bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Settling Contract Disputes In The National Health Service: Formal And Informal Pathways
Authors: Hughes David , Mchale Jean V , Griffiths Lesley
Published: November 2023

The way social collectivities handle disputes can provide a revealing insight into the nature of the wider regulatory systems through which they achieve coordination and control. Collectivities of different types, standing in different relationships, characteristically favour different dispute resolution mechanisms. Disputes between enterprises in private markets are typically settled by negotiation between the parties themselves or, at the extreme, through litigation or arbitration. Disputes within administrative hierarchies may again be resolved by informal bargaining, but are also commonly dealt with through bureaucratic regulation—the top-down enforcement of rules via administra-tive processes and internal disciplinary procedures.
Health-Care Contracting And Social Science: Issues In Theory And Practice
Authors: Williams Gareth , Flynn Rob
Published: November 2023

In this book we have collected together work by a number of researchers from a range of disciplinary backgrounds who, with support from the ESRC Contracts and Competition Programme, have examined and explored different facets of the NHS internal market. Alongside this predominant focus on the health service, in the contributions from Lapsley and Llewellyn (Chapter 5) and Broadbent and Laughlin (Chapter 3), complementary topics are explored: contracting decisions in social work departments in Scotland, and the effects of local management of schools in England. Rather than diluting the health content of the book, these additions seem to us to provide contrapuntal evidence which highlights the generic character of some of the issues emerging in research on the development of managed markets in the public sector. We hope that this collection of research studies will be of interest beyond the world of academic research, and will help inform those working in policy and practice in the health service and other parts of the public sector.
A Defence of Philosophical Business Ethics
Authors: Crisp Roger
Published: November 2023

WHAT is meant by ‘ business ethics’ (see De George 1990: ch. 1)? The phrase is sometimes used to refer to the ethical outlook, whether implied by behaviour or explicitly stated, of a company or individual engaged in business. Behaviour and statement can of course come apart, so that one might say of a certain corporation: ‘ Their ethic is allegedly one of service to the community, but their woeful environmental record shows what they really believe. ’

In a second sense, business ethics is that set of principles or reasons which should govern the conduct of business, whether at the individual or collective level (cf. Lewis 1985: 381).
Commercial Ethics: A Victorian Perspective on the Practice of Theory
Authors: Garnett Jane
Published: November 2023

LIKE so many revivalists, students and advocates of modern business ethics have been highly selective in their points of reference and have largely eschewed consideration of historical precedents. Preoccupation with the establishment of business ethics as an element of the curriculum in universities and management schools has perhaps contributed to the implicit assumption that coherent thinking on the subject did not exist before it was ‘professionalized’. In the Journal of Business Ethics, for example, which was established in 1982 to examine business activity from a moral point of view, there has been almost no historical discussion and relatively little reference to Christian teaching. Moreover, because more attention has been paid at an academic level to business ethics in the USA, there has been a more limited perspective on the development of debate in Britain.
‘Japanese-Style ‘ Supplier Relationships in the American Auto Industry, 1895-1920
Authors: Helper Susan , Hochfelder David
Published: November 2023

In recent years, US automakers have moved toward closer relationships with their suppliers. In particular, Ford and Chrysler have moved away from historically adversarial dealings with suppliers toward relationships which are long-term and are characterized by rich flows of information for joint projects such as product development and technical assistance.

This transformation has been seen by the popular press and by the man agers making this change as an imitation of the Japanese, and as a move away from traditional American practice. However, evidence indicates that many of the features of these so-called ‘Japanese-style ‘ customer supplier relationships were present in the US auto industry before 1920.
The Changing Demography of Lone Motherhood
Authors: Kiernan Kathleen , Land Hilary , Lewis Jane
Published: November 2023

Increases in divorce, cohabitation, and childbearing outside marriage have all contributed to the separation of marriage and parenthood, with lone parenthood being the prominent manifestation of this development. Between 1961 and 1994 there was a fourfold increase in the proportion of families headed by a lone mother; from around 5 per cent of all families with dependent children in 1961 to over 20 per cent in 1994. The rise in the proportion of lone mother families that occurred during the 1970s was due in large measure to the rise in the rate of divorce, whereas the more recent increases from the mid¬ l 980s onwards are more associated with the growth in childbearing outside legal marriage. This chapter examines the demographic impetuses behind the growth in lone mother families and the changing character of lone motherhood with particular reference to the last half¬ century. The routes to lone motherhood are complex and varied. In this chapter as an aid to simplification we divide the lone mother population into two broad groups: never-married lone mothers, those who have never contracted a formal marriage; and post-marital lone mothers, those who become lone mothers after a marriage had broken down. We discuss each in turn. For the group of never-married lone mothers we discuss the pathways to that experience, assessing the role of sexual behaviour, contraceptive practices, abortion, bridal pregnancy, and adoption, as well as changing marriage patterns and the emergence of widespread cohabitation on the incidence of and trends in pre-marital lone motherhood.
The Debate about the Law Affecting Marriage and Divorce In Twentieth-Century Britain
Authors: Kiernan Kathleen , Land Hilary , Lewis Jane
Published: November 2023

Laslett, Oosterveen, and Smith et al. (1980) have insisted that we can only begin to understand illegitimacy in terms of the changes in courtship and marriage. But there is remarkably little research on the changes in the meaning of marriage and in the marriage system. Attention has usually been drawn to marriage only at its ending—in divorce. This chapter argues that changes in the dominant understanding of marriage, which happened only after extended debate, have been crucial to the construction of a framework within which dramatic changes in behaviour, in terms of the rate of divorce, extramarital births, and cohabitation, have taken place.
Social Security and Lone Mothers
Authors: Kiernan Kathleen , Land Hilary , Lewis Jane
Published: November 2023

The position of lone mothers in the social security system improved greatly as a result of the post-war welfare reforms. Lone mothers were not required to register for work in order to claim National Assistance (NA) (from 1966 Supplementary Benefit (SB) and from 1988 Income Support (IS)) as long as they had a dependent child of school age living at home. Eligibility rules and levels of benefits were determined by national scale rates and claimants could no longer be required to return to their area or parish of origin in order to claim assistance. Of particular significance to lone mothers was the ending of the household means test (which had occurred with the 1941 Determination of Needs Act and was confirmed in the 1948 National Assistance Act). The obligation on adult children to maintain parents and vice versa and on grandparents to maintain grandchildren ended. This meant that the unmarried mother who returned to her parents’ home was entitled to claim benefit for herself and her child(ren) as a non-householder, irrespective of the economic status of her parents. Conversely their benefit status was unaffected.
Housing and Lone Mothers
Authors: Kiernan Kathleen , Land Hilary , Lewis Jane
Published: November 2023

In the immediate post-war years priorities and public subsidies affecting both the public and private housing sectors were determined nationally Local government remained responsible for the provision and administration of social housing. The provision of public-sector housing had not undergone the major restructuring which had occurred within the social security system. Enormous scope for local variations with respect to both allocation policies and rent levels remained. Moreover, while applicants for local authority accommodation did not have to have been born in the area, it was common policy to require them to prove ‘a local connection’. The old laws of settlement going back to the fourteenth century no longer cast their shadow on the social assistance system after 1948 but continued to do so on post-war housing policies. This lingered on into the 1970s and, as the discussion on the debates leading up to the 1996 Housing Act will show, concern about the perceived priority homeless families had over local families on the waiting list in the allocation of social housing, was one of the considerations in the removal of a local authority’s duty established in the 1977 Housing (Homeless)
Lone Mothers, Employment, and Childcare
Authors: Kiernan Kathleen , Land Hilary , Lewis Jane
Published: November 2023

Employment policies until the mid-1970s were informed by a commitment from governments of both political parties to maintain full employment—at least for men. Attitudes and policies affecting the employment of women were complex. On the one hand the post-war social insurance and social assistance schemes were based firmly on the model of the family which comprised a male breadwinner and a dependent wife. A woman’s marital, rather than employment, status determined her eligibility to benefits. This model was not seriously challenged within the benefit system until the mid-1970s. Independent taxation was not introduced until 1990. On the other hand, the marriage bar in teaching was abolished in 1944 and in the civil service in 1946. There was a shortage of labour following the end of the war and there was evidence from the Government’s own surveys that older married women wanted to stay in or return to paid employment (Thomas 1944).
Regulatory Change in the British Television Industry: Effects on Productivity and Competition
Authors: Coffey Dan , Nolan Peter , Saundry, Richard , Sawyer Malcolm
Published: November 2023

Many industries or sectors have been restructured through government action or under direct government influence. Whereas the restructuring programmes for industries in the 1950s and 1960s were often influenced by notions of rationalization and securing the benefits of economies of scale, the pattern of state intervention in the 1980s and 1990s has been more influenced by the presumed benefits of deregulation and the promotion of competition. Deregulation and competition were sometimes seen as ends in themselves but also as means to better performance. In this chapter we review the impact of government-imposed or inspired changes in the British television industry over the past decade, which have often been described as deregulation, but which (for reasons which will be apparent below) we would see as changes in the form of regulation and which could be labelled re-regulation. Our study is limited to the terrestrial channels, as we seek to understand the impact of regulatory change. We first discuss some of the ideas which lay behind this re-regulation from the mid-1980s onwards, followed by a very brief outline of the changes. The main part of the chapter draws on questionnaires returned by industry participants to evaluate the impact of these changes. Much of what we report relates to the perceptions of these participants. In a number of areas (transaction costs being the most obvious) it is the perceptions of the participants which are particularly relevant to the actions which are taken. Further, over variables such as transaction costs or quality of programming there is no other information available.
The Institutional Embeddedness of the Stratification Process A Comparative Study of Qualifications and Occupations in Thirteen Countries
Authors: Muller Walter , Shavit Yossi
Published: November 2023

Education is the single most important determinant of occupational success in industrialized societies. Employers rely on educational credentials when selecting individuals for specific work tasks, and individuals, accord ingly, invest in education in order to improve their competitive advantage on the labour market. It is evident, that both individual investments in education and the use made by employers of qualifications, affect the pat tern of association that we observe between education and labour-market outcomes. But it is far from clear how precisely this association is generated in various countries.
The Ned Car Experience: The Confrontation of Dutch, Swedish, and Japanese Ideas about Car Manufacturing
Authors: Dankbaar Ben
Published: November 2023

The Ned Car plant in the Netherlands was set up originally by the Dutch truck maker DAF for the production of its passenger cars and later taken over by the Swedish manufacturer Volvo. Recently, the plant has become a joint venture of Volvo, Mitsubishi, and the Dutch state. The plant therefore offers all the preconditions for a confrontation and eventual ‘hybridization’ of Dutch, Swedish, and Japanese production concepts. And indeed, the history of the plant appears to be one of continuous experimenting with structures of work and organization. Numerous improvement and change projects have followed each other at great speed.
The Arab Christians: From the Eastern Question to the Recent Political Situation of the Minorities
Authors: Maïla Joseph
Published: November 2023

In the last few years we have seen a renewal of interest in the study of Arab Christianity, and such an interest was undoubtedly due to a large number of reasons, linked both to recent political events and to an increase in specialized academic research on the Middle East and its problems.As far as recent events are concerned, a few of them have obviously cast Arab Christianity in a bad light. The first of these is the Lebanese War, a conflict with strong religious overtones. Since the early 1970s, attention has been drawn to the involvement of Lebanese Christians, mainly Maronites, grouped together in political parties or in militias, in a succession of clashes and acts of violence which were to mark the country for over fifteen years. Once the beacon of Arab Christianity and a place where Christians have traditionally held leading political positions, this country was to meet a tragic destiny, which was to have a considerable effect on the situation of Christians and their position within the national community. Similarly a lesser known war, in southern Sudan, is a fleeting reminder of the tragic fate met by the non-Arab Christian population of this Arab country. The emergence of Islam has also drawn attention to the new climate which has begun to form in several countries. More specifically, the harassment frequently suffered by the Egyptian Copts, particularly in Northern Egypt, underlines the difficult situation of this community, which has been an integral part of the country for almost two thousand years.
The Membership of SGI-USA
Authors: Hammond Phillip E , Machacek David W
Published: November 2023

THE membership of Soka Gakkai has undergone considerable change during its nearly four decades in America. In this chapter, we present a demographic profile of the membership based on the 1997 survey, comparing this profile with earlier reports on the religion as well as with data on Soka Gakkai in Great Britain. Together they tell a dramatic story of the changing face of Soka Gakkai in the United States. At the time of its foundation, the membership of SGI - USA was almost exclusively Japanese. Today, Japanese members are in the minority. In both the United States and Great Britain, SGI is overwhelmingly composed of new-class Baby Boomers.
Values and Conversions: The Question of Demand
Authors: Hammond Phillip E , Machacek David W
Published: November 2023

WHILE clearly significant, supply-side conditions do not alone account for patterns of religious change. Shifts in the demands made by the religious public are also an important part of the story. Though frequently treated in the literature on new religions, there remains debate over how best to understand the appeal of new religions, especially those of Eastern origin, to people raised in Western religious traditions.
Participation and Representation
Authors: Tomlinson Duncan Gallie Michael White Yuan Cheng Mark
Published: November 2023

It was seen in Chapter 2 that there had been a striking rise in the skill levels of the workforce and that this was associated with an increase in the discretion that people could exercise in the work process. But were such developments accompanied by an increase in the level of participation in wider organizational decision-making? In the literature, there are highly diverse scenarios of the likely trends. Some have depicted the growth of participation as a necessary consequence of changes in skill and forms of technology; others have argued that there has been a reassertion of traditional managerial prerogatives, in which the influence of employees has been heavily cut back.
Labour Cost and Performance
Authors: Tomlinson Duncan Gallie Michael White Yuan Cheng Mark
Published: November 2023

The main focus of previous chapters has been on how employees experienced the workplace changes taking place in the 1980s and early 1990s. But what are the implications for the performance of organizations? Do the significant changes which have been identified in previous chapters also result in reductions in labour costs or increases in employees’ productive performance? Answering these questions will bring two additional dimensions to the findings. First, it will extend our view of the consequences of change in a more behavioural sense. Second, it will suggest how far the changes taking place are propelled by their contribution to the profitability or efficiency of organizations.
Employment, Careers, and Families: The Significance of Choice and Constraint in Women’s Lives
Authors: Harris Rosemary Crompton ,Fiona
Published: November 2023

In Chapter 1, it was emphasized that the complexity of the processes structuring gender relations and gender systems, and the divisions of labour associated with them, mean that it is important to take a position of theoretical and methodological pluralism. As Folbre (1994: 4) has argued, we need to develop an approach that ’emphasizes choice and constraint, co-operation and conflict, individual and group dynamics’.
The Problem of National Identity: Ancient, Medieval and Modern?*
Authors: Smith Anthony D
Published: November 2023

To grasp the similarities and differences between modern and pre-modern collective cultural identities, we need to move beyond the dominant paradigms of perennialism and modernism and their conflicting passions and, aided by clear working definitions of key terms in the field, construct ideal types of ethnicity and nationality. This procedure allows us to assess evid¬ence from a number of examples of collective identities in both the anci¬ent and medieval worlds, independently of the dominant assumptions. The resulting picture reveals that, while national identity is mainly a modern phenomenon, pre-modern ethnic communities and identities are wide¬ spread and processes of national formation and representation are found in all epochs. Though the ‘empirical’ approach has its problems, it is more sensitive to historical context and nuance, and conveys a fuller picture, than the dominant perspectives in the field today.
Ethnic Nationalism and the Plight of Minorities*
Authors: Smith Anthony D
Published: November 2023

Ethnic nationalism is one of the main causes of the present plight of minorities and the increasing flow of refugees around the world. This kind of nationalism emerges from demotic ‘vertical’ ethnies which are forged by intelligentsias into ethnic nations through vernacular mobilization of the masses. By redefining, re-educating and regenerating the ethnie and its mem¬bers, ethnic nationalists politicize its culture and are drawn into purifying the community of ‘alien’ elements, which in turn may lead to the expulsion and even the extermination of minorities, the ‘outsider within’. Only by some attenuation of ethnic nationalism, can minorities be protected.
Causation, Statistics, and Sociology
Authors: Goldthorpe John H
Published: November 2023

IN A PAPER of great insight, though sadly posthumous, Bernert (1983) noted a long-standing uncertainty among sociologists in regard to the concept of causation and its use in their work. ‘Uncritical adulation’ in the later nineteenth century gave way to ‘complete rejection’ in the early twentieth, followed in turn, in the years after the Second World War, by ‘pragmatic utilization’—a position that, one might add, has itself been subject to rising criticism in the period since Bernert’s review. These vicissitudes in the ‘career of a concept’ have to be understood, as Bernert shows, in the context not only of the development of sociology itself but of larger scientific and philosophical debates. In this chapter I seek, much in the spirit of Bernert’s contribution, to draw attention to some results of statisticians being increasingly involved in such debates, and further to consider the reception in, and potential for, sociology of the new understandings of causation that have thus emerged.
Kinship and friendship: attitudes and behaviour in Britain, 1986-1995
Authors: McGlone Francis , Park Alison , Roberts Ceridwen
Published: November 2023

The family is seldom out of the news. Politicians, journalists, and interest groups all discuss, in various ways, the structural changes that families are experiencing and their likely social consequences. Yet, what is often missing from this debate is attention to wider kin. The ‘family’ most commonly under the microscope is the nuclear family, with its two parents (or, increasingly, one parent) and dependent children, and not the extended family. Grandparents, siblings, uncles, aunts, and cousins are hardly ever mentioned.
Becoming a single mother
Authors: Berthoud Richard , McKay Stephen , Rowlingson Karen
Published: November 2023

During the last three decades in Britain there has been a rapid growth in the number of lone-parent families (Raskey 1994a). In 1971, there were about 570,000 lone parents; ten years later, this number had grown steadily to about 900,000. The rate of growth slowed slightly over the next few years, only to pass the one million mark by 1986. The rate of growth then picked up again to reach more than 1.5 million by 1995 (Raskey 1998b). Such families are often discussed as though they are all identical. There are, in fact, several different types of lone-parent family, although most are headed by the children’s mother, with only about one in ten headed by a lone father. Until the early 1990s, the largest group of lone-parent families included women who had children while married and subsequently separated or divorced.
Characteristics Of UK International Joint Ventures with Triad and Non-Triad Partners
Authors: Glaister Keith , husan Rumy , Buckley peter j.
Published: November 2023

In the current highly competitive global environment, the international joint venture (IJV) has emerged as an important strategic alternative for many firms. IJVs enable partner firms to combine complementary capabilities and resources in order to enhance their competencies and so more effectively compete across world markets (Contractor and Lorange, 1988; Hamel, 1991; Glaister, 1996). IJVs have attracted a good deal of attention from both practising managers and a variety of academic researchers who have examined the core dimensions of IJV activity in terms of motives for IJV formation, partner selection criteria, issues in IJV management, and control and IJV performance (Parkhe, 1993).
The Theory of the Flagship Firm
Authors: Rugman Alan M , D’cruz joseph r.
Published: November 2023

Today the competitive strategies of MNEs are determined by a complex web of factors at regional, country, industry, firm, business unit, and organizational task level. To cut through this dense jungle of potential cognitive and motivational factors affecting managerial decision-making in MNEs it will be useful to build upon a recent synthesis of work on the theory of the MNE and its interactions with key partners. This is the ‘five partners’ or ‘flagship’ model of business networks, as developed by D’Cruz and Rugman (1992, 1993). The five partners model has been applied to analysis of the Canadian telecommunications industry by D’Cruz and Rugman (1994a) and to the European
The Firm as Differentiator and Integrator of Networks:Layered Communities of Practice and Discourse
Authors: Loveridge Raay
Published: November 2023

In much recent analysis of strategic management the firm is portrayed as a possessor of a unique capability to create added value or quasi-rent. Usually this is seen as relating to an ability to differentiate its products or to innovate rapidly in either product or process. More generally the firm is seen as providing a least-cost location for knowledge creation and transformation: a managerial ability to bring about this condition, through a fusion of existing competencies with those of other organizations in the value chain, is regarded by some observers as itself providing the capability that creates competitive advantage.
International Joint Venture Instability and Corporate Strategy
Authors: Reuer Jeffrey j. , p.koza Mrtchell
Published: November 2023

The practice of adopting international joint venture (IJV) longevity and stability as performance indicators is very well established. Since the literature’s inception, this approach has been followed in conceptual work, descriptive studies, and fieldwork, and continues to be employed by scholars studying cross-border collaboration (e.g. Beamish, 1985; Brown, Rugman, and Verbeke, 1989; Dymsza, 1988; Franko, 1971; Killing, 1983; Li and Guisinger, 1991). In part, this tradition reflects the literature’s focus on IJV formation issues, theoretical diversity, and continued fragmentation. These factors have impeded the development of an overarching typology to classify heterogeneous alliances, to investigate their evolution and effectiveness, and to link specialized streams of research (Doz, 1996; Oliver, 1990; Osborn and Hagedoorn, 1997; Parkhe, 1993a; Smith, Carroll, and Ashford, 1995).
The ‘Architecture’ of Careers: How Career Competencies Reveal Firm Dominant Logic in Professional Services
Authors: Jones Candace , Lichtenstein Benyamin M Bergmann
Published: November 2023

Careers are the process by which ‘information and knowledge embodied in skills, expertise, and relationship networks are acquired through an evolving sequence of work experiences’ (Bird 1994: 326). In this way, the careers of key firm members, especially partners in small to mid-size professional service firms (PSFs) and other knowledge-based industries, are the means by which a firm accumulates and develops its capabilities: a set of differentiated skills, complex routines, and complementary assets (Teece et al. 1997). The possession of capabilities that are difficult to imitate, substitute, or replicate is seen as an important source of competitive advantage (Barney 1991; Collis 1994). Yet, few studies have examined empirically the strategies for and processes by which firms gain and develop these capabilities.
Human Capital, Social Capital, and Collective Intelligence
Authors: Brown Phillip , Lauder Hugh
Published: November 2023

A SIGNIFICANT feature of the late twentieth century is the heightened importance attached to human capital. Globalization, technological innovation, and the increased demand for ‘knowledge’ workers are typically cited to explain why the wealth of nations now depends on the quality of their human resources. Reich (1991), for example, argues that in a global labour market income from employment will reflect the ‘true’ market value of labour; this, he suggests, explains the dramatic shift in the incomes of different categories of workers.
Demand Uncertainty and Asset Flexibility: Incorporating Strategic Options in the Theory of the Firm
Authors: Sanchez Ron
Published: November 2023

Since the pioneering paper on the theory of the firm by Ronald Coase (1937), managerial decision making has been the focus of analyses seeking to answer the two closely intertwined questions of economic organization: ‘Why do firms exist?’ and ‘What determines the boundaries of firms?’ Like most theorizing about complex phenomena, theorizing about the existence and boundaries of firms has sought to develop insights into these questions by examining in depth certain aspects of managerial decision making, while making some fairly strong simplifying assumptions about other aspects of managerial decision making in an effort to reduce the complexity and facilitate analysis of the problem.
The Market Paradigm and the Future of Religious Organizations
Authors: Hammond Phillip E
Published: November 2023

In a manner that is at once extraordinarily clear and eminently readable, Rodney Stark has set out in stages a compelling argument about the birth, development, and decline of religion. He has, to be sure, enjoyed the assistance of others along the way, mainly persons who began their collaborations as his students or colleagues and concluded as his co-authors. Chief among these collaborations has been The Future of Religion with William Sims Bainbridge1 and The Churching of America, 1776-1990 with Roger Finke,2 but Stark’s work since his own graduate student days, and especially since the 1970s, has exhibited a systematic development that puts him in the front ranks of sociologists of religion.
The Appeal of Buddhism in America
Authors: Hammond Phillip E
Published: November 2023

The doctrine of separation of church and state allows the American religious marketplace great flexibility. New religions can move in with relative ease and compete with well-established religions as well as other new religions. One new religion that appears to have achieved organizational stability is Soka Gakkai International (SGI). Having conducted a survey of American members of SGI during 1997, we offer here a glimpse of some of our findings. They bear on the appeal Buddhism may have for Americans.
Conscience and the Establishment Clause
Authors: Hammond Phillip E
Published: November 2023

By now it seems reasonably clear that what the Free Exercise Clause protects is increasingly understood to refer not just to religion but to conscience; and that this enlarged understanding of free exercise was compelled once the Courts rejected the belief-action distinction, thus requiring the law to differentiate between actions that are secularly motivated from actions reflecting true conviction, whether articulated in religious language or not.
Introduction
Authors: Rauch Helmut , Werner Samuel A
Published: November 2023

Optical phenomena are directly connected to wave phenomena, which are known for many kinds of radiation. Elsasser (1936) first suggested that the motion of neutrons would be determined by quantum mechanics, shortly after the discovery of the neutron by Chadwick (1932). His suggestion that as waves they would be diffracted by crystalline matter was soon verified experimentally by Halban and Preiswerk (1936) and by Mitchell and Powers (1936). The diffraction and scattering of thermal neutrons (E ∼ kT) having a de Broglie wavelength comparable to the interatomic spacings of atoms in solids has become one of the most powerful modern techniques in the study of the dynamic and static structure of condensed matter. The word ‘optics’, when applied to the propagation of neutron radiation and its modifications by various potentials or fields of force and by material objects, is by no means used here metaphorically. The extremely close mathematical analogies between the propagation of light as described by Maxwell’s equations and the propagation of low-energy neutrons as described by the Schrödinger equation suggests that most phenomena occurring for light will have their analogues in neutron optics.
Coherence properties
Authors: Rauch Helmut , Werner Samuel A
Published: November 2023

Coherence phenomena play an important role in any kind of interferometry (Gabor 1956; Glauber 1963; Mandel and Wolf 1965, 1995; Born and Wolf 1975; Walls and Milburn 1994; Mandel and Wolf 1995). In this chapter we summarize some known results, add some new ones obtained with neutrons, and analyse them in terms of general quantum optics, which can be applied to photon and matter waves as well. Indeed, neutrons have many well-known particle properties, but in interference experiments they behave like wave fields, which provides the connection to the quantum optical terminology. Coherence appears as a system property (neutron + apparatus) which persists as long as it does not become destroyed by statistical or dissipative effects.
Forthcoming and more speculative experiments
Authors: Rauch Helmut , Werner Samuel A
Published: November 2023

Here we discuss some interferometric measurements which are intended to prove or disprove alternative theories and to search for extremely small effects where only upper limits can be given. A general discussion on neutron optical searches for violations of quantum mechanics has been given by Klein (1988). There are also experiments described which have not yet been done. Thus, the search for speculative effects does not mean that no measurable effects can ever be found. On the contrary some of the described phenomena are already under investigation and a positive outcome can be expected (e.g. those described in Section 8.8 (spin-rotation coupling) or those in Section 8.11 (confinement-related phase shifts)).
Recursion theory
Authors: Cori René , Lascar Daniel , Pelletier Donald H
Published: November 2023

Recursive functions are certain functions from NP ( a Cartesian power of the set of natural numbers) into N. They are functions that can, intuitively speaking, be effectively computed or, if one prefers, those whose values can be calculated by some algorithm or some machine. One should note that we are considering here only the theoretical possibility of a mechanical calculation ( the actual calculation may well require far too much time to be reasonably undertaken).
Hot Electrons And Related Phenomena: A Brief History
Authors: Ridley B K
Published: November 2023

Electrons pick up energy from the applied electric field or the applied photon field and dissipate that energy by emitting phonons or exciting other electrons, or, rarely, by emitting photons. When the average energy of the electrons is much larger than the average energy determined by the thermal reservoir we speak of hot electrons. All properties that depend upon electron energy, such as mobility and diffusion, are therefore affected. The increase in energy of an electron in the presence of an electric field is heavily influenced by the scattering mechanisms and, since these are dependent upon electron energy, the dynamic situation is fundamentally non-linear and possibly unstable. That this is so can be most simply illustrated by the basic dynamical equations describing the momentum and energy conservation of a representative electron:
Scattering Of Electrons By Optical Modes In Bulk Semiconductors And Quantum Wells
Authors: Babiker M , Zakhleniuk N A
Published: November 2023

It was Landau (1933) and, later, Pekar (1946, 1949) who speculated that an electron moving within a polar crystal should experience self-trapping due to strongly interacting with the polarization fields arising from the lattice perturbations created by the electron. These speculations later led to the concept of the polaron as a quasi particle, identified as an electron, dressed in its own polarization cloud and moving within the polar crystal. Here we shall not dwell on the polaron problem (Devreese 1972) since our main concern will be with the weak coupling (perturbative) regime between the electron and the lattice polarization fields. In ionic or partially ionic lattices, electric polarization is largely associated with anion-cation pairs whose relative motion characterizes the optical modes of vibrations. The quanta corresponding to the optical modes, also called optical phonons, have relatively large energies compared with the acoustic modes and so the scattering process in which the electron and the lattice exchange a longitudinal optical (LO) phonon involve large energy changes. In particular, electron energy loss is much more efficient when effected by emission of polar optical phonons. This fact makes the electron-LO phonon interaction an important scattering mechanism for charge carriers at room temperature and for most of the polar semiconductor crystals of interest (Ridley 1993a).
Impact Phenomena And Non-Linear Spatio-Temporal Dynamics Of Hot Electrons In Semiconductors
Authors: Scholl E
Published: November 2023

Impact ionization of charge carriers is a widespread phenomenon in semiconductors under strong carrier heating. It is a process in which a charge carrier with high kinetic energy collides with a second charge carrier, transferring its kinetic energy to the latter which is hereby lifted to a higher energy level. Impact ionization processes may be classified as band-band processes or band-trap processes depending on whether the second carrier is initially in the valence band and makes a transition from the valence band to the conduction band, or whether it is initially at a localized level (trap, donor, acceptor), and makes a transition to a band state (Landsberg 1991). Further, impact ionization processes are classified as electron or hole processes if the ionizing hot carrier is a conduction band electron or a hole in the valence band, respectively. The result of the process is carrier multiplication which may induce electrical instabilities at sufficiently high electric fields (Shaw et al. 1992). Impact ionization from shallow donors or acceptors is responsible for impurity breakdown at low temperatures (Stillman et al. 1977). Being an autocatalytic process, it induces a non-equilibrium phase transition (Scholl 1987) between a low conductivity and a high-conductivity state and may lead to various spatio-temporal instabilities including self-oscillations and chaos (Scholl 1992). Band-to-band impact ionization in MOSFETs is the reason for the parastitic substrate current and influences the tail of the carrier distribution function. It eventually induces the avalanche effect, limiting the bias voltage which can be safely applied to a device.
Carrier Relaxation In ID And OD
Authors: Torres C M Sotomayor
Published: November 2023

Energy and momentum relaxation in semiconductor nanostructures such as quantum wires and dots has been a widely discussed issue, particularly since the model of the ‘phonon bottleneck’ was proposed by Benisty et al. (1991) to explain the drop in the integrated emission intensity with decreasing lateral size L. The model is based on the fact that the energy spacing in these nanostructures is typically less than the energy of a longitudinal optical (LO) phonon thus leaving carrier relaxation to take place via, for example, electron-acoustic phonon scattering. In turn the electron-acoustic phonon interaction had been previously calculated by Bockelmann and Bastard (1990) to be reduced by orders of magnitude as the dimensionality of the system decreases to ID and OD. Thus, as an electron spends a time in upper energy levels longer than the non- radiative scattering times, they have a high probability to recombine non-radiatively leading to a decrease of the luminescence from quantum dots. A small proportion of excited carriers relaxes to the bottom of the conduction band with the right set of quantum numbers to recombine with thermalized holes. The phonon bottleneck model can thus be considered as an approach to carrier relaxation based upon an intrinsic mechanism involving energy and momentum relaxation to explain the low luminescence of etched quantum dots of well-defined geometrical shape. Since this model was proposed several theoretical and experimental approaches have been put forward and these are discussed in this chapter. The main emphasis has been the search of mechanisms to bypass the phonon bottleneck, thereby enhancing interband transitions in order to make use of improved optical properties associated with 0-dimensional semiconductors for optoelectronic devices.
Electron-Phonon Interactions In Electron-Transfer Devices And In Quasi-ID Structures
Authors: Sawaki N
Published: November 2023

Most of the recent devices utilizing quantum effect consist of quantum wells, which are made with semiconductor heterostructures. The confinement of electrons within a well has significant effect on the scattering phenomena, making the transport as well as the relaxation phenomena of hot electrons different from those in bulk materials. In a coupled quantum well structure, on the other hand, the transfer of electrons is often assisted by emission and/or absorption of phonons, because of the localized nature of the states. Due to the layered structure and/or small size of the active region of the devices, the phonon modes are also modified from those of bulk materials, which makes the electron-phonon interaction complicated from the point of view of design of device structure, but interesting from the physical point of view. In this chapter, recent studies on the role of electron-phonon interaction in a coupled quantum well structure are reviewed, bringing into focus the future prospect of high-speed quantum devices.
Plasmon Excitation Effects In Resonant Tunnelling
Authors: Eaves L
Published: November 2023

Ever since the realization of a double barrier resonant tunnelling diode (RTD) over twenty years ago (Chang et al. 1974), the physics of tunnelling in semiconductor heterostructures has remained a major and active research area (for recent reviews see Mizuta and Tanoue 1995; Kelly 1995; Chang et al. 1991). In its simplest form, the resonant tunnelling diode (RTD) consists of two tunnel barriers enclosing a narrow quantum (QW) region. The single particle effective mass model has provided a straightforward yet accurate method of describing the electrical properties of this type of device. For example, a wide range of physical phenomena associated with the effect of a magnetic field on the current-voltage characteristics, Z(V), can be accounted for in terms of a single (independent) particle model (Eaves et al. 1995; Eaves 1996). This model also describes accurately devices in which the electronic states in the emitter layer or quantum well are modified by lateral confinement (Smoliner 1996).
Hot Electrons And Space-Charge Waves In Super- Lattices
Authors: Grahn H T
Published: November 2023

The subject of hot electrons in semiconductors covers the properties of carriers, which are energetically far above the respective band edge, i.e., the average kinetic energy of the carriers is much higher than that of the lattice. The electrons can aquire this energy either by application of an electric field or, in direct gap semiconductors, by excitation with photons of an energy much larger than the fundamental gap. Although usually the transport properties of hot electrons are investigated, advances in time-resolved optical spectroscopy on ultra-short time scales allow the direct investigation of the carrier relaxation mechanisms without the application of an electric field. Since transport is always a combination of acquiring energy by acceleration and losing energy by relaxation, the determination of relaxation times by purely optical techniques is very important.
Electroluminescence By Impact Ionization Of Deep Levels In Semiconductors
Authors: Scamarcio G , Capasso F
Published: November 2023

High-field electroluminescence in semiconductor structures doped with transition metal or rare earth impurities has been studied in detail for decades (Pomrenke et al. 1993). This effort has led to electroluminescent devices based on rare-earth doped II-VI semiconductors and flat panel displays (Shionoya and Kobayashi 1989). In recent years there has been an increasing interest in III-V semiconductors doped with rare-earth ions and erbium-doped silicon for application to solid-state sources emitting in the low-loss windows of optical fibres or in the mid-infrared (Pomrenke et al. 1993). Schemes for electrically pumped ion-doped semiconductor lasers have also been proposed (Bell 1963; Pankove et al. 1993). However, a single example of semiconductor-impurity laser action between the energy levels of an impurity in a semiconductor, associated with the photo-ionization of Fe2+ ions in InP, has been reported so far (Klein et al. 1983; Klein 1984).
Diffuse And Inelastic Scattering – Elementary Processes
Authors: Peng L -M , Dudarev S L , Whelan M J
Published: November 2023

It is hard to give a precise definition of the term ‘diffuse scattering’ in electron diffraction. What is observed experimentally in a diffraction pattern is the distribution of electrons over the angle of scattering. An energy spectrometer makes it possible to observe the energy spectrum of scattered electrons for a given direction of their motion. It is only approximately that we may say that a part of the observed cross-section of scattering (called ‘the cross-section of diffuse scattering’) should be treated theoretically in a radically different way from how we treat the remaining ‘diffraction’ part. For crystalline samples that are small in size it is not possible to distinguish between electron ‘diffraction’ and ‘diffuse scattering’ of electrons. For a small sample the diffraction pattern has the form of a superposition of a series of relatively broad peaks where the positions of peak maxima are given by the Bragg law. It is only in the limit of a large number of atoms in the crystal that the peaks associated with elastic scattering by the periodic potential become infinitely sharp and it becomes possible to distinguish between diffraction and diffuse scattering of high-energy electrons.
crystal And Diffraction Symmetry
Authors: Peng L -M , Dudarev S L , Whelan M J
Published: November 2023

Convergent-beam electron diffraction (CBED) provides the most convenient way of determining the symmetry of crystalline materials, and this method has acquired great popularity in the electron diffraction community. In an electron microscope CBED patterns are obtained using a method analogous to the case of critical illumination in optics, where the electron source is (approximately) conjugate to the specimen. The main advantages of the CBED method resulting from the use of a small electron probe (10 A– 100 A) are: (1) there is negligible thickness variation within the illuminated region; (2) any significant buckling of the specimen is unlikely to occur within the illuminated region during observation; (3) the variation of intensity as a function of the angle of incidence in the CBED discs contains important information about the structure of the crystal; (4) a large amount of diffraction data exceeding millions of data points can be collected in parallel in a few seconds. A CBED pattern is there-fore better defined and more suited for comparison with theoretical calculations (Spence and Zuo, 1992, Steeds, 1983) than a conventional selected area electron diffraction (SAED) pattern.