bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Plant–water relations of intertidal and subtidal seagrasses
Authors: Sandoval‐Gil Jose M. , Barrote Isabel , Silva João , Olivé Irene , Costa Monya M. , Ruiz Juan M. , Marín‐Guirao Lázaro , Sánchez‐Lizaso Jose L. , Santos Rui
Published: December 2014

This work represents the first contribution to (i) examine the changes in plant‐water relations of an inter‐tidal seagrass during air exposure (Zostera noltii), and (ii) compare the water status descriptors between inter‐tidal‐ and subtidal‐adapted species (Cymodocea nodosa,Zostera marina). Two different morphotypes ofZ. noltiithat develop in the highest and lowest inter‐tidal levels in the Portuguese lagoon of Ria Formosa were exposed to natural emersion periods under laboratory conditions, and the evolution of leaf water relations and osmolytes (ions, proline and non‐structural carbohydrates) was measured. Both morphotypes regulated their water potential (Ψw) by reducing the osmotic potential (Ψπ) through osmolyte accumulation, but only high inter‐tidal plants were able to do this by adjusting the turgor pressure through cell wall hardening. This is a conservative mechanism for osmotic acclimation, which occurred only after long emersion periods (7 h). After a rapid increase in ion concentration under air exposure, the high inter‐tidal morphotype replaced them by more physiologically compatible solutes (proline and non‐structural carbohydrates) to maintain the osmotic adjustment. Altered ionic homeostasis was found in low inter‐tidal plants when exposed to such unnatural, long emersion periods. Osmotic unbalances were also observed during the submerged recovery phase. Descriptors of leaf pressure–volume (P–V) curves and Höfler diagrams were derived for seagrasses for the first time. They support the divergences in water relations observed between inter‐tidal and subtidal seagrasses according to their vertical distribution. More negative water and osmotic potentials and higher rigidity of cell walls (higher elastic modulus, ε) were found to be specific osmotic adaptations of seagrasses to the inter‐tidal.
Concurrent psychological stress and infectious colitis is key to sustaining enhanced peripheral sensory signaling
Authors: Spreadbury I. , Ochoa‐Cortes F. , Ibeakanma C. , Martin N. , Hurlbut D. , Vanner S. J.
Published: December 2014

Background

The development of postinfectious‐irritable bowel syndrome is associated with psychological stress but this relationship is poorly understood. The mouse Citrobacter rodentium model enhances the postinfectious excitability of colonic nociceptors, which can be further amplified by water‐avoidance stress (WAS). This study tested whether concurrent infectious colitis and chronic stress enhance and sustain nociceptor excitability more than stress after resolution of infection.

Methods

Male C57 mice were gavaged with C. rodentium. WAS (1 h/day) was performed at different time‐points relative to the infection. After the final session of WAS, T9–T13 colonic‐projecting DRG neurons were isolated, cultured overnight and patch‐clamped to assess excitability. To investigate potential mechanisms, histological damage scores and colonic cytokine production were assessed.

Key Results

WAS more than 30 days after C. rodentium infection produced no greater DRG excitability than WAS in uninfected mice. However, when overlapped with chronic stress (3 sessions of WAS; 7 days before, 9 days during and 9 days after C. rodentium or sham gavage), C. rodentium significantly enhanced DRG excitability vs saline‐gavaged chronically stressed mice. Bodyweights and colonic damage scores were unchanged. Both WAS and C. rodentium gavage were found to significantly alter colonic cytokines at postinfection day 30.

Conclusions & Inferences

Chronic stress and infectious colitis combine in an additive manner to heighten and prolong the sensitivity of visceral nociceptors. The effect relies on temporal coincidence of stress and infection, does not involve substantial exacerbation of inflammation, and may involve combined direct stress hormone and immune signaling on DRG neurons.
MicroRNAs in melanocyte and melanoma biology
Authors: Mione Marina , Bosserhoff Anja
Published: December 2014

The importance of microRNAs as key molecular components of cellular processes is now being recognized. Recent reports have shown that microRNAs regulate processes as diverse as protein expression and nuclear functions inside cells and are able to signal extracellularly, delivered via exosomes, to influence cell fate at a distance. The versatility of microRNAs as molecular tools inspires the design of novel strategies to control gene expression, protein stability, DNA repair and chromatin accessibility that may prove very useful for therapeutic approaches due to the extensive manageability of these small molecules. However, we still lack a comprehensive understanding of the microRNA network and its interactions with the other layers of regulatory elements in cellular and extracellular functions. This knowledge may be necessary before we exploit microRNA versatility in therapeutic settings. To identify rules of interactions between microRNAs and other regulatory systems, we begin by reviewing microRNA activities in a single cell type: the melanocyte, from development to disease.
Detailed imaging and genetic analysis reveal a secondary BRAFL505H resistance mutation and extensive intrapatient heterogeneity in metastatic BRAF mutant melanoma patients treated with vemurafenib
Authors: Hoogstraat Marlous , Gadellaa‐van Hooijdonk Christa G. , Ubink Inge , Besselink Nicolle J. M. , Pieterse Mark , Veldhuis Wouter , van Stralen Marijn , Meijer Eelco F. J. , Willems Stefan M. , Hadders Michael A. , Kuilman Thomas , Krijgsman Oscar , Peeper Daniel S. , Koudijs Marco J. , Cuppen Edwin , Voest Emile E. , Lolkema Martijn P.
Published: December 2014

Resistance to treatment is the main problem of targeted treatment for cancer. We followed ten patients during treatment with vemurafenib, by three‐dimensional imaging. In all patients, only a subset of lesions progressed. Next‐generation DNA sequencing was performed on sequential biopsies in four patients to uncover mechanisms of resistance. In two patients, we identified mutations that explained resistance to vemurafenib; one of these patients had a secondary BRAF L505H mutation. This is the first observation of a secondary BRAF mutation in a vemurafenib‐resistant patient‐derived melanoma sample, which confirms the potential importance of the BRAF L505H mutation in the development of therapy resistance. Moreover, this study hints toward an important role for tumor heterogeneity in determining the outcome of targeted treatments.
The Implications of Utilizing Market Information and Adopting Agricultural Advice for Farmers in Developing Economies
Authors: Tang Christopher S. , Wang Yulan , Zhao Ming
Published: December 2014

To alleviate poverty in developing countries, governments and non‐governmental organizations disseminate two types of information: (i) agricultural advice to enable farmers to improve their operations (cost reduction, quality improvement, and process yield increase); and (ii) market information about future price/demand to enable farmers to make better production planning decisions. This information is usually disseminated free of charge. While farmers can use the market information to improve their production plans without incurring any (significant) cost, adopting agricultural advice to improve operations requires upfront investment, for example, equipment, fertilizers, pesticides, and higher quality seeds. In this study, we examine whether farmers should use market information to improve their production plans (or adopt agricultural advice to improve their operations) when they engage in Cournot competition under both uncertain market demand and uncertain process yield. Our analysis indicates that both farmers will use the market information to improve their profits in equilibrium. Hence, relative to the base case in which market information is not available, the provision of market information can improve the farmers' total welfare (i.e., total profit for both farmers). Moreover, when the underlying process yield is highly uncertain or when the products are highly heterogeneous, the provision of market information is welfare‐maximizing in the sense that the maximum total welfare of farmers is attained when both farmers utilize market information in equilibrium. Furthermore, in equilibrium, whether a farmer adopts the agricultural advice depends on the size of the requisite upfront investment. More importantly, we show that agricultural advice is not always welfare improving unless the upfront investment is sufficiently low. This result implies that to improve farmers' welfare, governments should consider offering farmer subsidies.
Norovirus Dose–Response: Are Currently Available Data Informative Enough to Determine How Susceptible Humans Are to Infection from a Single Virus?
Authors: Schmidt Philip J.
Published: December 2014

Two forms of single‐hit infection dose‐response models have previously been developed to assess available data from human feeding trials and estimate the norovirus dose‐response relationship. The mechanistic interpretations of these models include strong assumptions that warrant reconsideration: the first study includes an implicit assumption that there is no immunity to Norwalk virus among the specific study population, while the recent second study includes assumptions that such immunity could exist and that the nonimmune have no defensive barriers to prevent infection from exposure to just one virus. Both models addressed unmeasured virus aggregation in administered doses. In this work, the available data are reanalyzed using a generalization of the first model to explore these previous assumptions. It was hypothesized that concurrent estimation of an unmeasured degree of virus aggregation and important dose‐response parameters could lead to structural nonidentifiability of the model (i.e., that a diverse range of alternative mechanistic interpretations yield the same optimal fit), and this is demonstrated using the profile likelihood approach and by algebraic proof. It is also demonstrated that omission of an immunity parameter can artificially inflate the estimated degree of aggregation and falsely suggest high susceptibility among the nonimmune. The currently available data support the assumption of immunity within the specific study population, but provide only weak information about the degree of aggregation and susceptibility among the nonimmune. The probability of infection at low and moderate doses may be much lower than previously asserted, but more data from strategically designed dose‐response experiments are needed to provide adequate information.
The response of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii to nitrogen deprivation: a systems biology analysis
Authors: Park Jeong‐Jin , Wang Hongxia , Gargouri Mahmoud , Deshpande Rahul R. , Skepper Jeremy N. , Holguin F. Omar , Juergens Matthew T. , Shachar‐Hill Yair , Hicks Leslie M. , Gang David R.
Published: December 2014

Drastic alteration in macronutrients causes large changes in gene expression in the photosynthetic unicellular alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. Preliminary data suggested that cells follow a biphasic response to this change hinging on the initiation of lipid accumulation, and we hypothesized that drastic repatterning of metabolism also followed this biphasic modality. To test this hypothesis, transcriptomic, proteomic, and metabolite changes that occur under nitrogen (N) deprivation were analyzed. Eight sampling times were selected covering the progressive slowing of growth and induction of oil synthesis between 4 and 6 h after N deprivation. Results of the combined, systems‐level investigation indicated that C. reinhardtii cells sense and respond on a large scale within 30 min to a switch to N‐deprived conditions turning on a largely gluconeogenic metabolic state, which then transitions to a glycolytic stage between 4 and 6 h after N depletion. This nitrogen‐sensing system is transduced to carbon‐ and nitrogen‐responsive pathways, leading to down‐regulation of carbon assimilation and chlorophyll biosynthesis, and an increase in nitrogen metabolism and lipid biosynthesis. For example, the expression of nearly all the enzymes for assimilating nitrogen from ammonium, nitrate, nitrite, urea, formamide/acetamide, purines, pyrimidines, polyamines, amino acids and proteins increased significantly. Although arginine biosynthesis enzymes were also rapidly up‐regulated, arginine pool size changes and isotopic labeling results indicated no increased flux through this pathway.
THE RELATION OF PROTEINS TO CRYSTALLOIDS. I. THE OSMOTIC PRESSURE OF HÆMOGLOBIN AND THE “LAKING” OF RED BLOOD CORPUSCLES
Authors: Roaf H. E.
Published: December 2014

1. The relation of the osmotic pressure of hæmoglobin to the “laking” of red blood corpuscles is briefly discussed.

2. A simple method is described for direct measurement of the osmotic pressure of a series of solutions, when the solute does not pass through parchment paper.

3. Measurements of the osmotic pressure of “laked” corpuscles and “crystallised” hæmoglobin have been made.

4. Under conditions which limit ionisation, yet promote the solubility of hæmoglobin, pressures corresponding to the molecular weight calculated from other data have been obtained.

5. Pressures considerably higher than can be accounted for by the molecular weight of hæmoglobin have been found, although the hæmoglobin was unchanged spectroscopically. It is suggested that this is due to ionising salts of hæmoglobin. Both acid and alkali increase the pressure, and, as with serum proteins, a minimal pressure is found near the neutral point.

6. Many substances lower the osmotic pressure, and thus might help to prevent “laking” of red blood corpuscles.

7. Pressures have been obtained with corpuscles “laked” by freezing and thawing up to 282 and 256. If ionisation occurred, the calculated pressure might be as high as 960 millimeters of mercury.

8. With such a range of pressure the osmotic pressure of hæmoglobin should be considered in discussing the “laking” of corpuscles, but until further experiment has determined the pressures in mixed solutions containing the various crystalloids of the corpuscle it cannot be decided what part is played by hæmoglobin and how much is due to other factors.

This work is an independent continuation of work begun originally with Professor B. Moore, and I wish to thank him for his continued interest in my experiments.

I also wish to thank Professor F. G. Donnan for advice during this research.
EXPERIMENTS ON THE PATHS TAKEN BY VOLITIONAL IMPULSES PASSING FROM THE CEREBRAL CORTEX TO THE CORD: THE PYRAMIDS AND THE VENTRO‐LATERAL DESCENDING TRACTS
Authors: Schäfer E. A.
Published: December 2014

1. As has been previously found by other observers, the paralysis which results from section of the pyramid tracts in the medulla oblongata is not complete and persistent. There is therefore some other path by which volitional impulses arising in the cortex reach the motor cells of the cord.

2. Such an alternative path appears to be furnished by the descending fibres of the ventral columns and of the ventral parts of the lateral columns of the cord. Section of these parts produces at least as complete and persistent paralysis in the monkey as does section of the pyramid tracts themselves.

3. This result is not due to the inclusion of the prepyramidal tracts in the section, since it is produced when these are not involved.

4. The question is discussed whether the paralysis produced by section of the ventro‐lateral tracts is due to the severance of an encephalo‐spinal path, or to loss of tone of the neuro‐muscular apparatus of the cord. The conclusion arrived at is, that such loss of tone as might result from the section would be insufficient to produce so complete a block to impulses emanating from the motor cortex as results from the section of these tracts, and that the ventro‐lateral descending fibres therefore constitute an alternative path by which volitional impulses pass from the brain to the ventral horn cells of the cord, although in a less direct manner than by the pyramid tracts themselves.

5. In vertebrata below mammals this probably represents the only path between the higher centres in the brain and the lower motor centres in the cord.

6. There is no evidence of any permanent sensory paralysis resulting from section of the ventral column and ventral part of the lateral column, even although the injury may include the tract of Gowers.
ON THE REACTIONS OF THE SALIVARY CENTRES
Authors: Miller F. R.
Published: December 2014

I. The Lingualis Reflex.

1. Stimulation of the central end of the lingual nerve (lingualis reflex) causes abundant secretion from the ipsilateral submaxillary gland, and less secretion from the ipsilateral parotid.

2. Slight secretion (about one drop) takes place from the contralateral submaxillary and parotid glands.

3. The threshold of the reflex is very low (sec. coil at 30 cm.).

4. The threshold of the lingualis reflex is lower than that of the peripheral chordo‐lingual nerve.

5. The ipsilateral submaxillary latency is less than the parotid latency. The ipsilateral submaxillary latency is less than the contralateral submaxillary latency.

II. The Glossopharyngeus Reflex.

1. Stimulation of the central end of the glossopharyngeal nerve (glossopharyngeus reflex) causes abundant secretion from the ipsilateral parotid gland, less secretion from the ipsilateral submaxillary.

2. Slight contralateral effects are produced.

3. The ipsilateral parotid latency is less than the submaxillary latency.

III. The Gastric Vagus Reflex.

1. Stimulation of the central end of the gastric vagus (gastric vagus reflex) causes secretion from the submaxillary and parotid glands.

2. The threshold is high.

IV. Stimulation of a sensory nerve (sciatic) causes a slight submaxillary secretion.

V. The salivary reflexes are independent of the associated muscular reflexes.

VI. Afferent fibres for the salivary reflex are contained in the chorda tympani.

VII. The salivary secretion of curare poisoning is caused by asphyxia.

VIII. Two points may be localised by unipolar faradisation of the surface of the medulla oblongata. Stimulation of the one causes parotid secretion; of the other, submaxillary secretion. The stimulus threshold is very low (sec. coil at 80 cm.). The results agree, in the main, with those of previous anatomical work.

I take pleasure in thanking Professor Sherrington for advice and assistance during the course of this work. My best thanks are also due to Dr Potter of Amsterdam for aid in identifying certain of the structures in the sections.
THE INFLUENCE OF MUSCLE EXTRACT ON MUSCLE CONTRACTION
Authors: Takayasu S.
Published: December 2014

Page 337, line 5 from bottom, for “with” read “without.”

Page 338, line 2 from bottom (description of fig. 4), for “with oxygen” read “without oxygen.”
STUDIES ON THE ENDOCRINE GLANDS:—III.: THE EFFECTS ON THE THYROID AND PARATHYROID OF THE RAT OF ADMINISTERING THYROID EXTRACT AND CERTAIN OTHER AUTACOIDS AND SALTS
Authors: Kojima Masaharu
Published: December 2014

1. Administration of thyroid and of sodium and potassium iodides causes accumulation of colloid in the vesicles of the thyroid of rats. The epithelial cells lining the vesicles are flattened. The cells of the parathyroid are generally swollen.

2. Administration of posterior lobe of pituitary gives the epithelial cells of the thyroid a swollen, barrel‐like appearance; their nuclei are shrunken. The structure of the parathyroid becomes loose. Its cells are also swollen and their nuclei shrunken.

3. Administration of adrenalin causes somewhat similar changes in the thyroid and parathyroid to those produced by posterior lobe of pituitary, but they are less marked.
THE ADRENALIN CONTENT OF THE SUPRARENALS OF THE FEMALE WHITE RAT, AND THE CHANGES BROUGHT ABOUT BY THYROID FEEDING AND OTHER CONDITIONS
Authors: Herring P. T.
Published: December 2014

The suprarenals of the young adult female white rat are normally some 40 per cent. heavier than the suprarenals of the male animals of the same body‐weight.

The adrenalin content of the suprarenals of the female white rat is rather more than twice as large as that of the suprarenals of the male animal of the same size.

Per 100 grm. body‐weight the amount of adrenalin in the suprarenals of the female white rat averages 0–073 mg. in the twenty animals examined. The corresponding figure for the adrenalin content of the male suprarenals is given as 0·034 mg.

The larger suprarenals and adrenalin content of the female white rat are associated with sex differences in the other endocrine glands and organs of the body.

The adrenalin content of the suprarenals is increased during pregnancy, but is not perinanently altered by the occurrence of this condition.

The female white rat does not tolerate thyroid feeding as well as the male animal of the same weight. A daily dosage of 0·2 grm. fresh ox‐thyroid continued for any length of time is too high, and checks the rate of growth of the animal.

The administration of thyroid causes a rapid increase in the weight of the suprarenals, though not as great a proportional increase in the case of the female as it does in the male.

The amount of adrenalin is less constantly increased in the female by thyroid feeding. Some female rats thrive well and show an increased adrenalin content, while others do badly and show a reduction in the amount of adrenalin in their suprarenals.

The chromaphil tissue of the female white rat normally maintains a much higher level of adrenalin production than it does in the male, but its reserve power of increase under the stimulus of thyroid is proportionally less than it is in the male.

The increased size of the suprarenals brought about by thyroid feeding is mainly due to hypertrophy of the cortex. The percentage amount of adrenalin in the suprarenals is always diminished by thyroid feeding.

I have to thank Mrs Donald Mills for her help in looking after the animals. To Mr Niven of Strathkinness I am indebted for a regular supply of fresh ox‐thyroid.

The expenses of the research have been met by a grant from the Research Fund of the Carnegie Trust for the Universities of Scotland.
THE ACTION OF THE BLOOD SERUM OF ANIMALS IN TETANIA PARATHYREOPRIVA ON MOTOR NERVE AND STRIATED MUSCLE
Authors: Yoshimoto Misao
Published: December 2014

The serum of thyro‐parathyroidectomized dogs and cats produces some increase of excitability in the isolated nerve of the frog, but has no special effect on the contraction of isolated muscle, nor does it cause tremors in the frog's sartorius muscle.

The serum of both thyroidectomized and normal dogs and cats has no effect or a very feeble (depressive or excitatory) effect on frog's nerve, thus showing itself much more inert than the serum of thyro‐parathyroidectomized animals. But on muscle the effect is the same in all.

A solution of guanidine carbonate above.01 % causes some increase of nervous excitability, approaching that caused by the serum of the thyro‐parathyroidectomized animals. On muscle, guanidine carbonate solutions above .025 % show a depressive effect, while a .001 % solution produced no effect. None of the solutions of guanidine carbonate within the concentration range studied produced any spontaneous twitching in the muscle. It is already known that nerve is affected by a guanidine solution of lower concentration than affects muscles. In these experiments the muscle preparation was not denervated, so that the correct expression would be muscle with its neural elements.

These experimental results taken in conjunction with the results of the ivestigations of previous workers on the problem of tetany give reason for supposing that the serum of animals in a condition of tetania parathyreopriva may contain some exciting substance which is present in just sufficient amount to affect the excitability of motor nerves but not of muscles. This conclusion is put forward with reserve, since my experiments on this subject are not yet complete.

The similarity in the action on nerve and muscle of guanidine carbonate and or the serum from animals in a condition of tetania parathyreopriva lends support to the experimental conclusions adduced by previous investigators that some guanidine‐like body may be an agent in producing the hyperexcitability of peripheral motor nerves which occurs in the condition of tetany.
THE NATURE OF THE SERUM CONSTITUENT AFFECTING PLAIN MUSCLE
Authors: Ponder Eric
Published: December 2014

The constituent of serum which produces increased contraction of plain muscle is not protein, is dialysable, not volatile with steam, not destroyed by boiling or by drying, but is destroyed by ashing. It is insoluble in ether, acetone and chloroform, but is soluble in boiling alcohol, and with difficulty in cold alcohol. It is not destroyed by 1 per cent alkali in the cold or at 100° C., nor by 1 per cent sulphuric acid in the cold ; but sulphuric acid at 100° C, rapidly destroys it. It may be removed from solution by certain adsorbents. It exists in the human red cells as well as in the serum.

This research was aided by a grant from the Earl of Moray Fund of the University of Edinburgh.
STUDIES IN THE PHYSIOLOGY OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. XXVIII.: ABSENCE OF ALGEBRAIC EQUALITY BETWEEN THE MAGNITUDES OF CENTRAL EXCITATION AND EFFECTIVE CENTRAL INHIBITION GIVEN IN THE REFLEX CENTRE OF A SINGLE LIMB BY THE SAME REFLEX STIMULUS
Authors: Brown T. Graham
Published: December 2014

I. Two reflex stimuli which evoke antagonistic reflexes in the same pair of antagonistic muscles yield a compound reflex when applied synchronously. At certain intensities of the two stimuli both of the antagonistic muscles contract more in the compound reflex than they were contracted in the state preceding all stimulation.

2. Each reflex stimulus excites one half‐centre (e.g. flexor), and tends to inhibit any discharge present in the antagonistic half‐centre (e.g. extensor). The magnitude of the inhibition which actually falls upon any discharging neurones in the inhibited half‐centre may be termed the “effective inhibition” conditioned by the stimulus in question.

3. If excitation is measured in terms of number of synchronous nerve‐impulses by which the discharge of a half‐centre is increased, and effective inhibition in terms of the number of synchronous nerve‐impulses suppressed in the discharge of the antagonistic half‐centre, a direct deduction may be drawn from the observation in paragraph 1. At certain intensities of stimulation, and in the case of at least one of two antagonistic stimuli, the effective inhibition conditioned by it in one half‐centre is less than the excitation conditioned by it in the antagonistic half‐centre. This means that, in the case (for example) of an extension‐reflex, the inhibition of the previously discharging flexor motor neurones is less than the excitation of the extensor motor neurones.

4. The magnitude of inhibition which falls upon any neurones in a half‐centre (whether they be discharging or not) may be termed the “total inhibition” conditioned by a reflex stimulus.

5. If total inhibition is so distributed in a half‐centre that it first falls only upon discharging neurones (and then upon non‐discharging neurones only when all the discharging neurones have been inhibited), the above deduction applies to total inhibition as well as to effective inhibition. But this cannot at present be assumed, for there is no proof that inhibition is so distributed.

6. If total inhibition is so distributed that it falls proportionally upon discharging and non‐discharging neurones in a half‐centre, then some of the inhibition may be spent upon non‐discharging neurones. In this case the effective and the total inhibition in a half‐centre will be of different magnitudes (if the inhibition and excitation in it are sub‐maximal), and inequality between the excitation (in one half‐centre) and the effective inhibition (in the other) given by a single reflex stimulus will not necessarily imply inequality between the excitation and total inhibition given by the same stimulus. That problem remains at issue.
THE MEASUREMENT OF THE DIAMETERS OF ERYTHROCYTES. I. THE MEAN DIAMETER OF THE RED CELLS IN MAN
Authors: Ponder Eric , Millar W. G.
Published: December 2014

1. A method is described in detail for the measurement of erythrocytes in plasma. The cells are photographed under suitable optical conditions, and measured from the negative. The error in measurement does not exceed 0·2µ.

2. The mean size of the diameter of the red cells in man is 8·8µ.

3. Erythrocytes which are dried or stained are of smaller diameter, the difference being about 1·0µ.

4. The frequency distribution of the sizes of the red cells in man closely approximates to the symmetrical type.
EXPERIMENTS ON CONTRACTION OF WHITE CONNECTIVE TISSUE FIBRES
Authors: Tidmarsh C. J. , Tait John
Published: December 2014

1. In heat contraction of mouse‐tail tendon, localised swellings commence at certain points along the tendon. A partially contracted tendon has the appearance of a knotted cord with normal portions of tendon between the knots. Only when contraction is maximal is the whole tendon swollen.

2. Immersion of the tendon in solutions of CaCl2 markedly affects the temperature at which contraction is induced. The higher the concentration of calcium salt, the lower the temperature at which the tendon will contract; with 48 per cent. of CaCl2 the tendon will contract at 0°C. The relation between concentration and temperature is approximately linear.

3. Immersion in solutions of BaCl2 likewise affects the temperature at which contraction is induced. Thirty per cent. BaCl2 causes contraction at 38°C. The relation between concentration and temperature is again linear.

The expenses of this research were defrayed by a grant from the James Cooper Fund of M'Gill University for Research in Experimental Medicine.
AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE SIZE OF HUMAN ERYTHROCYTES BEFORE AND AFTER EXERCISE
Authors: Dryerre Henry , Millar W. G. , Ponder Eric
Published: December 2014

A method for investigating the mean size of human erythrocytes before and after exercise is described. In this method the cells are measured without having been exposed to any atmosphere other than one such as would be in equilibrium with the gaseous content of the blood in the vessel from which they were withdrawn.

By this method no difference has been found between the mean diameter of the cells before and after violent exercise.
STUDIES ON THE ARNETH COUNT.—IV. THE DEFLECTION OF THE COUNT BY THYROID INJECTIONS
Authors: Ponder Eric
Published: December 2014

1. By means of a single injection of thyroid a deflection of the Arneth count is produced, a large number of cells of Class I. being introduced into the circulation. The subsequent changes in the count are followed, and it is shown that the cells of Class I. develop in the blood‐stream into cells of Class II., these into cells of Class III., and so on until Class V. is reached.

2. In animals under the conditions of these experiments, the cells leave the blood‐stream principally from Classes IV. and V.

3. In the experimental animals used, the duration of time which a polymorph spends in the circulation is from two to three weeks. About 107 polymorphs are produced by the marrow per diem.

This research was carried out under a grant from the Government Grants Committee of the Royal Society, and some of the earlier experimental work under a grant from the Medical Research Council.

I have to thank Mr K.
Newstead Flint for his careful carrying out of much of the routine work associated with this investigation.
THE ACTION OF dl‐GLYCERIC ALDEHYDE ON THE ISOLATED HEART
Authors: Reeves H. Gordon
Published: December 2014

Glyceric aldehyde is definitely toxic to the rabbit's heart, and hence it is unlikely that the aldehyde is an intermediate in the utilisation of glucose by mammalian cardiac muscle.

In the amphibian, however, glyceric aldehyde is efficient in maintaining, and even increasing, the rhythmic contractions of the excised heart.

The expenses of this work were defrayed by a grant from the Government Grants Committee of the Royal Society.
THE ACTION OF DRUGS UPON THE MOVEMENTS OF THE STOMACH
Authors: M'Crea E. D. , Macdonald A. D.
Published: December 2014

1. Adrenaline may produce both inhibitory or augmentor effects on the stomach of the cat and dog, but its action is chiefly inhibitory. It cannot be said to duplicate the effects of faradic stimulation of the splanchnic nerves.

2. Pilocarpine, physostigmine, and acetyl‐choline, like the vagus, can be both augmentor and depressor to the stomach, according to its condition of tonus. Pilocarpine and physostigmine often cause irregular after‐contractions of considerable duration.

3. Atropine relaxes and paralyses the stomach‐musculature and abolishes all response to nervous stimulation or to other drugs.

4. The effects of ephedrine, ergotamine, strychnine, histamine, and pituitary extracts are briefly described.

5. An explanation is advanced of the varying results of nerve‐stimulation and of drugs.
THE CARDIAC “ALL OR NONE” LAW
Authors: Burridge W.
Published: December 2014

The cardiac “all or none” law is a quality of cardiac excitation processes.
ON THE REACTIONS OF THE MINUTE VESSELS OF THE FROG'S TONGUE
Authors: Fraser Lois
Published: December 2014

The experiments, which are in the main a repetition of those of
Krogh, corroborate his results in most cases. A difference in response to injury is described. The reactions of the vessels are recorded to solutions of different acids with the same pH and to solutions of varying concentrations, as well as to other conditions (temperature, drugs, etc.).
A NOTE ON THE ARNETH COUNT IN UNGULATES (COW, SHEEP, HORSE)
Authors: Simpson Ethel D.
Published: December 2014

In the blood of the cow and horse there is found the same limited distribution of polymorphs among the various Arneth classes as was reported for the sheep. In these three ungulates the greatest number of cells are single‐lobed, with fewer bilobed and trilobed forms.
OBSERVATIONS ON THE PROPERTIES AND BIO‐ASSAY OF œESTRIN
Authors: Kennedy Walter P.
Published: December 2014

1. The effect of the mouse or rat unit of œstrin as tested by the vaginal smear is not always the same, and at present cannot be regarded as quantitative except in the sense of an approximation. The unit‐concept is not therefore to be regarded as a fixed one.

2. Notwithstanding this, it can be affirmed that, within limits, there is no appreciable difference between the quantity required to produce a reaction in the mouse from that required for the rat. This also applies to the Nissl test.

3. The technique of the vaginal smear test is described, and emphasis is laid upon the necessity for attention to general hygiene, to the temperature of the environment, and to various minutiæ.

4. Neither the weight of the animal nor the effect of previous injections produce an appreciable effect on the vaginal reaction to œstrin.

5. Objections are made to the practice of partition of the dose. It is advocated that for vaginal tests and for the Nissl test single doses be administered. This is, however, not possible for the growth test.

6. It is suggested that a practicable end‐point for the smear reaction is furnished by a cell‐picture showing an almost complete disappearance of leucocytes, with at least half the epithelial cells showing cornification.

7. Differences of the mucus content of the smear and two types of mucus are described.

8. It is shown that rats may show a different response to identical doses of œstrin at different times.

9. Very early oöphorectomy diminishes the sensitivity to œstrin.

10. The greater potency of subcutaneous as compared with intra‐peritoneal injection is confirmed.

11. The growth test is described and is advocated as having a distinct place in the bio‐assay of œstrin.

12. The Nissl test is described and is suggested as the most suitable for accurate investigation.
THE EFFECT OF ACIDS AND THEIR SALTS ON HEAT CONTRACTION OF RAT TENDON
Authors: Simpson Ethel D. , Finney W. H.
Published: December 2014

By increasing the concentration of hydrogen‐ions a steplike lowering of the temperature of heat‐contraction in the tendon takes place. Nitric acid has more effect in lowering the temperature of heat‐contraction than has hydrochloric. The action of acetic acid is intermediate between the effects of these two mineral acids.

The addition of NaCl (0.15 moles) to HCl does not modify the temperature of heat‐contraction of tendon.

Sodium acetate (0.15 moles) lowers the temperature of heat‐contraction below that of acetic acid alone, while calcium acetate (0.075 and 0.15 moles) lowers it still further.

The divalent salts BaCl2 and CaCl2, added to HCl, have a much greater action in lowering the temperature of heat‐contraction than has HCl alone.

Upon varying the concentration of salt, keeping the pH at 4.0 with HCl, it is found that NaCl and KCl up to a concentration of 0.6 moles do not affect the temperature of heat‐contraction of tendon. The higher concentrations of KNO3 (0.038 moles to 0.15 moles) inhibit the action of HNO3.

The temperature of heat‐contraction of tendon is lowered by BaCl2 and CaCl2 at concentrations between 0.038 and 0.062 moles. At a pH of 4.0 no difference is found in the action on tendon of the two salts in solutions of equal molar concentrations.

We take pleasure in acknowledging our debt to Mr J. K. L. MacDonald for many helpful suggestions made in the course of this investigation.
THE REACTIONS OF ISOLATED MUSCLE STRIPS OF THE STOMACH TO THE OXYTOCIC AND PRESSOR FRACTIONS OF AN EXTRACT OF THE POSTERIOR PITUITARY LOBE
Authors: Robson J. M.
Published: December 2014

The reactions of isolated muscle strips from various regions of the rabbit's and cat's stomach to the oxytocic and pressor fractions of the posterior pituitary lobe (pitocin and pitressin) have been investigated.

Three types of reactions were obtained in muscles from different regions:

(1) Relaxation with pitressin and, to a lesser extent, with pitocin (lateral fundus of the rabbit's stomach).

(2) Contraction with pitocin and, to a lesser extent, with pitressin (anterior fundus of the rabbit's stomach).

(3) Contraction with pitressin; no effect with pitocin (antrum of the rabbit's and cat's stomach).

The reactions of these strips to a number of other drugs were also investigated. Histamine is apparently not responsible for the inhibitory reactions obtained.
THE RESPONSES OF THE EXCISED BATRACHIAN ALIMENTARY CANAL TO AUTONOMIC DRUGS. EPHEDRINE
Authors: Epstein David
Published: December 2014

1. Ephedrine is unable to cause inhibition of the excised amphibian alimentary canal.

2. When the ratio of the concentration of ephedrine to that of adrenaline is as 1000 to 1, ephedrine antagonises or prevents the adrena‐line (i.e. sympathetic) inhibition. This antagonism appears to have no connection with the efferent sympathetic or the parasympathetic systems.

3. Ephedrine is unable to antagonise the excitatory or the inhibitory effects of arecoline on amphibian alimentary tissues.

4. The latter observation suggests that the arecoline relaxation of the intestine of Rana is not the result of sympathetic stimulation, and favours the inhibitory parasympathetic hypothesis.

5. In the intestine of Rana ephedrine may sometimes produce a reversal of the inhibitory effects of adrenaline.

The author wishes to thank Professor J. W. C.
Gunn for his interest in this investigation.
STIMULATION OF THE VAGUS NERVE AND CAROTID SINUS IN MAN
Authors: Hill Ian G. W.
Published: December 2014

The results of mechanical stimulation of the exposed vagus nerve and carotid sinus of man in a series of twenty cases have been recorded electrocardiographically.

Of thirteen cases under ether anæsthesia, none showed any response to sinus stimulation, while one responded to vagal stimulation. Two cases under chloroform yielded responses to sinus stimulation, and one to vagal stimulation also. Of five cases under gas and oxygen, three gave responses to sinus or vagal stimulation, or to both.

The response to sinus stimulation was usually moderate bradycardia, with or without diminution of the P‐waves. A different response was elicited under chloroform, consisting of the appearance of ventricular extrasystoles. Responses to vagal stimulation were similar in nature, but were characterised by a longer latent period and longer after‐effect.

It has been demonstrated that the human vagus is in some cases excitable by mechanical means. The relation of this to
Czermak's “vagal pressure” and to the “caroto‐vagal” pressure of
Hering is discussed.

The expenses of this research have been met by grants from the Moray Endowment Fund and from the Trustees of the Clinical Medicine Research Laboratory, Edinburgh Royal Infirmary.
THE SPINAL PARASYMPATHETIC. Tenth Article. VASOCONSTRICTOR EFFECT OF THE SPINAL PARASYMPATHETIC ON PULMONARY VESSELS
Authors: Kuré Ken , Ikeda Ryoji , Sakurasawa Fujio
Published: December 2014

1. Stimulation of fibres passing out from the cord by the dorsal roots causes marked constriction of the pulmonary vessels (dog). The spinal parasympathetic therefore has a vasoconstrictor action on the lung while acting as a vasodilator on the skin and viscera generally.

2. The spinal centre of the vasoconstrictors for the lung is situated in the thoracic region from the 4th to the 8th segments.

3. Stimulation of the fibres which pass out from the cord through the ventral roots evokes marked dilatation of the pulmonary vessels (dog). The sympathetic therefore has a vasodilator effect on the lung.

4. The centre for dilatation lies, like that for constriction, in the thoracic region from the 4th to the 8th segments.

5. Acetylcholine, when applied to the surface of the lung, causes marked anæmia due to vasoconstriction.

6. Adrenaline, applied to the surface of the lung, causes anæmia at the place of application. The amount of this anæmia is much less than that produced by acetylcholine. Histamine also causes slight anæmia.

7. The spontaneous tone of the vasodilator system of the lung is very feeble, that of the vasoconstrictor system a little stronger. When the spinal cord is stimulated the vasodilator effect predominates.

8. Neither stimulation of the vagus nor of the stellate ganglion has any direct influence on the pulmonary vessels of the dog.

The authors beg to thank the foundation “Hattori‐Hôkôkai” for the expenses of this research.
STUDIES ON THE ACCELERATION AND INHIBITION OF HÆMOLYSIS. III. THE EFFECT OF MONOVALENT CATIONS ON SAPONIN HÆMOLYSIS
Authors: Gordon Albert S.
Published: December 2014

1. The effects of monovalent cations in hæmolytic systems, in which saponin is the lysin, depend not only on the dilution of lysin and type of red cell employed, but also upon the concentration of electrolyte present.

2. Introduction of potassium, lithium, or rubidium into systems containing human erythrocytes results in an acceleration of hæmolysis, whereas the addition of cæsium causes an inhibition. This is true only when sodium chloride is being replaced from the standard system.

3. Similar results are not obtained when ox cells are employed. Here certain concentrations of electrolyte produce acceleration while others cause inhibition.

4. A “polar antagonism” exists between cæsium and rubidium in systems containing human cells.

5. The various time‐dilution curves corresponding to the addition of different amounts of electrolyte are excellently described by the equation of
Ponder and
Yeager.
CYCLICAL CHANGES IN THE VAGINA AND VULVA OF THE FERRET
Authors: Marshall F. H. A.
Published: December 2014

The vagina and vulva of the ferret undergo well‐marked cyclical changes in correlation with those of the ovaries and uterus.

During the anœstrum the vulva is small and the connective tissue of which it is mainly composed is compact. The vagina during this period is lined by a low columnar epithelium consisting of only two or three rows of cells and without a cornified layer.

During the pro‐œstrum and œstrus the vulva swells up to about fifty times its anœstrous size, the submucous connective tissue becoming spongy and the nuclei of the cells widely separated. The vaginal epithelium is several layers in thickness, and in the deeper part the cells become high and squamous. There is a pronounced cornified layer. Later, during cestrus, the cornified layer begins to slough, the process being continued over some time. The entire period represents the “follicular stage” of LOEB and other authors, and is presumably brought about by the action of œstrin. The vulval swelling serves the purpose of facilitating effective copulation which in the ferret is very prolonged.

During pregnancy and pseudo‐pregnancy (the latter condition in the ferret only occurring under experimental conditions as after copulation with a vasectomised male) the vulva is reduced to its ancestrous size. The reduction is accompanied by lymphoid degeneration and an invasion of leucocytes. The vaginal epithelium becomes reduced to a low columnar or cubical structure. There is no cornified layer, this being completely shed during œstrus. This period clearly represents the “luteal phase” in the ovarian cycle.

It is to be noted that the vulval swelling and other characteristics of the follicular stage terminate with ovulation just as does the swelling of the sexual skin in the Primate, as described by ZUCKERMAN and PARKES.

The description of the changes here recorded are in general agreeument with the observations by PARKES (1930) on the vaginal smear at different stages of the cycle in the ferret.

The vaginal cycle in the ferret is in a general way similar to that of the dog, as described by EVANS and COLE. It may be again remarked, however, that pseudo‐pregnancy only occurs under experimental conditions in the ferret, yet under the influence of pro‐gestin secreted by the corpus luteum the vagina and vulva undergo similar changes during both pregnancy and pseudo‐pregnancy.
THE MEASUREMENT OF THE DIAMETERS OF ERYTHROCYTES. —VIII. THE DIAMETER IN HYPOTONIC PLASMA
Authors: Ponder Eric
Published: December 2014

1. The mean diameter of rabbit erythrocytes immersed in hypotonic plasma is measured by diffractometric methods, and the results show that the diameter decreases about 8 per cent. as the cell‐volume increases about 45 per cent., after which lysis results.

2. This figure is smaller than that obtained in earlier experiments (which show about 14 per cent. decrease as a maximum), but the higher figure previously obtained is probably due to unavoidable, or at least very small, errors associated with the photographic method of measuring red‐cell diameter.
QUANTITATIVE VARIATION OF THE ANTERIOR PITUITARY HORMONE, “APH‐B,” IN THE BLOOD DURING PREGNANCY
Authors: Kennedy Walter P.
Published: December 2014

Quantitative tests of the anterior pituitary hormone B in the blood plasma of 75 normal women show that the amount increases steadily during pregnancy till after the 30th week, when the increase is more variable.

Thanks are due for hospitality and facilities to Professor H. R. SCHMIDT, Director of the Frauenklinik, Medizinischen Akademie, Düsseldorf, where the work was started; and to Dr DOUGLAS MILLER, Simpson Maternity Hospital, for placing clinical material at my disposal. Part of the expenses of the research were met by a grant from the British Medical Association, and part by a grant from the Ella Sachs Plotz Foundation.