bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Luddism and Machine Breaking
Authors: Ness Immanuel
Published: September 2017

The Luddites were secret associations of industrial workers who participated in mass uprisings against the introduction of new machinery in Britain from about 1810 to 1818. The movement began in Scotland in 1810 and quickly spread throughout England, reaching its maximum extent in 1815. The primary means of resistance was the destruction of machinery, above all by handloom weavers who saw the new power looms as a grave threat to their livelihood because they were devaluing their labor and would eventually displace them entirely. The movement took its name from messages sent in the name of a fictional General Ned Ludd to the textile manufacturers, warning them to remove their mechanized looms or suffer the consequences.
L
ugo,
F
ernando (b. 1951)
Authors: Thimmel Stefan
Published: September 2017

On April 20, 2008 Fernando Armindo Lugo Mendez, an explicit exponent of Latin American liberation theology, was elected president of the Republic of Paraguay. Lugo was born on May 30, 1951 and as a member of the Steyler Missionaries (the Catholic fraternity active in Paraguay since 1910) worked until 2005 in the Department of San Pedro. From 1994 he was bishop of the Central‐Paraguayan diocese, one of the poorest and most conflict‐ridden in the country.
Lukács, Georg (1885–1971)
Authors: Gerhardt Christina
Published: September 2017

Georg Lukács was a Marxist critic and philosopher. Born into a wealthy assimilated Jewish family in Budapest, he studied in Budapest, Berlin, and Heidelberg. In 1918, at the end of World War I and the Austro‐Hungarian Empire, he joined the Hungarian Communist Party and in 1919 served as minister of culture and education in the short‐lived Hungarian Soviet Republic under the leadership of Béla Kun. Afterwards, Lukács fled to and lived in Vienna, and then Berlin. When Hitler seized power, Lukács left for Moscow, returning to Hungary in 1945. Following Lukács's participation in the revolutionary communist government of Imre Nagy in 1956, when Lukács served as the minister of culture, he was sent into exile in Bucharest and placed under house arrest. In 1957, after practicing self‐criticism, he was allowed to return to Hungary where he remained until his death in 1971.
Machel, Samora (1933–1986)
Authors: Corfield Justin
Published: September 2017

Samora Machel was the main Mozambican nationalist leader during the 1970s. He took over after the assassination of Eduardo Mondlane, becoming the first president of Mozambique in 1975, and remaining in office until his death in 1986.
Mackandal, François (d. 1758)
Authors: Müller Frank I.
Published: September 2017

François Mackandal, deported from Guinea to Saint Domingue by the French, lived as a fugitive slave, or Maroon, in the mountains of Haiti. During nightly Voodoo ceremonies he preached death to white colonizers, plotting mass poisoning against them, networked among slaves, and taught them forms of resistance. Caught by the colonists, he was publicly burned in Cap‐Français (now Cap‐Haïtien) in March 1758.
Mackay, John Henry (1864–1933)
Authors: Heiman Larry W.
Published: September 2017

John Henry Mackay was a Scottish‐German author chiefly known in his lifetime for his propagandistic writings on individualist anarchism and his influential biography of German philosopher Max Stirner, which introduced Stirner's philosophy of egoism outside Germany. Today, he may be best known for his poems set to music by Richard Strauss and his series of books written to attain understanding and acceptance of homosexual love.
Mackenzie‐Papineau Battalion
Authors: Clément Roger
Published: September 2017

The Mackenzie‐Papineau Battalion or Mac‐Paps, as they came to be known, were a battalion of Canadians who fought as part of the Fifteenth International Brigade on the Republican side in the Spanish Civil War. The Mac‐Paps were the first Canadians to fight the fascism that, a few short months after their defeat, devastated the world during World War II.
Magón, Ricardo Flores (1874–1922) and the Magonistas
Authors: Kastner Jens
Published: September 2017

Magonism designates a social movement as well as a certain school of libertarian theory, named after the Mexican anarchist Ricardo Flores Magón. The organizational core of Magonism was the Partido Liberal de México (Liberal Party of Mexico, PLM), founded in the US on September 5, 1905 in St. Louis, Missouri. Although the Magonists took their public discourse from liberalism, the group embraced an anarchist political philosophy and strategy. The Magonists were one of the most influential radical currents during the Mexican Revolution (1910–21).
Maitan, Livio (1923–2004)
Authors: Moscato Antonio
Published: September 2017

Livio Maitan was the foremost leader of the Italian Trotskyite movement. Born in Venice in 1923, Maitan took part in the resistance movement during Nazi occupation of Italy, and was soon after a leader of the youth movement of the Socialist Party. By 1947 he was active in the Fourth International, holding leadership positions from 1951 until his death in September 2004; his militancy throughout was well documented. As a militant and a theorist he closely followed Italian and European events, but was also interested in the revolutionary processes of Latin America, gaining allegations of
guevarisme
from the more dogmatic components of Trotskyism. He later joined the Partito della Rifondazione Comunista (PRC; Communist Refoundation Party), where he also held positions of national leadership. Beginning in 2001, Maitan was an active and critical participant in Italy's anti‐globalization movement. His perennial militancy drew him into political and economic analysis, to which he devoted articles, essays, and books. He covered social classes in Italy and other countries with regard to world economic crises, the history of the Italian Communist Party, the political heritage of Gramsci, and the Chinese Cultural Revolution to name a few. Maitan edited and translated many of Trotsky's (1879–1940) works into Italian, and some of Ernest Mandel's (1923–95) as well, and was a close collaborator of the latter. In later years, while still active in politics, he wrote his memoires, and a history of the Fourth International.
Makhno, Nestor (1889–1935)
Authors: Le Blanc Paul
Published: September 2017

Nestor Makhno was one of the most heroic and, for a time, one of the most successful anarchist figures in Russia and internationally. He led the most powerful anarchist movement during the Russian Revolution and Civil War, sometimes allied with the Bolsheviks, sometimes warring against them.
Malatesta, Errico (1853–1932)
Authors: Levy Carl
Published: September 2017

Errico Malatesta was the leading Italian anarchist from the 1890s to the 1930s, with a career that encapsulated the movement's greatest period of influence and spanned the Risorgimento, Liberal Italy, and Fascism. He lived between the era of Bakunin and Mussolini and knew them both. His unique theoretical position and his frenetic activism coincided with and helped shape anarchism from the last quarter of the nineteenth century until the 1930s. For much of his life he was in exile and in this respect he is a prime exemplar of the nomadic anarchist and syndicalist movements, which emerged in an era of globalization before World War I. Although Malatesta was a key figure in the First International in Italy in the 1870s and early 1880s, his sojourns in Italy between 1885 and 1919 were sporadic if inevitably dramatic. The government of the day was terrified by his presence during the popular
Fasci Siciliani
movement (1893–4), the risings of 1897–8, La Settimana Rossa (Red Week) of 1914, and the Biennio Rosso (Red Biennium) of 1919–20. As a longtime exile in the capital of the capitalist world, London, for almost thirty years between the 1880s and 1919, Malatesta mixed with a cross‐section of Europe's exiled radicals and with the local progressive and radical intelligentsia and representatives of the parties of the left and trade union movement. Malatesta also spent considerable time in the Levant, the Balkans, Spain, Argentina, the USA, Cuba, Switzerland, and France. His influence on the Italian anarchist movement, even from exile, is a case study in transnational networking. Anarchist intellectuals Francesco Saverio Merlino (1856–1930), Pietro Gori (1865–1911), and Luigi Fabbri (1877–1935), as well as a larger group of artisans and exiles circulating between Italy and the diaspora, helped Malatesta retain a considerable influence within the anarchist movement as well as an immense, latent popularity within the Italian left generally and “subversive” political culture in particular (e.g., in Tuscany, Emilia‐Romagna, Liguria, and Rome). Malatesta's importance to the history of revolution can be found in his practice and equally in his revision of anarchist theory.
M
alaysia, Protest and Revolt
Authors: Abraham Collin Rajasingham
Published: September 2017

Malaysia is a multicultural society that was born in the throes of protest, largely influenced by British colonialism. The historical effect of British colonialism on Malaysia brought into sharper focus the fusion of protest and revolution into the body of social theory. Because colonial intervention, since its very inception in 1874, was accompanied by decades of both political and military anti‐colonial struggles, it engendered a substantial ability to resist colonial domination through protest, ultimately leading to revolution. Indeed, such was the ferocity of the protests and uprisings that the colonial government did not enjoy a continuous period of peace for more than six months during its entire rule, up to the granting of political independence in 1957.
Malcolm X (1925–1965)
Authors: Edge Thomas
Published: September 2017

One of the most controversial figures of the American civil rights movement, Malcolm X (El‐Hajj Malik El‐Shaba)zz was an outspoken critic of racism in the United States and throughout the world during the 1950s and 1960s. His uncompromising stands on the fate of non‐white people across the world, combined with his withering critiques of the mainstream civil rights movement, made him a polarizing figure in the black freedom struggle.
Malon, Benoît (1841–1893)
Authors: Buelinckx Erik
Published: September 2017

Benoît Malon was a socialist and French communard born into a poor family of farmers in Précieux, a small village in the southeast of France. Three years later his father died and his mother started to work as a servant; at seven he had to leave school to work. When Malon was 13 his mother remarried, and he went to work in Ain as a shepherd and bookkeeper for a local farmer. When he became ill in 1859 he stayed with his brother, a teacher, who helped further his education. In 1863 he arrived in Puteaux in the Paris region, worked as a dyer, met Zéphyrin Camélinat (1840–1932), a friend of Proudhon (1809–65), and two years later joined the International, of which he was one of the first members.
M
andela,
N
elson (b. 1918)
Authors: Callinicos Luli
Published: September 2017

Nelson Mandela has become the icon of South Africa's successful transition to a political democracy. A leading figure in the African National Congress (ANC), imprisoned for a quarter of a century on Robben Island, and the first president of a democratic South Africa beginning in 1994, Mandela has become the symbol and its lodestar of the struggle against apartheid.
Mapuche Indian Resistance
Authors: Hernández Héctor Guerra , Contreras Raúl Ortíz
Published: September 2017

The process of integration of Mapuche territories to the administration of the Chilean state was known as the “Pacification of the Araucanía.” It consisted of the effective military and, in many cases, violent occupation of the territories where different indigenous Mapuche groups resided during the colonial period and the beginning of the republic. The Mapuche were either completely erased from the map or deported. The republic sought to abolish the Mapuche people's autonomy, political integrity, territorial lands, and identity. Many were forced to live on reservations.
Marcuse, Herbert (1898–1979)
Authors: Bokina John
Published: September 2017

Herbert Marcuse was a political philosopher, member of the Frankfurt School, whose works were very influential during the period of New Left activism. He was born in Berlin to an assimilated Jewish family. He served briefly in the German army during World War I. At the same time he began his doctoral studies at the University of Berlin. His early political experiences date from these years. He was a member of the majority faction of the German Social Democratic Party (SPD) between 1917 and 1919. He resigned to protest the SPD's complicity in the deaths of Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht. After the war he participated in the Berlin Revolutionary Soldiers' Council, but quit when he detected Russian influence in it. With his resignation from the SPD and departure from the Council, Marcuse ended his only organized political affiliations.
Maripe, Knight (1927–2006)
Authors: Barei Geoffrey
Published: September 2017

Born in April 1927 at Mapoka village in the North East District of Bechuanaland (now Botswana), Knight Maripe started his education at the local community primary school before proceeding to the Dombodema Mission School in Plumtree District of Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe). In 1946 he finished standard six at Tonota, in the Central District of Bechuanaland, and then went on to the Ohlange Institute in Natal Province, South Africa, where he matriculated in 1951. Ohlange Institute was established by the mission school‐educated John L. Dube after his return from America in 1899. Dube was one of the founders of South Africa's African National Congress (ANC). Ohlange's aim was to provide African youths with training in practical skills so that they could be of service to their own communities.
Mármol, Miguel (1905–1993)
Authors: Ewald Kerstin
Published: September 2017

Miguel Mármol co‐founded the Communist Party of El Salvador in 1930. As a member of the party's Central Committee, he experienced the 1932 uprising of El Salvador's masses against the dictatorship of Maximiliano Hernández Martínez and later analyzed the critical role of the Communist Party during the insurrection process. Like thousands of other insurgents and communists, he was arrested and brought before a firing squad. He survived the execution and escaped with serious injuries. This incident and his untiring revolutionary work earned Mármol an almost legendary reputation within the Latin American left. This position was consolidated by Salvadoran poet Roque Dalton's book about Mármol and by Uruguayan historian Eduardo Galeano, who raised him to the status of metaphoric symbol for Latin America's fate.
Marsden, Dora (1882–1960)
Authors: Sprayberry Gary S.
Published: September 2017

Dora Marsden, modernist writer, editor, and feminist activist, was born in Yorkshire, England. As a student at the University of Manchester, Marsden became involved in the women's rights movement. In 1909 she and others were arrested when they attempted to disrupt a speech by Winston Churchill. Soon after, Marsden landed a high‐profile position with the Women's Social and Political Union. Conflicts with its moderate leadership led her to leave the organization in 1911.
Marx, Karl (1818–1883)
Authors: Blanc Paul Le
Published: September 2017

Karl Heinrich Marx, generally acknowledged as a giant in the realms of social science and philosophy, and as an outstanding revolutionary of the nineteenth century, is perhaps the foremost representative of modern socialism.
Mazumdar, Charu (1918–1972)
Authors: Gupta Shatarupa Sen
Published: September 2017

Charu Mazumdar joined the Communist Party of India (CPI) in 1941 and participated in the
Tebhaga
Movement of 1946 (demanding two‐thirds of the crop for sharecroppers). This movement, led by the CPI‐dominated Kisan Sabhas (peasants' association) in rural Bengal, petered out after independence under massive repression. The lessons of
Tebhaga
led Mazumdar to conclude that the peasants had to be equipped to face armed state repression. During the Sino‐Indian border dispute of 1962, Mazumdar was arrested for raising pro‐Chinese slogans and holding the Nehru government responsible for the dispute.
Mazzini, Giuseppe (1805–1872)
Authors: Ciferri Elvio
Published: September 2017

The most influential theorist and political leader of the Italian democratic Risorgimento, Giuseppe Mazzini was born in Genoa on June 22, 1805, of Giacomo, professor in the faculty of medicine, and Maria Drago, a strong influential personality who advocated Jansenism, a Catholic fundamentalist perspective counter to the Reformation. In 1827 Mazzini earned a degree in law and literature where he developed a strong criticism of the European Restoration and the view that Italy, separated by territorial divisions, should be free from foreign domination. Mazzini joined Carboneria, a secret society formed in the early nineteenth century that advocated unification of Italy through revolt and insurrection.
M
eredith,
J
ames (b. 1933)
Authors: Dillard Angela D.
Published: September 2017

While not technically a member of any organization aligned with the post‐World War II civil rights
movement
, James Meredith secured a significant victory for the civil rights
cause
when he became the first African American to openly enroll at the University of Mississippi on October 1, 1962. He was born on June 25, 1933 in Kosciusko, Mississippi, where he spent most of his youth before joining the Air Force in 1950. Military service in both the US and Japan within the newly desegregated armed forces was a formative experience for the aspiring, and always contrarian, activist. Before his honorable discharge, he had already begun to dream of launching a war against white supremacy in Mississippi.
Mexican Revolution of 1910–1921
Authors: Stubbe Lars
Published: September 2017

When Francisco Indalecio Madero (1990: 242) wrote in 1908 that after 32 years of Porfirio Díaz's iron rule “we do reject absolutely … that it may be suitable for this regime to be prolonged,” this was to mark the beginning of a long‐drawn‐out phase of armed social struggles lasting until 1920 and making its impact well into the second half of the twentieth century. Its complex nature not only derived from the disunity in the subaltern classes and hence their lack of a clear revolutionary goal. It was also the result of a vacuum in leadership by the ruling classes, who lacked coherence in the decision about which future mode of accumulation to adopt following the elimination of the close‐meshed web of repression during the Díaz years. Furthermore, it proved an expression of Mexico's contradictory entry into the world market and its future role as an economy dependent on providing cheap raw materials and labor.
M
exico, Labor Movement and Protests, 1980–2005
Authors: La Botz Dan
Published: September 2017

Mexican working people participated in significant social movements in the tumultuous transition period between 1980 and 2005. The context for these movements was a profound change in politics, in the economy, in the structure of social classes, and in the character of social movements themselves. The central issue throughout this era was the struggle over democracy, but also important were fights to stop the privatization of nationalized industry and movements for a living wage. The period opened with a reorientation of the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) away from a nationalist political economy and toward open markets and free trade, and reached a turning point in 2000 with the election to the presidency of Vicente Fox of the conservative National Action Party (PAN), ending the PRI's 75‐year dominance.
M
exico, Worker Struggles and Labor Unions, 1950s–1970s
Authors: Botz Dan La
Published: September 2017

The major Mexican worker struggles of the 1950s to the 1970s grew out of the political economic system that had been established in Mexico in the post‐revolutionary period. The Mexican ruling party, the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI), had by 1950 through a combination of political maneuvers, payoffs, gangsterism, and police and military action succeeded in taking control of virtually the entire organized labor movement. The Confederation of Mexican Workers (CTM) and the other major labor federations and industrial unions had all affiliated with the PRI. In return for getting out the vote for the ruling party and supporting its policies, union officials became PRI leaders who were rewarded with political positions as governors, congressmen, and senators. Workers, when they were hired, automatically became members of the appropriate union and members of the PRI, and they were mobilized by the union to attend party demonstrations and to vote.
Micronesia, Nationalist and Labor Protests
Authors: Corfield Justin
Published: September 2017

The imperial powers have used the islands of Micronesia for military bases since the nineteenth century and for nuclear testing since the World War II era. Naturally, the indigenous residents of these islands have often protested such use of their homeland.
M
orales,
E
vo (b. 1959)
Authors: Purcell Thomas
Published: September 2017

In Juan Evo Morales Ayma, a football‐addicted Aymara Indian, the spirit of Che Guevara lives on. “Evo,” as he is popularly known by his followers, embodies the fusion of ethnic and leftist politics. Born in 1959 near the tin‐mining city of Oruro, high in the Bolivian Altiplano, Evo was one of seven siblings, but as is common among poor indigenous families, four died within a year of birth. Despite working from a very early age, Evo managed to get a formal education, organize football teams, and play the trumpet in the Royal Imperial Band, leaving school at the age of 17 to complete military service. In the wake of widespread mine closures, economic depression, and the terrible drought on the Altiplano in 1980, Morales's family followed many in the migration to the more fertile Chapare lowlands. Here they became farmers, mainly of the coca leaf.
M
orris,
W
illiam (1834–1896)
Authors: Kelly Jason M.
Published: September 2017

William Morris was a writer, designer, and political activist. One of the early exponents of the aesthetic approach, later known as the Arts and Crafts movement, his intellectual breadth was seemingly boundless. His father, William Morris (1797–1847), was a speculative investor, and his success provided the young William with a luxurious childhood and a financially secure life dominated by the romantic medievalism of the age. He devoured the works of Sir Walter Scott and even had his own suit of armor. His fascination with medieval literature and history fed his imagination, and probably contributed to his embrace of the Oxford Movement, which dominated the teaching at Marlborough College, his school between 1848 and 1851.
M
other
J
ones (1837–1930)
Authors: Gorn Elliott
Published: September 2017

Mother Jones was one of the most famous women in America during the early years of the twentieth century, although by the early twenty‐first century she is nearly forgotten. “Pray for the dead, and fight like hell for the living,” she used to tell her audiences, and her fiery words inspired thousands of men and women to join unions and the Socialist Party. Her friend Upton Sinclair described her in a lightly fictionalized account about the struggle to organize the Colorado coalfields in 1913:
MRTA (Movimiento Revolucionario Túpac Amaru)
Authors: Stock Robin
Published: September 2017

The Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement (Movimiento Revolucionario Túpac Amaru) (MRTA) is a guerrilla movement in Peru. After playing a central role in the internal armed conflict in the 1980s and 1990s, and aiming to overthrow the government in order to establish Marxist‐Leninist socialism, today the MRTA is no longer militarily active.
Music, Songs, and Protest,
F
rance
Authors: Laberge Yves
Published: September 2017

Because of a long tradition, French music remains exceptionally rich and diversified. Until recently, popular refrains from the era of the French Revolution, like the joyful song “Ah! Ça ira, ça ira, ça ira” (“It'll be okay, be okay, be okay”), containing the lyrics “The aristocrats, we'll hang them!,” were taught in French schools and sometimes adapted to new situations and contemporary conflicts. Even the French national anthem
La Marseillaise
, which means “The Woman from Marseilles,” refers to the elimination of tyrants by the people, united against a common enemy: the foreign oppressor. It was first composed in 1792 in Strasbourg as a war song against the Austrian army by an officer from Alsace, Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle (1760–1836). It became the official French national anthem on July 14, 1795, but was banned a few years later, until being rehabilitated in 1830. Nowadays
La Marseillaise
is famous: even the Beatles quoted its opening in the famous introduction to their song “All You Need Is Love” in 1967.
Napper Tandy, James (1737?–1803)
Authors: Sonnelitter Karen
Published: September 2017

James Napper Tandy gained fame as a flamboyant radical during the era of the United Irishmen and the Great Rebellion of 1798. He was born in the late 1730s – the exact year is unknown – into a Protestant family in Dublin; his father was an ironmonger. In adulthood Napper Tandy at first made his living as a land agent and rent collector.
N
epal,
M
aoists'
R
ise
Authors: Dhar Sushovan
Published: September 2017

The Communist Party of Nepal, founded in 1949, won four seats in the first elections in Nepal in 1959 and was the foundation of the Maoist movement in the country. Until the adoption in 1990 of a new constitution guaranteeing a multiparty system, most communist politicians had been in exile or operated underground. As part of an effort to form a multiparty opposition, known as Jan Andolan (People's Movement), some communist factions unified under the Communist Party of Nepal (United Marxist Leninist) (CPN‐UML).
NicaraguanRevolution, 1970s–1980s
Authors: Sierakowski Robert
Published: September 2017

The Sandinistas of the Nicaraguan Revolution of 1979 stand out in Latin American history as the only successful guerilla movement of the numerous revolutionary organizations that formed in the wake of the Cuban Revolution. To understand both the roots and outcomes of the revolutionary struggle to overthrow the Somoza dictatorship, it is necessary to understand Nicaragua's political and economic development, as well as its long history of relations with the United States.
N
in,
A
ndreu (1892–1937)
Authors: Durgan Andrew
Published: September 2017

Andreu Nin was one of the many founders of the Communist movement who would later rebel against the strictures of a degenerated revolution. Although best known as a victim of Stalinism after his murder during the Spanish Civil War (1936–9), Nin stands out in his own right as a Marxist revolutionary activist and theoretician in the prewar epoch.
Non‐Violent Movements: Struggles for Rights, Justice, and Identities
Authors: Pieper Christopher
Published: September 2017

The overriding interest in mere survival for many countries from 1939 to 1945 cast aside concerns typically categorized as social movement aims, such as independence, redistribution of material resources, or moral reform. World War II was its own unprecedented type of mobilization, activating every mode of societal energy in dozens of nations toward the objective of military victory. As contemporary historians are increasingly observing, however, war is frequently a stimulus for a wide array of consequences touching dimensions of social life far removed from the battlefield.
Non‐Violent Revolutions
Authors: Ritter Daniel
Published: September 2017

In the last three decades, activists have applied non‐violent action in previously untested terrains. Beginning with the Iranian Revolution of 1977–9, non‐violence has been employed in popular uprisings against domestic dictators and oppressive regimes. What distinguishes these nonviolent revolutions is not merely the scope of the protests, but also the eventual outcome. While non‐violent protest movements have been successful in shaping national policy, resisting invasions and occupations, and extending rights to groups of individuals previously excluded, non‐violent revolutions have managed to transform entire political systems, and sometimes even society as a whole.
Nuclear‐FreeNewZealand, 1987
Authors: Squire Heather
Published: September 2017

Nuclear‐Free New Zealand was a campaign and social movement involving both government and civil society that succeeded in passing the New Zealand Nuclear‐Free Zone, Disarmament, and Arms Control Act 1987. Nuclear‐Free New Zealand was part of a global movement against nuclear proliferation that emerged in reaction to the Cold War arms race in the early 1980s.
N
ujoma,
S
am (b. 1929)
Authors: Dedering Tilman
Published: September 2017

Sam Daniel Shafiishuna Nujoma was born on May 12, 1929 at Etunda in Ongandjera district in the north of Namibia. Growing up in a traditional Ovambo household, the young boy tended the family's livestock and fulfilled other domestic duties. It was not before he was ten years old that he began to obtain a formal education by attending a Finnish missionary school. According to Nujoma's own account, he generally seems to have experienced his childhood as relatively undisturbed by disruptive outside influences. This changed when he moved to Walvis Bay in 1946. There he was not only able to immerse himself into the harbor town's cosmopolitan environment, but he also witnessed the harsh realities of migrant contract labor while working at a general store and at a whaling station. In 1949 he relocated to Windhoek, where he worked as an office cleaner for the South African Railways and complemented his rudimentary education by attending evening classes. In 1956 he married Theopoldine Kovambo Katjimune, with whom he would have three surviving children.
O
bregón,
A
lvaro (1880–1928) and the
S
onoran Generation
Authors: Weinberg Bill
Published: September 2017

The rise of the Sonoran dynasty represented the Mexican Revolution's Thermidor. It was a textbook case of Saul Alinsky's famous formulation: the have‐nots being exploited as cannon fodder by the have‐a‐little‐want‐mores. It was led and typified by men of petit‐bourgeois origins who resented the domination of the dictator Porfirio Díaz (1830–1915) and his favored oligarchs and administrators. The 1910 Revolution which toppled Díaz and brought Francisco Madero (1873–1913) to power was a balance between merely reformist and truly revolutionary forces. The second phase of the Revolution, beginning in 1913, would be characterized by an open contest between the “Constitutionalist” forces of Venustiano Carranza (1859–1920) and his Sonoran allies on one hand, and the peasant armies of Pancho Villa (ca. 1878–1923) and Emiliano Zapata (1879–1919) on the other.
Ona,Francis (ca. 1953–2005)
Authors: Corfield Justin
Published: September 2017

The leader of the Bougainville secessionist movement, Francis Ona led an uprising against the government of Papua New Guinea (PNG) leading from protests against the Panguna mine operated by Bougainville Copper. Bougainville Island is in Melanesia, in the Solomon Islands, east of PNG.
O
wen,
R
obert (1771–1858)
Authors: Griggs Christian A.
Published: September 2017

Robert Owen was a nineteenth‐century reformer, spiritualist, and utopian socialist who believed a person's character was the product of their environment. Known as the founder of socialist ideals in Britain, throughout his life he strived to improve the condition of the working class during the earliest stages of the Industrial Revolution.
P
adilla,
J
uan de (ca. 1490–1521)
Authors: Perrone Sean T.
Published: September 2017

Juan de Padilla was an important military leader in the Comunero Revolt (1520–1) in Castile. He was born in 1490 to a prominent
hidalgo
(lower nobility) family in the city of Toledo. By the late 1510s Padilla was disgruntled, feeling slighted after the new king passed him over for public office. In 1519 he used his position on the city council of Toledo to rally opposition to Charles V's policies and to initiate a petition among the cities demanding that Charles not leave Spain or appoint foreigners to public offices, or use Castilian revenues in his bid to become Holy Roman Emperor.
P
aisley,
I
an (b. 1926) and
U
nionism,
N
orthern
I
reland
Authors: Ruppert Kathleen
Published: September 2017

Ian Richard Kyle Paisley is a fundamentalist preacher and an extremist right‐wing politician in Northern Ireland. He won a large following among the majority Protestant population by demagogically appealing to its fear of being subjugated by the Catholic majority of the rest of Ireland. His oratorical and organizational skills thus brought him to the fore of the Unionist movement, which is devoted to preserving Northern Ireland's union with Great Britain and resisting compromise with the Republic of Ireland. He utilized anti‐Catholic bigotry – he famously declared that Catholics “breed like rabbits and multiply like vermin” – to create and lead a mass movement that waged strikes, street demonstrations, and other forms of militant protest, as well as paramilitary action, on behalf of the Unionist cause. The great influence he gained as a mass leader eventually elevated him above his more moderate rivals within the Unionist movement to the highest levels of political power in Northern Ireland.
Palmares Slave Revolts, 1602–1603
Authors: Smulewicz‐Zucker Gregory R.
Published: September 2017

Palmares was a
quilombo
(in English, a “maroon society”) or settlement founded by runaway slaves in Pernambuco, a state in northeast Brazil. At the height of its power, it consisted of a vast network of villages, ruled by a king in Macaco, the
quilombo's
capital. Because the king was elected and his power was checked by a council of elders, Palmares is often labeled a republic, but one with distinctively traditional African features. Its name derives from what the Portuguese called the generally uncharted and largely uncolonized interior of Pernambuco, filled with palm trees and marked by inhospitable mountain ranges beyond the official Portuguese coastal settlements. The
quilombo
of Palmares existed for close to a century, during which time it resisted assaults led by both the Portuguese and Dutch regimes in Pernambuco's capital, Recife. Because of its longevity, Palmares has fascinated scholars of slave resistance and come to symbolize resistance to oppression for peoples of African descent.
Paraguay, Popular Resistance to the Rise of the Military (1936–1954)
Authors: Turner Brian , Turner† Christina
Published: September 2017

The Chaco War (between Paraguay and Bolivia) lasted from 1932 to 1935. Mobilization for the war and conscription of troops strengthened the national state at the expense of patron‐client ties in both the rural and urban sectors. This experience with protracted modern warfare led by professional soldiers unleashed revolutionary forces in both Bolivia and Paraguay. In February 1936, liberal president Eusebio Ayala, elected in 1932, was overthrown by elements within the nationalist military and the Association of Ex‐Combatants and replaced by war hero Colonel Rafael Franco. This is known as the Febrerista Revolution.
Paraguay, Protest in the Post‐Stroessner Era
Authors: Turner Brian , Turner† Christina
Published: September 2017

Even though the Colorado Party continued in power in Paraguay, the overthrow of General Alfredo Stroessner opened up the political system dramatically. Many MOPOCO members became advisors to the new Rodríguez government, most prominent among them Miguel Angel González Casabianca and Waldino Lovera, although Rodriguez artfully exploited divisions within the party to maintain his power, and MOPOCO soon disappeared as a movement within the party. Rodriguez was elected president in May 1989 with almost 74 percent of the vote, to complete the term until 1993. The National Accord dissolved into its constituent parts to contest these elections, although the opposition was at an extreme disadvantage after many years of repression. Domingo Laíno finished second in these elections with 18 percent of the vote. Laíno would run second again in 1993 and 1998.
Paraguay, Protest and Revolt, 1954–1989
Authors: Turner† Christina , Turner Brian
Published: September 2017

The forces unleashed by the Chaco War, the professionalization of the military, and modest industrial growth culminated in the long period of rule in Paraguay by General Alfredo Stroessner. Thestronato, as it was called, eventually achieved the pacification of the elite factions within the ruling Colorado Party, but periodic episodes of rural and urban protest and armed insurrection were met in turn with brutal repression.
P
aris Commune, 1871
Authors: Kline Michael , Nilsen Micheline
Published: September 2017

The ten weeks of the Paris Commune of 1871 resonate beyond its brief life. For some historians, it marks the end of the cycle of French revolutionary activity begun with the Revolution in 1789, while for others it was the event that guaranteed the survival of France as a republic. Its detractors saw it as a menacing uprising fomented by the worst and most radical elements in Parisian society. Its supporters saw it as a heroic high point in the struggle for democracy and workers' rights. Today, the Commune remains a touchstone event in French history that has entered the collective consciousness of the nation, particularly revered by the political left in France and in many other countries.
Parks, Rosa (1913–2005) and the Montgomery Bus Boycott
Authors: Brown Susan Love
Published: September 2017

Rosa Parks became a national symbol of the civil rights movement when on Thursday, December 1, 1955 she refused to give up her bus seat to a white passenger in Montgomery, Alabama. Her subsequent arrest sparked the beginning of the Montgomery Bus Boycott, which is widely considered to be the beginning of the modern civil rights movement. The boycott, originally meant to last only a day, continued for more than a year and resulted in a Supreme Court decision outlawing segregated seating on public buses.
Parnell, Charles Stewart (1846–1891)
Authors: Mulligan William H.
Published: September 2017

Charles Stewart Parnell, known as the “uncrowned king” of Ireland, was an Irish nationalist leader who gained great popularity among Irish patriots in both Ireland and America. He was instrumental in developing the Irish National Land League, which waged a protracted campaign for land reform known as the Irish Land War. Parnell also emerged as the leader of the Irish Parliamentary Party, actively agitating for home rule.
P
arrot,
J
ean‐
C
laude (b. 1936)
Authors: Bleakney David
Published: September 2017

Jean‐Claude Parrot had a marked and influential history as a trade union leader. For 21 years he was a national officer of the Canadian Union of Postal Workers (CUPW) during a period of labor disputes and wildcat strikes. For IS of those years (1977–92) he was the national president. He spent 18 years as a chief negotiator, winning a series improvements for his membership that influenced the entire labor movement and society at large. The most notable was the achievement of paid maternity leave in 1981, the result of a 42‐day strike. Today, most working Canadians are entitled to paid parental leave.
Paterson Silk Strike of 1913
Authors: Mattina Anne F.
Published: September 2017

On January 27, 1913, four men were fired by the Doherty Silk Mill in Paterson, New Jersey for asking management for a meeting to discuss the increase of their responsibilities from two looms to four. Eight hundred of their fellow workers walked off the job in protest, leading to a massive strike in which 24,000 workers went out and nearly 300 mills were idled for 6 months. National organizers from the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW), fresh from a victory among woolen workers in Lawrence, Massachusetts, immediately entered the fray. Despite a massive effort by local organizers and strikers, the workers were unsuccessful in their attempt to affect change in their working conditions.
Peng Dehuai (1898–1974)
Authors: Le Blanc Paul
Published: September 2017

Peng Dehuai or P'eng Teh‐huai was, along with Zhu De and Lin Biao, one of the foremost military leaders in the Chinese communist movement in the 1930s and 1940s. A prominent figure in the People's Republic of China after the revolutionary victory, he was also one of the first Chinese communist leaders to openly challenge the authority of Mao Zedong, in 1959.
Peru, “People's War,” Counterinsurgency, and the Popular Movement
Authors: Rénique Gerardo
Published: September 2017

By any reckoning, the 1980–92 war between the Partido Comunista del Perú‐Sendero Luminoso (PCP‐SL) and the armed forces marked a radical transformation in the country's political landscape. Set against the transition to an electoral democratic regime after 12 years of military government, the rapid urbanization of the country and rising popular expectations favored the expansion of the left. By the mid‐1980s the left‐wing coalition of the Izquierda Unida (United Left, IU) was the second largest electoral force. Labor unions, peasant federations, shantytown dwellers' associations, women's collectives, and students' organizations gave life to a powerful and expanding grassroots movement. The parallel escalation of the armed conflict at the same time created the conditions for the normalization and incorporation of counterinsurgency principles and mechanisms into the new governance demanded by the neoliberal reconfiguration of the Peruvian state and society in course during that same decade. A perverse combination of counterinsurgency doctrine, coastalcriolloracism, and disdain for human rights characterized the escalating militarization of Peruvian society during this fateful decade. Starting with the administration of Fernando Belaunde de Terry (1980–5) – the first president after 12 years of military government – each of the next democratically elected presidents gave an increasingly free rein to the Peruvian military.
P
eterloo
M
assacre, 1819
Authors: Griggs Christian A.
Published: September 2017

The Peterloo Massacre occurred on August 16, 1819 in Manchester, England. A group of approximately 60,000 workers gathered in a peaceful political protest and the local magistrates, fearing a riot, sent cavalry into the crowd to disband them, causing chaos and leading to the massacre.
Phan Boi Chau (1867–1940)
Authors: Corfield Justin
Published: September 2017

One of the major figures in the Vietnamese anti‐colonial and nationalist struggle, Phan Boi Chau was born on December 26, 1867, in a village in the north‐central province of Nghe An. His father was from a family of scholars who had long since fallen on hard times, and Phan Boi Chau was brought up in some poverty. However, his father was able to teach him the Confucian ethics and the Analects. As a boy, Phan Boi Chau saw the emergence of French colonial control that compelled the Vietnamese emperor, Tu Duc, to sign a treaty supporting their commercial concession. He watched the defeat of the Can Vuong movement against the French, with the emperor, Ham Nghi, forced to flee the Imperial Palace and settle in Nghe An. Phan Boi Chau met him there and became active in the fight against the French.
Piłsudski, Józef (1867–1935)
Authors: Linch Amy
Published: September 2017

A leader of Polish revolutionary activity against tsarist Russia in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, Pilsudski was almost single‐handedly responsible for the reunification of Poland after its 123 years of partition. He began his career as a socialist and was a leader of the national insurrection in 1905, during which he trained and directed the combat forces of the Polish Socialist Party (PPS). In the wake of the failed attempt to liberate Poland from Russian domination, he developed an army of revolutionaries that was 10,000 strong by the outbreak of World War I. His political and military maneuvering during the war set the stage for Poland's recognition as an independent state. He was chief of state (1918–22) and commander of the armed forces (1919–21) of Poland's Second Republic. He withdrew from politics in 1923 in the face of political opposition, only to return to power in a coup d'etat two years later (1926–35). Throughout his career as an activist and statesman he sought to break up the Russian empire and achieve independence for all captive Central and Eastern European nations.
Pisacane, Carlo (1818–1857)
Authors: Whelehan Niall
Published: September 2017

One of a few Risorgimento Democrats whose views were genuinely socialistic, Italian patriot Carlo Pisacane unreservedly advocated fundamental change in the relationship between the lower and privileged classes in Italy. Max Nettlau has labeled Pisacane one of the “great libertarians,” and he certainly was one of the most advanced thinkers in the Risorgimento, yet Pisacane left no movement behind him, and historians are still divided on his role in the genesis of the Italian left.
Place, Francis (1771–1854)
Authors: Arnold Victoria
Published: September 2017

Francis Place, known as “the radical tailor of Charing Cross,” was a radical reformer whose impressive organizational skill placed him at the center of political and social reform movements of the nineteenth century.
P
oland, 1956
U
prising
Authors: Kemp‐Welch A.
Published: September 2017

Poland first rose up against communist rule in 1956, when popular pressures obliged the authorities to reform the discredited Stalinist system. These forced concessions helped to stabilize the mono‐party system for another decade.
Poor Law,
B
ritain, 1834
Authors: Griffin Carl J.
Published: September 2017

Dramatic reform of the Old Poor Law (ca. 1598–1834) had been on the philosophical and political agenda since at least the 1780s. The collapse of the English rural economy in the aftermath of the cessation of hostilities in continental Europe in 1815 and the central role played by the Poor Laws in motivating activists in the Swing Riots of 1830 raised such calls to a fever pitch. The result was the Poor Law Amendment Act, or New Poor Law (NPL) of 1834, which arranged all parishes into workhouse‐focused unions answerable to the London‐based Poor Law Commission (PLC). The NPL thereby broke with over 300 years of parochial independence in the provision of statutory welfare. The Act also intended to enforce the principle of “less eligibility” – that the workhouse should be less desirable than the conditions experienced by the poorest laborer ‐and attempted to forbid relief to those who refused to enter the workhouse.
Popelin, Marie (1846–1913) and the Belgian League for Women's Rights
Authors: Carlier Julie , Jacques Cathérine
Published: September 2017

Marie Popelin, the first Belgian woman doctor of law, was the “founding mother” of Belgian feminism. The “Popelin Affair” – the Belgian courts' denial of her request to be called to the bar in 1888 and 1889 – was the catalyst that triggered the transition from an educational proto‐feminism to an organized women's movement. By 1892, Popelin and her lawyer, Louis Frank (1864–1917), had founded the first Belgian feminist organization, the Belgian League for Women's Rights (
Ligue beige du droit des femmes
), which would remain the engine of the Belgian women's movement until World War I.
P
oulantzas,
N
icos (1936–1979)
Authors: Boukalas Christos
Published: September 2017

Born in Athens, Greece in 1936, Nicos Poulantzas, sociology professor at Vincennes University, is considered as one of the most original post‐war Marxist thinkers, and was an outstanding contributor to the theory of the state and socio‐political struggles, theoretical areas crucial for revolutionary practice. His work provides indispensable means for the analysis of sociopolitical dynamics, and the development of revolutionary strategy.