bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Secret Groups in Ancient Judaism
Authors: Stone Michael E.
Published: October 2017

The thesis advanced in this work is that the model of a secret or esoteric group is fruitful for studying various movements and groups in the Greco–Roman world. This is worked out in the extremely interesting case of the Essenes and the Qumran covenanters, for which we have available not only outsider descriptions but also the very documents that embody at least part of their secret teachings. This approach to analysis is not intended to supplant the sect/normative pattern for describing Ancient Judaism, but to supplement it, adding a very fruitful unexplored dimension to the analysis of ancient Jewish society. By attributing, in the footsteps of Georg Simmel, and more recently L. Hazelrigg, the organization and dynamic of secret societies to the need to guard the secret knowledge, it provides ways of understanding the organization and practice of the Qumran covenanters Essene sect, which were previously unperceived. Having established the theoretical framework, having shown that such groups existed in both non-Jewish and Jewish society in the Greco–Roman world, the book then proceeds to analyze in detail the working out of this dynamic in the cases of the Therapeutae and the Essenes, supplementing this with investigation of whether there is evidence for this same dynamic elsewhere in Second Temple Jewish society. Moreover, this analysis bears on the overall “fit” of these groups in the society of the period, so richly endowed with names of and evidence for different groups in that society.
Esoteric as a Social Category
Authors: Stone Michael E.
Published: October 2017

This chapter deals with the social contexts that determine esoteric content. Knowledge is not of itself esoteric; it is its socially recognized secrecy that makes it so. Names of angels are one example of this. Secrecy enhances value and power, both for the initiate and for the outsider. Problems in testing analyses of secret societies and the function of secret societies are explored. We look at control of knowledge and scribal secrecy and the role of writing in esoteric knowledge. The question of pseudepigraphy stands at the center of this discussion. Does it reflect some religious experience? Or is it an authority-conferring convention?
Reason in the Metaphysics of Finite Individuals
Authors: LeBuffe Michael
Published: October 2017

Spinoza’s claim in Ethics 1 that there is a reason for whatever exists suggests to Michael Della Rocca that Spinoza is a kind of idealist: he makes everything available to reason. Other features of the Ethics emphasized by Edwin Curley suggest, however, that Spinoza is really a materialist: he explains finite individuals in corporeal terms. This chapter shows that reasons themselves, as Spinoza understands them, frequently are corporeal. If reason is what is important to Spinoza’s metaphysics, then there is also reason to conclude that body is what is important. Human beings are the subject of most of Spinoza’s explanations of finite individuals. In interpreting Spinoza’s claims about human beings and the way in which his general commitments in metaphysics apply to those explanations, the chapter depends upon finding in Spinoza a peculiar version of an ancient doctrine, on which the human being bears the image and likeness of God.
Practical Reason
Authors: LeBuffe Michael
Published: October 2017

In Ethics 4, Spinoza argues that reason commands us to preserve ourselves, to seek knowledge, and to take particular kinds of action in doing so. This invocation of reason draws upon Ethics 2 and 3 to explain the sense in which human beings will be motivated to act on these prescriptions: knowledge is for Spinoza a kind of activity, and we all possess significant and powerful ideas of reason. Spinoza draws upon the invocation of reason in Ethics 1 to explain the authority of his prescriptive ethics. All reasons, ultimately, are like reason in God: they are self-explanatory. To say that a prescription is a command of reason, then, is to say that the end it prescribes is fully justified. Ultimately, reason’s commands are inherently rational and have the character frequently ascribed to moral imperatives.
Reason and Miracles
Authors: LeBuffe Michael
Published: October 2017

In chapter 6 of the Theological Political Treatise, Spinoza writes that Scripture does not aim to convince reason but instead aims to inspire devotion. Ordinary people, he suggests, can be made to cooperate only by the devotion that arises from an irrational belief in miracles. Because a life lived according to reason is a good life, this emphasis on devotion may seem to suggest that Spinoza is an elitist, who thinks that political stability requires that ordinary people be made to obey through religious belief and so prevented from attaining understanding. Such an interpretation would be mistaken. On Spinoza’s view all people have and are motivated by reason. Religious ideas must, in order to motivate action consistently and well, motivate the same sorts of actions that reason motivates. So understood, Spinoza’s view is one on which religion can help all citizens to flourish without undermining the stability of the state.
Legal Maxims: Summaries and Extracts from Selected Case Law
Authors: Sessa Emilio
Published: October 2017

Request for an advisory opinion submitted by Sub-Regional Fisheries Commission (SRFC), Case n. 21, Advisory Opinion, 2 April 2015

The Enrica Lexie incident (Italy v. India), Request for the prescription of provisional measures, Case n. 24, Order, 24 August 2015

Contents**

I. FACTUAL AND PROCEDURAL BACKGROUND...
Introductory Note
Authors: Gomula Joanna
Published: October 2017

In 2015 Panel and Appellate Body reports were adopted in eleven disputes. Most of these disputes concerned technical issues related to trade remedy measures, technical barriers to trade and sanitary and phytosanitary measures. However, one dispute stands out because it concerned an important systemic issue: the relationship between the WTO and a regional trade agreement. The major question at issue was whether a member initiating WTO dispute settlement proceedings against another member which had signed an RTA could be considered as acting in a manner contrary to good faith. Although the issue was ultimately not resolved because the agreement had not entered into force, the WTO reports constitute an important step in clarifying the above relationship.
Legal Maxims: Summaries and Extracts from Selected Case LAW
Authors: Gomula Joanna
Published: October 2017

United States—Countervailing Duty Measures on Certain Products from China (WT/DS437/AB/R), Appellate Body Report circulated on 18 December 2014, adopted on 16 January 2015

Argentina—Measures Affecting the Importation of Goods (WT/DS438, 444, 445/AB/R/), Appellate Body Report circulated on 15 January 2015, adopted on 26 January 2015...
Legal Maxims: Summaries and Extracts from Selected Case Law
Authors: Tlemsani Tarik Atmane , Mazo Adriana Fillol , Hernández Ana Cristina Gallego , Gamarra Yolanda , García-Garrido Francisco , Giles-Carnero Rosa , Consarnau Diana Marín , Oriolo Anna , Arana Juan Diego Sández , Pastrana Ángel Tinoco , Vigorito Anna
Published: October 2017

Case of Elberte v. Latvia, Application No. 61243/08, Fourth Section, Judgment, 13 January 2015

Case of Rohlena v. The Czech Republic, Application No. 59552/08, Grand Chamber, 27 January 2015

Case of Bochan v. Ukraine, Application No. 22251/08, Grand Chamber, Judgment, 5 February 2015

Case of Guseva v. Bulgaria...
Introductory Note
Authors: Reinisch August
Published: October 2017

In 2015, the jurisprudence of International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID) tribunals and ad hoc committees largely followed established lines. However, the awards on jurisdiction in the Poštová banka and the Ping An cases evidenced very restrictive approaches to what is required in order to uphold jurisdiction over ICSID claims. On the substance of claims, the tribunals in Tidewater and in Quiborax reaffirmed the legality requirements of expropriations, a string of cases clarified the contours of the fair and equitable treatment standard, while the ad hoc committees in the Daimler and the Kılıç cases continued to diverge on the scope of most-favoured nation (MFN) clauses.
International Legal Thought
Authors: Kleinlein Thomas
Published: October 2017

This contribution reflects on the role of tradition-building in international law, the implications of the recent ‘turn to history’ and the ‘presentisms’ discernible in the history of international legal thought. It first analyses how international legal thought created its own tradition in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. These projects of establishing a tradition implied a considerable amount of what historians would reject as ‘presentism’. Remarkably, critical scholars of our day and age who unsettled celebratory histories of international law and unveiled ‘colonial origins’ of international law were also criticized for committing the ‘sin of anachronism’. This contribution therefore examines the basis of this critique and defends ‘presentism’ in international legal thought. However, the ‘paradox of instrumentalism’ remains: The ‘better’ historical analysis becomes, the more it loses its critical potential for current international law. At best, the turn to history activates a potential of disciplinary self-reflection.
Conclusion
Authors: Zelinsky Edward A.
Published: October 2017

THERE ARE BROAD areas in which churches and, more generally, religious organizations enjoy tax exemption. On the other hand, churches and other religious entities pay more taxes than many believe. Churches and other religious organizations are treated quite diversely by different taxes and by different states. Sometimes churches and other religious entities are taxed in the same fashion as secular organizations and persons. Yet other taxes narrowly exempt churches while taxing nonreligious philanthropic organizations. Still other taxes exempt religious entities along with secular eleemosynary institutions....
Sociable Texts: Manuscript Circulation, Writers, and Readers in Britain and Abroad
Authors: Ezell Margaret J. M.
Published: October 2017

During the Commonwealth period, manuscript circulation networks continued to disseminate texts although at a lesser level than in the 1620s. Some were formed prior to the war at the Universities or Inns of Court, others were based on family or geography, and some had international reach. Samuel Hartlib’s extensive correspondence network circulated information between England and the Continent, while informal networks of friends and family likewise sustained communications. Catholic families had well-developed networks for circulating manuscripts, books, and people. Others such as Katherine Philips in Wales developed networks of literary friends. Thomas Stanley supported numerous friends and family, including Andrew Marvell and Robert Herrick, as they engaged on translation projects and collected their poems for publication.
Laws Regulating Publication, Speech, and Performance, 1660–1673
Authors: Ezell Margaret J. M.
Published: October 2017

Licensing and the regulation of publications were reinforced to assist in the transition back to monarchy. The 1662 Licensing Act limited the number of printers and booksellers and required that manuscripts be approved before being printed; Roger L’Estrange attempted to control pamphlet publication, while the Master of the Revels oversaw theatrical productions. A series of laws referred to as the Clarendon Code were passed to ensure religious conformity and to control unauthorized preaching and assemblies. Nonconformist ministers such as Richard Baxter, along with sectarians including John Bunyan, faced imprisonment for illegal preaching.
Laws Regulating Publication, Speech, and Performance, 1674–1684
Authors: Ezell Margaret J. M.
Published: October 2017

A series of treason trials highlighted the increasing concerns over the succession to the throne by a practicing Catholic, James Duke of York. After rescinding the Declaration of Indulgence in 1673, the Test Act required all office holders to receive Anglican communion and acknowledge the King as the head of the Church of England. The lapse of the Licensing Act in 1679 increased the number of unlicensed printers and the amount of political propaganda for both sides. Plays and popular entertainments were carefully screened for political content as well as blasphemy.
1700
Authors: Ezell Margaret J. M.
Published: October 2017

The final section covers the reign of William III after the death of his wife, the literary responses to the situation of Princess Anne following the death of her son, and the continuing tensions in Parliament between the Whigs and Tories. There were increasing literary satires on foreigners in power and the desire to define Englishness. After the death of John Dryden, dramatists including William Congreve and John Vanbrugh continued to resist Jeremy Collier’s desire to reform the theatre. Newcomers such as Alexander Pope and Susanna Centlivre arrived and made their debut as poets and dramatists. Satires against women and marriage continued against a backdrop of famous divorce trials, while writers such as Daniel Defoe called for a reformed society starting with the aristocratic elite.
Booksellers and the Book Trade: John Dunton, Edmund Curll, Grub Street, and the Rise of Bernard Lintot
Authors: Ezell Margaret J. M.
Published: October 2017

Prolific publishers including John Dunton and Edmund Curll sought to provide inexpensive literary entertainments for their readers with periodicals such as The Athenian Oracle and topical publications. Curll earned the animosity of Jonathan Swift, Alexander Pope, and other poets for his unauthorized publications of their works. In contrast, Bernard Lintot sought to secure the leading literary figures of the day including Pope and his friends for long-term relationships to produce important translations and collections. Other publishers frequently employed ‘hack writers’ such Edward ‘Ned’ Ward and Charles Gildon to produce quick translations, satires, fictions, and miscellanies. Women were involved in Grub Street literary productions also as printers, hawkers, and authors.
The Standardization of Organizational Forms as a Cropping‐up Process
Authors: Brunsson Nils
Published: October 2017

A key argument in institutional theories of organization is that organizational forms are strongly influenced by widely held norms and ideas about the kind of organizational forms that are natural, correct, or desirable. Norms and ideas held in common constitute a major impetus to standardization; they promote similarities in many organizations, even those which conduct quite different types of production but which operate within the same culture or the same field. This chapter presents a ‘cropping-up’ model of standardization. It discusses the basic concepts underlying a ‘cropping-up’ model: forms, reforms, and organizational discourse. It describes how organizational forms are determined by the interaction between general discourse and local reform cycles. Finally, it the way in which local reforms may affect the norms expressed in the general discourse.
Beyond the Code
Authors: Shemtov Noam
Published: October 2017

Although the law of infringement is relatively straightforward on the copying of literal and textual elements of software, the copying of non-literal and functional elements poses complex and topical questions in the context of intellectual property protection. In most cases, such elements contain the real value of a software product. This book examines the copying of non-literal and functional elements of software in both the United States and the European Union, using a holistic approach to address the most topical questions facing experts concerned with legal protection of software products across a range of technological platforms. The book focuses on five distinct but interrelated areas: contract, copyright, patent, trade-mark and trade-dress laws, and trade secrets. It also considers the protection of designs, in the context of graphical user interfaces. The book looks at software as a multilayered functional product, setting the scene for other legal discussions by highlighting software’s unique characteristics. It analyses models for the provision of software, addressing licensing patterns and overall enforceability, as well as the statutory and judicial tools for regulating the use of such licences. Further, it explores the protection of non-literal and functional software elements under EU and US copyright law, with emphasis on internal architecture and behavioural elements. Finally, it describes the application of trade-dress protection to software’s ‘look and feel’, particularly relevant to the provision of software in the cloud environment.
Direct Reference for Extensional Terms
Authors: Millikan Ruth Garrett
Published: October 2017

Names become attached to individuals, real kinds, properties, and so forth through conventions, that is, through the setting and following of precedents, patterns that continue to be reproduced because they serve communicative functions. Each precedent follower repeats what was done before, but “what was done before” can be interpreted in different ways. Stabilizing these precedents are the real kinds and property peaks in the natural world that make cognition possible. Names are not tethered to any necessary properties or descriptions but to property peaks and to the clusters that are real kinds as wholes. They are directly referential, providing no foundation for an analytic/synthetic distinction. The understanding that language imparts to an interpreter is idiosyncratic, depending on the interpreter’s prior knowledge of the world itself. Words do not create boundaries where there were none before but exploit the clumpy though often unclear structure that the world presents.
Introducing Unitrackers and Unicepts
Authors: Millikan Ruth Garrett
Published: October 2017

The unicept for an individual, kind, property, activity, and so forth is supplied with new connections by a supporting unitracker whose job is to recognize sensory manifestations of the unicept’s referent/extension. The unitracker brings to a single focus information about the same that has been dispersed through different media so as to affect the senses in a variety of ways. It is embodied in a web of connections leading from sensory input to implement recognition of its object, helping to supply information that connects its unicept to other unicepts or to action potentials. One way in which natural information arrives at the sensory surfaces is through language. The phonological structure of a language is designed to make the unitracking of its meaningful units maximally easy and accurate.
Indexicals and Selfsigns
Authors: Millikan Ruth Garrett
Published: October 2017

This chapter concerns a standard issue in the philosophy of language: the semantics of indexicals and demonstratives. The project is to show that their semantics can be interpreted in a way that breaks down barriers usually assumed to exist between linguistic signs and natural signs. Many nonintentional (“natural”) signs and conventional linguistic signs can be interpreted as containing reflexive components, proper parts that stand for themselves. Besides speaker-reproduced elements, conventional linguistic signs may contain contextual elements as proper selfsigning parts. That linguistic signs can be interpreted as containing components that are selfsigning also yields a novel interpretation of intensional contexts.
Markers of Identity and Grounded Infosigns
Authors: Millikan Ruth Garrett
Published: October 2017

Some ways that identity of the referents of two signs may be marked is by recurrence of the same sign design (“duplicates markers”), by use of the same sign token over again (“Strawson markers”), and by various anaphorical relations (anaphors). Strawson markers, of which “mental files” are an example, are of particular interest, their occurrence or use very significantly reducing the number of separate signs needed to represent complex states of affairs, hence, the number of inferences that must be drawn to extract the consequences of a set of premises. What a sign gives information about, however, is sometimes shown not just in elements of its sign design but in an external relation of the sign to its signified. Thus, a volt meter shows the voltage between the terminals to which its leads are connected.
Foundations of the framework
Authors: Jenset Gard B. , McGillivray Barbara
Published: October 2017

Chapter 2 deals with the foundations of the framework outlined in the book. The basic assumptions of the framework are made explicit, and the chapter continues with three main sections on the major principles of the framework, best practices for conducting research within the framework, and a section on data-driven historical linguistics. The section on principles lays down twelve principles underpinning the framework. These principles are referred to throughout the rest of the book, including the case studies. The aim of these principles is to make historical linguistic research more transparent and reproducible, to facilitate communication across different theoretical paradigms, and to allow researchers to tackle complex problems in a systematic way. The best practices section explains additional methodological points, while the final section discusses the role of corpora in historical linguistics research practice.
Historical corpus annotation
Authors: Jenset Gard B. , McGillivray Barbara
Published: October 2017

Chapter 4 explains the concept and process of annotation for historical corpora, from a theoretical, practical, and technical point of view, and discusses the challenges presented by historical texts. We introduce basic terminology for XML technologies and corpus metadata, and we describe the different levels of linguistic annotation, from spelling normalization to morphological, syntactic, and semantic analysis, and briefly present the state of the art for historical corpora and treebanks. We cover annotation schemes and standards and illustrate the main concepts in corpus annotation with an example from LatinISE, a large annotated Latin corpus.
A new methodology for quantitative historical linguistics
Authors: Jenset Gard B. , McGillivray Barbara
Published: October 2017

Chapter 7 summarizes the book and discusses how the proposed framework provides researchers with the methodological guidance to answer new questions, as well as answering existing questions in new ways. A section summarizes the core steps of the quantitative research process based on the principles and best practices of Chapter 2. The importance of open data and open research processes for transparent research is highlighted. An extended case study on morphological change in early modern English is used to exemplify a research process that includes exploratory data analysis and different types of multivariate statistical techniques. The case study highlights that quantitative studies still require interpretation, and that judgements must be made about the adequacy of the statistical models, an important point that is not always sufficiently emphasized in existing methodological introductions. The chapter ends with a summary locating the framework of the book in the historical linguistics landscape.
Liberal development, 1925–46
Authors: Toye John
Published: October 2017

Keynes’s writings are often disregarded in the context of economic development, overlooking that Russia was a developing country in his lifetime. He wrote about the experimental economic techniques that the Soviet government employed. He visited Russia three times and wrote A Short View of Russia in which he explained and criticized Bolsheviks’ policy of export and import monopolies, an overvalued exchange rate, inflationary government finance, and the subsidization of industry. These were policies that many developing countries adopted after decolonization. Keynes’s conclusion was that they were inefficient and that ‘bourgeois economics was valid in a communist country’. Did Keynes change his mind in the 1930s? If anything, he grew more harshly critical of Soviet economic policies and carefully distinguished them from his own endorsement of moderate trade protection and government supplementary investment in times of depression.
Ecology of High Altitude Waters
Authors: Jacobsen Dean , Dangles Olivier
Published: October 2017

This book brings together current knowledge on patterns and processes in the ecology of streams, lakes, and wetlands situated at more than 3000 m above sea level. The alpine headwaters of the large Asian rivers and Lake Titicaca are both well-known and iconic examples. High altitude waters include more than these systems—they are both numerous and cover many habitat types, organisms, and specializations. The book provides an overview of the variety of aquatic ecosystems and habitats, their environmental features, prominent species, and their functional adaptations to the harsh aquatic environmental conditions through to global diversity patterns along altitudinal gradients, community dynamics, species interactions and dispersal, trophic relations, and energy flows. High altitude waters are ideal systems to address a broad range of topical themes in ecology because patterns and processes are both diverse and singular. The book highlights how key concepts in ecology (e.g. the stress gradient hypothesis, the biodiversity–ecosystem functioning relationship) could find relevant study models in high altitude waters. The usual perception of pristine mountain waters is far from true, particularly in the case of high altitude waters at low latitudes where human population density is often high, and local communities live in intimate contact with, utilize, influence, and exploit these aquatic systems. Climate change effects, extinction risks of mountain populations due to vanishing glaciers, multiple human impacts, management, and conservation are also treated thoroughly. The book is richly illustrated with diagrams and numerous pictures of these poorly known systems and species.
The waterscape at high altitudes
Authors: Jacobsen Dean , Dangles Olivier
Published: October 2017

Chapter 2 presents the amazing variety of running waters, lakes, ponds, and wetlands found at high altitudes. These waterbodies are not equally distributed among the world’s high altitude places, but tend to be concentrated in certain areas, primarily determined by regional climate and topography. Thus, a large proportion of the world’s truly high altitude aquatic systems are found at lower latitudes, mostly in the tropics. The chapter presents general patterns in the geographical distribution of high altitude waters, and gives examples of some of the most extreme systems. High altitude aquatic systems and habitats cover a broad variety in dynamics and physical appearance. These differences may be related to, for example, water source (glacier-fed, rain-fed, or groundwater-fed streams), geological origin (e.g. glacial, volcanic, or tectonic lakes), or catchment slope and altitude (different types of peatland wetlands). This is exemplified and richly illustrated through numerous photos.
Introduction
Authors: Russell Meg , Gover Daniel
Published: October 2017

This chapter provides the context for the book, explaining why the study of legislation at Westminster is important, how the process is currently viewed, and how the book is structured. It emphasizes the centrality of lawmaking to ‘legislatures’, including Westminster, and to how societies take political decisions. But it suggests that Westminster has often been seen as weak in this process, with assumptions that the government (executive) is dominant. Meanwhile, there has been little study of the process for several decades, during which much has changed at Westminster, including the establishment of select committees, declining party cohesion, and reform of the House of Lords which created a chamber where no party has a majority. The chapter briefly considers different conceptions of ‘power’ that might apply to parliaments. It sets out six questions which the book seeks to answer. It summarizes the methods of the study, and provides a chapter-by-chapter summary.
The Normativity of Rationality
Authors: Kiesewetter Benjamin
Published: October 2017

Sometimes our intentions and beliefs exhibit a structure that proves us to be irrational. Is there anything wrong with that? Should we be rational rather than irrational? This is the question that this book seeks to answer. Intuitively, the answer to this question is ‘yes’. Calling someone irrational amounts to a form of criticism. By doing so, we seem to imply that the person in question has made some kind of mistake, that her mental attitudes are in need of revision. Ordinary attributions of irrationality thus seem to presuppose that rationality is normative. This understanding is also implicit in many traditional approaches to rationality. In recent years, however, the normativity of rationality has come under attack. Many philosophers today accept the sceptical view that there may be no reason to be rational. This book defends the normativity of rationality by presenting a new solution to the problems that arise from the common assumption that we ought to be rational. The argument touches upon many other topics in the theory of normativity, such as the form and the content of rational standards or requirements, the preconditions of criticism, and the function of reasons in deliberation and advice. Over and above an extensive and careful assessment of the problems discussed in the literature, the book provides a detailed defence of a reason-response conception of rationality, a novel, evidence-relative account of reasons, and an explanation of structural irrationality in terms of these accounts.
Introduction
Authors: Borch Fred L.
Published: October 2017

The post-World War II trials of war criminals in the Netherlands East Indies (NEI) are not well known, and the chief goal of this book is to change that forever, if only because these prosecutions were unique in legal history.

Between September 1946 and December 1949, Dutch colonial authorities convicted 1,038 Japanese (and Koreans and Formosans) and a handful of Europeans, Eurasians, Chinese, and Indonesians for war-related offenses. NEI authorities convened nearly 450 “temporary courts-martial” in twelve locations in the archipelago known today as Indonesia; only U.S. authorities conducting war crimes trials in the Asiatic-Pacific Theater held more trials....
Truthmakers and Consequence
Authors: Tennant Neil
Published: October 2017

We compare Tarski’s notion of logical consequence (preservation of truth) with that of Prawitz (transformability of warrants for assertion). The latter is our point of departure for a definition of consequence in terms of the transformability of truthmakers (verifications) relative to all models. A sentence’s Tarskian truth-in-M coincides with its having an M-relative truthmaker. An M-relative truthmaker serves as a winning strategy or game plan for player T in the ‘material game’ played on that sentence against the background of the model M. We enter conjectures about soundness and completeness of Classical Core Logic with respect to the notion of consequence that results when the domain is required to be decidable. We consider whether the truthmaker semantics threatens a slide to realism. We work with examples of core proofs whose premises are given M-relative truthmakers; and show how these can be systematically transformed into a truthmaker for the proof’s conclusion.
Globalization
Authors: Tomlinson Jim
Published: October 2017

This chapter looks first at the trends towards international economic connectedness in the British economy, especially those evident in the post-war years. It analyses the ‘how and why’ of these trends, and especially the reasons for their acceleration from the 1970s and 1980s. The second section looks at the emergence of the term ‘globalization’ to describe these trends, and the freighting of this term with great political and ideological significance. In particular, it analyses the relationship between the deployment of this term and the emergence and development of New Labour. The third section looks at some of the limits and problems posed by framing discussion of the British economy in the last few decades in terms of ‘globalization’. The chapter concludes with the denouement of this narrative in the Brexit decision of June 2016.
Parties, Voters, and Multi-Level Elections
Authors: Golder Sona N. , Lago Ignacio , Blais André , Gidengil Elisabeth , Gschwend Thomas
Published: October 2017

This chapter argues that individual voting behaviour and the strategies chosen by political parties across multiple electoral arenas should be considered jointly. Existing literature points to the importance of an election as a major driving force in voting behaviour, but it is argued that voters and parties may differ in their assessments of the importance of elections at different levels. The chapter discusses how the effect of the importance of an electoral arena, for both voter and party behaviour, will be conditioned by electoral institutions and characteristics of parties and the party system, in addition to individual voter characteristics contributing to it.
Mobilization in Multi-Level Systems
Authors: Golder Sona N. , Lago Ignacio , Blais André , Gidengil Elisabeth , Gschwend Thomas
Published: October 2017

Existing accounts of multi-level elections focus on voters rather than on political parties, but the multi-level arrangement also affects party strategies. Party elites base their voter mobilization strategies in part on the features of each electoral arena, and make decisions about how to allocate their resources across these arenas accordingly. Small parties, in particular, focus their mobilization efforts on electoral arenas in which the electoral rules are more permissive, so that the parties have a better chance of winning seats. This chapter shows that larger or more nationalized parties tend to make different choices with respect to what kind of potential voters they attempt to mobilize, and for which kind of election, compared with smaller, under-resourced, or regionally based parties.
Introduction
Authors: Tazzara Corey
Published: October 2017

Tuscany of the mid-seventeenth century was renowned for its luxury crafts and had one of the most vibrant scientific communities in Europe. The Medici family presided over a state whose political stability astonished contemporaries, in which wise rule and good fortune had spared their subjects the worst ravages associated with the Thirty Years' War. The city of Livorno was the Medici state’s greatest prize and the most innovative port in Italy. The introduction examines the development of Livorno and other free ports in three registers: as part of the Italian response to the rise of the Atlantic world; as implicated in the creation of a new kind of commodity market; and as a neglected problem in the history of economic thought. It suggests that free ports should be central to our interpretation of economic change in early modern Europe and the Mediterranean.
Disembedding the Marketplace
Authors: Tazzara Corey
Published: October 2017

Chapter 5 examines the creation of the classic free port, which taxed only for commercial services. The latter half of the seventeenth century inaugurated an age of conscious experimentation in economic policy. Amidst intensified commercial competition throughout the central Mediterranean, the Medici regime launched a panel of interventions aimed at improving the grand duchy’s economic position. For Livorno, this program culminated in the reform of 1676, which eliminated import/export duties and simplified collection procedures. This reform constituted an important moment in the development of commodity markets and secured Livorno’s role in brokering trade between northwestern Europe, Italy, and the Levant.
Extreme Intentionalism and its Rivals
Authors: Stock Kathleen
Published: October 2017

The defence of extreme intentionalism is concluded by attacking its main rivals in the analytic tradition: ‘modest’ intentionalism, hypothetical intentionalism, and value-maximizing theory. First a source of apparent support for all three is addressed: the thought that extreme intentionalism takes an implausible stance towards unsuccessful authorial intentions that a fiction should have specific content. The author argues that in fact, extreme intentionalism is better positioned to accommodate unsuccessful intentions than its rivals. This is followed by general criticisms of hypothetical intentionalism and value-maximizing theory, with a particular focus on the extent to which each can accommodate the plausible thought that fictions often contain reliable testimony, and can act as a respectable source of belief. Also in this chapter the issue of ‘post hoc’ meanings is discussed; and how extreme intentionalism, though a monistic position, is compatible with many of the critical judgements which have tempted some towards critical pluralism.
Depressive Disorders in Childhood and Adolescence
Authors: James Anthony
Published: October 2017

This chapter focuses on depressive disorders in childhood and adolescence. Depression in children and adolescents is a complex and debilitating disease, and typically has a lifelong, chronic, and recurrent course. The peak age of onset of depression is between 13 and 15 years. After providing a clinical picture of depression, this chapter discusses early childhood depression and differential diagnosis, including paediatric bipolar disorder, psychotic depression and seasonal affective disorder, oppositional and conduct disorder, and substance misuse and medical conditions. It then examines comorbidity, paying attention to bipolar disorder and suicidal behaviour, along with the assessment and prevention of depression. It also considers some of the determinants of depression, such as stress, trauma, life events, and biological factors such as genetics, brain mechanisms, hormones, and resilience. Finally, it describes treatment options for childhood and adolescent depression.
Being Yourself
Authors: Wall Jesse
Published: October 2017

This chapter discusses authentic decision-making as it relates to depression based on three parallel concepts found in philosophy, psychology, and the law. Since major depression is characterized (amongst other things) by ‘symptoms of sadness and diminished interest or pleasure’, ‘feelings of worthlessness/excessive/inappropriate guilt’ and a ‘cognitive triad of pessimism regarding the self, the world and the future’, the chapter explores whether an individual who has these symptoms can act on a judgment, thought, or belief in a way that lacks authenticity. It first explains, in philosophical terms, why autonomous decision-making presupposes a ‘personal identity’, before outlining a series of clinical observations suggesting that competence to make a decision requires an ‘appreciative ability’. It also considers whether the legal test for the capacity to make a decision has a component that is equivalent to ‘personal identity’ or an ‘appreciative ability’.
Legal Regulation of Treatment for Depression
Authors: Series Hugh
Published: October 2017

This chapter reviews the legal regulation of treatment of depression as it exists in England and Wales, where medicinal products are regulated largely by the Medicines Act 1988 and the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971. The Medicines Act divides medicinal products into pharmacy only medicines, which can only be purchased under the supervision of a pharmacist, over-the-counter medicines, and prescription only medicines. The Misuse of Drugs Act is concerned with controlled drugs. These are divided into three classes according to their perceived degree of harmfulness. This chapter considers treatment with valid consent and two pieces of legislation that govern people who are sufficiently ill and need to be admitted to hospital: the Mental Health Act 1983 (MHA) and the Mental Capacity Act 2005 (MCA). It also discusses treatment of mentally incapacitated patients and the issue of liberty regarding the admission of a compliant but incapacitated patient to hospital. Finally, it looks at three types of non-medical prescribing in England, issued by independent prescribers, supplementary prescribers, and community practitioners.
Depression and Children
Authors: Herring Jonathan
Published: October 2017

This chapter examines the legal and social responses to childhood depression. It asks whether the law is blind to cases where the harm the child is suffering can be found in biological causes, wider social inequality, or negative social forces. After providing an overview of depression in children, the chapter reviews legal responses to suffering children. It then considers what role the law should have, if any, to address the issue of childhood depression by discussing the nature of childhood depression and child protection. It also describes the dangers that might arise if the law did decide to adopt a broader attitude towards child protection, so as to include childhood depression. The chapter suggests that, while there is a strong case in principle for there being legal responsibilities owed to all suffering children, regardless of the cause of that suffering, there are also considerable dangers in taking that approach.
Matters Arising
Authors: Stoljar Daniel
Published: October 2017

This chapter brings out in further detail the nature and interpretation of the main thesis, focusing on four key phrases in it: ‘progress’, ‘philosophy’, ‘reasonably many’, and ‘big’. It makes a brief case for the significance of the thesis. It is suggested that if there is progress in philosophy, it is epistemic progress. The chapter presents a provisional list of some of the principle topics addressed by questions of philosophy, which it is submitted from the subject matter of philosophy. The opposing claim that philosophy has no subject matter is addressed, as is the suggestion that philosophy is not individuated by its subject matter but by a distinctive epistemological approach. In particular it is suggested that this claim is implausible given the epistemological position designated in this chapter as Quinean foundationalism.
Laocoon among the Gods,
Authors: Squire Michael
Published: October 2017

Michael Squire explores how Greek and Roman materials can illuminate the thinking behind Lessing’s Laocoon. While Lessing’s project is structured around the interpretation of an ancient statue, the Laocoon’s conclusions about aesthetic media—not least, its implicit argument concerning the superiority of ‘ancient’ words over images—are predicated on a particular set of ‘modern’ ideas, themselves conditioned by a certain theological outlook. While purporting to talk about antiquity, Lessing re-imagines a Graeco-Roman ‘world full of gods’ in distinctly ‘Protestant’ terms.
Naturalizing the Arbitrary
Authors: Lifschitz Avi
Published: October 2017

Avi Lifschitz explores Lessing’s claim that the poet should try to ‘elevate’ arbitrary linguistic signs to the status of the natural signs of a vivid painting. He argues that Lessing drew upon a wide range of French and German thinkers who downplayed the arbitrariness of language while simultaneously emphasizing its natural features. Furthermore, Lifschitz shows how Laocoon takes its inspiration from multiple sources, extending far beyond the intellectual remit of Christian Wolff and his German followers. Lessing’s call for the naturalization of arbitrary signs can only be understood against the backdrop of a larger, cross-European debate about linguistic signs.
Temporalization?
Authors: Fulda Daniel
Published: October 2017

Daniel Fulda evaluates Lessing’s Laocoon against the backdrop of contemporary historiography. Fulda explains that Lessing’s prescriptions about painterly ‘space’ and poetic ‘time’ are also shaped by debates on how to write history—discussions that themselves stretch all the way back to Graeco-Roman antiquity. Ultimately, Fulda argues, Lessing’s prescriptions about the proper ‘limits’ of ‘poetry’ and ‘painting’ respond to what was seen as a weakness of German historiography in the eighteenth century: namely, its struggle to reconcile a conflict between the spatial and temporal dimensions of historical writing.
Image and Text in Lessing’s Laocoon
Authors: Trabant Jürgen
Published: October 2017

Jürgen Trabant argues that Lessing’s distinction between poetry and painting can stand for a wider controversy about the respective status (and developmental history) of words and images. The chapter looks at Lessing’s comparison with an eye to the historical anthropology of language, arguing that word and image share substantial common ground as embodiments of human thought. In particular, Trabant explores Lessing’s Grenzen in relation to the concept of articulation—not only of sounds, but also of cognitive distinctions. He concludes that the specific structure of phonetic articulation allows greater arbitrariness and combinatory possibilities than visual images: if Lessing lets one imagine ‘word’ and ‘image’ as occupying two floors within a shared house, language nonetheless occupies its first floor, above the realm of visual imagery.
On Folk Epistemology
Authors: Gerken Mikkel
Published: October 2017

On Folk Epistemology is a book about how we ascribe knowledge to ourselves and others. Empirical evidence suggests that we do so early and often in thought as well as in talk. Since such knowledge ascriptions are central to how we navigate social life, it is important to understand our basis for making them. A central claim of the book is that factors that have nothing to do with knowledge may lead to systematic mistakes in everyday ascriptions of knowledge. These mistakes are explained by an empirically informed account of how ordinary knowledge ascriptions are the product of cognitive heuristics that are associated with biases. In developing this account, the book presents work in cognitive psychology and pragmatics. But it also contributes to epistemology proper. For example, it develops positive epistemic norms of action and assertion. Moreover, it critically assesses contextualism, knowledge-first methodology, pragmatic encroachment theories, and more. Many of these approaches are argued to overestimate the epistemological significance of folk epistemology. In contrast, the book develops an equilibristic methodology according to which intuitive judgments about knowledge cannot straightforwardly play a role as data for epistemological theorizing. Rather, epistemological theorizing is required to interpret empirical findings. Consequently, On Folk Epistemology helps to lay the foundation for an emerging subfield that intersects philosophy and the cognitive sciences: the empirical study of folk epistemology.
Introduction
Authors: Gerken Mikkel
Published: October 2017

The introduction consists of a nontechnical presentation of the central themes and ambitions of the book. It begins by characterizing folk epistemology and by noting the centrality of the ascriptions of knowledge in it. Subsequently, the central view defended in the book—strict purist invariantism—is introduced along with the equilibristic methodology that guides the investigation. In particular, it is emphasized that folk epistemological judgments may be biased and that they, therefore, cannot straightforwardly play a role as data that a theory must be made to fit. Consequently, it is suggested that empirical research on folk epistemology depends on epistemological theorizing. In slogan: Our folk epistemological practices should inform epistemology but folk epistemology should not rule epistemology. The introduction ends with a brief chapter-by-chapter survey and a guide for how the book might be read selectively.