bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Guidelines for Programs Preparing Undergraduate and Graduate Students for Careers in Sport Management
Authors: Brassie P. Stanley
Published: August 2016

In 1987 the National Association for Sport and Physical Education (NASPE) appointed a task force to develop undergraduate and graduate curricular guidelines for institutions preparing sport management professionals. The undergraduate guidelines address the three components of a sport management curriculum: (a) the foundational areas of study comprising full courses in business management, marketing, economics, accounting, finance, and computer science; (b) the application areas of study composed of sport foundations (e.g., sport sociology, sport psychology, sport history /philosophy, women in sport), sport law, sport economics, sport marketing/promotion, and sport administration; and (c) the field experiences including practical and internships. The graduate guidelines build upon the undergraduate preparation and include (a) two required courses in research methods and a project or thesis; (b) advanced application electives in sport law, sport economics, sport marketing/promotion, sport administration, facility design, and event management; and (c) the field experiences of practical and internships.
Effects of the 1984 Supreme Court Ruling on the Television Revenues of NCAA Division I Football Programs
Authors: Mawson L. Marlene , Bowler William T.
Published: August 2016

The 1984 Supreme Court ruling in the antitrust suit between the Universities of Oklahoma and Georgia, representing the College Football Association (CFA), versus the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) provided mat individual institutions had proper authority to sell television rights to their football games. The NCAA had controlled television appearances of collegiate football teams with the rationale of preventing erosion of game attendance due to televised home football games. Records of home games televised, television revenues from football games, and attendance at televised football games were gathered from 57% of NCAA Division I institutions and compared for a 3-year period prior to the 1984 ruling, with a 3-year period following the ruling. Four sets oft tests between mean data for the pre- and posttime periods showed that although the number of games scheduled per season remained the same, the number of televised football games significantly increased, the television revenues from football remained constant, and attendance at televised home football games decreased significantly after the 1984 ruling.
Sport Management Curricular Evaluation and Needs Assessment: A Multifaceted Approach
Authors: DeSensi Joy T. , Kelley Dennie R. , Blanton Mary Dale , Beitel Patricia A.
Published: August 2016

This study specifically determined (a) employer expectations of sport managers, (b) employer evaluation of educational sport management programs and curricula, (c) college/university faculty/student evaluation of components of existing sport management programs, and (d) the interrelationships among these groups. The results of this study identified the commonalities within and between business/agency groups and college/university faculty and students. Results of the business/agency needs assessment indicated major differences across settings for academic/experiential requirements, employment needs, workload distributions, and job evaluation criteria. Evaluation of the commonalities/ differences provide indication for curricular planning. Also, differences were apparent between the curricular evaluations of the college/university faculty and business/agency personnel, suggesting the need to evaluate curricular content and determine where changes should/should not be made. There is support for the theoretical conjecture that one concentration will not meet the needs of personnel for all business/agency settings.
The Effects of Leader Behavior and Organizational Climate on Intercollegiate Coaches’ Job Satisfaction
Authors: Snyder Carey J.
Published: August 2016

The effects of leader behavior and organizational climate on the job satisfaction of intercollegiate coaches were analyzed. The 117 subjects represented 17 California colleges and universities. The instruments used in data collection were the Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire, the Organizational Climate Description Questionnaire, and the Job Descriptive Index. Statistical analysis revealed that the athletic director’s behavior and the climate had direct and indirect effects on job satisfaction. The degree of consideration shown by the athletic director had a strong effect on satisfaction with work and supervision. Coaches’ feelings of detachment and the lack of administrative support showed a negative relationship to satisfaction with work and supervision. Path analytic procedures showed male and female subjects differing with respect to the factors shaping job satisfaction. Consideration helped female coaches feel integrated into the department and supported by the administration. Male subjects viewed consideration as important to the development of morale and rapport with colleagues.
Mentoring and Networking: Perceptions by Athletic Administrators
Authors: Young Darlene
Published: August 2016

The purpose of the study was to identify and analyze mentoring and networking among selected male and female administrators employed by National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) institutions. A random sample of 263 NCAA administrators (106 males, 157 females) participated in the study. Data were collected through a mail questionnaire and a follow-up interview, both developed by the researcher. Results indicate that NCAA administrators have mentoring relationships and participate actively in networking. The mentoring relationships and the networking utilized by these administrators included both formal and informal involvement. The results indicate that NCAA administrators perceive that having a mentor and actively networking assists in an individual’s personal and professional development.
Selecting Students for Graduate Academic Success and Employability: A New Research Direction for Sport Management
Authors: Brown Susan C.
Published: August 2016

This study sought to identify significant predictors of success (a) in a graduate program of sport management at a major research institution in the United States and (b) in initial employment success. Regression analysis identified four significant predictors for success in the graduate program. The variables that produced a positive relationship with the dependent variable—final graduate grade point average—were age upon application, number of years of extracurricular activity involvement in undergraduate school, and undergraduate grade point average. The number of years in a full-time position in sport management upon application produced a significant negative relationship. Discriminant analysis was used to identify possible predictors of initial employment success identified as time from graduation to employment in a sport management position. However, no significant predictors were found.
A Comparison of Attorneys’ Reasons for Settlement in Personal Injury Lawsuits
Authors: Gray Gary R.
Published: August 2016

This study was conducted to determine the reasons that influence the decision to settle a personal injury lawsuit rather than proceed to court for a trial. Additionally, this study compared plaintiff attorneys’ and insurance company attorneys’ reasons for settlement in personal injury lawsuits to determine whether there are significant differences between the two groups. Subjects, 28 plaintiff attorneys and 57 insurance company attorneys, rated the importance of or degree of agreement with 77 statements related to their decision to settle or to recommend settlement. T tests revealed significant differences between the two groups on 31 of the 77 items. Among all 85 attorneys, the top four reasons for settlement were (a) if the opposing attorney offers realistic settlement figures, a jury trial will offer more risk than advantage; (b) settlements are an attractive alternative to a trial partly because of the high costs of litigation; (c) in deciding whether to settle, attorneys attempt to determine the probable verdict in light of the evidence; and (d) attorneys attempt to determine the value of an immediate settlement compared to the uncertainty of a trial.
Organizational Commitment in Sport Clubs: A Multivariate Exploratory Study
Authors: Haggerty Terry R. , Denomme Denise
Published: August 2016

Multivariate analyses of responses from 327 undergraduate student members of 17 university recreational sport clubs indicated that eight variables jointly explained 35.3% of the variance in members’ organizational commitment. They were (a) the importance of management related items, (b) the emphasis the club placed on delivering its service, (c) the lack of emphasis the club placed on status related items, (d) the emphasis the club placed on social aspects, (e) members’ current involvement in physical activity, (f) reduced travel time to club gatherings, (g) increased preparation time for club activities, and (h) gender, with males expressing more commitment than females. The study concluded that management related factors were among the most important aspects in affecting member commitment in sport clubs. Implications for practicing managers and researchers were addressed.
Development of a Model for Evaluating High Performance Sport Centers in Canada
Authors: Armstrong Alison J. , Hansen Hal , Gauthier Roger
Published: August 2016

A theory based model was developed for the evaluation of high performance sport centers (HPSCs) in Canada. The model was developed according to de Groot’s (1969) four-phase interpretative-theoretical methodology. The phases of exploration, analysis, classification, and explanation guided the collection of current program evaluation literature and information on the nature of the HPSC program and its past evaluation practices. Appropriate evaluation models from the literature were assessed with respect to the HPSC program’s nature, and a single theoretical-integrative model was developed with corresponding guidelines for HPSC evaluation. The model is described with reference to (a) the role of evaluation at each stage of the HPSC life cycle, (b) the evaluators and decision makers, (c) utilization of the evaluation information, and (d) a general format for guiding the responsible national sport organizations through the important process of evaluation.
A Classification of Sport and Physical Activity Services: Implications for Sport Management
Authors: Chelladurai P.
Published: August 2016

A classification of sport and physical activity services based on two dimensions is presented. The first dimension is the type and extent of employee involvement in the production of services—consumer, professional, and human services. The second dimension is the four sets of client motives for participation in sport and physical activity—pursuit of pleasure, skill, excellence, and health/fitness. A combination of these two dimensions yields six classes of sport and physical activity services: consumer pleasure, consumer health/fitness, human skills, human excellence, human sustenance, and human curative. The managerial implications emerging from the proposed model are outlined with reference to programming, organizing, staffing, and leading in organizations delivering sport and physical activity services.
The Construction and Use of Polysemic Structures: Olympic Lessons for Sport Marketing
Authors: Chalip Laurence
Published: August 2016

Research seeking to describe and explain the extraordinary attention received by the Olympic Games has elaborated useful models of fan interest and motivation. In this paper, implications for the theory and practice of marketing sport are reviewed. Olympics research shows that audience interest is maximized via the simultaneous presence of multiple narratives, embedded genres, and layered symbols. Multiple narratives create stories attractive to varied audience segments by recounting dramas of enduring cultural interest or by incorporating contemporary, nonsport political or social concerns. Embedded genres (e.g., festival, spectacle, ritual, game) appeal to a diverse audience by serving as parallel and simultaneous invitations to consumer interest. Appropriately layered symbols (e.g., awards, banners, flags, uniforms, anthems) promote spectator interest by making ceremonies and rituals representative of more than a mere game or contest. The use of multiple narratives, embedded genres, and layered symbols in the planning, design, and promotion of sporting events is discussed. These strategies are contrasted with positioning (i.e., communication strategies designed to obtain a unique representation for products in consumers' minds). It is argued that multiple narratives, embedded genres, and layered symbols function affectively and thereby complement positioning, which functions cognitively, as marketing strategies.
Focus Groups as a Useful Qualitative Methodology in Sport Management
Authors: Inglis Sue
Published: August 2016

This review paper presents recent critiques regarding research in sport management and suggests that focus groups are a qualitative methodology particularly suited to research and practice in sport management. Features of qualitative methodology and merits of focus groups are presented. The challenge to scholars working in sport management is (a) to consider using focus-group methodology in situations where such usage will advance the understanding of and response to research questions, and (b) to consider using focus groups as a self-contained methodology or in triangulation with other methodologies.
Two-Year College Coaches of Women's Teams: Gender Differences in Coaching Career Selections
Authors: Pastore Donna L.
Published: August 2016

The present study examined the factors that influence male and female 2-year college coaches of women's teams to select and possibly leave a career in coaching. Of 200 coaches from five athletic conferences in the Mid-Atlantic/New England region, 90 (45%) participated in the study. Two separate MANOVAs were used to analyze each of the two sets of dependent variables (reasons for selecting and reasons for leaving coaching) with the independent variable (gender). Univariate analyses showed that females valued “helping female athletes reach their athletic potential” as a reason for being a coach significantly more than males did. Female coaches also rated significantly higher than males the factors “burden of administrative duties” and “increased intensity in recruiting student-athletes” as reasons to leave the coaching profession.
Occupational Stressors in Physical Education Faculties
Authors: Danylchuk Karen E.
Published: August 2016

The prevalence of occupational Stressors in physical education faculties/ departments as a function of sex, age, marital status, family status, years of work experience in higher education, and type of appointment was examined through use of the Stress Diagnostic Survey (Ivancevich & Matteson, 1988a). This multidimensional self-report inventory consists of 17 dimensions, which are further subdivided into organizational Stressors (macrostressors) and individual Stressors (microstressors). The sample reported moderate degrees of stress in comparison to the normative data with the macrostressors being greater sources of stress than the microstressors. Quantitative overload was rated the highest followed by time pressure and rewards. Qualitative overload was rated lowest followed by role ambiguity and role conflict. Sex was associated with the greatest number of Stressors—gender discrimination, quantitative overload, and time pressure. Females perceived these three Stressors to be significantly greater sources of stress than did males.
Sport Management Curricula in Rand Afrikaans University, South Africa
Authors: Gouws Johan
Published: August 2016

This paper outlines the sport management curricula adopted by the Rand Afrikaans University in South Africa. The literature that provided the framework and the local conditions that influenced the curriculum design are described. The differences between the curriculum models generally found in North America and the present model are noted.
Recent Trends in the Sports Industry in Japan
Authors: Oga Jun , Kimura Kazuhiko
Published: August 2016

This paper outlines the progressive increases in the consumption of sport-related services, the concomitant growth in the sports industry following the growth of the Japanese economy, and the ensuing changes in the lifestyles of Japanese people.
Ethical Decision Making in Sport Administration: A Theoretical Inquiry into Substance and Form
Authors: Malloy David Cruise , Zakus Dwight H.
Published: August 2016

The primary purpose of this paper is to provide an overview of the theoretical underpinnings of ethical decision making for the sport administrator. A secondary purpose is to argue for changes to the pedagogical nature and process in sport administration programs so that students have the ability to make decisions with a critically conscious praxis. Four philosophical approaches to ethics and two psychological approaches to moral reasoning are briefly discussed. A synthesis of philosophical and psychological approaches is suggested as a means to understand, in a comprehensive manner, the ethical decision-making behavior of the sport administrator within what may well be a contradiction-based sport organization. Finally, some comments are made on ways that this synthesized approach might be used in a critical active pedagogy in sport administration programs.
Leadership, Organizational Culture, and Job Satisfaction in Canadian YMCA Organizations
Authors: Wallace Mike , Weese W. James
Published: August 2016

This study was undertaken to investigate the links between transformational leadership, organizational culture, and employee job satisfaction within the 69 Canadian YMCA organizations. Leadership was measured by the Leadership Behavior Questionnaire (Sashkin, 1988), organizational culture by the Organizational Culture Assessment Questionnaire (Sashkin, 1990), and employee job satisfaction by the Job in General Index (Balzer & Smith, 1990). The results of a MÁNOVA and subsequent ANOVA statistical treatments allowed the researchers to conclude that significant differences in organizational culture existed between the YMCA organizations led by high transformational leaders and YMCA organizations led by low transformational leaders. In addition, the YMCA organizations led by high transformational leaders administered organizations that carried out the culture-building activities of managing change, achieving goals, coordinated teamwork, and customer orientation to a greater degree than YMCA organizations led by low transformational leaders. No significant differences in employee job satisfaction levels existed between the YMCA organizations led by high transformational leaders and those led by low transformational leaders.
Case Study: Hillerich and Bradsby Company, Inc. Implementation of Just in Time Manufacturing
Authors: Miller Lori K. , Fielding Lawrence W. , Gupta Mahesh , Pitts Brenda G.
Published: August 2016

In this case study of Hillerich & Bradsby Company, Inc. (H&B), the ways in which H&B implemented principle components of Just In Time (JIT) Manufacturing in the production of wooden baseball bats are identified. Various JIT components such as small batch production, a cellular layout, multifunctional workers, reduced set-up times, empowered employees, the kanban system, and supplier partnerships are discussed and applied to H&B productions. An analysis of selected financial ratios indicated that JIT successfully contributed to the maintenance of H&B's production efficiency and market leadership. While the first section of the paper briefly outlines the history of the H&B company, the second section addresses the JIT manufacturing process. Seven principle components associated with the JIT manufacturing process are addressed and applied to H&B's operations. In conclusion the limitations associated with H&B's implementation of the JIT manufacturing process are identified.
Psychological Characteristics of Successful and Nonsuccessful Elite Wrestlers: An Exploratory Study
Authors: Highlen Pamela S. , Bennett Bonnie B.
Published: August 2016

Elite wrestlers (N = 39) were given a standardized questionnaire during final competition for positions on three Canadian World Wrestling teams. The questionnaire specifically focused upon psychological factors affecting both their training and competition. For data analysis, questionnaire items were combined into 17 factors. Both t-tests and simple discriminant function analyses for qualifier/nonqualifier competitive status revealed that self-confidence was the most important factor distinguishing the two groups. For the discriminant function analysis, Imagery and Factors Affecting Performance were the only factors which did not contribute to group differences. Explanations and implications of these results for sport psychology are discussed.
Behavior Modification in Sport and Physical Education: A Review
Authors: Donahue Janet A. , Gillis Jacqueline H. , King Karen
Published: August 2016

This paper reviews published research on behavior modification in sport and physical education. Following an introduction and some general information concerning operant technology, the actual review covers three areas: (a) behavior modification and coaching/teaching behavior, (b) behavior modification in physical education and sport environments, and (c) behavior modification and skill development. The studies reviewed document the significant value of using reinforcement principles to create or sustain specific coaching, teaching, and participant behaviors germane to sport and physical education.
Effect of Public and Private Efficacy Expectations on Competitive Performance
Authors: Weinberg Robert S. , Yukelson David , Jackson Allen
Published: August 2016

The present investigation was designed to extend Weinberg, Gould, and Jackson's (1979) efficacy-performance results to a back-to-back competitive situation as well as to determine whether performance would be affected by the solicitation of public vs. private expectancy statements. Subjects (56 males and 56 females) were randomly assigned to either a high or low self-efficacy condition and either stated their expectancy of success publicly or privately in a 2 × 2 × 2 (sex × self-efficacy × publiclprivate) factorial design. Self-efficacy was manipulated by having subjects compete against a confederate on a muscular leg-endurance task in which the confederate was said to be either a varsity track athlete who exhibited higher performance on a related task (low self-efficacy), or an individual who had a knee injury and exhibited poorer performance on a related task (high self-efficacy). The results supported self-efficacy predictions, and thus extended Weinberg et al.'s findings to a back-to-back competitive situation. The public/private manipulation produced no significant performance effects. In addition, the sex by self-efficacy interaction indicated that the self-efficacy main effect was due primarily to high-efficacy males extending their legs significantly longer than low-efficacy males. These results are discussed in terms of the differing patterns of sex-role socialization.
Cognitive Demand, Imagery, and Frequency of Mental Rehearsal as Factors Influencing Acquisition of Motor Skills
Authors: Ryan E. Dean , Simons Jeff
Published: August 2016

Male college students (N= 39) learned two novel perceptual motor tasks differing in demand across a cognitive-motor continuum, under conditions of physical practice (PP), mental practice (MP), or no practice (NP). On each task, the PP group was given 12 actual trials; the MP group received one actual, nine mental, then two actual trials; and the NP group received one actual trial, 10 minutes rest, then two actual trials. Results showed no difference in learning between MP and NP groups on the predominantly motor task, with the PP group significantly superior to both. On the predominantly cognitive task, however, the MP group performed as well as the PP group, and both were significantly superior to the NP group. Two additional questions concerning the influences of imaging ability and relative frequency of mental practice rendered equivocal results.
The Effects of Sport Experience in the Development of Social Character: An Exploratory Investigation
Authors: Kleiber Douglas A. , Roberts Glyn G.
Published: August 2016

The word “character” has generally lost its currency in the literature on personality and social psychology over the last 20 years. And yet the assumption that sport builds character is still held, at least privately, by a great many people. This investigation was an attempt to reconsider the “character” construct, to isolate its social elements, and to establish its susceptibility in childhood to the influence of organized sport experience. Using prosocial behavior as one manifestation of evolved social character, the influence or organized sport was assessed in a field experiment with children from two elementary schools. Although the general assumption that “sport builds character” was not strongly supported or refuted in this investigation, some evidence, at least with males, showed that prosocial behavior may be inhibited by sport experience. Finally, implications were drawn for facilitating prosocial behavior in children's sports.
Sex of Subject, Sex of Opponent, and Opponent Ability as Factors Affecting Self-confidence in a competitive situation
Authors: Corbin Charles B.
Published: August 2016

Male and female subjects (N = 80), ranging in age from 17 to 25 years, participated in a study designed to determine if the sex of the sex of the subject, the sex of the subject's opponent, or the perceived ability of the subject's opponent, (good vs. poor ability) affected subjects' self confidence after competing at a task (TV Pong Game) of “neutral” sex orientation. a 2 x 2 x 2 mixed factorial design, with 10 subjects assigned to each cell, was used. All subjects competed in five games against a confederate and in all cases subjects lost all but the second of the five games. Data were treated using an ANCOVA, with preperformance confidence being used as the covariate. Ragardless of sex of the opponent, females expressed postperformance confidence levels equal to males after performing against an opponent thought to be poor in ability, but they were significantly less cofident after performing against opponents perceived to be good in ability. These findings are consistent with those of Argote, Fisher, McDonald, and O'Neal (1976), who note that the performance expectations of females tend to be unstable and change with single encounters, whereas males are less likely to allow one failure to affect performance assessments.
The Perception of Exertion: A Social Psychophysiological Integration
Authors: Rejeski W. Jack
Published: August 2016

For years, physiologists and psychologists have attempted to elucidate the perceptual foundations of perceived exertion and in the process have identified several psychometric variables that mediate the self-report of this experience. Recently, cognitively oriented psychologists have begun to demonstrate that our social and physical environments play a significant role in the subjective ratings of effort expenditure. Additionally, as an offshoot of attribution theory, we are now aware that perceived exertion is a topic relevant to the domain of interpersonal as well as self-perception. The present paper, then, offers an integrative review on research and theory pertinent to the perception of exertion in sport and physical activity. The framework presented emerges largely at a conceptual rather than empirical level and provides several direct challenges for future study.
Psychological Analysis of Athletes' Anxiety Responses
Authors: Fisher A. Craig , Zwart Elizabeth F.
Published: August 2016

Athletes' self-reported perceptions of and responses to anxiety-eliciting situations were probed for the purposes of describing athletes' anxiety profiles. Intrapersonal variables were used to explain the individual differences evident in the data. College male basketball athletes (N = 40) were administered the following four paper-and-pencil inventories: S-R inventory of anxiousness in basketball, similarity of basketball situations, Sport Competition Anxiety Test (competitive trait anxiety), and personal assessment questionnaire (perceived success and ability). Anxiety factors (outcome uncertainty, outcome certainty, ego threat) were deciphered through principal components analysis. Athletes' anxiety responses varied partially with their perceptions of the situations, congruent with the tenets of the interactional model of behavior. Through individual differences analysis, athletes' anxiety responses across all basketball situations were labeled ego threat, outcome certainty/uncertainty, and anticipation. In a multivariate sense, intrapersonal variables (perceived success and ability, and competitive trait anxiety) accounted for 47% of the anxiety response variance. Outcome and efficacy expectations bear direct relevance to the comprehension of competitive sport anxiety.
Effect of Prior Performance Experience before Audiences on a Dominant and Nondominant Motor Response
Authors: Hollifield N. Lucinda
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to determine if children's prior performance experience was a mediating factor in their performance of a dominant or novel task in an audience or no audience situation. Eighty 9-year-old boys were divided into experienced (n = 40) and nonexperienced (n = 40) groups based on prior youth sport experience and the absence of any performance experience before a formal audience. Half of each group learned a rotary pursuit task until they could perform the task with at least 60% accuracy. The other half did not practice the task. Groups were again divided for task performance in an audience or no audience situation so that the following treatments were observed for both experienced and nonexperienced groups: dominant task, no audience; dominant task, evaluative audience; novel task, no audience; novel task, evaluative audience. Task performance for each subject was five 20-sec trials on the photoelectric rotary pursuit task. The mean score of each set of five was used for data analysis. An audience of four passive adults was present in each audience condition and made evaluative notations following each performance. Results of a 2 × 2 × 2 (experience × task dominance × audience) ANOVA failed to support Zajonc's (1965) social facilitation theory and Cottrell's (1968) modification of this theory. The well-learned task was inhibited by the presence of an evaluative audience while performance of a novel task was enhanced. No significant experience effects were evident.
Effective Behavioral Coaching: What's It All About?
Authors: Martin Garry , Hrycaiko Dennis
Published: August 2016

A number of experiments have demonstrated the considerable potential of behavior modification techniques for improving performance of beginners in sport and physical education. Several books have presented a consistent behavioral analysis of factors that influence the development and maintenance of athletic behavior. From these sources, an approach is beginning to emerge that might be called "effective behavioral coaching." This paper discusses six characteristics that appear to make this approach distinctive and potentially valuable for coaches.
Whatever Happened to Theory Testing In Sport Psychology?
Authors: Landers Daniel M.
Published: August 2016

It is maintained that a balance among theory testing, applied research, and dissemination, though an ideal goal for sport psychology, is not being achieved because theory testing has not kept pace. To explain the rise and decline of theory testing in sport psychology a historical perspective was used. Whereas sport psychology from 1950-1965 was characterized by empiricism, from 1966-1976 it was characterized by a social analysis approach used to test single theories with novel tasks in a laboratory setting. In contrast to the earlier approaches, it is recommended that contemporary sport psychologists (a) use more meta-analyses to recheck the conclusions of past reviews, (b) become less reliant on a single research method or setting, (c) avoid premature commitments to a theory, and (d) become less enamored with statistically based null hypothesis testing. A number of suggestions are offered and examples provided to encourage, where appropriate, the use of “strong inference,” a more eclectic employment of research methods and settings as well as statistical techniques to determine the strength of observed relationships.
The Development of Models for Sport Psychology: Examining the USOC Guidelines
Authors: Heyman Steven R.
Published: August 2016

A review of the literature finds a series of articles discussing developmental problems in the field of sport psychology, particularly regarding the definition of professional roles and the establishment of credentialing criteria for these roles. A committee formed by the United States Olympic Committee was the first to establish concrete guidelines, which are reviewed here for their potential positive and negative effects as a model for sport psychology.
Feminine-Typed Females: The Role of Affective Schema in the Perception of Exercise Intensity
Authors: Rejeski W. Jack , Sanford Beth
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this research was to examine the hypothesis that feminine-typed females who process exercise-related physiological changes via affective schema overreact to the actual intensity of work. The design involved two groups of women, 20 in each group, who were feminine-typed on the Personal Attributes Questionnaire. One group was shown an intolerant model prior to a bicycle ergo-meter ride, whereas the second group viewed a tolerant model. Results revealed that those females in the intolerant condition experienced negative affect prior to the task, a set that resulted in higher RPEs during ergometry performance when compared to those in the tolerant condition. The data are discussed from the perspective of a parallel processing model of pain and their practical implications for exercise and sport.
The Relationships among Self-Efficacy, Stress Responses, and a Cognitive Feedback Manipulation
Authors: Lan Laura Yan , Gill Diane L.
Published: August 2016

The influence of self-efficacy on physiological arousal and self-reported anxiety was examined in the first phase of this study. All 32 undergraduate females in the study performed five trials of both an easy task and a difficult task, with half of them performing the easy task first and half performing the difficult task first. A manipulation check revealed that the easy task clearly elicited higher self-efficacy than the difficult task. Individuals reported lower cognitive and somatic anxiety and higher self-confidence, as assessed with the CSAI-2, and had lower heart-rate increases when performing the easy (high-efficacious) task. After the subjects finished both the easy and difficult tasks, half of them were given a cognitive feedback manipulation suggesting that elevated arousal levels were typical responses of good competitors under stress. Contrary to predictions, the manipulation did not induce higher self-efficacy and the manipulation group did not differ from the no-manipulation group on self-reported anxiety scores or heart rates. The findings support Bandura's contention that self-efficacy mediates arousal changes and demonstrate the influence of self-efficacy on multidimensional anxiety measures, but fail to demonstrate any influence of a cognitive feedback manipulation on self-efficacy or subsequent stress responses.
Attribution of Causality in Sport Events: Validation of the Wingate Sport Achivememt Responsibility Scale
Authors: Tenenbaum Gershon , Furst David , Welmgarten Gilad
Published: August 2016

Attribution of causality, based on Rotter's (1966) and Weiner's (1979) models, was investigated in a sport setting. The Wingate Sport Achievement Responsibility Scale (WSARS) was developed in order to examine attribution of causality separately for individual and team athletes after successful and unsuccessful events. The scale included feedback from the coach, audience, and teammates. Additional attributions were added in order to examine sport related properties of attributions. In order to examine the distinction between sport-specific attributions and general locus of control (LOG), 69 team athletes and 38 individual athletes were administered the Rotter I-E LOG Scale and the WSARS (Tenenbaum & Weingarten, 1983). Both Rotter's Scale and the WSARS were found to be reliable and valid scales through the probabilistic Rasch Model. Correlational analysis of both scales showed that attribution of causality in team and individual sports were positively related but produced low correlations, which suggests that sport attribution should be examined separately from general LOG. In addition, successful events should be examined separately from unsuccessful events and a distinction should be made between individual and team athletes.
The Factorial Validity of the Physical Estimation and Attraction Scales for Adults
Authors: Safrit Margaret J. , Wood Terry M. , Dishman Rod K.
Published: August 2016

Sonstroem's psychological model for physical activity offers a testable theory for understanding certain aspects of involvement and outcomes among adolescent boys. The usefulness of the model for other populations cannot be clarified, however, until the psychometric properties of its technology, the Physical Estimation and Attraction Scales (PEAS), are known for the groups studied. As a step in this direction, the factorial validity of PEAS responses among college males (N = 488) and females (N = 347) was examined. An independent group of college females (N =413) was also sampled to examine the general ability of the initial findings. These results revealed a robust factor of items that apparently tap perceptions of general physical competence and a perceived strength factor. These emerged across samples and analyses and were not gender-specific. Investigators using the PEAS with adult populations should consider its unique factor structure in the process of testing Sonstroem's physical activity model. Psychometric research regarding revision of the PEAS for adult populations is recommended with the aim of reducing instrument length while maintaining construct validity and measurement precision.
Physical, Cognitive, Emotional, and Interpersonal Requirements of Different Athletic Activities
Authors: Kelly Dennis A.
Published: August 2016

Based on the working hypothesis that optimal psychological strategies for athletic performance can be employed only when the nature of the task is understood, an instrument was developed that identified systematically the varying physical, cognitive, emotional, and interpersonal requirements of a wide range of athletic activities, A sample of 753 Naval Academy midshipmen with experience and expertise in different sports rated their sport along a number of dimensions, constituting the items in the instrument. These ratings were submitted to a principal-component factor analysis, and 41' items were retained and organized into eight subscales based on the component loadings. Items and subscales were psychometrically stable and homogeneous. Standardized profiles were then constructed for the rated requirements of 48 sports. An additional principal-component analysis yielded second-order components which led to the combining of sports with similar profiles. The 48 sports were thereby reduced to 18 clusters. Some applications of this approach are offered, as well as ideas for future research.
The Effects of Goal Proximity and Goal Specificity on Endurance Performance
Authors: Weinberg Robert , Bruya Lawrence , Jackson Allen
Published: August 2016

The purpose of the present investigation was twofold: to determine if subjects who set specific difficult goals perform significantly better than those who set "do your best" goals, and to examine the importance of goal proximity on the performance of the 3-minute sit-up test. Two experiments were conducted, and subjects (N = 96) in both were matched on ability and then randomly assigned to one of the following conditions: (a) short-term goals, (b) long-term goals, (c) short-term plus long-term goals, and (d) "do your best" goals. They were tested once a week for either 5 weeks (Experiment 1) or 3 weeks (Experiment 2). Subjects in the short-term goal condition had weekly sit-up goals, whereas those in the long-term goal condition had only an end goal Performance results from both experiments revealed no significant between-group difference. Questionnaire data indicated that all subjects tried hard, were committed to their goals, and were ego-involved. Manipulation checks revealed, however, that subjects from all conditions were setting their own goals in addition to their experimenter-set goal. Other possible explanations for the lack of differences are couched in the nature of the subject population and the nature of the task.
The History and Status of the Journal of Sport Psychology: 1979-1985
Authors: Landers Daniel M. , Boutcher Stephen H. , Wang Min Q.
Published: August 2016

In the past 7 years JSP has evolved to become a respected sport psychology journal. The journal has been uncompromising in the strong research posture it has taken. It is currently the only journal entirely devoted to sport psychology that uses a single set of criteria for evaluating the scientific merit of submitted manuscripts. Over this time period the submitted manuscripts have shown an increase in the number of female principal authors as well as authors being affiliated with departments other than physical education. Survey studies were the most common submittals, but lately there has been a greater emphasis in field experimental studies. Some potential problem areas are noted in subject selection and choice of statistical tests. An examination of research areas revealed that in recent years "motivation" was the most frequently submitted topic. It appeared that other research areas varied in terms of their publishability. The common methodological problems associated with rejection of these types of manuscripts are discussed.
The Relationship of Role Conflict and Role Ambiguity to Burnout in High School Basketball Coaches
Authors: Capel Susan A. , Sisley Becky L. , Desertrain Gloria S.
Published: August 2016

This study investigated the relationship of role conflict, role ambiguity, and six demographic variables to burnout in head high school basketball coaches. Respondents (N = 235) included coaches from six western states. Overall, burnout was found to be at a low to medium level. Regression analyses and follow-up canonical correlation analyses indicated that role conflict and role ambiguity were the only two variables consistently related to burnout. Role conflict explained the most variance on all burnout scores except depersonalization, which was best explained by role ambiguity, and personal accomplishment, which was best explained by number of years as a head coach. Ways are discussed in which role conflict, role ambiguity, and burnout may be reduced in the coaching profession. Follow-up studies need to consider other factors that may relate to burnout or that may contribute to role conflict and role ambiguity.
Competence Perceptions and Sources of Worry in High, Medium, and Low Competitive Trait-Anxious Young Athletes
Authors: Brustad Robert , Weiss Maureen R.
Published: August 2016

This study examined the relationship between cognitive appraisal processes and the affective characteristics of youth sport involvement using Harter's competence motivation theory as a framework. Specifically, the present study extended Passer's (1983) research on patterns of competitive trait anxiety (CTA) in young male soccer players by including female athletes and athletes involved in different sports. Boy baseball players (N = 55) and girl softball players (N = 58) completed self-report measures of CTA, self-esteem, perceived physical competence, and frequency of evaluative and performance-related worries about athletic competition. Multivariate analyses revealed that high-CTA boys reported lower levels of self-esteem and more frequent worries about their performance than did their less anxious counterparts. For the girls, no significant relationships were found between levels of competitive trait anxiety and the cognitive variables. To enhance the experiences of youth sport participants, it is essential that the contributors to, and consequences of, competitive trait anxiety be more closely examined.
The Relationship between Performance, Intention to Drop Out, and Intrapersonal Conflict in Swimmers
Authors: Volp Andreas , Johann Udo Keil
Published: August 2016

Athletes* success and failure have often been linked to certain personality characteristics. Although previous results in this area were equivocal, many researchers concluded that athletes often drop out of competitive sport because of conflicts of interest, or because they fail to demonstrate high ability in sports. This investigation assessed the importance of intrapersonal conflicts to athletic performance and to dropping out. Swimmers competing at three different levels of performance filled out a conflict questionnaire. Some had indicated that they planned to discontinue their swimming career soon. High performers showed less conflict and a more intensive use of cognitive conflict reduction mechanisms than did medium performers and low level swimmers. Dropouts, on the other hand, had higher conflict scores in areas directly related to athletic performance than did continuers. Intrapersonal conflict was interpreted to be an important mediating variable in sport and personality research.
Absolute and Relative Endurance Parameters in Isokinetic Tests of Muscular Performance
Authors: Kannus Pekka , Cook Lauren , Alosa Denise
Published: August 2016

This study analyzed the normality and variability of the data outputs of isokinetic endurance parameters in 10 healthy men and 10 healthy women. The test consisted of 25 maximal reciprocal contractions of the hamstring and quadriceps muscles. In addition, half of the subjects underwent a 7-week training period after which the endurance test was repeated. The results showed that the consistency of the absolute endurance measurements (work performed during the last 5 repetitions [WL5] and total work during 25 repetitions [TW25] was equal to that of the reference parameter, the peak torque. In addition, the changes after 7 weeks training were very similar; values for all these parameters increased significantly. The relative endurance parameter (WL5/work during the first 5 repetitions) did not change due to training since both WL5 and WF5 improved approximately the same amount. In conclusion, the absolute measurements of muscular endurance can be recommended for clinical use, while the endurance index should not be used routinely.
Reliability of an Active-Knee-Extension Test for Determining Hamstring Muscle Flexibility
Authors: Worrell Teddy W. , Sullivan Michael K. , DeJulia Joseph J.
Published: August 2016

This study examined the intratester and intertester reliability of an active-knee-extension test (AKET) for determining hamstring muscle length (flexibility). Three testers performed repeated AKET measurements on 22 subjects. Intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC were used to calculate intratester and intertester reliability. Also, standard error of measurements (SEM) were calculated. The ICC and SEM were .96 and 1.82°, respectively, for Tester 1, .99 and 1.75° for Tester 2, and .99 and 1.80° for Tester 3. Intratester 95% confidence intervals ranged from 60.54 to 69.82°. Intertester ICC and SEM for two testers were .93 and 4.81°, respectively. A 95% intertester confidence interval ranged from 56.35 to 75.21 °; this reveals that intertester AKET values contained more error and suggests that only intratester AKET values should be used when comparing hamstring flexibility values. The AKET may provide a more accurate method for determining hamstring flexibility and quantifying changes that occur as a result of injury and stretching procedures.