bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Whether and How Confidence Shapes Intangible Benefits Enjoyed by the Military
Authors: Feaver Peter D.
Published: July 2023

If the public did not have such high confidence in the military, then the public would be less inclined to defer to the military as much as it does—and the military would likely lose some of the privileges and pedestalizing and influence and insulation that it currently enjoys. After nearly two decades of frequent deployments in support of the nation’s post-9/11 wars, some service members look down from their pedestal onto members of the public who have not served in the military. There is not much evidence of militarism, however. Military opinion does not drive public attitudes on other topics. There is evidence, however, of a partisan blame game, one in which partisans credit their own party and blame the other party—and assess the military to be about the same as (or even a little better than) they assess their own party. Most of these effects are more pronounced among those in the public who express a high degree of confidence in the military.
Leviathan and the Temple
Authors: Orlov Andrei A.
Published: July 2023

The fourth chapter, “Leviathan and the Temple,” deals with the cultic significance of the Leviathan tradition and the monster’s roles as the sacred courtyard of the cosmological sanctuary and the Foundation Stone of the Temple of Creation. This emphasis on the sacerdotal role of the sea monster is not coincidental in the Apocalypse of Abraham, a text that was written shortly after the destruction of the Second Jerusalem Temple amid the challenging efforts to preserve and perpetuate cultic practices in the absence of the terrestrial sanctuary. The idea of the cosmological temple with its sacred courtyard in the form of primordial monster provides a sacerdotal alternative that allowed Jewish apocalypticists to perpetuate their cultic vision when the earthly Temple was no longer standing.
Introduction
Authors: Atkins Richard Kenneth
Published: July 2023

Peirce on Inference: Validity, Strength, and the Community of Inquirers presents a charitable, retrospective perspective on Peirce’s theory of inference. Peirce’s reflections on inference span the entirety of his philosophical career, over fifty years. The present book brings together his remarks to explain his theory of inference and to show that he had well-considered replies to objections that might be raised against it. Chapter 1 clarifies Peirce’s distinction between inference and argument as well as his doctrine of leading principles. Chapter 2 examines Peirce’s classifications of inferences. Chapter 3 explains Peirce’s theory of validity. Chapters 4 through 7 explicate Peirce’s accounts of deduction, induction, and abduction. These chapters explain why each form of inference is valid, how each form of inference can be made strong, and examines objections and replies to their validity.
Finding Its Voice?
Authors: Latsis Dimitrios
Published: July 2023

This chapter surveys this period of tremendous change heralded by the coming of synchronized sound. Early histories of film sound created opposing camps of thought based on whether one embraced or dreaded the new technology and what it meant for cinema as an art form. What was cinema circa 1927? The answer to this question depended on the genealogy that writers and filmmakers chose for the moving image. Debates about cinema’s ontology were thus increasingly mediated by discussions of its pedigree in theatrical amusements or technologies of vision and hearing. The transition to sound confronted those inside and outside the industry with the first of many crises that bisected the history of medium and provided an opportunity for retrospection at a time of bold predictions and generalized anxiety.
Exhibitions and Museums
Authors: Latsis Dimitrios
Published: July 2023

This chapter demonstrates that exhibitions of devices were part and parcel of efforts at improving public perceptions of motion pictures and placing them next to art forms with a longer track record. Case studies of exhibitions at the Smithsonian and the Science Museum in London during the 1910s and 1920s and industry-led displays at World’s Fairs were the highbrow counterparts of early filmic cabinets of curiosity like the short-lived but fascinating movie museums of Harry Crocker and J. Tarbotton Armstrong. Such object-based histories bring us face-to-face with dilemmas about curatorship, education, and material culture that are as relevant today as they are unresolved.
From Deprivation, Discrimination, and Inequality to Grievances
Authors: Basedau Matthias , Fox, and Jonathan , Zellman Ariel
Published: July 2023

This chapter develops and tests the first part of our two-step model for conflict by religious minorities—how discrimination, deprivation, and inequality (DDI) leads to grievances. While few disagree that DDI ought to lead to grievances, few actually test this proposition. This is because few studies actually measure grievances. We test this DDI-to-grievances relationship and find that DDI does lead to grievances, but there is considerable nuance in this finding regarding which types of DDI leads to which types of grievances. Other factors such as group capacity and group political power also influence this process.
Dignity as an Efficient Indicator of Social and Moral Integration
Authors: Hitlin Steven , Andersson Matthew A.
Published: July 2023

This chapter provides an overview of survey response patterns for subjective dignity from 2017 to 2021. Rates of “dignity threat” increased in the American population by about 50%. Next, the chapter tests whether dignity is linked to relevant measures of social and moral functioning. Dignity bears expected associations with respect from others and specific people such as employers and doctors, and it also varies strongly with perceived discrimination. While dignity bears some association with general or specific moral principles such as accountability to others or to God or one’s happiness, the links are not particularly strong, consistent with the fact that dignity perceptions do not tether to any one moral code in America. Mastery, or a sense of control over this life, and mattering to others and perceiving meaning in life constitute what the chapter calls the “three Ms” when it comes to understanding a large portion of the variation in dignity.
Days, Years, Decades, and Conferences on Racial Discrimination
Authors: Schabas William A.
Published: July 2023

The United Nations has declared a series of days, years, and decades devoted to racial discrimination and related issues. These involve a range of initiatives, from seminars and conferences to the issuance of postage stamps. Three world conferences on racism and racial discrimination have been held, of which the 2001 Durban Conference was the most important. In the post-apartheid context, the Durban Declaration confronted the issue of historic injustice and the entitlement to reparations for slavery, the slave trade, and colonialism. Initiatives dealing with racial discrimination have also emerged from regional organizations, notably the Council of Europe, the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe, and the Organization of American States.
The structure and content of phonological primitives
Authors: van ’t Veer Marijn , Botma Bert , Breit Florian , van Oostendorp Marc
Published: July 2023

This chapter presents an overview of our current understanding of the nature of the phonological primitives, the smallest units at the core of phonological representation and computation. We argue that there are many more open questions about the primitives than there is agreement. We discuss many of the fundamental questions faced by phonological theory on various aspects of phonological features, ranging from their formal structural properties (e.g. types of opposition, valency, atomicity), to their relationship with phonetic correlates (e.g. representationalism, articulatory vs acoustic correlates, substance), to their origins (e.g. innateness, emergence), taking into account a large range of positions on each of the issues discussed. We show that despite significant fragmentation on many of these issues, there is also much common ground which should leave us optimistic about progress on the many questions that remain open.
On the atoms of phonological representation
Authors: Vaux Bert , Miller Brett
Published: July 2023

Is the phonetic form of human language underlyingly organized in terms of words, distinctive features, elements, or articulatory gestures? After setting out the basic properties of the two leading responses to this question, couched within Distinctive Feature Theory and Articulatory Phonology, we argue that although the two are essentially interchangeable in many ways, they differ significantly with respect to several important empirical predictions, some resulting from the nature of features and gestures and some from the theoretical frameworks within which they are generally embedded. In both regards Distinctive Feature Theory is to be preferred, insofar as (at least when situated within a conventional generative model such as Rule-Based Phonology) it correctly predicts the distribution of labial vs labiodental consonants; the existence of relativized locality, inversion, enhancement, and suprasegmental processes; autonomy of stricture and manner vs place of articulation; and phonological manipulations of individual segments such as insertion and non-assimilatory mutation.
On the phonological interpretation of |A|, |I|, and |U|
Authors: Baroni Antonio
Published: July 2023

This chapter offers a detailed investigation into the phonetic exponence and the phonological behaviour of the elements |U|, |I|, and |A| as used in Element Theory and related approaches. Much work has shown that the elements do not all behave the same way, suggesting that there must be a divide between place and manner elements. Further, it appears that the distribution of the place elements across different types of segments is also in some way restricted. Looking at a host of phonological phenomena, drawn from a wide range of languages, it is argued here that |U| is a property of both labials and velars, in line with Backley (2011), but contrary to earlier work. Further, |A| is argued to be a vocalic element, making its presence in consonants marked. Elemental markedness appears to be relative to position more generally, with |U| preferred word-initially and word-finally, and |I| intervocalically.
Consonants, vowels, and nasality
Authors: Lahiri Aditi , Kotzor Sandra
Published: July 2023

Contrastive features establish phonological contrasts. FUL assumes that a small number of features, defined by articulatory and acoustic correlates, suffice to represent all phonological contrasts. A fundamental aspect of the model is that place features are identical for consonants and vowels. There are no dependencies between features except for class features. Focusing on features for nasal vowels and consonants, their sufficiency to account for phonotactic constraints and assimilations, particularly for place, is established. Evidence comes from synchronic and diachronic analyses (including loan adaptation) and experimental evidence for processing and representation. Evidence comes largely from Bengali, which has an equal number of nasal and oral vowels and five places of articulation, providing a rich repertoire of neutralization contexts and representational constraints. The lack of dependent features, shared features for vowels and consonants, and underspecification appears to be supported from phonotactic constraints and assimilations of nasal–obstruent sequences as well as experimental evidence.
The phonetic underpinnings of phonological specifications
Authors: Schwartz Geoffrey
Published: July 2023

In this chapter, I argue that due to their acoustic complexity, the phonetic properties associated with manner of articulation are more conducive to a ‘phonological’ interpretation than gradient detail associated with place or laryngeal specifications. This idea is implemented in the Onset Prominence representational framework, in which prosodic constituents and segmental representations are constructed from the same materials, encoding manner of articulation as active structural nodes in a given segmental tree. From the perspective of OP we consider the phonological origins of two phenomena that have received phonetically based explanations: the fronting of vowels in the context of coronal consonants, and gradient aspects of consonant lenition. In both areas, OP representations will offer purely phonological explanations, which nonetheless incorporate the phonetic insights underlying the previous approaches.
Introduction
Authors: Calvo Kerman , Segatti Paolo , Montero José Ramón
Published: July 2023

This chapter sets out the book’s main questions. This volume seeks to identify the links between different manifestations of religiosity and voting in different countries, paying attention to longitudinal and cross-sectional variations in these linkages. It also explores the multidimensionality of the process of secularization. The chapter argues that religious voting differs from the historical patterns of associations between religion and electoral politics, such as religious cleavage and religious coalescence. It defines religious voting as a form of electoral behaviour in which the impact of individual religiosity is conditioned across elections by the strategies of several actors, political and social, religious and secular, in contexts that vary according to the configuration of party systems, the prevailing religious traditions, and the salience in the public sphere of disputes on moral issues. On these bases, it provides an interpretation of the variations in the direction and intensity of religious voting in the evolution of religious conflicts. The chapter ends with a summary of the main themes addressed in each of the following chapters.
Conflicts on moral issues
Authors: Dobbelaere Karel
Published: July 2023

This chapter provides a comprehensive historical background to one of the main arguments discussed in this volume, namely, that the varying strength of religious voting over time reflects the pervasiveness of political tensions around traditional religious issues. The chapter overviews the conflicts on moral issues (abortion, gay rights, euthanasia, and stem research) in many European Western countries at the turn of century. The conflicts, however, manifested differently among Catholic, Protestant, and mixed religious countries. In a few cases, religious hierarchies were among the organizers; in others, they just followed. Religious organizations and institutions often intervened directly into the political debate asking lawmakers to inspire their decisions to non-negotiable principles. Conservative parties aligned rhetorically with these points of views or attempted to slow down the legislation. There have been also exceptions. This chapter interprets these conflicts from the point of view of a multilevel theory of secularization. The public opinion divides took place in countries highly secularized at the societal, organizational, and individual level, even in the Catholic countries.
Austria
Authors: Aichholzer Julian , Johann David , Kritzinger Sylvia
Published: July 2023

This chapter examines the relationship between religion and electoral decisions in Austria. First, it looks at the role of the Catholic Church in Austrian politics since the Second World War. Second, relying on exit poll surveys for the 1990–2008 general elections and a post-election survey for the 2008 general election, it explores how religious factors have changed their predictive power for voting decisions. Finally, it also examines how religious indicators directly and indirectly affect electoral decisions. The results show that a relationship between religion and voting decision still exists, as church attendance remains a relevant predictor of voting for the Christian Democratic party, the ÖVP. Interestingly, while the direct influence of religion has declined over the years, it still exerts a large indirect impact on vote choice, mediated through personal values, worldviews, and political attitudes.
Ireland
Authors: Marsh Michael
Published: July 2023

This chapter deals with religion and politics in Ireland, a country where the previously dominant position of the Catholic Church has been dramatically eroded in recent decades. Almost a dozen referendums have provided the arena for the political struggle as the major parties generally evaded the difficult issues, not least due to internal divisions. Weekly church attendance was the norm in the 1980s but was the exception by the 2010s, with most people now irregular attenders. The referendums on divorce and abortion that emphasized its influence in the early 1980s were succeeded eventually by more referendums signalling a rejection of the Church’s position on those same issues, as well as later endorsing gay marriage, and encouraged the coalition government of 2011–16 to address the abortion issue directly through legislation.
Portugal
Authors: Jalali Carlos
Published: July 2023

This chapter examines the muted political role played by religion for much of the post-1974 democratic period in Portugal, a pattern that belies historical precedent and the country’s comparatively high levels of religious vitality. Previous research has explained this as a result of the deactivation of the religious divide during the country’s revolutionary transition to democracy. The chapter expands on this research in two key aspects. First, it examines how religious deactivation occurred, specifying its processes and mechanisms—how it prevailed when it was not necessarily a unanimous position. Second, it considers the open-ended nature of deactivation. If elites can deactivate religious issues, by the same token they can subsequently activate them, providing cues for greater religious voting. By providing a longitudinal analysis, the chapter assesses how the growing politicization of religious issues from the mid-2000s has contributed to a reactivation of religious voting.
Phonotactics
Authors: Round Erich R.
Published: July 2023

The phonologies of Australia can now be investigated with new tools for large-scale phonological typology. Here we draw on an empirical dataset covering three hundred thousand lexical entries from over two hundred and fifty language varieties, which enables us to understand continent-level phonological variation in significantly more detail than previously. Variation is observed in terms of major genealogical groupings of languages, comparing the variation among them and within them. Three topics are selected based on their importance to our understanding of continental phonological diversity in Australia, and their potential to shed new light within the space available. They are: the principle characteristics and parameters of variation in consonant phonotactics; vowel phonotactics, specifically statistical harmony between vowels in adjacent syllables; and issues of analysis at the intersection of segment inventories and phonotactics, namely contour segments such as prestopped nasals.
Possession
Authors: Ponsonnet Maïa
Published: July 2023

This chapter presents the results of a survey of the grammatical expression of possession in a balanced sample of thirty Australian languages. Pama-Nyungan languages exhibit a relatively unified pattern, typically featuring an adnominal construction where the dependent is marked; as well as another adnominal construction where neither the possessor nor the possessum are marked, but they share case marking. The latter construction normally specializes for inalienable possessions. Non-Pama-Nyungan languages present more diversity. Their adnominal possessive constructions, are more often head-marking but vary in their marking strategies. Few non-Pama-Nyungan languages have a second adnominal construction for inalienable possessions, however some have traces of it, and others have clausal inalienable constructions. Possessive constructions can delineate more than one class, and some Australian languages exhibit relatively complex yet understudied systems. Interestingly, the semantics of inalienable classes of nouns is remarkably coherent, across the Pama-Nyungan/non-Pama-Nyungan divide, and independently of the type of construction involved.
Agreement morphology
Authors: Brody Parker
Published: July 2023

This chapter provides a descriptive overview of the most common types of agreement exhibited in Indigenous Australian languages, with a focus on inflectional morphology and typologically uncommon agreement phenomena. Language data comes from a variety of sources, including descriptive grammars, formal analyses, and learner’s guides. The goal of this chapter is to describe the general picture of morphological agreement in both Pama-Nyungan and non-Pama-Nyungan contexts. The chapter surveys nominal and verbal agreement, discussing both concord and agreement between verbs and core arguments and agreement in possessive constructions. The chapter surveys the types of features which display agreement and some information on affixation and portmanteaux marking.
Suppletion
Authors: Bach Xavier , Round Erich R.
Published: July 2023

The chapter is an overview of attested cases of suppletion in the languages of Australia. It first analyses verbal suppletion, which is most frequent on the dividing lines of tense and aspect, but also present for mood, in particular imperatives, and number. Most frequent suppletive meanings include posture and motion verbs. Suppletion in pronominal and demonstrative paradigms is extremely frequent, as it is cross-linguistically, and so is suppletion in the possessive paradigms of kin terms. The rarer case of suppletion for incorporated or compounded forms is widely attested, as are some rare cases of suppletion for case in nominals.
Reflexives and reciprocals
Authors: Gaby Alice
Published: July 2023

This chapter surveys the range of forms and functions associated with the expression of reflexive and reciprocal events in Australian languages. Such event types may be coded by verbal morphology, adverbs, pronouns, complex constructions and more. Reflexive and reciprocal meanings are frequently co-expressed by the same or similar form, which may polysemously encode an array of disparate meanings, including collective, middle, antipassive, autocausative, aspectual, passive-like meanings, and more. While it is common for multiple coding strategies to co-exist in a single language, their respective distributions do not always align with the boundaries between senses or functions. Their selection might alternatively depend upon the clausal predicate, pragmatic context, or other features of the event or clause. Drawing on a sample of over fifty languages, this chapter considers the gamut of meanings co-expressed by reflexive and/or reciprocal markers, and the array of forms this marking can take.
Tense and aspect
Authors: Bednall James
Published: July 2023

This chapter provides a general overview of widespread strategies used by Australian languages to express aspectuo-temporal properties. While the majority of Australian languages demonstrate obligatory inflectional marking within the verbal complex as a core means of aspectuo-temporal expression, the structure of these verbal systems can vary substantially. Through surveying 66 languages, the chapter shows the most widespread verbal structures encountered (involving simple and complex predicates, auxiliary verb constructions, and periphrastic and serialized verb constructions), and the inflectional tense/aspect marking systems associated with these. The chapter also highlights particular aspectuo-temporal systems of typological and theoretical interest, including the marking of temporal remoteness distinctions, the use of scalar tense (i.e. where temporal interpretation depends upon different frames of reference/time scales), and the use of serialized verb constructions, verbal reduplication, and prosodic lengthening to express aspectual properties. Finally, the chapter concludes with some observations about lexical and discourse structural aspectuo-temporal marking.
Kinship, marriage, and skins
Authors: McConvell Patrick
Published: July 2023

This chapter describes some of the commonalities in the kinship systems of Australia compared to other well-known types of systems. The most widely used analysis of Australian kinship stems is from Radcliffe-Brown, with the main types being ‘Kariera’ and ‘Aranda’, but various problems with this analysis are described. Then the history of the development of the systems is sketched with evidence from the historical development of the linguistic forms and their meanings, mainly within the Pama-Nyungan family. This analysis generally supports the idea that the PNY languages moved out from around the Gulf of Carpentaria/Southern Cape York Peninsula. Also in focus are the trirelational kinship systems found in a number of PN and NPN languages, which considerably complexifies the systems. Also covered is the development of social category systems such as the four sections and how these developed into the eight subsections systems.
Toponyms
Authors: Rosenberg Katherine , Simpson Jane , Bowern Claire
Published: July 2023

This chapter provides an overview of place naming conventions (toponyms) in the Indigenous languages of Australia. The chapter covers semantics, etymology, the structure of toponyms, including the syntax and morphology of naming strategies, as well as the semantic structure of naming systems, and transparency and opacity in naming strategies. Dual or multiple naming strategies are also discussed. Australian speech communities vary considerably as to how analysable or compositional their place names are (or are felt to be). That is, communities are not uniform in how easy it is to give single meanings to toponyms, even if linguists suggest that forms are etymologically analytical. Examples are taken from across the continent.
Narrative
Authors: Merlan Francesca
Published: July 2023

This article examines how space-time tends to be organized in Australian Indigenous language narratives. It has long been recognized that a major type of Indigenous Australian narrative is structured in terms of movement of ancestral or other narrative figures from one place to another along connected and sometimes intersecting ‘tracks’, telling of the formation and significance of those places in terms of events that occurred there. The Bakhtinian concept of chronotope, a frame in which time, space, and patterns of agency coincide and create meaning and value, is drawn upon in the examination of indigenous narrative materials. In relation to Indigenous Australian narrative, the ‘Dreaming’ is a chronotope which can bring together ancestral action and contemporary places and people.
Language input and child-directed speech
Authors: Davidson Lucinda , Kelly Barbara , Wigglesworth Gillian , Nordlinger Rachel
Published: July 2023

Children's early language acquisition is directly informed by the talk they hear around them, as is their social and pragmatic development. Child directed speech (CDS), also referred to as ‘babytalk’ or ‘motherese’, is one example of linguistic input that children receive. Descriptions of this register (if it exists in a speech community) can illuminate local cultural practices, values, and beliefs, as well as providing a platform for research into language development. In this chapter we review the limited amount of existing research that describes CDS in Indigenous Australian communities, reporting on studies of CDS as a specialized speech register, as well as work describing verbal routines and socialization practices. This survey highlights the many similarities shared by CDS registers around the country, despite the structure of the respective adult varieties often differing vastly from one another.
Anindilyakwa
Authors: van Egmond Marie-Elaine
Published: July 2023

This chapter provides an overview of Anindilyakwa, a non-Pama-Nyungan polysynthetic language spoken on Groote Eylandt and one of the few remaining ‘strong’ languages in Australia. Because of its atypical phonology and unusually rich noun classification and nominal derivation systems, Anindilyakwa has long presented a puzzle to Australian linguistics. This chapter presents a description of the complex features of Anindilyakwa, focussing on its: (i) unusual phonology without any contrastive back vowels, but with phonemic complex consonants, (ii) atypical phonotactics with a preference for open syllables, (iii) extensive noun classification system, consisting of noun classes, genders, and classifiers, (iv) very productive nominal derivational prefixes, and (v) various subordination strategies. Moreover, the chapter identifies some of the dramatic changes that Anindilyakwa phonology and morphology have undergone, showing how these innovations can be traced back to Proto-Gunwinyguan. Some of these changes are shared with Wubuy, its closest relative, and some are unique to Anindilyakwa.
Lamalamic (Paman)
Authors: Verstraete Jean-Christophe
Published: July 2023

This chapter is a survey of the Lamalamic languages, a subgroup of the Paman subgroup of Pama-Nyungan. The Lamalamic subgroup consists of three languages, viz. Umbuygamu, Lamalama, and Rimanggudinhma, all associated with the Princess Charlotte Bay region on the east coast of Cape York Peninsula. The chapter focusses on phonological change, specifically the far-reaching changes in phoneme inventory, root structure, and phonotactics that define Lamalamic. There is also some discussion of morphological and syntactic innovations within the subgroup. The most notable syntactic feature is the position of cross-referencing pronouns, which form a complex that is either encliticized to the inflected verb or is in clause-initial position when one of the participants is in focus.
Noongar
Authors: Smith-Ali Denise , Hanson Sue , Hayden George , Bowern Claire , Aitha Akshay , Ding Lydia , Mihuc Sarah
Published: July 2023

This chapter summarizes available information about the historical dialect of the Noongar language from Australia’s far south-west. Traditional Noongar is distinct from contemporary Noongar. This sketch covers the traditional language. It covers phonology, dialectology, morphology, case marking, negation, and basic clausal syntax. Following points of internal classification and sound change within the Noongar varieties that make up the three main dialect areas, we give a sketch of the language based on texts recorded approximately one hundred years ago. We describe the aspect system of verb marking, clause marking, and pronouns.
Fate Unknown
Authors: Stone Dan
Published: July 2023

This book tells the story of the last great unknown archive of Nazism, the International Tracing Service. Set up by the Allies at the end of World War II, the ITS has worked until today to find missing persons, to aid survivors, and to reunite them with loved ones. Fate Unknown uncovers the history of this remarkable archive and its more than 30 million documents. The book shows how, under the leadership of the International Committee of the Red Cross, the tracing service became one of the most secretive of postwar institutions, unknown even to historians of the period. And, by delving deeply into the archival material, it reveals how we can understand the real horror of the Holocaust, following the Nazis’ victims through the Nazi camp system. Examining the little-known sub-camps and, after the war, the survivors’ experience of displaced persons’ camps, and with a chapter on the Child Search Branch, the book brings to life remarkable stories of tracing. The postwar period was an age of shortage of resources, bitterness, and revenge. Yet the ITS tells a different story: of international collaboration, of commitment to justice, and, albeit in the context of Cold War suspicion, of helping survivors and their relatives. The stories contained in the book speak to a remarkable attempt by the ITS, before the Holocaust was a subject of worldwide interest, to carry out a programme of ethical repair, that is to say, to counteract some of the worst effects of the Nazis’ crimes in the name of decency and humanity.
Slaves for the Reich
Authors: Stone Dan
Published: July 2023

This chapter uses the ITS documents to show how the Gross-Rosen and Auschwitz sub-camps functioned and the roles they played in the context of the German economy, the concentration camp system, and the Holocaust. Examining the sub-camps not only brings to light an under-appreciated aspect of the Nazi camp system, showing its significance for the German war economy and for our understanding of Nazi ideology; it also allows us, through the ITS documents, to follow the trajectories of individual persecutes through the camps. Looking at the Holocaust ‘from the bottom up’ means we can appreciate the extent to which some victims were moved around and the ways in which the Nazis’ desperate search for labour towards the end of the war facilitated some camp inmates’ survival.
Survivors, Displaced Persons, Refugees
Authors: Stone Dan
Published: July 2023

This chapter shows how survivors became displaced persons (DPs), then refugees and new immigrants, or, in a minority of cases, stayed to become the nucleus of a renewed Jewish community in Germany—a very beleaguered and small one with a tenuous connection to wider society in the first postwar decade or so. As the camps became established communities, UNRRA/IRO cared for survivors by housing them and providing medical assistance. With the indispensable help of charities, survivors were encouraged to become functioning members of society again through vocational training, economic assistance, and joining and running associations and institutions of all sorts, from sports clubs to religious bodies, theatre groups to political movements, and self-representation organizations for dealing with the occupation and German authorities. Because the DP camps lasted for longer than anyone envisaged, these organizations became deeply entrenched and developed, and the camps became the settings for revitalized communities, long before their inhabitants were transplanted to Palestine/Israel, the United States, or elsewhere. The role of the survivors in helping themselves was crucial; from medical care to vocational training to political representation, survivors held key positions in the movements and societies that sought to advance the DPs’ cause—on the basis that no one else could understand them or would help them in the necessary ways. Using ITS records, the chapter shows how survivors formed their own tracing organizations, searched for their loved ones, and were in turn helped with medical care and emigration.
Conclusion
Authors: Stone Dan
Published: July 2023

The conclusion situates the International Tracing Service in the broad context of the postwar period. It notes that the history of the ITS runs counter to the standard narrative of ‘coming to terms with the Nazi past’ in Germany and elsewhere in Europe, and especially in the United States. Where ‘Holocaust consciousness’ gradually emerged in the western world, such that by the 1990s the genocide of the Jews was fast becoming a culturally ubiquitous reference point, the ITS went from being an open and energetic organization in the immediate postwar years to a secretive and closed institution by the 1990s. The conclusion asks why this might have been the case and finishes by discussing how the ITS, now known as the Arolsen Archives, has changed since its leadership was handed over from the International Committee of the Red Cross to the German authorities.
Introduction
Authors: Israel Jonathan I.
Published: July 2023

There are several reasons why a fresh biography of Spinoza is needed. Recent research has extended our knowledge of Spinoza’s life and circle of friends considerably. No other early modern thinker attracted so much hostility and recrimination. The extent of Spinoza’s correspondence and international networking was much more limited than that of Descartes, Leibniz, Locke, and Bayle. Nevertheless, Spinoza’s continuing impact and relevance, in contrast to all of the latter, not only persisted undiminished in a much contested, controversial fashion right through the Enlightenment era but has tended to persist among philosophers and political thinkers subsequently and is today in many countries around the world greater than ever, not least rather remarkably in contemporary Latin America.
A Secret Legacy from Portugal
Authors: Israel Jonathan I.
Published: July 2023

This chapter describes the lives of Spinoza’s grandparents and great-grandparents in Portugal, the small town of Vidigueira and the Alentejo region where they lived, the role of the Portuguese Inquisition and its tribunal at Évora, as well as the status and circumstances of the Portuguese “New Christians” generally and why crypto-Judaism was more prevalent among them than among the New Christians in Spain. It also describes the element of political subversion in the secret culture of the Marranos, the role of Dom António, Prior of Crato, and the emigration of Spinoza’s family to Nantes and the status of the Portuguese New Christians in late sixteenth-century France.
Honour and Wealth
Authors: Israel Jonathan I.
Published: July 2023

This chapter recounts the history of the Spinoza family business in Amsterdam. It seeks to explain why Michael d’Espinoza was broadly successful in overseas trade during the 1630s and 1640s down to 1651 and why his business then fell into severe difficulties in the early 1650s. It focuses on the impact of the First Anglo-Dutch War (1652–4) on Dutch maritime trade, the losses suffered by Spinoza’s father and then after he died in March 1654, suffered by Spinoza himself as head of the family firm during the years 1654–6, and why the business went bankrupt. It analyses the tension in Spinoza’s mind between his quest for a life of study free from business affairs and legal entanglements and the reality of his predicament prior to his expulsion from the Amsterdam Portuguese synagogue in 1656.
“Monstrous Heresies”
Authors: Israel Jonathan I.
Published: July 2023

This chapter looks at Spinoza’s dealings with Juan de Prado and other Sephardic Jewish fringe figures after his expulsion from the Sephardic community. Discussing the two Spanish denunciations submitted to the Madrid Inquisition, in 1659, it examines the attitudes and religious views of De Prado, Spinoza, and Daniel Ribera in the late 1650s and the difficult relationship of New Christian exiles from the Iberian peninsula who possessed Iberian university degrees and were fluent in academic Latin with the Amsterdam rabbis. It recounts also Orobio de Castro’s criticism of De Prado and other Marrano intellectuals rejecting rabbinic authority in Northern Europe.
“Reforming” Descartes’ Principles
Authors: Israel Jonathan I.
Published: July 2023

The chapter deals with the composition and publication of the only book Spinoza published under his own name, his Renati Des Cartes Principiorum philosophiae Pars I & II (1663), first in its Latin and then in its slightly different Dutch version. It was at this stage that his collaboration with Lodewijk Meyer seems to have been closest, this chapter analysing Meyer’s role and his correspondence with Spinoza. The main theme is a consideration of how far this book is an exposition, and how far rather a subversion, of Descartes’ core principles. It also discusses the early reaction of the Dutch Cartesians to Spinoza’s entry onto the philosophical scene.
Hebrew in Spinoza’s Later Life
Authors: Israel Jonathan I.
Published: July 2023

The text later known as Spinoza’s Compendium Grammatices Linguae Hebraeae [Grammatical Compendium of the Hebrew Language] which he worked on during his last years was his penultimate text, the last before the Tractatus Politicus, dating, it is thought, mainly from 1674–5. Spinoza wrote the Compendium—yet another text left lying unfinished at the time of his death—while also compiling his Adnotationes to the TTP. He undertook this project, the Opera Posthuma’s editors add, “at the request of some friends who were very keen on the Sacred Language who knew he had been instructed in [the Hebrew language] from the youngest age, and subsequently had assiduously occupied himself with it over many years, profoundly examining its special character and growing extremely versed in it.” “The friends” here doubtless refers to Meyer and Bouwmeester who both had a special interest in grammar and embraced the idea that all languages follow a certain logic; both devoted years to the quest for such a grammar, and Bouwmeester made this quest a common priority of their society, Nil Volentibus Arduum.
Naturalism, Externalism, and Naturalistic Externalism
Authors: Rysiew Patrick
Published: July 2023

The majority of epistemologists who favor epistemic naturalism also favor externalism about knowledge. But why exactly is that? After providing an overview of the various main positions and commitments associated with ‘naturalistic epistemology’ (NE), this chapter takes up the question of the relation between naturalism, so understood, and externalism. As we’ll see, while NE does not mandate externalism, neither is the observed connection between them an accident: as general approaches, both NE and externalism are animated by a desire to have realistic and genuinely explanatory epistemological theories, something that more traditional ways of thinking about knowledge are regarded as failing to achieve. As we’ll also see, however, corresponding to the variety among naturalistic views, there are significant disagreements among those within the naturalistic-externalist camp—most conspicuously, about the appropriate target of philosophical theorizing and the methods that epistemologists should employ in investigating it.
Channelling Health
Authors: Stevens Crawshaw Jane L.
Published: July 2023

Chapter two highlights ways in which public works in ports were designed to ensure free-flowing movement through the streets. The streets played a vital role in binding people in neighbourhoods. Concepts of cleanliness and salubrity lay at the heart of being a good citizen and a good neighbour. The quality of the streets was seen to affect the quality of behaviour and, as a result, regulations focused on the materiality, cleanliness, safety, and use of these spaces. Tensions between individuals or families might be articulated using the system for denunciations relating to cleanliness and health.
Dealing with Disasters
Authors: Stevens Crawshaw Jane L.
Published: July 2023

Chapter six explores visual and written accounts of natural disasters. Using accounts of storms and floods as well as the earthquakes of 1511 in Venice and 1536 in Genoa, this chapter underscores the place of cleanliness and dirt in explanations of natural disasters and highlights the importance of piety for early modern understandings of effective environmental management. Rather than sparking particular or new initiatives, natural disasters instead intensified discussions of human culpability and responsibility. As a result, what changed as a result of these events was the emotional and social context of environmental management more than the activities themselves. This context reaffirmed contemporary beliefs about the impact of human behaviour on the environment and often sparked concern about the locations in which ‘dangerous’ groups were located.
History
Authors: Hachhethu Krishna
Published: July 2023

The present state of ethnic inequality among the three major groups of Nepal— Khas Arya (hill high castes), Janajati (indigenous nationalities), and Madheshi (people of plains origin)—is largely a by-product of a historical process of assimilation of the people of other groups into the fold of the Khas Aryas’ culture, language, and religion. Since the unification of the country in 1768, the rulers have adopted a number of policy measures to develop Nepal as a monolithic state providing protection to one caste group (Khas Arya), one language (Nepali, mother tongue of hill castes), and one religion (Hindu). Migration of the people of the dominant group into the traditional homeland of national minorities (Janajati and Madheshi) is another noteworthy point. This eventually leads to translate cultural diversity into ethnic inequality. Against this background, Nepal has recently observed a rise of ethnicity among the non-dominant groups, each seeking identity-based political space.
A Matter of Numbers
Authors: Hachhethu Krishna
Published: July 2023

The 2013 Constituent Assembly (CA) II elections produced a reversed political equation in favour of traditional forces (Nepali Congress, or NC and Unified Marxist-Leninist, or UML) among political parties, and the Khas Aryas among the ethnic groups. Hence, a new NC-led coalition government with UML and other small parties hostile to identity politics, had a clear two-thirds majority in the Assembly after the 2013 elections. This alliance continued till the promulgation of the new constitution. At the middle of the journey, the Maoist party shifted camp, from radical to conservative pole, which allowed the traditional forces to control the process and finalize the constitution in fast-track. Among others, the new constitution has adopted territorial federalism, designed with a rejuvenation of the erstwhile five-development regions with a minor modification. Both the Janajatis and Madheshis have expressed their discontent on several provisions of the constitution, on the seven-provinces federal arrangement in particular.
Explaining away the witch trials
Authors: Davies Owen
Published: July 2023

In the trial records, confessions, and lurid demonologies of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries psychiatrists found an extraordinary wealth of delusions, hallucinations, anxieties, and fears. Their quest to find an overarching explanation for them, and the witch trials, was fuelled by the zeal to prove that the past could be understood scientifically, that there was a key to such seemingly strange behaviour, and that the lock was embedded in the pathology of the mind. In this determination they wilfully conflated, confused, and misunderstood the nature of early modern witchcraft. Early psychologists and psychoanalysts were also drawn to the witch trial material and formulated their own equally problematic explanations.
The mad, the bad, and the supernatural in court
Authors: Davies Owen
Published: July 2023

The criminal and civil courts became controversial battlefields where legal minds clashed with psychiatrists over language, symptoms, and diagnoses. The influence of expert psychiatric witnesses raised fundamental issues about the nature of rational or irrational beliefs that juries had to grapple with in cultural as well as legal terms. They had to unpick what sorts of supernatural notions and convictions, such as diabolic influence, witchcraft, and spiritualism, were irrational in relation to societal norms. As a consequence, the attempt by many early psychiatrists to locate supernatural beliefs within the realm of the pathological gained little traction. The supernatural and ‘superstition’ could be found reasonable without being rational.
Epilogue
Authors: Davies Owen
Published: July 2023

The term ‘insanity’ has gone the same way as ‘madness’ and has been largely abandoned by the medical profession. Socio-cultural attitudes towards the supernatural and unorthodox faiths have also changed significantly, though not in the linear, progressive manner the old psychiatrists confidently mapped out. Today the supernatural continues to be a widely accepted reality for many. The pathologizing of the supernatural and radical religion during the nineteenth century was essentially an attempt to delineate, instigate, and map a new stage in Western society. Naïve or noble, repressive or responsible, the asylum movement evidently failed in achieving its aims.