bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
'What Constitutes a Historical Explanation?': Metahistory and the Limits of Historical Explanation in the Goldhagen/Browning Controversy
Authors: Eaglestone Robert
Published: September 2007

This chapter explores the limits of historical explanation by offering an analysis of the controversy between Daniel Jonah Goldhagen and Christopher Browning. It argues that it is their metahistorical commitments, not the ‘facts of the matter’ that mean they are in dispute. Goldhagen takes an anthropological approach, influenced by Clifford Geertz, and writes an explicitly moral ethnographic history. On the other hand, Browning offers a more traditional historical approach. However, Browning's reference to and reliance on the flawed Milgram authority experiments reveal an ahistorical view of humanity and history. This chapter argues that these two approaches cannot be unified, and this reveals the central importance of philosophical questions for history. It turns to Michel Foucault and Jurgen Habermas to suggest theoretical avenues for further Holocaust historical research.
Inexhaustible Meaning, Inextinguishable Voices: Levinas and the Holocaust
Authors: Eaglestone Robert
Published: September 2007

This chapter looks in detail at the work of Emmanuel Levinas. It argues that although he does not often discuss the Holocaust explicitly, it is central to Levinas's thought and to postmodern thought more generally defined. The chapter outlines the historical role of the Holocaust in Levinas's thought, and its change over time. It then shows how the thought of the Holocaust saturates Levinas's work, from the smallest sentences, to his larger organizing concepts, to his stands on issues such as aesthetics and war, to the overall aims of his philosophy. It then offers a view on Levinas as a philosopher of ambivalence, and argues that, as a result of the Holocaust, he takes up original positions in relation to reason, truth, and the task of philosophy, which in turn shape our response to the Holocaust.
The Limits of Understanding: Perpetrator Philosophy and Philosophical Histories
Authors: Eaglestone Robert
Published: September 2007

Beginning with an encounter described by Primo Levi, this chapter looks at philosophical attempts to explain why the perpetrators did as they did. It begins by analysing a debate over the very possibility of explanation, countering beliefs that no explanation is possible and that philosophers have no role in this process. It then turns to the philosophical problems involved in ‘refuting’ Nazism, using the work of Hilary Putnam. It then argues that Levinas understanding of ethics as first philosophy is very illuminating and resolves some of these philosophical difficulties, and is an effective response to some concerns of Adorno.
How generalizations are constrained
Authors: Goldberg Adele
Published: September 2007

Children are not strictly conservative, producing only what they have heard, and yet they are not reliably corrected when they produce overgeneralizations. How can children retreat from or avoid overgeneralizations? As many have noted, the most obvious possible explanations, including a reliance on overt corrections or corrective repetitions, are not viable. Two factors are argued to play a central role: statistical preemption or repeatedly witnessing a word in a competing pattern, and a pattern's degree of openness: the variability of the items that occur in a given pattern.
Cross-linguistic generalizations in argument realization
Authors: Goldberg Adele
Published: September 2007

This chapter considers several concrete proposals for universal linking generalizations. It is shown that the ‘universals’ are only tendencies, and each tendency is argued to be a result of general cognitive, pragmatic, or processing attributes of human cognition. Actors and Undergoers tend to be expressed in prominent syntactic positions because they are highly salient, in the sense that they are closely attended to in non-linguistic tasks. The number of semantic arguments tends to align with the number of overt complements because rational communicators express as much as and not more than is necessary. It is natural to express the meaning of transfer with a ditransitive form because of simultaneous parallels between recipients and patient-objects on the one hand, and possessor-subjects on the other. Predictable, recoverable, or highly frequent information tends to be reduced to make expression more economical. Languages tend to develop fixed word order or case marking in order to avoid rampant ambiguity. Moreover, languages tend to have stable head orders due to diachronic processes and processing preferences. Therefore, given that argument structure constructions are demonstrably learnable, and given that the cross-linguistic generalizations that do exist are not exceptionless, and motivated by non-linguistic generalizations, the chapter concludes that generalizations about the linking between form and function provide no evidence for a biological ‘universal grammar’ related to argument structure generalizations.
Conclusion
Authors: Goldberg Adele
Published: September 2007

This chapter provides a brief summary of preceding chapters, observing that the constructionist approach directly undermines the need for biologically determined knowledge that is specific to language (universal grammar). Generalizations are best described by analysing surface structure instead of positing an underlying level of representation (Chapter 2). The generalizations of language, like generalizations in other cognitive domains, are formed on the basis of instance-based knowledge that is retained (Chapter 3). Children are able to learn certain kinds of generalizations quite quickly, with skewed input like that commonly found in natural language playing a facilitory role (Chapter 4). Generalizations can be constrained by the indirect negative evidence children receive involving statistical preemption of non-occurring patterns (Chapter 5). Generalizations at the level of argument structure are made because they are useful, both in predicting meaning and in on-line production (Chapter 6). Classic island and scope phenomena can be accounted for by recognizing the discourse function of the constructions involved (Chapter 7). Generalizations that appear to be purely syntactic are at least sometimes better analysed in terms of constructions insofar as a patterns' distribution is typically conditioned by its functional role (Chapter 8). Cross-linguistic generalizations can be accounted for by appealing to pragmatic, cognitive, and processing facts that are independently required, without any stipulations that are specific to language (Chapter 9).
The Long Shadow of Americanization: The German Rubber Industry and the Radial Tyre Revolution
Authors: Erker Paul
Published: September 2007

This chapter traces various areas and phases of influence in German industry, using the example of the tyre industry — which more than almost any other industry was influenced macroeconomically by the economic developments in the United States, as well as microeconomically by American companies. The processes of Americanization are examined by comparing two competing companies: Phoenix-Gummiwerke AG (Hamburg-Harburg), and Continental-Gummiwerke AG (Hanover). Two Americanization models emerge, not only with respect to the ways and means of the American influence but also with respect to the perception of the German companies. The results obtained are then put into context — first by looking back at the 1920s and 1930s, and then by means of a ‘preview’ of the 1970s and 1980s — in order to specify assessment criteria for the degree of ‘Americanization’, as well as the degree of ambivalence resulting from the basis of success and secondary damage.
Historicizing Fertility
Authors: Humphreys S. C.
Published: September 2007

This chapter traces the construction in the 18th-19th centuries of the belief that fertility cult was the earliest form of religion. It developed in Enlightenment Neoplatonism (Payne Knight) and also appealed to the Romantics; particular attention is paid to Hamann and Creuzer. In 19th-century classical studies, it was marginalized as primitive (Bachofen), superstitious (Jahn), or pre-Greek (Preller). Nevertheless, the assumption that it was primordial came to seem self-evident. It is argued that historicist narrative still has a useful function in revealing that such apparently self-evident facts are comparatively recent constructions.
A Financial Phoenix: The City of London in the Twentieth Century
Authors: Michie Ranald
Published: September 2007

During the 20th century the City of London survived the impact of two world wars, a worldwide economic collapse, growing restrictions on international trade and finance imposed by governments, and the decline of Britain as an economic and imperial power. All these were major blows to its standing as a financial centre, and after 1945 it did appear that it had finally lost its dominant position in the world to New York. Meanwhile, in addition, its role in Europe was threatened by Zurich. The fact that the City was able to both reclaim its international importance, and repel European competition, was testimony to the inherent strengths it possessed at the beginning of the century, its ability to transform itself in response to opportunities and challenges, and the failure of alternative centres to capitalize on London's weaknesses and so replace it.
When Paris Dreamed of Competing with the City…
Authors: Plessis Alain
Published: September 2007

This chapter discusses the emergence of Paris as a leading financial centre at the end of the 19th century. Topics covered include the heyday of the Paris marketplace, the stabilization of the franc in 1928, and the impact of Second World War and economic crisis.
London Banks and International Finance, 1890–1914
Authors: Cassis Youssef
Published: September 2007

The differences between the City of London's position as the world's leading financial centre in 2000 and in 1900 can be understood by considering the actors who occupied centre stage during the late 19th century. These actors, more precisely, those involved in the City's international financial operations, form the subject of this chapter. The chapter is limited to a few reflections upon these actors' experiences in the light of the changes that were to happen within the City as a result of further globalization during the late 20th century. After establishing who the main actors were in international banking, these reflections are concerned with three broad themes: first, the question of entry and exit; second, the level of competition; and, third, strategic options.
London as an International Financial Centre, 1980–2000: Global Powerhouse or Wimbledon EC2?
Authors: Roberts Richard
Published: September 2007

The prosperity of the international financial services industry in the 1980s and 1990s stimulated other financial centres to try to boost, or just retain, their share of activity. Challenges were mounted by Frankfurt and Paris, taking advantage of the opportunity offered by the UK's non-participation in the launch of the European single currency. There were also internal challenges that threatened to erode the City's competitive standing, notably congested local transport, creeping taxation, and increasingly bureaucratic regulation. This chapter considers the seriousness of these challenges and the City's outlook for the 21st century.
Introduction
Authors: Casper Steven
Published: September 2007

How easily can governments alter the industrial structure of economies? This introductory chapter explores competing perspectives on the ability of governments to promote competitiveness within new technology industries, such as biotechnology and software. A first approach, widely shared by governments, is that policy can orchestrate the allocation of resources into new technology sectors needed to promote competitiveness. A second approach, widely endorsed by recent academic research, is that enduring national institutional frameworks strongly impact the governance of new technology firms. A popular strand of institutional research known as the “varieties of capitalism” approach makes particularly strong claims linking institutions to innovation. According to this perspective, most European economies have “organized” institutional frameworks that impede competitiveness in new technology industries. This chapter explores this debate, and sets the agenda used by the book to evaluate the extent to which institutional frameworks impact the ability of governments to promote competitiveness within new technology industries.
Regional strategies to sustain radical innovation: Internet software
Authors: Casper Steven
Published: September 2007

The varieties of capitalism approach focuses on explaining variation in industry specialization at the national level. However, much evidence from the field of economic geography suggests that industries tend to cluster within regional economies, and empirical evidence suggests that there are regions within coordinated market economies that have sustained clusters of radically innovative companies. Focusing on the successful wireless Internet and software cluster in Stockholm, Sweden, this chapter explores mechanisms by which alternative patterns of economic coordination may develop. The analysis focuses on the role of large companies, particularly in industries in which technical interdependencies between firms is strong in creating patterns of economic coordination that run counter to national models.
The Benefit of Doubt: Shadow Norms and Governance in Trust-based Organizations
Authors: Lampel Joseph
Published: September 2007

This chapter enquires into the cognitive foundations of governance and points out that common features of modern economic activities, such as uncertainty and knowledge intensity, undermine the efficiency of hierarchical and contractual governance mechanisms. These call for ‘soft’ governance means, such as implicit agreements and social norms. On the other hand, this chapter acknowledges the pitfalls of these means in the face of unforeseen contingencies and required flexibility. Hence, it engages in a detailed analysis of the mechanisms of social control which yields a distinction between types of norms. This shows how ‘shadow norms’ (procedural heuristics helping in making sense of what behaviours can be considered violations of norms) and ‘meta-norms’ (procedural norms about what behaviours should be followed in the face of norm violation) possess relatively flexible coordination mechanisms, helping bystanders to exert effective social control.
Explaining Western Securities Markets
Authors: Roe Mark J.
Published: September 2007

This chapter questions the power of law in solving CG problems and maintains that there are societal and political forces that are likely to shape governance structures irrespective of any regulation. In particular, the most common configuration of those forces around the world tends to reinforce concentrated ownership no matter what laws are adopted to protect minority shareholders. The chapter presents a new regression analysis of a wide database on political indicators and ownership concentration in sixteen major countries, which supports the conjecture that political variables, in particular the degree of employment protection and trade union strength, are strong inverse correlates of ownership separation and the diffusion of public companies.
From Colleague to Employee: Determinants of Changing Career Governance Structures in Elite Law Firms
Authors: Lancaster Ryon , Uzzi Brian
Published: September 2007

This chapter shows how some structural and background factors, as well as some often-neglected factors such as demography and labour market structures, are able to affect governance solutions. Through an empirical longitudinal study on the CG models adopted by elite law firms in the US over ten years, the chapter uncovers the effects of factors such as the incidence of female and ethnic minority professionals, the rate of turnover and human capital mobility, the rate of firm growth and the specialization and differentiation of internal organization structure, on the likelihood of adoption of a non-partnership governance arrangement. The chapter's conclusions address the performance implications of the observed shifts from partnership to non-partnership governance, and possible improvements from hybridization.
Simpler Syntax
Authors: Culicover Peter W. , Jackendoff Ray
Published: September 2007

This book offers a perspective on the structure of human language. The fundamental issue it addresses is the proper balance between syntax and semantics, between structure and derivation, and between rule systems and lexicon. It argues that the balance struck by mainstream generative grammar is wrong. It puts forward a new basis for syntactic theory, drawing on a wide range of frameworks, and charts new directions for research. In the past four decades, theories of syntactic structure have become more abstract and syntactic derivations have become more complex. The book traces this development through the history of contemporary syntactic theory, showing how much it has been driven by theory-internal rather than empirical considerations. It develops an alternative that is responsive to linguistic, cognitive, computational, and biological concerns. At the core of this alternative is the Simpler Syntax Hypothesis: the most explanatory syntactic theory is one that imputes the minimum structure necessary to mediate between phonology and meaning. A consequence of this hypothesis is a richer mapping between syntax and semantics than is generally assumed. Through analyses of grammatical phenomena, some old and some new, the book demonstrates the empirical and conceptual superiority of the Simpler Syntax approach.
Later History of Mainstream Syntax
Authors: Culicover Peter W. , Jackendoff Ray
Published: September 2007

This chapter begins by exploring the consequences of a particular instantiation of Uniformity called UTAH (Uniform Theta-role Assignment Hypothesis). Repeated application of UTAH drives the development of MGG from Government/Binding Theory to later Principles and Parameters Theory. The Minimalist Program is considered in light of this development, and aspects of MP shared with earlier theories are highlighted. It is shown how the application of Uniformity in the development of mainstream generative grammar (MGG) has made the Minimalist Program indistinguishable in its essential architecture from Generative Semantics, long discredited. Finally, the chapter outlines the architectures of a theory that are motivated principally by Uniformity rather than empirical considerations, and which moreover introduce an arguably unacceptable cost in terms of theoretical complexity elsewhere in the grammar.
Mme Tussaud Meets the Binding Theory
Authors: Culicover Peter W. , Jackendoff Ray
Published: September 2007

This chapter focuses on some phenomena concerning the coding of coreference relations with reflexive pronouns. The issue is the choice between the two following positions: syntactic binding where coreference relations are coded by coindexation in syntax (redundantly with the semantics, where coreference is necessarily theory and semantic + interface theory, where coreference relations are coded in semantics alone) and where the possibility of binding is conditioned by some combination of semantic and syntactic structural conditions (the latter including the Grammatical Function tier). It is argued that the latter approach is correct.
The Semantic Basis of Control in English
Authors: Culicover Peter W. , Jackendoff Ray
Published: September 2007

This chapter examines a phenomenon which has been absolutely central to mainstream theory for forty years: control. The problem of control concerns how to determine the understood subject of infinitival or gerundive VPs that lack an overt local subject. It is shown that most of the factors involved in solving the control problem are semantic rather than syntactic. One factor has proven clearly syntactic: the choice of selection between InfC, InfP, GerC, and GerP. On the other hand, this does not correlate precisely with semantic selection; and it is semantic selection, not syntactic position, that determines whether a predicate governs free, nearly free, or unique control.
The Rebirth of the Oldenburg Monarchy, 1536–1596
Authors: Lockhart Paul Douglas
Published: September 2007

This chapter focuses on the events of 1536 and of Christian III's reign. Topics covered include reformation and monarchy, the Oldenburg state, the regency government following the death of Frederik II in 1588, the Danish realm, and the constitution and administration of the Oldenburg state.
Reformation and Culture
Authors: Lockhart Paul Douglas
Published: September 2007

This chapter discusses the Reformation in Denmark. Topics covered include the early Reformation in the Oldenburg lands, the creation of the state church, separation of the secular authority of the crown and the spiritual authority of the bishopsuperintendents, and learning and the arts.
Commerce, Rural Economy, and the Structure of Society
Authors: Lockhart Paul Douglas
Published: September 2007

This chapter discusses the economy and society of Denmark during the 16th and 17th centuries. Topics covered include the Reformation economy, the structure of Danish society, the rural lower class, the urban population, and state and society in the peripheral lands.
The Intrinsic Probability of Theism
Authors: Swinburne Richard
Published: September 2007

The major a priori factor determining the prior probability of a hypothesis is its simplicity, and for a hypothesis as wide-ranging as theism a priori factors alone determine prior probability. The hypothesis of theism is a very simple hypothesis. It postulates one personal being, God, essentially omnipotent, omniscient, perfectly free and eternal. Having powers, beliefs, and intentions are essential for being a person at all; theism postulates a person of such a kind that there are no limits to his powers, true beliefs, choice of intention, and temporal existence, except those of logic. God's perfect goodness follows from the other properties.
The Cosmological Argument
Authors: Swinburne Richard
Published: September 2007

The cosmological argument is the argument to God from the existence of a complex physical universe. God can create such a universe (by keeping it in existence as long as it exists — whether for a finite or infinite time) and has good reason to do so because it is necessary for the existence of humanly free persons. But it is a far less simple beginning of things than is God, and so a priori not to be expected but for the action of God.
Arguments from Consciousness and Morality
Authors: Swinburne Richard
Published: September 2007

Humans are conscious beings; they have mental events — sensations, thoughts, and intentions, which consist in properties possessed by souls. Science might one day produce a list of correlations between mental events and brain events; but it is immensely improbable that science would ever be able to explain why there are souls and why particular brain events are correlated with particular mental events. Theism can explain this in terms of God having good reasons to bring about certain kinds of mental life. Moral truths being in essence necessary truths provide no grounds for a good argument to God; but human awareness of moral truths does provide an argument to God of moderate strength.
The Argument from Providence
Authors: Swinburne Richard
Published: September 2007

It is good that there should be a world in which agents have the opportunity to choose freely to benefit or harm each other, especially in respect of their power, knowledge, and character. It is good too that in more limited ways animals should help and harm each other, although not as a result of a free choice. Our world is in this way providential, and that provides a further argument for God; if there is a God, we have reason to expect all this, but otherwise not. Death is not as such as evil, but merely the end of a good state.
The Problem of Evil
Authors: Swinburne Richard
Published: September 2007

It is a good thing that humans should have the opportunity to choose freely between good and evil; and so it is also good that there should be natural evil — to give us the knowledge of how to bring about good and evil events ourselves, and to give us the opportunity to react to suffering with courage and sympathy. God has a limited right to bring about evil for a good purpose. In order to give us greater freedom, he has good reason to remain ‘hidden’ for a limited time. The existence of moral and natural evil, and divine ‘hiddeness’ do not therefore provide arguments of much strength against the existence of God.
4 Retrospect and Prospect
Authors: WATERS BRENT
Published: September 2007

This chapter summarizes the analyses and criticisms of the preceding chapters, and identifies the key themes to be developed in the following chapters. The chief argument to be developed in subsequent chapters is that the failure of late liberalism to adequately preserve the nature of the familial association is the result of an inadequate theoretical account of social and political ordering. To correct this inadequacy, the following chapters develop a theological and teleological account of the family, and its normative implications for the tasks of social and political ordering.
War Stories and Tales from the Frontier
Authors: Fulford Tim
Published: September 2007

This chapter describes in detail captivity narratives and soldiers' memoirs from the Seven Years' War and the War of Independence of their encounters with Indians.
Travellers' Tales and Traders' Memoirs
Authors: Fulford Tim
Published: September 2007

This chapter outlines accounts of experiences with native Indians described by various travellers and traders.
Native Patriarchs—Pantisocracy and the Americanization of Wales
Authors: Fulford Tim
Published: September 2007

This chapter describes Indians as represented in the political writing on the 1790s, during the period of the French Revolution, especially that of Southey, Coleridge, and Wordsworth.
Shamans and Superstitions: ‘The Rime of the Ancyent Marinere’
Authors: Fulford Tim
Published: September 2007

This chapter provides a close reading of Coleridge's Rime of the Ancient Mariner, in the context of Coleridge's arguments about superstition and belief in indigenous communities, and in the context of the times, politics, and Romanticism.
Political Indians
Authors: Fulford Tim
Published: September 2007

This chapter examines verse romances on the revolutionary war and the War of Independence, and the part played by Indians therein. Writers considered include Campbell and Coleridge, while themes covered include romance, torture, and war.
The Mission to Civilize and the Colonial Romance
Authors: Fulford Tim
Published: September 2007

This chapter examines the changing white representations of Indians in the early 19th century in the contexts of the Evangelical movement (missionaries), the conservative anti-revolutionary backlash, Britain's diminished colonial presence in North America, and a more distant relationship with Indians. Writers considered include Wordsworth, Hermans, and Southey.
Kah-ge-ga-gah-bowh/George Copway
Authors: Fulford Tim
Published: September 2007

This final chapter discusses the career and writing of Copway/Kahgegagahbowh in terms of the various themes that run throughout the book.
Controversy and Religious Identity in Sixteenth‐Century Ireland
Authors: Ford Alan
Published: September 2007

This chapter examines the background to the reformation in Ireland, exploring in particular the reaction of the Anglo-Irish community in Dublin, showing how by the end of the 16th century the community had split decisively into a Catholic majority and a small protestant minority. In response, a new protestant seminary, Trinity College, Dublin, was founded. The chapter then traces the development of government policy towards those Catholics — recusants — who refused to attend the established church and ends with an account of the young James Ussher's intervention into this debate firmly on the side of those who insisted that the secular authorities use all their powers to make Catholics attend protestant services.
Defending Calvinism: 1626–33
Authors: Ford Alan
Published: September 2007

On 29 January 1625, James Ussher was appointed Archbishop of Armagh. Initially, he spent much of his time in England, where he was sucked in to the controversy surrounding Richard Montagu and the rise of ‘Arminianism’. Ussher made his opposition to Montagu plain, preaching an outspoken sermon before the King in 1626 attacking the toleration of such views. When he returned to Ireland he continued the fight, albeit rather obliquely, by publishing in 1631 a Latin history of the 9th-century monk Gottschalk of Orbais, who had been persecuted for his firm predestinarian views. Ussher launched a more direct attack on official policy in 1627, when he and two of his fellow Irish bishops preached publicly against the ‘Graces’ — particularly the proposal to grant toleration to Catholics. The evangelical success of presbyterian clergy within in north-east Ulster — some of whom had been accommodated within the Church of Ireland by tolerant bishops — led to further pressure upon the modus vivendi, which had been reached between nonconformists and the Church of Ireland in the early 17th century, as Henry Leslie, the Dean of Down, pressed for firm action to be taken against them by Ussher and the Irish authorities.
The Case Study Companies in Their Organizational Context
Authors: Butler Peter , Collings David , Peters René , Quintanilla Javier
Published: September 2007

This chapter provides a brief overview of the companies forming the basis of the analysis. The sketches are grouped into three categories: core, secondary, and minor studies. The precise ranking is a function of two factors: the number of international subsidiaries taking part in the research, and whether or not the data were supplemented with material gathered at corporate HQ in the US and/or international business or European HQ.
Innovation and the Transfer of Organizational Learning
Authors: Edwards Tony , Collings David G. , Quintanilla Javier , Tempel Anne
Published: September 2007

It is commonly argued that a key factor shaping the competitive position of multinationals is their capability to identify innovations made within the firm, and subsequently transfer these across their operations. This chapter examines the process of innovation and the transfer of innovations in US multinationals. It focuses on the ways in which innovative employment practices are identified in one part of a firm’s operations, and then transferred to sites in different countries. In doing so, it examines the contribution of different perspectives on organizational learning, contrasting the information-processing, contingency, national business system, and micro-political approaches. The evidence concerning the transfer of practices from the domestic operations of American multinationals to their foreign subsidiaries is reviewed, drawing on the findings of earlier chapters. The extent to which the case study firms transfer across borders practices that originated in their overseas operations is considered.
Conclusions
Authors: Almond Phil , Colling Trevor , Edwards Tony , Ferner Anthony
Published: September 2007

This concluding chapter reviews the evidence gathered in the case studies, and contemplates their contribution to the understanding of country of origin, host country, sectoral, and global dominance effects in the management of human resources within US multinationals. It also suggests directions for future research in the area.
Commissives
Authors: Los Bettelou
Published: September 2007

This chapter focuses on a third type of ditransitive: commissives, with meanings like ‘promise’. The commissives are interesting in that finite clauses are still their preferred complement in Present-day English, unlike the other subject-controlled verbs where finite clauses have been ousted completely by the to-infinitive. Closer investigation suggests that this survival is due to the fact that coreference of the subject of the subclause and an argument of the main clause is less frequent than with the verbs discussed in the previous chapters, i.e., the embedded subject is not ‘controlled’. Secondly, the ratio of modals versus simple subjunctive form is far higher in Old English after the commissives than after other ‘control’ verbs, which suggests that there is a need to distinguish between these types by using different modals for different types, which explains the continued survival of finite clauses.
The category of theto-infinitive
Authors: Los Bettelou
Published: September 2007

This chapter argues that the to-infinitive cannot be analysed as a prepositional phrase in Old English. Its distribution is no longer that of a to-PP, its dative inflection has fossilized and does not behave like the dative inflection found on true N-heads, and it takes accusative objects rather than the genitive objects that would be expected if it was still nominal. Evidence from relative clauses, the position of the to-infinitival object, and the emergence of an overt complementizer — for — in early Middle English all argue for clausal rather than phrasal status. The most telling piece of evidence is the fact that the to-infinitive has entered into competition with the finite subjunctive clause and can be seen to gradually oust it in a number of environments. All the available evidence suggests that the to-infinitive was being analyzed as a non-finite subjunctive already in OE.
Summary and conclusions
Authors: Los Bettelou
Published: September 2007

This final chapter wraps up the main conclusions of the book: the origin of the to-infinitive and its reanalysis as a non-finite subjunctive clause, and its rise and spread at the expense of the finite subjunctive clause. It also reflects on wider issues to do with the interpretation of historical linguistic data, especially the absence of certain constructions (the problem of ‘negative evidence’) and how we can make the most of the data we have. The key to these problems is not to look at syntactic constructions in isolation, but to focus on their function in the language. This means that historical linguists sometimes have to cast their nets wide and look at other fields — discourse, theories of textual cohesion, translation studies, and pragmatics — in order to find the answers to syntactic problems.
Studying Organizational Knowledge
Authors: Patriotta Gerardo
Published: September 2007

This chapter develops a three-lens framework to describe and observe knowledge-based phenomena in a systematic fashion. This consists of the following: time, breakdowns, and narratives. The three lenses provide operational devices for disentangling organizational knowledge from the tacit background against which it is utilized on a day-to-day basis. The chapter contains five sections. Section 3.2 outlines the main issues related to the application of interpretative, ethnography-based approaches to the study of organizations. Section 3.3 provides an illustration of how thick description generates interpretation. Section 3.4 presents the three-lens framework deployed in this research to study knowledge as an empirical phenomenon. The concluding section addresses issues of validity and rhetorical representation of theory.
Local Players in Global Games
Authors: Kristensen Peer Hull , Zeitlin Jonathan
Published: September 2007

What happens when previously autonomous firms from different countries, each with their own identities, routines, and capabilities, come together inside a single multinational corporation? Can a cooperative strategy be established that advances the development of the multinational as a whole, or do mutual misunderstandings and the unintended consequences of strategic interaction among the players lead instead to endemic conflict and disintegration? This book tackles these questions through an empirical study of the strategic constitution of an ‘actually existing’ multinational. It does so by tracing the historical construction of the multinational corporation from the confluence of multiple formerly independent firms and analyzing the interacting web of strategies pursued by different actors within it. The analysis reveals how workers, unionists, subsidiary managers, and corporate executives pursue separate strategic games rooted in their local contexts, whose global outcome contrasts sharply with idealized views of the multinational as an integrated and coordinated organization. By comparing these findings to those of the broader literature, the book proceeds to a theoretical examination of the challenges of managing the multinational, and the difficulties of resolving them through conventional organizational means. The book proposes new procedural solutions aimed at fostering mutual recognition and knowledge exchange within the multinational corporation, and explore how a multinational public may be created to press for the necessary reforms in corporate governance. As the success of such reforms is far from preordained, the book concludes with a series of alternative scenarios that illustrate the many obstacles to a smooth continuation of the globalization process.
Lake Mills: Self-limiting Strategies of a Solidaristic Plant Community
Authors: Kristensen Peer Hull , Zeitlin Jonathan
Published: September 2007

The strength of Lake Mills' plant-community identity, its historic vertical integration, and its domestic market orientation all combined to inhibit cooperation with other plants within APV to improve the effectiveness of the parent company as a multinational association. There was, in short, no American equivalent to the Danish Mafia, nor could such a network be easily imagined from the perspective of Lake Mills. Without the institutional resources and external allies to support a more expansive vision of the plant's future, local unionists and managers understandably fell back on a slew of defensive carrot-and-stick strategies for maintaining its position within APV. On the positive side, they sought to reinforce Lake Mills' indispensability to the multinational by providing a quick turnaround service to the company's large US customer base, and by developing new products tailored to US technical standards.
Howard: A Sleeping Beauty Awakes to the Nightmare of a Global Enterprise
Authors: Kristensen Peer Hull , Zeitlin Jonathan
Published: September 2007

The case of Howard Pumps may be used to illustrate a case where the advantages that a multinational may offer member firms can be exploited. This chapter examines this case in detail and brings together some interesting conclusions.
Strategic Positions and Positional Strategies
Authors: Kristensen Peer Hull , Zeitlin Jonathan
Published: September 2007

The preceding chapters have narrated the ongoing struggles for position within APV as a global game seen from the perspective of four local players: three national subsidiaries and the corporate headquarters itself. This chapter develops a comparative analysis of the subsidiaries' positional strategies and struggles for place across three distinct levels of action: in relation to other units within the MNC; in relation to other actors and institutions within the regional and national business system; and in relation to the various actors within the local site itself. The central finding is that the strategic possibilities and capacities for action of local players within the global game of the MNC depended crucially on their ability to establish collaborative relationships at each of these three levels.
The Functions of the Executive Revisited: Contributions, Inducements, and Constitutional Ordering
Authors: Kristensen Peer Hull , Zeitlin Jonathan
Published: September 2007

This chapter argues that the HQ of APV — and possibly also many other MNC HQs — did not participate in the managerial processes whereby contributions and inducements may be balanced, constitutional ordering may proceed, authority may be exercised without overstepping the boundaries of zones of indifference, and goal setting may generate mutual commitment. Thus, they did not create or cultivate the infrastructure for institutionalizing the collaboration that may emerge spontaneously from the informal organization of their subsidiaries or by their mutual interactions conducive to cooperation, such as those associated with repeated games.
Epilogue: Reception and the Political
Authors: Leonard Miriam
Published: September 2007

How far can reading the Greeks politically get us? This concluding chapter questions whether an innovative approach to the political — a new theory of democracy — has emerged from the French post-war encounter with 5th century Athens. Did post-war France rediscover Greece in the shadow of German tyranny to write the script of a truly emancipatory politics for the future? Can one see beyond the humanist appropriation of classical culture or is the return to antiquity inevitably a revisiting of the worst exclusionary narratives of the enlightenment? The chapter contrasts the reception of antiquity in the work of Jean-Paul Sartre with the later investment in the classical past explored in this book.
Introduction
Authors: Gregoric Pavel
Published: September 2007

If your five senses — sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch — were completely independent from one another, you would not be a creature that wakes or sleeps because your senses would not all be operating in the state of waking or all resting in the state of sleep. Your body would be housing five yous, a visual you, an auditory you, an olfactory you, and so forth. Should your perceptual abilities be accompanied by other capacities, such as imagination and memory, these capacities would be bereft of their unity. Your body simply would not be able to serve all the yous at once, and there would be no means of reaching an agreement as to which you is going to use the body at what time. This scenario is developed from a suggestion made by Plato in his dialogue Theaetetus. The unpalatable suggestion is that the senses are sitting in us ‘as in a wooden horse’. Aristotle proposed to avoid this scenario by postulating a perceptual power over and above the five senses which monitors their states and co-ordinates their reports. This perceptual power is known as the ‘common sense’. Plato's Theaetetus is examined to see why Aristotle decided to avoid the described scenario in this particular way, rather than in the way proposed by his master.
Aristotle's Project and Method
Authors: Gregoric Pavel
Published: September 2007

Since souls are forms of living beings, according to Aristotle, a scientific study of living beings requires first and foremost a systematic account of the soul. Such an account is supplied in the treatise De Anima, where the soul is divided into distinct parts or aspects. In this chapter it is argued that the soul is only conceptually divided, that is divided for the sake of analysis, whereas in reality each soul is a unity. The notion of conceptual division of the soul, its principles and consequences are examined, often in contrast with the spatial division of the soul advocated by Plato in the Timaeus. Conceptual division of the soul enables Aristotle to avoid the problems detected in Plato's division, and to preserve the unity both of each soul and of each organic body.
De Partibus Animalium IV.10 686a31
Authors: Gregoric Pavel
Published: September 2007

In PA IV.10 Aristotle explains the upright posture of human beings with reference to physiological factors that determine the abilities to think and behave intelligently. A detailed interpretation of Aristotle's explanation is supplied by drawing on his physiological theory and contrasting it with Plato‗s explanation of human posture in the Timaeus. In the crucial passage Aristotle seems to couple ‘thinking’ with the rational capacity of the soul and ‘intelligence’ with the common sense. It is argued that the phrase ‘common sense’ is best taken with reference to the sensory capacity of the soul, that is the capacity of the soul which comprises perception and imagination. This capacity exhausts the cognitive repertoire of non-rational animals, and it accounts for their intelligent behaviour. In the next two chapters it will be argued that Aristotle uses the phrase koine aisthesis two more times in the same way, as a proper name for the sensory capacity of the soul, both times in the context of complex non-rational cognitive activities.
De Anima III.7 431b5
Authors: Gregoric Pavel
Published: September 2007

This chapter examines whether De Anima 431 b 5 contains an elliptical occurrence of the phrase ‘common sense’, and if so, what is its exact reference. As a starting point, it is assumed that the main purpose of the passage is to show that the thinking capacity of the soul can determine what is to be pursued and avoided both in the presence and in the absence of perception. In the presence of perception, the thinking capacity determines what is to be pursued and avoided with respect to things that are given to us by perception. There are good reasons to take the phrase ‘ommon sense’ with reference to a non-rational cognitive ability by which accidental perceptibles, such as alarm signals, are grasped, and this should be identified with the sensory capacity of the soul.
Other Roles of the Common Sense
Authors: Gregoric Pavel
Published: September 2007

This chapter considers two perceptual operations which can be plausibly related to the common sense. These two perceptual operations are often regarded as functions of the common sense. In fact, the first one, perception of the common perceptibles, is usually regarded as the most salient function of the common sense, a view that is largely based on an erroneous reading of Aristotle's argument in De Anima III.1 425 a 12-27. It is argued that Aristotle gives us no reason to think that the common sense is necessary for perception of all types of common perceptibles, although it may be necessary for perception of some types. Moreover, it is plausible to suggest that the common sense enhances the sensitivity of the individual senses to the common perceptibles in a number of ways. The other perceptual operation in which the common sense might play a role is accidental perception. Both forms of accidental perception — perception of the accidental perceptibles, and perception of the special perceptibles of one sense by another sense (here called ‘cross-modal perception’) — are probably achieved not by the higher-order perceptual power, but by the sensory capacity of the soul, since these operations seem to require joint operation of perception and imagination.
Constructing the Narrative: Authorial Objectives and the Use of Rome
Authors: Mariah Yarrow Liv
Published: September 2007

In the contemporary histories of the Late Republic written by non-Romans, we can find preserved the attitudes of those dispossessed of their power by the establishment of Roman hegemony. The historical texts themselves, like any intellectual product, have a distinctive form. The genre employed by each author and the structural choices made reflect the nature of the historian's objectives and political position. Choices regarding the integration of Rome into the narrative structure are of particular significance. Two categories have been recognized in Hellenistic historical writing: universal history and local chronicles.
Conclusion
Authors: Mariah Yarrow Liv
Published: September 2007

The authors at the core of this analysis — Nicolaus, Memnon, Diodorus, Trogus, Posidonius, and the author of 1 Maccabees — are from geographically diverse origins on the periphery of the Roman world. Nevertheless, scrutiny of their texts has brought to light significant thematic cohesion: all accept Roman rule. This open and clear acknowledgement of Roman hegemony throughout the Mediterranean basin may not seem surprising given the political and military realities of the day. However, in contrast to the scholarly trends towards identifying this type of literature as hostile to the new ruling power, the clear acceptance of Roman rule as the foremost conclusion of the preceding analysis is emphasized.