bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
How Much Flux Does a Flux Transfer Event Transfer?
Authors: Fear R. C. , Trenchi L. , Coxon J. C. , Milan S. E.
Published: November 2017

Flux transfer events are bursts of reconnection at the dayside magnetopause, which give rise to characteristic signatures observed by a range of magnetospheric/ionospheric instrumentation. One outstanding problem is that there is a fundamental mismatch between space‐based and ionospheric estimates of the flux that is opened by each flux transfer event—in other words, their overall significance in the Dungey cycle. Spacecraft‐based estimates of the flux content of individual flux transfer events (FTEs) correspond to each event transferring flux equivalent to approximately 1% of the open flux in the magnetosphere, whereas studies based on global‐scale radar and auroral observations suggest this figure could be of the order of 10%. In the former case, flux transfer events would be a minor detail in the Dungey cycle, but in the latter they could be its main driver. We present observations of two conjunctions between flux transfer events observed by the Cluster spacecraft and pulsed ionospheric flows observed by the Super Dual Auroral Radar Network (SuperDARN) network. In both cases, a similar number of FTE signatures were observed by Cluster and one of the SuperDARN radars, but the conjunctions differ in the azimuthal separation of the spacecraft and ionospheric observations (i.e., the distance of the spacecraft from the cusp throat). We argue that the reason for the existing mismatch in flux estimates is due to implicit assumptions made about FTE structure, which tacitly ignore the majority of flux opened in mechanisms based on longer reconnection lines. If the effects of such mechanisms are considered, a much better match is found.
Examining the Magnetic Signal Due To Gravity and Plasma Pressure Gradient Current With the TIE‐GCM
Authors: Maute A. , Richmond A. D.
Published: November 2017

Accurate magnetic field measurements at ground and low‐Earth orbit (LEO) are crucial to describe Earth's magnetic field. One of the challenges with processing LEO magnetic field measurements to study Earth's magnetic field is that the satellite flies in regions of highly varying ionospheric currents, which needs to be characterized accurately. The present study focuses on ionospheric current systems due to gravity and plasma pressure gradient forcing and aims to provide guidance on the estimation of their magnetic effect at LEO altitudes with the help of numerical modeling. We assess the diamagnetic approximation that estimates the magnetic signal of the plasma pressure gradient current. The simulations indicate that the diamagnetic effect should not be removed from LEO magnetic observations without considering the gravity current effect, as this will lead to an error larger than the magnetic signal of these currents. We introduce and evaluate a method to capture the magnetic effect of the gravity‐driven current. The diamagnetic and gravity current approximations ignore the magnetic effect from currents set up by the induced electric field. The combined gravity and plasma pressure gradient magnetic effect tends to cancel above the F region peak; however, between approximately 300 km and the peak it exhibits a significant height and latitudinal variation with magnitudes up to 8 nT. During solar minimum the combined magnetic signal is less than 1 nT above 300 km. In addition to the solar cycle dependence, the magnetic signal strength varies with longitude (approximately by 50%) and season (up to 80%) at solar maximum.
Mesozoic Crustal Thickening of the Longmenshan Belt (NE Tibet, China) by Imbrication of Basement Slices: Insights From Structural Analysis, Petrofabric and Magnetic Fabric Studies, and Gravity Modeling
Authors: Xue Zhenhua , Martelet Guillaume , Lin Wei , Faure Michel , Chen Yan , Wei Wei , Li Shuangjian , Wang Qingchen
Published: November 2017

This work first presents field structural analysis, anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility (AMS) measurements, and kinematic and microstructural studies on the Neoproterozoic Pengguan complex located in the middle segment of the Longmenshan thrust belt (LMTB), NE Tibet. These investigations indicate that the Pengguan complex is a heterogeneous unit with a ductilely deformed NW domain and an undeformed SE domain, rather than a single homogeneous body as previously thought. The NW part of the Pengguan complex is constrained by top‐to‐the‐NW shearing along its NW boundary and top‐to‐the‐SE shearing along its SE boundary, where it imbricates and overrides the SE domain. Two orogen‐perpendicular gravity models not only support the imbricated shape of the Pengguan complex but also reveal an imbrication of high‐density material hidden below the Paleozoic rocks on the west of the LMTB. Regionally, this suggests a basement‐slice‐imbricated structure that developed along the margin of the Yangtze Block, as shown by the regional gravity anomaly map, together with the published nearby seismic profile and the distribution of orogen‐parallel Neoproterozoic complexes. Integrating the previously published ages of the NW normal faulting and of the SE directed thrusting, the locally fast exhumation rate, and the lithological characteristics of the sediments in the LMTB front, we interpret the basement‐slice‐imbricated structure as the result of southeastward thrusting of the basement slices during the Late Jurassic‐Early Cretaceous. This architecture makes a significant contribution to the crustal thickening of the LMTB during the Mesozoic, and therefore, the Cenozoic thickening of the Longmenshan belt might be less important than often suggested.
Evaporation in Capillary Porous Media at the Perfect Piston‐Like Invasion Limit: Evidence of Nonlocal Equilibrium Effects
Authors: Attari Moghaddam Alireza , Prat Marc , Tsotsas Evangelos , Kharaghani Abdolreza
Published: November 2017

The classical continuum modeling of evaporation in capillary porous media is revisited from pore network simulations of the evaporation process. The computed moisture diffusivity is characterized by a minimum corresponding to the transition between liquid and vapor transport mechanisms confirming previous interpretations. Also the study suggests an explanation for the scattering generally observed in the moisture diffusivity obtained from experimental data. The pore network simulations indicate a noticeable nonlocal equilibrium effect leading to a new interpretation of the vapor pressure‐saturation relationship classically introduced to obtain the one‐equation continuum model of evaporation. The latter should not be understood as a desorption isotherm as classically considered but rather as a signature of a nonlocal equilibrium effect. The main outcome of this study is therefore that nonlocal equilibrium two‐equation model must be considered for improving the continuum modeling of evaporation.
Using Survey Data to Determine a Numeric Criterion for Nutrient Pollution
Authors: Jakus Paul M. , Nelson Nanette , Ostermiller Jeffrey
Published: November 2017

We present a scientific replication of a benthic algae nuisance threshold study originally conducted in Montana, but we do so using a different sampling methodology in a different state. Respondents are asked to rate eight photographs that depict varying algae conditions. Our initial results show that Utah resident preferences for benthic algae levels are quite similar to those of Montana residents, thus replicating the Montana study. For the full Utah sample, though, Cronbach's α indicated poor internal consistency in rating the photographs, so a “monotonicity rule” was used to identify respondents providing monotonic preferences with respect to chlorophyll a densities. Simple graphical analyses are combined with ordered probit analysis to determine the maximum desirable density of chlorophyll a (Chl a). Our analysis indicates that Chl a levels in excess of 150 mg Chl a/m2 are undesirable, but the regression model suggests that those with strictly monotonic preferences were far more likely favor a more stringent standard.
Hydraulic Causes for Basin Hydrograph Skewness
Authors: Collischonn Walter , Fleischmann Ayan , Paiva Rodrigo C. D. , Mejia Alfonso
Published: November 2017

It has been suggested that hydrograph skewness depends on the relative dominance between hillslope and channel network transport processes, where the former ones make the hydrograph positively skewed while the latter tends to make it negatively skewed. More recently, however, the role of river hydraulics in shaping the hydrograph has been highlighted. We present a set of numerical modeling experiments using a hydrodynamic model of river networks in which we investigate how channel hydraulics influence the shape of the hydrograph, particularly its skewness. We further investigate the influence of base flow, rainfall intensity, cross section geometry, and basin scale on unit hydrograph response. We show that river hydraulics has a decisive role because positively skewed hydrographs may occur even when water inputs to the river network are negatively skewed, and in catchments whose width function is also negatively skewed. We show additional results related to the effect of the degree of nonlinearity in the relationship between celerity and discharge, the effects of base flow and rainfall intensity. These further confirm that hydraulic factors may be decisive in determining hydrograph shape.
A Pseudo‐Vertical Equilibrium Model for Slow Gravity Drainage Dynamics
Authors: Becker Beatrix , Guo Bo , Bandilla Karl , Celia Michael A. , Flemisch Bernd , Helmig Rainer
Published: November 2017

Vertical equilibrium (VE) models are computationally efficient and have been widely used for modeling fluid migration in the subsurface. However, they rely on the assumption of instant gravity segregation of the two fluid phases which may not be valid especially for systems that have very slow drainage at low wetting phase saturations. In these cases, the time scale for the wetting phase to reach vertical equilibrium can be several orders of magnitude larger than the time scale of interest, rendering conventional VE models unsuitable. Here we present a pseudo‐VE model that relaxes the assumption of instant segregation of the two fluid phases by applying a pseudo‐residual saturation inside the plume of the injected fluid that declines over time due to slow vertical drainage. This pseudo‐VE model is cast in a multiscale framework for vertically integrated models with the vertical drainage solved as a fine‐scale problem. Two types of fine‐scale models are developed for the vertical drainage, which lead to two pseudo‐VE models. Comparisons with a conventional VE model and a full multidimensional model show that the pseudo‐VE models have much wider applicability than the conventional VE model while maintaining the computational benefit of the conventional VE model.
Positive Achievement Change Tool
Authors: Baglivio Michael T.
Published: November 2017

The Positive Achievement Change Tool (PACT) is a suite of three risk/needs assessment instruments for use with juvenile offenders and at‐risk youth. The Community PACT is used for juvenile justice‐involved youth who have received dispositions to community placements, such as probation supervision. The validity and reliability of the Community PACT have been assessed in multiple evaluations, showing that the assessment performs equally well for male and female youth, and across race/ethnicity. The Residential PACT measures progress throughout a youth's residential commitment placement. This assessment has been found to measure changes in risk and protective factors throughout placement and that these changes are predictive of reoffending. The Prevention PACT measures the needs and protective factors of at‐risk youth who have not yet entered the formal juvenile justice system for the purpose of identifying suitable prevention and intervention targets to reduce risk and build strengths.
Brownv. Board of Education of Topeka
Authors: Rubenser Lorie
Published: November 2017

On May 17, 1954, the United States Supreme Court rendered their verdict in theBrown v. Board of Education of Topekacase, effectively ending segregation in public schools. This verdict dealt a death blow to the long‐established principle fromPlessy v. Ferguson(1896) of “separate but equal.”Brownalso became a catalyst for the rest of the Civil Rights Movement by showing that major victories against racism were possible.
Defense Attorney
Authors: Burruss George W.
Published: November 2017

The defense attorney's role in juvenile courts is similar to that of an attorney appearing in adult felony court. Defense attorneys in juvenile matters, however, must deal with the social welfare mission of the court rather than the public safety and punishment mission of the adult system. Furthermore, a growing body of research suggests that being represented in the juvenile system can backfire, resulting in a more serious case outcome. This counsel penalty, while paradoxical, comes from the foundational principles of the first juvenile justice courts that sought to treat young offenders even if their due process rights were minimized. Defense attorneys must, therefore, balance their role as a zealous advocate with the best interests mission of the juvenile court system.
U
nited
K
ingdom
Authors: Belshaw Scott H.
Published: November 2017

The Crime and Disorder Act of 1998, the current youth justice system in England and Wales, established the modern juvenile justice system in the United Kingdom. This system is still in its infancy, born from a critical analysis conducted by the Home Office of the United Kingdom and the Audit Commission, which found the previous juvenile justice system to be ineffective, both in reducing youth offending rates and in cost. The current system of justice for juvenile offenders has changed dramatically in the last decade. This entry outlines the current changes in the juvenile justice system in the United Kingdom.
France
Authors: Johnstone Peter
Published: November 2017

The juvenile justice system of France is designed to ensure that young persons are treated separately from adults other than in exceptional circumstances. A person under the age of 18 is regarded as a juvenile or minor in France; if suspected of crime, a minor is designated an expert
juge des enfants
who takes responsibility for determining the best course of action; this can be a warning, detention in a special home, probation, or exceptionally, incarceration in a juvenile detention center. The primary purpose of the juvenile justice system in France is to educate and reform juvenile delinquents.
Gun‐Free Schools Act
Authors: Barrett Kimberly L. , Brooks Jennie M.
Published: November 2017

The Gun‐Free Schools Act (GFSA) represents the first federal initiative in the United States explicitly designed to address school gun violence by targeting student behaviors, including involvement of the justice system in school discipline. This entry explores the roots of the GFSA and discusses how schools have interpreted and implemented its requirements. Included in this discussion are controversial “zero tolerance” school disciplinary policies, which have been associated with the passage of the GFSA. The impacts of zero tolerance policies have not been felt uniformly across all demographic groups, and this entry describes some of the social inequities that appear to have been exacerbated and/or facilitated by various interpretations of the GFSA. The entry concludes by briefly noting recommendations that have been made with respect to interpreting the GFSA and zero tolerance school disciplinary policies.
National Crime Victimization Survey
Authors: Powers Ráchael A. , Leili Jennifer A.
Published: November 2017

The National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) was the nation's first self‐reported crime victimization survey and remains the largest in the United States. Through a rotating panel design, estimates of violent and property crimes, such as robbery, aggravated assault, sexual assault, simple assault, burglary, theft, and auto theft, are obtained. The NCVS employs a nationally representative, stratified, multistage, clustered sampling design. The NCVS has had several revisions since it was created in the 1970s. In addition, periodically the NCVS uses supplemental surveys to capture a broader array of information on specific types of crime (e.g., school crime).
Life Without Possibility of Parole
Authors: Peck Jennifer H. , Leiber Michael J.
Published: November 2017

Based on the Supreme Court decisions ofMiller v. AlabamaandJackson v. Hobbs, mandatory life without parole (LWOP) sentences for juveniles convicted of homicide under the age of 18 years violates the Eighth Amendment of cruel and unusual punishment. Stating that children are cognitively, developmentally, and physically different from adults, over 2,500 juveniles currently serving LWOP sentences may have the opportunity to have their cases revisited. This entry first provides an overview of the Supreme Court cases and juveniles serving LWOP sentences. The discussion then centers on the experiences of childhood and incarceration of those facing LWOP. The entry concludes with a discussion of the racial disparities revolving around juveniles serving LWOP and directions for future research and potential reform.
Roperv.Simmons
Authors: Miller Alexis J. , Beare Elisabeth
Published: November 2017

Roper v. Simmonssuccessfully ended the death penalty for juvenile offenders in the United States. The case precedent for the legal application and process of the death penalty, followed by the standards for the juvenile death penalty, are reviewed. Finally, the entry addresses the case law that established the evolving standard of decency inAtkins v. Virginiaand how it was applied to the juvenile death penalty inRoper.
Competence, Legal Rights
Authors: Beausoleil Marcel F.
Published: November 2017

A recognized right for adults accused of crimes is the right to be competent to stand trial. This means that they have the capacity to understand the nature of the proceedings and the ability to communicate meaningfully with legal counsel. This issue has been decided in the US Supreme Court case
Dusky v. United States
(362 U.S. 402 [1960]) and also other cases. This issue is less clear for juveniles who, in addition to potential mental incapacities, may also suffer from developmental immaturity issues that may leave them unable to understand the nature of the charges against them or the legal process, and to be able to communicate with their legal counsel. Although no federal court decisions speak to this issue, many state courts have either statutes, court decisions, or court rules to address this question.
Social Disorganization Theory
Authors: Lopez J. Miguel , Gillespie Lane Kirkland
Published: November 2017

Delinquency occurs more frequently in some neighborhoods than in others, with certain areas accounting for a high proportion of offenses. Social scientists and criminologists have been examining this phenomenon since the early 1900s, trying to determine why crime tends to cluster in these specific locations. Evolving from the Chicago School and the works of Park and Burgess (1925, 1967) and Shaw and McKay (1942), social disorganization is a social structural theory that attempts to explain these higher rates of offending, focusing on the high amounts of disorder and low levels of informal social control common in many high crime areas. Social disorganization and its structural antecedents have consistently been supported through empirical study with indications of generalizability across cities and countries. Originating from an urban ecological perspective, social disorganization continues to be tested and developed as a theory of delinquency and crime.
Sexting
Authors: Moak Stacy C.
Published: November 2017

Sending nude or sexually explicit photographs through electronic communication is known as sexting. Because of the rapid increase in the availability of technology, this behavior developed faster than laws designed to address it. As a result, child pornography laws have been used to prosecute offenders. Although the prevalence of sexting is not known, the behavior appears common among adolescents. States are working to address this behavior by modifying legislation.
Waiver to Criminal Court (also Transfer or Certification)
Authors: Jordan Kareem L.
Published: November 2017

Juvenile waiver to adult court has been a practice since the inception of the juvenile court. It involves the transferring of juveniles to the adult criminal justice system for prosecution. In other words, these youth bypass the juvenile court and are, instead, treated as “adults” for criminal processing. This entry will explain the rationale for transferring juveniles to the criminal justice system, the methods by which youth are transferred, along with the latest empirical research that has focused on this area.
Truancy and School Dropout
Authors: Garase Maria L.
Published: November 2017

Although there is no universal definition of truancy, it is commonly defined as unexcused absences from school and/or being absent from school without a legitimate excuse. In essence, all absences are treated as unlawful until the school district receives a written excuse explaining the reason(s) for the absence. Absences outside illness, family emergency, death of a family member, medical or dental appointments, authorized school activities, court hearings and appointments, and educational travel with prior approval are considered to be unexcused. Truancy is a status offense, which is an act that is a crime due to the minor status of the person, but would not be illegal for someone aged 18 years or older. Students who are truant are more likely to have issues with academic failure, poor performance on standardized tests, dropping out of school, substance abuse, and juvenile delinquency.
Homelessness
Authors: Heerde Jessica A. , Hemphill Sheryl A.
Published: November 2017

Homeless is an extreme form of social exclusion. The entry into and course of homelessness, is associated with negative health and social outcomes which do not occur in isolation from one another. Homeless persons commonly report experiencing substantial marginalization, financial insecurity, reduced opportunity for education and employment, engagement in health‐risk behaviors, increased exposure to and possible engagement in violence, and increased risk for victimization. Consequently, homeless persons display a higher prevalence of reported morbidity and mortality. This entry begins with a discussion of international definitions and prevalence of homelessness, followed by an overview of some of the factors contributing to homelessness. Associations between homelessness, perpetration of violence, and victimization are discussed, as are some of the health and economic costs of homelessness. This entry concludes with a discussion on health approaches to addressing homelessness.
Religion
Authors: Kerley Kent R. , Deitzer Jessica R.
Published: November 2017

This entry is designed to introduce readers to the extensive research literature on religion and juvenile delinquency. Religiosity – defined here as the cognitive and behavioral commitment to organized religion – operates as a social force for reducing many negative behaviors and for increasing many positive behaviors. The most common research finding is that religion typically is a deterrent to the use of alcohol, tobacco, and marijuana among youths, but has little effect on the commission of other drug crimes, property crimes, or violent crimes.
Juvenile Court Judge
Authors: Neitz Michele Benedetto
Published: November 2017

Juvenile court is designed to be more rehabilitative and less punitive than adult court, and juvenile court judges play different roles than their adult criminal court counterparts. Juvenile court judges are expected to perform judicial, administrative, and advocacy functions, while also serving as community educators informing the public about the challenges facing juvenile court and its young litigants. Judges can be elected or appointed, depending on the jurisdiction, but all juvenile courts demand a high level of training and expertise for judges. Challenges facing judges in these specialized courts include significant lack of resources, increasing administrative obligations, and the absence of a uniform ethical code of conduct specifically designed to meet the multidimensional roles of juvenile court judges.
Drug Courts, Juvenile
Authors: Brewster Mary P. , Eshleman Cynthia , Bruton Edward W.
Published: November 2017

Due to the perceived success of adult drug court programs, the first juvenile drug court programs were implemented in the United States in 1995. As of 2009, there were more than 450 juvenile drug courts operating across the country. Currently, juvenile drug courts are utilized nationwide as a method of diversion for juveniles who have come into contact with the criminal justice system.
Education and Delinquency
Authors: Blomberg Thomas G. , Pesta George B.
Published: November 2017

Prior empirical literature on delinquency and education has consistently reported that successful school performance and strong school attachment are protective factors in preventing delinquency. Importantly, educational achievement for incarcerated delinquent youth has been found to serve as a “turning point” in reducing postrelease recidivism. Nonetheless, and despite the official rhetoric of the American juvenile justice system to treat and educate delinquents, juvenile justice education lags far behind that of public schools in quality and accountability. The state of Florida provides an illustrative case of historical neglect of the education of delinquent youth that culminated in a class‐action lawsuit and federal court consent decree. The consent decree led Florida to establish a model high‐quality and accountable juvenile justice education system that enabled numerous incarcerated delinquent youth to achieve academically, return to school, and desist from subsequent delinquency.
Control Balance Theory
Authors: Baron Stephen W.
Published: November 2017

Control balance theory is a perspective that outlines how people's ability to exert and escape control influences their participation in deviance. Individuals are viewed as having “control ratios,” which are defined by the degree of control experienced or subjected to relative to the amount of control exercised. This ratio shapes whether individuals will choose to undertake deviant activities. The theory suggests that imbalanced control ratios, which can take two forms, emerge when the amount of control exercised and the amount of control experienced are unequal. Individuals with imbalances will engage in deviance when presented with opportunities with low certainty of apprehension and punishment. Deviance is used as a method to gain more control, or escape the control of others, and in the process address control imbalances. The theory to date has received some limited support and continues to generate empirical research, theoretical debate, and extensions.
Statutory Rape
Authors: Cocca Carolyn
Published: November 2017

Statutory rape is sexual intercourse with an unmarried person who is under the “age of consent.” Force is not required; the crime lies solely with the age of the victim. This age differs around the world, but tends to range from 14 to 18 years. The laws presume that young people are too immature and vulnerable to give valid consent to sexual intercourse, and so they attempt to protect young people by deterring those who might take advantage of that immaturity. The laws can indeed punish those who have committed sexual abuse against young people, but they can also serve, and have served, to punish consensual sexual activity among adolescents.
Gender (Juvenile Justice: The Court)
Authors: Bright Charlotte Lyn , Winters Andrew M.
Published: November 2017

An increase in girls' presence in the juvenile justice system has called attention to their specific needs, to their experiences with risk and protective factors, to gender differences in case processing, and to the question of what services are best suited for boys and girls. This entry reviews existing knowledge in each of these areas and calls attention to unanswered questions for juvenile justice practice, policy, and research.
Moral Panic
Authors: Goode Erich
Published: November 2017

The
moral panic
is an intense, heightened sense of exaggerated concern about a threat or supposed threat posed by deviants or “folk devils,” a category of people who, presumably, engage in evil practices and are responsible for menacing the physical safety or the culture or way of life of society or sectors of society. Referring to such an episode as a “panic” indicates that the concern about, fear of, and/or hostility toward the folk devil and his doings are
out of proportion
to the supposed threat. Some panics (or “scares”) are generated by threats that are entirely imaginary, but most are about a manifestly real condition that, evidence suggests, does not warrant the degree of concern that the public, a sector of the public, or representatives of a given institution manifest.
Adult Court
Authors: Carmichael Jason T. , Sigouin Jennifer
Published: November 2017

A growing body of scholarship has assessed the treatment of juvenile offenders in adult criminal courts in the United States. These studies have worked to identify potential biases in the criminal sanctioning of juvenile offenders by examining whether these outcomes are simply due to legal factors such as the severity of the offense or prior criminal involvement, or extra‐legal factors such as race/ethnicity, age, or gender. Other studies have examined broader contextual factors surrounding the courts themselves to assess the influence that these factors may have on the sanctioning of young offenders. Although inconsistencies in the findings remain and data and methodological deficiencies plague many of the studies in this area, there is sufficient evidence to suggest that the US criminal justice system considers legally irrelevant factors when determining the severity of criminal sanctions for minors.
NISMART
Authors: Sedlak Andrea J.
Published: November 2017

The National Incidence Studies of Missing, Abducted, Runaway, and Thrownaway Children (NISMART) are congressionally mandated periodic efforts of the US Department of Justice to assess the numbers and rates of children who experience episodes that can lead them to become missing (episode children) and the numbers and rates of episode children who actually were missing from their caretakers (caretaker missing) or reported as missing to law enforcement or a missing children's agency for purposes of locating the child (reported missing). Findings from two cycles have been published and the third cycle is currently in press. All NISMART cycles included multiple studies. The first two NISMART cycles reported findings based on a household survey of adults, a household survey of youth, a juvenile residential facilities study, and a law enforcement study. NISMART‐3 reported findings from a household survey of adults on children abducted by family, who were runaways or thrownaways, and on children who were missing because they were lost, injured, or stranded or because of misunderstandings. NISMART‐2 and NISMART‐3 also reported results from law enforcement studies on children who were victims of stereotypical kidnappings. The government is exploring other designs for future NISMARTs.
Confidentiality, Juvenile Court Records
Authors: Jacobs James B. , Dao Lili
Published: November 2017

The juvenile court movement began at the turn of the twentieth century, with juvenile court reformers calling for the confidentiality of juvenile records, to prevent stigmatization and further rehabilitation. The juvenile court's founders sought to close juvenile courts to the public and restrict access to delinquency records created by police and courts. The proponents of juvenile criminal record confidentiality achieved substantial success in the first decades of the twentieth century. However, beginning in the 1960s, confidentiality came under attack by liberals concerned with the court's lack of accountability and by conservatives concerned with controlling crime. Today, there are some signs of renewed support for juvenile record confidentiality, but existing precedents and information technology make significant and effective confidentiality unlikely.
Social Support Theory
Authors: Kort‐Butler Lisa A.
Published: November 2017

Social support theory emerged from publications by Don Drennon‐Gala and Francis Cullen, both of whom drew on insights from several theoretical traditions. The theory is centered on the proposition that instrumental, informational, and emotional supports reduce the likelihood of delinquency and crime. The theory incorporates macro‐ and micro‐level effects, emphasizing how supportive societies and supportive relationships, respectively, can lessen delinquency and crime rates and individual delinquency and crime. Social support is also implicated in the processes of social control and criminal justice, in that effective social control and rehabilitation are based on social support. Research suggests that communities able to provide higher levels of social support have lower rates of juvenile crime, that social support is an important element of adolescent well‐being, and that social support can be a key factor in rehabilitating juvenile offenders.
Juvenile Parole
Authors: Vidal Sarah
Published: November 2017

Juvenile parole is a court‐imposed transitional service that aims to provide support and assistance to and monitor the behavior of youth upon release from correctional confinement and during their reintegration in the community. As a central component of aftercare services, the overarching goal of juvenile parole is to promote public safety and rehabilitation by providing supervision and support services to reentry youth in order to help them succeed in the community.
Gun Violence
Authors: Altheimer Irshad
Published: November 2017

Youth gun violence is a serious problem in the United States. Gun violence is a leading cause of death among juveniles and the United States is among the world leaders in juvenile gun violence. Rates of gun violence reached record levels in the early 1990s, but rapidly decreased thereafter and have stabilized over recent years. Disaggregation of crime data by race, gender, and age reveals that a disproportionate amount of gun violence occurs between young minority males living in socially disadvantaged urban neighborhoods. This fact notwithstanding, gun violence has serious social and financial costs to society at large and steps can be taken to reduce such violence.
Inequality
Authors: Reinecke Jost
Published: November 2017

Inequality is an important concept concerning the economic and social development of societies with respect to age, crime, education, gender, income, race, social class, and social relations, to name just a few. This entry briefly summarizes the basic theoretical, methodological, and empirical tools used to describe and explain processes in the development of inequality, principally economic and social inequality. The link between inequality and crime is highlighted, as is as the necessity to explore the mechanisms generating inequality.
Power‐Control Theory
Authors: Gould Laurie A. , Blackwell Brenda Sims
Published: November 2017

An examination of criminological theories quickly reveals that female criminality has received little attention. Power‐control theory (PCT) represents an early exception to this approach, and as such stands as an important theoretical contribution to criminology. In their development and refinement of PCT, Hagan and colleagues designed a theoretical model that would describe the development of criminality and, perhaps more notably, it recognized and addressed the need to understand differences in criminality across the sexes. Ultimately, PCT provides important insights into how informal social controls influence delinquency patterns among and between male and female children.
Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Act
Authors: Barrett Kimberly L. , Daroczy Lydia L.
Published: November 2017

The Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Act (JJDPA) was first passed in 1974, and remains a key piece of legislation shaping juvenile justice and delinquency initiatives in the United States to date. In this entry, we provide a brief background on the passage of the JJDPA. We also describe the purpose, mission, vision, and structure of the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP). Next, we describe the four core requirements of the JJDPA in turn, connecting the core requirements to findings from empirical studies. The entry concludes with a brief discussion of the current status and future of the JJDPA, including strides made since the passage of the JJDPA, and challenges that remain.
Personality Theories
Authors: Merydith Scott
Published: November 2017

Freudian psychoanalysis considers the driving force of personality to be the result of sex and aggression drives arising from inner bodily instability caused by need deprivation. The structure of personality is formed by the mind's cognitive processes of id, ego, and superego. Personality develops through a series of psychosexual stages that begin in infancy and end in adolescents. Juvenile delinquency, such as criminal behavior or substance abuse, is the result of personality structure and personality development. Psychoanalytic object relation theorists consider that personality derives from the relationships that we have with others who are psychologically significant to us. All of personality development relates from the movement of immature dependency to mature dependency. Psychopathology that can result in juvenile delinquency occurs from the conflicts that people have in establishing interpersonal relationships.
Detention Diversion Advocacy Project
Authors: Bush Michael
Published: November 2017

The Detention Diversion Advocacy Project (DDAP) is a program designed to provide youth with alternatives to court‐ordered detention through community‐based support and supervision. The DDAP strives to create empirically based, multilevel interventions that divert youth from secure detention facilities, to demonstrate that community‐based interventions are an effective and cost‐efficient alternative to secure custody, and to reduce disproportionate minority confinement. Two essential components for DDAP programs are disposition case advocacy and case management. Disposition case advocacy refers to the process of community members identifying youth who are eligible for the program; DDAP programs target youths who are currently detained or those who are likely to be detained pending adjudication. Case management refers to the collective process of coordinating community‐based services and opportunities for youthful offenders, which is an essential element for promoting effective service delivery to diverse target populations.
Social Construction of Crime
Authors: Przemieniecki Christopher J.
Published: November 2017

Most theoretical propositions look to explain crime, deviance, and criminal behavior from the sociological, psychological, and biological perspectives. However, social constructionism explains crime by focusing on interpretive meanings and perceptions that people create in their minds making it a social reality. Rooted in symbolic interactionism, wrongful behaviors and actions are deemed criminal because people, through their social interactions, give meaning to those actions and behaviors. The classification or definition of crimes is the result of people's knowledge, shared interpretations, and often the power of the media.
Biosocial Criminology
Authors: Nedelec Joseph L. , Connolly Eric J. , Schwartz Joseph A. , Silver Ian
Published: November 2017

Criminological explanations of juvenile delinquency have primarily relied upon sociological concepts and variables. Recent developments in disciplines outside criminology have highlighted the ways in which biology can help improve our understanding of human behavior. Informed by these multiple disciplines, biosocial criminology incorporates both biological and sociological explanations of antisocial behavior. Included in this entry is an overview of three main components of biosocial criminology: evolutionary psychology, behavioral genetics, and neurocriminology. In addition to the general overview, this entry also illustrates the specific ways in which a biosocial perspective can help explain numerous key issues related to juvenile delinquency.
Diversion
Authors: Kremser Jonathan M.
Published: November 2017

Diversion from court is a popular and common practice for first time, nonviolent juvenile offenders. Within juvenile justice, there has been a long history of diverting youth from the formal court process to specific programs that focus on the individual's particular treatment needs. This practice is based upon the belief that formal criminal justice processing often stigmatizes the offender, and restricts or eliminates future opportunities within the community. This entry will define diversion, identify the various institutions in which diversion programs are delivered, provide an historical background, and provide the theoretical framework that informs diversion practices. The entry will provide examples of specific diversion programs, and conclude with a discussion of some of the benefits and future challenges of diversion.
Subcultural Theories
Authors: Deitzer Jessica R. , Copes Heith
Published: November 2017

Subcultural theories of delinquency first emerged in the mid‐twentieth century. These theories were developed to explain disproportionate delinquent activity among the lower classes (particularly males). In general, subcultures can be defined as a set of beliefs or focal concerns that relate to a social group and which differ from conventional beliefs. Theorists such as Cohen, Miller, Cloward and Ohlin, and Anderson have sought to explain the origin of these subcultures and the role subcultures play in crime and delinquency. While popular for some time, subcultural theories fell out of favor among sociologists in the 1960s. Today, there has been a resurgence of subcultural theories as explanations for crime.
Code of the Streets
Authors: Burgason Kyle A.
Published: November 2017

The code of the streets, as identified by Elijah Anderson, is a set of informal rules that govern interpersonal relations in desolated and isolated inner‐city neighborhoods marred by high levels of structural resource deprivation, racial segregation, and a lack of civic and public services. At the heart of the code is the issue of respect and juveniles will risk freedom and life to obtain and maintain their tough persona. The code dictates that individuals be ready and willing to respond with violence when publicly challenged whether they subscribe to the street mentality or not.
General Theories of Crime and Delinquency
Authors: Boonstoppel Sarah , Thompson Kevin
Published: November 2017

General theories of crime and delinquency assume that the broad phenomena of crime and deviance can be explained with a single or limited set of explanatory factors. This limited set of factors, it is argued, explain all types of crime, for all members of the population, and for all dimensions of the criminal career. This essay examines the theories that utilize the general theory approach in criminology. The empirical status of general theories is also addressed.
McKeiverv.Pennsylvania
Authors: Ross James J.
Published: November 2017

In the mid‐1960s, the Supreme Court of the United States grantedcertiorarito a series of cases that ushered in the era of “constitutional revision” in juvenile court history. This line of cases, originating withKent v. United States(1966) andIn re Gault(1967), derive their “revolutionary” status from the significance of this “due process revolution” in policy toward the juvenile court.McKeiver v. Pennsylvania(1970) is considered to serve as the last in this line of cases that considered, although not always extending, reviewing the due process right of juveniles to trial by an impartial jury.
Defiance Theory
Authors: Letteney Kyle W.
Published: November 2017

Lawrence Sherman's defiance theory has provided a foundation with which to understand better the conditions under which punishment increases crime. Defiance theory suggests that fairness and legitimacy of experienced punishment are essential for the acknowledgement of shame, which conditions deterrence. When punishment is perceived as unjust by the offender, it can lead to unacknowledged shame and defiant pride that increase the chance of engaging in future crime. This remains especially true for young offenders who continue to be processed through the conventional juvenile justice system. Since defiance theory's emergence, a lot can be said concerning its contribution to the understanding of procedural legitimacy and youth justice. This entry outlines the basic tenants of defiance theory and how it has been used to explain procedural legitimacy in a juvenile justice setting.
Nutrition and Delinquency
Authors: Gesch Bernard
Published: November 2017

The relationship between nutrition and delinquency is directly attributable to the role of the human brain in governing our behavior, and like any organ, the brain requires nutrition to function normally. Poor nutrition during pregnancy and childhood diets have both been shown to have life‐course consequences associated with delinquency. Diet has also been shown to significantly modify antisocial behaviors under experimental conditions. This entry discusses evidence of how the brain's nutrient supply fuels our social behavior.
Caribbean Region
Authors: Grant Lorna , Gibson Camille
Published: November 2017

Caribbean governments are aware of modern international standards and expectations in juvenile justice. These nations and territories, reflecting British, French, Spanish, or Dutch heritage, have signed on to a number of international treaties and standards with regard to the treatment of children in need of services and/or in conflict with the law. The urgency, however, with which different countries have advanced improvements varies from the still draconian (with juveniles and adults in shared prisons) to the more progressive, with a separate system for juveniles that focuses on the minor's rehabilitation and well‐being. Most, however, are somewhere in between these two points.
Physical Abuse
Authors: Cook Amy Kyle
Published: November 2017

Maltreatment is an umbrella term used to describe a variety of adverse experiences perpetrated by parents or caretakers against children, including neglect, sexual abuse, emotional abuse, and physical abuse. The National Child Traumatic Stress Network (NCTSN) indicates that after neglect, physical abuse is the second leading type of child maltreatment experienced.

Physical abuse is linked to a variety of deleterious outcomes such as delinquent and criminal behavior, violence, mental health problems, substance abuse, poor cognitive development, physical health problems, and even death. Discussion is provided on treatment for children and families suffering from physical abuse and other forms of maltreatment.
Warren Court, The
Authors: Gentes Eric A.
Published: November 2017

From its founding in 1899 to the mid‐1960s, the US juvenile court system remained largely unchanged. Juveniles were not guaranteed any procedural protections and juvenile judges were given nearly unfettered discretion to run their courts as they saw fit. The Warren Court (1953–1969) ushered in a revolution in juvenile justice by making most due process protections, formally applicable only to criminal defendants, applicable to the juvenile court system, thus creating the system that we know today.