bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Social Democracy and Nationalism
Authors: Vogt Stefan
Published: December 2015

Despite the antinationalist tendencies of Marxism and the internationalist goals of socialist politics, various forms of nationalism developed within the social democratic movements that emerged in Europe in the nineteenth century. The basis for this was the growing political and social integration of the working class and a gradual revision of Marxist theory. Social Democracy mostly featured an integrationist type of nationalism that aimed at an increase of social and political inclusion and rejected aggressive forms. However, integrative nationalism could also evolve into more radical versions of nationalism with references and links to nationalist positions of the radical right.
Myth of Return
Authors: Carling Jørgen
Published: December 2015

International migrants often hesitate to make an explicit decision to stay permanently in their country of settlement. Instead, they uphold the idea of return in the future. This phenomenon is referred to as the myth of return. The myth is not only an individual anticipation of future events but is also typically based on collectively held ideas with a normative dimension.
Mortality, Race, and Ethnicity in the
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nited
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tates
Authors: McQuaid Jim
Published: December 2015

Racial and ethnic groups in the United States face very different life expectancies and mortality rates. African Americans die, by far, at the highest rates, followed by whites, American Indians and Alaska Natives, and finally Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders, who die at less than half the rate of African Americans. Much of the literature argues these differences can be explained by differences in socioeconomic status. Other important factors include perceived stress, nativity, segregation, racism, and discrimination. Despite facing many of the same disadvantages as African Americans, though, mortality data show that Hispanics have longer life expectancies than both African Americans and more advantaged whites. Researchers, who suspect that membership in tight‐knit communities insulates Hispanics from negative health outcomes, refer to this phenomenon as the “Hispanic Paradox.”
Reverse Discrimination
Authors: Edwards John
Published: December 2015

Reverse discrimination is one form of affirmative action that is widely used in the United States to promote the interests of ethnic and racial minorities. It was characterized until the 1990s by the use of quotas for minorities in university admissions and jobs but these became increasingly open to challenge on the grounds that they were unconstitutional. While they continued to be used, factors other than race were added to the selection processes. At the same time, the rationale for reverse discrimination shifted from one of compensation to the promotion of diversity. Reverse discrimination has always been controversial because of quotas, because it rests on the disputed notion of group rights, and because it is insufficiently tailored. Recent criticisms have rested on claims that “diversity” itself is now as much a matter of social class as of race, which may signal the end of reverse discrimination.
Death Rituals in the
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nited
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tates
Authors: McQuaid Jim
Published: December 2015

A common criticism of the scholarly literature analyzing death rituals in the United States is that it presents a typical American “way of death” that is not representative of the range of experiences of all Americans, but is instead representative of the experiences of those of white, European descent. While most American funerals follow very similar patterns—management by a professional funeral director, public viewing at a funeral home, and final disposition after a religious ceremony—these surface similarities conceal the differences between the funeral practices of whites, blacks, and Mexicans in the United States.
Feminism, Multiracial
Authors: Childers‐McKee Cherese D. , Bettez Silvia C.
Published: December 2015

Women of color have, for decades, challenged theories that separated discussions of race and gender and actively confronted mainstream (white, middle‐class) feminists' discomfort with discussions of racial power differences. Although women of color were engaged in activism during the first, second, and third “waves” of feminism, much of their scholarly work was dismissed or overlooked by mainstream feminists. Multiracial feminism foregrounds discussions of racism, colonialism, imperialism, and sexism and problematizes the mainstream feminist idea of gender unity—the belief that all women have a common set of experiences; instead, multiracial feminism centralizes racial stratification in theories of gender oppression. Multiracial feminists, also known by some as third‐world feminists, acknowledge the fluidity and constructedness of race, gender, and nation categories, therefore, creating transnational, cultural, racial alliances based in shared struggles against racism, sexism, and other forms of oppression.
Organized Crime in the
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nited
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tates
Authors: Scimecca Joseph A.
Published: December 2015

Organized crime in the United States is generally traced to Sicilian immigrants who came to the United States in the latter part of the nineteenth century. Prohibition set in motion the organization of Italian dominated organized crime; however, by the 1980s the Italians no longer controlled organized crime, giving way to more recent immigrant groups. Two major theoretical positions are presented to explain ethnic involvement in organized crime: “the alien conspiracy theory” and “the ethnic succession theory.”
Immigration, Illegal
Authors: Tracy Natalicia R.
Published: December 2015

Migrant illegality encompasses unauthorized individuals staying or entering national territory, and is a juridicial status under the law of a state. Constructions of illegality, and its mirror opposite, citizenship, vary in definition depending on sociohistorical context. Laws privilege some ethnoracial groups for favorable treatment and exclude others as undesirable. State power, political struggle, and ethnoracial tensions are evident in changing regimes of illegalization, as well as regularization, provoking massive status shifts for sometimes large groups. Immigrant and human rights advocates decry the use of the term “illegal” as denying immigrants' humanity and as a misnomer, as most are not criminals, since immigration violations are usually civil rather than criminal offenses. Criminalization, nonetheless, is widespread internationally, with severe punishments and lack of due process.
Burakumin
Authors: Lie John
Published: December 2015

Burakumin is a modern category of Japanese people who descend from premodern outcastes and social inferiors. The 1871 Emancipation Declaration ironically reified the category by providing a documentary basis for Burakumin identification. Long subject to occupational and residential segregation, Burakumin have assimilated since the 1960s largely due to economic growth and the consequent dissolution of distinct Burakumin neighborhoods. Although social discrimination and inequality persist, there is largely silence surrounding the situation of Burakumin.
Japan
Authors: Lie John
Published: December 2015

Japan has been and remains a multiethnic society. The construction of the modern Japanese nation was coeval with the creation of ethnic diversity. The incorporation of northern and southern territories in the late nineteenth century generated Ainu and Okinawans as minority groups. Simultaneously, the emergence of modern citizenship created a new category of Burakumin, descendants of premodern outcastes. The expansion of the Japanese empire incorporated Koreans, Chinese, and others into the main Japanese islands. Yet the post‐World War II understanding of Japan stressed its ethnic homogeneity, which was challenged only in the mid‐1980s with the influx of foreign migrant workers and the renewed activism of existing ethnic minority groups.
Trail of Tears
Authors: Coates Julia
Published: December 2015

The Trail of Tears describes the forced relocation of the Cherokee Nation in 1838–39 from its southeastern homelands to the Indian Territory, presently the state of Oklahoma, as part of the federal policy of Indian removal. Although the event is most closely associated with the Cherokees, removal was enacted on all of the “Five Civilized Tribes,” and on many American Indians throughout the United States. But it was the Cherokee Nation and its public, political, and legal resistance that brought Indian removal to the forefront of the American consciousness. The Cherokees fought a sophisticated and strategic resistance against state and federal laws, garnering public sentiment and a victory in the Supreme Court, only to see their efforts ignored by President Jackson and the Congress. The ensuing march resulted in the loss of thousands of lives and meets the United Nations' definition of ethnic cleansing.
Multiculturalism
Authors: Modood Tariq
Published: December 2015

Multiculturalism is a mode of integration that can be contrasted with other modes, such as assimilation, individualist integration, and cosmopolitanism; and, like the others, it is based on the core democratic values of liberty, equality, and fraternity or unity. Different modes may be suitable for different purposes and may be preferred by different minorities at different times. Each mode has some merit, but multiculturalism is a response to deficits in the other modes. So, despite its current unpopularity, multiculturalism may be necessary to any strategy where groups and not just individuals have to be integrated, as in the case of Muslims in Western Europe.
Americanization
Authors: Ramsey Paul J.
Published: December 2015

“Americanization” is the term used to describe the heavy‐handed form of social and cultural assimilation that immigrants and other minority groups were expected to undergo in the United States particularly throughout the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. This entry examines the Americanization movement's history and contemporary manifestations.
Mormons and Race
Authors: Moff Hudec Amy
Published: December 2015

Though Joseph Smith Jr., the founder and prophet of the Mormon Church, ordained black men throughout the 1830s, his successor, Brigham Young, instituted a policy that denied the priesthood to men of African descent. For over a century, institutionalized racism denied the few black members of the church the same kind of power and authority afforded other men through the priesthood. A myth about lineage suggesting that black people are the cursed descendants of Cain gave church leaders and members an explanation for their own racism. This myth has remained a part of the Mormon narrative, even after the 1978 revelation on priesthood overturned the ban and allowed all worthy males, no matter their race, full and equal membership in the religion. Today, scholars argue that the church has failed to cope with its own past and the effects of its discarded racial policy.
International Migration
Authors: Kritz Mary M.
Published: December 2015

International migration flows have increased rapidly in the era of globalization, as have government efforts to regulate immigration. In the twenty‐first century, all nation‐states have policies that set the conditions under which foreigners can enter and leave their territories and determine how long they can stay. Most migrations flow from south to north, but migrations from south to south are about as common. Long‐distance migrations bring peoples of different cultures, races, and religions into contact and can enrich societies or lead to intergroup conflict. I argue that nation‐states should adopt policies and programs to promote harmonious integration and protect the rights of their citizens and migrants.
N
anjing
M
assacre
Authors: Kasahara Tokushi
Published: December 2015

The Nanjing Massacre is a series of atrocities, crimes against humanity, and war crimes that were committed by the Imperial Japanese Military which attacked and occupied Nanjing, the then capital of China, in December 1937, early in the Second Sino–Japanese War (1937–45). The atrocities include: the slaughter of Chinese soldiers and paramilitary personnel, civilians and refugees; outrages upon Chinese women; plundering of food, commodities, and properties; and incendiarism and destruction of houses, buildings, and facilities.

The International Military Tribunal for the Far East (Tokyo Trials) estimated that over two hundred thousand civilians, soldiers, and prisoners of war were murdered. The Nanjing War Crimes Tribunal, ordered by the Chinese nationalist government, determined the total victims amounted to more than three hundred thousand. The Nanjing Massacre is regarded, especially in China, as a symbol of the invasion and atrocities by the Imperial Japanese Military. It's also a striking evidence of Japan's aggressiveness and violence in the Sino–Japanese War; in Japan there is a strong political urge to forget it and to obliterate the memory of the massacre.
Yasukuni (Tokyo Shrine to theJapanese Military War Dead)
Authors: Breen John
Published: December 2015

Yasukuni, the Tokyo shrine to the Japanese military war dead, is a contested site. It is a place of mourning, reflection, and peace but at the same time it is a site that promotes ultra‐nationalism and is therefore a magnet to ultra‐nationalists from across Japan and beyond. The Yasukuni shrine has been at the center of controversy since the 1980s, not least because it enshrines war criminals, men condemned for inflicting untold suffering on Japan's Asiatic neighbors during the Pacific War. There is, thus, a vital diplomatic dimension to the so‐called Yasukuni problem. For, when Japanese prime ministers have visited the shrine, especially on August 15, the anniversary of the end of the Pacific War, they emit messages that confuse and offend. Yasukuni, a fully functioning Shinto shrine, is distinct among commemorative sites in postwar democracies, and it has come to occupy a central place in any discussion of race, ethnicity, and nationalism in twenty‐first‐century Japan.
L
e
P
en,
J
ean‐
M
arie (1928–),
M
arine
L
e
P
en (1968–), and the Front National
Authors: Startin Nicholas
Published: December 2015

The Front National (FN) is a “far‐right” political party in France, also labelled as “extreme right” or “radical right,” which was founded in 1972 by Jean‐Marie Le Pen. He remained its controversial leader for nearly four decades until 2011 when his youngest daughter, Marine Le Pen, replaced him after a leadership contest with the then deputy leader Bruno Gollnisch. The FN's rationale was initially based on an anticommunist, anti‐immigrant, and antisystem stance and the party remained marginalized in electoral terms until the early 1980s. It has subsequently become one of the most significant and durable “far‐right” parties in Europe, adopting a rhetorical discourse clearly emphasizing anti‐Islam and anti‐EU/globalization sentiment. Under Marine Le Pen's leadership the
FN
has successfully broadened its electoral appeal as nearly 6.5 million French citizens backed her candidacy in the first round of the 2012 Presidential elections.
Media and Nationalism
Authors: Roosvall Anna
Published: December 2015

Mass media and nationalism have been intertwined for as long as they have existed. In Europe the introduction of the printing press, together with increased use of folk languages, became essential for the emergence of mass media and nationalism alike. Media development has subsequently repeatedly coincided with nationalistic tendencies, as when the peak of imperialism intersected with the emergence of the telegraph and of photography. Media and nationalism are perhaps most obviously entangled in times of war and conflict, when both regulation and language use may become more nationalistic. Moreover, the gendered nature of mediated nationalism tends to stand out most clearly in wartime too. Media and nationalism can furthermore be understood in terms of “hot” versus “banal” forms, spatial categorization, media ownership and laws, postcolonialism, consumerism, and methodological nationalism in journalistic methodology. Previous dichotomization of nationalism and globalization in research has recently been countered through terms such as “hybridity” and “trans‐locality.”
Driving while Black
Authors: Hopson Mark C. , Craig Richard , Castle Bell Gina
Published: December 2015

Driving while black (DWB) refers to actual traffic stops and/or the continual fear of being stopped and detained with little to no cause other than being black or African American. DWB was originally described acts (legal and illegal) by law enforcement to stop motor vehicles containing persons of color (black or brown). Recently DWB has come to describe being stopped and detained while in various public spaces (shopping malls, neighborhoods, etc.). Although DWB directly impacts victims, it is also a concern for larger society because the perceived abuse of legitimate power potentially violates trust in law enforcement officials.
Immigrant Housing in the
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nited
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tates
Authors: Yu Zhou
Published: December 2015

In the United States, immigrants, or the foreign‐born, are a large driver of US population growth and vital to the housing market. Many declining cities need newcomers to sustain the population and the housing market. Baby Boomers are retiring and will eventually need newcomers to replace them in the housing market. Recent immigrants, mostly from Asia and Latin America, are socioeconomically diverse and demographically different from US‐born residents. While they are generally younger and poorer upon arrival, immigrants often experience substantial upward mobility in the housing market. To the extent that the Great Recession has hampered their growing demand for housing, immigrants have continued to form new households and achieve homeownership. No matter what shape immigration reform will eventually take, immigrants will continue to affect the housing market and the American economy.
Truth Commissions
Authors: Marie Gurd Kiri
Published: December 2015

Truth commissions are used as an instrument of transitional justice in order to redress mass violations of human rights. The use of truth commissions has become increasingly popular since the 1990s, proliferating at an exponential rate and becoming internationally endorsed as an effective means of helping a nation confront its past and transition toward a more peaceful future. There have been debates regarding the definition of truth commissions as well as questioning their effectiveness in fostering intergroup reconciliations and assisting nations in achieving their desired national objectives.
Religious Nationalism
Authors: Fokas Effie
Published: December 2015

For scholars of both religion and nationalism, the term “religious nationalism” can be a problematic one in the sense that nationalism cannot be “religious” per se, since the aim of establishing and preserving the nation is essentially secular. “Religious nationalism” can refer to an amorphous body of different phenomena, most of which though fall into one of two categories: either nationalism where secular and religious aims correspond, or nationalism expressing religious versus secular aims. Both types are contingent on the particular relationship of the nation and of national identity with the religion in question, which, in turn, is contingent on a range of factors—a topic addressed in this entry. Subsequently, attention is paid to historical developments in the relationship between religion and nationalism, and, in a third section, variations in religious nationalism are explored.
Black Nationalism
Authors: Lance Taylor James
Published: December 2015

Black nationalism is an early and long‐standing cultural, political, and community tradition among African Americans. It has interacted with rivaling integration and assimilation movements and leaders throughout its longevity. Black nationalism's salient forms include early nineteenth‐century emigrationists, abolitionists, and black women's organizations; Washington's accommodationism; Garveyism and the Nation of Islam; and Black Power‐era organizations through the 1990s and the early twenty‐first century. Key leaders of black nationalist programs and organizations adopted colonization and pan‐Africanist campaigns centered on African development. Black nationalism articulates several recurrent themes broadly centered in African American religious beliefs and traditions, including group exodus, Christian missions, and “nation within a nation,” but it has also focused on secular urban and international themes, especially in Black Power groups. Its critics range from fellow‐traveling nationalists to black womanist and feminist intellectuals since the 1960s, to current critical‐identity and group‐politics criticisms.
Ethnonationalism
Authors: Connor Walker
Published: December 2015

Ethnonationalism (also called “ethnic nationalism”) connotes identity with and loyalty to a nation in the sense of a human grouping predicated upon a myth of common ancestry. Seldom will the myth find support in scientific evidence. DNA analyses of the patrilineally bequeathed Y chromosome attest that nations tend to be neither genetically homogeneous nor hermetical, and analyses of the matrilineally bequeathed mitochondrial DNA customarily attest to still greater heterogeneity and transnational genetic sharing. However, the popularly held conviction that one's nation is ethnically pure and distinct is intuitive rather than rational in its wellsprings and, as such, is capable of defying scientific and historic evidence to the contrary.
Chinese Migration and Chinese Overseas
Authors: Liu Lisong
Published: December 2015

With about forty million Chinese overseas all over the world in 2010, Chinese migration has been one of the major migration streams in world history. Modern Chinese migration started in the sixteenth century, and Chinese migrants mainly concentrated in Southeast Asia, served as essential middlemen for European colonizers, and developed prominent intermediate societies. Massive Chinese migration began after the mid‐nineteenth century and many migrants headed for new destinations such as the Americas and Australasia. While the rise of nationalism since the late nineteenth century transformed China and China's relations with its migrants, Chinese overseas adopted calculated nationalism to meet their local needs. After World War II, industrialized nations replaced Southeast Asia as the main destinations for Chinese migration. With increasing diversity among Chinese overseas and with flourishing regional economic and cultural centers, nationalism among Chinese overseas has remained multifaceted, fragmented, and locally based.
Ghetto
Authors: Michlic Joanna
Published: December 2015

The term ghetto represents a value concept with negative connotations and multiple meanings. It is frequently used to describe any dense areas of minority group residence, even if no compulsory and segregatory policies of residence were imposed in such areas. It is also a description of the geographical and social isolation of minorities other than Jews: for example, it is applied to African Americans and other ethnic communities in the United States and to minorities in Japan such as the ethnic Koreans.
Cultural Diversity and Aging in the United States
Authors: Boswell Gracie H.
Published: December 2015

As it ages, the United States, a particularly pluralistic society, presents additional challenges to those faced by more homogenous populations. In this entry, cultural diversity is examined in the context of these societal challenges, as the country strives to treat all of its subcultures equitably. This equity may be supported by “cultural competence,” which is culturally sensitive interactions between various subcultures. Characteristics of the various ethnicities and minorities may be represented by demographic variables (e.g., age, gender, race, ethnicity, sexual orientation). Culture, impacted by history and experience, determines the values and ideologies that distinguish the subcultures that create cultural diversity. However, racially motivated “segregated diversity” may exacerbate efforts toward genuine cultural diversity across society.
Indian Diaspora
Authors: Jain Sonali
Published: December 2015

The Indian diaspora is part of a two‐hundred‐year history of international migration. The “old” diaspora includes indentured emigration under British colonialism, while the “new” diaspora comprises the emigration of both high‐ and low‐skilled labor in an era of globalization and mobility.
H
obsbawm,
E
ric
J
. (1917–2012)
Authors: Hearn Jonathan
Published: December 2015

Eric J. Hobsbawm was the leading British Marxist historian of his generation, articulating strong views on the nature and fate of nationalism in the modern period. His book
Nations and Nationalism since 1780
(1992) charted the rise and supposed decline of nationalism in the modern period, attributing both largely to the development of global capitalism. The book
The Invention of Tradition
(1983), coedited with Terence Ranger, advanced the thesis that the modern period of nation building brought with it elaborate artificial constructions of national traditions, which helped ideologically legitimate novel national projects.
Stigma
Authors: Kusow Abdi M.
Published: December 2015

The purpose of this entry is twofold. First, it provides a brief examination of the theoretical parameters of Goffman's 1963 Stig
ma: Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identities
. Second, it analyzes the extent to which Goffman's original formulation of stigma is still applicable given the changing social values and ethnic demographic composition of North American society.
Sardinia
Authors: Pala Carlo
Published: December 2015

Sardinia is a prime example of center–periphery cleavage in Italy. Long before the formation of the Italian state, Sardinia claimed greater autonomy and independence from the various states to which it was attached. The island lived in a situation of socioeconomic backwardness and isolation from main political decisions. The Sardinian population is ethnically homogeneous, is separated by language from the Italian mainstream, and has different traditions from Italy, which makes Sardinia an interesting case, but it is seldom studied. Politically, Sardinia has been characterized by periodic waves of ethnonationalist protests against Rome. In the twenty‐first century, independence movements have become stronger and they are increasingly being heard by the people. The island has what might be called a very high potential for a sense of common identity, but this does not always translate into political action. This is a major factor distinguishing the people of Sardinia from the rest of Italy.
Immigration to the
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nited
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tates
Authors: Martin Philip
Published: December 2015

Most Americans have been dissatisfied with US immigration policies since the mid‐1990s due to sometimes long waits for immigrant visas and the presence of almost twelve million unauthorized foreigners among the forty‐two million foreign‐born US residents in 2012. Some believe that the United States, which accepts over a million immigrants and several hundred thousand temporary foreign workers a year, is not getting enough highly skilled immigrants and migrant workers to bolster innovation and competitiveness in a knowledge‐based and globalizing economy. It is very hard to measure the economic benefits and costs of immigrants and migrant workers, and difficult to reach agreement on what to do about unauthorized foreigners, which helps to explain why the status quo in migration policies persists.
D
over,
C
edric (1904–61)
Authors: Banton Michael
Published: December 2015

Cedric Dover was a Eurasian author who moved to live in London but also spent time in the United States. His most celebrated book was
Half‐Caste
(1937). Dover has been hailed as an early spokesperson for the unity of colored peoples throughout the world.
J
ohnson,
C
harles
S
. (1893–1956)
Authors: Jo Deegan Mary
Published: December 2015

Charles Spurgeon Johnson was an African American race relations authority and academic administrator who played an important role in sociology and as president at Fisk University. He was an important figure in the Harlem Renaissance and in the National Urban League.
Crime and Race
Authors: Hopson Mark C. , Craig Richard , Castle Bell Gina
Published: December 2015

The systemic association of race and crime has a negative impact on individuals and groups in general and people of color specifically. This analysis of race and crime attempts to describe and explain the phenomenon. The impact of race and crime includes racial stereotyping, racial profiling, driving while black or brown, redlining in jobs and housing, disproportionate arrests and incarceration, and violence and death.
D
eutsch,
K
arl
W
olfgang (1912–92)
Authors: Lewis Taylor Charles
Published: December 2015

Karl Wolfgang Deutsch exercised a profound effect on American political science in the second half of the twentieth century. His concepts and theories of nationalism, political integration, social communication, cybernetics, and global modeling informed the research of many scholars in comparative and international politics. In his analysis of race, ethnicity, and nationalism, he developed the concept of social mobilization to understand the transformation that takes place as a society moves from traditional values and practices to new habits of communication and behavior. Government and politics were for him potential instruments for social learning, for social and economic development, and for intellectual and moral growth. In
The Nerves of Government
(1963), he compared the role of government to the cybernetic regulator, the part of a system that initiates a behavioral change when it detects an unacceptable difference between that which is desired and that which is currently at work.
K
azakhs
Authors: Diener Alexander
Published: December 2015

While the cultural traditions of Kazakhs derive from mobile pastoralists occupying the northern Central Asian and southern Siberian steppe for millennia, the Kazakh ethnonym dates to the fifteenth century. Divided into three supra tribes known as
zhuz
and possessing various tribal and clan identities, this predominantly Muslim community was incorporated in the Tsarist empire during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. With the advent of the Soviet Union, Kazakhs endured famine, collectivization, and periods of intense russification. They were also allotted a Soviet Socialist Republic (the Kazakh SSR), which provided the political, social, economic, and territorial structures within which the independent state of Kazakhstan eventually emerged. In 1991, ethnic Kazakhs were a minority within the state but have since become the majority. Led by President Nursultan Nazarbayev since its independence, the Republic of Kazakhstan has pursued the reification of Kazakh culture while maintaining a relatively multicultural and tolerant civil society.
F
romm,
E
rich (1900–80)
Authors: Traoré Ismaël , Mergler Iga , McLaughlin Neil
Published: December 2015

Despite being a largely forgotten intellectual, Erich Fromm has contributed much to the fields of nationalism, authoritarianism, and prejudice. This entry draws attention to Fromm's most influential critical theory relevant to current developments in the “new racism” scholarship. Though underestimating discursive racism, Fromm's interest in sub‐ and unconscious driving forces and class‐based origins of prejudice complements current interests in pre‐discursive (pre‐symbolic, affective, and bodily) racism and the group‐conflict approach to prejudice.
D
ominican Republic
Authors: Wise Nicholas
Published: December 2015

Race and nationalism have always been contested in the Dominican Republic. There exists long‐standing racist sentiment in the Dominican Republic going back to the early‐to‐mid‐1800s, when Haiti controlled the island (from 1822 to 1844). In acknowledging the political struggles over civic nationalism, ethnic nationalism in the Dominican Republic also remains contested in regard to language and race, or distinctly who is Dominican and who is Haitian. Dominicans have long been attempting to defend their sense of civic nationalism, and Haitians, regarded as the other, are often unwelcome outsiders who are discriminated against. This entry addresses the history of contestation between Dominicans and Haitians while assessing
Dominicanización
, ethnicity, race, nationalism, and
antihaitianismo
.
Underground Economy
Authors: Elgin Ceyhun
Published: December 2015

The undeground economy is a sector that produces legal and illegal goods outside government scrutiny and regulations. In that sense, it includes unreported income from the production, consumption, and transaction of legal goods and services. This entry reviews the definition, main causes, and effects as well as various ways of measuring the underground economy.
R
enan,
E
rnest (1823–92)
Authors: Priest Robert D.
Published: December 2015

This entry provides a short biography of Ernest Renan, a French philologist and historian, paying special attention to his ideas about race and nation. It outlines the evolution of his ideas on Aryan and Semitic “races,” and discusses the debate they have provoked. It situates his ideas about nationalism in the political context of the time and then summarizes the legacy of his ideas in subsequent scholarship on nationalism.
Patriotism
Authors: Magala Slawomir
Published: December 2015

Patriotism is intuitively understood as love of one's forefathers' symbolic community, usually expressed as emotional and culturally legitimized attachment to a person's homeland (location, language, history, forefathers, tradition, art, culture, religion). This patriotically loved homeland can be (and often is) either a contested or an imagined community—or both. President Theodore Roosevelt called patriotism standing by one's country, as opposed to obeying an elected official, and the Polish poet Zbigniew Herbert said that it should be the last of the emotional bonds that a rebelling individual must break. Patriotism has been hotly defended as a profoundly felt and noble emotional attachment to a broader community, and equally hotly attacked as an instrumental ideology of a nation‐state. Patriotism has contributed both to the emotional mobilization of individuals in the service of a broader community and to the dramatic exclusion of others from the solidarity with mankind.
Unemployment and Race
Authors: McKay Sonia
Published: December 2015

Unemployment can affect all sections of the labor market. However, data consistently show that people from minority ethnic backgrounds are more likely to experience unemployment. In periods of economic crisis, job losses and unemployment levels are correlated with ethnicity but an unemployment gap exists even in periods of economic prosperity, affecting, in particular, young people and women. This entry reviews some of the causes of the discrepancy in unemployment rates by ethnicity, providing some recent data.
Educational Inequality
Authors: Montt Guillermo , Kelly Sean
Published: December 2015

In all countries, the educational outcomes of socioeconomically disadvantaged students are worse than those of their advantaged peers. As a result, many racial and ethnic minority groups have lower levels of educational achievement and attainment than majority groups. Yet, countries vary in the extent to which socioeconomic status is related to education outcomes, and country‐to‐country differences in educational inequality can be explained by the presence or absence of social and educational policies that support low‐socioeconomic‐status students.
“War on Terrorism” and Immigration
Authors: Alden Edward
Published: December 2015

The “war on terrorism” led the United States to overhaul its immigration and border policies to prevent future terrorist entry, and some other countries have emulated these measures. The main effects of these new policies have been on temporary, nonimmigrant travel rather than on permanent immigration.
T
reitschke,
H
einrich von (1834–96)
Authors: Kohler George Y.
Published: December 2015

This entry describes the academic and political career and opinions of the Prussian court historian Heinrich von Treitschke, placing special emphasis on the great public debate about the national integration of German Jewry from 1880. Treitschke provoked this controversy with several antisemite remarks published in a political journal article. Although in line with his well‐known pro‐Prussian, chauvinistic, and culturally hegemonic views, the article was widely perceived as a first clear sign of the penetrating of antisemite ideas into respected academic and liberal Protestant circles. This singled Treitschke out as the initiator of a special
intellectual
hostility toward the Jews, while in fact his ideas were nothing but the modern continuation of centuries‐old clichés and fears.
Stress and Migration
Authors: Marlowe Jay
Published: December 2015

The process of migration, whether forced or voluntary, often entails negotiating new social norms and traditions. It may mean that a person will have to learn another language and reconsider familiar perspectives on gender roles, parenting approaches, and many other social practices. These adjustments can be profoundly stressful and have implications for one's sense of physical, mental, cultural, spiritual, and social well‐being. Migrants traveling as a family will likely experience the stress of migration and acculturation in different ways from individual migrants.
Corporate Cultures in Global Perspective
Authors: Magala Slawomir
Published: December 2015

Multinational corporations have emerged as collective “actors” prompting organizational culture by design. Corporate cultures brand professional bureaucracies in multinational corporations. They work by institutional structuring of politics (European multinationals designed the Maastricht treaty), via the shaping of global markets (World Trade Organization, International Monetary Fund) and through influence upon cultures (corporate, national, and professional) exercized through mass‐media corporations (including the so‐called social media). The concept of a corporate culture has evolved from the idea of a “collective programming” of the mind to a more dynamic and multidimensional idea of a flexible, changeable, continuously evolving repertoire of values and shared meanings manifested in symbolic communications and entering complex recombinations with other determinants of human behavior and expression. Alternative movements and countercultures emerged as alternatives to capitalist globalization and growing inequalities. Multicultural workforce can mobilize very different cultural resources and repertoires depending on situation, tradition, and self‐reflection.
Eurocentricity
Authors: Mehmet Ozay
Published: December 2015

This entry defines Eurocentricity as the economic interest of the west and shows how, in the past two centuries, it emerged first as a theoretical construct in the classroom and then, at the hands of policymakers and empire builders, enriched the west at the expense of the rest. Although presented as scientific and objective, theories of perfect competition, free trade, growth and development, and most recently globalization are, in reality, pro‐rich and pro‐capital, favoring owners of capital heavily concentrated in the west.
Assimilation
Authors: Ballard Richard
Published: December 2015

Assimilation is the process through which one group of people is socially absorbed by a second group of people with the result that the group that is being absorbed takes on the characteristics of the group absorbing them. Assimilation can be unplanned or planned, and it can be both unforced and coerced. As a strategy for managing social diversity, assimilation appears to offer the possibility of inclusionary control through which a dominant group can neutralize what it fears to be the disruptive effects of outsider, marginal, newcomer, or nonconforming groups. In practice, assimilation is not a smooth, linear process through which one culture is inevitably displaced by another.
H
ong
K
ong, Migrants in
Authors: Knowles Caroline
Published: December 2015

Hong Kong is a highly urbanized semiautonomous special administrative region (SAR) of China. A stylish high‐rise fractal city and a megacity in the making, Hong Kong is part of a cross‐border metropolitan matrix that is set to become the biggest urban area in the world. Migration grinds a particular lens onto Hong Kong, which has been shaped by successive waves of migrants and bears the architectural and cultural traces of the lives they led. Most of its migrants, throughout the twentieth and the early twenty‐first centuries have come from mainland China. Every day, 150 mainland Chinese enter the SAR as migrants. Controversially, these migrants provide alternative versions of Chineseness from the local Hong Kong Chinese population with which they are historically intimately connected. Among a growing volume of foreign migrants, Filipino and Indonesian domestic workers—predominantly women—are the most significant. Like other jurisdictions Hong Kong attempts to attract the most talented migrants and investors.
Selling and Marketing to Multicultural Clients
Authors: Albey Rhonda
Published: December 2015

As a result of migration trends internationally and within nations, and the ease of electronic communication via the Internet, cultural diversity continues to be an issue that affects commerce. The ability of businesses to market to a variety of cultural groups provides a competitive advantage. This entry describes successful strategies for multicultural marketing.
Gender, Racialized
Authors: Few‐Demo April L. , Cox Natasha
Published: December 2015

Racialized gender is a sociological concept that refers to the critical analysis of the simultaneous interaction of race and gender processes on individuals, families, and communities. This concept recognizes that women and men do not negotiate race and gender similarly and that social environments impose or limit culturally appropriate cues, scripts, behaviors, and outcomes for individuals through hierarchical raced, gendered, and classed systems of privilege and oppression. Thus, social environments provide the frame in which a racialized and gendered identity is interpreted, claimed, imposed, communicated, and lived.
C
ésaire,
A
imé (1913–2008)
Authors: Hiddleston Jane
Published: December 2015

Aimé Césaire was a Martinican poet and politician and one of the founding fathers of the negritude movement. He is best known for his epic poem
Notebook of a Return to My Native Land
, an extraordinarily eloquent work in which he denounces the evils of colonialism and the slave trade in the Antilles, and envisions the liberation of both black people and humanity more broadly from oppression. Césaire was also for fifty years the Mayor of Fort‐de‐France, and was instrumental in implementing the departmentalization of Martinique, hoping in so doing to achieve equal rights for black people. He was also the author of many poems and four tragedies, in which he explored the complex aftermath of decolonization.
Racism, Overt
Authors: Elias Sean
Published: December 2015

Overt racism is racism that is observable and whose
modus operandum
is palpable, operating in unconcealed, unapologetic forms of ethnocentrism and racial discrimination. Historically, overt racism is a creation and product of white supremacy. Characterized by blatant use of negative and/or intentionally harmful attitudes, ideas, or symbols and actions directed at a specific racial group or groups deemed nonwhite or colored, overt racism persists in many forms throughout contemporary society. Overt racism occurs in individual and group interactions, institutions, nations, and international relations, spanning micro‐ and macro‐level social realities. A review of contemporary examples of overt racism reveals serious deficiencies in postrace, postracism theories of society and demonstrates that “covert” types of racism—color‐blind racism, laissez‐faire racism, and two‐faced racism, for example—have not eclipsed, but rather continue to coexist with, “overt” types of racism.
Cultural Nationalism
Authors: Hutchinson John
Published: December 2015

Cultural nationalism is a movement focused on the defense and the regeneration of the national community. The tendency in scholarship has been to dismiss it as a prepolitical phenomenon that exists as an ancillary to state‐oriented nationalisms. However, a minority of scholars have argued that it has a separate role in the formulation of national identity and that it inspires a communitarian rather than a statist vision of the political order.
Managing Human Capital in Government Organizations
Authors: Pynes Joan E.
Published: December 2015

Managing human capital in government organizations has become more important given the global financial and economic crisis. This is a challenge for government agencies across the world. Many organizations are facing reductions in force, while others are restructuring their programs and services or merging with other agencies. Jobs today require employees to possess wider skillsets as they assume more challenging responsibilities. Research by the Partnership for Public Service and Deloitte Consulting identified ten workplace categories critical to engaging government employees. They are: effective leadership; teamwork; employee skills–mission match; work–life balance; training and development opportunities; satisfaction with pay; strategic management; support for diversity; performance‐based rewards and advancement; and alternative work and employee support programs.
GastarbeiterinGermany
Authors: Dinç Cüneyt
Published: December 2015

Gastarbeiter(literally “guest worker”) was the name given to those working migrants who were actively recruited by the German state between 1955 and 1973. As such, the migration ofGastarbeitercan be separated into two significant periods. The first period was between 1955 and 1973, when Germany actively recruited foreign workers within the scope of recruitment agreements signed with some countries. A second period can be described between 1973 and 1981, when Germany stopped the active recruitment of foreign workers and theGastarbeiterstarted to bring their spouses and children to Germany. However, the fact that the temporary nature of their residence became permanent resulted in a replacement of the termGastarbeiterby more adequate ones in the late 1990s and 2000s.
B
erbers (
A
mazigh)
Authors: Maddy‐Weitzman Bruce
Published: December 2015

Berbers, from the Greek word meaning “barbarian,” are the indigenous peoples of the Maghrib (in North Africa west of the Nile Valley) and have existed in that area since the beginning of recorded history. The term is viewed as pejorative by the modern Berber identity movement and hence is increasingly being supplanted by “Amazigh” (free man). The Berbers number more than twenty million and reside primarily in Morocco and Algeria. The Berber language, Tamazight, is spoken in numerous dialects and until recent decades has been almost exclusively oral. Since the second half of the twentieth century, North African states, and particularly Morocco, have increasingly acknowledged the Berber contribution to their history, culture, and collective identity.
Nation‐State
Authors: Connor Walker
Published: December 2015

The term “nation‐state” was originally intended to describe a political unit (a state) whose borders coincided or roughly coincided with the territorial distribution of a nation, the latter in its pristine sense of a human grouping who share a conviction of being ancestrally related. Today, “nation” is often used as a substitute for a state or as a synonym for the population of a state without regard to its ethnonational composition. With the distinction between nation and state thus blurred, the term “nation‐state” has lost much of its original value as a means of distinguishing among types of states. Although only some 10 percent of all states are sufficiently ethnically homogeneous to merit being described as nation‐states, it has become an increasingly common practice to refer to all states as nation‐states.