bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
OTHR-16. MOLECULAR PROFILING USING THE 92-GENE ASSAY FOR TUMOR CLASSIFICATION OF BRAIN METASTASES
Authors: Brenner Andrew , Collazo Raul , Schnabel Catherine , Greco Anthony
Published: August 2019

BACKGROUND: Nearly 200,000 patients are diagnosed with brain metastases in the US annually. Advances in targeted therapies make definitive diagnosis of the primary tumor type important but can be challenging in many patients. The 92-gene assay is a validated gene expression classifier of 50 tumor types for patients with uncertain tissue of origin diagnoses. Results from a clinical series of brain biopsies and potential impact on treatment were evaluated. METHODS: An IRB approved, de-identified database of clinical and molecular information from biopsies (N = 24,486) submitted for testing with the 92-gene assay (CancerTYPE ID, Biotheranostics, Inc.) as part of routine care were reviewed. Descriptive analysis included patient demographics and molecular diagnoses. RESULTS: Analysis included 464 brain biopsies. A molecular diagnosis was provided in 433 (93.3%) tested (< 5% assay failure rate) with 24 different tumor types. Six primary tumor types made up the majority (67.4%) with almost one-third of the molecular predictions being Lung (31.2%), followed by Neuroendocrine (NET) (9.9%), Sarcoma (7.9%), Skin (6.4%), Gastroesophageal (6.2%), and Urinary bladder (5.8%). All of these 6 tumor types, for which activity in the CNS has been documented, have immune checkpoint inhibitors or other targeted therapies approved in selected cases by the US Federal Drug Administration (FDA). CONCLUSIONS: Molecular classification of brain metastases can identify distinct tumor types for which there are FDA approved targeted medications. Improving diagnostic precision with the 92-gene assay helps identify a subset of therapy-responsive metastatic brain tumors, thus improving therapy and possibly providing better outcomes and survival.
SURG-04. SIMULTANEOUS CRANIOTOMIES FOR MULTIPLE BRAIN METASTASES
Authors: Gassie Kelly , Chaichana Kaisorn , Garcia Henry Ruiz , Brown Desmond , Trifiletti Daniel , Burns Terry
Published: August 2019

BACKGROUND: It is well known that for patients with solitary metastatic disease in the brain, aggressive surgical treatment can prolong survival. However, there is a paucity of literature focusing on simultaneous resection of multiple metastatic brain tumors. METHODS: We analyzed 13 patients and 26 tumors between 2005–2019 who had simultaneous resection of at least 2 metastatic brain tumors via either one or two craniotomies. We independently analyzed those patients with simultaneous resection of metastatic disease in both the supra- and infratentorial compartments. RESULTS: Overall, 26 tumors were resected in a simultaneous fashion. There were 7 females (53.8%) and 6 males (46.2%) total. 5/13 (38.5%) patients had previously known brain metastases in which all 5 had previous adjuvant radiation. All 13 patients had 2 metastatic lesions resected during one operation. Gross total resection rate reached 88.5% with a median post-operative stay of 3 days. Complications presented in only 3 out of 13 cases (grade 2 and 3 according to CTCAE). Primary sites of metastatic disease were lung, breast, skin and renal. 12/13 (92.3%) had two distinct craniotomies and 23/26 (88.5%) tumors had gross total resection of both lesions. There were 11 frontal (42.3%), 7 parietal (26.9%), 2 temporal (7.7%), 1 occipital (3.8%) and 5 cerebellar (19.2%) tumors. There were three patients with both supra- and intratentorial tumors with simultaneous resection. All three patients had two craniotomies and two separate incisions. 1 of the 3 had pre-operative SRS. Overall, average local progression since surgery to at least one resected tumor bed was 88.3 days. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that patients with multiple metastatic brain lesions have comparable outcomes and similar rates of surgical risk to those with solitary brain lesions. In patients with simultaneous supra- and infratentorial brain metastatic disease and indications for decompression, safe resection is feasible.
SURG-13. EVALUATION OF 5-ALA FLUORESCENCE IN BRAIN METASTASES OF VARIOUS PRIMARY TUMORS: A MULTICENTER STUDY WITH EXPERIENCE IN 157 CASES
Authors: Mercea Petra Andreea , Marhold Franz , Scheichel Florian , Kiesel Barbara , Mischkulnig Mario , Berghoff Anna , Woehrer Adelheid , Preusser Matthias , Knosp Engelbert , Ungersboeck Karl , Widhalm Georg
Published: August 2019

INTRODUCTION: Local recurrence of brain metastases following incomplete resection is not uncommon. One reason is insufficient intraoperative visualization of tumor tissue. Recently, visible intraoperative 5-aminolevulinic acid (5-ALA) fluorescence was reported in the first brain metastases series. Thus, the aim of this study was to investigate intraoperative 5-ALA fluorescence in brain metastases at two specialized centers in the largest patient cohort up to date. METHODS: 5-ALA was administered prior to resection of 157 brain metastases in 154 patients. Intraoperatively, the fluorescence quality (strong, vague or none) and fluorescence homogeneity (homogeneous or heterogeneous) of each brain metastasis was investigated. These 5-ALA fluorescence characteristics were correlated with primary tumor and histopathological subtype according to the current World Health Organization (WHO) 2016 criteria. RESULTS: Visible 5-ALA fluorescence was observed in 104 brain metastases (66%), whereas fluorescence was absent in the remaining 53 cases (34%).53/104 (51%) brain metastases showed strong fluorescence and 51/104 (49%) vague fluorescence. The majority of brain metastases (84%) demonstrated a heterogeneous fluorescence pattern. In context of primary tumor, visible fluorescence was less frequent in brain metastases of melanomas compared to all other tumors (p=0.037). Moreover, visible fluorescence was more common for ductal breast cancer subtype than other subtypes (p=0.008). CONCLUSION: Our data indicate that 5-ALA fluorescence is a valuable for intraoperative visualization of brain metastases to improve the extent of resection and thus patient prognosis. However, the frequent heterogeneous 5-ALA fluorescence pattern and lack of strong fluorescence limits the use of 5-ALA in brain metastases, claiming for further technical refinement.
Group and Organizational Learning
Authors: Levine John M. , Argote Linda
Published: August 2019

The goal of this chapter is to set the stage for readers of the Handbook. After providing our definitions of group and organizational learning, we discuss factors that stimulated prior interest in these phenomena. Next, we outline a broad conceptual framework for analyzing group and organizational learning (Argote & Miron-Spektor, 2011) that highlights important themes in the chapters that make up the volume. We devote the bulk of our effort to summarizing these chapters, with the goal of identifying theoretically significant similarities and differences between them. In so doing, we first discuss contributions dealing with processes of group and organizational learning and then focus on those involving contextual influences on learning. We conclude by noting important themes in current efforts to understand group and organizational learning and by suggesting promising directions for future theoretical development and empirical research.
Imagining Sound as the Absolute
Authors: Trivedi Saam
Published: August 2019

Saam Trivedi ponders the Sangita Ratnakara by the Ayurveda physician Sarangadeva. In this thirteenth-century manuscript, Sarangadeva asserts that Sound, identical to the Absolute, is the only fundamental thing in the universe and that all other things are illusory or, at best, some derivative or other manifestation of Sound. While the twenty-first century, non-monist Trivedi is critical of this claim, he finds much to be fascinated by, and, in his dissection of the main points of the Sangita Ratnakara, he offers the reader an imagining of sonic monism that, while far-removed from the orthodoxy of today’s acoustics and natural sciences, might one day come to be seen as inspiration for the latest scientific ideas concerning sound.
Fantasy Control
Authors: Volgsten Ulrik
Published: August 2019

Ulrik Volgsten focuses on the control of sonic imagination in general and takes as his point of departure a discussion on how imagination is reflected in a number of theoretical perspectives. The author proceeds to supplement these perspectives with the dimension of social interaction and its role in paving the way for “an emerging sense of music” uncovering two different modes of connection: metaphorical projection and affect attunement. Additionally, Volgsten discusses how the three thematically distinct aspects of imagination (musical archives, places and contexts, and identifications) are distributed and concludes with a brief case study on a Kurdish cultural association, exemplifying different ways in which imagination can be controlled, for better or for worse.
Musical Preferences and the Imagined Self
Authors: Lamont Alexandra
Published: August 2019

Alexandra Lamont discusses how musical preferences are a way to construct, reconstruct, and communicate a sense of identity, indicating aspects of personality, attitudes, and lifestyle. She reviews recent research demonstrating how musical preferences can provide information about age, gender, and personality. In addition to the social dimension, she also touches on aspects of personal musical identity that are developed through imagination. Lamont furthermore considers our imagined relationships with the music itself and the musicians responsible for creating and performing it, taking a lifespan perspective from childhood and adolescence through to old age.
The Sonic Abject
Authors: Erlmann Veit
Published: August 2019

Two claims are made by Veit Erlmann in his chapter on sound and violence in the legal imagination. The first claim is that, certainly as regards sound, the concept of the object is ill-defined. Instead, Kristeva’s notion of the abject should be used to describe the place of sound, as there is a repression of the initially ambiguous nature of the subject-object relation. The sonic abject is to be found within the unstable boundary between subject and object. The second claim is that, in law, sound can be seen as an abject. Discussing the prominent role of sound in two cases from international criminal law and US constitutional law, Erlmann demonstrates that sound sits uneasily amid legal discourse about agency and intention.
The Acoustic Imaginations of East Asia
Authors: Yasar Kerim
Published: August 2019

Kerim Yasar provides a consideration of the acoustic imagination in literary works from the Sinosphere (China, Japan, and Korea). Yasar explores the development and use of sound symbolism in these countries’ writing systems, arguing that, even with such sound symbol–rich systems to hand, the Sinosphere’s authors depended and still depend on the active imaginative participation of their readers in order to cocreate the acoustic depictions found in their work. Spreading his survey of the literary traditions of the Sinosphere across three-thousand-year-old Chinese literature to modern Japanese manga, Yasar further demonstrates that the conceptualization of sound within the Sinosphere cultures helps shape the imagination and representation of sound within that culture’s language and literature.
Imagining Sonic Stories
Authors: Meelberg Vincent
Published: August 2019

Sonic narratives are the subject of Vincent Meelberg’s chapter, in which he discusses the capacity of sound not only to trigger narratives but also to tell stories that unfold over time. Meelberg uses his own sound collage work as an example of how narratives can be created through a sequence of sounds. He argues that sonic narratives emerge when the sequence of sounds represents a temporal development. Examples are provided that show how this temporal development emerges from either the referential qualities (hearing a succession of concrete events) or the acoustic qualities (e.g., the succession of tension and release) of the sound.
The Aural Dimension in Comic Art
Authors: Pellitteri Marco
Published: August 2019

Adopting a diegetic and semiotic approach to multisensoriality in comics, Marco Pellitteri discusses the aural dimension of this specific art form. The workings of comics are traced back to Aristotle’s concept of noesis; the mental activity of reading comics, Pellitteri suggests, involves a willingness to actively conceive of images and ideas in one’s mind not least of which are those belonging to the aural dimension. To argue this point, Pellitteri concentrates on the comics medium’s layers of actual or suggested sensoriality and illustrates the sensorial suggestiveness of comics’ graphics by discussing the implied aurality of lettering, fonts, word balloons, visual onomatopoeia, and the representation of music.
Imagining Acoustic Spaces through Listening and Acoustic Ecology
Authors: Truax Barry
Published: August 2019

Using the concept of acoustic ecology as his bulwark, Barry Truax theorizes listening as an embodied interface to our auditory environment. Acoustic spaces, Truax argues, should be understood as simultaneously real and imagined, and he discusses how such forms of dual perception exist in both everyday soundscapes and technologically mediated soundscapes. He contends that memory, imagining, and anticipation are closely connected to all stages of listening. These aspects of listening are further used to explore and define what Truax calls the “acoustic community”—that soundscape that emerges as a product of collective individual imagination.
Beacons of Sound
Authors: Knakkergaard Martin
Published: August 2019

Martin Knakkergaard discusses expectations and imaginations vis-à-vis the concert hall of the twenty-first century. The chapter outlines some of the central historical implications of Western culture’s haven for sounding music and its impact on the understanding of the musical phenomenon as an element in societal and cultural processes. Based on his case study of the Icelandic concert house Harpa, Knakkergaard considers how these implications, together with the prime mover’s visions, have been transformed as private investors and politicians take over. Throughout, Knakkergaard investigates the objectives required of musical sound and the far-reaching demands of the acoustics that modern concert halls must necessarily meet.
The Sound of an Endless Column
Authors: Eitan Zohar , Tamir-Ostrover Hila
Published: August 2019

Zohar Eitan and Hila Tamir-Ostrover start their chapter with a survey of existing empirical studies of sound-space mappings—in particular, pitch/spatial height associations. Using Ligeti’s Endless Column as a case, they exemplify how music might challenge these mappings by pointing out contradictions in the associative link between the auditory dimension and spatial and motion features. These contradictions, the authors argue, on the one hand can illustrate novel opportunities for composers to use music-space correspondences to create paradoxical spaces while, on the other hand, could demonstrate how the music-space correspondence revealed by empirical research could be used in the analysis of music.
Auditory Imagination
Authors: Schmicking Daniel A.
Published: August 2019

Daniel Schmicking explores auditory imagination from a phenomenological perspective. He starts with an outline of phenomenological tools building mainly on Husserl’s thinking, and then sets out to analyze the structure of auditory imagination and its function in collaborative music-making. In his account of the workings of auditory imagination, Schmicking challenges the traditional Western notion of imagination as something private. A central part of Schmicking’s account of auditory imagination comprises a distinction between pure and weak forms of imagination, and this distinction is further used to explore how imagination contributes to other intentional forms, such as perception and memory.
Listening and/as Imagination
Authors: Cobussen Marcel
Published: August 2019

Marcel Cobussen focuses on the connection between imagination and different forms of music listening, from “attentive listening” to various forms of “distracted listening.” He explores the idea that listening—as a creative act—is always linked to imagination. Cobussen deals with several music and sound art examples in the pursuit of this idea, and he outlines how imaginary processes function in different ways to “complete” the insufficient information brought to the listener by the senses. Cobussen devises the term “imagining-through-listening” to reconsider how imagination is tied to perception, and he closes with a personal story that outlines how listening is a process of oscillating between sonic reality and sonic imagination.
Musical Shape Cognition
Authors: Godøy Rolf Inge
Published: August 2019

Rolf Inge Godøy focuses on how notions of shape, understood as geometric figures and images stemming from body-motion, metaphors, graphic representation, and so forth, can be associated with the production and perception of music. Central to the chapter is the understanding that shape cognition is not only deeply rooted in the human experience of music and in specific musical imagery but also that it has the potential to enhance our understanding of music as a phenomenon in general. Godøy also discusses how musical shape cognition, given that it is becoming increasingly more feasible to analyze with new technology, can contribute to various domains of music-related research, and, further, that it can be highly valuable to practical applications in musical and multimedia artistic creation.
On the Other Side of Time
Authors: Steinskog Erik
Published: August 2019

A musical imagining of the future and an exposition of a challenge to the normative historical discourse are the subjects of Erik Steinskog’s chapter on Afrofuturism. These topics are dealt with through a discussion of “blackness” and a theoretical discourse that addresses the musical style and polemical and political stance of afrofuturist musicians such as Sun Ra and others following in his path. Steinskog suggests that afrofuturist music is a form of sonic time travel that intertwines the modalities of time represented by notions of past, present, and future, his argument being that reimaginations, reinterpretations, and revisions of a normative past are represented in the technology and music of the black future.
Augmented Unreality
Authors: Weinel Jonathan
Published: August 2019

Jonathan Weinel deals with the representation of hallucinations within audiovisual media. Weinel forms his discussion around the concept of augmented unreality, providing examples from films, VJ performances, video games, and other audiovisual media to show how sounds are used to represent hallucinations. His focus is on the material design of the representations of hallucinations, and he discusses how the form of visual and auditory hallucinations may serve as the basis for audiovisual artworks. In conclusion, Weinel provides a set of structural norms that define representations of psychedelic hallucinations, and he hypothesizes that, given improvement of digital technologies, the boundaries between external reality and synthetic unreality might gradually dissolve.
“… they call us by our name …”
Authors: Hogg Bennett
Published: August 2019

Bennett Hogg queries the relations that sound recording has commonly been thought to have to memory, in particular mechanistic approaches to both memory and recording that see them as processes that fix things through time. Sound recording has long been plausibly understood as a prosthesis of memory. However, memory goes considerably beyond the recall of stored information. Making sense of memories as they are “laid down,” and as they are “recalled,” involves imagining novel connections between memorized materials and networks of sensory, social, and cultural experience. Imagination, through time, subtly reworks memories, modulating their affect, re-evaluating the significance of particular memories, mythologizing them, even. Memories, through imagination, are not things but actions. Much play has been made on the (imagined) connections between “remembering” and “re-membering” (reassembling that which was dismembered), allowing us to propose imagination as something that re-members memories; endows them with life. To listen to a recording is to participate in an “event,” informed by memory, and partially modeled on it, but informed equally by imagination. To understand listening to recordings according to a rather reductive model of memory risks misrepresenting the richness of the cognitive ecosystem in which listening occurs. In looking for a new metaphor to inhabit this ecosystem of memory, imagination, and persistence through time, Hogg proposes metempsychosis, the transmigration of souls, as a more suggestive model.
Music and Emergence
Authors: Carvalho John M.
Published: August 2019

John Carvalho writes about the music that emerges in a skilled engagement with an environment of sound. This music emerges in a piece of music when the embodied skills of a composer, performer, or listener enact affordances that turn up in the environment defined by that piece of music. For Carvalho, the imagination animates these skills and directs their embodied testing of the environment for affordances to be enacted in making music emerge in it. To support this argument, Carvalho turns to an ecology of mind and a taxonomy of listening that account for how composers, performers, and listeners enact the music in a piece of music.
Music in Detention and Interrogation
Authors: Windsor W. Luke
Published: August 2019

Luke Windsor explores the use of forced listening to music in detention and interrogation and points to the creation of ambiguity and uncertainty as a central effect. Windsor engages with several cases of psychological warfare during previous wars and highlights interrogation practices as described by the CIA and he seeks to identify the location of the boundary between the real and the imagined. The exploration of these cases, where music is used as a sound weapon, leads to a broader discussion of, first, the application of music in influencing behavior and, second, the ethics of the use of music in, for instance, marketing.
Motor Imagery in Perception and Performance of Sound and Music
Authors: Schacher Jan
Published: August 2019

Jan Schacher asks what it is to imagine and initiate an action on a musical instrument. For Schacher, the body is the central element of listening and sound perception, and thus the body, in an embodied and enactive sense, becomes the focus for musicking with both conventional instruments and digital instruments, where, in the latter case, bodily schemata are replaced by metaphors and instrumental representations. This last theme provides a significant topic of enquiry in the chapter, and it is explored from a number of angles, chief among which is a focus (through the lenses of motor imagery and imagination in music) on relations between inner and outer aspects of our ways and means of listening to and performing both music and sound. Ultimately, Schacher identifies a tension underlying digital musical performance brought about by the fracturing of the “action-sound” bond, a bond that is the basis for our sonic perception not only of the natural world but also of the world of culturally defined musical performance.
The Archaeology of Phoenician Cities
Authors: Sader Hélène
Published: August 2019

This chapter deals with the archaeology of the Phoenician cities of the motherland, highlighting mainly recent results from Lebanon. It gives an overview of the available archaeological evidence resulting from surveys and excavations. The chapter presents the physical characteristics of the Phoenician cities: their location, size, distribution, and results of the investigation of their harbors. It discusses in detail the recent findings regarding the development of their building techniques and their domestic and religious architecture. These findings indicate that there is no characteristic Phoenician house or temple plan but, rather, a wide variety of them. The chapter ends with the discussion of funerary architecture and practices. After a brief presentation of the various types of burials, an overview of Phoenician practices relating to both inhumation and cremation is presented. Our understanding of the latter practice was substantially enhanced by the recent evidence from the Tyrian cemetery of al-Bass.
Carthage after the Punic Wars and the Neo-Punic Legacy
Authors: Hobson Matthew
Published: August 2019

This chapter provides a brief introduction to how the historiographical development of Roman studies, since mid-twentieth century decolonization, has altered our understanding of the developments which took place in North Africa following the destruction of Carthage in 146 bce. The reader is introduced to literary, epigraphic, and archaeological sources of evidence, which have traditionally been used to argue for either cultural change or continuity. After an initial examination of the immediate aftermath of the Third Punic War, Roman land appropriation and taxation, the focus is on sources of evidence usually described as “Punic,” “neo-Punic” or “Late Punic,” covering the spheres of municipal institutions, language use, and religious and funerary rituals. The vibrant multiculturalism and regional diversity of the Mediterranean and especially North Africa, both before and after the Roman conquest, is the dominant theme. This is used to shift emphasis away from grand explanatory paradigms based on essentialist identity categories, and toward a more nuanced picture of the complex and multivariate processes of cultural development and integration.
Funerary Ritual
Authors: López-Bertran Mireia
Published: August 2019

This chapter explores the funerary rites in the Phoenician-Punic world from a comprehensive point of view, and it focuses on the common points arising from a large amount of data. The concern for burying their deceased and the belief in the soul’s afterlife show that the Phoenicians considered death as a transformation rather than as the end of a person’s life. Through our access to archaeological remains and written sources, we can reconstruct the existence of a meaningful burial program that was destined to provide a “good death” and afterlife. Funerary rituals, thus, are the actions or gestures to achieve this goal. The aim of this chapter is to explain the rites that family members undertook once someone died, in order to transform correctly the deceased person into an otherworldly being, the ancestor. The social implications of the data arising from burials are also briefly considered.
Coins
Authors: Betlyon John W.
Published: August 2019

The coins of the Phoenician city-states were struck in the fifth and fourth centuries bce. Influenced by coins struck in Greece and eastern Greece, Sidon, Tyre, Byblos, and Aradus struck coins in silver and bronze. These coins functioned as the “small change” for the gold coins struck by the imperial mint of Achaemenid Persia. The production of these coins aided in everyday commerce and in the collection of tariffs and taxes. Early studies of these coins were inevitably connected to the great royal collections of Europe in London and Paris. Major studies of these coins appeared in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. More recent archaeological discoveries in Lebanon have included an inscription which expanded knowledge of the king list of the Phoenician city of Sidon in the fifth and fourth centuries bce. New historical sources such as this inscription published by Maurice Dunand in 1965 have enabled scholars to propose new and more accurate chronologies for the earliest coins of the Phoenicians. Sidon was the largest of the Phoenician mints, with coins struck between the late fifth century and the coming of Alexander the Great in 332 bce. Tyre, Aradus, and Byblos also struck coins, and together with those of Sidon, provided the denominations required to fuel the Phoenician (and therefore Persian) economy of the period. These coins enabled the Phoenician city-states to compete more favorably with their Greek and East Greek neighbors to the west. The coins of Tyre undoubtedly inspired the Tyrian colony of Carthage to strike coins beginning late in the fourth century bce.
Agriculture
Authors: Bellard Carlos Gómez
Published: August 2019

Agriculture played a crucial role for the Phoenicians. Systematic study of the rural Phoenician world goes back only a few decades, thanks to archaeological surveys and excavations of non-urban structures and settlements. Despite our increasing knowledge of the subject, it is still difficult to define a single model. Still we can speak of some constant features. The chapter gives a view of coastal settlements producing an easily exported agricultural surplus, as well as husbandry, especially cattle, ovicaprids, and pigs. This was followed by a period of systematic occupation of the land, not necessarily welcomed by the native groups. Nevertheless, this occupation established organized and systematic exploitation and expansion of the “Mediterranean triad” (wheat, olive, wine). The success of this agricultural activity had a crucial role in the development of Phoenician-Punic cities.
Ibiza
Authors: Costa Benjamí
Published: August 2019

The formation of a Semitic society based on the island of Ibiza was the result of the superimposition, during the Archaic period, of two distinct elements: eastern Phoenicians and Punics. During the fifth and fourth centuries bce, Punic Ibiza reached its maximum economic and demographic development, possibly because of its role as a crucial agent of Carthaginian policy toward Iberian communities in the mainland and the Balearic Islands. After the Second Punic War, all defeated Punic states that sided with Carthage were left under the dominion of the Roman Republic. In the case of Punic Ibiza, the author proposes a process with three main steps: first, a deditio after the Second Punic War; second, a federation agreement, which could have taken place possibly after the Sertorian episode, in the year 81 bce; and third, the municipalization after the decree promulgated by Vespasianus in 74 ce, which converted Hispanic towns that were still peregrinae, like Ibiza, into municipalities ruled by the Latin Law.
The Iberian Peninsula
Authors: López Castro José Luis
Published: August 2019

The initial Phoenician presence in the Iberian Peninsula dates to the ninth century bce with the foundation of small settlements along the southern coast. During the eighth and seventh centuries bce, the number of colonial settlements along the Atlantic and Mediterranean coasts of Iberia began to increase rapidly. Phoenicians traded with indigenous populations, exchanging high-quality artisanal products for metals from Iberia. In addition, colonial settlers exploited their surrounding territory for agriculture and animal husbandry. They also took advantage of marine resources such as fishing. The colonial population was socially stratified and included individuals of indigenous origin who worked in the various industries, as well as women who intermarried with foreigners. Around the beginning of the sixth century bce, the colonial population was restructured: the western Phoenicians organized themselves into city-states, a process that is recorded in the ancient written sources. They maintained commercial relations with the indigenous Iberians and with Carthaginians, Greeks, and Etruscans. In the final part of the third century bce, these cities allied with Carthage in the fight against Rome. Following Rome’s success in the Punic Wars and conquest of the Iberian Peninsula, the cities were required to pay tribute to Rome, except the city of Gades/Gadir (Cádiz), which maintained a foedus. The elite Phoenician citizens underwent a process of integration with the Roman Empire, eventually obtaining municipal status for their cities, some under Julius Caesar and others later during the Flavian period.
Phoenicians in the Hebrew Bible
Authors: Doak Brian R.
Published: August 2019

Though it cannot always be taken at face value as a historical source regarding its stories of Phoenician kings and cities, the Bible does engage with the Phoenicians in a substantial manner in its narratives. Solomon’s and David’s interactions with Hiram of Tyre form an important backdrop for thinking about the construction of the Israelite temple, and later religious corruptions under the northern monarchy invoke the Sidonian Jezebel as a primary source of conflict. Prophetic sources from the eighth–sixth centuries bce mention Phoenician cities as sources of arrogance and wealth (particularly Ezekiel in this respect), and references in the Christian New Testament demonstrate continued biblical engagement with the category of the Phoenicians. Overall, the Bible’s Phoenicians take on stereotypical characteristics as master builders, arrogant traders, wealth mongers, and hubristic false worshipers in texts where authors were clearly constructing a definition of Israel as humble recipients of their own deity’s favor. Still, we would be wrong to dismiss out of hand the Hebrew Bible as a source of Phoenician identity. Even if we find only a few historical glimpses of a “real” Iron Age Phoenicia in the Bible, those glimpses would prove to be valuable in light of the general scarcity—especially in earlier periods—of information on the Phoenicians.
Presbyterianism in the United States and Canada in the Twentieth and Twenty-First Centuries
Authors: Longfield Bradley J.
Published: August 2019

This chapter traces the history of Presbyterians in the United States and Canada from the turn of the twentieth century to the early twenty-first century. It considers the predecessor denominations to the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) as well as the Associate Reformed Presbyterian Church, Cumberland Presbyterian Church, ECO (Covenant Order of Evangelical Presbyterians), Evangelical Presbyterian Church, Orthodox Presbyterian Church, Presbyterian Church in America, and the Presbyterian Church in Canada, among others. It investigates theological, liturgical, missional, and educational developments in these denominations and analyzes conflicts over biblical authority and interpretation, confessionalism, communism, civil rights, sexuality, marriage, ordination, race, and the role of women in the church. The theological movements examined include confessional conservatism, evangelicalism, feminist theology, fundamentalism, liberalism, and neo-orthodoxy. Significant institutions noted include Erskine Seminary, Fuller Theological Seminary, Knox College, Princeton Theological Seminary, Union Theological Seminary in New York, Union Theological Seminary in Virginia, and Westminster Theological Seminary.
The Fundamentalist-Modernist Controversy
Authors: Gundlach Bradley J.
Published: August 2019

In the 1920s and 1930s several U.S. denominations endured controversy over doctrinal changes and the toleration of doctrinal differences. Liberals wanted freedom to adjust traditional belief to fit modern conditions and to unite with other denominations for concerted mission work. Fundamentalists wanted to enforce traditional understandings of the Bible and salvation, and (some) to maintain confessional identity. The contest within the northern Presbyterian Church (PCUSA) was the most consequential. Mingled with the doctrinal issues were the anti-evolution campaign and questions of denominational government and procedure. Conservatives lost when the large body of moderates—who were mostly conservative in doctrine but unconvinced of the menace of modernism within the denomination—swung to the liberal side to avoid division. When J. Gresham Machen, intellectual leader of the fundamentalist side, launched an Independent Board for Presbyterian Foreign Missions to rival the official denominational board, he was tried and convicted of the heresy of schism.
The Doctrine of Humanity
Authors: Shuster Marguerite
Published: August 2019

This chapter elaborates the classic content and evolving emphases of the doctrine of humanity in North American Presbyterianism. It considers human dignity as given in God’s bestowal of the divine image, including the duties entailed by the image; human misery, resulting from original sin understood as leading to total or radical depravity; the nature and limits of free will, understood in an Augustinian sense; and the locus of hope in the efficacious, redemptive grace of God, sufficient to overcome humanity’s bondage to sin, and conjoined to the continuing function of the divine law. It discusses the impact of scientific progress on Christian self-understanding, cautioning against alleged determinisms that threaten human moral accountability. It also observes that later confessional documents increasingly emphasize the dignity of historically disadvantaged groups, as well as bear witness to social and political aspects of human sinfulness.
Presbyterians, Philosophy, Natural Theology, and Apologetics
Authors: VanDrunen David
Published: August 2019

This chapter considers in three stages the development of Presbyterian thinking on the interrelated issues of natural theology, philosophy, apologetics, and science. The first stage focuses on the Reformation and Reformed orthodox eras. Early Presbyterian theologians believed that God reveals himself in nature and thus that they could utilize philosophy critically, engage in natural theology for limited purposes, invoke philosophical insights and evidence from nature in their apologetics, and pursue scientific investigation as an honorable vocation. The second stage turns to Presbyterians’ response to the modern post-Enlightenment world of the nineteenth century, focusing on Princeton Seminary theologians who maintained their predecessors’ basic convictions in their new context. The third stage emerges in the wake of controversies about theological modernism. In the mid-twentieth century Presbyterians were heavily influenced by continental Reformed theologians who were more sympathetic to aspects of Enlightenment philosophy than the Princetonians had been, and who therefore rejected natural theology and reconsidered the nature of apologetics. The chapter concludes by suggesting that recent developments among Presbyterian theologians point to a renewed appreciation of the older approaches of the Reformed orthodox and nineteenth-century Princetonians, and that promising new ways of appropriating their tradition are opening up for future years.
Sixteenth-Century Origins
Authors: Hanson Gary Neal
Published: August 2019

This chapter examines the sixteenth-century origins of Presbyterianism. It looks first at the broader reforming impulse in medieval European Christianity, and in particular, the sixteenth-century Reformations. Turning to the Reformed movement of which Presbyterianism is a part, it argues that the Renaissance humanism was its driving impulse and shaped its ethos. It examines three specific features of the sixteenth-century Reformed movement with significant influence on Presbyterianism: the Reformed theological synthesis, often called Calvinism; the style and priorities of Reformed worship; and the distinctive Reformed polity that made pastors the teachers of the faith and placed lay elders or presbyters in charge of congregational discipline. The chapter concludes by describing the evolution of the Church of Scotland into recognizable Presbyterianism.
The Paradox of Control Through Collaboration in Effectual Entrepreneurship
Authors: Sarasvathy Saras , Dew Nicholas
Published: August 2019

At the heart of entrepreneurial collaboration is a tension: Entrepreneurs need people to grow their ventures, but in bringing people on board, they fear loss of control of the ventures they are building. Add to that the behavioral assumption of opportunism, and the tension rises to the level of a paradox. The paradox is particularly salient in effectual entrepreneurship, which emphasizes stakeholder self-selection as the driver of cocreation. This chapter presents a model of effectual collaboration that builds on a different behavioral assumption, namely docility, defined as the human ability to be open to persuasion. Docility can involve taking and giving advice, changing one’s goals and even adopting those of others, and being able to take more than one’s own perspective into account. Being open to persuasion enables entrepreneurs to cocreate valuable new ventures. The chapter illustrates the model of effectual collaboration through a blueprint for an effectual incubator.
The Contingent Effect of Team Composition on the Performance of Entrepreneurial Teams
Authors: Musaji Serghei , De Castro Julio
Published: August 2019

Despite the continuous interest in studying entrepreneurial teams, the relationship between team composition and, particularly, team diversity and performance remains fertile ground for active debate. Taking roots in the knowledge-based view and organizational learning literatures, this chapter argues that performance in entrepreneurial teams is contingent on (a) the overlap between team members’ knowledge/competences and the content of the performed tasks, (b) the duplication of the team members’ knowledge in the areas with that content, (c) the nature of tasks (exploration or exploitation), (d) the team’s flexibility to adapt to changes in the content and nature of those tasks, and (e) the rate of environmental change. Because an important source of ambiguity in the understanding of how team diversity and performance are linked ties to issues of how team diversity is conceptualized and operationalized, the chapter also proposes a new way of looking at diversity in future research.
Institutions and the Embedded Entrepreneur
Authors: Feldman Maryann , Clayton Paige
Published: August 2019

This chapter examines the relationship between entrepreneurs and the communities in which they are embedded. It argues that the actions of entrepreneurs and their firms are contextually situated in specific geographies that make their actions endogenous in the development of place and define a place-specific institutional logic. This argument is at odds with the view that industry clustering is due to the role of incumbent firms. This chapter reconciles these views by adopting a temporal view, allowing both incumbents and geography to co-occur and influence clustering. It then considers the current evidence of entrepreneurs’ effects on regional resources and capacity, and concludes with suggestions for future research.
The Feminine Origins of American Literary Realism
Authors: Forster Sophia
Published: August 2019

This chapter describes American literary realism as emerging from the efforts of a group of early postbellum women writers—Elizabeth Stoddard, Rebecca Harding Davis, Louisa May Alcott, and Elizabeth Stuart Phelps—to access the newly minted American high literary culture exemplified by the work of Nathaniel Hawthorne. The origins of realism, these writers’ texts show, lie in intertextuality. They not only revise their own and one another’s work to excise the vestiges of the popular feminine tradition of domestic sentimentalism, but they also rework Hawthorne’s canonical gothic plots and imagery in the context of a shift in literary tastes away from the romance and toward an aesthetic that values the contemporary and the everyday. Their adaptation of the Hawthornean gothic to address the patriarchal and capitalist foundations of social life yields the earliest version of American literary realism as a mode of structural social critique.
Spaces of Consumption in American Literary Realism
Authors: Totten Gary
Published: August 2019

This chapter discusses how consumer culture affects the depiction and meaning of the natural world in the work of American realist writers. These writers illuminate the relationship between natural environments and the social expectations of consumer culture and reveal how such expectations transform natural space into what Henri Lefebvre terms “social space” implicated in the processes and power dynamics of production and consumption. The representation of nature as social space in realist works demonstrates the range of consequences such space holds for characters. Such space can both empower and oppress individuals, and rejecting or embracing it can deepen moral resolve, prompt a crisis of self, or result in one’s death. Characters’ attempts to escape social space and consumer culture also provide readers with new strategies for coping with their effects.
Realism and the New Woman
Authors: Petty Leslie
Published: August 2019

This chapter discusses how the changing social and political landscape in late nineteenth-century America led to the figure of the New Woman and, specifically, how realist writers responded to the contemporary debate about gender exemplified by this new ideal. In the early nineteenth century, the True Woman ideal dictated gender norms of middle-class propriety, but because of the efforts of women’s rights activists—and in part because of the changes wrought by the Civil War—women gained more access to education, work, and the political arena via the suffrage movement. Widely read white novelists did not necessarily depict more politically engaged, professional women because of these changes, but they did explore the dehumanization and tragedy that attended conventional marriages. African American writers explored the role of women of color within the racial uplift movement as well as the women’s rights movement, revising the New Woman ideal to account for their black identity.
Realism and Medicine
Authors: Barrish Phillip
Published: August 2019

Exploring the relationship between literature and medicine, this chapter analyzes how three novels from the American realist period—Henry James’s Washington Square (1880), Sarah Orne Jewett’s A Country Doctor (1884), and Charles Chesnutt’s The Marrow of Tradition (1901)—represent the medical profession during its rise to what Paul Starr has called “professional sovereignty” in the United States. Although today we may take medicine’s elite status in our society for granted, together these novels reveal that its turn-of-the-century consolidation as a profession in which society would ultimately invest unique forms of authority and prestige was anything but uncontested. Through the fictions they created, realist writers offered nuanced critical perspectives on the modes through which medicine asserted its sovereignty and also probed underlying gendered and racial tensions, even violence, that the profession’s own self-representations sought to occlude.
Introduction
Authors: Newlin Keith
Published: August 2019

The Oxford Handbook of American Literary Realism offers thirty-five original chapters with fresh interpretations of the artistic and political challenges of representing life accurately. Organized by topic and theme, the chapters draw on recent scholarship in literary and cultural studies to offer an authoritative and in-depth reassessment of major and minor figures and the contexts that shaped their work. One set of chapters explores realism’s genesis and its connection to previous and subsequent movements. Others examine the inclusiveness of representation, the circulation of texts, and the aesthetic representation of science, time, space, and the subjects of medicine, the New Woman, and the middle class. Still others trace the connection to other arts—poetry, drama, illustration, photography, painting, and film—and to pedagogical issues in the teaching of realism.