bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Spatial mapping of nitric oxide generation in the ischemic heart using electron paramagnetic resonance imaging
Authors: Kuppusamy Periannan , Wang Penghai , Samouilov Alexandre , Zweier Jay L.
Published: March 2007

Recently, it has been shown that rat hearts subjected to global ischemia generate nitric oxide (NO) and that a significant portion of it is generated by the reduction of nitrite under the acidic and reducing conditions that occur during myocardial ischemia [Zweier, Wang, Samouilov, Kuppusamy, Nature Med. 1, 804–809 (1995)]. In the present study it is further attempted to map the spatial distributions of the NO generation in the ischemic myocardium using L‐band electron paramagnetic resonance imaging. Rat hearts were loaded with 10 mM nitrite and subjected to global no‐flow ischemia, during which time a series of three‐dimensional spatial electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) images of the distribution of NO were obtained using the NO trap bis(N‐methyl‐D‐glucamine dithiocarbamate)iron(II). The images clearly showed that NO is formed throughout the myocardium. Kinetic experiments showed that maximum NO generation and trapping occur at the midmyocardium and spread out to endocardium and epicardium of the left ventricle. The magnitude of generation in the RV myocardium is four‐ to fivefold lower than in the LV.
Measurement of the arterial concentration of Gd‐DTPA using MRI: A step toward quantitative perfusion imaging
Authors: Fritz‐Hansen Thomas , Rostrup Egill , Larsson Henrik B. W. , Søndergaard Lars , Ring Poul , Henriksen Ole
Published: March 2007

A noninvasive method using an inversion recovery turbo‐FLASH for dynamic measurement of the arterial input function represented by the bolus passage of Gd‐DTPA in the descending aorta is presented, and the results are compared with the input function obtained by arterial blood samples. A good accordance between the two input functions was found, indicating that it is possible to measure the input function to the myocardium using MRI. A variation between the two concentration curves of 5% at upslope, 2.7% at peak point, and <7% at downslope was found. The study also indicates that a short inversion time <250 ms has to be used to ensure correct measurement of peak concentration.
COSESS and INSESS: Coherent and incoherent spin echoes in the steady state
Authors: Werthner Harald , Krieg Robert , Ladebeck Ralf , Saemann‐Ischenko Georg
Published: March 2007

A new fast sequence type, called COSESS/INSESS, is described. The steady state for COSESS is coherent but incoherent for INSESS. COSESS/INSESS combine the contrast behavior of fast imaging with steady‐state free precession (FISP) and fast low angle shot (FLASH), respectively, to the robustness of spin‐echo (SE) sequences with regard to susceptibility and field inhomogeneities. In contrast to other fast sequences such as rapid spin‐echo excitation (RASEE), fast low angle spin echo with short echo time (FATE) or the missing pulse sequence, which also uses a spin echo, COSESS/INSESS can additionally handle time‐dependent disturbances arising from eddy currents, hysteresis or Bo instability. The acquisition time is 2 to 3 times longer than with gradientbased steady‐state sequences. The principle of echo generation is evaluated and shows a superposition of several subechoes in the spin echo. Different solutions were elaborated to attain a coherent superposition of sub‐echo signals for COSESS. Signal and contrast behavior were investigated both by simulations and experiments and demonstrate the performance of COSESS/INSESS.
The Contribution of Eduard Lindeman to the Development of Theory and Philosophy in Adult Education
Authors: Brookfield Stephen
Published: March 2007

This paper attempts to assess the extent to which Eduard Lindeman has created the framework of discourse and analysis predominant in adult education. Six contributions to, the development of conceptual frameworks, philosophical imperatives and substantive foci are identified: (1) the conceptualization of adult education as a collaborative, informal, yet critical exchange between learners and teachers, (2) the critical theory of adult learning in which adults become aware of the historicity of their individual existence and social environment, and through which adults discover the roots of their personal and social conduct, (3) the introduction and articulation of the concept of andragogy into the American literature of adult education, (4) the emphasis on the social mission of adult education, (5) the identification of the small discussion group as the pedagogic mode unique to adult education, and, (6) the specification of a curricular domain for adult education.
The Computer In the ABE and GED Classroom: A Review of the Literature
Authors: Rachal John R.
Published: March 2007

Much has been said about the potential of computer-assisted instruction (CAI) in education and, more specifically, adult education. This article examines a number of data-based programs which have used CAI in a specific area of adult education, ABE and GED. Although two program failures are discussed, the findings of most of the studies range from "no significant differences" to CAI as being superior to "traditional only" methods. Potential problem areas are discussed under the headings cost factors, the hardware syndrome, and administrative and staff commitment. Potential benefits are discussed under the headings individualization, positive reinforcement, and instructional gains. Although CAI is not at all widespread in ABE and GED settings, the published research suggests that its use merits consideration by ABE and GED administrators.
The Relationship Between Self-Directed Learning Readiness and Life Satisfaction Among Older Adults
Authors: Brockett Ralph G.
Published: March 2007

Readiness for self-directed learning and perceived life satisfaction were explored among a sample of 64 adults at least 60 years of age. A statistically significant positive relationship was found between scores on measures of self-directed learning readiness and life satisfaction. Further, while readiness for self-directed learning does not appear to be related to chronological age, a link with previous formal education does seem to exist. Those individuals who completed more years of schooling tended to score higher on self-directed readiness. The findings offer tentative support for the view that a relationship may exist between a tendency toward self-directedness as a learner and such issues as independence and quality of life during the later years.
A Descriptive and Evaluative Analysis of Program Planning Literature, 1950-1983
Authors: Sork Thomas J. , Buskey John H.
Published: March 2007

Literature which presents a complete program planning model was described and analyzed using explicitly defined and uniformly applied descriptive and evaluative dimensions. The analysis included 93 publications consisting of book-length and shorter pieces which contained explicit or implicit planning models. An analytical summary chart, that resembles those found in Consumer Reports, is used to report results of the analysis. Careful study of the chart reveals similarities and differences between the models which enhance or limit their theoretical or practical utility. The charts can be used by practitioners, students, and researchers to identify literature designed for use in a particular adult education milieu and with qualitative characteristics appropriate for the intended use. Several observations about the current state of the program planning literature are made and recommendations designed to strengthen the literature are offered.
Participation In Educational Activities By Active Older Adults
Authors: Fisher James C.
Published: March 2007

The purpose of this study was to identify predictors of participation in educational activities by active older adults and to describe the educational needs addressed by their present participation and their future learning needs. Information was gathered from 786 active older adults using the Srole Anomia Scale, the Life Satisfaction Index A, the Fisher Self-Directed Learning Index, and questions about demographics and participation in educational activities by respondents. Significant statistical relationships were found between participation and level of educational attainment, anomia, propensity to engage in self-directed learning activities, and awareness of learning needs. Awareness of sites where educational activities were available was found to be the best predictor of participation. Approximately three-fourths of the learning needs identified could be described as "expressive."
Oral Communication Apprehension Among Adult Learners: A Factor To Be Considered In Adult Basic Education
Authors: Conner Thomas N. , Williams James A.
Published: March 2007

Researchers have consistently described certain individuals who avoid interaction which requires oral communication with other people. The purpose of this investigation was to determine whether or not oral communication apprehension was related to the employment status of student enrolled in Adult Basic Education (ABE) programs. Results of this investigation indicate the relationship is positive. Unemployed adults enrolled in ABE demonstrated greater reticence to talk on a measure of oral communication apprehension than did employed ABE students. Programs designed to maximize the oral communicative confidence and skill of ABE students should be considered in order to enhance the employment potential of the adult learner.
Characteristics of Lifelong Learners in the Human Service Professions
Authors: Livneh Cheryl
Published: March 2007

The purpose of this study was to develop a profile of lifelong learners in human service professions. One hundred and ninety-five human service professionals responded to the instrument, Characteristics of Lifelong Learners in the Professions (CLLP), developed by the researcher. CLLP items were subjected to principal components analysis followed by a Varimax rotation. The extracted factors and selected demographic variables were then subjected to multiple regression analysis in order to predict the average number of hours spent in learning activities per month. The amount of variance in learning explained by the independent variable was not sufficient to develop a profile of lifelong learners. However, two factors identified as predictors of lifelong learning-Educability and Future orientation—can be developed and/or encouraged in preservice and continuing education programs.
Informal Learning In Family Caregiving: A Worm's Eye View
Authors: Hasselkus Betty R. , Ray Robert O.
Published: March 2007

The purpose of this study was to examine the process of informal learning in the context of family caregiving for the frail elderly in the community. Sixty ethnographic interviews were conducted with fifteen family caregivers. A model of informal learning as reflection-in-action emerged from the data. Five themes of Meaning and six types of Informal Learning were derived from the interview data. An implicit cultural theme of "ownership of knowledge" in caregiving is hypothesized and implications for teaching and learning in everyday situations is discussed.
An Analysis of Adult Education Administration Literature, 1936-1989
Authors: Courtenay Bradley C.
Published: March 2007

Literature that focuses on adult education administration was identified and analyzed by a slightly revised form of the Sork and Buskey (1986) literature analytical framework. The 75 books, articles, monographs and chapters were categorized into three descriptive dimensions and were examined for the degree of their comprehensive attention to nine administrative functions. A review of the charts indicates differences in the contexts or settings of adult education administration, the sources utilized in the literature, and the extent of coverage given to the administrative functions. Six observations provide a research agenda for improving the adult education administration literature.
Reasons for Nonparticipation In Adult Basic Education
Authors: Beder Hal
Published: March 2007

This research sought to determine reasons for nonparticipation in adult basic education (ABE), whether there was an underlying structure to those reasons, and whether sociodemographic variables were associated with reasons for nonparticipation. The study was conducted on a representative sample of Iowa adults (N= 129) who were aged eighteen or older, had not completed high school, and had never attended ABE. Data were collected through a telephone survey which had three parts: corroboration of eligibility for the study, sociodemographic information and 32 items which operationalized the concept "reasons for nonparticipation." Factor analysis of the 32 items resulted in four interpretable factors: Low Perception of Need, Perceived Effort, Dislike for School, and Situational Barriers. Low perception of Need correlated positively with age, and Situational Barriers was shown to be related to adult mid-life.
Theology and the Present-Day Revival
Authors: Ahlstrom Sydney E.
Published: March 2007

The current upsurge of interest in religion in the United States is two-fold: popular and theological. The locus of religious thought has shifted in the twentieth century from Europe to the United States, and the present religious revival is distinguished from earlier ones by the activity of a significant number of first-rate intellectuals contributing to a renewed theology and a fresh philosophy of religion. Neo-orthodoxy among theologians, ecumenicalism among churches, and a religious curiosity on all levels are major aspects of the contemporary situation. The reinvigoration of theology now underway in the United States represents a confluence of many streams of religious thought: an existential idealism begun in Europe; the philosophical and ethical lessons of Plato, Aristotle, and the classic Stoics; a concept of creative dialogue with the world, society, and culture springing from nineteenth-century liberalism; the demythologizing of the Scriptures; an approach to dogmatics which does not dismiss philosophical issues; and an insistence upon an ethic which is Christocentric, theologically oriented, and biblically grounded but also relevant to the situation of the contemporary individual.—Ed.
Why Not Merge and Survive?
Authors: Rice William Thomas
Published: March 2007

The current return on invested capital in the transportation industry has made it necessary for useless duplication of facilities to be eliminated. This necessity has become more acute since the end of World War II, first, because of decreased earnings and, second, because of the pinch of government regulation and outmoded work rules. The method developed by the transportation industry to eliminate this duplication is the consolidation of competing lines. This movement is new in the industry, but it offers many advantages which may ultimately prevent the nationalization of our transportation system.
American Studies Abroad: Culture and Foreign Policy
Authors: Spiller Robert E.
Published: March 2007

Assuming that the purpose of a cultural foreign policy is the development of international good will by an in crease in the mutual understanding of national cultures, it is possible to observe three levels in American cultural foreign policy since 1945: the informational, the exchange, and the American-studies levels. The United States Information Agency (USIA) and other cultural agencies have maintained steady progress during this period in making American princi ples and cultures better understood throughout the world. The recent tendency to curtail these programs in the interest of economy has caused alarm, but perhaps the most urgent phase of this work has passed and other forms of cultural foreign policy are taking over. The second stage—international ex change of persons—because of its unofficial or semiofficial na ture, has supplemented, and occasionally conflicted with, the informational programs. The exchange program has also, at times, seemed to be losing effectiveness, as native scholars of other countries take over its work in studying and teaching American and comparative cultures. The establishment of chairs, courses, and degrees, and of international learned socie ties devoted to American studies in most European and some Asian countries is, perhaps, the most substantial and gratifying result of American cultural foreign policy, and indicates the direction in which policy might well move more deliberately in the future.
War Termination as a Problem in Civil-Military Relations
Authors: Halperin Morton H.
Published: March 2007

Three military groups with different interests will influence decisions regarding war termination. Each will believe that it is advocating what is in the national interest but will view it from a different perspective. The field com mander will believe that his theater is of central importance and that military victory is possible. The military services will be concerned about their continuing autonomy and growth and will evaluate proposals for war termination from this per spective. The general staff in the nation's capital will be sensitive to domestic and foreign political considerations and will view their mission as compromising between civilian and field commander views.
Whitney Young's Open Society
Authors: Sims Harold R.
Published: March 2007

Whitney Young was a man who transcended the boundaries of race, nationality, and ideology. He was fond of saying that there are no moderates in the civil rights move ment, that all are militants in the fight for justice. But his measure of militancy was not rhetoric but results; not prom ises but performance. He was probably the most influential private citizen in the field of human resources in the past century. He had a dream, a faith in the fundamental decency of people, a belief that people would act justly, if not out of altruism then out of self-interest. He tried to show this society that it was in its own self-interest to bring about equal life results for black people. His "domestic Marshall Plan" called for establishment of national priorities that would bring these results. His ultimate goal was an open society. The immediate task facing black people is to forge a unified program behind which all spectrums of black opinion may unite. A second key task facing black people is to construct meaningful coalitions with those elements of white society that can help us to bring about change. The role of govern ment in this key decade will be to provide the leadership and the programmatic restructuring of the torn social fabric of the nation.
Actual, Feasible and Optimal Income Inequality in a Three-Level Education Model
Authors: Tinbergen Jan
Published: March 2007

Incomes should be interpreted as the outcome of demand for, and supply of, various types of labor. Demand is derived from a Cobb-Douglas-like production function with five types of labor characterized by actual education and ed ucation required. Supply is derived from a utility function containing income, actual education and education required. One complete model for analytical—explanatory—and one complete model for normative—optimization—purposes are constructed. The former shows the influence on income dis tribution of given changes in educational level; the latter, the optimal income distribution under two different sets of con straints on education. Figures used are crude figures for the Netherlands around 1962.
Drugs and the Mass Media
Authors: Barcus F. Earle , Jankowski Susan M.
Published: March 2007

Mass media have been described as all- pervasive cultural institutions which both reflect and project society's values. They are shown to have played a role throughout history, whenever new developments have threatened established values, and often are singled out as important facilitators and accelerators of social change. As such, it is not surprising that various charges have been leveled against the mass media for their purported role in the recent and significant escalation of psychoactive drug use and abuse. Some critics have attempted to relate the act of viewing or experiencing the mass media to problems of drug use; others have focused their charges on, and label as villains, the contents of the media, as in advertising, television entertainment and popular song lyrics. The intent of this paper is to examine some of these accusations and to explore the issues and the evidence in the current con troversy over the role of mass media in the use and abuse of psychoactive drugs.
Effectiveness of Governmental Operations
Authors: Abraham Henry J.
Published: March 2007

The Judiciary has always received a higher rating of esteem and regard than the other two branches of government. However, it is not free from pragmatic or philosophical operational problems. Two of these are finding a line between judging and legislating and court reform. Suggestions for reform fall into three categories: (1) those dealing with the institution and modus operandus of the courts, (2) those concerned with court staff, and (3) those dealing with the legal framework mandated by law- makers and the Constitution. A matter of infinitely more press ing concern is how to confine judges to judging rather than legislating. The Supreme Court must possess the power to interpret legislation, but a line must be drawn between the imposition of judicial judgment and the exercise of judicial will. Our federal system underlies both the disappointments and the accomplishments of the American government. The apparent trend toward centralization of federal power is both an axiom of modern American federalism and irreversi ble. However, since excessive rigidity of centralization is a weakness, regional, state, and local governments should retain a substantial sphere of independence.
Report on Committee II
Authors: Goodman Frank
Published: March 2007

In the committee's discussion, 3 criteria were suggested for measuring government effectiveness: ( a) the degree of public approval it has; (b) the extent to which it has provided solutions to important problems of society; and (c) the extent to which it has given the public what it wants. In assessing the effectiveness of the presidency, the main theme was that the office has grown too great, is insufficiently accountable to Congress or the public, and should be cut down to size. One suggestion that met with no opposition was that Congress should spell out the con cept of high crimes and misdemeanors and set up an ongoing institutional mechanism for impeachment. In evalu ating the Legislative branch, there was general agreement that Congress was not as bad as its reputation. There was discussion and some disagreement as to the utility of procedural and structural reform.
International Political Parties as a Vehicle for Human Rights
Authors: Fraser Donald M. , Salzberg John P.
Published: March 2007

The existence of confederations of democratic political parties provides an international organizational structure through which a human rights network might operate. By exchanging information and taking coordinated initiatives, there is good prospect for encouraging positive developments in human rights. Efforts at such cooperation are discussed, as are two projects which were undertaken. Initiatives are suggested to strengthen the effectiveness of these efforts.
Policy Relevant Quality of Life Research
Authors: Milbrath Lester W.
Published: March 2007

Objective indicators, particularly economic indicators, are inadequate for inferring quality of life (Q. of L.); they must be supplemented by subjective indicators. A strategy is proposed for developing policy relevant Q. of L. research that includes: developing a conceptual analytical map of human needs, utilizing both subjective and objective indicators, selecting diverse communities to study, ascertaining lifestyle preferences, emphasizing environmental factors, comparing Q. of L. across national cultures, using Q. of L. data to study social structures. The paper concludes with some specific suggestions for using Q. of L. research in policymaking to: identify predicaments, provide value weightings, infer prospective project impacts, assess project outcomes, test limits of inferences from objective to subjective indicators, suggest alternate lifestyles, alert leaders to growing disaffection.
Environmental Problems of Developing Countries
Authors: Mayur Rashmi
Published: March 2007

The planet is over-populated and its limited resources, unevenly distributed among the world's people, are being used at an accelerated pace. The implications of man's violence to the environment are serious throughout the world and particularly in less developed countries such as India. Air, water, land, and noise pollution constantly imperil quality of life and must be controlled and managed with all the skill at our disposal if man and his environment are to survive.
Is Death and Dying Merely an Ethical Issue?
Authors: De Wachter Maurice A.M.
Published: March 2007

Some people worry about the current tendency to ignore the distinction of religious and ethical issues in the area of death and dying. This article attempts to identify sources and consequences of such blending. One of the countries offering a microcosm of religious and ethical trends with regard to death and dying is the Netherlands. Issues identified in Dutch society are, therefore, being compared with similar listings in North American and European literature on death and dying. In an even more paradigmatic way the unfinished debate on the distinction between active and passive euthanasia remains representative of a religious approach to death and dying.
Organizational and Other Contraints on Controlling the Use of Deadly Force by Police
Authors: Lindgren James
Published: March 2007

Researchers have often suggested rule making to control the use of deadly force by police. But or ganizational and other constraints impede the institution of effective rules. Unlike decisions in other large decentralized organizations, a police officer's decision to fire a gun is not easily controlled by top management. The structure of police departments, the nature of the decision to fire a gun, and the pressures on the review of the use of deadly force all make reducing the unnecessary use of force difficult. In addition, as long as the density of guns in a community is high, police policymaking is further restricted. Very little can be done to reduce the use of excessive force by police in the situations where suspects are threatening officers because of the possi bility that the suspect may use a gun against the police. Police departments, however, can more effectively restrict the use of force against fleeing felons.
Theater-Nuclear Force Modernization and NATO's Flexible Response Strategy
Authors: Davis Jacquelyn K.
Published: March 2007

In October 1979 the North Atlantic Treaty Organization adopted a resolution that recommended modernization of NATO's long-range theater-nuclear forces. Based upon the deployment in Western Europe of 108 Pershing II missile and 464 ground-launched cruise missile launchers, the NATO decision was widely regraded as an essential step in redressing the deteriorating military balance in Europe. The perceived erosion of the European balance is rooted in the momentum of programs undertaken by the Soviet Union both in nuclear and nonnuclear forces. From a European perspective, however, the most worrisome aspect of Soviet modernization programs relates to improvements in theater-nuclear systems which, when juxtaposed with the development of a potential counterforce capability (against U.S. ICBMs), have reinforced doubts about the ability of the Alliance to ensure deterrence by means of the agreed strategy of Flexible Response, with its attendant concepts of defensive planning and graduated response providing for conventional and nuclear options. To enhance the deterrence posture of NATO and to provide for a contingency in which the actual use of NATO's nuclear-capable systems might become necestheater-nuclear forces and, at the same time, revitalize its tactical planning options.
Maritime Doctrines and Capabilities: The United States and the Soviet Union
Authors: Hanks Robert J.
Published: March 2007

During the past two decades, the sea power of the Soviet Union has undergone remarkable growth in size as well as capability. At the same time, that of the United States has suffered steady decline. Moscow has moved deliberately to exploit its new-found maritime outreach for political purposes, while ensuring that its sea power will be capable of successfully discharging far more important wartime functions. The maritime lessons that clearly have been assimilated by the leaders in the Kremlin have just as obviously been ignored by Western governments in general and the United States in particular. Unless these present trends are reversed, the outlook for Western industrialized nations—heavily dependent on use of the seas as they are—is grim. Indications from the Reagan administration suggest that a resuscitation of the American Navy is about to begin. There is a very long way to go, however, and if in the meantime U.S. allies and friends do not make a serious effort to assume their fair share of the burden, they may find themselves left in the lurch if the United States is ultimately forced to take unilateral action to protect its own interests, the needs of its allies notwithstanding.
Notes on the Situation
Authors: BELL GRIFFIN B. , ADAMSON TERRENCE B.
Published: March 2007

This article provides perceptions of some of the underlying causes of the “litigation explosion” that courts in the United States currently face. Americans are turning to courts for the solution to problems that formerly were provided by other institutions or resolved informally. Litigation has also been encouraged by court decisions in new areas of the law, oftentimes remedying long-suffered injustices. Taken up as well are various remedies to ease the overload on courts and to broaden the access to justice for all citizens. Measures to keep unmeritorious cases out of court, as well as efforts to broaden the range of dispute resolution forums, are discussed. Some disputes now in the courts do not need the full range of court services and in fact may be more effectively resolved elsewhere.
Politics, Policy, and Bureaucracy at the Top
Authors: FESLER JAMES W.
Published: March 2007

Innovation reflecting presidential priorities stems in part from the interplay among political appointees and senior civil servants. Members within each set share distinctive capabilities and disabilities. The brief tenure of political appointees, along with the two-year interval between elections, imposes short time perspectives on political executives, in contrast to those of career executives. The large number of political appointees and their initial distrust of the bureaucracy reduce the contribution that careerists might make to the development and implementation of policies. This is a serious loss, given many political appointees' lack of governmental experience and weak preparation for managing or operating within large organizations. Most career executives are disposed to adapt to a new administration's policy initiatives; resistance is as likely among political executives when the president changes course. Centrifugal forces disperse policymaking into overly discrete, semiautonomous compartments. Centripetal forces draw policymaking to the White House staff, whose members are only occasionally qualified for such responsibility. Reducing the number of political appointees would permit more discriminating selection and lead to greater involvement of careerists. However, careerist's preparation for a larger role needs improvement.
New Federalism and Health Policy
Authors: LEE PHILIP R. , ESTES CARROLL L.
Published: March 2007

The making of health policy in the United States is a complex process that involves the private and public sectors, including multiple levels of government. Five characteristics of the policy process are identified, which establish the means by which policies are formulated and which affect the nature of the policies that emerge. These characteristics include (1) the relationship of the government to the private sector; (2) the distribution of authority and responsibility within a federal system of government; (3) the relationship between policy formation and implementation; (4) a pluralistic ideology as the basis of politics; and (5) incrementalism as the strategy for reform. The article focuses on the impact on health policy of the distribution of authority and responsibility within the federal system, particularly the impact of new federalism policies as they emerged during the past decade. The effects of dual federalism, cooperative federalism, creative federalism, and new federalism are examined in relation to health policies. The article concludes with an examination of the challenge to long-established values and health policies posed by new federalism.
Is there a Legitimate Role for Public Relations in the Arts?
Authors: FINN DAVID
Published: March 2007

Public relations is often considered a function of fund raising by arts institutions. This is particularly true in the United States, where the tax laws encourage both individual and corporate contributions to nonprofit institutions. Through a variety of techniques, public relations has helped arts institutions gain visibility for their programs and stimulate community and corporate interest in specific projects. In recent years there has been concern about the introduction of hype into the art world. There is little evidence that either the practice of public relations or the increasing financial support from corporations is creating an overpromoted environment in the arts. Public interest in blockbuster exhibitions and other special events has developed spontaneously. There is also no evidence that arts institutions are compromising their integrity in seeking support from business. Corporate support of the arts can help achieve marketing results or be aimed exclusively at helping the community. Whatever the motivations, they provide opportunities for business people to demonstrate leadership in our society. Public relations can play the important role of helping to find common ground on which both business and the arts can seek to achieve their objectives.
Notes on the Presidential Task Force on the Arts and Humanities and President's Committee on the Arts and Humanities
Authors: McHENRY BARNABAS
Published: March 2007

Created in 1981 by President Ronald Reagan, the Presidential Task Force on the Arts and Humanities produced a series of resolutions including a recommendation leading to the formation of the President's Committee. The Task Force did not question federal funding of the arts or the humanities, but it did suggest encouragement of federal matching grants and increases in private support. The President's Committee began its deliberations where the Task Force ended: the investigation of ways to further private support of the arts and humanities. Among the items on its agenda are the encouragement of community foundations to enter the area of cultural funding; presidential fellowships in the arts and humanities; development of an information system for the collection of data on funding; recognition awards; city pairing and sharing for cultural institutions; and various tax proposals.
Legal Regulation of Gambling since 1950
Authors: BLAKEY G. ROBERT
Published: March 2007

Prior to 1950, gambling activity was generally prohibited at the federal and state levels. Since that time, a movement has developed to legalize various forms of gambling, first lotteries and more recently casino operations. Federal policies against gambling, supported by Congress's power over interstate commerce, have been principally motivated by a desire to control organized crime. They have been more successful at curtailing certain forms of gambling, chiefly illegal casinos, than they have been at cutting down organized crime itself. State policies toward lotteries have shifted from prohibition to state authorization as a means of raising revenue. Controversial, they appear to be a fixed feature of modern fiscal policy. Long limited to Nevada, casino operations are now found in New Jersey, and they are widely under examination for adoption elsewhere. Organized crime influence in allied services and unions, if not the casinos themselves, remains a serious problem. Reconsideration of fundamental policies toward gambling should take into account their economic, political, social, and moral as well as legal implications.
Selective Incapacitation?
Authors: GOTTFREDSON STEPHEN D. , GOTTFREDSON DON M.
Published: March 2007

Recent sentencing proposals for the selective incapacitation of criminal offenders have generated a great deal of enthusiasm and controversy. The concept has been greeted enthusiastically because it promises simultaneously to decrease the crime rate and to reduce crowding in the nation's prisons. The controversy stems from two sources: concerns of science and of ethics. This article describes the selective incapacitation proposal and the scientific and ethical controversies it has generated. Finally, an alternative strategy for using risk predictions is presented. It is thought to meliorate the ethical concerns discussed and to hold promise for reducing prison crowding without endangering the public.
Liberal Protestantism: End of the Road?
Authors: JOHNSON BENTON
Published: March 2007

The liberal Protestant denominations, long the most influential of America's mainline religious bodies, have suffered serious membership losses since the late 1960s. The principal sources of the losses are in the failure of the children of members to remain affiliated; this failure has been traced to a value shift that began among college-educated youth in the 1960s. Although this shift caught the liberal churches by surprise, their leaders contributed to the intellectual climate that made it possible. This climate was created in the 1930s by Reinhold Niebuhr in his critique of the optimistic religious liberalism of his day as the self-serving ideology of the bourgeoisie. As an alternative he urged theology to recover a sense of the sinful and tragic side of life and urged Christians to support the struggles of oppressed peoples. Although these themes profoundly affected liberal Protestant leaders, they failed to attract most lay people. In the 1950s Protestant intellectuals began mounting a frontal assault on the popular piety of the laity. This assault, which eventually extended even to theistic belief itself, was thematically similar to secular intellectuals' critiques of American culture and institutions, which were later embodied in an exaggerated form in the youth rebellions of the 1960s. If the liberal churches are to recover their strength and cultural influence they will have to make liberal Christianity more relevant and compelling to its own constituency.
Religion and State in Germany: West and East
Authors: MOLTMANN JÜRGEN
Published: March 2007

The relationship between church and state in Germany is conditioned by the centuries-long history of state Christianity and also by the struggle for the independence of the churches over against the state. The churches won their critical power against the state's power in their opposition to Hitler's dictatorship and the totalitarian Weltanschauung of national socialism. Since the division of the two German states in 1961, a church in socialism has developed in the German Democratic Republic. It is willing both to resist the totalitarian claims of its society and also to join into a critical partnership with the state to develop domestic social politics and peace politics between nations. In the Federal Republic of Germany, the Catholic and Evangelical churches are further developing themselves along the lines of a church for the people ( Volkskirche). This understanding of the nature of the church has been repeatedly placed into question since the development of the peace movement in 1981. A critical distance between the churches, on the one hand, and the claims and the political religion of the state, on the other, has consequently developed.
An Open Issue of Legitimacy: The State and the Church in Poland
Authors: WALASZEK ZDZISLAWA
Published: March 2007

Since the founding of the Communist state in Poland, the growth of the institutionalized basis of Catholicism there has accelerated. This trend obviously reflects a continuing growth in the social base of support for Catholicism. This article presents church-state relations in terms of confrontation between the church and Communist rule, and it postulates that the Polish Roman Catholic Church has been transformed in the course of its coexistence with Communist rule and resembles very little the Catholic Church of the prewar period. The Roman Catholic Church serves as an alternative legitimate system within Communist Poland. It is an authority system that is not constitutionally recognized, but in real terms it functions as if it were and coexists with the Communist authorities. Moreover, in the eyes of the general public, the role of the Polish church is conditional upon the performance of the Communist regime. The church's authority extends beyond the spiritual and moral domain and directly enters politics and, more recently, the social and cultural life of local communities.
Care and Treatment of the Mentally Ill in the United States: Historical Developments and Reforms
Authors: MORRISSEY JOSEPH P. , GOLDMAN HOWARD H.
Published: March 2007

Three major cycles of reform in public mental health care in the United States—the moral treatment, mental hygiene, and community mental health movements—are described as a basis for assessing the shifting boundaries between the mental health, social welfare, and criminal justice systems. Historical forces that led to the transinstitutionalization of the mentally ill from almshouses to the state mental hospitals in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries have now been reversed in the aftermath of recent deinstitutionalization policies. Evidence is suggestive that the mentally ill are also being caught up in the criminal justice system, a circumstance reminiscent of pre-asylum conditions in the early nineteenth century. These trends shape the current mental health service delivery system and the agenda for policy-relevant research on issues involving the legal and mental health fields.
The New Faces of American Politics
Authors: ADAMANY DAVID
Published: March 2007

Dramatic changes have occurred in American politics and campaign finance during the past decade. Many attribute these changes to the Federal Election Campaign Act, but modern campaign and fundraising technology have played a larger role. Together, they may have strengthened national political parties, but they have even more dramatically strengthened political action committees. Politics has also become more professionalized, bureaucratized, centralized, and nationalized. The financial constituency of politics has become more influential; the voting constituency has become increasingly removed from all aspects of politics—except casting ballots—that influence the outcomes of elections and shape national policy. These developments challenge deeply rooted beliefs about the preeminent role of voters in controlling democratic elections and government.
The Second Economy of the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe
Authors: SAMPSON STEVEN L.
Published: March 2007

The second economies of the Soviet Union and other East European countries derive from structural inadequacies in the socialist planning system and from the cultural and historical evolution of each East European society. This article combines the structural and cultural approaches to the second economy and focuses on four of its most prevalent forms: peasant household production, the shadow economy within socialist enterprises, the underground factories of Soviet Georgia, and the hidden economy within the retail and service sectors. In all cases, social linkages and cultural values provide frameworks for economic activities. The second economy helps to alleviate consumer shortages and bureaucratic bottlenecks in all these societies. It also acts as a social mollifier, channeling dangerous political frustrations into consumerism, swindling, or petty corruption. Yet the overall effect of the second economy is a corrosive one: as a surrogate reform, a second economy tolerated by the authorities only reproduces the fundamental flaws of the formal economy. Moreover, it exacerbates the gap between society and the state, between “us” and “them.”
Science Sublanguages and the Prospects for a Global Language of Science
Authors: HARRIS ZELLIG , MATTICK PAUL
Published: March 2007

Scientists have limited access to results published in languages in which they are not fluent. One solution to the problem is suggested by some results of investigation into the nature of language generally and the language of various sciences in particular. The information provided in language is given not only by the meanings of individual words but also by the relations among words, especially by the regularities of their co-occurrence. Particular sciences, furthermore, are characterized by particular sets of such relations among words. These relational structures are shared by discourses within the same scientific field in different languages; these structures can thus be seen as expressing the information carried by language in the field irrespective of national language. Because the informational structures are discoverable in a computable way, the solution suggested here to the problem of international communication in science would at the same time provide facilities for the computer processing and retrieval of scientific information on a large—potentially a global—scale.
Intergovernmental Relations in State Constitutional Law: A Historical Overview
Authors: LIBONATI MICHAEL E.
Published: March 2007

In the aftermath of the American Revolution, the relationship between local governments and their states could have been conceptualized in terms of four competing models of legitimacy: (1) custom and practice, (2) community autonomy, (3) corporate status, and (4) subordination to the sovereign. The implications for local autonomy and state-local relations of accepting each of these models is discussed in this article. Historically, the triumph of the theory of state hegemony over local government was reflected in judicial adoption of Dillon's Rule, the doctrine of implied preemption, and the idea that local governments have no rights under a state constitution. Recent state-court cases recognizing the capacity of local governments to assert procedural, dignitary, and substantive claims against the state, however, may signal the demise of the theory that local governments are merely creatures of their states and may herald a reconceptualization of the meaning of local autonomy.
Can Police Services Be Privatized?
Authors: FIXLER PHILIP E. , POOLE ROBERT W.
Published: March 2007

Some people consider police services as inappropriate for privatization, arguing that such services are public goods that only government can practically provide. The work of E. S. Savas and others, however, has persuasively demonstrated that many government services are not public goods or, at least, not pure public goods. Police services, in fact, have been successfully financed, through user fees, and delivered, via contracting, by the private sector. Moreover, there are some surprising examples of fully privatized police services, both financed and delivered privately. The major barriers to police privatization include tradition and attitudes, concern about control and accountability, union opposition, legal restrictions, and the difficulty of encouraging all beneficiaries to finance these services voluntarily, or privately. All of these barriers can be surmounted under certain circumstances. There are even signs that the privatization of police services, especially some milder forms of privatization, is gradually taking place.