bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
AN ACOUSTICAL METHOD OF BURNING AND COLLECTING OIL SPILLS ON COLD OPEN WATER SURFACES
Authors: Koblanski John N.
Published: January 2013

A completely new method of controlled oil burning with a minimum environmental impact has been developed.

Three macrosonic phenomena are combined in one device which is driven into an oil slick. These phenomena are: herding (moving the oil along the surface), levitating and collecting the oil, and atomizing and burning in situ. These functions are so combined as to assist each other.

Briefly, two vessels tow a boom through the oil slick. Distributed along the boom are herding transducers which direct the oil away from the arms of the boom to the central line and also prevent the oil from down-draining at the apex in fast current situations. Atomizing and burning transducers as well as a collecting means also are located at the apex. The oil being atomized is ignited easily by a combination of propane torch and high voltage discharge. The unburned but heated oil is suctioned off from the collection area fed by oil levitation transducers. Thus extremely thin and patchy oil may be removed in virtually any environment.

The burning may be carried on in populated areas as it is relatively non-polluting. This is due to the combined effect of primary atomization caused by the acoustic energy and secondary atomization caused by the micro-explosions of atomized water.

Another advantage of this method is the prevention of the sludge formation which results when prevalent standard methods are used. In these in situ methods, the lighter and more volatile materials burn first, leaving a heavy sludge which is difficult or impossible to disperse. The method outlined here burns the volatile and non-volatile portions nonselectively. As a result, no residual sludge is formed.

Another advantage of this method is that the prime motivating force applied to the oil is a lightweight transducer having such a low inertia that fast wave situations do not interfere, but serve to increase the burning rate.
STUDY OF WIND AND CURRENT DATASETS FOR IXTOC OIL SPILL HINDCAST
Authors: Anderson Eric L.
Published: January 2013

A study of the sensitivity of a modeled surface trajectory prediction to several wind and current input datasets was carried out. The Ixtoc I oil spill was hindcast, using the University of Rhode Island oil spill model.7 The general inadequacy of these datasets for accurate predictions of long-term trajectory estimates was demonstrated, and some observations made on the methods of generation of each of the datasets.
FIRST EXPERIENCES WITH THE MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY OIL SPILL MODEL
Authors: Psaraftis Harilaos N. , Nyhart J. D. , Betts David A.
Published: January 2013

A research group at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology has completed the first phase of development of a computer-assisted model for analyzing complex decisions and policies regarding oil spill cleanup. The model is the product of an ongoing MIT Sea Grant project sponsored by a consortium of government and industry organizations. The model can be used, among other things, in “strategic” planning for the long-term oil spill response needs of a region, in assisting on-scene coordinators in responding to a specific spill (“tactical/operational” setting), in evaluating the environmental and economic damages of a spill versus the cost of cleanup, in simulation and training, and in the analysis of various policy and regulatory issues such as delays, use of dispersants, and liability and compensation. The model is described in detail, with a focus on its potential uses. Some illustrative applications in the New England region are presented and applications of the model for the solution of Petro-Canada's dispersant logistics problem are discussed briefly.
AIR CURTAIN INCINERATOR TESTS
Authors: Kruk Keith F.
Published: January 2013

The use of an curtain incinerator to dispose of materials recovered from an oil spill was investigated for the Alaskan Beaufort Sea Oilspill Response Body (ABSORB). A series of combustion experiments was conducted in a prototype incinerator 10 feet wide by 10 feet long by 14 feet high. Combustion rates, emissions, and temperatures were monitored during the experiments. Operating variables investigated included air flow rate, direction of air into the combustion chamber, waste feed rate, water spray over the combustion zone, and the slant of the combustion chamber's front wall. Some of the major results were:Optimum air flow rate into the incinerator is 7,000 cubic feet per minute.The system performed satisfactorily at combustion rates exceeding 600 barrels per day.At 600 bbl/day, most emulsions burned with emissions less than 1 Ringelmann.Oil with 20-to-30 percent water burned most efficiently.Oil-saturated straw was consistently burned in the incinerator at measured emission levels of less than 1 Ringelmann.Combustion temperatures in the incinerator will exceed 2,000°F with an 18,500-Btu-per-pound oil.

Included in this paper are details of the test system, results of combustion tests, and recommended design criteria for an arctic system.
UNITED STATES COAST GUARD PROGRESS IN OIL SPILL SURVEILLANCE1
Authors: White James R. , Schmidt Richard E.
Published: January 2013

The U.S. Coast Guard is developing an airborne, real-time, all-weather, day/night remote sensing system that will detect oil slicks at sea and identify violating vessels. The system, designated “Aireye”, will be installed on six of the 41 new Falcon 20G jet aircraft (military designation HU-25A) which the Coast Guard has purchased to replace the aging HU-16E Grumman Albatross as its medium-range surveillance aircraft.

The sensor system will include a side-looking airborne radar, three-channel infrared/ultraviolet line scanner, aerial reconnaissance camera, airborne data annotation system, and a control, display and record console. To identify polluting vessels at night, an active gated television (AGTV) also has been developed for the Aireye system. The AGTV uses a low power, pulsed, gallium arsenide laser illuminator and is capable of recording vessel names at night from a slant range of 500 meters. In addition to an active and passive mode, the AGTV is capable of both computer and manual target acquisition and tracking.

Each of the sensors will produce annotated, hard-copy imagery suitable for prosecution of polluting vessels. The first Aireye system is scheduled to undergo flight testing in 1983 and to become operational in early 1984.
SECOND GENERATION OIL SPILL AND MARITIME SURVEILLANCE SYSTEMS NOW OPERATIONAL IN SWEDEN
Authors: Backlund Lars , Holmström Lars
Published: January 2013

A new multisensor, integrated oil spill and maritime surveillance system now is in operational use by the Swedish Coast Guard. The system, developed by the Swedish Space Corporation, is based on experience with prototype side-looking airborne radar (SLAR), infrared/ultraviolet (IR/UV), and camera systems which were tested and operated between 1978 and 1981. The new system comprises second-generation, integrated SLAR, IR/UV, and camera systems together with supporting equipment for quick-look documentation and data recording. Sensor imagery is presented in real time on a television display. The system has been designed and optimized exclusively for maritime surveillance. The result is high performance at a very competitive price. Low weight and power consumption permit installation in a wide range of aircraft. System components such as an imagery link, a microwave radiometer and a TV-camera system are under development and will be added in the near future.
A REEXAMINATION OF OCCURRENCE RATES FOR ACCIDENTAL OIL SPILLS ON THE U.S. OUTER CONTINENTAL SHELF
Authors: Lanfear Kenneth J. , Amstutz David E.
Published: January 2013

The Department of the Interior is required to evaluate the risks of oil spills from outer continental shelf (OCS) oil leasing and must compare these risks to those of other oil sources, such as importing oil. Past practice has been to treat spill occurrence as a Poisson process, with a rate proportional to the amount of oil produced or transported. U.S. oil production and accident data and worldwide tanker data were used. Criticism of this approach has centered on the validity of using oil volume as an exposure variable, and the applicability of existing accident data to frontier OCS areas.

To examine these questions, the Interior Department recently sponsored several studies on OCS oil spill occurrence rates. One study compiled an extensive listing of all known oil spills of recent years and is believed to be the most complete database on oil spills available to the public. Another study looked at trends in oil spills from U.S. OCS platforms and discovered a statistically significant decrease in the spill rate since 1974. Other studies examined oil spill data for Cook Inlet and Prudhoe Bay, Alaska, and found that spill rates for these areas could not be shown to be significantly different from the U.S. OCS platform spill rate based on trend analysis.

Studies are continuing to ensure that oil spill rates used by the Interior Department reflect the latest data and analyses.
AN EFFECTIVE LOW-COST FIREPROOF BOOM
Authors: Meikle K. M.
Published: January 2013

The design objectives for a fireproof floating oil-containment barrier were developed, and a boom was designed, produced, and tested. At a cost comparable to that of conventional equipment of similar size, the boom is equally effective at retaining oil in a current, withstands exposure to burning oil, and can easily be restored for reuse if damaged by severe wave action or rough handling.
THE BIOS PROJECT—AN UPDATE
Authors: Blackall Peter J. , Sergy Gary A.
Published: January 2013

The Baffin Island Oil Spill (BIOS) Project, formally begun in March 1980, now is entering the fourth and final year of the planned field work. The primary objectives of this internationally funded project are to: (1) determine if the use of chemical dispersants in the arctic nearshore will reduce or increase the environmental effects of spilled oil, (2) assess the fate of oil, and (3) compare the relative effectiveness of other shoreline protection and cleanup techniques.

This paper provides an overview of studies sponsored by the BIOS Project during the first three field seasons. Highlighted are the major oil releases which involved a total of 40 cubic meters of medium gravity crude oil.

In addition, the preliminary results of the pre- and post-spill physical, chemical, and biological studies are presented. The physical program studies predicted the proper time and location for the oil releases and monitored the subsequent physical fate and behavior of the oil. The chemical program studies monitored the pre- and post-spill hydrocarbon levels in the water, sediments, and tissue of selected macrobenthic species, and also the environmental chemistry of the study area. The biological program studies to date have characterized the macrobenthic flora and fauna, the microorganisms, and the shorter-term effects of the oil releases on the subtidal biota.

The potential ramifications of the BIOS Project's results on future oil spill countermeasure strategies are discussed.
LONG-TERM FATE OF DISPERSED AND UNDISPERSED CRUDE OIL IN TWO NEARSHORE TEST SPILLS
Authors: Page David S. , Foster J. C. , Hotham J. R. , Pendergast E. , Hebert S. , Gonzalez L. , Gilfillan Edward S. , Hanson S. A. , Gerber R. P. , Vallas D.
Published: January 2013

The fate and effects of two nearshore discharges of Murban crude oil at Long Cove, Searsport, Maine in August 1981 were studied following a one-year, pre-spill baseline study of the test areas. An upper and a lower intertidal sampling area within a 60 × 100 meter test plot were exposed to dispersed oil in water resulting from the discharge of 250 gallons of oil pre-mixed with 25 gallons of Corexit 9527 dispersant. Release of treated oil was around high-water slack tide on the surface of the water, with added mixing energy provided by mixing gates deployed by small boats. The maximum water depth over the test areas was 3.5 meters. Untreated crude oil (250 gallons) was released on an ebbing tide within a separate, boomed-off 60 × 100 meter test plot. A third test plot served as an oil-free reference plot.

Water samples taken near the surface and near the bottom during and after discharge showed that chemically dispersed oil loses lower boiling hydrocarbons in both the aliphatic and aromatic fractions below n-C17as the droplets diffuse downward. Data are given for sediment samples taken from the test plots 11 months pre-spill and 10 months post-spill. Hydrocarbon analyses of the sediment samples show little incorporation of dispersed oil into the sediments of the treated oil plot relative to the sediments exposed to undispersed oil.
THE USE OF FLOW-THROUGH FLUOROMETRY FOR TRACKING DISPERSED OIL
Authors: Green David , Humphrey Blair , Fowler Brian
Published: January 2013

At the Baffin Island Oil Spill experimental site in the Canadian Arctic, four flow-through fluorometers were used to monitor a dispersed oil cloud over several days, providing real-time and continuous data on oil concentrations. The measurements so obtained were verified by a variety of laboratory analyses of check samples. The movements of the dispersed oil cloud were deducted, and exposures of the benthos to oil in the experimental area were calculated.
A SPILL OF LIGHT FUEL OIL IN THE BALTIC SEA
Authors: Linden Olof , Mattsson Jan , Notini Mats
Published: January 2013

The impact of a spill of about 375 tons of light fuel oil in the southern Baltic Sea has been studied for one year. The spill originated from the tanker Sefir which sank to a 50 meter depth about six nautical miles east of the island of Öland. The study showed that the oil formed droplets which were taken up by zooplankton. Up to 50 percent of the zooplankton died during the acute phase of the spill. The oil droplets were well dispersed and sedimented over large areas. In six weeks during the acute phase of the spill, about 20,500 kilograms of oil sedimented over a 10 square kilometer area around the wreck. This corresponds to about 5.5 percent of the total amount of lost oil. Bivalves showed some uptake of oil. The littoral fauna was reduced drastically over a 10 km stretch of the coast. Only 2 percent of the fauna survived. The biomass and number of species also dropped considerably. One year after the spill, a slight recovery could be observed. The severe impact in the littoral zone was caused by a combination of the high toxicity of the oil and the low water exchange in the shallow water. In addition, the low water temperature preserved the toxic properties of the oil.
METHOD FOR CONDUCTING OIL POLLUTION LIABILITY INSURANCE SURVEY
Authors: Breslin Michael K.
Published: January 2013

Oil pollution liability insurance surveys of oil handling installations are undertaken by insurance companies to qualitatively assess the chances that an oil spill will occur and the damage it could cause. By thus examining a facility, a basis is established on which to determine the premium for insurance coverage. In conducting such an oil spill risk assessment survey, many facets of oil handling and storage are considered, such as oil accounting, housekeeping, oil handling equipment, maintenance, outside contractor access and use, oil spill response equipment, and relationships with government agencies. Each facet must be addressed, and affects the final evaluation of the facility. Some of the procedures used for surface oil spills also can be applied to assess the risk of underground oil spills.
THE INTERNATIONAL OIL POLLUTION COMPENSATION FUND
Authors: Ganten Reinhard H.
Published: January 2013

The International Oil Pollution Compensation Fund (IOPC Fund) is an inter-governmental organisation paying additional compensation to member states for oil pollution from laden tankers to the extent that this is not covered by tanker owner liability. Total claims amount to about 80 million U.S. dollars.1 The IOPC Fund's claim settlement procedure normally allows quick settlement of pollution claims.
THE LAW AND PRACTICE OF ASSESSING DAMAGES TO NATURAL RESOURCES1
Authors: Mattson James S. , van Emmerik Allen
Published: January 2013

For oil spills, the basis for natural resource damage claims in federal law is section 311 of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act (FWPCA). These rarely used provisions will be strengthened by regulations mandated by Congress in the 1980 “Superfund” law. This paper describes the development of federal natural resource law as it applies to compensation of states and the federal government for injuries to natural resources, and the changes to the common law brought about the FWPCA and Superfund provisions and by the recent federal appellate court decision in Puerto Rico v. S.S. Zoe Colocotroni. Finally, the authors present their views on how to make such claims.
DISPERSION OF CHEMICALLY TREATED CRUDE OIL IN NORWEGIAN OFFSHORE WATERS
Authors: Lichtenthaler Rainer G. , Daling Per S.
Published: January 2013

In May and July 1982, two series of dispersant research oil spills were carried out off the Norwegian coast. The May series comprised three discharges of 2,000 liters of Statfjord topped crude oil (initial boiling point 150 °C). Two of the slicks were treated with dispersants (A and B) from a boat while the third untreated slick served as control. The July series comprised four discharges of 2,000 liters of Statfjord crude oil, with the application of three dispersants (A, B, and C), and one untreated slick as control. Water samples were collected from under the slicks and analyzed for total petroleum using a gas chromatographic technique.

Chemical analyses showed six percent dispersion of the oil for dispersant A, and 17 percent for dispersant ? in the May series. Effectiveness of dispersants in the July series was found to be 19 percent for dispersant A and 22 percent and two percent for dispersants ? and C, respectively. Gas chromatographic analyses showed in several cases the presence of dispersants (up to two ppm) in water samples without the presence of petroleum at all. The highest oil contents found in water samples were 10 ppm at a one meter depth. The variations in the effectiveness of the three dispersants tested in the field were later confirmed in laboratory tests.
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT IN THE INSTITUTE OF OCEAN ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGY
Authors: Yazaki Atsuo
Published: January 2013

This paper presents a summary of research and development projects at the Institute of Ocean Environmental Technology. First, projects in the field of oil boom and skimmer development are described. Oil containment performance for each of four new oil booms, and the oil recovery rate for each of seven new oil recovery devices and a new oil recovery ship are explained. Next, as typical examples of research projects concerning ocean and marine environmental problems, summaries of the following themes are presented: (a) oil spreading on the water surface, (b) the mechanism of oil leakage from a flat plate barrier, (c) oil slick behavior around a moving catamaran skimmer, (d) a law of similarity for the performance of oil recovery equipment, (e) evaporation of gasoline under various conditions, (f) the relationship of spilled oil and dissolved oxygen in sea water, (g) the effectiveness of chemical dispersants for spilled gasoline, (h) the generation of transient waves in a circulating water channel, and (i) experiments with a wave energy absorber.
CONTAINMENT STRATEGIES FOR MARINE OIL SPILLS IN NEARSHORE WATERS
Authors: Owens E. H. , Roberts H. H. , Murray S. P. , Foget C. R.
Published: January 2013

The movement of oil on the water surface is a result of meteorologic and oceanographic processes. Attempts to contain or divert surface oil using booms should factor these processes into the development of deployment tactics. Attempts to deploy booms, disregarding physical and environmental conditions often have met with failure. Differing physical parameters affect water circulation and the movement of oil in the nearshore environments of reef/lagoon and barrier inlet systems; generalized models identify the primary features of each of these two systems for selection of appropriate methods of boom deployment. Circulation patterns across reefs are dominated by wave-driven and tidal-driven forces that carry water across the reef crest into the low energy lagoonal environment. Within the lagoon, tidal and wind stress forces become important factors that drive the circulation systems. Barrier island inlets that form in meso-tidal environments have circulation patterns that are dominated by cyclical tidal forces. In the narrow inlet throats current velocities are frequently too great for booms to contain oil. In this situation diversion of surface oil to areas of low current speeds can be used to protect sensitive lagoonal environments. During the early stages of a flooding tide, current inflow through the inlet is in marginal channels and at this tidal stage oil could be diverted to the shoreline before it enters the inlet throat.
DEVELOPING MARINE POLLUTION RESPONSE CAPABILITY IN THE WIDER CARIBBEAN REGION1
Authors: Spitzer James D.
Published: January 2013

With assistance from international organizations and donor nations, the nations of the Wider Caribbean Region are steadily increasing their capability to deal with oil pollution. The need for a reasonable response capability stems from factors such as the region's complex network of petroleum production points and transportation routes, dependence of national economies on the pristine marine environment that attracts tourists, and the vulnerability of many of the nations to pollution incidents resulting from lack of preparedness. The problems of improving response capability in a region having over three dozen governments are immense. Nevertheless, through recent events, the Region's governments are recognizing the importance of having an agency responsible for environmental matters, a response organization, a pollution contingency plan, and adequate legislation to provide the jurisdiction necessary to prevent and to take action to control discharges into the marine environment. These developments are occurring through regional cooperation such as the implementation of the Action Plan for the Caribbean Environment Programme, and through national and independently sponsored efforts to increase marine pollution response capability.
PATTERNS AND TRENDS IN REPORTED SMALL OIL SPILLS
Authors: Yoshioka Gary A. , Franzoni Andrew J. , Kooyoomjian K. Jack , Eby Terry L. , Wiltshire Glenn A.
Published: January 2013

Many recent analyses of oil spill data have focused on the occurrence of large spills. For example, a 1981 study compared the incidence of spills of more than 10,000 gallons in four U.S. coastal regions. A 1983 U.S. Department of the Interior study of spills of 1,000 barrels or more from outer continental shelf platforms found a statistically significant decrease in spill occurrence rates after 1974. Data from the U.S. Coast Guard's Pollution Incident Reporting System (PIRS) show a drop in the number of all reported oil spills from more than 12,000 in 1977 to fewer than 7,000 in 1982. Such reductions in reported spills have been attributed in part to stricter government regulation and enforcement, to changes in technology, or to a decline in oil transportation.

The significance of small oil spills is discussed, and data on the occurrence of reported small oil spills are analyzed using information from the PIRS database. The trend over time in the number of spills of fewer than 10 gallons was found to be upward for some sources, water bodies, and regions, but downward for others. Although this paper does not examine causal relationships, increased awareness of the requirement to report oil discharges may have resulted in increased reporting of spills in some cases and increased efforts toward prevention of spills in other cases.
A REVIEW OF FEDERAL AND STATE LAW CONCERNING REPORTABLE DISCHARGES OF OIL
Authors: Bruce David A. , Yoshioka Gary A. , Condie Allison
Published: January 2013

As originally enacted, Section 311 of the Clean Water Act required promulgation of regulations governing the discharge of harmful quantities of oil into or upon U.S. navigable waters, shorelines, and waters of the contiguous zone. The result was the “sheen test” trigger for notification of oil discharges (40 CFR Part 110). Since 1970, this test has been sustained in the courts over a number of objections.

The Clean Water Act does not prevent states from imposing additional requirements concerning oil discharge prevention in waters within their own boundaries. Some states have addressed the problem of oil pollution simply through water quality standards or prohibiting discharges that cause a nuisance or harmful effect. In other cases, they have regulated discharges from different types of pollution sources, such as port facilities or vessels. In recent years, some state legislatures have enacted specific laws to deal with oil spills, including provisions that prohibit certain discharges, require spill reporting, and establish compensation programs.

This paper discusses the sheen test and other approaches to reportable discharges of oil suggested by state law. Included are a review of federal case law on the subject and a review of standards in selected state statutes.
NORTH ALEUTIAN SHELF SEA OTTERS AND THEIR VULNERABILITY TO OIL
Authors: Cimberg Robert L. , Costa Daniel P.
Published: January 2013

Results of a one-year field investigation on the sea otters of the eastern Bering Sea indicate that this population ranges from approximately 1,000 during the winter to over 10,000 in the summer, apparently due to migration from the Pacific. Even though individuals are known to occur over 20 mi offshore in 40 m of water, otters were found primarily in shallow waters (0 to 20 m) off the major lagoons and bays. These seasonal and spatial distributions correspond better with the abundance of important prey, flatfish and crabs, rather than with other environmental factors. The otters are believed to feed on a variety of prey, including crabs, molluscs, flatfish, and perhaps sand dollars, based on scat analysis.

Significant impacts from oil and gas activities on this population would occur if a large spill occurred near Bechevin Bay, along the apparent major migration route. Other impacts would be more localized and are difficult to estimate due to the need for information on the otters' ability to avoid oil slicks and at the same time maintain their feeding regimes.
RESOURCE MAPPING AND CONTINGENCY PLANNING, PTP PIPELINE FACILITIES, PANAMA
Authors: Gundlach Erich R. , Moss Geoffrey , de Vincenti Fiorella , Janssen John
Published: January 2013

The facilities of the PTP (PetroTerminal de Panama) consist of an 80 mile long, 36 inch pipeline and two marine terminals. The Pacific facility consists of three shore-based terminals to handle tankers from Valdez, Alaska. The Atlantic terminal contains two single-point moorings to load tankers destined for U.S. ports along the Gulf of Mexico.

Prior to the opening of the pipeline, the government of Panama contracted for a series of studies designed to better understand the shoreline sensitivity, marine resources, archaeology, and limnology along the pipeline route and adjacent to each terminal. Results of the shoreline sensitivity analysis indicate that, by far, the Atlantic terminal in the Laguna de Chiriqui is the most sensitive and likely to be damaged during a spill. The laguna has almost no tides, is relatively stagnant, and is dominated by mangroves (51 percent of the total shoreline). In contrast, the Pacific terminal contains much higher tides and currents and fewer mangroves [44 percent of the total shoreline, but less than 5 percent within 30 miles of the terminal].

In response to environmental concerns and greatly supported and advised by the pipeline user companies, PTP completed a workable spill-response plan, developed along three fronts: the active and continuing purchase of spill-response equipment for use at the marine facilities as well as in fast-moving streams; the creation of specially trained spill-response teams; and the delegation of clear lines of authority for both land and marine spills. The interrelated roles played by Panamanians, the people of PTP, and the pipeline user companies provide an example of how different groups can cooperatively work together to protect the environment and still maintain financially advantageous, oil-related projects in a lesser-developed country.
NORTH LA CROSSE UNDERGROUND FUEL OIL SPILL
Authors: Erickson Brad
Published: January 2013

In July 1978, several homes near the Burlington Northern Railroad yards in North La Crosse reported fuel oil in their basements. High water tables and flooding along the La Crosse River caused seepage into the basements. The nearby railroad refueling depot was the only likely source of the product. A review of railroad activities indicated several likely sources for fuel oil leakage into the soil.

A contractor was hired and a recovery system was installed. The recovery system removed about 300 gallons of fuel oil per day. Because of several operational problems, this recovery system was abandoned in November 1978 (after recovering about 20,000 gallons of fuel oil).

A consultant's report issued in February 1979 indicated there remained about 157,000 gallons of fuel oil underground. Because recovery operations had ceased, the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources issued an order to the Burlington Northern Railroad in May 1979 to resume recovery operations. This order was superceded by a second order in July 1979. After reviewing several alternatives, a “cone of depression” recovery system was given approval, installed, and began operation in November 1979.

As of November 1983, a total of 137,000 gallons of fuel oil had been recovered using the “cone of depression” method. In spring 1984, inspection showed that the recovery system needed a considerable amount of maintenance work. Additional tests are necessary to determine if recoverable amounts of the fuel oil still remain. If further recovery effort is necessary, further refinements may have to be made to the recovery apparatus.
INVESTIGATION AND CLEANUP OF FUEL TANK LEAKS IN THE SAN FRANCISCO BAY AREA—A REGULATORY STRATEGY
Authors: Eisenberg Don M. , Olivieri Adam W. , Johnson Peter W.
Published: January 2013

During the past few years, contamination associated with underground chemical storage has been found to have caused extensive degradation of otherwise usable groundwater in many locations. In response, many cities within the San Francisco Bay area are presently implementing ordinances that require monitoring of underground tanks including fuel tanks. In addition, recently enacted state laws will require some form of rigorous monitoring for fuel tanks throughout California.

Implementation of fuel leak monitoring programs will result in the discovery of a significant number of additional fuel leak sites. The authors project that 200 to 300 reports of subsurface fuel contamination will be generated during the next year in the San Francisco Bay area. To deal with this overwhelming increase in regulatory workload it is likely that some level of initial response to fuel leaks may be delegated to local governments.

For the above reasons, the California Regional Water Quality Control Board, San Francisco Bay Region, is developing formalized response procedures to provide a consistent and adequate preliminary response to initial reports of suspected or confirmed underground fuel leaks. These procedures are intended to provide a screening process to minimize additional follow-up where it is not required and to ensure such follow-up where it is necessary.

The proposed procedures will be the subject of several public workshops and at least one formal public hearing before they are considered final. They are described here in an attempt to stimulate further technical input to the public discussion process and to possibly provide a model for use by others who will be faced with similar decision-making needs as similar ordinances and regulations are adopted throughout the state and in other states.
CASE HISTORY OF A SOUTH HOLLAND OIL SPILL—ORGANIZATION AND COOPERATION
Authors: Kleij Antonius M. , Gubbens Jozef M.
Published: January 2013

In the summer of 1982 part of the coast of the Province of South Holland was polluted by a thick layer of crude oil. Cause of the pollution was a collision between a large Greek tanker and a French ore-carrier. In spite of the cleaning operation at sea, an estimated 640 m3 crude washed ashore. The coastline of seven municipalities was polluted.

The cleaning of the coast was coordinated by the Province of South Holland, which gained a lot of experience during this operation with manual and mechanical methods of oil recovery. The province advised the municipalities on different subjects, technical as well as socioeconomic and legal. The organization of the cleaning operations was laid down in the provincial emergency plan for coastal pollution by oil. Not only the municipal services played important roles in this plan; industrial life also took part. It turned out that this emergency plan was very usable as a basis for this whole operation.

The coastline, which consists for the greater part of beaches, was cleaned with bulldozers, shovels, and graders. In this way, 33,000 m3 of oil/sand mixture was gathered. The oil/sand mixture was separated with a specially developed sieving technique. Afterward, the sand was buried on the beach. In this way, the small amount of oil it still contained (0.5 percent) was disposed of biologically. The oil that remained after sieving was burned.

The total costs of the cleaning operation amounted to about $2.5 million. These costs are redressed on the tankers' assurance-company.
THE KATINA OIL SPILL 1982, COMBATING OPERATION AT SEA
Authors: Koops W. , Sanders F. J. , Gubbens J. M.
Published: January 2013

At about 15 km north-northwest of the Hook of Holland, the Greek tanker M.S. Katina collided with the French ore carrier Pengall on the afternoon of Monday, June 7, 1982. The collision caused a gash below the waterline in the No. 4 port cargo tank of the Katina which was loaded with 6,300 m3 heavy fuel oil. It was estimated during the first reconnaissance flight at eight o'clock in the evening, that between 1,000 and 2,000 m3 of oil must have been released from the Katina. Later, when the oil had been cleared up, it appeared that the total amount of leaked oil had been 1,630 m3.

The dredger oil combat vessels Cosmos and Hein were in full action beginning at noon Tuesday, June 8, sweeping the oil from the sea surface. The Cosmos and the Hein swept up 800 m3 and 300 m3 of oil respectively (i.e., weathered oil with 30–50 percent seawater included). Especially on Tuesday a fairly large amount of oil was recovered by the Cosmos and the Hein. After that, it became more and more difficult to combat the oil, which became more and more scattered.

As the viscosity of the oil became increasingly higher due to evaporation of the more volatile components, pumping became increasingly difficult and the capacity of the sweeping system decreased accordingly.

After the Cosmos was dismissed, the Hein and the Smal Agt continued to combat the scattered oil slicks. In total, approximately 1,440 m3 were eventually removed from the sea surface, of which approximately 790 m3 was pure water-free oil.

No further oil of significance was observed on Saturday June 12 and the opinion was that the combat activities had been effective at sea and the coast had been protected from extensive oil pollution. However, that Sunday oil washed up on the Dutch coast. The submerged oil, due to its higher specific gravity, floats invisibly under the water surface and was driven toward the coast by strong on-shore winds and currents.
THE TANKER ASSIMI—A CASE HISTORY1
Authors: Hayes Terence M.
Published: January 2013

The tanker Assimi caught fire off the coast of Oman in January 1983 and subsequently broke up and sank in the Arabian Sea, approximately 200 miles equidistant from the coasts of Oman and Pakistan. This paper deals with the response actions taken by the Council for Conservation of the Environment and Prevention of Pollution (CCEPP) and the advisory role of the author during this incident.

The author subsequently advised CCEPP on development of their programs of marine pollution prevention, control, and response and assisted in the preparation of a National Contingency Plan for Oman and provision of associated manpower and resources. The paper also outlines the advisory role of the International Maritime Organization in a developing country for prevention and control of marine pollution.
A MAJOR OIL BARGE POLLUTION INCIDENT ON THE ARKANSAS RIVER
Authors: Forrest Robert G. , Lopez David , Peckham Richard C. , Gorry Frank J.
Published: January 2013

When the towboat Girard Lewis lost power on the Arkansas River Navigation System, it drifted into a railroad bridge near Pine Bluff, Arkansas. Upon impact, it lost the two oil barges it was pushing; one barge floated downstream and was impaled by icebreakers on U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Lock and Dam No. 4. The resulting damage to the barge caused a major discharge (8,000 barrels) of No. 6 fuel oil, which affected industrial and recreational uses of the river and threatened sensitive environmental areas, including the White River National Wildlife Refuge.

The discharger accepted responsibility for salvage of the damaged barge but not for containment and cleanup of the spilled oil. Consequently, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency initiated a federal removal project using the oil pollution response fund authorized under the Clean Water Act. A coordinated effort among at least seven federal and state agency representatives on site was carried out over 25 days. Special problems were encountered and resolved involving unusually high river flow, large amounts of debris, use and effectiveness of various oil recovery devices, barge salvage operations, closure of the navigation system to traffic, protection of environmentally sensitive areas, and levels of cleanup of shorelines and locks and dams.

The project was effectively carried out over 60 miles of affected river at a cost of $372,000, with a minimum of environmental and real property damages. It was the worst pollution incident that has occurred on the Arkansas River Navigation System.
A CASE HISTORY: OIL SPILL ONTO THE PRADO FLOOD CONTROL BASIN, A FRESHWATER WETLANDS CLEANUP
Authors: Kemerer Jack A. , Hendrickson Nancy , Mullinaux Robert
Published: January 2013

During January and February 1983, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) conducted a Clean Water Act funded cleanup of several thousand gallons of crude oil spilled onto the Prado Flood Control Basin in Riverside County, California. The California Department of Fish and Game (CDF&G) requested EPA assistance in the cleanup after recovering over 100 oiled birds, many of which were dead or near death.

Representatives from the EPA, the EPA Technical Assistance Team (TAT), and the U.S. Coast Guard Pacific Strike Team (PST) conducted aerial and surface surveys of the impacted area and determined that a speedy cleanup was required in this environmentally sensitive area. The responsible party indicated that his funds were insufficient to perform an adequate and expedient cleanup, necessitating a federally funded cleanup.

A number of environmental factors and physical constraints affected the cleanup operation. The basin is a forested wetland supporting a wide variety of wildlife, including migratory waterfowl. The oil was concentrated at the center of the basin in thick willow brush. Removal of the oil had to be performed for the most part manually, with small, recreational-type aluminum boats that provided the only access to the contaminated area. The safety of workers in debris-laden boats had to be considered on several occasions during unfavorable weather conditions.
OIL SPILL CLEANUP AND HABITAT RESTORATION—LITTLE PANOCHE CREEK, CALIFORNIA1
Authors: Pimentell Emily M.
Published: January 2013

In September 1983, an underground pipeline break resulted in a 31,000 barrel crude oil spill into Little Panoche Creek, Fresno County, California. The crude oil spill saturated soil and vegetation for two miles along the creek. Although the creek in itself is not of significant economic or environmental importance, the collective protection of creeks in the area is important. Water is a limiting resource and wildlife habitats have been minimized due to agricultural development.

The goal of the cleanup was to completely remove contaminated soil and vegetation so as to minimize direct damage to wildlife including the San Joaquin Kit Fox, a state-listed rare species and federally-listed endangered species. Mitigation measures included the construction of small water ponding areas to enhance the growth of existing marsh vegetation, and seeding to revegetate the creek banks with indigenous shrubs to provide cover for wildlife and minimize soil erosion. Although a large volume of oil was spilled, conditions such as slow water flow in the creek, easy equipment access to the creek, and a natural oil collection area provided for favorable cleanup conditions and resulted in 99 percent recovery of oil. Contaminated soil was stockpiled to allow it to biodegrade, rather than use the costly alternative of landfill disposal. The creek habitat was near full recovery one year after the spill. Recovery was assessed by the regrowth of marsh and shrub vegetation in the creek and its adjacent banks.
RESPONSE TO THE MOBILOIL SPILL INCIDENT
Authors: III William C. Park
Published: January 2013

Mobil Oil Corporation has long recognized the need to be prepared in the event of a large spill of oil. This paper discusses what happened when Mobil's Marine Transportation Department received word that one of its vessels had stranded in the Columbia River, releasing a quantity of oil.

Response to the Mobiloil incident brought together personnel from several Mobil companies in a preplanned manner. When on scene, this diverse group, previously trained, had the necessary skills and knowledge to rapidly organize to manage the spill cleanup operation. This spill response operation verified the training programs conducted by Mobil. It included the establishment of a bird rescue center, the use of company-owned communications equipment, and resulted in at least one new cleanup technique.

These experiences are shared with the hope that others responding to a large spill may do so with confidence if the necessary planning has been accomplished and response team personnel have been provided appropriate training.
UNIQUE DISPOSAL TECHNIQUES FOR ARCTIC OIL SPILL RESPONSE
Authors: Swiss James J. , Smrke Donald J. , Pistruzak William M.
Published: January 2013

Disposing of oil and oiled debris from Arctic oil spills presents problems not encountered in temperate regions. The remoteness of potential spill sites, the wide range of environmental conditions, the lack of support facilities like roads and dump sites, and the presence of permafrost make it impossible to use many standard disposal techniques used in the south. To solve this problem, Dome Petroleum Limited, has developed a number of unique techniques for disposing of oil and oiled debris in Arctic spill responses. These techniques include (1) a method for using air-deployable igniters to burn pooled oil, (2) an air-transportable burner that can be flown to remote sites to burn recovered liquid oil with water contents up to 80 percent, (3) a helicopter-transportable incinerator for burning oil-contaminated debris at remote sites, in which forced air cooling replaces refractory material as fire box protection, and (4) a fireproof boom, for offshore open water, that can collect and burn oil in one step. All of these techniques were developed to address specific disposal problems in the Arctic. They now form part of the industry's Beaufort Sea oil spill response arsenal.
AN OVERVIEW OF A FIELD GUIDE FOR ARCTIC OIL SPILL BEHAVIOR1
Authors: Schulze Robert , Lissauer Ivan
Published: January 2013

A Field Guide for Oil Spill Behavior was developed to provide the On-Scene Coordinator with the spill behavior information needed to ensure timely and adequate containment and removal. The guide describes arctic ice conditions, the physical properties of oil as it weathers, oil spill behavior in cold water and ice conditions, and spill retention potential for the Alaskan shoreline. Six spill scenarios show the user how to apply spill behavior information to solve actual problems.
IN-PLACE BURNING OF PRUDHOE BAY OIL IN BROKEN ICE1
Authors: Smith Nelline K. , Diaz Anibal
Published: January 2013

Small-scale and large-scale experiments were performed at the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's Oil and Hazardous Materials Simulated Environmental Test Tank (OHMSETT) facility to explore the range of conditions in which oil slicks of Prudhoe Bay crude can be burned in broken ice and to determine the efficiencies of such burns.

In laboratory experiments, the minimum slick thickness supporting combustion was found to be 2.5 mm on brackish water at temperatures from 2° to 6.5° C. Minimum slick thickness to support combustion on brackish water at temperatures from 18° to 22° C was found to be 2 mm. The wicking agent was found to vary in effectiveness as a burn-enhancing agent. Decreases in burn efficiencies and burn rates were observed with decreasing water temperatures.

Four burn tests were performed in the OHMSETT tank with varying ice cover, volume of oil, and wave conditions. The brackish tank water ranged from 3.8° to 7.7° C during testing. One test was performed using lightly weathered (topped) Prudhoe Bay crude oil. Burn effectiveness ranged from 85 to 95 percent by mass. Flame spread rates ranged from 1.3 to 2.4 m/min based on discrete measurements. The slicks were ignited along the downwind edge, and in all tests the flame was not significantly inhibited by the ice from spreading throughout the test area.

This program was sponsored by the OHMSETT Interagency Technical Committee (OITC), which includes the U.S. Minerals Management Service, U. S. Coast Guard, Canadian Environmental Protection Service, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and the U.S. Navy.
ARCTIC SPILL RESPONSE IMPROVEMENTS: A 1985 REVIEW OF ARCTIC RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
Authors: Hillman Sharon O.
Published: January 2013

Research and development has taken place in the Alaskan arctic to enhance the current response capability of the oil industry. Recent additions have been made to response techniques for arctic spill cleanup for all seasons, including broken ice. This paper includes a summary of major research by Alaska Clean Seas, the Alaskan industry cooperative group, reviews the technology gaps in arctic response capabilities, and highlights research and development areas which would benefit from further efforts to improve overall spill response.
ADVANCE PLANNING FOR DISPERSANT USE/NON-USE
Authors: Fraser J. P.
Published: January 2013

Guidelines are suggested for advance planning for the use or non-use of dispersants to combat oil spills. These guidelines are intended to expedite the decision to use dispersants in the event of an oil spill, where that will minimize environmental damage. These guidelines can be applied readily to any geographical area to answer the following questions: (1) Are there locations where dispersant application should normally be allowed? (2) In these locations, what rate of dispersant application should be allowed? (3) Are there locations where dispersant application should normally be avoided?

The logic behind these guidelines is explained so that exceptions can be identified and so that changes in the guidelines can be made as advances are made in the state of the art. These guidelines provide for control over dispersant usage while allowing application (in most instances) at rates which can disperse floating oil effectively.