bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
MEASURING FARM EFFICIENCY OVER TIME ON PHILIPPINE RICE FARMS
Authors: Dawson P. J. , Lingard J.
Published: November 2008

This paper measures farm‐specific technical efficiencies of rice farms in Central Luzon, the Philippines, at discrete points in time. Stochastic frontier production functions are estimated from the International Rice Research Institute's Loop Survey for the years 1970, 1974, 1979 and 1982. From the results, a measure of relative technical efficiency is calculated for each farm for each year. The four distributions of technical efficiencies are examined. Results show that technical inefficiency is the major reason for deviation from the frontier production function. All four samples show a large range of inefficiency but in general efficiency has improved, particularly between 1979 and 1982.
DEMAND FOR FOOD IN GREECE: AN ALMOST IDEAL DEMAND SYSTEM ANALYSIS
Authors: Mergos G. J. , Donatos G. S.
Published: November 2008

This paper provides an analysis of food demand in Greece using the Almost Ideal Demand System and annual food expenditure data for the period 1950–1986. The focus is on the estimation of a complete matrix of price and income elasticities for the various food commodity groups for Greece. The empirical analysis points to the dominant position that meat and other livestock products have acquired in the diet of Greek consumers during a period of high income growth and rising living standards. Further increase in meat and milk demand is expected to take place as long as incomes keep rising.
A MICRO‐ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF TEA PRODUCTION USING A SEPARABLE RESTRICTED PROFIT FUNCTION
Authors: Roberts J.
Published: November 2008

To derive policy‐relevant information, the translog form of a separable restricted profit function was used to model empirically estate tea production in Sri Lanka. Data consisted of 87 observations of prices and quantities for various inputs and outputs from 54 different Sri Lankan tea estates. In different tests, the estimated model respected generally the properties implied by underlying assumptions. Results indicated increasing economies of scale in the factory across the sample and optimal field size to be between 300 and 400 hectares. Amongst estimated short‐term elasticities, the supply elasticity of made tea was found to be +0.94.
HEROES FOR PRESENT PURPOSES?— A LOOK AT THE CHANGING IDEA OF COMMUNAL LAND OWNERSHIP IN BRITAIN: PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS
Authors: Bateman D. I.
Published: November 2008

The suggestion that land should be owned communally (usually nationally) has often been put forward in Britain during the last three hundred years. The paper reviews the arguments as they have been developed by Utopians, Economists, Popularisers and Politicians. It argues that, though current problems are different from those addressed in the past, the history of the idea of communal ownership still offers insights that have current relevance. As far as rural land is concerned, the problems associated with ownership rights are those that relate either to non‐market effects or to the ‘unearned increment’ or to landlord/tenant relationships. Suggestions are made as to the part that changes in property rights might play in handling these problems today.

‘To whomsoever the soil at any time belongs, to him belong the fruits of it. White parasols and elephants mad with pride are the flowers of a grant of land.’
ECONOMIC ISSUES FROM THE BROADS GRAZING MARSHES CONSERVATION SCHEME
Authors: Colman David
Published: November 2008

The paper examines two key issues relating to the use of fixed‐price conservational contracts of the type embodied in the new Environmentally Sensitive Area policy in the UK. It uses data for the Broads Grazing Marshes Conservation Scheme (BGMCS). The budgetary costs of the fixed‐price contract are compared to those of (i) public purchase of land with leaseback for grazing, and (ii) of individual management agreements. Using a net present value criterion, public purchase emerges as the cheapest option, and management agreements as a superior option in defined circumstances. The paper also explores equity and efficiency issues arising from fixed price contracts. It is concluded that for many farmers and landlords in the BGMCS the fixed payment exceeded what was necessary to achieve the conservational objectives, while at the same time it was less than the profit foregone by farmers who might possibly have switched to arable farming.
PLURIACTIVITY, FARM STRUCTURES AND RURAL CHANGE
Authors: Shucksmith D. M. , Bryden J. , Rosenthall P. , Short C. , Winter D. M.
Published: November 2008

This paper begins by looking at some of the reasons why farm household pluriactivity, although long‐standing, has now become a phenomenon of interest to European policymakers. This European concern is then compared with the current interest of UK policymakers and academics in the related concept of farm diversification. In many respects, UK policies differ significantly from those in the rest of Europe, most notably in their neglect of off‐farm income‐earning opportunities, and the reasons for this are discussed. Furthermore, it is argued that a preoccupation with forms of diversification or pluriactivity is likely to be less helpful analytically than a focus on underlying farm business and farm household strategies. Finally, some preliminary results of empirical work in Devon and Grampian are presented which suggest that farm household strategies may be at variance with prior expectations in some respects.
THE EROSION OF AGRICULTURAL EXPORTS IN AN OIL ECONOMY: THE CASE OF NIGERIA
Authors: Okonkwo I. C.
Published: November 2008

After several years of oil production and exports with attendant revenue influx, the sector is yet to make a significant impact in Nigeria's economic growth. Contrary to the hopes and expectations that greeted the oil discovery, the non‐oil export sector of the economy, more specifically the agricultural sector, has been declining consistently with further increases in oil exports. This paper is intended to provide an empirical analysis of an aspect of structural change that has taken place in the Nigerian economy. The hypothesis investigated is that an increase in oil exports results in higher relative prices on non‐tradeable to tradeable goods and an appreciation of the domestic currency, hence a loss of the competitiveness of the agricultural export sector in the international market. This phenomenon, popularly known as the ‘Dutch disease’, has been vigorously discussed in the United Kingdom, Norway and the Netherlands, has also received much attention from Australian economists in relation to minerals.
PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY AND INPUT ALLOCATIONS IN SRI LANKAN MULTICROP FARMING
Authors: Jegasothy K. , Shumway C. R. , Lim H.
Published: November 2008

A primal production analysis is conducted of 182 farm households producing multiple outputs in the Sri Lankan dry zone. The approach involves systems estimation of the production functions with first‐order equations for variable inputs and permits recovery of the production technology for each crop. Land and family labour are regarded as constraining inputs. Shadow prices are computed for the constraining inputs and yield important implications for increasing household profits. Evidence of global homotheticity in a subset of three inputs is found for three of the crops. Weak separability is rejected in all tested subsets except for fertiliser and chemicals used in the production of vegetables. Input demand elasticities are computed for allocations satisfying necessary and sufficient conditions for profit maximisation. Highly elastic conditional input demands and output supplies are implied.
RURAL EMPLOYMENT IN ENGLAND: SOME DATA SOURCES AND THEIR USE
Authors: Errington A. J.
Published: November 2008

In both the UK and the EC, the 1980s have seen rural issues assuming a higher position in the policy‐makers' agenda but in order to formulate and implement rural policy measures, governments and their agencies first need information. This article examines some of the main sources of data on rural employment in England and reviews the extent to which they lend themselves to the analysis of rural issues. The definition of rurality adopted is clearly critical though different definitions may be needed for different purposes. A definition developed by Denham and Craig is discussed and its use in a project designed to assess the uptake of training in rural areas described.
INTER‐REGIONAL FARM EFFICIENCY IN PAKISTAN'S PUNJAB: A FRONTIER PRODUCTION FUNCTION STUDY
Authors: Ali M. , Chaudhry M. A.
Published: November 2008

Agricultural production efficiency in four irrigated cropping regions of the Punjab province of Pakistan was compared on the basis of a probabilistic frontier production function estimated from whole‐farm survey data for the year 1984‐85. It is found that the gross income of farmers can be increased by 13% at the current levels of resource use if the production gap between ‘best practice’ and ‘average’ farmers is suitably narrowed in all cropping regions. This will increase profits by up to 40%. No significant difference in technical efficiency was found across the regions. Economic efficiency was similar across all cropping regions except in the cotton region, which had significantly lower economic efficiency due to higher allocative inefficiency, which in turn was attributable to the more dynamic production technologies being adopted in that region.
PROBLEMS IN PROJECT‐LEVEL MONITORING AND EVALUATION: EVIDENCE FROM ONE MAJOR AGENCY
Authors: Coleman G.
Published: November 2008

Project‐level monitoring and evaluation (M & E) systems have been in place since the 1960s but their effectiveness has often been questioned. This paper reviews the experience of M & E systems in a large number of projects world‐wide which have been supported by one international funding agency over the last ten years. The review identifies a series of problem areas involving the establishment of M & E units, resources, vague specification, over‐ambitious designs, baseline surveys, staffing, organisational location, M & E as separate activities, beneficiary contact monitoring, project follow‐up/supervision, and the use o M & E information. What emerges from the review is the extent to which the problems have been recognised by the agency and remedial measures taken, particularly in the areas of methodology, organisational arrangements and training. Problems still exist, but there is evidence that many M & E systems do provide a valuable — and valued — service to project management.
ALTERNATIVE PRODUCTION FRONTIER METHODOLOGIES AND DAIRY FARM EFFICIENCY
Authors: Bravo‐Ureta B. E. , Rieger L.
Published: November 2008

This paper estimates technical efficiency (TE) measures using four alternative production frontier models, and evaluates the sensitivity of the results to the choice of methodology. The Cobb‐Douglas functional form along with data for 1982 and 1983 from 404 dairy farms located throughout six northeastern states in the US are used in the estimation. A general conclusion is that, broadly speaking, frontier function models are neutrally upwardly scaled versions of the OLS or average model. A second conclusion is that different models yield markedly different efficiency levels across firms. However, the correlation between the indexes from the various methods is high, which implies that the ordinal ranking of firms according to their measured level of technical efficiency appears to be independent of the method used for a given year. By comparison, the correlation between efficiency indexes for the same method across time, although positive, is much lower than the previous set of correlations. Correlation analysis of efficiency versus farm size and of efficiency versus returns over variable costs, based on the alternative models, yielded consistent results.
ASPECTS OF FARM PROFITABILITY: AN OUTMODED CONCEPT? PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS
Authors: Nix J. S.
Published: November 2008

The paper begins by recording Journal articles since 1952 of relevance to farming incomes and efficiency, and follows by reviewing the literature on measuring farmers' incomes and the problems entailed, including consideration of non‐farming incomes and capital gains and their relevance to agricultural policy. Definitions of ‘profit’ in selected economic texts are then compared, together with attempts to measure ‘pure profit’ from farming. Suitable charges for management and interest are then determined and estimates made of net profits and losses from different types of farming in 1986/7 and 1987/8 for both average and ‘top’ farms. Real farming incomes and capital gains from land from 1938 to 1988 are then discussed. The paper concludes by summarising why the concept of profitability from farming has now largely lost its significance—though not for all farmers.
CONTRACT FARMING AND OUTGROWER SCHEMES IN EAST AND SOUTHERN AFRICA
Authors: Glover D.
Published: November 2008

This article examines the experience of seven countries in East and Southern Africa with contract farming and outgrower schemes. In such schemes, farmers sell their crops under contract to private or public enterprises for processing or export in return for various price guarantees, inputs and services. The article identifies some of the key determinants of success or failure, evaluates performance and examines the constraints to replication. In most cases, performance in delivering services and providing income increases to farmers has been quite good, although high management costs limit the extent to which this form of organisation could be more widely applied. Looser control, relying more on price incentives and farmer participation, might lower overhead costs while developing management capability among growers.
IN SEARCH OF THE COMMON AGRICULTURAL POLICY'S ‘AGRICULTURAL COMMUNITY’
Authors: Hill B.
Published: November 2008

Although some aspects of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) are intended to improve the welfare of European society in general, its income support objective is aimed specifically at the ‘agricultural community’. This community has never been defined precisely. In consequence, it is difficult to assess the success of the CAP. Alternative ways of defining the agricultural community are considered and their implications for policy discussed. Existing data sources are used to illustrate the numbers of households and household members which various definitions produce.
RESPONSES TO RISK IN WEED CONTROL DECISIONS UNDER EXPECTED PROFIT MAXIMISATION
Authors: Pannell D. J.
Published: November 2008

Risk is an important characteristic of decisions about weed control in crops. In this paper it is shown that risk can affect weed control decisions even if the objective of the decision maker is to maximise expected profits: that is, even if the decision maker is ‘risk‐neutral’ in the usual economic sense. This is shown for two decision frameworks: the optimal rate approach and the economic threshold approach. Empirical results are presented for control of ryegrass in wheat in Western Australia. It is found that, in general, risk reduces the optimal level of herbicide use under expected profit maximisation. Although individual sources of risk have a small impact on the optimal decision rules, combinations of uncertain variables can have a relatively large effect.
RESEARCH PAYOFF FROM QUALITY IMPROVEMENT: THE CASE OF BACKFAT DEPTH IN PIGS
Authors: Voon J. P. , Edwards G. W.
Published: November 2008

Closed‐market models embodying alternative specifications of supply, demand and substitutability conditions are developed to measure the economic benefits from a research‐caused improvement in quality. The models are applied to the estimation of the economic benefits from reducing backfat depth in Australian pork. A major finding is that the Australian pig industry has the potential to derive a gross research benefit of about $7 million per annum from a 10% reduction in backfat thickness in pigs. Under each of the chosen specifications, the larger share of this gain accrues to pig producers. There could be additional social gains as a result of health benefits not incorporated in consumers' valuations.
PRODUCER BENEFITS FROM TECHNOLOGY INDUCED SUPPLY SHIFTS IN THE EC COTTON REGIME
Authors: Herruzo A. C.
Published: November 2008

This paper examines the effect of the current EC cotton regime on the level and distribution of potential benefits from technological change in cotton production in Greece and Spain. Results indicate that technical innovations in cotton production benefit producers but do not affect EC consumers and taxpayers. In addition, technical advances in cotton production result in important inter‐country effects. These effects depend strongly on the relative magnitude of each country output and supply elasticity, the smaller producer (Spain) being in a riskier position. Finally, the current EC cotton regime, compared to a system which partitions the maximum guaranteed quantity between the two producer countries, benefits the innovative country.
FARMERS‘ WIVES ‐ THEIR CONTRIBUTION TO THE FARM BUSINESS
Authors: Gasson R.
Published: November 2008

The contribution which farmers' wives make to the farm business is typically overlooked and under‐valued, yet the farm could not function without it. The paper describes the nature of the work done by wives on farms in the UK and Ireland as revealed by two recent postal surveys. Using data from the Farm Business Survey for England and Wales, it attempts to quantify some aspects of the work. It is suggested that farm wives may contribute 5 per cent of the manual hours worked by the regular labour force and 9–10 per cent of the total regular labour input on main holdings. Further, as hired and family labour is shed and farmers seek additional employment, the wife's labour contribution is likely to become more significant. Continued neglect of women's involvement may jeopardise the future of the family farm. The paper suggests how data collection procedures might be improved to give a more realistic picture of the wife's contribution.
POLICY‐INDUCED CAPACITY CONSTRAINTS AND STRATEGIC INTERACTION IN PROCESSED FOOD MARKETS
Authors: McCorriston S. , Sheldon I. M.
Published: November 2008

Attempts to curtail surplus agricultural production may result in excess capacity for food processors. This paper considers the impact of potential capacity constraints for different specifications of duopoly behaviour. If one firm's capacity is constrained, rents are shifted to the other under quantity competition, while both benefit under price competition. If both firms face capacity constraints, each benefits whatever the nature of competition. Consequently, food processing firms may benefit from cut‐backs in agricultural production or quantitative trade restrictions, depending on the nature of strategic interaction, though consumers always lose.
OBJECTIVE AND SUBJECTIVE INFLUENCES ON THE DECISION TO TRADE ON THE LONDON POTATO FUTURES MARKET
Authors: Ennew C. T. , Morgan C. W. , Rayner A. J.
Published: November 2008

Among dealers in the physical commodity, the benefits associated with risk reduction are important factors in motivating the decision to engage in futures trading. Although it is possible to evaluate, in an objective sense, the ability of a market to reduce risk, actual and potential users may also be heavily influenced by their subjective assessments of the performance and reliability of a futures market. This paper argues that the recent decline in the level of usage of the London Potato Futures Market may be more the product of unfavourable attitudes to trading than of a decline in the performance of the market with respect to risk reduction.
PRODUCTIVITY GROWTH AND THE UK FOOD SYSTEM 1954‐84
Authors: McDonald J. R. S. , Rayner A. J. , Bates J. M.
Published: November 2008

This paper uses input‐output data bases to derive estimates of industry productivity growth rates in the UK for three discrete sub‐periods. The results are then used to derive estimates of the within‐industry productivity growth contributions to the changing efficiency over time of the economic system in meeting consumers' food requirements. The resultant estimates indicate the value of extending studies of agricultural productivity growth to encompass efficiency gains in industries that are upstream and downstream of the agricultural industry.
FARM NET VALUE ADDED IN SCOTLAND AND THE DESIGNATION OF AREAS FOR RURAL DEVELOPMENT ASSISTANCE
Authors: Copus A. K. , Leat P. M. K.
Published: November 2008

Recent procedures for selecting disadvantaged areas for European Community rural development assistance have specified criteria including low levels of agricultural income and GDP per capita, and proportionately high levels of agricultural employment. The first of these is measured by Farm Net Value Added per Annual Work Unit (FNVA per AWU). This paper presents a methodology which estimates FNVA and AWU for Scottish parishes using data from the Farm Accounts Scheme and the June agricultural census. The ratio of FNVA to AWU is then estimated for various aggregations of parishes, such as Scottish Districts, Regions, and areas currently designated for various rural development programmes. Although only one among several important criteria for targeting rural development aid, the pattern of FNVA per AWU generally supports the current allocation of funding. The results also give some indication of priority areas for future targeting on a more local scale.
A CROSS‐COMMODITY APPRAISAL OF DEMAND‐RAISING RESEARCH BENEFITS: PORK AND CHICKEN IN AUSTRALIA
Authors: Voon T. J. P.
Published: November 2008

A multi‐commodity model is developed for evaluating the gains from research which raises the demand for a commodity, and applied to the pig and chicken industries in Australia. The major finding is that the gain to pork producers is larger, and the gain to consumers smaller, with a cross‐commodity consideration than without. Bigger differences in results are observed with larger values of the cross‐price elasticity between pork and chicken, and with a larger shift in demand for chicken. However, the aggregate benefits to the Australian pig industry are not significantly affected by price changes in the market for chicken. The implication of the analysis is that, by ignoring the cross‐market feedback between commodities closely related in consumption, consumers (or taxpayers) of the commodity experiencing a rise in demand may bear a higher‐than‐optimal outlay on public research directed to increasing the demand for that commodity.
ECONOMIC EFFECTS OF RESEARCH INTO TRADED GOODS: THE CASE OF AUSTRALIAN WOOL
Authors: Alston J. M. , Mullen J. D.
Published: November 2008

The final incidence of benefits and costs of wool industry research and development (R&D) undertaken in Australia depends greatly on the nature of the R&D and the way it is funded. Using preferred parameter values, the Australian share of benefits from farm‐level R&D is 58 per cent (falling to 40 per cent if there is 50 per cent adoption of the new technology by producers overseas); the Australian shares of benefits from wool‐processing R&D ere 24 per cent (topmaking) and 27 per cent (textile‐processing). Under current funding arrangements, an Australian wool tax provides about one‐eighth of total R&D funds, a matching government grant provides another one‐eighth, and other public sector funds make up the remaining three‐quarters. Under these arrangements, the final incidence of the costs is 95 per cent on Australians (mostly taxpayers at large), and the wool industry bears only 12.5 per cent of the costs of its R&D. One implication is that a wool tax alone is a more equitable and efficient means of financing wool‐industry R&D than the current arrangements.
SELF‐SUFFICIENCY AND FOOD SECURITY IN THE UK AND EC PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS
Authors: Sturgess I. M.
Published: November 2008

The political strength in the EC and UK of the belief that high levels of self‐sufficiency make food supplies more secure is demonstrated and explained. The relationship is examined analytically and critically, taking particular account of the priority of food, adjustment costs, and linkages between agriculture and other sectors. The need for a policy of food security in Western Europe is discussed in relation to military, crop and trade uncertainties. Finally, the elements of a more rational policy, including measures of storage, procurement and production independence, are outlined.
ECONOMIC EVALUATION OF THE FARM WOODLAND SCHEME IN SCOTLAND
Authors: Crabtree J. R. , Appleton Z.
Published: November 2008

This paper describes an economic evaluation of planting under the Farm Woodland Scheme in Scotland based on the calculation of the Scheme's net UK Exchequer cost (NEC) and its relationship to the benefits observed through a survey of first‐year Scheme entrants. It was found that the motivation in planting was primarily for ‘environmental’ benefits such as landscape, amenity, wildlife and sport. Income and timber production were much less important. On average, payments under the Scheme under‐compensated farmers for their direct and opportunity costs associated with planting. When based on agricultural savings in the year of planting, the annual NEC was #58 per ha, but this cost increases substantially if the additionality principle is applied. Anticipated benefits in terms of farm output reduction, income diversification, employment and timber production are identified but the effects are not large. Environmental benefits were not included in the evaluation and these may provide greater justification for the expenditure.
EFFECTS OF THE FARMER SUPPORT PROGRAMME AND CHANGES IN MARKETING POLICIES ON MAIZE PRODUCTION IN SOUTH AFRICA
Authors: van Zyl J. , Fényes T. I. , Vink N.
Published: November 2008

This article analyses the effects of action aimed at narrowing the gap between South Africa's ‘two agricultures’, specifically the effects of the Farmer Support Programme (FSP) on structural aspects of maize production under different marketing policies. This is done by assembling a sectoral linear programming model of the South African summer‐rainfall grain‐producing area. The emphasis is on the inclusion of supply, demand and production risk. Results show that the effects of a successful FSP on specific interest groups, e.g. consumers of a specific product, or producers in a specific region, depend on the marketing policy followed, as well as on the effectiveness of the FSP. The analysis accentuates the interrelationships in South African crop production and illustrates how past policies ignored regional comparative advantages, distorted regional development and affected social welfare.
THE CONSTANT DIFFERENCE OF ELASTICITIES FUNCTION WITH APPLICATIONS TO THE EC ANIMAL FEED SECTOR
Authors: Surry Y.
Published: November 2008

Unlike those flexible functional forms which are local approximations, the ‘Constant Difference of Elasticities’ (CDE) function is globally well‐behaved. Due to its properties and parsimony in the number of parameters, the CDE functional form offers many potential applications. Two empirical applications are presented. First, aggregate CDE input demand functions are specified and estimated econometrically for the feed concentrate markets in Denmark, Ireland and the United Kingdom. The second empirical application illustrates how a matrix of compensated price elasticities can be obtained with only a priori knowledge of its direct and diagonal elements. The suggested approach exploits some of the properties of the Allen elasticities of substitution associated with the CDE functional form.
COMPOSITE FORECASTING METHODS: AN APPLICATION TO SPANISH MAIZE PRICES
Authors: Gil J. M. , Albisu L. M.
Published: November 2008

This paper investigates alternative forecasting methods when few observations are available. An illustration is provided by Spanish monthly maize prices after Spanish accession into the EC. Sophisticated multiple‐equation models are difficult to specify in situations of limited data, and simpler models have to be considered. In this paper, several individual and composite forecasting methods are compared, based on 24 one‐period‐ahead forecasts generated from these models. Results based on different quantitative and qualitative measures show that composite forecasting methods are more accurate. In situations where severe multicollinearity exists, forecasting performance is improved by modelling this problem explicitly.
THE EVOLUTION OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION IN ENGLAND AND WALES PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS
Authors: Dancey R. J.
Published: November 2008

This paper traces the evolution of agricultural extension in England and Wales and reflects on the reasons for the changes which have occurred in its structure, direction and funding. It describes the change from an extension to a consultancy organisation, analyses the effects of such a change, and examines some of the early mistakes in undertaking it. Questions are raised about whether advice paid for by the client improves the focus of extension and enhances the effectiveness of the relationship between adviser and client. It also questions whether Government policies towards agriculture could be equally well carried out by contracting out the work of extension to the private sector.
TESTING FOR INTEGRATION IN EUROPEAN COMMUNITY AGRICULTURAL PRODUCT MARKETS
Authors: Zanias G. P.
Published: November 2008

The degree of spatial market integration in European Community agricultural product markets is investigated. The methodology is based on co‐integration analysis. A two‐step testing procedure is applied to test the existence of the ‘Law of One Price’ which should be in force if these markets are truly integrated. The results show that market integration has not been achieved in a number of cases even when MCAs are subtracted from the price series used.
GENERIC PROMOTION OF BEEF: MEASURING THE IMPACT OF THE US BEEF CHECKOFF
Authors: Ward R. W. , Lambert C.
Published: November 2008

Generic promotions of commodities are growing in importance. In the US, commodity industry assessments or checkoffs (i.e. a per unit levy or tax) are used to underwrite domestic and international promotions by commodity groups. The US beef checkoff is one of the largest of these new national commodity programmes. Evaluation of the economic impact of the beef promotion is an essential part of the beef checkoff. A model for evaluating the US beef programmes is estimated and the methodology is applicable to other commodity models that include advertising and promotion expenditures. The beef analysis shows a positive and significant return to the beef industry, with an average of approximately $5 for each $1 invested for the quarters 1987:1 through 1991:2.
FARM HOUSEHOLD BEHAVIOUR AND THE TRANSITION TO POST‐PRODUCTIVISM
Authors: Shucksmith M.
Published: November 2008

This paper proposes a theoretical framework for examining how farm households will respond to the reversal of productivist farm policies and applies this to a longitudinal study of farm households in upland Scotland over the period 1987‐91. The paper argues that the actions of farm households may be understood not only in terms of their structural situation but also as an expression of the values and motivations which underlie behaviour (their disposition‐to‐act). A model is proposed, in which a farm household's disposition‐to‐act interacts with the internal resources of the farm and household, and with the external context (markets, policies, social and cultural values), in influencing behaviour. Empirically, this model is then used to explore changing farm structures, changing allocations of labour, changing sources of farm household income, and engagement with policy measures among a sample of 300 upland farm households. The results suggest that there will be considerable diversity in farm household behaviour during the transition to post‐productivism, with widespread reluctance to adjust to the new imperatives.
THE WELFARE EFFECTS OF THE NEW CAP CEREALS REGIME: A NOTE
Authors: Froud J. , Roberts D.
Published: November 2008

This note considers the impact on the cereals sector of the new arable regime agreed as part of the CAP reforms in May 1992. Starting from the farm‐level decision of whether or not to participate in the voluntary set aside scheme, an industry‐level supply curve is derived allowing examination of the potential welfare effects of the new policy. The discussion focuses on the cereals market.
LONG‐RUN AVERAGE COST CURVES IN THE ENGLAND AND WALES DAIRY INDUSTRY ‐ REPLY
Authors: Hubbard L. J.
Published: November 2008

Burton, Ozanne and Collinson (1993) present an interesting comment on the issue of long‐run average cost (LAC) in the dairy industry. Since their results essentially substantiate the conclusions of Hubbard (1993), the following points are offered as further thoughts which may be of relevance in any subsequent analysis and estimation.
UTILITARIAN AND RIGHTS‐BASED ALTERNATIVES FOR PROTECTING SITES OF SPECIAL SCIENTIFIC INTEREST
Authors: Spash Clive L. , Simpson Ian A.
Published: November 2008

Current legislation in Great Britain has set up a class of protected land under the designation Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI). However, what values are to be protected, and how, are questions largely left unanswered. Areas which are designated as worthy of protection can still be threatened by gradual erosion due to rural development. The designation of a site as being of conservation value requires an agency which enforces protection from development. We highlight the conflicts which have arisen between landowners and conservationists over SSSI management and analyse the role of a conservation agency under alternative environmental philosophies. We show how the values underlying the motive for conservation will affect the environmental management process chosen. This provides contrasting views as to the future for countryside management, and focuses concern on the current trend towards the free market in which trade‐offs based upon the anthropocentric usefulness of nature are fundamental.
LAND USE PERMITS AS AN ALTERNATIVE TO FERTILISER AND LEACHING TAXES FOR THE CONTROL OF NITRATE POLLUTION
Authors: Pan Jia Hua , Hodge Ian
Published: November 2008

Legislation emanating from the European Community is establishing pressures to take action to reduce the level of nitrates in water, and the principles established towards environmental management indicate an emphasis on prevention rather than treatment. This paper analyses three possible approaches by means of controls on fertilisers, on nitrate leaching and on land use. These are incorporated into a linear programming model of a catchment in Cambridgeshire. The results indicate the superior cost‐effectiveness of controls over leaching and the severe impact which taxes would have on farm incomes. A system of permits on land use is found to be relatively cost‐effective and to offer an administratively feasible alternative.
THE IMPACT OF CHANGES IN TRADE POLICY ON DEVELOPING COUNTRY AGRICULTURE*
Authors: Page S.
Published: November 2008

The Uruguay Round of trade negotiations has attracted much attention in the developing countries. It promises to weaken moves towards bilateral trade agreements, break open trade in temperate agricultural products, and should remove the last vestiges of protection against tropical products – although tariff escalation will remain. Overall, the main gains for the developing world will probably accrue to exporters of temperate products, above all those in Latin America; whilst for some of the poorer countries, losses may occur as the benefits of special and favoured access to the industrialised countries' markets will be eroded.
TRADE REFORM AND THE PROSPECTS FOR PROCESSED FOOD EXPORTS FROM DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
Authors: Matthews A.
Published: November 2008

This paper draws attention to the relative neglect of the consequences of barriers to processed food exports from developing countries in the literature examining the effects on these countries of agricultural trade liberalisation. These barriers are of three kinds: trade policy barriers; differing health, food safety and environmental standards; and, barriers arising from the evolving market structure in food processing and distribution in developed country markets. The paper discusses the likely significance of the gains to developing countries from reduction of tariffs on processed food commodities and examines the consequences of the EU single market programme for developing country food exports.
CONSUMERS‘ DECISIONS WHETHER OR NOT TO PURCHASE MEAT: A DOUBLE HURDLE ANALYSIS OF SINGLE ADULT HOUSEHOLDS
Authors: Burton M. , Tomlinson M. , Young T.
Published: November 2008

Limited dependent variable models are employed to determine factors influencing UK household meat purchase behaviour. The standard Tobit approach is rejected. “Double hurdle” models, specifically the Cragg and Complete Dominance versions, provide a better representation of the factors that influence the separate decisions of participation and expenditure levels. Key results show that employment class and adult gender are significant determinants of participation but not expenditure; income affects both decisions but in opposite directions; education affects expenditure alone.
FOOD DEMAND IN SPAIN: AN APPLICATION OF THE ALMOST IDEAL SYSTEM
Authors: Molina J. A.
Published: November 2008

This paper provides an analysis of food demand in Spain for the period 1964–1989 estimating the Almost Ideal Demand System (AIDS) with annual time‐series of food expenditures divided into six categories. A dynamic version of the model incorporating habit effects captures the behaviour of the Spanish food consumer over the period investigated. The theoretical hypotheses of homogeneity and symmetry are rejected, but the model provides plausible expenditure and price elasticities.
ESTIMATING LINEAR PRODUCTION COEFFICIENTS FROM FARM BUSINESS SURVEY DATA: A NOTE
Authors: Moxey A. , Tiffin R.
Published: November 2008

This paper presents the results of three approaches to estimating linear production coefficients from sample farm data by apportioning total input usage between individual enterprises. It is suggested that the use of Bayesian priors to conduct constrained estimation is preferable to the use of Inequality Restricted Least Squares.
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF PRICE TRANSMISSION IN THE EUROPEAN UNION
Authors: Palaskas Theodosios B.
Published: November 2008

The three‐step estimator of the co‐integrated system approach is used to examine the dynamic transmission of agricultural producer prices through the food marketing system in seven countries of the EU. The results suggest that even if producer and consumer prices drift apart in the short‐run, for example when producer price policy changes, market forces return them to their long‐run equilibrium. Tests do not reject the hypothesis of long‐run ‘perfect’ price transmission for two, pigmeat‐pigs and butter‐milk, out of five pairs of prices, in six of the seven member countries of the EU considered here, the UK being the exception. The tests do, however, reject the hypothesis of short‐run ‘perfect’ price transmission, even in its less restrictive form, across all pairs of prices in all countries.
GAINS FROM DEREGULATION? AN EMPIRICAL TEST FOR EFFICIENCY GAINS IN THE NORWEGIAN FISH FARMING INDUSTRY
Authors: Bjørndal T. , Salvanes K. G.
Published: November 2008

A cost function is used to quantify potential sources of gains from deregulation of the Norwegian salmon farming industry, an industry that has been heavily regulated in order to achieve a regional dispersion of production and profits along the entire coastline. It now seems to be widely recognised that the regulations have led to cost inefficiencies. A region‐augmented cost function with data from 282 fish farms for 1988 is used to estimate regional productivity differences, i.e. differences in the total cost of producing salmon in one region compared to another. It is found that the potential gains from deregulation may be substantial.
VALUING THE BENEFITS OF THE SOUTH DOWNS ENVIRONMENTALLY SENSITIVE AREA
Authors: Garrod G. D. , Willis K. G.
Published: November 2008

Over the last few decades increasing concern has been voiced regarding the detrimental effect which many modern farming practices are thought to have on the countryside. The Environmentally Sensitive Areas (ESA) Scheme is one response to this concern and seeks to support those agricultural practices which have contributed to the distinctive agricultural landscape, which for many people typifies the British countryside. This paper uses the contingent valuation method to estimate the benefits which the general public receives from the ESA scheme in the South Downs and sets them against the estimated net exchequer costs of the scheme. The study illustrates the importance of including passive use values in benefit‐cost analysis, if environmental protection is to be provided in certain marginal areas.
CONSERVING TROPICAL RAIN FORESTS IN INDONESIA: A QUANTITATIVE ASSESSMENT OF ALTERNATIVE POLICIES
Authors: Thiele R.
Published: November 2008

The present paper provides a numerical general equilibrium assessment of policies to reduce tropical deforestation in Indonesia. Two groups of policy measures are examined: (i) forestry policies as a means to internalise the local externalities of deforestation; (ii) international measures to address the global dimension of the problem. Given the relatively short rotation periods and the high harvesting intensity in the forestry sector, it is concluded that among the forestry policies an increase in the minimum harvest age is the best solution from an ecological point of view, because it tackles both problems simultaneously. At the global level, import restrictions, for Indonesian wood products are ecologically ineffective and place considerable costs on the Indonesian economy, whereas compensation payments can compensate for the losses of forest conservation, if the money is invested in the creation of new employment opportunities.
AN INTERMEDIATE INPUT MODEL OF DAIRY PRODUCTION USING COMPLEX SURVEY DATA
Authors: Färe Rolf , Whittaker Gerald
Published: November 2008

Agricultural production is often characterised by multiple inputs and multiple outputs to multiple production processes. Where an output from one process is used as an input to another, this output is called an intermediate product. This is a common situation when a farm produces both crops and livestock. The analysis of production efficiency is important for the evaluation of agricultural policy, but until recently, no methods have explicitly included intermediate products. This study applies a non‐parametric technique of efficiency measurement which includes intermediate products. The data set is a sample of dairy farms drawn using a complex survey design. The use of non‐parametric efficiency measurement and the subsequent application of bootstrapping and kernel density estimation to the results allow inferences to be drawn concerning the whole population from which the sample was drawn. We find that the decomposition of production into subproduction processes reduces the dimensions of problem specification, with the effect that a larger number of variables may be usefully included in the model.
SENSITIVITY OF FARM PLANS UNDER RISK‐AVERSE BEHAVIOUR: A NOTE ON THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPLICATIONS
Authors: Oglethorpe David R.
Published: November 2008

This study demonstrates that the intensity of farm‐level land use can be extremely sensitive to minor reductions in expected farm income when the risk‐averse farmer makes utility maximising decisions. The study uses directly elicited utility functions for farmers in the North of England in conjunction with MOTAD generated E, V frontiers. The results imply that instability encourages the use of less intensive farming methods and therefore could actually assist the achievement of environmental policy goals.
FARM HOUSEHOLD PRODUCTION IN THE PRESENCE OF RESTRICTIONS ON DEBT: THEORY AND POLICY IMPLICATIONS
Authors: Phimister Euan
Published: November 2008

In this paper a two period life cycle model of the farm household is constructed allowing for production and restrictions on debt in which the consumption and production decisions of the farm household are simultaneous. It is shown that the farm household's production responses to exogenous changes may be qualitatively different to that predicted by the profit‐maximising model when all markets are perfect. In particular, when the household is debt constrained, ‘perverse’ output effects are possible with output increasing in response to output price decreases. Further, for such households, compensation payments will have production effects. Finally, the financial situation of the farm has an impact on production for debt constrained farms.
TOWARDS A POSTMODERN AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS
Authors: Midmore Peter
Published: November 2008

Postmodernism has extended far beyond its origins in French literary criticism in the 1960s to provide a major challenge to orthodox intellectual ideas and ways of working. Its influence has so far been felt less in the social sciences than in the arts or humanities, and hardly at all in economics; yet because it is beginning to emerge within disciplines parallel to agricultural economics, such as human geography and rural sociology, it is prudent to attempt some anticipation of the impact of its trenchant critique on agricultural economics. Accordingly, a minimum set of the ideas, attitudes and implications of the phenomenon of postmodernism necessary to orient the unfamiliar are summarised, and related to contemporary concerns. The challenge which it might offer to mainstream economics is also considered, in terms of methodology and of understanding. In relation to rurality, postmodern emphases on the particular, the local and the diverse are examined as potential solutions to contemporary social, economic and environmental problems. Examples are drawn from model‐building, permacultural ethics, GIS and rural tourism to illustrate both the critique and the new approach that it involves. Postmodernism's ambivalence in relation to equality and social and economic justice is raised as a difficulty for a discipline which has traditionally had a focus on (and an ethical concern about) spatial inequality.
MACRO‐ECONOMIC LINKAGES TO AGRICULTURE: A GENERAL EQUILIBRIUM MODEL FOR SUDAN
Authors: Hassan Rashid M. , Hallam Arne
Published: November 2008

Unfavourable macro‐economic conditions are often blamed for the failure of devaluation and liberalisation policies to correct the bias against agricultural exports in Sudan. A general equilibrium model, with an endogenous money creation mechanism, is constructed and econometrically estimated to analyse macro‐economic linkages to agriculture in Sudan. Stronger economic performance is achieved when exchange rate adjustments and liberalisation are supported with fiscal and monetary control and less indirect taxation.
LAND HETEROGENEITY AND THE EFFECTIVENESS OF CAP SET‐ASIDE
Authors: Rygnestad Hild , Fraser Rob
Published: November 2008

The May 1992 reform of the CAP included a choice for farmers between set‐aside options. This paper examines the question of whether or not this choice feature has exacerbated the slippage problem associated with the set‐aside policy in the context of heterogeneous land quality. A model is developed which provides a basis for determining both a farmer's preferred choice of set‐aside option, and the implications of this choice for output reduction. A numerical application of the model suggests a strong tendency for farmers to choose the less effective option in terms of reducing output.