bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
City of Culture
Authors: Gold John R. , Gold Margaret M.
Published: April 2019

Cities have always been centers of culture and cultural creation, and in recent years cities have recognized the instrumental potential of culture in addressing social and economic change. This entry considers one of the most influential programs to utilize culture in the service of urban strategy: the City of Culture project initiated by the then European Community in 1985, renamed the European Capital of Culture in 2005 and scheduled to last until 2033. Conceived as a summer festival to celebrate European artists and creativity, it has evolved into a year‐long festival with a formal bidding and selection process addressing sustainability and legacy.
Community Development
Authors: Gillis Catherine
Published: April 2019

“Community development” refers to efforts to improve the quality of life in low income communities, and can include infrastructure improvements, the development of affordable housing, and the provision of social services. Participating in development activities can strengthen ties between residents, establish local leadership, and build political power. In practice, the goal of resident‐driven community development can be difficult to achieve, due to the political and economic constraints faced by not‐for‐profit organizations. This field of study offers insight into the changing role of not‐for‐profit organizations in the wake of increased privatization and the defunding of the social welfare state.
Community Unionism
Authors: Simms Melanie
Published: April 2019

This entry presents the core ideas and practices of community unionism, emphasizing the links between trade unions (labor unions) and community organizations. After explaining how the concept varies between national settings, the entry provides examples of community union campaigns. The theoretical links between community unionism, social movement theories, and mobilization theories are also explained briefly. The entry concludes by arguing that although community unionism is likely to be a minority movement in countries such as the UK, it remains an important aspect of the debate about how trade unions respond to changes in capitalism, society, and workplaces.
Daily Mobility
Authors: Lulle Thierry
Published: April 2019

People's daily movement from their homes to places of work, study, and other activities has grown. During the 1970s, studies on socioeconomic conditions of transportation multiplied, and the uses of transport and daily travel came to be better understood. In the 1980s came the concept of “daily mobility.” The question is no longerwhatpeople's mobility practices are, but rather,howindividuals and social groups build their spaces of everyday life and territorial identities through mobility. Studies on the relationship between mobility and lifestyle aim to analyze the processes of construction of new urban identities.
D
elhi
Authors: Chakraborty Tathagato
Published: April 2019

Delhi, the capital of India, is a spectacular landscape that historically remained as a center of power, politics, and economy. As the colonial capital, Delhi emerged as a counterexample of typical India subcontinental urbanization. Postindependence Delhi's development as a megacity can be attributed to the economic magnetism it exerted on its hinterland that resulted in huge rural–urban migration. Postliberalization Delhi produces a divided landscape of power and prosperity of a global consumer class living in the gated communities, vis‐à‐vis the marginalized millions living in slums without basic infrastructure and resources. The urban landscape of Delhi is a palimpsest of historical, social, political, and economic processes reshaping the world for centuries.
Dual City
Authors: Reichl Alexander J.
Published: April 2019

“Dual city” describes a city that is starkly divided into places of wealth and places of poverty with little in between. The concept dates back to the mid‐nineteenth century, and research from the early 1990s documented a number of polarizing trends in the socioeconomic conditions of cities as incomes became more unequal, jobs more concentrated at the high end and low end of the service sector, and neighborhoods more fractured into places of gentrification and abandonment. The dual city concept was ultimately judged too crude and imprecise and it faded from urban research. Nevertheless, the concept served a crucial function by focusing attention on issues of economic restructuring and socioeconomic polarization.
Eminent Domain
Authors: Young Sean L.
Published: April 2019

Eminent domain is the power of a government to expropriate private property for the public good. The United States serves as a useful case exemplifying how city, state, and federal governments, or delegates of governments, use eminent domain to promote urban development. The association of economic growth with the public good has come to dominate interpretations of the appropriate use of eminent domain in the United States, prompting controversies related to the importance of private property rights and the responsibilities of governments to serve the common good.
Emotional Geographies
Authors: Parker Brenda
Published: April 2019

This entry explores some of the key contributions, discussions, themes, and debates within the emotional and affective geographies literature and their applications and connections to research on cities and urban planning.
Empowerment, Urban
Authors: Oakley Deirdre , Fraser Jim
Published: April 2019

The phrase “urban empowerment” has many different interpretations. For some, it's about empowering poor communities by building both public participation and sustainability from the ground up. For others, it's about inclusive urban planning and broad grassroots efforts. In the US context, if there is a common thread that runs through the period since the end of World War II, urban empowerment has more to do with coopting such efforts to policies to “revitalize” or “fix” “distressed” urban areas. And this can lead to disempowerment and displacement. The purpose of this entry is to document the goals and outcomes of the federal policies targeting poor urban communities that have dominated this period.
Environmental Justice
Authors: Fragkou Maria Christina
Published: April 2019

Environmental justice is an urban‐born activist movement that evolved to be an analytical frame and an interdisciplinary field of academic research. It is defined as the equal distribution of environmental goods (i.e., good environmental conditions and services) and bads (e.g., contamination), and the equal enforcement of environmental laws and policies on all people, regardless of race, gender, and economic status. The main levels of analysis refer to distributional and procedural environmental justice. Current discussions on environmental justice link it with concerns on urban sustainability, urban liveability, political ecology, and a broader understanding of the right to the city.
Ethnic Enclave
Authors: Pullés Stephanie A. , Lee Jennifer
Published: April 2019

Ethnic enclaves are spatial concentrations of coethnic immigrants organized by socioeconomic activities. Historically, ethnic enclaves emerged as a result of exclusionary policies and discrimination, but they persist because they serve invaluable functions for immigrants and later generation ethnics. Social scientists have disagreed on the conceptualization, benefits, and potential costs of ethnic enclave formation and enterprise for coethnics. The debate is rooted in disagreements about mobility pathways and measures of immigrant incorporation. Previously, sociologists studied the incorporation trajectories of immigrant groups expecting them to eventually integrate spatially by moving out of ethnic neighborhoods. Recent scholarship extends beyond linear assimilation theories of spatial incorporation to account for shifting settlement patterns of post‐1965 immigrant groups.
Festival Malls
Authors: Liliana De Simone R.
Published: April 2019

Festival malls are commercial centers that combine special physical settings with social activities, leisure, and the consumption of goods and experiences, around a carnivalesque or festive scenery. Born in the 1970s and 1980s across the USA, festival marketplaces were described by their promoters as the “shopping centers for the urban community.” For many, festival malls embody the lack of authenticity and spontaneity in consumption spaces in the way they recreate scenes for consumers and ignore the temporal and geographical context ties that surround them.
Forbidden City, The
Authors: Bracken Gregory
Published: April 2019

The Forbidden City was home to China's imperial family, as well as the seat of government, for almost 500 years from 1420. The complex's buildings and courtyards deliberately recall the solid‐and‐void relationship of yin and yang to achieve harmony and encourageqi. The Supreme Harmony complex accounts for 15 percent of the entire Forbidden City, which in turn is 15 percent of the old Imperial City. This proportional relationship reinforces the importance of concentric walled spaces in China and highlights the Forbidden City's status as the symbolic center of the civilized world. The entry also highlights what has happened to the complex, and its art collections, since it became a museum in 1925.
Gated Communities/Fortified Enclaves
Authors: Villamizar‐Santamaría Sebastián
Published: April 2019

Research on gated communities has highlighted the importance of fear of crime and crime itself as motivations to gate. These fortified enclaves have particular physical and social features that underscore the vigilance, security controls, and separation from others – such as gates, fences, cameras, guards, and dogs. Gated communities and fortified enclaves pose interesting tensions in urban research. There are questions of residential segregation and integration and conflicting ideas of public space that are modified by the construction of these residential, leisure, work, and consumption spaces. Research on this topic has focused on the United States, but there are interesting developments in South America and in other parts of the Global South that put into question the assumptions of elitism and insulation that are found in the analyses of North America. Thus, gated communities and fortified enclaves have become interesting sites for studying urban inequality in postindustrial cities.
Gay/Lesbian Territorialities
Authors: Cattan Nadine
Published: April 2019

The city is perceived as a place that enhances the free expression of differences in terms of behavior and identity. Over the past three decades, homosexuality has gained a “right to the city” in numerous Western cities. However, the unequal access of gays and lesbians to a normative heterosexual public space is highlighted in many studies, as is the capacity of gay men to occupy certain parts of the city while lesbians remain relatively invisible. Gay and lesbian territorialities are shaped by the spatial practices of these populations and by privileged places that contribute to the construction of gay and lesbian identities. Gay districts play an important role in the construction of a gay culture. By considering gay and lesbian territorialities, the duality of cities, being both emancipating and oppressive, appears immediately. Gays and lesbians constantly have to adapt their behavior and develop strategies to live freely in urban public spaces.
Gendered Ruralities
Authors: Forsberg Gunnel
Published: April 2019

Space plays an important role in construction of space‐specific variations in the condition for women and men. This article presents a way to analyze the way these spatial conditions affect gender relations and practices in rural areas and how, and in what ways, they are reproduced and transformed by using the concept of local gender contract, understood as the unwritten rules that regulate relations between sexes and recreate and reform relations into everyday actions within the framework of the local structures in which they are performed. In rural areas these rules constitute a cornerstone in the construction of gendered rurality.
Geography of Opportunity
Authors: Reece Jason
Published: April 2019

The geography of opportunity describes the landscape of neighborhood difference across our cities and regions. This entry introduces the “geography of opportunity” theory and the research illustrating the potent impact of “place” on a variety of life outcomes. The entry reviews the equity and civil rights implications of our contemporary geography of opportunity and provides a historical review of the deliberate construction of the geography of opportunity in the American city. It closes by examining the primary areas of intervention needed to bring greater equity to our geography of opportunity in the twenty‐first century.
Green Urbanism
Authors: Barton Jonathan R.
Published: April 2019

Green urbanism is the term that has given rise to new ways of reconnecting urban development with nature and environmental conditions. Although there is a long history of integrating parks and other green spaces into cities, the twentieth century was marked by rapid urban growth where artificial landscapes supplanted and displaced the green and blue landscapes beneath them. This concern for the synergy of artificial and natural landscapes led to the fields of urban ecology, ecological urbanism, and urban sustainability. Together, they have defined much of the sustainable urban development agenda that was put in place at the Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment in 1972, was cemented within the Agenda 21 program, and continues strongly today within the HabitatIII“New Urban Agenda.” However, perhaps the principal contribution of green urbanism as a concept within this wider development debate is its concern with the experience and practice of interventions at community and neighborhood scales.
Growth Machine Politics
Authors: Vojnovic Igor
Published: April 2019

Growth machine politics is a thesis of urban politics and local economic development centered on the activities of land‐based elites and their strategies and alliances in promoting growth. Central to the thesis are land‐based interests, the exchange and development of urban land within market‐based economies, and actions involved in promoting growth and, ultimately, the social construction of place. The thesis proposes that place entrepreneurs, along with private and public sector coalition partners, actively ensure that cities operate as growth machines. Growth machine politics maintains that the exchange and development of land, as growth entrepreneurs pursue wealth accumulation, is the central driver of local politics.
H
all,
P
eter
Authors: Zhou Jiangping , Qin Xiaoyu
Published: April 2019

Peter Hall (March 19, 1932–July 30, 2014, London,
UK
) is a highly prolific and influential figure in the fields of urban and regional studies and planning. He taught in universities in the
UK
and the
USA
. He authored or edited nearly 50 books in his life and wrote or cowrote more than 2,000 articles and shorter pieces. He advised multiple governments and organizations and served as a leader for numerous academic associations. He won many awards and honors across countries.
Health in Cities
Authors: Chiara Magdalena
Published: April 2019

More than half of the world's population live in cities and exponential growth is expected for the coming decades. Despite being a general trend, urbanization processes have created huge cities, complex in their problems, and extremely unequal. Health in cities is a field of knowledge that inquires into the way in which urban life and urbanization processes affect the health of those who live in cities. It comprises the analysis of the health of the population, how the health systems resources are distributed, and how public policies operate in the territory either compensating for or reinforcing inequality gaps.
High Tech Zones/High Tech Developments
Authors: Goicoechea María Eugenia
Published: April 2019

High tech zones or high tech developments represent a new form of territorially organizing production linked to the high tech industry. They concentrate diverse elements that jointly contribute to create an environment conducive to the development of research and development – an innovative milieu. These elements are highly qualified human capital, educational and research institutions, companies, and access to capital for investment in high risk operations. For urban morphology, these trends imply a new geographical pattern, complementary to the concentration and dispersion trends of population and investments.
Hinterlands
Authors: Mehzabeen Evy
Published: April 2019

This entry explores the plural understandings and applications of the term hinterlands. Beginning with a conceptual framework of the concept of hinterlands, the article explains how the use of the term itself has evolved with advancements within the discipline. It shows how a hinterland can be denoted as a commercial space, a delimited territory, and also as a dynamic fluid space, examining its nuanced meanings in all its applications. It goes on to examine how hinterland systems function in space and how they differ in relation to a varied historical and locational context. To this end, it draws examples from three hinterland systems in India: Delhi, Mumbai, and Guwahati, each system displaying the subtle functions that a hinterland might denote. The entry closes with an examination of the changing nature of hinterland in an increasingly global order. In a rapidly urbanizing world of the future, with growing connectivity, the very term hinterlands might be rendered obsolete.
H
obrecht,
J
ames
Authors: Kalandides Ares
Published: April 2019

James Hobrecht (1825–1902) was a Prussian planner responsible for the 1862 development plan for the expanding city of Berlin and later for its new sewerage system. The “Hobrecht Plan” was based on a concept of large city blocks, which, combined with unleashed land speculation and the building regulations of the time, gave birth to an extremely dense, socially and functionally mixed city of often appalling living conditions. The sewerage system, on the other hand, was an innovative answer to the needs of the growing metropolis
Housing
Authors: Giglia Angela
Published: April 2019

Housing is not only a shelter but also a place for living, a reference for individual and social life, a starting point in urban daily life, and an indicator of the social position of the dweller, in the context of a specific society in a moment of its history. Housing is linked with the concept of inhabiting, understood as the social relationship of human beings with their environment, the production and reproduction of daily life, belonging and social order. Housing is also a very important component in the dynamics of real estate capital and its impacts on the transformation of living space all over the world, through the phenomenon of global urbanization.
Housing Policy
Authors: Priemus Hugo
Published: April 2019

Housing policy is a strategic component of urban and regional planning. An overview is presented of housing policies in Europe, in (former) socialist countries, in the
USA
, and in developing countries. There is a huge variation in housing policies; developments of those policies are largely path‐dependent. Very often housing policies are mixed and segmented. Crucial also are some nonhousing policies with housing impacts.
Ideal Cities (Renaissance)
Authors: Nevola Fabrizio
Published: April 2019

Renaissance ideal cities are an enduring construct that tended to express, through ideals of order and symmetry, the centralized authority of princely rulers, and by the later sixteenth century combined with this military functions as fortified new towns. The symmetry that defined ideal city designs of the early Renaissance, like the fortified cities of the following centuries, articulated in visual terms a totalizing vision of centralized authority, although their formal qualities had a lasting appeal that informed urban design solutions into the twentieth century.
Informal Land Markets
Authors: Goytia Cynthia
Published: April 2019

In most developing countries, rapid urbanization has forced a significant share of the urban population to turn to informal land markets for housing. Informal developments are typically built without regard to construction or regulatory standards, lack basic infrastructure services, and provide owners no property rights. This phenomenon is widespread in areas where there is an insufficient supply of serviced land at affordable prices. While poverty is often blamed for the development of informal markets, overly stringent land‐use norms and regulations also play a central role by increasing land prices in the formal sector. High land prices generate substitution effects, encouraging lower income households to move to the informal sector. The rapidly increasing availability of data, together with geographic information system tools and technologies providing a detailed view of the built environment, is helping to improve our limited understanding about the creation and persistence of these markets in developing countries.
Informal Settlers
Authors: Martínez Miguel A. , Roitman Sonia
Published: April 2019

The nature and scope of “informal settlers” are defined according to specific historical conditions, social conflicts, and spatial configurations. In contrast with the prevailing negative features of slums, other types of informal dwelling are here distinguished and a more nuanced account of informal living given. This approach has consequences for the study of land tenure in terms of its diversity, security, and possible formalization. It is argued that investigations on informality need to focus on the power struggles over resources and the meanings and perceptions of informality, in addition to the systemic constraints for informal settlers, instead of only identifying social practices not in accordance with dominant conventional and legal norms.
Intermediate Cities
Authors: Bolay Jean‐Claude , Kern Abigaïl‐Laure
Published: April 2019

Cities are defined mainly based on spatial and demographic criteria. The criteria of intermediation helps in identifying current urban dynamics, in relation to surrounding suburban/rural areas or in national and international environments. Medium‐sized cities are emblematic of so‐called “intermediate cities.” According to international thresholds, nearly 50 percent of the world's urban population now live in cities of less than 500,000 inhabitants. In developing countries, these cities face particular difficulties: less efficient public administration, insufficient funds to meet social needs, and lack of skilled individuals to manage large projects. In more industrially and technologically advanced countries, intermediate cities long suffered from the primacy of larger‐sized cities. An intermediate city is defined based on a certain number of characteristics, with three spheres of influence: the micro regional scale, the national scale, and the international scale. Three positions for these cities can be identified: “affected” intermediate cities, with a strong position in their territory; “satellite” intermediate cities, near larger cities; and “remote” intermediate cities, distinguished by a more closed system vis‐à‐vis the outside, given their remoteness. Because of their characteristics, intermediate cities should be the target of regional planning to link urban growth and territorial balance between city and country.
Intersectionality
Authors: Rodó‐de‐Zárate Maria
Published: April 2019

“Intersectionality” was the term coined in the late 1980s by Kimberlé Crenshaw to address the particular experiences of black women in the legal context in the USA, showing that these experiences could not be understood with analytical frameworks that treated race and gender separately. The term has been seen as one of the most important contributions of feminism, as it allows the conceptualization of the multidimensionality of the experiences of oppression and the complexity of the interconnections between different axes of power such as gender, race, sexuality, class, age, or ability. While potentially providing a new framework for research that offers tools for different social sciences and for policy and political activism, intersectionality has also raised theoretical, methodological, and empirical questions that need to be addressed and developed. The importance of spatiality for intersectional dynamics has been highlighted as a crucial aspect, even if it has not been widely developed.
Islamic Cities
Authors: Moser Sarah
Published: April 2019

The category of “Islamic cities” is a dated and problematic term concocted by European Orientalists that essentializes Islam and generalizes a wide variety of urban typologies. This entry traces the history of the term dating back to the late colonial era, investigates the variety of ways in which the term has been challenged and deconstructed over the decades, and provides an overview of how research on cities in Muslim‐dominated regions has shifted beyond the “Islamic city” in recent decades.
Just City
Authors: Steil Justin , Connolly James
Published: April 2019

In multiple writings on the concept of the “Just City,” Susan Fainstein draws on political philosophy to develop an urban theory of justice that can be used to evaluate city planning and development policies. Recognizing that justice takes on different meanings depending on the social, geographical, and historical context, Fainstein explores the relationship between just outcomes and equity, democracy, and diversity, as well as the tensions among these values. Fainstein argues that this articulation of justice based on widely shared values has the potential to shift public consciousness of urban decision‐making and mobilize collective action that can shape the adoption of policies that improve the lives of urban residents.
L
a
P
az/
E
l
A
lto
Authors: Derpic Jorge C.
Published: April 2019

La Paz, Bolivia's government seat, and its former neighborhood, El Alto, are arguably the most important political and urban strongholds in the country today. Based on the long‐term memory of indigenous rebellions during colonial times, during the first half of the 2000s, social mobilizations in El Alto paved the way for the coming to power of the first indigenous president in Bolivian history, Evo Morales, and for the Constituent Assembly that transformed the country into a plurinational state in 2009. Rooted in colonial divides that separated Spaniards and Indians, El Alto has come to be recognized as the contentious and indigenous Aymara side of the bureaucratic and creole‐
mestizo
La Paz.
Land Markets
Authors: Smolka Martim O. , Goytia Cynthia
Published: April 2019

Since Ricardo and Von Thünen's seminal work in the nineteenth century, there have been significant contributions to our theoretical understanding of how urban land markets function – and, with them, greater insight into important current‐day phenomena such as housing affordability, residential segregation, intraurban mobility, urban sprawl, informality, distribution of urban infrastructure and services, and many other issues. A better grasp of land‐value changes and their equity and efficiency implications has been critical to the analysis of land‐use regulation and taxation, especially the redistribution of the costs and benefits of urban development. Notable advances in spatial statistical methods and techniques, together with geographical information systems, have also provided new tools that overcome some key analytical challenges and, in turn, help policy‐makers better plan for cities of the future.
Land Regularization Policies (
L
atin
A
merica)
Authors: Brikman Denise
Published: April 2019

Regularization policies in Latin America are designed interventions to attack informality problems, by regularization of land tenure and/or of urban environmental conditions (urban regularization). These policies were developed in different Latin American countries, where informality is a growing tendency, becoming a structural problem of their cities. In the last few decades, multiple instruments have been under study, with the purpose of building a theory that allows for full understanding of the causes of informality and instructs on how to resolve the problem.
Leisure
Authors: Paul Tanusree
Published: April 2019

Leisure is defined as the time over which an individual exercises choice and in which she or he undertakes activities that she or he values. Leisure is objectively construed as the opposite of work while subjectively it is viewed in terms of activities that assume meaning only in the context of the individual's perception. Social identity is one of the central factors influencing the experience of leisure. It affects personal agency, access to resources and opportunities, motivation, and freedom of choice. Nonetheless, leisure entails self‐fulfillment, intellectual contemplation, and psychological development. It is thus an important component of human well‐being and has extensive implications for policy and planning.
Lima
Authors: Schmidt Steven
Published: April 2019

This entry broadly sketches some of the major ideological, economic, and political forces that have shaped Lima from its foundation through the contemporary period. For scholars with interests in urban studies, understanding colonial Lima's complex historical relationship with whiteness, indigeneity, and racial subjugation can better contextualize contemporary Limeño movements against urban redevelopment, state‐led megaprojects, and mobilization for infrastructural services. Attending to Lima's colonial history can help contemporary researchers understand and interpret current trajectories in its urban development.
Medellin
Authors: Ortiz Catalina
Published: April 2019

Medellin, the second largest Colombian city, became a paradigmatic model of urban renaissance after a deep crisis caused by deindustrialization, narco trafficking, and extreme urban violence. The city's transformation in the 2010s responds to broader shifts in its governance involving actively local government, decentralized quasi‐public entities, military powers, economic elites, and grassroots organizations. Moreover, a decisive convergence of extended practices of strategic planning, urban design, and architecture has focused local state interest and public investment on traditionally excluded peripheral neighborhoods. Thus, the main physical changes manifest in the urban landscape in the expanding interconnected transit system (metro, tramway, cable cars, bus rapid transit system, etc.), the generation of public spaces, and the construction of multiple iconic public facilities. Notwithstanding being the epicenter of international recognition, Medellin remains one of the most unequal Latin American cities, and the territorial control of nonstate‐armed actors still poses challenges to local governability schemes.
M
elbourne
Authors: Weller Sally A.
Published: April 2019

Melbourne is a cosmopolitan and multicultural city in the southeastern state of Victoria, Australia. The city has grown rapidly in recent years, with accelerated migration and growth in the number of international students studying in the city, producing challenges for housing, liveability, and employment. The recent closure of automobile manufacturing plants is testing the city's resilience.
MetroManila
Authors: Porio Emma , Yulo‐Loyzaga Antonia , Uy Cecile
Published: April 2019

Metro Manila is the largest urban agglomeration and the Philippines' primary engine of growth, accounting for 37 percent of the country's gross domestic product. The physical and social geography of this coastal megacity make it highly exposed and vulnerable to climate‐ and environment‐related hazards like tropical cyclones, floods, and sea‐level rise as well as earthquakes and landslides. Since the late 1990s, the metropolis has undergone rapid sociodemographic growth and economic expansion, which has radically changed its land‐cover and land‐use patterns and altered land markets. Thus, the environmental and human security needs of the rapidly growing population, especially those in large informal settlements, pose huge risk governance challenges for policy‐makers and urban managers.
Metropolitan Area
Authors: Orellana Arturo , Fuentes Luis
Published: April 2019

Metropolitan areas are sociospatial formations characterized by the advance of urbanization and the increasing concentration of population in urban areas or regions. The purpose of this entry is to characterize this concept and discuss the challenges of setting conceptual delimitations and classifications in different geographical contexts over time. Additionally, the entry analyzes the growing challenges metropolitan areas face due to the contemporary tendencies of urbanization, in particular the difficulty of governing these complex and dynamic spatial units.
Migration and Urban Flows
Authors: Kashkovskaya Natalya
Published: April 2019

In the course of globalization of the world economy, cities are increasingly seen as nodes in networks that are shaped and constituted by manifold flows intersecting there, including migration flows. Early conceptualizations of cities from the network perspective, such as “global city,” assumed that only a small set of powerful cities are embedded in the network of interrelations, and saw the role of migrants primarily as part of the urban labor force as well as the factor responsible for the increasing diversity in the city. With the assertion of a transnational perspective on migration, migrants began to be seen as actors and all cities as being affected by global interconnections. Relationships between migrants and cities are theorized in the concepts “transnational urbanism,” “transnational urban spaces,” and in “comparative theory of locality,” which has been developed based on the concept of city scale.
Migration, Gender, Cities
Authors: Silvey Rachel , James‐Wilson Symon , Arviv Tamir
Published: April 2019

In recent decades, scholarship in the social sciences has increasingly examined the role of gender in migration, the dynamics connecting migrants with cities, and the ways that intersections of race, class, and gender inform migrants' struggles over citizenship. Global cities have relied on low income gendered and racialized labor migrants to fulfill precarious service sector jobs, and urban growth has coincided with a series of sociospatial dislocations associated with neoliberalization, securitization, gentrification, segregation, and income polarization. Feminist and critical race scholars of urban studies emphasize the coconstructed nature of urban sociospatial inclusion and exclusion, and understand migration as central to the (re)production of difference and inequality in cities and globally. Research has attended to the politics of identity and scale, and in so doing has increasingly considered new geographies of belonging, occupancy, and citizenship within and beyond the nation‐state.
M
umford,
L
ewis
Authors: Abbott Carl
Published: April 2019

Lewis Mumford (1895–1990) was a prolific and influential writer on American art and architecture, urban planning, technology, and the history of urban development. His career spanned the 1920s through the 1970s as he published a score of major books and reached a national audience with hundreds of articles and reviews in which he argued for decentralized urbanization that maintained a human scale while respecting the landscape. Many of his other publications explored the societal impacts and control of changing technologies. His influence rose from the 1930s to the 1960s and has slowly ebbed since then.
Municipal Reform (USA)
Authors: Cantor Douglas
Published: April 2019

Municipal reform is a historically driven movement to bring political institutions and practices into accord with liberal‐democratic standards and philosophies. This entry historically analyzes the history of municipal reform through four separate, but sometimes overlapping, eras: thestrong mayorera of the late 1800s, theprogressiveera of the early to mid‐twentieth century, themetropolitanera of the 1920s to the 1980s, and the current, more loosely definedmodernera. In each era, institutional “cures” are presented as a solution for political “ills” of governing. While the specifics of institutional ideas have evolved over time, what has not changed is the core tenet of municipal reform: that to provide democratic, efficient, and professional government and governance, the evils of politics must be exorcised from policy‐making. By changing the institutions that create policy, contestation can be minimized and governing can be more professional, more cost effective, less corrupt, and serve for the good of the city.
Nairobi
Authors: Otiso Kefa M.
Published: April 2019

Nairobi is the capital city of Kenya and one of Africa's premier financial, business, technology, transport, communications, diplomatic, NGO, and international institution capitals. For instance, its United Nations Office in Nairobi (UNON) is the only UN headquarters in Africa and in the Global South. Because of Nairobi's rapid population growth and poor planning by colonial and postcolonial governments, the city's growth is somewhat haphazard and inimical to its ability to effectively and efficiently meet its residents' basic shelter, income, and infrastructure needs. In the last decade, the government has substantially improved the city's infrastructure and formulated plans to help guide its future growth. Thus, it is in a much better position to build a good future and to deal with its formidable challenges.
Neighborhood
Authors: Curto María Cecilia Ferraudi
Published: April 2019

In the original understanding of neighborhood, two key debates stood out: one that considered urban segregation, and another that focused on bringing community ties up to date in the modern city. Initially, studies targeted living conditions in the slums of growing cities. Soon, analyses began to theorize about neighborhoods as differentiated parts of the city. Later, researchers showed the limitations of using the neighborhood as a focus and suggested two alternatives: considering it relationally as part of a larger figuration, and accompanying people on the paths they take. Finally, recent analyses have considered actual historical processes so as to provide an account of the impacts of capitalist globalization on local settings, comparing different geographies in order to relativize current theories.
Neighborhood Development
Authors: Drilling Matthias , Schnur Olaf
Published: April 2019

Neighborhood development is a normative societal vision and a political intervention scheme. This vision and the form of the political intervention depend on dominant political ideas for the development of cities and society at large. Neighborhood development can thus be considered a specific territorial and social transformation toward a desired situation. In this process a number of conflicts can occur, for example when the people in a neighborhood do not react to the changes as expected, when aims have been developed in a one‐sided or top‐down manner, or when divergent power relations between the different actors have not been sufficiently considered. Neighborhood development is arguably one of the central concepts of regulation and governance in the complex cities of today, which means that the clarification of its theoretical foundations and the discussion of its measures and implementations are key roles of urban policy.
Ordinary Cities
Authors: Gemmiti Roberta
Published: April 2019

Ordinary cities is a term coined, in human geography, by Ash Amin and Stephen Graham in an original article published in 1997. The article discussed the contemporary approaches in urban studies, which focused almost exclusively on cities that were represented as key command‐and‐control centers for globalized social, economic, cultural, and creative processes. The authors criticized this idea of the city, based on only a few extraordinary cases, adopting the metaphor of “ordinary city,” in order to take into account all cities, their diversities and heterogeneities, as vital elements in the development of urban theory. In its plural form, the concept was later adopted in postcolonial urban studies. Mainly due to the geographer Jennifer Robinson, the term “ordinary cities” has been used to deconstruct mainstream urban theory and to formulate a different methodological approach for a more cosmopolitan urban research.
Participatory Budgeting
Authors: de Oliveira Osmany Porto
Published: April 2019

Participatory budgeting (PB) is one of the most celebrated models for social participation in urban governance. It was adopted by important metropolises, such as New York (USA), Paris (France), Lima (Peru), Chengdu (China), Maputo (Mozambique), and numerous small towns, numbering about 2,800 cases to date. PB was born in Porto Alegre in the south of Brazil in 1989 as a local experiment. The government of the Workers' Party, which ran the city council, developed PB as an attempt to meet popular demands and implement a new kind of urban governance, committed to social justice and radicalizing democracy. There are different combinations of the main policy instruments from the original model in contemporary experiences, which differ in the institutional design as well as ideologically. An important part of the literature used PB to explore democratic theory, focusing on themes of participation, deliberation, accountability, social capital, and civic engagement. Emerging researches have been analyzing PB's diffusion processes. It is worth noting that most studies considered cases from the Americas and Europe, while there is a lack of research into the experiences of other regions. Studies have also focused on successful experiences; there is a lot to learn about why different practices have failed.
Place Marketing
Authors: Paddison Ronan
Published: April 2019

Place marketing has become a universalized technique of urban neoliberalism aimed at reimaging the city. While its immediate goal is to bolster the competitive position of the city in attracting inward investment, its exercise is avowedly political, both in how cities are reimagined and in its implications for the multiple publics comprising the city.
Planned City
Authors: Davoudi Simin
Published: April 2019

Planned city is a recurring theme in the history of urban planning but its objectives, underlying visions, and contextual frames have varied in different places and times. This entry provides an overview of the planned city and discusses some of the most influential types including the garden city, the functional city, the monumental city, and the eco city. It argues that, while visionary idealism often presents the best urban planning, stripped of its social context and devoid of democratic processes, a blank canvas approach can have dire sociospatial consequences.
Postsocialist City
Authors: Tosics Iván
Published: April 2019

This entry deals with the cities of Central and Eastern European (CEE) countries since the collapse of socialism around 1990. With reference to the three decades since then, the entry describes, first, the conditions (institutions, public policies, and market players) of postsocialist development. This is followed by a discussion of the main development processes, analyzing the performance of the CEE cities. Special emphasis is given to the consequences and dynamics of urban transformation. Finally, there is an overview of the debates regarding the models and futures of postsocialist cities.
Primacy
Authors: Parnreiter Christof
Published: April 2019

The term urban primacy means, in its most general understanding, that a country's largest city has more than twice the population of the second largest city. In its original sense, a close and universal relationship between size and grandeur of a city was postulated. With developmentalism, modernization theory, overpopulation alarmism, and the quantitative revolution in social sciences, the connotation shifted: primacy became increasingly identified with “overurbanization” and thought of as a barrier to national development. Empirical evidence is, however, inconclusive. The main contribution of Marxist and world‐systems analysts, who linked primacy to issues of dependency and exploitation, is the notion that it is erroneous to assume that the nation‐state is the natural scale of analysis. Moreover, it is critical to consider carefully proper indicators of primacy beyond population size. Finally, while city size and size ratio per se have no relationship to development, they might impact on growth and redistributive politics of urban elites.
Primate City
Authors: Dick Howard , Rimmer Peter
Published: April 2019

Some cities, usually capitals, are disproportionate in size relative to the population of other cities and the national population. Jefferson's law of the primate city and Zipf's rank‐size rule, became standard measures of spatial inequality. Both are statistical associations, not analyses of causes. Despite conceptual weaknesses and data flaws, primacy gave rise to much academic debate and a presumption of capital city bias without offering good theoretical and practical guidance on which to base policy intervention. In a rapidly urbanizing world, the new economic geography takes a more analytical approach to spatial agglomerations, and estimates of urban population have become more sophisticated. “Primate city” has given ground to “megacity,” “world city,” and “global city” but the basic issues remain much the same, including the unreliability of statistics, the wide variation in urban and national contexts, and the lack of effective policy measures to improve spatial equality.
Private Policing
Authors: Ungar Mark
Published: April 2019

Amid the incapacity of state security forces, the persistence and spread of our era's security challenge – from urban homicide to global terrorism – have also led to an expansion of private policing to combat them. Private security has become one of the fastest growing sectors. Like these challenges, private policing has also diversified, ranging from local community policing groups to wealthy multinational firms. The entry delves into the underlying catalysts of private security, using examples from each world region.
Property Rights
Authors: Webster Chris
Published: April 2019

A fourfold classification of property rights approaches to urban studies is used to distinguish betweenreal property(land) andpersonal property, and betweende jure(legal) rights andde facto(general, informal, customary, assumed, usurped) rights. Overlaps and distinctions between the four approaches are illustrated by contrasting four classical urban problems, named after authors of influential theoretical expositions of these problems: the Hardin problem, the Heller problem, the Calhoun Problem, and the de Soto problem.
Public Housing, International Comparative Perspective
Authors: Aravecchia‐Botas Nilce
Published: April 2019

The concept of public housing was formulated when the transformations caused by the Industrial Revolution generated an imbalance in urban areas, and the “housing issue” emerged as social concern. After that, between the 1930s and 1970s, governments at various levels throughout the world devised public housing policies as part of their efforts to build a welfare state. Public housing corresponds to the idea of the common good and civic virtue, as opposed to the idea of a house as a product for individual consumption. Since the last decades of the twentieth century, with the retreat of the welfare state and the fall of the socialist bloc, public policies have focused on encouraging the private sector, gradually abandoning direct public action over the territory.