bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A Customized Area Waste Management Field Manual for E&P Operations
Authors: Gallaher D. L. , Stene E. E.
Published: December 2007

Inaccurate or improper characterization, labeling, transportation, or disposal of wastes produced by E&P operations can result in both personal and corporate liability. Operations can increase their chances of successfully managing waste, and reducing potential liability, by providing proper and complete information in a useable format to those responsible for handling wastes. A locally-modifiable Waste Management Field Manual is one key to ensuring proper waste management.
Natural Gas Industry Waste Production and Management Practices
Authors: Fillo John P. , Evans James M.
Published: December 2007

The natural gas industry (NGI) is comprised of operations required to provide clean, pipeline-quality gas to its consumers, from gas exploration and production through distribution. These operations produce waters and wastes that must be managed in accordance with applicable federal and state regulations.

The objectives of this work were to develop representative profiles of the sources, types, quantities, and management of wastes generated by the NGI. This information was essential to the development and focus of several GRI research programs and for use by the NGI to assess their individual waste management/minimization programs. To accomplish this, data were gathered directly from over three dozen operating facilities in 11 states nationwide. These data included facility operations information, waste sources and types, waste volumes, and on- and off-site management practices (i.e., storage, treatment, transportation, and disposal, including waste minimization). Wastes were classified into categories to facilitate data analysis. Facility-specific waste source and generation rates were combined with nationwide industry statistics to estimate nationwide generation rates for the various waste categories.

This paper will describe the basis for the work, and will present profiles developed for the sources and types of waste, waste volumes, and waste management practices. The discussion of waste management practices and their preferential use throughout the NGI will also illustrate the systematic use of waste minimization practices for the management of wastes by the NGI.
A Reservoir Study of the Hawkins Woodbine Field
Authors: King R. L. , Stiles J. H. , Waggoner J. M.
Published: December 2007

In-depth studies of the prolific Hawkins Woodbine Reservoir have revealed the need for unitization and pressure maintenance with gas. Observed recovery efficiency is over 80% by gas cap drive with gravity drainage whereas recovery is less than 50% at breakthrough in water-invaded areas. Repressuring by injection of over 100 MMcf/day of gas should increase recovery by more than 150million barrels of oil, including substantial oil lost by migration into the original gas cap, and will extend peak productivity of the field by at least 3productivity of the field by at least 3 years.

Prior to unitization, an interim Prior to unitization, an interim program is being implemented to stop oil program is being implemented to stop oil migration into gas sands in areas of the field having strong water influx. This interim program consisting of an oil production rate increase of 25,000 barrelsper scheduled day, production of an additional 10,000 barrels per day of saltwater, and gas injection of 20,000 Mcf per day will stabilize gas-oil contacts in loss areas for 3 to 5 years.

A team of engineers and geologists studied fluid contact movement using neutron logs and well test data and analyzed past and future reservoir behavior. These studies revealed that an underlying asphalt layer has caused the western part of the field to exhibit an unusual production performance. This part of the field performance. This part of the field initially produced by gas expansion but subsequent reservoir pressure decline has caused substantial water influx through the thinner asphalt in the north. This directional water drive caused oil to migrate into the original gas cap on the north. In order to maximize recovery and permanently stop migration, along-range program of gas injection under unitized operations will be required.
NORM Associated with Produced Water Discharges
Authors: Hart Alan D. , Graham Bruce D. , Gettleson David A.
Published: December 2007

Naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORM) in produced water have been raised as an environmental issue. NORM is a difficult regulatory problem because relatively little information is available about the fate of radioisotopes in produced water discharges for offshore platforms, and reliable data on bioaccumulation of radium isotopes by marine animals are lacking. Concern over the potential bioaccumulation and bioavailability of NORM in indigenous populations of marine organisms living in the vicinities of offshore platforms has necessitated a careful examination of NORM concentrations in produced water and the offshore marine environment from environmental and human-health (human consumption) perspectives.

Nine offshore oil and gas facilities were sampled to investigate the fate and environmental effects of NORM in produced water discharged into the northwestern Gulf of Mexico. Field data collection occurred during Spring/Summer 1993., Samples of produced water and bivalve mollusks living on the platforms were collected at the offshore platforms. Receiving water and sediment samples were collected at four platforms. In addition, water and sediment samples were collected at four ambient (background) reference sites in the northwestern Gulf of Mexico. All samples were analyzed for the isotopes 226Ra, Ra, and 210Pb. The data are presented with preliminary interpretation.
Field Testing Results for the R-BTEX™ Process for Controlling Glycol Dehydrator Emissions
Authors: Gamez J. P. , Rueter C. O. , Beitler C. M.
Published: December 2007

Increasing regulatory pressure has made emissions of benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylenes (collectively known as BTEX) and total volatile organic compounds (VOC) from glycol dehydration units a major concern for the natural gas industry since there are over 40,000 of these units in operation. The Clean Air Act Amendments (CAAA) of 1990 have been the impetus for air toxics regulations, and the Maximum Achievable Control Technology (MACT) standards for the oil and gas industry will be proposed in June, 1995, and will include glycol dehydrators. In addition, several states are regulating or considering regulation of these units.

The most common control systems that have been applied to glycol dehydrators are combustion or condensation systems. Combustion systems suffer from high operating costs since they do not recover the hydrocarbon for sale and require supplemental fuel. Many of the condensation systems may not achieve sufficiently low condenser temperatures to meet regulatory control limits. The R-BTEX™ process addresses this shortcoming by recovering the steam from the glycol dehydrator and converting it to cooling water; this allows R-BTEX to achieve the lowest condenser temperature possible without refrigeration.

The Gas Research Institute (GRI) is conducting a field test program to demonstrate the process under a variety of conditions. Under this program, testing has been completed at one site in south Texas and at another site in western Colorado. Startup of a third unit at a Gulf Coast site in Texas should occur in late 1994. This paper presents the testing results for the first two sites and includes a side-by-side comparison of the R-BTEX process with other available control technologies.
In Situ Bioremediation of a Former Natural Gas Dehydrator Site Using Bioventing/Biosparging
Authors: Shamory Brett D. , Lawrence Alonzo Wm. , Miller Daniel L. , Miller Jeffrey A. , Weightman Robin L. , Raetz Richard M. , Hayes Thomas D.
Published: December 2007

The Gas Research Institute (GRI) is conducting a research program on site remediation and residuals management for natural gas exploration and production (E&P) activities. Biological processes are considered to be a key component of the GRI remedial strategy since most of the chemicals- of-interest in soils and groundwater at E&P sites have been reported to be biodegradable.

A bioventing/biosparging field demonstration was conducted over a ten month period at a former glycol dehydrator site, located near Traverse City, Michigan. The chemicals-of-interest at this site were benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylenes; and alkanes (primarily C4 through C10). The goal of the project was to determine the feasibility of using this technology for dehydrator site remediation and to develop engineering basis of design concepts for applying bioventing/biosparging at other similar sites.

Operation, sampling and analysis, and field monitoring plans were developed. Three different air sparging operational modes (pulsed, continuous, and offgas recycle) were tested to determine the optimum process configuration for site remediation. Introduction of gaseous phase nutrients, nitrous oxide and triethyl phosphate, to stimulate the rates of biodegradation was also evaluated. Operational mode performance was evaluated by conducting in situ respirometry studies. Depletion of oxygen and hydrocarbons and production of carbon dioxide were used to calculated biodegradation rates in the vadose and saturated zones. The mass of hydrocarbons biologically degraded was estimated based on these biokinetic rates. In addition, biodegradation was also estimated based on contaminant removal shown by analytical sampling of soil and groundwater and based on other losses attributed to pump and treat and soil vapor extraction systems. Results of the analytical- and respirometry-based mass balances are compared. In addition, an engineering evaluation of the operating modes is presented.

The results of this study suggest that bioventing/ biosparging is a feasible technology for in situ remediation of soil and groundwater at gas industry glycol dehydrator sites and that the pulsed operating mode may have an advantage over the other modes.
Government Agencies and Industry Working Together for a Safe and Economical U.I.C. Program
Authors: Barker Newell K. , Sanborn Kent W.
Published: December 2007

The Osage UIC Program was developed to address and regulate injection wells in Osage County, Oklahoma. It was initiated to protect the environment according to the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) but was tailored to allow operators to continue using injection wells with a minimum amount of additional compliance with the new law. This meant that costly repairs or modifications to the wells were avoided in most cases. In addition, various methods have been developed to further fulfill the regulatory requirements with cost savings in mind.

Newly permitted wells have also experienced positive changes to make pressure and volume modification requests possible, and to make other permit changes faster and more efficient. The allowance of modifications to permits has increased oil production without compromising the environment.
Computerized Fluid Movement Mapping and 3-D Visualization
Authors: Al-Awami A. A. , Poore J. W. , Sizer J. P.
Published: December 2007

Most of the fieldwide fluid movement monitoring techniques under utilize available computer resources. This paper discusses an approach reservoir management engineers use to monitor fluid movement in reservoirs with a multitude of wells. This approach allows the engineer to maintain up-to-date fluid movement studies and incorporate the latest information from data acquisition programs into the day to day decision-making process.

The approach uses several in-house database applications and makes extensive use of commercially available software products to generate and visualize cross-sections, maps, and 3-D models.

This paper reviews the computerized procedures to create cross-sections that display the current fluid contacts overlaying the lithology. It also reviews the mapping procedures and presents examples of water encroachment maps by layer at specific time periods.

3-D geologic modeling software greatly enhances the visualization of the reservoir. This software can also be used to interpret and model fluid movement, given the appropriate engineering constraints.
Coiled Tubing Completions: An Economic Discussion of Procedures
Authors: Courville Perry W. , Clark Thomas R.
Published: December 2007

The introduction of 2- to 3 1/2-in. coiled tubing (CT) sizes provides economical alternative completion opportunities for both new and existing wells. Smaller diameters of CT can also be incorporated into completion designs on existing tubular completions for rigless workovers. This paper will discuss the evaluation method for CT completions in relatively low bottom-hole pressure wells in a non-hostile environment. It will concentrate on two major methods of artificial lift: (1) the use of electric submersible pumps (ESPs) on new wells or (2) the use of gas lift methods to extend the production life of existing wells.
Controls on Porosity Evolution in Thamama Group Carbonate Reservoirs in Abu Dhabi, U.A.E.
Authors: OSWALD E. J. , MUELLER H. W. , GOFF D. F. , AL-HABSHI HASSAN
Published: December 2007

The multiple Lower Cretaceous carbonate reservoirs found throughout Abu Dhabi display pronounced lateral heterogeneities in porosity, permeability, and reservoir thickness. Generally, these variables decrease away from the crests of producing anticlines. Detailed study of the Kharaib Fm. in one of these fields has found that pressure solution along stylolites, with concurrent local reprecipitation of calcite cements, is the major process by which reservoir quality has been degraded. Lateral variations in reservoir quality are largely controlled by stylolite frequency and intensity. No significant variations in depositional facies accompany this change.

The lateral homogeneity of the pre-stylolitized reservoirs and lack of significant post-stylolitization modification of porosity leads to a striking correlation between porosity and reservoir thickness. These relationships can be accounted for using a "closed-system" chemical compaction model wherein all material dissolved at the stylolite is locally reprecipitated.

Marked discontinuities in plots of subsea depth versus porosity and reservoir thickness suggests that differences in pore fluids during burial controlled the degree of chemical compaction, with stylolites preferentially forming in the water leg and inhibited in the oil leg. This discontinuity is more pronounced when subsea sections are re-datummed on the Halul Fm., and is interpreted to reflect a Santonian-age "paleo" oil-water contact (OWC). Stylolite-degraded porosity in the oil leg of the northern part of the field can be explained by later southward tilting of the reservoirs during the Campanian. Migration of hydrocarbons prior to stylolitization is consistent with calculated thermal histories for the field, and suggests the bulk of stylolitization commenced after 2000 ft of burial at temperatures of approximately 150°F.

Delineating the "paleo" OWC allows for improved prediction of porosity and permeability, and accounts for almost all of the observed variation in reservoir quality.
Pre-Khuff (Silurian-Lower Permian) Sedimentation in the ‘A’ Structure, Offshore Abu Dhabi
Authors: Hassan T. H. , Al Dabal M. A. , El-Said M. E.
Published: December 2007

The objective of this paper is to describe the stratigraphy and sedimentation of the Pre-Khuff Formations in offshore Abu Dhabi. The thickest penetrated section ranges in age from early Permian to late Silurian. Todate, only one paper has been published on the Pre-Khuff in this area. The recent deep well drilled in ‘A’ structure in offshore Abu Dhabi has proved the occurrence of one major unconformity in the Pre-Khuff: the Hercynian unconformity underlain by the early Carboniferous?/Devonian clastic sequence. Another unconformity may occur at the top of the Silurian.

The Lower Permian sequence is characterised by an interbedding of grey to brown, medium to coarse-grained, well rounded, argillaceous, cross bedded sandstone, silty sandstone, brown to grey pyritic argillaceous sandstone and brown shale, brown to grey, occasionally silty with plant debris. The interpreted Lower Permian is of fluvial origin.

The Upper Carboniferous is made up of thick bedded sandstone, fine to medium-grained with subordinate siltstone and shale. The upper Carboniferous is also interpreted to be of fluvial origin with the sandstones, representing sand-filled channels and the siltstones and shales are the overbank deposits.

The lower Carboniferous ?and upper Devonian consists dominantly of fine to very fine-grained sandstone with very minor siltstone and claystone/shale and is interpreted to be largely of deltaic origin.

The Devonian (upper to middle) is made up of an interbedding of sandstone, siltstone, shale and claystone The Devonian was probably deposited in a marine sub-littoral environment

The Silurian is not fully penetrated in the deep well and consists mainly of shales, claystones, siltstones with minor thin bedded sandstones. The Silurian is of open marine origin.
Gas Injection in the Safah Field, Oman
Authors: Chen Hsiu-Kuo
Published: December 2007

The Safah field contains 640 million barrels of oil-in-place and 62 billion cubic feet of gas cap. The field is divided into East and West lobes. The East lobe is subdivided into Northeast and Southeast lobes based on PVT properties. The Northeast lobe contains saturated oil with gas cap and the Southeast lobe has undersaturated oil. To arrest reservoir pressure decline and to improve oil recovery, two associated gas injection projects are currently underway in the East lobe. There is a gas cap injection in the Northeast lobe and a down-dip pattern gas injection in the Southeast lobe. Results to date are very encouraging with gas injection contributing about 13 % of field oil production in September 1994. For that month, the field oil production was 34,200 B/p. Total incremental oil through September 1994 is 4.38 million barrels. Comparison of the incremental oil between the gas cap and the oil leg injection indicates that (1) the response is faster for gas injection into the oil leg, and (2) the benefit of gas injection in the oil leg of the Southeast lobe is greater than that of the gas injection into the gas cap in the Northeast lobe.
3D Visualization of Waterflood Sweep, Petrophysical & Lithologic Data for Reservoir Management
Authors: Dudenas P. J. , Cole J. C. , Esmail W. J. , Dunlap C. P.
Published: December 2007

A large Jurasic Middle Eastern oil field is currently undergoing peripheral waterflooding. The flood front advance from down-dip water injection in often irregular. To ensure efficient reservoir management, it is important that flood front and other aspects of the fluid distribution be monitored and modeled as accurately as possible, in conjunction with available geological data.

Sweep efficiency is routinely evaluated through the use of pulsed neutron and production logs. This data, in addition to all other production data, is used for reservoir management purposes in determining performance for individual wells and for the total field. Traditional 2D images of vertical and areal sweep data often underestimate the complexity of the actual fluid distribution in the reservoir. New workstation-based modeling technology now allows these data to be visualized interactively in 3D, allowing for a much faster and more detailed evaluation of the displacement process.

We incorporated engineering and geological data in the form of sweep efficiency, petrophysical and lithologic data, into a 3D model. The ability to visualize the current and incremental sweep data, along with geological parameters, provides a better understanding of how the flood front is advancing. Factors important in controlling the advance of the front can quickly be brought into focus. In addition, the model can easily be updated with new data.

In this paper, we have shown how the 3D model has helped to improve the areal and vertical conformance through better areal distribution and flow profile control. Results from the model have helped in optimizing development well locations in areas where the flood front is lagging. This integrated 3D model provides a valuable tool for everyday reservoir management activities.
Use of Stochastic Characterization to Select Horizontal Well Trajectories in a Heterogeneous Carbonate Reservoir
Authors: AlHanai W. T. , AlMahdi A. M. , Deeb M. A.
Published: December 2007

Reservoir characterization by stochastic methods allows to deal with complex spatial facies distributions and provide predictions of reservoir internal architecture between wells. Here, a stochastic description is developed for a carbonate reservoir that possesses a complex internal architecture with Significant variations in reservoir properties and random facies spatial distribution. The stochastic characterization starts with conditional simulation of the spatial distribution of the reservoir facies and lithologies followed by estimation of the properties, constrained to the simulated facies geometry. Validation of the realizations is obtained through the information gathered from new wells. The generated stochastic realization is used to define the optimum trajectories of the planned horizontal wells.
Application of Polymeric Damage Removal Treatment Results in Multi-Fold Well Productivity Improvement: A Case Study
Authors: Brannon Harold D. , Tjon-Joe-Pin Robert M.
Published: December 2007

Well productivity can be significantly reduced by permeability damage. The damage in many cases is due to inadequate degradation of gelled treating fluids and the residual polymeric filter cakes on the formation face. Several methods have previously been employed to remove polymeric damage in an effort to increase well productivity with limited success.

Polymer specific enzymes have been incorporated into a newly developed technique to facilitate removal of polymeric damage. The new remedial treatment is environmentally safe and can be applied over a wide pH range and at temperatures as high as 300°F. Laboratory analysis using the new system has shown that multi-fold permeability improvements can be achieved through polymeric damage removal.

A case study of several wells suffering from polymeric damage was conducted. Production histories and return flow analysis were evaluated to characterize the damage and guide the remedial treatment design. Several wells treated with the polymeric damage removal treatment demonstrate multi-fold improvements in well productivity.
Fateh Field Production Facility Reconfiguration Project
Authors: Dorcheus S. M. , Landis S. R. , Robertson C. A.
Published: December 2007

Modification of the Dubai Petroleum Co. (DPC) Fateh Field central production facility has reduced wellhead pressures about 10% field-wide, resulting in increased oil production and incremental reserve addition. The facility reconfiguration has reduced operating and maintenance problems experienced with separators and inlet piping, while improving oil recovery.

A key challenge of the Reconfiguration Project was to devise a separation scheme which redistributed fluid between vessels, and an installation method which utilized existing equipment to the greatest extent possible, eliminated downtime during facility modifications, and minimized investment.

Several reconfiguration options were identified and evaluated. The evaluation combined computer simulation results of surface gathering and separation facilities with modelling efforts of the primary Fateh reservoirs. The preferred reconfiguration option was justified on the basis of increased oil uplift associated with the wellhead pressure reduction. The project was successfully completed in mid-January 1994.

This paper describes methods used to evaluate the identified options, project planning, and project implementation. Predicted and actual results are given, and key project execution steps are described.
Multi-Phase Flow Metering Using Dissimilar Flow Sensors: Theory and Field Trial Results
Authors: Mehdizadeh Parviz
Published: December 2007

This paper addresses a new approach to multi-phase flow metering. The Multi-Phase Flow Meter (MPFM) described combines dissimilar flow sensors to measure the flow rates of the gas and liquid components plus a microwave water content monitor to determine the oil and water fractions. A brief review of the alternate technologies and approaches to multiphase metering is included as a basis for explanation of the design choices in this meter. The predicted performance of the meter is compared against field tests that were conducted to assess the performance of the meter. These tests covered a wide range of fluid properties, gas void fractions up to 97%, 0–100% water cut, and various installation geometries. The field tests support the predicted overall accuracy of ±10% of the reading ( ± 2% of the full scale) for liquids and ± 10% of the reading (± 5% of the full scale) for the gas components of the flow.
Fundamental Concepts and Potential Applications of the Windowing Technique in Reservoir Simulation
Authors: Deimbacher F. X. , Komlosi Franz , Heinemann Z. E.
Published: December 2007

The term "windowing technique" means time-dependent replacement of grids and parameters during a simulation run. The window is a confined area within the block model and it contains an other grid than the surrounding basic grid. The basic grid is Cartesian, while the grids inside windows can be Cartesian but with a different spacing, or 2D or 3D irregular grids. A window may also contain a different parameterization of the same basic grid.

The basic Cartesian block model and the windows are independent entities. A well-defined relation between windows and basic grid permits the exchange of the grids during the run. Dual timestepping allows the use of large global timesteps outside windows and other (usually smaller) timesteps inside windows. Effective parallel processing of the windows is also possible.

Potential applications of windows are well test simulation models embedded in coarse grids, modeling of arbitrary-direction horizontal wells, different realizations of stochastic modeling, effective parameter updating during the life of a model, etc.
Upscaling of the Waterflood Reservoir Properties on the Core Level: Laboratory Study, Macro and Micro Modelling
Authors: Bedrikovetsky P. G. , Potsch K. T. , Polyanin A. D. , Zhurov A. I.
Published: December 2007

The aim of the paper is to develop a mathematical model for waterflooding at high velocities in short cores under laboratory conditions. The model is based on the theory of non-equilibrium two-phase flow in a porous medium. The asymptotic solution includes the capillary pressure and non-equilibrium effects. It allows for determining an expression for the stabilized zone, which leads to an optimal core length and an optimal displacement velocity. With these parameters it is possible to plan waterflooding tests for determining the relative phase permeabilities with a given accuracy.
Water Coning and Critical Rates in Vertical and Horizontal Wells
Authors: Menouar H. K. , Hakim A. A.
Published: December 2007

Producing oil at a water cut higher than necessary has always been a preoccupation for practising engineers. The existence of a critical rate above which excessive water production occurs has been mentioned earlier in Muskat’s work on bottom water drive and in Dietz’s paper on edge water drive. Since these pioneer studies, numerous papers have been published on critical rate. Some of these studies were based on laboratory experiments, others were based on analytical derivations; both approaches have limitations. In this study, a simple and accurate method to calculate the critical rate is presented. This method can be implemented either by numerically solving the equations of flow or by directly using a numerical simulator. The calculations are consistent with the present literature. However, there is disagreement with existing literature in at least two instances.

For horizontal wells, most of the studies present the critical rate as an increasing function of the anisotropy ratio. The present study shows that this is true only for 0.5 < a < 1. In fact, for 0.01 < a < 0.1, critical rate is a strongly decreasing function of anisotropy ratio. This is not a mere theoretical case. Many reservoirs with discontinuous thin silt barriers are believed to display very low anisotropy ratios.

Most of the studies describe the vertical well critical rate as a decreasing function of the anisotropy ratio, opposite in behavior to horizontal wells. Although the present study agrees with the general trend, it shows that there is in fact a harmonious continuity between vertical and horizontal wells and short horizontal wells display a behavior in between.

Other results of this study present relations in dimensionless form that describe the effect of anisotropy ratio, horizontal well lengths, well penetration and reservoir geometry on critical rates.
A Laboratory Study of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Relaxation and its Relation to Depositional Texture and Petrophysical Properties — Carbonate Thamama Group, Mubarraz Field, Abu Dhabi
Authors: Kenyon W. E. , Takezaki H. , Straley C. , Sen P. N. , Herron M. , Matteson A. , Petricola M. J.
Published: December 2007

We performed laboratory measurements to deter= mine whether NMR logging would improve log evaluation of the Mubarraz Field. The Mubarraz Field is a carbonate field in offshore Abu Dhabi, that produces from the Cretaceous Thamama Group.

Existing log evaluation using classical logs has some shortcomings. Some zones that are not highly resistive actually produce water-free oil. This is because Mubarraz samples often have a large amount of mi-croporosity. The microporosity occurs because samples are highly micritized, and grain-sized particles are generally peloidal with internal microporosity. The microporosity holds a large volume of capillary-bound water, which results in low resistivities in zones that still have producible oil in large pores. An additional evaluation problem is that permeability varies widely while porosity remains almost constant. As a result, permeability vs. porosity correlations are less valuable than normal.

In laboratory measurements on Mubarraz samples, we found that NMR relaxation measurements can provide: good estimation of the capillary-bound water volume at an air/water capillary pressure of 25 psi, using a cutoff on NMR T2 relaxation time of 190 ms.good identification of the grainstones as opposed to the lower-permeability textures (packstone … mudstone) with a T2 threshold of about 225 milliseconds.estimates of permeability that are significantly better than can be obtained from porosity alone.

NMR relaxation measurements contain information about the pore size distribution, and it is this information that permits estimation of production-governing parameters. The estimators are based on parameters that can be obtained from continuous NMR logging.

We compared NMR measurements with a synthesis of laboratory measurements that characterize micro-geometry. The synthesis is based on modeling wackestones as packed near-spherical particles of equal size. Values computed from this model for permeability, surface area and mercury injection agree with measured values. This model is a useful starting point for more complex models.

We also observed that lower values of cementation exponent m were associated with higher dolomitexalcite ratios and shorter NMR relaxation time T2. The variations in m are large enough to affect interpretation of water saturation from resistivity logs. We tentatively ascribe these associations to the presence or absence of dolomite rhombs which fill solution pores. Solution pores are generally accompanied by high cementation exponents. When they are large, solution pores exhibit NMR relaxation times that are large. Their long relaxation times make interpretation of NMR logs more difficult, because they are indistinguishable from the long relaxation times of intergranular pores that are associated with high permeability.
Estimating The Full Costs Of Oil And Gas Production
Authors: Stauffer T.R.
Published: December 2007

T.R. Stauffer

SPE Member

Methods for calculating the full-cycle, economic costs of new oil production are compared and tested for accuracy. The method pioneered by M.A. Adelman is generalized and shown to be accurate over a wide range of conditions.

The estimated "costs" are most accurate where reliable data on reserves are available, but useful results are still obtainable as long as the reservoir decline rates can be approximately determined. Even where data on expenditures in the given area are not published, synthetic costs can still be estimated by extrapolation as long as the drilling data are believed to be reliable.

The methodology is illustrated for the case of the PDO concessions in Oman.

Introduction

This analysis develops and tests a method for calculating the economic costs of incremental oil or gas production. It can be used most readily where data on the expenditures is available - as for the Canadian provinces or regions of the U.S. - or for companies which file reports consistent with GAAP. Even more usefully, it also can be applied to areas such as the former USSR, where data on production and drilling are published and reasonably reliable, but where the expenditure data are quite worthless.

The most frequent reporting of "costs" data is not generally useful. The usual data are "expenditure costs", i.e. the outlays in a given year are divided by the gross reserves added in that year. This measure of "cost", even when arithmetically accurate, is conceptually flawed:–It does not incorporate the time cost of money, since the reserves added would be produced over an extended period.–The "cost" commingles outlays for current development with those for longer-term exploration programs.

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Practical Requirements for Sand Production Implementation in Heavy Oil Applications
Authors: Dusseault M. B. , Geilikman M. B. , Roggensack W. D.
Published: December 2007

Cold production as a new primary production process can be used successfully in heavy oil unconsolidated sandstones. Ideal reservoirs are 5–15 m thick uncemented sands with high saturations of <20°API oils with gas in solution without free water or gas zones. However, application of Cold Production to many other cases in other parts of the world imust be investigated. Strategies to initiate sand production involve aggresive perforation and swabbing measures. Keeping sand production stable after initiation requires pumps to cope with large initial sand ratios in a foamy oil form for several weeks, and smaller amounts of sand and foamy fluid continuously for many months. Restoring stable sand production after blockage is currently an "art", and various workover methods are used: better controlled work-over approaches and new technologies are needed. Sand and "gorp" separation from oil at surface is necessary, economic and environmentally sound disposal of these materials probably involves re-injection into depleted reservoirs.
Discussion on The New Technology of Plugging in Termal Recovery
Authors: Shenghou He , Yongming Li
Published: December 2007

The energy produced by steam injected to bottom-hole can generate ultrasonic wave through ultrasonic generator connected at the bottom of the steam injection tubing string, which induces bottom-hole oil-water mixture to form supermicro emulsion. With continuous steam injection, the emulsion accmulates toward high permeable zone. Thus steam injection profile has been improved and steam overlap overcome. Good results have been obtained in lab experiments and field application in Le An Oilfield by using this technology. This paper presents the study and application of this technology and other effective technology for plugging in Le An oilfield.
Optimizing Steamflood Performance Utilizing a New and Highly Accurate Two Phase Steam Measurement System
Authors: Huff B. D. , Warren P. B. , Whorff Fred
Published: December 2007

A new highly accurate steam measurement system has been developed for the measurement of steam quality and flow rate. This system consists of a "V" cone (differential pressure device) and a vortex meter (velocity device) in series, along with temperature and pressure sensors all interfacing with an electronic datalogger. These basic mechanical meters are both rugged and relatively inexpensive for field monitoring purposes. Tests performed in active steam drive projects prove the viability of this system. As a result, every injector in our Coalinga field (around 100 steam injectors) have been economically justified for utilizing this new technology, Ever since the application of steam for commercial EOR operations, the petroleum industry has been searching for a method to determine both steam quality and flow rate for monitoring, analyzing and optimizing steam drive projects. This paper presents an overview of the new system, the background and development work that has been completed to date, and the reservoir analysis and economic justification required to implement this project.
Permanent Instrumentation for Production Optimization and Reservoir Management
Authors: Chalaturnyk Rick , Moffatt Terry
Published: December 2007

The application of existing pressure measurement technology in an Innovative, cost effective manner provides an opportunity to obtain producing bottomhole pressure and temperature over the life of a well - without impacting the producing environment of the well. Utilizing an engineered housing design, pressure sensors are installed on the outside of production casing with special pressure ports providing access to internal and/or external pressures, A brief description of this innovative technology is provided along with comparisons to existing techniques for bottomhole pressure measurement. The application of permanent systems in vertical, slant and horizontal wells is discussed for primary, EOR and thermal recovery processes. Field results for slant and horizontal well installations are presented and discussed. Bottomhole pressure measurements of the cementing process for horizontal wells show that classic assumptions regarding hydraulic isolation may need reassessment. The role of permanent bottomhole pressure/temperature installations for production optimization and reservoir management is reviewed and discussed. Considerable effort is currently being expended to provide effective pump control options for all pumping systems (progressing cavity system, ESP and rod pumps). Permanent installations provide an ideal solution to pump control: direct input of bottomhole pressures into variable frequency drives allows pump control based on the one variable upon which pump control should be based - bottomhole pressure.
Design of a Commercial SAGD Heavy Oil Project
Authors: Edmunds N. R. , Suggett J. C.
Published: December 2007

CS Resources is currently undertaking the construction of an 800 m3/day (5,000 bpd) thermal project near Senlac, Saskatchewan. The Senlac Thermal Project will use a steam assisted gravity drainage (SAGD) process to recover as much as 3.2 е6 m3 (20 mmbbl) of 13°API oil from a Dina channel sand.

This paper discusses some of the production and facility engineering issues arising in this full scale SAGD scheme. Compared to primary or conventional thermal operations, some of the unusual aspects are: very high injection and production rates from individual wells; the need to manage the large amount of heat in the production stream; and a pronounced interdependence between the various project components. Reservoir description, production forecasting, and facility optimization are briefly discussed.
COSH Performance and Economic Predictions for Six Field Types in Western Canada
Authors: Lau E. C. , Good W. K. , Kanakia V.
Published: December 2007

The COSH Process (COSH is the acronym of Combustion Override Split-production Horizontal-well) was conceived based on experience gained from a number of successful gravity drainage processes and the less fortunate fireflood process. Typical combustion operational problems such as early oxygen breakthrough, severe sanding and gas locking of downhole pumps are minimized by using an innovative well arrangement to segregate and control the fluid flows. This process is perceived to work very well in a wide variety of reservoirs, ranging from oil sands to conventional bottom water reservoirs.

In February 1994, a joint ADOE/Industry COSH Process Development Task Force consisting of 18 industry, government and research member companies was formed to assess the commercial development potential of COSH in Western Canada. The performance and economics of six high potential field applications, including Athabasca McMurray tar sands, Provost McLaren channel sand, undeveloped Cold Lake Clearwater oil sands, Battrum Roseray, Bellshill Lake Blairmore sand and cyclic steam stimulated Cold Lake Clearwater oil sands, were studied. This paper compares the results of this study and outlines the major technical issues identified by the Task Force.
Representation of Steam Distillation and In-Situ Upgrading Processes in a Heavy Oil Simulation
Authors: Sharpe H. N. , Richardson W. C. , Lolley C. S.
Published: December 2007

This paper investigates the role of compositional processes during the steamflooding of a typical California heavy oil. In the past, compositional effects have usually been ignored in heavy oil steamflood thermal simulation studies. Results indicate that the coupled, nonlinear steam distillation/in-situ solvent generation process is capable of significantly reducing oil saturations upstream of the advancing condensation zone, under conditions representative of typical steamfloods. Very fine grid 1 -D and 2-D mechanistic simulation models are required to accurately resolve the relevant physics. An appropriate pseudo-component equation of state, tuned to laboratory data is also essential. A procedure for optimizing the steam distillation mechanism in mature steamfloods using a horizontal well is presented.
Extraction Enabling Technologies: Past Successes and Future Challenges
Authors: McDonell B. , Holmes G. , Mushey N. , Maciejewski W. , Oxenford J.
Published: December 2007

The process for extracting bitumen from oilsand has long been a major area for research and development work at Syncrude. Through this work, many new enabling technologies have been developed - the Tailings Oil Recovery (TOR) vessels, the Inclined Plate Settler (IPS), the Naphtha Recovery Unit (NRU), and the Clark Warm Water Extraction (CWWE) process are a few. These developments have resulted in improved naphtha and bitumen recovery, reduced energy costs and improved environmental performance.

This paper focuses on another enabling technology in the Extraction area - oilsand hydrotransport. This paper discusses the research and development activities since 1989 that have culminated in the construction and startup of the Extraction Auxiliary Production System (EAPS) in 1993.

Learnings from the operation and testing of EAPS have provided important data for the design of hydrotransport - based, bitumen - production systems. These learnings will also serve as a base for development of technology for application on remote lease(s). However, this is not the only new technology required for remote application. This paper will also focus on other new enabling technologies required for off-lease development.
Exploitation of Satellite Oil Pools-Examples from the Ivanhoe/Rob Roy and Fife Field Areas
Authors: Mackertich D. , Boldy S. A. R. , Norbury I.
Published: December 2007

Extended abstract for SPE 30353 Offshore Europe conference

In recent years in the U.K.C.S, small fields have been successfully exploited both as satellites to existing infrastructure and as standalone projects using floating production techniques. Amerada Hess Limited has pioneered this approach, particularly in two areas in the Central North Sea: Quadrant 15 around the Ivanhoe/Rob Roy and Scott fields and the Fife area in Quadrants 31/39. The former area is close to existing infrastructure and pipelines whilst the latter is over 30 Kms from the nearest facility.

The search for these small fields in the North Sea has been heralded by the widespread use of 3D seismic which has allowed the identification of much smaller prospective structures and more efficient targeting of exploration wells which may be suspended for use as development wells or later sidetracked for optimum reservoir development. The use of 3D seismic for exploration drilling became more common through the late 1980’s and early 1990’s. Such data-sets have helped to more accurately image small, often low relief structures and to optimise the location of exploration and appraisal wells which are often few in number in order to sustain viable economic margins.

In parallel with geophysical developments, advances in offshore engineering technology have helped to achieve lower capital expenditure so necessitating much smaller reserve sizes to make tie-backs economic.
Development Planning for the HPHT Erskine Field
Authors: Shivers R. M. , Brubaker J. P.
Published: December 2007

The Erskine Field will be the first High Pressure / High Temperature (HPHT)* field developed in the North Sea with first gas scheduled in October 19971. The field development concept is to drill six wells and install a Not Normally Manned Installation ( NNMI ) with multiphase export of produced fluids to the Lomond platform 30 km away.

Appraisal drilling demonstrated that Erskine was a marginal field. A multi - discipline, integrated project team was organized to identify the best option for field development. Joint development with a host platform was adopted to improve development economics through reduced capital expenditure resulting from use of existing infrastructure. Several potential host platforms were considered. A fundamental technical objective, driven by commercial considerations, was to design a low cost development option which would allow export of produced fluids over a long distance. The increased "capture radius" opened up several competitive commercial opportunities for joint development by increasing the number of potential host platforms and export systems that could be accessed. The technical design and commercial negotiation process resulted in the Amoco operated Lomond platform being selected as the preferred host.

The cost of the NNMI was reduced by adopting cantilever jackup drilling and multiphase export. The cost of the multiphase pipeline was significantly reduced by qualifying carbon steel instead of corrosion resistant alloy (CRA) pipe. A high temperature insulation system was required for the multiphase pipeline to minimize problems with wax deposition and hydrate formation. Pipeline insulation costs were optimized with respect to operating costs for hydrate inhibition on a full field life basis.
Efficient Measurement of Safety
Authors: Navestad Pal
Published: December 2007

Safety has traditionally been measured by using number of personell injuries as the major measure. This is a measure which do not cover the whole safety area. Criticality is defined as a total safety measure and the advantage of this measure is discussed.