bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Downstep
Authors: Connell Bruce
Published: August 2017

Downstep is a pitch‐lowering phenomenon that is widely recognized to occur in tone languages, particularly those of sub‐Saharan Africa, in which it was first identified. It is also attested in several languages of the Americas, though only very rarely in Asia. The concept of downstep has also more recently been extended to account for phenomena associated with intonation in non‐tonal languages,1and is indeed perhaps better known to non‐specialists in this context. Downstep is most commonly described as the lowering influence of a low tone (L) on a following high tone (H), such that a new, lower, “ceiling” is set for all subsequent Hs within a specifiable domain or prosodic unit. One of the early and still primary areas of debate in the study of downstep pertains to the sameness or otherwise of downstep as effected by a surface L as opposed to an underlying or floating L. Another area of interest has to do with the implications of its recurrent and cumulative nature for the analysis of contrastive tone levels; a language with only two apparent contrastive lexical levels (e.g. H, L) will manifest several intervening levels in actual speech, including situations in which a H occurring late in an utterance may be realized at a lower pitch than a L early in the same utterance. Another debate centers on the analysis of downstep applying to tones other than H; while the paradigm case is the lowering of H in a language with two tones (H, L), downstep does occur in languages with more than two tones, and in some such languages, cases of downstepped mid (M) and L tones are also attested. Whether such cases parallel downstepping of H remains moot. In addition, there are apparent cases of “upstep,” a tone raising phenomenon that ideally would be symmetrical to downstep in the details of its realization, though few if any of the attested cases are precisely so.
Stress: Phonotactic and Phonetic Evidence
Authors: Gordon Matthew
Published: August 2017

Stress can be signaled through a number of different acoustic properties, including increased duration, greater intensity, and higher fundamental frequency. Stress may also affect segmental and syllable structure. Typically, stressed syllables trigger qualitative fortition and/or lengthening, whereas unstressed syllables are associated with lenition and/or shortening. To take an example of a stress‐driven fortition process affecting syllable structure, Dutch (Booij 1995) inserts an intervocalic glottal stop as an onset to stressed vowels; epenthesis does not interrupt vowel sequences in which the second vowel is unstressed. We thus have pairs such as [ˈxa.ɔs] ‘chaos’ and [[a.ˈˀɔr.ta] ‘aorta’, in which the presence of glottal stop is predictable from stress. American English provides well‐described cases of lenition in unstressed syllables. For example, post‐vocalic coronal stops weaken to taps before unstressed syllabic sounds, e.g. /siti/ → [siɾi] ‘city’. Furthermore, most unstressed vowels reduce to schwa, e.g. ['kan,tεkst]context vs. [kən'tεkstʃuəl]contextual, or may delete in certain contexts delete, e.g. [ˈtmeiɾoʊ] ∼ [ˈtəmeitoʊ]tomato, [ˈksændɹə] ∼ [kəˈsændɹə]Cassandra.
Pitch Accent Systems
Authors: van der Hulst Harry
Published: August 2017

This chapter deals with the typology ofword prosodic systemsand, specifically, discusses the notion of “pitch accent (language),” asking whether there is such a class of pitch accent languages distinct from “stress languages” and “tone languages.” Several issues will turn out to be crucial. Firstly, there is the issue of recognizing (or not) a notion ofaccentwhich could be said to underlie both pitch accent and “stress” (or indeed stress accent), and perhaps other phenomena which are not frequently referred to as accentual (such as phonotactic asymmetries). Secondly, there is the question as to whether we wish to distinguish between pitch as anon‐distinctiveand thus perhaps strictly phonetic property (found in phonetic implementation) and pitch as the exponent of a phonological category (namelytone). Thirdly, there is the possibility of having tone, stress, and accent (in various combinations) “side by side” within the same language, which raises the question of how these notions interact in any given language.
Initial Geminates
Authors: Kraehenmann Astrid
Published: August 2017

There are a number of different ways in which languages make phonemic differences between consonant segments. One, for example, is on the basis of phonological features. The groups of sounds in (1a) differ in terms of voicing (chapterfinal devoicing and final laryngeal neutralization), the ones in (1b) in terms of continuancy (chapterthe stricture features), and the ones in (1c) in terms of place of articulation (labial, coronal, dorsal) (chapterconsonantal place of articulation), etc.
Ternary Rhythm
Authors: Rice Curt
Published: August 2017

Most languages with iterative stress patterns show a simple rhythmic alternation between stressed and unstressed syllables (chapterstress:phonotactic and phonetic evidence;chapterthe representation of word stress). But in a few cases, stress appears not on every second syllable, but rather on every third one. Patterns of this nature reveal the phenomenon of ternary rhythm.
Syllable Contact
Authors: Seo Misun
Published: August 2017

Syllable contact is a notion introduced to describe the sonority relation between adjacent segments across a syllable boundary, that is, between heterosyllabic coda and onset segments. According to Hooper (1976), Murray and Vennemann (1983), and Vennemann (1988), among others, there is a cross‐linguistic preference to avoid rising sonority across a syllable boundary; this tendency is formulated as the Syllable Contact Law (SCL). This law states, for example, thatal.ta, with falling sonority, is preferred toat.la, with rising sonority. This law has been adduced to account for both diachronic and synchronic sound alternations in coda—onset clusters.
Onsets
Authors: Topintzi Nina
Published: August 2017

Onsets are obligatory in the most typical syllable found cross‐linguistically, the consonant—vowel (CV) syllable, and as such, are found ubiquitously across languages. This chapter explores various aspects of onsets, covering much of their structural, segmental, and suprasegmental behavior. Using empirical data as a point of departure, various stances and theoretical views will be addressed on a number of issues. These include the presence of the onset in unmarked CV syllables (§1), onset clusters and the role of sonority in their formation (§2), and the structure and representation of the onset within the syllable (§3). The focus will then shift to the onset's often disregarded role in suprasegmental phonology with reference to several weight‐based phenomena (§4). The chapter closes by briefly reviewing approaches that tackle the onset—coda asymmetry (§5).
Metathesis
Authors: Buckley Eugene
Published: August 2017

The termmetathesis– Greek for ‘transposition’ – refers to a reordering of segments. This chapter outlines the range of phenomena that fall under this description, and theoretical perspectives on their insightful analysis. Other cross‐linguistic surveys of this topic include Webb (1974), Ultan (1978), Hock (1985), Wanner (1989), Blevins and Garrett (1998, 2004), Becker (2000), and Hume (2001, 2004).
Hiatus Resolution
Authors: Casali Roderic F.
Published: August 2017

The termvowel hiatusis commonly used to refer to a sequence of adjacent vowels belonging to separate syllables, as in the following Hawaiian examples from Senturia (1998: 26). (Periods indicate syllable boundaries.)
Lenition
Authors: Gurevich Naomi
Published: August 2017

Lenition (German
Lenierung
, from Latin
lenire
‘weaken’) is most commonly defined as “a ‘relaxation’ or ‘weakening’ of articulatory effort” (Hock 1991: 80). The term was coined by Thurneysen as one “used to describe a mutation of consonants which normally originated in a reduction of the energy employed in their articulation,” and affects mostly consonants in intervocalic position (Thurneysen 1946: 74).
Chain Shifts
Authors: Łubowicz Anna
Published: August 2017

This chapter provides background on chain shift mappings. In a phonological chain shift, underlying /A/ maps onto surface [B] and underlying /B/ maps onto surface [C] in the same context but, crucially, underlying /A/ does not become surface [C]. Thus a chain shift has a standard representation A → B → C (see Ultan 1970; Kenstowicz and Kisseberth 1979; Labov 1994; Kirchner 1996; Parkinson 1996; Gnanadesikan 1997; Dinnsen and Barlow 1998; McCarthy 1999; Moreton and Smolensky 2002; amongst others).
Structure Preservation: The Resilience of Distinctive Information
Authors: Paradis Carole , LaCharité Darlene
Published: August 2017

All languages have a phonemic inventory, including a set of distinctive vowels and consonants, i.e. linguistic sounds that contribute to the meaning of a word. For instance,chip[ʧip] contrasts withcheap[ʧip] in English, on the basis of the vowel quality; in the first case, the high front vowel is lax, whereas in the second one it is tense. We therefore say that /i/ and /i/ are two distinct phonemes (segments) in English (chapter11:the phoneme) and that [tense] is a distinctive feature (chapter17:distinctive features) for high vowels in this language.1While phonemic inventories are built in agreement with the principles of Universal Grammar (UG), the exact composition of a phonemic inventory varies from one language to another. Along with the suprasegmental inventory, the phonemic inventory is a good part of what allows a listener to identify a language at first glance and to distinguish it from other languages. We expect speakers to resist either dropping phonemes or phonemic contrasts from their language's inventory, or introducing new phonemes and phonemic contrasts – although this constitutes the bread and butter of language change – since the automatic consequence of such moves is a different system. We believe that resistance to change cannot be due simply to inertia – it is not passive. In this chapter we will try to show that resistance to change is, above all, a question of contrast/category pattern resilience in the mind of the speaker, which is expressed intralinguistically (i.e. resistance to change due to the passage of time, dialect contact, etc.) and also interlinguistically (between L2 and L1, as will be illustrated in §3 with respect to loanwords). We will link contrast resilience to the traditional notion of Structure Preservation, providing a history of this notion in generative grammar in §2, and considering in §3 the question of whether it is still pertinent now that phonological rules have given way to constraints. We will also address the relation between Structure Preservation and phoneme/structure resilience in loanword adaptation from the point of view of L1 and L2. We conclude in §4.
Reduction
Authors: Warner Natasha
Published: August 2017

[ɹʌʒləḬ] is a four‐word phrase of American English (Figure 79.1). What might it be? How could a listener map this phonotactically improbable string back to the speaker's intended four‐word phrase? Why would a native speaker produce this realization? The intended phrase wasbut I was like, using the quotativelikein the utterancebut I was like, “why wouldn't you just go home?”. The speaker was a young female native speaker holding a casual telephone conversation with a friend. The fact that /bʌt aiwʌz laik/ can be produced as [ɹʌʒləḬ] is surprising, but perhaps even more surprising is that when a native listener hears the utterance, it sounds like a normal pronunciation of the phrase. While one might not expect this realization, when one examines spontaneous conversation, such surprising reductions are rather common. The fact that a surface realization can depart so drastically and in variable ways from the underlying representation poses problems for phonological theory. The fact that listeners find it unproblematic brings up further questions regarding what a phonological underlying representation is, and how speakers and listeners use it. There are three directions from which one might approach the topic of reduction: what sounds the speaker produces (acoustics of reduction), how the speaker produces them (reductions and changes in articulations), and how the speech is perceived.
Local Assimilation
Authors: Zsiga Elizabeth C.
Published: August 2017

Local assimilation is a phonological alternation in which two sounds that are adjacent become more similar. Its opposite isdissimilation, an alternation in which two sounds that are similar become more different (seechapter60:dissimilation). Local assimilation can also be contrasted with long‐distance assimilation (harmony– see alsochapter91:vowel harmony:opaque and transparent vowels;chapter77:long‐distance assimilation of consonants;chapter78:nasal harmony;chapter118:turkish vowel harmony;chapter123:hungarian vowel harmony), in which sounds that are not immediately string‐adjacent influence one another, and withcoalescence(see Casali 1996; Pater 1999), in which two adjacent sounds merge into a single segment that shares properties of both.
Featural Affixes
Authors: Akinlabi Akinbiyi
Published: August 2017

Featural affixes are phonological features that function as grammatical morphemes. The most commonly found cases are tonal (Akinlabi 1996). An example is the associative marker in Bini (Amayo 1976), exemplified in (1). (The forms before the arrow indicate the isolation forms of the nouns and the forms after the arrow are associative constructions. For clarity, the tones in the examples in (1) are indicated with both tone marks and the letters L, H for Low, High respectively.↓indicates a downstepped tone on the following vowel.)
Variability
Authors: Guy Gregory R.
Published: August 2017

Variability is a term used in phonology with several meanings. One common meaning is sociolinguistic diversity: speakers of different social backgrounds speak differently, and all speakers vary in speech style and register. Thus in New York City, as Labov (1966) famously demonstrates, a consonantal articulation of coda /r/ is preferred by higher status speakers, and by all speakers in their more careful styles, while a vocalized or deleted realization is preferred by lower status speakers and in casual styles.
Loanword Phonology
Authors: Kang Yoonjung
Published: August 2017

“Loanwords” are words borrowed from one language to another. These borrowed words usually undergo “adaptation” processes to conform to the structural constraints of the borrowing language phonology. Such adaptation affects all facets of phonological structure, reflecting the segmental, phonotactic, suprasegmental, and morphophonological restrictions of the borrowing language. The patterns that emerge in loanword adaptation often reveal aspects of native speakers' knowledge that are not necessarily obvious in data of the native language and, as a result, loanword data can inform our analysis of the native phonology (Hyman 1970; Holden 1976; Ahn and Iverson 2004; Kawahara 2008; Wetzels 2009; Chang, forthcoming, among others). In this respect, loanword adaptation can be considered a real‐lifeWug test(Berko 1958) which can enable us to probe into the grammatical knowledge of speakers in ways that native data alone cannot. Conversely, however, such emergent patterns in loanword adaptation present a learnability puzzle (cf. Broselow 2009): if a loanword pattern is underdetermined by the native phonology, where does the pattern come from? Also, what type of representation does the adaptation process refer to as it searches for licit forms in the borrowing language that most closely match the foreign language input? Is it an abstract phonological representation, a detailed phonetic representation, or a combination of the two? Are there any universal preferences for certain types of repair over others (e.g. epenthesis over deletion, or retention of a vocalic feature over a consonantal feature)? These are some of the major recurring questions in recent studies in loanword phonology and we will address them in this chapter.
Category‐Specific Effects
Authors: Smith Jennifer L.
Published: August 2017

The lexical categoriesnoun, verb, andadjectiveare traditionally distinguished by means of distributional (syntactic) and morphological criteria. But in some languages, lexical categories also have distinct phonological behavior. This point has been discussed by Cohen (1964), Postal (1968), Kenstowicz and Kisseberth (1977), Smith (1997, 2001), Myers (2000), and Bobaljik (2008), among others. However, the cross‐linguistic typology of phonological differences among lexical categories has not received much systematic investigation.
Tier Segregation
Authors: Ussishkin Adam
Published: August 2017

At or near the top of the job description of the phonologist is the goal of finding, describing, and explaining patterns of behavior among features, sounds, and other phonological elements in languages of the world. For theories stemming from the generative approach that began most conspicuously with Chomsky and Halle (1968, henceforthSPE), the most highly valued explanations are rooted in Universal Grammar (UG).SPE‐based phonology centered on alternations in phonological patterns, and one of its primary contributions to linguistic theory was to shift the burden of the explanatory basis for such patterns away from the lexicon and onto the grammar (the hypothesized computational system responsible for the relationship and mapping between the hypothesized lexical representations and observed surface forms). Therefore, all evidence for such impoverishment of lexical representations isindirectevidence adduced from patterns and alternations observed on the surface. The cost of reliance on such indirect evidence was nonetheless thought by generative phonologists to be outweighed by the explanatory benefit that resulted from the ability to pare down lexical representations and concomitantly endow the grammar with a rich array of rules (or constraints, depending on one's theoretical commitment) that provided structure necessary for the mapping from underlying to surface form.
Semitic Templates
Authors: Bat‐El Outi
Published: August 2017

Semitic morphology is characterized by phonological restrictions on the shape of the words, allowing only a limited set of prosodic templates and vocalic patterns. The prosodic templates, which set the size restrictions on words and display the permissible syllable structure, host a limited set of vocalic patterns, and in some cases also affixes. The stem consonants fit into the consonantal positions provided by the prosodic templates, as do the vowels of the vocalic pattern.
Metaphony in Romance
Authors: Calabrese Andrea
Published: August 2017

The term metaphony, which was first used in French(metaphonie)as a translation of the German wordUmlaut, is traditionally used in Romance linguistics to refer to a process in which a vowel assimilates partially or totally to the height of a following vowel. Metaphony is one of the most characteristic phonological processes characterizing the Romance languages, and in particular Italian varieties (although not Tuscan and, therefore, standard Italian, which is based on Tuscan). For example, in many Italian dialects, high mid vowels are raised to high before a high vowel. In the same context, low mid vowels can be raised to high mid, or diphthongized. This has resulted in numerous alternations, as in the examples /ˈverde ∼ ˈvirdi/ ‘green (sg˜pl)’, /ˈpεde ∼ ˈpedi/ or /ˈpεde ∼ ˈpjedi/ ‘foot (sg˜pl)’, where the plural form shows metaphonic effects. Less commonly, a stressed low vowel may also be affected by metaphonic raising, and other changes may take place as well (cf. Maiden 1991; Calabrese 1985, 1998). The conditioning factor in the metaphonic alternations has been obscured in many dialects by the neutralization or deletion of final vowels. This has produced vowel alternations in nominal and verbal paradigms for which there is no overt trigger.
Sentential Prominence in English
Authors: Gussenhoven Carlos
Published: August 2017

In the linguistic expressions of many languages, words vary in prominence. In the English compound (1a), there is some sense in whichtaxhas more prominence thanrelief, and in the sentence (1b) the same can be said about the subject NPMy bikeas compared to the verbal phrasehas been stolen. Example (1c) illustrates how the perception of prominence can be more differentiated than this:Englishappears to be more prominent thanteacher, which in turn may seem more prominent thanOld.
Word Stress in Arabic
Authors: Watson Janet C. E.
Published: August 2017

Within phonological theory, Arabic word stress has received arguably more attention than the word stress of any language other than English; and within Arabic linguistics, more work has been devoted to stress‐related phenomena than any other single topic. This chapter addresses some of the reasons behind this phenomenon.
A
ckroyd,
P
eter
Authors: Lewis Barry
Published: August 2017

Peter Ackroyd is a prolific writer whose novels, biographies, and works of non‐fiction have attracted a wide audience and sustained acclaim. He started out as a poet and a critic, but soon found his niche as a novelist who delights in ransacking the past and rewriting its literary and cultural histories in a manner associated with postmodernist fiction. The majority of his novels center on London, as does most of his other work. The English capital is the site for delving into a number of recurring themes: the influence of place upon the psyche, the spiral nature of time, impersonation and imitation, the Catholic heritage of England, Englishness, occult beliefs, and strained father‐son relationships. His characters are often transformations of real‐world figures such as the poet Thomas Chatterton, the music hall performer Dan Leno, and the essayist Charles Lamb.
A
ldington,
R
ichard
Authors: Copp Michael
Published: August 2017

Richard Aldington (1892–1962) left an extensive literary legacy. As poet, novelist, biographer, essayist, anthologist, critic, editor, and translator (from Greek, Latin, French, and Italian), he wrote assiduously for five decades. His breakthrough as a man of letters started with his association with Ezra Pound, H.D. (his first wife, to whom he was married for 25 years), and F. S. Flint. Under Pound's leadership Imagism was launched, with Aldington contributing to all four of the Imagist anthologies published between 1914 and 1917. His army service in World War I interrupted his writing career, and he took time to readjust to civilian life. Aldington wrote biographies on, among others, Voltaire (1925), Remy de Gourmont (1928), the duke of Wellington (1946), D. H. Lawrence (1950), T. E. Lawrence (1955), and Robert Louis Stevenson (1957).
Awards and Prizes
Authors: Todd Richard
Published: August 2017

In his 2005 study of today's prize culture,
The Economy of Prestige
, James F. English argues that even if literary prizes (in the sense of “the Greek drama and arts competitions in the sixth century BC”) seem always to have been with us, their “stunning rise … over the past hundred years is one of the great untold stories of modern cultural life” (2005b, 1). This is certainly true when one considers fiction awards and prizes in Britain and what is customarily known as “the Booker‐eligible world” since about 1980. The rise and increasing complexity of this cultural phenomenon during the past 30 years has, it may be argued, proved even more stunning.
B
anville,
J
ohn
Authors: Friberg‐Harnesk Hedda
Published: August 2017

John Banville's reputation as one of Ireland's finest prose artists has grown steadily since his debut in 1970, and few were surprised when
The Sea
won the 2005 Man Booker Prize. Banville's novels, taking shape in language as elegant as any written in the transatlantic world today, open up – to paraphrase Banville on Beckett – to life's chaos and painful comedy. They enact the “tension between art and nature” (Imh of 234) and record “the life of the imagination” (McMinn 1). Their cold vision is warmed by humor and intellectual passion.
B
owen,
E
lizabeth
Authors: Scanlan Margaret
Published: August 2017

Born in Dublin in 1899, novelist Elizabeth Bowen died in Kent in 1973; she is buried in Ireland near the site of the demolished family home, Bowen's Court. Half‐orphaned at 13, she lived as she had grown up, “on both sides of the [Anglo‐Irish] hyphen.” Educated at English schools, she married an Englishman, Alan Cameron, in 1923; the couple lived in Oxford until 1935, when Cameron accepted a position with the BBC in London. After inheriting Bowen's Court in 1930, the author spent extended holidays at this beloved but financially ruinous “big house,” where her guests included Virginia Woolf, Rosamond Lehmann, and Isaiah Berlin. During World War II, Bowen divided her time between London, where her Regent's Park house was bombed twice, and neutral Eire, where she wrote undercover reports on Irish morale for the British Ministry of Information. At a time when Churchill debated seizing the Irish “treaty ports” lost in 1938, Bowen's counsels about respecting its neutrality reflect her affection for Ireland and considerable political canniness. Still, as late as 2004, the question of whether this “English spy” counts as an Irish writer was debated in the
Irish Times
.
Brooke‐Rose,Christine
Authors: Harper Graeme
Published: August 2017

Christine Frances Evelyn Brooke‐Rose was born in Geneva in 1923. A literary experimentalist like her late, younger contemporary, B. S. Johnson, she views the writing of fiction as an intellectual as well as creative exploration. Her English father, Alfred Northbrook Rose, died in 1934. Her mother, Evelyn Blanche Brooke, was an American of Swiss parentage, who later became a Benedictine nun. Raised in Brussels, but traveling frequently, Brooke‐Rose was schooled in Folkestone, Kent. During World War II she worked in the intelligence branch of the Women's Auxiliary Air Force (WAAF) at Bletchley Park, Britain's primary code‐breaking station. She undertook undergraduate studies at Somerville College, Oxford (1946–9), then, from 1950 to 1954, she attended University College London, where she completed a doctoral thesis drawing on her interest in philology and literature.
Byatt,A.S
Authors: Wells Lynn
Published: August 2017

A. S. Byatt is one of Britain's most accomplished writers of contemporary fiction, combining postmodern self‐consciousness about the ability of language to represent reality with a vivid sense of characterization and narrative engagement. Noted for her allusive and intellectual style, Byatt is nonetheless a bestselling author, her popularity secure since her 1990 novelPossession: A Romancewon the Booker Prize. Although she is often cited as a feminist writer owing to her focus on female characters and issues related to women's lives, Byatt is openly ambivalent about feminist theory, which she feels can lead critics to interpret texts too narrowly, without sensitivity to historical context.
Campus Novel
Authors: Carter Ian
Published: August 2017

In David Lodge'sDeaf Sentenceone professor tells another that “‘It wouldn't surprise me if we both turn up lightly disguised in a campus novel one of these days’” (2008, 286). This novel must be recent, for though “campus fiction” often is used today to describe imaginative literature set in British universities, the term's origins are American (Edemarium 155). Thus its growing presence against the native descriptor “university novels” (Kenyon 1980) signifies changes over time within British academic life – and in novelists' responses to these changes.
C
arswell,
C
atherine
Authors: Mcculloch Margery Palmer
Published: August 2017

Catherine Carswell was one of a number of women writers who expanded the traditional boundaries of fiction in the early twentieth century by introducing female perspectives on a changing modern world and new styles of writing relevant to female themes and values. She was born Catherine Roxburgh Macfarlane in Glasgow in 1879 to a prosperous and deeply religious family who lived modestly and encouraged their daughters to become educated and self‐supporting. Catherine studied music at the Frankfurt Conservatorium at the turn of the century and English literature at Glasgow University, although as was common at the time she did not take a degree. Her subsequent life, like the lives of many contemporaneous female characters in fiction, might be described as a “counter‐narrative” in the way it went against conventional social expectations of women. Having made an impulsive marriage with a man who was confined to a mental hospital when he attempted to kill her upon her becoming pregnant, she made legal history by fighting successfully to have the marriage annulled. She then supported herself and her daughter as a journalist, writing fiction reviews for the
Glasgow Herald
and, later, drama criticism for
The Observer
as assistant to St. John Ervine. D. H. Lawrence's early novels were among the fiction she reviewed and she was famously dismissed by the
Glasgow Herald
for allowing her review of
The Rainbow
(soon to be banned as an obscene publication) to be published without the sanction of the editor. While living in Glasgow she began a relationship with the painter Maurice Greiffenhagen who had come to Glasgow School of Art as head of the life class, and in 1912 she left the city for London. She later married Donald Carswell, a friend from her Glasgow years.
C
ary,
J
oyce
Authors: Eustace John
Published: August 2017

Joyce Cary (Arthur Joyce Lunel Cary) was born to Anglo‐Irish parents in Derry on December 7, 1888. Though his family moved to London shortly after his birth, Cary maintained an intimate connection to Ireland for much of his life, and a particular connection to Inishowen, where the Carys had lived as members of the Protestant Ascendancy from the early seventeenth century until the Irish Land Act of 1882 led to economic hardship. Arguably, Cary's sense of himself as an Anglo‐Irishman – attached to both yet belonging fully to neither culture – contributed to his ability to identify and empathize with different subject positions, a characteristic that marks his early fiction set in Africa as well as his more mature, multivoiced trilogies. He studied painting in Paris and Edinburgh during the first decade of the twentieth century, but eventuallyresigned himself to reading law at Oxford. His results were less than exemplary as his determination to be a professional writer interfered with his studies. After a stint with the Red Cross in Montenegro and a failed attempt to secure employment in Ireland, he enlisted in Nigerian political service as an assistant district officer. He occupied various positions in West Africa from 1914 until early 1920, before returning to Oxford to establish himself as a writer.
Aissa Saved
, published in 1932, was the first of the 15 novels that followed until his death in 1957. Two more novels,
The Captive and the Free
(1959) and
Cock Jarvis
(1974), were published posthumously.
Chicklit and Ladlit
Authors: Whelehan Imelda
Published: August 2017

“Chicklit” and “ladlit” are two terms that have become inextricably linked: it could be argued that “chicklit” spawned the need for the term “ladlit,” but if one looks at representative works of fiction in each genre, one discovers important critical distinctions. “Chicklit” is the descriptive term used to categorize a highly successful romantic fiction genre that came into being in the wake of the success of Helen Fielding'sBridget Jones's Diary(1996). Earlier references to chicklit carried different connotations than those now associated with the term: in particular Cris Mazza and Jeffrey DeShell's anthologyChick Lit: Postfeminist Fiction(1995) deployed the term ironically to indicate that the writings in their collection went beyond the normal themes associated with feminist fiction. Interestingly, this perceived tension between chicklit and feminism has endured, even while feminism haunts its subtexts like a guilty conscience. “Chick” in the context of chick lit is mobilized as playful and “postmodern”; others would take it more literally, and critics applied it to suggest that such fiction is retrogressively feminine.Bridget Jones's Diaryremains for most the touchstone of what chicklit is, even though it could be argued to be the exception to this classification – the paradigm in a genre that almost universally lacks the irony of tone adopted inBridget Jones's Diary.
Colonial Fiction
Authors: Ruppel Richard
Published: August 2017

Colonial fiction may be defined as fiction set in what was once the colonial world, the world that European powers colonized starting in the “Age of Discovery” and ending in the mid twentieth century, when Europe divested itselfofits colonies. In this fiction, typically, white, male protagonists leave Europe as explorers, adventurers, soldiers, traders, administrators, or, occasionally, exiled criminals to encounter a foreign world of exotic jungles, deserts, illnesses, and, especially, peoples and cultures. These fictions commonly represent the colonial world in conventional terms, which may or may not correspond to the colonial world that can be recovered in letters, newspaper accounts, and other records available both in the European home country and in the former colony itself. These conventions were, and continue to be, influential in shaping perceptions of the lands and peoples of the former colonies.
C
race,
J
im
Authors: Tew Philip
Published: August 2017

Jim Crace is a successful British writer of fiction who lives somewhat unfashionably‐ for a leading cultural figure – in Birmingham, his adopted home. Born in 1944, he first came there as a student in the 1960s and continues to exhibit a fierce loyalty to the city. After graduating, he traveled on VSO (Voluntary Service Overseas) to Africa, teaching school on his return; both of these experiences are reflected in an early short story, “Cross Country.” Crace became a journalist working for national newspapers such as
The Guardian
and
The Telegraph
. As part of his creative ambitions of this period, he joined a social group (which included Melvyn Bragg) of young writers drinking together in Soho, in whom Ian Hamilton, editor of the
New Review
, took a personal interest. Crace's first major publication was an award‐winning story, “Annie, California Plates,” published in the
New Review
. Later anthologized, it charts the progress of a car as its various drivers take on board new passengers. In this early piece Crace introduces the beginnings of an uncanny, fantastical element that stretches and yet acclimatizes the reader's sense of disbelief, a strategy strongly characteristic of his later fiction.
Fantasy Fiction
Authors: Senior W. A.
Published: August 2017

The fantasy novel necessarily violates one or more principles of realism, generally through magic. Its genesis in the nineteenth century arises from a reaction against the tenets of the age of reason and the mechanization of the industrial revolution, both of which combined to deny any numinous view of the world and to threaten its ecological health. The rise of fantasy in the mid twentieth century, reflected in the success of J. R. R. Tolkien's
Lord of the Rings
and C. S. Lewis's
Chronicles of Narnia
, is a continuation of this reaction against a worldview based solely on reason and science. More recently, the popularity of Philip Pullman's
His Dark Materials
trilogy (2001) testifies to a need for a view of life that endows it with moral and organic significance. J. K. Rowling's Harry Potter novels (1997–2007) and films are credited not only with bringing a new readership to fantasy but also with inspiring a whole generation of readers.
Feminist Fiction
Authors: Whelehan Imelda
Published: August 2017

The term “feminist fiction” is extremely difficult to delimit or define. It can mean the work of a woman writer who identifies herself and her work as feminist; it can refer to fiction that directly challenges the social and political status quo, particularly as it affects women's access to opportunity. Equally, it can be a term applied to work by a writer who either does not declare her politics or denies her feminist credentials, but is read by critics to be feminist in intention, either at the time of publication or retrospectively. Feminist fiction is associated primarily with the emergence of the second wave of feminism (or women's liberation movement) in the mid‐1960s, when the term was used with critical approbation; while not used extensively in the earlier part of the twentieth century, the term also applies to earlier writers, especially those aligned with the suffrage and other left‐leaning political movements, which were producing work that could be seen to be politically aligned with the struggle for women's rights and for equal access for women to education and the professions.
F
iges,
E
va
Authors: Wells Juliette
Published: August 2017

Eva Figes has had a distinguished career as a writer of fiction, memoir, and literary criticism. As a novelist, she is best known for exploring the quotidian aspects of women's experience throughout history and for her tendency toward experimentalism in narrative, qualities that have led to comparisons with Virginia Woolf. Figes's background as a child refugee from the Holocaust, to which she has repeatedly returned in her non‐fiction writings, resulted in a lifelong concern with the expressiveness of language, as well as an interest in representing in fiction collisions between identities and the guilt experienced by survivors of great tragedy.
F
irbank,
R
onald
Authors: Malcolm David
Published: August 2017

Ronald Firbank's writings are neither fully canonical nor uncanonical. He often appears in literary histories in footnotes to discussions of the modernist period. Yet in the 1920s his novels sat next to Joyce's on the shelves of Shakespeare and Company in Paris, and he has always had important admirers. In 1929 Evelyn Waugh wrote that he was “a figure of essential artistic integrity and importance” (176). In the same year E. M. Forster, despite reservations about his work, declared, “Yes, he has genius” (118). In 1949 Edmund Wilson wrote of his novels: “They are extremely intellectual and composed with the closest attention…. They have to be read with care, and they can be read again and again” (492). In
Prancing Novelist
(1973), her long examination of Firbank's life and work, the experimental novelist Brigid Brophy insists that Firbank is “a very good writer,” and, equally importantly, a major figure in the development of twentieth‐century fiction's abandonment of realist aspirations and conventions: “Firbank saw straight when contemporaries of his, even talented ones, were circling in a fog” (pp. xii–xiv). Frequently compared to a range of major writers – Ben Jonson, Jane Austen, Edward Lear, Oscar Wilde, Aldous Huxley, and Waugh – Firbank has recently been taken up by writers on homosexual fiction, and his work is seen as an important forebear of the modern gay novel. Allan Hollinghurst (2000), who includes extensive references to him and his fiction in his novel
The Swimming‐Pool Library
(1988), insists that his novels are “works of remarkable economy, brilliant humor, and disconcerting pathos” (p. vii).
F
itzgerald,
P
enelope
Authors: Wolfe Peter
Published: August 2017

Penelope Knox Fitzgerald (1916–2000) has been attracting readers for many reasons, the most basic of which is her family of origin. Both of her grandfathers were bishops (of Manchester and of Lincoln, Penelope's birthplace). This eminence carried forward. After spending some years writing parodies and theater reviews for
Punch
, her father, Edmund Valpy Knox, became the magazine's editor, a post traditionally honored by the unofficial title “King of Fleet Street.”
Globalization and the Novel
Authors: Moses Michael Valdez
Published: August 2017

When applied to twentieth‐century fiction, the term “globalization” denotes, among other things, the diminishing importance of the cultural, generic, and linguistic boundaries that have traditionally demarcated national literatures. The “globalization of the novel” describes a prolonged and ongoing historical process in which a new kind of “world literature” emerges, one in which the cosmopolitan, international, or global novel assumes a central place. While the globalization of the novel is a particularly notable feature of twentieth‐ and twenty‐first‐century literary history, it should be noted that the increasing hybridization and cross‐fertilization of the novel as a literary form begins well before 1900. Literary history has always been characterized by the frequent and productive exchanges of literary genres and styles across cultural and linguistic borders. In the fourteenth century, for example, Geoffrey Chaucer borrowed many of his literary models from French and Italian sources, including the works of Guillaume de Loris, Jean de Meun, Dante, and Petrarch. And in the nineteenth century, the publication of Walter Scott'sWaverleyin 1814 launched an international craze for a new genre, the historical novel, which by century's end had been widely imitated and adapted by writers throughout Europe, the Americas, the Middle East, and even Asia. The twentieth‐century globalization of the novel thus marks not a unique or unprecedented phenomenon, but rather a significant acceleration of the processes of literary and cultural exchange between different cultures, peoples, and national literatures, as well as a notable expansion of the international networks of cultural and artistic transmission.
G
raves,
R
obert
Authors: Rosenfeld Nancy
Published: August 2017

Robert von Ranke Graves, born July 24, 1895, grew up in Wimbledon, England; as a result of his experiences and injuries in the trenches of the Western Front in World War I, he chose to leave England and seek a rural way of life. In 1929 Graves moved to the small mountain village of Deya, Mallorca, which was his home until his death on December 7, 1985.
H
uxley,
A
ldous
Authors: Sexton James
Published: August 2017

Aldous Huxley was descended from two eminent Victorian families – he was grandson of noted biologist and writer on science, Thomas Henry Huxley, and a great‐nephew of Matthew Arnold. His Christian name commemorates a major character, Aldous Raeburn, in
Marcella
, a novel published by his aunt, Mary Ward, in the year of Huxley's birth, 1894. Huxley's father, Leonard, was editor of
Cornhill
, the venerable magazine once edited by Thackeray.
I
rish Fiction
Authors: Frawley Oona
Published: August 2017

Irish fiction writers played important roles in major literary movements of the twentieth century. In the century's early decades, Irish fiction moved away from the influence of a late Victorian, colonial sensibility and, in tandem with the dramatic movement prominent during this period of the Irish Literary Revival, toward the establishment of an Irish national literature. A preoccupation with nationhood, Irish identity, and the politics of independence was to provide ideological fodder not only for Irish fiction of those early decades, but also for writers of the latter half of the century, whose fiction often considered the impact of Irish history and the crises of identity that had resulted from it. Despite the prevalence of these preoccupations, however, the course of the twentieth century saw Irish fiction change directions, adopting and responding to international literary and ideological movements, most notably from modernism to postmodernism, and from colonialism to postcolonialism.
Ishiguro,Kazuo
Authors: Fluet Lisa
Published: August 2017

The Anglo‐Japanese novelist Kazuo Ishiguro is perhaps best known for his protagonists who devote themselves completely to a chosen professional role – as artist, butler, pianist, or detective – and whose first‐person, confessional narratives paradoxically conceal more than they reveal about their past lives. Born in Nagasaki, Japan on November 8, 1954, Ishiguro moved with his family to Britain in 1960, and was educated in Surrey, at Stoughton Primary School and Woking County Grammar School. He later read English and philosophy at the University of Kent, in Canterbury, graduating in 1978, and worked both as a community worker and a residential social worker in Glasgow and London. He then went on to study creative writing at the University of East Anglia under the guidance of Malcolm Bradbury and Angela Carter.
Jhabvala,
R
uth
P
rawer
Authors: Crane Ralph
Published: August 2017

Ruth Prawer Jhabvala was born in Cologne, Germany on May 7, 1927, and grew up in England after her Jewish family escaped Nazi Germany in 1939. Shortly after graduating from Queen Mary College, London in 1951 with an MA in English, she met and married Cyrus Jhabvala, and moved to India.
Johnson,B. S.
Authors: Tew Philip
Published: August 2017

Bryan Stanley Johnson was born in 1933 into a working‐class west London family just six years before the outbreak of World War II. After graduating in English as a mature student at King's College London in 1959, he was to become a controversial and versatile figure contributing widely to the literary and cultural scene in Britain in the 1960s and early 1970s variously as a novelist, poet, director of short films, television program maker, and journalist. Throughout his life he remained acutely aware of the class privilege that permeated British intellectual life and society more generally, combatively insisting on the creative worth of his artistic projects and his proletarian sensibilities.
K
iely,
B
enedict
Authors: O'Grady Thomas
Published: August 2017

Benedict Kiely wrote prolifically from the mid‐1940s almost until his death in 2007. His reputation may ultimately rest on his short stories and his one novella, but he also wrote nine novels between 1946 and 1985 that established him during his lifetime as a substantial Irish man of letters. His other books include an analysis of the sectarian divide that defined life in his native Northern Ireland during his formative years, a critical study of nineteenth‐century Irish novelist and short story writer William Carleton, a critical study of the Irish novel in the first half of the twentieth century, two volumes of memoirs, and a selection of miscellaneous essays written throughout his six‐decade career. He also wrote an account of his rambling travels around Ireland, and he compiled and edited several books centered on the importance of specific place in Irish experience and in the Irish imagination.
K
ureishi,
H
anif
Authors: Buchanan Bradley W.
Published: August 2017

Hanif Kureishi occupies an ambiguous and controversial place in both twentieth‐century British fiction and in postcolonial literature. Much of his most popular fiction deals primarily with the position of Pakistani and Indian immigrants in England and their children, but he refuses to glamorize or indeed dwell upon non‐Western culture as something distinct from English life. Instead, he concentrates on the effect of immigration and other social changes on London, his fiction's dominant setting. His often autobiographical work also deals with the moral aftermath of the permissive culture that dominated the lives of young people in the 1960s and 1970s: it examines infidelity, drug abuse, family break‐up, political pettiness, economic inequality, selfishness, and men's anger against feminism with unflinching and sometimes disturbing directness.
L
awrence,
D. H.
Authors: Becket Fiona
Published: August 2017

D. H. Lawrence wrote some of the most popular, challenging, and controversial fiction of the modernist period. He was also a celebrated poet, a skillful dramatist and translator, an essayist of rare insight on diverse subjects, and a phenomenal letter writer. His fiction maintains his position at the heart of twentieth‐century British literature with its combination of social and domestic realism and poetic intensity in works that bear witness to a deeply felt belief that the conditions and repercussions of political modernity required a new kind of writing, a new relation to language.