bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Introduction
Authors: Smith Gary Scott , Kemeny P. C.
Published: August 2019

This handbook provides an overview of Presbyterian history, ecclesial forms and structures, theology, worship, ethics, involvement in politics, and educational philosophy and enterprises. It examines Presbyterianism in a global context, focusing primarily on its European background and development in the United Kingdom, the United States, and Canada. It also analyzes, however, the planting of Presbyterian congregations and ministries in several African nations, the four main regions of Latin America—Mexico, Central America, the Caribbean Islands, and South America—various parts of Asia, including Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, the Philippines, China, Taiwan, and Korea, and the Middle East. The handbook highlights key differences over doctrine, polity, liturgy, and social issues, as well as ethnic, racial, class, and gender, regional factors, and personal conflicts, that have produced controversy and sometimes schism among Presbyterians. Nevertheless, Presbyterianism’s theological foundation, impressive heritage, organizational structure, educational institutions, social activism, and commitment to proclaiming the gospel have enabled it to have a substantial influence during the past four hundred and fifty years.
Eighteenth- and Nineteenth-Century Presbyterianism in North America
Authors: Michael Lucas Sean
Published: August 2019

Trying to account for the growth of Presbyterianism in North America in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries is not simply a matter of demographics. Rather, Presbyterianism’s expansion was the result of a developing sense of identity, centering on robust theological debate as shaped by the process of Americanization. Starting in the eighteenth century, this New World faith drew from Old World precedents and personalities, but transformed them in the new North American context. Not every Presbyterian participated in this mainstream development; African Americans, Scots Covenanters, and Canadians all found themselves to be outsiders to this developing American faith. These outsiders actually highlight the larger trend: Presbyterians more than any other denominational tradition would become a “church with the soul of the nation.” This commitment, and perhaps captivity, to American culture accounts for Presbyterian success during this period, but it would also set the stage for the fierce battles over Presbyterian identity in the twentieth century and beyond.
Dynamic Networking by Entrepreneurs
Authors: Elfring Tom , Hulsink Willem
Published: August 2019

Entrepreneurs are active networkers; network connections change over time, new contacts are added, and others are dropped. Entrepreneurial networking is an integral part of entrepreneurial processes and can be a strategic and goal-oriented response to resource requirements; it can also be effectual and driven by an individual and collective desire to meet and interact. This chapter examines how entrepreneurs change their network and use a variety of actions and strategies to engage with friends, family, partners, and strangers. Although entrepreneurial networking in part is driven by critical events and crises as triggers, individual differences in motivation and ability also affect the way entrepreneurs respond and use networking in an uncertain and challenging environment.
Timbre, Komplexeindruck, and Modernity Klangfarbe as a Catalyst of Psychological Research in Carl Stumpf, 1890–1926
Authors: Klotz Sebastian
Published: August 2019

The philosopher-psychologist Carl Stumpf studied Klangfarbe (timbre) as an integral part of his phenomenology. He combined novel experimental and observation techniques of timbre perception on both vowels and the sound of musical instruments with conceptual and logical work at the interface of physiology, psychology, and philosophy, outlining timbre as a complex impression (Komplexeindruck). This article argues that this approach is informed by an explicitly modern scientific framework that replaced Helmholtz’s earlier spectral model with concepts of distribution and multi-dimensionality, and with spatialization, embodied in formants (main and secondary). This refinement of the conception of timbre yielded insights into the structural laws of phenomena and into mental functions.
Transnational Precursors of American Realism
Authors: von Bardeleben Renate
Published: August 2019

This chapter concentrates on European realist innovators—Björnstjerne Björnson, Ivan Turgenev, Leo Tolstoy, Fyodor Dostoevsky, Honoré de Balzac, Gustave Flaubert, Guy de Maupassant—and their effect on the formative period of American realism. It studies in detail the transatlantic development of new techniques and discusses the ways in which these new methods were reflected in the works of American authors and critics. Inspired by the theories and practice of their precursors, American writers felt liberated to introduce new narrative strategies to represent America’s rising urbanism, the struggles of the social classes, and the increase of social mobility in the industrial age. They also dealt with the emancipated “New Woman” and the changing relationship between the sexes. The guiding principles on which writers on both sides of the Atlantic agreed were truth, sincerity, and frankness.
Ghetto Realism—and Beyond
Authors: Harrison-Kahan Lori
Published: August 2019

By focusing on the reception of Yekl, Abraham Cahan’s 1896 novel of immigrant life in New York, this chapter considers the turn-of-the-twentieth-century controversy surrounding depictions of Jews in ghetto literature, arguing that this debate illuminates not only the challenges of ethno-racial representation and self-representation but also the slipperiness of realism itself. The chapter also posits a more inclusive interpretation of Jewish American realism by demonstrating the importance of an overlooked late nineteenth-century realist writer, Emma Wolf. It explores how Wolf’s novels Other Things Being Equal (1892) and Heirs of Yesterday (1900), which focus on experiences of Jewish families in San Francisco during the Progressive Era, offer important alternatives to the New York–centric ghetto genre, expanding the parameters of Jewish American literature in terms of region, class, gender, and religion.
The Politics of US Latino Literature and American Realism
Authors: Guerra Ramón J.
Published: August 2019

This chapter examines the development of Latino literature in the United States during the time when realism emerged as a dominant aesthetic representation. Beginning with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848) and including the migrations resulting from the Spanish-American War (1898) and the Mexican Revolution (1910), Latinos in the United States began to realistically craft an identity served by a sense of displacement. Latinos living in the United States as a result of migration or exile were concerned with similar issues, including but not limited to their predominant status as working-class, loss of homeland and culture, social justice, and racial/ethnic profiling or discrimination. The literature produced during the latter part of the nineteenth century by some Latinos began to merge the influence of romantic style with a more socially conscious manner to reproduce the lives of ordinary men and women, draw out the specifics of their existence, characterize their dialects, and connect larger issues to the concerns of the common man, among other realist techniques.
The Censorship of Realist and Naturalist Novels, Then and Now
Authors: Town Caren J.
Published: August 2019

This chapter focuses on several realist and naturalist works that have been subject to censorship by librarians, editors, publishers, or the legal system. It examines censorship allegations made by authors and later by critics and biographers about Mark Twain’s Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1884), Charlotte Perkins Gilman’s “The Yellow Wallpaper” (1892), Stephen Crane’s Maggie: A Girl of the Streets (1893) and The Red Badge of Courage (1895), Hamlin Garland’s The Rose of Dutcher’s Cooley (1895), Kate Chopin’s The Awakening (1899), Theodore Dreiser’s Sister Carrie (1901) and An American Tragedy (1925), and Upton Sinclair’s The Jungle (1906). Finally, it connects the historical context of the censorship issue to the recent debates on college campuses about speech codes and to contemporary book censorship and free-speech cases in the public schools.
Realist Temporalities and the Distant Past
Authors: Dawson Melanie
Published: August 2019

This chapter explores realist fiction that attempts to imagine a past that remains largely invisible to the viewing eye or that challenges a realist fascination with the visible world. As characters focus on the ancient past, particularly Roman and Greek ruins, they display consternation at the degree to which the past summons an imaginative response that they (and the narratives) find disconcerting. Even more challenging for the realist imagination is the deep, geological past, which enters literary texts via moments of discomfort, so uncomfortably does it fit the parameters of a scenic mode of writing. Nature writing, I argue, fares far better in its capacity to imagine a distant past for the natural world and one that has left its signs on the visible landscape.
Teaching Literary Realism in Transnational America
Authors: Cadle Nathaniel
Published: August 2019

This chapter contends that foregrounding transnational approaches in classrooms provides opportunities to advocate the value of studying literary realism to students, administrators, and the broader community. Literature’s capacity to enable recognition, whether it leads to greater self-awareness or the acknowledgment of others, makes it a powerful tool for social justice, inspiring social movements and filling the emotional needs of the disempowered. Centering the teaching of realism on such authors as Charles Chesnutt, Abraham Cahan, and Sui Sin Far, who rendered the multicultural composition of the United States more legible, helps the academy’s increasingly diverse student body see themselves and one another in the long tradition of American literature. Assigning lesser-taught texts by William Dean Howells, Henry James, and other canonical authors demonstrates realism’s continued relevance, because these texts address the challenges of incorporating diversity into the body politic and the ethical implications of the United States’ global power.
American Realism and Gender
Authors: Campbell Donna M.
Published: August 2019

Critical to the development of realism was the issue of gender, not only in terms of realism’s rejection of the mode of sentimentalism and the genre of women’s fiction but also regarding the women who wrote realism throughout the decades when realism was a dominant literary form. Early realists such as Rebecca Harding Davis, Rose Terry Cooke, Elizabeth Stoddard, and Elizabeth Stuart Phelps protested the abuses of industrialism and the unequal gender dynamics encoded in marriage laws while promoting alternative visions of women as independent agents. Second-generation realists Constance Fenimore Woolson, Frances E. W. Harper, and Mary E. Wilkins Freeman questioned the dogma of realism as preached by William Dean Howells and Henry James, ranging beyond the limits of decorum regarding race and sexuality to do so. Early twentieth-century writers stretched the limits of realism further by incorporating elements of other forms, including New Woman, utopian, and travel narratives; immigrant and tourist fiction; Native American legends and popular westerns; and novels of region. The resulting reconsideration of women writers yields a realism that remains faithful to Howells’s ideal of the “truthful treatment of material” while ranging beyond realism’s limits by including a wide range of experiences conditioned by gender and race.
Advancing Issues in Motivation Intensity Research
Authors: Gendolla Guido H. E. , Wright Rex A. , Richter Michael
Published: August 2019

What determines effort intensity in instrumental behavior? According to motivation intensity theory, effort should be proportional to experienced task difficulty as long as success is possible and justified and low when success is impossible or excessively difficult, given the available benefit. When task difficulty is unspecified or unknown, effort should be proportional to the importance of success. This chapter reports an extensive program of research that has operationalized effort intensity as cardiovascular reactivity during task performance and used multiple manipulations of variables influencing subjective task difficulty (e.g., performance standards, instrumentality, ability, fatigue, mood, depressive symptoms, implicit affect, implicit and biological aging) and the amount of justified effort (e.g., material incentive, instrumentality, needs, personal and social evaluation, mortality salience). In the second edition of this handbook, this chapter focuses on recent empirical evidence for the principles of motivation intensity theory and discusses challenges for other theoretical accounts.
The Complex Role of Choice in Human Motivation and Functioning
Authors: Patall Erika A.
Published: August 2019

Years of research have implicated a complex set of motivational causes and consequences of choice. Psychological theory has often prescribed the benefits of choosing, though limitations to this view of choice as being ubiquitously positive are apparent. In this chapter, the relation between choice, motivation, and variety of psychological and behavioral outcomes is examined. The role of choice in human functioning is examined from a variety of perspectives, including psychosocial, cognitive, neurological, and sociocultural perspectives. Next, the complex and often contradictory findings regarding the relation between choice and motivation are discussed in light of various critical characteristics of choices, choosers, and environments likely to influence those effects. The directions that future research might take are briefly discussed.
Assertion: The Constitutive Norms View
Authors: Simion Mona , Kelp Christoph
Published: August 2019

Two important philosophical questions about assertion concern its nature and normativity. This article defends the optimism about the constitutive norm account of assertion and sets out a constitutivity thesis that is much more modest than that proposed by Timothy Williamson. It starts by looking at the extant objections to Williamson’s Knowledge Account of Assertion (KAA) and argues that they fail to hit their target in virtue of imposing implausible conditions on engaging in norm-constituted activities. Second, it makes a similar proposal and shows how it does better than the competition. It suggests that Knowledge Norm of Assertion (KNA) is not constitutive of the speech act of assertion in the same way in which rules of games are constitutive, and thus KAA comes out as too strong. The final section embarks on a rescue mission on behalf of KAA; it puts forth a weaker, functionalist constitutivity thesis. On this view, KNA is etiologically constitutively associated with the speech act of assertion, in virtue of its function of generating knowledge in hearers.
Addressing Childhood Trauma
Authors: Marans Steven , Hahn Hilary , Epstein Carrie
Published: August 2019

Childhood exposure to violence, and resultant traumatic dysregulation pose immediate and long-term threats to individual development and to public health. Recognizing the phenomena and phases of children’s post-traumatic reactions following their exposure to violence has led to a clear roadmap for multidisciplinary and clinical interventions that most appropriately address children’s needs at each phase of post-traumatic reaction. A deeper understanding of childhood trauma and a greater appreciation of the value of early identification and intervention has also increased recognition of the value of multidisciplinary collaborative efforts in addressing the complex needs of traumatized children and families. Greater understanding of the roles that various professionals can play in helping children to recover from violent trauma has resulted in important innovations in law enforcement practice, pediatric health care, child welfare systems, and school systems. Similarly, a better understanding of childhood trauma has contributed to the development of an effective, evidence-based, early clinical intervention that can help to reduce immediate symptoms and the development of longer-term post-traumatic disorders, as well as to treatments that can interrupt the longer-term disorders that emerge when there is a failure of recovery from traumatic events.
The Supreme Court Has Spoken
Authors: Hehir Thomas
Published: August 2019

Two 2017 decisions of the United States Supreme Court could powerfully impact the education of students with disabilities. Frye v. Napoleon Community Schools (2017) addressed whether the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) entitled a student with physical disabilities to use a service dog in school. Endrew v. Douglas County School District (2017) addressed whether a child with autism was denied a “free appropriate public education” (FAPE) within the meaning of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). Taken together these cases underscore core principles in both statutes. The Endrew decision clarifies that the fundamental entitlement in IDEA of FAPE is a substantive one requiring schools to offer an individualized education plan (IEP) that is “reasonably calculated to enable a child to make progress appropriate in light of the child’s circumstances.” The Frye decision clarifies that the ADA applies to school-age children when discrimination, not FAPE, is at issue. The chapter cautions against over reliance on court decisions alone to improve educational opportunity for students with disabilities and proposes reforms that seek to improve the capacity of schools to provide improved educational opportunity for students with disabilities.
The School-to-Prison Pipeline
Authors: Girvan Erik J.
Published: August 2019

Among the core values of a democratic system is that children and youth, whatever their background, should have an equal opportunity to become responsible, productive, and successful members of society. In moderation, exclusionary school discipline, such as suspensions and expulsions, may support this value by helping schools to preserve safe and orderly learning environments. In excess and when applied more frequently to students of color, however, removing students from the classroom undermines equal educational opportunity. This chapter explains how the rights that federal antidiscrimination law creates for students are poorly suited to protect them from the excessive and inequitable use of exclusionary discipline embodied in what is frequently referred to as the “school-to-prison pipeline.” It first introduces and defines the school-to-prison pipeline with respect to its central characteristics related to school discipline. The chapter then reviews the scope of the basic sources of federal antidiscrimination law and identifies the limited circumstances in which they prohibit use of exclusionary discipline. Third, it summarizes the results of empirical research investigating the primary causes of racial disparities in exclusionary school discipline. The chapter concludes with a discussion of how federal law does not support or advance the value of equal education opportunity in this context because it fails to account for or address the major causes of excessive and inequitable exclusionary discipline, and with some thoughts about moving forward.
Party Cues
Authors: Bullock John G.
Published: August 2019

We now have a large and sprawling body of research on the effects of party cues. It is not very consistent or cumulative. Findings vary widely from one article to the next, and they sometimes contradict each other. This article sifts the evidence for five potential moderators of party-cue effects that have received much attention: political sophistication, need for cognition, issue salience, the amount of information in the information environment, and the distinctiveness of party reputations. It also considers the evidence on three large questions: whether party cues dominate policy information in people’s judgments, whether they are “shortcuts,” and how they affect our inferences about policies. The article closes by suggesting that limitations of research in this area are due partly to weak links between theory and empirical efforts and partly to problems of measurement error and statistical power.
How Electoral Spending Relates to Political Persuasion
Authors: Magleby David B.
Published: August 2019

A necessary element of electoral campaigns in mass democracies is money to fund candidate or party campaigns. This is especially true in the United States with its largely privately funded campaigns and primary elections, which determine party nominees. Campaigns expend these funds to persuade voters to turn out and vote for their preferred candidate. Factors such as competitiveness, electoral size, and type of election influence the importance and effectiveness of campaign spending. Since one marker of candidate viability is early fundraising efforts, called the “money primary,” candidates in privately funded systems must first persuade individuals and groups to contribute to their campaigns or spend independently on their behalf. What, if any, limits are placed on who and how much can be contributed to campaigns also play a large role in US elections. Since 2010, there has been a movement away from limiting what individuals and groups, including unions and corporations, can contribute and spend independently on races. These finances fund persuasion efforts, which have largely been on paid television advertising, but have increasingly been spent on database development for individual voter contacts and on social media. These persuasion efforts have changed in recent elections, as the Obama presidential campaigns made innovative use of email and social media, and the Trump campaign of 2016 expanded the use of Facebook and other social media compared to prior campaigns. In all cases, spending on electoral persuasion is used to mobilize or demobilize voters or motivate donors.
Online Versus Offline Strategies in Comparative Perspective
Authors: Silva Tiago
Published: August 2019

The Internet has undoubtedly become, in this last decade, an important new arena for political communication. Nonetheless, during electoral campaigns, the use of this medium poses both challenges and advantages for the institutional communication made by political parties and candidates. An often-overlooked advantage is the possibility, particularly on social media, for parties and candidates to bypass journalists and communicate directly to a large and varied audience. This aspect is particularly relevant since the literature has been noting, in the last decades, a decline in the salience of substantive political information in the mainstream news coverage of political events. By comparing the political actors’ campaigns on social media with press news coverage of those campaigns, this chapter examines the role and impact of the Internet on modern political communication. An extensive content analysis of four electoral campaigns in four different countries (United States, Italy, Brazil, and Portugal) shows that candidates’ and parties’ online campaigns, compared to news articles in the press, tend to be more frequently framed in terms of substantive political issues. Even though there are differences between political actors and the social media platforms used (Twitter, Facebook, and YouTube), the results suggest that, overall, candidates and parties do actually try to convey substantive political information when communicating directly to the electorate. Furthermore, compared to articles in the press, social media campaigns also tend to be less frequently framed in terms of conflict, political scandals, and strategy aspects.
The Infrastructure for Electricity
Authors: Hoicka Christina E. , MacArthur Julie
Published: August 2019

Electricity infrastructure provides a substrate for modern life through the network of wires, towers, dams, and turbines that literally powers our economic and social practices. Despite its importance, electricity infrastructure is often depoliticized, left to the technical experts and relegated to a solely technical matter of “keeping the lights on” (Kuzemko 2016; Geels 2014). This chapter provides a technical overview of the key elements of an electricity system: demand, generation, transmission, and distribution. It also identifies three important trends and their associated impacts for social scientists: urbanization and future increases in electricity demand, the rise of renewable power generation as a proportion of the energy mix, and a shift to increased grid flexibility and distributed infrastructures. The social implications focus attention on how these trends reflexively interact with issues of justice, political power and mobilization, political economy, and institutional design.
Shaping the Avant-Garde
Authors: Müller Pablo
Published: August 2019

Soviet Constructivism is a central reference for the American art journal October (founded in 1976 and still in print today). This article discusses the ways in which October refers to that historical art movement, while overlooking some of its key political aspirations. Especially during the journal’s founding years, the discursive association with Soviet Constructivism served to bestow criticality, urgency, and sociopolitical relevance on the American art journal. Furthermore, with the reference to Sergei Eisenstein and Dziga Vertov, in particular, the October protagonists have positioned themselves in a specific manner within mid-1970s art critical discourse in the United States. In addition to framing and positioning, the article examines how Soviet Constructivism (alongside Dadaism and Surrealism) becomes for October a key reference for rooting and evaluating the expanded, cross-genre art production post-1945 historically.
The Subject Who Knows
Authors: Blaylock Sara
Published: August 2019

This article complicates the history of East German photography through an examination of works by Gundula Schulze Eldowy and Karin Wieckhorst, two contemporaries who navigated the realms of official and unofficial culture in the late eighties. The images selected are specifically drawn from series that focus on less than ideal bodies. Schulze Eldowy’s nude portraits are set in conversation with her images of labor. Wieckhorst’s series frames the subject of disability. The text demonstrates that both the photographers and their subjects were aware of how their images contested East Germany’s fairly prescribed and predictable official image culture. This article argues, finally, that these photographs represent not simply a disidentification of the East German public with official state culture but also an increasing eagerness to redefine it.
Restating Classicist Monumentalism in Soviet Architecture, 1930s–early 1950s
Authors: Brumfield William C.
Published: August 2019

This article examines the development of retrospective styles in Soviet architecture during the Stalin era, from the 1930s to the early 1950s. This highly visible manifestation of communist visual culture is usually interpreted as a reaction to the austere modernism of 1920s Soviet avant-garde architecture represented by the constructivist movement. The project locates the origins of Stalin-era proclamatory, retrospective style in prerevolutionary neoclassical revival architecture. Although functioning in a capitalist market, that neoclassical reaction was supported by prominent critics who were suspicious of Russia’s nascent bourgeoisie and felt that neoclassical or neo-Renaissance architecture could echo the glory of imperial Russia. These critics left Russia after the Bolshevik Revolution, but prominent architects of the neoclassicist revival remained in the Soviet Union. Together with the Academy of Architecture (founded 1933), these architects played a critical role in reviving classicist monumentalism—designated “socialist realism”—as the proclamatory style for the centralized, neoimperial statist system of the Stalin era. Despite different ideological contexts (prerevolutionary and Stalinist), retrospective styles were promulgated as models for significant architectural projects. The article concludes with comments on the post-Stalinist—and post-Soviet—alternation of modernist and retrospective architectural styles.
Bible Translation in the Colonial Project in Africa and Its Impact on African Languages and Cultures
Authors: Mbuwayesango Dora R.
Published: August 2019

Christian missionaries played a major role in the colonial project in Africa, and the translation of and the translated Bible impacted African peoples in a variety of ways. This essay discusses how the role of Bible translation in the colonial project in Africa and its impact on African languages and cultures is evaluated through postcolonial analysis. Three translation practices are highlighted to demonstrate Bible translation’s negative impact on African languages and cultures: namely, adoption of the names of African deities, negative distortions of religio-cultural meanings, and rejection of significantly cultural charged words.
The Bible in the German Empire
Authors: Rieger Joerg
Published: August 2019

Even though Germany’s colonial empire lasted merely three decades, from 1884 to 1915, German colonial fantasies shaped intellectual production from the late eighteenth century onward. This cultural climate shapes a great variety of engagements with the Bible, from the beginnings of liberal theology with Friedrich Schleiermacher to missionary efforts and the rather abstract academic productions of biblical scholarship in the late nineteenth century, including the prominent history of religions school. At the same time, there are also efforts to resist colonial tendencies, sometimes in the work of the same authors who otherwise perpetuate the colonial spirit.
Electrophysiological Approaches to L1 Attrition
Authors: Steinhauer Karsten , Kasparian Kristina
Published: August 2019

This chapter provides an overview of the first few event-related potential (ERP) studies on L1 attrition, discussing their results and future directions. After briefly introducing the technique of ERPs in psycholinguistics, it shows that ERP studies are particularly suited to advance attrition research due to their power to track even subtle changes in cognitive processing in considerable detail. The ERP data available provide initial physiological evidence that L1 attrition in migrants’ brains occurs at lexical and morpho-syntactic levels of processing, modulated by the degree of exposure to the two languages. In extreme cases, L2-dominant attriters may perceive a grammatical sentence in their L1 as ungrammatical, if it violates the L2 grammar. Where ERP data patterns seem inconsistent across studies from different labs, the potential underlying reasons are discussed, briefly touching upon how L1 attrition may positively influence one’s L2, due to greater L1 inhibition and therefore less interference.
Null and Overt Pronouns in Language Attrition
Authors: Gürel Ayşe
Published: August 2019

This chapter provides an overview of studies on the use/interpretation of first language (L1) pronominals by late bilinguals who immigrated as adults to a second language (L2), living there for an extended period speaking the majority L2. It discusses how, among other linguistic properties, vulnerability in the L1 pronominal system has been documented. The chapter discusses why pronominals have become topical in L1 attrition research and reviews relevant research, demonstrating how different linguistic analyses proposed for adult L2 acquisition can also help identify the (un)changing characteristics of mature L1 grammar. The chapter deliberately confines itself to generative linguistics-based L1 attrition studies involving late bilinguals residing in an L2 country as first-generation immigrants, who typically become dominant L2 users after puberty, after which developmental point the L1 grammatical competence is believed to stabilize. Thus, any qualitative changes in L1 grammar of post-puberty bilinguals may have far-reaching implications for the alterability of L1 linguistic competence due to the L2. Studies discussed in this chapter are thus revealing as to the nature of the L1 attrition phenomenon in the pronominal domain.
Language Contact and Language Attrition
Authors: Riehl Claudia Maria
Published: August 2019

This chapter focuses on language contact phenomena typical in language attrition processes. It starts from the assumption that language contact is a bilingual practice reflecting the processing/use of language in a bilingual speaker’s repertoire. Defining key terms such as borrowing, transference, and convergence, the chapter addresses typical language contact phenomena in various language attrition settings such as lexical transference, processes of semantical restructuring, syntactic transference/convergence, morphological/phonological transfer. The chapter discusses aspects of pragmatic convergence, that is, the adoption of L2-discourse marking systems. It demonstrates that despite much individual variation there are some phenomena which typically occur in different speakers and different communities of attriters independently, that is, L1 lexemes adopting L2 meaning, instances of pivot matching, and the adoption of turn-related discourse markers. Finally, the impact of external factors, such as language awareness, attitude, and norm-orientation in bilingual communities that explain individual differences in attriters, is discussed.
Attrition studies on Japanese returnees
Authors: Taura Hideyuki
Published: August 2019

This chapter outlines the major studies on second langauge (L2) attrition in Japanese returnees conducted in Japan. It covers research from Yoshida et al.’s study in 1989 to Taura’s study in 2016. Early researchers took an explorative stance to examine what happened to the L2 of Japanese returnees once they had left the L2 milieu. Then researchers shifted their focus towards testing various hypotheses including the regression and retrieval failure hypotheses. Since 2010, a new focus has been given to researching different language areas such as indefinite/definite articles, and story-telling skills. The exploratory data has been further diversified from spontaneous oral and written data to brain-imaging data. The overall findings in attrition research in Japan examining the language loss of Japanese returnees are chronologically detailed, along with how the research focus has shifted using different methods of data collection.
2L1 Simultaneous Bilinguals as Heritage Speakers
Authors: Kupisch Tanja
Published: August 2019

The chapter is concerned with simultaneous bilinguals (2L1s) assuming that they are a subtype of the heritage speaker (HS). The chapter summarizes major findings with regard to their morpho-syntactic and phonological characteristics, starting with the two competing views on bilingual language development that postulated fused language systems as opposed to autonomous development several decades ago. In the 1990s, when the idea of separate systems had been widely accepted, research has concentrated on the question under which conditions the two languages of bilingual children show unidirectional or bidirectional influence—a question which is also relevant in the current literature on adult HSs. The present chapter relates findings from developing heritage bilinguals and adult HSs, discussing divergent acquisition outcomes that diverge from those of monolingual with regard to cross-linguistic influence, age of onset, input and language dominance, as well as distance to the homeland.
Childhood Language Memory in Adult Heritage Language (Re)Learners
Authors: Oh Janet S. , Au Terry Kit-fong , Jun Sun-Ah , Lee Richard M.
Published: August 2019

This chapter first reviews the authors’ investigations into the potential benefits of early childhood experiences with a heritage language on later language (re)learning among immigrant-background adults. It then turns to their newer investigation on how these findings might extend to better understand whether a brief re-exposure to the target language, in the form of a language class, can help adults who were internationally adopted as infants to access their early childhood language memory. Overall, there were clear advantages among adoptees after two weeks of re-exposure, in both phoneme perception and production. Although prior findings by the authors supported a rather robust adoptee relearner advantage over novice learners in phoneme perception, this group difference was more attenuated in the present study. Nonetheless, the sample means do consistently—numerically if not statistically—support an adoptee relearner advantage.
Language Attrition as a Special Case of Processing Change
Authors: Sharwood Smith Michael
Published: August 2019

This chapter examines the ways in which language processing has been treated in both the attrition and the acquisition literature, embedding the discussion within a wider view of how knowledge representations change over time. Even where particular types of language representation are understood to be governed by principles unique to language, attrition must be seen as a manifestation of general cognitive processing principles as well. For this you need a framework that allows many different strands of research to be carried out within a single, detailed, workable, unified account. This can lead to richer and more reliable explanations of research findings. The chapter will employ such a framework to examine language attrition with regard to 1) the nature and operation of language processing mechanisms; 2) how these relate to other types of cognitive processing; 3) how processing acts as the driver of representational change.
Reflections on the Study of Expertise and Its Implications for Tomorrow’s World
Authors: Ward Paul , Maarten Schraagen Jan , Gore Julie , Roth Emilie M. , Hoffman Robert R. , Klein Gary
Published: August 2019

In this chapter, we reflect on the themes that emerged throughout this Handbook. First, we review why expertise is not always revered and ask whether this relates to the way expertise has been defined and measured. We then re-examine definitions of expertise presented throughout the Handbook as well as the idea that expertise is, in part, about increasing one’s cognitive ability to adapt to complexity. Next, we take a look at where we have been, as a community of communities of expertise researchers, and whether we are heading in good directions, placing an especial focus on how expertise is and should be measured. In the penultimate section, we present some ideas about future areas of research recommended by chapter authors. Finally, we present a potential way forward for researchers to continue to move the field of expertise studies in a positive direction and, ultimately, to better prepare individuals to operate effectively in tomorrow’s workplace.
Meditation in Contemporary Monastic Life
Authors: Starkey Caroline
Published: August 2019

This chapter examines the multiple roles that meditation plays in the lives of contemporary Buddhist monastics. Specifically, and drawing on rich ethnographic data, it focuses on the experiences of women who have taken Buddhist ordination within six different Buddhist groups and lineages in the British Isles. This chapter provides a brief history of the lived experience of meditation among emerging and established Buddhist monastic groups in Britain and an analysis of the role, function, and value of meditation practices, particularly among women. It makes comparisons between women of different Buddhist traditions in their approach to meditation and considers the implications of this for understanding the function of meditation in the Buddhist monastic tradition. Underpinning this approach is a challenge to assumptions about the individualistic nature of meditation in the contemporary West, emphasizing its communal role among monastic women in Britain.
Hume’s Science of Mind and Newtonianism
Authors: Demeter Tamás
Published: August 2019

This chapter explores the prospects and consequences of various ways to forge Newtonian connections to Hume’s philosophy. Two points of view are offered from which these connections are visible and evaluable: first, Hume’s experimental method for the studying of the mind, particularly his reliance on analysis, synthesis and successive approximations in relation to Newton’s method and Newton-inspired methodologies; and second, the relation of Hume’s model of the mind to Newton’s model of the natural world, particularly the congruence of Hume’s theory of association with the chemical idea of elective affinities as opposed to gravity. In conclusion, the chapter summarizes the significance of these connections for competing interpretations of Hume’s science of the mind.
Selected Settings from “Auerbachs Keller”
Authors: Rizzuti Alberto
Published: August 2019

The chapter examines settings of two witty songs from the tavern scene of Goethe’s Faust. Beethoven, Berlioz, Wagner, Liszt, Mussorgsky, and Stravinsky are only the most famous among the composers who devoted their attention to “Es war eine Ratt’ ” (“Song of the Rat”) and “Es war einmal ein König” (“Song of the Flea”). While many of these artists set Goethe’s lines in minor works, two of them did not. Berlioz made his “Song of the Rat” the fourth of his Huit scènes de Faust (Eight Scenes from Faust), composed in 1828 29. Similarly, another translation is the basis for the most remarkable achievement in the group: Mussorgsky’s “Song of the Flea,” a striking concert-scene composed for a famous singer in 1879.
Cognitive and behavioral therapy for insomnia increases the use of continuous positive airway pressure therapy in obstructive sleep apnea participants with comorbid insomnia: a randomized clinical trial
Authors: Sweetman Alexander , Lack Leon , Catcheside Peter G , Antic Nick A , Smith Simon , Chai-Coetzer Ching Li , Douglas James , O’grady Amanda , Dunn Nicola , Robinson Jan , Paul Denzil , Williamson Paul , McEvoy R Doug
Published: August 2019

Study Objectives

Insomnia and obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) commonly co-occur which makes OSA difficult to treat with continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP). We conducted a randomized controlled trial in participants with OSA and co-occurring insomnia to test the hypothesis that initial treatment with cognitive and behavioral therapy for insomnia (CBT-i), versus treatment as usual (TAU) would improve insomnia symptoms and increase subsequent acceptance and use of CPAP.

Methods

One hundred and forty-five participants with OSA (apnea-hypopnea index ≥ 15) and comorbid insomnia were randomized to either four sessions of CBT-i, or TAU, before commencing CPAP therapy until 6 months post-randomization. Primary between-group outcomes included objective average CPAP adherence and changes in objective sleep efficiency by 6 months. Secondary between-group outcomes included rates of immediate CPAP acceptance/rejection, and changes in; sleep parameters, insomnia severity, and daytime impairments by 6 months.

Results

Compared to TAU, participants in the CBT-i group had 61 min greater average nightly adherence to CPAP (95% confidence interval [CI] = 9 to 113; p = 0.023, d = 0.38) and higher initial CPAP treatment acceptance (99% vs. 89%; p = 0.034). The CBT-i group showed greater improvement of global insomnia severity, and dysfunctional sleep-related cognitions by 6 months (both: p < 0.001), and greater improvement in sleep impairment measures immediately following CBT-i. There were no between-group differences in sleep outcomes, or daytime impairments by 6 months.

Conclusions

In OSA participants with comorbid insomnia, CBT-i prior to initiating CPAP treatment improves CPAP use and insomnia symptoms compared to commencing CPAP without CBT-i. OSA patients should be evaluated for co-occurring insomnia and considered for CBT-i before commencing CPAP therapy.

Clinical Trial

Treating comorbid insomnia with obstructive sleep apnea (COMSIA) study: A new treatment strategy for patients with combined insomnia and sleep apnea, https://www.anzctr.org.au/Trial/Registration/TrialReview.aspx?id=365184 Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry: ACTRN12613001178730. Universal Trial Number: U1111-1149-4230.
Association between adherence to continuous positive airway pressure treatment and cost among medicare enrollees
Authors: Chhatre Sumedha , Chang Yoon Hee A , Gooneratne Nalaka S , Kuna Sam , Strollo Patrick , Jayadevappa Ravishankar
Published: August 2019

Objective

To analyze the cost associated with sleep apnea and effects of continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) treatment on costs among fee-for-service Medicare beneficiaries.

Methods

Retrospective cohort design using 5% Medicare claims between 2006 and 2010. Medicare beneficiaries with and without sleep apnea diagnosis between 2007 and 2008 were identified and followed retrospectively for 2 years pre-index-date and 2 years post-index-date. We defined CPAP fill as at least one durable medical equipment claim for CPAP in 6-month period. At least three CPAP fills was defined as “full adherence,” and one or two CPAP fills was “partial adherence.” We used interrupted time series and generalized linear log-link models to study the association between sleep apnea, CPAP treatment, and costs. To minimize bias, we used propensity score and instrumental variables approach.

Results

Sleep apnea was associated with higher costs (odds ratio [OR] = 1.60; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.58, 1.63) compared to those without sleep apnea. Almost half of those with sleep apnea received CPAP treatment. Interrupted time series analysis indicated post level increase in mean monthly cost for full CPAP adherence group, partial CPAP adherence group and no-CPAP group. However, the increase was smallest for the full CPAP adherence group. Full CPAP adherence was associated with lower change in cost (OR = 0.92; 95% CI = 0.88, 0.97) compared to the no-CPAP group.

Conclusions

Medicare beneficiaries with sleep apnea experience increased cost. Full adherence to CPAP treatment for sleep apnea was associated with lower increase in cost. These findings emphasize the need to effectively identify and treat sleep apnea in Medicare patients.