bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Locke and Cartesian Cosmology
Authors: Anstey Peter R.
Published: July 2018

The Cartesian vortex theory was of great interest to John Locke. Yet, the evidence for Locke’s interactions with and attitude towards Cartesian cosmology has never been assembled. After providing a sketch of the Cartesian theory of vortices, the chapter provides a preliminary survey of Locke’s increasingly critical responses to it. Taken in isolation, these comments might suggest that Locke firmly rejected the vortex theory by the late 1680s; however, it is argued that a more fine-grained analysis indicates that Locke is typical of many in England who acquiesced in a generic vortical explanation of the system of the planets until after the mid-1690s. The chapter surveys Locke’s broader interest in French and English cosmogonical writings in the 1690s respectively, and finishes with some concluding remarks on the context in which Locke frames the phrase ‘our solar system’ and substitutes it for ‘our vortex’.
Locke and Port-Royal on Affirmation, Negation, and Other Postures of the Mind
Authors: Jaffro Laurent
Published: July 2018

The chapter claims that in order to understand Locke’s doctrine of assent, his philosophy of mind needs to be seen in conjunction with his philosophy of language, which in turn gains from being compared with Port-Royal’s logic and grammar. It points out two conflicting facts in Locke’s account of affirmation and negation in the Essay. First, Locke entrusts affirmation and negation with the task of signifying both the assertion by which we manifest our assent to a proposition and the junction or separation of the ideas constituting the proposition. The other fact is that Locke accepts a great variety of ways of considering a proposition. This diversity of ‘postures’ is poorly expressed by the limited number of syncategorematic terms, ‘particles’. The first fact fosters a one-act view of the assent we give to propositions. The second opens the way to a multiple-act view.
Cartesian Logic and Locke’s Critique of Maxims
Authors: Blank Andreas
Published: July 2018

This chapter contextualizes Locke’s critique of logical and metaphysical maxims within the framework of the Cartesian critique of the topical tradition. It makes clear that Locke, targeting the Scholastic, proof-theoretic conception of maxims, replicates argumentative patterns found in the work of the Cartesian logicians Johannes Clauberg and Antoine Arnauld, who argued against the topical (Ramist) conception of maxims. Locke also inherits certain weaknesses of this Cartesian critique, which, it is argued, does not adequately capture the view of Petrus Ramus and others in the topical tradition that maxims only make explicit the rules that implicitly govern various areas of discourse.
What it is to Possess a Reason
Authors: Lord Errol
Published: July 2018

This chapter defends the book’s official view of possession. It starts by arguing that meeting the epistemic condition is not sufficient for possession. There are cases where one meets the epistemic condition but fails to possess because one does not appreciate the normative relevance of the fact in question. The bulk of the chapter is dedicated to spelling out what it takes to adequately appreciate normative relevance. Arguments are given against subjective reason accounts and Humean accounts. It is argued that what it is to possess a reason is to be in a position to manifest knowledge about how to use the reason as the reason that it is. Finally, it is argued that meeting the epistemic condition is a background condition for being in a position to manifest the relevant know-how.
‘Poetry and fiction intermixt with our history’
Authors: Vandrei Martha
Published: July 2018

This chapter focuses on the boundaries between historical and political argument. It discusses the different ways that British antiquity could be politicized by historical writers of the eighteenth century. However, despite this, Boudica maintained a patriotic detachment from party fracases in prose literature. This is compared to her presentation in Richard Glover’s new play of 1753. Aside from questions of patriotism, Glover’s play brings to the fore drama’s relationship to history, and especially the fidelity to human nature that was demanded of both genres. Glover’s inability to accurately capture the spectrum of human emotions attracted extensive criticism, demonstrating another measure of ‘accuracy’ contemporaries applied to historical writing. With regards to Boudica herself, this chapter begins to consolidate the argument that Boudica’s reputation was rather more durable and positive than previous scholars have allowed.
‘A great deal of historical claptrap’
Authors: Vandrei Martha
Published: July 2018

This chapter’s focus is the later nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, during which Boudica was immortalized in Thomas Thornycroft’s statue on Westminster Bridge. This chapter seeks to provide a thick and thorough contextualization of this event and its precursors, focusing in particular on Boudica’s role in the history of London, but also on Thornycroft’s own motivations and preoccupations, which have been overlooked by historians. This chapter also explores the first novelization of Boudica’s deeds, a firmly imperialistic account by Marie Trevelyan. This period has been read as the climax of Boudica’s association with imperial greatness—a connection I do not seek to wholly refute. However, Thornycroft’s own understanding of his statue challenges this, while Trevelyan’s conviction was met with credulity by contemporaries. Focusing on these hitherto overlooked points of view sheds light on the complicated relations between pasts and presents.
Cush will come to Zion with a tribute (Isaiah 18:7)
Authors: Lee Jongkyung
Published: July 2018

In this chapter, 18:1-2, 4-6 is identified as the original poem against Cush inherited by the supposed late-exilic redactor who added v 7 at the end of the poem. Verse 3 was originally a marginal note on 17:12-14 written in the post-exilic period which was mistakenly copied into the verse’s current position. The only intentional secondary addition made to the original oracle against Cush is v 7 where one finds some points of contact with chs 40-55. Verse 7 foretells that the Cushites who were stricken by YHWH in the past will one day acknowledge his sovereignty and bring tributary gifts to Zion. The future restoration of a once afflicted people, their journey to Zion, and various connections with chs 40-55 all suggest that 18:7 is a continuation of the same vision first set out in 14:1-2.
Summary and conclusion
Authors: Lee Jongkyung
Published: July 2018

In this concluding chapter, the arguments of the foregoing chapters are summarized. It is admitted that the evidence is stronger for some of the passages while less for the others. It is hoped, however, that the proposed hypothesis gives the theological message of the passages concerned a sharper image when they are read together as a group with an awareness of their stylistic and ideological connections to chs 40-55. Also reflected upon is the place of the hypothesized late-exilic editorial passages in the diachronic development of the nations oracles in chs 13-23 which began as words of doom against the foreign powers in the pre-exilic period but had some of the most inclusive passages in the Hebrew Bible added to them in the post-exilic period.
Conceptual Dependence Monism
Authors: Newlands Samuel
Published: July 2018

Chapter three examines Spinoza’s views on metaphysical dependence, in which the role of the conceptual is arguably the clearest. Spinoza uses some twenty-two different terms for dependence in the opening pages of the Ethics, and a fierce interpretive debate has erupted over how to understand the relations among these seemingly different forms of dependence. This chapter argues that Spinoza holds an especially austere view, which is here named conceptual dependence monism: there is exactly one form of metaphysical dependence, and it is conceptual in kind. This interpretation is defended on both textual and systematic grounds, pointing out some of its implications for our understanding of other, more familiar Spinozistic doctrines. Along the way, a clearer understanding is also gained of Spinoza’s explanatory requirements in metaphysics.
Elusive Individuals
Authors: Newlands Samuel
Published: July 2018

Spinoza’s conceptualist strategy was introduced to show how one and the same individual can be structured by a diversity of attributes, causal structures, dependence relations, modal profiles, and essences. But what are these individuals like, that they can consistently support all this diversity? The answer proves increasingly elusive, as argued in chapter six. After looking at Spinoza’s limited interest in the nature of individuals, it is argued that Spinoza introduces a conceptual condition on the composition and persistence conditions for individuals. This has widespread implications for Spinoza’s account of individual finite modes, and it re-raises an old worry about whether Spinoza was an acosmicist. Even worse, Spinoza’s account of finite individuals, when combined with the results of the previous chapters, threatens to undermine the conceptualist gambit he introduced to secure them in the first place. This is diagnosed and discussed in the concluding section.
The Nature of the Conceptual
Authors: Newlands Samuel
Published: July 2018

This chapter returns to a fundamental question for the author’s overall interpretation: just what are conceptual relations for Spinoza? It argues against a very tempting answer, according to which conceptual relations are exclusively mental relations. This answer would commit Spinoza to a very robust form of metaphysical idealism. However, the author shows how and why Spinoza rejects both idealism and the underlying mentalistic account of conceptual relations on independent grounds. Chapter nine shows how this extra-mental, structural account of the conceptual fits elegantly into the rest of Spinoza’s ontology while avoiding the errors of the idealist interpretations. Given how little Spinoza offers us here, the conclusion indicates ways future research—both historical and constructive—might try to shed further light on Spinoza’s account of the conceptual.
Introduction
Authors: Formisano Marco , Kraus Christina Shuttleworth
Published: July 2018

The introductory chapter considers the discipline of classical literature as a field in tension between canonization and marginality. On the one hand, it devotes particular attention to the role played by reception studies, the classical tradition, and their more recent declinations. On the other hand, it discusses the implications of the particular disciplinary constellation of classics for an academic career and for the academic profession, which are differently organized in continental Europe and in the Anglo-American world. The main concern here is not to discuss or contest the idea of canon in itself—its various cultural, ideological, and political implications, as explored for instance in postcolonial studies—but rather to explore canonicity as an invisible, yet nonetheless ruling principle within the disciplinary discourse and scholarly practice of classics.
Bulls and Deer, Women and Warriors
Authors: Sissa Giulia
Published: July 2018

In ancient Greece, manly men were thought to have invented popular rule and were considered capable, and worthy, of ruling themselves. The full appreciation of the gendered nature of democratic culture challenges our canonical vision of ancient politics. First, we have to place gender not at the margin, but at the heart of Athenian political culture. Second, we have to expand our primary ‘must-read’ sources, by including discourses that deal with the embodiment of a political identity: above all, the biological works of Aristotle. This chapter argues for a correlation between physiology and political theory within the Aristotelian corpus, as well as for the relevance of Aristotle’s insight for our understanding of ancient democracy.
Lines and Dots
Authors: Clarke Katherine
Published: July 2018

This chapter focuses on the articulation of geographical space, both in reality and in concept, by major geographical features such as rivers and mountain ranges. The importance of rivers such as the Nile and Ister (Danube) in dominating their respective landscapes and offering structure to the world through symmetry is discussed; also the role of rivers in marking the progress of military expeditions and defining the limits of kingdoms and empires. After next considering the place of mountains in Herodotus’ geography, the chapter moves finally to examine the special status of islands as distinctive environments, places of both safety and danger, and liable to commodification in the pursuit of empire.
Writing an Imperial Geography
Authors: Clarke Katherine
Published: July 2018

This chapter explores Herodotus’ presentation of mobility as opposed to stability, such as autochthony. As with monumental projects, context and perspective help to determine whether movement should be viewed as positive or destabilizing. It then considers whether Herodotus supports the idea of a ‘natural order’, on either a small or large scale, and whether changes to the natural world are inherently disrespectful, hubristic, even sacrilegious; or whether such judgements are to be associated only with the enraged, passionate, punitive behaviour of Persia’s grand imperial scheme. The propensity of others, such as the Athenians, to step into Persian shoes encourages a reading of Herodotus’ declaration of the mutability of fortune as a more specific reflection on the ever-changing map of imperial power. Dynamis is seen to be at the heart of Herodotus’ work, no less than that of Thucydides.
Resource Extraction and Inclusive Development
Authors: Bebbington Anthony , Abdulai Abdul-Gafaru , Bebbington Denise Humphreys , Hinfelaar Marja , Sanborn Cynthia A. , Achberger Jessica , Huber Celina Grisi , Hurtado Verónica , Ramírez Tania , Odell Scott D.
Published: July 2018

This chapter develops a conceptual framework for understanding the politics of extractive industry governance. Building from the work of Karl, Ross, Watts, and others, and their efforts to understand the political drivers and consequences of the resource curse, the chapter proposes an approach that also engages with political settlements theory, addressing the political implications of the materiality of natural resources and the politics of ideas surrounding resource governance. The chapter then introduces a programme of cross-country, comparative research designed to address the relationships among political settlements, extractive industry, and patterns of development; describes the questions that guided this research; and presents the methods used.
Political Settlements, Natural Resource Extraction, and Inclusion in Bolivia
Authors: Bebbington Anthony , Abdulai Abdul-Gafaru , Bebbington Denise Humphreys , Hinfelaar Marja , Sanborn Cynthia A. , Achberger Jessica , Huber Celina Grisi , Hurtado Verónica , Ramírez Tania , Odell Scott D.
Published: July 2018

Bolivia’s natural resources have served as a ‘mechanism of trade’ mobilized by competing interest groups to build coalitions, create political pacts, and negotiate political settlements in which dominant actors attempt to win over those resistant to a particular vision of development and/or governance. These pacts and settlements are revisited constantly, reflecting the weak and fragmented power of the central state and of the elite and persistent tensions between national and subnational elites. Ideas about, and modes of, natural resource governance have been central to periods of instability and stability, and to significant periods of political rupture. The period since 2006 has been characterized by a stable settlement involving an alliance between the presidency, his dominant party, and national social movements. This settlement is sustained through bargains with parts of the economic elite and subnational actors with holding power, as well as through ideas of resource nationalism and state-led developmentalism.
Competitive Clientelism and the Political Economy of Mining in Ghana
Authors: Bebbington Anthony , Abdulai Abdul-Gafaru , Bebbington Denise Humphreys , Hinfelaar Marja , Sanborn Cynthia A. , Achberger Jessica , Huber Celina Grisi , Hurtado Verónica , Ramírez Tania , Odell Scott D.
Published: July 2018

This chapter highlights the centrality of clientelist political pressures in explaining why over 100 years of mineral resource extraction has failed to translate into broad-based development in Ghana. Contrary to studies that highlight the role of inclusive political settlements for the effective management of mineral rents, we find that broad-based elite inclusion also risks undermining the effective management of rents for long-term development in contexts where rents are deployed with the aim of ‘buying-off’ elites who can potentially undermine the stability of ruling coalitions. All ruling coalitions have allocated significant shares of mineral rents to chiefs not necessarily for the socio-economic development of mineral-rich communities, but mainly because political elites want to avoid provoking resistance from a group that brokers land and votes in rural areas. Under such circumstances, inclusive political settlements may at best result in unproductive peace, as substantial mineral resources are shared for consumption rather than development.
The Problem of Evil for Atheists
Authors: Nagasawa Yujin
Published: July 2018

This chapter contends that the problem of evil arises not only for theists but also for atheists. To demonstrate this, focus is placed on ‘the problem of systemic evil’, where this is the problem of accounting for the violent, cruel, and unfair system of natural selection, a system which guarantees pain and suffering for uncountably many sentient beings. Unlike the traditional problem of evil, which concentrates on specific events, the more challenging problem of systemic evil emphasizes that the entire biological system is evil. Despite the systemic nature of evil, both theists and atheists typically uphold ‘existential optimism’, the thesis that the world is overall a good place and that we should be grateful for our existence in it. The combination of systemic evil and existential optimism gives rise to the ‘existential problem of systemic evil’, and this is a problem that theists have greater resources in answering than do atheists.
‘trying to have it both ways’
Authors: Hazzard Oli
Published: July 2018

Chapter 3 examines Lee Harwood’s self-described ‘imitations’ of Ashbery, composed while the poets were in a relationship. This extends earlier critical writing about the two by being the first to read their correspondence alongside their poems, and benefits from Harwood’s recently opened archive. The poets’ interactions are broadly situated in Anglo-American exchange during the 1960s, in which the United States is perceived by both to have become the dominant Anglophone poetic culture. It details some of Harwood’s key appropriations from Ashbery in The Man with Blue Eyes, then reads their collaboration, ‘Train Poem’—which has yet to be discussed by any critic—as a transcript of the process of poetic influence as it occurs. Finally, it considers the Ashbery’s first critical formation of an English ‘other tradition’, through his association of Harwood with John Clare’s work in his blurb for Harwood’s The White Room and later Charles Eliot Norton lectures.
Sceptical Reflections on Human Nature
Authors: Sterelny Kim
Published: July 2018

David Hull famously argued that the very idea of human nature was pre-Darwinian; once we genuinely embrace Darwin’s insights into unbounded variation and plasticity over time, no robust account of human nature can survive. There have been a variety of responses to Hull’s critique, variously showing that some concept of human nature can be rebuilt in ways consistent with contemporary evolutionary biology. In this chapter, I argue that, in one sense, some of these reconstructive attempts succeed. One can develop a concept of human nature consistent with evolutionary insights into variation and potentially unbounded change. But in a deeper sense these reconstructive projects are in trouble: the cost of making a concept of human nature evolutionarily credible is, arguably, to rob that concept of explanatory salience.
Human Ontogenies as Historical Processes
Authors: Toren Christina
Published: July 2018

Across the human sciences one finds theoretical perspectives that recognize the nature–culture distinction as untenable. At the same time, the gap between demonstrating its inadequacy and developing a viable alternative approach is wide indeed. The recognition that autopoiesis (self-creation, self-production) is through and through a historical process puts paid to ideas of culture and nature as analytical categories. In the case of humans and other social organisms, autopoiesis is necessarily grounded in relations with others. This chapter explores the idea of history as lived (that is to say, embodied), and argues for a unified model of human being that is able to provide for, and explain, how we humans come to be who we are in all our historical particularity and, in the self-same process, how we make sense of ourselves and the world.
Lutheran Accents
Authors: DeJonge Michael P.
Published: July 2018

The Lutheran accents of Bonhoeffer’s theology become more pronounced as we move from his story of creation, fall, and redemption (Chapter 1) into his specifically political reflections (beginning in Chapter 3). In order to pave the way for this transition, this chapter presents some traditional characteristics of Lutheran theology before returning to Bonhoeffer in light of them. The starting point is the doctrine of justification, generally seen as the center of Lutheran theology. Inseparable from justification is the distinction between law and gospel, which is of fundamental significance for all that follows about Bonhoeffer’s political thinking. The message of justification and the complex relationship of law and gospel implied by it set the framework for political life, including the right relationship of church and state.
The Directly Political Word of the Church
Authors: DeJonge Michael P.
Published: July 2018

This chapter continues the examination of Bonhoeffer’s first phase of resistance through exposition of “The Church and the Jewish Question,” presenting the second kind of word-resistance, the directly political word of the church (type 4). It is this type of resistance that Bonhoeffer describes as “jam[ming] a spoke in the wheel itself” or “seiz[ing] the wheel itself.” The necessity for this directly political word arises when the state “unscrupulously” governs with “too little” or “too much” order. The logic of this word is best captured by what Bonhoeffer elsewhere calls a concrete commandment. This is the church’s temporary intervention into the political exercise of the law, which under normal conditions would fall under the authority of the properly functioning state.
An Extraordinary Confession
Authors: DeJonge Michael P.
Published: July 2018

If the church decides to seize the wheel, to speak the directly political word, Bonhoeffer writes, then the church will find itself in statu confessionis. This chapter examines the phrase status confessionis to shed further light on Bonhoeffer’s idea of the church’s directly political word (the concern of Chapter 7). The phrase originates in a sixteenth-century episode where the emperor, with help from accommodating religious leaders, forced changes in order and rites on the Lutheran churches. The phrase status confessionis came to be seen as the battle cry of those who resisted these changes, the gnesio-Lutherans. In adopting this language, Bonhoeffer identifies a parallel between the sixteenth century and 1933, when Hitler and the Nazi regime threatened to force changes in church order (especially concerning church members of Jewish ancestry) on the church with accommodation from church leaders.
Resistance to the State and the Mistreatment of Jews
Authors: DeJonge Michael P.
Published: July 2018

This chapter relates Bonhoeffer’s resistance to the state to the issue of his concern for the persecution of Jews under the Nazi regime. Although it has been common to see a direct relationship between these two—as if Bonhoeffer resisted the state above all because of its mistreatment of Jews—this chapter argues that the relationship is better understood as mediated by other theological concerns, namely, the two kingdoms and the doctrine of justification. This chapter advances that argument in connection with “The Church and the Jewish Question,” the first part of which is governed by the proper roles of church and state under the two kingdoms, the second part of which is governed by the concern for the message of justification that defines the church community.
The Minor Prophets as Christian Scripture in the Commentaries of Theodore of Mopsuestia and Cyril of Alexandria
Authors: Ondrey Hauna T.
Published: July 2018

This work compares the Minor Prophets commentaries of Theodore of Mopsuestia and Cyril of Alexandria, isolating the role each interpreter assigns the Twelve Prophets in their ministry to Old Testament Israel and the texts of the Twelve as Christian scripture. It argues that Theodore does acknowledge christological prophecies, as distinct from both retrospective accommodation and typology. A careful reading of Cyril’s Commentary on the Twelve limits the prospective christological revelation he ascribes to the prophets and reveals the positive role he grants the Mosaic law prior to Christ’s advent. Exploring secondly the Christian significance Theodore and Cyril assign to Israel’s exile and restoration reveals that Theodore’s reading of the Twelve Prophets, while not attempting to be christocentric, is nevertheless self-consciously Christian. Cyril, unsurprisingly, offers a robust Christian reading of the Twelve, yet this too must be expanded by his focus on the church and concern to equip the church through the ethical paideusis provided by the plain sense of the prophetic text. Revised descriptions of each interpreter lead to the claim that a recent tendency to distinguish the Old Testament interpretation of Theodore (negatively) and Cyril (positively) on the basis of their “christocentrism” obscures more than it clarifies and polarizes no less than earlier accounts of Antiochene/Alexandrian exegesis. The Conclusion argues against replacing old dichotomies with new and advocates rather for an approach that takes seriously Theodore’s positive account of the unity and telos of the divine economy and the full range of Cyril’s interpretation.
Light
Authors: Steane Andrew
Published: July 2018

This brief chapter is an allegorical story about a world of light, which turns out to be our world.
The Structure of Science, Part 1
Authors: Steane Andrew
Published: July 2018

The first major theme of the book is introduced. This is that science does not present a ladder or tower of explanation, but a network of mutually interacting and informing ideas. The digital computer is invoked to introduce the concept of low-level and high-level language. The role of symmetry and symmetry principles in physics is discussed at length. It is argued, in agreement with Anderson, that symmetry is central to fundamental physics, but, more importantly, it is shown that what symmetry offers is a subtle constraining influence that is not the same as cause and effect, but is nevertheless central to the concept of explanation and understanding. It is argued that the laws of thermodynamics and the laws of particle physics are in a relationship of mutual consistency with neither able to render the other superfluous. Numerous examples are invoked.
The Structure of Science, Part 2
Authors: Steane Andrew
Published: July 2018

The discussion of the previous chapter is extended to the rest of science, especially biology. The Embodiment Principle is introduced. This is a statement intended to capture correctly how scientific descriptions interact and interconnect. The concept of reduction and reductionism is discussed, arguing that it does not amount to a replacement of one (higher-level) language by another (lower-level) one, but rather a recognition of both languages. The chapter then proceeds to biology. Darwinian evolution does not take place in a metaphysical vacuum, but rather explores the space of what is possible. The results of evolution are shaped by various high-level patterns that function analogously to symmetry principles. Examples are given. The role of uncontrolled change is such that it enables previously undiscovered patterns of this nature to become embodied.
What Science Can and Cannot Do
Authors: Steane Andrew
Published: July 2018

The main limits of science are discussed. First the history of science is sketched; this should take into account social and political developments, as well as the history of ideas. Science itself aspires to give an account of anything and everything. This may make one suspect that there is nothing else to add. This would be a false conclusion, for various reasons. First, science cannot account for either the roots or the purpose of things. Secondly, even a description that is complete in its own terms, may nevertheless lack a central insight, like the attempt to describe images on a movie screen purely in the language of two-dimensional geometry. Finally, the whole approach of analytical discourse is not adequate to engage with all aspects of reality, such as the experience of friendship. A different approach is required, involving the whole self, and investing one’s very identity partly in another.
Does the Universe Suggest Design, Purpose, Goodness, or Concern?
Authors: Steane Andrew
Published: July 2018

This chapter tackles the question of whether or not the natural world presents us with a picture empty of purpose or good or evil or concern. No empirical evidence can entirely refute the claim that random fluctuation is the complete truth about the origin of all things, but it follows that this is not a scientific claim. Therefore it is a question of forming a reasonable judgement. It appears that the natural world has a depth and richness that exceeds what would be necessary for thinking brains to come to be realized in it. Also, notwithstanding the pain of the world, it is a project that merits our engagement and commitment, and occasionally the transcendent breaks in. We are not competent to make an overall judgement, but we can join in with the creative process of the world and find our role.
Intrinsic Motivation, Kindness, and Reciprocity
Authors: Sugden Robert
Published: July 2018

Chapter 9 considers a critique of the market and of the liberal tradition of economics that has been made both by virtue ethicists and by behavioural economists. According to this critique, market relations are based on self-interested and instrumental motivations, and so are morally impoverished; socially valuable practices (particularly those of trust and reciprocity) can depend on pro-social and intrinsic motivations which the market tends to ‘crowd out’. An important strand of behavioural economics is concerned with modelling intrinsic motivation, ‘social preferences’ and preferences for conforming to social norms. I identify a paradoxical implication of many of these models: there cannot be an equilibrium in which everyone is completely trustworthy, because if everyone were trustworthy, trust would not reveal pro-social intentions and so could not prompt trustworthiness. This is the ‘Paradox of Trust’.
Introduction
Authors: Benvenisti Eyal , Nolte Georg
Published: July 2018

The Introduction describes the term “community interests” for the purpose of exploring the extent to which states owe duties toward those who are affected by their actions and omissions. It argues that the relevant “communities” which are envisaged by the book extend beyond the “international community of states” to cover individuals and groups, even when their interests were not taken into account at the negotiation table or in policymaking bodies. The community can also be humanity at large, as reflected in the concept of crimes against humanity. As far as “community interests” are concerned, the Introduction explores questions related to the identification of these interests, the prioritization among them and their achievement. The Introduction outlines a typology of duties states might have toward others.
Community Interests in the Identification of International Law
Authors: Besson Samantha
Published: July 2018

This chapter identifies the ways in which community interests are channeled into the identification and interpretation of international law and assesses these developments normatively. It argues that the rules pertaining to the interpretation of treaties and the identification of custom provide many routes for states, their domestic authorities and international institutions to include and protect community interests. Unlike the formation of a given abstract norm, its identification and interpretation in a concrete case may actually allow for other interests, including community interests, and/or distinct or more recent conceptions thereof, to be taken into account. The chapter argues however, that secondary rules of identification and interpretation should be put into practice more transparently. In short, the chapter considers that there is nothing extraordinary in states’ ability to act for the protection of community interests, but that, in line with the findings of the previous chapter, states should be organized democratically so as to enhance their ability to do so.
The International Law Commission and Community Interests
Authors: Nolte Georg
Published: July 2018

The chapter looks at community interests from the perspective of the International Law Commission. It examines both secondary and primary rules of international law, as they have been articulated by the Commission, and their relevance for the recognition and implementation of community interests. The picture which emerges, however, fits the narrative of “from self-interest to community interest” only to a certain extent. Whereas the Commission has indeed recognized, or developed, certain primary rules which more fully articulate community interests, it has been reluctant to reformulate secondary rules, with the exception of jus cogens. The Commission has more recently rather insisted that the traditional state-consent-oriented secondary rules concerning the formation of customary international law and regarding the interpretation of treaties continue to be valid in the face of other actors and forms of action which push toward the recognition of more and thicker community interests.
Law on Natural Disasters
Authors: Park Ki-Gab
Published: July 2018

The chapter argues that natural disasters are common concerns in the international community. At the same time, the current international cooperation mechanism, based on the principle of equal sovereignty, require prior consent by the state affected by a natural disaster. Unfortunately, this is not always an efficient tool for the protection of victims. The globalization of problems and the proliferation of humanitarian crises make the veritable solidarity of the international community increasingly necessary, and therefore another high value, namely international solidarity or community obligations, should create direct and immediate obligations for all members of the international community. The main object of this chapter is to discuss the future-oriented direction of the law on natural disasters. This means, first, to ascertain the lex lata, especially customary rules. The chapter further offers some suggestions on possible ways for the international community to provide more effective relief for victims of natural disasters.
International Environmental Law and Community Interests
Authors: Brunnée Jutta
Published: July 2018

Strong procedural elements are indispensable for international environmental law’s capacity to serve community interests. Procedural obligations can strengthen the rule concerning the prevention of environmental harm and flesh out its due diligence standard. Procedural obligations can also serve useful purposes when states, or judges, are reluctant to entertain substantive arguments, or find it difficult to establish that environmental harm has been caused. Violations of procedural obligations are more easily established and states can sometimes be prompted to correct harmful conduct or to take more effective preventive measures. Unfortunately, the operation of procedural rules is constrained by the dearth of practice and the continued struggle to define the substance of community obligations and the legal effects of erga omnes norms. Treaty-based approaches have proven better suited to accommodating community concerns, perhaps because they place such strong emphasis on procedural elements and employ increasingly diverse formal lawmaking and informal standard-setting approaches.
Cultural Sites Between Nationhood and Mankind
Authors: Casini Lorenzo
Published: July 2018

The chapter explores the legal regime that currently addresses cultural heritage sites. It analyzes the complex relationships between local, national, and universal community interests in cultural heritage sites, and how law can address such relationships, by focusing on the regime that is based on the 1972 UNESCO World Heritage Convention (WHC). The WHC is a system of complex interactions between state and global authorities, where states choose to bring in international regulators, but then find themselves having ceded significant regulatory authority to the latter who invoke community interests. Once a site is added to the WHC list, the interests at stake transcend national borders and an international arena has been established: This will allow foreign actors—or even domestic actors who do not share local or national communities—to monitor and to act against states’ policies that may affect the preservation of cultural heritage.
Rational Business Leadership
Authors: Brooker Paul , Hayward Margaret
Published: July 2018

This chapter is an introduction to the book and to the rational type of inspirational leadership which inspires followers with confidence through capable use of appropriate rational means to achieve an objective. The chapter explains why the book focuses on a specialized version of this type of rational leadership, namely the version which uses a set of six rational methods as the appropriate means of developing business corporations: rapid and innovative adaptation; quantitative and strategic calculation; and diverse and institutionalized deliberation. The chapter also describes (1) the featuring of autobiographical material in all the examples to provide a leader’s-eye view; (2) the wide range of classic examples—iconic corporations—presented in the following chapters; (3) variations in selecting and emphasizing methods; and (4) versions of dual-leadership teamwork found among the examples.
GM: Sloan’s My Years With General Motors
Authors: Brooker Paul , Hayward Margaret
Published: July 2018

Sloan’s classic management-text memoir and more recent sources reveal his use of all six rational methods during his 1920s enhancement of General Motors. The key methods were, first, his emphasis on innovative adaptation, which restructured General Motors into multiple operating divisions; second, his emphasis on strategically calculated marketing, which pioneered annual model changes, automobile styling, and style-based advertising; third, his emphasizing of institutionalized deliberation through a multi-tiered committee system to enhance policy-making. CEO Sloan’s use of these rational methods resulted in General Motors becoming the world’s largest industrial corporation, with more than half a million employees, and having its methods copied by competitors. Finally, there is a description of the rivalry between his and Henry Ford’s corporations and approaches, resulting in Sloanism’s administrative rationality defeating Fordism’s focus on efficient production.
Conclusion
Authors: Brooker Paul , Hayward Margaret
Published: July 2018

The Conclusion points out that the preceding seven chapters’ examples and case studies have revealed some expected, and some unexpected conclusions. The six main cases revealed some expected uniformity in the leaders’ selection of rational methods. There was less uniformity, however, in the choice of the methods they emphasized, whether due to their personal preferences or to the circumstances they were facing. Two unexpected findings were the addition of a seventh appropriate rational method—learning—and the prevalence of dual-leadership teams. The conclusion goes on to suggest that this book’s theory and approach should be applied to versions of military leadership and to the political leadership of contemporary democracies.
Freedom
Authors: Ridley Aaron
Published: July 2018

This chapter is devoted to the later Nietzsche’s conception of freedom. The usual approach in the secondary literature is to attempt to interpret Nietzsche’s remarks under this head in the terms set by the standard free will/determinism debate. Construed thus, he comes out as an uneasy amalgam of hard-line determinist and soft-centred compatibilist. It is argued, however, that the later Nietzsche was not interested in the standard debate, and that the relevant remarks are much better understood as an attempt to outline a purely ethical conception of freedom. On this conception, the agents that Nietzsche takes to be exemplary are, on his construction of the term, ‘free’, where the conception of agency undergirding that construction is, it is argued, clearly and fully expressivist.
The Self
Authors: Ridley Aaron
Published: July 2018

This chapter is devoted to the consequences of Nietzsche’s expressivist conception of agency for his conception of the agent (or self). Commentators sometimes suggest that Nietzsche is a sceptic about the existence of the ‘self’ or that he reduces ‘selves’ (and hence agency) to a mere playing out of sub-personal drives. The argument here is that the self or agent implicit in Nietzsche’s expressivism cuts against such readings, and that his expressivism issues in a conception of the self that allows us to make sense of his twin commitments to fatalism on the one hand, and to the possibility of self-creation on the other. Nietzsche’s expressivism also allows us to understand his commitment to the love of fate. ‘My formula for human greatness’, he tells us, ‘is amor fati’—a claim that acquires precision (and perhaps plausibility) as soon as we read him as an expressivist about the self.
The Explainability of Experience
Authors: Renz Ursula
Published: July 2018

This book provides a novel interpretation of Spinoza’s Ethics, and his views on the human mind in particular, by showing how the text—both as a whole and in a multitude of details—is motivated by the twofold notion that subjective experience is explainable and that its successful explanation is of ethical relevance, because it makes us wiser, freer, and happier. It argues that this allows Spinoza to reconcile seemingly inconsistent convictions, viz., on the one hand, the assumption that experience is irreducibly subjective and, on the other, that there are better and worse explanations of experiences. The proposed reconstruction establishes a specific view on the architecture of Spinoza’s theory of the human mind, according to which his account carefully distinguishes between three different parts, or approaches: an ontology of the mental, a theory of the individual human subject, and a theory of mental content that combines psychological and epistemological claims. On the basis of the distinction between these three approaches, Spinoza can avoid, from the outset, both reductionism and skepticism with respect to the subjective character of human experience.
The Conception of Metaphysics in de Deo and Its Implications
Authors: Renz Ursula
Published: July 2018

This chapter discusses the metaphysical prerequisites of Spinoza’s theory of the human mind. Starting from the position that, rather than proposing a rational theology, Part One of the Ethics establishes some sort of general ontology, it is argued, first, that, by maintaining substance monism, Spinoza is committed to the realist claim that being is conceivable, or explainable. Next, the chapter argues for a reconstruction of the terms “substance” and “mode” as establishing a categorical distinction between two sorts of entities. By using these terms in the peculiar manner in which he does, Spinoza does not assume an inherent relation between God and things but posits a categorical, insurmountable difference between them. This position is corroborated by a particular reading of Spinoza’s accounts of modality and causality. The chapter concludes by discussing what it means, for humans, to be modes: they are, by definition, dependent beings, and irreducibly so.
The Primacy of the Metaphysics over the Theory of the Mind
Authors: Renz Ursula
Published: July 2018

This chapter addresses the question of how to make sense of Spinoza’s remark in the beginning of Part Two of the Ethics, where he says that he now passes to those things that follow from the essence of God. It shows that, rather than actually deducing the human mind from the essence of God, Spinoza is simply announcing a switch to a new theme here. At the same time, he affirms that metaphysics is granted primacy over the theory of the human mind. In this way, Spinoza opts for a realist view of human experience, according to which our mental life reflects rather than constitutes the basic structures of reality.
Body and Mind
Authors: Renz Ursula
Published: July 2018

This chapter discusses the way in which Spinoza’s so-called identity theory addresses the mind–body problem and critically assesses several interpretations of his approach in contemporary philosophy of mind. The chapter takes Charles Jarrett’s and Michael Della Rocca’s interpretation of the attributes as opaque contexts as its point of departure. It argues that, rather than relating mental and bodily items to each other, Spinoza’s identity theory establishes an abstract model that allows for interpreting mental events as irreducible, yet completely intelligible, entities. This, it is further argued, distinguishes Spinoza’s position from the contemporary approach that comes closest to it: Donald Davidson’s anomalous monism. In contrast to Davidson—who, by rejecting the possibility of nomological reduction, relinquishes the expectation of granting third-person explainability to the mental—Spinoza assumes that, on the basis of his rationalism, mental events are not only no less real but also no less explainable than physical events.
Panpsychism, or the Question “What Is the Subject of Experience?”
Authors: Renz Ursula
Published: July 2018

This chapter discusses the issue of Spinoza’s so-called panpsychism, which is the view, often ascribed to him, that all entities are endowed with minds. In particular, the chapter takes a closer look at the scholium following 2p13, which is usually taken as the textual evidence for this reading. In contrast to the panpsychist interpretation, the chapter shows that, by claiming universal animation, Spinoza does not intend to ascribe minds to all and every being. Instead, the chapter suggests reading his claim as maintaining that rationalism holds throughout the universe or, in other words, that intelligibility applies to all beings without any gap.
Behavioral foundations
Authors: Puranam Phanish
Published: July 2018

The diversity of behaviors that human beings exhibit makes it challenging to know what behavioral assumptions to make when building theories about organizations. Fortunately for us, organizational contexts are, to varying degrees, designed. I argue that this introduces a powerful set of levers—sorting, framing and structuring—that can help reduce this diversity of behavioral possibilities to a tractable yet plausible few. In the resulting account of behavior, alternatives need not be given, their consequences need not be known, and the utilities attached to consequences need not be stable. This chapter offers a simplified framework to understand a variety of forms of rational and non-rational individual behavior as special cases.