bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Limestone and phosphorus application and forage production in natural pastures with sodseeding of cool-season species
Authors: Prestes Nelson Eduardo , Amarante Cassandro Vidal Talamini do , Pinto Cassiano Eduardo , Prestes Gabriel Avila , Zanini Guilherme Doneda , Zanella Pablo Giliard , Sbrissia André Fischer
Published: December 2017

Natural pastures are important ecosystems that both contribute to biodiversity conservation and provide an important source of income, especially for cattle ranchers. While these pastures yield fairly low productivity, they can be improved by increasing soil fertility and introducing species with high productive potentials. In this sense, the purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of applying limestone and phosphorus, as well as introducing cool-season species with a mixture of species dominated by Schizachyrium tenerum Nees, into a natural pasture in the Catarinense Plateau. The experiment was conducted from January 2010 to December 2013; the treatments consisted of superficial distribution of limestone in proportions of 3.6, 7.2, 11.0, and 14.4 t ha-1, as well as distribution of phosphorus in the form of triple superphosphate in proportions of 35, 70, 105, and 140 kg of P2O5 ha-1. In addition, cool-season species were overseeded. The experiment consisted of a randomized block design with subdivided plots and three replications. Limestone was applied to the main parcel, whereas phosphorus was applied to the subplots. There was no interaction between the levels of limestone and phosphorus. The application of 11.0 t ha-1 of limestone yielded the highest forage production, with 3,932.2 kg of dry matter (DM) ha-1 during the second year. Red clover was the species that best reacted to the additions, with levels of 7.2 and 11.0 t ha-1 over the 4 years. In addition, phosphorus provoked a positive response throughout the experiment. The highest forage production was observed during the second year, with an addition of 140 kg P2O5 ha-1 (4,419.4 kg DM ha-1). Only one-eighth of the recommended amount of limestone (3.6 t ha-1) allowed for the establishment and persistence of the legumes introduced into natural pastures. These additions, associated with increasing levels of phosphorus, yielded linear growth in the production of forage in natural pastures with a mixture of species dominated by Schizachyrium tenerum Nees.
Swine wastewater treatment using an anaerobic baffled (ARB) and a UASB reactor system
Authors: Rodrigues Luciano Dos Santos , Pinto Ana Cristina Araujo , Dutra Joyce Da Cruz Ferraz , Sampaio Renata Rodrigues , Sousa Stella Rubim de , Silva Israel José da
Published: December 2017

The purpose of this study was to assess the swine wastewater treatment system, consisting of the anaerobic baffled reactor (ABR), followed by the upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) reactor at full scale. The system was monitored by analyzing samples collected in the influent and effluent of ABR and UASB. The following parameters were analyzed: temperature, pH, total suspended solids (TSS), volatile suspended solids (VSS), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), and chemical oxygen demand (COD). Averages of total removal of COD and BOD were 96.7 and 98.4%, respectively. The mean concentrations of COD, BOD, TSS, and VSS at the final effluent were 611, 124, 138, and 134 mg L-1, respectively. The mean volumetric organic loadings (VOL) at the ABR and UASB were 10.29 and 0.99 kg COD m-1d-1. Therefore, the ABR-UASB system was found to be a promising alternative for the swine wastewater treatment.
Validation of body condition score system in Holstein x Zebu cows via ultrasound method during the transition period and early lactation
Authors: Gentil Narjara Rodrigues , Santos Anselmo Domingos Ferreira , Pereira Mikaele Alexandre , Lima Mariana Santos , Guimarães José Cláudio Torres , Gomes Ludmila Couto , Dantas Francielle Da Conceição , Oliveira Veronaldo Souza de
Published: December 2017

This study aims to validate, by means of subcutaneous rump fat thickness (RFT), the suitability of the visual evaluation of body condition score (BCS) to indicate the body condition of crossbred dairy cows (Holstein x Zebu) during the transition period and early lactation. Animals were selected according to lactation period and distributed into three groups: PP (0 to 4 weeks antepartum; n = 30), L4 (0 to 4 weeks postpartum; n = 15), and L + 5 (5 to 14 weeks postpartum; n = 63). The relationship among RFT, BCS, and body weight (BW) was investigated using correlation and regression analyses. The variables BCS, RFT, and BW were different among the three groups (P < 0.05). The correlations between BCS and RFT were higher in groups PP and L + 5 (r = 0.78 and r = 0.71 respectively). However, the L4 group showed a weak correlation (r = -0.04). The regression models were able to explain how much RFT varies because of changes in BCS, with coefficients of determination equal to 0.61 for PP and 0.51 for L + 5 group. In conclusion, BCS can be considered a good predictor of RFT for crossbred Holstein x Zebu cows in antepartum and postpartum for over 5 weeks of lactation.
Distiller’s dried grains with solubles (Zea mays L.) in feeding sheep on nitrogen balance
Authors: Geron Luiz Juliano Valério , Garcia Jocilaine , Aguiar Sílvia Cristina de , Coelho Kallynka Samara Martins , Santos Ilda De Souza , Souza Alexandre De Lima , Zanine Anderson De Moura , Sousa Neto Eurico Lucas de , Diniz Leomar Custodio , Carvalho José Wilson Pires
Published: December 2017

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of diets supplemented with 0.0, 8.0, 16.0, and 24.0% distiller’s dried grain solubles (DDGS) on nitrogen (N) intake, fecal and urinary N excretion, and N absorption and retention (N balance, NB) by feeding sheep. Four sheep of unidentified race were used, with an average body weight of 23.5 ± 1.5 kg, and housed in metabolism cages. We used a 4 × 4 Latin square design for the experimental design, and each experimental period lasted for 20 days. Data on N intake (NI), fecal N, urinary N, absorbed N, and NB were expressed in g day-1; percentage of NI and grams per kilogram of metabolic weight g (kg0.75)-1 were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) and regression analysis at 5% probability. Inclusion of the different concentrations of DDGS in sheep diets had no effect on NI (mean of 15.11 g animal-1 day-1), nor on fecal and urinary N excretion (mean of 5.16 and 0.16 g animal-1 day-1, respectively). Moreover, DDGS supplementation did not alter NB or N absorption (mean of 9.79 and 9.95 g animal-1 day-1, respectively). Thus, it can be concluded that inclusion of up to 24% of DDGS in feed does not affect NI, fecal and urinary N excretion, and NB in sheep.
Clay dispersion and loss in Oxisol treated with different concentrations of limestone
Authors: Machado Wesley , Melo Thadeu Rodrigues de , Tavares Filho João
Published: December 2017

The addition of limestone to the soil may cause clay dispersion and loss. In this study, we aimed to estimate clay dispersion and loss in Oxisol incubated with different concentrations of limestone. To this end, soil samples were collected from a depth of 0.0-0.20 m, treated with limestone at a concentration of 1.46 Mg ha-1 or 2.73 Mg ha-1 to raise base saturation to 60% and 70%, respectively, and incubated for 12 months under greenhouse conditions. Clay dispersion analysis was conducted monthly using the test tube method. The results showed that clay dispersion increased with soil pH and time after limestone application. However, no significant change in clay concentration was identified in the control (no limestone application). At 60% base saturation, clay loss was first observed to be significantly higher than that of the control at 4 months after application and reached a maximum at 9 months after application. At 70% base saturation, clay loss was also first observed to be significantly higher than that of the control at 4 months after application and reached a maximum at 6 months after application. Overall, our data revealed that clay dispersion due to limestone application was approximately 16 g kg-1 over a period of 12 months and increased with the increasing concentrations of Ca and Mg.
Characterization of Monoclonal Antibodies against Bovine herpesvirus type 1 selected by Phage Display Technology
Authors: Japolla Greice , Penido Ana Flávia Batista , Almeida Greyciele Rodrigues , Bataus Luiz Artur Mendes , Cunha Junior Jair Pereira , Ribeiro Cristina , Tauhata Sinji Borges Ferreira , Souza Guilherme Rocha Lino de
Published: December 2017

The specificity of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) to desired targets makes these molecules suitable for therapeutic and diagnostic uses against a wide range of pathogens. Phage display antibody libraries offer one method by which mAbs can be selected for, without the use of conventional hybridoma technology. In this work, phage display technology was used to construct, select and characterize a combinatorial single chain fragment variable (scFv) antibody library against bovine herpesvirus type 1 (BoHV-1) from the immune repertoire of chickens immunized with the virus. In silico analysis of the hypervariable domains of the antibody heavy chains revealed a high frequency of scFv fragments with low variability, suggesting that selection had probably been carried out and favored by a few im-munogenic viral antigens. The reactivity of the scFv fragments selected against BoHV-1 was demon-strated by Phage-ELISA. A significant increase in antibody reactivity to the target was observed after six rounds of library selection, showing its potential use as a molecule for BoHV-1 diagnosis. The strategy described here opens up a field for the use of phage display as a tool for selection of mono-clonal antibodies that could be used for theranostic applications against infectious and parasitic dis-eases of veterinary interest.
World Duty Free Group: de complexe selectiviteitseis bij fiscale steunmaatregelen
Authors: van Midden G.J.
Published: December 2017

World Duty Free Group: de complexe selectiviteitseis bij fiscale steunmaatregelen

De zaak World Duty Free Group gaat over het selectiviteitsvereiste bij fiscale staatssteun en draait specifiek om de vraag of het voor de vaststelling van de selectiviteit noodzakelijk is dat specifieke kenmerken die de groep begunstigde ondernemingen gemeen hebben, kunnen worden geïdentificeerd. Het Hof van Justitie oordeelt in zijn arrest van niet, omdat een maatregel reeds selectief is indien begunstigde ondernemingen in een gunstiger positie komen te verkeren dan andere ondernemingen, die zich feitelijk en juridisch in een vergelijkbare situatie bevinden, ongeacht de specifieke kenmerken die de begunstigde ondernemingen gemeen hebben. In het artikel wordt deze zeer ruime uitleg van het selectiviteitsvereiste geduid in het licht van eerdere rechtspraak en worden de gevolgen belicht.

HvJ 21 december 2016, gevoegde zaken C-20/15 P en C-21/15 P, Commissie/World Duty Free Group SA e.a., ECLI:EU:C:2016:981.
FNV/Smallsteps; door overgang van onderneming, naar ondergang van ondernemingen?
Authors: Hoogendoorn M. , Ninck Blok D.
Published: December 2017

FNV/Smallsteps; door overgang van onderneming, naar ondergang van ondernemingen?

In zijn – door de FNV als historisch bestempelde – arrest van 22 juni 2017 heeft het Hof van Justitie geoordeeld dat werknemers in beginsel ook bij een door een pre-pack voorafgegaan faillissement een beroep kunnen doen op de beschermingsbepalingen ter zake van de overgang van onderneming. Hoewel de Nederlandse rechter de casus nog in concreto dient te beoordelen bestaat voor partijen die een doorstart realiseren in een faillissement dat is voorafgegaan door een prepack het risico/de kans dat zij alle werknemers van de gefailleerde werkgever tegen ongewijzigde voorwaarden in dienst krijgen. De auteurs bespreken waarom het arrest naar hun mening niet past in de eerdere jurisprudentie van het Hof van Justitie en gaan in op mogelijke gevolgen.

HvJ 22 juni 2017, zaak C-126/16, FNV c.s./Smallsteps BV, ECLI:EU:C:2017:489
Physical Model of Energetic Processes in the Marine Diesel Engine
Authors: Bogdanowicz Artur , Kniaziewicz Tomasz , Zacharewicz Marcin
Published: December 2017

The paper describes the preliminary physical model of gas-dynamic processes that take place in the cylinder of marine diesel engine. The model is a part of the work undertaken at the Institute for Construction and Exploitation of Ships at the Polish Naval Academy. The physical model is the basis for the development of a mathematical model of marine diesel engine, which will be useful for determining the energy efficiency of Polish ships, as well as for diagnostic purposes.
The Impact of Major Maritime Accidents on the Development of International Regulations Concerning Safety of Navigation and Protection of the Environment
Authors: Duda Daniel , Wawruch Ryszard
Published: December 2017

The article presents the impact of major maritime accidents on the development of international regulations concerning the safety of navigation and environmental protection of the seas and oceans. It contains analysis of the reasons and consequences of maritime disasters like the accidents of: ‘Titanic’, ‘Torrey Canyon’, ‘Amoco Cadiz’, ‘Herald of Free Enterprise’, ‘Exxon Valdez’, ‘Estonia’, ‘Erika’ and ‘Prestige’ as well as international agreements established in order to prevent this type of accident in the future or, at least, limit their consequences.
Jackson and Hahn Difference Models as Discrete Bittner Operational Calculus Representations
Authors: Wysocki Hubert
Published: December 2017

In the paper, there have been constructed discrete models of the non-classical Bittner operational calculus that are related to the notions of Jackson and Hahn derivatives, both known from the quantum calculus. To achieve it, we have used the Bittner operational calculus representation for the forward difference.
Increase in outdoor carbon dioxide and its effects on the environment and human health in Kuje FCT Nigeria
Authors: Okobia L. E. , Hassan S. M. , Peter Adakayi
Published: December 2017

Globally there are concerns about outdoor air pollution and its effects on the environment and human health. Researchers are concerned with the negative effects of and best mitigation strategies for air pollution. Climate change and human health are a common phenomenon associated with air pollution, as carbon dioxide (CO2) is absorbed and emitted naturally as part of the carbon cycle. This study was aimed at assessing the emission level of CO2 in Kuje Area Council in the Federal Capital Territory, Nigeria and its effect on the environment and human health. Fifty specific residential and commercial locations were considered, and over 1200 observations of CO2 field data were collected and analysed during two seasons–dry and wet. The land-use settlement pattern was taken into consideration. The data were collected weekly at different time bands (2-, 4-, 6-, and 8-hour time intervals) using the AMPROBE CO2-100, CO2 meter gas detection instrument with self-calibration capability of ±30 parts per million (ppm), ±5% reading (0–5000) accuracy. A Garmin CX60 global positioning system was used to obtain the point locations Universal Transvers Mercator coordinates. The results showed higher mean CO2 emission values of >541 ppm and <713 ppm during the dry and wet seasons, respectively. It was also observed that these values were contrary to and exceeded the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers and Occupational Safety and Health Administration normal outdoor level standards of 350–450 ppm. These higher CO2 values were found in the residential and commercial districts, and if not monitored and controlled they will have adverse effects on human health and climate change effects. Quick interventions would be to plant trees to sequestrate the CO2 and to regulate the transportation system within the area due to continuous carbon emission.
A New Perspective on the Complexity of On-board Primary Power Systems
Authors: Georgescu Ioana , Godjevac Milinko , Visser Klaas
Published: December 2017

The applicability of different selection methods for power systems on board ships is highly dependent on the number of options possible. With the introduction of new technologies in the maritime sector, this number is increasing. However, its exact value, or even its order of magnitude is still unknown. This article shows the complexity of modern on-board power system by quantifying the number of possible system configurations currently available. A constraint satisfaction algorithm generates different configurations and the results are supported by combinatorics principles. The set of constraints used led to a significant reduction in the design space, and the influence of each of the constraints is investigated independently. Traditional mechanical propulsion is present in less than 1% of the generated configurations, whereas electric and hybrid propulsion are dominant. In particular, the impact of energy storage on the size of the design space is made evident. The order of magnitude of the total number of configurations obtained supports the use of modern selection methods instead of ones based on expert intuition and past experience. The presented work offers a tool to determine and restrict the size of the design space. It can therefore be integrated into existing selection methods and is a starting point for the development of new ones.

1. Introduction

Ship design has undergone drastic changes in recent years as computers are used more and more to manage the large number of design choices. Until recently, the configuration of the on-board power system has been a relatively straight forward decision because of the predominance of mechanical propulsion. However, several new technologies have been developed in recent years, most of which aim to improve the energy systems on board ships. Several more are currently under development. Modern on-board power systems may have an alternative energy source through different fuels, more complex configurations sometimes including energy storage, exhaust-gas treatment or a combination of these.
Agency and Structure
Authors: Stones Rob
Published: December 2017

Theories of structure and agency have long been central to social theory. Two dominant ways of theorizing structure, the relational and the institutional, are distinguished. The idea of relational structures draws attention to networks of social relations, connections, and vertical and horizontal interdependencies between individuals and collectives. The notion of institutional structures refers to the beliefs, values, symbols, ideas, and expectations that make up the mutual knowledge of members of a society. Agency theorists believe both of these structural approaches tend to underplay the role of agency in social relations. Two approaches to agency are identified: the neo‐Kantian tradition and phenomenological tradition; and the pragmatist and symbolic interactionist tradition. More recent contributions are recounted, indicating that contemporary debates are couched less in terms of structure versus agency and more in terms of the precise ways in which these two major aspects of social life intertwine and affect each other.
Americanization
Authors: Mele Vincenzo
Published: December 2017

Within the United States, “Americanization” refers to the process by which immigrants become naturalized and assimilated into mainstream American customs and values. Outside its national borders, the term is instead used to describe the influence of the United States on the culture of other countries, including their popular culture and political and economic systems. However, increasingly in recent years the term “Americanization” is being widely used as a near synonym for two opposing conceptions of globalization: one referring to the homogenization of the world, the other to the hybridization and plurality of world cultures.
Coleman,JamesS
Authors: Prendergast Christopher
Published: December 2017

This entry reviews the intellectual contributions of James S. Coleman (1926–1995) to the sociology of education and rational choice theory, with special emphasis on the concept of social capital.
Collective Identity
Authors: Dovidio John F. , Schellhaas Fabian M. H.
Published: December 2017

Collective identity is a form of social identity involving cognitive, moral, and emotional connection with others. The study of collective identity integrates the focus on individual‐level processes in psychology with the structural‐level processes of interest in political science and sociology. A sense of collective identity can develop “bottom‐up,” through interactions in social networks, or “top‐down,” for example, by recruitment into social movements. The effects of collective identity and collective action are reciprocal. Collective identity not only facilitates social action, but participation in collective action, especially when it is successful, also elicits a sense of collective empowerment that reinforces collective identities underlying the movement. It also shapes the form of collective action. When a collective identity becomes the focus of an antagonistic political struggle – that is “politicized” – it may increase the likelihood of pursuing change through non‐normative routes, such as violence or civil disobedience.
Dual Labor Market Theory/Dual Economy
Authors: Pula Besnik
Published: December 2017

Dual labor market theory is a theory in economics which breaks from neoclassical understandings of labor markets in which employers judge workers on the basis of their individual skills and capacities, to argue that labor markets classify individuals and channel them into particular jobs on the basis of group characteristics, such as sex and race. The theory claims that the organization of labor markets has a direct relationship with patterns of inequality found in American society.
Ethnomethodology
Authors: Lehn Dirk vom
Published: December 2017

Ethnomethodology originates in Harold Garfinkel's (1917–2011) analysis of “social order.” It is a “sociological attitude” that fundamentally differs from the ways in which social order is conceived in “traditional” sociology. Rather than conceiving the everyday as disorderly and messy, ethnomethodology examines the orderliness and organization of social action in specific circumstances. Its studies reveal the methods of commonsense and practical reasoning through which actors render the organization and meaning of their action “observable‐and‐reportable,” that is, “accountable.” Organization and meaning are not seen as predefined by the context of the situation of their occurrence but as emergent properties of social action. Ethnomethodology considers action and context, therefore, as reflexively interrelated, forming a coherent “gestalt” by mutually and continually adapting to each other. Harold Garfinkel calls the process through which orderliness is achieved, following Karl Mannheim, “the documentary method of interpretation.”
Feminist Legal Theory
Authors: Dagistanli Selda
Published: December 2017

Through various social, political, and intellectual movements that have found expression in the three “waves” of feminism, feminists have long criticized enduring social and institutional inequalities between the sexes that are obfuscated by gender‐blind approaches to social inquiry. Drawing on an interdisciplinary history of feminist thought,
feminist legal theory
has, over the last three decades, made specific contributions to legal theory through its interrogation of a male‐centric viewpoint that has remained both unquestioned and entrenched in legal doctrine, while empirically seeking to advance a women's rights agenda in law by incorporating the experiences and voices of women.
Game Theory
Authors: Raub Werner
Published: December 2017

This entry addresses key concepts, assumptions, and theorems of elementary game theory (extensive form of a game, strategy, equilibrium, equilibrium selection problem, subgame perfection, noncooperative and cooperative games) and also some more advanced topics and more recent work (incomplete information, other‐regarding preferences, bounded rationality). The entry highlights how game theory is related to social theory (Weber's definition of social action, micro–macro links) and provides pointers to applications of game theory in social theory and empirical social research (economic and social exchange, the problem of social order, cooperation and collective action, power and inequality).
Gift Exchange and Relationship
Authors: Adloff Frank
Published: December 2017

This entry reconstructs the contribution of Marcel Mauss's essay,The Gift, to social theory. First, the main arguments of the essay are presented. Gifts create trust and evoke reciprocity; in archaic societies they bring social relationships and alliances into being. For Mauss, this mechanism is still effective in modern societies. In a second step, prominent sociological theories are presented that ally with Mauss, but primarily aim at the concept of reciprocity in a utilitarian or normative manner (Blau, Gouldner, Bourdieu). Finally, a perspective is presented (by Godbout, Caillé, Hénaff), which takes the tension between the concepts of gift and reciprocity seriously, and makes it theoretically productive.
Heredity
Authors: Happe Kelly E.
Published: December 2017

This entry provides a history of heredity as both a biological and a social concept. In particular, it traces its influence on social theory during three major historical moments in the biological sciences: eugenics and the social theory of the genetically unfit; genomics and the theory of biosociality; and epigenetics and the collapse of the biology–culture binary.
H
irschfeld,
M
agnus
Authors: Bauer J. Edgar
Published: December 2017

German Jewish sexologist and sexual minority rights activist Magnus Hirschfeld (1868–1935) challenged the age‐old binary scheme of sexual distribution on the basis of Darwinian evolution theory. As the epistemic kernel of his work, Hirschfeld postulated the “doctrine of sexual intermediary stages,” asserting that human beings are neither man nor woman, but, at the same time, man and woman in unique and thus unrepeatable proportions. Adopting a “biological–psychological outlook” comparable to that of his sexology, Hirschfeld outlined, toward the end of his life, a critical race theory seeking to debunk Nazi racism. Hirschfeld's emancipatory take on the individual's sexual difference anticipates radical GLBTQ theories seeking to unsettle the male–female dichotomy and its ad hoc “third sex” supplements.
Industrial Relations Theory
Authors: Bayar Tuğba Özden
Published: December 2017

The industrial relations field focuses on the tripartite relationship among trade unions/syndicates, employees, and employers. Industrial relations started after the Industrial Revolution, when the workers began to demand improved working conditions and formed syndicates to advocate their rights. The theory of industrial relations developed as the world was faced with the problems of “labors” (commodity model of labor) after industrialization. The participation of labor organizations in decision‐making processes paved the way for the development of the term “industrial democracy.” In industrial democracies, workers are actively involved in the decision‐making processes of their firms or fabricates, whether under state ownership or private.
Intersectionality
Authors: Shields Stephanie A. , Dicicco Elaine C.
Published: December 2017

Intersectionality, the mutually constitutive relations among social identities, is a central tenet of feminist thinking that has transformed conceptualizations of gender. The historical background of the construct of intersectionality is described, followed by a summary of the impact of intersectionality theory. While the popularization of intersectionality has contributed to increasingly sophisticate analyzes of power, it has also flattened the term through emphasis on individual identity with little reference to the sociopolitical power relations which the construct intended to address. Future directions in development and application of intersectionality are considered.
K
eynes,
J
ohn
M
aynard
Authors: Altman Morris
Published: December 2017

Keynes's background is outlined as it relates to his scholarly and public policy contributions. The evolution of his thought is discussed, leading up to his penultimate contributions in his
General Theory
and his invention of modern macro‐economics. His fact‐based understanding of macro‐economic market failure and persistent involuntary unemployment is contrasted with the classical perspective that market forces restore full employment quickly and efficiently. Modeling differences across Keynesian economists are also discussed.
Kinship
Authors: Brady Janelle , Cully Christopher
Published: December 2017

Societies around the world are significantly influenced by kinship in one way or another. It can be argued that kinship is in decline; however, there are new and emerging ways of looking at kinship. Goode's major thesis posits that the expansion of economic systems vis‐à‐vis industrialization leads to the decentralization of extended kinship bonds. Instead, the conjugal family takes shape and becomes the central and independent kinship unit. Conjugal families, similar to the nuclear family, are small marriage‐ and children‐based families and at one point were the dominant Western industrial family model. Parsons states that adults are part of two conjugal families: the one that they are born into and the second that they form in adulthood. Goode followed the modernization thesis in that all of the “developing world” would move from more traditional to conjugal families once industrialization had occurred, leading to weakened family control over matters such as marriage partner selection. In the latter part of the twentieth century, people were more likely to postpone marriage, get divorced, have children outside marriage, have premarital sex, and cohabit. These societal changes and effects on kin were not predicted in Goode's original analysis of conjugal families.
Laslett, Peter
Authors: Turner Bryan S.
Published: December 2017

Thomas Peter Ruffell Laslett (1915–2001) studied history at St. John's College, Cambridge, graduating with a double first in 1938. After working at Bletchley Park and Washington decoding Japanese naval intelligence, he returned to Cambridge in 1948 with a research fellowship. He was appointed university lecturer in history at Cambridge, elected a fellow of Trinity College, and was made Reader in Politics and the History of Social Structure (1966–1983). Working with J. G. A. Pocock, he was instrumental in creating the Cambridge School of the history of political thought. With Tony Wrigley, he cofounded the Cambridge Group for the History of Population and Social Structure. His most influential contribution in the field of population history wasThe World We Have Lost(1965). He also, with Michael Young, developed the Open University in the 1960s, and in the 1970s he contributed to the University of the Third Age.
Legal‐Rational Authority
Authors: Agassi Joseph
Published: December 2017

Leaders' authority is usually justified as divinely ordained. The rationalist social contract theory justified it as resting on consent. Empirical study began with anti‐rationalist Romanticism. Hegel's theory of master and slave presents society as a pecking order. It renders social stability partial. Hegel ascribed the top authority to global leadership that moves from nation to nation. Émile Durkheim deemed the laws of the land as sanctioning the leadership whose task is unifying the nation. Max Weber saw the state as a monopoly of violence and deemed its leadership irrational (religion and charisma) though he allowed it rationality (as social contract of sorts). The Devlin–Hart debate on the rational source of authority failed. A new philosophy is more promising, heralded by Russell and more so by Popper. It deems that legal authority is rational not because it has this or that foundation, but because it is under constant democratic surveillance which forces leaders to improve.
Lyotard,Jean‐François
Authors: Turner Bryan S.
Published: December 2017

Jean‐François Lyotard (1924–1998) achieved prominence in several fields most notably in philosophy but his influence was felt in both sociology and literary theory. Born in Versailles in 1924, he studied philosophy at the Sorbonne and in 1950 he took up a position teaching philosophy in Constantine in French East Algeria. In the early 1970s he began teaching at the University of Paris VIII Vincennes until 1987. On becoming an emeritus professor, he lectured outside France at many universities such as the University of California, Irvine, where he was professor of critical theory. He became well known initially for his contribution to postmodernism in hisLa Condition postmoderne(1979) which was translated in 1984.
Marginalism
Authors: Mosselmans Bert
Published: December 2017

Marginalism is a cornerstone of modern economic theory, in both micro‐ and macro‐economics. This entry explains how Ricardo's theory of rent became generalized to a general theory of productivity, which could explain the contribution of all factors of production to final output. Moreover, the “marginal revolution” put “marginal utility” at the core of consumer choice theory. We will specifically discuss the writings of William Stanley Jevons and John Bates Clark.
Attachment Theory
Authors: Holmes Jeremy
Published: December 2017

Bowlby and Ainsworth's attachment theory (AT) is an evidence‐based developmental model based on caregivers' capacity to act as a “secure base” for offspring who are stressed, threatened, ill, or exhausted. Intimate knowledge is a precondition for providing security and “maternal deprivation” (MD) encapsulates the consequences of its absence. The MD concept has been criticized by Rutter and Mead for failing to distinguish privation from deprivation, or to recognize that, worldwide, children are brought up by kin groups not lone mothers. Insecure attachment is a risk factor for psychopathology. Insecure children find it difficult to “mentalize” – to “read” the intentions, projects, and wishes of others and themselves. Fostering mentalizing skills is an effective component of the psychotherapy for borderline personality disorder.
Primordialism
Authors: Bayar Murat
Published: December 2017

As a theory of ethnicity, primordialism makes three major propositions: (1) ethnicity construction is structurally limited, especially by ancestry, which sets the baseline for assumed kinship; (2) an ethnic group has a single identity with multiple dimensions; and (3) ethnicity can be assumed as fixed after the group experiences violent out‐group conflict and/or achieves mass literacy. An application of the theory is that ethnicity construction projects beyond structural limitations are unsustainable. On the other hand, the political systems that recognize these structures (e.g., consociationalism) have proven to be the most stable in the democratic world. The parsimonious assumptions of primordialism are commonly used in academia and facilitate empirical research. The theory has the potential to contribute to the debate on ethnicity by specifying the structural limits of identity construction and the conditions under which ethnic groups are solidified.
Property
Authors: Ford Laura R.
Published: December 2017

This entry provides a brief historical reflection on the social theory of property. Through this historical reflection, property is shown to be inherently social and political.
Racism
Authors: Abbas Tahir
Published: December 2017

Since the advent of the modern age, racism has affected the ways in which modern societies have been shaped, developed variations on ethnic nationalism, and legitimized forms of class structure that embed notions of race, racism, and racialization as essential characteristics. Furthermore, this racism continues to reinvent itself in the light of structural and cultural reconfiguration of advanced Western societies as a result of globalization and interdependence.
Rational Choice Theory
Authors: Hedström Peter , Stern Charlotta
Published: December 2017

Rational choice theory is used as a general theory of action in several social science disciplines. Rational choice theory has certain common elements; at the core are actor‐based models, in which actors are assumed to act rationally. From rational action assumptions, theorists try to explain resultant aggregate outcomes. Despite such common elements, rational choice theorists differ with regard to the nature of the rationality assumption, the analytical focus, and the degree to which theories are formalized. One appealing aspect of the theory is that the theorizing often suggests empirical strategies for testing the theory. Rational choice theorizing has benefited social scientists in a broad range of topics including deviance, marriage and family, social movements, social mobility, and religion. Except in economics, rational choice theory remains controversial and somewhat marginalized, but many of its original concepts and insights have become staples of mainstream social theory.
R
iley,
M
atilda
W
hite
Authors: Turner Bryan S.
Published: December 2017

Matilda White Riley (1911–2004) made significant contributions to the sociology of aging, age and social structure, and population and social change. She graduated from Radcliffe College in Cambridge, Massachusetts, was a research assistant at Harvard University (1932–1933), and worked as a market researcher and economist in the War Production Board during World War II. She began her career in the Sociology of Aging at Rutgers University (1950–1973) and later was at Bowdoin College in Maine. She was the President of the Eastern Sociological Society (1976) and of the American Sociological Association (1985–1986). She worked on aging and age stratification at the Russell Sage Foundation (1974–1977).
Shareholder and Stakeholder Capitalisms
Authors: Scerri Andy
Published: December 2017

Shareholder capitalism can be regarded as a product of the Reagan‐Thatcher “neoliberal revolutions” of the 1980s. Stakeholder capitalism can in many senses be regarded as a response to some of the excesses of the Reagan‐Thatcher era, developed by the center‐Left Third Way parties in the 1990s. By the 2010s, it became clear that both reform programs were expressions of neo‐Liberalism and, like that ideology, were partially to blame for promoting a “bubble economy” and exacerbating the distance between rich and poor.
T
ajfel,
H
enri
Authors: Billig Michael
Published: December 2017

Henri Tajfel (1919–1981) was an influential social psychologist who explored the cognitive aspects of prejudice. He conducted experiments to demonstrate how categorization affected perceptual judgement and he conducted the original minimal group experiments showing how people would identify with artificial, meaningless groups. He formulated social identity theory, which has had a major impact on contemporary social psychology and he was a key figure in establishing the European Association of Experimental Social Psychology.
T
illy,
C
harles
Authors: Li Junpeng
Published: December 2017

Charles Tilly was not only a great historical sociologist, but also an important social theorist. His theoretical orientation underwent profound transformations in a career spanning five decades. Tilly began as a structural reductionist, but gradually incorporated culture, interaction, temporality, and mechanisms into his historical analysis, and eventually became a relational realist. Tilly's intellectual trajectory is a microcosm of some of the critical struggles in sociology since the mid‐twentieth century.
A
ddams,
J
ane
Authors: Knight Louise W.
Published: December 2017

Jane Addams was a major social theorist, whose writings explored the complicated realities of achieving democracy in a society divided by differences in class, gender, and race. The cofounder of the social settlement, Hull House, in Chicago, she was the nation's leading female political activist and social reformer in her day, a feminist, and the first American woman to receive the Nobel Peace Prize.
B
urgess,
E
rnest
Authors: Driskell Robyn , Fitz Brittany
Published: December 2017

Ernest Burgess was a leading sociologist who made significant contributions in community sociology. Burgess's background and training was from the Chicago School (University of Chicago) and he collaborated with Robert Park on many publications. Burgess is best known for his concentric zone theory related to urban growth. Later in his career, Burgess began to focus on other areas of research, including delinquency and criminology, marriage, and old age/retirement.
Consociationalism
Authors: Bogaards Matthijs
Published: December 2017

According to its advocates, consociationalism helps to secure democracy and social peace in divided societies. According to its critics, power‐sharing arrangements and local autonomy reinforce societal divisions. They see consociationalism as a transitory remedy at best, especially useful in postconflict societies. In today's world, most new consociations have emerged after civil war.
Democracy
Authors: Blokker Paul
Published: December 2017

Democracy as a political regime – in broad terms understood as the rule of the many rather than the rule of the one or the few – has various meanings and is being used with a variety of adjectives. The predominant model in modern times – constitutional or liberal, representative democracy – is under strain, and novel forms, such as deliberative, post‐ and global democracy are increasingly objects of inquiry.
Global Cities
Authors: Wee Lionel , Brooks Ann
Published: December 2017

The concept of a global city, primarily defined in terms of a city's centrality to the global economy, has in recent times also become a status symbol. The fact that the concept contains an aspirational dimension means that there are significant conceptual and methodological implications that have to be carefully distinguished from the earlier use of the term. “Softer” criteria such as a city's buzz, creativity, cultural diversity, and livability now need to be considered. And in addition to economic information involving financial flows that are measured in trillions of dollars, greater attention to ethnographic and discursive data that are concerned with constructing narratives of globality also have to be taken into account.
H
olter,
H
arriet
Authors: Göransson Anita
Published: December 2017

Harriet Holter (1922–1997) was a Norwegian social scientist and pioneer in Scandinavian gender research. Her work inspired many research projects and studies, and she was instrumental in creating the vital gender research environment that put Norway on the map in gender research especially in the 1970s and 1980s, focused on the working life and on social psychology.

Holter was originally an economist oriented toward studies of the working life, but having studied women's position in the labor market, she turned to gender studies in general. She went on to study family relations, sexuality, and domestic violence. Her thesis published in 1970 was titled
Sex Roles and Social Structure
and became a milestone for the emerging Scandinavian field of gender studies. She was appointed professor in 1973 at Oslo University, Norway, from where she retired in 1992 but continued to work as a senior researcher until her last illness.
Interest
Authors: Scalambrino Frank , Kennedy Camille
Published: December 2017

This entry discusses the social economic activity of charging interest in regard to its social and historical effects.
Patriarchy
Authors: Rishani Diana
Published: December 2017

Patriarchy is a social system based on the binary of the genders. It enforces a hierarchy that privileges men in the private and public sphere while limiting women to the private. Patriarchy enforces an unequal power relation between men and women. It is perpetuated by rigid gender norms and roles that dictate identities and deny deviations.
W
ollstonecraft,
M
ary
Authors: Frazer Elizabeth
Published: December 2017

This entry explains the significance of Mary Wollstonecraft's thought on education, rights, theology, republican government, and sex differences for later feminist theory, emphasizing social theory in her account of government and politics.
Austro‐Marxism
Authors: Kirsch Robert
Published: December 2017

Austro‐Marxism was a reformist theory of Marxism influential during the first half of the twentieth century. Theoretically, it sits between the German model of democratic socialism on the right and revolutionary Bolshevism on the left. Austro‐Marxism worked to preserve the democratic values of a mass labor movement through parliamentary reform, while at the same time it attempted to foster a revolutionary class consciousness that would prepare the working class for the transition into socialism.
Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism
Authors: Cremin Colin
Published: December 2017

Fredric Jameson's excoriating critique of postmodernism is a seminal work of contemporary cultural theory. Drawing on Ernest Mandel's tripartite model of capitalist development, Jameson situates postmodernism in what he calls a cultural logic of late capitalism. Characterized by the naturalization of the market and the reduction of all things to the category of culture, postmodernism expunges a depth model of cultural analysis by promulgating the myth that categories such as class and the unconscious have no explanatory value.
Dewey, John
Authors: Midtgarden Torjus
Published: December 2017

Dewey views democracy as a form of life extending beyond political institutions. He views a society as consisting of constellations of groups of various kinds and extensions, and sees individuals as depending on groups and their practices for development and learning. However, through agents' habitual accommodations to their social and physical environments, social practices may restrict agents' action potentials and institutions may embed and legitimize intergroup domination. Through studying social movements, Dewey suggests a form of immanent social criticism aiming at social reform. He further observes the crucial role of technologies in social change, and includes both technologies and natural resources in a categorization of the social. Finally, Dewey stresses the economic dependence of human societies on nature and how the Earth is the final sustaining basis of human living.
Gangs
Authors: White Rob
Published: December 2017

This entry describes the main conceptual debates and theoretical explanations for “gangs.” After distinguishing between positivist (or realist) and constructivist (or critical) accounts of the gangs phenomenon, it outlines three key approaches to the study of gangs – those based upon analysis of class (and marginalization), gender (and masculinity), and race/ethnicity (and racism/colonialism).
Geisteswissenschaften
Authors: Scalambrino Frank
Published: December 2017

It is standard today to translate
Geisteswissenschaften
as “human” or “social sciences.” It is ironic that this term, “untranslatable” from the German, is itself the translation of the English “moral sciences.” What the sociology of knowledge and hermeneutics have in common is that both are approaches to the problem of interpretation. This emphasis on interpretation is affirmed in the traditional distinction between
Verstehen
(understanding) and
Erklären
(explanation) regarding the difference between the
Geisteswissenschaften
and the
Naturwissenschaften
. That is, because the
Geisteswissenschaften
examine social and historical phenomena imbued with meaning, the problem of understanding the meaning of these phenomena is different from the problem of explaining them.
Ideology
Authors: Chaves Elisabeth
Published: December 2017

Ideology can be used positively or negatively to describe the way in which beliefs or their critique shape political action. Ideology may describe or justify the shared beliefs a group holds. Politically, the critique of ideology may seek to emancipate people from false forms of consciousness determined by their social position. Similarly, ideology may serve as a motivating recipe for transformative change. Today, the study of ideology is often the study of “actual” political thinking.