bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Burnout, coping and job satisfaction in service staff treating opioid addicts—from Athens to Zurich
Authors: Volker Reissner , Bernhard Baune , Anna Kokkevi , Fabrizio Schifano , Robin Room , Jessica Palm , Rudolf Stohler , Lucia DiFuria , Jürgon Rehm , Franz Hölscher , Christine Schwarzer , Norbert Scherbaum
Published: September 2009

The Treatment‐systems Research on European Addiction Treatment study (TREAT‐project) is a longitudinal multicenter study on predominantly opioid‐dependent patients and their health‐care system in six European cities. As part of the examination of the drug services, this study evaluates level of burnout, coping strategies, perceived self‐efficacy and job satisfaction among health‐care workers treating opioid addicts. Employees were recruited from organizations in Athens, London, Padua, Stockholm, Zurich and Essen. The Maslach burnout inventory, Brief COPE, general self‐efficacy questionnaire and a job satisfaction scale were filled in by about 383 drug service workers. One‐third of the staff suffer from severe burnout. London and Stockholm colleagues are significantly more burdened than Zurich personnel where job satisfaction is highest. No cross‐national differences could be detected concerning coping styles or level of perceived self‐efficacy. Burnout is positively correlated to passive coping strategies and negatively linked to self‐efficacy and job satisfaction. Males experience more depersonalization. Organizational features such as the entry‐threshold level of the institution or out‐ vs. inpatient setting are relevant for coping strategies and job satisfaction. These and other findings are discussed in relation to preliminary data from the TREAT‐project on characteristics of opioid addicted patients and other specific features of the drug treatment system. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
A Cross Sectional Study Exploring Factors Impacting Recruitment of African American College Students into the Genetic Counseling Profession
Authors: Wolfe Schneider Kami , Collins Roger , Huether Carl , Steinberg Warren Nancy
Published: September 2009

African Americans account for about 12.7% of the United States population, but only 1% of the National Society of Genetic Counselors’ membership identifies as African American. Since individuals often seek health care from providers sharing similar backgrounds, training genetic counselors from diverse backgrounds is critical. Psychology and biology students (N = 552) at four universities completed a self‐administered online survey assessing the influence of genetic counseling awareness, demographics, and career decisions on students’ interest in pursuing genetic counseling as a career. More African Americans (83%) than Caucasians (62%) reported having chosen a career (p ≤ .001). Of the 65% of students who indicated interest in the career description of genetic counseling, fewer African Americans (50%) than Caucasians (74%) had heard of genetic counseling (p ≤ .001). Specific strategies to overcome recruiting barriers such as early career selection and lack of awareness of the genetic counseling career among African Americans are suggested.
The Linear Thermal Expansion of Bulk Nanocrystalline Ingot Iron from Liquid Nitrogen to 300 K
Authors: Wang SG , Mei Y , Long K , Zhang ZD
Published: September 2009

The linear thermal expansions (LTE) of bulk nanocrystalline ingot iron (BNII) at six directions on rolling plane and conventional polycrystalline ingot iron (CPII) at one direction were measured from liquid nitrogen temperature to 300 K. Although the volume fraction of grain boundary and residual strain of BNII are larger than those of CPII, LTE of BNII at the six measurement directions were less than those of CPII. This phenomenon could be explained with Morse potential function and the crystalline structure of metals. Our LTE results ruled out that the grain boundary and residual strain of BNII did much contribution to its thermal expansion. The higher interaction potential energy of atoms, the less partial derivative of interaction potential energy with respect to temperature T and the porosity free at the grain boundary of BNII resulted in less LTE in comparison with CPII from liquid nitrogen temperature to 300 K. The higher LTE of many bulk nanocrystalline materials resulted from the porosity at their grain boundaries. However, many authors attributed the higher LTE of many nanocrystalline metal materials to their higher volume fraction of grain boundaries.
Different Ratios of Docosahexaenoic and Eicosapentaenoic Acids Do Not Alter Growth, Nucleic Acid and Fatty Acids of Juvenile Cobia (Rachycentron canadum)
Authors: Xu Youqing , Ding Zhaokun , Zhang Haizhu , Liu Liang , Wang Shuqi , Gorge John
Published: September 2009

An experiment was performed to study the effect of different ratios of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) on the growth, nucleic acid and fatty acids of cobia (Rachycentron canadum) juveniles. The juveniles were fed for 8 weeks using seven treatment diets (D‐1–D‐7) with the same amount of DHA and EPA (1.50 ± 0.1% of dried diet), but varying ratios of DHA to EPA (0.90, 1.10, 1.30, 1.50, 1.70, 1.90, 2.10, respectively) and a control diet (D‐0, DHA + EPA = 0.8% of dried diet, DHA/EPA = 1.30). At the end of the experiment, the mean body weight (BW) of juveniles fed D‐0–D‐7 increased significantly (from 6.86 ± 1.64 in the week 0 to 58.52 ± 16.45 g at the end of week 8, P < 0.05). The mean RNA amount and RNA/DNA ratio in the muscle (from 39.62 ± 1.30 µg mg−1 and 2.29 ± 0.11 in the week 0 to 272.55 ± 10.70 µg mg−1 and 14.54 ± 1.75 at the end of week 8, respectively) and the mean weight in the liver (from 117.70 ± 11.15 µg mg−1 and 3.14 ± 0.25 in the week 0 to 793.07 ± 13.38 µg mg−1 and 13.16 ± 0.76 at the end of week 8, respectively) of cobia juveniles fed D‐0–D‐7 were significantly higher at the end of 8‐week experiment than initially (P < 0.05). The RNA/DNA ratio in the muscle and liver of cobia juveniles increased with their growth and appeared an obvious positive relationship, especially in the muscle, based on regression analysis. The mean lipid content increased significantly in the liver (from 29.82 ± 0.99 to 37.47 ± 3.25% totally) and muscle (from 6.74 ± 0.25 to 10.63 ± 0.23% totally) of cobia juveniles (P < 0.05). However, no significant difference was found on the lipid contents of juveniles fed different diets for 8 weeks (P > 0.05). In the muscle and liver of juveniles, EPA decreased with its reduction in the diet; DHA, DHA/EPA ratio and poly unsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) generally increased with their increment in the diet. The conclusion was drawn that the growth, nucleic acid and fatty acids of cobia juveniles were not significantly affected by different DHA/EPA ratios in our experiments.
Diagnose und Therapie der Muskeldystrophie Duchenne und Becker
Authors: Kirschner J.
Published: September 2009

Die Muskeldystrophie Duchenne ist die häufigste neuromuskuläre Erkrankung im Kindesalter. Sie wird x-chromosomal vererbt und manifestiert sich klinisch durch eine im Kleinkindesalter beginnende progressive proximale Muskelschwäche, die zum Verlust der Gehfähigkeit im frühen Jugendalter führt. Die Creatinkinase im Serum ist deutlich erhöht, und die Bestätigung der Diagnose erfolgt durch eine genetische Analyse desDystrophin-Gens oder eine Muskelbiopsie. Die v. a. symptomatische Therapie erfordert ein multidisziplinäres Behandlungsteam. Durch Medikation, Physiotherapie, orthopädische Betreuung und nichtinvasive Beatmung lassen sich die Lebenserwartung und -qualität der Patienten deutlich verbessern. Kausale Therapieansätze befinden sich in der klinischen Entwicklung, über eine Effektivität ist noch keine abschließende Aussage möglich. Die Becker-Muskeldystrophie ist eine viel seltenere allelische Variante mit partieller Dystrophin-Defizienz und milderem klinischem Verlauf.
Cretaceous slab segmentation in southwestern Gondwana
Authors: SUÁREZ MANUEL , DE LA CRUZ RITA , BELL MICHAEL , DEMANT ALAIN
Published: September 2009

The Mesozoic Austral Basin of Patagonia, in southwestern Gondwana, experienced a major tectonic segmentation during Aptian times. Sometime between 121 and 118 Ma (Aptian), the northern part of the Austral Basin, known as the Aisén Basin or Río Mayo Embayment, was inverted, with the sediments overlain by calc-alkaline subaerial volcanic rocks of Aptian to Maastrichtian age. In the southern segment of the Austral Basin, known as the Magallanes Basin, predominantly marine sediments accumulated until Cenozoic times in a back-arc position, relative to a magmatic arc located to the west. The subduction-related N–S-trending volcanic chains of both segments were geographically displaced during Aptian to Late Cretaceous times. In the Aisén segment north of ~49–50° S, the volcanic chain was located further east than the coeval arc in the Magallanes segment. A transform fault connected the trenches of both segments, with the Aisén segment dipping at a shallower angle than the Magallanes segment.
Strike Success and Union Ideology: The United States and France, 1880–1914
Authors: Friedman Gerald
Published: September 2009

Scholars still disagree about why unions in different countries are radical or conservative. The differences between unions in France and America can be traced to the different requirements for success in strikes before 1914. In France radical unions could win large-scale strikes by involving state officials. In contrast, American unions, facing a more hostile government, avoided state intervention and learned to win strikes by providing financial support to small groups of critically positioned workers. The divergence between American and French union strategy reflected the greater success of American capitalists in winning state support against labor.
Urban Growth on the Periphery of the Antebellum Cotton Belt: Atlanta, 1847–1860
Authors: Weiman David F.
Published: September 2009

Based on the mercantile model of urban growth, I analyze the formative development of Atlanta during the antebellum period. Located at the intersection of three railroads, Atlanta's early growth and economic structure reflected its nodal position in the transport system. Subsequent railroad construction, however, eroded its initial locational advantage, while creating the opportunity for its emergence as a regional metropolis. This transformation was delayed until after the Civil War because of the marginal political and economic position of Atlanta and the Upcountry region, as a whole, within the state.
Peripheral Cities and Their Regions in the Dutch Urban System until 1900
Authors: Kooij Pim
Published: September 2009

In the Netherlands a kind of urban system emerged very early in the sea provinces, but inland the country cities functioned as regional capitals without many links to cities outside their regions. After 1800 political and economic unification accelerated and the peripheral towns lost their independence. Using two indicators—the division of labor and migration—the article analyzes how this process of integration took shape after 1850.
International resource flows and construction movements in the atlantic economy: the kuznets cycle in Italy, 1861–1913
Authors: Fenoaltea Stefano
Published: September 2009

Nineteenth-century Italy experienced the long swings in migration, capital flows, and construction characteristic of the international Kuznets cycle, but in an unusual combination: its external migration swing may have resembled Britain's, but its capital flows and construction swing resembled America's. Construction in Italy was finance-sensitive rather than population-sensitive, and reacted primarily to exogenous shifts in the supply of foreign capital. The Italian experience suggests that changes in perceived risk altered the relative supply of capital in Britain and abroad and thereby induced the opposite swings in construction and the swing in migration.
Inventive Activity in Early Industrial America: Evidence From Patent Records, 1790–1846
Authors: Sokoloff Kenneth L.
Published: September 2009

A sample of patent records from the United States between 1790 and 1846 is employed to study the patterns in inventive activity. Patenting was pro-cyclical, and yet began to grow rapidly with the interruptions in foreign trade that preceded the War of 1812. A strong association between patenting and proximity to navigable waterways is also demonstrated. Although the importance of specific mechanisms remains unclear, both the temporal and cross-sectional evidence imply that inventive activity was positively related to the growth of markets during early industrialization.
Ocean Freight Rates and Productivity, 1740–1913: The Primacy of Mechanical Invention Reaffirmed
Authors: Harley C. Knick
Published: September 2009

This article demonstrates that new industrial technology caused a revolutionary decline in nineteenth-century freight rates. This overturns Douglass North's well-known conclusion that organizational improvements were the dominant source of savings. While North's American freight rate series declines prior to the use of the metal steamship, British rates decline only modestly prior to 1850 and then rapidly as metal steamships come into use. Cotton freights dominate North's index and declined when cotton became more tightly packed for shipment. Metal ships and steam propulsion, however, caused a general decline in freight rates after 1850.
Tontines, Public Finance, and Revolution in France and England, 1688–1789
Authors: Weir David R.
Published: September 2009

Tontines were used more extensively by France than Britain. Comparative tontine history illuminates the differing evolution of public finance in the two countries and its political consequences. Archival materials establish the number of participants in French tontines. Internal rates of return on tontines and alternatives show subsidy of tontines by the French government. Repudiation in 1770 contributed to the political attitudes of life annuitants, the most important class of state creditors, during the fiscal crisis of the late 1780s.
The Decline of Property Rights in Man in Thailand, 1800–1913
Authors: Feeny David
Published: September 2009

Like many land-abundant, labor-scarce economies, Thailand had a well-developed system of property rights in man. Over the nineteenth century corvée and slavery were abolished and replaced by military conscription, a head tax, and more precise property rights in land. Concomitant trends included extensive commercialization, the growth of international trade, imperialist threats to Thai sovereignty, and the growth of a centralized unitary state. Both domestic and international political motives influenced monarchs in the abolition of human-property rights. Economic change greatly facilitated these institutional changes.
Losing to Win: U.S. Steel's Pricing, Investment Decisions, and Market Share, 1901–1938
Authors: McCraw Thomas K. , Reinhardt Forest
Published: September 2009

U.S. Steel held two-thirds of the American market in 1901, but by the 1930s its share had dropped to one-third. Such a decline is consistent with the economic theory of oligopoly pricing and capacity expansion, but the available data offer limited opportunities for formal testing of hypotheses. A close examination of U.S. Steel's early history leads us to argue that Chairman Elbert Gary's desire for price stability, his fear of antitrust litigation, and shortcomings in the firm's organizational capability constrained it from the unbridled pursuit of discounted profits that the economic theory assumes.
Sweden's Financial Sophistication in the Nineteenth Century: An Appraisal
Authors: Fisher Douglas , Thurman Walter N.
Published: September 2009

The article tests a variant of Lars G. Sandberg's “financial sophistication hypothesis.” Sandberg argues that Sweden had an unusually large stock of financial capital in 1850 which, along with a highly literate populace, was paramount in the subsequent economic explosion. Unable to test the hypothesis directly, we use a variant—that the financial sector was a leading sector in Swedish development—amenable to time-series tests of the Granger-causality form. These tests on data from 1861 to 1910 do not show causality from financial variables to real; indeed, the converse holds.
Midwestern Industrialization and the American Manufacturing Belt in the Nineteenth Century
Authors: Meyer David R.
Published: September 2009

The Midwest made the transition from primary to secondary activity before 1880 by developing a large diversified industrial sector to serve burgeoning midwestern demand for manufactures. Because the Midwest had industrialized, its firms were able to compete with eastern producers in multiregional and national markets after 1880, when the transportation and communication systems were fully integrated. Supporting evidence is drawn from a national set of 327 urban-industrial counties, with a focus on the Midwest.
Productivity Growth and Machinery Investment: A Long-Run Look, 1870–1980
Authors: De Long J. Bradford
Published: September 2009

Over the past century in six major economies, economic growth has been strongly associated with machinery investment, as is the case for a larger group of nations since 1950. Both macroeconomic patterns and narratives of the history of technology suggest that this association is causal—that a high rate of machinery investment appears to be a necessary prerequisite for rapid long-run growth—and points away from possibilities that rapid growth is the cause of high machinery investment or that a high rate of machinery investment is a good proxy for other factors that are important causes of growth.
Italian Industrialization and the Gerschenkronian “Great Spurt”: A Regional Analysis
Authors: Esposto Alfredo G.
Published: September 2009

Since the appearance of Gerschenkron's 1955 paper, economic historians have discussed extensively the industrial transformation of Italy from 1896 to 1908, which Gerschenkron claimed was the period of Italy's first big or great “spurt.” Those discussions, however, have been in terms of national aggregates. This article attempts to create instead a regional view of Italian industrialization for this period. My analysis of regional output for two benchmark years suggests there were three regional patterns of industrialization.
The Occupations of English Immigrants to the United States, 1836–1853
Authors: Cohn Raymond L.
Published: September 2009

This article examines the recent view that economic distress was not an important cause of English immigration before 1860. Demographic information is used to show that characteristics of males on suspect passenger lists (those that listed only laborers) matched those of laborers on other lists. Based on this result and other information, laborers appear to be the dominant group of immigrants. Support is thus provided for the view that distress was the most important cause of immigration, even though many other immigrants were not fleeing economic distress.
Old Questions, New Data, and Alternative Perspectives: Families' Living Standards in the Industrial Revolution
Authors: Horrell Sara , Humphries Jane
Published: September 2009

We have used the household accounts of 1,350 husband-wife families to investigate trends in male earnings and family incomes. This evidence confirms the material progress suggested by trends in the real wage rates of adult males. But the budget data underscore occupational and regional distinctions, discontinuities in the growth process, and changes over time in the ability of other family members to offset the effects of the business cycle on men's earnings. Overall, family incomes grew less than male earnings.
The Interest Rate Effect of Dutch Money in Eighteenth-Century Britain
Authors: Oppers Stefan E.
Published: September 2009

It is generally recognized that the Dutch played a major part in financing British government deficits from the 1720s to the late 1770s. This article argues that even though the Dutch continued to hold large amounts of British debt after 1780, they stopped supplying new capital to the British and started a modest repatriation of some of their previous investments. A comparative econometric study of 3 percent consol yields during the two deficit-inducing wars Britain fought between 1750 and 1795 shows that as a result British interest rates became much more sensitive to increases in government borrowing.
Religious Culture and Economic Performance: Agricultural Productivity of the Amish, 1850–80
Authors: Coşgel Metin M.
Published: September 2009

The farming practices of the Amish have differed in various ways from those of other farmers. I use the information from federal census schedules to examine the differences during the period 1850 to 1880 in light of Amish culture. Amish farmers did not resist technological change during 1850–80, but the evidence shows other systematic differences. They adopted distinct patterns in investment to ensure the survival of their religious culture, which in turn affected their relative performance.
The Bondsman's Burden: An Economic Analysis of the Jurisprudence of Slaves and Common Carriers
Authors: Wahl Jenny Bourne
Published: September 2009

Antebellum judges played crucial roles in resolving conflicts between slaveowners and common-carrier owners. Because courts could easily quantify the value of a slave's life, they were quicker to compensate slaveowners for slaves injured or killed by a common carrier than to award damages to an injured free person or his estate. Yet judges also had to craft rules governing the behavior of the slave property itself. By the 1860s, Southern courts had established law that encouraged parties with legal standing to act efficiently. Strikingly, tort doctrines developed in slave cases foreshadowed the evolution of law for free accident victims.
Financial Integration in Antebellum America: Strengthening Bodenhorn's Results
Authors: La Croix Sumner J. , Grandy Christopher
Published: September 2009

In a recent article in this Journal, Howard Bodenhorn made a remarkable suggestion: “Antebellum financial markets may have outperformed those of the post–Civil War period.” According to Bodenhorn, antebellum capital markets displayed notable integration, as indicated by movements in short-term (60–day) interest rate data for important commercial centers east of the Mississippi. When considered in light of Lance Davis's work, suggesting poor integration of credit markets immediately after the Civil War and only gradual integration thereafter, we believe economic historians will find Bodenhorn's hypothesis provocative—even startling. We found the hypothesis so suggestive that we attempted to replicate Bodenhorn's analysis—a process that generated both “bad news” and “good news.” The “bad news” is that we believe the evidence Bodenhorn provided for his hypothesis is weak or irrelevant. The “good news” is that the data Bodenhorn generated support the integration hypothesis more strongly than even Bodenhorn suggested.
The Wealth Accumulation of Antebellum European Immigrants to the U.S., 1840–60
Authors: Ferrie Joseph P.
Published: September 2009

This article explores wealth accumulation among European immigrants who arrived in the United States between 1840 and 1850. It uses a new sample of immigrants linked from passenger-ship records to the 1850 and 1860 federal census manuscripts. These immigrants rapidly accumulated real and personal wealth. Their real wealth grew 10 percent with each year≈s residence in the United States. This was not because immigrants arriving in the early 1840s were wealthier at arrival than later arrivals, nor was the rapid accumulation of wealth confined to one nationality or occupation. Rather, it reflects these immigrants≈ abilities to adapt to new circumstances after their arrival.
Pitfalls in the Estimation of the Yield on British Consols, 1850–1914
Authors: Klovland Jan Tore
Published: September 2009

Five pitfalls commonly encountered in estimating the yield on British Consols are identified and discussed herein. The most difficult question is whether Consol prices in the later 1890s reflected expectations of a conversion of the Consol stock in 1923. This is equivalent to asking whether security markets in the 1890s regarded the then extremely low interest rates to be a temporary or permanent phenomenon. Predictions from estimated equations for the yield spread between other high-class investments and Consols are used to determine this question. A corrected monthly series of the yield on Consols between 1850 and 1914 is presented.
The Industrial Revolution and the Industrious Revolution
Authors: de Vries Jan
Published: September 2009

The Industrial Revolution as a historical concept has many shortcomings. A new concept—the “industrious revolution”—is proposed to place the Industrial Revolution in a broader historical setting. The industrious revolution was a process of household-based resource reallocation that increased both the supply of marketed commodities and labor and the demand for market-supplied goods. The industrious revolution was a household-level change with important demand-side features that preceded the Industrial Revolution, a supply-side phenomenon. It has implications for nineteenth- and twentieth-century economic history.
The End of European Immigrant Servitude in the United States: An Economic Analysis of Market Collapse, 1772–1835
Authors: Grubb Farley
Published: September 2009

Europeans stopped using servitude to finance passage to America sometime in the early nineteenth century, but exactly when and why immigrant servitude disappeared is a mystery. Hypotheses abound, but no consensus has emerged nor have scholars tested hypotheses. In this study, quantitative evidence for the final sixty years of immigrant servitude establishes when and why it disappeared. Servitude did not end because of insufficient demand, legal restrictions, or declines in passage fares. It ended because superior methods of financing migration developed. Chance historical events, however, determined the exact timing of the end.
Economic History and Old Age
Authors: Engerman Stanley L.
Published: September 2009

Although it has not been our practice to publish issues devoted to single themes, the nearly simultaneous submission of three manuscripts treating the economic history of the elderly inspired us to highlight the new research in this area by publishing the articles together and by inviting Professor Stanley Engerman of the University of Rochester to write an introduction.
The Gold Standard as a “Good Housekeeping Seal of Approval”
Authors: Bordo Michael D. , Rockoff Hugh
Published: September 2009

In this article we argue that during the period from 1870 to 1914 adherence to the gold standard was a signal of financial rectitude, a “good housekeeping seal of approval”, that facilitated access by peripheral countries to capital from the core countries of western Europe. Examination of data from nine widely different capital-importing countries, using a model inspired by the Capital Asset Pricing Model, reveals that countries with poor records of adherence were charged considerably more than those with good records, enough to explain the determined effort to stay on gold made by a number of capital-importing countries.
Myth and Reality of China's Seventeenth-Century Monetary Crisis
Authors: Glahn Richard Von
Published: September 2009

The impact of China's demand for silver on global trade in specie and monetary metals during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries remains poorly understood. Conventional wisdom postulates that seventeenth-century China became so dependent on foreign silver to sustain domestic economic growth that a sharp fall in silver imports in the 1640s led to the fall of the Ming dynasty in 1644. This hypothesis rests on dubious theoretical and empirical grounds. The demand for silver in China was determined by long-term changes in indigenous demand for money rather than short-term fluctuations in the flow of silver imports.
Home Demand and British Industrialization
Authors: Horrell Sara
Published: September 2009

Household budget studies are used to assess working-class demand for manufactures over industrialization. Contrary to demand-side proponents, increased urbanization, enhanced opportunities for women's and children's work, and a declining subsistence sector all retrenched consumption patterns into demand for the products of traditional industries and decreased demand for the products of new manufacturing industries. However, consideration of national expenditure on necessities shows an increasing surplus available for discretionary expenditure between 1801 and 1841. This reflects an increased purchasing power of the middle and upper classes that may have manifested itself as substantially increased demand for domestic manufactures.
In the Absence of Domestic Currency: Debased European Coinage in the Seventeenth–Century Ottoman Empire
Authors: Pamuk Şevket
Published: September 2009

The Near East was subject to many of the same fiscal and monetary forces that affected Europe and parts of Asia during the early modem era. For almost two decades during the seventeenth century, debased European coinage circulated widely in Ottoman markets at values far above their specie content. This article provides an explanation in terms of Ottoman fiscal deficits, currency instability, currency substitution, and decline in local silver mines all of which led to the closure of mints. The reasons behind the conspicuous absence of Ottoman copper coinage during this period are also explored.
Trade Wars: Canada's Reaction to the Smoot-Hawley Tariff
Authors: McDonald Judith A. , O'Brien Anthony Patrick , Callahan Colleen M.
Published: September 2009

Strange as it seems, the infamous Smoot-Hawley Tariff might have had an expansionary effect on the U.S. economy. Basic macroeconomic principles indicate that the direct effect of a tariff increase is expansionary. This expansionary effect might be offset by retaliatory increases in foreign tariffs. Barry Eichengreen has recently questioned whether significant retaliation to Smoot-Hawley occurred. This article demonstrates that the tariff increases enacted during 1930 in Canada—the largest trading partner of the United States—were in direct response to Smoot-Hawley. The conventional wisdom that Smoot-Hawley hurt the U.S. economy may be right after all.
Higher Tariffs, Lower Revenues? Analyzing the Fiscal Aspects of “The Great Tariff Debate of 1888”
Authors: Irwin Douglas A.
Published: September 2009

After the Civil War, Congress maintained high import tariffs to pay off the public debt. By the early 1880s the federal government was running large fiscal surpluses –revenues exceeded expenditures by over 40 percent. The Democrats proposed lower tariffs to reduce customs revenue. The Republicans proposed higher tariffs to reduce imports and customs revenues. This article attempts to determine the revenue effects of the proposed changes. Given the height of the tariff and the price elasticity of U.S. import demand, the actual tariff was below the maximum revenue rate, and therefore a tariff reduction would have reduced customs revenue.
America's Graduation from High School: The Evolution and Spread of Secondary Schooling in the Twentieth Century
Authors: Goldin Claudia
Published: September 2009

Secondary-school enrollment and graduation rates increased spectacularly in much of the United States from 1910 to 1940; the advance was particularly rapid from 1920 to 1935 in the nonsouthern states. This increase was uniquely American; no other nation underwent an equivalent change for several decades. States that rapidly expanded their high school enrollments early in the period had greater wealth, more homogeneity of wealth, and less manufacturing activity than others. Factors prompting the expansion include the substantial returns to education early in the century and a responsive “state.” This work is based on a newly constructed state-level data set.
Craft Guilds, Apprenticeship, and Technological Change in Preindustrial Europe
Authors: Epstein S. R.
Published: September 2009

This article argues that medieval craft guilds emerged in order to provide transferable skills through apprenticeship. They prospered for more than half a millennium because they sustained interregional specialized labor markets and contributed to technological invention by stimulating technical diffusion through migrant labor and by providing inventors with temporary monopoly rents. They played a leading role in preindustrial manufacture because their main competitor, rural putting out, was a net consumer rather than producer of technological innovation. They finally disappeared not through adaptive failure but because national states abolished them by decree.
Migration and Economic Mobility: Wealth Accumulation and Occupational Change Among Antebellum Migrants and Persisters
Authors: Herscovici Steven
Published: September 2009

Research on nineteenth-century economic and social mobility has concentrated on occupational change among men who remained in the same community for ten or more years, although fewer than half of any community's residents persist that long. This article uses a data set created specifically to compare the experiences of men who migrated from Newburyport, Massachusetts in the mid-nineteenth century with those of men who persisted. It finds that blue-collar migrants were more successful than were their counterparts who did not move. The results suggest that previous studies may have considerably underestimated the extent of economic opportunity in nineteenth-century America.
Unequal at Birth: A Long-Term Comparison of Income and Birth Weight
Authors: Costa Dora L.
Published: September 2009

Socioeconomic differences in birth weight have narrowed since 1900. The mother's nutritional status during her growing years, proxied by height, accounted for most of the differences in the past, but not today. Children born at the beginning of this century compared favorably to modem populations in terms of birth weights, but suffered high fetal and neonatal death rates. By day ten children in the past were at a disadvantage because best practice resulted in insufficient feeding. Improved obstetrical, medical, and nutritional knowledge has increased weight in the first days of life, which may account for increased adult stature.
Property Rights and Transaction Costs in Marriage: Evidence from Prenuptial Contracts
Authors: Hamilton Gillian
Published: September 2009

I examine prenuptial contracting behavior in early-nineteenth-centuiy Quebec to explore property rights within families and the efficacy of marital property laws. Drawing on a transaction cost framework, I examine the decision to sign a contract and couples' property rights choices. I find, for example, that couples signing contracts tended to choose joint ownership of property when wives were particularly important to the household. These findings illustrate the potential effects of legal institutions on individuals' behavior (such as the importance of family labor, human capital acquisition, and even mating decisions) and the value of a flexible legal environment.
Viennese Chairs: A Case Study for Modern Industrialization
Authors: Kyriazidou Ekaterini , Pesendorfer Martin
Published: September 2009

We examine the Austro-Hungarian bentwood furniture industry as a case study for modem industrialization during the second half of the nineteenth centuly. We establish that, through the implementation of innovative production methods and aggressive and insightful marketing strategies, this industry constitutes an important example of the modem industrial enterprise. Furthermore, we find evidence of cooperative behavior in the industry, making it an interesting case study in the history of industrial organization.
Economic Recovery from the Argentine Great Depression: Institutions, Expectations, and the Change of Macroeconomic Regime
Authors: Paolera Gerardo Della , Taylor Alan M.
Published: September 2009

Did macroconomic interventions make any contribution to Argentina's revovery from the Great Depression? Macroeconomic policy deviated from gold-standard orthodoxy after the final suspension of convertibility in 1929. Fiscal policy was conservative. Monetary policy became unorthodox after 1931, when the Caja de conversión began rediscounting to sterilize gold outflows and avoid deflation. This change predated the creation of the central bank in 1935. A wider literature links the interwar depression in the core to flaws in the gold standard, and active monetary policy to escape from defaltion and slump; our work extends this idea to the periphery.
Economic Integration and Convergence: A Second Decomposition Method
Authors: La Croix Sumner J.
Published: September 2009

In this Journal, Sukkoo Kim investigates the sources of income convergence and divergence across regions in the United States. Kim argues that there are two sources of income convergence in regional economies linked by trade: convergence in regional wage rates and convergence in regional industry mixes. Using U.S. regional data on industry mix and worker income by industry, Kim decomposes differences in regional incomes into industry wage and industry-mix components. From his decompositions, Kim concludes that changing regional industrial structures “played an important role in causing the divergence and convergence of U.S. regional income per capita” in both the nineteenth and twentieth centuries..
Indexed Pricing: Sugarcane Price Guarantees in Colonial Taiwan, 1930–1940
Authors: Koo Hui-Wen , Wang Chun-Chieh
Published: September 2009

In Taiwan during the Japanese colonial period, sugarcane was typically purchased by Japanese-owned sugar mills at prices guaranteed long in advance of delivery. In some places, the future price was indexed to the price of rice in the following year. This study points out that indexing served to insure farmers' real incomes. But as an insurance against an aggregate risk, this arrangement threatened the mill's profits. We investigate why mills nevertheless offered the insurance.
Fiscal Crisis and the Decline of Spain (Castile)
Authors: Flynn Dennis O.
Published: September 2009

Earl J. Hamilton's multiple theses on the price revolution, the decline of Spain, and the birth of capitalism have all placed American silver (and gold) at the forefront. This essay supports Hamilton's emphasis on the impact of New World treasure on the decline of Castile, but from a different angle. Mining profits rather than the quantity of imports supported the empire. When the profits dwindled, as was inevitable, international superiority was begrudgingly surrendered to the emerging powers of the north.
Gender-Based Wage Differentials in Pennsylvania and New Jersey Manufacturing, 1900–1950
Authors: Philips Peter
Published: September 2009

This multiple regression study of women's and men's wages in New Jersey and Pennsylvania manufacturing finds that the average pay gap has changed in favor of women from 1900–1950 in several industries and in the aggregate. Technological homogenization of jobs is suggested as a possible explanation of gender-based wage convergence. An overall framework of forces and relations of production is outlined, and future work on this newly introduced body of data is suggested.
The Changing Structure of Canadian Agriculture, 1867–1897
Authors: McInnis Marvin
Published: September 2009

This paper re-examines the changing structure of Canadian agriculture over the period between Confederation and the beginning of the “wheat boom.” A pattern of changes is found that differs in some respects from the long-received accounts. The shift from wheat to mixed farming was accomplished by an earlier date than is usually supposed, and domestic demand is due more emphasis, relative to export demand, than it is usually given.
Ontario Agriculture in Transition: The Switch from Wheat to Cheese
Authors: Ankli Robert E. , Millar Wendy
Published: September 2009

This paper rejects the traditional interpretation that farmers shifted from wheat to mixed farming in eastern North America because of changes in relative costs. It argues instead that they shifted because mixed farming involved less risk. We test the proposition that farmers were willing to give up a larger expected income in wheat production for a smaller but more stable income in mixed farming. The results are consistent with our hypothesis.
Land Availability and Fertility in the United States, 1760–1870
Authors: Schapiro Morton Owen
Published: September 2009

The decline in U.S. fertility rates, beginning in the latter part of the eighteenth century, is examined within a general model of fertility determination. The ability of land availability measures to explain the variation in components of the crude birth rate is tested using a pooled regression technique. A set of crude birth rate predictions for rural areas of 23 northern states during the period 1760–1870 is produced and compared with other estimates. It is concluded that the availability of land was a critical factor in determining the demand for children and, ultimately, the fertility rate, across states and over time.
Canadian Newsprint, 1913–1930: National Policies and the North American Economy
Authors: Dick Trevor J. O.
Published: September 2009

This study uses supply and demand analysis to interpret the expansion of Canadian newsprint production and exports after World War I. Canada and the United States played complementary roles in this expansion, and by 1930, 90 percent of Canadian production based on relatively abundant natural resources went to satisfy U.S. demand. At the same time, U. S. tariffs against Canadian newsprint were relaxed, and Canadian provinces imposed a manufacturing condition on Canadian pulp and paper producers prohibiting the export of pulpwood cut from Crown lands. The analysis shows that the growth of U.S. demand and Canadian supply conditions can account for almost all the Canadian newsprint expansion, whereas policy initiatives generated at most two years of growth.
The Spanish Wool Trade, 1500–1780
Authors: Phillips Carla Rahn
Published: September 2009

Official tax records and other documents provide the sources for an estimation of wool exports overtime. Four main points emerge: after a peak circa 1550, exports stagnated and declined for over a century before rising again strongly; political and economic developments in Spain and the rest of Europe affected both the volume and the direction of wool exports; most exports went to Flanders before 1550, then to Italy for a time, and finally to northern Europe again from about 1650 onward; and Spanish merchants controlled most of the trade until the mid- sixteenth century but lost dominance thereafter, retaining control only over the internal market supplying wool for export.
Institutional Influences on Poverty in the Nineteenth Century: A Quantitative Comparative Study
Authors: Morris Cynthia Taft , Adelman Irma
Published: September 2009

We apply disjoint principal components analysis to study institutional influences on the course of poverty in the nineteenth century. Classificatory data summarize varied facets of economic and noneconomic institutional structure and change.Four sets of countries are distinguished by characteristics of the course of poverty. The components models show that the impact of economic and demographic changes (export expansion, marketization, industrial expansion, immigration) have consequences for poverty that vary greatly between and within country sets, depending on the character of institutions: above all, land systems, dependence relationships, and political institutions.
Food Expenditures and Economic Well-Being in Early Modern England
Authors: Shammas Carole
Published: September 2009

The proportion of a household's budget spent on diet has commonly served as an important measure of material welfare. This paper pulls together data concerning trends in food expenditures for early modern England and draws comparisons with figures for later periods. The usefulness of wage assessments, a new source for estimating the proportion of outlays devoted to diet, is examined. The impact on food expenditures of new commodities and other dietary shifts is also explored. The findings call into question earlier estimates of the proportion of total expenditure devoted to food and drink in the pre-industrial period and the assumption that food expenditures are always inelastic.
Urban Amenities and Rural Sufficiency: Living Standards and Consumer Behavior in the Colonial Chesapeake, 1643–1777
Authors: Walsh Lorena S.
Published: September 2009

By the mid-eighteenth century, tidewater Chesapeake households at all levels of wealth were both able and willing to buy a wide range of non-essential consumer goods either previously unavailable or long considered unimportant. The use of amenities and often luxuries as props for increasingly elaborated and differentiated life styles was not a result of country folk imitating city consumption patterns, however. Urban life styles did produce new spending habits, but the vast majority of the population who lived in rural areas managed to improve their consumption levels without altering traditional patterns of resource allocation.
Did Australian Living Standards Stagnate between 1890 and 1940?
Authors: McLean Ian W. , Pincus Jonathan J.
Published: September 2009

Among the developed countries, Australia in the period 1890–1940 experienced the fastest growth in population but the slowest in per capita income. When adjusted to incorporate the direct deflation of consumption expenditure, however, the growth of real GDP is raised by one-third, albeit to the still modest level of 0.8 percent annually. Inspection of a number of historical social indicators, not all caught in GDP, gives no support to the hypothesis of stagnant living standards. Finally, increases in life expectancy, a shorter working week, and earlier retirement also suggest substantial improvements in dimensions of standards of living not directly reflected in measured GDP. Conservatively, we estimate that living standards may have doubled over the half-century.
Income Distribution in Post-1964 Brazil: New Results
Authors: Fox M. Louise
Published: September 2009

Brazil is often cited as a developing country that has exemplified the trade-off between economic growth and equity. The basis for the claim was the rising inequality in the income distribution between the 1960 and 1970 censuses, combined with an increase in per capita income over the decade. Numerous scholars have analyzed the period, yet there is little or no agreement in the literature regarding either the causes or the extent of this apparent increase in inequality. Using a recently released sample of the 1970 demographic census, the empirical basis for the claim of deteriorating income distribution over the decade is examined here. Applying poverty lines defined for both 1960 and 1970 data sets, the correlates of income variance and poverty are analyzed. The results show that under most reasonable assumptions regarding data deficiencies and appropriate deflators, the fraction of the population in absolute poverty declined only slightly over the decade. Although the poorest households were found among the small farmers and sharecroppers in the rural areas in both 1960 and 1970, a large increase in the incidence of poverty in urban areas occurred over the decade.
Kentucky Wealth at the End of the Eighteenth Century
Authors: Soltow Lee
Published: September 2009

The Kentucky tax lists from 1800 to 1860 permit a study of both the trend in per capita wealth and the change in the relative distribution of wealth in this strategic state from the time of its inception to the Civil War. Real wealth per capita is judged to have increased 2.4 percent a year from 1800 to 1840, and 2.8 percent from 1840 to 1860. Relative inequality remained roughly constant, with the Gini coefficient .80 in both 1800 and 1860 for adult free males. The number of properties held by various individuals was surprisingly unequal in distribution in 1800 and 1820.