bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The IPPF: 21 years of achievement
Authors: Dennis Frances
Published: July 2008

The International Planned Parenthood Federation was founded in 1952. In that year the Republic of Ireland hinted at resignation from the World Health Organization if WHO were to involve itself in family planning activities (Symonds & Carder, 1973). In 1973, as the IPPF marks its 21st Anniversary, a ban on the import of contraceptives has been upheld by the Irish courts after a mother of four appealed for help to prevent another pregnancy for health reasons. In October this year the Family Planning Association of Ireland will probably become the 80th member of the International Planned Parenthood Federation.
Missed appointments at a family planning clinic
Authors: Selman Peter , Stephens Chris
Published: July 2008

One hundred and fifty-two women who failed to keep appointments for discussion or fitting of an IUD at a hospital clinic have been studied. Home visits were made by a social worker in an attempt to encourage the women to accept a new appointment, or make alternative plans for birth control. At the end of the study, 31 women had been fitted with an IUD, 16 had had a tubal tie, and 46 were successfully using other methods of contraception. The eventual acceptance of an IUD was found to be related to the reasons given by the women for not keeping the missed appointment.
Influence of age, birth order and reproductive compensation on stillbirth ratios
Authors: Resseguie Laurence J.
Published: July 2008

This analysis was planned to produce an estimate of the effects of maternal ageing on the risk of stillbirth which would not be confounded by other biological and socio-economic factors. The basic comparison is between late fetal death ratios in second and third births for all women who experienced third single births in California in 1968. The analysis leads to the conclusion that women who experience late fetal deaths initiate more subsequent pregnancies and after shorter intervals than do women who have live births. A sharply lower risk of late fetal death for third birth than for second was found to mask age effects. It is suggested that this reduction in risk reflects the effects of successful diagnosis and treatment of conditions which produce high rates of pregnancy loss.
The status of women and fertility
Authors: Piepmeier K. B. , Adkins T. S.
Published: July 2008

There is a great deal of interest in the relation between the status of women and fertility—by humanists, academics and policy-makers concerned with bringing about fertility declines. The three aspects of women's status most frequently linked to fertility are their education, employment and type of husband-wife interaction. Research to date has not given us a clear and consistent explanation of these relationships and has not confirmed causality. The effects of these three factors on fertility vary considerably across national boundaries and even within different sectors of the same society. Some of the assumptions held by both researchers and policymakers must be re-thought in the interests of more useful future research and of sounder policy.
Zero Population Growth, Inc.: a Second Study
Authors: Barnett Larry D.
Published: July 2008

This paper reports the results of a sample survey of ZPG members undertaken in April 1971 to ascertain if any changes had occurred in membership attributes since the first survey in September 1970 and to investigate additional characteristics. Age, education, religion and student/ non-student status are considered in relation to length of membership of ZPG. Income, political activities, intended family size and opinions about ideal population size and population control are also examined, including attitudes towards vasectomy and abortion.

It is concluded that, among members of voluntary organizations, demographic factors such as age, education, religion and sex do not possess a causal relationship with social behaviour.
Parental Age Differences
Authors: James William H.
Published: July 2008

Data are presented on a representative sample of legitimate live-born first infants in England, Scotland and Wales. When they are categorized simultaneously by paternal age, maternal age and social class of the father, it is found that:

(1) Mean parental age difference (father's age — mother's age) is higher in upper class births than in other births.

(2) If a man is younger than his wife, he is probably more likely than otherwise to come from the lower social classes, though this conclusion becomes less secure as the age difference increases in this direction.

(3) Mean parental age difference increases with paternal age and decreases with maternal age.

(4) For a given paternal age, parental age difference increases with a decline in social class, and for a given maternal age, parental age difference increases with a rise in social class.

(5) In general, young parents have smaller mean parental age differences than old parents.

If such mating patterns are characteristic of white North Americans one would infer:

(1) that the risks of neonatal death and stillbirth previously reported in association with aged paternity are the result of biological rather than sociological phenomena, and

(2) that the risks of neonatal death and stillbirth previously reported in association with youthful paternity are the result of sociological rather than biological phenomena.

In general, it seems that mean parental age difference is unlikely to be a fruitful clue to the aetiologies of pathological conditions unless there are simultaneous controls on the age of at least one parent and on social class.

The question is raised whether age disparity between spouses is associated with childlessness as well as with perinatal death and congenital malformations.
Studies on Albinism in the South African Negro I. Intellectual Maturity and Body Image Differentiation
Authors: Manganyi Noel C. , Kromberg Jennifer G. R. , Jenkins Trefor
Published: July 2008

Twenty-eight South African Negro albinos have been tested for intellectual maturity and body image boundary, characteristics and a comparison made with carefully matched normally pigmented controls. The albinos were found to be more intellectually mature than the controls but the control group showed slightly more diffuse body image boundary differentiation than the albino group.
Epidemiology of congenital malformations of the central nervous system in (a) Aberdeen and (b) Scotland
Authors: Baird Dugald
Published: July 2008

The incidence of anencephalus and other malformations of the central nervous system (CNS) is much higher in the United Kingdom than in other countries of Western Europe which were not industrialized to the same extent. In the UK the incidence is highest in the unskilled manual occupational group, especially in the large cities of the North of England, Scotland and Northern Ireland. Standards of living have been low in these areas for many years and deteriorated sharply at the time of the worldwide industrial depression from 1928 to 1934. The population tended to be stunted in stature and to show other signs of chronic malnutrition.

The cohort of women born in these years had an unusually high stillbirth rate from anencephalus (and from all other CNS malformations) from about 1946 onwards. It was highest in the early 1960s when these women were at the peak of their reproductive activity. This suggests that the severe malnutrition to which they were subjected before and soon after birth resulted in severe damage, which reduced their reproductive efficiency as demonstrated by the unusually high perinatal death rate from all CNS malformations. Not surprisingly the death rate rose sooner, lasted longer and reached a higher level in social classes IV and V than in social classes I and II. Other evidence of damage was an increase in the incidence of low birth weight babies with a corresponding increase in the perinatal death rate from this cause.

In Scotland the stillbirth rate from anencephalus was approximately 2·1 per 1000 in 1948–49, 3·4 at its highest point between 1961 and 1963 and 2·1 in 1968, by which time the women born in the years of the depression had completed their childbearing. A teratogen acting during a particular period of time could not provide a satisfactory explanation for this sequence of events.
Birth order and birth rate bias: findings in a representative sample of the adult population of Great Britain
Authors: Hare E. H. , Price J. S.
Published: July 2008

Birth order and family size have been studied in a representative sample (10,000) of the adult population of Great Britain. This was done to test theoretical predictions about the ways in which the birth-order distribution in a population sample will be biased by secular changes in family size. The principal predictions were that, in a sample born during a period when family size was decreasing, the distribution of birth ranks in the larger families would be biased towards an over-representation of later born subjects (i.e. those lower in birth order), while in smaller families there would be an under-representation of later born. In a sample born during a period when family size was increasing, the reverse effects would occur. It was also predicted that among subjects from large families there would be an excess of females; and that the extent of the bias due to decrease in family size would be greatest in the unskilled and least in the highly skilled social classes.

The findings confirmed these predictions. The sample also showed an un-predicted excess of subjects in the middle ranks of families. It is suggested that the hypothesis of birth rate bias may be used for predicting the type of birth-order distribution to be expected in a sample of any population.
Applications of the concepts of affinity and distance to population problems
Authors: George Aleyamma , Mathai A. M.
Published: July 2008

This article applies the statistical concepts of affinity and distance to live-birth data and suggests that the method may be of relevance in population problems. The distributions among villages in Kerala, south-west India, of the number of live births in each religious grouping are compared, and measures of affinity and distance among these distributions calculated. Such distances calculated for three successive periods show secular trends which may indicate changing patterns of group behaviour.
Teen-age pregnancies in Denmark, 1940–71
Authors: Braestrup Agnete
Published: July 2008

With the increasing interest in population dynamics, research workers with differing backgrounds, such as demographers, vital statisticians and members of the medical profession, find themselves on common ground. However, this interdisciplinary contact reveals that we sometimes use technical words in different ways, depending on the terminology of our profession. When a doctor speaks about fertility, it is synonymous with the Scandinavian word frugtbarhed whereas fertilitet for the demographer only refers to live-born. Medical research within the field of fertility usually deals with conceptions, i.e. live-births, still-births, legal abortions and other hospitalized abortions, including illegal and spontaneous abortions. There are also an unknown number of conceptions, such as non-hospitalized abortions, but it is now generally believed that, in Denmark, this figure is negligible (Hoffmeyer & Norgaard, 1964; Sele & Norgaard, 1972). Moreover, during the last three decades, contraception has become more and more widespread and this new variable, which influences both births and abortions, should also be considered. Bearing this in mind it would be appropriate to refine our terminology and use ‘manifest fertility’ for conceptions and ‘potential fertility’ for all biologically possible pregnancies.
The changing pattern of a comprehensive infertility clinic
Authors: Newton John , Craig Sue , Joyce David
Published: July 2008

The results of a comprehensive daily fertility clinic are presented for the years 1970–72, together with a 2-month schedule of investigation for the couples. Twenty-seven per cent had ovulation problems, 18% fallopian tube blockage or adhesions, 25% oligo- or aspermia and 27% were normal to investigation. The treatment of these conditions is discussed; the highest pregnancy rate was seen in those with no treatment (45%) indicating the use of reassurance after complete investigation.
Family Environment: Sibling Constellation and Social Class Correlates
Authors: Marjoribanks Kevin , Walberg Herbert J.
Published: July 2008

Eleven-year-old boys and their parents from southern Ontario, Canada, were used to examine relations among sibling constellation variables, social status indicators and a set of parent-sibling interaction variables which were highly predictive of mental ability performance. A two-term equation including father's occupation and either sibsize or the inverse of sibsize parsimoniously accounted for as much significant variance in the parent-sibling variables as complex many-termed equations. Within each socioeconomic group the amount of parent-sibling interaction decreased as the family size increased. It was also found that in high social status groups the amount of interaction in large families was greater than in small families from lower social status groups. By using refined environmental measures the study provides an increased understanding of the relations between social status, sibling constellation variables, family environment and cognitive performance.
Factors of Gross Motor Performance in Special Education
Authors: Broadhead Geoffrey D.
Published: July 2008

Gross motor performance data were secured from boys and girls in special education classes for the minimally brain injured. By factor analysis two gross motor factors were identified, one a strength-maturation component, and the other general motor ability. In comparison groups of educable mentally retarded children from the same school districts, the same factors were apparent, though the order of extraction was reversed.
Migration Status and Family Size
Authors: El Attar M. A. , Vaidyanathan K. E.
Published: July 2008

Using data from the 1960 US census of population, migrant and non-migrant families are compared, over the period 1955–60, for family size in three residence groups of whites and non-whites. Migrant families in both colour groups are found to have a higher mean number of children under 6 years of age than do the non-migrants and a small differential is maintained even after indirect standardization for age of family head. Non-migrant families have a higher mean number of older children but this excess decreases after standardization. It is concluded that migration does not interfere with childbearing and that, on balance, migrants do not have fewer births.
Long-term use of daily administration of low doses of norgestrel as an oral contraceptive
Authors: Foss G. L. , Fotherby K.
Published: July 2008

Long-term evaluation of continuous microdosage of norgestrel suggests reappraisal of this form of oral contraception.
The limits of acceptable family size in Western Nigeria
Authors: Ware Helen
Published: July 2008

The data in this paper are drawn from interviews with a stratified probability sample of 2996 Yoruba men and women aged 17 or above living in Lagos and Western States in June–July 1973. Although drawing upon other material from the 1 ½-hour interviews the discussion concentrates upon the family size ideals of these individuals. In addition to the customary measures of ideal family size, new measures of the limits of acceptable family size are described, together with the reactions of the whole sample to a wide range of statements relating to family size and the value of children. It is shown that the smallest family which would be acceptable to any appreciable proportion of the population is four children, which would be acceptable to 18% of all respondents. Comparative data from elsewhere in the developing world are presented to show that African family size ideals are amongst the highest in the world. Age, educational and occupational differentials in perceptions of different family sizes are also discussed.
Morphological jaw differences in mentally subnormal and normal adult males
Authors: Sanderson Alan , Laycock Patrick J. , MacCulloch Malcolm M. , Girling Alan
Published: July 2008

The shape of the mandibular symphysis was studied in four groups of adult male Caucasians, aged 18–49. The composition of the groups and their numbers were as follows: (1) Down's syndrome (20), (2) familial idiopathic subnormality (20), (3) healthy individuals, IQ range 94−120 (22), and (4) healthy individuals, IQ 130+ (22). From lateral skull radiographs, the outline of the mandibular symphysis was digitized with a D-mac pencil follower. Selected distances and angles were computed and used as variables in a canonical analysis. Plots of the canonical variates discriminated appreciably between each group. Generalized distance measurements between group means were significant for all pairs of groups except 2/3 and 3/4. The results suggest a genetic link between intelligence and symphysis shape. This hypothesis will be tested by introducing a brain-damaged group, matched in intelligence, and for length of stay in hospital, with Group 2. The finding could influence developments in human genetics and psychology.
The interval between confinements
Authors: Pollard G. N.
Published: July 2008

Data from New South Wales are analysed to show how the interval between confinements depends on the parity of the mother. When an average interval is calculated it is a weighted average for mothers of varying parity. The weights depend in part on the parity progression ratios and as changes in the parity progression ratios alter the composition of the population by parity, this affects the weightings used and thus affects the average interval obtained.

For any interval, age of mother can be calculated at the birth of either child. When age of mother is calculated at the birth of the second child, it is found that the interval is shorter for younger mothers than older mothers. However, when age of mother is calculated at the birth of the first child, there is no significant variation in the interval with age of mother.
Some results of an Irish family planning survey
Authors: Wilson-Davis Keith
Published: July 2008

From a survey conducted in the Republic of Ireland, data are given on the opinions of 754 married women and 194 husbands regarding the Government ban on and the desired availability of contraception. Data are given stating the extent of family planning and the methods used.
Physical growth of Jamaican school children who were severely malnourished before 2 years of age
Authors: Richardson Stephen A.
Published: July 2008

A study is reported of physical growth of Jamaican schoolboys who had been admitted to hospital with severe malnutrition during infancy (index cases). Height, weight and head circumference of the index cases was compared with that of male siblings close in age (siblings), with unrelated classmates or neighbours matched for sex and age (comparisons) and with Jamaican or US growth standards. Index boys were significantly smaller in height and head circumference than comparisons and significantly smaller than sibs only in head circumference. Sibs were intermediate in stature to the index and comparison boys. When the boys were divided into three age groups there was evidence of complete catch-up in height and weight after 7 years of age, but catch-up was incomplete for head circumference in the oldest group. No significant differences in stature at follow-up of the index boys were found in relation to age when admitted to hospital.
The menstrual cycle and suicidal intent
Authors: Pallis D. J , Holding T. A
Published: July 2008

The hypothesis that among attempted suicides, severity of intent to die is unrelated to the menstrual cycle was investigated in a sample of regularly menstruating women, using a validated intent scale. Women making their suicide attempts in the premenstrual week demonstrated a significantly higher suicidal intent but no differences in respect of other variables were observed.
Effect of some progestational steroids on lactation in egyptian women II. Chemical composition of milk during the first year of lactation
Authors: Abdel Kader M. M , Abdel Aziz M. T , Bahgat R , Hefnawi F , Fawzi G , Badraoui M. H. H
Published: July 2008

The effects of four progestational drugs on the composition of human milk during the first year of lactation were studied in Egyptian women. In comparison with a group of non-medicated women, chlormadinone acetate, Depo-Provera and Deladroxone all caused a marked increase in protein content in the early stages of lactation; quingestanol acetate had little overall effect. The lipid and lactose content showed irregular changes in the medicated groups as compared with the controls.
The Ciba Foundation 1949–1974 an appreciation
Authors: Parkes Alan S
Published: July 2008

The publication of a history* of that remarkable organisation, the Ciba Foundation, by an author working on the inside and having access to all relevant material, is something of an event and gives a welcome opportunity for a personal appreciation by one who was at the birth if not at the conception.
A small area analysis of self-poisoning and self-injury in the region of Oxford
Authors: Skrimshire A. M
Published: July 2008

The number of persons attempting suicide in 1972–3 was related to the 1971 Census data by enumeration district in a defined area centred on Oxford City. Variations among enumeration districts in the number of attempters was partly explined by the age and marital state distribution of the population, but a few areas were identified where the high rates were not accounted for in this way. These included areas on council estates, both in the City and outside it, with marked indications of social disadvantage, and a socially mixed and probably rapidly changing inner city area. Persons attempting suicide were predominantly young and included relatively more women and more single people, but otherwise appeared to resemble the population of their immediate areas in terms of distribution by socio-economic group, housing conditions and indicators of social disadvantage. A model was fitted to the 1972–3 data to ‘predict’ the number of attempters in an enumeration district from the Census information. The fit was not entirely satisfactory, and suggested that there was a sub-group of districts with a near zero probability of producing an attempter which was not identifiable from the Census data. When fitted retrospectively to attempted suicide data for 1969 the performance of the model was poor. It was not possible to distinguish the effect of random variation from that of systematic change, but there was some evidence that certain areas with high attempted suicide rates in the City also showed a rapid increase in rates.
A multivariate analysis of the relationship between parental age and birth order and the human secondary sex ratio
Authors: Garfinkel J , Selvin S
Published: July 2008

The variables maternal age, paternal age, and birth order are studied for possible effects on the human secondary sex ratio. Several multivariate models are applied to a set of over 1·4 million births to assess the effects of these three highly correlated variables. Also investigated is the polynomial regression model used by Novitski & Kimball (1958) in their approach to the same problem. Analysis of the present data shows a weak and negative association between sex ratio and birth order and the suggestion of a similar association with paternal age.
Social influences on female athletic performance
Authors: Dyer K. F
Published: July 2008

The differences between male and female performance in athletic track events at which both compete are compared. It is found that the difference between male and female performance as measured by world records is declining in all events and declining most rapidly in those events in which the differences at the present time are largest. Analysis of national track records for these same events shows considerable differences between different countries in average male/female differentials and the differences between males and females for some events in some countries is much smaller than world record differences.

It is concluded that social factors such as differing degrees of encouragement and differing levels of expectation are important factors in limiting female athletic performance.
Age of marriage and divorce trends in Amsterdam during the Period 1911–71
Authors: Kop Paul P. A. M
Published: July 2008

Instead of divorce rates per 1000 married population, the actual divorce percentages expressed as the proportion of marriages contracted in successive years since 1911 are calculated from a random sample of 3392 first marriages in Amsterdam. The results show the highest divorce percentages for younger men, decreasing from 40% if they were married at 19 years of age to 12% if they were married at 30 years of age. Women attained these values if married at 17 and 28 years of age, respectively. The divorce percentage has increased from 10% for marriages contracted in 1911 to 20% for those contracted in the period 1941–45. The linear increase suggests that about 25% of marriages contracted in the period 1966–70 will end in divorce. This trend seems to depend on changes in the median age of marriage as well as on different divorce tendencies for men marrying at different ages.

It is hoped that the method of calculating divorce trends according to the year of marriage, and to specific age-groups, as used in this study, might yield more information about the range of the divorce problem than the more traditional methods of populations statistics.
A note on marital distances and movement, and age at marriage, in a group of Oxfordshire villages
Authors: Jeffries D. J , Harrison G. A , Hiorns R. W , Gibson J. B
Published: July 2008

An account is given of the patterns of pre-marital, marital, and post-marital movement and age of marriage according to social class among the present inhabitants of a group of Oxfordshire villages.
The mandibular symphysis in mental defect—support for a genetic link
Authors: Sanderson Alan , Laycock Patrick J. , Watson Elizabeth
Published: July 2008

A group of 20 brain-damaged (BD) subjects was added to the canonical analysis, reported earlier, of mandibular symphysis shape, in the following groups: (1) Down's syndrome (DS), (2) familial idiopathic sub-normality (FIS), (3) intermediate intelligence (II), and (4) high intelligence (HI). Significant separations between means were found for all pairs of groups, except only II–HI. The separation between the BD and FIS groups supports the hypothesis that a genetic mechanism (pleiotropy) underlies the link between intelligence and symphysis shape, but environmental influences probably account for most of the separation between the BD and the two normal groups. The findings have implications for the study of behaviour genetics
Isonymic studies on the Griqua of the northern Cape Province, South Africa
Authors: Nurse G. T.
Published: July 2008

The Griqua, a people of mixed ancestry living mainly in the northern part of the Cape Province, South Africa, bear surnames of British, non-British North Western European, Khoisan, Sotho/Tswana and other Negro origin, as well as a number indicating probable descent from slaves. Bearing in mind the historical circumstances of the formation of the Griqua nation and the relative importance of pater and genitor in the social system, it is possible so to analyse these surnames as to derive a quantitative estimate of the varieties of admixture in the people. The results accord closely with, and amplify, those of a sero-genetic study, which in turn furnishes explanations for some points not amenable to isonymic analysis. The combination of both types of investigation has both provided mutual corroboration and enabled more information to be extracted than would have been possible from either type of investigation on its own.
Abortion views and practices among Danish family physicians
Authors: Gammeltoft Michala , Somers Ronald L.
Published: July 2008

Sixty-seven GPs from a suburb of Copenhagen were interviewed regarding their experience with and opinion of induced abortion. The younger physicians in the sample were (a) significantly more experienced in areas of medical practice relating to abortion care, (b) significantly more positive in their attitude towards abortion, and (c) significantly more likely to emphasize the provision of contraceptive services to women undergoing pregnancy termination. Independent of the influence of age, a significant positive correlation was found between abortion attitude and the emphasis placed on providing contraception. A physician's self-perceived success in providing post-abortion contraception was found to relate in part to his/her view of the proper role to be played by a GP in abortion cases.
Cultural comparisons of mothers with large and small families
Authors: Linn Margaret W. , Gurel Lee , Carmichael John , Weed Patricia
Published: July 2008

Contraceptive knowledge and behaviour of mothers of large (five of more children) and small (under three children) families in four subcu;tures were compared with white Protestants. Four hundred and forty-nine mothers aged 35–45 years were studied from black, Cuban, Indian, Chicano, and white groups. With social class, knowledge of birth control, and degree of religiosity held constant, the best predictors of family size were the mother's desited family size (expressed as desired minus actual children) age at childbirth, and age at mariage. Data suggest that family size is not purely a function of birth control knoeledge but related to early marrage and pregnancy and in keeping with attitudes about an ideal family size. In general, factors related to size were stronger in the white group than in the subcultures, and in a few instances certain cultures were not consostent with others in overall trends.
Patterns of gene flow between Negroes and whites in the US
Authors: Dyer K. F
Published: July 2008

A review of the pattern and magnitude of nero–white mating in the US is presented from the time of the earliest arrival of negroes in the American colonies until the present, using historical, demographic, census and genetic evidence.

The relative magnitude of negro male–white female matings compared to the converse are analysed in view of the different genetic outcomes of these two types of mating for X-linked genes. Contrary to many strongly stated opinions it is conclued from the historical evidence that, even from the earliest days of slavery, negro male–white female matings were a significant proportion of all negro–white matings. Census and demographic evidence suggests that their frequency increased so that from the time of the Civil War on they have formed a majority of inter-racial matings.

Genetic evidence based on estimates of the amout of admixture of white genes in a number of negro populations is considered. Estimates of admixture for the X-linked genes G6PD, and those for colour blindness are as high or higher than those derived from comparable autosomal genes.

Some observations on the total magnitude of negro–white mating, on the phenomenon of passing and on the relative socio-economic status of those involved are also made.

The implication of the findings on these phenomena for investigations and hypotheses concerning differences in intelligence and intellectual abilites between the races, particulary spatial ability which is thought to be strongly influenced by a gene on the X chromosome, are considered.

It is concluded that some of the assumptions made in proposing hypotheses regarding the origin and distribution of these abilities in the American negro are at variance with genetic, historical and sociological findings.
Parental predetermination of the sex of offspring: the attitudes of young married couples with university education
Authors: Rosenzweig Saul , Adelman Stuart
Published: July 2008

An intensive pilot survey involving direct contact with 47 young married couples with university education was conducted to determone their attitudes tiwards general (public) and personal choice and control by parents of the sex of offspring. Information as to premarital family status and present number and sex of children was obained. Questionnaires were completed before and after information had provided regarding new methods of fetal sex detemination, abortion, and related topics. Opportunity for discussion by husband and wife between sessions was allowed, but discussion with other was discouraged. Results indicate that sex choice will be accepted and employed by the majority of highly educated, middle-class individuals. While selection of the first-child sex is of negligible importance to most, planning for a second child with opposite sex to the first is strongly favoured. The tendency to prefer males is not as pronounced as reported in previous, less direct studies. The majority preferred a two-child family with one child of each sex. Prospective methods (e.g. a pre-coital, sex-selective pill, when available) were much preferred to retrospective methods involving abortion. Inthe meantime, fetal sex determination in the first trimester of pregnancy with selective abortion may soon be widely practised. New problems in marital and family adjustment, family planning, and social organization may arise with the advent of this new step in human sexual socio-econtingencies need further onvestigation at various socia-economic and educational levels and in different cultural milieus.
Social factors in the choice of contraceptive method: a comparsion of first clinic attenders accepting oral contraceptives with those accepting intrauterine devices
Authors: Kingsley Su , McEwan John
Published: July 2008

At a hospital contraceptive clinic with between 1200 and 2400 new clients each year, regular recording is made of the social and personal characteristics of the clinic users together with their contraceptive and reproductive histories. An analysis has been made of the differences found between those accepting the pill and those the intrauterine device (IUD) at their first attendance. Age and parity show marked differences and these are related to employment and ethnic origin. Previous contraceptive use showed distinct differences; IUD acceptors were more likely to have had induced abortions. These findings are discussed in relation to the prevalent use of these two methods and it is suggested that IUD fitting should be more widely available.
Regional variations of fertility in Iraq and factors affecting it
Authors: Kohli K. L.
Published: July 2008

A study of the differentials in fertility of Iraq's Mohafadhas, and the association of fertility with various socio-cultural factors, is handicapped for want of the reliable vital statistics from which measures of fertility can be satisfactorily derived. The alternative method, using a simple measure of fertility, the child–woman ratio, which requires only a knowledge of the population in age groups is therefore used. Since this measure is computed from census statistics, it is affected by differences in enumeration errors and in mortality and migration. An attempt has been made in this paper to keep these factors constant by using a modified child–woman ratio for comparing fertility levels.

The analysis showed that fertility rates vary from region to region, between Mohafadhas within a region and between rural and urban areas. One important broad geographic variation was that the Northern region was the area of high fertility. For the Mohafadhas, significant differences were noted in only six of the sixteen Mohafadhas of Iraq. Rural–urban difference was minimal, with few exceptions, and it was not always in the same direction. The intra-rural variations in the fertility ratio were far more important than intra-urban differences.

Correlation analysis showed that the average age at marriage, the proportion never married and the sex ratio in the reproductive ages were the important factors in explaining fertility differences between Mohafad has. There was virtually no correlation between fertility and urbanization or literacy.
The trend of the male–female performance differential in athletics, swimming and cycling 1948–76
Authors: Dyer K. F.
Published: July 2008

The average male–female performance difference in the three sports of track athletics, swimming and time trial cycling are examined between the years 1948 and 1976. During this period females have gradually come to participate in a much larger number of events, particularly those of longer duration. In each of these three sports, women's performances in relation to men's have more or less continuously improved and it appears that if the changes between 1948 and 1976 are maintained, average female performance will equal that of males for all events currently competed in by both sexes in these sports at some time during the next century. Estimates as to when, precisely, this will occur vary somewhat according to the basis on which the calculations are made. The other main change evident during these years is that in all three sports women's performances relative to men's for events of long duration have become as good or better than their relative performance at events of short duration.
Female educational attainment and fertility
Authors: Fernando Dallas F. S.
Published: July 2008

The study demonstrates that, regardless of location, a pronounced reduction in fertility is achieved in Sri Lanka by the completion of junior secondary or higher levels of education; the reduction seems to be more marked in rural than in urban areas. Increased efforts to ensure that a significantly higher proportion of girls in Sri Lanka complete at least the junior secondary level would be likely to effect a significant reduction in fertility. It is therefore important in developing countries to explore the potential influence of female educational attainment as an effective weapon towards fertility reduction and to ascertain the extent of the decline in fertility produced by varing degrees of education, according to various characteristics.
A nutritional, haematological and sociological study of a group of Chilean Children under the age of 5 years
Authors: Plail Roger O. , Young Janet M. S.
Published: July 2008

A survey was carried out on 108 Chilean children and a selection of their families. The factors studied were: (1) social, (2) demographic and dietary—to provide a background to the study, (3) nutrition—to assess the incidence and degree of malnutrition and (4) haematology—to determine the incidence of anaemia.

The major findings which have emerged are: (1) the diet of the people was not severely impaired, but it was observed that only small quantities of food with high nutritive value were consumed; (2) undernutrition was present with 41·5% of the children having first degree, 11·4% second degree and 1·0% third degree malnutrition (Gomez classification); (3) 46·1% of the children were anaemic, apparently because of iron deficiency.

The concluding discussion centres on some constructive suggestions for improvement of existing conditions leading to better standards of health.
Effect of a new service on women’s abortion experience
Authors: Treloar Susan , Snyder Emmi , Kerr Charles
Published: July 2008

New South Wales law on abortion was liberalized by judicial interpretation in 1971. This paper describes the characteristics of the first 1007 women attending a free-standing clinic for induced abortion after it opened in 1974. Compared with Census data for New South Wales females of child-bearing age, the sample contained an over-representation of women who were relatively younger at conception, never married, divorced or separated, born outside Australia, of Catholic religious background, and worked as nurses or in factories. In comparison with background information about abortion experience before 1971, the clinic sample appeared to feel less anxiety and distress during the abortion sequence.
The influence of the frequency of nursing and of previous lactation experience on serum prolactin in lactating mothers
Authors: Delvoye P. , Demaegd M. , Delogne-Desnoeck J. , Robyn C.
Published: July 2008

Serum prolactin has been measured in single blood samples collected within the first 22 post-partum months from 97 nursing mothers from an urban area (Bukavu) of Zaïre. Nursing mothers are hyperprolactinemic, higher serum prolactin levels being associated with more frequent suckling episodes per day. Furthermore, serum prolactin declines rapidly in mothers who are giving the breast less than four times per day: the levels are within the normal range found in non-lactating women after the 6th post-partum month. Among mothers giving the breast more than six times per day, serum prolactin does not decline significantly during the 1st post-partum year.

Previous lactation experiences do not facilitate the effect of nursing on prolactin secretion during subsequent lactations.
Estimating the number of illegal abortions
Authors: Francome Colin
Published: July 2008

This article considers the methods used to estimate the number of abortions before the 1967 Abortion Act came into operation. It suggests that the registration of legal abortions has enabled a new method to be used to calculate the number of illegal operations. The article concludes that the major effect of the Act was to transfer abortions from the illegal to the legal sector and, using the new method of calculation, estimates a total number of abortions immediately before the Act of just over 100,000 a year.
Social and Medical Trends in Female Sterilization in Aberdeen, 1951–72
Authors: Nottage Bernard J. , Hall Marion H. , Thompson Barbara E.
Published: July 2008

This paper reports the social and medical characteristics of women resident in Aberdeen city who were sterilized in 1951–52, 1961–62 and 1971–72, 211, 399 and 1125 women respectively. In 1951–52 women were offered sterilization, the majority being lower social class mothers with five or more children who were sterilized concurrently with abortion; the small number of upper social class women had one or two children and were sterilized for medical or obstetric reasons. By 1961–62, sterilization as a mean of family limitation was becoming acceptable to women in all social groups, families were of four or five children and the women were much younger when they were sterilized post-partum. Later in the 1960s, oral contraception, IUDs and laparoscopy and vasectomy were introduced. In 1971–72, women themselves requested sterilization, the two–three child family was the norm, the proportion of upper social class women continued to increase, and interval sterilization was gaining ground.
Causes of Clinic Drop-Out Among Iranian Pill Users
Authors: Lee Che-fu , Khan Mohammad M. , Eftekhari Ali , Dana Mahnaz
Published: July 2008

A national study of the Iran family planning programme is yet to be undertaken. This paper reports clinic continuation rates and causes of drop-out among Iranian pill acceptors based on patient records at three selected clinics in Shiraz and Marvdasht. All three clinics were shown to have a cumulative continuation rate of over 50% up to 1 year. Causes of clinic drop-out varied between rural and urban pill users by time of acceptance and by the acceptors’ background characteristics. The probability of drop-out for unreported reasons was related to level of motivation. The effect of follow-up by clinic motivators was clearly demonstrated in the temporal pattern of drop-out among rural acceptors. The probability of drop-out for medical side effects was related to knowledge about them and users’ own experience. Risk of accidental pregnancy was seen to reduce as pill users gained experience.
Contribution of Social Class to Differences Between Single and Married Men in Mortality From Peptic Ulcer
Authors: Buck Carol
Published: July 2008

Mortality from peptic ulcer among middle-aged Canadian males in the period 1959–63 has been analysed by marital status and social class. Adjustment for social class reduced only slightly the mortality disadvantage of single males compared with married males.
Patterns of Family Building and Contraceptive Use of Middle-Class Couples
Authors: Woodward Diana , Heath Ann , Chisholm Lynne
Published: July 2008

Interviews with 103 middle-class wives on their family building experiences and use of birth control techniques show this highly educated group to be effective family planners in comparison with other social groups. The wives developed clear ideas early in marriage about family size, timing and spacing, formulated with reference to sets of beliefs about the transmission of cultural advantage from parents to children, and their social responsibility in relation to world population levels. Ideas about the spacing of children and desired family size appear to be influenced by the women’s orientation towards returning to employment, but their relatively late age of terminating full-time education has had remarkably little effect on the timing of either marriage or the first child’s birth. Female contraceptive methods were most popular with this sample, and their relative effectiveness as family planners may be explained by their preference for the more reliable techniques and high level of motivation to use them efficiently. Variations in patterns of contraceptive usage noted between this and other studies are probably a function of age differences in the groups of women surveyed.
Attitudes Towards Family Size and Family Planning in Rural Ghana—Danfa Project: 1972 Survey Findings
Authors: Belcher D. W. , Neumann A. K. , Ofosu-Amaah S. , Nicholas D. D. , Blumenfeld S. N.
Published: July 2008

This report describes a family planning KAP survey conducted in 2000 households in rural Ghana between April and October, 1972, as one of the Danfa Project’s baseline studies. Subsequent re-surveys were done in 1975 and 1977 to assess changes related to project health education and family planning programmes.

Reported knowledge about family planning was three times that reported in previous studies in rural Ghana. About 70% of the respondents approve of family planning, but most want a large family, with over six children. At all ages, males wanted two or three more children than did women.

The current 3% population growth rate in Ghana may increase due to continued early age of marriage, the rising size of the reproductive age group and improved pregnancy outcome.

Although the expected relationships between knowledge and use of family planning and age and education were present, these differentials were typically only 10–15%. In the project area it appears that women will be most important in making the decision to practise family planning, although motivation of males is being stressed.

Most villagers hear about family planning through informal, word-of-mouth channels with relatively little use of news media, family planning workers or clinic health personnel. To improve the practice of family planning, village-based health educators are working with volunteers including traditional birth attendants, community leaders, teachers and church groups.
Birth Intervals, Survival and Growth in a Nigerian Village
Authors: Doyle Pat , Morley David , Woodland Margaret , Cole Jane
Published: July 2008

Results are presented from an analysis of the intervals between births from Imesi, Western Nigeria. The mean interval following births of children who survived to 1 year was 35·03 months, but nearly half this value at 18·8 months following stillbirths or deaths under 1 year. Both these results confirm an early study done in the village (Martin, Morley & Woodland, 1964), and the role of post-partum sexual abstention as an explanation for these results is discussed. Attempts were made to look for effects of birth interval variation on the survival of the following child, but no strong trends emerged. Similarly, analyses of many growth variables by preceding and following birth intervals gave very little evidence of real effects. There were, however, hints of trends which were possibly caused by birth order biases; higher birth orders had been found to have correspondingly higher birth intervals. An intriguing result was that those children who had ever suffered from kwashiorkor showed a significantly higher preceding mean birth interval, and also a higher mean interval to the next birth.