bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Working memory deficits in children with low achievements in the national curriculum at 7 years of age
Authors: Gathercole Susan E. , Pickering Susan J.
Published: February 2003

Background. Close links between children's capacities to store and manipulate information over brief periods have been found with achievements on standardised measures of vocabulary, language comprehension, reading, and mathematics. Aim. The study aimed to investigate whether working memory abilities are also associated with attainment levels in the national curriculum assessments at 7 years of age. Sample. Eighty‐three children aged 6 and 7 years attending local education authority schools participated in the study. Methods. Working memory skills were assessed by a test battery designed to tap individual components of Baddeley and Hitch's (1974) working memory model. Children were assigned to normal and low achievement groups on the basis of their performance on national curriculum tasks and tests in the areas of English and mathematics. Results. Children with low levels of curriculum attainment showed marked impairments on measures of central executive function and of visuo‐spatial memory in particular. A single cut‐off score derived from the test battery successfully identified the majority of the children failing to reach nationally expected levels of attainment. Conclusions. Complex working memory skills are closely linked with children's academic progress within the early years of school. The assessment of working memory skills may offer a valuable method for screening children likely to be at risk of poor scholastic progress.
Bullying in Flemish schools: An evaluation of anti‐bullying intervention in primary and secondary schools
Authors: Stevens Veerle , De Bourdeaudhuij Ilse , Van Oost Paulette
Published: February 2003

Background. The positive results of the Norwegian anti‐bullying programme (Olweus, 1992) stimulated other countries to tackle bully/victim problems. However, outcome studies found rather low levels of effect or even inconsistent results. Aims. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate behavioural effectiveness of a school‐based anti‐bullying approach within Flemish schools. In addition, specific attention was given to the relationship between outcome findings and external support. Sample. A total of 18 schools, comprising 1104 primary and secondary school children were recruited for this study. Students ranged in age from 10 to 16 years. Method. For this study, an experimental pre‐test/post‐test design was used which included a control group. Three groups were established. The first group, Treatment with Support, involved students from schools that implemented a school‐based anti‐bullying intervention with additional support from the research group. The second group, Treatment without Support, also involved students from schools that implemented a school‐based anti‐bullying programme. However, in contrast with those falling under the first condition, this group of schools could not appeal to the research group for additional help. The last group involved students from schools that did not implement the anti‐bullying programme and served as a Control condition. Repeated measures analyses of variance were carried out. Results. The findings regarding the effects of the school‐based anti‐bullying intervention programme on the extent of bullying and victimisation showed a mixed pattern of positive changes in primary schools and zero outcomes in secondary schools. The findings regarding the effects of external support revealed limited outcomes. Conclusions. The outcomes of the evaluation study confirm that a schoolbased anti‐bullying intervention strategy can be effective in reducing problems with bullying, especially within primary schools. It was argued that the developmental characteristics of secondary school students interfered with the outcomes. In addition, the findings revealed no extra effects of training sessions.
Development of the School Organisational Health Questionnaire: A measure for assessing teacher morale and school organisational climate
Authors: Hart Peter M. , Wearing Alexander J. , Conn Michael , Carter Nicholas L. , Dingle And Roger K.
Published: February 2003

Background. A growing body of empirical evidence suggests that organisational factors are more important than classroom specific issues in determining teacher morale. Accordingly, it is necessary to have available measures that accurately assess morale, as well as the organisational factors that are likely to underpin the experience of morale. Aim. Three studies were conducted with the aim of developing a psychometrically sound questionnaire that could be used to assess teacher morale and various dimensions of school organisational climate. Sample. A total of 1,520 teachers from 18 primary and 26 secondary schools in the Australian state of Victoria agreed to participate in three separate studies (N = 615, 342 and 563 in Studies 1, 2 and 3, respectively) that were used to develop the questionnaire. The demographic profile of the teachers was similar to that found in the Department as a whole. Method. All teaching staff in the participating schools were asked to complete a self‐report questionnaire as part of the evaluation of an organisational development programme. Results. A series of exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses were used to establish the questionnaire's factor structure, and correlation analyses were used to examine the questionnaire's convergent and discriminant validity. Conclusions. The three studies resulted in the 54‐item School Organisational Health Questionnaire that measures teacher morale and 11 separate dimensions of school organisational climate: appraisal and recognition, curriculum coordination, effective discipline policy, excessive work demands, goal congruence, participative decision‐making, professional growth, professional interaction, role clarity, student orientation, and supportive leadership.
Self‐esteem in children: Do goal orientations matter?
Authors: Kavussanu Maria , Harnisch Delwyn L.
Published: February 2003

Background. Although perceived competence has been identified as an essential component of global self‐esteem, individual differences in the way competence is conceptualised have been virtually ignored. Achievement goal theory suggests that two conceptions of competence operate in achievement contexts: competence can be conceived as capacity or improvement. These two conceptions are embedded within two goal orientations, namely task and ego orientation. Aims. The study examined the relationship of goal orientations and perceptions of athletic ability to global self‐esteem. Samples. Children (N = 907) attending summer sports camps participated in the study. Method. Children completed the Perception of Success Questionnaire and the Self‐Esteem Scale and recorded their perceptions of normative athletic ability. Results. High task‐oriented children reported significantly higher self‐esteem than low task‐oriented children. Among high task‐oriented boys, those with high perceived ability had higher self‐esteem. In addition, high ego‐oriented boys had high self‐esteem when they perceived themselves as having high ability in relation to their peers. Finally, among low task‐oriented girls, those with high perceived ability reported higher self‐esteem. Conclusions. The findings are consistent with the tenets of achievement goal theory that success and failure are subjective psychological states. It is recommended that different conceptions of competence are considered in the study of self‐esteem.
The importance of music to adolescents
Authors: North Adrian C. , Hargreaves David J. , O'Neill Susan A.
Published: February 2003

Aims. The study aims to determine the importance of music to adolescents in England, and investigates why they listen to and perform music. Sample. A total of 2465 adolescents (1149 males; 1266 females; 50 participants did not state their sex) between 13 and 14 years of age who were attending Year 9 at one of 22 secondary schools in the North Staffordshire region of England. Method. A questionnaire asked participants (a) about their degree of involvement with musical activities; (b) to rate the importance of music relative to other activities; and (c) to rate the importance of several factors that might determine why they and other people of their age and sex might listen to/perform pop and classical music. Results. Responses indicated that i) over 50% of respondents either played an instrument currently or had played regularly before giving up, and the sample listened to music for an average of 2.45 hours per day; ii) listening to music was preferred to other indoor activities but not to outdoor activities; iii) listening to/playing pop music has different perceived benefits to listening to/ playing classical music; iv) responses to suggested reasons for listening to music could be grouped into three factors; and v) responses to suggested reasons for playing music could be grouped into four factors. Conclusions. These results indicate that music is important to adolescents, and that this is because it allows them to (a) portray an ‘ image’ to the outside world and (b) satisfy their emotional needs.
The implications for academic attainment of perceived gender‐appropriateness upon spatial task performance: A corrigendum
Authors: Firth Robert , Brosnan Mark
Published: February 2003

The original paper (BJEP, 1998, 68, 203± 215) had some transposition errors in the final analysis of gender groupings. Fortunately, the implications regarding the role of masculinity influencing performance upon psychometric measures are unaffected. The data from the examination boards and the sex differences remain unaltered.
The nature and development of student motivation
Authors: Jacobs P.A. , Newstead S.E.
Published: February 2003

Aim. The aim of the present series of studies was to investigate what motivates undergraduate students and how their motivation changes during their degree course. The present research investigated both subject specific and generic motivators by asking students what knowledge areas, skills and experiences were important to them. Sample. Study 1: 336 prospective and current undergraduate psychology students at a university in southern England. Study 2: 57 year one psychology students from a university in the north of England. Study 3: 30 undergraduate psychology students from the university used in Study 1. Method. The studies used a modified version of the Radford and Holdstock (1993) scale to assess students’ objectives in taking a degree programme, by rating the importance of knowledge areas, skills development and experiences. Study 1 used a cross‐sectional design comparing responses of student by year of study. Study 2 compared responses of students in year one in Study 1 to students at a second university. Study 3 used a longitudinal design to investigate changes in values by year of study. Results. The findings suggest that there are two types of students: those who are motivated by the discipline itself and those who are motivated by the acquisition of more general skills and experiences. The perceived importance of many aspects declines over the three years of the degree, and seems especially low in year two. However, some aspects, notably research methodology, and some skills and experiences show marked increases in the final year. Conclusions. Current theories of educational motivation need to be extended to account for the difference between subject‐related and generic motives.
Natural rates of approval and disapproval in British infant, junior and secondary classrooms
Authors: Harrop Alex , Swinson Jeremy
Published: February 2003

Background. Investigations in the 1970s showed, amongst other findings, teachers giving more disapproval than approval to their pupils. In the late 1980s, different investigators, whilst concurring with other findings, found approval rates to be higher than disapproval at all school levels, an important finding in view of the number of investigations which have shown the positive value to pupils of contingent verbal approval and the negative or ineffective value of disapproval. Aims. We aimed to examine teacher approval and disapproval a further ten years later and unlike previous investigations, which used classroom observers, to utilise a permanent method of recording. The permanent recording was partly to facilitate precision of recording and partly to enable a more complex analysis of data than had previously been achieved. Samples. Participants were 10 infant school teachers, 10 junior school teachers and 10 secondary school teachers. Methods. The teachers taught their classes whilst wearing radio microphones. The tape recordings of the lessons were systematically observed using eight defined categories of behaviour. Category definitions were initially established by two independent observers who attained a level of above 80% agreement. Analyses of the data were both within group and between groups. Results. Findings were generally in line with those of the investigations of the 1980s. Aspects not previously investigated included findings that approval was given predominantly to pupils working individually rather than in groups, that redirection (a teacher response following disapproval which describes an approved behaviour) was markedly lower in secondary schools than in junior and infant schools, whilst redirection occurred at about the same rate in junior and infant schools. Conclusions. That the results for approval and disapproval rates agree with those of the 1980s in which differing methodologies were used in different school systems is encouraging evidence that teachers are using appropriate responses to their pupils. Some of the more detailed results of the do, however, indicate areas for concern.
The effect of three different educational approaches on children's drawing ability: Steiner, Montessori and traditional
Authors: Cox Maureen V. , Rowlands Anna
Published: February 2003

Background. Although there is a national curriculum for art education in the UK there are also alternative approaches in the private sector. This paper addresses the issue of the effect of these approaches on children's drawing ability. Aim. To compare the drawing ability in three drawing tasks of children in Steiner, Montessori and traditional schools. Sample. The participants were 60 school children between the ages of 5;11 and 7;2. Twenty children were tested in each type of school. Method. Each child completed three drawings: a free drawing, a scene and an observational drawing. Results. As predicted, the free and scene drawings of children in the Steiner school were rated more highly than those of children in Montessori and traditional schools. Steiner children's use of colour was also rated more highly, although they did not use more colours than the other children. Steiner children used significantly more fantasy topics in their free drawings. Further observation indicated that the Steiner children were better at using the whole page and organising their drawings into a scene; their drawings were also more detailed. Contrary to previous research Montessori children did not draw more inanimate objects and geometrical shapes or fewer people than other children. Also, contrary to the prediction, Steiner children were significantly better rather than worse than other children at observational drawing. Conclusion. The results suggest that the approach to art education in Steiner schools is conducive not only to more highly rated imaginative drawings in terms of general drawing ability and use of colour but also to more accurate and detailed observational drawings.
Visual speechreading and cognitive performance in hearing‐impaired and normal hearing children (11‐14 years)
Authors: Lyxell Björn , Holmberg Ingegerd
Published: February 2003

Background. Previous research has demonstrated that parts of the variation in adults’ speechreading performance can be explained by the characteristics of some cognitive components. However, these results apply to populations of adults and less is known as to how results for populations of adults can be generalised to populations of children. Aim. This study aimed to examine cognitive and visual skills in a group of bilaterally, moderately hearing‐impaired children and a group of normal hearing children and how these two skills relate to variability in speechreading of context‐embedded sentences. Sample. Twenty‐three hearing‐impaired children (mean age: 12.7) and 23 normal hearing children (mean age: 12.5) matched for age, sex, verbal ability and school grades. The mean ‘ better ear’ auditory threshold for the hearing‐impaired was 44.8 dB. Results. The hearing‐impaired children outperformed the normal hearing children on a sentence‐based speechreading task and on a visual‐visual word‐decoding task, but not on a word‐discrimination task. Differing from the case of adults, most cognitive tasks proved to be significantly related to sentence‐based speechreading performance, where working memory capacity and visual word‐decoding skill proved to be the strongest predictors. Conclusions. Speechreading is more cognitively demanding for children than for adults as they have not developed their cognitive abilities to the same extent as adults. Thus, they have to devote more processing capacity, relative to their total cognitive processing capacity, to the speechreading task. Skilled visual word‐decoding and cognitive skills, together with everyday exposure to situations where speechreading is required, are some of the candidates for explanation of the hearing‐impaired children's superior speechreading skill.
Motivation in action: Towards a process‐oriented conceptualisation of student motivation
Authors: Dörnyei Zoltán
Published: February 2003

Background. This paper focuses on the temporal dimension of student motivation; that is, rather than considering motivation a stable emotional or mental state, the emphasis is placed on portraying motivation processes as they happen in time. Aims. 1. To account for the dynamic development of motivation in prolonged learning processes such as the mastery of school subjects. 2. To discuss the practical implications of a process‐oriented approach for professional practice. Method. Theoretical analysis and model building, drawing on the findings of empirical investigations. Analysis. It is argued that the ‘ time’ dimension is relevant to the study of motivation in at least two crucial areas: to account for (a) how motivation is generated and (b) how it fluctuates and further develops over time. A focus on the temporal dimension is particularly important for the understanding of student motivation because in prolonged learning activities such as mastering a school subject a major motivational function is to maintain the motivational impetus for a considerable period (often several years) against a number of distracting influences. In order to illustrate the temporal conception of motivation, a ‘ Process Model of Student Motivation’ is presented and various theoretical pros and cons are discussed. Finally, practical implications are demonstrated by providing a taxonomy of motivational strategies rooted in the process‐oriented approach, with one specific aspect, the students’ action control and self‐motivation, specially highlighted in order to show the compatibility of the approach with current research on student self‐regulation.
The contribution of visual search strategies to the development of pedestrian skills by 4‐11 year‐old children
Authors: Whitebread David , Neilson Kris
Published: February 2003

Background. Young children in the 5‐9 age range are particularly vulnerable to road accidents as pedestrians and previous research has identified a range of motivational and cognitive skill factors which may play a part in this. Aims. The present study aimed to examine the extent to which the development of pedestrian skills in young children was related to individual differences in visual search strategies. Sample. A sample of 180 children aged 4/5, 7/8 and 10/11 years was presented with tasks intended to assess their pedestrian skills. From this analysis a subset of 60 children was selected who had particularly high or low levels of pedestrian skills, together with a random sample of 10 adults, for more detailed analysis of their visual search strategies when confronted with the problem of crossing a road safely. Method. The children's pedestrian skills were assessed using three tasks based on slide and video presentations of real roadside situations; these tasks assessed the ability to identify safe places to cross the road, and to decide when it was safe to cross based on the ability to detect dangerous traffic and to coordinate information from different directions. Visual search strategies were assessed using a 'spot the difference’ test and by analysing the head and eye movements of children and adults while they were carrying out the video task requiring them to co‐ordinate information from different directions. This task was also used to make an assessment of individuals’ processing speeds by measuring the time it took to make decisions that it was safe to cross the road. Results. Significant differences emerged in strategic approaches between children in different age groups, and those who had high and low levels of pedestrians skills. A significant strategic shift appeared to be occurring around the age of 7/8 years. Conclusions. The results indicate that the explicit training of visual search strategies might well be beneficial, but that these cannot simply be the strategies of the adult pedestrian. Children may need to master simpler strategies which their slower processing speeds allow them to manage before they proceed on to the more sophisticated strategic approaches, typically involving predictions, used by older children and adults.
Teachers’ causal attributions, cognitive, emotional and behavioural responses to students with emotional and behavioural difficulties
Authors: Poulou Maria , Norwich Brahm
Published: February 2003

Background. The vast majority of children with emotional and behavioural difficulties are educated in their usual classes in ordinary schools across the countries. The study, therefore, of teachers’ responses to these children is important for both teachers’ and students’ well‐being in schools. Research provides evidence that teachers attribute students’ difficulties to factors external to themselves, that is family or child factors and although they experience feelings of irritation and indifference with disruptive students they feel responsible and committed to help them. As far as their coping strategies are concerned, teachers seem to mostly favour positive interventions. Aims. This study aimed to examine Greek teachers’ causal attributions, emotional and cognitive responses, coping strategies and suggestions for effective coping strategies with students with emotional and behavioural difficulties. Sample. This comprised 391 elementary teachers teaching in 60 public schools in the area of Athens. Method. Teachers completed an inventory presenting six short scenarios of students with emotional and behavioural difficulties, varying in the type of difficulty (conduct or emotional) and the degree of severity for teachers to handle them (mild or severe). Results. Repeated‐measures ANOVA revealed that teachers perceived school and teacher factors as causal of emotional and behavioural difficulties. Teachers expressed feelings of sympathy for these children, and perceived themselves as responsible, self‐efficacious and inclined to help them. Finally, they reported using supportive techniques to handle emotional and behavioural difficulties, which they also considered as effective. Conclusions. Teacher training becomes crucial as a process of adopting patterns of thought and strategies for responding to students with emotional and behavioural difficulties.
The behaviour and self‐esteem of children with specific speech and language difficulties
Authors: Lindsay Geoff , Dockrell Julie
Published: February 2003

Background. Children with specific speech and language difficulties (SSLD) may have associated difficulties that impair their access to the curriculum, and their social relationships at home and in school. Aims. (i) To identify the range of additional problems experienced by children with SSLD in different educational contexts; (ii) to consider the relationship between these problems and the child's current language status and (iii) to consider the child's self‐esteem and the extent to which self‐esteem is associated with the primary language problem or other associated difficulties. Sample. Sixty‐nine children (17 girls, 52 boys) aged 7‐8 years (Year 3) who had been identified as having SSLD, 59 from two local education authorities and 10 from regional special schools for children with severe speech and language difficulties. Method. The children were assessed on a range of cognitive, language and educational measures; children and teachers completed a measure of the children's self‐esteem (Pictorial Scale of Perceived Competence and Social Acceptance); teachers and parents completed a behavioural questionnaire (Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ); teachers also completed a further rating scale which included a behaviour subscale (Junior Rating Scale: JRS). Results. The children's behaviour was rated as significantly different from the norm on both the SDQ and JRS, with the parents more likely to rate the child as having problems, but also as having prosocial behaviour. Both teachers and parents tended to rate the boys as having more problems than girls on the SDQ, with significant differences for the parents’ ratings occurring on the total score and the hyperactivity and conduct problems scales. The children had positive self perceptions, which were comparable to the standardisation sample, and generally significantly higher than those of the teachers. The language and educational attainment scores of the children in special and mainstream schools were generally not significantly different, but parents rated the latter group as having more behaviour difficulties. Multiple regression analyses identified language comprehension and reading comprehension as the only predictors of the parents’ rating of behaviour (on the SDQ). No relationship was found with the teachers’ ratings. Conclusions. Behavioural difficulties, but not low self‐esteem, are common in children of 7‐8 years with SSLD, but the differences in patterns of relationship between parents and teachers, and with respect to children attending mainstream and special schools, challenge simple interpretations of comorbidity.
Promoting independence and fluent writing through behavioural self‐management
Authors: Panagopoulou‐Stamatelatou Anthi , Merrett Frank
Published: February 2003

Background. To improve their ability in written expression children need to be given adequate practice. It is suggested that current methods do not always encourage pupils to write nor do they foster independence. Aims. This study attempts to develop further a strategy which promotes independence through self‐management and improves writing skills under the process approach. Sample. The sample comprised a class of 32 fourth‐grade girls in a primary school in Athens for which the researcher was also the teacher. Methods. An ABAB repeated‐measures withdrawal design was used. Story writing was encouraged using a self‐management package. In addition to the feedback given through using the package the girls also received responsive feedback from the teacher every time they wrote. Results. Quantitative and qualitative analyses were employed to show that both quantity and quality of the children's writing improved. Conclusions. The effectiveness of this approach, which was modified and improved from a previous study, was demonstrated in another country. Its feasibility was also shown in that the researcher was, at the same time, the class teacher.
The role of scaffolding errors in reading development: Evidence from a longitudinal and a correlational study
Authors: Savage Robert , Stuart Morag , Hill Vivian
Published: February 2003

Background. Identification of patterns of early reading behaviour that predict later reading success is clearly important. Reading errors of 6‐year‐olds represent a source of such early assessment information, but their significance as predictors of later reading is unknown. Aims. The relationship between word reading errors at age 6 and accurate word reading at age 8 is investigated here. Samples, Methods, Results. In study 1, 44 children completed word reading tests at 6 and 8 years. ‘Scaffolding errors’ preserving both initial and final phonemes (e.g., ‘ bark’ misread as ‘ bank’); errors preserving either initial or final phonemes (e.g., ‘ bark’ misread as ‘ bed’ or ‘ like’); distant or unrelated errors (e.g., ‘ bark’ misread as ‘ can’ or ‘ men’) and non‐responses were measured at age 6. Scaffolding errors were the best predictors of word reading at age 8. Study 2 investigated the correlations between word and nonsense word reading, and scaffolding errors in 30 children aged 6 years. Scaffolding errors predicted unique variance in word reading after nonword reading was entered. Conclusions. Scaffolding errors represent a significant qualitative indicator of later word reading success. Implications of findings for early identification of reading difficulties, and facilitating reading interventions are discussed.
How to make it easier for children to revise their writing: A study of text revision from 3rd to 5th grades
Authors: Chanquoy Lucile
Published: February 2003

Background. Writing is considered as a complex activity, involving at least three processes: planning, translating and revising. The experiment proposed here focused on this last process, from a developmental perspective. Aims. The objective of this study was to examine if a delay between writing and revising could improve the frequency and the nature of revisions. In two out of three writing sessions the revising period was delayed to lighten the cognitive load associated with the revising process. The main hypothesis was that the revisions would be more frequent in older children's texts and during the sessions in which the revising process was delayed. Sample. Sixty children (20 per grade) from 3rd to 5th grades participated in the study. Method. These children were asked to write a text, and to revise it, when the revising phase occurred, whether during the writing phase or afterwards. Results. The text length, the frequency of errors and the frequency and the nature of revisions were analysed. The main results showed that, surprisingly, 3rd graders produced shorter texts, containing more errors, but revised more than 4th and 5th graders. The two postponed revising conditions led to more revisions than the revision occurring during writing. Surface revisions were more frequent than meaning revisions, but this result was only significant for younger children, or when revision occurred during writing. For all grades and revising conditions, surface revisions were mainly script and spelling corrections; meaning revisions were mainly additions and deletions of words or parts of texts. Conclusion. This study shows the effect of children's grade on revision, and that postponing the revising process seems to help children to increase the frequency and the depth of their revisions.
Inattention, hyperactivity and impulsiveness: Their impact on academic achievement and progress
Authors: Merrell C. , Tymms P. B.
Published: February 2003

Background. Children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) have been found to achieve lower grades at school than their peers. Does this extend to pupils who are apparently exceptionally inattentive, hyperactive or impulsive, but have not been diagnosed as having ADHD? Aims. This study determined the proportion of children who were assessed by their teachers as exceptionally inattentive, hyperactive or impulsive in the classroom. The relationships between these traits, achievement and progress were examined. Sample,. The participants comprised 4148 children from a nationally representative sample of schools in England. Methods. Reading and mathematics achievement of the participants was assessed at the start and end of the reception year, and in year 2. Behaviour was assessed at the end of reception using a rating scale based on the diagnostic criteria for ADHD (American Psychiatric Association, 1994). Results. The proportion of children with exceptional scores on the behaviour rating scale was reported. The reading and mathematics attainment and value‐added of children with high scores on the behaviour rating scale were found to be educationally and statistically significantly lower than children with zero scores. Conclusions. The achievement of children with high scores on the behaviour rating scale replicated previous studies which investigated the achievement of children with ADHD. The behaviour rating scale could be a useful tool for raising the awareness of teachers to young children with severe behavioural problems of inattention, hyperactivity and impulsivity who have not been diagnosed as having ADHD but may nevertheless be at risk of similar outcomes.
Student teachers’ beliefs about mentoring and learning to teach during teaching practice
Authors: Zanting Anneke , Verloop Nico , Vermunt Jan D.
Published: February 2003

Background. Various interpretations of mentor roles, by teacher educators and mentors, have been described in the literature on mentoring, while those of student teachers have received less attention. Therefore, this study focuses on student teachers’ expectations of mentors and their own contributions to their learning process while they are supervised by a mentor. Aims. The main aims of this study were: (1) bridging the research on mentoring and the research on higher education students’ learning conceptions by investigating student teachers’ beliefs about mentoring and learning to teach, and (2) comparing these beliefs to mentors’ ones and recent views on mentoring and learning in order to make suggestions for improving learning to teach. Sample. Thirty student teachers, graduates in various academic disciplines, participated. They were attending a one‐year teacher education programme at Leiden University in the Netherlands. Methods. Structured interviews with the student teachers were audio‐taped. Firstly, categories of mentor roles and learning activities were derived from the data. These were linked, secondly, by their focus of attention and, thirdly, empirically by a homogeneity analysis (HOMALS). Results. Six mentor roles, ten learning activities, and one regulation activity were combined in six foci: (1) affective aspects of learning to teach, (2) mentors’ teaching styles, (3) assessment of student teachers’ performance, (4) reflecting on students’ lessons, (5) school context, and (6) self‐regulation of learning. The HOMALS analysis yielded a process‐product dimension. Conclusion. In this study, the student teachers’ beliefs about mentoring were similar to those of mentors. Furthermore, a third of the student teachers expected themselves as thinking critically about their lessons, but nobody expected their mentors to explicate their practical knowledge underlying their teaching. Therefore, the articulation of this knowledge is indicated as an additional mentor role and will be elaborated.
The relationship of work avoidance and learning goals to perceived competence, externality and meaning
Authors: Seifert T. L. , O'Keefe B. A.
Published: February 2003

Background. Motivational researchers have suggested that work avoidance may be an academic goal in which students seek to minimise the amount of work they do in school. Additionally, research has also suggested that emotions may be catalysts for goals. Aim. This study examined the relationship between emotions and learning or work avoidance goals. Do emotions explain goals? Sample. The participants were 512 senior high school students in Eastern Canada. Method. Students completed a survey assessing motivation related constructs. A structural equation model was postulated in which students’ affect predicted learning goals and work avoidant goals. A cluster analysis of affect scores was performed followed by between‐group and within‐group contrasts of goal scores. Results. The structural equation model suggested that a sense of competence and control were predictive of a learning goal while lack of meaning was related to work avoidance. The cluster analysis showed that confidence and control were associated with a learning goal but that a sense of inadequacy, lack of control or lack of meaning could give rise to work avoidance. Conclusions. Emotions seem to be directly linked to goals. Teachers who foster feelings of self‐assuredness will be helping students develop learning goals. Students who feel less competent, bored or have little control will adopt work avoidant goals.
The predictive and discriminant validity of the zone of proximal development
Authors: Meijer Joost , Elshout Jan J.
Published: February 2003

Background. Dynamic measurement procedures are supposed to uncover the zone of proximal development and to increase predictive validity in comparison to conventional, static measurement procedures. Aims. Two alternative explanations for the discrepancies between static and dynamic measurements were investigated. The first focuses on Vygotsky's learning potential theory, the second considers the role of anxiety tendency during test taking. If test anxious tendencies are mitigated by dynamic testing procedures, in particular the availability of assistance, the concept of the zone of proximal development may be superfluous in explaining the differences between the outcomes of static and dynamic measurement. Sample. Participants were students from secondary education in the Netherlands. They were tested repeatedly in grade three as well as in grade four. Participants were between 14 and 17 years old; their average age was 15.4 years with a standard deviation of .52. Method. Two types of mathematics tests were used in a longitudinal experiment. The first type of test consisted of open‐ended items, which participants had to solve completely on their own. With the second type of test, assistance was available to participants during the test. The latter so‐called learning test was conceived of as a dynamic testing procedure. Furthermore, a test anxiety questionnaire was administered repeatedly. Structural equation modelling was used to analyse the data. Results. Apart from emotionality and worry, lack of self‐confidence appears to be an important constituent of test anxiety. The learning test appears to contribute to the predictive validity of conventional tests and thus a part of Vygotsky's claims were substantiated. Moreover, the mere inclusion of a test anxiety factor into an explanatory model for the gathered data is not sufficient. Apart from test anxiety and mathematical ability it is necessary to assume a factor which may be construed as mathematics learning potential. Conclusion. The results indicate that the observed differences between a conventional, static testing procedure and an experimental, dynamic testing procedure for mathematics cannot be explained sufficiently by a differential bias towards test anxiety. The dynamic testing approach renders scores which add to the predictive validity of conventional testing procedures. Since this gain in predictive validity is not a result of the removal of bias towards test anxiety, this result should be understood as supportive for the validity of the concept of the zone of proximal development.
Approaches to learning in science: A longitudinal study
Authors: Zeegers Petrus
Published: February 2003

Background. Longitudinal studies of students’ approaches to learning in higher education can tell us much about the impact of the tertiary experience. More information about teaching and learning practices and how students respond to these may enable educators to better assist students to gain the maximum benefit from their tertiary studies. Aims. The study set out: (i) to monitor the change in approaches to learning over a three‐year period; (ii) to evaluate the relationship between student age, sex and university entry mode on students’ approaches to learning; and (iii) to evaluate the predictive validity of the SPQ scales on one mode of learning outcome, that being annual GPA. Samples. The sample consisted of 200 commencing students studying in a science course at an Australian university. Method. The Biggs SPQ was administered in a first‐year chemistry class and repeated at intervals of 4 and 8 months. This was followed by administration by post after 16 months and 30 months. Results. Student approach to learning is dynamic and amenable to change as a result of the learning experience. Of the three SPQ scales, the achieving approach appears to undergo the greatest change with time, while the deep approach showed a consistent positive correlation with assessment outcomes. Student age was a major factor in both the SPQ scores and assessment outcomes but no gender effect was evident. Conclusions. Students see university study, and in particular the first year, as a survival course and adopt strategies suited to that task. Older students adopt approaches to study which differ from their younger colleagues and as a consequence they are in general more successful in the tertiary environment.
The revised two‐factor Study Process Questionnaire: R‐SPQ‐2F
Authors: Biggs John , Kember David , Leung Doris Y.P.
Published: February 2003

Aim. To produce a revised two‐factor version of the Study Process Questionnaire (R‐SPQ‐2F) suitable for use by teachers in evaluating the learning approaches of their students. The revised instrument assesses deep and surface approaches only, using fewer items. Method. A set of 43 items was drawn up for the initial tests. These were derived from: the original version of the SPQ, modified items from the SPQ, and new items. A process of testing and refinement eventuated in deep and surface motive and strategy scales each with 5 items, 10 items per approach score. The final version was tested using reliability procedures and confirmatory factor analysis. Sample. The sample for the testing and refinement process consisted of 229 students from the health sciences faculty of a university in Hong Kong. A fresh sample of 495 undergraduate students from a variety of departments of the same university was used for the test of the final version. Results. The final version of the questionnaire had acceptable Cronbach alpha values for scale reliability. Confirmatory factor analysis indicated a good fit to the intended two‐factor structure. Both deep and surface approach scales had well identified motive and strategy subscales. Conclusion. The revision process has resulted in a simple questionnaire which teachers can use to evaluate their own teaching and the learning approaches of their students.
Self‐handicapping status, claimed self‐handicaps and reduced practice effort following success and failure feedback
Authors: Thompson Ted , Richardson Anna
Published: February 2003

Background. Self‐handicapping involves the strategic establishment of an impediment or obstacle to success prior to a performance situation which thereby provides a convenient excuse for poor performance. Aims. The study sought to establish that relative to low trait self‐handicappers, high trait self‐handicappers exposed to failure in an intellectually evaluative situation will (a) pre‐emptively claim more handicaps, and (b) behaviourally self‐handicap through reduced practice effort, and (c) report greater anxiety and negative affect relative to low trait self‐handicappers. Sample. Participants were 72 undergraduate students, divided equally between high and low self‐handicapping groups. Method. This study utilised a 2 (self‐handicapping status: high, low) × 3 (performance feedback: fail, low task importance; fail, high task importance; success) between‐subjects factorial design to investigate claimed and behavioural self‐handicapping through reduced practice effort. This was done by manipulating performance outcome and perceived task importance. Results. Relative to low trait self‐handicappers, high trait high self‐handicappers claimed more handicaps and engaged in greater behavioural self‐handicapping following failure when working on tasks that were described as potentially diagnostic of low ability. While low self‐handicappers internalised their success more than their failure in the high task importance condition, high self‐handicappers were undifferentiated in their attributions across performance conditions. Greater anxiety and greater negative affect were also characteristic of high self‐handicappers. Conclusions. The study highlights the self‐protective benefit of self‐handicapping in sparing the individual from conclusions of low ability, and the failure of high self‐handicappers to fully internalise their success. These elements and the role of uncertain estimates of ability are discussed in considering implications for intervention.
Students’ and teachers’ cognitions about good teachers
Authors: Beishuizen J.J. , Hof E. , Van Putten C.M. , Bouwmeester S. , Asscher J.J.
Published: February 2003

Background. Good teachers have been studied ever since Plato described how Socrates taught by asking questions of his audience. Recent findings shed light on two characteristics of good teachers: their personality and their ability. However, more attention has been paid to teachers’ practices and opinions than to students’ views. Aims. The study reported here attempted to deepen our understanding of what students think about good teachers. Sample. Students of four age groups (7, 10, 13, and 16 years of age) and teachers from primary and secondary schools were asked to write an essay on the good teacher. Methods. The correspondence between conceptual items in the essays was investigated by determining the extent to which they were used in the same essays to describe good teachers. Results. Correspondence analysis revealed two dimensions. The first dimension reflected the preference of students and teachers for describing the good teacher in terms of either personality or ability characteristics. The second dimension was interpreted as an orientation in the essays towards either attachment to, detachment from or commitment to school and teachers. Students and teachers were compared to establish the amount of (dis)agreement about what makes a good teacher. Primary school students described good teachers primarily as competent instructors, focusing on transfer of knowledge and skills, whereas secondary school students emphasised relational aspects of good teachers. Teachers, however, considered good teachers in the first place a matter of establishing personal relationships with their students. Consequently, primary school students and teachers disagreed about the characteristics of good teachers. In secondary education, disagreements between teachers and students were relatively small. Conclusions. The research method of collecting free essays and utilising correspondence analysis to represent conceptual items and groups of participants seems promising as long as a theoretical framework is available to interpret the resulting representation of similarities between items and groups of participants.