bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Clustering and combining pattern of metabolic syndrome components in a rural Brazilian adult population
Authors: Pimenta Adriano Marcal , Felisbino-Mendes Mariana Santos , Velasquez-Melendez Gustavo
Published: April 2015

CONTEXT AND OBJECTIVE Metabolic syndrome is characterized by clustering of cardiovascular risk factors such as obesity, dyslipidemia, insulin resistance, hyperinsulinemia, glucose intolerance and arterial hypertension. The aim of this study was to estimate the probability of clustering and the combination pattern of three or more metabolic syndrome components in a rural Brazilian adult population. DESIGN AND SETTING This was a cross-sectional study conducted in two rural communities located in the Jequitinhonha Valley, Minas Gerais, Brazil. METHODS The sample was composed of 534 adults (both sexes). Waist circumference, blood pressure and demographic, lifestyle and biochemical characteristics were assessed. The prevalences of metabolic syndrome and its components were estimated using the definitions of the National Cholesterol Education Program – Adult Treatment Panel III. A binomial distribution equation was used to evaluate the probability of clustering of metabolic syndrome components. The statistical significance level was set at 5% (P < 0.05). RESULTS Metabolic syndrome was more frequent among women (23.3%) than among men (6.5%). Clustering of three or more metabolic syndrome components was greater than expected by chance. The commonest combinations of three metabolic syndrome components were: hypertriglyceridemia + low levels of HDL-c + arterial hypertension and abdominal obesity + low levels of HDL-c + arterial hypertension; and of four metabolic syndrome components: abdominal obesity + hypertriglyceridemia + low levels of HDL-c + arterial hypertension. CONCLUSION The population studied presented high prevalence of metabolic syndrome among women and clustering of its components greater than expected by chance, suggesting that the combination pattern was non-random.
The IDEAL classification system: a new method for classifying fractures of the distal extremity of the radius description and reproducibility
Authors: Belloti Joao Carlos , Santos Joao Baptista Gomes dos , Moraes Vinicius Ynoe de , Wink Felipe Vitiello , Tamaoki Marcel Jun Sugawara , Faloppa Flavio
Published: April 2015

CONTEXT AND OBJECTIVE There is no consensus concerning which classification for distal radius fractures is best and the existing methods present poor reproducibility. This study aimed to describe and assess the reproducibility of the new IDEAL classification, and to compare it with widely used systems. DESIGN AND SETTING Reproducibility study, Hand Surgery Section, Universidade Federal de São Paulo. METHODS The IDEAL classification and its evidence-based rationale are presented. Sixty radiographs (posteroanterior and lateral) from patients with distal radius fractures were classified by six examiners: a hand surgery specialist, a hand surgery resident, an orthopedic generalist, an orthopedic resident and two medical students. Each of them independently assessed the radiographs at three different times. We compared the intra and interobserver concordance of the IDEAL, AO, Frykman and Fernandez classifications using Cohen's kappa (κ) (for two observers) and Fleiss's κ (for more than two observers). RESULTS The concordance was high for the IDEAL classification (κ = 0.771) and moderate for Frykman (κ = 0.556), Fernandez (κ = 0.671) and AO (κ = 0.650). The interobserver agreement was moderate for the IDEAL classification (κ = 0.595), but unsatisfactory for Frykman (κ = 0.344), Fernandez (κ = 0.496) and AO (κ = 0.343). CONCLUSION The reproducibility of the IDEAL classification was better than that of the other systems analyzed, thus making the IDEAL system suitable for application. Complementary studies will confirm whether this classification system makes adequate predictions for therapy and prognosis.
Competencies em promoção da saúde: desafios da formação
Authors: Pinheiro Denise Gonçalves Moura , Scabar Thaís Guerreiro , Maeda Sayuri Tanaka , Fracolli Lislaine Aparecida , Pelicioni Maria Cecília Focesi , Chiesa Anna Maria
Published: April 2015

O CompHP foi desenvolvido na Europa, em 2012, com o intuito de estabelecer competências e um sistema de certificação para a Promoção da Saúde. Este artigo tem o objetivo de apresentar uma reflexão teórica a respeito das possibilidades e limites da utilização do CompHP na formação de profissionais de saúde no Brasil. As bases teóricas que dão suporte a essa reflexão foram buscadas na literatura científica e ajustadas nos debates que aconteceram no interior de uma disciplina de pósgraduação stricto sensu, em 2012. Diversos trabalhos têm discutido e elaborado diretrizes para o estabelecimento de competências em promoção da saúde em todo o mundo, porém, as discussões sobre competências profissionais para a promoção da saúde que têm sido construídas no Brasil são ainda circunscritas a determinadas práticas profissionais. A partir das análises dos textos científicos, fica evidente que as diretrizes do CompHP foram cunhadas para se pensar a formação e a prática em promoção da saúde no contexto europeu, porém, as características do modelo de formação profissional praticado no Brasil podem se beneficiar muito com a proposta de competências que este documento traz.
A Rede de Urgência e Emergência da Macrorregião Norte de Minas Gerais: um estudo de caso
Authors: Torres Soraya Figueiredo de Sousa , Belisário Soraya Almeida , Melo Elza Machado
Published: April 2015

A atenção a Urgência e Emergência é um desafio a ser enfrentado pelo Sistema Único de Saúde e demanda dos gestores a organização deste. Para atender a essa demanda, a Secretaria de Estado de Saúde de Minas Gerais propôs a construção da Rede de Atenção de Urgência e Emergência na Macrorregião Norte de Minas Gerais, sendo a compreensão de seu funcionamento o objetivo deste artigo. Trata-se de uma pesquisa qualitativa e exploratória do tipo estudo de caso. A coleta de dados foi feita mediante pesquisa documental, observação e entrevistas com informantes-chave, membros do Comitê Gestor e profissionais da Secretaria de Estado que acompanham a Rede de Atenção à Urgência e Emergência do Norte de Minas. Os resultados indicam dificuldades, facilidades e avanços no processo. Entre as facilidades, tem-se a implantação da rede, a criação do Comitê, a regionalização do Serviço de Atenção Móvel de Urgência, a adoção da classificação de risco e o suporte do Estado. Entre as dificuldades, estão o modelo de financiamento, a extensão territorial, o despreparo e a rotatividade dos profissionais. Já o avanço foi o maior acesso. Conclui-se ser este um processo complexo e dinâmico, que envolve diversos e diferentes atores. Trata-se de ação pioneira e ousada, que, a despeito das dificuldades, tem se mostrado bastante positiva.
The Vanuxem Collection
Authors: Kemmerly Phillip
Published: April 2015

The Lardner Vanuxem collection of minerals and fossils, lost since its sale in 1853-1854 to W. M. Stewart of Clarksville, Tennessee, has been rediscovered, along with a catalog of the collection. The collection is summarized in tabular form. The disposition of the specimens since the death of Vanuxem, in 1848, is also discussed.

About five percent of the original 6,000-specimen mineral collection still exists at Southwestern University at Memphis. The Vanuxem collection catalog, reprinted by W. M. Stewart circa 1855, indicated a comprehensive collection of the minerals known in the first half of the 19th century.

The Vanuxem fossil collection contained some 16,000 sepcimens, most of which were from the Lower Paleozoic (Potsdam Sandstone, Medina Sandstone, Marcellus Shale, and many Trentonianage formations) of New York State. The collection was organized later by W. M. Stewart on the basis of geologic periods. Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, and Tertiary fossils are dominant. No trace of the Vanuxem fossil collection exists today, although it was still in use in 1923 by students at Southwestern Presbyterian University, Clarksville, Tennessee.
Fenneman and Bucher: The Early Maturity of Geological Science
Authors: Prager Gerald
Published: April 2015

The time that elapsed between the arrival of Nevin Fenneman at the University of Cincinnati in 1907 and the departure of Walter Bucher from Cincinnati to Columbia University in 1940 marks a transitional period of intense and fruitful activity in the history of geology. By the 1930's, terminology had become largely standardized, various statistical and instrumental techniques were widely and increasingly available, and enough data had been accumulated to permit the development of more sophisticated syntheses of geological concepts.

Fenneman and Bucher figured significantly in this early flowering of geological synthesis. There were many parallels in their careers: both were born in northern Ohio towns, both served as chairman of the Geology and Geography Department at the University of Cincinnati and as president of the Geological Society of America, and both gained international stature and wide acclaim. The reasons for their success were also similar, inasmuch as both were innovative synthesizers who, during the 1930's, wrote highly influential texts in their respective fields.

In some ways, the thinking of those times was surprisingly modern, and some of the problems addressed by Fenneman and Bucher remain unresolved today. As men whose ideas both molded and were molded by their age, their careers offer instructive insights for a pivotal period in the development of the geological sciences.
How Misconceptions on Heat Flow May have Delayed Discovery of Plate Tectonics
Authors: Howell, Jr. B.
Published: April 2015

Since 1906 it has been known that sialic rocks are richer in heat-generating radioactive elements than simatic rocks. This led to the assumption that convection in the mantle must rise under the sialic continents and descend under the simatic ocean floors. So persistent was this view that convective flow in the opposite direction was evaluated seriously only after Hess and Dietz proposed it in the 1960's.
Aleksandr Lavrent'yevich Chekanovskiy, Pioneer Geologist and Explorer of North Central Siberia, 1873-76
Authors: Barr William
Published: April 2015

Aleksandr Lavrent'yevich Chekanovskiy, a Pole by nationality, who had studied geology at the universities of Kiev and Derpt (Tartu), was exiled to Siberia for his participation in the uprisings in Kiev in 1863. Through the intercession of his colleague Friedrich Schmidt, his sentence to hard labour at Padun was repealed in 1868 and he was allowed to move to Irkutsk where he was employed by the Siberian Branch of the Russian Imperial Geographical Society. Over the next few years he carried out extremely valuable geological surveys in the areas around Irkutsk and Ozero Baykal. Probably his major contribution during this phase of his career in terms of paleobotany was the discovery of a new genus of gingkos, namely Czekanowskia Heer.

With the support of the Geographical Society Chekanovskiy next mounted two very important exploring expeditions which focussed on the enormous and largely unknown area of north East Siberia lying between the Yenisey and Lena Rivers. Apart from geographical exploration he and his colleagues also made extensive studies and assembled impressive geological, botanical, and entomological collections. On the first expedition, in the spring and summer of 1873, Chekanovskiy travelled the full length of the Nizhnaya Tunguska River by boat. On the second expedition, which lasted throughout the whole of 1874, he travelled down the Olenek by raft, then explored the lower reaches of the river valley by reindeer sledge. He returned to Irkutsk by sledge in winter. Immediately thereafter, in the spring of 1875, he mounted a private expedition, travelling the full length of the Lena by boat and returning to the mouth of the Olenek to complete his geological and botanical work in that area; he then again returned to Irkutsk in winter.

Shortly thereafter, in March 1876, Chekanovskiy's sentence of exile was repealed and he moved west to St. Petersburg. Apparently depressed by opposition to his plans for yet another northern expedition, to the basins of the Anabar and Khatanga, he committed suicide in October 1876. His vast contribution to the knowledge of the geography, geology, botany, entomology, and ethnography of this vast area of northern Siberia, assembled during a remarkably intensive series of expeditions, has been recognized, if only to a minor degree, by the commemoration of his name in that of the Kryazh Chekanovskogo, the range of hills west of the mouth of the Lena, which he explored.
Building a Temporal Biology: Simpson's Program for Paleontology During an American Expansion of Biology
Authors: Cain Joseph
Published: April 2015

A central, though overlooked, dimension of George Simpson's (1944) book, Tempo and Mode in Evolution, involved its emphasis on cooperative and historical approaches to evolutionary studies. Together, these two orientations formed Simpson's program in temporal biology, and during the late 1930's and early 1940's, Simpson not only pursued this program, he loudly advocated and actively promoted it. Vertebrate paleontology had lost considerable prestige in evolutionary studies during this period (both at Simpson's home institution and within biology generally), and Simpson fought to empower and enfranchise his discipline. Tempo and Mode was part of that effort, which took place in the broader context of the evolutionary synthesis.
From Geosynclinal to Geosyncline
Authors: Mark Kathleen
Published: April 2015

In 1857, James Hall suggested that the Appalachian Mountains had formed from sediments accumulated on an ancient seafloor which had gradually subsided under their weight. His idea received little immediate support, but in 1873 it was accepted in modified form by James D. Dana, in whose opinion a contraction-caused downwarp, which he called a geosynclinal, had preceded the accumulation of sediments. In 1883, in response to a growing trend, Dana changed the name to geosyncline, and in 1895 he concluded that a depositional trough, as suggested by Hall, caused cither by gravity or contraction, was a prelude to all mountain making.
Elkanah Billings (1820-1876) and Joseph F. Whiteaves (1835-1909): The First Two Paleontologists of The Geological Survey of Canada
Authors: Copeland M.
Published: April 2015

Billings and Whiteaves, both self taught paleontologists, occupied the same position (at different times) within the Geological Survey of Canada but were at different ends of the paleontological spectrum. Together their paleontological careers span the last half of the 19th century. Both were prolific writers, but Billings was not primarily a field man and worked only on the lower Paleozoic fossils of the Ottawa-St. Lawrence Lowland and southern Ontario. Whiteaves was a field man par excellence, working from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to the Pacific coast and specializing in Mesozoic paleontology. Together, they complemented each other's studies and contributed greatly to the initiation, expansion and continuance of the science of paleontology within the Survey and Canada as a whole. They should be considered together as the "Fathers of Canadian Paleontology."
John W. Salter, Sir William Logan, and Elkanah Billings: A Brief British Involvement in the First Decade of ‘Canadian Organic Remains’ (1859)
Authors: Cleevely R.
Published: April 2015

John W. Salter, paleontologist of the Geological Survey of Great Britain, and son-in-law of J. de C. Sowerby, was commissioned by Director William Logan to describe and illustrate Canadian fossils. The fossils were given to Salter in 1851 but publication did not take place until 1859. Decade I of Canadian Organic Remains by Salter was illustrated by steel engravings. This particular technology is virtually forgotten today, but despite difficulties in preparation eventually produced outstanding illustrations. Elkanah Billings, hired by Logan in 1856 as the first Canadian government palaeontologist, journeyed to Great Britain shortly after his appointment and studied with Salter. Billings produced the third Decade, but the first one to be published. Comparison of the Decades to similar publications of the times indicates that they accomplished Logan's goal of making Canadian fossils better known.
Benjamin F. Mudge, the State Geological Surveys, and Fossil Collecting in Kansas, 1864-1870
Authors: Page Leroy
Published: April 2015

B. F. Mudge (1817-79), appointed the first Kansas State Geologist in 1864, served for only one year. Inexperienced, and with no chance of fulfilling the requirements of an expansive law, he was succeeded in 1865 by G. C. Swallow (1817-99). Aided by F. Hawn and the other former members of Mudge's survey, Swallow, who received a larger budget and an open-ended appointment with no specified duties, produced a more impressive report, although he was not funded in 1866. Mudge went to Kansas State Agricultural College, Manhattan, where he became the preeminent Kansas geologist during the years 1866-70. Although better known for his fossil vertebrate collections in the Cretaceous of Western Kansas in the 1870's, Mudge made significant invertebrate collections from the Cretaceous. Building on the foundation laid by F. V. Hayden and F. B. Meek, he was able, with considerable input from Meek, to make a major contribution toward elucidating the stratigraphy of the Kansas Cretaceous.
Alexander Winchell's Preadamites - A Case for Dismissal from Vanderbilt University
Authors: Alberstadt Leonard
Published: April 2015

Alexander Winchell was hired by Vanderbilt University in 1875, the year the University opened under the jurisdiction of the Methodist Church South. As one of America's leading scientists Winchell was instantly Vanderbilt's most renowned faculty member. The man responsible for assembling Vanderbilt's first faculty, Bishop Holland McTyeire, recruited Winchell fervently. As a leading geologist and biologist Winchell was well published at the time of his hiring. His various beliefs regarding organic evolution, the age of the earth, and its geologic history were spelled out in his papers and books and there seems little reason to believe that Bishop McTyeire and the Methodists would have been in doubt about his views.

While a Vanderbilt faculty member from 1875 to 1878 Winchell's additional writings and some of the lectures he gave became increasingly irritating to segments of the community. Finally, after his publication of Adamites and Preadamites in 1878, he was dismissed. However, this book about the races of mankind seems not to have been the sole reason for his dismissal, although it did serve as a catalyst to bring the entire matter to a head. The Dean of Vanderbilt's Biblical Department, Reverend T.O. Summers may have played a significant role in fostering an environment hostile to Winchell and his science. While appearing to be tolerant Summers may have been working behind the scenes against him. However, there can be little doubt that Winchell's beliefs and teachings regarding the historical development of the world and its inhabitants came to present an embarrassment for the Methodist hierarchy and those in control of the University. Although other "official" reasons were given at the time of his dismissal, the controversy nevertheless, ignited considerable debate and brought unhappiness to many quarters.

The essential tenets of Winchell's scientific beliefs at the time of his coming to Vanderbilt, what he wrote and discussed while at Vanderbilt, as well as the overall circumstances and feelings expressed by those at Vanderbilt are the subjects of this paper.
The Mind's Eye: George G. Simpson's Use of Visual Language
Authors: Laporte Léo
Published: April 2015

Late in life, the American paleontologist George G. Simpson (1902-1984) remarked that "I compose my writing visually —I think visually, then translate that into words … I visualize at least as much as I verbalize, perhaps more. Even in abstract theory I often visualize first & then describe in words what I saw mentally." In much of his most significant theoretical work, Simpson did indeed use just such visual language to translate his more original concepts and interpretations regarding, for example, statistical inferences about evolving lineages, relationships of spedation to higher taxonomic categories, ratio diagrams of morphological dimensions, and species-density contouring. Simpson's most interesting and innovative visualizations had to do with organism-environment relationships, including adaptive landscapes, prospective and realized functions of organisms and environments, and especially the adaptive grid upon which he summarized his argument for variable rates and patterns of evolution —"tempo and mode" —in response to differing ecological opportunities available to animal and plant species.

"There [is] much evidence that truly productive thinking in whatever area of cognition takes place in the realm of imagery." — Rudolf Arnheim

"Acceptance of the conceptual importance of visual modes of discourse will require a rather fundamental change of intellectual values within the history of science" — Martin Rudwick

"A diagram is no proof! A diagram is no proof!"—Francis Toner
Alexander Nimmo's on the Application of the Science of Geology to the Purposes of Practical Navigation (1825): The First Investigation of Marine Geology and its Bearing on the Geology of Offshore South West British Isles
Authors: Jackson Patrick
Published: April 2015

Alexander Nimmo, a Scottish engineer working in Ireland from the early 1800s, carried out a marine geological survey of offshore south-west Britain and south Ireland. His findings were published in 1825 and were accompanied by a map of the region on which several lithologies encountered on the seabed are represented. He concluded that a knowledge of marine geology could be advantageous for marine navigation. Nimmo's incursion into marine geology was the first serious attempt of its kind, and predates by almost fifty years similar investigations in the English Channel. In the last thirty years the area investigated by Nimmo has become an important locus for hydrocarbon exploration and exploitation, and its geological structure is well-known.
Falsifying Priority of Species Names: A Fraud of 1892
Authors: Weiss Malcolm
Published: April 2015

In 1891-92, N. H. Winchell and Charles Schuchert were preparing a chapter on Minnesota brachiopods for the Winchell Survey's Final Report on the geology of Minnesota. At the same time, C. W. Hall's Masters degree candidate. F. W. Sardeson, was finishing his thesis, which included some new names of brachiopods. Sardeson had told Schuchert that he would not publish first, but Hall required him to attempt to do so because some of Sardeson's species were from biozones described in a forthcoming paper of which Hall was senior author.

In order to beat Sardeson, Winchell had E. O. Ulrich prepare a short article on new brachiopod names for The American Geologist. A dummy preprint, dated 1 April 1892, was given to Sardeson on that date by Ulrich, who said that they had been mailed out. The article suppressed six of Sardeson's brachiopod names. At Hall's instigation, Sardeson's publication was mailed out on 6 April. Although the 1 April preprint had not been mailed out, a "corrected" preprint of the same, dated 21 April, was.

Sardeson's six species names are therefore still valid, although Winchell's trickery quickly prevailed in the literature. Hall used Sardeson to try to confound Winchell, whom he disliked greatly, but with Ulrich's help Winchell won out anyway.
Knowledge From Underground: Leibniz Mines the Enlightenment
Authors: Hamm E.
Published: April 2015

The history of geology has focused largely on the foundations of geology in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. Considerable attention has also been given to grand theories of the earth, or cosmogonies, of the seventeenth century. This approach has left out most of eighteenth-century mineralogy; it has also left out mining. The argument here is that Leibniz's Protogaea is best understood in the context of the Harz mines, where Leibniz spent considerable energy doing administrative work and inventing new mining machinery. By looking to the mines we not only make sense of Protogaea, but of most of German mineralogy in the eighteenth century. J. G. Lehmann, J. F. W. Charpentier, C. G. Delius and many other practitioners working in and around mines were deeply concerned with mapping the subterranean structure of the earth's crust and they contrasted their work with the "fantastic" world of theorists. The Freiberg Mining Academy, other institutions, and the way vocabularies of mining changed will also be considered. Finally there are some concluding thoughts on why mining has almost disappeared from the history of geology.
Silas Watson Ford: A Major But Little-Known Contributor to the Cambrian Paleontology of North America
Authors: Hernick Linda
Published: April 2015

Silas Watson Ford (1848-1895), telegrapher and paleontologist born in Glenville, New York, in 1848, made significant contributions to Cambrian paleontology from 1871 to 1888. The focus of his work was the allochthonous Taconic rock that lies east of the Hudson River in easternmost New York. His discovery of a ‘Primordial’ fauna in this region was instrumental in helping to resolve the uncertainty surrounding the age of this older portion of the Taconics. While most of his papers were published in the American Journal of Science, a series of seven papers on the ‘Silurian Age’ was published by the New York Tribune in 1879. For this work he was subsequently awarded an honorary master's degree by Union College.

Ford was hired by his contemporary, Charles Doolittle Walcott (1850-1927), to work for the U.S. Geological Survey from 1884 to 1885. Highly regarded by James Hall (1811-1898), James Dwight Dana (1813-1895), Joachim Barrande (1799-1883), and many other prominent geologists of the time, he was often consulted for his expertise in collecting and describing Cambrian-age fossils.

While Walcott's career continued to flourish, Ford faded into obscurity after 1888. Plagued by personal problems, he was forced to give up his personal library, his fossil collection, and finally, his career. He died in 1895 at the age of 47, with his passing virtually unnoticed by his professional colleagues.
The Rise of the Theory of Differentiation in Igneous Petrology (Part 2 of 2)
Authors: Young Davis
Published: April 2015

The theory of differentiation dominated igneous petrology between 1880 and 1903. During this period, petrologists eagerly applied insights from the burgeoning field of physical chemistry to account for differentiation. Acceptance of the Soret effect, a mechanism applicable to differentiation of magma in purely liquid condition, prevailed in the early 1890s. As support for the Soret effect eroded after 1893, a wide range of other mechanisms for producing differentiation was proposed including the Gouy-Chaperon effect (gravity stratification of magma), molecular flow in accord with Berthelot's principle, liquid immiscibility, eutectic crystallization, fractional crystallization, electrolysis, magnetic attraction, and circulation of mineralizing fluids. Consensus about the competing mechanisms of differentiation had not been achieved at the beginning of the twentieth century.

The development of differentiation theory arose in the context of increased specialization in igneous petrology. Between 1880 and 1903, virtually only petrologists employed by government surveys or academic institutions theorized about igneous rock diversity. The days of chemist, naturalist, or general geologist contributing to petrogenetic theory were behind. Igneous petrology emerged as a specialized discipline because of the influence of physical chemistry on geology, increasingly available chemical analyses, but, above all, because of the dramatic rise of microscopic petrography in the 1870s that led to precise mineralogical and textural description of thousands of igneous rocks, deciphering of the sequence of crystallization, and abandonment of the age criterion in classification.
Getting Oceanography Done
Authors: Oreskes Naomi
Published: April 2015

This special section of Earth Sciences History presents four papers from the Maury II Conference on the History of the Marine Sciences, held at Woods Hole, Massachusetts in June 1999. The common theme of the papers is patronage: how scientists obtained moral, financial, and logistical support for oceanographic work from the late 19th to the mid 20th century. Oceanography is an expensive and logistically difficult science. How do scientists manage to get oceanography done?
Spencer Baird and Support for American Marine Science, 1871-1887
Authors: Allard Dean
Published: April 2015

The early history of the U.S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries reveals the skill of Spencer Fullerton Baird (1823-1887) in obtaining federal resources for scientific programs. Baird directed this Commission from 1871 to 1887 in addition to undertaking his duties as a senior Smithsonian Institution official. His success in persuading Congress to establish, and then to fund the growth of the commission, revealed the persistence of his lobbying efforts, a personality that appealed to the Congressmen of his day, and Baird's reputation for frugality. His success also reflected the utility of the Fish Commission's efforts to increase the nation's food supply. Nevertheless, Baird adopted a liberal interpretation of the appropriations earmarked for the Commission's practical programs and redirected some of these resources to a pioneering scientific survey of the coastal and oceanic waters of the Northwest Atlantic.
The Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory Oral History Project: A Preliminary Report
Authors: Levin Tanya , Doel Ronald
Published: April 2015

The Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory (LDEO) celebrated its fiftieth anniversary in 1999. As part of" the effort to preserve the history of this important earth science research institute, senior Lamont administrators conceived an ambitious oral history project. Now complete, these oral histories present a useful resource for those studying the history of the earth sciences, environmental history, social and institutional history, disciplinary development, technological change, internationalism in the sciences, and patronage. This article summarizes certain preliminary conclusions reached during the course of this project.
Patronage and Science: Roger Revelle, the U.S. Navy, and Oceanography at the Scripps Institution
Authors: Rainger Ronald
Published: April 2015

In the years between 1940 and 1955, American oceanography experienced considerable change. Nowhere was that more true than at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography in La Jolla, California. There Roger Revelle (1909-1991) played a major role in transforming a small, seaside laboratory into one of the leading oceanographic centers in the world. This paper explores the impact that World War II had on oceanography and his career. Through an analysis of his activities as a naval officer responsible for promoting oceanography in the navy and wartime civilian laboratories, this article examines his understanding of the relationship between military patronage and scientific research and the impact that this relationship had on disciplinary and institutional developments at Scripps.
Appalachian Peneplains: An Historical Review
Authors: Sevon William , Potter Noel , Crowl George
Published: April 2015

The concept that erosion, over a long period of time, would produce an evolutionary progression of landforms culminating in a nearly flat plain, the peneplain, was formulated into a coherent theory by W. M. Davis. Subsequent to early identification of the Fall Zone (oldest), Schooley, Harrisburg, and Somerville (youngest) peneplains, numerous workers pursued identification, correlation, description, folding, formative processes, and dating of Appalachian peneplains for 6 decades. Following a peak of interest and activity in the 1930's, work on Appalachian peneplains declined rapidly. Reasons for the decline include: death of former workers, diversion into other lines of research, and rise of process geomorphology. Phenomena attributed to a dependence on peneplanation include: origin of present drainage, origin of some mineral resources, and cementation of rock units. Attacks on the peneplain idea have been largely unsuccessful except for the dynamic equilibrium concept advocated by John Hack. Controversy exists about whether the disparity between rates of uplift and denundation allow adequate time for peneplanation to occur. The relationship of some surficial deposits to presumed peneplain surfaces is problematical. The peneplain concept is still alive, but new lines of research are required to resolve its controversial position.
Development of Hydrologic Concepts in the Northeastern United States
Authors: Johnson Martina
Published: April 2015

Significant contributions to hydrogeology from the Northeastern United States have resulted from studies of natural phenomena, the occurrence of mineral springs, and two man-made events - the drilling in 1824 of the first fresh water well in the U.S., and the building of the Erie Canal. Development of chemical analytical techniques was prompted by interest in the therapeutic benefits of Saratoga and similar mineral springs, which were used as spas and sources of bottled water. The fundamental concept that the chemical character of ground water is controlled by lithology and by source and movement of water evolved from efforts to explain the origin and chemical differences of springs that were believed to have different medicinal benefits.

The first drilled well, at the mouth of the Raritan River, led to the study of saltwater encroachment in the United States. The concept that explains the relationship between freshwater head and the position of the saltwater interface was developed to explain the ebbing and flowing of the well. Although the early hydrologic work was undertaken primarily by chemists and engineers, it was largely the challenge of understanding the position and movement of the saltwater interface that required the talents of geologists from whose studies evolved fundamental hydrogeologic concepts. Even now, evaluation of the role of the zone of dispersion in diagenesis, ore deposition, and geomorphic processes is at the forefront of hydrogeologic research.

The building of the Erie Canal demonstrated the delicate ecologic balance of water systems and the need to anticipate the impact of man-made structures on this balance. Hydrologic engineering was advanced during its construction owing to the challenge of controlling the volume of water as well as its depth and velocity.
"Gems" from Rensselaer
Authors: Friedman Gerald
Published: April 2015

This paper complements, supplements, and adds details on nineteenth-century geological pioneers, including faculty, alumni, and sponsors of the Rensselaer School-Institute, now Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute at Troy, New York. These pioneers, all from one single university, have no match anywhere in the annals of promoting nineteenth-century American geological education.

Stephen Van Rensselaer's commissioned geological studies were "of greater extent than had ever been offered to Geology" (Barnard, 1839, p. 76), but "the crowning glory of this good man's life" (p. 76) resulted in the founding of the Rensselaer School which by 1839 "furnished to the community more state geologists than has been furnished, in the same time, by all the colleges of the Union" (p. 83). An at-the-time well known but now largely forgotten geologist, was Jeremias Van Rensselaer who in 1825 published one of the first textbooks on geology which attempted to popularize the science. His study, in 1823, on the geology of salt includes descriptions of worldwide deposits.

Details on faculty and students provide an insight on activity which led to rewards almost unmatched in any other single university.
New Frontiers: The Evolution of William G. Tight From Geomorphologist to University President
Authors: Bork Kennard
Published: April 2015

William George Tight (1865-1910) contributed to our knowledge of U.S. Midwestern drainage patterns and the impact of glaciation on fluvial systems, including the Teays River (Pleistocene; now buried under glacial sediment in West Virginia, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois). In 1901 he accepted the Presidency of the University of New Mexico (UNM). Subsequently, most of his attention was devoted to academic administration, although he managed some investigation of the geology and botany of the New Mexico Territory. He had many successes but ran afoul of political situations that led to his dismissal by the UNM Board of Regents in 1909.

Although elements of Tight's geomorphic work in Ohio were published and his administrative endeavors in New Mexico were well covered by campus newspapers, serious gaps in our knowledge of William Tight exist because a campus fire in 1910 destroyed most of his papers and correspondence. Thus, a full account of his life exemplifies the biographer's task, literal in this case, of sifting through ashes. Just as the geologic column contains breaks, the history of science frequently has its lacunae.

Tight's life as a researcher and administrator is partially visible, thanks to his publications and existing, albeit limited, archival resources. His biography helps us understand the early evolution of glacial geomorphology in the Midwest and the development of a major public university in the Southwest.
Controversies Involving Twentieth-Century Pioneers in American Geology: J. L. Rich and W. H. Bucher: A Personal Perspective
Authors: Friedman Gerald
Published: April 2015

Many geologists are followers of scientific fashion, and/or the narrow fashionability of science. A group of self-serving reviewers reinforces its existing opinions, and explains to students and journalists that their evaluation is what counts. Such narrow views generate controversies. The controversies of which I wish to report involve those relating to J. L. Rich and W. H. Bucher.
Clarence King's Geology
Authors: Aalto K.
Published: April 2015

Clarence King (1842-1901) studied geology at Yale, served as a volunteer on Josiah Dwight Whitney's (1819-1896) Geological Survey of California, and directed the Fortieth Parallel Survey (1867-1872) from the Sierra Nevada across the Rocky Mountains, topo-graphically and geologically mapping some 100,000 square miles. He established a framework for orogenic history of the American Cordillera that has remained unchanged. Within this framework he recognized what we know today as the Sonoma, Sevier, and Laramide orogenies. He noted that folding of Paleozoic strata in the Great Basin recorded east-west crustal shortening, he delineated trends of Laramide folds, he determined that extensional Tertiary faulting that accompanied rhyolitic volcanism resulted in dislocation of old folds, and that ranges were broken into irregular blocks with considerable vertical displacement. King rejected strict Lyellian uniformitarianism and related Darwinian evolution to episodes of enhanced selection pressure engendered by natural catastrophes. His refinement to 24 Ma (million years) of Kelvin's earth age estimate from terrestrial refrigeration reinforced his conception that inadequate time existed to explain the Fortieth-Parallel geologic record by uniformitarianism, and that accelerated geologic processes best accounted for episodes of uplift/subsidence, faulting, volcanism, and landscape degradation. King thus stands out as an early actualist, quite modern in his approach to event stratigraphy.
Reinventing the Wheel: Recurrent Conception in Geomorphology
Authors: Twidale C.
Published: April 2015

A review of the geomorphological literature reveals that although in some instances new concepts and data have revived explanations that were earlier rejected, more commonly published interpretations have been overlooked or forgotten by later workers. Several reasons for this can be adduced: publication in obscure or unlikely journals or in ‘foreign’ languages; citation incidental to and buried within a broader scheme and thus missed by abstract and keywords; lack of identifiable label or name of concept; terminological confusion; status (or lack of it) of proponent. In addition, the question is asked whether generational attitudes impinge on the evaluation of ideas.
Baer's Law of Stream Deflection
Authors: Goudie Andrew
Published: April 2015

Baer's Law of Stream Deflection was a concept that was introduced in the mid-nineteenth century, whereby it was believed that the Earth's rotation influenced the ability of streams to erode their banks preferentially to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere. A number of examples of this tendency were produced, and experimental and theoretical work was used to elaborate the idea. Various authors suggested that the influence of the tendency was small and that other factors (e.g., wind and eolian deposition) could account for stream course asymmetry, but no convincing rebuttal of the law has ever been produced. However, modern treatments of fluvial geomorphology largely ignore it.
The Troost Crinoids: Lost, Found, and (Finally) Published
Authors: Newell Julie
Published: April 2015

In early 1850, Tennessee State Geologist Gerard Troost (1776-1850) completed a manuscript on fossil crinoids that should have been a landmark work in the study of this group. Despite public testimony to the importance of this work before the American Association for the Advancement of Science and in the American Journal of Science, Troost was unable to get legislative support to complete the revision of the manuscript and produce the necessary plates. He then sent his manuscript to the Smithsonian Institution. His death only weeks later was but one factor resulting in a half-century delay during which his manuscript and the related collections were repeatedly misplaced and/or neglected and his species were usurped or independently discovered by others. Despite the ways in which chance events of timing or association combined time and again to delay publication of Troost's findings, his work was never entirely lost. The resulting story is a rich case study in the process of establishing scientific priority in nineteenth-century America.
Conditions of Employment and Work Practices in the Early Years of the Geological Survey of Great Britain
Authors: Oldroyd David , McKenna Graham
Published: April 2015

This paper provides information about the conditions of employment and concomitant work practices of the early years of the Geological Survey of Great Britain. It is chiefly based on a series of pamphlets issued by the successive Survey Directors. These set down the conditions of employment for the organization's staff members, but they also provide insights into the day-to-day workings of the Survey, its gradual enlargement, and its modes of bureaucratic control. They also provide some insight into the ethos of the Survey, and the kind of career and the nature of the work that the organization could offer its staff. Evidence is put forward as to the reason why the series of printed regulations was initiated. The Survey provides a useful early example of the nature and practice of government science, organized according to bureaucratic principles.
Jean-Henri Hassenfratz, Corestone Boulders and the Two-Stage or ETCH Concept of Landform Development
Authors: Twidale C.
Published: April 2015

Though not especially interested in landforms, Jean-Henri Hassenfratz (1755-1827) in 1791 envisaged a two-stage origin for some boulders that he had chanced on near Aumont in the southern Massif Central. His novel explanation had an immediate, though unacknowledged and not unchallenged, impact. It initiated the two-stage or etch interpretation of landforms and all that that implies.
Pehr Kalm: A Swedish Naturalist's Geological Observations in North America, 1748-1751
Authors: Merriam Daniel
Published: April 2015

Pehr Kalm served as Carolus Linnaeus' eyes and ears in the New World (the American Colonies and French Canada) for three years in the mid 18th Century. Kalm was one of the first of many disciples to serve his mentor in his quest to classify everything animal, vegetable, and mineral for his all-encompassing inventory catalog, Systema Naturae. Kalm reported everything he encountered on his journey (resa) to North America in diary form similar to Linnaeus' accounting for his journeys, and he was every bit as keen an observer. His understanding of natural science (i.e. geology) was limited, but his observations on the subject, among the first in North America, were interesting, concise, and relatively detailed for the time.
Alcide D'Orbigny in Argentina: the Beginning of Stratigraphical Studies and Theories on the Origin of the "Pampean Sediments"
Authors: Tonni Eduardo , Pasquali Ricardo
Published: April 2015

The stratigraphy and theories on the origin of the "Pampean Sediments" are described. The terms "terrains pampéens" and "argile pampéennes" introduced by Alcide d'Orbigny have been used for more than 170 years. During this period, the theories and hypotheses on the origin and antiquity of the sediments and their faunas have changed. They have been considered marine or continental in origin, and to be Cretaceous to Pleistocene in age. This sequence and its paleontological content are currently form the basis of the chronological scheme for the last two million years in southern South America.
The Birth of Modern Seismology in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries
Authors: Schweitzer Johannes
Published: April 2015

The earliest seismic instruments were seismoscopes, which could only indicate that a ground shaking had occurred. Modern seismology started in the late 19th century when, mostly in Italy, Japan, Russia, and Germany, seismic instruments were developed, which were able to record ground movements as function of time and orientation. During the decade before World War I, the fundamental development of seismic instruments was completed with seismograph systems of high resolution in time and enough sensitivity to record the most important seismic phases. Since seismic waves traverse the whole Earth and do not stop at political borders, the seismological discoveries were only possible after developing new structures for internationally organized data exchange and cooperation. In parallel to instrumental and organizational developments, seismologists had to learn the principles of seismic wave propagation in a solid body based on elasticity and ray theory. A stepwise deciphering of seismic wave speeds inside the Earth for the different seismic phase types led to the discovery of the basic structure of our planet consisting of crust, mantle and a core divided in two parts.