bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
What's good and good for you? A personal review of selected nonprofit periodicals
Authors: Leahy Sheila
Published: July 2007

We depart from the standard book review style here to include a more informal critique. A busy, top‐level nonprofit manager shares her perspective on five journals.
Foundations as investment managers part II: The performance
Authors: Salamon Lester M.
Published: July 2007

Foundations divide roughly into two groups in their investment behavior. Most follow an inactive, risk‐averse style, focusing on income maximization rather than total return. Another, smaller group of foundations are more activist and aggressive, focusing on total return. This article analyzes the investment performance associated with these different approaches, showing that while a significant number of foundations are performing well, many others lag in their investment returns.
Philanthropic styles
Authors: Prince Russ Alan , File Karen Maru , Gillespie James E.
Published: July 2007

The challenge of resource development, particularly among major donors, has led nonprofits to adopt marketing techniques, including market segmentation. The benefit segmentation approach used in this study of the giving motivations of 218 major donors reveals seven philanthropic styles: (1) Communitarians, (2) the Devout, (3) Investors, (4) Socialites, (5) Repayers, (6) Altruists, and (7) Dynasts. Examples of how knowledge of philanthropic styles can aid in nonprofit resource development are provided.
Exploring the role of boards using total activities analysis
Authors: Harris Margaret
Published: July 2007

This article describes a response—called Total Activities Analysis (TAA)—to the problem of defining the role of boards. TAA places the board's role within the context of all the activities carried out by a voluntary or nonprofit agency. The distinctive features of the TAA approach to defining the board role are the following: (1) it is analytical and exploratory rather than prescriptive, and (2) it considers the role of boards in relation to other roles within agencies. Both paid staff and board members have found TAA to be a useful practical tool.
Social policy, community service development, and religious organizations
Authors: Wineburg Robert J.
Published: July 2007

The retrenchment policies of the Reagan and Bush administrations have made human service much more locally oriented. As a result, religious groups have become increasingly involved in providing services. This article explores some of the historical and contemporary aspects of service involvement by religious groups, focusing on the meaning this involvement has for the social work community. Recommendations are provided to aid community planners in working more effectively with the resources of religious groups.
Planning responses to voluntary sector crises
Authors: Wolch Jennifer R. , Rocha Elizabeth M.
Published: July 2007

Planning in voluntary organizations is examined as a response to external crises that jeopardize organizational survival. The voluntary sector in London was investigated in order to understand the extent, nature, and rationale of planning in response to an extreme change in the political and funding context of voluntary action during the mid 1980s. Planning and the ability to plan may be the benchmark of organizational survival in the future, as pressure to plan increases from many arenas and statutory penetration of voluntary organizations deepens. The dilemma this poses for voluntary organizations is discussed, and alternative planning approaches are proposed.
Innovation by nonprofit organizations: Policy and research issues
Authors: Perri 6
Published: July 2007

It is often claimed that a main reason public authorities and others use nonprofit organizations is that nonprofit organizations are innovative. But very little research has been conducted into innovative behavior by nonprofit organizations. How, then, does a funder formulate a policy with which to select innovative organizations? This article develops a classification matrix for types of innovations, sets out the elements of an innovation policy for a funder, and uses a review of the main theories of the spurs and inhibitions to innovation to consider how this ordering can be used in the construction of an innovation policy and as a framework for research.
Policy and paper clips: Rejecting the lure of the corporate model
Authors: Hodgkin Christopher
Published: July 2007

Should nonprofit organizations adopt the business corporation model of governance? This article examines the differences between business and nonprofit corporations and argues that adopting the corporate model would be a dangerous error for nonprofit organizations. Nonprofits need a governance structure that reflects their unique aspects: the complexities of defining corporate mission; lack of a universal measure of success; dominance of community members rather than corporate insiders on the board; accountability for the public trust; responsibilities to many constituencies; and board responsibility for fundraising. While acknowledging that many nonprofit boards need to solve problems of inefficiency and unclear understandings of board responsibilities, the author argues that adopting the corporate model is the wrong prescription.
The supply of volunteer labor: The case of hospitals
Authors: Wolff Nancy , Weisbrod Burton A. , Bird Edward J.
Published: July 2007

Little is known about the labor market for volunteers, but even less is known about the supply of volunteers to particular industries. This article examines the supply of volunteer labor to one industry, hospitals, and the choices that volunteers make among hospitals with different ownership attributes. Survey data of volunteers at four hospitals located in Madison, Wisconsin, are used to estimate the importance of a number of factors influencing people's willingness to volunteer at hospitals. We found that job opportunities in the labor market and tax rates affect the supply of volunteers. We also found that volunteers are not indifferent to the type of hospital at which they volunteer; a federal government hospital, a nonprofit state‐owned teaching hospital, and other nonprofit hospitals were not perfect substitutes in the eyes of individual volunteers in our study.
A guide to journal articles on strategic management in nonprofit organizations, 1977 to 1992
Authors: Stone Melissa Middleton , Crittenden William
Published: July 2007

This article is a guide to over a hundred journal articles on strategic management in nonprofit organizations, published from 1977 to 1992 in nineteen leading general management or nonprofit journals. The guide provides brief summaries of articles, organized into widely accepted strategic management topic areas and research categories. The article indicates areas where substantial foundations of knowledge exist and where such bases are lacking. It distinguishes between works on general nonprofit management and those on empirical research.
The maturity of corporate giving and its long‐term consequences
Authors: Smith Hayden W.
Published: July 2007

This article, which is based on the author's experience with corporate giving programs, discusses the principal impediments to large‐scale corporate giving prior to World War II, traces the growth of corporate contributions over the past fifty years, and suggests that the procedures and practices now used by most of the largest public companies are evidence of a high degree of maturity with respect to corporate giving. Certain contributions procedures that are now common among major companies are described, together with some of the consequences of these developments for nonprofit organizations.
An overview of the literature on community development corporations
Authors: Berger Renee A. , Kasper Gabriel
Published: July 2007

[The community development] movement, largely invisible to the society at large, is quintessentially American. It mirrors the qualities of our society that so impressed Alexis de Tocqueville in the 1830s: our penchant for innovative civic association, our belief that individuals can bring about change, our openness to risk taking and to bridging lines of class, ideology, and party. CDCs, in their quiet way, have become a major component of corrective capitalism; in this free‐enterprise nation they are finding ways to open doors to classes and individuals otherwise excluded from the American dream.
Creating trust with major donors: The service encounter model
Authors: File Karen Maru , Prince Russ Alan , Cermak Dianne S. P.
Published: July 2007

Although the wealthy individuals who create charitable trusts exert considerable influence on the $123 billion of charitable giving, very little is known about this segment. Aside from data about the size of donations and emerging information about their motivations, the philanthropic and marketing literature is largely silent on issues surrounding major philanthropic acts. For example, what aspects of the service encounter catalyze support and create a successful experience? What are the prior constituent, voluntary, and donor behaviors of individuals who create trusts exceeding $1 million? What support is required from nonprofit and external legal and financial advisers? This article provides a model of the trust creation process framed by insights from the services marketing literature, documents the process empirically, and draws out implications for nonprofit resource development.
Culture and human resources management: Selecting leadership in a nonprofit organization
Authors: Golden‐Biddle Karen , Linduff Harry A.
Published: July 2007

This article examines the influence of culture in a nonprofit organization on a major human resources management decision: the selection of a new leader. Specifically, this article investigates the recent selection of the national executive vice president (known as EVP, the highest‐ranking, paid staff member) in the American Cancer Society and details how three particular aspects of the culture influenced the structure, process, and outcome of the selection decision.
Fiscal management in government‐funded nonprofit organizations: An exploratory study
Authors: Haas Peter J. , Giambruno John
Published: July 2007

Nonprofit human services organizations are playing an increasingly important role in the implementation of government programs. Yet little is known about how the fiscal affairs of these organizations are managed. This article explores the fiscal and budget practices of a group of affiliated nonprofit human services organizations in the western United States in an effort to provide a preliminary assessment of the capacities of these organizations, which have become so critical to the execution of public policy. The findings demonstrate that the organizations surveyed are making widespread use of many sophisticated management tools and methods in their budget processes.
Outstanding leadership in nonprofit organizations: Leadership competencies in Roman Catholic religious orders
Authors: Nygren David J. , Ukeritis Miriam D. , McClelland David C. , Hickman Julia L.
Published: July 2007

Effective leadership is essential for nonprofits to focus their energies beyond survival and toward accomplishment of their unique missions. This article describes a study of the leadership competencies of a sample of outstanding and typical leaders of Roman Catholic religious orders. The authors present a framework for understanding the characteristics that define excellence in the leadership of nonprofits.
Interdepartmental relations and voluntary organizations: An exploration of tensions and why they arise
Authors: Mackeith Joy
Published: July 2007

This article explores the nature of interdepartmental relations in voluntary organizations, looking, in particular, at the relationship between fundraising and service‐providing departments. The findings indicate that the relationship between these two departments can be problematic, and the sources of tension between them are outlined. The author examines the question of why tensions arise. The fact that, for the voluntary organization, the needs and preferences of the service funder and the service recipient can be very different may be part of the explanation. Finally, the implications of the findings for our understanding of the role of voluntary organizations and the strategies they adopt are explored.
Local development agencies: Supporting voluntary action
Authors: Osborne Stephen P. , Tricker Mike
Published: July 2007

This article examines the role of local development agencies (such as Rural Community Councils and Volunteer Bureaux) in developing and supporting local voluntary action. It finds these agencies equipped with the potential to make a significant contribution to their communities, in particular by taking on a strategic role as catalysts for service development. The article ends with a series of recommendations both for the management of these agencies and for the roles of central and local government in supporting them. Taken together, these recommendations specify the preconditions for the successful realization of this potential of local development agencies.
Religious giving in the united states
Authors: Hoge Dean R.
Published: July 2007

Research on religious giving in the United States contains several important lessons. Denominations differ immensely in their giving levels, with conservative Protestants giving the most, liberal Protestants giving at moderate levels, and Catholics giving the least. Personal religious commitments and the level of one's disposable income are the main determinants, but, in addition, interpersonal factors produce a strong skew in the amounts given. Annual pledging and deliberate planning of giving have clear effects.
Improving direct mail fundraising through segmentation research
Authors: Grande Carmine A. , Vavra Terry G.
Published: July 2007

Currently, fundraising for medical research (and most other charities) seems to be conducted more on the basis of intuition or trial‐and‐error guesswork than it is guided by strategic planning. The efficacy of segmentation research is examined, from the more traditional demographic segmentation techniques to newer segmentation schemes, including motivational segmentation and “geodemographic” segmentation. The methods are compared on their ability to identify active, high‐value donors and generate insights to help formulate more effective appeals from the better understanding of donor groups provided by the segmentation results.
Board members' influence on the government‐nonprofit relationship
Authors: Harlan Sharon L. , Saidel Judith R.
Published: July 2007

This study examines whether, how, and under what conditions nonprofit boards of directors influence the government and voluntary sector relationship. The survey responses of executive directors and board presidents in a randomly selected sample of 400 nonprofit organizations indicate that boards are not bystanders in the contracting relationship with government. Rather, many boards play multiple roles, simultaneously enhancing interdependence and maintaining the boundary between state government and nonprofits.
Is there a third way? a comparative analysis of how the law treats workers in the nonprofit, private‐for‐profit, and public sectors
Authors: Cole Michele T.
Published: July 2007

We know that personnel are often the nonprofit's greatest resource as well as its major cost. We know too that how well that resource is managed is the key to the organization's success; but, how much do we know about how to manage personnel in the third sector? Is there a “third way”—distinguishable from human resource management in the private‐for‐profit sector and different from personnel management in the public sector?
Fundraising: From art to science
Authors: Buchanan Robert W
Published: July 2007

Principles of Professional Fundraising: Useful Foundations for Successful Practice, by Joseph R. Mixer. San Francisco: Jossey‐Bass, 1993. 275 pp.

Finding Funding: The Comprehensive Guide to Grant Writing, by Daniel M. Barber. Long Beach, Calif.: Bond Street, 1994. 209 pp.
Corporate philanthropy: Gift or business transaction?
Authors: Lombardo Barbara
Published: July 2007

Much of the terminology and behavior surrounding corporate philanthropy reinforces the perception of it as a form of business transaction, rather than gift exchange. While the analogy to a business transaction is accurate in many ways, this article illustrates what is lost by avoiding the metaphor of the gift in reference to corporate philanthropy. By exploring the cultural meaning behind the gift‐exchange relationship, the author reveals the social functions of gift exchange in corporate philanthropy. Language that avoids this strong parallel deprives us of provocative insights into corporate philanthropy as a modern extension of complex relationships among individuals and institutions that have been practiced throughout history. The author develops these parallels in order to counterbalance the trend toward treating and thinking about corporate philanthropy strictly as a business transaction.
In search of common ground about the commons
Authors: Krashinsky Michael
Published: July 2007

The Commons: New Perspectives on Nonprofit Organizations and Voluntary Action, by Roger A. Lohmann. San Francisco: Jossey‐Bass, 1992. 344 pp. $34.95.

Governing the Commons: The Revolution of Institutions for Collective Action, by Elinor Ostrom. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990. 280 pp.
The major gift donor relationship: An analysis of donors and contributions
Authors: Lindahl Wesley E.
Published: July 2007

Securing major gifts for nonprofit organizations can involve considerable cost. This study examines the relationship developed between 233 major gift donors and the development office at Northwestern University over a five‐year period. The results show that the cultivation and solicitation process is usually long, measured in years rather than months, and the extent of the effort varies by type of donor and category of gift. Vignettes describing one of the relationships from each of the five most important categories are presented.
Do profits “crowd out” donations, or vice versa? the impact of revenues from sales on donations to local chapters of the American Red Cross
Authors: Kingma Bruce R.
Published: July 2007

This article examines the relationship between donations to the American Red Cross and the profits, sales, costs, and prices of health and safety classes offered by local chapters. Two important questions are examined: Do profits from sales of services “crowd out” donations to local chapters of the American Red Cross? Do managers respond to changes in donations by changing prices, output, or costs of saleable services? The results suggest that nonprofit managers should pay close attention to the potential impact on donations of any change in the prices charged for saleable goods and services, and that profits, costs, and prices of services are influenced by donations.
Roles consultants play in successful fundraising interventions
Authors: Fletcher Kathleen
Published: July 2007

This article draws on previous research by the author in which the long‐term effectiveness of technical assistance grants in fundraising was studied. Successful and unsuccessful interventions by fundraising consultants in that earlier study are compared using several descriptions of the role of the consultant from organizational development literature. This comparison helps define the roles played by successful consultants in fundraising interventions and provides a number of suggestions for both organizations and consultants as to how to make such interventions successful.
Sex, greed, and nonprofit mismanagement: A review essay
Authors: Van Til Jon
Published: July 2007

The United Way: Dilemmas of Organized Charity, by Eleanor L. Brilliant, New York: Columbia University Press, 1990. 382 pp. $47.00.

The United Way Scandal: An Insider's Account of What Went Wrong and Why, by John Glaser. New York: Wiley, 1994, 274 pp., $34.95.

Free Ride: The Tax‐Exempt Economy, by Gilbert Gaul and Neill M. Borowski. Kansas City: Andrews and McMeel, 1993. 197 pp., $6.95 (paper).
Accountability and nonprofit organizations: An economic perspective
Authors: Bogart William T.
Published: July 2007

A popular concern is whether the managers of nonprofit enterprise are accountable. This article considers accountability in the context of three questions. First, how do groups establish a basis on which to hold managers acountable? Second, to whom should a manager be accountable? Third, can a person or group make it important to a manager to act in the best interests of the person or group? These three questions are addressed by the fields of public choice theory, social choice theory, and principal‐agent theory, respectively. A cynical way of summarizing the seminal findings in these areas of research is that public choice theory proves that groups will be unable to form, social choice theory proves that once a group forms, it will be unable to make good decisions, and principal‐agent theory proves that a decision, once reached, is impossible to implement. A more optimistic view is that the problems identified by these research findings contain the seeds of their own solution, and that thereby valuable lessons for nonprofit managers can be adduced.
Accountability and nonprofit organizations: An ethical perspective
Authors: Lawry Robert P.
Published: July 2007

Given limited market regulation and no direct voter regulation, how nonprofit organizations can be made accountable is a serious and long‐standing issue for the sector. The expectations and demands of various constituent groups associated with nonprofits are often conflicting and even contradictory. Nonprofits need to come to terms with legitimate expectations, base them on reasonable standards, and work through each of them in ways consistent with the others and with the respective missions of the organizations.
Accountability in organizational life: Problem or opportunity for nonprofits?
Authors: Fry Ronald E.
Published: July 2007

This article reviews the notion of accountability as an intrinsic experience in daily organizational life and contrasts it with the more traditional construct of accountability as an external control or monitoring device. The concept of “felt responsibility” can provide an opportunity to enhance the effectiveness of nonprofit organizations. Both research and the author's field experiences in nonprofit settings suggest how nonprofit leaders and managers can use felt responsibility to help individuals act with accountability to themselves and to others. The concept of “conversation for accountability” poses a pragmatic opportunity for nonprofits in particular to turn the current environment of finger pointing and aggressive monitoring into an enabling organizational practice that benefits both nonprofit members and their clients or constituencies.
Charting unexplored territory: Nonprofit funding relations and the nonprofit‐market relationship
Authors: Saidel Judith R.
Published: July 2007

Understanding Nonprofit Funding: Managing Revenues in Social Services and Community Development Organizations, by Kirsten A. Grønbjerg. San Francisco: Jossey‐Bass, 1993. 397 pp., $41.95 cloth.

Nonprofit Organizations in a Market Economy: Understanding New Roles, Issues, and Trends, edited by David C. Hammack and Dennis R. Young. San Francisco: Jossey‐Bass, 1993. 479 pp., $43.95 cloth.
Women on boards of nonprofits: What difference do they make?
Authors: Bradshaw Pat , Murray Vic , Wolpin Jacob
Published: July 2007

In this article, the authors explore the impact of women on nonprofit boards. From a sociological perspective, they look at the actual proportion of women on boards and, from a more psychological perspective, at the sex of the chief executive officers in order to examine the impact of these variables on board effectiveness, structure, and process. The study results, based on data from a cross section of Canadian nonprofits, indicate that as the percentage of women on a board increases, the dynamics of the board are significantly affected.
Volunteers in charity retailing: Recruitment and training
Authors: Broadbridge Adelina , Horne Suzanne
Published: July 2007

Volunteer activity has received considerable research attention in recent years. There is, however, little academic research to date into volunteer issues in charity retailing. This article examines volunteers in charity shops and reports, in particular, on how volunteers are recruited and trained in the charity retailing. This article examines volunteers in charity shops and reports, in particular, on how volunteers are recruited and trained in the charity sector. The authors conclude that in an increasingly competitive market, charity retailers need to reexamine their recruitment and training policies in order to attract and retain a diverse core of volunteers.
Boards of directors in nonprofit organizations do they follow a life‐cycle model?
Authors: Dart Ray , Bradshaw Pat , Murray Vic , Wolpin Jacob
Published: July 2007

In this study the authors used data from a survey of Canadian nonprofit organizations to empirically test hypotheses derived from models of nonprofit board “life cycles.” The authors suggest that while formal structural elements of board behavior change in the manner suggested by life‐cycle models, the more enacted or behavioral aspects of nonprofit boards do not. The data further suggest caution in the use of life‐cycle or age‐dependent models to either explain or guide nonprofit board behavior.
Corporate political strategy: A framework for understanding nonprofit strategy
Authors: Bigelow Barbara , Stone Melissa Middleton , Arndt Margarete
Published: July 2007

Nonprofit organizations operate in environments characterized by institutional demands for legitimacy. The authors argue that, given this environment, corporate political strategy is critical to a nonprofit's ability to achieve its goals, gain access to resources, and achieve a sustainable advantage. The authors develop this thesis by providing a conceptual argument that corporate political strategy is critical given the institutional nature of the environment, the conflicting demands of multiple stakeholders, and the role of the funder; and by providing contextual evidence of the role of corporate political strategy in nonprofit strategy.
Nonprofits accommodate the information demands of public and private funders
Authors: Cutt James , Bragg Denise , Balfour Kim , Murray Vic , Tassie William
Published: July 2007

In the absence of performance reporting standards, nonprofit organizations face difficulties in accommodating the varied and changing informational requirements of public and private funders. Clients, volunteers, management, and staff also use and demand performance information. The authors studied four human services organizations in Victoria, British Columbia, Canada, and their performance reporting across the management cycle, from planning through implementation and monitoring, to external reporting and auditing. The authors analyzed documentary evidence and conducted interviews with users of performance information. they conclude this article by proposing a set of general standards nonprofit organizations can use in performance reporting.
The effects of flexible work arrangements
Authors: Hohl Karen L.
Published: July 2007

Recognizing the dearth of research on flexible work schedules in nonprofit organizations, the author conducted a statewide survey of Illinois independent nonprofits as well as follow‐up personal interviews with top administrators in select user organizations. Survey results indicate that a substantial proportion of these nonprofit organizations used flexible work arrangements. Four arrangement types in particular—flextime, parttime, compressed work week, and telecommuting—were found to be used more frequently in Illinois nonprofits than other research findings suggest. Although follow‐up interviews revealed that the percentages of employees in the various types of arrangements were low, overall arrangement use improved staff retention and morale and maintained performance. More than half of the administrators interviewed expected the use of all arrangement types to increase in the future.
Fairness and reputation effects in a provision point contributions process
Authors: Marks Melanie Beth , Schansberg D. Eric
Published: July 2007

This article reports on an investigation of how issues of fairness and reputation affect individual contributions in a group decision‐making setting. In the context of a threshold public goods provision experiment, treatments were performed to determine how individuals react to limited and unlimited information about the contributions of other group members. Experimental results show that revealing anonymous information about individual contribution behavior caused a concern about equity, which led to decreased average contributions and a higher variance in contributions. These effects were partially offset when individual‐specific contribution information was displayed. In their conclusion, the authors discuss how the results apply to different fundraising environments.
Is there an afterlife? How nonprofits move toward self‐sufficiency as foundation dollars end
Authors: Netting F. Ellen , Williams Frank G.
Published: July 2007

Nine demonstration projects were funded under the John A. Hartford Foundation's Generalist Physician Initiative. This article focuses on how these nonprofit grantees dealt with shortterm funding and the approaches they used to integrate program elements into parent health care systems. Continuation strategies included leveraging with foundation dollars, restructuring physician practices, enhancing community connections, modeling collaboration, and cross‐fertilizing projects. In order to succeed, project managers needed to be sensitive to project selection, transition planning and reporting, project organization and design, management and integration, cultural differences, and project dissemination and support.
Remissioning nonprofits: Two case studies of membership associations
Authors: Rugh Thomas E.
Published: July 2007

The mission of a mutual benefit association is so inexorably intertwined with its membership that a change in one cannot succeed without a corresponding change in the other. Two case studies of United Ways' state associations' “remissioning” initiatives give details on the dynamic interplay of mission and membership in mutual benefit associations, a fundamental characteristic that distinguishes them from public benefit nonprofits. To anticipate change, association managers must focus on the shifting demands from their members' stakeholders. They also must clearly understand the nature of their membership and who represent their members when members are organizations, and they must be ready to engage in intra‐association politics to effect a change in mission.
The anticipated growth of nonprofit unionism
Authors: Pynes Joan E.
Published: July 2007

Although unions are not typically associated with nonprofit organizations, many nonprofit agencies have unionized work forces. The author predicts that there will be an increase in the number of unions representing nonprofit employees. Parallels are drawn between the evolution of unions in the public and nonprofit sectors.
The relationship between formal planning and performance in nonprofit organizations
Authors: Siciliano Julie I.
Published: July 2007

A study of 240 YMCA organizations revealed that regardless of organization size, those organizations that used a formal approach to strategic planning had higher levels of financial and social performance than those with less formal processes. The better performers also assigned the responsibility for planning to a strategic planning subcommittee of the board rather than to the board's executive committee or to an outside consultant.
Society in motion: Russia's emerging voluntary sector
Authors: Leitch Duncan
Published: July 2007

During autumn 1993 and spring 1994, the author worked as a consultant and trainer for a group of independent social organizations in the city of Voronezh, central Russia. In this article he discusses the main features of voluntary sector development in that city and the characteristics of associations currently active there. The findings indicate a voluntary sector that is both extensive and diverse, in which self‐organizing mutual aid is the predominant organizational form. The findings are discussed against a historical background that traces the development of independent social activism in the former Soviet Union back to the pre‐Gorbachev period. It is this background that may help to explain the rapid growth and surprising complexity of the sector today.
Efficiency in religious organizations
Authors: Zaleski Peter A. , Zech Charles E.
Published: July 2007

Churches must realize that the management of their human resources is critical. The U.S. Catholic Church in recent years has been this problem take on even more significance with the apparent shortage of priests. This article considers this problem in light of a relatively new methodology, data envelopment analysis, which compares organizations to comparable best‐practice units. The authors conclude that the Church would benefit from a better distribution of priests, both within and across dioceses. They also conclude that the use of deacons and priestless parishes can be effective in some circumstances.
Structures of multinational nonprofit organizations
Authors: Hudson Bryant A. , Bielefeld Wolfgang
Published: July 2007

Investigations of the structures of multinational organizations have been primarily limited to the multinational for‐profit form, while examinations of alternative structural arrangements of nonprofit organizations have been focused on single‐nation organizations. This article draws on the extensive descriptive literature on nonprofits and the theoretical literature on the structural determinants of organizations to make predictions about the potential range of structures of multinational nonprofits. The authors show that local resource density and environmental variation are key factors in determining multinational nonprofit structures. They conclude that nonprofit organizations operating in multiple national settings are likely to be structured as umbrella organizations that act as an additional layer of hierarchy for multiple indigenous organizations, and that unitary, hierarchical corporate structures are not likely to be found in these organizations.
Government, funded nonprofits, and accountability
Authors: McDonald Catherine
Published: July 2007

Internationally, nonprofit organizations are being held to account for how they spend public funds. This issue of accountability has emerged as a theme in nonprofit‐state relationships. Exploring the state side of that relationship in Australia, the author suggests that significant constraints hinder the ability of state funding bodies to manage accountability processes for grant funds. The interviews summarized and reported here were conducted before the full impact of a contract regime was felt. The issues identified permit reflection on the possible mediating impact of different political systems on accountability processes, and on the limitations of principal‐agent frameworks in building accountability processes and state‐nonprofit relations.
The 990 return: Beyond the internal revenue service
Authors: Froelich Karen A.
Published: July 2007

The author recognizes the expanding role of the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) 990 Return in understanding the nonprofit sector and monitoring the strategies, operations, and performance of individual nonprofit organizations, operations, and performance of individual nonprofit organizations. She identifies major problems with the IRS 990 Return relative to its broadened use and provides suggestions for minimizing the problematic interpretation of IRS 990 data.
The molecular epidemiology of influenza viruses: a lesson from a highly epidemic season
Authors: D’Agaro P , Rossi T , Burgnich P , Molin G Dal , Coppola N , Rocco G , Campello C
Published: July 2007

Aims:

To analyse the epidemiological and molecular features of a long-lasting epidemic (12 weeks) of influenza in north-eastern Italy during the 2004–05 season.

Methods:

Morbidity rates were analysed by time and age. Influenza virus isolates (93 strains) were submitted to antigenic evaluation by haemagglutination inhibition test and to molecular assessment by sequencing.

Results:

The incidence peak (16.4 per thousand) was the highest recorded over the last six years in north-eastern Italy. The epidemic was sustained by two subsequent waves of circulating viruses: an H3N2 variant and two type B variants, respectively. In addition, scattered isolation of an H1N1 variant occurred. Antigenic and molecular characterisation showed the emergence of an H3N2 virus drifted with respect to vaccine strain, which also had a substantial impact on morbidity in vaccinated subjects. Moreover, a single K145N substitution in the HA1 site of H3N2 was the starting point of two evolutionary branches. No change was observed in H1N1 isolates. B-type virus was mainly represented by Victoria-lineage strains, though Yamagata-lineage viruses were also identified. The fluctuating circulation of these two clades has characterised B virus epidemics in recent years.

Conclusions:

The assessment of the H3N2 molecular change in this area was in line with results used for establishing the vaccine composition for the incoming season. The particular epidemiological features of two B virus clades, namely Yamagata-like and Victoria-like, may be considered for introduction into the influenza vaccine.
Evaluation of disc susceptibility tests performed directly from positive blood cultures
Authors: Tan T Y , Ng L S Y , Kwang L L
Published: July 2007

Aims:

To evaluate the accuracy of direct disc susceptibility testing performed from positive BACTEC blood culture vials, using a predetermined dilution protocol.

Methods:

Direct susceptibility testing was performed from 432 positive blood culture vials, generating 3829 antibiotic-organism results. Results were compared with those obtained by standard disc susceptibility testing according to Clinical Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) methods.

Results:

When results were compared with the reference method, no very major errors were detected. One (0.03%) major error and 89 (2.3%) minor errors were found. Error rates by organism group ranged from 1.3% forPseudomonas aeruginosato 8.2% for β-haemolytic streptococci.

Conclusions:

Direct susceptibility testing provided accurate susceptibility results for most organism–antibiotic combinations, with the exception of the β-haemolytic streptococci.
A Near‐Infrared Optical Tomography System Based on Photomultiplier Tube
Authors: Feng Huacheng , Bai Jing , Song Xiaolei , Hu Gang , Yao Junjie
Published: July 2007

Diffuse optical tomography (DOT) is a rapidly growing discipline in recent years. It plays an important role in many fields, such as detecting breast cancer and monitoring the cerebra oxygenation. In this paper, a relatively simple, inexpensive, and conveniently used DOT system is presented in detail, in which only one photomultiplier tube is employed as the detector and an optical multiplexer is used to alter the detector channels. The 32‐channel imager is consisted of 16‐launch fibers and 16‐detector fibers bundles, which works in the near‐infrared (NIR) spectral range under continuous‐wave (CW) model. The entire imaging system can work highly automatically and harmoniously. Experiments based on the proposed imaging system were performed, and the desired results can be obtained. The experimental results suggested that the proposed imaging instrumentation is effective.
An Algorithm for Idle-State Detection in Motor-Imagery-Based Brain-Computer Interface
Authors: Zhang Dan , Wang Yijun , Gao Xiaorong , Hong Bo , Gao Shangkai
Published: July 2007

For a robust brain-computer interface (BCI) system based on motor imagery (MI), it should be able to tell when the subject is not concentrating on MI tasks (the “idle state”) so that real MI tasks could be extracted accurately. Moreover, because of the diversity of idle state, detecting idle state without training samples is as important as classifying MI tasks. In this paper, we propose an algorithm for solving this problem. A three-class classifier was constructed by combining two two-class classifiers, one specified for idle-state detection and the other for these two MI tasks. Common spatial subspace decomposition (CSSD) was used to extract the features of event-related desynchronization (ERD) in two motor imagery tasks. Then Fisher discriminant analysis (FDA) was employed in the design of two two-class classifiers for completion of detecting each task, respectively. The algorithm successfully provided a way to solve the problem of “idle-state detection without training samples.” The algorithm was applied to the dataset IVc from BCI competition III. A final result with mean square error of 0.30 was obtained on the testing set. This is the winning algorithm in BCI competition III. In addition, the algorithm was also validated by applying to the EEG data of an MI experiment including “idle” task.
Screen Bowl Centrifuge Dewatering Process: A Parameteric Study
Authors: Mohanty Manoj K.
Published: July 2007

Screen bowl centrifugation process is widely used for fine coal dewatering due to its relatively low cost, high capacity of providing low‐moisture content product as well as relative ease of operation and maintenance. However, screen bowl centrifuge tends to lose a significant amount of ultrafine clean coal to the main effluent and screen‐drain streams. This study aims at obtaining a better understanding of the parameter main effects and interaction effects with an ultimate goal of improving the dewatering performance of a screen bowl centrifuge. A three‐level factorial experimental design has been utilized to conduct a test program using a continuously operated screen bowl centrifuge having a bowl diameter of 0.5 meter. The results of this study indicate that moisture content of the clean coal product is affected by both feed solid content and the pool depth maintained in the centrifuge. On the other hand, clean coal recovery to the product launder was found to be a function of feed solid content and volumetric feed flow rate but independent of the pool depth. The interaction effect of feed flow rate and feed solid content also appeared to have a significant effect on the clean coal recovery.
Neural Systems with Numerically Matched Input-Output Statistic: Isotonic Bivariate Statistical Modeling
Authors: Fiori Simone
Published: July 2007

Bivariate statistical modeling from incomplete data is a useful statistical tool that allows to discover the model underlying two data sets when the data in the two sets do not correspond in size nor in ordering. Such situation may occur when the sizes of the two data sets do not match (i.e., there are holes in the data) or when the data sets have been acquired independently. Also, statistical modeling is useful when the amount of available data is enough to show relevant statistical features of the phenomenon underlying the data. We propose to tackle the problem of statistical modeling via a neural (nonlinear) system that is able to match its input-output statistic to the statistic of the available data sets. A key point of the new implementation proposed here is that it is based on look-up-table (LUT) neural systems, which guarantee a computationally advantageous way of implementing neural systems. A number of numerical experiments, performed on both synthetic and real-world data sets, illustrate the features of the proposed modeling procedure.
MAC-Layer QoS Management for Streaming Rate-Adaptive VBR Video over IEEE 802.11e HCCA WLANs
Authors: Cai Jianfei , Gao Deyun , Wu Jianhua
Published: July 2007

With the increasing popularity of using WLANs for Internet access, the HCCA mechanism in IEEE 802.11e WLANs has received much more attention due to its efficiency in handling time-bounded multimedia traffic. To achieve high network utilization and good end-to-end QoS in the scenario of VBR video over HCCA is a very challenging task because of the dynamics coming from both the network conditions and the video content. In this paper, we propose a cross-layer framework for efficiently delivering multiclass rate-adaptive VBR video over HCCA. The proposed framework consists of three major modules: the MAC-layer admission control, the MAC-layer resource allocation, and the application-layer video adaptation. Experimental results demonstrate the effectiveness of each individual module and the advantage of dynamic interactions among different modules.
Crimes against International Peace and Security, Acts of Terrorism and Other Serious Crimes: A Theory on Distinction and Overlap
Authors: Kaikobad Kaiyan Homi
Published: July 2007

This study attempts to provide guidance in understanding the difference between acts of terrorism on the one hand and war crimes and crimes against humanity, on the other, the latter two collectively referred to as crimes against international peace and security. A clear understanding of the distinction between these two broad categories is important. Not only is there is a need for forensic clarity in doctrinal thought, the fact is that different categories of crimes entail the application of two different sets of laws and precepts, namely domestic criminal systems and international law. The existence, nature, scope and extent of the culpability of the accused will be determined by applying the correct set of legal principles and rules. While it focuses on the major distinguishing features of these two categories of crimes, this study also highlights areas of overlap which cannot be ignored. Analytical conclusions are presented by setting out a number of paradigms with examples. Each paradigm consists of eight essential elements, and the presence or absence of these elements in different combinations in each paradigm can be used to determine not only the legal category of the impugned act but also the existence or otherwise of the culpability of the accused in law.
When Law and Reality Clash–The Imperative of Compromise in the Context of the Accumulated Evil of the Whole: Conditions for the Exercise of the International Criminal Court's Jurisdiction over the Crime of Aggression
Authors: McDougall Carrie
Published: July 2007

This article assesses the legal and policy arguments for and against determination by the Security Council of the occurrence of a State act of aggression for the purpose of the prosecution of a crime of aggression before the International Criminal Court, investigating several issues largely neglected by commentators and States Parties to date. It concludes that legal and policy arguments overwhelmingly favour independent determination by the ICC, but nonetheless recognises that the constraints of international politics mean it is unlikely the Assembly of States Parties will be able to reach agreement on provisions that allow for such independent determination. As such, the article assesses the merits of existing compromise proposals, before concluding by offering an alternative compromise provision for the conditions under which the ICC can exercise its jurisdiction over the crime of aggression.
International Sentencing in the Context of Collective Violence
Authors: Henham Ralph
Published: July 2007

This article evaluates some of the theoretical and practical arguments which suggest that the potential for international trial justice to make a significant contribution towards reconciliation and peace following mass atrocity is limited. Conversely, it argues that it is possible to move beyond the current narrow conceptualisation of penality in international trials by re-thinking the ideological framework for punishment and sentencing and giving trial outcomes a greater sense of moral purpose and legitimacy in the eyes of victims and those communities seeking justice. The article argues why this is necessary and achievable through the adoption of more constructive strategies and interventions in international trial process.