bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Pluralist Network
Authors: Noam Eli
Published: November 2023

In the first part of this book, we analyzed the incentives and forces for centrifugalism in the previously all-encompassing network. We then turned to the various countries and issues to observe these centrifugal tendencies. Now, we close the circle and return to the nature of change. The incentives to group formation, discussed in the model of Chapter 3, can lead, where they are permitted to do so legally, to new “network associations.” It is a process that we called earlier the “tragedy of the common network,” because it is not its failing but rather its very success which undermined the public network. As we observed, the success of a communal network creates overexpansion, cost shifting, and the forces for particularism. For example, the largest of users increase their electronic communications to huge volumes, and their technical requirements are increasingly differentiated from those of average users.
The Essay in English: Readers and Writers in Dialogue
Authors: Heath Shirley Brice
Published: November 2023

In a brief piece on “Talking vs. Conversation” published in a New York periodical of the early nineteenth century, an unknown writer linked facility in conversation with adeptness in writing essays. He reached back to Cicero for support of his claim and quoted the Roman orator’s “canons for conversation”: Almost apologetically, the Knickerbocker writer prefaced his summary of Cicero’s recommendations with the epigraph above that calls attention to both the “obviousness” of these rules and their ready applicability to everyday experiences.
The Origins of Dualism and the Rise of Subcontracting in Japanese Manufacturing Industries, 1900–1945
Authors: Nishiguchi Toshihiro
Published: November 2023

Subcontracting in Japanese manufacturing industries cannot be separated from its historical context. As with any economic institution, it is a complex product of both idiosyncratic developments and common features of a capitalist society. The aim of this chapter is not to trace Japanese economic developments in general, but to examine the particular historical and socioeconomic conditions that determined why subcontracting in Japan developed as it did.1
The Transformation of Japanese Subcontracting, 1960–1990
Authors: Nishiguchi Toshihiro
Published: November 2023

The three decades after 1960 were among the most outstanding in Japan’s economic history, when its economy shifted from being second rate to becoming preeminent. In 1964 Japan joined the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), thereby signifying its status as a developed nation; by 1970 its gross national product (GNP) was second only to that of the United States in the free world; and by 1986 Japan’s GNP per capita surpassed that of the United States. During these decades, subcontracting in Japan flourished, despite receding dualistic indicators, while shifting from instrumental use to collaborative manufacturing.
Sources of Flexibility
Authors: Nishiguchi Toshihiro
Published: November 2023

The previous two chapters showed that a distinctive strategy of Japanese manufacturers has produced institutional arrangements that promote continuous quality improvement and cost reduction through problem solving–oriented commitments by customer and subcontractor and that this factor has significantly contributed to making obligational contracting function successfully.
Urban Women and the Emergence of Shopping
Authors: Abelson Elaine S
Published: November 2023

Women were part of the rising middle class in the second half of the nineteenth century, but, unlike their male counterparts, their role lacked an important degree of definition. It was often unclear just what it meant to be a middle-class woman. As domesticity expanded beyond the confines of the individual household and emphasis was increasingly placed on the new world of material possessions, shopping became woman’s work and woman’s recreation. Sanctioned by an older rhetoric of family, but taking place in a radically altered environment under the aegis of a changing value system, shopping and consumer spending emerged as an important component of urban middle-class identity in the decades after the Civil War. Women, who had been effectively excluded from significant economic activity, became, suddenly, central to that identity. The tensions engendered by the convergence of the old and the new become apparent when we examine women’s relation to the emerging culture of con sumer capitalism in detail.
Shoplifting Ladies
Authors: Abelson Elaine S
Published: November 2023

The Kleptomaniac, Edwin S. Porter’s 1905 silent movie, gave powerful definition to the late nineteenth-century female shoplifter. Dealing directly with the pattern of relations that had developed within class, gender, and consumerism in America, Porter told the parallel but very different stories of the thefts committed by two women. The story is simple. A wealthy woman is arrested for shoplifting in Macy’s. In court the elegantly attired defendant is accompanied by her husband and a frock-coated lawyer. She is treated with sympathy and given a chair. The two men are treated with deference; they are obviously important. The Macy detectives who argue the case have no chance; the woman goes free over their strenuous objections. In the same courtroom, a poor woman who has stolen a loaf of bread for her starving children goes to jail. Justice, Porter says in this biting social commentary, is not blind, but blinded by money and power.
Institutions and Incentives for Developing Work-Related Knowledge and Skill
Authors: Stern David
Published: November 2023

A greater emphasis on continual learning by employees appears to characterize some firms that successfully adapt to changing market forces and new technologies. This chapter outlines the roles of three mechanisms of skill formation in the United States-schools, corporate training programs, and what I will call learning-intensive production.
Tobacco Liability In The Courts
Authors: Schwartz Gary T
Published: November 2023

The Surgeon General’s 1989 Report avoids any discussion of tobacco companies’ tort liability, explaining that “the lawsuits themselves are private matters, not public issues, and while there are public issues relevant to the lawsuits, the lack of a significant body of literature on the issues of interest precludes coverage of them” (U.S. DHHS, Surgeon General 1989, p. 472). This chapter seeks to offset the scholarly void to which the Surgeon General refers by identifying and discussing the responses of judges and juries to suits against the manufacturers of tobacco products (mainly cigarettes).
Prologue
Authors: Sherman Joe
Published: November 2023

I first drove into Spring Hill, Tennessee, in September 1986, four months after earthmovers had started peeling the loam off fields behind a six-columned Gone With the Wind style mansion a mile south of the village. Saturn, a wholly owned subsidiary of General Motors Corporation, had bought the mansion, called Haynes Haven, and a second mansion, Rippavilla, which sat across the road. Haynes Haven and Rippavilla anchored Saturn’s 2,450 acres and it was here that the biggest corporation in America was going to have a small-car showdown with the Japanese. General Motors was finally going to try to build a high-quality, low-cost car that Americans liked.
Lost Opportunities
Authors: Sherman Joe
Published: November 2023

Spring Hill deserved to be commended for trying to assert its will concerning the future high school and for celebrating 150 years of small-town history instead of simply giving in to the forces of bigness and growth buffeting it like a leaf in a storm. It helped that many of Spring Hill’s citizens were deeply rooted there, and that relative newcomers like Jones and Derryberry had taken the village to heart. Collectively, the townspeople seemed to want Spring Hill to have its own future, its own high school. They were proud of its history. The mayor and the aldermen had also committed the village to planning the future to some extent with zoning, subdivision regulations, and a sign ordinance to stem visual blight.
Changing of the Guard
Authors: Sherman Joe
Published: November 2023

That December I saw George Jones on several occasions. The mayor didn’t look good: drawn around the eyes, heavier around the middle, tired. Discount Builders Supply in Columbia had folded and he had taken on a sizable contracting job, overseeing the construction of a fifty-thousand-square-foot textile factory on the outskirts of the city for a local developer named Eugene Heller. That was in addition to the thirty to forty hours a week he was still putting in as mayor.
The Chairman
Authors: Sherman Joe
Published: November 2023

In late July 1991 I went to Detroit for a week. I had not spent much time there since my undergraduate days at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor, forty miles farther west. Detroit had been on the road to ruin even then, but now, over twenty years later, it had no rival in America for the quality of those ruins. Square block after square block of ragged brick, sagging metal, tilting towers whose wondrous shapes would make an imaginative child smile and a retired autoworker cry were scattered here and there. Detroit was worse than it had been, yet also beautiful, or so it seemed to me, in an odd way. Its downtown, in particular, retained a certain grace. It was a forgotten, somewhat forlorn, but undeniably marvelous architectural monument to the decades that had opened the American Century, decades during which Detroit had been a power hub, its automotive factories belching smoke, its jobs luring immigrants, its swagger and industry epitomizing that high-octane blend of the utilitarian and the sublime that had washed over the roots of the American Century like a magic elixir. An elixir that had totally dried up during the century’s fourth quarter, leaving downtown Detroit to rot.
The Engineer
Authors: Sherman Joe
Published: November 2023

Wearing a dark suit and looking at a low-slung red race car on display in the lobby of the design studio at the GM Tech Center in Warren, Michigan, Jay J. Wetzel, II, Saturn’s vice president of engineering, the guy who had first been stopped for speeding in a Saturn prototype in 1985, heard the security guard call his name and turned. Wetzel strolled in my direction, briefcase swinging from his hands, a grin flickering at the corners of his lips.
“Talk About a Woman Who’s Smart”
Authors: Sherman Joe
Published: November 2023

For the next few days the weather in Motor City was spectacular. “Zephyr-fresh,” one reporter at the Detroit Free Press called it, “with a sky the color of infinity.” Air conditioning was not necessary because, as the reporter added poetically, “Breezes twirl through the house like phantom ballerinas.”
Prototypes
Authors: Sherman Joe
Published: November 2023

After lunch I followed Beth Miakinin’s bright red Pontiac Sunbird south a few miles to the Saturn Engineering and Preproduction Build Center in Madison Heights. After checking through security, which was tight because prototypes were pieced together here and new body styles given three dimensions in a business exceptionally paranoid about spies, Miakinin led me inside. She introduced me to Rick Youngblood, thirty-nine, a personality “A’’-type engineer wearing a striped shirt and glasses with little plastic protective skirts attached to the bows, and to Maurice Bobo, forty-two, a relaxed fellow with a beard who had worked with Jay Wetzel at Pontiac. Youngblood was the manufacturing team leader at the build center, and Bobo was team leader for product development. With their counterparts from the UAW, who were not in today, they managed the facility.
Feeling Cheated by Change
Authors: Sherman Joe
Published: November 2023

The next day was mild. The air smelled crisp and clean, the sky was light blue. Driving along Cleburne Road to the west of Saturn, on the mowed field to the other side of the road I saw round hay bales. They were on property once part of the Doctor Black Place. The Black family’s gravestones had been tossed around by the tornado of 1963. I recalled with a sudden awareness of time, which startled me, how I had stood up there four years ago, by the wind-scourged gravestone of Jane Black (“Then rise unchanged and be an angel still,” the faded inscription read), and looked across at yellow trucks, churning bulldozers, dusty drilling rigs. Now I saw a mile-long sprawl of building, a hundred acres under roof, a company believing it would survive the turmoil besetting its parent organization.
Learnability of Phrase Structure Grammars*
Authors: Fodor Janet Dean
Published: November 2023

Gazdar, Klein, Pullum, and Sag (1985) made it very clear in the introductory chapter of their book on Generalized Phrase Structure Grammar that what they were about to present was a linguistic theory, not a psychological theory of language use or language learning. They were prepared to acknowledge that some relationship between the two might be forged: “since a given linguistic theory will make specific claims about the nature of languages, it may well in turn suggest specific kinds of psycholinguistic hypotheses.” But their estimate of actual progress to date in identifying and testing such hypotheses was quite glum.
Implementing Government Binding Theories
Authors: Stabler Edward P
Published: November 2023

In Knowledge of Language Chomsky describes two major developments in the tradition of Government and Binding theories. The first is an emphasis on human knowledge of language, that is, on grammars and the structures they define, rather than on the set of grammatical sentences defined by the grammars. This emphasis brings the acquisition problem to a central position, since our hypotheses about human knowledge of language must be such as to allow for the acquisition of this knowledge.
Semantics, Knowledge, and NP Modification
Authors: Crain Stephen , Hamburger Henry
Published: November 2023

The goal of semantic theory is to provide a systematic account of the meanings of the well-formed expressions of natural language. This paper outlines a semantic theory of the workings of modifiers in English noun phrases. Our initial orientation is to pursue as far as possible a compositional, model-theoretic semantics that is independent of knowledge and psychological processing. However, we find phenomena that suggest modifications to compositionality and model theory and that require some clarification of the interaction of semantics with both knowledge and processing.
On the Development of Biologically Real Models of Human Linguistic Capacity
Authors: Kean Mary-Louise
Published: November 2023

A formal linguistic theory which accurately characterizes the average human being’s capacity to acquire and maintain knowledge of the language of his/her speech community is of necessity a biological theory, a theory of the functional structure of components of the human brain. Linguistic theories which attempt to characterize human linguistic capacity are, in this respect, no different from theories which attempt to characterize visual cognition. On this view, a formal linguistic theory must be both psychologically and biologically real. An elegant theory of language structure which comports neither with the exigencies of structural processing as carried out on-line by people nor the computational structure of human brain mechanisms may be of interest and importance for a host of reasons, but it is not a theory of human linguistic capacity.
Orthostatic Intolerance
Authors: Rowell Loring B
Published: November 2023

A goal of the previous chapters was to explain how neural and humoral mechanisms of vascular and cardiac control keep blood pressure from falling during orthostasis. The goal of this chapter is to amplify the discussion of essential adjustments to orthostasis by showing what happens when a particular part of the control system is either lost or malfunctioning. The cartoons in Figure 4-1 summarize both initial and long-term adjustments to orthostasis; they emphasize a time-dependent progression of centrifugal shifts in blood volume accompanied by falling central venous and arterial pressures. Despite the progressive neurally and humorally mediated corrections, they culminate in a failure of regulation called syncope. Normally, this sequence of adjustments occurs over many minutes during passive head-up tilt when muscles are relaxed. It takes longer during quiet standing because the tonically contracted postural muscles press against dependent veins, lessening their transmural pressure and, consequently, the volume they contain (Figure 1-14). In contrast, syncope may occur within seconds after patients with autonomic dysfunction stand up. Regardless of what the precipitating causes of syncope might have been, loss of consciousness due to inadequate cerebral perfusion is the end point.
American Victory, American Defeat
Authors: Mcpherson James M
Published: November 2023

EFFORTS TO EXPLAIN the causes of Confederate defeat in the Civil War have generated a great deal of controversy over the past century and a quarter. The debate began with the publication in 1866 of The Lost Cause by Richmond journalist Edward Pollard, who blamed Jefferson Davis. Numerous books and articles since then have addressed the issue explicitly in their titles, as did the anthology of essays first presented as lectures at Gettysburg College in 1958, Why the North Won the Civil War, and the volume published in 1986 co-authored by four historians, Why the South Lost the Civil War. Many other books suggest by their tides an answer to the question of why the Confederacy lost, including Frank Owsley’s State Rights in the Confederacy, Paul Escort’s After Secession: Jefferson Davis and the Failure of Southern Nationalism, and Grady McWhiney’s and Perry D. Jamieson's Attack and Die: Civil War Military Tactics and the Southern Heritage. Rare is the civil War historian who does not have something to say on this subject, at least implicity. Judging from the questions provoked by the essays in the present volume when they were delivered as lectures at Gettysburg College's annual Civil War Institute in June 1991, the subject remains as vital as ever.
Military Means, Political Ends: Strategy
Authors: Jones Archer
Published: November 2023

ANY ESTIMATE OF the role of strategy in the outcome of the Civil War would necessarily involve giving strategy a broad definition, one going beyond strictly military concerns to include such important and interrelated topics as diplomacy, economic mobilization, and finance. But to do this would make strategy too broad to provide a focused perspective on the war, one which would clearly illuminate the contribution of military strategy to victory and defeat. Nevertheless, military strategy has such a close relation to the war’s political objectives and concerns that any intelligible treatment must show its links to politics. Further, it is convenient to distinguish between military and political strategy by defining the former as military action designed to deplete the hostile military force and the latter as military action intended to produce a political result directly. Yet military and political strategy rarely have such clear-cut boundaries because most military actions have political effects. Thus northern and southern strategists had to consider the political effect of their military actions on not only the enemy but on the attitudes of foreign powers and the opinions of their own people, including the citizen soldiers. The attitude of the public had great importance in this War, the first large-scale, prolonged conflict between democratically organized countries in the age of mass circulation newspapers and widespread literacy.
Modern Community Psychiatry
Authors: Breakey William R
Published: November 2023

Community psychiatry has evolved over half a century. Its central premises have changed, and its emphasis has shifted with changes in philosophy, perspective, and public policy. In the 1950s and 1960s the term community psychiatry was used to define a theory-driven approach that focused on the social psychology of groups and social networks, the function of these relationships in promoting health, and the collective rather than individualistic aspects of human experience. This view emphasized the place of the person in the community and the influence of the social environment on the development of the individual and his or her capacity to adapt and be healthy. From these ideas came the concepts of mental hygiene and preventive psychiatry, based on the public health premise that disorders can be prevented or chronicity avoided by creating a healthy environment and providing the correct early interventions. The target for intervention was the community, and community psychiatry sought to understand the role of the community itself in promoting and enhancing mental health. Consultation and education became central functions for the community psychiatrist who adopted this perspective, with the goal that the community and its members should act in more healthful ways, benefitting individuals and the community as a whole.
The Art and Science of Strategy
Authors: McMillan John
Published: November 2023

Man A Aersare continually making strategic decisions. As a manager, you think strategically whenever there are interactions between your decision and other people’s decisions: when, in order to decide what you should do, you must reason through how they are going to act or react. What are their aims? What options are open to them? In the light of your answers to these questions, what is the best way for you to act? Game theory provides a tool for thinking about how deals are shaped: a systematic way of thinking about questions of strategy. This book uses ideas from game theory to investigate decision-making in business organizations.
Playing Games as Games
Authors: McMillan John
Published: November 2023

Games In The technical sense of situations involving interdependent decisions can also be games in the everyday sense of the word. In this chapter we will see some games that work both as brainteasers and as introductions to some of the main ideas of game theory. The most effective way to learn game theory is to do it: for this reason, you should try to reason each of these games through before reading the solution that follows.
Organizing a Network of Subcontractors
Authors: McMillan John
Published: November 2023

In This Chapter we look at how firms set incentives for their subcontractors. This will serve to illustrate and summarize ideas of bargaining, contracting, and bidding from all of the previous chapters. Japanese industry is characterized by close and extensive links between manufacturers and their parts suppliers. According to the Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI), ‘‘Japanese manufacturing industry owes its competitive advantage and strength to its subcontracting structure.” A U.S. automobile executive estimates that about a quarter of the cost advantage of Japanese firms is due to the superior efficiency of their supplier networks.
The Social Bases of Industrial Innovation and Product Development
Authors: Maurice Marc
Published: November 2023

International Comparisons and Societal Analysis The 1980s were characterized by a series of technological, economic, and social changes that called into question the Fordist Taylorian model of the firm and the mode of its relationship to the market, as well as how products themselves are designed and manufactured. As a result, it has become possible to put forward the notion that there has been a change in the paradigm of the firm, as well as a concomitant change in the technological paradigm.
Product Development Capability as a Strategic Weapon: Canon’s Experience in the Photolithographic Alignment Equipment Industry
Authors: Henderson Rebecca
Published: November 2023

The history of the semiconductor photolithographic alignment equipment industry is a history of failure. Established firms have been unable to master “architectural” innovation: innovation that changes the architecture of a product, or the relationship between its components, while leaving the bulk of component technology untouched (Henderson 1988; Henderson and Clark, 1990). Only one firm in the industry’s history has successfully introduced equipment in more than one generation of the technology: Canon, the Japanese multinational. The focus of this chapter is on Canon’s anomalous experience. As the ability to respond effectively to the introduction of architectural innovation becomes increasingly critical, the development of a richer understanding of the roots of Canon’s success has the potential to give us insight into a wide range of critical problems in the management of product development.
Introduction
Authors: Lystra Karen
Published: November 2023

If Each Age nourishes its private rites and rituals, no era more carefully sequestered the rites of male-female intimacy than the Victorian. In a time before scientific polls and surveys, a formidable barrier of silence surrounded the intimate relationships between middle-class men and women. In Victorian America, as in our own time, levels of intimacy were fixed by rules. Lovers shared certain experiences only with each other; witnesses would have contaminated their association, changing the confines of conversation and behavior. Total privacy was the foundation of romantic expression, and romantic relationships were guarded by a deliberate wall of secrecy.
Resource Partitioning and Foundings of Banking Cooperatives In Italy
Authors: Freeman John , Lomi Alessandro
Published: November 2023

This study of the founding of Italian Rural Cooperative Banks is intended to contribute to the integration of ecological and institutional theories of organization. Specifically, we propose a model according to which institutional practices and expectations related to abstract principles and moral (or noneconomic) values materialize in concrete features of the organizational structure. These constrain the competitive behavior of the organizations assuming that form. These behavioral constraints produce immediate ecological consequences at the industry level in terms of niche width and resource partitioning, which have implications for the persistence (or change) of the original institutionalized practices. Following the law and economics literature (Jensen and Meckling, 1976a, 1979; Williamson, 1985; Hansmann, 1990) organizational forms, and hence organizational diversity, are conceptualized here in terms of alternative property rights arrangements chosen by organizational members to coordinate activities, mediate their personal interests, and resolve potential conflicts. As we explain in detail later, doing so has the advantage of defining the “unobservable blueprint” underlying the notion of organizational form (Hannan and Freeman, 1977) in terms of observable organizational characteristics.
Types of Japanese Factories Located Overseas
Authors: Kumon Hiroshi , Kamiyama Kunio , Itagaki Hiroshi , Kawamura Tetsuji
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we attempt to describe the Japanese transplants in terms of a number of patterns in each industrial sector, while focusing on the differences between companies within each of the industrial sectors: auto assembly, auto parts, consumer electronics, and semiconductors. In particular, we shall focus on differences in the application-adaptation balance of the twenty-three items of the hybrid model, as well as on differences and characteristics in the ways human and material elements are transferred in terms of the 4-Perspective Evaluation. By identifying the specific patterns of individual companies, we can better highlight the characteristics of each industrial sector from many angles. This approach will help us simultaneously to identify those patterns that apply to the Japanese corporations that are operating local production facilities in America (the subject of the next chapter) and to study the strong points and problems that each of these patterns implies. FACTORY TYPES IN THE AUTOMOTIVE ASSEMBLY INDUSTRY Here we pick six auto assembly plants and present their respective characteristics. In doing so, we will see that the strategies adopted by the parent companies in their advance into North America have shaped the patterns of each of these plants.
Universal Banking in The United States
Authors: Saunders Anthony , Walter Ingo
Published: November 2023

In 1933 and 1956, the United States sharply limited the kinds of securities, commercial, and insurance activities banks could engage in. These regulations remain in place despite profound changes in the economic environment, in the structure of the national and international financial markets, and in technology. This book evaluates the case for and against eliminating these barriers. The authors study the consequences of bank regulation in the US as it relates to competition in international financial markets. They examine universal banking systems in other countries, especially Germany, Switzerland, and the UK, and how they work. They then apply the lessons to US banking, paying particular attention to the benchmarks of stability, equity, efficiency, and competitiveness against which the performance of national financial systems should be measured. They propose a level playing field on which any number of forms of organization can grow in the financial services sector, in which universal banking is one of the permitted structures, and where regulation is linked to function.
Measures of Competitive Performance in Global Financial Markets
Authors: Saunders Anthony , Walter Ingo
Published: November 2023

What is the evidence regarding loss of competitiveness, if any, and how defensible is it—both with respect to the performance of U.S. financial firms internationally and of foreign-based financial firms in the United States. In this chapter we survey various measures of relative competitive performance widely used in the financial services industry, and make an assessment of how U.S. financial institutions stack up against these competitive benchmarks when compared with those based in countries with fewer activity constraints.
The Risk of Nonbank Activities
Authors: Saunders Anthony , Walter Ingo
Published: November 2023

The decade of the 1980s was a traumatic time for U.S. banks. Major federal legislative initiatives, such as the Depository Institutions Deregulation and Monetary Control Act (DIDMCA, 1980) and the Garn-St.Germain Act (1982), eroded bank-thrift barriers to competition while statewide initiatives, such as regional banking pacts, significantly reduced the importance of barriers to interstate banking that include the McFadden Act.
Concluding Remarks
Authors: Depuydt Leo
Published: November 2023

This has not been a comprehensive study of the Egyptian and Coptic conjunctive. Its aim is a modest one. But in being limited in scope, it has endeavored to examine an issue of some importance: the independent standing of the conjunctive in the verbal system.
Introduction: The Notion of “Contiguity’’
Authors: Depuydt Leo
Published: November 2023

The distinction between touching and overlapping is irrelevant. It is the “gray area” at the end of A and the beginning of B that characterizes the type. To indicate such a relationship between events, the term contiguity may be used. Events that touch or overlap may hence be called contiguous events.
CH.CN SDM.N=F
Authors: Depuydt Leo
Published: November 2023

A construction that needs to be discussed here is CH.CN SDM.N=Fand its “sisters.” The compound verb form CH.CN SDM.N=Fconsists of two CH.CN SDM.N=Fforms. But its “sisters” show the two CH.CN SDM.N=Fforms to be of different sorts.
Classification of Languages
Authors: Lyovin Anatole V
Published: November 2023

Why bother classifying languages? There are several reasons why it is advantageous to do so. First, without a meaningful way of classifying languages we would not have an efficient framework within which to compare and contrast the numerous languages of the world. Second, a meaningful classificatory system allows us not only to arrange languages very neatly in their “pigeonholes” or “sample cases” like butterflies, but perhaps also to discover something new that we did not know before.
Languages of Asia
Authors: Lyovin Anatole V
Published: November 2023

It is somewhat difficult to come up with a sensible, nonarbitrary way of deter mining the order in which the languages of Asia are to be discussed. Neither the purely directional approach (listing languages in the order that they are found from, say, east to west) nor the approach of listing languages and language families according to the number of their speakers seems quite appropriate here for various reasons. What shall be followed here is basically a variation on the first approach: languages and language families of Asia will be listed mainly in terms of their geographical location; in addition, various possible genetic or areal linkages between the language families will also be taken into consideration, which will entail several different “passes” in different directions.
Languages of Oceania
Authors: Lyovin Anatole V
Published: November 2023

Geographically speaking, Oceania includes Australia and the majority of the island territories lying in the central and southern Pacific and Indian oceans. Linguistically, this vast area stretches from Taiwan in the north, New Zealand in the south, Madagascar (off the coast of Africa) in the West, and Easter Island, or Rapa Nui (Chile), in the east.

There are three different language groups recognized in the region: Austronesian, Australian, and Papuan languages. Only the first two of these are widely recognized to be language families; the last is a geographical grouping which is a catch-all category for all those languages in the region that do not belong to either the Austronesian or the Australian language families, since convincing proof has yet to be presented that they are all genetically related.
Native Languages of the Americas
Authors: Lyovin Anatole V
Published: November 2023

In North, Central, and South America there are three groups of languages: (1) the native or aboriginal languages of the Americas, (2) the varieties of languages imported into the Americas from the Old World (primarily Europe) and which now predominate in the region, and (3) some important contact languages which arose on the soil of the American continent. Contact languages in general, as well as those that arose in the Americas from Europe have over the years developed traits that mark them as being somewhat different from their European antecedents; however, these differences will not be discussed here. In this chapter only the native American languages will be discussed.

Most authorities seem to agree that the original population of the Americas came over from Asia, most likely across the Bering Strait or even across the land bridge which, geologists say, connected Asia and America in the re mote past. One basis for this claim is that the native Americans share some racial traits in common with peoples of Asia, for example, the Mongolian spot which appears on the back and buttocks of newborn babies and disappears as they grow into adulthood.
Introduction
Authors: Henry Alison
Published: November 2023

One of the major goals of linguistic theory is to establish what is universal in human language, and what are the limits on linguistic variation, that is, in how far and in what ways the grammars of speakers may differ from one another.

One way of approaching this question is to look at languages which are superficially very different from one another, and to find out to what extent there are true deep-seated differences between the languages, and how these differences can be accounted for. A complementary approach is to look at closely related languages or dialects and to examine the degree of variation that is possible between grammars which are in many other ways similar. The latter approach has been used productively in relation to Romance and Scandinavian languages and dialects, but there has been comparatively little work in this framework on dialects of English, where most research has been on the standard variety of the language.
Overt-Subject Imperatives
Authors: Henry Alison
Published: November 2023

In both Belfast English and standard English, imperatives may occur with or without overt subjects. Subjectless imperatives appear to be identical in both varieties, so that (1), for example, is grammatical in both.

However, there is an important difference in relation to the position of overt subjects in imperatives. In standard English, the subject must precede the verb, as in (2a) and (3a), just as it must in indicative sentences. However, in Belfast English an alternative order is possible, with the verb and subject inverted, as in (2b) and (3b); this inversion is ungrammatical in standard English.

If the subject originates in the SPEC/VP position as suggested in most versions of the VP-intemal subject hypothesis, then it appears that the verb has raised out of VP in the Belfast English inverted imperatives.
Originalism Does Not Entail Minimalism, I: The Indeterminacy of History
Authors: Perry Michael
Published: November 2023

As I said at the beginning of the preceding chapter, originalism is a position about constitutional interpretation, not about constitutional specification. Judicial “minimalism”, as I shall call it, comprises two distinct but complementary positions. The first position, which we may call “interpretive minimalism”, is about the Court’s proper role in interpreting the constitutional text. The second position-”normative minimalism”-is about the Court’s proper role in specifying the indeterminate directives represented by the text. I discuss the two positions-their complementarity, the considerations supporting or opposing them, and related matters-in chapter 6. For now suffice it to say that grounding each of the two positions is the view that there should be relatively little opportunity for a judge’s own “subjectivity”-for her own political-moral values, her own “tastes,” “preferences,” etc.-to influence her resolution of the constitutional conflicts with which she must deal.
The Original Meaning of theFourteenth Amendment
Authors: Perry Michael
Published: November 2023

I want to inquire into the implications both of originalism and of normative minimalism for the constitutional doctrine the modern Supreme Court has fashioned in the name of “equal protection” and also for the doctrine it has fashioned in the name of “substantive due process”.
Constitutional Adjudication: Law and Politics
Authors: Perry Michael
Published: November 2023

I left a question hanging at the end of chapter 6: With respect to which indeterminate constitutional directives regarding rights or liberties, if any, does the minimalist approach to the specification of constitutional indeterminacy make sense? In chapter 9, in partial response to that question, I suggested that although the minimalist approach to the specification of the reasonableness directive represented, or arguably represented, by section 1 of the Fourteenth Amendment makes good sense, the minimalist approach to the specification of the antidiscrimination directive of section I is ill advised: The proper question for the Court is not whether, depending on where one stands in the religiously and morally pluralistic American political community, one can reasonably conclude that this or that trait is relevant to a person’s status or worth as a human being, but whether the trait is, in the Court’s own view, relevant.
The Invasion oi Kuwait
Authors: Khadduri Majid , Ghareeb Edmund
Published: November 2023

The Jidda meeting, which was eagerly expected in Arab capitals to resolve the disputes between Iraq and Kuwait, proved extremely disappointing when it came to an abrupt and unexpected end. While Kuwait considered the meeting but one step leading to another in Baghdad where the two heads of state might reach a final agreement, Iraq held that if the meeting turned out to be another encounter in which Kuwait showed no sign that it was ready for compromise, then there would be no need for another meeting in Baghdad.
Western Intervention and Its Rationale
Authors: Khadduri Majid , Ghareeb Edmund
Published: November 2023

Arab leaders, viewing their differences as “family affairs,” looked upon foreign intervention in Arab affairs with suspicion, and often they denounced it as a form of neocolonial or imperial intervention. By contrast, in Western eyes foreign involvement in Asiatic or African affairs before World War I was regarded as a civilizing mission to extend the benefits of progress and development to backward people.1 During and after the interwar years-in particular since World War II-when the old colonial and imperial ventures came under severe attack and were condemned in international councils, Western involvement in overseas colonies has been reduced; but indirect control and pressures continued during the interwar years, especially in northern Arab countries which were placed under the League of Nations “Mandates” because they were not considered ready for independence. Some of these countries, like Iraq and Egypt, achieved independence before World War II, but other countries like Syria, Lebanon, and Jordan, achieved independence only after the war.
The State of the Art
Authors: Heine Bernd
Published: November 2023

Recent research in cogmt1ve linguistics and grammaticalization has brought about a number of new findings on the nature of linguistic categorization. This research has revealed in particular that analyzing language structure in terms of categories based on necessary and sufficient conditions for membership only accounts for a limited range of speech behavior. What it suggests in particular is that in addition to these, more flexible taxonomic principles are required to take care of such phenomena as gradience and prototype structure, and to account for problems such as linguistic ambiguity, polysemy and other kinds of semantic relationship. While the scholars participating in this new discourse adhere to a variety of different perspectives and frameworks, there is agreement among many of them on a number of points, such as the following: Rather than viewing language as a state, it is conceived of as a dynamic entity, and linguistic behavior is described as a process rather than a state or a product, or a historical tradition.
Making Civil Rights Law
Authors: Tushnet Mark V
Published: November 2023

From the 1930s to the early 1960s civil rights law was made primarily through constitutional litigation. Before Rosa Parks could ignite a Montgomery Bus Boycott, the Supreme Court had to strike down the Alabama law which made segregated bus service required by law; before Martin Luther King could march on Selma to register voters, the Supreme Court had to find unconstitutional the Southern Democratic Party's exclusion of African-Americans; and before the March on Washington and the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the Supreme Court had to strike down the laws allowing for the segregation of public graduate schools, colleges, high schools, and grade schools. Making Civil Rights Law provides a chronological narrative history of the legal struggle, led by Thurgood Marshall and the NAACP Legal Defense Fund, that preceded the political battles for civil rights. Drawing on interviews with Thurgood Marshall and other NAACP lawyers, as well as new information about the private deliberations of the Supreme Court, Tushnet tells the dramatic story of how the NAACP Legal Defense Fund led the Court to use the Constitution as an instrument of liberty and justice for all African-Americans. He also offers new insights into how the justices argued among themselves about the historic changes they were to make in American society. Making Civil Rights Law provides an overall picture of the forces involved in civil rights litigation, bringing clarity to the legal reasoning that animated this "Constitutional revolution", and showing how the slow development of doctrine and precedent reflected the overall legal strategy of Thurgood Marshall and the NAACP.
’You Did All You Could. ,,Routine Work in the 1940s
Authors: Nagel Robert F
Published: November 2023

The NAACP’s legal work was directed at eliminating segregation, and its lawyers understood that ending segregation required a mobilized African-American com-munity. Overstating his views a bit to conciliate a branch official who had been offended by correspondence with Marian Perry, Marshall wrote, ’We are here to serve the branches-this is our only responsibility.’ Marshall even used criminal cases as vehicles for organization, in part because of the requirement that defen-dants whom the NAACP aided had to be (or had to be believed to be) innocent. In connection with one criminal case, Marshall urged Hastie and Leon Ransom, another adviser, to hold mass meetings, ’to further demonstrate to the community the work being done by the NAACP and its D.C. branch. We cannot do this too often nor can we solicit the cooperation of churches too often. It seems to me that effective work can be done to further the name of the NAACP in Washington because this [is] the type of case which will attract a tremendous amount of attention.
The ’Increasing Power’ Of Private Discrimination
Authors: Nagel Robert F
Published: November 2023

During the 1940s Marshall and his staff mounted a comprehensive attack on racial discrimination and its consequences. They challenged discrimination in employ-ment, in housing, in criminal procedure, in transportation, and in education. The precise issues the lawyers raised changed as the law developed in directions no one had foreseen, but the project of attacking racial discrimination comprehensively remained the same. Lawyers, clients, and interest groups were part of the ’Company’ that, accord-ing to Bentham, made the law, but of course so were judges. The program the lawyers followed was shaped by their predictions about what the Supreme Court would do once it was faced with NAACP cases. Because Marshall believed that judges in lower courts would follow or even anticipate the Supreme Court, because the forces that influenced the Supreme Court affected lower courts as well, and because no one could predict at the outset which cases would reach the Supreme Court, the Court was the focus of the lawyers’ thinking. By 1940 the Supreme Court had been reshaped by President Franklin Roose-velt. Early in Roosevelt’s first term the Supreme Court appeared to stand in the way of his New Deal programs; it invalidated the National Industrial Recovery Act and other efforts, sometimes misguided, to restructure the economy in response to the Depression. In 1936 Roosevelt asked his advisers to develop plans to deal with the Supreme Court. After his massive reelection victory, Roosevelt proposed what came to be known as the ’Court-packing plan,’ which would have allowed him to appoint six new justices to the Court. Although it was widely perceived as an unjustified assault on the Court, the plan was almost adopted, but it failed for a number of reasons: it was packaged ineptly; civil libertarians were concerned about attacking the Court; one of the New Deal’s opponents on the Court announced his retirement; and a decision by the Supreme Court upholding a state minimum-wage statute suggested that the Court had gotten the message and would no longer be quite as recalcitrant about Roosevelt’s programs.1