bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Race Relations Theories: Implications for Sport Management
Authors: Smith Earl , Hattery Angela
Published: August 2016

There have been many discussions about diversity and the value that it brings to the workplace (Ely & Thomas, 2001). Although sport has been deemed a model of diversity, where people of different races and ethnicities comingle as participants and spectators, there is a serious disconnect between perceptions of this diversity and the reality that defines the lack of racial diversity in the management (i.e., coaching and leadership) of sport. The purpose of this essay is to provide an exploration and analysis of the varied ways in which race may influence sport management experiences and opportunities. We frame this analysis through race relation theory, symbolic racism theory, social distance theory, and the concepts of segregation and power. The inferences and implications of our essay are centered on the undercurrent of the status of African American men in sport leadership, who are severely under-represented despite their prominent contribution to the financial vitality of the sport industry as players. The essay concludes with several policies and practices for improving racial diversity in sport management.
Stereotypes of Race and Nationality: A Qualitative Analysis of Sport Magazine Coverage of MLB Players
Authors: Eagleman Andrea M.
Published: August 2016

Racial and nationality-based stereotypes of professional baseball players have been prominent in the U.S. media since the 1800s (Voigt, 1976). To determine the manner and extent to which such stereotypes exist in the media today, a qualitative document analysis was conducted on the nation’s top two general-interest sport magazines, Sports Illustrated and ESPN The Magazine from 2000 to 2007. Based on framing theory, the purpose of this study was to determine what differences existed between the frames used to describe athletes of differing nationalities and races. The results revealed that stereotypes based on race and nationalities were maintained throughout the study in both publications, further perpetuating such stereotypes into the minds of readers. In addition, differences existed in portrayals of athletes of the same race but different nationalities. Implications for sport managers and suggestions for future research are addressed.
CSR and the Bottom Line: Analyzing the Link Between CSR and Financial Performance for Professional Teams
Authors: Inoue Yuhei , Kent Aubrey , Lee Seoki
Published: August 2016

Despite the acknowledged importance of investigating the link between corporate social responsibility (CSR) and corporate financial performance (CFP) within a single industry, very few studies have examined this relationship in the context of the sport industry. Using charitable giving data as a proxy of CSR, this study investigated if CSR would affect CFP of professional sport teams within the four major U.S. leagues. Although the positive CSR-CFP relationship was hypothesized based on instrumental stakeholder theory, CSR was found to have non-positive effects on CFP. These results are still notable since they may highlight the importance of the connectedness between CSR and team operations and the awareness of CSR activity among stakeholders in leveraging CSR benefits. Overall, through the use of improved methodology, the current study furthers the understanding of the CSR-CFP relationship among the U.S. professional teams.
Revisiting the Satisfaction-Loyalty Relationship in the Sport Video Gaming Context: The Mediating Role of Consumer Expertise
Authors: Kwak Dae Hee , McDaniel Stephen , Kim Ki Tak
Published: August 2016

The current study revisited the satisfaction-loyalty paradigm in a hedonic consumption context that involves a learning component. In particular, this study involved actual users (N = 328) of a specific sport video game (FIFA soccer), to examine the structural relationships among the constructs of: game satisfaction, hedonic attitudes toward the brand, gaming skill, and brand loyalty. Contrary to existing research in this area, SEM results indicated that customer satisfaction did not have a direct effect on loyalty. The relationship between game satisfaction and loyalty was mediated by positive brand attitudes and perceived gaming skill. The applied and theoretical implications of the findings are discussed along with limitations and future directions for research.
Chronicling the Transient Nature of Fitness Employees: An Organizational Culture Perspective
Authors: MacIntosh Eric , Walker Matthew
Published: August 2016

This study adopted an organizational culture perspective to examine the values and beliefs within fitness club operations and determine their influence on employees’ job satisfaction and intention to leave an organization. Consideration was also given to subcultures based on geographical location, organizational type, and job function to examine the ways in which organizations and employees may differ. Data were collected at three urban cities in Canada during a major fitness conference and tradeshow. The results from 438 employees confirmed the multidimensionality of the seven-factor instrument, in addition to illustrating the influence on job satisfaction and intention to leave. Further, the results revealed several dimensions were perceieved differently with respect to subculture. Findings connote the transient nature of jobs in the fitness industry which remains an immediate concern for managers in this field.
The Impact of World Cup 2002 on the Bilateral Relationship Between South Korea and Japan
Authors: Heere Bob , Kim Chiyoung , Yoshida Masayuki , Nakamura Hidemasa , Ogura Toshiyuki , Chung Kyu Soo , Lim So Youn
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to provide an analysis of an international sporting event as a possible catalyst for social change. Because of the unique circumstances surrounding the bid process, the dual hosting of the World Cup 2002 by Korea and Japan was seen as a unique opportunity to examine the power of sport as a catalyst behind change. Longitudinal secondary data were consulted to look at the economic, social and cultural impact of the event, while interviews with respondents in both nations gave more insight on how the respondents viewed the relationship between the two nations. Economic, social and cultural indicators all reflected an impact of the World Cup on the bilateral relationship. The interviews suggested that there were two main barriers to an improved relationship between the two nations (Victim mentality of the Korean toward the Japanese, Lack of awareness of Korea in Japan), and that it was not necessarily the organization of the event that alleviated these barriers, but the performance of the Korean football team.
Determinants of an Innovation Process: A Case Study of Technological Innovation in a Community Sport Organization
Authors: Hoeber Larena , Hoeber Orland
Published: August 2016

There has been little attention given to examining innovation under the conditions in which community sport organizations (CSO) operate. In this case study, the process under which one CSO undertook a technological innovation is explored. The purpose of this research was to classify the determinants that contributed to the innovation process, and identify at which particular stages of innovation those determinants were critical. Interviews and focus groups with key stakeholders were conducted during the innovation process. Observations were made at important points during the implementation of the innovation. Leadership commitment, pro-innovation characteristics, organizational capacity, simple organizational design, and involved and interested external parties were identified as determinants of this technological innovation. The findings illustrate multiple determinants of innovation at the managerial, organization, and environmental levels. Some of these span the entire innovation process, while others are critical only at particular stages.
Consequences of Being the “Team Mom”: Women in Sports Information and the Friendliness Trap
Authors: Hardin Marie , Whiteside Erin
Published: August 2016

In an effort to move beyond relying solely on institutional critiques in explaining women’s marginalized status in the sports media workplace and to expand our understanding of gendered meaning-making in such organizations, we employ feminist scholar Romy Fröhlich’s notion of the “friendliness trap” in the analysis of focus groups with women who work in college sports public relations, commonly called sports information. The friendliness trap is a term used to describe the faulty belief that women, by virtue of their feminine qualities, possess an advantage in communication-related fields. Our findings suggest, however, that women in sports information may be frustrated by the failure of “the female advantage” to provide them with opportunities for promotion. The friendliness trap obscures workplace realities, including the structural barriers to women’s advancement, and may divert the energy of women in ways that have no career benefit. Once the trap is exposed, however, women may be more able to challenge the meanings associated with it.
Diversity Training in Intercollegiate Athletics
Authors: Cunningham George B.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to examine the prevalence, antecedents, and outcomes of diversity training in intercollegiate athletics. Data were collected from senior level administrators and aggregated to the department level for NCAA Division I (n = 239), Division II (n = 205), and Division III (n = 231) athletic departments. Only 53% of the athletic departments offered training. Logistic regression indicated that gender diversity, sexual orientation diversity, divisional affiliation, and the presence of a proactive diversity culture were all predictive of whether the department offered training. Additional analysis indicated that sensitivity to individual needs and understanding different cultures were the topics most covered in the training. Finally, the motivation for training (either compliance- or effectiveness-based) and the degree to which the training was systematically integrated were predictive of transfer of training, with the latter variable holding the strongest association. Implications, limitations, and future directions are discussed.
A Proposal for Incentive-Compatible Revenue Sharing in Major League Baseball
Authors: Wenz Michael G.
Published: August 2016

This paper proposes a payroll tax and revenue sharing model for Major League Baseball that better aligns the incentives of individual team owners with league-wide goals of competitive balance and cartel profit maximization. The author demonstrates why the current system is poorly suited for improving competitive balance, then argue for a system of transfer payments based on a more aggressive payroll tax combined with a subsidy distributed based on on-field performance rather than market size or financial performance. High-payroll teams would contribute disproportionately to the revenue-sharing pool, while successful teams would receive disproportionately large subsidies. By increasing the marginal value of a win through the performance-based subsidies, small-market teams will see increased incentives to invest in playing talent. The author presents some limited financial data and suggest how to calibrate the model to yield the optimal level of competitive balance and optimal revenue split between players and owners.
Roles of Performance and Human Capital in College Football Coaches’ Compensation
Authors: Inoue Yuhei , Plehn-Dujowich Jose M. , Kent Aubrey , Swanson Steve
Published: August 2016

Despite the escalation of football coaches’ salaries at National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS) institutions, little empirical investigation has been undertaken to identify the determinants of their compensation. As such, the purpose of this study is to explain how the level of coaching compensation is determined based on three theoretical perspectives in managerial compensation: marginal productivity theory, human capital theory, and managerialism. The analysis of compensation data of head football coaches at FBS institutions in 2006–2007 shows that the maximum total compensation of these coaches increases with their past performance. The results further reveal that coaches with greater human capital tend to receive a compensation package where bonuses account for a smaller proportion of the maximum total compensation. Overall, these findings mostly confirm the predictions drawn from managerial productivity theory, human capital theory and managerialism.
An Analysis of Multiple Spectator Consumption Behaviors, Identification, and Future Behavioral Intentions Within the Context of a New College Football Program
Authors: Shapiro Stephen L. , Ridinger Lynn L. , Trail Galen T.
Published: August 2016

The growth of college sport over the last several years, combined with increased competition for the sport consumer dollar, has created a need to understand spectator consumption behavior. In addition, the impact of a new football program can generate interest that influences future spectator spending decisions. Using identity theory as a framework, the current study examined the differential effects of past sport consumer behaviors on various future sport consumer intentions within the context of a new college football program. Consumption intentions included attendance, sponsor support, and merchandise purchases. Furthermore, this investigation helped to determine how much variance past behaviors would explain in behavioral intentions after controlling for nine points of attachment. Data were collected from spectators of a Football Championship Subdivision (FCS) football program located in the Mid-Atlantic region. The findings suggest past behavior predicted future intentions; however, the amount of variance explained varied dramatically depending on specific past behaviors and points of attachment. These results can help sport marketers develop strategies to capitalize on the interest generated through new athletic programs.
Beyond Olympic Legacy: Understanding Paralympic Legacy Through a Thematic Analysis
Authors: Misener Laura , Darcy Simon , Legg David , Gilbert Keith
Published: August 2016

Over the last decade a great deal of work has examined major sport event legacies and event leverage. Much of this work has involved Olympic studies and this paper seeks to add to the body of knowledge surrounding major sport event legacies by examining the largely overlooked area of the Paralympic Games. The Paralympic Games are the second largest multisport event after the Olympic Games depending upon which parameters are used and since Sydney 2000 there has been an ‘operational partnership’ where bid cities are required to host both Games. Yet, few studies have evaluated the comparative outcomes, legacies and event leverage that Paralympic games have generated. This paper addresses this absence by conducting a thematic analysis of Paralympic legacy research. The thematic analysis used a combination of keywords involving event legacy across 13 major academic databases. Of the 43 articles identified as having Paralympic legacy related content only 13 articles empirically investigated Paralympic legacy. In reviewing the research, it is noted that the bulk of the research has focused on Summer Paralympic Games with little interest in the Winter Paralympic Games. The major findings for legacy-based research include: infrastructure; sport; information education, and awareness; human capital; and managerial changes. However, while these findings may seem congruent with major event legacies frameworks conceptually, an examination of the detailed findings shows that Paralympic legacy research is isomorphic and adds a new component to existing legacy dimensions.
Ad-Evoked Illusory Judgments in Fantasy Sports Participation: Effects of Customization Level and Expert Information
Authors: Kwak Dae Hee , Lee Joon Sung , Mahan Joseph E.
Published: August 2016

Participation in fantasy sports has become one of the most popular forms of interactive online entertainment, attracting more than 32 million players in North America. The purpose of this study was to examine the biasing effects of an advertisement promoting the popular online service. Using the illusion of control theory as a framework, a 2 × 2 between-subjects experiment (N = 156) was conducted to examine the effects of two marketer-controlled variables (i.e., customization level and expert information) on participants’ illusory judgments and their decisions to participate in the advertised service. The results showed that both manipulated features evoked biases in control perceptions. Furthermore, illusory control increases winning expectancy and increased winning expectancy leads to favorable attitude and decision toward the advertised product. Findings suggest that promotional information emphasizing control heuristics and expert knowledge can increase consumers’ beliefs that they can control their outcome, which subsequently influences their decision to participate.
The Role of Running Involvement in Creating Self-Sufficiency for Homeless Individuals Through a Community-Based Running Program
Authors: Inoue Yuhei , Funk Daniel , Jordan Jeremy S.
Published: August 2016

The current study investigated the role of running involvement in helping improve the lives of a homeless population through an examination of a community-based program that utilizes running as a means to promote self-sufficiency. Data collected from 148 individuals before and after their participation in the program for one month revealed participants increased their psychological involvement in running. A regression analysis further indicated that the participants’ perceived self-sufficiency from participating in the program was significantly explained by the extent of their increase in running involvement. These findings highlight the role of enhanced involvement in sport, in particular in the form of running, in creating important psychological benefits for homeless individuals, and provide theoretical implications for the literature on sport-for-development.
A Structural Taxonomy of Amateur Sport Organizations
Authors: Kikulis Lisa M. , Slack Trevor , Hinings Bob , Zimmermann Alan
Published: August 2016

The theoretical rationale underlying this study was that a variety of structural design types exist in amateur sport organizations and that their structural characteristics may be effectively measured, scaled, and compared. Characteristics were defined along three dimensions of organizational structure: specialization, standardization, and centralization. The approach used to identify the structural design types was the creation of an organizational taxonomy. Based on the measurement of 15 structural scales for 59 provincial sport organizations, Ward’s hierarchical fusion algorithm clustering technique was used to partition these data into homogeneous subsets. Analysis revealed 8 structural design types. The results, while providing support for the idea that there is a trend toward a more professional and bureaucratic form for amateur sport organizations, also suggest that it is important to consider the potential variety in the structural design of these organizations.
The Influence of Participation and Gender on Employees' Motives for Involvement in a Corporate Exercise Program
Authors: Mathes Sharon A. , McGivern Amy T. , Schneider Carole M.
Published: August 2016

Interest in the potential benefits of exercise and fitness programs has led many corporations to invest in such for their employees. Fitness program directors need to better understand factors that affect employees' decisions to participate. The purpose of this study was to examine whether male and female participants and nonparticipants differed in their conceptual and institutional motives for involvement in a corporate exercise program. The Exercise Program Survey was developed and administered randomly to 310 employees of a metropolitan insurance company. Participants scored items associated with enhancing fitness, reducing stress and learning to relax as more important than nonparticipants did. Participants also indicated that the institutional motive structure was more important, thus emphasizing the need for appropriate times, places, and availability of instruction. Women felt more strongly than men that weight control, fitness, stress reduction, relaxation, and smoking cessation activities were necessary components of a fitness program. Women also scored the structure and health institutional motives as more important.
Graduate-Level Professional Preparation for Athletic Directors
Authors: Cuneen Jacquelyn
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this research was to design a curriculum for graduate-level preparation of National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I and II athletic directors. A survey instrument, consisting of a composite of 41 courses and based on R. Hay's model, Proposed Sports Management Curriculum and Related Strategies, was mailed to the full population of NCAA Division I and II athletic directors (N=569). A total of 307 completed surveys were returned from directors of men's, women's and merged athletic departments. Respondents rated each course using a 5-point Likert scale ranging from not important (1) to essential (5). There were 17 courses that were rated very important according to the acceptance criterion of a mean of 3.5 or greater. Results of a 2 × 3 (Division × Program type) factorial ANOVA, with alpha adjusted from .05 to .001 by Bonferroni's contrasting procedure, indicated that there were no differences in determined levels of course importance. It was concluded that a graduate curriculum to prepare a collegiate director of athletics should be implemented through the collaborative effort of an interdisciplinary faculty and that the program should culminate with a doctoral degree.
Marketing Objectives of Professional and University Sport Organizations
Authors: Hansen Hal , Gauthier Roger
Published: August 2016

The heads of marketing and promotion for major professional and university sport organizations were asked to rate the relative importance of 19 marketing objectives on a 5-point Likert scale; 164 responded. Factor analysis resulted in the creation of six factors: player quality, community image of team, entertainment value of sport, team marketing, team as a contender, and attractiveness of game location. ANOVA, Tukey, and student t tests used on the data resulted in significant differences between leagues for the two factors of community image of team and entertainment value of sport. Professional teams favored 5 of 6 objectives over university teams: value of ticket price, entertainment value of the sport, image of the team, community-oriented nature of the team, and availability of athletes for community events.
Sport Management: Random Thoughts of One Adminstrator
Authors: Zakrajsek Dorothy B.
Published: August 2016

This commentary responds to an invitation to discuss sport management from the viewpoint of an administrator. My thoughts are segmented into two streams: (a) the interface of a sports-minded public and sport management and (b) the listing of a few issues and concerns confronting sport management today. The first recognizes the high profile of sport in American society and the rising gross national sport product (GNSP), which have placed sport management programs in the enviable position of visibility and attention. The second plays on several themes: continuing to improve the knowledge and research base, establishing an independent identity while sharing technology within HPER programs, and being sensitive to a growing trend toward more graduate students entering from fields outside sport, leisure, and Wellness.
Job Satisfaction and Performance of Coaches of the Spare-Time Sports Schools in China
Authors: Li Ming
Published: August 2016

Twelve organizational variables that were associated with the organizational effectiveness of spare-time sports schools in China were examined. Specifically, coaches' expressed satisfaction with their jobs and their performance was assessed, and the significant organizational correlates of these two effectiveness indicators were identified. Six hundred forty coaches participated in the study, Stepwise multiple regression analyses were carried out to determine if there were common determinants of coaches' job satisfaction and performance, The results showed that job influence, job motivation, incentive system, and leader behavior had a more pervasive influence on job satisfaction and job performance of the coaches than did other variables.
Some Insights on Meaningful Internships in Sport Management: A Cooperative Education Approach
Authors: Chouinard Norm
Published: August 2016

Sport management programs at the undergraduate and graduate levels have proliferated over the past 2 decades. In most if not all of these programs, the internship course component has been identified as a vital element in professional preparation programs. Teacher/coordinators of sport management programs that include an internship component must be highly skilled to meet student needs. Equally important in the effective delivery of these programs is the need for the university to fully endorse the value of student internships through proper financial, technical, and human resources. The purpose of this paper is to examine, through a review of the literature, the goals and objectives of student internships, program characteristics of meaningful internships, and future implications for teacher/coordinators of sport management programs. Professors of sport management must act as change agents to further enhance the quality of student internships in professional preparation programs.
Sport Management and the Interdependence with Sport Sociology: Sport as a Social Product
Authors: Bryant James E.
Published: August 2016

This perspective suggests that sport management is interdependent with sport sociology as specialization areas, and that in order for researchers in sport management to understand the social product of sport it is critical that they recognize a positive theoretical relationship between sport management and sport sociology. This paper outlines examples of sport management interdependence with sport sociology through brief discussions including deviance and ethics, economics, social stratification, patriarchy, race and ethnicity, and marketing and research. Through these examples it is suggested that sport sociology provides a base for those in sport management to achieve an understanding of the social product of sport.
Managerial Role Profiles of Intercollegiate Athletic Conference Commissioners
Authors: Quarterman Jerome
Published: August 2016

Using Mintzberg's managerial role model, this study examined the managerial role profiles of 63 intercollegiate athletic conference commissioners. Results showed that the subjects rated the disseminator role as most important, followed by the liaison, disturbance handler, monitor, leader, entrepreneur, spokesperson, figurehead, negotiator, and resource allocator role behaviors. Membership in NCAA divisions did not significantly affect these ratings.
Distributive Justice in Intercollegiate Athletics: The Views of NCAA Coaches and Administrators
Authors: Hums Mary A. , Chelladurai Packianathan
Published: August 2016

This study examined the principles of distributive justice held by male and female coaches and athletic administrators from all three NCAA divisions in allocating resources within athletic departments. A total of 328 subjects from Divisions I, II, and III responded to the instrument, which contained 12 scenarios describing situations of either distribution or retribution of three different resources-—money, facilities, or support services. The eight allocation principles listed under each scenario were (a) equality of treatment, (b) equality of results, and (c) equality of opportunity; contributions based on (d) productivity, (e) spectator appeal, (f) effort, and (g) ability; and (h) need. In each distributive situation, subjects were asked to rate the justness of each allocation principle and to choose one of the eight principles for implementation. All subgroups rated equality of treatment, need, and equality of results as the most just and the other principles as relatively unjust. These principles were also the principles most frequently chosen by subjects for implementation.
Influence Due to Expectations of Judges: A Function of Internal-External Locus of Control
Authors: Scheer John K. , Ansorge Charles J.
Published: August 2016

Because gymnastics coaches typically rank-order their gymnasts from poorest to best, there is the natural expectation that scores should improve as the within-team order of competition progresses. The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between the degree to which female judges were influenced by the within-team position of gymnasts and their internal-external locus of control. Female gymnasts competing in four Olympic events at the 1977 Region VI AIAW Championships were videotaped. Two separate sets of videotapes, edited from the original tapes, were judged 48 hours apart by 10 nationally and regionally certified female gymnastics judges selected from three regions of the United States. The two videotapes were so altered that scores were collected for 40 gymnasts, each of whom appeared once in the first position for her team and once in the fifth position. An ANOVA revealed that external locus of control judges scored gymnasts appearing in the fifth position significantly higher (p < .05) than when they appeared in the first position, but no such difference was found for the internals.
Enhancing Self-efficacy in High-avoidance Motor Tasks: A Comparison of Modeling Techniques
Authors: Feltz Deborah L. , Landers Daniel M. , Raeder Ursula
Published: August 2016

This study investigated the effectiveness of participant, live, and videotape modeling on the learning of a high-avoidance springboard-diving task (back dive). The effectiveness of each form of modeling upon the strength of self-efficacy also was investigated. In accord with Bandura's (1977) self-efficacy theory, it was hypothesized that the participant-modeling group would perform more correct back dives and would show stronger efficacy expectations compared to the live-modeling group which in turn would perform better on these measures than the videotape group. Results indicated that the participant-modeling treatment produced more successful dives and stronger expectations of personal efficacy than either the live-modeling or videotaped-modeling treatments. The hypothesis that students in the live-modeling condition would perform better behaviorally and show stronger efficacy expectations than students in the videotape condition was not supported.
A Cognitive Behavioral Intervention for Improving Basketball Performance
Authors: Meyers Andrew W. , Schleser Robert
Published: August 2016

Evidence indicates that champion and less successful athletes across several sports can be differentiated by the type of cognitive strategies they employ. The cognitive-coping strategies identified in champion athletes were presented to a highly skilled college basketball player. Performance improvements were observed in the athlete's points per game, field goal percentage, field goals made per game, and percentage of total team scoring. Future research in this area was discussed.
Success-Failure Attributions in Competitive Groups: An Exception to Egocentrism
Authors: Gill Diane L.
Published: August 2016

Two laboratory experiments were conducted to investigate success/failure attributions within competing groups. In both studies, attributions to the own team or to opponents were egocentric in that members of winning teams assigned responsibility for success primarily to their own team whereas members of losing teams assigned responsibility for the loss primarily to the opponents. Within-team attributions, however, revealed a reverse-egocentric pattern. Members of winning teams assigned primary responsibility to their teammates, and losing team members accepted primary responsibility for the loss themselves. Attribution patterns, which were consistent across both studies and for both males and females, were interpreted as reflecting a team-enhancing strategy or norm.
Children's Attitudes Toward Physical Activity: A Longitudinal Analysis
Authors: Smoll Frank L. , Schutz Robert W.
Published: August 2016

Attitudes toward six subdomains of physical activity were assessed across Grades 4 to 6 for a multiple longitudinal sample consisting of 58 boys and 56 girls. The children's attitudes toward physical activity (CATPA) were generally positive for both sexes; and consistent with previous research, the girls showed more favorable attitudes toward the aesthetic subdomain than the boys. However, the boys evidenced significantly more positive attitudes toward physical activity as the pursuit of vertigo and as catharsis. Neither the among-grade comparisons nor sex-by-grade comparisons attained statistical significance, indicating stability in group attitude scores. However, correlational analyses revealed the lack of stability of CATPA within individuals across the grades studied. Factor analysis provided further evidence negating the assumption of CATPA as an enduring behavioral disposition. The findings are discussed in relation to previous cross-sectional studies, and implications are derived for future research.
Biofeedback and Shooting Performance: A Test of Disregulation and Systems Theory
Authors: Daniels Frederick S. , Landers Daniel M.
Published: August 2016

This study investigated heart rate (HE) and respiration functioning during rifle shooting to test hypotheses derived from Schwartz's (1979) systems and disregulation theory, and to compare biofeedback with verbal instruction in developing awareness and control of autonomic patterns. Male subjects (N = 8) were pretested to determine HE and respiration patterns affecting performance. They were then divided into two equal groups and given either auditory biofeedback or verbal instruction. The auditory-biofeedback group received continuous pattern feedback through earphones while the verbal instruction group received only presession instruction without feedback. Each group trained for five sessions of 40 shots each. Following training, two 40-shot sessions were conducted. A scaled interview was administered pre- and posttraining to determine awareness/control of autonomic functioning. Compared to the verbal instruction group, the results showed that the biofeedback group significantly improved performance and consistency of the desired pattern and had significantly greater awareness/control of the autonomic pattern. The results supported the systems and disregulation theory as well as the viability of biofeedback for altering imbalances within the systems.
Efficacy of Mental Imagery in Enhancing Mental Rehearsal of Motor Skills
Authors: Ryan E. Dean , Simons Jeff
Published: August 2016

To investigate the mental imagery aspect of mental rehearsal, 80 male traffic officers from the California Highway Patrol learned a novel balancing task during a single session. Based on a pretest questionnaire, subjects were categorized as imagers, nonimagers, or occasional imagers and assigned to one of six groups accordingly: imagers asked to use imagery in mental rehearsal, imagers asked to try not to use imagery, nonimagers asked not to use imagery, nonimagers asked to try to use imagery, physical practice, or no practice. It was hypothesized that a person's preferred cognitive style would prove most effective for use in mental rehearsal and that using another style would cause a decrement in learning. Improvement scores indicated no differences between subjects who initially reported typically using imagery and those reported typically not using it, but groups asked to use imagery in mental rehearsal were superior to those asked not to (p<.001). Overall, physical practice was better than the grouped mental rehearsal conditions, and both were better than no practice. Subjects reporting strong visual imagery were superior to those with weak visual images (p<.03), and those reporting strong kinesthetic imagery were superior to those with weak kinesthetic images (p<.03). Regardless of one's typical cognitive style, the use of vivid imagery appears quite important for enhancement of motor performance through mental rehearsal.
Open-Ended Attributions in Team Competition
Authors: Gill Diane L. , Ruder M. Karen , Gross John B.
Published: August 2016

A total of 352 open-ended attributions were obtained in two field studies with volleyball teams and in two lab experiments, all involving team competition. All attributions were classified along the three causal dimensions of locus of causality, stability, and controllability. Attributions were also classified as referring to the self, to teammates, to the team as a whole, or to other factors and sorted into specific categories. A loglinear analysis revealed that attributions were predominantly internal, unstable, and controllable. A significant win/loss effect reflected the tendency for members of winning teams to use controllable, and particularly unstable, controllable, attributions more than members of losing teams. Overwhelmingly, attributions referred to the team as a whole rather than to individuals or other factors, and teamwork was an especially popular causal explanation. The findings suggest that research on attributions in team competition should focus on causal dimensions rather than the four traditional attributions of effort, ability, luck, and task difficulty, and that further attention should be given to team-referent causal explanations.
The Effects of Internal and External Imagery on Muscular and Ocular Concomitants
Authors: Hale Bruce D.
Published: August 2016

Mahoney and Avener's (1977) categorization of imagery into “internal” (first-person visual and kinesthetic) and “external” (third-person visual) perspectives suggested a viable means to quantifiably test Jacobson's (1931) finding that “visualizing” a biceps “curl” produced only ocular responses while “muscularly imagining” the same movement just generated localized biceps activity. A significant within-subjects main effect (p < .001) revealed that the internal imagery condition produced more integrated biceps activity than the external imagery condition as predicted by Lang's (1979) bio-informational theory of emotional imagery.
Coach-athlete Interactions and Team Climate
Authors: Fisher A. Craig , Mancini Victor H. , Hirsch Ronald L. , Proulx Thomas J. , Staurowsky Ellen J.
Published: August 2016

Coaches and athletes from high school basketball teams (N = 50) served as subjects for three research investigations dealing with the relationship between coach-athlete interaction patterns and team climates, and coach-athlete perceptions of team climates. Basketball practices were videotaped and the interaction patterns were coded by Cheffers' Adaptation of Flanders' Interaction Analysis System (CAFIAS). Team climates were assessed by the Group Environment Scale (GES), an inventory designed to characterize and assess the psychosocial qualities of diverse environments. The quantity, quality, and sequence of coach-athlete interactions revealed a clear demarcation between satisfied and less satisfied team climates. Coaches perceived their team climates as more ideal and less in need of change than did athletes. Coach-athlete behavioral analysis and various aspects of teams' psychosocial environments pointed to the directions where changes might be implemented.
On Emotion In Sport: Theoretical and Social Psychological Perspectives
Authors: Vallerand Robert J.
Published: August 2016

This paper presents and critically assesses four major cognitive theories of emotion. Theories were selected on the basis of their pertinence to a social psychological study of emotion in sport. Four cognitive theories of emotion by Schachter (1964), Lazarus (1966), Arnold (1960), and Weiner (1981) were reviewed. Strengths and weaknesses of these theories were examined. Cognitive theories of emotion were also shown to be amenable to theoretical research in sport. It was suggested that a comprehensive theory of emotion in sport should incorporate aspects of different cognitive theories of emotion thus leading to a better understanding and prediction of emotion in sport settings. Such a comprehensive theory, however, must await future research. Issues for a social psychology of emotion in sport were formulated. It was argued that emotion research in sport should be incorporated within a social psychological framework. To this end it was suggested that a better understanding of the antecedents and consequences of affect is needed in order to fully understand emotion as experienced by sport participants.
Psychophysiology – A New Direction for Sport Psychology
Authors: Hatfield Brad D. , Landers Daniel M.
Published: August 2016

An area of inquiry that has largely been ignored in scientific studies in the field of sport psychology/motor performance is the subdiscipline of psychology called psychophysiology. This subdiscipline, which is concerned with inferences of psychological processes and emotional states from an examination of physiological measures, is rich in methodological and theoretical insights that could improve research and practice within sport psychology/motor performance. The current methodological and theoretical issues in psychophysiology are first reviewed and then specifically related to recent sport studies that demonstrate their applicability to the enhancement of both theoretical and applied aspects of sport.
Competitive Style and Game Preference
Authors: Dickinson J. , Sebastien T. , Taylor L.
Published: August 2016

Children in the age range 8 to 13 years (72 males and 53 females), completed a game preference questionnaire and participated in a novel competitive game task, both the questionnaire and method of approach to the game could be evaluated in order to classify subjects as potents, fortunists, strategists, or potent-strategists in terms of competitive style. Predictions were made on the basis of studies within and between cultures concerning gender differences in competitive style. Based on evidence from within the North American culture, predictions were made concerning game preference and age differences. The results supported the predictions in terms of gender differences. Changes in game preference with age and gender, and age differences in competitive-style also conformed with predictions. It is considered that the novel competitive game task might make a useful instrument for evaluating competitive style.
Reliability and Validity of the Physical Self-Efficacy Scale in a Competitive Sport Setting
Authors: McAuley Edward , Gill Diane
Published: August 2016

Interest in the role of self-confidence in sport performance has been high in sport psychology research. A measure to assess general physical self-efficacy has recently been developed, but without application to competitive sport performance. The present study examined the role of general and task-specific self-efficacy in women's intercollegiate gymnastics. It also assessed the reliability and validity of the Physical Self-Efficacy Scale in a competitive sport setting. The Physical Self-Efficacy Scale was found to be a reliable and valid instrument for measuring an individual's general physical self-efficacy in sport. However, the task-specific measures of self-efficacy and the gymnast's prediction of how they would perform proved to be much more powerful variables for predicting actual gymnastic performance. The results are discussed in terms of the relationships between different types of self-efficacy and sport performance and the problems associated with self-efficacy measurement.
What is Learned in Mental Practice of Motor Skills: A Test of the Cognitive-Motor Hypothesis
Authors: Ryan E. Dean , Simons Jeff
Published: August 2016

To test the cognitive-motor hypothesis, mental practice effects were examined using two tasks judged to differ only in the degree of motor involvement. Male college students (N = 60) learned either the high motor task or the low motor task under conditions of physical practice (PP), mental practice (MP), or no practice (NP). On each task, the PP group received 12 physical trials; the MP group received one physical, nine mental, then two physical trials; and the NP group received one physical trial, a rest period, and then two physical trials. As predicted, the relative effectiveness of mental practice differed between the two tasks. On the low motor task there was no difference between MP and PP and both groups were superior to NP (p < .05). For the high motor task MP was no better than NP and PP was superior to both (p < .05). It was concluded that performance improvement through mental practice takes place predominantly within the cognitive aspects of motor skills.
Cognitive Processes During Self-Paced Motor Performance: An Electroencephalographic Profile of Skilled Marksmen
Authors: Hatfield Brad D. , Landers Daniel M. , Ray William J.
Published: August 2016

In the initial phase of the study (Study 1) electrocortical arousal (EEG alpha activity) was assessed at four standardized sites (T3, T4, 01, and 02) from male and female (N = 17) international-caliber marksmen during rifle shooting performance. The task consisted of the execution of 40 shots at a conventional indoor target from the standing position. During each shot preparation, a significant increase in left temporal and occipital alpha activity was demonstrated, while the right hemispheric activity remained constant. Hemispheric laterality ratios (T4:T3) evidenced a significant shift toward right-brain dominance as the time to trigger pull approached. In the second phase of the study (Study 2) male and female (N = 15) marksmen performed the same shooting task and, additionally, the resultant EEG performance patterns were contrasted to those observed during the mental processing of sterotyped left-brain and right-brain mental tasks. Observed EEG patterns, that is, temporal ratios, during shooting replicated the results of Study 1, and furthermore, indicated that the laterality indices derived during shooting exhibited a more pronounced shift to right-brain processing than did those derived during right-brain mental task performance. The EEG data obtained during the comparative mental task states were used to interpret the shooting performance EEG findings in terms of the implications from bilateral or split-brain cognitive process theory.
Criticism Inoculation Training: Concept in Search of Strategy
Authors: Kirschenbaum Daniel S. , Wittrock David A. , Smith Robert J. , Monson William
Published: August 2016

We propose that training athletes to use certain cognitive-behavioral procedures, “criticism inoculation training” (CIT), could enable them to circumvent the adverse effects of excessively negativistic coaching. This experiment evaluated the efficacy of one potential CIT strategy, positive self-monitoring (systematically observing and recording instances of success). A laboratory paradigm was used in which 60 male college students attempted to learn the underhand free throw basketball technique from one of four undergraduate pseudocoaches. Subjects were randomly assigned to four groups determined by a 2 (negative vs. no feedback) × 2 (positive vs. no self-monitoring) factorial design. Negative feedback was expected to debilitate, while positive self-monitoring was expected to facilitate performance, sustained self-observation of videotapes of performance, and subjective evaluations of the “coach” and the technique. Negative feedback clearly produced extensive adverse effects, but surprisingly, positive self-monitoring also decreased performance. Theories of skilled motor behavior (MacKay, 1982) and self-regulation (Carver, 1979) helped explain why positive self-monitoring failed as a CIT procedure. This interpretation which focuses on the novelty of the task and the development of negative expectancies also led to suggestions of strategies that could more effectively fulfill the promise of the CIT concept.