bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Exporting the “Gospel of Productivity”: United States Technical Assistance and British Industry 1945–1960
Authors: Tiratsoo Nick , Tomlimon Jim
Published: April 2006

This article examines the attempts by the United States to export industrial and managerial techniques to Britain in the early post-war years. It analyses the types of technical assistance offered by the U.S., the mechanisms developed to deliver this assistance, and the response of both British industry and government. The conclusion offered is that whilst there were problems of “fit” between the techniques advocated by U.S. agencies and the conditions faced by British industry, overall the reluctance of the British to embrace American techniques did not reflect a rounded assessment of their applicability so much as a series of institutional blockages and hostile attitudes.
A Private Bank at War: J.P. Morgan & Co. and France, 1914–1918
Authors: Horn Martin
Published: April 2006

This article examines the relationship between J.P. Morgan & Co. and France during the First World War. It argues that the dealings between the French government and the partners of J.P. Morgan & Co. from 1914 to 1918 were characterized by personal difficulties between successive French representatives and the partners of J.P. Morgan & Co. Contributing to a strained relationship was the place of Morgan, Harjes, the French affiliate of J.P. Morgan & Co., within the House of Morgan. Herman Harjes, the senior partner in Morgan, Harjes, though a proponent of Franco-American amity, became disenchanted with his New York partners as the war continued. The feeling was shared by those in New York, who reevaluated the role of Morgan, Harjes within the House of Morgan—until the French affiliate's eventual disappearance in 1926. While sympathetic to France, and instrumental in sustaining French credit during the war, the partners of J.P. Morgan & Co. conceived of the Allied cause as the British cause, a perspective that led them to rebuff calls for greater Franco-American financial cooperation.
From Factory to Family: The Creation of a Corporate Culture in the Larkin Company of Buffalo, New York
Authors: Stanger Howard R.
Published: April 2006

The Larkin Company of Buffalo, New York, was established in the 1870s as a small soap producer and grew to become a large mail-order house. Larkin's success could be attributed to a unique sales strategy created by Elbert Hubbard, called “The Larkin Idea,” which had as its motto, “From Factory-to-Family: Save All Cost Which Adds No Value.” The company sold its products exclusively through the mail to women in cooperative buying clubs. Employing a variety of marketing, advertising, and employee welfare practices, the Larkin Company built a unified corporate family of “Larkinites“—employees, customers, and executives. Larkin executives also hired architect Frank Lloyd Wright to construct a modern office complex, which became the physical representation of Larkin's culture. But changes in marketing, the departure and deaths of key executives, a seemingly anachronistic corporate culture, and poor business decisions combined to undermine the company in the mid-1920s, and by 1940 the company was virtually dead.
High Finance/Low Strategy: Corporate Collapse in the Canadian Pulp and Paper Industry, 1919–1932
Authors: Boothman Barry E.C.
Published: April 2006

The development of the pulp and paper sector has been a highly controversial subject in Canadian business history. During the 1920s, there was a rapid growth of capacity (which reached twice the level of market demand) and a series of mergers as different firms sought to attain giant size. By 1928 several leading companies were experiencing difficulties, and by 1932 half of the producers were bankrupt while the remainder hovered on the brink of insolvency. These developments had their own logic and were driven by strategic issues and the formation of an institutional market for industrial securities. As corporate executives propelled their firms into dubious strategies characterized by excess production and unrealistic dividend policies, the status of the newsprint producers was obscured from investors by financial and accounting practices, thereby contributing to a flood of investment, which was followed by corporate collapse. The attempts to reorganize the companies began a complex process that lasted anywhere from several years to more than a decade.
Structure, Personality, and Business Strategy in the U.S. Tire Industry: The Seiberling Rubber Company, 1922–1964
Authors: French Michael
Published: April 2006

Small firms that operate in manufacturing sectors amenable to economies of scale are faced with particularly challenging strategic problems. This article on the Seiberling Rubber Company, a family–owned minor player in the U.S. tire industry, takes as its starting point the intersection between Michael Porter's typology of competitive strategies and the entrepreneurial theorists' views on the importance of the human factor. Against a detailed analysis of the changing structure of the tire industry over four decades, it examines closely the strategic decisions of one firm and its senior managers.
Money and Credit in the Fifteenth Century: Some Lessons from Yorkshire
Authors: Kermode Jennifer I.
Published: April 2006

This article explores some of the methods used to raise credit in an important trading region of late medieval England during a decline in overseas trade and an international bullion famine. It argues that, because provincial credit arrangements depended on local as well as national factors, a combination of demographic and regional circumstances contributed to the commercial weakness of Yorkshire merchants as they faced growing competition from Londoners with access to more sophisticated financial networks.
Going National: The Life Insurance Industry's Campaign for Federal Regulation after the Civil War
Authors: Merkel Philip L.
Published: April 2006

Life insurance corporations were among the first businesses to expand their activities across state lines in the mid-nineteenth century. Yet their efforts were often impeded by protectionist state laws and uneven state regulations. The industry reacted by forming a trade association that pressed for federal regulation of multistate insurance sales. This article examines the life insurance industry's attempts in Congress and in the courts to alter the balance of federalism and to promote free trade in a growing national market.
U.S. Multinationals in British Manufacturing before 1962
Authors: Jones Geoffrey , Bostock Frances
Published: April 2006

This article presents a new database on U.S. multinationals active in British manufacturing between 1907 and 1962. Britain was the largest European host economy for U.S. direct investment in manufacturing and the second largest host worldwide. This article identifies the industrial distribution and mode of entry of U.S. investors, and offers explanations for the time trends which are shown. It goes on to trace the evolution of U.S. subsidiaries, and shows that rates of divestment were substantial. An examination of the characteristics of U.S. subsidiaries, including the substantial investments in R & D and high export propensity, is followed by a survey of British public policy, which made Britain an attractive host but did little to shape the form of U.S. investment.
From Novelty to Utility: George Westinghouse and the Business of Innovation during the Age of Edison
Authors: Usselman Steven W.
Published: April 2006

This article argues that Thomas Edison and George Westinghouse, despite some shared characteristics in their approach to technical problems and a common interest in electric power, pursued distinct markets for innovation. Edison sold novelties to upper-class urbanites, whereas Westinghouse provided equipment to railroads and other industrial customers. As a consequence, the two entrepreneurs consistently exhibited different attitudes toward the process of innovation and different inclinations as businessmen. Westinghouse, more than Edison, foreshadowed the coming of corporate research and development.
Founding Dates of the 1994 Fortune 500 U.S. Companies
Authors:   Harris Corporation
Published: April 2006

As part of its centennial celebration, Harris commissioned a historical survey of the 1994 list of Fortune 500 companies, inquiring as to when they were founded and what their initial names, products, or services were. Harris then sent this list to several historians, including Professor Alfred D. Chandler, Jr. and the editor of this Review. We believe the Harris compilation to be a potentially valuable research tool. We are pleased to present it here, along with the following brief introduction, which is a composite of observations by the Harris researchers, Professor Chandler, and the Editor and Assistant Editor of the Review.
Selling Silicon Valley: Frederick Terman's Model for Regional Advantage
Authors: Leslie Stuart W. , Kargon Robert H.
Published: April 2006

This paper explores the origins of the Silicon Valley model for regional economic development, and attempts to deploy this model elsewhere in the United States and abroad. Frederick Terman, Stanford's provost, first envisioned its unique partnership of academia and industry, and trained the first generation of students who effected it. He patiently cultivated an aggressively entrepreneurial culture in what he called “the newly emerging community of technical scholars.” Beginning in the 1960s, business groups elsewhere set out to build their own versions of Silicon Valley, some enlisting the assistance of Terman and his proteges. After discussing the emergence of the Stanford-Silicon Valley effort, the paper examines in detail the New Jersey Institute of Science and Technology, an effort led by Bell Laboratories; the Graduate Research Center of the Southwest and the SMU Foundaton for Science and Engineering in Dallas, Texas; and the Korea Advanced Insitute of Science and Technology, Terman's last and arguably most successful attempt. The paper discusses the reasons for the difficulties in creating new versions, and suggests explanations for the apparent success of the Korean experiment.
Businessmen Against Pollution in Late Nineteenth Century Chicago
Authors: Rosen Christine Meisner
Published: April 2006

In 1892, a group of Chicago's business leaders organized the Society for the Prevention of Smoke in the hope of persuading the city's business community to install equipment to control the black smoke pouring out of downtown chimneys and smokestacks. The following article uses an examination of the Society's activities to explore the diverse roles that business interests played in pollution control in American cities during the late nineteenth century. The episode reveals a panorama of business responses to smoke pollution which ranged from voluntary smoke abatement and strong support for regulation to indifference, reluctance, and organized resistance to efforts to impose controls. The author explores reasons why business interests responded in such diverse ways. She places the spectrum of responses evident in this episode within the broader context of business involvement in pollution control in Chicago and other cities in this period. She concludes by pointing out the need for additional research to explore the complex ambiguities of the role played by business in the history of the American environment.
Monetary Reform and the Redemption of National Bank Notes, 1863–1913
Authors: Selgin George A. , White Lawrence H.
Published: April 2006

It is well known that contemporary critics of the National Banking System complained about its failure to meet peak demands for currency. Less often discussed are complaints about the system's inability to remove excess notes from circulation during periods of slack demand for currency—a problem that critics attributed to the lack of an effective redemption mechanism. Beginning in 1864, important attempts were made to reform redemption arrangements, both privately and through legislation, and redemption reform was a key component of the “asset currency” movement to deregulate note issue. This article examines the motives and outcomes of redemption reform efforts up to the passage of the Federal Reserve Act, which substituted a discretionary control over the currency stock for the automatic elasticity that the asset currency movement had originally sought.
Market Structure, Industrial Research, and Consumers of Innovation: Forging Backward Linkages to Research in the Turn-of-the-Century U.S. Steel Industry
Authors: Knoedler Janet T.
Published: April 2006

Although the U.S. steel industry's concentrated market structure and well-established production technology curbed active research by most steel firms, between 1880 and 1910 vertical research arrangements between steel producers and steel consumers, notably the Pennsylvania Railroad, became a key factor in promoting both increased innovation in basic steel products and increased innovative effort by steel producers, albeit slowly and gradually. Thus, research into steel was initiated not by steel producers but by steel consumers, who established in-house industrial research laboratories and interfirm cooperative research arrangements as a means to solve their technical problems with steel products. They also began to work toward creating an institution—the American Society for Testing Materials—that would allow for effective interaction with other consuming firms and, eventually, with producing firms to exchange information and build consensus.
The Political Apprenticeship of Benjamin Hoadly
Authors: Bingham Edwin R.
Published: April 2006

Although nothing approaching the number of words written by Benjamin Hoadly during the eighty-five years of life has been written about him in the 185 years since his death—still, the contentious Bishop has been by no means neglected by historians of eighteenth century England. Hoadly's peculiar position with respect to the Established Church has been dissected out of the complicated anatomy of the Bangorian controversy. His major political treatises have been screened to reveal original contributions to political theory—with largely negative results. His remarkable and rapid climb up the ladder of preferment after the accession of George I, when the Whigs once more prevailed in ministerial and parlimentary positions, has been generally interpreted as payment for substantial services rendered. However, so far as the writer is aware, the preliminary establishment of Benjamin Hoadly's right to Whig patronage has not received detailed consideration.
The Riddle of the 13th Canon of Ancyra
Authors: Richardson Cyril C.
Published: April 2006

“It is not permitted that country bishops should ordain presbyters or deacons, nor, moreover, may city presbyters do so, without the written permission of the bishop in each parish.” This canon, which is still on occasion cited to uphold presbyterian ordination in the early church,1 so bristles with difficulties, that it is perhaps advisable to refrain from using it to prove anything.
Voltaire and the Ministers of Geneva
Authors: Delattre André
Published: April 2006

“There is no city where cultured people and philosophers are to be found in greater number than in Geneva,” Voltaire wrote in March 1756. His praise had been constant since he had settled there a year before. After leaving Louis XV for the service of Frederick II, he had broken away from the latter in the most humiliating circumstances of his existence; forbidden now by the French King to return to Paris, he was in a frame of mind particularly susceptible to enjoy republican hospitality and to appreciate the very original character of his city of refuge. Geneva was as democratic as ancient Athens and ruled, in principle at least, by the universal suffrage of its citizens; its stabilility and conservatism, on the other hand, had allowed the development of a distinguished patrician society; his new residence was provided with a back-drop both picturesque and elegant. The intellectual life of the city could have been matched by very few capitals: Theodore Tronchin, the first doctor of Europe (and Voltaire's excuse for having settled there), Charles Bonnet, the naturalist and paleontologist, the philologist Abauzit, among scores of others, were in the vanguard of scientific progress. Above all, Geneva symbolized a major victory over Catholicism; true, it had stopped half way, in his judgment, but matters had progressed since the sixteenth century and the present prospects were very hopeful: “Geneva is not any more the Geneva of Calvin,” he wrote to Cideville, “not by a long shot; it is a country filled with philosophers…” And to Pierre Rousseau, a year later: “Geneva is at present perhaps the city in Europe where there are most philosophers…”
An Unpublished Journal of George Whitefield
Authors: Eells Earnest Edward
Published: April 2006

An unpublished journal of Rev. George Whitefield, detailing his life from October 17th, 1744, to some time in the spring of 1745, has been in the Princeton Theological Seminary Library since June, 1816. It bears an inscription showing that it was given to the seminary by Dr. John R. B. Rodgers, the famous pastor of the First Presbyterian Church of New York. Probably it was a part of the papers which Dr. Rodgers is said to have guarded and carried about in a trunk during the Revolutionary War.
The Intellectual Background of William Ellery Channing
Authors: Schneider Herbert Wallace
Published: April 2006

William Ellery Channing was an American Schleiermacher, standing at the turning point from the Enlightenment to Transcendentalism, and, like Schleiermacher, he has been treated by historians as the initiator of a movement. He is understood in terms of what followed him. According to Mr. Van Wyck Brooks, he represents the budding of New England. I wish to reverse the perspective and to present Channing as the culmination of the American Enlightenment. In the Revolutionary generation three distinct systems of thought, three historically separate faiths were flourishing; for want of better terms I shall call them rationalism, pietism, and republicanism. Channing, as I shall attempt to show, inherited each of these faiths, understood the issues at stake, felt the struggle intimately, and attempted to formulate a synthesis of all three. His humanitarianism may therefore fittingly be studied as the summation of the ideals of the American Enlightenment. If I had time, I would follow up the negative side of the argument and show that Channing participated only slightly in the thought of the coming generation, the generation from 1830 to 1860, and that he was, on the whole, not willingly a prophet of Transcendentalism. In his last years, when he saw dimly what was to come, he was repelled by much of it and looked back almost wistfully to the faith of his fathers.
The Grounds of Religious Toleration in the Thought of John Donne
Authors: Battenhouse Roy W.
Published: April 2006

About 1594 a young English poet, then in his twenty-first year, composed a satire on religion, described by Professor Grierson as “one of the earliest and most thoughtful appeals for toleration, for the candid scrutiny of religious differences, which was written perhaps in any country.” The satire directs its jibes at all men who choose their religion uncritically—whether they blindly turn to Rome or to the Church of England, whether to Geneva, to Atheism, or to religious relativism. The author advises, instead, a diligent searching out of the “right” and the “best” religion. The task, as he pictures it, is a difficult business, demanding of us that we inquire patiently and “doubt wisely”; for the Truth stands at the top of a steep and craggy hill, and only by a most careful circling of that hill can we reach the summit.
New Documents on Early Protestant Rationalism
Authors: Bainton Roland H.
Published: April 2006

The period of the Reformation is one in which the editing and publication of new documents may be expected to necessitate a periodic revision of the general works. In a sense this is true of every period, but the unpublished sources for the age of the New Testament are slight and not often does the investigator turn up a Didache or the Odes of Solomon. In the Reformation period, however, discoveries are frequent and critical editions incomplete for even the great figures like Luther and Calvin. Zwingli is still in process in the Corpus Reformatorum. Traugott Schiess did not live to finish Bullinger. Some ten years ago M. Aubert showed me at Geneva the materials for the correspondence of Beza, but so far as I have observed nothing has appeared. Thomas Müntzer was in luck with the publication of his letters by Boehmer and Kirn in 1931 and his works by Otto H. Brandt in 1933. The Anabaptists have been favored only with a beginning. The Verein für Reformationsgeschichte has brought out one large volume on Württemberg and a smaller one on Brandenburg, but eleven more are still in the loins of Abraham. The Kommission zur Erforschung der Geschichte der Reformation und Gegenreformation published the letters of Peutinger and Cuspianus and selected works of Erasmus (edited by Annemarie and Hajo Holborn now of Yale), but further work on the humanists has been dropped. If only we might revive it in this country! Among us the Corpus Schwenckfeldianorum has been wallowing in the trough of foreign exchange. The fourteenth volume happily is out. Bender, Yoder and Correll have the material for a volume of Grebeliana if only the way opens to make friends with the mammon of unrighteousness.
The Appointment and Instruction of S. P. G. Missionaries
Authors: Newcombe Alfred W.
Published: April 2006

From the opening of the eighteenth century to the close of the Revolution the cause and interests of the Church of England were promoted in the American colonies mainly by the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel. During this period that organization, commonly known as the S. P. G., employed in the colonies a total of three hundred different missionaries. These men were settled throughout the thirteen colonies, but because of the privileged position occupied by the church in Virginia and Maryland, the distribution was by no means equalized.
Historical Bases of Rome's Conflict with Freemasonry
Authors: Lyttle Charles H.
Published: April 2006

The bull In Eminenti Apostolatus Specula of April 28, 1738, by which Clement XII inaugurated the long series of papal denunciations of Freemasonry, was issued virtually without warning and without much apparent provocation. Such was not the case with the Unigenitus of 1713 or the Dominus ac Redemptor noster of 1773, affecting Jansenists and Jesuits, for both movements had for years before their proscription occasioned violent controversy not only theological but political. Today the Unigenitus is the gravestone of a dead issue, while the Jesuit order was reinstituted in 1815. But the anti-Masonic Bull of 1738 has proven to be the progenitor of increasingly severe anathemas over two centuries, and the persecutions and the political conflicts to which it gave the impetus show little abatement. Rome's sudden charge of secret heresy and political sedition against a movement which theretofore had been planned and conducted with a view to avoiding, indeed even to reconciling political and theological animus, served to create, wherever the proscriptions enjoined by the Bull were executed, the anti-clerical and revolutionary features objected to! What else could have been expected from the ensuing persecutions, which brought imprisonment, confiscation, exile, and often martyrdom to multitudes of Freemasons in the eighteenth century? And how ironical that fate was for a movement whose original purpose was to unite men of all faiths, values, and classes in a spiritual, moral, and cultural brotherhood, and whose record, prior to the Bull, was one of unprecedented sectarian fraternity. But with the publication of the Bull and the suffering at the hands of the Inquisition and the secular arm which it instigated, there began a virtual crusade, such as had been directed previously against Saracens, Cathari, Hussites, Lutherans, Anabaptists, Socinians, and Huguenots; and this crusade continues, with the connivance of Catholic Fascists, to this day.
William Ockham's Political Philosophy
Authors: Tornay Stephen Chak
Published: April 2006

William Ockham's interests were turned to political philosophy by the circumstances of his life. As early as 1323, he became entangled in the controversy of his order on evangelical poverty with the pope, John XXII, who by his bull, Ad conditorem canonum, issued on December 8, 1322, withdrew from the Franciscans the right of holding property in the name of the Holy See, granted to them by Innocent IV in 1245, and by Nicholas III in 1279. The case seems trifling, yet it involved the interpretation of the life of Christ himself, whom the sons of St. Francis tried to imitate by substituting the use of property for its ownership. The “Spirituals” stood for the original views of the order and considered the papal bull as dragging them down to worldliness and abasement. Ockham in a sermon delivered at Bologna attacked the pope's conception of apostolical poverty. John XXII, in a bull dated December 1, 1323, and addressed to the bishops of Ferrara and Bologna, ordered his arrest and held him in Avignon for four years for trial. In August, 1325, a commission of six theologians, one of whom was Durandus de St. Porciano, at that time bishop of Meaux, was appointed to investigate his theological and philosophical doctrines. In 1326 the commission declared fifty-one articles taken from his Commentary to the Sentences as heretical. On April 13, 1328, Ockham signed the protest of the general of the Franciscan order, Michael Cesena, also under arrest, against the papal bull of 1322, which condemned the tenet of evangelical poverty. The night of May 24, 1328, brought a dramatic turn in his life. He succeeded in escaping from the papal prison in the company of Cesena and Bonagratia of Bergamo, the famous civil and canon lawyer, and fled to Pisa to seek the protection of Louis of Bavaria, emperor of Germany and archenemy of the pope.
The Religious Backgrounds of Indonesian Nationalism
Authors: Means Paul B.
Published: April 2006

Many forces, ancient and modern, European and Asiatic, political and economic, have combined to produce the present state of unrest and political turmoil in Indonesia, otherwise known as the Dutch East Indies. No one can fully understand the present situation with all its emotional tensions, unless he appreciates the various religious factors which are operative, to a greater or less degree, in the Indonesian nationalist movement.
A Victorian Primate
Authors: Norwood Percy V.
Published: April 2006

One year before the accession of Victoria, a young Scot, reared in a Presbyterian home, educated at Edinburgh and Glasgow, now a Fellow of Balliol, was ordained deacon in the Church of England. Six years later he succeeded the great Dr. Arnold as Headmaster of Rugby. Another seven years, and Lord John Russell nominated him to be Dean of Carlisle. In 1856, Viscount Palmerston conveyed to him—recently stricken by the death of five of his children—the Queen's command tendering the see of London. Only once before in the course of two centuries had a man not already a bishop been named to the metropolitan diocese. In another twelve years—years of conflict and of progress, marked, too, by his refusal of York—Disraeli designated him to Canterbury on the death of Archbishop Longley—the first Scotchman in history to occupy the throne of Augustine.
Aims of the Medieval Crusades and How They Were Viewed by Byzantium
Authors: Charanis Peter
Published: April 2006

The history of medieval crusading may be conveniently divided into two chapters. The first of these chapters would end with 1291 when Acre was lost by the Christians and would cover the period extending backward to 1095 when the first crusading expedition was launched. During this period the western Christians conquered and lost the Holy Lands. They also established themselves in Greece and the Greek archipelago. The second chapter would come down to 1395, the year of the battle of Nicopolis, or possibly 1444, the year of Varna. During this period, though there is considerable talk and some action for the recovery of the Holy Land, the struggle has really become one for the defense of Europe against the invading Turks.
The Authenticity of Hooker's Book VII
Authors: Woodhouse H. F.
Published: April 2006

This year marks the fourth centenary of Richard Hooker, who is perhaps the greatest apologist of the Anglican Church. It is easy to forget this because the epithet “judicious” when used of him conveys to most of us the idea of one who was careful, conscientious and not likely to accept or adopt rash views. But the meaning of the word “judicious” as applied to Hooker is “judicial.” It was used of one who had spoken the last word on a subject, one whose conclusions and opinion were so firmly based that neither premise nor conclusions could be shaken.
Gabriel Biel and Late Medieval Mysticism
Authors: Oberman Heiko A.
Published: April 2006

Though periodization is admittedly a matter of opinion, there is much to warrant the thesis that the later Middle Ages were born in Avignon and were shaped by the uncertainty and hierarchical confusion due to the Babylonian Captivity of the papacy (1309-1377) and the succeeding period of the Schism (1378-1415). The impact, especially of this latter event, can scarcely be overestimated, so much so that we are included to advocate the terms “pre-schismatic and schismatic Middle Ages” to replace the traditional terms “early and later Middle Ages.”
The Fifth Monarchy Men: Politics and the Millennium
Authors: Solt Leo F.
Published: April 2006

Of the Puritan sects which proliferated in Cromwellian England, the Fifth Monarchy Men were distinctive because of the extreme political implications which they drew from their deep commitment to millennialism. Sometimes called “millenaries” by their fellow countrymen, or “anabaptists” by continental observers, this sects wanted to set up the kingdom of Jesus Christ for His thousand-year rule by the Saints. Its members hoped to realize their quest for a religious utopia by making the old kingdoms of the Stuarts into new saintly kingdoms of the Lord. In order to carry out this idea, several of the leading Fifth Monarchy spokesmen urged Oliver Cromwell to convoke a “Jewish Sanhedrin” or Parliament of Saints which first assembled in June, 1653.
Religious Persecution in the French Enlightenment
Authors: Bien David D.
Published: April 2006

In France, religious persecution outlived Pierre Bayle and nearly outlived Voltaire. Only in the mid-1760's, when the Enlightenment had long been affecting other aspects of their thinking, did Catholics at last accept a measure of religious toleration. Six Calvinist pastors were put to death after 1745, and Jean Calas was condemned as late as 1762. The purpose of this article is to study why the persecution of religions persisted in a non-theological age. Our understanding in this instance requires that we set aside strictly religious categories, and examine what role the secular state played in the thinking of Catholics and anti-Catholics alike; for it was this state to which the last Huguenot victims were sacrificed.
Christian Interpretations of the Civil War
Authors: Clebsch William A.
Published: April 2006

The Civil War more than any other episode in American history struck into the lives of all the families of the land, demanding that everybody take sides. Partisanship focused upon many facets and features of the conflicting causes, but the order of the event allowed no bipartisanship. Only a handful of anticipative revisionists, who earnestly cried that the whole affair, even once begun, was needless and somehow avoidable, found ground for nonpartisanship. Families branched across Mason and Dixon's line split and sided in spite of torn loyalties and wistful recollections of unity. Had slaves foreseen, as freedmen knew, that emancipation's price was personal degradation, they might have borne mixed feelings about the issue, but even their ambivalences purchased no point of impartiality.
The Apocalypse of John and the Liturgy of the Ancient Church
Authors: Piper Otto A.
Published: April 2006

Interpretations of the last book of the New Testament usually dwell upon its visions of things to come. Except for its prayers and hymns, however, little attention has been paid to its liturgical character. This fact is the more surprising since it is just in that respect that the Apocalypse of John differs mostly strikingly from other Jewish and Christian apocalyptic writings. Its visions are presented within a framework of liturgical activities, and toward the end of the book it is hardly possible to dissociate the acts of worship from the visions of the future. This close relationship shows that its liturgical portions are not a purely literary device. Rather in the Seer's mind they form part of the revelatory process itself representing the reaction of initiated creatures to the gradual disclosure of the saving purpose of God and its execution. From the historical viewpoint, this liturgical framework of the Apocalypse of John is interesting, because it contains a number of features which, in a similar manner, occur also in the liturgies of the Ancient Church. Thus it is from the liturgical character of the Apocalypse that the historical development of the Christian liturgy becomes intelligible. Out of the perplexing diversity of its types, the formative principle of its early stages emerges, and a number of motives become visible, some of which have determined its history to the present day. Others, which have no longer a vital role assigned to them, were, nevertheless, preserved on account of the significance originally attached to them. Among these features I mention the ideas of the Eucharistic Parousia, the Church's participation in the angelic worship, the emphasis placed upon the worthiness of the interpreter of Scripture, the connection between the Confession of Sins and the Eucharist, the separation of the believers and unbelievers prior to the heavenly meal, the celebration of the Eucharist as an act of the Church in its cosmic totality, the association of the Eucharist with the Judgment of the World, and the interpretation of the liturgy as a spiritual battle. It will suffice to single out two of these features, which for their lack of centrality in the liturgies are particularly apt to illustrate our point, viz. the participation of the Church in the angelic worship, and the worthiness of the interpreter of Scripture.
“Anabaptism” and Italy
Authors: DeWind Henry A.
Published: April 2006

Modern research dealing with the radical fringe of the Reformation has by-passed the problem of that Italian evangelical movement which is usually assumed to have been connected with northern “Anabaptism.” Students of “Anabaptist” history, however, while they have sought to clarify the distinctions within the movement as well as the features common to its component parts, have laid the groundwork for a reconsideration of the precise position of the Italian radicals. One approach to the problem might focus attention on the question of the relationship of Italian reformers to the “Anabaptist” movement in general. However, it has become increasingly obvious that the term “Anabaptism” was applied to a great variety of individuals and groups which had in common little more than their condemnation of infant baptism. As new criteria have been set up for separating the parts of this confusing mixture, there stand out most prominently at the center of the “Anabaptist” movement certain sects which modern German scholars call the “Taufer,” viz., the Swiss Brethren, the Hutterite Brethren, and the Mennonites; and we shall follow their usage here. The Täufer differed from the Protestant state churches principally in their conception of the nature of the church and, in their stress on discipleship. The latter emphasis implies man's ability to lead a life patterned after the life of Christ, while their conception of the church as a closed community of voluntary believers underlay their insistence upon the need for adult baptism. This insistence, which carried with it a denial of the efficacy of infant baptism, was the point in their teachings that aroused the opposition of contemporaries, signifying, as it did, their non-conformity to established practices and institutions.
Sermons Before Parliament (1640–1649) As A Public Puritan Diary
Authors: Spalding James C.
Published: April 2006

The publication thirty years ago by M. M. Knappen of the diaries of Richard Rogers and Samuel Ward called attention to the puritan diary as a means of understanding puritan character. These were two examples of rather frequently kept journals in which pious diarists of the late sixteenth and early seventeenth century made a careful account of both their moral successes and failures together with those events in their lives which were signs of God's judgment or favor. Such records provided for the authors a basis upon which meaningful decision could be made as they looked after the affairs of their mortal lives.
Johan Eberlin Von Günzburg's Wolfaria The First Protestant Utopia
Authors: Bell Susan Groag
Published: April 2006

It is now almost a century since a German theologian first discussed the life and work of Johan Eberlin von Günzburg, the Swabian folkpreacher who doffed his Franciscan habit to follow Luther. In the ensuing period, the published writings of this minor Reformation character have been submitted to microscopic analysis, pertaining to his theological, sociological, political and philological style by a variety of German scholars. So far, however, there has been no assessment of Johan Eberlin's significance against the background of Christian Humanism as it applied to the German Renaissance. With two recent exceptions there has been almost no reference to this fascinating figure in the Reformation literature available in the English language. I intend here to remedy this injustice and to throw some light on a personality of considerable historical interest by reviewing the internal evidence of his most important work—that part of his Fünfzehn Bundsgenossen (Fifteen Confederates) which comprises his utopia.
Another Look at the Literary Problem in Clement of Alexandria's Major Writings
Authors: Wagner Walter
Published: April 2006

The relationship among Clement of Alexandria's three major works, Protreptikos, Paidagōgos and Stromateis, has vexed scholars for almost a century. Present state of the question reflects the condition of Clement studies as a whole: a welter of promising insights, ingenious theories, many contradictions and frustrating confusion. Recent attempts to approach the Alexandrine through historical-exegetical procedures have reopened Clement studies and have suggested that re-examination and re-evaluation of his theology are in order.
Unitive Reform Principles of the Late Medieval Conciliarists
Authors: Petry Ray C.
Published: April 2006

The first two words of the title simply accent the conciliarist refusal to separate Christian reform and ecclesiastical unity. Pierre d'Ailly insisted that there could be no true reformation without union, no true union without reformation. The principles necessarily delimited here in terms of their most frequently recurring expression are discussed under five large heads.
Church History Explained
Authors: Mead Sidney E.
Published: April 2006

History and church history are disciplines well entrenched in the schools. This means that church historians commonly have an unquestioned place in theological school faculties. Hence there is little incentive for them to become self-conscious or troubled about the reason-for-being either of the discipline or of themselves. Probably church history is always included in the curriculum more from habit than because there is an articulated rationale for it. I dare say that many church historians if asked the question “Why have church history in the curriculums” would reply in effect that its place is obvious, and if one cannot see the obvious it is hopeless to try to explain it to him.
Eugene IV and the First Dissolution of the Council of Basle
Authors: Bilderback Loy
Published: April 2006

The Council of Basle was officially charged with three basic concerns: the reform of the Church in head and members; the extirpation of heresy, particularly Bohemian Hussitism; and the attainment of peace among Christian Princes. Yet, the Council was most absorbed by, and is most remembered for, a fourth, unscheduled concern. From its outset, the prime determinant of the actions and decisions of the Council proved to be the problem of living and working with the Papacy. In retrospect it is easy to see that this problem was insoluble. One could not expect the efficient functioning of the Church if there was doubt or confusion about the will of God, and the presence of such doubt and confusion was certain so long as even two agencies could gain support for their contentions that they were directly recipient to the Holy Spirit. Singularity of headship was absolutely necessary to the orderly processes of the Church. Yet the contradiction of this essential singularity was implicit at Constance in the accommodation, by one another of the curialists, the protagonists of an absolute, papal monarchy, and the conciliarists, who sought divine guidance through periodic General Councils. This accommodation, in turn, was necessary if the doubt and confusion engendered by the Great Schism was to be resolved. At Basle, this contradiction was wrought into a conflict which attracted a variety of opportunists who could further their ancillary or extraneous ends through a posture of service to one side or the other, and in so doing they obfuscated the issues and prolonged the struggle.
Was John Wesley A Political Economist?
Authors: Haywood C. Robert
Published: April 2006

In 1772 John Wesley wrote a letter toLloyd's Evening Postwhich was reprinted in a slightly revised form the following year under the title,Thoughts on the Present Scarcity of Provisions.1Although intended by Wesley to be an essay exposing the evils of what Thorstein Veblen would later refer to as “conspicuous consumption,” it has been reprinted and cited during the present century primarily as a temperance tract.2As intended or as adapted it makes for interesting reading but is far more fascinating as a testament of Wesley's economic theories. In terms of length and concern the pamphlet represents, as Wesley's biographer Francis J. McConnell observed “as nearly as anything a statement of his economic views.”3Undoubtedly it does represent Wesley's most mature (he was in his sixty-ninth year when it was published) and deliberate attempt to express himself in the area of political economics. What does it reveal? Was he a profound theorist? Or did he follow slavishly the current philosophy? In short, was John Wesley a political economist?
The Role of Church History in The Theology of Albrecht Ritschl
Authors: Hefner Philip
Published: April 2006

The intention of this paper is to lay down a fundamental scheme for the interpretation of the work of Albrecht Ritschl (1822–1889). It is not my purpose to present any sort of a critique of Ritschl's work, nor do I intend to present copious documentation for the assertions that the man made. Rather, the paper will present as cogently as possible a framework of thought which is a viable hermeneutical key for understanding and interpreting Ritschl.
Sources of Origen's Doctrine of Freedom
Authors: Jackson B. Darrell
Published: April 2006

InContra CelsumOrigen briefly states his approach to constructing a theological system. He says, “… anyone who constructs a Christian philosophy will need to argue the truth of his doctrines with proofs of all kinds, taken both from the divine scriptures and from rational arguments (logois akolouthias). ” Origen here specifies a twofold basis for theology—Scripture and rational argument. He often speaks explicitly of these two in his system. For example, inDe principiisII.v.3 he says that he has refuted the heretics by arguments drawn from the authority of Scriptures (ex auctoritate … scripturarum) but it will not be unfitting if he discusses the matter from the standpoint of rational argument (ex ratione … consequentiae=akolouthia). And again at the end of the preface of De principiis, this programmatic statement occurs: Anyone desiring to construct a system out of the articles of faith just listed will do so “… with the aid of such illustrations and declarations as he shall find in the holy scriptures and of such conclusions as he shall ascertain to follow logically from them when rightly understood.”
Menno Simons—Sixteenth Century Reformer
Authors: Hillerbrand Hans J.
Published: April 2006

Historical anniversaries, like birthdays, must come at the appropriate time in order to be properly appreciated. The quadricentennial of the death of Menno Simons, in 1961, coming as it did at a period of marked and indeed exuberant vitality of Left Wing studies, fulfilled happily enough, this requirement.1For Menno this was especially important, since he has been, during the past four hundred years, a man with a “bad press”—criticized not only by all of his foes outside his tradition, but also by many of his friends within.2An appraisal of his place in the Reformation of the sixteenth century appears necessary and—in light of the state of Left Wing studies— also possible, though this must not lead to an undue postulate of profundity or relevance.
American Catholic Periodicals React to Nazism
Authors: Wentz F. K.
Published: April 2006

To probe the reaction of American Roman Catholics to the emergence of Nazism three periodicals were studied for the years 1933 to 1937. America was a well-edited Jesuit weekly with a circulation approximating thirty thousand. It was well-informed, detailed in its coverage of contemporary events, and wielded wide influence among Catholics in its approach to current affairs. The Brooklyn Tablet, weekly diocesan publication for Brooklyn in New York, had a newspaper format and a circulation approaching fifty thousand. Commonweal was edited independently by Catholic laymen and was more influential than its circulation of about twenty thousand would indicate.
The Origins of Thomas Jefferson's Anti-Clericalism
Authors: Luebke Fred C.
Published: April 2006

Cannibals - mountebanks - charlatans - pious and whining hypocrites - necromancers - pseudo-Christians - mystery mongers. These are among the epithets which Thomas Jefferson applied to the clergy of the Protestant denominations and of the Roman Catholic Church as well. It was they who “perverted” the principles of Jesus “into an engine for enslaving mankind”; it was the Christian “priesthood” who had turned organized religion into a “mere contrivance to filch wealth and power” for themselves; they were the ones who throughout history had persecuted rational men for refusing to swallow “their impious heresies.”
The Dry Bones of Quaker Theology
Authors: Frost J. William
Published: April 2006

After having surveyed the barrenness of the valley in which were scattered skeletal remains, the prophet in the book of Ezekiel was asked, “O mortal man, can these bones live?” And his reply was not an optimistic “they will live” but rather “O Lord God, thou knowest.” When the historian begins to discuss the common theological assumptions and issues which perplexed the seventeenth century, he does not know whether they can be put into a meaningful context and is uncertain that these “bones” can be made to live. The recent historian who made a large American audience aware of seventeenth-century thought was the late Perry Miller who summarized the New England strands of thought in an essay entitled “The Marrow of Puritan Divinity.” Miller argued that theology was a part of the essence, the very marrow, of Puritanism to which a copious amount of thought was devoted. The seriousness of the Puritan concern was witnessed by the succession of able theologians from William Ames and Richard Baxter in the seventeenth century, to Solomon Stoddard, Jonathan Edwards, and Charles Chauncy in the eighteenth century.