bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Vocational Rehabilitation, Inclusion, and Social Integration
Authors: Blessing Carol , Golden Thomas P. , Pi Sukyeong , Bruyère Susanne M. , Looy Sara Van
Published: February 2013

People are social beings and as such have a right to personal dignity, social security, citizenship, and full participation in civil and social activities as a member of society. Active engagement in social roles enables each individual to have a sense of connection and acceptance through interacting with other people, build his or her self-esteem by contributing to the society; and, consequently, improve his or her overall quality of life. Paid work is a core factor in one's ability to contribute fully to society. This is important for all people, but can be particularly important for people with disabilities, who often experience social isolation. Vocational training is a means to achieve the desired goal of paid employment in an integrated setting and full community participation as a resulting outcome, and is one that rehabilitation psychologists should not overlook in their services. This chapter begins with the importance of community citizenship and valued roles for people with disabilities and examines the positive impact of social integration and inclusion on quality of life. In addition to an overview of the historical and philosophical roots and evolution of related employment and disability policy, we discuss the importance of vocational training and related services that can lead to successful employment outcomes. Following a discussion of current issues and concerns in vocational training and social integration, we conclude with the implications for rehabilitation psychology practice, training, and research.
Disease Prevention Through Lifestyle Interventions
Authors: Anton Stephen D. , Perri Michael G.
Published: February 2013

Many chronic diseases are now recognized to be related to an individual's lifestyle behaviors. This chapter focuses on the critical role that eating and exercise behaviors have in the prevention of cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes. We also review empirically supported treatment approaches for modifying unhealthy eating and exercise behaviors. In addition to directly increasing risk of cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes, excessive caloric intake and physical inactivity may also elevate disease risk by increasing body weight. In line with this, obesity is recognized as a significant risk factor for cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes. Fortunately, there is now strong evidence that comprehensive lifestyle programs that involve dietary modification, physical activity, and weight loss can reduce risk factors for cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes. Although change may be difficult, health care professionals who are trained in behavioral techniques can greatly facilitate healthy lifestyle changes in their patients.
Caste and Upward Mobility
Authors: Iversen Vegard
Published: February 2013

A key question confronting India, well into the post-iberalization era, is whether—and if so, why—the traditional institution of caste may be beginning to lose its grip. It remains a fact that the social groups at the bottom of the caste hierarchy (scheduled castes, or SCs) or otherwise judged worthy of special concessions continue to be overrepresented among the rural and urban poor. This is in spite of radical, comprehensive, and enduring policy interventions to address this idiosyncratic facet of Indian deprivation. The gradual ascent of lower castes into north Indian legislative assemblies following earlier and similar progress in the South and West has not only altered India's political landscape but spurred a new optimism. The moot question then is whether the optimism that has gained currency finds support in data that go beyond political representation and coarse measures of rural public infrastructure provision.
Structural Transformation and Jobless Growth in the Indian Economy
Authors: Verma Rubina
Published: February 2013

This article develops a three-sector general equilibrium model to account for India's unique pattern of structural transformation. Although this article also documents the rise of India's service sector, it constructs a theoretical growth model to understand India's pattern of growth vis-à-vis other Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and emerging economies to highlight what is sui generis about the Indian case. The preeminence of services in recent years meant that there has been a shift from agriculture to services, bypassing industry. Further, changes in GDP structure in India are asymmetrical to the workforce (employment in agriculture continues to persist at 58% of the population). The article's model shows that sector-specific total factor productivity (TFP) growth rates were important drivers of resource reallocation across the three principal sectors of Indian economy from 1970 to 2007.
Health and Health Care Policy in India: The Case for Quality of Care
Authors: Das Jishnu , Hammer Jeffrey
Published: February 2013

This article argues that despite high private expenditures on health in India, policy discourse reflects a constant preoccupation with the public sector. Even historically, envisioning a universal system of health care, the main focus of public health policy—like schooling policy—has been better “access” to public primary health care centers. This focus has been unduly narrow with little attention paid to understanding the behavior of health providers, or conducting a serious outcome evaluation of any of the components of the link from which health services can be availed, be they primary care centers or superspecialty hospitals. The article argues that “access” is not the binding constraint in the provision of primary health care in India. The problem is the quality of care provided both in the public and private sector. It also suggests how standard measures of “quality” can be directly counterproductive. The key focus should be on how health policy affects the quality of services and how to make this a starting point for future policy formulations.
Economic Growth and Ecological Sustainability in India
Authors: Mukhopadhyay Pranab , Shyamsundar Priya
Published: February 2013

This article looks at issues concerning environmental sustainability and economic growth in India using both micro- and macro-level evidence. The article highlights two environmental challenges of India's rapid growth: urbanization and forest cover change. With respect to urbanization, the article suggests that there is a role for economic instruments in reducing air pollution related to increasing urbanization. With respect to forest cover, it notes that whereas overall forest cover has marginally increased in India, in the bulk of forests, which are moderately dense, there is a decline. The article then asks if it is reasonable to expect forest dependence to decrease as India grows and rural wealth increases. From a broader perspective, it argues that there exist crucial environmental thresholds to India's growth strategy. The article ends with a discussion about governance issues surrounding Indian environment policy to make growth more environmentally sustainable.
An Estimated DSGE Model of the Indian Economy
Authors: Gabriel Vasco , Levine Paul , Pearlman Joseph , Yang Bo
Published: February 2013

This article studies business cycle dynamics in the Indian economy using a new Keynesian dynamic stochastic general equilibrium (DSGE) framework. This is one of the first attempts to estimate a DSGE model for the Indian economy. The policy relevance of conducting such an exercise is without question: High growth in India since 1991 has been accompanied by significant trade and financial liberalization. Policy makers face significant trade-offs in ensuring price and financial stability in devising monetary conditions in response to external shocks. Therefore, understanding the mechanisms that contribute to the amplification and propagation of shocks requires careful investigation. The article develops a closed-economy DSGE model of the Indian economy and estimates it by Bayesian maximum likelihood methods using Dynare software. The article also adds newer features to the model sequentially, giving a clear indication of how such models may be built and ultimately used by researchers.
Thinking and Reasoning: A Reader's Guide
Authors: Holyoak Keith J. , Morrison Robert G.
Published: February 2013

This introductory article begins by asking: What is thinking? It looks at the various meanings of the concept in linguistic and philosophical terms. It summarizes the history of the academic study of thinking and reasoning. Finally it gives an outline of the six parts of the book which look in turn at general approaches to thinking and reasoning; inductive, deductive, and abductive reasoning; problem solving, intelligence, and creative thinking; judgment and decision making; ontogeny, phylogeny, language, and culture; and finally modes of thinking.
Bayesian Inference
Authors: Griffiths Thomas L. , Tenenbaum Joshua B. , Kemp Charles
Published: February 2013

Inductive inferences that take us from observed data to underdetermined hypotheses are required to solve many cognitive problems, including learning categories, causal relationships, and languages. Bayesian inference provides a unifying framework for understanding how people make these inductive inferences, indicating how prior expectations should be combined with data. We introduce the Bayesian approach and discuss how it relates to other approaches such as the “heuristics and biases” research program. We then highlight some of the contributions that have been made by analyzing human cognition from the perspective of Bayesian inference, including connecting symbolic representations with statistical learning, identifying the inductive biases that guide human judgments, and forming connections to other disciplines.
Neurocognitive Methods in Higher Cognition
Authors: Morrison Robert G. , Knowlton Barbara J.
Published: February 2013

The methods of cognitive neuroscience, notably functional neuroimaging and cognitive neuropsychology, are becoming increasingly important in efforts to understand the processes responsible for human higher cognition. Given the complexity of human thinking and reasoning, it is frequently the case that multiple theories can explain behavioral results. By utilizing the constraint of neural plausibility, some of these possibilities can be eliminated. These tools are thus beginning to help us to understand how thinking and reasoning actually occur in the brain. In this chapter we discuss a number of the techniques most frequently used to investigate higher cognition, including cognitive neuropsychology, scalp electroencephalography (EEG), functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), and transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS). We briefly survey a number of examples of how these techniques have contributed to our understanding of higher cognition, particularly the functions of the human prefrontal cortex.
Mental Function as Genetic Expression: Emerging Insights From Cognitive Neurogenetics
Authors: Green Adam E. , Dunbar Kevin N.
Published: February 2013

Following the decade (or two) of the brain, a new effort is underway to integrate insights about the biology of mental function that have been gained at parallel levels of description, in molecular genetics, cognitive neuroscience, and psychology. Integrative cognitive neurogenetic research promises new contributions to our understanding of how genes affect the mind by shaping the brain. These contributions include research into psychological functions that do not readily lend themselves to animal models. Despite the complex pathway from genetic variation to changes in psychological functions and behavior—the effects of any one gene depend on its interaction with other genes and with the environment—molecular-genetic data have the potential to inform psychological function in unique ways. We review work on working memory, attention, long-term memory, and language that illustrates this emerging potential.
Motivated Thinking
Authors: Molden Daniel C. , Higgins E. Tory
Published: February 2013

Once controversial, the idea that people's motivations can influence their cognitions now plays an important role in current research on thinking and reasoning. This chapter describes the effects on cognition of motivations that originate from three separate sources: (a) specific desired conclusions (e.g., perceptions of oneself as successful, loved, or in control); (b) more general desired conclusions (e.g., judgments that are as concise and unambiguous, or as accurate as possible); and (c) preferences for reaching such conclusions using particular types of judgment strategies (e.g., a focus on pursuing opportunities for gain versus protecting against the possibility of loss). Evidence is reviewed for the influence of each of these motivations on a variety of cognitive processes, illustrating that, in addition to being “cognitive misers” whose biases result from limited cognitive-processing capacity, people are “motivated tacticians” whose biases result from preferences for processing information in ways that serve their current motivational concerns.
Problem Solving
Authors: Bassok Miriam , Novick Laura R.
Published: February 2013

This chapter follows the historical development of research on problem solving. It begins with a description of two research traditions that addressed different aspects of the problem-solving process: (1) research on problem representation (the Gestalt legacy) that examined how people understand the problem at hand, and (2) research on search in a problem space (the legacy of Newell and Simon) that examined how people generate the problem's solution. It then describes some developments in the field that fueled the integration of these two lines of research: work on problem isomorphs, on expertise in specific knowledge domains (e.g., chess, mathematics), and on insight solutions. Next, it presents examples of recent work on problem solving in science and mathematics that highlight the impact of visual perception and background knowledge on how people represent problems and search for problem solutions. The final section considers possible directions for future research.
Genius
Authors: Simonton Dean Keith
Published: February 2013

Scientific research on genius began in the early 19th century and increased in popularity throughout the end of the century and the beginning of the 20th century. Although the first investigations used mainly historiometric methods, later psychologists introduced psychometric and experimental techniques. Definitions of genius fall into two categories: superlative intellect and phenomenal achievement, where the latter can be subdivided into extraordinary creativity, exceptional leadership, and prodigious performance. However defined, genius has been studied from four main psychological perspectives: general intelligence, domain expertise, heuristic search, and blind variation. Each of these perspectives has distinct advantages and disadvantages as explanatory accounts. As a consequence, a comprehensive understanding of how geniuses think and reason will require an integration of all four perspectives. The chapter closes with a discussion of future directions for research.
Thinking in Societies and Cultures
Authors: Rai Tage S.
Published: February 2013

Rather than focusing on cross-cultural differences in cognition, this chapter focuses on how being born into and living in any large sociocultural group is deeply intertwined with thinking. I begin by discussing the ways in which thinking in societies and cultures is heavily distributed across people, time, and technology. This selective review focuses primarily on research on distributed and extended cognition, social and transactive memory, and cognitive anthropology and cultural transmission. The second part of the chapter addresses the question of whether cultural evolution is linked to cognitive evolution in humans. In particular, I will ask to what extent our minds are predisposed to acquire knowledge relevant for succeeding in culture, and how this possibility changes our view of the role of culture in cognition. I will conclude the chapter by proposing a division between micropsychological and macropsychological levels of analysis in psychology, and I will suggest research questions that this perspective is uniquely suited to address.
The Cognitive Neuroscience of Thought Disorder in Schizophrenia
Authors: Bachman Peter , Cannon Tyrone D.
Published: February 2013

The term thought disorder most commonly refers to a constellation of impairments in communication manifested by individuals suffering from schizophrenia. Although diverse in nature, these symptoms are thought to result from the influence of one or a small number of cognitive abnormalities that affect how individuals with psychotic disorders process information. We discuss the phenomenology of thought disorder and the candidate cognitive mechanisms that may play a role in its expression. Among these, impaired executive functioning—possibly through its interaction with semantic memory—shows the greatest promise in accounting for the phenomena that comprise thought disorder. Additionally, we review a prominent model of executive control of ongoing behavior and discuss links to psychosis symptoms. We then outline a set of neurophysiological abnormalities associated with schizophrenia, or with latent genetic risk for developing the disorder, and consider how these factors may contribute to the expression of disordered thinking.
Musical Thought
Authors: Thompson William Forde , Ammirante Paolo
Published: February 2013

Listening to music entails processes in which auditory input is automatically analyzed and classified, and conscious processes in which listeners interpret and evaluate the music. Performing music involves engaging in rehearsed movements that reflect procedural (embodied) knowledge of music, along with conscious efforts to guide and refine these movements through online monitoring of the sounded output. Composing music balances the use of intuition that reflects implicit knowledge of music with conscious and deliberate efforts to invent musical textures and devices that are innovative and consistent with individual aesthetic goals. Listeners and musicians also interact with one another in ways that blur the boundary between them: Listeners tap or clap in time with music, monitor the facial expressions and gestures of performers, and empathize emotionally with musicians; musicians, in turn, attend to their audience and perform differently depending on the perceived energy and attitude of their listeners. Musicians and listeners are roped together through shared cognitive, emotional, and motor experiences, exhibiting remarkable synchrony in behavior and thought. In this chapter, we describe the forms of musical thought for musicians and listeners, and we discuss the implications of implicit and explicit thought processes for musical understanding and emotional experience.
Assessment of Personality Disorders and Related Traits: Bridging DSM-IV-TR and DSM-5
Authors: Miller Joshua D. , Few Lauren R. , Widiger Thomas A.
Published: February 2013

The assessment of personality disorders and related traits is at an important crossroads with the imminent release of DSM-5. In this chapter we first review assessment techniques and measures as they pertain to the DSM-IV-TR personality disorders and pathological personality traits, focusing in particular on the many self-report inventories and semistructured interviews that have been developed. Second, we discuss the proposed changes to the diagnosis of personality disorder in DSM-5, which are substantial, and their ramifications for the assessment of personality disorder, including the (now abandoned) proposal to replace explicit diagnostic criterion sets with a prototype matching technique, the proposal to delete and/or shift a number of diagnoses from the personality disorders section, the provision of a new dimensional trait model of personality pathology, and the provision of new rating of impairment pertaining to self and interpersonal functioning.
Behavior and Molecular Genetics of Personality Disorders
Authors: South Susan C. , Reichborn-Kjennerud Ted , Eaton Nicholas R. , Krueger Robert F.
Published: February 2013

The purpose of this chapter is to provide an overview of the behavior and molecular genetics of personality disorder. We begin with a thorough review of findings from the field of behavior genetics of personality pathology, including univariate twin studies, multivariate twin studies, and new models of gene–environment interplay. We then discuss the molecular genetics of personality pathology, including a consideration of candidate gene analysis, linkage analysis, and genome-wide association studies. We focus in particular on research concerning antisocial personality disorder (including antisociality and aggression), borderline personality disorder, schizotypal personality disorder, Cluster B and C personality disorders, and normal personality traits. We then provide a discussion of challenges and future directions with respect to behavior and molecular genetic research. We conclude the chapter with a discussion of the implications of this research for the forthcoming fifth edition of the American Psychiatric Association’s diagnostic manual.
Borderline Personality Disorder
Authors: Hooley Jill M. , Cole Sadie H. , Gironde Stephanie
Published: February 2013

Borderline personality disorder (BPD) is a severe form of psychopathology that is characterized by instability in emotions, behavior, relationships, and self-concept. Patients with BPD are challenging to treat and are at serious risk of suicide. Although the etiology of BPD is not well understood, genetic factors are implicated, as are adverse experiences in childhood. These factors may interact to create problems with neural circuits that are involved in regulation of affect, behavior, and cognition. In this chapter we describe the clinical aspects of the disorder and review its etiology. We also highlight findings from the empirical literature concerning the neurobiology and psychopathology associated with the disorder.
Narcissistic Personality Disorder: The Diagnostic Process
Authors: Ronningstam Elsa
Published: February 2013

The diagnosis of narcissistic personality disorder (NPD) evolving over the past 40 years within several fields of inquiry—clinical and psychoanalytic as well as psychiatric and empirical—is discussed in this chapter. The inclusion of NPD as a separate personality disorder in the latest proposal of DSM-5 has warranted continuing studies and development of the diagnosis and treatment of pathological narcissism and NPD. Specific focus is on capturing the complexity of narcissistic pathology, identifying narcissistic core traits in the context of regulatory and dynamic variability, and incorporating the functional and phenotypic range of NPD. The diagnostic process, that is, identifying narcissistic traits in a collaborative alliance-building context between patient and clinician, aims at establishing a meaningful diagnosis that can inform patient and relatives and serve to guide treatment. Concluding guidelines for enhancing accuracy and meaningfulness of the NPD diagnosis are proposed.
Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder
Authors: Samuels Jack , Costa Paul T.
Published: February 2013

Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder (OCPD) has been described in the clinical literature for over 100 years. Although the specific traits included in the construct have changed over time, there is remarkable consistency in the core concept. OCPD is clinically significant, given its relatively high prevalence in the community, its frequent co-occurrence with mood disorders, anxiety disorders, especially obsessive-compulsive disorder, and eating disorders, and treatment challenges. Although OCPD can be quite severe, it is generally less impairing than other personality disorders in the clinic, and it has not been found to be strongly related to functional impairment in the community. OCPD has excellent construct validity, but concerns have been raised about the stability over time and the reliability of assessment. OCPD may be alternatively construed dimensionally, with high conscientiousness as an important feature. Like other personality disorders, OCPD is better understood and described in terms of a combination of traits or facets rather than as reflecting a single domain of personality. In this regard, a number of studies illuminate the contribution of high neuroticism, low openness to actions and values, low agreeableness, and low extraversion facets of warmth and positive emotions. Finally, there are many advantages to tying personality disorders, and especially OCPD, to established dimensions of general personality because a great deal is already known about the dimensions of the Five-Factor Model.
The Alexithymia Personality Dimension
Authors: Taylor Graeme J. , Bagby R. Michael
Published: February 2013

Alexithymia is a dimensional personality trait characterized by difficulties in identifying and describing subjective feelings, a limited imaginal capacity, and an externally oriented cognitive style. In this chapter we provide an extensive review of empirical research on alexithymia and conclude that there is strong support for the validity, stability (reliability), and dimensional nature of the construct. We review evidence indicating that this construct is distinct from DSM-based personality disorders, and from dimensional personality traits and temperament. Consistent with clinical reports, alexithymia is associated with several common medical and psychiatric disorders, influences the outcome of insight-oriented psychotherapy, and can adversely affect response to some medical treatments. Although longitudinal studies are needed to establish whether alexithymia is a risk factor for medical and psychiatric disorders, individuals with a high degree of alexithymia have insecure attachments to others and employ maladaptive defenses and coping styles that are illness risk factors themselves. More planning and research are needed to develop and evaluate the effectiveness of therapies aimed at reducing alexithymia.
Passive-Aggressive Personality Disorder: The Demise of a Syndrome
Authors: Wetzler Scott , Jose Anita
Published: February 2013

This chapter discusses the history of passive-aggressive personality disorder (PAPD; also negativistic personality disorder) from its genesis in a military context to its changing definitions in various iterations of the DSM, including the construct as proposed in the DSM-5. Definitions of the term over time, theoretical underpinnings, and empirical findings of the construct are discussed. The chapter addresses some of the perceived objections to PAPD as a diagnostic construct, describes biopsychosocial conceptualizations, and briefly describes interventions for PAPD. Finally, the authors propose an updated definition of PAPD based on a review of the research.
Venda Children’s Musical Culture in Limpopo, South Africa
Authors: Emberly Andrea
Published: February 2013

This article explores the musical culture of Venda children in Limpopo, South Africa. Their perspective is examined from three primary points: a historical vantage point—that of ethnomusicologist John Blacking; the current perspective of the author as researcher; and the perspective of the children themselves, as creators and propagators of their own distinct and collective musical cultures. It shows that children have their own ideas about of what their musical cultures sound like, and what they should sound like. Music grounds them in their quest to understand what it means to be Venda, to be South African, and to locate themselves in a global culture.
Celticity, Community, and Continuity in the Children’s Musical Cultures of Cornwall
Authors: Kent Alan M.
Published: February 2013

This article explores the musical culture of children in Cornwall. Children’s musical traditions are hybrid of Cornu-Celtic and Anglo-Cornish, with elements of continuity, discontinuity, decline, revival, and fusion over time. The study traces the origins of children’s musical cultures from the ancient and medieval literatures, to the cultural construction of mystery plays in medieval and Tudor [1485–1603] Cornwall, to the rise of Methodism in the late eighteenth century, to the folkloric collections of Robert Hunt and William Bottrell in nineteenth century. The discussion also covers the Cornwall Music Festival, established in 1910, which celebrates both adult and children’s musical culture; the national policy for Cornish music, and contemporary children's music projects.
Miskitu Children’s Singing Games on the Caribbean Coast of Nicaragua as Intercultural Play and Performance
Authors: Minks Amanda
Published: February 2013

This article examines the musical activities of Miskitu children in Corn Island, some 52 miles off the Caribbean coast of Nicaragua. The study focuses on Miskitu children's singing games, most of which are performed in Spanish. It is argued that children’s creative adaptation of Spanish singing games and multilingual play discourses is not necessarily a threat to indigenous identity and expressive practice. The children’s expressive practices on Corn Island reveal the expansion, rather than contraction, of expressive resources, and the development of intercultural identities.
The Complex Ecologies of Early Childhood Musical Cultures
Authors: Whiteman Peter
Published: February 2013

This article explores the musical cultures of young Indigenous and non-Indigenous children, their families, and communities in New South Wales, Australia, and Hawai‘i, USA. It presents the stories of four children, which illustrate children’s musical practices in four geographically disparate locales, and serve as examples of the musical borders that are regularly traversed in early childhood. These children engaged with the music surrounding them and appear to be on the path to enculturation into the knowledge, practices, and beliefs that were bound by these. They acquired the knowledge of norms and expectations of existing musical cultures through experiences in the home, school, community, and commercial music.
Music in the Lives of Refugee and Newly Arrived Immigrant Children in Sydney, Australia
Authors: Marsh Kathryn
Published: February 2013

This article examines the role of music in the lives of refugees and newly arrived immigrant children in Sydney. Music had different functions for children depending on the length of time since resettlement, individual proclivities and interests, the presence and size of diasporic groups, and institutional endorsement. Music in school activities provides opportunities for social integration and language development. Creative involvement with music and dance both in and out of school settings gave some form of agency to disempowered refugee children. Different technologies, particularly the Internet, also facilitated children’s contact with the music of their home culture as well that of the host culture.
Toward Bridging Gaps: Finding Commonality between Evolutionary and Comparative Psychology
Authors: Shackelford Todd K. , von Friedeburg Robert
Published: February 2013

This volume brings together an eclectic and provocative body of work from some of the brightest minds in comparative psychology and evolutionary psychology. The intent of this volume is to highlight the strengths and insights of each field and to bridge the gaps between them. Comparative psychology has sometimes lost the focus that evolutionary psychology wields to shed light on seminal questions in the study of human and nonhuman behavior. Although evolutionary psychology maintains an overarching framework with which to explore questions of ultimate or proximate causation—referring to mechanisms of natural selection, comparative psychologists sometimes study esoteric topics of interest, without placing these studies in a larger theoretical framework. However, the insights of comparative psychologists have often forged new ground, generating new theoretical debates and inspiring nonhuman studies in new directions. For instance, the recent explosion of work in canine cognition has been inspired to a large degree by hypotheses about the importance of domestication in sculpting canine cognitive skills, and these hypothesis have prompted much debate (Dorey, Udell, & Wynne, 2010; Hare, Brown, Williamson & Tomasello, 2002; Hare et al., 2010; Udell, Dorey & Wynne, 2008; Wynne, Udell & Lord; 2008). Bringing together comparative psychology and evolutionary psychology can strengthen the contributions of both. Rather than taking all or none approaches to scientific pursuits, our journey should allow the beacon of truth to guide us forward, even if the path is a middle ground. There need not be a divide between field researchers and laboratory scientists, between those who study humans and nonhumans, between behaviorists and cognitivists, or between comparative psychologists and evolutionary psychologists.
Convergent Evolution of Cognition in Corvids, Apes and Other Animals
Authors: Van Horik Jayden O. , Clayton Nicola S. , Emery Nathan J.
Published: February 2013

Over the past 30 years, a cognitive renaissance has produced startling revelations about how species perceive their physical and social worlds. Once considered mere automata by Descartes, recent research supports claims that many animals possess advanced cognitive capacities (Shettleworth, 2010). Moreover, advanced cognition appears to have arisen across numerous species, many of which are distantly related, but which share a number of traits, such as large relative brain size, complex sociality and behavioral flexibility. Is the evolution of advanced cognition the result of a series of adaptive specializations driven by the shared selection pressures that species face in their environments? With our expanding awareness of cognitive processes across species, attributes such as causal reasoning, mental time travel or mental attribution, once thought unique to humans, invite careful reconsideration of their evolutionary origins.
Animal Models of Human Cognition
Authors: Crystal Jonathon D.
Published: February 2013

An objective for studying cognition in animals is that it may provide insight into impairments in cognition observed in people. Cognitive impairments are debilitating, and developing insight into the origins of such impairments may aid in the development of effective treatments. This chapter focuses on development of animal models of memory that may aid in the search for effective treatments of memory disorders such as Alzheimer's disease. The case of modeling episodic memory in animals is considered. Evidence is presented that, at the time of memory assessment, rats remember a unique earlier event including what occurred, where it happened, and when it took place (what-where-when memory). The merits and limitations of the model are discussed. Future directions for further development of the model are highlighted.
Intimate Partner Violence: War at Our Doorsteps
Authors: Goetz Aaron T. , Romero Gorge A.
Published: February 2013

Violence between intimate partners transcends culture and time. This chapter synthesizes several fronts of evolutionary-based research in order to describe and explain the primary causes of female-directed violence. Sexual conflict between men and women suggests that the sexes have unique avenues to reproductive success. Women's mating strategies, coupled with men's inability to ensure that the offspring they invest in are genetically their own, generated selective pressures for men to evolve tactics to eliminate threats to valued relationships. This chapter details how some of these tactics—executed by psychological mechanisms—lead to the violence, rape, and homicide observed among intimate partners. Using evolutionary theory, we seek to provide insight on ultimate explanations for intimate partner violence. Through this and through efforts made to understand proximate explanations of men's violence against women, we hope to contribute to a complete understanding of men's use of aggression in the relationships they value most.
Filicide and Child Maltreatment: Prospects for Ultimate Explanation
Authors: Harris Grant T. , Rice Marnie E.
Published: February 2013

The clinical literature on human filicide and child maltreatment lacks a comprehensive explanation both for perpetration and its effects. In this chapter, we outline how evolutionary, selectionist thinking can help make sense of the data on the perpetrators of child maltreatment and filicide, and potentially also help make sense of the effects of maltreatment on its victims. At the proximate level, filicide and child maltreatment seem pathological or inexplicable by natural causes. At the ultimate level, however, we explore how things that seem deviant, disturbed, and even self-destructive can be understood as adaptive or as side effects of adaptations. In addition to leading to scientific hypotheses that can further our theoretical understanding, an evolutionary explanation might help efforts to assess the risk of these troubling behaviors, prevent them, and remedy the effects.
Familial Homicide-Suicide
Authors: Liem Marieke C. A.
Published: February 2013

Homicide followed by suicide constitutes a severe form of lethal violence that leads to shock and incomprehension. These acts of interpersonal violence mainly occur in partnerships and families, involving male perpetrators and female and child victims. This chapter delineates the present state of knowledge regarding homicide-suicide by addressing the nature and incidence of these acts and the characteristics of subtypes of homicide-suicide. Specific attention is paid to the main theoretical underpinnings used to explain the homicide-suicide phenomenon, with a particular focus on evolutionary psychological perspectives.
Evolutionary Psychological Perspectives on Sexual Offending: From Etiology to Intervention
Authors: Camilleri Joseph A.
Published: February 2013

This chapter reviews the literature on evolutionary psychological explanations of sexual offending, which span nearly 30 years of research and scholarship. Other reviews have been published, but they have focused on particular areas of sexual offending or on specific hypotheses. Here, I review this diverse literature to give a general overview and commentary on evolutionary approaches to sexual offending etiology and intervention, and I conclude by proposing a typology of sexual offenders.
Sacrifice and Sacred Values: Evolutionary Perspectives on Religious Terrorism
Authors: Sosis Richard , Phillips Erika J. , Alcorta Candace S.
Published: February 2013

Evolutionary theories of religion and sacred values are essential for understanding current trends in terrorist activity. We clarify religion's role in facilitating terror and outline recent theoretical developments that focus on four cross-culturally recurrent features of religion: communal participation in costly ritual, belief in supernatural agents and counterintuitive concepts, separation of the sacred and the profane, and adolescence as the critical life phase for the transmission of religious beliefs and values. These four characteristics constitute an adaptive complex that evolved to solve problems of group cooperation and commitment, problems faced by all terrorist organizations. We examine how terrorists employ these features of religion to achieve their goals and describe how terrorists utilize costly rituals to conditionally associate emotions with sanctified symbols and signal group commitments. These sanctified symbols are emotionally evocative and motivationally powerful, fostering ingroup solidarity, trust, and cooperation. Religious beliefs, including promised rewards in the afterlife, further serve to facilitate cooperation by altering the perceived payoffs of costly actions, including suicide terrorism. Patterns of brain development unique to adolescence render this the ideal developmental stage to attract recruits, inculcate sacred beliefs, and enlist them in high-risk behaviors. We conclude by offering insights, based on our evolutionary analysis, concerning conflict resolution when sacred values are in dispute.
The Male Warrior Hypothesis: The Evolutionary Psychology of Intergroup Conflict, Tribal Aggression, and Warfare
Authors: Van Vugt Mark
Published: February 2013

Social science literature abounds with examples of human tribalism, which is the tendency to categorize individuals on the basis of their group membership and to treat ingroup members benevolently and outgroup members malevolently. I argue that this tribal inclination is an evolved response to the threat of coalitional aggression and intergroup violence that were endemic in ancestral human environments (and are still common today). Here I hypothesize that intergroup conflict has profoundly affected the psychology of men, in particular—the male warrior hypothesis—and present evidence consistent with this hypothesis. I also discuss implications of this hypothesis for managing intergroup relations in our society.
War, Evolution, and the Nature of Human Nature
Authors: Smith David Livingstone
Published: February 2013

This chapter aims to arrive at a credible account of the relations between evolution, human nature, and the propensity for war. Virtually nothing is known about war during prehistory. The conclusions of anthropologists, archaeologists, and primatologists are underdetermined by evidence; therefore, claims about the antiquity of war cannot be used to support the thesis that war is rooted in human nature. To examine the connection between war and human nature, one needs an explicit theory of human nature. Equating human nature with a human essence is unacceptable. The nomological theory of human nature holds that human nature consists of evolved psychological traits that are widespread and not dimorphic. The nomological theory is used to distinguish components of human nature from expressions of human nature. The disposition to war is an expression of human nature rather than a component of it.
An Evolutionary Perspective on Child Development in the Context of War and Political Violence
Authors: Belsky Jay
Published: February 2013

Lethal intergroup conflict has been part of the human experience ever since our species emerged on the African savannah. Modern evolutionary thinking suggests that children's development could have evolved a variety of responses to it, some of which are highlighted upon considering, from the field of behavioral ecology, life-history theory, and, derived from it, Belsky, Steinberg, and Draper's (1991) evolutionary theory of socialization. This speculative chapter examines the implications of such thinking, specifically with regard to insecure attachment, anxiety, depression, aggression, pubertal and sexual development, and mating and parenting. Considered, too, are issues of intergenerational transmission and variation in developmental reactivity to exposure to deadly political violence of the ethnic-cleansing variety in childhood.
Ethical Principles, Values, and Codes for Psychologists: An Historical Journey
Authors: Sinclair Carole
Published: February 2013

In this chapter, a review is provided of the efforts and methods used by professions, from the time of the ancient world to the present, to articulate their ethical principles and values to guide members of the professions. The evolution of the concepts of respect for persons, doing good and avoiding harm, truth-telling, and responsibility to society are traced across time, cultures, and professions. The purpose and role of ethics codes also are described, demonstrating the influence of culture, politics, and historical events. In addition, the history (since the mid-20th century ce) of the development of modern-day codes of ethics for psychologists is outlined, including the possible impact of the Universal Declaration of Ethical Principles for Psychologists on this development.
Ethical Dilemmas, Cultural Differences, and the Globalization of Psychology
Authors: Pettifor Jean L. , Ferrero Andrea
Published: February 2013

As the world becomes globalized, psychologists more frequently encounter ethical dilemmas based on differences in worldviews. Enlightened globalization may lead to greater harmony, while unilateral globalization by dominant cultures will not. This chapter presents practical examples for psychologists of culture-based ethical dilemmas around such themes as respect, competency, professional boundaries, the status of women, the law, and social justice. Today, psychologists and counselors may come from different cultures, train in different countries, and practice with a diversity of clients and in a diversity of locations. When cultural beliefs appear to clash with ethical rules of conduct, ethical decision making must focus on the well-being of clients individually and collectively. Respect and caring for clients takes priority over Western concepts of rule-compliance. The vignettes of ethical dilemmas illustrate some of the complexities of working across cultures. Psychologists are urged to support an enlightened globalization.
Ethical Standards, Credentialing, and Accountability: An International Perspective
Authors: Welfel Elizabeth Reynolds , Khamush Basak Kacar
Published: February 2013

Across the globe, the existence of formal standards for credentialing of psychologists is tied to a nation's economic wealth (or at least economic stability) and the vibrancy of the academic discipline of psychology there. Countries with long-standing stable governments, and with the opportunity for free and fair elections, also appear to have a more formal system for the education, credentialing, and oversight of psychological practice. In nations where governments are autocratic and dictatorial, and economies are unstable, the profession is largely invisible and certainly without formal governmental recognition. Nations that have been isolated from international contacts may also lag behind in availability of well-trained mental health professionals and in the regulation of mental health practice (Sanchez-Sosa & Riveros, 2007). China is one example of this dynamic, though it no longer has an unstable economy and is catching up rapidly. In this chapter we will examine the commonalities and variability in professional identity, licensing standards, and measures of accountability in 13 countries across the globe, representing six continents, and address general global trends. Specifically, we will highlight the state of regulation of psychology and related professions in each nation, the vibrancy of the profession and the professional associations in each country, and, whenever regulations exist, the procedures for licensing aimed at protecting the public from harm. Finally, we will identify points of convergence and divergence in licensing standards and discuss the fundamental issues and values that appear to underlie those similarities and differences.
The Search for Common Standards: A Case of Research Standards
Authors: Leach Mark M. , Jeppsen Benjamin , Discont Steve
Published: February 2013

Research on the comparisons of ethics standards across ethics codes has increased over the past decade, with the goal of determining common standards. Finding these common standards may help assess the degree to which psychology shares common values, as well as help ascertain what psychology considers good ethical practices regardless of country. The purpose of this chapter was to uncover ethical standards common to research practices across national codes of ethics. This study did not use a particular code as the foundation from which to compare other codes, reducing ethnocentric bias. Results indicated common research standards across countries, with additional trends for consideration.