bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
French Response to the Katja Incident1
Authors: Cabioc'h Fanch , Cariou Gérard
Published: January 2013

On 7 August 1997 at 0h30, the Bahamas flag tanker Katja hit a berth in Le Havre harbor. Immediately 187 m3 of heavy fuel oil flowed out of the aft port fuel tank into the harbor. It took two hours to complete the mooring of the ship, during which it was impossible to close the basin. About 30 to 60 m3 drifted out of the harbor following the ebb current. The situation was difficult to assess and got worse because of the heavy fog which lasted four days and thus jeopardised any aerial survey for the first days, and as it was in the middle of the summer holiday season, half of the harbor employees were on vacation, sensitive tourist areas were full of holiday guests, and the media were in search of sensational stories. Cleaning operations took place in the harbor and on fashionable tourist beaches such as Deauville and Trouville, using national and local equipment and personnel.

The paper emphasises the problems encountered in the operations particularly when no sea survey is available and when close co-operation is required between administrations, “departements” and districts.
Oil Spill Management Systems for Shoreline Cleanup, Planning and Cleanup Cost Claim Support
Authors: Tyler Andrew , Rusin Jan , Lunel Tim , Wood Peter
Published: January 2013

Data management during oil spill incidents is vital in ensuring that response staff are properly informed and an audit trail is maintained for future assessment of the response and support for cost claims. This paper describes the development of an integrated contingency planning, decision support and data management system that has benefited from application during a major spill. The system is able to store and visualise via GIS, the key data elements from the contingency plan. This data is then used within an expert system to provide decision support for cleanup activities and resource allocation costing. The data management databases generates field reporting forms which are reflected in the database so that information can be directly transferred into the computer on a daily basis. The resulting database is available on an on-going basis for response staff to access and at the end of incident, forms a definitive record of response activity and resource usage.
Response Action Planning for Oil Spills Using Arcview Gis
Authors: Barnes Steven S. , Coons Roy , Jensen David A. , Christensen Carl
Published: January 2013

ArcView GIS and digital ortho quarter-quad photos have been employed to integrate information into a comprehensive response action plan for oil spills in the Port of Corpus Christi, Texas. The plan describes staging areas, boat ramps, shoreline types, surface features, economically and environmentally sensitive areas, booming and recovery strategies, and disposal alternatives. Disposal alternatives for oily wastes and debris and recovered oil and water, including opportunities for recycling/reuse are also discussed. Digital ortho quarter-quad photos are used to depict sensitive areas, staging areas, containment boom and skimmer placement, and other features important in a response effort.
Assessment and Management of Risk Posed By Marine Oil and Chemical Transfer Facilities1
Authors: Burns George H. , Moon Sean M.
Published: January 2013

The objective measurement and evaluation of risk has become more important than ever as companies, organizations and agencies seek to improve effectiveness and efficiency. Risk assessment is a business activity which should not be left solely to estimation or other largely subjective means if improvement, quality and success are to be maximized. Since the early 1990s the U.S. Coast Guard has changed its business practices in order to become a “total quality, customer-focused” organization. The regular measurement of activities and results is now key to determining success in meeting organizational goals and missions, as well as satisfying customer needs and expectations. Risk management is an important part of this endeavor. In 1994, Marine Safety Office Huntington, West Virginia developed a very unique and useful risk assessment and management system to improve its effectiveness in dealing with marine transportation-related bulk oil and chemical facilities.
Effect of the T/B North Cape Oil Spill on the Surf Clam (Spisula Solidissima) in the Coastal Waters of Southern Rhode Island1
Authors: DeAlteris Joseph , Thompson Neil , Skrobe Laura , Mauseth Gary , Erickson Gerald
Published: January 2013

On 19 January 1996, the T/B North Cape grounded on the south shore of Rhode Island and spilled approximately 828,000 gallons of home heating oil. Storm waves mixed the oil into the water column, and currents transported the plume of contaminated water over an area of about 400 km2. Immediate post-spill observation of animals stranded on the beach within the impact area estimated 330,000 surf clams (Spisula solidissima), along with hundreds of thousands of crustaceans including lobsters and crabs.

Field studies of the impact of the oil spill on the surf clam resource within the impact area and an adjacent control, unimpacted area were conducted over a 2-year period. Mortality of surf clams within the impact area was high. Using the density estimates of the adjacent control area, it is believed that most of the surf clams killed in the impact area were stranded ashore. More interesting, however, has been the recovery of the surf clam resource in the impact area, as compared to the control area. Densities of young of the year surf clams in the impact area, as observed in the winter/spring of 1997, about 1 year after the spill were very high, greater than 400/km2 at one station. Control area mean densities of the same year class were less than 2/m2 at all stations. A second field sampling conducted about 2 years after the spill indicated surf clam densities were reduced to maximum of 100/m2 within the impact area, and between 0–1/m2 in the control area.

It is believed that the success of the post-spill set of surf clams in the impact area, as compared to the control area, is due to the loss of predators associated with the spill. Thus, with respect to the surf clams, this fishery resource has not only recovered, but has been enhanced by the spill.
Fate and Persistence of Long-Term Spilled Metula Oil in the Marine Salt Marsh Environment: Degradation of Petroleum Biomarkers
Authors: Wang Zhendi , Fingas Mervin F. , Sigouin L. , Owens Edward H.
Published: January 2013

Complete “total oil analyses” were performed on the 24-year-old spilled Metula oil samples collected during the 1998 field visit. Fingerprinting data clearly indicate, except those three samples collected from the East Marsh untreated plots (EE-GO, EE-CI and EE-C2) that were only moderately weathered, the spilled oil has undergone significant alteration in chemical composition after 24 years. There are no fundamental differences between heavily weathered and degraded West Marsh and treated East Marsh samples. However, the effect of the experimental tilling action has been to promote plant recolonization. This result indicates that the recolonization of the marshes almost certain would have been accelerated had tilling or mixing been conducted on these sites after the spill. Chemical analyses of the two asphalt pavement samples (WI-1 and WI-2) indicate extremely heavy degradation. For these two samples, complete spectrum of n-alkanes from C8 to C40 and greater than 98% of alkylated PAH homologues were lost, and even the highly biodegradation-resistant biomarker compounds were shown to be more or less altered. It is observed that biomarkers were generally degraded in the declining order of importance as follows: diasteranes > C27 steranes > tricyclic terpanes > pentacyclic terpanes > norhapanes ∼C29 αββ steranes.
Leaking Tank Experiments for Heavy Oils
Authors: Simecek-Beatty Debra , Lehr William J. , Lankford Jeffery
Published: January 2013

During oil spill incidents involving damaged tankers, the amount of product released may be uncertain. Many accidents occur under adverse conditions, so determining the volume lost by sounding the tanks may not be practical. In the first few hours, initial volume estimates often are based on visual observations of the resulting slick, a notoriously unreliable approach. Oils that have special characteristics, such as group V oils and Orimulsion®, that may or may not result in a surface slick, further complicate this problem. The Hazardous Materials Response Division of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA/HAZMAT) has developed a leaking tank module for its oil weathering software, ADIOS2. Because the present version of the model is not designed for heavy oils, NOAA/HAZMAT is undertaking a series of model-scale tests using releases of canola oil and Orimulsion®. These tests are an extension of leaking tank experiments done earlier for NOAA and for the U. S. Coast Guard, and are part of a joint research program by NOAA/HAZMAT and the U.S. Coast Guard Research and Development Center on the behavior of heavy oil products. This paper describes these tests and their possible application to new spill release models.
Spill Prevention Control and Countermeasures: An Expedited Settlement Approach
Authors: Smith Donald P.
Published: January 2013

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is responsible for implementing the Spill Prevention Control and Countermeasures (SPCC) regulations under the provisions of the Clean Water Act (CWA) as amended by the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA 90). These regulations apply to a wide array of facilities involved in exploration, production, refining, manufacturing, distribution, and processing. The agency conducts SPCC inspections as a method of validating compliance with these regulations. In an era of government re-invention, budget constraints and in the spirit of better customer service relations, EPA Region VI has developed an innovative means of obtaining facility compliance with the SPCC regulations. It is formally known as the expedited settlement approach. The purpose of this approach was to provide a more efficient and effective means of validating environmental compliance. The approach is a combination of simplified inspection and enforcement procedures with emphasis upon compliance assistance. The program's initial emphasis is directed at production facilities. The approach is designed to address environmental violations, which are easily correctable and generally have resulted in chronic type spills. This paper will examine the parameters of the expedited settlement approach, its application and implementation through the use of case studies. The results of the case studies will provide a barometer for the success and shortcomings of this type of approach.
Lessons Learned in Ecological Risk Assessment Planning Efforts
Authors: Walker Ann Hayward , Scholz Debra , Aurand Don V. , Pond Robert G. , Clark James R.
Published: January 2013

There is growing interest in the United States for using the full mix of environmentally appropriate countermeasures during spill response to achieve the highest level of environmental protection and recovery possible. Determining the right mix of technologies, including mechanical recovery, shoreline cleanup, dispersants, and monitoring (no active response), is particularly challenging in sensitive and valuable estuaries through which high volumes of bulk oil shipment transit.

This paper summarizes an ecological risk assessment (ERA) project to consider the potential effectiveness and effects of using dispersants, in addition to conventional countermeasures, to mitigate the impacts of oil spilled into the marine and nearshore environments and to facilitate preparedness efforts at the federal, state, local, and industry level. Sponsored by industry and federal and state agencies, the primary goal was to bring technical and resource experts together to use their collective knowledge and experience in methodically comparing the trade-offs associated with the use of various countermeasures in Puget Sound, Washington.

The ERA process used for Washington State waters was the first ERA that specifically addressed oil spill response options in U.S. coastal estuaries. It occurred as a follow-up to several other preparedness activities jointly sponsored by government and industry. The project team learned several important lessons, which were used to refine the process as it subsequently was applied in California and Texas in 1999.
The Sergo Zakariadze Response and Refloating: Timelines are not Concrete
Authors: Servidio Joseph
Published: January 2013

On November 18, 1999, the 605-foot Russian-flagged motor vessel Sergo Zakariadze lost steering while returning to the Port of San Juan, Puerto Rico after the passage of Hurricane Lenny. The pilot and vessel's crew attempted to engage various alternate and emergency steering systems to regain control without success. The vessel's engine engaged full astern too late, and the Sergo Zakariadze grounded with over 200,000 gallons of oil and over 17,000 tons of cement dust aboard. The vessel grounded at the base of the historic 500-year-old Castle El Morro, just 50 yards outside San Juan's economically vital Bar Channel.

A Unified Command (UC) was established with the following overall incident objectives: safety of people (responders, crew, public); removal of oil/fuel from the vessel; protection of cultural, archeological, and environmental resources including underwater resources; protection of the San Juan Bar Channel; and removal of the vessel from its El Morro location. A three-phased response was mounted: (1) removal of oil products onboard the vessel, (2) removal of cargo necessary to refloat the vessel, and (3) refloating of the vessel. Encountering and overcoming a myriad of logistical, environmental response, weather, and operational challenges, the Sergo Zakariadze was refloated successfully on March 29, 2000. The response included oil lightering, cement dust offload, set-up cement removal, and vessel salvage operations.

Although the response spanned 4 months, it was viewed as very successful from community, media, and stakeholder perspectives. This success was due to the UC being composed of a broad cross section of stakeholders, an aggressive outreach effort, an active listening program, and recognition of actual and potential community perceived hazards associated with the response operation. This paper will describe some of the issues and challenges that the UC addressed and some of the lessons that were learned. This paper will not recount the details of all facets of the actual response and salvage operations.
Challenges Associated with Oil Spill Response in Remote Regions of Western Alaska
Authors: Hutmacher W. J. , Rodriguez R.
Published: January 2013

Western Alaska is, to say the least, remote. The area is vast, unforgiving at times, and notorious for offering rugged coastlines, severe weather conditions, and home to numerous species of birds, marine and terrestrial mammals, and fish. To get an understanding of the size of this state, Alaska spans about 20 degrees of latitude (1,200 miles) and more than 45 degrees of longitude (2,700 miles). The coastline area runs from Cape Puget in the Gulf of Alaska to the Alaska Peninsula, to the Aleutian Islands thence north to Barrow including, the Bering and Chukchi Seas, and thence east through the Beaufort Sea to the U.S.-Canada border. Traveling north to south, the region is classified as arctic, subarctic, or marine coastal.

This paper will discuss the challenges faced by federal, state, and local agencies, and responders while responding to vessel casualties in the remote regions of Alaska. The geographic area of the state this paper will focus on is known as Western Alaska and is composed of the Alaska Peninsula, Aleutian Islands, the islands of Bristol Bay, and Pribilof Islands. The bodies of water surrounding Western Alaska are the Gulf of Alaska, North Pacific Ocean, Bristol Bay, and Bering Sea.
Response Plans for Animal Fat and Vegetable Oil Facilities
Authors: Davis Barbara D. , Hunt Walter (Bud) , Yoshioka Gary , Holler Elisabeth
Published: January 2013

The Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA 90) requires regulations for owners or operators of certain facilities to prepare and implement response plans. In 1994, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) published the facility response plan (FRP) regulation for nontransportation-related facilities with oil discharges that could cause substantial harm to the environment. This regulation has been modified for facilities that handle, store, or transport animal fats and vegetable oils. EPA has found that petroleum oils and animal fats and vegetable oils share common properties and produce similar harmful environmental effects. The similarities and differences between these classes of oils were considered in development of the new rule. In comparison to U.S. Coast Guard (USCG)-regulated facilities, EPA-regulated facilities usually have far greater worst case discharges (often one or two orders of magnitude larger), a larger number of oil transfers, and greater diversity of structures and processes, which can lead to oil discharges in many ways over a range of volumes. EPA has promulgated a new methodology for calculating planning volumes for a worst case discharge of animal fats and vegetable oils. The methodology is similar to that used in the rule for petroleum oils, but the factors in the two new tables are more appropriate for estimating on-water and onshore recovery resource needs for animal fats and vegetable oils. This paper examines research findings on the properties and environmental fate of animal fats and vegetable oils and describes new response planning requirements for animal fat and vegetable oil facilities.
Addressing the Challenges of Freshwater Spills
Authors: Oliveira Beatriz M. , Keller Mark
Published: January 2013

The purpose of this paper is to highlight and expand on key oil spill issues in inland and freshwater areas identified during the March 2000 Freshwater Spills Symposium in Albuquerque, New Mexico. The event attracted approximately 250 participants with significant representation from industry, federal, state, tribal, and local governments, including international attendees. This paper has been developed based on well-received presentations; authors worked with symposium presenters to revise and update material for a broader audience.

The symposium promoted coordination of prevention planning and response efforts among federal agencies, states, tribes, local communities, and industry. Prominent issues included scientific and technical aspects of spills and spill sources, fuels management, Indian tribes perspectives on regulation and prevention, and nontraditional spill sources and substances. Scientific and technical issues presented included oil spill research in the Great Lakes, and shoreline and wetland remediation techniques. The symposium also featured a discussion of opportunities for scientific investigation immediately following spills.

Fuels management focuses on the entire oil life cycle from production, through refining, storage, and distribution. It encourages regulators that address different parts of the life cycle to understand each other's functions, and promotes better understanding of the oil industry among all regulators.

Challenges for tribes include the need to prevent spills from rural storage facilities while maintaining fuel storage capacities that communities depend on. The Alaska Rural Bulk Fuel Consolidation Project demonstrates how to marshal resources to repair or replace decaying infrastructure. Tribal governments also face the challenge of regulating oil production, storage, and transportation facilities. Strong working relationships between states, tribes, and federal agencies help meet the challenge.

Nontraditional oil spill sources and non-petroleum oils are increasing concerns. Major tire fires have resulted in large releases of pyrolitic oil. Tire fires present a variety of hazards to human health and the environment. Response to tire fires and associated oil releases requires coordination with multiple response entities. Responding to spills of vegetable oils can present challenges to small rural emergency response units.

Efforts to address these issues, and other concerns specific to inland and freshwater spills, are vital to meeting the goal of full and effective implementation of oil pollution laws and regulations.
Preventing Oil Spills in the Twenty-First Century: An Ecological Economics Perspective1
Authors: Elliott James E.
Published: January 2013

In the next 20 years, global shipping is expected to triple, with over 90% of all materials moving via ship (G. Miller, U.S. Representative from California, letter to the U.S. Coast Guard, June 8, 1998). With this unprecedented growth in maritime transportation, there will likely be unprecedented growth in the number of oil spills. This increase in global trade, and ultimately pollution, is founded in the belief that an ever-expanding economy is both possible and desirable. Today, the majority of policy makers and economists strive to stimulate economic growth and globalization regardless of the long-term implications to the environment. The economic theory used to derive these goals assumes environmental sources and sinks are infinite relative to the economy and the environment is a subset of the economy.

From an ecological economics perspective, a policy goal of infinite growth will increase oil spills and ultimately be impossible. The earth is finite. The economy depends on the earth's low-entropy matter and energy, such as oil, natural gas and minerals, to exist. The economy is therefore dependent on the earth and is a subset of the environment. Since the earth's sources and sinks are finite, there are limits to the amount of growth possible. Evidence of these limits is the unprecedented loss in biodiversity and global climate change.

The solution to preventing oil spills in the twenty-first century is a paradigm shift that accepts the economy as a subset of the environment and implements economic policies that strive for an optimal macroeconomic scale. According to Daly and Townsend (1993), “an optimal scale is one that is at least sustainable and does not sacrifice ecosystem services that are worth more at the margin than the production benefits derived from the growth in the scale of resource use.” Using the accepted economic theories of Smith and Ricardo, with the steady-state theory of Daly, this paper outlines the roots of the current economic paradigm and offers sustainable political-economic policies to prevent oil spills in the long term.
Anaerobic Biodegradation of Vegetable Oil Spills
Authors: Li Zhengkai , Wincele Demian E. , Wrenn Brian A.
Published: January 2013

Vegetable oil spills are common in the United States and Canada. Although vegetable oils usually are not toxic in the classic sense, at least not to the extent normally associated with crude oil and refined petroleum products, they can cause severe harmful effects in contaminated ecosystems. Since most of the adverse environmental effects of vegetable oils appear to be a result of the presence of the oil on the water surface, on shoreline sediments, or (in emulsified form) in the water column, a prudent spill response is to remove floating and suspended oil from the contaminated water body as quickly as possible. The goal of this research is to investigate a response alternative that is based on sedimentation of floating and suspended oil followed by anaerobic biodegradation in the sediments. The authors' research demonstrates that sedimentation of floating oil by formation of oil-mineral aggregates (OMAs) is possible, and that the interaction between oil and dry clay is crucial to the successful formation of negatively buoyant floes. The rate and extent of vegetable oil biodegradation under methanogenic and iron-reducing conditions in freshwater sediments have also been investigated. Anaerobic biodegradation of vegetable oil occurred in all sediments that were examined, including sediments from a river, a lake, and a wetland. Carbon and electron balances indicate that anaerobic mineralization of the added vegetable oil was complete.
Effect of Pulsed Additions of Nutrients on Oil Biodegradation in Continuous-Flow Beach Microcosms
Authors: Wrenn Brian A. , Zheng Hao , Kohar Eugene S. , Lee Kenneth , Venosa Albert D.
Published: January 2013

Bioremediation of oil-contaminated shorelines can be effected by providing sufficient quantities of certain rate-limiting nutrients, especially nitrogen and phosphorus. Although stoichiometry, based on the determination of optimal C:N:P ratios from batch oil-biodegradation experiments, traditionally has been the primary method for estimating required nutrient dosages, recent research suggests that nutrient uptake and microbial growth kinetics may be more important in determining the success of oil spill bioremediation. Because nutrient washout can be relatively rapid in intertidal environments, nutrient application strategies must consider the relative rates of nutrient washout and uptake by microorganisms.

Because there may be significant differences between ammonium and nitrate with respect to both of these processes, a laboratory investigation of the performance of these two nitrogen sources was conducted in continuous-flow beach microcosm reactors. The behavior of these nutrients was compared under abiotic conditions to determine whether ammonium could be retained in oil-contaminated beaches longer than nitrate by ion exchange. Their ability to support oil biodegradation under continuous and intermittent feeding conditions also was compared. No differences between ammonium and nitrate could be detected based on either criterion, but faster oil biodegradation was observed under pulse-feeding conditions than when the nutrients were supplied continuously. The relatively poor performance of the continuously fed systems was attributed to nutrient limitation because the nutrient input rate was less than the nutrient demand rate.
Managing Preparedness in the New Millennium: Applying a Measurement Strategy
Authors: Weber John M. , Hewett Larry , Whitson William , Stalfort David , Loesch Robert , Crawford Jack
Published: January 2013

One of the most vexing questions in the world of oil spill preparedness is “Are we ready?” There is no question that countless energy and resources have been invested in improving oil spill response. The problem arises in trying to determine to what level these efforts have succeeded or where to focus future improvement efforts to fill any gaps.

Understanding the true gaps in preparedness has become ever more critical. Many government response organizations have faced declining budgets in recent years. Corporate executives are likely to face difficulty justifying large expenditures on preparedness with fewer and fewer large spills. Anecdotal evidence is not enough to support requests for current perceived readiness woes, including additional personnel and equipment. Nor does this evidence provide insight to future preparedness shortfalls. So how do we support decision makers struggling to make wise choices with a limited pool of resources? How do we ensure that public and private response resources complement each other? These questions suggest the need for a commonly accepted preparedness management system.

The authors describe a preparedness assessment system under development by the U.S. Coast Guard that is patterned after Malcolm Baldridge's quality improvement principles and will enable decision makers to better manage preparedness.
Harbor Safety Committees: A Construct for Comprehensive Harbor Stewardship1
Authors: Day Michael H.
Published: January 2013

The Port of New York and New Jersey is a dynamic port boasting the United States' third largest container port. The 30 billion gallons of petroleum or petroleum products delivered to or originating from the port make it the largest petroleum port in the country, and the 50 million passengers transported annually on New York's waters by public and private ferries play a significant role within a finite system.

Concomitant with increased waterway usage, there also have been changes in the desires of the public and governmental agencies for greater environmental protection, enhanced safety, public access to the waterfront, passenger and cargo security, and stakeholder coordination. The old stepwise incremental issue approach is too narrow to be efficient or effective in meeting these public demands. The port has been moving from a discreet modal analysis methodology, to an integrated systems-based approach in the form of a Harbor Safety Committee (HSC).

A systems-based approach, involving multiple stakeholders, allows for inclusive and combine multiple economic, environmental, and social considerations in analyses to optimize and improve waterways system performance—from both safety and economic perspectives. HSCs also are playing an increasing role in identifying and mitigating risks resulting from increased waterways usage.

New York's HSC is comprised of more than 60 firms, organizations and individuals, all having a vested interest in the port complex and the interaction between the different waterways users.
Applying the “Polluters Pays Principle” to Fund Oil Spill Preparedness in the North East Atlantic1
Authors: Veiga Marlene Calderón , Wonham Jon
Published: January 2013

Under Article 6 of the International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Co-Operation (OPRC 1990), states individually or in cooperation with industry or others states shall maintain prepositioned oil spill combating equipment. Furthermore, the preamble of the OPRC 1990 and the HNS-OPRC Protocol 2000 reinforce that the Polluter Pays Principle (PPP) should be taken into account as a general principle of international environmental law. With a few exceptions, most of the countries have transferred the costs of preparedness measures to the general taxpayer and have made no attempts to allocate this cost directly to the shipping industry in accordance with PPP.

In the North East Atlantic (N??) countries (France, Spain, Portugal, and Morocco), as well as in the majority of countries, the financial costs for maintaining a minimum state of preparedness represent a considerable burden to these governments. Despite this fact, no attempts have been made to transfer this burden to the potential polluter.

Based on the inquiries made into the extent to which the PPP presently is being applied to oil spill preparedness, this paper examines the aspects related to the general application of the PPP in the N?? countries.
Federal Authority for Removing the Threat to U.S. Navigable Waters from Subsurface Oil Plumes1
Authors: Hewett Larry W.
Published: January 2013

This paper exposes a gap in current practice by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and U.S. Coast Guard regarding their roles in responding to underground aquifers contaminated by oil. It further suggests a role for the federal government in providing financial, technical, and tactical assistance to state agencies for resolving these challenging environmental threats. As the two primary agencies responsible to ensure the proper cleanup of oil spills, the EPA and Coast Guard strive to maximize public benefit by applying limited federal resources where they can do the most good. In the oil spill arena, that means focusing federal resources on preventing and preparing for threats that have the most potential to cause environmental and economic damage in and around U.S. navigable waters. Yet there is one serious threat to navigable waters yet to be addressed or resolved by either the EPA or Coast Guard. That threat is in the form of hundreds of millions of gallons of oil that has, in some cases, existed for decades in underground aquifers and is continually and chronically seeping into U.S. navigable waters in both the inland and coastal zones. In most of these cases, the federal government concludes the responsibility for removal and remediation lies with state government. Based on assumptions that the Clean Water Act (CWA) does not apply to such cases, the states are denied access to federal removal funds. The author reviews the legislative history, case law and Congressional intent of the CWA. The author argues that certain underground aquifers, because of their proximity to navigable surface waters, fall within the legal definition of “navigable waters” and should therefore be the responsibility of the EPA and Coast Guard to clean under the federal removal authorities of the CWA.
Westley Tire Fire, Stanislaus County, California
Authors: Shane Daniel M.
Published: January 2013

This is a case study of U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) emergency response actions taken at one of the largest tire fires in California. The site was an illegal scrap tire dump known as the Filbin Tire Pile. There was an estimated 7 million tires in the pile. The site was located in a canyon in the rolling hills above the San Joaquin Valley near the Town of Westley, California. This tire fire was considered a major environmental disaster where large populations were affected and there was a potential for severe environmental damage. Responders with past experience recognized that the tire fire would be a unique multi-category event containing the elements of a major fire: hazardous materials release and oil spill discharge combined into one event. Shortly after the fire ignited the tires began to pyrolyze, producing a steady stream of oil that discharged to an unnamed drainage in the hills above the valley. The oil in the drainage flashed sending great plumes of thick black smoke into the valley. The oil and tire fires quickly overwhelmed the resources of the local fire departments. The EPA On-Scene Coordinator (OSC) immediately responded using federal authority to respond to and, if necessary, remove a discharge of oil or a hazardous substance under the Clean Water Act (33 U.S.C. 1321(c)) as amended by the Oil Pollution Control Act of 1990 (OPA 90). Some of the most difficult problems that were encountered included making decisions on fire suppression tactics; conducting safe operations in extremely hot and unstable fire conditions; maneuvering heavy equipment on steep slopes, and deep and spongy tire piles; controlling massive volumes of oil and water runoff; coordinating with local and state governmental agencies; forming a fully integrated and effective Incident Command System led by a Unified Command (ICS/UC); and recycling of pyrolytic oil under current California hazardous waste regulations.
Long-Term Biological Damage: What is Known, and How Should that Influence Decisions on Response, Assessment, and Restoration?
Authors: Carls Mark G. , Heintz Ron , Moles Adam , Rice Stanley D. , Short Jeffrey W.
Published: January 2013

Immediate damage from an oil spill is usually obvious (oiled birds, oiled shoreline), but long-term damage to either fauna or habitat is more subtle, difficult to measure, difficult to evaluate, and hence often controversial. The question is, are too many of response decisions such as dispersant use or shoreline cleanup based on short-term acute toxicity models? Have long-term damage scenarios been discounted because of the inherent difficulty in deriving definitive answers?

Experience with the Exxon Valdez oil spill is shedding new light on the potential for long-term damage. Government-funded studies demonstrated that oil persists in certain habitats for extended periods of time, such as the intertidal reaches of salmon streams, in soft sediments underlying mussel beds, and on cobble beaches armored with large boulders. Observation of long-term persistence of oil in some habitats is not new, but an increasing number of studies indicate that fauna may be chronically and significantly exposed to oil in these habitats. The toxic components in oil responsible for much of the long-term effects are believed to be the larger 3- and 4-ring polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) that can induce cellular and genetic effects rather than the narcotic monoaromatic hydrocarbons (MAHs) responsible for acute mortalities. Observation of long-term persistence of Exxon Valdez oil, coupled with adverse effects on sensitive life stages, leads to the conclusion that strategies based on minimizing acute mortalities immediately following a spill probably do not provide adequate protection against long-term damage.

When making environmental decisions in response to a spill (prevention measures or restoration measures), more weight should probably be given to long-term issues rather than discounting their significance. Total environmental cost is the sum of short-term damage and long-term damage, and long term-damage to habitats and sensitive life stages probably needs more consideration even though it is very difficult to evaluate and compare to the relatively obvious acute issues.
Improving the Safety of Marine Pilotage
Authors: Cameron Jean R.
Published: January 2013

The States/British Columbia Oil Spill Task Force, whose members are the oil spill prevention and response agencies in the U.S. West Coast states of Alaska, Washington, Oregon, and California, as well as the Canadian province of British Columbia initiated a study of West Coast pilotage in 1995. Following a review of national pilotage studies done in both the United States and Canada, a workgroup of representatives from West Coast pilot organizations assisted the Oil Spill Task Force in drafting a survey that was sent to 28 pilotage organizations, governing boards, and authorities on the West Coast. The survey included questions grouped under the following headings: Organizational Description, Organizational Policies and Programs, Organizational Accountability, Pilot Licensing and Qualifications, Pilot Training and Continuing Education, Pilot/Ship Interactions, and an “Other” category. In the second phase of the project, a more diverse set of stakeholders assisted the task force in reviewing the survey responses, discussing the issues raised, and drafting a report with recommendations. Although targeted at West Coast pilots, who were the focus of the study, these recommendations are appropriate for consideration by pilots operating anywhere in the world.
Modeling Research of Exposure to Oil Aerosols During Oil Spills
Authors: Zhou Tianhong , Liu Hongtan
Published: January 2013

When oil is spilled at sea, aerosols containing oil or chemical dispersants (when they are used to combat the oil spill) can be formed from wind/wave interactions, wave/ship interactions, and some other attendant cleanup operations. This may result in oil aerosol exposure to response workers or the nearby public. In this paper, a modeling approach is proposed to study the resultant aerosol concentrations around an oil spill site. This computational modeling is developed by integrating aerosol formation with aerosol transportation equations. Using this model, several hypothetical scenarios can be generated. From computational iterations, it is seen that this exposure may be negligible in most situations, but under extreme conditions, a cause for concern.
Responder Safety: Site Characterization for Oil Spill Responses
Authors: Caesar James R.
Published: January 2013

Oil spills, like hazardous chemical spills, require characterization of chemical and physical hazards. Offshore oil spill responders are faced with different tasks than land-based emergency responders when characterizing a spilled product. While firefighters could have unknown products spilling from a train or truck accident, oil spill responders hold the advantage because they are responding to a spill with a known product—oil—with a narrow range of hazards. Firefighters have the ability to confine/re strict the hot zone but oil spill responders are required to do a site characterization on a vessel in all types of sea conditions that can change with the current and wind.

Clean Seas LLC has developed and used site characterization procedures for responding to open-water oil spills. As in all success stories, proper planning and training of response personnel is the key in a real response. Oil spills can happen at midnight, in rough seas, while responders are dressed in personal protective equipment (PPE), and surrounded by oil. Under the extreme pressures of an oil spill response, checking the spilled product for dangerous levels of hydrogen sulfide and benzene, the Lower Explosive Limit (LEL), and oxygen levels can be challenging. Clean Seas completes site characterization with a simple, common sense Site Characterization Form, a 1-page Site Safety Plan, and a safety tailgate meeting before beginning removal operations. Clean Seas followed this procedure in September 1997 at the Platform Irene spill. The response by Clean Seas to this 165-barrel spill was later deemed “textbook” by regulators observing the cleanup operations.
Ten Years of Research by the U.S. Oil Industry to Evaluate the Ecological Issues of Dispersant Use: An Overview of the Past Decade
Authors: Aurand Don V. , Coelho Gina M. , Steen Alexis
Published: January 2013

The Marine Spill Response Corporation (MSRC) and the American Petroleum Institute (API) recently completed a multiyear research program on dispersants and dispersed oil consisting of four elements: information synthesis and dissemination, improved laboratory methods for toxicity evaluation, mesocosm testing, and field experiments. These research efforts contributed to the recent changes in the way dispersants are viewed in the United States. When combined with other research findings from the last 10 years, this information, now available to response planners, greatly improved and contributed to a growing interest in the use of dispersants, including the potential for the extension of preauthorization areas. The primary objectives of this paper are to summarize the objectives of the program, highlight major findings, and identify the sources where the results can be examined in detail.
Dispersant Pre-Approvals-Best Practice
Authors: Lunel Tim
Published: January 2013

Oil spill dispersants are not the only answer in responding to oil spills, nor will they be effective in every case. However, as recent incidents such as the Sea Empress have demonstrated, when they are used immediately on a dispersible oil they can provide a very significant net environmental or economic benefit. Dispersant pre-approvals are required if dispersants are to be used effectively. However, the danger associated with pre-approvals is that dispersant could be used in every response operation without due consideration to whether the oil is likely to be dispersible under the given environmental conditions and whether dispersing some of the oil will result in a net environmental or economic benefit.
The Southern Traffic Lane Spill (T/V Command): A Case Study of Spiller Accountability1
Authors: Plourde Kristy , Harlan CAPT
Published: January 2013

On September 24, 1998, the T/V Command had a small spill in San Francisco Bay, California while taking on bunkers in Anchorage Nine. The cause was determined to be due to a small crack in the outer hull plating of the tank. The T/V Command departed on the evening of September 26 after completing temporary repairs required by the Captain of the Port (COTP)/Federal On-Scene Coordinator (FOSC). The next morning, a large 10-mile by 2-mile oil slick was discovered just south of the entrance to San Francisco Bay. This triggered one of the largest, most far-reaching oil spill investigations ever.

Since no one took responsibility for this spill, the U.S. Coast Guard accessed the Oil Spill Liability Trust Fund (OSLTF) and established a Unified Command with the state of California Department of Fish and Game, Office of Spill Prevention and Response (OSPR) to begin immediate cleanup. The Coast Guard and OSPR also began an aggressive joint investigation to track down the spiller. Hundreds of vessels had entered or departed San Francisco Bay during the 5-day window before the spill was discovered. The investigators were able to narrow the search and sample vessels. The Coast Guard Marine Safety Lab (MSL) and OSPR's lab were able to match the spilled oil to the T/V Command,. The Coast Guard tracked down the location of the T/V Command and began the first ever request for high seas boarding of a vessel for an environmental crime. A Coast Guard team from the USCGC Boutwell boarded the T/V Command 200 miles off Guatemala to begin the investigation. A follow-on multiagency team of investigators, led by the Coast Guard again, boarded the vessel in Panama.

In a plea bargain agreement, the T/V Command's operator, master, and chief engineer pled guilty in federal court to criminal charges stemming from the spill on September 27, 1998, remarkably 1 year from the date of the original spill. The operator agreed to pay over $9.4 million dollars in criminal and civil penalties.

This paper and presentation discusses the complexities of this international spill response investigation and events leading up to the settlement.
Round-Robin Testing of a New EPA Dispersant Effectiveness Protocol
Authors: Venosa Albert D. , Sorial George A. , King Dennis W.
Published: January 2013

The current U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) protocol for testing the effectiveness of dispersants, the Swirling Flask Test (SFT), has been found to give widely varying results in the hands of different testing laboratories. A redesign of the testing flask by eliminating the side arm, incorporating baffles in the wall of the flask, and adding a stopcock at the bottom has been adopted to improve reproducibility in the hands of different operators. The new procedure is called the Baffled Flask Test (BFT). Similar to the original SFT, the test is relatively simple, requires minimum equipment, and involves a total time span of about 2.5 hours for testing four replicates on one of the two crude oils. Before EPA can adopt the BFT as the official protocol replacing the SFT, the newly developed test must undergo independent testing in the hands of commercial laboratories. Thus, to demonstrate its repeatability and reproducibility to support its adoption as the new EPA testing protocol, a round-robin test was conducted during the spring 2000 with eight independent laboratories. The participating laboratories were provided with all the supplies needed to conduct the BFT: baffled flasks, South Louisiana and Prudhoe Bay crude oils, six dispersant products, and the artificial seawater formulation used in the protocol. The laboratories were given specific, detailed instructions on how to conduct the tests for the dispersants, including all necessary quality assurance procedures. Results were reported back to EPA and the results were analyzed statistically to quantify repeatability and reproducibility. The paper discusses the data and presents the analysis showing the method's reproducibility.
Key Parameters Affecting the Dispersion of Viscous Oil
Authors: Canevari Gerard P. , Calcavecchio Peter , Becker K. W. , Lessard R. R. , Fiocco Robert J.
Published: January 2013

Oil viscosity has been perceived as a major factor affecting the dispersibility of oil. Very high viscosity oils—20,000 centistokes (cs) or more—can readily be observed as resisting the breakup of the oil into dispersed droplets. However, there are instances where a relatively viscous oil will disperse much more readily than another oil of similar viscosity.

An extensive study has been conducted at ExxonMobil Research facilities in New Jersey to define the molecular makeup of 14 viscous heavy fuel oil products and determine the property of the viscous oils, besides viscosity, that influences dispersibility. Dispersibility was measured by a standard laboratory dispersant test using a COREXIT dispersant selected from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) National Contingency Plan (NCP) Product Schedule. Initially, IATROSCAN (TLC) and gas chromatography data failed to show any correlation between chemical properties, such as sulfur, aromatics, paraffins, resins, vanadium, nickel content, etc., and dispersibility. However, the analysis did identify a statistically significant relationship between a parameter based on normal paraffin content and dispersibility, which helps explain anomalies such as low viscosity oils that do not disperse. These results are expected to aid in guiding oil spill response for viscous oils.