bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A Program to Promote Moral Development through Elementary School Physical Education
Authors: Romance Thomas J. , Weiss Maureen R. , Bockoven Jerry
Published: August 2016

This study examined the effectiveness of a specially designed physical education program on the moral development of elementary-age students. Two fifth-grade physical education classes (N = 32) served as control and experimental groups, and participated in identical physical activities during an 8-week program. The experimental group was exposed to special teaching strategies designed to foster moral growth whereas the control group was not. Moral reasoning data were gathered using pre- and posttest interviews. A test of homogeneity of variances on pretest scores revealed that the two intact classes were equivalent on the pretest moral measures. Consequently, a t test was appropriately employed to compare gain scores between the experimental and control groups. T test analyses on the moral reasoning gain scores showed significant differences between the groups in moral growth, with the experimental group showing greater improvement in sport, life, and overall moral reasoning. T tests conducted on within-group changes showed significant pre- to posttest improvement for the experimental group in sport and overall moral reasoning. Concomitant growth did not occur in the control group. These results indicate that a specific program designed to promote moral development through physical education can affect changes in levels of moral growth.
Description of Physical Education Instructional Theory/Practice Gap in Selected Secondary Schools
Authors: Kneer Marian E.
Published: August 2016

The theory/practice gap in physical education instructional practices has been more or less assumed. Recent research employing data-based analysis has provided some insight about instructional procedures being used. There is little evidence about the existence, size, and reasons contributing to the perceived gap. Instructors N = (128) from 20 randomly selected Illinois secondary schools were interviewed via questionnaire to obtain evidence relative to the perceived gap in the use of instructional “theory.” Results indicate that an overall gap exists in the regular use of planning (40%), teaching approaches (64%), practice (31%), evaluation (40%), and teaching/learning environment procedures (18%). The reason most often given for not using recommended planning, practice, and evaluation procedures was an expressed belief that “it was not necessary” (42%). Recommended instructional practices were used significantly more often by teachers from large schools and by teachers with more inservice education. The amount of instructor teaching experience is significantly related to the use of selected instructional theory.
Outcomes of Selected Physical Education Activity Courses as Perceived by University Students
Authors: Boyce B. Ann , Lehr Carolyn , Baumgartner Ted
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to assess student perceptions on outcomes received from participation in specific physical education classes, and to compare these perceptions with those generated by a committee of experts. Five outcome statements were developed for each of three outcome areas (fitness, skill-performance, and artistic-creative). A questionnaire containing the 15 outcome statements was distributed to students enrolled in 27 activity courses (N = 660), which in turn were categorized into one of the three outcome areas. Using a 1-to-5 Likert scale, students responded to each statement with regard to perceived benefits from participation in their specific course. An overall grand mean was computed to determine if students perceived benefits from participating in those courses. Chi-square tests were calculated to determine if students and experts agreed on course placement in outcome areas. Results indicated that students perceived participation in physical education activities as being beneficial in accomplishing the 15 stated outcomes. There was agreement between students’ and experts’ perceptions regarding the designated outcome area for eight of the 15 outcome statements and disagreements for one statement. Overlapping between two or more outcome areas occurred with three statements, and three statements were generic to participation in physical education activities.
Teacher Perceptions about Effective and Successful Teaching
Authors: Arrighi Margarite A. , Young Judith C.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this investigation was to examine the perceptions of preservice and inservice teachers about successful and effective teaching. Two samples of preservice and inservice teachers responded to open-ended questions concerning their perceptions of teaching effectiveness and their own success. The first sample included 224 beginning physical education majors, student teachers, and inservice physical educators who identified 2,003 effective teaching components which were categorized into 20 different instructional factors by the research team. The second sample included 379 inservice and preservice teachers who were asked about their perceptions of successful teaching. Responses were then categorized by source of success: students, self, others’ reactions, or administrative. Results indicated differences in preservice and inservice teachers’ perceptions, suggesting a pattern of socialization into the teacher role. Teacher perceptions of effective and successful teaching reflected concern for student responses. Effectiveness categories identified included teaching strategy, management and organization, content, and personal characteristics. Perception of successful teaching indicated greater concern for self among preservice than inservice teachers.
Short- and Long-Term Effects of Supervisory Feedback on the Interaction Patterns of an Intercollegiate Field Hockey Coach
Authors: Mancini Victor H. , Clark Elizabeth K. , Wuest Deborah A.
Published: August 2016

Both the short- and long-term effects of systematic supervisory feedback (SSF) using CAFIAS on the behaviors of a field hockey coach and her team were examined. The investigation was divided into four phases. During Phase I the coach was videotaped five times to provide baseline data. In Phase II the coach was videotaped nine times and was provided with SSF. At the conclusion of the intervention, five practices were videotaped for Phase III. One year later, in Phase IV, the coach was again videotaped for five practices. Descriptive statistics were calculated and comparisons were made between the behaviors exhibited in Phases I and III as well as Phases III and IV. Praise and information increased, and directions and criticism decreased from Phases I and III. These changes were evident 1 year later. This investigation demonstrates that even the behaviors of an experienced coach can be altered using SSF and that these changes can be sustained over time.
Research Note: Effects Levels in Pedagogical Research
Authors: Graham Kathy
Published: August 2016

This research note is intended to stimulate discussion about a methodological issue that needs to be addressed in studies designed to increase understanding of teaching-learning processes in our field. This issue is the level at which data are analyzed and reported in pedagogical research.
The Orthodoxy in RT-PE and the Research/Practice Gap: A Critique and an Alternative View
Authors: Kirk David
Published: August 2016

In this paper I argue that there is currently an orthodoxy in RT-PE that is unable, through its present epistemologies and methods, to make a major impact on curriculum practice. Three particular issues are highlighted as problematic: strategies for change adopted within the orthodoxy, who has the power to define and legitimate the research agenda, and an apolitical view of change. In presenting an alternative view of how we might close the research/practice gap in RT-PE, I suggest that researchers must develop more democratic approaches to working with teachers, for example along the lines of the teacher-as-researcher movement rather than on them. I also argue that in order to do this, we must develop more appropriate research epistemologies and methodologies. Finally, these two developments must be framed within a more sophisticated and systematically developed understanding of the social change process, and of the political nature of our attempts as educators to bring about change.
A Systematic Approach to Organizing Data Generated during Monitoring Sessions in Student Teaching
Authors: Ocansey Reginald T.A.
Published: August 2016

This article describes a systematic approach (an Effective Supervision Guide) for organizing data generated during student teaching. The Effective Supervision Guide (ESG) allows supervisors and student teachers to identify and/or trace changes in teaching performance. The ESG involves (a) establishing a baseline of teaching performance, (b) selecting behaviors that need remediation or maintenance, (c) specifying strategies for remediation and maintenance of targeted behaviors, (d) establishing performance criteria for targeted behaviors, and (e) indicating beginning and ending dates for targeted behaviors.
Effects of a Self-Directed Training Program on Cooperating Teacher Behavior
Authors: Tannehill Deborah , Zakrajsek Dorothy
Published: August 2016

Supervisory behaviors and practices of 12 cooperating teachers (CT) were compared during an 8-week field experience. A control group of seven CTs followed their normal procedures when supervising a student teacher (ST) while a treatment group of five CTs followed guidelines and tasks outlined in a supervisory training manual. The training manual consisted of seven modules. Results indicated the supervisory training manual was effective in improving and increasing supervisory behaviors and practices of CTs in secondary physical education. Analyzing the daily supervision log using independent t tests and univariate and multivariate repeated measures analysis indicated that trained CTs gave more substantive feedback than untrained CTs. Trained CTs provided STs with more frequent supervisory intervention than untrained CTs, as shown by analyzing the weekly wrap-up report using an independent chi square. It was confirmed that trained CTs are less controlling, more indirect, and more on task than untrained CTs.
Physical Activity and the Science of Successful Aging
Authors: Archer Edward , Paluch Amanda E. , Shook Robin P. , Blair Steven N.
Published: August 2016

Successful aging encompasses more than just the prevention of disease and disability; the truly well-lived life is demonstrated by a sense of vitality and independence, freedom from bodily pain, and the continued involvement in meaningful activities. While physical inactivity and sedentary behaviors accelerate the aging process, deliberate exercise and other forms of activity delay and/or prevent the onset of age-related pathologies such as frailty, osteoporosis, sarcopenia, and cardiovascular disease. This review surveys the evidence that supports the position that physical activity is a necessary component for the development and maintenance of the physiological resources that are foundational to physical and cognitive functioning and ‘living well’ in one's later years.
Influences of Body Lean and Vision on Unperturbed Postural Sway
Authors: Riley Michael A. , Mitra Suvobrata , Stoffregen Thomas A. , Turvey Michael T.
Published: August 2016

We examined the potentially exploratory and performatory nature of postural sway. Subjects stood upright or leaned forward, with eyes open or closed. Postural data were analyzed using a statistical mechanics analysis of center of pressure (COP) trajectories, which examines the fractional Brownian nature of postural sway. Positive correlations (persistence) over short time scales are hypothesized to reflect exploratory behavior, and negative correlations (antipersistence) over long time scales are hypothesized to reflect performatory behavior. When leaning, subjects exhibited decreased levels of persistence (decreased correlation) and increased levels of antipersistence (increased correlation) than when upright. With eyes open, subjects showed decreased levels of persistence and decreased levels of antipersistence than with eyes closed. Effects of vision were more pronounced when leaning. Evidence for direction-specific exploration (based upon root mean square variability analysis) was considered. Task-specificity and trade-offs between biomechanical and task constraints in models of postural control were discussed.
Intentional On-line Adaptation of Rhythmic Movements during a Hyper- to Microgravity Change
Authors: Bonnard Mireille , Pailhous Jean , Danion Frédéric
Published: August 2016

The intentional on-line adaptive capabilities of human movements during continuous variation in gravitational force were investigated. Subjects performed rhythmic forearm movements in the gravitational plane during parabolic flight maneuvers that induced a continuous change from 1.8 G to 0 G over a period of 2.3 s. During the initial plateau of hypergravity, subjects produced movements at two frequencies, with and without space constraints. Afterward, they were faced with the drop in gravity, during which they were instructed either to let the movement evolve freely while maintaining the initial frequency (time-constrained task) or to intentionally maintain the frequency, amplitude, and forearm center of oscillation (time/space-constrained task). The results showed (a) a reduced angle for the forearm center of oscillation and maintenance of movement amplitude in the time-constrained task, (b) a change from an in-phase to an out-of-phase biceps/triceps activation pattern regardless of the task, and (c) an earlier occurrence of this change in the time/space-constrained task, impeding the spontaneous forearm rise. These results are discussed in the perspective of the λ model.
Controlling Reaching Movements during Self-Motion: Body-Fixed versus Earth-Fixed Targets
Authors: Guillaud Etienne , Simoneau Martin , Gauthier Gabriel , Blouin Jean
Published: August 2016

The control of goal-directed arm movements performed during whole-body displacements is far from being understood. Recent studies suggested that the compensatory arm movements that allow individuals to preserve hand-in-space trajectory during unexpected body motion are controlled by sensorimotor, automatic-like processes. We tested this hypothesis comparing both the accuracy of movements directed towards body-fixed or Earth-fixed target during body rotations and the amount of interference of the reaching tasks on a concurrent cognitive task. Participants reached for a memorized 55 cm distant straight-ahead target in darkness which was about 20 cm lower than the initial finger position. The target was either body-fixed or Earth-fixed. At reaching onset, participants could be rotated in yaw. The concurrent task consisted of a verbal reaction time (RT) to an auditory stimulus. RTs increased when participants reached for the target while they were rotated. However, this increase was not significantly different for body-fixed and Earth-fixed targets. Reaching accuracy was greater for body-fixed than for Earth-fixed targets. A control experiment suggested that the errors in the Earth-fixed target condition arose from a difficulty in the organization of movements which necessitate both the production of active forces at the shoulder joint (to compensate for body rotation) and a concomitant decrease of muscular activation to lower the arm during reaching movements. These findings suggest that reaching for Earth-fixed or body-fixed targets during body rotation cannot be considered as being purely automatic tasks.
Magnitude and Structure of Isometric Force Variability: Mechanical and Neurophysiological Influences
Authors: Hong S. L. , Lee M-H. , Newell K.M.
Published: August 2016

This experiment examined the magnitude and structure of force variability in isometric index finger force production tasks at 5, 15, 25, 35, 45, 55, 65, 75, 85, and 95% of maximal force in two different finger orientations. In the finger flexion task, the participants generated a downward isometric force through index finger flexion. In the finger abduction task, isometric force was generated by adducting the index finger (mediolateral motion of the middle finger and forearm were restricted). The task-related, normal force (Fz) and tangential forces (Fx and Fy) were collected with a three-dimensional force transducer. The standard deviation (SD) of the task-related force output (Fz) increased exponentially with force level. With increasing force level, approximate entropy (ApEn, a measure of irregularity) of Fz followed an inverted-U function for finger flexion, but decreased linearly in finger abduction. However, changes in the ApEn of the tangential forces were generally opposite to that of Fz, revealing compensations in the irregularity of force output between force dimensions. The findings provide evidence that force variability is related to muscle force-length characteristics (Feldman, 1966; Gottlieb & Agarwal, 1988).
Bipedal Locomotion of Bonnet Macaques after Spinal Cord Injury
Authors: Babu Rangasamy Suresh , Anand P. , Jeraud Mathew , Periasamy P. , Namasivayam A.
Published: August 2016

Experimental studies concerning the analysis of locomotor behavior in spinal cord injury research are widely performed in rodent models. The purpose of this study was to quantitatively evaluate the degree of functional recovery in reflex components and bipedal locomotor behavior of bonnet macaques (Macaca radiata) after spinal contusive injury. Six monkeys were tested for various reflex components (grasping, righting, hopping, extension withdrawal) and were trained preoperatively to walk in bipedal fashion on the simple and complex locomotor runways (narrow beam, grid, inclined plane, treadmill) of this investigation. The overall performance of the animals’ motor behavior and the functional status of limb movements during bipedal locomotion were graded by the Combined Behavioral Score (CBS) system. Using the simple Allen weight-drop technique, a contusive injury was produced by dropping a 13-g weight from a height of 30 cm to the exposed spinal cord at the T12-L1 vertebral level of the trained monkeys. All the monkeys showed significant impairments in every reflex activity and in walking behavior during the early part of the postoperative period. In subsequent periods, the animals displayed mild alterations in certain reflex responses, such as grasping, extension withdrawal, and placing reflexes, which persisted through a 1-year follow-up. The contused animals traversed locomotor runways—narrow beam, incline plane, and grid runways—with more steps and few errors, as evaluated with the CBS system. Eventually, the behavioral performance of all spinal-contused monkeys recovered to near-preoperative level by the fifth postoperative month. The findings of this study reveal the recovery time course of various reflex components and bipedal locomotor behavior of spinal-contused macaques on runways for a postoperative period of up to 1 year. Our spinal cord research in primates is advantageous in understanding the characteristics of hind limb functions only, which possibly mimic the human motor behavior. This study may be also useful in detecting the beneficial effect of various donor tissue–neuroprotective drugs on the repair of impaired functions in a bipedal primate model of spinal injury.
Dynamics of Movement Patterning in Learning a Discrete Multiarticular Action
Authors: Chow Jia Yi , Davids Keith , Button Chris , Rein Robert
Published: August 2016

From a nonlinear dynamics perspective, presence of movement variability before a change in preferred movement patterns is hypothesized to afford the necessary adaptability and flexibility for seeking novel functional behaviors. In this study, four novice participants practiced a discrete multiarticular movement for 12 sessions over 4 weeks. Cluster analysis procedures revealed how changes between preferred movement patterns were affected with and without the presence of variability in movement clusters before a defined change. Performance improved in all participants as a function of practice. Participants typically showed evidence of change between preferred movement clusters and higher variability in the use of movement clusters within a session. However, increasing variability in movement clusters was not always accompanied by transition from one preferred movement cluster to another. In summary, it was observed that intentional and informational constraints play an important role in influencing the specific pathway of change for individual learners as they search for new preferred movement patterns.
Postcontraction Errors in Isometric Force Control
Authors: Knight Christopher A. , Marmon Adam R. , Poojari Dhiraj H.
Published: August 2016

Subjects learned to produce brief isometric force pulses that were 10% of their maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) force. Subjects became proficient at performing sets of 10 pulses within boundaries of 8–12% MVC, with visual feedback and without (kinesthetic sense). In both the control (Con, n = 10) and experimental (Exp, n = 20) groups, subjects performed two sets of 10 kinesthetically guided pulses. Subjects then either performed a 10-s MVC (Exp) or remained at rest (Con) between sets. Following the MVC, Exp subjects had force errors of +30%, whereas performance was maintained in Con. There was evidence for both muscular and neural contributions to these errors. Postactivation potentiation resulted in a 40% gain in muscle contractility (p = .003), and there was a 26% increase in the neural stimulation of muscle (p = .014). Multiple regression indicated that the change in neural input had a stronger relationship with force errors than the increased contractility.
Adolescence: A Transient Period of Proprioceptive Neglect in Sensory Integration of Postural Control
Authors: Viel Sébastien , Vaugoyeau Marianne , Assaiante Christine
Published: August 2016

In the current study, we adopted the hypothesis that the body scheme disturbances occurring during adolescence might lead subjects to transiently neglect proprioceptive information and that adolescents might rely more strongly on vision to control their orientation and stabilize their body. To check this point, we asked adolescents 14–15 years to maintain vertical stance while very slow sinusoidal oscillations in the frontal plane were applied to the supporting platform at 0.01 Hz (below the detection threshold of the semicircular canal system) and at 0.06 Hz (above) with the eyes open and closed. Two postural components, orientation and segmental stabilization, were analyzed at the head, shoulder, trunk, and pelvis levels. At the lowest frequency without vision, the performances of adolescents were much less efficient than those of adults. Moreover, this study showed that vision plays a predominant role in adolescents’ control of orientation and body stabilization. At 0.06 Hz without vision, a clearcut difference was observed between the strategies used by girls and boys; specifically, the maturation of the segmental stabilization processes was found to be more advanced in girls than in boys. However, no such difference was observed at 0.01 Hz. Lastly, comparisons between the data obtained in adolescents and those previously obtained in young adults (Vaugoyeau, Viel, Amblard, Azulay, & Assaiante, 2008) clearly show that adolescents use different postural strategies and that they are not yet capable of reaching comparable postural performance levels to those observed in adults. Because adolescents were not able to use the proprioceptive information available to improve their postural control, we concluded that they showed a maturational lag in comparison with adults. This suggests that the mechanisms underlying postural control are still maturing during adolescence, which might constitute a transient period of proprioceptive neglect in sensory integration of postural control.
Role of Movement Velocity on the Magnitude of Grip Force while Lifting an Object with Touch from the Contralateral Finger
Authors: Iyengar Veena , Santos Marcio J. , Aruin Alexander S.
Published: August 2016

We investigated whether slower velocity of arm movement affects grip-force generation in conditions with the finger touch provided to the wrist of the target arm. Nine subjects performed the task of lifting and transporting an object at slow, intermediate, and fast velocities with a light finger touch from the contralateral arm and without it. There was an effect of velocity of arm movement on grip-force generation in both conditions. However, when the no touch and touch trials performed with similar velocity were matched, the effect of touch on grip-force reduction was statistically significant (p < .001). The observed decrease in grip force could not be explained by slower movement execution in the touch conditions and underlines the importance of using a contralateral touch in the performance of activities of daily living. It also points to a possibility of the development of therapeutic advances for the enhancement of grip-force control in patients with neurological impairments.
The Development of Period Correction Processes in Motor Coordination: Adaptation to Temporal Perturbation
Authors: Clizbe David , Getchell Nancy
Published: August 2016

The third in a series of studies investigating the development of multilimb coordination in children, this study investigates the ability to period correct, or resynchronize limbs after a temporal perturbation. Participants performed single (clap, walk) and dual (simultaneously clap and walk) motor tasks to a metronome, which was randomly perturbed (either increase or decrease in speed). In the walk/metronome coupling, a significant interaction existed in relative phase error between age group and cycle with less relative phase error on the third and forth cycle with increased age. In the clap/metronome, a main effect existed for cycle (increasing with cycle) and age (decreasing with age), but no interactions existed. Neither task (single or dual) nor direction of perturbation (speed increase/decrease) had a statistical effect. The results suggested that developmental trajectories may exist in period correction processes; further research examining continuous data over longer collection periods should be performed to confirm this finding.
Age-Related and Sensory Declines Offer Insight to Whole Body Control During a Goal-Directed Movement
Authors: Hondzinski Jan M. , Li Li , Welsch Michael
Published: August 2016

We examined the effects of aging and lower limb sensory deficits (LLSD) on whole body control. Performances of a reaching task involving a step were measured in subjects with LLSD and young and older controls. Having LLSD was accompanied with greater reach errors and variability in lateral step deviations. Aging effects explained the smaller step deviations and longer movement times. These results suggest that older adults with LLSD have performance declines associated with deficits of the disease and aging that often differ, at least for this goal-directed discrete task. Furthermore, longer MT for older controls and shorter MT for LLSD subjects were associated with greater movement coupling. Longer movement periods likely offered older controls time to use sensory feedback to maintain good endpoint accuracy. Evidently, somatosensations from the limbs used during performance of whole body movements are required for the most accurate goal-directed control.
Effects of Low-Dose Alcohol Consumption on Postural Control with a Particular Focus on the Role of the Visual System
Authors: Palm Hans-Georg , Waitz Oliver , Strobel Johannes , Metrikat Jens , Hay Birgit , Friemert Benedikt
Published: August 2016

There is clear evidence that vision contributes to stabilizing posture and that large quantities of alcohol affect balance. It has, however, not yet been investigated whether and how the consumption of low doses of ethanol affects postural control and the visual system. The purpose of this study was therefore to assess the influence of low-dose alcohol intake on balance. After having performed stability tests in a sober condition, 26 healthy males were instructed to consume 0.32 g of ethanol/kg body weight. At predefined time points, blood samples were collected and stability index scores were calculated using computerized dynamic posturography. Thirty minutes after ethanol intake, blood alcohol levels reached a mean peak of 0.037%. Whereas the ability to maintain balance significantly deteriorated during eyes-open testing, it surprisingly did not decrease during eyes-closed testing. Apparently, the visual system is particularly affected by ethanol and plays a major role in maintaining postural stability.
Distributional Properties of Relative Phase in Bimanual Coordination
Authors: James Eric , Layne Charles S. , Newell Karl M.
Published: August 2016

Studies of bimanual coordination have typically estimated the stability of coordination patterns through the use of the circular standard deviation of relative phase. The interpretation of this statistic depends upon the assumption of a von Mises distribution. The present study tested this assumption by examining the distributional properties of relative phase in three bimanual coordination patterns. There were significant deviations from the von Mises distribution due to differences in the kurtosis of distributions. The kurtosis depended upon the relative phase pattern performed, with leptokurtic distributions occurring in the in-phase and antiphase patterns and platykurtic distributions occurring in the 30° pattern. Thus, the distributional assumptions needed to validly and reliably use the standard deviation are not necessarily present in relative phase data though they are qualitatively consistent with the landscape properties of the intrinsic dynamics.
Effect of Coordination Biofeedback on (Re)Learning Preferred Postural Patterns in Post-stroke Patients
Authors: Varoqui Deborah , Froger Jérôme , Pélissier Jacques-Yvon , Bardy Benoît G.
Published: August 2016

After stroke, ankle-hip coordination during stance is characterized by changes in the postural system dynamics, specifically the disappearance of the in-phase pattern and the reduced stability of the anti-phase pattern. This study was conducted to assess the success of a coordination visual biofeedback for the (re)learning of the two preferred patterns, and to explore the effect of this treatment on postural and functional abilities. Twenty four patients were randomly assigned to one of two experimental groups or to a control group. During one month, patients from experimental groups followed a training protocol on the two preferred postural patterns using the biofeedback device. These two groups improved their in-phase coordination after the (re)learning compared with control group, and showed a related improvement of the functional independence measure. Results suggest that (re)learning the in-phase pattern is possible and seems to improve independence in poststroke patients.
Cardioballistic Impulse and Fluctuations in Isometric Force Output
Authors: Sosnoff Jacob J. , Jae Sae Young , Heffernan Kevin , Fernhall Bo
Published: August 2016

The purpose of the current investigation was to examine the relation between cardioballistic impulse and the fluctuations in continuous isometric force production. Subjects produced isometric force via index finger flexion to constant force targets (0.5, 1 and 2 N) with and without visual feedback while beat to beat blood pressure of their middle finger was recorded. Force fluctuations were quantified using distributional statistics. The association between blood pressure oscillations and fluctuations in force output were quantified with coherence analysis. Overall, it was found that force variability (i.e., SD) increased with force level and removal of visual feedback. Coherence values between blood pressure oscillations and force fluctuations were significant and the greatest in the 8–12 Hz bandwidth. There was no effect of force magnitude on the coupling strength between blood pressure oscillations and force production. This coupling was greater in the visual condition. These data suggest that peripheral alterations in blood pressure are related to fluctuations in isometric force production independent of force level and that this interaction is influenced by visual feedback.
Sensorimotor Integration for Functional Recovery and the Bobath Approach
Authors: Levin Mindy F. , Panturin Elia
Published: August 2016

Bobath therapy is used to treat patients with neurological disorders. Bobath practitioners use hands-on approaches to elicit and reestablish typical movement patterns through therapist-controlled sensorimotor experiences within the context of task accomplishment. One aspect of Bobath practice, the recovery of sensorimotor function, is reviewed within the framework of current motor control theories. We focus on the role of sensory information in movement production, the relationship between posture and movement and concepts related to motor recovery and compensation with respect to this therapeutic approach. We suggest that a major barrier to the evaluation of the therapeutic effectiveness of the Bobath concept is the lack of a unified framework for both experimental identification and treatment of neurological motor deficits. More conclusive analysis of therapeutic effectiveness requires the development of specific outcomes that measure movement quality.
Motor-Unit Pool Model of Continuous and Discrete Force Variability
Authors: Hu Xiaogang , Newell Karl M.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to investigate the mechanisms contributing to the different scaling functions between force and force variability in continuous and discrete isometric forces. Muscle forces were simulated with the Fuglevand et al. (1993) model of motor unit recruitment and rate coding, and a range of recruitment and firing properties were manipulated. The influence of time-to-peak force on the discrete force variability was also examined. The results revealed that the peak firing rate, the synchrony between motoneurons, and the recruitment range contributed to the different variability functions in continuous and discrete forces. The shorter time-to-peak force led to higher variability in the peak force. The findings show that the model can produce the distinct properties of the force variability scaling functions in continuous and discrete forces. The simulation results provide preliminary insight into the neuromuscular mechanisms of the different force variability functions in continuous and discrete isometric forces.
Acute (0-2h) and Delayed (2-8D) Effects of Exercise-Induced Muscle Damage and Soreness on Elbow Target Movements
Authors: Bottas Reijo , Miettunen Kari , Komi Paavo , Linnamo Vesa
Published: August 2016

The aim was to examine the acute and delayed effects of exercise-induced muscle damage and soreness on elbow target movements (TM) performance and control. Ten males performed an exercise of 50 maximal eccentric elbow actions. TMs were performed at three movement ranges. Maximal forces, active stretch reflex and TM were tested, and muscle soreness, creatine kinase and elbow joint stiffness were determined acute (after and 2 h) and delayed (2, 4, 6, 8d) postexercise. Both the long lasting muscle soreness and force drop were observed after the exercise. Joint stiffness was increased at 2 h postexercise. The highest deterioration in flexion-TM performance was found at the time (2 h) and at the elbow angles (most flexed) where force drop was the greatest. The increased TM time was concomitant with the flexors changed timing, decreased peak EMG, and with their reduced stretch reflex amplitude. However, the effects on triphasic EMG activity pattern of TM were not joint angle specific. Dysfunction of fastest motor units and the sensitization of small group III / IV muscle afferents might have been responsible for the amplitude modulations of the activity pattern.
1Hz rTMS Preconditioned by tDCS Over the Primary Motor Cortex in Parkinson’s Disease: Absence of Effect on Arm Lift and Hand Grip Force Control
Authors: Eggers Carsten , Grüner Ulrike , Ameli Mitra , Sarfeld Anna-Sophia , Nowak Dennis A.
Published: August 2016

This study investigated whether a period of low frequency rTMS preconditioned by tDCS over the primary motor cortex modulates control of grip force in Parkinson’s disease. The presented results are from the same patient cohort tested in an earlier study (Gruner et al. J Neural Transm 2010: 117: 207–216). 15 patients with Parkinson’s disease (mean age: 69 ±8 years; average disease duration: 5 ±3 years) on dopaminergic drugs performed a grasp-lift task with either hand before (baseline) and after a period of 1Hz rTMS (90% of the resting motor threshold; 900 pulses) preconditioned by sham, anodal or cathodal tDCS (1mA, 10 min) over the primary motor cortex. We found that compared with baseline, none of the grip force parameters was significantly influenced by either stimulation session and concluded that grasping is a higher order motor skill, which cannot be modulated by tDCS preconditioned 1Hz rTMS in PD.
Effects of Vision on Head-Putter Coordination in Golf
Authors: Gonzalez David Antonio , Kegel Stefan , Ishikura Tadao , Lee Tim
Published: August 2016

Low-skill golfers coordinate the movements of their head and putter with an allocentric, isodirectional coupling, which is opposite to the allocentric, antidirectional coordination pattern used by experts (Lee, Ishikura, Kegel, Gonzalez, & Passmore, 2008). The present study investigated the effects of four vision conditions (full vision, no vision, target focus, and ball focus) on head-putter coupling in low-skill golfers. Performance in the absence of vision resulted in a level of high isodirectional coupling that was similar to the full vision condition. However, when instructed to focus on the target during the putt, or focus on the ball through a restricted viewing angle, low-skill golfers significantly decoupled the head—putter coordination pattern.. However, outcome measures demonstrated that target focus resulted in poorer performance compared with the other visual conditions, thereby providing overall support for use of a ball focus strategy to enhance coordination and outcome performance. Focus of attention and reduced visual tracking were hypothesized as potential reasons for the decoupling.
Coordination Patterns of Foot Dynamics in the Control of Upright Standing
Authors: Wang Zheng , Jordan Kimberlee , Newell Karl M.
Published: August 2016

In this study, two force platforms were synchronized to investigate the coordination of the right and left foot center of pressure (COPR and COPL) and its relation to the COPNET in the control of 5 upright postures with and without visual information. The results revealed that the standard deviation (SD) of COPL, COPR, and COPNET progressively increased in the more challenging staggered and tandem stances, respectively, and to a lesser degree with the absence of visual information. Circular analysis of the relative phase of COPL and COPR revealed that the coupling pattern and variability were dependent on postural stances and the availability of vision. A negative correlation between the variability of the relative phase of the two feet COPs and the SD of the COPNET in the anterior-posterior (AP) direction was evident most strongly in the no vision conditions. Thus, the asymmetry of the mechanical constraints on the feet as a function of stance organize the coordination patterns of the feet COPs while the degree of adaptive variation between the feet COPs is dependent on both the mechanical constraints and the availability of vision.
Sensorimotor Control in Overarm Throwing
Authors: Urbin M.A.
Published: August 2016

Goal-directed movement is possible because the cortical regions regulating movement have continuous access to visual information. Extensive research from the various domains of motor control (i.e., neurophysiology, neuropsychology, and psychophysics) has documented the extent to which the unremitting availability of visual information enables the sensorimotor system to facilitate online control of goal-directed limb movement. However, the control mechanism guiding appreciably more complex movements characterized by ballistic, whole-body coordination is not well understood. In the overarm throw, for example, joint rotations must be optimally timed between body segments to exploit the passive flow of kinetic energy and, in turn, maximize projectile speed while maintaining accuracy. The purpose of this review is to draw from the various research domains in motor control and speculate on the nature of the sensorimotor control mechanism facilitating overarm throwing performance.
Motor Equivalence (ME) During Reaching: Is ME Observable at the Muscle Level?
Authors: Mattos Daniela , Kuhl Joshua , Scholz John P. , Latash Mark L.
Published: August 2016

The concept of motor equivalent combinations of arm muscles, or M-modes, was investigated during reaching to insert a pointer into a cylindrical target with and without an elbow perturbation. Five M-modes across 15 arm/scapula muscles were identified by principal component analysis with factor extraction. The relationship between small changes in the M-modes and changes in the position/orientation of the pointer were investigated by linear regression analyses. The results revealed a motor equivalent organization of the M-modes for perturbed compared with nonperturbed reaches, both with respect to hand position and orientation, especially in the first 100-ms postperturbation. Similar findings were obtained for motor equivalence computed based on changes in the joint configuration, although the kinematically defined motor equivalence was stronger for pointer orientation. The results support the hypothesis that the nervous system organizes muscles into M-modes and flexibly scales M-mode activation to preserve stable values of variables directly related to performance success.
The Effect of Acute Exercise on Pistol Shooting Performance of Police Officers
Authors: Brown Melissa J. , Tandy Richard D. , Wulf Gabriele , Young John C.
Published: August 2016

Previous studies indicate that rifle shooting performance while standing is compromised when fatigued. Apprehension of suspects by police officers may involve foot pursuit and firing a weapon from a standing position. The purpose of the current study was to investigate pistol shooting performance in police officers under similar conditions of physical fatigue. Participants (mean age: 30.1 years; 4.4 years of experience as police officer) completed two shooting trials separated by an acute bout of exercise on a cycle ergometer to voluntary exhaustion. Each trial consisted of three rounds of five rapid-fire shots at a target, each round separated by a 15-s rest. Participants’ backs were turned to the target between rounds. Despite physical exertion, with an average heart rate of 164 bpm, shooting accuracy (mean distance of the closest 4 shots from the center of the target) and precision (diameter of the tightest 4-shot grouping) remained unchanged on postexercise trials relative to preexercise trials. This suggests that automatic shooting reactions override the adverse consequences of fatiguing exercise on shooting performance.
Effect of Oral Levodopa Treatment on Articulatory Function in Parkinson's Disease: Preliminary Results
Authors: Cahill Louise M. , Murdoch Bruce E. , Theodoros Deborah G. , Triggs Edward J. , Charles Bruce G. , Yao Amy A.
Published: August 2016

To quantify lip function in 16 subjects with Parkinson's disease, a computerized semiconductor lip pressure transducer system was used prior to subjects being administered oral levodopa and at approximately 0.5 hr, 1.5 hr, and 3.0 hr postmedication. Two blood samples were taken from each subject at varying times during the levodopa dosage interval, and the exact time and dosage of levodopa were noted. Lip function measurements were expressed as percentage changes from baseline and were plotted for each subject against time and levodopa concentrations to determine the effects of levodopa therapy on articulatory function. The results supported the effectiveness of levodopa therapy in improving lip function. In particular, lip pressures recorded during both speech and nonspeech tasks tended to improve after levodopa administration, the lip measures improving somewhat in parallel with the rise and fall of blood plasma levodopa concentrations. Evidence of a hysteresis effect was noted.
Natural Goal-Directecd Movements and the Triphasic EMG
Authors: Morrison Steven , Anson J. Greg
Published: August 2016

Triphasic electromyographic (EMG) patterns have been described as characteristic of rapid, discrete, uniplanar, goal-directed movements. This experiment examined the effects of Response Type (experimenter- vs. subject-determined), Hand (preferred vs. nonpreferred), and Practice (early vs. late) on performance accuracy, and specific temporal EMG and kinematic measures during a dart throw. EMG was recorded from triceps (main agonist), brachioradialis, and biceps (main antagonist). The number of trials in which a triphasic EMG occurred varied systematically across conditions. The experimenter-determined, early practice condition resulted in greatest frequency (92%) of trials displaying a triphasic EMG and least accurate performance. In contrast, the lowest frequency (79%) of triphasic EMG and most accurate performance occurred in the subject-determined, late practice condition. The association among 14 temporal EMG, and kinematic measures for each trial of the dart throw was analyzed with multivariate factorial ANOVA. Four clusters of variables emerged: initial phase, braking phase, terminal phase, and movement speed and duration. Variables contributing to the initial-phase cluster were most strongly associated within the experimenter-determined, early practice condition, and the strength of association was directly related to diminished performance accuracy. Paradoxically, best performance accuracy (subject-determined, late practice) was identified with a weaker association among variables representing the initial phase.
Spontaneous and Intentional Pattern Switching in a Multisegmental Bimanual Coordination Task
Authors: Byblow Winston D. , Summers Jeffery J. , Semjen Andras , Wuyts Irina J. , Carson Richard G.
Published: August 2016

Two experiments required right-handed subjects to trace circular trajectories while complying with either a symmetric or asymmetric pattern. In symmetric patterns, circles were traced in a mirror image either inward or outward. In asymmetric patterns, circles were traced in the same direction either clockwise or counterclockwise. Subjects were instructed to trace with spatial accuracy while maintaining a strict temporal relationship to a metronome that scaled movement rates from 1.25 to 3 Hz. The symmetric patterns were more stable than asymmetric patterns; the circularity of trajectories was greater for the dominant side; and there were spontaneous reversals in the direction of circling in the nondominant limb when performing asymmetric patterns. The second experiment examined the same subjects under the instruction of intentionally changing the pattern by reversing the left or right limb circling direction when cued to do so. The degree of interlimb interference was highly asymmetric and contingent on the direction of pattern change. Intentional direction reversals were more expedient and with less disruption to the contralateral limb when asymmetric to symmetric pattern changes were effected through a reversal in the direction of nondominant side. The results are interpreted with reference to evidence that the supplementary motor area mediates descending input to the upper limbs during disparate bimanual actions, but not during symmetric actions.