bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A Comparison of Ballistic-Movement and Ballistic-Intent Training on Muscle Strength and Activation
Authors: Dinn Nicole A. , Behm David G.
Published: August 2016

Purpose:

Studies have both supported and refuted the concept that it is the intent to perform ballistic contractions that determines velocity-specific gains in resistance training. The purpose of this investigation was to determine whether ballistic intent is as effective as ballistic movement in improving muscle activation, force, movement time, and reaction time.

Methods:

Subjects completed 8 wk of punch training. A dynamic (DYN) group trained with elastic resistance bands, and the isometric (ISO) group trained with an unyielding strap. A control (CTRL) group was also tested. Pretesting and posttesting measures included isometric force; electromyography (EMG) of triceps, biceps, pectoralis major, and latissimus dorsi; movement and reaction time of both arms; and a quick-hands test of coordination.

Results:

Triceps iEMG increased by 63% in the ISO group (P = .03). Pectoralis major iEMG increased by 65% in the DYN group (P = .007). Movement time decreased 17.6% in the DYN training group (P = .001). Isometric force did not improve in either training group or in the CTRL group.

Conclusions:

Because of its specificity of movement, dynamic training might be a more appropriate method to improve punching speed for martial artists and boxers. The intent to contract explosively over a short duration does not appear to be beneficial in increasing force production or speed of movement in punching.
Variability in Movement Patterns During One Day Internationals by a Cricket Fast Bowler
Authors: Petersen Carl , Pyne David B. , Portus Marc R. , Karppinen Stuart , Dawson Brian
Published: August 2016

Purpose:

The time-motion characteristics and the within-athlete variability in movement patterns were quantified for the same male fast bowler playing One Day International (ODI) cricket matches (n = 12).

Methods:

A number of different time motion characteristics were monitored using a portable 5-Hz global positioning system (GPS) unit (Catapult, Melbourne, Australia).

Results:

The bowler’s mean workload per ODI was 8 ± 2 overs (mean ± SD). He covered a total distance of 15.9 ± 2.5 km per game; 12 ± 3% or 1.9 ± 0.2 km was striding (0.8 ± 0.2 km) or sprinting (1.1 ± 0.2 km), whereas 10.9 ± 2.1 km was spent walking. One high-intensity (running, striding, or sprinting) repetition (HIR) occurred every 68 ± 12 s, and the average duration of a HI effort was 2.7 ± 0.1 s. The player also completed 66 ± 11 sprints per game; mean sprint distance was 18 ± 3 m and maximum sprinting speed 8.3 ± 0.9 m·s−1.

Conclusions:

The movement patterns of this fast bowler were a combination of highly intermittent activities of variable intensity on the base of ~16 km per game. This information provides insight for conditioning coaches to determine the physical demands and to adapt the training and recovery processes of ODI fast bowlers.
The Effects of Low– and High–Glycemic Index Foods on High-Intensity Intermittent Exercise
Authors: Little Jonathan P. , Chilibeck Philip D. , Ciona Dawn , Vandenberg Albert , Zello Gordon A.
Published: August 2016

The glycemic index (GI) of a pre exercise meal may affect substrate utilization and performance during continuous exercise.

Purpose:

To examine the effects of low- and high-GI foods on metabolism and performance during high-intensity, intermittent exercise.

Methods:

Seven male athletes participated in three experimental trials (low-GI, high-GI, and fasted control) separated by ~7 days. Foods were consumed 3 h before (~1.3 g·kg−1 carbohydrate) and halfway through (~0.2 g·kg−1 carbohydrate) 90 min of intermittent treadmill running designed to simulate the activity pattern of soccer. Expired gas was collected during exercise to estimate substrate oxidation. Performance was assessed by the distance covered on fve 1-min sprints during the last 15 min of exercise.

Results:

Respiratory exchange ratio was higher and fat oxidation lower during exercise in the high-GI condition compared with fasting (P < .05). The mean difference in total distance covered on the repeated sprint test between low GI and fasting (247 m; 90% confidence limits ±352 m) represented an 81% (likely, probable) chance that the low-GI condition improved performance over fasting. The mean difference between high GI and fasted control (223 m; ±385 m) represented a 76% (likely, probable) chance of improved performance. There were no differences between low and high GI.

Conclusions:

When compared with fasting, both low- and high-GI foods consumed 3 h before and halfway through prolonged, high-intensity intermittent exercise improved repeated sprint performance. High-GI foods impaired fat oxidation during exercise but the GI did not appear to influence high-intensity, intermittent exercise performance.
Relationship Between Velocity Reached at VO2max and Time-Trial Performances in Elite Australian Rules Footballers
Authors: Lorenzen Christian , Williams Morgan D. , Turk Paul S. , Meehan Daniel L. , Kolsky Daniel J. Cicioni
Published: August 2016

Purpose:

Running velocity reached at maximal oxygen uptake (vVO2max) can be a useful measure to prescribe training intensity for aerobic conditioning. Obtaining it in the laboratory is often not practical, and average velocities from time trials are an attractive alternative. To date, the efficacies of such practices for team sport players are unknown. This study aimed to assess the relationship between vVO2max obtained in the laboratory against two time-trial estimates (1500 m and 3200 m).

Methods:

During the early preseason, elite Australian Rules football players (n = 23, 22.7 ± 3.4 y, 187.7 ± 8.2 cm, 75.5 ± 9.2 kg) participated in a laboratory test on a motorized treadmill and two outdoor time trials.

Results:

Based on average velocity the 1500-m time-trial performance (5.01 ± 0.23 m·s−1) overestimated (0.36 m·s−1, d = 1.75), whereas the 3200-m time trial (4.47 ± 0.23 m·s−1) underestimated (0.17 m·s−1, d = 0.83) the laboratory vVO2max (4.64 ± 0.18 m·s−1). Despite these differences, both 1500-m and 3200-m time-trial performances correlated with the laboratory measure (r = -0.791; r = -0.793 respectively). Both subsequent linear regressions were of good ft and predicted the laboratory measure within ± 0.12 m·s−1.

Conclusion:

Estimates of vVO2max should not be used interchangeably, nor should they replace the laboratory measure. When laboratory testing is not accessible for team sports players, prescription of training intensity may be more accurately estimated from linear regression based on either 1500-m or 3200-m time-trial performance than from the corresponding average velocity.
Relationship Between Strength Characteristics and Unweighted and Weighted Vertical Jump Height
Authors: Kraska Jenna M. , Ramsey Michael W. , Haff G. Gregory , Fethke Nate , Sands William A. , Stone Margaret E. , Stone Michael H.
Published: August 2016

Purpose:

To investigate the relationship between maximum strength and differences in jump height during weighted and unweighted (body weight) static (SJ) and countermovement jumps (CMJ).

Methods:

Sixty-three collegiate athletes (mean ± SD; age= 19.9 ± 1.3 y; body mass = 72.9 ± 19.6 kg; height = 172.8 ± 7.7 cm) performed two trials of the SJ and CMJ with 0 kg and 20 kg on a force plate; and two trials of mid-thigh isometric clean pulls in a custom rack over a force plate (1000-Hz sampling). Jump height (JH) was calculated from fight time. Force-time curve analyses determined the following: isometric peak force (IPF), isometric force (IF) at 50, 90, and 250 ms, and isometric rates of force development (IRFD). Absolute and allometric scaled forces, [absolute force/(body mass0.67)], were used in correlations.

Results:

IPF, IRFD, F50a, F50, F90, and F250 showed moderate/strong correlations with SJ and CMJ height percent decrease from 0 to 20 kg. IPFa and F250a showed weak/moderate correlations with percent height decrease. Comparing strongest (n = 6) to weakest (n = 6): t tests revealed that stronger athletes (IPFa) performed superior to weaker athletes.

Conclusion:

Data indicate the ability to produce higher peak and instantaneous forces and IRFD is related to JH and to smaller differences between weighted and unweighted jump heights. Stronger athletes jump higher and show smaller decrements in JH with load. A weighted jump may be a practical method of assessing relative strength levels.
Beneficial Effects of Ice Ingestion as a Precooling Strategy on 40-km Cycling Time-Trial Performance
Authors: Ihsan Mohammed , Landers Grant , Brearley Matthew , Peeling Peter
Published: August 2016

Purpose:

The effect of crushed ice ingestion as a precooling method on 40-km cycling time trial (CTT) performance was investigated.

Methods:

Seven trained male subjects underwent a familiarization trial and two experimental CTT which were preceded by 30 min of either crushed ice ingestion (ICE) or tap water (CON) consumption amounting to 6.8 g⋅kg-1 body mass. The CTT required athletes to complete 1200 kJ of work on a wind-braked cycle ergometer. During the CTT, gastrointestinal (Tgi) and skin (Tsk) temperatures, cycling time, power output, heart rate (HR), blood lactate (BLa), ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) and thermal sensation (RPTS) were measured at set intervals of work.

Results:

Precooling lowered the Tgi after ICE significantly more than CON (36.74 ± 0.67°C vs 37.27 ± 0.24°C, P < .05). This difference remained evident until 200 kJ of work was completed on the bike (37.43 ± 0.42°C vs 37.64 ± 0.21°C). No significant differences existed between conditions at any time point for Tsk, RPE or HR (P > .05). The CTT completion time was 6.5% faster in ICE when compared with CON (ICE: 5011 ± 810 s, CON: 5359 ± 820 s, P < .05).

Conclusions:

Crushed ice ingestion was effective in lowering Tgi and improving subsequent 40-km cycling time trial performance. The mechanisms for this enhanced exercise performance remain to be clarified.
Effect of Absolute and Relative Loading on Muscle Activity During Stable and Unstable Squatting
Authors: McBride Jeffrey M. , Larkin Tony R. , Dayne Andrea M. , Haines Tracie L. , Kirby Tyler J.
Published: August 2016

Purpose:

The purpose of this investigation was to determine the effect of stable and unstable conditions on one repetition maximum strength and muscle activity during dynamic squatting using absolute and relative loading.

Methods:

Ten recreationally weight-trained males participated in this study (age = 24.1 ± 2.0 y, height = 178.0 ± 5.6 cm, body mass = 83.7 ± 13.4 kg, 1RM/body mass = 1.53 ± 0.31), which involved two laboratory sessions separated by 1 wk. Linear position transducers were used to track bar displacement while subjects stood on a force plate for all trials. Vastus lateralis (VL), biceps femoris (BF) and erector spinae (L1) muscle activity (average integrated EMG [IEMG]) was also recorded during all trials. During the frst session subjects complete a one repetition maximum test in a stable dynamic squat (S1RM = 128.0 ± 31.4 kg) and an unstable dynamic squat (U1RM = 83.8 ± 17.3 kg) in a randomized order with a 30-min rest period between conditions. The second session consisted of the performance of three trials each for 12 different conditions (unstable and stable squats using three different absolute loads [six conditions] and unstable and stable squats using three different relative loads [six conditions]).

Results:

Results revealed a statistically significant difference between S1RM and U1RM values (P < .05). The stable trials resulted in the same or a significantly higher value for VL, BF and L1 muscle activity in comparison with the unstable trials for all twelve conditions.

Conclusions:

Unstable squatting is of equal or less (depending on the loading condition) benefit to improving or maximizing muscle activity during resistance exercise.
Physiological Measures Tracking Seasonal Changes in Peak Running Speed
Authors: Saunders Philo U. , Cox Amanda J. , Hopkins Will G. , Pyne David B.
Published: August 2016

It is unclear whether physiological measures monitored in an incremental treadmill test during a training season provide useful diagnostic information about changes in distance running performance.

Purpose:

To quantify the relationship between changes in physiological measures and performance (peak running speed) over a training season.

Methods:

Well-trained distance runners (34 males; VO2max 64 ± 6 mL⋅kg-1⋅min-1, mean ± SD) completed four incremental treadmill tests over 17 wk. The tests provided values of peak running speed, VO2max, running economy, and lactate threshold (as speed and %VO2max). The physiological measures were included in simple and multiple linear regression models to quantify the relationship between changes in these measures and changes in peak speed.

Results:

The typical within-subject variation in peak speed from test to test was 2.5%, whereas those for physiological measures were VO2max (mL⋅min-1⋅kg-1) 3.0%, economy (m⋅kg⋅mL–1) 3.6%, lactate threshold (%VO2max) 8.7%, and body mass 1.8%. In simple models these typical changes predicted the following changes in performance: VO2max 1.4%, economy 0.8%, lactate threshold –0.3%, and body mass –0.2% (90% confidence limits ~±0.7%); the corresponding correlations with performance were 0.57, 0.33, –0.05, and –0.13 respectively (~±0.20). In a multiple linear regression model, the contribution of each physiological variable to performance changed little after adjustment for the other variables.

Conclusion:

Change in VO2max in an incremental test during a running season is a good predictor of change in peak running speed, change in running economy is a moderate predictor, and lactate threshold and body mass provide little additional information.
Lactate Profile Changes in Relation to Training Characteristics in Junior Elite Cyclists
Authors: Guellich Arne , Seiler Stephen
Published: August 2016

Purpose:

To compare the intensity distribution during cycling training among elite track cyclists who improved or decreased in ergometer power at 4 mM blood lactate during a 15 wk training period.

Methods:

51 young male German cyclists (17.4 ± 0.5 y; 30 international, 21 national junior finalists) performed cycle ergometer testing at the onset and at the end of a 15 wk basic preparation period, and reported their daily volumes of defined exercise types and intensity categories. Training organization was compared between two subgroups who improved (Responders, n = 17; ΔPLa4⋅kg-1 = +11 ± 4%) or who decreased in ergometer performance (Non-Responders, n = 17; ΔPLa4⋅kg-1 = –7 ± 6%).

Results:

Responders and Non-Responders did not differ significantly in the time invested in noncycling specific training or in the total cycling distance performed. They did differ in their cycling intensity distribution. Responders accumulated significantly more distance at low intensity (<2 mM blood lactate) while Non-Responders performed more training at near threshold intensity (3–6 mM). Cycling intensity distribution accounted for approx. 60% of the variance of changes in ergometer performance over time. Performance at t1 combined with workout intensity distribution explained over 70% of performance variance at t2.

Conclusion:

Variation in lactate profle development is explained to a substantial degree by variation in training intensity distribution in elite cyclists. Training at <2 mM blood lactate appears to play an important role in improving the power output to blood lactate relationship. Excessive training near threshold intensity (3–6 mM blood lactate) may negatively impact lactate threshold development. Further research is required to explain the underlying adaptation mechanisms.
The Validity and Reliability of GPS Units for Measuring Distance in Team Sport Specific Running Patterns
Authors: Jennings Denise , Cormack Stuart , Coutts Aaron J. , Boyd Luke , Aughey Robert J.
Published: August 2016

Purpose:

To assess the validity and reliability of distance data measured by global positioning system (GPS) units sampling at 1 and 5 Hz during movement patterns common to team sports.

Methods:

Twenty elite Australian Football players each wearing two GPS devices (MinimaxX, Catapult, Australia) completed straight line movements (10, 20, 40 m) at various speeds (walk, jog, stride, sprint), changes of direction (COD) courses of two different frequencies (gradual and tight), and a team sport running simulation circuit. Position and speed data were collected by the GPS devices at 1 and 5 Hz. Distance validity was assessed using the standard error of the estimate (±90% confidence intervals [CI]). Reliability was estimated using typical error (TE) ± 90% CI (expressed as coefficient of variation [CV]).

Results:

Measurement accuracy decreased as speed of locomotion increased in both straight line and the COD courses. Difference between criterion and GPS measured distance ranged from 9.0% to 32.4%. A higher sampling rate improved validity regardless of distance and locomotion in the straight line, COD and simulated running circuit trials. The reliability improved as distance traveled increased but decreased as speed increased. Total distance over the simulated running circuit exhibited the lowest variation (CV 3.6%) while sprinting over 10 m demonstrated the highest (CV 77.2% at 1 Hz).

Conclusion:

Current GPS systems maybe limited for assessment of short, high speed straight line running and efforts involving change of direction. An increased sample rate improves validity and reliability of GPS devices.
Anthropometric Profiling of Elite Junior and Senior Australian Football Players
Authors: Veale James P. , Pearce Alan J. , Buttifant David , Carlson John S.
Published: August 2016

Purpose:

Body structure and physical development must be addressed when preparing junior athletes for their first season in a senior competition. The aim of this preliminary study was to measure the extent of the assumption that final year junior Australian Football (AF) athletes are at a physical mismatch to their senior counterparts.

Methods:

Twenty-one male participants (17.71 ± 0.27 y) were recruited from one state based elite junior AF competition and forty-one male participants (22.80 ± 4.24 y) were recruited from one club competing in the senior elite Australian Football League (AFL), who were subsequently divided into two groups; professional rookies aged 18-20 y (19.44 ± 0.70 y; n = 18) and professional seniors aged 21+ y (25.43 ± 3.98 y; n = 23). Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) scans of all participants were completed.

Results:

Despite being an average 6.0% and 6.1% lighter in total weight and lean mass respectively, no significant difference was found between the elite junior athletes and their professional AFL rookie counterparts. However, significant differences were demonstrated in comparison with the professional AFL senior athletes (P < .01). Both professional AFL groups demonstrated greater than 0.3 kg total bone mineral content (BMC) than the elite junior athletes (P < .01) and significantly greater segmental BMC and bone mineral density (BMD) results (P < .05).

Conclusion:

While the results identify the differences in body composition of the elite junior athletes, development in a linear fashion is noted, providing useful information for the creation of age appropriate expectations and training programs.
Reduction in Physical Match Performance at the Start of the Second Half in Elite Soccer
Authors: Weston Matthew , Batterham Alan M. , Castagna Carlo , Portas Matthew D. , Barnes Christopher , Harley Jamie , Lovell Ric J.
Published: August 2016

Purpose:

Soccer referees’ physical match performances at the start of the second half (46–60 min) were evaluated in relation to both the corresponding phase of the first half (0–15 min) and players’ performances during the same match periods.

Methods:

Match analysis data were collected (Prozone, UK) from 12 soccer referees on 152 English Premier League matches during the 2008/09 soccer season. Physical match performance categories for referees and players were total distance, high-speed running distance (speed >5.5 m/s), and sprinting distance (>7.0 m/s). The referees’ heart rate was recorded from the start of their warm-up to the end of the match. The referees’ average distances (in meters) from the ball and fouls were also calculated.

Results:

No substantial differences were observed in duration (16:42 ± 2:35 vs 16:27 ± 1:00 min) or intensity (107 ± 11 vs 106 ± 14 beats/min) of the referees’ preparation periods immediately before each half. Physical match performance was reduced during the initial phase of the second half when compared with the first half in both referees (effect sizes—standardized mean differences—0.19 to 0.73) and players (effect sizes 0.20 to 1.01). The degree of the decreased performance was consistent between referees and players for total distance (4.7 m), high-speed running (1.5 m), and sprinting (1.1 m). The referees were closer to the ball (effect size 0.52) during the opening phase the second half.

Conclusion:

Given the similarity in the referees’ preparation periods, it may be that the reduced physical match performances observed in soccer referees during the opening stages of the second half are a consequence of a slower tempo of play.
Relationships Between Triathlon Performance and Pacing Strategy During the Run in an International Competition
Authors: Meur Yann Le , Bernard Thierry , Dorel Sylvain , Abbiss Chris R. , Honnorat Gérard , Brisswalter Jeanick , Hausswirth Christophe
Published: August 2016

Purpose:

The purpose of the present study was to examine relationships between athlete’s pacing strategies and running performance during an international triathlon competition.

Methods:

Running split times for each of the 107 finishers of the 2009 European Triathlon Championships (42 females and 65 males) were determined with the use of a digital synchronized video analysis system. Five cameras were placed at various positions of the running circuit (4 laps of 2.42 km). Running speed and an index of running speed variability (IRSVrace) were subsequently calculated over each section or running split.

Results:

Mean running speed over the frst 1272 m of lap 1 was 0.76 km-h–1 (+4.4%) and 1.00 km-h–1 (+5.6%) faster than the mean running speed over the same section during the three last laps, for females and males, respectively (P < .001). A significant inverse correlation was observed between RSrace and IRSVrace for all triathletes (females r = -0.41, P = .009; males r = -0.65, P = .002; and whole population -0.76, P = .001). Females demonstrated higher IRSVrace compared with men (6.1 ± 0.5 km-h–1 and 4.0 ± 1.4 km-h–1, for females and males, respectively, P = .001) due to greater decrease in running speed over uphill sections.

Conclusions:

Pacing during the run appears to play a key role in high-level triathlon performance. Elite triathletes should reduce their initial running speed during international competitions, even if high levels of motivation and direct opponents lead them to adopt an aggressive strategy.
Influence of Environmental Temperature on 40 km Cycling Time-Trial Performance
Authors: Peiffer Jeremiah J. , Abbiss Chris R.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of environmental temperature on variability in power output, self-selected pacing strategies, and performance during a prolonged cycling time trial. Nine trained male cyclists randomly completed four 40 km cycling time trials in an environmental chamber at 17°C, 22°C, 27°C, and 32°C (40% RH). During the time trials, heart rate, core body temperature, and power output were recorded. The variability in power output was assessed with the use of exposure variation analysis. Mean 40 km power output was significantly lower during 32°C (309 ± 35 W) compared with 17°C (329 ± 31 W), 22°C (324 ± 34 W), and 27°C (322 ± 32 W). In addition, greater variability in power production was observed at 32°C compared with 17°C, as evidenced by a lower (P = .03) standard deviation of the exposure variation matrix (2.9 ± 0.5 vs 3.5 ± 0.4 units, respectively). Core temperature was greater (P < .05) at 32°C compared with 17°C and 22°C from 30 to 40 km, and the rate of rise in core temperature throughout the 40 km time trial was greater (P < .05) at 32°C (0.06 ± 0.04°C·km–1) compared with 17°C (0.05 ± 0.05°C·km–1). This study showed that time-trial performance is reduced under hot environmental conditions, and is associated with a shift in the composition of power output. These finding provide insight into the control of pacing strategies during exercise in the heat.
The Activity Profile in International Taekwondo Competition Is Modulated by Weight Category
Authors: Bridge Craig A. , Jones Michelle A. , Drust Barry
Published: August 2016

Purpose:

To examine the activity profiles of elite male competitors during international Taekwondo competition in relation to fn, feather, and heavy weight categories.

Methods:

Twelve male Taekwondo competitors equally representing fn, feather, and heavy weight divisions were studied during the 2005 World Taekwondo Championships using a time-motion system developed to analyze the activities and activity phases. The frequency and duration of activities were recorded and assimilated into four independent activity phases: fighting activity, preparatory activity, nonpreparatory activity and stoppage activity. The total number of exchanges and kicks were also calculated for each combat.

Results:

For all weight groupings the mean ± SD fighting time was 1.7 ± 0.3 s, preparatory time 6.4 ± 2.1 s, nonpreparatory time 3.0 ± 0.6 s, referee stoppage time 2.8 ± 0.9 s and 28 ± 6 exchanges and 31 ± 7 kicks were performed. Differences in the mean fighting time (fn: 1.4 ± 0.2 s vs heavy: 1.8 ± 0.3 s; P = .03; effect size [ES] = 1.57), preparatory time (fn: 5.3 ± 1.0 s vs feather: 8.2 ± 2.6 s; P = .03; ES = 1.47) and the total number of exchanges (feather: 24 ± 6 vs heavy: 32 ± 5; P = .03; ES = 1.44) were identified between the weight categories.

Conclusion:

The activity profile in international Taekwondo competition was modulated by competitors’ weight category. These findings suggest that conditioning sessions may need to be specialized to the requirements of specific weight categories.
Increased High-Intensity Activity in Elite Australian Football Finals Matches
Authors: Aughey Robert J.
Published: August 2016

Background:

Australian football (AF) is a highly intermittent sport, requiring athletes to accelerate hundreds of times with repeated bouts of high-intensity running (HIR). Players aim to be in peak physical condition for finals, with anecdotal evidence of increased speed and pressure of these games.

Purpose:

However, no data exists on the running demands of finals games, and therefore the aim of this study was to compare the running demands of finals to regular season games with matched players and opponents.

Methods:

Player movement was recorded by GPS at 5 Hz and expressed per period of the match (rotation), for total distance, high-intensity running (HIR, 4.17-10.00 m·s-1) and maximal accelerations (2.78-10.00 m·s–2). All data was compared for regular season and finals games and the magnitude of effects was analyzed with the effect size (ES) statistic and expressed with confidence intervals.

Results:

Each of the total distance (11%; ES: 0.78 ± 0.30), high-intensity running distance (9%; ES: 0.29 ± 0.25) and number of maximal accelerations (97%; ES: 1.30 ± 0.20) increased in finals games. The largest percentage increases in maximal accelerations occurred from a commencement velocity of between 3–4 (47%; ES: 0.56 ± 0.21) and 4–5 m·s-1 (51%; ES: 0.72 ± 0.26), and with <19 s between accelerations (53%; ES: 0.63 ± 0.27).

Conclusion:

Elite AF players nearly double the number of maximal accelerations in finals compared with regular season games. This large increase is superimposed on requirements to cover a greater total distance and spend more time at high velocity during finals games. Players can be effectively conditioned to cope with these increased demands, even during a long competitive season.
The Effect of Cluster Loading on Force, Velocity, and Power During Ballistic Jump Squat Training
Authors: Hansen Keir T. , Cronin John B. , Newton Michael J.
Published: August 2016

Purpose:

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of set structure, in terms of repetition workrest ratios on force, velocity, and power during jump squat training.

Methods:

Twenty professional and semiprofessional rugby players performed training sessions comprising four sets of 6 repetitions of a jump squat using four different set configurations. The first involved a traditional configuration (TR) of 4 × 6 repetitions with 3 min of rest between sets, the second (C1) 4 × 6 × singles (1 repetition) with 12 s of rest between repetitions, the third (C2) 4x3 × doubles (2 repetitions) with 30 s of rest between pairs, and the third (C3) 4 × 2 × triples (3 repetitions) with 60 s of rest between triples. A spreadsheet for the analysis of controlled trials that calculated the P-value, and percent difference and Cohen’s effect size from log-transformed data was used to investigate differences in repetition force, velocity, and power profiles among configurations.

Results:

Peak power was significantly lower (P < .05) for the TR condition when compared with C1 and C3 for repetition 4, and all cluster configurations for repetitions 5 and 6. Peak velocity was significantly lower (P < .05) for the TR condition compared with C3 at repetition 4, significantly lower compared with C2 and C3 at repetition 5, and significantly lower compared with all cluster conditions for repetition 6.

Conclusions:

Providing inter-repetition rest during a traditional set of six repetitions can attenuate decreases in power and velocity of movement through the set.
Validity of a Reactive Agility Test for Australian Football
Authors: Henry Greg , Dawson Brian , Lay Brendan , Young Warren
Published: August 2016

Purpose:

To study the validity of a video-based reactive agility test in Australian footballers.

Methods:

15 higher performance, 15 lower performance, and 12 nonfootballers completed a light-based reactive agility test (LRAT), a video-based reactive agility test (VRAT), and a planned test (PLAN).

Results:

With skill groups pooled, agility time in PLAN (1346 ± 66 ms) was significantly faster (P = .001) than both reactive tests (VRAT = 1550 ± 102 ms; LRAT = 1572 ± 97 ms). In addition, decision time was significantly faster (P = .001; d = 0.8) in LRAT (278 ± 36 ms) than VRAT (311 ± 47 ms). The correlation in agility time between the two reactive tests (r = .75) was higher than between the planned and reactive tests (r = .41–.68). Higher performance players had faster agility and movement times on VRAT (agility, 130 ± 24 ms, d = 1.27, P = .004; movement, 69 ± 73 ms, d = 0.88, P = .1) and LRAT (agility, 95 ± 86 ms, d = 0.99, P = .08; movement, 79 ± 74 ms; d = 0.9; P = .08) than the nonfootballers. In addition, higher (55 ± 39 ms, d = 0.87, P = .05) and lower (40 ± 57 ms, d = 0.74, P = .18) performance groups exhibited somewhat faster agility time than nonfootballers on PLAN. Furthermore, higher performance players were somewhat faster than lower performance for agility time on the VRAT (63 ± 85 ms, d = 0.82, P = .16) and decision time on the LRAT (20 ± 39 ms, d = 0.66, P = .21), but there was little difference in PLAN agility time between these groups (15 ± 150 ms, d = 0.24, P = .8).

Conclusions:

Differences in decision-making speed indicate that the sport-specific nature of the VRAT is not duplicated by a light-based stimulus. In addition, the VRAT is somewhat better able to discriminate different groups of Australian footballers than the LRAT. Collectively, this indicates that a video-based test is a more valid assessment tool for examining agility in Australian footballers.
Comparison of Physiological Responses and Performance Between Mountain Bicycles With Differing Suspension Systems
Authors: Herrick Jeffrey E. , Flohr Judith A. , Wenos Davis L. , Saunders Michael J.
Published: August 2016

Purpose:

This study compared the metabolic and performance effects of riding front-only suspension (FS) and front-and-rear suspension (FRS) mountain bicycles on an off-road course that simulated competitive cross-country race conditions (>105 min in duration, with ∼70% of time spent riding uphill).

Methods:

Seven competitive mountain bikers (73.8 ± 7.6 kg; 61.0 ± 4.3 mL·kg–1·min–1) completed two randomized FS and FRS trials. Bikes were similar, excluding rear wheel suspension on the FRS, which increased bike weight by ∼2 kg. Each trial consisted of four laps of rugged 8 km trail with 154 m of elevation gain per lap. The first three laps were performed at ∼70% of VO2max; VO2, HR, and RPE were collected during the first and third laps. The final lap was performed as a maximal time-trial effort.

Results:

During the first and third laps, VO2, HR, and RPE were similar between FS and FRS. However, FS was significantly faster than FRS during the ascending segment of the course (17.6 ± 2.9 vs 18.9 ± 3.4 min,P= .035), despite similar VO2(P= .651). Although not statistically significant, FRS tended to be faster than FS during the descending portion of the course (8.1 ± 2.0 vs 9.1 ± 2.1,P= .067) at similar VO2. Performance during the final time-trial lap was significantly faster for FS than FRS (24.9 ± 3.9 min, 27.5 ± 4.9 min,P= .008).

Conclusion:

FS was faster than FRS over a course that simulated competitive cross-country race conditions. The faster times were likely the result of improved cycling economy during ascending, which were at least partially influenced by the lighter weight of the FS.
Resistance Exercise Inter-Set Cooling Strategy: Effect on Performance and Muscle Damage
Authors: Galoza Pedro , Sampaio-Jorge Felipe , Machado Marco , Fonseca Ricardo , Silva Pierre A. V.
Published: August 2016

Purpose:

To compare the effect of inter-set cooling and no cooling during resistance exercise (RE) on the total repetitions and select muscle damage biomarker responses.

Methods:

Sixteen healthy men volunteered to participate in this study and were randomly assigned to Cooling (n = 8) or Control (n = 8) groups. They performed a RE protocol consisting of four sets of biceps curl at 80% of 1RM. The cooling group received the application of wet bags of ice during each inter-set rest interval (Cooling), while the Control realized the same protocol without ice application. Exercise was performed to voluntary fatigue and the numbers of repetitions per set were recorded. Subjects provided blood samples before and at 24, 48, and 72 h following RE to evaluate serum CK activity and myoglobin concentration.

Results:

The Cooling group produced a greater number of repetitions (approx. 21%) than did the Control, but there were no differences in serum CK activity and myoglobin responses between the groups.

Conclusion:

Incorporating inter-set external cooling augments the number of repetitions per set during RE without inducing an additional muscle damage biomarker response.
Effect of Daily Cold Water Immersion on Heart Rate Variability and Subjective Ratings of Well-Being in Highly Trained Swimmers
Authors: Haddad Hani Al , Parouty Jonathan , Buchheit Martin
Published: August 2016

Purpose:

We investigated the effect of daily cold water immersion (CWI), during a typical training week, on parasympathetic activity and subjective ratings of well-being.

Methods:

Over two different weeks, eight highly trained swimmers (4 men; 19.6 ± 3.2 y) performed their usual training load (5 d/wk, approx. 21 h/wk). Last training session of each training day was immediately followed by 5 min of seated recovery, in randomized order, with CWI (15°C) or without (CON). Each morning before the first training session (6:30 AM) during the two experimental weeks, subjective ratings of well-being (eg, quality of sleep) were assessed and the R-R intervals were recorded for 5 min in supine position. A vagal-related index (ie, natural logarithm of the square root of the mean of the sum of the squares of differences between adjacent normal R-R intervals; Ln rMSSD) was calculated from the last 3-min segment.

Results:

Compared with CON, CWI effect on Ln rMSSD was rated as possibly beneficial on day 2 [7.0% (–3; 19)], likely beneficial on day 3 [20.0% (1.5; 43.5)], very likely beneficial on day 4 [30.4% (12.2; 51.6)] and likely beneficial on day 5 [24.1% (–0.4; 54.8)]. Cold water immersion was associated with a likely greater quality of sleep on day 2 [30.0% (2.7; 64.6)], very likely on day 3 [31.0% (5.0; 63.1)] and likely on day 4 [38.6% (11.4; 72.4)] when compared with CON.

Conclusion:

Five minutes of CWI following training can reduce the usual exercise-induced decrease in parasympathetic activity and is associated with improved rating of perceived sleep quality.
Hyponatremia in the 2009 161-km Western States Endurance Run
Authors: Hoffman Martin D. , Stuempfle Kristin J. , Rogers Ian R. , Weschler Louise B. , Hew-Butler Tamara
Published: August 2016

Purpose:

To determine the incidence of exercise-associated hyponatremia (EAH), the associated biochemical measurements and risk factors for EAH, and whether there is an association between postrace blood sodium concentration ([Na+]) and changes in body mass among participants in the 2009 Western States Endurance Run, a 161-km mountain trail run.

Methods:

Change in body mass, postrace [Na+], and blood creatine phosphokinase (CPK) concentration, and selected runner characteristics were evaluated among consenting competitors.

Results:

Of the 47 study participants, 14 (30%) had EAH as defined by a postrace [Na+] <135 mmol/L. Postrace [Na+] and percent change in body mass were directly related (r = .30, P = .044), and 50% of those with EAH had body mass losses of 3–6%. EAH was unrelated to age, sex, finish time, or use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs during the run, but those with EAH had completed a smaller (P = .03) number of 161-km ultramarathons. The relationship of CPK levels to postrace [Na+] did not reach statistical significance (r = –.25, P = .097).

Conclusions:

EAH was common (30%) among finishers of this 161-km ultramarathon and it was not unusual for those with EAH to be dehydrated. As such, changes in body mass should not be relied upon in the assessment for EAH during 161-km ultramarathons.
Current Match-Analysis Techniques’ Underestimation of Intense Periods of High-Velocity Running
Authors: Varley Matthew C. , Elias George P. , Aughey Robert J.
Published: August 2016

Purpose:

To compare the peak 5-min period of high-velocity running (HiVR) during a soccer match using a predefined vs a rolling time interval.

Methods:

Player movement data were collected from 19 elite Australian soccer players over 11 competitive matches (77 individual match files) using a 5-Hz global-positioning system. Raw velocity data were analyzed to determine the period containing the greatest HiVR distance per match half and the distance covered in the subsequent epoch. Intervals were identified using either a predefined (distance covered in 5 min at every 5-min time point) or rolling (distance covered in 5 min from every time point) method. The percentage difference ± 90% confidence limits were used to determine differences between methods.

Results:

Predefined periods underestimated peak distance covered by up to 25% and overestimated the subsequent epoch by up to 31% compared with rolling periods. When the distance decrement between the peak and following period was determined, there was up to a 52% greater reduction in running performance using rolling periods than predefined ones.

Conclusions:

It is recommended that researchers use rolling as opposed to predefined periods when determining specific match intervals because they provide a more accurate representation of the HiVR distance covered. This will avoid underestimation of both match running distance and the decrement in running performance after an intense period of play. This may have practical implications for not only researchers but also staff involved in a club setting who use this reduction as evidence of transient fatigue during a match.
Even Between-Lap Pacing Despite High Within-Lap Variation During Mountain Biking
Authors: Martin Louise , Lambeth-Mansell Anneliese , Beretta-Azevedo Liane , Holmes Lucy A. , Wright Rachel , Gibson Alan St Clair
Published: August 2016

Purpose:

Given the paucity of research on pacing strategies during competitive events, this study examined changes in dynamic high-resolution performance parameters to analyze pacing profiles during a multiple-lap mountain-bike race over variable terrain.

Methods:

A global-positioning-system (GPS) unit (Garmin, Edge 305, USA) recorded velocity (m/s), distance (m), elevation (m), and heart rate at 1 Hz from 6 mountain-bike riders (mean ± SD age = 27.2 ± 5.0 y, stature = 176.8 ± 8.1 cm, mass = 76.3 ± 11.7 kg, VO2max = 55.1 ± 6.0 mL · kg−1 . min−1) competing in a multilap race. Lap-by-lap (interlap) pacing was analyzed using a 1-way ANOVA for mean time and mean velocity. Velocity data were averaged every 100 m and plotted against race distance and elevation to observe the presence of intralap variation.

Results:

There was no significant difference in lap times (P = .99) or lap velocity (P = .65) across the 5 laps. Within each lap, a high degree of oscillation in velocity was observed, which broadly reflected changes in terrain, but high-resolution data demonstrated additional nonmonotonic variation not related to terrain.

Conclusion:

Participants adopted an even pace strategy across the 5 laps despite rapid adjustments in velocity during each lap. While topographical and technical variations of the course accounted for some of the variability in velocity, the additional rapid adjustments in velocity may be associated with dynamic regulation of self-paced exercise.
Cyclists’ Improvement of Pedaling Efficacy and Performance After Heavy Strength Training
Authors: Hansen Ernst A. , Rønnestad Bent R. , Vegge Geir , Raastad Truls
Published: August 2016

The authors tested whether heavy strength training, including hip-flexion exercise, would reduce the extent of the phase in the crank revolution where negative or retarding crank torque occurs. Negative torque normally occurs in the upstroke phase when the leg is lifted by flexing the hip. Eighteen well-trained cyclists either performed 12 wk of heavy strength training in addition to their usual endurance training (E+S; n = 10) or merely continued their usual endurance training during the intervention period (E; n = 8). The strength training consisted of 4 lower body exercises (3 × 4–10 repetition maximum) performed twice a week. E+S enhanced cycling performance by 7%, which was more than in E (P = .02). Performance was determined as average power output in a 5-min all-out trial performed subsequent to 185 min of submaximal cycling. The performance enhancement, which has been reported previously, was here shown to be accompanied by improved pedaling efficacy during the all-out cycling. Thus, E+S shortened the phase where negative crank torque occurs by ~16°, corresponding to ~14%, which was more than in E (P = .002). In conclusion, adding heavy strength training to usual endurance training in well-trained cyclists improves pedaling efficacy during 5-min all-out cycling performed after 185 min of cycling.
The Relationship Between Freely Chosen Cadence and Optimal Cadence in Cycling
Authors: Emanuele Umberto , Horn Tamara , Denoth Jachen
Published: August 2016

Purpose:

The main aim of this study was to compare the freely chosen cadence (FCC) and the cadence at which the blood lactate concentration at constant power output is minimized (optimal cadence [Copt]). The second aim was to examine the effect of a concomitant change of road incline and body position on FCC, the maximal external power output (Pmax), and the corresponding Copt.

Methods:

FCC, Copt, and Pmax were analyzed under 2 conditions: cycling on level ground in a dropped position (LGDP) and cycling uphill in an upright position (UHUP). Seven experienced cyclists participated in this study. They cycled on a treadmill to test the 2 main hypotheses: Experienced cyclists would choose an adequate cadence close to Copt independent of the cycling condition, and FCC and Copt would be lower and Pmax higher for UHUP than with LGDP.

Results:

Most but not all experienced cyclists chose an adequate cadence close to Copt. Independent of the cycling condition, FCC and Copt were not statistically different. FCC (82.1 ± 11.1 and 89.3 ± 10.6 rpm, respectively) and Copt (81.5 ± 9.8 and 87.7 ± 10.9 rpm, respectively) were significantly lower and Pmax was significantly higher (2.0 ± 2.1%) for UHUP than for LGDP.

Conclusion:

Most experienced cyclists choose a cadence near Copt to minimize peripheral fatigue at a given power output independent of the cycling condition. Furthermore, it is advantageous to use a lower cadence and a more upright body position during uphill cycling.
Repeated High-Intensity Running and Sprinting in Elite Women’s Soccer Competition
Authors: Gabbett Tim J. , Wiig Håvard , Spencer Matt
Published: August 2016

Background:

To the authors’ knowledge, no study has investigated the concurrent repeated, high-intensity (RHIA) and repeated-sprint activity (RSA) of intermittent team-sport competition.

Purpose:

In this study, they report on the RSA of elite women’s football competition. In addition, they describe the nature of RHIA (eg, striding and sprinting activities) that involve a high energy cost and are associated with short (ie, ≤20 s) recovery periods.

Methods:

Thirteen elite women soccer players underwent video-based time–motion analysis on 34 occasions during national and international standard matches. RSA and RHIA were defined as successive (ie, 2) sprints or striding and sprinting efforts that occurred with ≤20 s between efforts.

Results:

The number of RSA and RHIA bouts performed was similar between the first and second halves of matches. Sprinting and striding/sprinting durations tended to remain relatively stable irrespective of the number of efforts in an RSA or RHIA bout or the period of play. However, recovery duration between efforts increased in the second half, when a greater number of efforts were performed per bout.

Conclusion:

These findings suggest that first- to second-half reductions in RHIA and RSA do not occur in elite women’s soccer competition. However, players increase the amount of low-intensity recovery undertaken between RHIA and RSA efforts, most likely in an attempt to maintain RHIA and RSA performance. These findings emphasize the importance of RSA and RHIA to elite women’s soccer and highlight the importance of training this quality to prevent reductions in performance during competitive match play.
Comparison of Agility Demands of Small-Sided Games in Elite Australian Football
Authors: Davies Michael J. , Young Warren , Farrow Damian , Bahnert Andrew
Published: August 2016

Purpose:

To compare the agility demands of 4 small-sided games (SSGs) and evaluate the variability in demands for elite Australian Football (AF).

Methods:

Fourteen male elite Australian Football League (AFL) players (mean ± SD; 21.7 ± 3.1 y, 189.6 ± 9.0 cm, 88.7 ± 10.0 kg, 39.4 ± 57.1 games) completed 4 SSGs of 3 × 45-s bouts each with modified designs. Video notational analysis, GPS at 5 Hz, and triaxial accelerometer data expressed the external player loads within games. Three comparisons were made using a paired t test (P < .05), and magnitudes of differences were reported with effect size (ES) statistics.

Results:

Reduced area per player (increased density) produced a small increase in total agility maneuvers (SSG1, 7.2 ± 1.3; SSG2, 8.8 ± 4.1), while a large 2D player load was accumulated (P < .05, ES = 1.22). A reduction in players produced a moderate (ES = 0.60) total number of agility maneuvers (SSG 3, 11.3 ± 6.1; SSG 2, 8.3 ± 3.6); however, a greater variability was found. The implementation of a 2-handed-tag rule resulted in a somewhat trivial decline (P > .05, ES = 0.16) in agility events compared with normal AFL tackling rules (SSG 2, 8.3 ± 3.6; SSG 4, 7.8 ± 2.6).

Conclusions:

SSG characteristics can influence agility-training demand, which can vary considerably for individuals. Coaches should carefully consider SSG design to maximize the potential to develop agility for all players.