bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Feuding and Warfare
Authors: Hardy Duncan
Published: September 2018

Alongside and entangled with arbitration was another common practice of the Upper German elite: engaging in feuds and wars. Non-German scholarship has traditionally portrayed feuding as illegitimate ‘private war’, while older German historiography has seen it as central to a legal system based on aristocratic rights. However, the evidence suggests that not only nobles but also princes, prelates, and cities accepted the legitimacy of feuding, within a ritually delineated state of ‘enmity’ between two or more parties, as a means of defending honour, achieving redress, and forcing negotiations at Tage. While some parties did rhetorically oppose feuding on some occasions, and imperial legislation gradually sought to constrain the practice, violent conflict—performed within customary parameters—was an inescapable fact of political life throughout this period, and it might draw in any political actor with a stake in the proprietary, financial, and jurisdictional structures of Upper Germany.
Associations and the Discourses of Peace, Common Weal, and Empire
Authors: Hardy Duncan
Published: September 2018

Associations such as alliances and leagues were not merely functional tools. The rhetoric found in treaties and correspondence suggests that some members of associations perceived their participation as an activity freighted with political and moral significance. Almost all alliance and league foundation treaties and renewals contain appeals to clusters of ideas, centred on the concepts of divinely ordained peace, the common good of the community, and the Holy Roman Empire (conceptually linked, from the late fifteenth century, to the ‘German nation’). These discourses can only be found in this precise form in one other setting: the imperial diets and Empire-wide correspondence and legislation that they produced. This indicates that members of associations claimed to be involving themselves in the most significant and legitimate spheres of political activity in the Empire, even when their immediate objectives were modest and localized, or the legality of their alliances was challenged by other authorities.
The ‘Town War’, c. 1376–89
Authors: Hardy Duncan
Published: September 2018

Part III of this book examines four case studies in late medieval Upper German history through the lens of associative political culture in order to demonstrate its utility as an analytical and explanatory concept. The first is the series of interlocking feuds in the 1370s and 1380s known in German historiography as the ‘Town War’. This has traditionally been viewed as an anarchic conflict between two monolithic and inherently polarized blocs of free and imperial cities on the one hand and nobles and princes on the other. Through a ‘thick description’ of the complicated military and arbitrational activities of the 1370s and 1380s, this chapter shows that they can more accurately be understood in terms of the shared repertoire of associative formats and practices that were prevalent in Upper Germany. Far from being chaotic and irrational, the conflicts and negotiations played out according to the principles of associative political culture.
The Age of Imperial Reform, c. 1486–1521
Authors: Hardy Duncan
Published: September 2018

This final case study in associative political culture’s shaping of the evolving Holy Roman Empire examines the new legislation passed during the reign of King/Emperor Maximilian, which modern historians have often called ‘imperial reforms’. At the heart of the reform narrative is the idea that the Empire experienced a constitutional watershed around 1495/1500 as a set of new institutions was established through laws issued at the imperial diets, such as the so-called ‘eternal public peace’ (Ewiger Landfriede), the imperial chamber court (Reichskammergericht), and the imperial council (Reichsregiment). However, the functions and discourses of these institutions and the legislation that created them were remarkably similar to associative practices and documentation. Viewed from the perspective of the Upper German culture of multilateral assistance through stipulated mutual obligations and adjudication and negotiation at Tage, the outcomes of ‘imperial reform’ appear not as radical departures, but as iterations of deeply rooted structures and dynamics.
Reflexivity in Buddhist Epistemology
Authors: Dunne John D.
Published: September 2018

Recent developments in the study of human cognition suggest that, in the context of interacting to accomplish a task together, humans engage in a form of ‘distributed’ or ‘cooperative’ cognition that facilitates their work. A key feature of this type of shared cognition is the capacity for humans to be aware of themselves as members of the cooperating group, and as the need arises, they can also become aware of the group itself when it must be regulated due to some dysfunction. In an attempt to bring new insights to this feature of cooperative cognition, this chapter engages with Buddhist epistemological theories of ‘reflexive awareness’ presented by the Buddhist philosopher Dharmakīrti and his followers, and it points to crucial implications of the Dharmakīrtian notion of reflexivity that may be relevant to understanding the kind of reflexivity that sustains cooperative cognition.
Artefacts and the Dynamics of Truces in Organizational Routines
Authors: Wiedemann Nicolás J.B. , Wiegmann Leona , Weber Juergen
Published: September 2018

Organizational routines can constitute a temporary settlement of individual actors’ diverging interests, described as a truce that enables the routine as a collective accomplishment to proceed. In this regard, scholars have recognized the central but ambiguous role of artefacts; they may be used to coordinate the interactions in routines but may also be mobilized to serve individual interests. Following this line of thinking, this chapter assumes a process perspective to advance our understanding of how such temporal settlements are continuously formed and in particular, the role artefacts play in this process. Based on a single case study over a period of thirty-three months, it analyses the use of a newly implemented artefact that inadvertently impeded smooth routine functioning as the artefact provided content that gave actors leeway to act out their interests in enacting the routine.
Global Business
Authors: Joshi Mahesh , Klein James R.
Published: September 2018

In the midst of the growing prominence of international interconnectivity and contradicting attention skewed by misinformation about global impact, this book presents a straightforward, readable commentary on mega trends in globalization by focusing on its history, its present, and its future. The book takes the mystery out of what is happening economically, culturally, and socially around the world. Is globalization the bogeyman, bugbear, and goblin coming out of the dark with the intention of taking our children and ruining our lives? It is the authors’ goal to present a balanced and simple explanation of what is happening around the world and how it affects everyone. The book highlights the constancy of change and examines how we got to where we are today. It encourages thinking about where we’ve been, fosters realistic examination of where we are now, and invites a dialogue on where we can go in the future.
Technological Disruption in Global Finance
Authors: Joshi Mahesh K. , Klein J.R.
Published: September 2018

Will the currency of the future be bitcoins or cryptocurrencies? With Fintech and Digital ecosystems growing rapidly, what is the future of banks? Technology is fast replacing paper currency with electronic transactions. Finance has become sophisticated with complex and diversified products. New technology and instruments have enabled growth of global financial assets to more than $160 trillion. Geographical boundaries for financial transactions have disappeared with transactions taking place seamlessly across the globe. Due to the global connectedness of financial markets, any event in one country can impact the whole world instantaneously. The effects of the last decade’s financial crisis are still being felt in major economies. Financing is being used both as a weapon in the balance of power and as a facilitator of cross-border acquisitions. Governments are competing with tax rates to attract global corporations. Individual investors have the opportunities and tools available for geographical diversification of their investments.
The Role of Non-Governmental Organizations
Authors: Joshi Mahesh K. , Klein J.R.
Published: September 2018

Can non-governmental organizations (NGOs) combine with businesses to alleviate inequality? The history of NGOs suggests that they have the reach which businesses may struggle to get. It is possible for global businesses to work with NGOs to take advantage of their reach in various parts of the society to serve and fulfil their social responsibility as well as grow their business. Businesses can work together with international as well as local NGOs to get the last mile connectivity to provide humanitarian aid as well as training and empowering the masses with new skill sets. The perception that the two held about each other is changing rapidly, and there is growing evidence that businesses are pushing for inclusive capitalism. There are several examples of large corporations and NGOs combining their efforts to leverage the strength of each other in serving and making a difference in societies across the world.
China’s Re-emergence as a Global Power
Authors: Joshi Mahesh K. , Klein J.R.
Published: September 2018

Over the past five decades China’s unprecedented rise is one of the rare economic success stories of a country opening up its economy to world markets. China initiated market reforms in 1978 with a major shift to a market-based economy from a centrally planned economy. The move resulted in an unprecedented economic growth and social impact. The gross domestic product (GDP) growth has averaged close to double digits for most of the time since then, and created a major economy at the fastest pace in history. It has made a major contribution to global growth since the financial crisis of 2008. In 2015, China was ranked number one in terms of GDP and purchasing power parity (PPP) at $19.8 trillion, followed by the United States at $18 trillion.
The Knowledge Barons of India
Authors: Joshi Mahesh K. , Klein J.R.
Published: September 2018

India’s economic journey has seen many ups and downs since 3,500 BC. It has become the third largest economy in terms of gross domestic product (GDP) in purchasing power parity (PPP). It has the second largest English-speaking population after the United States. India has successfully built its knowledge-based industry with software exports being its primary product. The Government has taken aggressive steps to move toward a cashless transaction society by driving digitization. It has de-monetized the currency in an attempt to eradicate corruption and to provide an alternate platform for electronic payments. Sector-wide policy intervention by the Government, intended to drive economic growth, may create a completely new growth story. Its large consumer base is an attractive market, and demographic diversity is a competitive advantage. India is the fastest growing emerging economy in the world with a population of 1.3 billion.
Africa and the Curse of Natural Resources
Authors: Joshi Mahesh K. , Klein J.R.
Published: September 2018

Africa is flush with natural resources, a population over one billion, a rich cultural history, and all the elements of a robust economy that still struggles with the basics. Its reliance on natural resources and the lack of resource management in a transparent and acceptable manner has led to discontent and conflict. It has the opportunity to reboot its economies by embracing value-added positions in the natural resources value chain by providing finished products instead of just the raw material. It could also offer itself as a low-cost manufacturing location to the rest of the world. Signs of more transparent governance and management of resources are being seen which will eventually lead to a path of growth. Africa’s geographical location, in the middle of three major markets; Asia, America, and Europe, gives it an attractive competitive advantage. Africa is poised to drive its emerging economy soundly on to the world stage.
Disruptive Technologies Driving Growth
Authors: Joshi Mahesh K. , Klein J.R.
Published: September 2018

Since the dawn of the industrial revolution, technologies have had a disruptive impact on business and society. The proliferations of technology-based start-ups in the last decade are significant change agents for job creators and creators of business environments. Marginal improvements are creating disruption and new business models by building upon the disruptive power of technology. Mobile phones have become an extension of our arm with an average person checking it 150 times a day. These amazing changes are not the beginning and are certainly not the end. The primary change driver has been technology and today things are changing even faster. This is beginning to drive a reduction in poverty, an increase in labor standards, greater access to consumer goods, and the facilitation of cultural exchange. Cost-of-living improvement is, on a grander scale, staging for a brave new world of peace.
Analytics Taming the Data Monster
Authors: Joshi Mahesh K. , Klein J.R.
Published: September 2018

In this digital world in two days we create as much information as we did from the beginning of time until 2003. The volume of data being captured and stored is mind boggling. It seems that there is quantum disruption coming in the decision-making process in the way massive amounts of data and its analysis is being used to make decisions. Data about personal choices are collected at every interaction point, data location flows through the daily use of mobile devices, and these are being used by companies for making business choices. It may seem that those who are in control of data may know more about the person than the person himself; however, if you look at Brexit and the US elections, data analytics pretty much failed to deliver significant insight.
The Future of Human Workers
Authors: Joshi Mahesh K. , Klein J.R.
Published: September 2018

New technologies like artificial intelligence, robotics, machine intelligence, and the Internet of Things are seeing repetitive tasks move away from humans to machines. Humans cannot become machines, but machines can become more human-like. The traditional model of educating workers for the workforce is fast becoming irrelevant. There is a massive need for the retooling of human workers. Humans need to be trained to remain focused in a society which is constantly getting bombarded with information. The two basic elements of physical and mental capacity are slowly being taken over by machines and artificial intelligence. This changes the fundamental role of the global workforce.
Entrepreneurship as the New Driver of Business
Authors: Joshi Mahesh K. , Klein J.R.
Published: September 2018

Entrepreneurship has enabled the individual to challenge existing corporations with a new model more efficient than the traditional one. The entrepreneur’s model provides almost instant connection to local geography and international markets at the same time. With the support of capital, entrepreneurs are not only driving a creative destruction of existing business but also developing new business models, ideas to make new products, and developing new technologies. Places like Silicon Valley provide the ecosystem required for successfully breeding entrepreneurship with its education system with cutting-edge research, culture, acceptance of failure, and availability of finance. Entrepreneurial development has moved from the development hardware and software, to the creation of, and access to, technology platforms, and the development of new business models. Replication of new business models is now almost instantaneous.
The Future of Globalization
Authors: Joshi Mahesh K. , Klein J.R.
Published: September 2018

Is globalization under attack? The current geopolitical environment is indicating a shift towards protectionism, nationalism, and isolationism. The US elections and Brexit are a reflection of public sentiments. It will be interesting to see how much the current rhetoric is able to dent globalization, which has become an integral part of our society because of technological interconnectedness. Globalization has been underway for centuries with trade, entertainment, cuisines, education, and politics. Today’s physical interconnectivity has been replaced by digital connectivity. There are more than 350 million cross-border e-commerce shoppers. In 2015 almost 200 million people were living away from their home country, and around 40 million were crossing borders for work. There are nearly 400 million international travelers every year.
Political Community in Revolutionary Pennsylvania, 1774-1800
Authors: Owen Kenneth
Published: September 2018

Political Community in Revolutionary Pennsylvania challenges the ways we understand popular sovereignty in the American Revolution, demonstrating how ordinary citizens wielded significant political power. Previous histories place undue focus on either elite political thought or class analysis; on the contrary, citizens cared most about the establishment of a representative, publicly legitimate political process. Popular activism constrained leaders, creating a system through which governmental actions were made more representative of the will of the community. This book analyzes developments in Pennsylvania from 1774, and the passage of the Intolerable Acts, through to 1800 and the election of Thomas Jefferson. It examines the animating philosophy of the Pennsylvania state constitution of 1776, a “radical manifesto” espousing a vision of popular sovereignty in which government was devolved from the people only where necessary. The legitimacy of governmental institutions rested on their demonstration that they operated through popular consent, expressed in a variety of forms of popular mobilization. This book examines how early Americans interacted with the power structures shaping the world in which they lived, recasting the nature of the American Revolution and illuminating the origins of modern American political practice. It investigates how political mobilization operated inside and outside formal channels of government. Mechanisms of popular mobilization helped a diverse population mediate with governmental institutions, providing the foundation of early American power. Histories that ignore this relationship miss one of the most significant founding characteristics of the United States—the importance of popular politics and democratic practice in the establishment of American government.
Introduction
Authors: Owen Kenneth
Published: September 2018

When ordinary citizens participated in the American Revolution, they did so in order to secure control of their own political institutions. This issue—the establishment of a political framework in which ordinary citizens operated the levers of power—was the central question of the American Revolution. The Revolution was not epiphenomenal to broader issues of class, ethnicity, gender, or race. Pennsylvanians during the revolutionary era adopted a wide toolkit of political mechanisms to control government, including town meetings, county committees, pamphleteering, civil disobedience, and political violence. These institutions shaped and structured the nature of American democracy, politics, and governance long after the revolutionary fervor of 1776 had subsided. This introduction provides an overview of the methodologies and arguments used to analyze this political activism.
The Making of the Radical Manifesto, 1774–1776
Authors: Owen Kenneth
Published: September 2018

This chapter asks why Pennsylvanians adopted a radical manifesto as their state constitution in September 1776. Analyzing mobilization against British rule from the Intolerable Acts to Independence, it looks at how Pennsylvanians formed a kind of shadow government of ad hoc political institutions. This included a voluntary militia and a committee system based on town and county meetings, which were given particular potency by the Continental Association. The committee system, in league with the Continental Congress, formed the fundamental building block of the Pennsylvania Constitution of 1776. By forming a government that fused colonial traditions of political mobilization, widespread participation, and the rhetoric of popular sovereignty, Pennsylvanians came to adopt a radically democratic form of government that embodied the revolutionary spirit of 1776.
The Persistence of Political Community, 1795–1799
Authors: Owen Kenneth
Published: September 2018

This chapter analyses Pennsylvanian and American politics in the late 1790s, focusing particularly on the Jay Treaty debates, the Alien and Sedition Acts, the Fries Rebellion, and the Pennsylvania gubernatorial election of 1799 (a key precursor to the Adams–Jefferson election of 1800). In each episode, Pennsylvanians adopted a different set of political practices, all nevertheless predicated on some form of representative action. In all these episodes, Pennsylvanians argued the right of popular political engagement did not end at election time, but instead was a continuous factor that should shape the governmental decision-making process. The outpouring of popular political activism in a variety of forms underscored the importance of a participatory political culture that could be seen to represent the people as a whole.
Relative Locations
Authors: Bacon Andrew
Published: September 2018

The fact that physical laws often admit certain kinds of space-time symmetries is often thought to be problematic for substantivalism—the view that space-time is as real as the objects it contains. The most prominent alternative, relationism, avoids these problems but at the cost of giving abstract objects (rather than space-time points) a pivotal role in the fundamental metaphysics. This incurs related problems concerning the relation of the physical to the mathematical. This paper presents a version of substantivalism that respects Leibnizian theses about space-time symmetries, and argues that it is superior to both relationism and the more orthodox form of substantivalism.
A Passage Theory of Time
Authors: Lipman Martin A.
Published: September 2018

This paper proposes a theory of time that takes the notion of passage as its basic primitive. Any notion of passage that is worthy of that name should make for real change across time. It is argued that real change across time in turn requires the obtaining of incompatible facts. The proposed theory will therefore be a form of fragmentalism, which makes room for the obtaining of incompatible facts by taking the world to exhibit a type of fragmented structure. The preferred form of fragmentalism and the primitive notion of passage are elucidated in some detail. It is argued that the resulting picture resolves the problem of change and meets the puzzling yet necessary conditions for the reality of passage
The Quality of Life
Authors: Kraut Richard
Published: September 2018

The Quality of Life: Aristotle Revised presents a philosophical theory about the constituents of human well-being. It begins with Aristotle’s thoughts about this topic, but often modifies and sometimes rejects them. The principal idea is that what Aristotle calls “external goods” (wealth, reputation, power) have at most an indirect bearing on the quality of our lives. A good internal life—the way in which we experience the world—is what well-being consists in. Pleasure is one aspect of this experience, but only a small part of it. Far more valuable is the quality of our emotional, intellectual, social, and perceptual experiences. These aspects of our existence make it potentially richer and deeper than the quality of life available to many other animals. A good human life is immeasurably better than that of a simple creature that feels only the pleasures of nourishment. Even if it felt pleasure for millions of years, human life would be superior. Contemporary discussions of well-being often appeal to a thought experiment devised by Robert Nozick, which holds that we should not attach ourselves to an “experience machine”—a device that manipulates our brains and gives us any illusory experiences of our choosing. This is thought to show that one’s interior life has little or no value on its own; that we must live in “the real world” to live well. In fact, however, this thought experiment supports the opposite conclusion: the quality of our lives consists in the quality of our experiences.
The Oyster and the Experience Machine
Authors: Kraut Richard
Published: September 2018

An experientialist conception of well-being holds that well-being is composed of many goods, all of them experiential, but only one of which is pleasure. Against the prevailing orthodoxy, Nozick’s idea of an “experience machine” is shown to support rather than undermine experientialism. Further, the richness of human experience can give our lives a special kind of superiority: human goods are incommensurably better than the low-level pleasures that might be felt in an oyster-like existence. J. S. Mill’s distinction between the quality and the quantity of good experience is a rejection of the claim of J. M. E. McTaggart that a sufficiently long-lived oyster-like life would be better than a far briefer human life.
Well-Being and Time
Authors: Kraut Richard
Published: September 2018

A full defense is presented of the thesis that there are two orders of value, one incommensurably superior to the other. To see this, we must realize that the goods that comprise well-being do not diminish in value over time. Plato was therefore right to hold that we should want to possess the good eternally. Lives typically contain a combination of good and bad; a whole life should be counted good on balance by aggregating—adding the good and subtracting the bad. No period of life inherently has less prudential value than any other. Narrative factors should figure in our assessment of how well a life goes only when they affect our experience. There is some truth in Goethe’s line: “Only the present is our happiness” (Faust, Part Two). Aristotle’s notion that well-being needs a “complete” life contains both insights and errors.
Variations on Aristotelian Themes
Authors: Kraut Richard
Published: September 2018

This work has followed but also departed from Aristotle in several ways. It adopts his method, which combines theory and the test of experience. Introspection confirms the badness of suffering. He sees that it is best for us to develop the powers we have as children, by educating our emotions and reason. Although he over-intellectualizes moral life and ignores childhood well-being, he recognizes that well-being has a temporal component. He also recognizes that the moral virtues make well-being available to all normal adults, and that there is more good in a complete human life than any number of years of humdrum existence.
Introduction
Authors: Stewart Jon
Published: September 2018

The Introduction presents the issue of the importance of Hegel’s account of the world religions and the neglect of this material in the secondary literature. An account is given of the quite limited secondary literature on this topic. The main theses of the work are stated: Hegel’s interpretation and defense of Christianity cannot be properly understood without an appreciation of his assessment of the other world religions. A key claim in his argument is that the different religions develop historically parallel to the development of human culture and spirit. Thus, the story of the development of the different conceptions of the gods is at the same time the story of the development of human freedom.
Immediate Religion
Authors: Stewart Jon
Published: September 2018

Chapter 2 is dedicated to the beginning of Hegel’s historical narrative about the world religions, which he claims is found in “magic” or “sorcery.” According to Hegel’s view, this is the most rudimentary, immediate form of religious thinking, indeed, so rudimentary that it cannot be designated as a religion proper. Hegel mentions several peoples such as the Eskimos, Indian tribes of North America, and native tribes of Mongolia and Africa that practice magic and, to his mind, have not progressed beyond this initial state. This is a notorious part of Hegel’s thought which has attracted the attention of many modern commentators, who are rightly outraged by his racism and Eurocentrism. Indeed, there is also no denying that his general tone is rather demeaning when it comes to discussing these non-European peoples. A detailed account of Hegel’s analysis is given along with an overview of his sources of information.
Changes in Quantitative Traits Over Time
Authors: Walsh Bruce , Lynch Michael
Published: September 2018

Quantitative traits—be they morphological or physiological characters, aspects of behavior, or genome-level features such as the amount of RNA or protein expression for a specific gene—usually show considerable variation within and among populations. This chapter provides a historical overview of the study of such traits and their connections with traditional and molecular population genetics, applied breeding, and evolutionary theory.
Neutral Evolution in One- and Two-Locus Systems
Authors: Walsh Bruce , Lynch Michael
Published: September 2018

This chapter reviews the population-genetic theory of neutral alleles in finite populations, examining the probabilities and times to loss or fixation, summary statistics for molecular variation, coalescent theory (the distribution of times back to common ancestry for a sample of alleles), and both mutation-drift and mutation-drift-migration equilibrium models.
The Genetic Effective Size of a Population
Authors: Walsh Bruce , Lynch Michael
Published: September 2018

The effects of genetic drift usually assume an idealized population of constant size. This chapter shows how the population size for such an idealized population can be replaced with an effective population size for populations with age structure, unequal sex ratios, a history of expansion or contraction, inbreeding, and population subdivision. These demographic features impact the entire genome more or less equally. A relatively recent understanding is that selection at a site can dramatically reduce the local effective population size experienced by nearby linked sites (the Hill-Robertson effect). This can arise from background selection to remove deleterious new mutations or from selective sweeps wherein favorable new mutations are driven toward fixation. The Hill-Robertson effect is a general way to describe the fact that selection at a site makes selection are other linked sites less efficient, and, therefore, more neutral. This chapter discusses the implications of this finding for genome structure.
The Population Genetics of Selection
Authors: Walsh Bruce , Lynch Michael
Published: September 2018

This chapter examines models of one- and two-locus selection in the absence of drift and mutation. Expressions for the per-generation rate of allele-frequency change and the expected time for a specified amount of change are developed for single-locus models, and their equilibrium structure is examined for those settings where selection retains more than one allele. The presence of selection-generated linkage disequilibrium greatly complicates the extension of single-locus results to two loci, and the chapter examines some of the resulting complications. Finally, it examines the nature of selection on a locus that underlies a trait under selection, and then uses this to develop the breeder's equation for the single-generation response in a trait under selection. One important result is that the loci for a trait under stabilizing selection experience fitness underdominance, and thus trait selection removes, rather than retains, genetic variation.
Changes in Genetic Variation Induced by Drift
Authors: Walsh Bruce , Lynch Michael
Published: September 2018

In the absence of the input of new variation, drift eventually removes all of the additive-genetic variance in a population. When nonadditive genetic variance is present, some of this variation can be transiently converted into additive variance, resulting in the latter occasionally increasingly (for a time) under inbreeding. This chapter examines the conditions under which such a conversion can occur, which leads to a discussion of the more complex covariances between inbred relatives, requiring the introduction of several new genetic-variance components to be introduced. It also examines the expected equilibrium levels of additive variance under drift-mutation equilibrium.
Short-term Changes in the Mean: 1. The Breeder’s Equation
Authors: Walsh Bruce , Lynch Michael
Published: September 2018

The expected response in the mean of a trait subjected to a single generation of selection from an unselected base population is usually well-approximated by the breeder's equation, R = h2S. This chapter shows how this basic equation generalizes to an important number of settings, such as differential selection on the two sexes, overlapping generations, and selection based on measures other than just an individual's phenotype. It also briefly examines selection response on multiple traits.
Short-term Changes in the Mean: 2. Truncation and Threshold Selection
Authors: Walsh Bruce , Lynch Michael
Published: September 2018

The selection intensity, the mean change in a trait within a generation expressed in phenotypic standard deviations, provides an important metric for comparing the strength of selection over designs. Further, under truncation selection (only individuals above some threshold leave offspring), the selection intensity is a function of the fraction saved, and hence the breeder's equation is often expressed in terms of the selection intensity. An important special case of truncation selection is a threshold trait, wherein an individual only expresses a particular phenotype when its underlying liability value exceeds some threshold. This chapter examines selection on such traits, and generalizes this binary-trait setting (with binomial residuals) to other classes of discrete traits, wherein some underling linear model (generating the threshold) is this transformed via a generalized linear mixed model into an observed trait value.
Short-term Changes in the Mean: 3. Permanent Versus Transient Response
Authors: Walsh Bruce , Lynch Michael
Published: September 2018

In a variety of settings—additive epistasis in a diploid, dominance in an autotetraploids, shared environmental effects (such as epigenetic contributions), maternal effects, and dominance under inbreeding—the response in the mean has both a permanent and a transient component. The latter arises because selection perturbs the population distribution of genotypes away from their Hardy-Weinberg values. Upon the cessation of selection, any change in allele frequencies remains, but any additional changes due to departures from Hardy-Weinberg decay away. The result is that, even in the presence of these transient components, the breeder's equation often accurately predicts the amount of permanent response.
Short-term Changes in the Variance: 1. Changes in the Additive Variance
Authors: Walsh Bruce , Lynch Michael
Published: September 2018

Selection changes the additive-genetic variance (and hence the response in the mean) by both changing allele frequencies and by generating correlations among alleles at different loci (linkage disequilibrium). Such selection-induced correlations can be generated even between unlinked loci, and (generally) are negative, such that alleles increasing trait values tend to become increasingly negative correlated under direction or stabilizing selection, and positively correlated under disruptive selection. Such changes in the additive-genetic variance from disequilibrium is called the Bulmer effects. For a large number of loci, the amount of change can be predicted from the Bulmer equation, the analog of the breeder's equation, but now for the change in the variance. Upon cessation of selection, any disequilibrium decays away, and the variances revert back to their additive-genic variances (the additive variance in the absence of disequilibrium). Assortative mating also generates such disequilibrium.
Short-term Changes in the Variance: 2. Changes in the Environmental Variance
Authors: Walsh Bruce , Lynch Michael
Published: September 2018

While classical quantitative genetics usually assumes that all genotypes have the same environmental variance (the assumption of homoscedasticity), in reality, genotypes can show heteroscedasticity in the environmental variance. When such variation is heritable (i.e., has an additive variance in an outbred population), then the environmental variance can change under selection. This can either be due to an indirect response (such as during directional selection on a trait), or through direct selection to increase the homogeneity of a trait (such as for increased uniformity during harvesting). This chapter reviews the existing data on the heritability of the environmental variance and examines several different genetic models for predicting its response.
Analysis of Short-term Selection Experiments: 1. Least-squares Approaches
Authors: Walsh Bruce , Lynch Michael
Published: September 2018

This chapter examines short-term (a few generations) selection response in the mean of a trait. Traditionally, such experiments are analyzed using least-squares (LS) approaches. While ordinary LS (OLS) is often used, genetic drift causes the residual to be both correlated and heteroscedastic, resulting in the sampling variances given by OLS being too small. This chapter details the appropriate general LS (GLS) approaches to properly account for this residual error structure. It also reviews some of the common features observed in short-term selection experiments and examines experimental designs, such as the use of a control population versus a divergence-selection approach. It concludes by discussing another linear model used mainly by plant breeders, generation-means analysis (GMA), wherein remnant seed for several generations of response are crossed and then grown in a common garden. Such an analysis can provide insight into the genetic nature of any response.
Selection Response in Natural Populations
Authors: Walsh Bruce , Lynch Michael
Published: September 2018

The breeder's equation often fails when applied to natural populations. In large part, this likely occurs because the assumed trait is not the actual target of selection. A within-generation change in the mean of a suggested target trait can arise as a correlated response from selection acting elsewhere. This chapter examines sources of error in the breeder's equation and approaches that attempt to determine if an assumed trait is actually the true target of selection. It also reviews a number of long-term studies from natural populations and examines possible sources for the failure of most of these studies to conform to the expectations of the breeder's equation.
Selection Under Inbreeding
Authors: Walsh Bruce , Lynch Michael
Published: September 2018

When dominance is presence, the selection response equations under inbreeding can become rather complex, they require additional variance components beyond the additive-genetic variance. Further, both transient and permanent components of response can arise. This chapter examines the theory of both the covariance of relatives under general inbreeding, as well as the expected selection response under inbreeding. Due to the decrease in the effective recombination rate under selfing, the Bulmer effect can be rather dramatic, as any linkage disequilibrium generated by selection is only weakly removed by recombination. Finally, this chapter also examines the evolutionary forces that interact to determine the selfing rate for a given population.
Long-term Response: 2. Finite Population Size and Mutation
Authors: Walsh Bruce , Lynch Michael
Published: September 2018

In a finite population, drift is often more important than selection in removing any initial additive variance. This chapter examines the joint impact of selection, drift, and mutation on the long-term response in a quantitative trait. One key result is the remarkable finding of Robertson that the expected long-term response from any initial additive variance is bounded above by the product of twice the effective population size times the initial response. This result implies that the optimal selection intensity for long-term response it to save half of the population in each generation.
Citizens, Issues, and Political Cleavages
Authors: Dalton Russell J.
Published: September 2018

This chapter discusses the link between citizens’ positions on specific political issues and broader political cleavages that structure political competition. Issue opinions are primarily structured by two issue cleavages: economic and cultural. I argue that these broader issue cleavages are more likely to shape enduring political alignments and the party preferences of voters. The economic cleavage includes issues such as the role of the state, social services, and income inequality. The cultural cleavage has evolved from issues such as environmental protection, gender equality and European unification in the 1970s, to a wider set of issues involving immigration, LGBTQ rights, and social equality—and conservative reactions to these issues. Data from the European Election Studies (EES) in 1979, 2009, and 2014 track the evolution of both issue cleavages. The chapter conclusion considers the implications of this evolutionary process for political alignments in Europe.
Political Cleavages across Nations
Authors: Dalton Russell J.
Published: September 2018

This chapter focuses on the variations in cleavage politics across the European Union member states. The analyses compare the structure of issue positions across nations to see if the set of issues defining the economic and cultural cleavages are comparable. While there is some cross-national variation, both cleavages are evident across the European Union. The social group positions on both cleavages are also broadly similar across nations. The chapter then examines the social correlates of cleavage positions to see if factors such as the economic structure or the religious composition of societies affect group alignments. The results emphasize the commonality of the basic patterns for the EU overall to the pattern in specific member states. The analyses are primarily based on the 2009 European Election Study.
Political Cleavages and Political Parties
Authors: Dalton Russell J.
Published: September 2018

This chapter uses the cleavage positions of Candidates to the European Parliament (CEPs) to as representative of their parties’ political positions. Three surveys of CEPs track the evolution of party supply in European party systems. In 1979 parties were primarily aligned along a Left–Right economic cleavage. Gradually new left and Green parties began to compete in elections and crystallized and represented liberal cultural policies. In recent decades new far-right parties arose to represent culturally conservative positions. The cross-cutting cultural cleavage has also prompted many of the established parties to alter their policy positions. In most multiparty systems, political parties now compete in a fully populated two-dimensional space. This increases the supply of policy choices for the voters. The analyses are based on the Candidates to the European Parliament Studies in 1979, 1994, and 2009.
Electoral Choice—Voter Demand and Party Supply
Authors: Dalton Russell J.
Published: September 2018

This chapter examines the impact of the economic and cultural cleavages on Europeans’ voting choices over time. There is a strong and persisting influence of the economic cleavage on voting choices with little change after the 2008 financial crisis. There is also a growing importance of the cultural cleavage. In recent elections, the cultural cleavage outweighs the influence on the economic cleavage. The polarization of party positions on the cultural cleavage increases the influence of this cleavage, but the same pattern is not apparent for the economic cleavage. The salience of each cleavage also affects its weight in voting decisions. European voters and parties have realigned their positions so that both cleavages are now important for electoral choice. The analyses are based on the European Election Studies in 1979, 2009, and 2014.
The Lover’s Mockumentary
Authors: Heslin Peter J.
Published: September 2018

Propertius’ text is fraught with controversy, and this introductory chapter addresses several contentious issues: the state of his text, his political affiliations, his relationship with Cornelius Gallus, his knowledge of Greek literature and the fictiveness of the elegies. It also argues that Propertius must be seen as the third great poet in the circle of Maecenas, not as a member of the elegiac tradition later invented by Ovid. A methodology is set out for interpreting the frequent instances of mythological aporia, where an exemplum seems to be superfluous, irrelevant, or to fit its rhetorical context poorly. Two concrete examples of this approach are offered, one as applied to an elegy of Propertius and another to an ode of Horace; the latter is an effort to show that this approach is valid for Augustan poetry in general, and not just an attempt to rationalize a hopelessly corrupt textual tradition.
Myth and Genre
Authors: Heslin Peter J.
Published: September 2018

This chapter is a survey of the intertextual significance of myth in the remainder of Propertius’ first book, excluding those poems that engage mainly with Virgil, which are reserved for the next chapter. Again and again, mythology is the means by which Propertius defines his own poetry by articulating its oppositional relationship to other genres: iambic, tragedy, epic, and the love poetry of Catullus and Cornelius Gallus.
Ennius Redivivus
Authors: Heslin Peter J.
Published: September 2018

Propertius’ second book ended with a glimpse of the Aeneid as a work-in-progress. That passage sets the stage for the strange prominence of Ennius in the third book. Propertius did not suddenly discover an interest in annalistic epic. In the first half of his third book, he uses the Annales as a proxy for the Aeneid, mischievously implying that Virgil’s next work will be a historical epic, a continuation of Ennius’. Propertius continues to define his own constancy in contrast to Virgil’s Protean shifts in genre. In retrospect, Virgil’s pastoral poetry was actually very good; his subsequent shift to natural philosophy was perhaps a nobly motivated aspiration; but the current project of writing a national epic is a contradiction of Virgil’s own principles.
Conclusion
Authors: Heslin Peter J.
Published: September 2018

After Virgil’s death, Propertius looked back on the Aeneid as a great achievement, just as, after Virgil’s shift away from pastoral, Propertius looked back on the Eclogues with respect and fondness rather than as a threat to his own species of elegy. These shifting attitudes show the complexity and evolution of relationships within the circle of Maecenas. Even Horace, who expressed such admiration for Virgil when he was alive, published a rather more candid view in his fourth book of Odes. The poets in the circle of Maecenas were both friends and rivals; under the cover of amicitia their poetry played out a discreet drama of aggression, critique, and one-upmanship in the quest for primacy and fame.