bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Military and Society: Reaching and Reflecting Audiences in Fiction and Film
Authors: Harper Howard
Published: June 2007

Descriptions of the most popular current (1997-1999) American novels and movies mention military culture in only about 6% of the books and 4% of the films. Most are either reflections of the past (such as Saving Private Ryan) or projections of the future (such as Starship Troopers), although they do reflect today's attitudes. This cultural "gap" can also be seen in works that only glance at the military (Wag the Dog).

Military or ex-military protagonists in popular action novels and movies see themselves as tough realists with higher standards, technological expertise, and responsibility than their civilian counterparts. Contemptuous of politicians and intrusive media journalists, they like finding creative ways around "constricting" rules. But the more "literary" books and films tend to be more critical of the military's bureaucratic inertia and preoccupations with status and power. This widening gap essentially reflects a shift from an American ethic of national service toward one of self-service.
The Word of Command
Authors: King Anthony
Published: June 2007

Military sociologists have attempted to explain how military institutions develop and maintain high levels of social cohesion. They have focused primarily on how the personal and intimate social interactions between soldiers produce bonds of comradeship. This comradeship is taken as the basis of social cohesion. Although sustainable, there is an unfortunate bias in the work of military sociologists. They focus almost exclusively on informal rituals in which personal bonds are forged. In fact, the decisive rituals that bind military groups together are the formal processes of training. Drawing on ethnographic analysis of the British armed forces and the Royal Marines, in particular, this article attempts to redress the balance. It examines the drills—above all, the communication drills—that British troops are collectively trained to perform and claims that these constitute the key social rituals for the British military. On the basis of this analysis, an alternative account of comradeship is proposed
Ethnic Conflict in the Military of Developing Nations: A Comparative Analysis of India and Nigeria
Authors: Barua Pradeep P.
Published: June 2007

Most armies of multiethnic countries have experienced, to varying degrees, ethnic tension within their ranks, a problem that has been especially acute in developing countries. This article seeks to contribute to an understanding of the dynamics of such conflict through a comparative analysis of ethnic conflict in the armies of Nigeria and India, two of the most ethnically diverse nations in the developing world. Because both were colonies of Britain, they were similar in more ways than one. The most important was the system of ethnic recruitment favored by the British.

In 1966 and 1984, the Nigerian and Indian armies experienced serious mutinies that were direct results of the violent ethnic conflict prevalent in the two countries at the time. But, despite many similarities, the two mutinies resulted in radically different outcomes-civil war and secession in Nigeria, and swift suppression of the mutinies in India. The article explains how, despite superficial similarities, significant differences in the evolution and characteristics of the two armies were responsible for the different outcomes.
The Israel Defense Forces (IDF): From a "People's Army" to a "Professional Military"-Causes and Implications
Authors: Cohen Stuart A.
Published: June 2007

Ever since its establishment in 1948, the Israel Defense Force (IDF) has exhibited characteristics conventionally associated with a "people's army." The composition of its force structure (mainly based on compulsory conscription and reserve duty) has both reflected and reinforced that image. During the past decade, however, the relative weights of the IDF's manpower complement have begun to change. While reserve duty is being reduced and conscription is becoming more selective, the career and professional component is being augmented. This article examines the societal, economic, and operational reasons for those changes. It then goes on to discuss their possible effects on the fabric of relations between Israeli society and the IDF. Specifically noted are the implications for (a) military service as a rite of passage towards full citizenship; (b) the IDF's posture of "military role expansion"; and (c) civil-military relations in Israel.
Suriname: A Military and Its Auxiliaries
Authors: Brana-Shute Gary
Published: June 2007

The official state military establishment of Suriname is small, numbering about 4,000 at its height in the mid-1980s. However, in order to consolidate their political power, sow terror, and gather intelligence, the military and its (then) left wing supporters augmented their forces with irregulars and auxiliaries. These were armed, funded, and coordinated by the military command, although not always answerable to them; such groups were variously called the People's Militia (Volksmilitie), and were patterned after the Cuban model. A terrorist strike force was established within the formal military ranks, and five civilian insurgent groups were created to advance military control over interior populations and territory.

Suriname is a Caribbean country sharing generally in the political-economic legacies of plantation slavery that rendered Caribbean societies highly pluralistic and socially fragmented. For a desperate period in the 1980s the military had become the ultimate arbiter of power in a state that is still far from becoming a nation.
Captain James H. Hausman and the Formation of the Korean Army, 1945-1950
Authors: Millett Allan R.
Published: June 2007

The creation of new armies for new nations or the reform of old armies for modernizing states is often tied to the tale of one or two European or American officers, reformers of herculean proportions whose charisma and professionalism shape an institution for years. Sometimes military reform becomes an engine of change for an entire society, intended or otherwise. Given the global reach of British and French military practices and the compulsive energy and hypermilitarization of Imperial Germany, it is not surprising that the great reformers are Europeans: William Carr Beresford in Portugal, Charles George Gordon in China, Ivor Herbert in Canada, H.H. Kitchner in Egypt, Orde Wingate in Jewish Palestine, John Bagot Glubb in Jordan, Joseph-Simon Gallieni in Indochina, Hubert Louis Lyautey in Morocco, Colmar von der Goltz and Liman von Sanders in Turkey, Emil Korner in Chile, Hans Kundt in Bolivia, and Max Bauer and Hans von Seeckt in China. Although not so well known in the pantheon of military imperialists, officers from the United States also played key roles in the creation of modern armies in the Middle East, the Caribbean, and Asia. Absent as statues and almost invisible in literature, these officers include Charles P. Stone in Egypt, William McE. Dye in the Kingdom of Choson (Korea), Herbert J. Slocum in Cuba, Charles Young in Liberia, Smedley D. Butler in Haiti, Henry T. Allen and Edward G. Lansdale in the Philippines, and Joseph W. Stilwell in China. With aspirations that sometimes exceeded the values of their own armies, these officer-missionaries for military professionalism sometimes left unavoidable political power in the hands of the army and a memory (often unfair) of cultural imperialism and unwanted interference in civil political development. Such was the fate of James H. Hausman, the most influential officer in shaping the army of the Republic of Korea.
Winning the Troops for Vital Religion: Female Evangelical Missionaries to the British Army, 1857-1880
Authors: Hendrickson Kenneth
Published: June 2007

This article recounts and analyzes the rise of a civilian-inspired socialization and missionary movement in the Victorian British army. Faced in 1860 with chronic alcohol abuse and resort to prostitutes by the troops, army authorities at the great camp of Aldershot posed various remedies. However, one of the most effective alternatives to illicit night life proved to be "Soldiers' Homes" founded by evangelical Christian women. By 1914 the soldiers' homes were one of the most prominent social fixtures of British military bases at home and abroad. The women who pioneered the movement relied upon social values of femininity and domesticity, and upon Christianity, to compete with army attempts to socialize the men against vice. In the process, they also defied the usual roles of the relationship of women to important national-public institutions such as the army.
Perceived Security Threat and the Global Refugee Crisis
Authors: Mandel Robert
Published: June 2007

The refugee dilemma has moved to the center of world concern, and it occupies an important spot on national security agendas to augment its position on the global humanitarian agenda. This article analyzes the causes and consequences of the perceived security threat surrounding the global refugee crisis. In studying this predicament for governments and citizens in both sending and receiving states, this study combines theoretical propositions with empirical evidence, primarily about the ongoing dilemmas in Afghanistan, Bosnia, and Rwanda.
Influence of Perceived Contextual Stress on Self-Esteem and Academic Outcomes in African American Adolescents
Authors: Cunningham Michael , Hurley Megan , Foney Dana , Hayes DeMarquis
Published: June 2007

The study investigated factors that influence academic success among highachieving African American students who are exposed to many stressful life events that are often associated with life in many urban neighborhoods. The participants were 84 public high school students in a large urban southwestern city. The results indicated that adolescent-perceived hassles were indications of parental monitoring in high-risk neighborhoods. Also, parental monitoring was positively related to self-esteem. Within an area-specific examination of selfesteem, the school component mediated the relation between stressful life events and grade point average.
Pauline Demonology and/or Cosmology? Principalities, Powers and the Elements of the World in their Hellenistic Context
Authors: Forbes Chris
Published: June 2007

This paper follows on from the case of ‘Paul’s Principalities and Powers: Demythologizing Apocalyptic?’ ( JSNT 82 [2001], pp. 61-88). It argues that the distinctive concepts expressed by Paul’s ‘principalities and powers’ language are best understood against the background of popular Middle Platonism, particularly as it is expressed in Philo and Plutarch. Rather than ‘demythologizing’ the demonology of his apocalyptic heritage, Paul saw a continuum between pure abstractions (‘height and depth’, Rom. 8.38), personifiable abstractions (‘principalities and powers’), literary personifications (‘Law, Sin and Death’) and ‘actual’ personal spiritual beings. Such a view has its roots in Greek thinking going back as far as the fifth century BCE, and still current in the popular Platonism of the first and early second centuries. In his understanding of ‘principalities and powers’, Paul is working creatively between the angelology and demonology of his Jewish heritage, and the world-view of the thoughtful Graeco-Roman philosophical amateur.
The Product of a Petrine Circle? A Reassessment of the Origin and Character of 1 Peter
Authors: Horrell David G.
Published: June 2007

Recent studies of 1 Peter, especially by John Elliott, have sought to rescue the letter from its assimilation to the Pauline tradition and to establish the view, now widely held, that 1 Peter is the distinctive product of a Petrine circle. After examining the traditions in 1 Peter, both Pauline and non-Pauline, and the names in the letter (Silvanus, Mark and Peter), this essay argues that there is no substantial evidence, either inside or outside the letter, to support the view of 1 Peter as originating from a specifically Petrine group. It is much more plausibly seen as re‘ ecting the consolidation of early Christian traditions in Roman Christianity. Despite the scholarly majority currently in its favour, the view of 1 Peter as the distinctive product of a Petrine tradition from a Petrine circle should therefore be rejected.
Ancient Oleiculture and Ethnic Differentiation: The Meaning of the Olive-Tree Image in Romans 11
Authors: Esler Philip F.
Published: June 2007

The image of the olive tree in Rom. 11.16b-24, like other such images in Paul’s correspondence, deserves to be taken seriously as contributing to the message he is communicating. This necessitates considering it in the light of its ancient context, here meaning Graeco-Roman oleiculture. The best solution is not, however, that Paul was referring to a technique mentioned by Columella of stimulating fruitfulness in a cultivated olive tree by grafting in a twig of wild olive. Rather, he is alluding to the standard practice in the eastern Mediterranean, described by Theophrastus and employed even in our times, of grafting a stock of cultivated olive onto a wild olive tree. But Paul deliberately depicts the inversion of this process, as a way of undermining the pretensions of Greek Christ-followers in Rome. The result is an image of the Christ movement, clearly differentiated in its parts, in which the Judaean members are superior to the others.
Poverty in Pauline Studies: Beyond the So-called New Consensus
Authors: Friesen Steven J.
Published: June 2007

There was no new consensus or old consensus during the twentieth century regarding social status in Paul’s assemblies. A comparison of the work of Adolf Deissmann with publications from the late twentieth century suggests instead a shift from an industrial capitalist interpretation of society focused on ‘class’ to a consumer capitalist interpretation of society focused on ‘social status’. Social status defined in this way is inappropriate for the description of the Roman empire, so this argument focuses instead on measuring economic resources. Rather than using the vague binary categories of rich/poor, a poverty scale is proposed with seven categories ranging from ‘below subsistence level’ to ‘imperial elites’. Using this scale, an examination of explicit references to economic resources in the undisputed Pauline letters leads to the conclusion that there is no evidence for any wealthy saints in the Pauline assemblies. On the contrary, most of the saints can be described as poor; that is, living near or below the level of subsistence.
Ephesians 2 as a Narrative of Divine Warfare
Authors: Gombis Timothy G.
Published: June 2007

The current consensus in Ephesians scholarship regards the letter’s second chapter as an expansion or continuation of the blessing and thanksgiving section from ch. 1, maintaining that it does not contain any cogent theological argument or even a clear and consistent line of thought. This article challenges the consensus by reading the chapter through the lens of the ideology of divine warfare, which is found in texts throughout the ANE and utilized in both the Old Testament and New Testament. It is argued that reading the text through this paradigm brings to light the contours of the author’s argument, which is a listing of the triumphs of God in Christ that vindicate the claim that Christ has been exalted as Lord over all things (Eph. 1.20-23).
Towards a Typology of Levantine/Palestinian Houses
Authors: Richardson Peter
Published: June 2007

This analysis proposes a typology of domestic architecture, within the context of earlier efforts at a Palestinian typology and the background of Greek and Roman house typologies. It draws on recent evidence from Roman-period archaeological sites, especially from the Galilee but including examples from other regions of the Levant (Gaulanitis, Samaritis, Judea, Peraea, the Negev).
Beyond the School Yard: Relationships as Moderators of Daily Interpersonal Conflict
Authors: Jensen-Campbell Lauri A. , Graziano William G.
Published: June 2007

Interpersonal conflicts are an inevitable part of life and may be especially conspicuous in early adolescence. Recent research suggests, however, that structural aspects of relationships influence interpersonal conflicts. Specifically, closeness and openness of the relationships within which the conflicts occur moderate patterns of such conflicts. A total of 155 adolescents kept diary records of their in vivo, daily conflicts and interactions for 2 weeks using an adolescent-appropriate, conflict-oriented adaptation of the Rochester Interaction Record. On average, interactions without conflicts outnumbered conflicts 2 to 1; however, many reported diary records involved conflicts. Patterns of conflict were related to the kinds of relationships within which the conflicts occurred. Some results were consistent with predictions derived from a social exchange approach but other results were not. Outcomes are discussed in terms of interpersonal contributions to adolescent development.
An Interpersonal Conceptualization and Quantification of Social Support Transactions
Authors: Trobst Krista K.
Published: June 2007

The present article applies Cobb’s original formulation of the social support construct and elaborates a theoretical and empirical framework employing the interpersonal circumplex model that has proved useful for elucidating concepts and measures from a variety of research traditions. In a series of studies, 1,040 undergraduate students completed self-report questionnaires indicating their likelihood of performing various support actions. A circumplex structure was obtained that was both substantively and structurally auspicious and that provided a taxonomic framework within which 12 extant social support subscales and 15 personality characteristics were clarified. The Support Actions Scale Circumplex (SAS-C) assesses a broad range of social support behavior, including both the potentially protective and deleterious effects of interpersonal transactions.
Does Personal Morality Exacerbate or Restrain Retaliation after Being Harmed?
Authors: Batson C. Daniel , Bowers Mark J. , Leonard Emily A. , Smith Emily C.
Published: June 2007

To examine the effect of level of moral responsibility on response to being harmed, 80 undergraduates each were initially given 10 raffle tickets. Half of the participants subsequently had 9 of their 10 tickets taken away and given to a fellow participant, whereas half did not. In each of these harm-done conditions, half of the participants were led to believe that the fellow participant intentionally took 9 of their tickets (either successfully or not), whereas half believed that the fellow participant did not intend them harm. Participants were then given a chance to take tickets from the fellow. Responses revealed two independent processes, one to reestablish distributive justice after tickets had been taken and the other to retaliate for harm intended. Level of moral responsibility had no effect on pursuit of distributive justice, but high moral responsibility restrained pursuit of retributive (retaliatory) justice. Possible reasons are proposed.
Reducing Context Effects by Adding Context Information: The Direction and Size of Context Effects in Political Judgment
Authors: Bless Herbert , Igou Eric R. , Schwarz Norbert , Wänke Michaela
Published: June 2007

This article investigates how the activation of a specific exemplar influences the direction and the size of context effects on evaluative judgments about other specific exemplars or about a superordinate category. The activation of an untrustworthy politician decreased judgments of trustworthiness of politicians in general but increased judgments of the trustworthiness of specific exemplars. The assimilation as well as the contrast effect were attenuated when additional judgment-relevant exemplars were activated. The results suggest that the impact of a specific context information depends on the amount of other judgment-relevant information that can be used in constructing a mental representation of the judgmental target or of a comparison standard. Implications for scandal management are discussed.
Overcoming the Inevitable Anchoring Effect: Considering the Opposite Compensates for Selective Accessibility
Authors: Mussweiler Thomas , Strack Fritz , Pfeiffer Tim
Published: June 2007

Anchoring effects—the assimilation of a numeric estimate to a previously considered standard—have proved to be remarkably robust. Results of two studies, however, demonstrate that anchoring can be reduced by applying a consider-the-opposite strategy. Based on the Selective Accessibility Model, which assumes that anchoring is mediated by the selectively increased accessibility of anchor-consistent knowledge, the authors hypothesized that increasing the accessibility of anchor-inconsistent knowledge mitigates the effect. Considering the opposite (i.e., generating reasons why an anchor is inappropriate) fulfills this objective and consequently proves to be a successful corrective strategy. In a real-world setting using experts as participants, Study 1 dem-onstrated that listing arguments that speak against a provided anchor value reduces the effect. Study 2 further revealed that the effects of anchoring and considering the opposite are additive.
The Emotional Impact of Chosen and Imposed Thoughts
Authors: Wenzlaff Richard M. , LePage James P.
Published: June 2007

Two studies tested the idea that perceptions of choice can alter the self-relevance and emotional impact of thoughts. Participants who were initially in either a positive or negative mood engaged in a thought exercise that involved either positive or negative thinking. Half of the participants received information stressing the optional nature of the task, thereby fostering a sense of choice and personal determination. The results indicate that under high-choice, mood-incongruent thinking was especially self-relevant, memorable, and produced the most mood change. The findings raise new considerations for self-perception and cognitive dissonance theories and offer insights into the relationship between cognition and emotion.
The Intersection of Self-Evaluation Maintenance and Social Identity Theories: Intragroup Judgment in Interpersonal and Intergroup Contexts
Authors: Schmitt Michael T. , Silvia Paul J. , Branscombe Nyla R.
Published: June 2007

In two studies, the authors explore the integration of the self-evaluation maintenance (SEM) model and social identity theory (SIT) by focusing on each perspective’s predictions for the evaluation of members of one’s ingroup. SEM’s predictions apply to personal identity concerns, whereas SIT’s predictions are applicable to concerns for a group identity. In Study 1, participants evaluated an ingroup member who highly outperformed them. High- and low-identified participants did not differ in their ratings of the target in an interpersonal context but high identifiers did like the target more than lows in an intergroup context. In Study 2, highly identified participants preferred a poorly performing target in an interpersonal context, but in an intergroup context, they preferred the one who outperformed them. Results are discussed in terms of the theoretical overlap between SEM and SIT and how self-categorization theory can help integrate interpersonal and intergroup perspectives on self-evaluation.
Justice and Identity: The Significance of Inclusion for Perceptions of Entitlement and the Justice Motive
Authors: Wenzel Michael
Published: June 2007

After considering the role of identity in justice concerns, predictions derived from a categorization approach to distributive justice and Tyler et al.’s group value theory of procedural justice were tested. Both approaches stress the role of one’s identity in terms of an inclusive self-category (including everyone potentially affected). In a longitudinal study, set in the context of the German unification process, East Germans (n = 179) were interviewed at two time points at an interval of 1 year. Cross-sectional and cross-lagged panel analyses yielded empirical evidence for the categorization approach. Perceived entitlement was based on the inclusive self-categorization as Germans, and at the second time point, perceived injustice led more to social protest the more strongly respondents categorized themselves as Germans. The predictions of group value theory were not supported. Explanations for the results focus on the role of the wider social context and contextual meanings of inclusive social categories.
Typicality Can Create, Eliminate, and Reverse the Dilution Effect
Authors: Peters Ellen , Rothbart Myron
Published: June 2007

Nisbett, Zukier, and Lemley presented evidence for a “dilution effect,” in which information nonpredictive of a stimulus person’s behavior “watered down” or diluted the predictive value of categorical information diagnostic of that behavior. Two experiments suggest, however, that nondiagnostic information influences prediction by altering the perceived goodness of fit between the stimulus person and the diagnostic category. The authors conclude that (a) Nisbett et al. found evidence for dilution because their nondiagnostic items decreased the goodness of fit between the stimulus person and the diagnostic category and (b) depending on the typicality of the nondiagnostic items, it is possible to dilute, enhance, or leave unchanged the predictability between category and behavior. The structure of social categories, and the importance of typicality in the stereotyping process, is discussed.
Aspects of Self-Regulation and Self-Structure as Predictors of Perceived Emotional Distress
Authors: Gramzow Richard H. , Sedikides Constantine , Panter A. T. , Insko Chester A.
Published: June 2007

Research on the link between the self and emotional distress has produced many measures that have unknown conceptual and empirical interrelations. The authors identified two classes of self-related variables shown previously to be important predictors of emotional distress. The first class, termed self-regulatory variables, included ego-resiliency, ego-control, ego-strength, and hardiness. The second class, termed self-structure variables, included self-complexity, self-discrepancy, self-consistency, self-attitude ambivalence, and role conflict. Using a two-step structural equation modeling (SEM) strategy, the authors examined first the factor structure of this set of measures. Second, they determined that Elasticity and Permeability (two self-regulatory factors) accounted for unique variance in the prediction of perceived emotional distress (Agitation and Dejection), whereas Self-Discrepancy and Self-Complexity (two self-structure factors) did not.
What People Look for in Others: Influences of the Perceiver and the Perceived on Information Selection
Authors: De Bruin Ellen N. M. , van Lange Paul A. M.
Published: June 2007

This research examines how (a) person information (morality vs. competence and positive vs. negative information) and (b) perceiver differences (prosocials vs. proselfs) influence active (Study 1) and more passive (Study 2) forms of information selection in impression formation. Consistent with the morality-importance hypothesis, the majority of participants first searched for morality information, and overall, participants assigned more attention and weight to morality information than to competence information. In line with the negativity-effect hypothesis, attention for competence information was decreased more after negative than after positive morality information, and negative morality information received more weight in impressions than did positive morality information. Finally, in line with the social-value-orientation hypothesis, (a) a greater number of proselfs than of prosocials searched for additional competence information after morality information and (b) proselfs’ impressions were affected more strongly by competence information and less strongly by morality information than prosocials’ impressions.
Criteria for Emotion Recognition from Verbal and Nonverbal Expression: Studying Baggage Loss in the Airport
Authors: Scherer Klaus R. , Ceschi Grazia
Published: June 2007

The issue of emotion recognition in real-life settings, lacking a clear criterion of the nature of the underlying emotion, is raised. After reporting their luggage lost, 110 airline passengers were asked to rate their emotional state (subjective feeling criterion). The agents who had processed the claims were asked to rate the passengers’ emotional state (objective behavior criterion) as well as their own feelings. An excerpt of the videotaped interaction for 40 passengers was rated for emotional state by judges on the basis of (a) verbal and nonverbal cues or (b) nonverbal cues only. As predicted, the data show that judges’ inferences in both exposure conditions correlate more strongly with the objective behavior (agent ratings) than the subjective feeling criterion (self-ratings). Using the Facial Action Coding System (FACS), objectively coded “felt” (but not false) smiles correlated positively with a good humor scale in both criteria and judges’ ratings.
Control Motivation and Uncertainty: Information Processing or Avoidance in Moderate Depressives and Nondepressives
Authors: Walker A. Marie , Sorrentino Richard M.
Published: June 2007

Two studies investigated the uncertainty orientation model of self-regulation as it relates to control motivation in moderate depressives and nondepressives. It was hypothesized that moderately depressed persons would be more likely than nondepressed persons to process information when control deprived, as opposed to nondeprived, only if they were uncertainty oriented. Certainty-oriented persons were expected to decrease information processing under these conditions. Participants differing in uncertainty orientation and depression level were assessed for information processing following control deprivation or no deprivation. In Study 1, desire for information about the deprivation task was assessed and participants were given a second performance task. In Study 2, information seeking was measured while reading about social outcomes. The expected three-factor interaction was found to be significant on measures of information seeking and performance in both studies. A model to represent these findings is proposed, as are implications for research on depression, coping, and control.
“If I Get Locked Up, I Get Locked Up”: Secondary Control and Adjustment among Juvenile Offenders
Authors: Halliday Colleen A. , Graham Sandra
Published: June 2007

This study examined relations between two types of control (primary and secondary) and the psychological and community adjustment of adolescent offenders. Prior to release from confinement, 279 male adolescent offenders were interviewed about their control beliefs and a number of adjustment variables, including emotional/behavior problems, feelings of despair, expectations to avoid recontact with the law, and recognition of costs for reoffending. In addition, probation officers were interviewed regarding the participants’ adjustment to the community 8 weeks following their release and official records were searched for a 6-month period to determine the nature and timing of any reincarcerations. Secondary control was significantly associated with maladjustment for all psychological and behavioral outcomes. When predicting reincarceration, this relationship was qualified by a significant interaction with primary control, such that those who recidivated the soonest had high levels of both primary and secondary control. These data suggest that secondary control beliefs may be maladaptive among adolescent offenders, particularly when perceived primary control is high.
Action, Emotion, and Personality: Emerging Conceptual Integration
Authors: Carver Charles S. , Sutton Steven K. , Scheier Michael F.
Published: June 2007

Several literatures converge on the idea that approach and positive affect related to goal pursuit are managed by one self-regulatory system and that avoidance (or withdrawal) and negative affect related to threats are managed by a second self-regulatory system. After briefly reviewing these literatures, the authors consider the relation of these themes to the broader domain of personality. In particular, they map individual differences in the responsivity of the approach system onto the personality dimension of extraversion and map individual differences in the responsivity of the withdrawal system onto the dimension of neuroticism. This mapping requires a slight refocusing of current conceptions of extraversion and neuroticism. However, such a refocusing brings a gain as well as a cost: In particular, it would embed these dimensions more explicitly in a process-oriented conceptualization of action control.
The Relationship between Self-Discrepancies and Affective States: The Moderating Roles of Self-Monitoring and Standpoints on the Self
Authors: Gonnerman Melvin E. , Parker Christopher P. , Lavine Howard , Huff Joseph
Published: June 2007

Using self-discrepancy theory as a theoretical framework, this study examines the interactive effects of self-monitoring and type of self-guide (i.e., own vs. other standpoint) on the relationship between self-discrepancies and affective states. Over two sessions, 294 undergraduates completed the Self-Monitoring Scale, the Selves Questionnaire (either from the own or other standpoint), the Beck Depression Inventory, the Hopkins Symptom Checklist, and the Social Anxiety subscale of the Self-Consciousness Scale. For low self-monitors, depression and anxiety were predicted only by self-discrepancies from the own standpoint on the self. For high self-monitors, depression and anxiety were more strongly predicted by self-discrepancies from the other than the own standpoint on the self. The authors discuss the role of individual differences in understanding when self-discrepancies have implications for individuals’ affective states.
The Lability of Psychological Ratings: The Chameleon Effect in Global Self-Esteem
Authors: Marsh Herbert W. , Yeung Alexander Seeshing
Published: June 2007

The chameleon effect hypothesizes that the interpretation of esteem items and the nature of the measurement of the construct are altered by the content of other items in a survey. In each of three studies, responses to esteem items embedded among items focusing on a specific self-concept domain (academic, artistic, or physical) were more highly correlated to that specific domain than were esteem items from a broadly based multidimensional self-concept instrument. Confirmatory factor analysis models demonstrated that the same esteem items embedded in different instruments measured distinctfactors. Unlike typical contextual effects showing mean shifts along the same underlying continuum, these results suggest changes in the nature of the construct that is being measured so that mean shifts are of dubious relevance. The results have theoretical implications for how individuals form esteem judgments and practical limitations for the interpretation of esteem responses in correlational and experimental studies.
Consequences of Automatic Evaluation: Immediate Behavioral Predispositions to Approach or Avoid the Stimulus
Authors: Chen Mark , Bargh John A.
Published: June 2007

Research on automatic attitude activation has documented a pervasive tendency to nonconsciously classify most if not all incoming stimuli as either good or bad. Two experiments tested a functional explanation for this effect. The authors hypothesized that automatic evaluation results directly in behavioral predispositions toward the stimulus, such that positive evaluations produce immediate approach tendencies, and negative evaluations produce immediate avoidance tendencies. Participants responded to attitude object stimuli either by pushing or by pulling a lever. Consistent with the hypothesis, participants were faster to respond to negatively valenced stimuli when pushing the lever away (avoid) than when pulling it toward them (approach) but were faster to respond to positive stimuli by pulling than by pushing the lever. This pattern held even when evaluation of the stimuli was irrelevant to the participants’ conscious task. The automatic classification of stimuli as either good or bad appears to have direct behavioral consequences.
Stereotype Accuracy: Estimating the Academic Performance of Ethnic Groups
Authors: Ashton Michael C. , Esses Victoria M.
Published: June 2007

The authors investigated the accuracy of stereotypes of the academic performance of ethnic groups. Ninety-four participants estimated the mean academic performance of Toronto highschool students from nine ethnic groups and completed measures of right-wing authoritarianism, intelligence, and attitudes toward the groups. The estimated academic performance means were compared with the true means as derived from data published by the Toronto Board of Education. These comparisons revealed that, on average, participants were fairly accurate in their perceptions of both the relative standings of groups and the magnitude of between-group variability. Underestimation of between-group variability was associated with lower authoritarianism, whereas overestimation of between-group variability was associated with lower intelligence. Attitudes toward a group were significantly correlated with estimates of the group’s mean academic performance, but only for the three groups whose mean academic performance levels were significantly over-or underestimated by participants overall.
Spontaneous Trait Inferences: Are They Linked to the Actor or to the Action?
Authors: Van Overwalle Frank , Drenth Tinneke , Marsman Gooitske
Published: June 2007

This article analyzes whether spontaneous trait inferences explicitly refer to a disposition of the actor or whether they only identify the type of behavior in which the actor was engaged. The authors used a novel primed recognition paradigm, in which participants had to indicate whether the implied trait was part of the original sentence after being briefly primed with the name of the actor, verb (i.e., action), or a control word. If traits are spontaneously encoded during reading, participants will tend to erroneously recognize the trait as part of the sentence or will need extra time to inhibit this error. The results from three experiments demonstrate that spontaneous trait inferences are associated with both the actor and action and that information disconfirming a causal attribution to the person eliminates these spontaneous trait inferences.
Thinking too Much or too Little? The Effects of Introspection on the Decision-Making Process
Authors: Tordesillas Rosalind S. , Chaiken Shelly
Published: June 2007

Wilson and Schooler presented evidence that introspection can diminish the quality of decisions. With some modifications of their procedure, the authors reexamined the mechanisms underlying this effect. Students reported intentions to take college courses based on course descriptions. Participants who reflected on their decision processes showed decreased amounts of processing, suggesting that introspection limited their ability to systematically process information. In contrast, control participants appeared to use heuristic and systematic processing interdependently. Introspection participants generally discriminated less than did control participants between important versus unimportant information. Moreover, introspection participants indicated that they did not weight the information as they should have, countering the possibility that they adapted their strategies to better meet decision context demands. The mechanisms through which introspection affects decision quality are discussed.
Mapping Perfect and Imperfect Duties onto Hierarchically and Partially Restrictive Trait Dimensions
Authors: Trafimow David , Trafimow Sabine
Published: June 2007

Four experiments tested a proposal that hierarchically and partially restrictive trait dimensions pertaining to morality can be explained by Kant’s distinction between perfect and imperfect duties. Consistent with the proposal, Experiment 1 demonstrated that people change their positive expectancies about others at a faster rate in response to violations of perfect than imperfect duties. In addition, however, Experiment 2 showed that situational factors mitigate the negative trait attributions resulting from violations of imperfect duties more than those resulting from violations of perfect duties. Experiment 3 demonstrated that differences in trait attributions as a result of violations of perfect or imperfect duties are not due to implications of these violations for future behavior. Finally, Experiment 4 further supported the prediction that situational factors mitigate the negative trait attributions caused by violations of imperfect duties more than those caused by violations of perfect duties.
Self-Discrepancies and Affect: Incorporating the Role of Feared Selves
Authors: Carver Charles S. , Lawrence John W. , Scheier Michael F.
Published: June 2007

The authors examined ought, ideal, and feared self-discrepancies as predictors of agitation- and dejection-related affects. Overall, discrepancy from feared selves predicted anxiety and guilt, preempting the role of discrepancies from ought selves; ideal and feared discrepancies both predicted depression. Further analyses revealed interactions between actual-ought and actual-feared discrepancies in predicting anxiety and guilt. Among participants who were relatively near their feared selves, discrepancies from ought selves were unrelated to these affects. In contrast, among those whose feared selves were more distant, ought discrepancies did predict agitation-related affect, consistent with self-discrepancy theory. Discussion centers on a view in which an avoidance motive (feared self) dominates anxiety and guilt if the feared element is nearby but in which an associated approach motive (ought self) dominates anxiety and guilt if the feared element is more remote.
Overlapping Mental Representations of Self, In-Group, and Partner: Further Response Time Evidence and a Connectionist Model
Authors: Smith Eliot R. , Coats Susan , Walling Dustin
Published: June 2007

People’s reports on their own characteristics are facilitated by matches with their relationship partner’s or in-group’s perceived characteristics and inhibited by mismatches. These results suggest that mental representations of the self, partner, and in-groups overlap. A previously untested implication is that judgmental facilitation or inhibition should operate in the reverse direction as well. The authors find that reports on the characteristics of a relationship partner or in-group are facilitated or inhibited by matches or mismatches with the participant’s own characteristics. The size of the effect for the partner is linearly related to perceived relationship closeness. These findings, in combination with the previous ones, suggest that representations of self, other people, and social groups are constructed on-line rather than being stable, static entities, and the authors advance a connectionist model of this construction process.
Cognitive Reconstruction, Hindsight, and Reactions to Victims and Perpetrators
Authors: Carli Linda L.
Published: June 2007

Two studies provide evidence that reconstructive memory contributes to the hindsight bias. In the first study, participants read identical scenarios that either had no ending or ended with a rape. Those receiving the rape ending reconstructed the story to be more stereotypically associated with rape than did those in the no-ending condition. In the second study, participants read an identical scenario that ended in a marriage proposal or a rape. Participants’ memories of the events in the story were reconstructed to be stereotypically consistent with whichever ending they received. The hindsight bias was obtained in both studies; participants rated the ending they received as more likely than participants not receiving that ending. For both studies, regression analyses revealed causal paths in which the ending of the story predicted stereotypical memories, which predicted the hindsight bias. The hindsight bias predicted derogation of the characters in the stories.
Distance Matters more than You Think! An Artifact Clouds Interpretation of Latane, Liu, Nowak, Bonevento, and Zheng’s Results
Authors: Knowles Eric S.
Published: June 2007

Latane, Liu, Nowak, Bonevento, and Zheng reported three surveys that led them to conclude that the number of memorable interactions decreases as a function of geographical distance raised to the first power. Although interactions certainly decayed with distance, the particular decay function that they report appears to be an artifact of their memorable-interactions-per-mile measure. In effect, they took remembered interactions, divided them by distance, and then plotted them against distance. The fact that the inverse of distance plotted against distance has a slope of -1.00 when plotted in logarithms is tautological, not psychological. Of course distance matters, but we need to look elsewhere to find out precisely how.
Depicting Women as Sex Objects in Television Advertising: Effects on Body Dissatisfaction
Authors: Lavine Howard , Sweeney Donna , Wagner Stephen H.
Published: June 2007

This study examined whether exposure to TV ads that portray women as sex objects causes increased body dissatisfaction among women and men. Participants were exposed to 15 sexist and 5 nonsexist ads, 20 nonsexist ads, or a no ad control condition. Results revealed that women exposed to sexist ads judged their current body size as larger and revealed a larger discrepancy between their actual and ideal body sizes (preferring a thinner body) than women exposed to the nonsexist or no ad condition. Men exposed to the sexist ads judged their current body size as thinner, revealed a larger discrepancy between their actual and ideal body size (preferring a larger body), and revealed a larger discrepancy between their own ideal body size and their perceptions of others’ male body size preferences (believing that others preferred a larger ideal) than men exposed to the nonsexist or no ad condition. Discussion focuses on the cognitive, attitudinal, and behavioral consequences of exposure to gender stereotypic television advertising.
Compliance with a Request in Two Cultures: The Differential Influence of Social Proof and Commitment/Consistency on Collectivists and Individualists
Authors: Cialdini Robert B. , Wosinska Wilhelmina , Barrett Daniel W. , Butner Jonathan , Gornik-Durose Malgorzata
Published: June 2007

University students in Poland and the United States, two countries that differ in individualistic-collectivistic orientation, indicated their willingness to comply with a request to participate without pay in a marketing survey. Half were asked to do so after considering information regarding their own history of compliance with such requests, whereas the other half were asked to do so after considering information regarding their peers’ history of such compliance. This was designed to assess the impact of two social influence principles (commitment/consistency and social proof, respectively) on participants’ decisions. As expected, although both principles were influential across cultures, the commitment/consistency principle had greater impact on Americans, whereas the social proof principle had greater impact on Poles. Additional analyses indicated that this effect was due principally, but not entirely, to participants’ personal individualistic-collectivistic orientations rather than to the dominant individualistic-collectivistic orientation of their cultures.