bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Priceless Child Revisited
Authors: Zelizer Viviana A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter presents a view of what is happening to children in our own times. It examines children's current economic value with a different slant. It lays out a framework for understanding two other persistent questions: (1) When and why does thinking about children's productive activities make us uncomfortable? (2) In what ways do children generate immediate economic value but also contribute to their own financial, human, social, and cultural capital as well as that of their families and communities? Drawing mostly from household carework and immigrant enterprises, the chapter focuses on children's economic practices. It reveals the impressive variety of children's labor and illustrates the crucial contributions that children make to the maintenance of adult-run enterprises.
Payments and Social Ties
Authors: Zelizer Viviana A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter extends the analysis of earmarking by emphasizing the distinctions between three categories of monetary payments: gifts, entitlements, and compensation. It documents two points that matter significantly for this book's general themes. First, payers and recipients attach great importance to both the form and meaning of the payment and even grow indignant if confusion among types of payment arises. Second, a reciprocal relationship exists between the form of payment and the relationship at hand: the treatment of a payment as compensation already defines the relationship as different from one where a gift is appropriate, and different relations demand different forms of payment.
Risky Exchanges
Authors: Zelizer Viviana A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers a class of transactions referred to as “risky exchanges,” which involve significant possibility that one party or another to the exchange will damage the other party through error, incompetence, or malfeasance. Drawing on the author's work concerning baby markets and on a rapidly expanding literature concerning the economics of care, it argues that in order to explain how commercial markets for “risky exchanges” actually work we need to go beyond standard approaches to commodification. Those approaches often rely on simplistic equations of market exchange with moral degradation. Instead, we need to identify and explain multiple ways of organizing commercial exchanges. Some market arrangements do indeed have pernicious consequences, but others offer benefits to all participants.
What Do We Need from Agriculture?
Authors: Denison R. Ford
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers some of the challenges that agriculture is facing now or will face in the near future, including resource-use efficiency and food security. It begins with a discussion of the goals of agriculture, such as improving productivity (yield per acre, to use no more land than necessary), efficiency in the use of scarce resources (to use no more water than necessary, for example), stability over years (to prevent even occasional famines), and sustainability (to maintain all of these benefits over the long term). It then examines the effects of agriculture on everyone, not just farmers, as well as agriculture's underlying long-term problems such as those relating to food supply, food production, and transportation. It also looks at threats to sustainability, particularly those farming practices that lead to long-term decreases in crop yield. Finally, it offers suggestions for limiting the negative environmental impact of agriculture.
Stop Evolution Now!
Authors: Denison R. Ford
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers ongoing evolution, particularly as it relates to control of agricultural pests. It begins with a discussion of how weeds evolved resistance to herbicides, focusing on the case of watergrass. It then examines the high dose/refuge strategy for slowing the evolution of pesticide resistance, along with the experience of Australian cotton farmers with this approach. It shows that cooperation among Australian cotton farmers was key to the relatively successful management of Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis) resistance. The chapter also explores two different ways in which nature can serve as a source of ideas for improving pest control in agriculture: comparing natural ecosystems and studying the pest-defense strategies of individual wild plants.
Learning from Plants, Ants, and Ecosystems
Authors: Denison R. Ford
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the interactions between trees and fungus-growing-leaf-cutter ants, arguing that we can learn much from natural communities as long as we don't mistakenly assume perfection. It shows that natural selection can improve the fitness of each participant in multispecies interactions, regardless of the impact on the community as a whole. The chapter begins with an evolutionary perspective on chemicals as either signals, cues, or manipulation. This is followed by a discussion of the fungus-growing ants, with particular emphasis on their natural strategies for pest control, and the use of biotechnology for biological control of pests. The chapter concludes by stressing the importance of natural ecosystems in providing essential context for understanding the sophisticated adaptations of wild species, before applying them to agriculture.
Introduction
Authors: Williams Tony D.
Published: November 2017

This introductory chapter provides an overview of the book's main themes. This book is primarily about physiological mechanisms, but it also addresses the specific question of what we know about the physiological, metabolic, energetic, and hormonal mechanisms that regulate, and potentially determine, individual, or phenotypic, variation in key reproductive life-history traits, trade-offs between these traits, and trade-offs and carry-over effects between different life-history stages. Initially, it focuses on the avian reproductive cycle (from seasonal gonadal development, through egg-laying and incubation, to chick-rearing), and then it expands this view to consider reproduction in the broader context of the annual cycle and over an individual's entire lifetime. Throughout the book develops two major themes: that we need to consider reproductive physiology and ecology from a female perspective and that we need to consider the causes and consequences of individual (phenotypic) variation in reproductive life-history traits.
The Hormonal and Physiological Control of Egg Production
Authors: Williams Tony D.
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on the regulation of female reproduction and on the physiological regulation of ovary and oviduct function during egg production. Since female reproduction is highly seasonal and occurs in response to seasonal environmental variability, it considers what we know about how information encoded in photoperiodic and non-photoperiodic cues (food, temperature, and social factors) is integrated by the neuroendocrine system and transduced into an (hormonal) output that ultimately determines ovarian function and egg formation. It briefly reviews important aspects of the neuroendocrine system that regulates gonadal function (i.e., the hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal [HPG] axis). It compares data for males and females in terms of HPG-axis function and reproductive development to provide evidence that males cannot be considered good models for females, and highlights some discrepancies, inconsistencies, and gaps in our knowledge with regard to control of female reproduction. Throughout it attempts to highlight and describe mechanisms that might generate or constrain individual variability in female reproductive traits.
Shame Cultures, Collectivist Societies, Original Sin, and Pharaoh’s Hardened Heart
Authors: Sommers Tamler
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines literature highlighting the differences between “individualist” societies (e.g., the United States, Great Britain, and Western Europe) and “collectivist societies” (e.g., Japan, China, and South Korea). It surveys literature from a wide variety of disciplines, including anthropology, social psychology, cultural psychology, sociology, and classical literature. The overarching goal is to give the reader taste of how differently human beings have regarded moral responsibility across cultures and throughout history. It shows that the relative emphasis on shame leads East Asians to connect blameworthiness with social disapproval, and also to feel responsible for public acts over which they have little or no control. In the West, an increased emphasis on guilt makes it more likely that individuals will hold themselves responsible for both public and private misdeeds, but only for those that they played an active role in bringing about.
Playing at Serial Acquisitions
Authors: Smit Han , Moraitis Thras
Published: November 2017

In a period of only a few years in the early 2000s, Vodafone's then CEO Chris Gent grew the company from a small UK-based mobile operator into the world leader, with over 240 million customers. He did this via a sequence of 26 strategic transactions, including the acquisition of AirTouch and deals leading to the creation of the Verizon wireless business in the United States. Judging from Vodafone's acquisition story, Gent played his cards well, while both Vodafone's rivals and the financial markets acted irrationally in some instances. However, even Gent may have made some typical serial acquisition errors on the road to building the world's leading telecom company. This chapter uses the Vodafone story to illustrate how behavioral pitfalls in strategy, valuation, and bidding can be related to various components of the options and game valuation approach.
Dual Real Options Valuation
Authors: Smit Han , Moraitis Thras
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses the application of the top-down and bottom-up duality of the real option frameworks to valuing serial acquisitions. It develops the market-based present value of growth options (PVGO) method into a framework that directly connects serial acquisition strategy to value creation on financial markets, and so helps to explain the full market value of companies in consolidating industries. In addition, in a bottom-up approach, it considers acquisitions as portfolios of interrelating acquisition options, each stage being an option on the next, which can develop the firm's asset base dynamically and opportunistically. This dual approach to value acquisition programs is called the market method for acquisitions.
Uprooted
Authors: Thum Gregor
Published: November 2017

With the stroke of a pen at the Potsdam Conference following the Allied victory in 1945, Breslau, the largest German city east of Berlin, became the Polish city of Wroclaw. Its more than 600,000 inhabitants—almost all of them ethnic Germans—were expelled and replaced by Polish settlers from all parts of pre-war Poland. This book examines the long-term psychological and cultural consequences of forced migration in twentieth-century Europe through the experiences of Wroclaw's Polish inhabitants. The book tells the story of how the city's new Polish settlers found themselves in a place that was not only unfamiliar to them but outright repellent given Wroclaw's Prussian-German appearance and the enormous scope of wartime destruction. The immediate consequences were an unstable society, an extremely high crime rate, rapid dilapidation of the building stock, and economic stagnation. This changed only after the city's authorities and a new intellectual elite provided Wroclaw with a Polish founding myth and reshaped the city's appearance to fit the postwar legend that it was an age-old Polish city. The book also shows how the end of the Cold War and Poland's democratization triggered a public debate about Wroclaw's “amputated memory.” Rediscovering the German past, Wroclaw's Poles reinvented their city for the second time since World War II. The book traces the complex historical process by which Wroclaw's new inhabitants revitalized their city and made it their own.
Takeover
Authors: Thum Gregor
Published: November 2017

This chapter talks about the impending Polish takeover of the German territories. On August 2, 1945, the Allies decided to remove from the German Reich all territories east of the Oder and Lusatian Neisse rivers and place them under Polish administration, with the exception of northern East Prussia, which was to be ceded to the Soviet Union. By this point in time a Polish mayor was already in office in Breslau and the population exchange was in full swing. However, before the Allies had reached an agreement about the precise location of the new German–Polish border, and while experts in the London Foreign Office and the Washington State Department were still reviewing the economic and logistical consequences of the various border proposals, the Soviet government and the Soviet-installed Polish regime had resolved the border issue on their own.
A Loss of Substance
Authors: Thum Gregor
Published: November 2017

This chapter demonstrates how, after the population exchange, the most urgent task that Polish leaders in the western territories faced was the revitalization of the economy. The western territories that now belonged to Poland had been ravaged by the war. Countless cities lay in ruin; bridges and railway facilities had been blown up; farms were burned to the ground; seed stock and agricultural equipment were either destroyed or carried away by the Germans as they fled westward. But the end of the fighting did not mark the end of the destruction. In fact, a wave of vandalism followed the conquest of German territory. The chapter also shows how Poland's communist government was concerned about its reputation among the Polish people, which was compromised not only by the sheer volume of the Soviet dismantling but also by the recklessness with which it was carried out.
Amputated Memory and the Turning Point of 1989
Authors: Thum Gregor
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses how the Polish state and the people who came to Wroclaw after the Second World War managed to rebuild and revive this city. Considering the situation at the end of the war—the devastation, the complete collapse of the previous order, the evacuation of its entire population—this achievement borders on a miracle. If that were not enough, after overcoming its tremendous postwar challenges Wroclaw has gone on to become more than simply a functioning Polish city. The secret capital of the western territories ranks next to Warsaw and Krakow as one of Poland's leading cultural metropolises. Furthermore, Wroclaw's cultural life extends beyond the reach of direct state sponsorship. The chapter also shows how, in the 1980s, Polish inhabitants of the western territories began to show a growing interest in the silenced history of their homeland.
East Asian Bodies in Nineteenth-Century Medicine
Authors: Keevak Michael
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines how the Mongolian race was perceived in nineteenth-century Western medicine. More specifically, it considers medical explanations for certain conditions deemed to be associated with “Mongolian” bodies and endemic in, or in some way linked to, the race as a whole, including the “Mongolian eye,” the “Mongolian spot,” and “Mongolism” (now known as Down syndrome). The chapter argues that each of these “Mongolian” conditions became a way of distancing the Mongolian race from a white Western norm, since they were taken to be either characteristic of irregular East Asian bodies. It also contends that “Mongolianness” served as a rationale for racism just as much as the other way around.
States of Credit
Authors: Stasavage David
Published: November 2017

This book provides the first comprehensive look at the joint development of representative assemblies and public borrowing in Europe during the medieval and early modern eras. It argues that unique advances in political representation allowed certain European states to gain early and advantageous access to credit, but the emergence of an active form of political representation itself depended on two underlying factors: compact geography and a strong mercantile presence. The book shows that active representative assemblies were more likely to be sustained in geographically small polities. These assemblies, dominated by mercantile groups that lent to governments, were in turn more likely to preserve access to credit. Given these conditions, smaller European city-states, such as Genoa and Cologne, had an advantage over larger territorial states, including France and Castile, because mercantile elites structured political institutions in order to effectively monitor public credit. While creditor oversight of public funds became an asset for city-states in need of finance, the book suggests that the long-run implications were more ambiguous. City-states with the best access to credit often had the most closed and oligarchic systems of representation, hindering their ability to accept new economic innovations. This eventually transformed certain city-states from economic dynamos into rentier republics. Exploring the links between representation and debt in medieval and early modern Europe, the book contributes to broad debates about state formation and Europe's economic rise.
An Introduction to the History of Debt
Authors: Hyman Louis
Published: November 2017

This introductory chapter provides a history of debt. While personal lending had always existed, before 1917 it had never been legal to charge interest rates high enough to turn a profit and, equally important, lenders had never been able to resell their consumers' debts or borrow against them. In short, personal debt had never been able to be a normal business. However, personal debt assumed a new role within American capitalism once it became legal, sellable, and profitable. These developments did not occur all at once, but happened over the course of the twentieth century, beginning after World War I, and resulting as much from entrepreneurial innovation as governmental policy. Common to all these shifts were new ways of regulating and reselling debt. Indeed, regulation made legal lending possible, but its relative strength and enforcement propelled lending in some unexpected directions.
How Commercial Bankers Discovered Consumer Credit
Authors: Hyman Louis
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on personal loan departments. On May 4, 1928, National City Bank opened the nation's first personal loan department. Curiously, despite the popularity of the department and despite the prominence of National City Bank—one of the country's largest commercial banks—few other banks opened their own personal loan departments in the late 1920s. Nonetheless, by the end of the 1930s, personal loans were a standard part of commercial banks' offerings. The chapter then asks why banks would begin to loan to consumers in the middle of the 1930s when jobs were so precarious, rather than in the 1920s when prosperity reigned. In answering this question, one can see how powerful federal policy can be in transforming the most basic practices of capitalism, since it was through a previously overlooked federal program—the FHA's Title I loan program—that bankers learned consumer lending could be a good idea.
War and Credit
Authors: Hyman Louis
Published: November 2017

This chapter looks at a federal policy called Regulation W. As the federal government attempted to restrain inflation during World War II scarcity, it instituted both the well-known rationing program for many consumer goods, and launched the now forgotten first federal attempt to directly regulate consumer credit. With Regulation W, Roosevelt authorized the Federal Reserve to directly regulate how much consumers could borrow and the terms under which this borrowing could occur. While Regulation W reduced the overall amount of consumer debt during the war, it also destabilized established lending practices and encouraged a hybridization of installment credit and charge accounts that combined interest charges and flexibility in a form outside Regulation W. In effect, from the beginning of World War II until the Korean War, Regulation W deeply shaped the course of credit practices in the American economy, pushing retailers and consumers towards revolving credit—the nucleus of today's modern credit card.
A New Map for North America
Authors: John Rachel St.
Published: November 2017

This chapter details the diplomacy and warfare that led to the determination of the location of the boundary line and the trying process through which the Joint United States and Mexican Boundary Commission attempted to survey and mark the boundary on the ground. In delimiting the border, U.S. and Mexican officials imagined that they could easily separate sovereign space. However, the process of delimiting, or drawing, the boundary line on paper, simple as it may seem, was the culmination of decades of conflict and diplomatic negotiation. The difficulties faced by the boundary commission not only impeded the commissioners' work, but also fundamentally challenged the national sovereignty under which they operated. The discrepancy between the ability of the nation-states to delimit the boundary line in the treaty and to demarcate it on the ground marked the beginning of a long history in which the border would repeatedly reveal the divide between the states' aspirations and their actual power.
Landscape of Profits
Authors: John Rachel St.
Published: November 2017

This chapter describes how ranchers, miners, investors, laborers, railroad executives, and innumerable economic actors integrated the border into an emerging transnational economy and began to create binational communities on the boundary line. With the completion of the first transborder rail line—brought on by the joining of the Sonora Railway and the Arizona and New Mexico Railroad at the international boundary line—ranchers and miners secured an easy way to move stock and ore to markets. As more people realized this, the borderlands experienced nothing short of a capitalist revolution. The capitalist development of the borderlands would, in turn, spur the creation of an array of new transborder ties. By the early twentieth century, the border has become a point of connection and community in the midst of an emerging capitalist economy and the center of a transborder landscape of property and profits.
Conclusion
Authors: John Rachel St.
Published: November 2017

This concluding chapter argues that the power imbalance between the United States and Mexico has been reflected in the politics of border control. Although U.S. and Mexican officials continued to negotiate bilateral border agreements and cooperative enforcement measures, the twentieth-century border was most influenced by the United States' political and economic agendas as well as the persistent challenges to those goals. From the 1930s through the end of the twentieth century, U.S. border policy primarily focused on encouraging the flow of transborder trade, while regulating the movement of Mexican immigrants and stemming the stream of illegal drugs across the boundary line.
The Retreat of Empires and the Global Advance of the Market
Authors: Borstelmann Thomas
Published: November 2017

This chapter places the United States in the 1970s in the context of world history. Because of the diversity of the Earth's societies in political and social development, all nations and peoples in this era did not march in lockstep with each other; as the Cold War and other conflicts revealed, trends around the globe at the time seemed to be heading in very different directions. But in retrospect, the chapter reveals the 1970s American story of moving simultaneously toward greater egalitarianism and toward greater faith in the free market fit with a similar pattern taking shape around the world, one emphasizing human rights and national self-determination, on the one hand, and the declining legitimacy of socialism and government management of economies, on the other.
More and Less Equal since the 1970s
Authors: Borstelmann Thomas
Published: November 2017

This chapter looks at how greater inclusiveness and formal equality were accompanied by growing distrust of government and the rise of market values in the post-1970s world. Over more than three decades, the result was a more diverse public culture in the realm of employment, entertainment, and politics, on the one hand, and a more economically differentiated society, on the other. Class differences widened, as measured by the distribution of income and wealth. But Americans had long been loath to talk about class divisions, something associated for the past century with Marxist analysis. Rather than addressing growing economic inequality, Americans tended instead to celebrate racial and ethnic diversity. Here, cultural liberalism and economic conservatism had come to form a de facto alliance. It had become the contemporary American condition, the ground on which the vaunted American middle class continued to shrink.
Rotation
Authors: Glatzmaier Gary A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the effects of rotation on convection and gravity waves. Flows in the atmospheres, oceans, and liquid cores of terrestrial planets are dominated by the Coriolis forces, as are the interiors of giant planets and stars. The sum of gravitational and centrifugal forces can go to zero at the top boundary of a rapidly rotating star or accretion disk. The time rate of change of the planetary rotation rate gives rise to Poincaré forces. The chapter first considers Coriolis, centrifugal, and Poincaré forces before explaining the modifications needed to add these effects of rotation to previous models of convection and gravity waves in 2D cartesian box and cylindrical annulus geometries, both of which now lie within a rotating equatorial plane. It also describes 2.5D rotating models and 3D spherical-shell magnetohydrodynamic dynamo models.
The “Hydraulico-Pneumatico-Pyrotechnical Machine of Quasi-Perpetual Motion”
Authors: Smith Justin E. H.
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on Leibniz's contribution to “animal economy.” It discusses two distinct periods of Leibniz's direct, active contribution to animal economy: first, the period extending from 1677 to roughly 1683, in which he wrote a series of very detailed studies of the nature of animal motion and “vegetation”; and the second, from 1709 to 1710, when he engages in debate with Georg Ernst Stahl, returning to many of the ideas developed in the first period, while superimposing upon these the sophisticated metaphysics and the organic model of body that had been developed in the intervening years. In between these two periods, Leibniz developed his theory of organics, focusing on the microstructure and infinitely complex organization of living bodies.
Organic Bodies, Part II: Context and Legacy
Authors: Smith Justin E. H.
Published: November 2017

This chapter analyzes the scientific context in which Leibniz's unique theory of organic bodies took shape. It begins by focusing on the biographical and historical context of Leibniz's model of organic bodies. In particular, it looks at the relation of Leibniz's model of organic body to the empirical life sciences of his era, especially to the seventeenth century's discovery of the ubiquity of subvisible living creatures as well as its growing awareness of the deep interdependence of all living entities. The chapter concludes with a consideration of the legacy of the model of individuality developed by Leibniz in today's philosophy of biology.
The Divine Preformation of Organic Bodies
Authors: Smith Justin E. H.
Published: November 2017

This chapter presents a comprehensive treatment of Leibniz's theory of divine preformation. It considers his contribution to generation theory in its philosophical context as a central problem of natural philosophy as well as in the context of seventeenth-century empirical research. Leibniz leaves no room for spontaneity in the generation of animals. For an epigenesist such as Descartes, in the end sexual generation is on an ontological par with the purportedly spontaneous generation of bees from rotting carcasses or of frogs from pond scum: both proceed according to “minor laws” as a result of the rearrangement of matter. For Leibniz, in contrast, the possibility of a new creature coming into existence as a result of such a rearrangement appears absurd: insofar as an animal is organically embodied, and insofar as this organic body is infinitely complex, it follows that no entirely new creature, with an entirely new organic body, can ever come into existence.
Modular curves, modular forms, lattices, Galois representations
Authors: Edixhoven Bas
Published: November 2017

This chapter provides the necessary background concerning modular curves and modular forms. It covers modular curves, modular forms, lattices and modular forms, Galois representations attached to eigenforms, and Galois representations over finite fields and reduction to torsion in Jacobians.
Description of X1(5l)
Authors: Edixhoven Bas
Published: November 2017

This chapter first discusses the construction of a suitable cuspidal divisor on X₁(5l). It then describes the strategy for computing the residual representations V in the situation of Theorem 2.5.13.
Approximating Vf over the complex numbers
Authors: Couveignes Jean-Marc
Published: November 2017

This chapter addresses the problem of computing torsion divisors on modular curves with an application to the explicit calculation of modular representations. The final result of the chapter is Theorem 12.14.1 (approximating Vsubscript f). It identifies two differences between this Theorem 12.14.1 and Theorem 12.10.7. First, it claims that it can separate the cuspidal and the finite part of Qₓ. Second, it returns algebraic coordinates b and x for the points Qsubscript x,n rather than analytic ones.
Complex Media
Authors: Roach G. F. , Stratis I. G. , Yannacopoulos A. N.
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses complex media, which plays a big part in the late-twentieth-century technology revolution and is propagating with increasing speed and expanding front. Complex media are artificial materials exhibiting properties, based on their structure rather than their composition, which are superior to those in naturally existing materials. Nevertheless, there certainly do exist materials in nature displaying ‘exotic’ properties. Moreover, a discrimination between left and right has proven to be a fertile concept in the many branches of science that feed into electromagnetics: handedness is a term that is used extensively in the complex media literature. There are actually three notions of handedness of interest in electromagnetics, as this chapter shows.
Well Posedness
Authors: Roach G. F. , Stratis I. G. , Yannacopoulos A. N.
Published: November 2017

This chapter presents rigorous mathematical results concerning the solvability and well posedness of time-harmonic problems for complex electromagnetic media, with a special emphasis on chiral media. It also presents some results concerning eigenvalue problems in cavities filled with complex electromagnetic materials. The chapter also studies the behaviour of the interior domain problem for a chiral medium in the limit of low chirality. Next, it presents some comments related to the well posedness and solvability of exterior problems. Finally, using an appropriate finite-dimensional space and the variational formulation of the discretised version of the original boundary value problem, this chapter obtains numerical methods for the solution of the Maxwell equations for chiral media.
Nonlinear Problems
Authors: Roach G. F. , Stratis I. G. , Yannacopoulos A. N.
Published: November 2017

This chapter studies nonlinearity in electromagnetic media. Nonlinearity appears in a number of cases in which the dispersion relations or equivalently the coefficients of the constitutive relations change as a function of the field amplitudes. This behaviour is very common in dielectrics, where it has been experimentally verified, theoretically studied, and widely studied mathematically. Furthermore, the interplay between dispersion and nonlinearity in dielectrics has led to the observation of solitary waves, which has important applications to optical communications. This chapter begins by introducing a model for the study of nonlinear phenomena in complex media, and then provides some rigorous results concerning the solvability and well posedness of the nonlinear model using techniques from the theory of nonlinear PDEs.
Controllability
Authors: Roach G. F. , Stratis I. G. , Yannacopoulos A. N.
Published: November 2017

This chapter addresses the problem of controllability for stochastic complex electromagnetic media. The starting point is the stochastic integrodifferential equations that model the evolution of the fields, with a control procedure to be selected so that the system is driven to a desired final state. The controllability problem for stochastic media is more complicated than that for deterministic media and includes subtleties that must be addressed to reach a satisfactory answer. Hence, this chapter sets the model and then discusses the subtle issues introduced by the stochasticity in the controllability problem. It then proposes two different approaches towards controllability: an approach using PDEs with random coefficients and an approach using backward stochastic evolution equations (BSEEs). Afterward, the chapter lists several comments concerning boundary controllability and optimal control.
The Virtues of Long-Term Commitment: Australia’s Future Fund
Authors: Clark Gordon L. , Dixon Adam D. , Monk Ashby H. B.
Published: November 2017

This chapter presents the first case study, looking past the geopolitical concerns that have plagued sovereign wealth funds (SWFs) and focusing on the competing domestic political interests embedded in sponsoring countries. In other words, the chapter examines the domestic, political claims on SWFs and the principles and practice of governance used to discipline those interests. It shows that there is an ever-present temptation that faces SWF sponsors: the option of spending the assets for current political advantage. Through the case study of Australia's Future Fund (FF), it examines how governance can, in effect, tame political temptation. Indeed, the Australian government specifically addressed the question of political temptation in its design of its SWF. The chapter focuses on the principles used to design the FF and references recent research on the principles of best-practice investment management.
Legitimacy, Trade, and Global Imbalances: The China Investment Corporation
Authors: Clark Gordon L. , Dixon Adam D. , Monk Ashby H. B.
Published: November 2017

This chapter offers an innovative account—rooted in international political economy, economic geography, and geopolitics—of the rise of the China Investment Corporation (CIC). It argues that the CIC is not an investor governed only by concerns for long-term risk-adjusted rate of return on its investment portfolio. Rather, the CIC as an arm of the Chinese government, which just like other state-owned enterprises, is concerned with the country's resource needs and its status as a global power. The CIC may thus be thought of as a means of realizing economic and geopolitical advantage, legitimized perhaps by an expressed, but limited, concern for the long-term rate of return on invested assets, hence the classification of the CIC as a productivist sovereign wealth fund.
Conclusion: Form and Function in the Twenty-First Century
Authors: Clark Gordon L. , Dixon Adam D. , Monk Ashby H. B.
Published: November 2017

This chapter looks to the future and rehearses the argument about form and function, recognizing that today's ideal form of the sovereign wealth fund (SWF) is based on two sets of rules: those related to who is responsible for investment decision-making and those related to the conceptual foundations of investment practice. Thereafter, it suggests that the form of SWFs may not be stable over the long term; the challenge facing SWFs is, in part, about transcending traditional forms of investment management in favor of a genuine commitment to long-term investment in the interest of both the SWF and the sovereign. The chapter argues that transcending the current paradigm may necessitate the transformation of the form of SWFs such that they become strategic investors rather than portfolio investors, knitting together their sponsors' geopolitical interests with investment management.
Republican Religion and Religious Reform
Authors: Viroli Maurizio
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers theories on religious reform. Those show lived liberty as a religious faith felt a deep revulsion for the corruption of the clergy and the temporal power of the pope. The former corrupted customs and extinguished civil virtues; the latter was a constant menace to republics and hindered the rule of law from within, through the vindication of exemptions and privileges. For this reason, republics intensely felt the need for a religious reform that would eradicate the church's temporal power and bring Christian religion back to its focus on poverty and charity. The advocates of religious reform drew inspiration and arguments from biblical and classical sources. The ideal of the twelfth-century religious movements was a reformation aimed at returning to the authentic form of the Christian religion.
After the Revolution
Authors: Viroli Maurizio
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on the republican liberty in the aftermath of the revolution. The defeat of the revolutionary experiment made the most perceptive political writers aware of the fact that Italy lacked a public spirit capable of sustaining republican institutions. These thinkers realized that the true enemies of republican liberty, rather than reactionary governments and the papacy, were Italy's bad customs and bad religion. The revolutionary initiative could change governments and institutions, but only education could improve customs and religion. Cuoco understood better than anybody else that the Italian problem was above all one of public spirit. In a letter to Giovanni Battista Giovio on March 7, 1804, he explains that no better order would arise as long as Italians remained “sluggard and fainthearted,” especially weak in spirit rather than just in politics and arms.
As If God Existed
Authors: Viroli Maurizio
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers the writings of Ernesto Rossi, who recognized the absolute authority of moral conscience and posited it as the foundation of his religious conception of life. Sentenced to twenty years in prison for his participation in conspiratorial activity, he wrote to his mother, Elide Rossi, from the penitentiary in Piacenza, on January 20, 1933, that he was happy she no longer had any tie with the Catholic religion. For Rossi, Catholicism was at most an inferior conception of life compared to philosophical knowledge. Rossi prefered a soft religion—soft and yet capable of guiding one's action—to a revealed or bad religion. The chapter then turns to the writings of Massimo Mila, who was imprisoned in 1935 because he belonged to the Justice and Liberty movement. He believed not in the Christian religion but rather in a profound secular religion, based on the supreme value of the intrinsic intention of the one who acts and the conviction that one's faith is solely the “purity of the moral intention.”
Abelard
Authors: Marenbon John
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on Peter Abelard, the first thinker, since Augustine and Boethius, for whom the Problem of Paganism was a central concern. Two of his works in particular are among the most remarkable of all medieval treatments of the area. Abelard's first theological work, written c. 1121, was the Theologia Summi Boni (later rewritten as the Theologia Christiana), gives a golden picture of the wise and virtuous men and women of ancient Greece and Rome, the philosophers especially. Probably just a few years later, Abelard wrote his Collationes, a dialogue, into which he introduces, as the central figure, an ancient philosopher redivivus, unambiguously outside Jewish and Christian revelation. But for Abelard the Problem of Paganism extends beyond these texts, since it is bound up with the aims of the whole theological project which occupied the second of the two stages of his career.
John of Salisbury and the Encyclopaedic Tradition
Authors: Marenbon John
Published: November 2017

This chapter details John of Salisbury's role in addressing the Problem of Paganism. For him, as for Abelard, who was briefly his teacher, the Problem of Paganism is a constant concern, which is addressed explicitly. Unlike Abelard, however, John does not make his own views on it immediately obvious. The chapter considers two of his works, the Indicator of the Doctrines of the Philosophers (Entheticus de dogmate philosophorum, c. 1155), and the Policraticus (c. 1159). The Policraticus in particular is placed at the beginning of an important side-stream in the medieval treatment of ancient philosophers: the encyclopaedic accounts of the lives and sayings of the philosophers.
Dante and Boccaccio
Authors: Marenbon John
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers the highly paradoxical position occupied by ancient pagans, who are considered genuinely and outstandingly virtuous and yet at the same are condemned to Hell. This paradox is discussed in detail before the chapter goes on to explain Dante's position in this paradox, by looking at Dante's attitude to pagan wisdom and its relation to Christianity, especially his adoption, but transformation, of the position of limited relativism which strictly separates the spheres of philosophical enquiry and Christian doctrine. The damnation of virtuous pagans turns out to be the price required by this approach, which remains deliberately paradoxical, despite Dante's innovation of placing them in a special part of Hell, where there are no physical torments. Furthermore, the chapter looks at another aspect of Dante's discussion of paganism — his treatment of Epicurus and his followers — and links it to a comparison with his great admirer and commentator, Boccaccio.
Pagan Knowledge, 1400–1700
Authors: Marenbon John
Published: November 2017

This chapter turns to the first of the three aspects of the Problem of Paganism — knowledge, virtue, and salvation — which is examined here for the period 1400–1700. It begins by looking at discussions, mainly about ancient Greek and Latin pagans and their writings, in and out of the universities, before going on to see how the Problem was complicated and given special relevance, but not fundamentally changed, by contacts, from 1492 onwards, with large groups of contemporary pagans, in America and then in China. Within roughly four decades from 1492, Europeans came into contact with — and all too rapidly made themselves the rulers of — a vast number of previously unknown pagan peoples, in what was before long recognized to be a new continent in the West.
The Salvation of Pagans, 1400–1700
Authors: Marenbon John
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines how sixteenth- and seventeenth-century theologians faced a new theological challenge in light of new evidence that there exists millions of virtuous pagans who had had no chance of hearing about Christianity (labelled here as ‘invincibly ignorant pagans’). This challenge emerged from the discovery of America and other lands at the end of the fifteenth century, revealing yet new territories where, to all appearances, Christianity had never been preached. However the chapter shows that, on some fifteenth-century treatments of pagan salvation, and on seventeenth-century treatments of illustrious ancient pagans, this new challenge was not entirely new, and that the older lines of discussion were continued, though in a modern format.
Growing Pains: Alliance Formation and the Road to Conflict in Korea
Authors: Christensen Thomas J.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines how problems and politics in the nascent alliances and alignments in both the communist and anticommunist camps affected security relations between the two camps in the first years of the Cold War. It shows how the uncertain and poorly defined nature of U.S. commitment to its partners in East Asia undercut the credibility of the nation's near-term threats and long-term assurances in coercive diplomacy. It argues that North Korea's invasion of South Korea that started the Korean War was rooted in a combination of communist elites' underestimation of the resolve and power of the United States to counter such an aggression in the near term and an inflated view of Japan's likely future role in the security politics of the region after its full economic and military recovery from World War II.
“Our goal is to have one classification—American”
Authors: King Desmond S. , Smith Rogers M.
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers two of the most important foundational systems in American life: public education, and governmental classification of the population in terms of race and ethnicity. Education is recognized as fundamental to developing capacities for responsible citizenship, marketable skills, and resources for personal fulfillment in modern America. Governmental racial and ethnic classifications not only determine such key issues as congressional district size, federal grants to states, and affirmative action, they help both to express and to constitute the senses of identity of many Americans. Neither the structure of modern American schooling nor its systems of racial classifications can be grasped without appreciating the roles the modern racial alliances play in the politics that have shaped current policies and practices on those issues.
What Follows from Our Common Humanity?
Authors: Risse Mathias
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines how our common humanity as a ground of justice leads to an account of human rights, which in turn generates a duty of assistance in building institutions. It first considers the notion of a “conception of human rights” before offering such a conception built around the idea of common humanity and connecting that conception to the institutional stance. It argues that claims of common humanity generate a duty of assistance in building institutions. Finally, it explores Simon Caney's version of nonrelationism to suggest that certain more expansive views of the role of common humanity in a theory of global justice are implausible. The chapter contends that nonrelationists exaggerate the role of the idea of a distinctively human life for global justice.
Justice and Accountability
Authors: Risse Mathias
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines how the state might best live up to its obligation to be accountable. It first considers the notion of one ground being embedded in another, noting that since states are embedded in other grounds, principles not tied to shared membership in states also apply to states. It then outlines a list of principles that apply to the state and looks at the notion of accountability, focusing on whether agents are accountable to those in the scope of principles toward whose realization they have duties, and what such accountability implies. The chapter proceeds by distinguishing different forms of accountability and argues that agents with duties toward realizing principles of justice are accountable to those in their scope. It concludes by rejecting the suggestion that we ought to build global democratic institutions.