bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Language
Authors: Edelman Shimon
Published: November 2023

Language, as Ludwig Wittgenstein famously argued, is a kind of game that people play. Had the “meme” meme evolved prior to the writing of Philosophical Investigations, Wittgenstein might have noted that, being essentially memetic, language is also a kind of game that plays people. Being thrust at a tender age into a community of inveterate players, we learn by observing, listening, and interacting with others, all the time literally playing it by ear, without any explicit instruction. Within a span of a few years, we become experts ourselves, yet the individual games we play — determined by the symbiotic memeplexes we host — remain pliable, being influenced by the games of our interlocutors, and influencing those in turn. In this chapter, I sketch a framework for thinking about language that unifies and computationally substantiates what to date has been a loose collection of maverick philosophical insights, trail-blazing psychological studies, and unorthodox linguistic theories. The opportunity for unification will be afforded by looking at language from the single most pertinent perspective: that of a human baby. This developmental perspective is the most pertinent one because it encompasses the emergence of the totality of an individual’s knowledge of language from an initial state whose only empirically warranted characterization is “profound ignorance.”
Being No One
Authors: Edelman Shimon
Published: November 2023

In Contrast to the kind of REFLEXIVE SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS afforded to humans by looking into the mirror of language, there exists in all of us a more primeval awareness. To the extent that they maintain a model of the world that surrounds them, and themselves as being part of it, all sentient beings share this latter capacity. In the present chapter, I lay out a computational explanation both of this elemental PHENOMENAL EXPERIENCE, and of consciousness grounded in reflection and narrative. The unifying concept will be that of ACCESS among representations — those maintained internally, as well as “that vast external memory, the external environment itself” (Reitman et al., 1978, p.72).
Consciousness: Artificial Pleasures And Desires in Other Bodies?
Authors: Kringelbach Morten L .
Published: November 2023

When John Steinbeck described consciousness as a tragic miracle, he meant that although our sophisticated under- standing and awareness of what is happening in the present and what is likely to happen in the future gives us the freedom to make choices and follow our desires, we also know that we will not live forever. That is, we are all aware, on some level, that we are living a tragedy, in that sooner or later we will have to leave everything that gives meaning to our lives. In the face of this reality, however, most of us remain full of optimism, continuing to form and nurture the relationships and interests that create the tragedy.

Our subjective experience is perhaps the defining characteristic of consciousness. As we have seen, several brain regions are possible candidates for mediating this experience. The orbitofrontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, insular cortex, and ventral striatum have been clearly implicated in the hedonic networks that contribute to shaping our behavior and our subjective experience.
Learning: Emotions and Thoughts
Authors: Kringelbach Morten L .
Published: November 2023

When I was a young boy, my grandfather took me for long walks on the beach. Among the pebbles at the edge of the ocean were many fossils, including thunderstones. These are fossils of extinct animals in the squid family that lived in the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods. They can be difficult to discern among the pebbles, so it requires training and concentration to find them. They are sufficiently common along Danish beaches so that, unlike the less common amber, they hold no monetary value. Nevertheless, I desired them for their long semitransparent golden shape and for the pleasure of the hunt. My grandfather was an expert in finding thunderstones and one of my greatest ambitions was to become as skilled.

Learning is commonly associated with lessons and class- rooms. But Oscar Wilde was right to point out that nothing that is worth knowing can be taught. Collecting thunder- stones is not a subject in any school I know of. To learn it, I needed only plenty of time and motivation, which are some of the most important elements for learning. Other ones include a certain amount of talent and a good portion of luck. Desire and pleasure are central for learning. They are involved in the possible causes for poor mathematical abilities, stuttering, and dyslexia.
Future Considerations: Where Do We Go From Here?
Authors: Kringelbach Morten L .
Published: November 2023

As shown in this book, the pleasure center of the brain is not a center that one can visit to extract more pleasure. Rather it is a complex entity consisting of a republic of connected brain regions, whose activity changes dynamically over time and is seldom fully available for conscious introspection. Neuroscience can help to uncover this constant maelstrom of brain activity. Our journey to the pleasure center is therefore not foremost an exploration of consciousness as such but perhaps rather an exploration of the nonconscious brain processes which lead to choices and actions—and even pleasure.

Pleasure, desire, and happiness coexist in consciousness. We can ask people how they are consciously experiencing their pleasure and contentment at any given time. But their answers are not necessarily informative, since we are not particularly skilled at decoding our subjective states and nonconscious brain activity. There can be huge differences between how we say we should feel and how we do feel.
Eight Stories Up
Authors: Lezine Dequincy A , Brent David
Published: November 2023

This is a book for adolescents who have contemplated suicide, or who may be at risk for doing so. As a teenager, author DeQuincy Lezine was one of the many young people each year who attempt suicide. Instead, he sought psychiatric help and went on to found the first ever campus-based chapter of the Suicide Prevention Action Network USA. In Eight Stories Up, Lezine discusses his own struggles with suicidal thoughts and provides valuable information that young people need, such as how to find professional help, what types of problems and illnesses may lead to suicidal behaviours, available therapies, and how to cope at home and at school.
Getting Help
Authors: Lezine Dequincy A , Brent David
Published: November 2023

As I look back on my life in Los Angeles, I recall that, even before I went to college, people around me knew that something might be wrong. I was sent to counseling on and off throughout junior high and high school, and I hated it. I thought therapists were just paid strangers who wanted to pry into my private life. I simply refused to believe I needed their help, and I refused to talk. The various school psychologists and therapists that I was sent to over the years barely register in my memory as a result. Unfortunately, in therapy, if you say nothing, you get nothing. Maybe if I’d given therapy a chance when I was younger, then I could have avoided my suicidal crisis. Perhaps if I had had some way to build up my coping resources in my early teen years, then I wouldn’t have found myself in a life-threatening situation during college. I don’t know, but if I had it to do over again, knowing what I do now, I’d try.
Recovery
Authors: Lezine Dequincy A , Brent David
Published: November 2023

In my first session with Dr. O, I had promised to stay alive at least until our next session the following week, and I fully intended to keep my word. That did not mean, though, that I immediately stopped thinking about suicide. In fact, you already know about some of what happened over the next few weeks: the planning for my jump, the writing of my suicide note, and the sending of those e-mails to friends, in which I desperately tried to convince them that suicide was my best option. I planned to kill myself on Friday, December 1. I had an appointment with Dr. O. where I could fulfill my promise to tell her before I died. It was also my brother’s birthday, which just seemed to complete the circle of life. Then on Monday evening, November 27, 1995, Campus Police and Security arrived to escort me out of the computer lab from where I was sending those e-mails. I was taken to a nearby private psychiatric hospital the next day.
Taste, Disgust, and Value: Taste Aversion Learning and Outcome Encoding in Instrumental Conditioning
Authors: Balleine Bernard W
Published: November 2023

Taste aversion learning, the demonstration that pairing a taste with illness reduces the willingness of animals to consume substances containing that taste, has been shrouded in controversy since its first description about four decades ago. As is well documented elsewhere in this book, reports of robust learning despite long delays between taste and illness, of biological constraints on learning, and of potentiation rather than competition between elements of a compound for association with illness were met with a degree of skepticism when first reported and yet, or perhaps because of this, taste aversion learning has become one of the more thoroughly researched areas of learning in its own right. Just as importantly, the taste aversion paradigm has proven to be a useful tool in the investigation of a variety of other learning processes. This chapter discusses two cases in which taste aversion learning has been used in this way to understand the associative structure of instrumental conditioning; indeed, it was through the use of this procedure that the first and most important evidence that animals can encode the consequences of their actions emerged. Furthermore, using this procedure, it has been established that instrumental performance is not just determined by the association between an action and the outcome but is also a product of the incentive value of the outcome.
Hormonal Modulation of Conditioned Taste Avoidance: The Role of Estradiol
Authors: Chambers Kathleen C , Hintiryan Houri
Published: November 2023

Hormones are organic compounds that when released into the bloodstream can affect target tissues at long distances from the site of synthesis. They are synthesized and released by secretory cells in the body and brain and those hormones secreted by cells in the body can affect brain function either directly or indirectly through their action on target tissues outside the brain. Although hormones can play an essential role in the display of various behaviors, such as testosterone in male rodent sexual behavior, their role in conditioned taste avoidance (CTA) apparently is modulatory. The study of three different hormones, testosterone, adrenocorticotropin hormone (ACTH), and vasopressin, has revealed that their modulatory influence is both varied and complex. The most striking modulatory effect of these hormones is on the expression of extinction (for reviews see the following: Chambers, 1985; Chambers & Hayes, 2005; Chambers, Yuan, Brownson, & Wang, 1997; Smotherman, 1985). This influence is dependent on whether the hormone is present during the acquisition or extinction processes, on the interaction of the hormone with other hormonal systems, and on whether the circulatory levels of the hormone are high or low.
Taste Aversions in Pregnancy
Authors: Bayley Tracy M , Dye Louise , Hill Andrew J
Published: November 2023

Pregnancy is a time that is commonly associated with both food aversions and food cravings. Indeed, there is now substantial research literature characterizing these experiences. The purpose of this chapter is to provide an over-view of these findings and to summarize the explanations proposed. Data from three new studies, two of which are prospective in design, looking at the relationship between nausea and food aversions are also presented. Together, this research provides support for learned associations between food exposure, pregnancy nausea and sickness, and food aversions.
Privacy and Confidentiality
Authors: Bush Shane S
Published: November 2023

The ability of patients to communicate openly and honestly has traditionally been a fundamental component of psychological treatment. In psychotherapy, patients must be confident that their most sensitive and deeply held thoughts and feelings can be safely divulged. However, patient willingness to disclose information that could become a source of embarrassment or result in other harmful consequences is as important for neuropsychological evaluations as it is for treatment. The ability of neuropsychologists to obtain accurate and complete patient information is essential for diagnostic accuracy and clinical decision making.
Advertising and Other Public Statements
Authors: Bush Shane S
Published: November 2023

Many opportunities exist for neuropsychologists to educate consumers and recipients of services, referral sources, colleagues, the public, and others about neuropsychology in general and their services in particular. In addition, neuropsychological evaluation results and treatment status are conveyed to patients, referral sources, courts, and other relevant parties. The provision of complete and accurate information, privately or publicly, is consistent with the ethical principles of beneficence, nonmaleficence, integrity, and to the extent that such information is used to make decisions about the use of neuropsychological services, respect for autonomy.
Therapy
Authors: Bush Shane S
Published: November 2023

Although assessment is the primary professional activity of clinical neuropsychologists, many also provide treatment. Psychotherapy with patients that do not have brain dysfunction is the second most prominent clinical activity, in terms of number of hours per week (4.86 hours), for neuropsychologists (Sweet, Grote, & van Gorp, 2002). Neuropsychologists as a group spend approximately 2.70 hours per week providing psychotherapy to patients with acquired brain dysfunction and spend the fewest number of clinical hours per week (0.64 hour) performing cognitive rehabilitation, with 81.3% of the survey respondents performing no cognitive rehabilitation, 9% performing 1–2 hours per week, and 6.6% providing 3–6 hours per week (Sweet, Grote, & van Gorp, 2002). Although considerable overlap exists between ethical requirements of neuropsychologists when conducting evaluations and providing treatment (e.g., competence, informed consent), some ethical issues are unique to or encountered differently in treatment contexts.
Mild Traumatic Brain Injury And Postconcussion Syndrome
Authors: Mccrea Michael A
Published: November 2023

This is the first neuropsychology book to translate exciting findings from the recent explosion of research on sport-related concussion to the broader context of mild traumatic brain injury (MTBI) and post-concussive syndrome (PCS) in the general population. Traumatic brain injuries constitute a major global public health problem, but until now MTBIs, which constitute up to 90 percent of all treated TBIs, have been difficult to evaluate and manage clinically because of the absence of a viable model. This book provides a welcome evidence base for all clinicians involved in the clinical diagnosis and treatment of MTBI. Each section of the book ends with a helpful summary of the 'Top 10' conclusions. The book includes a Continuing Education (CE) component administered by the American Academy of Clinical Neuropsychology.
Acute Symptoms and Symptom Recovery
Authors: Mccrea Michael A
Published: November 2023

As summarized in part one, the diagnosis of MTBI is based in large part on subjective symptoms reported by the patient. Likewise, end points of recovery after MTBI are most often determined by the complete resolution of self- reported symptoms. The diagnosis of postconcussion syndrome (PCS) is essentially reserved for those patients with persistent complaints after MTBI. In sum, the diagnostic and prognostic importance of symptoms after MTBI underscores the need to establish empirically defined parameters for the expected course of symptom recovery. Thankfully, recent studies have generated an evidence base on the natural history of symptom recovery after MTBI that can guide the clinician in interpreting a patient’s persistent com- plaints at the individual case level.
Acute Cognitive Effects and Early Recovery
Authors: Mccrea Michael A
Published: November 2023

Although the persistent cognitive effects of MTBI weeks and months after injury have been extensively researched, relatively fewer studies more recently have provided objective, empirical data on the acute neurocognitive effects immediately following MTBI. This gap in the literature is due in large part to situational circumstances that limit the capacity for prospective re- search implementing standardized assessment methods immediately follow- ing MTBI. Standardized measures for assessing mental status and neurologic changes beyond traditional injury classification criteria (e.g., GCS) are quite uncommon in most trauma settings. Furthermore, injury severity grading systems may not be sensitive to subtle neurocognitive changes that present risks for more severe underlying neurologic complications after MTBI. In contrast, neuropsychological testing is considered a sensitive and sophisticated method for assessing concussion but typically is not feasible immediately after injury in most acute care settings.
Measuring Neurophysiologic Recovery
Authors: Mccrea Michael A
Published: November 2023

Advances in functional neuroimaging not only provide valuable insights on the mechanisms underlying the pathophysiology of MTBI but also may pro- vide a new platform for measuring the early course of neurophysiologic recovery following TBI. For many reasons, functional magnetic resonance imag- ing (f MRI) may have various technological, methodological, and practical advantages over other functional imaging platforms when it comes to studying recovery and the effects of rehabilitation in TBI. Several investigators have implemented f MRI in the study of MTBI, including recent studies that have applied f MRI techniques in the investigation of sport-related concussion. Our research group lead by Thomas Hammeke and others at the Medical College of Wisconsin has included f MRI studies as part of a larger project tracking recovery of cognitive functioning, postconcussive symptoms, and postural stability in athletes following concussion. In keeping with the traditional sports concussion research model, all subjects undergo preseason baseline testing on several concussion assessment measures of cognitive functioning, symptoms, and postural stability. These measures are then repeated at several time points postinjury to track recovery after MTBI. Matched control subjects also complete identical protocol to establish the normal pattern of performance on serial testing.
Architecture of the Brain:
Authors: Goldberg Elkhonon
Published: November 2023

The brain consists of hundreds of billions of cells (neurons and glial cells), intricately interconnected by pathways (dendrites and axons). Several types of neurons and glial cells exist. Some of the pathways between neurons are local, branching within their immediate “neighborhoods.” But others are long, interconnecting distant neural structures. These long pathways are covered with white fatty tissue, myelin, which facilitates the passage of the electric signals generated within the neurons (action poten-tials). The neurons and short local connections together comprise the gray matter, and the long myelinated pathways comprise the white matter. Every neuron is interconnected with a myriad of other neurons, resulting in intricate patterns of interactions. Thus a network of mind-boggling complexity is constructed of relatively simple elements.

The principle of achieving great complexity through multiple permutations of simple elements appears to be universal and is implemented in nature (and culture) in a variety of ways. Think, for instance, of language, in which thousands of words, sentences, and narratives are constructed out of a few dozen letters; or think of the genetic code—a virtually infinite number of variants can be achieved through the combination of a finite number of genes.
Different Lobes for Different Folks:
Authors: Goldberg Elkhonon
Published: November 2023

Comparing the function of the normal and abnormal brain has been the mainstay of neuropsychology. It is understood that brain disease may take many forms, each corresponding to its own neurological or psychiatric condition: dementia, head injury, stroke, and so on. On the other hand, traditional neuropsychology and cognitive neuroscience have adopted an abstraction, the “normal brain,” envisioned as a grand average of all individual brains. This simplistic notion has been frequently taken to an absurd extreme in many areas of cognitive neuroscience, including functional neuroimaging, the increasingly dominant methodology allowing scientists and clinicians to examine brain physiology and not just brain structure. The imaging data were fitted onto “Talairach space” (named after its inventor), which is basically the brain of a single French woman, presumably selected on the assumption that it serves as a good approximation of all the other brains. To make matters worse, only one hemisphere was selected and mirrored, ignoring all we know about hemispheric differences.

Neuroscientists are not unique in recognizing and appreciating the diversity of human minds, talents, and personalities as variations of normality.
“What Can You Do for Me?”
Authors: Goldberg Elkhonon
Published: November 2023

For many neuropsychologists, like myself, science is a labor of love, but seeing patients is bread and butter. Traditionally, the clinical contribution of neuropsychology has been mostly diagnostic, with precious little to offer patients by way of treatment. Neuropsychology is not the only clinical discipline for years consigned to helpless voyeurism. Every discipline concerned with cognition shares this humbling predicament. A psychiatrist treating a schizophrenic patient or a depressed patient finds him-or herself in a similar position. There are ample pharmacological tools to treat the patient’s psychosis or mood, but very few to treat the patient’s cognition. Even though psychiatrists increasingly recognize that cognitive impairment is often more debilitating in their patients than psychosis or mood disorder, traditionally, very little direct effort has been aimed at improving cognition.

A neurologist treating a patient recovering from the effects of head injury does not fare much better. There are adequate means to control the patient’s seizures but not his or her cognitive changes, despite the fact that cognitive impairment is usually far more debilitating than an occasional seizure. Society has been so preoccupied with saving lives, treating hallucinations, controlling seizures, and lifting depression that cognition (memory, attention, planning, problem solving) has been largely ignored.
Frontal Lobes and the Leadership Paradox
Authors: Goldberg Elkhonon
Published: November 2023

In the spirit of interdisciplinary parallels adopted in this book, I am tempted to apply the analysis of brain evolution to the understanding of the momentous historical changes unfolding before us today. In science the convergence of conclusions based on vastly different sources of knowledge is highly valued. It lends credibility to predictions and points to universal principles underlying diverse complex systems. The search for such universal principles shared by superficially different systems is at the heart of the new field of complexity emerging at the cutting edge of science and philosophy. In trying to grasp history, we may be able to draw on the insights of neurobiology. A striking parallel is becoming increasingly apparent between the changing world order and the evolution of the brain.

Superficially different yet essentially similar processes are developing in eastern and western Europe. To the east, the Soviet Union has collapsed. Whereas the Communist rulers of the fallen Soviet superpower lauded their regime as the dawn of a new era, future historians will view it as the last spasm of the 400-year-old Russian Empire in its borders from the mid-nineteenth century. Farther east, a similar fate may eventually await China.
Boss of Bosses
Authors: Kurth James
Published: November 2023

Ever since the end of the cold war, the principal objective of U.S. foreign policy has been the promotion of liberal democracies, free markets, and open societies around the world. Insofar as national security—which had been the principal foreign policy objective during the cold war and before—was concerned, it had been assumed by both political parties and by three successive administrations that it could be subsumed and indeed best achieved under the more expansive objectives of democratization, globalization, and universalization of human rights.
Two Concepts of Sovereignty
Authors: Kennedy David M
Published: November 2023

Terrorism is neither the least nor the greatest of the threats facing the United States. Containing the terrorist virus and the rogue and failed states that incubate it is surely an urgent task. But it is far more important that America itself cease acting like a rogue state, one that repeatedly disrupts the fabric of international society, sometimes cavalierly, sometimes violently—and does so in large measure because a kind of Caesarism has infected the American body politic, rendering its leaders ever more enamored of military solutions and ever less accountable to the will of the American people. The most important tasks for American foreign policy today are two: to rebuild the nation’s role and reputation as a lawful and legitimate leader in the global community and to restore the American people’s ownership of the purpose, efficacy, and justice of their country’s continuing international engagement.
The Contribution of Constitution:Understanding a Child’s Temperament and Neurodevelopmental Profile
Authors: Hirschland Deborah
Published: November 2023

No, No . . . Yaya Do It All Yelf!” Eighteen-month-old Sarah sits on the hallway floor, feet stamping, eyes blazing. Her mother takes a deep breath and tries to figure out what to do. What she really feels like doing is crying—it’s only nine-thirty in the morning and this is probably the tenth time her daughter has shouted out the familiar command since waking up. The problem is, much of what “Yaya” insists on carrying out herself are things she isn’t yet capable of, in this case, tying the laces of her beloved red sneakers. Fifth percentile height, ninety-ninth percentile will, this child is a tiny bundle of energy, enthusiasm, and stubbornness.
The Contribution of Family Life:Understanding a Family’s History and Patterns of Interaction
Authors: Hirschland Deborah
Published: November 2023

Monica, you need to finish eating now and go get dressed.” Annie delivers the familiar instruction with studied calm. Even so, seven-year-old Monica’s voice shifts perilously from the sweet, sleepy timber it had moments ago as she chatted over breakfast.
Helping the Shy, Cautious, or Withdrawn Child:Getting to Work When a Youngster Holds Back From Connections, Play, and Conversation
Authors: Hirschland Deborah
Published: November 2023

In the process of assisting children who are strikingly shy or withdrawn, or who appear particularly cautious in the face of new experiences, we first look to understand whether their difficulties stem in part from constitutional issues. Then we consider the contribution of their experiences at home and elsewhere, whether English is their primary language, and how their families’ culture compares to their schools’ culture. Once there is clarity about why a particular youngster can’t jump into activities and relationships, we come up with specifically tailored strategies to help out.
Helping the Anxious Child:Getting to Work When a Child’s Worries, Fears, or Sensory Sensitivities Take Over Daily Life
Authors: Hirschland Deborah
Published: November 2023

When a child struggles to keep his worries in check, the feedback loops in a family and classroom can become quite problematic. It’s not hard to understand why. Anxious children repeatedly check out their concerns with the adults they trust. Feeling increasingly hemmed in by the need to provide constant reassurance, these adults often try to organize the world in a way that allows a youngster to feel more at ease. Unfortunately, such efforts often end up with the child learning to avoid the things that frighten him, and to check in with adults even more frequently. Figuring out the right balance between leaning in and leaning out—giving a youngster the support he needs while also setting expectations for self-soothing—is a challenging but important task.
Real Analysis
Authors: Bloch William Goldbloom
Published: November 2023

Real analysis i s the branch of mathematics that explores, among other ideas, the nuances of the arbitrarily small. Paradoxically, in this chapter, thinking about the very small will prove decisive in understanding the very large: the Book that embodies the entire Library.
Geometry and Graph Theory
Authors: Bloch William Goldbloom
Published: November 2023

The library, a s evoked in the story, has inspired many artists and architects to provide a graphic or atmospheric rendition of the interior. These range from Stefano Imbert’s lean and elegant drawing adorning the cover of this book, to the deliberately alienated Piranesi-like drawings of Desmazières in the Godine Press edition of The Library of Babel, to Toca’s beautifully symmetric honeycombs in Architecture and Urbanism, to Packer’s bold expressionist frontispiece in the Folio edition of Labyrinths, to a host of illustrations easily found online. All of these illustrations sacrifice, to some degree, accuracy in favor of artistic effect.
Openings
Authors: Bloch William Goldbloom
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, i assemble some facts for the purpose of sketching a picture of the mathematics Borges may have known and how it may have affected the story. In his prologue to the first part of Ficciones, Borges winks yet again at the reader when he writes “I am not the first author of the narrative titled ‘The Library of Babel’; those curious to know its history and its prehistory may interrogate a certain page of Number 59 of the journal Sur, which records the heterogenous names of Leucippus and Lasswitz, of Lewis Carroll and Aristotle.” This is precisely the issue of Sur in which his essay “The Total Library” appears.
Stability of the solution of a singular problem
Authors: Ghergu Marius , Rădulescu Vicenţiu D
Published: November 2023

The issue of the stability of a solution was raised in Chapters 5 and 6 for elliptic equations involving smooth nonlinearities. In this chapter we provide more results related to this matter, being mainly interested in the case of singular nonlinearities. The analysis we develop here is carried out in a general framework that includes the classical singular elliptic problems already considered so far and for which we have discussed the existence, bifurcation, and regularity. This fact will be illustrated by some examples presented in the last part of this chapter.
Golgi
Authors: Mazzarello Paolo
Published: November 2023

This book is a complete biography of Camillo Golgi one of the most prominent European researcher between the Nineteenth and the Twentieth century, a period of dramatic scientific development. The life of Golgi was an extraordinary intellectual adventure in three major fields of biology and medicine, namely the neuroscience, the emerging cell biology and the new science of medical microbiology. In 1873 Golgi published the description of a revolutionary histological technique which allowed, for the first time, to visualize a single nerve cell with all its ramification which could be followed and analyzed even at a great distance from the cell bodies, the so called "black reaction" (later named the "Golgi method"). This invention provided the spark to a truly scientific revolution which allowed the morphology and the basic architecture of the cerebral tissue to be evidenced in all its complexity, thus contributing to the foundation of the modern neuroscience. It has been written that, in the same way Galileo Galilei was able to find new stars observing with his telescope any sky region, Golgi was able to find new nervous structures and nerve cells by applying his black reaction to any brain region. Finally, the details of the most complex structure in the known universe, the brain, could be characterized. Golgi also strongly contributed to the development of cell biology with the discovery of one of the major organelles of the cell, the "internal reticular apparatus" (later named the "Golgi apparatus" or the "Golgi complex" or simply "the Golgi") and to medical microbiology with his description of the human malaria parasitic development inside the red blood cells (Golgi cycle). He was also a prominent political figure who deeply influenced the Nineteenth century development of science in Italy.
Introduction: Between Revolution And Conservatism
Authors: Mazzarello Paolo
Published: November 2023

One winter day at the end of 1872, or the beginning of 1873, a scientist sat down to work at his microscope in the unlikely setting of an asylum for lunatics in northern Italy, and after focusing back and forth for a while ... What a fantastic sight! On a yellow, completely transparent background, there appear sparsely scattered black fibers, smooth and small or thick and prickly, as well as black, triangular, star- or rod-shaped bodies! Just like fine India ink drawings on transparent Japanese paper. The scientist gazes upon it in astonishment. He is more accustomed to the chaotic images produced by carminic acid and hematoxylin, which yield one dubious interpretation after another. Here, on the other hand, everything is absolutely clear, without any possibility of confusion. There is nothing more to interpret; one need only observe and note these cells, with their different, ramified extensions, like plants in the morning frost, covering an astonishingly large space in wavy lines; these smooth and uniform extensions which, springing from the cell, cover great distances, before suddenly splitting up into a bunch of innumerable fibers ... . The delighted and astonished gaze cannot tear itself away from this fantastic sight. Methodic wishful thinking has become reality.
“He Who Studies German Is A Traitor”
Authors: Mazzarello Paolo
Published: November 2023

The family name Golgi can be found in the old church records of Pavia; in the city old traces are still found, including a Torre di Casa Golgi (Tower of the House of Golgi) dominating one of the city’s main squares, Piazza della Posta. At the beginning of the nineteenth century Golgi’s grandfather, the hat maker Michele Golgi, married Angelica Nicolletti.
Finding A Way Out Of The Labyrinth
Authors: Mazzarello Paolo
Published: November 2023

Golgi remained at the Pie Case of Abbiategrasso until the end of 1875, a three-year period that was fundamental for his scientific growth. Armed with his new method, he now entered an immense new field of investigation, an enormous labyrinth to explore.
Sensory Corpuscles, Funnels, And Transfusions
Authors: Mazzarello Paolo
Published: November 2023

Since Mantegazza’s time, the professorships of histology and general pathology at the University of Pavia had been held by the same person. After Bizzozero’s departure for Turin, the professorship of histology remained vacant (until Golgi’s appointment) while general pathology was assigned to Achille De Giovanni, [1] an assistant of the clinician Francesco Orsi. De Giovanni was more interested in clinical medicine (even if from a biological perspective) than in general pathology. Indeed, he was also an instructor of practical medicine for the students of the Collegio Ghislieri. The return to Mantegazza’s tradition became possible only when De Giovanni was appointed professor of clinical medicine at the University of Padua in 1879, and Golgi could attach the adjunct professorship of general pathology to the professorship of histology. As a consequence, Golgi’s laboratory was enlarged to include “three rooms on the first floor of the same [palace of the] Botanical Garden” and few years later was moved again to “four rooms on the ground floor, still at the Botanical Gardens.” [2] The laboratory had no adequate equipment and its functioning depended largely on the enthusiasm and industriousness of the students and of the young graduates working with Golgi, and on their contribution to the lab expenses. Despite these difficulties, Golgi’s laboratory was rapidly becoming the most important center of biological research in Italy.
Neuroanatomical Investigations
Authors: Mazzarello Paolo
Published: November 2023

In the years between 1877 and 1880 Golgi’s prodigious scientific activity achieved remarkable results in widely disparate areas. Nevertheless, as in Abbiategrasso, the central nervous system remained at center of his research interests. During these years Golgi’s work with the black reaction had acquired a certain recognition in Italy but his theory of the diffuse neural net was already encountering opposition. In February 1880, Giuseppe Bellonci presented a paper to the Accademia dei Lincei in which he criticized Golgi’s theory and sided with the old protoplasmic net of Gerlach. [1] In his studies, Bellonci used mostly osmic acid. He believed in fact that even though the black reaction allowed the demonstration of fine details, it was unreliable because it produced incomplete or illusory images. Less than one year later Bellonci reported, again at a meeting of the Accademia dei Lincei, the presence of anastomoses between the protoplasmic processes of Purkinje cells.
Controversies And Various Studies
Authors: Mazzarello Paolo
Published: November 2023

In the early 1880s, after many years of intense investigation of the nervous system, Golgi was eager to broaden the scope of his research. He was beginning to have both material and human resources to accomplish this ambition.
The Secret Of The Intermittent Fevers
Authors: Mazzarello Paolo
Published: November 2023

Golgi’s experimental interest on intestinal parasites and the transmission of anthrax in the early 1880s was not a momentary whim after many years of almost exclusive focus on the nervous system. Indeed, his long-standing attention in the study of infectious diseases had been overshadowed only by his passion for neurohistology. The electrifying discoveries made in microbiology at the beginning of the 1880s, however, would be instrumental in transforming what had been only a latent interest into the main focus of his research activity.
The Prophets Of The Neuron
Authors: Mazzarello Paolo
Published: November 2023

In the mid 1880s, the black reaction had already been discovered more than a decade before and nevertheless was known to only a small number of researchers. Just a few years later, in the early 1890s, the most important neurobiologists were hailing it as a breakthrough. It was an irony of fate that a crucial role in this dramatic change was played by a young Spanish scientist, who would later become Golgi’s most formidable scientific opponent.
Seemingly A Matter Of Priority
Authors: Mazzarello Paolo
Published: November 2023

At the beginning of 1890 Golgi had certainly become aware of the triumphal success of his black reaction at the Congress of Berlin. At the same time, however, he must also have realized the threat that Ramón y Cajal now represented for his theory of the diffuse neural net—all the more so because Ramoón y Cajal’s heresy found favorable ground in a scientific environment already prepared by the work of His Sr. and Forel, and by the perplexities of Kölliker.
Protoplasmic Pantheism
Authors: Mazzarello Paolo
Published: November 2023

At the beginning of the 1890s, support for Golgi’s diffuse neural net was confined to the circle of his direct or indirect pupils. Gerlach’s version of the reticular theory continued to be much more popular in Italy and elsewhere. There were also other reticular theories, sometimes touching on the bizarre. The Lithuanian Alexander Stanislavovič Dogiel, for example, wishing to mix oil and water, maintained that in the retina there existed a double intercellular reticulum; one was inter-cylindraxial (similar to that of Golgi); the other inter-dendritical (similar to that of Gerlach). And then there was even a suggestion that there might be three reticula, with the third consisting of a connection between dendrites and axons. [1] The most important scientists, however, were embracing the theory of the neuron with more and more conviction.
The historical paradox of neurosciences
Authors: Mazzarello Paolo
Published: November 2023

The neuroanatomical revolution at the end of the 1800s represents one of the founding events in the neurosciences. Only with identification of nerve cells was it possible to understand the complex architecture of the nervous system and to lay the foundation for first working models of cognitive functions. Neurophysiology and neuroanatomy could finally begin to be understood in terms of neural circuitry.
Years Of Sorrow
Authors: Mazzarello Paolo
Published: November 2023

In 1909, Georges Marinesco, who had briefly visited the Laboratory of General Pathology, published La cellule nerveuse in which, remembering his time in Pavia, he wrote: During my brief sojourn in Pavia, I had the honor of visiting the celebrated histologist who kindly showed me a series of his beautiful preparations. I could not be convinced that the net he describes exists.
The Veil Of Isis
Authors: Mazzarello Paolo
Published: November 2023

Golgi’s cultural formation was permeated by positivism. For him, science was the supreme ideal to which one could consecrate one’s entire life. Only science could guarantee continuous unending progress for humankind. From this perspective, metaphysical speculations had no relevance for an understanding of the human condition.
Introduction
Authors: Armstrong Kira , Beebe Dean W , C.Hilsabeck Robin , Kirkwood Michael W
Published: November 2023

Welcome! We are so glad you decided to take this step toward board certification in clinical neuropsychology or, if you are a supervisor, toward preparing your trainees to take that step. This book has been written for you. It provides support and down-to-earth advice for practicing neuropsychologists who are pursuing board certification via the American Board of Clinical Neuropsychology (ABCN), a specialty board of the American Board of Professional Psychology (ABPP). It also provides neuropsychology supervisors and their trainees with information that will give a “leg up” on the preparation process. We (the authors) share the belief that the discipline of clinical neuropsychology and the consumers of neuropsychological services are best served by the board certification of qualified clinicians. We also know that qualified clinicians, like you, lead busy lives and need practical information and advice if you are to become board certified. Consequently, we take a decidedly pragmatic tone in this book.
The Written Application and Credential Review Taking the Plunge
Authors: Armstrong Kira , Beebe Dean W , C.Hilsabeck Robin , Kirkwood Michael W
Published: November 2023

Now that you understand the various steps of the ABPP/ABCN process, you’re ready to take the first concrete step toward board certification. In our experience, this first step often feels much harder for people than it needs to be. To some degree, this might be due to some myths about the written application and credential review; we will deal with those in a minute. Mostly, though, the bottleneck seems to be emotional. As we noted in Chapter 1, working through the ABPP/ABCN certification process can feel as though you are risking your personal and professional identities. In that light, taking the first real step in the process is understandably anxiety provoking. It doesn’t need to be. This stage can be a lot of things—tedious, annoying, and somewhat costly, to name a few—but it is not challenging, and it sure isn’t risky.
The Oral Examination One More Hurdle to Go
Authors: Armstrong Kira , Beebe Dean W , C.Hilsabeck Robin , Kirkwood Michael W
Published: November 2023

Congratulations! You have made it to the last stage of the ABCN certification process: the oral examination. As you may already know, this step consists of three separate, but equally important parts. Although each element emphasizes different approaches and content, they will all be used to judge your depth of clinical knowledge, neuropsychological skills, and your general clinical practice. The three parts of the exam are described in Box 5.1. Oral examinations are held twice a year, in May and October. In order to verify specific dates, you can either check the ABCN webpage or call the ABCN office (see Chapter 1 for contact information). When we wrote this book, the oral exams were held in Chicago and only in Chicago. This means that, unlike the written examination, you will not be able to take the orals at a conference when it comes near you. The odds are you will have to travel. Still, Chicago is centrally located and generally quite easy to fly to. As such, it is the most geographically accessible location available for the majority of the United States and Canada. So, rather than complaining that you have to travel to Chicago to take your orals, be thankful that ABCN did not decide to offer the examination in Sitka, Alaska.
Staying Motivated Surviving Bumps in the Road
Authors: Armstrong Kira , Beebe Dean W , C.Hilsabeck Robin , Kirkwood Michael W
Published: November 2023

Although we hope it does not happen to you, we know it happens to other competent neuropsychologists. Good, qualified neuropsychologists sometimes do not pass a part (or parts) of the ABPP/ABCN board certification process on the first or even the second try. When this happens, it is frustrating, to say the least, and usually upsetting and deflating. You may feel shocked, angry, and indignant for a while or even embarrassed and depressed. Of course you are going to feel that way; chances are that you have never failed anything in your life! Furthermore, you have put a lot of time and energy into this process. Consequently, it may feel as though all of that hard work was just an enormous waste of your time! You may even feel like throwing in the towel and forgetting the whole thing. We hope you don’t. Instead, we hope that after these feelings pass, you will muster up the energy and courage to jump back in and use the knowledge and experience you have gained to be successful on your next attempt.
American Opossums Order Didelphimorphia, Family Didelphidae
Authors: Reid Fiona A
Published: November 2023

All marsupials were formerly considered to belong to the order Marsupialia; however, this large group has recently been split into 7 orders. New World opossums are repre- sented by 3 orders and Australian marsupials by 4 orders. The Didelphimorphia contains a single family, which includes all Central American opossums. The family Didelphidae consists of about 18 genera and 91 species, with 10 genera and 14 species in Central America and southeastern Mexico.
Anteaters And Sloths Order Pilosa
Authors: Reid Fiona A
Published: November 2023

The Order Pilosa consists of 4 families, with 5 genera and 10 species, all of which are restricted to the New World. Although anteaters and sloths are externally dissimilar, they share certain skeletal characteristics and were formerly grouped with armadillos into the Order Xenarthra. The name “xenarthra” refers to extra articulations in the lumbar verte- brae, which are found only in members of these groups. These mammals diverged early from the main placental mammal lineage, when South America was an island continent. Their extinct relatives included giant ground sloths and glyptodonts.