bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Anonymous Dwarf Gods
Authors: Dasen Véronique
Published: November 2023

Egyptian religion was deeply concerned with maintaining the order of the created world, always threatened by the primeval chaos, outside and within creation, full of monstrous hybrid beings.1 Dwarfs, though malformed, do not seem to have been assimilated to these disturbing and threatening creatures. Their liminality was made symbolically acceptable by association with positive religious concepts. From the New Kingdom on, and probably also earlier, they emerge as popular deities, best known in their forms of Bes and Ptah-Pataikoi, who are invoked in a host of magical practices to protect the living and the dead. Before analysing the material relating to these two gods, I present the magical and liturgical texts where dwarf gods are invoked as helpers, but are not named; these texts range in date from the New Kingdom to the Graeco-Roman period. The study of the epithets, attributes, and functions of these anonymous deities helps us to define the place reserved for dwarfs in Egyptian cosmogony.
G: Greek World
Authors: Dasen Véronique
Published: November 2023

Within each section the material is arranged chronologically and according to location. Athenian vases attributed by Sir John Beazley (ABV, ARV) are listed after his catalogue numbers, non-attributed vases are arranged in museums’ alphabetic order.
Introduction
Authors: Scourfield J H D
Published: November 2023

Jerome, scholar, translator, exegete, polemicist, and ascetic, was born into a Christian family at Stridon in the Roman province of Dalmatia around the year 347. His parents were people of property and substance, though we know little else about them, not even his mother’s name. To her and his father, Eusebius, two other children were subsequently born, a daughter and a second son, Paulinian. In keeping with the common practice of the time, Eusebius and his wife did not have Jerome baptized as a child, though there is no reason to doubt that they had him instructed in the Christian faith.
The Literary Genre of the Quaestiones Hebraicae in Genesim
Authors: Kamesar Adam
Published: November 2023

The Quaestiones Hebraicae in Genesim, as is clear from the title, belongs to a branch or genre of literature known as ζητηματα, πρoβληματα or quaestiones. This literature had had an extremely long history prior to the time of Jerome. In 1927, A. Gudeman published an encyclopaedia article which remains fundamental for the study of the genre in question. In this article, he distinguishes two types of quaestiones literature, each of which had a different origin. One type is closely connected with the exposition of a literary text, and it is clearly this type that most concerns us. The second type is independent of a text, and was often employed in the treatment of philosophical questions. To this category belong many collections of πρoβληματα attributed to Aristotle, a number of compositions by Plutarch, and many other works.
Sophistic Influences
Authors: Rutherford Ian
Published: November 2023

The immediate intellectual environment of idea-theory was with out doubt the living tradition of declamation practised throughout the Roman empire, dominated by superstar-sophists, among them Hermogenes himself, whose careers Philostratus charts in Lives of the Sophists. To judge from this account, which is our main source, they wrote in many styles, ranging from the comparatively restrained to the grand and eccentric. It seems likely that some at least of their styles were close to the classical ones recommended by idea-theorists. Those of Nicostratus and Aristides probably belong here. Also that of Herodes Atticus, with its strong Critian flavour,1 and that of Polemo, which was Demosthenic.2 But others were probably more modern and more outlandish in their effects than anything the idea-theorists would have condoned.
Achilles ‘ Decision
Authors: Schadewaldt W
Published: November 2023

Wearing Achilles ‘ armour he had gone out at the moment of greatest danger, extinguished the fire which had already fallen on one Achaean ship, and driven the Trojans back again onto the plain. Sarpedon and many others have succumbed to him. But he forgot Achilles ‘ warning to return after he had thrown back the enemy, that Apollo was the Trojans ‘ friend. Struck on the back by Apollo, so that his armour fell from his body, he was wounded by Euphorbus, slain by Hector, and fell under Troy ‘s walls.
The Judgement of Paris
Authors: Reinhardt K
Published: November 2023

A unique phenomenon in Greek mythology-though it is not clear enough what kind of phenomenon it is-is the story of the judgement of Paris. Consider: the three goddesses come to the shepherd Paris on Mount Ida, and each one promises him something: Hera, dominion over lands and kingdoms, Athena, heroism and victory, and Aphrodite, Helen. Since Aphrodite at least promises something, the story cannot be imagined without the promises of the other two. Which one is the most beautiful? This means: what are the highest fulfilments of the highest wishes of a mortal which the gods can grant him? Paris the shepherd prince is faced with the decision: greatest king? Or greatest hero? Or happiest loverabductor and possessor of the most beautiful woman of all? Like Christ in the desert, or like Hercules at the crossroads, he is faced with a temptation--except that he, unlike them, makes a choice which brings disaster on himself, his house, and his whole city. This is what happens to a ruler ‘s house, however strongly it be constructed and however rich in sons it may be, once a young prince begins to prefer the goddess of love to Hera or Athena.
The Fight for Justice and Departure of Telemachus
Authors: Klingner Friedrich
Published: November 2023

In the first four books of the Odyssey two stories probably make a special impression on the casual reader ‘s mind. The first is Telemachus ‘ fight for justice with the suitors. In front of the assembled people and gods, he complains about the wicked behaviour of these parasites and demands a solution, but in the duel of words with their leaders, he is deserted by the criminally spineless people of Ithaca, and ignominiously gets the worst of it, although divine signs refer to the imminent return home of Odysseus and a warning voice also speaks up. Yet this only provokes the deluded suitors to commit horribly presumptuous sin. In the second story, Telemachus goes by ship to Pylos and Sparta, is the guest of Nestor and Menelaus, asks about his father, hears stories of the homecomings of Nestor, Agamemnon, Menelaus, and other heroes of the Trojan War, and proves himself in the big wide world into which, hardly grown up, he has stepped from his poor, remote homeland and the stifling misery of his destitute house. Ask the reader how the two stories are connected and he will perhaps be confused at first.
The Ending of the Odyssey: Linguistic Problems
Authors: Erbse Hartmut
Published: November 2023

In this chapter those linguistic peculiarities will be discussed with which people tried to justify the deletion of the ending of the Odyssey (arguments compiled in Page, The Homeri ‘c Odyssey (Oxford, 1955), 102-11). It is advisable to make a few general remarks before individual passages are examined. People like to use hapax legomena, or other rare forms of a Homeric word not otherwise found, as evidence against the authenticity of a text.
The Tenure of Public Land
Authors: Rowlandson Jane
Published: November 2023

The papyri concerned with the Oxyrhynchite nome have preserved relatively little information about the terms of tenure of public land. Any discussion of tenure must, therefore, take account of the much more abundant documentation from the Fayum. However, the latter documents, although numerous enough, are also difficult to interpret consistently. It must be borne in mind that details of land tenure may have varied even from one village to another, and, although systems of tenure are usually extremely conservative, the conflicting pressures of deficiencies in the irrigation system and the need to produce a constant supply of grain to Rome led to modification and improvisation. We cannot hope that all the documents, from different districts and different periods, can be fitted into a single orderly pattern.
The Sale and Mortgage of Land
Authors: Rowlandson Jane
Published: November 2023

Like the last, this chapter looks at ways in which private land was transferred from one owner to another. It is primarily concerned to locate the numerous surviving sale contracts within an economic and social context; and in particular to relate these transactions between private landowners to the largely synchronic picture of landholding distribution which emerged from Chapter IV. Is there any clear evidence, for instance, that private sales contributed to the concentration of property ownership and an increasing differentiation of landed wealth? Can we tell whether sale was used to reduce fragmentation of individual landholdings? Loans on the security of agricultural property are less numerous than sales, but they too can be examined for evidence of their social and economic impact.
Conclusion
Authors: Rowlandson Jane
Published: November 2023

The papyri from Oxyrhynchus document most fully the activities of landowners who lived in Oxyrhynchus itself while owning land in the surrounding villages of the nome. The Roman administration of Egypt was self-consciously responsible for fostering such a class of modestly prosperous, although predominantly small- scale, metropolitan landowners, primarily by the creation of substantial quantities of privately owned land taxed at very moderate rates.
Lucius Crassus and Cicero: The Formation of a Statesman
Authors: Rawson Elizabeth
Published: November 2023

If we remember anything about Cicero’s political ideas, it is that he believed in the right and duty of the senate to exercise supremacy in Rome, but that he also advocated a concordia ordinum, an alliance between and recognition of the common interests of senators and equites, to whom property and the status quo were sacred. Closely connected with this is the idea of a consensus omnium bonorum, a wider alliance to include most of the plebs, and Italy. In the service of this ideal of unity he believed that the conservative statesman should be concordiae causa sapienter popularis, though he should consult the true interests of the people even more than their wishes; and that all government should be mild and conciliatory. These are the views by which we distinguish him from his more obstinate optimate contemporaries, above all Cato, who are less flexible, more rigidly reactionary.
Architecture and Sculpture: The Activities of the Cossutii
Authors: Rawson Elizabeth
Published: November 2023

Among Roman families of the late Republic and early Principate few are so intriguing to the cultural historian as those who had interests in the Eastern Mediterranean, and contributed in one way or another to the gradual Hellenization of Rome, and even, to some extent, the Romanization of the East; while it must be of interest to those concerned with social and economic history to see what can be established about the organization of architectural work and artistic production during this period. It is clear that systems of some complexity did exist; it has been pointed out that the farming of public contracts, which could be on a large scale, required a representative of citizen status, able to give praedes and praedia, while the skilled workmen involved were likely to be, at least some of them, his slaves or freedmen.
M. Aeficius Calvinus and his Grammaticus (Suetonius, de Gramm.3)
Authors: Rawson Elizabeth
Published: November 2023

It was suggested long ago that Aeficius Calvinus, the eques Romanus praediues of Suetonius, de Gramm. 3, who in what must be at the latest the Augustan period hired an otherwise unknown grammaticus, L. Apuleius, at a very high salary, may be the same man as M. Aeficius Calvinus, described as EJrnQxoc;, whose wife Magilia was honoured by the Samian demos for her virtue and piety to Hera (SEC I. 388 = IGR 4. 1714: o oFjµo<; MaylAiav riJv yvlvai’xa wv brar.2xov Ma.Qxov I Aicptxiov Kalovivov O.QETYJl I xai aw1/)QOOVVrJl owc/JEQOV[ aav [“HJQrJL.). If the identification is correct, she could doubtless afford to make rich dedications. And it has also been supposed that he was the M. Acficius Calvinus whose daughter Aeficia was honoured by the Athenian demos (JG 22 4243: o oFjµoc; I Atcptxiav Kalov{vav I MaQxov Atcptxfov KaJcovivov I fJvyad:Qa), though recently it has been widely accepted that this inscription is too late in date for that to be the case.
Making the Marriage Bond: Betrothal, Abduction, and Seduction
Authors: Grubbs Judith Evans
Published: November 2023

‘Marriage is the joining of a male and a female and a partnership of all of life, a sharing of divine and human law.’ But Roman marriage was also a joining of two families, an alliance with long-lasting consequences for the wider community as well as for the individual couple. We are most familiar with the making and breaking of marital ties in the late Republic, when the marriage bond was often a tool for political machinations among a fiercely competitive elite. But even on a less highly charged level, marriage alliances were always to some extent political. Since the main purpose of marriage was the transmission of family name and property to the next generation and thereby the continuation not only of individual family lines but of the Roman state itself, rules were needed to ensure that the allying of families and the passing-on of property were done properly.
Breaking the Bond: Adultery and Divorce
Authors: Grubbs Judith Evans
Published: November 2023

Adultery, defined in Roman law as extramarital sexual relations with or by a married woman, had been a public offence liable to criminal penalties since Augustus’ enactment in 18 or 17 BC of the lex Julia de adulteriis coercendis. Technically, adulterium was committed only when the female partner was married; a man could be accused of adultery if he had sexual relations with a married woman or of stuprum if he had relations with a vidua (a widow or divorcee or unmarried virgin) of respectable status, but this was because of his lover’s status, not because he was married. Men, whether or not they were married, who had extramarital relations with slaves, prostitutes, and other women considered beneath the legal and social definitions of respectability were not committing adultery or stuprum according to Roman law, and so were not liable to prosecution.
The Seleukid Peace, 193-129 BC
Authors: Grainger John D
Published: November 2023

The inclusion of the Phoenician cities in the huge Seleukid empire, rather than the much smaller Ptolemaic kingdom, does not seem to have seriously affected the cities’ economic fortunes. There is little sign of any difference in trade or trading direction between the third and second centuries, except in a certain intensification of previous practice. Perhaps the Egyptian market was more difficult to enter, since it was now foreign territory, but detail and evidence is lacking. The merchants themselves are unlikely to leave epigra phic traces of their presence, for they were often mobile. Thus Hannibal located a Tyrian merchant called Ariston in Ephesos in 194 and persuaded him to take a message to Carthage. It was clearly not a suspicious matter that a merchant of Tyre should travel from Ephesos to Carthage. Hannibal also seems to have been able to locate such a man in Ephesos easily.
The ‘Minister’ Of Nero
Authors: Griffin Miriam T
Published: November 2023

Two of our principal sources for the reign of Nero credit Seneca and Burrus with the excellence of the early years. Tacitus and Cassius Dio differ somewhat in defining the temporal limits of their ascendancy, but both agree that, for a period, they effectively controlled Nero and exercised their control in the interest of good government. The lack of prominence accorded them by our third main source, Suetonius’Nero, is not contrary evidence but merely reflects the biographer’s natural tendency to portray his subject as the focus of activity.
Seneca On The Fall Of The Republic
Authors: Griffin Miriam T
Published: November 2023

Seneca wrote only one work on political theory and one other work essentially political in content. These two pieces, the De Clementia and the Apocolocyntosis, belong to Seneca’s role as minister and courtier. In them the philosopher was at the service of the statesman.
The Nature and Function of the Agon
Authors: Lloyd Michael
Published: November 2023

GREEK tragedies are representations of human action, but also formal structures with internal rules of their own. The possibilities of tension between these two aspects of tragedy are especially evident in the plays of Euripides, which combine realism with a marked formalism of structure. This formalism is most apparent in the construction of his plays as sequences of distinct formal units. These units tend to be strongly demarcated within the individual play, and to contain formulaic elements which recur in many plays. Electra, for example, can be analysed as a series of set-pieces: prologue speech, actor’s monody, formal rhesis, stichomythia, messenger speech, agon, and deus ex machina. The formality and distinctness of these set-pieces is emphasized, but the play is also, in some respects, realistic in its depiction of human behaviour.
Electra
Authors: Lloyd Michael
Published: November 2023

The agon in Electra resembles the scenes discussed in the previous chapter in that it involves two persons, who are closely related to each other. The resemblance to Hippolytus is especially striking, where the agon also comes towards the end of the play, is part of a larger structure rather than occupying a complete act, and involves a character arriving unawares into a situation in which he has already been condemned to dea. The Electra agon differs, however, in both the balance and the complexity of the arguments on each side. Of Euripides’ earlier agones, only that in Alcestis presents a problem about which side is in the right, at least on the narrower issues of the debate. The agon in Electra resembles those in Troades and Orestes in being finely balanced, with good arguments on both sides. Perhaps as a result of this, the arguments in these three scenes are detailed and complex, although another factor could be that all three scenes deal with much discussed problems.
The Hellenic League against Persia
Authors: Brunt P A
Published: November 2023

ln 480-79 the Greeks saved themselves and the future of European civilization from Oriental conquest. They were victorious because they had achieved a certain measure of unity. For the first and last time in Greek history consciousness of community in race, language, religion and customs (Herodotus viii 144) formed the basis for common political action, prompted by a common danger. When the danger had passed, the Greek world was soon divided again by internecine feuds, which became more and more bitter till unity was only to be purchased by subjection to a foreign power, first and temporarily to Macedon and then, beyond all hope of redemption, to Rome.
Introduction to Thucydides
Authors: Brunt P A
Published: November 2023

‘My history is an everlasting possession, not a prize composition that is heard and forgotten’ (I 22). Thucydides meant his history to be instructive, and his proud claim which time has vindicated was not based on the literary merits of his work. Yet it was perhaps those merits that preserved it amid the loss of most of the classical literature of Greece. If some of the narrative is arid, Thucydides always rises to the great moments; no one could tell an exciting story better; he has the same sharp eye as Francis Parkman among the moderns for vivid details; and his dramatic gifts, worthy of the great age of Attic tragedy in which he lived, make us share the hopes and fears of the men whose actions and sufferings he recounts. Macaulay pronounced his seventh book the ne plus ultra of human art. In antiquity the crabbed style of the speeches with which his history abounds was justly criticized, yet even here he can attain to a monumental eloquence which few ancient authors rivalled.
Cicero and Historiography
Authors: Brunt P A
Published: November 2023

There is a general consensus of scholarly opinion that with few exceptions Hellenistic historians sought primarily to ‘charm, divert, and edify’ and paid at most ‘lip-service to truth’; ‘if they deal with events already narrated by others, their overriding aim is not to outdo their predecessors in accuracy or balanced judgement, but to outshine them in splendid and dramatic description. Often the theme is chosen on artistic criteria, being a self-contained whole like a plot for tragedy’, and mere fables or irrelevant digressions are introduced ‘to alleviate the tedium of continuous narrative’.
Mamre
Authors: Taylor Joan E
Published: November 2023

CONSTANTINE is the first person known to have built churches in Palestine at places Christians regard as holy. These churches were begun shortly after he defeated his rival Licinius, on 18 September 324, and became emperor of the East as well as the West. Our examination of Christian holy sites in Palestine will therefore begin with the four places which were developed by imperial order: Mamrefferebinthus (Ramat el-Khalil), Bethlehem, Golgotha in Jerusalem, and Eleona on the Mount of Olives. We will consider what we know about the history of these sites before their development by Constantine, and discuss the question of authenticity.
Bethlehem
Authors: Taylor Joan E
Published: November 2023

According to Jerom , the Cave of the Nativity in Bethlehem, 1 believed by Christians to be the place where Christ was born, had been a pagan cult site. ‘Bethlehem ... belonging now to us ... was overshadowed by a grove of Tammuz, that is to say, Adonis, and in the cave where once the infant Christ cried, the lover of Venus was lamented’ (Ep.Iviii. 3). This attestation is fairly late, since the letter from which this comes is to be dated to 395. Eusebius does not mention any pagan veneration of the cave,3 and the absence of other specific patristic references to the fact has prompted some scholars to doubt whether it is true. In a recent study, Peter Welten has attempted to challenge the assumption that Tammuz-Adonis was worshipped here, arguing that there is no independent literary, numismatic, or archaeological evidence for any pagan cult in Bethlehem. Welten himself believes that Jerome was predisposed to thinking of the cave as being connected with Adonis because he knew of the Venus temple in Jerusalem.
The Bethany Cave, Gethsemane, and the Tomb of the Virgin
Authors: Taylor Joan E
Published: November 2023

THREE places on the Mount of Olives apart from the Eleona cave require special attention. The first of these, the Bethany Cave, is a very recent rediscovery and is not yet developed into a tourist site. The latter two have never been forgotten; they are more or less part of the same complex, and are visited by a great many people every year. On the Mount of Olives, especially on the side facing Jerusalem, there are a number of different Christian holy sites. It is important not to see them as a package; if one site is genuine, then it does not mean that all are, and vice versa: if one site was invented out of nothing much, then this should not predispose us to think that all the sites must be Byzantine inventions. In the case of the Bethany Cave, it is important to establish just what it was in the Byzantine period, because its identification has been lost over the centuries. This is not necessary in the case of the Gethsemane Cave and the Tomb of the Virgin.
Tragedy and Iconography
Authors: Taplin Oliver
Published: November 2023

On one level many of the mythological scenes in South Italian painting are ̔tragic̓: ornate clothing, scenes of suffering and catastrophe, the general ̔theatricality̓ of treatment. But the connection becomes more problematic, the line blurred and lacking resolution, once one tries to focus on whether a particular scene or a particular tragedy is or is not present, is or is not reflected or ̔illustrated̓, in a particular painting.
The Transplantation of Athenian Comedy
Authors: Taplin Oliver
Published: November 2023

It has been generally–and surely rightly–supposed that Athenian tragedy was widely known and performed in Megale Hellas and Sicily in the fourth century. The enthusiasm of Dionysios, the construction of theatres, the reflections in painted pottery, and so forth, all attest this. It has also been generally supposed that Athenian comedy was not widely reperformed, at least not Old comedy. We lack evidence that any Aristophanes play was performed after its author’s lifetime, and I shall be surprised if evidence to that effect ever presents itself’, as it is put by K.J. Dover.1 This book has by now accumulated enough evidence that it was, especially in Apulia in the period up to 360, to mean that we now have to face the implications of this surprising discovery.
Commodities Sold in the Markets
Authors: Frayn Joan M
Published: November 2023

WHEN we begin to consider the nature of the commodities actually on sale in the markets of Roman Italy, a number of problems arise. First, we must differentiate between the nundinaeexisting: before the advent of permanent macellain the urban areas, and those which continued to exist in certain sites and on private estates. We must also draw a distinction between the nundinaeand the macellain respect of their goods, and try to discern any change through time which takes place in the function of the markets, and therefore in their contents. There is also a line to be drawn at some point between the shop and the market stall. It will be easier to do this if we remember that the Roman shop was usually the sales outlet for a workshop or other premises in which the proprietor, with or without helpers, produced the goods he sold. It may well be found that the ‘general store’ had no place in the ancient town, and this, if true, would reveal something about the origin of the goods on sale.
Market Law and Official Organization
Authors: Frayn Joan M
Published: November 2023

In the early days of the city of Rome there may have been no desire or opportunity for trading contacts other than those prescribed in this law, and the likelihood that some sanction existed to prevent indiscriminate trading by out siders in Rome and other cities is considerable.
The Affair of the Mysteries: Democracy and the Drinking Group
Authors: Murray Oswyn
Published: November 2023

The events of the summer of 415 BC in Athens affected the lives of many individuals for the next twenty years; and, in the larger political view, they can be held to have been ultimately responsible for the fall of the Athenian empire, in that they opened up a fatal breach of mistrust in Athenian political life, between the demos and its traditional aristocratic leaders. This revelation of the potential existence of a true class struggle in Athens led directly to the defensive oligarchic reaction of 411 BC, and to that trahison des clercs which moulded intellectual attitudes to the Athenian democracy from the end of the fifth century onwards.
The Anacreontea
Authors: West M L
Published: November 2023

When we think of Greek sympotic poetry, we think primarily of poetry composed between the seventh and fifth centuries BC. But we have sporadic examples from later periods. One may think, for instance, of that interesting collection of stanzas beginning with successive letters of the alphabet, and each rounded off with the refrain aǔλϵt чot the other of the third.1 Each stanza is self-contained, and expresses a gnomic, popular philosophy of a sub-Cynic, hedonistic kind. This appears to have been a favourite text at Oxyrhynchus over many generations.
Introduction
Authors: Cawkwell George
Published: November 2023

To the Great King, seated on his throne at Susa or Persepolis, Greece and the Greeks were a very long way away, those of the mainland 2,000 miles or more as the crow ?ies. Nor can they have figured very largely in his mind. To the east, 1,200 miles or so, lay the satrapy of Bactriana and Sogdiana, the empire’s north-east frontier where the pressures of nomadic migration were especially to be felt and where, as Alexander was to discover, men were fierce fighters. Neither they nor those they kept in check could ever be neglected. Then there was Egypt, difficult to reach across its protective desert and difficult to hold in subjection. The mistake of incorporating it in the empire once made, imperial pride could not permit the sensible course of letting it go. That satrapy was out of control for about one third of the period between its conquest by Cambyses and the conquest of Alexander, and great efforts were constantly being made to recover it.
‘The lands beyond the sea’
Authors: Cawkwell George
Published: November 2023

By the late sixth century Persia was firmly established in Europe. In the inscription which Darius caused to be set on the upper edge of the south wall of the terrace at Persepolis there is included in the list of subject peoples, at the end of the western section, ‘countries which are across the sea’, and in the list given in the first Naqš-i-Rustam inscription after Ionia come ‘Scythians who are across the sea, Skudra, petasos-wearing (takabara) Ionians’. Both inscriptions thus refer to the European conquests of Darius.
From the King’s Peace to the End of the Social War
Authors: Cawkwell George
Published: November 2023

The King’s Peace of 387/386, whatever its precise terms, ended the long dispute over the status of the Greek cities of Asia. Not until the king of Macedon began to plan conquest with the Greeks of the mainland as his allies was Persian domination of any part of Asia challenged, save once. That was in 355 BG when the Athenian general Chares, needing to find money to pay his army and his ?eet, campaigned in support of a rebel satrap. He was initially successful but the King’s response was abrupt and decisive. He sent an embassy to Athens to require immediate withdrawal and to threaten massive naval support for Athens’ allies in revolt and the complete defeat of Athens (Diod. 16. 22). Athens promptly complied. She not only ordered Chares to leave Asia; she made peace with her allies and ended the Social War. Asia was secure.
Interpretatio: Making Sense of Catullus
Authors: Gaisser Julia Haig
Published: November 2023

Although his companions in the first edition had all received printed commentaries by 1475 and were well on their way to acquiring a modern critical tradition, it was to be another decade before anyone published a commentary on Catullus. Renaissance readers could use Propertius and Tibullus to explain each other, and they found Statius’ subjects well documented in Martial and Pliny, but they lacked contemporary comparandaand sources for Catullus. Because the poet had appeared in the Renaissance without any critical baggage from the past, they lacked even the dubious guidance of ancient scholia or medieval allegories to assist their interpretations. Thus, they had to confront Catullus directly, explaining his poetry either from the confusing and corrupt text itself or from clues scattered here and there in other ancient authors.
Barbarian Officers and Generals
Authors: Liebeschuetz J H W G
Published: November 2023

The fact that the defence of the Empire came to depend very largely on troops of non-Roman, and particularly Germanic, origin is remarkable, and must seem even more remarkable if we remember that the Romans had once been warlike and militarized to an altogether exceptional degree. It is natural to ask when and why this development came about and in what ways, if any, it affected the fighting efficiency of the army, and an attempt will be made in this chapter to provide some answers.
The Murder of Rufinus
Authors: Liebeschuetz J H W G
Published: November 2023

Previous chapters have illustrated the problems caused by the largely barbarian army in the West. Among these not the least was that power passed from emperor and civil administration to a long series of military commanders, Stilicho, Constantius, Bonifatius, Aetius, until in 476 the general Odoacer deposed Romulus the last Western emperor. In the East the outcome was different: civilian control was maintained and the Empire survived.
Clerical Opposition in Constantinople and in Neighbouring Provinces
Authors: Liebeschuetz J H W G
Published: November 2023

Theophilus would not have succeeded in mobilizing so formidable an attack on Chrysostom if there had not been a great deal of latent hostility. After so many generations have felt sympathy and admiration for the personality of John Chrysostom, it is difficult to believe that he was disliked by many of his contemporaries, and not only the wicked, jealous, or ambitious. But there is plenty of evidence of hostility among the clergy of Constantinople and neigh bouring provinces. These were the people whom the four dissident bishops could most easily organize into a pressure group against their bishop. The charges brought against Chrysostom at the Synod of the Oak show that his ecclesiastical administration had been extremely contentious.
Introduction
Authors: Treggiari Susan
Published: November 2023

Marriage is such a normal part of human life that it is taken for granted. The Romans held that it had not existed at the beginning in a Latin city made up of male immigrants and fugitives, simply because there was a shortage of women and no rights of intermarriage with neighbouring peoples. It was necessary to ask for alliances and intermarriage, conubium. Rejected everywhere, Romulus arranged the kidnapping of suitable maidens by decoying whole families from nearby towns and the Sabine country to a festival.
The Greek Philosophical Background
Authors: Treggiari Susan
Published: November 2023

Some components of the Romans’ ideology of marriage have emerged from consideration of legal structures, choice of coniunx, and wedding ritual. In Part III we shall examine popular morality, moving from the formal teachings of philosophers to the ideas expressed by poets, rhetoricians, and the authors of epitaphs. Because all Latin literature, but especially philosophical writings, was inescapably influenced by Greek tradition, it will be necessary to go back to classical Athens to disentangle some of the main themes and place Roman conventional theories in a cultural context.
Domus
Authors: Treggiari Susan
Published: November 2023

As for feast of reason and for flow of soul, is it not a question whether any such flows and feasts are necessary between a man and his wife? How many men can truly assert that they ever enjoy connubial flows of soul, or that connubial feasts of reason are in their nature enjoyable? But a handsome woman at the head of your table, who knows how to dress, and how to sit, and how to get in and out of her carriage-who will not distress her lord by her ignorance, or fret him by her coquetry, or disparage him by her talent-how beautiful a thing it is! For my own part, I think Griselda Grantly was born to be the wife of a great English peer.
Death
Authors: Treggiari Susan
Published: November 2023

Losing a wife by death was a major misfortune. A philosophical topos compared it with the subjugation of one’s country or the loss of children. Only the wise man could rise above it to account himself happy.1 Since a woman had fewer pleasures in life than a man, and less philosophy, the Romans must have felt that loss of a coniunx was even more disastrous for women. But the nature of the sources tends to obscure this. We even lack formal letters of condolence or consolatory essays addressed to women on the deaths of husbands, although our authors must have been in the habit of writing them.
Introduction
Authors: Saunders Trevor J
Published: November 2023

The Laws, Plato’s last and longest work, depicts in vivid detail a blueprint for an ideal state called Magnesia, which is to be founded in the South of Crete under guidance from the Academy. ‘Ideal’ does not imply the perfection of the state described in the Republic: Magnesia is simply the best state that Plato considered capable of realization in the circumstances of the Greek world in the middle of the fourth century BC.1 Though in that sense a utopia, it is a realistic and practical one; it must expect to have crimes and criminals. It therefore stands in need of a penology and a penal code. Indeed, to judge from the sheer amount of space Plato devotes to these two topics, he regards them as of central importance to the entire enterprise.His penology combines the ‘rule oflaw’ with the ‘rule of philosophy’ to powerful effect. His fundamental inspiration is the Socratic paradox, ‘no one does wrong willingly’. If a man does do wrong, it must be because of some psychic mistake; and mistakes are not the kind of thing one can reasonably punish. Our treatment of a criminal, therefore, should never look backward to his crimes, but always forward, to the ‘cure’ of his mental and moral ‘disease’.
Anxieties And Surrogates
Authors: Saunders Trevor J
Published: November 2023

In the varied literature of the roughly three centuries that separate Hesiod and Plato, three processes went on simultaneously. (i) The mode of operation of surrogate punishers of several kinds is described and elaborated in vividly imaginative forms; (ii) a formal system of courts came into being, with their own characteristic purposes, procedures, and provisions for punishment; (iii) reflection about equity and moral responsibility, and their implications for punishment, developed considerably in a variety of legal, political, and philosophical contexts. These three developments affected each other. In order, therefore, to preserve clarity of outline in a long and complex period of history I shall in this and the next two chapters attempt to say something about each of the three in turn, and to examine some of their relationships. We shall then be in a position to approach Plato.At the root of the development of Greek penology lies anxiety lest the of fonder escape scot-free. This no doubt is a universal human worry; but in Greek thought it is conspicuous. Naturally; for remedies lay, at least in archaic times, largely in self-help, and victims could easily find that through weakness or other circumstances they could not retaliate effoctively; and such courts as existed at any period were not without expense, open to various kinds of corruption, and of variable and unpredictable effectiveness.
Historical Practice And Controversy
Authors: Saunders Trevor J
Published: November 2023

The evolution of the Athenian courts of the sixth, fifth, and fourth centuries is complex and controversial. We need to review, in a very summary manner, first the importance in Greek legal practice of the frequent opportunities to parade competing arguments in public forum, secondly the nature and evolution of the courts, and finally the very various procedures which they followed.Injured parties who are too weak to retaliate effectively have two recourses. The first is to suppose that certain powerful beings, divine or at any rate supernatural, have a concern to redress injury by the infliction of suffering on offenders, even if only a long time after the offence. Such hope or faith is evident in Homer, and is prominent in imaginative literature down to the fourth century. Its chief characteristic, apart from picturesque descriptions of surrogate agencies and the savage punishments they inflict, is a strong sense of reciprocal justice, the inflic¬tion of suffering in return for suffering inflicted.
Impiety
Authors: Saunders Trevor J
Published: November 2023

On a strict view, 1t 1s not possible to compare the Magnesian law of impiety with the Athenian. For to offend against the gods of Greek popular belief is to offend gods who are essentially human beings writ large. Although immortal and more powerful than we, they are subject to the same motivations and desires; they are sensitive to damage to their honour and interests, quick to make suffer those individuals and communities who offend them, and capable, like men, of being appeased by words and gifts. In particular, their devotion to justice in the world of men, and their exertions on its behalf, can not be relied upon. Platonic gods, by contrast, are wholly incorruptible. They supervise every detail of the world, and are unqualifiedly virtuous. As we saw,1 in Plato’s view the unjust man lives in a world so constructed that he makes his own hell; and one aspect of that hell is precisely the passion the gods have for virtue, and their zeal to punish vice-a punishment that cannot be evaded. At least in this life,2 divine punishment, like punishment inflicted under the law, is benevolent: it is intended to make us morally better; to bribe the gods is therefore against our own interests. There is an alliance of kinship between gods and men, and the gods care for the world and its smallest parts. The wise man will attempt to imitate the gods, and make his own character like theirs. The Platonic and Athenian laws of impiety a:re therefore based on radically different views of the nature of those beings against whom the impiety is committed, and therefore on radically different views of the nature of the offence itself.
Offences In Court
Authors: Saunders Trevor J
Published: November 2023

There is a short but revealing sequence of offences and penalties at the end of book II, which deals with offences by witnesses and unscrupulous advocacy.The function of a witness in a modern English court is to assist in the establishment of the truth, by stating his own version of events and by answering questions put by both prosecution and defence. His role in an Athenian court was conceived differently, and was quite restricted: it was to support the litigant who arranged for him to appear, by testifying to the truth of a written deposition composed either by himself or by the litigant.A right of subpoena, exercised by litigant or court, to force an unwilling witness to appear at the trial, has often been supposed,2 but is hard to demonstrate; more probably, a litigant who could not persuade a witness to appear had no recourse. He could however persuade a witness to enter into an agreement (we cannot say how formal this would have been) to appear in court on the appointed day.
Class-Distinctions In Plato’s Penal Code
Authors: Saunders Trevor J
Published: November 2023

Membership of the four social and political groups in Magnesia, citizen, resident alien, itinerant alien, and slave, plays some part in the determining of penalties. Most instances of such differentiations occur in the sections of the code which we have examined in detail; but there are a few others in other sections too. It is time to attempt a synoptic view of all these cases, and to compare Plato’s principles and practices with the Athenian.Sequences of these letters indicate punishments inflicted in order of increasing severity; categories in brackets receive the same punishment. The views I have taken of the relative severity of certain punishments are not in all cases self-evidently true: some justifications are advanced in the discussion. In particular, I may not be justified in treating the whipping inflicted on a slave as in all cases a more severe penalty than the penalties inflicted on the other social classes; but it assists schematization to do so, pending discussion. The table is also necessarily summary; full details of each offence and penalty are in chapters 8-14.
The Voice
Authors: West M L
Published: November 2023

By far the greater part of Greek music-as of ethnic music overall consisted of song, either solo or choral. Instruments were sometimes played on their own, but mostly they served to accompany the human voice. There normally was such accompaniment (except when someone was singing to entertain himself while doing something else), but its role was subordinate. A choir of many voices was not balanced by an equivalent band of instrumentalists; very often a single piper supplied the accompaniment, even for a chorus of fifty, as in the Athenian dithyramb. According to a writer of the Aristotelian school, we enjoy listening to a singer more when he sings to an aulos or a lyre, not because of the additional sonority but because it helps to define the tune. It is not better with more instruments, because that tends to obscure the song. Another tells us that the aulos is better than the lyre for singing to, because it blends better with the voice and covers the singer’s mistakes, whereas the lyre shows them up.
Wind and Percussion
Authors: West M L
Published: November 2023

Wind instruments-at any rate, those that chiefly concern us-work by setting up vibrations in air that is enclosed in a pipe or pipes. You cannot achieve this simply by blowing into the pipe. There are essentially three things you can do. You can blow sideways across the air column-across the end of the pipe, or across a hole in its side. This is the principle of the flute. Or you can blow down the pipe with your mouth shut. The breath bursting out sets your lips vibrating against each other, and these vibrations are imparted to the air column. This is the principle of the trumpet and the horn. Or you can have a mouthpiece containing a vibrating reed that sets the air going. This is the principle of the clarinet and the oboe.
Commentary
Authors: Cameron Averil , Hall Stuart G
Published: November 2023

Eusebius begins with an elaborate preface in high style, explaining his enterprise and justifying his praises of the dead Con stantine (1. 2, makarion, ‘the Blessed One ‘; 2. 1-3), who yet lives on and rules through his three sons (cf. IV. 71. 2), who are now Augusti (I. 3). Great men in the past have been honoured with portraits or inscriptions (3. 2 ), but God himself has shown favour and given victory to Constantine, the ‘friend of God ‘, and set him as an example of the godly life (3-6). In victorious kingship, Constantine surpasses Cyrus and Alexander (4-8); in domestic policy he was humane and magnanimous, and was granted legitimate successors by God (9). Eusebius calls for divine aid in his own attempt to draw a verbal portrait of the Emperor (9. 2-1 o. I), in a composition which will be far more edifying than the lives of Nero and other tyrants (Io. 2-4). Eusebius claims that he will omit the Emperor ‘s deeds in war and his legislation in time of peace; he will record only the Christian aspects of Constantine ‘s life, and will be selective and brief in the narrative (II. 1-2), in the interests of giving more space to the Emperor ‘s praises, which could not be written during his lifetime in view of the unpredictability of life (II. 2).
Divorce and Adoption as Roman Familial Strategies (Le Divorce et l’ adoption ‘en plus’)
Authors: Corbier Mireille
Published: November 2023

This remark and this chapter follow on from a study on ‘familial behaviour in the Roman aristocracy between the second century BC and the third century AD’ (Corbier 1987). That study sought to compare Roman behaviour with the behaviour of other aristocracies which, in other centuries and other social contexts, were even more clearly directed towards the same ends: biological reproduction, transmission and extension of patrimony, diversification and expan¬sion of symbolic capital. To attain these objectives, aristocratic Roman society seems to have enjoyed an infinitely greater freedom than its medieval and modern successors, from whom the Church energetically devoted itself to removing two trump cards that could be used in the game against Time and Chance: divorce and adoption. In the Roman context, however, the meaning and use of these two cards were radically different from our own, which makes our interpretation and understanding of them difficult.