bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The power to do something
Authors: Harrison Klisala
Published: November 2020

This book has examined human rights, and the development of capability—the “power to do something”—in musical practices. It has explored if (popular) music-making can enhance human rights and capabilities of the poorest of the poor, such as homeless and street-involved people, who feel that music is a “thing” that can never be taken away from them. This conclusion points out how the book defined capabilities in a novel and useful way. When synthesizing the book’s main findings, it describes a causal relationship between developing human capabilities, and strengthening human rights which operate in complex ways musical and cultural moments. Specific human capabilities can be nurtured so as to develop specific human rights. The chapter reflects and elaborates on critiques of human rights pertinent to music in and as culture. With attention to socioeconomic inequality, it offers inspiration for making, and thinking about, musical and cultural efforts to promote human rights and capabilities.
A Matter of Trust
Authors: Urben Heidi , Golby James
Published: November 2020

After nearly two decades of war, public confidence in the US military remains high, even though our wars remain inconclusive. There is no shortage of public discourse on the perceived failures of civilians overseeing these wars. Yet this chapter asks: Is the uniformed military increasingly resistant to civilian oversight? Are members of the military making it tougher for political leaders to do their jobs? High public confidence in the military is neither the best measure of the health of civil-military relations nor the same thing as the military’s being trustworthy. This chapter argues that military leaders will best serve the public by focusing on ways they can exhibit appropriate behavior in their dealings with the public and civilian leaders. The trust required for healthy civil-military relations and effective civilian oversight is a two-way street, and those in uniform must recognize their responsibility for introspection, self-policing, and holding themselves to account. This chapter assesses what it might take for the armed forces to “screw up” their relationship with the American people, discussing five potential pitfalls that members of the profession of arms must avoid in order to be worthy of the public’s trust.
The Unwilling and Unable Test for Extraterritorial Defensive Force
Authors: Ohlin Jens David
Published: November 2020

This chapter focuses on the defensive use of force against non-state actors located on the territory of a third state. The legality of such operations is among the most contested legal questions of our time. Few states question the legality of using defensive force against non-state actors per se, but the more contested question is whether such interventions are illegal as to the third state on whose territory the non-state actor resides, and on whose territory the intervening state must necessarily engage in military action if it hopes to defeat the non-state actor. A number of states, though not all, have coalesced around the standard that such interventions are permissible if the territorial state is unwilling or unable to resolve the threat posed by the non-state actor. This chapter canvasses the existing conceptual rationales for the unwilling or unable test and discusses the plusses and minuses of each approach. This chapter then articulates a new conceptual justification, one that is arguably implicit in many articulations of the unwilling or unable test. This conceptual justification states that even if the intervening state violates the sovereignty of the territorial state, the territorial state is “estopped” from objecting to the violation, on account of the territorial state’s complicity or powerlessness with regard to the non-state state actor. It is asserted that this notion of “sovereignty estoppel” captures, in a nuanced way, the international community’s discomfort with these interventions but also the community’s all-things-considered judgment that such actions may be necessary in some contexts.
The Quest for an Internal Jus Ad Bellum: International Law’s Missing Link, Mere Distraction, or Pandora’s Box?
Authors: Ruys Tom
Published: November 2020

In recent years, international law’s supposed “neutrality” toward rebellion has been challenged by authors who have argued for an ad bellum ban on the first resort to hostilities or, conversely, for an exceptional and conditional right of organized armed resistance for non-state actors only. This chapter revisits the proposed “internal jus ad bellum” models. The first section examines whether an additional ad bellum layer is needed in order to restrain government recourse to force against rebels and shares some thoughts as to whether adding an ad bellum prohibition on government recourse to force against rebels is moreover feasible. The second section deals with internal use of force against the state and scrutinizes the proposal to create a broader right of organized armed resistance at the ad bellum level. The concluding section explores the links between the proposed internal jus ad bellum, on the one hand, and the concept of recognition of belligerency and third-state intervention in non-international armed conflicts (NIACs), on the other hand.
Practical and Conceptual Challenges to Doctrinal Military Necessity
Authors: Lawless Major Robert
Published: November 2020

States routinely define the principle of military necessity in doctrinal publications such as law of armed conflict (LOAC) military manuals. These definitions are based on a model of military necessity famously articulated by Francis Lieber and built upon by the American military tribunal at Nuremberg. Generations of armed forces members have been trained on this doctrinal definition of military necessity. But does it serve them well? This chapter closely examines doctrinal military necessity by breaking it down into its constituent elements, specifically as (a) a principle (b) that confers a right, permission, or justification (c) to use any military measures or force (d) required to defeat the enemy (e) as quickly and efficiently as possible (f) so long as such measures or force are not otherwise prohibited elsewhere in the LOAC. The chapter then explores these elements and reveals the deep practical and conceptual problems posed by each. The chapter concludes that doctrinal military necessity, as based on the Lieber/Nuremberg model, fails to serve the principal goal of military doctrine: to provide combatants with clear and direct guidance—in this case legal guidance—on warfighting. Consequently, the chapter recommends that states abandon the Lieber/Nuremberg model of military necessity and reformulate their doctrinal definitions to better attend to the needs of combatants.
The Duty to Pay Reparations for the Violation of the Prohibition of the Use of Force in International Relations and the Jus Post Bellum
Authors: Günnewig Elisabeth
Published: November 2020

This chapter critically assesses the usefulness of a jus post bellum as a freshly discussed third pillar of international peace and security law with regard to a state’s duty to pay reparations for an unlawful resort to force. Based on the analysis of the relevant practice—starting from the Versailles reparations regime after the First World War and ending with the work of the Eritrea-Ethiopia Claims Commission at the beginning of the twenty-first century—this chapter identifies a systemic gap in the current legal framework governing the aggressor state’s reparations obligation. While the principle of full reparation is one of the fundamental premises to the law of state responsibility and firmly enshrined in customary international law, there is a recurring practice in the aftermath of armed conflicts to consider the severity of the aggressor state’s wrongdoing and its economic capacity in determining the adequate reparations sum. The chapter concludes that this practice, which reflects the unique peacebuilding function of reparations in a post bellum society, can be best addressed by developing and applying a jus post bellum principle of proportionality to the aggressor state’s reparations obligation.
Introduction
Authors: James Susan
Published: November 2020

Human lives can go better or worse. They may be dominated by the miseries and frustrations that Spinoza describes as sadness, or enriched by the satisfactions that he classifies as forms of joy. The emotional tenor of a life may be consistently cheerful or anxious and unsettled. Spinoza’s opinion as to which kind of life is preferable never wavers; we all do what we can to live joyfully and avoid sadness. But success does not come easily. To work out what will make us most joyful and put our knowledge into practice we need many skills and insights, and these can only be effectively cultivated in propitious circumstances. Learning how to harness and strengthen our power to live in the ways that are most deeply empowering and satisfying is therefore a ramifying and always unfinished project. Above all, however, it is a collective one. Learning to live joyfully is a matter of learning to live together....
When does Truth Matter?
Authors: James Susan
Published: November 2020

How is our imaginative grasp of what it takes to live together related to our rational understanding of the same issue? Spinoza argues that, while theology draws on imagination to clarify the content of the divine law—‘love your neighbour’—the same recommendation is independently echoed in our philosophical understanding of the value of a cooperative way of life. Some commentators have argued that philosophy, thus conceived, is the preserve of an elite, whereas theology is aimed at the masses. Drawing on Cicero’s analysis of honestum, and Spinoza’s use of it, I challenge this view. A theologically grounded way of life, as Spinoza presents it, creates the political and epistemological conditions for a gradual transition to philosophical understanding, so that theology and philosophy, like imagining and reasoning, are in practice inseparable.
Responding Emotionally to Fiction
Authors: James Susan
Published: November 2020

Contemporary analytical philosophers ask why we respond emotionally to characters we believe to be fictional. Why, for example, do we grieve for Anna Karenina? To understand this problem it is helpful to turn to Spinoza, who argues that the ability to keep our emotions in line with our beliefs is a complex skill. Rather than asking why we depart from it in the case of fictions, we need to begin by considering how we acquire it in the first place. Spinoza also considers the value of this skill. In his account, fictions function rather like Winnicott’s transitional objects. They enable us to negotiate the boundary between the real and the imaginary in a way that contributes to our philosophical understanding and increases our capacity to live together.
Natural Rights as Powers to Act
Authors: James Susan
Published: November 2020

Spinoza grounds his political philosophy on a highly counter-intuitive conception of natural right as the right to do anything in your power. Just as big fish eat little fish by the right of nature, so humans act by natural right, regardless of what they do. In this essay I explain what leads Spinoza to hold this view and show how, in doing so, he contentiously rejects some of the most central assumptions of the natural law tradition. Finally, I consider whether Spinoza’s view can contribute anything of value to current discussions of natural right. I argue that he draws our attention to prerequisites of a cooperative way of life that contemporary theorists frequently neglect.
Democracy and the Good Life in Spinoza’s Philosophy
Authors: James Susan
Published: November 2020

Spinoza is widely and rightly regarded as an advocate of democracy, but his support for it is more qualified than many commentators allow. The problem is not just that, in a democracy as he conceives of it, women, servants, and others are excluded from citizenship. It is also that the success of a democratic state depends on the sovereign’s imaginative power to legitimate and sustain a realizable form of democratic life. Whether a community can achieve this goal will in turn depend on many historical and social conditions. In some circumstances, as Spinoza allows, the members of a particular community may live more freely and cooperatively under a non-democratic constitution.
Freedom of Conscience and Civic Peace
Authors: James Susan
Published: November 2020

Positioning himself within a series of early-modern debates, Spinoza argues that civil sovereigns must have control over religion, and that—in matters of religion as in everything else—subjects must obey the civil law. He defends this view by appealing to two antecedents: a conception of the original Jewish commonwealth as a theocracy in which there was no distinction between civil and religious law; and a classical conception of piety that encompasses devotion to one’s country as well as to God. Drawing on these resources, Spinoza contends that obedience to the law trumps the promptings of individual conscience, so that living under law may carry significant individual costs. Despite the fact that Spinoza is often heralded as an early defender of religious toleration, his view of freedom of conscience is at odds with modern liberal orthodoxy.
Fortitude
Authors: James Susan
Published: November 2020

Philosophical understanding, as Spinoza conceives of it, enhances our capacity to live together by generating what Spinoza calls fortitude, the power to act as our understanding dictates. The essay examines Spinoza’s distinctive account of fortitude as a combination of animositas and generositas that can only be effectively cultivated within the state. Fortitude, as Spinoza presents it, is expressed in its fullest form by people who use their rational understanding to resolve conflict and keep cooperative political exchange alive. Turning to our own political lives, the essay asks what fortitude might be for us, how it might help us to live together, and how contemporary citizens might nurture it.
Waves and particles in the crystal
Authors: Tiwari Sandip
Published: November 2020

This chapter provides the groundwork necessary to mathematically describe the crystalline solid that is to be the semiconductor used to explore the variety of interactions and cause and chance behaviors that physics builds insights into. The crystalline environment can be portrayed as a space-filling periodic arrangement consisting of a lattice with an atomic basis. The periodic arrangement leads to real space and reciprocal space descriptions with unit cells—the Wigner-Seitz cell and the Brillouin and Jones zones—where a variety of characteristics can be represented. Bloch’s theorem with its modulation function of the plane wave of a quantized wavevector, momentum versus crystal momentum, together with the consequences of symmetries and periodic perturbation in the appearance of bandgaps, is discussed for electron states. Phonons as particles for periodic oscillations of atoms, their modes and various branches, and consequences of ionicity leading to frequency-dependent permittivity are discussed.
Bandstructures
Authors: Tiwari Sandip
Published: November 2020

The introduction of the various computation techniques for determining bandstructures, their implications and their pitfalls is the scope of this chapter, which ends up with a realistic representation of the bandstructures of semiconductors. Approaches to the calculation of semiconductor bandstructures—tight binding, orthogonalized plane waves, density functional and k · p—are discussed, with an emphasis on the physical implications through toy models. The effective mass theorem and Wannier functions are introduced as tools to explore nonlocalized and localized behaviors. Spin’s consequence in the valence bandstructure through spin-orbit coupling and the Luttinger Hamiltonian is emphasized. Semiconductor bandgap behavior in group IV, group III-V and group II-VI compounds is explored, including those of nitrides and gapless semiconductors, together with insights into the common semiconductors’ electron bandstructures, density of states and van Hove singularities. The chapter concludes with a discussion of phonon bandstructures.
Semiconductor interfaces and junctions
Authors: Tiwari Sandip
Published: November 2020

This chapter discusses understanding interfaces, how bulk state reasoning needs to evolve under the constraints of the surface and how these changes relate to interfaces. Interfaces and junctions connect semiconductors to the world and introduce perturbations of their own. Starting with a discussion of the SiO­­­2-Si interface—an amorphous-crystalline interface—with its local evolution, more general conditions—of metals, insulators and semiconductors—with defect states, induced gap states and Fermi pinning are discussed. Next, neutrality level as a defining idea for the establishment of the electronic behavior of metal-semiconductor and semiconductor-semiconductor interfaces is examined. Crystalline continuity leading to heterostructures with conduction band and valence band discontinuities are developed and related to bulk bandstructure. This allows one to analytically describe and show the junction band diagrams of abrupt and graded junctions. Nitride systems often have a polarized junction, that is, have large polarization—spontaneous and often piezoelectric—whose origin is explored.
Noise
Authors: Tiwari Sandip
Published: November 2020

This chapter examines noise, another example of cause and chance at work, and an example of the statistical fluctuations in the response arising from random events. Approaches to understanding randomness embedded in signals are discussed along with the notion of ergodic behavior, autocorrelation and the use of the Wiener-Khintchin theorem. Fluctuations and noise in semiconductors are analyzed by exploring charge transport between plates under scattering. The quantum and thermodynamic links at resonance are emphasized. The Nyquist relationship, a very general relationship, is derived. Partition thermal noise under limited channels is explored, and shot noise is discussed. Low frequency noise arising as random telegraph noise due to charge trapping and detrapping is analyzed. Noise in a parameter—resistance, for example—can be due to multiple interactions. An example of this is resistance fluctuation due to mobility and carrier fluctuations, which in many materials can be parameterized through the Hooge parameter.
High permittivity dielectrics
Authors: Tiwari Sandip
Published: November 2020

This chapter discusses high permittivity dielectrics such as hafnium oxide and zirconium oxide and how the phonons of such materials, their band and polarization behavior and silicon interact. High permittivity materials are used as dielectrics with semiconductors. A prominent use for these materials is in suppressing tunneling while enhancing the field effect. High permittivity arises strongly from ionic polarization. So, the low frequency response for high permittivity materials is very different from that of silicon dioxide. Transition metal oxides’ high permittivity comes together with soft phonons. With phonons soft, that is of low phonon energy, the interactions and transport behavior of semiconductors can change significantly through a modified Fröhlich interaction, because of the presence of high permittivity materials nearby. These various issues are analyzed.
The Manner of Revelation in Jewish Apocalypses and John
Authors: Reynolds Benjamin E.
Published: November 2020

The manner of revelation in Jewish apocalypses addresses the form or framework of an apocalypse. According to the Semeia 14 definition, apocalypses are “revelatory literature with a narrative framework, in which a revelation is mediated by an otherworldly being to a human recipient.” Examples from Jewish apocalypses indicate the various ways in which this framework may be demonstrated. The Gospel of John reflects the three elements of an apocalypse’s form: medium of revelation, otherworldly mediator, and human recipient. The Gospel depicts the visual and auditory revelation of heavenly things, presents Jesus as an otherworldly being who descends from heaven and mediates the heavenly revelation, and portrays a privileged recipient of the revelation in the disciple whom Jesus loved.
The Content of Revelation in Jewish Apocalypses and John
Authors: Reynolds Benjamin E.
Published: November 2020

The content of revelation in Jewish apocalypses is often assumed to concern eschatology, but only three of the seven elements that define the content of “apocalypse” concern eschatological aspects. In addition, Jewish apocalypses do not contain every element; however, all Jewish apocalypses include some expectation of the judgment of the wicked and the salvation or redemption of the righteous, but they do so in different ways and with varying combinations of elements from the prototype apocalypse. The Gospel of John, while not containing the popular understandings of apocalyptic eschatology, demonstrates an interest in the fate of the wicked and the righteous in recognizably similar ways. In addition, John’s focus on protology, persecution of the righteous, and especially the existence of otherworldly regions and beings indicates its similarities with the content of Jewish apocalypses.
John’s Gospel as “Apocalyptic” Gospel
Authors: Reynolds Benjamin E.
Published: November 2020

This chapter summarizes the conclusions of the previous two chapters and notes that the Gospel of John contains core elements of the Semeia 14 “master-paradigm” of an apocalypse. Even though the Gospel contains similar elements of form, content, and function, it is not an apocalypse. The manner of revelation (i.e., an otherworldly mediator disclosing heavenly revelation to a human recipient) draws attention to John’s similarity to Jewish apocalypses, but ironically, these form elements contain striking differences. For example, John has visual revelation, yet lacks visions, and John’s otherworldly mediator is also a human, is one with God, and is the content of the revelation. The Gospel has multiple human recipients even though the beloved disciple is the privileged recipient of revelation. Although John does not participate in the genre of apocalypse, it is a gospel that is shaped by the genre of apocalypse. It is a gospel with an apocalyptic mode.
Interpreting the “Apocalyptic” Gospel with Jewish Apocalypses
Authors: Reynolds Benjamin E.
Published: November 2020

If the Gospel of John is an “apocalyptic” Gospel, the relationship between revelation and the Torah in Jewish apocalypses can aid our understanding of the Law of Moses in the Fourth Gospel. While Jewish apocalypses have distinct perspectives on the Torah, they are dependent upon the Hebrew Bible and were read alongside the Hebrew Bible. The revelation that is disclosed in Jewish apocalypses, whether “new” or not, ultimately derives from the God of Israel. Jewish apocalypses engaged in “revelatory exegesis” in which they sought to understand Israel’s Scriptures in light of their present circumstances. The Gospel of John interprets the Hebrew Bible in light of Jesus’s revelation in a similar manner. John claims the authority of Moses and other heroes of Israel in order to legitimate the revelation Jesus discloses. Further Johannine topics, such as imagery, time, and language, may also be explained in terms of the Gospel’s apocalyptic mode.
The “Apocalyptic” Gospel and the Apocalypse of John
Authors: Reynolds Benjamin E.
Published: November 2020

Understanding the Fourth Gospel as “apocalyptic” Gospel raises questions about its relationship with the book of Revelation. Even though many ancient and modern interpreters do not think John and Revelation share the same author, they do share numerous similarities in vocabulary, syntax, and theological themes and are considered to be related in some way. The reception history of Johannine authorship indicates that Revelation has often been understood to have been written before the Gospel. The Gospel has also been described as being received through divine revelation. Within Byzantine iconography, these two traditions come together in the depiction of John dictating the Gospel in the cave of revelation on the island of Patmos as he receives it directly from heaven. The priority of Revelation and the divine reception of the Gospel are possible explanations for the Gospel’s apocalyptic mode.
Compassion in Civic Life
Authors: Hordern Joshua
Published: November 2020

This chapter completes the therapeutic task by critically examining the impact on compassionate relationships of various forms of healthcare citizenship, from the consumer-citizen to the responsibilised citizen to the cosmopolitan citizen. Reflecting the peregrinatio motif, an associative mode of civic life is advocated in which civic society actors have a pivotal role in forming compassionate relationships and sustaining ‘collaborative deliberation’, primarily locally or regionally. A civic life of this sort shares ‘secular’ time, in which people with differing beliefs and experiences meet in respectful if sometimes critical conversation amidst the plurality of civic life. A key source for developing civic life is the democratic capabilities of health professionals and institutions in modelling and shaping compassionate relationships. In this way, a ‘faithful secularity’ fit for healthcare can emerge, keeping faith and full of faith, interweaving the streams of thought about human suffering whereby compassion is filled with content in practice.
Epilogue
Authors: Hordern Joshua
Published: November 2020

The Epilogue is a meditation on old age, combining further policy thinking on compassion and civic life with a reflection on how the terror of social death can be addressed through the life of the body politic and the body of Christ. The chapter sets an agenda for enquiring into three areas of urgent practical concern: (i) why and how the middle-aged and strong who are in government are investing across the different stages of the life-course; (ii) how growing old can be so consciously embedded as part of civic life’s self-understanding as to enable citizens to live in compassionate relationship to the end of their lives; and, (iii), how an innovative democratic professionalism will be important for the way policies and practices are reformed, especially with a view to collaborating with social movements such as churches in their work of diakonia. On this basis, the emphasis on the role of health professionals as innovators can, therefore, be expanded to include innovation in civic life. To the question of what narrative will bring healing and direction to wayfarers and pilgrims in the remains of their days, the response of the church has been a continual meditation on a particular second-person encounter of new birth amidst old age: Lord now lettest thou thy servant depart in peace.
Power and Pleasure
Authors: Thomas Hugh M.
Published: November 2020

Power and Pleasure reconstructs life at the court of King John and explores how his court produced both pleasure and soft power. Much work exists on royal courts of the late medieval and early modern periods, but the jump in record keeping under John allows a detailed reconstruction of court life for an earlier period. Following an introductory chapter, Chapter 2 covers hunting and falconry. Material culture forms the subject of Chapter 3, with an emphasis on luxuries such as fine textiles and gold and silver plate. Chapter 4 explores aspects of court life for which less information survives, among them art and music, games and gambling, chivalry and marshal splendour, and sexual activities, including King John’s sometimes coercive pursuit of noblewomen. Chapter 5 concerns religious life at court and a deeply unsuccessful effort to project an image of sacral kingship. Food and feasting are the subjects of Chapter 6. Chapter 7 covers royal castles and other residences, the landscapes in which the court spent time, and ceremonial activities during the court’s rapid itineration around King John’s lands. Power and pleasure are discussed throughout the book, but Chapter 8 focuses on the former, analysing various forms of symbolic communication, gift exchange, and the interaction between new forms of bureaucracy and older forms of soft power. The chapter also addresses why John received so little political benefit from his magnificent court. Chapter 9 compares John’s court to others of his own time and those of previous and subsequent centuries.
Hunting and Falconry
Authors: Thomas Hugh M.
Published: November 2020

Hunting and falconry were important sources of both power and pleasure. King John had a huge hunting establishment, with hundreds of hunting dogs, scores of birds of prey, and dozens of huntsmen, falconers, and assistants. The costs were high, equivalent to the revenues drawn from the royal forests. Yet earlier scholars, though they often discussed royal forests in detail, generally mentioned the king’s love of hunting only in passing. The chapter describes John’s hunting establishment, compiles its costs, and analyses its purposes. Hunting was an important source of soft power, showing the king’s wealth, magnificence, and capacity for violence. Yet John’s enemies used his preference for hunting over the tournament, and allegedly over warfare, to contest his power and undermine his reputation. Hunting was also for pleasure, as many contemporaries emphasized, and the production of pleasure at court was as important as the production of power.
Aspects of Court Culture
Authors: Thomas Hugh M.
Published: November 2020

This chapter explores the importance of various court activities for which less evidence survives. The king sponsored musicians, entertainers, and learned magistri. He owned fine animals of various sorts, most notably a lion, and surprising numbers of books. He indulged in games and gambling, paid for the dubbing of new knights and other chivalric practices, and even engaged in the occasional romantic gesture. He was also a notorious sexual predator according to chroniclers writing not long after his death. Many of these aspects of court life enhanced John’s reputation and provided him soft power. Often these activities produced power because they produced pleasure among the powerful who attended court. However, John’s pursuit of sexual gratification from noblewomen, sometimes through coercive means, produced a strong backlash that helped put his rule in jeopardy.
Evolution of birds
Authors: Scott Graham
Published: November 2020

This chapter explores the evolutionary history of birds. It considers the dinosaur origins of birds and the evolution of the modern bird lineages. The development of the modern bird from its prehistoric, reptilian ancestors is analysed by discussion of important fossil specimens, particularly that of Archaeopteryx, and the development of both morphological and biomolecular phylogenies. Evolution by natural selection is explained, as are processes of evolutionary adaptation and speciation. The conservation implications of hybridization are considered and the classification and nomenclature of birds is introduced. Throughout the chapter examples of current research are presented alongside established classic studies to engage the reader and provide a route into the relevant scientific literature.
Feathers and flight
Authors: Scott Graham
Published: November 2020

This chapter covers two themes: feathers and flight. It takes a close look at the many aspects of feathers—their evolution, structure, growth, maintenance, and their replacement through moult. The broad range of functions of feathers in display (including how different pigmentations arise), for insulation, and in flight are considered. Moult strategies are compared and discussed. The second part of the chapter describes the anatomical adaptations of birds to flight, and the process of flight itself. The basic physics, physiology and metabolism, and energetics of flight are covered in some detail. A review of studies on the neurological control of collision avoidance by flying birds and the implications in relation to wind-farm collision risk is given. The chapter ends with a discussion on the evolution of flight and subsequent flightlessness of some bird species.
Movement: migration and navigation
Authors: Scott Graham
Published: November 2020

Using migration and navigation as a focus, this chapter looks at the movements of birds. The genetic, hormonal, and physiological control of migration is analysed as are the evolution of migratory strategies and routes. Particular emphasis is given to fuelling migration and the significance of stop-over behaviours during migratory movements. The conservation implications of migration and of movement in general are considered, and the impact upon migratory fuelling of neonicotinoids pesticides are discussed. Sections examining innate and learned route finding and the migratory cues (sun, stars, magnetic field, etc) used by birds to determine their location, and the direction in which they need to travel to arrive at a goal, are given. The role of memory in place finding and food storage is considered, as is the neurology of spatial memory. Techniques used by ornithologists to study bird movement are explained throughout the chapter.
Reproduction
Authors: Scott Graham
Published: November 2020

In this chapter the diverse mating systems exhibited by birds are described and explained. The chapter begins with a discussion of anisogamy and resulting behavioural differences exhibited by male and female birds. Sperm competition, sperm storage, and delayed fertilization are discussed and their consequences in terms of reproductive behaviours and systems are explained. Courtship systems and behaviours are discussed. Social monogamy, polygamy, and lekking behaviour are examined and examples of field research are given to support offered hypotheses. Bird song is considered in some detail through discussion of the function of song and of the genetic, neurological, and physiological control of singing. Particular attention is given to the impact of noise pollution on singing behaviour. The chapter concludes with a discussion of chick rearing including brood size management.
Foraging and avoiding predators
Authors: Scott Graham
Published: November 2020

The chapter considers the generalist and specialist diets of birds, and the behaviours and adaptations used by birds to find food. Special attention is given to the threat to birds from plastics pollution and the impact of plastic ingestion. Cooperative foraging and cooperative hunting are discussed as are the behaviours adopted by birds that do not cooperate or share. Feeding behaviour is considered in light of the theory of optimal foraging, particularly in relation to prey choice and to the balancing of risk. The impact of urban living upon the diets and foraging behaviours of birds is discussed. A broad range of predator avoidance behaviours are described and evaluated.
Populations, communities, and conservation
Authors: Scott Graham
Published: November 2020

In this final chapter populations, population change, and population regulation are discussed, particularly in the context of threats to species and the conservation strategies employed to protect them. Population size, structure, and distribution in relation to ecology and habitat availability are analysed. The movements and establishment of species through natural range expansion and through introduction are considered in the context of climate change, conservation, and threat. The impact and management of emerging avian diseases is discussed. Extinction, the threat of extinction, and conservation efforts are considered and throughout the chapter the roles of professional and citizen scientist ornithologists are emphasized.
Inequalities
Authors: Morlino Leonardo , Wagemann Claudius , Raniolo Francesco
Published: November 2020

Equality is a multidimensional concept. As regards economic aspects, there is a trend towards more inequality in most countries. Italy and Spain perform worse than the other countries, while France and Germany do better. Poland shows a trend towards more equality since early on in this century. Expenditures on health and education decrease in Italy and Spain with the onset of the crisis. The United Kingdom shows a sharply declining trend in education, a more moderate but still declining expenditure on social protection and more recent decline in health as well, which once was the pride of that system. Thus, overall it is becoming slightly more unequal over time. The economic crisis has been bringing about changes regarding equality in some countries, but less in others. Under conditions of economic recession in the advanced economies, social rights are partially protected through ‘automated stabilisers’. Moreover, when measures of social protection were intensified, this sometimes also entailed a reduction in expenditures for ‘softer’ aspects, such as health and education. As for ethnic aspects, immigration has remained stable over time. Consequently, ethnic equality has not changed seriously. Poland is an exception: especially after 2012 the acceptance of immigration sharply declined. When matching the six countries on the three kinds of inequality, the results are mixed. There is some inconsistency between a form of equality and another one within the same country.
External Explanations
Authors: Morlino Leonardo , Piana Daniela , Sottilotta Cecilia E.
Published: November 2020

When checking the influence of European Union empirically, as for inequalities, first, the amount of resources which are devoted to cohesion policy is still negligible. Second, looking at the effects of the crisis and the impact of austerity measures, compounded by significant reforms of the EMU institutional architecture, the six countries under examination were affected to different degrees. Germany was mostly immune to the crisis, and Poland even experienced sustained growth during the crisis years. As a non-member of the Eurozone, the UK was affected by the crisis but retained its monetary sovereignty, and its commitment to austerity with a decline in social protection, healthcare and education cannot be directly traced to EU-level commitments. France avoided a significant overhaul of its welfare system, while Spain and Italy experienced a contraction, especially in the sectors of healthcare and education. As for freedoms, in the case of the possible ‘trade-off’ between the need to guarantee security in the face of domestic and international terrorism and citizens’ right to privacy, the middle ground established by the current EU ‘Privacy Shield’ paradigm leaves several problems unsolved. Moreover, it is essential to mention that the mechanism put in place by Article 7 of the Treaty on the European Union to sanction possible violations of those values and principles, has not been sufficient to stop the current democratic backslides in some member states, notably Poland and Hungary. To sum up, the new scenario seems to depict a more nuanced predominance of the transnational provisions in terms of European freedoms and a reshaping of the domestic-European balance.
Rethinking Democracy?
Authors: Morlino Leonardo
Published: November 2020

This chapter addresses two final questions. First, what are the specific and more general perspectives of the democracies we studied in terms of implementation of the two democratic values? The three patterns developed in Chapter 8 cover almost all the existing empirical possibilities in Europe. Moreover, the external challenges faced by democracies in the early twenty-first century directly affect not only the goods to be delivered (possibly a mix of freedoms and equalities) but also resilience and de-consolidation. We can accept action in defence of rights and institutions and the limits of protest lie in the fact that the related actions cannot violate existing laws. A parallel question is how much the repeal of constraints, legal or of another sort, on the incumbent authorities can be pushed. No doubt, interinstitutional accountability is the necessary cornerstone of a working democracy. Second, what could we do to promote a better, doable, reasonable implementation of the two values? The formula of pursuing broader social cooperation would recall neo-corporatist past solutions, today unfeasible, but still appears as the right social recipe that has not yet been overcome. As seen in Chapter 8, we have to restate that there is a close connection between interinstitutional accountability and protection of freedoms, and, although indirectly, of equalities. Among the rights, the most important one in a democracy is the right to vote, which is grounded on other freedoms that concur to form the voter’s own political opinion. The commitment to combat different forms of disinformation needs to continue in order to provide further meaningfulness to the right to vote. Finally, to craft solid majorities in favour of the strengthening of the welfare state beyond the protection of poverty, we do need to promote a European Union able to complement national and European solidarities.
Tort Law and Redress
Authors: Gold Andrew S.
Published: November 2020

This chapter indicates how the justice in redress covers various tort remedies, including some that are considered hard to explain as reversals of transactions. A key step in the argument is to recognize that there is still justice where wrongs are partially reversed, and not solely in cases where wrongs are fully (or almost fully) reversed. At the same time, remedies such as nominal damages or punitive damages are more difficult to fit into a redress-based model. This chapter explains the extent to which this is a challenge. It also shows how such concerns are explicable within a pluralist picture of private law.
Central Concepts
Authors: McNamara John M. , Leimar Olof
Published: November 2020

The chapter defines and discusses some of the central concepts in biological game theory. Strategies, which are rules for choosing actions as a function of state, play a pivotal role. It is explained how the theory operates at the level of strategies rather than attempting to follow the details of the underlying genetics that code for them. This is referred to as 'the phenotypic gambit', which is discussed and illustrated. The concept of the invasion fitness of a mutant strategy in a population that adopts another resident strategy is also central. This performance measure is used to give a necessary condition for evolutionary stability, formulated as the Nash equilibrium condition. It is explained how this stability condition can be reformulated in terms of simpler fitness proxies such as the mean lifetime number of offspring or the net rate of energy gain.
Co-evolution of Traits
Authors: McNamara John M. , Leimar Olof
Published: November 2020

Often traits interact, so that considering the evolution of each in isolation gives too limited an account. As is demonstrated in this chapter, it is then crucial to allow for the co-evolution of traits when analysing evolutionary stability. In particular this is important when there there is disruptive selection. Criteria for stability are presented and are applied to a variety of systems. It is shown that role asymmetries can lead to different predictions compared with the analogous situation with the same payoffs but without such asymmetries. Disruptive selection can lead to the evolution of anisogamy. When parental ability and parental effort co-evolve, disruptive selection can lead to one sex evolving to be better at care and doing most of the care. Furthermore, disruptive selection can lead to multiple ESSs, as when prosocial behaviour and the propensity to disperse from the natal site co-evolve. As is shown, disruptive forces can also act when there is learning, leading to specialization. This chapter sets the scene for the chapter that follows, where the level of cooperation shown by individuals co-evolves with choosiness and social sensitivity.
Variation, Consistency, and Reputation
Authors: McNamara John M. , Leimar Olof
Published: November 2020

There is typically considerable between-individual variation in trait values in natural populations. Game theory has often ignored this, treating individuals as the same. However, the existence and amount of variation is central to many predictions in biological game theory, as this chapter illustrates. Variation is central to signalling systems and stabilizes these systems as well as extensive-form games. Variation leads to individuals taking a chance that a partner is better than average; for example, promoting cooperation in a finitely repeated Prisoner’s Dilemma game. When there is both variation and within-individual consistency, so that past behaviour is predictive of current behaviour, reputation is important. As is demonstrated, once population members respond to reputation, this then selects for all to modify their behaviour so as to change their reputation and so change how others interact with them in the future, with consequences for the level of cooperation in the population. Furthermore, as a game of trust shows, the extent to which reputation matters can depend on whether individuals are prepared to pay the cost of being socially sensitive, which depends on the amount of variation. Variation selects for individuals to be choosy about their partner, and choosiness can lead to assortative pairing in a population, again promoting cooperation. The importance of choosiness in a market situation is demonstrated by a model in which partners have to decide how much to commit to one another, with factors that enhance choosiness leading to higher levels of commitment.
Games Embedded in Life
Authors: McNamara John M. , Leimar Olof
Published: November 2020

Many games focus on a part of the life of an organism. The payoff structure of the game then represents how the game affects fitness proxies such as mean lifetime reproductive success, which are concerned with the whole of the life of the organism. However, the traditional approach of specifying payoffs in advance of the analysis of the game can lead to inconsistencies because the rest of the life of an individual is not fixed but depends on what happens in the game. This chapter concerns this issue, identifying situations in which a more holistic approach is needed. A series of models illustrates links between the current situation and a lifetime perspective. When each of two parents must decide whether to care for their common young or desert, the payoff for desertion depends on the solution of the game and cannot be specified in advance. A game in which two males contest for a female illustrates the approach that must be taken if this game can be repeated at a later time. A game in which individuals must possess territories in order to breed is developed that highlights various interdependencies and, by incorporating learning, advances the understanding of owner–intruder interactions. The interdependencies in state-dependent dynamic games are also illustrated with a model in which individuals must trade off the risks of starvation and predation in a situation in which the choice of the best foraging habitat depends on the number of other animals that use that habitat.
Contrast and representations in syntax
Authors: Bjorkman Bronwyn M. , Hall Daniel Currie
Published: November 2020

This introductory chapter gives an overview of how views of both contrast and features developed in linguistics, and how they are situated in contemporary Minimalist syntactic theory. It observes that though features have come to play a crucial role in Minimalism as the drivers of syntactic operations and the locus of parametric variation, less attention has been paid to the connection between this and their role in definine paradigmatic contrast. Against this backdrop, the chapter relates each of the subsequent chapters to the overall themes of the volume, discussing the different ways in which they address the theme of contrast and representations.