bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
International Business in Latin America
Authors: Grosse Robert
Published: October 2003

An examination is made of international business activity in Latin America. It starts by tracing the historical context, and then analyses four issues that are central to international business in Latin America at the beginning of the twenty‐first century. These are the government/business relationship; the impact of subregional integration schemes on competition in the region; FDI in the region and policies to avoid financial crises; and the entry and operation of foreign multinational enterprises (MNEs), and the reaction of local firms to these. Lastly, the relationship of the informal economy to international business in the region is investigated.
China and International Business
Authors: Child John
Published: October 2003

The first part of this chapter discusses China's growing role in international business and the inward and outward investment problems attending this. China's institutional context is then addressed, highlighting the deep involvement of government agencies with business life as being associated with many of the difficulties experienced by inward and outward investment. The implications of this government intervention are discussed next, first by examining the nature of complexity in China's business environment and the strategies available to foreign investing firms for coping with this, and second, by exploring the relevance of China's differentiated business system for modes of engagement between Chinese and international firms.
International Business Research on Transition Economies
Authors: Meyer Klaus E.
Published: October 2003

Focuses on challenges faced by businesses in the transition context, drawing on research beyond the main business journals. First, the microeconomic aspects of economic transition are summarized, taking the development of new institutions as starting points as they set the stage for developments in the enterprise sphere. Next, multinational enterprises entering the region are discussed, considering their motives, and their strategies for dealing with the specific context. Lastly, some managerial challenges are addressed that arise for multinational enterprises operating in the region.
Methodological Contributions in International Business and the Direction of Academic Research Activity
Authors: Kogut Bruce
Published: October 2003

Research in international business has contributed its own methodological designs that serve as templates for subsequent efforts. This chapter first briefly documents three contributions: Raymond Vernon's Harvard multinational enterprise database, foreign direct investment studies, and the choice of foreign entry mode. Next, two current areas of research are addressed that might benefit from agreement on design and method: organizational ecology and demography; and comparative management and national systems. In focusing on these contributions, various other major contributions to international business research are neglected, especially that of business history, which has indisputably created successful research programmes with defined methodologies; this topic is treated in the first chapter (by Wilkins) in this volume.
Implementing Sustainable Development
Authors: Lafferty William M. , Meadowcroft James
Published: October 2003

This volume examines the response of governments in the industrialized countries to the challenge of sustainable development. It focuses on the response of central governments in Australia, Canada, Germany, Japan, Norway, the Netherlands, Sweden, the UK, the USA, and the EU. The study shows that sustainable development has been integrated into governmental idiom in most jurisdictions, and has come to be associated with a series of changes to the structures and approaches deployed to manage environmental problems. Yet, it also reveals significant differences of interpretation and priority across the governments surveyed. The study pays particular attention to various understandings of sustainable development, institutional reform, government engagement with other societal actors, national plans and strategies, and the policy areas of climate change and biodiversity.
Australia: Ecological Sustainable Development in the National Interest
Authors: Papadakis Elim
Published: October 2003

Analyses efforts of the Australian government to come to terms with sustainable development. It examines Australia's National Strategy for ecologically sustainable development and considers its impact on policy and debates. It documents political developments during the second half of the 1990s that weakened the country's response to sustainable development, and increased the caution with which it viewed commitments to be undertaken under the climate change regime.
Canada: From Early Frontrunner to Plodding Anchorman
Authors: Toner Glen
Published: October 2003

Analyses efforts of the Canadian federal government to come to terms with sustainable development. It highlights innovative characteristics of Canadian policy including the 1990 Green Plan, the later establishment of the office of the Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment and Sustainable Development, and the system of departmental sustainable development strategies The chapter argues that Canada's role as an enthusiastic advocate of engagement with sustainable development slackened as the 1990s advanced. This is particularly true with respect to climate change where the government adopted a cautious approach to the ratification of the Kyoto Protocol.
Japan: Law, Technology, and Aid
Authors: Schreurs Miranda
Published: October 2003

Analyses efforts of the Japanese government to come to terms with sustainable development. It argues that the environment is a foreign policy area in which Japan has resolved to make a mark, and it documents significant reforms to the Japanese environmental policy system associated with the country's reception of sustainable development. The significant emphasis on technological development and on assistance to developing countries are presented as distinctive features of the Japanese approach.
Sweden: Progression Despite Recession
Authors: Eckerberg Katarina
Published: October 2003

Assesses efforts of the Swedish government to come to terms with sustainable development. It documents strong governmental engagement with sustainable development despite the significant recession that swept the country in the early 1990s and prompted a considerable rethink of the traditional institutions of the Swedish welfare state. It shows how the social democratic government attempted to integrate the idea of environmental sustainability with the traditional social democratic vision of the Folkhemmet (People's Home).
The European Union: Integration, Competition, Growth—And Sustainability
Authors: Baker Susan
Published: October 2003

Analyses efforts of the central institutions of the European Union to come to terms with sustainable development. It examines the response of different European institutions, highlighting the role of the Commission in shaping the EU response. While noting the important efforts that have been made to engage with sustainable development—for example, through the Fifth Environmental Action Plan (5EAP)—it points also to the institutional obstacles to more thorough implementation. The issues of the contrasting development and environment priorities of different member states, the EU focus on the removal of barriers to the single market, and the challenges of enlargement, are all discussed.
Patterns of Governmental Engagement
Authors: Lafferty William M. , Meadowcroft James
Published: October 2003

This chapter sets the studies of the engagement of ten governments with sustainable development in comparative perspective. It analyses developments under a number of headings, including interpreting the concept, organizational engagement, strategic planning processes, approaches to domestic actors, measurement and monitoring, sustainable production and consumption, the global dimension, climate change, and biodiversity. Many of the findings are presented in tabular form, including a detailed analysis of government environmental policy plans and strategies for sustainable development. The chapter argues that national responses can be divided into three groups—‘enthusiastic’, ‘cautiously supportive’, and ‘disinterested’.
Nations Without States: The Accommodation of Nationalism in the New State Order
Authors: Keating Michael
Published: October 2003

Nationalism has historically been associated with the state and state‐building. Yet in a world in which the state is in many respects weakened, penetrated by transnational and sectoral interests, nationalism appears to be resurgent. It is the argument of this chapter that the transformation of the state has in fact encouraged the re‐emergence of nationalisms within states, but at the same time provides opportunities for the non‐violent resolution of nationalist conflict. This requires a break with the state‐centred tradition of much historical and political science research, an appreciation of the importance of other frameworks of identity and collective action, and a search for opportunities for accommodating nationalist demands within the emerging international regimes. Not all types of nationalist movement can be accommodated in this way, however, and there is still a need for a new model of the state that provides a formula for the recognition of nationality and self‐government in diverse forms.
National Identities in the Emerging European State
Authors: Laitin David D.
Published: October 2003

The process of globalization, by breaking down nation‐state boundaries, is paradoxically facilitating the emergence of stateless national identities. This chapter argues that in the context of the EU, a process of state‐building is taking place on the cultural plane, specifically that of language, which resembles the experience of India after 1947, when regional linguistic differences came to be subsumed under a larger English‐speaking national culture. In the EU context, this suggests three likely developments. First, that the future European citizen will have multiple languages and multiple cultural identities. This linguistic diversity will be a sign not of state failure but rather of Europe's emergence as a twentieth‐century state. Second, that with the European proto‐state involved in the politics of autonomy, relations between state and region will be less zero‐sum and more fluid, with a greater capacity to reduce irredentism. Third, that the EU's new institutional configuration will permit a form of layered citizenship, which will prevent national authorities (as e.g. in the break‐up of Yugoslavia) from denying civic rights to non‐nationals.
Civil Society, Media, and Globalization in Catalonia
Authors: Folch‐Serra Mireya , Nogue‐Font Joan
Published: October 2003

Considers the impact of globalization on the capacity to establish and maintain public space in the specific setting of Catalonia, as evidenced by the coverage of globalization issues in the Catalan media. Traits of civil society such as the dialogue established by individuals and institutions, the incorporation of individuals into groups through institutions, and the political spaces enclosing cultural, religious, and social alliances are represented and discussed in the Catalan media. The chapter's main objective is to assess, in the light of Catalan publications dating from the 1800s to 1997, the role played by the media in the formation and preservation of local identity in Catalonia.
The Lure of Economic Prosperity Versus Ethno‐Nationalism: Turkish Cypriots, the European Union Option, and the Resolution of Ethnic Conflict in Cyprus
Authors: Bahcheli Tozun
Published: October 2003

It is with considerable reluctance that the EU has undertaken a key role in resolving the Cyprus conflict. In offering Cyprus the prospect of membership, the EU hopes that it will provide a sufficient incentive to both the Greek Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot communities to settle their differences––in particular, to persuade the latter that the economic benefits and minority safeguards provided by EU membership are sufficient to overcome the fears of domination that drive Turkish Cypriot desire for self‐rule. This chapter analyses the limits of economic incentives for achieving this purpose, and argues that the EU will need to address the regional (Greek‐Turkish) dimension of the dispute as well as the communal differences themselves. It remains unclear whether the admission of Turkey into the EU will suffice to bring the Turkish Cypriots into line.
Nationalism and a Critique of European Integration: Questions from the Flemish Parties
Authors: Laible Janet
Published: October 2003

Explores how Flemish nationalists raise questions about the impact of European integration on the cultural rights of their nation, the members of which have struggled for a century and a half to assert themselves against the political and cultural hegemony of French language interests in Belgium. Discusses why Flemish nationalists perceive threats to their culture from European integration, why they believe this reflects larger problems of sovereignty for weak actors in a centralizing Europe, and how they attempt to formulate responses to these problems. Argues that the Flemish nationalist reaction to European integration is inspired by actual and potential losses of institutional power and constitutional protection for Flemish culture.
Context and Contingency: Constitutional Nationalists and Europe
Authors: Mitchell James , Cavanagh Michael
Published: October 2003

Compares the European policies of three constitutional nationalist parties in the UK: the Scottish National Party, Plaid Cymru (Wales), and the Social and Democratic Labour Party (Northern Ireland). It shows how each has, in different ways, used EU integration strategically and tactically to advance its claims. This seeming paradox, of nationalist parties supporting institutions that aim to remove power from the nation, can be explained in a number of ways, all involving some degree of redefinition of the nature of nationalism in the context of globalization.
Ethnic Relations, Nationalism, and Minority Nationalism in South‐Eastern Europe
Authors: Žagar Mitja
Published: October 2003

The ethnic violence that attended the break‐up of Yugoslavia in the 1990s has refocused the world's attention on the importance of ethnic relations and nationalism in multi‐ethnic societies. This chapter presents a general discussion of the ethnicity issue and of the vital role of the international community (in this case, the EU) in restoring the rule of law over the region. The enlargement of the EU to include the countries of South‐Eastern Europe, rather than just those of Central and Eastern Europe, would have numerous beneficial effects on ethnic relations across the region. In the longer term, the construction of a common European identity, on principles of multi‐ and inter‐culturalism, could become a powerful counterweight to exclusionary nationalism. The Council of Europe and the EU could and should play key roles in building this common European identity.
Nationalism in Transition: Nationalizing Impulses and International Counterweights in Latvia and Estonia
Authors: Bernier Julie
Published: October 2003

Nationalizing impulses in countries with substantial ethnic minorities often provoke counter‐mobilization by those minorities. This chapter looks at the effectiveness of international organizations in providing a counterweight to these impulses, with particular reference to the cases of Latvia and Estonia. It is divided into two main sections. The first shows that the adoption of nationalizing measures in Latvia and Estonia is rooted in concerns about the identity, demography, and social mobility of the core group, and outlines the types of nationalizing strategies that have been adopted to reallocate power, status, and resources in favour of this group. The second section examines interventions in Latvia and Estonia by the OSCE (Organization for Security and Co‐operation in Europe) High Commissioner on National Minorities, the Council of Europe, and the EU. Argues that the combination of these pressures has made an important contribution to the recent relaxation of the nationalizing policies that these two countries adopted in their first years of independence.
The Japanese Tax System
Authors: Ishi Hiromitsu
Published: October 2003

The Japanese tax system has notably changed through the periods of post‐World War II; i.e., reconstruction, rapid economic growth, and recent economic stagnation. In order to clarify the function and the effect of tax policy and practices, it is important to analyse how the Japanese tax system has developed during each period, and how it has contributed to the performance, good or bad, of the Japanese economy. In addition, it is necessary to assess successive rounds of tax reforms in the past because they have been greatly debated so far particularly concerning the adoption of Japan's value‐added tax ( the consumption tax ). Many see a great need to reform the tax system to adjust for the ongoing changes in the Japanese economy. The tax debate is always with us in relation to the changing patterns of the economy.
Two Strategies of Postwar Tax Policy
Authors: Ishi Hiromitsu
Published: October 2003

Sheds light on the strategies traditionally adopted by the Japanese government concerning tax policy during the post‐war period of 1960s and 1970s.
Basic Structures
Authors: Ishi Hiromitsu
Published: October 2003

Basic Structures of the individual income tax are examined in various ways. Throughout the post‐war period, the income tax has reigned in the Japanese tax system, occupying a significant portion of its tax revenues. Thus, it is very important to clarify main structures of such a tax.
The Erosion of Individual Income Tax
Authors: Ishi Hiromitsu
Published: October 2003

Tries to estimate the phenomena of eroding income tax base and revenues caused by a number of special provisions for specific seven years. Obviously, tax erosion impairs the equity of the existing income tax system.
Inflation Adjustments
Authors: Ishi Hiromitsu
Published: October 2003

Discusses on the impact of income tax structure. It is widely acknowledged that the major goal of tax reductions was to adjust for the heavier tax burdens arising from inflation; at least it was true until the late 1980s. Thus it is necessary to clarify the mechanics of inflation adjustments via tax‐ cut policies.
The Taxation of Investment Income and Savings
Authors: Ishi Hiromitsu
Published: October 2003

Analyses the impact of income taxes on saving behaviour. Japan's high savings rate during the post‐war period has received worldwide attention in connection with the country's notable economic performance. There has been a general belief that the high rate of personal savings has been stimulated by the tax policy of the government with special tax measures.
Effects of Taxation on the Distribution of Income
Authors: Ishi Hiromitsu
Published: October 2003

Deals with the effects of income taxes on income distribution. It is widely believed that the individual income tax, with progressive tax rates, can reduce the inequality of income distribution or at least slowdown its growth. An attempt is made to correlate information about the redistribution effects of income taxes with the distribution of income.
Corporate Tax Levels and Tax Incentives
Authors: Ishi Hiromitsu
Published: October 2003

Gives an overview of tax incentive policies, paying much attention to the role played by the government in light of the special tax measures for corporation. Also, the tax burden of the corporate sector is clarified with special reference to tax incentives.
Inheritance and Gift Taxes
Authors: Ishi Hiromitsu
Published: October 2003

Deal with the tax issues on estate transfer, bequests and gifts, which are considered to be appropriate objects of taxation. The structural features of the Japanese inheritance and gifts taxes are explored in an historical perspective, and the role of property transfer taxes in affecting the tax burden and redistribution effects is considered.
Land Tax Reform
Authors: Ishi Hiromitsu
Published: October 2003

Land tax reform was a very important policy issue related to a sharp rise in land prices beginning from the late 1980s, causing a number of land‐related problems. Main issue is to make clear the background of land tax reforms, and to outline proposed taxes on land‐holding, land acquisition, capital gains from the sale of land and so on.
The Value Added Tax
Authors: Ishi Hiromitsu
Published: October 2003

The value‐added tax was finally introduced in Japan in April 1989, after long‐standing trial and error by the government. The whole picture of Japan's VAT must be clarified before and after its introduction, focussing on its key trend of VAT in the world and historical background, its main features, its economic aspects and administrative consequences, and local VAT.
Design of Environmental Taxes
Authors: Ishi Hiromitsu
Published: October 2003

Design of environmental taxes are picked up as an argument of whether or not environmental taxes should be practically introduced into the Japanese tax system, since it is still immature. It is necessary to investigate the background of environmental issues and protection in the past, and possible way of designing a desirable form of environmental taxes, such as a carbon/ energy tax.
Rebuilding the Tax System
Authors: Ishi Hiromitsu
Published: October 2003

Treats two sweeping tax reforms starting from the late 1980s, that is to say, that for 1987–93 and that for 1994–99. It is important to explore the reasons leading up to a need for major reforms and the contents of reform packages. Reform plans of three direct taxes, such as the individual income tax, the corporate tax, and the inheritance tax, are mainly discussed in detail.
Local Taxation and Intergovernmental Fiscal Relations
Authors: Ishi Hiromitsu
Published: October 2003

Analyses the complicated structure of national–local governmental relations in both side of the budgets. The shares of total tax sources between two governments, the whole system of local taxation itself, unconditional and conditional grants, etc. are mainly discussed.
Reframing Public Policy
Authors: Fischer Frank
Published: October 2003

In recent years a set of new ‘postempiricist’ approaches to public policy, drawing on discursive analysis and participatory deliberative practices, have come to challenge the dominant technocratic, empiricist models in policy analysis. In this book, Frank Fischer brings together this work for the first time and critically examines its implications for the field of public policy studies. He describes the theoretical, methodological and political dimensions of this emerging approach to policy research. The book includes a discussion of the social construction of policy problems, the role of interpretation and narrative analysis in policy inquiry, the dialectics of policy argumentation, and the uses of participatory policy analysis. After an introductory chapter, ten further chapters are arranged in four parts: Part I, Public Policy and the Discursive Construction of Reality (two chapters), introduces the re-emergence of interest in ideas and discourse. It then turns to the postempiricist or constructionist view of social reality, presenting public policy as a discursive construct that turns on multiple interpretations. Part II, Public Policy as Discursive Politics (two chapters), examines more specifically the nature of discursive politics and discourse theory and illustrates through a particular disciplinary debate the theoretical, methodological, and political implications of such a conceptual reframing of policy inquiry. Part III, Discursive Policy Inquiry: Resituating Empirical Analysis (four chapters), offers a postempiricist methodology for policy inquiry based on the logic of practical discourse, and explores specific methodological perspectives pertinent to such an orientation, in particular the role of interpretation in policy analysis, narrative policy analysis, and the dialectics of policy argumentation. Part IV, Deliberative Governance (two chapters), discusses the participatory implications of such a method and the role of the policy analyst as facilitator of citizen deliberation .
Making Social Science Relevant: Policy Inquiry in Critical Perspective
Authors: Fischer Frank
Published: October 2003

This introductory chapter makes the point that public policy studies has been one of the fastest growing specializations in the social sciences, and has largely been an American phenomenon. It looks at what the field includes, and at the previously dominant practice of technocratic policy analysis. The problems that have emerged with the technocratic practice of policy-analytic research are then examined by looking at the policy orientation in its broader political context. The emphasis here is on the American story, which best illustrates the limitations of the practice as it has emerged. The last section of the chapter looks at the postempiricist alternative. Policy argumentation and discourse (participatory policy analysis).
Public Policy as Discursive Construct: Social Meaning and Multiple Realities
Authors: Fischer Frank
Published: October 2003

This chapter aims to clarify the socially constructed nature of reality and the symbolic sides of public policy, as well as the discursive politics to which it gives rise. It concentrates on the concept of social understanding. There are seven main sections: The Phenomenology of Social Action; The Social Construction of Reality; Politics in a World of Multiple Realities; The Political Spectacle as Hyperreality; The Social Meanings of Public Policies; Meaning Construction and the Policy Process: The Typologies of Public Policy; Policy Design: Constructing Target Populations.
Public Policy and Discourse Analysis
Authors: Fischer Frank
Published: October 2003

This is the first of two chapters that present a more detailed examination of the ways in which social constructions are produced and negotiated in public politics through the medium of discourse. It looks at public policy and discourse analysis, and starts by defining discourse. The remaining sections of the chapter are: Discourse Analysis; Policy Discourse and Argumentative Struggle; Policy Storylines, which are the basic linguistic mechanism for creating and maintaining discursive order –– a generative sort of narrative that allows actors to draw upon various discursive categories to give meaning to specific or social phenomena (for example, ‘there is nothing we can do’ or ‘we must take immediate action’); and an appendix, Discourse and Social Change: Commodifying Educational Policy.
Citizens and Experts: Democratizing Policy Deliberation
Authors: Fischer Frank
Published: October 2003

Taking up the tension between democracy and science, the discussion in this chapter seeks to reformulate the relationship through the social constructionist perspective, emphasizing science as a socio-political activity; rather than taking scientific practices to be the ideal for politics, the question asked is to what degree scientific practices might be democratized. Towards this end (and after first examining the challenge posed by democracy), the discussion outlines the contributions of citizen participation to both policy-making and collaborative inquiry; by transforming citizens’ ways of knowing and acting, participatory deliberation can build new political cultures capable of preserving and extending decision-making capabilities. Against this background the more challenging question of the citizen’s ability to engage collaboratively in the scientific inquiry process is considered. The discussion then turns to numerous participatory experiments that more specifically illustrate the possibilities and practices of citizen inquiry, in particular outlining the consensus conference developed by the Danish Board of Technology (which has emerged as the most elaborate form of citizens’ panel) and the methodology of participatory policy analysis. Citizen participation is not advanced as a cure-all for economic and social problems, nor is deliberation or argumentation meant to direct attention away from questions of interest and power, but it does hold out the possibility of bringing forth new knowledge and ideas capable of creating and legitimizing new interests, reshaping understanding of existing interests, and, in the process, influencing the political pathways along which power and interest travel.
The Human Need for Nature
Authors: Humphrey Mathew
Published: October 2003

This chapter assesses an aspect of ecocentric thought that has to date been somewhat neglected, its account of human welfare and human needs. Ecocentrists argue that our understanding of human needs requires ‘restructuring’ in an ecologically informed way. In particular, we have to recognize a human need for contact with ‘free’ nature. This argument is supported by two versions of the ‘co‐evolution hypothesis’. This argument is found to offer, at best, only weak reasons for a policy of nature preservation.
What Are Risk Regulation Regimes? Why Do They Matter?
Authors: Hood Christopher , Rothstein Henry , Baldwin Robert
Published: October 2003

Advances the thesis that neither single case study nor macroscopic Risk Society perspectives on risk and its management can account for variety amongst risk regulation regimes. Instead, a meso‐level institutional approach is needed that can capture and illuminate the complex institutional geographies, rules, practices, and animating ideas that are associated with the regulation of particular risks. This chapter argues that a systems‐based concept of a risk regulation regime can help capture such variety in three important ways. First, a regime perspective provides a systematic method for dimensionalizing and comparing risk regulation within different policy domains and identifying puzzles and questions that are not easily visible from other approaches. Second, a regime perspective provides a solid framework for systematically testing and developing theories about the forces that shape the constituent components of risk regulation regimes. Third, a regime perspective brings out the relationships between the different parts of a regulatory system, which can help identify reasons for regulatory failure and why reforms to one part of the system may have little impact on the regulatory system as a whole.
The Comparative Anatomy of Risk Regulation Regimes
Authors: Hood Christopher , Rothstein Henry , Baldwin Robert
Published: October 2003

Sets out two key dimensions for analysing risk regulation regimes that are employed throughout the book. The first dimension relates to the three constituent components of a risk regulation regime that are common to any control system—i.e. ways of gathering information, ways of setting standards, goals or targets and ways of changing behaviour and enforcement to meet the standards or targets. The second dimension relates both to the context of risk regulation regimes—i.e. the character of the risks being tackled, public attitudes towards risks and the configuration of related organized interests— and the content of regimes—i.e. their size, structure, and style. Analysis of risk regulation regimes along these two dimensions provides an essential starting point for compartive analysis, picks up fine‐grained distinctions between regimes and identifies regime features that are central to a range of debates about risk regulation.
Nine Risk Regulation Regimes Compared
Authors: Hood Christopher , Rothstein Henry , Baldwin Robert
Published: October 2003

Uses the analytic framework developed in Ch. 2 to compare nine different risk regulation regimes, bringing out their similarities and differences. Those risks include attacks by dangerous dogs outside the home, exposure to radon at home and work, benzene in the air and in the workplace, paedophile offenders released from custody, local road safety, and exposure to pesticide residues in food and water. Analysis of those regimes provides empirical evidence that there are substantial differences between the regulation of different risks and even the same risks within different contexts. Those variations are not easily explained by historical ‘big picture’ theories, such as the risk society thesis. Instead, investigation of the revealed variations between regimes suggests a need for more systematic and nuanced explanations.
Regime Development Under Pressure: Staged Retreats and Lateral Mutations
Authors: Hood Christopher , Rothstein Henry , Baldwin Robert
Published: October 2003

Moves away from explaining the comparative statics of risk regulation regimes and explores what happens when regimes are under pressure to change, and, in particular, when they are under presure for greater openness and transparency. The chapter develops a style‐phase model of staged organizational responses to external pressure for change and compares its predictive value against two competing hypotheses. Examination of the nine case‐study risk regulation regimes reveals that, contrary to the common belief that such pressures are all pervasive, less than half were exposed to substantial pressures of this type. Responses of organizations in the ‘high‐pressure’ regimes were varied, but the overall pattern was consistent with a mixture of an autopoietic and staged‐response hypothesis stressing blame prevention. The chapter presents a hybrid ‘Catherine‐wheel’ model of the observed pattern and concludes by discussing the implications for policy outcomes.
The Influence of the International Context Upon the Choice of National Institutions and Policies in Neo‐Democracies
Authors: Schmitter Philippe C.
Published: October 2003

Explores the extent to which foreign relations factors, both regional and global, can affect the constraints imposed on, or the opportunities exploited by, nascent democracies. To the threefold classification of ‘contagion, control, and consent’ outlined in the preceding chapter, it adds a fourth category of ‘conditionality’, which elaborates a wider matrix of unilateral/multilateral and coercive/voluntary external influences. It then reviews the historical pattern of stages, phases, and sequences of democratization, explaining how conditionality has added new elements to the fourth and the current wave of democratization.
International Support for the Chilean Opposition, 1973–1989: Political Parties and the Role of Exiles
Authors: Angell Alan
Published: October 2003

The advent of military government in Chile, following the coup of September 1973, stimulated a substantial emigration of political opponents seeking safety in exile overseas from persecution at home. This chapter details the extent of the emigration and the influence that exiled political parties managed to continue to exert on political life in Chile, and on the international relations of the Pinochet regime. The period under discussion provides a useful case study of the interplay between internal (consent) and external (control) factors in the struggle for democratization, and of such struggle as involving an attempted redefinition of the country's national and international identity. Even today, the links between Chilean political parties and their counterparts overseas remain active and influential, and Chilean politics will continue to have a strong international dimension.
International Aspects of Democratization: The Case of Spain
Authors: Powell Charles
Published: October 2003

The protracted course of Spain's transition from dictatorship to democracy illustrates a complex interaction between domestic political circumstances and external influences. Despite the comparatively harsh stance of the international community against Franco's regime during 1946–48 (including exclusion from the UN and from the Marshall Plan), the regime survived for a further thirty years. This chapter argues that it was essentially the West European actors—national governments, multinational institutions, transnational party organizations, and political foundations—which proved more effective in applying more subtle, longer‐term and less aggressive pressure, thus allowing internal democratization processes to operate.
Belief
Authors: Swinburne Richard
Published: October 2003

This book is concerned with narrow‐content beliefs. One believes ‘this’ proposition as against ‘that’ proposition (normally its negation); strength of belief is a matter (if one has the second order belief) of how much more probable one believes this proposition to be than that one. That belief is contrastive, and provides the solution to the Lottery Paradox. Beliefs are involuntary; we can have infallible access to them. A belief is the belief it is, in virtue of its logical relations to others of our beliefs The publicly observable input to a believer and his output in behaviour and speech are (fallible) evidence of his beliefs.
The Criteria of Logical Probability
Authors: Swinburne Richard
Published: October 2003

The logical probability of a proposition on another proposition is the true measure of how probable the latter makes the former. The central case of this concerns how likely some evidence makes some hypothesis postulated to explain it. This depends on how probable it is, given the hypothesis that we would find the observed evidence, whether the hypothesis fits with background evidence, how simple it is, and how narrow is its scope. (The scope of a hypothesis depends on how many big and detailed claims it makes.) The latter two a priori criteria give to every proposition an intrinsic probability (a probability on no evidence). These criteria are captured by Bayes's Theorem. A detailed analysis is provided of what it is for a hypothesis to be simple. This account of the probability of a hypothesis on evidence is extended to deal generally with the probability of one proposition on another; and in particular with our grounds for believing testimony.
The Value of Synchronic Justification
Authors: Swinburne Richard
Published: October 2003

A belief being synchronically justified because it is based on adequate grounds may be understood in many senses. These vary from a pure internalist sense in which the grounds of a belief are other beliefs, their adequacy is their rendering that belief probable in some inductive sense, and ‘based on’ is understood as ‘believed to be caused by’ to some pure externalist sense. On a pure externalist theory, ‘based’ is ‘caused’, grounds are any cause, and adequacy is (normally) a matter of the token belief being produced by a process of a reliable type. In almost all of these senses, it is logically probable that a justified belief will be true; and, because truth is valuable, so is justified belief. But only in internalist senses can the believer have access to the fact that his belief is justified; and internalist justification of one kind is valuable for intrinsic reasons and also because it is indicative of truth.
Reference and Consciousness
Authors: Campbell John
Published: October 2003

Conscious attention to an object, singling it out in experience, provides knowledge of the reference of a demonstrative term. Knowledge of reference is the foundation of the ability to verify propositions about the object and of the ability to act on the object. To understand the relations between knowledge of reference, verification, and action, we have to look at the relations between conscious attention, visual information processing, and the motor system.

Why should it be specifically conscious attention that provides the knowledge of reference? Knowledge of reference demands acquaintance with the individual, categorical substances around us, and not merely collections of affordances. I argue that only experience of objects can provide this kind of acquaintance with individual substances.

The approach is extended beyond understanding one's own uses of visual demonstratives to cases of joint attention and to memory demonstratives. The approach has implications for Dummett's anti‐realism and Quine's theses of inscrutability and indeterminacy. The book concludes with remarks on the metaphysics of individual substances.
Memory Demonstratives
Authors: Campbell John
Published: October 2003

Memory demonstratives seem to depend on memory experience somewhat as perceptual demonstratives depend on perceptual experience. We need a notion of ‘temporal decentring’, in effect simulating a past time in memory, to explain the connections between memory demonstratives and past perceptual demonstratives. We also need to think of memory experience as relational, to explain how experience can make the inferential structure of our use of memory demonstratives available.
Thinking about Consciousness
Authors: Papineau David
Published: October 2003

Elaborates a materialist view of consciousness. The central thesis of the book is that while conscious states are material, we humans have two quite different ways of thinking about them. We can think about them materially, as normal parts of the material world, but we can also think about them phenomenally, as states that feel a certain way. These two modes of thought refer to the same items in reality, but at a conceptual level they are distinct. By focusing on the special structure of phenomenal concepts, David Papineau is able to expose the flaws in the standard arguments against materialism, while at the same time explaining why dualism can seem so intuitively compelling. The book also considers the prospects for scientific research into consciousness, and argues that such research often promises more than it can deliver. Once phenomenal concepts are recognized for what they are, many of the questions posed by consciousness research turn out to be irredeemably vague.
Conceptual Dualism
Authors: Papineau David
Published: October 2003

The best argument for the existence of phenomenal concepts is Frank Jackson's “knowledge argument”. Contra Jackson, this does not establish ontological dualism, but it does establish conceptual dualism in the sense that it shows that we have phenomenal concepts distinct from any material concepts. This analysis goes beyond the normal “ability hypothesis” response to Jackson's argument, but it appeals to the same powers of subjective imagination and introspection.
The Explanatory Gap
Authors: Papineau David
Published: October 2003

Joseph Levine argues that there is an “explanatory gap” between the brain and the conscious mind. Papineau agrees that there is such a gap, but points out that similar gaps are found with all identity claims involving directly referring terms, and so the gap does nothing to discredit materialism. The gap does not present any epistemological barrier to materialism.
The Intuition of Distinctness
Authors: Papineau David
Published: October 2003

Even materialists will admit that mind‐brain identity is counterintuitive. Some materialist philosophers think that this intuition is due to the plausibility of the standard antimaterialist arguments, like Jackson's knowledge argument or Kripke's modal argument. Papineau shows that this cannot be right, since these arguments apply equally in cases in which we feel no intuition of distinctness. Instead, he draws on remarks of Thomas Nagel to argue that the intuition of distinctness is due to an “antipathetic fallacy”: we move from the true premise that phenomenal concepts don’t involve conscious feelings to the false conclusion that they don’t refer to them.
Killing the Innocent in Self‐Defence
Authors: Otsuka Michael
Published: October 2003

Argues against the right to engage in lethal measures to defend oneself or others against innocent aggressors or innocent threats. Criticizes arguments to the contrary by Judith Jarvis Thomson and Frances Kamm. Offers a positive account of why the killing of an innocent threat or aggressor is morally on a par with the impermissible killing of an innocent bystander in self‐defence.
Left‐Libertarianism Versus Liberal Egalitarianism
Authors: Otsuka Michael
Published: October 2003

Explains why Lockean voluntarism, even when remedied of the problems discussed in Ch. 5, might be criticized by liberal egalitarians on the following grounds: it allows for the legitimacy of highly illiberal or inegalitarian political societies. Argues that such illiberal or inegalitarian societies would in fact be legitimized by the actual consent of their members when freely given in circumstances of equality. Therefore defends a voluntaristic, left‐libertarian account of political legitimacy that differs in crucial respects from the hypothetical contract approaches of liberal‐egalitarian Kantians such as John Rawls and Thomas Nagel.
Constructing a European Market
Authors: Egan Michelle
Published: October 2003

The European Union's effort to create a single market involves the removal of trade barriers created by divergent national standards and regulations, which need to be reconciled to promote market access and inter‐state commerce. This book provides a comprehensive account of the regulatory strategies and institutional arrangements adopted by the European Union in promoting the single market. It provides a historical overview and detailed case studies of the various regulatory initiatives that have altered the boundaries between the public and private sector in fostering market integration. Efforts to remove non‐tariff barriers to trade have relied heavily on European case law, and this book argues that the European Court of Justice has actively shaped markets by balancing the goals of market liberalization and market governance, while also fostering legal compliance with stated regulatory objectives.

Although markets are absolutely dependent on public authority, the book demonstrates how the EU has innovatively used non‐state actors to set standards for market access. By delegating regulatory responsibility to private standards‐setting bodies, a hybrid model of regulation has emerged that draws on private sector resources to achieve regulatory goals, primarily by establishing minimum thresholds for regulatory standards and related testing and certification practices. Expected to be more effective than the time‐consuming and ultimately limited harmonization of national practices, completion of the single market through principles of ‘mutual recognition’ and standard setting has been difficult to achieve. The effectiveness of this regulatory process in promoting market integration, and its impact on European business, are examined in detail. Throughout the book, comparisons are made with American efforts to remove internal trade barriers to demonstrate the difficulties of constructing a single market, and to highlight that both cases have involved public and private efforts to coordinate standards. Many of the strategies undertaken by the EU echo earlier American market‐building efforts.
Dependency Burdens in the Developing World
Authors: Bongaarts John
Published: October 2003

The dependency burden, which is the ratio of dependent young and old to the population of working age, varies as a country moves through demographic transition. Following a modest initial rise, the dependency ratio typically undergoes a prolonged period of decline during the central part of transition. This decline is closely linked to the decline in fertility. The timing, duration and magnitude of the decline in dependency rate in mid-transitional societies are largely determined by the timing, duration, and magnitude of fertility declines.
Demographic Change, Economic Growth, and Inequality
Authors: Williamson Jeffrey G.
Published: October 2003

This chapter argues that in the early stages of demographic transition, per capita income growth is diminished by large youth dependency burdens and small working age adult shares: there are few workers and savers. As transition proceeds, per capita income growth is promoted by smaller youth dependency burdens and larger working age adult shares: there are many workers and savers. The early burden of having few workers and savers becomes a boon — a high share of working age adults. This boon disappears as the elderly share rises.