s residents were not prepared for the earthquake and felt betrayed by scientific experts who were tasked with public safety. Three years later, in a shocking outcome, a group of seven scientists and public officials were convicted of manslaughter and sentenced to six years in prison. Although the L’Aquila Seven’s convictions were eventually reversed, this controversy illustrates the unintended consequences of scientists and public officials engaging in myth-historical boundary work but ignoring their duty to accurately communicate scientific ideas. The chapter grapples with the tension inherent in the juxtaposition of a scientific ideal and concrete scientific practice as it relates to notions of consensus and the communication of scientific uncertainty.
Utilities Reform in Twenty-First Century Australia
Authors: Abbott Malcolm , Cohen Bruce
Published: July 2021

The book traces the development and consequences of the economic reform measures undertaken in the utilities sector in Australia (communications, energy, water/wastewater services, and transport) in the last years of the 20th century and the early decades of the 21st century. In doing so, it looks at the process of reform across industries, and across the state and federal jurisdictions, to identify what motivations the various governments had for pursuing reform, how change varied across jurisdictions, and what issues arose in the process. Although by the mid-1990s all states and territories and the Australian Government were committed to reforming utilities as part of the National Competition Policy, not all pursued this reform with the same degree of speed and breadth of action. The broad trends of economic reform in Australia, and abroad, are also touched upon, to provide an outline of the wider context in which the reform of the utilities occurred. This book, therefore, explores the relationship between politics and society on the one hand and economic reform on the other; as well as on the efforts of governments in Australia to promote economic growth and the wealth of Australians in an increasingly complex and challenging global economic climate.
The historical development of Australia’s public utilities
Authors: Abbott Malcolm , Cohen Bruce
Published: July 2021

This chapter sets out the historical background to the utilities sector in Australia up until the 1980s. In doing so it provides an account of the predominant, government-owned model of utilities ownership that existed in Australia at that time. Australia’s utilities were created as government-owned enterprises in the 19th century (post, water, and rail) or in the early years of the 20th century (electricity, telecommunications, and airports). Material in this chapter traces these origins up until the immediate pre-reform years of the 1980s, and examines some of the weaknesses in the government-owned models that had arisen by this time.
Dealing with natural monopolies
Authors: Abbott Malcolm , Cohen Bruce
Published: July 2021

This chapter looks at the nature of utility regulation as it has been conducted in Australia since the 1990s and the manner of the issues that have arisen in its conduct. It looks at the nature of the natural monopoly elements that exist in the utilities sector and the changing perceptions on where these elements lie. Over time the perception has arisen that only parts of the utilities have natural monopoly characteristics, and it is only these that need to be the subject of economic regulation. The role of the regulators and the various approaches to regulation are also examined (including the light-handed approach, rate of return, CPI-X, and efficient cost of service).
Moving the nation forward
Authors: Abbott Malcolm , Cohen Bruce
Published: July 2021

This last industry-specific chapter places its focus on the transport sector. This means looking at a variety of industries – rail, airports, and seaports – in turn. Each of these has industry-specific characteristics that make reform of them distinctly different to each other. These unique characteristics are examined and explained in this chapter. In the case of rail, for instance, the vertical integration and separation possibilities are considered, together with their impact on efficiency. In the case of airports and seaports, the issues surrounding vertical integration and separation are less important, and the focus is weighted more heavily to matters associated with privatization.
Identification Practices in Twentieth-Century Fiction
Authors: Ferguson Rex
Published: July 2021

The task of identifying the individual has given rise to a number of technical innovations, including fingerprint analysis and DNA profiling. A range of methods has also been created for storing and classifying people’s identities, such as identity cards and digital records. Identification Practices and Twentieth-Century Fiction tests the hypothesis that these techniques and methods, as practised in the UK and US in the long twentieth century, are inherently related to the literary representation of self-identity from the same period. Until now, the question of ‘who one is’ in the sense of formal identification has remained detached from the question of ‘who one is’ in terms of the representation of unique individuality. Placing these two questions in dialogue allows for a re-evaluation of the various ways in which uniqueness has been constructed during the period and for a reassessment of the historical and literary historical context of such construction. In chapters ranging across the development of fingerprinting, the institution of identity cards during the Second World War, DNA profiling and contemporary digital surveillance, and an analysis of writing by authors including Joseph Conrad, Graham Greene, Elizabeth Bowen, J. G. Ballard, Don DeLillo, and Jennifer Egan, Identification Practices and Twentieth-Century Fiction makes an original contribution to Literary Studies, History, and Cultural Studies.
Impressions
Authors: Ferguson Rex
Published: July 2021

In 1901, fingerprinting was first implemented by Scotland Yard for the purposes of criminal identification, usurping Alphonse Bertillon’s anthropometric system of body measurements in the process. Recording identity in the imprint left by a body’s digits allowed for the identification of individuals on a mass scale, ‘fixing’ their identity with apparently incontrovertible certainty. But in this chapter it will be argued that the fingerprint also served as an example of a much more enigmatic and ‘impressionistic’ identity. Gathering together the most noticeable and telling features of how fingerprints were first thought of as a means of identification, lines of comparison are then drawn with two other discourses which have a similarly impressionistic basis: firstly the early writing of Sigmund Freud and, secondly, the Literary Impressionism of Joseph Conrad. Focusing especially closely on Conrad’s Lord Jim (1900) the chapter argues that while the eponymous ‘Jim’ remains obscure even by the novel’s conclusion, the identity of the narrator, Marlow, is made apparent throughout the narration: Marlow essentially smears his prints all over the text. In lifting prints, analysing traces, and reading impressions fingerprinting, psychoanalysis and Literary Impressionism read identity in the signs made during its contact with the external world—signs which had to subsequently be enhanced, analysed and represented by authoritative experts who could make such identity visible.
Conclusion
Authors: Ferguson Rex
Published: July 2021

Patricia Highsmith’s anti-hero Tom Ripley, who first appears in her 1955 novel The Talented Mr Ripley, is made the focal point of this concluding chapter. Among Ripley’s more obvious talents is his ability to impersonate others, this being pursued to an extreme degree as he murders, and then takes on the identity of, his friend Dickie Greenleaf. Analysing Ripley’s imposture of Dickie through the lens of performativity theory (Austin and Derrida), this chapter demonstrates why this is an apt way of reflecting upon the previous chapters of the book for three reasons. Firstly, rather than focusing solely upon identifications as constative utterances which verify a pre-existing identity, this book has interpreted them as modes which perform identities in specific ways. Secondly, these performances are deeply connected to the precise form of an identification technique but are also determined by the contexts in which techniques arise and individual identifications take place. Thirdly, the book concludes by emphasising how it is the performativity of narrative prose which is at the heart of the connections traced in the preceding pages. Literature performs identities that reflect but also project and imagine what identity is and could be: subjectivity is not represented in literature, it is constituted by its forms. In this sense, the importance of literature to this project is the fact that it is only in its realm that the truly performative nature of identificatory methods can be seen.
The Inadvertent Conception and Late Birth of the Free-Will Problem
Authors: Bobzien Susanne
Published: July 2021

This chapter presents evidence that the ‘discovery’ of the problem of causal determinism and freedom of decision in Greek philosophy is the result of a combination and mix-up of Aristotelian and Stoic thought in later antiquity; more precisely, a (mis-)interpretation of Aristotle’s philosophy of deliberate choice and action in the light of the Stoic theory of determinism and moral responsibility. The (con-)fusion originates with the beginnings of Aristotle scholarship, at the latest in the early second century CE. It undergoes several developments, absorbing Epictetan, Middle Platonist, and Peripatetic ideas; and it leads eventually to a concept of freedom of decision and an exposition of the ‘free-will problem’ in Alexander of Aphrodisias’ On Fate and in the Mantissa ascribed to him. The notion of a will originates only with early Christians and in later ancient Platonist thought.
Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics 1113b7–8 and Free Choice
Authors: Bobzien Susanne
Published: July 2021

This chapter examines with close textual analysis the philosophical question whether the two famous Aristotelian lines from the Nicomachean Ethics (EN 3.5 1113b7–8) on what is up to us (eph’shēmin) provide any evidence that Aristotle discussed free choice or freedom of the will—as is not infrequently assumed. The result is that they do not, and that the claim that they do tends to be based on a curious mistranslation of the Greek. Thus the sentence that is sometimes adduced as the main piece of evidence for the claim that Aristotle was an indeterminist with respect to choosing (prohairesis) and acting (praxeis, prattein) is no evidence for this claim at all. This chapter is a companion piece to the next one (‘Found in Translation’).
Moral Responsibility and Moral Development in Epicurus’ Philosophy
Authors: Bobzien Susanne
Published: July 2021

This chapter shows that Epicurus had a notion of moral responsibility based on the agents’ causal responsibility—as opposed to their ability to act or choose otherwise. Thus, the central question for responsibility was whether the agent was the cause of the action, or was forced to act by something else. Actions could be attributed to agents because it is in their actions that their character manifests itself. As a result, moral development becomes all-important. Thus the chapter discusses evidence for Epicurus’ views on how humans become moral beings and on how they morally improve. Epicurus envisaged a complex web of hereditary and environmental factors as shaping the moral aspects of humans. It results that Epicurean ethics does not have the function of developing or justifying a moral system that allows for the effective allocation of blame. Rather, its function is to give everyone a chance to morally improve.
Stoic Conceptions of Freedom and Their Relation to Ethics
Authors: Bobzien Susanne
Published: July 2021

This chapter introduces the various ancient Stoic theories of freedom. It investigates how, from the early Stoics via Epictetus to the Stoics of the late second century, freedom and responsibility are connected with ethics. In this context, the most important conceptual distinction is between what depends on us (eph’hēmin) and freedom (eleutheria). In Stoic philosophy the eph’hēmin is always associated with human action and intention and is located within Stoic psychology. For every human being, there are things that depend on them. Freedom, by contrast, is a notion contrasted with slavery, originating in political theory, and from there it enters Stoic ethics. For the Stoics, freedom is a character disposition—a virtue—and can be manifested only in sages. The confusion of these two quite distinct concepts and their roles in Stoic philosophy has wreaked much havoc in twentieth-century scholarship (which the essay untangles and invalidates in the process).
Hiroshima/Vietnam/Tule Lake
Authors: Yu Timothy
Published: July 2021

The origin of Asian American political identity was not in cultural nationalism but in diasporic consciousness, most notably in the concept of solidarity with Third World peoples struggling against imperialism around the globe. The poetry of Janice Mirikitani juxtaposes locations from Vietnam to Zimbabwe to the Tule Lake internment camp, making transnational political solidarity prior to, not dependent upon, racial identification. In contrast, the anthology Aiiieeeee!, often cited as the origin of Asian American literary politics, emphasizes the integrity of the individual writer over communal identification. Restoring Mirikitani’s place in the history of Asian American literature also restores a coalitional, transnational vision of Asian American politics that lays the groundwork for a contemporary poetics of the Asian diaspora.
The Multicultural Cringe
Authors: Yu Timothy
Published: July 2021

The category of the “Asian Australian” has emerged only in recent years, as the exclusionary “White Australia” policy gave way in the late-twentieth century to substantial waves of Asian immigration. Journals and anthologies from the mid-2000s onward have employed the idea of “Asian” identification with an eye on North American examples and shared history, but also with a discomfort with US-style “identity politics.” Ouyang Yu, among the first and best-known Asian Australian poets, is harshly critical of Australian multiculturalism, seeing it as a means of continuing to exclude non-white writers from Australian writing; remaining suspicious of any notion of belonging, his work instead presents itself as a kind of “invasion literature” that seeks to disrupt the English language.
The Function of Equity in International Law
Authors: Titi Catharine
Published: July 2021

A principle with a long pedigree, equity has been present in legal thought and in municipal legal systems since antiquity. Introduced in international legal decisions through claims commissions and arbitral tribunals, equity became progressively part and parcel of the international law mainstream. This book provides a systematic and comprehensive study of the legal concept of equity as it operates in contemporary international law, setting it on a new basis and dealing with some common misconceptions about it. In contrast with earlier studies on the topic, the book is informed by a body of judicial and arbitral case law that has never been so large and varied and it draws extensively on the prolific case law of investment tribunals, gaining insights from a valuable source that is typically ignored in public international law scholarship. From international cultural heritage law to the law on climate change, from maritime boundary delimitations to decisions on security for costs in investment arbitration, the relevance of equity is more far-reaching than has previously been conceded. As the importance of international law increases, continuously covering new domains, the value of equity increases with it. It is this new function of equity in the international law of the 21st century that this book explores.
Jurisdiction ex aequo et bono
Authors: Titi Catharine
Published: July 2021

If court statutes and arbitration rules often provide for ex aequo et bono adjudication, international adjudicatory bodies rarely use it. Less successful than its predecessor, absolute equity, ex aequo et bono adjudication is limited in contemporary times to less than a handful of investment arbitration cases. The chapter considers ex aequo et bono in light of the jurisprudence of international courts and tribunals, it explores the types of dispute for which an ex aequo et bono mandate is suitable and its compatibility with the judicial function. The chapter argues that ex aequo et bono powers must not be conflated with equity that international courts and tribunals can apply anyway, that ex aequo et bono adjudication is legal adjudication, and it shows that on the rare occasions when tribunals have been granted ex aequo et bono powers, they have tended to interpret them narrowly.
Introduction
Authors: Schroeder Mark
Published: July 2021

Chapter 1 introduces the project and central questions of Reasons First. After motivating and placing into context the idea of reasons first, which says that reasons play a fundamental and explanatory role in ethics, it contrasts ethics and epistemology as normative disciplines and formulates the book’s Core Hypothesis that epistemology has been disadvantaged by insufficiently appreciating the deep parallels with ethics. The relationship between reasons and evidence is explored and the hypothesis of Evidence as Reasons is supported in contrast to Stephen Kearns and Daniel Star’s thesis of Reasons as Evidence, offering the first central line of argument in the book that reasons play a fundamental explanatory role in epistemology. And finally, two important obstacles to the thesis that reasons come first among normative concepts in epistemology, the problem of unjustified belief and the problem of sufficiency, are introduced and the structure of the remainder of the book is foreshadowed.
Basic Perceptual Reasons
Authors: Schroeder Mark
Published: July 2021

Chapter 3 takes up the first obstacle to the idea that reasons come first among normative concepts in epistemology: the problem of unjustified belief. It does so by introducing the issues that arise in the epistemology of perception when we ask what reason or evidence you acquire for ordinary conclusions about the external world in virtue of having perceptual experiences. The resulting space of possible answers is explored, including the natural ways in which it leads to skepticism, rationalism, coherentism, dogmatism, pure externalism, and disjunctivism. These views are contrasted with answers that allow reasons to be false, and by doing so avoid all of the distinctive commitments of each of these alternatives.
Subjective Reasons and Truth
Authors: Schroeder Mark
Published: July 2021

Chapter 4 takes up the question of why epistemologists have been reluctant to endorse answers to what evidence supports basic perceptual beliefs that allow such evidence to be false, and argues that the best philosophical motivation for this commitment is closely related to the problem of unjustified belief. The idea that subjective reasons are just a special case of objective reasons is resisted, as are arguments drawing on felicity data about reports of subjective or motivating reasons. An alternative argument drawing on the idea that perceptual experiences can in themselves be instances of knowledge is addressed, and Williamson’s claim that knowledge is the most general factive stative attitude is refuted. Finally, a simple model for thinking about how subjective reasons could factor into the competition over what it is rational to believe without building in a prior truth or rationality constraint is introduced, drawing on work by John Horty.
The Apparent Factive Attitude View
Authors: Schroeder Mark
Published: July 2021

Chapter 5 takes up the question of which way of developing a non-factive answer to what evidence perceptual experiences provide about the external world is most promising. Two forms of the apparent defeasibility of knowledge are introduced: objective defeat and subjective defeat. Each view’s resources for accounting for both objective and subjective defeat are compared, and it is argued that the non-factive content view fails to account for both objective and subjective defeat. In contrast, the apparent factive attitude view, because of its closer relationship to disjunctivist alternatives, is argued to offer clean treatments of both objective and subjective defeat—even better than the disjunctivist alternatives from which it borrows. The distinctive commitments of the apparent factive attitude view are defended, its distinctive treatment of the bootstrapping problem for dogmatism is introduced, and the resulting view is contrasted with Matthew McGrath’s objective looks theory.
Acting and Believing Well
Authors: Schroeder Mark
Published: July 2021

Chapter 10 introduces and elaborates on the deliberative role for reasons, and lays out the Fundamental Argument for Reasons First. It is shown that the fact that reasons can be acted on played very little role in any of the main arguments in Chapters 3 through 9, and argued that this means that it is possible to apply yet more leverage in order to show that reasons have analytic and explanatory priority. It is argued that deontic properties such as being the right thing to do, permissible, rational, obligatory, advisable, and the like each come with the corresponding well property of not only doing the right thing, but doing it well. The fact that reasons can be acted on is especially important, it is argued, when it comes to understanding the relationship between right properties and their corresponding well properties. The Fundamental Argument for Reasons First seeks to show that we must appeal to reasons in our analysis and explanation of right properties in order for them to result in corresponding well properties in a way that is non-recursive.
The Kantian Account of Knowledge
Authors: Schroeder Mark
Published: July 2021

Chapter 11 elaborates on and defends the account of knowledge—the Kantian Account—that follows from a right reasons account of the nature of well properties. Knowledge, it is argued, is a special case of a well property—one which requires believing well along both objective and subjective dimensions. This, it is argued, makes knowledge involve a kind of match between internal and external components that explains why it is prime and why it has distinctive explanatory power, as argued by Williamson. It explains why defeaters for knowledge come in objective and subjective pairs—even according to pragmatic encroachers. It explains where earlier generations of defeasibility accounts of knowledge went wrong, by adopting subjunctive rather than categorical accounts of the sufficiency of reasons, and by insufficiently appreciating the generality of the relationship between reasons and their weight. And it explains how to avoid Linda Zagzebski’s diagnosis of the inevitability of Gettier cases.
Safeguarding Individuals in the Data-driven Economy—EU Data Protection Framework in a Nutshell
Authors: Vrabec Helena U.
Published: July 2021

Chapter 2 shows that EU law protects individuals and their data through several provisions of primary and secondary law, which, in many aspects, complement each other. EU primary law refers to the body of treaties which represent the agreement of the EU Member States and form the foundation of the EU. EU secondary law is a specific manifestation of more general fundamental principles of EU law. It comprises unilateral acts such as regulations and directives that enable the EU to exercise its powers. Recognising that the body of law that adds to individual protection in the big-data age has been evolving, the chapter provides an analysis of the most relevant parts of the primary and secondary legislation.
Control as a Central Notion in the Discussion on Data Subject Rights
Authors: Vrabec Helena U.
Published: July 2021

Chapter 3 establishes a bridge between (a) the general overview of the data-driven economy and the pertaining legal framework, and (b) the specific analysis of data subject control rights. Individual control represents a central notion in philosophical discussions related to people’s autonomy and freedom. In a similar manner, individual control over data plays an important role in the provisions of primary and secondary EU (data protection) law, and has two facets: the normative, meaning that control links back to the values that underpin the entire legal field; and the instrumental, which materialises through the provisions on data subject rights. Despite being a central notion in data protection law, individual control faces many challenges which are rooted in the specific characteristics of the data-driven economy.
Conclusions: Striving for Data Subject Control within and beyond Data Subject Rights
Authors: Vrabec Helena U.
Published: July 2021

Chapter 9 is a concluding section of the book. It takes a look at the rights from the perspective of effectiveness and analyses them in a more structured manner by utilising a framework of data protection principles from Article 5 of the GDPR. The analysis shows that data subjects’ control rights are sometimes ineffective. However, this part of data protection law must be, nonetheless, maintained, because it not only serves the objective of control but has other objectives too. To mitigate the ineffectiveness, some alterative measures are considered, for example technological solutions and legal mechanisms outside of data protection law. The chapter refers to these alternatives as ‘a holistic approach to control’.
Resultant Luck and the Fairness Intuition
Authors: Lang Gerald
Published: July 2021

This chapter examines the ‘Fairness Intuition’, which is the other fundamental constituent in the Anti-Luck Account. The Fairness Intuition holds that it is unfair, not just irrelevant, to hold one agent to be more blameworthy than another if the differences in the outcome of their acts reflect only luck. The Fairness Intuition prescribes ‘Equal Worlds’ for the allocation of blameworthiness, rather than ‘Lucky Worlds’. That does not mean that an agent who would have been more blameworthy than another agent in a Lucky World will be less blameworthy in an Equal World. It all depends. Luck cannot be evaded even in Equal Worlds, which contain ‘fate-sharing luck’. So it is far from clear that, even in terms of fairness, Equal Worlds are preferable to Lucky Worlds. The ‘Moral Cost Argument’ locates an explanation for why one agent may be more blameworthy than another, though the differences between them may reflect only luck: this agent is consequentially liable to be blamed for the foreseeable results of what she does. That liability is present in ‘Bad Cases’, which call for blameworthiness, but it is missing in ‘Good Cases’, which call for praiseworthiness. Thus an asymmetrical attitude to Good Cases and Bad Cases is favoured.
Gauguin’s Lucky Escape
Authors: Lang Gerald
Published: July 2021

This chapter tackles Bernard Williams’s argument in his ‘Moral Luck’. Despite some relatively superficial similarities between him and Nagel, Williams’s critical targets differ from Nagel and those who have continued to worry about resultant luck, because Williams is mainly concerned about an agent’s prospects for escaping a Kantian version of morality that he described as the ‘morality system’ by undertaking projects whose success depends on luck. It is suggested that it is difficult to find an interpretation of Williams’s position that does full justice to his various desiderata. Seven interpretations are considered, and the most promising of them makes an agent a beneficiary of moral luck if her acts succeed in transforming her perspective in such a way that she is immune to a certain form of regret for the consequences of what she has done. It is contended that this interpretation does not provide a convincing assault on the morality system, as Williams does not have enough to say about the differences between agents who have genuinely escaped the authority of ordinary morality and agents who have simply decided to ignore morality. Williams’s arguments can be interpreted as providing a model of responsibility which rivals the Restricted Account, but it is argued here that the Restricted Account provides the better way forward.
What is Arbitrary about Moral Arbitrariness?
Authors: Lang Gerald
Published: July 2021

John Rawls’s ‘justice as fairness’ is often cited as a central source of inspiration for luck egalitarianism, which is, correlatively, often characterized as a more refined version of justice as fairness. Rawls’s distributive hostility to morally arbitrary endowments is standardly interpreted as betraying hostility to distributions that are skewed by brute luck. This chapter argues otherwise. It has two main aims. First, it replaces the standard ‘Neutralization Interpretation’ of Rawls’s main arguments with the ‘Irrelevance Interpretation’. According to the Irrelevance Interpretation, morally arbitrary person endowments ought to play no role in the selection of principles of justice in the original position. According to the Neutralization Interpretation, by contrast, principles of justice ought to expunge the influence of any inequalities that are due to luck. The Irrelevance Interpretation is more permissive of inequalities, just as long as they serve some other purpose, such as improving the position of the worst-off. The Irrelevance Interpretation is also more congenial to Rawls’s investment in the contractarian machinery of the original position and the veil of ignorance.
Justice and Arbitrary Boundaries
Authors: Lang Gerald
Published: July 2021

This chapter deals with three problems of discrimination, arising from our membership of certain communities. The first of these concerns the debate between cosmopolitans and non-cosmopolitans about international justice. It is just a lucky accident that we were born where we were, but these arbitrary facts can make a huge difference to life chances. Rawlsian non-cosmopolitans thus risk a charge of incoherence if they combine an acceptance of these sources of arbitrariness with a commitment to anti-arbitrariness principles of justice. The Irrelevance Interpretation of Rawls’s justice as fairness advanced in Chapter 7 is used to defuse this charge of incoherence. The second problem concerns the ‘basic equality’ project of establishing robust foundations for human moral equality by locating a morally significant property that every human possesses, and possesses equally. It is contended that the basic equality project is wrongheaded, and that we need not worry about descriptive inequalities among human beings. The third problem concerns interspecies relations and the charge of ‘speciesism’. It is maintained that much anti-speciesist literature rests upon the doctrine of ‘moral individualism’, and that this doctrine is severely flawed. To come to a satisfactory view of what we owe to each other, we need to pay attention to both the properties individuals possess, and also the properties they lack. To do that, in turn, requires that these individuals be situated in certain communities, including species-specific communities.
Continuities through Change, 1641–85
Authors: Ó hAnnracháin Tadhg
Published: July 2021

Chapter 2 analyzes the reorganization of Irish Catholicism after the massive disruption of the Cromwellian conquest and settlement. It argues that the leadership chosen to spearhead this movement continued to reflect an emphasis on continental formation and commitment to a post-Tridentine understanding of religious reform. While the Cromwellian period clearly represented a significant caesura in the effective functioning of the Catholic church in Ireland, it did not alter the basis outline of Catholic organization.
Introduction
Authors: Cao Gang , DeLong Lance E.
Published: July 2021

The fundamental and technological importance of transition metal oxides, and the relationship of the present work to previous monographs dealing with transition metal oxides are reviewed. The relatively abundant 3d-transition metal oxides are contrasted with the rarer 4d- and 5d-transition metal oxides that exhibit a unique interplay between spin-orbit, exchange, crystalline electric field and Coulomb correlations. The combined effect of these fundamental interactions yields peculiar quantum states and empirical trends that markedly differ from those of their 3d counterparts. General trends in the electronic structure are related to generalized phase diagrams of the magnetic and insulating ground states. The intriguing absence of experimental evidence for predicted topological states and superconductivity in these materials are discussed.
Mendelian Executive
Authors: Levinthal Daniel A.
Published: July 2021

A “Mendelian” executive is proposed as an image of strategy-making that lies intermediate between the grand strategist suggested by rational choice approaches and a Darwinian process of random variation and market-based differential selection. The Mendelian executive is capable of intentional design efforts in order to explore possible adjacent strategic spaces. Furthermore, the argument developed here highlights the role of intentionality with respect to selection processes within the organization, and the culling and amplification of strategic initiatives. The firm is viewed as operating an “artificial selection” environment in contrast to selection as the direct consequence of the outcome of competitive processes. Examining the nature of the processes generating these experimental variants and the bases of internal selection, and how these selection criteria may themselves change, is argued to be central to the formation of strategy in dynamic environments.