bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Interten1poral Trade and the Environn1ent: The Foreign-Debt Problem
Authors: Rauscher Michael
Published: October 2023

So far we have been occupied with the static aspects of international trade and the environment. In Chapters 4 and 5,where the issue has been addressed in a general-equilibrium framework, it has been assumed that the value of exports equals the value of imports and that there is no trade deficit nor a trade surplus. This is not particularly realistic and it neglects the important dimension of time. In what follows, this dimension will be introduced and intertemporal aspects of foreign trade and the use of environmental resources will be addressed. In a world where international trade does not always balance, some countries are debtors and some countries are lenders.
A Comparison of Supplementary Feeding and Medical Care of Preschool Children in Guatemala, 1959-1964
Authors: Scrimshaw Nevin S , Guzman Miguel A
Published: October 2023

In the 1950s there was only limited recognition of the fact that malnutrition is often precipitated by episodes of infection and that malnourished children were more susceptible to infection, a synergistic interaction. The Institute of Nutrition of Central America and Panama (INCAP) was established in 1949 and immediately began studying factors responsible for the high prevalence of protein-calorie malnutrition including kwashiorkor. It was observed that almost every case of kwashiorkor was precipitated by antecedent infections (Behar and Scrimshaw 1960), and that the more malnourished children had infections of greater frequency and severity.
Japan-China Relations in the l960s
Authors: Soeya Yoshihide
Published: October 2023

The years 1960 and 1962 marked a breakthrough in postwar Japan-China trade. While the mechanisms for bilateral trade in the 1950s did not give rise to an institutionalized channel, the trade system in the 1960s embraced two separate channels with different functions and participants: Friendship Trade (from 1960) and LT Trade (from 1962, which was renamed Memorandum Trade in 1968). In retrospect, Japan-China trade relations survived the turbulent decade of the 1960s because of the existence of these two distinct channels. In a way, trade relations more than survived; Japan’s trade with China surpassed that with Taiwan from 1964 to 1967 (Table 3.1).
Friendship Trade
Authors: Soeya Yoshihide
Published: October 2023

The previous chapter explored the China policy of the Japanese government which constituted one layer of the pluralistic structure in Japan’s relations with China. This chapter and the following one focus on specific trade arrangements of the 1960s, namely, Friendship Trade and LT/MTT rade, and their relationship. These two forms of trade had quite different characteristics, and constituted the second tier of structural pluralism in Japan’s trade relations with China in the 1960s. Also, this chapter will illuminate the third tier of the pluralistic structure, i.e., the structural characteristics of Friendship Trade, and thus explicate how and why Friendship Trade could survive the turbulant era swayed by the conflict between the Japan Communist Party GCP) and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP).
LT/MT Trade
Authors: Soeya Yoshihide
Published: October 2023

LT Trade between Japan and China started as a result of a trade memorandum signed by Liao Chengzhi and Takasaki Tatsunosuke on 9 November 1962. It was named LT Trade after the initials of the two signatories. As Chinese domestic politics made a radical turn during the Cultural Revolution, it was reorganized and renamed Memorandum Trade in 1968 (when referring to both of these trade forms as a set, they will be abbreviated to LT/MT Trade).
Conclusion
Authors: Soeya Yoshihide
Published: October 2023

The conventional wisdom is that international politics dictated the course of postwar Japan-China relations. This study, however, has stressed the fact that Japan-China trade during the three postwar decades was more stable and constant than the argument presupposing the primacy of security factors suggests. The study has demonstrated that three distinct foreign policy orientations held by the Japanese and the rise of Japanese non-governmental actors as the architects of Japan-China trade gave rise to structural pluralism in Japan’s trade relations with China, and that this structure produced a significant extent of stability and continuity in the postwar Japan-China relationship. In concluding this study, we will review the pattern of structural pluralism in Japan’s trade relations with China, and discuss its implications in the overall context of Japanese diplomacy in the postwar years.
Others Have Sex With Others: Captain Cook and the Penetration of the Pacific
Authors: Gagnon John H
Published: October 2023

It is only recently in the history of an expanding Euro-American global cultural hegemony that there has been careful reflection on what the natives of other cultures, large and small, advanced and simple, must have thought when first confronted by (usually) white-faced bearers of advanced armaments, religious and commercial fervour, and genocidal impulses based on racist or evolutionary principles. Even those traditional cultures that are currently being recorded by anthropologists are ending with silence as they are erased by nation-building, entry level positions in the global economy and the worldwide media (Wilford, 1994).
Mobility, Marriage, and Prostitution: Sexual Risk among Thai in the Netherlands
Authors: Brummelhuis Han Ten
Published: October 2023

Until the Second World War, it was a commonly held assumption that Thai never migrate to other countries. Thai were not thought to be able to survive without rice and Buddhism. Developments since the Second World War have belied such assumptions. Now, some observers tend to presuppose a special Thai talent for mobility and survival abroad. With regard to the past, however, the statement ‘Thai do not migrate’ must also be qualified. Actually, processes of (im)migration and mobility were crucial to the formation and maintenance of the old Thai social fabric and polity.
Summary of Conclusions: Measuring the Social Benefits, Convergence, and Policy Dialogue
Authors: McMahon Walter W
Published: October 2023

The rich nations are continuing to get richer, and the poorest nations are getting poorer. This concluding chapter reflects on this lack of absolute convergence worldwide, and also Within Africa. It then appraises what has been achieved by way of systematic measurement of the net outcomes of education and their cost effectiveness. Finally, it considers the use of policy dialogue simulations as a possible strategy for achieving cost-effective economic development. Hopefully, the latter may contribute to better understanding of the full scope of the central role of education as an investment in tht diffusion of knowledge for knowledge based growth and development.
Public Finance and the Central Bank
Authors: Kitterer Wolfgang
Published: October 2023

In a social market economy, the economic process is dominated by the autonomous activities of private households and enterprises. They react to price signals emanating from the market, which—if competition is perfect— ensures an optimum match between the supply of goods and services on the one hand, and demand, and thus the needs of the sovereign consumer, on the other.
The Central Bank and Money in the GDR
Authors: Thieme H Jörg
Published: October 2023

Providing a description of the origins and development of the monetary system in the GDR is at once interesting and difficult. Interesting, because following German reunification it ought to be possible to analyse the monetary side of administrative socialism, to review the interplay between socialist ideology and the pragmatic approach to monetary relations under a system of central economic planning over a period of more than 40 years. Interesting also because Western research into the GDR was long dominated by the view—a view shared by the theorists of socialism and the official policy of the GDR—that ‘money doesn’t matter in socialism’. On the other hand, it is difficult, given the limited space available, to explain in detail the vast range of monetary reforms, administrative reformses and reorganizations, and their economic consequences. This is not helped by the lack of empirical material available for the monetary sector, which was deemed secret in the GDR; a reading of internal Staatsbank documents, which is possible today, actually reveals less than one might hope, because the theoretical stance and political objectives in the GDR clearly affected the structure, quantity, and quality of the data.
The Role of the Bundesbank in Intra-German Payments
Authors: Plassmann Jochen
Published: October 2023

‘Intra-German payments’ means payments between the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic (GDR), which operated both legally and technically on a very different basis from payments with other countries. The legal basis for intra-German payments was formed by the Allied foreign exchange control laws, which remained in force until the GDR acceded to the Federal Republic in 1990.
Introduction
Authors: Jones Gavin W , Douglas R M
Published: October 2023

Over the course of the twentieth century, the world’s population will have climbed from 1.6 billion to an expected 6.3 billion. This extraordinary expansion of population, one of the key distinguishing features of this century, has resulted from a widening gap between falling death rates and less sharply falling birth rates. Successively shorter intervals have been required for the addition of each billion people: thirty years for the third billion, fourteen years for the fourth billion, thirteen years for the fifth and an expected eleven years for the sixth billion. This contracting time has resulted from the larger base on which each successive billion was added, as well as from increasing rates of population growth until the peak of 2.1 per cent per annum in the 1965-70 period, after which the rate has been gradually declining.
In The First Health Transition . Australia, 1880–1910
Authors: Smith F B
Published: October 2023

Through the decades of the first white Australian health transition, roughly 1880-1910, colonial and state statistical officers commonly set their mortality returns beside figures from England and Wales, as markers of progress or retrogression. The communities the statisticians tabulated were offshoots of the United Kingdom, mostly only two generations old, living in warmer, drier climates on different soils; together they embodied an isolated, radically smaller, farming, mining, transport, manufacturing, and service economy functioning across prodigious distances from six or so nodes at port suburbia, all wired to London.
The Demise of Universal Marriage 1n East and South-East Asia
Authors: Jones Gavin W
Published: October 2023

More than a decade ago, Smith (1980) noted that, although a great increase in age at marriage had occurred in many Asian countries, levels of permanent non-marriage in Asia were quite low, with virtually no evidence of any increase over time. Rates of female non-marriage at ages 45–49 were only 1 or 2 per cent with only three exceptions: Sri Lanka, Myanmar, and the Philippines. A more recent study by the United Nations stressed that ‘Asia remains a region where conformity to universal marriage norms has been maintained and prevalence of marriage for both sexes has remained very high in most countries’ (United Nations 1990: 184).
An Analysis of Parity-Dependent Fertility Falls in Tropical Africa
Authors: Brass William , Juarez, Fatima , Scott Anne
Published: October 2023

The tracing of fertility trends by traditional measures in the early stages of a demographic transition is speculative and uncertain even if the data are of good quality. Alterations in exposure to risk through fluctuations in the intensity and patterns of mating are hard to allow for with sufficient accuracy. When the data are subject to significant reporting errors (even when quite modest), as in most Third World countries, the difficulties are exaggerated greatly. It is no surprise then that there is a history of controversy about the nature and indeed existence of fertility falls in many countries. Mexico and Brazil in the 1970s, Pakistan in the 1980s, and Nigeria and Senegal currently are notable examples.
Replacement-Level Fertility: The Implausible Endpoint of the Demographic Transition
Authors: Demeny Paul
Published: October 2023

During much of the period following the Second World War, attention to issues related to fertility change—scientific, programmatic, and popular—has been centred on the transition from high to low fertility. The reasons for this are well known and need no elaboration here. The concept of ‘low fertility’, however, is elusive, and a facile assumption that the notion is correctly understood by all who use it can lead to a neglect of an important aspect of contemporary and prospective demographic change.
Health Treatment Behaviour in Sri Lanka
Authors: Pieris Indrani
Published: October 2023

The concept of health transition was originated as an attempt to fill the apparent gap left by the demographic transition and the epidemiological transition in explaining the processes and causes of mortality decline. Both these approaches consider mortality as the ultimate measure of health status of a population, but both fail to consider what happens to those who recover from their illnesses. Health transition extends its scope to include morbidity and disability as well as mortality as key health outcomes; it also covers social and behavioural health problems in populations and demands upon and responses of health policy and the health care system (Bell and Chen 1994). Health transition research, particularly the research on health behaviour, has contributed to our understanding of how some societies which spend a minimum of resources on health succeed in achieving a good health status. It has also helped us understand such problem areas as the availability of health services and the people’s perception and use of such services. This in turn can help health planners and policy-makers to target their efforts on the areas that are in need of special attention.
The Governance of Fertility Transition: Reflections on the Asian Experience
Authors: Mcnicoll Geoffrey
Published: October 2023

The major advances in fertility theory and theorizing in recent decades have come from investigation and modelling at the family level. Beckerian household economics offers a formal analytical structure within which to derive hypotheses about individual and family demographic response to changing economic circumstances. Caldwellian quasi-anthropology depicts demography at the grass roots—more precisely, in the thatch hut and village market—using a research methodology that supplements the dry and formulaic categories of fertility surveys with thickly detailed responses and scope for triangulation from neighbour, kin, and local official. Fertility studies have become firmly grounded in the family, whether apprehended through abstract micro-economic analysis or through efforts to lay out and create order from the messy realities of everyday life.
Politics, Culture and Fertility: Transitions in Indonesia
Authors: Hull Terence H , Hull Valerie J
Published: October 2023

In much of the discussion of demographic transition, and in the various theories of fertility change developed to explain the widespread reduction of family size, a contrast is made between the demographic impact of socio-economic change (which is sometimes characterized as ‘autonomous’) and planned government interventions. In the case of mortality, the influence of McKeown’s work stressed the role of hygiene and nutrition, rather than the heroic interventions of doctors and clinics, as factors producing the greater survival chances and longer life expectancies of the last 150 years. Analysis of fertility transition likewise contrasts the role of mass attitude and behaviour change brought about through schooling, cultural change, or rising incomes with explanations emphasizing government-organized family planning programmes as determinants of smaller families.
The Social Implications of Adolescent Fertility
Authors: Gage Anastasia j.
Published: October 2023

Adolescent pregnancy and childbearing have emerged as a source of social and policy concern in a number of countries during the last two decades. However, the cultural and social circumstances surrounding adolescent fertility are so diverse that they defy generalization. In many countries of sub-Saharan Africa, adolescent child bearing is the norm: teenage childbearing exceeds 150 per thousand, and births to women under the age of twenty comprise about 15-20 per cent of total births (Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) 1990). On average, more than 50 per cent of young women give birth before the age of twenty, and in some countries, as many as 40 per cent of women have their first child before the age of eighteen. The low age at first marriage means that most adolescent childbearing occurs within marriage, although in some countries, the proportion of children born before marriage is not trivial, and is of increased visibility, particularly in urban areas (Bledsoe and Cohen 1993; Gage-Brandon and Meekers 1993). In the United States, on the other hand, adolescent childbearing is relatively uncommon. It occurs largely out of wedlock and is selective of particular groups of women (Geronimus 1987).
Introduction
Authors: Strand David
Published: October 2023

In this century, China has experienced reform and revolution by government fiat, by broader cultural and social movements, and by the accretion (and loss) of technologies and public and private goods and services. The impulse to reform and rebuild has erupted on a national scale every several years since the turn of the century: the ‘New Policies’ (xinzheng) of the Qing dynasty’s last decade, early Republican constitutionalism, the May Fourth Movement, the Nationalist Party ‘Reorganization’ of the early 1920s, the Nanjing decade of 1927—37, the Yan’an reconsolidation and expansion of Communism, Nanjing’s post-war attempt at reconstruction, building socialism in the 1950s, the Great Leap, the Cultural Revolution, the 1980 reforms, the Democracy Movement, and, most recently, China’s exploding economy.
Calling the Chinese People to Order: Sun Yat-sen’s Rhetoric of Development
Authors: Strand David
Published: October 2023

Modern leaders benefit both from the power of the state as a likely instrument of their will and from crises that cast doubt on the ability of government or other political agencies to respond to social demands and interests. A strong leader can expose the weakness of a state and the latent power of a particular social reform or political constituency, or employ state power to recast society through reform or revolution from above. Alternatively, a political leader may contribute to both state power and social upheaval and so drive state and society towards higher levels of influence and mobilization. In this latter process, at certain moments of political and social conjuncture leaders may seem to take possession not only of a regime or a movement, but also of an entire country and era.
State and Society in Hainan: Liao Xun’s Ideas on ‘Small Government, Big Society’
Authors: Brødsgaard Kjeld Erik
Published: October 2023

In connection with the establishment of Hainan as a new province and a special economic zone in 1988, a series of economic, political, and social reform proposals were advanced under the concept of ‘small government, big society’. The concept constitutes one of the clearest examples of how social and economic change during the Deng period has stimulated new thinking about the relationship between state and society in China and how new conceptions often are developed locally before having a national impact.
Japan
Authors: Ishi Hiromitsu
Published: October 2023

The reorganization of Japan’s tax system in the post-war period was undertaken on the initiative of the USA by a tax mission headed by Carl S. Shoup. The objective of the Shoup mission was to design a tax system that would ensure a complete overhaul of the Japanese economy. The Shoup mission placed the greatest importance on direct taxes, mainly income tax on individuals and corporations. The entire tax system was completely restructured, leading to a shift from indirect to direct taxes as the major source of government revenue. However, changes initiated by the USA in the tax system were only short-lived since many of the taxes were abolished or modified soon after their enactment. The main features of the post-Shoup tax system are summarized below.
Introduction : Approaches to Anthropological Demography
Authors: Basu, Alaka Malwade , Aaby Peter
Published: October 2023

The discipline of demography has generally been tolerant of intervention by outsiders, and has welcomed their contribution to the study of its primary concerns—births, deaths, and population movements. Thus, economists continue to have their say on these matters, along with epidemiologists, statisticians, and sociologists. But one of the disciplines most intimately interested in questions of life and death, namely anthropology, was until recently curiously disinclined to go the next step and attach a wider demographic component to its deliberations. At the same time, demographers, with their unstinting loyalty to field and analytical methods antithetical to the traditional field and analytical techniques of anthropology, did not seem to find this at all curious.
Using Qualitative Data for Understanding Old-Age Security and Fertility
Authors: Knodel John
Published: October 2023

The reliance of parents on children for support and care during their elderly years is typically cited as a crucial prop of high fertility and a barrier to fertility transition by demographers (e.g. Caldwell 1977). In many societies where alternative forms of old-age support are lacking, adult children take on paramount importance for parents in their old age when physical health is impaired and the ability to perform economic activities is in decline. Two extensive reviews of the theoretical arguments and empirical research on the so-called ‘old-age security motive’ for having children exist, although both are written primarily from an economic perspective (Nugent 1985; Nugent and Anker 1990).
Anthropological Perspectives on Migration in Africa
Authors: Anarfi John Kwasi
Published: October 2023

For reasons that are not easy to explain, demographers seem to have a greater understanding for the fertility and mortality aspects of population than they have for migration, the third of the components of population change. While social scientists in other disciplines also work in the area of fertility and mortality, they seem to have accepted the lead of demographers, and there is very little or no controversy over concepts and definitions. This is not so with migration. Geographers as well as economists regard migration with special interest and have, in fact, contributed much to the study of its development at both the theoretical and empirical levels.
Employment Policy and Productive Efficiency as Alternative Managerial Objectives
Authors: Chan Hing-Lin , Lee Shu-Kam
Published: October 2023

The purpose of this chapter is twofold. First, we seek to examine the extent to which the reform policies of the 1980s succeeded in stimulating the productive efficiency of China’s state-owned enterprises. Second, we investigate the nature of the employment policies pursued by such enterprises in order to show whether employment expansion remained a major objective for these enterprises.
Nutritional Status, the Capacity for Work, and Poverty Traps
Authors: Dasgupta Partha
Published: October 2023

Analytical economists, even analytical development economists, have in large measure found it reasonable to assume that the science of nutrition does not exist. At the same time, nutritionists have often ignored economics. Development economists have yet to incorporate into their theoretical models the dynamic effects of nutritional and health-care deprivation on human productivity. Nutritionists, in turn, could better design some of their experiments if they were informed of economic theory. There is a good deal that each group has to say to the other.
‘Population’: A Commentary
Authors: Toye John
Published: October 2023

The argument of Keynes’s lecture on “Population was polemical in intent. Its rhetorical purpose was to persuade his hearers of the dangers of population growth, and of the practicality of actively limiting the size of Britain’s future population. Keynes’s intended wider audience was thus those pro-natalists who, at the turn of the twentieth century, were making increasingly energetic and strident efforts to turn public opinion in their direction, and who were having a growing success in the political arena. In “Population’, Keynes memorably categorized the sources of early twentieth-century pro-natalism as English bishops, French politicians and German economists (Fo. 21). In order to have an understanding of some of the ideas and political pressures that Keynes was concerned to weaken through his critical assault, this commentary begins by examining each of these three categories.
The Rapid Multiplication Of The Unfit
Authors: Toye John
Published: October 2023

How is the young Keynes’s writing on population to be located within the field of neo-Darwinian and eugenic thinking of his own day? To what extent does he merely articulate an existing contemporary consensus? To what extent did he achieve his own individual synthesis? If there was, somewhere in the early twentieth-century aether, an ideology that brought together population growth, the fear of the ‘rapid multiplication of the unfit’, and a belief in the inevitability of race conflict, how did Keynes’s distillation from the aether resemble or differ from those of other intellectuals? To see Keynes’s contribution on these issues in isolation is to risk judging it only by the liberal standards that hold general sway at the end of the twentieth century It is impossible for us to suspend or set aside our knowledge of what these standards are. However, a more comprehensive and satisfactory evaluation requires them to be balanced by the additional knowledge of the standards of judgement that prevailed on these matters in the late Victorian and Edwardian eras. Otherwise, our evaluation runs the risk of anachronism.
Capitalism and Contraception, 1919-1936
Authors: Toye John
Published: October 2023

The five and a half years between the delivery of the Oxford lecture on “Population” and the publication of The Economic Consequences of the Peace (1919) involved Keynes, as it did so many of his generation, in a journey across a vast psychological distance. The Great War was simply the most transforming event of his and their lives. Keynes had to deal with complex problems of war finance from his temporary position inside the Treasury, had to come to terms with his own and his friends” attitudes to military conscription and had to assist in negotiating financial aspects of a peace treaty that he realized could never last. Every day taught him the lesson of the uncertainty of human economic affairs, and finally brought him to the nervous breakdown that ended his official duties at the Paris Peace Conference. He recovered. The therapy was “violent and ruthless truth telling”, in his whirlwind composition of The Economic Consequences of the Peace.
Returning to Europe
Authors: Boeri Tito
Published: October 2023

In the previous chapters it has been shown that the design of non-employment benefits and the timing of their reforms have deeply shaped transition. Such policies have affected the scope and speed of job reallocation and the dynamics of inequalities, and differences in the design of transfers provided to non-employed individuals of working age can explain much of the large dispersion in labour-market outcomes both across countries and over time. The focus so far has been on the effects of policies, which were taken as given.
Understanding the North American System
Authors: Massey Douglas S , Arango Joaquín , Hugo Graeme , Kouaouci Ali , Pellegrino Adela , Taylor J Edward
Published: October 2023

We begin our review of the global research literature by examining the North American international migration system, concentrating primarily but not exclusively on the post-1945 period. After briefly discussing what we mean by an international migration ‘system’, we describe the evolution and structure of that which prevails in North America. We go on to review the rather voluminous literature on migration into Canada and the USA to determine how well the various theoretical propositions are borne out by empirical reality in North America. We conclude with a reappraisal of how well each theoretical model holds up under close scrutiny in the world’s largest and oldest migration system, describing the kinds of studies and data that will be needed in the future to address the core theoretical questions and conceptual issues before the field.
Coming to Terms with European Migration
Authors: Massey Douglas S , Arango Joaquín , Hugo Graeme , Kouaouci Ali , Pellegrino Adela , Taylor J Edward
Published: October 2023

In a few short years, the foreign-born percentage of Europe has come to rival that of older immigrant-receiving societies such as the USA, Australia, or Canada. Ardittis (1990) estimates that in 1985 some 12 million foreigners legally resided in Western Europe, about half from nations outside the European Union (EU), plus around 2-3 million additional illegal non-EU immigrants. Haskey (1992) puts the total number of immigrants, legal and illegal, at around 16 million in 1990, and Fassmann and Munz (1992) estimate it at 16.6 million. Official tabulations prepared by SOPEMI (1992) indicate that 15.5 million foreign nationals lived in the countries Western Europe in 1990, representing around 7 per cent of its total population.
International Migration in South America
Authors: Massey Douglas S , Arango Joaquín , Hugo Graeme , Kouaouci Ali , Pellegrino Adela , Taylor J Edward
Published: October 2023

In the last of our empirical assessments of migration theory, we consider research on international migration in South America, excluding Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean, which were already covered in our discussion of the North American system. As in earlier chapters, we seek to compare theoretical predictions with empirical data, to evaluate existing conceptual models, and to foster a closer integration among the various conceptual frameworks. Once again we begin by describing patterns of migration in the region, focusing in particular on the structure and organization of the Argentine subsystem.
International Migration and Community Development
Authors: Massey Douglas S , Arango Joaquín , Hugo Graeme , Kouaouci Ali , Pellegrino Adela , Taylor J Edward
Published: October 2023

In the last chapter we reviewed the accumulated research on international migration and economic development at the national level. We found that once the various direct and indirect effects are taken fully into account, international migration carries considerable potential for national economic development, but that this potential is often unrealized in practice. All too frequently, countries pin their hopes on labour export while ignoring more basic economic problems.
Conclusions for the Next Century
Authors: Massey Douglas S , Arango Joaquín , Hugo Graeme , Kouaouci Ali , Pellegrino Adela , Taylor J Edward
Published: October 2023

The foregoing chapters have laid the groundwork for a larger and more important task: building a conceptually accurate and empirically valid theoretical model to explain the emergence of international migration worldwide in the late twentieth century. Prior to the Second World War, world migration flows were dominated by Europeans. Mass emigration began in the British Isles with the Industrial Revolution and moved south and east across the Continent as industrialism spread. The vast majority of emigrants went to one of five frontier societies that were themselves in the throes of rapid economic development: the USA, Canada, Argentina, Brazil, or Australia. The massive out-migration of Europeans ended during the Great Depression of the 1930s, and a revival of significant international movement was largely precluded during the 1940s by the hostilities of the Second World War.
Fathers And Families In Contemporary Spain: From Dictatorship To Democracy
Authors: Miret-Gamundi Pau
Published: October 2023

Male fertility is of secondary interest to most demographers, most work on fertility having focused on women. Nevertheless, to treat male fertility as an isolated topic would be misleading, for having a baby overwhelmingly takes place within a couple, at least in Spain and, to a great extent, throughout Europe. Having a child marks what people regard as the critical social threshold between the constitution of a couple and the formation of a family.
One Decade of External Coffee Shocks in Colombia, 1975-85
Authors: Montenegro Santiago
Published: October 2023

The aim of this chapter is to study the Colombian coffee shocks in the period 1975-1985.1 Between 1975 and 1977, the relative price of coffee multiplied 2.6 times, which increased the country’s terms of trade by 50%. While the real exchange rate appreciated significantly, the current account of the balance of payments developed a substantial surplus and the budget deficit fell dramaticaly and even presented surpluses in two years of the boom. The boom years (1976-80) were followed by a reverse shock, expressed in the collapse in the value of coffee and non-coffee exports in 1981 and the following three years.
The Mexican Oil Boom, 1977-85
Authors: Gavin Michael
Published: October 2023

Throughout the twentieth century petroleum has played a prominent, and occasionally decisive, role in Mexico’s political and economic development, and the 1970s and early 1980s were no exception. Mexico was profoundly shaken by the oil market disturbances that rocked the world economy during that period, and only with great difficulty did Mexico emerge from the macroeconomic cloud left by the shocks.
The Philippines, 1986-89
Authors: Fabella Raul , Jayasuriya Sisira
Published: October 2023

The 1980s were a period of tremendous political and economic turbulence in the Philippines. The combination of the second OPEC oil price in creases-the Philippines is a net oil importer-and the collapse of commodity prices (sugar, coconut and copper) led to a terms of trade deterioration of 30% between 1979 and 1985. Its effects were aggravated by the rise in world interest rates and drying-up of capital flows to heavily indebted developed countries during the early 1980s.
The Remittance Boom in Bangladesh, 1978-86
Authors: Azam Jean-Paul , Shahabuddin Quazi
Published: October 2023

Bangladesh is widely regarded as a symbol of poverty and natural disaster: floods, droughts, cyclones, etc. have stricken this overpopulated economy recurrently, leaving millions in destitution (Sen 1981; Ravallion 1987). With about 110 million inhabitants for only 144 thousand square kilometres, it is one of the most densely populated countries in the world. Its population density is about eight times that of France, and nearly twice that of the Netherlands. In 1983, it was second poorest, after Ethiopia, in the ranking of countries by per capita GNP, according to the World Development Report 1985 (World Bank 1985). Although it enjoys a steady growth rate of per capita income well above that of most African countries (1.9% per annum on average in 1980-91), but lower than that of the neighbouring countries, it remains nowadays among the poorest countries in the world: in 1991 per capita GNP was US$220 (World Bank 1993a).
Indonesia: Trade Shocks and Construction Booms
Authors: Warr Peter G
Published: October 2023

Indonesia is the world’s third largest developing country, after China and India, and by far the most populous member of the Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). Like all petroleum exporting countries, Indonesia was greatly affected by the volatility of international petroleum prices during the 1970s and 1980s. This chapter deals with the way in which Indonesia adjusted to that external environment.
Adolescent Women in Buenos Aires: The Influence of Social Class and Gender Images on Reproductive Behaviour
Authors: Pantelides Edith A , Dominguez, Graciela Infesta , Geldstein Rosa N
Published: October 2023

Interest in the determinants of adolescent reproductive behaviour in Argentina arose a few years ago from the observation that fertility rates for women below the age of 20 had risen, and were relatively high, for a country where fertility levels have been moderate and diminishing for more than seven decades. The fertility rate for the 15-19 age group reached its lowest level around 1960 (61 per thousand). By 1980 the rate had gone up to 81 per thousand. Although the rate diminished afterwards, it has not returned to its 1960s level, oscillating around 68-70 per thousand in the last few years (69.7 in 1991). Additionally, half of the provinces have adolescent fertility rates above 90 per thousand (Giusti and Pantelides 1991; Pantelides 1995).
Levels of Childbearing, Contraception, and Abortion in Brazil: Differentials by Poverty Status
Authors: Singh Susheela , Monteiro Mario
Published: October 2023

The very large and rapid decline in fertility that occurred in Brazil, beginning in 1970 and continuing through the 1980s, has now been well documented (Carvalho and Wong 1990; Silva et al. 1990). The total fertility rate (TFR) declined from about 5.8 in 1970 to approximately 4.4 in 1980, and then to 3.5 in the mid-1980s. This decline in fertility is continuing, and the TFR has been estimated to be slightly under 3.0 by the early 1990s (United Nations 1994).
Female Migration in Relation to Female Labour Force Participation: Implications for the Alleviation of Poverty
Authors: Zlotnik Hania
Published: October 2023

According to the World Bank, more than a billion people live in poverty, struggling to survive on very low incomes, and the weight of poverty falls more heavily on certain groups, particularly on women who, as members of poor households, are generally faced with heavier workloads than men, are less educated, and have less access to remunerative activities (World Bank 1990). Although progress has been made in raising average incomes, the problem of ensuring that major sectors of society do not fall behind in terms of having access to an adequate income has been less tractable. Given that migration has generally been viewed as a process through which people can improve their likelihood of earning better wages (Todaro 1976), it is pertinent to enquire to what extent it has been or can be a means of combating poverty.
Household Social Dynamics and the Retention of Rural Population: A Malian Case Study of the Link between Patriarchy and the Sustained Ruralization of Sub-Saharan Africa
Authors: Tawanda Michael
Published: October 2023

Compared to a projected world urbanization level of approximately 50 per cent by the year 2000, the corresponding figure for Africa is only about 41 per cent (United Nations 1991). Given this disparity, it is important to deal with the question of why African rural areas continue to retain the larger share of the national population. In this paper, I propose and test what I shall refer to as a patriarchal household model of Africa’s retention of rural population. The central dynamic in the model is provided by social-system continuity, and my main hypothesis is that men and women who are highly subordinate to the patriarch are less likely to engage in rural out-migration than individuals whose level of subordination is low.
Maternal Education and Child Health: Evidence and Ideology
Authors: Desai Sonalde
Published: October 2023

Research on women’s status and demographic change has traditionally argued that lower fertility and mortality can be achieved by improvements in such indicators of women’s status as education, employment opportunities, and control over resources (Mason 1984). The empirical support for some of these claims is stronger than for others, but none the less it is generally believed that policies which affirm women will lead to desirable demographic outcomes. A great deal of this research has been conducted by feminist scholars, genuinely interested in the potential for improving women’s status vis-a-vis that of men and seeing positive demographic outcomes as a bonus accompanying such socially desirable policies as improvements in women’s education.
Successful Macro-Management over the Mineral-Driven Cycle
Authors: Auty Richard M , Mikesell Raymond E
Published: October 2023

The focus in Chapters 7 and 8 is upon macroeconomic management, using conventional national accounting. A prerequisite for mineral-driven sustainable development is the reduction of economic distortions created by external shocks or by mistaken policies, by means of the effective pursuit of macro-policy. Within a soundly managed economy, policies to deploy the mineral revenue to advantage need to be adjusted to each stage of the mineral-driven cycle (youth, early maturity, and late maturity). In particular, investment and growth must be sustained beyond the youthful stage of the cycle. This chapter focuses on the policy adjustments of the four most successful countries in the sample to the youthful stage and onset of maturity. Late maturity, which calls primarily for the intensification of the measures adopted during the second stage, is the principal focus of Chapter 8.
Mismanaged Mature Stage of the Mineral-Led Cycl
Authors: Auty Richard M , Mikesell Raymond E
Published: October 2023

This chapter focuses on the four less successful mineral economies in the sample (Peru, Trinidad and Tobago, Jamaica, and Namibia) which were all mature mid income mineral economies that experienced difficulty in sustaining economic growth, once the youthful stage of the mineral-driven cycle had passed. Their rates of investment collapsed below 20 per cent of GDP with the exception of Jamaica where, however, the efficiency of investment was very low (Table 6.4). In all four countries excessive government intervention had severely distorted the economy, a condition associated with political pressure in resource-rich mid-income countries to force the rate of growth ( Lal 1995). A further common feature was a reluctance to embrace orthodox economic reforms, which Mahon (1992) attributes to the inability of even autonomous governments to remain in power long enough to reap the rewards of such policies. Consequently, efforts to remove the economic distortions were unusually protracted, with sizeable losses in output and welfare.
Substituting for the Depleting Assets: Environmental Accounting
Authors: Auty Richard M , Mikesell Raymond E
Published: October 2023

Sustainable development calls for macroeconomic policies which maintain GDP growth beyond the youthful stage of the mineral cycle and promote economic diversification. The rate of investment is a critical component of this process. The more successfull mineral economies are those which lifted their rate of investment above 25 per cent of GDP while also maintaining the efficiency of that investment, as shown by an ICOR of 5 or less. Among the most successful countries, investment remained high in the cases of Indonesia and Botswana and rose strongly through the 1980s in Chile to over 26 per cent of GDP. In contrast, investment faltered at a rate just below that level in PNG, the fourth most successfull country in our sample, but it collapsed in three of the four least successful countries, Trinidad and Tobago, Peru, and Namibia. Jamaica is an interesting exception in this group because that country maintained a high rate of investment, but failed to translate it into sustained rapid economic growth, owing to investment inefficiency (Table 6.4).
Policy Applications: Colombia
Authors: Auty Richard M , Mikesell Raymond E
Published: October 2023

This chapter applies the lessons from this study to Colombia which was embarking on the youthful stage of the mineral-driven cycle during the 1990s. More exactly, Colombia in the mid-1990s was a nascent mineral economy which exhibited some of the opportunities and also some of the problems associated with the youthful stage of the mineral-driven cycle. Although mining is unlikely to dominate the Colombian economy, it is sufficiently large to prompt careful evaluation of possible impacts (Planeciony Desarrollo 1994).
The Republican State and the National Community
Authors: Harrison Henrietta
Published: October 2023

If the 1911 revolution created a new image of the republican citizen, it also created a new model of the state. Theoretically the model of the state was embodied in the new republican system of government. However it was clear that the elected local, provincial and national assemblies did not in fact have sufficient power to dominate the country politically.
The Citizens’ Revolution
Authors: Harrison Henrietta
Published: October 2023

In 1926 the armies of the Nationalist Party under the leadership of Chiang Kaishek launched a military expedition that would ultimately bring the party to national power. Initially the Northern Expedition was discounted by the press as little more than a sideshow compared to the great battles then raging across North China between the armies of Feng Yuxiang based in the north-west, Wu Peifu in Central China and Zhang Zuolin in Manchuria.
Introduction
Authors: Bakken Børge
Published: October 2023

In this book my object of research is Chinese society in the midst of reform and modernization, caught between the problems of order and stability, disorder and danger. I term this society an ‘exemplary society’, one linked to ‘exemplary norms’. It is the character of this ‘exem plarity’ that will form the essence of my discussion.
Socialization, Moral Education, and ‘Moral Science’
Authors: Bakken Børge
Published: October 2023

All persons are potentially perfectable through education: this is a strong assumption in Chinese philosophy and culture. The educational environment determines whether or not an individual will be good or evil, and educational reform is a key to solving urgent social and political problems.
On Models, Modelling, and the Exemplary
Authors: Bakken Børge
Published: October 2023

We may recall the statement that to imitate is to follow the example of exemplary models. The method is a central characteristic of the exemplary society. But learning from models is more than a simple pedagogical method. It represents the culmination of an imitative-repetitive culture. The Confucian view assumes that men are drawn to virtuous models, and that social stability results from their emulation of those models. Confucian thought prefers social control through the presentation of virtuous models.
Discipline and the Exemplary Norm
Authors: Bakken Børge
Published: October 2023

The dichotomy between morality and law has been seen as a dichotomy between traditional and modern forms of organizing and establishing order in society. Such a dichotomy, however, does not quite seem to fit the reality of order. In China there have been attempts to strengthen law during the reforms. But this tendency is a very uneven one, and, as we have seen through the emphasis on spiritual civilization, morality has maintained a strong position throughout the whole period of reform, and has even been considerably strengthened in the 1990s.
The Disciplinary Techniques of Evaluation
Authors: Bakken Børge
Published: October 2023

Evaluation is the main way in which exemplary society links people’s behaviour, or rather brings their biaoxian closer to the exemplary norm. The Chinese ancients said ‘promote the good, suppress the evil’ (yang shan yi e), and ‘only by comparison can one distinguish’ (bi ze ming qi li). The way to achieve all this is still through evaluation.