bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Harmonization of social policies and social regulation in the European Community
Authors: MONTANARI INGALILL JÄRENSJÖ
Published: May 2006

Abstract. The development of the European Community entails harmonization of policies in many areas. This paper analyses to what extent harmonization has taken place in the traditional fields of social policy. Interventions by the EC authorities in the social policy area, here termed direct harmonization, are examined. Indirect harmonization, resulting from common economic policies and the internationalization of the economy, is used as a key concept in an empirical study of the development of coverage, benefit levels and methods of financing in the main social insurance systems within the EC countries, since 1955. The corresponding development in the EFTA countries is here used as a baseline for comparison. The results are discussed in light of the thesis that also in the social field EC policies may fruitfully be interpreted in terms of the EC's main objective of economic integration. Some criteria for the consideration of future developments are suggested.
The impact of class on political attitudes
Authors: HAYES BERNADETTE C.
Published: May 2006

Abstract. This study examines the impact of class self‐identification and class position on political attitudes in Great Britain, West Germany, Australia and the United States. The results show a basic similarity in the class structure of these four western nations, differences in patterns of class identification, and significant effects of class structure and class identification on political attitudes. Despite recent projections of its demise, for these four countries at least, class identification and class position are an important, albeit secondary, factor in explaining political attitudes. Of these class measures, class self‐identification is the more salient in predicting political attitudes.
Competition policy and institutional politics in the European Community: State aid control and small business promotion
Authors: LAVDAS KOSTAS , MENDRINOU MARIA
Published: May 2006

Abstract.The article examines EC competition policy from a political science perspective, analyzing the political and institutional considerations which inform the development of the Commission's controlling capacities in competition. It concentrates on policy towards small businesses in manufacturing. We argue that the Commission's general capacities in the formation and the administration of competition policy have been growing in both the merger‐controlling aspects and in the control of state subsidization. Against this background, the handling of state aid to small businesses presents us with a paradox: the more developed the enforcement system in competition, the less the Commission applied it to national subsidization of small‐scale production. The role of EC competition policy and particularly the subtle handling of state subsidies should be analyzed as part of the developing system of Community policy vis‐à‐vis small business, encompassing measures at the EC and national levels. Community policy has emerged as a result of an accommodation between different EC institutional and domestic political objectives, and to some extent this accommodation has been achieved at the expense of policy content. The article traces the development of Community policy in this area from the early 1970s to the adoption of the first‐ever detailed policy guidelines in 1992, and suggests an analytical scheme for explaining the emergence of small business promotion as an issue in EC institutional politics.
Government ‘strength’ and budget deficits in advanced democracies
Authors: BORRELLI STEPHEN A. , ROYED TERRY J.
Published: May 2006

Abstract. Roubini and Sachs provided the first systematic test of the idea that political structure the size, composition, diversity, and/or stability of a governing cabinet ‐ is related to budget deficits. In this paper, we take issue with several of Roubini and Sachs' choices concerning data and operationalization, and argue that their approach cannot offer clear conclusions about the relationship between national political structure and budget deficits. We test the ‘strength of government’ hypothesis using central government finance data on 16 countries, 1959–1990. We measure deficits in a way that maximizes comparability across countries but avoids the potential problems of standardizing by GDP. We examine carefully the definition and measurement of ‘strength of government’, in light of recent theoretical and empirical work in comparative politics. We perform pooled time‐series regression analysis of deficit change in 16 OECD countries for the period 1959–1990. We argue that while structural differences between governments may have little impact on deficits during good economic times, they may become especially noticeable and influential during periods when governments struggle to cope with severe economic problems.
Minority governments, minimal winning coalitions and surplus majorities in parliamentary systems
Authors: CROMBEZ CHRISTOPHE
Published: May 2006

This paper studies government formation in parliamentary systems. A formal model is presented to explain the emergence of minority governments, minimal winning coalitions and surplus majorities, as a function of the largest party's share of the seats in the legislature and its location in the policy space. I conclude that as the largest party becomes larger and more central, the government changes from a surplus majority to a minimal winning coalition and from a minimal winning coalition to a minority government. I find empirical support for these conclusions in a study of government formation in eleven parliamentary democracies.
The emergence of new political parties from a game theoretic perspective
Authors: HUG SIMON
Published: May 2006

The literature on new political parties is vast but often neglects strategic aspects that are important in the formation period. In this article I develop a simple incomplete information game consisting of the interactions between an established party and a potential new party. The game shows that higher ‘costs’ for forming a party decrease the likelihood of new actors appearing on the electoral scene. Apart from this intuitive result the paper also shows that important demands from potential new parties are less likely to be taken seriously by the established party than more modest demands. Consequently, established parties often change their policies only marginally and are likely to refuse important modifications to their platform.
Political parties and democracy: A mutual murder?
Authors: DESCHOUWER KRIS
Published: May 2006

Democracy is good at generating demands and bad at satisfying them. Autocracy, on the other hand, is in a position to stifle demands and is better placed to meet them. (Bobbio 1987: 39)

According to the classical Eastonian approach a political system faces stress when it is not able to respond to an acceptable number of demands. The support for the system then drops. In this article we use this conceptual tool to attempt to explain in very general terms the existing anti‐party sentiment in Western democracies. We try to show how democracy itself produces substantial stress for the system that could however be contained as long as political parties were able to act as collective identities between the citizens and the state. The adaptation and change of the traditional parties has made democratic systems more vulnerable to the erosion of support, and the parties themselves, as central actors in the systems, are the target of the protest.
The intellectual basis of right‐wing anti‐partyism
Authors: IGNAZI PIERO
Published: May 2006

This paper shows the long and prestigious intellectual tradition of anti‐party arguments. Even before political parties emerged as unitary political actors, there were already well‐developed arguments with which to express hostility towards them. The emphasis on unity and harmony in Western civilization moulded political thought. While this cultural framework was broken in the brief but extraordinarily powerful experience of the Medieval Italian Republican Cities, the acceptance of organized dissent failed to emerge. Instead, this experience left the vivid memory of the danger of factionalism. In eighteenth century France, both revolutionaries and counter‐revolutionaries viewed parties as political maladies, and nineteenth century liberalism produced only a diffident defence of parties. At the end of the nineteenth century, hostility towards parties was nurtured in both Germany and France by elevating the ideals of the State and of the Nation. Italian and German fascists drew on and developed these philosophical anti‐party traditions in the 1920s and 1930s. Since 1945, however, few anti‐party parties have developed their own detailed or comprehensive philosophical critiques of parties; the Italian MSI is a notable exception.
Apartisanship and anti‐party sentiment in the United Kingdom: Correlates and constraints
Authors: WEBB PAUL D.
Published: May 2006

This article seeks to examine evidence of the existence and growth of anti‐party sentiment in the UK. While it is clear that the available data cannot unambiguously confirm these phenomena, at least aprima faciecase can be made on the basis of such evidence. Regression analysis suggests that while erosion of the class cleavage in the country is associated with the loosening of partisan commitments, the shortcomings of party governments in the area of economic policy management might contribute significantly to a sense of popular alienation from the major parties. Notwithstanding this, anti‐party sentiment is perhaps not as high as might be expected in a country where perceptions of national economic decline have been widespread. Political culture and the electoral system are very real constraints that do much to account for this.
Duverger and the Jacobins
Authors: MAVROGORDATOS GEORGE Th.
Published: May 2006

Against the heightened awareness brought about by the bicentennial of the French Revolution, it is surprising to (re)discover that Duverger chooses to dismiss the Jacobins as a mere parliamentary group. In fact, they became the first mass party. This is the key to an organizational explanation of the course taken by the Revolution. It raises new and compelling doubts about the identification of mass parties with the working class and about the democratic credentials of such parties. It also raises the broader question whether the modernity of political parties is a matter of organization or, rather, of legitimacy.
Social movements and direct democracy in Switzerland
Authors: KRIESI HANSPETER , WISLER DOMINIQUE
Published: May 2006

Taking a political process approach to the study of social movements, we analyze the impact of the availability of direct democratic institutions on the action repertory of Swiss social movements. Comparing social movements in the German and the Latin parts of the country, we show that the availability of direct‐democratic instruments induces most social movements to use them. This has a moderating impact on their action repertory. However, we have to relativize this general result in two ways. On the one hand, direct‐democratic institutions are selective to the extent that they favour the mobilization of certain types of movements at the expense of others. On the other hand, very radical movements such as counter‐cultural movements may refuse to rely on this type of instrument altogether. We also note that in a polity with an important direct‐democratic opening, such movements have little legitimacy and are likely to be less successful than in a polity where no such opening exists at all, or where it provides only a limited access to the political system.
The dissatisfied society: The roots of political change in Italy
Authors: MORLINO LEONARDO , TARCHI MARCO
Published: May 2006

Since early 1990s in Italy there has been a major change in the party system. Some of the explanations that are often mentioned, such as corruption, the April 1993 referendum, the new electoral laws, or the secularization of the society and the economic crisis, are important aspects of a complex funnel of causality. Together, however, they do not satisfactorily explain the change. Thus, we identify an idiosyncratic factor, the chronic, widespread dissatisfaction, that existed since the end of the 1940s, and explore the reasons why this dissatisfaction caused change only in the 1990s. The main explanations we suggest provide the basis for some speculations on changes in an Italian democracy that is still in a phase of transformation in the mid‐1990s.
Two steps forward ‐ one step back?
Authors: SCHMID JOSEF
Published: May 2006

Francis Castles has dealt with the issue of whether Catholicism makes a difference. This paper provides some critical remarks and further reflections about the topic. My point is that Castles neglects the relevance of Catholic churches and welfare organizations for the development of the modern welfare state. In countries with a strong state‐church‐cleavage (Rokkan) this aspect is characteristic for the delivery of social services. Thus, a more political‐institutional theory of religion and public policy can be reached.
Effects of Acute Prenatal Ethanol Administration in a Reciprocal Cross of C57BL/6J and Short‐Sleep Mice: Maternal Effects and Nonmaternal Factors
Authors: Gilliam David M. , Mantle Margaret A. , Barkhausen Deborah A. , Tweden Dawn R.
Published: May 2006

An animal model was used to see if maternal genetic factors contribute to ethanol‐induced fetal malformations. Susceptible C57BL/6J (B6) and resistant Short‐Sleep (SS) mice were used in a reciprocal cross‐breeding design. This design produced four fetal genotypes true‐bred B6B6 and SSSS liers and hybrid B6SS and SSB6 litters. Dams were intubated with either 5.8 g/kg of ethanol or an isocaloric amount of maltose‐dextrin on day 9 of pregnancy. Fetuses were removed on day 18 of pregnancy and assessed for soft tissue and gross malformations. Results show different prenatal treatment effects on malformations depending on the fetal genotype. Mean percentage of total malformations in ethanol‐treated groups were 61% (B6B6), 28% (B6SS), 3% (SSB6), and 16% (SSSS), respectively. Litters exposed to maltose‐dextrin showed low (≤4%) malformation rates regardless of fetal genotype. The difference in teratogenic response between genetically identical hybrid litters (B6SS and SSB6) suggests a maternal genetic contribution to susceptibility. Of the two major types of malformations, forelimb but not kidney malformations showed a pattern characteristic of a maternal genetic effect. It was concluded that maternal genetic effects can be distinguished from fetal genetic effects responsible for ethanol teratogenesis. Genetically based physiological responses to alcohol in the mother may confer varying degrees of risk for prenatal alcohol effects in the child.
Intravenous Ethanol Self‐administration in C57BL/6J and DBA/2J Mice
Authors: Grahame Nicholas J. , Cunningham Christopher L.
Published: May 2006

Two strains of mice, C57BL/6J (B6) and DBA/2J (D2) were allowed to self‐administer intravenous (iv) ethanol. These two strains were selected because they differ greatly in their preference for drinking ethanol solutions: 86 mice are preferrers, whereas D2 mice are avoiders of ethanol. Of interest was whether these strains would also differ in self‐administration of iv ethanol when taste factors presumably do not influence consumption. Mice were trained with either 60, 75, or 90 mg/kg per infusion. Mice from both strains acquired nosepoking for all of these doses on an FR‐3 schedule of reinforcement during 2‐hr daily sessions. Additionally, mice in both strains acquired an equal preference for nosepoking on the side resulting in ethanol infusions, compared with the side that had no scheduled consequence, although B6 mice took somewhat more ethanol early in training than did D2 mice. Mice in both strains achieved equal levels of responding at the conclusion of training, when response rates had stabilized. A subset of animals were then tested at doses of ethanol ranging from 25 to 125 mg/kg per infusion. Although their responding tended to decrease over time regardless of changes in the unit dose of ethanol, these mice showed lower response rates for higher doses of ethanol, and less responding for saline than for ethanol. Together, these findings imply that iv ethanol has reinforcing properties in both these strains, despite the strain difference in preference for oral ethanol. Self‐administration of iv ethanol in mice may prove a valuable addition to existing animal models for the study of ethanol reward.
Splenic Function and Alcohol Addiction
Authors: Corazza Gino R. , Addolorato Giovanni , Biagi Federico , Caputo Fabio , Castelli Elena , Stefanini Giuseppe F. , Gasbarrini Giovanni
Published: May 2006

Severe hyposplenism has been recently documented in alcoholic liver disease, and it has been suggested that alcohol itself is important in the derangement of splenic function, despite a lack of evidence of a direct toxic effect of alcohol on the spleen. The aim of the present study was to assess splenic function in alcoholic patients without severe liver disease and to correlate these data with the degree and duration of alcohol intake. Fifty‐two alcoholics, 31 subjects with current alcohol abuse (group A)—13 abstinent from alcohol for 1 to 6 months (group B) and 8 abstinent from alcohol for 6 months to several years (group C)—and 26 healthy social drinkers were studied. Splenic function was assessed by counting the percentage of pitted red cells. An in vitro experiment was performed to verify whether the presence of pitted red cells could be due to an effect of alcohol on red cell morphology. The percentage of pitted red cells in subjects from group A was significantly higher than in subjects from group 6 (p < 0.01), from group C (p < 0.005), and from controls (p < 0.001). There was no significant difference between group 6, group C, and controls. Ten subjects from group A and 1 from group B and no subject from group C had evidence of splenic hypofunction. There was no significant correlation between the percentage of pitted red cells and daily alcohol intake or years of alcohol addiction. In conclusion, our study shows that, in patients with alcoholism but without any severe liver damage, a significant but slight increase in pitted red cells is present. Further studies are needed to clarify whether this is due to a mild form of splenic hypofunction or merely indicates erythrocyte membrane alterations.
Alcohol Dependence and Abuse Diagnoses: Validity in Community Sample Heavy Drinkers
Authors: Hasin Deborah , Van Rossem Ronan , McCloud Steven , Endicott Jean
Published: May 2006

Despite the widespread influence of the alcohol dependence syndrome concept on the major nosological classification systems, little work has been done to test the validity of the alcohol dependence syndrome in community samples. In addition, numerous questions have been asked about the validity of current definitions of alcohol abuse. We examined the cross‐sectional validity of DSM‐IV alcohol dependence and abuse in 936 household residents randomly selected and screened for elevated drinking. We investigated validity by testing the association of a set of seven “criterion” variables, external to the alcohol diagnostic criteria, with dependence and abuse diagnoses. Results indicated that dependence diagnoses were significantly associated with all criterion variables when compared to those with no diagnosis, even though all subjects had elevated drinking and the cases of alcohol dependence were mild. In contrast, abuse diagnoses did not show a pattern of association with the criterion variables when compared to no diagnosis. When associations were tested comparing dependence cases to those with abuse only, results were mixed. This study is one in a series of investigations in this sample of household residents screened for elevated drinking levels.
Co‐Metabolism of Ethanol, Ethanol‐Derived Acetaldehyde, and 4‐Hydroxynonenal in Isolated Rat Hepatocytes
Authors: Hartley Dylan P. , Petersen Dennis R.
Published: May 2006

Our laboratory has previously reported on the ability of 4‐hydroxynonenal (4‐HNE), a primary product of lipid peroxidation, to inhibit acetaldehyde metabolism in isolated mouse liver mitochondria. The purpose of the present study is to determine whether the co‐metabolism of ethanol and 4‐HNE compromises the elimination of either substrate in isolated rat hepatocytes. Hepatocytes were isolated and incubated with ethanol and 4‐HNE. Ethanol elimination and acetaldehyde accumulation were monitored by gas chromatography, whereas 4‐HNE elimination and metabolite accumulation were measured by UV detection and reversed‐phase HPLC at 202 nm. In the absence of 4‐HNE, hepatocytes metabolized ethanol at an initial rate of 9.4 nmol/min/million cells. Ethanol elimination was moderately inhibited by the presence of 4‐HNE. Accumulation of ethanol‐derived acetaldehyde was not apparent in incubations with only ethanol. In contrast, in incubations containing both substrates, ethanol‐derived acetaldehyde accumulation exceeded that observed in hepatocytes exposed only to ethanol and was proportional to the 4‐HNE concentration in the incubations. In all instances, the rate of 4‐HNE elimination was not compromised by the presence of ethanol. Accordingly, ethanol metabolism did not alter the oxidative or conjugative metabolism of 4‐HNE. However, the reductive metabolism of 4‐HNE was affected by the presence of ethanol, wherein accumulation of 1,4‐dihydroxy‐2‐nonene increased >2‐fold of that observed in incubations with only 4‐HNE. To determine further if 4‐HNE and ethanol are metabolized through the same metabolic pathways, cells were preincubated with either 4‐methylpyrazole or cyanamide to inhibit alcohol dehydrogenase (E.C. 1.1.1.1.) and aldehyde dehydrogenase (E.C. 1.2.1.2.), respectively. Expectantly, 4‐methylpyrazole blocked the formation of 1,4‐dihydroxy‐2‐nonene, but had no effect on the rate of 4‐HNE elimination. In contrast, cyanamide substantially inhibited the formation of 4‐hydroxy‐2‐nonenoic acid, decreased the rate of 1,4‐dihydroxy‐2‐nonene formation, but did not decrease the elimination rate of 4‐HNE. Overall, these results support our previous observation that 4‐HNE inhibits acetaldehyde metabolism and establish that ethanol and 4‐HNE are metabolized through the same alcohol dehydrogenase‐ and aldehyde dehydrogenase‐mediated pathways. These data continue to suggest that, as a consequence of enhanced lipid peroxidation resulting from chronic ethanol consumption, increased 4‐HNE levels could compromise cellular elimination of ethanol‐derived acetaldehyde and thus function in the potentiation of alcoholic liver fibrosis.
Alcohol Consumption by Young Actively Growing Rats: A Histomorphometric Study of Cancellous Bone
Authors: Sampson H. Wayne , Chaffin Catherine , Lange Jason , DeFee Buren
Published: May 2006

Alcohol consumption by young actively growing rats has been previously demonstrated to decrease bone density. This study addresses the mechanism of alcohol action on the early phases of bone growth and development using histomorphometric techniques. Four‐week‐old, female Sprague‐Dawley rats were divided into three groups. Alcohol‐treated animals were fed a modified Lieber‐DeCarli diet ad libitum containing 35% ethanol‐derived calories, whereas the pair‐fed animals (weight‐matched to ethanol rats) received an isocaloric liquid diet in which maltose‐dextrin‐substituted calories were supplied by ethanol. Chow animals were fed a standard rat chow ad libitum. Proximal tibiae, including epiphyseal growth plate, were removed for analysis after 2,4, 6, or 8 weeks on the diets. Trabecular volume and number were greatly reduced in the alcohol‐fed animals; however, bone formation rates and mineralization rates were normal. Epiphyseal growth rate and proliferation rate were essentially stopped in the alcohol‐fed animals.
Alcohol‐Induced Bone Disease: Impact of Ethanol on Osteoblast Proliferation
Authors: Klein Robert F.
Published: May 2006

The habitual consumption of even moderate quantities of alcohol (1 to 2 drinks/day) is clearly linked with reduced bone mass (osteopenia). Biochemical and histological evaluation of patients with alcoholic bone disease reveal a marked impairment in bone formation in the face of relatively normal bone resorption. Experiments using well‐defined osteoblastic model systems indicate that the observed reductions in bone formation result from a direct, antiproliferative effect of ethanol on the osteoblast itself. As bone remodeling and mineralization are dependent on osteoblasts, it follows that the deleterious effect of alcohol on these cells would result in slowed bone formation, aberrant remodeling of skeletal tissue and, ultimately, osteopenia and fractures. The skeletal consequences of alcohol intake during adolescence, when the rapid skeletal growth ultimately responsible for achieving peak bone mass is occurring, may be especially harmful. The specific subcellular mechanisms whereby ethanol inhibits cell proliferation are, as yet, unknown. During the last few years, attention has shifted from nonspecific membrane perturbation effects to actions on certain signaling proteins. Specifically, there is increasing evidence that ethanol may exert significant effects on transmembrane signal transduction processes that constitute major branches of cellular control mechanisms. At present, abstinence is the only effective therapy for alcohol‐induced bone disease. An improved understanding of the pathogenesis of alcohol‐induced bone disease may eventually result in alternative therapeutic avenues for those who are unable to abstain.
Ethanol's Inhibition of LTP May Not Be Mediated Solely via Direct Effects on the NMDA Receptor
Authors: Schummers James , Bentz Scott , Browning Michael D.
Published: May 2006

Acute abuse of alcohol is well known to have deleterious effects on memory. However, the molecular and cellular bases of this effect are not well understood. Ethanol is known to inhibit long‐term potentiation (LTP), a putative cellular substrate of memory. However, there is controversy concerning the doses of ethanol required for inhibition of LTP. We examined the doses of ethanol required to inhibit LTP in the CA1 region of the hippocampus. We used two different LTP‐inducing paradigms in these studies and found that only doses of ethanol associated with profound intoxication (50–100 mM) can produce significant inhibition of LTP. We also investigated the molecular mechanisms of ethanol's effect on LTP. Activation of the N‐methyl‐d‐aspartate receptor plays a critical role in LTP, and ethanol has been shown to partially inhibit N‐methyl‐d‐aspartate receptor function. We tested directly whether the level of N‐methyl‐d‐aspartate inhibition produced by 100 mM ethanol is sufficient to account for the complete inhibition of LTP produced by 100 mM ethanol. Our data suggest that ethanol's effects on the N‐methyl‐d‐aspartate receptor can account for most, but not all of ethanol's inhibition of LTP.
Ethanol Differentially Affects Metabolic and Mitotic Processes in Chick Embryonic Cells
Authors: Shibley Ivan A. , Carver F. Melinda , Pennington Sam N.
Published: May 2006

Our laboratory has been investigating the mechanisms by which ethanol‐induced growth inhibition occurs in a developing embryo, and our studies have focused on disruption of cellular signaling pathways. Previous work on ethanol‐induced changes in signaling systems that regulate omithine decarboxylase activity indicated that the pathways containing protein kinase A, protein kinase C (PKC), and insulin‐dependent tyrosine kinase were important for the control of omithine decarboxylase in chick embryonic cells. Herein, we report ethanol's effect on the regulation of glucose uptake and thymidine uptake by these same kinase pathways. A pronounced increase in glucose uptake was associated with PKC downregulation in both vehicle‐ and ethanol‐exposed cells, with the larger increase occurring in ethanol‐exposed cells. An increase in thymidine uptake was associated with an activation of all three kinases, as well as with downregulation of PKC. Because previous work on signaling pathways has looked for changes in the insulin signaling pathway, the work herein focuses on the signaling pathways involving protein kinase A and PKC. cAMP levels were increased by ethanol treatment, but the increase was relatively small. Analysis of changes in PKC activity induced by ethanol exposure showed a significant suppression of PKC activity in the ethanol‐treated cells and suggested that, overall, ethanol treatment affects the regulation of glucose uptake in embryonic cells predominantly by PKC downregulation.
Effect of Three Different Modes of Alcohol Administration on the Activity of the Rat Hypothalamic‐Pituitary‐Adrenal Axis
Authors: Ogilvie Kathleen , Lee Soon , Rivier Catherine
Published: May 2006

The present study compared the effect of different modes of alcohol administration on the activity of the hypothalamic‐pituitary‐adrenal (HPA) axis. In a first series of studies, we investigated the influence of the intraperitoneal (ip) and intragastric (ig) effect of acutely administered alcohol. Over a 3–hr period, alcohol induced dose‐related increases in adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and alcohol levels in the circulation. There was a good correlation between blood ACTH and alcohol levels (ip treatment, R= 0.84; ig treatment, R= 0.79). Measurement of steady‐state mRNA of the immediate early gene NGFI‐B, taken as an index of neuronal activation in the paraventricu‐lar nucleus (PVN) of the hypothalamus of rats administered 3 g of alcohollkg, indicated significant (p < 0.01) increases between 60 and 180 min after both ip and ig alcohol injection, with peak stimulation at 1 and 2 hr, respectively. Although NGFI‐6 mRNA levels had returned to control level in the parvicellular portion of the PVN of animals administered the drug ip 4 hr earlier, they were still significantly (p < 0.01) elevated 4 hr after ig treatment. A second series of studies used rats fed an alcohol diet containing 6.4% alcohol (w/v), or pair‐fed. The rats were tested during the 4th or 6th night of treatment. Despite blood alcohol levels ranging between 0.060 and 0.140% w/v, there was no significant rise in plasma ACTHlcorticosterone levels in animals fed the drug, and no detectable NGFI‐B mRNA in their PVN. Collectively, these results indicate that both the ip and the ig acute injection of alcohol induced dose‐related increases in plasma ACTH levels. PVN neuronal activation was also observed. In contrast, the alcohol diet had no effect on HPA hormone levels or PVN expression Of NGFI‐B.
The Distribution of Fatty Acid Ethyl Esters among Lipoproteins and Albumin in Human Serum
Authors: Bird David A. , Kabakibi Ayman , Laposata Michael
Published: May 2006

Fatty acid ethyl esters (FAEEs) are nonoxidative products of ethanol metabolism and have been implicated as mediators of ethanol‐induced organ damage. Previous studies have demonstrated that FAEEs bind to lipoproteins and albumin in human plasma after ethanol ingestion. Analysis of human serum with varying blood ethanol levels and endogenously formed FAEEs revealed a positive correlation between serum FAEE concentration and the percentage of FAEEs associated with lipoproteins, predominantly very low density and low density lipoprotein. Similar results were obtained when increasing amounts of FAEEs were added to serum with zero blood ethanol. Additional studies indicated that free fatty acids and FAEEs do not compete for binding to albumin or lipoproteins. Data support the conclusion that the distribution of FAEEs among their carriers in the serum is dependent on serum FAEE concentration. Key Words: Lipids, Ethanol, Fatty Acids, FAEE, Lipoprotein.
The Effect of Anonymous Vs. Nonanonymous Rating Conditions on Patient Satisfaction and Motivation Ratings in a Population of Substance Abuse Patients
Authors: Leonhard Christoph , Gastfriend David R. , Tuffy Liam J. , Neill Jennifer , Plough Alonzo
Published: May 2006

Patient self‐report in evaluations involving alcohol and other drug abuse has generally been found to be reliable and valid. However, little is known about the variables associated with greater or lesser degrees of reliability and validity. This study was conducted to determine how motivation and satisfaction ratings obtained under anonymous conditions would compare with ratings obtained under nonanonymous conditions. Over the course of 12 months, 1397 subjects in the Boston Target Cities Project were assigned to either confidential or fully anonymous data collection procedures in an interrupted time‐series design. Anonymity had either no effect on ratings or accounted for <1% of the variance. Satisfaction and motivation ratings obtained under confidential conditions are probably as reliable and valid as ratings obtained under fully anonymous conditions.
Free Radical Formation in Livers of Rats Treated Acutely and Chronically with Alcohol
Authors: Reinke Lester A. , Moore Danny R. , McCay Paul B.
Published: May 2006

The spin trapping method was used to assess formation of free radical intermediates in vivo before and after acute alcohol administration to rats. Ascorbyi radicals and spin adducts of dietary alcohol or endogenous compounds, such as lipids, were detected with higher frequency in bile from alcohol‐fed rats than in corresponding samples from rats fed control diets. When alcohol was given acutely to these animals, the 1‐hydroxyethyl radical metabolite of ethanol was also formed at higher rates in livers of rats that had been fed ethanol chronically. Furthermore, formation of lipid radicals was enhanced after acute alcohol administration. These data support the hypothesis that chronic alcohol administration causes development of oxi‐dative conditions in the liver, which subsequently lead to formation of differing types of radicals. Liver microsomes from alcohol‐fed rats also metabolized ethanol to the 1‐hydroxyethyl radical at higher rates than controls.
Ethanol Modulation of Gaba‐Activated Current Responses in Acutely Dissociated Retinal Bipolar Cells and Ganglion Cells
Authors: Yeh Hermes H. , Kolb John E.
Published: May 2006

This study examined the effect of acute ethanol exposure on GABA‐activated whole‐cell current responses elicited in bipolar cells and ganglion cells of the rat retina. Acute exposure to ethanol potentiated GABA responses in 86% of the bipolar cells and in 52% of the ganglion cells tested. As determined in bipolar cells, ethanol was maximally effective at a concentration of 50 mM. In bipolar cells, a GABAc receptor‐mediated component of the whole‐cell response to GABA could be uncovered which was also potentiated by ethanol. However, ethanol was ineffective in enhancing bipolar cell responses to glycine. GABA‐activated current responses monitored in ganglion cells that were insensitive to modulation by ethanol were sensitive to potentiation by diazepam. At higher concentrations (100–175 mM), ethanol by itself occasionally induced a chloride‐mediated current but this occurred independent of an ethanol‐induced potentiation of GABA responses. These data establish that ethanol can modulate the sensitivity of retinal neurons to GABA. Overall, the results presented in this study set the stage for future studies to examine the cellular and molecular bases for a differential neuronal sensitivity to an ethanol‐induced modulation of GABA responses.
Alcohol‐Induced Purkinje Cell Loss with a Single Binge Exposure in Neonatal Rats: A Stereological Study of Temporal Windows of Vulnerability
Authors: Goodlett Charles R. , Eilers Amy T.
Published: May 2006

Previous research has shown that the early neonatal period of rats is one of enhanced vulnerability to cerebellar Purkinje cell loss associated with binge‐like alcohol exposure, with a prominent sensitive period during the first neonatal week. In this study, an unbiased count of the total number of Purkinje cells was obtained using the stereological optical fractionator, in groups of rats given a single binge‐like alcohol exposure either during the most vulnerable neonatal period [postnatal day (PD) 4] or during a later, less vulnerable period (PD 9). Using artificial rearing methods, rats were given 6.6 g/kg of alcohol either on PD 4 or on PD 9, delivered as a 15% (v/v) solution in milk formula on two consecutive feedings of the designated day. Control groups included an artificially reared gastrostomy control and a normally reared suckle control. The mean peak blood alcohol concentrations were not different between the PD 4 and PD 9 alcohol groups, averaging 374 and 347 mg/dl, respectively. The rats were perfused on PD 27. A uniform random sample of sections was obtained from serial frozen sections through the cerebellum, stained with thionin, and Purkinje cells were counted from a uniform random sample of locations on each section with the three‐dimensional optical fractionator. The number of Purkinje cells in the suckle control and gastrostomy control groups did not differ from each other, averaging 3.94 (±0.19) and 3.58 (±0.22) ± 105 cells, respectively. Binge exposure on PD 4 induced significant cell loss (mean of 2.05 ± 0.20 ± 105 Purkinje cells), whereas binge exposure on PD 9 did not induce significant Purkinje cell loss (3.70 ± 0.39 ± 105 Purkinje cells). These findings confirm that a single neonatal binge alcohol exposure produces pathological Purkinje cell loss, provided that it occurs during the period of enhanced vulnerability coinciding with the early stages of dendritic outgrowth.
Acute Ethanol Administration Modulates Leukocyte Actin Polymerization in Endotoxic Rats
Authors: Zhang Ping , Spitzer Judy A.
Published: May 2006

The effects of acute ethanol intoxication with or without endotoxemia were studied on chemoattractant‐initiated actin polymerization in circulating and liver‐recruited neutrophils [polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs)] and Kupffer cells of age‐matched male and female rats. In female rats, F‐actin content in response to f‐Met‐Leu‐Phe in circulating PMNs was significantly upregulated by ethanol + endotoxin (ET) treatment relative to saline + ET‐treated animals. Male rats did not show this upregulated response. In liver‐recruited PMNs, the F‐actin response did not change significantly due to ethanol + ET treatment in cells of either gender. The actin polymerization response in Kupffer cells was smaller than in liver sequestered PMNs and also exhibited a gender difference. In Kupffer cells of female rats, only ethanol + ET treatment elicited an F‐actin response to f‐Met‐Leu‐Phe, whereas in cells of male rats similar increases in F‐actin content were observed in both saline + ET and ethanol + ET groups. We conclude that ethanol‐enhanced actin polymerization in rats is associated with gender differences. This may be one of the underlying mechanisms resulting in upregulated leukocyte activation in acutely ethanol‐intoxicated endotoxic animals.
Effects of Time‐of‐Day and Photoperiod Phase Shifts on Voluntary Ethanol Consumption in Rats
Authors: Gauvin D. V. , Baird T. J. , Vanecek S. A. , Briscoe R. J. , Vallett M. , Holloway F. A.
Published: May 2006

Two experiments were conducted to examine the circadian fluctuations in voluntary ethanol (ETOH) consumption in male Sprague‐Dawley rats conditioned to consume ETOH in their homecage and exposed to photoperiod phase shifts equivalent to those experienced by humans. Using a maintenance concentration of 20% w/v ETOH, changes in homecage drinking in 42 rats were assessed after photoperiod phase shifts similar to those inducing “jet lag” in humans and after experimenter‐induced “hangover.” A single 8‐hr photoperiod phase advance significantly increased ETOH intake for three consecutive days, and a single photoperiod phase‐delay increased intake only on the day of the phase shift. Acute ETOH withdrawal significantly reduced the voluntary consumption of ETOH for two consecutive days. In a second group of 30 rats maintained to consume a lower concentration of 10% w/v ETOH, the long‐term effects of “shift lag” initiated by repeated photoperiod phase shifting similar to those experienced by humans working under a rotating work schedule were examined. Significant increases in intake occurred over the 2‐month testing period. The significant alterations in voluntary intake initiated by the shift work schedule was related to the significant changes in blood alcohol concentrations.
Behavioral Similarities and Differences among Alcohol‐Preferring and ‐Nonpreferring Rats: Confirmation by Factor Analysis and Extension to Additional Groups
Authors: Overstreet David H. , Halikas James A. , Seredenin Sergey B. , Kampov‐Polevoy Alexey B. , Viglinskaya Kina V. , Kashevskaya Olga , Badishtov Boris A. , Knapp Darin J. , Mormede Pierre , Kiianmaa Kalervo , Li Ting‐Kai , Rezvani Amir H.
Published: May 2006

Thirteen behavioral variables from six tasks were measured in alcohol‐preferring (AA, FH, and P) and ‐non‐preferring (ANA, FRL, and NP) rat lines/strains and subjected to Factor Analysis. Four independent factors accounted for >90% of the variance. Defecation in the open field and ultrasonic vocalizations after an air puff were negatively correlated with alcohol intake and preference, whereas the increase in daily fluid intake in the presence of saccharin was positively correlated. Other factors could be labeled Activity, Emotionality, and Immobility Factors, and each was independent of the Alcohol Factor. When an additional alcohol‐preferring rat line (HAD) and two additional non‐preferring groups (LAD and ACI) were tested, they were found to differ on most behaviors that were associated with alcohol intake and preference in the Factor Analysis: vocalizations and saccharin‐induced increase in fluid intake, but not defecation. A new Factor Analysis was then performed incorporating these three new groups and including five new behavioral measures. The following measures had high loadings on the Alcohol Factor: alcohol intake under choice conditions; alcohol preference; forced alcohol intake; alcohol acceptance (forced alcohol intake/basal water intake × 100); ultrasonic vocalization; saccharin intake; saccharin‐induced increase in daily fluid intake; defecation in the open field test; and immobility in a modified forced swim test. These findings indicate that there are indeed certain behavioral characteristics that are common among alcohol‐preferring rat lines/strains, but there are also substantial group differences on other behavioral measures. For those behavioral measures reflecting emotionality (defecation and ultrasonic vocalization) that loaded highly on the Alcohol Factor, the alcohol‐preferring rats had lower scores.
Naltrexone Biotransformation and Incidence of Subjective Side Effects: A Preliminary Study
Authors: King Andrea C. , Volpicelli Joseph R. , Gunduz Mithat , O'Brien Charles P. , Kreek Mary Jeanne
Published: May 2006

When administered orally, naltrexone undergoes extensive biotransformation and is metabolized to 6β‐naltrexol and other minor metabolites. Naltrexone has been recently approved by the Food and Drug Administration for the treatment of alcohol dependence. An important clinical issue with naltrexone treatment is predicting patient compliance, which may be influenced by adverse side effects experienced during the medication. We investigated whether subjective side effects were related to urinary concentrations of naltrexone and its metabolite 6β‐naltrexol 3 hr after administration of 50 mg Po naltrexone in 24 male moderate‐to‐heavy social drinkers. The results showed significantly higher levels of urinary 6β‐naltrexol (p < 0.05) in those subjects who experienced one or more side effect (i.e., headache, nausea, anxiety, or erection). Urinary naltrexone levels did not difter between the groups. Results also showed an approximate 10:1 ratio of 6β‐naltrexol to naltrexone levels and a significant positive correlation between the parent compound and metabolite, suggesting parallel renal clearance. The results of this study suggest a possible mechanism for the side effects obsetved after acute administration of naltrexone.
Changes in Alcohol Use and Alcohol‐Related Problems among 7th to 12th Grade Students in New York State, 1983–1994
Authors: Barnes Grace M. , Welte John W. , Hoffman Joseph H. , Dintcheff Barbara A.
Published: May 2006

Three comparable representative samples of 7th to 12th grade students in New York State were surveyed in 1983, 1990, and 1994 to determine changes in the patterns of alcohol use over the past decade. Each of the three samples was large (n= 27,335, 23,860, and 19,321, respectively), permitting detailed analysis of changes in alcohol use in various adolescent subgroups according to age, gender, and race/ethnicity. Previous research revealed that there were marked decreases in the prevalence of overall drinking, heavy drinking, and alcohol‐related problems from 1983 to 1990, yet recent national reports indicate that since 1990 there has been an upsurge in substance use among adolescents. Whereas the proportion of drinkers did not significantly increase between 1990 and 1994, average consumption, heavy drinking, and alcohol‐related problems all showed modest, but significant increases in the 1990s. Furthermore, between 1990 and 1994, the age distributions for alcohol use, heavy drinking, and alcohol problems changed, as evidenced by significant age by year of survey interactions. These findings indicate that adolescents are currently drinking, drinking heavily, and experiencing alcohol‐related problems at younger ages than they were in past years. Prevention efforts should be targeted at delaying alcohol use in early adolescence.
Gender and Alcohol Dosing: A Procedure for Producing Comparable Breath Alcohol Curves for Men and Women
Authors: Breslin F. Curtis , Kapur Bhushan M. , Sobell Mark B. , Cappell Howard
Published: May 2006

Gender differences in peak breath alcohol concentrations (BrACs) reached in alcohol administration studies can make the interpretation of study findings difficult. This study evaluated the CBAC computer program as a way of minimizing gender differences in the BrAC curve. After consuming a predrink meal that was adjusted by body mass, 31 female and 27 male subjects consumed an alcoholic beverage targeted for either 0.04% or 0.08%. Mean peak BrACs for women and men were not significantly different. Similarly, the four BrAC readings obtained over the first 2 hr postdrink showed no gender differences. A dose × gender interaction was observed on time to peak BrAC, with women reaching peak BrAC faster than men only in the high dose groups. By decreasing gender differences in BrAC curves, this dosing procedure can aid in reducing the potential confound of dose and gender.
Cardiovascular Effects of Ethanol in Rats Selectively Bred for High or Low Sensitivity to the Hypnotic Effects of Ethanol
Authors: Varga Kàroly , Kunos George
Published: May 2006

The cardiovascular effects of acute ethanol administration were studied in rats selectively bred for high (HAS) or low sensitivity (US) to the acute hypnotic effect of ethanol. In chronically cannulated, conscious animals, the intravenous administration of 1 g/kg of ethanol caused moderate hypotension and tachycardia in both HAS and LAS rats. The phenylephrine‐induced reflex bradycardia and the baroreflex slope were significantly reduced by ethanol only in HAS and not in LAS rats. In urethane‐anesthetized HAS rats, the baroreflex inhibitory action of ethanol was present under control conditions, but it was absent after depletion of endogenous GABA by treatment of the rats with 100 mg/kg of 3‐mercaptopropionate. These findings confirm the role of endogenous GABA in the baroreflex inhibitory action of ethanol, and are compatible with the documented differential sensitivity of the GABA, receptor complex to ethanol in HAS and LAS rats.