bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A Fish Tale
Authors: Chamberlain Ava
Published: April 2018

Ava Chamberlain treats Jonthan Edwards’ interpretation of the biblical story of Jonah, comparing it with that of Cotton Mather and that of early modern skeptics. In this case study, she shows how exegetes like Edwards and Mather probed the meaning of Hebrew terms and considered how the biblical account accorded with the natural world—all in the face of those who derided the Jonah story as a farce. Her work highlights how early modern questions about the Bible’s historicity informed and affected the exegesis of Protestants like Edwards and Mather. It also demonstrates that although Edwards and Mather engaged the biblical text in many similar ways, Edwards also differed in the degree to which he emphasized the need for divine grace to understand the Bible, a forceful assertion of supernaturalism against the emerging naturalism of his time.
Jonathan Edwards, the Bible, and Conversion
Authors: Kling David W.
Published: April 2018

David W. Kling explores the exegetical foundations of Jonthan Edwards’ understanding of conversion. Given the importance of revivalism in Edwards’ career, one cannot deny the preeminent place of conversion in his thought and preaching. Yet fundamental to that doctrine was Scripture’s teaching on the nature of conversion. Kling probes this topic by treating the role of the Bible in Edwards’ own conversion, distinct as it was from the reigning model in his tradition; by considering the place of conversion in Edwards’ discussion of the revivals; and by examining the intersection of Scripture and conversion in three representative awakening sermons. In Edwards’ view, the Bible taught that conversion is real, that it transforms not only the soul but also the body, and that it involves both a “first conversion” and an ongoing process.
Was Jonathan Edwards an Evangelical? Scripture and Tradition in America’s Theologian
Authors: McDermott Gerald R.
Published: April 2018

Gerald R. McDermott considers Jonthan Edwards in a broader evangelical context. Can Edwards be considered an evangelical? Defining the term evangelical is a contested and thorny issue, even more so as it has become entwined with politics. In McDermott’s view, what is at the heart of the matter is one’s understanding of the Protestant principle of sola scriptura and its relationship to the Great Tradition. To probe where Edwards falls on this question, McDermott explores his approach to the key doctrines of justification by faith alone, the analogy of being, and metaphysics, and he compares his approach with typically Catholic and typically Protestant positions. McDermott concludes that Edwards followed not a rigorist but a prima scriptura approach to the sola scriptura principle, one that stands in unison with the Great Tradition and offers guidance for evangelicals today.
Trajan and the Imperial House
Authors: Brennan T. Corey
Published: April 2018

This chapter discusses how Trajan after his accession in 98 reconsolidated the imperial house. Trajan was from the Spanish province Baetica, his wife, Plotina, likely from Narbonese Gaul, thus dramatically enhancing the status of provincial elites in imperial Rome. The childless couple built spectacular foundations for a true dynasty through lavish formal honors to family members. Within a few years Trajan elevated his wife and his older sister, Marciana, to Augusta. In 112 Trajan divinized his (long dead) father and (recently deceased) sister, and gave his niece, Matidia, the position of Augusta. Henceforth, Trajan could claim parentage from two deified figures (his adoptive father, Nerva, and now his biological father) and signal divine ancestry for Marciana, her daughter, Matidia the Elder, and his grandnieces Sabina and Matidia the Younger. It is argued that this status shaped Sabina’s own identity, her later standing as empress, and eventually her own deification.
The Journey to Egypt
Authors: Brennan T. Corey
Published: April 2018

The chapter first discusses the only purported quotation Sabina receives in our literary sources, a bitter boast about avoiding pregnancy with Hadrian. It seems her received stereotype was disagreeability, complementing Hadrian’s alleged pacifism and self-contradiction. The chapter then studies the first three years of Hadrian’s Third Journey of 128–133, in which Sabina clearly participated. Possible echoes of Sabina’s presence are evaluated for the first eastern stages, in Athens, Asia Minor, Syria, Arabia, and Judaea, followed by Alexandria in Egypt in fall 130. Dated Alexandrian coins suggest that Sabina changed her appearance during that visit, literally letting her hair down from its expected “Matidian” style. In late October 130 Hadrian’s companion Antinoös drowned in the Nile. The chapter treats Antinoös’ posthumous semi-divine honors and cult, and further describes his eponymous city, Antinoöpolis, in Egypt, which (it is argued) illuminates Hadrian’s and Sabina’s self-presentation in the 130s.
Power in Perspectives
Authors: Shaner Katherine A.
Published: April 2018

This chapter suggests a reorientation of interpretive strategy for archaeological materials that explicitly recognizes the ubiquitous presence of slaves; takes seriously the persuasive, prescriptive nature of architecture, city layout, inscriptions, and imagery; and accounts for the complexity of enslaved persons’ lives and the different power dynamics at work in those complexities. It then provides a tour of three sites in Ephesos—the harbor, the marketplace, and the Terrace Houses—and reenvisions these spaces as spaces where enslaved persons were ubiquitous. At the same time, this revision tour demonstrates that these city spaces are rhetorical spaces that attempt to persuade viewers and dwellers alike of enslaved invisibility and compliance with kyriarchal expectations. The chapter explores examples of how archaeological remains in Ephesos mark, discuss, and regulate enslaved persons who participate in civic and religious practices around the city.
Power Plays
Authors: Shaner Katherine A.
Published: April 2018

This chapter examines a decree issued by the Roman proconsul in Ephesos, Paullus Fabius Persicus, which mandates specific changes in the Artemis cult. It also studies the ways in which two locations of the Persicus decree, the theater and the southern Market Gate, reinforce the sociopolitical stratifications argued for in the decree. Through Persicus’s instructions for awarding priesthoods and for limiting the roles of public slaves, one sees that this inscription advocates for “suitable” social stratifications in the city and works to limit the roles of enslaved persons in Ephesian religious practices. The chapter presents three historical possibilities for the occasion of such a power contestation: that public slaves had the money with which to purchase babies in the market to dedicate to Artemis, that some free persons did the same jobs as enslaved persons, and that unsuitable people such as slaves had purchased priesthoods.
Voices of Power
Authors: Shaner Katherine A.
Published: April 2018

This chapter explores the ambiguities in power dynamics that arise in Paul’s letters when enslaved persons enact religious leadership in the communities to which he wrote. The chapter demonstrates that 1 Corinthians, Galatians, and Philemon illustrate a debate about roles in the communities to which they are addressed, particularly the ongoing debate about whether enslaved persons are fully equal members of the ekklēsia or whether their experiences in slavery are problematic for communal ethics. The chapter examines the rhetoric of these letters, exploring the different stories scholars tell about Paul and slavery. The chapter shifts the methodological focus so that enslaved persons become the center of the story rather than Paul. Ultimately, the chapter argues that early Christian rhetoric continually subordinates enslaved persons because of the contestations of power that arise when enslaved persons act as full participants, even trained leaders, in early Christian communities.
1875 to 1881
Authors: Graber Jennifer
Published: April 2018

The years after the Red River War brought worsening conditions for Kiowas. American officials incarcerated dozens of men involved in the conflict at a military prison in Florida. They also instituted new regulations aimed at getting more Indians to farm, attend school, and build permanent housing. Some Kiowas considered these options, including the ways schooling and manual labor education could benefit their children. They also continued their rituals for seeking sacred power, although some considered newly available options for empowerment, such as peyote rites and Christian affiliation. Even as Kiowas underwent these changes, more Americans expressed impatience with Plains Indians and argued that reservations had not achieved their goal of transforming Native people. Some, including leading Protestants, called for reservations to be abolished altogether. Kiowas continued to argue that their treaty with the Americans guaranteed them a place in their homeland.
Answerability without Blame?
Authors: Westlund Andrea C.
Published: April 2018

Widely derided by popular psychologists as a destructive response, blame has many defenders among contemporary philosophers. The chapter pushes against their defenses of blame by distinguishing between blame as a reactive attitude and blaming as a speech act, arguing that some disagreement over blame’s value can be explained by the fact that blaming, as a speech act, takes several different forms. Critiques of blame properly target judgmental or strongly verdictive blaming, which treats the wrongdoer as deserving of the blamer’s hostile reactions. This tends to foreclose engagement in further moral dialogue with wrongdoers—an effect particularly destructive in therapeutic contexts; here, it is often more appropriate and constructive to hold others answerable without blaming them in the strongly verdictive sense. The chapter argues that such blame may be similarly destructive outside of straightforwardly therapeutic contexts, and challenges the existence of a sharp divide between therapeutic and nontherapeutic responses to wrongdoers.
The Formal Structure of Choice-of-Law Rules
Authors: Peari Sagi
Published: April 2018

This chapter traces the structure of choice-of-law rules and outlines the three leading methodologies: classical connecting factors, American interest analysis, and better law. Among the three methodologies, only the better-law methodology involves a substantive evaluation of the involved laws. Yet, one can make a division between two forms of better law: as a primary rule and as a secondary or subsidiary rule. Choice-of-law thought and judicial decisions treat these forms of better law in fundamentally different ways. The better law as a primary rule is vulnerable to a set of serious objections, lacks internal coherency within its own logic, and has received limited support in scholarly writings and in the courts. The situation is different with respect to the subsidiary version of better law. Its incorporation within traditional and contemporary choice-of-law doctrines and concepts underlies its practical significance for choice-of-law process.
Choice Pillar I
Authors: Peari Sagi
Published: April 2018

This chapter provides a re-examination of the choice-of-law theory of the foundational father of the discipline, Friedrich Carl von Savigny and shows how Savigny’s theory has been misconceived in choice-of-law literature. First, the chapter introduces Savigny’s three basic interrelated insights on the nature of the subject which serve as a basis for Savigny’s argument development. Secondly, it presents the central contention that the principle of “voluntary submission” lies at the heart of Savigny’s choice –of-law theory rather than the mythical so-called “universal seat” formula. Finally, this chapter demonstrates several of Savigny’s deviations from his own organizing principles and makes some observations about them.
The Habit Stance
Authors: Brownstein Michael
Published: April 2018

While it is clear that implicit attitudes are malleable, there is much to learn about the most effective techniques for changing them. This chapter examines three general approaches that increasingly appear to be well supported in both lab-based and field studies. The chapter considers the importance of rote practice, pre-commitment, and context regulation. Each represents a different element of adopting the “habit stance,” a way of cultivating more ethical implicit attitudes—and hence better spontaneous decisions and actions—by treating them as if they were habits. The chapter concludes by considering two kinds of objections. The first is empirical, focusing on the broadness and durability of implicit attitude change interventions. The second is not empirical. It is about the nature of praise, in particular whether the reshaping of one’s attitudes and behavior in the ways the chapter describes counts as a genuine form of ethical self-improvement.
Habits and Other Routines
Authors: DeSombre Elizabeth R.
Published: April 2018

Much of what we do is not the result of carefully planned action. We instead follow simplified decision rules, or routines, adopted—consciously or not—to allow us to engage in daily activities without too much mental effort. Businesses, likewise, create standard operating procedures that allow systematic and efficient operations. When those habits have environmentally problematic implications, then even when people intend to make environmentally beneficial choices their habits may override their intentions. Recognizing the power of habit allows for the possibility of using habit to change behavior efficiently. We can also structure institutional processes to make it easier for people to form good environmental habits. People also generally accept the default option, so making the environmentally preferable option the default makes it more likely to be chosen. Working to create automaticity in positive behaviors (and avoid it in problematic ones) can be an important tool for environmental protection.
In the Beginning, All the World Was America
Authors: Ince Onur Ulas
Published: April 2018

This chapter offers an analysis of John Locke’s theory of property in the context of Atlantic colonial capitalism. Breaking with interpretations that center on Locke’s theory of labor, the chapter identifies Locke’s theory of money as the linchpin of his liberal justification of English colonization in America. It brings into conversation the colonial interpretations of Locke with the earlier economic debates on the place of natural law, morality, and accumulation of capital in Locke’s theory of property. It argues that by predicating property and improvement on monetization, Locke construes the absence of monetization in America as the sign that the continent remains in the state of “natural common” open to nonconsensual appropriation. By invoking a fictive “universal tacit consent of mankind” as the origin of money, Locke bridges the gap between his liberal theory of private property and the illiberality of extralegal colonial expansion in the New World.
Letters from Sydney
Authors: Ince Onur Ulas
Published: April 2018

This chapter examines Wakefield’s political economic arguments and policy proposals for the colonial settlement of Australasia as a systematic solution to the demographic problems of overpopulation in Britain and underpopulation in Britain’s colonies. It is argued that Wakefield’s theory of “systematic colonization” aimed to protect the British capitalist civilization from social revolution at home and frontier barbarism in the colonies. Equating capitalist civilization with wage labor, Wakefield planned for the creation of a legally free yet structurally dependent colonial labor force. This would be achieved by imposing preemptive crown rights and artificially inflated prices on colonial lands, which would prevent poor emigrants from becoming landowners and force them to work for colonial capitalists. Cognizant of the illiberality of instituting colonial wage servitude by the imperial state, Wakefield fabricated a utilitarian myth of “contractual dispossession,” recasting systematic colonization and colonial proletarianization as the enforcement of an original “settler contract” among colonists.
Introduction
Authors: Meier Benjamin Mason , Gostin Lawrence O.
Published: April 2018

This introductory chapter outlines the global governance institutions that structure the realization of human rights for global health. With this volume examining the relationship between human rights, global governance, and public health, a proliferating set of global governance institutions have developed policies, programs, and practices to operationalize human rights to address public health challenges in a globalizing world. As an institutional analysis that focuses on organizations, the organizations in this volume include those international bureaucracies that bear implementation responsibilities for health-related human rights. Examining institutional dynamics to implement human rights, the contributing authors analyze institutional factors that facilitate or inhibit human rights mainstreaming. This introduction concludes by recognizing the importance of comparative analysis in understanding institutional approaches to human rights in global health, outlining the research methods for studying human rights mainstreaming in global governance institutions and framing a new field of study on rights-based governance for global health advancement.
The Evolution of Applying Human Rights Frameworks to Health
Authors: Yamin Alicia Ely , Constantin Andrés
Published: April 2018

This chapter explores the evolution and struggles of the “health and human rights movement,” focusing particularly on relevant developments in health and international law that enabled greater attention to the right to health. It discusses the evolution of human rights-based approaches (HRBAs) to health, which extended these legal concepts into the domains of development and social policy. Over twenty years after it began to take shape, the “health and human rights” field is not one discipline but many. This cluster of related work now faces the new challenges of a precariously constructed international normative scaffolding, the rising complexities of moving from constitutional norms to effective enjoyment in practice at the national level, and the potential danger of HRBAs being reduced to technocratic formulas and emptied of their subversive potential.
Framing Human Rights in Global Health Governance
Authors: Meier Benjamin Mason , Gostin Lawrence O.
Published: April 2018

This chapter frames the implementation of human rights law through global health governance. Global governance institutions have sought to translate human rights into public policy, shifting from the development of health-related rights under international law to the implementation of these normative standards in global policies, programs, and practices. This shift toward an “era of implementation” across an expanding global health governance landscape looks beyond the traditional “human rights system” in implementing human rights for global health. Analyzing human rights as part of global health law, this chapter examines how human rights have become a framework for global governance, with institutions of global health governance seeking to “mainstream” human rights across all organizational actions. This chapter concludes that there is a need for institutional analysis to compare organizational approaches conducive to the implementation of health-related human rights.
The Future of Human Rights in WHO
Authors: Bustreo Flavia , Magar Veronica , Khosla Rajat , Stahlhofer Marcus , Thomas Rebekah
Published: April 2018

This chapter examines how the Sustainable Development Agenda—with its focus on equity, gender equality, and human rights—has provided an unprecedented opportunity to advance human rights within the World Health Organization (WHO). It looks at how human rights are increasingly permeating the Organization’s work, both implicitly and explicitly, and how this paves the way for a bolder vision for human rights in health. Through this examination, the authors lay out a strategy for three necessary shifts that would set WHO on an unprecedented path toward greater rights-based health governance: the adoption of a Resolution by WHO’s governing body on health, both as a human right and as a means to achieve human rights (“to health and through health”); greater collaboration between WHO and the UN human rights system to promote rights-based approaches to health; and building evidence of the impact of such approaches on health.
The Future of Inter-Governmental Organization Partnerships for Health and Human Rights
Authors: Hawkes Sarah , Kreienkamp Julia , Buse Kent
Published: April 2018

Over the past 20-plus years, there has been a significant rise in the “partnership model” in global health. Mainly involving collaboration between public and private spheres, some partnerships include only inter-governmental organizations (IGOs). This chapter explores how three types of partnerships—global public-private partnerships (usually focused on strengthening delivery or access to specific products and technologies), public-public partnerships addressing climate change (a key and growing determinant of health outcomes), and a public-public partnership of four IGOs working to eliminate mother-to-child transmission of HIV and syphilis—protect, promote, and realize human rights principles in their work. Beyond a superficial framing of “protecting the vulnerable” or acknowledgment of the importance of human rights, there remains little substantive human rights–focused activity in the majority of partnerships. This chapter offers a forward-looking agenda for mainstreaming human rights more explicitly into the work of these key actors in global health.
Integrating a Human Rights-Based Approach to Development and the Right to Development into Global Governance for Health
Authors: Marks Stephen P.
Published: April 2018

This chapter applies two approaches to global economic governance of relevance to global health funding agencies. The first is the human rights-based approach to development, with its theoretical grounding in social justice and capabilities and with its practical applications in agencies engaged in development assistance and financing of health interventions, with particular relevance to the 2030 Development Agenda. The second approach is that of the right to development, as clarified in terms of policy, process, and outcomes, and as applied to the three funding programs that direct resources to global health issues. The chapter concludes that the mainstreaming of the human rights-based approach to development has been integrated into practice—albeit on a modest scale—more than the right to development, due primarily to a lack of incentives, notwithstanding the potential of both approaches to inflect global governance institutions in ways that advance human rights for global health.
The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria
Authors: Jürgens Ralf , Csete Joanne , Lim Hyeyoung , Timberlake Susan , Smith Matthew
Published: April 2018

The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria was born of an interest among donors to greatly expand access to basic services to address three diseases. Spurred in many cases by civil society organizations, the Global Fund recognized that the health services it supported would not be effective or cost-effective without efforts to reduce human rights–related barriers to access and utilization of health services, particularly those barriers faced by socially marginalized and criminalized persons. Through well-defined institutional strategies and financial and technical support to program designers and implementers, the Global Fund is generating a body of evidence for and concrete examples of optimizing health program outcomes by reducing stigma, discrimination, abusive policing, gender inequality, and other barriers to health services.
The Future of Multilateral Funding to Realize the Right to Health
Authors: Ooms Gorik , Hammonds Rachel
Published: April 2018

This chapter explores the future of multilateral funding to realize the right to health by exploring two options: a single Global Fund for Health or international assistance for health through only bilateral arrangements. This analysis first examines a Global Fund for Health, based on Article 2(1) of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, guidance provided by the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, and features of the existing Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria. The chapter then examines the alternative option, comparing the likely qualities of both options in terms of being aligned with national priorities (if appropriately set), additional (i.e., incentivizing domestic mobilization of financial resources), reliable in the long run, coordinated, and sufficient. The chapter concludes by analyzing the political feasibility of both options.
A fiscally virtuous government?
Authors: Fratzscher Marcel
Published: April 2018

A third success story of Germany has been the impressive fiscal consolidation. This is no small achievement: the global financial crisis and the subsequent European crisis put many European governments under massive pressure to support their economies in order to avoid an even deeper crisis. The chapter shows that fiscal consolidation and public debt reduction are not always virtues. Cutting spending and raising taxes can, in fact, be disastrous during periods of crisis or recession. Fiscal austerity can be destabilizing and trigger a vicious cycle of low supply and low demand, thereby turning out to be counterproductive by weakening potential growth and long-term investment. Fiscal consolidation may be harmful to the long-term potential of an economy and to welfare if it cuts the most productive public spending on education or infrastructure, for example. Assessing German fiscal policy over the past decade reveals that all these elements apply to Germany.
The divided country
Authors: Fratzscher Marcel
Published: April 2018

For Germans and other Europeans, one of the most important issues, if not the most important, is the high and rising degree of social and economic inequality. The Brexit decision by UK citizens was formally about European Union membership, yet those voting against membership indicated that their vote was driven as much by dissatisfaction with factors related to inequality. The general perception is that Germany is not only a very rich country but also a country with a strong social security system, one where wealth and income are distributed fairly and equitably. Yet this notion is false: Germany is actually one of the most unequal countries in the industrialized world. This chapter first highlights the facts relating to inequality of wealth, income, and social mobility. It then discusses why this inequality explains much of the current political debate in Germany and why it hurts economic dynamism, productivity, and welfare.
Society in the Self
Authors: Hermans Hubert J.M.
Published: April 2018

In this book, Hubert Hermans, internationally known as the creator of the dialogical self theory, launches a new and original theory in which he links society with the most intimate regions of self and identity. The basic assumption is that the self is organized as an inner society that is simultaneously functioning as part of the society at large as exemplified by developments like self-sabotage, self-radicalization, self-cure, self-government, self-nationalization, and self-internationalization. The book makes even a more radical step. It not only deals with the societal organization of the self but also poses the challenging question whether the self is democratically organized. To what extent do the different self-parts (e.g. roles, emotions, imagined others) receive freedom of expression? To what extent are they treated as equal or equivalent components of the self? The question is posed how the self, in its organizing capacity, responds to the apparent tension between freedom and equality in both the self and society. The theory has far-reaching consequences for such divergent topics as leadership in the self; cultural diversity in the self; the relationship between reason and emotion; self-empathy;, cooperation and competition between self-parts; and the role of social power in prejudice, enemy image construction, and scapegoating. The volume concludes with a trailblazing discussion of cosmopolitan, deliberative, and agonistic models of democracy and their consequences for a democratically organized self in a boundary-crossing society.
The Dynamics of Society-in-the-Self
Authors: Hermans Hubert J. M
Published: April 2018

In the field of tension between globalization and localization, a set of new phenomena is emerging showing that society is not simply a social environment of self and identity but works in their deepest regions: self-radicalization, self-government, self-cure, self-nationalization, self-internationalization, and even self-marriage. The consequence is that the self is faced with an unprecedented density of self-parts, called I-positions in this theory. In the field of tension between boundary-crossing developments in the world and the search for an identity in a local niche, a self emerges that is characterized by a great variety of contradicting and heterogeneous I-positions and by large and unexpected jumps between different positions as the result of rapid and unexpected changes in the world. The chapter argues that such developments require a new vision of the relationship between self and society.
Positioning and Democracy in the Self
Authors: Hermans Hubert J. M
Published: April 2018

An expanded position model is presented that enables to study the following features of the self as society: meta-positions as “leadership” positions in the self, offering a broad and long-term scope in a multipositioned, democratically organized self; promoter positions stimulating its further development; power distance and emotional distance as basic dimensions in the mini-society of the self; the accessibility of I-positions allowing a free entrance so that they can be experienced in their inside qualities; their exit providing a way to leave a position and preventing the feeling of being locked up in an I-prison; a procedure to get in touch with “shadow” positions as undesirable or rejected parts of the self; and different types of boundaries of positions (soft, rigid, spongy, and flexible), with flexible ones as optimal for the communication between I-positions in complex social and societal situations.
Positioning and Democracy in Teams and Organizations
Authors: Hermans Hubert J. M
Published: April 2018

On the basis of a review of literature, the impact of groupthink and the importance of a democratic atmosphere in teams are discussed. An example of leadership in teams is provided by the interaction between a successful coach and his team during a soccer world championship. Leadership on the level of the organization is explored by giving the example of two merging organizations and their problematic cooperation. Leadership on the level of a world organization is exemplified by an analysis of the successes and failures of the United Nations. At the end of this chapter the concept of “flexible democracy” is presented. In this concept two lines of exploration come together, one referring to the movements on the dimensions of power distance and emotional distance and the other referring to the connection between self, team, and organization.
The Positioning Brain
Authors: Hermans Hubert J. M
Published: April 2018

Recent developments in brain sciences and social psychology lead to a model focused on the communication channels between I-positions, connecting self with other, reason with emotion, and the conscious with the nonconscious as basic polarities of positioning. Emotional and reasoning positions, like conscious and nonconscious positions, are considered as mutually complementing opposites in both self and other. In this model the communication channels are of crucial importance as their features and qualities determine whether the positions are involved in competition or cooperation, conflict or harmony, suppress or support each other, create coalitions or retreat in isolation. A diversity of phenomena are explored, including theory of mind, hemispheric differentiation, empathy, somatic markers, body illusions, racial prejudices, difference between emotion and feeling, and cultural aspects of brain functioning.
Introduction
Authors: Epstein Ben
Published: April 2018

This introduction serves several important goals. It lays out both the research objective and theoretical framework placing this study on an interdisciplinary foundation that combines work from political science, American political development, mass communication, history, and diffusion studies. It introduces the core concepts of the book, concentrated around a recurring multistage process called the political communication cycle (PCC). The three stages of the PCC, detailed in the following chapters, include the information and communications technology (ICT)–focused technological imperative phase; the political choice phase, which emphasizes the behavioral process central to innovation; and stabilization through the establishment of new norms, regulations, and institutions. This process has repeated throughout history, where long periods of relative stability, known as political communication orders (PCOs), are disrupted by shorter periods of permanent change, identified as political communication revolutions (PCRs). The introduction concludes by introducing the three claims that are used throughout the book and outlining the chapters that follow.
Raven and the Time of Divisions
Authors: Introvigne Massimo
Published: April 2018

Divisions in the Brethren movement occurred already during Darby’s lifetime and cannot be simply reduced to the split between an Open and Exclusive wings. The chapter discusses the 1936 classification of the US Bureau of Census in six groups, from Brethren I to Brethren VI, and the extension of this model by American scholars to include Brethren VII, VIII, IX, and X. Several smaller ‘Exclusive’ groups eventually merged into Brethren III, which came to be known as Reunited Brethren, although Brethren IV are also ‘Exclusive’ and did not participate in these mergers. For each group, the essential elements of its history and doctrine are presented. The crucial role of Frederick Edward Raven is also discussed, thus introducing the final chapter, where the Ravenite group, or Brethren IV, is presented as a case study.
Co-opting and Coercing Religion in Saddam’s Iraq
Authors: Helfont Samuel
Published: April 2018

Chapter 2 discusses the Ba’thist regime’s policies toward religion, and particularly Islam, in the late 1970s and 1980s. The regime formed local committees and provincial leagues for Iraq’s religious leaders and established a system to co-opt religious scholars who possessed—or sought—a national or even international reputation. It also attempted to take over the finances of mosques and religious schools by bringing all Iraqi mosques under the control of the state-controlled ministry, eliminating independent financing of religious institutions, and enforcing compliance among all of Iraq’s religious leaders. At the national level, the regime developed the Popular Islamic Conference Organization, and it brought religious chaplains in the military as part of the Iran-Iraq War. These efforts significantly increased the regime’s institutional capacity to deal with religious issues.
Co-opting and Coercing Shi‘ism
Authors: Helfont Samuel
Published: April 2018

This chapter begins with a discussion of sectarianism in Iraq. It acknowledges that sectarianism certainly existed, and that many of the regime’s policies were based on Sunni assumptions about Islam. However, the regime actually attempted to reduce sectarianism in the country in favor of a united Arab nationalist identity. The chapter then discusses the regime’s attempts to gain control over Shi’i Islam in Iraq including Shi’i religious leaders and their institutions. In particular, the regime attempted to control the seminaries (hawza) in Najaf and Karbala as well as the Shi’i commemoration ceremonies in the month of Muharram. The plans outlined in chapter 2 attempted to apply unified policies to the Shi‘is as well as to all Iraqis; however, it was often less successful among Iraq’s majority Shi‘i population.
Iraq’s Religious Landscape in the Wake of the Gulf War
Authors: Helfont Samuel
Published: April 2018

This chapter discusses changes in Iraq’s religious landscape during and after the Gulf War. Because Saudi Arabia was a major adversary of the regime during the conflict, the Saudi-backed Wahhabism/Salafism became a significant threat. The regime reorganized its institutions to deal with Wahhabism and Salafism, terms that it viewed as synonymous. Several of the regime’s institutions, such as the Popular Islamic Conference Organization and the Saddam University for Islamic Studies, were originally founded with Saudi assistance. Now these institutions needed to purge Saudis and their allies from them. Following the Gulf War, there were major uprisings in the Shi’i-dominated areas of Iraq. This chapter also discusses how the regime dealt with those uprisings and dispels the popular myth that the regime’s policies were driven by Sunni sectarianism.
Putting the System to Work
Authors: Helfont Samuel
Published: April 2018

This chapter discusses the way that the regime used its institutions and authoritarian systems to propagate its Ba’thist interpretation of religion. The chapter discusses the differences between Islamism and Ba’thist ideas about Islam. It demonstrates that the latter was interpreted through the lens of Arab nationalism. The rhetoric and symbols that the regime employed were embedded within authoritarian structures that were not always visible to the public. These structures were necessary to police the boundaries of acceptable religious discourse because the Ba’thist interpretation of Islam was not a traditional interpretation of the religion. Therefore, the regime needed to prevent critical discourse on Ba’thist Islam that would expose it as significantly different from the ways in which the religion had traditionally been interpreted in the region. This policing took place not only in mosques but also in the media and in textbooks for schools.
Emergence of Religious Insurgencies in Iraq
Authors: Helfont Samuel
Published: April 2018

This chapter discusses how the breakdown of the Iraqi regime in 2003 led to religious insurgencies in Iraq. Sunni Islamists and jihadists were given the space and opportunity to organize in a way that would have been unthinkable prior to 2003. Within the Shi’i community, Islamists from the Sadrist trend in Iraq, and Iranian backed religious actors, emerged in southern Iraq and in Baghdad. Over the previous decade, religious institutions had begun to play important roles in education, politics, and security. They continued playing this role post-2003; but because the authoritarian controls of the former regime no longer existed, these institutions were often controlled by extremist and sectarian actors. The result was insurgencies launched by the Sadrists, Sunni Islamists, al-Qaida, and eventually the Islamic State.
Strategic Theory as an Intellectual System
Authors: Ayson Robert
Published: April 2018

Strategy constitutes an ‘intellectual system’, where actions and expectations are interrelated. Ideas and actions have meaning and effect in a wider context in which other related parts need to be taken into consideration. Following Freedman, the importance of the social settings must be emphasized to illuminate how deterrence works and what it means. Strategy is about human choices, in given situations, rather than about fate and predestination. And for this reason, the strategist has to assess their own options, as well as those of others, and how these influence one another. This analysis suggests that strategy is an inherently social activity that can never be separated from its social context. It shows the importance of understanding social context in the iterative and interactive world of strategy, and also the relationship between ideas and empirical realities.
Ethics in Asymmetrical War
Authors: Frost Mervyn
Published: April 2018

This chapter extends the analysis of strategy and international security in the twenty-first century, and the ethical problems Western liberal polities face in managing international security and confronting enemies in asymmetric warfare. It focuses on the notion of ‘ethical leverage’; this is a world in which power is levered through ‘ethical criticism.’ Wherever a Western liberal actor can be portrayed as acting in a manner inconsistent with its own standards, it will be damaged strategically. There are things that states and individuals ought not to do if they wish to maintain their ethical standing and the associated influence and power that go with it. It is the flouting of the West’s international norms that provides the only source of international power for the weaker party in such wars. This conjunction of strategy and ethics epitomizes the balance between power and both ethics and social construction found in Freedman.
Britain’s Journey to a National Security Approach and the Evolution of a Defence Academy
Authors: Gearson John
Published: April 2018

This chapter explores the evolution in Britain’s approach to national security in the post-Cold War period, including the development of academic provision for defense and military education. These are areas that Freedman pioneered and both his work and practice lay at the core of both. The chapter charts the shifts in approach from terrorism in the City of London, through the advent of strategic defense reviews, to, eventually, a National Security Strategy. It notes the way in which defense education formed part of this package of change and concludes that the policy–focused work of the war studies group at King’s College London, educated and inspired by Lawrence Freedman over three decades, contributed to some of the innovations and new thinking. The chapter exposes the way in which the interaction of values and circumstances combine in a way that allows real differences to be made in the world.
Freedman on Machiavelli
Authors: Bobbitt Philip
Published: April 2018

This chapter links Freedman’s work to that of Niccolò Machiavelli through constructivist realism, which is an apposite term for the two thinkers, as the unchanging sense of human nature interacts with ever changing context, and humans have to adapt to new circumstances, but with the limitations imposed on them both by themselves or situations. Despite their biographical parallels, it is the similarities and complementarities in their thinking that are more profound reasons to associate them. Both wrestle with the challenge of understanding the ways and the extent to which it is possible to anticipate and to shape the future to serve our ends. There are also differences, which stem from Freedman’s own treatment of Machiavelli in Strategy. The analysis brings out the importance of the moral factor for both writers and their engagement with classical sources and literary sources to investigate the problems of power, or war and peace.
Conclusion
Authors: Gow James , Wilkinson Benedict
Published: April 2018

Under Freedman’s leading influence, in the wake of Michael Howard, a distinctive working method – a school of thought, an approach – has been pioneered for thirty years, but not given a name. While Howard certainly recognized that how political and military leaders thought about the world affected their decisions and behavior, Freedman extended this intellectual apparatus with his knowledge of social and political theory, and the sociology of knowledge, expanding the intellectual scope and breadth of research and education about war, strategy and policy. Aspects of his work are clearly shared by those who have worked with him, for him and in his light. The distinctive coherence around notions such as constructivist realism, strategic scripts and the understanding of social interaction and processes define a body of work related to making a difference in the world that has done just that.
Dilemmas at the Synod of Dort
Authors: Collier Jay T.
Published: April 2018

Chapter 3 analyzes the Synod of Dort and the British delegation’s participation in that famous international conference of Reformed churches. It investigates the delegation’s Collegiat Suffrage and their response to the draft canons to see how they handled the insistence of other Reformed churches to codify perseverance of the saints as a nonnegotiable Reformed distinctive. This chapter uncovers a consistent English strategy of conciliatory confessionalism, even when it was painfully inconvenient. Even though the delegates agreed theologically with the rest of the Synod on perseverance, their sensitivity to readings of Augustine prepared them to advocate unity among the Reformed churches in a way that would avoid unnecessary offense to those rejecting the prevailing view on the doctrine. And while the British delegation’s request was not granted, this episode demonstrates yet another attempt by Englishmen to use readings of Augustine to shape doctrinal standards within a Reformed context.
Literary Urbanity in Mrauk U
Authors: d'Hubert Thibaut
Published: April 2018

Chapter 2 focuses on urban literature and the milieu of the Bengali-speaking dignitaries. I provide a view of the cosmopolitan society of Mrauk U, and I try to locate Bengali-speaking Muslims in this environment. Narrowing down the focus on Ālāol’s immediate entourage, I observe the economy of the courts that he attended. These gatherings were organized by Bengali-speaking Muslim dignitaries who worked for the king of Arakan’s administration. I analyze how Ālāol described the relationship of his patrons and how he used the notion of “grandeur” to articulate the aspects of his own activity as a court poet. In the last section, I focus on a story found in one of Ālāol’s poems, which I read as a mise en abyme of his activity as a man of letters that provides insights into the way he conceived of patronage and the function of speech and eloquence in a courtly context.
Ālāol’s Poetry and Mrauk U’s Political Turmoil
Authors: d'Hubert Thibaut
Published: April 2018

The political crisis of 1661 that was triggered by the arrival in Arakan of Mughal Prince Shāh Shujāʿ (d. 1661), who was fleeing from his brother Awrangzeb’s (r. 1658–1707) army, marks the beginning of major shifts in Ālāol’s literary activities. In this chapter, I follow the thread of Ālāol’s poems’ stylistic evolutions during the decade spanning from 1661 to 1671—the date of the composition of Sikāndarnāmā, Ālāol’s last work. This period is characterized by the progressive degradation of the relationships between the Bengali Muslim elites and the Buddhist Arakanese ruler that deeply modified the configuration of the literary gatherings in Mrauk U, as well as the aspirations of their members. In my analysis I trace how these changes affected the poet’s recourse to the romance and epic genres, as well as lyric poetry.