bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
PERSISTENCE AND WEATHERING OF EXXON VALDEZ OIL IN THE INTERTIDAL ZONE—3.5 YEARS LATER
Authors: Michel Jacqueline , Hayes Miles O.
Published: January 2013

Intertidal surveys of 18 stations in Prince William Sound have been repeated up to 12 times between September 1989 and August 1992. Four of the stations were set-asides where no treatment was conducted. Shoreline treatment techniques applied at the other stations included: hot-water flushing, nutrient addition, manual removal, berm relocation, and sediment tilling. Over 800 sediment samples have been analyzed for total petroleum hydrocarbons. Detailed chemical characterization by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) has been conducted on over 100 samples to track weathering patterns of the persistence of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Shoreline environments studied include: cobble/boulder platforms with berms, bayhead beaches, sheltered rubble slopes, and sheltered bedrock. Major conclusions are:Surface oil was reduced to very small amounts as of 1991, though there was little change between 1991 and 1992, particularly in sheltered environments.Oil penetrated deeply into gravel storm berms, beyond the depth of annual reworking. Berm relocation was required to speed removal of this highly stranded oil at 30 locations and it was very effective. The normal beach profile was reestablished after one storm season at many sites, depending upon the magnitude of the operation and rates of longshore sediment transport.On some gravel beaches, oil penetrated to greater than 50 cm in the upper intertidal zone. By August 1992, only the deepest layer of oil, greater than 25 cm, remained. This residual oil was moderately weathered, showing removal of all 2-ring PAHs.On sheltered rubble shores, oil had penetrated the loose surface deposits. The subsurface oil showed significant weathering but it was much slower than other areas, and still contained some 2-ring PAHs.On sheltered rocky shores, oil was more persistent and likely to form pavements in the upper intertidal zone on sites not treated.
EFFECTS OF THE 1986 BAHÍA LAS MINAS OIL SPILL ON REEF FLAT COMMUNITIES
Authors: Cubit John D. , Connor Judith L.
Published: January 2013

On April 27, 1986, about 75,000 to 100,000 barrels of medium-weight crude oil spilled into the Caribbean Sea from a refinery in Bahía Las Minas, Panama. After weathering for 13 days in warm, sunny conditions, the oil reached the intertidal reef flat and biological reserve at Punta Galeta, which had been under study since the early 1970's. The pre-spill data base consisted of detailed, time-series monitoring of sessile biota on the reef flat in relation to changes in sea and weather conditions. To assess the effects of the oil, this monitoring was expanded to other sites and continued after the oil spill.

Within the resolution of our measurements, most detectable mortality of the sessile biota occurred in specific zones of the reef flats where factors such as winds, waves, water levels, and topography caused the oil to accumulate. Where the oil floated over the reef flats without prolonged accumulation, little mortality was recorded. The sessile biota regenerated from fragments surviving in place or washing in from nearby habitats, and the regeneration times ranged from less than one year to more than five years. For the sessile biota, there appeared to be no recolonization via planktonic larvae or spores. The fastest regeneration times were for species that propagated from fragments that survived in place; the slowest were for species that suffered nearly 100 percent mortality and recolonized from fragments washing in from subtidal habitats. Because regeneration of sessile species on tropical reef flats depends on regrowth from local survivors, control and cleanup of oil spills in these environments should be designed to maximize the survival of resident populations.
OIL IN NEARSHORE SUBTIDAL SEDIMENTS OF SAUDI ARABIA FROM THE GULF WAR SPILL
Authors: Michel Jacqueline , Hayes Miles O. , Keenan Richard S. , Jensen John R. , Narumalani Sunil
Published: January 2013

Detailed sedimentological and dynamic-process studies of the shallow, subtidal habitats of Dawhats ad Dafi and al Mussallamiyah and the bays at Tanaqib on the Saudi Arabian coast were carried out one year after the Gulf War oil spill. These studies were part of Leg II of the NOAA ship Mt. Mitchell cruise. Satellite imagery and space shuttle photography were used extensively to develop detailed study plans. Work accomplished during the study included deployment of three current meters, a tide gauge, and suspended sediment traps (at seven locations). Bathymetric surveys were conducted along 14 transects, and 197 bottom observation dives were carried out. More than 170 bottom sediment samples were collected for chemical and/or textural analysis. Sediment hydrocarbon screening by HPLC fluorescence was conducted on board to verify and refine the sampling plan. The results to date show no evidence of large-scale sinking of oil as a result of the spill. Subtidal oil, as sparse tar balls, was visually observed by divers at three locations, all of which were associated with the erosion of oiled sand from outer beaches. On-board chemical results showed that subtidal sediments have been contaminated at levels ranging from 20 to 2,000 mg/kg petroleum hydrocarbons, with the highest contamination up in the sheltered, muddy basins. However, the oil initially stranded in the intertidal zone does not appear to be accumulating in the nearshore subtidal region in significant quantities one year later.
COMPARISON OF OBSERVED AND PREDICTED CHANGES TO OIL AFTER SPILLS1
Authors: Walker Michael , McDonagh Madeleine , Albone Derek , Grigson Stephen , Wilkinson Alastair , Baron Gordon
Published: January 2013

Warren Spring Laboratory and the Institute of Offshore Engineering have carried out a laboratory weathering and emulsification study on 40 crude oils from the North Sea; data from the study have been used in the Eurospill model. Experimental spills were carried out in May 1992 to validate the model predictions. This paper presents data from the trials and compares them with model predictions.

The model generally overestimates emulsion water content, evaporative loss, and viscosity in the early stages of a spill; but after a day or so model predictions are in better agreement with measured values.
REMOTE THICKNESS MEASUREMENT OF OIL SLICKS ON WATER BY LASER-ULTRASONICS
Authors: Choquet Marc , Héon René , Vaudreuil Ghislain , Monchalin Jean-Pierre , Padioleau Christian , Goodman Ron H.
Published: January 2013

At the National Research Council of Canada Industrial Materials Institute, research is in progress on the application of laser-ultrasonics to remote measurement of the thickness of oil on water. Laser-ultrasonics is a novel technique developed for the nondestructive inspection of materials. It uses a short pulse laser for the generation of ultrasonic waves in the oil layer and a second laser, coupled to an optical interferometer, for the remote detection of the ultrasonic surface motion. Direct measurement of the time of flight of the ultrasonic wave provides the value of the thickness of the oil layer. Application of this technique to thickness measurement of oil on water has been studied in small and large scale laboratory tests. Small scale tests demonstrate the direct and unambiguous determination of the oil layer thickness. Accuracy is essentially limited by the knowledge of the acoustic properties of the oil. Large scale tests show that a distance of almost 37 meters does not severely impede the method, so airborne application appears possible. Surface motion such as that caused by sea waves does not reduce the accuracy of the thickness determination but does limit the measurement rate. Preliminary airborne tests with a single laser probe confirm that laser-ultrasonics monitoring of the thickness of an oil spill is feasible.
DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE SUPPORT TO SPILL RESPONSE OPERATIONS
Authors: Ducey Donald L. , Walker Ann Hayward
Published: January 2013

The Department of Defense (DOD), operating through the Directorate of Military Support in the Department of the Army, supports state, local and other federal agency response operations in a wide range of natural and man-caused emergencies. Examples within the past six years include the Ashland Oil tank collapse in Floreffe, Pennsylvania, Exxon Valdez cleanup, Loma Prieta earthquake, hurricanes Hugo and Andrew, Mexico City earthquake, Armero (Columbia) volcanic eruption, and Puerto Rico floods and mudslides.

From March 24 to September 27, 1989, the period of the Exxon Valdez initial cleanup operations, DOD provided military and civilian personnel, U. S. Navy ships for housing response workers, cargo and medical evacuation aircraft (fixed wing and helicopters), skimmers, modified dredges, landing craft, Dracones, Zodiak boats, radios, computers, and other miscellaneous equipment. This was in addition to assets of the Alaska Army and Air National Guard, which were committed by the governor. Support was provided to the U. S. Coast Guard on-scene coordinator and supervised by the Alaska Oil Spill Joint Task Force. The General Accounting Office, in its January 1990 report, Federal Costs Resulting from the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill, estimated that DOD spent $62.8 million through September 30, 1989, the largest expenditure by any federal agency.

Use of military resources is a realistic scenario in certain situations. Primary responders at the federal and state level should understand how to request and employ these assets. This paper provides a background on DOD support to disaster relief operations, and discusses the types of support available to agencies responding to natural or man-caused emergencies, request and approval mechanisms, the Department of Defense organization to provide support, and reimbursement of the department.
OIL SPILL AND HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCE RESPONSE EQUIPMENT AND SYSTEMS STANDARDIZATION PROGRAM
Authors: Wood F. S. , Whittaker H.
Published: January 2013

The Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA 90) requires vessel and facility owners and operators to prepare oil spill response plans to remove a worst case discharge (total loss of cargo in adverse weather). It requires the Coast Guard to review response plans for approval. Plan preparers need objective standards for selecting and assigning sufficient response resources to facilitate plan approval. All parties must have common, national standards for matching oil spill response resources to anticipated response needs.

The Coast Guard has solicited the assistance of the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) to develop consensus technical standards for oil spill response equipment and systems. ASTM Committee F20 on Hazardous Substances and Oil Spill Response formed separate work groups to develop standards for such things as booms, skimmers, temporary storage devices, sorbents, dispersants, pumps, and bioremediants. ASTM standards take the form of test methods, guidelines, specifications, terminology, practices, classifications, and other standards pertaining to performance, durability, strength of systems, and techniques for the control and removal of oil and hazardous substances spills.

The Coast Guard is working closely with Environment Canada on this process to ensure that resulting standards apply equally well across North America. This paper will discuss the Coast Guard's role and progress being made in the development of consensus standards to facilitate the enforcement of the regulations that implement OPA 90.
NAVIGATION SYSTEM FOR FINNISH OIL RECOVERY VESSEL
Authors: Knuutila Timo , Mykkänen Erkki , Vase Niels
Published: January 2013

Finland's National Board of Waters and the Environment (FNBWE) and the Finnish electronics company Jertec Oy have together developed a computer-based oil recovery system to improve the efficiency of oil recovery operations in the Baltic Sea.

The Baltic Sea is extremely vulnerable to oil spills, largely because at high latitudes there are only a few hours of daylight during winter. Integration of the ship's navigational equipment with a highly accurate positioning system such as the differential GPS makes it possible to operate 24 hours a day. Also, oil recovery can be made much more efficient by using a new technique to collect oil from a wider area than at present.

The oil recovery vessel Halli has a length of 60 meters and is capable of recovering oil either alone or with two assisting vessels. In the latter case, the assisting vessels draw oil booms to direct floating oil from a wide area into the Halli rather like a funnel. Previously, this operation was limited to straight runs and daylight hours.

The Halli is also equipped to perform underwater investigations (such as seabed wrecks) with a small submersible. Without an underwater positioning and tracking system, underwater operations are inefficient.

The main requirements for the new system were reliable positioning of all vessels (assisting vessels are not known in advance), reliable inter-vessel communication, and documentation and printouts of the planned and real routes.

The new navigation system was installed in November 1991 and has since fulfilled all FNBWE's requirements. The main benefit is the capability to operate 24 hours a day, which greatly increases the efficiency of oil recovery.
NON-USE VALUE IN NATURAL RESOURCE DAMAGE ASSESSMENTS: THE NESTUCCA OIL SPILL
Authors: Grigalunas Thomas A. , Opaluch James J.
Published: January 2013

A contingent valuation (CV) study that attempts to estimate non-use damages from the Nestucca spill was reviewed. The CV study faces formidable obstacles because it focuses on a controversial subject, oil spills, about which the public is known to have exaggerated perceptions, and because respondents may not have well defined dollar values for the environment. An examination of survey responses leads us to conclude that these problems are significant, and that, despite the substantial efforts by well known CV researchers, the results provide no basis for estimating damages due to this spill.
DAMAGE ASSESSMENT IN COASTAL HABITATS: LESSONS LEARNED FROM EXXON VALDEZ
Authors: Dean Thomas A. , McDonald Lyman , Stekoll Michael S. , Rosenthal Richard R.
Published: January 2013

This paper examines alternative designs for the monitoring and assessment of damages of environmental impacts such as oil spills. The optimal design requires sampling at pairs of impacted (oiled) and control (unoiled) sites both before and after the event. However, this design proved impractical in evaluating impacts of the Exxon Valdez oil spill on nearshore subtidal communities, and may be impractical for future monitoring. An alternative design is discussed in which sampling is conducted at pairs of control and impact sites only after the impact.
FLORIDA'S POLLUTANT DISCHARGE NATURAL RESOURCE DAMAGE ASSESSMENT COMPENSATION SCHEDULE—A RATIONAL APPROACH TO THE RECOVERY OF NATURAL RESOURCE DAMAGES1
Authors: Plante Kenneth J. , Barnett Ernest L. , Preble Debra J. , Price Lanette M.
Published: January 2013

Quantifying natural resource damages resulting from pollutant discharges has historically been difficult. The Florida legislature recognized this and developed a simplified compensation schedule using liquidated damage principles. The application of such an approach to natural resource damage assessment greatly simplifies the determination of monetary damages to natural resources resulting from pollutant discharges. The foundations for developing the multipliers for the factors used in the compensation schedule are restoration cost and loss of use. After a number of natural resource damage recoveries have taken place, the compensation schedule should be reevaluated to determine if the liquidated damages test of reasonableness remains adequate.
EVOLVING SPILL MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS UNDER OPA 90 COULD REDUCE RESPONSE EFFECTIVENESS1
Authors: Ott Gary L. , Lindstedt-Siva June , Walker Ann Hayward
Published: January 2013

Compliance with the provisions of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA 90) and several recently passed state spill laws requires major commitments of time and dollars from industry, government, and taxpayers. Most of this effort has gone into purchase of more response equipment by oil companies, cleanup cooperatives, the new Marine Spill Response Corporation (MSRC), and government agencies. Government and industry are also committed to increased research and development programs. These efforts have placed the means at hand to improve our ability to respond to spills. It is now time to consider management systems used during spill emergencies. Systems that are evolving under OPA 90 and state spill laws may actually delay the decision-making process and the implementation of effective response during the critical emergency phase of a spill event. Legal issues associated with Natural Resource Damage Assessment could hamper the response by reducing communication and teamwork among responders. These issues should be recognized and addressed in the National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan and Area Contingency Plans developed under OPA 90. This paper also provides a model for making decisions concerning oil spill response.
DOUBLE HULL OIL TANKERS—HOW EFFECTIVE ARE THEY?
Authors: Keith Virgil F.
Published: January 2013

The groundings of the Exxon Valdez on Bligh Reef in Prince William Sound, spilling more than 10 million gallons of Alaska North Slope crude, and the American Trader off Huntington Beach, spilling almost 400,000 gallons of Alaska North Slope crude, suggest that the construction of oil tankers be re-examined with respect to a design which could reduce both the number and magnitude of oil spills. This paper discusses state-of-the-art tanker technology with respect to spill prevention, effectiveness, and cost.

The design features include double hulls, centralized bunker tankers, vacuum-retaining valves, cargo control systems, auxiliary thrusters, electronic charting, and the retransmission of the ship's position. Double hulls provide the highest probability of surviving damage, either from a collision or grounding, with no loss of cargo. Use of double hulls can reduce oil spill incidence by 90 percent in grounding situations and by 75 percent in collisions. The oil spill from the American Trader could have been completely avoided by double hull construction. The arrangement provides spaces below the cargo tanks and on the vessel's sides solely for the carriage of ballast water when the tanker is in ballast condition. These tanks are empty when the tanker is loaded and then also act as the first line of defense in the event of structural damage to the cargo tanks.

Tanker design is integrated with port safety measures, including vessel monitoring systems, in this total spill prevention analysis. All aspects of the tanker transportation system are considered.
OIL SPILL CONTAINMENT: VISCOUS OILS
Authors: Johnston Archie J. , Fitzmaurice Michael R. , Watt Ronald G. M.
Published: January 2013

The failure characteristics associated with boom containment of oil slicks consisting mainly of low-viscosity oils have been the focus of previous research. Sufficient experimental and theoretical evidence exists to allow the hydrodynamics of low-viscosity slicks to be predicted. However, a similar hydrodynamic understanding is not available for slicks containing highly viscous oils. This paper addresses this issue and presents the results of an experimental laboratory study in which the containment of highly viscous oils by boom systems was investigated. The results identify a surging type of failure mechanism that normally occurs just before the critical accumulation mode of failure develops. The importance of circulation within the oil slick and its relation to the failure mechanisms is emphasized. The paper also describes a theoretical model being developed to represent the containment of highly viscous oils by booms.
Santa Monica Bay Prep 94: MAJOR SPILL EXERCISE PLANNING/EXECUTION1
Authors: Satra Kara M.
Published: January 2013

The largest simulated response conducted under the most realistic conditions since the grounding of the Exxon Valdez has been captured on video. It shows the production and execution of the Preparedness for Response Exercise Program oil spill exercise held in September 1994 in Santa Monica Bay. The exercise involved over 500 people from more than 60 organizations. Chevron played the role of responsible party in this simulation of a spill of about 10,000 barrels of crude oil. The video focuses on the incident command system and the people for whom prevention and preparedness is a daily business.
ON-SCENE COORDINATOR TRAINING: THE CHALLENGE AND THE SOLUTION
Authors: Goff Gordon , Norman Michael , Bragan Mary Jo , Smith Arthur
Published: January 2013

Providing training and actual experience for on-scene coordinators can be accomplished by OSC meetings, tabletop exercises, and an annual training week involving classroom instruction and field exercises.

The training part is easy; it's getting the students to the training that's hard.
ON SCENE COORDINATOR/COTP EMPLOYMENT OF AN INFRARED SENSOR
Authors: Thompson Thomas E. , Marhoffer William R. , Melia Robert F.
Published: January 2013

Infrared sensors have proven invaluable in the detection of and response to oil and chemical spills in the Gulf of Mexico and Mississippi River, and in other Coast Guard mission areas.
EFFECT OF STOKES’ LAW SETTLING ON MEASURING OIL DISPERSION EFFECTIVENESS
Authors: Robbins M. L. , Varadaraj R. , Bock J. , Pace S. J.
Published: January 2013

Industry laboratory tests to measure dispersion effectiveness for oil spills on water measure only the volume percentage of oil dispersed and not the dispersed particle size. The effect of particle size on settling behavior is particularly pronounced in tests that use long settling times to superimpose a dispersion stability criterion on the effectiveness rating.

The authors have studied the effect of settling time on the volume cumulative particle size distribution measured by the Coulter Multisizer II. Using Stokes’ law settling to analyze the results, we have demonstrated the effects of settling flask geometry and sample volume on measured effectiveness. These arbitrary test variables control the settling path height and vary markedly from test to test. The intrinsic variables that control settling vs time—initial particle size distribution, aqueous viscosity, and aqueous and oil densities—are functions of aqueous, oil, and dispersant compositions; temperature; and dispersion energy.

The author's analysis shows that the effect of settling variables is to cut off the initial cumulative particle size distribution above a certain particle size, thereby fixing measured effectiveness. Stokes’ law provides a measure of this cutoff size. Experimental data have been developed to support this theoretical analysis. This analysis points to the variables that must be considered with different laboratory tests to rank dispersants when settling is part of the test procedure. Even with a single test, ranking may change with settling time given an initially large fraction of large particles and a sufficiently large difference between the densities of water and oil.
ADVANCED AERIAL SURVEILLANCE SYSTEM FOR DETECTION OF MARINE POLLUTION AND INTERNATIONAL AERIAL SURVEILLANCE COOPERATION IN THE NORTH AND BALTIC SEAS
Authors: Schroh Capt. Klaus
Published: January 2013

Marine pollution of the North and the Baltic Seas caused by accidental and illegal operational discharges has sharpened the awareness of states adjoining these waters. Consequently, the member states of the Bonn Agreement1 for the North Sea and the Helsinki Convention2 for the Baltic Sea have agreed to cooperate closely to develop remote-sensing techniques to improve the detection of oil pollution and the identification of polluters, and to develop reliable methods to estimate the total level of oil pollution at sea. In the ministerial declaration of the Third International Conference on the Protection of the North Sea (1990) and according to a recommendation of the Helsinki Commission, the member states are invited to develop and improve the existing remote-sensing techniques for effective evaluation of spills, even at night and under bad weather conditions. With the integration of a laser fluorosensor (LFS) and a microwave radiometer (MWR) in its existing sensor system (SLAR, IR/UV scanner, single frequency MWR), Germany has widened the detection and identification by enabling classification of discharged oil and the detection of released chemicals with fluorescent properties.

Apart from this technical progress, the international cooperation between the North Sea and Baltic Sea states is a further step to deter potential polluters and to improve the prosecution of suspected offenders and to assist oil recovery operations at sea through permanent aerial guidance.
CERTIFICATES OF FINANCIAL RESPONSIBILITY: CAN THE TRAIN WRECK BE AVERTED?
Authors: Bovet David
Published: January 2013

Certificates of Financial Responsibility (COFRs) have become one of the major issues facing the international shipping industry. This paper reviews the origins of the COFR impasse, assesses the alternatives presented to date, and outlines the characteristics of a possible new solution. Implications for shipowners are drawn as well.
FULL SCALE OIL CONTAINMENT BOOM TESTING AT SEA
Authors: Nordvik Atle , Hankins Paul , Bitting Ken , Hannon Larry , Urban Robert
Published: January 2013

In May 1994 the Marine Spill Response Corporation, U.S. Coast Guard, U.S. Navy, and Minerals Management Service conducted a joint test of oil containment booms in Lower New York Bay and in the Atlantic Ocean east of Sandy Hook New Jersey. These tests allowed the collection of quantitative data on boom performance, including tow forces, skirt draft, and boom freeboard, as a function of tow speed and environmental forces due to currents, wind, and waves. Four booms were chosen for testing based on their different physical characteristics: The 3M Fire Boom, the Barrier Boom, the USCG/Oil Stop inflatable boom, and the U.S. Navy USS-42 boom. Use of these booms allowed data acquisition over a range of buoyancy to weight ratios from 5:1 up to 52:1, nominal skirt drafts from 61 cm up to 150 cm, and freeboards from 37 cm up to 119 cm.

The data collected allows a comparison between methods for calculating boom loads and measured loads. Existing calculation methods predict towing loads below the mean loads experienced by a boom when used at sea. Further research will be required to develop an encompassing dimensionless empirical formula, based on hydrodynamic theory and the dynamics of vessel motions, to more closely predict oil containment boom tow loads.
THE GREAT POM-POM CAPER: WASHINGTON'S FIRST COMPENSATION SCHEDULE APPLICATION
Authors: Heimowitz Paul
Published: January 2013

When the Washington State Oil Spill Compensation Schedule was developed as a shortcut to estimating natural resource damages, the concept was applauded. But how has it worked in reality? The first use of the compensation schedule successfully occurred in April 1993, when the Nosac Forest spilled an estimated 6,260 gallons of intermediate fuel oil into Commencement Bay in Tacoma during a fuel transfer. Within eight months, the P&I club representing the ship paid in full the $122,696 damage claim calculated by the compensation schedule. Although running the compensation schedule formulas is straightforward, determining the input values offers several challenges. Because the compensation schedule generates a $1-$50/gallon figure, spill volume is a key factor. Limited information about the oil transfer—a common problem—complicated efforts to measure the amount spilled from the Nosac Forest and led to much time spent gathering and analyzing recovery data to generate an estimate. Another complication of this case was ranking the toxicity of the product. Good coordination of the unified state Resource Damage Assessment Committee with tribal representatives and the responsible party expedited resolution of the damage claim. Through the Nosac Forest experience, the compensation schedule demonstrated its effectiveness in quantifying damages that might otherwise not be addressed, making restoration funds available relatively quickly. This case also taught some helpful lessons regarding data collection needs and ways the regulation can be improved.
IDENTIFYING AND MAPPING SENSITIVE RESOURCES FOR INLAND AREA PLANNING
Authors: Hayes Miles O. , Michel Jacqueline , Dahlin Jeffrey A. , Barton Kenneth
Published: January 2013

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) is required to evaluate oil storage facilities to determine (1) which should be defined as those that could cause “significant and substantial harm” to environmentally sensitive areas in the event of a release, and (2) the appropriateness of facility response plans in addressing potential environmental threats. Accordingly, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) has been assisting USEPA in developing guidelines, data structures, and maps for sensitive resource assessment using Geographic Information System (GIS) technology. The recommended approach for developing sensitivity maps and databases include a shoreline-habitat mapping technique used for estuarine, lacustrine, and large river settings. Shoreline type is mapped and ranked on a scale of 1 to 10, from least to most sensitive to oil spill impacts. A watershed approach is used to differentiate among small rivers and streams. Stream reaches are mapped according to a system that relates oil behavior and effects to stream characteristics, such as gradient, discharge, and water turbulence. Data on sensitive biological and human-use resources include both spatial and temporal components. The focus is on water-associated species, riparian vegetation, and all wetland types, not just threatened and endangered species. Standardized formats for hard copy maps and screen presentation will facilitate use by response organizations.
CONTINGENCY PLANNING IN CHILE
Authors: Pizarro Francisco
Published: January 2013

While Chile had experienced various major oil spills (including the 1974 Metula spill of 52,500 tons, the 1978 Cabo Tamar spill of 12,500 tons, and the 1987 Cabo Pilar spill of 7,500 tons), contingency planning for oil spills had been carried out on a voluntary basis. The Chilean maritime authority had assumed the responsibility for oil spill control in terms of equipment and trained personnel.

Since November 1992, a new regulation is in force. Responsibility for oil and chemical spills control is assumed by the industry. According to the new regulations, every oil and chemical terminal must have contingency plans to deal with spills, proper equipment, and trained personnel. Vessels, Chilean or foreign flag, must have approved contingency plans in line with Regulation 26 of Annex I of the International Convention on Prevention of Pollution from Ships, MARPOL 73/78. Even though Chile is not party to MARPOL 73/78, Annexes I, IV, and V of the convention were incorporated as national regulations by Decree No. 1, 1992. Maritime authorities will continue to have their own equipment and will act only if needed. Almost all oil terminals and refineries have implemented their contingency plans and are in the process of purchasing equipment and training personnel.
GROUP V FUEL OILS: SOURCE, BEHAVIOR, AND RESPONSE ISSUES
Authors: Michel Jacqueline , Scholz Debra , Henry Charles B. , Benggio Bradford L.
Published: January 2013

Electric utilities have been increasing their use of Group V fuel oils (known in the industry as low-API gravity fuel oils or LAPIO), because of their relatively low cost and high btu values. Group V fuel oils are defined as having an API gravity less than 10 at 60° F (thus a specific gravity ≤1.00 g/cm3). These oils have a wide range of densities and properties and thus cannot be characterized as a single product with a given set of properties and behavior. Group V fuel oils can float, be neutrally buoyant, sink, or all three, depending on their composition and the physical nature of the receiving waters (salinity, temperature, suspended sediment content). They can physically separate into fractions with different behavior. Three models are proposed for predicting the behavior of Group V fuel oil spills, based on observations at previous spills. If spilled directly into the water, heavier-than-water oil will form into drops and remain in suspension if there is any current. In no-current areas, sinking oil can accumulate on the bottom and be recovered. When mixed in the surf zone, the oil tends to pick up sand and sink, without ever stranding on shore. Special problems are associated with locating, containing, and recovering oil that is neutrally buoyant or on the bottom.
CONDITIONS UNDER WHICH FLOATING SLICKS CAN SINK IN MARINE SETTINGS
Authors: Michel Jacqueline , Gait J. A.
Published: January 2013

Ten spills were identified in which the oil initially floated, but eventually sank. In all cases, the oils were heavy residual products (such as No. 6 fuel oil) or heavy crudes. In seven of the cases, oil sank only after mixing with sand, by either stranding on the beach or mixing in the offshore surf zone. In two of the cases, oil sank after being heated during fires. In only one case was loss by evaporation proposed us the cause of the oil's not floating. Because incorporation of sediment (primarily sand) into the oil makes the oil-sediment mixture dense, the oil can separate from the mixture and refloat. It seems likely that the separation or settling out of the sand from the sand-oil mixture depends on the viscosity of the mix, and thus may depend on temperature.
RESPONSE TO OILED WILDLIFE IN TAMPA BAY
Authors: Frink Lynne , Gauvry Glenn
Published: January 2013

Tri-State Bird Rescue & Research, contracted by one of the responsible parties (Maritrans), managed the wildlife response following the three-vessel collision and oil spill in Tampa Bay on August 10, 1993.

Four hundred sixty-one animals (461) were delivered during the response; 370 of the animals were oiled. Species included brown pelicans, cormorant, tern, egret and heron sp., and two reptiles, the loggerhead sea turtle and the gopher tortoise. The most common taxon was brown pelicans (291). Of the oiled animals received, 80 percent were successfully treated and returned to the wild. Of the brown pelicans received, 90 percent were successfully treated and released.

This paper discusses the care provided for the oiled animals and addresses the special aspects of this wildlife response, including a teamwork approach, involving training and use of local rehabilitators, veterinarians, and concerned citizens; agency coordination in treating endangered species; and the challenges of operating a wildlife hospital outdoors.
STATE-OF-THE-ART TECHNIQUES IN OIL SPILL MODELING
Authors: Cekirge H. M. , Koch M. , Long C. , Giammona C. P. , Binkley K. , Engelhardt R. , Jamail R.
Published: January 2013

The status and possible research directions of oil spill modeling are presented here. The physical and chemical processes that take place in oil spills are explained as is their role in the design of an ideal oil spill model. An ideal oil spill model for forecasting must support rapid response, contingency planning, and training. Accurate, full-dimension, real-time prediction of hydrodynamic calculations and oil movements require intensive computations and computing power. Presently the most promising computational platform appears to be a vector supercomputer that has been given essential geographical, bathymetric, and tidal data before the spill. Parallel processing machines could be used in the same way; but present codes, written for sequential machines, must be changed substantially to take advantage of the parallel architecture. Super minicomputer technology is advancing rapidly and should soon be able to run the numerically intensive hydrodynamic codes, bringing the advantages of portability and low cost. Since the present personal computer oil spill models are not able to make accurate hydrodynamic current predictions, they cannot match the accuracy of more computationally intensive models.
SPILL RESPONSE MANAGEMENT AND THE MORRIS J. BERMAN SPILL: THE FOSC'S PERSPECTIVE1
Authors: Ross Robert G.
Published: January 2013

The grounding of the tank barge Morris J. Berman triggered a massive response effort. Fifteen U.S. Government and Commonwealth of Puerto Rico agencies and more than 30 contractors joined forces to clean up the spill. An ICS-style unified command system was successfully, if not perfectly, implemented in this incident. The response organization evolved as the operational situation changed, and the flexibility of the ICS approach was crucial to this ability to adapt. The decision-making process used in this response also ensured that timely and correct decisions were reached with the views of all involved entities, government and nongovernment, fully considered.

However, the lack of coordinated planning and dialogue among various sectors of the response community before the incident continues to hamper the collective ability of responders to come together quickly and effectively in emergency situations. It is time for the response community to develop a consensus standard that provides at least the nucleus of a common approach to spill response management.
PARTNERSHIPS IN SPILL RESPONSE: A POLICY ALTERNATIVE—THE CANADIAN EXPERIENCE
Authors: Shirreff Suzanne , Berthiaume Michel
Published: January 2013

This paper reviews the main conclusions and recommendations of Canada's 1990 Public Review Panel Report on Tanker Safety and Marine Spills Response Capability concerning oil spill response, as well as the subsequent assessment of various policy options leading to the selection of a government/industry partnership. The framework for marine spill response in Canada was established by legislation in amendments to the Canada Shipping Act. A variety of issues have been raised during consultations in relation to the areas of risk, the equipment needs for responding in a tiered fashion to a 10,000 metric ton spill, the personnel requirements and their training and exercise requirements, the management structure, the fee structures and the role of the advisory councils.
OIL SPILL REGULATORY SYSTEMS IN MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES
Authors: Lopez David , Hosmer Alicia Watts , Adams Timothy , Morgan Elisabeth
Published: January 2013

Mexico and the United States are at a critical point in the process of redefining their trade relationships and integrating their economies. As the North American Free Trade Agreement increases trade, there is likely to be a corresponding rise in oil production, transportation, storage, and use, and with this a greater potential for oil related spill incidents. As a result, there will be a need for regulatory reform and new policy development in oil spill prevention, planning, and response. Both the U.S. and Mexico have established, although somewhat different, regulatory systems that address oil spills, as well as a history of efforts to standardize and coordinate oil spill related activities. However, recent events have underscored the need to evaluate existing systems and look for new ways to develop integrated oil spill control mechanisms. These mechanisms are already evolving; and with the continuing effort to reform regulatory systems and increase coordination, there seems to be considerable promise for the common future of Mexico and the United States on this issue.
MECHANICAL PROTECTION GUIDELINES1
Authors: Whipple Frank , Christopherson Sharon , Michel Jacqueline
Published: January 2013

The recently published Mechanical Protection Guidelines will:provide guidelines for identifying and prioritizing areas of economic, environmental, and cultural sensitivity, including formats for mapping sensitive areas;describe the types of shoreline protection measures available, with emphasis on limits and requirements of each protection measure;provide guidance on developing site-specific protection strategies, including equipment and logistics needed, operational constraints, and physical conditions of the site (charts and tables are included as tools for development of the most feasible and successful strategies); andprovide continuity among area plans, to facilitate exchange of information and use by regional and national response teams.
WILDLIFE RESPONSE: COLONIAL PIPELINE SPILL
Authors: Frink Lynne , Clumpner Curtiss J.
Published: January 2013

Tri-State Bird Rescue and Research was contracted to manage the wildlife response following a discharge of 340,000 gallons of No. 2 diesel fuel into Sugarland Creek in Fairfax County, Virginia, on March 28, 1993. A wildlife stabilization team was sent to Virginia to establish an on-site medical stabilization facility for affected animals, which were then transferred to Tri-State's oil spill rehabilitation facility in Delaware.

Treating some of the less-frequently (nonavian) oiled wild animals, including turtles and beavers, presented challenges. Colleague participation and interagency coordination were both important.
BEACH RESTORATION PROCEDURES
Authors: Castle Robert W. , Wehrenberg Frederick , Martin Harris W.
Published: January 2013

A variety of procedures have been applied to the restoration of sandy beaches impacted by oil spills. These procedures have met with varying degrees of success, depending on factors including the nature of the oil, beach characteristics, and environmental conditions. Based on the assumption that no universal procedure exists for beach restoration, determination of appropriate procedures requires evaluation of incident-specific conditions. A series of decision guides has been developed to assist in this process. These decision guides, suitable for development of spill contingency response plans and during actual emergency responses, have been developed to aid in the selection of the most appropriate techniques.
NEW TECHNIQUE FOR OIL RECOVERY ALONG SHORES (FLOATING AND GROUNDED)
Authors: Bronnec Jean
Published: January 2013

Experience has shown that the coastal zone is best for efficient oil spill recovery, because of the natural thickening of the oil layer. This zone includes large areas with very shallow waters, as well as beach areas, which present particular recovery problems. The new PBAS (paddle belt amphibious skimmer) system improves the performances of paddle belt skimming heads on choppy seas, and allows them to operate in very shallow waters and even on ground, with optimal efficiency because of its light-weight and easily transported special amphibious support vessel.
A PROTOCOL FOR EXPERIMENTAL ASSESSMENTS OF BIOREMEDIATION STRATEGIES ON SHORELINES
Authors: Lee Kenneth , Swannell Richard P.J. , Sveum Per , Guillerme Michel , Merlin François-Xavier , Reilly Tim , Oudot Jean , Ducreux Jean , Chaumery Christian
Published: January 2013

An experimental protocol has been developed for assessing the efficacy of bioremediation strategies for the treatment of petroleum contaminated shoreline sediments. It is a framework for the design of experimental field trials that enables independent organizations to compare the results of experiments conducted in different environments. Coordinated studies of this nature are needed to formulate operational guidelines for the application of bioremediation agents during oil spill response situations.
USCG RESPONSE EQUIPMENT INTEGRATED LOGISTICS SYSTEM
Authors: Burk Christine , Stahovec Joseph , Vaught David
Published: January 2013

The United States Coast Guard procured specialized oil spill containment and removal equipment to support the goals of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990. To manage the equipment inventories, an integrated logistics maintenance and tracking system (ILS) was implemented. The ILS provides a systematic means for documenting and controlling the configuration of system components so that life-cycle costs, operational performance/use, and equipment readiness can be regulated, tracked, and documented.
ON-SCENE COORDINATOR AREA RESPONSE SYSTEM
Authors: Smith Donald P.
Published: January 2013

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Region VI utilizes a field deployable geographic information system (GIS) known as OSCARS (on-scene coordinator area response system) to improve its spill management capabilities. The following fields are found in OSCARS: sensitive ecosystems, watersheds, population centers, response organizations, disposal facilities, operational/logistical support functions, facilities/pipelines information, and ortho-digital photography. The system is deployed on a laptop computer with expandable hard drives.
FISHING INDUSTRY AND COMMUNITY SUPPORT
Authors: Long Richard C.
Published: January 2013

Alyeska Pipeline Service Company, acting as the response action contractor for Trans-Alaska Pipeline System laden tankers within Prince William Sound, recognizes that a successful, rapid response to a major oil spill requires significant support from local communities and fishing vessels.
THE BRAER SPILL: OIL FATE GOVERNED BY DISPERSION
Authors: Lunel T.
Published: January 2013

The fate of 86,000 metric tons (t) of Gullfaks crude oil at the Braer incident was governed by the process of natural dispersion. The overall impact of the spill was minimal in time and extent indicating that dispersing oil spilled at sea can reduce the impact of oil spills. Experimental work in the North Sea has shown that the characteristics of the oil played a critical role in promoting the dispersion process. The Braer incident provides support for the use of dispersants to reduce the environmental impact of a spill in cases where the oil type is less amenable to natural dispersion.
REMEDIATION OF OIL-CONTAMINATED DEBRIS USING A ROTARY KILN COMBUSTOR
Authors: Ouellette Laura , Razbin Vladimir
Published: January 2013

The Emergencies Engineering Division (EED) of Environment Canada's Environmental Technology Centre has been investigating the use of combustion to remediate oil-contaminated debris resulting from marine oil spills. Rotary kiln technology was determined to be suitable for such wastes, and offers an environmentally safe solution to this problem. The debris used for these tests were oil-contaminated gravel and sorbents.

The rotary kiln tests were conducted at the Energy Research Laboratory, CANMET, Natural Resources Canada between January and February 1994. The system consists of the rotary kiln combustor, feed systems, afterburner, and packed bed spray tower, induced draft fan, and stack.
ADVANCED CHEMICAL FINGERPRINTING FOR OIL SPILL IDENTIFICATION AND NATURAL RESOURCE DAMAGE ASSESSMENTS
Authors: Boehm Paul D. , Douglas Gregory S. , Brown John S.
Published: January 2013

For petroleum fingerprinting in support of natural resource damage assessments (NRDA) and other regulatory and litigation-driven scientific studies, the state of the art now focuses on polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) and saturated biomarker analyses, coupled with ratio and/or principal component analysis techniques, for advanced chemical fingerprinting (ACF) and allocation of petroleum mixtures to multiple sources. This strategy is being applied to oil spills, in-ground petroleum releases, and coal tar-petroleum source differentiation scenarios. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's (NOAA) draft injury guidance on NRDA recommends the application of ACF to oil spill assessments under the Oil Pollution Act of 1990.