bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Time‐specific intraocular pressure curves in Rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) with laser‐induced ocular hypertension
Authors: Ollivier F. J. , Brooks D. E. , Kallberg M. E. , Sapp H. L. , Komáromy A. M. , Stevens G. R. , Dawson W. W. , Sherwood M. B. , Lambrou G. N.
Published: January 2004

Objective To detect and categorize time‐specific variations in daytime intraocular pressure (IOP) found in Rhesus monkeys with laser‐induced ocular hypertension.

Procedures Ten male monkeys with argon laser‐induced ocular hypertension in one eye were anesthetized with ketamine hydrochloride, and the IOP measured in both eyes at 7 a.m., 7.30 a.m., and then hourly until 1 p.m. with a Tonopen™ XL applanation tonometer. Intraocular pressure time profiles for both eyes in each animal were developed. The means ± SD of the IOPs for both eyes were calculated for the whole 6‐h study period, and the values compared statistically. The difference between the lasered eye mean IOP standard deviation and the normal eye mean IOP standard deviation for each animal during the 6‐h follow‐up was also calculated and compared.

Results Mean IOP (± SD) in the glaucoma and normal eyes for the 10 animals during the 6‐h study was 32.6 ± 2.5 and 14.9 ± 2.5 mmHg, respectively. The IOP was significantly higher in the experimental eye than in the normal eye (P = 0.0008). The mean IOP in the lasered eye did not significantly change during the study period, whereas a slight but significant increase in IOP of the normal eye over the study period was recorded (P = 0.003). The variance in IOP in the hypertensive eyes was considerably greater than that in the untreated control eyes. From 7 a.m. to 1 p.m. the IOP declined in five eyes and increased in the other five eyes with laser‐induced ocular hypertension.

Conclusions The time‐specific IOP variation pattern in the daytime in the laser treated eyes is significantly greater than the variation in the normotensive eyes. This shows that in order to detect statistical differences between IOP variations induced by an IOP‐reducing drug, and the exaggerated spontaneous IOP variations present in the laser‐induced hypertensive eye, sufficient animals should be included in any study. Understanding the time‐specific IOP variation present in a group of monkeys with laser‐induced ocular hypertension is essential prior to using the model for the evaluation of IOP‐reducing drugs.
Prevalence of canine cataract: preliminary results of a cross‐sectional study
Authors: Williams D. L. , Heath M. F. , Wallis C.
Published: January 2004

Objective  In this study 2000 dogs were examined ophthalmoscopically to determine presence of cataract.

Materials and methods  The dogs examined were predominantly from veterinary hospital populations but also from the Waltham Center For Pet Nutrition, rehoming charities and breeding kennels. Prevalence of cataract was thus determined for different age groups (year cohorts). The age at which prevalence of cataract was 50% (C50) was determined indirectly from a fitted prevalence curve.

Results  The mean ± standard deviation of C50 for all dogs in the study was 9.4 ± 3.3 years. All dogs over 13.5 years were affected by some degree of lens opacity. C50 was determined for animals of different genders and different breeds. For dogs of six breeds sufficient data were available for calculation of breed‐specific C50. In these dogs C50 was positively correlated with longevity with a least squares correlation coefficient of 0.74.

Conclusion  The study yields novel findings regarding the prevalence and incidence of cataract in the dog and forms the basis for considerable further work on the epidemiology and pathophysiology of age‐related cataract in the dog.
Comparative morphology of the tapetum lucidum (among selected species)
Authors: Ollivier F. J. , Samuelson D. A. , Brooks D. E. , Lewis P. A. , Kallberg M. E. , Komáromy A. M.
Published: January 2004

Objectives  The phenomenon of ‘eye‐shine’ is seen in a variety of animal species, and is generally thought to be related to the presence of an intraocular reflecting structure, the tapetum lucidum. The tapetum lucidum is a biologic reflector system that is a common feature in the eyes of vertebrates. It normally functions to provide the light‐sensitive retinal cells with a second opportunity for photon‐photoreceptor stimulation, thereby enhancing visual sensitivity at low light levels. The tapetum lucidum is presented here according to a classification based on the location, as well as the composition, of this reflective layer. Finally, the physical and chemical properties, as well as the origins of the different tapeta lucida, are discussed and compared.

Methods  The anatomic and biochemical aspects of the tapetum lucidum in various vertebrates are examined. Morphologic observations were made from paraffin and plastic embedded specimens. Specimens were treated with traditional stains and observed by light and transmission electron microscopy.

Results  Some species (primates, squirrels, birds, red kangaroo and pig) do not have this structure and they usually are diurnal animals. In vertebrates, the tapetum lucidum exhibits diverse structure, organization and composition. Therefore, the retinal tapetum (teleosts, crocodilians, marsupials, fruit bat), the choroidal guanine tapetum (elasmobranchs), the choroidal tapetum cellulosum (carnivores, rodents, cetacea), and the choroidal tapetum fibrosum (cow, sheep, goat, horse) are described.

Conclusions  The tapetum lucidum represents a remarkable example of neural cell and tissue specialization as an adaptation to a dim light environment and, despite these differences, all tapetal variants act to increase retinal sensitivity by reflecting light back through the photoreceptor layer. These variations regarding both its location and structure, as well as the choice of reflective material, may represent selective visual adaptations associated with their feeding behavior, in response to the use of specific wavelengths and amount of reflectance required.
Postnatal development of central corneal thickness in chicks ofGallus gallus domesticus
Authors: Montiani‐Ferreira Fabiano , Cardoso Fernando , Petersen‐Jones Simon
Published: January 2004

Objective To investigate the changes in corneal thickness that occur during maturation of theGallus gallus domesticuschick eye over the first 450 days of life.

Animals studied Twenty‐nine chicks, of which 12 were males and 17 were females.

Procedures The central corneal thickness (CCT) was measured by ultrasonic pachymetry from hatch until 450 days of age. Segmented regression was applied to capture the two phases observed in the CCT plotted against age. Eye and gender were also included in the model.

Results Mean CCT values initially decreased, with the lowest point being reached at around 12 days of age. CCT then gradually increased as the chick matured. At 70 days of age the animals have completed corneal development and reached the plateau value of 0.242 ± 0.0002 mm. CCT differences between gender or between left and right eyes were not statistically significant. Prediction equations for mean CCT according to the bird's age are presented.

Conclusions There is an initial decrease in corneal thickness until approximately 12 days of age, which presumably mirrors maturation of corneal endothelial cell function. The pattern of changes in corneal thickness during the first phase of development of the chick CCT was similar to the one reported for dogs and humans. However, a unique feature of the development of CCT in chicks is that after reaching a plateau at 70 days corneal thickness did not significantly change over the remainder of the study period. Additionally, unlike in humans and dogs, there is no gender difference for corneal thickness in chicks.
Cardiovascular effects of topical ophthalmic 10% phenylephrine in dogs
Authors: Herring I. P. , Jacobson J. D. , Pickett J. P.
Published: January 2004

Objective To evaluate the effect of topical ophthalmic 10% phenylephrine on systolic arterial pressure (SAP), diastolic arterial pressure (DAP), mean arterial pressure (MAP), pulse rate (PR) and electrocardiogram (ECG) in dogs.

Animals studied Nine clinically normal dogs.

Procedure Arterial catheters were placed in the dorsal pedal artery of awake dogs and ECG leads were attached. After a 15‐min acclimatization period, baseline PR, SAP, DAP and MAP were recorded every 5 min for 20 min. Two treatment groups (eight dogs each) were studied.Group I: one drop of phenylephrine was placed in each eye once.Group II: one drop of phenylephrine was placed in each eye three times at 5‐min intervals. Following treatment, PR, SAP, DAP and MAP were recorded every 5 min for 90 min. The mixed procedure of the SAS system was used to perform a repeated measures analysis of variance to test for linear and quadratic trends across time.

Results Group I: There was a significant quadratic decrease in PR across time (P = 0.0051). Systolic arterial pressure increased linearly with time (P = 0.0002), MAP increased linearly with time (P = 0.0131), and DAP increased linearly with time (P = 0.0001).Group II: There was a significant quadratic decrease in PR across time (P = 0.0023). There was a significant quadratic increase in SAP (P = 0.0324), MAP (P = 0.0103) and DAP (P = 0.0131) across time.

Conclusions Topical ophthalmic application of 10% phenylephrine in normal dogs results in elevation of arterial blood pressure and reflex bradycardia.
Abnormal dark‐adapted ERG in cats heterozygous for a recessively inherited rod‐cone degeneration
Authors: Ekesten Björn , Narfström Kristina
Published: January 2004

Purpose  To study retinal function in cats homozygous and heterozygous for a recessively inherited rod‐cone degeneration.

Methods  Dark‐adapted electroretinograms (ERGs) were performed on early affected, heterozygous (ophthalmoscopically normal), and clinically normal, nonrelated cats. Responses to blue stimuli over a 3.9‐log unit range were recorded.

Results  Lower b‐wave amplitudes than normal were observed in heterozygotes and early affected cats. The amplitudes of the heterozygotes took an intermediate position between normal and early affected cats. Normalized amplitude/intensity data suggest a normal dynamic range in carriers. B‐wave implicit times in carriers were comparable to those of normal cats.

Conclusions  These results show that heterozygotes have an altered retinal function, although they are ophthalmoscopically normal. It is difficult to electrophysiologically differentiate heterozygotes from affected cats with the very early stage of retinal degeneration.
Canine lobular orbital adenoma: a report of 15 cases with distinctive features
Authors: Headrick Jason F. , Bentley Ellison , Dubielzig Richard R.
Published: January 2004

Objective  To describe a unique orbital neoplasm in dogs, of lacrimal or salivary gland origin.

Animals studied  Fifteen dogs with lesions consistent with a diagnosis of lobular adenomas involving the orbit were identified from the Comparative Ophthalmic Pathology Laboratory of Wisconsin from 1994 to 2001.

Results  The neoplasm occurred in nine females and six males. Affected dogs ranged in age from 7 to 17 years (mean = 9.7 years). Follow‐up information was available for 13 of the 15 cases. The clinical presentation included swollen/hyperemic eyelids (4/15), third eyelid protrusion (3/15), conjunctival mass (6/15), exophthalmos (4/15), resistance to retropulsion (2/15), or strabismus (1/15). In 13 cases the masses were composed of nodular, friable tissue and they were solid in two cases. Histologically, the tissue was found in encapsulated lobules resembling well differentiated lacrimal or salivary glands but completely lacking ducts. Granular PAS‐positive material was found within the cytoplasm. There was recurrence in 10 of the 13 cases available for follow‐up. Of those cases in which enucleation or exenteration was performed (3/15), there was recurrence of disease in one case. In three cases the dogs were euthanized before recurrence at 3 months, 5 months and 3 years post surgery. None of the deaths was related to the tumor.

Conclusion  In the 15 cases reviewed, lobular adenomas of the orbit presented clinically and histologically as a benign neoplasm of lacrimal or salivary gland origin. Recurrence was likely unless the mass was completely excised, at times requiring orbital exenteration.
Effect of different dose schedules of travoprost on intraocular pressure and pupil size in the glaucomatous Beagle
Authors: Gelatt Kirk N. , MacKay Edward O.
Published: January 2004

Objective To evaluate changes in intraocular pressure and pupil size in glaucomatous dogs after instillation of 0.004% travoprost once in the morning, or once in the evening, or twice daily in 5‐day multiple dose studies.

Materials and methods Applanation tonometry (IOP) and pupil size (PS) measurements were obtained at 8 a.m., 10 a.m., 12 noon, 2 p.m. and 4 p.m. in eight glaucoma dogs. Methylcellulose (0.5% as placebo) was instilled in the control eye, and 0.004% travoprost was instilled in the opposite drug eye. Methylcellulose (0.5%) and 0.004% travoprost were instilled on the 2nd through to the 5th day with instillations in the morning (8.30 a.m.), or evening (8 p.m.), or twice daily (8.30 a.m. and 8 p.m.).

Results The mean ± SEM diurnal changes from baseline IOP in the control and placebo eyes in all three studies ranged from 1.2 ± 0.3 mmHg to 3.2 ± 0.9 mmHg. The mean ± SEM diurnal changes from the baseline IOP after 0.004% travoprost at 8 a.m. once daily for the next 4 days were 19.0 ± 2.7 mmHg, 24.7 ± 2.7 mmHg, 24.9 ± 3.1 mmHg, and 24.7 ± 3.1 mmHg, respectively, and were significantly different from the control eye. After travoprost was instilled at 8 p.m., the mean ± SEM baseline changes from the baseline IOP in the drug eyes were 23.5 ± 2.2 mmHg, 24.2 ± 2.2 mmHg, 24.5 ± 2.3 mmHg, and 24.2 ± 2.3 mmHg, respectively. When 0.004% travoprost was instilled twice daily, the mean ± SEM baseline IOP changes were 27.7 ± 2.1 mmHg, 28.1 ± 2.1 mmHg, 28.4 ± 2.2 mmHg, and 28.5 ± 2.2 mmHg, respectively, and were significantly different from the control eyes. Miosis of varying duration was frequent during the three studies.

Conclusion Travoprost instilled once daily (a.m. or p.m.) as well as twice daily produces significant decreases in IOP and PS in the glaucomatous Beagle.
Enhanced expression of Cyclooxygenase‐2 in glaucomatous dog eyes
Authors: Marshall Janene L. , Stanfield Kristina M. , Silverman Lee , Khan K. Nasir M.
Published: January 2004

Objective  Cyclooxygenase‐2 (COX‐2)‐derived prostaglandins (PGs) are shown to play important pathophysiologic roles in various disease states. Recently, the effectiveness of topical PGs in reducing intraocular pressure (IOP) has stimulated further interest in the physiologic function of COX‐2 and PGs in normal and glaucomatous eyes. Therefore, we investigated the cell‐type distribution and expression of COX‐2 in normal and glaucomatous dog eyes.

Procedures  Using isoform‐specific antibodies, we immunohistochemically evaluated COX‐2 expression in formalin‐fixed and paraffin‐embedded normal (n = 5) and glaucomatous (n = 17) dog eyes.

Results  In the normal eyes, only minimal COX‐2 immunoreactivity was observed in the ciliary epithelium. In the glaucomatous eyes, COX‐2 expression was further observed in the cornea and corneoscleral limbus. In the cornea, moderate to strong COX‐2 expression was observed in all corneal layers (epithelium, stromal cells and endothelium), with the greatest expression present in the epithelial layer. In the corneoscleral limbus area, COX‐2 immunoreactivity was noted in the stromal cells of sclera, trabecular meshwork and endothelial cells of the angular aqueous plexus.

Conclusions  Increased expression of COX‐2 in dog glaucomatous eyes suggests that COX‐2‐derived PGs may have a potential role in the pathogenesis of canine glaucoma.
Hypertensive retinopathy and choroidopathy in a cat
Authors: Komáromy András M. , Andrew Stacy E. , Denis Heidi M. , Brooks Dennis E. , Gelatt Kirk N.
Published: January 2004

Bilateral hypertensive retinopathy and choroidopathy with bullous retinal detachment was diagnosed in a 17‐year‐old, female spayed Domestic Short‐haired cat. The underlying cause of the systemic hypertension could not be determined. The blood pressure was lowered successfully with the oral application of the L‐type calcium channel blocker amlodipine besylate. The cat subsequently regained vision. The improvement in retinal function was documented using electroretinography.
Firm Size, Industry Mix and the Regional Transmission of Monetary Policy in Germany
Authors: Arnold Ivo J. M. , Vrugt Evert B.
Published: January 2004

This paper estimates the impact of interest rate shocks on regional output in Germany over the period from 1970 to 2000. We use a vector autoregression (VAR) model to obtain impulse responses, which reveal differences in the output responses to monetary policy shocks across ten German provinces. Next, we investigate whether these differences can be related to structural features of the regional economies, such as industry mix, firm size, bank size and openness. An additional analysis of the volatility of real GDP growth for the period 1992-2000 includes the Eastern provinces. We also present evidence on the interrelationship between firm size and industry, and compare our measure of firm size with those used in previous studies. We conclude that the differential regional effects of monetary policy are related to industrial composition, but not to firm size or bank size.
Food Policy Old and New
Authors: Maxwell Simon , Slater Rachel
Published: January 2004

The character of the food system and the nature of food policy are both changing, as urbanisation, technical change and the industrialisation of the food system transform the way food is produced, marketed and consumed in developing countries. This overview presents an evaluation framework and explores new policy options. Some issues feature more prominently in richer, more urbanised, more industrialised developing countries, but the new food policy agenda is relevant in all countries — and it is in the poorest countries where challenges are set to emerge most rapidly. The agenda is more one of ‘food policy’ than ‘food security’: developing countries need both, but particularly a greater engagement with the new food policy.
Food Industrialisation and Food Power: Implications for Food Governance
Authors: Lang Tim
Published: January 2004

Food supply chains of developed countries industrialised in the second half of the twentieth century, with significant implications for developing countries over policy priorities, the ensuing external costs and the accompanying concentration of market power. Very powerful corporations dominate many sectors. Primary producers are locked into tight specifications and contracts. Consumers may benefit from cheaper food but there are quality implications and health externalities. As consumer confidence has been shaken, new quality agencies have been created. Tensions have emerged about the state's role as facilitator of industrial efficiencies. Food policy is thus torn between the pursuit of productivity and reduced prices and the demand for higher quality, with implications for both producers and consumers in the developing world.
Food and Poverty: Insights from the ‘North’
Authors: Dowler Elizabeth
Published: January 2004

The role that food and nutrition play in the material definitions of poverty are contrasted with the social construction of malnutrition and poverty, drawing largely on British experience. The consequences for poor health and premature death are briefly examined; in particular, the connection is made to the world‐wide growth in obesity, and in cardio‐vascular disease, cancers and diabetes. The lived experience of those defined as poor in the North, and the implications of contemporary policy initiatives and responses by state, private and voluntary sectors, are explored. The challenges of the dominant policy framework remain consumer and individual choice, rather than public health and citizenship, which militates against the realisation of true food security.
The Nutrition Transition in the Developing World
Authors: Popkin Barry M.
Published: January 2004

This article explores shifts in nutrition transition from the period termed the receding famine pattern to one dominated by nutrition‐related noncommunicable diseases (NR‐NCDs). It examines the speed of these changes, summarises dietary and physical activity changes, and provides some sense of the health effects and economic costs. The focus is on the lower‐ and middle‐income countries of Asia, Africa, the Middle East and Latin America. The article shows that changes are occurring at great speed and at earlier stages of countries' economic and social development. The burden of disease from NR‐NCDs is shifting towards the poor and the costs are also becoming greater than those for under‐nutrition. Policy options are identified.
Redirecting the Diet Transition: What Can Food Policy Do?
Authors: Haddad Lawrence
Published: January 2004

The diets of consumers in the developing world — rich and poor, rural and urban — are changing. More calories, saturated fats, added sugars and added salts are being consumed, resulting in ‘over‐nutrition’. Combined with lower physical activity levels these changes are causing increased levels of chronic diseases such as heart disease and diabetes. However, the shifts are taking place in the presence of persistent under‐nutrition problems, creating a co‐existence of under‐ and over‐nutrition. This article identifies the drivers of these changes, and asks what food policy (including policies directed to production, marketing, retailing and consumption) can do to re‐direct the changes towards better health. The policy trade‐offs inherent in the co‐existence of under‐ and over‐nutrition are highlighted.
Value‐chain Governance, Public Regulation and Entry Barriers in the Global Fresh Fruit and Vegetable Chain into the EU
Authors: Gibbon Peter
Published: January 2004

Supermarkets' increased sourcing of fresh produce from developing countries has been generally accompanied by a decline in the proportion of this produce accounted for by smaller‐scale producers. This follows from supermarkets' growing use of ‘buyer power’ to demand more services and lower prices from suppliers. This article reviews regulatory interventions by public authorities in the EU, South Africa and France that have been aimed, at least indirectly, at restraining ‘buyer power’ to the benfit of smaller‐scale producers. Although now politically unfashionable, two of these interventions can be regarded as having had a measure of success.
Changing Food Systems in India: Resourcesharing and Marketing Arrangements for Vegetable Production in Andhra Pradesh
Authors: Deshingkar Priya , Kulkarni Usha , Rao Laxman , Rao Sreenivas
Published: January 2004

Transformations in the global food system are causing changes in food production and marketing in India at a slower rate than elsewhere in the developing world but there is is a growing domestic market for horticultural produce, in both traditional and exotic vegetables. Production and marketing arrangements are responding to changing demand driven by urbanisation and diet change. Government‐sponsored schemes in horticulture have mixed results, generating more jobs than cereal production but reaching larger rather than smaller farmers and landless households. Beyond direct government interventions, new forms of contractual and sharecropping relationships are emerging between private dealers and farmers. These could be useful in developing a model for ensuring that the horticulture sector can benefit small and marginal farmers.
Small Producer Participation in Global Food Systems: Policy Opportunities and Constraints
Authors: Page Sheila , Slater Rachel
Published: January 2004

Access to markets is increasingly seen as an essential element in providing a route out of poverty, especially for small producers of food crops in rural areas. However, the nature of those markets is changing and bringing about shifts in both levels and forms of participation by small producers in global food systems. Small producers face new difficulties, for example in meeting high standards, but there are also new initiatives, for example by fair trade companies and co‐operatives. This article focuses on nine initiatives and asks what small producers must do to achieve effective and sustainable access to markets, and how different private and public organisations can contribute to this.
Food and Agricultural Biotechnology Policy: How Much Autonomy Can Developing Countries Exercise?
Authors: Millstone Erik , van Zwanenberg Patrick
Published: January 2004

Some commentators assumed the rules of the World Trade Organization and provisions of the Cartagena Biosafety Protocol could facilitate the establishment of uniform global regulatory procedures and standards covering food and agricultural biotechnology, which could be based on scientific risk assessments. However, the science is often uncertain and equivocal, and assessments of the environmental impact of GM crops should be local rather than global. Consequently the tendency towards convergence is severely attenuated. Analysis of judgements of WTO's Dispute Panel and Appellate Body indicates that developing countries might lawfully be able to exercise considerable autonomy when setting regulatory standards if several conditions are met but, given their limited financial and human resources, they may require multilateral collaboration.
Food Trade and Food Policy in Sub‐Saharan Africa: Old Myths and New Challenges
Authors: Stevens Christopher
Published: January 2004

Changing agricultural trade patterns and policy have powerful but often misunderstood effects on food security in the medium term — partly because they are indirect and partly because insufficient attention is given to the key changes. Africa, in particular, is being squeezed. Current patterns of importing cereals and exporting other agricultural products depend upon price effects of both OECD protectionism and preferences. In the future changes to both could increase the price of cereal imports and reduce the volume and prices of exports. These shifts are not from the formal Doha negotiations on agriculture but from the re‐arrangement of agricultural subsidies in OECD countries, changes in trade preferences, and Africa's limited technical capacity to participate actively in setting standards.
The World Food Economy in the Twenty‐first Century: Challenges for International Co‐operation
Authors: De Haen Hartwig , Stamoulis Kostas , Shetty Prakash , Pingali Prabhu
Published: January 2004

Fundamental changes in the world food economy pose new challenges for all participants in the food system, particularly in developing countries. This article focuses on the implications of these changes for international co‐operation in food and agriculture. Concentrating especially on the FAO, it reviews the responses in monitoring, advocacy, resource mobilisation, regulation and technical and policy assistance activities. It is argued that the emerging food policy agenda, while addressing new challenges, must nevertheless keep at its centre the fight against hunger and malnutrition. However, shifts in the location and nature of hunger require that new approaches be developed to address this persistent and unacceptable global problem.
Responding to Change: WFP and the Global Food Aid System
Authors: Clay Edward J.
Published: January 2004

The WFP has played a key role in international response to the rapidly changing environment and immediate threats to food security. This was achieved by a process of piecemeal, but incomplete adaptation within the severe constraints of the global food aid system with its resource uncertainities and massive donor influences. The rapid shift from a focus on development to a focus on relief and the gradual erosion of the multilateral character of the WFP especially give urgency to clarifying WFP's mandate and providing a clearer basis for determining when food aid is an appropriate international response to food insecurity.
Strategies for Fiscal Reform in the Context of the EMU: the Case of Portugal
Authors: Pereira Alfredo M. , Rodrigues Pedro G.
Published: January 2004

The authors use an endogenous growth dynamic general‐equilibrium model, which accommodates the institutional constraints of the Stability and Growth Pact, to study tax reform in Portugal. Simulation results suggest that tax cuts financed in a nondistortionary way increase long‐term GDP; i.e., they are efficiency improving, but do not always increase welfare. The tradeoff between efficiency and welfare is alleviated when reductions in public spending or increased public indebtedness finance the tax cuts. Since these mechanisms are not realistic under the institutional setting of the Stability and Growth Pact, tax reform in Portugal must involve trading off distortionary tax margins. In this case, the best strategy to increase both efficiency and welfare is to increase investment tax credits and finance them either through personal income taxes or through employers’ social security contributions.
CRAS‐CBR: Internal control risk assessment system using case‐based reasoning
Authors: Hwang Sung‐Sik , Shin Taeksoo , Han Ingoo
Published: January 2004

Abstract: Information technology and the Internet have been major drivers for changes in all aspects of business processes and activities. They have brought major changes to the financial statements audit environment as well, which in turn has required modifications in audit procedures. There exist certain difficulties, however, with current audit procedures especially for the assessment of the level of control risk. This assessment is primarily based on the auditors' professional judgment and experiences, not on objective rules or criteria.

To overcome these difficulties, we propose a prototype decision support model named CRAS‐CBR using case‐based reasoning to support auditors in making their professional judgment on the assessment of the level of control risk of the general accounting system in the manufacturing industry.

To validate the performance, we compare our proposed model with benchmark performances in terms of classification accuracy for the level of control risk. Our experimental results show that CRAS‐CBR outperforms a statistical model and staff auditor performance in average hit ratio.
Categorial expert systems
Authors: Wichert Andrzej
Published: January 2004

Abstract: Expert systems can be used to determine some objects or consequences from uncertain knowledge by hierarchical categorization. Categorical representation is psychologically motivated and also offers an explanation of how to deal with uncertain knowledge based on counting during approximate reasoning. It is an alternative to other well‐known uncertainty calculi. A knowledge base which is used during approximate reasoning is represented by a taxonomical arrangement of verbal categories. Priming eases the formation of the final hypothesis, as more exact possible hypotheses are formed. The approximate reasoning is demonstrated on an expert system ‘Jurassic’ from the field of paleontology for the determination of a dinosaur species. It helps the paleontologist to determine creatures from uncertain knowledge. The system is composed of 423 rules arranged in a directed acyclic graph with a depth of 5. This knowledge is represented by a taxonomical arrangement of verbal categories represented by associative memories.
Art History?
Authors: Brook Donald
Published: January 2004

abstract

This article is presented in two parts. In part I, I call into question the viability of a currently received opinion about the foundations of the subject called “Art History,” primarily by challenging assumptions that are implicit in conventional uses of the terms “art” and “work of art.” It is widely supposed that works of art are items of a kind, that this kind is the bearer of the name “art,” and that it has a history. In part II, I propose to correct this error by using the word “art” in a presently unconventional—although not unprecedented—way. The proposal relies upon a concept of cultural evolution running intellectually parallel to a Darwinian account of genetic evolution. The thesis has strong metaphysically realist implications, relating cultural evolution to what can be said and done and can properly be seen to have a history only in a universe to which real regularities are attributed. The recommended use of the term “art” is secured upon an estimate of the role of memetic innovation as radically pervasive, embracing all thought and action. “Art,” understood in the suggested way, becomes the name of a category, which has no history as kinds have histories.
What Do Historians Argue About?
Authors: Mccullagh C. Behan
Published: January 2004

abstract

Those who think that general historical interpretations do no more than express a personal point of view deny that arguments over their credibility can have any point. They commonly believe that historians decide upon particular facts about the past in the context of a general interpretation of those facts. Consequently they deny that there is any independent basis for judging the credibility of general interpretations of the past, and conclude that each coherent account is as good as every other.

Similarly, those who think causal explanations are arbitrary can make no sense of arguments about their adequacy. They assume that historians simply pick out causes that interest them, and that there is no objective basis for judging the adequacy of the explanations they provide.

This essay defends the credibility of interpretations against the skeptics, and the adequacy of causal explanations too. It shows that historians do discover a mass of particular facts independently of the general interpretations they finally provide, facts that provide a basis for assessing the credibility and fairness of those interpretations. It will also show that there is an objective basis for judging the adequacy of causal explanations, as some causes of an event are far more influential in bringing it about than others.

A much more difficult problem concerns the need for historical interpretations to provide not just a credible account of the past, but also one that is fair, balanced, not misleading. Historians frequently argue about the fairness of general interpretations. Does this mean that fairness is always required? Quite often historians produce partial interpretations, in both senses, with no apology. It would be wrong to call such interpretations “biased” because they do not pretend to be comprehensive. So long as they are credible, they are acceptable. On the other hand, many interpretations are intended to present a fair, comprehensive account of their subject. When judging the adequacy of interpretations, it is necessary to know whether they are meant to be fair or not.
The “Return of the Subject” As a Historico‐Intellectual Problem
Authors: Palti Elías
Published: January 2004

abstract

Recently, a call for the “return of the subject” has gained increasing influence. The power of this call is intimately linked to the assumption that there is a necessary connection between “the subject” and politics (and ultimately, history). Without a subject, it is alleged, there can be no agency, and therefore no emancipatory projects—and, thus, no history. This paper discusses the precise epistemological foundations for this claim. It shows that the idea of a necessary link between “the subject” and agency, and therefore between the subject and politics (and history) is only one among many different ones that appeared in the course of the four centuries that modernity spans. It has precise historico‐intellectual premises, ones that cannot be traced back in time before the end of the nineteenth century. Failing to observe the historicity of the notion of the subject, and projecting it as a kind of universal category, results, as we shall see, in serious incongruence and anachronisms. The essay outlines a definite view of intellectual history aimed at recovering the radically contingent nature of conceptual formations, which, it alleges, is the still‐valid core of Foucault's archeological project. Regardless of the inconsistencies in his own archeological endeavors, his archeological approach intended to establish in intellectual history a principle of temporal irreversibility immanent in it. Following his lead, the essay attempts to discern the different meanings the category of the subject has historically acquired, referring them back to the broader epistemic reconfigurations that have occurred in Western thought. This reveals a richness of meanings in this category that are obliterated under the general label of the “modern subject”; at the same time, it illuminates some of the methodological problems that mar current debates on the topic.
Fair Play
Authors: Chytry Josef
Published: January 2004

Civic Justice: From Greek Antiquity to the Modern World. By Peter Murphy
Convergence to Agreement
Authors: Gorman Jonathan
Published: January 2004

What's Left of Enlightenment? A Postmodern Question. Edited by Keith Michael Baker and Peter Hanns Reill
Repertoires, Frequentism, and Predictability
Authors: Bonneuil Noëul
Published: January 2004

Pattern and Repertoire in History. By Bertrand Roehner and Tony Syme
Koselleck's Philosophy of Historical Time(s) and the Practice of History
Authors: Zammito John
Published: January 2004

Zeitschichten: Studien zur Historik (Mit Einem Beitrag von Hans‐Georg Gadamer). By Reinhart Koselleck
Is the History of Ideas A Principled Eclecticism?
Authors: Collins Randall
Published: January 2004

The Descent of Ideas: The History of Intellectual History. By Donald R. Kelley
Historiography from a Global Perspective
Authors: Iggers Georg
Published: January 2004

Geschichtswissenschaft Jenseits des Nationalstaats: Studien zu Bezie‐hungsgeschichte und Zivilisationsvergleich. By Jürgen Osterhammel
The 1934 Southern Railway Strike in Peru
Authors: Drinot Paulo
Published: January 2004

This article examines the 1934 Southern Railway Strike, a largely neglected yet important episode in Peruvian labour history. The strike, which pitted the British‐owned Peruvian Corporation against its workforce, resulted in victory for the company. Drawing on a variety of original primary sources, I examine the factors that shaped the development and outcome of the strike. I pay particular attention to the strategies developed by the company managers to defeat the workers. The success of these strategies, I suggest, owed in no small measure to the volatile political situation created by the insurgency tactics of APRA and the Communist Party, which made victory for the workers politically impossible, and to the capacity of the Peruvian Corporation managers to draw on ‘imperial connections’ in their dealings with the Peruvian government.
Inductive interactions and embryonic equivalence groups in a basal metazoan, the ctenophore Mnemiopsis leidyi
Authors: Henry Jonathan Q. , Martindale Mark Q.
Published: January 2004

Ctenophores undergo locomotion via the metachronal beating of eight longitudinally arrayed rows of comb plate cilia. These cilia are normally derived from two embryonic lineages, which include both daughters of the four e1 micromeres (e11 and e12) and a single daughter of the four m1 micromeres (the m12 micromeres). Although the e1 lineage is established autonomously, the m1 lineage requires an inductive interaction from the e1 lineage to contribute to comb plate formation. Successive removal of the e1 progeny at later stages of development indicates that this interaction takes place after the 32‐cell stage and likely proceeds over a prolonged period of development. Normally, the e11 cell lies in closest proximity to the m12 cell that generates comb plate cilia; however, either of the e1 daughters (e11 or e12) is capable of emitting the signal required for m1 descendants to form comb plates. Previous cell lineage analyses indicate that the two e1 daughters generate the same suite of cell fates. On the other hand, the m1 daughters (m11 and m12) normally give rise to different cell fates. Reciprocal m1 daughter deletions show that in the absence of one daughter, the other cell can gene‐rate all the cell types normally formed by the missing cell. To‐gether, these findings demonstrate that the two m1 daughters (m11 and m12) represent an embryonic equivalence group or field and that differences in the fates of the two m1 daughters are normally controlled by cell–cell interactions. These combined properties of ctenophore development, including the utilization of deterministic cleavage divisions, inductive interactions, and the establishment of embryonic fields or equivalence groups, are remarkably similar to those present in the development of various bilaterian metazoans.
How different types of pattern formation mechanisms affect the evolution of form and development
Authors: Salazar‐ciudad Isaac , Jernvall Jukka
Published: January 2004

Here we investigate how development and evolution can affect each other by exploring what kind of phenotypic variation is produced by different types of developmental mechanisms. A limited number of developmental mechanisms are capable of pattern formation in development. Two main types have been identified. In morphodynamic mechanisms, induction events and morphogenetic processes, such as simple growth, act at the same time. In morphostatic mechanisms, induction events happen before morphogenetic mechanisms, and thus growth cannot influence the induction of a pattern. We present a study of the variational properties of these developmental mechanisms that can help to understand how and why a developmental mechanism may become involved in the evolution and development of a particular morphological structure. Using existing models of pattern formation in teeth, an extensive simulation analysis of the phenotypic variation produced by different types of developmental mechanisms is performed. The studied properties include the amount and diversity of the phenotypic variation produced, the complexity of the phenotypic variation produced, and the relationship between phenotype and genotype. These variational properties are so different between different types of mechanisms that the relative involvement of these types of mechanisms in evolutionary innovation and in different stages of development can be estimated. In addition, type of mechanism affects the tempo and mode of morphological evolution. These results suggest that the basic principles by which development is organized can influence the likelihood of morphological evolution.
A mode of arthropod brain evolution suggested by Drosophila commissure development
Authors: Page Damon T.
Published: January 2004

Summary  The evolutionary origin of the tritocerebral neuromere, which is a brain segment located at the junction between the supra‐ and subesophageal ganglia in most mandibulates (arthropods such as crustaceans and insects), is a subject rich in contentious debate. Various models have argued that the tritocerebrum came from a segmental nerve cord ganglia that was recruited into the head during the course of arthropod evolution. However, despite much thought on the subject, the origin of the tritocerebrum remains obscure. Here I describe the development of the tritocerebral commissure in Drosophila and demonstrate that the tritocerebral and mandibular commissures actually form as one commissure and then separate in a manner very similar to how the anterior and posterior commissures of a ventral nerve cord neuromere form. I propose that the tritocerebral neuromere originated from the splitting of an ancestral neuromere located in the anterior subesophageal ganglion into distinct tritocerebral and mandibular neuromeres. Also, I discuss the problem of arthropod brain neuromere homology in reference to this hypothesis.
Neural crest cells provide species‐specific patterning information in the developing branchial skeleton
Authors: Tucker Abigail S. , Lumsden Andrew
Published: January 2004

Summary
The skeletal elements of the branchial region are made by neural crest cells, following tissue interactions with the pharyngeal endoderm. Previous transplantation experiments have claimed that the cranial neural crest is morphogenetically prespecified in respect of its branchial skeletal derivatives, that is, that information for the number, size, shape, and position of its individual elements is already determined in these cells when they are still in the neural folds. This positional information would somehow be preserved during delamination from the neural tube and migration into the branchial arches, before being read out as a spatial pattern of chondrogenesis and osteogenesis. However, it now appears that signals from the endoderm are able to specify not only the histogenic differentiation state of neural crest cells but also the identity and orientation of the branchial skeletal elements. It is therefore important to ask whether fine details of branchial skeletal pattern such as those that exist between different species are also governed by extrinsic factors, such as the endoderm, or by the neural crest itself. We have grafted neural crest between duck and quail embryos and show that the shape and size of the resulting skeletal elements is donor derived. The ability to form species‐specific patterns of craniofacial skeletal tissue thus appears to be an inherent property of the neural crest, expressed as species‐specific responses to endodermal signals.
Comparative and phylogenetic analysis of developmental sequences
Authors: Schulmeister Susanne , Wheeler Ward C.
Published: January 2004

Summary Event pairing has been proposed for the optimization of developmental sequences (event sequences) on a given phylogenetic hypothesis (cladogram) to determine instances of sequence heterochrony. Here, we show that event pairing is faulty, leading to the optimization of impossible hypothetical ancestors, the underestimation of the lengths of the developmental sequences on the tree, and the proposition of synapomorphies that are not supported by the data. When used for phylogenetic analysis, event pairing can even produce cladograms that are inconsistent with the data. These errors are caused by the fact that event pairing treats dependent features as if they were independent. We present a new method for comparative and phylogenetic analysis of developmental sequences that does not exhibit these errors. Our method applies Search‐based character optimization and treats the entire developmental sequence as a single character that is then analyzed by using an edit cost function, which specifies the transformation cost between pairs of observed and unobserved character states, and dynamic programming. In other words, the developmental sequence is directly optimized on the tree. We used event pairing as an edit cost function, but others are possible.
Proximodistal patterning of the limb: insights from evolutionary morphology
Authors: Richardson Michael. K. , Jeffery Jonathan E. , Tabin Clifford J.
Published: January 2004

There is an active debate about how skeletal elements are encoded along the proximodistal (PD) axis of the developing limb. Our aim here is to see whether consideration of the evolutionary morphology of the limb can contribute to our understanding of patterning mechanisms. Of special interest in this context are animals showing reiterated skeletal elements along the PD axis (e.g., dolphins and plesiosaurs with hyperphalangy). We build on previous hypotheses to propose a two‐step model of PD patterning in which specification of broad domains in the early limb bud is distinct from subsequent processes that divides an initial anlage into a segmental pattern to yield individual skeletal elements. This model overcomes a major evolutionary problem with the progress zone model, which has not previously been noted: pleiotropy. Parallels with other developmental systems are briefly discussed.