bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Uric Acid Is a Risk Factor for Myocardial Infarction and Stroke
Authors: Bos Michiel J. , Koudstaal Peter J. , Hofman Albert , Witteman Jacqueline C.M. , Breteler Monique M.B.
Published: May 2006

Background and Purpose—

The role of uric acid as a risk factor for myocardial infarction is controversial, and little is known about its role as a risk factor for stroke. Recent evidence suggests that uric acid may be an important causal agent in cardiovascular disease, for example, by inducing renal disease and hence hypertension. We investigated the association between serum uric acid and coronary heart disease and stroke in a large prospective population-based study.

Methods—

The study was based on 4385 participants of the Rotterdam Study who, at baseline (1990 to 1993), were ≥55 years of age, free from stroke and coronary heart disease, and had blood taken. Follow-up for incident stroke and myocardial infarction was complete until January 1, 2002. Data were analyzed with Cox proportional hazards models with adjustment for relevant confounders.

Results—

Average follow-up was 8.4 years. High serum uric acid levels were associated with risk of myocardial infarction and stroke; age- and sex-adjusted hazard ratios (95% CIs) for highest versus lowest quintile of uric acid were 1.68 (1.24 to 2.27) for cardiovascular disease (515 cases), 1.87 (1.12 to 3.13) for myocardial infarction (194 cases), 1.57 (1.11 to 2.22) for stroke (381 cases), 1.77 (1.10 to 2.83) for ischemic stroke (205 cases), and 1.68 (0.68 to 4.15) for hemorrhagic stroke (46 cases). Adjustment for other vascular risk factors only slightly attenuated these associations. Associations were stronger in persons without hypertension than in those with hypertension.

Conclusions—

Uric acid is a strong risk factor for myocardial infarction and stroke.
Vacuum Consolidation of Commingled Thermoplastic Matrix Composites
Authors: Ijaz M. , Robinson M. , Wright P. N. H. , Gibson A. G.
Published: May 2006

An experimental and modeling study is conducted on the vacuum consolidation of commingled glass/thermoplastic composites as part of a larger project on manufacturing large monolithic structures from these precursors. Two polyethylene terephthalate (PET) matrices are employed: semicrystalline PET and an amorphous PET copolymer. Samples of commingled fabric are processed into consolidated composites by means of both a convective oven, as will be used in practice, and a small-scale experimental characterization rig, designed to measure consolidation accurately. The samples are then cooled to room temperature. In this article, the thermal and consolidation characterization of these fabrics is reported. Thermally induced consolidation is observed to occur in two stages: a low temperature solid state de-bulking near to Tg, followed by full melt impregnation at a higher temperature. Both stages are modeled separately using an empirical model based on the Kamal equation. The measured consolidation versus time profiles suggest a rapid impregnation and wetting of the fibers, occurring near to the melting point of the semicrystalline polymer. The PET melting endotherm and crystallization exotherm have little effect on the observed thermal profiles, suggesting that these effects can possibly be neglected when modeling the process.
The Intellectual and Modern Focus in Israeli Military Thinking as Reflected in Ma'arachot Articles, 1948-2000
Authors: Kober Avi
Published: May 2006

This article examines patterns of continuity and change in Israeli military thinking over time, as reflected in Ma'arachot articles. The main questions addressed are: First, do Ma'areaclhot pieces reflect an intellectual focus, that is, a theoretically and historically based thinking? Second, given the fact that in modern times war has receded from the actual battlefield, do Ma'arachot pieces reflect a modem focus? In other words, do they address war in a comprehensive, multilevel, and multidimensional manner? The findings of the survey refute the claim that the Israeli Defense Force IDF is ignorant or antiintellectual. However, the results portray an army which puts application before study, and which has a lot of catching up to do where a deep understanding of central aspects of modern war is concerned.
The Social Origins of the French Capitulation in Algeria
Authors: Merom Gil
Published: May 2006

The French War in Algeria (1954-1962) deserves attention, above all, because of the remarkable divorce between France’s military success and the failure to secure her preferred political results. This article identifies the agent responsible for that discrepancy and for the eventual French capitulation as essentially social, explaining how the defining struggle over Algeria’s future revolved round issues of purpose and identity. Specifically, the article explains how the French opposition to the war stirred France in its direction by gaining control over the domestic marketplace of ideas and inadvertently escalating a process of wrenching radicalization. This process was critical because it forced the French people and leaders to choose between the mutually exclusive options of retaining Algeria as French or preserving France as democratic.
Postmodernism and the Source of Military Strength in the Anglo West
Authors: Bondy Harry
Published: May 2006

Believing that cultural change must be rapid and thorough, many analysts are calling for a revolution in military culture as a necessary condition for a broader revolution in military affairs. This article argues for cultural reform in Anglo-Western armies, although much applies to other nations and other branches of service. Army transformation must draw upon the source of military strength in the cultural heritage of the host society. In the Anglo West, social capital, societal discipline, modern bureaucracy, and professionalism provide the foundation for military cohesion, discipline, efficiency, innovation, and legitimacy. Modern armies require postmodern reinvention to correct for misapplied modernism that has led to personnel turbulence, careerism, and factionalism. Although the source of economies of scale, modern bureaucracy can also undermine social stability and inhibit adaptability. Stages of psychological maturation parallel the stages of professional awareness required for balance among army stakeholders. The article concludes by suggesting a new force structure, personnel strategy, and governance system that emphasizes stability, local reputation, productive bureaucracy, professional streaming, and legitimacy for the military social contract.
Epilogue: A “Good” Military Death
Authors: Ben-Ari Eyal
Published: May 2006

As an epilogue to the present volume, this article picks up its central themes. It elaborates some of the main points about casualty aversion that are made in the preceding contributions. At the same time, by adding its own themes and insights, this article is complementary in character. It focuses on how a “good” military death is defined by cultural scripts and how, in accordance with those scripts, death is dealt with by the military organization and its guild of experts. Cultural scripts change over time and may differ from one society to another. As a consequence, the practices of dealing with military death may differ too. Generally speaking, though, military organizations throughout the West echo the ways in which casualties nowadays are looked upon by parent societies.
Military Cohesion and Regime Maintenance
Authors: Lee Terence
Published: May 2006

Why are certain militaries in authoritarian regimes more effective in carrying out the task of regime maintenance than others? This is the central question of this article, which explains the Chinese and Indonesian militaries’differing responses to government orders to suppress the Tiananmen Square demonstrations of 1989 and the protests prior to the downfall of Indonesian President Suharto in 1998. The article argues that the varying level of effectiveness in dealing with protestors is attributable to how governments employ institutional controls or “stick” mechanisms and the effect these controls have on military organizational cohesion. Specifically, the article notes that the efficacy of a regime's institutional controls does not just center on having mechanisms to monitor, prevent, and punish malfeasance within the military. Instead, militaries are likely to be successful in suppressing demonstrations if authoritarian leaders do not implement policies that undermine the organizational integrity of the armed forces.
Taking Guns from Batterers
Authors: Sorenson Susan B.
Published: May 2006

Federal law prohibits the purchase or possession of a firearm by persons convicted of misdemeanor domestic violence and those under certain domestic violence restraining orders. The purpose of this investigation is to examine public sentiment about the removal of firearms in the absence of a restraining order or misdemeanor conviction following domestic violence. An experimental vignette design was used in a telephone survey of a cross-sectional statewide sample of 522 community-residing adults in California. Study design and population weights were applied; the findings, thus, are a reasonable approximation for the population of California. In more than 3,500 vignettes, the abusive behavior was judged to be wrong, illegal, or should be illegal (98.7%, 73.1%, and 77.7%, respectively). Although only about one half (56.5%) of the scenarios were thought to merit the issuance of a restraining order, three fourths (77.4%) were thought to merit the removal of firearms. Multivariate analyses indicated greater support for firearms removal when the abuse involved sexual or physical abuse (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] ranged from 2.65 to 5.64) or a gun (AOR = 6.54). Men were the sole population group with significantly lower support for firearm removal following domestic violence (AOR = 0.39). The men who wanted firearms to remain did not differ from other men on any of the measured variables. In sum, there is substantial support, especially when a gun is displayed in a domestic violence incident, for policies requiring the removal of firearms from abusers.
Firearm Use in Intimate Partner Violence
Authors: Sorenson Susan B.
Published: May 2006

Readers of this volume are likely to have specific interests in domestic violence or in firearms policy. It is not assumed, however, that the typical reader will know about the interface of the two fields. Thus, the volume begins with a synopsis of the epidemiology of weapon use in intimate partner violence. The purpose of this article is to help readers better understand the nature of the problem, obtain knowledge that will provide a context for the policy, and under-stand practice implications of the articles that follow.
Do Laws Restricting Access to Firearms by Domestic Violence Offenders Prevent Intimate Partner Homicide?
Authors: Vigdor Elizabeth Richardson , Mercy James A.
Published: May 2006

Domestic violence imposes a large cost on society. The authors exploit state variation in timing to examine the impact of three types of law on intimate partner homicides. These laws restrict access to firearms by individuals who are subject to a restraining order or have been convicted of a domestic violence misdemeanor or allow law enforcement officers to confiscate firearms at a domestic violence scene. The authors find that female intimate partner homicide rates decline 7% after a state passes a restraining order law. They find no effect from the domestic violence misdemeanor or confiscation laws.
Are Temporary Restraining Orders More Likely to Be Issued When Applications Mention Firearms?
Authors: Vittes Katherine A. , Sorenson Susan B.
Published: May 2006

Restraining orders, an important legal intervention for victims of domestic violence, have broad potential for injury prevention. Using data from one of the busiest restraining order clinics in the nation, the authors examined 1,354 applicants' descriptions of abuse. Most (89.2%) applicants were issued a restraining order. A total of 16.0% of applicants mentioned a firearm in their descriptions of abuse; doing so was not associated with restraining order issuance. About 1 in 20 applicants, even if issued a restraining order, would not be protected by the federal firearm purchase and possession prohibitions because they had not lived with or had a child with the defendant. However, the proportion of these individuals who report threatened or actual use of firearms against them is similar to that of other applicants. Federal and, when relevant, state law should be modified to include these persons.
Response to “Art versus Commerce as a Macromarketing Theme”
Authors: Bradshaw Alan , McDonagh Pierre , Marshall David
Published: May 2006

The authors respond to Holbrook’s 2005 art-versus-commerce article by suggesting that a deeper understanding can be found away from semiotic analyses of hackneyed cinematic cliches. Instead, they encourage a historically and empirically grounded understanding of the often complex and dialectical relationship between art and commerce and consider the macro implications.
Effect of Process Variables on the Quality of Compression Resin Transfer Molding
Authors: Chang Chih-Yuan , Hourng Lih-Wu , Chou Tsung-Yi
Published: May 2006

Compression resin transfer molding (CRTM), combining resin transfer molding (RTM) and compression molding, have been developed to fabricate fiber reinforced plastic (FRP) components with large dimensions or high fiber volume content. Although a lot of literature on CRTM is available, relatively little useful technical information is present regarding the proper choice of molding conditions for component optimization. The objective of this research is to investigate the effects of process variables, including injection pressure, mold opening distance, resin temperature, compression pressure, pre-heated mold temperature, and cure temperature, on the quality of CRTM products. The influence of these process variables on the part quality are investigated by applying Taguchi’s method. The ultimate stress measured by tensile test serves as an indicator of the part quality. Experimental result show that the compression pressure and the resin temperature are significant variables for improvements in the mechanical properties of the part, while the effect of pre-heated mold temperature on the mechanical properties appears to be trivial.
Extension of Mori-Tanaka Approach to Hygroelastic Loading of Fiber-reinforced Composites - Comparison with Eshelby-Kroner Self-consistent Model
Authors: Fréour S. , Jacquemin F. , Guillén R.
Published: May 2006

The scale transition model historically proposed by Mori and Tanaka to predict the average and local elastic behavior of heterogeneous structures is extended to hygro-elastic load for the first time. Explicit constitutive laws satisfying the fundamental assumptions of the model are given for the determination of the effective macroscopic coefficients of moisture expansion (CME) in composite structures by considering a jump in moisture content between the fiber and the matrix. Explicit forms are also given for the calculation of local (fiber and matrix scale) internal stress states from the localization of the macroscopic hygro-mechanical states (ply scale). Comparisons for several compositions of composite structures (volume fraction of the constituents, i.e., the epoxy matrix and the reinforcing fibers) are performed between the numerical predictions given by the Mori-Tanaka model extended to hygro-elastic load and the recently proposed Eshelby-Kroner self-consistent hygro-elastic model. Discrepancies in the calculations appearing with an increase of the reinforcing fiber volume fraction are extensively discussed to conclude on the limitations of the micro-mechanical approach developed in the present work.
Determination of the Injection Molding Process Parameters in Multicavity Injection Molds
Authors: Chen C. S.
Published: May 2006

This study presents a method for simulating the flow balance of a multicavity injection mold (MCIM) system. Flow imbalance is caused by shear rate segregation at a branch point in the runner system. Five parameters are considered, including the material and process parameters for multicavity injection molding. The mass fraction index (MFI) and flow balance index (FBI) are proposed to describe the flow imbalance of the injection mold. A lower melt temperature, a lower diameter of the runner, and a higher glass transition temperature of the material, all correspond to a greater flow imbalance in a multicavity injection mold system.
Pharmacological Modulation of Plasticity in the Human Motor Cortex
Authors: Ziemann Ulf , Meintzschel Frank , Korchounov Alexei , Ilić Tihomir V.
Published: May 2006

Ischemic cerebral stroke is the leading cause of long-term disability among adults in industrialized countries. One fundamental but still not sufficiently solved question is how to improve disability after stroke. Here, evidence will be reviewed on how pharmacological treatment modulates plasticity and learning in the intact human motor cortex. It will be argued that these data may be useful for advancing the concepts of pharmacotherapy for recovery after stroke.
Antileukemia activity of the combination of an anthracycline with a histone deacetylase inhibitor
Authors: Sanchez-Gonzalez Blanca , Yang Hui , Bueso-Ramos Carlos , Hoshino Koyu , Quintas-Cardama Alfonso , Richon Victoria M. , Garcia-Manero Guillermo
Published: May 2006

We studied the cellular and molecular effects of the combination of an anthracycline with 2 different histone deacetylase inhibitors (HDACIs): vorinostat (suberoylanilide hydroxamic acid) and valproic acid (VPA). The 10% inhibitory concentration (IC10) of idarubicin was 0.5 nM in MOLT4 and 1.5 nM in HL60 cells. Concentrations above 0.675 μM of vorinostat resulted in at least 80% loss of cell viability in both cell lines. Concentrations of 1.5 to 3 mM of VPA induced 50% to 60% loss in viability in HL60 and 80% in MOLT4 cells. The combination of idarubicin with vorinostat at 0.075 μM or VPA at 0.25 mM resulted in at least an additive loss of cell viability in both lines. Vorinostat (0.35 μM) and VPA (0.25 mM) in combination with idarubicin (0.5 nM) resulted in a significant increase in apoptotic cells in MOLT4 cells. The combination resulted in an increase in histone H3 and H4 acetylation at 24 hours, phosphorylated H2AX, as well as in the induction of p21CIP1 mRNA. No effect on cell cycle transition was observed. Of importance, the cellular and molecular effects observed were independent of the sequence used. In summary, the combination of an anthracycline with an HDACI should have significant clinical activity in patients with leukemia.
CRM197-conjugated serogroup C meningococcal capsular polysaccharide, but not the native polysaccharide, induces persistent antigen-specific memory B cells
Authors: Kelly Dominic F. , Snape Mathew D. , Clutterbuck Elizabeth A. , Green Sarah , Snowden Claire , Diggle Linda , Yu Ly-mee , Borkowski Astrid , Moxon E. Richard , Pollard Andrew J.
Published: May 2006

Neisseria meningitidis is one of the leading causes of bacterial meningitis and septicemia in children. Vaccines containing the purified polysaccharide capsule from the organism, a T cell-independent antigen, have been available for decades but do not appear to provide protection in infancy or immunologic memory as measured by antibody responses. By contrast, T cell-dependent serogroup C protein-polysaccharide conjugate vaccines protect against serogroup C meningococcal disease from infancy onward and prime for immunologic memory. We compared the magnitude and kinetics of plasma cell and memory B-cell responses to a meningococcal plain polysaccharide vaccine and a serogroup C glycoconjugate vaccine in adolescents previously primed with the conjugate vaccine. Plasma cell kinetics were similar for both vaccines, though the magnitude of the response was greater for the glycoconjugate. In contrast to the glycoconjugate vaccine, the plain polysaccharide vaccine did not induce a persistent immunoglobulin G (IgG) memory B-cell response. This is the first study to directly show that serogroup C meningococcal glycoconjugate vaccines induce persistent production of memory B cells and that plain polysaccharide vaccines do not, supporting the use of the conjugate vaccine for sustained population protection. Detection of peripheral blood memory B-cell responses after vaccination may be a useful signature of successful induction of immunologic memory during novel vaccine evaluation.
Air pollution and lung function among susceptible adult subjects: a panel study
Authors: Lagorio Susanna , Forastiere Francesco , Pistelli Riccardo , Iavarone Ivano , Michelozzi Paola , Fano Valeria , Marconi Achille , Ziemacki Giovanni , Ostro Bart D
Published: May 2006

Background

Adverse health effects at relatively low levels of ambient air pollution have consistently been reported in the last years. We conducted a time-series panel study of subjects with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), asthma, and ischemic heart disease (IHD) to evaluate whether daily levels of air pollutants have a measurable impact on the lung function of adult subjects with pre-existing lung or heart diseases.

Methods

Twenty-nine patients with COPD, asthma, or IHD underwent repeated lung function tests by supervised spirometry in two one-month surveys. Daily samples of coarse (PM10–2.5) and fine (PM2.5) particulate matter were collected by means of dichotomous samplers, and the dust was gravimetrically analyzed. The particulate content of selected metals (cadmium, chrome, iron, nickel, lead, platinum, vanadium, and zinc) was determined by atomic absorption spectrometry. Ambient concentrations of nitrogen dioxide (NO2), carbon monoxide (CO), ozone (O3), and sulphur dioxide (SO2) were obtained from the regional air-quality monitoring network. The relationships between concentrations of air pollutants and lung function parameters were analyzed by generalized estimating equations (GEE) for panel data.

Results

Decrements in lung function indices (FVC and/or FEV1) associated with increasing concentrations of PM2.5, NO2and some metals (especially zinc and iron) were observed in COPD cases. Among the asthmatics, NO2was associated with a decrease in FEV1. No association between average ambient concentrations of any air pollutant and lung function was observed among IHD cases.

Conclusion

This study suggests that the short-term negative impact of exposure to air pollutants on respiratory volume and flow is limited to individuals with already impaired respiratory function. The fine fraction of ambient PM seems responsible for the observed effects among COPD cases, with zinc and iron having a potential role via oxidative stress. The respiratory function of the relatively young and mild asthmatics included in this study seems to worsen when ambient levels of NO2increase.
Clinical and immunological effects of Rituximab in patients with lupus nephritis refractory to conventional therapy: a pilot study
Authors: Vigna-Perez Mónica , Hernández-Castro Berenice , Paredes-Saharopulos Octavio , Portales-Pérez Diana , Baranda Lourdes , Abud-Mendoza Carlos , González-Amaro Roberto
Published: May 2006

We studied the clinical and immunological effects of Rituximab (anti-CD20) therapy in patients with lupus nephritis. In an open clinical trial, 22 patients with active systemic lupus erythematosis and renal involvement (mainly class III and IV according to the WHO classification) that was refractory to conventional therapy were studied. In all these patients, Rituximab (0.5 to 1.0 g at days 1 and 15) was added to the immunosuppressive therapy and its therapeutic effect was evaluated. In addition, the levels and function of regulatory T lymphocytes and the apoptosis of immune cells were assessed. We found a significant reduction in disease activity (p < 0.05, MEX-SLEDAI index), and proteinuria (p < 0.05) at days 60 and 90 of Rituximab therapy. Although most patients showed improvement in creatinine clearance and erythrocyturia, no significant changes in these parameters were detected. In most patients (20/22), B cell depletion was observed, but no clear-cut effect of Rituximab on complement levels or auto-antibody titers was detected (p > 0.05 in all cases). One patient died at day 70 with invasive histoplasmosis. No important adverse effects of Rituximab therapy were registered in other patients. A significant enhancement in the levels of different CD4+ regulatory cells (TREG, Th3, Tr1), but not CD8+ Ts lymphocytes, was observed at day 30. This increase was sustained for TREG cells at day 90, and accompanied by an improvement in their regulatory function. In addition, we observed an unexpected increase in the apoptosis of T cells at day 30. Interestingly, the enhancement in the suppressive function of TREG cells was not observed in the two patients that showed the poorest clinical response to Rituximab. We conclude that the data obtained in this open clinical trial suggest that Rituximab is a promising candidate for randomized controlled trials in patients with lupus nephritis refractory to the conventional immunosuppressive therapy. The effects of Rituximab on regulatory cells and apoptosis of T lymphocytes are interesting and its possible role in the putative effect of this biological agent in systemic lupus erythematosis deserves additional studies.
Making Oral Presentations: Some Practical Guidelines and Suggestions
Authors: Polonsky Michael Jay , Waller David S.
Published: May 2006

Clearly presenting research results is an important part of the research process. While research can be presented in written and oral formats, oral communication is a very effective tool for reinforcing key elements and ideas associated with a research project. Oral presentations also
provide an opportunity to "sell" findings, use of multi-media and clarify issues for the audience by responding to questions. This paper focuses on oral communication and discusses issues related to "Before the Presentation", "The Presentation", and "Wrapping Up" with the aim to improve the
effectiveness of presenting research results.
Oakley: Branding in Action
Authors: Heier Anette
Published: May 2006

This case study was prepared by a student taking the MSc in International Marketing at Strathclyde University as an assignment for an elective class in Brand Strategy. In addition to illustrating how an entrepreneur can develop a valuable niche market, it shows how an essentially functional
product can become a fashion accessory resulting in the growth of a large, and lucrative market. In addition to reviewing the strategy and performance of Oakley in the 'eye protection industry', the case identifies the factors underlying the company's success, as well as some of the threats
and opportunities facing it as it meets increased competition, and diversifies into other product categories using Oakley as an umbrella brand. As a student assignment the paper also illustrates the wealth of information that can be gathered from secondary sources, both published and on-line.
The Scorecard on Development: 25 Years of Diminished Progress
Authors: Weisbrot Mark , Baker Dean , Rosnick David
Published: May 2006

This article looks at the available data on economic growth and various social indicators—including health outcomes and education—and compares the past 25 years (1980–2005 or latest available year) with the prior two decades (1960–1980). The past 25 years have seen a sharp slowdown in the rate of economic growth for the vast majority of low- and middle-income countries. For the health indicators, there is a marked decrease in progress for life expectancy and for infant, child, and adult mortalities. For education, there is a reduction in progress in secondary school enrollment and in public spending on education, and reduced progress in primary school enrollment for the bottom two quintiles of countries. The results are discussed in the context of a number of economic reforms implemented over the past 25 years, with the intention of promoting growth and development. The authors conclude that economists and policymakers should devote more effort to determining the causes of the economic and development failure of the last quarter-century.
Transcendence over Diversity: Black Women in the Academy
Authors: Mirza Heidi Safia
Published: May 2006

Universities, like many major public institutions, have embraced the notion of ‘diversity’ virtually uncritically – it is seen as a moral good in itself. But what happens to those who come to represent ‘diversity’ – the black and minority ethnic groups targeted to increase the institutions’ thirst for global markets and aversion to accusations of institutional racism? Drawing on existing literature which analyses the process of marginalisation in higher education, this article explores the individual costs to black and female academic staff regardless of the discourse on diversity. However, despite the exclusion of staff, black and minority ethnic women are also entering higher education in relatively large numbers as students. Such grass-roots educational urgency transcends the dominant discourse on diversity and challenges presumptions inherent in top-down initiatives such as widening participation. Such a collective movement from the bottom up shows the importance of understanding black female agency when unpacking the complex dynamics of gendered and racialised exclusion. Black women's desire for education and learning makes possible a reclaiming of higher education from creeping instrumentalism and reinstates it as a radical site of resistance and refutation.
Changing Leadership in Contexts of Diversity: Visibility, Invisibility and Democratic Ideals
Authors: Osler Audrey
Published: May 2006

This article considers the degree to which recent changes in school leadership discourse, to incorporate diversity, reflect a changing professional culture among school leadership trainers and researchers in England. It examines the extent to which equalities legislation has had an impact on school leadership agendas and considers what can be learned from school leaders, including those from visible minorities, to inform policy in this field. The national culture is shaped by patterns of forgetting, so that diversity is represented as something new, and potentially disintegrative. Nineteenth- and early twentieth-century leaders of colour, who were once highly visible, are made invisible through the processes of history. Parallels are drawn with today's school leaders and current educational leadership research agendas. Research commissioned by the National College for School Leadership adopts a cross-cultural paradigm. Cross-cultural approaches which do not engage fully with the legal imperative to promote race equality and which overlook deep-seated patterns of inequality are unlikely to meet the needs of a multicultural democracy. Many school leaders are concerned with racial justice and recognise their responsibility as citizens to address racism and inequality. Racism is an anti-democratic force, serving to undermine the full and equal participation of citizens. Anti-racism is thus an essential element of democratic practice within a multicultural nation state. The article concludes by arguing that school leadership researchers, trainers and head teachers need to adopt new patterns of remembering which build on the experience and wisdom of head teachers from all sectors of society who are engaged in the practical citizenship task of creating equitable schools and building an effective multicultural democracy.
Diversity and the Marginalisation of Black Women's Issues
Authors: Crawley Rosemary
Published: May 2006

This article describes and evaluates information gained from a programme of workshops that took place during the late 1990s for approximately one hundred black women who originated from the African diaspora and worked in the social housing sector. The programme was designed to utilise group working in order to promote feminist thinking and self-actualisation from a black female perspective. Most of the participants saw it as a means of personal and career development. In the event it also provided valuable research information. Stories were told and feelings explored about the effect on black women of living and working in a predominantly white society that publicly acknowledges itself as diverse but holds on to its economic privileges and notions of its innate superiority. The participants focused on the impact on black women of diversity as it is practised in employer organisations, diversity training, ascribed images and roles and interactions with family and community.
Lending our Financial Machinery to Latin America
Authors: Schwedtman F. C.
Published: May 2006

In the history of every country, the transitional period between two stages of economic development has been marked by new problems and intricate readjustments of the economic life and machinery. The United States is now passing through the transitional period from a nation whose interests have been largely centered within its own borders to one stepping out into the arena of world competition. For the past twenty years, practically every business change has been a change toward greater and greater production totals. The nation must muster its trained thinkers to reorganize the financial and industrial machinery, as well as to remold the thought of the people in order that the rapid growth of commerce and the necessary readjustments may be facilitated. The development of foreign markets makes imperative a vastly-expanded financial machinery, not alone to offer all possible trade and banking facilities to the international merchants, but to present stable channels through which investment capital may flow to borrowing countries.
International Politics and History
Authors: Spencer Henry E.
Published: May 2006

Our present task is one of definition. We are students of political science in its international phase, and we use history as a means. We operate in a marginal area that overlaps two fields, government as that term is usually understood, and the history of international affairs. How shall we bound this marginal area, what are its relations to those other two, more familiar conceptions?

We are forced to this study by the World War. Modern history has had an immemse expansion for the reason that a tremendous political event has taken place and the world must know why it happened, the causes as well as the occasions and events. A voluminous literature is appearing on the doings and motives of Great Powers, on the rise of nationalities and their crude strivings, on the remapping of state boundaries, and the development of spheres of economic influence. We welcome, for instance, Mr. Gibbons' recent book on World Politics, a clear and useful summary of the recent history of certain political entities called world powers and their policies. It is the story as he calls it of “the struggle of European nations for world power.” The struggle is there. More power to him in his description of the contestants and the contest. But we view all this as only preparatory for our task.
Tendencies of the Labor Legislation of 1910
Authors: Andrews Irene Osgood
Published: May 2006

A leading English economist once said, “It matters nothing to the seller of bricks whether they are to be used in building a palace or a sewer; but it matters a great deal to the seller of labor, who undertakes to perform a task of given difficulty, whether or not the place in which it is to be done is a wholesome and a pleasant one, and whether or not his associates will be such as he cares to have.”

This statement strikes the keynote of the activity in the field of labor legislation during 1910. All down the ages the worker has been protesting against being required to sell his life or his health in addition to his labor, even though he was assured by most political economists that he was getting higher money rewards for dangerous or disagreeable work; and the moralist, too, was telling him that accident and disease were acts of God to be met by prayer and fasting.
Diplomatic Affairs and International Law, 1909
Authors: Reinsch Paul S.
Published: May 2006

The year 1909 was not characterized by great dramatic occurrences like the Boxer outbreak of 1900 or the war of 1904. Although its history abounded in most interesting situations, it was a period rather of peaceful development and readjustment than of marked advance along any particular lines. The general, desire to maintain peaceful relations and to settle such differences as might still be outstanding between nations was evidenced by the large number of ceremonial visits from country to country—visits of monarchs and prime ministers, of commercial and literary deputations, and of distinguished private individuals. All the important European nations took part in this exchange of courtesies which gave occasion in each case to eloquent declarations of mutual friendship. In general, no special political importance could be attributed to such visits beyond the common desire of keeping relations in their normal, friendly condition. In certain cases, indeed, the attempt was made to attribute a special importance; as in the case of the visit of the Russian czar to Italy, which was interpreted in some quarters as an attempt to break up the Triple Alliance. Other meetings again were characterized by very unusual cordiality, such as that of the German emperor, and later of the German prime minister, with the emperor of Austria.
Citizenship for the Porto Ricans
Authors: Falkner Roland P.
Published: May 2006

An inexhaustible topic for political discussion in the Island of Porto Rico is that of citizenship. Every Porto Rican who occupies himself in the slightest degree with public affairs declares it as one of his chief grievances against our government, that it has failed to make the Porto Ricans citizens of the United States. Many features of the Spanish rule he recalls without regrets but he never fails to impress it upon you, especially if you are an American, that before 1898 he was a citizen of Spain, and that his representatives sat in the Spanish cortes. Republican United States he declares has been less generous to him than monarchical Spain. It seems to him a plain matter of justice that he should be made a citizen and he cannot understand the apathy of the United States towards the entire question, and least of all the active antagonism to his aspirations which appears when the matter is galvanized into life by executive recommendation or congressional proposal.
M. Pradier-Fodéré
Authors: Elliott E. G.
Published: May 2006

The appearance of the eighth and final volume of M. Pradier-Fodéré's Traité de droit international public européen et américain seems a fitting occasion for a brief consideration of the life and works of this distinguished professor, counselor and author; more particularly is it appropriate to consider the extent and character of his services to that branch of public law dealt with in the above treatise, for it was to international law that he devoted the ripest years of a broad scholarship and the maturest judgments of an active life. M. Pradier-Fodéré was not simply and solely a student who looked out upon the hurly-burly of life from the secluded shelter of his study window; he was to no small extent a man of affairs who had come into close and intimate contact with matters of state on both sides of the Atlantic, and who, after a life of rich and varied experiences, settled down when over fifty to round out his life and his literary activity in the production of an extensive treatise on international law.
The Law of Impeachment in the United States
Authors: Thomas David Y.
Published: May 2006

When the Fathers were framing the Constitution of the United States they sought at every turn to safeguard the interests of the people and at the same time secure to officials a reasonable degree of independence. This solicitude was especially manifest in the case of judicial officers, whose terms were made to run during good behavior. Impeachment was the method adopted to determine what constituted misbehavior. Chief Justice Marshall early laid down the principle that terms otherwise undefined in the Constitution were used in the sense which was well known and accepted at the time the Constitution was written. Impeachment was adopted and adapted from the English practice. To understand our own law, then, it is necessary to know what the English law of impeachment, the lex et consuetudo parliamenti, was at the time of its adoption and in what way it was modified or changed in being adopted.
History of the Majority Principle
Authors: Heinberg John Gilbert
Published: May 2006

Perhaps no convention of our day is more acceptable to both the political scientist and the man on the street than the employment of the simple-majority device to determine the will of a group. Even the ponderous German scholar Otto von Gierke is drawn to the facetious conclusion that it is only in the institution of matrimony that the majority principle cannot be used. Exceptions, of course, exist. Examples familiar to students of American government include the two-thirds and three-fourths majorities of the federal amending process, the two-thirds vote of the United States Senate in the approval of treaties, and like majorities in the overriding of presidential and gubernatorial vetoes. But these exceptions do not invalidate the commonly accepted “naturalness” of decisions according to simple majority. The theory has probably been expressed best by Grotius: “It is unnatural,” he says, “that the majority should submit to the minority—hence the majority naturally counts as the whole, if no compacts or positive law prescribe a different form of procedure.”

Although it now finds almost universal acceptance, the practice of reaching decisions by counting heads has not always prevailed, and even where employed its use has been limited and contingent. Speaking historically, the modern dogma of majority rule is a comparatively recent development, although it is probably an outgrowth of the various theories of majority rule of days gone.
The National Economic Council of France
Authors: Bramhall Edith C.
Published: May 2006

Since the war had necessitated resort to technical experts in the economic services of the French government, it was natural that after the armistice there should have been talk in various quarters of some sort of functional representation to meet post-war problems. Some suggested the development of the regional economic councils brought into being in 1917, while the Action Francaise was for setting up what was dubbed a new estates general. It was, however, the General Confederation of Labor (the C. G. T.) under the leadership of M. Jouhaux, which not only came forward with a carefully thought out plan but was sufficiently interested to pursue the matter until seven years later the general features of its program were finally incorporated into the public law of France.
Hindu Theory of International Relations
Authors: Sarkar Benoy Kumar
Published: May 2006

The conception of “external” sovereignty was well established in the Hindu philosophy of the state. The Hindu thinkers not only analyzed sovereignty with regard to the constituent elements in a single state. They realized also that sovereignty is not complete unless it is external as well as internal, that is, unless the state can exercise its internal authority unobstructed by, and independently of, other states.

“Great misery,” says Shookra, “comes of dependence on others. There is no greater happiness than that from self-rule.” This is one of the maxims of the Shookra-neeti bearing on the freedom of the rastra, or the land and the people in a state. Kautilya also in his remarks on “foreign rule” expresses the same idea in a negative manner. Under it, we are told in his Artha-shastra, the country is not treated as one's own land, it is impoverished, its wealth carried off, or it is treated “as a commercial article.” The description is suggestive of John Stuart Mill's metaphor of the “cattle farm” applied to the “government of one people by another.”
The Pragmatic Approach to Politics
Authors: Sabine George H.
Published: May 2006

I have been asked to present for your discussion the pragmatic approach to political science, the reason being, as I suppose, that my business is the study of philosophy and pragmatism is a kind of philosophy. Now philosophy has special interests of its own and hardly ever offers anything that can be taken over ready-made into scientific work with any useful results; moreover, the discussion of methods at large hardly ever leads to much. A method is good for just what it does, and its uses must be apparent just in the science where it is used. I greatly doubt, therefore, whether any good would come of my talking to you about philosophic pragmatism, which is a name of rather indefinite meaning, signifying a group of scientific and philosophic tendencies rather than a systematic doctrine. It does stand roughly for a point of view, which has perhaps been stated most clearly by Professor John Dewey, and it is a fact that this point of view has acted as a sort of ferment outside philosophy, especially in economics and law, and seems likely to have a significant influence on these subjects, at least in America and during the next few years. What I mean to do, therefore, is to try to picture pragmatism in action, compressing into a single paragraph the description of pragmatism as a point of view. To illustrate pragmatism in action, I have chosen some attempts to adopt this point of view in economics, particularly the work of Thorstein Veblen and Professor Wesley C. Mitchell, and also in the study of law, particularly the program put forward by Professors Walter Wheeler Cook and Herman Oliphant.
Effects of the Growth of Administrative Law upon Traditional Anglo-American Legal Theories and Practices
Authors: Haines Charles Grove
Published: May 2006

The development of Anglo-American law has been greatly influenced by certain theories and doctrines which have directed and conditioned the evolution of administrative law. Foremost among these are the political and legal theory of the separation of governmental powers and a juridical doctrine relating to the nature and scope of law itself. Briefly, the theory of the separation of powers, which is commonly announced as a fundamental principle of American constitutional law, and is implicit in some phases of English law, is to the effect that laws are made by the legislature, executed by the executive, and interpreted and applied by the courts. As a correlative of this doctrine, it is understood as essential that none of these departments may delegate powers which properly belong to it to either of the other departments, in order that, as the Massachusetts constitution expresses it, “there shall be a government of laws and not of men.”
The Prestige Value of Public Employment
Authors: White Leonard D.
Published: May 2006

In 1929, the University of Chicago Press published the first intensive study of the prestige rating of municipal employment, the results of an experiment enlisting the cooperation of over 5,000 residents of Chicago and yielding over 90,000 separate expressions of opinion on the relative status of municipal and private employment. The results of this inquiry were disturbing. The prestige of municipal employment in Chicago appeared to be less than that of corresponding private employment, and special inquiries into the integrity, courtesy, and competence of city employees revealed serious lack of public confidence.