bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Episcopal Exemption of Savigny, 1112–1184
Authors: Swietek Francis R. , Deneen Terrence M.
Published: April 2006

The congregation of Savigny deserves recognition as a notable expression of the monastic revival which characterized the eleventh and twelfth centuries. Savigny itself was founded around 1112 in the forests which join Normandy, Maine, and Brittany by Vital of Mortain, a former hermit and itinerant preacher. Within 35 years, the congregation which developed from the monastery included more than 30 houses in France and England. These Savigniacs were praised effusively by contemporaries as models to be followed. In spite of Savigny's acknowledged importance, however, many aspects of its early history remain relatively unstudied. The only comprehensive treatment of the congregation is a largely hagiographical account compiled by Dom Claude Auvry, prior to Savigny from 1698 to 1712, which finally was edited and published in the late nineteenth century. The paucity of research on Savigny is explained partially by the fact that in 1147 the congregation was absorbed into the Cistercian order and thereby lost its distinctive identity. However, the study of early Savigniac history is valuable not only because of its intrinsic importance but also because an accurate assessment of the effects of the union on the order of Cîteaux will be possible only through an understanding of the congregation prior to 1147.
James J. Strang: The Prophet Who Failed
Authors: Foster Lawrence
Published: April 2006

The founders of successful religious and social movements have received much attention from popular and scholarly writers. Would-be prophets who failed, on the other hand, generally have been ignored, except for a few sensational cases such as those of Sabbatai Sevi, the Jewish messianic pretender of the seventeenth century, or Jim Jones, whose charismatic leadership of a group suicide in Guyana shocked the nation and the world. Yet although religious leaders who fail usually attract little attention, they are often as interesting as those who succeed. Their lives vividly highlight aspects of new religious and social movements which we might otherwise overlook. One of the most remarkable religious failures in nineteenth- century America was James J. Strang, the schismatic Mormon prophet who set up a community of 2,500 on Beaver Island in Lake Michigan and ruled it for nearly ten years until he was assassinated in 1856. Strang was articulate and capable, a compelling intellect and speaker who seemed totally sincere to some yet an utter fraud to others. His life raises fundamental questions about the promise and the dangers inherent in prophetic leadership, not simply in early Mormonism but in many similar movements as well.
Imperial Religious Policy and Valerian's Persecution of the Church, A.D. 257–260
Authors: Haas Christopher J.
Published: April 2006

The persecution instituted by the emperor Valerian (AD. 253–260) long has presented modern scholars with several important problems. One of the most pressing questions concerns the reasons behind Valerian's sudden shift in religious policy in 257. Prior to that time the church was largely undisturbed, but the years 257–258 witnessed a series of increasingly severe imperial edicts directed against Christianity. What prompted this sudden reversal of imperial religious policy in 257? Moreover, given the change in the official position, what was the nature of this revised religious policy? The overall picture that emerges out of an attempt to answer these questions indicates that the primary motives behind this persecution were, in fact, religious. Further, the government's religious outlook also encompassed certain related social aims. In order to deal with these issues effectively, however, one first must compare Valerian's religious policy to those of his predecessors from 249 to 253.
Religious Authority and Social Status in Seventeenth-Century England: The Friendship of Margaret Fell, George Fox, and William Penn
Authors: Kunze Bonnelyn Young
Published: April 2006

The names of George Fox, William Penn, and Margaret Fell occupy a premier place among the leaders of seventeenth-century English Quakerism. George Fox, Quaker tradition has claimed, was the prophetic and preeminent first-generation leader from 1652 until his death in 1691. William Penn's chief claim to historical fame was his founding of the Quaker colony of Pennsylvania, as well as his prolific writings in defense of Quakerism and religious toleration in England. Margaret Fell, who married Fox in 1669, has been epitomized most frequently as the “Mother of Quakerism,” a hagiographic title that leaves her role imprecisely defined. Margaret Fell's position was a powerful one in the organization of nascent Quakerism. She came under Fox's influence while Judge Fell, her first husband, was still living. At first a novitiate under Fox's spiritual guidance, she soon became an apt apologist and grass-roots organizer who equaled and in most cases exceeded other leaders in edifying, guiding, and sustaining the Quaker cause. Although Fell, Fox, and Penn were long-term friends despite a wide age difference, Fell's real-life role in this triumvirate of early Quaker leadership largely has been lost in the obscurity and myth of Quaker beginnings.
Origen, Ezekiel's Merkabah, and the Ascension of Moses
Authors: Halperin David J.
Published: April 2006

The issue of Origen's relations with contemporary Judaism has attracted considerable attention, particularly in the past decade. There seems to be little question that Origen produced the bulk of his extensive exegetical work during the years he lived, taught, and preached in the Palestinian coastal city of Caesarea, from about 232 to his death between 251 and 255, and that Caesarea was a major intellectual center of rabbinic Judaism at that time. It is also generally agreed that Origen had frequent exchanges with Jews, friendly consultations as well as public debates; that Origen's writings suggest reasonable acquaintance with contemporary Jewish belief and practice; and that biblical exegeses known to us from rabbinic sources appear in the commentaries and homilies of Origen.
‘A Dubious Twilight’: Reflections on Dreams in Patristic Literature
Authors: Miller Patricia Cox
Published: April 2006

As Wendy O'Flaherty has argued persuasively in her recent book,Dreams, Illusion, and Other Realities, it is possible to falsify the hypothesis that one is dreaming—by waking up; but it is not possible to verify that one is awake by falling asleep. The thought that one cannot verify the fact that one is awake but only only falsify the fact that one is asleep (by waking up) delivers something of a jolt to Western “common sense,” which typically takes for granted the distinctness of such categories as “real” and “unreal,”“conscious” and “unconscious,”“dream” and “waking life.” Yet, as O'Flaherty points out, we know that we cannot see ourselves seeing an illusion, just as we cannot verify the “reality” of ourselves in the moment when we are engaged in testing our reality.
Moderates in London Yearly Meeting, 1857–1873: Precursors of Quaker Liberals
Authors: Bronner Edwin B.
Published: April 2006

The Religious Society of Friends, or Quakers, which originated in England in the middle of the seventeenth century, has gone through many changes. After the exuberant, expansive early years, most Friends entered a period of quietism, in which they waited patiently for divine direction and largely withdrew from the society around them. At the beginning of the nineteenth century the majority of Friends on both sides of the Atlantic embraced the evangelical movement which had taken hold in both the Anglican church and the newer Methodist denomination. While some Quakers were caught up in such ultra-evangelical activities as revivals and the holiness movement, others turned away and accepted the new liberalism which appeared in Protestantism.
The Anti-Arian Campaigns of Hilary of Poitiers and the “Liber Contra Auxentium”
Authors: Williams Daniel H.
Published: April 2006

Few historians of early Christianity would dissent from the view that Hilary of Poitiers was the west's most able and articulate anti-Arian apologist of the 360s. In the course of this bishop's exile in Asia Minor (356–360) and return to the west, there is evidence of a substantial literary activity, most of which was circulated soon after his death and survives to the present day. Works such as his letters to the emperor Constantius II, expecially the so-calledIn Constantium, his collected dossier against Valens and Ursacius, and his theological treatisesDe synodisandDe trinitate, attained for this once obscure bishop from Gaul a position of preeminence in the minds of the next generation of anti-Arians.
One Heart and One Soul (Acts 4.32 and 34) in Dhuoda's “Manual”
Authors: Olsen Glenn W.
Published: April 2006

For the contemporary historian, whether male, gray-haired and ensconced in the ivory tower of an old-fashioned political or intellectual history, or female, young, and happily dismantling the tower by the seige-machine of social history, Carolingian society is a source of continuing wonderment. For those with a love of order and of the enjoyment of the fruits of their labor, Carolingian society especially in the years just preceding and following Louis the Pious's death in 840, mirrors all the anxieties of a committed band of representatives of high culture surrounded by the rising seas of low culture. For those riding the crests of the sea, Carolingian society speaks of the possibilities open in a society of little structure and much mobility to those of imagination, not tied to the past.
Caspar Cruciger Sr.'s 1546 “Enarratio” on John's Gospel: An Experiment in Ecclesiological Exegesis
Authors: Wengert Timothy J.
Published: April 2006

Only months after Luther's death in 1546, a colleague, Caspar Cruciger, Sr., published his magnum opus, an 879-page commentary on the Gospel of John, In Evangelium Iohannis Apostoli Enarratio. Cruciger's Enarratio provides an excellent angle from which scholars may examine an important shift in Wittenberg's exegesis and theology during the crucial decade of the 1540s. To be sure, this work has few of the characteristics of other treatments of the fourth Gospel produced near the same time. The exposition of the four Gospels by Cologne's Franciscan theologian, von Konigstein, underwent far more printings. The works on John by Calvin and Bullinger have attracted more attention in our own day. However, when set into the context of continued sharp debate over ecclesiology, Cruciger's commentary on John provides a critical reshaping of Philip Melanchthon's exegetical method to meet the continuing challenge of defining the church in line with an emerging Lutheran orthodoxy and against Roman Catholicism. Unlike later Protestant commentaries, which often roll ponderously from one unrelated locus in theology to the next, Cruciger's work, though massive, focuses almost singlemindedly on the doctrine of the church. The commentary represents part of Wittenberg's response to failed discussions over the nature of the church and its authority which began in 1520, nearly halted in 1541 at the Colloquy of Regensburg which Cruciger attended, and collapsed with the outbreak of hostilities during the Smalcald War of 1547. It also demonstrates the farreaching effect of Philip Melanchthon's exegetical method in shaping that response among his own students.
The Ambiguities of Academic Freedom
Authors: Marsden George M.
Published: April 2006

While most of the cases that led to the founding of the American Association of University Professors (AAUP) in 1915 had to do with firings of professors who had championed controversial political views, the AAUP founders were also concerned about dismissals on religious grounds. One case especially, that of Lafayette College, is particularly revealing not only of the character of the religious issues involved but also of the attitudes toward religion of those who defined what became the standard twentieth-century American concepts of academic freedom. Reflections on the religious dimensions of the construction of academic freedom in America also have important implications for religiously oriented higher education and scholarship today.
New Perspectives on the Origenist Controversy: Human Embodiment and Ascetic Strategies
Authors: Clark Elizabeth A.
Published: April 2006

The controversy over Origenism that erupted in the last years of the fourth century and the opening years of the fifth has puzzled many students of the period: no single identifiable theological issue seemed at stake. At the center of the Arian controversy lay a debate over the subordination (or nonsubordination) of the Son to the Father; in the fifth-century christological disputes Jesus' “nature” or “natures” prompted disagreement. But what was the focus of the Origenist controversy: the subordination of the Son and the Holy Spirit to the Father? the “fall” of the rational creatures into bodies? the restoration of the Devil? the interpretation of resurrection from the dead?
Melchior Hoffman: Proto-Anabaptist and Printer in Kiel, 1527–1529
Authors: Bailey Richard G.
Published: April 2006

Melchior Hoffman, the Swabian furrier turned Reformation lay preacher, played a minor role in the early stages of the Danish Reformation, as preacher, polemicist, and printer. This paper will address some of the remaining problems in the narrative of Hoffman's Danish tenure and reassess some of the longstanding interpretations.
John Cardinal Farley and Modernism in New York
Authors: Shelley Thomas J.
Published: April 2006

It is now well recognized that the papal condemnation of Modernism in 1907 had a devastating effect on American Catholic intellectual life. This was particularly true in the archdiocese of New York where St. Joseph's Seminary, Dunwoodie, had been one of the leading centers of scholarly activity. Suspicion of Modernism cast a cloud over several of the professors and led to the termination of their highly-regarded journal, theNew York Review. The fate of the Dunwoodie faculty during the Modernist crisis is a story that has often been told. Less well known, however, is the effect that the condemna knowledge of the colonial situation to a larger canvas in his widely-read synoptic workAmerican Indians and Christian Missions: Studies in Cultural Conflict(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981). Clyde A. Milner II and Floyd A. O'Neil, eds.,Churchmen and the Western Indians, 1820–1920 (Norman, Okla.: University of Oklahoma Press, 1985) was a much-noticed collection of essays on interactions. At the middle of this period President Grant inaugurated new policies on church and state; these are well reviewed in Robert H. Keller, Jr.,American Protestantism and the United States Indian Policy, 1869–1882 (Lincoln, Neb.: University of Nebraska Press, 1983).
The Preaching Ministry in Scotland's First Book of Discipline
Authors: Healey Robert M.
Published: April 2006

On 27 April 1560 the Protestant Lords of the Great Council of the Realm of Scotland covenanted to procure by all means possible that “the true preaching of God's Word may have free passage within this realm, with due administration of the sacraments and all things depending upon the said Word.”1 Two days later they charged a group of ministers “to commit to writing and in a book deliver … judgments touching the reformation of Religion.”2 Three weeks later, on 20 May, the ministers, whose names “have not been recorded in any part of the surviving documents,” delivered to the Lords their recommendations for the organization of a reformed Christian church for Scotland.3
Adventism, Apocalyptic, and the Cause of Liberty
Authors: Morgan Douglas
Published: April 2006

“I have felt like working three times as hard as ever since I came to understand that my Lord was coming back again,” reported revivalist Dwight L. Moody, the most prominent of nineteenth-century premillennialists. Moody's testimony to the motivating power of premillennialism points to the crucial role of that eschatology in conservative Protestantism since the late nineteenth century—a role delineated by several studies within the past twenty-five years. As a comprehensive interpretation of history which gives meaning and pattern to past, present, and future, and a role for the believer in the outworking of the divine program, premillennialism has been a driving force in the fundamentalistand evangelical movements.
The Theological “Magna Charta” of Confessional Lutheranism
Authors: Russell William R.
Published: April 2006

The breakup of Western Christendom in the sixteenth century gained momentum when an academic theologian called into question the theology of the church in his day. Martin Luther wanted to discuss theology when he posted his Ninety-five Theses in 1517. In the ensuing years, Luther and the “Lutherans” were forced to forge their theology in the heat of an intensely polemical and conflict-ridden environment. They responded to the theological issues raised by their opponents, as well as to the real pastoral concerns of the emerging evangelical church in Protestant lands.
‘Who is Sufficient For These Things?’ Sara G. Stanley and the American Missionary Association, 1864–1868
Authors: Weisenfeld Judith
Published: April 2006

The literature dealing with those women and men who dedicated themselves to teaching the newly freed slaves in the South during Reconstruction has grown considerably in recent years. From W. E. B. DuBois's Black Reconstruction in America in 1935, with its positive depiction of the role of these teachers through Henry L.ee Swint's 1941 work, The Northern Teacher in the South, with its negative stereotype to more recent works, we now have a body of literature which has begun to examine this group in a more thorough and complex manner.1 The general stereotype which often appears in the literature is of the missionar teacher as a white woman from New England, fresh from the abolitionist movement. While it is true that many teachers fit into this category, there were also many African-American teachers and missionaries, both women and men.2 A good deal of the literature has dealt, at least briefly, with the ways in which African-American men functioned in the context of such organizations as the American Missionary Association (AMA). However, the experience of these men was different from that of African- American women, in part because these men were more likely to be givenadministrative positions in the organizations, either as principals, field agents, or supported missionaries. Most of the women, then, were more likely to remain “in the trenches” as teachers during their tenure with the missionary society.3
The Limits of American Catholic Antifascism: The Case of John A. Ryan
Authors: Miscamble Wilson D.
Published: April 2006

Writing in the midst of World War II, the Italian exiles Gaetano Salvemini and Giorgio La Piana charged that the Catholic church in America had bestowed its blessing upon Benito Mussolini and fascism.1In discussing this charge the historian John Diggins admitted that “at first glance it does appear that the American clergy had indeed composed a political choir in behalf of Fascism.”2Diggins portrayed a large number of Catholic clergy led by figures like Cardinal William O'Connell of Boston and Father Charles E. Coughlin who found occasion to praise Mussolini. He outlined the views of the major Catholic periodicals and discovered that only the Paulist-sponsoredCatholic Worldtook exception to fascism with any consistency.3Nonetheless, Diggins partially dismissed the charge of Salvemini and La Piana. He argued that the Catholic church in the United States during the interwar years was not a pro-Fascist monolith and briefly touched on the anti-Fascist endeavors of such individuals as Monsignor Joseph Giarrochi, Father Francis Duffy, and Father James Gillis, C.S.P., the erstwhile editor of theCatholic World. Notably, Diggins accorded particular status among Catholic anti-Fascists to Monsignor John A. Ryan, whom he described as having waged “a relentless assault upon Mussolini's dictatorship and upon the Catholic defense of Fascism” and as being “the theological thorn in the flesh of complacent Catholic apologists for Fascism.”4
Thomas Chalmers (1780–1847) in North America (ca. 1830–1917)
Authors: Noll Mark A.
Published: April 2006

When in the spring of 1817 the thirty-seven-year-old Scottish minister, Thomas Chalmers, descended upon London, the world's greatest metropolis was transfixed. The four benefit sermons that Chalmers preached between 14 May and 25 May produced electrifying results. “All the world wild about Dr. Chalmers,” wrote William Wilberforce in his diary. At the sermon for the Hibernian Society, which distributed Bibles to the Irish poor, Viscount Castlereagh, moving British spirit at the Congress of Vienna, and the future prime minister George Canning were visibly moved. For his final appearance the throng was so intense that Chalmers, arriving shortly before he was to preach, could neither get into the church nor, at first, convince the crowd that he was the preacher, so far did his nondescript appearance fall short of his grand reputation. When friends inside finally recognized Chalmers, they secured his entrance by having him walk on a plank through an open window up to the pulpit itself.
Writing Demetrias: Ascetic Logic in Ancient Christianity
Authors: Jacobs Andrew S.
Published: April 2006

In his influential discussion of early Christian ascetic renunciation, Peter Brown announced that “Christian men used women ‘to think with’ in order to verbalize their own nagging concern with the stance that the Church should take with the world.” Brown's statement encapsulates the particular difficulties facing students of the history of women in the early Christian period. The most basic difficulty is that we possess very few textsbywomen from this period until well into the Middle Ages. We can point to the diary of the third-century martyr Perpetua, the complex and recondite Vergilian and Homericcentos(“stitch-verses”) of the aristocrat Proba and the empress Eudocia, and perhaps one or two other arguable examples. With a dearth of women's own voices, can historians be expected to reconstruct women's lives? This paucity of “first-person” texts is coupled with a more serious theoretical difficulty facing historians of all periods whose main “evidence” consists of literary and rhetorically informed texts. Scholars are much less confident today in our ability to peel back layers of male rhetoric and find the “real” woman concealed underneath. Brown's comment underscores this rhetorical skepticism by asking whether these texts are even “about” women at all. Others following Brown's lead have understood texts that are ostensibly to or about women as concerned primarily with issues of male authority and identity. In Brown's words, women were good “to think with,” but the subject of that “thought” was inevitably male. Despite these technical and theoretical difficulties, however, I do not think we are witnessing the final and absolute erasure of women from ancient Christian history.
Calvin on Suicide
Authors: Watt Jeffrey R.
Published: April 2006

In October 1555 Jean Jourdain, twenty-six, a humble farmer living near Geneva, was distraught at having contracted venereal disease, for which he could not afford medical treatment. On a Sunday morning, rather than going to church, Jourdain went into the woods where he stabbed himself. Immediately after inflicting the wound, Jourdain heard the ringing of the church bell. Feeling remorse, he asked forgiveness from God and walked to a nearby village, where he languished another eight days before expiring. In spite of his contrition, authorities ordered that Jourdain's body be dragged on a hurdle and then impaled and left exposed outside the city as a deterrent to others. In February 1564 Julienne Berard was most upset about being convoked by Geneva's Consistory to account for a dispute she had had with her nephew. According to witnesses, Berard, so frightened by the prospect of facing the questions of Calvin and other Consistory members, took her life by throwing herself in the Rhone River. As a result of this self-inflicted death, Berard's body was also dragged through the streets of Geneva and buried at Champel which, as the site of executions, was a place of ignominy. Over a century later, the notary Jean Bardin hanged himself because he was devastated by the deaths from an explosion of three of his young children and by the subsequent burglary of his house. In spite of the entreaties of his widow on behalf of their surviving minor children, the Small Council passed an extremely harsh sentence in September 1670, enjoining that Bardin's body be dragged on a hurdle before burial and that all his assets be confiscated.
From Demon Possession to Magic Show: Ventriloquism, Religion, and the Enlightenment
Authors: Schmidt Leigh Eric
Published: April 2006

InSaducismus Triumphatus: Or, Full and Plain Evidence Concerning Witches and Apparitions(1681), Joseph Glanvill marveled at those so possessed by the devil that they became his mouthpiece: “ForVentriloquy, or speaking from the bottom of the Belly, 'tis a thing I think as strange and difficult to be conceived as any thing in Witchcraft, nor can it, I believe, be performed in any distinctness of articulate sounds, without such assistance of the Spirits, that spoke out of theDaemoniacks.” By the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, ventriloquism, loosened from the confines of theological debates over demonology, had become a salient category in rationalistic discussions of religion and had taken center stage as a form of enlightened entertainment. This expanded construction of ventriloquy provided a tangible way of thinking about revealed religion as rooted in illusion—that, indeed, various wonders of the devout ear such as divine calls, the voices of demonic possession, prophecy, mystical locutions, oracles, and even the sounds of shamanic spirits had their origins in vocal deceptions that empiricists could pinpoint and magicians could demonstrate. The new ventriloquism, in its sober appraisal of all sectarian enthusiasm and religious credulity, made suspect the very claim that God could speak to or through the human. In performative practice, the ventriloquist's art shifted the focus of learned attention from the divine struggle over the soul to the protean malleability of personal identity, the fears and attractions of imposture, and the sheer pleasures of amusement.
Augustine and the Amerindian in Seventeenth-Century New France
Authors: Goddard Peter A.
Published: April 2006

It may appear absurd to link a thinker of Christian antiquity with the peoples of early modern North America. The Bishop of Hippo (354–430) was not particularly interested in evangelization beyond the Mediterranean world. While he encouraged the proselytization of the tribes of North Africa, Augustine rejected the possibility of “New Worlds” as “on no grounds credible” for lack of scriptural warrant. His achievement, some thousand years before Columbus, was to provide the authoritative account of religious conversion as well as the intellectual foundations for Christian spirituality. This legacy was not well suited, however, to deal with problems raised by contact with “new” peoples of the Americas. It had little to say about the “nature” of these “savage” peoples as well as the prospects for their conversion. Augustinian theology emphasizes relations between God and self, in contrast to the approach identified with Thomas Aquinas, which asserts the possibility of finding God in the world and propels inquiry in that direction. Augustine's sense of the corruption of fallen humankind and the powerlessness of nature without God would appear to discourage any but the most morbid interest in New World peoples.
The Restoration Bishops and the Royal Supremacy
Authors: Collins Jeffrey R.
Published: April 2006

Among the defining traits of Restoration politics was a degree of hostility between the royal court and the English episcopate unprecedented since the Reformation. A long pattern of cooperation between the king and bishops was broken after 1660. The issues of religious toleration and of Charles II's Catholic sympathies particularly divided church and court, and at times rendered them overt political opponents. Significant study has been made of the policy disagreements beneath these battles, and of the political maneuverings that resolved them. Less attention has been given the ideas and attitudes that divided the Restoration court and church leadership. This article will argue that certain intellectual shifts were required before the policy disagreements that divided Charles II's court and the bishops could emerge as open political fights.
What Children Did Not Learn in School: The Intellectual Quickening of Young Americans in the Nineteenth Century
Authors: Moore R. Laurence
Published: April 2006

Thomas Jefferson belonged to a generation of common-sense rationalists who hoped that religious tolerance in the United States would put an end to religious quarreling. Once freed to practice religion as they pleased, adult citizens, Jefferson thought, would recognize the moral advantages of nondogmatic creeds and treat religion as a philosophical inquiry based not on Scripture but on what was selfevidently true. Religion, a subject for mature minds who could weigh evidence, was not for infants. Young children, he said, were “at an age when their judgments are not sufficiently matured for religious enquiries.” Children had to learn to think about religion gradually and to study it with a questioning mind only after they had attained adulthood.
Lending a Hand to Labor: James Myers and the Federal Council of Churches, 1926–1947
Authors: Fones-Wolf Elizabeth , Fones-Wolf Ken
Published: April 2006

On 31 September 1929, James Myers, the industrial secretary of the Federal Council of Churches (FCC), arrived in Marion, North Carolina, to investigate the causes for the continuing industrial unrest that had swept across the southern textile industry since the spring. Shortly after Myers's arrival, as the textile workers attempted to picket the plant, sheriff's deputies fired into the crowd, killing six strikers and wounding twenty-five others. Myers's eulogy for the slain workers admonished the mill owners for the harsh working conditions and low wages, but mostly for their opposition to their workers' right to organize. He also scolded clergymen who argued that industrial conflict was “not the Church's business.” Over the ensuing months, Myers set an example of Christian involvement in labor unrest. He investigated the strike's impact on the community, he met with the governor, and he offered to help mediate the conflict. Dismayed by the suffering that he had uncovered, Myers also organized a relief campaign among church people on behalf of the families of the striking workers. Reflecting on Myers's efforts, the Christian Century declared that Myers stood “almost alone as representative of any active concern in the churches” in the midst of “appalling industrial warfare.” Otherwise, “the forces of organized religion would have to confess to an amazing indifference when confronted by the most acute industrial conflict of the year.”
Putting the Amish to Work: Mennonites and the Amish Culture Market, 1950–1975
Authors: Weaver-Zercher David
Published: April 2006

In May 1951, Mennonite churchman Grant Stoltzfus profiled the rising renown of Lancaster County's sectarian groups for readers of the Lancaster-basedPennsylvania Dutchman. In his “Memorandum to Persons Interested in Disseminating Information about Mennonites and Amish and Their Way of Life,” Stoltzfus described how, in recent years, the Lancaster Chamber of Commerce had been inundated with requests for information about the county's Mennonite and Amish residents. Even more significant—and, to Stoltzfus, more unsettling—was the commerce in information that transpired outside the chamber's walls. Stoltzfus characterized what he saw being sold in Lancaster's bus station as “cheap, tawdry literature on the Amish and Mennonites,” and he complained that similar materials were available throughout southeastern Pennsylvania. Stoltzfus concluded his memo with a rhetorical question and a call to action: “Can we blame these businesses for handling [this literature] until we take some positive steps to provide something better?” Scholarly works have their place, wrote Stoltzfus, but the hour's most pressing need was the production of “some good popular pamphlets on Mennonite and Amish life.”
Were There Twelfth-Century Cistercian Nuns?
Authors: Berman Constance H.
Published: April 2006

It has been a truism in the history of medieval religious orders that the Cistercians only admitted women late in the twelfth century and then under considerable outside pressure. This view has posited a twelfth-century “Golden Age” when it had been possible for the abbots of the order of Cîteaux to avoid contact with women totally. Only later did the floodgates burst open and a great wave of women wishing to be Cistercians flood over abbots powerless to resist it. This paper reassesses narrative accounts, juridical arguments, and charter evidence to show that such assertions of the absence of any twelfthcentury Cistercian nuns are incorrect. They are based on mistaken notions of how the early Cistercian Order developed, as well as on a biased reading of the evidence, including a double standard for proof of Cistercian status—made much higher for women's houses than for men's. If approached in a gender-neutral way, the evidence shows that abbeys of Cistercian women appeared as early as those for the order's men. Evidence from which it has been argued that nuns were only imitating the Cistercian Order's practices in the twelfth century in fact contains exactly the same language that when used to describe men's houses is deemed to show them to be Cistercian. Formal criteria for incorporation of women's houses in the thirteenth century are irrelevant to a twelfth-century situation in which only gradually did most communities of monks or nuns eventually identified as Cistercian come to be part of the newly developing religious order.
The Rite of Confirmation in Anglican Thought during the Eighteenth Century
Authors: Cornwall Robert
Published: April 2006

S. L. Ollard's 1926 study of the Church of England's understanding and practice of the rite of confirmation remains the most significant examination of this topic for the eighteenth century. He insisted that eighteenth-century Anglicans took a low view of the rite, contending that the religious consequences of the Glorious Revolution set the tone for Anglican sacramental views. That the church allowed three unconfirmed monarchs (William III and the first two Georges) to receive the Eucharist provided evidence of the neglect of this rite. Louis Weil more recently echoes Ollard's critique, suggesting that after 1660 Anglican writers “virtually ignored the rite.” Weil believes that interest in the rite was limited to Thomas Wilson, the eighteenth-century bishop of Sodor and Man, and a few like-minded members of the “old high church tradition.” Thus, according to most accounts, Anglicans gave little attention to confirmation until the nineteenth century, when the Tractarians supposedly rediscovered the importance of the rite. Ironically, Weil undermines his own position by pointing out that the only “concentrated material” on the rite in the Tracts for the Times was a reprinting of the work on confirmation by the eighteenth-century bishop of Sodor and Mann, Thomas Wilson.
Preparation and characterization of polyethylene‐g‐maleic anhydride–styrene/montmorillonite nanocomposites
Authors: Zhou Zhengfa , Zhai Hongbo , Xu Weibing , Guo Hanyang , Liu Changfeng , Pan Wei‐Ping
Published: April 2006

It is difficult to prepare polyethylene/montmorillonite by direct melt mixing because of the difference in character between polyethylene and montmorillonite. Therefore, it is necessary to modify polyethylene with polar groups, which can increase the hydrophilicity of polyethylene. At the same time, the inorganic montmorillonite should be modified with long‐chain alkyl ammonium to increase the basing space between the interlayers. Thus, through the grafting of the polar monomer onto the main chain of polyethylene by reactive extrusion, polyethylene/montmorillonite nanocomposites can be prepared by the melt mixing of the grafter and organic montmorillonite. Fourier transform infrared has been used to prove that the monomers are grafted onto polyethylene. X‐ray diffraction and transmission electron microscopy have been employed to characterize the nanocomposites. Furthermore, thermogravimetric analysis measurements show that the thermal stability of the nanocomposites is improved in comparison with that of the virgin materials. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 101: 805–809, 2006
Application of crosslinked chitosan in the analysis of ultratrace Mo(VI)
Authors: Qian S. H. , Xue A. F. , Xiao M. , Chen H.
Published: April 2006

In this work, the adsorption properties of crosslinked chitosan for Mo(VI) were studied. The adsorption rate of Mo(VI) by CCTS was 97% at pH 3.0. Adsorption balance time, elution conditions, the effect of coexisting elements, and the adsorption mechanism were investigated. A novel method of ultratrace Mo(VI) preconcentration with CCTS and determination by graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry was found. The detection limit (3σ, n = 10) of the method was 0.040 μg L−1, and the relative standard deviation was 2.98% at 1.00 μg L−1. The method has been applied to the determination of Mo(VI) in environmental water samples, with satisfactory results. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 101: 432–435, 2006
Polypropylene/polypropylene‐grafted acrylic acid copolymer/ethylene–Acrylic acid copolymer ternary blends for hydrophilic polypropylene
Authors: Zhang Jun , Yao Yu , Wang Xiao‐Lin , Xu Jian‐Hai
Published: April 2006

Ternary blends of polypropylene (PP), a polypropylene‐grafted acrylic acid copolymer (PP‐g‐AA), and an ethylene–acrylic acid copolymer (EAA) were prepared by melt blending. The surfaces of films with different contents of these three components were characterized with contact‐angle measurements. Scanning electron microscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, differential scanning calorimetry, and thermogravimetric analysis were used to characterize the microstructure, melting and crystalline behavior, and thermal stability of the blends. The contact angles of the PP/PP‐g‐AA blends decreased monotonically with increasing PP‐g‐AA content. With the incorporation of EAA, the contact angles of the PP/PP‐g‐AA/EAA ternary blends decreased with increasing EAA content. When the concentration of EAA was higher than 15 wt %, the contact angles of the ternary blends began to increase. Scanning electron microscopy observations confirmed that PP‐g‐AA acted as a compatibilizer and improved the compatibility between PP and EAA in the ternary blends. Differential scanning calorimetry analysis suggested that acrylic acid moieties could act as nucleating agents for PP in the polymer blends. Thermogravimetric analysis and differential thermogravimetry confirmed the optimal blend ratio for the PP/PP‐g‐AA/EAA ternary blends was 70/15/15. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 101: 436–442, 2006
Rheological characterization of shear‐induced structural formation in the solutions of poly(vinyl alcohol) in dimethyl sulfoxide
Authors: Jeoung Lee Eun , Sik Dan Kyung , Chul Kim Byoung
Published: April 2006

Gelation behavior of the solutions of poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA), whose syndiotactic diad content was 52% and weight‐average molecular weight of PVA ranged from 89,000 to 186,000, in dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) was investigated in terms of shear rate, concentration, and molecular weight of the polymer. To trace time‐dependent gelation behavior, a programmed time sweep experiment was carried out by repeating the following procedure 3 times; 10 min of measurement followed by 5 min relaxation. All of the PVA solutions in DMSO exhibited time‐dependent rheological responses, particularly under low shear rate of 2 rad/s, indicative of the formation of physical structures. At high shear rate of 200 rad/s the rheological responses were independent of time. Referring to Winter's view on gelation, a weak shear produced a soft gel structure whereas a strong shear produced an irreversible strong gel. Gelation was more affected by molecular weight than by concentration over the period of shearing. At low frequency, relaxation time was increased with time, and then leveled off after prolonged shearing. At high frequency, however, little change of relaxation time was noticed. They can be interpreted as a consequence of formation of three‐dimensional gel structure through the polar interactions by hydroxyl groups whose strength was dependent on shearing conditions. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 101: 465–471, 2006
Synthesis and properties of polymeric complexes containing bithiazole rings and carbazole units
Authors: Yang Jun , Sun Weilin , Zhou Zhuxian , Shen Zhiquan
Published: April 2006

A novel polymer (poly[2,2'‐(4,4'‐bithiazolylene)][N‐(2‐ethylhexyl)‐3,6‐carbazylene] (PBTCA) was first synthesized from 2,2′‐diamino‐4,4′‐bithiazole and N‐(2‐ethylhexyl)‐3,6‐diformylcarbazole. The structure of the polymer was determined with IR and 1H‐NMR spectroscopy. The PBTCA–Nd3+ complex was prepared via the mixing of neodymium trichloride hexahydrate and PBTCA in dimethyl sulfoxide under a nitrogen atmosphere. The magnetic behaviors of the Nd3+ complex of a poly(Schiff base) were measured as a function of the magnetic field strength (0–50 kOe) at 4 K and as a function of the temperature (4–300 K). The results show that PBTCA–Nd3+ is a ferromagnet when the temperature is below 15 K, and above that, it is a diamagnet. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 101: 443–446, 2006
Synthesis of novel optically active poly(ester imide)s by direct polycondensation reaction promoted by tosyl chloride in pyridine in the presence of N,N‐dimethyformamide
Authors: Mallakpour Shadpour , Kowsari Elaheh
Published: April 2006

4,4′‐Hexafluoroisopropylidene‐2,2‐bis(phthalic acid anhydride) (1) was treated with L‐methionine (2) in acetic acid and the resulting 4,4′‐(hexafluoroisopropylidene)‐N,N′‐bis(phthaloyl‐L‐methionine) diacid (4) was obtained in high yields. The direct polycondensation reaction of this diacid with several aromatic diols, such as bisphenol A (5a), phenolphthalein (5b), 1,4‐dihydroxybenzene (5c), 4,4′‐dihydroxydiphenyl sulfide (5 d), 4,6‐dihydroxypyrimidine (5e), 4,4′‐dihydroxydiphenyl sulfone (5f), and 2,4′‐dihydroxyacetophenone (5g), was carried out in a system of tosyl chloride (TsCl), pyridine (Py), and N,N‐dimethylformamide (DMF). The reactions with TsCl were significantly promoted by controlling alcoholysis with diols, in the presence of catalytic amounts of DMF, to give a series of optically active poly(ester imide)s, (PEI)s, with good yield and moderate inherent viscosity ranging from 0.43 to 0.67 dL/g. The polycondensation reactions were significantly affected by the amounts of DMF, molar concentration of monomers, TsCl and Py, aging time, temperature, and reaction time. All of the aforementioned polymers were fully characterized by 1H NMR, FTIR, elemental analysis, and specific rotation. Some structural characterization and physical properties of these optically active PEIs are reported. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 101: 455–460, 2006
Preparation and characterization of biocompatible poly(L‐lactic acid)/gelatin blend membrane
Authors: Zhao Xiaodong , Liu Wenguang , Yao Kangde
Published: April 2006

Poly(L‐lactic acid) (PLLA)/gelatin blend membranes were prepared by solution casting method and using dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) as a cosolvent. Scanning electron microscopy measurement indicated that when the amounts of gelatin in PLLA/gelatin blend membranes are less than 5%, the sizes of phase separation of gelatin are in range of several hundred nanometers. These benefit in retaining the strength of PLLA membranes. X‐ray diffraction analysis revealed that the semicrystalline PLLA became amorphous and the melt temperature of crystalline PLLA changes from 56 to 38°C after it was processed in DMSO solvent. When the content of gelatin is less than 5%, the films not only retain a good mechanical property but also improve the hydrophilicity of PLLA. The molecular motion of PLLA in blend films were also investigated by solid state 13C CP/MAS NMR. On the basis of the result of relaxation times, it was found that the molecular motion of PLLA100 and PLLA/gelatin blends increased when compared with that of original PLLA. It was further verified that semicrystalline PLLA became amorphous. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 101: 269–276, 2006
The synthesis and thermal properties of oligo‐3‐hydroxybenzaldehyde synthesized by oxidative polycondensation
Authors: Mart H. , Sökmen T. , Yürük H.
Published: April 2006

Polymerization of 3‐hydroxybenzaldehyde was investigated by oxidative polycondensation (OP) method. No polycondensation reaction was observed both in acidic (in CH3COOH) and organic (in THF) media. Polycondensation was carried out with hydrogenperoxide (H2O2) in an aqueous alkaline medium at 90°C. The product was characterized by 1H NMR, 13C NMR, FTIR, UV–vis, and elemental analysis. The number average molecular weight, mass average molecular weight, and polydispersity index values of O‐3HBA were found to be 3600, 8000 g mol−1, and 2.22, respectively. The product (O‐3HBA) with reactive aldehyde and hydroxyl group was soluble in most polar organic solvents and was composed of phenylene units. Thermal properties of the oligomer were investigated by thermogravimetric analyses under an air atmosphere. The weight loss of O‐3HBA was found to be 5 and 50% at 231 and >1000°C, respectively. The carboneous residue of the O‐3HBA was 54% at 1000°C. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 101: 892–897, 2006
Kinetics of natural rubber vulcanization in the end stage of curing period
Authors: Wang Ping‐Yue , Qinn Hong‐Lian , Yu He‐Ping
Published: April 2006

It was found that the change of vulcameter torque in the end stage of curing period of natural rubber does not follow first‐order kinetics and can be expressed in a kinetic equation of . The reaction order n calculated by the above equation is in the range of 0.68–0.74. The rate constant of the end stage increases with a rise in temperature and is well satisfied with Arrherius equation, giving activation energy E = 79.321 kJ/mol. If whole curing period is treated by first‐order kinetics without a change of reaction order from n = 1 to n = 0.68–0.74, the values of torque in the end stage of curing period predicted with first‐order kinetics equation will be lower than that obtained from vulcameter. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 101: 580–583, 2006
Antibody purification using porous metal–chelated monolithic columns
Authors: Bereli Nilay , Uzun Lokman , Yavuz Handan , Elkak Assem , Denizli Adil
Published: April 2006

A novel monolithic material was developed to obtain efficient and cost‐effective purification of IgG from human plasma. The porous monolith was obtained by bulk polymerization in a glass tube of 2‐hydroxyethyl methacrylate (HEMA) and N‐methacryloyl‐(L)‐histidine methyl ester (MAH). The poly(HEMA‐MAH) monolith had a specific surface area of 214.6 m2/g and was characterized by swelling studies, porosity measurement, FTIR, scanning electron microscopy, and elemental analysis. Then the monolith was loaded with Cu2+ ions to form the metal chelate. Poly(HEMA‐MAH) monolith with a swelling ratio of 74% and containing 20.9 μmol MAH/g was used in the adsorption/desorption of IgG from aqueous solutions and human plasma. The maximum adsorption of IgG from an aqueous solution in phosphate buffer was 10.8 mg/g at pH 7.0. Higher adsorption was obtained from human plasma (up to 104.2 mg/g), with a purity of 94.1%. It was observed that IgG could be repeatedly adsorbed and desorbed with the poly(HEMA‐MAH) monolith without significant loss of adsorption capacity. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 101: 395–404, 2006