bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Basic epidemiologic study designs
Authors: Thomas Duncan C
Published: November 2023

Much of this book is concerned with dichotomous disease outcomes with variable age at onset. Continuous outcomes are usually studied with simple random samples, using standard linear models for normally distributed random variables. But disease traits—particularly, rare diseases—require the use of specialized sampling designs and methods of survival analysis. Here we provide a brief introduction to these principles, as they apply to the study of independent individuals. [See the companion volume (Thomas, 2004) for a discussion of dependent data arising in the context of family studies.] This introduction will be somewhat terse, and the reader who wishes a more in depth treatment of these topics might be referred to standard epidemiology (Kleinbaum et al. 1982; Rothman and Greenland 1998) and biostatistics (Breslow and Day 1980; 1987) textbooks.
Longitudinal models
Authors: Thomas Duncan C
Published: November 2023

Up this point, we have focused on disease incidence or mortality data— discrete events, which by definition can only occur once. Not all traits of interest to the epidemiologist are like that. Underlying any binary trait is likely to be a complex system of continuous or discrete changes developing over time. Diseases come and go, and their pattern of recurrence, particularly in relation to changes in the environment, may be of interest. Often these subtler changes in intermediate traits can shed light on biological mechanisms or, by being closer to the immediate environmental cause, prove to be a more sensitive endpoint. In this chapter, we discuss the analysis of biomarkers, physiological measurements, clinical symptoms, and other traits that vary over time, either as endpoints of interest in themselves or as surrogates for the development of some unobservable disease process.
Intervention studies
Authors: Thomas Duncan C
Published: November 2023

In 1970, the U.S. Congress enacted the Clean Air Act, empowering the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to set standards for certain categories of “criteria” air pollutants. The 1990 Clean Air Act Amendment further required EPA to report periodically to Congress on the costs and benefits of this program. The first such report was published in 1997 and provided a retrospective assessment of the program from 1970 to 1990 (EPA 1997). In 1999, EPA published its second report (EPA 1999), a prospective assessment of projected costs and benefits from 1990 to 2010. Although in that report it announced its intent to provide updates every two years, this does not seem to have happened; to date, only an “analytical blueprint” for future reports has been made publicly available Nevertheless, the 1999 report provides arguably the most cogent case in support of the past and projected future accomplishments of the Clean Air Act. Table 14.1 summarizes the key findings of the report, showing a four-fold ratio of benefits to costs. Setting aside for the moment the controversial issue of the monetary valuation of health benefits, it is clear that the dominant benefit assessed by the EPA is for mortality, based on an estimate of 23,000 avoided cases over age 30 per year (95% CI 14,000–32,000). (This calculation does not take into account the amount of life shortening, however, a point we will return to later.) Congress subsequently directed the EPA to commission a report by the National Academy of Sciences (NAS 2002), which criticized many details about the EPA’s approach, but endorsed their main conclusions.
Risk assessment
Authors: Thomas Duncan C
Published: November 2023

Environmental epidemiology forms one the most important pillars for setting environmental regulations. Policy makers distinguish two types of activities, risk assessment and risk management. Risk assessment refers to the scientific activity of combining evidence from all relevant sources to assess the likely health consequences of various possible regulatory strategies and the uncertainty about these predictions. Risk management combines this scientific advice with consideration of economic, legal, political, and other considerations to arrive at policy recommendations.
Responsive Regulation and Developing Economies1
Authors: Braithwaite John
Published: November 2023

Responsive regulation is an approach designed in developed economies.2 Most of the critiques of it are also framed within the context of developed economies.3 This chapter explores the potential of responsive regulation in the context of weak states and struggling civil societies. It addresses the limitations of responsive regulation as a strategy in developing economies and poses some solutions to those limitations. First, it is argued that developing countries mostly have less regulatory capacity than developed ones. Yet herein also lies some of the potential of responsive regulation for developing countries as a strategy that mobilizes cheaper forms of social control than state command and control.
Dream
Authors: Grene Nicholas
Published: November 2023

‘The Song of the Happy Shepherd’, placed as his first lyric from Yeats’s earliest canonical collection Poems (1895), asserts the visionary truth of dreaming. The shepherd/poet here strikes a characteristic Romantic attitude in rejecting the empiricist verities of Enlightenment science: there is no truth Saving in thine own heart. Seek, then, No learning from the starry men, Who follow with the optic glass.
Place Names
Authors: Grene Nicholas
Published: November 2023

This was also the form in which they appeared also a year later in The Second Book of the Rhymers’ Club. But when the poem was collected in The Wind among the Reeds, the reeds from which O’Driscoll disturbs the duck and drake were those ‘Of the drear Hart Lake’. From ‘Heart’ to ‘Hart’ is not a very significant change, one might well imagine.
Homes Sweet Homes: A Biographical Tour of Wallace’s Many Places of Residence*
Authors: Beccaloni George
Published: November 2023

Alfred Russel Wallace lived in a great many houses during his long life, and even in his later years he moved house frequently, always choosing properties with pleasant views over the surrounding countryside (Richard Russel Wallace, pers. commun. 2006). In this chapter I discuss the houses he lived in for more than a few weeks, plus all the buildings he is known to have designed, even if he never occupied them. I will concentrate on his houses in Britain because of the difficulty of documenting the dozens of usually ephemeral dwellings he occupied during his travels in South America, South East Asia, and elsewhere.
The “Finest Butterfly in the World?”: Wallace and His Literary Legacy
Authors: Raby Peter
Published: November 2023

Wallace offered a characteristically self-critical report of his own literary powers in his autobiography, My Life (S729 1908), noting that he had a serious defect in verbal memory, which, together with his “imperfect school training” and his “shyness and want of confidence,” put him at a great disadvantage as a public speaker. “I can rarely find the right word or expression to enforce and illustrate my argument, and constantly feel the same difficulty in private conversation.”
Wallace, Women, and Eugenics
Authors: Paul Diane B
Published: November 2023

In the Millgate Monthly interview, conducted the year before Wallace’s death, the interviewer expressed surprise at the intensity of his subject’s anti-eugenic feeling. Wallace explained that he was sensitive on the point, having recently been de- scribed in a scientific publication as an enthusiast for eugenics. Scornfully insisting that nothing could be further from the truth, he asserted: “Not a reference to any of my writings; not a word is quoted in justification of this scientific libel.
Out of “the Limbo of ‘Unpractical Politics’ “: The Origins and Essence of Wallace’s Advocacy of Land Nationalization
Authors: Stack David A
Published: November 2023

In the winter of 1839–40 Wallace and his brother William were surveying in Kington and Radnorshire. When their work at Llanbister was complete they travelled ten miles south to undertake a task that, according to his 1905 autobiography My Life (S729), was new to Wallace: “the making of a survey and plans for the enclosure of common lands.” He was later to describe enclosure as “a legalised robbery of the poor for the aggrandisement of the rich,” but in 1840 Wallace thought nothing of the “simple robbery” he was helping to perpetrate on the tenants, leaseholders, and scattered cottagers of Llandrindod Wells.
Introduction
Authors: Clark Gordon L
Published: November 2023

Tms book is an exercise in political economy and economic geography. It is about the structure and organization of pension fund capitalism focusing upon the institutional framework of the investment process. I explain the growing significance of pension funds in relation to the limited fiscal powers of government, the changing balance of power between banks and new non-banking financial institutions, and the financial services industry. All this is set within the astonishing growth of Anglo-American pension fund assets over the past thirty years (Langbein 1995).1 Not surprisingly, the project involves analysis of com petition and innovation in the investment management industry as well as analysis of the nature and mediation of agency relationships within the industry, and between the institutions of pension fund capitalism.
Four Models of Financial Intermediation
Authors: Clark Gordon L
Published: November 2023

Compared to most governments’ social security programmes, pension schemes are normally funded as an individual’s benefit entitlement grows with their paid income and length of service. Thus, as the baby boom generation has moved through the workforce, as more workers have become entitled to participate in pension schemes, and as benefit levels have increased in proportion to paid wages, pension funds have grown astronomically, in terms of their total funds and their significance with respect to other sources of savings and investments.
Provision of Urban Infrastructure
Authors: Clark Gordon L
Published: November 2023

Understanding the role that private financial institutions may play in mobilizing pension fund investment in urban infrastructure is an essential theoretical and practical task. In doing so, this chapter is part of a growing interest in urban studies in the structure and performance of financial institutions (see Pryke 1994, and Pryke and Lee 1995), and has relevance for those studying the connection between money and the built environment (Harvey 1989). Here we are particularly interested in the design and management of financial intermediaries, an aspect of the investment process which has received less attention in the urban literature (but see Baxter 1994).
Common Patterns
Authors: Glennerster Howard , Hills John , Travers Tony , Hendry Ross
Published: November 2023

Earlier chapters have examined the development of funding mechanisms, the ways in which they currently operate in England, and views about these mechanisms among both policy elites and those implementing services at the local level. One of the main reasons for undertaking this study was the development in recent years within health, education, and housing of two tiers of formula-based allocations from central government to an intermediary body and then from the intermediary body to the local level. In the past, there had only been a single formula for health and education, allocating money from the centre to local/health authorities.
A New Approach to Local Development Analysis
Authors: Moulaert Frank
Published: November 2023

One of the main problems in evaluating the impact of globalization on the action space of local development strategies and policies is the choice of an appropriate methodological framework. Such a framework should respond to a number of criteria guaranteeing both analytical relevance and an easy transition to the formulation oflocal development policies and strategies. In this chapter, we deliberately choose regulation theory as the privileged analytical structure through which to organize the analysis of local dynamics. In Chapter 2, we presented regulation theory as a tool to analyse the crisis of Fordism and the rise of post-Fordism, and to reveal the relativity of the glob alization thesis.
Integrated Area Development and Social Innovation
Authors: Moulaert Frank
Published: November 2023

Relative and absolute poverty are increasing considerably. This is the result of a lack of social aid for unemployed labour, the exclusion of the long-term unemployed from social compensations, the depreciation of the status of the unemployed to that of ‘poor’ (a transition from the social security sector of unemployment to the welfare sector), and the shrinkage in the lowest wages that has led to a growth in the number of the ‘working poor’. Moreover, ‘liber ated’ economic mechanisms have generated an unacceptable distortion between the purchasing power of disfavoured groups of the population on the one hand, and the cost of housing and the use values of the information society (information networks and technology, quality education and culture, etc.) on the other.
Experiences in Integrated Area Development
Authors: Moulaert Frank
Published: November 2023

This chapter examines first the mechanisms of social exclusion and socio economic disintegration in six specific cities (Antwerp, Hamburg, Rostock, Charleroi, Bilbao, and Girona) and their selected neighbourhoods. Second, the strategies in these cities for local redevelopment and social reintegration, from the perspective of the Integrated Area Development model, are scrutinized. Third, the chapter offers a brief evaluation of the governance dynamics in each of these localities, especially with respect to their relationship to alternative development strategies.
Approaching the Data
Authors: Tanenbaum Eric
Published: November 2023

In this final chapter we move to a discussion of the material contained in the CD-ROM and demonstrate some of the ways in which this may be utilized and extended. The CD-ROM contains the data described in the earlier chapters of this book, organized to ease the execution of further analyses suggested in those chapters. This chapter begins by describing that organization. It continues with suggestions about how the data could be used to answer questions about party policy positions within and among the 24 OECD countries (and Israel) discussed in the text. It concludes with suggested procedures for incorporating new party manifestos in the MRG context.
The Context of Cultivation: Social and Economic Organization and the General Nature of Cropping
Authors: Whitmore Thomas M , II B L Turner
Published: November 2023

The cultivation practices of pre-Hispanic Middle America, like those for any other time and place, were etched into nature. Yet, these were not simple reflections of the opportunities and constraints afforded by the natural land scape (Chapter 1 ). They emerged from the complex interactions among nature, the material culture, social organization, as well as etchings from the previous cultivation. A thorough unfolding of this complexity lies beyond our expertise and the purpose of this work. Nevertheless, an overview of these conditions and contexts is provided here to enhance the understanding of the character and distribution of the cultivation practices that follow in subsequent chapters.
A Dictionary of Legal Theory
Authors: Bix Brian H
Published: November 2023

Modern legal theory contains a wide range of approaches and topics: from economic analysis of law to feminist legal theory to traditional analytical legal philosophy to a range of theories about justice. This healthy variety of jurisprudential work has created a problem: students and theorists working in one tradition may have difficulty understanding the concepts and terminology of a different tradition. This book works to make terminology and ways of thinking accessible. This dictionary covers topics from 'the autonomy of law' to the 'will theory of rights', from 'autopoiesis' to 'wealth maximization', and from 'John Austin' to 'Ludwig Wittgenstein'. The most important concepts and ideas are presented in a simple dictionary format. There are also many longer entries, where the initial definition gives an accessible explanation, but the entry goes on to give more detailed information about the history of an idea and the debates currently surrounding it.
F
Authors: Bix Brian H
Published: November 2023

fairness A basic term within morality, indicating morally appropriate treatment, though what is required for treatment to be fair, and what deviates from that requirement, is pervasively controversial. Within legal theory, fairness is sometimes put forward as the key concept for understanding justice, as in John Rawls ’s (1921-2002) theory of justice. Rawls ’s theory, which he sometimes labelled as ‘justice as fairness ‘, analysed justice in terms of which principles hypothetical bargainers, ignorant of their place in society or their values, would choose for organizing society.
G
Authors: Bix Brian H
Published: November 2023

Gadamer, Hans-Georg German philosopher (1900-2002) whose most important work, Truth and Method (1960), contributed to modern hermeneutic theory. In particular, Gadamer argued that the interpret¬ation of texts is done in a context in which both the authors and the readers are affected by the culture in which they are situated. According to Gadamer, we are all historically conditioned, and interpretation involves an effort to find a ‘fusion of horizons ’ between the two different perspectives. Like other writers within the hermeneutic tradition, Gadamer has been cited and discussed by some theorists working on legal interpretation, but it has never been obvious how to translate Gadamer ’s abstract observations directly into useful prescriptions or insights for the interpretation of legal texts.
L
Authors: Bix Brian H
Published: November 2023

law and economics The application to various legal questions of the forms of analysis found in economics-‘economics ‘ here understood broadly as including neo-classical economics, public choice theory, and game theory. Economic analysis can be used to predict what effects legal rules will have, to argue for legal reform in favour of more economically ‘efficient ’ rules, and to predict how legal rules will change in the future. Economic analysis has also been used as an explanation of existing rules, describing in economic terms why these rules were chosen (or have developed) rather than alternative rules.
N
Authors: Bix Brian H
Published: November 2023

narrative scholarship An approach to legal scholarship that diverges sharply from traditional case and doctrinal analysis, to tell stories. Sometimes these are autobiographical stories exploring the author ’s own experiences; sometimes stories of other people ’s experiences; and sometimes fictional stories or fables with no claims to historical truth, but with ambitions to reveal some deeper truth. Narrative scholarship is most frequent within, and associated with, critical race theory, though it has also been common within feminist legal theory, and used by scholars of a wide variety of other perspectives.
Vaccination: The United States Campaigns
Authors: Smallman-Raynor M R , Cliff A D , Trevelyan B , Nettleton C , Sneddon S
Published: November 2023

Almost half a century after the first major epidemic of poliomyelitis in the United States (Sect. 5.3), the development and mass administration of poliovirus vaccines served to curb disease activity. As Figure 10.1 indicates, the licensing of Salk’s inactivated poliovirus vaccine (IPV) in the United States in April 1955 was accompanied by a dramatic reduction in disease incidence. But it was the introduction and mass administration of Sabin’s live attenuated oral poliovirus vaccine (OPV) in the early 1960s that finally broke the chain of wild poliovirus transmission. Following a large-scale trial of OPV in Cincinnati in 1960, with further testing and licensing of the vaccine in 1961, the first mass vaccination programmes with monovalent OPV were implemented in the counties of Maricopa and Pima, Arizona, in January 1962 (Johns et al., 1963).
The Translator
Authors: Ellis Roger
Published: November 2023

The present chapter considers, in some detail, the activity of major figures whose work spans the whole time scale of this volume, from the late ninth century to the end of the fifteenth: King Alfred (late ninth century); Robert Grosseteste (mid-thirteenth); Geoffrey Chaucer and William Langland (late fourteenth); and William Caxton (late fifteenth). Their work, snapshots from a history of almost 1,000 years of translation, represents, in little, the great achievements of translation throughout the Middle Ages.
Principles and Norms of Translation
Authors: France Peter , Haynes Kenneth
Published: November 2023

How should we distinguish between a ‘norm’ and a ‘principle’? One view might be that norms tend to inhere in and define societies while principles belong to individuals. From this angle, Edward FitzGerald can be described as sensing a disparity between his principle and the norm when, thinking of publishing a version of Calderón in 1853, he worried that ‘my Translation would be so free as to be rather a dangerous Experiment’ (FitzGerald 1980: II, 53; on FitzGerald’s Calderón see further p. 270, below). The norm he both feared and hoped to threaten (‘dangerous’ cuts both ways) was widely evident around him. Prominent journals such as Fraser’s Magazine and the Edinburgh Review habitually prized ‘fidelity’ and ‘accuracy’ in the many translations they discussed.
The Translator
Authors: France Peter , Haynes Kenneth
Published: November 2023

This chapter is concerned with the careers of the men and women who made the translations, their social situation and motivation, the part translation played in their lives. They are presented in five groups: the professionals, for whom translation offered a way of earning at least a partial living; the amateurs and enthusiasts, for whom it was above all a pastime or a passion; the major literary figures, for whom it was only a part of their writing activity; the academics, whose translations were an extension and an application of their scholarly work; and finally the women, for whom translation might present particular possibilities.
Texts for Music and Oral Literature
Authors: France Peter , Haynes Kenneth
Published: November 2023

The nineteenth century is a high point in the translation of hymns into English. The principal examples were from Latin and from German, although Greek hymns were not far behind, and there were some translations from Danish and other languages. The activity was remarkable: Julian’s Dictionary of Hymnology lists 133 translations of the ‘Dies Irae’, 38 of ‘Adeste fideles’, 37 of ‘Vexilla regis prodeunt’, and 34 of ‘Veni sancte Spiritus’, together with 68 of ‘Ein’ feste Burg ist unser Gott’.
Introduction
Authors: Luckhurst Roger
Published: November 2023

This book has three aims. The first is to provide an account of the origin and early career of the concept of telepathy, coined in 1882 by the poet, classicist, amateur psychologist, and schools inspector Frederic Myers. What telepathy names—that is, forms of occult relation or communication between people at distance—is an ancient belief, common to many cultures. The reasons for why, when, and where this relation was conceptualized as telepathy, an oxymoronic distant (tele-) intimacy or touch (pathos), are located in the overlapping contexts of late Victorian culture. This will mean exploring the fields of science and technology, the explosion of mass print culture, the experimental laboratory and the music hall, the drawing room and the colonial frontier, the lowly pleasures of the Gothic and the high cultures of Modernism.
Terrains of Emergence, 1870-1882
Authors: Luckhurst Roger
Published: November 2023

The experience of modernity has been aptly Conjured up by Marshall Berman in Marx’s evocative phrase ‘all that is solid melts into air’. The uprooting of traditions, the instabilities of capitalism, and the reorganization of space and time in Western societies have been portrayed as simultaneously exhilarating and traumatic: as intrinsically ambivalent. Traditional institutions lose authority, but new bureaucracies of the state routinize experience. Mobility holds promise, but can also mean displacement and exile. Intellectual and affective liberation can transform social relations, hut can also be experienced as alienation and loss.
Telepathic Doxai: Knowledge and Belief at the Imperial Margin
Authors: Luckhurst Roger
Published: November 2023

Telepathy was coined as a strategy to protect a terrain of scientific legitimacy. Stead’s enthusiasms blurred any division of psychical research from a general flowering of the occult, whilst lambasting the Society for its donnish snobbery and tactics of exclusion. Yet Stead was not someone who ‘distorted’ a pure body of knowledge through popularization, for the discourse of psychical research always incorporated the voices of its lay constituencies. Most histories of psychical research focus on the experimental tests in Dean’s Yard and the subsequent theoretical elaboration of psychical concepts by the elite figures of the Society, rather than its broad membership.
Psychical Research and the Late Victorian Gothic
Authors: Luckhurst Roger
Published: November 2023

In 1889 the celebrated mind-reader Stuart Cumberland (who had demonstrated his psychical talents at the offices of the Pall Mall Gazette in 1884) published a shilling shocker, A Fatal Affinity. London is gripped by a sequence of murders of women, all stabbed by a poisoned dagger on their twenty-first birthday. The penny press record the grimmest details; mad-doctors diagnose a homicidal mania following a lunar cycle; a noted author proposes criminal suggestion by mesmeric influences. Amidst these speculations, Colonel Mansfield returns from his travels.
The Woman Sensitive: Nerves, New Women, and Henry James
Authors: Luckhurst Roger
Published: November 2023

This study has accumulated evidence of a persistent association of occult and telepathic sensitivity with femininity. Spiritualists privileged women mediums, making the s èance, as Alex Owen has argued, an arena for the rehearsal and subversion of’normative femininity’. For William Stead, trained by women in automatic writing, these talents were an extension of his idealization of the feminine. He held that ‘sex in woman is something which Nature has made more silent on the physical plane, in order that its sense may listen to whisperings on emotional and spiritual planes … This more silent woman-sense is in touch with some of Nature’s subtlest secrets.’ Medical men from the 1870s pathologized ‘mediomania’ as a hysterical contagion preponderant in a less rational female population.
Introduction
Authors: Briden James C , Downing Thomas E
Published: November 2023

Scarcely a day goes by without news of drought or flood, famine or hurricane, conflict or fraught international negotiation to raise repeatedly the suspicion that humanity is living beyond the coping capacity of our host planet. The natural forces and human interests, individual and communal, are legion and apparently irreconcilable. How can we manage? How can we live sustainably on Earth, bequeathing to successor generations an environment at least as fit to live in as we currently enjoy? The issues go beyond the conventional bounds of politics and international diplomacy to the challenge of managing the Earth itself.
Risks of Conflict: Resource and Population Pressures
Authors: Tickell Crispin
Published: November 2023

The two world wars in the last century showed how dangerous wars between industrial states had become. It is probably no coincidence that there has been none since then. As the United Nations Secretary-General remarked in his Millennial Report in 2000, ‘the majority of wars today are wars among the poor’. Violence within societies has also increased. Of the twenty-seven armed conflicts that took place in 1999, all but two were within national boundaries.
Valuing the Earth: Reintegrating the Study of Humans and the Rest of Nature
Authors: Costanza Robert
Published: November 2023

Practical problem solving in complex, human-dominated ecosystems requires the integration of three elements: ( r) active and on-going envisioning of both how the world works and how we would like the world to be; systematic analysis appropriate to and consistent with the vision; and implementation appropriate to the vision. Scientists generally focus on only the second of these steps, but integrating all three is essential to both good science and effective management. ‘Subjective’ values enter in the ‘vision, element, both in terms of the formation of broad social goals and in the creation of a ‘pre-analytic vision’ which necessarily precedes any form of scientific analysis.
Can Technology Save Us from Global Climate Change?
Authors: Metz Bert
Published: November 2023

Before we can answer the question if technology can save us from glob al climate change, we need to have an idea how big the climate change challenge is. The most recent IPCC assessment (IPCC 2001a) presents an estimate of the increase in global average mean temperature by 2oo1 in the absence of further policies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. On top of the increase of o.7 degrees Celsius above the pre-industrial global average temperature that has already materialized, a further I .4 to 5.8 degrees Celsius increase above today’s temperature can be expected. This estimate is based on a range of scenarios for the evolution of greenhouse gas emissions developed by IPCC (IPCC 2000a), combined with a range of climate models and a range of climate sensitivities.1 The emissions scenarios are obviously where we have to look when we want to get an idea of the amount of greenhouse gas emissions to be avoided.
Protecting the Vulnerable: Climate Change and Food Security
Authors: Downing Thomas E
Published: November 2023

In the past several years debates about climate change have moved from speculation about likely impacts to how to detect and prepare for expected impacts. The Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is a major milestone.
An Uncooperative Commodity: Privatizing Water in England and Wales
Authors: Bakker Karen J
Published: November 2023

Privatization of water suply is an emotive and controversial topic. The 'British model' of water privatization is unique: no other country has entirely privatized its water supply and sewerage systems. This book analyzes the socio-economic and environmental dimensions of privatization in England and Wales. It examines the implications of privatization for consumers, environmental management, and the water supply industry.
Privatizing Water, Producing Scarcity: The Yorkshire Drought of 1995
Authors: Bakker Karen J
Published: November 2023

During the hot, sunny summer of 1995, reservoirs in England’s West Yorkshire region ran dry. Despite restrictions on water consumption, demand soared to record levels. Yorkshire Water Services (YWS), the private company in charge of water supplies, obtained emergency permission to increase abstraction from local rivers. Amid concerns over deteriorating water quality and low flow levels, the environmental regulator of the industry carried out ‘fish rescues’ and artificially aerated some rivers (EA 1996<7). Local schools, hospitals, and councils made contingency plans in the event of a failure in water supply. Local officials warned of health epidemics and fire hazards. Unessential uses, such as garden-watering and car-washing, were banned throughout the region. Standpipes (public water taps for access by multiple households) were erected, and YWS warned of ‘rota cuts’ (periodic cut-offs in domestic water supply). The region’s reservoirs were empty, despite having been full only months before, after one of the wettest winters of the century.
Discourse and Environmental Planning
Authors: Rydin Yvonne
Published: November 2023

The central focus of this book is the role of discourse within the processes of environmental planning, particularly as it relates to rationality claims and to conflicts and consensus within these processes. The book examines in detail the processes of agenda creation, legitimation, conflict mediation, and consensus building, as well as the more routine aspects of bureaucratic planning practice. It does so in the context of a broader concern with discourses, communication, and argument within planning processes.
Air Pollution Control and Air Quality Management
Authors: Rydin Yvonne
Published: November 2023

Among environmental issues, pollution is one that has been subject to considerable ‘unpacking’ in terms of its social construction. Mary Douglas’s (1966) work on the construction of matter ‘out of place’ as ‘pollution’ and the development of social institutions of taboo and control on that basis is rightly regarded as seminal within anthropology. Her own and subsequent work on the construction of risk has developed this approach further, particularly within the anthropological framework of cultural theory (Douglas and Wildavsky 1983; Adams 1995).
Local Agenda 21
Authors: Rydin Yvonne
Published: November 2023

Local Agenda 21 traces its history back to the Rio Summit and UN World Conference on Environment and Development held in 1992. At this event a document known as Agenda 21 was presented. It represented a manifesto for sustainable development for the twenty-first century and it received consider able attention and support at the conference. Many governments announced a willingness to adopt A21 and follow it up at the national level. A UN Commission on Sustainable Development has, since then, sought to hold governments to their word.
‘Thre Geschichte Ware NochZuSchreiben’: Biographical Fictions About Women
Authors: Bridge Helen
Published: November 2023

The first chapter has shown how, from the 1970s onwards, a growing gulf separated the GDR literary discourse on National Socialism from historians’ treatments of the topic. Whereas authors drew on their own subjective experience to challenge dogmatic interpretations of this era of the past, the works this chapter will examine deal with more distant periods of history. Although almost all of these texts present an individual figure, and so are concerned with a particular era in history, they are united not primarily by a concern with a single historical period, as in Chapter 1, but by an interest in a more general historic graphical question: how do we approach the history of women’s experience?
How Groups Choose and What They Read
Authors: Hartley Jenny
Published: November 2023

How do groups choose what to read? The answer in most cases is ‘with difficulty’. ‘As democratically as possible’ is a major imperative, and this can take time and effort. On some of our visits to groups we have been struck by the way they can take almost as long choosing what to read next as they do discussing this month’s book.
The Pleasures of Reading Together
Authors: Hartley Jenny
Published: November 2023

We asked the groups in our survey what they most enjoy about their reading groups, and one respondent took us back half a century with her mother’s enduring memory of neighbourhood sessions in the north of England in 1948:
The Reading Group in the Twenty-First Century
Authors: Hartley Jenny
Published: November 2023

This chapter brings the reading group into the twenty-first century. A small follow-up survey conducted at the end of 2001 asked groups what they had read during the year, and whether there had been any developments or changes. Were recently established groups still going, or had the late 1990s seen a temporary fad passing through? And what is their place and standing in the world of books? The 2001 survey has returns from 130 groups and, as in the earlier survey, the enthusiasm comes across strongly, both for what they have been reading, and for the group itself.
Euroscepticism in Italy*
Authors: Quaglia Lucia
Published: November 2023

With the second government of Silvio Berlusconi, developments concerning the European Union (EU) policy of the Italian government pushed the issue of Euroscepticism in Italy into the limelight. In the past, any reference to ‘Italian Euroscepticism’ would have been regarded as an oxymoron, given that Italian elites, political parties, and public opinion alike had traditionally been ‘pro-European’, meaning pro-EU and in favour of European integration. With the appointment of the second Berlusconi government in May 2001—even though some signals had already emerged during the first Berlusconi government in 1994—Eurosceptic attitudes, at times translated into policies, appeared at the governmental level for the first time in post-war Italy.
NMR in solids
Authors: Freeman Ray
Published: November 2023

Ice and water are the same chemical substance, yet one is a solid and the other a liquid. We all recognize the difference from their bulk properties, but it is the nature of the molecular motion that really distinguishes these two states of matter. The molecules of liquid water are in continuous rapid motion in all possible directions. Although water molecules are too small to be seen under an ordinary microscope, their chaotic translational motion can be made evident by sprinkling a fine powder on the water surface. These small solid particles are large enough to been seen under the microscope yet small enough to be buffeted in a random manner by the water molecules (Brownian motion). More import ant to the NMR spectroscopist is the ‘tumbling’ motion-a chaotic, stepwise reorientation of the molecules which has a very profound effect on the NMR spectra.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging
Authors: Freeman Ray
Published: November 2023

In 1972 magnetic resonance emerged from being a technique devoted almost entirely to chemistry to one that quickly became essentially a household word in medicine. The initial excitement was boosted by the hope that it might serve as a foolproof diagnostic for cancerous tissue, but it gradually became apparent that magnetic resonance had far wider implications as a method for obtaining images of human physiology, and even as the long-awaited window into how the brain functions. Soon the new tail (MRI) began to wag the old dog (NMR).
Introduction: Holy Lands
Authors: Bar-Yosef Eitan
Published: November 2023

In 1804, William Blake began composing and etching one of his most monumental prophecies, Jerusalem. It was a much shorter poem, how-ever, written that same year as part of his Preface to Milton, which eventually usurped the title ‘Jerusalem’ to become Blake’s most enduring work: an English institution. Performed every summer, with great pomp and circumstance, at the very end of the Last Night of the Proms, Blake’s hymn has come to mean different things to different people. For some, dreaming of a lost rural Eden, the powerful pledge to rebuild Jerusalem offers a glimpse of heaven on earth. For others, it evokes the utopian fantasy of a socialist England, envisaged by artists from William Morris to Morrissey (who often enters the stage, in his concert tours, with ‘Jerusalem’ thundering in the background).
Homesick Crusaders: Propaganda and Troop Morale in the Palestine Campaign, 1917
Authors: Bar-Yosef Eitan
Published: November 2023

On 9 December 1917 British and Dominion forces captured Jerusalem from the Turks; two days later, heading a solemn procession, General Edmund Allenby—chief of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force (EEF)— entered the city on foot. In London, Punch published a memorable illustration which epitomized the great achievement: captioned ‘The Last Crusade’, it showed Richard Coeur de Lion looking down towards the Holy City and nodding contentedly, ‘My dream comes true!’(seeFig.12).Punch, it seemed, spoke for many. The allusion to the campaign in Palestine as the ‘new’ or the ‘last’ Crusade was common both during and after the War, with numerous books offering their own variation on the theme: Khaki Crusaders (1919), Temporary Crusaders (1919), The Modern Crusaders (1920), The Last Crusade (1920), With Allenby’s Crusaders (1923), and so forth. A recent title like Anthony Bruce’s The Last Crusade: The Palestine Campaign in the First World War (2003) indicates that the analogy has yet to be exhausted.
Prologue
Authors: Millgate Michael
Published: November 2023

To undertake the revision of a biography is scarcely less risky—less of a venture over potentially dangerous waters—than embarking on it in the first place. However much the biographer knows, that knowledge can never account for more than a fraction of the life actually lived. No sources are entirely unproblematic, and they may in any case remain permanently deficient for those periods or aspects of a life commonly considered to be of particular significance: early childhood, for example, sexual relationships, and those supremely elusive processes of literary and artistic creativity. In returning, however, to Thomas Hardy: A Biography some two decades after its original appearance, I do at least have the confidence of knowing that much material of interest and importance has been published during the intervening years.
Far from the Madding Crowd
Authors: Millgate Michael
Published: November 2023

Emma Gifford ‘s ‘romantic ideas ‘, so admired by her friend Margaret Hawes, were primarily responsible for her now encouraging Hardy to continue with his writing. She had literary aspirations of her own, an imagination of herself as the wife of a successful author, and doubtless a secret hope that the romance of a literary career would compensate in some degree for Hardy ‘s lack of a commandingly handsome exterior. Hardy himself, though susceptible to such encouragement, was as a prospective husband obliged to consider economic realities, and he could see no immediate alternative to the architectural work in which he was—in one sense fortunately, in another ironically—becoming steadily more experienced, proficient, and sought after. The beginning of 1872 found him in lodgings at 1 West Parade, Weymouth, still working for Crickmay, but just before Easter he went once more to London, to the Bedford Street offices of T. Roger Smith, one of the judges for the Architectural Association prize Hardy had won in 1863 and now busy with submissions to a London School Board competition for the design of new schools.¹ Hardy took lodgings with the family of a tailor at 4 Celbridge Place, a terraced block (now part of Porchester Road) a hundred yards or so from 16 Westbourne Park Villas, and was still enough of a churchgoer to attend service at St George ‘s, Notting Hill, on Good Friday, at St Paul ‘s Cathedral on Easter Day, and at St George ‘s, Hanover Square, the following Sunday, 7 April.²
Florence Henniker
Authors: Millgate Michael
Published: November 2023

In the summer of 1892 Rebekah Owen, an energetic, unmarried American woman of 34, came on a purposeful pilgrimage to Dorchester, dragging her elder sister in her train.¹ She was armed with an introduction from one of the directors of Sampson Low, Marston & Co., Hardy ‘s reprint publishers, talked her way into Max Gate, and was soon on friendly terms with both Hardy and Emma. The more romantic aspects of her relation-ship with Hardy himself seem to have existed only in her own imagination, but he was certainly flattered and gratified, early on, by her wide and enthusiastic knowledge of his work. The Owen sisters made several expeditions under his or Emma ‘s guidance to Wool Manor, Bindon Abbey, Weymouth, and other places drawn upon in the novels, and on 7 September they all four went to Swanage, where Hardy attended a meeting of the Field Club while Emma showed the Owen sisters around the town. At West End Cottage the now widowed Mrs Masters remembered the Hardys from sixteen years earlier, but Emma declined to go inside, evidently associating the house with a period of relative poverty and with the writing of The Hand of Ethelberta, a book she claimed to dislike because it had ‘too much about servants in it ‘.²
Keeping Separate
Authors: Millgate Michael
Published: November 2023

Hardy had apparently determined the contents of Wessex Poems in February 1897, nearly two years ahead of its first appearance in December 1898, and he had certainly made by then the remarkable decision to illustrate the volume with his own sketches. In making up such a volume of verse he was able to draw upon richer resources than his contemporaries are likely to have suspected, his abandonment of poetry during the fiction-writing decades having been far from absolute. Poems had been completed but left unpublished, The Dynasts had been brooded upon, planned and replanned, and partly drafted,¹ and notebooks had become filled with material potentially usable in possible poems. Apart from items entered into Hardy ‘s ‘Studies, Specimens ‘ notebook from the 1860s or retrospectively gathered into his later ‘Poetical Matter ‘ notebook, little of that material survived the systematic destruction of Hardy ‘s pocketbooks that was carried out partly by Hardy himself before his death and partly by Sydney Cockerell after it.² But while the available evidence for Hardy ‘s continuing poetic activity is thus disappointingly sparse, what the pocket-books typically contained can readily be inferred from the few surviving fragments: ideas for possible topics or titles; descriptions of weather and other natural phenomena; rough drawings of places, people, and paintings seen; snatches of overheard conversations; vignettes of human predicaments and personalities; notes on possible images; outlines for entire poems and even fragmentary drafts.
A Funeral
Authors: Millgate Michael
Published: November 2023

Emma was also nearing 70, and had been in indifferent health for some years. In May 1906, while gardening at Max Gate, she suffered a seizure of some kind: ‘My heart seemed to stop; I fell, and after a while a servant came to me. ‘¹ Her description of this as her ‘first strange fainting-fit ‘ suggests that it was followed by others, but by 1910 her general health had markedly improved. She resumed cycling that summer after having felt well enough in the spring to accompany her husband to London and renew her private assault upon the world of letters. It was, as usual, Hardy who found, at 4 Blomfield Terrace in Maida Vale, what was to prove their last London flat, and Emma followed at the beginning of May, bringing with her one of the Max Gate maids to answer the door and do the shopping.² It was at just this moment that the death of Edward VII occurred. Hardy watched the funeral procession from the vantage point of the Athenaeum Club and on his own birthday, two weeks later, he was moved by the reflection that he was, at 70, a year older than the dead king.³
A Second Marriage
Authors: Millgate Michael
Published: November 2023

Immediately upon Emma ‘s death Kate Hardy moved into Max Gate to act as her brother ‘s housekeeper. Florence Dugdale was already in Weymouth, having come down, like the Owen sisters, to be present at the performance of The Trumpet-Major, and when Hardy summoned her to Max Gate they seem to have behaved with what Emma ‘s loyal young maid, taught by Dorchester gossip to regard Florence as Hardy ‘s ‘mistress ‘, regarded as unseemly levity. A death can of course provoke complex responses from the living, and it is likely enough that both Hardy and Florence were at first seized by a sense of the freedom and opportunity that Emma ‘s departure had so unexpectedly created. But the moment for euphoria soon passed. Florence went back to Enfield for a few days, and when she returned to Max Gate in early December she found not only that Kate was still in command but that Lilian Gifford had moved in too. There were in any case business matters to be attended to, letters to be written, malicious tongues to be challenged and, if possible, silenced. Hardy, criticized for allowing the performance of The Trumpet-Major to go forward on the day of his wife ‘s death, sent to The Times a supplementary obituary of Emma that included a statement to the effect that ‘Mr. Hardy ‘ had not interfered with the play simply out of consideration for those who had come a long way to see it.¹