bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The role of age‐dependent behaviors in the retention of an approach‐avoidance response in preweanling rats
Authors: Weihmuller Fredric B. , Collier Alexis C.
Published: January 2005

The role of age‐dependent responses in infantile amnesia was examined. Ten‐ and 15‐day old rats were trained in an approach‐mother, avoid‐shock paradigm and tested for retention immediately and after a 1‐day delay. Ten‐day‐old rats were also tested after 6 days. Half of all the pups received a shock reactivation treatment before the delayed retention tests and half did not. In comparison to immediate retention, performance declined after 1 day but was reinstated by reactivation. A similar reactivation effect was found on 10‐day‐old pups tested after 6 days except that a different age‐specific response was substituted for the original behavior. These effects were not found in untrained controls. These data show that learning may be expressed differently when acquisition and retention are measured at different developmental stages, a pattern that may be mistaken for infantile amnesia.
Responses of infant mice to odors of urine from infanticidal, noninfanticidal, and paternal male mice
Authors: Elwood Robert W. , Kennedy Hazel F. , Blakely Helen M.
Published: January 2005

Infant mice responded differently to the odors of urine from isolated‐infanticidal, isolated‐noninfanticidal, and parental males. More ultrasonic vocalizations were produced in response to urine odors of parental males than to those of isolated‐infanticidal males and more to infanticidal than to noninfanticidal males. Infants became agitated in the presence of urine odors of infanticidal males and moved away from the odor source whereas they tended to remain stationary in response to urine odors of parental males. The response to urine odors of noninfanticidal males was intermediate. These data support the hypothesis that infanticidal and parental states have different physiological bases and that this physiological difference results in different chemical composition of urine. The data failed to support the hypothesis that infants will attempt to conceal themselves from infanticidal males by remaining quiet.
Selective pup retrieving by mother rats: Sex and early development characteristics as discrimination factors
Authors: Deviterne Dominique , Desor Didier
Published: January 2005

Discrimination between own‐litter pups by mother rats was studied over 14 litters, in a standardized situation eliciting maternal pup‐retrieving activity. Results showed some consistency in the order in which pups of a litter were retrieved by the mother in the 4‐day and 9‐day tests and that this order was related to certain characteristics of the pups: (1) on Day 4 and 9, the best‐developed pups of the litter (in terms of body weight and neuromotor behaviors) were first retrieved; (2) on Day 9, sex of pups became an additional discrimination factor, as males were retrieved before their female littermates. Variables included in these global discrimination factors and possible consequences of such differential mother‐pups interactions are discussed.
Infant's response to social separation reflects adult differences in affiliative behavior: A comparative developmetal study in prairie and montane voles
Authors: Shapiro Lawrence E. , Insel Thomas R.
Published: January 2005

As part of a comparative study of affiliative behavior, pups of two different vole species, Microtus ochrogaster (prairie voles) and M. Montanus (montane voles), were compared for their responses to social isolation during the first 2 weeks of postnatal life. Previous studies have demonstrated that under both laboratory and field conditions, adult prairie voles show higher levels of affiliation than adult montane voles, although the species closely resemble each other morphologically. In the current study, prairie vole and montane vole pups showed profound differences in the behavioral and physiologic responses to social isolation. During 5 minutes of isolation, prairie vole pups emitted 314 ± 60 (days 4–6) and 601 ± 55 (days 8–10) ultrasonic vocalizations. At these same ages, plasma corticosterone increased 4–6 fold within 30 minutes of separation. The increase in corticosterone was highly correlated with the number of calls (r = 66). In contrast, most montane vole pups emitted no isolation calls under identical conditions. Moreover, montane vole pups had equivalent baseline corticosterone concentrations, but showed only a minor increse in corticosterone following separation at 4–6 days with no increase apparent at 8–10 days. As montane vole pups were capable of producing high levels of ultrasonic vocalizations and increased concentrations of plasma corticosterone in responce to known stressors (tail suspension and halothane vapors), these result suggest that social isolation evokes less distress for montane vole pups than for prairie vole pups. The developmental difference in the amount of parent‐young contact was not a sufficient explanation for the differences in the response to separation as cross‐fostered montane voles failed to show an increase in ultrasonic vocalizations (although a slight increase in corticosterone was observed). Taken together, these studies indicate that species‐typical adult patterns of affiliation may be apparent early in development in the response of infants to social separation.
Structure and stimulation in the ontogeny of spoken language
Authors: Locke John L.
Published: January 2005

Linguistic innateness is a fundamentally physical notion, which ultimately requires independent physical evidence. For spoken language, it is relevant to consider babbling, components of which are unaffected by ambient stimulation and are predicted by models of vocal tract function. Links between babbling and speech point to innate factors in the ontogeny of spoken language and invite attention to central control mechanisms. These neural capabilities enable oral language learning by providing children with control over an initial stock of speech‐like movements and by directing their attention to salient linguistic patterns. Dispositions to attend to some cues are so strong that little stimulation is required. In other cases, predispositions are weak, and acquisition requires correspondingly more experience. To understand the ontogeny of language, we need to learn which cases are which and to know how these interactions occur and change over the course of acquisition.
A cultural model for the acquisition of language: Implications for the innateness debate
Authors: Harkness Sara
Published: January 2005

In contrast to other aspects of species‐specific development, language development represents both the universal thrust of biologically based capacities and the socially differentiated results of human experience in culturally structured worlds. This article presents a theoretical approach for understanding the ways that children's language development is channeled through the culturally constructed microenviroment, or “developmental niche.” The approach is illustrated with examples from research on mother‐child speech in a rural Africian community and American parents' discourse about their children's language development. The cultural model proposed here suggests a wider range of environmental input than has been acknowledged by innatist views, and proposes that there are cross‐cultural differences in the ways that language functions in representing experience to the self and communicating about it to others.
Weaning in the norway rat: Relation between suckling and milk, and suckling and independent ingestion
Authors: Thiels Edda , Alberts Jeffrey R.
Published: January 2005

We examined in rat pups the relation between the decline of suckling and the emergence of independent ingestion, and the role of milk delivery conditional on nipple attachment in the maintenance of suckling. Fifteen‐day‐old litters were reared for either 5 or 10 days, and 20‐day‐old litters for 5 days by either a thelectomized (no nipples), ligated (nipples but no milk), or intact (nipples and milk) dam. Pups' food and water intakes were monitored daily, and their suckling, feeding, and drinking behaviors were videorecorded for 24 hr in the presence of their foster dam (Day 19 or 24) and for 24 hr in the presence of an intact, lactating dam (Day 20 or 25). There were no differences between treatment conditions with respect to either the onset or rate of increase of independent feeding or drinking. Pups reared by a thelectomized dam for 10 days displayed a pronounced, lasting depression of suckling. Twenty‐five‐day‐old pups reared by a ligated dam displayed suckling levels comparable to those of control pups; in the presence of the ligated dam, however, their tendency to attach to a nipple was notably reduced. The implications of the findings for our understanding of the weaning process are discussed.
Nonrandom sex composition of gerbil, mouse, and hamster litters before and after birth
Authors: Clark Mertice M. , Galef Bennett G. , vom Saal Frederick S.
Published: January 2005

Examining data describing the sex composition of 1074 Caesarean‐delivered litters of house mice, 253 Caesarean‐delivered and 265 vaginally delivered litters of Mongolian gerbils, and 854 vaginally delivered littes of golden hamsters, we determined whether segregation of sexes between uterine horns and correlations between litter size and litter sex ratio were present in each of the three rodent species studied. Although significant deviations from expected distributions of male and female fetuses were found, these deviations from chance were not the same in any two of the three species examined. Analyses also indicated that the correlation between litter size and litter sex ratio that Huck, Seger, and Lisk (1990) found in vaginally delivered infant hamsters is present in vaginally delivered infant Mongolian gerbils, but not in their Caesarean‐delivered colony mates. In gerbils, and perhaps hamsters as well, the correlation between litter size and litter sex ratio appears to be a result of sex‐biased perinatal mortality correlated with litter size rather than of sex‐biased conception correlated with litter size.
Associative processes in differentially reared rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta): Blocking
Authors: Beauchamp Alan J. , Gluck John P. , Fouty H. Edward , Lewis Mark H.
Published: January 2005

Nine isolate and 6 socially reared adult rhesus monkeys were examined in a standard blocking procedure. A tone was paired with a startle stimulus (US) during Phase 1. A tone‐light compound CS was paired with a US during Phase 2. In Phase 3, the light was presented alone to test for blocking. Results showed that learning about the light was blocked in social controls, but not in isolates. These data suggest isolates processed information atypically, in that they developed an association to a redundant cue. A second group of isolates (n=3) underwent the identical procedures. However, conditioned reactions to the tone were extinguished before testing. Test responding was significantly reduced in this group, that is, blocking was obtained. These data suggest the within‐compound association developed during Phase 2 mediated the isolate blocking deficit. Together, these findings imply long‐term intellectual consequences of early social impoverishment. Such deficits may be mediated by alterations in central dopamine systems.
Ontogeny of preference and aversion to salt in Fischer 344 rats and syrian hamsters
Authors: Rowland Neil E.
Published: January 2005

Fischer 344 (F344) rats and Syrian hamsters, unlike rats of the Sprague‐Dawley or Wistar strains, exhibit an aversion to dilute NaCl solutions as adults. In the present studies, using the anterior intraoral infusion method, it is shown that both F344 rats and hamsters accept more dilute NaCl than either water or concentrated NaCl (i.e., show a “single bottle” preference/aversion function identical to Sprague‐Dawley rats) at both 6 and 18 days of age. At 18 days of age, they also show a preference for dilute NaCl over water in a simultaneous choice paradigm. In contrast, only 1‐3 days later when these animals are weaned, they strongly reject NaCl solutions from sipper tubes in favor of water. It is unlikely that an abrupt discontinuity in neurosensory development can fully explain this dramatic reversal in salt acceptance.
Prenatal stress effects on exploratory activity and stress‐induced analgesia in rats
Authors: Szuran T. , Zimmerman E. , Pliska V. , Pfister H. P. , Welzl H.
Published: January 2005

Pregnant rats were exposed three times daily to immobilization stress during gestational Days 15–19. The behavior of their offspring was compared with the behavior of offspring from unstressed control mothers. Although the stress procedure decreased the weight gain of mothers during pregnancy, it slightly but significantly increased the weight of their offspring at birth and at weaning. On postnatal Day 10, prenatally stressed pups returned to their home cage more quickly than did prenatally unstressed control pups during a nest odor discrimination task, but no differences between groups in the number of correct responses were found. On postnatal Days 70–72, prenatally stressed offspring showed increased exploratory activity in a complex tunnel maze compared with control offspring. On postnatal Day 80, analgesia induced by stress (swimming for 3 min in cold water) was determined (tail flick latency). The degree of stress‐induced analgesia was smaller in prenatally stressed rats than in control rats. These data suggest that the effects of prenatal stress on behavior are most clearly discernable when such animals are confronted with a novel or stressful situation.
Acute prenatal experience with alcohol in the amniotic fluid: Interactions with aversive and appetitive alcohol orosensory learning in the rat pup
Authors: Chotro María Gabriela , Córdoba Nancy E. , Molina Juan Carlos
Published: January 2005

Prenatal alcohol acute contamination of the amniotic fluid and different postnatal manipulations with this drug alter subsequent responsiveness to EtOH's chemosensory cues. In this study, the interaction between prenatal and postnatal alcohol‐related experiences was examined. Alcohol administered in the amniotic fluid during gestational Day 21 potentiated subsequent alcohol‐odor conditioned preferences resulting from postnatal pairings between the odor and sucrose intraoral infusions. No interaction was attained when examining the impact of the in utero experience with postnatal aversive conditioning defined by alcohol odor‐citric acid pairings (Exps. la & lb). In Exp. 2, infantile alcohol aversions derived from a state of acute ethanol intoxication were inhibited by prior alcohol experience in utero. Examination of alcohol levels in fetal trunk blood and the amniotic fluid suggests that the antenatal experience is related to the chemosensory perception of the drug rather than its intoxicating properties (Exp. 3). These results strongly suggest that the alcohol‐related memory generated proximal to birth can modulate subsequent learning with the drug.
Genetic and maternal influences in rat models of spontaneous and salt‐induced hypertension
Authors: Adams Nelson , Blizard David A.
Published: January 2005

Genetic and maternal influences on hypertension were studied by comparing the SHR and SS/Jr inbred rat strains and their reciprocal F1 hybrids under identical conditions. When raised on a low salt (LS) diet (0.3% NaCl), SHR rats had higher systolic blood pressure (SBP) than SS/Jr rats by 9 weeks of age. Direct recordings from freely moving rats at 18–24 weeks confirmed this difference. Placement on a high salt (HS) diet (8% NaCl) at 5 weeks of age significantly increased SBP within 3 weeks in all groups, although the degree of increment was significantly smaller in SHR females. Inbred strains had higher SBP than their F1 hybrids when measured indirectly and directly from arterial cannulae. After exposure to HS diet, F1 females reared by SHR dams exhibited larger increments in SBP, greater weight loss, and greater debilitation and associated mortality than F1 females reared by SS/Jr dams. Differences between inbred strains and F1s maintained on LS diet were consistent with dominance for low BP, and differential genetic control of hypertension in each inbred strain. F1 differences demonstrated that maternal factors affected body weight in weanlings, pressor response to HS diet, and associated debilitation.
Allomaternal vocal behavior in squirrel monkeys
Authors: Biben Maxeen
Published: January 2005

Three groups of squirrel monkeys, containing 1–3 infants (N = 7) and 4 adult females each, were observed weekly for the first 12 weeks of the infants' lives. Infants received approximately 100 vocalizations, mostly “caregiver” calls, per waking hour from their mothers and the other adult females with whom they were housed (allomothers). Mothers vocalized very little to their own infants during the first few weeks of life, when infants remain on the mother's back full‐time. Instead, allomothers (who were often carrying their own dependent infants) vocalized copiously to others' very young infants. Infants responded vocally to these allomaternal caregiver calls as early as Day 1 but were less responsive to mothers. When infants began leaving the mothers' backs, mothers' rates of calling increased five‐fold as they used caregiver calls to retrieve separated infants. Early vocalizing to infants involves them in their first social exchanges and is probably performed by allomothers rather than mothers because the infant rides dorsally in this genus. © 1992 Wiley & sons. Inc.
The energetic costs of rough‐and‐tumble play in the juvenile rat
Authors: Siviy Stephen M. , Atrens Dale M.
Published: January 2005

The metabolic costs of rough‐and‐tumble play behavior were studied in juvenile rats. Using indirect calorimetry, it was determined that enrgy expenditure during play is increased by 66–104% over the resting metabolic rate, indicating that play accounts for between 2% and 3% of the total daily energy budget of the rat. In a subsequent experiment, food intake and body weight were monitored for 3 weeks in rats allowed to play for 1 hr/day and in rats not allowed to play. While the body weights of the two groups did not differ significantly from each other, those rats allowed to play ate 7% more over the 3‐week period than did those rats not given an opportunity to play. These data are consistent with previous reports describing the energetic costs of mammalian play, with play accounting for less than 10% of the daily energy budget in three species tested so far. These data are also consistent with viewing play as a type of excercise and lead to a better understanding of putative benefits of this behavior. © 1992 Wiley & sons. Inc.
Variation in maternal care and individual differences in play, exploration, and grooming of juvenile Norway rat offspring
Authors: Moore Celia L. , Power Karen L.
Published: January 2005

Individual differences in two different forms of maternal licking, time in nest and nursing, were measured during the first 2 weeks after birth. Two treatments were imposed to reduce maternal anogenital licking (AGL): peripheral zinc sulfate to interfere with reception of pup chemosignals, and dietary saline to reduce appetite for pup urine. Both treatments reduced AGL but did not affect other maternal licking. Zinc sulfate was more effective than saline during the first week, but was somewhat less selective as it also increased time in nest. Selected behavioral patterns were measured in male and female juveniles and related by multiple regression to the behavior of their mothers. Independent of the method of manipulation, maternal AGL was a significant predictor of play and open‐field defecation males and of some forms of activity in the open field in both sexes. The relationships between other maternal variables and juvenile behavior were more modest. These data demonstrate that intervening in the sensory regulation of maternal behavior can produce predictable changes in stimulation provided by the dam, thereby providing a useful means for investigating the effects of protracted differences in early stimulation in otherwise normal developmental contexts. © 1992 Wiley & sons. Inc.
First time experiences in infancy: When they appear to be pleasant, Do they activate the adrenocortical stress response?
Authors: Hertsgaard Louise , Gunnar Megan , Larson Mary , Brodersen Laurie , Lehman Heather
Published: January 2005

The effect of a positive first‐time experience on adrenocortical activity was examined in 48 6‐ to 13‐month‐old infants who took part in two sessions of a YMCA‐like mother–infant swim class. Experience was manipulated by comparing Novice swimmers with infants who previously had taken a swim class, and by examining responses to first versus second class session. In addition, the effects of temperamental fear of novelty were examined by maternal report prior to the first session. Preswim and Postswim cortisol levels were compared to measures obtained at the same time of day in two comparison groups, one tested at home and one tested in a playroom at the University. The results yielded no evidence of an adrenocortical stress response (elevated cortisol) to the swim sessions for either the Novice or Experienced swimmers. Infant temperamental fearfulness predicted behavioral but not adrenocortical responses during swimming. Postswim cortisol levels were significantly lower than posttest levels in the two baseline comparison groups, and lower postswim cortisol levels were associated with less negative and more positive emotional behavior and engagement of the swimming experience. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that emotions serve as a major pathway influencing adrenocortical activity, and provide no support for the uncertainty hypothesis of adrenocortical activation © 1992 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Development of open‐field and social behavior of the paradise fish (Macropodus opercularisL.)
Authors: Miklósi Adam , Topál J. , Csányi V.
Published: January 2005

In a series of experiments, we examined the development of some characteristic behavior elements in the paradise fish. It was shown that the behavior in the open field was dependent on the age of the fish. The attraction of fries of paradise fish toward conspecifics undergo some changes between 12 and 25 days of age: Larger groups become more attractive. Social orientation toward individual conspecifics develops by 24 days of age.
Operant and pavlovian contributions to the ontogeny of pecking in ring doves
Authors: Balsam Peter D. , Graf Joan Stephenson , Silver Rae
Published: January 2005

This series of experiments analyzes the role of learning in the development of pecking in ring dove squab. Experiment 1 showed that there is a high probability that parents will feed squab after a period of separation (Experiment 1). Such feedings may have been essential for producing the previous observation (Graf, Balsam, & Silver, 1985) that pecking develops normally if squab which have been separated from their parents are given a daily 20‐min interaction with seed followed by an immediate return to their parents. Experiment 2 showed that exposure to seed followed by experimenter‐provided feedings were sufficient for inducing adult pecking levels. Experiment 3 showed that general experience with conspecifics was not necessary for the development of pecking and that maturation alone could not account for the pecking observed in previous experiments. Experiment 4 showed that Pavlovian contingencies consisting of visual exposure to seed followed by feeding was sufficient to induce high levels of pecking. There did not appear to be an additional contribution of an operant contingency present when squab were allowed to both see and peck at seed prior to feedings in Experiment 5. However, squab must actually be given experience in handling and ingesting seeds before adult levels of pecking can be obtained. These results are discussed in terms of the developmental pathways whereby experience leads to adult behavior. © 1992 Wiley & sons. Inc.
Ultrasonic vocalization by rat pups during recovery from deep hypothermia
Authors: Hofer Myron A. , Shair Harry N.
Published: January 2005

Vocalization in the ultrasonic range (USV) has been reported to occur in young rodents in response to isolation, novelty, handling, and cold. Heretofore these calls have been known to occur only in alert, attentive, or emotionally aroused animals. These studies describe the emission of USV by comatose 9‐ to 10‐day‐old rat pups during recovery from deep hypothermia. Calling began at 15–18°C core temperature while pups were virtually unresponsive to stimulation. Experimental results describe the patterns of call production in relation to respiration, cardiac function, colonic temperature, and brown adipose tissue thermogenesis. These vocalizations were 32–42 kHz in frequency, reached peak rates of 50/min at 23°C, and were eliminated by laryngeal denervation, thus resembling isolation‐induced vocalizations. However, contact with their dams failed to reduce call rates until pups had warmed above 25°C. Newborn and weanling pups also emitted USV in deep hypothermia, but no USV were observed in pups recovering from general anesthesia. The possible functions and evolution of this behavior are discussed. © 1992 Wiley & sons. Inc.
Long‐evans and sprague‐dawley rats differ in their spatial navigation performance during ontogeny and at maturity
Authors: Tonkiss John , Shultz Penny , Galler Janina R.
Published: January 2005

The Morris maze has become a popular method for the assessment of spatial navigation. However, its use to study the development of spatial abilities has been limited to pigmented rats. Thus, the aim of the present study was to compare albino Sprague‐Dawley and pigmented Long‐Evans rats using this test during postnatal Days 20 through 27, and Day 90. It was found that Long‐Evans rats showed significantly shorter escape latencies and swim distances than the Sprague‐Dawley rats on Days 20–25 but not on Days 26–27. However, when tested at Day 90, the Long‐Evans rats again showed more rapid location of the escape platform and shorter swim distances than the Sprague‐Dawley rats. Probe trial analysis (platform removed) indicated that Long‐Evans rats were generally more accurate in their localization of the former platform location than Sprague‐Dawley rats. In a second experiment in which 21‐day‐old rats of both strains were tested in a proximal‐cue version of the maze, the question of whether this performance difference might have related to visuo‐perceptual differences was considered. Since no dissimilarity in performance was observed, a spatial‐learning difference between the two strains would seem best able to explain the preceding data. © 1992 Wiley & sons. Inc.
Androgen mediated effects of male fetuses on the behavior of dams late in pregnancy
Authors: Clark Mertice M. , Crews David , Galef Bennett G.
Published: January 2005

Two correlational studies were undertaken to expolre the relationship between the sex ratio of the pups that a female Mongolian gerbil gestated and her behavior, morphology, and hormone levels late in pregnancy. In the first study, we found that the change in sex ratio between the first and second litters that a female gerbil delivered and the change in her frequency of scent marking late in her first and second pregnancies were significantly correlated. In the second study, we found significant positive correlations between both the percentage and the number of males in the litter a female delivered and (1) her plasma testosterone levels, (2) the size of her ventral gland, and (3) her frequency of scent marking, all measured late in pregnancy. Our data were entirely consistent with the hypothesis that fetal males excrete biologically significant quantities of testosterone into their dam's bloodstream and that this testosterone masculinizes both the behavior and morphology of dams late in pregnancy. © 1993 Johan Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Effects of dopamine and kappa opioid receptors on fetal responsiveness to perioral stimuli
Authors: Robinson Scott R. , Moody Carole A. , Spear Linda P. , Smotherman William P.
Published: January 2005

Opioid ligands or drugs that act on dopaminergic pathways effect changes in the motor behavior of near‐term rat fetuses. In this study, selective manipulation of kappa opioid and D1 DA receptors was used to investigate opioid and dopamine involvement in mediating the behavioral effects of milk infusion. Milk reduced expression of the fetal facial wiping response to a tactile probe, and this effect was blocked by the kappa antagonist nor‐binaltorphimine as well as the D1 antagonist SCH‐23390. Administration of either the kappa agonist U50,488 or the D1 agonist SKF‐38393 mimicked the effects of milk and reduced fetal responsiveness to the probe in the absence of milk infusion. Administration of nor‐binaltorphimine reversed the effects of SKF‐38393 and resulted in a high incidence of the wiping response. However, administration of SCH‐23390 did not reverse the low incidence of facial wiping induced by U50,488. These findings suggest that milk modulates activity at dopamine receptors, which in turn promotes activity at kappa receptors of the opioid system to bring about changes in cutaneous responsiveness in the fetal rat. © 1993 Johan Wiley & Sons, Inc.
A kinematic and electromyographic analysis of the development of sitting posture in infants
Authors: Harbourne Regina T. , Giuliani Carol , Neela Jane Mac
Published: January 2005

This study was designed to describe the development of posture control in sitting in response to a natural perturbation. Seven normal infants 2 to 5 months of age were tested at two stages of independent sitting development. Trunk support was removed from infants while sitting erect and the postural responses were videotaped and EMG recorded from the upper trunk extensors, lumbar paraspinals, gluteus maximus, rectus femoris, hamstrings, and abdominals. Kinematic variables (trunk displacement, trunk velocity, trunk curvature) and an EMG variable (pattern of muscle activation) were analyzed with computer programs. Between Stages 1 and 2 of sitting development, anterior trunk displacement and velocity decreased significantly, although the trunk extension curve did not change significantly. Infants had variable muscle responses during Stage 1; however, during Stage 2 EMG analysis revealed less variability and the emergence of postural synergies. Overall, lumbar paraspinals, hamstrings, and quadriceps were the muscles most frequently active during the postural response. Each subject had a preferred synergy, with the most common synergies being a lumbar paraspinalhamstring synergy and a lumbar paraspinal‐quadriceps synergy. These data provide evidence that trunk displacement and trunk velocity decrease in infants develop independent sitting posture, and these variables may be used to measure improvement in sitting control. We suggest that the control of sitting posture is related to the emergence and preferred use of the paraspinal‐hamstring and paraspinal‐quadriceps synergies. © 1993 Johan Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Maternal regulation of adrenocortical activity in the infant rat: Effects of feeding
Authors: Rosenfeld Patricia , Ekstrand Jeffrey , Olson Emily , Suchecki Deborah , Levine Seymour
Published: January 2005

Basal and stress‐induced corticosterone release in the infant rat has been shown to be inhibited by some aspect of maternal care. The following studies examined specific maternal cues that might be responsible for this regulation. In Experiments 1 and 2, 12‐day‐old pups remained with their dam but were either prevented or not from feeding; at the end of 24 hr, basal and stress‐induced corticosterone levels were measured. Only those animals that were able to feed showed the hyporesponsiveness characteristic of nondeprived animals, suggesting that feeding rather than some other aspect of maternal care was the critical variable. In Experiment 3, all animals were maternally deprived, and some of them were fed via an intracheek cannula. Once again, feeding led to a pronounced diminution in both basal and stress‐induced levels of corticosterone. Our results point to feeding as one of the critical features responsible for the inhibitory effect of the dam on the infant's adrenocortical activity. © 1993 Wiley & sons. Inc.
Specific antibody levels in free‐ranging rhesus monkeys: Relationships to plasma hormones, cardiac parameters, and early behavior
Authors: Laudenslager Mark L. , Rasmussen Kathlyn L. R. , Berman Carol M. , Suomi Stephen J. , Berger Christy B.
Published: January 2005

Levels of tetanus‐specific antibodies were assessed in free‐ranging, yearling rhesus monkeys following prophylactic immunization with tetanus toxoid. Each subject's behavior had been observed between 11 and 25 weeks of age and approximately 2 months later during its mother's first concentrated mating period as a part of another study. Prior to immunization, at approximately 1 year of age, cardiovascular parameters, and several plasma parameters [cortisol, adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH), growth hormone (GH), interleukin‐2 (IL‐2), and total plasma immunoglobulin G (IgG)] were measured during a brief period of captivity. Antibody titers noted approximately 2 weeks after immunization were related to cardiovascular parameters. Thus, yearlings with high heart rates and low heart rate variability during captivity had the highest tetanus‐specific serum IgG. Levels of plasma cortisol, ACTH, total IgG, and IL‐2 noted at the time of capture were unrelated to subsequent antibody levels. Antibody titers were, however, positively correlated with GH noted immediately following capture on the day prior to immunization. Antibody titers were also related to the infants' behavior observed during their mother's first concentrated mating period, Infants who were most distressed (high levels of distress vocalization) when their mother resumed mating (a time particularly stressful for free‐ranging rhesus infants) showed lower antibody titers to tetanus immunization as a yearling. The present observations add support to the existence of a relationship between behavior during exposure to an early stressor and later immune regulation and that certain cardiovascular parameters may be related to certain indicators of immunoregulation. © 1993 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Influence of early life events on immune reactivity in adult mice
Authors: Neveu Pierre J. , Deleplanque Brigitte , Puglisi‐Allegra Stefano , D'amato Francesca R. , Cabib Simona
Published: January 2005

The effects of postnatal manipulations on different immune parameters were investigated in adult female mice. Postnatal stress consisted of a 15‐min daily exposure to clean bedding (temperature Mayntained at 35°C) for the first 2 weeks of life in the absence of the mother but in the presence of littermates. Controls were unhandled until weaning. At 60 days of age, female mice stressed during postnatal development showed enhanced immune reactivity as assessed by NK‐cell activity and T‐cell mitogenesis in comparison with unhandled mice. By contrast, B‐lymphocyte proliferation induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) was not affected by alterations of postnatal environment. Furthermore, the association between immune reactivity and behavioral lateralization observed in adult mice was not altered by postnatal stress.© 1994 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Needs assessment: Concept and practice
Authors: Scriven Michael , Roth Jane
Published: January 2005

The assessment of needs is perhaps the most important part of planning or evaluating any new program. Informal discussions or opinion polls are simply inadequate. Here is a more careful approach to the concept and practice of needs assessment.
Front‐end analysis: Pegasus or shank's mare?
Authors: Datta Lois‐Ellin
Published: January 2005

Despite the limits of prophecy, analyses before programs are initiated can be worth the effort required to answer questions about rationale, consequences, feasibility, and costs.
Evaluation dimensions for program development and improvement
Authors: Baker Eva L.
Published: January 2005

Program evaluators can contribute to the responsible growth of their profession by recognizing that formative evaluation procedures should be matched to particular types of program development processes.
Summary: Dimensions of program evaluation
Authors: Coles Claire D.
Published: January 2005

Though program evaluation has many different aspects, there are concerns common to the whole field.
A social‐audit bridge to future business success
Authors: Wirsig Woodrow
Published: January 2005

Most thoughtful business executives agree that social accountability is here to stay and are increasingly using social‐accountability audits to help them determine what they are doing, how effective it is, and how it can be improved.
Organizational surveys as monitoring devices
Authors: Smith Frank J.
Published: January 2005

For many reasons, the survey approach has failed to meet its early promise of being an effective organizational monitoring device. Its renaissance, however, seems solidly established.
Secondary analysis: In compensatory education programs
Authors: David Jane E. , Pelavin Sol H.
Published: January 2005

Evaluation data from compensatory education programs are reanalyzed to obtain support for the hypothesis that conclusions about program effectiveness may be dependent on the time span over which the evaluation data are collected and on the particular standards applied.
Secondary analysis: In the Beginning Teacher Evaluation Study
Authors: Powell Marjorie
Published: January 2005

Secondary analyses can advance both substantive and methodological knowledge, may require different planning strategies from the original analysis, and may or may not pose a threat to the original researcher. Examples from the Beginning Teacher Evaluation Study are used to illustrate these points.
Strategies for obtaining utilizable knowledge
Authors: Glaser Edward M.
Published: January 2005

This chapter suggests ways to obtain information and innovative strategies that serve information needs.
The evaluator as an agent of change
Authors: Salasin Susan
Published: January 2005

The broad range of significant and practical value issues in evaluation research includes internal evaluators versus external ones, usefulness, and “neutral” evaluations versus those which explicitly include evaluators' value judgments.
The student, evaluative data, and secondary analysis
Authors: Boruch Robert F. , Reis Janet
Published: January 2005

With evaluation tasks growing in size and complexity, initial analyses of data are unlikely to be complete, satisfactory, or persuasive. The usual approaches to analysis of complex data sets from evaluation projects can be enhanced by having the data undergo secondary analysis.
Organization and management of the evaluation function in a multilevel organization
Authors: Abramson Mark A. , Wholey Joseph S.
Published: January 2005

The evaluation activities of a large organization must be more than a set of individual projects. Coordination, leadership, and a long‐term strategy are essential for overall success.
Evaluating clinical investigation of psychotropic substances
Authors: Wittenborn J. R. , Kelsey Frances O.
Published: January 2005

The clinical programs that test psychotropic drugs are strictly monitored in accordance with procedural and research guidelines.
New methods in criminal justice evaluation
Authors: Silberman George
Published: January 2005

This chapter chronicles the history of a program designed to develop methods for criminal justice evaluation.
Creating alternative methods for educational evaluation
Authors: Smith Nick L.
Published: January 2005

New evaluation methods are being developed by adapting techniques from geography, philosophy, journalism, economics, film criticism, photography, and other areas.
Film criticism and micro‐computer courseware evaluation
Authors: Della‐Piana Gabriel M.
Published: January 2005

What is needed today in all the workings of society is demystification in order to help people see how things work. How can we demystify the workings of microcomputer‐based instruction?
Developing useful evaluations: A case history and some practical guidelines
Authors: Koretz Daniel
Published: January 2005

Institutional factors that constrain the Congress's use of evaluation research are illustrated by a case history of congressional deliberations about the Professional Standards Review Organization program, and concrete guidelines are offered for evaluators.
In praise of uncertainty
Authors: Cronbach Lee J.
Published: January 2005

This chapter lists the potential benefits and dangers of standards and assesses whether the ERS Standards are beneficial on balance.
The effects of geographic targeting and programmatic change: The Denver Community Development Agency
Authors: Mushkatel Alvin H. , Wilson L. A.
Published: January 2005

The use of macro studies and aggregate data can obscure important factors that are critical to an assessment of program effects.
The evaluation of Push/Excel: A case study
Authors: Farrar Eleanor , House Ernest R.
Published: January 2005

The evaluators of Push/Excel assumed that it was a systematically developed program with measurable outcomes, not a charismatically inspired movement whose effects would be hard to pin down. As a result, neither the program nor the evaluation approach used were adequately tested.
The inconsistencies at the foundation of construct validation theory
Authors: Norris Stephen P.
Published: January 2005

Construct validation theory is founded upon conflicting metaphysical principles, methodological approaches and standards of adequacy.
Program utilization and service utilization studies: A key tool for evaluation
Authors: Landsberg Gerald
Published: January 2005

Program utilization and service utilization studies form the foundation for internal evaluation in human service organizations.
Applying attitude theories to the return of mailed questionnaires
Authors: McKillip Jack
Published: January 2005

This chapter applies theories from several disciplines to the mailed questionnaire methodology.
Evaluation encounters in Third World settings: A Caribbean perspective
Authors: Cuthbert Marlene
Published: January 2005

Variations in perceptions of evaluation, methods, time, social class, and priorities—these are only a few of the reasons why evaluation work in Third World settings calls into question our basic assumptions about people, society, and even airline schedules.
Reflections of a development adviser
Authors: Duncan Richard L.
Published: January 2005

Reflection on experiences in Brazil and elsewhere provides insight into the advisory process in international technical cooperation projects and alternative roles for evaluation advisers.
The anatomy of collective failure in the Netherlands
Authors: Hoogerwerf Andries
Published: January 2005

A review of evaluation findings on Dutch policy successes and failures points to the influence of political culture on policy effectiveness.
Evaluation in Israel: A conversation with Arieh Lewy
Authors: Bank Adrianne
Published: January 2005

Although evaluation practice in Israel is strongly influenced by American thinking, it is also a unique local response to societal, political, academic, cultural, and interpersonal pressures.
A design for an economic analysis: The Wisconsin child support demonstration
Authors: Garfinkel Irwin , Corbett Thomas
Published: January 2005

Can alternative ways of administering and guaranteeing the flow of child support payments enhance the welfare of children of separated or divorced parents?
Capital costs in economic program evaluation: The case of mental health services
Authors: Cannon Nancy L. , McGuire Thomas , Dickey Barbara
Published: January 2005

Capital costs are substantial, frequently problematical, and often neglected or inappropriately estimated in deliberations over how to deliver public services, such as mental health care.
Obstacles to using prior research and evaluations
Authors: Orwin Robert G.
Published: January 2005

The manner in which results and methods are reported influences the utility of the synthesis of prior studies for planning new evaluations. Confidence ratings, coding conventions, and supplemental evidence can partially overcome the difficulties. Planners must acknowledge the influence of their own judgment in using prior research.
Randomization in the NIMH treatment of depression collaborative research program
Authors: Collins Joseph F. , Elkin Irene
Published: January 2005

The central randomization scheme employed in the NIMH Treatment of Depression Collaborative Research Program is described including consequences of the scheme and the mid‐study changes in scheme that proved necessary because of imbalance at sites for important patient characteristics.
Randomized field experiments in education: Implementation lessons
Authors: Bickman Leonard
Published: January 2005

The problems of implementing randomized tests in educational settings are not trivial. This paper covers the intents and the compromises, the successes and the failures, and the lessons of three major projects.
Overview of the teaching of evaluation across the disciplines
Authors: Davis Barbara Gross
Published: January 2005

Although disciplines differ in their curricular emphases, there is increasing agreement about the general topics evaluation courses should address.
The teaching of evaluation in interdisciplinary programs: UC Irvine
Authors: Conner Ross F.
Published: January 2005

This chapter explores one particular interdisciplinary graduate evaluation course, discussing its content, products, strengths, and weaknesses.
The whole is greater: Combining qualitative and quantitative approaches in evaluation studies
Authors: Smith Mary Lee
Published: January 2005

There are circumstances in which the evaluator can and should choose to use multiple methods and approaches to answer evaluative questions.
But is it rigorous? Trustworthiness and authenticity in naturalistic evaluation
Authors: Lincoln Yvonna S. , Guba Egon G.
Published: January 2005

The emergence of a new paradigm of inquiry (naturalistic) has, unsurprisingly enough, led to a demand for rigorous criteria that meet traditional standards of inquiry. Two sets are suggested, one of which, the “trustworthiness” criteria, parallels conventional criteria, while the second, “authenticity” criteria, is implied directly by new paradigm assumptions.
When is naturalistic evaluation appropriate?
Authors: Williams David D.
Published: January 2005

Asking a few simple questions about the context of an evaluation can help you decide if a naturalistic approach is appropriate.
Quasi‐experimentation in a critical multiplist mode
Authors: Shadish, William R. , Cook Thomas D. , Houts Arthur C.
Published: January 2005

Since it is usually the case that no defensible option for performing a task within quasi‐experimentation is unbiased, it is desirable to select several options that reflect biases in different directions. This aim is to avoid constant biases and to overlook only those biases that can be considered least plausible.
Measuring and testing program philosophy
Authors: Conrad Kendon J. , Miller Todd Q.
Published: January 2005

Program philosophy includes theories and values. An evaluation is made more coherent by measuring the philosophy and testing its implementation and effectiveness.
Conducting social experiments
Authors: Boruch Robert F.
Published: January 2005

Randomized field experiments have been regarded as a gold standard in producing good evidence about the effects of social programs. But they have not been easy to conduct. In the past decade, the use of alternative randomization plans and incentives has contributed to their operational feasibility; legal, ethical, and professional arguments for experimentation have matured; and expectations have become better aligned with practical constraints that are likely to be encountered.
Cost‐benefit and cost‐effectiveness analyses
Authors: Levin Henry M.
Published: January 2005

Cost‐benefit and cost‐effectiveness analyses have not been used extensively in program evaluation, despite their obvious value when public and private resources are limited and several courses of action are feasible. Future developments in this area will require consideration of multiple objectives, limited information, and lack of proficiency of decision makers in the use of these techniques.