bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Rotulus
Authors: Kelly Thomas Forrest
Published: November 2023

Arotulus, or roll, or scroll, is a length of papyrus, leather, or parchment, on which writing is preserved, and which is stored in a rolled form. These are most often made by fastening together, with glue, thread, or thongs, several separate pieces to make a scroll of some length. Rolls are often, but not always, written on one side only, for reasons of convenience and concern for the text being written. An opisthographic roll is one written on both sides, either originally or in the process of reusing the blank outer side of an older scroll. Rolls are usually wound around a central baton, the umbilicus. The papyrus, leather, or parchment nearest the center, although it might bear the weight of the length of the scroll, generally receives far less wear than the outer portions, since the outer membranes must be handled at every use in reaching the center. In order to be read, a roll must be unrolled (explicitus), and thus the explicit of medieval books and the explication of their texts derive from the process of unrolling such a document.
Divorce and How Parents Lose Contact
Authors: Greif Geoffrey L
Published: November 2023

When Rachel left her husband, her daughter Mindy never for gave her. Mindy began splitting time between her parents’ homes but became increasingly recalcitrant when she was with Rachel. Rachel tried to forge a closer relationship with her but felt her ex-husband was turning Mindy against her. The defining moment in the relationship came one evening when Rachel was reprimanding Mindy about her rejecting behavior. Fourteen years old at the time, Mindy became incensed, pushed Rachel off her bed, and told her to get out of her room. Rachel admonished Mindy by saying that if she couldn’t treat her with respect, she would have to leave. Mindy packed up her things immediately, called her father who lived nearby, and left. They have not spoken for the past six years.
When Mothers and Children No Longer Visit
Authors: Greif Geoffrey L
Published: November 2023

Enormous attention has been paid to fathers who leave. What happens to mothers in the same situation? We know mothers are stigmatized if they do not have custody. The response to them is even more dramatic if they are not in contact with their children. Consider the reaction to a father in this situation. Then, consider if a mother is held to a higher, or at least a different standard. Gender differences come into play. Fathers (men) can leave relationships and, until recently, still be seen as masculine, though perhaps irresponsible.
Behavior and Health
Authors: Desjarlais Robert , Eisenberg Leon , Good Byron , Kleinman Arthur
Published: November 2023

In the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, the discovery of the specific infectious agents (bacteria and parasites) that cause acute diseases so preempted medical attention that the role of behavior as a mediator between disease risk and host exposure largely disappeared from view. The demographic transition has brought renewed attention to the behavioral link between risk and exposure. Industrialized nations have shifted from an era of death from pestilence and famine to an era of sickness from degenerative diseases and behavioral pathology. When mortality was very high and life expectancy at birth was low, population increase was held in check by the death rate. Now that death rates have declined sharply (life expectancy at birth is twice what it was at the turn of the century), fertility has become the principal determinant of population growth.1 Degenerative diseases (heart disease, stroke, cancer, dementia) have become the main public health problems.2 In contrast, low-income countries are in the midst of a protracted epidemiologic transition. Citizens suffer from a triple burden of morbidity and mortality from infectious diseases, degenerative diseases, and behavioral problems (substance abuse, violence, etc.). In addition, there are ever-sharper differences between the health status of the upper and lower social classes in many societies; that is, the health of the upper classes has begun to resemble that of today’s industrialized populations, whereas the lower class suffers from chronic disease as well as infection and parasitism.
Sexual Politics: The Gender Gap in the Bedroom, the Cupboard, and the Cabinet
Authors: Pratto Felicia
Published: November 2023

There are no human societies in which women dominate men. Instead, societies in which men dominate women are so common that male dominance has been considered a human universal (e.g., Goldberg, 1973; Millet, 1970; Rosaldo, 1974; but see Eisler, 1987; Leacock, 1981; Lepowsky, 1990; Sacks, 1979; Sanday, 1981; Schlegel, 1990; Schwendinger & Schwendinger, 1983). This makes the question of sexual dominance special in intergroup relations for there is no other "grouping" besides sex in which, when there is inequality, one group is always subordinate. Yet, the variability that exists from society to society in the means and degree of sexual inequality indicates that simplistic explanations of male dominance will not suffice.
Court Responses to Battered Women
Authors: Roberts Albert R
Published: November 2023

We have come a long way during the past two decades as responsive prosecutors, judges and legislators have begun to recognize family violence as a serious crime. All fifty states have passed civil and/or criminal statutes to protect battered women, and prosecutors’ offices are beginning to implement efficient systems of screening and prosecuting cases. Police and courts in a small yet growing number of jurisdictions have set up a round-the-clock method of issuing temporary restraining orders and providing advocacy as the cases move through court.
Introducing Spacetime Singularities and Acausalities
Authors: Earman John
Published: November 2023

This book is simultaneously an essay in the philosophy of science and the foundations of physics. It seeks to assess the implications of spacetime singularities and acausal features of relativistic spacetimes for the general theory of relativity and the philosophy of space and time. To the extent that it succeeds, it should succeed in convincing the reader that for the constellation of issues to be studied, physics, foundations of physics, and the philosophy of science are all of a piece. Before trying to describe the issues, it may be helpful to begin by setting them in context.
Defining, Characterizing, and Proving the Existence of Spacetime Singularities
Authors: Earman John
Published: November 2023

We saw in chapter 1 that shortly after GTR was put in its final form, attempts were made by Hilbert (1917) and Einstein (1918) to specify the conditions under which a spacetime is singular. Some small amount of progress was made on the problem over the next four decades. But as late as 1960 Gyorgy Szekeres could accurately state that “an exact definition of what should be regarded as a true singularity of a [pseudo] Riemannian manifold has, to my knowledge, never been proposed” (Szekeres 1960, p. 285). Over the following years rapid strides were made in proving the existence of singularities in solutions to EFE and in understanding what these singularities involved in terms of spacetime structure. But towards the end of the 1960s there were still major uncertainties in how to pin down the elusive notion of spacetime singularity. Some of these uncertainties were summarized in an important paper by Robert Geroch (1968a), part of which was cast as a Galilean dialogue, a form nicely chosen to reflect the unsettled state of the subject. In the intervening years our knowledge about these matters has increased tremendously, but uncertainties still remain. The account which follows does not attempt to trace the historical development over recent decades but rather is aimed at providing an accessible introduction to these issues, issues which remain among the most exciting and difficult in the foundations of spacetime theories.
Cosmic Censorship
Authors: Earman John
Published: November 2023

The idea of cosmic censorship was introduced over twenty years ago by Roger Penrose (1969). About a decade later Penrose noted that it was not then known “whether some form of cosmic censorship principle is actually a consequence of general relativity.” To which he added: “In fact, we may regard this as possibly the most important unsolved problem of classical general relativity theory” (Penrose 1978, p. 230). This sentiment has been echoed by Stephen Hawking (1979, p. 1047), Werner Israel (1984, p. 1049), Robert Wald (1984a, p. 303), Frank Tipler (1985, p. 499), Douglas Eardley (1987, p. 229), Stuart Shapiro and Saul Teukolsky (1991b, p. 330), Pankay Joshi (1993, p. 204), and many others. Thus, ifan “important problem” in physics is one which is deemed to be important by leading research workers in the field, then the problem of cosmic censorship is undoubtedly near the top of the list for classical GTR. One of my goals here is to show why it is important in a more substantive sense. I also want to indicate why it is that, despite the intense effort that has been devoted to this problem, it remains unsolved. Indeed, the very statement of the problem remains open to debate.
Eternal Recurrence, Cyclic Time, and All That
Authors: Earman John
Published: November 2023

The idea of a cyclic or repeating time finds an astonishingly broad acceptance in the history of thought, being found among such diverse and widely separated peoples as the Stoics of ancient Greece, the Hindus of India, the Taoists of China, and the Mayans of Central America. Christianity was generally hostile to the idea since it clashed with the doctrine of the uniqueness of Christ. The scientific revolution produced a decidedly ambivalent stance. On the one hand, Newtonian mechanics seemed to hold out the possibility of a “clockwork” universe. But on the other hand Newton himself worried that because of the instability of the solar system God would from time to time have to wind up the clock. Nineteenth and early twentieth century physics produced another tension. Poincare ‘s recurrence theorem showed that a closed mechanical system will almost surely return to approximately the same state; but the second law of thermodynamics seemed to indicate that the universe is destined to wind down to a heat death.
Afterword
Authors: Earman John
Published: November 2023

It seems to me, however, that as regards self-destruction there is an important difference between QM and GTR. The measurement problem in QM shows, prima facie, that the theory is empirically inadequate in the worst way: it cannot account for the fact that measurement procedures yield definite outcomes. As hope fades that some clever interpretational ploy will resolve this problem, it becomes more likely that some overhaul of quantum dynamics will be needed and, thus, that Bell and Nauenberg’s moral is correct. By contrast, there is no correspondingly blatant failure of classical GTR to save the phenomena in connection with its prediction of singularities in the gravitational collapse of stars and in the big bang origin of the universe. In the former case, GTR’s predictions about black holes appear to be gaining empirical successes. In the latter case, there are puzzles connected with the particle horizons of the standard big bang model. But as argued in chapter 5, these puzzles are to a large extent concerned not with empirical adequacy but with the nature of scientific explanation; and in any case, the most popular fixes for the horizon problem do not banish the initial singularity.
The Glory Story
Authors: McPherson James M
Published: November 2023

“Can Movies Teach History?” Asked The Title of A New York Times feature article.’ The answer for Glory is yes. It is not only the first feature film to treat the role of black soldiers in the Civil War; it is also the most powerful movie about that war ever made, and one that strives for greater historical accuracy than we have come to expect from Hollywood. It does much to correct the distortions and romanticizations of such earlier blockbuster films as Birth of a Nation (1915) and Gone with the Wind (1939). It grapples more forthrightly with the issues of what the war was about than Gettysburg (1993).
Grant’s Final Victory
Authors: McPherson James M
Published: November 2023

“When I Put My Pen To Paper I Did Not Know The First Word that I should make use of in writing the terms. I only knew what was in my mind, and I wished to express it clearly, so that there could be no mistaking it.” So wrote Ulysses S. Grant in the summer of 1885, a few weeks before he died of throat cancer. He was describing the scene in Wilmer McLean’s parlor at Appomattox Court House twenty years earlier, when he had started to write the formal terms for the surrender of the Army of Northern Virginia. But he could have been describing his feelings in July 1884, as he sat down to write the first of three articles for Century magazine’s “Battles and Leaders” series on the Civil War.
What’s The Matter with History?
Authors: McPherson James M
Published: November 2023

At Least Once Every Generation Since Historians in The United States acquired standing as a profession more than a century ago, they have publicly lamented their inability to reach a broad general audience. “Professional” historians are defined here as those who have earned a graduate degree, normally the Ph.D., who teach in colleges or universities or are employed in other educational institutions such as museums, and who belong to one or more of the professional organizations that have proliferated since the founding of the American Historical Association in 1884. Professionals hold themselves to rigorous standards of scholarship and write learned articles and books that are read mainly by other professionals or assigned to students by fellow academics.
About Tex And Latex
Authors: Hoenig Alan
Published: November 2023

It is surprising how difficult it is to automate the process of typesetting. The TEX (ideally pronounced to rhyme with blec-c-c-ch) typesetting system is (arguably) the best way to do this by computer. TEX was designed to cope with the intricacies of mathematical and technical typesetting and especially to deliver beautifully typeset documents. The source of the “TEX” logo is the Greek root !’EX (tau epsilon chi), which forms part of words like “technology.” What is KTeX, and how does it differ from TEX? In ways we will discuss, TEX typesetting commands have been used to create many new commands that are easier and more convenient to use; these new commands comprise the BTEX system.
Cognition and Imagination
Authors: Garrett Don
Published: November 2023

The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries saw a renewed interest in exploring the nature of the human cognitive instrument-that is, in understanding the human understanding. Many thinkers proposed that such understanding of under standing would prove essential to refining scientific method, improving the state of human knowledge, and fostering human progress. Hume was one of these thinkers. Book I of A Treatise of Human Nature is entitled “Of the Understanding.” At the very outset of his attempt to explain the nature of the understanding, he presents four crucial distinctions.
Entrepreneurial Spirit in the North and South
Authors: Egnal Marc
Published: November 2023

The British officials were suspicious. Before letting Francis Cabot Low ell leave the country, they went through his baggage twice. After all, here was a wealthy Boston merchant who had spent an inordinate amount of time visiting British textile mills. The inspectors feared he was stealing industrial secrets. And they were right. But the plans for the power loom were in Lowell’s head, not in his bags. When he re turned to Boston in 1812, Lowell and a local mechanic, “planned and tried, altered and rearranged” the parts of the intricate machinery Low ell had remembered. Nor did Lowell’s design skills stop there. He also imagined a complete factory, unlike any he had seen in Britain. It would take in raw cotton and produce cloth. And he envisioned an industrial center that would not resemble the crowded cities of En gland. (“We found the manufacturing towns very dirty,” he re marked.) His new American mill town would be a clean, cheerful, healthy place to work.
The Gap Widens: 1860s to 1940
Authors: Egnal Marc
Published: November 2023

Elmire Boucher, who grew up on a poor farm in the province of Quebec, knew about the realities of comparative economic development. “In 1899 my parents decided to leave for the United States,” she later recollected. “Life was difficult on the farm which was too small for us. We were 16 children, all lively. We already had aunts in the United States who told us wonderful things about that part of the world.”
Learning Organization Hierarchies of Large Model-Bases for Fast Recognition
Authors: Boyer Kim L , Sengupta Kuntal
Published: November 2023

In attempting to realize a complete model-based vision system for CAD objects in range data, the two most critical issues are speed and accuracy in recognition. These factors become exceedingly important with increases in the size of the model library and the scene clutter. Past work in model-based vision attempted to design algorithms such that the recognition time would be insensitive to the model-base size or scene clutter [2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 21].

Systems using point-based features to describe models (4, 6, 9, 12, 13] usually implement indexing ideas for object recognition. In the off-line model compilation process, indexes are calculated from a group of points, and these are used as addresses into a look-up table, where the identities of the model and the group of points are stored. Recognition entails a similar computation of addresses from groups of scene points, followed by voting for the models placed at these locations. This approach has become well-known under the moniker “geometric hashing.”

Systems that use higher level primitives (like surfaces, volumes, etc.) traditionally represent both model and scene objects in the form of graphs (2, 7, 8, 10]. The nodes in these graphs represent the primitives, and the links represent the relationships among them. In recognition, the mapping function between the nodes of the scene graph and the nodes of each model graph is determined.
Application of Machine Learning In Function-Based Recognition
Authors: Stark Louise , Bowyer Kevin , Woods Kevin , Hall Lawrence , Cook Diane
Published: November 2023

Model-based vision has been a popular field of research for many years. In its simplest form, a model-based vision system uses a geometric model of each object as its knowledge base. This entails having a model of every object stored in its exact form, that the system may encounter. The work to create the knowledge base is at least linear in the number of objects. It is clear that geometric models such as those typically used do not provide a sufficient means to represent categories of objects as they are intuitively conceived by humans [2, 20]. The need for a more generic representation for recognition of novel objects has led computer vision research in several directions.

A number of research efforts have used parameterizations of a basic geometric model in order to create a more generic representation [1, 8, 12, 13, 16, 21, 29]. While this is an improvement over simple geometric models, all objects that match a given model must still follow a particular structural/geometric plan. These objects can be derived from a standard or prototypical model by simple changes of size along some dimension, or possibly allowing a simple rearrangement of a known set of parts. This approach is limited to objects that are quantitatively similar [22]. We are interested in constructing an object-category definition that captures objects more in the nature of being qualitatively similar. If one accepts that human concepts of object categories are more strongly related to object function than they are to some prototypical geometric shape (for which there is substantial evidence [23]), then it seems clear that a different starting point should be chosen in order to create a more generic model.
Assembly Plan From Observation
Authors: Ikeuchi Katsushi , Suehiro Takashi , Kang Sing Bing
Published: November 2023

Currently, a major bottleneck to the widespread use of robots is the time consuming nature of programming and debugging a desired sequence of operations of a robot system. Further, the number of trained people who can program robots is also limited. If we can devise self-programming systems that “learn” (program themselves) by observing a human performing the same task, then we would have a situation where nonprogrammers (i.e., manufacturing engineers) can define and debug any process they choose.

We have been developing an assembly plan from observation (APO) system that can learn robot programs through observation. In the APO system, a human operator performs assembly tasks in front of a video camera. The system obtains a continuous sequence of images from the camera, which records the assembly tasks. In order for the system to recognize assembly tasks from the sequence of images, the system has to perform the following six operations:
Classified advertising in its linguistic context
Authors: Bruthiaux Paul
Published: November 2023

At the outset, I proposed to consider the nature of linguistic simplification. To do this, I examined a corpus of classified ads for evidence of the effect of spatial constraints on the syntactic structure of this simple register. I provided a description of the CAR corpus, and I showed that the register bypasses many of the syntactic requirements of the literary grammar, which typically controls written registers. I considered the spread of conventionalized register markers such as abbreviations, and I noted a widespread reliance on prefabricated segments, which were seen as reflecting the conventions of medium, location, and time.
Pathogenesis
Authors: Robertson Michael N , Emerman Michael
Published: November 2023

By scanning electron microscopy, HIV virions appear as 110 nm spherical particles studded with knob-like projections (Fig. 1-1). Electron microscopic sections show the virions to have a cone-shaped viral core characteristic of the lentivirus family of retroviruses.
Laboratory Markers of HIV Infection
Authors: Cavert Winston , Coombs Robert W
Published: November 2023

Several available tests confirm or quantitate HIV infection. These include (1) licensed antibody tests used to screen and confirm HIV-1 seropositivity (enzyme immunoassay [EIA], Western blot, and immunofluorescence assay) and (2) qualitative and quantitative viral measurement assays used to follow the course of HIV-1 infection and evaluate therapeutic responses (HIV culture, DNA and RNA polymerase chain reaction amplification, branched chain amplification, p24 antigen assay, and HIV drug susceptibility assays).
HIV and Women
Authors: Celumd Connie L , Watts Heather
Published: November 2023

As of December 31, 1994, women accounted for approximately 13 percent of the total AIDS cases reported in the United States, with the total cumulative number of women with AIDS estimated at 58,500. Within the United States, the northeastern region has the highest prevalence of HIV-infected women. African-American and Hispanic women have a higher prevalence of HIV infection than white women.
Cryptococcosis
Authors: Paauw Douglas s. , Marra Christina M , Spach David H
Published: November 2023

is an oval 4 to 6 µm in diameter yeast that has a characteristic 1 to 30 µm polysaccharide capsule. It is ubiquitous and often found in soil enriched by bird droppings. Humans acquire infection from the environment; person-to-person transmission of C. neoformans
Isosporiasis
Authors: Bramante John P , Ryan Caroline A
Published: November 2023

Isosporiasis refers to infection of the small intestinal epithelial cells with the protozoan parasite Isospora belli.

Humans acquire this infection by ingesting cysts from contaminated water, an infected animal, or an infected human. /. belli

may persist in a latent stage for an extended period.

In the United States, isosporiasis is the initial AIDS-defining diagnosis in approximately 0.2 percent of HIV-infected individuals. This organism is identified as the cause of less than 2 percent of diarrheal episodes among HIV-infected patients in the United States. In recent years, the widespread use of trimethoprim- sulfamethoxazole for Pneumocystis carinii

prophylaxis has probably further reduced the incidence of isosporiasis.

• belli

infection most commonly occurs in the tropics and subtropics. Most patients in the United States who develop isosporiasis have usually emigrated from, or traveled to, the Carribean, Mexico, or Central America. In addition, individuals can acquire infection in Africa, Southeast Asia, and South America.

CLINICAL FEATURES

Characteristic features of isosporiasis include watery diarrhea, diffuse crampy abdominal pain (often postprandial), fatigue, anorexia, nausea, and vomiting. More than 80 percent of patients have a history of chronic (more than 2 months) diarrhea.
Herpes Simplex Virus
Authors: Schacker Timothy W , Corey Lawrence
Published: November 2023

Herpes simplex viruses 1 and 2 (HSV-1 and HSV-2) are neurotropic viruses that belong to the herpes family of viruses. HSV-1 and HSV-2 commonly cause recurrent ulcerative infections of the oropharynx, genitals, and rectmn. HSY can less commonly cause esophagitis, encephalitis, keratoconjunctivitis, and, in some immunocompromised patients, disseminated infection. Approximately 70 percent of adults are seropositive for HSV-1, and 20 percent of sexually active adults are seropositive for HSV-2. More than 95 percent of men who have sex with men are seropositive for HSV-1, HSV-2, or both.

HSV-1 usually causes infection of the mouth, gums, and lips (oraVlabial). HSV-2 usually causes infection of the genitals and rectum. In some instances, however, HSV-1 can cause anogenital infection and HSV-2 can cause oraVlabial infection.

The clinical manifestations of HSY vary by viral type and host immune response. Primary infection may be asymptomatic or be characterized by painful ulcerative lesions. Severely immunocompromised persons may develop severe primary infection. Following primary infection, HSY establishes latency in the dorsal root or trigeminal ganglia. At a later time, the virus can reactivate. These reactivations are more frequent and prolonged in HIV-infected persons.

Patients can shed HSY from affected areas at times when they have no symptoms; this is referred to as asymptomatic, or subclinical, reactivation. In immunocompetent persons, this occurs less than 1 percent of days; HIV-infected persons, however, may have more frequent shedding because of their HIV-induced immunosuppression. Sexual partners are at risk for infection during asymptomatic reactivation.
Myocarditis and Cardiomyopathy
Authors: Burik Jo-Anne Van , Spach David H
Published: November 2023

The spectrum of HIV-associated heart diseases includes myocarditis, dilated cardiomyopathy, pericarditis (with or without an effusion), and, rarely, infective endocarditis. In recent years, left ventricular dysfunction, caused by either dilated cardiomyopathy or myocarditis, has emerged as the most common clinically significant cardiac manifestation among HIV-infected persons. Accordingly, this chapter focuses on myocarditis and cardiomyopathy.

The pathogenesis of HIV-associated cardiomyopathy remains poorly defined. Several investigators have suggested that HIV-associated myocarditis and cardiomyopathy exist on a continuum and that, in most instances, myocarditis leads to cardiomyopathy.

Although the pathogenesis of HIV-associated cardiomyopathy remains poorly understood, existing evidence suggests that HIV-associated cardiomyopathy may result from one or more of five mechanisms: (1) direct invasion and destruction of myocardial cells by HIV; (2) destruction of myocardial cells by cytokines released from HIV-infected monocytes and lymphocytes; (3) autoimmune myocarditis caused by circulating antibodies to myocardial cell 8-receptors, adenine nucleotide translocator, or heavy-chain myosin; (4) direct myocardial invasion by opportunistic organisms, such as Toxoplasma gondii,

cytomegalovirus, or Epstein-Barr virus; and (5) drug-induced toxicity, such as from alcohol, adriamycin, zidovudine, and possibly foscarnet.
Folliculitis
Authors: Velde Karen M Van De
Published: November 2023

Two forms of folliculitis commonly occur among HIV-infected individuals: bacterial folliculitis

and eosinophilicfolliculitis

(also known as eosinophilic pustular folliculitis).

In addition, patients may less commonly develop other forms of folliculitis, such as pityrosporum folliculitis (caused by a yeast) and Majocchi’s granuloma (caused by a dermatophyte).

Bacterial folliculitis is usually caused by Staphylococcus aureus,

but it can also be caused by Streptococcus

species, coagulase-negative Staphylococcus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa,

diphtheroids, or other bacteria.

Eosinophilic folliculitis, also known as the papular eruption of AIDS, is a pruritic form of folliculitis that occasionally occurs in HIV-infected individuals, typically those with CD4 counts less than 250 cells/mm3 Although the cause of this disorder remains unknown, it resembles Ofuji’s disease, a rare eruption that involves immunocompetent persons.

CLINICAL FEATURES

Bacterial folliculitis may occur in any hair-bearing area, with the trunk and face most frequently involved. The primary lesion appears as a follicular eruption that may extend deep into the soft tissues and form abscesses, furuncles, or carbuncles. Groin, axilla, or scalp lesions may vary, and in some instances large violaceous plaques (up to 10 cm), superficial perifollicular pustules, or crusts may develop. Patients frequently complain of intense pruritus.
Warts
Authors: Vandevelde Karen M
Published: November 2023

Warts are caused by several related types of human papilloma virus (HPV)-a small DNA virus. Based on DNA hybridization studies, more than 50 types of HPV exist, with specific types associated with distinct clinical diseases. Typing of isolates, however, is not practical for routine clinical purposes.

In general, immunosuppressed HIV-infected patients have a greater number of common warts that are often more difficult to eradicate than those in HIV-negative individuals. Warts occur in approximately 8 percent of HIV-infected individuals.

Immunodeficiency promotes the development of neoplasia in cervical and anal warts, making this an important consideration in dealing with condyloma in the HIV-positive patient. The relationship of HPV and neoplasia is covered in more detail in two other chapters: cervical warts in Chapter 12, and anal warts in Chapter 59.

CLINICAL FEATURES

Verruca vulgaris, the common wart, is most frequently noted on the hands. Individual lesions appear as round papules with a gray, rough surface (“verrucous”). Thrombosed capillaries, identified as small black dots, may be visible on the surface of the wart. Individual lesions may grow larger than 1 cm in size, and multiple lesions may coalesce to form plaques.
Anemia
Authors: Aboulafia David M
Published: November 2023

Among HIV-infected persons, anemia develops in approximately 15 percent of asymptomatic patients and approximately 75 percent of those with AIDS. In this patient population, various causes of anemia exist, including infections that involve the bone marrow, malignancies, nutritional deficiencies, and medications. In many patients, the anemia may result from a combination of factors. Although red blood cell (RBC) autoantibodies (positive Coombs test) occasionally develop in HIV-infected patients, clinically significant autoimmune hemolytic anemia rarely occurs.

The most common infectious agents that suppress the bone marrow are HIV itself, Mycobacterium avium

complex, and cytomegalovirus. Rarely, parvovirus B19 causes anemia. These infections produce a hypoproliferative bone marrow response.

Some patients with cutaneous Kaposi’s sarcoma develop gastrointestinal system involvement, and this may cause blood loss and anemia. HIV-associated lymphoma, with its generally aggressive and disseminated course, often involves the bone marrow and causes anemia.

Medications that frequently produce anemia in HIV-infected patients include zidovudine, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, pyrimethamine, and dapsone. Pyridoxine deficiency is a rare cause of anemia and generally is limited to those patients taking isoniazid.

Anemia is most often multifactorial, but the predominant abnormality in erythropoiesis is hypoproliferation secondary to relatively low erythropoietin levels and the effect of inflammatory cytokines that negatively regulate and inhibit the erythroid marrow response.
Progressive Multifocal Leukoencephalopathy
Authors: Marra Christina M
Published: November 2023

HIV-associated progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML) is a subacute demyelinating disease of the central nervous system caused by a papovavirus known as JC virus. This virus is distinct from the virus that causes Jakob-Creutzfeldt disease.

JC virus is usually acquired in childhood. It remains latent and may reactivate in the setting of immunosuppression. At the time of this writing, it remains unclear whether JC virus reactivates systemically and then spreads to the brain or whether primary reactivation occurs in the brain itself. When JC virus reactivates, it infects oligodendrocytes (the cells that make central nervous system myelin) and thus causes demyelination.

PML develops in approximately 4 percent of HIV-infected patients and is an AIDS- defming diagnosis in approximately 1 percent of patients. At the time of diagnosis of PML, patients typically have CD4 counts less than 100 cells/mm3

CLINICAL FEATURES

Patients with PML may complain of headache or subacute onset of limb weakness. A common presentation is an unnoticed visual field defect that causes them to bump into objects on the affected side. Less commonly, patients may present with new-onset seizures, either generalized or partial.
Kaposi’s Sarcoma
Authors: Kovach Nicholas L
Published: November 2023

Kaposi’s sarcoma (KS) is the most common tumor recognized among persons with AIDS. Approximately 95 percent of AIDS-associated KS occurs in homosexual or bisexual males and it is rare in transfusion or injection-drug use-related AIDS. The incidence of KS in homosexual males with AIDS is approximately 20 percent in contrast with a Oto 1.0 percent incidence among hemophiliacs with AIDS.

The form of KS that occurs in HIV-infected persons, which is generally aggressive, is referred to as “epidemic” KS. Three other epidemiologic forms occur: (1) “classic” KS, an indolent tumor in elderly men of Jewish and Eastern European descent; (2) “endemic” KS, a form of KS that occurs in central Africa that has a variable and occasionally aggressive course; and (3) “acquired” KS, a form of KS associated with immunosuppressive therapy that often completely regresses with discontinuation of immunosuppressants.

KS is a multifocal hyperplastic response to cytokines and viral-induced growth factors rather than a metastatic tumor. Among the multiple possible factors that could cause KS, three have most frequently been implicated: (1) paracrine or autocrine growth factors from KS spindle cells, such as fibroblastic growth factor or Oncostatin-M; (2) HIV viral products, such as expression of the HIV tat

gene and its product, Tat; and (3) other known viruses such as cytomegalovirus or human papilloma virus. Recently, investigators have isolated DNA sequences of a novel herpes-like virus in 90 percent of KS tissue samples (Moore and Chang 1995). This agent may be sexually transmitted, thus explaining the strong association of KS and certain HIV risk factor groups.
Oral Hairy Leukoplakia
Authors: Moss Gregory B , Schubert Mark M
Published: November 2023

Leukoplakia is clinically defined as a white patch on a mucous membrane that will not rub off. “Hairy” refers to keratotic projections on a surface of epithelial hyperplasia when viewed on histologic section.

Oral hairy leukoplakia (OHL), although reported in a variety of immunocompromised hosts, primarily occurs in HIV-infected persons. In one report (Lifson et al., 1994) of HIV-infected patients with newly diagnosed OHL, the median CD4 lymphocyte count of these patients was 468 cells/mm3 Some studies have suggested that OHL is associated with an increased progression to AIDS; in particular, one study (Katz et al., 1992) found that 22 percent of patients with OHL progressed to AIDS within 2 years compared with 9 percent of patients without OHL.

Epstein-Barr virus (EBY) has been detected within OHL lesions and is believed to induce the benign epithelial thickening.

CLINICAL FEATURES

The OHL lesion typically appears as a white, nonremovable lesion with a corrugated surface; in some instances it may appear smooth or folded.
Modules and the Informational Encapsulation of Language Processes
Authors: Siple Patricia
Published: November 2023

It is nearly impossible to discuss the relation between language and cognition without talking about modularity. The currently dominant view of modularity is that of Fodor (1983). In Fodor’s account, the language processor is one of several input systems, and input systems are, by and large, modular. The primary characteristic of modular systems is that they access limited information when analyzing input, or, as Fodor puts it, “informational encapsulation of the input systems is ... the essence of their modularity” (p. 71). It is not surprising, then, that each of the chapters in this volume makes reference, implicitly or explicitly, to modularity, and when we do discuss modularity, we generally take a view akin to that of Fodor. Fodor argues that information encapsulation gives rise to a host of other features of modules. These include domain specificity, innate specification, and hardwiring in fixed neural structure. Modules are not assembled from more primitive processes. In addition, modular processes are fast and mandatory, and their outputs are “shallow.” Central, cognitive processes have limited access to the information encapsulated within modules. Finally, modules show characteristic and specific breakdown patterns, and their development exhibits a characteristic pace and sequencing. If, as Fodor suggests, language processing is modular, the relation between language and cognition is one of independence.
An Integrative Developmental Model For Trauma And Memory
Authors: Elin Mark R
Published: November 2023

“How does one rid oneself of something buried far within: memory and the skin of memory? It clings to me yet. Memory’s skin has hardened, it allows nothing to filter out of what remains, and I have no control over it. I don’t feel it anymore” (p. l).
Hypnosis And Hypnotherapy
Authors: Frankel Fred H , Covino Nicholas A
Published: November 2023

Those who undertake to research the nature and practice of hypnosis along with their clinical colleagues are no strangers to controversy. From long before the Viennese physician Mesmer (1734--1815) promoted the use of magnetism to cure patients of their physical ailments and Sigmund Freud (1856--1939) made the trip to the laboratory of Charcot (1825-1893) to apprentice himself to the famous neurologist, practitioners of hypnosis have been ambivalently held, and their craft has been the target of suspicion and criticism matched only by the overly enthusiastic claims of its champions. Over the years, due to the occasionally dramatic and underexplained amelioration of symptoms with hypnosis and the often theatrical personalities of some practitioners in this area, ‘‘the voice of moderation and reason has been rare.’’
Diagnosis, Pathogenesis, And Memories Of Childhood Abuse
Authors: Uyehara Lisa A
Published: November 2023

The debate about memories of childhood abuse can be conceptualized as a diagnostic argument: on the one hand, that psychopathology resulting from childhood sexual abuse can be diagnosed with reasonable accuracy; and on the other, that clinicians erroneously diagnose a traumatic syndrome when no such events occurred. In the midst of this furor, we are forced to reconsider our theories of diagnosis and pathogenesis and our procedures for evaluating patients and reconstructing their histories.
Legal Rights Of Trauma Victims
Authors: Murphy Wendy J
Published: November 2023

Victims of sexual trauma can seek justice through civil or criminal proceedings or both. This chapter will discuss the similarities and significant differences between these proceedings as well as recent developments in the law regarding victims’ privacy rights and the admissibility of “repressed” memory testimony.
Ethical And Clinical Risk Management Principles In Recovered Memory Cases: Maintaining Therapist Neutrality
Authors: Simon Robert I , Gutheil Thomas G
Published: November 2023

The current controversy among mental health professionals, their patients, and families over recovered memories of sexual abuse threatens to undermine the credibility of the mental health professions. The debate has generated intense passions that have driven an increasing number of recovered memory cases into the courts. Patients alleging recovered memories of abuse have sued parents and other perpetrators. In a number of instances, the alleged victimizers have sued therapists, who they claim negligently induced false memories of sexual abuse. In other cases, patients have recanted and joined forces with individuals (usually their parents) to sue therapists.
Child Victims M The Legal System
Authors: Schetky Diane H
Published: November 2023

Child abuse is usually a crime without witnesses. Perpetrators may select victims who are compliant, easily intimidated, and not likely to disclose, and secrecy is the norm. In most substantiated cases of child sexual abuse there is no physical evidence. In the absence of physical evidence, corroboration, or witnesses, prosecutors may have no choice other than to have a child testify in court if they wish to get a conviction. This decision is not made lightly and must balance the child’s interests with the need to protect her and other potential victims.
Introduction: Where Is Central Europe?
Authors: Johnson Lonnie R
Published: November 2023

Historical memory, the presence of a past that is so remote that it bears little or no resemblance to the so-called realities of the contemporary world, is an important Central European attribute. History in this part of the world is epic and tragic; small nations frequently have struggled against larger ones and have lost regularly. The past consists of inexcusable transgressions and missed opportunities; the present is filled with unfinished business from the past; and the future is a chance finally to rectify a historical record that has been inauspicious at best and unjust at worst.
Nations Without States, States Without Nations 1790-1848
Authors: Johnson Lonnie R
Published: November 2023

If reason and revolution are concepts frequently used to characterize those eighteenth-century trends that culminated in the French Revolution, then Romanticism and reaction are concepts regularly employed to describe the early-nineteenth-century responses to the Enlightenment and the upheavals that shook France and then the rest of Europe after 1789. The French Revolution abruptly ended royal and imperial experimentation with enlightened reform in Central and Eastern Europe.
The Demise of Imperial Austria and the Rise of Imperial Germany,1848-1890
Authors: Johnson Lonnie R
Published: November 2023

In 1815 the Congress of Vienna diplomatically sealed the victory of the old European dynastic order over revolutionary France, an event that marked the beginning of thirty-three years of peace and stability in Europe. In the same year, the czar of Russia, the king of Prussia, and the emperor of Austria concluded the “Holy Alliance,” an anti-revolutionary pact that obligated them as Christian sovereigns to adhere to patriarchal principles of government, and this triad of absolutists cooperated relatively well until the middle of the nineteenth century.
Effects of Alcohol on Brain Circulation
Authors: Altura Burton M , Altura Bella T
Published: November 2023

Over 250 years ago, Sedgwick (1725) wrote that alcohol may compromise the cerebral circulation, but it was probably Trotter in 1804 who first stated that alcohol could precipitate cerebrovascular disease. This idea lay dormant until 40 years ago when Pakkenberg (1954) reported that one-third of young male patients presenting with cerebral infarction were heavy drinkers. Many years later case reports supporting this association began to appear (Bengesser and Weiser, 1974; Hillbom and Kaste, 1978; Lee, 1979). At about the same time, large-scale epi-demiological studies (reviewed by Ashley, 1982) revealed that the risk for cerebrovascular disease increases with increasing alcohol consumption.
Lads Will Be Men
Authors: Ingle H Larry
Published: November 2023

As a child George Fox was something of a prig; as he himself put it, he exhibited “a gravity and staidness of mind and spirit not usual in children.” He was serious beyond his years and never strayed from the straight and narrow way. Shunning the company of other children, he never succumbed to the snares that tempted him “almost to despair,” never after his eleventh year forgot the “pure¬ ness and righteousness” he had adopted by that early age. Both his countenance and speech betrayed a marked “sadness of spirit.” Overseen by zealous Presbyterian parents, young Fox learned how “to walk to be kept pure.” His early training took. By the time he was a youth and apprenticed to a shoe¬ maker, he was so downright officious in importuning his fellows that they could hardly endure his company. To escape them and their worldliness, he betook himself to some hidden garret or hid himself in a dark corner. In the last memoir he dictated, he described himself as “afraid” of all, young as well as old, the profane as well as those who professed religion. He adopted as his own the rigid and austere standards of the religious reformers who were trying to change the habits of England. Probably without knowing it, certainly without fully knowing why, he had accepted the authority of people he did not know and had not seen. George was not something of a prig, he was a prig, and a little prig at that.
No Time like the Present
Authors: Ingle H Larry
Published: November 2023

With the disgrace of Nayler behind him, Fox resumed his preaching schedule and missionary activities with a vigor redolent of earlier days; he would try, single-handedly, to breathe new energy into his compatriots. His burst of activity, some of it confrontational, suggested he was figuratively thumbing his nose at the Westminster worthies who thought that they had so easily squashed their so-called Quaker threat by throwing Nayler into jail. With his competitor jailed, Fox did not have to attend to that aspect of his movement’s internal problems and could concentrate on increasing its numbers and deepening its influence. Wales, where concentrations of Naylerites remained, was one venue, but he also traveled in southern and western England. Before 1657 ended he ventured northward into the dark land called Scotland, seeking not only to convert the natives but also to make contact with the growing number of Quakers in the Lord Protector’s army there.