bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Employment Landscape for NESTs and
NNESTs
Authors: Ruecker Todd
Published: January 2018

As discussions on English as an international language progress in scholarly circles, the employment landscape in English language teaching (ELT) continues to be dominated by prejudice against non‐native‐speaking teachers of English. This entry explores the ways in which an entrenched native speaker preference in ELT is perpetuated through different discourses, including recruitment advertisements. After framing the issue and explaining why it matters, suggestions are made that teacher educators and teachers work together in challenging a prejudice that threatens both native‐speaking and non‐native‐speaking teachers in ELT.
Equity and Inclusivity for NESTs and
NNESTs
Authors: Bayyurt Yasemin
Published: January 2018

(In)equity, marginalization, and inclusivity for native English‐speaking teachers (NESTs) and non‐native English‐speaking teachers (NNESTs) have been an area of interest for TESOL scholars and researchers for the last two or more decades. In theory, TESOL, being a professional field, approaches the issue of the equal treatment of N/NESTs in the profession from an idealistic perspective. The stakeholders' (e.g., school administrators, students, parents) opinions about who a successful English teacher is often matter more than what the teachers' qualifications are. It is important to underline the fact that operating under this dichotomous approach, and neglecting teachers' qualities, qualifications, and credentials actually eliminates negotiations of being and becoming equal and damages the inherent values that inform the profession—social justice, equity, diversity, and inclusivity. This approach ignores the significance of teaching, learning, and using English as a global lingua franca where people from diverse linguistic backgrounds use English in connection with their own cultural context.
Teacher Education Programs in Preparing
NESTs
and
NNESTs
Authors: Shin Sarah J.
Published: January 2018

While non‐native English‐speaking teachers (NNESTs) are often viewed as inadequate language teachers due to their lack of native speaker competence in English, they do possess certain advantages over native English‐speaking teachers (NESTs). All teachers, regardless of their status as native or non‐native English speakers, should be supported to develop high levels of language proficiency and teaching competency. This entry discusses the linguistic and pedagogical skills that ESOL teachers need in order to be effective, and considers what teacher education programs can do to help both NESTs and NNESTs develop as language professionals.
Complexity, Accuracy, and Fluency
Authors: Bui Gavin , Skehan Peter
Published: January 2018

This entry provides an introduction to theories of complexity, accuracy, and fluency (CAF) as a tripartite conceptualization of task‐based second language performance. It locates these constructs within task‐based language teaching (TBLT), gives definitions of each, and outlines measurement options in each case. The entry argues that, though CAF was originally developed for research purposes, the three areas have become increasingly important for pedagogy. Task complexity, task conditions and characteristics, and learner factors can all have an impact on CAF selectively in task performance. Two contrasting theories, Skehan's limited attention capacity hypothesis and Robinson's cognition hypothesis, are discussed as general operating principles to understand how CAF can be influenced by task factors. Pedagogical suggestions are linked to the three performance areas, and consider the impact of different task characteristics, of planning (pre‐task and online), and of repetition. It is also proposed that the post‐task stage can have particular importance for the development of complexity and accuracy.
Consciousness‐Raising Tasks
Authors: Kuiken Folkert
Published: January 2018

Consciousness‐raising tasks are tasks that engage learners in thinking and communication about language. They are closely associated with a focus‐on‐form approach to language teaching, in which learners are made aware of the grammatical form of language features. Consciousness‐raising tasks are an effective means of achieving focus on form and of understanding targeted structures. They are recommended as a way to integrate formal instruction within a communicative or task‐based framework. Examples of consciousness‐raising tasks are included in the entry.
Descriptive Versus Prescriptive Grammar
Authors: Hinkel Eli
Published: January 2018

A descriptive grammar is a study of a language, its structure, and its rules as they are used in daily life by its speakers from all walks of life, including standard and nonstandard varieties. A prescriptive grammar, on the other hand, specifies how a language and its grammar rules should be used. A prescriptivist view of language implies a distinction between “good grammar” and “bad grammar,” and its primary focus is on standard forms of grammar and syntactic constructions.
Direct Versus Indirect Grammar Feedback
Authors: Bitchener John
Published: January 2018

This entry discusses the potential of direct, indirect, and metalinguistic written corrective feedback (CF) to facilitate second language (L2) development. In framing the case, it defines the key construct, L2 development, and the three types of written CF. Theoretical and empirical justifications supporting a role for written CF in L2 development then precede pedagogical recommendations arising from these justifications.
Focus on Form Versus Focus on Forms
Authors: Loewen Shawn
Published: January 2018

Focus on form
and
focus on forms
refer to differing instructional practices in the second language classroom. Focus on form consists of primarily meaning‐focused interaction in which there is brief, and sometimes spontaneous, attention to linguistic forms. In contrast, focus on forms involves a primary emphasis on linguistic structures, often presented as discrete grammar rules or other metalinguistic information. Focus on form assumes that acquisition occurs best when learners' attention is drawn to language items when they are needed for communication. Focus on forms emphasizes the role of explicit knowledge in the acquisition process. Types of focus on form include input flood, input enhancement, and corrective feedback. Types of focus on forms include present, practice, produce (PPP) and explicit language instruction. Instructional methods with aspects of both types of instruction include consciousness‐raising activities and input‐based instruction.
Focused Versus Unfocused Tasks
Authors: del Pilar García Mayo María
Published: January 2018

The acquisition of grammatical competence has always been at the core of all language teaching methods, and different approaches have been put forward to convey its intricacies. Task‐based language teaching (TBLT) is one such approach, and its main purpose is to engage learners in the use of authentic language without disregarding attention to the formal aspects of the linguistic code. This entry considers how learner attention can be drawn to formal aspects of language by means of focused communicative tasks that might trigger the use of specific features. The value of unfocused grammar tasks is also highlighted and pedagogical implications are considered.
Easy Versus Difficult Grammar Rules
Authors: Tomita Yasuyo
Published: January 2018

The concept of easy and difficult grammar rules has been defined on the basis of different perspectives, including psycholinguistic, linguistic, and pedagogical perspectives, and there has so far been little consensus on the definitions. Studies on the effects of different types of instruction on learning easy and difficult rules have also presented mixed results, which may be due to the lack of consistent definitions associated with these grammar rules. However, positive effects of explicit instruction in both easy and difficult grammar rules have often been reported. Pedagogical implications include techniques used in both explicit and implicit instruction and how to draw learners' attention to both levels of grammar rules during classroom activities, for example, through the effective use of corrective feedback, dictogloss, and languaging.
Metalinguistic Knowledge
Authors: Kim Soo Hyon
Published: January 2018

Metalinguistic knowledge refers to the explicit and declarative knowledge that learners have regarding language which plays a critical role in second language acquisition (SLA). Previous research has examined issues regarding metalinguistic knowledge in areas such as instructed SLA, teacher education, L2 learner individual differences, and L2 assessment. Practitioners who work with English language learners and pre‐service teachers are also invested in finding the most effective way to help students and student teachers take advantage of, and develop, their metalinguistic knowledge in language classrooms. Some questions with immediate relevance to classroom teaching are: What types of corrective feedback help students take advantage of their metalinguistic knowledge? How much focus on form is needed when implementing communicative activities in the classroom? What are pre‐service teachers' perceptions of the importance of metalinguistic knowledge, and what professional development activities help enhance their metalinguistic knowledge?
Negotiation of Meaning Versus Negotiation of Form
Authors: Suzuki Wataru
Published: January 2018

Communicative language teaching is based on the conviction that participating in communicative interactions can help students learn a second language (L2). Negotiations of meaning and form that occur during communicative interactions are considered to play an essential role in the learning process. This entry begins with a brief discussion of whether negotiations of meaning and form actually promote L2 acquisition. This is followed by a section on how such negotiations facilitate L2 learning, focusing on several key concepts that have been discussed widely in the last decade. The entry concludes with a discussion of why these concepts are important for pedagogical practice.
Proactive Versus Reactive Focus on Form
Authors: Kamiya Nobuhiro
Published: January 2018

For pedagogical reasons, the current entry defines proactive FonF as devising a task ahead of the class in which students are likely to focus on a form or forms. Reactive FonF is an attention to form that arises incidentally during the lesson. Despite their distinct natures, their primary purpose is commonly shared, which is to establish a connection between a form (e.g., grammar, vocabulary, phonology, discourse) and meaning, and possibly along with use (i.e., function) in students' interlanguage in second and foreign language (L2) classrooms, whose primary focus is on meaning. Several categorizations exist for these types of FonF, such as preemptive versus (problem‐oriented) reactive, planned versus unplanned or incidental, and teacher‐initiated versus student (learner)‐initiated. FonF is a common practice in most L2 classrooms and found to be beneficial for language development. Multiple pedagogical implications are proposed based on the findings from past research.
Ethical Guidelines for Teachers
Authors: Dickey Robert J.
Published: January 2018

Ethics is a seldom discussed aspect of TESOL, with implications for the classroom, teacher–student interactions, professional obligations to parents, colleagues, and employers, and with legal rights and responsibilities. Teacher qualifications, English‐only policies, continuing professional development, respect for local norms, religion, and teacher authority are included. Pedagogical implications are reviewed, with a focus on the role of the teacher in the classroom and beyond, teaching to learners versus teaching the curriculum, “fairness,” and professional misconduct.
Literacy Programming for Young Learners
Authors: Shin Joan Kang
Published: January 2018

First and second language literacy programming for young learners should be meaningful and balanced. Young learners of English as a second or foreign language who are literate in their first or native language (L1) can transfer many literacy skills to reading and writing in English. However, depending on differences between the L1 and L2 writing systems, text structure, and culture, English learners may encounter challenges. It is important for teachers of English as a second or foreign language to use a balanced literacy approach that provides a language‐rich environment with plenty of opportunities for children to read and write meaningfully in English, as well as explicit instruction and scaffolding in both bottom‐up and top‐down reading skills and strategies.
Qualitative Needs Analysis
Authors: Curtis Andy
Published: January 2018

Everyone has needs, including all of the stakeholders in the complex pedagogical processes of language teaching and learning. However, since the first documented and reported use of the term “needs analysis,” nearly a century ago, the discussion has been shaped almost exclusively in terms oflearners' needs. One reason for that may be the moves toward learner‐centered language teaching, the moves toward more communicative methodologies, and other historical, geopolitical, and economic factors shaping, and being shaped by, needs analysis (NA). Although the concept of needs analysis may appear to be relatively straightforward—find out what the learners' needs are, then meet those needs through language courses and curricula—carrying out an effective needs analysis can be unexpectedly complicated, with a large number of factors to be taken into account. These complicating factors are one reason why, according to the most recent research, NA still has a long way to go.
Subtractive Schooling
Authors: Valenzuela Angela , Rubio Brenda
Published: January 2018

Subtractive schooling is a framework that emerged from a three‐year ethnographic study aimed at analyzing the influence of generational status on academic achievement and schooling orientations for Mexican immigrant and Mexican American students. Valenzuela argues that schools are structured in ways that subtract resources from youth, divesting them of their cultures, languages, and community‐based identities. Progressing toward an additive schooling model requires that educators be purposeful about establishing authentic caring relationships and about countering subtractive policies and practices.
Teacher Stress and Coping
Authors: McCarthy Christopher , Lambert Richard , Fitchett Paul G.
Published: January 2018

Teaching can be an extremely rewarding profession, offering the opportunity to educate and promote the growth of young people. It can also be a highly demanding occupation, particularly in schools where student needs are high and school resources are low. The purpose of this entry is to frame the issue of teacher stress by introducing important concepts from the literature. It then offers an overview of some of the factors associated with teacher stress and its consequences, and concludes with suggestions for reducing teacher stress.
Teacher–Student Relationships
Authors: Kermad Alyssa , Kang Okim
Published: January 2018

The teacher–student relationship is multidimensional and dynamic, but also reciprocal. A teacher with master qualities has a positive influence on his or her students and creates an environment in which students are more receptive of the teacher and vice versa. Student motivation to learn and participate in class is also higher. Even though there are cross‐cultural differences in how teachers and students behave and interact in the classroom, the interpersonal dimension seems to be highly prioritized in that students esteem teachers to be of high quality when they are caring and empathetic. In addition to the interpersonal dimension, teachers can acquire proven behavior‐related characteristics and professional skills which can make them better teachers, in turn creating more invested students and an overall positive teacher–student relationship.
TESOL PreK
‐12 English Language Proficiency Standards
Authors: Katz Anne
Published: January 2018

Standards have long been touted as an engine for educational reform. Few standards initiatives, however, have addressed the needs of English language learners (ELLs). To address this lack, TESOL has developed standards documents to define targets for learning and to support teachers in improving classroom instruction and assessment for ELLs. Referenced to grade‐level content standards, these standards define the academic language ELLs must learn to participate effectively in the school curriculum. The standards can also help teachers set expectations for performance and differentiate instruction for ELLs at varying levels of language proficiency.
Mentalist Learning Theory
Authors: Spino Le Anne , Loewen Shawn
Published: January 2018

The mentalist learning theory emphasizes the role of the mind in language acquisition by arguing that humans are born with an innate and biological capacity to learn languages. This theory was spearheaded by Noam Chomsky, and arose in response to B. F. Skinner's radical behaviorism. This summary traces the origins of the mentalist learning theory back to psychology, and explains how it is different from behaviorism. Although the mentalist learning theory was not designed to have pedagogical implications for second language learning, this summary also includes suggestions for language teachers that are compatible with the theory.
Community Language Learning
Authors: Ali Sally
Published: January 2018

Community language learning
(CLL) dates from the 1970s at the time when there was a flurry of methods like the silent way, suggestopedia, and total physical response. These focused on the affective domain and emphasized the human element in language learning. Charles Curran began his research in 1955 which resulted in the formulation of his
counseling‐learning/community language learning approach
. He was inspired by Carl Rogers's view of education in the 1950s and CLL derives its primary insights from Rogerian counseling wherein learners are viewed as a “group” not a class and are in need of counseling. Students are given the opportunity to express how they feel not only about the language, but also about the learning process. This summary looks at community language learning and the barriers students encounter in the beginning till they reach the stage of independence and safety.
Structural Approach
Authors: Genc Zubeyde Sinem
Published: January 2018

The structural approach is based on the assumption that language teaching can best be done through systematic selection and grading of structures or sentence patterns. It was widely implemented in the United States in the 1950s. The basic principle underlying the approach is: Language is speech, not writing. It is important to design courses around selected and graded structures. A language is a set of habits. Language use rather than the usage is emphasized. An inductive approach to grammar teaching is adopted. The focus is on descriptive and authentic language. Since languages are considered different, it is essential to conduct contrastive analysis between the first language and the second language. Students are actively involved in the learning process. Vocabulary teaching is selective and undertaken only to support drilling structures. As an approach, it represents the structural view of the nature of language and language teaching.
Content‐Based Instruction
Authors: Waller Tara A.
Published: January 2018

In an ever‐changing population of language learners within a world that continues to become more connected and academically oriented, it is increasingly important to consider different approaches to language teaching that can engage the learners. Historically, language has been acquired more successfully when given a specific purpose or within a given content area. Some may attribute this to higher motivational levels, but no matter the reason, helping learners to acquire language faster and easier should be the highly desired outcome. Several case studies have shown that content‐based instruction, when paired equally with language acquisition, can lead to better academic performance and more successful language learners. With a carefully developed curriculum, appropriate materials, and accurate assessment, faculty in content and language can develop themselves and their learners in both areas to maintain motivation to become the scholars of tomorrow.
Neurolinguistic Programming
Authors: Ahmadian Mohammad Javad
Published: January 2018

Neurolinguistic programming (hereafter NLP) has emerged as a methodology which aims to provide a set of techniques and guidelines for resolving personal challenges and ultimately achieving excellence. In essence, NLP is practically oriented and, no matter to what field it is applied, it seeks actual outcomes. Drawing on diverse disciplines, such as Linguistics, Systems Theory, and Cognitive Psychology, NLP is thought to be helpful in language teaching. NLP cannot be conceived of as a method or approach to language teaching per se but it could be argued that by dint of using NLP guidelines and techniques which could be of use in a wide range of teaching approaches, such as task‐based language teaching, language teachers will perform more efficiently in the language classroom.
Sheltered Instruction
Authors: Sicola Laura , Lewis Kristina , Tomaskovic‐Moore Katherine
Published: January 2018

Sheltered instruction, also referred to as specially designed academic instruction in English (SDAIE), with a codified framework for implementation known as the sheltered instruction observation protocol (SIOP) model, is an approach for simultaneously promoting language and academic content knowledge development for English‐language learners (ELLs) in K‐12 bilingual and mainstream classrooms taught in English. The aim of sheltered instruction is to make input more comprehensible to ELLs without reducing the academic rigor of the lesson. Suggestions for implementation are included.
English for Specific Purposes (ESP) and English for Academic Purposes (EAP)
Authors: Wette Rosemary
Published: January 2018

Largely due to the global spread of English, English for specific purposes (ESP) and the subsidiary field of English for academic purposes (EAP) have become increasingly important in recent years. Examples of ESP include English for business, medical, community access, tourism, and academic purposes. EAP and ESP can be distinguished from general purpose courses by their substantial emphasis on the necessity to establish and meet the needs of learners and other stakeholders through the selection of relevant genre exemplars, language items, and instructional tasks from real‐world contexts. ESP and EAP courses may be restricted to only one or two of the four skills; they are also usually shorter and often more motivating for learners than general purpose courses. While they make use of genre theory, critical theories, and corpus linguistics, ESP and EAP are fundamentally pragmatic in their interests, and research and scholarship are strongly oriented to practice.
Lesson Planning for Teaching Speaking
Authors: Zhao Jing
Published: January 2018

This article focuses on the process of lesson planning for teaching speaking. It begins by explaining why instructional planning is important and presents an overview of the organizing structure of planning a lesson for speaking. Then, it goes on to explain the theoretical underpinnings of lesson planning in the context of teaching speaking. First, teachers need to set goals and objectives based on the notion of communicative competence, and second, teachers must identify and understand the different functions of speaking to develop and select the content, activities, and materials. The chapter then provides an example of how to sequence a lesson plan. A sample lesson for teaching speaking is offered at the end of the chapter.
Materials Development for Teaching Speaking
Authors: Macknish Cynthia , Tomaš Zuzana
Published: January 2018

Materials development for teaching speaking has changed over time in response to methodological developments in the English language teaching profession. A wide range of materials is needed to address learners' needs for both social and academic language. This entry reviews some of the changes in second language (L2) pedagogy that have provoked necessary changes in materials, including a focus on communicative language teaching (CLT), a recognition of the importance of sociocultural influences on learning (i.e., contextual factors), and online and digital technologies. The entry ends with pedagogical implications and offers suggestions for creating and using materials in a classroom for teaching speaking.
Using Dialogues, Role Plays, Songs, and Poetry in Teaching Speaking
Authors: García Noelia Malla
Published: January 2018

The use of dialogues, role plays, songs, and poetry in teaching speaking has become common in English‐language teaching. These language‐learning activities are very popular among language teachers and with language learners. Over the years, these activities have become even more prevalent as communicative language teaching (CLT) has gained popularity. In response to the CLT methodological change, teachers and materials developers have used these activities to focus on different ways of providing students with meaningful input, useful materials, and interesting content to engage learners in “real” communication and enjoyable uses of the target language in classroom contexts. In this entry, I will explain how each of these activity types can make a positive contribution to language learning and then offer some suggestions for classroom implementation.
Infused English as a Second Language Training
Authors: Nutta Joyce W.
Published: January 2018

Infused English as a second language (ESL) training builds upon general and subject‐specific pedagogical knowledge, skills, and dispositions of pre‐ and in‐service teachers of various disciplines and grade levels, preparing them to adapt curriculum, instruction, and assessment for English learners (ELs) in mainstream PK‐12 classrooms. Infusion of ESL training is accomplished through incorporating elements of second‐language acquisition, ESL methodology, and social, cultural, and affective aspects of ELs' experiences in and out of school into an articulated sequence of general pedagogy and discipline‐specific courses or professional development components as well as clinical experiences. The integrated nature of an infused ESL training program fosters an understanding of and response to ELs' educational needs within the context of all students' needs. Infused programs require interdisciplinary collaboration, coordination, and commitment among all stakeholders.
Intercultural Pragmatic Failure
Authors: Ishihara Noriko
Published: January 2018

In this entry the term (intercultural)pragmatic failureis defined and illustrated, along with the commonly accepted and interrelated notions ofpragmalinguistic and sociopragmatic failure. A possible cause of pragmatic failure isnegative pragmatic transfer(or, with a more precise term,crosslinguistic influence). A classic example will be given from the large body of research on this topic in interlanguage pragmatics: the investigation of second language speakers' pragmatic transfer in the case of refusals. In the area of intercultural communication, pragmatic failure may be studied from the perspective of rapport management, while in discourse studies intercultural challenges may be viewed as jointly constructed rather than attributed to linguistic deficiency on the part of the second language speakers. Four other possible reasons for pragmatic failure are offered, along with pedagogical suggestions as to how to address these cases in the second or foreign language classroom.
Computer‐Mediated Intercultural Exchanges
Authors: Torres Doris , Smith Bryan
Published: January 2018

Computer‐mediated intercultural exchanges, also known as telecollaboration, have been widely used in foreign language teaching for over 20 years. This entry provides an overview of the seminal work in this area as well as some of the most current studies. Underlying theoretical frameworks, research goals, and methodological considerations are addressed. Finally, pedagogical implications and practical applications of telecollaboration are discussed.
Learner Ethnography and Raising Cultural and Linguistic Awareness
Authors: Jacknick Christine M.
Published: January 2018

In a globalized world in which multilingual and multicultural interactions are the norm rather than the exception, ethnographic inquiry can transform learners into cultural mediators and intercultural speakers. Ethnography, a well‐established anthropological method that involves exploration and description of a culture through observation, participation, and interaction with members of the community of interest, allows for the investigation of a “third space” between learners' home and target cultures. When language learning is seen as learning about and through culture, ethnography is a particularly relevant tool for teachers and learners, with projects that may range from home ethnography, participant observation, recording, and transcription to artifact collection.
Cultural Influences in the Writing of L2 Students
Authors: Finn Heather B.
Published: January 2018

A writer's culture has a tremendous influence on their development as a second language writer. Familiarity with particular rhetorical modes, different organizational styles, and expectations about the reader's involvement with the text all shape the ways in which a writer approaches an assignment in their second language. When teachers provide written or face‐to‐face feedback, utilize activities like peer response, or design writing assignments, a heightened awareness of, and attention to, cultural influences will improve both teaching and learning in the second language writing classroom.
Australian Aboriginal English and Links With Culture
Authors: Malcolm Ian G.
Published: January 2018

Indigenous Australians once spoke up to 300 languages but today, for the most part, speak varieties of Aboriginal English and/or creole. Aboriginal English is a post‐pidgin/post‐creole dialect, distinct from Australian English in phonology, grammar, lexicon, and semantics and showing both formal and conceptual continuity with Indigenous languages as well as with pidgin and creole. The TESOL profession in Australia recognizes that, for speakers of Aboriginal English in the context of an education system based on Standard Australian English (SAE), a bidialectal (English as an Additional Dialect) approach needs to be taken, drawing on linguistic and cultural resources from both Indigenous and mainstream speech communities.
Integrating Newcomers Into an
ESL
Classroom
Authors: Roy‐Campbell Zaline M.
Published: January 2018

Newcomers in an English as a second language (ESL) classroom are students who are new to the country, language and culture. They are a subset of the English language learner (ELL) population, which is a very diverse group of students who speak languages other than English. They come from a variety of educational backgrounds, ranging from those with grade level literacy in another language to students who have had interrupted formal education. All newcomers need to develop their academic English language literacy skills while learning the content of the school curricula and the social and cultural norms of the school and society. There are a variety of strategies that teachers in ESL classrooms can use to integrate newcomers into their classrooms to assist them in developing the skills, essential cultural knowledge, and social skills for academic success.
Accommodations
Authors: Gobert Melanie
Published: January 2018

The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 requires reasonable accommodations be provided to individuals with disabilities. Accommodations for English language learners (ELLs) are modifications or adjustments used in teaching and assessment to enable them to succeed as a sub‐population group in the American school system. ELLs fall into two distinct sub‐groups: (1) ELLs without Learning Disabilities (LDs), and (2) ELLs with LDs. Many educational administrators conflate ELLs with Learning Disabled students. There is also a severe shortage of bilingual special educators to provide for both the linguistic needs and the special needs of ELLs with LDs. This entry attempts to clarify these issues and give recommendations for classroom teaching and testing accommodations appropriate for both sub‐groups.
Observations
Authors: Quirke Phil
Published: January 2018

Observations have played a major role in three key areas of ELT teacher education and development. First, observation is used as a “learning from the experts” tool where teachers in training observe experienced teachers in action. Second, observation is used as a tool for classroom data collection designed to inform research. Third, observation is used as an appraisal tool, for example, as a key feature of many teacher‐evaluation schemes, both in teacher education programs and at the workplace. These three forms of observation can also be related to the language‐teaching classroom and to the language learning of students.
Assessment of Learning and Assessment for Learning
Authors: Green Anthony
Published: January 2018

Assessment for learning, contrasted with assessment of learning, has emerged over recent years as an important area of interest for language assessment research and practice. Both relate to assessment in educational programs. Assessment of learning is retrospective and is concerned with the outcomes of learning. Learner performance on a test or other assessment is taken as evidence of what has been learned and outcomes usually consist of scores or grades summarizing achievement. Assessment for learning is prospective and is concerned with the process of learning. Learner performance is taken as evidence towards further developing learners' abilities and a key outcome is feedback: corrections or comments that can help learners to improve and learn from their performance.
Objectively Scored Test Items
Authors: Coombe Christine , Wiens Beth , Marshall Linda
Published: January 2018

The objectively scored test item is one of the most commonly used in assessment today. It is, by and large, one of the most common formats for assessments of L2 learners' listening, reading and, to some extent, writing. Using questions with an objectively scored format has a number of advantages including increased reliability—a larger sample of questions test takers are able to complete in a set time. They also take much less time to mark and analyze. However, this question format also has disadvantages. If not well written, they may not assess the learning objectives they are designed to test or may limit the kind of information that can be assessed in the questions. That being said, if the questions are well written, they can provide classroom teachers with a plethora of information about their students' knowledge and abilities and a balanced learning experience.
Cloze Tests
Authors: Brown James Dean
Published: January 2018

This entry briefly covers the research on cloze testing when it is used for proficiency or placement purposes. The entry then shifts to a teacher perspective and describes various types offixed deletioncloze patterns (including open‐ended every seventh word scored for exact answers or acceptable answers, every second word, multiple‐choice cloze, cloze elide, and C‐test) andrational deletioncloze (with an example for prepositions). The entry ends with suggestions for five steps that teachers can follow in selecting a passage and developing a cloze test for classroom purposes. Teachers should consider using cloze tests as one alternative in their assessment tool kits because cloze tests present items in a larger linguistic context and for the most part require students to actually write words in English in that context.
Task‐Based Language Assessment
Authors: Shehadeh Ali
Published: January 2018

Task‐based language assessment (TBLA) is a framework for language testing that takes the task as the fundamental unit for assessment and testing. It is a formative assessment that emphasizes assessmentforlearning rather than assessmentoflearning. That is, it is an assessment undertaken as part of an instructional course of study or program for the purpose of improving learning and teaching. This entry will introduce TBLA, its main underlying principles, characterizing features, and basic components. The entry also presents some illustrative examples of recent applications of TBLA in the ESOL classroom.
Content‐Area Assessment
Authors: King Mick
Published: January 2018

Content‐area assessment has grown in importance as the number of learners who study content in an additional language has increased. As these learners cannot be expected to follow an unchanged content curriculum due to their language level, adaptations need to be made in all areas including assessment. This is especially true for older learners. Context will determine the extent to which content and language assessment will be integrated. A balance has to be found between making learners aware of their language needs and yet without losing the focus of meeting content learning outcomes. As learners will hope to gradually move toward English mother‐tongue level competency, formative assessment is particularly effective in content‐area assessment as it allows for a redefinition of goals for both teachers and learners without penalizing learners with low grades due to their emergent language skills.
Teacher Preparation for Using Technology
Authors: Egbert Joy , Borysenko Nataliia
Published: January 2018

This entry first briefly defines teacher preparation in computer assisted language learning (CALL), discussing where and how teacher learning in CALL takes place and what it consists of. Next, research on effective CALL teacher preparation is presented that helps describe the general state of CALL teacher preparation. Finally, the entry suggests some best practices for preparing teachers to use technology in their classrooms to engage students and support language learning.
Technology and Pedagogical Goals
Authors: Stockwell Glenn
Published: January 2018

The range of technologies available to language teachers and learners has increased dramatically over the past several years, providing both with a diversity of options that can be both exciting and challenging. As new technologies appear, they bring with them possibilities regarding what can be achieved both inside and outside of the classroom, based on the changing affordances of technologies that appear. Some of the challenges associated with keeping up with these technological are discussed, followed by a discussion of six basic principles that may be of use to language teachers in keeping focused on pedagogical goals amid these technological advances.
Technology for Teaching Grammar
Authors: Bikowski Dawn
Published: January 2018

Grammar instruction has moved beyond the memorization of rules or dialogues and is more firmly situated in helping learners develop their communicative competence, necessitating tasks that allow for noticing grammatical forms, their meaning, and their use. Teaching grammar with technology offers many opportunities that meet these needs. Teachers can guide students to analyze grammar in the context of larger discourse as well as engage in the negotiation of meaning. These technologies can include a range of options from low‐tech (for example, tape recorders) through the interactive often‐termed Web 2.0 technologies (for example, wikis, blogs) to high‐tech options now available (for example, speech recognition, virtual reality devices or spaces) and into the increasingly intelligent options of the future (for example, gesture‐based devices, digital gaming). A growing number of options means increased choices for teachers. These choices and example grammar tasks are discussed as they fall into three main categories: language‐based, technology‐based, and learning context‐based.
Technology in the Intensive English Program
Authors: Schwartz Aaron D.
Published: January 2018

Intensive English Programs (IEPs) are high‐stakes learning environments for students engaged in learning academic English in English‐speaking countries. These programs focus on all areas of academic English. In many cases, courses in these IEPs would be considered blended environments where computer assisted language learning (CALL) is utilized in a variety of ways, ranging from the use of word processors and slide‐deck programs to mobile apps, collaborative writing activities, and exploration of new literacies like social media, fanfiction, and video games.
Building a Culture of Reading
Authors: Recinos Marisa Lee
Published: January 2018

Building a culture of reading requires that teachers spend a considerable portion of class time and planning on building positive attitudes towards reading, rather than simply teaching strategies and practicing skills. Teachers should focus on students' motivation to read. When students are motivated to read they will read more which will build comprehension and fluency. Teachers who focus on building a culture of reading give students ample time during class to read and extensive reading assignments out of class. The teacher is a model of good reading practices and students begin to enjoy reading because of the enthusiasm built into the curriculum.
Role of Vocabulary in Teaching Reading
Authors: Erten İsmail Hakki
Published: January 2018

This entry aims to illustrate the relationship between knowledge of vocabulary and reading comprehension and the role of vocabulary in teaching reading. It first attempts to define relevant concepts pertaining to the relationship between the two constructs. It then explores how reading comprehension is related to breadth and depth of vocabulary knowledge as well as how much vocabulary is required for effective reading. Acknowledging the possibility that a rich vocabulary is necessary for effective reading and that reading can contribute to lexical development, finally, the entry explores possible ways in which teachers can help their students to gain better access to written texts.
Understanding Reading Purpose
Authors: Hoyos Deborah De , David Nick
Published: January 2018

Reading strategies facilitate learner's comprehension when engaging with a text. While there are many strategies that help readers overcome comprehension obstacles, setting and understanding a reading purpose guides a reader through a text and can increase comprehension. In order to teach this strategy to second language readers, the reading instructor should model this strategy and provide students with semi‐structured practice.
Middle and High School Writing
Authors: Yi Youngjoo , Kao Chin‐chiang , Kang Joohoon
Published: January 2018

With recent education policies emphasizing standardized testing in K–12 schools, researchers and practitioners have paid great attention to the development of academic language and literacy for school‐aged children. Despite the significant role of academic writing in school, many adolescent English language learners (ELLs) in an English‐medium educational context have limited exposure to academic writing instruction in their English as a second language (ESL) classes and are unprepared for the academic literacy demands required in their content area classrooms. In addition, they tend to face unique challenges of learning academic writing in English. Given this context, it is important to explore adolescent multilingual writers and their writing practice and to provide pedagogical implications that teachers of adolescent multilingual students can integrate into their writing instruction.
Needs Analysis for the Second Language Writing Classroom
Authors: Flowerdew Lynne
Published: January 2018

Needs analyses for second language writing tend to employ multimethod approaches, including questionnaires, interviews and also consultation of the previous literature of the writing area under investigation. Text analysis, not only of exemplar target texts but also of student writing, is of particular importance as a means of problem identification. Text analysis is often supplemented with contextual analysis of the writing situation to provide further insights on writing issues. This entry reviews core principles and several examplars of needs analyses related to writing and writing instruction and concludes with several recommendations for how to conduct such analyses.
Grammar and Second Language Writing
Authors: Frodesen Jan
Published: January 2018

The role of grammar in writing instruction for English learners has changed dramatically since the mid‐20th century, when writing exercises existed primarily to practice word‐ and sentence‐level grammar. A historical overview of both first and second language writing pedagogy reveals the shifts in attitudes towards the effectiveness of explicit grammar instruction in writing classrooms. Recent research in second language writing, second language acquisition, and linguistics has helped define the issues related to the teaching of grammar in second language writing and has offered new perspectives on the ways in which focus on grammar in diverse contexts can help students understand variation in forms and functions across genres as well as build linguistic resources for a range of writing needs.
Genre and Second Language Writing
Authors: Hyland Ken
Published: January 2018

The last 20 years have seen increasing interest in the idea of genre and how it can be applied in second language writing classrooms. Because genres represent how writers typically use language to respond to recurring situations, they are a key resource for L2 writers unfamiliar with the conventions other members of the community recognize and find convincing. In the classroom, teachers are asked to identify the genres students will have to write and then make the typical structures and key features of these genres explicit to students so they can communicate effectively. In this entry I provide a brief overview of different views of genre and what they mean for teachers of L2 writing.
Classroom Writing Assessment
Authors: Crusan Deborah , Matsuda Paul Kei
Published: January 2018

Classroom writing assessment is one of the most important duties teachers undertake; it is also one of the responsibilities many teachers find challenging. This entry outlines the issues in classroom writing assessment and lays out best practices, with an emphasis on the use of assessment as a learning tool. Specifically, it delineates several ways in which integrating writing assessment throughout the learning process can help students become more autonomous by developing their ability to assess their own writing and that of their peers.
Teacher Preparation for Postsecondary Writing
Authors: Shaw Philip M.
Published: January 2018

Teachers of postsecondary writing need internalized knowledge in the areas of the language being taught, writing processes, genre structure and register, the social and political issues associated with writing and academic language generally, and of a range of tasks and teaching strategies. This is best achieved by a loop‐input strategy in which the teacher preparation makes use of the types of task that teachers will have to use themselves for the explicit content they must learn. This allows them to experience the effectiveness or otherwise of the tasks and to reflect on their own reactions to them.
Qualitative Approaches to Studying Second Language Writing
Authors: Casanave Christine Pearson
Published: January 2018

Qualitative studies of L2 writing fit under the umbrella of qualitative inquiry in general. Frameworks for L2 writing studies emphasize the situated and local nature of L2 writing as well as its complex nonlinear trajectory and its links to second language development. Researchers study both writers and their writing to learn about the complexities and particularities of writers' attitudes, practices, and texts, following approaches such as case studies, narrative inquiry, (auto)ethnographies, and various kinds of non‐statistical analyses. Research tools include interviews, observations, samples of writing, documents, and various online digital resources.