bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
War by Other Means
Authors: Martin Peter
Published: May 2021

This chapter tells the story of how Zhou Enlai’s small group of Yan’an recruits was supplemented by foreign-language students and peasant soldiers to form a foreign ministry for the newly formed People’s Republic of China. Most of this first generation of PRC diplomats lacked any foreign affairs experience and spoke no foreign languages. We follow these diplomats as they were schooled in Diplomacy 101 in the first overseas embassy in Moscow, were taught to use knives and forks, and even to dance. In a bid to ensure discipline and a sense of pride in their new mission, Zhou told the group to think and act like a “civilian army,” shaping a martial ethos that retains a strong influence on Chinese diplomacy today.
Between Truth and Lies
Authors: Martin Peter
Published: May 2021

By the late 1950s, signs of strain in Chinese diplomacy were evident as Mao Zedong pushed the further radicalization of Chinese politics and society, culminating in the devastating famine during the Great Leap Forward. During the Great Leap Forward, China’s envoys undercut their country’s credibility with allies and foes alike by insisting that the tragedy was the result of ‘natural disasters,’ even as diplomats themselves went hungry and their loved ones starved. China’s relationship with the Soviet Union also deteriorated rapidly, resulting in the Sino-Soviet split and a decades-long polemical war between the two powers which set the stage for eventual Sino-American rapprochement.
Selective Integration
Authors: Martin Peter
Published: May 2021

After Henry Kissinger’s secret visit in 1971, China claimed its seat at the United Nations and set about learning how to deal with global institutions. The country’s entrance into the organization was eye-opening for Chinese diplomats and also began a process of international integration that would see Beijing establish ties with virtually every other country in the world. Still, China’s international integration was slowed by continuing political uncertainty at home, which was settled only after the death of Mao, the fall of the Gang of Four, and the eventual ascendancy of Deng Xiaoping.
Overreach
Authors: Martin Peter
Published: May 2021

Xi Jinping’s foreign policy took the assertive turn that had begun under his predecessor and made it more confident, consistent, and ambitious. From the United Nations to the World Trade Organization, Beijing’s diplomats promoted their vision for global order: a world safe for autocratic rule, preferably bankrolled by China. The change of approach led to a global pushback against China, which led many in the country to feel that Xi had overreached and was now raising the costs of China’s continued rise. As Chinese diplomats played catch-up with Xi’s ambitious agenda, they found themselves hobbled by the same limitations and shortcomings that their predecessors had faced for generations. Diplomatic reforms reinforced the demand for military discipline in the country’s diplomatic corps as its international influence expands.
With Our Backs Against the Wall
Authors: Hass Jeffrey K.
Published: May 2021

Chapter 1 sets up general themes: individual versus collective identities and survival; power and tragic, compelled agency; and change versus reproduction of practices and relations. After a brief discussion of historiography, the chapter developed its theoretical framework, building on Pierre Bourdieu’s theory of habitus and fields. First, perception and sensation are the foundation of social fields, which are structured signals of practice and authority. Second, fields have topographies of social and symbolic distance that shape perceptions and practices. Empathy is particularly important. Third, a crucial facet of fields is anchors, entities of symbolic and emotional valence that link individuals to fields through personal and symbolic meanings. Finally, groups of fields and actors crystalize into “economies” of contexts and rules of worth. The chapter closes with a discussion of power and compelled, tragic agency, and with a discussion of data: Blockade diaries, state and Party records (NKVD and police reports, Party documents, etc.), and interviews (during the Blockade, in the late 1970s, after 1991).
Ties That Bind
Authors: Hass Jeffrey K.
Published: May 2021

Starvation impacted not only political authority. It also severely shocked intimate relations and fields of meaning. In such duress, stealing food and other innovations and violations of norms became growing temptations—yet whether one carried out such strategies depended in part on social distance and empathy vis-à-vis those who might benefit and might suffer. Theft from organizations was easier than stealing from strangers, which was easier than stealing from an acquaintance. Symbolic distance also shaped survival practices, especially as Leningraders were forced to reclassify “food.” Proximity of nontraditional to traditional forms of food shaped culinary innovations. Inanimate objects (e.g., glue) were easier to reclassify as food than animals, and Leningraders ate horses more easily than cats. The most problematic innovation was cannibalism, a recurring narrative touchstone. Paradoxically, cannibalism could corrode and support norms: its appearance created dread of a new unhuman normality, but it also invoked condemnation and reinforced the importance of “civilization.”
Durability of Class
Authors: Hass Jeffrey K.
Published: May 2021

Class figured prominently in the Blockade, as unequal distribution of resources, and as differing perceptions and practices. Intelligentsia, a professional culture-producing class (artists, writers, professors), saw themselves as gatekeepers of ethics and culture. They used networks to plead for meager extra food, but they were loath to admit doing so. In contrast, intelligenty criticized the rynok in moral terms and tried to avoid using it. Blue-collar workers grounded status and identity in physical labor, socialism, and pragmatism. They chafed at superiors’ privileges, which reinforced class identity. In contrast, they were less reluctant to use the rynok pragmatically (although they could be critical). Managers were instrumentally rational. They enjoyed privileges and were almost silent about using networks for food. They used managerial paternalism to ground authority, including shadow practices to help employees survive. Managers sometimes used the rynok for gain. In sum, class mattered as habits and differential relations to food.
Questioning Suffering, Rethinking the World
Authors: Hass Jeffrey K.
Published: May 2021

Suffering provokes theodicy, the search for meaning and dignity. Blockade theodicies had two key logics: causation and community of suffering. Social and symbolic distance shaped both. The Germans were the prime cause, but the Allies were viewed with suspicion. Party and state officials were closer and more visible; civilians could read into them incompetence and coldness, but also some humanity, leaving a fuzzy picture. Leningraders also asked how Soviet culture and human nature, closest to home, could cause suffering. For the suffering community, the city was a key anchor that bred contradictions. Civilians knew soldiers suffered, suggesting a broad national community. Yet this created status competition: Leningraders as the superior soviets. Competition emerged inside the city in politics of authenticity. Dystrophics were possibly shirking duties, and for some, Jews were inauthentic sufferers deserving exclusion. Blockade theodicies grounded identities in the city experience, in which USSR and Red Army had status, but Stalin and Moscow less.
How Welfare Worked in the Early United States
Authors: Loiacono Gabriel J.
Published: May 2021

What was American welfare like in George Washington’s day? It was expensive, extensive, and run by local governments. Known as “poor relief,” it included much of what we would now call welfare and social work. Unlike other aspects of government, poor relief remained the same, in structure, between the establishment of British colonies in the 1600s and the New Deal of the 1930s. How Welfare Worked in the Early United States: Five Microhistories tells the story of poor relief through the lives of five people: a long-serving overseer of the poor, a Continental Army veteran who was repeatedly banished from town, a nurse who was paid by the government to care for the poor, an unwed mother who cared for the elderly and struggled to remain with her daughter, and a young paralyzed man trying to be a Christian missionary inside a poorhouse. Of Native, African, and English descent, these five Rhode Islanders’ life stories show how poor relief actually worked. For them and for millions, all over the United States, poor relief was both generous and controlling, local and yet largely uniform around the nation. Two centuries ago, Americans paid for—and relied on—an astonishing government system that provided food, housing, and medical care to those in need, while also shaping American families and where they could live. Students of history and of today’s social provision have much to learn about how welfare worked in the early United States.
Introduction
Authors: Loiacono Gabriel J.
Published: May 2021

These five stories tell how poor relief shaped Americans’ lives in the early United States. Although the five subjects were unique individuals, living in the local contexts of Rhode Island towns, their stories teach much about welfare around the country at the time. This is because nearly every American state inherited colonial laws based on the Elizabethan Poor Law of England. How Welfare Worked in the Early United States focuses on several aspects of how these laws were implemented. Some aspects are rarely discussed in other histories: the difficulty of financing this safety net, the prominence of healthcare in poor relief, the use of paupers as temporary workers, and the isolation of poorhouse inmates. Other aspects, described well in other histories, are carefully illustrated in these narrative-style biographies: the benevolent effects of poor relief, the economic stimulus of poor relief spending, and the racialized application of the poor laws.
Overseer of the Poor
Authors: Loiacono Gabriel J.
Published: May 2021

The year George Washington was finishing his first term as president, 1792, William Larned was beginning his first term as overseer of the poor for Providence, Rhode Island. Larned would be reelected for another thirty-five one-year terms and arguably exercised more authority over locals than any president could. Larned’s long career in this little-known but powerful local government position illustrates several aspects of early American poor laws. Overseers of the poor could be lifesavers to locals in need. They could also upend lives, forcing families out of town. They controlled the largest portion of local tax dollars, which dwarfed state and federal tax levies from the individual taxpayer’s perspective. Overseers used these tax dollars to provide food, housing, healthcare, and other necessaries to people in need. An ancillary benefit was that these dollars also buoyed the incomes of local government relief contractors.
Warned Out
Authors: Loiacono Gabriel J.
Published: May 2021

The freeborn son of an enslaved father and a free mother, Cuff Roberts’s life would be changed forever by the Revolutionary War. He served a five-year tour as part of the Continental Army, including at the Battle of Yorktown. As a veteran returning to Rhode Island, however, Roberts was not free to move around the country he helped make free. American poor laws, dating back to the seventeenth century, empowered Overseer of the Poor William Larned to repeatedly banish Roberts back to the town of Roberts’s birth. Roberts’s life would be shaped in powerful ways by American poor laws. Roberts helped local overseers by housing a needy neighbor, but came into conflict with other overseers over where he could live. After qualifying for a veterans’ pension, Roberts tried to make the life he wanted for his family in spite of the poor laws.
Epilogue
Authors: Loiacono Gabriel J.
Published: May 2021

Much has happened in the history of welfare since 1850. The epilogue surveys these events, highlighting when they mark changes or continuities with the themes in the five chapters. Some innovations, such as increased involvement of state and federal governments in poor relief, were real changes in how poor relief was financed and governed. Other aspects of recent welfare will sound familiar to readers of the five chapters: debates over how to give humane, fair, and yet inexpensive aid, or efforts at governing families and unwed mothers. We still debate how welfare is best provided, and we do the important work of helping those in need. Knowing the ideas of those who debated welfare in the past, along with those who experienced it and those who made it happen, can give us perspective and courage for the work that still needs to be done.
The Dynamics of the Social Worker-Client Relationship
Authors: Walsh Joseph
Published: May 2021

While the effectiveness of direct social work practice always requires one’s competence in providing a variety of intervention modalities, outcomes are also dependent on the social worker’s ability to develop and maintain constructive relationships with clients. This book describes in depth the many ways that such relationships can be developed with clients who display a wide range of presenting problems in many types of social service agencies. Each chapter focuses on a particular challenge that social workers may encounter in that process, including the benefits and limitations of theory selection, boundaries, the use of self, the working alliance, relationship ruptures, special issues presented by children and adolescents, terminations and transfers, clients about whom a social worker experiences highly positive or negative feelings, the uses of touch and humor, working with psychotic clients, and the uses of technology. The book is filled with case studies written by students to illustrate how relationships can be formed and challenges can be resolved. The book is targeted to social work students in their field placements, although it can also be useful for practicing professionals.
Definitions and Theoretical Perspectives
Authors: Walsh Joseph
Published: May 2021

This chapter includes a definition of the social worker/client relationship and its significance to client goal attainment in many fields of practice. Next, the therapeutic effects of positive relationships that are common to all practice theories are summarized. Following this content are descriptions of how various prominent practice theories conceptualize the appropriate nature of that relationship, including the person-centered, psychodynamic (object relations, attachment, and relational approaches), narrative, behavioral, cognitive, crisis, and family systems approaches. Various obstacles to the development of productive relationships are identified, as well as environmental factors (including agency policies) that are both facilitative and detractive to those relationships.
Physical Contact in Relationships
Authors: Walsh Joseph
Published: May 2021

Relationship encounters are characterized by both verbal and nonverbal behaviors, one of which is physical touch. Other than handshakes (perhaps), touch is considered in Western society to be a relatively intimate form of emotional expression, and as such tends to be used with caution. The potential benefits and dangers of non-erotic physical contact between social workers and their clients, including handshakes, hugs, holding hands, patting, and stroking, have been debated for decades. Some theorists and practitioners assert that touch, when done with discretion and consent, may promote a client’s positive change, while others caution that such contact, regardless of intent, risks being harmful to clients. The purposes of this chapter are to review the literature on the effects of physical contact between clients and practitioners on their working relationship and to provide 10 recommendations for social workers who consider engaging in such contact.
Introduction
Authors: Dukalskis Alexander
Published: May 2021

Authoritarian states try to present a positive image of themselves abroad. They invest in foreign-facing media, retain public relations firms, and showcase their successes to elite and popular foreign audiences. But there is also a darker side to these efforts. Authoritarian states try to obscure or censor bad news about their governments and often discredit their critics abroad. In extreme cases, authoritarian states intimidate, physically attack, or even murder their opponents overseas. This book is about how authoritarian states manage their image abroad using both “promotional” tactics of persuasion and “obstructive” tactics of repression. They adopt these practices to enhance their internal and external regime security, or put differently, to make their world safe for dictatorship. This chapter introduces the main arguments, themes, and data of the book.
Selling Dictatorship and Silencing Dissent
Authors: Dukalskis Alexander
Published: May 2021

This chapter provides a global, cross-national snapshot of two dimensions of authoritarian image management, one promotional and one obstructive. First, to capture primarily the “promotional” mechanisms of authoritarian image management, it presents data on public relations and lobbying by authoritarian states in the United States. Analysis of 113 filings from 33 countries active in 2018 and 2019 reveal a glimpse of what authoritarian states do with the tens of millions of dollars they invest in trying to cultivate a positive image of themselves in the United States. Second, to illustrate the “obstructive” side of authoritarian image management, the chapter presents and analyzes the Authoritarian Actions Abroad Database (AAAD). The AAAD reveals nearly 1,200 individual cases in which an authoritarian state attempted to threaten, attack, abduct, arrest, detain, or assassinate one or more of its citizens abroad perceived to be politically threatening.
Projecting Peace and Prosperity
Authors: Dukalskis Alexander
Published: May 2021

This chapter unpacks and assesses the Rwandan government’s authoritarian image management strategies under the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF). As relatively small, and aid dependent for much of the period under analysis, Rwanda under the RPF had special incentives to pay attention to authoritarian image management as the latter entrenched its power domestically. Perhaps for this reason, the RPF has been an unusually successful authoritarian image manager in attaining regime security. After presenting a brief historical background, the chapter establishes how the RPF works to create a foundation on which to build its promotional image management efforts by obstructing outsider critics. Next, it discusses how part of Rwanda’s promotional strategy entails retention of public relations firms to burnish the image of the RPF and its leader Paul Kagame. Finally, the chapter turns to the most brazen element of the RPF’s image management, namely the intimidation and repression of critics abroad.
Introduction to Motives
Authors: Auerbach Brent
Published: May 2021

Chapter 1 of Musical Motives provides a general introduction to the topic of motives. The etymology and origins of the word “motive” are briefly considered, along with its parallels to the “motifs” of visual art and architecture. A working definition for “motive” from Arnold Schoenberg (“the smallest part of a piece or section of a piece that, despite change and repetition, is recognizable as present throughout”) is presented in advance of more formal definitions to be presented in chapters 4–7. For the purposes of this study, motives are required “to move” and “to move listeners.” Analyses of excerpts from Sousa, Beethoven, and Mozart introduce readers to proper motivic identification and labeling technique.
A Brief History of Motives—Composition
Authors: Auerbach Brent
Published: May 2021

Chapter 2 provides a brief history of the role of motives in Western music composition. Motive is posited as one of the several generative forces in music, alongside harmony, counterpoint, and form. Motive’s relative prominence is tracked in style periods of the last four centuries, with peak influence manifesting in the late Romantic and early twentieth-century periods. This changing role of motives is illustrated by a set of analyses of chronologically ordered pieces by Handel, Mozart, Brahms, Wagner, Holst, and Schoenberg. The musical examples, in addition to supporting the historical narrative, serve to introduce readers to the new conventions of nomenclature and rules motivic association that will be presented in detail in the methodology chapters of the book.
A History of Motives—Theory and Analysis
Authors: Auerbach Brent
Published: May 2021

Chapter 3 provides a history of the role of motives in Western music theory and analysis. The first section covers 1600–1750 c.e., the last period in which motive remained in its conceptual prehistory. At that time, the preeminent musical structure was the “figure,” a passage of music that conveyed a single character. The second section covers 1750–1890, a period in which the influence of figures waned as authors began theorizing about the smaller musical cells that make melodies logical, pleasant, and memorable. The third section of the survey concentrates on the work of Arnold Schoenberg, the composer-theorist who did the most during that time to popularize motive-based views of music. The fourth section covers 1950 to 2010, a period marked by stark changes in how motive was conceived and handled in analysis. Specifically, motives in the late twentieth century underwent intense fragmentation, a “boiling away” of their elements, often leaving behind only pitch intervals and/or rhythms. The chapter closes with a rumination on past and present conventions of motive and motivic analysis, laying groundwork for the rules and conventions to follow in chapters 4–7, the methodology portion of Musical Motives.
A Universal Nomenclature for Pitch and Rhythm Motives
Authors: Auerbach Brent
Published: May 2021

Chapter 4 proposes a universal nomenclature for pitch (and pitch-class) and rhythm motives. The system eschews nicknames and abstract letter variables in favor of more objective labels. In the domain of pitch and pitch-class, motives are characterized according to their interval content and their length in terms of “number of notes” (as opposed to their duration in time). These symbols may be supplemented by reference to certain iconic pitch shapes, such as “arpeggiation” and “neighbor” gestures. Altered typescripts are used to indicate pitch ascent versus descent, leaping or “gapped” motives, and chromatically filled motives. Two kinds of addition signs, signaling simple and elided addition, are prescribed for naming composite motives. In the domain of rhythm, a motive is first labeled according to its durations, which are assessed locally in relative terms as long (L), short (S), and medium (M). Sounding (note) events must always be accounted for; rest (silent) durations may be specified by parentheses or disregarded as the analyst sees fit. Extensions to the nomenclature exist to handle cases of subdivided rhythms and composite motives. Demonstrations of proper application of the nomenclature are provided throughout the chapter.
CMA Narrative Archetypes
Authors: Auerbach Brent
Published: May 2021

This Interlude on the topic of narrative, the second of two, serves as the bridge between the sections on basic motivic analysis (BMA) and complex motivic analysis (CMA). Chapter 7, which formally presents CMA, will explore the ramifications of broadening the Focal Point entity to include domains beyond pitch and rhythm and permitting it to occur anywhere in the piece, not just at the beginning. These shifts necessitate a second set of narrative archetypes for modeling the flow of motivic material across a work. The dominant archetype from BMA, Propagation (BMA-1), occurs in CMA as well. Now, however, it may be deployed in hierarchic fashion across the large sections of a piece, with the central Focal Point radiating packets of material to section-controlling Local Points. Other novel CMA archetypes are proposed to document cases where Focal Point material occurs later within a work (Accretion narrative) or multiple times within a work (Cyclic narrative). Detailed schematic diagrams support the discussion of all CMA types. The chapter concludes with presentation of a summary chart of all BMA and CMA narratives.
Prologue
Authors: Sheehy Daniel
Published: May 2021

What happens when an ethnographic, cultural relativistic approach to arts funding runs head-on into a “fine arts” approach governed by assumptions of excellence, appropriate targets of funding, and methods of distributing funds? This chapter, based on twenty-three years (1978–2000) working at the National Endowment for the Arts, will respond to this question through my personal conceptual and methodological challenges and experiences. When the National Endowment for the Arts and National Endowment for the Humanities were created in 1965, there was talk of creating a third endowment for folklore. This effort was unsuccessful, but it points to the belief at the time that American folk art traditions would not be well served by the federal endowments. There was much truth to this, as I and my colleagues regularly bumped into “glass ceilings and walls” that silently worked against us in supporting our field of hundreds of cultural traditions and thousands of art forms. My ethnomusicological training and experience were invaluable, not only in understanding the art forms and responding to their needs, but also understanding the biases of the institutional culture in which we were housed. At the same time, while certain aspects of my training at UCLA helped in navigating the waters of arts funding, much of the knowledge I applied to my work was learned “on the job” in extra-academic activities and mentorships rather than in university courses and seminars. This line of reflection will yield observations and recommendations to improve training and to increase ethnomusicology’s applicability and social and cultural relevance.
Sustainable Ethnomusicology
Authors: Corona León F. García
Published: May 2021

Most ethnomusicological training requires fieldwork and lab techniques in which students gain technical skills related to the acquisition of data related to fieldwork. Although the work we do as ethnomusicologists sits at the forefront of gathering engaging, relevant content related to musical expressions, most ethnomusicologists are ill equipped in delivering their findings to a broader audience through the use of new media and post-production techniques such as video, sound, and image editing, web development, database administration, and network administration, among many others. Although plenty of literature about developing these skills exists as stand-alone instruction, in this essay I present a bird’s-eye view of content production from an ethnomusicological perspective, providing an understanding of not only content production but how intersects with revenue and ethnomusicological goals. I do so by sharing more than twenty years of experience as an IT specialist and consultant and by exploring some examples of content production at Smithsonian Folkways.
Inside the Insurgency
Authors: Sen Rumela
Published: May 2021

This chapter presents the entangled historical narrative of the Maoist insurgency in India, its ideological origin, military strategy, organizational characteristics, recruitment mechanisms, and ties to the local communities, with particular emphasis on North-South variation in the dependent and independent variables that concern the book. It analyses the distinct social terrains on which rebels operated in the North and the South, despite being part of the same insurgent organization, united by one ideology and highly centralized command. This chapter also shows how pre-existing local conditions shape patterns and outcomes of insurgent mobilization, leading to robust informal exit networks in the South and scrawny ones in the North.
Rebel Retirement in the South through Harmonic Exit Networks
Authors: Sen Rumela
Published: May 2021

This chapter shows how grassroots civic associations that grew in the gray zone of state-insurgency interface in the South became sites of incubation of informal exit networks, which facilitate safe passage of Maoists from insurgency to democracy in Telangana. Based on the rebels’ account of the protracted process of retirement, this chapter also highlights, both empirically and theoretically, the various actors and processes in rebel retirement, including the operation of the two mechanisms of trust and side payment that help resolve the problem of credible commitment locally. This chapter shows that the militant mass mobilization by the Maoists in the South created conditions for vibrant associational life in the gray zones of the South, which allowed various actors and processes of rebel retirement to function and proliferate.
Introduction
Authors: Oliver Isaac W.
Published: May 2021

This chapter discusses the history of interpretation of Luke-Acts as it concerns Luke’s relationship to Judaism. The chapter critically assesses common opinions held in New Testament scholarship regarding the concepts of salvation, eschatology, Christian universalism, Jewish particularism, and nationalism. This critical evaluation of scholarship and key concepts lays the foundation for the rest of the investigation, proposing that Luke’s understanding of the eschatological restoration of Israel can be effectively understood in light of Jewish concepts from Luke’s time. In many ways, Luke’s eschatology corresponds to traditional Jewish expectations. The restoration of Israel remains at the center of Luke’s eschatological universe even if it expands to include the nations of the world.
Israel’s National Restoration in Luke’s Infancy Narrative
Authors: Oliver Isaac W.
Published: May 2021

This chapter focuses on Luke’s infancy narrative, examining how Luke’s opening sets the stage for the discussion of Israel’s restoration in the rest of Luke-Acts. Luke’s soteriological vocabulary is analyzed in detail. Remarkably, Luke employs traditional Jewish terms to describe Israel’s future restoration. These terms conceive of Israel’s salvation in collective, national, political, and terrestrial terms.
The Acts of the Apostles and the National Restoration of Israel
Authors: Oliver Isaac W.
Published: May 2021

This chapter is devoted to Luke’s treatment of Israel’s eschatological restoration in the book of Acts. Jerusalem retains its centrality in Acts as in Luke, signaling the ongoing importance of the city and its people. Far from giving up on the restoration of Israel, Luke continues to maintain hope for Israel’s salvation in Acts. This restoration is comprehensive, bringing together Israel in all of its tribal plenitude, namely, Jews but also Samaritans and other Israelites who were dispersed from their land. Israel’s restoration, furthermore, is intimately tied to the general resurrection, which are both anticipated in the messiah’s own resurrection. As the “first of the resurrection from among the dead” (Acts 26:23), Jesus’s resurrection affirms the hope that the dead will rise again and the nation of Israel will be renewed. The chapter deals as well with the controversial passages in Acts that allegedly blame the Jewish people for Jesus’s crucifixion. Finally, it examines the ending of Acts, arguing that the end of Acts is not the end of Israel’s story for Luke.
Exuberant Life
Authors: Durham William H.
Published: May 2021

Why is Galápagos so endlessly fascinating, whether to read about, to visit, or both? Reasons include its menagerie of truly unusual organisms (like tree daisies, marine iguanas, and flightless cormorants), its relatively low human impact (most of its endemic biodiversity is still extant), and its unrivalled role in the history of science ever since Charles Darwin. Exuberant Life offers a contemporary synthesis of what is known about the evolution of the curiously wonderful organisms of Galápagos, of how they are faring in the tumultuous world of human-induced change, and how evolution can guide efforts today for their conservation. In eight case-study chapters, the book looks at each organism’s ancestry, at how and when it came to Galápagos, and how and why it changed since its arrival, all with an eye to its conservation today. Such analysis often provides surprises and suggestions not previously considered, like the potential benefits to joint conservation efforts with tree daisies and tree finches, for example, or ways that a new explanation for peculiar behaviors in Nazca and blue-footed boobies can benefit both species today. In each chapter, a social-ecological systems framework is used, because human influence is always present, and because it allows an explicit link to evolution. We see how the evolutionary fitnesses of Galápagos organisms are now a product of both ecological conditions and human impact, including climate change. Historically, Galápagos has played a central role in the understanding of evolution; what it now offers to teach us about conservation may well prove indispensable for the future of the planet.
Out of the Ordinary
Authors: Durham William H.
Published: May 2021

Galápagos stands out for its vast collection of extreme life: the world’s only tropical albatross, its only flightless cormorants, and its marine iguanas; three colorful species of boobies; and 15 species of giant tortoises, one on each major volcano, except for one especially large volcano that has two. Each of these organisms has evolved adaptations to the unique rigors of life in an isolated archipelago on the equator. As Galápagos has recently grown ever more connected to the world system, many species’ adaptations have become vulnerabilities in the face of human-induced change. Fortunately, long before people arrived, evolution also endowed native species with forms of resilience to local perturbations like El Niño events and periodic droughts. The eight case studies in this book highlight these vulnerabilities and resiliences and argue that the mismatch between them, stemming from human impact, is the core conservation challenge today.
Caught in a Booby Trap
Authors: Durham William H.
Published: May 2021

How did the blue-footed booby evolve those lovely blue feet? Genetic analysis shows that the blue-footed booby shared a recent common ancestor with the grey-footed Peruvian booby of coastal South America. Unlike the latter, whose diet includes anchovies and sardines, the blue-footed booby is a sardine specialist that feeds by plunge diving exclusively into cold-water upwellings, like those of the Cromwell current. Sardines normally abound in Galápagos, but not anchovies—the strong currents quickly carry away their young. But sardines are also rich in blue-green coloring agents (carotenes) that show up in the feet of successful booby divers. Hence it’s an uncanny “fit” of the blue-footed booby to island conditions is uncanny: did it evolve in Galápagos from continental ancestors who followed trade winds west? The species also regulates brood sizes in relation to sardine supply via flexible siblicide, which surely helps in coping with ENSO. It shares siblicide with its close Galápagos relative, the Nazca booby, as well as aggressive NAV behavior in which nonparental adult visitors peck at innocent, unrelated chicks until they bleed or drown. New evidence from brown boobies—another close relative—suggests that this behavior evolved as a result of benefits from survival cannibalism during extreme El Niños.
Not Earthbound Misfits After All
Authors: Durham William H.
Published: May 2021

This chapter explores two delightfully unique, flightless seabirds: the Galápagos cormorant, one of the world’s most unusual organisms, and the Galápagos penguin, the only penguin to swim in the Northern Hemisphere. Three themes stand out: first, in pre-settlement Galápagos, neither species suffered great disadvantage because of flightlessness. Having no terrestrial predators allowed both species to nest on land near water’s edge, to specialize in diving for prey in the rich, cool Cromwell upwelling, and to prosper during over a million years of flightless life in Galápagos. Second, from very different evolutionary origins, the two seabirds evolved a fascinating evolutionary convergence in the archipelago—not their flightlessness per se, because penguins were already flightless when they arrived. Instead, there are striking similarities in their uniquely opportunistic mating practices, including the cormorant’s very unusual facultative polyandry. Third, does the older flightless specialist, the penguin, have the advantage when El Niño causes food supply to falter, or does the advantage go to the cormorant, the seabird specifically retooled by evolution for conditions in Galápagos? Forty years of census data show that penguins react slightly more quickly to ENSO and with more population flux, but that both species show impressive reproductive resilience.
Digging Up a Painful Past
Authors: Encarnación Omar G.
Published: May 2021

This chapter talks about the Mattachine Society of Washington, DC, an organization that takes its name from the pioneering gay rights organization of the pre-Stonewall era. It looks at Charles Francis, the president of the Mattachine Society and a leading figure among American gay rights activists, who was a former Republican public relations consultant from Texas with close personal ties to the Bush family. It also discusses Francis’s activism aimed at securing an acknowledgment and apology from the US Congress for discriminatory actions taken by the federal government against LGBT Americans. This chapter analyses the Mattachine Society’s briefing paper “America’s Promise of Reconciliation and Redemption: The Need for an Official Acknowledgment and Apology for the Historic Government Assault on LGBT Federal Employees and Military Personnel,” and it emphasizes the mission of the new Mattachine Society on adjusting the legal struggle to secure an apology from the US government.
Valuing Clean Air
Authors: Halvorson Charles
Published: May 2021

The passage of the Clean Air Act and the creation of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in 1970 marked a sweeping transformation in American politics. In a few short years, the environmental movement pushed Republican and Democratic elected officials to articulate a right to clean air as part of a bevy of new federal guarantees. Charged with delivering on those promises, the EPA represented a bold assertion that the federal government had a responsibility to protect the environment, the authority to command private business to reduce their pollution, and the capacity to dictate how they did so. But revolutions are always contested and the starburst of environmental concern that propelled the Clean Air Act and the EPA coincided with economic convulsions that shook the liberal state to its core. As powerful businesses pressed to roll back regulations, elected officials from both parties questioned whether the nation could keep its environmental promises. Pushing on, the EPA adopted a monetized approach to environmental value that sat at odds with environmentalist notions of natural rights but provided a critical shield for the agency’s rulemaking, as environmental protection came to serve as a key battleground in larger debates over markets, government, and public welfare. The EPA’s success and the potential limits of its monetary approach are evident in the very air we breathe today—far cleaner and healthier as a result of the EPA’s actions, but holding new threats in a rapidly changing climate.
Introduction
Authors: Halvorson Charles
Published: May 2021

From its creation in 1970, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) played a key role in struggles over the responsibility, authority, and capacity of the federal government to safeguard the public welfare against the ills of industrial society. But despite this centrality, the EPA largely remains a cipher in modern American history. In opening up the EPA’s history through an examination of the agency’s governance of air pollution from 1970 to the 1990s, this book shows how administrative agencies came to structure core aspects of our everyday lives. The enduring power of the EPA depended on its adoption of a monetary approach to environmental goods, and this book explores the translation of different notions of environmental value into policy as a key space in the evolution of core ideas about the environment and the public welfare.
The Costs of Pollution
Authors: Halvorson Charles
Published: May 2021

Animated by the contrast of rising prosperity and declining environmental quality in the 1960s, the modern environmental movement pushed local and state authorities and then the federal government to take responsibility for restoring and safeguarding the environment. Central to that expanded federal role was the establishment of science-based national air quality standards in the Clean Air Act of 1970. Economists too came to focus on pollution as a key threat to public welfare and laid the groundwork in the 1960s for what would become a politically compelling monetization of the costs of air pollution and environmental degradation. But whereas environmentalists tended to describe clean air as a natural right, to be secured regardless of the cost, economists approached clean air as a natural resource, to be managed for its measurable contributions to a monetized notion of public welfare.
Are You Tough Enough?
Authors: Halvorson Charles
Published: May 2021

Elected on the premise that government was the problem, not the solution, Ronald Reagan marked a major challenge to the postwar consensus that a liberal state could and should intervene broadly to improve public welfare. But popular support for environmental protection remained sufficient to stop Reagan from pursuing his deregulatory agenda outright. Instead, at the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Reagan sought to hamstring the agency’s ability to operate, disrupting its enforcement program and bleeding it of the resources it needed to fulfill expansive congressional mandates. Illustrating the investment of the agency’s former officials and career staff in EPA’s original mission, a group of current and former employees banded together to resist Reagan’s assault, eventually attracting enough attention that Reagan abandoned his deregulatory agenda as a political liability.
Is There a Black Woman Candidate Prototype?
Authors: Brown Nadia E. , Lemi Danielle Casarez
Published: May 2021

This chapter conducts a visual content analysis of Black women candidates’ headshots to examine whether there is a “phenotypic archetype” of Black women candidates to which Black women are exposed. Findings from an original dataset on the appearances of Black women candidates who sought office in 2018 align with prior research on colorism and representation. The chapter presents data that shows that the pool of Black women candidates skews lighter-skinned with straightened hair, and that candidates who wear braids or locs may disproportionately lose their contests. These findings suggest that Black women who seek local-level offices with natural styles like locs may find it difficult to enter political office and to rise to higher levels of office. The exploratory findings presented in the chapter illustrate a patterned preference for a certain type of Black women candidate, but it is noted that more research should be done on a larger scale to assess this trend.
Conclusion
Authors: Brown Nadia E. , Lemi Danielle Casarez
Published: May 2021

The concluding chapter of this book contextualizes the political implications of Black women’s appearances for both political elites and voters. The chapter centers on Black women’s activism around natural hair and its connection to politics and policy. The natural hair movement signals not just a styling preference but also a way for Black women political elites to descriptively represent constituents. In this chapter, the authors provide a summary of the findings of their study and offer insights into Black women’s representation. The chapter ends by asking readers to assess the values that they ascribe to a Black woman political elite based on what she looks like.
Verdi and the End of Italian Coloratura
Authors: Parr Sean M.
Published: May 2021

Verdi’s compositional influence and emphatic involvement in promoting his operas in Paris make him an important force, with an operatic oeuvre that includes works that can be labeled “French” because of his use of French literary sources and musical forms. During his career, Verdi’s use of coloratura changed greatly, but key examples are still found in his middle-period operas, in Rigoletto, La traviata, and Les Vêpres siciliennes. This chapter examines how these moments of coloratura signify much more than their apparently straightforward melismatic text treatment might suggest. Arias such as “Caro nome” employ coloratura to suggest a dramatic subtext, uncovering the inner psychological voice of the character. Close readings of these arias suggest that Verdi’s use of coloratura serves as an omen, foreshadowing tragedy for the character singing. With these mid-century examples, we see that Verdi as a modern composer in a sense writes coloratura out of Italian opera.
Melismatic Madness and Technology
Authors: Parr Sean M.
Published: May 2021

By the mid nineteenth-century, coloratura had become stylized to the point that it could represent hysterical cries. If we consider technology in its original sense as a “practical art” that extends the body’s abilities, then coloratura—an art that features the extended agility and range of the voice—is perhaps the most striking technology employed to mark and empower the operatic madwoman. This chapter explores mid-century mad scenes and related technologies: Giacomo Meyerbeer’s L’Étoile du nord and Le Pardon de Ploërmel, as well as Ophélie’s mad scene in Ambroise Thomas’ Hamlet. These operas also feature sopranos who embody a particular, aestheticized view of femininity at mid-century as stylized, objectified icons of hysteria. Exploring the aural impact of these scenes, the sopranos who originally portrayed the mad heroines, the original staging manuals, and the historical context of emerging psychiatry highlights the importance of the visual in thinking about this phenomenon.
Caroline Carvalho and Her World
Authors: Parr Sean M.
Published: May 2021

By practicing and extending the art of coloratura singing, Caroline Carvalho (née Marie Félix-Miolan, 1827–1895) became the French soprano par excellence of the mid-nineteenth century. In her early career, the Parisian press compared her vocal prowess to the instrumental pyrotechnics of Paganini and Liszt. This chapter illustrates how engaging with Carvalho and her contemporaries uncovers interesting intersections between mid-nineteenth-century vocal and instrumental idioms. In the first half, I explore Carvalho’s watershed moment in her creation of the title role of Victor Massé’s La Reine Topaze, which was a product of a complex mixture of circumstance, shrewd role choices, and genre. I investigate how that moment led to two different kinds of competition: between the soprano’s vocal agility and instrumental virtuosity, and between Carvalho and her coloratura competitors. By claiming a vocalism at least equal to the virtuosity of instrumentalists, Carvalho carved out a new space for the coloratura soprano.
Ānandavardhana and the Metaphysics of Literature
Authors: Reich James D.
Published: May 2021

This chapter looks at the origin of the famous theory of “poetic manifestation [dhvani]” in the Dhvanyāloka of Ānandavardhana. After a brief overview of the theory, the chapter explores some of the problems and ambiguities in Ānandavardhana’s text, and then explores Ānandavardhana’s use of Bhartṛhari as the basis for his theory. The chapter shows that the later popularity of the theory cannot be chalked up simply to the superiority of Ānandavardhana’s philosophical arguments, but can instead be attributed to some of the basic metaphysical issues opened up by Ānandavardhana’s use of Bhartṛhari, in which many different thinkers and traditions in Kashmir were invested.