bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
MOLECULAR GENETICS OF SULFUR ASSIMILATION IN FILAMENTOUS FUNGI AND YEAST
Authors: Marzluf George A.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  The filamentous fungi Aspergillus nidulans and Neurospora crassa and the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae each possess a global regulatory circuit that controls the expression of permeases and enzymes that function both in the acquisition of sulfur from the environment and in its assimilation. Control of the structural genes that specify an array of enzymes that catalyze reactions of sulfur metabolismoccurs at the transcriptional level and involves both positive-acting and negative-acting regulatory factors. Positive trans-acting regulatory proteins that contain a basic region, leucine zipper–DNA binding domain, are found in Neurospora and yeast. Each of these fungi contain a sulfur regulatory protein of the ß-transducin family that acts in a negative fashion to control gene expression. Sulfur regulation in yeast also involves the general DNA binding protein, centromere binding factor I. Sulfate uptake is a highly regulated step and appears to occur in fungi, plants, and mammals via a family of related transporter proteins. Recent developments have provided new insight into the nature and control of the enzymes ATP sulfurylase and APS kinase, which catalyze the early steps of sulfate assimilation, and of the Aspergillus enzyme, cysteine synthase, which produces cysteine from O-acetylserine.
NEUROBIOLOGY OF SPEECH PERCEPTION
Authors: Fitch R. Holly , Miller Steve , Tallal Paula
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  The mechanisms by which human speech is processed in the brain are reviewed from both behavioral and neurobiological perspectives. Special consideration is given to the separation of speech processing as a complex acoustic-processing task versus a linguistic task. Relevant animal research is reviewed, insofar as these data provide insight into the neurobiological basis of complex acoustic processing in the brain.
Spatial Processing in the Brain: The Activity of Hippocampal Place Cells
Authors: Best Phillip J. , White Aaron M. , Minai Ali
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  The startling discovery by O'Keefe & Dostrovsky (Brain Res. 1971 ; 34: 171–75) that hippocampal neurons fire selectively in different regions or “place fields” of an environment and the subsequent development of the comprehensive theory by O'Keefe & Nadel (The Hippocampus as a Cognitive Map. Oxford, UK: Clarendon, 1978 ) that the hippocampus serves as a cognitive map have stimulated a substantial body of literature on the characteristics of hippocampal “place cells” and their relevance for our understanding of the mechanisms by which the brain processes spatial information. This paper reviews the major dimensions of the empirical research on place-cell activity and the development of computational models to explain various characteristics of place fields.
The Role of Notch in Promoting Glial and Neural Stem Cell Fates
Authors: Gaiano Nicholas , Fishell Gord
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  The Notch signaling pathway has long been known to influence cell fate in the developing nervous system. However, this pathway has generally been thought to inhibit the specification of certain cell types in favor of others, or to simply maintain a progenitor pool. Recently, this view has been challenged by numerous studies suggesting that Notch may play an instructive role in promoting glial development. This work has inspired a new look at the role of Notch signaling in specifying cell fate. It has also prompted further consideration of the emerging view that in some contexts glia may be multipotent progenitors. This review examines the role of Notch during gliogenesis in both fruit flies and vertebrates, as well as evidence in vertebrates that some glia may be stem cells.
ENERGY SOURCES AND REQUIREMENTS OF THE EXERCISING HORSE
Authors: Harris P.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  This review outlines the energy sources available to the horse, from its diet and from its body stores, at rest and while exercising. It looks at the current ways of describing the energy potential of diets fed to horses and discusses the relative advantages and disadvantages of the digestible energy and net energy systems. The more empirical net energy system for calculating the energy available for maintenance and work is compared with a more physiological partitioning system. Finally, the energy requirements for maintenance and exercise are discussed, together with how they may be practically determined and achieved through different diets.
ENERGY AND PROTEIN REQUIREMENTS DURING LACTATION
Authors: Dewey Kathryn G.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Additional energy needs for an exclusively breastfeeding woman are approximately 670 kcal/day. If one allows for gradual weight loss, the net increment needed is about 500 kcal/day. There is little evidence of energy-sparing adaptations in basal metabolic rate or dietary-induced thermogenesis during lactation, although physical activity may be reduced during the early postpartum period. In women with adequate fat reserves, moderately negative energy balance is not likely to affect lactation. The recommended increment in protein intake during lactation has been estimated to be about 15 g/day, based on a milk protein concentration of 11 g/liter. However, if one takes into account the protein cost of non-protein nitrogen in human milk, the recommended increment in protein is about 20 g/day. The latter value is consistent with data from nitrogen balance studies in lactating women. Low protein intakes are unlikely to affect milk volume but may alter certain fractions of milk nitrogen.
INTRACELLULAR LIPID-BINDING PROTEINS AND THEIR GENES
Authors: Bernlohr David A. , Simpson Melanie A. , Hertzel Ann Vogel , Banaszak Leonard J.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Intracellular lipid-binding proteins are a family of low-molecular-weight single-chain polypeptides that form 1:1 complexes with fatty acids, retinoids, or other hydrophobic ligands. These proteins are products of a large multigene family of unlinked loci distributed throughout the genome. Each lipid-binding protein exhibits a distinctive pattern of tissue distribution. Transcriptional control, regulated by a combination of peroxisome proliferator activated receptors and CCAAT/enhancer-binding proteins, allows for a variety of both cell and tissue-specific expression patterns. In some cells, fatty acids increase the expression of the lipid-binding protein genes. Fatty acids, or their metabolites, are activators of the peroxisome proliferator–activated receptor family of transcription factors. Therefore, as the concentration of lipid in the diet increases, the expression of lipid-binding proteins coordinately increases. As revealed by X-ray crystallography, the lipid-binding proteins fold into β-barrels, forming a large internal water-filled cavity. Fatty acid ligands are bound within the cavity, occupying only about one-third of the accessible volume. The bound fatty acid is stabilized via a combination of enthalpic and entropic forces that govern ligand affinity and selectivity. Cytoplasmic lipid-binding proteins are the intracellular receptors for hydrophobic ligands, delivering them to the appropriate site for use as metabolic fuels and regulatory agents.
STRUCTURAL INFORMATION FROM METHYL INTERNAL ROTATION SPECTROSCOPY
Authors: Spangler Lee H.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  The fundamental quantum mechanics, group theory, and spectroscopy of methyl torsional structure accompanying electronic transitions is presented. The origin of barriers to internal rotation and the interaction of the methyl with the π system via hyperconjugation are discussed. Because of the relationship between the methyl barrier and the π system, measurement of the CH3 properties provides structural information about the molecule. In para′-substituted p-methyl-t-stilbenes, barriers in the S1 state show a strong dependence on the substituent, substituent conformation, and involvement of the substituent in hydrogen bonding interaction. The methyl torsional barrier reflects these changes despite the distance of the substitution site, 10 atoms away.
OSMORECEPTORS IN THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
Authors: Bourque and Charles W. , Oliet Stéphane H. R.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Osmoreceptors regulate sodium and water balance in a manner that maintains the osmotic pressure of the extracellular fluid (ECF) near an ideal set point. In rats, the concerted release of oxytocin and vasopressin, which is determined by the firing rate of magnocellular neurosecretory cells (MNCs), plays a key role in osmoregulation through the effects of natriuresis and diuresis. Changes in excitatory synaptic drive, derived from osmosensitive neurons in the organum vasculosum lamina terminalis (OVLT), combine with endogenously generated osmoreceptor potentials to modulate the firing rate of MNCs. The cellular basis for osmoreceptor potentials has been characterized using patch-clamp recordings and morphometric analysis in MNCs isolated from the supraoptic nucleus of the adult rat. In these cells, stretch-inactivated cationic channels transduce osmotically evoked changes in cell volume into functionally relevant changes in membrane potential. The experimental details of these mechanisms are reviewed in their physiological context.
CELLULAR AND MOLECULAR MECHANISMS OF PULMONARY VASCULAR REMODELING
Authors: Stenmark K. R. , Mecham R. P.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  In many organs and tissues, the cellular response to injury is associated with a reiteration of specific developmental processes. Studies have shown that, in response to injury, vascular wall cells in adult organisms express genes or gene products characteristic of earlier developmental states. Other genes, expressed preferentially in adult cells in vivo, are down-regulated following injurious stimuli. Complicating matters, however, are recent observations demonstrating that the vascular wall is comprised of phenotypically heterogeneous subpopulations of endothelial cells, smooth muscle cells, and fibroblasts. It is unclear how specific subsets of cells respond to injury and thus contribute to the vascular remodeling that characterizes chronic pulmonary hypertension. This review discusses vascular development in the lung and the cellular responses occurring in pulmonary hypertension; special attention is given to heterogeneity of responses within cell populations and reiteration of developmental processes.
ROLE OF CARDIAC NEURAL CREST CELLS IN CARDIOVASCULAR DEVELOPMENT
Authors: Creazzo Tony L. , Godt Robert E. , Leatherbury Linda , Conway Simon J. , Kirby Margaret L.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  The discovery in the chick embryo that a specific region of the neural crest, termed the cardiac neural crest, is essential for septation of the cardiac outflow tract and for aortic arch artery development has led to the classification of a whole series of human cardiac defects as neural crest-associated. Recently, several mouse genetic models have been effectively employed to yield new insights into the relationship between cardiac neural crest and structural heart development. In all the animal models of neural crest-related heart defects, prenatal mortality is too high to be attributed to structural defects of the heart alone, and there are obvious signs of severe cardiac dysfunction. The evidence indicates that poor viability is from impaired cardiac excitation-contraction coupling and contractile function at the myocyte level. The continued study of experimental and genetically defined models with neural crest-associated heart defects will prove useful in identifying the common pathways by which the neural crest contributes to normal heart development.
A VIEW OF SUR/KIR6.X, KATP CHANNELS
Authors: Babenko A. P. , Aguilar-Bryan L. , Bryan J.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  ATP-sensitive potassium channels, termed KATP channels, link the electrical activity of cell membranes to cellular metabolism. These channels are heteromultimers of sulfonylurea receptor (SUR) and KIR6.x subunits associated with a 1:1 stoichiometry as a tetramer (SUR/KIR6.x)4. KIR6.x forms the pores, whereas SUR regulates their activity. Changes in [ATP]i and [ADP]i gate the channel. The diversity of KATP channels results from the assembly of SUR and KIR6.x subtypes. KIR6.1-based channels differ from KIR6.2 channels mainly by their smaller unitary conductance. SUR1- and SUR2-based channels are distinguished by their differential sensitivity to sulfonylureas, whereas SUR2A-based channels are distinguished from SUR2B channels by their differential sensitivity to diazoxide. Mutations that result in the loss of KATP channels in pancreatic β-cells have been identified in SUR1 and KIR6.2. These mutations lead to familial hyperinsulinism. Understanding the mutations in SUR and KIR6.x is allowing insight into how these channels respond to nucleotides, sulfonylureas, and potassium channel openers, KCOs.
ELECTROGENIC Na+/HCO−3 COTRANSPORTERS: Cloning and Physiology
Authors: Romero Michael F. , Boron Walter F.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Bicarbonate and CO2 comprise the major pH buffer of biological fluids. In the renal proximal tubule most of the filtered HCO−3 is reabsorbed by an electrogenic Na/HCO3 cotransporter located at the basolateral membrane. This Na+ bicarbonate cotransporter (NBC) was recently cloned. This review highlights the recent developments leading to and since the cloning of NBC: NBC expression cloning, protein features, clone physiology, isoforms and genes, mRNA distribution, and protein distribution. With the NBC amino acid sequence 30–35% identical to the anion exchangers (AE1-3), a superfamily of HCO−3 transporters is emerging. Physiologically, NBC is electrogenic, Na+ dependent, HCO−3 dependent, Cl− independent, and inhibited by stilbenes (DIDS and SITS). NBC clones and proteins have been isolated from several tissues (other than kidney) thought to have physiologically distinct HCO−3 transporters. For example, NBC occurs in pancreas, prostate, brain, heart, small and large intestine, stomach, and epididymis. Finally, there are at least two genes that encode NBC proteins. Possible future directions of research are discussed.
Ischemic Preconditioning: From Adenosine Receptor to KATP Channel
Authors: Cohen Michael V. , Baines Christopher P. , Downey James M.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Ischemic preconditioning is a phenomenon whereby exposure of the myocardium to a brief episode of ischemia and reperfusion markedly reduces tissue necrosis induced by a subsequent prolonged ischemia. It is hoped that elucidation of the mechanism for preconditioning will yield therapeutic strategies capable of reducing myocardial infarction. In the rabbit, the brief period of preconditioning ischemia and reperfusion releases adenosine, bradykinin, opioids, and oxygen radicals. The combined effect of the release of these substances on G proteins and the cell’s phospholipases induces the translocation and activation of the ε isozyme of protein kinase C.

Protein kinase C appears to be the first element of a complex kinase cascade that is activated during the prolonged ischemia in preconditioned hearts. Current evidence indicates that this cascade contains at least one tyrosine kinase and ultimately leads to the activation of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase. p38 Mitogen-activated protein kinase phosphorylates mitogen-activated protein kinase-activated protein kinase 2. Mitogen-activated protein kinase-activated protein kinase 2 phosphorylates HSP27, a 27-kDa heat shock protein that controls actin filament polymerization, and, therefore, affects the integrity of the cytoskeleton. Finally, mitochondrial adenosine 5′-triphosphate-sensitive K+ channels open, and the latter may be the final mediator of protection for ischemic preconditioning. The protective pathway has many builtin redundancies, perhaps creating a safety factor. These redundancies may also explain some of the species-related differences seen in ischemic preconditioning in which one redundant pathway may predominate over another.
DEVELOPING SUSTAINABLE SYSTEMS FOR NEMATODE MANAGEMENT
Authors: Barker Kenneth R. , Koenning Stephen R.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Early researchers identified key concepts and developed tactics for multiple-option management of nematodes. Although the emphasis on integrated pest management over the past three decades has promoted strategies and tactics for nematode management, comprehensive studies on the related soil biology–ecology are relatively recent. Traditional management tactics include host resistance (where available), cultural tactics such as rotation with nonhosts, sanitation and avoidance, and destruction of residual crop roots, and the judicious use of nematicides. There have been advances in biological control of nematodes, but field-scale exploitation of this tactic remains to be realized. New technologies and resources are currently becoming central to the development of sustainable systems for nematode-pest-crop management: molecular diagnostics for nematode identification, genetic engineering for host resistance, and the elucidation and application of soil biology for general integrated cropping systems. The latter strategy includes the use of nematode-pest antagonistic cover crops, animal wastes, and limited tillage practices that favor growth-promoting rhizobacteria, earthworms, predatory mites, and other beneficial organisms while suppressing parasitic nematodes and other plant pathogens. Certain rhizobacteria may induce systemic host resistance to nematodes and, in some instances, to foliage pathogens. The systems focusing on soil biology hold great promise for sustainable crop-nematode management, but only a few research programs are currently involved in this labor-intensive endeavor.
NEW (AND USED) APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF FUNGAL PATHOGENICITY
Authors: Gold Scott E. , García-Pedrajas María D. , Martínez-Espinoza Alfredo D.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  The fungi are the most economically important plant pathogens and continue to be the focus of extensive research with a wide variety of methodologies. Enhancements in microscopy techniques have increased our ability to visualize the intimate interaction of fungi and their host plants. Improving methods allow pharmacological inhibition and genetic dissection of the determinants of fungal pathogenicity in a gene-by-gene approach. Identification and analysis of genes differentially transcribed in ways pertinent to pathogenicity continues to be a frequent research approach. Genome-wide analysis is gaining favor in biological research and fungal plant pathogens are no exception. Several industrial research groups are exploring fungal plant pathogenesis based on genomic sequence data and genome-wide mutagenesis. In March 2001 the first publicly available complete genome of a filamentous fungus (Neurospora crassa) was released. N. crassa is of course a saprophyte and there is no complete sequence available for a plant pathogenic fungus in public databases. However, freely accessible entire genome sequences for both plant pathogenic fungi and their hosts are on the horizon. Sequence availability promises to revolutionize the rate at which data relevant to disease processes will be accrued. In this review we describe approaches currently applied to the study of plant pathogenic fungi and explore developments of potential future benefit with existing technologies not yet applied to this group of important organisms.
THE ROCHESTER SCHOOL: The Origins of Positive Political Theory
Authors: Amadae S. M. , Bueno de Mesquita Bruce
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  The Rochester school of political science, led by William H Riker, pioneered the new method of positive political theory. Positive political theory, or rational choice theory, represents the attempt to build formal models of collective decision-making processes, often relying on the assumption of self-interested rational action. This method has been used to study such political processes as elections, legislative behavior, public goods, and treaty formation and diplomatic strategy in international relations. In this article, we provide a retrospective account of the Rochester school, which discusses Riker's theoretical synthesis and his institution building in the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s. We discuss some of the most important Rochester school contributions related to spatial models of voting, agenda setting, structure-induced equilibria, heresthetics, game theory, and political theory. We also briefly situate positive political theory within the larger context of political science and economics.
Democratization and Economic Reform
Authors: Bunce V.
Published: July 2002

Are democratization and economic reform in tension with each other, or are they mutually supportive processes? A survey of new democracies in Latin America, Southern Europe, and the postsocialist world suggests that the answer varies by region. In the postsocialist cases, the relationship is positive and robust; in the other two regions, the relationship is negligible. Region, however, cannot serve as the explanation. Instead, what emerge as critical—and what happen to vary by region—are three factors that shape the relationship between democratization and economic reform: the timing of democratization, the agenda of transformation, and variations in governing mandates.
THE EFFECTS OF STRESSFUL LIFE EVENTS ON DEPRESSION
Authors: Kessler Ronald C.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  This chapter reviews recent research on the relationship between stressful life experiences and depression. A distinction is made between aggregate studies of overall stress effects and focused studies of particular events and difficulties. A distinction is also made between effects of life stress on first onset of depression and on the subsequent course of depression. Although the available evidence suggests that acute stressful life events can lead to the recurrence of episodes of major depression, a series of methodological problems compromise our ability to make clear causal inferences about the effects of life events on first onset of major depression or about the effects of chronic stress on either onset or recurrence of depression. The main problems of this sort are discussed, and recommendations made for ways of addressing these problems in future studies.
PSYCHOSOCIAL TREATMENTS FOR POSTTRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER: A Critical Review
Authors: Foa E. B. , Meadows E. A.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) has been the subject of growing recognition since its inception in 1980. Owing in part to the relatively recent inclusion of PTSD in the psychiatric nomenclature, research is only beginning to address its treatment in methodologically rigorous studies. In this review, we discuss issues such as prevalence of trauma and of PTSD, and gold standards for treatment outcome research. We then critically review the extant literature on the treatment of PTSD. Finally, we include a discussion of issues specific to various trauma populations and factors that may influence treatment efficacy across types of trauma.
THEORIES LINKING CULTURE AND PSYCHOLOGY: Universal and Community-Specific Processes
Authors: Cooper Catherine R. , Denner Jill
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Psychological theories and research often assume nations are culturally homogeneous and stable. But global demographic, political, and economic changes and massive immigration have sparked new scholarly and policy interest in cultural diversity and change within nations. This chapter reviews interdisciplinary advances linking culture and psychological development. These challenge and strengthen the external and ecological validity of psychological theories and their applications. Seven theoretical perspectives are reviewed: individualism-collectivism; ecological systems; cultural-ecological; social identity; ecocultural and sociocultural; structure-agency; and multiple worlds. Reviews of each theory summarize key constructs and evidence, recent advances, links between universal and community-specific research and applications, and strengths and limitations. The chapter traces complementarities across theories for the case of personal and social identity. It concludes by discussing implications for science and policy. By viewing theories as distinct yet complementary, researchers and policy makers can forge interdisciplinary, international, and intergenerational collaborations on behalf of the culturally diverse communities of which we are a part.
Neural Basis of Hearing in Real-World Situations
Authors: Feng Albert S. , Ratnam Rama
Published: July 2002

In real-world situations animals are exposed to multiple sound sources originating from different locations. Most vertebrates have little difficulty in attending to selected sounds in the presence of distractors, even though sounds may overlap in time and frequency. This chapter selectively reviews behavioral and physiological data relevant to hearing in complex auditory environments. Behavioral data suggest that animals use spatial hearing and integrate information in spectral and temporal domains to determine sound source identity. Additionally, attentional mechanisms help improve hearing performance when distractors are present. On the physiological side, although little is known of where and how auditory objects are created in the brain, studies show that neurons extract behaviorally important features in parallel hierarchically arranged pathways. At the highest levels in the pathway these features are often represented in the form of neural maps. Further, it is now recognized that descending auditory pathways can modulate information processing in the ascending pathway, leading to improvements in signal detectability and response selectivity, perhaps even mediating attention. These issues and their relevance to hearing in real-world conditions are discussed with respect to several model systems for which both behavioral and physiological data are available.
Health Education's Contributions to Public Health in the Twentieth Century: A Glimpse Through Health Promotion's Rear-View Mirror
Authors: Green L. W.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  A lesson of the first half of the century was that growth and technological development brought new health problems and challenges in their wake, many of which were to prove more intractable to technological fixes than the ones that had been so dramatically fixed before. Massive expansions of resources in support of the extension of these medical fixes resulted in an escalation of costs that had to be reigned in by breaking from the resource-based planning cycle that had prevailed through two eras of expansion. The 1970s ushered in an era of cost containment as the central theme of new policies. They included provisions for health promotion that sought to find new handles on the intractable social and behavioral aspects of the demand for health care resources, especially through primary prevention and building of capacity for community, family, and individual self-management of health problems and programs. Lessons from this era for public health in the next century are considered.
Direct Marketing of Pharmaceuticals to Consumers
Authors: Lyles Alan
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Revised FDA regulations governing pharmaceutical companies' broadcast advertisements directed to consumers produced substantial increases in direct-to-consumer advertising (DTCA) expenditures. Proponents of DTCA claim it supports patient autonomy in the patient-physician relationship and has motivated some consumers to seek a physician's care for conditions they previously had not discussed with a doctor. However, DTCA's blend of promotion and information has produced more prescription drug awareness than knowledge—it has been largely ineffective in educating patients with medical conditions about the medications for those conditions. The evidence for DTCA's increase in pharmaceutical sales is as impressive as is the lack of evidence concerning its impact on the health of the public. Broadcast advertisements are too brief to include extensive technical information; consequently, the impact of FDA regulations to assure a fair balance of risk and benefit in DTCA is still being assessed.
Sociological Perspectives on Medical Ethics and Decision-Making
Authors: Zussman Robert
Published: July 2002

Sociologists have not addressed directly the normative issues that constitute the core of medical ethics as an intellectual discipline. They have, however, contributed to a “realist” critique of medical ethics in practice. In regard to the institutionalization of “autonomy” around the principle of informed consent, they have noted widespread indifference on the part of patients, considerable variation among settings, and a persistent ability of physicians to deflect challenges to their authority. In regard to failed efforts to institutionalize “justice,” sociologists have noted both the difficulty physicians experience moving from individual clinical decisions to a recognition of the collective consequences of those decisions and the social structures that shape allocation decisions along dimensions orthogonal to ethical concerns. Most importantly, however, medical ethics is an arena in which sociologists can revisit, in new form, old issues about the doctor-patient relationship, the relationship between medicine and gender, the meaning of death and dying, and the character of medical professionalism.
WOMEN'S MOVEMENTS IN THE THIRD WORLD: Identity, Mobilization, and Autonomy
Authors: Ray R. , Korteweg A. C.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Sociology has paid insufficient attention to third world women's movements. In this review, for which we draw upon a variety of interdisciplinary sources, we focus on three questions: the issue of women's interests; the conditions under which women mobilize—particularly the effects of democratization, nationalist, religious, and socialist movements; and the issue of state and organizational autonomy. We argue that the concept of a political opportunity structure inadequately captures the role that states in the third world play in determining the possibilities of third world women's movements. We call for more comparative work with a focus on the local rather than on the macro level. This will help us to better understand both the ways in which women's collective identities and interests are constructed and the ideological and material conditions under which mobilizations actually take place.
The Scale of Justice: Observations on the Transformation of Urban Law Practice
Authors: Heinz John P. , Nelson Robert L. , Laumann Edward O.
Published: July 2002

In the last quarter of the twentieth century, urban law practice changed markedly. Using data from two surveys of Chicago lawyers, the first in 1975 and the second in 1995, the article argues that the most consequential development was the sheer increase in the size of firms. The organization of the delivery of legal services was restructured, and the relationships between lawyers and clients changed. Growth in the power and prestige of corporate inside counsel, greater competition among law firms, and the move by those firms into broader geographic markets precipitated changes in firm management. The recent movement into the international market for legal services of large accounting firms, financial services firms, and consulting firms (creating “multidisciplinary” partnerships) suggests the possibility of more far reaching changes in the next decade or two.
Heterogeneity in the Management and Outcomes of Patients With Acute Myocardial Infarction Complicated by Heart Failure
Authors: Spencer Frederick A. , Meyer Theo E. , Gore Joel M. , Goldberg Robert J.
Published: July 2002

Background
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Heart failure (HF) is an important predictor of poor outcome after acute myocardial infarction (AMI). However, limited data exist about the clinical significance of HF in the coronary reperfusion era and the impact of its timing on hospital outcomes. The objective of this study was to determine the clinical impact of HF complicating AMI in the National Registry of Myocardial Infarction (NRMI). A secondary objective was to determine differences in demographic and clinical characteristics, treatment, and hospital death rates in patients presenting with HF compared with those developing HF after presentation.

Methods and Results
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The study sample consisted of patients with AMI and without a history of HF included in the NRMI. Of 606 500 cases included from July 1, 1994 to June 30, 2000, 123 938 (20.4%) patients had HF at the time of hospital presentation and 52 220 (8.6%) developed HF thereafter. Patients with HF were older, more likely female, had more comorbidities, and were less likely to receive effective cardiac medications compared with patients without HF. The multivariable adjusted odds for in-hospital death were higher for patients with HF at presentation and thereafter (3.1 and 5.5, respectively) than those without HF.

Conclusions
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Results from this nationwide registry suggest that the incidence and hospital death rates associated with HF complicating AMI remain high. Patients developing HF after hospital admission are at even greater risk than those presenting with HF. Effective cardiac therapies remain underutilized in these patients, and the reasons for this underutilization need to be explored.
Heterogeneity of Stroke Pathophysiology and Neuroprotective Clinical Trial Design
Authors: Muir Keith W.
Published: July 2002

Background and Purpose

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Tissue substrates for action of neuroprotective agents may be absent in a significant proportion of strokes. Pathophysiological heterogeneity is a possible contributor to negative neuroprotective trials.

Methods

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Stroke subtypes and their individual outcomes in neuroprotective trial control populations were used to derive models incorporating accuracy of clinical classification and probability of an ischemic penumbra. With the use of treatment effect sizes from successful trials (predominantly of reperfusion therapies), sample sizes for neuroprotective trials were calculated. The potential influence of altered recruitment strategies was explored.

Results

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The proportion of informative patients in 2 large neuroprotective trials was probably only 27% to 30%. Optimistically, this proportion may be 50%; pessimistically, it may be only 17%. These figures necessitate a sample size of 3700 to 4500 subjects per group; at best, 1800 to 2200 are needed per group with optimistic assumptions about treatment effect. Strategies to enhance the proportion with tissue substrate for neuroprotection could reduce sample size to 500 per group and simultaneously reduce the total number of patients screened compared with inclusive trials.

Conclusions

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Population heterogeneity alone may be sufficient to explain negative neuroprotective trials because even in the largest trials to date sample size is inadequate to detect effect size equivalent to those with thrombolysis, and it is possible that they have been severely underpowered. Reliable trials with inclusive entry criteria may be too large to be commercially feasible for novel compounds. Both sample size and total number of patients needing to be screened should be reduced by restricting entry to patients more likely to have a tissue target.
Rational Design: Looking Back to Move Forward
Authors: Koremenos Barbara , Lipson Charles , Snidal Duncan
Published: July 2002

In this article we summarize the empirical results of the Rational Design project. In general the results strongly support the Rational Design conjectures, especially those on flexibility and centralization; some findings are inconclusive (in particular, those addressing scope) or point toward a need for theoretical reformulation (in particular, the membership dimension). We also address the broader implications of the volume's findings, concentrating on several topics directly related to institutional design and its systematic study. First, we consider the trade-offs in creating highly formalized models to guide the analysis. Second, our discussion of the variable control is a step toward incorporating “power” more fully and explicitly in our analysis. We also consider how domestic politics can be incorporated more systematically into international institutional analysis. Finally, we initiate a discussion about how and why institutions change, particularly how they respond to changing preferences and external shocks. We conclude with a discussion of the forward-looking character of rational design.
Architecture of Equity Markets: The Abidjan Regional Bourse
Authors: Lavelle Kathryn C.
Published: July 2002

Literature on financial market liberalization focuses heavily on state activity in allocating preferential credit. I consider state activity in promoting nascent equity markets by asking why a state would create and promote a market in which the transaction costs are high, the potential rate of return is low, and firms are reluctant to list shares. I examine the case of the West African regional stock exchange and propose that the central bank for the West African Monetary Union created it to mediate the relationship between this region and the world economy. I propose that states and domestic markets act as complements rather than as rivals in some instances of bourse creation. Moreover, bourses in developing economies present a different set of relationships among states, public and private lending authorities, and market participants than their counterparts in more developed financial environments. This illuminates a need for further research in this area.
The Community Trap: Liberal Norms, Rhetorical Action, and the Eastern Enlargement of the European Union
Authors: Schimmelfennig Frank
Published: July 2002

The decision of the European Union to expand to Central and Eastern Europe is a puzzle for rationalist intergovernmentalism. This approach to the study of European integration accounts for most of the preferences of the state actors and many characteristics of the intergovernmental bargaining process but fails to explain why it resulted in the opening of accession negotiations. I introduce the mechanism of rhetorical action in order to show how the supporters of enlargement succeeded in overcoming the superior material bargaining power of their opponents. Through the strategic use of arguments based on the liberal norms of the European international community, the “drivers” caught the “brakemen” in the community trap and, step by step, shamed them into acquiescing in Eastern enlargement.
Positive Feedback: The Impact of Trade Liberalization on Industry Demands for Protection
Authors: Hathaway Oona A.
Published: July 2002

Contrary to widely accepted theories of interest-group demand for protection, industries that experience high and rising import competition after a reduction in trade barriers often become less rather than more protectionist in the long term. To unravel this paradox, I propose and test a theory that explains variation in domestic producer groups' demand for protection over time. This model of industry behavior suggests that trade liberalization has a “positive feedback” effect on the policy preferences and political strategies of domestic industries, compelling them to adjust to more competitive market conditions and thereby reducing their future demand for protection.
Geopolitical Relations in the European Middle Ages: History and Theory
Authors: Teschke Benno
Published: July 2002

The European Middle Ages have recently attracted the attention of international relations (IR) scholars as a “testing-ground” for established IR theories. Neorealists, historicizing neorealists, and constructivists dispute the meanings of medieval anarchy and hierarchy in the absence of sovereignty. On the basis of a detailed critique of these approaches, I offer a historically informed and theoretically controlled interpretation of medieval geopolitics revolving around contested social property relations. My interpretation is meta-theoretically guided by dialectical principles. Lordships are the constitutive units of medieval authority, combining economic and political powers and assigning contradictory forms of rationality to their major agents, lords, and peasants. Interlordly competition over land and labor translates directly into distinct forms of geopolitical relations, generating a culture of war. Against this background, I clarify the specific meanings of the medieval “state,” territoriality, frontiers, peace, war, anarchy, and hierarchy before drawing out the wider implications of changing social property forms for IR theory.
World Economic Expansion and National Security in Pre–World War I Europe
Authors: Rowe David M.
Published: July 2002

Profound and rapid changes in the costs and risks of international trade are now widely acknowledged to be a potent source of domestic political conflict. By altering the relative prices of goods available from world markets, these changes alter the rewards that flow to different factors of production from different economic activities. These distributional consequences of changing levels of trade, in turn, alter the configuration of interests in the domestic political economy, strain existing political alignments, and enable the construction of new political coalitions. Thus, global changes in the economy, such as the transportation and telecommunications revolutions in the nineteenth and mid-twentieth centuries or the collapse of international trade and finance during the interwar years, will have global consequences as they reverberate within and through the domestic politics of all countries that trade on world markets.
Explaining Costly International Moral Action: Britain's Sixty-year Campaign Against the Atlantic Slave Trade
Authors: Kaufmann Chaim D. , Pape Robert A.
Published: July 2002

Most of the major theoretical traditions in international relations offer little advice on how costly international moral action could be accomplished. The main exception is the constructivist approach that focuses on the spread of cosmopolitan ethical beliefs through transnational interaction. While the logic of this theory does not imply any limit on the scale of goals that might be achieved, most constructivist empirical work so far has focused on relatively inexpensive moral efforts, such as food aid, and so may not identify the conditions under which states will take on much more costly moral projects. In this article, we test the constructivist theory of moral action against the record of the most costly international moral action in modern history: Britain's sixty-year effort to suppress the Atlantic slave trade from 1807 to 1867. We find that the willingness of British abolitionists to accept high costs was driven less by a cosmopolitan commitment to a moral community of all people than by parochial religious imperatives to impose their moral vision on others and, especially, to reform their domestic society. Transnational influences also had no important effect. Rather, the abolitionists' success in getting the British state to enact their program was determined mainly by opportunities provided by the fragile balance of power m British domestic politics. Although testing in more cases is needed, these findings suggest that better explanations of international moral action might be provided by a type of domestic coalition politics model based on what we call “saintly logrolls.”
Dance-Making on the Internet: Can On-Line Choreographic Projects Foster Creativity in the User-Participant?
Authors: Popat Sita , Smith-Autard Jacqueline
Published: July 2002

Interactive Internet artworks invite viewers to become involved as user-participants as the creative process unfolds. Through analysis of selected Internet projects, the authors discuss the potential for facilitating an interactive, creative experience for participants in the process of making dance. This study was carried out in 1998 and 1999, but the findings remain relevant, as there have been few subsequent develop-ments in the field.
Principle D
Authors: Minkoff Seth A.
Published: July 2002

Certain acceptability contrasts attending pronominal and SELF-anaphor binding are not accounted for by previous theories of Principles A and B. These contrasts are produced by “Principle D,” which limits the binding domains of antecedents that are “nonselected,” that is, of antecedents that form arguments of predicates that do not restrict the class of arguments with which these antecedents may acceptably be replaced. Further, assuming that Principle D violations are less unacceptable than Principle B violations and more unacceptable than Principle A violations, Principle D's interactions with Principles A and B account for gradations of unacceptability that cannot be accounted for using the “acceptable/unacceptable” dichotomy posited in most previous works.
Grasping after a Delay Shifts Size-Scaling from Absolute to Relative Metrics
Authors: Hu Y. , Goodale M. A.
Published: July 2002

We carried out three experiments designed to compare the effects of relative and absolute size on manual prehension and manual estimates of perceived size. In each experiment, right-handed subjects were presented with two different-sized 3-D objects in a virtual display and were instructed to pick up or estimate the size of one of them. In Experiment 1, subjects were requested to pick up the smaller one of two virtual objects under one condition and the larger one under the other condition. In fact, the target object was identical on all trials; it was simply paired with a smaller object on some trials and a larger object on others. To provide veridical haptic feedback, a real object was positioned beneath a mirror at the same location as the virtual target object. In Experiment 2, one of the virtual objects was marked with a red dot on its top surface. From trial to trial, the marked object was paired with a larger, smaller, or same-sized object. Subjects were instructed to always pick up the marked object on each trial. In both Experiment 1 and 2, half the subjects were tested in delayed grasping with a 5-sec delay between viewing the objects and initiating the grasp, and half in real-time grasping without a delay. Using the same display of virtual objects as in Experiment 2, subjects in Experiment 3 were requested to estimate the size of the marked object using their index finger and thumb (i.e., they showed us how big the object looked to them). After estimating the target object's size, they picked it up. All subjects gave their estimates either immediately or after a delay. Recording of hand movements revealed that when subjects in Experiments 1 and 2 picked up the target object in real time, their grip aperture in flight was not significantly affected whether the object was accompanied by a larger object or a smaller one. When subjects picked up the target object after a delay, however, their grip aperture in flight was larger when the target object was accompanied by a smaller object than when it was accompanied by a larger object. A similar size-contrast effect was also observed in Experiment 3 in which subjects gave manual estimates of the perceived size of the target object. This perceptual effect was observed both when the estimates were given immediately and when they were given after a 5-sec delay. These results suggest that normal (real-time) visuomotor control relies on absolute metrics, whereas delayed grasping utilizes the same relative metrics used by conscious perception.