bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Geographic Proximity and Foreign Military Intervention
Authors: Pearson Frederic S.
Published: March 2007

Proceeding from assumptions about interests and costs, two basic questions about the relation of foreign military intervention and geographic proximity are examined: (1) whether various types of intervening countries usually send troops to distant or nearby states; (2) whether certain types of military intervention are more likely to occur near to or far from the intervener. Data on categories of foreign military intervention in all regions from 1948-1967 were collected from the New York Times, regional chronologies, and scholarly accounts. Analysis of these, along with geographic distance data shows: (1) large powers were most likely to intervene far from home and rarely intervened close by; (2) small and middle powers were most likely to undertake intervention hostile to the target government; (3) hostile interventions in domestic disputes were rare, and hostile military interventions abroad generally were close to the intervener's capital; (4) the bulk of distant interventions were friendly to target and occurred when intervening country had power advantage over target country; (5) intervener's power disadvantage did not necessarily deter friendly or hostile interventions in nearby states; (6) large and small power interventions seemed related to regional power balance and ideological interests, but European great powers were concerned with economic interests, and small powers were more likely than large to intervene for territorial or social interests; (7) there was little consistent relation between contiguity and military intervention probability.
Argumentation in Foreign Policy Settings
Authors: Axelrod Robert
Published: March 2007

This is a study of argumentation in three different kinds of high level, confidential, foreign policy settings: a collegial setting, a bureaucratic setting, and a bargaining setting. The causal and value assertions of the participants were coded using the detailed records of these three settings. The data show to be inadequate a defense/ attack model of argumentation in which the participants support their own arguments to make them resistant to attack, while attacking the weak spots in others'stated positions. In fact, there are few assertions which are supported by specific evidence, almost no mutually supported causal arguments, and the assertions which were attacked were no less emphasized than the assertions which were not attacked. More in accord with the data is the novel-arguments approach in which the key factor in persuasive argumentation is the development of arguments which others have not already taken into account.
Equilibrium Payoff Configurations for Cooperative Games with Transferability
Authors: Sussangkarn Chal
Published: March 2007

This paper introduces some concepts of equilibrium payoff configurations for n-person games. They are based on the idea that a coalition must be sufficiently stable to break away from a particular payoff configuration and are extensions of the core and the bargaining sets The question of general existence is dealt with, as well as interesting dynamic properties in three-person games
Scarcity and Inequality
Authors: Midlarsky Manus I.
Published: March 2007

This study examines the relationship between scarcity and inequality, especially in the comparison between the behavior of agrarian and industrial societies. Specifically, we ask why it is that major revolutions almost always occur in predominantly agrarian societies but almost never in industrial ones. Whereas industrialized countries experience increased equality with increased a bundance, and follow a hypothesized curvilinear function, this is not true for agrarian societies as evidenced in three data sets. Redistributive and authenticating revolutions follow from the scarcity condition. Exponential distributions of landholdings and increased inequality are found to apply in agrarian, prerevolutionary situations. Land inequality is a potent predictor of mass revolution. Population growth is found to be a major source of inequality, and the emergence of inequality even in advanced industrial societies suggests certain similarities with the early stages of the agrarian sector. Thus, the future stability of the more industrialized countries may be threatened.
Research on Conflict Theory
Authors: Intriligator Michael D.
Published: March 2007

Research on conflict theory, that is, studies of conflict or war using formal reasoning or mathematical approaches, is cross-classified by eight analytic approaches and eight areas of application. The analytic approaches include differential equations, decision theory/control theory, game theory, bargaining theory, uncertainty, stability theory, action-reaction models, and organization theory. The areas of application include arms races, war initiation/war termination/timing of conflict, military strategy/conduct of war, threats/crises/escalation, qualitative arms race/arms control, alliances, nuclear proliferation, and defense bureaucracy/budgets. The use of a particular analytic approach in a particular area of application entails 64 possible combinations, but research tends to cluster in only certain of these cross-classifications.
Power, Alliance, and Major Wars, 1816-1975
Authors: Kim Woosang
Published: March 2007

For years, students of international politics have attempted to explain seemingly contradictory perspectives about the relationship between power distribution and the onset of war, and between alliance formation and the incidence of war. Power transition theorists claim that war is most likely when power is equally distributed among nations and that alliances have little or no impact on the likelihood of major wars, whereas balance-of-power theorists suggest that war is less likely when power is equally distributed and that alliances play a critical role in the incidence of war. In this research, several propositions suggested by the power transition theory are tested for major war cases from 1816 to 1975. The main findings show that alliances play a significant role in the incidence of major wars and that the probability of war increases when the two alliance coalitions, not the two nations in a dyad, have approximately equal power. These findings confirm neither the balance-of-power perspective nor the view of the power transition model. In addition, the power transition and the rate of growth hypotheses claimed by the power transition theory are not empirically supported.
A People Apart
Authors: Arian Asher
Published: March 2007

Israelis believe their country faces serious threat and they will succeed in overcoming these threats. The mechanisms employed for dealing with these two attitude clusters are explored. Based on a national sample (N = 1,116), three mechanisms are shown to dominate: perceived success, denial, and a belief system identified as the People Apart Syndrome. The syndrome consisted of two constructs: God-and-us, relating to a special, mystical relation perceived by many between God, Israel, and Jewish history; and go-it-alone, dealing with feelings of isolation and the belief that ultimately Jewish destiny depends on the Jews. Psychological factors were shown to be much more powerful than demographic variables in explaining these distributions. The widely shared syndrome captured the tone of Israeli political discourse and the mindset of a large portion of the population. Its distribution among place of birth groups by policy preference and religious observance revealed the pervasive nature of the syndrome.
Dangerous Dyads
Authors: Bremer Stuart A.
Published: March 2007

Theoretical arguments and some empirical evidence suggest that war is more likely to occur between states that are geographically proximate, approximately equal in power, major powers, allied, undemocratic, economically advanced, and highly militarized than between those that are not. Bivariate analyses of these seven factors in relation to the onset of interstate war over all pairs of states in the period from 1816 to 1965 generally support these associations. However, multivariate analyses reveal some differences. In order of declining importance, the conditions that characterize a dangerous, war-prone dyad are: presence of contiguity, absence of alliance, absence of more advanced economy, absence of democratic polity, absence of overwhelming preponderance, and presence of major power. Taken together these findings suggest that our research priorities may be seriously distorted and that the idealist prescription for peace may be better than the realist one.
Disputant and Mediator Behaviors Affecting Short-Term Success in Mediation
Authors: Zubek Josephine M. , Pruitt Dean G. , Peirce Robert S. , McGillicuddy Neil B. , Syna Helena
Published: March 2007

This research examined antecedents of short-term success in mediation. Seventy-three hearings were observed at two community dispute resolution centers in New York State. Measures of short-term success were: reaching agreement, goal achievement, and immediate satisfaction with the agreement and with the conduct of the hearing. Results indicated that the likelihood of short-term success increased with disputant joint problem solving and decreased with disputant hostile and contending behavior and the prominence of intangible issues in the case. Satisfaction with the hearing increased with disputants' involvement in a continuing relationship; and goal achievement and both types of satisfaction decreased with escalation of the conflict prior to hearing. As predicted, joint problem solving increased with involvement in a continuing relationship and decreased with disputants' hostile and contentious behavior, the prominence of intangible issues, and escalation of the conflict prior to the hearing. Five mediator behaviors were either unrelated or negatively related to short-term success: providing reassurance, displaying expertise, keeping order, criticizing, and asking embarrassing questions. Mediator behaviors that were positively related to short-term success were those that demonstrated empathy, structured the discussion, and stimulated thinking. Multiple regression analyses revealed several interactions of mediator behaviors with disputant behaviors and prior conditions in predicting agreement and goal achievement.
The Relationship between Coercion and Protest
Authors: Francisco Ronald A.
Published: March 2007

The relationship between coercion and protest, arguably the core of any theory of rebellion, remains unresolved. Competing hypotheses have emerged from formal models and empirical research. This article uses two forms of the predator-prey model to test these competing hypotheses. Time-series data from three coercive states (the German Democratic Republic, Czechoslovakia, and the Palestinian Intifada) are used to estimate parameters for both models. Results show stable, damped relationships in all three cases. The “inverted U” hypothesis receives less support than its “backlash” alternative, that is, that dissidents react strongly to extremely harsh coercion. Moreover, the study indicates that protesters adapt to coercion by changing tactics.
Repression and the Liberal State
Authors: White Robert W. , White Terry Falkenberg
Published: March 2007

There is a tendency for research on state repression to focus on nondemocratic and non-Western states. The authors assume that all states are repressive and focus on state repression in Northern Ireland, a part of the United Kingdom. They also distinguish between the repressive activities of state authorities and the repressive activities of individual state agents. In general, they uncover important differences in state repression as perpetrated by state authorities versus state repression as perpetrated by individual state agents. The authors also find that the ethnic minority population in this Western democracy was more likely to suffer from state repression than was the ethnic majority population, and they find that state repression was strongly influenced by economic conditions.
Context, Methods, Numbers, And Words
Authors: Boettcher William A.
Published: March 2007

In this article, recent attempts to apply prospect theory to the study of international relations are reviewed and evaluated. The review of this literature leads to a number of theoretical and methodological critiques that are highlighted by an experiment that demonstrates the difficulties inherent in attempting to transport this theory across disciplinary boundaries. Of special importance is the introduction of verbal probability expressions into the experimental design. The results of the experiment provide some support for prospect theory, but differences in the results obtained for different verbal probability sets indicate that decision theorists need to be more concerned with the manner in which probabilistic information is conveyed to (and discussed by) decision makers.
Between Islam and the System
Authors: Harik Judith Palmer
Published: March 2007

This study tests whether a hypothesis explaining popular support for Middle Eastern fundamentalist movements adequately describes the grassroots appeal of Hizballah, Lebanon's radical Shiite organization. Using 1993 survey data, the study found that Hizballah adherents were less likely than expected to be deeply religious, to have a low socioeconomic status, and to have a strong political alienation. Results suggest that Hizballah is not the vehicle of radical Shiites and that other factors underlie its organizational growth and encourage its evolution as a mainstream party. The study also suggests that constraints imposed on Islamic goals by Lebanon's pluralist society and its powerful neighbor Syria have influenced the moderate trend of Hizballah. The study concludes that Islamist success in carving a niche in a community still seeking self-identity and adequate national representation means that Islamists are unlikely to lose external backers' support should Middle East peace negotiations reduce Hizballah's resistance role.
Predatory Initiators and Changing Landscapes for Warfare
Authors: Rasler Karen , Thompson William R.
Published: March 2007

The Gartner-Siverson war initiation model's focus on selection bias and initiators selecting vulnerable targets is attractive, but it demands further specification. A predictive model of war initiations might not retain statistical significance after 1945. The authors examine 16 possibly related variables and develop a three-variable initiation model, adding information on target regime type and war duration to the original lone initiator-lone target variable for war initiations between 1816 and 1992. The instability of the initiation model before and after 1945 can be traced to changes in who initiates wars. The predatory initiator model does not predict minor power dyads very well, and these dyads have come to dominate the post-1945 war landscape. Several reasons for this phenomenon are suggested, including the argument that the context in which weaker states initiate wars renders opportunistic predators less likely and less successful.
The Tragedy of the Coffeehouse
Authors: Marinoff Lou
Published: March 2007

This study reports and analyzes the results of three trials of a one-shot collective game—a variety of the assurance game—conducted via the World Wide Web. In the first two trials, most players apparently mistook the assurance game for a prisoner's dilemma and consequently attained the worst possible outcome. After contemplating appropriate strategic considerations, players who participated in the third trial attained a better outcome but did so in a surprising way. This report accounts explicitly for the unexpected results. Implicitly, it also reveals some potential for social experimentation in cyberspace.
An External Orientation to the Study of Causal Beliefs
Authors: Lieber Eli , Yang Kuo-Shu , Lin Yi-Cheng
Published: March 2007

Characteristic differences between Chinese and Western cultures are argued to have meaningful implications for attributional belief research and its extension into new cultural settings. This study examined attributional beliefs within and across samples from Taiwan and the United States. To meet unique demands inherent in Chinese culture, an externally oriented perspective was introduced. Accordingly, a new instrument for the assessment of attributional beliefs was developed and demonstrated as providing reliable dimension measurement. Results indicated that although the internal structure of the attributional belief construct appeared valid across the samples, the patterns of dimension relations within each sample were unique. Furthermore, internal and external locus dimensions, assessed separately, appeared to represent distinct concepts and show differential association with adjustment variables. Findings were interpreted based on sociocultural differences between the samples.
Cross-Cultural Variations in Attitudes Toward Love
Authors: Neto Félix , Mullet Etienne , Deschamps Jean-Claude , Barros José , Benvindo Rosario , Camino Leôncio , Falconi Anne , Kagibanga Victor , Machado Maria
Published: March 2007

Using the Love Attitude Scale, the first objective of this study was to examine the extent to which Lee’s six-factor colors of love model was able to account for data gathered across a large number of countries in Africa, Asia, South America, and Europe. Confirmatory factor analyses showed that the structure postulated by Lee could be applied across multiple cultures. The second objective was to study possible cross-cultural variations in attitudes related to love. The hypotheses were that (a) factors involving strong personal feelings, such as mania, Eros, and agape, would be largely free of cultural influences and (b) factors involving strict social rules, and consequently low affects, such as Pragma, Storge, and Ludus, would be dependent on cultural influences. Each of these hypotheses was well supported by the data.
Desire for Children in Turkmenistan and Azerbaijan
Authors: Hortaçsu Nuran , Baştuğ Sharon Ş , Muhammetberdiev Ovezdurdi B.
Published: March 2007

The purpose of this study was to investigate son preference with respect to desired number of children and perceived instrumentality of children in relation to a number of values. The sample included respondents of Turkic origin residing in Ashgabat and Baku, the respective capitals of Turkmenistan and Azerbaijan. The results revealed that Turkmens desired a greater number of children and ascribed greater importance to having children than did Azeris. Turkmen men and women, as well as Azeri men, desired more sons than daughters, and Azeri women showed a preference for sons only when forced to choose. Correlational analyses revealed significant relationships between age and number of children desired for both samples and between educational level and number of children desired for the Turkmen sample. Correlational analyses revealed that educational level was related positively to daughters’ and negatively to sons’ instrumentality for furthering some values for men in the Ashgabat sample.
Cross-Cultural Differences in Helping Strangers
Authors: Levine Robert V. , Norenzayan Ara , Philbrick Karen
Published: March 2007

Independent field experiments in 23 large cities around the world measured three types of spontaneous, nonemergency helping: alerting a pedestrian who dropped a pen, offering help to a pedestrian with a hurt leg trying to reach a pile of dropped magazines, and assisting a blind person cross the street. The results indicated that a city’s helping rate was relatively stable across the three measures, suggesting that helping of strangers is a cross-culturally meaningful characteristic of a place; large cross-cultural variation in helping emerged, ranging from an overall rate of 93% in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, to 40% in Kuala Lampur, Malaysia. Overall helping across cultures was inversely related to a country’s economic productivity; countries with the cultural tradition of simpatia were on average more helpful than countries with no such tradition. These findings constitute a rich body of descriptive data and novel hypotheses about the sociocultural, economic, and psychological determinants of helping behavior across cultures.
Parental Warmth, Control, and Involvement in Schooling
Authors: Kim Kyoungho , Rohner Ronald P.
Published: March 2007

This study explored the relationship between Baumrind’s parenting prototypes and the academic achievement, judged by grade point average (GPA), of Korean American adolescents. It also examined the relative contribution to youth’s academic achievement of perceived maternal and paternal warmth and control and involvement in schooling. Approximately 74% of the sample youth did not fit any of Baumrind’s types, raising questions about their usefulness for ethnic research. Analysis of the remaining 26% showed that youth raised by authoritative and permissive fathers (but not mothers) performed better than youth raised by authoritarian fathers. Youth raised by authoritative fathers, however, did not perform significantly better than youth raised by permissive fathers. An analysis of perceived parental warmth and control exposed a positive correlation between perceived maternal and paternal warmth (but not control) and adolescents’ GPA as well as a moderator effect of perceived maternal control. Moreover, perceived paternal (but not maternal) involvement in schooling partially mediated the relationship between fathers’ reported warmth and adolescents’ GPA.
Interdependent Construal of Self and the Endorsement of Conflict Resolution Strategies in Interpersonal, Intergroup, and International Disputes
Authors: Derlega Valerian J. , Cukur Cem Safak , Kuang Jenny C. Y. , Forsyth Donelson R.
Published: March 2007

Intergroup relations are more competitive and discordant than relations between interacting individuals. Social identity theory suggests that this discontinuity should be greatest among individuals who identify strongly with their in-group. To test this prediction, students from countries with collectivistic and individualistic cultures completed a measure of self-construal. They were then asked to identify how they would respond to a conflict, either with another individual, between their group and another group or between their country and another country. Participants responded more negatively to intergroup and international conflicts than to interpersonal conflicts. Self-construal, however, moderated this effect. Controlling for country of origin, students who were high in interdependence endorsed threat more and acceptance of the others’ demands less in an international conflict versus an interpersonal conflict. Those low in interdependence differed less in their endorsement of conflict resolution strategies in an international versus an interpersonal conflict.
Concrete Operations, 'g' And Achievement in Zambian Children
Authors: Heron Alastair
Published: March 2007

A comparison is made between Zambian elementary schoolchildren in the range of "stated ages" 7-17 years who provided evidence of weight conservation behaviour and those who did not do so. The principal dependent variable is performance on locally-developed psychometric measures of reasoning ability, and further data were available in the form of scores on an objectively-marked national Secondary School Selection examination. Very little connection is found between the conservationstatus of the subjects and their performance on these variables, and the implications for a possible rapprochement between psychometric and Piagetian approaches to human intelligence are discussed in the light of cultural factors. An experimental approach to the problem is recommended.
A Cross-Cultural Survey of Depressive Symptomatology in Normal Adults
Authors: Zung William W. K.
Published: March 2007

Depression as a diagnostic entity consists of signs and symptoms which may be manifest in normal individuals. The purpose of this study was to determine how much depressive symptomatology as measured by the Self-rating Depression Scale is present in a normal adult population representing different countries and cultures. A total of 1981 normal subjects was tested in six countries. Rank ordering of the mean SDS indices showed Czechoslovakia to be highest, followed by Sweden, Germany, Spain, England, and the U. S. A. Statistical testing by using analysis of variance indicated that these differences were quantitatively significant. Factor analysis of items indicated qualitative similarities across the countries studied, as evidenced by the fact that loadings were larger on items reflecting the psychological features of depression in all countries studied. This is in contrast to factor analysis results of previous data from depressed patients, where the factor loadings contained physiological as well as psychological items. A similarity between rank ordering of self-rated depression scores and reported suicide death rates for the countries studied was noted.
Determinants of Peace Agreement, Pessimism-Optimism, and Expectation of World Conflict: A Cross-National Study
Authors: Larsen Knud S.
Published: March 2007

The data reported in this paper are based on a comprehensive survey carried out in a number of European countries. General results indicate that individuals low in social and personal power are more likely to acquiesce to peace proposals which could be considered high in social desirability. Little power to intervene actively in the future is reflected in the pessimism about chances for conflict and pessimism about their own life and the status of their own countries arid the past, present, and future status of the world. These results are explained by analyzing social power as an intervening variable between social and personality characteristics based upon Ss' responses to questions dealing with peace proposals, optimism-pessimism, and expectations of conflict. This analysis suggests that peace agreement on the part of low power persons is partly a result of cognitive rigidity and inability to evaluate differentially the peace proposals in which the motivational processes of low self-esteem and powerlessness play an important part.
The Development of Causal Thinking of Children in Mexico and the United States
Authors: Langgulung Hasan , Torrance E. Paul
Published: March 2007

From a larger data pool, random samples of 40 each were selected from the fourth and sixth grades in metropolitan areas in the United States and Mexico. In each sample the Ss were divided equally according to sex and economic status (advantaged and disadvantaged). Responses to the Guess Causes test of the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking were analyzed for causal thinking. Analyses of variance and Duncan New Multiple Range tests indicate that the United States children are more causally-oriented than their Mexican counterparts; the sixth graders, more than the fourth graders; and the advantaged children, more than the disadvantaged ones. There were no sex differences in either culture.
Climate and Behavior: A Biocultural Study
Authors: Robbins Michael C. , Dewalt Billie Richard , Pelto Pertti J.
Published: March 2007

Relatively neglected in the growing number of human ecological studies is the consideration of direct environmental effects on the behavioral and psychological adaptations of individuals. This paper presents some tentative cross-cultural and cross-national evidence relating one environmental variable--climate--to both behavioral and psychocultural processes. Some support for the hypothesis that the amount of emotional expression or "level of arousal? co-varies predictably with climate and weather is offered, and alternative explanations and discussions of this hypothesis are explored.
Perceptual Exploration in Israeli Jewish and Bedouin Children
Authors: Kugelmass Sol , Lieblich Amia , Ehrlichl Chedvah
Published: March 2007

A sample of 104 Israeli Bedouin children were tested in an attempt to clarify further the factors influencing developmental trends in visual perceptual exploration. In addition to a further demonstration of the influence of the specific characteristics of the language of school instruction, the findings suggest the importance of extra-school reading opportunities. A discrepancy between two indices of perceptual exploration was related to different aspects of reading development. While the Bedouin children's perceptual exploration might be considered less mature in some ways related to reading, this was not the case with other aspects of perceptual exploration.
Generational Attribution in Turkish and American Youth
Authors: Lecompte William F. , Lecompte Guney K.
Published: March 2007

One hundred seventy-four Turkish and 171 American adolescents rated their own and their father's approval of 35 statements describing traditional or individualistic actions. The statements were weighted to yield scores on seven family-related issues, and the latter scores were factor analyzed. Factor scores were submitted to analysis of variance to determine the effects of culture, sex, and generational attribution (self-versus father-ratings). Predictions of greater approval of individualistic actions for American versus Turkish respondents, self-versus father-ratings, and males versus females were all supported with the "Independence-in-Choice" factor (p <.01). On the "Traditional-Respect" factor, the mean for American self-ratings alone approved of independent actions, different from all other means (p <.01). The possibility of sequential stages of change in different attitude domains was discussed.
Chicano and Anglo Dreams of Death
Authors: Roll Samuel , Brenneis C. Brooks
Published: March 2007

To replicate an earlier study in which Chicanos reported having more dreams of death than did their Anglo counterparts, we solicited dream reports from eighty Chicanos (forty males and forty females) and eighty Anglos (forty males and forty females). The dreams were scored for the presence of death-related dream content. Chi-square tests revealed a statistically higher number of Chicano females reporting dreams of death (p < .005), but the significance between Chicano males and Anglo males was not significant. The results were linked to the greater phenomenological emphasis on death in Chicano culture and the greater tendency for Chicano women to carry the influences of the culture.
Pictorial Depth and Space
Authors: Leach M. Leslie
Published: March 2007

Grade 3 urban and rural Shona children (N = 258) were tested for pictorial depth interpretation (PDI) and pictorial space comprehension (PSC). Procedures commonly adopted for pictorial depth tests elicited significantly lower PSC scores than facilitating procedures designed for the group. Outline drawings likewise elicited less PSC (and PDI) than the photographs and line-and-tone drawings. Pictorial space comprehension was more than doubled when optimum materials and procedures were combined. Perceptual training raised PDI and PSC scores significantly, the latter among urban girls in particular. Predictions that cultural factors would result in higher scores from boys and urban children were supported in the case of PSC; PDI as the lower-level skill was more universally available and consequently less affected.
Number Conservation in Two West African Societies
Authors: Posner Jill K. , Baroody Arthur J.
Published: March 2007

The effects of cultural and educational variables on the development of number conservation were examined among African children from two cultural milieux (agricultural and merchant). A task which evaluated counting skill was also administered to determine if a relationship exists between counting facility and conservation. Schooled Baoule (agricultural) children performed better than unschooled children on conservation. However, a matched group of unschooled Dioula (merchant) subjects performed as well as their schooled peers. No differences were found between school children from either group. Counting ability appeared to be associated with conservation performance. Results are consonant with the "functional learning systems" approach to cognitive processing. Acquisition of a mature number concept is dependent on particular activities-those which school and a merchant culture provide-albeit differently.
Visual Thresholds During Dark Adaptation
Authors: Prestrude A. M. , Larson Carl
Published: March 2007

The alleged lack of color vocabulary for short wavelength discriminations among linguistic groups with darker skin pigmentation has been thought to be due to a correlated increase in melanin pigment in the ocular media. The presence of this tritanopic-like condition in black observers was tested by comparing the dark adapted thresholds of 13 white and 10 black observers with white, red, green, and blue test lights. There were no significant differences between the white and black observers for any of the test lights. The range of cone and rod thresholds for each group of observers was the same. These results do not support the hypothesis that linguistic deficiencies in color discrimination terms reflect a tritanopic-like condition due to increased ocular pigmentation.
The Value and Cost of Children
Authors: Callan Victor J.
Published: March 2007

Between May 1977 and February 1978, 717 Australian, Greek, and Italian parents were interviewed in Sydney, Australia, concerning their attitudes to having children. Open-ended questions related to the advantages and disadvantages of having children provided measures of the economic and social-psychological values and costs of children to parents. Analysis of responses to these questions showed that Southern Europeans were more likely to mention the benefits of children in completing the marriage and in establishing the family unit. The major costs of children to all groups were reported as economic, concerns about the care of children, and restrictions to parents. A number of multiple regression analyses revealed that the psychological variables for Southern European parents provided substantial explanatory power in the prediction of the number of children wanted by them. The variance explained for Australians, however, was considerably smaller. It is suggested that measures which take into account changes in attitudes to having children with the experience of child rearing might improve upon the percentage of variance explained by social-psychological indices.
Conflict Resolution Style among Mexican Children
Authors: Kagan Spencer , Knight George P. , Martinez Sergio , Santana Pedro Espinoza
Published: March 2007

Urbanization theorists have suggested that a consequence of increased urbanization is increased competitiveness. To test that hypothesis, 526 children from three settings in Mexico responded to two questions measuring their preferred response to conflict. While setting did relate significantly to conflict resolution style, the pattern of results obtained did not support the utility of a simple urban-rural dichotomy. The results suggest the importance of town ecology and the need for a more differentiated classification of the social ecology of settings.
Differentiation, Cognition, and Social Evolution
Authors: Gamble Thomas J. , Ginsberg Pauline E.
Published: March 2007

Equivocal findings regarding the relationship between psychological differentiation and requirements for complex social functioning are traced to Witkin and Berry's (1975; Berry, 1976, 1979a, 1979b, 1980a, 1980b) commitment to a trait-based notion of psychological differentiation. An alternative evolutionary approach is proposed which suggests the possibility of more domain-specific cognitive functioning. The authors review the pertinent literature and reinterpret prior findings from the perspective that global and articulated cognitive styles will vary as a function of the nature of environmental demands in the domain of interest and of the explicitness of knowledge regarding such demands available to the actors. Such an interpretation provides a better fit to the empirical data currently available. Hypotheses derived from the alternative model are also presented.
Cross-Cultural Differences in Social Interaction
Authors: Farver Jo Ann M. , Howes Carollee
Published: March 2007

This research examines cross-cultural differences in the social behavior of American and Indonesian children. A sample of 36 Indonesian children (27 boys and 9 girls) were observed in a neighborhood of Jakarta during outdoor play activity, and 36 American children (18 girls and 18 boys) matched for age with the Indonesian children were observed in Los Angeles, California. Children of both samples were observed for four 5-minute periods using a continuous-coding observational procedure that recorded the presence and order of preselected social behaviors, ratings of social play level, and the subject's affect. Sex and age of play group companions and play activity content and context were also noted. Multivariate analysis showed cultural differences in age composition of the play groups. Indonesian children tended to interact in mixed-age groups. However, children in both cultures tended to interact in same-sex groups. Results also supported Hartup's hypothesized symmetrical-asymmetrical nature of same- and mixed-age social interaction.
Adapting Instruction to Native Americans' Learning Styles
Authors: Kleinfeld Judith , Nelson Patricia
Published: March 2007

This article examines the claim that instruction adapted to the "visual learning styles" of Native American students results in greater learning. The authors argue that (first) substantial cross-cultural research suggests that Native American children have special strengths in such areas as spatial abilities and visual memory and that observational learning is an important cultural orientation, but that (second) virtually no research has succeeded in demonstrating that instruction adapted to Native Americans' visual learning style results in greater learning. Nonetheless (third), the concept of "Native American learning styles" continues to enjoy considerable popularity due to (a) educators' desire to avoid "deficit" language, (b) the concept's use in obtaining culturally oriented program funding, and (c) the concept's use in summarizing a variety of instructional adaptations necessary in a cross-cultural context.
Group and Gender in Japanese and American Elementary Classrooms
Authors: Hamilton V. Lee , Blumenfeld Phyllis C. , Akoh Hiroshi , Miura Kanae
Published: March 2007

Teachers' individualism versus collectivism and androgenous versus gender-differentiated handling of boys and girls were compared in 10 Japanese and 9 American fifth-grade classrooms. Results showed that, as predicted, Japanese teachers attended significantly more often to groups rather than individual children, even controlling for their tendency to use whole group modes of instruction. Regarding gender differences, teachers in both countries paid more attention, especially negative attention, to boys. However, observations of children indicated that this difference could not be attributed to boys' being off-task or to bad behavior by a subset of low achieving boys. American boys and girls' behaviors did not differ significantly; Japanese boys were significantly more off-task than girls, but the gap was slight in comparison to the gender difference in attention paid by teachers. There were no consistent effects of teachers' gender on either teacher communication or children's behavior.
Maternal Views on Autonomy
Authors: Osterweil Zahava , Nagano Keiko Nakamura
Published: March 2007

Maternal views on the separateness and independence of their children were investigated in the present study. Sixty Japanese and 60 Israeli mothers of kindergarten children were interviewed about their children's obedience/disobedience and capacity to manage on their own. The findings indicate that for the Japanese mothers, the capacity of the child to manage on his/her own, is expressed in his/her moving from exclusive ties with mother towards interacting with other children, while Israeli mothers emphasize the child's instrumental independence in taking care of him- or herself, performing tasks (e.g., answering the phone, setting the table) and being able to occupy him- or herself constructively when his or her mother is not present. Japanese mothers also report behaviors which can be labeled as instrumental independence, but present them as examples of obedience. Israeli mothers describe the child's instrumental independence as internal, often putting the mother in a conflict situation (i.e., wanting the child to be independent but not at an inappropriate time or in unsuitable endeavors). Japanese mothers did not mention this type of dilemma.
A Comparative Study of Turkish and Belgian Youth
Authors: Phalet Karen , Claeys Willem
Published: March 2007

In a comparative study of Belgian and Turkish youth and Turkish migrant youth in Belgium, the psychological relevance of individualistic-collectivistic value orientations for personal motivation was studied. A new Motives Questionnaire with cross-culturally equivalent scales for general motivational dimensions is presented. A multiple-strategy approach is proposed to establish equivalence, combining factor analysis and individual difference scaling (INDSCAL) with a measure of external validity in each group. Our findings support partial equivalence and allow a refinement of the individualism collectivism opposition, revealing motivational conflicts of individualistic Self-Realization and Autonomy poles with respectively collectivist Social Contact and Group Loyalty poles. Effects of social and cultural change on motivation are discussed. Preference for individualistic Self-Realization together with collectivist Group Loyalty in modern Turkish youth integrates individualistic-collectivist values into a group-oriented achievement motive.
Love and Power in Mexico, Spain, and the United States
Authors: Ellis Barbara B. , Kimmel Herbert D. , Díaz-Guerrero Rogelio , Cañas José , Bajo María-Teresa
Published: March 2007

The semantic differential technique was used to examine the subjective meaning of the concepts "love" and "power" in Mexico, Spain, and the United States. The following groups were tested: 102 Mexicans and 97 Spaniards in Spanish and 78 Hispanic Americans and 79 Anglo Americans in English. All subjects were college-age students. The evaluation dimension of the subjective meaning of love was significantly lower for Mexicans than for the other groups. Mexicans also judged love to be less potent than did the other groups. The four ethnic groups differed significantly in their evaluation of power. In particular, the Spaniards were significantly lower than the other groups. Anglo and Hispanic Americans attributed greater potency to power than did the Spaniards and the Mexicans. The Spaniards also attributed lower activity to power than did the other three groups. The D statistic was used to characterize the difference between love and power in the four groups. D was significantly greater in Spaniards than in the other groups. Furthermore, the meanings of love and power were significantly correlated in the Spanish sample and were uncorrelated in the Mexican sample. The present results do not support the proposition that the meanings of power and love to modern college-age Mexicans reflect historical differences between them and the other groups.
Gender and Ethnic-Group Differences in Causal Attributions for Success and Failure in Mathematics and Language Examinations
Authors: Birenbaum Menucha , Kraemer Roberta
Published: March 2007

The purpose of the present study was to examine gender and ethnic differences among Jewish and Arab high school students in Israel with respect to their causal attributions for success and failure in mathematics and language examinations. The entire sample included 333 ninth graders. Nine causal attributions were examined. It was hypothesized that cultural differences in general and in gender role socialization in particular, between the two ethnic groups, will result in different attributional patterns. The findings indicated larger effects of ethnicity than of gender. The effects were more pronounced in success than in failure attributions. Arab students, compared to Jewish students, exhibited higher endorsement levels on success attributions and lower levels with less differentiation on failure attributions for all four subjects. These results were discussed within the frame work of particular cultural norms.
Coping with University-Related Problems
Authors: Essau Cecilia Ahmoi , Trommsdorff Gisela
Published: March 2007

The main aims of the present study were (a) to compare problem- and emotion-focused coping in students from North America (Canada and the United States), Germany, and Malaysia, and (b) to examine the association between coping and physical symptoms. A total of 365 undergraduates, 143 males and 222 females, participated in the study. The subjects' mean age was 22 years, and most were not married. In dealing with academic-related problems, Malaysians used substantially more emotion-focused coping than did North Americans and Germans. North American and German students who had high scores on emotion-focused coping experienced fewer symptoms, whereas the reverse relationship was found in the Malaysian group. The data on cultural preferences in coping and control behavior are discussed.
The Structure of Personality In Six Cultures
Authors: Paunonen Sampo V. , Keinonen Mirja , Trzebinski Jerzy , Forsterling Friedrich , Grishenkoroze Nina , Kouznetsova Ludmilla , Chan David W.
Published: March 2007

A new structured nonverbal measure of Murray's needs (the Nonverbal Personality Questionnaire) and an established verbal measure (the Personality Research Form) were administered to respondents in six cultures: Canada, Finland, Poland, Germany, Russia, and Hong Kong. An analysis of the psychometric properties of the nonverbal personality inventory showed generally good levels of internal consistency reliability and convergent validity across the respondent groups. Further, analyses of the factor structures of both the nonverbal and verbal inventories showed, in general, a very robust organization to the personality traits. Specifically, the factors found in each culture's data resembled the "Big Five' factors of personality. The authors summarize some of the advantages of a structured nonverbal measure of personality. They also discuss the presumed comprehensiveness of the Big Five personality factors.
Factors of Marital Satisfaction among African American Couples and Nigerian Male/African American Female Couples
Authors: Durodoye Beth A.
Published: March 2007

This study examined factors related to the marital satisfaction of African American couples and Nigerian male/African American female couples. The sample was composed of 19 homogeneous and 19 intermarried couples. Each couple participated in the research by completing the Marital Satisfaction Inventory, a researcher-designed demographic data sheet, and a follow-up questionnaire. A 2 x 2 analysis of variance procedure was performed to investigate the differences between the homogeneous and intermarried dyads. The intermarried couples consistently expressed greater dissatisfaction than their African American counterparts in the areas of global distress, time together, disagreement over finances, and conflict over child rearing. There was no interaction effect. The implications of these findings for cross-cultural therapists are discussed. Implications for future research are also examined.