bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Introduction
Authors: Green Steven K.
Published: January 2023

This chapter provides a background and context to the principle of separation of church and state, a concept that has long informed the understanding of the religion clauses of the Constitution of the United States. The chapter considers the ongoing controversy, both culturally and legally, over the concept of church–state separation and the metaphor of a “wall of separation.” It also examines the polemical defense of separationism as a legal and historical/cultural concept, including what led to its rise as a popular concept, to its adoption by the Supreme Court, and then to its fall into disfavor among many Americans. The chapter explains that the separation of church and state stands for the idea that rejects models of religious and legal/governmental ordering where a religion or religion per se maintains a preferential legal status. It explores separation as a legal and cultural artifact and analyzes its development over time.
Separation Becomes Constitutional Canon
Authors: Green Steven K.
Published: January 2023

This chapter discusses the modern Supreme Court's adoption of church–state separation as the constitutional standard and the cultural backdrop to Everson v. Board of Education and McCollum v. Board of Education, one in which mainstream Protestants and secular intellectuals viewed separationism as an essential American democratic principle. The chapter analyzes how the wall metaphor entered into the justices' discussions. It also traces how justices and commentators expounded on the metaphor, elevating its significance in the law and public discourse. The chapter mentions the clergy, commentators, and legal and religious scholars that had been debating the idea of church–state separation in relation to contemporary events since the end of World War I. Separationism's reign of prominence was always tenuous, such that its ultimate dismantling began much earlier than many contemporaries realized.
Conclusion
Authors: Green Steven K.
Published: January 2023

This chapter reviews the idea that the separation of church and state retains a powerful resiliency, which is likely due to the phrase having been long associated with the Constitution of the United States and representing a particular cultural ordering that is quintessentially American. The chapter explains the resiliency of separation of church and state, which is the inherent indeterminacy of the concept. Church–state separation has declined as a legal rule and cultural construct, which is due to the modern Supreme Court's initial identification of separationism with secularism. The chapter looks back at how separationism became an easy target for political and religious conservatives to demonstrate a hostility toward religion among people with secularist leanings. It addresses the question of whether the Court will extend a protective notion of separationism to include religiously affiliated entities that serve the public or even private businesses operated pursuant to the owner's religious beliefs.
“Between the Devil and the Deep”
Authors: Robey Sarah E.
Published: January 2023

This chapter discusses the correlation between civil defense and the early Cold War political landscape. The need for nuclear civil defense emerged in line with the notion of complex changes in postwar US politics. As the geopolitical conflict between the United States and the Soviet Union continued, the United States marshal called for a vehement defense of democracy at home and abroad simultaneously. Thus, federal policymakers gathered information on nuclear weapons and strategies for survival to put up a national civil defense plan. However, planning for the national civil defense had been rigged with issues revolving around governance, jurisdiction, authority, Cold War politics, and fears about the capacities of the American citizen. The chapter also looks into the role of the military and legislation in civil defense.
Adapting to the Market
Authors: Maclachlan Patricia L. , Shimizu Kay
Published: January 2023

This chapter provides an overview of the Japan Agricultural Cooperatives (JA), which is a massive network of agricultural enterprises ostensibly owned and operated by and for their farmer-members. As rural populations shrink and age, as agricultural markets liberalize and the demand for rice decreases, as domestic food supply chains grow more diversified and competitive, and as farm incomes decline, JA's traditional approach to agricultural production is losing credibility. The chapter explains that the book examines variations of reform within JA, employing some of the concepts and insights of institutionalism theories. The JA Group—a large nested hierarchy of cooperative organizations that parallels the national, prefectural, and municipal levels of the Japanese government—embodies many of the formal and informal rules of postwar Japanese agricultural cooperation. As such, JA presents a rare opportunity to specify clear units of analysis, which is essential to understanding the causes and processes of institutional change.
Violent Imaginings
Authors: Kaminer Jenny
Published: January 2023

This chapter focuses on three Russian plays that interrogate the nexus of adolescence, violence, fantasy, and heroism. These are Plasticine (2000) by Vasily Sigarev, The Bullet Collector (2004) by Iury Klavdiev, and Natasha's Dream (2009) by Iaroslava Pulinovich. These dramatists present adolescence as a time when their heroes navigate the continuum between innocence and aggression, between succumbing to and inflicting violence. Ultimately, all three plays dramatize violence's prehistory—and, thus, its inescapability—by depicting how it combines with fantasy to colonize the imaginations of the young. In exposing the tragic consequences of this colonization, the plays indirectly condemn official Russian governmental projects such as the Youth Army, which aim to bind young Russians to the state by harnessing precisely this combination of aggression and imagination.
Networking Ideology
Authors: Kung Chien-Wen
Published: January 2023

This chapter covers the networking ideology correlated to Chinese society and transnational anticommunism. Since the notion of anticommunism and pro-Kuomintang (KMT) are mutually inclusive in the Philippines, the outward ideological uniformity of Chinese society originated significantly from the reorganization of its leadership institutions and networks. According to official narratives, the formation of Shang Zong originated the popular response to the elitism, insularity, and shortcomings of the General Chamber of Commerce. The chapter details the relationship between Taiwan, the Philippines, Chinese, Filipinos, and world anticommunism influencing the Hungarian Revolution against the Soviet and the Asian Peoples' Anti-Communist League (APACL). It elaborates on how conservative, pro-Republic of China elites restructured the community in response to anti-Chinese measures and propagating Fangong kang'E.
A Perfect Fall Day
Authors: Rogers Susan Fox
Published: January 2023

This chapter highlights one fall day when the author walked Greig Farm in Dutchess County, New York, to search for sparrows. Greig Farm is wide, open, flat land, with views to the Catskill Mountains to the west. The birds never disappointed, and neither did the sunrises and sunsets that frame the horizon. Beyond the expected sparrows like Song and Savannah, Vesper and Grasshopper Sparrows also visit. In fall, Snow Geese have landed by the hundreds, blanketing the fields with their noisy whiteness, while American Pipits step like old men through the furrows, and in winter Horned Larks fret. Sometimes Greig harbors a flock of Snow Buntings. Through early summer, Kestrels work the open fields. Amidst this parade of interesting birds, rarities like the Red Phalarope also appear.
Dawn Chorus
Authors: Rogers Susan Fox
Published: January 2023

This chapter begins with a description of President Franklin Delano Roosevelt's birding trip to Thompson Pond. Thompson Pond was then and still is a near perfect habitat for ducks and marsh birds: it is a wide, shallow body of water, a glacial kettle pond that flows south into Wappinger Creek, which in turn makes its way to the Hudson River. Reading Roosevelt's bird journal makes this formidable president seem like a kid with curiosity and a stick-to-itiveness that any birder recognizes. The author relished the texture and depth that Roosevelt's Thompson Pond outing gave to the land, to the birds. Birding was not separate from life; it was part of a larger whole. Inspired by this bit of presidential birding history, the author undertook a similar birding trip, where she listened to the bird song of Whip-poor-wills.
Waste/Archives/Feminism
Authors: Kennedy-Epstein Rowena
Published: January 2023

This chapter examines Muriel Rukeyser's vast archive of unfinished texts. It seeks to understand the erasure of so much of her work, how gender functioned at the inception and in the reception of women's writing during the Cold War, and how that informs our own thinking about gender and texts today. As the chapter emphasizes, the impact of this has come into renewed focus through our recent and ongoing reckoning with how sexual harassment and gender bias shape not only women's careers but political, legal, and cultural frameworks as well. The chapter also focuses on the major texts and ideas that Rukeyser spent years and sometimes decades developing, ones that often offer explicit and implicit theorizations of gender through formal approaches one might understand as being in the tradition of a modernist avant-garde, and that intersect with contemporary philosophical and political discussions. By exploring Rukeyser's unfinished texts, the chapter helps us better understand, contextualize, and connect those she did get published, illustrating how she worked around a censorious establishment in order to move her ideas into the world, sometimes reusing the same material in different forms repeatedly until it finally reached an audience.
Costa Brava
Authors: Kennedy-Epstein Rowena
Published: January 2023

This chapter looks at the discovery of Muriel Rukeyser's major unpublished work, Savage Coast, which was her first text to receive critical condemnation by editors and friends. The chapter shows that Savage Coast was also a narrative of an experience that was deeply transformational, engendering a lifetime commitment to advocacy for refugees and against all forms of fascism. It also chronicles her travel to Spain for the British magazine Life and Letters To-day to report on the People's Olympiad (July 19–26, 1936), an alternative to Hitler's Berlin Games, and how she witnessed the outbreak of civil war. The chapter investigates how Rukeyser's experience as a witness to both the military coup and the revolutionary response in Catalonia proved pivotal, noting that she would write about Spain and its war, revolution, exiled, and dead for over forty years after, creating a radical and interconnected twentieth-century textual history. The chapter concludes by narrating how the story of Spain, fully developed in the unfinished autobiographical novel Savage Coast, was rejected by her editor in 1937.
Her Symbol Was Civil War
Authors: Kennedy-Epstein Rowena
Published: January 2023

This chapter suggests that it was the Savage Coast's gender-nonconforming and sexually liberated protagonist, along with the politically radical and experimental form of the novel, that ran counter to contemporaneous political and aesthetic gender dictates. The chapter traces the political development of Helen, the protagonist of Savage Coast—her transformation from tourist and witness into activist and radical, from girlhood “liberalism” to mature political engagement, from an “awkward” adolescence of rebellion and anger to a sense of sexual and historical subjectivity found in the collective experience of political action. It then looks at how the rejection of the novel highlighted the constraints and expectations of women's writing in the 1930s and 1940s, under which women were often lauded for their smallness and modesty. The rejection of Savage Coast or its “anomalous” form was the first of what would become a steady stream of criticism of Muriel Rukeyser's work. The chapter explicates the recovery of Savage Coast, and then explains how it alerted us (again) to the fact that the recuperation of women writers has not ended, and that there is a continued need for archival work that restores feminist and radical texts and puts them into print. It also explores how Rukeyser worked to develop a poetics of history that was particularly attuned to exploring the latency of the past inside the present. Savage Coast is essential to understanding this textual-archival practice, one that Rukeyser develops throughout her life.
Conclusion
Authors: Kennedy-Epstein Rowena
Published: January 2023

This chapter emphasizes how we can find radical openings, revisions, and connections through Muriel Rukeyser's unfinished work and her ontological unfinished-ness. Through the waste, in all her polymorphic and contradictory uses of the term—signifying the lost and suppressed, the unused and undervalued, the dead of war and the ruins of imperialism, the biological and bodily matter we shed and share—the chapter highlights that we are offered a new way for thinking and being and reading. Rukeyser also offers us a vision for how we might engage the waste and ruins of total war. In following her work through the archive, the chapter reevaluates the author's own aesthetic judgments about “good” and “bad” writings that were informed by the racial and gender prejudices. The chapter analyzes how the ideas and people that Rukeyser focused her work on—the waste that leads to creation—affirm the need to situate the archive as a primary source if we want to gain access to a full understanding of our material and cultural histories and find the fertile sources that help us understand and feel our complicated present.
Sorley’s Travels
Authors: London Bette
Published: January 2023

This chapter focuses on poet Charles Hamilton Sorley to highlight the British fixation with the dead war poet as the locus of an affective response that makes continued remembrance possible. Offering snapshots of memory-making at three different historical moments, it scrutinizes the work performed by individuals, coteries, and cultural institutions in sustaining the poet's afterlife, and it brings into focus the temporalities of the posthumous. The chapter also explores the types of objects deployed to structure memory as well as their exposition venues; most crucially, it considers the affective structures that drive these practices of remembrance. In addition, it contrasts the efforts to maintain Sorley's posthumous life with Sorley's own poetic meditations on posthumousness. Moving from the months immediately following Sorley's death in 1915 to the first decades of the twenty-first century, the chapter illuminates how the memory work countenanced and solicited by the commemorative practices that have grown up around him changes in its travels over time and location.
Posthumous Was a Woman
Authors: London Bette
Published: January 2023

This chapter examines how A Room of One's Own (1929), Virginia Woolf's foundational study of women's literary history, can be read as a monument to the unmemorialized. It is a commentary on and strategic intervention into the postwar culture of memorialization—a culture that largely excluded women. Woolf's invention of Judith Shakespeare, a poet who never wrote a word and died without fulfilling her potential, stands as a countermonument to the memorials to the Glorious Dead and to the fetishization of the soldier-poet as an emblem of the lost generation. By memorializing someone who never existed, Woolf underlines this exclusion, while demonstrating the drives and mechanisms that deliver the “posthumous” to living communities. This reading of A Room of One's Own participates in a larger project inaugurated by feminist scholars, that of reconsidering what counts as “war literature.” It participates, as well, in an ongoing debate about how modernism and the war speak to each other. The chapter then takes up the question of the hyperpresence of a single woman—Nurse Edith Cavell—in memorial literature and monument constructions.
When the Government Wants to Unmask You
Authors: Kosseff Jeff
Published: January 2023

This chapter explains how the US government may unmask anonymous internet users for grand jury investigations, criminal prosecutions, and regulatory actions. It clarifies how government investigations are constrained by the Fourth Amendment. However, the Fourth Amendment's conception of privacy does not always include anonymity. Similar to copyright lawsuits, government surveillance cases unveil the uneven application of the First Amendment protections. The chapter notes the United States remains the world's leader in protecting anonymity despite copyright and criminal investigations involving anonymity protections having less emphasis in US courts. The chapter covers how the government should be able to uncover the identities of people suspected of distributing child pornography and other illegal and harmful acts without entitling criminal defendants to more anonymity protections than civil litigants.
Technological Protections for Anonymity
Authors: Kosseff Jeff
Published: January 2023

This chapter tackles technological protections for anonymity. While the First Amendment precedent has been essential in creating an atmosphere for online anonymity empowerment in the United States, understanding technology is needed to fully understand anonymity in the United States. The chapter highlights the concept of onion routing protecting anonymity, which involves the Tor browser. On the other hand, Virtual Private Network (VPN) offers services of encrypted tunnels through which people connect to the Internet. The chapter also explains how Tor has done so much benefit for dissidents, whistleblowers, marginalized communities and government intelligence operations. It discusses the correlation between Tor and the First Amendment in terms of legally protecting the anonymity of people.
Anonymity as a Shield
Authors: Kosseff Jeff
Published: January 2023

This chapter explains how anonymity is used as a shield. The blurry line between online activism and journalism sets the tone on how anonymous bloggers are empowered through the ability to hide part or all of their identities. The chapter covers the case of Dissent Doe, wherein anonymity had been crucial to maintaining her day job as a psychologist and engaging in risky speech and journalism that she believed would benefit society. It also discusses the case of MakeThemScared.com; an anonymous group that posted the names and sexual crimes of around seventy-five men amidst the MeToo movement. The commenters of MakeThemScared.com used their anonymity as a shield to protect them from the harmful consequences of speaking out.
Chronicity
Authors: Samimian-Darash Limor
Published: January 2023

This chapter tackles the problematization of scenario thinking from a historical perspective. It looks into the emergence of scenario planning and key shifts in how scenario technology has been used since its inception. The emergence of scenario planning is usually based on Herman Kahn's methodology of scenario thinking, which also involves the use of scenario-related activities in philosophical-literary works, military strategy, and theater. The chapter explores the approaches of Herman Kahn and Pierre Wack representing two different modalities of uncertainty within scenario thinking. It highlights the significance of the element of uncertainty within the scenario technology and how it adapts in different settings.
Exercising
Authors: Samimian-Darash Limor
Published: January 2023

This chapter discusses how scenario narratives are put into practice by analyzing their social enactment and effect in the annual exercises organized by the National Emergency Management Authority. It explains scenarios involving a different approach to the unknown future along with a mode of action that in itself generates uncertainty. Additionally, uncertainty becomes simultaneously expressed in the scenario's form of action or power while being generated through the actual practice of scenarios. The chapter also references Turning Point exercises, wherein the fictional world blurs imagination and reality in the experience of the participant as they need to think and act as if it was a real emergency. The actualization of the exercise would be translated into practice through incidents that have concrete repercussions.
Simulations
Authors: Samimian-Darash Limor
Published: January 2023

This chapter elaborates on scenarios and simulations as distinct forms of governing based on different perceptions of uncertainty and the ability to control the unexpected. It references the joint assessment and detection of events (JADE) exercises carried out by the World Health Organization. Scenarios are designed to address the emerging and unexpected. On the other hand, simulation primarily aims to improve the use of predetermined practices and responses, while simulation-based exercises are designed to enable participants to practice responses from within a closed set of possibilities that have been defined and provided to participants in advance. The chapter clarifies the differences between scenarios and simulations in terms of the degree of openness involved in the two different types of exercise and the role of the uncertain and the unexpected in their practice.
Scenarios, Temporality, And Uncertainty
Authors: Samimian-Darash Limor
Published: January 2023

This chapter explores the correlation between scenarios and temporality. Thinking, imagining, and practicing the future through scenarios manifest in different ways in the context of security, health, and energy, depending on the particular temporality and the conceptualization of future uncertainty in each field. Moreover, the specific temporality of each site is employed in the scenario narratives and exercises and affected the development of different forms of scenario technologies, each with its specific orientation toward uncertainty. The chapter explains how uncertainty is designed through the dynamic of each combination of scenario technique and temporality, which also correlates to scenario planning. It then tackles the temporal orientation of scenarios addressed by the World Health Organization, World Energy Council, and Turning Point.
Wine And Dine
Authors: Neuburger Mary C.
Published: January 2023

This chapter covers the production and consumption of wine in Bulgaria. Under socialism, wine became a core component of Bulgarians' daily diet, but it also triggered contradictions between drinking traditions and temperance despite the mass production and consumption of alcohol. New modes of wine production were accompanied by a newly refined socialist wine culture, which was part and parcel of the larger efforts to modernize or “civilize” the urbanizing peasant masses. Moreover, food and wine became integral for local consumption, export, and the tourist industry under Balkanturist. The chapter explains the notion of pursuing bourgeois pleasures under communism circumscribed by official narratives on consumer and bodily restraint. However, postwar communism had created the conditions of modern urban life wherein drinking had secured an inexorable place.
Further Banking Reforms, 2003–8
Authors: Bell Stephen , Feng Hui
Published: January 2023

This chapter reviews the growth model dynamics and associated banking- and financial-sector changes, as well as growing distortions in the banking system from the early 2000s. This era saw rapid economic growth, spurred by China's entry into the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 2001, which helped spur a phenomenal boom in foreign direct investment, industry development, and exports. The chapter talks about how the exchange rate system was steered toward supporting manufactured exports, which led to major distortions in the interest rate system. It argues that, while reformers were active, they were nevertheless constrained by various political and institutional imperatives, particularly the state's dominance in the banking sector and bureaucratic rivalry between the People's Bank of China (PBC) and the Ministry of Finance. The push for reform by the PBC, as well as a more favorable external context related to WTO entry, supported a degree of institutional change and reform.
The GFC Critical Juncture and the Rise of Shadow Banking
Authors: Bell Stephen , Feng Hui
Published: January 2023

This chapter analyzes China's confrontation with the global financial crisis (GFC) and the stimulus package and credit surge after 2008. The critical juncture saw a surge in largely informal institutional change in the form of a rapid rise in shadow banking activity and the main banks exploring new channels of off-balance-sheet activity in association with the rising shadow banks. The chapter explains how the growth of shadow banking as an institutional shift was not a direct confrontation with the main banks, but instead was more marked by incremental “informal institutional adaptation.” The chapter employs insights from historical institutionalist theory, especially its analysis of critical junctures, to help frame and explain China's developments. It discusses some versions of historical institutionalism that emphasize the hard-to-change, inertial role of institutions and posit change as occurring mainly during crises or critical junctures.
The Stain of the Internal Other
Authors: Kukreja Reena
Published: January 2023

This chapter expounds on the influence of the oppressive and discriminatory caste ideology in people's lives. It covers the burden of low caste (neech jaat) and caste-exclusionary practices. According to Dalit feminism, the intersectionality of the multiple oppressions along the aces of gender, caste, patriarchy, and class has to be placed at the center of any gender–caste–violence discussion. The chapter highlights the taboos of food and association concerning intercaste relations and caste hierarchies. It also considers caste epithets as disciplining tools. Additionally, the cultural assimilation of migrant brides raised issues revolving around the violence of erasing cultural identity. The chapter elaborates on the colorism discrimination, intergenerational racial hierarchy, and stigmatizing label of Biharan.
The New Women And Life In The Urban United States, 1905–1908
Authors: McGarvie Mark Douglas
Published: January 2023

This chapter discusses how railroads had transformed the United States into a dynamic industrial nation. It highlights how Chicago served as the heart of the national railroad network and the cities served as commercial and social centers in a society redesigned by industrial technology. Ironically, cities also exemplified the loss of community that upset so many Americans in the late 1800s. The chapter also analyses how they created a sense of being alone amid thousands of other people—something unimaginable in farming communities or small towns. It then elaborates on the opening of settlement houses which were located in poor or working-class neighborhoods inhabited by recent immigrants to the United States. Settlement houses offered a clean, safe, and free educational environment to men, women, and children in the neighborhood. The chapter looks at how the settlement houses subsequently faced criticism as well. The chapter then focuses on Mary Field Parton's commitment to social reform and her work at the Chicago Commons. It pays attention to Mary's engagement in regular conversations about societal change—discussions of women's rights and suffrage, greater economic equality, and social tolerance.
Roof Pendants
Authors: Nevle Richard J. , Nightingale Steven , Lanas Mattias
Published: January 2023

This chapter focuses on the Sierra Nevada roof pendants. Gazing out across the roof of the Sierra Nevada, one might spy thin black and rust-orange fins of frost-heaved metamorphic rock riding atop bright granite. These fins, known as roof pendants, were travelers once, geologic migrants from the sea. The distinctive chemical compositions of these geologic travelers give rise to thin scrapes of distinctive soils. Such soils, in the austere climatic conditions of high elevation, nurture gardens with delicate wildflowers. Into these Sierra flower gardens wander bees and butterflies and hummingbirds. The chapter then considers the nature of beauty. In most cultures, in every century, beauty is bound up with unity.
Clouds
Authors: Nevle Richard J. , Nightingale Steven , Lanas Mattias
Published: January 2023

This chapter describes the importance of attending to the movement of clouds for a Sierra mountain wanderer. A cloud is a gathering of mist, trillions of droplets of water. As a cloud droplet cools, its liquid chaos comes to order, assembling into crystalline ice. All of this flurrying activity—from the moment a cloud's droplets of mist first begin to freeze, to the precipitation of graupel, and finally to the electrification of the cloud—might take no more than half an hour. The chapter then suggests that clouds are an invitation to bear witness to the unity of earth and sky; an invitation to unify our own lives with the workings of the earth. They demonstrate the principle that must be central to our days: what is taken must be given. It is a dynamic and beautiful lesson in generosity and conduct.
Snow
Authors: Nevle Richard J. , Nightingale Steven , Lanas Mattias
Published: January 2023

This chapter focuses on snow. All forms of snow crystals are some variation on the basic theme of a hexagon, an exterior expression of an internal molecular order, all built from water molecules arranged in interlocked hexagons. A snowflake assembles itself within a cloud as molecules of water condense from vapor. In the obscuring flurry of a Sierra winter storm, the mountains go pale, become a monochrome of gray and white, or disappear altogether. Snow gathers in crooks of tree limbs, clings to pine and fir needles. When at last a winter storm breaks in the Sierra, it moves on to the east to rail against sky-island forests of the Great Basin.
Glacier
Authors: Nevle Richard J. , Nightingale Steven , Lanas Mattias
Published: January 2023

This chapter explores the glaciers of the Sierra Nevada. Like all mountain glaciers, those of the Sierra began high up in the range where massing snow persisted in shadowed mountain cradles through summer. Though glaciers have expanded across and retreated from the range numerous times during the past two-and-a-half million years, the glaciers now in the Sierra emerged only a few centuries ago when California's climate turned cooler and wetter for several hundred years, many millennia after the passage of the last great ice age. Following a glacier's tracks in the Sierra, one must cross sprawling wastelands of moraine if one is to ascend to what might remain of the glacier's frozen body. The chapter then reflects on how glaciers mirror the hidden work of the mind.
Forest
Authors: Nevle Richard J. , Nightingale Steven , Lanas Mattias
Published: January 2023

This chapter highlights the forests of the Sierra Nevada. Eleven thousand years ago, at the end of Earth's most recent glaciation, glaciers sprawled across the range. Forests grew at the Sierra's edges, at much lower elevations than they do today. The migration of forests up and down the Sierra is a slow dance, synchronized with rhythmic cycles in the eccentricity of Earth's orbit and the tilt and wobble of the Earth's rotational axis. Other changes in the Sierra's forest occur much faster. Recent warming in the range, brought on by increasing average global temperature caused by greenhouse gas emissions from human activities, has pushed seedlings of several of the range's iconic conifer species to start putting down roots at elevations more than a hundred meters higher than where they did a century ago. In 2015, when California was in the midst of a brutal, six-year drought, trees of the lower elevations of the Sierra Nevada were beginning to die en masse, particularly in the range's warmer southern regions.
Paintbrush
Authors: Nevle Richard J. , Nightingale Steven , Lanas Mattias
Published: January 2023

This chapter assesses the genus of flowering plants known as Castilleja, the paintbrushes. Species of Castilleja occur throughout the Sierra, from the oak savannas of the lowland foothills to the fragrant conifer forests of the mid-elevations to the sky gardens of the alpine fellfields, blossoming in flames of vermillion and violet and cream and silvery mauve. It is not the flowers' petals that give paintbrushes their colorful fireworks but rather their bracts—specialized leaves that grow underneath the petals. Meanwhile, the job of a paintbrush's roots is not so much to independently mine the soil for what they need, but to find their way through subterranean blackness toward the roots of other plants. In this sense, the root of the paintbrush might be described more accurately as a haustorium, derived from the Latin haustor—one who drinks, one who takes in nourishment.
Loss, Grief, and Reckonings
Authors: Exeler Franziska
Published: January 2023

This chapter covers the personal responses to the aftermath of the Nazi occupation, which included the investigation and evaluation of a person's wartime behavior. It also discusses the Soviet officials preoccupied with the people's political loyalty to post-war Belarus. Since the urge for justice and retribution was shared widely, people tend to pursue the endeavor by helping the state, demanding restitution of property, writing letters to party leaders, and violence. However, people often sever ties with others that are suspected of wartime wrongdoing. The chapter then explains how personal responses to wartime behaviors affected social interactions, career prospects, and post-war belonging.
Introducing Intimacy, Violence, and Subaltern Politics
Authors: Jensen Steffen Bo , Hapal Karl
Published: January 2023

This chapter explores a place called Bagong Silang at a time of great distress and extraordinary transformation. It explores the extent to which communal intimacy and violent politics are animated by the drug war and how state violence folds itself into intimate communal relationality. It also uses the concepts of communal intimacy and the violence of politics as ways to understand how the drug war took root in Bagong Silang. The chapter begins with a discussion of the time before the war on drugs and then moves into an account of how a specific issue either structured or was structured by the drug war. The chapter highlights the drug war in the larger structures of Bagong Silang and Philippine violent politics beyond the present moment.
Start of a Streak
Authors: Swezey Christian
Published: January 2023

This chapter provides an overview of the 1976 National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) season. It also elaborates on Cornell's pre-season preparations and profiles of some players, such as David Bray, Frank Urso, Chris Kane, and Bill Marino. Cornell's season began with an opening match against Adelphi, which had been known to be an NCAA tournament participant the previous season. The regular season ended early in May after Cornell and Maryland remained undefeated in their respective line-ups. However, Kane had been out for the season due to a shoulder injury. Cornell ultimately won the Ivy League title despite the struggles in its final regular-season game. The chapter highlights the anticipation for the match between both undefeated teams, especially after Maryland defeated its rival Navy in the semi-finals.
La Crise
Authors: Matlon Jordanna
Published: January 2023

This chapter starts with a discussion on how ideological moments of Blackness are refracted through the Black male body—laboring or not—in the city, the locus of capitalist modernity in Africa. The chapter recounts a period of economic stasis, protracted civil war, and political interregnum, precipitated by the debt crisis and the fall of commodity prices. Abidjan entered the twenty-first century with nearly 75 percent of its working-age population involved in the informal economy. The chapter unfolds the similar patterns of un- and underemployment that have occurred for Black men in postindustrial cities in the global North and together reflect the “disposability” of Black men in late capitalism. It theorizes that men on both sides of the Black Atlantic, formerly positioned as exploited and undervalued labor, have now entered an economic regime of overwhelming exclusion. The chapter argues that imaginaries that circulate throughout the Black Atlantic structure how men express their lived experiences, narrating their livelihood strategies and shaping their lifestyles.
VIP Imaginaries
Authors: Matlon Jordanna
Published: January 2023

This chapter explores peripheral Abidjan—the streets and intersections where vendors peddled their goods and the leisure spaces and social worlds where they escaped the stigma of their trade. Vending was a marginalizing activity designated outside the realm of work and deemed inappropriate for men and citizens. To contend with this stigma, the chapter looks at how vendors employed coping strategies from denial to resignification. It emphasizes how several vendors identified with activities outside of work, aspiring to realize hobby-based alter egos that mirrored the livelihoods and lifestyles of mass-media tropes, namely those of iconic athletes and musicians. The chapter unravels how vendors developed an Abidjanais vernacular that circumvented established narratives of évolué identity to articulate an urban belonging that connected their experiences to a Black Atlantic periphery. Like the Sorbonne's orators, vendors constructed aspirational identities in masculine spaces.
Reflections on Intersections/Infrastructure
Authors: Matlon Jordanna
Published: January 2023

This chapter explores the politics of the author's positionality in the field. It reflects on the author's fieldwork experiences with Abidjanais men. It also considers how the author's identity as an African American woman entailed for them a direct encounter with elsewhere: an imagined global conceived simultaneously as a space of creativity, possibility, and disillusionment. The chapter highlights how the friction of the ethnographic encounter demonstrates how the intersectionalities of the author's race (or more precisely, the distinct facets of diaspora and color), gender, class, and nationality at times collaborated and at times opposed one another, creating varied situational power equilibria between her and the subjects of her study. Finally, the chapter looks at how the author's ethnographic encounter gave tangible form and texture to an intersection at opposite ends of the global divide. It was an intersection of disparate realities and a shared Black Atlantic imaginary, the crossing unevenly patrolled by the stop-go-yield traffic signals of our media age.
Mixed Families and the Russian Language
Authors: Edgar Adrienne
Published: January 2023

This chapter reviews the language used among mixed families, who were more likely than monoethnic families to use Russian, the Soviet lingua franca, as their primary language. The result was a frequent disconnect between official nationality and language use for many ethnically mixed children. It talks about the tendency of families to use Russian as their primary language, which was one of the characteristics that caused them to be portrayed in glowing terms as the most Soviet of all Soviet families. The chapter examines the policy of korenizatsiia, or nativization, first formulated in the 1920s, which insisted on the importance of indigenous languages for all Soviet nationalities. It explores the strong incentives for people to acquire Russian-language proficiency in non-Russian republics and the promotion of Russian as the Soviet lingua franca had intensified over time.
Geographic Orientations and the Rise of the Fatimids
Authors: King Matt
Published: January 2023

This chapter examines the geographical context in which the Zirids and Normans operated by analyzing the topography, climate, and borders of medieval Ifriqiya and Sicily. The ambiguous boundaries of Ifriqiya in both Arabic and Latin sources make it difficult to quantify the extent of power among medieval dynasties ruling in the region, especially outside of coastal urban centers. The Aghlabids, Fatimids, Zirids, and Normans nonetheless benefited from the wealth produced by substantial commercial networks that passed between Ifriqiya and Sicily, including profitable long-distance trade that originated in sub-Saharan Africa. The Zirids stood to inherit this wealth by virtue of their service to the Fatimid dynasty, a Shiʻa group whose apocalyptic message was well received in much of Ifriqiya and the Maghreb. When the Fatimids moved their capital from Ifriqiya to Egypt at the end of the tenth century, they appointed their loyal Zirid generals as emirs of Ifriqiya—thus initiating Zirid rule in the region.
The Contest for Sicily in the Eleventh Century
Authors: King Matt
Published: January 2023

This chapter details the early history of the Zirid dynasty and its initial interactions with the Normans. On their appointment as emirs of Ifriqiya, the Zirids waged perennial wars against rival tribes across northwest Africa and eventually met their match in the form of the Banu Hilal, who drove the Zirids from their inland capital of Sabra al-Mansuriya to the coastal stronghold of Mahdia in the middle of the eleventh century. The displacement of the Zirids to coastal Ifriqiya reoriented their foreign policy toward the Mediterranean and especially Sicily, where they sought to expand their power. Zirid armies arrived on the island and made alliances with local rulers, as did another group of enterprising newcomers to Sicily: the Normans. In a handful of military encounters between the two dynasties, the Normans emerged victorious and forced Zirid armies off the island. Nonetheless, both groups eventually decided that conflict was less profitable than mutually beneficial trade, which led to the establishment of a commercial partnership between them.
The End of the Emirate and the Beginning of the Kingdom
Authors: King Matt
Published: January 2023

This chapter explores the events leading to the collapse of the Zirid dynasty in 543H (1148–49) and the foundation of the Norman kingdom of Africa. Relations between the two dynasties largely stabilized after the Battle of al-Dimas, as the Zirids looked to expand their power in Ifriqiya and the Normans campaigned in southern Italy. The Normans were far more successful in their expeditions than the Zirids, who, having lost their Almoravid and local Arab allies, were forced to turn to the Normans for aid when Mahdia was besieged in 529H (1134–35). This Zirid–Norman victory proved pivotal in the history of the two dynasties, for it marked the beginning of a gradual ascent of Norman control over the affairs of coastal Ifriqiya. In the years after 529H (1134–35), Roger II and his admiral George of Antioch used Ifriqiya's exploitable dependence on Sicilian grain to their advantage. The Zirids, meanwhile, proved unable to muster sufficient support to assert their larger Mediterranean ambitions. This political fracturing was compounded by a nearly decade-long drought in Ifriqiya that brought hardship, emigration, and death to the Zirids and other local lords. These factors allowed the opportunistic Normans to conquer the littoral of Ifriqiya from Tripoli up to Tunis by 1148, thus forming the Norman kingdom of Africa.
The Fall of Norman Africa and the Legacy of Zirid–Norman Interactions
Authors: King Matt
Published: January 2023

This chapter addresses how local governors, drawing on a regional tradition of holy war against Christians and prevailing legal opinions from Maliki scholars, revolted against Norman rule during the mid-1150s and reduced Norman governance in the region to Mahdia, Zawila, and Sousse. The final blow to Norman Africa came courtesy of the Almohads from the Maghreb, who conquered Mahdia and ended Norman rule in Ifriqiya in 554H (1159–60). The Almohads instituted policies of forced deportation for many Ifriqiyan tribal leaders, which fundamentally realigned the regional political landscape. In Sicily, meanwhile, William I made no effort to reconquer his lost African possessions, and his successors instead forged lucrative trading contracts with the Almohads during the 1180s. Although medieval Christian authors paid little attention to the rise and fall of Norman Africa, Muslim writers like Ibn al-Athir and Ibn Khaldun kept alive the memory of Zirid–Norman conflict by presenting Norman aggression as one theater of a monolithic “Frankish” assault on the lands of Islam that spanned the Mediterranean.
Epilogue
Authors: King Matt
Published: January 2023

This epilogue highlights how the historical memory of the intertwining histories of the Zirids and Normans has been uneven. While exchanges between the two dynasties were forgotten in the realm of Latin Christendom, they became part of a larger narrative told by Muslim authors about Frankish aggression against the lands of Islam, which persisted through the end of the Middle Ages. In modern discourse, however, the emphasis has shifted to a Norman-centric approach that has largely sidelined the Zirids as an object of foreign conquest. This approach has done a disservice to the understanding of both dynasties. The integrated history of the Zirids and Normans has shown the degree of connectivity between them and, moreover, the meaningful power that the Zirids wielded in the Mediterranean even after their lands were reduced in size during the mid-eleventh century. As the study of the Middle Ages emerges from centuries of Eurocentric scholarship, it is likewise fitting for the Zirids and other Ifriqiyan dynasties to emerge from the colonial shadow of the Banu Hilal and into larger conversations about their role in shaping the medieval world.
Introduction
Authors: Yamagishi Takakazu
Published: January 2023

This introductory chapter lays the groundwork for an understanding of how the Japanese health care system developed. By looking at Japan through a lens of historical institutionalism—with its emphasis on how, through timing and sequence, institutions affect policy preference, strategy, and norms of political actors—the chapter shows how new health care policies arise and change. To begin, the chapter explains how the Japanese health care system compares with the systems of other developed countries. Next, it reveals the theoretical framework used for understanding the policy development mechanism. After that, Tarō Takemi, an important figure in Japanese health care history, is discussed. Finally, this chapter provides a historical overview of health care policy at the end of the Tokugawa shogunate in order to understand the institutional and political contexts of the Meiji government.
Improving People’s Health for War
Authors: Yamagishi Takakazu
Published: January 2023

This chapter shows how health care policy became part of the national defense. This critical juncture induced involvement in the health care policymaking process by an unusual actor: the military. When the government expanded its war fronts and intensified its war mobilization efforts, the Japan Medical Association (JMA) could not resist government demands and was eventually forced to become a state entity. The government passed legislation creating new public health insurance programs and drastically changed the overall health care system. Because of the war, the government could do what it could not have done in peacetime. Although preexisting health care institutions and policies influenced the government's policy choices and speed of action, the war was a critical juncture in the development of Japan's health insurance approach and affected subsequent policy developments.