bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Central Asian Challenges to Seleucid Authority
Authors: Mairs Rachel
Published: August 2022

Chapter 9 considers the historian Justin, whose work drew on the lost work of Pompeius Trogus and who was one of the few ancient Greek and Roman historians to give any information on Hellenistic Bactria. Justin’s work is all the more valuable, because he present chronological anchors for Bactrian history, tying together three separate periods when Bactria rebelled against Seleucid authority to events in Parthia. This chapter examines Justin’s use of synchronism as an historiographical and literary device. Justin’s use of this technique also allows us to explore the wider question of whether contemporaneous revolts against Seleucid authority in different regions were in any way connected to or benefitted from one another.
Political Catchphrases and Contemporary History
Authors: Gupta Suman
Published: August 2022

A historical account of the period 2001–2020 is presented by focusing on the shifting connotations of certain political catchphrases and words. These allow for a linked-up narrative covering areas such as politics and policy, business and investing, austerity and inequality, identity, climate change, crowd protests, flexible working, and online education. Key junctures are 9/11, the 2002 dot-com crash and the 2007–2008 financial crisis, the Occupy movements of 2011–2012, China’s economic policy from 2014 onwards, and the COVID-19 outbreak in 2020. Half the book is devoted to the unusually pervasive usage of the catchphrase ‘new normal’. Chapters are also given to ‘we are the 99%’ and the catchwords ‘austerity’ and ‘resilience’. Case studies of these catchphrases and words occupy much of the book. The final chapter makes conceptual inferences and proposes both a theory of political catchphrases and a distinctive approach to contemporary history. The source materials are predominantly from the UK and USA, but refer, naturally, to issues of global moment. The book would be of particular interest to students and researchers in politics and policy studies, contemporary social history, cultural studies and sociology, discourse analysis, and media studies. While following an academic format, it is written in an accessible style and would appeal to all who are alive to the momentous developments that are unfolding at present.
‘New Normal’, 2020
Authors: Gupta Suman
Published: August 2022

On the eve of the COVID-19 outbreak, early in 2020, the catchphrase ‘new normal’ was being used with reference to freak weather events and anti-government protests in numerous countries. With the outbreak, it became predominantly attached to the lockdowns and restrictions that followed. This chapter argues that while the ‘new normal’ seemed to become denotative of the COVID-19 social condition itself, its prior resonances were not replaced—they seemed to accrue into the present, at times making the catchphrase opaque. That is to say, users often felt that the catchphrase was being overused, had become a cliché, or acquired an ironic ring. Nevertheless, it continued to be ever more intensively used. In tracing usage of the catchphrase in 2020, the chapter finds echoes of 9/11 amidst pandemic measures, and considers the imperative turn towards working from home and particularly online education, the effect of the pandemic on the impoverished and minorities, anxiety in business and investment circles, and speculation on the ‘next normal’. Increasing polarized political confrontations are described at the end, with particular attention to the global protests following the murder of George Floyd and then the US presidential elections. Amidst these a ‘return to normal’ (‘build back better’) as well as opposition to the pre-pandemic ‘new normal’ were variously mooted.
The Concept of Normality
Authors: Gupta Suman
Published: August 2022

Though everyday usage of the word ‘normal’ is now habitual and its meaning is taken as common sense, it has a relatively recent provenance (late eighteenth century in English) and emerged squarely from specialist and professional areas—in particular, from statistical and biomedical disciplines. In fact, both in its various specialist connotations and, relatedly, in popular discourses, the concept of the ‘normal’ has a critical place in modern knowledge construction and dissemination. This chapter considers what habituation to the catchphrase ‘new normal’ in so many contexts means for the concept of the ‘normal’ itself. It is possible that continuous usage of the catchphrase, even if unthinkingly, could implicitly shift the ground of what is commonly understood as ‘normal’. This argument is woven through well-defined conceptualizations of the ‘normal’ with various consonant and contradistinctive terms in specific contexts (with reference to the work of Georges Canguilhem, Michel Foucault, Lennard Davis, Michael Warner, Julian Carter, Sarah Igo, Anna Creadick, and Peter Cryle and Elizabeth Stevens). From a different direction, the implications of ‘new normal’ in relation to formulations of ‘normal science’ and ‘post-normal science’ are also picked up.
Anti-Establishment Catchphrases
Authors: Gupta Suman
Published: August 2022

Focusing on the aftermath of the 2007–2008 financial crisis and the resulting austerity policies, the Occupy movement slogan ‘We are the 99%’ and the catchphrases ‘the 99%’ and ‘the 1%’ are analysed. Unlike catchphrases/words examined in earlier chapters, which were mainly introduced top-down, these exemplify a bottom-up movement, appearing as banners of protest. These also offer an opportunity to pause on the popular conception of statistical signifiers, which both draws upon and is at odds with the practice of statistics. There are two sections. The first concentrates on the use of these statistical figures as metaphors for political mobilization. The means through which they were disseminated during the Occupy protests are outlined, as are the debates for and against the protests woven around them. The second section summarizes the statistical researches from which these catchphrases derived. Those concerned the measurement of income inequality in terms of fractiles. It is argued that while those researches sharpened the understanding of inequality and served to raise popular awareness of the issue, the erstwhile strong association between inequality and poverty was loosened—to some degree, the social condition of poverty was defocused. The pros and cons of such measurements for political mobilization are considered.
Customs and Movement of Goods
Authors: Moran Niall
Published: August 2022

Chapter 8 by Niall Moran analyses the most consequential provision of the Protocol, namely Article 5, entitled ‘Customs, Movement of Goods’. As Moran explains, this provision has the effect of rendering applicable in Northern Ireland the full body of EU customs and internal market law—including the EU Customs Code and hundreds of pieces of EU legislation listed in great detail in Annex 2 to the Protocol—and as a result require customs and regulatory checks on goods moving from Great Britain to Northern Ireland, which are regarded as being at risk of moving into the EU single market. Moran provides a careful legal anatomy of Article 5, and then considers the challenges connected to its implementation. He discusses the notion of ‘goods at risk’, and examines the decisions taken by the Joint Committee to implement this. He also outlines the significance of the technical prohibitions of restrictions on exports and imports, and the consequences of customs checks, both for goods entering into Northern Ireland and exiting it. All in all, Moran emphasizes how Article 5 fundamentally deprives the content of Article 4 of much meaning, which solemnly proclaims that Northern Ireland is to remain part of the UK customs territory: as he notes, while this may be true from the perspective of international trade agreements, the reality is that Northern Ireland remains embedded in the EU internal market for goods.
State Aid
Authors: Butler Graham
Published: August 2022

Chapter 10 by Graham Butler focuses on another of the economic provisions of the Protocol, which extends to Northern Ireland the application of EU law: namely Article 10, on ‘State aid’. As Butler underlines, by virtue of Article 10 the full body of EU state aid law, which is listed in more detail in an Annex 5 attached to the Protocol, is applicable with respect to Northern Ireland. This means, as Butler claims, that judicial and administrative authorities in both Northern Ireland and the rest of the UK must give effect to EU state aid law, whenever that is relevant to Northern Ireland. While traditionally when the UK was a Member State it championed a more free-market approach than several continental EU Member States, the continuation of EU competition rules in the context of Northern Ireland after the UK’s withdrawal is an important guarantee of the level playing field. Indeed, competition law is a core element of the internal market and, from this viewpoint, Article 10 of the Protocol complements Article 5—as well as several other more technical clauses which all extend the application of EU laws into Northern Ireland as a condition to avoid a hard border in the island of Ireland.
Governance and Dispute Settlement
Authors: Larik Joris
Published: August 2022

Chapter 11 by Joris Larik overviews the institutional arrangements to govern the Protocol and to solve any disputes that may arise under it. As such, this contribution focuses on Article 12 of the Protocol, entitled ‘Implementation, Application, Supervision and Enforcement’—while also considering Article 14, establishing a Specialised Committee for Northern Ireland. However, as Larik points out, the governance of the Protocol is not set out only in the Protocol itself, as many important decision-making and dispute resolution bodies are established by the WA, to which the Protocol is attached. Based on this comprehensive and accurate overview, Larik underlines the role of the Joint Committee, with the support of the Specialised Committee, in governing the Protocol—as well as the continuing role of the European Commission in supervising enforcement and respect for the Protocol’s terms. Moreover, Larik explains the dual mechanisms for dispute resolution which operate with regard to the Protocol—one based on a new arbitration body, albeit required to refer matters of EU law to the European Court of Justice (ECJ), and the other based on the continuing oversight of the ECJ. As Larik claims, the governance model of the Protocol can be theorized in different ways, but all confirms the continuing, strong presence of the EU administrative and judicial bodies within Northern Ireland after the UK’s withdrawal.
Introduction
Authors: Satz Helmut
Published: August 2022

We introduce concepts and topics subsequently studied as instances of complexity. The treatment is restricted to topics in natural science, and it is noted that different areas here lead to common underlying structures, such as bird swarms and magnetic systems. Ken Wilson, Mitchell Feigenbaum and Per Bak are noted as the leading pioneers in the field. First attempts to define complexity are presented, and relations between critical behavior and complexity are discussed.
The Energy of Space
Authors: Satz Helmut
Published: August 2022

We discuss the effect of the Big Bang as origin of the universe on the concept of energy conservation. In particular, it leads to a non-static universe, an effect which Einstein had tried to avoid by the introduction of the cosmological constant. The advent of Hubble’s law confirmed an expansion of the universe, and the subsequent observation of continued acceleration led to the introduction of the idea of dark energy. In this context, the idea of a universe emerging from nothing was introduced.
Critical Behavior
Authors: Satz Helmut
Published: August 2022

We present critical behavior as singular structure in statistical mechanics, with melting, freezing and magnetization as familiar instances. We illustrate the resulting structure with the help of the Ising model. The concepts are then applied to study strong interaction thermodynamics, where an ideal gas of quarks and gluons through the hadronization transition leads to confinement and a system of hadrons. Such systems are presently studied experimentally in high energy nucleus-nucleus collisions.
Quantum Complexity
Authors: Satz Helmut
Published: August 2022

Microscopic systems are today believed to be governed by quantum mechanics. Such quantum systems show novel forms of complexity, leading to a new form of critical behavior, actually observed prior to any prediction by quantum physics. Particular instances are superconductivity and superfluidity. Quantum mechanics itself leads to a new state of matter in the form of Bose–Einstein condensates. Subsequent works by Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer have provided a phenomenological account for the observed behavior, and Bose–Einstein condensation as such has now also been observed.
Conclusion
Authors: Satz Helmut
Published: August 2022

We summarize the different instances of complex behavior studied, noting that the crucial feature is a new form of global behavior for many-body systems. They provide a variety of cases which can only be understood as showing that the whole is more than the sum of the parts.
‘Fear of Change’
Authors: Creaser John
Published: August 2022

This chapter compares Milton’s standing as a poet and as a writer of controversial prose. It demonstrates his insight into conservative and reactionary temperaments and his contrasting ideal of tolerant open-mindedness in a life of perpetual trial. It also shows how the controversial prose, despite the rhetorical prowess, can dwindle into an aggressive dogmatism that he deplores elsewhere and that draws him closer to the reactionaries he opposes. In the poetry, on the other hand, he is both disciplined and liberated by the requirements of form. The craft of verse frees him from obsession and leads him to detachment and poise.
‘The Melting Voice Through Mazes Running’
Authors: Creaser John
Published: August 2022

This chapter analyses the rhythmic verve of L’Allegro and Il Penseroso. The unique poise of the four-beat or tetrameter verse is shown to emerge in part from the blending of seven- and eight-syllable lines, which tend to move very differently, but even more from the interfusion of two diverse prosodies. There is first the iambic verse of the prevailing accentual-syllabic mode, where both stressed and unstressed syllables have a structural presence. But there is also the accentual and lyrical mode of much popular verse—such as nursery rhymes and playground chants, folk songs, traditional ballads, and many popular songs—which is structured solely around the four beats of the line. This interfusion creates verse of unparalleled joie de vivre and disciplined freedom, and this influences how the poems are to be read, both read aloud and in interpretation, with results quite different from how they have sometimes been read.
Samson Agonistes
Authors: Creaser John
Published: August 2022

This chapter examines Samson Agonistes in depth through Milton’s audacious and largely unprecedented approaches to sustained free verse, mainly in the choruses. The particular mode of its free verse is analysed in detail; its striking freedoms are set against such emerging forms of freer verse as are found in Greek tragedy, in the Latin tragedy of Seneca, in the Neo-Latin tragedies of the Renaissance, and in vernacular writings of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The deliberate and innovative anti-lyricism of Milton’s choruses and free verse is explored. The contrast between the audacious verse and the humdrum human qualities of the Chorus provokes a critical rereading of the work and especially of the catastrophe, challenging the pious orthodoxy of traditional readings. The poem is seen neither as a celebration of the hero’s triumphant restoration to faith and divine favour—as in traditional readings—nor as a critique of Samson himself, as in some recent studies, and more as a probing and questioning of providence, asking: does the end justify the means? Untypically, Milton is even prepared to leave matters unresolved.
‘Rhyme was Not his Talent’
Authors: Creaser John
Published: August 2022

This chapter examines the lyric verse in the light of the persistent belief that, in view of the dismissal of rhyme prefixed to Paradise Lost, Milton was never much interested in rhyme, and not very good at it. It demonstrates, on the contrary, that his ear for nuances of rhyme was exquisite. From his early writing onwards he is fascinated with the possibilities of rhyme, and shows increasing finesse and daring in how to exploit them. Especially in Lycidas and the later sonnets, Milton is an adventurous and inventive rhymer; the rhyming is now ‘manifest’ rather than ‘latent’, that is, drawing attention to the inventiveness of individual rhymes, rather than their working quietly in the background. Rhyme is the epitome of literariness through sound, as the pun is through sense, raising arbitrary features of the sign to expressiveness.
Resonant Minutiae
Authors: Creaser John
Published: August 2022

This chapter examines three prosodic niceties: first, some apparently clumsy lines at the Son’s judgement of the fallen Adam and Eve; then a couple of isolated lines uniquely odd in rhythm or pronunciation; and finally an isolated but rich rhyme in Paradise Regained. These details are shown to colour and permeate their works as a whole. First, the rhythmic oddity of those ‘clumsy’ lines reveals something crucial to Milton’s profound rethinking of the Fall, its growth beyond a simple and harsh judgement of the fallen pair into tragic compassion, with some traces of optimism. Second, considering two words where metre and pronunciation are at odds broadens into a discussion of how to approach Milton’s rhythms: how to utter and hear the verse, and how to trust Milton’s rhythmic inventiveness rather than insist on regularity. Finally, dwelling on a single rhyme reveals how perception of the brief epic is changed once it is clear that the work is permeated by anticipations of Calvary.
Cromwell’s Three Great Poets
Authors: Creaser John
Published: August 2022

This chapter examines the three great living English poets—Marvell and Dryden as well as Milton—all of whom worked for Cromwell’s government and walked together in his funeral procession. It explores the interactions of their diverse prosodies and their diverse ideologies in their Cromwellian and Restoration verse. Temperament and form are each an expression of the other; prosody and ideology are interwoven. Indeed, versification can be a strikingly direct expression of modes of thought, of temperament, and of sensibility. The poets’ differing conceptions and ideals of liberty are manifest in their differing forms and rhythms. Dryden sought the sanctuary of a definitive and protective power shaping the life of the individual, and his conservative temperament embodies itself in the dominant form of the day, the heroic couplet, where rhyme brings a sense of perpetual closure. Marvell was dedicated to the cause of liberty and came to support the Cromwellian revolution, but his need for stability restrains his search for freedom. So he is also a devotee of the couplet, though often now the lighter and fleeter tetrameter as well as pentameter, while the tight forms only serve to emphasise his free-wheeling imagination. Milton, working always towards (as he says in Areopagitica) ‘the reforming of Reformation it self’, goes further. He is prepared to shake the foundations, and is free in devising and handling literary form as he is in urging social reform.
How Friendship Cultivates Virtue
Authors: Kristjánsson Kristján
Published: August 2022

In contrast to ancient times, friendship is rarely discussed nowadays as a resource in moral education. Even within Aristotle-inspired character education, where it could naturally claim pride of place, its coverage is miniscule compared, say, to that of the emulation of moral exemplars. The aim of this chapter is to retrieve friendship as a moral educational concept: to explain how moral educational goals define and sustain deep friendships, and how the thorny issue of when friendships should be terminated is best understood in terms of considerations as to whether they have exhausted their educational potential. By arguing that education is the raison d’être of deep friendship, it is shown how friendship is developmentally constituted and, in its most complete form as ‘character friendship’, educationally executed. The chapter analyses role modelling and explains how it differs from the idea of cultivating character through friendships. Finally, it explores the mechanisms of Aristotelian friendship education directly.
Epistemic Risk and Epistemic Utility for Beliefs
Authors: Pettigrew Richard
Published: August 2022

In this chapter, we meet Thomas Kelly’s (2014) argument for permissivism about rational belief. It is inspired by William James’ (1897) permissivism about attitudes to epistemic risk. We interpret Kelly’s argument using an account of epistemic value due to Kenny Easwaran (2016) and Kevin Dorst (2019). According to this, we encode Jamesian attitudes to epistemic risk in our epistemic utilities. For the epistemically risk-averse, the disvalue of believing falsely is greater than the value of believing truly; for the risk-inclined, it is reversed. Kelly holds that rationality requires us to do whatever maximises expected epistemic utility from the point of view of our evidential probabilities. He notes that, since rationality permits different attitudes to epistemic risk, which we encode in different epistemic utilities, the same evidential probability might demand of one person that they believe a proposition and of another that they withhold judgment. This gives permissivism about rational belief.
Epistemic Risk and Epistemic Utility for Credences
Authors: Pettigrew Richard
Published: August 2022

In this chapter, I note Sophie Horowitz’s (2017) observation that a credal version of Kelly’s Jamesian argument from the previous chapter will not deliver permissivism in the credal case. This is because, in that case, it is generally agreed that all legitimate measures of epistemic utility must have a particular property—in the jargon, they must be strictly proper. But, for any strictly proper epistemic utility function and any evidential probability, the evidential probability expects itself to be epistemically better than any other credence. So it renders itself the unique rational response to the evidence, which gives impermissivism. I conclude that, if we are to secure permissivism for rational credences using epistemic utility theory, we cannot adopt Kelly’s approach.
Foundational Results in Epistemic Utility Theory
Authors: Pettigrew Richard
Published: August 2022

In this chapter, we meet some of the central results of epistemic utility theory, which furnish arguments for various Bayesian norms for credences: the norm that says that your credences should obey the probability calculus (Probabilism); the norm that says that they should defer to the objective chances (Principal Principle); and the norm that says that you should plan to update your credences using Bayes' Rule (Plan Conditionalization).
Epistemic Risk and Picking Priors II
Authors: Pettigrew Richard
Published: August 2022

In previous chapters, I argued that, when we pick our priors, we should do so using (i) strictly proper epistemic utility functions to measure the epistemic value of a credal state, and (ii) a decision rule from the family of risk-sensitive decision rules called the Generalised Hurwicz Criterion. In this chapter, I derive the consequences of picking our priors in this way.
Creating a Framework that Supports Resilient Renewable Energy Generation
Authors: Paddock LeRoy
Published: August 2022

A resilient electricity system in the U.S. must involve a transition to no or very low carbon sources of generation to meet the country’s needs. Assuming no breakthrough advancement in nuclear energy production or the rapid emergence of new technologies, ensuring a resilient energy network that relies heavily on intermittent sources like wind and solar will likely require a comprehensive set of solutions that include greatly expanded renewables generation, careful siting of new generation to avoid hazards such as sea level rise, more geographic diversity, better integration of distributed generation, expanded demand side management, additional energy storage, greater emphasis on energy efficiency, and some fossil fuel backup generation with carbon capture.
Building Resilience from the Ground Up
Authors: Barton Barry
Published: August 2022

This chapter examines the extent to which exposure to disruption can be reduced by local provision and demand-side measures, as to energy and minerals. In relation to energy it considers renewables, electrification, and demand-side measures, as capable of adding local supply and improving resilience. Dependence on supply chains is also reduced by increasing energy efficiency. In relation to minerals the chapter examines changing needs for industrial inputs, real and perceived threats to mineral supplies, and the role of critical minerals policies. It considers the value of circular economy policies that can reduce dependence on primary raw materials. It concludes that resilience should be identified as a purpose to be pursued in energy measures for renewables, electrification, local supply, and efficiency; and that critical minerals policies and circular economy policies are likely to have increasing legal significance.
Before the Holocaust
Authors: Beck Hermann
Published: August 2022

This book revises standard assumptions among historians of Nazi Germany that physical violence against Jews slowly accelerated from 1933 onwards, with a first high point in November 1938 (“Kristallnacht”), and then further escalating to deportations and the mass murder of the Holocaust. Based on documentary evidence from about twenty German archives, the present work shows that there were many hundreds, possibly thousands, of violent attacks on Jews in Germany ranging from brutal assaults, abductions, and expulsions to murder. The work examines in detail the reaction of those German institutions and elites that were still in a position to react and protest in the spring of 1933. It makes two essentially new contributions to the literature on the history of the Third Reich: (1) a detailed examination of the antisemitic violence—from boycotts, violent attacks, robbery, extortion, abductions, and humiliating “pillory marches” to grievous bodily harm and murder—which has hitherto not been adequately recognized; (2) an analysis of the reactions of those institutions that still had the capacity to protest against Nazi attacks and legislative measures—the Protestant Church, the Catholic Church, the bureaucracies, and Hitler’s conservative coalition partner, the DNVP—and the mindset of the elites who led them, to determine their various responses to flagrant antisemitic abuses. Individual protests against violent attacks, the April boycott, and Nazi legislative measures were already hazardous in March and April 1933, but established institutions in the German State and society were still able to voice their concerns and raise objections. By doing so, they might have stopped or at least postponed a radicalization that eventually led to the pogrom of 1938 and the Holocaust.
Violence Against “Ostjuden” in the Winter and Spring of 1933
Authors: Beck Hermann
Published: August 2022

This chapter closely examines various forms of violence against Jews from Eastern Europe, mostly Poland, which furnished the largest contingent of the roughly 100,000 foreign Jews residing in Germany in 1933. The chapter begins with an in-depth demographic analysis of “Ostjuden” during the Weimar Republic and then examines the different forms of violence perpetrated against them. These different categories of attacks begin with a litany of the many hundreds of violent attacks carried out against German Jews of Polish nationality in March and April 1933, followed by an analysis of their exclusion from markets and other measures designed to destroy the livelihood of these unwelcome foreigners. A third category of attacks focuses on “rituals of humiliation,” such as pillory marches, designed to serve the SA’s twisted sense of amusement and visceral satisfaction. Since geographic mobility was limited due to lack of economic opportunities in early 1930s Germany, and people consequently knew each other well inside their familiar surroundings, such public running of the gauntlet caused indelible personal trauma, often accompanied by economic ruin. Abductions and forced deportations form another category of attack, for which foreign Jews of Eastern Europe were often singled out. A brief glimpse of cases of grievous bodily harm and murder concludes this chapter. In general, “Ostjuden” were singled out as the first target of violent attacks and the weakest link in the chain, even among foreign Jews. Perpetrators, mostly thugs in SA uniform, knew quite well that “Ostjuden” were generally held in low esteem and that no hands would be raised in their defense.
Attacks Against American and West European Jews, Among Others
Authors: Beck Hermann
Published: August 2022

This chapter shows that even an American passport did not guarantee safety from SA attacks. Its first section catalogues attacks against American Jews in Berlin, frequently caused by rent and property disputes, and shows that even when the German State had a vital interest in identifying the culprits, as in the case of the attack on Philip Zuckerman, which had attracted international attention, SA leaders succeeded in shielding their own. Here, as in all other instances, attackers got off scot-free. Yet, as a result of attacks on U.S. nationals, the American public was forewarned at an early date, so that not only daily papers such as The New York Times and Chicago Tribune but also magazines such as The Nation, Contemporary Review, Current History, and others ran long reports on Nazi antisemitic violence in the spring of 1933. West European Jews and Jews from Czechoslovakia and Rumania were not spared either, however long their stay in Germany and however deep their roots in the country may have been. Even though attacks against them were frequently based on private quarrels (attackers were often debtors who wanted to eliminate their debt), assailants often used stereotypical Nazi propaganda accusations as a pretext, making their Jewish victims out to be communists, child molesters, or seducers of German women. There was no factual basis for these accusations; they served merely as an alibi function and “moral” justification for the attackers, who thereby sought to protect themselves from criminal prosecution in case charges would be brought against them.
Boycott
Authors: Beck Hermann
Published: August 2022

Boycott actions against Jewish shops had a long tradition in Germany, reaching back to the nineteenth century. This chapter begins with a brief synopsis of boycotts before 1933 and their regional centers. It then focuses on the wave of global protests in reaction to antisemitic violence in Germany. These protests, which set in by mid-March 1933, quickly led to a closing of the ranks within Germany and were then used as a pretext by the new government for the 1 April boycott against Jewish shops and lawyers’ and doctors’ offices. The actual day of the boycott, the reactions of the German population, and the violent attacks on the Jewish population constitute the centerpiece of this chapter. In contrast to the assumptions of previous research (as well as of British and American diplomatic reports at the time), Saturday, 1 April 1933, did not pass peacefully. As shown here, numerous violent attacks, beatings, torture, and even murders occurred on that day (in addition to the well-known prominent case of the Friedrich Schumm murder in Kiel). The chapter then concludes with a brief examination of the psychological impact of the boycott on the Jewish population, the local and regional continuation of anti-Jewish boycotts, the social pressure not to buy in Jewish shops, and the repressive measures taken against those Germans (in particular civil servants and, paradoxically, Nazi Party wmembers) who continued to patronize Jewish shops.
‘His Own Father Was the Cause of His Trouble’
Authors: Poos L. R.
Published: August 2022

Roger Rishton (c.1505–c.1563), Ralph’s father, was a remarkably litigious and confrontational character: throughout his adult life he was involved in at least one major lawsuit every year. He was also prone to violence. This chapter begins by tracing the histories of the main branches of the extended Rishton family. It then introduces places that feature throughout the book and many themes regarding the ways people used law in this time, by reconstructing three major cycles of aggression by Roger, all centred upon Church Kirk, the local chapelry church near his ancestral home. In these confrontations he took the pews and seats of his antagonists out of the church and burnt them (shooting one of his rivals with an arrow), brawled over his stockpiling of weaponry and armour in the church’s tower, and violently mishandled a woman in the church in the course of a prolonged conflict over mutual defamation alleging sexual misbehaviour. Each confrontation wove its way through multiple court systems: close reconstruction demonstrates how what superficially appear to be isolated cases in reality add up to concerted dispute resolution. The cases also reveal that the Court of the Duchy of Lancaster, an equity jurisdiction sitting in Westminster, was a court of first and very rapid resort for Lancashire gentry over a wide range of matters. Much of Roger Rishton’s violence was performative and assertive of status, and workable social relations between antagonists were usually restored quickly.
‘God Have Mercy of Thy Soul, Wife of Ralph Rishton’
Authors: Poos L. R.
Published: August 2022

Ralph Rishton first married in 1531, when he was 8 or 9 years old. After his first wife succumbed to mental illness and he returned from military service in wars with Scotland, he secured a forged certificate of annulment from church officials in order to marry another woman, whom he had gotten pregnant. The first part of this chapter reconstructs the narrative of this part of Ralph’s life, with an emphasis upon the ways in which witnesses in court depositions conveyed their observations and impressions of married life. The chapter then goes on to examine child marriage among the Lancashire gentry and yeomanry in the sixteenth century, based upon dozens of cases in the consistory court of the Diocese of Chester. Child marriage was a common experience, entwined with family strategies for alliance building and property acquisition, and cases subsequently initiated to annul such marriages on grounds of underage compulsion offer detailed insight into expectations surrounding marriage. Lancashire gentry also married much closer to home, geographically speaking, than their counterparts elsewhere in England. One result was a tightly knit propertied class, intensely local in outlook, who acted for each other in a wide range of legal capacities, especially in relation to their property.
Intention or Easy Meanings?
Authors: Unnsteinsson Elmar
Published: August 2022

This chapter argues that to explain human acts of meaning, intentions to produce cognitive effects in minded creatures must be postulated. This is part of so-called Gricean intentionalism about speaker meaning. The chapter tries to show that objections to this view, developed in most detail by so-called expressionists, are unsuccessful. Expressionists suppose that utterances can give direct expression to thoughts, without any intervening intention to produce an effect in anyone. The author calls this the challenge of easy meanings and focuses on its expressionist incarnation here. The author’s case can be extended to other theories of speech acts which pose similar challenges to intentionalism.
Edenic Intentionalism
Authors: Unnsteinsson Elmar
Published: August 2022

This chapter states the essentials of the theory of reference on offer, which is called edenic intentionalism. It consists in a specific account of the relationship between referential competence and the mental state of confusion. Roughly, confusion disrupts the proper or characteristic function of the speech act of singular reference. Crucially, the chapter argues that the disruption is constitutive, in the sense that the locus of malfunction is in the inner constitution of the mechanism of reference as such. It argues that competent speakers acquire sensitivity to the edenic maxim, which states that one should try to avoid being confused about the objects to which one intends to refer. It goes on to argue that confusion in principle corrupts the linguistic evidence speakers produce in making an utterance and, also, that proper names cannot serve their normal function in a group of confused speakers.
Dugald Stewart's Empire of the Mind
Authors: Bow Charles Bradford
Published: August 2022

Dugald Stewart’s Empire of the Mind recasts the cultivation of a democratic intellect in the late Scottish Enlightenment. It comprises an intellectual history of what was at stake in moral education during a transitional period of revolutionary change between 1772 and 1828. Stewart was a child of the Scottish Enlightenment, who inherited the Scottish philosophical tradition of teaching metaphysics as moral philosophy from the tuition of Adam Ferguson and Thomas Reid. But the Scottish Enlightenment intellectual culture of his youth changed in the aftermath of the French Revolution. Stewart sustained the Scottish school of philosophy by transforming the tradition of teaching the science of mind as professor of moral philosophy at the University of Edinburgh. His elementary system of moral education fostered an empire of the mind in the universal pursuit of happiness. The democratization of Stewart’s didactic Enlightenment—the instruction of moral improvement—in a globalizing, interconnected nineteenth-century knowledge economy will be examined in this book.
Teaching Moral Economy, 1799−1809
Authors: Bow Charles Bradford
Published: August 2022

This chapter examines Stewart’s new course of lectures on political economy, which was the first of its kind in Britain. Stewart taught political economy as a moral pursuit. His notion of a developmental moral economy provided a bridge between the classical Rockinghamite moral economy and the extractive Pittite political economy that gave way to Utilitarianism in the early nineteenth century. His lectures on the moral economy of public education sought to safeguard the welfare of labourers by guiding future statesmen to mitigate social problems concerning immorality, crime, poverty, and idleness. This initiative to democratize liberal education extended to the moral economy of the British imperial world. Stewart measured a moral economy by the degree to which the labouring ranks of society were incorporated in government policies that encouraged the intellectual and moral progress of humankind. In doing so, he became an intellectual disciple of William Jones’s view of orientalism. Stewart sought to reform the governance of public morals as a philosopher, an armchair imperialist, and an amateur orientalist.
The Skilful Composition of the Iliad
Authors: van den Berg Baukje
Published: August 2022

This chapter studies how Eustathios defines Homer’s δεινότης or skilfulness, the highest proficiency in the art of rhetoric. To provide his target audience of rhetor-writers with concrete clues on how to imitate Homer’s skilful composition, Eustathios analyses what methods the poet used to create his rhetorical masterpiece. In so doing, Eustathios reconstructs the poet’s composition process: he retraces the decisions the poet made, the effects he was after, and the techniques he employed when composing the Iliad. Eustathios considers Homer’s success as poet-rhetorician to be based on various rhetorical principles, such as avoiding boredom, creating variation, and balancing brevity and detail. The chapter explores how Eustathios meticulously studies these principles and the techniques through which Homer implemented them throughout the Iliad. To bring together the various aspects of Homer’s skilful composition scattered across the chapter, its last section studies Eustathios’ analysis of a discrete episode, the Catalogue of Ships. As tools for his analysis, Eustathios uses earlier literary critical and rhetorical theories on the selection and arrangement of narrative material in poetry and in oratory, whose key points are presented in the chapter’s first section. The chapter is accompanied by two appendices with translations, the first of Eustathios’ general discussion of the form and function of Homeric similes, the second of his reflections on the role of the invocations of the Muses in Homeric poetry.
The Plausible Composition of the Iliad
Authors: van den Berg Baukje
Published: August 2022

This chapter explores Eustathios’ ideas on the Iliad’s πιθανότης or plausibility, which he considers a key factor in its rhetorical success. Throughout his commentary, Eustathios demonstrates how Homer, with potential detractors in mind, purposefully made his composition wholly plausible and, thus, irrefutable and criticism-proof. This chapter therefore studies the plausibility-enhancing techniques that Eustathios identifies in Homer’s composition, which concern the content of the poem as well as its presentation and formulation on the word level. The chapter also addresses Eustathios’ ideas on the much-debated notion of enargeia, as well as his discussion of the creative risks the poet takes by sometimes stretching the limits of plausibility, particularly in the mythical episodes of his poetry. For his analysis, Eustathios draws on earlier literary criticism and rhetorical theory, as discussed in the chapter’s first section. To bring together the different techniques for establishing plausibility scattered across the chapter, its last section explores Eustathios’ analysis of Priam’s visit to Achilles in Iliad 24, an episode in which ancient critics found many reasons to question the plausibility of Homer’s narrative.
Introduction
Authors: Carolini Gabriella Y.
Published: August 2022

The book’s introduction begins with an interest in Brazil’s diplomatic boom on the African continent in the early twenty-first century, and situates the motivation for studying South–South Cooperation (SSC) at the project level within an urban landscape in Mozambique. It highlights the current lack of clarity endemic to discourses about whether SSC provides a better—read “more equitable”—platform for development cooperation, presenting the rationale for the book’s more grounded critical analysis and embedded scholarship to deliver a verdict on whether hemispheric cooperation labels are real proxies for equity and solidarity in development cooperation. It then delineates the importance of resolving questions around what types of cooperation relationship work on the ground, and concludes with a presentation of the book’s arguments across its chapters.
Looking for Learning in Cooperation Projects
Authors: Carolini Gabriella Y.
Published: August 2022

This chapter provides an intellectual history of learning in development, and positions theories distinguishing different types of knowledge as especially valuable to evaluating knowledge production key to discretionary decision-making within international cooperation projects. It then considers evidence of these multiple dimensions of knowledge—from factual and conceptual to procedural and reflective knowledge—in water-and-sanitation-related international development cooperation projects studied in Maputo. Secondly, the analysis explores what kinds of proximities supported practitioners’ learning on the ground. Despite the anticipated added value of South–South Cooperation (SSC) as a special medium for advancing grounded high-level learning, the analysis shows that partners representing higher-income countries too could advance high-level know-how critical to discretionary decision-making. Further, beyond the geopolitical and technical ones favored by SSC discourses, heterarchical relationships among staff, local embeddedness in shared spaces, and practitioners’ professional theories of practice provided nuanced influences on the quality of learning within projects.
Conclusion
Authors: Carolini Gabriella Y.
Published: August 2022

This chapter concludes the book by arguing that geopolitical cooperation labels obscure more than they reveal about what matters for development collaboration at the project level. A project’s Northern, Southern, or trilateral architecture was not an especially robust predictor of cooperation success in material and knowledge terms in the projects presented in this book, nor did it ultimately determine the types of equity pursued and produced in place. Instead, what mattered were other types of partner proximity: whether projects were hierarchical or heterarchical in nature, whether project staff were situated within shared work environments; and whether practitioners valued flexibility and recognized learning from partners as peers. The promises of equity and solidarity heralded in development discourses can come from the combination of these “proximities” with a project evaluation framework that promotes explicit attention to distributive, procedural, and epistemic justice in both the design and implementation of cooperation work.
Holistic Ideals and the ‘Spirit’ of International Health
Authors: Peng-Keller Simon , Winiger Fabian
Published: August 2022

This chapter sets out by outlining the intellectual and political milieu in which the WHO would be created. It begins with the early twentieth-century reaction to an increasingly narrow and laboratory-based medicine, the call by many physicians and social reformers to broaden public health reforms to include social and political factors, and the recognition of the international nature of health. It then turns to Henry E. Sigerist (1891–1957), the Swiss physician and medical historian who supplied the wording to the definition of health contained in the preamble of the WHO’s constitution. The authors then examine the emergence of the term ‘spiritual’ within the WHO, and the ambiguous semantics of the term. Finally, they take a broad look at the post-colonial upheavals that contributed to a profound change in the WHO in the 1970s, and the introduction of the new paradigm of Primary Health Care (PHC) and the ‘Health for All by the Year 2000’, in which context the WHO first took an official interest in the ‘spiritual dimension’ of health.
The Spirituality of Others and the WHO Discourse on Traditional Medicine
Authors: Winiger Fabian
Published: August 2022

This chapter draws on primary literature published since the early 1970s to reconstruct three distinctive discourses behind the WHO’s interest in ‘traditional medicine’: the hope that it would provide the ‘manpower’ needed to roll out primary healthcare reform in developing countries; the political desire of newly decolonized nations for cultural and economic independence; and the idea that indigenous herbal remedies provided a repository of ‘active ingredients’ that would reduce the cost of medical care. Each rationale produced a distinctive accommodation of the inexplicable, ‘spiritual’ aspects of ‘traditional medicine’. Though the driving forces behind this development are diffuse, this chapter shows that the WHO’s interest in this topic traced a meandering but steady path towards a greater acceptance of non-biomedical healing modalities and alternative epistemologies of healing and caring