bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Not All Politics is Local The Geographical Dimension of Policy Representation
Authors: Esaiasson Peter
Published: November 2023

Americans and Europeans tend to think differently about political representation. Traditionally, US political scientists view the process of political representation as individualistic and local. Elected representatives are independent political entrepeneurs who are responsible only to their own particular geographical constituency. In contrast, European political scientists perceive the process of representation as party collectivistic and national. Elected representatives are collective actors who are committed to a national party programme and are responsible to a national constituency. In what follows, these two different views of political representation are referred to as the local approach and the party-collective approach, respectively.
System Characteristics Matter Empirical Evidence from Ten Representation Studies
Authors: Wessels Bernhard
Published: November 2023

Political representation lies at the heart of democratic systems. However, political representation is possible in political systems different from liberal democracies (Weissberg 1978: 547). But in no other system is representation as important in normative terms as in democracies. The normative theory of democracy explicitly calls for political representation. Dahl (1989: 95) regards as the reasonable justification for democracy that citizens are most effective in inducing government to do what they want by using orderly and peaceful means. However, representation is a complex phenomenon. It has been addressed from a variety of angles and dimensions and through different normative lenses. The smallest common denominator in normative terms, though, is that in a democracy there should be some match between the interests of the people and what representatives promote.
Subnational Democracy in the European Union
Authors: Loughlin John , Aja Eliseo , Bullmann Udo , Hendriks Frank , Lidström Anders , Seiler Daniel-L
Published: November 2023

This book is the result of a research project carried out for the Committee of the Regions and analyses the 'state of play' of democratic practice at the subnational level in all of the European Member states. Its initial hypothesis was that liberal democracy is closely associated with the rise of the nation state in the 19th century. The nation state, however, has been significantly changing under the impact of various forces including globalization and regionalization, internal reforms of the public administration system such as privatization and deregulation, and the emergence of regions and local authorities as actors in their own rights. these changes pose challenges for the practice of democracy and , in particular, for its expression at the regional and local level. The book deals with the theoretical implications of these changes in terms of the changing nature of the state and new regionalism. However, one of the key findings is that there is no one uniform of the meaning of democracy across member states and there are variations even within a single state depending on whether the national or subnational levels are considered. Each country chapter gives the historical and philosophical background to the concept of democracy in each country. There is also an exposition of the institutional expression of democracy at the different levels. With regard to the practice of democracy at the subnational level, the role of pressure groups and policy networks is examined as well as the role of political parties. There is a survey of critiques of subnational democracy. Finally, there is a survey of innovative approaches to improving regional and local democracy through a variety of mechanisms and reforms as ways of responding to the challenge and opportunities facing it today.
Denmark: Between Scandinavian Democracy and Neo-liberalism
Authors: Lidstrom Anders
Published: November 2023

In the mid nineteenth century, the Danish system of government went through dramatic changes. A two-hundred-year period of royal autocracy was replaced by a system of government based on one of the most modern constitutions of the time. Already in the 1830s, the assembly of estates was reintroduced, which opened up for debate and stimulated liberal attitudes and popular demands for a new form of government. Compared to Sweden, liberal tendencies have been much stronger in Denmark (Knudsen 1995). In addition, Danish farmers, sympathetic to liberalism and individualism, joined forces with the urban bourgeoisie. These pressures were reinforced by the revolutionary tensions in contemporary Europe (Knudsen and Rothstein 1994). As a result, the king agreed in 1849 to share his powers with a new two-chamber assembly. Voting rights were granted to approximately 75 per cent of adult men. Amongst those excluded were those in receipt of poor relief. A setback to the development of democracy came in the wake of the war of 1864, when Denmark lost Schleswig and Holstein to Prussia. The Conservatives managed to achieve a constitutional revision, whereby voting rights to the upper chamber were restricted. This reduced the influence of the popular vote and delayed the introduction of parliamentarism until the first years of the twentieth century. However, the final establishment of universal suffrage took place in 1915 (Petersson 1994; Hastrup 1994).
Finland: Geo-political Changes and Europeanization
Authors: Lidstrom Anders
Published: November 2023

Finland became an independent state in 1917 after more than seven centuries as an integrated part of Sweden and one century as a semi-autonomous grand duchy within the Russian Empire. During most of the Russian period, the Tsars respected a certain amount of Finnish self-government. However, by the turn of the century, a Russification process was imposed, aiming at increasing Russian dominance and reducing the power of the Finnish institutions. This grip was relaxed in the wake of the turbulence in Russia during 1905, which paved the way for the reform of the system of representation in Finland. In 1906 a one-chamber assembly, elected through proportional representation, was introduced. In practice, the power of the assembly was still restricted, but, nevertheless, Finland now had one of the most modern forms of representation in Europe. Contrary to what happened in Sweden and Denmark, universal suffrage came at the same time as the system of representation was reformed. However, full independence was gained only in the aftermath of the Russian revolution.
The Shifting Meaning of the Black Ghetto in the United States
Authors: Marcuse Peter
Published: November 2023

The dearest divisions of urban space in the United States today are at the extremes: the segregation of the poorest, overwhelmingly black, in ghettos, and the self-isolation of the rich, in citadels. Both have changed significantly over time, with the state playing a major role in the form and content of each division. This chapter traces the history of the ghetto in the United States, highlighting its changing character and the influence state policies have had in shaping it.
States, Cities, and the Partitioning of Urban Space: Conclusions
Authors: Marcuse Peter , Kempen Ronald van
Published: November 2023

The individual contributions in their description of changes in cities from seven countries around the globe, and our own brief historical overview, have provided evidence that partitioning has been an enduring aspect of city form over the long duree, but that there have been significant changes in the manner and driving forces behind those partitions over time. In this last chapter, we want to examine more generally the role that the state has played in bringing about and shaping those changes in partitioning that have in fact taken place in our time.
Compromised Republicans: The Vernunftrepublikaner and the Transformation of Liberal Thought from Weimar to the Federal Republic
Authors: Muller Jan-Werner
Published: November 2023

How is one to write the history of liberalism in a country with a famously illiberal tradition-a country which lacked what Friedrich Naumann once called Elementarliberalismus (basic liberalism) and in which, it seems, liberal parties suffered a permanent crisis? Is it simply the story of decline and fall, missed opportunities and bourgeois weaknesses, even hypocrisies? Were there particular theoretical weaknesses in German liberal thought, or was liberalism doomed because of social factors which had little to do with the peculiarities of German liberal ideology? And was the gradual liberalization of the Federal Republic after the Second World War a ‘velvet revolution without ideas’, a strange rebirth of liberalism without liberal thought, as has sometimes been claimed?
Migration and the ‘New’ International Order: The Missing Regime
Authors: Hollifield James F
Published: November 2023

From the founding of the Bretton Woods exchange rate system (1944) through the conclusion of the last (Uruguay) round of GATT talks in the 1990s, the post-war international order has been marked by multilateralism and the building of liberal regimes for trade and finance. These regimes in turn have reduced the risks of openness for national economies and they have stimulated international exchange across the board. Like trade, portfolio, and foreign direct investment, international migration has increased dramatically in the post-war period; but, with the notable exception of refugees, no liberal regime for migration has emerged. Why has migration continued at such high levels in the absence of a regime and in the face of cyclical downturns?
Why do we Need a General Agreement on Movements of People (GAMP)?
Authors: Straubhaar Thomas
Published: November 2023

The twentieth century began worldwide with the (partly artificial) making of nation states.1 It is about to end with the slow, incremental but ongoing erosion of nation states power. Nation states have been very efficient as insti tutions to minimize transaction costs in the area of industrialization.1 In a world of increasing globalization for more and more business activities, however, the politically defined territoriality of nation states comes under growing economic pressure. Several nation states have broken up into parts (like the Soviet Union or Yugoslavia). Others have started to congregate in regional integration blocs (like NAFTA, EU, ASEAN, Mercosur). Many national borders have been abolished and some integrated areas without national borders have arisen (like the EU).
Spanish Diputados: From the 1876 Restoration to Consolidated Democracy
Authors: Linz Juan J , Gangas Pilar , Mir Miguel Jerez
Published: November 2023

The 1812 liberal constitution of Cadiz1 did away with the remnants of estate representation in Spain and established equal citizenship and universal suffrage by a complex procedure of indirect suffrage at three levels with one representative for 70,000 inhabitants, leading to a chamber of 149 diputa-dos. On his return from France, King Ferdinand VII refused to accept the constitution and established absolute rule. In 1820, a pronunciamiento by the army forced him to swear the constitution but soon, with the help of the Holy Alliance, he would re-establish absolute rule.Tl1e death of the king led to a succession war between his brother, Don Carlos, and the partisans of his daughter, Isabel II, that was also an ideological war between the defenders of absolutism, of the special role of the Church and traditional institutions, and those of liberalism. 111e re-establishment of the 1812 constitution was only temporary and in 1834 the Estatuto Real with a bicaeral legislature was granted by the Queen Regent. The government and the Cortes (the Spanish parliament) elaborated a new electoral law based on census restrictions and in 1836 convoked new elections.2 The Queen Regent in 1836 enacted the re-establishment of the constitution of 1812 and a new constitutional text was approved in 1837, which separated electoral law from the constitutional text. The new law extended the suffrage to 2.2% of the population and in 1843, 4.3% were eligible voters.
Between Professionalization and Democratization: A Synoptic View on the Making of the European Representative
Authors: Cotta Maurizio , Best Heinrich
Published: November 2023

At the end of the twentieth century, a large majority of European countries have achieved consolidated democratic regimes and others have at least undertaken the first crucial steps in the process of democratization. If in the gloomy years between the two world wars the future of democracy in Europe seemed in dire straights, and if for several decades after World War II it was challenged by totalitarian and authoritarian regimes, the twentieth century has closed on a definitely more optimistic note. Democracy is no longer an endangered species but is rather the winner (Linz 1995). Further, despite oft-voiced complaints about the decline of parliaments, one of the most obvious results of these political developments has been the diffusion of parliamentary institutions. Indeed, parliaments appear to be a sine qua non of democracy, something which is well attested to by the fact that parliamentary elections are considered a crucial political test in all European countries, and that parliaments themselves remain the main channel for a career in government (Blondel and Thiebault 1991).
150 Years Old and Still Alive: Eigenproblems
Authors: van der Vorst Henk A , Golub Gene H
Published: November 2023

Linear eigenproblems continue to be an important and highly relevant area of research in numerical linear algebra. Therefore, it should be no surprise that numerical algorithms for eigenproblems are among the oldest known in the modern literature. In 1846, exactly 150 years ago, Jacobi [33] wrote his famous paper on the computation of solutions for the problem Ax = Ax, with AT = A. Strictly speaking, this is not correct, since matrix notation was unknown at that time. So Jacobi formulated the problem in terms of systems of equations, written out elementwise. His paper contains computational elements that are still in use, like the plane rotations for making a system more diagonally dominant, and the (Gauss)-Jacobi iteration method for diagonally dominant systems. These elements were combined in his approach for the computation of eigenvalues, together with a clever way of setting up a correction equation for eigenvalue and eigenvector approximations.
Large Scale Unconstrained Optimization
Authors: Nocedal Jorge
Published: November 2023

This paper reviews advances in Newton, quasi-Newton and conjugate gradient methods for large scale optimization. It also describes several packages developed during the last ten years, and illustrates their performance on some practical problems. Much attention is given to the concept of partial separability which is gaining importance with the arrival of automatic differentiation tools and of optimization software that fully exploits its properties.
Stabilization Techniques and Subgrid Scales Capturing
Authors: Brezzi F , Franca L P , Hughest T J R , Russo A
Published: November 2023

We present an overview of stabilized finite element methods and of the standard Galerkin method enriched with residual-free bubble functions. The inadequacy of the standard Galerkin method using piecewise polynomials is discussed for different applications; the treatment using stabilized methods in their different versions is reviewed; and the connection to the standard Galerkin method with richer subspaces follows using the subgrid method or the residual-free-bubbles viewpoint. We close with a discussion on how to approximate the exact problem suggested by residual-free bubbles. The standard Galerkin method can be roughly described as being an approximation of the variational formulation of a PDE (or system of PDE’s) in a space of functions that is spanned by piecewise polynomials. This simple idea presents several advantages: first, the discrete system of equations that arise from such an approximation is going to be “banded” since the piecewise polynomials can be constructed to have a “small” support, and therefore the matrices involved are sparse.
Partial Differential Equations and Image Iterative Filtering
Authors: Guichard Frédéric , Morel Jean-Michel
Published: November 2023

It is well known that a conveniently rescaled iterated convolution of a linear positive kernel converges to a gaussian. As a consequence, all iterative linear smoothing methods of a signal or an image boil down to the application to the signal of the heat equation. This survey explains how a similar analysis can be performed for image iterative smoothing by a wide class of nonlinear operators, the morphological operators. These monotone operators have a property which makes them suitable for image analysis: they commute with contrast changes of the images. Among them, the median operator which computes a local “mean value” independent of constrast changes. We prove that all morphological (i.e. monotone, constrast invariant) operators, are asymptotically equivalent (when they become more and more local) to a motion of the image by its curvature.
Interpolation, Identification, and Sampling
Authors: Partington Jonathan R
Published: November 2023

This book is concerned with applications of functional analysis and complex analysis to problems of interpolation in spaces of analytic functions. The problems we look at are those of recovery, producing approximations to functions from measured values. These values may in turn be corrupted by small errors and we wish to be able to produce a good model using this partial and inaccurate information. The practical applications include systems identification, signal processing, and sampling. A selection of the material of this book would be appropriate for a graduate course on function spaces and operators acting on them. Chapter 8 gives a mathematician's introduction to H( control theory, one of the big research areas of the last 15 years. Worst-case identification (discussed in Chapters 3,4, and 6) is a major area of modern systems theory to which the author has made many contributions. This book gives the first theoretical treatment of this area: it includes much practical material on input design and identification algorithms. Sampling and systems processing is another active area of research. The book presents an accessible treatment of several advanced topics, some included for the first time in any book.
Polynucleotide secondary structures: an historical perspective
Authors: Arnott Struther
Published: November 2023

In this chapter I shall describe the fibre-derived X-ray analyses upon which studies of polynucleotide helical conformations mainly depended from 1950 to 1980. The first of these three decades started off with the dramatic events that showed that DNA, the large complex polymer within whose primary structure genetic information was stored, had an unexpectedly simple secondary structure. Soon it became clear that it could have two secondary structures and for much of the 1950s the efforts of molecular biophysicists were concentrated on putting the details of these two allomorphs beyond cavil.
The Nucleic Acid Database: a research and teaching tool
Authors: Berman Helen M , Zardecki, Christine , Westbrook John
Published: November 2023

The Nucleic Acid Database (NDB) was established in 1991 in response to the need for a repository of the specialized information contained within nucleic acid crystal structures (1). The vision of the founders was to create a research tool that would allow for data exploration and inspire knowledge discovery about the three dimensional structure of nucleic acids.
Nucleic acid hydration
Authors: Berman Helen M , Schneider Bohdan
Published: November 2023

It is perhaps only a small exaggeration to say that the timing of the birth of modern molecular biology was dependent on selecting the DNA sample with the correct water content. Franklin and Gosling (1) first observed that as the humidity of the sample increased, the characteristics of the fibre diffraction pattern changed. The low humidity A-form was apparently more crystalline and was, therefore, the initial focus of their attention. However, the high humidity B-form was more interpretable because it yielded the characteristic helical diffraction pattern. Once attention was given to this form, the double helical structure of DNA was discovered (2).
Structures and interactions of helical junctions in nucleic acids
Authors: Lilley David M J
Published: November 2023

Helical junctions in nucleic acids are branch points where double helical segments intersect with axial discontinuities, such that strands are exchanged between the differ ent helical sections. While bulges can be brought into this definition, we will restrict our attention to helical junctions in this chapter, of which the most common are three-or four-way junctions (Fig. 15.1). These can be perfect junctions, where every base is paired with its Watson—Crick complement, or they can contain mismatches or unpaired bases; the latter can have significant effects on the folding of the structures in some cases. A systematic nomenclature exists for the unambiguous description of dif ferent junctions (1).
Crystallographic structures of RNA oligoribonucleotides and ribozymes
Authors: Masquida B , Westhof E
Published: November 2023

Since the resolution of tRNA crystal structures in the late 1970s, X-ray analysis of RNA has made a considerable leap, albeit only recently. RNA structures are, since 1988, solved at an average rate of two structures per year, and this number is rapidly increasing. This cooperative phenomenon mainly results from the overcoming of experimental limitations such as the obtaining of ‘heaps’ of crystal-pure RNA mole cules of any size or the development of efficient screening methods for crystallization conditions. The recent appearance of the structures of 13 RNA duplexes, three ham merhead ribozymes, and the P4-P6 domain of the group I self-splicing introns, con siderably broadens our views of the fascinating RNA structural landscapes.
Extensions of function fields
Authors: Pretzel Oliver
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we investigate how changes to a function field affect the results of Part II. The approach adopted in this book of not assuming that the base field is the field of constants simplifies the analysis somewhat.
Gauge Theory in Higher Dimensions
Authors: Donaldson S K , Thomas R P
Published: November 2023

The interaction between geometry in the adjacent dimensions 2, 3 and 4 is a theme which runs through a great deal of the work by mathematicians on gauge theory over the past few years. In this article we will examine the possibility of developing this theme in higher dimensions. We will find extensions following two intertwining threads. One thread, which we say more about here, replaces real variables by complex variables, and hence operates in complex dimensions 2, 3, 4. The other thread involves, from one point of view, replacing the quaternions by the octonians, and operates in the realm of manifolds with “exceptional holonomy”. The picture we will find pulls together various ideas which have been touched on in the literature but the striking analogies which emerge do not seem to be well-known. Our treatment will be informal throughout this article—our main aim is to advertise the potential for research in these directions. A great deal of technical work is needed to develop these ideas in detail, and a more thorough and wide-ranging account of the Calabi-Yau story will appear in the D.Phil. thesis of the second author. The first author would like to emphasise the debt due to other mathematicians in forming parts of the picture described here; particularly Dominic Joyce, Simon Salamon and Christopher Lewis for lessons on exceptional holonomy. A substantial part of this picture is essentially due to Joyce and Lewis, and again futher details will appear in the doctoral thesis of Lewis.
Quantum Measurement Problem and the Gravitational Field
Authors: Anandan Jeeva
Published: November 2023

Department of Physics and Astronomy University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 20208, USA [AF] Two of the most important unsolved problems in theoretical physics are the problem of quantizing gravitation and the measurement problem in quantum theory. It is possible that the solution of each one needs the other. Since we have successful quantum theories of electroweak, and strong interactions, the solution to the problem of the collapse of the wave function, known as the measurement problem, may lie in the yet unknown quantum theory of the remaining interaction, namely quantum gravity. On the other hand, the numerous unsuccessful attempts to construct a quantum theory of gravity for more than six decades on the assumption that the present linear quantum theory is correct suggests that perhaps not only general relativity but also quantum theory should be modified in order to construct of satisfactory quantum theory of gravity.
Hyperbolic Surfaces and Fuchsian groups: Summary
Authors: Matsuzaki Katsuhiko , Taniguchi Masahiko
Published: November 2023

The real :1-dimensional Euclidean space JR3 is given a sense of reality by being considered as a model of the physical world and most of its elementary properties are well known. Mathematically, the hyperbolic space, which is one type of non-Euclidean geometry, has the same right to claim its own existence as the Euclidean space, but few of its properties have been established as common knowledge. In the present volume, we give a glimpse into the charms of hyperbolic manifolds, which are generalizations of the hyperbolic space in the sense that they can be regarded as the hyperbolic space in a “neighborhood” of any point on it.
Macromolecular crystallography techniques and traditional direct methods
Authors: Giacovazzo Carmelo
Published: November 2023

Macromolecular crystallography shows qualitative and quantitative differences from small-molecule crystallography. Let us examine the properties which influence the application of direct methods.
The integration of direct methods with anomalous dispersion techniques
Authors: Giacovazzo Carmelo
Published: November 2023

Atomic electrons may be considered as oscillators with natural frequencies: they are bound to the nucleus by forces which depend on the atomic field strength and on the quantum state of the electron. If frequency of the primary beam is near to some of these natural frequencies resonance will take place.
The non-Euclidean style of Minkowskian relativity
Authors: Walter Scott
Published: November 2023

The history of relativity is structured for most commentators by two landmark discoveries due to Albert Einstein: the special theory (1905) and the general theory of relativity (1915). To get from one theory to the other, we know that Einstein relied on a certain number of fundamental concepts, such as the equivalence principle, and a few key mathematical techniques, for instance, the absolute tensor calculus of Gregorio Ricci-Curbastro and Tullio Levi Civita. Einstein also had need of a third theory and technique, elaborated by his former mathematics professor, Hermann Minkowski (1864-1909), although he did not recognize this for several years. In this paper, we examine the fortunes of Minkowski ‘ s space-time theory from 1908 to 1916. Our focus is on the emergence of Minkowski ‘s four-dimensional formalism as a standard technique in theoretical physics, and we investigate one aspect of this history in some detail: the reformulation and reinterpretation of the laws of special relativity in the language of non-Euclidean geometry. The related work done on the space-time theory, or what we call the ‘non-Euclidean style ‘ of Minkowskian relativity, provides an example of the geometrization of physics brought about by Minkowski and his followers.
Techniques of integration I
Authors: Priestley H A
Published: November 2023

This chapter links the theory developed in Chapter 5 to the tools of practical integration. We summarize the most useful techniques, for revision and reference. The methods—recognizing the integrand as a derivative, integration by parts, and integration by substitution—can seem haphazard to beginners in calculus. A review at this stage may help to dispel any lingering mystery.
Convergence Theorems: MCT and DCT
Authors: Priestley H A
Published: November 2023

The proof of the MCT is technical and you may wish to skip over it at a first reading to the applications in the next chapter. The DCT is derived from the MCT. Its proof is a good theoretical illustration of the use of the MCT. Before embarking on the theory we indicate why the convergence theorems are needed.
Integration vs. differentiation
Authors: Priestley H A
Published: November 2023

The theory involved in providing the answers is far from elementary, and scarcely appropriate for a book entitled “Introduction to integration”. Accordingly we give an account for spectators rather than for would-be professionals. We draw heavily on earlier results and exercises, give only outline proofs, and cite without proof certain theorems from outside integration theory, concerning increasing functions and functions of bounded variation. We work throughout with real-valued functions on a compact interval [a, b].
Fourier series: pointwise convergence
Authors: Priestley H A
Published: November 2023

In this chapter and the next we give a glimpse into the rich mathematical theory of Fourier series, exploiting the integration theory of the earlier chapters. Our account is self-contained but assumes that most readers will have met Fourier series before, at the level of rigour of, for example, [12]. We urge that it be read alongside a specialized text, for example (11], which gives a lively presentation of applications, from the temperature of subsoil to tides.
Saks spaces and bounded domains
Authors: Boos Johann , Cass Peter
Published: November 2023

In Section 2.6 we proved the bounded consistency theorem by applying the gliding hump method. In this chapter we will develop functional analytic tools which allow us to deduce the bounded consistency theorem among other results. However, we should note that we still cannot do this without applying gliding hump methods.
Examples
Authors: David Guy , Semmes Stephen
Published: November 2023

The first example is Euclidean space R  n equipped with the Euclidean metric. This is certainly Ahlfors regular of dimension n (Hausdorff measure coincides with Lebesgue measure in this case), and it is also BPI, because all balls are conformally isometric to each other.
Bpi Equivalence+C576
Authors: David Guy , Semmes Stephen
Published: November 2023

We want to prove some basic facts about BPI equivalence (Definition 1.6). We begin with the following, which amounts to saying that it does not take too much to get BPI equivalence in the presence of the BPI condition for the spaces.

Proposition 7.1 Let (M,d(x,y)) and (N,p(u,v)) be two BPI spaces with the same dimension d. Then M and N are BPI equivalent if and only if there is a subset A of M with positive measure which is bilipschitz equivalent to a subset of N.
Snapshots
Authors: David Guy , Semmes Stephen
Published: November 2023

Let (M,d(x, y)) be a metric space which is doubling and complete, say. Givenp EM and 0 <r ≤ diamM we get a “renormalized” pointed metric spaceMp,r as in Section 9.1, i.e., we get (M, r‒1d(x, y),p).
Domain Decomposition Methods for Partial Differential Equations
Authors: Quarteroni Alfio , Valli Alberto
Published: November 2023

Domain decomposition methods are designed to allow the effective numerical solution of partial differential equations on parallel computer architectures. They comprise a relatively new field of study, but have already found important applications in many branches of physics and engineering. In this book the authors illustrate the basic mathematical concepts behind domain decomposition, looking at a large variety of boundary value problems. Contents include; symmetric elliptic equations; advection-diffusion equations; the elasticity problem; the Stokes problem for incompressible and compressible fluids; the time-harmonic Maxwell equations; parabolic and hyperbolic equations; and suitable couplings of heterogeneous equations.
Defect and Microstructure Analysis by Diffraction
Authors: Snyder Robert L , Fiala Jaroslav , Bunge Hans J
Published: November 2023

Defect and Microstructure Analysis by Diffraction is focused on extracting information on the real structure of materials from their diffraction patterns. The primary features of a powder diffraction pattern are determined by the "idealized" periodic nature of the crystal structure. With the advent of computer automation the techniques for carrying out qualitative, quantitative and structure analysis based on the primary pattern features rapidly matured. In general, the deviations of a particular specimen, from the ideal or perfect crystal structure, cause diffraction peak profiles to broaden and sometimes to become asymmetric. Thus, information on the real structure or microstructure of a specimen can be obtained from a careful study of the diffraction line profiles. The evolving techniques for microstructure analysis from diffraction patterns such as micro-strain, crystallite size, macro-strain and preferred orientation analysis require an ever more detailed understanding of the effects of crystallographic mistakes on peak assymmetry and the effect of the distribution of small crystallites on the tails of diffraction peaks. This book provides a comprehensive analysis of the fundamental theory and techniques for microstructure analysis from diffraction patterns and summarizes the current state of the art. This complete survey lays the foundation for the next and last major development in this field: the extraction of the full information in a powder pattern by the simulation of the full experimental pattern. The goal of this branch of science is to extract all of the information locked in the powder diffraction pattern including: the types and densities of stacking faults, the strain field produced by each, the anisotropic crystallite size and orientation, along with the size and strain distributions of each phase in a specimen. This book provides a complete summary of the developments of the twentieth century and points the way.
On the Stimulation of Non-Linear Surface Waves by Wind
Authors: Sajjadi S G , Wakefield J
Published: November 2023

The transfer of energy from turbulent wind to non-linear surface wave through the turbulent Reynolds stress in the immediate neighbourhood of the surface is explored. The results, for growth of Stokes wave by a wind are compared with the Miles critical-layer mechanism [9]. In the present model the wind mean velocity profile is assumed to be logarithmic and effects of turbulence on the interaction between wind and water is not neglected. It is shown that the present asymptotic theory predicts a fivefold increase in the growth rate of water waves compared with the critical-layer mechanism. This finding is in better agreement with the observation made at the sea and it is argued that the contributing agencies, for this significant increase in the growth of water waves, are the shape of the surface wave and the effects of turbulence.
Wind and Turbulence Profiles in the Surface Layer Over Ocean Waves
Authors: Miller S , Friehe C , Hristov T , Edson J , Wetzel S
Published: November 2023

Wind profiles and turbulence were measured in the atmospheric surface layer between 2.6 and 18.1 m above deep ocean waves. The profiles were compared to those predicted from Monin-Obukhov (M-O) similarity theory using constants representative of over land experiments. Under low wind, slightly unstable conditions, measured profiles show significantly greater (less) shear at the upper (lower) heights than is predicted by M-O similarity. For high wind speeds there is better agreement. A von Karman constant of 0.40 is calculated, in agreement with over land results.
Microphysics of Scalar Transfer at Air-Water Interfaces
Authors: Angelis V de , Lombardi P , Andreussi P , Banerjee S
Published: November 2023

Gas and moisture transfer at continuous interfaces between turbu lent air and water streams are controlled by layers ˜ 0(10-2mm) and˜ O(lmm) thickness, respectively. This suggests that direct numerical and large eddy simulations could be used to clarify microphysical processes controlling scalar transfer rates, since such scales are resolvable with avail able computational resources. To this end, numerical procedures using a pseudospectral method, together with a projection algorithm, have been developed and applied to coupled gas-liquid flows. The initial studies focused on flows under conditions where interface deformations were small - a situation corresponding to a series of laboratory experiments where de tailed measurements of the near-interface turbulence characteristics were made.
Functions of Bounded Variation and Free Discontinuity Problems
Authors: Ambrosio Luigi , Fusco Nicola , Pallara Diego
Published: November 2023

This book deals with a class of mathematical problems which involve the minimization of the sum of a volume and a surface energy and have lately been refered to as 'free discontinuity problems'. The aim of this book is twofold: The first three chapters present all the basic prerequisites for the treatment of free discontinuity and other variational problems in a systematic, general, and self-contained way. In the later chapters, the reader is introduced to the theory of free discontinuity problems, to the space of special functions of bounded variation, and is presented with a detailed analysis of the Mumford-Shah image segmentation problem. Existence, regularity and qualitative properties of solutions are explained and a survey is given on the current knowledge of this challenging mathematical problem. Free discontinuity problems reveal a wide range of applications. The theory embodies classical problems, e.g. related to phase transitions, or fracture and plasticity in continuum mechanics, as well as more recent ones like edge detection in image analysis. This book provides the reader with a solid introduction to the field, written by principle contributors to the theory. The first half of the book contains a comprehensive and updated treatment of the theory of Functions of Bounded Variation and of the mathematical prerequisites of that theory, that is Abstract Measure Theory and Geometric Measure Theory.
Necessary conditions for weak lower semicontinuity
Authors: Braides Andrea , Defranceschi Anneliese
Published: November 2023

If f is W1,p-quasiconvex then property (4.4) extends to all bounded open subsets E with \ƟE\ = 0. Before proving this fact we recall the following version of the Vitali Covering Theorem, whose proof we include for completeness since the statement differs slightly from the usual one.
Sufficient conditions for weak lower semicontinuity
Authors: Braides Andrea , Defranceschi Anneliese
Published: November 2023

First we consider the case of convex f : RN → R, that is, for all u, v 6 Rw and t € (0,1) for which the right-hand side makes sense. If this condition holds then we easily deduce the following properties of f:
Integral Functionals With Standard Growth Conditions
Authors: Braides Andrea , Defranceschi Anneliese
Published: November 2023

In the case of functionals with integrands independent of the space variable nals with integrands independent of the - convergence reduces to a pointwise convergence.
A 1-dimensional example
Authors: Braides Andrea , Defranceschi Anneliese
Published: November 2023

This chapter is completely devoted to a single example, which on one hand contains some features of the problems that will be faced afterwards, and on the other hand may highlight some of the differences between the scalar case and the vector-valued case. The solution ‘by hand ‘ in this simple case requires the relative complexity of some approximations and of some passages to the limit. In the next chapters many of these complications will be overcome by the use of the direct methods of ┌-convergence.
Periodic homogenization
Authors: Braides Andrea , Defranceschi Anneliese
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we use the direct methods of ┌-convergence to obtain a homogenization theorem for functionals

where the function f satisfies a standard growth condition of order

notation.
Homogenization of connected media
Authors: Braides Andrea , Defranceschi Anneliese
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we study the asymptotic behaviour of integral functionals that describe the physical properties of porous media having a periodic microstructure. More precisely, given a bounded open set Ω of Rn, we compute the limit of Neumann minimum problems of the type
Homogenization with stiff and soft inclusions
Authors: Braides Andrea , Defranceschi Anneliese
Published: November 2023

We are going to improve the results of Chapter 19 and show the convergence to a non-degenerate homogeneous functional when the function f satisfies quite general growth assumptions, with large zones of various types of degeneracy.
Correctors for the homogenization
Authors: Braides Andrea , Defranceschi Anneliese
Published: November 2023

Let f be a function as in Chapter 14, satisfying a standard growth condition of order p > 1, and let

is also the unique solution of the minimum problem involving F  ∊ whose Euler equation is (23.1). Here D  ∊ denotes the derivation with respect to the gradient variable.
Cathepsin B (EC 3.4.22.1)
Authors: Kirschke Heidrun , Barrett Alan J , Rawlings Neil D
Published: November 2023

In 1941 Fruton and co-workers [1377] proposed a classification of the proteolytic enzymes of animal tissues in which they included an enzyme that hydrolysed Bz-Arg-NH2, a synthetic substrate of trypsin. At that time, this thiol-dependent enzyme was termed cathepsin II, but the nomenclature was further revised by Tallan et al. in 1952 [1401], who renamed cathepsin II as cathepsin B. Further characterization was done by Greenbaum and Fruton [1379]. Otto and co-workers, however, showed that two enzymes had contributed to the activity assigned to 'cathepsin B' in earlier work. Thus, gel filtration of enzymes from rat liver lysosomes separated components of 25 kDa and 52 kDa, both of which hydrolysed Bz-Arg-NH2. The 25 kDa endopeptidase was briefly known as cathepsin B' and cathepsin B1, but in reviewing this work in 1971, Otto [1272] termed the enzyme cathepsin BJ. The second enzyme (cathepsin B2) was a carboxypeptidase, and when this was renamed 'lysosomal cysteine-type carboxypeptidase' (EC 3.4.18.1), the original name of cathepsin B could be used once more for the endopeptidase. In 1972, the nomenclature committee of Inter national Union of Biochemistry (IUB) recommended the name cathepsin B, with the EC number 3.4.22.1.

Cathepsin B appears to be ubiquitous in mammals, having been detected in nearly all organs and tissues. Also enzymes with similar properties occur in many lower organisms.
Dipeptidyl peptidase I(EC 3.4.14.1)
Authors: Kirschke Heidrun , Barrett Alan J , Rawlings Neil D
Published: November 2023

A peptidase that was discovered in 1948 in pig kidney by Gutman and Fruton [1380] and described as having chymotrypsin-like specificity was termed, in 1952, cathepsin C by Tallan and co-workers [1401]. The enzyme was also known as giucagon-degrading enzyme [1316] and dipeptidy! transferase [364]. In 1966 I\lcDonald and co-workers [1332] renamed cathepsin

the significance of this finding is not yet clear, since no endopeptidase action of DPP I has been detected in many earlier studies of the specificity of the enzyme [228], or in work in which DPP I was used for peptide sequencing. There has been no report of endopeptidase action of DPP I on any natural protein.
Cartan matrices and finite Coxeter groups
Authors: Geck Meinolf , Pfeiffer Golz
Published: November 2023

A Coxeter group is a group W which has a presentation of a very special form: we have a set of generators S ⊆ W such that the defining relations are just relations of the form s2 = 1 and (st)m(s,t) = 1, where s ≠t in S and m(s,t) =m(t,s)> 1 are positive integers. (It can be shown that Tn(s,t) is in fact the order of st.) Thus, the group is generated by involutions, and the only additional relations are those prescribing the order of the product of any two generators. The standard example is the symmetric group ⊆n on n letters, with generators given by the basic transpositions {(i, i + 1) | 1 ≤ i ≤ n — 1}.
Character values in classical types
Authors: Geck Meinolf , Pfeiffer Golz
Published: November 2023

We now turn to the programme of determining the character tables of all the irreducible types: the exceptional types to come in the next chapter, the classical types in this. The main result for each series of irreducible Coxeter groups is a formula which determines the value of the irreducible character x on the basis element Tw of the Iwahori-Hecke algebra, where w is an element of minimal length in its conjugacy class in the group. The prototype formula is the classical Murnaghan-Nakayama formula for the character values of the symmetric group, which expresses a particular value recursively, in terms of character values of smaller symmetric groups and the combinatorics of partitions and Young diagrams, labelling both the irreducible characters and the conjugacy classes of the group in question.
Ion channel
Authors: Dudai Yadin
Published: November 2023

Ion channels belong to families of proteins that translocate substances across biological membranes. These families include channels, pumps, and transporters (Aidley 1998). Channels open to permit the flow of ions down their electrochemical gradient. They are fundamental to all types of excitable cells. Pumps drive ions against their electrochemical gradient. Transporters bind specific ligands and undergo a conformational change that releases the ligand on the other side of the membrane (Reith 1997; Amara 1998). In some cases the distinction between a channel and a transporter is blurred (Valverde et al. 1992).
Memory
Authors: Dudai Yadin
Published: November 2023

The view taken here is that all memories, regardless of the species and the task, are biological *internal representations. Similarly to ‘learning’, the difference among types of memory is in the ecological function, computational theory, *algorithms, and neural implementation of the internal representation. The pursuit of internal representations and their modification by experience is thus tagged as the gist of memory research. Internal representations are assumed to be encoded in the spatiotemporal states of neural circuits (*cell assembly, *homunculus). In contemporary neurobiology, quite a few research programmes that claim to target memory concentrate solely on the molecular and the isolated single-cell level.
Model
Authors: Dudai Yadin
Published: November 2023

All models (modus, Latin for ‘a measure’, ‘standard of measurement’) are analogies (things similar but not identical, Greek for ‘proportionate’). Some are only *metaphors, others sets of quantitative relations among components of the modelled system, and yet others somewhere in between. In the context of the present discussion, it is useful to distinguish among (a) mathematical models, (b) diagrammatic models, and (c) the use of the term ‘model’ to describe a *simple system that could potentially illuminate phenomena of interest in what is considered a more complex system. Although different in type and complexity, all models share some elementary methodological aims, pros and cons.
Nutrients
Authors: Dudai Yadin
Published: November 2023

NutrientsThe possibility could be raised that the activity of the noradrenergic system, similarly to that of the cholinergic and the dopaminergic systems, is not essential for the operation of the ‘core’ molecular machinery that embodies lasting *synaptic changes in some systems of the mammalian brain. The distinction between a ‘core’ and an ‘accessory’ synaptic storage system is not self-evident. Generally speaking, it implies that there are molecular cascades that are essential for synaptic storage and there are others that are indispensable for encoding distinct cellular and circuit states but dispensable for the storage process per se.