bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Normative Fitness Performance Scores of Community-Dwelling Older Adults in Spain
Authors: Gusi Narcís , Prieto Josue , Olivares Pedro R. , Delgado Serafin , Quesada Fabian , Cebrián Clarencio
Published: August 2016

A cross-sectional descriptive study was designed to obtain normative age-specific fitness scores for the general population of community-dwelling older adults in Spain. In total, 6,449 participants (5,610 women and 839 men) age 60–99 yr who lived in the region of Extremadura were recruited. Compared with the cohorts of similar studies in other countries, this cohort had more physically inactive elderly participants and participants with a higher body-fat percentage. All test results declined as age increased. Sex differences in the age-related decline in fat and body mass were observed. Women scored better in the flexibility tests, and men performed better in the other tests. These data may be highly useful for the age-specific assessment of the fitness performance of older adults and the design of programs that promote functional ability in older adults.
What Sustains Long-Term Adherence to Structured Physical Activity After a Cardiac Event?
Authors: Martin Antonia M. , Woods Catherine B.
Published: August 2016

Purpose:

Research addressing methods to sustain long-term adherence to physical activity among older adults is needed. This study investigated the motivations and supports deemed necessary to adhere to a community-based cardiac rehabilitation (CBCR) program by individuals with established coronary heart disease.

Methods:

Twenty-four long-term adherers (15 men, 9 women; age 67.7 ± 16.7 yr) took part in focus-group discussions.

Results:

Constant comparative analysis supported previous research in terms of the importance of referral procedures, social support, and knowledge of health benefits in influencing uptake and adherence to CBCR. Results also highlighted the routine of a structured class and task-, barrier-, and recovery-specific self-efficacy as necessary to sustain long-term adherence for this specific clinical group.

Discussion:

Older adults themselves provide rich information on how to successfully support their long-term adherence to structured exercise sessions. Further research into how to build these components into any exercise program is necessary.
A Cognitive-Behavioral Plus Exercise Intervention for Older Adults With Chronic Back Pain: Race/Ethnicity Effect?
Authors: Beissner Katherine , Parker Samantha J. , Henderson Charles R. , Pal Anusmiriti , Iannone Lynne , Reid M. Cary
Published: August 2016

This pilot study examined the feasibility and potential efficacy of a self-management program for seniors with chronic back pain and assessed for possible race/ ethnicity differences in program impact. Sixty-nine seniors (24 African Americans, 25 Hispanics, and 20 non-Hispanic Whites) enrolled in the 8-wk community-based program. Efficacy outcomes included pain-related disability as measured by the Roland Morris Disability Questionnaire (RMDQ), pain intensity, pain self-efficacy, depressive symptoms, social activity, and functional status. Eighty percent of enrollees completed the program. Clinically important decreases in RMDQ scores were found for non-Hispanic White (adjusted change score = –3.53), African American (–3.89), and Hispanic (–8.45) participants. Improvements in all other outcomes were observed, but only for Hispanic participants. Results confirm that implementation of the protocol in urban senior centers is feasible, and the program shows potential efficacy. The race/ethnicity differences observed in the current study merit further investigation.
Prediction of Body Fat in Older Adults by Time Spent in Sedentary Behavior
Authors: Swartz Ann M. , Tarima Sergey , Miller Nora E. , Hart Teresa L. , Grimm Elizabeth K. , Rote Aubrianne E. , Strath Scott J.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of the study was to determine the relationship between sedentary behavior (SB), physical activity (PA), and body fat (total, abdominal) or body size (body-mass index [BMI], waist circumference [WC]) in community-dwelling adults 50 yr old and over. This study included 232 ambulatory adults (50–87 yr, 37.4% ± 9.6% body fat [BF]). Average daily time spent in SB (<100 counts/min) and light (100–759 counts/min), lifestyle-moderate (760–1,951 counts/min), walking-moderate (1,952–5,724cts/min), and vigorous-intensity (≥5,725 counts/min) PA were determined by accelerometer and corrected for wear time. BF was measured with dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. SB was positively related to measures of BF. Measures of SB, PA, and gender accounted for 55.6% of the variance in total BF, 32.4% of the variance in abdominal fat, and 28.0% of the variance in WC. SB, PA, and age accounted for 27.1% of the variance in BMI. Time spent in SB should be considered when designing obesity interventions for adults 50 yr old and over.
Perceived Barriers, Benefits, and Motives for Physical Activity: Two Primary-Care Physical Activity Prescription Programs
Authors: Patel Asmita , Schofield Grant M. , Kolt Gregory S. , Keogh Justin W.L.
Published: August 2016

This study examined whether perceived barriers, benefits, and motives for physical activity differed based on allocation to 2 different types of primary-care activity-prescription programs (pedometer-based vs. time-based Green Prescription). Eighty participants from the Healthy Steps study completed a questionnaire that assessed their perceived barriers, benefits, and motives for physical activity. Factor analysis was carried out to identify common themes of barriers, benefits, and motives for physical activity. Factor scores were then used to explore between-groups differences for perceived barriers, benefits, and motives based on group allocation and demographic variables. No significant differences were found in factor scores based on allocation. Demographic variables relating to the existence of chronic health conditions, weight status, and older age were found to significantly influence perceived barriers, benefits, and motives for physical activity. Findings suggest that the addition of a pedometer to the standard Green Prescription does not appear to increase perceived motives or benefits or decrease perceived barriers for physical activity in low-active older adults.
Validity of the Step Test for Exercise Prescription: No Extension to a Larger Age Range
Authors: Vidoni Eric D. , Mattlage Anna , Mahnken Jonathan , Burns Jeffrey M. , McDonough Joe , Billinger Sandra A.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to determine the validity of a submaximal exercise test, the Step Test Exercise Prescription (STEP), in a broad age range and in individuals in the earliest stages of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Individuals (n = 102) underwent treadmill-based maximal exercise testing and a STEP. The STEP failed to predict peak oxygen consumption (VO2peak), and was a biased estimate of VO2peak (p < .0001). Only 43% of subjects’ STEP results were within 3.5 ml · kg–1 · min–1 of VO2peak. When categorized into fitness levels these 2 measures demonstrated moderate agreement (kappa = .59). The validity of the STEP was not supported in our participants, including those with AD. The STEP may not be appropriate in the clinic as a basis for exercise recommendations in these groups, although it may continue to have utility in classifying fitness in research or community health screenings.
Determinants of Exercise Level in the Sedentary versus Underactive Older Adult: Implications for Physical Activity Program Development
Authors: Young Deborah Rohm , King Abby C. , Oka Roberta K.
Published: August 2016

This investigation identified demographic and health-related characteristics of 1,877 sedentary, underactive, and regularly active individuals aged 50 to 65 randomly sampled from a northern California city. Physiological and psychosocial information was available in greater detail for a subsample (n= 327) of sedentary and underactive persons who were subsequently enrolled in a randomized, controlled, clinical trial (SSHIP). Results suggested that unmarried men, women reporting poor health, and smokers were most likely to be completely sedentary. Sedentary and underactive individuals responded differently to two recruitment strategies designed to attract participants into SSHIP. In addition, the initially sedentary participants had significantly lower adherence rates across the 1-year exercise trial compared to the initially underactive regardless of either the format or intensity of the program. These data underscore the utility of differentiating between levels of less-than-optimal physical activity in formulating campaigns promoting physical activity as well as designing exercise interventions.
A Comprehensive Survey of Older Adult Exercise Programs in Two California Communities
Authors: Sehmeder Jan
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to survey and evaluate existing senior exercise programs (n = 14) and exercise leaders (n = 13) in two California communities. Eleven of the 13 instructors held some type of college degree, but only 54% of the degrees were in a fitness-related field. None of the instructors held a certification related to senior fitness. Only 54% of the programs required prior physician approval, and 38% of the programs did not require medical histories. Less than half of the exercise programs (46%) included a cardiovascular component. Three of the 14 programs offered strength training. Almost all of the programs (93%) included flexibility training. Forty percent of the programs were performed on floor surfaces that were considered potentially dangerous, and 54% of the facilities had inadequate lighting. The data indicate that few instructors of exercise programs for older adults have specialized training in senior fitness and that the lack of education may be the main reason for the exercise program deficiencies.
The Effects of Complexity, Practice, Warm-Up, and Fatigue on Finger Tapping in Younger and Older Women
Authors: Spirduso Waneen W. , Schoenfelder-Zohdi Britta G. , Choi Jonghwan , Jay Susan M.
Published: August 2016

This study investigated age-related differences in tapping speed with respect to warm-up and fatigue effects and also with respect to task complexity. An additional purpose was to determine the site of age-related slowing in stationary tapping. Adult females from three different age groups were asked to tap as fast as possible for 25 s with a specified digit combination by depressing microswitches on one or two metal boxes that were mounted on a data acquisition board. All groups showed a warm-up period during the first block, reached their peak tapping speed during the second block, and then gradually fatigued, as indicated by a decreasing number of taps. These findings suggest that to assess true tapping speed, a trial should not last more than 15 s, or the results may be confounded by fatigue effects. It was found that tapping with the thumb and index finger simultaneously is more difficult than tapping with one or both index fingers, regardless of age.
Implementing a Structured Exercise Program for Frail Nursing Home Residents with Dementia: Issues and Challenges
Authors: Binder Ellen F.
Published: August 2016

This pilot study evaluated (a) the feasibility of a group exercise program in an institutionalized population with dementia; (b) the effects of such a program on physical performance measures; and (c) the potential additional effects of vitamin D supplementation on gait and muscle strength. Nursing home residents (N = 25) with chronic dementia and mobility impairments attended a thrice weekly exercise class for 8 weeks. They were randomly assigned to receive either a vitamin D supplement or no supplement throughout the program. Between-group differences in the effectiveness of the exercise intervention were analyzed. Pre-to-post changes were also assessed for both groups combined. In postexercise comparisons of both groups, knee extensor torque at 0°/sec declined by 18.6% while performance of 1-RM for hip extension increased by 16.1%. Balance also improved. Although vitamin D levels increased significantly in the supplement group, the two groups did not differ in their response to the exercise intervention.
Fractionated Reaction Time in Women as a Function of Age and Physical Activity Level
Authors: MacRae Priscilla Gilliam , Morris Celee , Lee Cheok Y. , Crum Karen , Giessman Dale , Greene James S. , Ugolini Jo Ann
Published: August 2016

Comparisons between young and older women runners and sedentary controls were examined on simple and choice reaction time tasks involving elbow flexion and extension. Reaction time was fractionated into premotor and contractile components using electromyography. Young runners were significantly faster and the older controls were significantly slower than all other groups on all reaction time tasks. The older runners were not significantly different from the young controls in any of the reaction time tasks, thus indicating that a history of running may eliminate or retard the slowing of reaction time that normally accompanies aging. All four groups had similar contractile times, indicating that the differences in reaction time were attributed to central processing in the premotor component of reaction time.
The Use of Vision in Manual Aiming by Young and Older Adults
Authors: Lyons James , Elliott Digby , Swanson Laurie R. , Chua Romeo
Published: August 2016

This study was designed to examine the influence of age and the availability of vision on the performance and kinematic characteristics of discrete aiming movements. Twelve young adults (19–25 years old) and 12 healthy older adults (62–82 years old) performed 130-mm aiming movements to targets with diameters of 5, 10, and 20 mm. On half the trial blocks, visual feedback about the aiming movement was eliminated upon movement initiation. Surprisingly, older adults were both as fast and as accurate as young adults regardless of the vision or target condition. While the velocity profiles of young and older adults were also similar, older adults exhibited a greater number of deviations in acceleration in both the vision and no-vision situations. Since these deviations are thought to reflect adjustments to the movement trajectory, older adults may rely more on visual and kinesthetic feedback for the control of goal-directed movement.
Physical Activity, Physical Disability, and Osteoarthritic Pain in Older Adults
Authors: Hopman-Rock Marijke , Kraaimaat Floris W. , Bijlsma Johannes W.J.
Published: August 2016

The relationship between the frequency (chronic, episodic, and sporadic) of arthritic pain in the hip and/or knee, other illness-related variables, physical disability, and a physically active lifestyle was analyzed in community-living subjects aged 55 to 74 years (N = 306). We tested the hypothesis that a physically active lifestyle is a mediating variable in the relationship between pain frequency and physical disability. Physical activity was measured with a structured interview method, and physical disability was measured with the Sickness Impact Profile. A stepwise regression model with demographic data, pain frequency, illness-related variables (such as radiological osteoarthritis and pain severity), and lifestyle variables explained 45% of the variance in physical disability; lifestyle variables explained 7% of the variance in physical disability. Our results support the hypothesis that a physically active lifestyle (in particular, sport activity) is a mediator in the relation between the frequency of pain and physical disability.
Resting Autonomic Function in Aerobically Trained and Untrained Postmenopausal Women
Authors: Boutcher Stephen H. , Meyer Barbara J. , Craig Gemma A. , Astheimer Lee
Published: August 2016

The relationship between aging, physical activity, and vagal influence on the heart was assessed by measuring resting heart period variability in postmenopausal women. Participants were 14 aerobically trained women (mean age 55 ± 1.0 years) and 20 untrained women (mean age 59 ± 1.1 years). Participants lay for 25 min while heart period variability was assessed during spontaneous and paced breathing (7.5 breaths · min-1). Heart period variability was assessed through time series analysis (HPVts) of the interbeat interval. Results indicated I that the trained women had significantly (p < .05) lower supine resting heart rate than the untrained group. HPVts at high frequencies during spontaneous and paced breathing was greater for trained compared to untrained participants. Similarly, HPVts at medium frequencies during spontaneous and paced breathing was greater for trained compared to untrained participants. Also, rate pressure product of the trained group was significantly lower than for the untrained. These results extend prior research by showing that aerobically trained postmenopausal women possessed significantly elevated resting vagal influence on the heart compared to their untrained counterparts.
Muscle Strength and Qualitative Myosin Heavy Chain Isoform mRNA Expression in the Elderly after Moderate- and High-Intensity Weight Training
Authors: Willoughby Darryn S. , Pelsue Stephen C.
Published: August 2016

This study was an attempt to determine the effects of 12 weeks of moderate-intensity (MIEX) and high-intensity (HIEX) weight training on the muscular strength and qualitative myosin heavy chain (MHO isoform mRNA expression in 18 elderly men. Subjects were randomly assigned to either a control group (Con) or training groups of either MIEX or HIEX. Training sessions occurred 3 days/week and involved three sets of 15-20 repetitions at 60%-65% 1 -RM for MIEX and three sets of 8-10 repetitions at 75%-80% 1 -RM for HIEX. Both upper and lower body strength increased for Con and increased significantly for MIEX and HIEX. No changes in MHC mRNA isoform expression were observed for Con: however, there were increases in Type I MHC and decreases in Type IIx MHC mRNA expression for MIEX and increases in Type I, Ila, and IIx MHC mRNA expression for HIEX. The findings suggest that both moderate- and high-intensity weight training increases muscle strength and the expression of Type I MHC mRNA isoform. while high-intensity weight training also increases the mRNA expression of Type Ila and IIx isoforms in previously inactive elderly men.
The Reliability and Validity of a 6-Minute Walk Test as a Measure of Physical Endurance in Older Adults
Authors: Rikli Roberta E. , Jones C. Jessie
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to assess the reliability and validity of a 6-min walk test as a measure of physical endurance in older adults. Seventy-seven subjects, ages 60-87. performed three separate 6-min walk tests and a treadmill test and completed questionnaire items assessing physical activity level and functional status. The 6-min walk had good test-retest reliability (.88 <R < .94). particularly when a practice trial preceded the test trial. Convergent validity of the 6-min walk was demonstrated by its moderate correlation (.71 < r < .82) with treadmill performance. Construct validity was assessed by determining the ability of the test to detect differences between different age and activity level groups. As expected, walking scores decreased significantly across decades and were significantly lower for low-active subjects compared to high-active subjects. There was a moderate relationship between 6-min walk scores and self-reported functional ability. It was concluded that the 6-min walk can be used to obtain reasonably reliable and valid measures of physical endurance in older adults and that it moderately reflects overall physical functional performance.
Functional Fitness Normative Scores for Community-Residing Older Adults, Ages 60-94
Authors: Rikli Roberta E. , Jones C. Jessie
Published: August 2016

This article describes a nationwide study conducted to develop normative performance data for community-residing older adults. The physical parameters assessed are strength, aerobic endurance, flexibility, and agility/balance. Body mass index was also assessed as an estimate of body composition. The sample comprised 7,183 participants from 267 sites in 21 states. Summary data (M, SD, and percentiles) are reported separately for men and women in 5-year age groups. Results reveal a pattern of decline across most age groups on all variables. ANOVA and post hoc comparisons indicated a significant main effect for age on all variables and that most 5-year age-group declines were significant (p < .007). ANOVAs also revealed a significant main effect for gender on all test items (p < .0001): Men scored better on strength, aerobic endurance, and agility/balance; women scored better on flexibility. The data provide information about normal variations within and usual rates of change across age groups, and they provide a database for subsequent evaluation of individual and group performance.
Children’s Perceptions of Physical Activity for Adults: Competence and Appropriateness
Authors: Behlendorf Bonnie , MacRae Priscilla G. , Strache Carolyn Vos
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to determine whether children’s perceptions of competence and appropriateness of physical activity for adults are affected by age, gender, and type of physical activity in which the adults participate. Participants were 70 children, mean age 9.5. An interview using 18 photographs of young, middle-aged, and older women and men participating in three physical activities was employed to assess the children’s perceptions. A 3 × 2 × 3 ANOVA for perceived competence indicated that main effects for age and activity type were significant, accounting for 61% and 8% of the variance, respectively. An ANOVA on perceived appropriateness also revealed that age and activity type were significant, accounting for 46% and 26% of the variance. Gender did not show a significant main effect for competence or appropriateness, accounting for 0% and 1% of the variance. These results indicate that age affects children’s perceptions of competence and appropriateness of adults engaged in physical activity.
Successful Aging and Social Activity in Older Japanese Adults
Authors: Ohno Yoshiyuki , Aoki Rie , Tamakoshi Akiko , Kawamura Takashi , Wakai Kenji , Hashimoto Shuji , Kawakami Norito , Nagai Masaki
Published: August 2016

To explore successful aging and high social activity in old age, data from a self-administered survey of 5,239 participants aged 65 years or more were analyzed. The questionnaire inquired about physical conditions and lifestyles of Japanese seniors during middle age and their present social activities in 4 regions of Japan in 1993. The authors first defined social activities and then developed a social-activity measure. Next, they examined the association between present social activity and physical conditions and lifestyles during middle age. Data analysis revealed that the most socially active seniors rated themselves as healthy and physically active during middle age. Socially active seniors differed from less active seniors: They had participated in more hobbies during middle age, had higher levels of education, and had had a more varied diet between the ages of 30 and 50. The data suggest that maintaining general health habits and lifestyles from middle age on is important for successful aging and high social activity in old age.
Multidimensional Scaling and Preference Mapping: Promising Methods for Investigating Older Adults’ Physical Activity Perceptions and Preferences
Authors: Patrick Luke E. , Dzewaltowski David A.
Published: August 2016

Research on older adult physical activity promotion has lacked methods to measure older adults’ physical activity perceptions and preferences. This article describes perceptual and preference-mapping marketing techniques for investigating perceived features in physical activities. Using these techniques, investigators can represent the dimensions in which older adults perceive physical activity modes, label them, and consider individual differences. In this study, older adults compared 13 physical activities and ranked them by preference. A 4-dimensional space satisfactorily represented perceptions, and a 3-dimensional space, preferences. Physical activity perceptions varied along orthogonal dimensions of health affordance. intensity, social nature, and competitive nature. Categories of preference were revealed as dimensions relating to noncompetitive/self-efficacy attributes, intensity, and gender practices. The authors conclude that older adults’ physical activity preferences and perceptions can be represented by multiattribute dimensional spaces. Future research should employ these scaling techniques to describe relationships between older adults and multiattribute physical activities and determine how they influence perceptions, preferences, and physical activity patterns.
Level of Participation and Knowledge of Physical Activity in Hong Kong Chinese Adults and Their Association with Age
Authors: Hui Stanley Sai Chuen , Morrow James R.
Published: August 2016

In this study, a questionnaire translated from a national survey on physical activity of 2,002 U.S. adults (Morrow, Jackson. Bazzarre. Milne, & Blair, 1999) was adopted to survey a random sample of 812 Chinese adults through a city wide telephone interview. The respondents demonstrated poor awareness of the role of physical activity in disease prevention. Older adults possessed poorer knowledge of physical activity but higher activity levels than their younger counterparts did. Results indicated that the level and knowledge of physical activity of Chinese adults are related to age. The perceived importance of physical activity was the lowest among other health behaviors. Age, educational level, and knowledge of appropriate exercise prescription to achieve health benefits were factors used to discriminate among sedentary, somewhat active, and physically active groups. The importance of intervention programs to raise the physical activity level and knowledge of Chinese adults was demonstrated by this study.
The Home Advantage: Performance Effects in Female Collegiate Division I Gymnastics
Authors: Baghurst Timothy , Fort Inza , Cook René
Published: August 2016

The current study investigated the performance effects of competing at home or away venues in female collegiate Division I gymnastics. Teams (N = 15) selected for analyses were ranked in the top 25 nationally at the end of each regular season during the period of 2003 to 2007 with the exclusion of 2005. Each team’s total scores at all regular season home meets over the four years were compiled and compared to their respective away meet total scores. A repeated measures analysis of variance revealed home scores to be significantly higher than away scores. Additionally, with the introduction of the Judges’ Assignor System (JAS) in 2005, team scores at home and away were compared before and after its introduction. Team scores were significantly higher at home prior to and following the introduction of JAS. However, performance scores were found to be significantly reduced at both home and away with JAS. The results of this study suggest that teams perform significantly better at home than away. In addition, the findings suggest that JAS has significantly reduced gymnastics scores, yet has not significantly altered the effects of competing away from home. Findings are discussed in light of current research and application for coaches and officials is provided.
Go to the Source: High School Athletic Directors and Coaching Education
Authors: Collins Karen , Medbery Russell
Published: August 2016

The coach-athlete relationship is an important determinant in creating a healthy sport environment. Educating coaches is a critical component of cultivating a positive coach-athlete relationship. It is through systematic coaching education programs that positive coaching skills are learned (Smith & Smoll, 1997). It is equally important to accurately assess current needs and demands of state high school coaching education programs. Therefore, the purpose of this research was to systematically assess the current state of coaching education. This needs assessment included descriptions of athletic departments, funding, quality, type, and content of coaching education programs, as well as the level of satisfaction with the current coaching education delivery system. The needs assessment was conducted via a survey that was mailed to every athletic director in the state of New Hampshire. There was a 49% (n = 46) return rate after two follow-up reminders. Results were organized in four categories: financial overview, sport organizational structure, coaching education requirements, and coaching education curriculum content. Overall, results indicated: a clear need to re-evaluate the New Hampshire state requirements for coaching education; how the requirements are met; the content of state coaching education,; and how coaching education is supported financially.
Athletes’ Perceptions of Coaches’ Emotional Intelligence Competencies
Authors: VanSickle Jennifer L. , Hancher-Rauch Heidi , Elliott Terry G.
Published: August 2016

This study compared intercollegiate athletic coaches’ self-perceptions to the perceptions of their players concerning a coach’s emotional intelligence. Sixteen coaches and 223 players from two Division I softball conferences completed the Emotional Competence Inventory-2 (Boyaztis, Goleman, & Hay/McBer, 2001). Mean analysis revealed that coaches rated themselves higher on 14 of the 18 emotional intelligence competencies and on all four emotional intelligence clusters. Coaches rated themselves highest in Social Awareness (Error! Bookmark not defined.x̅ = 4.27/5) while their athletes rated them highest in Self-Awareness (Error! Bookmark not defined.x̅ = 3.63/5). Meanwhile, athletes gave coaches their lowest rating in Relationship Management (Error! Bookmark not defined.x̅ = 3.44/5). Coaches need to be aware that the self-perceptions of their own behavior differ from the perceptions of their athletes. Since it is well known that the behavior of the coach affects the performance of the athlete, techniques to train coaches to recognize and overcome this difference could be beneficial and are provided.
Developing Team Leaders: A Leadership Development Program to Build Effective Team Leaders
Authors: Stanbrough Mark
Published: August 2016

NASPE has developed national standards for coaches with Standard 8 focusing on providing athletes with responsibility and leadership opportunities as they mature. Standard 8 states that coaches should engage athletes in opportunities that nurture leadership and teamwork, which can be learned on the field and exhibited in life. It further states that sports provide an atmosphere for trial and error through practice and competition. Much is expected of team leaders; however, few of them are ever formally taught the leadership skills they need to perform effectively. Like physical skills, leadership skills must be systematically taught, developed, and practiced. Through a structured leadership program, some of the trial and error can be eliminated. High school cross country athletes (N=8) participated in an eight-week structured leadership program. The program met once a week, with each athlete leading a weekly session and the coach serving as a moderator. The topics addressed were: understanding the rewards, risks and responsibilities of leadership, leading by example, and vocal leadership. The athletes also spent five hours performing a community leadership service project and attended a leadership lecture presented by a national expert. There was a significant improvement between a pre and post self-rated Team Leadership Evaluation survey (Janssen, 2007). The athletes felt the program was effective, as they were able to develop insights and leadership skills needed to be more effective leaders.
Evaluation of Stakeholders of Athletic Programs: A connection to Standard 40, National Standards for Sport Coaches
Authors: Lee Anita N.
Published: August 2016

Coaches’ achievement is commonly evaluated by competition results or winning percentages. Teams with high winning percentages, rankings, or outstanding competition results are not only contributed by coaches, but also efforts of athletes and other stakeholders. The Standard 40 of the National Standards for Sport Coaches (2006) is to “utilize an objective and effective process for evaluation of self and staff,” which requires coaches to have the knowledge, abilities, and skills (KASs) to “collect direct feedback from athletes and identify ways to improve techniques and coaching style” and being able to perform “self-evaluation for professional growth and development” (NASPE, 2006, p. 23). The benchmarks of Standard 40 include input that should be collected from all stakeholders, such as athletes, parents, guardians, athletic administrators, and other coaches (NASPE, 2006). An effective program requires a coach to have effective communication skills, inter- and intra-personal interaction skills, leadership, and administrative skills, be able to provide positive and corrective feedback to athletes, and have the KASs to coach a sport in a selected competitive level. Evaluation methods are categorized into self-evaluation and evaluation by others, which include journals/dairies, video-analyses, checklists, surveys, and meetings/discussions. The advantages of journals/diaries are short and easy to write, and easy to retrieve and re-read, but coaches may not spend time to re-read them again. Video analyses are a great tool to allow multiple evaluators to observe coaching performance without time limit. Videos can be replayed, played in slow motion, placed online, and emailed to other evaluators to save travel time and cost. However, video analyses are time consuming to watch. It also requires video-taping equipments and skills. Checklists and surveys are easy to use, and can be used with a large number of participants, but they require specific skills to develop valid and reliable instruments. The response rate may be low unless the stakeholders are mandated to complete and return the checklists and surveys. Meetings and discussions allow direct feedback collection and conversations, but they could be redundant unless concise meeting agenda and discussion questions are designed.
Using the United Nation’s Millennium Development Goals to Teach Citizenship in Youth Soccer
Authors: Boon Alisa , Gilbert Wade
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this paper is to share recommendations from youth sport coaches and administrators on using the United Nation’s Millennium Development Goals (UN MDGs) for teaching citizenship through youth sport. Fourteen semi-structured interviews were conducted with coaches and administrators from one region of the American Youth Soccer Organization. Although only one of the 14 participants was aware of the UN MDGs, every one of them was able to provide at least some specific recommendations for integrating citizenship into youth soccer. Opportunities and challenges for integrating citizenship into coach education programs are discussed based on the results of the present study and related literature on teaching life skills through sport.
Coach Education in Ireland: Observations and Considerations for High Performance
Authors: Bertz Sunnhild , Purdy Laura
Published: August 2016

The high-performance sports system is a rapidly evolving and increasingly important element of the Irish sporting landscape reflected in public policy, the direction and level of spending, and organisational/institutional evolution – all signalling a formal recognition of the high-performance sector as central to sport in Ireland. While certain aspects of high-performance sport in Ireland are beginning to be reflected in research (e.g., Guerin et al. 2008), this is yet to be extended to high performance coaching. The education, development, and support of coaches are key areas of the Coaching Strategy for Ireland (2008-2012). An understanding of high-performance coach activities and needs will become increasingly vital in underpinning the effectiveness of resources directed at high-performance coaching as Ireland seeks to reposition itself within the world’s elite in sport. The purpose of this article is to better understand the development of high-performance coaches in Ireland and the key influences on this (e.g., exposure to different coaching environments, sources of knowledge, and preferred ways of learning). It aims to explore what high-performance coaches believe has been most important in developing and fostering their coaching ‘know-how,’1 and what this may imply for future educational interventions for high-performance coaches. This article brings to light insights generated through semi-structured interviews with 10 high-performance coaches currently and/or recently working in Irish sport.
High School Sport Stakeholders’ Perspectives on Coaches’ Ability to Facilitate Positive Youth Development
Authors: Camiré Martin , Forneris Tanya , Trudel Pierre
Published: August 2016

Coaching for positive youth development (PYD) in the context of high school sport is a complex process given that many factors influence this environment. The purpose of this study was to explore the ability of high school coaches to facilitate PYD from the perspective of administrators, coaches, and athletes. Although stakeholders in general perceive coaches as having the ability to facilitate PYD, scores for coaches were higher than athletes and administrators and scores for athletes were higher than administrators. Furthermore, coaches who participated in coach education perceived themselves as having a greater ability to facilitate PYD compared to coaches with no coach education.
The Preferred Coaching Styles of Generation Z Athletes: A Qualitative Study
Authors: Parker Krisha , Czech Daniel , Burdette Trey , Stewart Jonathan , Biber David , Easton Lauren , Pecinovsky Caitlyn , Carson Sarah , McDaniel Tyler
Published: August 2016

With over 50 million youth athletes participating in some kind of sports in the United States alone, it is important to realize the impact and benefits of playing (Weinberg and Gould, 2011). Physically, sports can help youth improve strength, endurance, weight control, and bone structure (Seefeldt, Ewing & Walk, 1992). Sport participation also benefits youths socially (Seefeldt, Ewing & Walk, 1992) and academically (Fraser-Thomas, Côté & Deakin, 2005). Optimal coaching education and training is a necessity if young athletes are to learn and improve in these aforementioned areas. In order for youth to grow from their sport experience, they need guidance from coaches, parents, and other important figures. Recent research by Jones, Jo and Martin (2007) suggests that more recent generations require a new approach to learning. The purpose of the current study was to qualitatively examine the preferred coaching styles of youth soccer players from Generation Z. After interviewing 10 youth athletes (five male, five female), four main themes emerged for Generation Z’s view of a “great coach.” These themes reflected the desire for a coach that: 1) does not yell and remains calm, 2) is caring and encouraging, 3) has knowledge of the sport, and 4) involves the team in decision making. Future research could include implementing a mixed-methodological approach incorporating the Leadership Scale for Sport (Chelladurai, 1984). Another avenue worthy of investigation is the role that technology plays for Generation Z athletes.
Comparative Analysis of Coaches’ Self-Efficacy and Parents’ Perception of Coaches’ Efficacy
Authors: Kowalski Christopher L. , Kooiman Wade P.
Published: August 2016

Coaches influence children’s experiences in sports and have a significant impact on the psychosocial development of young athletes. It is important to understand the coaching-related components of youth sports, including game strategy, motivation, teaching technique, and character building. Coaching efficacy is multidimensional, has a number of sources, and highlights relationships that exist between the coach, athlete, and team. In the present study, parents and coaches’ perceptions of coaching efficacy were examined to see what variables may affect their responses. Coaches’ character-building efficacy was influenced by previous playing experience. Parents’ perceptions of coaches’ efficacy were collectively influenced by parents’ previous playing and coaching experience, attendance at sport-specific educational sessions, and the perceived ability of their child’s team.
The Development of Coaching Guidelines for Instilling Passion in Sport
Authors: Posner Stephen E. , Eiler Travis W.
Published: August 2016

The article explains the importance for the athlete of the development of passion in sport. Action research is used to define and further clarify the importance of passion with respect to sport. Passion was found to be useful and important in helping an athlete focus and persist with the effort required to achieve excellence throughout the ups and downs of years of competition. A positive, fun, nurturing, and hardworking team environment was determined to be instrumental in stimulating and maintaining passion. On the other hand, negative attitudes and poor work ethic among teammates, inadequate coaching, poor team cohesion, and a lack of administrative support were found to inhibit the development of passion. Coaching guidelines to instill passion in sport for the athlete are provided based on a literature review as well as from action research.
Applying Kolb’s Theory of Experiential Learning to Coach Education
Authors: Stirling Ashley E.
Published: August 2016

Coach education is the key to improved coaching. In order for coach education initiatives to be effective though, the conceptualization of those initiatives must be developed based on empirical learning theory. It is suggested that Kolb’s theory of experiential learning may be an appropriate learning theory to apply to coach education. This paper outlines how Kolb’s theory of experiential learning was used in the development of Canada’s National Coaching Certification Program coach education module entitled “Empower +: Creating Positive and Healthy Sport Experiences.” The module is summarized briefly, and Kolb’s six key tenets of experiential learning are reviewed. Applications of each tenet within the coach education module are highlighted, and recommendations are made for future evaluation and research.
A Critical Review of Service-Technique Teaching in Youth Volleyball
Authors: Da Matta Gylton , Gagen Linda , Rhoads Michael C.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate the importance of using developmentally appropriate serving strategies that will promote the game of volleyball and facilitate learning while minimizing injury. A critical review of serving discusses the main developmental, maturational, and technical issues related to socialization and long-term development in volleyball. Teaching complex serving styles (such as the jump serve to athletes under the age of 14) might have implications for athletes’ long-term development and might lead to injury. The adoption of developmentally appropriate practices in coaching young athletes is still a novelty for many coaches. Therefore, this article stresses the importance of implementing adapted or modified games and of teaching skills in a progressive fashion to aid development.
Is There a Correlation in Improvements of TOPS Scores and Improvements in Track and Field Performances in Collegiate Athletes?
Authors: Brokaw Trey
Published: August 2016

This presentation will share the results from a study conducted on college track and field athletes at the NCAA division II level. The study compares the results of scores on the Test of Performance Strategies (TOPS) and, individual athlete’s improvements in their event area according to the International Association of Athletics Federation (IAAF) scoring charts for track and field. A select group of primarily middle distance and distance runners was selected for the study. These athletes were given a baseline TOPS examination to evaluate their prior knowledge and use of mental skills in their athletic experiences. Personal best times in the athlete’s primary events were recorded from the previous year. During the nine weeks of the outdoor track and field season that this study took place; athletes were introduced to a wide array of activities associated with improving their mental skills. Such activities included goal setting, imagery, relaxation, optimum level of arousal, affirmations, and the use of positive self-talk and routines. Athletes would have an organized mental skills session at least twice each of the nine weeks of the season. Athletes also had an individual meeting with the coaches to go over goal setting and the use of their mental skills to enhance their physical skills. After the outdoor season was completed the athletes took a post-examination TOPS. The scores were compared with their pretest scores as well as their improvement in personal best times in their main events on the track.
A 40-year Examination of the Experiences of Women in Coaching
Authors: Deckelbaum Lauren
Published: August 2016

Since the passage of Title IX in 1972, the number of female coaches in the United States has grown due to an increased number of female sports offered at the collegiate level. However, the percent of female collegiate sports teams coached by women has dropped from 90% to 42.9% (Acosta & Carpenter, 2012) suggesting that female coaches are not benefiting from the growth in women’s athletic opportunities. The purpose of this project was to examine research articles published within the past 40 years that focused on female coaches to understand the female coaches’ experiences.
“I Feel Pressure:” Exploring the Phenomenon of Body Image Formation in Collegiate Female Athletes Within the Context of Social Comparison Theory
Authors: Bowers Ashley Gibson , Martin Christina L.L. , Miller John , Wolfe Brent , Speed Nancy Magee
Published: August 2016

The purpose of the study was to examine female athletes’ perceptions of their body image as a result of comparing themselves to others. Social comparison theory (Festinger, 1954) was used as the theoretical basis for understanding the effects of body image among intercollegiate female athletes. Using a qualitative analysis, the authors individually interviewed 20 female collegiate athletes attending a Division I university and thematically coded their responses. The findings suggest that coaches and teammates significantly contribute to body image pressures in female athletes, as participants were sensitive to the comments and perceptions of these groups. Finally, athletes perceived that the external population (those outside of coaches and teammates) evaluated athletic talent based on actual body image.
Applying Behavior Management Strategies in a Sport-Coaching Context
Authors: Harris-Reeves Brooke Elizabeth , Skinner James , Milburn Peter , Reddan Greg
Published: August 2016

Sport coaching is a multifaceted profession with many responsibilities. Coaches can have a profound effect on athletes that can be both positive and negative. Coaches have the ability to motivate athletes and increase their self-esteem. Conversely, negative effects of coaching may include athlete drop-outs, injuries, and loss of confidence. Coaches need to manage the coaching environment and create positive surroundings to ensure that athletes achieve their optimum potential. Managing a coaching environment refers to how coaches establish and maintain order. This paper explores the literature on behavior management in education and sport settings and aims to contribute to sport-coaching knowledge. General coaching tips for managing athlete behavior are suggested along with examples of potential coaching strategies.