bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Vision
Authors: Spelke Elizabeth S.
Published: August 2022

To understand what goes on around us, we must perceive the surrounding layout in which things appear and events happen. Vision is the richest source of information about objects and events, and research on its nature and origins constitutes one of the oldest and most successful fields of developmental cognitive science. This chapter takes a historical approach to the research of scientists, from Rene Descartes to Hermann von Helmholtz, Eleanor J. Gibson, Richard Held, and David Marr, who turned philosophical questions concerning the nature and origins of visual perception of the surrounding layout into a vibrant area of science. Their research sheds light on what infants see and provides many of the methods and concepts that have allowed later investigators to probe what infants know.
Synchronicity Experiences
Authors: Yaden David B. , Newberg Andrew B.
Published: August 2022

Most contemporary people will have heard the phrase “everything happens for a reason.” By this statement, people usually mean that there is an underlying purpose, or even a divine authorship, to all events. It is often used to provide consolation, to express the idea that suffering serves a greater purpose and that things will, ultimately, end well. In some cases, this phrase is not merely a belief, but rather consists of an intensely altered state of consciousness in which there seems to be an imminent sense of meaningfulness in the events currently unfolding. This chapter describes these synchronicity experiences. While the tendency to have these experiences has indeed been linked to some mental illnesses, the majority of these experiences are nonpathological and, instead, can provide a deep sense of wonder and reverence for the workings of the world and our interconnected lives.
Aesthetic Experiences
Authors: Yaden David B. , Newberg Andrew B.
Published: August 2022

Aesthetic experiences describe mental states that usually involve a perception of deep beauty or the sublime. These experiences are often best captured in the psychological literature by the emotion of awe. Most people will have some familiarity with these kinds of experiences, through art, music, or natural scenery. This chapter describes aesthetic experiences by discussing research on awe and scholarship on the sublime. The hope is that in the same way that emotions were once judged too vague for scientific study but are now routinely studied the study of spiritual experience follows suit and becomes a mainstream topic of research.
Transformations
Authors: Yaden David B. , Newberg Andrew B.
Published: August 2022

Most of the outcomes from spiritual experiences reviewed so far have been evidence of short-term changes—usually in the range of days, weeks, or sometimes months. These changes have involved positive or pathological outcomes as well as shifts in beliefs. There are far fewer data to support the possibility of very long-term changes, but some preliminary evidence suggests that some effects can last years, decades, or even entire lifetimes. This chapter makes it clear that spiritual experiences are notable for not only their intensity in the moment, but also the transformative changes they can exert on people over long periods of time. It is known that suffering a great tragedy can leave an individual dramatically changed for a lifetime, but beneficial instances of transformation are rarely considered. This chapter considers how some spiritual experiences can be positively transformative.
Clinical Applications
Authors: Yaden David B. , Newberg Andrew B.
Published: August 2022

Spiritual experiences could be beneficial in the context of clinical interventions and may become an important avenue for helping people who suffer from mental illness. Mindfulness and other meditation practices, which can sometimes give rise to spiritual experiences, have become a standard practice in healthcare. More recently, psychedelic compounds are poised to make a breakthrough in psychiatry and psychotherapy the likes of which have not been seen for decades. Each of these approaches, and psychedelics in particular, brings the study of spiritual experiences to the center stage of mainstream medical, scholarly, and scientific discourse. This chapter cautiously considers how the potential upsides of spiritual experiences could be harnessed in clinical contexts.
Consciousness and Altered States
Authors: Yaden David B. , Newberg Andrew B.
Published: August 2022

Among life’s biggest questions—up there with the origins of the universe—is: Why and how are people aware at all? The sense of awareness, or what is commonly called “phenomenal consciousness,” or just consciousness, is not currently understood by scientists. Scientists do, of course, understand many of the contents of consciousness, such as mental processes like perceptions, thoughts, and emotions, and a bit about “altered states of consciousness” as seen throughout this book. The scientific study of spiritual experience intersects with the topic of consciousness in several places, and this chapter examines spiritual experience in regard to two broad aspects of consciousness: (1) altered states of consciousness and (2) beliefs about the nature of consciousness itself. This chapter also examines the questions related to consciousness that the scientific study of spiritual experience likely cannot address and which may remain a mystery.
Access to Education
Authors: Sabbagh Clara
Published: August 2022

Chapter 3 examines access to education through the lens of justice in the distribution of the right to education, mainly from the perspective of policymakers. The extent to which this right is actualized determines whether, when, and where a child receives educational goods. This type of distribution evolved historically with the establishment of the modern nation-state and its public school system, and it is contingent on state policy. Insofar as, in Western countries, access to formal education at the primary and secondary levels is now provided to almost all children, discourse on the right to education today addresses the quality of education a child receives. The chapter discusses various sociological accounts regarding the development of mass schooling as well as the liberal ethos of distributive justice in education, which stresses equal educational opportunities (EEO) and meritocracy as two leading principles behind universal access to public education.
What the Ballad Knows
Authors: Daub Adrian
Published: August 2022

The German ballad was an unusual poetic genre: supposedly inspired by a treasure trove of authorless poems that had for centuries circulated among the common people, the ballad attained popularity in the form of deeply ironic poems written by some of Germany’s most canonic authors. Supposedly a celebration of the oral culture of the German Volk, the ballad instead circulated through the emerging channels of nineteenth-century culture industry: from anthologies and picture books via the exploding market for song settings, from the opera house to the vaudeville stage, the ballad hewed to its medieval pretense while sounding surprisingly modern. This book traces the strange trajectory of this poetic genre from its origins in the late eighteenth century to its political appropriations in the twentieth. Throughout, the ballad and its path across a wide variety of milieus and media told a surprising and contradictory story of the German nation. What the Ballad Knows shows that, even though the ballad arrived in Germany as a literary genre, it very quickly came to make its home in between different genres and even different media—to the point that laypeople were as likely to encounter it in a concert hall, a classroom, an art museum, or a choral rehearsal as they were to encounter it in a book. When cultural conservatives in the early twentieth century sought to claim the ballad as a straightforward and serious vehicle of German nationalism, they ignored just how complex the ballad’s relationship to the nation had been, and what complexities within nationalism the form had managed to highlight through the decades.
The Ballad’s Years of Travel
Authors: Daub Adrian
Published: August 2022

The art ballad entered German literature in the mid-eighteenth century, but it truly began its dominance with the so-called ballad year 1797, when Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and Friedrich Schiller volleyed back and forth an evolving set of formally ambitious variations on popular themes. This entrance into the German literary canon decisively inflected the cultural presuppositions and political anxieties that attached to the new form of the art ballad. In the British Isles, the ballad had become an object of interest after the Act of Union (1707): it told national histories belonging to nations understood to belong to the past. In Germany, the national community to which these poems addressed themselves was located in the future. In the British Isles, the ballad had begun reaching a broader literary public under empiricist premises, and the questions around balladry were about provenance, authenticity, and evidence. The initial German discourse around balladry drew heavily on the British conversation but did so with a temporal lag and under radically different premises. When Goethe and Schiller undertook their ballad research, they constituted a new and explicitly invented canon of poems in a network with other writers, but also with composers, visual artists, and others. Authenticity alternated with irony throughout their efforts, and their ballads manage to tell stories of both ancient memories and decidedly contemporary media. This was to shape the German ballad going forward: while it could often seem nostalgic, the form was ideally positioned to register historic change and modernization as it occurred.
The Ballad, the Voice, and the Echoes of War
Authors: Daub Adrian
Published: August 2022

In the course of the nineteenth century, the ballad increasingly became a literature associated with objects: endlessly anthologized, reproduced in schoolbooks, periodicals, and musical scores. From the beginning, however, the form was also thought uniquely suited to public declamation. This association had its origins in the first decade of the nineteenth century. The Napoleonic invasion and nationalist resistance to it politicized the German language, and in particular its public enunciation. This political impetus coincided with a broadening audience for such performances—several generations of authors and actors had labored to establish the legitimacy of evenings of poetry recitation, a press had grown up around the events to critique them, and the performers themselves had begun offering guides to proper declamation for laypeople. In the course of the nineteenth century the public Declamatorium ceded much of its popularity to other forms of public performance, but the guides for laypeople endured. And while ballads had constituted one important part of the canon for the professional declamators of the early century, the declamation guides published at mid-century accorded the ballad absolute centrality. This chapter investigates the thinking about the canon, about education, and about affect control that seem to have guided the path the Declamatorium took from the stage into the bourgeois living room.
The Ballad and Its Narratives
Authors: Daub Adrian
Published: August 2022

The New German School of the mid-nineteenth century drew on the compositional innovations of Robert Schumann, Richard Wagner, and Franz Liszt. Its protagonists, by contrast, are mostly forgotten today. Together with their far more famous teachers, this generation of composers vastly expanded the range of musical pieces that could be thought of as ballads: they popularized instrumental ballads in the mode of Chopin, they wrote choral ballads and symphonic ballads, and they based operas and concert pieces on the emerging ballad canon. What seemed to unite this motley assortment of musical objects claiming to be ballads seemed to have little to do with formal features or subject matter. It had above all to do with the fact that these works were offered to an audience, and accepted by that audience, as somehow “balladic.” This chapter asks how the composers of the New German School, both as musicians and as critics, thought about music and its appeal to a broadening and democratizing public—and highlights the central role of balladry, this literature of the commons, in their attempts. The chapter focuses on the work of Robert and Clara Schumann, Liszt, and Liszt’s student Joachim Raff.
The Ballad, the Public, and Gendered Community
Authors: Daub Adrian
Published: August 2022

By the mid-nineteenth century, the ballad was an emphatically bookish form—frequently anthologized, featured in periodicals, used in schoolbooks. But the ballad also still retained the power to create small communities—not quite a reading public, not just a family or classroom. And in particular it was used in, and used to create, gendered communities. In Berlin, a group of (male) artists, public servants, and academics met in a literary society called the “Tunnel over the Spree” (Berlin’s main river). They spent their meetings drinking and socializing, but their main focus was on literary competition—above all, their ballad contest ended up having an outsized influence on the direction the ballad would take in incipient German literary realism. This chapter contrasts the gender politics of balladry among the members of the “Tunnel” with those of women composers composing ballad settings—many of them had founded, or become associated with the choral societies that had sprung up across the German-speaking world in the first few decades of the century. Their efforts as composers reflected, but also sought critical distance from, the gender politics implied by the single-gender space of a choral academy or choral society.
Epilogue
Authors: Daub Adrian
Published: August 2022

The link between the ballad and nationalism was largely derived from the idea that the ballad preserved something: an oral culture about to vanish in an age of print, a popular trove of legends and tales that was on the verge of being erased by “high” national cultures, an authentic life of an organic community. To repeat a ballad, in however modernized and adapted a form, was to some extent to hearken back to the ballad as record. By the turn of the twentieth century, however, balladic records in this sense collided with a simple technological innovation: ballads—long preserved through recitation—became physical records. Whether the song settings of Carl Loewe and Franz Schubert, or the canonic ballad texts as spoken word, German ballads became easy and natural candidates for audio recording technologies as soon as it emerged. This chapter traces out the tensions in between these two kinds of balladic record: the living, breathing, organic memory created by recitation and repetition on the one hand, and the mechanical churn of the cylinder or record on the other.
Mismatch
Authors: Illingworth Patricia
Published: August 2022

This chapter provides an overview of giving, need, and inequality with a focus on the United States. It looks at who is giving, how much they are giving, and to what sectors. The chapter also describes some of the main giving vehicles, such as foundations and donor-advised funds. In the United States, donors give primarily to religion and education. Following this, the chapter discusses global and domestic poverty, highlighting the vast inequality among people. It shows that there is a mismatch between need and giving practice, one that exacerbates social injustice and has an adverse impact on human rights. Given the vast amount of wealth in the world, there is more than enough money to protect all basic human rights.
Corporations Doing Good
Authors: Illingworth Patricia
Published: August 2022

Corporations give differently than individuals. In this chapter, the author describes corporate philanthropy and corporate social responsibility. Given their wealth, corporations give far less than one would expect. Many corporations may be motivated by the principle: doing well by doing good. With a close look at Milton Friedman’s famous essay, “The Social Responsibility of Business Is to Increase Its Profits,” the author evaluates the rationale that corporations are parsimonious because they have a conflicting duty to maximize shareholder value. The author argues that it is difficult to defend this view, that it is dated, and that today’s shareholders have an interest in ethical companies. Compassionate capitalism may become the new norm.
Doing Good to Do Bad
Authors: Illingworth Patricia
Published: August 2022

Some donations are troubling not because the money is tainted but because the donor is tainted. Using a case study of pedophile Jeffrey Epstein’s donation to MIT Media Lab, the author argues that MIT has a human rights responsibility to refuse Epstein’s money. In this instance, there is a risk that MIT will be complicit in future harms and wrongs. To make this case, the author considers moral self-licensing, an unconscious mental glitch in which people do good to do bad. When moral licensing is in play, people build moral credits with their good acts and use them to justify a bad act. Because nonprofits have human rights responsibilities, they need to ensure that they are not complicit in the violation of human rights; therefore, they should refuse the donations of those who are at high risk for moral self-licensing.
Fundraising with Dignity for All
Authors: Illingworth Patricia
Published: August 2022

Nonprofits depend on donors to conduct their work. To that end, they engage in fundraising aimed at stimulating donations. Some of the strategies fundraisers use to raise money for the public good compromise human rights. Poverty porn is one example. In this chapter, the author argues that manipulative advertising raises moral problems and violates human rights, such as the right to dignity. It also diverts much needed money from human rights sectors to frivolous nonprofits that may violate human rights. Metacharities such as Give Well can play an important role in counteracting manipulative fundraising and in protecting human rights. The author’s analysis includes a case study of a video starring Ed Sheeran for Comic Relief, an organization that raises money for aid groups.
The Fierce Urgency of Now
Authors: Illingworth Patricia
Published: August 2022

Philanthropy changed during COVID-19 and our reawakening to systemic racism following the brutal murder of George Floyd by a police officer. Many donors increased their giving during the pandemic, and they pivoted to sectors like food relief and away from religion. Many also gave locally and others gave to those who could not care for themselves, such as undocumented newcomers. Giving reflected a concern with basic human rights, such as the rights to food, shelter, and equality. Donors also changed how they gave. MacKenzie Scott donated over $8 billion; she gave directly, with no strings attached, and ensured that the receiving charities had strong minority representation. Yet donors did not do enough. Using the example of donor-advised funds, the author argues that donors had a moral and human rights responsibility to give more to meet the fierce urgency of now.
Accelerating Human Rights
Authors: Illingworth Patricia
Published: August 2022

Recognizing that philanthropists, nonprofits, and their stakeholders have human rights responsibilities is an important step toward ensuring that philanthropy meets its human rights responsibilities. In order to accelerate human rights, additional strategies are needed. In this chapter, mindful of the impact of the Guiding Principles, the author sketches a due diligence framework that can be used to help donors, nonprofits, and fundraisers identify their human rights responsibilities before they act. In this way, not only can they prevent human rights violations, but they can maximize their positive impact on human rights and human flourishing. In the event that they are complicit in the violation of human rights, steps can then be taken to remedy their violations.
The Core of Roman Strategy
Authors: Lacey James
Published: August 2022

Rome’s grand strategy was not much different from that of any other Empire. It consisted of maintaining the integrity and stability of the Empire; protecting the Empire from external enemies; and expanding the borders of the Empire—when possible and profitable—with an eye to expanding the Empire’s influence where physical expansion was not possible. The one major addition was ensuring the survival of the emperor. To achieve these strategic goals, Rome maintained a military force of unprecedented size and capability. It also developed a systemic strategic plan that allowed Rome to conserve troops through the employment of extensive fortifications along its thousands of miles of frontiers. Finally, it placed its legions in locations where they were logistically supportable—able to support one another, to guard the frontiers, and to take advantage of rivers and seas to rapidly move huge concentrations of forces to any threatened point in the Empire.
Diocletian, Constantine, and a New Empire
Authors: Lacey James
Published: August 2022

The rise of Diocletian marks a turning point for the Empire. He gave it a new administrative system, better suited to running an empire than the city-state model of Rome, and he revitalized and reorganized the army while rebuilding the frontier defenses. Diocletian also reorganized the basic governmental structure of the Empire by creating the tetrarchy, which recognized that the Empire was too unwieldy to be governed from one power center. From this time forward the Empire would be broken into two—with brief interludes of sole rule—with two co-rulers who were nearly equal in power, supported by two Caesars, who were ideally placed to success the Augusti. Diocletian bought time for the Empire to heal and regain its strength. If his plans for internal stability had worked, the Empire would have been beyond challenge. But they did not, and the decades after Diocletian’s death were marked by a long series of civil wars. Eventually Constantine the Great took sole possession of the Empire. But the Constantinian peace ended with his death, and Rome was once again plunged into a series of debilitating civil wars.
Four Battles and a Divorce
Authors: Lacey James
Published: August 2022

This chapter provides a narrative history of the period, including the great battles that finally broke the military power of the Empire. It covers the civil wars between the sons of Constantine, as well as a series of usurpers . . . all of which sapped Roman power. The chapter also details the rise of Julian the Apostate, starting with his military victories along the Rhine (the Battle of Strasbourg) and his final disastrous defeat by the Persians. It concludes with the rise of weak emperors, totally controlled by their military commanders, and the division of the Empire as more than just an administrative circumstance.
The Experience of Art
Authors: Attridge Derek
Published: August 2022

This chapter presents a view of an artwork as fundamentally an experienced event. The complexity of the experience provided by a significant artwork leads to the question of which aspects of this experience are peculiar to art, and several possible answers are examined, as is the issue of art’s contribution to social and political well-being. Also considered are the implications for criticism of this approach to art. As an example of a possible critical approach, Ben Jonson’s short poem “On My First Sonne” is discussed, with some attention given to the consequences of reading a work such as this during a pandemic.
Aesthetic Poison
Authors: Garcia Edgar
Published: August 2022

Chapter 7 considers how the material histories of colonialism and capitalism lurk in the materials of painting—materials which are often both literally and figuratively toxic. Focusing especially on the politics and poetics of gold paint, this chapter distills a colonial history in the practices of contemporary painting in the Americas (especially in relation to Garcia’s own painting and his collaboration with visual artist Eamon Ore-Giron). Still, not satisfied with merely letting gold connote colonial legacies, the chapter then turns to non-European, indigenous American conceptions of gold and goldwork to reframe the material histories of gold paint in the Americas in emancipatory and even therapeutic uses. This indigenous inflection helps to highlight colonial legacies in the Americas, while also looking past such legacies of toxicity, seeing how forms of gold in the Americas turn poison and pollution into painting and poetry.
Wild Aesthetics
Authors: Davis Philip
Published: August 2022

This chapter takes its origin in D.H. Lawrence’s “Study of Thomas Hardy,” and involves a comparison between Lawrence and Hardy in relation to Darwinian evolution. For Lawrence there has to be something more to an evolved human life than survival, something wilder than prudent self-preservation that is most vitally expressed through the untamed power and excess of eros. The chapter argues that (1) this wildness and not the calm purity of art for art’s sake is the Lawrentian aesthetic, expressed through untamed “feelings” rather than conventionally named “emotions”; (2) that such unpredictable vitally is what art and the aesthetic best constitute; (3) that this vitality is not to be captured and categorized by moral or political agendas, as is still too often the case in the substitutive mechanisms of modern literary criticism and theory; but (4) needs first and most of all to be pointed to by what are here called “agnostic markers,” in places nearest to that “maximum of being” which Lawrence celebrates and art releases.
Do Birds Disagree?
Authors: Small Helen
Published: August 2022

Helen Small’s response essay draws together the principal argumentative strands of this volume, identifying some important differences in contributors’ understanding of aesthetic value: what it is, and how we come to agree and disagree over it. The chapter presses particularly on the strengths and limitations of efforts to defend aesthetic value by appealing to biological understanding of evolved animal behavior, drawing attention to some (culturally pervasive) disagreements about what constitutes artistic and critical “agency.” The chapter considers areas of ongoing critical endeavor to provide better accounts of how aesthetic values are mediated through language, and thereby become part of our collective thinking about politics. Finally, it details a specific claim for the public value of the Humanities based on their special concern with recognizing and debating aesthetic value—to be added to the range of claims assisting public advocacy.
The Problem of Metaphysical Omniscience
Authors: Schwarz Wolfgang
Published: August 2022

Modal accounts of knowledge, mind, and language, as prominently defended by Lewis, leave no room for enquiry into non-contingent matters. According to Lewis, there is only one necessarily true proposition, and it is vacuously known by everyone. What, then, are we doing when we do metaphysics, which often seems to deal with non-contingent questions? Lewis never gave a satisfactory answer, or even acknowledged the problem. The chapter explores some options. Can we understand the relevant parts of metaphysics as dealing with contingent questions about our concepts? Can we understand them in terms of a hyperintensional conception of ‘explicit’ knowledge? Both options have some promise. Ultimately, however, they don’t succeed at squaring Lewis’s empiricist epistemology with his metaphysical realism.
Why Lewis Would Have Rejected Grounding
Authors: MacBride Fraser , Janssen-Lauret Frederique
Published: August 2022

Notions of ‘grounding’, ‘metaphysical dependence’, and ‘ontological priority’ have become central to the twenty-first century revival of pre-critical metaphysics. Would David Lewis have approved of such developments? This chapter answers this question in the negative. Lewis would have rejected appeals to ‘grounding’, ‘metaphysical dependence’, and ‘ontological priority’. Rounding out and developing neglected and under-appreciated aspects of his views, we argue that Lewis would have held (1) that such notions aren’t needed and (2) that they’re not intelligible. It is frequently claimed that such notions as ‘grounding’ etc. are needed because the notion of ’supervenience’, which is central to Lewis’s philosophy, is too crude an explanatory tool to help us understand, for example, the relationship between the mental and the physical. We argue such claims are mistaken because Lewis never intended ‘supervenience’ to be employed in isolation from his other views about physicalism, folk psychology, and conceptual analysis. We also argue that Lewis was committed to denying that singletons metaphysically depend upon their members because of his structuralist approach to the philosophy of mathematics. It is a further claim often made that grounding is a relation between facts or that grounding is a relation that holds of metaphysical necessity. We argue that Lewis would have dismissed such claims as unintelligible because of his opposition to metaphysical necessity and Kripkean essentialism. We cover not only Lewis’s published writings but also his correspondence and other manuscripts which remained unpublished during his lifetime.
Introduction
Authors: Piqueux Alexa
Published: August 2022

The introduction provides an initial overview of the main issues involved in the study of the representation of the comic body in Old and Middle Comedy by means of a text–image cross analysis. It highlights what is at stake for our knowledge of both Greek comedy and the theatre-related iconography in Attica, Magna Graecia, and Sicily. To this end, it discusses the major scientific advances and works that have made this study possible and it defines the corpus of textual and material sources on which the investigation will be based. The introduction also presents the plan of the book.
The Construction of the Comic Body
Authors: Piqueux Alexa
Published: August 2022

The second chapter deals with the basic elements of the costume which constitute the generic comic body, and with the singular ugliness that they give it. It describes the evolution of the masks, padding, and phalluses from the end of the fifth century to the 330s bce in comic texts and comedy-related iconography. The reality and the nature of the so-called ‘portrait masks’, which epitomize Old Comedy according to many ancient and modern scholars, are also discussed. Furthermore, beyond the diversity of the bodies staged by the comedy, the chapter aims to define the fundamental traits of the comic ugliness which is characteristic of the genre. Its ambivalent meaning for the audience and its poetic function are analysed. In particular, the part played by the plasticity of the masks and padding is underlined.
Marcus Aurelius
Authors: Niederhuber Christian
Published: August 2022

Chapter 5 examines the coins and medallions of Marcus Aurelius and looks in detail at the chronological development and change of his portrait on the numismatic evidence. The chapter investigates the workings of the imperial image in the mint of Rome. The flexible use of portrait types and their adjustment in the mint especially are observed and outlined with great care.
Marcus Aurelius
Authors: Niederhuber Christian
Published: August 2022

Chapter 7 discusses the correspondence and interaction of the portraits of Marcus Aurelius on coins and in sculpture. Dates for the creation and introduction in the mint of the portrait types of Marcus are suggested. The chapter also further pursues more comprehensive questions concerning the reasons for the creation of imperial portrait types and their dissemination.
Metropolitan marble technology and marble workshops
Authors: Niederhuber Christian
Published: August 2022

Chapter 9 outlines the increasingly sophisticated metropolitan marble-working techniques in the Antonine period, that were employed to enhance the effect of the portraits and keep up with the latest hair- and beard-styles. Portrait models, their ‘replication’, and adjustment are briefly discussed. The chapter also investigates the difficulties involved in identifying individual marble workshops.
Imperial portrait practice
Authors: Niederhuber Christian
Published: August 2022

The first part of Chapter 10 presents the main results of the study and broadly evaluates them, with a strong focus on the reasons for the creation of imperial portrait types. It also looks closely at the correspondence between coins and sculpture and the ‘updates’ of the imperial image in the mint and in the marble workshops. The second part of the chapter outlines an adjusted model of an imperial portrait ‘system’, starting with the creation of types in Rome, followed by the first steps of their dissemination, and closing with their wider deployment in the provinces.
Conclusion
Authors: Niederhuber Christian
Published: August 2022

The conclusion very briefly repeats the main results and finishes with a prospect for future research.
The Unravelling
Authors: Frank Arthur W.
Published: August 2022

Lear’s first words unexpectedly refer to his ‘darker purpose’. The question of what that purpose is hangs over the rest of the book. His daughter Cordelia’s choice to remain silent when Lear demands she say how much she loves him, what her silence claims, and Lear’s misunderstanding of it, introduce reflections on the limits of language: what words cannot express and how to be true to the inexpressible. When Lear rages against Cordelia, Kent’s question, ‘What woulds’t thou do, old man?’, leads to considering the author’s father in very old age and the author’s own old age. Questions of identity are raised, and the political theme of authority is introduced. The chapter ends with Lear’s vicious curses on his daughters and the question of how to hear, or tolerate, those curses.
‘Aflame with Faith, and Free’
Authors: Snape Michael
Published: August 2022

This chapter examines the fraying relationship between Western Anglicans and their armed forces in the first three decades of the Cold War. While prompting closer engagement with the just war tradition, nuclear weapons fed an uneasiness with the British military among an influential minority, an attitude reflected in the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament. The imperatives of decolonization also increased the scope for friction between Archbishop Geoffrey Fisher and successive Conservative governments in the 1950s. However, in the initial confrontation with atheistic Communism, Anglican approaches to war and military service remained robust. Given the existential threat to faith and freedom, the atom bomb was widely countenanced as a weapon of last resort. Some Anglican contributions to the military and ideological conflicts in Malaya and Korea proved highly effective. However, in the Protestant Episcopal Church, whose importance in the Communion increased with the rise of US hegemony in the non-Communist world, the ‘long 1960s’—and the Vietnam War especially—helped unseam its ascendancy in America’s armed forces. Amidst a more general crisis of identity, the profile of Episcopalian conscientious objectors and war-resisters rose, and with it a keen, outspoken hostility to military chaplaincy. These divisions were also felt by Australasian Anglicans, while the reverberations of Vietnam—compounded with the policies of South Africa’s apartheid regime—fuelled an ambient disquiet with the military (and especially the military chaplain) in the wider Anglican Communion. Consequently, by the end of the ‘long 1960s’, the historic relationship between Western Anglicans and their armed forces had never been weaker.
Reading Baudelaire's Le Spleen de Paris and the Nineteenth-Century Prose Poem
Authors: Whidden Seth
Published: August 2022

Through its readings of Charles Baudelaire’s collection Le Spleen de Paris and other prose poems from the nineteenth century, this book considers the practice of reading prose poetry and how it might be different from reading poetry in verse. Among the numerous factors that helped shape the nascent modernity in Baudelaire’s poetic prose are the poems’ themes, forms, linguistic qualities, and modes. The contradictions identifiable at the level of prose poetry’s discourse are similarly perceptible in other aspects of Baudelaire’s poetic language, beyond the discursive: in the poems’ formal considerations, which retain recognizable traces of verse despite their prose presentation; and, with respect to both poetic form and thematics, in the sights and sounds that contribute to their poeticity. With a focus on what makes prose texts poetic, this study sheds light on Baudelaire the practitioner of the prose poem, as he navigated and complicated the boundaries between verse, prose, and poetry. Rather than rejecting those categories, Baudelaire forges a poetic space in which the notions of poetry and prose are recast, juxtaposed in a delicate balance in a textual space they manage to share. This coexistence of poetry and prose—previously thought of as incompatible—is the underlying tension and framework that contributes importantly to the modernity of his prose poetry. In turn, this new mode of poetry calls for new modes of reading poetry and new ways of engaging with a text.
Fantasy
Authors: Attebery Brian
Published: August 2022

One of the dominant modes of storytelling in the twenty-first century, fantasy can mirror contemporary experiences and convey our anxieties and longings better than any representation of the merely real. It is the lie that speaks truth. This book addresses two central questions about fantastic storytelling: first, how can it be meaningful if it doesn’t claim to represent things as they are, and second, what kind of change can it make in the world? How can a form of storytelling that alters physical laws and denies facts about the past be at the same time a source of insight into human nature and the workings of the world? What kind of social, political, cultural, intellectual work does fantasy perform in the world—the world of the reader, that is, not that of the characters? Focusing on various aspects of fantastic world-building and story creation in classic and contemporary fantasy, from the use of symbolic structures to the way new stories incorporate bits of significance from earlier texts, the book as a whole shows how fantasy allows writers to test new modes of understanding and interaction and thus to rethink political institutions, social practices, and models of reality.
Painting as Revelation
Authors: Rudd Anthony
Published: August 2022

To explore Gadamer’s claim further, this chapter looks at Eastern Orthodox iconography. An icon does not attempt to give an accurate naturalistic depiction of a saint; it is intended to make the saint present to us or to bring us into the saint’s presence. The chapter states the thesis that all painting aims to do something like this, even when it’s a Cézanne painting of a bowl of fruit, rather than an icon of a saint. It goes on to note parallels between the Orthodox understanding of icons and Hindu understanding of statues of the gods as affording a face-to-face encounter (darsan) with the divine. It then considers classical Chinese landscape painting, arguing that it does not aim at a literal depiction of landscapes, but an evocation of the essence of things which is intended to bring the viewer into the presence of the sacred (meaningful and normative) order (Dao) running through nature.
Making the Invisible Visible
Authors: Rudd Anthony
Published: August 2022

The emerging account of painting as disclosive, so far articulated mainly by reference to traditional and explicitly religious/metaphysical cultures, is further developed in a modern, secular context through an engagement with Merleau-Ponty’s philosophy of painting. The chapter takes as its main interpretative thread the idea—which Merleau-Ponty picks up from Klee—that painting makes the invisible visible. It considers various ways in which this might be understood, showing how Merleau-Ponty develops the idea that paintings disclose or express their subject’s manner or ‘style’ of being. By evoking the essential natures of things, paintings bring the attentive viewer into communion with them. The chapter concludes with descriptions of a number of paintings from different times and places, inviting the reader to look closely at them and consider how they can be experienced as ‘making present’ in the sense this book is concerned with.
Metaphysical Implications
Authors: Rudd Anthony
Published: August 2022

Starting from Merleau-Ponty’s dictum that ‘Every theory of painting is a metaphysics,’ this chapter expands on and defends some of the philosophical implications of the theory of painting developed so far. It starts by clarifying the notion of essence on which it is relying, which involves at least a modest realism about natural kinds, arguing that it is a commonsensical position and not metaphysically extravagant. It then argues that although the knowledge that painting gives us is non-paraphrasable and therefore non-discursive, it is not ‘non-conceptual’ in the classic empiricist sense of pure unmediated sensory acquaintance. It concludes by looking back to the issue raised in Chapter Two, where it was argued that truth—the disclosing of reality—can only be of value if the reality it discloses is itself of value. So, as well as a moderate realism about essence, the theory implies or presupposes a realism about value.
Natural Beauty
Authors: Rudd Anthony
Published: August 2022

This chapter argues that the best way to establish that the natural world is a realm of intrinsic value is to consider our aesthetic experience of it. It tries to show that, despite obvious differences, there are important similarities between the aesthetic experience of nature and the experience of paintings as described earlier in the book. It draws on Erazim Kohak’s phenomenology of our experience of nature to argue that in intense, aesthetic, attentive experience of nature we become aware of it as an order that is ontologically good, whether or not we can relate this to any idea of moral goodness. Nature is, nevertheless, experienced aesthetically as a realm of (objective) value. The chapter argues that this (aesthetic) perception of the intrinsic value of the natural world is what underlies any more than practical/anthropocentric version of environmental ethics.
Virtue, Reflex, Pathology
Authors: Duttlinger Carolin
Published: August 2022

Long before Wilhelm Wundt set up the world’s first psychological laboratory in Leipzig in 1871, attention had been the focus of self-experiment and self-observation. Enlightenment moral hygiene treatises instructed readers in how to cultivate sustained attention, while Kant’s Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View warns against attention turning rigid and pathological. In the nineteenth century, the emphasis shifted to attention’s elusiveness and fragility as scientists such as Gustav Fechner discovered their own mental focus to be inherently unstable. Experimental research was increasingly focused on distraction, including on a practical level, when it came to the challenge of keeping the laboratory free from unwanted stimuli. Husserl’s phenomenological reduction is motivated by the same challenge. Reacting against theories which cast attention as the transitory product of the human senses, he attempts to reclaim it as a rational faculty, guided by intention, and able to extract timeless truths about the world.
Threshold States
Authors: Duttlinger Carolin
Published: August 2022

The Austrian modernist Robert Musil was fascinated by both psychology and psychotechnics. During his doctorate with the psychologist Carl Stumpf, Musil took part in self-experiments assessing attention span and concentration; after the war, he advised the Austrian Ministry of War on the uses of psychotechnics in the military. Indeed, Musil also applied psychotechnical methods to his own literary production as he wrestled with his mammoth novel The Man without Qualities. But psychotechnics was only one tool in Musil’s arsenal of mental (self-)enhancement. The chapter closes with autosuggestion, as advocated by the Swiss psychologist Charles Baudouin. Musil was an avid reader of Baudouin; his short prose texts stage states of expanded awareness which echo Baudouin’s emphasis on mental threshold states, while his prose text ‘Triëdere!’ echoes Hugo Münsterberg’s psychological film theory, The Photo-Play.
Presence of Mind
Authors: Duttlinger Carolin
Published: August 2022

Walter Benjamin’s lifelong engagement with the interplay between attention and distraction included not only photography but also film as well as literature, visual art, and history. Indeed, his work represents one of the most complex and sustained engagements with the dynamics of attention and distraction in the twentieth century. The chapter puts this engagement into a wider context, starting with the attentional research published in the psychology journal edited by William Stern, the inventor of psychotechnics, who was also Benjamin’s cousin by marriage. Benjamin encountered this research, which emphasizes the constructive role of distraction in enhancing mental focus, while still at university; it underpins his own writings on this complex subject, where Benjamin engages with the dialectical nature of attention, which can arise out of or give way to contrasting states. Another formative influence is the work of his sister Dora Benjamin, whose mental health exhibition, which opened in Berlin-Kreuzberg in 1929, used new, experimental techniques to bait visitors’ attention and prevent passive consumption. Benjamin’s exhibition review praises these innovative strategies; he returns to this issue in his writings on modern culture and technology, particularly in his essay on ‘The Work of Art in the Age of its Technological Reproducibility’ (1935). Here, Benjamin rejects traditional contemplation and endorses distraction as the mindset most appropriate for the challenges of the modern age; the final part of the chapter, however, looks at his essays on literature and his historical writings, where contemplation is rehabilitated and discussed alongside Geistesgegenwart (presence of mind) as a vital tool of intellectual enquiry and critique.
Spellbound
Authors: Duttlinger Carolin
Published: August 2022

Theodor W. Adorno was a vocal advocate of atonal music and one of the most outspoken critics of popular music and its culture of casual, non-contemplative listening. As this chapter shows, his uncompromising stance on the issue is rooted in the musical aesthetic of the nineteenth century, particularly the writings of Eduard Hanslick. Having explored his earlier essays on musical listening and popular music, the chapter then turns to Adorno’s American exile, when he encountered sociological methods of listener research at the Princeton Radio Research Project. Critical of American musical broadcasts, such as Walter Damrosch’s NBC Music Appreciation Hour, Adorno went on to present his own musical education broadcasts, which aimed to introduce young listeners to classical music, including new music, and encouraged sustained, ‘structural’ listening. Although the series was prematurely abandoned, he continued this mission on West German radio after his return from exile. The chapter concludes with Adorno’s post-war writings, particularly his more essays on method and style, where he defends his own, famously mode of writing as intrinsic to his critical project, while also underlining the pleasurable and playful nature of intellectual engagement.