bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Mosaics of Knowledge
Authors: Riggsby Andrew
Published: August 2019

The book examines the invention, use, and diffusion of ancient Roman information technologies. In particular, it looks at technologies defined in conceptual terms—lists, tables, weights and measures, perspective and related artistic devices, and cartography—rather than mechanical ones (e.g., “tablet” or “scroll”). Each is viewed from both social and cognitive perspectives, as well as with attention to the interaction between the conceptual and its material instantiation. The study is particularly focused on the most powerful technologies, whose uptakes are in most cases sporadic across time, space, and use context. These systems display a tolerance for error and/or omission remarkable unless they are considered in the narrowest possible use-context. Similarly, they often presuppose shared knowledge (both of form and of content) that could only have existed in highly localized contexts. Further constraints on the use of these devices arise from preferences for facts that are constituted by the record, rather than recorded, and (at least in elite circles) for linear exposition on the model of oral discourse. As a consequence, on the one hand, Romans lived in a balkanized informational world. Persons in different “locations”—whether geographical, social, or occupational—would have had access to quite different informational resources, and the overall situation is thus not controlled by the needs of any particular class or group. On the other hand, seeming technological weakness often turn out to be illusory if we set them in their actual use-contexts.
Personhood in Twentieth- and Twenty-First-Century Anglophone Philosophy
Authors: Preston Aaron
Published: August 2019

This chapter surveys the respective influences of personalism and of analytic philosophy on twentieth-century thought about persons. It shows that personalism promoted a concept of personhood that is supportive of human dignity and conducive to positive moral and social engagement, as exemplified in personalism’s best-known representative, Martin Luther King, Jr. By contrast, the analytic tradition has exhibited a persistent tendency to undermine personhood as King and the personalists understood it, while failing to supply a metaphysically and morally adequate alternative. This unfortunate legacy is worth reversing if possible. With this in mind, I suggest that contemporary analytic philosophy has something important to learn from personalism concerning what counts as an adequate metaphysical basis for human dignity and the moral life.
Truth and Beauty
Authors: Moland Lydia L.
Published: August 2019

This chapter provides the framework for Hegel’s philosophy of art within his philosophical system, as found in Part I in his lectures on aesthetics. It describes art’s place as one moment of Absolute Spirit and discusses Hegel’s definition of beauty as the “sensible appearance of the Idea.” It recounts theories of art Hegel dismisses and then turns to the general components he claims art must have. Together, these components—for instance setting, situation, action, and character—allow humans to experience truth sensuously. When they fail, they contribute to ways that art can end. Finally, Hegel discusses aspects of the artistic process such as genius, inspiration, and originality.
Symbolic Art
Authors: Moland Lydia L.
Published: August 2019

Symbolic art is the first of Hegel’s particular art forms. Unlike many of his contemporaries, Hegel conceptualized symbolic art as its own aesthetic sphere, distinct from classical and romantic art. This emphasis built on new research on “Oriental” cultures among several of his contemporaries such as Friedrich Creuzer, August Wilhelm Schlegel, and Wilhelm von Humboldt. Hegel distinguishes early, incomplete phases of symbolic art, such as unconscious and fantastical symbolism, from Egyptian art as the symbolic “as such.” He then traces the dissolution of symbolic art through the sublime and “conscious symbolism” such as fables, analogies, and parables. He concludes by indicating symbolic art’s prosaic ends in descriptive and didactic poetry.
Classical Art
Authors: Moland Lydia L.
Published: August 2019

Hegel claims that the human body is the only physical form that can fully embody the divine. Classical Greek artists perfectly depicted this embodiment in their mythology and statues. Hegel traces the emergence of the human out of earlier evocations of nature as the divine and argues that the perfect repose of Phidian sculpture represents the complete interpenetration of spirit and nature. But once human subjectivity begins to develop, it ruptures this unity and precipitates classical art’s decline. Aristophanes, Hegel claims, achieved a late example of classical perfection in his comedies. But soon afterward, classical art dissolves into incomplete forms such as satire, domestic comedy, and merely pleasant sculpture. After this decline, art will never again achieve the highest level of beauty or regain its prominence in human culture.
The Sound of Feeling
Authors: Moland Lydia L.
Published: August 2019

Music is the most subjective of the arts and is, in Hegel’s view, intimately linked to the self’s feeling of itself. We experience ourselves through time, and music—through rhythm, harmony, and melody—allows us to sense time. Hegel associates music with feeling that is not linked to content: it allows us to feel sadness, for instance, without being sad about a particular thing. Music can also elevate our emotions and allow us to transcend them. Hegel considers the relative value of independent music and music with text, concluding that while independent music may achieve music’s highest developmental potential, it can become less capable of evoking feeling and so fail to fulfill music’s essential task. This chapter also considers contemporary music in light of Hegel’s theory.
A Critical Examination and Reconceptualization of Humility
Authors: Leary Mark R. , Banker Chloe C.
Published: August 2019

This chapter critically examines psychological conceptualizations of humility and offers a novel integrative perspective that identifies the central psychological feature of humility. The gist of this approach is that, at its core, humility involves the recognition that, however great one’s personal accomplishments or positive characteristics may be, one is not fundamentally a more special person because of them and, thus, should not be viewed or treated as special outside the domain of one’s accomplishments or characteristics (and sometimes even within it). Our review of the literature demonstrates that research findings are largely consistent with the notion that the features of both state and trait humility are either antecedents of the recognition that one’s accomplishments and positive characteristics do not entitle one to be treated as a special person or are psychological or behavioral manifestations of that recognition.
Humility
Authors: Kesebir Pelin
Published: August 2019

This chapter looks at humility as an approach to one’s self, others, and life in general that is most conducive to enduring happiness. After reviewing the existing empirical literature on how humility is associated with various well-being outcomes, the chapter provides a theoretical framework explaining this positive association. Specifically, it elaborates how humility enables people to relate to themselves, to reality, and to others in optimal ways, which is where enduring happiness lies. It is emphasized that a secure, non-fragile ego is a main ingredient of humility and underlies many of its happiness-related benefits. The chapter concludes with a brief discussion of how humility can be cultivated.
Managing Diversity
Authors: Bloemraad Irene , Provine Doris Marie
Published: August 2019

Comparing the United States (U.S.) and Canadian responses to immigration in the context of each country’s civil rights struggles underscores the importance of history, geography, demography, and institutional structures in determining law and policy. Civil rights in the U.S. required a civil war over slavery and created an important role for courts to interpret constitutional mandates of equal treatment. Constitutionally enshrined individual rights came late to Canada and change occurred often through piecemeal legislative and bureaucratic action rather than litigation. Such differences in the trajectory of rights influence differences in immigration policy: active support and management of entry and integration in Canada versus an ambiguous welcome and laissez-faire incorporation in the U.S. Looking to the future, the political system and contentious views on immigration make policymaking difficult in the U.S., while Canadian policymakers enjoy more public support and flexibility as they take on the challenges and opportunities of immigration.
Writing for Love and Money on Three Continents
Authors: Vieira Kate
Published: August 2019

This chapter tells the story of the research. It first lays out the research question: How do transnational families’ experiences with migration-driven literacy learning shift across their lifespans in relation to changing political borders, economic circumstances, and technologies? It then describes the field sites in which the question was addressed: Latvia, Brazil, and the United States. Next, it outlines the reasoning behind the author’s methodological choices. Specifically, it elaborates on the author’s use of a comparative case study approach to develop the book’s central concept, “migration-driven literacy learning.” In doing so, the chapter describes how the project entailed both “reasearching across lives” and “researching across continents.” Finally, it offers a brief overview of the rest of the book.
Teaching Homeland Family
Authors: Vieira Kate
Published: August 2019

Based on U.S.-based fieldwork with two multigenerational families, this chapter details the implications of participating in writing remittance circuits for migrants themselves. For both families, the ties to home they concretized through writing remittances enriched their literacy and language learning stateside, both as means to meet their goals in conditions of injustice and as an expression of familial love. As members of these families circulated literacy from host country to homeland and back, it appeared to accrue, amounting to a grassroots transnational family network of literacy “funds” that they could call on in support of their aspirations in a hostile U.S. context. In this way, this chapter builds on and expands concepts of “funds of knowledge” to reveal migration, and the communicative practices associated with it, as a family-based pedagogical resource.
Afterword
Authors: Vieira Kate
Published: August 2019

The short afterword addresses the role of mothers in transnational families. Here is a sample: In a context of the rapid movement of people and of writing, I have tried in these pages to momentarily bring into focus the blurred images that can result from going too fast. In this process, I have fished for a through line, a narrative, a story that would in some way bind together the meanings that are often rearranged by familial separation. I have written these pages as a hopeful gesture, as a way to participate in the possibility of wholeness. To guide me in this work, I have looked to the mothers.
Truth in Journalism
Authors: Soysal Zeynep
Published: August 2019

In order to fulfill their role in society, professional journalists must deliver truths. But truth-telling is not the only requirement of the goal of journalism. What is more, some of the other requirements of journalism can make it difficult for journalists to deliver truths and may even force them to depart from truth in certain ways. This chapter makes the requirements of the goal of journalism explicit, and explains how conflicts among them can arise. The chapter then offers some suggestions for balancing these requirements that could help journalists regain the trust of the public.
Searching for Truth in Fragmented Spaces
Authors: Agur Colin , Belair-Gagnon Valerie
Published: August 2019

Since their emergence in 2011, mobile chat applications have gained massive user bases and given enterprising reporters a new challenge: verify truth in a set of fragmented public and private digital conversations involving journalists and audiences. This fragmentation fosters an intimacy and frankness among participants that, for journalists privy to these conversations, can deepen reporting and enhance storytelling. However, the closed nature of so many conversations means that notions of truth are highly contextual. For those who wish for a shared set of facts, chat apps pose troubling questions, such as: How can widely held truths endure as a rapidly growing form of communication encourages further political polarization and fragmentation of conversations, interpretations, and notions of truth? This chapter explores these questions, drawing on a study of 30+ interviews with reporters at major news organizations, examining the ways that reporters have used chat apps to verify claims in coverage of political unrest.
Fake News Finds an Audience
Authors: Bucy Erik P. , Newhagen John E.
Published: August 2019

The vulnerabilities shown by media systems and individual users exposed to attacks on truth from fake news and computational propaganda in recent years should be considered in light of the characteristics and concerns surrounding big data, especially the volume and velocity of messages delivered over social media platforms that tax the average user’s capacity to determine their truth value in real time. For reasons explained by the psychology of information processing, a high percentage of fake news that reaches audiences is accepted as true, particularly when distractions and interruptions typify user experiences with technology. As explained in this essay, fake news thrives in environments lacking editorial policing and epistemological vigilance, making the social media milieu ideally suited for spreading false information. In response, we suggest the value of an educational strategy to combat the dilemma that digital disinformation poses to informed citizenship.
Saving Democracy from Ourselves
Authors: Fung Archon
Published: August 2019

Though we all depend upon democracy, each of us in our public and civic roles is motivated to act in ways that deplete its sustaining conditions. In this chapter, Archon Fung proposes that one part of the solution to this problem is a thicker professional and civic ethics. The argument has three components. The first is a basic account of democratic governance that advances procedural and output legitimacy. In order to produce legitimacy, however, democracy has five sociopolitical “underwriting” conditions: commitment to process over outcome, social coherence, a spirit of compromise, responsive government, and epistemic integrity. Finally, different kinds of actors—politicians, media professionals, and citizens—have powerful self-interested motives to pollute “the commons” of democracy. Each of these role-specific discussions develops a set of ethical commitments that actors should adopt to sustain democracy instead of undermining it.
Socioeconomically Disadvantaged People
Authors: Marmot Michael , Bell Ruth
Published: August 2019

This chapter addresses health inequalities and focuses on social determinants of health. Inequalities in health relate fundamentally to inequalities in society. Overall health and inequalities in health in a population are indicators of how successful a society is meeting the needs of its members. The chapter describes the substantial differences among socioeconomic groups in life expectancy, infant and child mortality rates, and other measures of health status. It describes in detail various studies that provide an understanding of the role that social determinants play in affecting health status and access to healthcare. It examines the roles that lifestyle factors, such as smoking, poor diet, and sedentary habits, play in affecting health status. The chapter concludes by addressing what needs to be done to address health inequalities. Governments can address health inequalities by the way they channel resources to improve the conditions under which people live and work.
Women
Authors: Maranto Gina
Published: August 2019

This chapter discusses several major issues of social injustice as they adversely affect the health and well-being of women. The chapter begins with a discussion of new modes of social action supporting women and women’s rights, starting with the 2017 Women’s March. Sections of the chapter address violence, war, and forced migration; sustainability and gender equity; family planning and related issues; abortion; infertility and assisted reproduction; and other issues. The final section of the chapter examines what needs to be done to address these issues, with an emphasis on violence, sustainability and gender equity, and reproductive and health issues.
Incarcerated People
Authors: Drucker Ernest
Published: August 2019

The United States has 5% of the world’s population, but 25% of all prisoners. At any given time, more than 7 million Americans are under the control of the criminal justice system. The U.S. national incarceration rate is the highest in the world—almost 750 per 100,000 people. The operation of private “for-profit” prisons has become a significant feature of the U.S. correctional system. This chapter describes how social injustice affects the health of incarcerated people and their families. In addition, it addresses the root and underlying issues related to the high incarceration rate in the United States. The chapter addresses what needs to be done, including reducing incarceration for nonviolent offenders, improving community services, improving prison health services, reforming drug laws, providing assistance to family members, and enabling former prisoners to vote. A text box addresses political prisoners in other countries.
People Who Are Homeless
Authors: Moore Elizabeth M. , Cheng Theresa H. , Ijadi-Maghsoodi Roya , Gelberg Lillian
Published: August 2019

An estimated 100 million people globally suffer from absolute homelessness. The estimated number of people who are homeless in the United States at any given point in time is about 550,000. Mortality and disease severity of people who are homeless far exceed those of the general population because of extreme poverty, delays in seeking medical care, nonadherence to therapy, substance use disorders, and psychological impairment. Many of their health problems, such as infections due to crowded living conditions in shelters, hypothermia from exposure to extreme cold, and malnutrition due to limited access to food and cooking facilities are a direct result of homelessness. This chapter addresses in detail infectious diseases, substance abuse, obesity, mental health problems, and causes of death in this population. It also addresses access to and use of healthcare services. It addresses the roots of and underlying issues related to these problems. Finally, it addresses what needs to be done.
Medical Care
Authors: Fein Oliver , Geiger H. Jack
Published: August 2019

The United States is the only industrialized democracy that does not define access to healthcare as a right and a government responsibility and therefore does not provide universal healthcare coverage. Instead, access to healthcare is treated as a commodity to be purchased by those who are able to pay or as a partially subsidized benefit of employment in a system that is increasingly dominated by for-profit insurance companies, pharmaceutical manufacturers, and corporate medical providers. The burdens of this unjust system fall most heavily on low-income people and members of racial and ethnic minority groups. This chapter addresses social injustice in medical care in the United States and what needs to be done to address this injustice. A text box describes single-payer healthcare. A second text box describes approaches to educating medical students about racism.
Mental Health
Authors: Muntaner Carles , Ng Edwin , Chung Haejoo , Hessel Philipp , Eaton William W.
Published: August 2019

This chapter addresses the needs for preventive measures to improve the unfair—and avoidable—living and working conditions that produce increased rates of mental disorders among poor workers, women, immigrants, and racial and ethnic minorities. It also addressees treatment to narrow persistent mental health disparities by providing high-quality mental health services and psychiatric care. It discusses mental illness in a social justice context; the association between social stratification and mental health; specific dimensions of social injustice that implicate unequal power relations as a determinant of mental health disparities and mental health services and as a source of social injustice; and what needs to be done to achieve a more equal society that will reduce disparities in mental health outcomes. It recommends an action agenda that includes reframing issues of mental health among deprived and victimized populations to include civil rights and human rights as well as a public health approach. A text box describes the opioid crisis in the United States.
Oral Health
Authors: Allukian Myron , Horowitz Alice M.
Published: August 2019

Oral diseases are often called a neglected or silent epidemic. They are largely due to social injustice in which private wealth overrides the public’s health. Although oral diseases affect almost everyone, prevention of them and access to dental services have not been high priorities in the United States. This chapter, after defining oral health, describes the neglected epidemic of oral diseases and then discusses the roles that the food and tobacco industries play in contributing to oral disease and poor oral health. Although organized dentistry has done much to improve oral health, it also has limited access to dental care for millions of Americans. The chapter discusses health literacy and social inequality, national issues concerning oral health, state and local issues, school programs, the dental public health infrastructure, and the dental workforce. It discusses what needs to be done. A text box addresses oral health in low- and middle-income countries.
Learning from the Social Movements of the 1960s
Authors: Fein Oliver , Phillips Charlotte S.
Published: August 2019

This chapter describes how we can learn from the social movements of the 1960s in the United States and apply insights from those social movements to address social injustice today. Social movements have had, and will continue to have, a powerful impact on medicine and public health, motivating and energizing health workers to address social injustice. The authors, in part drawing from their personal experiences, describe the civil rights movement, the student movement, the anti-war movement, the women’s movement, the gay rights movement, and new social movements. The authors conclude that the experiences of the 1960s teach us that, as new social movements emerge, it is important for single-issue movements to unite with each other and collaborate for progressive change.
Promoting Health with Equitable and Sustainable Human Development
Authors: Jolly Richard
Published: August 2019

Progress toward social justice in public health requires actions to reduce the extremes of social injustice, well beyond health and health services, within each country and globally. Economic inequalities have never been greater than now, although structural inequalities of power, income, and living standards have long been present throughout the world. This chapter describes how social injustice can be reduced by promoting equitable and sustainable human development. It discusses economic and social requirements for a greater justice in public health, myths about the costs of equity and social justice, and multidimensional indicators of poverty and inequalities. It concludes with a discussion of what needs to be done, including making equity an economic priority, providing international support, utilizing the Sustainable Development Goals for poverty reduction, and taking other actions toward social justice. Two text boxes address the roles of international nongovernmental organizations and foundations in promoting equitable and sustainable human development.
Common Enemies
Authors: Best Rachel Kahn
Published: August 2019

Americans come together to fight diseases. For over 100 years, they have asked their neighbors to contribute to disease campaigns and supported health policies that target one disease at a time. Common Enemies asks why disease campaigns are the battles Americans can agree to fight, why some diseases attract more attention than others, and how fighting one disease at a time changes how Americans distribute charitable dollars, prioritize policies, and promote health. Drawing on the first comprehensive data on thousands of organizations targeting hundreds of diseases over decades, the author shows that disease campaigns proliferate due to the perception of health as a universal goal, the appeal of narrowly targeted campaigns, and the strategic avoidance of controversy. They funnel vast sums of money and attention to a few favored diseases, and they prioritize awareness campaigns and medical research over preventing disease and ensuring access to healthcare. It’s easy to imagine more efficient ways to promote collective well-being. Yet the same forces that limit the potential of individual disease campaigns to improve health also stimulate the vast outpouring of money and attention. Rather than displacing attention to other problems, disease campaigns build up the capacity to address them.
Introduction
Authors: Best Rachel Kahn
Published: August 2019

For more than a century, disease campaigns have been the causes Americans ask their neighbors to donate to and the issues that inspire them to march and volunteer. Studies of social movements, interest groups, agenda setting, and social problems tend to focus on contentious politics and study one movement or organization at a time. But these approaches cannot reveal why disease campaigns are the battles Americans can agree to fight, why some diseases attract more attention than others, and how fighting one disease at a time changes charity and public policy. Understanding the causes and effects of disease campaigns, requires studying consensus politics and collecting data on fields of organizations over long time periods.
Ranking Diseases
Authors: Best Rachel Kahn
Published: August 2019

From the 1960s to the present, advocates have introduced various criteria to highlight their diseases’ impacts, from mortality to health spending. These competing claims encouraged policymakers to seek formal ways to rank and compare diseases, creating pressure to standardize the National Institutes of Health (NIH) budget across disease categories. NIH officials worried that the pursuit of narrow, disease-specific goals would funnel resources away from basic science and untargeted research. But while the proportion of the NIH budget targeting these goals declined slightly, the overall amounts increased dramatically, suggesting that specialized campaigns do not draw resources away from broader goals. The push for disease data did change how the government distributes money, bringing the funding distribution more in line with mortality rates. The effects of advocacy go beyond securing funding or passing favorable laws; advocacy also changes how policymakers define issues and judge policies, with concrete effects on funding distributions.
Conclusion
Authors: Best Rachel Kahn
Published: August 2019

Disease campaigns reveal why private charity cannot replace political solutions to social problems. Private charity and voluntary campaigns favor narrow, corporate-friendly, and uncontroversial causes. Funneling vast sums of money to awareness campaigns and research into a few favored conditions is an inefficient way to promote collective health and well-being. But it would be incorrect to assume that disease campaigns use up time, resources, and empathy that would otherwise be devoted to solving other problems. Disease campaigns, while not an optimal target for charitable and political efforts, inspire outpourings of beneficence and can help train people to come together to solve social problems.
How to Be Childless
Authors: Chrastil Rachel
Published: August 2019

Childless uncovers the voices and experiences of childless women from the past 500 years and puts them in conversation with research from a broad range of disciplines, from psychology to philosophy to sociology. It addresses two main questions: What are the pathways to childlessness, and how do childless individuals flourish? Eschewing two dominant narratives—that the childless are either barren and alone or that they are carefree and selfish—it views childless individuals as complicated human beings with nuanced life stories. The pathways to childlessness, so often labeled simply “choice” and “circumstance,” are far more complex and interweaving. Childless examines issues including regret, old age, attitudes toward childlessness, the household, and legacy. Every year, over 80,000 American women with an advanced degree reach age 45 without having given birth. Thousands more debate whether or not to have children. The childless might think that they’re living in a unique situation with little to guide them. But, in reality, they can turn to the vast human experience with childlessness for inspiration, warnings, and guidance.
Old and Alone
Authors: Chrastil Rachel
Published: August 2019

Only recently do Western women expect that a third of their lives will unfold after menopause. Old age is a social and biological condition whose quality is shaped by physical and mental health, money, meaningful activities, independent living, someone to care for them, companionship, family, and a full and rich narrative about their lives. While childlessness more firmly places the vulnerability of aging in the forefront, old age comes to us all. Childless lives help illuminate the problems of old age and provide different ways to think about it. This chapter looks at the later years of childless living, highlighting how childless women encounter and engage with this period of their lives.
Self-Reliance as Moral Autonomy and Original Self-Expression
Authors: Zavatta Benedetta
Published: August 2019

Chapter 3 deals with the positions taken by Nietzsche vis-à-vis Socratico-Christian morality or the morality of customs and his working-out of an alternative moral model using contributions provided to him by reading Emerson. This moral model is oriented around the process of individualization; that is, it concerns the development of the individual up to the point where he or she becomes capable of “transvaluating” the values of the tradition and living on the basis of values of his or her own. Nietzsche identifies the criterion of this “transvaluation” in the virtue that Emerson calls self-reliance. This includes various attitudes which Nietzsche personifies in three figures: “Schopenhauer as Educator,” who personifies self-reliance qua faith in one’s own intuitions and nonconformism; the “free spirit” qua “wanderer,” who personifies self-reliance as an intellectual method, that is, as openness to confronting views different from one’s own and placing one’s own self in question; and Zarathustra, who personifies self-reliance as original self-expression.
Society or Solitude?
Authors: Zavatta Benedetta
Published: August 2019

Chapter 4 considers the influence exerted by Nietzsche’s reading of Emerson on the former’s critique of the morality of compassion and on his working out of a moral proposal alternative to this modelled on the relation of friendship. Emphasizing the value of individualism for the well-being of the collective, Emerson brings Nietzsche to understand that pursuing one’s personal advantage, if it is correctly understood, not only does not conflict with the welfare of society but nourishes and supports it. On this basis, Nietzsche on the one hand develops a critique of compassion and altruism as forms of the loss of the self and humiliation of the other, while on the other hand reassessing the value of egoism or, better put, distinguishing egoism as the pursuit of pleasure from a “higher egoism” that consists in pursuing one’s own vocation. Friendship is the relation that best sustains the development both of one’s own and others’ individualities.
Making History and Writing History
Authors: Zavatta Benedetta
Published: August 2019

This chapter examines the role played by Emerson in the development of Nietzsche’s position regarding history and historiography from the second Untimely Meditation up to the middle period works. Drawing inspiration from Emerson, Nietzsche takes a stance contrary to the theory of active forgetting that he had previously maintained and finds an alternative to the historicism of his age in an active and empathic reading of history in which events are relived “in the first person.” The precondition for developing this type of reading is the virtue that Emerson calls self-reliance, understood as a reverence for oneself and for one’s own task. This chapter also considers Emerson’s contribution to the critique of the metaphysical notion of genius and of the “cult of the hero.” Clarifying the genesis of this critique allows us to clarify in turn Nietzsche’s position regarding the theory of moral and political perfectionism.
Conclusion
Authors: Zavatta Benedetta
Published: August 2019

In this concluding section, based on the analysis conducted in previous chapters, it is argued that the reading of Emerson influences the development of the most important themes of Nietzsche’s philosophy, although the position of the latter thinker comes eventually to diverge in an important way from that of the former. It is further argued that Nietzsche’s attraction to Emerson is also due to an affinity of character, which explains the fact that Nietzsche uses Emerson’s philosophy as a vademecum for the conduct of his life. Understanding friendship in Emerson's manner as a kind of “attraction at a distance” or encounter-cum-confrontation between different individualities, Nietzsche defines Emerson as a true friend who, throughout his life, continuously spurred and encouraged him to become what he was.
Using Technologies for Data Collection and Management
Authors: Hamilton Janet J. , Hopkins Richard S.
Published: August 2019

Quality data collected and summarized at the right time lead to informed decisions, which lead to improved interventions and better health outcomes. Acute disease, condition, or injury field investigators must consider not only what data need to be collected (see also Chapter 4), but how data should be collected, managed, and shared, which is the focus of this chapter. Today’s technologies—computers, software applications, ubiquitous mobile devices, social media, personal health monitoring devices, environmental monitors and sensors, electronic health records, and public health surveillance systems—play an integral role in effective field responses. Initial identification of optimal technologic tools results in more efficient and effective field responses. Like the overall response, technology’s role must be tailored to the affected population, setting, health jurisdiction, and the duration, size, and type of the response event. The role technology plays in support of how data are collected, managed, and shared is a dynamic and evolving aspect of the field response. Outbreak responses are shifting from a traditional concept of stand-alone deployment teams, with data collected and managed on-site, to a new normal in which field response data collection is integrated and incorporates existing infrastructure, jurisdictional surveillance, and informatics staff; it uses or builds on existing surveillance systems, tools, and other technologies. Selected technologies should facilitate more time for epidemiologists to focus on epidemiologic functions and for laboratorians to perform testing. This chapter presents principal considerations for selecting and using technologies to support field investigations and examples of how they have been applied.
Communicating During an Outbreak or Public Health Investigation
Authors: Tumpey Abbigail J. , Daigle David , Nowak Glen
Published: August 2019

Effective communication during an outbreak or public health investigation is crucial for fostering adoption of public health recommendations and minimizing or preventing harm. During outbreaks, a comprehensive communication strategy integrating news media, social media, and partner engagement is essential for reaching affected persons and for keeping everyone informed about public health actions and recommendations. The strategies outlined in this chapter are the foundation for rapidly and effectively conveying information and public health recommendations to the persons at risk, the media, and the different entities involved in the response. Regardless of the public health event’s cause, core communication actions and steps will be similar; however, in every outbreak or public health investigation, perceptions and needs will vary among target audiences, partners (i.e., persons or organizations that can play a role in the crisis response), and persons or organizations with a connection or interest in the outbreak (stakeholders).
Legal Considerations
Authors: Holt James D. , Ghosh Sudevi Navalkar , Black Jennifer R.
Published: August 2019

Epidemiologists are not expected to know every facet of public law. However, field epidemiology requires an appreciation of applicable legal authorities and general legal responsibilities of public health officials. Applicable legal authorities vary by jurisdiction. The general legal responsibilities will pertain to the range of public health activities, including public health surveillance; privacy of medical records; and privacy concerns related to collection, analysis, and dissemination of data. Epidemiologists need to understand the scope of the federal and state legal authorities that support their work in the field. The exercise of these often broad authorities is restrained by the liberty and due process protections provided by the US Constitution and state constitutions. The primary objective of this chapter is to provide basic information about laws and regulations that will or may affect the work of epidemiologists as they conduct investigations.
Community Congregate Settings
Authors: Uzicanin Amra , Gaines Joanna
Published: August 2019

Settings and patterns of human congregation are risk factors and determinants for infectious and other diseases in communities because they can modulate the scope and extent of spread through modes of exposure and transmission (e.g., person-to-person, airborne, foodborne, waterborne, and vectorborne). This chapter reviews practical and legal implications for field investigations in four types of community congregate settings: (1) educational institutions, (2) workplaces, (3) mass gatherings, and (4) detention facilities. For each of these, it summarizes one or more illustrative field investigations. Challenges often associated with field investigations in community congregate settings include the potential for interference with normal business processes, data availability and access, and additional legal and confidentiality requirements. Field investigations of congregate settings can therefore be aided by thorough preparation, detailed documentation and close coordination and collaboration.
Occupational Disease and Injury
Authors: Kreiss Kathleen , Cummings Kristin J.
Published: August 2019

Occupational diseases and injuries continue to exact a societal burden on productivity, acute and chronic disease, and preventable medical costs. Occupational problems require collaboration from employers, labor, and government both for investigation and for preventive intervention. A key characteristic is the need for exposure assessment with a multidisciplinary investigative team that includes environmental scientists or industrial hygienists who can evaluate workplace characteristics needed for design, questionnaire development, quantitative assessment of exposure, interpretation of findings, and guidance for prevention. A field epidemiologic investigation often is triggered by worker or physician recognition of clusters of disease or injury. The relatively few field investigators working on occupational disease and injury provide room for many contributions. Occupational health field investigations are exciting because of the opportunity they provide to learn from other disciplines and collaborators in other agencies and because of impact.
Acute Enteric Disease Outbreaks
Authors: Williams Ian T. , Whitlock Laura , Wise Matthew E.
Published: August 2019

Public health officials investigate outbreaks to control them, to prevent additional illnesses, and to learn how to prevent similar outbreaks in the future. The process the public health community uses to detect, investigate, and control enteric (intestinal) disease outbreaks from food, water, and other sources involves certain procedural steps. These include detecting a possible outbreak, defining and finding cases, generating hypotheses about likely sources, testing the hypotheses and evaluating evidence, finding contamination sources, controlling the outbreak, and determining when the outbreak is over. Investigating outbreaks of acute enteric diseases can be a dynamic and complex undertaking involving multiple public health and regulatory partners in different jurisdictions. This chapter provides an overview of the investigation process with an emphasis on multijurisdictional foodborne illness investigations in the United States.
Two Alternate Social Possibilities
Authors: Eisler Riane
Published: August 2019

This chapter explores a number of societies of very different geographic locations, social structures, economic systems, and religious orientations in depth, using the analytical lens of the partnership-domination continuum. It illustrates how the divergent patterns associated with each orientation play out in our day-to-day life; shows that partnership and domination orientations can be found across a variety of cultural settings, ancient and modern; and demonstrates why a whole-systems analysis that includes the cultural construction of the formative parent-child and gender relations is vital if we are to move forward. It details how and why partnership-oriented cultures, such as the Moso, Teduray, Minangkabau, and Nordic nations, support more egalitarian, peaceful, empathetic, and caring ways of living.
Contracting or Expanding Consciousness
Authors: Eisler Riane
Published: August 2019

This chapter looks at what gets in the way of our capacity for consciousness about ourselves, others, and nature—and the implications for our lives and the future of our planet. It draws from classic experiments on how perceptions are often suppressed, denied, and/or distorted in individuals who have been conditioned through their early experiences to believe that dominating and being dominated are our only alternatives, as well as how such individuals tend to have difficulty dealing with change. It presents recent studies using brain scans showing that this difficulty (with its implications for denial of climate change and other present threats) is associated with a particular kind of brain development. It also draws from new studies confirming that people from such backgrounds tend to vote for “strongman leaders”; support a punitive political agenda (such as capital punishment, heavy investment in prisons, use of military force in international affairs, and punishment of “immoral” women and gays); and deflect their suppressed fear and anger into prejudices against “inferior” or “dangerous” out-groups (all exploited by antidemocratic populists such as Trump in our world today). It examines how the cultural construction of gender roles and relations and the social categories provided by our languages affect what people perceive as moral, normal, and/or inevitable, revealing the psychosocial dynamics that habituate people to suppress their capacity for empathy, to accept authoritarian control, and to become unable to see more equitable, compassionate, less stressful life options.
The Real Culture Wars
Authors: Eisler Riane
Published: August 2019

We humans live, and all too often die, by stories, as one of the authors almost died as a child in the Holocaust. This chapter shows that the real culture wars are not between religion and secularism, East and West, or capitalism and socialism, but are within all societies, between orientation to either the partnership or domination side of the social scale. Starting with the two different biblical stories about the creation of humanity—the famous tale where Eve is an afterthought responsible for all our ills, and the earlier story where both men and women are created equal—is a contrast in normative narratives that support domination or partnership. Covering a wide swath of prehistory and history, this contrast offers fascinating new insights: for example, how Western science came out of a hierarchical, conformist, misogynist, all-male medieval clerical culture (a world without women and children) and how it took more than 700 years for women’s, men’s, and gender studies to emerge in universities; how Freud’s secular theories replicated the earlier religious ideology of original sin and male supremacy; and how in all spheres (from the family, politics, and the academy to mainstream and popular culture worldwide), the underlying tension between movement toward partnership and the resistance/regressions to domination is playing out.
The Innovation Problem
Authors: Potts Jason
Published: August 2019

Explains the nature of the innovation problem as an economic problem in the context of economic trade and long-run growth. Distinguishes between a market failure definition of the innovation problem as an allocation problems and the innovation problem as a collective action problem of coordination and discovery. Defines the innovation commons as the zeroth phase of the innovation trajectory. Introduces the concept of discovery failure and discovery costs. This locates the argument of the book in the broader context of Schumpeterian, evolutionary, and Austrian “mainline economics” with a contextualization of the innovation problem simultaneously as both a knowledge problem and a coordination problem, and therefore as a governance problem solved with institutions.
Four Theories of the Innovation Commons
Authors: Potts Jason
Published: August 2019

This chapter proposes four theories explaining how innovation commons work, in terms of how they pool information, and what specific problems they solve in order to discover entrepreneurial opportunities. The first is the “two commons” theory in which the innovation commons is a screening mechanism by having the truly valuable commons of entrepreneurial information accessed only through the commons of technological knowledge and material innovation resources. The second is the “evolution of cooperation” theory, which draws on modern evolutionary theory (specifically multilevel selection theory and evolutionary game theory). The third is the “defense against enclosure” theory, in which the commons is a preferred institution for first movers because it raises the cost of alternative institutions and minimizes the risk of loss of control of the technology. The fourth is the “institutional uncertainty and real options” theory.
Rules of the Innovation Commons
Authors: Potts Jason
Published: August 2019

This chapter examines the basic institutional similarities between innovation commons (as a species of knowledge commons) and the eight core design principles, or rules of the commons, that Ostrom discovered. It explores the innovation commons through the lens of these rules that enable a group to form under uncertainty, and that make cooperation a safe and effective strategy within that group. The question is explored in terms of the core problems a commons must solve: identity, cooperation, consent, monitoring, punishment, and independence. The chapter then examines these rules in the broader context of multilevel selection theory, arguing that group selection operates over innovation.