bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Design and Optimization of Reverse-Transcription Quantitative PCR Experiments
Authors: Tichopad Ales , Kitchen Rob , Riedmaier Irmgard , Becker Christiane , Ståhlberg Anders , Kubista Mikael
Published: July 2009

Background: Quantitative PCR (qPCR) is a valuable technique for accurately and reliably profiling and quantifying gene expression. Typically, samples obtained from the organism of study have to be processed via several preparative steps before qPCR.

Method: We estimated the errors of sample withdrawal and extraction, reverse transcription (RT), and qPCR that are introduced into measurements of mRNA concentrations. We performed hierarchically arranged experiments with 3 animals, 3 samples, 3 RT reactions, and 3 qPCRs and quantified the expression of several genes in solid tissue, blood, cell culture, and single cells.

Results: A nested ANOVA design was used to model the experiments, and relative and absolute errors were calculated with this model for each processing level in the hierarchical design. We found that intersubject differences became easily confounded by sample heterogeneity for single cells and solid tissue. In cell cultures and blood, the noise from the RT and qPCR steps contributed substantially to the overall error because the sampling noise was less pronounced.

Conclusions: We recommend the use of sample replicates preferentially to any other replicates when working with solid tissue, cell cultures, and single cells, and we recommend the use of RT replicates when working with blood. We show how an optimal sampling plan can be calculated for a limited budget. .
Failing to do without: writing as classical documentation of post-classical choreographic documentation
Authors: Marcalo Rita
Published: July 2009

This article focuses on choreographic documentation and it particularly questions the role of the written text as a document of a dance work. It begins by tracing my research's attempt at doing without writing. After discussing the need for documentation in practice-based research, the article exposes ontological assumptions about writing: its ontology of permanence as the ability to remain through classical time. It then moves to a discussion of permanence in relation to post-classical time (duration): permanence as memory. The discussion then shifts to my attempt to create a documentation modality which utilized the bodily and image memories of a choreographic work, and in so doing dispensed with writing and utilized choreography itself as its own documentation vehicle. The final section discusses the limitation of this documentation modality and how, in the end, it returned the research to writing.
Writing Encounters: Institute of Beasts (2008)
Authors: Dutton Steve , Swindells Steve
Published: July 2009

In 1998 Steve Dutton and Steve Swindells formed the artist collaboration Dutton and Swindells. In 2008 they completed a three-month artist residency programme at Ssamzie Space, Seoul, South Korea. During the residency the artists founded the Institute of Beasts by introducing live animals
into the studio as members of a faculty; to suggest new readings of the work but also as a strategy to potentially generate art as a form of encounter in which different compulsions or pathologies pull in various ways but equally live together in a frame or scenario in much the same way as
practice can exist as performance, text and as object. An interesting aspect of having an animal(s) in the studio is the unpredictable nature of what happens to the work when it becomes a perch, a hutch or a burrow and what happens to the artist's practice when they share a space with other
animal(s). This article and accompanying images form a written/visual extension to a presentation they delivered at Writing Encounters, York St John University, 1113 September 2008.
How to do things with words: textual typologies and doctoral writing
Authors: MacDonald Claire
Published: July 2009

The paper reflects on modalities and typologies of writing practice within the fine art practice-based doctorate, exploring how looking at ways in which artists have engaged with writing as process, practice and visual/sonic form, can better inform the ways that doctoral writing itself may develop. Using tools developed through a close reading of Katie McLeod's work on typologies of doctoral writing, conducted in 1995, the paper generates a discussion about the relationship between art's methods and critical writing practice. It suggests that the practice-based doctoral project might be considered as a mutually constitutive one, combining both art making and poetics within an integrated whole, and arguing, with McLeod, that in the practice-based doctorate we are seeing the re-emergence of the artist as scholar, informed by practice and alive to art's investments in writing's digital, visual, performative and sonic forms in a period that theorists have dubbed the late age of print, an age in which the status, form and function of writing, and of print media, are being radically and productively challenged.
Ancestral vascular tube formation and its adoption by tumors
Authors: Kučera Tomáš , Lammert Eckhard
Published: July 2009

Similar to growing and metabolically active tissues, tumors require a dense vasculature to gain access to oxygen and nutrients. However, blood vessels in tumors differ from vessels in normal tissues in many respects. In particular, the tumor vasculature is in an active state of angiogenesis or vasculogenesis, and it is immature and leaky. Blood vessels are multicellular tubes formed by polarized endothelial cells, which face the patent vascular lumen with their apical cell surface, whereas their basal cell surface faces extracellular matrix on the outside of the vessels. The same cell polarity can be found in other tubular structures, such as in the bronchial tubes of the lung or the kidney tubules. In contrast, blood vessels in invertebrates often have a vascular lumen lined by basal cell surfaces. These vessels are often formed by a process named ‘ancestral vascular tube formation’. Here, we discuss the hypothesis that the supply of tumors with blood can be achieved by both endothelial cell-lined tubes as well as tubes formed by the tumor cells themselves using the ancestral vascular tube formation mechanism. We discuss this hypothesis with a particular focus on gastrointestinal tumors.
Exploring enzymatic treatments for the production of dissolving grade pulp from different wood and non-wood paper grade pulps 10th EWLP, Stockholm, Sweden, August 25–28, 2008
Authors: Ibarra David , Köpcke Viviana , Ek Monica
Published: July 2009

The feasibility of producing dissolving grade pulps for viscose production from different fiber raw materials, such as paper grade pulps from wood and non-woody plants, was investigated. Commercial dried bleached hardwood kraft pulps from eucalypt, and bleached non-wood soda/AQ pulps from flax, hemp, sisal, abaca, and jute, were subjected to enzymatic and chemical pre-treatments in order to improve the accessibility and reactivity of cellulose and to reduce their hemicellulose content. A commercial monocomponent endoglucanase and a commercial xylanase were employed for biochemical treatment. The chemical treatment consisted of cold alkaline extraction. The effects of these pre-treatments on pulps were studied by reactivity, according to Fock's method, and viscosity measurements, determination of hemicellulose content, and recording of molecular weight distributions. The results were compared to those of commercial bleached eucalypt dissolving pulp. Eucalypt and sisal pulps showed high improvement in reactivity, reaching levels near or even higher than that of the eucalypt dissolving pulp (65%–70%), and a low hemicellulose content (2%–4%), when both were submitted to a sequence of treatments consisting of an initial xylanase treatment followed by cold alkaline extraction, and a final endoglucanase treatment. However, the viscosity decreased considerably. A uniform and narrow molecular weight distribution was observed in both eucalypt and sisal pulps after this sequential pre-treatment.
Determination of self-diffusion coefficient and hydrodynamic radius of xylan by NMR diffusometry (NMRd) 10th EWLP, Stockholm, Sweden, August 25–28, 2008
Authors: Östlund Åsa , Nydén Magnus
Published: July 2009

No abstract available
Kinetics of SO2-ethanol-water pulping of spruce 10th EWLP, Stockholm, Sweden, August 25–28, 2008
Authors: Iakovlev Mikhail , Pääkkönen Timo , van Heiningen Adriaan
Published: July 2009

SO2-ethanol-water (SEW) pulping is a promising fractionation process for lignocellulosics to produce pulp and value-added chemicals as a contribution to the concept of forest biorefinery. The presence of SO2 leads to dissolution of hemicelluloses in high yield mostly as monomeric sugars, while lignin becomes soluble through sulfonation. After lignin removal, the dissolved sugars may be used as feedstock for fermentation to ethanol or butanol. SEW pulping may be considered a hybrid between solvent pulping (organosolv pulping by solvolysis) and acid sulfite pulping. Absence of an inorganic base leads to simplification of the recovery cycle. Furthermore, alcohol increases the impregnation rate of dissolved SO2 into wood, so that a separate impregnation phase is not necessary. Also, the presence of SO2 allows cooking of softwoods, while ethanol pulping is limited to hardwoods. Thus, SEW pulping may be applied to a wide variety of lignocellulosics at lower temperatures and similar cooking times than those used in kraft pulping. In the present study, SEW pulping experiments were performed on spruce chips at cooking temperatures of 135–165°C with a 12% SO2 solution at a liquor-to-wood ratio of 6:1 l kg-1. The effect of cooking temperature and time on kappa number, yield, and intrinsic viscosity of the pulp was determined. Based on these results, the kinetics of delignification, hemicelluloses removal, and cellulose hydrolytic destruction were established.
MEA/water/AQ-pulping of wheat straw
Authors: Hedjazi Sahab , Kordsachia Othar , Patt Rudolf , Kreipl Andreas
Published: July 2009

Annual plant pulping is faced with serious challenges. Traditional pulping processes with bleaching in chlorine based sequences and without appropriate chemical recovery system cannot be tolerated anymore. Alternative pulping processes with non-conventional chemicals, such as organic solvents, e.g., monoethanolamine (MEA), might be suited for an environmentally sound process with a closed mill system. Thus, pulping of wheat straw with MEA as the main delignifying agent was investigated in comparison to soda and soda/AQ pulps as references. The main focus was placed on reduction of the cooking temperature in order to avoid heat-induced MEA degradation. The temperature was reduced stepwise from 165°C to 130°C. At 150°C, a sufficient delignification was achieved. MEA was partly substituted by water and the resulting decrease of the delignification rate could be compensated by addition of anthraquinone (AQ). After optimization of the process, a pulp with a kappa number of 17 was obtained at a total yield of 56% based on o.d. straw. This pulp was selected for bleaching. Both, O/Q/OP/DQ/P (“ECF light”) and O/Q/OP/ZQ/P (TCFZ) bleaching were applied. NaOH was substituted by MEA as alkali source in the oxygen delignification stage. Up to 50% delignification rate was achieved under these moderate conditions. In the ECF light bleaching sequence, a brightness of 80% ISO was reached at a kappa number level below 3. In TCFZ bleaching, an even somewhat higher brightness was achieved at a kappa number level below 1. A yield of fully bleached screened pulp of around 50% (based on o.d. straw) was obtained. The strength properties of the MEA pulp were improved after bleaching. ECF bleaching resulted in slightly better pulp strengths than the TCFZ alternative. MEA forms in combination with water and AQ a very selective pulping system providing effective delignification and maintaining extremely high yields. MEA/water/AQ pulping should be regarded as a serious, environmentally friendly alternative to soda or soda/AQ pulping to produce high-quality pulp from wheat straw.
Decay resistance of acetylated and hexanoylated hardwood and softwood species exposed to Coniophora puteana
Authors: Hill Callum A.S. , Curling Simon F. , Kwon Jin H. , Marty Virginie
Published: July 2009

The effect of chemical modification with acetic or hexanoic anhydride upon the decay resistance of wood was studied. Both sapwoods and heartwoods of the following trees were investigated: Japanese larch, Larix kaempferi (Lamb.) Carrière; Korean pine, Pinus koraiensis Siebold et Zucc. as softwoods and European beech (only sapwood), Fagus sylvatica L.; oriental white oak, Quercus aliena (Blume) as hardwoods. After chemical modification, the samples were exposed to the brown rot fungus Coniophora puteana (FPRL 11E). The study investigated whether weight percentage gain or degree of hydroxyl substitution were the main factors controlling decay resistance. It was found that decay resistance is associated primarily with cell wall bulking rather than hydroxyl substitution. However, there are differences in behaviour between the acetylated and hexanoylated wood and the possible reasons for these differences are discussed.
Minimizing Machining Distortion in Aluminum Alloys through Successful Application of Uphill Quenching—A Process Overview
Authors: Croucher Tom
Published: July 2009

Recently, emphasis has been placed on achieving maximum dimensional stability in a wide range of critical aluminum components such as large complex aerospace machined parts, space mirrors, optical stages, lens mounts, and computer disks. In these cases, absolute stability is required before putting a part into service. In many cases, successful operation of a complete system hinges on the stability of a single part such as a space mirror in a satellite or a component of a laser guided missile. Proper application of the uphill quenching process has enabled the successful production of parts to provide minimum stresses resulting in the optimum component at the lowest cost. Basic principles for achieving dimensional stability and considerations for proper application of unique tools such as polyalkylene glycol polymer (glycol) quenching and uphill quenching to achieve maximum dimensional stability are discussed. Properly applied, and combined with an understanding of all factors contributing to part instability, these tools can be used as effective elements in a systems approach, which when effectively employed by experienced technicians, will achieve results not obtainable by other means. In addition, examples are provided illustrating successful use of the process to produce low stress parts.
Guidelines for Improving the Standard Fire Resistance Test Specifications
Authors: Kodur V. K. R. , Fike R.
Published: July 2009

The current approach of evaluating fire resistance is mainly through standard fire tests. The specifications for standard fire tests have a number of drawbacks and require only a limited amount of data to be collected during tests, and this is hindering the development of calculation methodologies for evaluating fire resistance. This paper discusses the various drawbacks in the current specifications for undertaking fire resistance tests. The improvements needed to make the standard fire resistance tests more effective and the collected test data more useful are outlined. Strategies for implementing the proposed recommendations (improvements) in test standards are illustrated with examples. Finally, the applicability of the proposed recommendations is illustrated by undertaking fire resistance tests on a midsized column and a midsized beam under improved test specifications. Data collected from these fire resistance tests is used to calibrate finite element based computer models, thus demonstrating the effectiveness of collecting additional test data.
Chapter 3: Distillation Measurement at Reduced Pressure
Authors: Daane Rinus M.
Published: July 2009

THIS CHAPTER INCLUDES A DISCUSSION ON THE details of distillation measurement test methods for petroleum products performed at reduced pressure. The test methods covered are ASTM D2892-03 “Standard Test Method for Distillation of Crude Petroleum (15 Theoretical Plate Column)” [1], D5236-03 “Standard Test Method for Distillation of Heavy Hydrocarbon Mixtures (Vacuum Potstill Method)” [2], and D1160-03 “Standard Test Method for Distillation of Petroleum Products at Reduced Pressure” [3].
Distribution of Mineral Aggregates
Authors: Woods K. B.
Published: July 2009

This paper summarizes some of the information available covering the distribution of mineral aggregates. Because of the scope of the paper, it was considered necessary to compile a selected bibliography, which is included. The origin of aggregates is discussed on the basis of the method of occurrence, that is, glacial or water-deposited granular materials such as naturally occurring sands and gravels, and igneous, metamorphic, or sedimentary rock as regard solid-rock materials. Gravels and sands occur in glaciated regions in the form of kames, eskers, terraces, outwash plains, beaches, and moraines. The distribution of these materials, in turn, is confined largely to the northern tier of states—all of the North east, much of the Middle West, and the northern portions of the Great Plains as well as portions of the northern states of the Far West. In contrast, other forms of water-deposited materials are found extensively in the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain, the Great Plains, the filled valleys of the West, and to a limited extent in the mountainous regions of both the eastern and western sections of the country. Bedrock materials, used for the production of mineral aggregates, occur in the West in the Columbia Plateau, the Colorado Plateau, and the mountainous regions; while in the East, outcrops of rock are widespread between the Coastal Plain in the east and south and the Great Plains to the west. Even in many sections of the glacial-covered region to the north, bedrock materials are quarried extensively, particularly where the glacial cover is thin. Igneous rocks, used for the production of mineral aggregates, are to be found in widely scattered sections of the country. Traprock, as well as other igneous material, is quarried extensively in the Connecticut Valley, in several sections of the Piedmont in the East, in the Columbia Plateau, and in certain sections of the Rocky Mountains in the West. Certain metamorphic rocks, such as quartzites, are found in South Dakota and Minnesota, and other desirable metamorphic materials are found in the Piedmont sections in the East and in many of the mountainous regions of the country. Limestone is the most important sedimentary rock used for aggregate production and occurs extensively throughout the “Ridge and Valley” region of the East, throughout the Middle West, Kentucky, Tennessee, the Ozark Plateau, and widely scattered areas in the Great Plains and some small areas of the Far West. Since blast-furnace slag is a by-product of the steel industry, its occurrence and distribution is mentioned only briefly. Likewise, lightweight aggregates— such as pumice, volcanic cinders, and vermiculite—are not discussed.
Petrographic and Mineralogic Characteristics of Aggregates
Authors: Rhoades Roger , Mielenz Richard C.
Published: July 2009

The petrographic and mineralogic characteristics and geologic occurrence of rock formations and sand and gravel deposits determine the composition, gradation, and quality of aggregates. Thus, because of their several modes of origin—igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic—rock formations present different problems to the quarryman and produce aggregates of differing serviceability. The suitability of natural aggregates for any purpose also depends upon the geologic processes involved in their formation and subsequent history. Petrographic and mineralogic composition and internal texture and structure of the particles control the physical and chemical properties of the aggregate. Consequently, the suitability of aggregates for proposed uses can be evaluated by petrographic methods. The physical properties of particles important to the quality of aggregate are: porosity, permeability, and absorption; surface texture; volume change with wetting and drying; thermal characteristics; strength and elasticity; density; hardness; shape; and coatings. The important chemical properties are: solubility, susceptibility to oxidation, hydration, and carbonation; and reactivity with constituents of portland cement. The interrelation of petrographic character and serviceability of concrete aggregate is demonstrated by several case histories.
Physical and Chemical Tests of Mineral Aggregates and their Significance
Authors: Sweet Harold S.
Published: July 2009

This report on the physical and chemical tests of aggregates reviews the important literature pertaining to the subject and presents a selected bibliography. The development of aggregate test techniques is traced, and the applicability of these techniques to present-day aggregate usage is discussed. Present standard tests used for specification control of quality are described and evaluated. Included in this category are the tests for deleterious substances. Research techniques which have been used to determine aggregate properties are described. These include mineralogical identification tests, volume change, elastic properties, porosity, reactivity with alkalies, and simulated service tests such as stripping of bituminous films and accelerated weathering of concrete. Although most commonly used for obtaining design information, the specific gravity and absorption tests are included in this section. It is concluded that the commonly accepted methods for determining the suitability of aggregate are inadequate. Valuable data may be obtained from procedures indicating fundamental properties of the aggregate but probably the most satisfactory aggregate tests are those which simulate as closely as possible the conditions of service required of the aggregate.
The Grading of Aggregates for Bituminous Construction
Authors: Benson Jewell R.
Published: July 2009

The functions of aggregate in bitumen-aggregate systems and typical gradings for the principal types of bituminous construction for road base and surface courses, and for irrigation and flood control, are presented. There are three types of aggregate structures. A keyed type of structure is used in penetration macadam and surface treatments. Gap-gradings are used in certain open-graded construction and in stone-filled sheet asphalt. Uniformly graded aggregates are generally used in bituminous concrete and mat construction. Aggregates are classified either as coarse or fine. The definitions of these classifications vary with types of aggregate and construction and with the specifying agency. Mineral fillers are necessary in some construction to obtain density and impermeability, physical stability, and to extend the life of the bitumen. Standard gradings for coarse aggregate are given in A.S.T.M. Specifications D 448 - 42 T. Two methods are used for specifying aggregate gradings. The separate percentage method is commonly used for sheet asphalt and to some extent for bituminous concrete. The cumulative percentage method is used for all other types of construction. Typical gradings, obtained from the standard specifications of state highway departments, Federal agencies, and other bodies, are given for a number of road base and surface courses, linings and facings for canals, flood channels, and revetments.
Grading of Mineral Aggregates for Portland-Cement Concrete and Mortars
Authors: Price Walter H.
Published: July 2009

Economic considerations which influence the selection of aggregate gradings and grading specifications currently used by state and national organizations are listed and discussed. Attention is called to the lack of uniformity in screen sizes and size fractions employed by the organizations listed. Grading limits are recommended for fine aggregate with the statement that the coarse aggregate may vary through wide limits, provided the optimum amount of sand is used in the mix. It is concluded that the most ideally graded aggregate from a quality standpoint is one which will give the desired degree of workability with the least amount of mixing water.
Service Experience with Grease
Authors: Everitt W. T. , Pope C. L.
Published: July 2009

The subject “Service Experience with Grease” can cover a wide range of application. Fortunately the manufacturing operations at Kodak Park include an extensive variety of service conditions, operating 24 hr. a day under closely controlled conditions, which afford considerable experience in a relatively short time with many of the variables affecting grease performance eliminated. The service experience described in this paper {fx79-01} has been selected as being representative of grease lubrication in many industrial plants. Our limited knowledge of grease compels selection of the various types of grease by broad, fundamental characteristics, by the reputation of the grease manufacturer together with the gossip of the trade, and finally, by trial and error in actual operation. Actual testing of grease in operating equipment is slow, costly, and subject to error in conclusions due to variables beyond practical control. Some of the obvious variables are: 1. How clean are the bearings before applying the test grease? 2. If new bearings are used, what, if any, means are there of determining the uniformity of the bearings? 3. In ball bearing electric motors, what control is there over bearing temperature? 4. Is the design of the equipment such that the same quantity of grease can be applied to the same bearing size? 5. What criteria are to be used in judging the performance of the grease? In addition to the variables in testing greases in service and judging the performance, there are other questions that the industrial users are concerned with. Among these are: 1. Just how does a grease function under any given application? 2. What affect does the type of soap and oil viscosity have on the performance of the grease? 3. What tests shall be used for lot acceptance and what tests shall be used for judging the grease in equipment? 4. Do the ordinary physical tests indicate in any way the performance to be expected? 5. Are there any accelerated tests which have been correlated with service tests?
The Properties of Weldments at Low Temperatures
Authors: Stout Robert D.
Published: July 2009

The properties of weldments at low temperatures are of interest for a number of reasons. One is the use of welded joints at low temperatures and the need for information as to how they will stand up in service. A second reason for testing weldmentsat low temperatures is that one can thereby simulate conveniently the effect of combined stresses, such as may exist in welded structures in service. It is well known that lowering the temperature of testing will have the same effect on the relation between flow stress and fracture stress in ferritic steels as will increasing the rate of loading or increasing the severity of constraint in the specimen. The result of any of these is to lower the ductility and increase the tendency of the steel to fail in a brittle fashion. The discussion here will be limited to a brief survey of past work and some experimental results obtained at Lehigh University. It should be stated first that the effects of low temperature observed in unwelded steels can be expected to occur in weldments as well. The effect of welding is usually to intensify these effects. Except in mild steels, the welding operation is apt to be accompanied by an impairment of ductility and notch resistance in the steel. Thus, if the steel to be welded is of poor quality and properties, welding cannot be expected to improve it, but rather may introduce additional difficulties. In order to reveal the low-temperature properties of steel, suitable testing methods are required, as the other papers of this Symposium have indicated.
Specific Problems Pertaining to Lubrication of Industrial Turbines
Authors: Morrow A. S.
Published: July 2009

Though we generally think of steam turbines in terms of generator service for central station usage or for ship propulsion, countless thousands of multi-purpose units find varied applications in industrial plants as generator drives and as prime movers for mechanical equipment, that is, mechanical drive turbines. This paper is a general discussion of the lubrication problems incident to units in this usage.
Variations in Properties of Dolomitic Lime Putties with Method of Hydration
Authors: Conley John E.
Published: July 2009

The burning and slaking of lime and its use in mortars dates back to the far remote past. The exact time when man first recognized the possibilities of using slaked lime mixed with sand to fill cracks in his shelter and bind the rocks, stones, and crude brick together is uncertain. We definitely know that some 4000 yr. ago—possibly much earlier—lime mortar was used extensively as shown in the construction of the Egyptian pyramids so effectively resisting the ravages of time and weather even at the present time. Certainly the use of lime mortar is an old art. In spite of the centuries during which limestone has been burned and slaked to meet the ever-growing demands of mankind, many fundamental factors controlling the properties of the lime putty still remain to be clarified, doubtless because of the large variety of types of limestone. The physical and chemical properties in many instances differ greatly from those of pure calcium and magnesium carbonates encountered in the laboratory. The range in types includes all varieties from the light porous oölitic stones, chalks, and marls to the dense, compact dolomites and crystalline marbles. The compositions also vary widely—from “cement rock,” carrying a large proportion of impurities, such as clay, shale, silicate, and iron minerals, and variable amounts of magnesium carbonate, through a wide range of magnesian limestones to the true dolomitic types and finally to high-calcium stones, some of which carry 1 per cent or less of impurities and a total calcium carbonate content of over 99 per cent. It is therefore logical that the physical and chemical properties of the parent limestone would have a marked effect on the properties of the finished lime products.
The Hydration of Magnesian Lime and the Autoclave Test
Authors: Welch F. C.
Published: July 2009

Magnesian limes are used in the construction industry in the form of hydrated limes or putties made from quicklimes of various sizes. The magnesium oxide may be wholly, partially, or negligibly hydrated when the lime is used. In general magnesian hydrated limes have from a small percentage to 25 or 30 per cent of the magnesia in the form of hydroxide. In recent years an autoclave test has been suggested for the testing of lime. It, likewise, has been suggested for the testing of mortars to determine expansion. The autoclave test consists essentially of testing the sample in an autoclave under 120 lb. or more steam pressure over various periods of time. It has been claimed that the autoclave test may well be indicative of the performance of a material. In 1918 Charles and Irving Warner patented a process for hydrating magnesian limes in a closed vessel with steam pressure. In 1924, before the National Lime Association, Irving Warner stated that the magnesia in hydrated lime was not hydrated in some limes and that in others from, 5 to 7 per cent of the total weight was hydrated. He stated further that the magnesia hydrated in time and that the hydration of the magnesia was dependent to a great extent on the burning temperature and time of burning.
Soil Acidity and Liming, and Some Factors that Should Determine the Standards for Lime for the Soil
Authors: Fippin Elmer O.
Published: July 2009

Since the whole field of lime in agriculture is too broad to be considered in one paper, the discussion is confined to liming materials in relation to the maintenance of soil fertility, with particular reference to the background facts upon which standards for liming materials should be based. The chemical form and physical condition of materials suitable for use as liming material for the soil must be determined by the nature of soil acidity and its effects on the whole soil mechanism of plant nutrition and growth. They also are determined by sources and character of these materials and the route by which they are made available for use on the soil. Those facts should set the basic standards for the materials used, whether of the A.S.T.M. or in the provisions of the lime inspection laws of some twenty or thirty states. The present diversity in form of presenting the data, and in terminology, shows the influence of the historical rather than the scientific approach, that increases the confusion of the farmer and thus hinders the full use of liming materials on the soil. How much concession will be made to popular terminology after basic standards are established may be left to the agencies concerned.
Heavy Duty Gear Oils
Authors: Kipp E. M. , Kolarik I. S. , Zeiler C. A.
Published: July 2009

The development of suitable laboratory methods for the evaluation of gear oils would be an important aid in the selection of gear lubricants. The tests should be such that they can be completed in a matter of hours rather than days and in which the test apparatus is of low cost. Test equipment such as the Timken, Falex Tester, Shell Four-Ball Lubricant Tester, and others of this type, though widely employed, did not, at first, appear to offer the solution to the present problem. Chief among the apparent shortcomings was the reputed fact that these machines did not rate any given series of lubricants in the same order, and that correlation with field performance characteristics had not always been established. However, the important advantages of these machines from the point of view of initial cost, cost of operation, volume of oil required, and extreme flexibility in the choice of test conditions suggested that these types of apparatus offered a logical starting point. Some time ago a program was inaugurated at Aluminum Research Laboratories directed to the development of satisfactory procedures employing the Falex, Timken, and Four-Ball machines for the preliminary evaluation of heavy duty gear oils. Many hundreds of commercial heavy duty extreme pressure gear oils were tested, involving some thousands of test runs. Gear oils with extensive and known field performance characteristics were included. As a result of that work, a system was developed which, we believe, has merit as a preliminary screening test for the classification of heavy-duty gear oils. In brief, this procedure involves testing a given lubricant with each of the three machines. The performance of the oil in each of the three machines is determined and the data combined by means of standard rating charts. The results are thus reduced to a single number, which is a measure of the utility of the lubricant. Experience to date strongly suggests that the over-all performance of a lubricant as indicated by the combined results obtained on the Four-Ball, Timken, and Falex is appreciably more significant than would be the case if the Falex, the Four-Ball, or the Timken data were to be considered singly.
Introduction
Authors: Linn F. C.
Published: July 2009

The lubrication of gears connected to turbines is of interest to the personnel of Technical Committee C on Turbine Oils of A.S.T.M. Committee D-2 on Petroleum Products and Lubricants because of the necessity to use the same oil for lubricating the turbine. The personnel of Technical Committee C desired a symposium on the subject of the lubrication of turbine driven gears in order that they would better understand the lubrication problems connected with gears. The lubrication of turbine driven gears and worm gears which are used in turbines is of vital importance to the manufacturer, the refiner, and the customer. The advances which have been made during the last 10 to 15 years in inhibiting oils with rust and oxidation inhibitors for the lubrication of turbine geared sets have gone a long way in improving the service life of the sets and in minimizing the length of repair time during an inspection period. This has been brought about due to minimizing the rusting problem and in practically eliminating sludge formation. Although the oils which have been developed during this period of time are not a cure-all for all difficulties, they have proven exceedingly successful where proper care has been taken in the operation of the lubricating system on these sets. Further developments in the accuracy of the machining of gear teeth have improved the operation of turbine geared sets. The authors who have contributed papers to this symposium have given us a very clear picture of the operating problems, the design problems, and what has been accomplished in perfecting the gears and lubricating systems in bringing about the tremendous improvements in our geared sets and the possible improvements yet to be realized.
Fundamentals of Worm Gear Lubrication
Authors: Purdy A. R.
Published: July 2009

In planning the program for this Symposium, it was considered advisable to devote some time to a discussion of the fundamentals of lubrication of worm gears. I shall try to outline our theory of what happens on the rubbing surfaces of gear teeth. This theory is substantiated in most respects by laboratory and field data; however, further work is under way to tie the various factors more tightly together. The discussion will deal only with surface galling, which is the broad term for wear, welding, and seizure. It will disregard spalling or pitting because tests show that such failures are caused by metal fatigue and are not affected by lubrication. The effectiveness of gear tooth lubrication depends upon a variety of basic factors, for instance: 1. Geometry of contact between teeth, 2. Speed of contact, 3. Pressure of contact, 4. Oil viscosity at contact temperature, and 5. Character of oil.
Radiography and Autoradiography by Photoelectrons
Authors: O'Connor D. T. , Maddy W. R.
Published: July 2009

Two separate techniques are described for the examination of microstructures. The first technique deals with the absorption of photoelectrons generated from lead sheet by X-rays in thin slices or films of material. The second technique depends on the difference in the efficiency of photoelectron production by materials of different atomic number. It permits the examination of thin surface layers a few thousandths of an inch deep, and requires the preparation of only one surface. It supplements the microscopic and microradiographic techniques.
Recent Developments in Gas Welding and Cutting
Authors: Egger E. J. W.
Published: July 2009

During the past year there have been several outstanding developments in oxy-acetylene welding and cutting which have attracted considerable interest in industrial fields, and which have further established the oxy-acetylene process as a most important economic factor in production and repair work. These improvements range from new welding rods through refinements in many of the practices and controls heretofore used, up to an entirely new method of welding. This new method of welding was probably the most outstanding development during the year 1930. Welds greatly superior in quality and strength can be made with the new method in from 30 to 60 per cent less time and with a lower consumption of oxygen, acetylene and welding rod than with the old method. At the present time, approximately 2000 miles of pipe line, varying in size from 4 to 24 in. in diameter have been constructed by this method with marked success. As further work is carried out, this method will undoubtedly have a profound influence on the application of oxy-acetylene welding in many other fields.
Fatigue and Impact Testing of Welded Products
Authors: Jasper T. M.
Published: July 2009

Fatigue and impact testing on a material do not correlate until the energy of the impact blow approaches a very small value. Single-blow impact results plotted against typical fatigue values for steel are very well illustrated by Fig. 1. Repeated light-blow impact test results plotted against fatigue values are shown in Fig. 2 and indicate a less scattered result. When still lighter impact blows are applied the correlation becomes very much closer. This is brought out in a discussion by J. M. Lessells of the Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Co., and is shown in Fig. 3. Figures 1 and 2 are plotted from the results of the Fatigue of Metals Investigation obtained at the University of Illinois and sponsored by the National Research Council.
Separating Alloys by Relative Spot Tests
Authors: Kirtchik H.
Published: July 2009

It cannot be denied, as Mr. Feigl and others have shown, that extremely small amounts of both elements and compounds can be determined by chemical spot tests wherein the specificity of certain reagents, acting upon the sample, is manifested by a color reaction. Let us now consider their application to metals and more particularly ferrous alloys. On innumerable occasions, someone will rush up to the chemist with a bar or two of something metallic and hastily ask whether these contain chromium, nickel, titanium, or some other elements. Sometimes he will merely say, “Are these two materials the same tiling?” The one doing the testing can use a choice of methods to satisfy such a person. By using the techniques of Feigl and others, he can systematically go about searching for the individual elements and give a decision. Secondly, he may use a “relative technique” to differentiate the two or more materials. The theme of this paper is based on this so-called “relative technique” for, by it, the spot test procedure can be most easily transplanted from the chemist in the laboratory to the inspection or stockroom man out in the shop for daily use on a production-line scale. Consider, for example, two alloys, A and B, that are used in the same area of production line and subject to mixture by the usual means. Both alloys A and B may be identical in composition except that 2 per cent of the base metal iron in alloy B has been replaced by tungsten. To use a regular spot test for tungsten would involve a considerable amount of time for testing and separating each bar of the mixed stock. On the other hand, if there is a certainty that only alloys A and B are present at the point in question, it would be much easier to add, for example, a drop of concentrated HNO3 which gives a green spot with alloy A and a black spot with alloy B.
A Field Test Kit and Procedure for Use in the Rapid Identification of Some Nickel Alloys and Stainless Steels
Authors: Lea Henry B.
Published: July 2009

The purpose of this paper is to describe a test kit for use in the field for the rapid identification or classification of certain nickel alloys and certain stainless steels. A procedure for identifying or classifying these metals is also given. The metals or groups of metals which may be separated and identified or classified by this procedure are: Nickel, Monel metal, Inconel, A.I.S.I. type 316 stainless steel (18- 8 Mo), Other chrome-nickel stainless steels as a class, Straight chromium stainless steels as a class, and Carbon and low-alloy steels as a class. Materials which are simply classified into one of the above groups must be further identified either by quantitative analysis or by further spot testing which will not be described in this paper. If must be known that the compositions of the specimens of material to be identified lie within the limits stated above. It is important that all tests be made on a clean surface of the metal and also that specimens of known composition be on hand for comparison. It cannot be too strongly stressed that in testing of this type all definitely known facts of an engineering and metallurgical nature which are pertinent to the problem on hand should be gathered and analyzed. Such a procedure will often pay good dividends in time and expense saved in testing. As an example of the usefulness of this type of information, it may be known that only a certain kind of chrome-nickel stainless steel had ever been used in the area in question. Thus, the classification of an unknown specimen as chrome-nickel stainless steel would serve as a satisfactory identification of that specimen.
Introduction
Authors: Wyman L. L.
Published: July 2009

Among the many phases of our technological work which attained such rapid acceleration during the war period was the increase of the evidence pointing toward certain deficiencies in some of our methods of testing. This realization came about not because the tests in themselves were at fault, but rather because the tests which were used did not adequately evaluate the serviceability of the material on the job. This cold fact is most startling, and brings forth the realization that, if we cannot devise an expedient method of test which will directly correlate with service performance, then we should begin at the other extreme—that of the service test—and try to resolve the differences. With this situation in mind, the Society has established the Administrative Committee on Simulated Service Testing, charged with the obligation of resolving many of these differences between present test methods and service performance. Already the committee has entered the fields of fatigue testing and structural materials, and many more are in progress.
The Fatigue Strength of Lap Joints in Some Magnesium Sheet Alloys
Authors: Grover H. J. , Jackson L. R.
Published: July 2009

This paper contains data on the direct-stress fatigue strength of riveted, spot-welded, heliarc-welded, and cycle-welded joints in J-h, J-a, and M-h type magnesium sheet alloys.
Selection of Recording Equipment for Dynamic Testing
Authors: Swartzel Karl D.
Published: July 2009

Various types of recording methods are described and classified according to writing means, source of writing power, and type of record produced. Key factors in choosing equipment for recording purposes are described, and a general procedure for making such a choice is outlined. Some sources of recording equipment are listed.
Soil Corrosion Testing
Authors: Logan K. H. , Ewing S. P. , Denison I. A.
Published: July 2009

The factors influencing the results of several kinds of tests for the corrosion of metals in soils are discussed. Laboratory and field tests of soil corrosion are described in detail. An equation is presented in which the average depth of the deepest pits on corroded surfaces of ferrous metals is related to: (1) the corrosiveness of the soil; (2) the area exposed; and (3) the duration of exposure. The constants in this equation are given for the soils in the Bureau of Standards soil corrosion investigation. A procedure for determining the corrosiveness of soils with respect to iron and steel is described.
Gasoline
Authors: Boyd T. A.
Published: July 2009

The primary tests that are applied to gasoline are intended to measure the following qualities: volatility, knock characteristics, tetraethyl lead content, gum content, and sulfur content. The tests relating to these qualities are discussed below in the order named. Other existing methods of test that have official standing, but which are of secondary importance in respect to gasoline, or which are infrequently applied, and so are not included in this discussion, are intended to measure the properties of color, gravity, autogenous ignition temperature, thermal value, viscosity, and content of unsaturated hydrocarbons (acid heat).