bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Illusory Correlation
Authors: Watts Ashley L. , Smith Sarah Francis , Lilienfeld Scott O.
Published: January 2015

Illusory correlation refers to the tendency of individuals to perceive statistical associations that are objectively absent, or at least to perceive statistical associations that are more pronounced than objectively exist. This phenomenon appears to be the wellspring of many erroneous pieces of clinical lore, such as strongly held beliefs in the validity of invalid assessment techniques, as well as of many fallacious cultural beliefs, including superstitions. Illusory correlations stem in part from understandable errors in cognition, most notably a propensity to attend to hits rather than misses. The development of methods to debias individuals against illusory correlation will be an important direction for future research.
Emmanuel Movement
Authors: Cautin Robin L.
Published: January 2015

The Emmanuel Movement refers to a collaborative effort of Boston physicians and Episcopalian ministers, in the early twentieth century, who purportedly combined aspects of religious faith and scientific knowledge to treat sufferers of various functional nervous disorders—that is, apparently organic pathology for which no neuropathology could be identified. Their psychotherapeutic approach stood in stark contrast to the staunch somatic approach largely embraced by the medical community at that time. Paradoxically, the success of the Emannuel Movement provided impetus for the medical community to champion the possibility of mental therapeutics, and to claim psychotherapy as within its purview.
Association for Psychological Science (
APS
)
Authors: Cautin Robin L.
Published: January 2015

The Association of Psychological Science (
APS
), formerly called the American Psychological Society, was founded in 1988 by a group of scientifically oriented psychologists who had increasingly felt that their professional needs remained largely unmet by psychology's umbrella organization, the American Psychological Association (
APA
). From its inception, the
APS
has advocated for scientific psychology, including aspects directly related to clinical psychology, including training and accreditation. This entry reviews briefly the history of the organization and then highlights the association's alliance with some of the various efforts within the field to strengthen the scientific underpinnings of clinical psychology.
Arts Marketing
Authors: Battaglia Loretta , Cedrola Elena
Published: January 2015

Arts marketing is an integrated management process of planning and implementing programs designed to influence the behavior of ‘customers’ by creating, building, and maintaining mutually satisfying exchanges while providing value and benefits to both the customer and the organization.
B2B
Authors: Chaston Ian
Published: January 2015

Business to business marketing
often abbreviated to “
B2B
marketing” encompasses all of the processes associated with managing buyer and seller activities in business (or “industrial”) markets.
Black Marketing
Authors: Pino Giovanni
Published: January 2015

The term
black marketing
refers to a complex set of actions aimed at disparaging and damaging competitors, their product, brands, and market policies.
Blog
Authors: Page Kelly L.
Published: January 2015

This article provides a review of the origins of the term blog and discusses the activity of blogging and microblogging through web‐based social technologies.
Brand Heritage
Authors: Hudson Bradford T.
Published: January 2015

Brand heritage is an emerging concept within the marketing discipline, which suggests that the consumer appeal of products and services offered by older companies may be enhanced by the historical characters of their brands.
Branded Entertainment
Authors: Gambetti Rossella , Giovanardi Mattia
Published: January 2015

Branded entertainment is a communication strategy that uses different media to embed the brand in an amusing, emotional, and interactive context so as to involve the consumer into a brand experience. Companies are increasingly trying to differentiate themselves by fostering consumer–brand relationships that rely on entertainment. Hence, marketing strategies are aimed at engaging consumers offering escapism and fun to build an intimate relationship between them and their brands.
C2C/C2B
Authors: Grundström Christina
Published: January 2015

C2C
(consumer‐to‐consumer) and
C2B
(consumer‐to‐business) are two ways of marketing enabled by the Internet and two‐way communication software.
C2C
concerns one customer marketing a product to another customer. It has evolved from “putting up notes” and personal selling to sometimes global web‐based sales facilitated secure transactions systems. Further growth was noted when blogs and personal webpages became commonplace, when also opinions about products were published. Such information about consumer opinions is increasingly seen as central to businesses.
C2B
is less common than
C2B
and involves a consumer marketing something to a business. An increase of this type is seen within product groups where there is a surplus in the market. One way to describe
C2B
is “reverse auctions.” Then the consumer states on, for example, a web site that he or she is interested in a product at a given price and a purchase will be made from the business willing to sell at this (or a lower) prize. A recent research interest involves the role of personal blogs in Internet‐based
C2C
marketing and personal brands.
Causal Modeling in Marketing
Authors: Martínez‐López Francisco J. , Gázquez‐Abad Juan C.
Published: January 2015

Causal modeling is delimited by Bagozzi (1980, p. 83) as “a broad general term for a diversity of scientific approaches dealing with the representation of cause and effect.”
Cause‐Related Marketing
Authors: Deshpande Sameer
Published: January 2015

In cause‐related marketing (CRM) activity, a for‐profit brand aligns with a nonprofit organization such that during a limited time period, the company promises to donate a predetermined percentage of brand‐sale proceeds to the nonprofit organization. A CRM alliance results in a win‐win‐win situation for the corporate brand, the nonprofit organization, and the consumer. For a CRM campaign to succeed, the consumer should perceive a fit between the cause and the brand and the partnership should be framed at a more strategic level, lasting for a longer time period and indulging in multiple activities.
Coproduction (Services)
Authors: Groeger Lars , Buttle Francis
Published: January 2015

A key aspect of many services is that they require the customer to participate in coproducing the service product. While customers' involvement is often indispensable for the completion of service production and delivery processes, the degree of involvement varies between categories. In many instances, the customer's contribution to coproduction involves little other than self‐service, such as withdrawing money from an automated teller machine (
ATM
).
Commoditization
Authors: Reimann Martin , Schilke Oliver
Published: January 2015

Commoditization of an industry is considered high when competitors in comparatively stable industries offer homogenous products to price‐sensitive customers, who incur relatively low costs in changing supplier. In other words, businesses facing high industry commoditization sell products whose core offerings are essentially identical in quality and performance to those of their competitors. Further, commoditized markets are relatively stable, as products are manufactured to a standard or fixed specification. In addition, rational factors govern customers purchasing decisions, resulting in high price sensitivity and low switching costs for customers. Research has indicated that commoditization is not limited to a single industry but rather constitutes a general trend pertaining to an increasing number of industries. Thus, commoditization appears to be a general phenomenon in marketing competition. For example, many high‐tech industries currently face the challenge of commoditization as a steadily greater number of offerings from component suppliers are undifferentiated, including computer memory, television parts, and disk drives.
CRM
Design
Authors: Chaston Ian
Published: January 2015

Customer relationship management
(or
CRM
) encompasses all aspects of the processes concerned with acquiring knowledge about customers and utilizing this greater understanding as the basis of marketing activities aimed at enhancing customer satisfaction.
Demarketing
Authors: Grinstein Amir , Blekher Maria
Published: January 2015

Demarketing is a set of marketing activities aimed to reduce demand for public goods or for commercial products. Demarketing policies are usually applied by governments, to reduce behaviors that negatively affect environment or health. Businesses can apply demarketing strategy to create differentiation or to cope with product shortage.
Deviant/Dysfunctional Customers
Authors: Daunt Kate L.
Published: January 2015

From a firm's perspective, deviant or dysfunctional customers are those who act in a negative and unwanted manner. Such behaviours violate organizational and/or societal norms. Many alternative terms are used within the marketing literature to describe customers' misdeeds. These include, aberrant consumer behaviour, jaycustomer behaviour and consumer misbehaviour. Multiple forms of deviant and dysfunctional consumer behaviours are identified, including acts of theft, vandalism, verbal aggression, physical aggression and drunken behaviour.
Digital Marketing
Authors: Page Kelly L.
Published: January 2015

This article provides a review of digital marketing, the digital media through which digital marketing activities are mediated, and the core characters of digital media: customization, personalization, and consumer‐generated content.
Direct‐to‐Consumer Advertising
Authors: Bala Ram , Bhardwaj Pradeep
Published: January 2015

Direct‐to‐Consumer Advertising (
DTCA
) is the most common form of advertising observed for consumer packaged goods. Marketing literature has looked at several issues in
DTCA
such as effect of advertising on perceived product quality, consumer awareness levels and consumer inertia. However, the managerial insights that emerge from these papers are not readily transferable to other complex product categories such as prescription pharmaceuticals, where a change in regulation has reduced pharmaceutical firms' costs of reaching out directly to consumers as opposed to physicians. In this context,
DTCA
has both market expanding and share increasing effects with significant ambiguity about the relative strengths of these effects. Market expansion occurs through
constructive advertising
that provides information about the disease itself including information on symptoms, possible remedies and side effects with much less emphasis on the brand. An increase in market share occurs through
combative advertising
that emphasizes the advantages of the brand relative to the other competing brands. Our research shows that product margins, stage of the product category lifecycle, heterogeneity in detailing productivity and the strength of intrinsic consumer preferences affect advertising outcomes in competitive markets.
Evolutionary Consumption
Authors: Saad Gad
Published: January 2015

Evolutionary consumption is a nascent discipline that applies principles of evolutionary psychology in the study of consumer behavior. The same evolutionary forces that are responsible for the evolution of countless biological phenomena have shaped consumers' minds and bodies. Many consumer phenomena could be mapped onto four overriding Darwinian meta‐drives: survival, reproduction, kin selection, and reciprocal altruism. By studying the contents of cultural products (e.g., song lyrics, literary narratives, movie plotlines), one can identify universal themes that are indicative of a shared human nature that is invariant to time or place.

Notwithstanding some staunch resistance from those who possess a poor understanding of the field, the practical and theoretical benefits of Darwinizing consumer research are innumerable.

Homo consumericus is a biological creature driven in large part by an evolved consuming instinct.
Export Market Orientation
Authors: Sundqvist Sanna
Published: January 2015

Export market orientation (
EMO
) concept has its roots in market orientation.
EMO
can be defined as being the implementation of the marketing concept in export business. The domain of export market orientation encapsulates three generic behavioral activities, the focus of these activities and their coordinating mechanism. Previous research has identified several antecedents to export market orientation. Yet, the performance consequences of
EMO
dominate the research field. Recent literature shows that the relationship between export market oriented behaviours and firm export performance is inverted U‐shaped and that the relationship is moderated by environmental conditions.
Formative (Measurement)
Authors: Fassott Georg , Henseler Jörg
Published: January 2015

When using measurement models with multiple indicators, researchers need to decide about the epistemic relationship between the latent variable and its indicators. In this article, we describe the nature, the estimation, the characteristics, and the validity assessment of formative measurement models.
Frontline Employees
Authors: Caruana Albert
Published: January 2015

Marketing departments of service firms face a key challenge in ensuring meaningful interaction by customers with the organization. The offering and experience customers receive is dependent on the interaction they have with frontline employees. Therefore, frontline staff play a crucial role in services marketing and marketing managers need to consider ways of ensuring their expertise, training and motivation.
Green Marketing
Authors: Polonsky Michael J.
Published: January 2015

This article discusses green marketing, and how it has evolved from a segmentation activity in the 1970s to today's holistic integrated strategic activity.
Grey Marketing (Gray Marketing)
Authors: Chaston Ian
Published: January 2015

Grey marketing
(
gray marketing
) is a term used to describe marketing activities directed toward older people.
Hazard Models
Authors: Gazley Aaron
Published: January 2015

This article discusses the use of hazard models in business. This technique can be used to investigate the impact of time on a specific event for a range of business situations. One useful technique is the Cox proportional hazard model which allows for the impact of covariates on the hazard rate to be considered as well as the impact of censored variables.
Hedonic Consumption
Authors: Hennigs Nadine , Klarmann Christiane
Published: January 2015

Hedonic consumption addresses an emotional user experience through the use of certain products and services, which in addition to their functional utility, create appropriate experiences, feelings, and emotions, such as pleasure, arousal, fun, joy, and well‐being. The hedonic value results from the personal motive to spoil, indulge or reward oneself.
Learning Organization
Authors: Chaston Ian
Published: January 2015

Learning organization
is an entity which seeks to achieve continuous transformation by facilitating learning for all members of staff.
Marketing Accountability
Authors: McDonald Malcolm
Published: January 2015

Marketing accountability is the one issue above all others that has been rising to the top of the agenda and the Deloitte report which focused on the views of
CEO
s and
CFO
s, is merely the culmination of the growing calls for greater accountability from the marketing community.
Marketing Channels
Authors: Brookes Maureen
Published: January 2015

This article examines marketing channels from a functional and customer perspective. It identifies how marketing channels have changed in response to environmental forces and the impact this has had on their design and management.
Megamarketing
Authors: Humphreys Ashlee
Published: January 2015

Megamarketing is the process by which a firm attempts to shape its structural and institutional environment. It can be pursued through attempts to manage regulatory, normative, and cultural‐cognitive legitimacy, often with appeals to a variety of stakeholders including public policy makers, journalists, customers, and the general public.
Monte Carlo/Monte Carlo Markov Chain Method
Authors: Castellano Rosella , Cedrola Elena
Published: January 2015

The Monte Carlo simulation is a versatile method for analyzing the behavior of some activities, plans, or processes that involve uncertainty. The method was invented by scientists working on the atomic bomb in the 1940s. It uses randomness to obtain random variable estimates, similarly to the gambling process. A Monte Carlo simulation is a parametric procedure, where specific distributional parameters are required before a simulation can begin. In its simplest form, it can be considered to be a random number generator that is useful for forecasting, estimation, and risk analysis.

The Markov Chain Monte Carlo method is more efficient than simple Monte Carlo in obtaining samples for any target distribution and achieving more general inferential objectives.
Organizational Learning
Authors: Chaston Ian
Published: January 2015

Organizational learning
is constituted of all of the processes and structures which underpin the acquisition of knowledge and new understanding.
Perceived Value (Service Evaluation)
Authors: Sánchez José Ángel López
Published: January 2015

The study of perceived value in service contexts is considered by academics and practitioners to be of importance in order to comprehend customers' service evaluations. This entry gives a brief account of what is understood by perceived value in service contexts, and recognizes the richness and complexity of this concept by invoking value‐related insights from the literature.
Pyramid Selling
Authors: Donaldson Bill
Published: January 2015

Pyramid selling is one way of recruiting and deploying salespeople to effect a route to market. It is advantageous to those recruited early in the process but is inevitably unstable as subsequent recruits finds it difficult to justify increasing levels of commission to those little involved in the sales. Hence, a few do very well but the majority of salespeople earn very little for their efforts.
Search Engine Marketing
Authors: Page Kelly L.
Published: January 2015

This article provides a review of search engine marketing, its growth, effectiveness, and the differing methods of search engine marketing.
Self‐Service Technology
Authors: Sucu Cristian , Demangeot Catherine
Published: January 2015

Recent technological development has enabled firms to design customer interactions with reduced or zero human intervention, by employing self‐service technologies (
SSTs
). The main benefits for marketers of adopting
SSTs
are cost efficiency, consistency in the delivery of standardized services, consumer convenience, 24/7 availability, consumer involvement and motivation, and wide distribution. In
SST
interactions, customers play a larger role in the production of the services that they request. Firms have less control over the quality and performance of the service.
Selling Orientation (
SOCO
)
Authors: Donaldson Bill
Published: January 2015

Selling orientation, customer orientation (
SOCO
) highlights differences in approach to dealing with customers. The origins of the SOCO scale are described and the two approaches are compared and contrasted.
Semiotics
Authors: Schroeder Jonathan E.
Published: January 2015

Semiotics – the study of signs – provides a framework for understanding of meaning‐making within brand management, marketing, and organization, as well as the overall process of commodification that characterizes the modern market. Semiotic analysis focuses on how signs, including advertising images, brands, corporate reports, organizational communication, and strategic messages produce meaning. Semiotic analysis centers on the sign, made up of a signifier – the sign's perceptual component – and the signified – the concepts to which the signifier refers. Semiotic analysis points out how communication can create meaning beyond the managerial control of any one organization or strategic vision.
Service‐Dominant Logic
Authors: Doherty Anne M.
Published: January 2015

Vargo and Lusch's seminal paper proposed a new dominant logic for marketing that transcends the traditional goods‐dominant logic that marketing inherited from economics. Service‐dominant (
S‐D
) logic is the term which this new dominant logic was subsequently titled. Ten foundational premises form the basis of
S‐D
logic. In
S‐D
logic, service is the fundamental basis of exchange; operant resources are the main source of competitive advantage; co‐creation of value is a central premise with value being created collaboratively through the interaction that occurs in networks.
S‐D
logic is fundamentally relational in nature.
The Service‐Profit Chain
Authors: Ennew Christine T.
Published: January 2015

The service‐profit chain explains in detail how one of the most basic principles of marketing works in a service context; specifically, it outlines a sequence of causal links that demonstrate how employee satisfaction contributes to service quality and customer satisfaction and how they in turn can influence revenue and profit. In essence, the service‐profit chain highlights the important links among how an organization manages itself internally, the impact of this on the experience of customers, and the benefits in terms of organizational performance.
Signaling Theory
Authors: Whelan Jamie , Demangeot Catherine
Published: January 2015

Signaling theory helps researchers and managers better understand communication under conditions of imperfect information. A signal is an action or statement conveying a person's or firm's capabilities or intentions and discloses a range of information. Signaling theory posits a rational customer expecting a firm to honor his or her commitments because of potential for economic punishment through termination of repeat purchasing. Some firms, however, may choose to signal false claims if initial financial payoffs outweigh future losses once the truth becomes known.
Social Exchange (Theory)
Authors: Varey Richard J.
Published: January 2015

Although social exchange theory is not a formal theory, it may be the most important body of social psychological thinking for explaining social behavior as exchange with an understanding of interdependence and relationships and the set of norms governing contractual relationships, emphasizing as it does both trust and commitment. There is neither an assumption of self‐profit maximization nor is individual behavior the focus of attention. This behaviorist perspective emphasizes situational factors, interaction, and reinforcement and learning, as well as subjective evaluation of rewards and costs, and the exchange of rewards.

Originating in the nexus of economics, psychology, sociology, and anthropology, and the concept of contract, social exchange thinking has become embedded in the marketing discipline, so much so that recent textbooks reproducing the convention do not mention it explicitly at all. Social exchange theory neither takes a utilitarian view of
homo economicus
nor does it assume risk‐taking rationality in
homo aleator
by ignoring the social and the economic power distribution. Indeed, social exchange theory aims to explain what is not economic in social behavior.
Social Learning Theory
Authors: Varey Richard J.
Published: January 2015

Two conceptions of social learning with different units of analysis are discussed. Until recently more common idea is of one independent person individually learning to be socially effective in social situations. Persons seek education to adapt to their local context. The other notion of social learning is of large‐scale many‐person collective learning, in which there is intentional adaptation of behavior in a social network of collaboratively interacting actors. This might be termed the “learning society.”

The former socialization process mostly occurs at the micro individual level of information transmission and personal adaptation, whereas the latter arises at the macro societal level of aggregation in communal or social deliberation. This distinction is important in addressing how one person learns something that (perhaps) many others already know, and beyond that how numerous people learn something new together. It is important to understand social learning in terms of desired outcomes.
Social Web Marketing
Authors: Page Kelly L.
Published: January 2015

This article provides a review of social web marketing, the use of social technologies such as social media and social applications to build social brand capital.
Stakeholder Theory
Authors: Chaston Ian
Published: January 2015

Stakeholder theory
is concerned with how a firm needs to take into consideration how an individual, a group, or an organization may be affected by or has a vested interest in the policies and activities of the firm.
Stickiness (Website)
Authors: Page Kelly L.
Published: January 2015

This article provides a review of stickiness and how web sites, ideas, and/or brands or product offering can be sticky.
Strategic Group (Analysis)
Authors: Kasabov Edward
Published: January 2015

“Strategic group” is a concept used in strategic management and strategic marketing that clusters together companies that pursue similar underlying strategies or have comparable business models. Companies are assigned to specific strategic groups through comparison along competitive dimensions such as pricing, product or service quality, firm size, and degree of vertical integration. More recently, attempts have been made to combine industrial organization‐ and resource‐based views in strategic management by conceptualizing strategic groups not as sets of companies with similar product market strategies but as organizations that share similar resource bundles. Strategic group analysis has been applied to a number of sectors including pharmaceuticals, computing, retail, and financial services. The concept and its assumptions have been subject to much criticism. Some commentators consider the predictive validity of strategic groups to be low or view strategic groups as statistical artifacts only. The theory has also been hampered by conflicting empirical findings and snapshot‐type analyses.
Total Quality Management
Authors: Cedrola Elena
Published: January 2015

Total quality management (
TQM
) is an integrated management philosophy and set of practices that emphasize continuous improvement, reducing rework, meeting customer requirements, increasing employee involvement and teamwork, process redesign, continuous measurement of results, and closer relationships with suppliers. A firm adopting
TQM
organizes production and business processes in such a way as to identify and eliminate problems or sources of variations that cause products to deviate from customer needs.
Transaction Cost Analysis
Authors: Mooi Erik
Published: January 2015

Transaction cost theory is one of the most widely used theories in marketing, management, and economics. The focus of the theory is on explaining how firms organize transactions. The rules by which transactions are organized is called governance. A wide variety of strategic decisions of firms, such as outsourcing, the mode of organizing exports, the use of crowdsourcing, or partner selection efforts, can be analyzed and understood using transaction cost theory. The basic argument of transaction cost theory is that firms economize on costs by choosing a form of governance that minimizes production and transaction costs. We discuss the origins and uses of the theory, critical variables, assumptions, and limitations
Brand
Authors: de Chernatony Leslie
Published: January 2015

This article opens by clarifying how brands are built. It explores the meaning of brand and some of the contributors to brand success. The benefits of brands are explored. Brands are not just important in consumer markets and some of their benefits in B2B markets are addressed.
Brand Equity
Authors: Christodoulides George
Published: January 2015

Brand equity is a term used to denote the added value of a brand over and above that of the product. The main recipients of this value may be either consumers or firms. This has resulted into two streams of research on brand equity. Consumer‐based brand equity looks at brand equity as the value of the brand to consumers, and firm‐based brand equity focuses on the financial benefits of brands to firms. As a multidimensional construct, brand equity is better captured through a set of measures that need to be adapted to the firm's strategy and operating environment.
Diffusion Process
Authors: Lewis Barbara R.
Published: January 2015

The diffusion process is concerned with how product innovations are spread or assimilated within a market or industry.
Exporting
Authors: Sood Aarti , Holden Nigel
Published: January 2015

Exporting is a form of foreign market entry and may be seen as one of the minimal stages of firms' involvements with foreign markets.
Franchising
Authors: Evanschitzky Heiner
Published: January 2015

Franchising is a contractual business arrangement between franchisor and franchisees that combines efficient back‐office operations provided by a franchisor with effective customer‐facing activities managed by the individual franchisee. It is considered a hybrid form of organization and is believed to evolve over time. Franchisees are considered entrepreneurs that run their own business and have certain rights, notably, the right to set their own prices. Franchise systems often employ a multi unit franchising strategy and operate as so‐called plural form. A key managerial challenge for franchise systems is to balance tight control of franchisees with allowing them sufficient autonomy to capitalize on their local knowledge and entrepreneurial motivation.
Implementation
Authors: Littler Dale , Rudd John
Published: January 2015

The implementation of strategy is generally regarded as being the third and fourth parts of a four‐stage process of strategic planning, involving the stages of analysis, planning implementation and control. Successful implementation plays a significant role in the achievement of strategic objectives. In service businesses customer facing employees have a vital role in the successful implementation of strategic plans.
Internal Marketing
Authors: Lings Ian N.
Published: January 2015

Internal marketing aligns the efforts of employees with the wants and needs of the market. Internal market orientation conceptualizes the internal market as a facsimile of the external markets and uses marketing know‐how to enable and motivate employees to deliver satisfying customer experiences. Internal customer orientation views the internal market as a network of relationships and employs marketing knowledge to facilitate these relationships, building quality into the service delivery process. Both internal market orientation and internal customer orientation positively influence the experiences of customers. In addition to the cultural and operational challenges associated with the implementation of internal marketing, measures of its financial impact remain illusive. This has resulted in a relatively slow uptake within organizations.
Internet Marketing
Authors: Page Kelly L.
Published: January 2015

This article provides a review of Internet marketing, an digital form of interactive marketing, and its use for the marketing in both consumer and business markets.
Market Segmentation
Authors: McDonald Malcolm
Published: January 2015

Success today is measured in terms of added shareholder value (SV), having taken account of the risks associated with declared future strategies, the time value of money, and the cost of capital.
Marketing Strategy
Authors: Piercy Nigel , Lane Nikala
Published: January 2015

In terms of scope and domain, marketing strategy consists of the analysis, strategy development, and implementation of activities in developing a vision about the market(s) of interest to the organization; selecting market target strategies; setting objectives; and developing, implementing, and managing the marketing programme through positioning strategies designed to meet the value requirements of the customers in each market target.
Measurement and Scaling
Authors: Sinkovics Rudolf R. , Lew Yong Kyu
Published: January 2015

This article discusses the issues of measurement and scaling for marketing research.
Retail Franchises
Authors: Byrom John
Published: January 2015

As a method of distribution, retail franchising has grown rapidly in importance over recent years. The process involves a parent company assigning rights to another firm, who are then licensed to offer the company's product in a given area in return for the payment of a fee and/or royalties. Franchising is also a popular choice of entry mode for companies looking to expand internationally, with many of the largest international retail firms having achieved success on the basis of a franchising model.
Sales Force
Authors: Guenzi Paolo
Published: January 2015

Sales force are people responsible for managing contacts with customers with the ultimate goal of achieving the sales and profit objectives of the firm.
Sales Management
Authors: Meunier‐FitzHugh Kenneth Le
Published: January 2015

Sales management is the organization and control of the sales force. Sales management includes the recruitment, training, and motivation of a sales team that meets the needs of the market environment. Sales management also includes organization of sales territories, setting objectives, establishing budgets, and evaluating performance.
Sales Promotion
Authors: Donaldson Bill
Published: January 2015

Sales promotion can mean any activity to sell a product and can be both a supplement to other forms of customer communication and a form of communication in its own right but new media have blurred the lines between the two. Some examples of sales promotion techniques are listed.
Sponsorship
Authors: Carrillat François A. , d'Astous Alain
Published: January 2015

Sponsorship is a marketing communication strategy that refers to a contractual association of an organization with an outside entity – a popular event (e.g., sport, culture, charity), an individual (e.g., an Olympic athlete), a group of individuals (e.g., a sports team), or a physical asset (e.g., a musical venue). In this article, what is known about the main phenomena and variables that surround sponsorship – consumer attributions, activation, sponsor–sponsee congruence, articulation, and multi–sponsor situations – and their effects on consumer responses is reviewed. It is concluded that more research on sponsorship is needed, particularly as regards ambush marketing and the longitudinal effects of sponsorship.
Strategic Marketing
Authors: Littler Dale , Rudd John
Published: January 2015

Strategic marketing is a process that allows organisation to align resources optimally, to create competitive advantage. This is achieved by capitalising on opportunities and countering threats in competitive
environments.
Structural Equation Models
Authors: Greatorex Michael
Published: January 2015

Structural equation models bring together research methods in a holistic way.
Television‐Based Home Shopping
Authors: Greenland Steve , Newman Andrew
Published: January 2015

Television‐based home shopping involves the purchase of products advertised on television programs and in commercial breaks by telephoning orders through to the advertised number. This may be undertaken at the press of a button with the advent of digital satellite and cable television. Digital television considerably improves a retailer's chances of launching interactive television shopping and can provide hundreds of channels of output and interactive services.
Account Manager
Authors: Littler Dale
Published: January 2015

The account manager has responsibility for managing major customers (
see
Pareto's Rule).
Agency
Authors: Yorke David
Published: January 2015

An organization can develop its own Advertising and promotional (
see
Price Promotions and Sales Promotion) skills or use those of an agency, either in‐house, which is owned and controlled by the parent company, or one that is independent.
AIO
(Activities, Interests, and Opinions)
Authors: Mitchell Vincent‐Wayne
Published: January 2015

Whereas values and Personality represent internal characteristics, lifestyle represents external consumer patterns of behavior which are often categorized into consumer's activities (e.g., work, hobbies, holidays), interests (e.g., family, fashion, food), and opinions (e.g., social issues, politics, and the future).
Attention
Authors: Yorke David
Published: January 2015

Attention is the first stage in the AIDA model of Marketing Communications.
BCG
Matrix
Authors: Littler Dale
Published: January 2015

The
BCG
(
B
oston
C
onsulting
G
roup) matrix, as its name implies, is the eponymous technique developed by the BCG that gained popularity in the 1970s.
Bivariate Analysis
Authors: Cui Charles C. , Greatorex Michael
Published: January 2015

Bivariate analysis refers to a group of statistical methods for analyzing the relationship between two variables.
Call Planning
Authors: Yorke David , Healey Mark P.
Published: January 2015

Personal Selling (by representatives from supplier organizations to customers) is considered a vital element in the marketing Communications Mix.
Codes of Practice
Authors: Yorke David
Published: January 2015

It is desirable that industries conform to certain rules or regulations in the conduct of their business.
Communications Research
Authors: Littler Dale
Published: January 2015

Communications research is aimed at optimizing the effectiveness of communications through pretesting and posttesting of various aspects of the Communications Mix.
Competitive Advantage
Authors: Littler Dale
Published: January 2015

Competitive advantage may be secured through differentiation of the organization and/or its products and services in some way in order to gain preference by all or part of the market over its rivals.
Comprehension
Authors: Banister Emma
Published: January 2015

Comprehension refers to the point at which a consumer attaches meaning to a stimulus.
Conative Stage
Authors: Yorke David
Published: January 2015

Consumer decision‐making models (
see
Decision Making) which suggest that a target buyer or customer moves from a state of ignorance or unawareness of an organization and/or its products or services to ultimately making a purchase comprise three main stages: Cognitive Stage, Affective Stage, and conative.
Construct Equivalence
Authors: Lindridge Andrew
Published: January 2015

Construct equivalence aims to identify whether the constructs being measured in a cross‐cultural/societal study hold the same meaning and value in the different cultures/societies being researched. The methodological requirement for construct equivalence arose from Campbell's (1964) observation that a major cross‐cultural/societal methodological problem was falsely attributing behavioural differences to cultural/societal causes. In this article we explore the difference components that form construct equivalence and their relevance to marketing research and methodological implications.
Consumer Knowledge Structures
Authors: Healey Mark P.
Published: January 2015

One of the principal aims of basic or theoretical marketing research is to understand how consumers think about and react to marketplace stimuli.
Consumer Panels
Authors: Mitchell Vincent‐Wayne
Published: January 2015

In marketing research, the same sample of individuals may be used over and over again, often asked questions on the same topic, indeed, asked the same questions at different points in time.
Consumer Perceptions
Authors: Lewis Barbara R.
Published: January 2015

Consumers are continually exposed to a multitude of stimuli from companies, the environment, and other people and endeavor to make sense of visual stimuli through the perceptive process, which may be defined as the result of interaction between stimuli and individual/personal factors.
Consumer Protection
Authors: Yorke David
Published: January 2015

Despite the notion of caveat emptor (let the buyer beware), consumer protection is now a part of the legal framework of most developed countries.
Contingency Planning
Authors: Littler Dale
Published: January 2015

In stable environments, organizations should be able to devise and implement plans based on their analysis of the important variables likely to affect demand and supply.
Cost Per Thousand
Authors: Littler Dale
Published: January 2015

Traditionally, media costs have been measured in terms of the cost per thousand of delivered audience.
Coupons
Authors: Yorke David
Published: January 2015

Coupons are a Sales Promotion device which try to persuade buyers/customers to purchase.
Cross‐Tabulations
Authors: Greatorex Michael
Published: January 2015

Cross‐tabulations are very popular in the analysis of survey data and they are concerned with the quantitative analysis of data where several variables are analyzed together, usually to see if there are any relationships between the variables.
Culture and Behavior
Authors: Lindridge Andrew
Published: January 2015

Culture represents a collection of beliefs, norms, rules and values that determine how we behave amongst our friends, family, community and wider society. The extent that an individual is aware that they exist within a culture and what this culture is widely debated between those who argue that an individual doesn't (cultural nominalists) and that the individual does (cultural realists).
Customer Portfolios
Authors: Zolkiewski Judy
Published: January 2015

This article describes the concept of customer portfolio management. The practice of using a portfolio approach to managing customers is particularly useful in a business‐to‐business context, it helps assist in strategic and tactical management.
DAGMAR
Model
Authors: Yorke David
Published: January 2015

The Defining Advertising Goals for Measured Advertising Results model (DAGMAR) is a model of Marketing Communications that was developed specifically for the measurement of Advertising effectiveness.
Database
Authors: Mitchell Vincent‐Wayne
Published: January 2015

A database is a collection of related information which is capable of being organized and accessed by a computer.
Demographics
Authors: Lewis Barbara R.
Published: January 2015

Demographics comprise probably the most important variable in the Marketing Environment of any organization.
Depth Interviews
Authors: Karantinou Kalipso
Published: January 2015

The term depth interview or qualitative interview refers to one‐to‐one in‐depth, semistructured, or loosely structured forms of interviewing. The central difference of this form of interview from structured interviews used in survey research is its open‐ended character. Depth interviews enable the researcher to gather rich, insightful, and meaningful data and can thus be one of the most revealing instruments of inquiry, constituting a powerful research technique for interpretive research and a useful method for exploring new and under‐researched topics. Depth interviews are however time‐ and effort‐intensive, both in preparation and in execution and analysis. They are intellectually, practically, socially, and ethically difficult and require a great deal of preparation and planning to be conducted professionally and effectively.
Derived Demand
Authors: Littler Dale
Published: January 2015

The demand for organizational goods and services is derived from the demand for the goods which they help to produce or in which they are incorporated and ultimately from consumer demand for the final product.
Directional Matrix
Authors: Littler Dale
Published: January 2015

This summarizes the major growth strategies available to organizations.
Discontinuous Innovation
Authors: Littler Dale
Published: January 2015

This can be viewed as being at the polar extreme of a continuum with Continuous Innovation at the other extreme.
Disposable Income
Authors: Yorke David
Published: January 2015

Unlike Discretionary Income, total disposable income (household income after deduction of direct taxation and national insurance contributions) is not available for competition among all suppliers.
Entrepreneurial Strategy
Authors: Littler Dale
Published: January 2015

Entrepreneurial strategy is one of Mintzberg's three
S
trategic
S
tyles (
see
A
daptive
S
trategy;
P
lanning
S
tyle).
Family Life Cycle
Authors: Mitchell Vincent‐Wayne
Published: January 2015

Life‐cycle stages, from bachelor to retired solitary survivor.
Financial Services Retailing
Authors: Greenland Steve , Newman Andrew
Published: January 2015

Financial services retailing refers to the distribution of financial services via branch distribution networks.
Focus Groups
Authors: Mitchell Vincent‐Wayne
Published: January 2015

A focus group interview is an unstructured, free‐flowing interview with a small group of people.
Graphical Representation
Authors: Greatorex Michael
Published: January 2015

The results of marketing research can be presented in graphical form as part of the reporting procedure.
Growth Vector Matrix
Authors: Littler Dale
Published: January 2015

Traditionally, this identifies two major parameters for defining growth: markets and products, each of which are categorized as “new” or “existing”.
Habitual Buying Behavior
Authors: Littler Dale
Published: January 2015

Purchasers will tend to engage in limited search and evaluation behavior where the purchase has little involvement for the buyer.
Horizontal Integration
Authors: Littler Dale
Published: January 2015

This is regarded as an integrative growth strategy and involves acquiring or merging with competitors within the same industry, as opposed to a vertically integrative strategy, which involves the acquisition of suppliers (backward integration) or customers (forward integration).
Impact
Authors: Yorke David
Published: January 2015

In the context of
A
dvertising and decisions relating to choice of media (
see
M
ass
M
edia), organizations take account of the potential impact of advertisements.
Innovation–Adoption Model
Authors: Yorke David
Published: January 2015

The innovation–adoption model was developed by Rogers (1995), who postulated a number of stages through which a targeted buyer or customer passes, from a state of unawareness, through
A
wareness, interest, trial, to purchase/adoption.
International Channel Management
Authors: Sinkovics Rudolf R.
Published: January 2015

International channel management refers to both the physical movement of goods from the place of manufacture to a location in or close to points of purchase and the specific strategic approach in relating and managing channel partners.
International Joint Ventures
Authors: Cui Charles C.
Published: January 2015

An international joint venture (IJV) refers to a co‐operative operation formed by two or more independent entities from different countries to achieve common or complementary objectives.
International Product Adaptation
Authors: Yamin Mohammed
Published: January 2015

Marketing adaptation is the opposite of standardization and conveys the idea that marketers may tailor their marketing program to the specific conditions of the different countries in which they operate.
International Product Standardization
Authors: Yamin Mohammed
Published: January 2015

There is an inevitable tension between standardization and adaptation within Marketing, whether domestically or internationally.
Learn–Feel–Buy Model
Authors: Yorke David
Published: January 2015

The learn–feel–buy models (e.g., AIDA, Hierarchy of Effects, Innovation–Adoption Model) in Marketing Communications propose that buyers/customers/consumers first learn about a product or service by seeing, reading, and understanding an advertisement or being the recipient of other marketing communications.
Licensing
Authors: Sinkovics Rudolf R.
Published: January 2015

Licensing is a contractual arrangement whereby the licensor (selling firm) allows some elements to be used for a fee by the licensee (buying firm). Licensing can involve product technology, patents, trademarks, product designs, manufacturing/distribution process, know‐how, intellectual property, or anything that is deemed appropriate to generate positional advantages in the market.