bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Irregular Nomic Structure
Authors: Gryb Sean , Thébault Karim P. Y.
Published: January 2024

Irregular nomic structure is characterized by Lagrangians where the associated Hessian is not invertible. For irregular Lagrangians it will be true that at least some of the components of acceleration at a given time cannot be solved uniquely in terms of the configuration and velocity variables at that time. Irregularity of the Lagrangian cannot, however, be used in general as a sufficient condition for the diagnosis of degeneracy in the solutions to the relevant Euler–Lagrange equations. In the Hamiltonian formulation of theory with an irregular nomic structure, relations between the canonical variables are found generically: a constrained Hamiltonian formalism. The Dirac analysis of constrained Hamiltonian systems does not provide a fully satisfactory methodology to connect canonical first-class constraints, generalized Bianchi identities, and initial value constraints.
Diagnosing Dynamical Redundancy
Authors: Gryb Sean , Thébault Karim P. Y.
Published: January 2024

The existence of initial value constraints is indicative of the specific species of underdetermination problem associated with dynamical redundancy within the analysis of theories with irregular nomic structure. In particular, it is the existence of initial value constraints that is indicative of the specific underdetermination-at-a-time problem associated with prima facie problematic dynamical redundancy within the formalism. Significantly, by refocusing the formal analysis on initial value constraints, rather than generalized Bianchi identities or first-class constraints, our framework supersedes approaches to ‘gauge’ symmetry based upon Noether’s second theorem or the Dirac criterion. These criteria are then recoverable in the relevant contexts from the initial value constraints approach, which should form the primary analysis tool for the analysis of gauge theories.
The New Framework
Authors: Gryb Sean , Thébault Karim P. Y.
Published: January 2024

The Nomic-AIR framework for the analysis of symmetry and structure in physical theory is a powerful and general formal framework that allows for the exhaustive analysis and classification of the transformation properties of nearly any type of structure in nearly any type of theory. The framework is also flexible enough to be compatible with different approaches to the definition of the narrow symmetries of a theory. The core idea of the framework is to track the behaviour of a given structure induced by transformations on the space of dynamically possible models in comparison to the induced transformations on the relevant nomic structure. In such circumstances, transformations can have a trivial, ill-defined, or well-defined pullback onto a particular structure and simultaneously also have a trivial or non-trivial pullback onto the nomic structure. Together this gives six possible combinations.
Local Temporal Symmetry
Authors: Gryb Sean , Thébault Karim P. Y.
Published: January 2024

A theory is reparameterization invariant when its equations of motion are invariant under the temporal relabelling symmetry given by locally rescaling a monotonic and smooth time function. This understanding of reparameterization invariance is more general than that provided by study of the action since the properties of the equations of motion generated by a variational principle depend only on the local terms, and not the boundary terms, of that variation principle. The treatment presented here outlines the connections between reparameterization invariance, various conditions on the Lagrangian and Hamiltonian functions, and the relevant generalized Bianchi identities. In the next crucial stage of the analysis a novel first-order geometric analysis of reparameterization invariance is provided in terms of the study of tangential transformations. This provides a basis for the unambiguous differentiation between the objects responsible for generating evolution and those that generate degeneracy along tangential directions.
Temporal Structure Regained
Authors: Gryb Sean , Thébault Karim P. Y.
Published: January 2024

The pseudo-problem of time rests on a putative confusion of dynamical redundancy with evolution that results from the Hamiltonian of reparameterization invariant theories being a first-class constraint. Such confusion has led to paradoxical claims within the literature such as ‘motion is the unfolding of a gauge transformation’. Application of the diagnostic framework for isolating dynamical redundancy developed in previous chapters provides a general solution of the problem of time in classical mechanics via an unambiguous identification of the mathematical objects associated with narrow symmetry and evolution in reparameterization-invariant theories. In particular, based upon such an identification the pseudo-problem of the supposed equivalence between dynamics and gauge transformations can be avoided and the actual problem can be solved; that is, a framework in which the symmetry properties of reparameterization invariant theories with regard to chronometric and chronobservable structure can be provided that is compatible with such structure being determinate.
Conclusion and Prospectus
Authors: Gryb Sean , Thébault Karim P. Y.
Published: January 2024

This chapter offers a short summary of the key steps in the solution to the problem of time in classical mechanics described in Volume I. A prospectus to the ideas and arguments relating to the full problem of time in classical and quantum gravity that is the subject of Part II is also presented.
The Big Three Allies and the European Resistance
Authors: Piffer Tommaso
Published: January 2024

While the Big Three and their continental Allies fought against Nazi Germany for the mastery of Europe, another war was under way on the continent: the war to shape the political landscape of post-war Europe. It often found the British, the Americans, the Soviets, and the partisan movements on opposite sides of the barricades. In the Balkans, the anti-Nazi war overlapped with political and ethnic conflicts, engulfing the region in bloody civil wars. In Central and Eastern Europe, partisan movements engaged the Germans without losing sight of the danger posed by the arrival of the Red Army. In France and in Italy, the adoption of the slogans of national liberation provided the communist parties with a formidable democratic legitimacy, which established them as key players in the political lives of their countries. The British and the Americans did not stand by and watch idly. To stir up, support, control, and direct the resistance groups, London created the Special Operations Executive (SOE) and Washington the Office of Strategic Services (OSS). Agents were sent into occupied Europe to liaise directly with the guerrilla groups: many of them never came back. Through the Comintern, Moscow carefully coordinated the actions of the European communist parties with the foreign policy of the Soviet Union, which was acting for the first time as a key player in the arena of international relations. The forests and the mountains where the partisans were fighting the Germans soon became a major part of the proxy war that the three Allies waged to shift the geopolitical balance in their favour. Looking for the first time at the three Allies together and spanning Europe from Yugoslavia to Poland, from Greece to France and Italy, this book vividly depicts and sharply analyses how this proxy war shaped the history of the post-war settlement.
The Special Operations Executive at War
Authors: Piffer Tommaso
Published: January 2024

Over the first months of its existence Special Operations Executive had to reckon with the lack of serious opposition against Nazi Germany in occupied Europe. In enemy nations, a vast majority of the population firmly supported their own governments, and in any case the opposition movements were not ready to betray their countries to the enemy. In occupied Europe most people were stunned by defeat. The exception was Poland, where the German occupation left no space for collaboration and the organization of a strong resistance movement was under way. But the British quickly realized that supporting the resistance posed almost unsurmountable logistical obstacles, and soon gave up the idea of gaining any quick results there. It was only when the war spread to the Balkans in the spring of 1941 and Hitler invaded the Soviet Union on 22 June that the seeds of strong anti-German movements were planted.
Civil War and Liberation in the Balkans
Authors: Piffer Tommaso
Published: January 2024

In 1944 the Balkans remained a fraught arena for politics and diplomacy. For Moscow, the new situations presented risks which were as great as the related opportunities. The aggressive stance adopted by the Communist Party of Greece might potentially cause a clash with the Western Allies. In Yugoslavia, the Soviets had scored an important point when Churchill shifted British support from Mihailović to Tito, but there too the game was far from over. On the one hand, Molotov and Stalin were determined that Tito’s increasing hold over the country did not appear to be orchestrated by Moscow. On the other, they had to adapt to the reality of a new communist state in the making. Relations and directives to the Bulgarian and Albanian communist parties needed to be reshaped accordingly. The British were in a complicated situation as well. SOE and the Foreign Office had successfully thwarted the US attempt to impose their presence upon the theatre. Starting from September 1943, OSS agents were infiltrated into Yugoslavia, Greece, and Albania, but remained subordinated to their British colleagues. In Yugoslavia, the Western Allies badly miscalculated Tito’s intentions and there, as well as in Albania, the communists established regimes that would last for decades to come. Mihailović was captured by the communists and executed as a collaborator in 1946. In Greece, the British were able to bring back the legitimate government only at the price of a bloody civil war that had grave consequences for the life of the country.
Central and Eastern Europe between Liberation and Soviet Occupation
Authors: Piffer Tommaso
Published: January 2024

The arrival of the Red Army sealed the fate of the Eastern European countries which had fought alongside Germany. Neither the resistance groups nor the communist parties played a particularly meaningful role in the liberation of Bulgaria, Hungary, and Romania. While the British were focused on the Mediterranean and especially on Greece, Moscow retained the upper hand in the region. With the support of the Red Army and Soviet intelligence, the communists easily gained the strongest positions inside the governments of their respective countries, from which they eventually achieved the elimination of their opponents and the takeover of power. The history of Czechoslovakia and Poland took two opposite paths, which eventually led to the complete sovietization of both countries. In December 1943, Beneš thought that he had no option but to appease the Soviets and sign a Czechoslovak–Soviet treaty of friendship and cooperation. It was a fatal miscalculation, which eventually gave Moscow control of the entire country. The Polish Government-in-exile, in contrast, still had an important card to play in the confrontation with Moscow: namely, the Home Army, which was still a considerable force on the ground and was ready to support the government-in-exile. But the core of the Polish resistance, the very first movement supported by the British in 1939, was in essence destroyed by Stalin’s refusal to support the Warsaw Uprising in August 1944.
Propositions
Authors: Mahtani Anna
Published: January 2024

This chapter begins by outlining the various roles that propositions are expected to play, before describing a range of different accounts of propositions. The idea that a proposition might be simply a sentence is discussed in brief, and then Gottlob Frege’s account is discussed in more depth, covering his theories of sense and reference (‘Sinn’ and ‘Bedeutung’). Then follows a summary of Bertrand Russell’s account of definite descriptions and the descriptivist account of names, and this leads to a more general discussion of structured propositions and guise Russellianism (focused on Nathan Salmon’s account). The chapter finishes with an extended description of possible world semantics, including centred possible worlds.
The Credence Framework
Authors: Mahtani Anna
Published: January 2024

This chapter introduces the credence framework. It begins with a description of the probability framework, introducing states, events, algebras, and probability functions. The probability axioms are defined and some of their implications explored. The question of how to interpret the probability framework is addressed, with a focus on interpreting probabilities as credences. This is followed by a discussion of the nature of credences and their relation to betting and choice behaviour more generally. Various further questions and details are addressed, including the problem of logical omniscience; the question of whether the credence framework is designed to apply to real or ideally rational agents; and whether it is supposed to be a description or a model. Various arguments for probabilism (dutch-book arguments, accuracy arguments, and the representation theorem) are set out, and some problems with these are briefly raised. Finally, some other rules for rationality are discussed, including conditionalization, the Principal Principle, and the Reflection Principle.
Credence Claims Are Opaque
Authors: Mahtani Anna
Published: January 2024

This chapter argues for the central tenet of the book—namely that credence claims are opaque (or ‘hyperintensional’). In the first part of the chapter, three sorts of reasons to accept this tenet are put forward: firstly, reasons relating to betting and/or choice behaviour; secondly, reasons relating to omniscience; and finally, reasons (as discussed by David Chalmers) relating to the principle of conditionalization. The second part of the chapter is focused on a potential rival view on which the tenet would fail, inspired by guise Russellianism (as advocated by Nathan Salmon and David Braun, amongst others). Guise Russellianism is described and some of its virtues and shortcomings discussed, before the chapter turns to the question of how guise Russellianism might be adapted to apply to credence rather than belief. Several such adaptations are explored, but each adaptation either entails the tenet or faces serious problems. The chapter ends by concluding that the tenet holds.
Implications for Rationality
Authors: Mahtani Anna
Published: January 2024

This chapter traces some of the implications of the tenet (that credence claims are opaque) for principles of rationality. A brief outline is given of how the tenet affects our understanding of the credence framework, and then the rest of the chapter focuses on two principles of rationality: the Reflection Principle and the Principal Principle. An objection is raised to the Reflection Principle, and the tenet plays a central role in refining the Reflection Principle to handle this objection. Implications are explored for other puzzles in the literature, including the Sleeping Beauty problem, and the discussion is extended to cover cases of peer disagreement. The chapter then turns to a discussion of the Principal Principle, which relates chance and credence, and it is argued that chance claims are intensional but not hyperintensional. A related problem involving the contingent a priori is raised, and a solution proposed, drawing on the idea that chance is an analyst rather than a database expert. The implications of this solution are explored.
States as Something Else
Authors: Mahtani Anna
Published: January 2024

This chapter considers whether the credence framework could accommodate the tenet by dropping the assumption that states are metaphysically possible worlds, and explores some of the difficulties for this view. The chapter begins by restating the apparent problem in reconciling the tenet with an interpretation of the credence framework on which states are metaphysically possible worlds, and then proceeds to explore alternative ways of interpreting states. A natural first idea is that states might be fine-grained possible worlds, and an argument is given that these fine-grained possible worlds must be ersatz worlds (to use David Lewis’s terminology), and linguistic rather than pictorial representations. Various difficulties for the idea are discussed—including the role of context and problems interpreting an artificial ‘world-building’ language. The chapter then turns to the question of whether the worlds should be coherent and/or complete, and here there is engagement with the literature on impossible worlds, logical omniscience, and content. With these issues in mind, it is shown that standard arguments for probabilism (dutch-book and accuracy arguments) are not cogent, and the chapter ends with a discussion of whether an account on which propositions are structured entities can be reconciled with the views discussed in this chapter.
Introduction
Authors: Meyer Robin
Published: January 2024

The history of Parthian-Armenian contact and its linguistic results have been studied for almost 150 years now, but a number of questions remain still unanswered, especially concerning the extent of the impact Parthian and other Iranian languages had on Armenian syntax. In laying out the structure of this book, this chapter gives a brief aperçu of the key questions addressed: was the Parthian-Armenian ruling class in and before the 5th century AD bilingual? Does the existence of Iranian-based constructions in Armenian suggest more intense contact than previously assumed? Can contact with Parthian explain the idiosyncrasies of the Armenian perfect?
Sociohistorical evidence for Iranian influence on Armenian
Authors: Meyer Robin
Published: January 2024

While the linguistic evidence on Parthian-Armenian contact provides information about which domains of language were affected most, it does not of itself permit any conclusions concerning the circumstances of the contact situation, its extent, or its time-frame. This chapter collects and discusses evidence from diverse documents-literary, historical, and epigraphic-to elucidate these circumstances, taking into account Iranian, Armenian, Greek, Latin, and Chinese sources. Direct evidence of Iranian-Armenian multilingualism is limited, but numerous facts point to a close integration of Parthian and Armenian speakers after the middle of the 3rd century: Christianization, intermarriage and the exchange of wards, wars against the Sasanians, to name only the most central points. At the same time, a lack of Parthian sources from this time and region raises questions as to the fate of their own language
Conclusions
Authors: Meyer Robin
Published: January 2024

This chapter draws together all the pieces of evidence presented in this book for a final analysis, reflection, and mise en garde. While the arguments presented thus far speak clearly in favour of the keystones of this book–a Parthian superstrate shift to Armenian, an elevation of the Parthian variety of Armenian to prestige status, coloured by syntactic Iranianisms created by pattern replication–this explanation is inevitably only a hypothesis, based on limited data, both linguistic and historical. It represents a reasoned approach to the question of the linguistic interaction between Iranians and Armenians, and suggests plausible solutions, but cannot claim to have the final word in this matter. On the contrary, it is but the first step in the more detailed consideration of the diachrony of Classical Armenian syntax.
Privacy, the Public, and the Private
Authors: Véliz Carissa
Published: January 2024

Views of privacy that rely on the distinction between the private and the public spheres may seem intuitive at first, if only because they recognize the etymological kinship between the concepts of privacy and the private sphere. Such views, however, quickly run into trouble. This chapter will argue that appealing to the private and public divide is unhelpful both in defining what privacy is and in determining what ought to be protected by privacy. The objective of this chapter is to show that it is not a contradiction in terms to say that privacy issues are not concerns that only and always belong to the private sphere. Section 1 critically assesses William Parent’s view as an example of a philosophical account that relies on the public and private divide to determine what privacy is. One might think that the problems with Parent’s view stem from an incorrect way of dividing the public from the private. Sections 2, 3, and 4 examine three alternative ways of marking out the divide—spatially, financially, and with respect to the roles we play. These sections argue that none of these ways of separating the private and the public can justify a definition or a defence of what ought to belong to the realm of privacy. Section 5 argues that the distinction between the private and the public is especially unhelpful in the digital age, when the paradigms of the private sphere are collapsing into the public sphere.
Ten Accounts of Privacy—And Their Shortcomings
Authors: Véliz Carissa
Published: January 2024

This chapter goes through some of the definitions and accounts of privacy that are most influential in the literature in law and philosophy—those that turn on the concepts of the right to be left alone, control, possession of information, and limited access, as well as reductionism, contextual integrity, and the attempt to understand privacy as a “family resemblance” concept. For each account, the chapter points out its strengths and weaknesses. This chapter serves as preliminary work for the next chapter, which presents its own definition of privacy, building on the strengths of some of the accounts reviewed here.
The Hybrid Account of Privacy
Authors: Véliz Carissa
Published: January 2024

Although philosophical accounts of privacy come in many shapes, most of them can broadly be divided into access and control theories. The most important advantage of access theories is that they capture the intuition that we lose privacy when someone learns about our personal information or enters our personal space, regardless of whether we are in control. In turn, the most important advantage of control theories is that they capture the intuition that it is wrong of others to make us lose control over our personal information, even when they do not access that information. An adequate theory of privacy should incorporate both access and control elements. This chapter argues that privacy itself and losses thereof are better explained by an access theory, while the right to privacy and violations thereof are better explained by appealing to control. The chapter will call the sum of both theories the hybrid account of privacy. An adequate access theory is a descriptive account that can help us answer questions related to when we have lost privacy. An adequate control theory is a normative account that can help us answer questions related to when our right to privacy has been violated. We need both to make sense of privacy. The chapter will first give a snapshot of the hybrid account of privacy. The chapter will then argue in detail for why we should understand privacy in terms of remaining personally unaccessed.
Criminalization, Stigma, and Normalization
Authors: Heidt Jon , Wheeldon Johannes
Published: January 2024

This chapter provides a history of cannabis prohibition. These efforts were instigated and aided by the moral reform movement, which preached abstinence from all intoxicating substances. This movement played an important role in defining drug use as a problem, perpetuating ethnic stereotypes and antipathy, and creating the infrastructure from which cannabis prohibition was realized first in the United States and later worldwide. Beginning with the Netherlands in the 1970s, countries started to chart their own course on cannabis. From Portugal to Canada and Uruguay to Germany, numerous countries and American states have begun a moral-legal renegotiation of the rules and regulations surrounding cannabis use. Understanding this process means revisiting concepts such as stigma and normalization and exploring cannabis policy throughout history.
In the Valley of the Kauravas
Authors: Sax William S.
Published: January 2024

This chapter addresses the question, “How is radical alterity best understood?” and answers it by discussing “three problematic terms” in anthropology: culture, ontology, and ritual. It criticizes the “ontological turn” for failing to take seriously the idea of “multiple worlds” and, following the philosophers Mol and Hacking and the ethnosociologist Marriott, argues that these can be theoretically grasped only when sufficient attention is given to practice. This is, however, not the case in most discussions of “ontology,” which remain stuck at the level of representation. Further, the chapter argues that a nuanced/revised notion of “culture” is able to account for the existence of multiple worlds, and suggests a conceptual framework for doing so. This framework requires us to identify the necessary preconditions for “real-izing” a world.
Brexit’s Northern Ireland Problem
Authors: Whitten Lisa Claire
Published: January 2024

This introductory chapter sets out the key features of the environment in which the Northern Ireland constitution and Brexit intersect before, briefly, outlining the methodological approach taken and the consequential structure of the book. The contextual factors set out can be summarised as follows: (1) Brexit exposed a previously under-studied lack of settlement in the UK constitution and, as a result, fault lines emerged between parties with differing views of what that constitution requires; (2) the significance and vulnerability of Northern Ireland facing Brexit was multifaceted and derived from its constitution and its constitutionally contested history; (3) the Northern Ireland constitution is unique in the UK and internationally; (4) the high profile granted Northern Ireland in the context of Brexit marks a shift away from an established norm in UK politics of paying minimal attention to the constitutional particularities of the place.
Triggering Article 50
Authors: Whitten Lisa Claire
Published: January 2024

This chapter sets out the impact of the triggering of Article 50 of the Treaty on the European Union, and the process leading up to it, on the four components of the Northern Ireland constitution: the principle of consent, devolved government, the North–South and the East–West dimensions. Findings can be summarised as follows: (1) the orthodox position of the Supreme Court in Miller regarding the territorial constitution failed to account for sui generis aspects of the Northern Ireland constitution, including its basis in international law; (2) the aftermath of the UK’s EU referendum exposed the fragility of the Strand One institutions which, catalysed by existing policy failures, led to the breakdown of devolved government in Northern Ireland; (3) an initial strengthening of North–South and East–West relations ended with the collapse of power-sharing government, paving the way for a deterioration in political and diplomatic relations in the next phase of Brexit.
Brexit and the Northern Ireland Constitution
Authors: Whitten Lisa Claire
Published: January 2024

This chapter presents a summative analysis of the impact of Brexit on the Northern Ireland constitution by setting out the twelve key findings that arise from this research. In brief, Brexit: 1. Established the EU as ‘protector’ of the 1998 Agreement. 2. Exposed and exacerbated discrepancies between domestic and international law provisions for the Northern Ireland constitution. 3. Reaffirmed a narrow interpretation of the principle of constitutional consent. 4. Added a new dimension to the principle of consent. 5. Exposed the fragility of devolved government in Northern Ireland to external shocks. 6. Strengthened the executive powers of the UK Government vis-à-vis those of the devolved government in Northern Ireland. 7. Resulted in more specific legal protections for aspects of Strand Two than for Strand One or Strand Three. 8. Incentivised deeper North–South cooperation as a means of addressing ‘gaps’ in the post-Brexit arrangements for Northern Ireland. 9. Catalysed a shift in the nature of UK and Ireland approaches to Northern Ireland. 10. Resulted in a new mechanism for resolution of disputes regarding Northern Ireland in non-devolved areas. 11. Led to some clarification about the nature of ‘East–West’ intergovernmental cooperation and incentivised putting aspects of British-Irish cooperation on a more secure legal footing. 12. Caused a discursive reframing of ‘East–West’ relations to now include ‘GB–NI’.
Gaulish in the Late Empire (c. 200–600 ce)
Authors: Blom Alderik H.
Published: January 2024

Gaulish was a Celtic language widespread in pre-Roman and Roman Gaul. It is widely assumed that it continued to be spoken alongside Latin and the various other vernaculars of Gaul for two, or possibly more, centuries after its written use had petered out, probably in the third or fourth century ce. This makes it the only Palaeoeuropean language to have coexisted in writing alongside Latin until far into the imperial period. Moreover, during that period Gaulish must have constituted a substrate influence on the regional variety of spoken, if not so much of written, Latin. This chapter discusses the rather limited source material on which this generally accepted scenario is based. Thus, the chronology and the likely course of the process of this, in the end, unstable Latin–Gaulish bilingualism, resulting in the eventual disappearance of Gaulish, will be established for as much as the available evidence allows.
Death and Survival of Latin in the Empire West of the Rhine (Belgicae, Germaniae) and the Rise of the Frankish-Theodisc Languages
Authors: Haubrichs Wolfgang
Published: January 2024

This chapter deals with the regionally restricted survival of Latin and Gallo-Romance after the fall of the Western Empire and their replacement by varieties of West Germanic languages (especially Frankish), mainly in the regions of persistent contact between Romance and Germanic, i.e. in the regions between the Rhine, Moselle, and Meuse in Merovingian and Carolingian times. The phases of this linguistic change are attested by four sets of evidence: firstly, contemporary Germanic-Frankish loanwords, personal names, and Frankish toponyms; secondly, toponyms originating from Latin or Gallo-Romance dialects, received by target languages such as Frankish, Old High German, and Dutch; thirdly, Latin or Gallo-Romance loanwords in the Germanic-Frankish target languages; fourthly, Frankish loanwords in Old French and in Gallo-Romance dialects of Eastern and Northern France. Most of the Latin-Romance language islands in these regions came to an end in the eighth century, with the exception of the area around Trier and the River Moselle, called Mosella Romana, the densest and longest-lived zone of Latin-Roman continuity, ending only at the end of the tenth century. West of this region and the later Romance–Germanic language border, a huge number of Frankish loanwords and some West Germanic toponyms attest to the extent of contacts between Franks and Romans in Northern and Eastern Gaul until the extinction of the Frankish language (in around the eighth century, except for the elites), contacts that involved agriculture, military affairs, law, but also everyday terms, whose reception into Late Latin can only be explained by long-lasting bilingualism of the speakers.
The Romance of Early Britain
Authors: Parsons David N.
Published: January 2024

This chapter considers the survival of Latin as a spoken language in Britain during the two centuries following the breakdown of Roman rule. Such material as survives to illustrate this obscure period is described and evaluated in two principal sections. One deals with the ‘British’ side of the equation, which comprises a few contemporary literary texts and a collection of (mostly short and formulaic) inscriptions, together with the evidence for early contact with Latin afforded by the later-recorded Celtic languages. The other addresses the ‘English’ dimension to the problem, seeking to examine linguistic traces that might have been passed to the Anglo-Saxons, whose own tongue came largely to replace whatever came before, whether it had been Celtic or Latin. Although the sum total of the two kinds of evidence is rather meagre, it is possible tentatively to conclude that a British variety of Late Latin, a nascent ‘British Romance’, was probably rather widely spoken, in bilingual situations if not as a preferred vernacular, across the fifth century and into the sixth.
The 2010–14 European Debt Crisis
Authors: Mitchell Christopher
Published: January 2024

This chapter explores how the 2010–14 European Debt Crisis, as a crisis which both originated in flaws in the European financial regulatory architecture and posed a severe threat of disintegration of the European Union, provided the most likely scenario for truly substantial moves toward deeper integration, via the creation of the European Stability Mechanism, Single Supervisory Mechanism, and Single Resolution Mechanism. These new institutions created a permanent state bailout mechanism and centralized bank supervision and resolution for the European Union, moves toward deeper integration that states were willing to make because failure to reform would produce recurring severe crises in the future. The chapter also traces how attempts at additional reform, including creating a European Deposit Insurance Scheme and Capital Markets Union, failed because the emergency period of the crisis ended before their implementation, and neither subsequent reform could win sufficient support in the absence of an immediate threat.
Brexit and the Failure to Reform
Authors: Mitchell Christopher
Published: January 2024

This chapter explains why the 2016 decision of the UK to leave the European Union failed to produce substantial European financial reforms, because as a moderate crisis originating outside of the European financial system, it did not create the circumstances where reformers could frame reforms as essential. Brexit posed threats to European financial stability through a loss of access to London markets and a shock to already fragile banks. However, attempts by reformers to argue that these dangers made immediate implementation of European Capital Markets Union essential fell short. Brexit’s origins outside of finance meant that the deeper integration would not prevent further member state exits, and the moderate threat to integration from financial turmoil out of Brexit failed to motivate member states to compromise on harmonization of market rules or give up their individual ambitions to host the new hub of European financial market activity.
Conclusion
Authors: Mitchell Christopher
Published: January 2024

The conclusion explores the four crises examined in comparison to each other, the possibilities for future crises to generate deeper financial integration, and the application of the theoretical framework to crises outside of finance within the European Union and to crises in federations and strong regional associations outside of the European Union. Comparing the four crises highlights the importance of severity when controlling for crisis origin, the importance of origin when controlling for severity, and the importance of the shift to emergency policymaking in a crisis generally. The utility of this framework to explain the impact of integration on other sectors is discussed in the context of immigration policy, energy policy, and foreign and security policy within the European Union, as well as the implications for study of federations such as the United States and Canada, and of regional associations such as ASEAN or the African Union.
The AI Commander
Authors: Johnson James
Published: January 2024

What do emerging technologies like artificial intelligence (AI) mean for the role of humans in war? This book addresses the largely neglected question of how the fusion of machines into the war machine will affect the human condition of warfare. Specifically, it investigates the vexing, misunderstood, and at times contradictory, ethical, moral, and normative implications—whether incremental, transformative, or revolutionary—of synthesizing man and machine in future algorithmic warfare—or AI-enabled “centaur warfighting.” At the heart of these vexing questions are whether we are inevitably moving toward a situation where AI-enabled autonomous weapons will make strategic decisions in place of humans and thus become the owners of those decisions. Can AI-powered systems replace human commanders? And, more importantly, should they? The book argues that AI cannot be just passive and neutral force multipliers of human cognition. Instead, AI will likely become, whether by conscious choice or inadvertently, strategic actors in war. AI could transform the role and nature of human warfare, but in very different ways from what most observers currently expect.
Introduction
Authors: Johnson James
Published: January 2024

What do emerging technologies like artificial intelligence (AI) mean for the role of humans in war? The chapter summarizes the book’s overarching arguments and describes its methodological and theoretical approach. It describes the nature of and the ethical and political dilemmas associated with human-machine interactions in AI-enabled warfare. The chapter includes a fictional vignette (“2027: Centaur Warfighting in the Taiwan Straits”) to illustrate how AI-augmented human–machine teaming might affect a crisis between two nuclear-armed adversaries. These themes are examined further in Chapters 1–5. The chapter also includes a brief overview of the current state of AI technology and the potential impact of these advances on military capabilities—in particular, those that interact with and augment human warfighters.
Conclusion
Authors: Johnson James
Published: January 2024

The conclusion distils the book’s main findings and connecting themes and advances some tentative proposals for potential policy responses. The book is premised on the assumption that (a) the drive to synthesize AI technology with military capabilities is inevitable and exponential; (b) the effects of this phenomenon on human agents in war is neither incontrovertible nor predetermined; and (c) machines cannot reliably compliment or augment, let alone replace the role of humans in command decision-making. It includes possible follow-up measures, designed to maximize the advantages and minimize the risks in future human–machine interfaces, that policymakers, designers, and users might consider. The chapter ends with three counterfactual scenarios that expose and challenge prevailing assumptions and what we think can be done to assuage them. They are designed as reflective tools to expose weaknesses in the perceived wisdom and to expose potential blind spots in how we frame our research questions to consider nuclear risk anew in the digital age.
Interview Themes and Results, Part 1
Authors: Wolff Jonathan , de-Shalit Avner
Published: January 2024

Chapters 3 and 4 summarize the interviews undertaken over a period of four years, and conducted in London, Oxford, New York, Rio de Janeiro, Rotterdam, Amsterdam, Hamburg, Berlin, Jerusalem, and Tel Aviv. Interviewees were asked what makes a city a city of equals and what distorts equality in their cities. Thus, these interviews draw out a series of key, recurring themes. The themes discussed in Chapter 3 are: relational equality; themes that relate to non-market accessibility to goods and services; spatial dimensions of integration, segregation, and their consequences; frequency and variety of public transport; gardening, environmental goods, and environmental bads; housing policies; sense of meaning and place.
Interview Themes and Results, Part 2
Authors: Wolff Jonathan , de-Shalit Avner
Published: January 2024

Chapter 4 continues to review and discuss the themes raised in the interviews. The themes in this chapter include: the value of diversity and social mixing; special arrangements for elderly people, for young children and their parents; women-friendly city design and planning and gender equality, themes that relate to the value of non-deferential inclusion, communication between people, and political standing. However, many interviewees also accepted that their own city was far from being a city of equals, pointing out serious material and social inequalities, which, they sometimes admitted, they had become accustomed to on a daily basis, even while finding them objectionable from a more abstract perspective. Keywords
Conclusions and Next Steps
Authors: Wolff Jonathan , de-Shalit Avner
Published: January 2024

Chapter 6 explains the authors’ approach towards operationalizing the theory and makes some initial steps and suggestions while pointing to some limitations and further research. While making several suggestions about how to understand each of the above-mentioned core values when applied to policy and how much weight should be given to each theme, the authors also suggest that a specific index has to be devised for each city, to reflect both its own particular circumstances and the interests and values of its city-zens, who should be consulted in the construction of the index for their city. The purpose of the index is not to rank cities in an equality index but for a city to provide an audit of itself, and to set goals and monitor progress.
A Contractualist Approach to Moral Uncertainty
Authors: Bukoski Michael
Published: January 2024

People are often uncertain about morally relevant non-moral facts, but also often uncertain about fundamental moral facts or principles. How, if at all, does moral uncertainty affect what one morally ought to do? This chapter distinguishes between “global” approaches to moral uncertainty that appeal to independent, moral-theory-neutral principles such as maximizing expected choiceworthiness (MEC) and “local” approaches that appeal to principles that are part of particular first-order moral theories. It illustrates the latter option by developing a contractualist account of what one ought to do in situations of moral uncertainty: roughly, the correct principle is a moderate one that gives weight to the interests of both morally uncertain agents and the potential victims of actions under moral uncertainty, and which treats only some kinds of moral uncertainty as affecting what agents ought to do. The chapter also argues that contractualist moral uncertainty principles (and likely other local moral uncertainty principles) can avoid several important objections to global principles such as MEC and that they should not be rejected on the grounds that they fail to provide adequate action-guidance.
Japanese and Korean
Authors: Sato Yutaka , Cho Sungdai
Published: January 2024

This chapter gives background information about the phonological, typological, and genealogical characteristics of Korean and Japanese. It compares a relatively complex inventory of Korean phonemes (e.g., a tripartite contrast of obstruents) with a relatively simple inventory of Japanese phonemes (e.g., a binary contrast in which obstruents contrast in voicing) and shows how they correspond to the systems of romanization used in examples. Korean and Japanese are head-final agglutinating languages just like Altaic languages and differ from head-initial isolating Chinese and agglutinating/polysynthetic Ainu. Of these neighboring languages, the two languages are particularly similar, exhibiting almost identical morpho-syntactic features. Such similarities may have resulted from areal factors (language contact) rather than genealogical. There have been debates between theories advocating and opposing their genetic affiliation. A proposal was also made to relate Japanese to the Koguryŏ language based on the record of old toponyms. Contact with Chinese resulted in influx of Sinic origin vocabulary in their lexicons.
Topic and focus
Authors: Sato Yutaka , Cho Sungdai
Published: January 2024

Chapter 5 describes the topic and nominative markers in Japanese and Korean. As commonly treated as being both topic-prominent and subject-prominent, these languages distinguish the particles for topic and nominative markers. A topic is presented as old information in a discourse, or more precisely as relationally given information, rather than referentially given information, and thus it never appears in focus, or an element presented as new information, even if it is definite. The occurrence of focus is described in relation to the presence of a nominative-marked subject. Two types of focus, i.e., narrow and wide focus, are illustrated in connection to the type of predicates (individual-level and state-level predicates). The use of nominative subjects in Korean different from that in Japanese is also mentioned. Lastly, this chapter explains another function of the Japanese and Korean topic markers, i.e., a marker for contrast.
Word order and scrambling
Authors: Sato Yutaka , Cho Sungdai
Published: January 2024

Chapter 6 discusses the basic components of a sentence: a range of predicates classified in terms of the semantic type and number of their arguments and their syntactic categories, auxiliary verbs (auxiliaries and light verbs), and tense and mood morphemes. Verbal predicates divide into intransitive, transitive, and ditransitive verbs. Adjectival predicates also divide into a transitive type (with an experiencer subject and a theme object) and an intransitive type. This chapter discusses major differences between verbs and adjectives in the two languages. In the discussion of matrix clause phenomena, it discusses the marking of basic clause types: Korean has four distinct moods, i.e., declarative, interrogative, imperative, and propositive, whereas Japanese has limited distinction in mood. The basic sentence patterns in terms of word order are presented, and a syntactic word order-changing process of scrambling (subject to a constraint such as the Complex NP Constraint) is illustrated.
Passives and causatives
Authors: Sato Yutaka , Cho Sungdai
Published: January 2024

Chapter 7 sheds light on passive and causative constructions in Korean and Japanese. Korean has lexical, morphological, and syntactic types of passive and causative constructions, whose morpho-syntactic behaviors are illustrated contrastively. The morphological passive and causative constructions are derived by bound morphemes, some of which appear in identical forms. The Korean syntactic passive and causative constructions are periphrastic and are realized as sentence patterns with -ci(ta)(passive) and -key ha/mantulor -tolok ha/mantul(causative). In Japanese, bound passive and causative morphemes derive syntactic passive and causative constructions. Both the Korean (periphrastic) syntactic causative and Japanese (affixal) syntactic causative constructions are biclausal, yet they behave differently. Japanese has direct and indirect passive constructions and allows even indirect verbs to be passivized, unlike Korean. Different patterns of causativization and passivization between the two languages are contrasted.
Honorifics
Authors: Sato Yutaka , Cho Sungdai
Published: January 2024

Chapter 12 illustrates the honorific systems of Japanese and Korean. They have elaborate honorific systems that consist of addressee honorifics and reference honorifics, which further divide into subject and nonsubject honorifics. The addressee honorifics are marked on the predicate of a sentence, lack of which clearly indicates that the intention of the speaker is not to show respect linguistically to the hearer, playing roles similar to those of T-form and V-form in European languages. Subject honorifics and nonsubject honorifics are also marked on predicates in accordance with the subject or nonsubject (e.g., object) referent. Although almost identical, the honorific systems in the two languages differ greatly in their use, i.e., the interpersonal relationships of power (e.g. an age factor) and distance play different roles in these languages. This sociolinguistic difference between the two languages seems to reflect the value systems of each society.