bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Effects of Clarity of Decision Rule and Favorability of Verdict on Satisfaction with Resolution of Conflicts1
Authors: Rusbult Caryl E. , Musante Linda , Solomon Michael
Published: August 2006

Favorability of outcome and clarity of decision rule were manipulated in a simulated conflict resolved by an impartial third party. Overall, subjects who received favorable outcomes were more satisfied than were those who received unfavorable outcomes. In addition, favorability of verdict and clarity of decision rule interacted in affecting overall satisfaction. Among subjects receiving an unfavorable verdict, those whose outcomes had been determined by a defined decision rule experienced greater satisfaction than those whose outcomes were based on an unclear, undefined rule. However, given a favorable outcome, the effects of clarity of decision rule were reversed‐subjects reported greater satisfaction with the undefined than the defined rule. These results are discussed with reference to the particularism/universalism of defined and undefined decision rules.
Witnesses and Their Testimony: Effects of Ordering on Juror Verdicts1
Authors: Pennington Donald C.
Published: August 2006

Thibaut and Walker's claim that criminal courtroom proceedings are subject to pervasive recency effects was experimentally investigated. Previous research on order effects in a legal setting is critically reviewed; it is argued that this research fails to provide adequate simulation of courtroom protocol. An experiment was designed to retain the structure of a criminal trial while manipulating witness and testimony order. In contrast to earlier research, primacy effects were found. The greatest number of guilty verdicts by simulated jurors occurred when the strongest “guilty” witnesses and “guilty” testimony by these witnesses came first. These results are discussed with respect to (a) witness and testimony order, (b) length of case, and (c) type of case used.
Good‐Fast‐Cheap: Pick Any Two: Dilemmas About the Value of Applicable Research1
Authors: Nogami Glenda Y.
Published: August 2006

Questions of internal validity vs. external validity have long been of concern to social and organizational psychologists. In recent years, the issue of applicability of research data has been emphasized as well. The present paper distinguishes between basic, applied, and applicable research. It is concluded that sufficient criteria for judging basic and applied research are available. However, there appears to be little agreement about the value and the quality of most applicable research. To help alleviate this problem, criteria for judging applicable research are suggested. The potential contributions of basic, applied, and applicable research to policy formation and to the search for solutions which are relevant to social, organizational, and governmental problems are considered.
Stress and Control‐Related Problems at Three Mile Island1
Authors: Davidson Laura M , Baum Andrew , Collins Daniel L.
Published: August 2006

The relationship between stress and control for residents at Three Mile Island (TMI) was examined. TMI was studied because of the technological nature of the accident there. Residents of Frederick, Maryland, more than 80 miles from TMI, were used as a comparison group. Control‐related problems were measured using questionnaires and a behavioral task. Stress levels were determined using self‐report, behavioral, and biochemical measures. Residents at TMI reported more loss of control and performed more poorly on the behavioral task than did comparison subjects. Subjects at TMI reporting more loss of control had more stress‐associated symptoms than did comparison subjects and subjects at TMI not experiencing as many control‐related problems.
Voting Intentions and the 1980 Carter‐Reagan Debate1
Authors: Davis Mark H.
Published: August 2006

A study was conducted to assess the impact of the 1980 Carter‐Reagan debate on subsequent voting intentions. As predicted, perceptions of Reagan's debate performance significantly affected respondents' post‐debate intention to vote for him; perceptions of Carter's debate performance were not significantly related to post‐debate intentions regarding Carter. Additionally, it was found that while party identification had a predictable effect on debate perceptions (Republican respondents favoring Reagan; Democratic respondents favoring Carter), this effect did not prevent respondents from also making more “objective” assessments of the candidates' performance. Within the general context of viewing “their” candidate more favorably, respondents (1) perceived Carter as more honest in the debate, (2) perceived Reagan as stronger, and (3) perceived Reagan as performing better overall in the debate.
Developing a Commitment to Blood Donation: The Impact of One's First Experience1
Authors: Callero Peter L. , Piliavin Jane Allyn
Published: August 2006

The increasing demand for voluntarily donated blood has generated research concerned with the development of commitment to regular blood donation. Taking a developmental perspective, this paper explores the longitudinal impact of background, situational, and dispositional factors measured at one's first donation. Questionnaire responses from a sample of first‐time donors are analyzed and logistic regression analysis is employed to predict successive “continuation decisions” (the decisions to donate twice, three times, and four times). Results suggest that factors may change in their magnitude and direction of impact across the donor's career. Externally focused social pressures and rewards are dominant at the early stages and self‐originating factors at the later stages. Theoretical and practical implications of the findings are discussed.
Courtroom Interrogation of Rape Victims: Verbal Response Mode Use by Attorneys and Witnesses During Direct Examination vs. Cross‐Examination1
Authors: McGaughey Karen J. , Stiles William B.
Published: August 2006

The verbal behavior of attorneys and witnesses (rape victims) in direct and cross‐examinations was coded according to a taxonomy of verbal response modes (VRMs). Significant differences were found between the verbal behavior of attorneys and witnesses on direct and cross‐examination. The differences are those that would be expected on the basis of the advice given by legal authors concerning the techniques that should be used in the two types of interrogation. The VRMs reflect the different techniques that attorneys use in their efforts to influence juries' impressions of witnesses' credibility.
Social Class and Reported Changes in Behavior After Job Loss
Authors: Warr Peter , Payne Roy
Published: August 2006

Reports were obtained from middle‐class and working‐class unemployed British men about change or lack of change since job loss in 37 different behaviors. The behaviors were grouped into Domestic Work, Domestic Pastimes, Other Pastimes, Book Reading, Recreations, Entertainment Through Money, and Social Contacts. Contrary to findings from 1930s research, significant increases in social contact and book reading were reported since job loss. Other significant increases were reported within all categories except Entertainment Through Money, where a significant decline was recorded. A number of social class differences were found. For instance, middleclass unemploycd men were significantly more likely than their working‐class counterparts to report increased book reading for study and more visits to the public library. Working‐class respondents were significantly more likely to report increased looking around shops without buying and reduced visits to the pub. Several significant associations between reported behavior changes and aspects of psychological and general health were observed.
The Analysis of Verbal Explanations for Marital Separation: Implications for Attribution Theory1
Authors: Fletcher Garth J. O.
Published: August 2006

The main purpose of this study was to analyze the structure and content of real‐life attributions, using these data to examine some important theoretical and empirical issues in attribution theory. The causal attributions examined came from free‐response verbal protocols of explanations for marital separation of 29 males and 33 females living in New Zealand. Respondents gave causal importance weghts to the attributions from their verbal protocols, utilizing the technique of subjective magnitude estimation. Ipsative data, representing perceived causal responsibility for different attribution targets (self, ex‐spouse, external factors, etc.), were derived from these weights, and the impact a range of independent variables exerted on these derived free‐response attribution percentages was examined. Evidence is presented which supports the validity and reliability of this technique. The normative data gathered was found to be both consistent and inconsistent with different aspects of attribution theory. The implications for attribution theory are discussed.
The Direct and Indirect Effects of Inadmissible Evidence1
Authors: Carretta Thomas R , Moreland Richard L.
Published: August 2006

College students (N= 270) assigned to six‐person mock juries read summaries of a murder trial and then evaluated the defendant's guilt both before and after group discussion. The strength of the prosecution's case was manipulated, as was the inclusion of extra wiretapping evidence that favored the prosecution or the defense and was ruled admissible or inadmissible by the judge. Whether it favored the prosecution or the defense, inadmissible evidence directly biased subjects' reactions toward the defendant and indirectly biased their behaviors during the group discussions. None of these effects varied with the strength of the prosecution's case. The results also showed that the direct effects of inadmissible evidence were at least partially mediated by its indirect effects, suggesting that the process of deliberation can potentially help jurors to control the influence of inadmissible evidence on their decisions.
Attitudes Toward Industrial Pollution, Strategies for Protecting the Environment, and Environmental‐Economic Trade‐offs
Authors: Francis Rebecca S.
Published: August 2006

Attitudes toward industrial pollution, environmental‐economic trade‐offs, and endorsement of various strategies and activities to protect the environment were examined in a community sample. Environmental attitudes were measured using seven distinct factors organized around four cognitive themes: commercialist‐expansionist‐emphasizing industrial concerns even at the expense of environmental considerations; reformist‐emphasizing the need and possibility of environmental quality; radical‐emphasizing pessimism over the possibility of environmental quality, given the present economic and policital system; and finally, denial that the community has been harmed by pollution. Examination of the relationship between pollution attitudes and endorsement of the various proenvironmental activities yielded a pattern consistent with a cognitive, syllogistic model of the organization of attitudes. Those emphasizing a commercialist position neither favored nor regarded the various environmental activities as effective. Those who emphasized reform endorsed the various activities as both favorable and effective. Denial was associated with opposition to the various activities. Finally, those taking a radical position favored the various strategies but were not convinced of their efficacy.
The Lost Letter Technique Revisited1
Authors: Simmons Carolyn H. , Zumpf Connie
Published: August 2006

The present study used the Lost Letter Technique (LLT) to explore the use of personalized letters in assessing community attitudes in a large western metropolitan area. Response to one of the attitude issues was independently validated by subsequent election returns. Results confirm the usefulness of the LLT as a survey tool for sensitive social issues, even with a small sample size, when the envelopes are hand‐addressed and hand‐stamped and drop locations are carefully selected.
A Behavior‐Analytic Approach to Smoking Acquisition: Some Recent Findings1
Authors: Biglan Anthony , Lichtenstein Edward
Published: August 2006

A behavior‐analytic account of the smoking acquisition process is presented and contrasted with other formulations. Assessment implications of the approach are described and briefly illustrated. Data from studies on the onset of experimental smoking and the transition to regular smoking are presented and evaluated with respect to the proposed framework. These data are quite consistent with the behavior‐analytic account but do not disconfirm alternative accounts. The implications of the data for both prevention programs and future research are discussed.
Effects of Pay Expected on Pay Received: The Confirmatory Nature of Initial Expectations1
Authors: Major Brenda , Vanderslice Virginia , McFarlin Dean B.
Published: August 2006

Previous research suggests that women have lower pay expectations and a lower sense of personal entitlement with respect to pay than similarly qualified men (cf. Major & Konar, in press; Major, McFarlin, & Gagnon, 1984). The present research examined, in two liking simulation experiments, the impact of a job applicant's pay expectations and gender on starting salary offers, hiring recommendations, and evaluations made by management students. Results of both experiments indicated that, given identical applicant qualifications, the higher the salary requested by an applicant, the higher the salary he or she was offered, regardless of the applicant's gender. However, women with moderate pay expectations were offered significantly more money (Experiment 1) and were significantly more likely to be hired (Experiment 2) than were men with moderate expectations. Amount of pay expected had no impact on other evaluations of the applicant. The role that gender differences in pay expectations may play in perpetuating nonperformance‐related pay differences between women and men is discussed.
Participation in Religious Groups as a Function of Group Composition: A Self‐Attention Perspective1
Authors: Mullen Brian
Published: August 2006

A self‐attention approach to the effect of the group on the individual is applied to the phenomenon of participation in religious groups. Previous work indicates that group members become more self‐attentive, and thus more concerned with matching to standards of appropriate behavior, as the relative size of their subgroup decreases. This suggests that, in the context of religious groups, members of a congregation will be more self‐attentive, and thus more likely to participate in the religious group, when there are fewer congregation members relative to the number of ministers. The results of analysis of ten archival records of participation in religious groups support this perspective. The importance of self‐attention processes in religious group settings is discussed.
Violence in College Students' Dating Relationships1
Authors: Sigelman Carol K. , Berry Carol J. , Wiles Katharine A.
Published: August 2006

In a survey of 504 college students examining predictors of violence in heterosexual relationships, over half of both men and women had committed at least one physically violent act, and men more often than women reported having been the victims of such acts. Most respondents who reported some experience with violence had both committed and received it, were involved in relatively few different types of violence, and first experienced violence when a relationship had moved beyond the casual dating stage. Modest associations between physical violence and sexual aggression were uncovered. In a series of discriminant analyses, men who abused their partners were not readily distinguished from men who did not, but tended to be young, low in family income, traditional in attitudes toward women, abused as children, currently living with a woman, and from Appalachian areas. Women who abused were more readily discriminated and scored low in social desirability, were abused as children, and were from non‐Appalachian areas. Men who were abused were likely to be living with a woman and tended to be low in family income; similarly, cohabitation was related among women to being a target of violence, as were having been abused as a child and scoring low in social desirability. Findings are related to those of other studies of dating abuse, as well as to the family violence and aggression literatures.
Differences Between Rape Victims Who Report and Those Who Do Not Report to a Public Agency1
Authors: Fehman‐Summers Shirley , Norris Jeanette
Published: August 2006

The purpose of this study was to identify the variables that predict whether or not a rape victim will report to either a social service agency and/or the police. One hundred seventy‐nine female rape victims who either reported or did not report completed a questionnaire that assessed (1) perceived outcomes of reporting a rape, (2) social expectations to report or not report, (3) individual characteristics of the victim, and (4) situational characteristics of the rape. Perceived outcomes, social expectations, and certain situational characteristics effectively predicted reporting behavior. Theoretical explanations for the findings and implications for increasing the likelihood that victims will report are discussed.
Ascription of Responsibility as a Personality Variable1
Authors: Suedfeld Peter , Hakstian A. Ralph , Rank Darylynn S. , Ballard Elizabeth J.
Published: August 2006

The Ascription of Responsibility Questionnaire (ARQ), consisting of 13 biographical and 28 attitudinal items, was designed to study one aspect of attribution: ascribing responsibility for particular events to specific persons or to diffuse and depersonalized forces. The questionnaire was administered to 251 university summer session students. Factor analyses showed 4 orthogonal factors, which were labeled traditional focused responsibility, diffuse responsibility, exercised responsibility, and individual focused responsibility. Six groups of subjects could be clearly differentiated on the patterns of their scores on these factors. Correlations with other personality tests and with demographic variables were found.
The Effect of Giving Informal Performance Feedback on Subsequent Formal Memory‐Based Performance Evaluations1
Authors: Larson James R , Skolnik Yitzchok
Published: August 2006

Two experiments tested the hypothesis that raters' formal memory‐based performance evaluations can be significantly influenced by their having previously given the ratee informal performance feedback. In Experiment 1 subjects either did or did not give informal feedback to another person who performed either well or poorly on an interviewing task. In Experiment 2 subjects role played giving informal feedback about behavior relevant to only one of the two performance dimensions subsequently evaluated. In both experiments subjects later ratcd the interpersonal and task performance of the feedback recipient. The results of both studies support the hypothesis for ratings of interpersonal performance. Giving informal feedback to a ratee exhibiting good interpersonal performance led to more positive interpersonal performance ratings, whereas giving informal feedback to a ratee exhibiting poor interpersonal performance led to more negative interpersonal performance ratings. Task performance ratings, on the other hand, were not affected. Conditions likely to have mitigated the impact of giving informal feedback on the task performance ratings are discussed, as are the implications of the results for practical strategies to improve the quality of formal memory‐based performance evaluations.
Prediction of Effectiveness in Leaderless Group Discussions with the Adjective Check List1
Authors: Hills David A.
Published: August 2006

This study used Adjective Check List (ACL) scales and related four scales to individual differences in group problem‐solving behavior. The ACL scores of 237 managers who had participated in a training program were examined in comparison with ratings of comparative effectiveness in two leaderless group discussion exercises.
Similarity in Religiousness of the Solicitor, the Potential Helper, and the Recipient as Determinants of Donating Behavior1
Authors: Yinon Yoel , Sharon Irit
Published: August 2006

In a 2 × 2 × 2 field experiment, 107 religious and secular subjects were requested by a religious/secular solicitor to donate money for a religious/secular needy family. Religious subjects donated significantly more than secular ones. The pattern of the cell means suggested that whereas the behavior of the religious subjects was guided by the need for positive self‐presentation, the secular subjects were influenced by their similarity in religiousness to the solicitor and the recipient.
Mock‐Juror Evaluations of Eyewitness Testimony: A Test of Metamemory Hypotheses1
Authors: Lindsay R. C. L. , Lim Robert , Marando Louis , Cully Deborah
Published: August 2006

Wells and Lindsay (1983) proposed that juror belief of eyewitness testimony was influenced by various types of information. Four mock‐jury experiments were conducted to test hypotheses derived from their metamemory analysis. In Experiment 1, 288 subjects read brief “transcripts” of a purse‐snatching trial in which 0, 1, or 2 eyewitnesses testified for each of the prosecution and/or the defense. Consistent with the hypothesis that inter‐subjective agreement (consensus among witnesses) was important, guilty verdicts were most likely in the presence of unopposed prosecution eyewitnesses and least likely in the presence of unopposed defense eyewitnesses. Experiment 2 employed 75 subjects viewing a videotaped trial simulation and replicated the findings from the first experiment as well as demonstrating that the nature of the defense witness' testimony (a no identification decision vs. alibi) was unimportant but the person providing an alibi was important (stranger vs. relative). In Experiment 3,60 subjects listened to an audiotaped trial procedure varying the internal consistency of the witness' testimony. Inconsistent testimony failed to reduce belief of the eyewitness as reflected in guilty votes. The fourth experiment exposed 60 subjects to audiotapes of a burglary trial varying lighting conditions and length of exposure of the criminal to the eyewitness. Neither variable significantly influenced belief of the eyewitness. Explanations for the failure to obtain significant effects in the latter two experiments and possible directions for further research are discussed.
Individual Differences in Risk Taking1
Authors: Streufert Siegfried
Published: August 2006

Risk taking behavior in civilian and military settings often results in unnecessary loss of life and equipment. The present research investigates the contribution of three cognitive styles (Type A., Cognitive Complexity, and GIAL) to risky behavior under varying task load conditions. The research is further concerned with uncovering possible relationships between these cognitive styles and physiological arousal (cardiovascular response) as interactive sources of risky actions. A variety of diverse and combined effects of styles on the propensity to take risks was obtained. These relationships were not generally reflected in arousal levels. In addition, the present findings support the conclusions of Streufert et al. (1983) who suggested that risk taking is primarily an effect of cognitive error. In the absence of an arousal based “thrill” finding, specific “educational” programs, based on a person's stylistic characteristics, may be possible to reduce the propensity for risky actions.
The Contribution of Cognitive Resources and Leader Behavior to Organizational Performance1
Authors: Fiedler Fred E.
Published: August 2006

A recently proposed cognitive resource theory of leadership effectiveness explicates the role of such cognitive variables as intellectual abilities, technical competence, and job‐relevant knowledge (experience) in determining group performance. This paper reviews research showing that the leaders' intellectual abilities contribute to performance only when leaders are directive, do not experience stress, have supportive groups, and work on tasks which require intellectual effort.
Unit Morale: From a Theoretical Puzzle to an Empirical Illustration—An Israeli Example1
Authors: Gal Reuven
Published: August 2006

The concept of morale, within its military context, was explored in the present work from both its theoretical and practical aspects. Following a review of the concept's definitional and historical background, the data from a pre‐war morale survey administered in May of 1981 to a large sample of Israeli combat troops were analyzed (by means of intercorrelations and factor analysis) as an illustration of the multifaceted structure of morale. While the intercorrelations revealed several major variables related strongly to morale, the factor analysis yielded eight factors, morale being just one of them. These eight factors were: (1) confidence in senior commanders; (2) confidence in one's self, team, and weapons; (3) unit cohesion and morale; (4) familiarity with missions and frontage; (5) confidence in immediate commanders; (6) enemy evaluation; (7) legitimacy of war; (8) worries and concerns. The present analysis may suggest the existence of a higher order concept—perhaps “unit climate”— of which all of the found factors, including morale, are the comprising components.
Ambient Temperature and Violent Crime1
Authors: Cotton John L.
Published: August 2006

Baron and Ransberger (1978) argue that civil violence increases as temperature rises into the mid 80s, and then decreases as temperatures rise further. Two experiments test this hypothesis using data on temperature and the incidence of crime for summer months in two midwestern cities. The crime data were divided into violent and nonviolent crimes, and then correlated with the maximum, minimum, and average temperatures, and several humidity measures. Violent crime correlated significantly with temperature; nonviolent crime did not. This relationship was linear in the first study, but curvilinear in the second. Inspection of the data suggests that the incidence of aggressive behavior (i.e., violent crime) does not drop off in the mid‐80s as laboratory findings and Baron and Ransberger's results would suggest, but continues to increase as temperatures rise into the 90s. The mean incidence of violent crime was higher for days in the 90s than for days in the 80s. A hypothesis for resolving this contradiction between real world and laboratory findings is discussed.
Stuttering, Audience Size, and the Other‐Total Ratio: A Self‐Attention Perspective1
Authors: Mullen Brian
Published: August 2006

The effect of audience size on verbal disfluences in stutterers is considered from the perspective of self‐attention theory. Two secondary analyses conducted using original data from studies (Hahn, 1940; Porter, 1939) which observed the effects of audience size on stuttering, reveal an increase in stuttering as a negatively accelerating function of audience size. These results confirm the utility of the self‐attention theory Other‐Total Ratio in characterizing the effect of the group on the individual.
Sentencing Disparity: Perforce or Perchance?1
Authors: McFAtter Robert M.
Published: August 2006

Important sources of variability in sentencing judgments are identified by decomposing these judgments in a Crime × Judge analysis of variance into a Crime main effect (representing consensus) and several forms of disparity. Two systematic forms of disparity are (1) the Judge main effect, reflecting differences in overall harshness or leniency of different judges; and (2) the Crime × Judge interaction, reflecting idiosyncracies—perhaps principled—in the way particular judges view particular crimes. A third unsystematic form of disparity is reflected in variations in how the same judge views the same crime/offender on different occasions, that is, unreliability. Data from an experiment in which state district judges made sentencing decisions about the same crime/offenders on two occasions are presented to illustrate application of the model and obtain disparity estimates for 13 crimes. Results reveal that for most of the crimes disparity can be attributed primarily to simple unreliability over occasions rather than principled disagreements among judges. Implications of these results and the importance of distinguishing different types of disparity are discussed.
Certifying Juveniles for Adult Court: An Attribution Analysis1
Authors: Webb John A. , Willems Edwin P.
Published: August 2006

Certification is the process whereby older juveniles who have committed felony offenses are transferred from juvenile courts to adult courts. The present study examined the variables that influence decisions in these cases and used attribution theory to conceptualize the process. Data were obtained from files of 150 youths on whom certification petitions had been filed from January 1981 to October 1984. Of these, 125 had been certified and 25 had not. The sample comprised 148 males and 2 females. Data included seriousness of the offense, previous offenses, potential for aggressiveness, level of involvement in the offense, age, court in which the case was heard, year in which the case was heard, IQ, family income and sex. Level of involvement, seriousness of the offense and potential for aggressiveness had the strongest association with certification outcomes, with those high on these measures significantly more likely to be certified. The cluster that predicted outcomes best included level of involvement, seriousness of the offense, potential for aggressiveness, IQ, year in which the case was heard, court in which the case was heard, sex and previous offenses. The most explicitly behavioral variable—how actively the child participated in the offense—was the best single predictor of outcomes.
Interviewer's Moods and Reactions to Job Applicants: The Influence of Affective States on Applied Social Judgments1
Authors: Baron Robert A.
Published: August 2006

Male and female subjects interviewed a same‐sex applicant for an entry‐level management position. In reality, this person was an accomplice who presented a carefully standardized pattern of positive and negative information. Prior to the interview, participants were exposed to treatments designed to place them in a positive, neutral, or negative mood. Results indicated that subjects’ moods influenced their reactions to the applicant. They rated this individual higher on job‐related and personal dimensions and made more favorable employment decisions about him or her when in a positive than negative mood. In addition, participants recalled more information presented by the applicant that was consistent with their current mood than information that was inconsistent with these feelings. Implications of these findings for the development of closer conceptual links between (a) basic knowledge about social cognition and (b) practical issues relating to the conduction of fair employment interviews are discussed.
Cooperation In Group Treatment Programs for Incarcerated Adolescents1
Authors: Atwood Richard O. , Osgood D. Wayne
Published: August 2006

Group treatment programs for incarcerated adolescents attempt to use the social influence of peer groups as a means both for generating acceptance of treatment goals and for creating pro‐social change. On the basis of social psychological research in laboratory and educational settings, we predicted that group cooperation plays a pivotal role in these programs. A hypothesized path model was estimated through pooled time series and cross section analysis of three waves of data for 45 groups at four institutions. There was close agreement between path estimates from an analysis of average levels and an analysis of change, and both strongly supported the hypothesized model. Results indicate that coercive control decreases cooperation and that cooperation leads to attraction to the group and prevents delinquent norms. Cooperation also has an indirect effect on acceptance of the program, mediated by attraction to the group.
The Confidence‐Accuracy Relationship: The Effects of Confidence Assessment and Choosing1
Authors: Fleet Martin L. , Brigham John C. , Bothwell Robert K.
Published: August 2006

Male and female college undergraduates were exposed to a staged theft. For half of the subjects, confidence judgments were assessed both before and after viewing a photo lineup. For the other half, confidence judgments were assessed only after viewing the lineup. Subjects in both conditions viewed a target‐present or target‐absent lineup under negativey biased, unbiased, or positively biased instructions. Across all subjects, confidence and accuracy were significantly correlated (r= .30). There was a significantly stronger relationship between confidence and accuracy among choosers (r= 50) than among nonchoosers (r= .14). Choosing and confidence did not correlate significantly with each other. Identification accuracy was significantly poorer when witnesses had been asked before viewing the lineup to state their confidence that they would make an accurate identification than when confidence was measured only after an identification had been attempted. However, the before‐after manipulation did not affect the magnitude of the confidence‐accuracy relationship. The present results offer some support for the general proposition that choosing and the timing of confidence assessments should be viewed as moderating variables in the interpretation of the confidence‐accuracy relationship. These data offer little support for predictions based upon self‐perception theory and are in direct disagreement with the widely held assertion that witnesses are confident in whatever choice they make, regardless of its correctness.
The Social Psychology of Caregiving: Physical and Psychological Costs of Providing Support to the Disabled1
Authors: Schulz Richard , Tompkins Connie A. , Wood Dan , Decker Susan
Published: August 2006

The emphasis of much of the existing research on social support‐health relationships has been on the availability and impact of support on the recipient, but social psychologists have paid little attention to the costs to the caregiver of providing that support. In an earlier study (Schulz & Decker, 1985), we found that the long‐term coping of individuals experiencing chronic disability as a result of spinal‐cord injury was facilitated by the availability of a primary support person, or caregiver. In this study we examined the determinants of well‐being of the primary caregiver of the middle‐aged and elderly spinal‐cord‐injured persons. Psychological well‐being, life satisfaction, and depression were the dependent measures. The availability of social support, social contact, and feelings of control over one's life were important determinants of caregiver well‐being, even after controlling for health and income. In addition, the amount of time spent each day assisting the disabled person was a strong independent correlate of depression, and the extent to which the caregiver felt burdened by the victim was significantly and negatively related to life satisfaction. These results are discussed in the context of a comprehensive stress‐coping model.

Since data were available from both disabled individuals and their primary support persons, we had the unique opportunity to compare the perspectives of both those giving and receiving daily care. We found no relationship in levels of psychological well‐being and depression reported by the disabled person and caregiver; however, caregivers attributed to the victims affective levels similar to their own.
The Role of Intentions, Social Norms, and Attitudes in the Performance of Dental Flossing: A Test of the Theory of Reasoned Action
Authors: Toneatto Tony , Binik Yitzchak
Published: August 2006

The theory of reasoned action proposed by Fishbein and Ajzen (1975) was tested as an explanatory model for a preventive dental behavior, dental flossing, in a sample of 65 undergraduate students. Intentions and direct attitudes were found to be the strongest predictors of flossing. Social influences exerted their influence by way of direct attitudes. Flossers (>1/week) and non‐flossers (<1/week) were observed to agree with belief statements referring to the health value of flossing. However, statements referring to the social and sensory aspects of flossing were found to effectively discriminate the two groups. Implications for health education strategies are discussed in which a greater focus is placed on more immediate social and sensory benefits of flossing rather than on long‐term health benefits.
Recommended Regulation of Common Drugs: The Relative Influence of Facts vs. Labels
Authors: Edwards Melanie L. , Strube Michael J
Published: August 2006

The present study examined the hypothesis that individuals are more influenced by a drug name than by the side effects associated with that drug when making recommendations regarding regulation. Subjects recommended the amount of regulation that should exist for eight drugs ranging from aspirin to LSD. One third of the subjects were asked to make recommendations based only on the drug name. Another third made recommendations based only on the facts associated with the drugs (i.e., side effects, symptoms). A final third made recommendations based on both facts and the drug name. Results indicated that, when given only the facts, subjects' recommendations deviated greatly from the actual regulation of the drugs but that the facts were ignored if subjects knew the name of the drug. These results suggest that critical information may be ignored when decisions are made about drug regulation. The implications for self‐regulated drug use are discussed.
Minority Influence, Divergent Thinking and Detection of Correct Solutions
Authors: Nemeth Charlan Jeanne , Kwan Julianne L.
Published: August 2006

In many applied settings involving influence processes in small groups, the interest is in how such processes aid or hinder effective decision making and problem solving. In a recent formulation, Nemeth (1986) argued that exposure to opposing views emanating from a minority leads to divergent thinking, a process that involves a consideration of the problem from varying viewpoints. On balance, such influence would aid performance. Exposure to opposing majority viewpoints leads to convergent thought where Ss presumably concentrate on the proposed viewpoint to the exclusion of other considerations. On balance, this form of influence tends not to aid performance and may prove to be an impediment. In the present study, these hypotheses were tested in the context of anagram solutions. Results showed that subjects exposed to the minority viewpoint found more correct words and they achieved this superior performance by a usage of all possible strategies. Subjects exposed to the majority viewpoint initially used the strategy suggested by the majority to the detriment of other strategies and, in general, performed at the level of control subjects. These results are discussed in terms of potential contributions made by exposure to dissenting minority viewpoints in small group decision‐making settings such as trial by jury and in society at large.
Cognitive Consequences of Legislating Postpurchase Behavior: Growing Up with the Bottle Bill
Authors: Kahle Lynn R. , Beatty Sharon E.
Published: August 2006

A study was conducted to understand how bottle bills exert their effect. Legislation does apparently allow for a situation in which behaviors influence attitudes if subjective norms converge with the new position. Students tested longitudinally manifested significant (p < .1) differences in cross‐lagged panel correlations implying that subjective norms lead to bottle bill and ecological attitudes, that behavior and habit lead to bottle returning attitudes, and that ecological attitudes lead to intentions. Students in Oregon were found to have greater pro‐ecological attitudes than students in neighboring states. Public policy implications are discussed.
Contributions of Social Psychology to the Study of Appetltive Behaviors1
Authors: Bowen Deborah J. , Grunberg NeilE.
Published: August 2006

Social psychology has contributed substantially to the study and understanding of appetitive behaviors. This paper focuses on three major lines of social psychological research that have made particularly important contributions to appetitive behaviors: Hovland's work on attitudes and attitude changes, Bandura's social learning theory, and Schachter's studies of obesity and cigarette smoking. The relevant work of these three social psychologists and the research following from each line of inquiry are reviewed. Additional potential applications of these social psychological approaches to the study of appetitive behaviors are discussed.
Conflict and Negotiation: Trends and Emerging Issues
Authors: Smith William P.
Published: August 2006

Theory and research on dyadic conflict is traced from its historical roots in social exchange theory and interpersonal gaming to current concerns with the cognitive and tactical aspects of multiple issue bargaining and conflict in close personal relationships. This review examines the contributions of research with the Prisoner's Dilemma game, explicit two‐person bargaining paradigms, and threat games, as well as work on representative negotiation and third‐party intervention in conflict. The interplay of structural and motivational variables in the understanding of conflict and negotiation is emphasized. Criticisms of the typical theoretical and empirical approaches to the study of conflict are noted, especially the lack of general theory and the questionable representativeness of typical laboratory paradigms. Finally, recent research in integrative bargaining and entrapment is examined for insights concerning the active role the parties themselves play in the structuring of their conflict, and the implications of such a role for cognitive as well as motivational factors in conflict resolution.
Social Psychology of Women and Gender1
Authors: Wallston Barbara Strudler
Published: August 2006

A selective overview of work in the field from 1970 to 1985 is presented. Sex comparisons are presented as an extensive research area needing theory‐based empiricism. In another major area, gender belief systems, important progress has been made in studying the effects of stereotypes on subsequent behavior. Methodological critiques and advances are discussed. Two sources of research are highlighted: women's experience and theory. Examples are given of research advances stemming from women's experience and a case study is provided of the value of personal experience to the researcher. Theories focusing on individual differences are critiqued. Theory focusing on situational factors such as power and status are highlighted. Sherif s (1982) delineation of the self‐system is presented as a major integrated theory. Directions for future work are provided focusing on inclusion of women of color, lesbians, and women from all social strata to understand the varieties of women's experience. A move to knowledge that is “gendered” rather than female‐centered is proposed.
Victim and Observer Characteristics as Determinants of Responsibility Attributions to Victims of Rape1
Authors: Krahé Barbara
Published: August 2006

Two field studies were conducted to investigate the influence of observer and victim characteristics on attributions of victim and assailant responsibility in a rape case. In the first study, male and female subjects completed a measure of rape myth acceptance and were presented with a rape account after which they were asked to attribute responsibility to victim and assailant. In the second study, a new sample was asked to attribute responsibility to victim and assailant on the basis of one of two rape accounts in which victim's pre‐rape behavior was manipulated. Results showed that both rape myth acceptance and victims' pre‐rape behavior influenced the degree of responsibility attributed to victims and assailants. No significant effects of subject gender were found. A more complex conceptualization is suggested of the link between observer and victim characteristics in social reactions to and evaluations of rape victims.
Age‐Related Resons for Expressed Interest In Exercise and Weight Control
Authors: Koslow Robert E.
Published: August 2006

Reasons for expressed interest in exercise and weight control were examined. The importance of benefit statements was rated on a scale of one to ten by subjects grouped according to age. Results indicated that 18 to 30 year‐old subjects rated benefits pertaining to aesthetic enhancement of physical appearance as significantly more important than all other benefits. Also, the benefits pertaining to health and aesthetic enhancement were rated as significantly more important than social and emotional benefits and training benefits by subjects ranging in age from 31 to 50 years. It was concluded that regrdless of age, subjects are equally as interested or more interested in aesthetic benefits as compared to health benefits resulting from fitness‐related activity.
The Systematic Measurement of French and Raven's Bases of Social Power in Workgroups
Authors: Frost Dean E. , Stahelski Anthony J.
Published: August 2006

A typology of five bases of social power developed by French and Raven (1959) has been used to study small‐group behavior in field settings by various researchers but interpretation of these data is limited by several methodological shortcomings. This study describes the development and testing of questionnaire measures for the Legitimate, Expert, Referent, Reward, and Coercive bases of social power and attempts to correct some of the scale format confounds that have affected previous empirical efforts. Analyses of Likert‐scaled responses from the 23‐item questionnaire show for the first time that these five constructs are factorially identifiable and orthogonal. Scale responses are shown to accurately reflect hierarchical status differences in an organization and to correlate significantly with such common leader behaviors as Initiation of Structure and Consideration.
An Examination of the Cognitive Mechanisms by Which Assigned Goals Affect Task Performance and Reactions to Performance1
Authors: Meyer John P. , Schacht‐Cole Brenda , Gellatly Ian R.
Published: August 2006

In this study, cognitive mechanisms by which assigned goals affect task performance and reactions to performance were examined. Subjects working on a creativity task were assigned one of three performance goals varying in difficulty. Ratings of subjective probability of goal attainment, expected performance, expected satisfaction with goal attainment, and desired performance were obtained prior to each of five blocks of trials. Ratings of satisfaction with performance were obtained after each trial block and ratings of ability were obtained after all trials were completed. As predicted, with increased goal difficulty, subjective probability of goal attainment decreased, but expected performance, expected satisfaction with goal attainment, and desired performance increased. Contrary to prediction, the effect of goal difficulty on task performance was not significant. LISREL analyses revealed that goal difficulty exerted both positive (through expected and desired performance) and negative (through subjective probability of goal attainment) effects on performance. Goal difficulty had a negative effect on satisfaction with performance and ratings of perceived ability. The importance of identifying the cognitive mechanisms by which assigned goals affect performance and the need to consider consequences of assigned goals other than task performance are discussed.