bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Federal Criminal Procedure as a Model for the States
Authors: ISRAEL JEROLD
Published: March 2007

Although subject to significant restraints under federal law, states retain considerable leeway in shaping their criminal justice procedures. In their exercise of that authority, states are subject both to influences that push in the direction of individualistic innovation and to countervailing influences that push in the direction of emulating the reforms adopted in other jurisdictions. The end result is state laws of criminal procedure that vary in many respects from state to state but also reflect the significant influence of various “models.” Foremost among those models are the Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure and several federal statutes. Although these federal laws were adopted for a federal criminal justice system that in many ways is quite different from the typical state system, they have been replicated in basic structure and content by numerous states. Exactly why the states have chosen this path is uncertain, but the path is now so well traveled that any changes in the federal law of criminal procedure automatically take on a significance that extends far beyond a federal system that in itself handles only a minute portion of all criminal prosecutions.
A New Social Contract
Authors: RIFKIN JEREMY
Published: March 2007

We are in the early stages of a long-term shift from mass labor to highly skilled elite labor, accompanied by increasing automation in the production of goods and the delivery of services. Workerless factories and virtual companies loom on the horizon. While the emerging knowledge sector and new markets abroad will create some new jobs, these will be too few to absorb the millions of workers displaced by new technologies in the manufacturing and service sectors. Although unemployment is still relatively low, it can be expected to climb steadily and inexorably as the global economy catapults into the Information Age over the course of the next half century. Every nation will have to grapple with the question of what to do with the millions of people whose labor is needed less, or not at all, in an ever more automated global economy.
The Risk Management Dilemma
Authors: ZECKHAUSER RICHARD J. , VISCUSI W. KIP
Published: March 2007

Market processes play a central and constructive role in allocating risks, but impediments such as inaccurately perceived risks and externalities create a potential role for government intervention. Individuals overestimate small risks, are averse to imprecisely understood risks, and give excessive weight to errors of commission over errors of omission. The challenge for the government is to strike an appropriate balance in its risk regulation efforts and to avoid institutionalizing common irrational responses to risk. Excessive expenditures on risk reduction, often undertaken by or required by government, not only squander resources but also may increase risks to us all; they can divert expenditures that could have been used to enhance our standard of living and, directly or indirectly, our health. Risk equity concerns often prove problematic: they may direct excessive attention to unimportant risks and hinder efforts to deploy resources to produce the greatest gains in societal health status.
The ADA and Deaf Culture: Contrasting Precepts, Conflicting Results
Authors: TUCKER BONNIE POITRAS
Published: March 2007

Under the concept of Deaf culture, deafness is not a disability that needs to be fixed. Deaf culturists feel that society should not focus on a cure for deafness but should accept Deaf people as a cultural minority and respect their right to live as Deaf persons. Deaf culturists also insist, however, that deafness is a disabling condition that society should compensate for by providing special assistance to persons who cannot hear. Deaf culturists are therefore strong supporters of the Americans with Disabilities Act and other laws requiring the public and private sectors to make accommodations for persons with impaired hearing. This article examines the ramifications of those conflicting precepts.
NAFTA and Chiapas
Authors: RICH PAUL
Published: March 2007

Mexico is now plagued by guerrilla uprisings in its poorest states, the most theatrical and celebrated of which is that of the Zapatista National Liberation Army in Chiapas under the leadership of the enigmatic, pipe-smoking Subcomandante Marcos. The rebels have made the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) a focus of their fury and have cleverly used the Internet to air their complaints. While free trade certainly is contributing to the economic problems of the Mexican underclass, the depopulating of rural areas and growth of the cities is an almost inevitable trend that even the most dramatic gestures by Marcos and his followers are unlikely to postpone. NAFTA has become a scapegoat for the modernization of Mexico.
NGOs' Self-Defeating Quest for Autonomy
Authors: SANYAL BISHWAPRIYA
Published: March 2007

The current discussion about nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) rests on the key assumptions that (1) to be effective, NGOs must be autonomous of both state and market institutions, and (2) NGOs' autonomy is best protected and nurtured by avoiding institutional linkages with state and market institutions. This article demonstrates that the quest for autonomy hurts the NGOs' effectiveness instead of strengthening it, particularly in the case of NGOs engaged in poverty-alleviation efforts in developing countries. The article concludes by recommending that NGOs work closely with market and state institutions, cleverly crafting institutional strategies that would provide access to resources controlled by these dominant institutions without jeopardizing NGOs' ability to chart their own destiny.
NGOs, Donors, and the State in Bangladesh
Authors: LEWIS DAVID J.
Published: March 2007

This article examines nongovernmental organization (NGO) partnership issues in the light of a 1996 World Bank report that seeks to promote a greater level of partnership between government and NGOs. The first part of the article briefly reviews Bangladesh's now well-known NGO sector. The continuing status of independent Bangladesh as a major recipient of international aid has created an environment in which the growth of most private voluntary development agencies is directly linked with the provision of external resources. While the World Bank report urges closer cooperation between NGOs and government, it ignores the fact that many existing partnerships are often of a dependent character. The second part of this article presents a recent case study of NGO-government linkages in aquaculture. The purpose is to examine the realities of the current rhetoric of NGO-government partnership that are found to be driven primarily by resource priorities.
Newspaper Coverage of Kids' TV
Authors: ADAY SEAN
Published: March 2007

The issue of quality programming for children has occupied a prominent place on the policy agenda for the last several years. The study reported here examined newspaper coverage of this issue from the beginning of July 1995 to the end of February 1997. Using a multi-method design, the study explored the way in which a social issue can be accorded different statuses on the news agendas within a single newspaper. This contrasts with typical agenda-setting research, which assumes a single news agenda for a single media organ. Although the scope of the study did not allow for an assessment of the effects of this coverage on audiences or policymakers, it was able to examine how theories of news work and news production may explain differences in coverage within a newspaper. It also represents a comprehensive analysis of national newspaper coverage of a social issue concurrent with significant developments in policy, in this case, new federal guidelines for airing children's educational programming.
Individual and Cultural Reality Monitoring
Authors: JOHNSON MARCIA K.
Published: March 2007

What is the relationship between our perceptions, memories, knowledge, beliefs, and expectations, on one hand, and reality, on the other? Studies of individual cognition show that distortions may occur as a by-product of normal reality-monitoring processes. Characterizing the conditions that increase and decrease such distortions has implications for understanding, for example, the nature of autobiographical memory, the potential suggestibility of child and adult eyewitnesses, and recent controversies about the recovery of repressed memories. Confabulations and delusions associated with brain damage, along with data from neuroimaging studies, indicate that the frontal regions of the brain are critical in normal reality monitoring. The author argues that reality monitoring is fundamental not only to individual cognition but also to social/cultural cognition. Social/cultural reality monitoring depends on institutions, such as the press and the courts, that function as our cultural frontal lobes. Where does normal social/cultural error in reality monitoring end and social/cultural pathology begin?
The Tantalizing Concept of Productivity
Authors: Thorelli Hans B.
Published: March 2007

"Productivity" really means "productivities," according to Professor Thorelli of the University of Chicago Graduate School of Business, for organizations have multiple goals. Studying and adjusting the productivity of subordinate levels of organizations may be dangerous to total productivity. Measuring resource consumption or total input is difficult in dollar terms and more so in labor terms; management input in particular is elusive. "Effectiveness," "efficiency," and "profitability" must be distinguished from productivity. The greater the creative element in work, the more difficult measurement becomes. Yet, despite such grave problems of measurement, the elusive concept of productivity will be given an increasingly important role in research and policy de terminations.
Toward the Totality of Knowledge
Authors: Brody Alexander
Published: March 2007

Professor Brody of the City College of New York hammers away at the dur able obstacles that block integrated general knowledge and teaching in the social sciences. His aim: at least more objectivity in the social sciences and more relationism in the natural sciences, which need not be so unhumanistic.
Education for Urban Studies
Authors: Popenoe David
Published: March 2007

Graduate education in urban studies can make significant contributions toward strengthening urban research and extension. A new relationship between the academic person and the urban service professional is needed, as well as more interdisciplinary involvement of the research research worker and substantive changes in urban professional education.
Soviet Research Priorities: Excercises in Forecasting
Authors: Walsh Warren B.
Published: March 2007

This historical and case-study approach to the process of Soviet science concludes that the priorities of research are decided by political leaders after consultation with scientific advisors. The resulting policy directives do provide reliable clues to future research endeavors. Warren Walsh is chairman of the History Department at Syracuse.
Strangers in a Strange Land
Authors: MENDENHALL MARK E. , WILEY CAROLYN
Published: March 2007

This article explores the theoretical relationships between impression management and expatriate adjustment. Linkages are delineated and propositions are offered for future research testing. Finally, issues germane to practitioners are derived from the article, and suggestions are offered regarding the enhancement of cross-cultural training program design.
Occupational Training, Unions, and Internal Labor Markets
Authors: KNOKE DAVID , ISHIO YOSHITO
Published: March 2007

A large majority of U.S. establishments provide formal job training programs, according to the 1991 National Organizations Survey. Most training is directed at core employees (who produce the company's main product or service) and their managers. But contrary to previous research, blue-collar core occupations receive as much company training as white-collar core workers. The more extensive an organization's internal labor market, the more likely it is to use formal training programs as mechanisms for enabling workers to advance to positions of higher prestige, pay, and responsibility. The presence of a labor union representing core workers in wage negotiations not only is associated with greater firm-provided training effort, but unions also seem to offset the adverse effects of an absent or poorly developed internal labor market for all types of workers. Unionized establishments are more likely than nonunionized workplaces to provide training to core workers recruited from outside the organization.
Autonomy, Interdependence, and Moral Governance
Authors: COOK SCOTT D. N.
Published: March 2007

Drawing on key themes in the work of Sir Geoffrey Vickers, this article outlines the need for a moral perspective that can address the pluralistic social realities of the dawning 21st century. The trends of globalism and localism are traced out against the material advances that our technologies make possible and the often conflicting moral claims to a share of that wealth that our distinct but increasingly interdependent cultures make inevitable. We have come to see these moral claims as entitlements of membership in society and have designed an array of institutions that we hold responsible for their fulfilment. This status quo, however, is systemically unstable, unsustainable, and, therefore, morally unjustifiable. To achieve an acceptable form of stability (in terms of human systems, the virtuous mean between chaos and stagnation), we must, at the very least, learn to manage both conflicting moral claims and conflicting standards of morality—we must develop a system of moral governance that can enable us to act responsibly within our increasingly pluralistic moral world. Some requirements of such a system are outlined.
Attention, Need for Sensation, and Health Communication Campaigns
Authors: DONOHEW LEWIS , PALMGREEN PHILIP , LORCH ELIZABETH PUGZLES
Published: March 2007

Although attention to novelty is no longer as vital to survival as in our ancient past, the attention value of novelty has major implications for contemporary human communication. It also is affected by individual differences in reactivity to intense and novel stimulation. The studies reported in this article involve the roles of attention and sensation seeking in responses to drug abuse prevention campaigns in the mass media. Early studies have indicated that adolescent high-sensation seekers are two to seven times more likely to report using drugs—ranging from alcohol to cocaine—than lower sensation seekers, identifying them as prime target audiences for prevention campaigns. This article describes a series of studies, ranging from laboratory studies on differential effects of messages on high- and low-sensation seekers, and on effects of program context, to a field experiment in which high-sensation seekers were targeted.
Competencies for the Health Communication Specialist of the 21st Century
Authors: MAIBACH EDWARD , PARROTT ROXANNE L. , LONG DAVID M. , SALMON CHARLES T.
Published: March 2007

This article reports the results of an expert working group convened to define competencies required to function effectively as a health communication specialist. Participants were surveyed before the working group meeting on a range of issues related to training master's-level public health communication specialists. Survey responses were used to initiate the discussion at a subsequent two-day working group meeting. Survey and working group results clearly indicated that competence in this arena includes aspects of theory and practice. A pedagogical framework emerged, in which types of theories and practice-oriented skills were specified at both the individual and societal levels of analysis. This framework can be used to guide the development of graduate-level curricula in health communication.
Race, Ethnicity, and the Weberian Legacy
Authors: STONE JOHN
Published: March 2007

The whole conception of ethnic groups is so complex and so vague that it might be good to abandon it altogether.

—Max Weber (1922/1968)

Economy and Society

[The present century has witnessed] explosions of nationalism, [of] racism and, in places, of religious bigotry, which, interestingly enough, not one among the most perceptive social thinkers of the nineteenth century had ever predicted.

—Isaiah Berlin (1992)

The Crooked Timber of Humanity
Exploring Simultaneous Oppressions
Authors: BRISTOR JULIA , FISCHER EILEEN
Published: March 2007

In this article, the authors argue that to develop public policies that will work in the interests of diverse female consumers, it is imperative to recognize how sexism intersects with racism, classism, and heterosexism. The multiple simultaneous oppressions faced by diverse women make for vast differences in their consumption problems and the remedies they require. The authors illustrate how even consumer research that may seem to promote the interest of women actually serves privileged interests and ignores the reality of others. To move toward consumer research that will help shape public policy in the interests of diverse women, one needs to identify how research to date has enhanced the privilege of some women while neglecting or reinforcing the oppression of others. New research issues will need to be added to the agenda if the current situation is to improve.
Aging Well in Contemporary Society
Authors: JOHNSON TANYA FUSCO
Published: March 2007

In the summer of 1983, Robert Butler asked me to join a group of scholars conducting a seminar on “Health, Productivity, and Aging” in Salzburg, Austria. The “fellows” attending were young doctors and officials heading or developing government programs in a number of European and Latin American countries as well as Egypt, Jordan, Israel, and the United States.... Day after day, when participants broke into discussion groups after each lecture, they only wanted to talk about Alzheimer's, senility,and nursing homes. They vehemently objected to disucssing age in terms of any kind of productivity.... Clearly, they did not want to think about people over sixty-five except as helpless patients, clients of their compassionate care.

—Betty Friedan, 1993
“Stop Or I'll Shoot”: Racial Differences in Support for Police Use of Deadly Force
Authors: CULLEN FRANCIST T. , CAO LIQUN , FRANK JAMES , LANGWORTHY ROBERT H. , BROWNING SANDRA LEE , KOPACHE RENEÉ , STEVENSON THOMAS J.
Published: March 2007

Based on a telephone survey of a stratified sample of 239 Cincinnati residents, we explored the impact of race on support for police use of deadly force on fleeing felons. The analysis revealed that, consistent with the standards demarcated by the U.S. Supreme Court in Tennessee v. Gamer, both Blacks' and Whites' approval of force was high when offenders manifested “past dangerousness” and was less pronounced when offenders committed nonviolent crimes. African Americans, however, were less likely than Whites to endorse the illegal use of deadly force. This attitudinal cleavage appeared to be rooted in broader racial differences in crime ideology, with Blacks being more liberal and Whites being more conservative in their views on crime and its control.
Presidential Debates Through Media Eyes
Authors: KENDALL KATHLEEN E.
Published: March 2007

Presidential debates traditionally attract millions of viewers and heavy press coverage. There is much evidence that the media interpretation of these events is influential even for people who have viewed the debates themselves. This study examines the 1996 evening news coverage and postdebate specials of ABC, CBS, NBC, and CNN, exploring the way television journalists constructed the candidates' debate goals and expectations, their rhetorical strategies, and the effects of the debate.
Epilogue
Authors: MILLER FAYNEESE , BIRAL ROBERT
Published: March 2007

In the Declaration of Independence, life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness are articulated as rights to which all “men” are entitled. These rights are placed within the context of equality. It is proposed in this article that the Declaration of Independence provides the material for Douglass's, Lincoln's, and King's reinterpretation and reiteration of the rights and principles of democracy and equality. Affirmative action is presented as a contemporary example of a rewrite or reinterpretation of the Declaration of Independence. Specifically, it is proposed that affirmative action is the means by which equity, rather than equality, can be realized.
Declining Faculty Availability to Students Is the Problem—But Tenure Is Not the Explanation
Authors: BENJAMIN ERNST
Published: March 2007

This article challenges the argument that tenure fosters indifference to student learning. It draws extensively on Department of Education data to advance the contrary view that inadequate faculty involvement with students primarily reflects the declining numbers of tenure track faculty relative to the increasing numbers of students. The author presents data to show, further, that full-time tenure track faculty are more productive—that is, spend more time with students and contribute more to student success than their less expensive part-time or nontenure track replacements. Contrasting the ideal access to faculty afforded students in well-endowed independent colleges and universities with the poorer access afforded by public institutions, the author concludes that declining public funding, not tenure, explains diminished student opportunity.
Racial Reconciliation
Authors: GLYNN PATRICK
Published: March 2007

The author argues that religious groups may offer the best hope for improving race relations in this country. The author contends that evangelical approaches to racial reconciliation have important advantages over secular approaches such as multiculturalism or conflict resolution theory. Importantly, the possibility of collective apology among religious groups, such as the Southern Baptist Convention, the National Association of Evangelicals, and the Promise Keepers, surpasses that of secular groups, particularly government, as the controversy surrounding President Clinton's proposed national apology to the Black community demonstrates.
Western Dreams, Eastern Realities
Authors: CICHOWSKI RACHEL A.
Published: March 2007

Much of our recent scholarship argues that public support in member countries is integral to the success of European Union (EU) policies and initiatives. Despite growing evidence that public support is also often crucial to attaining (and sustaining) EU membership—as evidenced by the volatile Maastricht referenda in Denmark and France and the unsuccessful Norwegian accession—there is little systematic research on accession countries. This study develops an analytic framework for understanding EU public opinion in applicant countries undergoing democratic transitions. Using data from a 1996 survey, the analysis tests both utilitarian and value models of support and finds general attitudes toward democracy and capitalism and an individual's political partisanship to be the strongest determinants of support for EU membership. The results challenge dominant explanations for public opinion in member states and suggest how we might better adapt these models to examine attitudes in applicant countries.
Democratization and Institutional Change in Mexico
Authors: BOYLAN DELIA M.
Published: March 2007

This article builds on previous work examining the incentives facing authoritarian elites to use central bank reform to constrain the economic policy choices of future governments. It suggests that because creating an autonomous agency is costly, authoritarian elites will only cede policymaking powers to an independent body commensurate with the degree of democratic threat that they face. When a transition is looming, insulation should be complete so as to tie the hands of successor governments to the greatest extent possible. But when this risk of replacement is milder, incumbent elites will be careful to design rules that continue to afford them some margin of maneuver as long as they remain in office. The Mexican central bank reform of 1993 is used as an illustration of the partial insulation strategy at work.
Strategies, Issues, and Votes
Authors: BUDGE IAN
Published: March 2007

This article links decisions and general descriptions of campaign issues and personalities. In so doing, it answers questions that have also been considered in other articles of this special issue. How much is support for the major British parties affected by underlying social processes and how much by deliberate party initiatives? To what extent is class the predominant division within British politics and to what extent is it being replaced by other cleavages and issues? How will the parties, new and old, be affected? And how should they respond? In tackling these questions the discussion utilizes new types of data and places results within a comparative framework.
Political Obstacles to Reform and Innovation in Soviet Economic Policy
Authors: BLOUGH ROGER A. , STEWART PHILIP D.
Published: March 2007

Soviet economic policy under Brezhnev presents a puzzling pattern of abortive reforms and contradictory approaches. The authors find that the political arrangements and decision-making procedures Brezhnev and his Politburo colleagues set up were major causes of Soviet failures to reform economic policy. The authors' data, derived from a content-analysis study of Politburo members' public statements, suggest that Politburo decisions on economic policy were made through a collective and consensual process, which did not resolve conflict but merely smoothed it over. The process allowed important individuals or minorities to have their views endorsed in official decisions, but in many cases there was very little commitment behind these decisions because they did not represent the views of a majority or the General Secretary. Lack of commitment at the top gave implementing agencies wide lattitude to dilute, delay, or even block fulfillment of those decisions.
The Comparative Method and the Study of Development, Diffusion, and Social Change
Authors: WELLHOFER E. SPENCER
Published: March 2007

The research investigates substantive and methodological concerns in comparative research, particularly the confounding influences of within-system developmental or causal dynamics, across-time or within-system diffusion, and across-system or spatial diffusion. The article argues that extra-system influences represent a special case of the unmeasured relevant variable problem resulting in model specification error and that proper model specification can mitigate the problem. Structural equation modeling is advocated as a significant advance in such specifications. The argument is elaborated with time-series data on Argentina from 1908 to 1946 to test the developmental relationship between industrialization and political behavior.
Education and the Ethnic Division of Labor in Reform-Minded Societies
Authors: GROVE D. JOHN
Published: March 2007

Has the expansion of secondary and higher education during the period from 1950 to 1970 restructured the ethnic division of labor? This seven-nation cross-cultural study examines the extent to which changes in education have transformed the ethnic occupational structure in reform-oriented societies. The results show that in five out of the seven countries, the ethnic division of labor became less hierarchically specialized. In the remaining two countries, the New Zealand Maoris have become increasingly overrepresented in secondary jobs during the 1970s, and South African Coloureds, Asians, and Africans have not regained their pre-apartheid occupational position. These subsequent changes in occupational segregation across 19 pairwise comparisons are, surprisingly, not due to the initial spread of education. This finding lends support to the radical thesis that education in societies that have implemented different types of social reforms have had little impact on the likely trajectories of the ethnic division of labor.
Political Pathology and Moral Orientations
Authors: WILSON RICHARD W.
Published: March 2007

Culturist and rationalist explanations for behavior have vied for preeminence with no resolution of their contradictory assumptions. Moral development theory, with its richer psychological framework, provides a solution to this dilemma. It provides, as well, a fresh insight into the causes of deviance. A brief case study of corruption in Nigeria and a more extensive analysis of corruption in China prior to the Tiananmen incident are the major comparative examples. The article makes clear how people endanger a political system by the pursuit of ends that are justified by parochial and developmentally weak moral orientations.
Ideological Diversity and Government Survival in Western European Parliamentary Democracies
Authors: WARWICK PAUL
Published: March 2007

A major lacuna in the empirical investigation of government stability in Western European parliamentary regimes is the failure to test rigorously the hypothesis that the ideological diversity within governments influences their survival in office. This study attempts to remedy this deficiency by developing and testing measures of the concept based on a wide variety of sources, including expert scales of party positions, voter-based estimates of party ideologies, and assessments of party positions derived with the aid of the European Manifestos Project's coding of electoral platforms. The key findings are that not only is ideological diversity inversely related to government survival, even when other relevant factors are taken into account, but that this connection seriously challenges bargaining environment interpretations of stability advanced within the past 2 years.
Business and Political Finance in the United Kingdom
Authors: MITCHELL NEIL J. , BRETTING JOHN G.
Published: March 2007

This article examines business donations to the Conservative Party during the Thatcher era. It argues that these donations cannot be treated as equivalent to PAC (political action committee) contributions in the United States. On the basis of data collected for the largest 500 British firms, the article argues that beyond market characteristics, it is also important to look at the motivations of businessmen and what the party can do to encourage donations. This represents an alternative explanation to Useem's influential inner circle thesis for why firms contribute to the Conservative Party.
A Quiet Revolution
Authors: WEILER J. H.H.
Published: March 2007

Although the governments of the member states of the European Community (EC) have always had a principal role in fashioning EC policies and norms, from the 1960s through the 1980s the European Court of Justice played a key role in imposing a compliance regime with these norms that has resembled in its structure and rigor the constitutional order of a federal state. To an extent unprecedented in other international organizations, states have found themselves locked into this regime and unable to enjoy the more common international legal compliance latitude. Interestingly, member state courts, legislatures, and governments seemed, by and large, to accept the new constitutional regime “imposed” by the European Court with a large measure of equanimity—a veritable “quiet revolution.” In this essay, the author restates the principal features of the new order and then explores the possible reasons that explain the acceptance and endorsements of the European Court by major constituencies in the member states. In the conclusion, the author hints at factors that bode a much rougher future relationship between the European Court and its national interlocutors.
The Structural Determinants of Democratic Consolidation
Authors: GASIOROWSKI MARK J. , POWER TIMOTHY J.
Published: March 2007

Democratic consolidation is the process by which a newly established democratic regime becomes sufficiently durable that a return to nondemocratic rule is no longer likely. The authors examine a wide range of structural factors that may affect democratic consolidation in Third World countries, using three indicators of consolidation and multivariate statistical techniques. The authors' main finding is that development-related socioeconomic factors, the contagion effect of democratic neighbors, and high inflation each strongly affect the likelihood of consolidation, although the latter was significant only in the early part of the period studied. Several other factors have no apparent effect, including several measures dealing with political culture and the design of democratic institutions. These three factors together strongly predict which Third World democracies achieve consolidation, suggesting that the process-centric literature on democratic consolidation has paid inadequate attention to the effects of structural factors.
The Harmonization of Eu Export Control Policies
Authors: HOFHANSEL CLAUS
Published: March 2007

This article analyzes efforts to harmonize European Union export control policies on dual-use goods from the perspectives of neofunctionalist and intergovernmentalist theories of European integration. The outcome of the Council negotiations on dual-use export controls can best be characterized as an intergovernmental bargain. Judicial policy making in this area, on the other hand, fits neofunctionalist expectations rather well, and on implementation issues central state executives may be losing their exclusive control. The article concludes by arguing that rather than investing great theoretical significance in differences among issue areas or policy types, it appears more fruitful to recognize the European Union as a system of multilevel governance. In this system, the relative weight and influence of different actors varies depending on whether we are concerned with policy initiation, legislative decision making, policy implementation, or judicial policy making.
From Sectoral Linkages to Class Conflict
Authors: GARST W. DANIEL
Published: March 2007

Although the sectoral framework on global commerce and coalition formation provides a better explanation of trade and political alignments in pre-1914 Britain than the Stolper-Samuelson framework, it shares the main shortcoming of the latter when applied to the interwar period. Neither approach explains the restructuring of politics along class lines after 1918. According to the sectoral framework, the continued imperfect mobility of capital and labor and deeper divisions within the business community should have led to greater, not less, cross-class cooperation over trade and trade-related issues. This article extends an earlier critique of the Stolper-Samuelson framework to address this puzzle. It argues that weak worker trade union organization modifies the incentive of business owners to align with labor on trade, even when imperfect capital mobility and divisions in the business community heighten the incentive of capitalists to form lobbying coalitions with labor. In addition to addressing the marked contrast in British politics before and after 1914, this argument has broader comparative implications. In particular, it offers a potential explanation for why pre-World War I Britain was unique, compared with other Western European countries, in being marked by strong business-labor collaboration over trade and political reform.
Post-Communist Foreign Policies: Initial Observations
Authors: SKAK METTE
Published: March 2007

Proceeding from a state level-of-analysis of the eastern part of the European post-Cold War situation, the article depicts the general framework of the emerging post-communist foreign policies and offers case studies of Poland, Czecho-Slovakia, Hungary and Russia. Post-communist foreign policies have to be placed within the frame-work of the transition politics, i.e. in the context of reintegration into the international political, economic and security structure. Foreign policy has a further affective dimension because of its role in nation and state building. The danger lies in the competing nationalisms and reintegration processes as well as in the potential of nationalism as an anti-Western discourse. The case studies point to both continuities and change and to idiographic and nomothetic patterns. The conclusion highlights the significance of regionalism as a means towards overcoming revisionist orientations and the Western option of influencing the dynamics of post-communist transition politics.
Rationality Explanations
Authors: NYHAMAR TORE
Published: March 2007

The article distinguishes between deductive rationality models which explain the behaviour of large numbers of people placed in similar external circumstances, and explanations of a single action by one individual, individual rationality. The traditional justification for rationality models is that they offer good predictions. The main argument in this article is that individual rationality is testable and can serve to assess the empirical accuracy of the assumption of rationality in models. Three strategies to judge whether an individual action is rational — situational logic, motivational analysis and process-tracing — are used to analyse Henry Kissinger's decision in July 1975 to provide arms to Angola, an act which was intended to increase the value of the American reputation for toughness. The discussion is informed by Barry Nalebuff's game-theoretic analysis of rational beliefs concerning the value of reputation in deterrence. Finally, the article draws the implications of the empirical analysis of Kissinger's decision for the model of rational beliefs, concluding that such models can and should be evaluated on their assumptions rather than their predictions.
Training in Supervision
Authors: Scott Kathleen J. , Ingram Kathleen M. , Vitanza Stephanie A. , Smith Nathan G.
Published: March 2007

This study examined the current state of affairs of training in the practice of supervision in doctoral programs and predoctoral internship sites accredited by the American Psychological Association. Results indicated that although a majority of programs and sites offered some type of opportunity for training in supervision, there were differences in the methods and extent of the training. In particular, statistically significant differences were found between the training offered in counseling psychology programs when compared to clinical psychology programs, and in university counseling center internship programs when compared to other types of internship sites. The more extensive training in supervision offered among counseling psychology programs and counseling center internship sites is discussed in terms of the identity of counseling psychology and the future of professional psychology in general. Recommendations for enhancing training in the conduct of supervision and directions for further research are also offered.
Gay, Lesbian, and Bisexual Individuals’ Perceptions
Authors: Dorland Jeanne M. , Fischer Ann R.
Published: March 2007

One hundred twenty-six participants who self-identified as gay, lesbian, or bisexual read a vignette of an intake counseling interview. Half of the participants read a vignette that contained heterosexist language, and the other group reviewed a vignette that was free of heterosexist language bias. The authors hypothesized that the heterosexist bias-free group would (a) perceive and rate the counselor more positively, (b) express a higher likelihood of returning to see the counselor, (c) express greater willingness to disclose personal information to the counselor, and (d) express greater comfort in disclosing sexual orientation to the counselor than would the group that reviewed the vignette with heterosexist bias. Results were consistent with all four hypotheses, with the largest effects occurring for utilization intent and for comfort disclosing sexual orientation.
Ethics of Consultation
Authors: Robinson Sharon E. , Gross Douglas R.
Published: March 2007

This article presents an overview of the ethical issues relevant to the counseling psychologist who includes consultation as one of his or her areas of expertise. The existing Ethical Principles of Psychologists are not readily adapted to the practice of consultation; therefore, the possible ethical pitfalls need to be highlighted. Such pitfalls might be viewed as clustering in two global categories: (1) the competencies that the consultant brings to the consulting relationship and (2) the responsibilities that the consultant assumes as he or she provides services to consultees. Under the domain of consultant competencies, the major issues are education and training in consultation; identifying who or what is the client/consultee system and to whom or what the consultant has major responsibility; and determining client/consultee needs and goals as compared to consultant needs and goals. Under the domain of consultant responsibilities, the major responsibilities/issues are presenting qualifications accurately and ethically; negotiating a contract; knowing and respecting client rights; using assessment data; and conducting research and evaluation studies. The issues of confidentiality and informed consent also receive special emphasis.
Stress Inoculation Training
Authors: Meichenbaum Donald H. , Deffenbacher Jerry L.
Published: March 2007

This article outlines the theory, research, and procedures of stress inoculation training (SIT). SIT consists of three overlapping phases. Their first phase, conceptualization, is an education phase that emphasizes the development of a warm, collaborative relationship through which a careful assessment and problem reconceptualization are completed. The second phase, skill acquisition and rehearsal, target and develop a repertoire of palliative and instrumental coping skills for anxiety reduction. A table of common cognitive coping skills is included to exemplify the range of coping skills employed. The third phase, application and follow-through, focuses upon activities that transfer coping skills to real life and prevent relapse. Finally, guidelines for the selection and design of individual and group application of stress inoculation training are provided.
A Conceptual Model for Victim Services
Authors: Downing Nancy E.
Published: March 2007

The past decade has brought an increasing awareness of victim needs and of the profound psychological impact of victimization. Public and private sector services have emerged to address these issues, as have recommendations for an evolving professional field. Despite this progress, victim services lack conceptual frameworks from which to define goals and organize interventions. This article outlines the current state of the victim services field, identifies eight consensus prescriptions for future development, and proposes the Cube Model (Morrill, Hurst, & Oetting, 1980; Morrill, Oetting, & Hurst, 1974) as an integrating conceptual framework. Three representative victim service agencies are described to illustrate the usefulness of the model Counseling psychologists are challenged to use their special skills and expertise to develop broadly based services necessary for mitigating the profound psychological consequences of victimization.
Cycles of Psychological Nigrescence
Authors: Parham Thomas A.
Published: March 2007

This article is an attempt to expand the descriptive characteristics of the Cross model by discussing a theory of psychological Nigrescence that hypothesizes the changes in racial identity that a Black person can experience at various points in the life-cycle process. In this discussion, I will attempt to describe how various stages of racial identity are manifest at three periods of life: late adolescence/early adulthood, middle adulthood, and late adulthood. I will conclude with a discussion of the implications for counseling Blacks who display varying degrees of racial identity attitudes.
Affirmative Psychotherapy for Lesbian Women
Authors: Browning Christine , Reynolds Amy L. , Dworkin Sari H.
Published: March 2007

This article explores the unique issues and concerns facing lesbian women in our culture. Theoretical issues and effective therapeutic interventions in counseling lesbians are examined. Specific content areas highlighted include lesbian identity development and management, interpersonal and couple issues, and specific problems such as substance abuse, domestic violence, and sexual abuse. The article concludes with recommendations for treatment and suggestions for research.
Lesbian Career Development, Work Behavior, and Vocational Counseling
Authors: Morgan Kris S. , Brown Laura S.
Published: March 2007

Women 's career development has recently been a popular topic in counseling psychology, for both theoretical and empirical work This article extends that line of inquiry to address the unique career development issues of lesbians. The available literature on lesbians and work is reviewed, and parallels are drawn between the work experiences of lesbians, nonlesbian women, and other minority status groups. Three models of career development in women (Astin, 1985; Farmer, 1985; Gottfredson, 1981) are presented, and the applicability of each theory to increasing understanding of lesbian experience is explored. Implications for vocational and work-related counseling for lesbians are suggested and recommendations for the field are made.
A Contextualist Model of Professional Attainment
Authors: Poole Millicent E. , Langan-Fox Janice , Ciavarella Michelle , Omodei Mary
Published: March 2007

This study investigates the importance, in adolescence, of motivational, contextual, and demographic variables in predicting professional attainment in the early stages of career development. Using a synthesis of two theories; the Levinson Life Cycle and the Astin Theory of Career Choice, longitudinal data derived from approximately 3,000 adolescent students over a 10-year period from final year secondary school through to the age of 27 was analyzed using LISREL structural equation modeling. Predictor variables were selected from the data in line with a new contextualist theoretical model of career choice that contained variable blocks or conceptual "career tracks," comprising socioeconomic background, sex role socialization, work motivation, external constraints operating on choice, and career planning. Results from the study showed that external contextual factors such as socialization influences from the family parental expectations and occupational expectations and individual factors such as ability and attainment were powerful determinants of professional attainment. Sex differences revealed that student perceived parental expectations for sons had a stronger effect on school attainment and expectations than did parental expectations for daughters. Further, the effects of constraints operating on college attainment and professional attainment were stronger for women than for men. Analyses indicated that the Astin model of career choice needs further refinement and the value of a contextualist framework is suggested.
Issues of New Professionals in Counseling Psychology
Authors: Kraft Robert G.
Published: March 2007

The issues facing a new professional in a community mental health center (CMHC) are addressed. Appropriate training in graduate school with extended practicum experiences is recommended, along with extensive coursework in assessment and testing. Awareness of the issues involved in working with a broad client base is emphasized, as is the need for resources at many different levels. Both positive and negative aspects of CMHCs are discussed
Why William James Might be Considered the Founder of the Scientist-Practitioner Model
Authors: Howard George S.
Published: March 2007

Willhelm Wundt has come to be known as the founder of experimental psychology. William James is seen as the founder of scientific psychology in America, largely because of the impact that The Principles of Psychology had on psychology in the United States. In seeing James as the central forebear of scientific psychology in this country, many applied psychologists have underestimated the importance of his contributions for their professional ambitions. It is argued that close examination of James's more philosophically oriented works reveals a set of principles (i.e., pragmatism, pluralism, radical empiricism, strenuosity, and freedom of the will) that form the basis of the scientist pracitioner model in psychology.