bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Colonialism, Imperialism, Constitutionalism
Authors: Dubow Saul
Published: November 2023

The last quarter of the nineteenth century is perhaps the most intensively studied in South African history, justifiably so given its importance for the making of modern South Africa. It is also the most argued over. Amongst the most dramatic and contentious events of the era one must include Carnarvon's failed attempts at confederation; the discovery of diamonds and gold; the final wars of conquest against the Pedi, Xhosa, and Zulu; the annexation of the Transvaal and the associated rise of Afrikaner nationalism; the Jameson Raid, and the crises leading to the outbreak of war.
Is Selection of Children Wrong?
Authors: Brock Dan W
Published: November 2023

The following case is derived from Derek Parfit: a woman is told that if she gets pregnant now her child is almost certain to be seriously mentally retarded. However, if she takes a relatively simple medication with no significant side effects for two months and then gets pregnant there is every reason to believe that she will have a non-disabled child. Some time ago at a meeting of a research project on disability issues I presented this case with the expectation that all would agree that she ought to take the medication and wait to get pregnant, and that it would be morally wrong not to do so. To my surprise, one disability rights advocate argued not only that it would not be wrong to fail to take the medication and wait to get pregnant, but that it would be wrong to take the medication and wait to get pregnant.
Caring: the essence of mental health nursing
Authors: Callaghan Patrick , Playle John , Cooper Linda
Published: November 2023

This chapter explores the concept of caring in mental health nursing and locates the art of caring in twenty-first century practice. First we examine the language of ‘caring’ in health care settings, and identify the core ethical principles and val- ues that underpin the concept of care. We then describe and explain the skills associated with a caring approach to mental health practice.
Leadership and management
Authors: Callaghan Patrick , Playle John , Cooper Linda
Published: November 2023

From the day that a mental health nurse qualifies, they will require skills in both leadership and management. This chap- ter discusses the range of managerial and leadership activities that mental health nurses may engage with and some of the specific skills that are required to make those roles effective. The aim of the chapter is to enable readers to be able to iden- tify the difference and similarity between leadership and man- agement skills, to identify activities that will require those skills to be applied, and to consider which skills they themselves possess or may need to develop in the future.
Calibrating And Constraining Molecular Clocks
Authors: Benton Michael J , Donoghuea Philip C J , Asher Robert J
Published: November 2023

For well over 200 years, natural scientists have used fossils with varying degrees of confidence to date the evolution of life. The field has advanced dramatically in the last few years, and it would be useful now to review some of the key issues and to suggest an outline of a modus operandi for the future. In explaining the role of fossils in establishing timescales, it is useful to review the historical sequence in which key observations were made. Much of this early history predates the 1960s concept of the molecular clock; but the way in which fossils should be used today depends crucially on those earlier geological and paleontological observations. In presenting these observations in a logical sequence, we highlight what can and cannot be done with fossils, and link this to the relative strengths and weaknesses of molecular data. The value of carrying out this survey now is that it is not framed in the old and rather worn narrative of a “conflict” between fossils and molecules (e.g., 1, 2). It is no longer a question of which is better than the other, or how far one can go with one or the other source of data. It is evident that both fossils and molecules have great strengths, but in recognizing the weaknesses of each source of data, a realistic plan for collaboration between paleontologists and molecular biologists can be proposed (3, 4).
Cnidarians (Cnidaria)
Authors: Rogers Alex D
Published: November 2023

The Phylum Cnidaria is ancient and diverse in terms of size and body shape, and includes the sea fans, sea pens, sea anemones, corals, hydroids, and jellyAsh (Fig. 1). Cnidarians possess two cell layers (diploblastic), the outer ectoderm and the inner endoderm, separated by an acellular mesoglea, or partially cellular mesenchyme (1). theanimals are radially symmetrical, although this may be modiAed, and have two basic forms, the polyp and the medusa. thesessile polyp is sac like, with a single body cavity (coelenteron) opening through the mouth which is surrounded by one or more rows of tentacles. thepelagic medusa is umbrellaor bell-shaped with a mouth located in the center of the concave underside surrounded by tentacles positioned around the margins of the animal. In polyps and medusae, the tentacles are armed with stinging or adhesive structures called cnidae, each produced by a stinging cell, the cnidocyte (1, 2).
Spiders (Araneae)
Authors: Ayoub Nadia A , Hayashi Cheryl Y
Published: November 2023

Spiders (Araneae) constitute one of the most diverse orders of animals with greater than 39,000 described species, which are found worldwide in virtually all terrestrial habitats (1). 7ey are members of the Class Arachnida, which also includes orders such as ticks and mites (Acari), scorpions (Scorpiones), and harvestmen or daddy long legs (Opiliones). Arachnid phylogeny is poorly understood, but the current consensus is that the closest relative of spiders is the Pedipalpi, which is a group of arachnids composed of whip-scorpions (Uropygi), tailless whip-scorpions (Amblypygi), and short-tailed whipscorpions (Schizomida) (2, 3). Monophyly of spiders is strongly supported by a number of shared-derived characters, including cheliceral venom glands, male pedipalpi modiAed for sperm transfer, lack of a trochanter-femur depressor muscle, and abdominal spinnerets and silk glands (2, 4). Spiders are arranged into two suborders: the Mesothelae (one family with 87 species), which retains signiAcant traces of abdominal segmentation, and the Opisthothelae (107 families with 39,638 species), which has lost all traces of abdominal segmentation (5). Here, we review relationships and divergence times among families of the highly diverse Opisthothelae.
True flies (Diptera)
Authors: Bertone Matthew A , Wiegmann Brian M
Published: November 2023

The Order Diptera (true Pies) comprises an ecologically and morphologically diverse assemblage of holometabolous insects. A number of morphological characters unite this lineage (1–3), the most recognizable one being the extremely reduced, knob-like, metathoracic wings, or halteres (Fig. 1). themajority of true Pies also bear specialized sponging mouthparts that diBer markedly from the chewing mouthparts found in most insects. Approximately 150,000 species of Diptera have been described in 180 families, although total species diversity undoubtedly exceeds twice that number (1, 2, 4). Myriad species of Diptera are economically important vectors of human and animal pathogens (e.g., Culicidae) and many are destructive to crops and livestock (e.g., Tephritidae and Oestridae, respectively). Flies are also important ecologically as predators, decomposers, parasitoids, and pollinators (5, 6). Here we review the relationships and divergence times of major events in dipteran evolution, including the origin of the order and its constituent suborders, infraorders, and families. Traditionally Pies have been divided into two suborders: Nematocera (“thread-horn” Pies) and Brachycera (“short-horn” Pies). 7is division was based primarily on characters of the adult antennae and larval head capsule (1, 2, 7). Although a number of shared-derived characters support the monophyly of the Brachycera, the Nematocera is now widely regarded as a paraphyletic assemblage of infraorders, or suborders (8), from/within which the Brachycera originated (7, 9, 10). For a detailed overview of the current state of Diptera systematics, see Yeates and Wiegmann (1, 2).
Vertebrates (Vertebrata)
Authors: Hedges S Blair
Published: November 2023

The vertebrates (58,000 sp.) comprise a phylum of mostly mobile, predatory animals. The evolution of jaws and limbs were key traits that led to subsequent diversification. Atmospheric oxygen change appears to have played a major role, with an initial rise in the late Precambrian (580–542 million years ago, Ma) permitting larger body size, followed by two Paleozoic pulses affecting prey. The First Pulse (430–390 Ma) brought fishes to brackish and freshwater environments where they diversified, with one lineage giving rise to tetrapods. The Second Pulse (340–250 Ma) led to a Permo-Carboniferous explosion of tetrapods, adapting to diverse terrestrial niches. The Phylum Vertebrata includes 58,000 living species in seven evolutionary clades that diverged in the latest Precambrian and in the Paleozoic Era, 600–360 Ma. Approximately one half of the species (28,183 sp.) are Ashes—not an evolutionary group—and the other half (29,638 sp.) are tetrapods, which comprise a monophyletic group. Vertebrates (Fig. 1) are mobile animals that possess a cranium (skull) and, at least ancestrally, a backbone consisting of vertebrae protecting the nerve cord (1–4). thecyclostomes (85 sp.) are jawless Ashes (agnathans) and include lampreys and hagAshes. Chondrichthyans (1200 sp.) are the cartilaginous Ashes and include the sharks, rays, and chimaeras. Actinopterygians (26,890 sp.) are ray-Anned Ashes and include bichirs, sturgeons, paddleAshes, gars, bowAns, and teleosts, with the latter group comprising nearly all species of actinopterygians. Actinistia (two sp.), which is alternatively called Coelacanthimorpha, includes lobe-Anned Ashes (coelacanths). Dipnoans (six sp.) are the lungAshes. Lissamphibians (6200 sp.) are the living amphibians and include the frogs and toads, salamanders, and caecilians. Amniota (23,438 sp.) comprises the mammals, tuataras, squamates (lizards, snakes, and amphisbaenians), turtles, crocodilians, and birds). Here, the relationships and divergence times of these major lineages of vertebrates are reviewed.
Salamanders (Caudata)
Authors: Vieites David R , Zhang Peng , Wake David B
Published: November 2023

Salamanders form a monophyletic group, constituting one of the three orders of modern amphibians (Lissamphibia), together with frogs and caecilians. Salamanders comprise the second most species-rich order of amphibians (1) and are typically classified in 10 families, with ca. 68% of the species belonging to the Family Plethodontidae. thebody plan has remained relatively stable since the Jurassic (2, 3) (Fig. 1), displaying several features that in combination distinguish it from the body plan of other amphibians: presence of a tail both in larval and adult phases, two pairs of limbs of equal size (when present) set perpendicular to the body, presence of teeth on both jaws, presence of ribs on most trunk vertebrae, and absence of several skull bones (4). Here we review the phylogenetic relationships and the divergence times of salamander families. thefamilies are grouped into Ave suborders: Cryptobranchoidea (Cryptobranchidae and Hynobiidae), Sirenoidea (Sirenidae), Salamandroidea (Salamandridae, Ambystomatidae, Dicamptodontidae), Proteoidea (Proteidae), and Plethodontoidea (Plethodontidae, Rhyacotritonidae, and Amphiumidae). Despite the increasing number of studies and data addressing the phylogeny of salamander families, their relationships are di1cult to resolve. Several relationships are consistently recovered with diBerent data sets, while the positions of others, in particular the sirenids and proteids, have remained contentious.
Ratites and tinamous (Paleognathae)
Authors: Baker Allan J , Pereiraa Sérgio L
Published: November 2023

The Superorder Paleognathae consists of the Pightless ratites and the volant tinamous. It is the closest relative of the remaining birds in the Superorder Neognathae. Ratites are named for their raJ-like (ratis) sternum that lacks a keel, whereas the tinamous have a keeled sternum. Tinamous share with the ratites a complex bone structure in the roof of the mouth termed a paleognathous palate. theratites include the Emu and four species of cassowaries in Australia and New Guinea (1), Ave species of kiwis (2) and possibly 14 extinct species of moas from New Zealand (3), two species of rheas from South America, the Ostrich (Fig. 1) now restricted to Africa but once more widely distributed across Europe and Asia, and Ave extinct species of elephant birds from Madagascar. Forty-six species of tinamous occur in South and Central America (1). Eight fossil species possessing a paleognathous palate occur from the late Paleocene (66–56 Ma) to the middle Eocene (40 Ma) of the Northern Hemisphere (4). However, they appear to be a paraphyletic assemblage, and have been placed basal to the ratites (5). Here, we review the phylogenetic relationships and divergence times of the extant clades of ratites, the extinct moas and the tinamous.
Pikas, hares, and rabbits (Lagomorpha)
Authors: Matthee Conrad A
Published: November 2023

The pikas, hares, and rabbits (Fig. 1) are united into the monophyletic Order Lagomorpha based on the presence of a second peg-like upper incisor and foot morphology showing a unique calcaneal canal running diagonally through the lagomorph calcaneus (1). Based on the latter observation, which is also present in lagomorph fossils, it has been proposed that the order has had a long evolutionary separation from other related mammalian orders such as the Rodentia (1–3). The Lagomorpha currently comprises two extant families, the Ochotonidae (pikas, 30 species and one genus) and Leporidae (rabbits and hares, 60 species and 11 genera) (4). themonotypic pikas have a northern hemisphere distribution with most taxa conAned to Asia, where the upliJing of the Tibet Plateau probably played a major role in the diversification of taxa (5). the11 genera of rabbits and hares have a nearly global distribution (Holarctic, Ethiopian excluding Madagascar, northern Neotropical and Oriental) and their diversification is more than likely due to a series of dispersal and vicariance events that could be correlated to the formation and disappearances of intercontinental landbridges (6). From a paleontological perspective, evidence suggests either an Asian or North American origin for the order, but the pinpointing of the exact location is hampered by a scattered fossil record for the early and middle Eocene (7). It has been postulated that the Arst expansion of Leporidae occurred in North America during the Miocene (7), a notion supported by at least two recent fossil discoveries (8, 9), whereas the Ochotonidae probably originated in Asia. Here I review the available information on the timing of the Ochotonidae and Leporidae divergence.
On the role of syntactic locality in morphological processes: the case of (Greek) derived nominals
Authors: Alexiadou Artemis
Published: November 2023

A certain amount of consensus exists that the generalization in (1) holds across languages (though expressed from different theoretical viewpoints, see Grimshaw (1990), Bierwisch (1989), Borer (2003b), Borer (to appear), Alexiadou & Grimshaw (2008) among others): Derived nouns that have argument structure inherit this in some form from their verbal source.
A Phonological View of Phases∗
Authors: Shiobara Kayono
Published: November 2023

When first characterizing “phase,” Chomsky (2000) states, based on the minimalist view of the grammar, that a phase should be “a natural syntactic object SO, an object that is relatively independent in terms of interface properties” (2000: 106). Among the two interfaces, the focus has been on the “meaning side,” and such SOs have been taken to be the closest syntactic counterparts to a proposition, CP and vP. In Chomsky (2001), he further argues that “the choice of phases has independent support: these are reconstruction sites, and have a degree of phonetic independence” (2001: 12, italics are mine). This chapter focuses on the “sound side” of the two interfaces, and considers potential advantages of the phonologically based approach to phases. I show that the phonological view of phases calls for left-to-right (as opposed to bottom-up) structure-building in the computational component, and brings a conceptually welcome consequence that the grammar is shaped in response to external conditions on the interfaces, namely conditions on parsing.
Hume on Practical Morality and Inert Reason
Authors: Sayre-McCord Geoffrey
Published: November 2023

David Hume’s dramatic conclusions concerning the role of reason in practical life are well known. According to him, ‘‘reason is, and ought only to be the slave of the passions, and can never pretend to any other office than to serve and obey them’’ ( T. 415).¹In serving and obeying the passions, Hume recognizes, reason can of course influence our behavior by changing our view of the world. It might inform us that four dollars are more than two, or that one course of action will have certain effects while another will not, or that what appears to be a glass of wine is one of water. If we are concerned to have more money rather than less, or concerned to bring about certain effects, or concerned to have wine rather than water, reason’s conclusions will make a difference to what we do.
Introduction
Authors: Emery Alan E H
Published: November 2023

If you have muscular dystrophy, or you have an affected son or daughter or other affected relative, the first thing to remember is that you are not alone and that there are many others who are similarly affected and share the same worries and concerns. Muscular dystrophy or, more accurately, the muscular dystrophies, as there are many different types, are not uncommon. There are nearly 70 000 individuals affected with a severe form of dystrophy in the various countries of western Europe and at least 40 000 in the USA. It has no predilection for any particular group of individuals but affects all races, all strata of society, and occurs throughout the world. Why then is it not more obvious? The simplest answer is that those with a physical disability often avoid society and, moreover, are often avoided by society. Furthermore, in most forms of dystrophy the resulting disability may not be obvious to the casual observer, and affected individuals often become quite adept at disguising their problems. However, for whatever reason, muscular dystrophy has, for a long time, been a neglected subject. It began to reach public awareness as a result of television programmes specifically organized for this purpose, such as the Muscular Dystrophy Campaign’s Annual Meeting in Britain, the Jerry Lewis TV appeal in the USA, and Télethon in France and Italy. All of these raise a great deal of money each year for research and for the treatment of dystrophy.
What Does an Omniscient Being Know about the Future?
Authors: van Inwagen Peter
Published: November 2023

I want to consider the question whether the existence of an omniscient being is compatible with human free will. But is this an important question? Well, I believe in free will and I believe in God and omniscience occurs in all the standard lists of the divine attributes, so naturally I find the question interesting. But a question one regards as interesting need not be a question one regards as important. Suppose that Sally believes that God is omniscient and that human beings have free will. If someone convinces her that human free will and divine omniscience are incompatible, why should she not proceed to say something like, ‘Oh, that’s interesting. I see that I must give up at least one of two beliefs I happen to have. If I can find some time to devote to the question which of the two beliefs to give up, I must think about the matter. Until I find the time for such reflection, I’ll just give them both up. I’ll thereby avoid logical inconsistency, and I’ll also avoid making an arbitrary choice about which of them to give up, which is what I’d have to do if I decided to give up only one of them without devoting sufficient thought to the very complex issues they involve.’? If she did say something of that sort, she’d thereby show that she didn’t regard the question whether free will and divine omniscience were compatible as important. I would suppose that one will regard the question of the compatibility of two of one’s beliefs as important only if one is unwilling simply to give them both up.
The Structure of Gunk: Adventures in the Ontology of Space
Authors: Russell Jeffrey Sanford
Published: November 2023

Here are two ways space might be (not the only two): (1) Space is ‘pointy ‘. Every finite region has infinitely many infinitesimal, indivisible parts, called points. Points are zero-dimensional atoms of space. In addition to points, there are other kinds of ‘thin ‘ boundary regions, like surfaces of spheres. Some regions include their boundaries— the closed regions — others exclude them — the open regions— and others include some bits of boundary and exclude others. Moreover, space includes unextended regions whose size is zero. (2) Space is ‘gunky ‘. Every region contains still smaller regions— there are no spatial atoms. Every region is ‘thick ‘— there are no boundary regions. Every region is extended.
Spinoza
Authors: Irwin Terence
Published: November 2023

Both the title of the Ethics and some of its contents imply that Spinoza intends to contribute to moral philosophy. The last three parts of the Ethics, on the affects and on human freedom, are directly about ethical questions. The first two parts, on God and on the origin and nature of the mind, are on topics that many philosophers take to be relevant to moral questions. Moreover, Spinoza suggests that his philosophy supports important practical conclusions. It shows us why we should depart from some ordinary assumptions and outlooks on life. We should not care as much as most people care about the goals, aims, and concerns that we adopt under the influence of emotions.
Hutcheson: For And Against Moral Realism
Authors: Irwin Terence
Published: November 2023

Hutcheson believes, as Cumberland and Shaftesbury do, that Hobbes’s position undermines morality. He agrees with Shaftesbury and Clarke in rejecting Cumberland’s and Locke’s view that morality consists in laws imposed by divine commands. In his view, we can understand moral obligation without reference to any law, by understanding our approval of benevolence. This approval is disinterested; Hutcheson rejects attempts to defend morality within the limits of a hedonist psychology. But he also rejects Clarke’s account of moral judgment and motivation as aspects of rational understanding grasping the fitness of things and properties. He reaches his own position by reflexion on his objections to Clarke. Hence he rejects the extreme rationalism of Clarke by insisting on a role for both reason and desire in moral motivation and justification.
Reid : Action And Will
Authors: Irwin Terence
Published: November 2023

Price argues against sentimentalism by defending an epistemological position that allows us to know about objective moral properties, not simply about how we react to things that lack moral properties. Reid agrees with him in claiming that we have this sort of moral knowledge. His distinctive contribution is his discussion of questions that are less discussed by Price, on will and action. The most important parts of Active Powers concern the topics of Book ii of Hume’s Treatise, on passion, reason, and will. Reid’s discussion reflects a conviction that he shares with Butler about the importance of moral psychology for the grasp of moral principles.
Consonant Gradation: A Problem in Danish Phonology and Morphology
Authors: Rischel Jørgen
Published: November 2023

It is a well-known characteristic of Danish that the patterns of OBSTRUENTS (stops and fricatives) in word-initial and word-final position are phonetically very different but can be made to match each other fairly well if some of the stops and fricatives be considered allophones of the same series of phonemes. It is also well known that the diphthongs found in Danish are related to the class of fricatives, since the second component of the diphthongs (here termed a Semivowel) can be considered to be in allophonic variation with fricatives. (See the distributional survey below.)
On the evolution of complexity: sometimes less is more in East and mainland Southeast Asia
Authors: Bisang Walter
Published: November 2023

Recent functional typological approaches to complexity (McWhorter 2001a, 2005; Dahl 2004) define their Weld of research in terms of grammatical categories and rules as they are manifested in overt morphological and syntactic structures. As will be argued in this chapter, complexity has two sides – one side is accessible through overt morphosyntactic patterns, while the other side is hidden and must be inferred from context. The former side is extensively discussed in the above functional typological approaches and will be referred to as “overt complexity”. The latter side has been neglected in the literature. It will be called “hidden complexity” and will be the main topic of this paper.
An interview with Dan Everett
Authors: Sampson Geoffrey
Published: November 2023

One of the most startling recent events in linguistics was the publication in 2005 of an article by Dan Everett (then of the University of Manchester, and since 2006 chairing the Department of Languages, Literatures, and Cultures of Illinois State University) on the language and culture of the Pirahãs, a tribe of a hundred or so people in a remote area of Amazonia. Pirahã, as Everett describes it in his Current Anthropology article, lacks many basic features often seen as essential to any human language. For instance, it is totally devoid of grammatical recursion, and it has no means of making precise statements about quantities – a forthcoming paper describes experiments which appear to establish that the Pirahã cannot distinguish even between “one” and “more than one”.
Envoi
Authors: Editors The
Published: November 2023

The preceding chapters have offered many diverse views about language complexity; and they speak for themselves. It would be neither practical nor appropriate for us to draw a specific set of “conclusions ” on behalf of the contributors. Nevertheless, it may be worthwhile to round the book off with some brief comments on general themes that emerge.
Ontological Realism*
Authors: Sider Theodore
Published: November 2023

In 1987, Peter van Inwagen asked a good question. (Asking the right question is often the hardest part.) He asked: what do you have to do to some objects to get them to compose something — to bring into existence some further thing made up of those objects? Glue them together or what? Some said that you don̓ have to do anything.
Criticism, Logical Empiricism, and the General Theory of Relativity
Authors: Hughes R I G
Published: November 2023

Alfred Tarski’s Introduction to Logic and to the Methodology of Deductive Sciences opens with this assertion: ‘Every scientific theory is a system of sentences which are accepted as true and which may be called laws or asserted statements or, for short, simply statements’ (1965: 3). The ‘statement view of theories’, as we may call it, was shared by the logical empiricists, and went almost unchallenged in the philosophy of science during the middle decades of this century.
Models and Representation
Authors: Hughes R I G
Published: November 2023

A major philosophical insight, recognized by Heinrich Hertz and Pierre Duhem at the turn of the nineteenth century, and recovered eighty years later by proponents of the semantic view of theories, is that the statements of physics are not, strictly speaking, statements about the physical world. They are statements about theoretical constructs. If the theory is satisfactory, then these constructs stand in a particular relation to the world. To flesh out these claims, we need to say more about what kinds of constructs are involved, and what relation is postulated between them and the physical world. To call these constructs ‘models’, and the relation ‘representation’, does not get us very far. Scientific models, as I pointed out in Essay 4, are many and various. If our philosophical account of theorizing is to be in terms of models, then we need both to recognize this diversity and to identify whatever common elements exist within it.
The Ising Model, Computer Simulation, and Universal Physics
Authors: Hughes R I G
Published: November 2023

It is a curious fact that the index of The New Physics (Davies 1989), an anthology of eighteen substantial essays on recent developments in physics, contains only one entry on the topics of computers and computer simulation. Curious, because the computer is an indispensable tool in contemporary research. To different degrees, its advent has changed, not merely the way individual problems are addressed, but the sort of enterprise in which theorists engage. Consider, for example, chaos theory. Although the ideas underlying the theory were first explored by Poincare´ at the turn of the century, their development had to await the arrival of the computer. In The New Physics, the striking pictures of fractal structures that illustrate the essay on chaos theory (Ford 1989) are, of course, computer generated. Yet, perhaps because it runs counter to the mythology of theoretical practice, that fact is mentioned neither in the captions that accompany the pictures nor elsewhere in the text. The indispensable has become invisible.
How effective are patient decision aids?
Authors: Stacey Dawn , Bennett Carol , Saarimaki Anton , Khangura Sara , Eden, Karen , Col Nananda
Published: November 2023

The first randomized controlled trials of patient decision aids, published in 1983, were focused on the decision to circumcise a newborn boy (Maisels et al., 1983; Herrera et al., 1983). Findings revealed that compared to usual care, couples exposed to patient decision aids were more likely to make a decision and were more knowledgeable, but there was no significant difference between groups on whether they chose to have their baby circumcised. Subsequently, there have been over 10 systematic reviews of patient decision aids, most recently with the updated Cochrane review of patient decision aids including 55 randomized controlled trials (Coulter and Ellins, 2007; O’Connor et al., 2007a). This chapter summarizes the evidence on the effectiveness of patient decision aids, highlights evidence changes over time, and reports quality rating of publicly available patient decision aids.
Decision aids to promote shared decision-making for colorectal cancer screening
Authors: Lewis Carmen , Pignone Michael
Published: November 2023

Colorectal cancer is a common and serious health issue. Worldwide, each year, it is estimated that almost 1 million new cases occur and almost 500,000 deaths result from colorectal cancer (Ferlay et al., 2001).
Global Justice, Human Rights, and Health∗
Authors: Macklin Ruth
Published: November 2023

Global bioethics embodies two overarching concerns. The first relates to the international research enterprise, which I shall refer to as global research ethics. The second concern is how — not whether— the fruits of research can be made available throughout the world. I refer to this as global justice in health. More specifically, the unprecedented growth of research across national borders, especially in developing countries, poses the following question: How does research in widely different social and economic contexts challenge the accepted norms of research or even compel their revision? The gap between industrialized nations and developing countries in their populations ‘ access to essential medications and health services prompts the question of whether there is a right to health care services that all human beings possess.
American ‘ ‘Medical Professionalism ‘ ‘: At Home and in the World
Authors: Martensen∗ Robert
Published: November 2023

Since the 1990s, leaders in U.S. and Western European medicine have gen- erated ‘‘medical professionalism’’ initiatives as means to enhance medicine’s social contract. This chapter explores their recent and self-conscious atten- tion to physician values, behaviors, and relationships in medical teaching, research, and ‘‘the clinical enterprise.’’ Major questions this chapter addresses include the following: Along with scientific and technical training, how should medical educators educate medical students, residents, and fellows to make sound judgments in the face of uncertainty, which I expect most readers would agree is the hallmark of good medical practice? How should medical leaders guide organized medicine for the twenty-first century? How does American ‘‘medical professionalism’’ resonate in international contexts, especially in developing nations? In form, this essay is a hybrid: part history, part memoir, and part prescriptive advice. My intention is to stimulate reflective analysis, not to provide a synoptic overview of the professionalism movement.
Community-Level Approaches to Spatial Conservation Prioritization
Authors: Ferrier Simon , Faith Daniel P , Arponen Anni , Drielsma Michael
Published: November 2023

Quantitative approaches to spatial conservation prioritization require information on the distribution of biodiversity, often at relatively fine spatial resolutions across large geographical areas (Margules and Sarkar 2007; see also Chapter 1). Yet there is no region anywhere in the world for which there exists even a complete list of species (including all invertebrates, lower plants, and microbes) occurring within that region, let alone adequate spatial information on the distribution of these species (Rodrigues and Brooks 2007). In the face of such incomplete knowledge, conservation assessment is commonly based on two major types of surrogate: (a) species-level surrogates that employ mapped (or modelled) distributions of individual species from better-studied biological groups as indicators of spatial pattern in the distribution of biodiversity as a whole (see Chapter 6); and (b) community-level surrogates that work with spatial descriptors, or correlates, of emergent patterns in the distribution of biodiversity at the level of whole ecological communities or ecosystems (Ferrier 2002). Community-level surrogates can take many different forms – for example, mapped vegetation types, abiotic environmental classifications, or continuous surfaces of modelled richness or compositional turnover (see Section 7.3 for a comprehensive overview of options). Species-level and community-level surrogates are best viewed not as competing alternatives, but rather as highly complementary strategies for making best use of sparse biodiversity information in conservation assessment.
Climate Change and Spatial Conservation Planning
Authors: Araújo Miguel B
Published: November 2023

Spatial conservation planning methodologies have traditionally been implemented under the assumption that species distributions change relatively slowly, unless they are directly affected by human activities. However, over the past 100 years, Earth’s climate has become warmer and precipitation regimes have changed. For example, from 1850–99 2001–05, global temperatures increased 0.76°C with warming in the past 50 years being nearly twice that for the last 100 years (IPCC 2007). Climate projections forecast even greater changes in the century to come, with impacts on biodiversity being expected to parallel changes in the climate (e.g. Thomas et al. 2004). Interactions of climate and land-use changes are only likely to compound the individual effects of climate change on biodiversity (e.g. Jetz et al. 2007; Pyke and Andelman 2007; Araújo et al. 2008). Environmental changes challenge the conventional approach to conservation planning, because they can alter the quantity, quality, and distribution of suitable areas for many species (e.g. Peters and Darling 1985; Hannah et al. 2002b). Some species will persist only if they can colonize new areas, although in some cases their dispersal abilities might be very limited and dependent on the existence of suitable ‘stepping stones’ between protected areas. In other cases, species might persist in areas where they can retain parts of their former ranges (i.e. ‘range retention areas’); the question is whether such range retention areas and/or stepping stones for species dispersal have been captured by existing conservation areas and, if not, whether there are tools available for helping the identification of such critical areas for biodiversity conservation in a changing world.
The Aquatic Panda
Authors: Turvey Samuel
Published: November 2023

In the years following the death of Chairman Mao and the end of the Cultural Revolution, Western scientists were able to venture back into China for the first time in decades. The first cetacean biologist to have the opportunity to work with Chinese researchers in this brave new world was Professor Giorgio Pilleri from the Institute of Brain Anatomy in Berne, who was privileged to be able to help Zhou Kaiya and his team with their dolphin surveys in the lower reaches of the Yangtze around Nanjing. Pilleri was not only able to observe several baiji in their natural habitat, but was also impressed by the concerns already being widely voiced in China about the need to try to conserve the species. He observed in 1979 that ‘as I was able to see for myself from talks with authorities during my stay in China in a number of Chinese institutes, all the responsible officials and all the scientists working with dolphins are without exception aware of the dangerous position of Lipotes.
Aristotle’s Criteria for Happiness
Authors: Kenny Anthony
Published: November 2023

In Plato ‘s Philebus Socrates argues that happiness cannot be identified either with pleasure nor wisdom: only a mixed life involving both would be a life worth choosing. He bases his argument on the premiss that the supreme good must be both final (τελειον)andself-sufficient(αταρκε). This passage, as several scholars have pointed out, is a key to understanding important passages of Aristotle ‘s Ethics, and in particular to the concepts that Aristotle extracts as criteria for eudaimonia.
Essence and Existence: Aquinas and Islamic Philosophy
Authors: Kenny Anthony
Published: November 2023

The topic of this chapter presents a problem right at the outset. Neither Thomas Aquinas nor any Islamic philosopher spoke English, and it is not a trivial matter to decide what are the appropriate English translations of their technical terms. In the topic proposed, for instance, ‘existence ‘ is no doubt intended to be equivalent to esse, the infinitive form of the Latin verb for ‘to be ‘, and I shall interpret the first part of my task as being to discuss the relationship between essentia and esse in Aquinas. I shall, initially, leave the word esse untranslated because it has multiple meanings in Aquinas ‘s writing. It is possible to disambiguate these meanings by giving them different English paraphrases, and I have tried to do so in my book Aquinas on Being (OUP, 2002) where I claim to have identified twelve different senses in which Aquinas used the word. In this chapter I shall concentrate only on two of these, which I shall render as ‘existence ‘ and ‘being ‘. My initial point is simply that it is misleading and tendentious to use any one English word (e.g. ‘existence ‘) to correspond to the Latin esse. Later in the chapter, I will make some remarks about the analogous problem concerning the terminology of Islamic philosophers, in particular Ibn Sina.
Aquinas in America
Authors: Kenny Anthony
Published: November 2023

The twenty-first century is proving fertile in philosophical studies of Aquinas in English. Two of the most interesting have come from the United States: Robert Pasnau ‘s Thomas Aquinas on Human Nature (CUP, 2002) and Eleonore Stump ‘s Aquinas (Routledge, 2003), the latest addition to the series The Arguments of the Philosophers, now thirty years old. The striking thing about recent studies is that the Aquinas who emerges from each of them is so different from the Aquinas in any of the others. There is a great difference between Aquinas as seen by Pasnau and Aquinas as seen by Stump, even though both of these authors were pupils, at Cornell, of the same teacher— the much lamented Norman Kretzmann.
Cognitive Scientism
Authors: Kenny Anthony
Published: November 2023

Once upon a time it was easy to classify propositions. There were analytic propositions, true in virtue of their meaning, and there were synthetic propositions that contained information about the world. All analytic propositions were known a priori; empirical propositions, known a posteriori, were all synthetic. Out of respect for Kant philosophers would enquire whether any propositions were synthetic a priori but commonly the question was raised only to be answered in the negative.
Heraclitus’ Critique Of Pythagoras’ Enquiry In Fragment 129
Authors: Huffman Carl A
Published: November 2023

Heraclitus is famous for his harsh critiques of predecessors and contemporaries. Homer (frs. 56 and 42), Hesiod (frs. 57 and 40), Archilochus (fr. 42), Hecataeus (fr. 40), and Xenophanes (fr. 40) are all objects of his scorn. It was above all Pythagoras, however, whom Heraclitus singled out for abuse (frs. 40, 81, and 129). In this paper I shall argue that two standard assumptions about his attack on Pythagoras in fragment 129 are mistaken and have led to a false interpretation of the nature of Pythagoras’ philosophy.
Plato On The Possibility Of Hedonic Mistakes
Authors: Evans Matthew
Published: November 2023

most of us—philosophers and non-philosophers alike—accept that at least some pleasures are appropriate targets of ethical criticism. Even hedonists typically concede that there is something bad about taking pleasure in certain states or events, such as the undeserved suffering of other people.1 So it is not particularly surprising to find that Plato, the first philosopher to deal with this issue in any significant detail, holds a similar view. In three of his most celebrated dialogues—the Gorgias, the Phaedo, and the Republic—he gives lengthy arguments to the effect that part of what it is to be virtuous is to be pleased by the right sort of thing in the right sort of way.
The Private Theatres
Authors: Chambers E K
Published: November 2023

The Dominicans, also called the ‘ preaching’ or ‘ black’ friars, came to England in 1221. Their first house was in Holborn. In 1275 they acquired a site on the sloping ground between St. Paul’s and the river, just to the east of Fleet ditch, and obtained leave to divert the walls of the City so as to furnish a north and north-west boundary to their precinct. Here grew up a very famous convent, the mother; house of all the Dominican settlements in the country. It received favours from several sovereigns, . notably from Edward I and his Queen Eleanor, who were regarded as its founders; and in return held its great buildings available for national purposes. In 1322–3 it furnished a depository for state records.
The Rational/Non-Rational Distinction in plato’s Republic
Authors: Ganson Todd Stuart
Published: November 2023

Plato’s division of the soul in Republic 10 differs from the division in book 4 in a couple of obvious ways. First, the argument in book 10 is an argument for two parts of the soul, while the argument in book 4 defends a tripartition of the soul. Second, while the argument for tripartition at 436—41 focuses on strife among desires, the argument for bipartition at 602—3 introduces examples of conflict among beliefs. In spite of these differences, the two discussions seem to share the common goal of drawing a contrast between rational and non-rational psychological states. My concern here is with this common goal of the two discussions. I shall be defending an interpretation of Plato’s distinction between the rational and non-rational.
Stopping smoking
Authors: Falk Stephen , Williams Chris
Published: November 2023

You have to decide that you want to stop smoking. Get all the help you need. Access the National Health Service (NHS) Stop Smoking Service. Encourage your friends and families to stop too. Reward yourself for being a non-smoker with the money you have saved. A healthier lifestyle We are constantly bombarded with information about our apparently unhealthy lifestyles with advice about the food we eat, quantity of alcohol we drink, and the amount of exercise we take. However, the reality is that for smokers, breaking this habit outweighs any other lifestyle change in prolonging length of life and improving health. It may sound as though it should be easy to give up smoking, but this is far from the case. Tobacco is a remarkably addictive drug. The most important first point—strength of will—comes from deciding for yourself that you want to stop, rather than just being pressured by your family and friends. If you do not believe there is sufficient reason to stop, it will be very difficult, if not impossible.
The Development of Ethics
Authors: Rwin Terence I
Published: November 2023

This book is a selective historical and critical study of moral philosophy in the Socratic tradition, with special attention to Aristotelian naturalism. It discusses the main topics of moral philosophy as they have developed historically, including: the human good, human nature, justice, friendship, and morality; the methods of moral inquiry; the virtues and their connexions; will, freedom, and responsibility; reason and emotion; relativism, subjectivism, and realism; the theological aspect of morality. The first volume discusses ancient and mediaeval moral philosophy. The second volume examines early modern moral philosophy from the 16th to the 18th century. This third volume continues the story up to Rawls’s Theory of Justice. A comparison between the Kantian and the Aristotelian outlook is one central theme of the third volume. The chapters on Kant compare Kant both with his rationalist and empiricist predecessors and with the Aristotelian naturalist tradition. Reactions to Kant are traced through Hegel, Schopenhauer, Nietzsche, and Kierkegaard. Utilitarian and idealist approaches to Kantian and Aristotelian views are traced through Sidgwick, Bradley, and Green. Mill and Sidgwick provide a link between 18th-century rationalism and sentimentalism and the 20th-century debates in the metaphysics and epistemology of morality. These debates are explored in Moore, Ross, Stevenson, Hare, C.I. Lewis, Heidegger, and in some more recent meta-ethical discussion. This volume concludes with a discussion of Rawls, with special emphasis on a comparison of his position with utilitarianism, intuitionism, Kantianism, naturalism, and idealism. Since this book seeks to be not only descriptive and exegetical, but also philosophical, it discusses the comparative merits of different views, the difficulties that they raise, and how some of the difficulties might be resolved. It presents the leading moral philosophers of the past as participants in a rational discussion in which the contemporary reader can participate.
Kan T: P Ractical Laws
Authors: Rwin Terence I
Published: November 2023

Kant’s attitude to rationalist intuitionism and sentimentalism in ethics may be compared with his attitude to rationalism and empiricism in metaphysics and epistemology. In the First Critique, he agrees with rationalists against empiricists in believing that there are true non-empirical principles in addition to the truths grasped by experience. But he does not simply assert that these are innate principles, or that they are grasped by rational intuition. He argues that they are true and non-empirical. In his view, we must recognize their truth and their non-empirical character if we admit any empirical knowledge, or even admit some basic truths about self-consciousness.