bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Negative Versus Positive Evidence
Authors: Oliver Rhonda
Published: January 2018

In this entry the two types of data available for language learners, namely positive and negative evidence, are defined. The distinction between these types of data centers on what is possible and appropriate in the target language and what is not. In framing the issues and then presenting a case for each, these terms are described, both in relation to the different theoretical paradigms and in terms of language teaching. This includes examples of the various types of positive and negative evidence taken from language classrooms. A key issue in this discussion is the debate on whether positive evidence is sufficient on its own or whether there is also a role for negative evidence. In the final section, pedagogical implications surrounding both positive and negative evidence are discussed.
Peer Feedback and Teaching Grammar
Authors: Pawlak Mirosław
Published: January 2018

One way in which foreign language grammar can be taught is through the provision of corrective feedback. Such feedback can take a variety of forms, occur at different times, address various types of grammar‐related inaccuracies and be provided by the teacher, the learner who has committed an error, or another student. This entry focuses on the last of these choices, that is, focusing on the specificity of peer feedback in teaching grammar, providing theoretical and empirical rationale for this type of intervention as well as offering tentative guidelines in this respect for foreign language teachers.
Planned Versus Incidental Focus on Form
Authors: Kartchava Eva
Published: January 2018

Bringing language learners' attention to the accuracy of their output can be affected by way of planned or incidental focus on form. Planned focus on form includes the use of implicit techniques that increase learners' exposure to particular features in the input. Incidental focus on form employs communicative tasks that elicit the use of features that have or have not been determined in advance. That is, a teacher may preempt potentially problematic structures through instruction or choose to treat them as they come up in interaction.
Recasting
Authors: Saito Kazuya
Published: January 2018

Among the many corrective feedback techniques at ESL/EFL teachers' disposal, recasting has been identified as the most frequent and preferred type of feedback in response to students' pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar errors. According to the extensive literature, recasts can be effectively used to help students improve their linguistic accuracy in meaning‐oriented classrooms. However, it is noteworthy that students do not always succeed in identifying recasts as corrections when their linguistic errors do not directly cause communication breakdown or when they do not have much second language (L2) knowledge to notice and self‐correct their non‐targetlike production after teachers' recasts. To promote the continued growth of students' L2 abilities, it is recommended that teachers increase the saliency of feedback by providing it in the context of form‐focused tasks with metalinguistic information; in this way, the pedagogical potential of recasts can be maximized.
Scaffolding and the Development of
L2
Grammar
Authors: Poehner Matthew E.
Published: January 2018

Amidst discussion of the role of instruction in supporting learner development of L2 grammar, which has included debates over implicit and explicit corrective feedback, the metaphor of scaffolding has offered a theoretically driven framework for aligning support to learner needs. As more of the theoretical writings of L. S. Vygotsky have become available, researchers have increasingly recognized the need for scaffolding to be contingent upon learner needs, negotiated with learners, and focused on learner development rather than task completion. Following discussion of Vygotskian principles that inform scaffolding practice, key recommendations to teachers emerging from the research literature are considered. Two important directions for the further development of scaffolding in L2 education are identified: peer‐to‐peer scaffolding and dynamic assessment.
Structured Input
Authors: Benati Alessandro
Published: January 2018

Considering the limited role for instruction in second language acquisition and the importance of incorporating grammar in a more meaningful approach to instruction, teachers should look at devising grammar tasks that, on the one hand, enhance the grammatical features in the input and, on the other hand, provide L2 learners with opportunities to focus on meaning. Structured input is the practice component of processing instruction, which is a pedagogical intervention that through the manipulation and restructuring of the input facilitates the acquisition of grammatical and syntactic features of a target language. It derives from the theoretical model called input processing. Empirical research has been carried out to measure its effectiveness on a number of processing problems, languages, linguistic features, and among learners of different backgrounds and first languages. The research findings from this theoretical framework have demonstrated that it is an effective approach (online and in the classroom) to grammar instruction in helping L2 learners to make appropriate form‐meaning connections and parse syntactic structures correctly. Specific guidelines have been developed to create structured input activities.
Written Versus Spoken Grammar
Authors: Strauss Susan , Feiz Parastou , Xiang Xuehua
Published: January 2018

Speech and writing are distinctly different manifestations of language. Languageas speechis intuitive, natural, dynamic, evanescent, and situated. Speech can be altered mid‐utterance to account for understanding and processing by others. Languageas writingis de‐situated, requiring time for planning, organizing, composing, editing, and revising. Discursive patterns reveal a continuum:spoken discoursetypically reflects more interactive and interlocutor involving features of grammar andwritten discoursetypically exhibits features that are more content‐central and message‐coherent. The spoken/written continuum might be better addressed through a genre and register‐based approach to grammar as an integral part of discourse. This macro–micro perspective on the interrelationships between grammar and meaning underscores discourse as an emergent, interactive, and socio‐cognitive‐cultural process of language use, communication, and understanding.
Grammar in Foreign and Second Language Classes
Authors: Keßler Jörg‐U , Lenzing Anke
Published: January 2018

The teaching of grammar plays a major role in any language classroom, and traditionally follows the (hidden) curriculum of the textbook used in the classroom. In the past, competing approaches to grammar teaching have been put forward, but the majority have not been inspired by a theory of language nor by findings from second language acquisition (SLA) research. As implicit learning of (interlanguage) grammar is crucial in any instructed setting, however, findings from SLA research contribute to making foreign and second language teaching more efficient. One core finding is that practice does not necessarily make perfect, as it is a vital but not a sufficient prerequisite for language acquisition.
Administering University‐Based Classes
Authors: Kostka Ilka
Published: January 2018

Universities across the globe are becoming increasingly internationalized, and English has played an important role in uniting educators and administrators in instruction, research, and publication. University‐based English as a second language (
ESL
) classes serve a population of learners who need academic English skills to succeed in these settings. Thus one of the primary objectives of university‐based English courses is to prepare students for academic study in English as effectively and quickly as possible. Administrators who work in these postsecondary academic settings engage in a variety of roles, such as overseeing placement tests and curriculum development, conducting a needs analysis, advising students, providing professional development, and hiring instructors. Drawing from scholarship in English for academic purposes (
EAP
), this entry highlights key implications for administering university‐based English classes.
Character Education
Authors: Smagorinsky Peter
Published: January 2018

Character education has been around for millennia. It predates the founding of the United States, even as the continent hosted indigenous people with longstanding values on character. Character education has traditionally served as a means of assimilating immigrants to American culture, primarily through didactic means derived from Christian values. An alternative view emerged in about 1900 through John Dewey's progressive beliefs in human development mediated by reflection on worldly experience rather than instruction in established morality. Both traditions remain in play in 21st‐century conceptions of character, although as in most educational practice, the traditional, cultural heritage view is more widely practiced. This entry reviews both historical and current issues in character education and relates them to the experiences of immigrants whose culture and language produce a type of diversity that character education either hopes to eliminate or cultivate, depending on the perspective motivating practitioners.
Common European Framework of Reference for Languages
Authors: Little David
Published: January 2018

The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) defines six levels of communicative proficiency (A1 and A2, B1 and B2, C1 and C2) in terms of language activities and the competences that the learner needs in order to perform them. Developed by the Council of Europe to provide member states with a common basis for elaborating language education policy, language syllabuses, curriculum guidelines, and examinations, the CEFR is the culmination of thirty years' work on the needs‐based teaching of languages for communication. Its action‐oriented approach to the description of proficiency and its focus on the needs and capacities of the individual learner have unmistakable pedagogical implications. These shaped the design of its companion piece, the European Language Portfolio (ELP). The impact of the CEFR on language testing and certification has been very great; on other areas of language education its influence has been more uncertain.
Administrative Issues in English Language Standards
Authors: Brooks Maneka Deanna
Published: January 2018

In the context of standards‐based educational reform, English language standards play an important role in teaching and learning. As a result of the centrality of these standards, this entry discusses administrative issues in aligning instruction to English language standards. The perspective outlined in this entry positions opportunity to learn, and thus instruction, as fundamental to the standards‐based reform movement in English language education. In particular, it highlights how a professional learning community is an appropriate forum for developing the requisite practical and theoretical knowledge foundation for standards‐based instruction. Importantly, this entry moves away from positioning instruction as solely the domain of the teacher and toward understanding instruction as an institutional responsibility.
Practitioner‐Oriented Journals
Authors: Garson Kyra
Published: January 2018

The continued professionalization of English language teaching (
ELT
) requires practitioner engagement with advances in the field of practice that are informed by theory and research. As in any profession, continued development requires both the acquisition and the application of specialized knowledge and skills. In the case of English language instruction, knowledge and skills pertain to a variety of curricular and pedagogical considerations that exist within a dynamic and shifting environment of global mobility, culture, and politics, as well as within institutional parameters that may influence the need for shifts in professional practice. Educators and administrators in the field of
ELT
need to stay abreast of advancements through ongoing professional development. Practitioner‐oriented journal publications offer substantive means to achieve this goal by providing theoretical frameworks and practical applications for the improvement of instruction and student outcomes.
Project Planning and Sustainability
Authors: Musetti Bernadette
Published: January 2018

This entry addresses issues of project planning and sustainability in TESOL from a global perspective, where the scope could include a project as large as a university level TESOL and/or ESL/EFL program, to a specially designed program for a targeted group with a specific need, such as academic orientation for graduate study for international legal professionals, as one example. Included are considerations of the teaching of English globally and as seen through a critical lens, but where practical recommendations for project planning and sustainability are also offered.
Social Justice
Authors: Chang Benjamin “Benji”
Published: January 2018

This entry concerns issues of social justice within TESOL internationally, and approaches to building social justice within the TESOL field. Given the broad nature of TESOL and social justice education, there are many different areas that can be discussed both in theory and practice. This entry focuses more on the context of schooling, teachers, students, and classrooms, and issues of pedagogy beyond just the United States. More specifically, it discusses approaches of critical pedagogy, feminist theory, poststructuralism, sociocultural learning, action research, critical literacy, New Literacy Studies, recognition, collaboration, and solidarity.
Teacher and Institutional Beliefs, Vision, Belonging, and Identity
Authors: Fairbanks Colleen M. , Hinman Tierney B.
Published: January 2018

Teachers, administrators, and students bring beliefs about language learning and teaching, learning, and goals to the classroom. These beliefs are shaped by personal, social, political, and cultural forces and impact English language learning. This constellation of beliefs and how they are enacted in specific contexts reflect the various identities that characterize them as teachers, students, or administrators. By making their beliefs and visions visible, teachers and administrators can understand their purposes for instruction as well as navigate within their institutional contexts to provide the instruction that fits students' needs, even when institutional and individual commitments diverge. The degree to which teachers feel they have a sense of belonging within their institutional setting will support their ability to navigate these differences. Attending to beliefs, vision, and belonging can have a significant impact on student performance.
Teacher Inquiry
Authors: Bailey Kathleen M.
Published: January 2018

This chapter addresses the possibilities and practices of teacher inquiry in language education and applied linguistics. Two approaches—reflective teaching and action research—are explored in some detail. Procedures to begin teacher inquiry projects are briefly considered, and ways in which administrators can help teachers engage in such projects are also discussed.
Universal Design
Authors: Cook Leslie S.
Published: January 2018

Universal design for learning (UDL) is an approach to curriculum design that aims to remove barriers to learning. English language learners (ELL) in US schools face cultural and linguistic barriers that can impede their academic success. Implementing learning environments and curricula based on the principles and guidelines of universal design increases language learners' opportunities for success and promotes lifelong learning skills for all students. Focusing on guidelines most relevant to ELLs, this entry provides suggestions for design and implementation.
Writing Across Communities
Authors: Kells Michelle Hall
Published: January 2018

The introduction of Writing Across Communities (WACommunities) as a counterdiscourse to traditional Writing Across the Curriculum and Writing Across the Disciplines models of postsecondary US literacy education dates from 2004. Given the prevailing theories in rhetoric and composition, critical theory, and linguistics, WACommunities resists the reproduction of institutionalized language discrimination in English literacy education through the application of principles of transcultural citizenship in the teaching of writing across the curriculum. This entry considers the underlying support, both theoretical and empirical, for the localized application and institutionalization of WACommunities approaches to K‐16 literacy education.
Direct Method
Authors: Benati Alessandro
Published: January 2018

The direct method was developed in response to the grammar translation method, which involved very little spoken communication and listening comprehension. The primary objective of the direct method was to teach L2 learners how to use language for communication purposes. Its main principles are: learners should be taught in the target language; no translation should be allowed; grammar should be taught inductively; oral and listening skills are the main focus of instruction. The popularity of the direct method began to increase in the nineteenth century because of the importance of and demand for developing oral communication. However, it was primarily successful in private language schools (e.g., Berlitz) and less so in non‐commercial schools and educational institutions. Between the 1920s and 1930s, the use of this methodology begun to decline, opening the way for audiolingualism.
Behaviorist Learning Theory
Authors: Reimann Andrew
Published: January 2018

Behaviorist learning theory is a psychology‐grounded pedagogical line of thought, based on the idea that behavior can be researched scientifically without consideration of cognitive states. The primary hypothesis is that learning is influenced solely by physical variables such as environmental or material reinforcement. By dismissing the influence of mental variables, behaviorist theories propose that free will is an illusion and that responses can be determined and conditioned. Key figures essential to the development of these theories include Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson and B. F. Skinner.
Natural Approach
Authors: Weaver Christopher
Published: January 2018

This entry reviews Krashen and Terrell's natural approach (NA) to language learning and instruction. The first section examines how Krashen's theory of second language acquisition and Terrell's binding–access framework inform NA. The second section explains the three stages of NA‐based instruction—preproduction, early speech, and speech emergence—and provides examples of the types of activities teachers and learners should do at each of these stages.
Suggestopedia and Desuggestopedia
Authors: Rashtchi Mojgan
Published: January 2018

Suggestopedia (or suggestopaedia) is a method created by Georgi Lozanov, a Bulgarian doctor and psychotherapist. In 1966, on the basis of his research findings, Lozanov proposed that his method could accelerate foreign language learning. Suggestopedia, according to Lozanov, is a nonmanipulative and nonhypnotic method of learning that provides deeper knowledge; it involves the study of suggestion, which is the science of tapping human reserve capacities in the domain of mind and body. Apart from the several changes that suggestopedia has undergone due to Lozanov's ongoing research, different variations of the method reflect deviations from what Lozanov actually intended. The six main principles of suggestopedia are dual (double) planeness, intonation, rhythm, pseudopassivity, infantilization, and authority.
Functional‐Notional Approach
Authors: Williams Howard
Published: January 2018

The functional‐notional approach (FNA) was an instructional orientation seen as revolutionary when it arose in the 1970s. Conceived to supplement or replace syllabi based on graded grammatical structures, it centered explicit instruction on meanings of two basic types: functions, which constitute basic purposes for which users produce language, and notions, which are the meanings most typically conveyed linguistically in the fulfillment of functions. This highly influential approach to language teaching saw its high point in the 1980s but has since been largely eclipsed by, and partially subsumed within, more recent instructional models that still share its broad goal of grounding teaching in communicative language use.
Cooperative Language Learning
Authors: Karim Khaled
Published: January 2018

This entry addresses the cooperative language learning (CLL) approach in language teaching. It examines the characteristics of cooperative learning, describes its theoretical foundations, and provides pedagogical suggestions for practitioners. The strengths of the CLL approach are also identified. As social interaction and learner interdependence in group processes are the keys to success in CLL, the possible areas of difficulty in achieving these goals are identified and some time‐tested cooperative learning activities are suggested.
Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach (
CALLA
)
Authors: Gu Yongqi
Published: January 2018

The Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach (CALLA) is an instructional model aimed at accelerating the academic achievement of second language learners. The model proposes to do this by integrating content, language, and learning strategies through a five‐stage cycle involving preparation, presentation, practice, evaluation, and expansion. The model has been found useful in boosting learning outcomes both in mainstream school subjects and in English as a second language.
Motivational Strategies
Authors: Abrar‐Ul‐Hassan Shahid
Published: January 2018

Although a comprehensive theory of learner motivation is still lacking, its predominant features are widely agreed upon and can be translated into action in a motivational pedagogy. To generate and sustain learner motivation, extensive taxonomies of motivational strategies, which are highly context‐specific, are accessible to language practitioners. Learner motivation can be influenced by practitioners' strategies, but it is a complex and fluctuating characteristic that cannot be tackled by a traditional linear approach of reward and punishment. An overarching approach in this regard is motivation‐sensitive teaching (MST), which is grounded in self as a motivational resource. It can be actualized through a framework of interlinked macrostrategies that are propped up with applicable microstrategies. Teacher‐afforded motivational strategies promote self‐regulation and autonomy in order to assist learners to exploit self as motivational resource.
Effective Classroom Strategies
Authors: Badwan Khawla
Published: January 2018

Employing effective classroom strategies has been one of the main goals underpinning the different language‐teaching methods, approaches, and pedagogies since the 1940s. As it stands, the notion of “effectiveness” is contested as it is determined by and measured against differing sets of factors. The TESOL and applied linguistics literature has, over the years, documented the rise and fall of many methods and approaches which provided different visions for what effective classroom strategies should aim at and achieve. More recent discussions have advocated the need for flexibility and inclusivity in order to negotiate the effectiveness of classroom strategies with the different educational stakeholders, while giving more attention to the role of learners in this process.
Scaffolding Technique
Authors: Gonulal Talip , Loewen Shawn
Published: January 2018

Scaffolding as a metaphor in teaching and learning describes the adaptive and temporary support provided by a more competent person (e.g., teacher or adult) to a less competent person (e.g., student or child). Scaffolding, with its link to Vygotskian sociocultural theory, has been popularized and applied to a number of education realms. In particular, the potential of scaffolding in language learning contexts has been widely investigated. Several scaffolding techniques (e.g., modeling, bridging, developing metacognition) have been reported to be effective with English learners. However, applying scaffolding techniques can be challenging. Scaffolded support is usually typified by several key characteristics: contingency, fading of support over time, and transfer of responsibility for learning to the student.
Dictogloss Technique
Authors: del Pilar García Mayo María
Published: January 2018

Research on second language acquisition has shown that learners' attention to formal aspects of languages is of the utmost importance in an otherwise communicative classroom. Research has shown that keeping a focus on both form and meaning is difficult due to the limited capacities of human processing. This entry briefly describes the dictogloss technique, in which formal aspects of language may be highlighted when learners are engaged in completing communicative tasks. Research carried out using this technique is summarized and pedagogical implications are also considered.
Storytelling
Authors: Barkhuizen Gary
Published: January 2018

Stories have always been used in teaching and in learning and have always had a place in the language classroom. The benefits of storytelling include development of multiliteracies, understanding of narrative genres, classroom community building, culture learning and sharing, and increasing motivation. This entry outlines what stories are and how they are used in language classrooms and provides details about the educational advantages of storytelling for language learners. It also contains information about recent developments in digital storytelling.
Poetry and Songs
Authors: Gulla Amanda Nicole
Published: January 2018

Teaching language through poetry and songs has long been a common practice among elementary and early childhood educators. This entry describes some of the specific strategies for how this has been done, and explores the accompanying theory. The emphasis in this entry is on using poems, songs, and other art forms to teach English in secondary level classrooms, where the demands of content area curriculum make this practice more challenging.
Flash Cards, Realia, and Objects
Authors: Gobert Melanie
Published: January 2018

The use of flash cards, realia, and objects evoke the four senses of touching, seeing, smelling, hearing in the language‐learning classroom. They also lend themselves easily to kinesthetic and tactile learning styles. Teachers who make the effort to connect the students' language learning with the use of authentic materials in the classroom will see the benefits as students' emotional centers are engaged in the learning experience resulting in long‐term retention and a predisposition for further learning.
Authentic Language Use
Authors: Rüschoff Bernd
Published: January 2018

Authenticity is an important feature of innovative and stimulating ELT practice. Authentic language use and authentic language in use play a major role and are seen as logical consequences of current deliberations concerning the aims of language learning and methodologies impacting on ELT classrooms. Authenticity, however, is not to be limited to content. Authentic tasks and activities, embedded in purposeful and genuine and relevant learning contexts, are of potentially even greater importance. Both the use of traditional print and audiovisual media and digital tools and social practices can contribute to genuine settings for ELT.
Project‐Based Teaching
Authors: Alvin Leong Ping
Published: January 2018

Project‐based learning (PBL) has been gaining popularity among educators over the years. Its focus on student‐initiated and student‐directed projects enables knowledge and skills to be integrated into the learning process. Students are also led to use language in authentic settings, thus heightening their awareness of the appropriate use of language in context. In PBL, the role of the teacher is less of an information provider and more of a facilitator and guide. In this entry, several strategies from the perspective of language education are proposed to help teachers provide guidance to students at various stages of the PBL process.
Organizing Practice
Authors: Endley Martin J.
Published: January 2018

This brief article addresses the organization of practice in language classrooms. While the strengths and weaknesses of both individualized practice and whole‐class practice are noted, the main focus of the article is paired‐ and small‐group practice. The rationale for utilizing pairs and small groups in the language classroom is discussed with reference to second language acquisition theory and research. Various pedagogical implications are also discussed including types of activity that are particularly well‐suited to pair and group work, arranging pairs and groups effectively, and group size. Finally, the question of the use of pair and group work for developing grammatical accuracy is raised for discussion.
Pre‐Kindergarten and Kindergarten Learners
Authors: Dubetz Nancy E. , Rofrano Frances
Published: January 2018

This entry provides an overview of how young children in prekindergarten and kindergarten learn new languages and how early childhood educators can use this information to guide teaching practice. Examples of recommended practices that scaffold language learning for 3‐ to 6‐year‐old children include establishing predictable classroom routines, creating opportunities for child‐directed learning and play, using teacher‐directed activities to build vocabulary and enhance academic literacy development, promoting multilingualism within the classroom community, employing linguistically responsive assessment practices that are also developmentally appropriate, and using families as resources for instruction.
Affect
Authors: Thurman John
Published: January 2018

In this entry, the reader will be introduced to the constructs of some affective influences on the language learner. Topics such as anxiety, personality, self‐esteem, self‐confidence, and willingness to communicate will be covered. The entry will conclude with some pedagogical implications and tips to reduce some negative emotions of the learner. It is hoped that the entry will create better understanding of the affective variables in an L2 learning classroom.
Independent Language Learners in
TESOL
Authors: Ghazali Fawzi Al
Published: January 2018

Within the humanistic tradition of language education, there is a pedagogical partnership between teachers and learners, and this partnership develops to further independence the more learners have the knowledge, skills, and attitudes to play an active role in planning, monitoring, and evaluating their own learning. Given that enhancing learners' independence in the TESOL landscape currently constitutes the pedagogical ideology of many language educators, there are still some challenges. Learner independence is a multi‐faceted theme with psychological and philosophical ramifications, which does not exist in one form or degree in all contexts. In addition, learners with different ethnic identities and of different cultural backgrounds do not perceive the linguistic and affective gains of being independent in the same way. Moreover, the mechanisms of reinforcing learner independence are not universally agreed upon by language teachers in the TESOL world. This entry addresses these issues and considers the empirical implications of learner independence on L2 pedagogy.
Use of the First Language
Authors: Jin Lixian , Cortazzi Martin
Published: January 2018

The use of the first language (L1) in English language teaching has long been debated; views have been advanced that L1 should be avoided in classrooms or used only sparingly or lightly, for specific reasons. Given the changes in ELT teaching approaches over the years, discussion on this issue is more complicated and multifaceted as different contexts are considered. This entry presents some key features for discussion of this issue worldwide: there is no single solution and ELT practitioners need to consider the matter flexibly and appropriately for each situation, with an understanding of different contexts of English teaching and learning.
Response to Intervention (
RTI
) Model
Authors: Tan Fujuan
Published: January 2018

Response to intervention (RTI) is, typically, a three‐tier approach or model for the early identification and appropriate support of students with specific learning needs. Ongoing successful use of the model in the general classroom has generated interest in its use, particularly with English language learners (ELLs). The relatively few data regarding such use are encouraging. Successful implementation of RTI assumes and requires high quality, scientifically based classroom instruction, and continuous student assessment. Speculation about its potential to increasingly benefit ELLs is optimistic, provided that the circumstances specific to these learners are considered in developing such measures.
Outcome‐Based Education (
OBE
)
Authors: Midraj Sadiq
Published: January 2018

The entry introduces the outcomes‐based education (OBE) model for ELL teacher education. It discusses the theoretical foundations that OBE shares with other educational approaches such as constructivism, active learning, and assisted discovery‐based learning, such as learner‐centered education, active and meaningful learning, and self‐motivation. The third section of the article shares some applications of OBE to ELL teaching, learning, and assessment. Accreditation per recognized professional standards, teacher licensure, and teaching following clear learning outcomes are the foundation of the OBE. ELL teachers are professional facilitators who provide differentiated and assisted discovery instruction and make use of online resources for effective learning. Students are active and unique participants. They are assessed on what they know and can actually do. Less advanced students who do not meet the course learning outcomes receive encouragement, motivation, and remedial work.
Review and Remedial Work
Authors: Amaro‐Jiménez Carla
Published: January 2018

Language learning is not always a linear or step‐by‐step process, and therefore there is a need to continuously work with learners, to review what has been learned, and to correct or remedy any errors that may be happening as the process unfolds. Errors are a natural part of language acquisition and learning and should be viewed as a sign that learning is taking place. Review and “mediation” work can provide an outlet for students whose native language is not English to reach the desired proficiency level in the target language, while also ensuring that sound pedagogical practices are being used by ELT professionals for the purpose of benefiting all students.
Planning and Class Management
Authors: Fareh Shehdeh
Published: January 2018

Planning is a process of determining what to teach and how to teach it. This process involves formulating specific objectives, procedures, techniques, activities and evaluation methods to check to what extent the expected learning outcomes have been accomplished. The format of a lesson plan may differ from one teacher to another or from one school to another. Planning lessons may not be effective without proper classroom management of the available resources, procedures, and class time as well as the physical setting of the classroom. Teachers need to be aware of the significance of both planning and management skills and techniques as two major components that contribute to effective teaching and learning.
Working With a Course Book and the Curriculum
Authors: Kleckova Gabriela , Dalle Teresa
Published: January 2018

Course books, usually referred to as language‐teaching materials, consist of a range of language‐teaching and learning tools. They generally serve an important function in the ELT world and are an integrative part of many language programs. Similarly, curricula serve an important function in the ELT world and are an indispensable element of effective language programs because they set the specifications of language instruction. The relationship between a course book and a curriculum takes on various forms and depends on many teaching and context‐driven variables. The most direct one is that of the correlation between the contents and quality of the course book and the contents and quality of the curriculum.
Reflective Teaching
Authors: Chacón Carmen T.
Published: January 2018

The origins of the reflective teaching concept are briefly presented. Although this conception has been interpreted in several different ways, in this entry reflective teaching is framed under Dewey's (1933) notion of reflection as a process of creating meaning out of experience following an inquiry process to formulate a theory, and then testing it out. Dewey made a distinction between reflective action and routine action, emphasizing that for reflective action to take place it is necessary to be consciously guided and initiated by uncertainty to produce knowledge and foster change. Other theorists have contributed to Dewey's thought on reflection expanding its meaning and interpreting reflective action. Shon (1983), for example, added the notion of reflection‐in‐action and reflection‐on‐action. Zeichner and Liston (1996) have also proposed five dimensions of reflection according to the time frames in which reflective teaching occurs. It can be said that in general Dewey's followers agree that reflective teaching entails conscious awareness of one's context and the sociocultural and political issues that influence it, as well as the teacher's ethical, moral, and taken‐for‐granted assumptions and beliefs about his or her teaching.
Developing Contextually Sensitive Methodology
Authors: McNulty Margaret Piper
Published: January 2018

The development of contextually sensitive methodologies in English language teaching acknowledges that English has become the language of nearly global communication and that the goal of most English language learners is not to communicate with American and British native English speakers, but with each other. Contextually sensitive methodologies elevate the status of outer‐circle and expanding‐circle vernaculars of English as well as the status of bilingual non‐native English speaking teachers, and in contextually sensitive practice, teachers should be trained to conduct their own research on how best to meet the needs of their specific student populations. Strategies for developing contextually sensitive classroom practices, implications for teacher education, and suggestions for overcoming student resistance to contextually sensitive methodologies are presented in this entry.
Learner Characteristics, Individual Learner Differences, and Learner Role
Authors: Sasayama Shoko
Published: January 2018

Individual learner differences (IDs) are shown to affect the degree of success in second language (L2) acquisition. This entry reviews the relationship between three influential ID factors, namely age, aptitude, and motivation, and L2 learning. It also provides substantial pedagogical implications, which are based on research findings to date, and makes a case for the importance of knowing our individual learners.
Teacher Characteristics and Teacher Role
Authors: Fareh Shehdeh
Published: January 2018

Teachers are among the major factors that contribute to school success and students' learning. Efficient teachers should possess certain characteristics and should play a number of roles. Teachers' characteristics are either managerial or instructional. Teachers' roles are the duties, functions, and responsibilities that teachers assume in the teaching‐learning process. Both teachers' characteristics and roles complement each other as essential elements that contribute to the creation of an environment that is conducive to learning.
School and Parental Assumptions and Beliefs
Authors: Kayi‐Aydar Hayriye
Published: January 2018

The research on school and parental assumptions and beliefs in ESL/EFL contexts has generated important findings that are of practical consequence for teachers and administrators. This entry reviews the most common school and parental assumptions and beliefs in ESL/EFL contexts. Addressing critical issues germane to the research findings, the entry concludes with pedagogical considerations.
Teacher Autonomy
Authors: Jackson Daniel O.
Published: January 2018

Teacher autonomy refers to teachers' self‐direction, capacity, and freedom, which are limited by institutional and other factors. This entry first traces the definition of teacher autonomy in recent writings, then briefly describes relevant themes in this literature, including constraints on autonomy and the link between teacher and learner autonomy. Some characteristics of research in this domain are also sketched. The bulk of the entry discusses pedagogical implications, including the autonomy of teachers during engagement in professional training, action research, classroom instruction, curricular implementation, and the development and evaluation of teaching materials, as well as the adoption of task‐based approaches in teacher training and the potential role of administrators in promoting autonomy.
Social Context and English for Speakers of Other Languages
Authors: Gunn Cindy L.
Published: January 2018

Acknowledging the importance of social context and interaction in the English language learning classroom can have a positive impact on the learners' experience and can lead to more successful language learning. The more formal classroom social context is influenced by numerous factors and with the spread of Internet access around the world, the students' informal social context is wider than ever before. Seven time‐tested practical ideas that engage the students in interactive activities to enhance their learning opportunities in both formal and informal social contexts are offered.
Analyzing and Assessing Spoken Discourse
Authors: Bookman Bita
Published: January 2018

The one‐on‐one oral interview is one of the most common forms of oral assessment, and, despite several challenges, it remains one of the most valid and authentic forms of assessing speaking. Through informational and interactional prompts, an examiner can elicit and assess micro‐ and macrolinguistic skills. Prompts are carefully selected based on the intellectual skills they require and their level of abstraction. Scoring rubrics help increase the objectivity and reliability of scores by allowing raters to analyze distinct features of speaking discourse.
Interlanguage Phonology
Authors: Barrios Shannon L.
Published: January 2018

Many second language (L2) researchers hold that language learners construct an internalized interlanguage grammar on the basis of available linguistic data. This entry deals with the learner's knowledge of the target language's sound system and our current understanding of the way in which adult second language learners acquire interlanguage phonologies. Several factors known to shape this process are discussed, such as native language (L1) transfer, target language (TL) input (including orthographic (written) input), typological markedness (dealing with universal preferences across the world's languages for certain linguistic forms), age, and L1/L2 use. Finally, the pedagogical implications of these key theoretical and empirical findings are discussed, as are some directions for future work bridging the gap between research on interlanguage phonology and classroom applications.
Development of Pragmalinguistic and Pragmatic Skills in Children Versus AdultL2Learners
Authors: Krulatz Anna
Published: January 2018

The termspragmatic skillsandpragmalinguistic skillsare both used in the literature to refer to those linguistic skills that allow language users to select contextually appropriate means of participating in linguistic interactions. More specifically, these skills are responsible for the ability to correctly interpret, select, and utilize speech act strategies, which are conventionally, socially, and culturally determined. In this entry,pragmaticandpragmalinguisticare used interchangeably. The entry provides an extended definition of pragmatic and pragmalinguistic skills, gives an overview of the research that has explored pragmatic and pragmalinguistic development in a second language, and summarizes the findings and implications of the studies that focused on the role of instruction in the development of pragmatic and pragmalinguistic skills.
Oral Language Proficiency Tests
Authors: Ockey Gary J.
Published: January 2018

Recent conceptions of oral language proficiency suggest that this ability includes interactional competence, phonology, grammar, vocabulary, and fluency. To assess oral proficiency, a number of test tasks have been used, including oral interviews, paired and group oral discussions, and elicited imitation tasks. Every task designed for assessing oral proficiency has strengths and weaknesses, and it is essential that each is considered for use depending on the purposes of the test and the testing context. Score scales are commonly employed to assign scores to performances on test tasks, and both humans and computers have been used for this purpose.
Choosing Texts for Teaching Pronunciation
Authors: McVeigh Joe
Published: January 2018

When selecting texts for teaching pronunciation, teachers or administrators must consider several factors. Pedagogical concerns include the current level of language proficiency of the students, the alignment of the pedagogy of the text with the teaching methods of the institution, and the inclusion of an appropriate balance of segmental and suprasegmental features. Best practices include the use of listening discrimination activities and a focus on those aspects of the sound system most crucial for student intelligibility. Additional criteria for selection include the amount of guidance and support for the teacher and the option of audio or technology support to augment instruction. Practical needs such as cost and a good fit of the amount of material in the text to the available time of instruction must also be considered.
Teacher Preparation for Teaching Pronunciation
Authors: Brinton Donna M.
Published: January 2018

Pronunciation has been referred to as the orphan of second/foreign language teaching. Until recently, classroom‐oriented research informing practitioners about effective methods of pronunciation teaching has been lacking and teachers have oftentimes been faced with conflicting information about how best to address this skill. Additionally, current methods of language teaching have tended to deemphasize the importance of pronunciation. However, of late, there has been increased recognition in the field of TESOL of the need for pronunciation training. This recognition, coupled with the appearance of classroom texts with increased attention to this skill and resource books that inform teachers of effective ways to address pronunciation give rise to optimism about the future of pronunciation teaching. Although complete consensus is lacking as to what constitutes the most effective curriculum for practical phonetics or pronunciation pedagogy classes, useful guidelines can be gleaned from the growing amount of literature in the field on this topic.
Teaching the Sound System of English
Authors: Haslam Mara
Published: January 2018

The sound system of English is complex and varied. English learners bring their knowledge of other sound systems to the learning of English, and differences between sound systems may cause problems for them in listening and pronunciation. Choosing appropriate goals for pronunciation and listening, using perceptual training in addition to pronunciation training, and helping learners acquire strategies for dealing with problems with listening and pronunciation will help to facilitate successful communication beyond the English classroom.