bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
THE EFFECT OF FORMAL LANGUAGE INSTRUCTION ON THE ORDER OF MORPHEME ACQUISITION1
Authors: Perkins Kyle , Freeman Diane Larsen
Published: October 2006

We conducted a study to determine if informal learners of ESL had the same acquisition order of morphemes as formal learners have been found to possess. Secondly, we wanted to find out what would happen to the established order if only certain of the grammatical morphemes were to be explained and drilled. We found that we had overestimated the ability of our informal subject pool to produce English sentences; that we had to structure our tasks which caused the loss of some “naturalness”; that language instruction might result in improved performance in morpheme usage but not a change in the order of acquisition of morphemes; that a rank ordering type of statistical analysis is inadequate for morpheme acquisition studies.
THE ACQUISITION OF COMPLEX ENGLISH STRUCTURES BY ADULT LEARNERS1
Authors: d'Anglejan Alison , Tucker G. Richard
Published: October 2006

This study was designed to investigate the acquisition of a set of complex English structures by adult learners of English at two different levels of proficiency. The results indicated a developmental pattern similar to that reported by Chomsky for child native speakers. Interesting language learning strategies were revealed. In interpreting ambiguous sentences, beginners tended to rely on semantic rather than on syntactic information. All subjects appeared to deal directly with the linguistic data of the target language. No evidence was found that they attempted to translate or to map native language structures onto those of the target language. In no instance did we find evidence of language learning strategies different from those reported in the literature for child native speakers.
LINGUISTIC THEORY AND THE REAL WORLD1
Authors: Lakoff Robin
Published: October 2006

Traditionally, applied linguists have looked to theoretical linguistics for help, and not vice versa, and they haven't found much enlightenment. Recent work by theoretical linguists on the interaction between language use and real world phenomena may begin to change this situation. Language teachers have realized that some aspects of language are harder to teach than others: the use of particles like “well,” hedges like “sort of,” and “I guess,” sex link uses of various sorts, and forms marking levels of politeness. Although analogues are found between languages, exact parallelism between a form and its function in two languages seldom exists. Theoretical linguistics is becoming able to formalize the properties of this area of language use. Its discoveries could aid teachers in explaining the uses of these forms. Conversely, there is much not yet understood by theory. For one thing, we don't know which of the properties of these forms are universal. Applied linguists know where second‐language learners make mistakes and what kind of errors they make. The nature of these errors should prove a diagnostic aid to theorists, showing what is common to all languages and what is not. Thus, in this area as in many others, progress can best be made by theoretical and applied linguists if they will work together as equal partners.
A PLACE FOR CASE1
Authors: Starosta Stanley
Published: October 2006

Chomsky's configurational definition of grammatical functions is incorrect as a representation of surface grammatical relations and inappropriate and clumsy as a means for representing grammatical functions in deep structure. Fillmore's case grammar framework is a vast improvement, but it still requires a deep– surface distinction and thus does not contribute to a solution of the problem of the excessive power of transformational grammars. By representing ‘case’ as a feature of lexical items, the deep– surface distinction can be eliminated, and the resulting ‘lexicase’ framework looks promising as a basis for the design of language teaching materials which is much less abstract than Fillmore's approach, and which avoids the theoretical and practical deficiencies of the other transformational models.
ENGLISH READING WITHIN THE FRENCH IMMERSION PROGRAM: A COMPARISON OF THE EFFECTS OF THE INTRODUCTION OF ENGLISH READING AT DIFFERENT GRADE LEVELS
Authors: McDougall A. , Bruck M.
Published: October 2006

The focus of the study was the French immersion program in Quebec, in which English reading is introduced in some schools at the Grade 2 level, and in some at the Grade 3 level. The hypothesis that delaying the introduction of reading in English until Grade 3 would improve English reading skills was tested. The stage at which English reading was first taught was found not to affect reading grade level as measured by an individual reading test. Reasons were discussed for the final recommendation that English reading be delayed until Grade 3.
AN EXPLANATION FOR THE MORPHEME ACQUISITION ORDER OF SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNERS
Authors: Larsen‐Freeman Diane E.
Published: October 2006

Second language acquisition researchers (Dulay and Burt 1973, 1974a; Bailey, Madden and Krashen 1974) have claimed there exists an acquisition order of English morphemes to which ESL learners, despite their different ages and language backgrounds, adhere. Thus far, however, an explanation for the occurrence of such a morpheme order has eluded researchers.

A study by this author was designed to yield data which would hopefully suggest a reason for the reported morpheme sequence. After analyzing the data in light of possible explanations, a significant correlation was found between the common morpheme difficulty order of the learners and the frequency of occurrence of these morphemes in adult native‐speaker speech.
RULE FOSSILIZATION: A TENTATIVE MODEL1
Authors: Vigil Neddy A. , Oller John W.
Published: October 2006

A cybernetic model of factors involved in the fossilization of grammatical and lexical forms in learner grammars is offered. A distinction is made between affective and cognitive dimensions of a multidimensional channel of human communication. A distinction is also made between expected and unexpected feedback. It is argued that expected negative feedback on the cognitive dimension of language usage is the principal de‐stabilizing factor in the development of learner grammars. When the configuration of feedback to the learner becomes predominantly expected positive feedback on the cognitive dimension it is predicted that the learner's level of proficiency will tend to fossilize. Thus, the tendency toward fossilization of either correct or incorrect forms is governed by feedback principally on the cognitive dimension. However, if feedback on the affective dimension is not predominantly as expected, and predominantly positive, the feedback on the cognitive dimension will lose much of its force. Predominantly negative affective feedback whether expected or unexpected is likely to result in abortion of further communication attempts.
FRENCH L2 LEARNERS: WHAT THEY'RE TALKING ABOUT1
Authors: Lightbown Patsy M.
Published: October 2006

The acquisition of French by two six‐year old boys, native speakers of English, was observed longitudinally. Form‐meaning relations in their spontaneous multi‐word utterances were compared to the form‐meaning relations observed, in previous research, in the speech of two‐year old English L1 and French L1 children, at a similar level of linguistic development. The same fairly limited set of form‐meaning relations accounted for the majority of both L1 and L2 learners' utterances over the period of the longitudinal observations. However, in the speech of the L1 learners, a sequence of emergence of relations or groups of relations had been observed whereas, for L2 learners, no clear developmental sequence was apparent. This difference was seen as a reflection of the fact that L1 learners' linguistic development is closely tied to cognitive development. L2 learners, cognitively more mature, encoded a greater variety of meanings even when their knowledge of the language was extremely limited. They achieved this variety by the use of pro‐forms whose meanings they over‐extended.
ARE CLOZE ITEMS SENSITIVE TO CONSTRAINTS ACROSS SENTENCES?1
Authors: Chihara Tetsuro , Oller John , Weaver Kelley , Chavez‐Oller Mary Anne
Published: October 2006

To determine whether or not cloze items are sensitive to constraints across sentences, two passages of prose were selected and two types of tests were constructed over each passage. In the sequential type, items were inserted in the normal prose by a standard word‐deletion procedure. In the scrambled type, the sentences of each passage of prose were systematically shuffled. Each cloze item appeared once in the sequential condition and once in the scrambled. The design was counterbalanced for passage and order of testing. Forty‐one native speakers of English and 201 Japanese adults studying English as a foreign language were tested. Each subject took a cloze test over one of the passages in the sequential condition and the other in the scrambled condition. A four‐way analysis‐of‐variance sustained the hypothesis that cloze items embedded in normal prose are sensitive to discourse constraints ranging beyond the immediate limits of a single sentence. There was a significant interaction between level of proficiency and condition indicating that the contrast between the two conditions increases with an increase in proficiency.
ACQUISITION OF ENGLISH STRUCTURES: A CASE STUDY OF AN ADULT NATIVE SPEAKER OF ARABIC IN AN ENGLISH‐SPEAKING ENVIRONMENT
Authors: Hanania Edith A. S. , Gradman Harry L.
Published: October 2006

Little is known about second language acquisition by adults in a natural (non‐classroom) setting. The longitudinal case study reported in this paper provides some information about the early stages through which the adult subject of this study progressed in acquiring English and about the factors affecting her language development. Comparison with the developmental sequence in first language acquisition reveals a striking similarity. This suggests a similarity in underlying processes of adult and child learning. The differences in rate of acquisition may be accounted for in terms of exposure, need, and factors inhibiting practice.
LISTENING INSTRUCTION AND PRACTICE FOR ADVANCED SECOND LANGUAGE STUDENTS1
Authors: Godfrey Dennis
Published: October 2006

The present study acts upon Rivers' (1971 and 1972) urgings to base second language listening instruction on both psychological and linguistic findings and, at the same time, contends that advanced second language students' listening needs call for improvement in processing spoken discourse. Psychological data on memory span is cited to demonstrate that advanced second language students differ from intermediate second language students and from native speakers in processing capacity of a particular type. Linguistic discourse analysis findings are cited to demonstrate the types of clues and continuities second language listeners must attend to if they are to adequately comprehend spoken discourse. A three‐phase approach to listening instruction and practice for advanced second language students is proposed to meet their discourse processing needs; English, as the target language, is discussed as the case in point. Phase One consists of practice aimed toward increasing students' familiarity with and accuracy in processing intrasentential items and thus toward reducing the processing time devoted to intrasentential items. Phase Two pushed students to expand the time they have left over for processing discourse relations by requiring them to perform operations beyond those necessary for processing individual sentences. Phase Three consists of instruction in the types of discourse clues and continuities available to listeners and practice in attending to such clues and continuities.
ON ROUTINES AND PATTERNS IN LANGUAGE ACQUISITION AND PERFORMANCE1
Authors: Krashen Stephen , Scarcella Robin
Published: October 2006

It is sometimes claimed that routines and patterns play a major role in language acquisition: specifically, that routines and patterns directly foster the development of syntactic structure. In order to determine the true status and function of routines and patterns in language acquisition and performance, we examine several explanations of routines and patterns in light of the literature on automatic speech in neurolinguistics, child first language acquisition, child second language acquisition, and adult second language acquisition. In doing this, we relate routines and patterns to what has been called “automatic speech” and the “gestalt mode”. We conclude by: 1. asserting that the use of routines and patterns may be encouraged when conversational demands are present and the acquirer is not yet competent in the second language and 2. arguing that routines and patterns, while useful in establishing and maintaining relations (Fillmore 1976), do not serve a primary role in language acquisition and performance.
CLOZE PROCEDURE AND EQUIVALENCE
Authors: Porter Don
Published: October 2006

Two cloze tests were constructed which were identical except that in one test each deletion occurred one word earlier than in the other. Each test consisted of one literary and one non‐literary passage, each with 50 blanks. The tests were administered to 39 Polish students, three weeks elapsing between the first and second tests. Tests were scored by exact‐word and acceptable‐word methods. Significantly superior differentiation of ESL speakers has been claimed for acceptable‐word scoring (e.g. Oller 1972). No strong correlation was found between performance on the first and second tests or on literary and non‐literary passages, indicating that it can not be assumed that any two cloze tests will yield equivalent results: blank‐position and possibly style may be important variables. Acceptable‐word scoring differentiated among individual students somewhat, but both scoring methods differentiated equally well between year‐groups.
EXPANDING SCHUMANN'S PIDGINIZATION HYPOTHESIS1
Authors: Andersen Roger W.
Published: October 2006

Schumann (1978b), in addressing criticism of his Pidginization Hypothesis for second language acquisition, elaborates further on the relationship between pidginization‐creoluation‐decreolization and second language acquisition and revises and improves on his model. I propose a further revision and expansion of Schumann's model that distinguishes socio‐cultural aspects of the pidginization cycle from the acquisitional processes of pidgmization, creolization and decrolization and that relates a wider range of language acquisition phenomena to each other. This expanded version of Schumann's model puts creolization back into the model and also adds depidgnization and first language acquisition to it Pidginization/depidginization, creolization/decreolization and first and second language acquisition are herein considered related acquisitional phenomena which develop under different circumstances as specific instances of the more general co‐occuring but opposing processes of nativization and denativization.
A RESPONSE TO McLAUGWLIN, “THE MONITOR MODEL: SOME METHODOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS”1
Authors: Kraehen Stephen D.
Published: October 2006

McLaughlin (1978) examines the Monitor Model and presents “a methodological critique of the research on which the Model is based” (p. 309). This paper is a response to that critique, and discusses various misrepresentations and misinterpretations of the work on Monitor Theory.
ON THE VALIDITY OF AFFECTIVE VARIABLES IN SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION: CONCEPTUAL, CONTEXTUAL, AND STATISTICAL CONSIDERATIONS 1
Authors: Gardner R.C.
Published: October 2006

This article reviews the proposition that achievement in a second language is related to attitudinal/motivational characteristics of the students. It uses as its starting point articles by Oller and Perkins, and demonstrates that their generalizations that such relationships are weak, and that they are due to the spurious effects of verbal intelligence and language proficiency are not founded in fact. Statistical, contextual, and conceptual issues relevant to their criticisms of this research area are reviewed, as are much more parsimonious interpretations of so‐called “strange” findings. It is recommended that rather than argue over hypothetical relationships, we direct our research attention to unravelling the mysteries of second language acquisition, to the benefit of students and teachers alike.
THE EFFECTS OF BENZODIAZEPINE (VALIUM) ON PERMEABILITY OF LANGUAGE EGO BOUNDARIES 1
Authors: Guiora Alexander Z. , Acton William R. , Erard Robert , Strickland Fred W.
Published: October 2006

This study was designed as an extension of previous research in which pronunciation of a foreign language was experimentally manipulated using alcohol or hypnosis, to confirm a relationship between permeability of language ego boundaries and pronunciation. The present study used Benzodiazepine (Valium) to manipulate pronunciation in Thai. Seventy‐five subjects were assigned to one of four treatment conditions: Placebo, 2 mg., 5 mg., or 10 mg., and subsequently tested on the Standard Thai Procedure (STP) and the Digit Symbol Test. Results seem to suggest that Benzodiazepine (Valium) facilitates the empathic sensitivity of the subjects to the tester rather than to the voice on the tape. The combined findings of the Valium and alcohol studies are interpreted as supporting the theoretical connection between language ego boundaries and ego boundaries in general and illustrate the extraordinary sensitivity of the test to fluctuations in the state of the subject's ego.
SOCIOLINGUISTIC VARIATION AND STYLE SHIFTING IN SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION 1
Authors: Beebe Leslie M.
Published: October 2006

This paper presents empirical data (collected from nine Thai ESL learners) to support the claim that there is sociolinguistic variation and style shifting in interlanguage phonology, just as there is in the phonology of any natural language. The study addresses several theoretical questions:

1. Is interlanguage more permeable to a superordinate rule system in formal than in informal situations?

2. If it is more permeable, does the native language or the target language act as the superordinate rule system?

3. Does phonological transfer follow the sociolinguistic rules of the native language?

4. Does Monitoring operate on a continuum, increasing in formal contexts, and thereby producing a style shift?

The findings are consistent with the point of view that interlanguage becomes permeable to a superordinate rule system in formal situations. In these data, the target language (English) acted as the superordinate rule system when the variable examined had no social meaning in the native language (Thai), but when the variable was in fact strongly marked for social value in Thai, the native language (Thai) was adopted as the superordinate rule system. The latter style shifting involved transfer of a socially appropriate variant. Finally, it was found that monitoring (attention to speech) and conscious Monitoring with a learned phonological rule operated on a sliding scale, increasing in formal contexts, and resulting in a style shift.
THE EFFECT OF FORMAL INSTRUCTION ON SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION1
Authors: Felix Sascha W.
Published: October 2006

Thirty‐four German high school students learning English as a second language under classroom conditions were observed for a period of eight months. It was found that the students' utterances showed many structural features which are also known to characterize LI and naturalistic L2 acquisition. It thus appears that formal instruction cannot eliminate or suppress those processes which constitute man's natural ability to acquire language(s). In contrast to naturalistic learners, however, the high school students were continuously forced to produce structures for which, developmentally, they were not yet ready. Here, the students used two basic strategies: (a) they followed principles of naturalistic acquisition; (b) they randomly selected any one structure from a finite repertoire.
TEACHING STANDARD ENGLISH IN THE THIRD GRADE: CLASSROOM FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE1
Authors: Politzer Robert L. , Ramirez Arnulfo G. , Lewis Shirley A.
Published: October 2006

This study is based on the examination of twenty lessons of about 20 minutes duration each. Ten of the lessons dealt with teaching standard English negation (lesson 1), ten of the lessons dealt with the teaching of standard English past tense formation (lesson 2). The pupils were third graders, predominantly speakers of Vernacular Black English (VBE). The purpose of the study was (I) to determine the distribution of the main classroom discourse functions (e.g., Informing, Eliciting, Evaluating, Replying) throughout the lessons and (2) to examine the incidence of use of VBE English grammar throughout the lessons. On the basis of pre ‐and post‐tests given to pupils, each group of ten lessons was also subdivided into five high‐achieving and five low‐achieving teaching performances. High and low achieving performances were compared on selected distribution of discourse function moves.

Transcriptions of the lessons were segmented into T‐units (main‐clause + possible subordinate clause) which were in turn assigned to discourse function categories. As expected, Eliciting, Informing, Evaluating were by far the most frequent discourse categories used by teachers, while the category of Replying represented nearly the only discourse function (over 90%) utilized by pupils. VBE was used only occasionally by the teachers—either spontaneously or for the purpose of demonstrating a point of grammar (3.3% of moves in lesson 1, 0.35% of moves in lesson 2). Use of VBE by pupils—either spontaneously or indrills‐was also relatively scarce (7.3% in lesson I, I .2% in lesson 2).

Only one of the comparisons of “high” and “low” achieving teacher performances indicates a significant difference between the two groups. In lesson I the high achieving teachers devoted higher proportions of their moves to Elicits than the low achieving ones. An examination of the lesson transcripts suggests that this fact may be explained by the “1ow” teachers’ tendency to devote much of their lessons to lnformsdealing with a clarification of the concept of negation. This clarification, however, may have been superfluous and was. at any rate, unrelated to the criterion test. I t is suggested that analysis of discourse functions may be a useful approach to the study of teaching efficiency if it is related to meaning and the concepts of a specific lesson.
THE ROLE OF LANGUAGE PLANNING IN SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
Authors: Tollefson James W.
Published: October 2006

In recent years, several models of second language acquisition (SLA) have been proposed in an effort to describe the relationships among variables affecting rate and eventual attainment in SLA. A major weakness of these models is that they have not included planning variables. That is, they have not accounted for the impact of government planning on SLA processes. This article explores the impact of planning variables within one of the most comprehensive SLA models that proposed by Merrill Swain that includes four sets of variables: input, learner. Learning, and learned variables.

The planning process is analyzed as a complex series of policy levels having varying kinds of impact on SLA. Four components of the planning process are distinguished: macro‐policy goals, macro‐implementation decisions, micro‐policy goals. and micro‐implementation decisions. The effects of these components on input, learner, learning, and learned variables are explored in order to demonstrate the ways in which SLA is often the result of deliberate policy implementation by national, regional, and local planning agencies.
THE INTERPRETATION OF ELICITED SENTENCE IMITATION IN A STANDARDIZED CONTEXT
Authors: Gallimore Ronald , Tharp Roland G.
Published: October 2006

Elicited imitation has been used to study language acquisition and ability, language disorders, and nonstandard dialects While it was initially assumed that elicited imitation reflected knowledge of grammar, later work suggests considerable variability in performance, e.g., children do not always imitate sentences they are known to have spontaneously produced at another time. This paper reviews research on elicited sentence imitation, distinguishing naturalistic and standardized applications of the technique. A six‐year program of research is summarized which suggests that elicited imitation in a standardized context yields highly stable individual difference scores, improvement with age in accuracy of imitation, superior performance by middle class students, correlations between “imitation” tests and natural environment language performances, significant correlations between elicited imitation and widely used tests of general verbalability, and statistical evidence that elicited imitation reflects knowledge of grammar, short‐term memory, and knowledge of vocabulary The inconsistency of child imitations noted by some researchers may be a function of age and nonstandardized observation procedures.
THE USES OF THE ENGLISH PERFECT
Authors: Feigenbaum Irwin
Published: October 2006

The English perfect, a “phase” or relative tense, indicates that the situation described in a clause is relevant to the situation described in a chronologically later clause or time Grammarians of modern English have been faced with the problem of reconciling this meaning of the perfect with its disparate uses—to describe situations that have ended, that have not ended, or that arc indeterminate as to ending before the later clauses or times.

This paper shows that the three uses arise from the co‐occurrence of perfect with information outside the clause and with noun, verb, adverbial, and negation structures within the clause In addition, the paper presents evidence—from elicitation testing that these structures affect the uses and that speakers of English make and respond to these uses
LANGUAGE AS INTELLIGENCE?
Authors: Oller John W.
Published: October 2006

The interpenetration of languagC skIws (at the deepest kwls) and intcllipnce (as the latter isdefined by psychologrstsand psychometrmans) has been a toprc of great interest for many years. However. the full extent of the relationship may easily be missed if one relies on the traditional distinction between the constructs of language and intelligence and especially if one makes the common error of assocloting language too closely with spccch. The purposeof this paper is topocc.ifonlyforthesakeofargument. thequestion. could intelligence perhaps k language based after all? Dcfinitiansof intelligenceare easy to come by but hard to agm on. However, all thcorlsts seem to a g m on certain fundamental charactcnstics of intelligence and intelligent behavior Arguments and findings from kology‐particularly genetrs and also from the neurosciences are offered to at least support the plausibility of a deep relationship bctwecn language and intelligence. It is suggested that the formative power of words is somehow related to the simplest levels of biological organization and also the highest levels of human cognition. Support for this suggestion is drawn from psychometric studies as well as a content analysis of the construct “nonverbal” intelligence. Finally, some tentative inferences are offered to relate the foregoing arguments to the business of education.
ON TENSE ALTERNATION AND THE NEED FOR ANALYSIS OF NATIVE SPEAKER USAGE IN SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
Authors: Wolfson Nessa
Published: October 2006

A description of the rules for the use of the conversational historical present in American English is given in order to demonstrate the necessity of taking such information into account when applying discourse analysis to second language research. It is argued that native speaker intuition is inadequate as a basis for judging the discourse errors of language learners. A recent study of tense avoidance by Godfrey (1980) is discussed in order to point out the difficulties facing researchers doing pioneering work in the use of discourse analysis for the study of second language acquisition.
INTROVERSION‐EXTRAVERSION AND THE EFL PROFICIENCY OF JAPANESE STUDENTS
Authors: Busch Deborah
Published: October 2006

This study explores the relationship between the introversion‐extraversion tendencies of Japanese students and their proficiency in English as a foreign language (EFL). It was hypothesized that in an EFL situation, extraverted students would attain a higher proficiency in English because they may take advantage of the few available opportunities to receive input in English and practice the language with native speakers. In order to test the hypothesis that extraverts are more proficient in English, 80 junior college English students and 105 adult school English students took a standardized English test, completed a personality questionnaire, and provided information on a biodata form. In addition, 45 of the junior college students participated in English oral interviews which were then rated for proficiency by two evaluators.

The hypothesis that extraverts are more proficient in English was not supported. In fact, statistical analysis revealed that extraversion had a significant negative correlation with pronunciation, a subcomponent of the oral interview test. In addition, introverts tended to have higher scores on the reading and grammar components of the standardized English test.

Even though introverts tended to score better on most of the English proficiency measures, it was found that junior college males who had tendencies towards extraversion had higher oral interview scores. Extraversion also correlated positively with length of time spent studying English at the adult school. These findings are discussed with respect to cultural factors predominant in Japanese society and psychological theory.
THEORETICAL IMPLICATIONS OF AN ERROR ANALYSIS OF SECOND LANGUAGE PHONOLOGY PRODUCTION
Authors: Altenberg Evelyn P. , Vago Robert M.
Published: October 2006

An error analysis approach is used to investigate the second language (English) phonology of two native speakers of Hungarian. The study provides evidence relevant to a number of issues in second language phonology. While evidence for both phonetic (sound) transfer and phonological (rule) transfer is found, it is argued that there are limitations on what can transfer from the native language to the target language. The analysis also reveals the application of unmarked rules in second language phonology production. These rules occur in neither the native nor the target language. The data are used to approach a substantive characterization of the notion of degree of foreign accent. The error analysis approach is contrasted with the autonomous system analysis approach, and it is argued that each provides unique information and that both must be used together to arrive at a more complete understanding of second language phonology.
THE STABILITY OF ORAL PROFICIENCY ASSESSMENT ON THE ORAL INTERVIEW TESTING PROCEDURES
Authors: Shohamy Elana
Published: October 2006

The paper first discusses the complexity of measuring oral proficiency in communicative situations. The difficulty is due to the large number of variables, linguistic and social, which interact with one another. It then reports on a study which examined the stability of the assessment of oral proficiency on the oral interview test. Students of Hebrew as a foreign language underwent four administrations of different versions of that test. The administrations differed from one another by the occasion, the interviewer, the speech style, and the topic. Results from the analysis indicated that the different speech style and topic significantly affected students' scores on these tests while the occasion and the interviewer did not. The correlational analysis between pairs of tests pointed to low reliability and lack of stability of the tests, especially when two variables (i.e., occasion and tester) interacted. The results call for use of caution when decisions about individuals are made based on administration of communicative tests, for a need to identify sources of error in communicative tests, and for drawing stringent guidelines for the use of such tests.
THE COMPARATIVE FALLACY IN INTERLANGUAGE STUDIES: THE CASE OF SYSTEMATICITY1
Authors: Bley‐Vroman Robert
Published: October 2006

Studies of second language acquisition often employ analytical concepts defined relative to the target language (such as obligatory context, error, etc.). It is demonstrated here that this practice can be a serious obstacle to the investigation of crucial questions about the nature of learners' languages. The difficulties caused by this practice—called here the “comparative fallacy”—are illustrated in an investigation of the framework proposed by Tarone, Frauenfelder, and Selinker (1976) to study the issue of interlanguage systematicity and variability. Their framework is shown to result in incorrect or unrevealing analyses of systematicity and to obscure the character of the interlanguage. These defects are shown to be the results of the comparative fallacy.
CONTROL JUDGMENTS BY DEAF ADULTS AND BY SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNERS1
Authors: Berent Gerald P.
Published: October 2006

First language acquisition studies reveal that children overextend the minimal distance principle (MDP) during their acquisition of infinitive complement structures. The MDP dictates the interpretation of the logical subject of the infinitive in these structures and overrides marked lexical features such as subject control. Misinterpretations by adult second language learners and by adult prelingually deaf individuals are also shown to result from an overextension of the MDP. On a comprehension test of specific sentences, the relative order of difficulty in interpreting the logical subject of the infinitive is similar for both groups. This order reflects the same order of difficulty on sentences containing tell, ask, and promise which has been reported in the literature on first language acquisition. The later acquisition of certain structures is explained in terms of the inherent linguistic complexity of the sentences.
IS THERE A STRUCTURAL FOREIGN ACCENT? A COMPARISON OF SYNTACTIC AND PHONOLOGICAL ERRORS IN SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
Authors: Ioup Georgette
Published: October 2006

The purpose of this study is to assess the validity of the claim that native language transfer manifests itself primarily at the level of phonology. Experimentation was designed to test whether native speakers can identify distinct foreign accents in speakers of English as a second language from different language backgrounds with and without the aid of phonological cues. Written and oral data were evaluated by native speaking judges to ascertain the extent to which they could identify members of the same native language group on the basis of either phonological or syntactic evidence. The results indicate that though native speakers of English are able to identify learners from the same mother tongue backgrounds when phonological cues are present, they cannot do so using only syntactic evidence. While these data do not confirm conclusively the hypothesis suggested above, they do lend strong support to it. An examination is then made of other research data to see if they confirm the hypothesis that syntactic and phonological L2 acquisition are different with respect to the degree to which they are influenced by LI interference.
LINGUISTIC RELATIVITY AND SEX/GENDER STUDIES: EPISTEMOLOGICAL AND METHODOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Authors: Clarke Mark A. , Losoff Ann , McCracken Margaret Dickenson , Rood David S.
Published: October 2006

Two studies have investigated one purported manifestation of the Sapir‐Whorf hypothesis of linguistic relativity—the relationship between gender loading in languages (a linguistic construct) and the perception of gender (a psychological construct) by speakers of those languages. The results of the study conducted by the University of Michigan Language Behavior Research Group indicated that adult speakers of English and Hebrew categorized objects/concepts in essentially the same fashion regardless of native language. The results of our study (a replication of the Michigan studies) indicate that Arabic speaking adults categorize essentially asexual objects/concepts in a markedly different way from English speaking adults, suggesting that gender loading in Arabic influences Arabic speakers' perceptions of those objects/concepts. These findings appear to contradict conclusions reached by the Michigan group.

In this paper we review the studies briefly, and we question their value in illuminating the issue of linguistic relativity. We then examine a number of theoretical and methodological issues in linguistic relativity research. Given that the work of Benjamin Lee Whorf serves as the foundation for most of the recent studies, we suggest that researchers need to develop a theoretical framework which accurately mirrors the complexity and subtlety of his views on the relationship between language and consciousness. We argue that such a framework is available in the sociological/philosophical tradition of phenomenology. Phenomenologists ascribe an important (though not a causal) role to language in determining an individual's view of reality. Finally, we raise a number of methodological issues that result from this perspective, and we suggest avenues for further research.
REVIEW ARTICLE
Authors: Selinker Larry
Published: October 2006

Attempting Comprehensive and Comparative Empirical Research in Second Language Acquisition. A Review of Second Language Acquisition by Adult Immigrants: A Field Manual. Edited by Clive Perdue. Rowley, MA: Newbury House, 1984.
THE “PRO‐DROP” PARAMETER IN ADULT SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
Authors: White Lydia
Published: October 2006

In this paper, it is proposed that adults learning second languages have particular problems when their mother tongue has activated a parameter of Universal Grammar which is not operative in the second language. It is suggested that the learner will carry the parameter over from L1 to L2, causing transfer errors. This proposal was tested on adult native speakers of Spanish learning English as a second language. Spanish, unlike English, is a “pro‐drop” language, having the following properties, all thought to be related by the “pro‐drop” parameter: (1) missing subjects, (2) free subject‐verb inversion, (3) that trace effects. Subjects were asked to make grammaticality judgments on a number of English sentences, including some with “pro‐drop” characteristics, which would have been grammatical in Spanish but were ungrammatical in English. It was found that Spanish speakers did accept many such sentences as grammatical, as compared to French‐speaking controls, who did not, and that Spanish speakers showed improvement with increasing levels of proficiency.
VARIABILITY IN TENSE MARKING: A CASE FOR THE OBVIOUS
Authors: Wolfram Walt
Published: October 2006

The recent focus on the discourse level as the primary basis for explaining alternation in interlanguage tense marking is challenged on the basis of an analysis of tense marking for 16 Vietnamese speakers learning English as a second language. The subjects represent four different age levels (10–12, 15–18, 20–25, and 35–55) and two different length of residency groups (1–3 and 4–7 years). The analysis reveals that there are a number of surface‐level constraints that systematically affect the incidence of tense marking, including the distinction between regular and irregular verbs, the shape of the suffix on the regular verb, the following phonological environment, the type of irregular formation, and the relative frequency of the verb form. It is demonstrated that the analysis of tense marking in terms of higher‐level language organization must take into account these kinds of surface constraints if it hopes to provide a valid, empirically based account of tense marking alternation in interlanguage.
MARKEDNESS CONSIDERATIONS IN THE ACQUISITION OF CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
Authors: Berent Gerald P.
Published: October 2006

Two experiments were conducted which were designed to assess adult 1.2 learners’ production and comprehension of English conditional sentences. The analyses provided lend support to the explanatory power of markedness theory in explaining 1.2 acquisition. Different relative orders of difficulty emerged in the production and comprehension, respectively, of three conditional types, suggesting that form and function may be acquired at different times in the 1.2 acquisition of syntax. Of real, unreal, and past unreal conditions, the real conditions were the easiest to produce but the most difficult to comprehend. These relative orders of difficulty and other developmental differences that emerged between proficiency levels are explained in terms of the nature of the distinctive features assigned indifferent domains of grammar Learners’ responses to markedness values in the interacting contexts of morphology. syntax, semantics, presupposition, and discourse provide a more accurate picture of the acquisition process.
A CASE FOR FIELD‐EXPERIMENTATION IN PROGRAM EVALUATION1
Authors: Beretta Alan
Published: October 2006

This paper presents a case for the desirability of field‐experimentation in language teaching program evaluation. The limitations of laboratory research are considered from the perspectives of internal and external validity, overall strategy, and an uncertain relationship with what happens in a classroom context. It is argued that laboratory research is not carried out with the aim of providing direct feedback to instructors, while field research is intended to have implications for teaching behavior, that is, to be useful in the short term. A procedure is outlined whereby a preoccupation with the effect of complete programs over time takes priority over dissection and analysis. This encourages an initial concern with what works in practice, which is the primary goal of the applied discipline of program evaluation.
THE ONTOGENY MODEL: EVIDENCE FROM L2 ACQUISITION OF SPANISH r
Authors: Major Roy C.
Published: October 2006

This study tests a model for L2 phonological acquisition, using longitudinal data from beginning learners of Spanish. The model claims that transfer processes decrease over time, while developmental processes increase and then decrease. The data for L2 acquisition of Spanish r largely support the claims. The analysis also reveals a hierarchical organization of processes in L2 acquisition and an interaction of the L1 and L2 systems. The study further demonstrates that the same processes underlie L1 and L2 acquisition and synchronic and diachronic phenomena.
DURATION AND CONTEXT EFFECTS ON THE PERCEPTION OF ENGLISH /r/ AND /I/: A COMPARISON OF CANTONESE AND JAPANESE SPEAKERS
Authors: Henly Elizabeth , Sheldon Amy
Published: October 2006

This study examines the role that duration plays in the perception of a new phonemic contrast, namely English /r/‐/I/, by Cantonese speakers. Previous research with Japanese speakers by Dissosway‐Huff, Port and Pisoni (1982) suggested that greater accuracy of perception of this new contrast correlates with greater duration of the acoustic signal. The results of our study show that increased duration of the acoustic signal is not sufficient to facilitate perception of English liquids by Cantonese speakers. Thus, our results provide no support for the Duration Hypothesis. We also show that differences in the perception of /r/ and /I/ by Japanese and Cantonese speakers can be explained in part by differences in their native language phonological constraints. Finally, we discuss possible causes for the perceptual difficulty that both types of speakers have with consonant clusters.
SOME PSYCHOLINGUISTIC ASPECTS OF BRÔU LITERACY PROBLEMS*
Authors: Johnston Eugenia
Published: October 2006

The forty‐one syllable nuclei of Brôu, a Mon‐Khmer language of South Viet Nam, are described and their symbolization in an orthography constructed by the author is presented. The orthography was tested for appropriateness in two ways—(1) primers were written and the teachability of the orthography to non‐literate native speakers was assessed and (2) native speakers literate in Vietnamese were asked to spell Brôu words using cardboard letters. The spelling experiment tested five features of the orthography—the representation of (1) contrasts in vowel length, (2) the relationship of final to medial vowels, (4) offglides as complex or simple nuclei and (5) non‐register onglides as complex or simple. Results indicated that certain revisions in the proposed orthography are called for, particularly in the representation of tense‐register vowels and non‐register onglides.
SOME NOTES ON ENGLISH VOWEL MORPHOPHONEMICS*
Authors: Hill Kenneth C.
Published: October 2006

Morphophonemically related differences in vowel quality, as Illustrated by pairs of English words like five: fifth, sleep: slept, bathe: bath, punitive: punish, know: knowledge, hooves: hoof, south; southern, can be accounted for by reference to an underlying system of seven Tense and seven Lax vowels, Tenseness being assigned by rules not discussed. From this sytem the actually occurring forms are derived as follows. A first rule analyzes into The second makes Tense vowels into central vowels plus off‐glides and changes Tense high vowels to low, mid to high, and low to mid. Next, non‐low Tense vowels assimilate to their off‐glides. Thus: A last rule accounts for the quality of the Lax vowels, changing to and to and to with and remaining as In the underlying system:
The Influence of Religion‐Specific Background Knowledge on the Listening Comprehension of Adult Second‐Language Students
Authors: Markham Paul , Latham Michael
Published: October 2006

This article describes a study assessing the influence of religious‐specific background knowledge on adult ESL listening comprehension. Sixty‐five university‐level students participated in the study. Twenty‐eight students self‐reported being religion‐neutral with virtually no knowledge of Moslem or Christian religious rites. Sixteen of the students declared themselves to be practicing Moslems, and twenty students reported being practicing Christians. The students listened to one passage describing the prayer rituals of Islam and a second passage describing the prayer rituals of Christianity.

The results clearly suggest that passage content exerts a powerful influence on the listening comprehension scores of students professing close ties to a particular religion. Particularly strong differences were observed regarding the recall of major idea units. Less striking, yet obviously supportive differences were in evidence with respect to the creation of schema‐appropriate elaborations and inappropriate distortions. The religion‐neutral students performed somewhat erratically in that they recalled more major idea units pertaining to the Moslem passage, but also provided more appropriate elaborations regarding the Christian passage. In addition, retrospective interviews that yielded insightful information that generally supported the quantitative findings were conducted.
The Instrumental Study of L2 Speech Production: Some Methodological Considerations*
Authors: Flege James Emil
Published: October 2006

This article discusses the design and interpretation of instrumental phonetic studies of L2 speech production. The notion phonetic norm plays a crucial role in many recent studies that examine acoustic dimensions such as the frequencies of F1‐F3, vowel duration, or voice‐onset time (VOT). The speech of L2 learners is evaluated to determine to what extent it diverges from the differing phonetic norms of L1 and L2, which are estimated from the speech of a small number of native speakers, it is advisable to use monolinguals to establish the L1 norms because L2 learning has been shown to affect L1 production. In initial stages of learning, L2 learners often produce words in L2 with L1 sounds: they do not modify phonetic dimensions when producing corresponding sounds in L1 and L2 phonetic norm. L2 learners with relatively greater experience in L2, on the other hand, generally approximate the phonetic norm of L2: the values of the phonetic dimensions being measured generally fall between the mean values representing the phonetic norms of L1 and L2.