bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Imprisonment and punishment
Authors: Ikuteyijo Lanre Olusegun
Published: January 2013

Migration has been traditionally defined as the movement of people from one geographical location to another. However, there have been various modifications to this definition over the years, but the standard definition is the one given by The Hague Process which defines a migrant as someone who is undergoing a semi or permanent change in residence, which involves a change in his/her social, economic and/or cultural environment. Migration or mobility is an integral part of human nature. People have moved for various reasons over the years, and people will continue to move as long as man exists. Scholars have come up with various reasons for human movements which could be reduced to two broad concepts;
push
and
pull
factors. The pull factors include forces which attract the individual to certain places and these could include employment, economic prosperity, human security, and others too numerous to mention. On the other hand, push factors in migration include unfavorable forces that tend to repel people from a particular place and these could include inclement weather, conflict, insecurity, unemployment, among other factors. Another way of delineating migration is in terms of the willingness or otherwise of the individual in embarking on the voyage. In that case, we talk about
voluntary
and
involuntary
migration. While voluntary migration depicts a situation whereby the individual leaves the place of origin willingly, involuntary migration depicts a situation whereby the individual's movement involves one form of coercion or another.
India–Pakistan Partition 1947 and forced migration
Authors: Zamindar Vazira Fazila‐Yacoobali
Published: January 2013

The end of British colonial rule in India on August 14/15, 1947 was accompanied by the political partition of the Indian subcontinent into two independent nation‐states – India and Pakistan. This process of partitioning and drawing new political boundaries was marked by catastrophic violence in large parts of north India, particularly the province of Punjab, and led to an unprecedented mass displacement of people that stretched into the ensuing decades. While numbers vary, it is estimated that up to one million people were killed during the violence in 1947, and around 50,000 women were abducted. Some 12 million people were displaced in the divided province of Punjab alone, and up to 20 million in the subcontinent as a whole. Thus the India–Pakistan Partition resulted in one of the largest forced migrations of the 20th century.
India, medieval era migrations
Authors: Schmiedchen Annette
Published: January 2013

The term “India” will be used to denote the geographical extent of premodern Indian culture, comprising mainly the territories of the present Indian Union, Pakistan, and Bangladesh, but also Nepal and Sri Lanka. The Middle Ages in India were particularly characterized by migrations of political‐military, economic, and religious motivations. There is plenty of evidence for migrations to and within India, as well as – although to a lesser degree – from India to other regions.
India, migration 1940s to present
Authors: Khadria Binod
Published: January 2013

According to a 1979 Indian Ministry of External Affairs estimate, the number of persons of Indian origin residing abroad was 10.7 million (Weiner 1982). This number was substantial but represented merely 1.6 percent of India's population at that time. By the close of the 20th century, an almost double 20 million‐strong
stock
of Indian migrants abroad was recorded, representing approximately 2 percent of the country's more than 1 billion population. This comprised roughly half “nonresident Indians” – NRIs, still holding Indian citizenship, and half “persons of Indian origin” – PIOs, who were naturalized citizens of their countries of abode. In modern era terminology, the two together are referred to as the “Indian diaspora,” as in the
Report of the High‐Level Committee on Indian Diaspora
(ICWA 2001). No qualitative group classification of the global distribution of “Indian diaspora” is available beyond broad country and regional quantitative distribution, the latter presented in Figure 1. These one‐off stock estimates are not complemented by flow data.
Indian emigration, 1947 to present
Authors: Bhalla Vibha
Published: January 2013

Large‐scale migration from India began in 1947 after India's independence from the United Kingdom. A substantial proportion of Indian migrants are highly educated, skilled professionals in science‐based fields, especially physicians, engineers, and computer scientists, who have migrated to economically developed nations, predominantly the United States, the United Kingdom, and Canada. Since the 1970s, semiskilled and unskilled workers have also been migrating to the oil‐producing countries in the Middle East. The two migrant flows vary immensely: migrants to the developed nations have the right to citizenship and family reunification and consequently have settled permanently in these nations. In sharp contrast, migration to the Middle East nations is predominantly temporary, and composed primarily of men who rarely have the right to migrate with their families. The largest number of Indian migrants can be found in the United States (1,678,765), the United Kingdom (1,200,000), Canada, (851,000), and Australia (190,000). Indian migrants to the Middle East are predominantly in Saudi Arabia (1,500,000), followed by the United Arab Emirates (950,000), Oman (312,000), Kuwait (295,000), Qatar (131,000), and Bahrain (312,000).
Indians in Myanmar/Burma, assimilation and integration
Authors: Hellmann‐Rajanayagam Dagmar
Published: January 2013

Indians have migrated to Burma for centuries, as they have to the rest of Southeast Asia. (The country was known as Burma until 1990, when the ruling regime changed its name to Myanmar.) Buddhism is supposed to have been brought from South India and Sri Lanka, and there exists a theory (albeit unproven) that the language of the Pyu, who are considered the harbingers of Buddhism in Burma, and that of the Mon, arrived from South India. Trade between both areas was conducted over land and sea, between Bengal/Assam and the Rakhine. Besides, the northern areas were for centuries contested between the rulers of Assam and of Burma and later between the British and the Burmese kings. Control over Manipur, especially, changed hands frequently.
Indochina, migration mid‐20th century to present
Authors: Hein Jeremy
Published: January 2013

Modern migration from former French Indochina will forever be associated with two words: “boat people.” The media coined the phrase in the late 1970s (Grant 1979). It evokes the plight of the Vietnamese men, women, and children who paid huge fees for a spot on overcrowded fishing boats crossing stormy seas to reach Malaysia and adjacent countries in Southeast Asia. Tens of thousands drowned or endured robbery and assault by Thai pirates. Refugees from Laos and Cambodia joined this exodus (Wain 1981). The Lao and highland ethnic groups such as the Hmong, Mien, and Khmu evaded Laotian military patrols and then crossed the Mekong River to reach the comparative safety of Thailand. Cambodians experienced an even more traumatic escape. After four years of slave labor, they traversed minefields and combat zones, and then bribed bandits along both sides of the Thai–Cambodian border.
Indonesia, migration 1969 to present
Authors: Firdausy Carunia Mulya
Published: January 2013

International human migration is not a new phenomenon in Indonesia. Although there is no detailed historical evidence in terms of documents or other materials, archeological studies have suggested that movements or intermigration of people in Malayo‐Polynesian regions (including present‐day Malaysia and Indonesia) had taken place as early as 500
BCE
(Tirtosudarmo 1996). It was not until the 1970s that a detailed record of international human migration, particularly that of migrant workers, has been officially available, when the government deployed 5,600 workers overseas in the first Five‐Year Development Plan, Repelita I (1969–74).
Internal migration: an overview
Authors: Finney Nissa
Published: January 2013

Internal migration is the movement of people that involves a change of usual residence within a specified bounded area, usually a country. Internal migration is also referred to as residential mobility. Traditionally, a distinction has been drawn between internal and international migration. However, King and Skeldon 2010: 1521 argue that “the ‘boundary’ between internal and international migration can easily become blurred” because, despite the political importance of the state, the forces of internal and international migration are similar.
International migration and social theory
Authors: O'Reilly Karen
Published: January 2013

There is little doubt that international migration has been increasing especially since the 1980s, perhaps doubling since then in terms of absolute numbers (Castles & Miller 2009). Migration also continually changes shape, form, direction, and content to such an extent that it is no longer possible to provide encompassing typologies of migrants, flows, destinations, or outcomes. Migration has become a
normal
feature of contemporary societies: a global phenomenon of flows and counterflows; geographical fluidity as opposed to population shifts; ongoing daily processes as opposed to unique events. Coincidentally, academic research on migration has drawn the attention of a host of disciplines, including sociology and anthropology, human geography and demography, politics and international relations, and even cultural studies and the arts. It has also become something of a sub‐discipline in its own right, albeit with somewhat differential treatment depending on the (inter‐)disciplinary perspective being employed. This has led to a “tremendous amount of empirical knowledge” (Bommes & Morawska 2005: 2), and an eclectic approach when it comes to theory (Brettell & Hollifield 2008).
International Standards and Processes for the Protection of Migrant Rights
Authors: Cholewinski Ryszard
Published: January 2013

The movement of people in the world today is closely regulated by nation‐states even in the current wave of globalization where goods, capital, and services circulate increasingly freely. Determining which non‐nationals may enter and reside on their territory is an aspect of sovereignty jealously guarded by states. It is not surprising, therefore, that there is no international treaty or global system of rules regulating the movement of people, although exceptions are found in regional contexts such as the European Union (EU) where all persons within the 27 EU member states (with the exception of the United Kingdom and Ireland) can freely cross borders, and nationals of EU member states can take up employment and reside in other member states with very few restrictions.
Internment camps and migration
Authors: Neumann Klaus
Published: January 2013

Internment is the imprisonment of individuals or groups of people without charge or trial. Historically, there have been seven types of internment. All are associated with wars or war‐like situations. They include: (1) the imprisonment of belligerent forces in neutral countries (as happened, for example, during the Franco‐Prussian war of 1870–71 when a French army crossed into neutral Switzerland and was interned there); (2) the detention of former combatants unwilling or unable to return to their home country (as happened, for example, between 1939 and 1940, when France interned about 270,000 former members of the Spanish Republican army); (3) the imprisonment of enemy civilians in their own country, either during a war (as happened, for instance, in 1896 when the Spanish military interned Cuban peasants during the War of Independence) or after it (as happened, for example, when in the aftermath of World War II the Soviet Union and the Western Allies set up internment camps in occupied Germany to imprison German Nazis); (4) the imprisonment of deportees from occupied territories (for example, during World War I, Belgian civilians were forcibly removed to Germany and ethnic German civilians were deported from Russian Poland to Siberia); (5) the detention of refugees (for example, the internment of Polish refugees in Austria during the 1863 revolt in Russian Poland); (6) the imprisonment of citizens during wartime on account of their political views; and (7) the imprisonment of immigrants and temporary residents because their, or their parents', country of residence is at war with their country of origin and/or nationality. This entry is largely concerned with the last type of internment.
Iranian Zoroastrian diaspora
Authors: Foltz Richard
Published: January 2013

Zoroastrianism was the state religion of Iran prior to the Arab Muslim conquests in the mid‐7th century. From that time onwards ever‐increasing numbers of Iranians converted to Islam, for a wide range of reasons including, but not limited to, positive inducements such as economic or social benefits and negative ones such as persecution. Within a few centuries Zoroastrians were reduced to a tiny minority in the land where their faith originated.
Islam and migration
Authors: Naqvi Tahir H.
Published: January 2013

The obligation to migrate (classical Arabichijra, lit. to abandon) is an important doctrine within the Islamic tradition. Debate exists within classical and modernist strains of Islamic scholarship about its ethical meaning, its relation to definitions of individual and community, and its relevance to Muslims in the contemporary global age. Within the Islamic tradition, migration is a form of religious and political action that seeks to achieve moral and/or physical distance from evil, ignorance, and the absence of true belief.
Italy: migration 1815 to present
Authors: Maccari‐Clayton Federica Bertagna and Marina
Published: January 2013

No country captures the global nature of international population movements better than Italy. Italian emigrants accounted for about 10 percent of all international population movements between 1814 and the outbreak of World War I (Gabaccia 2000). Italian emigration endured two world wars, the Great Depression, and 20 years of fascist dictatorship; it resumed at the end of World War II and remained sustained until the early 1970s. Since the last quarter of the 20th century, Italy has become a major receiver for immigrants from all over the world, and in 2008 it ranked fourth among the European Union member states for number of immigrants, surpassed only by Spain, Germany, and the United Kingdom (EUROSTAT 2011).
Japan: collapse of empire and repatriation
Authors: Araragi Shinzo
Published: January 2013

From the second half of the 19th century to the first half of the 20th century, Japan was an migrant‐sending country. The emigration consisted of three different movements, which took place almost concurrently: (1) emigration to the Americas, (2) settlement in colonies of the Japanese empire and within its sphere of influence, and (3) emigration to Asian countries outside its sphere of influence. At the same time, Japan was an immigrant‐receiving country, attracting a large number of people from its colonies in the 1920s.
Japan: Korean Zainichi migration
Authors: Tonomura Masaru
Published: January 2013

Zainichi
, according to its original denotation in Japan, refers to “being in Japan.” However, in post‐World War II Japan, the word “Zainichi” almost always signifies people of Korean descent residing in Japan. Most significantly, “Zainichi” has become a universal term to designate Koreans who reside in Japan as they constitute the vast majority of foreign residents “being in Japan.” As a consequence, most Japanese have taken for granted that the term “Zainichi” indicates that a person is Korean. As use of the word has become more widespread, the designation is used by Koreans themselves, followed by “Kankokujin” if from South Korea or “Chosenjin” if from North Korea.
Japan: medieval era migrations
Authors: Vollmer Klaus
Published: January 2013

In accounts of Japanese history and of contemporary Japanese culture and society the fact that Japan is an island country is often very much emphasized. Discourses on “Japanese uniqueness” which form the bulk of highly popular and very prolific so‐callednihonron(discourses on Japan) highlight the consequences of this alleged geographical isolation: Japanese society and culture are portrayed as being ethnically and socially homogeneous due to a long history of isolation which resulted in a peculiar cultural development allegedly “undisturbed” by much external influence. In contrast to the history of mainland northeast Asia or continental Eurasia, with their extensive record of invasions and large‐scale migration, this narrative points to the period of “closed country” (sakokuin Japanese) from the mid‐17th through the mid‐19th century as Japan's somewhat archetypical experience. In these 200 or so years which correspond to Japan's early modern period foreign relations were strictly regulated and severely limited: foreigners were not allowed to enter the country and no Japanese was allowed to travel abroad.
Jewish migration, medieval era
Authors: Toch Michael
Published: January 2013

In the Middle Ages (500–1500CE) as in Antiquity and in the modern age, the history of the Jewish people was to a large degree shaped by migration (see DellaPergola 1997, for an overview). Each period knew different patterns of migration and each related to this existential condition in contrasting ways, be it asdiaspora, the Greek word usually used for voluntary dispersion, or as Galut (“exile” in Hebrew) for forced scattering. The period covered here saw the foundation by migration of the three major divisions that make up the Jewish people today: Ashkenazim of Central and Eastern European extraction; Sephardim of Spanish/Portuguese origin and later residents of the Ottoman empire from the Balkans to North Africa; and an Oriental Jewry encompassing both Middle Eastern and North African communities. There are also groupings whose arrival predates the Middle Ages: parts of Italian Jewry, the Yemenites, the Jews of the Caucasus area; and numerically and culturally dominant into the Middle Ages, the Jewish populations throughout the Middle East, most notably in Israel/Palestine, Babylonia (Iraq), and Egypt.
Labor force participation
Authors: Couton Philippe
Published: January 2013

One of the salient features of international migration during the period from the end of World War II to the present is its very close relationship with labor markets, in both receiving and sending countries. Entirely new work‐related categories of immigrants have emerged during that period, such as theGastarbeitersin Germany, theouvriers immigrésin France, and the various flows of temporary farm laborers in the United States and Canada. Migration has always been strongly influenced by labor demand and supply, of course, but never to the extent of the recent past. The great migration flows that preceded this era were more often the product of political, religious, or demographic forces rather than primarily motivated by labor‐market considerations. These include the large flows of religious dissenters foundational to the United States in its early history, and the sporadic but often massive movements of political refugees throughout the world (including postrevolutionaryémigrésfrom France, Loyalists into Canada, colonists throughout the New World who often fled or were relocated there for political reasons, and so on). One of the largest population transfers the world has ever known – the forced migration of African slaves to the Americas and Europe – was a vast trade of forced labor, but even this particular process stands far apart from the current labor‐centric context: it was perceived and treated more as an exchange of “goods” than a migration flow involving social and cultural dimensions. Only later did the descendants of the African slave trade slowly become part of the social fabric of the societies they were forcibly relocated to, often after bitter conflicts that profoundly marked the societies confronted with the humanity of their former chattels.
Labor migration: an overview
Authors: Ness Immanuel
Published: January 2013

For over a century, assessments of labor migration have been rooted in classical political economy, which diagnose the individual relative advantages and motivations for moving to a new location for personal gain. These calculations by migrants are often referred to as push–pull factors, emphasizing superior survival conditions in destination regions. The recurring perspective is that those individuals who are most skilled will migrate to improve their standard of living. While the incentive to migrate ostensibly contributes to new working opportunities, training, and development, little consideration is given to those factors producing poverty in the regions of departure or the genuine potential for poverty in the destination regions (Todaro 1977). It is rooted in scientific abstraction rather than a historical and comparative examination of the factors that have propelled migration in different eras (Borjas 1989). By some means, in the ideal capitalist society, labor migration will almost always transpire on the basis of ensuring the creation of labor‐market equilibrium.
Labor migration and worker organization, global North and global South
Authors: Munck Ronaldo
Published: January 2013

This essay takes up both the challenges and the opportunities that labor migration poses for the organized labor movement. Labor has been dramatically restructured over the last quarter of a century but there are no signs of labor recomposition as trade unions seek different paths toward revitalization. Increasingly, the movement of workers across national boundaries might create divisions and can be deployed to undermine existing labor standards. However, we pose the possibility that it might also be a source of trade union revitalization, bringing in new members with new ideas but also creating a dynamic for raising labor standards rather than lowering them. In brief, internationalism begins at home.
Language and migration: perspectives and experiences
Authors: Carnevale Nancy C.
Published: January 2013

Immigrants have always had to contend with language. Even internal migrants may be faced with different languages. India, to take one example of a country with significant levels of internal migration, is home to some two dozen official languages and hundreds of “mother tongues” reflecting the country's tremendous cultural diversity that includes languages that are not native to the subcontinent. Migrants who share the language of their host country still encounter linguistic variations. While each circumstance is unique, immigrant encounters with language around the globe, p and present, have some common features.
Language rights
Authors: Rodríguez Cristina M.
Published: January 2013

Migration creates linguistic pluralism within immigrant‐receiving states, and migrants frequently encounter linguistic barriers upon entry and resettlement into new societies. Immigrant‐receiving states therefore confront the need for a language policy, to address utilitarian communication challenges, and to help ensure social cohesion in the face of demographic change.
Latin America: migration flows to the United States
Authors: Gouveia Lourdes
Published: January 2013

For much of its history, Latin America was a region of significant in‐migration. The number of Spanish and Portuguese people who settled in the region during the first century of colonization was rather unimpressive (less than 350,000 between 1500 and 1600) (Munck 2003). In contrast, African slaves in Latin America numbered in the millions by the end of the colonial era and were nearly 20 times the number brought to the United States (Gates 2011). Migration from Europe to Latin America dramatically increased after the 17th century and, most significantly, after the wars of independence in the late 1800s (Nugent 1996). Latin America emerged as a land of opportunity and open‐door policies by the dawn of the 20th century.
Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender (LGBT) migration
Authors: Yue Audrey
Published: January 2013

Lesbian gay bisexual transgender (LGBT) migration is synonymous with the framework of “sexual migration,” a term coined to refer to the “international relocation that is motivated, directly or indirectly, by the sexuality of those who migrate” (Carrillo 2004: 59). This framework removes the strict focus on economic motivations that dominate mainstream migration accounts on why people choose to relocate, and draws attention to the importance of sexuality in the life goals of LGBTs. The decision to migrate “may evolve from the desire to continue a romantic relationship with a foreign national or may be connected to hopes of exploring sexual desires or gender identity transformation. Sexual migration may also be necessary to avoid persecution, or it may be simply a search for more hospitable environs and sexual equality” (Howe et al. 2008: 33). These motivations highlight three issues central to sexual migration: the regulation of LGBT migration, the intersections of race and sexuality in home and host countries, and changing formations of kinship and community. They also resonate with “the queer political economy of migration” approach (Cantá 2009: 21) where “queer” is an umbrella term to refer to LGBTs, as well as a theoretical concept that disrupts normative ideologies and institutions. Emphasizing anti‐heteronormativity, the term “queer migration” (Luibhéid & Cantá 2005) is also inclusive of other groups such as transnational sex workers and irregular migrants (Yue 2009).
Links between internal and international migration
Authors: Vullnetari Julie
Published: January 2013

Amongst the range of dichotomies that divide migration studies, perhaps the most significant is that between internal and international migration. This essay is a modest contribution to narrowing this divide and, to this end, it does three things. First, it maps out some of the key differences, similarities, and links between these two migration types. Second, building on previous literature, it presents a perspective that could provide a platform which would integrate the study of internal and international migration. And, third, it illustrates these analyses with empirical material from research in Albania. The article argues for an integrative approach of both migration types, particularly imperative from the perspective of less developed countries, where internal and international trajectories are integral parts of the complex livelihood strategies for individuals and households.
Literature and globalization
Authors: Condé Maryse
Published: January 2013

I write neither in French nor in Creole. I write in Maryse Condé.
Literature and migration
Authors: Sievers Wiebke
Published: January 2013

Migration and literature have been inextricably linked since antiquity at least when several authors, including Cicero, Ovid, and Seneca, lived in exile and discussed this topic in their works, anticipating many of the ideas that have pervaded migrant writing up to the present day (Gaertner 2007). Many large‐scale migratory movements over the last centuries also involved or produced writers. Such movements laid the basis for the literatures of the Americas and of Australia as we know them today – to the detriment of existing indigenous traditions – and for numerous diasporic literatures ranging from Jewish writing in Spanish America (Sosnowski 2004) to Korean writing in Japan (Kim 2005). But writers have also taken less‐trodden paths and chosen to live in exile in order to gain a critical distance from their home countries and to gather new impetus for their writing, as many American authors, such as Gertrude Stein or Ernest Hemingway, did in Paris during the interwar years (Green 2011).
Malaysia, migration, 1970s to present
Authors: Hugo Graeme
Published: January 2013

Malaysia is a leading international migration nation, not only within the Southeast Asian region but in a global context. A recent World Bank (2008) report listed the world's major immigration and emigration nations. Malaysia ranks in the top 30 countries in the world for both immigration and emigration. While all countries have both immigration and emigration flows, Malaysia is one of the few nations in the world where both inflows and outflows are on a substantial scale (others include Thailand and New Zealand).
Marriage migration
Authors: Lee Hye‐Kyung
Published: January 2013

The term “marriage migration” falls within the broad category of international family migration, under the subgroup of family‐formation migration. This essay briefly overviews how terminology and perspectives on marriage migration have changed in the world over time, and then reviews the current driving forces and patterns of marriage migration with a particular focus on the Asian experience. The acceleration of the process of globalization in the 21st century has led to a marked increase in the incidence of marriage migration; however, marriage migration was previously neglected in academic and policy research on international migration, largely due to the field's emphasis on either individual‐based or economic‐based labor migration. More recently, as the feminization of migration has become more apparent and the incidences of family‐formation migration have increased, marriage migration has become the subject of considerable scholarly research and of pressing concern to policymakers across the world.
Marxist theories of migration
Authors: Vogel Richard D.
Published: January 2013

Marxist theories of migration examine the relocation of people from one region or country to another in response to the economic forces at play in a specific historical context. These theories are based on historical materialism, a method of inquiry developed by Karl Marx in his early work and applied rigorously to a wide array of economic and political issues. In his unrivaled intellectual biography of Karl Marx, Isaiah Berlin observed, “He [Marx] did not regard it as a new philosophical system so much as a practical method of social and historical analysis, and a basis for political strategy” (1996: 89). Although Marx never published a comprehensive exposition of historical materialism, he summarized the basic principles quite succinctly:
Mediterranean ancient migrations, 2000–1BCE
Authors: Isayev Elena
Published: January 2013

The Mediterranean is a composite of multiple micro‐regions, which is the perfect environment for movement of people and goods. A highly mobile culture is what Horden and Purcell show to be the norm for ancient communities that surrounded theCorrupting Sea2000. Already in the second millenniumBCEthere is evidence of well‐established networks of connectivity. Pottery produced in one location, such as the distinctively painted ceramics of Mycenae, appears at sites hundreds of miles away, and mixed cargos found on shipwrecks. The so‐called Ulu Burun wreck, which sank off the coast of modern Turkey in the Bronze Age, carried goods from far reaching destinations including Bulgaria, Spain, Italy, Cyprus, Egypt, and the Levant. The vessel was probably piloted by Phoenicians and Greeks, who were the main distributors of resources in this period, and the most visible in the material record as setting up new settlements well into the first millenniumBCE.
Mediterranean medieval era colonizations
Authors: König Daniel G.
Published: January 2013

Colonization is a multifaceted phenomenon which features many variants situated between the “classical model” of Greek colonization and the standard pattern of modern colonialism. In the first case a mother city emits colonists to create an outpost in another region. In the second case a nation‐state imposes itself on another country or region with the aid of sophisticated military and administrative machinery which is used to exploit the colony for economic and strategic reasons and to the benefit of the mother country. A standardized definition of the term, accepted by historians working on all periods from Antiquity to our times, does not exist: The lowest common denominator which describes colonization as the spatial expansion of a social system seems as vague as the arbitrary classification of various forms of migration and expansion as colonization (Torró 2000).
Melting pot theory
Authors: Maddern Stacy Warner
Published: January 2013

The melting pot theory has been used to describe societies that are formed by an assortment of immigrant cultures that eventually produce new hybrid social and cultural forms. The melting pot theory holds that, like metals melted together at great heat, the melting together of several cultures will produce a new compound, one that has great strength and other combined advantages. While the melting pot theory can be applied to any country that has integrated new cultures into its own, such as Brazil, Bangladesh, or even France, the theory is most commonly used to describe the United States as a new world with a distinct new breed of people amalgamated from many various groups of immigrants. Because of this, the melting pot theory has become synonymous with the process of Americanization.
Mexico–United States labor migration, 1980s to present
Authors: Garr Emily T.
Published: January 2013

Mexico–US labor migration refers to the movement of individuals from Mexico to the United States for the primary purpose of permanent or temporary employment and remuneration. It encompasses both the emigration of Mexicans to the United States and transit migration from Central and South American countries through Mexico to the United States. Because Mexicans make up the largest cohort of foreign‐born workers in the United States, the discussion here centers on the first: the emigration of Mexican‐born nationals and the characteristics related to their economic activity.
Mexico–United States migration, 1980s–2010
Authors: Wise Raúl Delgado
Published: January 2013

The Mexico–US migration dynamic underwent a new boost upon the shift to exports in Mexican economy in the neoliberal era, particularly after the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) was signed and enforced in 1994. Although the long history of Mexican migration to the United States began at the end of the 19th century, it was not until the 1980s to 2010 that it became particularly high, increasing almost six‐fold, from 2.1 million (3.1 percent of Mexico's population) to 11.9 (10.8 percent of Mexico's population). By 2010, the growth was so dramatic and extensive that the Mexico–US migration corridor was the largest in the world, and Mexico became the world's top emigration and transit country.
Migration controls and restriction policies
Authors: Jiménez Gemma Pinyol
Published: January 2013

Migration is a constant in human history and has a remarkable capacity for social transformation. Population mobility and migration were an essential component of the Neolithic revolution and the large‐scale population displacements that helped construct the great classical empires. In the modern era, population movement is a vital component of urbanization and the industrial revolution. In addition, forced displacement of people during during World War II was a major feature of 20th‐century European history and dislocation in the global South. In sum, international migrations are nothing new in global history.
Migration to Ancient Rome
Authors: de Ligt Luuk
Published: January 2013

As early as the 6th centuryBCERome was the most important city of Latium. In this period the city consisted of four “regions” with a total area of 285 hectares (Cornell 1995: 203). There are, however, strong reasons to think that only a relatively small proportion of this area was used for habitation, making it more or less impossible to estimate the size of the urban population.
Missionaries
Authors: Baggio Fabio
Published: January 2013

Within the tradition of the Roman Catholic Church,
missionaries
are church members who are sent (Latin
missi
, from the verb
mittere
, to send) to perform religious or charitable work in a specific territory or foreign country. Such a mission entails a formal mandate issued by the corresponding church authorities (pope, bishops, religious superiors, mission directors, etc.). The kind of work to be performed would vary according to the different categories of beneficiaries.
Multiculturalism
Authors: Petrzela Natalia Mehlman
Published: January 2013

The term “multiculturalism” was used as early as the 1940s in Canada (Glazer 1997). Originally articulated to define a particular theory of social policy which prized the recognition of ethnoracial heritage over acculturation, by the 1990s the term attained the widespread usage it enjoys today in discussions ranging from education and politics to academia. “Multicultural” has arguably become protean with overuse; this essay endeavors to bring specificity to this concept which is so crucial to our understanding of contemporary politics and society. In exploring the key themes which define the capacious theory of multiculturalism in the 20th and early 21st centuries, this essay focuses on the case of the United States. Negotiating the problems and potential of its multicultural populace has necessarily been at the forefront of the intellectual, policy, and pedagogical agenda of this self‐styled “nation of immigrants.” While the American case is exceptional, it raises vital questions of global concern in a world becoming unequivocally more diverse as vast immigration flows disrupt traditional notions of the nation state and of attendant conceptions of citizenship and its privileges.
Multilateral approaches to managing migration
Authors: Abella Manolo I.
Published: January 2013

One of the most contentious issues in international relations is the extent to which independent states agree to relinquish certain powers to control the admission of foreign nationals into their territories and to dictate the terms and conditions of their stay. The general resistance of states to yield autonomy over immigration matters is reflected in what has been referred to as the “thin layer of formal multilateralism” in the governance of migration (Betts 2010). In this essay we review the status of multilateralism in the management of migration. In the Report of the World Commission on the Social Dimension of Globalization at the ILO, co‐chaired by Tarja Holonen, president of the Republic of Finland and Benjamin William Mkapa, president of the United Republic of Tanzania at the International Labour Organisation in February 2004, the protection of migrants was established as a crucial necessity:
Muslim world, medieval era migrations
Authors: Berger Lutz
Published: January 2013

The following essay will focus on the migration processes in the central regions of the Muslim Middle East during the period 600–1500CE.
Myanmar/Burma, migration 1962 to present
Authors: Grundy‐Warr Carl
Published: January 2013

All forms of migration (documented/undocumented, internal/external, forced/voluntary) in Myanmar/Burma require understanding of both politics in the modern state since independence in 1948 and the political economy of a military‐led country since 1962. Myanmar/Burma has had a modern history characterized by simultaneous struggles for power and democracy in the center and ethnic political conflicts over forms of nation building in the extensive border regions (Smith 1999; Callahan 2004; South 2008; Steinberg 2010). Indeed, much of the period since independence has witnessed protracted political struggles and been dominated by successive military regimes eager to extend their vision of “national unity” across the country.
Napoleonic empire and migration
Authors: Aaslestad Katherine
Published: January 2013

War varies the scale and dynamic of migration patterns. Soldiers coerced into armies, civilians in flight from disaster or seeking regular labor, refugees in search of security: such population displacements accompanied the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars between 1792 and 1815. Many historians suggest that the turmoil associated with the Revolutionary era and Napoleonic Wars disrupted or prevented the migration patterns that characterized earlier and later decades (Grabbe 2001). An examination of the historical literature on the Napoleonic era, however, confirms that the topic of migration between the French Revolution and Napoleon's exile to St. Helena needs to be recast as a category of historical inquiry.
Nationality policies and migration
Authors: Lüthi Barbara
Published: January 2013

By the beginning of the 21st century it may seem that the nation state has developed into the universal institutional form by which the peoples throughout the world have linked their aspiration for belonging with their need for administration and governance (Maier 2009). During the 19th century the nation state, with its bureaucratic apparatus, juridicial‐legislative systems, modes of governmentality, and economic capacities, had come to play an important role in defining, controlling, and regulating populations, including migrants, in many parts of the world. Nationalist politics and conflict have shaped the history of the 19th century up to the present. Yet, in other than nationality‐related terms which are frequently linked to the modern era, migration has been a constant feature of human history.
United States: nativism and migration
Authors: Marinari Maddalena
Published: January 2013

Nativism first emerged in cities on the East Coast of the United States in the late 1830s and early 1840s in response to the large number of immigrants arriving from Northern Europe. Although it has waxed and waned in American history, at its core, nativism is a belief system rooted in sweeping cultural stereotypes and ethnocentric beliefs that manifests itself in the zeal to destroy the enemies of what is perceived to be a distinctively American way of life. “Nativism,” wrote John Higham, the pre‐eminent historian on the subject, “should be defined as intense opposition to an internal minority on the ground of its foreign (i.e. ‘un‐American') connections” (Higham 2002: 4). Although with several virulent precedents, nativism emerged as a leading force in American society at the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century when the country witnessed a wave of mass migration from Southern and Eastern Europe.
Nativity, birth rates, and migration
Authors: Omoyeni Akanni Akinyemi and Sunday
Published: January 2013

Demographic dynamics, particularly of fertility and migration, are two major issues of contemporary global dialogue. The central discourse around this is in two parts; first, that net migration offsets population growth deficit in region of low fertility and, second, that countries of high fertility are mostly vulnerable to high volumes of movement. For instance, France, the United Kingdom, and Japan all have very low birth rates, and they are high migration destination countries. Also, African countries with the highest birth rates in the world account for one of the highest migration rates globally. Migration is considered to a large extent as a major spur for a third demographic transition, particularly for its potential to offset birth and death rates (Coleman 2006).
Nazi Germany, escape and emigration
Authors: Caestecker Frank
Published: January 2013

The historiography on the refugees from Nazi Germany started only in the 1980s. The tragedy of the Holocaust and the cold war overshadowed the analysis of the refugee issue in the 1930s. In the 1970s the refugees became a focus of historical research in Germany. When Willy Brandt (a former political refugee who had been in exile in Norway) became chancellor, it encouraged German historians to focus on the flight of political activists, intellectuals, and artists. At that time the German Democratic Republic commissioned studies on German communist refugees who had later been active as founders of the East German states. These studies were strongly centered on the political activism of Germans in exile.
New Zealand, migration 19th century to present
Authors: Spoonley Paul
Published: January 2013

New Zealand is one of the classic immigration societies or, as the Organisation for Economic Co‐operation and Development (OECD) refers to them, “traditional settler societies,” along with the USA, Canada, and Australia (Keeley 2009: 30). The term “traditional settler societies” refers to those immigrants who were dominant during the colonial era, specifically Europeans migrants and especially British and Irish settlers. “Nontraditional” migrants are those who have arrived in New Zealand as a result of immigration liberalization and diversification in the postcolonial era.
Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and migration
Authors: Lindio‐McGovern Ligaya
Published: January 2013

Migration generally takes two forms: internal migration and international migration. Internal migration is where people move from one area to another within their own country, usually from rural to urban areas where they perceive they will have better economic or job opportunities. International migration is where people move outside their own country of birth to a foreign country for various reasons, including seeking better job opportunities, which have resulted in international labor migration, usually from poorer countries to richer ones (Zlotnik 1998). Various factors may have influenced international labor migration. One factor can be the labor export policies of poor countries, such as the Philippines, to deal with high unemployment in their societies. Another factor could be the impact of neoliberal structural adjustment policies implemented in these poor or developing countries, under the dictates of the International Monetary Fund and the World Trade Organization, that result in the destruction of local industries, ultimately causing unemployment and the preconditions for outmigration (Lindio‐McGovern 2004). Another factor is the creation of a demand for migrant labor in the labor‐receiving countries where capitalist enterprises seek cheap labor, turning to migrant work as the source of such labor. Therefore, foreign migrants tend to become vulnerable to human rights violations, discrimination, and other forms of exploitation. This condition has provided an impetus to the emergence of nongovernmental organizations (NGOs). This essay will focus on international labor migration and the models of nongovernmental organizations that have emerged in response to the needs and issues confronting foreign migrants, and conclude with a brief discussion on migrant NGOs' role in civil society in relation to states.
Nordic region, from emigration to immigration
Authors: Leinonen Johanna
Published: January 2013

The migration history of the Nordic countries (Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden) over the past two hundred years has been characterized by mass emigration in the 19th and early 20th century, followed by a slow transition to becoming immigrant‐receiving nations during and after World War II. During the time of mass emigration, Nordic migrants ventured to different parts of the world: mainly to the United States but also to Canada, Australia, and South America. A larger share of Danes than other Nordic migrants moved to countries outside North America, in particular to Australia and South America. Among all Nordic migrants, sailors were usually the first ones to venture to foreign shores. For example, in the 19th century Finnish sailors could be found in South African gold mines or voyaging in the Congo River Jensen 1931; Koivukangas 2008.