bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
AERIAL STUDIES OF A BREEDING COLONY OF GREY SEALS, HALICHOERUS GRYPUS (FAB.), AT GASKER, OUTER HEBRIDES, IN 1955 AND 1956
Authors: BOYD J. MORTON
Published: August 2010

The breeding colony of Grey Seals on the islet of Gasker, Harris, is the only major colony of the species in the Hebrides which has not been visited by expeditions extending over several weeks of the breeding season. In 1955 and 1956, a series of aerial photographs of the colony on Gasker were taken, between mid‐September and mid‐November, by the pilot of a passenger aircraft. From these photographs it has been possible to map accurately the breeding grounds, and the distribution of calves and adults throughout the latter part of the breeding season. Information about the size of the colony, and the disappearance of calves from the breeding grounds, is also obtained from the photographs. Comparisons in the lay‐out of the breeding ground and in numbers, at various stages of the breeding season, are drawn with the neighbouring colony on Shillay, Harris and that on North Rona, both of which have been described in greater detail.
THE GROWTH OP CONFINED COLONIES OF THE WILD HOUSE‐MOUSE (MUS MUSCULUS L.)
Authors: CROWCROFT PETER , ROWE F. P.
Published: August 2010

The growth of four confined populations of wild house mice (Mus musculus L.) was studied for approximately eighteen months. Each colony was started with one male and two females and constantly provided with excess food and water. Censuses were carried out fortnightly at first, and later monthly.

The variation in the rate of increase was greatest in the early stages, but all four colonies contained comparable numbers after eighteen months.

The main factor limiting population growth was the low fecundity rate of the females. Reproduction ceased altogether after ten months in the colony which grew most rapidly and had the most stable social structure.

Most females with closed or partly closed vulvae were found at postmortem to have inactive ovaries, thread‐like uteri and excessive fat deposits. Most adult males remained fecund at all stages of population growth.

The survival rates of infants, juveniles, and adults of both sexes, were not significantly affected by increased total numbers.
THE OCCIPITAL CREST AND ANTERIOR SPINAL NERVES IN THE LARVAL URODELE, HYNOBIUS NEBULOSUS.
Authors: FOX H.
Published: August 2010

The larval Hynobius nebulosus during its ontogeny possesses a pair of hypoglossal foramina like Cryptobranchus.

A hypoglossal nerve comprising a dorsal and ventral root and a ganglino emerges through this foramen. It is thus a true spinal nerve, serially homologous with the more posterior ones which have been described.

The evidence supports the view that the posterior part of the urodele skull is composed of spinal segments.
THE STRIDULATORY MECHANISMS IN TERRESTRIAL SPECIES OF HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA
Authors: LESTON DENNIS
Published: August 2010

From re‐examination of known or suspected stridulatory organs in terrestrial Heteroptera and the discovery of new ones the following conclusions are reached:

The so‐called “stridulatory” organs of Saldidae are male grasping organs, those of Nabidae are also non‐stridulating structures.

Stridulation in Pentatomomorpha is of intra‐specific type and has arisen at least sixteen times independantly.

Stridulation in Cimicomorpha is of extra‐specific type, has arisen once and is confined to Reduvioidea.

The stridulating organs of Pentatomidae (excluding Mecideinae) and some Coreidae are unknown but sounds have been heard from them.

The commonest strigil‐and‐plectrum organ is a ventral strigil and leg plectrum; a wing strigil and dorsal plectrum has evolved more than once. Single examples are known of other types of strigil‐and‐plectrum organ.

The systematic distribution of stridulatory organs suggests that Cyminae auctt. is polyphyletic. The “strigil” supports placement of Aepophilidae within Saldidae.

The distribution of intra‐specific communication in Hemiptera suggests that the earliest bugs (? lower Permian) were able to “perceive” sounds.
THE AFFINITIES OF PLAGIAULAX (MULTITUBERCULATA)
Authors: RIDE W. D. L.
Published: August 2010

After examination of the Plagiaulax mandible 47728, Friant concluded that the structure of the masseteric fossa indicates that Plagiaulax is a diprotodont marsupial (phalangeroid).

The holotype of P. becklesii, a right mandibular ramus, has been prepared by the acetic‐acid technique so that the posterior half is free from matrix. Its structure is compared with that of mandible 47728.

It is shown that the structures which, in mandible 47728, were interpreted by Friant as indicating particular marsupial affinities are all the result of post‐mortem crushing and that there is no evidence whatever of such affinities.

Further preparation has revealed that the mandible of P. becklesii possesses a wide masseteric shelf which is apparently similar to those found in Taeniolabis and some Ptilodontidae.
THE LIFE‐HISTORIES OF TWO SUMMER SPECIES OF DRAGONFLY (ODONATA: COENAGRIIDAE)
Authors: CORBET PHILIP S.
Published: August 2010

The life‐histories of two dragonflies, Coenagrion mercuriale (Charp.) and Ceriagrion tenellum (Villers) have been determined by taking regular larval samples from populations in Hampshire and Glamorganshire.

Both species are semivoltine. Eggs are usually laid in June and July and hatch about a month later. Larvae spend the first winter at a length of about 4–5 mm. Most individuals pass the second winter in the penultimate instar, which they enter in autumn. Ecdysis to the final instar occurs abruptly in spring, and is followed closely by metamorphosis and emergence.

A facultative diapause may exist in the penultimate instar, but a synchronizing factor operates between resumption of growth in spring and emergence. A mechanism is suggested whereby synchronization of emergence could be achieved by a rising series of lower temperature thresholds for successive developmental stages in spring. Some ecological implications of this mechanism are discussed. It is concluded that their high thermal coefficient for larval growth would deny univoltine species the economic use of such a system, and that there are ecological grounds for a sub‐division of summer species on this basis.
THE LIFE‐HISTORY OF THE BULLHEAD OR MILLER'S THUMB (COTTUS GOBIO L.)
Authors: SMYLY W. J. P.
Published: August 2010

1,555 Bullheads (Cottus gobio L.) from Windermere, 771 from the river Brathay and 542 from other waters, 2,868 in all, were caught between January 1951 and December 1955.

The fish lives on the margins of lakes and in rivers under stones where there is a sandy or gravelly bottom.

Differences in behaviour of breeding and non‐breeding fish are described.

Males mature earlier in the year than females and large females lay eggs earlier in the breeding season than small ones. In the river Brathay, most fish do not breed before they are two years old, but in Windermere fast‐growing fish breed when one year old. Fish from Windermere have a greater fecundity than those from the river Brathay.

Age was found from otoliths. Male fish grow faster than females in both the river Bray and Windermere and fishes of both sexes grow faster in the lake than they do in the river.

The food, which is mainly invertebrate bottom fauna, varies more with season and place than with size of fish or year of capture. In both Windermere and the river Brathay the fish feeds mostly on nymphs of Ephemeroptera and Plecoptera and larvae of Trichoptera, but in Windermere, unlike the river Brathay, Gammarus and Sialis are also commonly eaten.

The fish has many parasites, of which only one in the urinary bladder (Phyllodistomum folium) has been identified, and apparently no serious predators.
THE MALE GENITAL TRACT OF THE INDIAN MEGACHIROPTERAN BAT CYNOPTERUX SPHINX GANGETICUS AND
Authors: VAMBURKAR S. A.
Published: August 2010

The testes are permanently abdominal in position and there is no scrotum. The testes are globular. The caput and cauda epididymidis are similar in shape and size. The vasa deferentia open into the collecting tubules of the seminal vesicles.

The seminal vesicles are large glandular bodies, divisible into an anterior glandular portion and a posterior ductus portion. The paired ducts open into the muscular urethra on the summit of a crista urethrae.

The prostate is a compact glandular mass, lying outside the muscular urethra below the neck of the bladder. It completely surrounds the muscular urethra only in the breeding season; at other times it is incomplete along the dorsal side. Its ducts are numerous, and open into the muscular urethra independently near the crista urethrae.

The muscular urethra is a simple muscular tube between the bladder and the penis. The genital ducts open into it.

The urethral gland which surrounds the muscular urethra is minute and is covered by the muscle of the urethra. The numerous short ducts of the urethral gland open into the muscular urethra.

A utriculus prostaticus is absent.

Cowper's glands are large and lie in the region of the muscular urethra into which they open by a pair of short ducts.

The penis is large, pendulous conical and directed caudally. It is divisible into three regions.

The glans is large and complicated in structure. Its surface is covered by numerous minute denticles. There is a deep gutter projecting into the substance from its distal dorsal side. There are three lips, one ventral and two dorso‐lateral, at the tip.

The corpora cavernosa together are horse‐shoe shaped in section and enclosed in a common sheath; but internally the two are separated by the septum. The corpus spongiosum is simple and surrounds the penile urethra up to the external orifice. An accessory corpus cavenosum is absent.

The os‐penis is a simple cartilaginous curved plate, pointed terminally. It is restricted to the distal half of the glans.

The penile urethra presents a pair of blind diverticula at its distal end.

The whole genital system shows a marked enlargement in size during breeding season.
AGE CHANGES IN THE CRANIAL CAPACITY AND FORAMEN MAGNUM OF HOMINOIDS
Authors: ASHTON E. H. , SPENCE T. F.
Published: August 2010

Data for the cranial capacities and for the dimensions of the foramen magnum have been derived from 198 chimpanzees, 223 gorillas, 69 orang‐utans and 575 men at various stages of development.

The pattern of endocranial growth in the extant apes is similar to that in man.

The age changes in the foramen magnum follow those in the endocranial cavity–some 95 per cent of adult size being reached by the time the first permanent molars are in place.

Comparison between these new data and the stated endocranial volumes of the Australopithecinae confirms that in this feature the South African fossils are ape‐like.

The cranial capacity and the area of the foramen magnum are sufficiently closely correlated to enable the one to be predicted from the other.

The relationship between the area of the foramen magnum and the cranial capacity of the Australopithecinae was apparently similar to that in extant apes and an estimate is made on this basis of the endocranial volume of an immature specimen of Paranthropus crassidens (SK 47) of which the skull base only is preserved.
THE IDENTITY OF THE BRITISH FISH PARVICLINUS SPINOSUS
Authors: WHEELER ALWYNE C.
Published: August 2010

The statue of the clinid fish from the Conway River, North Wales, described by Fraser‐Brunner as Parmclinus spinosus, has been a matter of doubt since its discovery.

The unique holotype has been re‐examined, and certain errors in the description corrected. It is considered to be identical with the Caribbean species Staihmonotus (Auchenistius) stahli.

The methods by which introduction of the specimen could have taken place are discussed, and it is concluded that the most likely is as an accidental introduction by a passing ship. A similar case is cited in this respect.
THE ASYMMETRY OP THE LARVAL AMPHIOXUS
Authors: BONE QUENTIN
Published: August 2010

The various views that have been put forward of the asymmetry of the amphioxus larva are discussed, and a modification of Garstang's view is proposed. Upon this view, the asymmetry of the amphioxus larva is directly related to its mode of feeding; the essentials of this process in the young larva are discussed and it is concluded that the body cilia play an important part in the feeding process. The derivation of amphioxus from the Ascidiacea is discussed, and various points are indicated which suggest that the original position of the mouth in the ancestry of amphioxus was ventral, as Garstang suggested.
THE FOSSIL SUIDAE OF MAKAPANSGAT
Authors: EWER R. F.
Published: August 2010

The whole of the known fossil suid material from the Limeworks Quarry at Makapan is examined and described. Most of the specimens belong to the same species as the mandible described by Dale (1948) and named Pronotochoerus shawi. Reasons are given for concluding that the reference of this material to the genus Pronotochoerus is not correct. The specimens are considered to belong to the genus Potamochoeroides Dale, but to represent a species distinct from Potamochoeroides hypsodon Dale; they are therefore referred to Potamochoeroides shawi (Dale).

Diagnoses are given for the genus Potamocoeroides Dale and for the two species P. shawi (Dale) and P. hypsodon Dale.

The rest of the identifiable suid material from Makapan all belongs to Notochoerus euilus (Hopwood).

The process of third molar elaboration which has taken place in the evolution of the African Suidae is discussed and an attempt is made to assess the relationships of Potamochoeroides to other genera. The relationships of Notochoerus capevsis and N. euilus are also discussed and it is concluded that the differences in cusp pattern are sufficient to warrant a subgeneric division: Leakey's name Gerontochoerus is therefore revived as a subgenus and Notochoerus (Gerontochoerus) euilus is thus distinguished from Notochoerus (Notochoerus) capensis. The form described by van Hoepen & van Hoepen as Kolpochoerus sinuosus is considered to be a species distinct from, but closely related to, N. capensis and it is therefore referred to Notochoerus (Notochoerus) sinuosus (van Hoepen & van Hoepen).

The bearing of the suid fauna on the question of the probable date of the Makapan deposit is considered: it is concluded that the deposit belongs to the lower Pleistocene.

An attempt is made to estimate the age composition of the population of Potamochoeroides shawi and the possible influence on age composition of the manner in which bones have come to be included in a deposit is considered.
REPRODUCTION IN THE EAST AFRICAN LUNG‐FISH PROTOPTERUS AETHIOPICUS HECKEL
Authors: GREENWOOD P. H.
Published: August 2010

Four occupied nests, which differ in form and environment, of P. aethiopicus are described from Lake Victoria. These constitute the first definite records of the nests of this species. Evidence is adduced which strengthens the possibility that certain structures previously thought by other authors to be nests were in fact those of lung‐fishes.

The oxygen content of one nest was determined and found to be low, probably never exceeding 3 p.p.m. During the breeding periods studied, the modal day water temperature was 23oC. and the temperature range 17‐8o to 25‐0oC. The least diurnal temperature variation was 0–5o and the greatest 3–6oC.

From one nest over 5,000 larvae were recovered and from another (incompletely sampled) more than 2,000. Some broods showed a distinct fractioning into several ontogenetic stages. It is concluded that fractioning is attributable to slight initial differences in the time of fertilization and reinforced by individual variation in developmental rates. The scanty data available suggest that more than one female spawns in a nest.

Larval P. aethiopicus begin air‐breathing when they have reached a length of 23 to 25 mm. It seems probable that whilst the larvae remain in the nest they are not dependent on aerial respiration.

In its external features, the embryology of P. aethiopicus closely resembles that of P. annectens. Slight differences in ontogeny are discussed. The ova, embryos and larvae of P. aethiopicus are larger than those of P. annectens, and have a slower‐ developmental rate. Also, the larvae attain a larger size before the yolk is fully resorbed.

At ca 23oC. young P. aethiopicus remain in the nest for fifty to fifty‐five days. Pre‐hatching development takes about fifteen days; thereafter the young grow to a length of ca 35 mm. in forty days.

Post larval P. aethiopicus live actively in the matted papyrus roots and the root systems of swamp grasses. There is no evidence to support an earlier idea that they pass the first year of life in a quiescent condition.

The external gills are ciliated. Data relating to the development and subsequent necrosis of these gills is reviewed and summarized.

The breeding cycles of P. aethiopicus in Lake Victoria are imperfectly known. Observations made on ovarian conditions indicate a peak breeding season from November to April. Occupied nests were found in this period, and in September. This latter nest suggests that spawning may also occur during unseasonal. wet periods.
A CONTRIBUTION TO THE BIOLOGY AND CYTOLOGY OF HALIPHYSEMA (FORAMINTFERA)
Authors: HEDLEY R. H.
Published: August 2010

Haliphysema tumanowiczii Bowerbank, is an attached foraminifer and the natural variation described is such that the following forms are probably synonyms of it; H. primordiale Haeckel, H. echinoides Haeckel, H. globigerina Haeckel, and H. advena Cushman.

An unattached form of H. tumanowiczii is described which is released from the attached animal. The unattached individual moves over the substratum and eventually settles and forms the basal disc. This newly attached stage becomes a typical attached individual.

The test wall is composed of sponge spicules and other foreign matter cemented together with an acid mucopolysaccharide. On the inside of this wall, in the basal disc and first quarter of the pedicle, there is an organic sheath composed of a mucoprotein. This component is flexible and enables a form such as H. tumanowiczii to survive the rough conditions of the littoral zone.

Multinucleate and uninucleate individuals are recorded among both the attached and unattached forms.
DACTYLOPUSIOIDES MACROLABRIS (CLAUS) (COPEPODA: HACPACTICOIDA) AND ITS FROND MINING NAUPLIUS
Authors: Green J.
Published: August 2010

The nauplius of Dactylopusioides macrolabris (Claus) is described and figured. The second antenna is modified to form a biting appendage, while the mandibles are not capable of biting.

The nauplii and an associated adult female were found in galleries in the fronds of the brown alga Dictyota dichotoma, from Torquay, Devon. This is the first British record of this copepod, and the first record of a copepod mining the fronds of a member of the Phaeophyceae.
A STUDY OF SOME DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES OF THE THELYCUM AND ITS RELATION TO THE SPERMATOPHORES IN THE PRAWN PENAEUS JAPONICUS BATE*
Authors: TIRMIZI N. M.
Published: August 2010

The thelycum Qf P. japonicus Bate consists of two parts (i) an interior triangular plate, and (ii) a posterior pouch.

The formation of the pouch is described. It is a complicated process involving folding and tucking in of the lateral arms of the U‐shaped plate and anterior growth, notably of the transverse median portion of this plate.

The structure of the spermatophores is described, and their relation to the thelycum in an impregnated female. This description supports Heldt's work on Penaeus trisulcatus Leach.
THE ABDOMINAL MUSCULATURE OF NYMPHAL CHLOEONDIPTERUM L. (INSECTA: EPHEMEROPTERA) IN RELATION TO GILL MOVEMENT AND SWIMMING
Authors: EASTHAM L. E. S.
Published: August 2010

The nymph of Chloeon dipterum is a pelagic animal living in ponds, Its plate‐like bilamellate gills are described.

By means of metachronal rhythmical movements of the gills, in which members of pairs beat synchronously, currents of water are set up over the body. These currents which are on the whole axial to the body explose water from all regions surrounding the body.

The gill and abdominal musculature is described and it is shown that a modification of normal musculature has occurred to provide direct muscles to the gill bases and also to make possible the habit of swimming by rhythmical movements of the abdomen rather than by limbs. These movements are lateral and are made about a vertical axis. Swimming is always preceded by a vigorous up and down movement of the caudal filaments. This movemelit about a transverse axis as in the tail flukes of a whale is then abandoned as the side to side movements of the abdomen take charge, when the animal swims aa does a fish.
THE GROWTH OF CONFINED COLONIES OF THE WILD HOUSE‐MOUSE (MUS MUSCULUS L.): THE EFFECT OF DISPERSAL ON FEMALE FECUNDITY
Authors: CROWCROFT PETER , ROWE F. P.
Published: August 2010

Post‐mortem examination of female house mice from a confined population showed a higher proportion of non‐fecund females than would be found in a wild‐caught sample of similar age composition.

A similar population was allowed to disperse into a larger pen, whereupon the reproductive rate increased. The result was not clear‐cut, however, as the increase began too soon to be attributable to dispersal alone.

Another similar population was divided into two colonies of unequal size. Non‐fecund females transferred to a new large pen with few other mice became fecund and reproduced successfully, while those placed in a new small crowded pen remained non‐fecund.

A completely adult population in which no litters had been born for over six months was allowed to disperse into a large pen. A majority of females became fecund and conceived within about one week. The numbers were doubled within eight weeks.

The results suggest the existence of a self‐regulatory mechanism, which operates at population densities seldom, if ever, reached in free‐living populations.
A NEW SPECIES OF EUKROHNIA FROM THE SOUTHERN OCEAN WITH A NOTE ON FERTILIZATION
Authors: David P. M.
Published: August 2010

A new species of the genus Eukrohnia, E. bathyantarctica, is described; it is a deep living form, so far only found in the Southern Ocean. It resembles both E. fowleri and E. hamata in many features. Evidence is given which suggests that in this species, and also in E. fowleri the seminal vesicles function as spermatophores and are attached intact to the external opening of the oviduct by a fine tube which is probably the vas deferens.
Benefits of video home training on families’ health and interaction: evaluation based on follow‐up visits
Authors: Häggman‐Laitila Arja , Seppänen Raija , Vehviläinen‐Julkunen Katri , Pietilä Anna‐Maija
Published: August 2010

Aim.  The aim of this study is to describe the benefits of video home training on families’ health and interaction from the perspective of parents six months after the training.

Background.  There is hardly any empirical knowledge of how a resource‐enhancing approach could be used in nursing practice and how nursing in a home context affects the families’ health outcomes and interaction.

Design.  The study was designed as a descriptive qualitative service evaluation.

Methods.  Fifteen families with 66 family members participated in the study. The study material consisted of videotapes recorded at homes and family service plans produced during the process of the video home training. The data were analysed by qualitative content analysis and by the method of analysing photographs and videotapes.

Results.  Video home training was found to bring about many positive effects on families’ health and interaction. The families had reached their goals related to parenthood, relationship between the partners, childcare skills and child‐rearing skills.

Conclusion.  The entire family benefited from the video home training. Video home training can be recommended in providing families with early support and anticipating and preventing family problems.

Relevance to clinical practice.  Video home training is applicable to family nursing owing to the concrete and interactive nature of the method. It supports the realisation of family centredness and family orientation.
Rhythmicity in life events of an aphidophagous ladybird beetle, Cheilomenes sexmaculata
Authors: Omkar  , Singh K.
Published: August 2010

Abstract:  The present laboratory experiments have been carried out to investigate rhythms in various life events, viz. mating, oviposition, hatching, moulting, pupation and eclosion, of an aphidophagous ladybird beetle, Cheilomenes sexmaculata under laboratory conditions. Incidences of mating and eclosion occurred mostly (66% and 73% respectively) in photophase. While oviposition, hatching, moulting and pupation occurred during scotophase with the peaks of the former two distributed between time intervals 12:00–15:00 h and 21:00–00:00 h respectively. Confinement of life events that are associated with vulnerable stages in scotophase might be an adaptation to prevent their exposure to natural enemies.
Susceptibility genes for schizophrenia
Authors: HASHIMOTO RYOTA , HATTORI SATOKO , CHIBA SACHIE , YAGASAKI YUKI , OKADA TAKEYA , KUMAMARU EMI , MORI TAKEYUKI , NEMOTO KIYOTAKA , TANII HISASHI , HORI HIROAKI , NOGUCHI HIROKO , NUMAKAWA TADAHIRO , OHNISHI TAKASHI , KUNUGI HIROSHI
Published: August 2010

Abstract  It is well known that genetic factors contribute to the susceptibility for schizophrenia. Recent advances in the molecular genetics of schizophrenia strongly suggest several susceptibility genes (e.g. dysbindin, neuregulin‐1, DISC1, COMT, G72, RGS4 and Akt1). We discuss the evidence and biology of these genes. As glutamate transmission is especially implicated in these genes, neurobiological basis of schizophrenia might be elucidated by investigation of functional interactions between susceptibility genes for schizophrenia and the glutamatergic system.
May 5, 1885.
Authors: Flower W. H.
Published: August 2010

The Secretary read the following report on the additions to the Society's Menagerie during the month of April 1885:—
1. On the Chimpanzees and their Relationship to the Gorilla.
Authors: Keith Arthur
Published: August 2010

The Gorilla may be distinguished in life from the Chimpanzee by its sullen, untamable, ferocious nature; its long nasal bones descending far below the level of the infra‐orbital margin; its great alar nasal folds running to the margin of the upper lip; its great peculiar molar, premolar, and canine teeth; its broad, short, thick webbed hands and feet; its long her1 and the great length of its upper arm with the smaller development of the forearm.
On a Case of Imperfect Development in Echinus esculentus
Authors: Ritchie James , McIntosh D. C.
Published: August 2010

The imperfect development of this test of Echinus esculentus is expressed in:—

 General shape.—Flattened, with a bulge at one portion of the ambitus, and above the bulge a depressed area of the corona.

 Major symmetries.—The left posterior ambulacrum does not exist after its twenty‐ninth plate (counting from the peristome). The corresponding ocular plate is present, but its shape is unusual and its pore is a mere pin‐hole.

 Plate details.—On the twenty‐eighth, twenty‐ninth, or thirtieth plate of each of the ten ambulacral rows a series of abnormalities begins, the abnormalities consisting, for the most part, of deficiencies in the number of primitive plates forming a compound plate.

Less marked divergencies from the normal can be detected in the sizes of some of the plates and in the irregular courses of certain of the sutures.

The stoppage of the growth of the ambulacrum and the plate abnormalities occurred approximately at the same time, and it is suggested that they may be due to functional disturbance caused by some external agent. The distortion of the test subsequent to the arrested development of the ambulacrum has been brought about by a process of regulation.

The specimen of Echinus esculentus above described has been deposited in the Royal Scottish Museum, Edinburgh.
The Classification, Morphology, and Evolution of the Echinoidea Holectypoida
Authors: Hawkins Herbert L.
Published: August 2010

Summary.

The Holectypoida are restored to the rank of an order of the Echinoidea Irregularia. A classification, somewhat modified from that proposed by Gregory (50), is given, and revised diagnoses of the families, subfamilies, and genera are drawn up. A comparative study of the morphology of the skeletal structures of typical genera of the group is given; and, in the light of the results of this study, the course of evolution both within and beyond the limits of the order is indicated.

The Holectypoida are regarded as an annectant group of the Irregular Echinoids, whose characters retain a considerable uniformity owing to a persistent retardation of evolution. At various periods offshoots from the Holectypoid stock appeared, which, usually with a relatively accelerated differentiation, developed into the various orders and families of the Irregularia. The order commenced in the Liasic period, and became extinct at the end of the Cretaceous. Two of the groups of Echinoids now living retain many features that were characteristic of the Holectypoida (the Echinoneidæ and the Fibulariidæ). The other groups of Irregular Echinoids show a much greater departure from the primitive character, but they all possess some features which indicate their Holectypoid anptzy.

Two new names are introduces in the Systematic Part:—Megapygus as a subgenus of Pygaster, corresponding with the Pygaster (sens. str.) of Pomel (37), with type M. umbrella; and Conulopsis, a genus including the “Echinoconus” of Desor (21), with type C. roemeri d'Orbigny. The latter group will be studied in greater detail in a forthcoming paper.
The Structure and Development of the Caudal Skeleton of the Teleostean Fish, Pleuragramma antarcticum.
Authors: Totton A. Knyvett
Published: August 2010

The development of the vertebral column begins at the caudal end, the hypaxial elements being the first to appear. This coincides with a down‐bending of the notochord (compare with this the analogous condition of the vertebral column in the Ichthyosauria). Epaxial elements do not appear until this condition has given way to the straight condition again. Arches appear as paired cartilages at the sides of the caudal artery and vein and of the nerve‐cord. They are separated from the notochord by connective tissue.

The notochord is of a relatively enormous size, and persists with only slight constriction throughout life. The centra consist of thin papery lamellæ of membrane‐bone. Ossification is generally weak.

The neural and hæmal arches of the penultimate centrum are double, owing to the splitting of single rudiments. Similar phenomena are to be observed in other fishes. They may be produced by different causes:—

(1) Splitting of an originally single rudiment.

(2) Crowding of two arches on to one centrum.

(3) Fusion of the first epiural apophysis with the last neural arch.

(4) Exceptional equal development of both arch and intercalary.

(5) Secondary diplospondyly, i. e. fusion of two centra.

Large cartilages are present above and below the last two centra in the adult, which support a dorsal and a ventral series of procurrent fin‐rays. Their great size is probably connected with the weakness of general ossification.

The hypural bones of the adult are formed by a fusion of hæmal arches and radials. This compound nature of the hypurals may be seen anteriorly in adult Selachians and in the Sturgeon, but it has not been shown before, as far as I am aware, in Teleosts.
A Coral Reef in the New Hebrides
Authors: Baker John R. , Scholar Christopher Welch
Published: August 2010

Summary.

On the north‐east coast of Gaua, in the New Hebrides, there is a fringing reef about half‐a‐mile wide. Coral growth is most active near the shore, the dominant coral in this zone being Montipora ramosa. Outside the double boulder zone coral growth is not very active, and Lithothamnium does not flourish as it does in so many reefs.

It is suggested that a fringing coral‐reef not only grows outwards on its own talus bed, but also grows inwards to form a thin layer lying on a flat shallow platform produced by the erosion of the coast.
The Skull, the Face, and the Teeth of Primates, with special reference to Dolichocephaly and the Centres of Growth in the Face.—Part I
Authors: Harris H. A.
Published: August 2010

Summary.

 The author's radiographic method of determining the form of the endocranial cavity of the skull has been applied to a large series of Primate skulls. Leptoprosopy and dolichocephaly are shown to be normal features of certain Primates. The degree of dolichocephaly in the Gorilla is as great as that in Man, so that dolichocephaly, per se, cannot be regarded as a humanoid feature.

 The central canal of the chin is shown for the first time to be a normal but inconstant feature of the mandible of Primates.

 Mental and infraorbital foramina are analysed with special reference to their multiplicity, their relative position, and the associated direction of growth in the upper jaw and mandible.
The Resistance of Certain Metals and Metallic Alloys to Corrosion and Solution by Sea‐Water
Authors: Stowell Flaxney Percival
Published: August 2010

Summary.

 A brief account is given of various tests relating to the corrosive and solvent action of sea‐water on metals and metallic alloys.

 Natural films of oxide or chemically‐induced protective coatings have been found in two cases to withstand fairly successfully the attack of sea‐water.

 The weakness of paints and varnishes as protective coatings lies in the formation of minute cracks and pinholes, which cause pitting when brought into contact with sea‐water.

 Semi‐immersion was found to be a more rigorous and exacting test than total immersion, and test samples should be submitted to both treatments before an opinion is expressed as to their corrosion‐resisting properties.
The Mallophaga of Sand‐Grouse.
Authors: Waterston James
Published: August 2010

1. Skins of the 16 known species of Pteroclidæ have been examined in the British Museum, and 14 species of Mallophaga referable to two genera, both peculiar to Sand‐Grouse, have been collected from 14 host species.

2. The methods of collecting and preparation are described.

3. A list of hosts and parasites is given.

4. Judged by their prasites, Sand‐Grouse are related to the grouse and pheasants.

5. Descriptions of a new genus and twelve new species are given, and a key appended.
2. The Osmotic Concentration of the Blood of Callorhynchus millii and Epicercctodus (Neoceratodus) forsteri, and the Significance of the Physico‐chemical Condition of the Blood in regard to the Systematic Position of the Holocephali and the Dipnoi.
Authors: Dakin William J.
Published: August 2010

The osmotic pressure and the salinity of the blood of Callorhynchus antarcticus and of Epiceratodus forsteri have been investigated with a view to determining the relations between internal fluids and the aquatic environment in the Holocephali, and the Dipnoi.

Live fish were examined, and the specimens were quite normal (the Callorhynchus were examined at Hobart, Tasmania, and the Neoceratodus at Brisbane, Queensland).

The blood of the Callorhynchus had a freezing‐point almost the same as the sea water in which the specimens were living. The blood contained over 2·6 per cent. urea and chlorine representing 1·33 per cent. NaCl.

These figures indicate that Callorhynchus presents the extraordinary conditions found in only one group of the animal kingdom—the Elasmobranchii.

The blood of Epiceratodus has a relatively high freezing‐point, —0·42°C., compared with —0·5 to 0·6 for freshwater Teleostei, and —·56 to —0·6 for mammalia. There is no resemblance whatever to Elasmobranch conditions. The Dipnoi fall into the same category as the higher vertebrates. The freezing‐point of the blood is curiously like that of the amphibia.
The Breeding Behaviour of the Common Frog, Rana temporaria temporaria Linn., and of the Common Toad, Bufo bufo bufo Linn.
Authors: Savage R. Maxwell
Published: August 2010

Summary.

By tagging individual frogs in a pond it was found that the males, after mating once, remained behind in the pond with the other males, and often mated several times in one season. Other males did not secure mates at all. Pairs remained in amplexus under natural conditions less than twenty‐four hours.

The recognition of the female by the male depends primarily on the rough granules of her skin, which are developed during the breeding season, a different method of sex recognition from any hitherto described. She is retained after seizure because she remains silent and has a stout figure. When she lays her eggs she is released by the automatic cessation of the impulse to grip, resulting from her diminished size, aided by the use of her voice.

The female assists the expulsion of her eggs by pressing her hands on her abdomen and forcing them out.

The sperm‐emission stimulus is merely the contact of the eggs with the symphysis pubis region of the male.

The males struggle for the possession of the females by using their feet to push away or force off their opponents, especially by hooking their toes under the encircling arms of the other frog. This appears to be the only point at which the nuptial pads perform a useful function.
2. The Sperms of Freshwater Ostracods
Authors: Lowndes A. G.
Published: August 2010

With the proper technique it can be shown that the sperms of the freshwater Ostracods are highly motile.

The discovery of this motility has necessitated a re‐orientation of the sperms. The sperms consist of a thin anterior part and a thicker posterior part, which is the flagellum.

The nature of the movement is described.

Apparently the sperms are now functionless.
3. The Influence of External Factors on the Spawning Date and Migration of the Common Frog, Rana temporaria temporaria Linn.
Authors: Savage R. Maxwell
Published: August 2010

By statistical methods it is found that frogs are little affected by the weather which obtains at the time of spawning. There is a tendency for spawning to take place more in wet weather than at other times, and, on general grounds, severe frost would prevent activity, but weather in which night frosts occur is not avoided. Humidity is without action.

The mean spawn date is influenced by the weather of a long period preceding it. The date on which frog‐spawn is laid in March is much affected by the weather of February. Bain is most important, but temperature plays a part. The effect is quantitative—it is the total amount of rain which acts. An equation is developed showing the relation between the factors.

The order in which spawn is deposited in different ponds in the same district is determined by features which are constant from one year to another, but is affected also by random fluctuations.

Up to moderate altitudes, especially in districts subject to orographical rainfall, spawning is earlier the higher the pond above sea‐level.

Frogs spawn in a great variety of ponds, but those which have a stream flowing in or out are especially favoured.

The migration of frogs is carried out independently of hydrotaxis, geotaxis, or voice. There is evidence that the smell of the pond is the directing factor.

Frogs exercise a great deal of selection in their choice of a breeding pond. Ponds suitable for hibernation are left and journeys undertaken to other ponds in which they breed.

The spot at which the eggs are laid is the same year after year. It is the scene of a silent gathering of frogs for some weeks prior to spawning, at least in some years. None of the obvious factors, such as shallowness or exposure to the sun, explains the selection of the site.

The period in which this gathering is proceeding is distinguished by the term “pre‐spawn season.” This is defined.

A theory is put forward to explain the facts of observation, in which it is suggested that the determining factor in deciding the spawn date and the selection of site is a change in the algal flora at the site.

Some confirmation of this view is obtained by analyses of the water of ponds for phosphate. Frogs appear to spawn at corresponding phases of phosphate changes in different ponds.

By theoretical deduction it is shown that the date at which the largest number of ponds in a district have the significant change is indeterminate from the spawn observations. The development of spawning with time deduced from this theory bears a resemblance to the actual results of observation.

It is suggested that some cases of discontinuous distribution in a small area may be the result of corresponding differences in the distribution of the algæ to which the amphibian is attached.
Breeding Seasons of Birds in East African Evergreen Forest
Authors: Moreau R. E.
Published: August 2010

It has been stated that no general breeding season can be discerned in the birds of evergreen forest in West Africa. No previous study in East African forest is available, but my information, derived from gonad state, moult, and song volume, as well as the number of occupied nests found, gives a different impression at Amani. With a few specific exceptions the forest birds there nest between the beginning of October and the end of February and then moult. Simultaneous wing‐moult and considerable gonad enlargement are rare in forest birds, and actually rarer than in birds from less equable environments also in Northern Tanganyika.

My data indicate that at Amani on the average (all forest species) the gonads of the individual male remain much enlarged for about four months in the year, of the female for less than two. It also appears that the individual bird of both sexes takes at least two months to get through wing‐moult.

Data from occasional collections in other forests in Northern Tanganyika make it probable that with local modifications a periodicity similar to that at Amani exists there also. Information, both published and unpublished, for other forests, from Chirinda (S. Rhodesia) to Mt. Elgon, suggests that a single well‐marked breeding season is the rule throughout the East African mountain forests.

These results are discussed in relation to Beebe's at Kartabo and to the variables in the environment. I do not find any acceptable single‐factor hypothesis.
The Morphology of the Bufonid Head.
Authors: Ramaswami L. S.
Published: August 2010

A study of the cranial anatomy of the entire head of Bufo melanostictus, Bufo parietalis, and Nectophryne misera, and the anterior region of the head of Bufo hololius and Bufo beddomii, reveals the following interesting facts:—

The anterior extension of the gl. nasalis medialis through the fenestra nasobasalis into the anterior region of the cranium, to occupy a position in between the gl. intermaxillaris, is noticed in B. melanostictus. The gl. nasalis medians do not penetrate through the fenestra naso‐basalis in B. parietalis, B. hólólius, B. beddomii, and N. misera.

The septomaxillary sends a limb into the plica in the region of the anterior nares in the Bufonid examples studied; the limb of the bone appears in the plica posterior to the anterior narial opening in N. misera.

The eminentia olfactoria is elevated in all the species of Bufo studied; the eminentia is not elevated in N. misera.

The sphenethmoid is bony in B. melanostictus, B. beddomii, and N. misera; in B. hololius it is cartilaginous, and in B. parietalis the bony sphenethmoid possesses cartilaginous areas.

The palatine is present in all the species of Bufo examined, while in N. misera it is absent.

The processus basalis is small in all the forms examined. It is merely a lateral extension of the oticus cartilage, and posterior to the oticus connection of the crista; the basal process also unites with the otic capsule to form a “pseudobasal” connection.

The frontoparietals have united mesially in N. misera; in the examined species of Bufo and in N. misera the fronto‐parietals unite with the prootic bone. Posteriorly the prootic is indistinguishable from the exoccipital.

Of the plectral apparatus a large pars externa, a bony pars media, and a large pars interna are seen. A pars ascendens plectri—a commissural cartilage between pars externa and crista parotica—is noticed in all.

The operculum is sickle‐shaped and depends from the otic capsule.

In N. misera the quadrate cartilage is feebly invaded by the quadrato‐ maxillary.

The complete absence of the “bursa angularis oris” of Fuchs (1931) (the “Mundwinkeldrüse” of de Villiers) is noteworthy.
The Carboniferous Coalacanth Fishes of Great Britain and Ireland.
Authors: Thomas J. A. Moy
Published: August 2010

1. The Carboniferous Cælacanths of the British Isles have been re‐examined and together with the foreign forms have been rediscussed.

2. Although many of the more fragmentary species may belong to another genus, all have been included in the single genus Rhabdoderma, which has been distinguished from the Permian genus Coelacanthtis.

3. The anatomy of RhaModerma has been redescribed and the following new points described for the first time:–The presence of a suboperculum, the coronoid, the ectopterygoid, the dermo‐ and auto‐palatines, the shape of the basisphenoid olico‐occipital and ethmoid region and the nature of the circumorbital plates, and the course of the sensory canal. The pectoral and pelvic girdles and internal skeleton of the pelvic fin. The skeleton of the anterior dorsal fin and its articulation with the neural spines in some forms. The internal skeleton of the anal fin. The presence of basiventrals in the vertebral column.

4. The following species have been considered synonymous with R. elegans: “C.” ornatus Newb., “C.” robustus Newb., “C.” summiti Wellb., “C.” elongatus Hux., “C.” watsoni Aiding., “C.” arcuatus Hibb. & “G.” newelli Hibb.

5. “C.” mucronatus Pruvost is considered synonymous with R. tingleyense.

6. “Ccelacanthopsis curta” Traq. is shown to be a peculiarly preserved, but normal Cælacanth. It is considered specifically and generically indeterminable.

7. The following new species have been described:–R. ardrossense, R. (?) aldingeri, R. (?) abdenense, R. (?) davisi.

8. Details of anatomy have been described in R. elegans, R. tingleyense, R. huxleyi, R. corrugatus.