bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Law, Society, Identity, and the Making of the Jim Crow South: Travel and Segregation on Tennessee Railroads, 1875–1905
Authors: Mack Kenneth W.
Published: July 2006

This article reexamines the well-known debate over the origins of de jure segregation in the American South, which began in 1955 with the publication of C. Vann Woodward's The Strange Career of Jim Crow. Arguing that the debate over Woodward's thesis implicates familar but outmoded ways of looking at sociolegal change and Southern society, the article proposes a reorientation of this debate using theoretical perspectives taken from recent work by legal historians, critical race theorists, and historians of race, class, and gender. This article examines the advent of railroad segregation in Tennessee (the state that enacted the nation's first railroad segregation statute) in order to sketch out these themes, arguing that de jure segregation was brought about by a dialectic between legal, social, and identity-based phenomena. This dialectic did not die out with the coming of de jure segregation; rather it continued into the modern era.
Integrative Regulation: A Principle-Based Approach to Environmental Policy
Authors: Gunningham Neil , Sinclair Darren
Published: July 2006

This article builds on recent field research to articulate a principle-based approach to environmental regulatory design that is applicable to a wide variety of circumstances, irrespective of political and social particularities. At its core, this approach recognizes that an excessive reliance on “single-instrument” policies is misguided, because all instruments have strengths and weaknesses, and none is sufficiently flexible and resilient to successfully address all environmental problems in all contexts. A better strategy is to harness the strengths of individual mechanisms while compensating for their weaknesses by the use of additional instruments. That is, in the large majority of circumstances, a mix of regulatory instruments is required, tailored to specific policy goals. The article identifies a series of regulatory design principles that sequentially address the problems and opportunities arising from the application of multi-instrument mixes and engaging a variety of first-, second-, and third-party participants in the regulatory process. The importance of choosing inherently complementary instrument combinations is also highlighted, with practical guidance provided to policymakers. Although the focus of the article is on environmental regulation, the general principles articulated should also be applicable to other areas of social regulation.
Lawyers' Duty to Do Justice: A New Look at the History of the 1908 Canons
Authors: Carle Susan D.
Published: July 2006

This article examines a long-forgotten controversy about lawyers' duties to evaluate the justice of their clients' causes in civil cases that took place among the members of the Committee of the American Bar Association (ABA) that drafted the 1908 Canons of Professional Responsibility. The article presents an analysis of newly discovered internal working documents of this important, but never before examined, ABA committee, supplemented with primary historical research into the views and backgrounds of the committee's members. The article demonstrates how a clash of perspectives among these men—traceable in part to their backgrounds but also to their unpredictable allegiances to conflicting trends in legal thought at the turn of the century—prevented the committee from reaching a satisfactory resolution on the duty's to-do-justice issue. The committee members instead adopted ineffectual compromise language in the Canons, leaving us with a legacy of concealed ambivalence on the question of lawyers' “duty to do justice” in civil cases.
A Community Divided: Defense Attorneys and the Ethics of Death Row Volunteering
Authors: Harrington C. Lee
Published: July 2006

When death row inmates elect to waive appeals and proceed directly to execution a series of problematic legal and ethical questions are raised. This article examines the ethics of volunteering from the perspective of death row inmates'defense attorneys. Studying attorneys is important for two reasons: since they are charged with protecting their clients' interests they must resolve the difficult question of whether death is ever in someone's best interest; and perhaps more important, most death row defense attorneys are themselves against the death penalty and must thus negotiate between their clients' desire for execution and their own personal value systems. Interviews were conducted with 20 attorneys who have participated in representing would-be volunteers. Qualitative analysis suggests that most are faced with profound ethical dilemmas, both professional and personal, when a client elects to waive appeals. This article explores how attorneys interpret, experience, and resolve those dilemmas.
Judicial Independence and Political Representation: Prussian Judges as Parliamentary Deputies, 1849–1913
Authors: Ledford Kenneth F.
Published: July 2006

The outrageous history of German judges during the Third Reich should not so structure historical research as to distract historians from examining their role in the nineteenth century. Prussian judges played an important role in electoral politics by serving as parliamentary deputies between 1849 and 1913. This essay poses and answers two questions: What was the political, legal, and social setting that led to judges sewing in parliament? And, why did their number decline after 1877? Theoretical discourses of separation of powers, construction of a Hegelian “general estate,” and independence of the judiciary converged with administrative-legal-constitutional developments in Prussia begun under the absolutism of the eighteenth century and professional and personal interests of judges to bring them into parliament, often as members of the liberal opposition. But success in the liberal project of building a national state, including legal reform, professionalization, and the advent of mass politics, reduced the need and attraction for judges in parliament, resulting in a decline after the 1860s.
The Shape of the Michigan River as Viewed from the Land of Sweatt v. Painter and Hopwood
Authors: Russell Thomas D.
Published: July 2006

If general ideas and theories about what's going on in society are going to be anything other than moonshine, they have to be rooted in hard-bought knowledge of what in fact is happening in people's lives.

—J. Willard Hurst (1910-96)

There are 5 African Americans among the 433 students in The University of Texas School of Law's class of 2000. There are 7 in the class of 2001, and 7 in the class of 2002. With 1,387 students, the UT School of Law is big. The 19 African American students comprise 1.4% of the total.
Michigan's Minority Graduates in Practice: Answers to Methodological Queries
Authors: Lempert Richard O. , Chambers David L. , Adams Terry K.
Published: July 2006

Before making a few remarks in response to those who commented on our article (Lempert, Chambers, and Adams 2000), we would like to express our gratitude to the editors of Law and Social Inquiry for securing these commentaries and to the people who wrote them. The comments both highlight the potential uses to which our research and similar studies may be put and give us the opportunity to address methodological concerns and questions that other readers of our article may share with those who commented on it.
The Oppressed, the Suspect, and the Citizen: Subjectivity in Competing Accounts of Political Violence
Authors: Coutin Susan Bibler
Published: July 2006

By juxtaposing religious, legal, and victims'accounts of political violence, this essay identifies and critiques assumptions about agency, the individual, and the state that derive from liberal theory and that underlie U.S. asylum law. In the United States, asylum is available to aliens whose gooernments fail to protect them from persecution on the basis of their race, religion, political opinion, nationality, or social group membership. Salvadoran and Guatemalan immigrants have challenged this definition of persecution with their two-decade-long struggle for asylum in the United States. During the 1980s, U.S. religious advocates and solidarity workers took legal action on behalf of what they characterized as victims of oppression in Central America. The asylum claims narrated by the beneficiaries of these legal efforts suggest that repessiwe pactices rendered entire populations politically suspect. To prevail in immigration court, however, victims had to prove that they were individually targeted because of being somehow “different” from the population at large. In other words, to obtain asylum, persecution victims had to explain how and why their actions had placed them at risk, even though persecution obscured the reasons that particular individuals were targeted and thus rendered all politically suspect.
Legal Weapons for the Weak? Democratizing the Force of Words in an Uncivil Society
Authors: Lee Orville
Published: July 2006

First Amendment absolutists and proponents of speech regulation are locked in a normative stalemate over the best way to diminish racial “hate speech.” I argue that this stalemate can be overcome by considering a more expansive theory of the “force of words” and the risks the right of free speech entails for individuals. Drawing on a cultural theory of symbolic power, I discuss the merits and limitations of two recent texts which redefine hate speech as discriminatory conduct. As an alternative to this strategy, I develop an analytical framework for describing the social risks the right of free speech entails, and propose juridical and deliberative-democratic remedies that might redistribute and attenuate these risks. Cultural and legal theory can find common ground in the analysis of the undemocratic effects of symbolic power. Such common ground can be achieved if legal theorists consider the force of words as a problem for democracy and if cultural theorists consider the resources provided by democratic institutions and practices for the redistribution of the social risks of speech.
Congressional Constitutional Interpretation and the Courts: A Preliminary Inquiry into Legislative Attitudes, 1959–2001
Authors: Peabody Bruce G.
Published: July 2006

Through theoretically informed inquiry into congressional attitudes toward the Constitution and the courts as well as survey research of two modem Congresses, this study considers the prospects and implications of a more salient legislative role in constitutional affairs. By analyzing survey responses from the 86th (1959–61) and 106th (1999–2001) Congresses, and the political context in which these views were formed, this essay explores the legislature's evolving conception of its role and capacities as a constitutional interpreter. Among other findings, Congress demonstrates a persistent and somewhat surprising interest in asserting an independent, distinctive constitutional voice, although it has somewhat conflicted and underdeveloped views about how to achieve this objective. While this essay points to significant barriers to fostering a coherent and forceful congressional presence in constitutional decision making, it also suggests institutional organizations and strategies that may be promising bases for promoting this goal.
Estrus cycle: influence on cardiac function following trauma-hemorrhage
Authors: Yang Shaolong , Choudhry Mashkoor A. , Hsieh Ya-Ching , Hu Shunhua , Rue Loring W. , Bland Kirby I. , Chaudry Irshad H.
Published: July 2006

Since cardiac function is depressed in males but not in proestrus (PE) females following trauma-hemorrhage (T-H), we examined whether different estrus cycles influence cardiac function in female rats under those conditions. We hypothesized that females in the PE cycle only will have normal cardiac function following T-H and resuscitation. Sham operation or T-H was performed in five groups of rats (250–275 g) including PE, estrus (E), metestrus (ME), diestrus (DE), and ovariectomized (OVX) females ( n = 6–7 per group). Cardiac function was determined 2 h after T-H, following which cardiomyocytes were isolated and nuclei extracted. Cardiomyocyte IL-6 and NF-κB expressions were measured using Western blotting. Moreover, plasma IL-6, estradiol, and progesterone levels were measured using ELISA or EIA kits. Results (1-way ANOVA) indicated that following T-H, 1) cardiac function was depressed in DE, E, ME, and OVX groups but maintained in the PE group; 2) the PE group had the highest plasma estrogen level; 3) plasma IL-6 levels increased significantly in DE, E, ME, and OVX groups, but the increase was attenuated in the PE group; 4) cardiomyocyte IL-6 protein level increased significantly in DE, E, ME and OVX groups after TH, but the increase was attenuated in the PE group; and 5) cardiomyocyte NF-κB expression increased significantly but was attenuated in the PE group. These data collectively suggest that the estrus cycle plays an important role in cardiac function following TH. The salutary effect seen in PE following TH is likely due to a decrease in NF-κB-dependent cardiac IL-6 pathway.
Signaling pathway underlying stimulation of L-type Ca2+ channels in rabbit portal vein myocytes by recombinant Gβγ subunits
Authors: Callaghan Brid , Zhong Juming , Keef Kathleen D.
Published: July 2006

In previous studies, we (Callaghan B, Koh SD, and Keef KD, Circ Res 94: 626–633, 2004) have shown that voltage-dependent L-type Ca2+ channels (Cav) in portal vein myocytes are enhanced when muscarinic M2 receptors are activated with ACh. Current stimulation was coupled to the G protein subunit Gβγ along with the downstream mediators phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase (PI3K), protein kinase C (PKC), and c-Src. The present study was designed to determine whether the same second messenger pathway could be identified when exogenous recombinant Gβγ subunits are introduced into cells. Smooth muscle myocytes were freshly isolated from rabbit portal vein, and Cav currents were recorded by using the patch-clamp technique. Dialysis of cells with recombinant Gβγ (50 nM) significantly increased Cav currents (141%). Nifedipine (1 μM) reduced both control and stimulated currents by ∼90%. The enhancement of current by Gβγ was equivalent to that produced by ACh (142%), whereas the PKC activator phorbol 12,13-dibutyrate (PdBu) gave rise to greater current stimulation (192%). Current stimulation with Gβγ, ACh, and PdBu were not associated with changes in the voltage dependence of activation or inactivation. The PI3K inhibitor LY-294002 (20 μM) reduced peak currents by 32% in cells dialyzed with Gβγ, whereas the inactive analog LY-303511 resulted in a small but significant reduction in current (12%). The c-Src inhibitor PP2 (1 μM) also significantly reduced currents (34%), whereas the inactive analog PP3 was without effect. These data provide further evidence for the hypothesis that Gβγ leads to stimulation of Cav currents in rabbit portal vein myocytes via a signaling pathway that includes PI3K, PKC, and c-Src.
Transcardiac adiponectin gradient is independently related to endothelial vasomotor function in large and resistance coronary arteries in humans
Authors: Takano Hajime , Kodama Yasushi , Kitta Yoshinobu , Nakamura Takamitsu , Obata Jyun-ei , Mende Akira , Kawabata Ken-ichi , Saitoh Yukio , Fujioka Daisuke , Kobayashi Tsuyoshi , Hasebe Hideyuki , Kugiyama Kiyotaka
Published: July 2006

Adiponectin, an adipocyte-derived protein, has been shown to have vasculoprotective effects. This study examined the possible relationship between coronary vasomotor function and the transcardiac gradient of adiponectin, reflecting adiponectin utilization and/or accumulation in the coronary vascular bed. The epicardial diameter and blood flow response of the left anterior descending coronary artery to intracoronary infusions of ACh was analyzed in 108 consecutive subjects who had a normal coronary angiogram and left ventriculogram. Adiponectin levels were measured by ELISA in plasma obtained from the aortic root (Ao) and the anterior interventricular vein (AIV). Adiponectin levels in the AIV were lower than levels in the Ao. In multivariate linear regression analysis, the transcardiac gradient of adiponectin (Ao − AIV levels) showed a positive correlation with increases in epicardial coronary diameter and coronary blood flow in response to ACh that was independent of traditional coronary risk factors. The transcardiac gradient of adiponectin was not significantly associated with the coronary dilator response to isosorbide dinitrate and the coronary flow response to sodium nitroprusside. In other groups of patients with coronary spastic angina ( n = 41) or microvascular angina ( n = 32) who had impaired coronary vasomotor responses, there was no significant gradient of adiponectin between the Ao and AIV. The transcardiac gradient of adiponectin may modulate endothelial vasomotor function in large and resistance coronary arteries and may play a role in the pathogenesis of diseases presenting with coronary vasomotor dysfunction.
Genetic overexpression of eNOS attenuates hepatic ischemia-reperfusion injury
Authors: Duranski Mark R. , Elrod John W. , Calvert John W. , Bryan Nathan S. , Feelisch Martin , Lefer David J.
Published: July 2006

Previous studies have shown that endothelial nitric oxide (NO) synthase (eNOS)-derived NO is an important signaling molecule in ischemia-reperfusion (I-R) injury. Deficiency of eNOS-derived NO has been shown to exacerbate injury in hepatic and myocardial models of I-R. We hypothesized that transgenic overexpression of eNOS (eNOS-TG) would reduce hepatic I-R injury. We subjected two strains of eNOS-TG mice to 45 min of hepatic ischemia and 5 h of reperfusion. Both strains were protected from hepatic I-R injury compared with wild-type littermates. Because the mechanism for this protection is still unclear, additional studies were performed by using inhibitors and activators of both soluble guanylyl cyclase (sGC) and heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) enzymes. Blocking sGC with 1 H-[1,2,4]oxadiazolo[4,3- a]quinoxalin-1-one (ODQ) and HO-1 with zinc (III) deuteroporphyrin IX-2,4-bisethyleneglycol (ZnDPBG) in wild-type mice increased hepatic I-R injury, whereas pharmacologically activating these enzymes significantly attenuated I-R injury in wild-type mice. Interestingly, ODQ abolished the protective effects of eNOS overexpression, whereas ZnDPBG had no effect. These results suggest that hepatic protection in eNOS-TG mice may be mediated in part by NO signaling via the sGC-cGMP pathway and is independent of HO-1 signal transduction pathways.
Production of indole diterpenes by Aspergillus alliaceus
Authors: Junker B. , Walker A. , Connors N. , Seeley A. , Masurekar P. , Hesse M.
Published: July 2006

Production of two related indole diterpenes (differing by a dimethyl leucine side chain) by Aspergillus alliaceus was improved through several pilot scale fermentations. Media were optimized through focus primarily on initial increases, as well as mid‐cycle additions, of carbon and nitrogen sources. Fermentation conditions were improved by varying ventilation conditions using various combinations of air flowrate and back‐pressure set points. Production improvements were quantified based on total indole diterpene concentration as well as the ratio of the major‐to‐minor by‐product components. Those changes with a positive substantial impact primarily on total indole diterpene concentration included early cycle glycerol shots and enhanced ventilation conditions (high air flowrate, low back‐pressure). Those changes with a significant impact primarily on ratio included higher initial cerelose, soybean oil, monosodium glutamate, tryptophan, or ammonium sulfate concentrations, higher broth pH, and enhanced ventilation conditions. A few changes (higher initial glycerol and monosodium glutamate concentrations) resulted in less notable and desirable titer or ratio changes when implemented individually, but they were adopted to more fully realize the impact of other improvements or to simplify processing. Overall, total indole diterpene titers were improved at the 600 L pilot scale from 125–175 mg/L with a ratio of about 2.1 to 200–260 mg/L with a ratio of about 3.3–4.5. Thus, the ability to optimize total indole diterpene titer and/or ratio readily exists for secondary metabolite production using Aspergillus cultures. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Isotopomer analysis of myocardial substrate metabolism: A systems biology approach
Authors: Vo Thuy D. , Palsson Bernhard O.
Published: July 2006

The increasing accessibility of mass isotopomer data via GC‐MS and NMR technology has necessitated the use of a systematic and reliable method to take advantage of such data for flux analysis. Here we applied a nonlinear, optimization‐based method to study substrate metabolism in cardiomyocytes using 13C data from perfused mouse hearts. The myocardial metabolic network used in this study accounts for 257 reactions and 240 metabolites, which are further compartmentalized into extracellular space, cytosol, and mitochondrial matrix. Analysis of the perfused mouse heart showed that the steady‐state ATP production rate was 16.6 ± 2.3 µmol/min · gww, with 30% of the ATP coming from glycolysis. Of the four substrates available in the perfusate (glucose, pyruvate, lactate, and oleate), exogenous glucose forms the majority of cytosolic pyruvate. Pyruvate decaboxylation is significantly higher than carboxylation, suggesting that anaplerosis is low in the perfused heart. Exchange fluxes were predicted to be high for reversible enzymes in the citric acid cycle (CAC), but low in the glycolytic pathway. Pseudoketogenesis amounted to approximately 50% of the net ketone body uptake. Sensitivity analysis showed that the estimated flux distributions were relatively insensitive to experimental errors. The application of isotopomer data drastically improved the estimation of reaction fluxes compared to results computed with respect to reaction stoichiometry alone. Further study of 12 commonly used 13C glucose mixtures showed that the mixtures of 20% [U‐13C6] glucose, 80% [3 13C] glucose and 20% [U‐13C6] glucose, 80% [4 13C] were best for resolving fluxes in the current network. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Weak noncovalent Si···FC interactions stabilized fluoroalkylated rod‐like polysilanes as ultrasensitive chemosensors
Authors: Saxena Anubhav , Rai Roopali , Kim Sun‐Young , Fujiki Michiya , Naito Masanobu , Okoshi Kento , Kwak Giseop
Published: July 2006

Noncovalent interactions, such as hydrogen bonding, metal coordination, and π‐π stacking, are increasingly being utilized to develop well‐ordered and self‐organized supramolecular materials. Recently, new types of nonclassical weak interactions, such as CH···π, CH···FC, and CH···O, have been exploited in stabilizing the specific conformations of molecules and molecular assemblies in the solid state. These noncovalent interactions play an important role in materials comprised of polymer chains, because cooperative effects from a large number of weak interactions can lead to drastic changes in its conformation, several properties, and functionalities. The programmed design of synthetic helical polymer with well‐defined molecular conformation has been the main subject in modern polymer science and engineering. Silicon‐catenated polysilane is an ideal helical silicon quantum wire and polymers with unique photophysical properties. The present review highlights the spectroscopic evidences for through‐space weak Si···FC interaction in poly(methyl‐3,3,3‐trifluoropropylsilane) (1) in noncoordinating and coordinating solvents by means of NMR (29Si and 19F) and IR spectroscopies, and viscometric measurement. It was found that 1 is applicable for chemosensors with an extremely high sensitivity and selectivity toward fluoride ions in tetrahydrofuran (THF) and with high sensitivity for nitroaromatic compounds, detected by a decrease in the photoluminescence intensity in THF and in thin solid film. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Polym Sci Part A: Polym Chem 44: 5060–5075, 2006
Environmentally benign atom transfer radical polymerization: Towards “green” processes and materials
Authors: Tsarevsky Nicolay V. , Matyjaszewski Krzysztof
Published: July 2006

Atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) is a metal complex‐catalyzed method of controlled radical polymerization that has been successfully employed to prepare a multitude of well‐defined functional polymeric materials. The environmental aspects of ATRP that are reviewed in this work include (i) methods for catalyst removal and its potential further recycling, (ii) development of active ATRP catalysts that can be used at low concentration, (iii) conducting ATRP in environmentally friendly media (water, supercritical carbon dioxide, and ionic liquids), and (iv) application of ATRP to the production of advanced materials such as self‐plasticized poly(vinyl chloride) and (bio)degradable polymers. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Polym Sci Part A: Polym Chem 44: 5098–5112, 2006
Capturing urban student voices in the creation of a science mini‐documentary
Authors: Furman Melina , Barton Angela Calabrese
Published: July 2006

It has been widely proposed that student voices should play a crucial role in designing and implementing curriculum and instruction that promote students' engagement in science learning. In this study we examined the voices of two seventh grade boys from a low‐income urban community as they worked together in an after‐school program to create a student‐directed video documentary about science. Our analysis showed that these students used their voices to construct identities that they cared about in school, by reconstructing some aspects of their school identity that did not match who they aspired to be, as well as by gaining new resources to enact their desired identities. The examples provided demonstrate that integrating student voice in a science project can make participation in science a valuable tool in students' identity formation. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 43: 667–694, 2006
Transcriptional regulation by Modulo integrates meiosis and spermatid differentiation in male germ line
Authors: Mikhaylova Lyudmila M. , Boutanaev Alexander M. , Nurminsky Dmitry I.
Published: July 2006

Transcriptional activation in early spermatocytes involves hundreds of genes, many of which are required for meiosis and spermatid differentiation. A number of the meiotic-arrest genes have been identified as general regulators of transcription; however, the gene-specific transcription factors have remained elusive. To identify such factors, we purified the protein that specifically binds to the promoter of spermatid-differentiation gene
Sdic
and identified it as Modulo, the
Drosophila
homologue of nucleolin. Analysis of gene-expression patterns in the male sterile
modulo
mutant indicates that Modulo supports high expression of the meiotic-arrest genes and is essential for transcription of spermatid-differentiation genes. Expression of Modulo itself is under the control of meiotic-arrest genes and requires the DAZ/DAZL homologue Boule that is involved in the control of G
2
/M transition. Thus, regulatory interactions among Modulo, Boule, and the meiotic-arrest genes integrate meiosis and spermatid differentiation in the male germ line.
The Effects of Elevated CO2 Concentration on Soybean Gene Expression. An Analysis of Growing and Mature Leaves
Authors: Ainsworth Elizabeth A. , Rogers Alistair , Vodkin Lila O. , Walter Achim , Schurr Ulrich
Published: July 2006

Improvements in carbon assimilation and water-use efficiency lead to increases in maximum leaf area index at elevated carbon dioxide concentration ([CO2]); however, the molecular drivers for this increase are unknown. We investigated the molecular basis for changes in leaf development at elevated [CO2] using soybeans (Glycine max) grown under fully open air conditions at the Soybean Free Air CO2 Enrichment (SoyFACE) facility. The transcriptome responses of rapidly growing and fully expanded leaves to elevated [CO2] were investigated using cDNA microarrays. We identified 1,146 transcripts that showed a significant change in expression in growing versus fully expanded leaves. Transcripts for ribosomal proteins, cell cycle, and cell wall loosening, necessary for cytoplasmic growth and cell proliferation, were highly expressed in growing leaves. We further identified 139 transcripts with a significant [CO2] by development interaction. Clustering of these transcripts showed that transcripts involved in cell growth and cell proliferation were more highly expressed in growing leaves that developed at elevated [CO2] compared to growing leaves that developed at ambient [CO2]. The 327 [CO2]-responsive genes largely suggest that elevated [CO2] stimulates the respiratory breakdown of carbohydrates, which provides increased energy and biochemical precursors for leaf expansion and growth at elevated [CO2]. While increased photosynthesis and carbohydrate production at elevated [CO2] are well documented, this research demonstrates that at the transcript and metabolite level, respiratory breakdown of starch is also increased at elevated [CO2].
THE EVALUATION OF SOILS AND THE DEFINITION OF QUALITY CLASSES FROM STUDIES OF THE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF THE SOIL PROFILE IN THE FIELD
Authors: CLARKE G. R.
Published: July 2006

The relative productivity of certain soil series has been determined from an evaluation of certain physical characteristics of the soil profile which are measurable in the field. The evaluation has been based on the assumption that the most important physical properties of a soil affecting its productivity are its texture, its depth, and the goodness of its drainage.

The basis of the evaluation formula is that a rating is given to each textural class, ranging from 20 for a medium loam to 3 for a gravel and 5 for a heavy structureless clay, and this rating is given for each inch down to the bottom of the profile, or to an arbitrary depth of 30 in., whichever is the shallower. These ratings are added together to give a textural value, V, for the soil. If there is any gleying in the top 30 in. this value is then reduced by multiplying by a factor G, which is less than unity and which is smaller the higher the top of the gley horizon. The yield, of wheat, P, as. measured by the weight of ears produced per unit area at any spot in the field was calculated by the formula P = cVG, where c is an arbitrary constant. This prediction formula accounted for 90–7 per cent, of the variance of the wheat yield in 1947, a year in which accurate estimates of the yield were made, but only 68 per cent, of the variance in 1948, a year in which the yield figures were subject to large errors. The formula was less satisfactory for the yield of straw.

The formula P = cVG was more accurate than P = cVG where VG is the textural value to the top of the gley horizon, a result interpreted as showing that wheat roots make some use of gleyed soil.
ISOTOPIC EQUILIBRIA BETWEEN PHOSPHATES IN SOIL AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE IN THE ASSESSMENT OF FERTILITY BY TRACER METHODS
Authors: RUSSELL R. SCOTT , RICKSON J. B. , ADAMS S. N.
Published: July 2006

The isotopic exchange of phosphorus has been studied between solutions of orthophosphate and the following solid phases: anion‐exchange resin charged with phosphate; dicalcium phosphate; rock phosphates; hydroxyapatite aged to varying extents; and natural soils.

The nature of exchange reactions in the soil is discussed. It is considered that all inorganic phosphate fractions in the soil undergo exchange with added phosphates, though at different rates.

Consideration is given to procedures proposed by earlier workers for the estimation of the phosphate status of the soil by tracer methods. In particular, the hypothesis that‘plant available’soil phosphate can be estimated by comparing the specific activity of phosphate added to the soil with that of phosphate absorbed by plants is examined. It is shown that the method is of limited application. It appears, however, that since‘plant‐available’soil phosphate undergoes isotopic exchange more readily than‘unavailable’forms, it should be possible to estimate available soil phosphate by observing isotopic exchange between solutions and soil suspensions under controlled conditions. The appropriate procedure will vary between soil types and must be determined by ad hoc investigations.

The limitations which isotopic exchange and isotopic dilution effects impose on the estimation of fertilizer absorption by tracer methods are discussed.
INVESTIGATIONS INTO THE MECHANISM OF SOIL ADHESION
Authors: FOUNTAINE E. R.
Published: July 2006

Investigations into the mechanism of the adhesion between soil and foreign surfaces in normal loading tests are described. The adhesion is found to be entirely due to the water film between the joined surfaces, and its magnitude is approximately equal to the moisture tension in this film multiplied by its area. The effects of the soil, the foreign material, and the testing technique on the tension in the moisture film are discussed.
THE INFLUENCE OF VARIOUS ROTATIONS ON COARSE‐TEXTURED SOILS AT CHAPMAN AND WONGAN HILLS RESEARCH STATIONS, WESTERN AUSTRALIA
Authors: DROVER D. P.
Published: July 2006

The effect of four wheat rotations on soil organic carbon and nitrogen in two long‐term experiments at Chapman and Wongan Hills Research Stations is discussed. The experiments compare continuous wheat, fallow‐wheat, fallowwheat‐pasture, and fallow‐wheat‐z years lupins.

On the assumption that adjacent uncultivated soils were comparable in carbon and nitrogen to the original virgin soils, the four‐course rotation is at each site the only one which maintained soil nitrogen at levels approaching those of the virgin soils. The two‐ and three‐course rotations, including in each case a year of fallow, by contrast, produced serious losses in both carbon and nitrogen at both localities, but particularly at Chapman. The soil‐nitrogen data support the hypothesis of Shier and Cullinane (1948) that these levels are influencing wheat yield and the flour quality of the grain.

The data emphasize, also, the very low nitrogen and carbon contents of these soils both in the virgin condition and after zz years of a four‐course rotation in which half of each +year period was occupied by a leguminous crop.

It is concluded that much longer periods under legumes are necessary if the carbon and nitrogen levels of these soils are to approach those typical of known highly fertile soils elsewhere.
THE MICROPEDOLOGY OF SOME RED SOILS FROM CYPRUS
Authors: OSMOND D. A. , STEPHEN I.
Published: July 2006

The micromorphology and mineralogy of terra rossas and rotlehms associated with calcareous sediments and igneous rock material respectively are described. The investigations confirm differences observed in the field and assist in the differentiation and classification of the soils.
PERMEABILITY MEASUREMENTS IN THE FIELD AS AN ASSESSMENT OF ANISOTROPY AND STRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT
Authors: CHILDS E. C. , COLLIS‐GEORGE N. , HOLMES J. W.
Published: July 2006

Thirteen sites were examined and the permeabilities determined by a combination of the two‐well (Childs) and the single‐tube (Kirkham) methods. Anisotropy occurred in less than half of these sites. The range of permeabilities encountered was ten‐thousand fold. Two of the clay soils have permeabilities comparable with those of gravelly sands.

An argument is presented for the use of permeability as an objective measure of structure in the field and the principal disadvantages of the permeability method are listed.

Variability in field structure is considered from the aspect of the ratio between the size of the well sample and the size of the structural units. Four cases of variability are interpreted in terms of their effect on the standard error and the asymmetry of results obtained by the two‐well method. This interpretation is shown to allow of the assessment of field structure from the permeability results. When sub‐units of structure and the experimental equipment have similar dimensions, individual determinations have questionable validity.

The method of calculating permeability and anisotropy from field data is given in an Appendix. A comparison of the field descriptions with the permeability results for the experimental sites indicates that qualitative profile differentiation does not always imply a change of permeability; neither can visual profile uniformity be taken to indicate uniform permeability.
STUDIES ON THE BASALTIC SOILS OF NORTHERN IRELAND
Authors: McConaghy S. , McAleese D. M.
Published: July 2006

Descriptions and analytical data are given relating to nine basaltic profiles representing soils which have been used in detailed studies on cation‐exchange properties and mineralogical constitution of basaltic soils in Northern Ireland.

Three main groups of soils are considered: those with impeded or poor drainage, those with free drainage, and those which have good drainage in the agricultural sense but which show slight signs of mottling in lower horizons. In all three groups of basaltic soils the clay contents and the organic‐carbon contents fall appreciably with depth, but the cation‐exchange‐capacity values do not follow the changes in clay and organic‐matter contents. The total cation‐exchange capacity in the C or G2–3 horizon may be as high as or higher than in the surface horizon. In freely drained profiles the cation‐exchange capacity is generally lower in the B horizon than in the A(S) or in the C horizon, and usually in poorly drained profiles the cation‐exchange‐capacity value is also lowest in the B, G1, or the A2‐G horizon (due mainly to the fall in organic matter). Exchangeable magnesium forms a considerable percentage (up to about 40 per cent.) of the total cations in the C (or the G2) horizons of basaltic soils, and vaues of the order of 20 m.e. exchangeable magnesium per 1OO g. soil are recorded for some such horizons where drainage is impeded.
AFFORESTATION AND SOIL REACTION
Authors: OVINGTON J. D. , MADGWICK H. A. I.
Published: July 2006

An investigation is described of the pH relationships between the soil, litter, and tree leaves at ten experimental areas from 17 to 50 years after planting. At each of these areas a number of different tree species has been established.

From the results of 6,900 pH measurements taken in 13 unplanted and 1OO forest plots some general relationships in the pH of tree leaves, litter, and soil are recognized. When a number of tree species are grown under identical conditions the acidity of their leaves and litter layers differs considerably between species. Soil pH is modified differentially by afforestation, largely depending upon the nature of the established tree species and for the ten series of plots it has been possible to prepare a list of tree species graded according to their effect on soil pH. Since the results have been obtained from only ten areas the detailed conclusions must be regarded as tentative. It is suggested that there is a need to establish experiments where the influence of tree species on site conditions can be critically studied. The application of these observations to problems of land use is discussed.
ABNORMALITIES IN NUTRIENT UPTAKE BY CORSICAN PINE GROWING ON AND DUNES
Authors: WRIGHT T. W.
Published: July 2006

Monthly variations in foliar N, K, Ca, Mg, and P2O5 of young Corsican pine growing on the sand dunes of Culbin Forest, Morayshire, have been compared with monthly changes in the available moisture in the rooting zone, calculated with the aid of Penman's formula. A reversal of the normal seasonal trends has been observed in the second half of the growing season. In trees showing poor growth, heavy thinning delayed the drying out of the rooting zone and temporarily improved the K, Mg, and N levels in the foliage.
FEATURES OF SOME SEMI‐ARID SOILS IN THE DISTRICT OF KHARTOUM, SUDAN
Authors: WORRALL G. A.
Published: July 2006

Two soil groups in the Khartoum district are described. The Red Sand‐Iron‐stone Soils are characterized by a reddish sandy upper horizon, a second ironstone gravel horizon, and a third stony horizon, often consisting of kankar. They are dry soils, and contain very little soluble salts or plant nutrients, and the minerals are largely quartz and iron ores. The few heavy minerals show resemblance to those of the High Level Dark Clays in particular in their amounts of hornblende and epidote.

The resemblance of the red sand to the ‘Goz’ and the ironstone gravel to murram of laterite areas is noted and discussed, and evidence is produced for attributing the origin of both to the weathering of the rocks of the Nubian Series, and the soils are regarded as intrazonal.

The Riverain Soils of the Blue Nile and Main Nile have very variable textures, but the White Nile Clays are remarkably uniform in texture and profile. The differences can be attributed to the difference in the régime of the rivers. Salinity is also variable, but usually much lower than in the High Level Dark Clays, and the more saline soils are heavy‐textured and lying in slight depressions.

The mineral content is similar in all the Riverain Soils except for the White Nile Clays which show some differences, and also similar to that in the High Level Dark Clays. The sources of the minerals are discussed, and a suggested mode of formation of the flood plain, by which islands link with the mainland, is proposed.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE ABILITY OF PLANTS TO ABSORB PHOSPHATE FROM SOILS
Authors: RUSSELL R. SCOTT , RUSSELL E. W. , MARAIS P. G.
Published: July 2006

The relationship between the absorption of phosphate by plants and labile soil phosphate has been investigated in four soils ranging from a calcareous alluvium to basaltic soils of reputed high ‘phosphate‐fixing’ capacity. Labile phosphate has been determined both by isotopic exchange and by applying the principles of isotopic dilution to the results obtained when plants are grown in soils to which labile phosphate has been added (the method of Larsen). The two measures gave generally similar but not identical results.

Aliquots of each soil type were enriched with varying quantities of phosphate to give series of soils similar in all respects other than their phosphate status. The soils were sometimes stored for periods of up to a year before further examination was carried out. A large fraction of the added phosphate always remained in a labile form. In each such series of artificially enriched soils a closely linear relationship was found between absorption by test plants and the labile soil phosphate. Soils of contrasting origin, however, showed no such correlation, but absorption was related to the reciprocal of the quantity of phosphate sorbed by the soils from phosphate solutions under standard conditions.

An interpretation of the factors which determine the extent to which phosphate can be absorbed by plants from different soils is advanced in terms of the concepts of phosphate ‘potential’ and ‘capacity’ introduced by Schofield. The labile soil phosphate is not, however, regarded as homogeneous; evidence of wide variation in activation energy between different labile‐phosphate fractions has been obtained.

When used to assess the phosphate status of agricultural soils, tracer methods appear to be subject to limitations similar to those of the older extraction procedures.
CHEMICAL STUDIES ON PODZOLIC ILLUVIAL HORIZONS
Authors: MARTIN A. E. , REEVE R.
Published: July 2006

In qualitative studies with a number of soils, organic reagents such as aqueous acetylacetone or cupferron were found to extract a large fraction of the organic matter from podzolic B horizons; smaller quantities were removed from two humic‐gley A horizons. All other soil types tested yielded negligible amounts of carbon with this treatment. Substitution of Cu for the exchangeable cations of a typical Australian black earth followed by treatment with acetylacetone did not result in an increase in organic matter extracted over the untreated soil. It is concluded that, to be extracted by solutions of organic chelate compounds, soil organic matter must be immobilized by ions of one of the transition metals, and the H form must be readily dispersed; it is also possible that large amounts of clay may inhibit extraction. This type of organic matter probably occurs only in the podzolic group of soils.

A comparison of the extractive properties of several reagents on two Queens‐ land ground‐water podzols is presented. Cupferron is the most efficient, but complete removal of excess reagent from the final suspension is difficult. Acetylacetone (in water) and oxine (in 50 per cent. acetone) extract a large fraction of the total organic carbon and most of the Al, but the presence of acetone partially inhibits the extraction of carbon. Aqueous oxine is unsatisfactory owing to the extreme dilution of the saturated solution. It is concluded that acetylacetone is the most useful reagent so far tested owing to its miscibility with water and formation of stable ether‐soluble complexes with Fe and Al. Attempts to fractionate the B‐ horizon humus, using salicylaldehyde, acetylacetone and oxine which form progressively more stable complexes with Fe and Al, were unsuccessful owing to the dispersing effect of the NaOH added to adjust the pH values of each reagent. It is suggested that factors controlling the flocculat on of organic colloids from soil suspensions are equally as important as the bonding energy of the metal‐organic matter bonds in determining the extent of dispersion.
MAJOR GENETIC SOILS OF THE ARCTIC SLOPE OF ALASKA1
Authors: TEDROW J. C. F. , DREW J. V. , HILL D. E. , DOUGLAS L. A.
Published: July 2006

The genetic soils of Arctic Alaska can be arranged in a drainage catena. The mature soils on well‐drained sites are Arctic Brown and related soils. The Tundra profile is an imperfectly‐ to poorly‐drained catenamember. The Bogs, with permafrost, occupy many of the broad, flat, very wet areas. No evidence of a qualitative soil‐forming process unique to the Arctic areas is found. Instead, the Arctic Tundra is primarily a northern extension of the hydromorphic soils of the forested regions, whereas the Arctic Brown arid related soils represent the northern extensions of the podzolic process. The term Tundra, when used in connexion with zonal great soil groups along with Podzols, Chernozems, Laterites and related soils, is an erroneous one and its use, except for a hydromorphic soil, should be discouraged. The podzolic process on the stable, well‐drained sites weakens northward, resulting in the successive development of Podzols, Minimal Podzols, Arctic Browns, Arctic Browns shallow phase, and, finally, no soil formation.
STUDIES ON THE BASALTIC SOILS OF NORTHERN IRELAND
Authors: McALEESE D. M. , McCONAGHY S.
Published: July 2006

Results are given of the exchangeable calcium, magnesium, sodium, and potassium contents of the sand, silt, and clay fractions separated by purely physicaI methods from sixteen horizons, mainly subsoils from basaltic soil profiles in Northern Ireland. Relatively high exchangeable‐calcium values are recorded, ranging from 6.9 to 20.9 m.e. per cent. for sands, from g to 28 m.e. per cent. for ‘silts, and from 8.3 to 35 m.e. per cent. for clay separates.

Exchangeable‐magnesium values are also high, particularly for separates from subsoils with imperfect drainage, and values as high as 17.2, 27.3, and 32–2 m.e. per cent. are recorded for sand, silt, and clay separates, respectively. The exchangeable‐magnesium contents usually increase with depth in the subsoil and in many cases the exchangeable‐magnesium values for silts are as high as or higher than values for corresponding clay separates. Comparisons of the values for sands, ‘ilts’ and for corresponding clays suggest that the high values exhibited by the silts (and often by the sands) cannot be attributed, to any considerable extent, to incomplete dispersion, e.g. to the presence of normally dispersible clay aggregates in the silts or sand separates. It is suggested that these high values and the associated high cation‐exchange capacities of these silts (and coarser fractions) may be due to the presence of partially weathered rock minerals which may be broken down, e.g. by acid treatments and dispersion procedures prior to detailed examinations.