bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
TANKER ROUTING, A PRIVATE COMPANY'S PERSPECTIVE
Authors: Reiter Gary A.
Published: January 2013

This paper addresses the concerns that led a private company to consider voluntary tanker routing, and the reasoning that encouraged them to approach the Coast Guard with their suggestions for that agency's consideration and action. It includes a description of the alternatives studied by the company prior to their proposal to the Coast Guard, and will summarize the events that followed. The paper concludes with the author's concerns regarding future endeavors by industry to try to resolve these types of problems independently.
WORLD-CLASS OIL SPILL PREVENTION AND RESPONSE FOR THE ALASKAN: TRANS-ALASKA PIPELINE SYSTEM TANKER TRADE
Authors: Hillman Sharon O. , McHale James E. , Hood Steve D. , Long Richard C. , Klepper John C. , Bader Gary P.
Published: January 2013

Alyeska Pipeline Service Company, Ship Escort Response Vessel System (SERVS) is the primary response action contractor for Trans-Alaska Pipeline System (TAPS) laden tankers within Prince William Sound and an oil spill removal organization for the Gulf of Alaska. During the past five years, SERVS has implemented a world-class spill prevention and response organization for this region.

The activities of the SERVS prevention and response organization include escort prevention service, spill prevention activities, response equipment, contingency planning, nearshore response, community involvement, fishing vessels program, citizen oversight, and training. Plans have been made for dispersant use, in-situ burning, waste management, coastal resource and sensitive environment inventory, wildlife protection and rehabilitation, and other response strategies. Response equipment and strategy updates are closely coordinated with ship operators/charters (planholders), agencies, and the public, including the Prince William Sound Regional Citizen Advisory Council.
USING INTERNAL ENVIRONMENTAL AUDITING PROGRAMS TO HELP PREVENT SPILL INCIDENTS
Authors: Davidson David A. , Wills Thomas L.
Published: January 2013

Texaco, Inc. has been performing environmental audits since 1980. Early audits focused on such major facilities as refineries and chemical plants, which often include waterfront transfer facilities. Prior to the Exxon Valdez accident, Texaco realized the importance of a strong internal environmental auditing program. Groundwork was laid and, in the summer of 1989, a full-fledged corporate environmental compliance auditing program was in place. Audits are now performed, on a cyclical basis, of all Texaco-owned and/or -operated facilities worldwide.

Texaco's environmental auditing procedures are based on an Environmental Auditing Protocol, which includes a document review, describes the audit process, and provides for quality assurance and auditor training. Emphasis is placed on pollution prevention and pollution response, and on how the auditing program can help make the company better prepared both to prevent and to respond to a spill. An important element in this is having a full corporate commitment to the environmental auditing program, from senior level management on down.
SAFETY MANAGEMENT FOR THE MARITIME INDUSTRY: THE INTERNATIONAL SAFETY MANAGEMENT CODE
Authors: Moore William H. , Roberts Karlene H.
Published: January 2013

It is widely accepted that more than 80 percent of all high-consequence marine disasters have been the result of human error (for example, the Exxon Valdez, Amoco Cadiz, and Braer incidents). In the wake of such accidents, it has become apparent that many of these human errors are the result of problems rooted in organizational errors. Though historically it has been a requirement that ship crews be properly certificated before going to sea, owners and operators have not been subject to regulatory requirements that certify their ability to safely manage the operations of their ships. The International Maritime Organization (IMO) has developed and recently adopted the International Management Code for the Safe Operation of Ships and for Pollution Prevention (the International Safety Management Code, or ISM Code), as a mandatory requirement under Chapter IX of the Safety of Life at Sea Convention (SOLAS). The ISM Code is the result of the IMO's commitment to addressing the human element in all aspects of the maritime industry. This paper discusses the safety management system concept behind the ISM Code and what it will mean for the marine industry. The safety management concept includes a number of new and challenging roles and responsibilities for owners, operators, regulators, insurance underwriters, and ship classification societies.
PROTECTING THE GREAT BARRIER REEF FROM AN OIL SPILL
Authors: Craik Wendy
Published: January 2013

If a large oil spill occurred in the Great Barrier Reef there would be significant environmental damage to an asset worth over $1 billion each year to the Australian economy. Preventing an oil spill from occurring is the best protection for the Great Barrier Reef To this end the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority has been working closely with other agencies to reduce the risk of a spill. Measures taken to date include development of an oil spill contingency plan for the Great Barrier Reef, having the Reef declared the world's first Particularly Sensitive Area, introducing compulsory pilotage in parts of the reef, undertaking education and awareness campaigns and widely promoting the view that an emphasis on prevention is preferable to cleanup.
COMPUTER MODELS FOR DAMAGE ASSESSMENT: ESTIMATES OF USE AND RESULTS1
Authors: Bennett James F. , Peacock Bruce E. , Goodspeed Timothy R.
Published: January 2013

Through the process of natural resource damage assessment (NRDA), certain public agencies have the authority to recover monetary damages from parties responsible for injury to natural resources from a discharge of oil or a release of a hazardous substance. Computer simulation models have been developed as simplified procedures for these natural resource trustees to use in calculating damages without undertaking extensive field studies. The revised Natural Resource Damage Assessment Model for Coastal and Marine Environments (NRDAM/CME) and the Natural Resource Damage Assessment Model for the Great Lakes Environments (NRDAM/GLE) are being developed to serve an expanding user community of public natural resource trustees. These tools may enable natural resource managers to expedite settlements and execute environmental restoration.

To estimate the potential use of the NRDA models for oil spills, the authors have developed a set of candidate spill occurrences based on the historical record. Representing an estimated 337 applicable spill events in the subject year, 121 model runs generated damage figures ranging from zero to more than half a million dollars.
INCIDENT COMMAND SYSTEM AND NATURAL RESOURCE DAMAGE ASSESSMENT: MULTIPLE ROLES FACING NATURAL RESOURCE TRUSTEE AGENCIES1
Authors: duVair Pierre H.
Published: January 2013

This paper discusses the continually evolving subjects of emergency response and natural resource damage assessment (NRDA) from the perspective of a state natural resource trustee agency. Following the Exxon Valdez and American Trader spills, California enacted a law that gave the Department of Fish and Game primary responsibility for management of oil spills in marine waters of the state. There are considerable advantages to placing the lead responsibility for spill response and damage assessment on a single trustee agency which must carry out prespill planning and training, and participate in drills. Trustee agencies potentially face numerous roles in significant spill events; methods have been developed to facilitate the conduct of these activities. In particular, the unified command structure, incident command system, and the trustee NRDA team concept are useful.
THE GREAT LAKES SPILL PROTECTION INITIATIVE: A PUBLIC/PRIVATE PARTNERSHIP
Authors: Trumbull William J.
Published: January 2013

The Great Lakes Spill Protection Initiative (GLSPI) was launched in 1992 by eight Great Lakes governors and the chief executive officers of six oil companies. The major objectives of the initiative are to foster a harmonious regulatory framework to promote spill protection efforts, to assure effective response capacity, and to develop cooperative approaches to spill prevention. The initiative undertook a review of existing state regulations, compiled a database of regional response contractors, and facilitated a dialogue between state agencies and industry representatives. The results of these efforts led to recommendations for reviewing and revising state reporting requirements for consistency with federal requirements, streamlining the notification process by establishing a common number for reporting spills, enacting legislation to exempt responders from spill liability in states that have not already done so, coordinating response exercises among industry and governmental agencies, improving spill data collection for the Great Lakes basin, establishing guiding principles for developing state regulations, developing economic incentives to encourage industry prevention efforts, implementing outreach programs to raise awareness of spill protection principles, and continuing the dialogue between government and industry representatives. The GLSPI demonstrates the benefits of a public/private spill protection partnership that may be applicable to other regions.
A SCREENING-LEVEL EVALUATION OF IMPACTS TO A MONTANA LOTIC MACROINVERTEBRATE COMMUNITY FROM A FUEL OIL SPILL
Authors: Van Derveer William D. , Nadeau Royal J. , Case Georgia L.
Published: January 2013

A pipeline rupture during the winter of 1993 released an undetermined amount of refined fuel into a small stream on the Flathead Indian Reservation in Montana. A screening-level bioassessment was performed in conjunction with supporting sediment and water analytical chemistry, to provide a preliminary evaluation of the effects of the spill and subsequent remedial response actions on the benthic community.

A variety of community-level metrics were compared to the habitat scores to evaluate the biological condition of each station sampled relative to the reference, thereby isolating effects related to contaminant release from those due to background habitat conditions. A comparison of taxa richness and Ephemeroptera: Plecoptera: Tricoptera (EPT) Index values from March 1993 to March 1994 indicated partial recovery at the rupture point after intensive soil cleanup and remediation activities. Approximately one year following the spill, the rupture point exhibited 60 and 75 percent recovery respectively in taxa richness and EPT Index. At farther downstream stations, ≤15 and <10 percent recovery in taxa richness and EPT Index respectively were observed.
AN OIL SPILL IN AN ILLINOIS LAKE: ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT
Authors: Sauer Ted , Neff Jerry , Reitsema Lawrence
Published: January 2013

On April 27, 1985, an oil pipeline ruptured, releasing 10,775 barrels (452,550 gallons) of a Southern Louisiana crude oil into Newton Lake, a 1,750-acre electric power plant cooling lake in Jasper County, Illinois. The oil, which flowed into the northern part of the 6-mile eastern arm of the V-shaped lake, was restricted by booms to the upper third of the lake. A long-term environmental assessment program was immediately initiated and continued until October 1991.

Shortly after the accident, offshore (benthic) lake sediments nearest the release site contained up to 5,000 µg/g [ppm] total hydrocarbons. A steep gradient of decreasing hydrocarbon concentrations in sediments occurred with distance from the point where the oil entered the lake. By 1989, concentrations of total hydrocarbons in offshore sediments were less than 50 μg/g in all areas (zones) except in an area of the lake within 1 mile of the release where isolated total hydrocarbons concentrations ranged from <50 μg/g to 430 μg/g. Fingerprinting of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) assemblages six years after the spill revealed that traces of the spilled oil (<400 ng/g total PAHs) remained only in this uppermost part of the lake. PAH assemblages from other sources than the spilled oil were identified in offshore lake sediments as the major contributing PAHs. Low concentrations of residual oil were found in subsurface sediments in the upper 0.4 mile of the lake. Diagenetic perylene was particularly abundant in sediments (up to 2,400 ng/g) especially in the depositional (deepest) areas of the lake. Only trace amounts of a few PAHs (<50 ng/g total PAHs), most from sources other than the released oil, were found in shoreline sediments in any part of the lake. Tissues of fish collected in 1985 shortly after the spill and again in 1991 did not contain detectable levels (<10 ng/g dw) of released oil PAHs.
AN OIL SPILL IN AN ILLINOIS LAKE: ECOLOGICAL AND HUMAN HEALTH ASSESSMENT
Authors: Neff Jerry , Sauer Ted , Osborn Lewis , Tazik Pamela , Reitsema Lawrence
Published: January 2013

Long-term ecological studies were initiated shortly after an April 1985 release of 452,550 gallons of a Southern Louisiana crude oil into a 1750-acre electric power plant cooling lake. Aquatic plants (macrophytes) in the most heavily oiled region of the lake were coated with oil and most had died by late summer 1986. Macrophytes from lightly oiled areas of the lake had nearly recovered by late summer 1986. Macrophytes in other parts of the lake were completely unaffected by the release of oil. A year after the release, diversity and abundance of bottom-living animals decreased in the most heavily oiled parts of the lake and previously dominant insect larvae were replaced by opportunistic oligochaetes. Complete recovery of the most severely affected benthic communities required four years in the deep parts of the lake and five years in shallow areas. There was a small kill of fish ($$200 fish) immediately after the release and a small decrease in the abundance of preferred recreational fish species (largemouth bass and white crappie) during the summer after the release. However, between 1986 and 1991, abundance of recreational fish in the lake was comparable to that before the accident. Fish did not accumulate sufficient PAH in edible tissues to pose a health risk to human consumers.
EVALUATION AND LIMITS OF PROTECTIVE BOOM PLANS FOR HIGH TIDAL RANGE AND STRONG CURRENT AREAS
Authors: Fauvre Daniel
Published: January 2013

The French organization of onshore oil spill response is defined by specific intervention plans (Polmar plans), established for every coastal department. One of the main elements of these plans consists of detailed plans for deploying booms to protect sensitive areas.

The Ministry of the Sea, with assistance from CEDRE, carries out exercises every year in different coastal locations to test the feasibility and efficiency of the boom deployment plans and also to train local personnel in handling antipollution equipment. Lessons learned from these exercises enable the improvement of deployment plans and help define new research areas. Within this framework, CEDRE has undertaken a feasibility study for the installation of booms in high tidal range and strong current areas.

This experimental study involved a 15-day period, during the autumn of 1993, of on-site observations on the behavior of booms installed in one of the most difficult sites on the Atlantic shoreline. The main parameters observed were resistance, containment efficiency, and mechanical behavior of booms during the tide cycle, particularly when booms are stranded at low tide. In spite of successful boom installation, the experiment encountered difficulties due to meteorological and instrumentation problems.

Nevertheless, important lessons have been learned.Static boom protection seems to be difficult for such sites, which leads us to question the validity of numerous Polmar plans. We should test alternative response techniques such as dynamic recovery systems set up at the openings to sensitive areas, which will necessitate good coordination between at-sea and on-shore response authorities.Mooring systems design and installation are jobs for specialists and should be prepared in advance.Various local means, such as fishing vessels or oyster farm barges, can be used for deploying protective booms.
SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY CRUDE OIL SPILL INTO A FRESHWATER STREAM: A CASE STUDY1
Authors: Lowe Mark A. , Mancini Eugene R. , Chamberlain Dilworth W. , Greenwood Eric , Rankin Sue , Fischel Marion
Published: January 2013

In April 1993, a pipeline rupture occurred adjacent to a primary California freeway on the north slope of the Tehachapi/San Emigdio Mountains leading into the San Joaquin Valley. An estimated 6,200 barrels of blended San Joaquin Valley crude oil (27° API gravity) sprayed on the freeway, and flowed downslope and into Grapevine Creek. The crude oil flowed 12 kilometers terminating at a containment dike constructed during the initial response. Cleanup activities were completed and approved by the lead regulatory agency within 21 days of the release.

The release occurred at an elevation of 730 meters above sea level, spraying oil on to the northbound lanes of the freeway and closing it for 36 hours. After passing through engineered freeway drainage, the oil entered Grapevine Creek and flowed through 1,525 meters of riparian habitat and 8,500 meters of grassland habitat. Elevation at the terminus was 300 meters. Upper Grapevine Creek supports dense riparian vegetation that may have contributed to significant diurnal flow fluctuations and caused surface flows to retreat 1,500 meters from the terminus during the afternoon and early evening hours during response operations. Typical flow rates in Grapevine Creek during the response operations were less than 0.15 m3/s (less than 5 ft3/s).

Cleanup activities included steam cleaning the freeway and engineered drainage system and hand cleanup in the riparian section. Cleanup efforts in the downstream grassland section were complicated by the fluctuating flow rates. A site in Grapevine Creek with continual surface flow was selected for stream-flow diversion. Utilizing portable irrigation equipment, the flow from the creek was used to irrigate 40 acres of adjacent grassland. The system was operated for 21 days and required 24-hour supervision to adjust for stream flow fluctuations.

Approximately 3,400 barrels of crude oil were recovered as a liquid from two primary locations: a permanent concrete containment weir and the terminus containment dike. Recovered liquids were returned to tankage for subsequent processing. An estimated 1,200 barrels of crude oil were collected in 19,000 cubic yards of excavated soil and sediment. Thus, approximately 74 percent (4,600 barrels) of the spilled oil was recovered. The soil was converted into a road-base material and used to pave pipeline system facilities for dust control, at a cost of less than $30 a ton.

Water samples collected during and after cleanup activities combined with surveys of macroinvertebrates, birds, and riparian habitat indicate only short-term and localized impacts. Dissolved hydrocarbons in surface waters declined rapidly. Benthic macroinvertebrate population density and diversity were similar to reference station within five months of the initial release.
FOLLOW-UP STUDY ON OILED VEGETATION CUTTING ALONG THE DELAWARE RIVER
Authors: Levine Edwin A. , Pinckney Jay , Montello Todd
Published: January 2013

In July 1992, the tank vessel Canadian Liberty spilled approximately 50 barrels of heavy Venezuelan crude oil into the Delaware River. Eight miles of New Jersey riverbank were oiled. The product clung to the vegetation, forming a bathtub ring about 20 cm wide at the high-tide mark. Cutting of vegetation was approved for areas with the highest waterfowl concentrations and highest degree of oiling, and in public-use areas. The objective of cutting was to remove impacted vegetation to prevent secondary oiling of waterfowl and to allow use of the public park. Emphasis was placed on limiting habitat degradation by selective manual cutting from boat and shore.

A yearlong study was undertaken to monitor the recovery of the cut vegetation. Comparisons to uncut oiled vegetation and control sites were made. Nine monitoring stations were established in the area affected by the spill. Vegetation surveyed were Phragmites communis (common reed grass), Peltandra virginica (arrow arum), and Scripus olneyi (bulrush). One year after cleanup operations, cut and oiled vegetation appeared to have completely recovered. The distributions, densities, and heights of vegetation oiled and/or cut were not noticeably different from control transects of unimpacted vegetation.
AN INTEGRATED APPROACH TO CORPORATE PREPAREDNESS
Authors: Perkins K. Tim
Published: January 2013

Many companies in the oil, chemical, petrochemical, and/or energy businesses are faced with the challenges of providing for and then assuring appropriate emergency planning and response capabilities for all of their operations. Most of the efforts devoted to this subject have been aimed at individual facilities within a company. And while preparedness at the local level is certainly an essential ingredient to corporate preparedness, there is also a need to take a holistic approach to a company's response readiness, recognizing that extremely large or extended emergencies may exceed the response capabilities of small facilities. Therefore, in most cases, there is a need for a companywide emergency preparedness and response program to coordinate effectively a crisis that exceeds the capabilities of an individual facility or business unit.

Unocal, a fully integrated oil company, has developed and is implementing such a corporate emergency preparedness and crisis management program. To establish this program, the following conclusions were reached and elements were established in the program to address each of them.Corporate policy, direction, and planning is essential for effective companywide preparedness and response to a crisis.A method is needed to assure the preparedness of all facilities, which is the foundation of any emergency response, including responses by corporate teams.Corporate notification of major emergencies within the company is necessary for a rapid assessment and response by those outside the facility.A chain of command and divisions of responsibilities, from the emergency responders to the senior executives, must be clearly established and communicated.
NORTHRIDGE EARTHQUAKE PIPELINE RUPTURE INTO THE SANTA CLARA RIVER
Authors: Leveille Thomas P. , Shane Dan , Morris James
Published: January 2013

On January 17, 1994, an oil spill of more than 3,500 barrels occurred on the Santa Clara River as a result of a pipeline rupture during the Northridge earthquake. A unified command was formed by ARCO, the State of California, and the U.S. Government to respond to this spill into the habitat of two endangered species. Logistics difficulties caused by the earthquake were overcome, including problems caused by misinformation on concurrent events. The spill occurred in a shallow, rapid-flowing waterway that was at serious risk for flash floods, requiring use of tactics typically used in inland spills. Actions were taken based on the need for quick removal due to predicted rain, and unique problems encountered with the oiled vegetation. The case highlighted potential problems with older pipelines constructed using acetylene welds.
A MULTICOMPONENT OIL SPILL MODEL FOR DISSOLVED AROMATIC CONCENTRATIONS
Authors: Rye Henrik
Published: January 2013

When considering the consequences of an oil spill accident, not all oil components are equally harmful to marine life. Some components are more harmful than others, especially the aromatic components. The polyaromatic hydrocarbons (the PAHs) may be accumulated in food chains, while the monoaromatics dissolve much faster into the water than other components.

A model was therefore developed that separates the behaviors of different components of hydrocarbon release. The oil is divided into 20 different classes with increasing carbon number within the range C4 to C55. Within each class, the hydrocarbons are divided further into 5 subsets (n-alkanes, cycloalkanes, aromatics, naphthenes, and resins). The model then keeps track of the fate of each of the components (loss by evaporation, dissolution, or as droplets; or remaining in the slick) during an actual spill event.

After calculating the amount of aromatics dissolved into the water, the actual concentrations are then computed by numerically solving a diffusion-advection equation. Vertical and horizontal turbulence in the water mass are included, as well as effects from variations in the vertical velocity profile.

The paper outlines the approach chosen, and provides examples of some results.
EXERCISES AS ASSESSMENT OPPORTUNITIES: A FOCUS ON THE FIX
Authors: McLain David
Published: January 2013

Exercises are a means to an end, not an end in themselves. They provide the opportunities for repetition and practice that make them such an invaluable tool for operational effectiveness through training. Clearly, there need to be opportunities to practice and perfect response and response management skills, where mistakes are permissible and learning is the objective. Nonetheless, well-planned exercises that incorporate an equally well-planned evaluation are critical. These greatly assist management in determining the level of preparedness of the organization to respond to a spill. What are our strengths we want to build on? What are our weak points we have to shore up? What are our priority issues now?

An exercise can be designed to maximize assessment opportunities, and to address the following specific issues.Exercise objectives and assessment objectives: how may they differ?Expectations of “success:” planning factors versus performance standardsWhat are the components of an effective readiness assessment—such as selection of the optimum exercise event, composition of control and evaluation teams, or evaluator training?Documentation of results: data collection, reduction, and analysisThe payoff—assessment findings and reports, a management followup process to “focus on the fix”
CANADA'S DEVELOPMENT OF A NATIONAL EXERCISE PROGRAM
Authors: Alexander Paul , Takata Dave , Barber Cliff Barber
Published: January 2013

Canada has established a response community exercise program, with the use of four tools that were developed through extensive consultation with response community members in each region of Canada. The tools developed are: a Program Guide that describes an approach toward coordinating response community exercises, a Planning & Evaluation Guide that provides a framework and project management approach toward conducting exercises, an exercise information system to support the sharing of learning from exercises, and a training course for exercise managers. These tools can be used to guide any response community in the establishment of a coordinated and consistent program of exercises.
DEVELOPMENT AND TRAINING OF A FACILITY OIL RESPONSE TEAM
Authors: Collins Stephen M. , Lebednik Phillip A.
Published: January 2013

Over the course of fifteen years, Tosco's Avon Refinery has developed a highly successful oil spill response organization. Three approaches were evaluated: use of management personnel without in-house training, use of management personnel with in-house training, and all-volunteer personnel with in-house training. The all-volunteer approach has been the most effective, based on continuing evaluations. This approach has been flexible and has been upgraded to meet the needs of changing response criteria.

Benefits of the all-volunteer approach include a high rate of participation and consistency, rapid response, familiarity with the facility, knowledge of local sensitive resources, and training in local conditions. Difficulties associated with the approach include conflicts with normal duties, ongoing training costs, and training for shift workers.

Costs associated with the approach include equipment purchase, equipment maintenance, supplies, training and drills, and management costs. Equipment was carefully selected to meet the specific characteristics of the environment surrounding the refinery.

Performance standards were developed to provide training criteria in specific areas (such as boat operations, boom deployment, and navigation). Completion of all performance standards leads to personnel certification and response status.
SWEDISH COAST GUARD RESPONSE TRAINING PROGRAM
Authors: Thorell Dan , Fago Thomas
Published: January 2013

The efficiency of an oil spill response operation depends very much on the response commander's knowledge, experience, and possibilities of analyzing and reviewing the situation. Decisions must be made quickly and under great pressure.

All officers in the Swedish Coast Guard (CG) have the same basic training in response preparedness. During service they will utilize their knowledge on board in real operations and in exercises (local, regional, national, and international). Through different senior courses, some of them will be authorized to be on-scene commanders and finally response commanders. The possibilities for training response commanders under “real” conditions are limited. Weak points in the organization, decision procedures, command centers, and such are usually found during actual operations, however. The Swedish Coast Guard has decided on a strategy to train the response commander and his staff in their normal workplaces, with their normal tools, and with the people they are used to working with. To accomplish this, the Coast Guard has developed a portable computerized exercise support system providing the command with necessary data and images to run an exercise.
THE USE OF KNOWLEDGE-BASED SOFTWARE TO IDENTIFY SHORELINE TREATMENT OPTIONS
Authors: Lamarche Alain , Black Chrystel , Varanda Anna-Paula , Owens Edward H.
Published: January 2013

A PC-based software package has recently been completed that provides decision makers with support for developing shoreline cleanup strategies. Using data obtained from systematic surveys of shore-zone conditions, or from training or drill scenarios, an artificial intelligence approach builds on existing published manuals and on field experience to develop response options and recommendations for planners and managers.

The system has four basic output components that include:the synthesis of the physical shore-zone character and oiling conditions,an evaluation of stranded oil persistence,a ranking of response priorities, andrecommended shoreline treatment and/or cleanup methods in a four-layer mode that includes surface or subsurface and heavy/moderate or light/very light oiling conditions. The assessment of shoreline oiling conditions includes evaluation of oil volume, oil type (including weathered oils), and surface and subsurface conditions. The primary functions of the software include storing and sorting data on shoreline character and oiling conditions, simulating spill conditions for training and drills, and providing real-time recommendations in a spill event.

The paper describes the general design as well as the format, input parameters, output data formats, and applications of the software. The project has been a joint government-industry effort supported by Environment Canada and Industry Canada.
RESPONSE OPERATIONS TO THE AEGEAN SEA ACCIDENT
Authors: Pardo Fernando
Published: January 2013

The Greek flag ship Aegean Sea loaded with 79,094 tons of Brent blend, the light crude oil from the North Sea fields, coming from Sullom Voe terminal in the Shetland Islands, stranded at 4:50 a. m., December 3, 1992, when she was approaching the port of La Coruna on the northwest coast of Spain. The accident was followed by explosion, fire, and an oil spill—which precipitated a difficult, complex, and expensive response operation to control and mitigate the effects of oil pollution. Weather conditions did not allow the containment and recovery of oil at sea; therefore the response operations concentrated mainly on protecting sensitive areas, collecting oil in estuaries and harbors, shoreline cleanup, and recovery of crude oil and bunker remaining onboard the damaged ship.

The enormous pressure from the media and public opinion groups, the number of experts and observers wanting to come on scene, and the persistence of the commercial firms offering all kinds of equipment and products, in particular chemical dispersants and bioremediation techniques further complicated the situation. Compensation claims for expenses and damage caused by the oil spill is another important chapter of this incident. Intense claims activity went on during the operations and an agreement was signed in respect to claims handling.

This paper describes the above-mentioned operations and comments on other aspects of the crisis management.
HANDLING AND DISPOSAL OF OILY WASTE FROM OIL SPILLS AT SEA
Authors: McDonagh Madeleine , Abbott John , Swannell Richard , Gundlach Erich , Nordvik Atle
Published: January 2013

Disposal of recovered oil and debris following an oil spill at sea can present a real challenge to the spill response team: many technical issues and options are involved. The mainly oil component should be kept separate from the mainly debris component of the waste as far as possible. This not only reduces handling problems, but also provides a better opportunity to wash or aerate the debris to allow it to be classified as nonhazardous. Nonhazardous waste landfill remains a potentially cheap option where regulations allow it. Solidification or stabilization techniques may be useful in the future to convert waste oil and debris to a suitable form for landfill. Reclamation of recovered oil is attractive in principle, particularly for large spills; but the presence of contaminants makes it difficult, in practice, for the oil to be recovered. Incineration is technically feasible and mobile/transportable systems are potentially attractive, provided permits can be obtained. A number of biological methods including land farming appear to have promise. Further development work is needed to determine possible techniques for this application.
NET ENVIRONMENTAL BENEFIT ANALYSIS FOR OIL SPILL RESPONSE
Authors: Baker Jenifer M.
Published: January 2013

This paper discusses Net Environmental Benefit Analysis (NEBA) from an ecological point of view, that is, the weighing of advantages and disadvantages of various spill responses with regard to flora and fauna and their habitats, compared with no response. Particular attention is paid to nearshore dispersant spraying and shore cleanup; and the scientific case history and experimental evidence that can be brought to bear on these responses is reviewed. For shoreline cleanup, consideration is given both to the shore itself and to potentially interacting systems that could be affected in various ways depending on the spill response (e.g., a bird colony or nearshore aquaculture facilities). For some scenarios, nearshore dispersant spraying can offer a net environmental benefit. For most cases of shore oiling, there is little ecological justification for any form of cleanup if only the shore itself is considered, but moderate cleanup carried out for the sake of interacting systems is acceptable. Aggressive cleanup often delays recovery.
THE PRECAUTIONARY APPROACH AND THE IMO
Authors: Lentz Sally Ann
Published: January 2013

The International Maritime Organization's (IMO) Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC) is developing guidelines on the implementation of the “precautionary approach” in the work of IMO, as set out in Principle 15 of the Rio Declaration and Agenda 21. This paper provides an introduction to the precautionary approach as it has been developed in international law. Second, proposals before MEPC to apply the precautionary approach are discussed, including a framework for decision making within IMO. An example is provided of how such a framework would be applied in practice to an actual issue before the IMO.
MANAGING HERITAGE RESOURCE PROTECTION: A CASE STUDY FROM THE BERMAN SPILL RESPONSE1
Authors: McKinley Audrey A. , Pantel Agamemnon Gus
Published: January 2013

Heritage resources were a significant concern during the Morris J. Berman oil spill response, which began on January 7, 1994, in Puerto Rico. Numerous pre-Columbian artifacts and archeological sites, along with some of the oldest historic structures under U. S. jurisdiction were at risk from the spreading oil and subsequent response activities. A group of interagency professionals quickly formed into what was soon known as the Heritage Resources Management Team to deal with the myriad evolving issues involving heritage resources. Discovering success in a team approach, this core team became an integral, high-performing part of the larger response organization. Although this paper presents a case study of how heritage resources were tackled during the Morris J. Berman oil spill response, the decision-making and problem-solving methods described are applicable to any response effort. Incorporating heritage resource protection strategies in response planning and organization is crucial for mitigating future threats to these priceless remains of our history.
FRANCE AND THE RIGHT OF INTERVENTION ON THE HIGH SEAS
Authors: Levy Jean-François
Published: January 2013

Over 20 years, France has developed a system for making the best use of the right to intervene in case of a pollution threat established in accordance with international law. A single authority—the Préfet Maritime—has been established for each of the three coasts of France. Once it has been recognized that a ship may pose a pollution threat to the shoreline, even if the ship is on the high seas, the Préfet may act to either persuade the captain or shipowner to take necessary measures (such as arranging for a tow) to prevent an accident, or to take direct action himself as required. So far, persuasion, sometimes through a ship's flag state embassy, has proved to be sufficient in every case.
RESEARCH ON MARINE POLLUTION, PREVENTION, AND RESPONSE IN SHENZHEN, CHINA1
Authors: Baokang Pu , Xiuzhi Zhang , Bing Qiao
Published: January 2013

Shenzhen is situated near Hong Kong. About ten years ago, two harbors, Shekou and Yantian, located in the west and east of Shenzhen respectively, were under construction. Harbors and facilities have been planned by industries, while environmental concerns have been more or less neglected. A “Report of Research on the Feasibility of a Marine Pollution Prevention System for Seaports in Shenzhen” was discussed in May 1993 in Shenzhen. This paper describes the main elements of that program, including an oil spill monitoring and control system, contingency planning for oil spill response, and cooperation among industries and government in dealing with marine pollution. The aim of this paper is to demonstrate how concern for the environment should be established from the beginning in constructing a seaport. Finally, the end of this paper presents lessons learned, concerning the financial support of oil pollution response facilities, management problems and their countermeasures, implementation of international conventions on marine pollution prevention, and the importance of port state control. These lessons may be helpful for developing countries in planning their seaports to achieve better environmental protection.
PREPAREDNESS PLANS VERSUS ACTUAL RESPONSE: THE INCIDENT SPECIFIC PREPAREDNESS REVIEW OF THE T/B MORRIS J. BERMAN MAJOR OIL SPILL1
Authors: Vlaun Richard C. , Bradford Kenneth , Biedenbender Phillip , White John
Published: January 2013

The Incident Specific Preparedness Review (ISPR) of the T/B Morris J. Berman oil spill response was the first convened by Commandant (G-M). It developed procedures and methodologies in examining oil spill responses that compared the planned implementation of the Area Contingency Plan with the actual response. The ISPR yielded numerous lessons learned that should lead to improvements in response planning.
ESTABLISHING OPTIMAL RESPONSE STRATEGIES USING REAL-TIME CURRENT OBSERVATIONS: A LOCAL, COOPERATIVE APPROACH1
Authors: Salvesen John , Stong Beatrice A. , Byers David G. , Smith Austin G. , Arnhart Richard , Gaudet Scott , Tomblin Thomas G. , Teichman Kelly M.
Published: January 2013

With the mandates of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 requiring stockpiles of mechanical recovery equipment, an effective baseline response strategy was needed for the U. S. Coast Guard Houston/Galveston Captain of the Port Zone. A small group of federal, state, and industry volunteers established a study team to set baseline response and equipment deployment strategies based on local tide and current data. Procedures consisted of strategically positioning a series of buoys within a known area of concern and tracking the buoys with a hand-held global positioning system unit. Patterns and trends were established, tested in a field deployment exercise, and shared with members of the oil spill response community. The study resulted in the following observations:Federal-state-industry cooperation in response planning is essential.A pragmatic methodology is best suited for determining tidal and current trends and the potential effect on response equipment deployment strategies.
INTERNATIONAL CONVENTION ON OIL POLLUTION PREPAREDNESS, RESPONSE AND COOPERATION—AN OVERVIEW1
Authors: Mahapatra Ashok
Published: January 2013

The casualties of Torrey Canyon in 1967 and the Amoco Cadiz in 1977 gave rise to the Civil Liability Convention 1969, the Fund Convention 1971, and the Salvage Convention 1989. The Exxon Valdez casualty in 1989 gave rise to the Oil Pollution Act 1990. It also gave rise to a new Convention known as the Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Co-operation Convention 1990. This convention is likely to receive greater approval from the shipping industry as it concentrates on mitigating loss and damage resulting from oil pollution through preparedness and early response and on preventing pollution by encouraging salvage.

The basic operative provisions of the convention are oil pollution emergency plans and reporting procedures, action on receiving an oil pollution report, national and regional response systems, international cooperation in pollution response, research and development, technical cooperation, bilateral and multilateral cooperation, institutional arrangements, and reimbursement of cost of assistance.

While not imposing any legal liabilities, the convention will undoubtedly motivate the shipping industry and all maritime states to prepare adequately for disasters and accidents. This will ultimately benefit the environment, and is a welcome start to be built upon.
MODERNIZING THE COPENHAGEN AGREEMENT
Authors: Thorell Dan
Published: January 2013

The Copenhagen agreement concerning Cooperation in Measures to Deal with Pollution of the Sea by Oil came into force in October 1971. The new Copenhagen agreement, signed on March 29, 1993, encompasses cooperation regarding measures to deal with pollution of the sea by oil as well as other harmful substances. This will be done through cooperation in contingency planning, research and development, response actions, and aerial surveillance. The agreement extends the parties’ internal water, territorial water, and other areas at sea to the limits of the continental shelf, fishery zone, and economic zone.

During the past three years great efforts have been made to cooperate more closely, for example, in areas with joint borders of territorial waters, in aerial surveillance, technical development, research and development, and education.
THE BRAER INCIDENT: SHETLAND ISLANDS, JANUARY 1993
Authors: Harris Chris
Published: January 2013

On Tuesday, January 5, 1993, the tanker Braer laden with 84,700 metric tons of Norwegian Gullfaks crude oil drifted aground at Garths Ness, Shetland Islands. Over the next eight days, the vessel's total cargo of crude oil was spilled.

The Marine Pollution Control Unit immediately activated the Marine Emergencies Information Room in London and deployed staff to Shetland. It was agreed with Shetland Islands Council to establish a joint response center at Sumburgh Airport to coordinate and control the shoreline cleanup.

The incident affected an area of international environmental importance and also threatened the local economy. Because of the lightness of Gullfaks crude and the severe weather, the bulk of the oil dispersed naturally and very little came ashore. The land beyond the shoreline was polluted by airborne oil spray carried on the storm force winds.

Aerial spraying of dispersant on oil on the sea took place on three days. Some environmentally sensitive areas were protected by booms and dams. Of the 39 sites considered at risk, only 9 beaches and other sites merited cleaning.
TECHNICAL CORRECTION OF THE PAINT FILTER LIQUIDS TEST
Authors: Schrader Ed , Mulvihill A.
Published: January 2013

On April 30, 1985, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) issued a final rule requiring the use of the Paint Filter Liquids Test (PET), Method 9095, to determine the presence of free liquids in either bulk or containerized waste. From the summer of 1993 to January 1994, the validity of the Paint Filter Test was challenged. Through extensive research, it was concluded to contain testing procedures which produced inaccurate evaluations of a sorbent's performance. Although the EPA plans to make modifications, the new proposal is not set for discussion until several years from now to clarify all existing problematic issues.
ENVIRONMENTAL SENSITIVITY AND PROTECTION FOR THE NORTHEAST CASPIAN SEA
Authors: Metzger Bernhard H. , Zholdasov Edgue , Little David I. , Gundlach Erich R.
Published: January 2013

An environmental sensitivity and impact analysis was performed for the largest ever two-dimensional marine geophysical survey to be conducted in the Kazakhstan sector of the Caspian Sea. A total of 35,000 km of seismic lines are to be shot covering an offshore area of 100,000 km2. The purpose of the environmental studies is to identify critical environmental sensitivities and to develop operating rules for the seismic work to protect the environment.
THE EFFECTS OF IN SITU BURNING OF OIL ON FIRE BOOM
Authors: Lazes Richard
Published: January 2013

In situ burning of oil is an efficient way to get rid of spilled oil at sea. Recent tests have proven that the benefits associated with in situ burning of oil far outweigh the potential health hazards of the smoke from the oil fire. Fire-resistant materials are available for use in the construction of fireproof oil booms. The effects of oil fires on these booms were studied: more than a dozen tests were carried out on fire booms to evaluate the effectiveness of the booms for use with in situ burning of oil.
MMS GULF REGION GIS DATABASE FOR OIL SPILL CONTINGENCY PLANNING
Authors: Penland Shea , Wayne Lynda , Froomer Norm
Published: January 2013

The Minerals Management Service (MMS) established the Coastal Marine Institute (CMI) at Louisiana State University as part of the Center for Coastal, Energy, and Environmental Resources to promote environmental research related to the oil, gas, and mining industries. One of the primary initiatives of CMI is to create an environmental information program to support government and industry oil spill contingency planning needs to fulfill the requirements of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 and MMS compliance regulations. The MMS Gulf Region geographical information system (GIS) database will contain critical information about the location and character of environmental resources, infrastructure, and administrative boundaries that occur within the coastal region of the U.S. Northern Gulf of Mexico. Information needed to support the program will be collected from state and federal resource agencies, industry, and other data providers.
REGIONAL RESPONSE TEAM PREAPPROVAL OF IN-SITU BURNING FOR OPERATIONAL USE
Authors: Stacy Gus
Published: January 2013

On January 7, 1994, Regional Response Team VI that covers the Gulf coast approved a plan that allows the federal on-scene coordinator to approve the use of burning three miles or farther off the coasts of Louisiana or Texas. This landmark action is the first preapproval for in-situ burning in the continental U. S. The plan was presented to the response team by the Marine Spill Response Corporation on behalf of the response industry and its clients.