bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Manipulating DNA
Authors: Bensimon David , Croquette Vincent , Allemand Jean-François , Michalet Xavier , Strick Terence
Published: February 2019

This chapter describes the various methods used to manipulate single DNA molecules and the considerations in the choice of one particular method. It starts with a description of DNA end-labelling, necessary to anchor the molecule to surfaces or beads that can be manipulated. A particular application of DNA anchoring is molecular combing, whereby the molecule is stretched on a surface by a receding meniscus. DNA rearrangements and replication bubbles can then be observed by fluorescence on these straightened molecules. It then looks at the forces at the molecular scale, which range from the smallest one due to thermal agitation, to the largest associated with breaking a covalent bond, via entropic and non-covalent bonding forces. It describes the tools used to manipulate single molecules (micro-needles, AFM cantilevers, optical, magnetic, and acoustic tweezers and traps, etc.), comparing their performances in terms of bandwidth and signal to noise (i.e., force and extension resolutions).
Fluorescence Spectroscopy and Microscopy Techniques
Authors: Bensimon David , Croquette Vincent , Allemand Jean-François , Michalet Xavier , Strick Terence
Published: February 2019

This chapter reviews the use of fluorescent methods in the study of single molecules, how the foundations of fluorescence are rooted in Einstein’s description of absorption and emission (spontaneous and stimulated), and their quantum-mechanical explanation in terms of transitions between quantized energy levels, as represented in Jablonski diagrams. It describes the non-radiative channels which compete with fluorescent emission, decrease its efficiency, and ultimately destroy the fluorescent molecule. Fluorescence Polarization Spectroscopy, FRET, and FCS are briefly presented. Without reviewing the various available fluorophores, it describes the various illumination methods used to study them, sketching super-resolution methods (STED, STORM, PALM) that have recently allowed fluorophores to be resolved to a few tens of nanometres. Finally, it describes the considerations (bandwidth, signal to noise, signal to background) used in choosing a single-molecule fluorescence detector, and the extraction of the diffusion constant of a fluorophore from the finite time, noisy traces of its positions.
Single-Molecule Studies of DNA-Associated Motors
Authors: Bensimon David , Croquette Vincent , Allemand Jean-François , Michalet Xavier , Strick Terence
Published: February 2019

This chapter provides a quick introduction to the various uses of single-molecule approaches in the study of DNA–protein interactions. This field is a rapidly evolving one and we have not attempted to cover it in any systematic way. In the following chapters we provide examples of the type of questions addressed in the study of the interactions of DNA with three families of molecular motors: polymerases, helicases, and topoisomerases.
Conclusions
Authors: Bensimon David , Croquette Vincent , Allemand Jean-François , Michalet Xavier , Strick Terence
Published: February 2019

Single molecule methods have revolutionized the field of Biophysics. Much of the current applications of these methods are devoted to in vitro studies. It is our hope that the knowledge gained from these studies and described in this book will open a new vista
on the in vivo investigation of cellular and physiological processes.
Introduction
Authors: Aveyard Stuart , Corthorn Paul , O’Connell Sean
Published: February 2019

A decade on from the ‘credit crunch’, with repeated warnings of the potential for a repeat of that financial trauma, this is an appropriate moment to offer a historical investigation of the politics of consumer credit in modern Britain. By the 1980s, Britain had the most diverse and liberalized consumer credit sector in Europe. From one perspective, the element of risk in the British credit market was a strength, but it made the nation more vulnerable to severe economic jolts caused by events such as the housing market correction of the early 1990s and the credit crunch of 2008. ...
Consumer Credit on the Eve of Affluence
Authors: Aveyard Stuart , Corthorn Paul , O’Connell Sean
Published: February 2019

The chapter begins with an examination of debates around consumer protection and hire purchase in the 1930s. It explains the emergence and significance of the Hire Purchase Act, 1938. It explores radical (but thwarted) Labour plans to reshape important sectors of the consumer credit market during the 1940s. The chapter then explains the influence of Keynesian theory and its role in generating new policy on economic demand management. The Conservative election victory of 1951 owed much to the party’s courtship of voters with free market rhetoric, but this government instigated hire purchase controls to improve the balance of payments and combat inflation. Labour dubbed the measures ‘a very vicious piece of class legislation’. This policy created long-standing disagreement between the Treasury and the Board of Trade (and consumer durables manufacturers) about the damage to UK manufacturing. The chapter outlines developments up until the Radcliffe Committee was tasked to examine the issue.
Companion animals
Authors: Serpell James A.
Published: February 2019

Companion animals (or pets) form a distinctive category of domestic animals defined by their primary use as nonhuman social support providers. Companion animals have an ancient history that may precede and anticipate the original domestication of animals. Currently, more than 60% of European and American households keep pets, and their numbers are increasing rapidly in several emerging economies. The results of research over the past four decades suggest that relationships with companion animals may be beneficial to human health and well-being, though the extent of the benefits will likely depend on relationship quality. Exposure to positive relationships with pets in childhood may also predispose people to develop more empathic responses to animals later in life. In spite of these benefits, pet ownership also imposes costs, particularly in terms of environmental damage, risk to public health and threat to animal welfare. The future of these exceptional human–animal relationships will depend on striking a positive balance between the benefits and the costs.
Diversity of Freshwater Ecosystems and Global Distributions
Authors: Milton G. Randy , Finlayson C. Max
Published: February 2019

Freshwater ecosystems are found on all continents comprising many different types and sizes; and defined and classified in different ways. The hydrologic regime influences the many physical and chemical features of freshwater ecosystems and has temporal and dynamic dimensions for flowing (rivers—lotic systems) and standing waters (lakes and ponds—lentic systems) and others that may experience permanent flooding or large fluctuations in water depths. The water balance is commonly used to understand a system’s hydrology and provide insights into the key processes determining its functioning. Widely distributed, global mapping initiatives provide a general distribution of types, document latitudinal and longitudinal distribution, and provide a global coverage estimate of 12.5–14.4 × 106 km2. However, a comprehensive inventory and global map for these ecosystems still does not exist. Information on the specific features of rivers and streams, lakes and ponds, swamps and marshes, peatlands, and freshwater karst systems is provided.
Water Quantity and Hydrology
Authors: McCartney Matthew
Published: February 2019

Freshwater ecosystems are naturally dynamic. The source of water, discharge, turnover, and residence times all affect which organisms can live in different freshwater habitats and are key determinants of freshwater ecosystem structure and function. Human-induced changes to the volume and timing of both surface and ground water flows are a leading driver of global declines in freshwater biodiversity and are likely to be exacerbated by climate change. The conservation of many wetlands around the world, including in some cases the preservation of unique flora and fauna, is now entirely dependent on continued human intervention and water management. Such management can only be successful if based on sound understanding of water budgets and hydrological processes informed by accurate hydrological monitoring. This chapter provides a brief introduction to hydrological monitoring—what needs to be measured and how—for freshwater ecology and conservation.
Chemical Determinands of Freshwater Ecosystem Functioning
Authors: Pacini Nic , Pechar Libor , Harper David M.
Published: February 2019

Chemical equilibria in surface waters stem from complex interactions between physical background and living components of ecosystems. Catchments differ in geological background, climate, and land use; their run-off bears a distinctive chemical ‘fingerprint’. This chapter illustrates how the monitoring of standard parameters, such as oxygen, pH, conductivity, major ions, nutrients, and carbon, can lead to an interpretation of key aspects of the functioning of major ecosystem processes and how chemical constituents may affect the distribution of aquatic organisms. This requires understanding principles that underlie available measurement techniques and it demands a certain familiarity with the intrinsic variability of parameter values and of their chemical interaction. It is not required that field scientists be able to conduct detailed chemical assessments, but all should be able to collect samples yielding high-quality data. Therefore, detailed advice on chemical monitoring practice is provided, including sample collection, filtering, sample processing, and is discussed with the context of several case studies.
Microorganisms 2
Authors: Reiss Julia
Published: February 2019

Organisms that are invisible to the naked eye are the most abundant component of any freshwater community. These tiny organisms span domains and phyla and include viruses, prokaryotes (archae and bacteria), protists (single-celled eukaryotes such as single-celled fungi, algae, and protozoans) and multicellular fungi and microscopic metazoans (such as nematodes). This chapter gives an overview of microscopically small organisms, including their contribution to biodiversity, and techniques used by biologists studying these organisms in fresh waters, such as sampling regimes and methods used in the laboratory. To conclude, three case studies are given which have the same aim: to estimate the abundance and activity of microscopically small organisms in natural, freshwater communities.
Wetland Plants and Aquatic Macrophytes
Authors: Hughes Jocelyne M.R. , Clarkson Beverley R. , Castro-Castellon Ana T. , Hess Laura L.
Published: February 2019

Ecologists, conservationists, and managers frequently need to recognise and survey different aquatic plant species, vegetation types, plant communities, or habitat. It is, after all, the vegetation that defines the extent of a freshwater wetland. This chapter reviews the methods used to survey both ‘terrestrial’ and ‘aquatic’ freshwater plants and considers the approaches taken, some of the specialised equipment used, and technical expertise needed to conduct wetland vegetation surveys. The techniques and approaches used and associated sampling strategies are considered for field surveys; experiments including meso- and macrocosms; and surveys involving remote sensing techniques. The chapter ends by examining a series of examples that illustrate how different vegetation research questions in ecology, conservation, and management can be answered using a diversity of methods.
Freshwater Vertebrates
Authors: Green Stephen E.W. , Salazar Rosie D. , Gilbert Gillian , Buxton Andrew S. , Gilroy Danielle L. , Oberdorff Thierry , Harrington Lauren A.
Published: February 2019

Freshwater habitats are vitally important for vertebrate diversity and ecosystem service provision. These habitats are diverse in scale and type, ranging from vast wetlands and tropical flooded forests to small streams and ponds, but are all equally important to the diverse range of vertebrates they support. The loss and degradation of freshwater habitats globally, largely driven by agricultural intensification, land-use change and deforestation, threatens vertebrates and the continued functioning of freshwater ecosystems. Well-informed, evidence-based conservation is reliant on suitably designed surveys capable of detecting population changes in target species. Due to the diversity and complexity of freshwater habitats and their associated vertebrate taxa a comprehensive review of all methods for all species is beyond the scope of this chapter. However, here we outline key considerations and methods for surveying vertebrates in freshwater systems and provide signposts to relevant case studies and resources to help plan successful monitoring programmes for freshwater vertebrates.
Freshwater Populations, Interactions, and Networks
Authors: Harper David M. , Pacini Nic
Published: February 2019

Freshwater ecosystems are never static and a species list alone hides that dynamism. Species come and go; populations wax and wane, so basic understanding of the numerical dynamics is necessary to separate ‘natural’ change from anthropogenic-induced change. Numerical changes in species or populations give clues, unravelling details of the changes. For example, quantifying life histories in changing populations or commonalities such as strategies in species changes is often necessary. Community characteristics, such as indices for vegetation or water quality, provide a different perspective on dynamics. Both population and community studies are now greatly assisted by environmental genetics, or eDNA. Ecosystems are made up of patches, as are landscapes, such that the patch dynamics often indicates much about the changing biological dynamics and networks. Energy to make ecosystems function is a small fraction of the solar energy that hits the earth; a far higher fraction is transformed by the vegetation of the ecosystem into latent heat of evaporation and is stored in water vapour. In its absence or reduction, that solar energy is transformed into heat, raising the temperature of the land and air.
Secondary Data
Authors: De Wever Aaike , Schmidt-Kloiber Astrid , Bremerich Vanessa , Freyhof Joerg
Published: February 2019

Understanding biodiversity change and addressing questions in freshwater management and conservation requires access to biodiversity data and information. Unfortunately, large, comprehensive data sources on freshwater ecology and biodiversity are largely lacking. In this chapter, we explain how to take advantage of secondary data and improve data availability for supporting freshwater ecology research and biodiversity conservation. We emphasise the importance of secondary data, give an overview of existing databases (e.g., taxonomy, molecular or occurrence databases), discuss problems in understanding and caveats when using such data, and explain the need to make primary data publicly available.
Invasive Aquatic Species
Authors: Coetzee Julie A. , Hill Martin P. , Hussner Andreas , Nunes Ana L. , Weyl Olaf L.F.
Published: February 2019

Freshwater ecosystems are particularly susceptible to invasions by invasive non-native species (INNS) across a range of taxa, largely as a consequence of anthropogenic influences on these systems, with a number of ecological and socio-economic impacts. This chapter reviews freshwater invasive non-native species across the globe, focusing on fishes, invertebrates, floating macrophytes, and submerged macrophytes emphasising the knowledge gaps in particular that have resulted in biases inherent in assessments of freshwater invasions. These include an ecological bias because the majority of studies focus on terrestrial invasions; a geographical bias as most studies are focused on temperate northern hemisphere systems; and a taxon bias where fish invasions, populate the literature. This chapter highlights some of the approaches needed to survey, monitor, and manage INNS.
Freshwater Ecosystem Security and Climate Change
Authors: Pittock Jamie , Finlayson C. Max , Linke Simon
Published: February 2019

In this chapter we review techniques that managers may use to respond to climate change. First, modelling the impacts of climate change on freshwater ecosystems is discussed. While hydro-climatic projections can be used their imprecision requires the selection of robust adaptation options that provide benefits under a range of possible climate outcomes. Second, contested concepts for managing freshwater ecosystems and resources are summarised, and we conclude that they may be used to develop and implement cross-sectoral policies that sustain freshwater ecosystems. Third, options for climate change adaptation for freshwater ecosystems recommends application of six principles, emphasising: accommodation of change; application of ecological and socio-economic targets across multiple scales; maintaining connectivity, conservation of refugia, and representative habitats; initial implementation of no- and low-regret adaptation interventions; agreeing on thresholds for ecological change that trigger new management interventions; and scientific monitoring and evaluation. We conclude by considering how to manage the negative impacts and seize positive synergies in climate change responses: conservation advocates must engage with agriculture, energy, and water resources sectors if freshwater ecosystems are to be incorporated in their decisions.
Wetland Landscapes and Catchment Management
Authors: Sullivan Caroline A. , Finlayson C. Max , Heagney Elizabeth , Pelletier Marie-Chantale , Acreman Mike C. , Hughes Jocelyne M.R.
Published: February 2019

This chapter highlights opportunities and challenges associated with integrated management of wetlands at the catchment and landscape scale. It discusses the fragmented nature of many catchments, and the low priority given to wetlands, in spite of their important ecological functions and valuable ecosystem services. By highlighting the need for holistic approaches to managing catchment systems, we draw attention to the need to mobilise political will from the wide variety of institutions usually present in larger catchments. Lack of legal clarity over wetland identity and the negative impacts of vested interests often associated with economic development are other big barriers to more effective efforts to secure wetland integrity within the catchment or landscape context. Given the importance of wetlands to hydrological regimes, and increasing water stress from local to global scales, we conclude that greater implementation of market-based instruments is essential to counteract commercial self-interest, if sustainable management of wetlands is to be achieved.
On Clean, Soiled, and Spattered Hands
Authors: Samet Irit
Published: February 2019

This chapter examines the clean hands doctrine, according to which a claimant who knocks on the court’s door with a hand tainted by illegality or immorality will not be given her day in court. Instead of listening to her potentially successful claim, Equity resorts to its characteristic ad hominem, flexible, morally sensitive, and ex post approach to drive him/her away. The doctrine, despite its effect on a vast number of disputes, is under-theorised and fraught with lack of clarity. The chapter first considers the sources of the considerable legal anxiety caused by the way this powerful gatekeeper operates, before discussing the underpinnings of the three traditional justifications for keeping the clean hands gatekeeper in place: coherence, deterrence, and integrity. I then make the argument that by interpreting the integrity justification as a concept rooted in moral psychology, we can understand how the incommensurable justifications relate to each other and operate in judicial reasoning. I conclude by showing how the clean hands gatekeeper creates a ‘dirty hands’ type dilemma for judges and what they can do about it.
Safeguarding the Union
Authors: Hennessey Thomas , Braniff Máire , McAuley James W. , Tonge Jonathan , Whiting Sophie A.
Published: February 2019

Chapter 5 offers an analysis of UUP discourses, to understand how the Party attempts to portray itself as the superior custodian of unionist interests compared to its DUP rival. The DUP’s presentation of the Belfast Agreement was primarily through a discourse of concessions to republicanism and losses to unionism, which the UUP struggled to counter. UUP discourse claims to offer sensible and secure unionism, demonstrating that the Party secured peace and constitutional security via the Belfast Agreement. Allied to these claims has been the assertion that the DUP has played catch-up in accepting political arrangements negotiated by the UUP. Articulating this discourse, the UUP claims to be the visionary within unionism, creating civic and liberal forms of the ideology, rather than religiously derived or cultural versions. This outlook was embodied in David Trimble’s assertion that he wished the Northern Ireland Assembly to operate as a ‘pluralist parliament for a pluralist people’.
Attitudes towards Other Parties
Authors: Hennessey Thomas , Braniff Máire , McAuley James W. , Tonge Jonathan , Whiting Sophie A.
Published: February 2019

Chapter 7 explores UUP members’ attitudes towards other parties. It explores the degree to which pan-unionism is reality, or whether long-standing hostility to the DUP persists, evidenced by a frequent reluctance to offer the UUP’s rival lower preference votes. Given the apparent extent of policy convergence, what is the basis of this intra-unionist election rivalry? Is it mainly a product of historical enmity? The chapter also analyses attitudes towards Sinn Féin, a party less of a direct electoral threat than the DUP but one whose history attracts the opprobrium of UUP members. Using data and interview material, the chapter assesses the extent of ideological proximity or distance between the UUP and other parties.
Institutional Structures, Party Selection, and Spotty Tights
Authors: Hennessey Thomas , Braniff Máire , McAuley James W. , Tonge Jonathan , Whiting Sophie A.
Published: February 2019

Chapter 9 assesses the representation and roles of women in the UUP. Women represent 30 per cent of members of the Northern Ireland Assembly and 25 per cent of local councillors However, compared to other devolved institutions, where female representation is 42 and 35 per cent in the Welsh Assembly and Scottish Parliament respectively, Northern Ireland politics maintains a significant gender deficit, as nationality and religion tend to eclipse a gender focus. The gender deficit within unionist politics is stark when compared with nationalist parties. The chapter accounts for the reasons behind the gender deficit in the UUP, where there is low female party membership and elected representation. The chapter discusses how female participation is promoted. It examines male and female attitudes to women in the party, utilizing survey evidence on views of quotas, on whether female elected representatives can better represent women’s interests, and whether women have significant voice.
Constructing Value
Authors: Townley Barbara , Roscoe Philip , Searle Nicola
Published: February 2019

The chapter invokes recent advances in the sociology of valuation to contend that the IP/IPR nexus is the mechanism through which creative products are constructed as valuable: that it orders and settles the multiple evaluative principles at play in creative production. The chapter’s pragmatist approach suggests that IP/IPR is constituted by valuations as diverse as knowledge, networks, or legal stratagems and game playing, valuation practices that coexist with other cultural intermediaries in the creative industries. Although only temporary, such valuations are vital in the operation of markets for creative products: the business of creative work is the construction and exploitation of value through IP/IPR. Its core is symbolic production and it is this symbolic worth that is traded in markets for cultural goods. The symbolic valuation of worth is contingent upon the slicing of IP/IPR facets into works of all kinds that can circulate in the market and be valued.
International Law’s Cabinet of Curiosities
Authors: Joyce Daniel
Published: February 2019

This chapter considers the significance of objects for international law through the lens of collecting and curation. It focusses upon the history of the cabinet of curiosities (or wunderkammer) as a precursor to the modern museum. The metaphor of the cabinet of curiosities reveals the folly of international law’s ambition to represent and order the world. Interpreting and critiquing the history of international law in light of its material culture reveals its Eurocentricity and connection to empire. The chapter invites critical reflection upon the volume as a whole as a cabinet of curiosities, open to its limitations as a collection, but also offering innovation and contemporary insight through its idiosyncrasy and personal form. It concludes by considering the turn to materiality in the context of broader anxieties generated by the digital era.
The Lives of Objects
Authors: Hohmann Jessie
Published: February 2019

This chapter brings into dialogue a number of materially astute theories and methodologies in the humanities and social sciences to consider how we might conceive of the lives of objects in international law. It begins with everyday lives—the way law and objects are woven into daily existences, drawing on ethnographies of the lived experience of law. Second, it considers the social lives of objects and biographical approaches to the lives of things, making reference to anthropological ideas, museum studies, and history, as well as ‘life writing’ and biography. Third, it considers objects as vibrant, agentive actants, drawing on ideas from Actor-Network-Theory (ANT) and science and technology studies (STS), thing theory, and also recognizing the long legal history of objects as agents. The chapter deliberately seeks to unsettle the legal and ontological categories of subject and object, to provoke reflection on how they are constructed and contested in international law.
Framing Objects of International Law
Authors: Werner Wouter
Published: February 2019

This chapter explores the different roles that material objects play in international law. It utilizes the ambiguity in the phrase ‘objects of international law’. First, this means that the objects concerned are somehow produced by international law; that they exist by virtue of the practices, scripts, and traditions in international law. The chapter develops this idea in section one, building on theories of attributes or properties (props) in theatre. Just like props in theatre, objects in law fulfil different functions, including the construction of subjectivity, setting in motion a chain of action, and symbolizing larger social–political topics. Second, the phrase ‘objects of international law’ refers to the signalling function of the objects concerned; they tell something about international law and its histories. This point is elaborated on in section two, based on museum and exhibition theories.
The Making of International Lawyers
Authors: Roele Isobel
Published: February 2019

Critical approaches to international law scholarship are sometimes hide-bound by reality and dismissive of idealism. Such work resembles the hermeneutics of suspicion. Eve Sedgwick explained that such approaches can be paranoid, as attempts to exclude fantasy from scholarship merely drive it underground. This chapter draws on psychoanalyst Donald Winnicott’s concept of the transitional object to think about how objects could mediate between reality and fantasy in international law pedagogy. The chapter calls for a creative reinvigoration of the discipline in which international lawyers could share a ‘sample of dream potential’ without making claims on reality. Objects, like props in children’s plays, help us connect with one another in spontaneous ways that can surprise us into looking at the world differently. This enlivening of the creative and cultural life of our discipline is an act of self-care, not an attempt to change the world.
AIDS
Authors: Murphy Thérèse
Published: February 2019

This chapter asks: Is AIDS an object of international law? It accepts that the question is problematic but argues that answering it might allow international law to be seen differently. Drawing on public health responses to HIV/AIDS, the chapter explores this argument across three related dimensions: crisis, human rights, and law itself. Each of these is central to how we frame international law, which means that reframing them is likely to interrupt international law ‘as usual’—put differently, it is likely to interrupt the ‘order of things’.
Border Check-Point, the Moldovan Republic of Transnistria
Authors: Finck François
Published: February 2019

This chapter’s object, a check-point controlled by Transnistria, a secessionist, non-recognized entity on the border between Moldova and Ukraine, illustrates the tension between fact and law in international law. This chapter first spells out the historical context of the object’s emergence to get a better understanding of its significance. It also analyses more recent events underlining its importance. It then discusses the function of international recognition in relation with effective control in the concepts of statehood and border. Subsequently, it introduces the concept of legal dependence to analyse the complex relationships between the de facto entity and its parent state. The chapter concludes on a reflection on the check-point as a symbol of legal borderlands between European and Russian approaches and the possibility of societies to shape their destiny despite the weight of history.
Chicotte
Authors: Martineau Anne-Charlotte
Published: February 2019

In the French language, especially as it is practised today in Africa, a chicotte designates a whipping or flogging object. Looking at the history of the chicotte through the lens of the ‘standard of civilization’, this chapter shows that the chicotte has been perceived, presented, and regulated by international law differently at different times. During the Leopoldian era, the infliction of the chicotte became the symbol of a ruthless commercial enterprise that, reformers urged, had to be stopped. When the Belgian state took over the colonial administration of the Congo, the chicotte was turned into a public-law device for ‘civilizing’ native subjects. More recently, in the postcolonial world, the chicotte has come to be seen in international law as a pre-modern artefact, a breach of human rights, the use of which calls for punishment and transformation.
Data: The Given
Authors: Humphreys Stephen
Published: February 2019

What is data, and how does it matter for international law? This chapter examines the material nature of the binary digit—the bit—to show three characteristics that mark it out as an object of governance. First, data as ‘thing’ must be distinguished from data as ‘medium’. Second, bits make everything countable. Third, with digitalization, there is no avoiding manipulation—there is no ‘authentic’ original: the technology has no unmediated state. Bits turn out to be an extraordinarily versatile referential technology, whose very ease of creation, storage, and reproducibility encourages proliferation while blurring the distinction between things (‘objects’) and facts (‘knowledge’). The chapter then turns to a principal material means by which data today cross borders: transoceanic cables. Overall, the chapter addresses the novel concerns contemporary material forms of data production and storage raise for international legal subjectivity and jurisdiction.
Insulae Moluccae: Map of the Spice Islands, 1594
Authors: Miles Kate
Published: February 2019

This chapter explores the role of maps in international law as deeply political forms of communication. It argues that the act of mapping is a mode of constructing orders and controlling space, capturing the inhabitants of mapped territories within the regulatory framework of the map. With this in mind and taking an historical approach, the chapter examines ‘the map’ as an instrument of empire, considering the entwining of power, commerce, imperialism, and international law. That exploration is conducted through the lens of one map of particular significance—Insulae Moluccae, a map of the Spice Islands by Petrus Plancius, cartographer for the Dutch East India Company, and employs legal and art historical frames of analysis to consider the role of art and image in international law.
One Tonne of Carbon Dioxide Equivalent (1tCO2e)
Authors: Dehm Julia
Published: February 2019

The ‘object’ of 1tCO2e has become central to how we imagine the problem of climate change and its possible solutions. This chapter explores the complex relationship between international law and 1tCO2e an as ‘object’. It demonstrates the way in which international law plays a fundamental and constitutive role in defining, stabilizing, and protecting the ‘object’ of 1tCO2e. It shows that there is nothing ‘natural’ or ‘inherent’ in thinking about carbon as standardized, commensurable, substitutable, and exchangeable, but rather that the imaginary of carbon as a fungible ‘object’ is a mode of legibility structured by international law. Simultaneously, this mode of legibility has been the enabling precondition for the marketized form that international climate change regulation and governance has taken. As such, this chapter analyses how the ‘object’ of 1tCO2e is thus both the effect of and the enabling condition for specific modes of international legal regulation.
Refugee Chains
Authors: Kesby Alison
Published: February 2019

This chapter uses the object and concept of a chain to examine international refugee law which is shown to be a chain of shifting hue and state of repair. At certain points along its length its interwoven links of gold retain the echo of their humanitarian ideal, and at others its gaps and corrosion come into view, jar, and unsettle. Seen in one light, we see international refugee law as a prized area of international law: the means by which some of the world’s most vulnerable may obtain a recognized legal status and associated rights. In another, its weaknesses become all too apparent, whether the discrepancy between states’ international obligations and their implementation thereof (eg non-refoulement) or the constraints and limits of the Refugee Convention. Issues discussed include the stasis and dynamism of the law, gaps in protection, and ‘burden sharing’ among states.
Russian Flag at the North Pole
Authors: Rayfuse Rosemary
Published: February 2019

Russia’s planting of a flag on the seabed at the North Pole in 2007 set off a flurry of concern about its maritime and territorial ambitions and the potential for international conflict in the Arctic. However, the law of the sea now renders moot traditional rules of the doctrine of discovery and occupation as manifestations of sovereignty. Thus, the Russian flag at the North Pole is meaningless in the legal sense. Nevertheless, it is not irrelevant. On the one hand, it has catalyzed the development of a ‘law habit’ among the Arctic states now reflected in cooperation on scientific and technical work to support their overlapping outer continental-shelf claims to the Arctic seabed and on other Arctic Ocean matters. On the other hand, it has clearly signalled a claim to an advantageous negotiating position. The flag is thus a physical manifestation of both the power and pretence of international law.
Somali Pirate Skiff
Authors: Guilfoyle Douglas
Published: February 2019

This chapter discusses the role of small uncovered boats powered by outboard engines in the Somali piracy crisis of 2003–2013. It examines the tactics and economics of Somali piracy in some detail. It then considers the three-pronged international response involving naval patrols, law-enforcement piracy trials, and measures of industry self-protection. The chapter notes the curious possibility that the response to Somali piracy involves probably the first widespread assertion of universal jurisdiction over pirates in practice. It concludes by considering the extent to which Somali piracy and counter-piracy may be emblematic of some of international law’s current preoccupations: embodying both the potency of the asymmetrical non-state actor in challenging the established international order and also the ‘new normal’ of relatively informal, transnational coordination of state responses to transnational crime and non-traditional threats.
Stained Glass Windows, the Great Hall of Justice of the Peace Palace
Authors: Litwin Daniel
Published: February 2019

This chapter critically examines The Evolution of the Peace Ideal (1914), a series of four monumental stained glass windows inside the largest courtroom at the Peace Palace in The Hague that now houses the International Court of Justice. It uses the stained glass windows to explain three structuring beliefs held by international lawyers about international adjudication. First, the ethereal effect of the stained glass and its vivid iconography signals international adjudication as essential to the achievement of peace and thus a matter of professional faith. Second, a highly structured evolutionary narrative across the four windows depicts the idea of international adjudication as progress which serves to distinguish ‘civilized’ and ‘uncivilized’ states. Third, the windows’ historicism links international adjudication to an immemorial past, an invented tradition that obfuscates significant changes to its practice and meaning over the last century.
Treaty Canoe
Authors: Buchanan Ruth , Hewitt Jeffery G
Published: February 2019

‘Treaty Canoe’ is an art installation made from cloth, cedar, birch bark, and treaties hand-penned onto hand-made linen paper. It is an object that speaks, in a Canadian context, to histories of colonialism, Crown assertions of sovereignty, and questions of treaty interpretation. Treaty Canoe is an object that sits uneasily in relation to international law, provoking inquiry into conceptions of sovereignty, its imbrication with imperial authority and its unsettled encounters with other forms of lawfulness. In the chapter, the individual objects comprising ‘Treaty Canoe’ (including the canoe, the blanket, and the megaphone) function as vehicles for exploring Indigenous and settler accounts of legal encounters in early Canada. ‘Treaty Canoe’ invites us to consider the legal pluralism evident in those encounters and their relationship to ongoing colonialism.
Introduction
Authors: Chalus Elaine , Gauci Perry
Published: February 2019

This introduction assesses the place of A Polite and Commercial People within the career of Paul Langford, and highlights how it made a major contribution to our understanding of Georgian Britain on its appearance in 1989. It also discusses the reception of this work, and clarifies the ways in which it can continue to inspire eighteenth-century studies. The contributions to this volume pay tribute to Langford’s impact on their work, and the book’s organization into three sections (Politics; Society and Culture; England, Britain, and the World) reflects his wide-ranging and enduring influence.
East Meets West
Authors: Gauci Perry
Published: February 2019

This chapter focuses on the debates surrounding the development of Blackfriars Bridge, the third major Thames crossing completed in 1769. Both physically and metaphorically situated at the meeting of the polite Westminster and the working City, the bridge exposed the inherent tensions between the most powerful propertied interests in the metropolis. However, its completion symbolized the ultimately productive accommodation between the polite and commercial worlds, although this was only achieved through intricate agencies and the key brokerage of well-placed individuals. The career of John Paterson (c.1705–89) will be the central interest here. A cultured man himself, he felt confident that the City did appreciate the importance of projects and designs which communicated the growing wealth and influence of the Square Mile, but he sought to sell a vision of social regeneration which spoke directly to the concerns of the City’s governors, and appealed to a London spirit which married older corporate traditions to the cause of civic improvement. These discourses were contested, but Blackfriars Bridge serves as an enduring testament to his vision of a regenerated City, where politeness and commerce would support each other.
The City of London in the Eighteenth Century
Authors: Doolittle Ian
Published: February 2019

The City of London and its Livery Companies were subject to various corporate pressures in the eighteenth century. Systemic problems with debt, property income, membership, and office-holding shaped their behaviour. Appreciating these problems helps us better understand a number of important issues. The apparent revival of guild controls should be seen in a financial as well as a trading context. The efforts to force wealthy Dissenters to serve as Sheriffs were not vindictive; it was simply that service was a requirement imposed on all members of the City Corporation. The unwillingness and/or inability to deal with what was later called corruption can be attributed to these corporate constraints. The City’s timid approach to ‘local government’ (including public improvements) is explicable in similar terms. And its politics were often driven by inward-looking—i.e. corporate—concerns rather than party-political ones.
Becoming an Englishwoman
Authors: Chalus Elaine
Published: February 2019

By focusing on the adolescent diaries of Elizabeth (Betsey) Wynne between her arrival in Switzerland in 1791, aged thirteen, and her departure from Ratisbon (Regensburg) in 1796, aged eighteen, this chapter explores the development of a precocious, cosmopolitan European girl into an ardent Englishwoman. It argues for both the continued social utility of politeness into the end of the eighteenth century. and beyond, and illuminates the crucial role that politeness played at three levels: in individual self-fashioning; in the provision of a model for, and through which, gendered identities could be expressed and interpreted; and, by extension, in the development of a set of character traits which could be used to define national identity. In this it draws upon Paul Langford’s work, not only in A Polite and Commercial People, but also in his later work, Englishness Identified. Finally, Betsey’s story reminds us that the French Revolution was a lived experience, one that irrevocably shaped the lives and characters of the generation that went on to shape nineteenth-century Europe. If for no other reason, the place of politeness in shaping those identities deserves wider attention.
The long-term diachrony of referential null subjects in early English
Authors: Rusten Kristian A.
Published: February 2019

Chapter 6 investigates the long-term diachrony of null subjects in early English. On the basis of a large-scale empirical analysis of overt and null referential subjects in Old, Middle, and Early Modern English, it is argued that no real diachronic decline in the possibility of null subjects can be detected across a period spanning c.850 years of early English texts. It is argued that this is consonant with a story where Old English does not feature a productive pro-drop property. The chapter also shows that verb-initial clausal syntax and conjunct clause environments constitute the strongest favouring effects for null subjects in Middle and Early Modern English, as is also the case in Old English. An argument is made that this is consonant with a story where subject omission in early English is viewed as a form of argument ellipsis.
Conclusions
Authors: Rusten Kristian A.
Published: February 2019

Chapter 7 concludes the book by giving a summary of the background for the study, as well as of its main results. The chapter makes note of the widely diverging previous descriptions of null subjects in Old English, and concludes that this language was not a canonical pro-drop language, instead suggesting that null subjects are linguistic 'residue'. Moreover, it argues that there is no evidence for a ‘dialect split’ with regard to subject omission. As certain conditions that are often taken to license null subjects do not appear to be present in Old English, it is suggested that the omitted subjects may be analysed as argument ellipsis. These findings are corroborated by the Middle and Early Modern English data, which display similarities to Old English with regard to the scarcity of null subjects, as well as to their morphosyntactic characteristics.
Introduction to pertussis transmission and epidemiological dynamics
Authors: Rohani Pejman , Scarpino Samuel V.
Published: February 2019

Resolving the long-term, population-level consequences of changes in pertussis epidemiology, arising from bacterial evolution, shifts in vaccine-induced immunity, or changes in surveillance, are key challenges for devising effective control strategies. This chapter reviews some of the key features of pertussis epidemiology, together with the underlying epidemiological principles that set the context for their interpretation. These include the relationship between the age distribution of cases and pertussis transmission potential, the impact of vaccine uptake on incidence, periodicity and age incidence, as well as spatially explicit recurrent pertussis epidemics and associated extinction frequency. This review highlights some of the predictable and consistent aspects of pertussis epidemiology (e.g. the systematic increase in the inter-epidemic period with the introduction of whole-cell vaccines) and a number of important heterogeneities, including variations in contemporary patterns of incidence and geographic spread.
Basics of pertussis pathogenesis
Authors: Skarlupka Amanda L. , Linz Bodo , Maynard Jennifer , Harvill Eric T.
Published: February 2019

The use of animal models and in vitro assays has allowed the identification and functional characterization of an iconic set of Bordetella pertussis factors that contribute to its pathogenesis. Much research on B. pertussis has been focused on the effects of pertussis toxin and adenylate cyclase toxin on pathogenesis and disease progression, and on the function of adherence factors. However, much larger sets of factors have been identified and proposed to be involved in host–pathogen interactions, including B. pertussis manipulating the host’s metabolism to its advantage. The identification of a third player, the resident microbiota, reveals a complex picture that has yet to be investigated. The ongoing studies of the molecular components produced by B. pertussis and their effect on the host during infection, commonly referred to as ‘pathogenesis’ research, are crucial to generate understanding of the host–pathogen interactions necessary to design new approaches to prevent and cure disease.