bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Event and Milieu
Authors: Rodin Andrei
Published: November 2019

I consider how the notion of event is used in such important branches of twentieth-century thought as relativity, quantum mechanics, Marxist sociology and psychoanalysis. I show that in each case there is the same concept of event as of a series of communications. It is also shown that this new concept of event corresponds to traditional concepts of historical events. I analyze the difference between the concept of event and that of fact. Since a fact presupposes "an external observer" it is impossible to deal with an event without being involved in it. Since a fact presupposes its permanent logical form as a necessary condition of knowledge about it, any condition of knowledge about an event appears to be empirical itself. I show that the division between history and prehistory has the same basis as that between event and fact. The crucial question is how knowledge about an event is possible. The problem is that the concept of identity applicable to fact appears to be inapplicable to event. However, it appears possible to define an identity of event with an identity of media or "places" of communication. An open system of such "places" we call "milieu." A language is a paradigm for it. However, I suppose that unlike "the linguistic paradigm," the "paradigm of milieu" should refute the idea of the exceptional status of human language.
The Classical Conception Of Rationality
Authors: Walczak Monika
Published: November 2019

The aim of this paper is to describe the classical conception of rationality, i.e., to indicate the theses traditionally associated with this conception. I do not intend to discuss these theses in detail. Rather, I focus on the question regarding the main elements of the classical conception of rationality. I am interested in the rationality of cognition and of knowledge (epistemic/epistemological rationality), especially in the rationality of science (scientific rationality).
False-Negative Histopathologic Diagnosis of Prostatic Adenocarcinoma
Authors: Yang Chen , Humphrey Peter A.
Published: November 2019

Context.—

Histopathologic diagnosis of adenocarcinoma of the prostate is based on light-microscopic examination of hematoxylin-eosin–stained tissue sections. Multiple factors, including preanalytic and analytic elements, affect the ability of the pathologist to accurately diagnose prostatic adenocarcinoma. False-negative diagnosis, that is, failure to diagnose prostatic adenocarcinoma, may have serious clinical consequences. It is important to delineate and understand those factors that may affect and cause histopathologic false-negative diagnoses of prostatic adenocarcinoma.

Objectives.—

To review common factors involved in histopathologic underdiagnosis of prostatic adenocarcinoma, including the following: (1) tissue processing and sectioning artifacts, (2) minimal adenocarcinoma, (3) deceptively benign appearing variants of acinar adenocarcinoma, (4) single cell adenocarcinoma, and (5) treatment effects.

Data Sources.—

Data sources included published, peer-reviewed literature and personal experiences of the senior author.

Conclusions.—

Knowledge of the reasons for histopathologic false-negative diagnosis of adenocarcinoma of the prostate is an important component in the diagnostic assessment of prostate tissue sections. Diagnostic awareness of the histomorphologic presentations of small (minimal) adenocarcinoma; deceptively benign appearing variants including atrophic, foamy gland, microcystic, and pseudohyperplastic variants; single cell carcinoma; and treatment effects is critical for establishment of a definitive diagnosis of adenocarcinoma and the prevention of false-negative diagnoses of prostate cancer.
Lifeline4Moms Perinatal Mental Health Toolkit
Authors: Byatt Nancy , Mittal Leena , Brenckle Linda , Logan Deirdre , Masters Grace , Bergman Aaron , Moore Simas Tiffany
Published: November 2019

This toolkit provides actionable information, algorithms, and clinical pearls so that obstetric providers and practices can successfully address perinatal mental health conditions.
AMP Stories, usos de una narrativa periodística para móviles
Authors: Martínez Martínez Silvia
Published: November 2019

Atraer a una audiencia joven al consumo de contenidos informativos es todo un reto para los medios de comunicación. En el actual contexto, la necesidad de adaptarse a los hábitos, usos y gustos de esta parte del público resulta imprescindible para poder captar su atención y lograr así aproximarla a temas de interés público. Tendencias como el mobile first o la implementación de narrativas que combinen códigos y lenguajes se incorporan a las estrategias mediáticas. Unas estrategias que pueden encontrar en las AMP Stories una oportunidad para experimentar cómo acercarse a este sector de la población.
Espacios sobre la maternidad en Instagram
Authors: San Cornelio Gemma
Published: November 2019

La maternidad contemporánea se vive en soledad. No lo digo yo: ya hace tiempo que diferentes estudios hablan sobre la falta de referentes de la familia y el entorno cercano a las mujeres (Del Olmo, 2014) especialmente en contextos urbanos. En este marco, las redes sociales suponen un acompañamiento en esta fase de la vida, y en algunos casos son una clara influencia en determinado tipo de discursos y formas de entender la maternidad en la actualidad. En este artículo detallo algunas de las cuentas populares de Instagram sobre este tema en lengua castellana (ubicados mayoritariamente en España).
Fortellingens betydning for å fremme livsmotet i møte med alvorlig sykdom
Authors: Mæhre Kjersti Sunde
Published: November 2019

The importance of the story to promote hope and life courage in the face of serious illnessIn connection with my PhD (Mæhre, 2017), I conducted qualitative interviews with five critically ill patients in an enhanced ward of a nursing home, based on the Coordination Reform. The purpose of the interviews was to increase understanding of patient experiences of the ward, and their perceived challenges and needs for assistance. The research method was a hermeneutic-phenomenological approach. The essay is based on one of the patient interviews, which has been rewritten as a narrative. This narrative emphasizes how the patient has fought against her illness, and her need to be seen as herself as a person and not understood in terms of a diagnosis. The illness narrative becomes part of her life story. The article highlights opportunities for narratives in the face of serious illness. The narrative reveals how a changed life situation, despite severe illness, can add courage and joy to life, but also how it can lead to hopelessness, doubt, and uncertainty.
High-throughput sequence analysis reveals variation in the relative abundance of components of the bacterial and fungal microbiota in the rhizosphere ofGinkgo biloba
Authors: Ruan Rujue , Jiang Zhifang , Wu Yuhuan , Xu Maojun , Ni Jun
Published: November 2019

Background

The narrow region of soil, in contact with and directly influenced by plant roots, is called the rhizosphere. Microbes living in the rhizosphere are considered to be important factors for the normal growth and development of plants. In this research, the structural and functional diversities of microbiota between theGinkgo bilobaroot rhizosphere and the corresponding bulk soil were investigated.

Methods

Three independent replicate sites were selected, and triplicate soil samples were collected from the rhizosphere and the bulk soil at each sampling site. The communities of bacteria and fungi were investigated using high-throughput sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene and the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) of the rRNA gene, respectively.

Results

A number of bacterial genera showed significantly different abundance in the rhizosphere compared to the bulk soil, includingBradyrhizobium,Rhizobium,Sphingomonas,StreptomycesandNitrospira. Functional enrichment analysis of bacterial microbiota revealed consistently increased abundance of ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters and decreased abundance of two-component systems in the rhizosphere community, compared to the bulk soil community. In contrast, the situation was more complex and inconsistent for fungi, indicating the independency of the rhizosphere fungal community on the local microenvironment.
Lateral Soft Tissue Neck X-ray a Tool for the Otorhinolaryngology Surgeon
Authors: Uju Ibekwe Matilda , Edirin Oghenekaro
Published: November 2019

Background: Management of aerodigestive emergencies can prove a challenge especially in this sub-Saharan region where there is a dearth of specialized equipment. In some areas, a plain radiograph may be the only investigative tool readily available to the surgeon. It is routinely done in most of these cases. In our environment health care is often financed by the patients through out of pocket expenses since most do not have health insurance. Affordability of a particular treatment becomes paramount. This study, therefore, is aimed at assessing the use of lateral soft tissue neck X-ray and its reliability as a diagnostic tool in aerodigestive emergencies.

Objective: To determine the relevance or effectiveness of plain radiograph of the lateral soft tissue neck in patients with upper aerodigestive emergencies and therefore its use as a tool to the otorhinolaryngology (ORL) surgeon as the first-line investigation in these patients.

Patients and Methods: It is a prospective study of all patients that presented to the ENT surgery department of UPTH from April 2018 to April 2019 with upper aerodigestive emergencies. Patients who presented in the ENT clinic, accident and emergency department, children`s emergency wards and the clinics with upper aerodigestive emergencies were recruited in this study. All the patients had X-ray lateral soft tissue of the neck done on presentation and the results were then compared with the final operative findings in the operation theatre. Some patients had also chest radiograph done however; the diagnosis was done based on the lateral soft tissue neck finding. Patients that had radiologic investigation other than radiograph of the lateral soft tissue neck as the main investigative tool were excluded from the study. The radiologist opinion was obtained for all the radiographs as a routine. The results were analyzed using the SPSS 20 and presented in simple statistical tables.

Results: Sixteen patients were studied. Males were 14(87.5%) while females were 2(12.5%). Age range was from 1.5 to 77 years with children comprising only 31.25% of the study population. The commonest presenting complaint was voice change 68.75%. Positive findings on the x-ray neck were seen as soft signs in 62.5% and radio-opacity in 18.75%. In n=14(87.5%) the lateral neck x-ray positive findings were corroborated by the operative findings. The tool has a specificity of 100% for both foreign body inhalation/ingestion and laryngeal tumour but the sensitivity of 80% in laryngeal tumours but 100% for the foreign body.

Conclusion: Study concludes that lateral soft tissue neck x-ray was found to be a good and useful tool in the diagnosis of a good number of upper aerodigestive emergencies such as foreign body ingestion/inhalation and patients with upper airway obstruction caused by laryngeal tumours and some infective conditions such as a retropharyngeal abscess.
Freudenburg, William R. (1951–2010)
Authors: Dunlap Riley E. , Gill Duane A.
Published: November 2019

William R. Freudenburg was a pathbreaking environmental sociologist who made major contributions to understanding the impacts of resource extraction and technological disasters on communities, the sociopolitical dimensions of risk, and the disproportionate impact of environmental hazards, among other topics. His work was notable for its use of innovative methodologies and development of keen theoretical insights.
Net Neutrality
Authors: Wihbey John P.
Published: November 2019

This entry examines the principle of net neutrality, or the practice of nondiscrimination by Internet network managers with respect to data flows, and its implications for issues of power, control, and innovation in twenty‐first‐century societies. Differing global practices are reviewed, with a focus on the values that are embedded in the relevant technologies and how national political cultures, as well as powerful market actors, have responded to these values of openness and nonhierarchy. As the Internet and the Web have become embedded in so many forms of cultural exchange and economic production, the idea of net neutrality has come to embody a set of contested rights and values that implicate everything from free speech to innovation, human rights to economic policy. Future issues that will complicate the debate over net neutrality, including the fragmentation of the global Internet because of censorship in authoritarian countries, as well as policy shifts lobbied for by telecommunications companies, are examined. The increasingly monopolistic nature of certain technology companies on the Internet and the rise of mobile Internet access are also poised to shape changes in conceptions of, and practices relating to, net neutrality.
Disurbanization
Authors: Paddison Ronan
Published: November 2019

Consistently accompanying the relentless rise of urbanization, disurbanization has sought to challenge the scale, concentration and negative soci(et)al impacts of urban growth. As a reaction to urban growth, disurbanization has been expressed commonly through antiurbanism, through the rise and spread of suburbanization, and through the intervention of political and planning processes aimed at limiting the scale of cities and the concentration of population (and economic activities) and in extreme cases of forcibly removing urban population to rural areas. While how such processes have unfolded, and how they have impacted on urbanization, is contingent, in different forms such reactive processes have been commonplace.
Mechnikov, Lev (1838–1888)
Authors: Zhereb Alexandra
Published: November 2019

Lev Mechnikov (May 18, 1838–June 18, 1888) was a Russian sociologist, geographer, revolutionary anarchist, and publicist. The most noted aspects of Mechnikov's work as sociologist was his theory of development of civilizations and social progress. According to Mechnikov, the level of solidarity attained among people is the main indicator of a society's social progress. In his main work
La civilisation et les grands fleuves historiques
he attempted to analyze the connection between the society's organization and its geographical position. Environment is not just nature but the part of nature which is involved in the process of human labor. Mechnikov believed that the main component of the geographical environment is the so‐called hydrological factor (water resources' impact on human life). According to Mechnikov, this factor together with solidarity is a prime force in the historical process.
Ozone Hole
Authors: Hannigan John
Published: November 2019

Ozone hole is one of the most striking and influential metaphors in contemporary environmental discourse. Not an actual “hole” as such, it refers to a progressive, seasonal thinning of ozone concentrations in the lower stratosphere provoked by a buildup of chlorine‐based compounds emitted by refrigerators, air conditioners, and aerosol spray cans. This results in the destruction of ozone molecules that protect us from ultraviolet radiation from the sun. Harmful effects include an elevated risk of skin cancer, cataracts, and a weakening of the human immune system. The ozone hole was first dramatically depicted in an animated video created from longitudinal NASA satellite data, showing a precipitous decline in ozone concentrations over the Antarctic since 1960. The image of a “hole in the ozone” resonated widely with journalists, politicians, and the public. It played a central role in the passing of the 1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, widely described as the most successful multilateral environmental agreement ever. Ozone levels in the stratosphere stabilized at the beginning of the millennium, but have since started to rise again, partly because the replacements for chemical compounds banned by the Montreal Protocol have proven to be less benign than expected.
Community Informatics
Authors: Rhinesmith Colin
Published: November 2019

Community informatics (CI) is the use of information and communication technology (ICT) to support community‐defined development goals. It is a multidisciplinary field that includes researchers and practitioners from information studies, social work, rural sociology, public policy, urban planning, among other areas. Similar to social informatics, CI considers organizational use of ICTs across virtual and physical spaces. However, CI is more concerned with how communities develop the social and technical capacities needed to promote ICT access, adoption, and use. Early CI studies examined the role of online community networks in developing social capital, while others considered the potential of public computing centers, telecentres, and libraries to address the digital divide. CI projects are as diverse globally as they are locally. A common theme connecting them is community participation in ICTs to promote social action and social change.
Bellah, Robert Neelly (1927–2013)
Authors: Bortolini Matteo
Published: November 2019

Robert N. Bellah (1927–2013) was a US sociologist, theologian, educator, and public intellectual. A student of Talcott Parsons at the Harvard Department of Social Relations, Bellah first became well known in the late 1950s as an expert on Japanese culture and religion. In the 1960s he published “Civil Religion in America,” a controversial interpretation of the relationship between religion and politics in the United States which sparked a broad multidisciplinary debate. Before leaving the civil religion debate, Bellah stated his views in the book
The Broken Covenant
. In the early 1970s Bellah also promoted a radical version of hermeneutics, which he called “symbolic realism.” After a failed attempt to create a school of social sciences at the Institute of Advanced Studies in Princeton together with his friend and colleague, anthropologist Clifford Geertz, Bellah worked on a project on US morality and individualism which was eventually published in
Habits of the Heart
and
The Good Society
, two very influential and debated books. In the last years of his intellectual trajectory Bellah worked relentlessly on a theoretical project he had first envisioned in the 1950s:
Religion in Human Evolution
was both his swan song and his greatest accomplishment.
Achieved Status
Authors: Luo Ye
Published: November 2019

Achieved status refers to any status within a group or society that is attained after birth through effort or achievement. Achieved status is conventionally paired with ascribed status as two ways individuals attain status, but the line between them is not distinct. There are cultural and temporal variations in the relative importance of achieved and ascribed statuses. Ascribed status can have direct impact on achieved status and can also interact with achieved status in many domains of life.
Drug Trafficking
Authors: García Victor
Published: November 2019

Drug trafficking is a complex global problem, and all countries play a role in the illicit drug trade. This trade includes the production, sale, distribution, and consumption of prohibited prescription drugs and other illegal drugs, such as cocaine and heroin. For decades, western hemisphere countries in the south, such as Colombia, either produced or distributed drugs, and the countries in the north, especially the United States, served as major markets. However, this is no longer the case. Mexico is now a producer, distributor, and consumer of illicit drugs, and, as such, is a good case study for understanding changes in drug trafficking in the western hemisphere, especially in regard to how it has permeated popular culture
Brown v. Board of Education
Authors: Ford Donna Y. , Wright Brian L.
Published: November 2019

On May 17, 1954, the Supreme Court announced its decision inBrown v. Board of Education, declaring segregation in public schools inherently unconstitutional. Schools were to desegregate and quickly. The decision, a revolutionary act, gave tremendous legitimacy to the civil rights movement and, consequently, forever changed US race relations in and outside of schools. This entry contends that the promise of Brown has yet to be fulfilled. More to the point, schools are even more segregated across school buildings, within in schools, and within classrooms, as evidenced by inequities in discipline, special education, and gifted education.
Chicago School: Social Change
Authors: Herzog Patricia Snell
Published: November 2019

The Chicago School of sociologists theorized social change primarily through a set of theories referred to as the “organism metaphor.” Organism metaphors of society have characterized society as a whole functioning together as a single organism, or have characterized societies as composed of a number of organisms functioning in an ecological system. Chicago School sociologists interpreted the organism metaphor as less functional and more conflict oriented. Their attention to the unequal distribution of social ills across cityscapes shifted away from a naturalistic, scientific, and cohesive view of social organisms toward a medical, interventionist, and struggling view of social organisms. The focus on eradication of social pathologies added a distinctly US style of sociology that viewed social life as in need of amelioration.
Consumption: Green/Sustainable
Authors: Mylan Josephine
Published: November 2019

Green/sustainable consumption refers to various disciplines, discourses, policy initiatives, and practices concerning the design and implementation of consumption practices and production innovations that seek to curtail any of the negative environmental and social effects of human economic activity. Different groups of approaches (reformist, revolutionary, reconfiguration) have been taken to this topic.
Consumption of Music
Authors: Larsen Gretchen
Published: November 2019

The consumption of music has long been of interest to sociologists, not only as a universally significant human practice, but also as a context through which core questions in sociology have been explored. Canonical social thinkers, such as Adorno, Bourdieu, and DeNora, have concerned themselves with how people engage with music, to examine such issues as power, social relations, identity, and well‐being. Framing engagement with music as “consumption” supposes an activity that is mediated by the market. Consumers access music through exchange, to take ownership of, or gain the right to access and experience music. In sociological research on music consumption, it is the experience of use, rather than the purchase itself, that has been of interest. Several areas of focus have emerged over time, such as taste, status, identity, subcultures, brand communities, sonic ecology, and the changing role of technology in consumption.
Correlation
Authors: Piovani Juan Ignacio
Published: November 2019

This entry presents a general overview of correlation in the social sciences. It first defines the concept and introduces the main operative instrument for correlational analysis: the correlation coefficient. In addition, it describes the different forms that the relationship between two variables may assume in terms of its degree and direction. The historical significance of correlation for social research and the most important milestones in the development of the theory of correlation are also highlighted. Finally, some key issues concerning the application of correlational analysis to different types of variables, and the interpretation of the coefficient that expresses the relationship quantitatively, are discussed.
Dialectic
Authors: Anderson Kevin B. , Hudis Peter
Published: November 2019

The modern dialectic originates in Hegel, who develops it in a social and historical framework, using core concepts like negation of the negation (absolute negativity), the critique of abstract universals, and identity, difference, and contradiction. The young Marx criticizes Hegel's stress on consciousness as opposed to the fullness of human praxis, but he employs core dialectical concepts drawn from Hegel, as in the commodity fetishism section of
Capital
. After Marx's death, Lenin, Lukács, and the Frankfurt School recovered the dialectic in Marxism, while James, Dunayevskaya, and Fanon developed it in terms of race and colonialism as well as capital and class.
Distinction
Authors: Daloz Jean‐Pascal
Published: November 2019

This entry refers to the major theories about social distinction and underlines the lack of willingness to enter into dialogue between schools of thought. It considers both classical and more recent debates around the Bourdieusian perspective and stresses the importance of inductive, comparative research.
Distributive Justice
Authors: Jasso Guillermina
Published: November 2019

Every day, and in all walks of life, the sense of justice is at work. Humans form ideas about what is just, and they make judgments about the justice or injustice of the things they see around them. Both the ideas of justice and the assessments of injustice set in motion a train of individual and social processes, touching virtually every area of the human experience. Thus, in the quest to understand human behavior, understanding the operation of the sense of justice is basic. And justice is central across the subfields of sociology. This entry summarizes the justice synthesis begun in the late twentieth century and the foundation for the coming synthesis of the twenty‐first century. The first synthesis looks inward, providing a parsimonious and coherent model for understanding and investigating every aspect of distributive justice. The coming second synthesis looks outward, forging the links between justice (generalized to all comparison processes) and the two other primordial sociobehavioral forces – status and power – and proposing a new unified theory.
Drug Use
Authors: Singer Merrill , Ziegler James
Published: November 2019

This entry reviews behavioral and social science research on drug use, addiction, and treatment. Theories developed in the course of the history of human and prehuman drug consumption are examined to illuminate our changing involvement with and attitudes toward involvement with psychoactive substances.
Efficiency and Innovation
Authors: Pappa Evangelia
Published: November 2019

In the knowledge economy, competition is not based on low cost and price, but on the creation of new ideas, the diffusion of technological and scientific knowledge, qualified staff and the application of innovation. Competitiveness is reflected in a firm's ability to secure, maintain, and increase its shares in both domestic and international commodity markets.
Feuerbach, Ludwig (1804–1872)
Authors: Deranty Jean‐Philippe
Published: November 2019

German philosopher Ludwig Feuerbach (1804–1872) is now a relatively obscure figure and yet he played a key role in the German intellectual scene in the middle of the nineteenth century. He received his training from Hegel but moved away from Hegel's absolute idealism early on. In his mature work he sought to reuse aspects of the Hegelian method to propose a new, materialist theory of knowledge, and, most famously, of religious belief. He was a major influence on the budding socialist movement in Germany and on the young Marx in particular. It is in that respect at first that he counts as an interesting figure in the prehistory of sociological disciplines. However, his writings deserve to be studied for themselves, as they contain many rich insights that anticipate, sometimes in amazing ways, concepts and arguments propounded by sociologists and social theorists a century or more later.
Gun Crime/Gun Control
Authors: Squires Peter
Published: November 2019

The mass shooting phenomenon, rather more than underlying levels of “ordinary” gun crime, has brought new urgency to the global gun debate, leading to renewed international efforts at gun control even as, in many societies, those who can, acquire firearms for their own personal defense, lacking confidence in the authorities' ability to protect them. Yet the global evidence is unequivocal: More guns invariably lead to more gun violence and significantly more gun suicides. While many jurisdictions have introduced new gun controls in the wake of mass shooting tragedies, the size and strength of the US gun lobby has been especially successful in preventing the adoption of significant new gun control measures, even, in many cases, liberalizing existing gun laws and securing a favorable reinterpretation of the Second Amendment to the US Constitution. The commentary develops the concept of a “gun control regime” to better understand, from a social science perspective, the culture and politics, use and misuse, of firearms in any given country.
Gramsci, Antonio (1891–1937)
Authors: de Nardis Fabio
Published: November 2019

Antonio Gramsci (1891–1937) was an Italian philosopher, journalist, linguist, and political sociologist, who spent 11 years in fascist prisons because of his membership in the Italian Communist Party, which he founded and led until his death. He is considered one of the twentieth century's greatest Marxist thinkers mainly thanks to his
Prison Notebooks
, a monumental work consisting of more than 30 notebooks, written in prison between 1929 and 1935. His concepts have strongly influenced modern critical sociology, political theory, social anthropology, and linguistics. He uses interdisciplinary sources, reflecting meticulously on European and Italian history, the concept of revolution, the role of civil society, Fordism, popular culture, and folklore.
Imanishi, Kinji (1902–1992)
Authors: Asquith Pamela J.
Published: November 2019

Kinji Imanishi (1902–1992) was an ecologist, anthropologist, and founder of primatology in Japan. His basic view emphasized co‐operation rather than competition in the natural world. This view held that “lifestyle partitioning” (
sumiwake
) among coexisting species explained the origin, or differentiation, of species. His concept of “species society” (
specia
) likewise focused on members of a species as a whole and their interactions with one another that maintain an equilibrium, rather than on the morphological differences and inclusive fitness of individual members of the species. He returned to these views many times in the course of his critiques of the predominance of natural selection theory to explain animal behavior and evolution. Imanishi was also an avid mountaineer and explorer, about which he also wrote prolifically. In 1931 he helped to found the still active Academic Alpine Club of Kyoto. In addition to his scientific contributions, his mountaineering exploits were the basis for his inspirational example and popularity among the general public in Japan.
Jacobs, Jane (1916–2006)
Authors: Orum Anthony
Published: November 2019

Jane Jacobs was one of the leading urbanists of the twentieth century. Her work has had profound influence over a wide range of scholars, among them urban planners and sociologists as well as economists. Her major writing on cities,
The Death and Life of Great American Cities
, remains one of the leading texts on cities and urban planning even today.
Life Course
Authors: McDaniel Susan A.
Published: November 2019

Life course is both individual and societal. It is a vibrant and enabling multidisciplinary perspective growing in both insights and popularity. With the vast growth in longitudinal data, life‐course research has a bright future.
Life Environmentalism
Authors: Yamamoto Daisaku
Published: November 2019

Life environmentalism (
seikatsu kankyo shugi
) refers to a set of theories and policy approaches that aim to resolve environmental problems by taking seriously the rationales and practices of the residents of the affected area. It emerged in the 1980s as a broadly shared research framework among Japanese environmental sociologists studying adverse consequences of postwar industrialization. Life environmentalism is typically contrasted with two other frameworks: “natural environmentalism,” which values the preservation of supposedly pristine nature, and “modern technocentrism,” which relies on modern technologies to overcome environmental problems. Life environmentalism, in contrast, argues that in order to generate effective environmental policies and practices one must carefully examine and incorporate how residents have been using and interacting with their local environment and resources, often relying on locally specific values, rules, and practices that may not be fully grasped by modern science.
Lifestyle
Authors: Thille Patricia , Mayes Christopher
Published: November 2019

Lifestyle has been of interest to sociologists since the emergence of consumer capitalism in the mid‐nineteenth century. The mass production and distribution of consumer goods, increased speed of transportation and communication, and fragmenting of traditional sources of authority and social cohesion contributed to the conditions that enabled individuals to
style
their life to reflect a particular identity and social status. Sociologists such as Max Weber (1864–1920), Thorstein Veblen (1857–1929), and Georg Simmel (1858–1918) were central to initial analyses of the social and economic changes that gave rise to practices of self‐formation and the styling of life. Lifestyle endures as a sociological topic of study, including sociological analyses of new practices of styling life, countercultures, and how other fields (e.g., healthcare, sport) engage with the concept.
Mediated Interaction
Authors: Arminen Ilkka
Published: November 2019

Mediated interaction, that is, interaction between people enabled by information and communication technologies, has become increasingly common for most people around the globe. This entry discusses separately the types of mediated interactions, with their own limitations and potentials, and tries to point out the relevance and consequentiality of media and technologies for the organization of social action. Recently mobile technologies have challenged the distance between mediated interaction and face‐to‐face interactions. In future, face‐to‐face and digital interactions will increasingly be merged together. These new types of mediated interactions will open numerous challenges for social sciences, not least in the analysis of risks involved.
Occupations
Authors: Adams Tracey L.
Published: November 2019

The term
occupation
is used to describe the work one engages in on a regular basis, usually as a means to earn a living. Characteristics of occupations vary along a number of dimensions including skill level, autonomy, pay, safety, and security. Occupations are changing over time, with shifts in the economy; recent labor market changes may alter the extent to which workers hold occupations.
Oligarchy and Organization
Authors: Rucht Dieter
Published: November 2019

Oligarchy is evaluated strikingly different among both practitioners, in various kinds of organizations (state administrations, political parties, interest groups, social movements), and scholars. Some see it as an unavoidable or even necessary structure to create organizational unity and allow for strategic action; others consider it to be an evil to be eliminated or mitigated. Promoters of “strong” democracy especially seek to curb or reduce oligarchy by means of decentralization, division of power, rotation of tasks, and citizen participation. Such ideas are particularly salient among progressive social movements that are critical toward the use and misuse of power, both within their own ranks and society at large.
One Drop Rule
Authors: Khanna Nikki
Published: November 2019

The one drop rule is a social rule of racial classification by which those withanydegree of black ancestry are categorized as black. The rule is uniquely American and can be traced to the slave era as an effort by whites to maintain white supremacy. During the Jim Crow era, the rule was codified into state laws to formally define blackness in order to subjugate anyone with black ancestry. There is debate over the influence of the one drop rule today.
Pietism
Authors: Possamai Adam
Published: November 2019

Pietism is a historical movement which started within seventeenth‐century German Protestantism and was portrayed as a return to a more pious Christian lifestyle. In its broader understanding, it was linked to other movements such as Puritanism in England. The movement went through various changes in its history, and while it is no longer as strong as it used to be, the multidimensional word “piety” is used in contemporary sociological research to understand the beliefs and practices of various inner‐worldly religious actors.
Plural Society
Authors: Lee Jack Jin Gary
Published: November 2019

The concept of “plural society” was defined within a comparative frame of reference shaped by the global workings of modern European empires. As formulated by J.S. Furnivall and then developed by M.G. Smith, the theory imagined and positioned colonies and postcolonial nation‐states in contrast to the purportedly homogeneous and integrated societies of Western Europe. Historically speaking, the plural society was the product of European imperial expansion over the nineteenth century, and its paradigmatic cases were racially diverse societies in Southeast Asia, the Caribbean, and Africa. Recent scholarship has revisited Furnivall's conceptual legacy in light of his ties to the Fabian Society and its origins in British administrative ideology.
Political Economy and Sport
Authors: Li Hongxin , Nauright John
Published: November 2019

Political economy refers to the interactions between economic, political, and cultural affairs. While modern economics and the role of politics is linked to Adam Smith and his
Wealth of Nations
, modern political economy emerged from the work of Karl Polyani. Political economy in sports examines the extension of capitalism's production–consumption relations to the development, politics, and economics of sports. In sports, political‐economic interpretation successfully identifies the principal economic actors who make decisions and perform in ways that bring them benefits, making a profound impact on the nature and function of sport‐related industries at the international level and whose actions are experienced in a variety of ways.
Primate Cities
Authors: Timberlake Michael
Published: November 2019

Primate cities are the largest cities among a territorially circumscribed group of cities, most often the most populous cities of a particular country. While a size hierarchy of cities is normal, when the largest city is much more populous than the next largest city, it is thought to inhibit well‐balanced economic growth across the territory containing the other cities. In the scholarly literature in the sociology of development produced in the middle decades of the twentieth century, urban primacy was featured as one of several presumed obstacles to successful economic development afflicting low‐income countries, and theoretically specifying and measuring it concerned many researchers.
Public Order Crime
Authors: Mukhtar Jamilu Ibrahim
Published: November 2019

Public order crime is any behavior which does not necessarily direct any physical harm to a victim, be it an individual or group, but it could invoke fear of imminent danger or violence in their minds; it could be injurious to the actor (i.e., victimless offense), constitute a public nuisance, be injurious to the moral fabric of the society, or constitute a threat to the value system of the society. This entry explains the concept (public order crime) from the lenses of three major sociological perspectives: consensus, conflict, and symbolic interactionist. It produces arguments and counterarguments on the justification for fighting public order crimes.
Purdah
Authors: Chakraborty Abin
Published: November 2019

“Purdah” refers to a practice of seclusion and segregation of women, practiced in many Muslim communities across the world and also in some Hindu communities in India, which either leads to separate gendered quarters or to self‐concealment through various costumes. Based principally on certain Qur'anic verses, the practice, however, often hinders Muslim women from accessing education, employment opportunities, and even medical care. In the post‐9/11 world, “purdah” and its sartorial manifestations have been at the center of many debates surrounding security, secularism, and gendered identity in multicultural nation‐spaces.
Radcliffe‐Brown, Alfred R. (1881–1955)
Authors: Cadenas Hugo
Published: November 2019

Alfred Reginald Radcliffe‐Brown was a British social anthropologist and one of the best‐known exponents of structural functionalist theory. He considered anthropology a natural science based on direct observation and formal comparison and proposed a theoretical model based on the concepts of structure and function to understand the form and functioning of societies. Although his scope was criticized for its emphasis on static aspects at the expense of conflict and social change, he exerted significant influence on many of the sociological and anthropological theories of the twentieth century.
Reception Studies
Authors: Livingstone Sonia
Published: November 2019

Reception studies derive primarily from the application of literary theories of textual interpretation to the everyday interpretive activities of mass media audiences. Challenging the assumption that the meaning‐making processes by readers apply only to high culture, not popular culture, advocates of reception studies argue that media texts (of all kinds – press, television, film, games, social media, other online) must also be made sense of by their audiences. Since its inception, reception studies has mapped out a theoretical and empirical program of research on the “active audience” for mass media, establishing an influential strand of audience research, together with a series of innovations in both theory and methodology. It offers a critique of the ways in which, ever since the advent of mass media over a century ago, the major theories of the audience have constructed an image of the audience as homogeneous, vulnerable, and easily manipulated in the face of a powerful and all‐pervasive digital media.
Self‐Control Theory of Crime
Authors: Gottfredson Michael R.
Published: November 2019

Self‐control is a concept used by sociologists to explain differences among people in the frequency of engaging in a wide variety of acts, including crime and delinquency, that cause harm to others. It is defined as the tendency to avoid acts whose long term costs exceed their momentary advantages
Sexuality and Sport
Authors: Fusco Caroline
Published: November 2019

The relation between sexuality and sport serves as a central structure for body/identity/gender meanings; however, sexuality was a neglected area of inquiry in sports studies until the mid‐1990s. Sport has long been a site for the reproduction of difference, particularly the naturalization of sexual differences, but sexuality occupied a somewhat “absent presence” in sport sociological research until the late 1980s, when sports sociologists explicitly addressed this topic. Since that time, scholars in the sociology of sport have figured prominently in the critique of historical and cultural forms of sexuality and the ways that sport serves as a site for constructing and policing sexualities and both reproducing and resisting patriarchy, heterosexism; and the heterosexualization of sport‐related forms.
Social Epistemology
Authors: Wray K. Brad
Published: November 2019

Social epistemology is a branch of philosophy concerned with the study of social practices and social factors. Social epistemologists seek to examine social practices and social factors from an epistemic point of view, as aids or impediments to the pursuit of knowledge. This entry traces the origins of social epistemology to Kuhn and feminist epistemology and describes four types of projects conducted by social epistemologists. It argues that sociological studies of science are an important but still largely neglected resource for those working in social epistemology. But, unlike sociologists, it is argued that social epistemologists are concerned with normative issues. Social epistemologists seek to evaluate norms and practices from an epistemic point of view.
Stratification: Functional and Conflict Theories
Authors: Andres Lesley
Published: November 2019

Functionalism and social conflict theory provide alternate explanations regarding the relationship among formal education, skill acquisition, and occupational status. From a functionalist perspective, ever increasing technological advances in society demand a continual shift in the proportion of low‐skill jobs to high‐skill jobs. Formal education provided in educational institutions plays a central role by producing individuals with high‐level generic or specific skills. Stratification into the hierarchy of positions is related to acquired levels of formal education and more prestigious positions require higher and more specialized training. From a social conflict theory perspective, the central role of formal education is not to create skilled individuals for the labor force. Rather, ascriptive factors are largely responsible for the enduring relationship between social class and occupational attainment. The purpose of education is to instill the status culture of the dominant group into those destined for high level positions and to teach those relegated to lower positions to respect the values of the dominant group.
Stratification: Technology and Ideology
Authors: Kane Nazneen
Published: November 2019

From the early works of Hegel and Marx to new media and cultural studies, the relationship between technology and ideology and its role in stratification has been an important focus of sociological inquiry. Key insights in this field highlight how the technological orientation of a social group shapes its shared ideology and its system of social stratification. Gerhard Lenski's ecological‐evolutionary theory exemplifies this line of theorizing and is commonly taught within the discipline of sociology. Others have built upon this theory to understand the relationship between new media and ideology in postindustrial societies.
Sweatshops
Authors: Smith David Norman
Published: November 2019

Sweatshops, which now spark global controversy, arose in the shadows of the emerging English factory system. Originally minor offshoots of the Industrial Revolution, they are now among the most ubiquitous features of global production.
Transport and Virtual Technologies
Authors: Ursic Matjaz
Published: November 2019

The merging of transport and virtual technologies that began in the 1990s has been radically transforming the concept of mobility in contemporary societies. Driven not only by the increased level of movement of people, things, and ideas, the introduction of virtual technologies in transport paved the way for new types of mobility patterns where bodies combine with information. Most commonly associated with the production of augmented realities that blend real surroundings, the origins of the applicative use of virtual technologies can be traced to VRML (Virtual Reality Modeling Language), which appeared in 1994 and was quickly adopted by the transport sector. The presence and use of virtual technologies has since greatly expanded, with the inclusion of various digital tools (user‐interface software) and devices (smartphones, tablets, virtual reality headsets) capable of enhancing the perception and experience of movement in the physical environment. This has had profound social implications in multiple spheres of everyday life spanning the organization of public and private services, retail, media, tourism, sports, education, and urbanism.