bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A model of the process of writing and deleting file information on a disk with NTFS
Authors: Chojnacki Andrzej , Darnowski Fryderyk
Published: January 2020

This paper aims at demonstrating a mathematical model of the process of writing and deleting information about files on a disk, using the contents of the $MFT system file, i.e. in a file generated in the NTFS (New Technology File System). The presented model uses the language of control theory, where the state of the system is equal to the state of the disk and the state of the $MFT file, and where control is understood as undertaking the action of writing or deleting. The deterministic nature of the process and its stationarity were assumed. Then, based on the transition function after its specification, we suggest constructing further inverse images of possible prior states at subsequent stages of data writing or deletion. The obtained results form the basis for the implementations developed.
Magister, mistrz, majster – o drogach przenikania wyrazów łacińskich do polszczyzny
Authors: Jasińska Katarzyna , Piwowarczyk Dariusz R.
Published: January 2020

Magister, mistrz, majster – on the ways in which Latin words entered Polish. Summary. This article deals with the ways in which Latin words entered the Polish language. The Latin word magister is discussed as an example of such a case. It is the source of 7 words that function in contemporary Polish: magister, mistrz, majster, maestro, metr, mister, master. Each of the quoted nouns was borrowed into Polish through the medium of various languages. The article discusses the origins of the Latin word magister, along with its corresponding forms in Polish in the form of direct (magister, maestro, metr) and indirect (mistrz, majster, master, mister) loans. In a discussion of the quoted loans, attention is given to the medium through which each of these words entered Polish, to the time of their appearance in the recipient language, as well as to the phonetic and semantic adaptation of the loanwords.
Streszczenie. Niniejszy artykuł porusza kwestię dróg przenikania wyrazów łacińskich do polszczyzny. Za egzemplum rozważań przyjęto łaciński wyraz magister. Stanowi on źródło 7 wyrazów funkcjonujących w języku polskim: magister, mistrz, majster, maestro, metr, mister, master. Każdy z podanych rzeczowników został zapożyczony do polszczyzny poprzez pośrednictwo różnych języków. W artykule przedstawiono pochodzenie łacińskiego wyrazu magister, jak również omówiono jego odpowiedniki w języku polskim w postaci pożyczek bezpośrednich (magister, maestro, metr) oraz pośrednich (mistrz, majster, master, mister). W rozważaniach nad poszczególnymi wyrazami zwrócono uwagę zarówno na medium, przez które dany wyraz przeniknął do polszczyzny i czas jego pojawienia się w polszczyźnie, jak również na adaptację fonetyczną oraz semantyczną pożyczek.
Soziolinguistische Determinanten der Danziger Stadtsprache
Authors: Łopuszańska Grażyna
Published: January 2020

Sociolinguistic determinants of Gdańsk's urban language. Summary: This paper describes the pre-1945 language of the city of Gdańsk, which was a peripheral variety of Standard German. Gdańsk was the lingusitic Tower of Babel since its beginnings. Such a multilingual melting pot necessitated cooperation and acceptance for linguistic and cultural diversity, which led to linguistic accommodation and assimilation. A clash of various related and unrelated language systems created favourable conditions for the emergance and development of a language continuum (Danziger Missingsch), which with time became the characteristic colloquial urban language used by Gdańsk's speech community. It was also used outside of the city borders as a way of demonstrating one's belonging to Gdańsk's cultural and language community. Streszczenie: Artykuł poświęcony został potocznemu językowi miejskiemu, używanemu w Gdańsku do roku 1945, stanowiącemu peryferyjną odmianę niemieckiego języka narodowego. Gdańsk był od zawsze językową wieżą Babel. W tym multietnicznym tyglu konieczna była współpraca i akceptacja odmienności kulturowej i językowej, co prowadziło siłą rzeczy do językowej akomodacji i asymilacji. Zderzanie się różnych, spokrewnionych i niespokrewnionych systemów językowych stworzyło warunki dla powstania i rozwoju kontinuum językowego (Danziger Missingsch), które z czasem stało się charakterystycznym, potocznym językiem miejskim, używanym w obrębie gdańskiej wspólnoty komunikacyjnej, funkcjonujcym nie tylko w codziennej komunikacji lecz także poza granicami wspólnoty w celu demonstrowania przynależności do gdańskiej wspólnoty kulturowej i językowej.
La importancia del trabajo social comunitario
Authors: Sarasola Sanchez-Serrano José Luis , González González Juan Manuel , Roiz Vázquez Alicia
Published: January 2020

El presente artículo es resultado de una revisión bibliográfica en conjunto con una reflexión por parte de los que escribimos el mismo. Tiene como objetivo explicar por qué es importante el Trabajo Social Comunitario. Para esta explicación, nos hemos fundamentado en un fenómeno social que es la exclusión social.
Durante la realización del presente, se observa perfectamente que todo está relacionado y que desde la disciplina del Trabajo Social se puede trabajar para la mejora de los problemas que van surgiendo. Pero debemos tener cuidado también con esto último. La sociedad cambian, surgen dificultades y problemáticas sociales nuevas, y es tarea del Trabajo Social y de los trabajadores sociales el ir evolucionando para poderles hacer frente.
En cambio, encontramos varias problemáticas sociales que a pesar de los años, las intervenciones, las perspectivas de análisis y de intervención; perduran a lo largo del tiempo. El mejor ejemplo de esto, es la exclusión social. Atendiendo a una visión naturalista podríamos decir que “siempre ha habido ricos y pobres”, pero no nos cuestionamos sobre la procedencia de que siempre haya ricos y pobres.
Estudiamos la historia de la exclusión social, analizamos la situación de la población y acudimos al trabajo social para ver cómo se puede responder a esto

This article is the result of a literature review in conjunction with a reflection on the hand that you write the same.It is intended to explain why it is important to Community Social work. For this explanation, we have informed us in a social phenomenon that is social exclusion.
During the realization of the present, is seen perfectly that everything is related and that from the discipline of Social work you can work for the improvement of the problems that arise. But we must be careful also with this last. Society change, emerging new social problems, and difficulties, and task of Social work and social workers go to evolve tomake them front.
On the other hand, found several social problems that despite age, interventions, the prospects of analysis and intervention they endure over time. The best example of this is social exclusion. Attending a naturalistic view we could say that "there havealways been rich and poor",but we do not question about the provenance of that there is always rich and poor.
We studied the history of social exclusion, we analyzed thesituation of the population and went to social work to seehow it can respond to this.
Secularity and burial space in 19th century England
Authors: Rugg Julie
Published: January 2020

Este artículo cuestiona la afirmación de que la secularidad ha sido siempre un debate central en la idea de cementerio. En gran parte de Inglaterra se impuso una ‘guerra cultural’ entre partidarios de la Iglesia Anglicana y varias confesiones de Disidencia protestante. El cementerio fue un foco de conflicto, centra- do en el grado de control ejercido por la Iglesia Establecida. Este conflicto no reflejó la demanda de funerales ‘civiles’. Los protestantes No Conformistas buscaron asegurar un espacio de enterramiento y donde pudieran expresar sus propias creencias. A lo largo del siglo XIX y hasta la I Guerra Mundial, la formulación del derecho de enterramiento estuvo acompañada de conflictivos debates. Los cementerios llegaron a significar tanto la libertad religiosa como la influencia opresiva de la Iglesia Establecida. También estuvieron acompañados de una regulación sobre el gestión de entierros sanitarios, pero esto no definió el espacio de enterramiento como específicamente secular. Más bien, en Inglaterra, el cementerio fue, y sigue siendo, una coproducción espacial de tecnología sanitaria, burocracia municipal y expresión espiritual.

This paper challenges the contention that secularity is always central to the idea of the cemetery. In largely England a ‘culture war’ was enjoined between supporters of the Church of England and various denom- inations of Protestant Dissent. The cemetery was a focus of conflict, centred on the degree of control exercised by the Established Church. This conflict did not reflect demand for ‘civic’ funerals. Protestant Nonconformists sought to secure burial space where they might express their own beliefs. Through the 19th century and up until the First World War, the framing of burial law was accompanied by divisive debate. Cemeteries came to signify both religious freedom and the oppressive influence of the Established Church. Cemetery establishment was also accompanied by regulation on sanitary burial management, but this did not define burial space as being innately secular. Rather, in England the cemetery was, and remains, a spatial co-production of sanitary technology, municipal bureaucracy and spiritual expression.
Earnings Differences among Senior University Administrators: Evidence by Gender and Academic Field
Authors: Mang Colin F.
Published: January 2020

This study examines earnings inequality by gender and academic field among senior university administrators, including presidents, vice presidents, associate and assistant vice presidents, and deans, using data from the Canadian province of Ontario. While a 4.4 percent earnings gap between male and female administrators is initially identified, much of the gap is explained by earnings inequality across academic fields and by the career experience of the administrators. Administrators who specialize in professional fields such as engineering, health sciences, law, and social work earn between 12 percent and 33 percent more than administrators who specialize in liberal fields in the humanities and social sciences.
L’incidence du milieu d’études sur les possibilités de choix de femmes autochtones : typologie de parcours scolaires
Authors: Joncas Jo-Anni , Pilote Annie
Published: January 2020

This paper aims to assess the impact of the study environment on the opportunities of Indigenous women to complete the school pathway desired. During individual interviews, we collected 19 stories of Indigenous women’s experiences at two Quebec universities, one with several initiatives for indigenous students and the other with few. Through a typological analysis, four types of school pathways are presented according to the impact of the study environment; the pathway with: 1) pre-existing opportunities; 2) opportunities highlighted by the study environment; 3) rebound opportunities; and 4) driven by external impulses. Inspired by the capability approach, the results highlight the importance of focusing not only on the services and measures available to these students, but also on their ability to use them to achieve the desired academic path. This requires considering the factors that enable them to make effective use of educational resources for the purpose they choose.
Ethno-linguistic patterns of degree completion in BC universities: How important are high-school academic achievement and institution of entry?
Authors: Sweet Robert , Pullman Ashley , Adamuti-Trache Maria , Robson Karen
Published: January 2020

We examine bachelor's degree completion in the British Columbia post-secondary system, which is noted for its multiple pathways to graduation and ethnically diverse student population. Employing an administrative longitudinal dataset, we compare how the probability of degree completion by students enrolled at research-intensive, teaching-intensive, and college-technical institutions differs by ethno-linguistic background and high school grades. Estimates from multi-level logistic regression modelsdemonstrate that Korean, Tagalog, and Vietnamese speakers have lower probabilities of degree completion than English-speaking students. The type of institution a student initially enters is, however, an important correlate of degree completion for all ethno-linguistic groups. Students with lower high school grades who initially enter a research-intensive institution are more likely to graduate compared with higher-achieving students who enter a teaching-intensive or college-technical institution. To improve completion by institutional type and among ethno-linguistic groups, our study highlights the need for research on why degree completion is lower at certain institutions for all ethno-linguistic groups and consistently lower among Korean, Tagalog, and Vietnamese speakers regardless of their level of academic achievement in high school or the type of post-secondary institution they initially entered.
Marketing y publicidad en el aula de ELE. Una propuesta didáctica
Authors: Villalba Ibáñez Cristina
Published: January 2020

El objetivo de este trabajo es presentar una propuesta didáctica que se enmarca dentro de la enseñanza del español para fines específicos (EFE) y, más concretamente, del español para los negocios. A partir de un enfoque comunicativo por tareas, se propone que el alumnado diseñe una campaña de publicidad de un producto. Para lograr este objetivo, los estudiantes se organizan en grupos de trabajo de entre 4 y 6 personas y deben realizar, en las distintas sesiones de trabajo, las siguientes actividades: elegir el producto que van a promocionar, identificar y hacer un perfil del público objetivo y el buyer persona de dicho producto, reflexionar sobre la mejor ubicación, elaborar un anuncio gráfico y, finalmente, presentar el producto ante la clase. Esta propuesta ha sido implementada en un curso de la asignatura de Español para los Negocios con gran aceptación por parte del alumnado.
El aprendizaje del español como lengua extranjera: la importancia de utilizar el diccionario adecuado
Authors: Onieva Palomar Rafael
Published: January 2020

La lengua española es estudiada por millones de personas en todo el mundo, dada su gran importancia en la sociedad actual. Sin embargo, los diccionarios no son aprovechados al máximo, por los estudiantes ya que, generalmente, estos usan el diccionario bilingüe durante toda su trayectoria de aprendizaje. Además, estos cuentan con el beneplácito de los docentes, a pesar de la existencia de otras obras lexicográficas que se adaptan mejor a las diferentes etapas que existen en el aprendizaje de un idioma extranjero.
Palabras clave: español como lengua extranjera, lexicografía, diccionario bilingüe, diccionario de aprendizaje.
Learning Spanish as a foreign language: the importance of using the right dictionary
The Spanish language is learnt by millions of people all around the world, due to its great importance in the current society. However, students do not take full advantage of dictionaries, since, generally, they only use bilingual dictionaries throughout their whole learning process. Besides, teachers green-light their usage, even though there are other dictionaries that may adapt in a better way to the different stages that exist when learning a foreign language.
Keywords: Spanish as a foreign language, lexicography, bilingual dictionary, monolingual learner’s dictionary.
Las locuciones sustantivas en el aula de E/LE: retos y propuestas
Authors: Puertas Ribés Elia
Published: January 2020

El presente artículo pretende contribuir a la enseñanza de las locuciones nominales en el aula de E/LE. Se han diseñado diferentes actividades que faciliten al alumnado conocer tanto algunas de las expresiones idiomáticas más utilizadas en español, como los usos reales en los que pueden utilizarse. Para ello, se parte desde un enfoque comunicativo que facilite el aprendizaje desde un contexto real. La secuencia didáctica que se describe a continuación está dividida en cuatro fases que empiezan desde el contacto inicial con la estructura sustantivo + preposición de + sustantivo, la inferencia de los significados a través textos extraídos de periódicos en línea, pasando por su consolidación a través de juegos hasta llegar a la producción de una tarea final, cuyo objetivo es potenciar no solo la competencia gramatical, sino también la sociocultural y pragmática. Es, así, paso a paso, como se propone trabajar una de las tipologías fraseológicas más comunes del discurso, las locuciones nominales
El método IBI en la enseñanza de ELE. Aplicación de la gamificación en el Camino de Santiago
Authors: Sevilla Vallejo Santiago , García Moreno Álvaro
Published: January 2020

Los cambios recientes producidos en el ámbito de la educación y, particularmente, en la adquisición de segundas lenguas, como son la utilización de metodologías activas y el viraje en el foco de atención de la gramática hacia el vocabulario, son el punto de partida de esta propuesta de innovación didáctica para una clase de ELE. En concreto, este trabajo parte de un método pedagógico donde el aprendizaje de vocabulario se sitúa en el centro del mismo, el método IBI, y de cómo una herramienta didáctica, la gamificación, puede aumentar su efectividad tanto en resultados de aprendizaje como en términos actitudinales. Para ello, este trabajo realiza una propuesta de innovación didáctica que consiste en seis lecciones enmarcadas en el recorrido del Camino de Santiago inglés
In vitro reconstitution of branching microtubule nucleation
Authors: Tariq Ammarah , Green Lucy , Jeynes J Charles G , Soeller Christian , Wakefield James G
Published: January 2020

Eukaryotic cell division requires the mitotic spindle, a microtubule (MT)-based structure which accurately aligns and segregates duplicated chromosomes. The dynamics of spindle formation are determined primarily by correctly localising the MT nucleator, γ-Tubulin Ring Complex (γ-TuRC), within the cell. A conserved MT-associated protein complex, Augmin, recruits γ-TuRC to pre-existing spindle MTs, amplifying their number, in an essential cellular phenomenon termed ‘branching’ MT nucleation. Here, we purify endogenous, GFP-tagged Augmin and γ-TuRC from Drosophila embryos to near homogeneity using a novel one-step affinity technique. We demonstrate that, in vitro, while Augmin alone does not affect Tubulin polymerisation dynamics, it stimulates γ-TuRC-dependent MT nucleation in a cell cycle-dependent manner. We also assemble and visualise the MT-Augmin-γ-TuRC-MT junction using light microscopy. Our work therefore conclusively reconstitutes branching MT nucleation. It also provides a powerful synthetic approach with which to investigate the emergence of cellular phenomena, such as mitotic spindle formation, from component parts.
TTBK2 and primary cilia are essential for the connectivity and survival of cerebellar Purkinje neurons
Authors: Bowie Emily , Goetz Sarah C
Published: January 2020

Primary cilia are vital signaling organelles that extend from most types of cells, including neurons and glia. These structures are essential for development of many tissues and organs; however, their function in adult tissues, particularly neurons in the brain, remains largely unknown. Tau tubulin kinase 2 (TTBK2) is a critical regulator of ciliogenesis, and is also mutated in a hereditary neurodegenerative disorder, spinocerebellar ataxia type 11 (SCA11). Here, we show that conditional knockout of Ttbk2 in adult mice results in degenerative cerebellar phenotypes that recapitulate aspects of SCA11 including motor coordination deficits and defects to Purkinje cell (PC) integrity. We also find that the Ttbk2 conditional mutant mice quickly lose cilia throughout the brain. We show that conditional knockout of the key ciliary trafficking gene Ift88 in adult mice results in nearly identical cerebellar phenotypes to those of the Ttbk2 knockout, indicating that disruption of ciliary signaling is a key driver of these phenotypes. Our data suggest that primary cilia play an integral role in maintaining the function of PCs in the adult cerebellum and reveal novel insights into mechanisms involved in neurodegeneration.
Imp/IGF2BP levels modulate individual neural stem cell growth and division through myc mRNA stability
Authors: Samuels Tamsin J , Järvelin Aino I , Ish-Horowicz David , Davis Ilan
Published: January 2020

The numerous neurons and glia that form the brain originate from tightly controlled growth and division of neural stem cells, regulated systemically by important known stem cell-extrinsic signals. However, the cell-intrinsic mechanisms that control the distinctive proliferation rates of individual neural stem cells are unknown. Here, we show that the size and division rates of Drosophila neural stem cells (neuroblasts) are controlled by the highly conserved RNA binding protein Imp (IGF2BP), via one of its top binding targets in the brain, myc mRNA. We show that Imp stabilises myc mRNA leading to increased Myc protein levels, larger neuroblasts, and faster division rates. Declining Imp levels throughout development limit myc mRNA stability to restrain neuroblast growth and division, and heterogeneous Imp expression correlates with myc mRNA stability between individual neuroblasts in the brain. We propose that Imp-dependent regulation of myc mRNA stability fine-tunes individual neural stem cell proliferation rates.
Stepping down
Authors: Marder Eve
Published: January 2020

As Eve Marder stands down as a Deputy Editor of eLife, she reflects on the need for journals to change and respond to their environment
Análise da rede social da Instância de Governança do Circuito Turístico Caminho Novo, MG: uma perspectiva sistêmica e complexa
Authors: Guilarducci Bruno Campos , Fratucci Aguinaldo Cesar
Published: January 2020

Essa pesquisa teve como objetivo geral analisar a composição, a organização e o funcionamento do Circuito Turístico Caminho Novo-MG (CTCN), dentro do contexto das políticas públicas de turismo, apoiado na teoria dos sistemas complexos e utilizando como suporte teórico o paradigma da complexidade proposto por Edgar Morin, o modelo do SISTUR de Beni (1998) e sua reconstrução proposta por Moesch e Beni (2015, 2017). Como ferramentas metodológicas utilizou-se o método bola de neve aplicado em três etapas, a análise de redes sociais com foco na Teoria dos Laços fracos e Laços fortes de Granovetter (1973, 1983) e dos buracos estruturais de Burt (1992), aliadas à análise de conteúdo adaptada de Bardin (2011) e a elaboração de sociogramas das relações mantidas entre os agentes sociais. Como principais re-sultados destacamos a inexistência de uma rede regional capaz de produzir resulta-dos efetivos, o baixo entendimento dos municípios sobre as políticas públicas de turismo, uma forte ingerência municipal e regional atrelada a um cenário de descon-tinuidade da gestão pública e uma postura competitiva com reduzida participação dos agentes sociais para trabalhar em rede.
КЛИНИКО-МОРФОЛОГИЧЕСКИЕ ПРОЯВЛЕНИЯ ТУБЕРКУЛЕЗА У БОЛЬНЫХ С ВИЧ-ИНФЕКЦИЕЙ В ОРЕНБУРГСКОЙ ОБЛАСТИ, "Вестник Центрального научно-исследовательского института туберкулеза"
Authors: Михайловский Алексей Модестович , Комиссарова Оксана Геннадьевна , Лепеха Лариса Николаевна
Published: January 2020

Цель исследования - определить патоморфологические и клинические проявления остропрогрессирующих форм туберкулеза (ТБ) у больных, умерших от этой патологии в Оренбургской области. По результатам аутопсий и ретроспективного анализа медицинской документации изучены клинические и патоморфологические проявления остропрогрессирующих распространенных форм ТБ у 562 умерших больных на поздних стадиях ВИЧ-инфекции (группа Тб/ВИЧ). Группу сравнения составили 134 пациента со схожими проявлениями Тб без ВИЧ-инфекции (группа ТБ). Выявлено, что клинические и морфологические проявления прогрессирующего ТБ в сочетанием ВИЧ-инфекцией отличаются от таковых при прогрессировании ТБ у пациентов без ВИЧ-инфекции, а также зависят от первичности инфицирования МБТ или ВИЧ-инфекцией. Клинические признаки сочетанной патологии ТБ/ВИЧ проявляются в основном вновь выявленными распространенными формами туберкулеза с обильным бактериовыделением, выраженными респираторными нарушениями, интоксикацией и системной воспалительной реакцией. Морфологическая картина ТБ в сочетании с ВИЧ-инфекцией отражает прогрессирующий характер воспаления с преобладанием экссудативно-аль- теративных изменений, отсутствием признаков отграничения и организации гнойно-некротических фокусов воспаления, не имеющих признаков специфичности в легких и других внутренних органах. Распространение туберкулезного воспаления происходит преимущественно за счет гематогенной диссеминации, быстрой генерализации заболевания. На прогрессирование ТБ влияет сопутствующая инфекционная патология, которая может выходить на первый план в танатогенезе. У больных группы ТБ/ВИЧ наиболее часто регистрируются бактериальные пневмонии, микозы и вирусные поражения бронхо-легочной системы.
ОЦЕНКА СОСТОЯНИЯ МИКРОЦИРКУЛЯЦИИ В ЛЕГКИХ У БОЛЬНЫХ С ТУБЕРКУЛЕМАМИ В ДО- И ПОСЛЕОПЕРАЦИОННОМ ПЕРИОДЕ, "Вестник Центрального научно-исследовательского института туберкулеза"
Authors: Сигаев Анатолий Тихонович , Амансахедов Ресулгулы Бердигулыевич , Кажо Раксана Махмудовна , Красникова Елена Вадимовна , Березовский Юрий Сергеевич , Эргешов Атаджан Эргешович
Published: January 2020

Сцинтиграфический метод исследования органов дыхания имеет важное диагностическое значение для определения распространенности, локализации и активности патологического процесса у больных с туберкулемами легких. В статье представлена объективная оценка сцинтиграфических данных нарушения регионарной микроциркуляции в легких с применением МААТс у 35 больных, которым было проведено хирургическое лечение. Представлено сопоставление сцинтиграфических исследований с морфологическими данными в изучении причин редукции капиллярного русла легких у больных с туберкулемами, проведено сравнение результатов исследования микроциркуляции в легких до и после хирургического лечения.
Dengue virus and the complement alternative pathway
Authors: Carr Jillian M. , Cabezas‐Falcon Sheila , Dubowsky Joshua G. , Hulme‐Jones Jarrod , Gordon David L.
Published: January 2020

Dengue disease is an inflammatory‐driven pathology, and complement overactivation is linked to disease severity and vascular leakage. Additionally, dysregulation of complement alternative pathway (AP) components has been described, such as upregulation of complement factor D and downregulation of complement factor H (FH), which activate and inhibit the AP, respectively. Thus, the pathology of severe dengue could in part result from AP dysfunction, even though complement and AP activation usually provide protection against viral infections. In dengue virus‐infected macrophages and endothelial cells (ECs), the site of replication and target for vascular pathology, respectively, the AP is activated. The AP activation, reduced FH and vascular leakage seen in dengue disease in part parallels other complement AP pathologies associated with FH deficiency, such as atypical haemolytic uraemic syndrome (aHUS). aHUS can be therapeutically targeted with inhibitors of complement terminal activity, raising the idea that strategies such as inhibition of complement or delivery of FH or other complement regulatory components to EC may be beneficial to combat the vascular leakage seen in severe dengue.
Injury to the Developing Nervous System
Authors: Timoney Nessa , Miller Brandon A.
Published: January 2020

The developing central nervous system (CNS) is exquisitely vulnerable to injury due to unique social, biomechanical, and biological circumstances. This entry outlines the major causes of CNS injury in young people and discusses the most common underlying biological phenomena that lead to CNS tissue damage and dysfunction. Injury to the developing CNS can deplete fragile precursor cell populations, leading to disruption of normal development. However, the young CNS has a remarkable ability to recover from injury. Proper acute management and rehabilitation care of children with CNS injury can lead to good outcomes even after severe injuries.
Gross Motor Development
Authors: Payne V. Gregory , Chang Seung Ho
Published: January 2020

Gross motor development is a significant part of overall human motor development. Gross movements are those generated from the action of large muscles or large muscle groups, as opposed to fine movements, which are produced via action of the small muscles or muscle groups. Development, in this context, refers to the changes experienced across time, as one matures, in the performance of these movements. When gross and fine movements are integrated, meaningful human movements are generated. Examples of important and developing gross movements of childhood include certain infant reflexes (e.g., walking and crawling reflexes), voluntary movements (e.g., crawling, rolling over), locomotor skills (e.g., running, skipping), and object control skills (e.g., throwing, kicking a ball).
Genetic Abnormalities
Authors: Starr Lois J. , Ronspies Carey , Velasco Danita
Published: January 2020

Medical genetics is rapidly evolving in diagnostics and therapeutics. At this time, there are more than 6,000 identified rare diseases that together impact millions of individuals. Knowing the underlying genetic etiology—which can lead to appropriate surveillance, accurate prognosis, counseling, and even medical treatments—is crucial for optimal survival and quality of life. When the genetic etiology of a disease is delineated, molecular pathways can be defined and this can unlock potential for further discovery.
Somatic Disorders
Authors: Williams Sara E. , Zahka Nicole E.
Published: January 2020

Somatic symptoms are persistent physical symptoms that may or may not be associated with a disease or known health condition. Somatic symptoms are common, and distressing to the adolescents who experience them, often disrupting their ability to engage in typical developmental activities and creating confusion regarding the cause and treatment of the problem. This entry defines and discusses somatic symptoms within a biopsychosocial framework. It reviews effective assessment, education, and intervention for adolescents with somatic symptoms, with consideration of the larger treatment context, including collaboration with families, schools, and health care professionals. With the right understanding and treatment, somatic symptoms can be effectively treated in adolescents to help them return to normal function in their lives.
Encopresis
Authors: Kapalu Christina Low , Christophersen Edward R.
Published: January 2020

Encopresis, or fecal incontinence, has both biological and behavioral underpinnings. This entry addresses the biological and behavioral factors associated with encopresis and discusses the available evidence‐based treatment options. A combined medical–behavioral treatment approach is considered best practice.
Sleep–Wake Disorders
Authors: Roane Brandy M.
Published: January 2020

Sleep–wake disorders are common in pediatrics, with insomnia disorder, nonrapid eye movement (NREM) sleep arousal disorders, and obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) topping the list. Evidence‐based behavioral interventions successfully treat insomnia and NREM sleep arousal disorders while surgery is the most frequent treatment for OSA in pediatrics. Regardless of the condition, tailoring the treatment to the needs of the family works best. These issues are navigated in this entry.
Evolutionary Biology and the Natural Selection of Behavior
Authors: Stahlman W. David , Catania A. Charles
Published: January 2020

Evolution is a name for how biological populations have changed over the history of our planet. The most successful theory of why those populations have changed is Darwin's natural selection. Accounts of evolution tend to emphasize anatomical and physiological properties, such as the brain and its organization. But evolutionary contingencies select organisms based on what they can do, so brains and other structures evolved in the service of behavior. In that sense, behavior always comes first. Selection as a causal mode differs from traditional push–pull causalities. It extends from the familiar level of phylogeny (i.e., evolutionary change over generations) to ontogeny (i.e., behavior that evolves within the lifetime of an individual organism) and to sociogeny (i.e., evolving cultural practices, as behavior is passed on from some individuals to others). At each level behavior has consequences, and these consequences determine the extent to which the behavior is replicated and evolves.
Punishment
Authors: Lerman Dorothea C.
Published: January 2020

The process of punishment plays an important role in human development and behavior. This entry provides an overview of basic and applied research findings on punishment, including the direct and indirect effects of punishment on responding and on factors that influence basic learning processes. Clinical issues surrounding the therapeutic use of punishment are also discussed.
Programmed Instruction
Authors: Twyman Janet S.
Published: January 2020

Initially developed in the 1950s by B. F. Skinner,programmed instructionrefers to a specific set of instructional practices that engineer the learning of new material through carefully arranged teaching sequences presented via self‐paced instruction. Content is deconstructed into more easily understood components that build upon each other and learners receive immediate feedback for each correct or incorrect response. Programmed instruction greatly influenced instructional strategies in the 1960s onward and continues to influence computer‐based and digital instruction today.
Vygotsky's Theory
Authors: van der Veer René
Published: January 2020

Lev Vygotsky was a Russian psychologist active in the 1920s and early 1930s. He developed a theory of human development that emphasized the role of education and language. In his view, language not only serves communication but also allows children to regulate their behavior. Communicative speech undergoes a series of transformations and becomes inner speech. Vygotsky believed school instruction to be important because it introduces academic concepts, which ideally lead children to think more rationally. Instruction at large is essential, because it creates children's zone of proximal development. This is why it is important to establish children's ability to profit from cues, models, and other forms of mediation. In doing so, we get an idea of children's learning potential. Although many of Vygotsky's ideas will have to be amended, his general approach continues to inspire modern research.
Computational Models
Authors: Sirois Sylvain
Published: January 2020

Computational models attempt to provide clarity, unity, and direction to the study of development. Models have been traditionally contrasted as either symbolic or subsymbolic. Common subsymbolic models in developmental research are artificial neural networks, which are introduced in this entry in some detail. The mechanics of cognitive change in different models are discussed, which allows for an explicit contrast between the notions of learning and development. Four key features of adequate models of development are introduced, and some models that successfully cover developmental phenomena are briefly reviewed. The conclusion highlights mechanisms of development as a key (if elusive) feature of computational models.
Visual Perception in Infancy
Authors: Bremner J. Gavin , Tham Diana S. Y. , Dunn Kirsty
Published: January 2020

This entry begins by reviewing aspects of low‐level perception in infancy, specifically color and shape perception. Then evidence is presented that object persistence, rather than being conceptualized as an innate cognitive ability, is a high‐level perceptual process that develops through experience. During early infancy, object persistence initially extends across short gaps in time or space, but by the middle of the first year it is more robust. It appears that young infants need more cues to specify an occlusion event and hence object persistence. Given problems arising from the fact that the main methods used in infant perception and cognition are based on looking duration at the object array, there is a need to adopt other methods, specifically eye tracking, electroencephalography, and social looking as useful supplements to conventional methods.
Word Learning
Authors: Twomey Katherine E. , Hilton Matt
Published: January 2020

Children show the first signs of word recognition as young as 6 months and produce their first words at around a year. Word learning then proceeds rapidly, despite the complexity of determining what a word refers to and the challenge of learning and using words in new contexts. How children solve this puzzle is the focus of some debate, and several mechanisms have been proposed, including innate strategies, simple associative learning, and sociopragmatic cues. Whichever account best explains early vocabulary development (and the story is unlikely to be that simple), word learning is affected by many varied factors, including the language environment and characteristics intrinsic to the child, as well as nonlinguistic, often visual information. Novel paradigms offer new ways of understanding this fundamental component of early language acquisition and emphasize that inputs to word learning are critically mediated by the interaction between the child's body and the learning environment.
Multilingualism
Authors: Fennell Christopher T. , Tsui Sin Mei (Angeline)
Published: January 2020

Despite the global prevalence of children learning more than one language, childhood multilingualism studies has taken off in earnest only since the late 1980s, with the vast majority of that work examining children who have acquired two languages from birth, or simultaneous bilinguals. Overall, global measures of language development (e.g., developmental milestones, total language scores) typically do not differ between bilinguals and monolinguals. However, the development of each language of the multilingual is closely tied to exposure to the specific language. Children learning a second language later in toddlerhood, or sequential bilinguals, are not as well researched, but their development and the factors associated with better second‐language acquisition are also summarized. Finally, outside of language, there is some evidence that the cognitive control associated with navigating multiple languages can lead to bilingual advantages in general cognitive control, even in infancy.
Emotional Intelligence
Authors: Qualter Pamela , Davis Sarah K.
Published: January 2020

Emotional intelligence provides a lens that helps us to critically engage with, and analyze, ourselves and the social world around us. While formal definition of emotional intelligence did not happen until the 1990s, we now have a clear understanding of how cognitive development during childhood contributes to the development of emotional intelligence through advancing language acquisition, growth in theory of mind, and executive functions. This entry discusses that work, moving on to then consider how children develop emotional intelligence through their caregiver, peer, and teacher relationships, where there are opportunities for direct teaching and coaching from others, and chances to discuss how others feel and respond to emotions. In childhood, emotional intelligence contributes to social and academic competencies and mental health, and this entry discusses those empirical findings. Social and emotional learning programs have been developed for children, and this entry discusses a successful program focused specifically on emotional intelligence development.
Stress and Coping in Childhood
Authors: Patallo Brandon J. , Wadsworth Martha E.
Published: January 2020

This review summarizes a large and diverse body of literature spanning several fields of study in order to capture the complexity of what we currently know about the development of coping in childhood. First, it briefly describes the role of stress in understanding coping and subsequently reviews the current state of knowledge about coping within the first decade of life. As this entry aims to illustrate, a complete picture of stress and coping necessarily involves both physiological and psychological processes. The presence, utilization, and efficacy of coping skills in each developmental period depend on maturation of cognitive, emotional, social, and behavioral competencies as well as exposure to environmental stressors.
Sleep, Mood, and Emotion
Authors: Palmer Cara A. , Bower Joanne L. , Alfano Candice A.
Published: January 2020

Adequate sleep is essential for healthy development and shares a particularly intimate relationship with emotional well‐being. Nonetheless, many youths do not obtain enough sleep, hence placing themselves at risk of emotional problems. The entry gives a brief overview of sleep in pediatric populations, including the occurrence of normative developmental changes in sleep and methods for assessing sleep difficulties, and reviews the associations between sleep and emotion, including relations with affective disorders (e.g., anxiety and mood disorders), various emotional processes (e.g., emotional experiences, emotion regulation), and the neurophysiological sleep mechanisms that may underlie these associations. Finally, treatments for pediatric sleep difficulties, along with unexplored domains and questions in this area, are discussed. The associations between sleep and affective functioning hold important implications for clinical practice and policy.
Trauma and Stress‐Related Disorders in Childhood
Authors: Demeusy Elizabeth M. , Handley Elizabeth D. , Toth Sheree L.
Published: January 2020

Trauma exposure in children and adolescents is a pervasive and detrimental public health concern. It can have many immediate and long‐term deleterious effects on a child's physical and mental health. Children who experience trauma may go on to develop psychopathology, often in the form of trauma and stress‐related disorders. This entry summarizes the subtypes of trauma and their prevalence, as well as the potential psychosocial correlates (e.g., mental illnesses) of such events. Well‐established, efficacious interventions for trauma and stress‐related disorders are highlighted. Finally, the entry discusses recent research findings relevant to the topic and future directions for research, practice, and policy.
Parenting Styles and Intrusive Parenting
Authors: Gong Xiaopeng , Carano Kenneth T.
Published: January 2020

This entry reviews parenting styles and intrusive parenting such as parental psychological control. Historical perspectives of parenting dimensions and antecedents of psychological control are discussed. The entry also includes details about different measures of parenting as well as research findings about children's outcomes in response to various parenting styles and psychological control.
Parent Mental Illness
Authors: Boyd Rhonda C. , Ahmed Annisa
Published: January 2020

Parental mental illness is common and can have negative effects on children. This entry presents current knowledge of mood, anxiety, and psychotic disorders among parents with children between the ages of 0 and 12 years. In particular, an intergenerational model of the transmission of psychopathology for each parental psychiatric disorder is presented with a focus on the mechanisms for transmission (genetic, prenatal, parenting, and stressful life events). Additionally, these mechanisms impact child biopsychosocial vulnerabilities in such a way as can eventually lead to child behavioral problems. The children of parents with mental illness are a vulnerable group that exhibits high rates of maladjustment.
Attachment Theory
Authors: Woolgar Matt
Published: January 2020

Attachment is one of the most popular theories in developmental psychology, but also more importantly, perhaps, one of the most widely disseminated constructs from developmental psychology, being used in educational, clinical, and legal settings, and popular accounts of parenting and child development.
Siblings with Disabilities
Authors: Diener Marissa L. , Groneman Amanda
Published: January 2020

Like all family relationships, the relationship between siblings is a complex one that is influenced by many factors. Child characteristics, including the presence of a disability, are one of the influences on sibling relationships. The majority of research has focused on the negative effects of having a sibling with a disability, such as the higher prevalence of emotional issues and/or behavior problems in children who have a sibling with a disability. Siblings of children with disabilities may experience differential parental treatment and parents' resource depletion, and face additional caregiving responsibilities. While negative outcomes have been the focus of much research, more recent research has examined positive outcomes for the families and siblings of children with disabilities. Siblings of children with disabilities tend to be more compassionate and empathetic than children with typically developing siblings, which can lead to closer sibling relationships. They also tend to demonstrate qualities and to develop skills that assist them in their interactions with others as they are more accepting of differences and more aware of those around them.
Only Children
Authors: Falbo Toni
Published: January 2020

Only children are children who grow up without siblings. They are assumed to be deficient because they do not have the experience of growing up with siblings. This assumption motivated many studies in the United States and, in general, these studies have found only children to score similarly to others, especially firstborns and children with one sibling, although there is evidence that only children may attain more education than others. In China, the one‐child family became a social norm in cities because of the One‐Child Policy. Chinese only children have been stereotyped as Little Emperors, spoiled and helpless, as a result of the assumed indulgence of two parents and four grandparents. Many studies of Chinese only children have been conducted, and these indicate that some have positive outcomes, reflected in lower levels of psychopathology, while others have negative outcomes, such as enhanced narcissism found among internet samples.
Religious Exemptions
Authors: Swan Rita
Published: January 2020

Although not required by the Constitution, US states have enacted many religious exemptions from health care for children, including exemptions from immunizations, health screenings, and medical care for sick and injured children. These laws deprive one group of children of protections the state extends to others. Many children have been harmed because of religious beliefs against medical care. Resurgence of vaccine‐preventable diseases has been costly to the public. Since 1990, eight states have repealed religious exemptions from medical care of sick children. In 2015 California repealed its nonmedical exemption from immunizations, and several states have added new requirements for getting nonmedical exemptions from immunizations in the same decade.
Discipline and Guidance From 2 to 5 Years
Authors: Del Vecchio Tamara , Feder Michael A. , Canter Margaret Fesmire
Published: January 2020

The toddler and preschool years are marked by rapid development across physical, cognitive, and social domains of functioning. Although these years are often noted for their challenges, this period also sees dramatic increases in prosocial behaviors, such as child compliance and helping behaviors. This entry discusses the discipline and guidance strategies that are most pertinent to this unique developmental period. Guidance is also presented on how to approach problems typical in the age group, including potty training, sleep issues, and picky eating.