bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Overwhelmed
Authors: Lee Maurice S.
Published: May 2020

What happens to literature during an information revolution? How do readers and writers adapt to proliferating data and texts? These questions appear uniquely urgent today in a world of information overload, big data, and the digital humanities. But as this book shows, these concerns are not new—they also mattered in the nineteenth century, as the rapid expansion of print created new relationships between literature and information. Exploring four key areas—reading, searching, counting, and testing—in which nineteenth-century British and American literary practices engaged developing information technologies, the book delves into a diverse range of writings, from canonical works by Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Charlotte Brontë, Nathaniel Hawthorne, and Charles Dickens to lesser-known texts such as popular adventure novels, standardized literature tests, antiquarian journals, and early statistical literary criticism. In doing so, it presents a new argument: rather than being at odds, as generations of critics have viewed them, literature and information in the nineteenth century were entangled in surprisingly collaborative ways. The book illuminates today's debates about the digital humanities, the crisis in the humanities, and the future of literature.
Searching
Authors: Lee Maurice S.
Published: May 2020

This chapter analyzes how literary meaning can be recovered under conditions of information overload. It discusses revitalizing debates over New Historical evidentiary practices that have become exponentially more powerful with the rise of digital databases. The chapter also discusses how the nineteenth century's expansion of archives and concomitant attention to bibliographic processes impelled some literary thinkers to assert a special authority in matters of archival searching. As if to vindicate the value of literary judgment, Nathaniel Hawthorne and Charles Dickens imagine the aesthetic retrieval of exceptionally meaningful texts, though in doing so they turn away from close reading and toward the management of information. An obverse irony is evident in reference books designed to manage textual excess, including the antiquarian journal Notes and Queries and John Bartlett's Familiar Quotations, both of which privilege organization over aesthetics but cannot help but admit the pleasures of texts.
Testing
Authors: Lee Maurice S.
Published: May 2020

This chapter sets aside questions of textual excess to discuss mass assessments and the production of literary knowledge or literary information. As the rise of liberal meritocracy in the Victorian period increasingly required bureaucratic impersonality and quantitative metrics, standardized literature tests negotiated between aesthetics and information during the formation of literary studies as a discipline. Literature exams from normal schools, the British Civil Service, and the US Bureau of Indian Affairs reflect broader controversies over what constitutes literary knowledge and whether it can be systematically assessed. Such concerns involve epistemological problems, as well as social questions. Race, gender, and class inflect depictions of standardized examinations in novels by Charles Dickens, Emily Brontë, Anthony Trollope, Fanny Fern, Frank Webb, Charlotte Yonge, Louisa May Alcott, and others. These and other texts anticipate aspects of the current crisis in the humanities—accountability through testing, the corporatization of education, and the instrumental value of the literary.
The Sense of Unending
Authors: Micir Melanie
Published: May 2020

This chapter reviews the most canonical of modernist women in light of the unfinished biographical projects. It talks about Virginia Woolf's 1928 “joke” biography of Vita Sackville-West as an unfinished text, a work that provides a theoretical key for reading the queer temporality of the other passion projects. The chapter suggests that valuing the unfinished as an aesthetic category can bring the lessons of queer feminist biographers into sharper focus. It also talks about Woolf's most legendary passion project—Orlando, her 1928 “biography” of her lover, Vita Sackville-West—in order to suggest that even finished, published books might sometimes prompt readers to read them in light of the unfinished aesthetic of queer feminist modernism. The chapter ends by considering how reevaluating unpublished and unfinished work shifts our understanding of modernism's past, present, and future history.
Omniscience
Authors: Freedgood Elaine
Published: May 2020

This chapter discusses two very different forms of omniscience, and Wayne Booth famously described and deconstructed them in A Rhetoric of Fiction. The Victorian novel is, at a certain point, annexed to a structuralist idea of French realism, which is imagined as free of intrusive narration. These combined critical moves regularize the Victorian novel into something less interesting and less problematic than what it had been for previous generations of more skeptical critics, or critics for whom that novel was not yet great. The chapter also explains that the pleasure of the text is also the pleasure of consenting to not knowing, to knowing that one does not know and having that be a condition of being in the world. Readers do not identify with characters because they are like people, but because readers are like characters, relying on forms of omniscience to keep narrating various aspects of reality for them. Omniscience hangs around as an omnipresent narrative and epistemological form. Disembodied but not disempowered, dismembered but not defunctioned.
Paratext
Authors: Freedgood Elaine
Published: May 2020

This chapter focuses on paratext that is typically considered extradiegetic, and as such it is often experienced as optional. Readers can say that they have read Middlemarch without reading every single epigraph; they can certainly ignore footnotes at will, especially if they were written by an actual editor. Indeed, fictional paratexts may be more powerful than scholarly ones. Autographic notes are perhaps more significant for most literary readers than are allographic additions. The chapter also consider paratexts—both epigraphs and footnotes—in Middlemarch, Catherine Parr Traill's The Canadian Crusoes, Rudyard Kipling's Kim, and José Rizal's Noli Me Tangere as a way to examine bibliographic metalepsis: the infinite library that lurks in the margins of the text, and sometimes breaks through them because of the force of an allusion, the impact of information, or the oddness of bits of text attached but also detachable from the “main” text we read.
Hetero-Ontologicality
Authors: Freedgood Elaine
Published: May 2020

This chapter explains how realist fiction of the nineteenth century has been treated by critics, and experienced by readers, as an oasis from the zany ruptures of fiction that is not yet or nor longer realistic precisely because of its referentiality. If the madcap metaleptic adventures between history and fiction remain unnoticed, it would create a vertiginous hetero-ontologicality. Every sentence in which a fictional character traverses an actual city or an actual poet, has dinner with a fictional character, or an actual war is observed or fought in by a fictional character is a rupture of enormous existential proportions. That such ruptures do not feel like ruptures may be the most significant thing about them. The chapter also talks about the possibilities of hetero-ontologicality, in which various kinds of being and beings mingle and mix, allowing readers to imagine future worlds and ways of living with themselves and all of the others they have evicted from having and inhabiting “their own world.”
Reading Old Books
Authors: Mack Peter
Published: May 2020

In literary and cultural studies, “tradition” is a word everyone uses but few address critically. In this book, the author offers a wide-ranging exploration of the creative power of literary tradition, from the middle ages to the twenty-first century, revealing in new ways how it helps writers and readers make new works and meanings. The book argues that the best way to understand tradition is by examining the moments when a writer takes up an old text and writes something new out of a dialogue with that text and the promptings of the present situation. The book examines Petrarch as a user, instigator, and victim of tradition. It shows how Chaucer became the first great English writer by translating and adapting a minor poem by Boccaccio. It investigates how Ariosto, Tasso, and Spenser made new epic meanings by playing with assumptions, episodes, and phrases translated from their predecessors. It then analyzes how the Victorian novelist Elizabeth Gaskell drew on tradition to address the new problem of urban deprivation in Mary Barton. And, finally, it looks at how the Kenyan writer Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o, in his 2004 novel Wizard of the Crow, reflects on biblical, English literary, and African traditions. Drawing on key theorists, critics, historians, and sociologists, and stressing the international character of literary tradition, the book illuminates the not entirely free choices readers and writers make to create meaning in collaboration and competition with their models.
Ideas of Literary Tradition
Authors: Mack Peter
Published: May 2020

This introductory chapter discusses the ways in which the related notions of tradition and literary tradition have been used and analyzed. It begins by showing the complexity of the word's meanings and associations through a survey of its uses, based firmly on the Oxford English Dictionary and the work of Harry Levin. Then the chapter considers the influential literary approach to tradition in the work of the first French and English critics to exploit the term, Sainte-Beuve and T. S. Eliot. Next, the chapter describes the generally negative approach to tradition in the sociological tradition. Afterward, it discusses the historical analysis of the invention of tradition as presented in the influential collection of essays under that title edited by Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger (1983). Finally, it looks in some detail at the very rich account of tradition presented in Hans-Georg Gadamer's Truth and Method (1960).
Introduction
Authors: Harpaz Yossi
Published: May 2020

This introductory chapter provides an overview of the rise of dual citizenship. For most of the twentieth century, citizenship was an exclusive bond between an individual and a state. Countries refused to share their citizens with other countries just like they do not share their territories. Since the 1990s, however, the principle of exclusive citizenship has been abandoned, and dozens of countries moved to permit dual citizenship. Today, toleration of multiple citizenship has become the norm, and tens of millions of persons around the world hold citizenship in two—sometimes even three or four—countries. The legitimation and proliferation of multiple citizenships is creating new realities on the ground, reshaping patterns of international migration, political participation, global security, and ethnic relations. Previous studies mostly examined dual citizenship in the context of immigration to Western Europe and North America. This book focuses instead on the strategic acquisition of dual citizenship by nonimmigrants from outside the West. Once one shifts the empirical focus, a crucial but overlooked aspect comes into sharp relief: the disparity in the value of the “citizenship packages” that different countries offer, and the tremendous practical usefulness that a second citizenship from a more developed country may provide.
Mexico
Authors: Harpaz Yossi
Published: May 2020

This chapter studies the growth in U.S. dual nationality in Mexico, and specifically the phenomenon of strategic cross-border births. This involves middle- and upper-class Mexican parents who travel to the United States to give birth, aiming to secure U.S. citizenship for their children. The families who engage in this practice typically have little interest in emigrating. Instead, they mainly view the United States as a site of high-prestige consumption and wish to provide their children with easy access to tourism, shopping, and education across the border. The American passport is also an insurance policy that allows easy exit at times of insecurity in Mexico. This strategic acquisition of U.S. dual nationality by upper-class Mexicans can be juxtaposed with another recent trend: the deportation of hundreds of thousands of Mexican undocumented immigrants, who take their U.S.-born children with them to Mexico. For the former group, dual nationality is voluntary and practical; for the latter, it is an imposed disadvantage.
Reasonable Care with Sample Data
Authors: Manski Charles F.
Published: May 2020

This chapter considers reasonable decision making with sample data from randomized trials. It continues discussion of reasonable patient care under uncertainty. Because of its centrality to evidence-based medicine, the chapter focuses on the use of sample trial data in treatment choice. Moreover, having already addressed identification, the chapter considers only statistical imprecision, as has been the case in the statistical literature on trials. The Wald (1950) development of statistical decision theory provides a coherent framework for use of sample data to make decisions. A body of recent research applies statistical decision theory to determine treatment choices that achieve adequate performance in all states of nature, in the sense of maximum regret. This chapter describes the basic ideas and findings, which provide an appealing practical alternative to use of hypothesis tests.
Religion’s Value and Truth
Authors: Smith Christian , Ritz Bridget , Rotolo Michael
Published: May 2020

This chapter examines the cultural models specifically about religion, its value, and possible truth. Grasping parents' views of these two features of religion is essential to understanding their approaches to the transmission of religion to their children. For few American parents does religion singularly determine their understanding of the ultimate purpose and expected experience of life. Instead, the expected experiences of life involve clusters of largely autonomous beliefs forming their own distinct cultural models, perhaps partly shaped by religious traditions generally but not principally determined by the specific views and priorities of those traditions. Those basic cultural models being firmly in place, religion then comes in as its own distinct issue. And when parents think about religion, the primary focus is its practical value, how it helps people, and what makes it important in this life.
Theorizing Cultural Models
Authors: Smith Christian , Ritz Bridget , Rotolo Michael
Published: May 2020

This chapter reconsiders the post-Parsonian theory of culture by examining the cognitive anthropology school. Here, the internal dimension of culture is understood as most basically cognitively constituted in neurological systems, organized in networks of structurally durable beliefs and schemas, often widely shared by varieties of types of populations, and motivationally directive of action and practices. The chapter focuses on driving home a few limited but crucial points in a larger argument—namely, that culture can be coherent, consensual, reasonable, internalized, and teleological in its orientation to guiding life practices. This is not an argument for a return to Parsonianism, since the chapter's approach is different from that in important ways. Instead, this chapter hopes to advance into a post-post-Parsonian era that corrects the numerous over-reactions and mistakes of the dominant approach of recent decades.
Our Surroundings, Ourselves
Authors: Macdonald John , Branas Charles , Stokes Robert
Published: May 2020

This chapter examines how the features of the built environment affect health and safety. It focuses on why and how the design of places shapes people's lived experience. Moreover, it introduces an emerging scientific movement concerned with the way changes to the built environment, from buildings and parks to streets, impact health and safety. Changing places is one of the best ways to produce sustained improvements in well-being for large groups of people over long periods of time. Certain characteristics of place-based designs can be chosen to maximize success. Altering the structures of the built environment to basic principles of simplicity, scalability, and ease of use can be employed as a model for producing place-based changes that have the most significant and lasting impact. The chapter then illustrates why place-based strategies should be among the first set of policy choices for enhancing the health and safety of urban residents.
A New Movement Based on Old Ideas
Authors: Macdonald John , Branas Charles , Stokes Robert
Published: May 2020

This chapter traces the history of select endeavors that focused on place-based changes as a mechanism to improve the health, safety, and well-being of urban residents. Unfortunately, these endeavors evolved in silos, with urban planners and public-health and criminal-justice practitioners working largely in isolation from one another. The successes and limited uptake of these isolated endeavors are brought to light as the chapter looks at how they were overshadowed by individually focused therapies and interventions. Many people probably think that good science is already inherently involved when a place gets altered or a development gets built; this is perhaps the case with respect to the physical science of certain placemaking endeavors. However, the health and biological impacts of buildings and larger developments are very often left out, or only modestly considered as part of environmental or health-impact assessments. As such, there is a need to invigorate a new movement that connects social scientists, planners, and policy makers. Indeed, the best placemaking occurs when it is supported by empirical evaluation of its impacts on humans with the active involvement of scientists.
Establishing Evidence
Authors: Macdonald John , Branas Charles , Stokes Robert
Published: May 2020

This chapter provides a guide to scientific evidence and explores how field experiments can be used as a scientific standard for determining what place-based policies to adopt, refine, or abandon. It also discusses what types of evidence to rely on when experiments are not possible for various ethical or pragmatic reasons. Experimentation is at the very heart of science, and relying on a scientific model for deciding how, and in what forms, the built environment should be modified is a dynamic process that can ultimately inform the efficient and effective expenditures of limited resources by policy makers. Rather than provide a treatise on the scientific method and the value of experiments, the chapter provides a short discussion of the benefits of different methods of evaluation and focuses more attention on the utility of a science-based policy agenda for changing places. The scientific model allows people to evaluate the influence that environments may have on health and safety while also encouraging them to pursue discoveries of innovative new place-based strategies that can achieve the greatest health and safety benefits at relatively low costs.
Cities in Ruin
Authors: Macdonald John , Branas Charles , Stokes Robert
Published: May 2020

This chapter focuses on urban building and housing interventions that have been evaluated at some of the highest levels of scientific evidence. Building and housing interventions strongly appeal to policy makers and the public who intrinsically recognize the basic human need for shelter. The most blighted and neglected human dwellings in cities provide a strong basis for motivating action. After all, one can clearly see a significant change in an area when old buildings and physical structures are razed and new ones constructed. Questions arise, however, in terms of the actual need for complete replacement with new structures, as opposed to more widespread renovations and preservation of old buildings. It is equally important to consider the effect that urban-revitalization activities—especially in residential districts—have on gentrification and the possible reduction of a city's affordable housing stock, which itself influences health and safety. The chapter then discusses examples of building interventions that have failed to produce positive evidence and ones that have shown success without causing significant dislocation or displacement.
Good Clean Fun
Authors: Macdonald John , Branas Charles , Stokes Robert
Published: May 2020

This chapter presents an in-depth examination of how the design of entertainment districts and public parks impacts the health and safety of neighborhoods. Many place-based changes are initially spurred on by commercial interests in and around business districts. However, little attention has been placed on the role that commercial and business design can have on people's health and safety outcomes. Commercial corridors and business districts that actively choose to enhance the place-based experience for their customers generate bustling streets that improve commerce and reduce crime. Parks were originally designed for leisure, and large infrastructure changes to parks are expensive and generate little change in overall use and exercise. However, small strategic changes can be made to parks to provide subtle motivational signs that stimulate greater physical activity among park users. The chapter then considers several studies based on rigorous scientific evidence that highlight how such strategic designs and governance arrangements of business districts and parks can improve the experience of people in search of places for shopping and recreation.
Athens before the Crisis
Authors: Carugati Federica
Published: May 2020

This chapter supplies the necessary context for the discussion of institutional change. First, it provides an account of the early development of Athens' laws and legal institutions. Second, it reconstructs Athens' political and economic structure in the period that preceded the constitutional crisis. Third, it offers an analysis of the reasons behind the collapse of democracy: namely, a combination of external pressures and a crisis of legitimacy rooted in the Assembly's inability to credibly commit to policy. The chapter also selectively reviews elements of Athens' archaic development, focusing in particular on the work of the early lawgivers. It focuses on the polis' fifth-century political system and economy. The chapter concludes with an analysis of the reasons behind the collapse of the fifth-century democracy.
Stability and Innovation in Athenian Policy
Authors: Carugati Federica
Published: May 2020

This chapter argues that the constitution fostered political stability and economic growth by imposing a set of constraints on the decision-making process based on the consensus on Solonian legality, while at the same time enabling citizens to introduce innovative new measures. To overcome evidentiary concerns, this chapter presents a model that reconstructs the incentives regulating actors' behaviour under the new constitutional rules. The model yields several results: first, institutional design incentivized proposers of new measures to take into account the preferences of the median, or the average Athenian. Moreover, because the median was relatively stable throughout the fourth century, preferences did not dramatically shift, ensuring a modicum of predictability and consistency over time. Another result is institutional design and actors' preferences that interacted to enable proposers of new measures to depart from the status quo, sometimes in significant ways. Finally, innovation was more likely to occur when sub-elite actors were involved in politics.
Adaption without Insight?
Authors: Sterelny Kim
Published: May 2020

This chapter looks at how philosopher Kim Sterelny endorses the main contours of Robert Boyd's argument that humans are outliers in their capacity to adapt to many environments. However, Sterelny asks whether Boyd goes too far in reducing the role of “our distinctive human intelligence” in explaining humans' ecological adaptability. Sterelny at least partly defends the “library” or “Big Brain” model that Boyd argues against. Tacit, practical know-how is a form of knowledge. In addition, Sterelny contends that Boyd relies too heavily on a simple and “conformist” or “trusting social learning heuristic.” As a final point, Sterelny wonders whether and how social learning has changed across “domains and across time.”
Inference and Hypothesis Testing in Cultural Evolution
Authors: Mace Ruth
Published: May 2020

This chapter demonstrates how evolutionary anthropologist Ruth Mace applauds Robert Boyd's multidisciplinary approach to the study of human evolution, while stressing her own belief in the importance of empirical testing. She points out that many questions remain about how norms arise, why they vary, “how they are maintained, and how easily they change.” In a more critical vein, Mace suggests that some of the behaviors that Boyd attributes to social norms and sanctions might better be explained based on individual benefits. This includes the decision to participate in warfare. Mace then describes her own empirical research on intergroup conflict in Northern Ireland and raises the question of whether “competition and conflict between groups, such as interethnic warfare, leads to parochial altruism (that is, altruism directed only within the group).”
Adaptable, Cooperative, Manipulative, and Rivalrous
Authors: Seabright Paul
Published: May 2020

This chapter explores economist Paul Seabright's argument that there is a “darker dimension to what makes us human,” which Robert Boyd largely leaves aside. Human beings are the most ecologically adaptable and massively cooperative species on the planet. Seabright argues that humans are also the most spectacularly and violently competitive, and the most deviously manipulative of all species. This might seem an incoherent description, but in fact the latter qualities are deeply implicated in the former ones. It is precisely the fact of humans' extraordinary cooperativeness that allows them to create the massive resource gains that provoke their competitiveness and manipulativeness. Indeed, Seabright contends that “a much larger part of the communication that takes place around norms in most societies is about individuals manipulating other individuals” than one would think from Boyd's examples.
Evolution
Authors: Ruse Michael
Published: May 2020

This chapter talks about evolution and its existence, although evolutionary theorizing didn't really rise above the status of a pseudoscience. People could see only too clearly that evolution existed on the back of what many considered the very iffy ideology of cultural progress. One mark was the way in which non-professionals like Robert Chambers felt free to plunge right in with their ideas, as though they had spent their lives working in the laboratory or out in the field. It also discusses the leading professional biologist to get tangled up with ideas of evolution, French naturalist Jean Baptiste de Lamarck, who published his speculations in his Philosophie Zoologique in 1809. That he was an enthusiast for cultural progress is shown if only by the fact that, although a minor aristocrat, it was during the revolution that his career really took off. He became a world-leading invertebrate taxonomist, a scientist of deserved respect, and as such was brought right up against the issue of the end-directed nature of the features of organisms.
Plato Redivivus
Authors: Ruse Michael
Published: May 2020

This chapter traces the triumph of the Kantian perspective. From the time of the Scientific Revolution to the present, vocal representatives are characterized as the Platonic approach or tradition and of the Aristotelian approach or tradition. Before the Origin, there were those like William Whewell and Adam Sedgwick, professor of geology at Cambridge, who simply put down the origins of new species to divine intervention. The fossil record shows that there has been a turnover of forms, and extinction is almost certainly due to natural causes. But when it comes to new forms, God intervenes miraculously. After the Origin, there were those who felt the same way. Louis Agassiz, Swiss-born ichthyologist and professor at Harvard, could never accept evolution, even though his students stepped over the line pretty sharpishly. The preferred option though, for those who were Christians believing in a Creator God, was some form of guided evolution. God puts direction into new variations and hence natural selection has at most a kind of garbage disposal function—it gets rid of the bad forms but does little or nothing to create new, good forms.
Zooarchaeology
Authors: MacKinnon Michael
Published: May 2020

This chapter discusses zooarchaeological exploration that might be less familiar (but no less important) within the discipline's broader contribution to classical archaeology. Scientific investigations and analyses of zooarchaeological materials from classical archaeological sites have grown rapidly since the 1980s. These are broadened further through initiatives taken not simply to understand biological and environmental components of the past (aspects that might, superficially, ally better with natural science), but to engage animals as markers of cultural complexity as well. Investigations today are increasingly conducted by zooarchaeologists who specialize in the scholarship of Greek and Roman antiquity, a tactic consequently helping to blur or dissolve traditional academic boundaries in classical studies that previously emphasized primacy to other categories of material remains, such as texts or art. Scientists now infiltrate classics, and vice versa.
Ancient DNA
Authors: Tuross Noreen , Campana Michael G.
Published: May 2020

This chapter examines how ancient DNA (aDNA) analysis has helped reconstruct ancient history. It focuses in particular on cases investigating Roman history. History leaves traces in the human genome as well as those of pathogens and domesticates. While much can be gleaned from the genetic fossils preserved in extant genomes, genomes are palimpsests, with more recent events overwriting previous ones in part. The study of aDNA—DNA preserved in archaeological, paleontological, and museum sources—permits investigations into the genome before and after historic events and observations into how it evolves in real time. The field of aDNA also has a palimpsestic nature in which older results are not only extended and revised, but totally discarded due to rapid technological advances. The chapter briefly describes biochemistry of ancient DNA and the history of its research. Through several key case studies, it shows the potential for aDNA research to clarify the course of ancient history, and also highlights some of its weaknesses and limitations.
Introduction
Authors: Krueger Alan B.
Published: May 2020

This introductory chapter looks at the state of discourse on terrorism following the September 11 attacks. Although there is a certain surface appeal to blaming economic circumstances and lack of education for terrorist acts, the evidence is nearly unanimous in rejecting either material deprivation or inadequate education as an important cause of support for terrorism or of participation in terrorist activities. The popular explanations for terrorism—poverty, lack of education, or the catchall “they hate our way of life and freedom”—simply have no systematic empirical basis. These explanations have been embraced almost entirely on faith, not scientific evidence. The chapter presents a case which argues against the popular explanations.
Who Becomes a Terrorist? Characteristics of Individual Participants in Terrorism
Authors: Krueger Alan B.
Published: May 2020

This chapter asks why individuals participate in terrorism. It looks at their characteristics and considers whether or not we can infer something about their motivation, the causes behind their participation, from their characteristics and family backgrounds. The chapter argues that poor economic conditions do not seem to motivate people to participate in terrorist activities. This holds true in cases from both the societal and the individual level, the latter of which is this chapter's focus. This chapter describes research conducted at the country level, discussing the characteristics of countries that are either havens for terrorists or targets of terrorists.
Working in Misdemeanorland
Authors: Kohler-Hausmann Issa
Published: May 2020

This chapter explores why criminal court actors turn to using the tools of criminal procedure and criminal law to sort, regulate, test, and manage the populations that flow through misdemeanorland. It looks at why this is done instead of adjudicating individual guilt and innocence. Drawing on organizational and field theory, the chapter examines those features of misdemeanor justice that allow for the flourishing of a managerial as opposed to adjudicative modality of criminal law administration. The analytic of the field is helpful because it allows us to understand how a pattern of activity and logic of action emerge not just from the formal goals of organizations, but from the structure of constraints actors face in a particular setting and from the precise ways individual and collective actors interact in their daily affairs. The disposition patterns and reliance on marking, procedural hassle, and performance as penal techniques can be understood as a result of creative problem solving in the face of the specific dilemmas and practical circumstances of doing legal work in misdemeanorland in the era of Broken Windows policing.
Procedural Hassle
Authors: Kohler-Hausmann Issa
Published: May 2020

This chapter is dedicated to procedural hassle—the degradation of arrest and police custody, the stress and frequency of court appearances, and the opportunity costs incurred in order to make court appearances or to comply with court orders. The technique of procedural hassle is distinct from marking. In this case, it is not about tracing a potentially risky defendant in the outside world but rather about delaying, engaging, and compelling the defendant to conform to the institutional and organizational demands of the court and court actors. The chapter shows that these experiences are something more than a set of inconvenient burdens that dissuade defendants from pushing adjudication or even a collection of informal means by which judges and prosecutors punish defendants. They can be also a set of active, productive tools in the ongoing relationship of social control that lower courts have with defendant populations.
Five Years Post-Mandate
Authors: Neeley Tsedal
Published: May 2020

This chapter documents the largely beneficial results of the lingua franca mandate on Rakuten over a period of five years, including the rise in international acquisitions, accelerated post-integration activities, centralized technical platforms, and knowledge sharing. An expanded and global talent pool changed hiring patterns within the Tokyo headquarters and worldwide, particularly in the engineering ranks. While many advances were made in the advent of the English language mandate, the chapter also highlights enduring challenges. In addition, it shows examples of Rakuten's influence beyond the confines of the organization. It chronicles how the prime minister of Japan tapped Mikitani to join a newly formed advisory body, the Industrial Competitiveness Council, to aid in developing a globalization agenda. A national language strategy was rooted in the actions that the council adopted. These activities demonstrate the role that companies can have in shaping societal growth and character.
Rhetoric and Reality
Authors: Massey Douglas S. , Albright Len , Casciano Rebecca , Derickson Elizabeth , Kinsey David N.
Published: May 2020

This chapter outlines the study's design and research methodology, describing the specific data sources consulted to determine the effects of the project on the community and the multiple surveys and in-depth interviews conducted to gather information on how the opening of the homes affected residents, neighbors, and the community in general. In the earlier review of the political economy of place, the chapter presents a theoretical rationale for anticipating high levels of emotion in debates about land use, and in the specific case of the Ethel Lawrence Homes the residents of Mount Laurel certainly did not disappoint. Whether it was the majority who expressed strong misgivings about locating an affordable housing project within the township, or the minority who offered sympathy and support for the venture, emotions generally ran high. Feelings seemed to be especially raw among those who opposed the project, judging by the invective hurled at public hearings. The record of subsidized housing in the United States is hardly unblemished.
Critical News Reporting and Legal-Media Collaborative Networks
Authors: Lei Ya-Wen
Published: May 2020

This chapter details how the state's use of media to disseminate law and report on certain local problems, paired with political fragmentation and the marketization of the press, provided conditions for certain media and legal professionals to build networks and collaborate. Such collaboration pushed the boundaries of critical news reporting and expanded the concept of rights beyond socioeconomic issues. The chapter first demonstrates the rise of critical news reporting in the mid-2000s. Next, it describes how media marketization—a process that accelerated starting in the early 1990s—reshaped the political, economic, and professional environment in which Chinese newspapers were embedded. After briefly describing a parallel process in the transformation of the legal profession, the chapter then shows how the national process of media marketization and law dissemination programs unfolded differently in localities with dissimilar political and market conditions.
Extending Liberalization from the Press to the Internet
Authors: Lei Ya-Wen
Published: May 2020

This chapter examines the connection between the press and the Internet sectors. It discusses how and why the major Internet companies providing news service and social media in China became a thorn in the side of the Chinese state, despite the state's efforts to control them. Existing studies of rising public opinion in China tend to focus on how technological properties of the Internet can empower citizens to bring about social change and how the Chinese state has attempted to forestall such change. Such work tends to pay less attention to the ways in which particular contexts mediate and moderate the technological effects of the Internet. The chapter traces the restructuring of the media field in China, especially the development of the online news market, following the state's decision to connect the country to the Internet. As the chapter demonstrates, preexisting conditions in the newspaper market played a key—but often neglected—role in shaping China's online news market and discursive arena.
Conclusion
Authors: Lei Ya-Wen
Published: May 2020

This concluding chapter offers some reflections on the rise of China's contentious public sphere. It argues that examining the public sphere in China provides valuable insights that extend beyond the Chinese case alone. The chapter thus discusses each of these insights in turn. The first is the development of the contentious public sphere in China, which is essentially a narrative about modernization—specifically, the unintended consequences of the Chinese state's modernization project. Second, the study of China's contentious public sphere is also relevant to what can be referred to as “the problem of emergence.” Finally, the chapter also sheds light on the relationship between the state's fragmentation and adaptability and the public sphere.
The Nobel Factor
Authors: Offer Avner , Söderberg Gabriel
Published: May 2020

Our confidence in markets comes from economics, and our confidence in economics is underpinned by the Nobel Prize in Economics, which was first awarded in 1969. Was it a coincidence that the prize and the rise of free-market liberalism began at the same time? This is the first book to describe the origins and power of the most important prize in economics. It tells how the prize, created by the Swedish central bank, emerged from a conflict between central bank orthodoxy and Sweden's social democracy. The aim was to use the halo of the Nobel brand to influence the future of Sweden and the rest of the developed world by enhancing the bank's authority and the prestige of market-friendly economics. And the strategy has worked spectacularly — with sometimes disastrous results for societies striving to cope with the requirements of economic theory and deregulated markets. Drawing on previously untapped archives and providing a unique analysis of the sway of prizewinners, the book offers an unprecedented account of the real-world consequences of economics and its greatest prize.
Individual Reputations
Authors: Bjork Samuel
Published: May 2020

This chapter studies the citation trajectory of an individual, which can be understood as tracing the diffusion of an innovation. The Bass model of innovation is widely used in marketing research to investigate the diffusion of new products, and is applied here to intellectual innovation. The Bass equation was inspired by epidemiological models of the spread of contagious disease in closed populations. They describe the cumulative social adoption of a trait. Modelling academic reputations in this way makes it possible to determine how transient or durable they are, and to monitor the ebb and flow of intellectual innovation more generally.
Homo Comparativus
Authors: Origgi Gloria
Published: May 2020

This chapter proposes the replacement of the idea of homo economicus as the ontologically fundamental unit of social science with the idea of homo comparativus. It explains the claim that reality can be perceived only through evaluative comparisons, eroding the traditional distinction between description and evaluation. The chapter also discusses and criticizes other philosophical approaches that put symbolic values similar to reputation at the center of the analysis of human action, including the economy of esteem defended by Geoffrey Brennan and Philip Pettit and Anthony Appiah's theory of honor. Honoring others is always a double-edged sword. Acts of deference signal something about both those who defer and those to whom deference is paid. This chapter talks about the measure of social consensus on the practices and norms of according esteem if people are to strike a proper balance between the need to satisfy personal preferences when granting respect to others and the demands of social conformity that drives people to recognize others in order to make themselves more “acceptable” to the peer group to which they belong.
Introduction: The New Paradigm
Authors: Clark Andrew E. , Flèche Sarah , Layard Richard , Powdthavee Nattavudh , Ward George
Published: May 2020

This introductory chapter briefly describes the ways in which happiness and well-being can be laid out in quantitative terms. It argues that this endeavor is crucial both for individuals as well as for policy makers. Here, the chapter focuses on individual well-being over individual lifespan. In adulthood that is measured by life-satisfaction, and in childhood by mood and feelings. Having measured happiness, the chapter turns to the next step: explaining it—to understand why some people flourish, while others languish. It does so by introducing a single framework which shows the relative importance of the different factors involved in one's well-being. Finally, the chapter offers some warnings regarding the findings in this book and provides some concluding thoughts.
Education
Authors: Clark Andrew E. , Flèche Sarah , Layard Richard , Powdthavee Nattavudh , Ward George
Published: May 2020

This chapter investigates a set of “direct” benefits to education. Education provides an interesting and potentially enjoyable experience for students; it educates people as citizens and voters; it generates higher tax payments; it even reduces crime. And it provides for the individuals concerned a personal resource, interesting work, and additional capacity for enjoyment throughout their life. The measure of education the chapter uses in the British Cohort Study (BCS) is qualifications. The BCS tell us the highest qualifications that a person has achieved. There are altogether five levels of qualifications, but the chapter creates a single continuous variable, thus creating an index of qualifications for the BCS. In the household panel studies, the chapter measures education more simply by years of full-time education and confine the analyses to people under 65.
Work and Unemployment
Authors: Clark Andrew E. , Flèche Sarah , Layard Richard , Powdthavee Nattavudh , Ward George
Published: May 2020

This chapter considers work and unemployment. Full-time workers spend at least a quarter of their waking life at work. But on average, they enjoy that time less than anything else they do. The worst time of all is when they are with their boss. Even so, people hate it even more if they are unemployed. This is not just because they lose money from being out of work. They lose a sense of contributing, of belonging, and of being wanted. The chapter reviews all these issues, focusing again on people under 65. It first looks at unemployment—how much it hurts, whether one can adapt to it, what legacy it leaves, the role of local unemployment rates, and what determines who becomes unemployed. It then turns to the quality of work.
Social Norms and Institutions
Authors: Clark Andrew E. , Flèche Sarah , Layard Richard , Powdthavee Nattavudh , Ward George
Published: May 2020

This chapter turns to the Gallup World Poll to investigate the impacts of social norms and institutions upon a person's life-satisfaction. Social norms and institutions are public goods that affect all individuals living in a society. As such, their effects can only be studied by comparing life-satisfaction across societies, rather than across individuals. To that end, the chapter compares different nations. Countries differ in many ways apart from income and health. Perhaps the most important of these are in their ethical norms of behavior, networks of social support, openness and tolerance, personal freedom, the quality of government, equality, and levels of religiosity.
Happiness at Older Ages
Authors: Steptoe Andrew , Lassale Camille
Published: May 2020

This chapter investigates happiness after aging. As people move from middle into older ages, their circumstances and experiences change in many ways. Most people retire; their children leave home and establish independent lives; physical and cognitive capacities decline; and the experience of the death and loss of loved ones becomes more common. These changes influence financial resources, social relationships, independence, and autonomy. At the same time, people who no longer feel bound by the constraints of middle age may find fresh opportunities as they age, together with relief from many important sources of stress. All these processes mean that the determinants of satisfaction with life may change with aging, or at least that the relative importance of the various sources of life-satisfaction may shift as one grows older.
Family Income
Authors: Clark Andrew E. , Flèche Sarah , Layard Richard , Powdthavee Nattavudh , Ward George
Published: May 2020

This chapter considers how our early experience determines our emotional well-being as a child and how it affects the other key dimensions of our development as children. To answer these questions, the chapter turns to the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC). This survey attempted to cover all children born in and around Bristol (a city of nearly half a million people) and Bath, between April 1991 and December 1992. Through this, the chapter embarks on a study of how children are affected if their parents are poor. Here, the ALSPAC data confirms the well-known fact that income affects children's academic performance. But ALSPAC also shows that the effect on children's emotional well-being and behavior is much less.