bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Introduction
Authors: Orford Anne , Hoffmann Florian
Published: November 2016

This introductory chapter briefly explores the practice of theorizing international law. Theorizing is an inherent part of the practice of international law. Theories of international law have attempted to demonstrate that laws governing the conduct of sovereigns exist at all, and have been concerned with the attempt to connect emerging forms of international legal practice to a philosophical or historical tradition from which international law is said to originate, or to develop a method for interpreting or systematizing international law. The relation of international law to the modern state has been the focus of much theoretical work, both by those seeking to challenge the state’s role as the privileged subject of international law or by those seeking to argue that recognition of its importance and status have been lost.
Theorizing the Turn to History in International Law
Authors: Craven Matthew
Published: November 2016

This chapter focuses on the question of what was required for the productive representation of the past of international law as ‘history’ to become a meaningful activity, given the need for historical discourse and practice to be organized in temporal terms, and its past ‘found’ or ‘uncovered’. This historical consciousness fundamentally reshaped the conceptualization of what would become known as ‘international law’, and placed at centre-stage the problem of the historical method. Furthermore, not only did the emergence of this historical consciousness have specifiable theoretical and practical dimensions, it would become, as Foucault puts it, a ‘privileged and dangerous’ site, both providing theoretical sustenance to the discipline, and a space for critical engagement.
Hugo Grotius
Authors: Ittersum Martine Julia Van
Published: November 2016

This chapter explains how the myths surrounding Hugo Grotius (1583–1645) came into being and whose interests have been served by it. It was a combination of Dutch nationalism and the rise of modern international law that turned Grotius into a ‘founding father’, with a little help, it should be said, from the American delegates at the 1899 Hague Peace Conference. The myth is based on a highly selective reading of De Jure Belli ac Pacis and completely ignores the larger historical context of Grotius’ work, particularly his hands-on involvement in Western imperialism and colonialism. The chapter aims to contextualize properly his life and work, rather than to focus on just one aspect of it and use that to justify modern-day arrangements for the resolution of conflicts between states.
Schmitt, Schmitteanism and Contemporary International Legal Theory
Authors: Howse Robert
Published: November 2016

This chapter provides an overview of the concepts and arguments of Carl Schmitt (1888–1985)—Hitler’s chief legal official and an international law apologist for Nazi aggression — that have gained the most purchase in contemporary international legal discourse, primarily international legal theory. The chapter critically engages with a select group of scholars who have deployed Schmitt in contemporary international legal theory. These are: Martti Koskenniemi, Eric Posner and Adrian Vermeule, Paul Kahn, and Nehal Bhuta. Lastly, the chapter concludes with some observations about what the use of Schmitt in contemporary international legal theory may tell one about the state of the discipline, its fault lines, and anxieties.
Hannah Arendt and International Law
Authors: Whitehall Deborah
Published: November 2016

This chapter reconsiders the arc of Hannah Arendt’s (1906–1975) writings about international law. Her scattered remarks present a careful pattern of demands upon international law, announced at the discipline’s key formative turns, for the resolution of the Jewish Question or rather, the series of issues problematizing Jewish-ness as uncertainty about citizenship, nation, and race from the eighteenth century onward. But international law was an important site for her attention even where law was adjuvant or ancillary to the broader sweep of her analytical project. Arendt repeatedly returned to international law expecting answers as a political thinker: for the working out of tensions within the idea of nation for the sake of humankind and the plural life of politics.
The International Signs Law
Authors: Goodrich Peter
Published: November 2016

This chapter argues for the image as a medium for communicating the method and norms of a rather abstract, primary, and primordial jurisdiction at work during the early seventeenth-century empires. The beginnings of international law therefore are expressed in the earliest markings, patterns, rhythms, and signs that delineate human inhabitation and community. The chapter posits that the law has entered the secular world in the form of arms — symbols of rank and office — which may be used in either war or diplomacy. Another origin the chapter traces is within the realm of the sea, upon which territories and jurisdictions are often difficult to establish. Finally, international law also has its origins in legal emblems — the moveable signs, detachable images, and floating signifiers of a particular jurisdiction, which form a pan-European substrate of all legal interventions and communications.
International Law and Economics
Authors: Danielsen Dan
Published: November 2016

This chapter describes some of the most common presuppositions, assumptions, and expectations found in much of international law and economics scholarship. These are most often explained or justified on the grounds that simplifying models and assumptions are necessary to reach analytic conclusions, because the complexity of ‘real world’ economic life is impossible to capture. Yet innovation in international law and economics both at the level of theory and of substantive research will require better methods for identifying and foregrounding the assumptions and normative values that animate research choices and policy conclusion. In short, this chapter proposes a new critical practice of self-conscious analytic introspection and normative transparency, which would be useful to move international law and economic theory beyond its prior limits.
Global Administrative Law and Deliberative Democracy
Authors: Kingsbury Benedict , Donaldson Megan , Vallejo Rodrigo
Published: November 2016

This chapter attempts to bring ‘global administrative law’ (GAL) and democracy into conversation. It addresses two separate observations: first, that democracy currently lacks the tools to respond to the globalization and diffusion of political authority; and secondly, that GAL is not presently democratic—it has no room for democratic concerns in its emerging norms. As such, the chapter aims to give an overview of GAL and some of its contributions to international legal theory; explore the way in which GAL’s focus on innumerable capillary-level sites of power may open promising terrain for the instantiation of democracy beyond the state; consider how work on GAL can be enhanced by engaging with, and drawing ideas from, work on deliberative democracy; and note the rising impact and future potential of democratic striving in the practice of institutional entrepreneurship and GAL lawyering.
Towards a New Theory of Sources in International Law
Authors: d’Aspremont Jean
Published: November 2016

This chapter seeks to advocate a specific avenue for reconstructing the theory of sources beyond naïve objectivism. It looks at how the theory of sources came to be crafted as a platform for the objectivizing of meaning and a bridle to crude politics, and how it failed in that liberal project. Yet, it argues thereafter that this possible failure of the classical theory of sources should not be construed as a failure of the principle of such a theory, but rather the failure of the specific (representation of the) theory of sources as it was inherited from the twentieth century and depicted by its critiques. More specifically, this chapter puts forward a social theory of sources that makes it possible to construe the theory of sources as a tradition and a practice rather than as a set of rules that operates mechanically.
Theorizing Jurisdiction
Authors: Noll Gregor
Published: November 2016

This chapter illustrates jurisdiction as an attachment played out in a triangle. This triangle links the creator of jurisdictional entitlement to its holder and to the share of the world to which it relates. To exemplify, the share of the world might be a human being, a company, a territory, or a particular deed subjected to jurisdiction. The holder of jurisdictional entitlement is a state or a court. The creator of jurisdictional entitlement might be a worldly entity such as a number of states (endowing a human rights court with jurisdiction). Or a less tangible entity might be set as the creator (endowing the sovereign state with worldly jurisdiction). This triangle of attachments thus leads to two issues, which is elaborated further on in the chapter.
Theorizing International Law on Force and Intervention
Authors: Kritsiotis Dino
Published: November 2016

This chapter makes its analysis of force and intervention through the art and craft of making legal justifications. It asks why legal justifications are made at all, giving some sense of the circumstances in which these justifications take their essential shape and form. Then, the chapter considers how these justifications alert us to some of the unspoken assumptions about force and intervention in international law — what can be taken away from an analysis of the practice of justifications other than an engagement with the merits of their respective substance, which so consistently occupies much of the existing literature in this field. Finally, the chapter attempts to connect these points to a broader set of issues theorizing the purpose or function of force in today’s world.
Theorizing Free Trade
Authors: Orford Anne
Published: November 2016

This chapter re-examines the history of free trade and its relationship to international law. It locates contemporary trade agreements within a larger story about the relation between the state, the market, and the social; explores why it is useful to place current trade agreements within a longer historical trajectory; offers a brief narrative of how the concept of free trade has moved across a two-hundred-year period since the late eighteenth century; and concludes that concepts such as free trade (and related concepts such as discrimination, market distortion, protection, and subsidies) are the product of political struggles over particular ways of understanding the world, justifying entitlements to resources, explaining why some people should profit from the labour of others, and legitimizing the exercise of power.
Theorizing the Laws of War
Authors: Mégret Frédéric
Published: November 2016

This chapter suggests two predominant modes of theorizing about the laws of war—one ‘internal’, the other ‘external’—both providing a useful shorthand for two relatively irreducible types of exercises. Internal theorizing makes sense of the discipline among its practitioners and within bounds that are taken for granted. It is minimal in that its ambition is largely instrumental: providing the practitioners of the laws of war with the background necessary for them to function. External theorizing is less interested in the laws of war as a system than as an object; it is less focused on explaining the operation of the laws of war than understanding what the laws of war mean generally and for international law specifically. It is more explicitly theoretical precisely in that it seeks to highlight some of the ultimate functioning or purpose of the laws of war behind its dominant implicit theories.
Theories of Transitional Justice
Authors: Nesiah Vasuki
Published: November 2016

This chapter examines the utopias called forth by the marriage of human rights accountability mechanisms on the one hand, and, on the other, arguments about the practical significance of these initiatives as preconditions for development, democracy, and political society. Transitional justice is seen to marry the ethical charge of the human rights field’s march against impunity, with an instrumental potential facilitating transition from the rule of violence into the rule of law. If the normative theories and agendas implicated by this marriage are advanced as being in the interests of justice, the accompanying instrumental theories and agendas are advanced in the interests of transition. Justice and transition operate here as allied and mutually reinforcing aspirations of and rationales for transitional justice institutions. Thus, this chapter identifies and analyses the stakes that attend this marriage of ‘ethics’ and ‘expertise’ in constituting the utopian political imagination of transitional justice.
Religion, Secularism, and International Law
Authors: Paz Reut Yael
Published: November 2016

This chapter explores the inseparable nature of the relationship between religion—more specifically, Christianity—secularism and international law. As the history of international law itself reveals, its inauguration as a liberal profession depended on a group of men who shared a particular universal intuition and cultural agenda that mirrored their western Christian European and cosmopolitan backgrounds at the end of the nineteenth century. Thus, the chapter scrutinizes the Catholic School of Salamanca as a case study that mirrors how Christianity—Catholic missionarism more accurately — became an integral part of international law to date, focusing on how and why the Salamancans’ specific re-configuration of the public/private has become a resilient and persistent formula to this day.
The Global Regime for Climate Finance
Authors: Thompson Alexander
Published: November 2016

This chapter explores the interplay between politics and international law in the field of climate finance, with an emphasis on its North-South dimensions, which is the promotion of resource flows by developed nations towards developing nations. Participation by developing countries in the climate regime is critical as they are the largest emitters of greenhouse gas. Unfortunately, it is the less-developed nations that are harmed the most by climate change. It is here where North-South finance emerges as an important issue. The chapter addresses two critical issues in the governance and future of the climate finance regime. First, the wide variety of institutions and mechanisms involved expands the scope for attracting and supplying resources but they remain fragmented and require greater coordination to be effective. Second, the mobilization of North-South finance is insufficient relative to mitigation and adaptation needs. Such a challenge requires greater political will and a stronger legal regime.
Climate, Oceans, and the Law of Special and General Adaptation
Authors: Sumaila U. Rashid
Published: November 2016

This chapter describes the literature of adaptation law in the context of international ocean governance. Adaptation law consists of rules aimed at minimizing the social costs associated with human response to climate impacts. These can be used to shape the behaviour of private actors or public institutions. The law sometimes might provide incentives to make enterprises more resilient as it makes capital unnecessarily stranded during climate change. In order to illustrate the challenges of implementation in the ocean context, the chapter focuses on two examples: international fisheries and ‘mari-engineering’. International fisheries represent ongoing ocean use and regulated by a well-developed body of international law. Due to the wide range of possible climate impacts and adaptive responses, proactive changes to existing fisheries rules in anticipation of climate change fit into the category of general adaptation law, while mari-engineering is engineering the seas to slow or halt climate change impacts.
United States Climate Change Law
Authors: Gerrard Michael B.
Published: November 2016

This chapter presents an overview of climate change law in the United States, given the global impact of its domestic and international climate change policies. It traces the evolution of US climate change policy under different presidents, and discusses emerging programs under the Clean Air Act (CAA). Under the CAA, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) issues emissions standards, and under the Energy Policy Conservation Act, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) issues Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) standards. The chapter also describes the protection of endangered species under the Endangered Species Act (ESA). The ESA directs the Fish and Wildlife Service to designate certain species as endangered or threatened; for marine species that task falls to the National Marine Fisheries Service.
Climate Change Law and Policy in India
Authors: Badrinarayana Deepa
Published: November 2016

This chapter discusses India’s role in international climate law and its domestic law on climate change, and demonstrates the limits of its legal position in addressing climate-related threats. Climate change presents a complex challenge for India, which is reflected in its evolving set of climate change laws and policies. Aside from being one of countries most vulnerable to climate change, India is home to some of the world’s poorest people whose lives and property are threatened by climate change. The government has adopted various initiatives to comply with the Kyoto Protocol. The central national initiative on climate change is the National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC). Action under NAPCC is premised on the principle of sustainable development, which for the purposes of climate change means achieving growth while at the same time minimizing greenhouse gas emissions.
Small Islands and the Big Issue
Authors: Ronneberg Espen
Published: November 2016

This chapter highlights the importance of addressing climate change, especially for small island developing states (SIDS) located in the Pacific region. It also looks into the role of the Alliance of Small Island States (AOSIS) in the protection of SIDS. Global climate change, resulting in sea level rise, poses a threat to the very existence of the peoples of the Pacific region. In response, the AOSIS came together in 1990 at the Second World Climate Conference as an informal grouping of like-minded countries. They joined forces through recognition that SIDS from all regions of the world share a number of common characteristics and extreme vulnerabilities to a range of external forces, in particular climate change.
Prevalence of changes in personality and behavior in adult glioma patients: a systematic review
Authors: Zwinkels Hanneke , Dirven Linda , Vissers Thomas , Habets Esther J.J. , Vos Maaike J. , Reijneveld Jaap C. , van den Bent Martin J. , Taphoorn Martin J.B.
Published: November 2016

Background

Gliomas are rare, with a dismal outcome and an obvious impact on quality of life, because of neurological, physical and cognitive problems, as well as personality and behavioral changes. These latter changes may affect the lives of both patients and their relatives in a profound way, but it is unclear how often this occurs and to what extent.

Methods

We performed a systematic review to determine the prevalence of changes in personality and behavior in glioma patients. Searches were conducted in PubMed/Medline, PsycINFO, Cochrane, CINAHL and Embase. Based on predetermined in- and exclusion criteria, papers were screened for eligibility. Information on the topics of interest were extracted from the full-text papers.

Results

The search yielded 9895 papers, of which 18 were found to be eligible; 9 qualitative and 9 quantitative studies. The reported prevalence rates of changes in personality and/or behavior varied from 8%–67% in glioma patients, and was 100% in a case series with bilateral gliomas. Moreover, these changes were associated with distress and a lower quality of life of patients as well as informal caregivers. Methods of measurement of personality and behavioral changes differed considerably, as did the description of these changes.

Conclusion

To determine the true prevalence of changes in behavior and personality, present but poorly labeled in the reported studies, prospective studies are needed using proper definitions of personality and behavioral changes and validated measurement tools. Ultimately, these findings may result in improved supportive care of both patients and caregivers, during the disease trajectory.
Ethics and Shakespearean Tragedy
Authors: Zamir Tzachi
Published: November 2016

Should Shakespearean tragedy facilitate moral growth? Should we, alternatively, refuse to reduce plays into edifying lessons? This chapter begins by presenting two ways in which ethics and Shakespeare’s tragedies ought not be related to one another. It proceeds to dismiss the objection according to which reading a work for its moral rewards necessarily debases an aesthetic offering. Various forms of braiding moral values and the tragedies are then explored. More than defendable interpretations, it is argued that such ethical readings are fruitful because they are inseparable from aesthetic merit. What makes these tragedies stand out as literary and theatrical creations are, often, implied moral rewards.
Local Administration
Authors: Roselaar Saskia T.
Published: November 2016

This chapter discusses the structure of local administration in the Roman Empire and the responsibilities of the various local magistrates, the town council and the public assembly. It explores the responsibilities of the magistrates with regard to jurisdiction, public finance, and the management of public property, and the question whether holding a magistracy became less popular over time. It also discusses the connection between central government and the towns of the Empire, and the involvement of central officials in the running of towns. Finally, this chapter explores the legal position and responsibilities of resident foreigners, as well as the importance of the connection to a hometown for feelings of personal identity and pride among the Empire’s inhabitants.
Lawyers in Administration
Authors: Peachin Michael
Published: November 2016

This chapter provides an introduction to a full study of Roman lawyers in Roman administration. It argues that on the face of it, the presence, or not, of lawyers in Roman administration seems to have been a rather haphazard affair. Conversely, and perhaps even paradoxically, it is plain that legal expertise was indeed very widely and very often present in the Roman administrative apparatus. This makes a complete study of this phenomenon all the more urgent. Such an all-embracing picture of lawyers in administration would not ultimately tell us, beyond doubt, the exact degree to which a rule of law was tangibly established by the Roman state. Nevertheless, a proper synthesis, insofar as this is attainable, would yield a much better taste of what was attempted. For the time being, however, we still lack a comprehensive depiction of lawyers in administration for ancient Rome.
Legal Pluralism in Practice
Authors: Ando Clifford
Published: November 2016

The Roman Empire systematically recognised alien polities in provincial landscapes and allowed them local powers of jurisdiction and legislation. It also created conditions of heightened human mobility and regularly endowed aliens with Roman citizenship. This chapter explores the procedural and theoretical resources developed by Roman authorities to deal with the conflicts of law that resulted from these processes. It explores principles governing choice of law, to wit, those of personality and territoriality. It also investigates procedural mechanisms that temporarily bracketed distinctions that rendered actions non-justiciable, for example, the legal fiction that assimilated aliens to citizens for the purposes of dispute resolution.
Repression, Resistance and Rebellion
Authors: Kelly Benjamin
Published: November 2016

This chapter reconstructs the legal underpinnings of repressive responses to fundamental threats to the Roman political order: sedition, conspiracies, riots and provincial revolts. It outlines the legal and ethical limitations on state power that were invoked in relation to acts of repression. It argues that there was a tension in Roman civilization between ideas about the appropriate limitations on the exercise of state violence against the individual and the need to deal with fundamental political threats. With the growth of autocracy in the later Empire, the ethics of rulers’ responses to fundamental threats to the political order came to be emphasized rather than the legal rights of the rebellious. The chapter argues that attempts were made to downgrade legally or discursively the civic statuses of individuals accused of threatening the political order. Such attempts aimed to reduce concerns about repressive actions that would have been considered illegal or unethical.
Husband and Wife
Authors: Urbanik Jakub
Published: November 2016

This chapter surveys the most important original sources regarding the legal nature of marriage. It discusses the foremost problems with the legal and social construct of marriage in Roman society and surveys the chief scholarly debates of the last century that shaped our vision of the Roman marriage. It argues that the essence of the legal view of Roman marriage is that no one may constrain another person to marry or stay married. Marriage remains the free choice of an individual and in this sense its construction, based on affectio maritalis, protects the autonomy of the spouses. This view, put forward by the jurists, was not widely accepted socially. In the light of the misogyny of our literary sources, what prompted them to opt for this legal construct of marriage remains an enigma. As with many areas of Roman family law modern scholars have been misled by appearances and preconceptions.
The Economic Structure of Roman Property Law
Authors: Epstein Richard A.
Published: November 2016

The Roman law system of property rights was developed incrementally, in reliance on natural law, without any reliance on economic analysis developed in the twentieth century. Nonetheless, its doctrinal organisation conforms well to the prescriptions of that modern theory. Thus the Roman law draws the right lines between common and separate property, developing efficient rules of acquisition for the former. It also develops coherent rules for the outright transfer and division of assets by way of bailment, usufruct, license, mortgage, trust and servitudes before the onset of modern recordation systems. The Romans also articulated rules for just compensation to deal accessio, confusio and specificatio. The durability of their system across both time and space is a lasting tribute to the intuitive ingenuity of the great Roman lawyers.
Obligatio in Roman Law and Society
Authors: Ibbetson David
Published: November 2016

Obligatio is defined in Justinian’s Institutes as a tie of law, a legal relationship between two persons whereby one is constrained by the other to do or refrain from doing something. It brings together relationships arising out of contract or delict, though the Digest shows it used more generally wherever a personal bond was created. Its roots lie in the verb ligare, to bind; but although Roman lawyers preferred the use of verbs over abstract nouns, here the noun form is almost as common as the verb. As a noun obligatio describes either the active or the passive aspect of the relationship or the relationship itself, allowing flexibility in legal thinking. Originally, obligatio may have been related to actio, so that only enforceable relationships were included within the word, but by classical law it applied to any relationship with legal consequences, whether or not the relationship was enforceable.
The Emperor, the Law and Imperial Administration
Authors: Eck Werner
Published: November 2016

The political space and administrative apparatus of the Imperial government were legally stipulated and enclosed. Politics and administration had to follow the rules of the ius publicum. This was true for traditional magistrates and promagistrates as well as non-senatorial office holders, the praesidial and financial procurators of equestrian rank. The chapter surveys the potential means by which Augustus and his successors might settle problems of society or of general administration or address them for the future through new legal enactments. During the first century AD, lawmaking through one of the people’s assemblies became less frequent, while decisions of the senate became more prominent. In addition, other forms of Imperial decision, by passing legally constituted corporate bodies, achieved ever greater importance, including edicts, systematic rules and ad hoc letters to officials in the provinces, to cities or to individuals, and especially decreta, so-called constitutions, Imperial legal decisions to individuals.
Objective Goods
Authors: Hurka Thomas
Published: November 2016

This chapter discusses the idea that there are objective human goods, ones that are desirable and worth pursuing independently of how much you desire or would enjoy them. It examines some leading candidates for such goods, principally the nonmoral goods of knowledge and achievement and the moral good of virtue. It argues that the aggregation of objective goods may use different principles than for subjective goods, for example, ones that value variety or tend less to favor equal distributions of resources. It also considers some policy implications of endorsing objective goods, for example about education, arts funding, and the justification of the market, and asks how far the Sen-Nussbaum capabilities approach can be connected to an objective account of well-being or the human good.
Does Fairness Require a Multidimensional Approach?
Authors: Arneson Richard J.
Published: November 2016

What is in itself good for you, according to the argument of this chapter, is getting or achieving things that are objectively worthwhile, these being items on an objective list. Although it would be desirable to have a unified explanation of what belongs on the list, for now we rely on intuition. The chapter surveys and finds inadequate a number of alternative accounts of well-being, mainly on the ground that they conflict with the common-sense claims that enjoyment (feeling good) is a significant component of well-being—an entry on the objective list—and that there are additional intrinsic goods besides enjoyment. Since there are plural goods, we are stuck with multidimensional assessment, and with the difficulties of aggregation that involves.
Social Evaluation under Risk and Uncertainty
Authors: Mongin Philippe , Pivato Marcus
Published: November 2016

This chapter examines the problem of evaluating policies with either risky or uncertain consequences. Under risk, the probabilities are known and agreed, whereas under uncertainty, probabilities are subjective and subject to disagreement. In the case of risk, Harsanyi’s Social Aggregation Theorem derives a representation of social utility as a weighted sum of individual utilities. But when there is uncertainty, two different and conflicting evaluation criteria, that is, ex ante and ex post, become available. The chapter explores this problem and sketches solutions. Similarly, when equality becomes the guiding question, there is a tension between ex ante and ex post evaluations, each leading to a conceptual loss, and the chapter explores solutions given to this further problem. It also covers Harsanyi’s Impartial Observer Theorem and its recent developments, and discusses the question raised by Sen of whether the weighted sum of individual utilities obtained by Harsanyi makes genuine utilitarian sense.
Social Welfare Functions
Authors: Weymark John
Published: November 2016

This chapter provides an introduction to the use of social welfare functions in welfare economics and social choice theory for the comparative evaluation of social alternatives. With a social welfare function, social preferences depend on individual well-beings. These well-beings are expressed in terms of either preferences or utilities. Three main approaches are considered: Bergson-Samuelson social welfare functions, Arrovian social welfare functions, and Sen’s social welfare functionals. How the measurability and comparability of utility can be modeled and how limitations on the types of utility comparisons that are possible restrict the kinds of social welfare functions that can be considered is also discussed. Extensive social choice theory is used to deal with heterogeneous opinions about how to make utility comparisons.
Fair Allocation
Authors: Thomson William
Published: November 2016

The object is this chapter is to survey the central concepts of the theory of fair allocation is their application to several important classes of problems:
the classical model of exchange, the full allocation of a single commodity among agents with single-peaked preferences, the adjudication of conflicting claims, object-and-money allocation problems, economies with production.
Compound Word Formation
Authors: Snyder William
Published: November 2016

Compound word formation is examined from the twin perspectives of comparative grammar and child language acquisition. Points of cross-linguistic variation addressed include the availability of bare-stem endocentric compounding as a “creative” process, head modifier order, the distribution of linking elements in Swedish and German compounds, the possibility of recursion, and the availability of synthetic compounding of the -ER (English dish washer) and bare-stem (French lave-vaisselle) types. Proposals discussed at length include Beard’s Generalization (which links head modifier order in compounds to the position of attributive adjectives), Snyder’s Compounding Parameter (linking syntactic availability of verb-particle constructions and adjectival resultatives to availability of creative endocentric compounding), and Gordon’s acquisitional studies of Kiparsky’s Generalization (concerning restrictions on regular plural-marking within compounds).
Morpho-phonological Acquisition
Authors: Tessier Anne-Michelle
Published: November 2016

The chapter reports a current, basic understanding of the nature and facts of acquiring morpho-phonology—what needs to be learned, how it is observed to be learned, and how these observations might be explained by theories of learning. It begins with adult typological data that address the question of how much of a language’s alternations can or cannot be predicted from its phonology alone and summarizes how this typology is treated, especially in rule-based and constraint-based phonological grammars. The second section presents some empirical observations about morpho-phonological acquisition and considers several important views of how alternations are acquired.
Twelve-Step Approaches
Authors: Kelly John F. , Worley Matthew J. , Yeterian Julie
Published: November 2016

Twelve-step approaches to addressing substance use disorder (SUD) are unique in the treatment field in that they encompass professionally led, as well as peer-led, intervention methods. Also, in contrast to most professional treatments that have emerged from scientific theories and empirical data (e.g., cognitive-behavioral treatments), 12-step approaches have been derived, in large part, from the collective addiction and recovery experiences of laymen. Despite this, 12-step approaches have become influential in tackling SUD, with research demonstrating the clinical utility of employing such approaches among adults, and increasingly, among youth. Findings among adolescent samples indicate community 12-step mutual-help organizations, in particular, may provide a beneficial recovery-supportive social context during a life stage where such support is rare.
ʿAllāma Ṭabāṭabāʾī (d. 1981),
Authors: Rizvi Sajjad , Bdaiwi Ahab
Published: November 2016

In modern Shiʿi intellectual history, Sayyid Muḥammad Ḥusayn Ṭabāṭabāʾī (d. 1981) stands out as the most important and influential philosopher and exegete in the twentieth century. The chapter is divided into parts: the first an account detailing his career and the intellectual milieu in which he lived; the second an exposition of his philosophical ideas, showing that Ṭabāṭabāʾī (1) formulated a realist theory of epistemology to combat skepticism; (2) rehearsed the traditional ontological proof for the existence of God for the new-theology of post-war Shiʿi intellectual history; (3) went to great lengths to demonstrate how philosophy could contribute to a more rigorous theological response to modernity; (4) provided the philosophy of being, championed by Mullā Ṣadrā (d. 1635), with a new impetus by stressing above all else the rationalistic facet of the tradition; and (5) reoriented philosophy to augment theological positions articulated in response to the challenges of modernity.
Yaḥyā b. ʿAdī’s (d. 974)
Authors: Griffith Sidney H.
Published: November 2016

The tenth-century Baghdadi Christian logician and philosopher Yaḥyā ibn ‘Adī (893–974) composed his Tahdhib al-akhlaq, The Reformation of Morals, as a popular treatise on virtue ethics in the spirit of his teacher, the Muslim philosopher Abu Nasr al-Farabi (870–950). Over the centuries it has gained a wide readership among both Muslims and Christians living in the Islamic world. The author outlines the profile of the virtuous “Perfect Man” and of “humane” behavior (al-insāniyya), as well as highlighting the complimentary roles of rulers and scholars in a virtuous society.
Introductory Psychology
Authors: Martin Hard Bridgette , Gross James J.
Published: November 2016

Teaching introductory psychology presents many challenges. These include the diversity of teaching goals, the broad content, and the hefty enrollments. The course also presents teachers with the opportunity to make a number of significant contributions. This chapter describes an approach to teaching introductory psychology that is designed to address its challenges and opportunities. This approach involves making the course a platform for teaching graduate and undergraduate students to teach. In our approach, students and teachers learn in parallel. We share three key features of our approach to educating students and teachers simultaneously, namely encouraging skill development, fostering growth mindsets, and building social connections.
Cognitive Therapy of Depression
Authors: Strunk Daniel R. , Adler Abby D. , Hollon Steven D.
Published: November 2016

We provide an overview of cognitive therapy (CT) of depression, including its treatment procedures, therapeutic effects, and mechanisms of change, as well as its effectiveness and dissemination. CT is a well-established treatment with acute effects on par with those of medication. Unlike medication, CT appears to have effects that endure after treatment ends. Although definitively establishing CT’s mechanism of action is difficult, the available evidence is consistent with the possibility that CT achieves its effects partly through cognitive change. Despite potential challenges in generalizing research findings on CT into clinical practice, initial evidence of the effectiveness of CT has been promising. Finally, we discuss efforts to disseminate CT, along with our thoughts on future research directions.
Measuring Medical Students’ Empathy: Exploring the Underlying Constructs of and Associations Between Two Widely Used Self-Report Instruments in Five Countries
Authors: Costa Patrício , de Carvalho-Filho Marco Antonio , Schweller Marcelo , Thiemann Pia , Salgueira Ana , Benson John , Costa Manuel João , Quince Thelma
Published: November 2016

Purpose

Understanding medical student empathy is important to future patient care; however, the definition and development of clinical empathy remain unclear. The authors sought to examine the underlying constructs of two of the most widely used self-report instruments—Davis’s Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI) and the Jefferson Scale of Empathy version for medical students (JSE-S)—plus, the distinctions and associations between these instruments.

Method

Between 2007 and 2014, the authors administered the IRI and JSE-S in three separate studies in five countries, (Brazil, Ireland, New Zealand, Portugal, and the United Kingdom). They collected data from 3,069 undergraduate medical students and performed exploratory factor analyses, correlation analyses, and multiple linear regression analyses.

Results

Exploratory factor analysis yielded identical results in each country, confirming the subscale structures of each instrument. Results of correlation analyses indicated significant but weak correlations (r = 0.313) between the total IRI and JSE-S scores. All intercorrelations of IRI and JSE-S subscale scores were statistically significant but weak (range r = −0.040 to 0.306). Multiple linear regression models revealed that the IRI subscales were weak predictors of all JSE-S subscale and total scores. The IRI subscales explained between 9.0% and 15.3% of variance for JSE-S subscales and 19.5% for JSE-S total score.

Conclusions

The IRI and JSE-S are only weakly related, suggesting that they may measure different constructs. To better understand this distinction, more studies using both instruments and involving students at different stages in their medical education, as well as more longitudinal and qualitative studies, are needed.
Femtosecond Laser-Assisted Anterior Lamellar Keratoplasty for Recurrence of Granular Corneal Dystrophy in Postkeratoplasty Eyes
Authors: Taneja Mukesh , Rathi Varsha M. , Murthy Somasheila I. , Bagga Bhupesh , Vaddavalli Pravin Krishna
Published: November 2016

Purpose:

To report the clinical and visual outcome of sutureless femtosecond laser-assisted anterior lamellar keratoplasty (FALK) for recurrent granular corneal dystrophy (GCD) in patients who had previously undergone penetrating keratoplasty and phototherapeutic keratectomy (PTK) performed for recurrent dystrophy in the grafted eyes.

Methods:

Four eyes of 4 patients who underwent FALK for recurrence of GCD in previously grafted eyes and underwent PTK performed for initial recurrence in the grafts were included. Patients who had undergone FALK for other indications were excluded. The patients were evaluated for preoperative and postoperative best-corrected visual acuities (BCVA), and intraoperative and postoperative complications. Visual outcomes and complications, if any, were noted.

Results:

FALK was uneventful in all 4 eyes. At last follow-up, BCVA improved by >2 lines in all eyes. Myopic shift in the refractive error was noted in 2 eyes. None of the eyes had any intraoperative or postoperative complications. One case had dissection margins cross the graft–host junction; however, no dehiscence occurred in this case. The grafts were clear at the last follow-up examinations.

Conclusions:

FALK is a safe and effective technique for the management of recurrence of GCD in post-penetrating keratoplasty and post-PTK eyes. BCVA improved by >2 lines after the FALK procedure. None of the patients in this series had any intraoperative or postoperative complications, which was indicative of the safety of the procedure.
Complications in Placement of a Glaucoma Drainage Device in a Patient With CREST Syndrome
Authors: Husain Maria Q. , Alsheikh Oday
Published: November 2016

This case describes difficulty with conjunctival closure in an 80-year-old woman with CREST syndrome, a subset of systemic scleroderma. The patient underwent uneventful glaucoma drainage device implantation, but friability of the conjunctiva was noted during closure. Amniotic membrane was used to ensure secure closure, and the patient had a successful outcome. There is a paucity of existing studies on patients with CREST syndrome and their ocular findings. This report sheds light on ocular findings in this autoimmune disease and the necessity for alternative closure methods in special cases.
Validation of CADS Grading Scale: An Ophthalmic Specific Grading Instrument for Facial Nerve Palsy
Authors: Tan Petrina , Siah We Fong , Wong Johnny , Malhotra Raman
Published: November 2016

Purpose:

To evaluate the inter- and intraobserver reliability of the CADS score, a previously described facial nerve grading instrument for ophthalmic grading of facial nerve palsy.

Methods:

This is a cross-sectional validation study. Two clinicians independently assessed and graded each patient on the same day, masked to each other’s grading. Four parameters are assessed in the CADS scale: Cornea (0–3, ±a), static Asymmetry (0–2), Dynamic function (0–3), and Synkinesis (0–2). One clinician reassessed the patients and performed the grading again at a minimum time interval of 1 hour later. A weighted κ analysis was performed to determine inter- and intraobserver reliability using 95% bootstrapped bias-corrected and accelerated (BCa) confidence intervals (CIs).

Results:

Thirty-three patients (27 women, mean age 51.7, range 23–80 years) with unilateral facial nerve palsy were graded. The overall interobserver reliability was 0.80 (95% BCa CI: 0.68–0.91) for cornea, 0.93 for resting asymmetry (95% BCa CI: 0.55–1.00), 0.80 for dynamic function (95% BCa CI: 0.50–0.96), and 0.88 (95% BCa CI: 0.71–0.96) for synkinesis. The overall intraobserver reliability was 0.93 for cornea (95% BCa CI: 0.83–0.98), 0.82 for resting asymmetry (95% BCa CI: 0.53–0.96), 0.92 for dynamic function (95% BCa CI: 0.72–1.00), and 0.98 for synkinesis (95% BCa CI: 0.84–1.00).

Conclusion:

The CADS grading scale demonstrates good interobserver reliability and very good intraobserver reliability. It incorporates all ophthalmic complications for facial nerve palsy and remains easy to use and refer to.
Wingtip Flap for Reconstruction of Full-Thickness Upper and Lower Eyelid Defects
Authors: Vrcek Ivan , Chou Eva , Blaydon Sean , Shore John
Published: November 2016

Purpose:

Pentagonal wedge resection is a technique used to address a wide variety of eyelid pathology. This procedure frequently results in excess skin at the apex of the wound, commonly known as a “dog ear.” A variety of methods have been described to address the cutaneous redundancy, the most classic of which is the Burow’s triangle repair. The authors present a technique to address the anterior lamellar excess that avoids placement of a vertical scar traversing the pretarsal and preseptal portion of the affected eyelid. The repair moves the preseptal closure of the wound temporally, away from the moving portion of the eyelid. The horizontal incision that transposes the vertical closure temporally is concealed in the eyelid crease.

Methods:

A retrospective review of all patients undergoing this technique for eyelid reconstruction was undertaken. The surgical technique is described in detail.

Results:

The procedure has been performed on 7 patients (8 eyelids). Patients were followed for an average of 12 weeks. Indications for surgery were floppy eyelid syndrome requiring horizontal shortening of the upper eyelid and neoplastic lesions involving the upper or lower eyelid. There were no complications. All patients had a satisfactory outcome with regard to function and cosmesis.

Conclusions:

Full-thickness excision of the central two-thirds of the lower and upper eyelid is used extensively to manage a wide variety of conditions. The authors present a technique for addressing the anterior lamellar closure with notable advantages over previously described methods. The major advantages of this technique are that it results in a vertical closure that is horizontally displaced from the primary action of the levator aponeurosis and avoids anterior and midlamellar scarring of the upper and lower eyelid that may inhibit vertical movement. In addition, the cutaneous scar is more easily concealed.
In Praise of Precision: Esoglobus and Exoglobus
Authors: Patel Bhupendra C. K.
Published: November 2016

Precise description of clinical findings is a sine qua non of effective communication and documentation in medicine. To that end, there have not, to date, been accurate words to describe lateral or medial displacement of the globe. Such displacements are frequently seen with orbital disease. The author makes a case for the use of esoglobus and exoglobus to describe such displacements.