bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Eye Behavior
Authors: Knapp Mark L. , Svetieva Elena
Published: September 2017

People use their eyes during social interaction in three primary ways: looking in the direction of the other person's face, often referred to as
gaze
; looking away from their partner's face or
gaze aversion
; and
mutual gaze
, in which both interactants look in the direction of the other's face and eye area at the same time. Human beings engage in relatively little direct eye‐to‐eye contact. For humans and other animal species, eye behavior is an important communication tool that has a role in survival, reproduction, and building and maintaining social and role relationships. Being watched is as important as watching others. As the target of another's eye gaze, a person's performance is infused with significance – in either positive or negative ways. Because of its importance to human interaction, people are sensitive to the absence of gaze when it is expected and its presence when it is not. We often perceive eye‐to‐eye contact when the eyes are actually tracking many points around the area of the eyes.
Fear Induction through Media Content in Children
Authors: Cantor Joanne
Published: September 2017

There is a growing body of evidence that the mass media, especially television shows and movies, often induce fear and anxiety in children. Fear is an → emotion characterized by the subjective feeling that one is in danger, and is usually accompanied by physiological reactions, including increased heart rate, blood pressure, muscle tension, and other forms of arousal of the autonomic nervous system (→ Physiological Measurement). Fear is often referred to as an intense response of short duration, whereas anxiety usually refers to lingering feelings of nervousness that endure over longer periods (→ Media Effects Duration). Research shows that feelings of fear or anxiety produced by media exposure often result in sleep problems and can cause children to dread or avoid activities that they once considered non‐threatening (→ Affects and Media Exposure).
Feminist Media Studies, Transnational
Authors: Hegde Radha S.
Published: September 2017

Transnational feminist media studies, an emergent area of scholarship, is both a critical intervention and a response to the challenges posed by globalization (→ Globalization of the Media; Globalization Theories). The transborder movement of capital, commodities, images, and people has set in motion a range of social and political issues, affecting multiple aspects of lived experience. Globalization reproduces gender and sexuality in ways that demand academic attention. Media systems, forms of representation, and communication practices serve as key points from which to unravel the complexity of global configurations. The rubric of the transnational enables feminist scholars to revise and rethink theoretical frames in media studies and produce critical, alternative accounts of globalization. Key aspects of globalization, detailed below, serve as impetus and set the agenda for transnational feminist media scholarship.
Field Research
Authors: Anderson James A.
Published: September 2017

Field research is a somewhat dated term that is used to describe research conducted under the naturally occurring contingencies of unmanipulated or naturally manipulated contexts. In this usage it is contrasted with laboratory research, which is to be conducted under highly controlled circumstances and in fully manipulated contexts. In this contrast, field research is considered to provide relevance to everyday life, and laboratory research rigor to the conclusions drawn. In the traditions of law‐seeking sciences, laboratory research returns findings of the highest generalizability and, therefore, of greater value. This attribution, of course, politicizes the relationship between different → Research Methods and the sciences that depend on them.
Film Genres
Authors: Preston Catherine
Published: September 2017

A working definition of film genre depends on the purposes toward which it will be applied. The audience approaches genre as it is generally defined as kind, sort, or style. Categorizing films this way has been in use going back to the advent of film production and consumption (→ Film Production). For example, the “actuality” (early documentaries; → Documentary Film), the “comedy” (
The Waterer Watered)
, and the “Western” (
The Great Train Robbery
) were all references that theaters used to advertise the film that accompanied the vaudeville show of the week (→ Cinema). Early filmmakers learned to cinematically code a narrative as early viewers learned how to understand these new codes, and the film company duly noted their response (→ Code). This relationship has continued to the present day. Genres offer fairly reliable means by which the industry can attempt to repeat and capitalize on previous box‐office successes. They also provide audiences with knowledge they can use to organize their own viewing. In this sense, the rationale behind film genres has always been that of production balanced by consumption, and like the study of → stars, genre has always transcended the traditional boundaries of film studies.
Foreign Correspondents
Authors: Karadjov Christopher D.
Published: September 2017

The “classic” foreign correspondent had become an identifiable occupation by the second half of the nineteenth century, supporting an increasing need of European and US newspapers to cover overseas military and civilian developments (→ Journalism, History of). Ever since, foreign correspondents have been considered an elite among news professionals. The numbers of “classic” foreign correspondents reached a peak worldwide between the 1950s and 1980s, but have been falling since because media organizations have increasingly been using local reporters to provide international news to their audiences (→ International News Reporting). Competition, financial constraints, and technological advances have democratized the field of international news gathering and the profession of the foreign correspondent.
Foreign Policy and the Media
Authors: Price Monroe E.
Published: September 2017

There are at least two salient questions when thinking about foreign policy and the media. The first is whether foreign policy is affected by media considerations: have modern technological developments meant that foreign policy is increasingly affected by media concerns? The second is whether there is what might be called a foreign policy of media structures, namely an interest by an individual state (or the international community) in the mode by which media is developed through an interdependent set of nations (→ Media Policy). The answer to both questions is yes, and the issues are interconnected.
Francophonie
Authors: Polo Jean‐François
Published: September 2017

Commonly, “francophonie” carries three meanings: linguistic (those who have French in common); geographical (the peoples whose mother tongue, fluency, or administrative language is French); and a more mystical meaning, signifying membership of a collective community. But “Francophonie” (capital F) designates the movement and institutions initiated by French authorities after World War II in favor of the French language, in the context of its former colonies' independence. France tried to promote a French “commonwealth” and a special relationship with ex‐colonies to protect the language. France was very often accused of maintaining neo‐colonial relationships, but the movement for Francophonie was also supported by leaders of the new independent states as a means to build new relations with the former colonizer. Were these, then, actions to support the French language worldwide, or to protect French political and economic interests in its former colonies? This debate has been at the core of the history of Francophonie. Nowadays, through its institutions and agents, Francophonie strives to propose an alternative to a homogenizing globalization process, by promoting cultural diversity (→ Culture: Definitions and Concepts; Globalization Theories).
Freedom of Communication
Authors: Winston Brian
Published: September 2017

The
annaliste
historian Fernand Braudel asserts that dealing with the concept of liberty, “in all its connotations including ‘taking liberties,’” is the distinguishing mark of western civilization, the socio‐political problem that most persistently occurs from the fifth century to the present. The liberty to communicate, to impart and receive information of all kinds, is at the heart of the western idea of liberty. “This process has never been peaceful; yet it is one of the secrets that explains Europe's progress” (Braudel 1993). The struggle for the practice of free “mass” communication begins with the emergence of newspapers in the seventeenth century, but the press freedoms gained over the next 300 years have been limited to print (→ Newspaper, History of; Freedom of the Press, Concept of). Even in the west a media‐blind right of free expression has never been established, and newer media from film through broadcasting and beyond have been subject to the imposition, or the attempted imposition, of specific controls.
Gag Orders
Authors: Ross Susan Dente
Published: September 2017

Governments prevent information from being made public through restraints on speech called “gag orders.” Government executive orders and court injunctions impose gags to restrict the flow of certain types of information to achieve specific government objectives. For example, many national governments enact laws or adopt executive orders to prevent the distribution of official government secrets, details of ongoing military actions, and national security data. Similarly, courts around the world impose injunctions and nonpublication orders to prohibit, or enjoin, public distribution of information that might prejudice the outcome of ongoing litigation. Gag orders are a form of prior restraint because they prevent the exchange of information before any harm occurs rather than imposing punishment in response to specific harms caused by speech. While some gag orders target individuals, many gags are imposed on the media as the messenger that disseminates information most widely.
Gender and Discourse
Authors: Weatherall Ann
Published: September 2017

Scholarship on gender and discourse has a long, interdisciplinary history. Anthropologists in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries documented differences between women's and men's speech in non‐European cultures. However, gender differences within cultures have never been sufficient to constitute separate women's and men's languages. Around the early twentieth century, academics' attention also turned to the English language. Gender and language variation was an early research topic for linguists. One bold but inaccurate view was that a larger variability in articulateness among men than women was evidence of men's greater intelligence. Psychological studies dating from the 1930s and 1940s charted the emergence of sex differences in language use. A longstanding but still controversial claim is that of an innate female superiority in verbal ability (Weatherall 2002).
Gender and Media Organizations
Authors: Pompper Donnalyn
Published: September 2017

Theorizing about gender and organizations has proved a complex challenge, resulting in a body of literature that is “patchy and discontinuous” (Ashcraft & Mumby 2004, xiii). Yet, around the globe, feminist scholars tend to agree on one universal impediment to gender equity: reality emerges from the male standpoint, which shapes organizations and meanings. For the past 50 years, few organizations have attracted more scholarly attention with regard to gender dimensions than those of the mass media industry.
Generalizability
Authors: Krippendorff Klaus
Published: September 2017

The essence of generalization is simplification by omission of irrelevant details.
In logic
, a concept A is a generalization of concept B, if and only if every instance of concept B is also an instance of concept A, and there are instances of concept A that are not instances of concept B. For example, a cockroach is an insect, which in turn includes insects that are not cockroaches. Talking about insects omits the distinctions among cockroaches, beetles, flies, etc. Logical generalizations are based on sets whose instances have one or more attributes in common. They give rise to taxonomies, such as the Linnaean classification in biology. Logical generalizability is the ability to find meaningful common attributes among disparate sets of instances. Except for their membership in the same set, this may not be easy. For example, it would be hard to find a common attribute among cockroaches, artifacts, poets, and scientific theories. The inability to find a conceptual basis for a set of instances limits logical generalizability.
Gerbner, George
Authors: Turow Joseph
Published: September 2017

George Gerbner (1920–2006) was one of the most perspicacious students and critics of the social and political effects of television. Of half‐Jewish descent, he grew up in Budapest as a recognized poet and lover of folklore. Forced to flee fascist Hungary to the US in 1939, he studied journalism at the University of California, Berkeley. After serving in the US military, Gerbner worked briefly as a journalist and then received a PhD in education from the University of Southern California. He taught briefly at a junior college, then from 1956 at the University of Illinois's Institute for Communications Research. In 1964, he became dean of the University of Pennsylvania's Annenberg School of Communications, where he remained until 1989.
Globalization of the Media
Authors: Thussu Daya Kishan
Published: September 2017

Like many other spheres of contemporary life, the mass media have been profoundly affected by the processes of globalization (→ Globalization Theories). During the 1990s, the global media landscape was transformed as a result of the deregulation and privatization of broadcasting and telecommunication, enabling a quantum leap in the production and distribution of media products across continents and in real time.
Globalization of Organizations
Authors: Stohl Cynthia
Published: September 2017

Most generally, globalization is defined as “the widening, deepening, and speeding up of worldwide interconnectedness in all aspects of contemporary social life” (Held et al. 1999, 5). Globalization is produced and maintained through communicative action. Political, cultural, social, and economic events are no longer bound by time or space. The free flow of goods, services, money, and ideas, facilitated by emerging technologies, strongly influence and are influenced by organizational communication practices. No longer circumscribed by socio‐geographic borders, organizational identities transcend nation‐states. The complexity of contemporary issues such as AIDS, global warming, and terrorism implicates organizational interdependence. No matter what their mission, structure, or physical location, all types of organizations must address the complexities of operating within a multicultural communicative, legal, moral, and social context (→ Globalization Theories).
Government Speech, Law and Policy on
Authors: Kemper Kevin R.
Published: September 2017

Governments, by the nature of their functions and purposes, communicate with people inside and outside of their jurisdictions. This process may be called “government speech.” The “law and policy of government speech” in different countries typically depends upon the nature and type of each government and how much that government controls its press systems. Globalization and related changes to governments more and more influence how those laws and policies are shaped (→ Globalization Theories). Whereas the press during the twentieth century, particularly in the United States, was a “primary conduit for information” about government to the people, governments now regularly use media in alternative conduits to exert control over that information, with negative implications for democracy, as Braman and Nerone (1995, 162–176) have argued (→ Political Communication Systems).
Graffiti
Authors: Ferrell Jeff
Published: September 2017

Broadly speaking, graffiti denotes the array of words, figures, and symbols illicitly inscribed in public space. Over the past three decades this phenomenon has taken on special salience as the graffiti of youth sub‐cultures has emerged as a pervasive form of public communication. Because of this, graffiti has become perhaps the most potent and visible symbol of delinquency and danger, with political authorities and the public regularly associating public graffiti with gang activity. In reality, the contemporary role of graffiti as a form of public communication, and as a communicative component within youthful sub‐cultures, is far more complex than a simple equating of graffiti and gangs (→ Popular Communication).
Graphic Design
Authors: Soar Matthew
Published: September 2017

“Graphic design” refers, in essence, to the artful arrangement of images and text on a variety of surfaces and in a range of forms. Typical pieces of graphic design include: posters; → books; CD, DVD, and book covers; brochures and flyers; → magazines and → Newspapers; logos, trademarks, → branding and corporate identity systems; product packaging; annual reports; T‐shirts; signage and way‐finding systems; websites; and motion graphics (e.g., film title sequences, TV station identifiers, and promos). Related and sometimes overlapping activities include product design, exhibition and information design, type design and → typography, and design for interactivity (websites, kiosks, DVD‐ROMs; → Design; Interactivity, Concept of).
Group Communication and Social Influence
Authors: Pavitt Charles
Published: September 2017

When a decision‐making group comes into discussion intending to choose among a set of possible courses of action, any disagreement among the members of the group regarding the best option normally results in some form of social influence. We assume that group members enter discussion having formulated a “pre‐discussion preference” for a particular option, that these members leave discussion with a “post‐discussion preference” among the options, and that the group as a whole reaches a decision about the best option. Social influence occurs when there is a difference between individual member pre‐discussion and post‐discussion preferences and/or when the group decision differs from what would be predicted based on the members' pre‐discussion preferences (→ Attitudes; Persuasion).
Hate Speech and Ethnophaulisms
Authors: Kinney Terry A.
Published: September 2017

One of the most controversial topics that a democratic society faces is the issue of regulating the speech of its citizens. As Delgado and Stefancic suggest in
Must we defend Nazis? Hate speech, pornography, and the new First Amendment
(1997), the notion of “free speech” in a democratic society is a misnomer, as social institutions place controls on what can be said, to protect the public. This is certainly the case when speech is classified as obscene, defamatory, slanderous, or hateful, and holds a reasonable potential to be harmful (Lederer & Delgado 1995). Hate speech, for example, is a form of verbal aggression (→ Verbal Aggressiveness) that expresses hatred, contempt, ridicule, or threats toward a specific group or class of people (Asante 1998). Hate speech encompasses verbalizations, written messages, symbols, or symbolic acts that demean and degrade, and, as such, can promote discrimination, prejudice, and violence toward targeted groups. Hate speech often stems from thoughts and beliefs such as hatred, intolerance, prejudice, bigotry, or stereotyping (Allport 1954). Common forms of hate speech include ethnophaulisms, racial slurs and epithets, sexist comments, and homophobic speech (→ Prejudiced and Discriminatory Communication).
Health Communication and Journalism
Authors: Stryker Jo Ellen
Published: September 2017

The news media are an important source of health information, not just for the general public, but also for patients, for doctors and the medical community, for entertainment producers in search of story ideas, and for policymakers and funding organizations (→ Health Communication). Journalistic practices favor the use of established sources, so public health and medical journals are one of the principal sources for health reporting. Fundamental differences between the institutional norms of → Journalism and public health and medicine create potential sources of misunderstanding and confusion among news consumers. Nonetheless, studies have demonstrated the effects of news media on knowledge, health behavior, medical practice, and public policy (→ Media Effects).
Horse Race Coverage
Authors: Brettschneider Frank
Published: September 2017

Horse race journalism is a controversial form of political coverage. It means reporting on politics with the help of sports metaphors. Horse race journalism is particularly prevalent in election campaign coverage, mainly in the context of opinion polls (→ Election Campaign Communication; Political Communication).
Hall, Stuart
Authors: Erni John Nguyet
Published: September 2017

Stuart Hall (1932–) is a cultural theorist, scholar, mentor, and critic of contemporary politics and → modernity, whose work has profoundly shaped the advancement of → cultural studies as an intellectual and interventionist practice. Born in Kingston, Jamaica, Hall moved in 1951 to Bristol, England, as part of theWindrushgeneration, and later entered Merton College, University of Oxford, on a Rhodes Scholarship to study literature. His years at Oxford saw him develop an acute interest in socialist British history, nationalist “West Indian” thought, international left politics, and continental philosophy. In the 1950s and 1960s, after working onUniversities and Left Review(with Charles Taylor, Raphael Samuel, and Gabriel Pearson), he joined E. P. Thompson, Raymond Williams, and others to launch theNew Left Review.
Iconography
Authors: Müller Marion G.
Published: September 2017

Iconography is both a method and an approach to studying the content and meanings of visuals (→ Visual Representation). In its colloquial use, the term “iconography” describes the motif of a particular picture or a specific group of artworks. A general distinction can be made between religious, mainly Christian, iconography and secular or political iconography. In the context of visual research, “iconography” is used to describe a qualitative method of visual content analysis (→ Content Analysis, Qualitative).
Identities and Discourse
Authors: Antaki Charles
Published: September 2017

Social scientists are not interested in identity in the sense of an individual's unique name and address. They are interested in identity in the sense of the category that an individual belongs to (or is made to belong to). All languages have explicit names which allocate people to a category of person (e.g.,
madre
in Spanish,
umm
in Arabic, or
mother
in English), an occupation (
ingeniero
,
mohandass
,
enginee
, respectively), or a position in society that has loose definitional criteria (
gamberro
, '
ozbagui
,
hooligan
).
Identity Politics
Authors: Zacharias Usha
Published: September 2017

Identity politics refers to the struggle for political recognition by marginalized social groups based on particular affiliations of individual identity, such as gender, sexuality, “race,” ethnicity, and nationality (→ Marginality, Stigma, and Communication; Symbolic Annihilation). Identity‐based movements, as they grew in the west, challenged the limitations of political representation and citizenship offered within the liberal democratic state and institutions. Even as identity politics made visible more dominant social inequities, it also opened the door for rethinking and questioning within social movements based on identity, such as the movements for women's liberation and feminisms in general (→ Social Movements and Communication). At the heart of feminist identity politics are the questions: who is the “woman” that is imagined as the subject of feminism or of women's emancipation, and is there a singular significance to gender identity when the “woman” is embedded in a network of other social identities such as race, ethnicity, religious community, or nationality?
Image Ethics
Authors: Lester Paul Martin
Published: September 2017

Image ethics has never before been the subject of so much media criticism as at the present time. The use of violent images is questioned. Photographers that hound celebrities beyond propriety are criticized. Pictures that are manipulated and present misleading views damage the media's credibility. Images that perpetuate negative stereotypes of individuals from various multicultural groups are noticed. Pictures that blur the distinction between advertising and journalism undercut journalism's legitimacy. Visual messages can have tremendous emotional impact upon viewers. With proper contextualization, they can serve to inform and educate, as well as entertain and persuade. But used thoughtlessly or superficially, images can also offend, shock, mislead, stereotype, and confuse.
Image Restoration Theory
Authors: Benoit William L.
Published: September 2017

Image restoration theory – referred to as “image repair theory” in recent literature, to imply that an image might be improved but not completelyrestored– addresses the question of what a person or organization can say when accused or suspected of wrongdoing. Our reputation is vital both for our self‐esteem and because reputation influences how others will treat us. Ken Lay (Enron) and Congressman Gary Condit (who appeared uncooperative in the search for missing intern Chandra Levy) failed to repair their images. Tylenol, on the other hand, did repair its image after its capsules were poisoned. Countries also engage in image repair: Saudi Arabia placed a series of advertisements attempting to distance itself from the 9/11 tragedy (many of the terrorists were from Saudi Arabia, including Osama bin Laden). Clearly, a favorable → Image is desirable, and tarnished images need repair.
Imagined Interactions
Authors: Honeycutt James M.
Published: September 2017

Imagined interactions are a type of social cognition and mental imagery (→ Cognition; Information Processing), theoretically grounded in symbolic interactionism (→ Symbolic Interaction), in which individuals imagine conversations with significant others for a variety of purposes (Honeycutt 2003). The imagined interaction construct has provided a beneficial mechanism for studying intrapersonal and interpersonal communication (→ Interpersonal Communication). Imagined interactions are a type of daydreaming that has definitive characteristics and serves a number of functions including rehearsal, self‐understanding, relational maintenance, managing conflict, catharsis, and compensation. They often concentrate on ongoing or important events in individuals’ daily lives and are associated with a variety of emotions (Klinger 1990).
Impersonal Effects
Authors: Tsfati Yariv
Published: September 2017

Impersonal effects is an increasingly influential paradigm in media effects research (→ Media Effects). It argues that media are powerful in shaping our → perceptions of what anonymous others are feeling and experiencing, and that such perceptions, in turn, influence our → attitudes and behaviors in a variety of areas. The effect suggested by the theory is, thus, indirect: exposure to media affects the audience's perception of the collective conditions or the opinions and attitudes of people they do not know personally (→ Media Effects: Direct and Indirect Effects). Cognitive and attitudinal responses to these perceptions are the measurable changes constituting the effects.
Implicit Personality Theories
Authors: Lindsey Elizabeth
Published: September 2017

Considered by many scholars to be a historically significant conceptual development in the study of → social cognition, implicit personality theories are cognitive structures utilized during → social perception and in social interaction. The knowledge contained in these structures specifies sets of personality traits perceived to be interrelated. Applied during social perception, implicit personality theories are key to impression formation, allowing a perceiver to make trait inferences, or, infer from a few, initially observed traits that a person will probably have a number of additional, implicated traits. Applied in social interaction, implicit personality theories are a source of person knowledge, a type of knowledge seen as essential to communication skills and achieving communication goals (→ Goals, Social Aspects of; Interpersonal Communication), as is knowledge of the self, roles, contexts, emotions, and how to put together one's messages (→ Schemas, Knowledge Structures, and Social Interaction).
Independent Media Centers Network
Authors: Brooten Lisa
Published: September 2017

The global network of Independent Media Centers (IMCs), or “Indymedia,” is a groundbreaking example of the power of an online, multimedia network providing for instantaneous, decentralized global communication, unique in that it involves a network of nonprofit, autonomous media collectives. These new technological capacities are shifting the nature of news consumption and provoking debates about the nature of → news, its construction, and what constitutes a newsmaker. In addition, IMCs have been experimenting with hierarchy‐leveling organizational processes and interactive software in the interests of furthering democratic goals and providing a more diverse set of discussions than corporate media currently offer (→ Media Democracy Movement). Indymedia discussions also critique the global hegemony of the neo‐liberal and unilateral policies of the United States and its allies.
India: Media System
Authors: Shrivastava K. M.
Published: September 2017

India, with a population of more than a billion, is a multiethnic, multilingual, multi‐religious, pluralistic society. Politically it is a union of states (28 states and 7 union territories) and a sovereign, secular, democratic republic with a bicameral, multi‐party, parliamentary system of government based on a universal adult franchise. It is governed by a written constitution, adopted by the Constituent Assembly on November 26, 1949, which came into force on January 26, 1950.
Individual Differences and Information Processing
Authors: Chamorro‐Premuzic Tomas
Published: September 2017

“Individual differences” (also known as “differential psychology”) is the area of psychology concerned with the scientific understanding of how, why, and to what degree people differ. Its two major objects of study are personality and intelligence, though → emotion, motivation, vocational interests, and creativity also represent important, and increasingly researched, topics. Thus, individual difference factors attempt to describe and explain the nature, causes, and consequences of any psychological differences between individuals. Typically, such differences are quantified and measured or assessed via psychometric tests (Chamorro‐Premuzic & Furnham 2005).
Information and Communication Technology, Development of
Authors: Greenstein Shane
Published: September 2017

The commercial information and communication technology (ICT) industry accounts for a large fraction of economic activity. It has spread to include an extraordinary range of economic undertakings. What drives economic change in this market? A variety of market‐driven incentives play a salient role.
Information and Communication Technology, Economics of
Authors: Antonelli Cristiano , Patrucco Pier Paolo , Quatraro Francesco
Published: September 2017

Information and communication technology or technologies (ICT, ICTs) may be considered as a clear exemplar of the salient features and ingredients of a path‐dependent and complex process based upon an array of complementary localized technological changes. Indeed, the path leading to the generation and adoption of ICT emerged out of a collective and interactive process induced by relevant changes in the economic environment. This stimulated the creative reaction of an array of learning agents based in a fertile context characterized by effective knowledge governance mechanisms and positive feedback magnified by local externalities.
Infotainment
Authors: Baym Geoffrey
Published: September 2017

The term
infotainment
refers to a cluster of program types that blur traditional distinctions between information‐oriented and entertainment‐based genres of television programming. Primarily a pejorative term, infotainment is often used to denote the decline of hard news and public affairs discussion programs and the corresponding development of a variety of entertainment shows that mimic the style of news. At the same time, however, the early years of the twenty‐first century have seen the increasing emergence of programs that more thoroughly blend the content and form of various genres of public affairs and entertainment. This has created a complex spectrum of hybrid programming with a potentially wide range of implications for public information, political communication, and democratic discourse.
Innis, Harold
Authors: Blondheim Menahem
Published: September 2017

Harold Adams Innis (1894–1952) was a Canadian economic historian turned communication theorist, whose research focused on the role of the
medium
in communication processes. His work – historical in method (→ Media History) and ecumenical in scope – demonstrated the centrality of communications in social, political, and cultural development. Together with his junior colleague, → Marshall McLuhan, he is considered a founding father of a medium‐focused school of communication theory, variously known as the “Toronto School,” → “media ecology,” or → “medium theory.” It holds that communications media are the key to understanding the co‐development of mind, culture, and society.
Instructional Television
Authors: Avery Robert K.
Published: September 2017

The term “instructional television” (ITV) is multidimensional, with definitions varying widely, depending on context, time period examined, and other factors. The term is frequently related or used interchangeably with other terms in this encyclopedia, including → Classroom Instructional Technology, → Distance Education, and → Educational Media, among others. At the most basic level, ITV refers to the use of the medium of → Television to deliver instructional content to one or more viewers, but the multiple interpretations of the term are tied directly to delivery/reception variables, content variables, and viewer variables.
Instrumental Actualization
Authors: Hartung Uwe
Published: September 2017

Instrumental actualization is first and foremost an approach to journalists' news selection. The notion was formulated by Hans Mathias Kepplinger to explain the effect of journalists' (political) opinions on news content. As an approach to news selection, instrumental actualization continues and complements approaches such as → gatekeeping, → news factors, and → news values.
Integrated Marketing Communications
Authors: Belch Michael A. , Belch George E.
Published: September 2017

In the 1960s, Chevrolet spent almost its entire US television media budget on one program – the
Dinah Shore Show
. At that time prime‐time viewers had only three network channels to choose from and an advertiser could reach 80 percent of US households on any given evening by running commercials on CBS, NBC, and ABC programs (→ Television Networks). Newspapers were a primary source of information, and → cable television and the → Internet were decades away from development.
Intellectual Property Law
Authors: Kerr Robert L.
Published: September 2017

Today, the law of intellectual property encompasses the legal concerns represented by → copyrights, trademarks, patents, design rights, trade secrets, and related concerns. This area of law focuses on protecting the rights of the owners of intellectual property to control when and if a work is reproduced, related adaptations of the work, and distribution and performance of the work.
Interaction Adaptation Theory
Authors: Burgoon Judee K.
Published: September 2017

In interpersonal encounters, people are usually responsive and adaptive to others (→ Interpersonal Communication). Their gestures, voices, and words take on the quality of a dance as they mesh with one another to create a coordinated interaction. Interaction adaptation theory (IAT; Burgoon et al. 1995b) predicts and explains how, when, and why people adapt to another's verbal and nonverbal communication (→ Nonverbal Communication and Culture) in similar or dissimilar ways. It focuses on how pairs of communicators – actors and their partners – coordinate their communication styles with one another in ongoing conversations.
Intercultural Conflict Styles and Facework
Authors: Ting‐Toomey Stella
Published: September 2017

Competent intercultural conflict management depends on many factors. One of the key factors is to increase our awareness and knowledge concerning diverse conflict styles and facework issues. Intercultural conflict can be defined as any implicit or explicit antagonistic struggle between persons of different cultures due, in part, to cultural or ethnic group membership differences. Beyond cultural group membership differences and intergroup historical grievances, differences in situational expectations, goal orientations, conflict styles, facework tendencies, and perceived scarce resources (e.g., time, power currencies) may further complicate an already complex conflict situation.
Intercultural and Intergroup Communication
Authors: Giles Howard , Watson Bernadette
Published: September 2017

Social groups, such as adolescents, police, and ethnic groups, very often have their own distinctive cultures that include such ingredients as specialized foods and utensils, customs and rituals, dress styles, art, music, dance, rituals, literature, and so forth, while other intergroup situations (e.g., artificially constructed laboratory groups) constitute social categories that cannot claim such cultural artifacts (Fortman & Giles 2006). Reading, thinking, and research are needed at interfaces between the all too independent fields of intercultural communication on the one hand, and intergroup communication on the other (see, however, Gudykunst et al. 1988). Intercultural communication is not subsumed under, or even a special case of, intergroup communication, but rather the two are parallel traditions capable of significant coalescence.
Intercultural Norms
Authors: Kim Min‐Sun
Published: September 2017

Normative conduct is a major component of systems of culture. Each culture has its specific norms for everyday social interaction. Differences in norms and cultural expectations often become grounds for intercultural miscommunication and misunderstanding (→ Cultural Patterns and Communication; Nonverbal Communication and Culture). There are innumerable definitions of norms in the social science literature. For example, norms are defined as “rules of conduct,” “blueprints for behavior,” and “cultural expectations.” Comparing existing definitions, Gibbs (1965) finds three attributes of a norm: “(1) a collective evaluation of behavior in terms of what ought to be; (2) a collective expectation as to what behavior will be; and (3) particular reactions to behavior including attempts to apply sanctions or otherwise induce a particular kind of behavior” (→ Intercultural Norms; Social Norms).
Intergenerational Communication
Authors: Hummert Mary Lee
Published: September 2017

The term “intergenerational communication” applies to interactions involving individuals who are from different age cohorts or age groups. Families provide ready examples of individuals whose communication would be classified as intergenerational: parent and child, grandparent and grandchild, aunt and niece, to name a few. These interactions stand in contrast to intragenerational communication or communication between individuals from the same generation or age cohort, such as siblings. Intergenerational communication occurs outside the family context as well. Any interaction between a child and an adult, a young person and one who is middle‐aged or older, or a middle‐aged person and an older person, fits the definition of intergenerational communication. As a result, much communication in daily life – in the workplace, social settings, and the home – is intergenerational in nature.
Intergenerational Communication
Authors: Hummert Mary Lee
Published: September 2017

The term “intergenerational communication” applies to interactions involving individuals who are from different age cohorts or age groups. Families provide ready examples of individuals whose communication would be classified as intergenerational: parent and child, grandparent and grandchild, aunt and niece, to name a few. These interactions stand in contrast to intragenerational communication or communication between individuals from the same generation or age cohort, such as siblings. Intergenerational communication occurs outside the family context as well. Any interaction between a child and an adult, a young person and one who is middle‐aged or older, or a middle‐aged person and an older person fits the definition of intergenerational communication. As a result, much communication in daily life – in the workplace, social settings, and the home – is intergenerational in nature.
Intermediality
Authors: Jensen Klaus Bruhn
Published: September 2017

Intermediality refers to the interconnectedness of modern media of communication. As means of expression and exchange, the different media depend on and refer to each other, both explicitly and implicitly; they interact as elements of particular communicative strategies; and they are constituents of a wider cultural environment.
International Association for Media and Communication Research (
IAMCR
)
Authors: Hamelink Cees J.
Published: September 2017

The International Association for Media and Communication Research (IAMCR) is an international professional organization in the field of media and communication research. Its aims are to promote global inclusiveness and excellence in research, to stimulate interest in media and communication research, to disseminate information about research results, and to provide a forum where researchers can meet to exchange information about their work.
International Communication Association (ICA)
Authors: Haley Michael L. , Stooksberry Barbara
Published: September 2017

The International Communication Association (ICA) began in 1950 as a small association of US researchers and is now a truly international association with more than 4,500 members in 85 countries. With its headquarters in Washington, DC, the ICA publishes five refereed journals, a yearbook, and a monthly online newsletter; sponsors a book series; and holds regional conferences and an annual conference. The annual conference meets around the world on a geographical rotation in the Americas, Asia, and Europe. The ICA's diverse structure of 25 divisions and special interest groups represents sub‐fields of communication research (→ Communication as a Field and Discipline). Since 2003, the ICA has been officially associated with the United Nations as a nongovernmental association (NGO).
International News Reporting
Authors: Paterson Chris
Published: September 2017

International news reporting evolved with the advent of the telegraph in the mid‐1800s (→ Telegraph, History of). The explosion of foreign news that followed largely supported the colonial empires; it also focused on international conflicts involving them (while all but ignoring others).
International Radio
Authors: Jauert Per
Published: September 2017

Since → Radio broadcasting was launched shortly after World War I, it has served two culturally different, almost paradoxical, functions in relation to its distribution. On the one hand, it turned out to be one of the more effective instruments in the nation‐building process, and on the other it was from its initial years distributed on a global scale. Benedict Anderson's concept of “imagined communities” would express the role of radio broadcasting not as a tool for national identity‐shaping within a nationalist ideology, but more as a way to encircle a common feeling or a sense of “Englishness,” “Danishness,” etc. Although in public debate about the cultural role of the electronic media it is often claimed they dilute national culture, in a historical perspective it is clearly the other way round. Over the past century, radio in large part shaped a national sense of shared imaginations and frames of reference, and at the same time also maintained its position as an international medium.
Internet
Authors: McDonald Daniel G. , Dale Katherine R.
Published: September 2017

The Internet is a network of computer networks. In that sense, even though the content provided can often be similar to that offered by radio or television networks (→ Radio; Radio Networks; Television; Television Networks), a more appropriate structural analogy should probably be to telephone or telegraph networks (→ Telegraph, History of).
Internet Use across the Life‐Span
Authors: Coombs W. Timothy
Published: September 2017

Internet usage refers primarily to the online activities of visiting web pages and using email (→ Electronic Mail). It is reasonable to expect differences in online activities between different age groups. However, international Internet data frequently excludes age as a variable, making age‐based analyses more challenging (Findahl 2004). To evaluate the data that does exist accurately, both general and specific Internet usage needs to be considered when comparing age groups and Internet usage. General usage simply refers to going online. Specific usage refers to what activities are performed online (→ Internet).
Interview, Qualitative
Authors: Möhring Wiebke , Schluetz Daniela
Published: September 2017

At first sight, a scientific → interview resembles a common conversation, a qualitative interview even more so than a standardized one. Unlike a day‐to‐day conversation, however, such an interview takes place in an artificial situation, follows specific rules, and is conducted to reach a predefined goal. An open‐ended interview can be conducted for two different reasons. It may be
explorative
, which means that it is used to gather a first understanding of a topic, a deeper insight into the relevant dimensions in question, and an idea of the terms used in describing these dimensions. An explorative interview is only the first in a series of other, usually standardized, research steps. A
qualitative
interview, on the other hand, is a method of inquiry in its own right. It is theoretically rooted in symbolic interactionism and Max Weber's
verstehender Soziologie
(→ Symbolic Interaction; Verstehen vs Erklären). The great value of open‐ended interviews lies in the fact that respondents are allowed to tell it “their way” with a minimum of direction, thus offering their understanding of the topic in question in the context of and from their social position.
Intimate Talk with Family and Friends
Authors: Sandel Todd
Published: September 2017

Intimate talk with family and friends can be examined as a product, process, or resource. It is a product of a relationship that has become intimate over time. This is the focus of studies involving social penetration (Altman & Taylor 1973) or social exchange theories (Thibaut & Kelley 1959), which find that as one person self‐discloses, the other may reciprocate and the relationship becomes closer or more intimate. A different understanding comes from seeing intimate talk as process: speakers co‐construct meaning and through talk create the relationship. This is the focus of scholars interested in → conversation analysis. Standing between these two approaches is intimate talk as resource, whereby speakers are competent in the performance and interpretation of certain forms of talk, such as joking or greeting, and intentionally use these to create, index or point to, and sustain intimate relationships. This is the focus of studies in such fields as sociolinguistics and the → ethnography of communication.