bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Paying People to Participate in Research: Why not?
Authors: McNeill Paul
Published: March 2003

This paper argues against paying people to participate in research. Volunteering to participate as a subject in a research program is not like taking a job. The main difference is to do with the risks inherent in research. Experimentation on human beings is, by definition, trying out something with an unknown consequence and exposes people to risks of harm which cannot be known in advance. This is the main reason for independent review by committee of research programs. It is based on a recognition that researchers are not always capable of putting the interests of their subjects ahead of their research objectives. It is not simply a matter of individual autonomy. Society has an obligation, prior to the protection of individual freedom and autonomy, to establish basic safeguards that are equitable in their operation.

Any inducement for participating in research would add to the difficulty subjects have in adequately assessing the risks of participating in research. An acceptance of inducement to participate in research would further increase the inequity of research conducted on the impecunious for the benefit of the well‐off.
Is it Good to Make Happy People?
Authors: Rachels Stuart
Published: March 2003

Would it be good, other things being equal, for additional people to exist whose lives would be worth living? I examine and reject several arguments for the answer that it would not be good; then I offer opposing arguments that I believe are more successful. Thus, I agree with utilitarians who say that it is better for there to be more happy people. Next I argue for the stronger claim that the happiness of potential people is as important as that of adults. Potential quality of life, then, matters in a host of bioethical issues: abortion, commercial surrogacy, the treatment of defective newborns, and so on. What is the practical upshot of all this? I reject the idea that we must do whatever is necessary to prolong life worth living. But I also reject the view that the side‐effects of overpopulation always outweigh the value of realizing potential happiness. So I advocate a middle position, which I do not identify precisely. Even from this middle position, however, potential happiness is more important than is commonly assumed in bioethics.
Social Acceptability, Personal Responsibility, and Prognosis in Public Judgments and Transplant Allocation
Authors: Ubel Peter A. , Baron Jonathan , Asch David A.
Published: March 2003

Background: Some members of the general public feel that patients who cause their own organ failure through smoking, alcohol use, or drug use should not receive equal priority for scarce transplantable organs. This may reflect a belief that these patients (1) cause their own illness, (2) have poor transplant prognoses or, (3) are simply unworthy. We explore the role that social acceptability, personal responsibility, and prognosis play in people's judgments about transplant allocation.

Methods: By random allocation, we presented 283 prospective jurors in Philadelphia county with one of five questionnaire versions. In all questionnaires, subjects were asked to distribute transplantable hearts between patients with and without a history of three controversial behaviors (eating high fat diets against doctors’ advice, cigarette smoking, or intravenous drug use). Across the five questionnaire versions, we varied the relative prognosis of the transplant candidates and whether their behavior caused their primary organ

Results: Subjects were significantly less willing to distribute organs to intravenous drug users than to cigarette smokers or people eating high fat diets (p le; 0.0005), even when intravenous drug users had better transplant outcomes than other patients. Subjects’ allocation decisions were influenced by transplant prognosis, but not by whether the behavior in question was causally responsible for the patients’ organ failure.

Conclusion: People's unwillingness to give scarce transplantable organs to patients with controversial behaviors cannot be explained totally on the basis of those behaviors either causing their primary organ failure or making them have worse transplant prognoses. Instead, many people believe that such patients are simply less worthy of scarce transplantable organs.
Inducements Revisited
Authors: Wilkinson Martin , Moore Andrew
Published: March 2003

The paper defends the permissibility of paying inducements to research subjects against objections not covered in an earlier paper in Bioethics. The objections are that inducements would cause inequity, crowd out research, and undesirably commercialize the researcher‐subject relationship. The paper shows how these objections presuppose implausible factual and/or normative claims. The final position reached is a qualified defence of freedom of contract which not only supports the permissibility of inducements but also offers guidance to ethics committees in dealing with practical problems that might arise if inducements are offered.
The Right to Genetic Ignorance Confirmed
Authors: Takala Tuija
Published: March 2003

One of the much debated issues around the evolving human genetics is the question of the right to know versus the right not to know. The core question of this theme is whether an individual has the right to know about her own genetic constitution and further, does she also have the right to remain in ignorance. Within liberal traditions it is usually held that people, if they so wish, have the right to all the knowledge available about themselves. This right is based on the value of autonomy or on the right of self‐determination, and it is sometimes partly justified as a countermeasure to the authorities' control over people. I do not wish to deny the right to genetic knowledge (about oneself). I think that its existence is self‐evident. The argument I want to put forth in this paper is that in liberal societies we should acknowledge people’s right to remain in ignorance as well. The only reason for not doing this would be that grave harm to others would follow if people were allowed to make these seemingly self‐regarding decisions. Arguments presented against the right to ignorance are twofold. First there are those arguing against the right to ignorance on the grounds of harm to others, that is, philosophers who do not deny people’s right to ignorance in self‐related matters but wish to state that genetic ignorance causes harm to others, and this is one of the most commonly accepted reason for restricting people’s freedom. The other line of argument flows from the Kantian view that not even merely self‐regarding foolishness (in the eyes of others) should be allowed.
Killing, Letting Die and Moral Perception: A Reply to Grant Gillett
Authors: Thornton Jim
Published: March 2003

A number of philosophers in recent times have employed arguments to show that there is no morally relevant difference between killing a patient and allowing that patient to die in those circumstances where the outcome is virtually identical and where death is preventable, at least for a significant time. From his perspective as both a philosopher and a clinician, Grant Gillett has rejected such general and abstract arguments in the light of the intuitions and moral perceptions available to clinicians and those who care for the terminally ill. I argue that his strategy fails, is massively question‐begging, and that his appeal to the notion of ‘moral particularism’, far from being an alternative to cogent philosophical argument, actually supports the very position he has attempted to discredit.
Informed Consent, Exploitation and Whether it is Possible to Conduct Human Subjects Research Without Either One
Authors: Wendler Dave
Published: March 2003

Clinical research with adults who are unable to provide informed consent has the potential to improve understanding and care of a number of devastating conditions. This research also has the potential to exploit some of society's most vulnerable members. Recently, a number of task forces and individual writers have proposed guidelines to ensure that such research is both possible and ethical. Yet, there is widespread disagreement over which safeguards should be adopted. In the present paper, I consider to what extent these disagreements can be resolved by appeal to a general account of the interests of subjects who are unable to consent and the conditions that must be satisfied for research enrollment to constitute exploitation of their inability to make their own decisions.
A Critical Approach to the Current Understanding of Islamic Scholars on Using Cadaver Organs Without Prior Permission
Authors: Aksoy Sahin
Published: March 2003

Chronic organ diseases and the increasing demand for organ transplantation have become an important health care problem within the last few decades. Campaigns and regulations to encourage people to donate organs after their death have not met much success. This article discusses the subject from an Islamic perspective. It begins with some basic information on how Muslims reach legal rulings on a particular issue, and goes on to debate contemporary thinking among Islamic scholars on the ethical‐legal issues of organ donation and organ transplantation.

It is shown that there are two groups of scholars, one allowing organ donation and organ transplantation, the other refusing it in any circumstances. Both groups agree that it is fundamentally wrong to harvest organs from cadavers without the prior permission of the deceased or the relatives. This dogma is re‐examined, and it is argued that, under the rule of necessity and the imperative to preserve life, there is enough moral and theological ground to allow the state to harvest organs from the deceased without prior permission.
The Internet: a New Frontier for Pupils with Severe Learning Difficulties?
Authors: Banes David , Walter Richard
Published: March 2003

David Banes, Headteacher, and Richard Walter, IT co‐ordinator, describe ways in which the Internet has been used by a group of pupils with complex needs at Meldreth Manor school. The rationale, some teaching techniques and methods of evaluating the experiment are discussed, and a range of issues requiring further investigation are identified.
Research Section: Evaluating the Effectiveness of Intensive Interactive Teaching with Pupils with Profound and Complex Learning Difficulties
Authors: Watson Judith , Fisher Anne
Published: March 2003

Judith Watson, lecturer and Anne Fisher, teacher, present encouraging results from two research studies which evaluated the effectiveness of Intensive Interactive teaching with pupils who had profound and complex learning difficulties. The method is compared with the effects of other classroom experiences over the course of one school year.
Research Section: The School Placement of Pupils with Down's Syndrome in England and Wales
Authors: Cuckle Pat
Published: March 2003

Data on the placements of over 3,000 children with Down's syndrome (born between 1980 and 1992) were collected from 94 areas around the country, over the 12 year period studied. Analysis showed an increase in the proportion of children attending mainstream schools, with wide local variations. Very small numbers of children had mixed placements (part‐time mainstream/special school) and placements in specially resourced units. Changes in school type occurred from mainstream to special school, typically at around 8 or 9 and again at 11 to 12 years. There was a disproportionate number of boys with Down's syndrome in special schools, apparently because more boys than girls entered special schools at 5 or 6 years old.
Focus on Practice: Is the National Literacy Strategy raising the achievement of lower attainers?
Authors: Lingard Tony
Published: March 2003

Tony Lingard, Head of Learning Support, Camborne School and Community College, Cornwall, questions whether the National Literacy Strategy is raising the achievement of lower attainers and suggests adaptations, based on his own Literacy Acceleration programme, which he argues could make the Strategy far more effective.
The development of Individualised Educational Programmes using a decision‐making model
Authors: Thomson Kenneth , Bachor Dan , Thomson George
Published: March 2003

As adjustments are made in response to the revised Code of Practice, many practitioners will be looking for improved ways of developing individual targets for learning with pupils with special educational needs. In this article, Kenneth Thomson, of George Watson’s College Edinburgh, Dan Bachor, of the Department of Educational Psychology and Leadership Studies at the University of Victoria, Canada and George Thomson, of the Department of Psychology at the University of Edinburgh, bring together ideas and practices orginating in Canada and Scotland. The authors suggest that individual planning can be enhanced by the use of a decision‐making model characterised by partnerships between professionals and learners. Thomson, Bachor and Thomson also argue that the devolution of control to pupils can make the development and implementation of IEPs more effective and more efficient.
Is Blindness a Handicap?
Authors: Tobin Michael J.
Published: March 2003

Michael J. Tobin, Professor of Special Education at The University of Birmingham, argues that the handicapping effects of blindness are specific to certain educational and social contexts. These situations can be identified: the most substantive difficulties being the availability of convergent and complementary information through the various sensory channels, and the depressed speeds of information processing.
Focus on Practice: Dickens for All: Inclusive Approaches to Literature and Communication with People with Severe and Profound Learning Disabilities
Authors: Park Keith
Published: March 2003

Keith Park, a teacher of children with visual impairment and learning disabilities with the Greenwich Visual Impairment Service, describes a series of multisensory interactive drama games re‐telling the story of A Christmas Carol by Charles Dickens, following a discussion of the potential uses of literature with people with severe and profound learning disabilities.
Teaching subjects to pupils with profound and multiple learning difficulties
Authors: Grove Nicola , Peacey Nick
Published: March 2003

Nicola Grove, who lectures in speech and language therapy and works in a school for pupils with severe and profound learning difficulties, and Nick Peacey, Director of the Special Educational Needs Joint Initiative for Training (SENJIT) at the Institute of Education, discuss the development of a framework for teaching National Curriculum subjects to pupils with profound learning difficulties through discussion with mainstream specialists.
Can Spelling Checkers Help the Novice Writer?
Authors: Gupta Renu
Published: March 2003

This paper argues that one type of text analyser—the spelling checker—can help non‐proficient writers. 16 students in a Singapore classroom wrote compositions by hand for one month; the following month they composed their compositions directly on the computer. Observations of students' composing behaviours and a comparison of the lexis used in two students' hand‐written and computer essays show that students use the spelling checker for two functions: (a) word‐correction, in which they locate and correct some of their spelling errors, and (b) word‐generation, in which they use the spelling checker to generate words that are in their receptive but not their productive vocabularies. The spelling checker benefits those students whose initial writing ability is poor and whose writing is blocked by an emphasis on the mechanical aspects of writing.
Designing Web‐based Training
Authors: Barron Ann
Published: March 2003

There are many methods and techniques for delivering instruction through the Web. Academic and industrial courses (taught in a traditional classroom) can be enhanced with links to resources on the Web, or the courses can be delivered virtually—completely via the Web. Instructional content can be delivered through email “correspondence‐type” courses, via Web pages written in HTML, or with very complex interactions developed with Java, JavaScript, Shockwave, ActiveX, or other tools. In this article, a range of Web‐based instructional options is outlined, general guidelines for designing Web‐delivered instruction are provided, and two case studies are discussed. In addition, links to example Web‐based training (WBT) sites are included.

This article was originally published on the ITForum, an international listserv that is subscribed to by over 1000 professors, graduate students, and practitioners in Instructional Technology. General reactions to the article (that were posted on the ITForum), and responses from the author are included as postscripts to this article.
Are instructional design elements being used in module writing?
Authors: Hashim Yusup
Published: March 2003

This paper discusses the elements of instructional design (ID) and technical design in module writing. An evaluation instrument was developed to evaluate the modules written by course lecturers from the School of Distance Education, Universiti Sains Malaysia. In the study, fifty modules (12%) were selected from the Arts, Science and Engineering courses. The findings of the evaluation showed that instructional modules were weak in a number of elements. The study recommended that multimedia and distance learning strategies should be integrated in the learning activities. Post‐test and pre‐test may be considered to make the learning modules more self‐contained, self‐instructional, and interactive. Courses on distance learning theories, instructional design and development, media selection, media attributes, multimedia production, media integration, utilisation and management in distance and open learning may help course writers to write better modules. The Centre needs to have a standard guideline for module writing. The present guidelines need to be improved to include other ID and technical elements in module writing.
Using a computer learning environment for initial training in dealing with social‐communicative problems
Authors: Holsbrink‐Engels Geralien A
Published: March 2003

The most widely practised instructional method for the development of interpersonal skills is role‐play. Role‐play is supposed to be a complex learning environment for novices to develop interpersonal skills. The learning environment is complex because of two factors. Firstly, the cognitive load is high during social‐communicative problem solving because the execution of all steps has to be taken immediately in a goal‐directed dialogue. Moreover, social‐communicative problem solving is acted out in a play. A computer learning environment for initial training in dealing with social‐communicative problems is suggested to simplify and facilitate learning. A learning environment with computer‐based role‐plays has been piloted and evaluated. Two experiments have been examined the effect of the learning environment on interpersonal skill development. The results are described. The main conclusion is that the learning environment is considered as having the potential to assist in realizing effective gradual lead‐ into interpersonal skill development and instruction for novices.
The policy and management of information technology in Jordanian schools
Authors: Tawalbeh Mohammad
Published: March 2003

During the past two decades the introduction of personal computers has been a major innovation in the Hashimite Kingdom of Jordan. This new technology continues to offer an exciting challenge to educationalists. This paper reviews the developments of Information Technology (IT) in Jordanian public schools in the period 1984–1998. My contention is that the highly centralised nature of the Jordanian educational system and the comprehensive policy of the Directorate of Educational Computing (DEC) have made the introduction of computers in schools less difficult.
Interpretations of constructivism and consequences for Computer Assisted Learning
Authors: Dalgarno Barney
Published: March 2003

The changes that have occurred in accepted approaches to teaching and learning in recent years have been underpinned by shifts in psychological and pedagogical theory, culminating in moves towards a constructivist view of learning. This paper looks at the consequences of these theoretical shifts for Computer Assisted Learning (CAL).

Moshman has identified three interpretations of constructivism: endogenous constructivism which emphasises learner exploration, exogenous constructivism which recognises the role of direct instruction, but with an emphasis on learners actively constructing their own knowledge representations and dialectical constructivism which emphasises the role of interaction between learners, their peers and teachers. This classification scheme provides a framework for looking at the various constructivist approaches to CAL.

For example, constructivist CAL materials that draw on the endogenous view include hypermedia environments, simulations and microworlds. Materials that draw on the exogenous view include learner controlled tutorials, cognitive tools and practice modules. Lastly, materials that draw on the dialectical view include Computer Supported Collaborative Learning (CSCL) tools and support (or scaffolding) tools.
Exploring the Secret Garden: the growing importance of ICT in the home
Authors: Wellington Jerry
Published: March 2003

The use of ICT (information and communication technology) in homes is growing faster than its use in schools and colleges—and there are already more systems in homes than in educational settings. This article argues that we should attempt to enter the area which most research on ICT in education tends to ignore: the secret garden of the learner at home. It is based partly on two pilot case‐studies of secondary schools and a small sample of their students. Given the paucity of research in this area the article poses more questions than it answers. What are the implications of ICT use at home for teachers in schools? Do home systems interfere with school education or can they be used to enhance it? How should teachers respond to, and assess, work done using home ICT? Is the home situation widening the gap between one set of pupils (the “haves” of ICT) and another? Suggestions for school policies and action research for the future are put forward.
Evaluating the use of multimedia authoring with dyslexic learners: a case study
Authors: Dimitriadi Yota
Published: March 2003

This paper reports on the findings of a case study set up to explore the possible benefits that dyslexic learners might have when engaging in the creation of their own multimedia project. Two children with specific learning difficulties worked with the author to develop a multimedia presentation. The children developed authoring skills (such as planning and drafting, composition, revision and reflection, proof reading and presentation) and became active, motivated learners. It is believed that the open‐ended character of a multimedia authoring package can encourage creative thinking and interest for content and style of presentation.
Dimensions of transactional distance in the world wide web learning environment: a factor analysis
Authors: Chen Yau‐Jane
Published: March 2003

Moore's Theory of Transactional Distance hypothesizes that distance is a pedagogical, not geographic phenomenon. It is a distance of understandings and perceptions that might lead to a communication gap or a psychological space of potential misunderstandings between people. Moore also suggests that this distance has to be overcome if effective, deliberate, planned learning is to occur. However, the conceptualizations of transactional distance in a telecommunication era have not been systematically addressed. Investigating 71 learners' experiences with WorldWide Web, this study examined the postulate of Moore's theory and identified the dimensions (factors) constituting transactional distance in such learning environment. Exploratory factor analysis using a principal axis factor method was carried out. It was concluded that this concept represented multifaceted ideas. Transactional distance consisted of four dimensions—instructor‐learner, learner‐learner, learner‐content, and learner‐interface transactional distance. The results inform researchers and practitioners of Web‐based instruction concerning the factors of transactional distance that need to be taken into account and overcome in WWW courses.
Key factors affecting conceptual gains from CAL materials
Authors: Watson Dr Barbara
Published: March 2003

This paper identifies key factors affecting conceptual gains from using a CAL package and their application to a practical laboratory class. Data was collected on over 120 first year students who studied a CAL package as an integral part of their course at two sites of a university. A variety of factors were analysed in order to identify which ones affected conceptual gains. These factors were students' biographical characteristics, design features of the CAL package and the way the CAL was integrated into the curriculum. The key factors that were identified as having an effect on conceptual gains were the students' prior academic attainment, their prior use of email, the WWW and CAL packages, and the way that the CAL package was integrated into the course. Those students, who were most successful in learning from the CAL and applying this learning, had higher academic attainment and had previously used the WWW, email and other CAL packages. They were also better at linking their study of the CAL package to other parts of the course.
Mirror, mirror, on my screen≡ Exploring online reflections
Authors: Salmon Gilly
Published: March 2003

This paper suggests that, through the provision of opportunities for reflection–in–action at critical learning stages and with the support of a trained e–moderator, the participants in computer mediated conferencing (CMC) can be encouraged to engage in reflecting about their onscreen experiences. Such reflection aids the building of a productive online community of practice. In addition, by encouraging participants to reflect on later stages of their online training experiences, a reflection–on–action record can be built up. Participants’ reflective processes can be captured through analysis of their on screen text messages and so be available for research purposes. Examples of conference text message reflections are given throughout the paper, drawn from the on screen reflections of Open University Business School (OUBS) Associate Lecturers who were working online through the medium of computer mediated conferencing for the first time. The conclusion is that reflection–on–practice in the online environment is beneficial for helping the participants to learn from online conferencing and can provide an excellent tool for qualitative research. Opportunities for reflection need to be built into the design of online conferences and facilitated by a trained e–moderator.
Gender Discrimination in Training: a Note
Authors: Wooden Mark , VandenHeuvel Audrey
Published: March 2003

Existing research evidence generally leads to the conclusion that females are disadvantaged in terms of access to job‐related training. This paper reconsiders the evidence for Australia using data collected as part of the 1993 Survey of Training and Education. The findings indicate that, while men could be expected to receive more training as a result of their labour market endowments, this is more than compensated for by a gender effect in favour of women. Comparison with results from an analysis of similar data for 1989 suggests a marked change in the pattern of training in favour of women.
Free To Choose? Dimensions of Private‐Sector Wage Determination, 1979–1994
Authors: Ingram Peter , Wadsworth Jonathan , Brown Donna
Published: March 2003

Deregulation of the system of pay determination in Britain was started in 1979 with the removal of incomes policy. The objective was to give employers the freedom to determine wage increases without the restrictions of pay norms or statutory limits. Instead, companies would be able to link changes in pay to the fortunes of the individual enterprise or establishment. By the mid‐1990s, had these attempts to decentralize wage negotiations changed the determinants of wage settlement outcomes in Britain? We address the influence of industrial relations institutions and labour market pressures on wage increases between 1979 and 1994 using evidence from the CBI’s Pay Databank. Despite the direction of the Conservative Government’s policy, the external institutional forces of the labour market, particularly the rate of inflation and comparability, appear to exert an enduring influence, both qualitatively and quantitatively, on pay determination.
Developments in Union Recognition and Derecognition in Britain, 1994–1998
Authors: Gall Gregor , McKay Sonia
Published: March 2003

This research note shows a marked change in the relative incidence of cases of derecognition and recognition in the period 1994–1998. It shows that the level of derecognition has fallen significantly in recent years while that of the signing of new recognition agreements has continued at its former level, so that on balance new recognition agreements clearly outnumber cases of derecognition. The context and reasons for this are explained by reference to developments in public policy, employer views and union practice. The results of derecognition and the prospects for union recognition are also examined.
Worker Participation and Firm Performance: Evidence from Germany and Britain
Authors: Addison John , Siebert Stanley , Wagner Joachim , Wei Xiangdong
Published: March 2003

The Freeman–Lazear works council/worker involvement model is assessed over two distinct industrial relations regimes. In non‐union British establishments our measures of employee involvement are associated with improved economic performance, whereas for unionized plants negative results are detected. The suggestion is that local distributive bargaining can cause the wrong level of worker involvement to be chosen. Also consistent with the model is our finding that mandatory works councils do not impair, and may even improve, the performance of larger German establishments. Yet smaller plants with works councils under‐perform, illustrating the problem of tailoring mandates to fit heterogeneous populations.
The Incompatibility of Decentralized Bargaining and Equal Employment Opportunity in Australia
Authors: Strachan Glenda , Burgess John
Published: March 2003

Profound changes have occurred in the industrial relations system in Australia since the mid‐1980s as the system of centralized regulation has been replaced by collective bargaining at the level of the enterprise. This has corresponded with the considerable expansion of women’s employment, mainly in part‐time and temporary jobs. At the same time, recognition of the disadvantaged position of women in the work‐force has resulted in the enactment of laws to promote equal employment opportunity. This article examines the ability of these laws to achieve equal employment opportunity policies alongside bargaining decentralization and a growing non‐standard women’s work‐force.
Exit, Voice and Loyalty Reactions to Job Insecurity in Sweden: Do Unionized and Non‐unionized Employees Differ?
Authors: Sverke Magnus , Hellgren Johnny
Published: March 2003

Although job insecurity has received growing recognition in connection with the transformation of working life, little is known about how unionization affects its consequences. Data from Swedish health care employees indicate that job insecurity is related primarily to coping strategies in the exit and voice domains. Union members were less inclined to make use of the exit and voice options compared with their non‐unionized co‐workers, and more typically expressed loyalty to the organization. The collective support derived from union membership may make individual voice expressions less important, a finding that has to be replicated in countries with lower unionization rates.
Industry Change and Union Mergers in British Retail Finance
Authors: Morris Timothy , Storey John , Wilkinson Adrian , Cressey Peter
Published: March 2003

This paper investigates the reasons for and implications of the recent merger between three of the largest unions in the retail finance sector, creating UNIFI. Recent union mergers have been explained by environmental changes adversely affecting membership and finances. These prompt leaders to consider merger as an appropriate organizational solution. Mergers are successfully concluded when leaders are able to overcome internal resistance and develop acceptable outcomes. We examine whether these factors are sufficient to explain how the merger between the national banking union and two large company‐based staff unions was concluded, given longstanding institutional rivalry.
A Portrait of Australian Trade Union Officials
Authors: Bramble Tom
Published: March 2003

Details are given of the chief characteristics of Australia’s trade union officials, using data drawn from the 1986 and 1996 Australian Censuses of Population and Housing. This research note provides an update on research published by a number of authors. Unlike previous work, however, use of Census data allows for direct comparisons of the characteristics of union officials with those of union members or, where such data are not available, with the employed work‐force.
Workers’ Participation in Decision–Making Processes and Firm Stability
Authors: Mizrahi Shlomo
Published: March 2003

This paper argues that firm efficiency and stability, as well as workers’ satisfaction, can be achieved through participatory decision–making rules. It offers theoretical rationales and empirical illustrations based on the framing and operation of European works councils. Employees should take part in establishing the rules; otherwise managers will make rules that allow them to retain control of the key points in the decision–making process. In constructing such rules the involvement of unions is required; however, once rules are set union activity becomes marginal. Government intervention remains marginal throughout.
The Influence of Middle Managers in the Business Planning Process: A Case Study in the UK NHS
Authors: Currie Graeme
Published: March 2003

The paper takes a processual approach (Mintzberg and Waters, 1985; Pettigrew, Ferlie and McKee, 1992) in conjunction with a typology of middle‐management influence upon strategic change (Floyd and Wooldridge, 1992) to investigate the role of middle managers in business planning in the National Health Service (NHS). Over time, as the business planning process becomes increasingly one which adopts a top‐down approach, the main influence middle managers have is upon the implementation of deliberate strategic change. Middle managers modify the implementation of deliberate strategy by contesting the performance indicators that form the basis of the business planning framework. In particular they draw upon features of inner and outer context of the organization to question the legitimacy of business planning. However, the findings also show, albeit to a limited extent, that middle managers are purveyors as well as recipients of change. That middle managers can have upward influence has important implications for policy‐makers since potentially, middle managers can enjoy an enhanced role and add value to organizations, in this case to patient care. Therefore recent attacks upon their numbers and role may be misplaced. In addition a high degree of central intervention in the NHS generally may be inappropriate, since it militates against an enhanced role for middle managers.
Contractors and their Psychological Contracts
Authors: Millward L. J. , Brewerton P. M.
Published: March 2003

It is commonly assumed that contractors are largely calculative, instrumental and self‐interested in their relationship with organizations and interface with them accordingly (e.g. low corporate interest and emotional investment). This paper describes a survey involving 117 contractors (62 on ‘permanent’ agency contracts and 55 on ‘temporary’ agency contracts) and a comparable (age, job level/grade, years of work experience) group of 86 direct employees (on fixed‐term contracts). The survey comprised measures of the psychological contract, of organizational identification, social (corporate) attraction, team spirit and intention to leave. The findings show that contractors are not inevitably ‘emotionally’ detached from their place of work, in some cases investing in it as much as direct company employees. While transactional (e.g. financial gain, instrumentality) exchange considerations were more salient among contractors than employees, this did not appear to preclude the development of a relational (e.g. corporate integration and long‐term investment) contractual orientation. ‘Team spirit’ and ‘organizational identification’ predicted the development of relational contracts over and above contractual status. The findings and their management implications are discussed in terms of ‘strategic partnership’.
Managers as Monitors: An Analysis of the Non‐executive Role of Senior Executives in UK Companies
Authors: O’Sullivan Noel
Published: March 2003

An important aspect of current governance practice is the use of non‐executive directors to monitor the behaviour of company management. This paper examines the extent to which senior executives are utilized as non‐executives in large UK companies. The results suggest that executive directors are not an important source of non‐executive directors. The average number of non‐executive directorships held by each executive is 0.22. Indeed, 85% of executives hold no additional directorships. The holding of non‐executive directorships is positively related to the strength of board monitoring in the executive's company, executive tenure and company size. Executives in companies with greater growth opportunities and operating in regulated industries are less likely to hold non‐executive directorships.
The Learning Square: Four Domains that Impact on Strategy
Authors: Lindley Eric , Wheeler Frederick P.
Published: March 2003

In the search for strategic competitive advantage, the importance of learning and knowledge is increasingly recognized. In this paper, we identify four domains synthesized from the literature – multi‐dimensional goals, using tacit knowledge, continual learning, and shared vision – that impact upon and provide a framework for developing strategy. Three themes are drawn from learning organization literature linking to a fourth from strategy literature. These domains are brought together in a holistic model proposed for use by managers in evaluating and developing strategy –‘The Learning Square’.
Strategy and Opportunism in European Retail Internationalization
Authors: Dawson John
Published: March 2003

Europe in recent years has witnessed an increase in the amount of cross‐border operations by retailers. The retail sector has undergone substantial structural change characterized by the emergence of a group of rapidly‐growing large retailers, a redefinition of the balance of internalized and externalized functions and a need to respond to the cultural variety present in Europe that becomes evident as retailers move out of their domestic markets. The over‐arching requirement for these large retailers is to grow and gain scale economies. Internationalization of operations has become a requirement for these large firms. It is argued that the established academic conceptualizations of internationalization are unsatisfactory in not addressing this overriding requirement for growth. There is great variety in the international activity in retailing, with the absence of pattern being one of the few generalities. It is proposed that consideration of opportunism may be a better way to gain understanding of retailer activity than trying to fit activity into deterministic strategic models. The experiences of five West European retailers entering and building retail networks in Poland is provided as evidence for this view. Suggestions are made for future work exploring this issue of opportunism as a process in international retailing.
A Case Study of Gender Differences in Job Satisfaction Subsequent to Implementation of an Employment Equity Programme
Authors: Mason E. Sharon
Published: March 2003

In this research case study, the competing hypothesis of socialization, structural and social role theories were derived and used to explore and compare the job attitudes and satisfaction of women and men in a Canadian insurance company subsequent to voluntary implementation of an employment equity programme. Gender comparisons of both managerial and clerical employees on individual facets of satisfaction indicated the most support for social role theory, some support for structural theory and the least support for socialization theory. These findings indicate that managerial women and men tend to derive work satisfaction from similar sources. The variation in facet results cautions against global conclusions about gender and job satisfaction. Unanticipated consequences such as a ‘backlash’ (Faludi, 1991) of managerial men and a ‘glass escalator’ (Williams, 1992) for clerical men were also suggested by the findings in this case. A key implication is the potential benefit to both organizations and managerial women from steps taken to level the structural playing field.
The Determinants of Management Development: The Views of MBA Graduates
Authors: Mabey Christopher , Thomson Andrew
Published: March 2003

This article is derived from survey data obtained from a structured sample of 450 MBA graduates and is part of a wider programme of research investigating the current state of management development in Britain. The intention is to analyse the determinants of the amount, the methods and the impact of management development systems in UK organizations and to assess these findings in relation to a comparable analysis of HRD managers. Both the amount and the variety of management development methods are greater than has been previously reported and, for the HRD sample, the impact of this activity is broadly positive. While agreeing on the amount, MBA managers are less enthusiastic about the availability and effectiveness of management development they have experienced. Overall, the management development policy choices made by organizations are consistently the most influential in determining outcomes, and the implications for this are discussed.
Labour and Trade-Related Regulation: Beyond the Trade-Labour Standards Debate?
Authors: Wilkinson Rorden
Published: March 2003

As well as consolidating and enhancing the process of trade liberalisation, the completion of the Uruguay Round of Multilateral Trade Negotiations establishing the World Trade Organisation (WTO) formalised the expansion of multilateral trade regulation into areas of commercial activity previously deemed to be trade-related. This expansion, however, has been highly uneven, privileging the needs of capital, and to a much lesser degree land, over labour. Attempts to secure a degree of regulatory protection for labour in the legal framework of the WTO—by requiring that the Organisation's members adhere to a set of core labour standards when engaged in trade-producing activities—have so far failed. Both the Singapore (1996) and Geneva (1998) Ministerial Meetings of the WTO witnessed discussion of this issue, yet neither resulted in a comprehensive and satisfactory outcome for labour. That said, significant opportunity exists for the reconstruction of the trade-labour standards debate within the WTO. This article, seeks to demonstrate how this might be the case. In doing so, it first reviews the process of General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)/WTO involvement in the regulation of trade-related areas. Second, it explores the current deadlock that characterises the issue of trade and labour standards within the WTO's legal framework as well as the more significant positions that have emerged among the Organisation's membership by focusing on British, US and EU involvement in this issue. Third, it identifies the reactions of certain key member states to the protests of civil society at the 1998 Geneva Ministerial Meeting of the WTO as the means by which the issue of trade and labour standards may once again be raised. And finally, it considers how the effective regulation of labour standards might be made within the confines of the WTO's legal framework by examining a range of options.
The Insider/Outsider Distinction: An Empirical Investigation
Authors: Page Edward C.
Published: March 2003

The distinction between ‘insiders' and ‘outsiders' occupies a central role in thinking about the relationship between government and interest groups in Britain. Usually, the accuracy of such distinctions are based on studies of small numbers of groups. The results of a survey of 381 groups reveals that relatively few groups could be classed as pure outsiders, while a much larger number have the features of the insider. While the methodology employed means that the results are suggestive rather than conclusive, the implications of the findings for the study of government-group relations in Britain are that the insider/outsider distinction is at best an oversimplification and at worst misleading.
Resisting the Centre at the Extremes: ‘English’ Liberalism in the Political Thought of Interwar Britain
Authors: Stapleton Julia
Published: March 2003

This article focuses on a current of liberalism which remained distinct from the progressive politics of the 1930s, and whose identity as such emerged in its attack upon political extremism, principally although not exclusively of the left. It took as its starting-point the articulation and defence of a unique English identity. In this form, it was not confined to the channels and spokesmen of organised political liberalism, but instead cut across the main ideological divisions of liberalism, conservatism and socialism. The article aims to challenge interpretations of the 1930s as a decade of agreement in political thought constituted largely of progressive opinion, emphasising instead the existence of a significant polarity whose force was as much apparent after 1945 as before.
Public Intellectuals and the Question of British Decline
Authors: English Richard , Kenny Michael
Published: March 2003

This article proposes a refocusing of the debate on British decline, to concentrate attention on declinism rather than on historical decline itself. In particular, it addresses the ways in which intellectuals have perceived, diagnosed and proposed remedies for decline. Public intellectuals have exerted significant influence on British politics in ways not usually acknowledged in scholarly analysis. We explore three key themes in intellectual declinism: ideology, methodology and national identity. Declinism has proved rhetorically enriching to intellectuals of a variety of ideological hues, the latter drawing on a paradoxically shared reservoir of cultural and symbolic resources. Declinist intellectuals have influentially framed arguments about the English nation, the British state and the supposedly exceptional British developmental experience.