bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
SS MTS: Subsea Monitoring - High Resolution 3D Laser Imaging for Inspection, Maintenance, Repair, and Operations
Authors: Embry Carl , Hardy Mark , Nickerson Brett , Manning Neil , Goodyear Damien , Richardson Donald , Pappas James Marcus
Published: April 2012

In January 2011, 3D at Depth was awarded a RPSEA contract to bringhigh-resolution three-dimensional (3D) laser imaging technology from the labinto an underwater environment for the oil and gas industry. During theproject, CDL Inc. provided expert engineering support and materials to marinizethe system. The project included two underwater trials which demonstrated thefeasibility of utilizing high resolution laser detection and ranging (LADAR) ina subsea environment.

3D laser imaging is a powerful data collection system that provides 3-Dinformation for a specific area of interest. It is the predominate technologyfor terrestrial survey, construction, as-built analysis, and large-scaleretro-fits. The 3D laser imaging market is a mature multi-billion dollarindustry with an eco-system of software, expertise, and best practices. Developing the technology to provide high-definition subsea laser imagingenables the deep water industry to use the current state of the art in 3Dmetrology and related best practices developed for the terrestrialmarket.

This paper discusses some of the theory behind subsea laser imaging andcompares this theory to the first set of underwater tests in a pool. Terrestrial laser scanners commonly produce centimeter spatial and rangeaccuracy at several hundred meter range. Due to the absorption of water, realizable deepwater systems are limited to tens of meters range depending onthe target and water conditions. To our knowledge, this is the first timesub-centimeter accuracy at greater than 6m range is demonstrated for anunderwater laser system.

This technology is essential for better management of deep water assets. Thelack of timely and accurate survey-quality 3D measurements poses an integritymanagement challenge for such assets. A lack of accurate data results in eitherhigher risks or higher costs to build and maintain environmentally safeproduction and product transportation systems. The speed and precision of thetechnology developed by this project reduces operating costs for underwaterinspection, maintenance, and repair; reduces environmental risk through moreaccurate inspection; significantly improves construction practices and quality/ reliability; reduces risks to high value assets; and provides rapid access tosharable survey-quality as-built data before, during and afterconstruction.
New Research and Application of High Efficient Development Technology for Offshore Heavy Oil in China
Authors: Liu Dong , Zhao Chunming , Su Yanchun , Li Yunpeng , Zhang Fengyi , Huang Yinghui
Published: April 2012

China Offshore oilfield is rich in heavy oil, M oilfield in Bohai Bay is themost thick heavy oil field in offshore by far with the formation oil viscosityas high as 450 ~ 950mPa.s. Using conventional oil field development (depletionand water flooding), the heavy oil field exposed its limits, such as lowproductivity of single well, low production rate and low predictedrecovery.

As we all know, the development effect of thermal recovery is not only relatedwith the thermal recovery methods (steam stimulation, steam flooding, etc.), but also related with the thermal medium (steam, hot water, flue gas etc.). Anew thermal media called multi-thermal fluid, which contains steam, hot waterand flue gas was researched for horizontal well stimulation, which is to injectN2 and CO2 at the same time when injecting steam. This multi-thermal fluidcould employ various mechanisms of each fluid, including reducing oil viscosityby heating and dissolving gas, increasing pressure by injecting gas, expandingheating range, reducing heat loss and gas assisting gravity drive etc. With theadvantages of single thermal injection, this method made up the disadvantagesof single thermal fluid injection and can improve steam stimulation effect insome special formation conditions.

In this article, the author first analyzed the characterization ofmulti-thermal fluid, and then researched its stimulation theory. Based on thistheory, the single element of geological data, such as dip angle, permeability, rock compression coefficient, formation thickness, oil viscosity, and injectiondata, such as injection volume, gas-water-ratio and CO2 concentration wasanalyzed using numerical simulation software. Based on this result, selectingdata that make more contribution in incremental oil, production rate, and EORto make sensitivity study to summarize formation that multi-thermal fluid couldbe applied.
Dynamic Response of the Baldpate Compliant Tower Platform to Major Hurricanes in Gulf of Mexico
Authors: Chang Ben C. , Peng Bor-Feng , Edel James Craig , Kallaby Joe
Published: April 2012

The first free-standing compliant tower structure, Hess Corporation's"Baldpate" platform in Garden Banks Block 260 in the Gulf of Mexico, wasinstalled in a water depth of 1,648 ft in 1998. After its installation, Hessinstalled accelerometers at the upper deck level. Since then, four majorhurricanes have occurred in the Gulf of Mexico: Ivan (2004), Katrina (2005), Rita (2005), and Ike (2008).

The platform has been analyzed using hindcasts for several of these storms. Thework for Rita is complete and of some interest, and so it is presented in thispaper. Rita was one of the most intense Atlantic hurricanes ever observed inGulf of Mexico, and its track passed just west of GB260. This paper compares, and shows good correlation between measured and predicted structural responsesfor Rita. In addition, the paper presents analysis results in terms of AISCstress ratios and pile-load safety factors.

Also presented is a comparison between: the original design storm criteria;newly-generated 100-year criteria based on the GOMOS08 database (which includeshindcasts of all the storms mentioned above); and API RP 2INT-MET West CentralRegion design guidelines.

Introduction

The first part of this paper presents measured responses from Rita, Katrina, Ivan and Ike. These are followed by a presentation of the results of astructural analysis [1][2], via time-domain simulation, of the platform using ahindcast of Rita conditions at the site.

For orientation, Figure 1 is a plot of the platform structural model, alongwith the coordinate system. Figure 2 shows a plan of the base of the platformand the skirt-pile system.

An Overview of Baldpate Compliant Tower Platform Project can be found inReference [3].
Operational Experiences Large Scale Condition Monitoring for a Subsea Gas Compression System Pilot
Authors: Eriksson Klas Goran
Published: April 2012

A 15 MW Subsea compressor station pilot has been produced, and will startoperating 1Q2012. During pilot operation, a large quantity of conditionmonitoring data is being logged (appr. 1 M values logged per second, resultingin appr. 200 TBytes of logged data per year). The intent with this massivedata-logging is to be able to pinpoint the root cause of any problems ordegradations occurring.

This paper describes the condition monitoring system, and initial operationalexperiences.

The system consists of sensors, subsea data collection units, topside datastorage units and analyzing / visualization / reporting functions.

The paper discusses each of these parts in detail, and also discusses necessarytradeoffs and optimizations.

One problem encountered is that data are being generated in a multitude offormats, which need to be correlated and viewed simultaneously on a higherlevel. The handling of correlation of multi-format data is discussed indetail.

Results from initial operation are presented.

For the final subsea version, the logging requirements will be relaxed.

A sketch of the final subsea version will be presented.
Best Practice in Flare Gas Measurement
Authors: Marshall Craig
Published: April 2012

1 INTRODUCTION

This paper focuses on the measurement of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions fromgas flaring activities in the oil and gas industry. This includes theregulatory requirements for monitoring and reporting flare gas emissions, thechallenges faced by industry in implementing accurate measurement schemes, andcurrent technologies and best practice used by oil and gas operators.

1.1 Background

Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions like carbon dioxide (CO2) have risensignificantly over the past hundred years and they are thought to be theprimary cause of global warming. In order to combat their effect, manygovernments have agreed to reduce the amount of GHGs they release into theatmosphere through different conventions and policies, some legallybinding.

One of the first was the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change(UNFCCC). The UNFCCC is an international treaty set up at the ‘Earth Summit’held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. The objective of this treaty is to keep the GHGemissions at a stable level that would not cause any permanent affects to theatmosphere or climate. At present, 194 countries (May 2011) have signed up forthis treaty although it has no real deliverables; only the convention for eachmember country to reduce its GHG emissions.

The Kyoto Protocol extended this premise by holding member countriesresponsible for their GHG reductions. The protocol came into effect on 2005 andhas the aim of reducing the levels of GHG emission by 5.2% compared to the 1990level. In total 37 countries signed up to this legally binding agreement toreduce emissions. The majority of these 37 countries were from the developedworld as they have been responsible for the majority of emissions to date. However the number of countries signing up to the Kyoto Protocol has increasedsignificantly since then and currently sits at 191 (April 2010).

A number of mechanisms were set-up under the Kyoto Protocol to provide acost-effective path for reducing GHG emissions. These include EmissionsTrading, Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) and the Joint Implementation (JI). The EU Emissions Trading Scheme (ETS) is to date the largest carbon-tradingscheme in existence.

Whether it is for emissions trading or emissions reduction projects as set outunder the CDM or JI, accurate measurement is essential to substantiate reportedemissions levels. To ensure transparency and consistency, monitoring andreporting guidelines have been established to support the Kyoto Protocol's CDMand JI flare reduction schemes. In addition, the EU has developed its owndomestic monitoring and reporting guidelines under the EU ETS.

The EU ETS was set up to help member countries meet their Kyoto Protocolemission reduction targets. The EU has a legal obligation to cut greenhouse gasemissions in Europe by 20% by 2020, compared to 1990 levels. Now in its secondphase, the scheme covers around 11,000 energy intensive installations acrossEurope.
Regulatory Compliance Issues for the LLOG WHO DAT Floating Production Unit
Authors: Robison Eldon J. , Mullett Craig
Published: April 2012

This paper covers the development of the regulatory review, after the Macandoevent, for a speculatively built semisubmersible (a floating production unit[FPU]) - for operations in the U.S. Gulf of Mexico (GOM). The paper alsoaddresses the use of a classification agency to document the design andfabrication review of a unit constructed without a designated location, andfollowing identification of the designated location (Who Dat field in theMississippi Canyon block), the use of the agency to provide review reports tothe U.S. government. Additionally addressed is the use of the classificationagency to interface between the United States Coast Guard (USCG) and the Bureauof Ocean Energy Management Resources and Enforcement (BOEMRE) requirement withthe operator, LLOG Exploration.

The paper also documents the changes and challenges dealing with developing andchanging regulations as the first unit to receive a full regulatory reviewfollowing the Macondo event. The changes in USCG and ABS's interpretation ofexisting rules and guidelines and changes to certain documentation requiredadditional work based on experience and review of similar projects.

Introduction

In 2006, Exmar Offshore Group decided to build a FPS for the GOM onspeculation. This unit was designed and built to meet the generic requirementsof a majority of fields and operations with extra allowance for weights andspace for field-specific requirements. Due to financing requirements, the unitwas to be flagged. Since Exmar is considered a foreign company in accordancewith USCG documentation, the unit was flagged under the requirements ofLiberia. Liberia was selected as they had regulatory requirements for floatingproduction installation (FPI).

The unit was built in two sections: the hull in Korea and the topsides in theU.S. After considering all classification agencies, Exmar decided to classifythe hull and marine systems under the guidelines of the American Bureau ofShipping (ABS). ABS was contracted to provide the design approval andfabrication of the unit to their floating offshore installation (FOI) classnotation and to the requirements of Liberia to meet the IMO MODU Code 2001 asit would apply to the unit as a FPU.

After meeting with both ABS and MMS (now the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management[BOEM] and the Bureau of Safer Environment Enforcement [BSEE]), it was clearthat Exmar would not have a clear method of obtaining either agencies' approvalwithout a dedicated location on the U.S. Outer Continental Shelf (OCS). Thispaper details the method Exmar used to document and obtain final approval on aunit that was already constructed before beginning the USCG and MMS (BOEMRE)approvals and the process that was developed to ensure compliance with therevised review processes by USCG and BOEMRE during this period.
The Challenges and Opportunities of FPSO Relocations
Authors: George Babu , Le Cotty Antoine , Newport Andrew
Published: April 2012

The first FPSO relocation project was completed 18 years ago (SBM's FPSO II), and since that time there has been a steady rise in the number and complexityof relocation projects being executed. Existing FPSO's are now being relocatedto fields with heavier oil, higher CO2 and H2S content, and increased waterdepths. More than 20 existing FPSO's are expected to become candidates forrelocation over the next 5 years, increasing the importance of this type ofproject to the industry.

This paper will examine the key technical issues to be considered in relocatingan FPSO, drawing particularly on the experience of two recent SBM Offshoreprojects in Brazil - the relocation of the FPSO Capixaba to the Cachalotefield, and the relocation of the FPSO Espadarte to the Baleia Azul field.

The paper will address the implications and applicability of changes in Rulesand Standards, possible approaches to the survey and assessment of assetintegrity prior to relocation (hull, topside and mooring), and the scope ofdesign modifications that may result from changes in reservoir data. The keysuccess factors in the project management and execution of relocation projectscompared to a traditional FPSO conversion will also be discussed.

The paper aims to give feedback on issues and solutions, and to identify thekey factors that need to be addressed for the successful relocation ofFPSO's.

Introduction

Since the early days of the FPSO industry, the possibility to relocate a unitafter its initial contract has been regarded as one of the advantages of thistype of production system. The industry's second ever FPSO, SBM's FPSO II, wasthe first unit to be relocated after an initial 11 year deployment, and thisFPSO was subsequently relocated a further two times.

The possibility to relocate an FPSO allows operators and contractors to assumea residual value for the unit at the end of the initial deployment, avoidingthe need to amortize the full cost of the unit over the initial lease period. This characteristic allows FPSO's to be offered at competitive rates forrelatively short lease periods, providing a viable solution for marginal fieldsand early production systems.

Exploiting the flexibility of FPSO's, the industry has seen a number of unitsbeing relocated after completion of their initial contract. The complexity ofthese relocations has varied depending on such factors as the flexibility ofthe initial design, the production requirements and metocean conditions at thenew field, and changes in regulatory requirements between the twodeployments.

Over the last 3 years, the industry has seen 7 FPSOs relocation projects, including SBM's Capixaba and Espadarte FPSOs, and the continuing growth of theindustry suggests that the trend for relocations will continue. The presentworld fleet of FPSO's comprises approximately 150 units [ref 1[, of which over20 are possible candidates for relocation during the next 5 years.
Experimental Study of High-Viscosity Oil/Water/Gas Three-Phase Flow in Horizontal and Upward Vertical Pipes
Authors: Wang Shufan , Zhang Hong-quan , Sarica Cem , Pereyra Eduardo Javier
Published: April 2012

The objective of this project is to measure and observe high-viscosityoil/water/gas three-phase flows in horizontal and upward vertical pipes, andcompare the experimental results with existing models to identify the gaps. Inthis study, oil with viscosities between 0.15 and 0.57 Pa•s (150 and 570 cP)corresponding to temperatures from 37.8 to 15.6 °C (100 to 60 °F), filtered tapwater and natural gas at 2.59 MPa (375 psig) pressure are used as the threephases. Superficial oil and water velocities range from 0.1 to 1.0 m/s andsuperficial gas velocity varies from 1.0 to 5.0 m/s. The internal diameter ofthe pipe is 5.25-cm (2.067 in). The experimental measurements include pressuregradient and liquid holdup. The flow pattern and slug characteristics areobserved and the images are recorded with a high speed video camera systemthrough a high pressure sapphire window. The experimental results are comparedwith the predictions of Zhang and Sarica (2006) unified model, and thediscrepancies are identified.

Introduction

Heavy oil, extra heavy oil together with bitumen constitutes about 70% of theworld's total oil reserve. They are discovered and produced all around theworld and have become one of the most important future hydrocarbon resourceswith ever increasing world energy demand and depletion of conventional oils. However, the high viscosity of heavy oils poses many challenges for itsproduction and transportation.

Three-phase flow of oil, water and gas is of particular importance for the oilindustry. It frequently occurs in wells, risers and flowlines before reachingthe downstream processing facilities. The water can be introduced either due tothe connate water condensation or water steam injection for enhanced oilrecovery at the later stage of production. Understanding of the three-phaseflow phenomena is necessary in order to better design the production andtransportation systems. Most of the previous experimental researches, model andcorrelation developments were conducted using low-viscosity conventional oilsor other liquids. Açikgöz et al. (1992) carried out the first experimentalinvestigation of three-phase flow patterns in horizontal pipes. Pan et al.(1995) performed similar horizontal experiments. The tests were conducted at 5bar pressure and in a 38.0-m long horizontal, 7.62-cm ID pipe. Woods et al.(1998) reported oil/water/air upward vertical flow in a 2.52-cm ID Perspex pipewith a 1.8-m test section. Nine flow patterns were identified based onvisual/video observations and pressure techniques. Langsholt et al. (2001)studied oil/water/gas flows in steeply inclined pipes. Hewitt (2005) studiedthree-phase oil/water/air flows in a 38.0-m long, 7.62-cm ID stainless steelpipes. Keskin et al. (2007) proposed a two step classification method foroil/water/gas three-phase flow patterns. 12 flow patterns were identified forhorizontal and slightly inclined flows.
Renewables, Ready or Not?
Authors: Noel Cornelia , Davis Ron
Published: April 2012

Today the development of subsea fields or satellites and the remoteness of thelocation not only require subsea processing but have also has implications forthe provision of power. The norm for offshore power generation is the use offossil fuel. However, the uncertainty surrounding a global climate policy at atime when the projection is for an exponential increase in offshore powerdemand is a cause for pause to look at renewable power solutions. Types ofrenewable power solutions that have application to the offshore oil and gasindustry include: solar, wind, and ocean energy (various).

This paper provides a rank/value for offshore power generated with bothrenewable- and conventional- energy sources relative to four (4) projectscenarios: Status Quo, Supply-to-the-Rescue, The Green Agenda, and DoubleJeopardy. The work to select a power solution began by identifying a key focusquestion about the future that the scenarios would address: How will the demandfor offshore (subsea) power and the potential externalities that may resultshape the power generation options over the next decade? The paper also pointsto resources that can shed light on the latest technological advances andfuture trends for renewable energy sources. The hope of the author is that thepaper will prove to be a useful reference for R&D specialists and projectengineers who are often asked to respond to the question: Renewables - Ready orNot?

Introduction

The project goal was to identify the best fit power delivery solution forhydrocarbon assets located remotely and/or in deepwater. For the purpose ofthis paper we would consider the power delivery implications for hydrocarbonassets located offshore North West Australia. The search for a feasible powerdelivery concept must be wide and deep enough to neither overlook promisingdevelopments in the Renewable Energy Market nor misjudge the overall impact ofproject externalities.

The high-level workflow to arrive at a comprehensive solution is illustrated inFigure 1. Typical for the oil and gas space is a staged gate approach to arriveat a chosen system concept. These stages can be generically labeled as Phase 1,2, 3, etc. or given qualifying names like Identify, Assess, Select, Define, etc. The tasks attached to each stage as illustrated in figure 1 isself-explanatory. What is needed is greater clarity on terminology that may notbe broadly applied in the industry:" Givens" are facts, assumptions, and decisions already made and taken as agiven for this project.A " solution space" is a matrix showing all possible combination of theproject scenarios and system concepts. A subset of these will constitute thefeasible configurations for in-depth system modeling and analysis.
Effects of Thermal Cycling on Offshore Pipeline Repair Tool Seal Systems
Authors: Ayers Ray R. , Miller Jack E. , Gage Eric , Hebert Justin , Wilson Ian
Published: April 2012

This paper summarizes results from both coupon testing and full-scale testingdirected at developing sealing systems to retrofit in traditional pipelinerepair connectors and clamps so that they can undergo cycles of thermal heatingand cooling without leakage. Significant findings from this effort are thatelastomers extrude from seal cavities due to high thermally-induced swellingpressures exhibited by most elastomers, and that packer seals leak due to theloss of seal material. Coupon tests were conducted using elastomer discs tosimulate the mechanics of full-scale packer seals of various grades used inpipeline repair tools. Finally, the project demonstrated effective sealingwithout high pressures and extrusion by using PTFE tape-wrapped die-castgraphite wedges to successfully seal against leaking and seeping of water andgas in annulus testing.

Background

Stress Engineering Services, Inc. was initially contracted by Woodside EnergyLtd. to develop a seal system design to retrofit into a conventionally-sealed20-inch double-ended repair connector grips and seals and a 20-inch structuralrepair clamp. The initial project addressed specific requirements of Woodsideto determine whether commercially available deepwater pipeline repair tools canmaintain full operating pressure and survive multiple thermal cycles from coldsubsea ambient temperatures to hot insulated flowline operating temperatures. The low temperature target was 5°C (41°F) and operating temperature was 95°C(203°F). The key concern was whether standard VitonTM (or FKM) elastomer packerseals used in these repair tools will seal properly after experiencing multiplethermal cycles. DuPont cites the high-temperature capability of VitonTM as upto 200°C (400°F), so the traditional view in the industry is that thermalcycling is not a concern for such elastomers.

A qualification test was undertaken to verify seal performance of a diverlessclamp and a double-ended connector ehich grips and seals, all in one pipeassembly. During the first test sequence, both tools held full differential atlow temperature, ambient temperature, and high temperature. However, both toolslost their pressure seals as they were being cooled down after the first holdperiod at high temperature.

Post-test disassembly and inspection revealed that the seals had sufferedsignificant material damage. Exposure to high temperatures had degraded theperformance of the elastomers. This break-down, coupled with the tools' fixedgeometry seal glands, resulted in extrusion of the rubber material through evenvery small gaps in the tools and between the tools and the pipe sample. Theinternal pressure of the rubber elements was greatly increased via thermalexpansion, leading (as confirmed later) to pipe yielding, which provided pathsfor elastomer extrusion from the packer seal cavity (Figure 1).
Pazflor, A Major Step for Angola
Authors: Martins Gaspar
Published: April 2012

Pazflor project provides an opportunity to introduce major technologyinnovations in the Angolan oil industry and to pursue the development of thecountry's economic and industrial fabric.

With PAZFLOR a new giant has been added to the portfolio of Angolan offshoreproducing facilities. When it reaches its plateau, 220 000 bbl/j will be addedto the production of the country. This will participate to a large extent inthe expected increase of Angolan production from 1.7 M bbl/d in 2011 to morethan 2 M bbl/d in 2012. Beyond this daily production increase, PAZFLOR is alsothe mean of access to about 600 million additional barrels that Angola needs tomeet its development ambitions. The position of Angola among oil producingcountries will thus be strengthened.

Ten years after Girassol, the first deep offshore development in the countryand on the same golden block 17, PAZFLOR presents one more huge technologicalworld first with its three large scale oil subsea separation and pumping unitsinstalled at 800m WD, and its facilities capable to process 2 types of oil verydifferent in nature, its world's largest FPSO ever built and its 600 km2 subseaproduction network.

Such an achievement has been made possible thanks to a strong cooperationbetween Sonangol and Total. It validates the strategy chosen by Angola so farto develop its reserves and proves, again, the ability of SONANGOL in workingwith major oil companies like TOTAL to build on each party's knowhow andcompetences. This experience and resulting international visibility reinforcethe confidence worldwide in SONANGOL's capabilities in oil fielddevelopment.

It also brings Angola to the front, as a country where huge technologicalproject representing significant and risky financial investment can beactually, safely and promptly developed making the place appealing forinvestors.

PAZFLOR is also a new benchmark in the maximization of using local industries, yards and talents, a priority for the country which intends to take advantageof its natural resources to favor the development of the economic andindustrial fabric.

In this respect, as a consequence of the local content requirements imposed tothe Contractors, three yards (SONAMET, SONILS, PAENAL), one spool base (DANDE)and an umbilical factory in Lobito participated in the project and had theopportunity to extend their production capabilities, to procure employment to alarge number of workers and to improve their knowhow. For instance, Angoflexspool base in Dande was significantly up graded and FKIA stroke a new challengeby assembling PAZFLOR Xmas trees on SONILS' base.

Also, the 4 million man-hours of Angolan content and the day to day operationof FPSO, obviously called for some highly qualified personnel.
Frontier Subsea Technologies
Authors: Poincheval Alain , Gleize Philippe
Published: April 2012

Technip and Subsea 7 Consortium, acting as a contractor to Total, operator ofthe Pazflor project, made a challenging oil field development a reality anddemonstrated their ability to deliver a complex SURF project, maintaining aworld class HSE performance and pushing the frontier of subsea technologieswith focused innovation. Among the several key challenges, the necessity tohandle two different oil characteristics led to two distinct subseaarchitectures. First, the Oligocene with a high constraint on thermalefficiency for such a large field footprint made Pipe-In-Pipe (PIP) flowlineand Integrated Production Bundle (IPB) flexible riser essential. Developed byTechnip from design to installation, the reeled, rigid Pipe-In-Pipe andflexible pipe IPB are ideally adapted for these flow assurance challenges. Second, the Miocene with heavy and viscous oil characteristics led to thedevelopment of a Subsea Separator Unit (SSU) where Subsea 7 demonstrated itsability to install safely heavy modules in 1000m depth with high positioningaccuracy. Finally, with the first implementation of the patented diverlessrisers automatic hook-up system to FPSO, Technip and the Consortium's leadingedge technology was further demonstrated on Pazflor, successfully enablingsafer and faster handover for first oil.

1. INTRODUCTION

Pazflor's demanding flow assurance and associated thermal performance of thesubsea production transport system of light paraffinic oil (Oligocene) requiredthe use of challenging technologies among which Pipe-In-Pipe associated with anIntegrated Production Bundle flexible riser has proven itself to be the optimumsolution and is further detailed in the following sections.

Furthermore, maintaining a world class HSE performance and pushing the frontierof subsea technologies with focused innovation led to the development and theuse of a diverless riser automatic hook-up system to the FPSO, avoiding diverintervention and hence disconnecting weather conditions from riser pull-in (HU)operations.

In addition, with the Miocene field, Total achieved a number of world firstsfor the Subsea Separation system with first vertical separation system, firsthybrid pump technology and first separation system to be implemented on fieldstart-up in 800m water depth. This section aims to give an overview of theinstallation of the Subsea Separator system, from preliminary testing in Norwayto final pre-commissioning at offshore site.

Finally, the integrated Consortium between Technip and Subsea 7 showed its fullefficiency during the management of simultaneous complex installationoperations involving a large number of vessels together with a comprehensivedrilling campaign.
New Developments in Wet Gas Metering To Meet Offshore Challenges
Authors: Gregerson Svein Erik , Risdal Martin
Published: April 2012

This paper presents an overview of wet gas multiphase metering and a new meterdesign to meet future offshore challenges. The design introduces new microwaveelectronics, transmission as well as resonance measurements, a salinitymeasurement system, reduced PVT dependence and a new HP/HT design.

Building on the success of wet gas metering in accuracy and reliability, thenew meter increases operators' ability to detect the onset of formation waterproduction and accurately measure flow rates where an increasing amount ofliquid and water is present in the flow (due to gas wells produced over a widerrange of process conditions).

The new meter design will have an increased importance for subsea tiebacksapplications. While today's wet gas meters are well suited for subsea tiebacks, current subsea developments require longer horizontal production pipelines, where accurate and sensitive measurement of water is crucial to ensure flowassurance and maintain maximum production capacity of the pipeline.

Furthermore, the restrictive and remote nature of subsea fields means that thecosts for subsea interventions and periodic fluid sampling (PVT) are high. Thenew meter is more robust to changes in PVT (fluid composition) and reduces theneed for frequent fluid sampling.

The paper will describe the development and technology choices of the newinstrument and how it will meet future subsea field demands.

It will explain how the new microwave electronics provides more stable andaccurate measurements; how transmission and resonance measurements extend theoperating range to 80–100% GVF and 0–100% WLR; how two complementarytechnologies - a salinity probe for liquid film measurements at low GVF andFormation Water Detection Function software for droplets measurements at highGVF, provide the first complete salinity measurement system in wet gasapplications.

The paper will also show how multivariate analysis and new measurements enablethe meter to compensate automatically for changes in produced fluidcomposition.

The paper will be highly significant to oil and gas operators looking toincrease flow assurance and oil & gas production from wet gas fields andmeet the growing offshore challenges of varying process conditions, intervention costs, and subsea tie-backs.
Designing the World's Deepest Offshore Well to Drill and Core the Earth's Mantle
Authors: Pilisi Nicolas , Whitney Bill , Kawamura Yoshi
Published: April 2012

Because many fundamental questions concerning the dynamics of the Earth and itsstructure remain unanswered, the Integrated Ocean Drilling Program (IODP) hasrecently completed a feasibility study for drilling and coring a hole 500meters (1,640 feet) through the Mohorovicic seismic discontinuity into theupper mantle of the oceanic crust from three candidate locations in the PacificOcean (Cocos Plate, Baja California, and offshore Hawaii).

The main challenges discussed in this paper are threefold. First, drilling withriser in ultra-deepwater environments with water depths around 4,000 meters(13,120 feet) which will set a new world record. Secondly, drilling and coringin very high temperature igneous rocks with bottom-hole temperatures that areestimated to be as high as 250°C (480°F). Finally, drilling and coring a verydeep hole with a total drilled and/or cored interval around 6,000 meters(19,685 feet) in the oceanic crust below the Pacific Ocean seafloor in order toreach the upper mantle which will constitute a major achievement for theworldwide scientific community.

This paper presents detailed analyses and several discussions concerning marinedrilling riser options by first reviewing the capabilities of the current riserconfiguration that is onboard the IODP scientific drilling drill-ship Chikyuand then evaluating alternative designs such as titanium riser, hybridtitanium-steel riser, slim-riser and lighter buoyancy modules. Furthermore, thedeepwater subsea equipment, drill-pipe design, wellbore design, down-holetools, drilling fluids, circulating temperature, cementing methods and variousadvanced technologies that would be required for this type of operation arealso reviewed. In addition, operational time and cost estimations for differentscientific drilling cases are provided (borehole continuously cored to totaldepth, continuous cores only across the major lithologic and geophysicaltransition intervals, spot coring and when only the mantle section iscored).

Finally, this study helps evaluate critical issues in terms of current andtrending technologies in oilfield and geothermal industries that need to beresolved before embarking upon such a challenging project. The results of thiswork show that drilling to the mantle is certainly feasible, and that there areexisting solutions to many of the technological challenges based on work beingdone in the oilfield, offshore and geothermal industries.
Considerations and Lessons Learned on Development of Gas-Lift Paraffin Inhibitors for Subsea Wells in the Gulf of Mexico
Authors: Wylde Jonathan James , Slayer Jubal
Published: April 2012

This paper details the laboratory evaluation and product development for auniquely applied gas-lift paraffin inhibitor. Several crude oils, specific toone particular Gulf of Mexico subsea network, were characterized with respectto cloud point, pour point and paraffin content. This information was used todetermine suitable wax inhibitors to test for application into the productionfluids offshore. Cold finger wax deposition tests were performed to evaluateeight different inhibitor chemistries.

Details are given on the test methodologies used, with particular focus on thespecific evaluation to determine gas-lift suitability. Volatile flash analysiswas performed by a third party laboratory, coupled with a unique dynamicgas-lift test method, to find a suitable candidate. Of the products tested, twonew and specific formulations were developed for gas-lift applications thatdisplayed low weight loss and very little increase in viscosity.

There is very little documented in open literature on the formulations and testmethodologies employed to evaluate paraffin inhibitors for gas-liftapplication. This paper describes the most important treatment parameters anddetails on how gas-lift application was performed. This includes somesignificant learning lessons on the design and implementation of gas-liftparaffin inhibitors, as well as conclusions regarding the most appropriatedeployment parameters to avoid gunking and clogging of injection systems. Italso details the specific chemistries that can and should be used for this typeof application.

Introduction

Paraffin Deposition from Crude Oil

Crude oils naturally contain paraffinic, waxy components, defined as aliphatichydrocarbon molecules with the empirical formula CnH2n+2 (n is most commonly>18).

Paraffin can exist in three forms:Macrocrystalline: these tend to be dominated by straight chained n-alkanesand are classically defined by paraffin deposits found in subsea and exportpipelines.Semi-microcrystalline: this is an intermediate form of macro- andmicrocrystalline paraffin.Microcrystalline: these tend to be cycloalkanes and branched alkanes oftenassociated with asphaltenes and other solid deposits. These are normallyencountered in tank bottoms as a sludge-like deposit.

Paraffin precipitation increases the viscosity of crude oil creating higherdrag and pressure. Deposition on the walls of tubulars, flowlines and pipelinescan increase surface roughness and create a higher differential pressure. Physical restriction of the pipeline can also occur, creating less flow orincreased energy costs to maintain flow.
A Long-term Monitoring Array for Landslide Precursors: A Case Study at the Ligurian Slope (Western Mediterranean Sea)
Authors: Stegmann Sylvia , Sultan Nabil , Garziglia Sebastien , Pelleau Pascal , Apprioual Ronan , Kopf Achim , Zabel Matthias
Published: April 2012

The Nice Slope, situated in the French part of the Ligurian Margin, representsa landslide-prone area, where different factors favour slope instability:Seismicity up to ~M6,rapid sediment deposition in the Var fluvial system,groundwater discharge along the coastal aquifer,creeping ofsensitive clay layers, andhuman activity (land reclamation, construction). In 1979, a catastrophic failure occurred in the Var pro-delta, that destroyedthe Nice new harbour extension, mobilised ~8.7×106 m3 material, and initiated atsunami wave of 2–3m. This event led extensive research efforts first directedat understanding the triggers of the failure. In later years, some furtherstudies allowed to detect the occurrence of mechanically weak sediments outsidethe area that failed in 1979. This, along with the detection of freshened porewater and excess pore pressure development raised concerns as to the presentday and future slope stability.

Hence, at present, progressive weakening of the shallow sediment is monitoredusing a long-term array in collaboration between Ifremer Brest and MARUMBremen. It comprises two multi-level pore pressure probes (Ifremer piezometers, one installed in the 1979 scar, one in the unaffected slope further E) as wellas a tilt-meter instrument (Ifremer) that will observe the deformation rate ofthe upper 8 m of sediment in real-time. In addition, an osmotically drivenfluid sampling-lance (MARUM) collects pore fluids for geochemical studies atthe levels of the pore pressure ports of the piezometers to identifyground-water discharge. With temporary OBS installations and onshoreseismometers in place, the array will allow us to distinguish between thevarious factors that are presently affecting the stability of the NiceSlope.
The Modelbase: An Architecture for Organizational Adaptive Decision-Making
Authors: Whiteside Michael William
Published: April 2012

This paper describes the application of the modelbase, newly developed softwarearchitecture for adaptive forward-looking processes, for organizationalstrategic management and complex project design and decision-making underconditions of uncertainty and change in the offshore oil and gas industry. Themodelbase is designed to maintain a live model of the organization againstwhich new opportunities and alternative designs can be tested and adapted asnew information is obtained.

The technology described has potentially wide application across the industrybut particularly in the following areas:Enterprise Strategic Decision-MakingAdaptive Development Strategic Design and ManagementEnterprise Knowledge-Sharing and re-use

The paper show that the application of the techniques embedded in themodelbase, enable the organization to obtain a collective understanding of thefuture challenges and uncertainties facing the business, and this leads to bothbetter and more adaptive decision-making which in turn increases the " strategicproductivity" of the organization and significantly adds to the organizationalwide value created by new developments, exploration and research.

The methods described in the paper have significance to the industry in thefollowing areas:New methods for managing models, collaborative model building and knowledgesharingMethods for adaptive organizational, development and infrastructuredesignActive learning and dynamic optimization of the E&P process fromexploration through to production

Introduction

The oil industry, like other industries has to date focused its performancemanagement initiatives on operational efficiency and short-term tacticaldecision-making. The methods used for long-term decision-making underuncertainty that decide the strategic investment in exploration, innovation andcapital projects, the industry's engines of growth, are largely based on thosedeveloped by Hertz1 for general project evaluation and by Newendorp2 and othersfor specific problems in the oil industry in the 1960's and 1970's. WhenNewendorp did his work, most of the analysis was intended to be performed byhand with aid of scientific calculators.

Since that time the power of the personal computer / workstation has grown byapproximately one half a million times, we can now perform analyses in secondson a laptop computer that were inconceivable in the 1970's on the most powerfulmainframe. Cloud and Multi-core architectures extend this capability massivelyand the available power continues to expand exponentially, the oil industry isone of the largest users of such systems. This power enables the ability to runenterprise-wide simulations and investigate literally millions of alternativestrategies with embedded options, under different conditions of uncertainty andto run this on demand as new opportunities or external events dictate.
A Challenging Mating Operation Between VLCC Class FPSO and Soft Yoke Mooring System in Extremely Shallow Water
Authors: Wang Alan Minglun , Yuan Ruhua , Zhu Shaohua , Li Huailiang , Xie Weiwei , He Min
Published: April 2012

A VLCC class FPSO has been successfully hooked up to a pre-installed rotationalSoft Yoke Mooring System (SYMS) located in extremely shallow water of 27.6meters, where the rotational SYMS is situated on the top of a jacketsubstructure. The extremely challenging mating operation is mainly due to theimmediately contiguous FPSO and SYMS, which are located in the close vicinitywith a net clearance less than 12 meters and the high-risk vessel maneuveringin a confined space between the two yoke arms.

The FPSO-SYMS mating operation was performed in March 2009, which coversvarious installation phases. Upon FPSO handover at the field, the three towingtugs are reconfigured into positioning tugs while two additional tugs areconnected to the FPSO. After an on-site positioning trial is performed, thepositioning spread moves the FPSO extremely cautiously approaching towards theSYMS to engage the lower ends of the pendulums into the uni-joint forks on thetop of the floating yoke arms supported on the temporary buoyancy pontoons. Thevessel is aligned to the yokes with the help of the positioning spread whilemaintaining heading towards the prevailing weather. The FPSO is moored to theturntable on the SYMS tower with four substantial Dyneema ropes cross-connectedwith a master link in the middle before any attempt at connecting the pendulumsto the SYMS is made. The positioning spread maintains the vessel steady so thatthe mating can be done by connecting the yoke arms to the pendulums. Theballast tanks of the yoke arms are ballasted with concrete slurry while theanti-yaw tanks are filled with fresh water mixed with anti-corrosion inhibitorand anti freeze. Only after the ballasting is finished, the FPSO is consideredstorm-safe and can the positioning spread be released.

This paper gives a comprehensive description of the FPSO-SYMS matingoperations, as well as how to successfully apply the findings of model testsand virtual simulations to the different installation phases. This enables theFPSO to be hooked up as rapidly as possible co-incident with safe practice. Lessons learned from the offshore operations are also addressed.

Introduction

The VLCC class FPSO "Hai Yang Shi You 117" is located at the Penglai 19-3 fieldin the northern Chinese waters to the southeast of the Bohai Bay, close toBohai Straits. The field development includes a rotational SYMS installed onthe top of a jacket substructure and a VLCC class FPSO to be connected with theSYMS via two pairs of yokes and pendulums, as well as six wellhead platformsand one central riser/utilities platform linked with six subsea pipelines andsix submarine cables. The water depth is approximately 27.6 meters while theenvironment is relatively benign and multidirectional. Refer to Fig. 1 for athree-dimensional illustration of the FPSO and SYMS system upon mating.