bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A Survival Rate Model for Naturally Regenerated Longleaf Pine
Authors: Quicke Harold E. , Meldahl Ralph S. , Kush John S.
Published: August 2019

An individual tree annual survival rate model was developed for naturally regenerated, even-aged longleaf pine (Pinus palustris Mill.). Development was based on 44,000 survival observations on 15,000 trees occurring on 202 permanent sample plots located in central and southern Alabama, southern Mississippi, southwest Georgia, and northern Florida. Variables used in the model were predicted diameter increment and diameter at breast height (dbh). Predicted annual survival rates ranged from 0.92 for a tree with a 1 in. dbh and an annual diameter increment of O.05 in., to over 0.99 for any tree larger than 6 in. in dbh. Stand level verification was based on 102 comparisons of observed and predicted trees per acre (tpa). Mean residuals, expressed as a percentage of observed final tpa, were 3% and 6% for projection periods of 5 and 10 yr, respectively. The model predicts noncatastrophic mortality. In conjunction with a basal area increment model, it can be used to predict changes in the structure of longleaf pine stands. South. J. Appl. For. 21(2):97-101.
Oak Regeneration in the Southern Appalachians: Potential, Problems, and Possible Solutions
Authors: Cook James E. , Sharik Terry L. , Smith David Wm.
Published: August 2019

Despite the large volumes written about "oak regeneration problems" on mesic sites, very little has been presented on the extent of regional variation in oak regeneration. In this review article, we examine several important facets of oak regeneration for the Southern Appalachian region. We conclude that: (1) the amount of reproduction (seedlings and/or sprouts) is seldom a limiting factor because these oak forests have an average advance regeneration density of more than 9000/ha; (2) about 75% of all oak stems sprout after harvesting, which; (3) makes stump sprouts a major source of oak regeneration and a more important component than in the Midwest; (4) harvesting usually leads to an increase in the number of oak seedlings on a site (mean density for the first 3 yr equals 15,750/ha); (5) on sites of SI50 = 17-19m, oaks typically make up 25-40% of the canopy 2-3 decades after a harvest; (6) on sites of SI > 20m, clearcutting leads to very low levels (~10%) of oak representation in the subsequent forest, whereas a shelterwood harvest will result in 25-30% oak abundance; and (7) a harvest of an oak-dominated forest, without any other treatments, will lead to a 50-70% decline in oak. These results suggest that there is ample potential to regenerate current oak forests to oak, but new trials are needed with more species and on a greater range of sites. Increasing the size of the advance regeneration and maximizing stump sprouting are two ways to increase the amount of oak after harvest. However, regeneration cuts by themselves will not assure maintenance of the oak component; several treatments that have shown promise—midstory manipulation, fire, and weeding—are recommended for further study. South. J. Appl. For. 22(1):11-18.
Effect of Nitrogen and Phosphorus Fertilization on Growth in a Sweetgum Plantation in Southeastern Arkansas
Authors: Guo Yanfei , Lockhart Brian R. , Ku Tim T.
Published: August 2019

Effects of nitrogen and phosphorus fertilization (nitrogen only, phosphorus only, nitrogen + phosphorus, and no fertilizer) on the growth of a sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua L.) plantation were tested in a poorly drained Henry silt loam soil in southeastern Arkansas. The plantation was fertilized when 4 yr old. Nitrogen fertilization increased height, dbh, and stem volume growth 1 yr after the application, and the mean height, dbh, and stem volume were significantly greater for the trees with nitrogen fertilization than for the trees without nitrogen fertilization through 10 yr. Phosphorus alone did not affect tree growth. However, height growth was improved by the combination of nitrogen and phosphorus eight yr after fertilization. Nitrogen also increased crown width and length through the first 4 yr, but crown width and length were similar among treatments after crown closure occurred by 13 yr. South. J. Appl. For. 22(3):163-168.
Virginia Pine (Pinus virginiana Mill.) Provenance and Progeny Performance in Oklahoma
Authors: Tauer C.G. , Shah Syed Rashid Hussain , Schmidtling R.C.
Published: August 2019

One hundred and twenty-three open-pollinated families from 38 stands of Virginia pine were tested in Oklahoma. Height and survival data at age 5 for two Christmas tree plantations and at age 5 and 7 for two progeny test plantations were analyzed. In the Christmas tree tests, four stands from North Carolina, three from Tennessee, and one each from Alabama, Kentucky, South Carolina, and Virginia were identified as good seed sources for Christmas tree production. The progeny test analyses identified two stands from each of North Carolina, Tennessee, Virginia, and Georgia, and one each from Kentucky and South Carolina as good seed sources based on age 7 data. One stand from each of North Carolina, South Carolina, and Tennessee were exceptional in both test types. Significant family in stand differences for both height and survival suggests that selection of the best families in the best stands will be an important component of improvement of Virginia pine for Christmas tree production. Based on both height and survival data, and a regression of height on average yearly minimum temperature at the source, the best performing sources and families were from North Carolina, eastern Tennessee, northern Georgia, northern South Carolina, southern Virginia, and southeast Kentucky, all located near or between minimum temperature isotherms of 0° and 5°F. These sources are recommended for use in Oklahoma. South. J. Appl. For. 22(4):209-215.
Bedding and Fertilization Ameliorate Effects of Designated Wet-Weather Skid Trails after Four Years for Loblolly Pine (Pinus taeda) Plantations
Authors: Aust W. Michael , Burger James A. , McKee William H. , Scheerer Gregory A. , Tippett Mark D.
Published: August 2019

Wet-weather harvesting operations on wet pine fiats can cause soil disturbances that may reduce long-term site productivity. Site preparation and fertilization are often recommended as ameliorative practices for such disturbances, but few studies have actually quantified their effects on restoration. The purposes of this study were to quantify the effects of wet-weather harvest traffic in designated skid trails on soil properties and loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) growth, and to evaluate the ameliorative effects of site preparation. Study sites were established on wet pine flats of the lower Coastal Plain within the Francis Marion National Forest (Berkeley County, SC). Treatments were arranged in a split-split plot within a randomized complete block design. Treatments were two levels of traffic (nontrafficked, trafficked), four levels of mechanical site preparation (none, disking, bedding, disking + bedding), and two levels of fertilization (none, 337 kg /ha of 10-10-10 fertilizer). initially, the trafficking increased soil bulk densities and reduced soil water movement and subsequent growth of loblolly pine (years 1 and 2). Bedding combined with fertilization restored site productivity to non trafficked levels within 4 yr, but disking or fertilization treatments alone were not effective at ameliorating the traffic effects. The effectiveness of the bedding and fertilization treatments for amelioration of traffic effects was probably facilitated by the relatively small area of disturbed skid trails (<10%) found on these sites. Areas having more severe disturbance or higher percentages of disturbance might not be ameliorated as rapidly. South. J. Appl. For. 22(4):222-226.
Needle-Clipping Longleaf Pine and Top-Pruning Loblolly Pine in Bareroot Nurseries
Authors: South David B.
Published: August 2019

Studies have shown that clipping needles of longleaf pine before outplanting can increase average seedling survival by 13 percentage points. Under some situations, the increase in survival might be due to a reduction in transpiration. For loblolly pine, top-pruning in the nursery might increase average survival by 6 percentage points. Benefits of pruning appear greater when seedlings experience stress after planting and when nonpruned seedlings have low root weight ratios (root dry weight/total seedling dry weight). On some droughty sites, a seedling with a 0.3 root weight ratio might have an 80% chance of survival, while a seedling with a 0.2 root weight ratio might only have a 53% chance of survival. In most studies where heights were measured after 3 yr in the field, pruned seedlings were the same height as nonpruned seedlings (± 7 cm). South. J. Appl. For. 22(4):235-240.
Influence of Planting Density on Diameter and Height in East Texas Pine Plantations
Authors: Lee Young-Jin , Lenhart J. David
Published: August 2019

The response of diameter and height of unthinned planted stands loblolly (Pinus taeda L.) and slash (Pinus elliottii Engelm.) pine in East Texas to different classes of planting densities were analyzed. After tracking the development of diameter and height for 15 yr on a set of permanent plots representing a broad range of plantation parameters, average diameter and average height trends were observed. For both species, average diameter values were significantly larger with lower planting densities. In contrast, average height growth is insensitive to planting density at younger age classes for loblolly and at older age classes for slash pine plantations. South. J. Appl. For. 22(4):241-244.
Nursery Rooting and Growth of Loblolly Pine Cuttings: Effects of Rooting Solution and Full-Sib Family
Authors: Frampton L. John , Goldfarb Barry , Surles Scott E. , Lambeth Clements C.
Published: August 2019

This research examined the effects of various rooting solutions and full-sib families on the rooting ability and subsequent growth and morphology of dormant loblolly pine stem cuttings set directly into open nursery beds. Two recommended concentrations of a commercial rooting compound (Woods Rooting Compound®), 9 and 17% (10:1 and 5:1 dilutions, respectively), and a water control in combination with four boron and four thiamine concentrations were tested. The 9% concentration contained 924 ppm indole-3-butyric acid (IBA ) + 594 ppm α-naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA) while the 17% concentration contained 1751 ppm IBA + 1122 ppm NAA. Family, rooting compound concentration, and their interaction were significant, while boron and thiamine main effects were not significant for percent rooted nor other traits assessed.

Overall, 75% of cuttings treated with the water control rooted while cuttings receiving the 9 and 17% rooting compound concentrations rooted at 64 and 55%, respectively. However, the root systems of cuttings receiving the rooting compound treatments were more symmetrical, more vertically oriented and had greater dry weights than cuttings receiving the water control treatment. In addition, basal stem caliper and shoot dry weight, as well as the root:shoot ratio, were greater for cuttings receiving the rooting compound treatments.

The trade-offs between rooting percent and root system morphology were addressed by investigating treatment differences in final crop yields as a percent of cuttings set. When seedling caliper standards were used as the grading criteria, no rooted cuttings were culled. Under this scenario, the water control treatment yielded the highest percent of acceptable (combined Grades 1 and 2) rooted cuttings (75%) since it also yielded the highest rooting percent. The range in yield of acceptable rooted cuttings for the five full-sib families receiving the water control treatment was 58 to 84%. When additional root system standards were imposed upon the caliper grades, the 9% rooting compound concentration yielded the highest percent of acceptable rooted cuttings (53%). The range in acceptable yields of the five full-sib families receiving the 9% rooting compound treatment when the additional root system grading standards were imposed, was 35 to 79%.

A better understanding of the trade-offs between rooting percent and root system morphology as well as the effect of root system morphology on long-term growth of cuttings is needed. However, the rooted cuttings produced in this study by directly setting cuttings into open nursery beds exceeded commonly used seedling grading standards. While production costs were not addressed in this study, and significant additional development is needed, these results provide encouragement that an economical system of rooting loblolly pine cuttings in open nursery beds may be feasible. South. J. Appl. For. 23(2):108-115.
Three Methods for Low-cost Regeneration of Pine—Hardwood Stands in the Gulf Coastal Plain
Authors: Jones Robert H. , Glover Glenn R. , Kimbrell James W.
Published: August 2019

Seedtree, clearcut-and-plant, and fell-burn-and-plant methods were applied to three mature, mixed loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.)-upland hardwood stands at the Dixon Forestry Education Center in southern Alabama. One to two years after treatment, all methods resulted in adequate stocking (> 100 trees/ac) of loblolly pine, laurel oak (Quercus hemisphaerica Batr. Ex Wild.) and other oak species. Clearcut-and-plant resulted in more laurel oaks than loblolly pines while fell-burn-and-plant had the opposite effect. Relatively high densities of both species occurred in the seed tree. In the first two years after harvest, fell-burn-and-plant had the lowest litter cover. All treatments had greater rates of surface soil movement than untreated controls. Six-to-seven years after methods were applied, loblolly pine and laurel oak maintained their dominance in all treatments, although loblolly pine had greater mean height and a greater proportion of stems in larger size classes. Density of oaks more than 4.5 feet tall 6 to 7 yr after harvest were predictable from pre-harvest surveys of total oak density. If adequate densities of pine seed and advance oak regeneration are in place at time of harvest, any of these low cost methods can provide successful regeneration of mixed pine-oak stands on Coastal Plain uplands. South. J. Appl. For. 24(1):37-44.
Public Preferences for Nontimber Benefits of Loblolly Pine (Pinus taeda) Stands Regenerated by Different Site Preparation Methods
Authors: Gan Jianbang , Kolison Stephen H. , Miller James H.
Published: August 2019

This study assesses public preferences for nontimber benefits of loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) stands regenerated 15 yr earlier using different site preparation treatments at national forest and industrial forestry sites. Treatments tested on the Tuskegee National Forest were none, chainsaw felling, tree injection, and soil-active herbicide. At the industrial site, experimental treatments included chopping and burning, followed by no additional treatment, woody control, herbaceous control, and total control. Both sites were planted with loblolly pine seedlings. Two user surveys employing color photography were conducted to identify the respondents' ratings of the young stands in terms of perceived nontimber benefits, including aesthetics, picnicking, hiking/walking/cycling, camping, hunting, bird watching, wildlife habitat, and biodiversity. The site preparation treatments were rated without consideration of the treatment cost and its distribution. Results indicate that the respondents preferred the minimal or no treatment options at both study sites. The respondents' preferences were significantly affected by their age, education, income, employment status, and living distance from the experimental sites, but not gender. Respondents considered wildlife habitat as the most important benefit and hunting as the least important. Most of the respondents also felt that both national forests and industrial forests should be managed for nontimber as well as timber products. South. J. Appl. For. 24(3):145-149.
Growth of Three Hardwood Species Through 18 Years on a Former Agricultural Bottomland
Authors: Devine Warren D. , Houston Allan E. , Tyler Donald D.
Published: August 2019

The effects of seed source, fertilization, disking, and mowing on the growth of sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua L.), American sycamore (Platanus occidentalis L.), and green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica Marsh.) were examined 18 yr after planting to determine the best system for afforestation of a previously farmed bottomland site in southwest Tennessee. Natural regeneration on the site as well as variations in soil bulk density and soil series were analyzed. Overall survival was significantly higher for sweetgum (93%) and green ash (95%) than for sycamore (88%). Height growth of sweetgum was significantly greater than that of sycamore, which was significantly greater than that of green ash. Sycamore and sweetgum of Virginia Coastal Plain origin did not differ from those of Louisiana Gulf Coast origin in growth or survival. Height and dbh of all three species were significantly increased by fertilization only on plots that were not also disked or mowed. Disking and mowing significantly increased the growth of unfertilized trees more than that of fertilized trees. Natural regeneration resulted in dense stands (3,445 trees/ac) dominated by sweetgum. The combination of fertilization and mowing significantly increased soil bulk density. Soils on the study site were more variable than previous county soil surveys indicated. South. J. Appl. For. 24(3):159-165.
Effects of Stand and Site Variables on the Lumber Value of Uneven-aged Loblolly Pine Stands
Authors: Patterson David W. , Murphy Paul A. , Shelton Michael G.
Published: August 2019

Uneven-aged silviculture using single-tree selection provides the landowner with periodic income from a continuous forest which has a varied canopy. Data were collected from 24 plots of a larger study to determine if site index, basal area, and maximum dbh affected volume and value of lumber from loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) trees in uneven-aged stands. Tree grades and lumber yield equations were used to determine the volume of lumber by grade for each tree. Market prices from May 1997 and May 1998 were used to estimate lumber value. Analysis of variance showed that study variables significantly affected lumber volume, lumber value/mbf, and stand value/ac. With 1997 prices, increases in site index and maximum dbh significantly increased lumber value/mbf, but only maximum dbh was significant with 1998 prices. Stand values ranged from $4,100 to $12,350/ac and were significantly higher for the higher site index, basal area, and maximum dbh. South. J. Appl. For. 24(4):202-206.
Twenty Years of Natural Loblolly and Shortleaf Pine Seed Production on the Crossett Experimental Forest in Southeastern Arkansas
Authors: Cain Michael D. , Shelton Michael G.
Published: August 2019

Loblolly and shortleaf pine (Pinus taeda L. and P. echinata Mill., respectively) seed crops were monitored for 20 consecutive years (1980–1981 through 1999–2000) using seed-collection traps in natural stands on the Upper Coastal Plain of southeastern Arkansas. Each seed-collection period began on October 1 and continued through the end of February of successive years. Sound seeds were separated from void seeds by use of a cut test. During 20 yr, sound seed production ranged from 0 to 2,000,000/ac. There were six bumper seed crops (>800,000 sound seeds/ac), nine good seed crops (40,000—800,000 sound seeds/ac), and five poor seed crops (<40,000 sound seeds/ac). Because no poor seed crops occurred back-to-back, the seed supply was adequate for successful natural pine regeneration over the entire monitoring period. During 8 yr of adequate seed production, when weekly seed counts were made, seed dispersal always peaked in early November; therefore, site preparation should be completed before November to maximize seedling catch. South. J. Appl. For. 25(1):40–45.
A Generational Change in Site Index for Naturally Established Longleaf Pine on a South Alabama Coastal Plain Site
Authors: Boyer William D.
Published: August 2019

Research on longleaf pine (Pinus palustris Mill.) has been carried out for over 50 yr on a coastal plain site in south Alabama. Studies have included the original second-growth stands and also naturally established third-growth stands. Site index data revealed that estimated site index values for third growth generally exceeded those for second growth. Age 50 site index in 16 study compartments with second growth near index age averaged 66 ft. Estimated site index for third-growth stands recorded in 17 different compartments averaged 81 ft. Nine of the 16 compartments with second-growth stands now include third growth about 40 yr in age. This provided an opportunity to make a direct comparison of generational site index differences within the same compartments. Site index for second growth averaged 65 ft (range 61 to 70 ft), while third growth averaged 83 ft (range 77 to 87 ft). Reasons for this large increase in apparent site quality are unknown, but since soils are the same, some climate changes may be suspect. South. J. Appl. For. 25(2):88–92.
Predicting Nonindustrial Private Forest Landowners' Choices of a Forester for Harvesting and Tree Planting Assistance in Alabama
Authors: Zhang Daowei , Mehmood Sayeed R.
Published: August 2019

Nonindustrial private forest (NIPF) landowners often seek technical assistance from public, consulting, and industry foresters. This study uses a multinomial logit model to investigate factors influencing landowners' choices of a specific type of forester for harvesting and tree planting assistance. Income and preparation of management plan are significant predictors in both cases. In addition, species composition is a significant factor in the choice for harvesting assistance, and size of ownership and time spent in forest management are significant factors in the choice for tree planting assistance. The results may be useful to assist foresters in developing their marketing strategy. Policy implications for the design and delivery of technical assistance are discussed. South. J. Appl. For. 25(3):101–107.
Epicormic Branches Affect Lumber Grade and Value in Willow Oak
Authors: Meadows James S. , Burkhardt E.C.
Published: August 2019

A case study was conducted in a 50-yr-old bottomland oak stand in central Alabama to investigate the relationship between epicormic branches and lumber grade and value in willow oak (Quercus phellos L.). The stand had been thinned from below 7–10 yr earlier, resulting in a wide variety of epicormic branch conditions on the residual trees. A sample of 41 willow oak trees was selected before the stand was clearcut in late 1991. All merchantable logs in each tree were graded prior to felling. Average dbh of sampled trees was 19.1 in. Each tree averaged 9.5 epicormic branches on the sawlog portion of the bole. From these 41 trees, a random sample of 57 logs (31 butt logs and 26 upper logs) was shipped to a sawmill where they were sawn into lumber and graded. Epicormic branching had a large detrimental effect on log grade of individual trees. In general, as few as five epicormic branches somewhat evenly distributed on a 16 ft log was enough to cause a reduction in log grade. More importantly, defects caused by epicormic branches had a serious effect on lumber grade, particularly in the higher grades. Over 50% of the lumber volume that would have been graded as either First and Seconds or Select in the absence of epicormic branches was downgraded to No. 1 Common or below due to defects caused by epicormic branches. Based on lumber prices prevailing at the time of the study, defects caused by epicormic branches resulted in a 13% reduction in the value of the lumber produced in the final harvest. South. J. Appl. For.25(3):136–141.
A Numerical Rating System for Crown Classes of Southern Hardwoods
Authors: Meadows J.S. , Burkhardt E.C. , Johnson R.L. , Hodges J.D.
Published: August 2019

A numerical rating system to delineate crown classes of southern hardwoods is described. The system is based on four criteria: (1) amount of direct sunlight from above, (2) amount of direct sunlight from the sides, (3) crown balance, and (4) relative crown size. The total point value assigned places the tree within one of the four crown classes. The rating system can be used to train inexperienced hardwood foresters and should give experienced foresters a better grasp of those factors important in hardwood crown classification. Time required to evaluate a tree varies by tree, by stand conditions, and by observer, but experienced users of the system can easily rate most trees in 30–45 seconds. The rating system is particularly useful in situations where an individual tree appears to be borderline between two crown classes. For researchers, the system provides: (1) an expression of individual-tree crown characteristics, and (2) documentation of changes in crown position and condition. In two tests comparing the numerical rating system with the conventional crown classification system, use of the rating system consistently improved the ability of participants to correctly identify crown classes. Dominant and suppressed trees were the easiest to assess with the numerical rating system, whereas codominant and intermediate trees were the most difficult. Agreement between participants and experts in identification of crown classes increased with the level of the participants' forestry knowledge and experience. In one test, a group of participants attending a continuing-education hardwood shortcourse, but with little to moderate hardwood experience, correctly identified the crown class of 78% of the trees after only 1 hr of training. South. J. Appl. For. 25(4):154–158.
Impacts of Shortleaf Pine-Hardwood Forest Management on Soils in the Ouachita Highlands: A Review
Authors: Liechty Hal O. , Shelton Michael G. , Luckow Kenneth R. , Turton Donald J.
Published: August 2019

Shortleaf pine (Pinus echinata Mill.) is the most ecologically and economically important tree species in the Ouachita Highlands of the southcentral United States. This species can occur in relatively pure stands but most frequently exists in mixed stands with various hardwood species. Because of the diversity of land ownership, public concerns about forest management, and increased intensity of forest practices, the Ouachita Highlands have been a focal point for numerous research projects over the past 20 yr that have studied how forest management affects soils. We summarized information in four fundamental areas: (1) compaction, (2) soil loss, (3) organic matter, and (4) nutrients to better evaluate if and to what degree management practices such as harvesting and prescribed fire modify the productivity and sustainability of soils in this region. The review indicated that soils with less than 15% rock content or sandy loam textures were susceptible to compaction when harvested during wet weather conditions. Although partial harvesting techniques, such as single-tree or group selection, tended to reduce overall soil disturbance in a stand, it increased soil compaction on primary skid trails by concentrating traffic on fewer skid trails. Compaction on skid trails frequently elevated bulk density to levels that could reduce regeneration success or seedling growth. Using current harvesting systems, soil losses and displacement to streams after harvesting appeared to have little or no effect on long-term soil productivity. Harvesting and prescribed fires significantly altered nutrient and organic matter contents of the forest floor and mineral soil. However, recovery of these nutrient or organic pools often occurred rapidly after these cultural practices occurred. Little information was available for determining how repeated silvicultural practices over multiple rotations would affect long-term soil productivity in the Ouachita Highlands. South. J. Appl. For. 26(1):43–51.
Determinants and Projections of Land Use in the South Central United States
Authors: Ahn SoEun , Plantinga Andrew J. , Alig Ralph J.
Published: August 2019

This article presents historical trends and future projections of forest, agricultural, and urban/other land uses for the South Central region of the United States. An econometric land use model is used to investigate the relationship between the areas of land in alternative uses and economic and demographic factors influencing land use decisions. Determinants of land use included in the model are the net returns from different land uses, land quality, and demographic variables such as population density. Given projections of stumpage prices and population, the fitted econometric models are used to generate projections of future land use to the year 2050. Under a scenario in which population changes in the future, but stumpage prices remain constant, urban/other land increases by 2.2 million ac from 1992 to 2050. More private timberland (1.8 million ac) than agricultural land (0.4 million ac) is converted to urban/other land to accommodate the population increase. Under a scenario of population growth and 0.5% annual increases in stumpage prices, private timberland increases from 101.7 million ac to 107.2 million ac by 2050, and the urban/other land increases by 1.3 million ac. Agricultural land declines by almost 7 million ac, mirroring the increases in the urban/other land and private timberland. South. J. Appl. For. 26(2):78–84.
Effects of Early Release on Natural Versus Container Loblolly Pines 12 Years After Field Establishment
Authors: Cain Michael D. , Barnett James P.
Published: August 2019

Genetically improved, container loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) seedlings were compared to naturally established loblolly seedlings on a cutover pine site. Crop pines on 6 of 12 plots were released from woody and herbaceous competition within a 2 ft radius of each stem. On release plots, woody competition was controlled by hand-cutting for 5 consecutive yr and herbaceous competition was controlled with herbicides for 4 consecutive yr after pine establishment. Competition control increased 12 yr survival by 68 percentage points for natural pines and by 47 percentage points for planted pines. Twelve years after field establishment, mean-tree volume of planted pines was no different than that of naturally established pines. Nevertheless, volume gains of 150% to 200% were achieved within regeneration techniques as a result of release. South. J. Appl. For. 26(4):173–180.
Checking Our Foundations: Matthews' Least Cost Models Revisited
Authors: Stuart William B.
Published: August 2019

Logging in the U.S. South at the beginning of the twentieth century was an operating unit of manufacturing and therefore treated as a cost center. Around the middle of the century, it shifted to a service provided by standalone firms operating as “for profit” businesses. The engineering economy approach of cost control from the earlier era of company logging operations continues to be used by professionals. Increasing production to distribute “fixed costs” is a key element of many cost control approaches. The most common of these, the model for identifying the point of operation where average total cost per unit is minimized, exemplified by Matthews' road spacing model, is revisited considering the complexities of the modern operating environment and the competing objectives of land management, wood supply, and for-profit contractors. South. J. Appl. For. 27(1):30–35.
A Simplified Method of Predicting Percent Volume in Log Portions
Authors: Oderwald Richard G. , Popescu Sorin
Published: August 2019

Effective multi-product inventory requires methods that can estimate the percent of total tree merchantable volume in any one piece regardless of length or position. The usual equations for predicting percent volume by piece are confined to specific log lengths and length units. A simple method of predicting percent board foot volume in any piece of a bole or log in any length units is presented. It is widely applicable but not as accurate as other more specific methods. South. J. Appl. For. 27(2): 149–152.
Determination of the Minimum Number of Stool Bed Ortets Required to Capture a Desirable Genotype from Full-Sibling Family Crosses
Authors: Myszewski Jennifer H. , Bridgwater Floyd E. , Byram Thomas D.
Published: August 2019

Two important questions for clonal forestry are: (1) how many ortets must be established to ensure that one or more of the best genotypes in a family will be available for field tests and plantation establishment; and (2) how certain can one be that at least one top genotype will be present in a sample of n ortets. In this study, we calculated the level of confidence (LOC) in having included one or more desirable, rootable genotypes in a random sample of n ortets from a full-sibling family. We also calculated the number of unique ortets required to achieve a given LOC in having included one or more desirable, rootable genotypes in a sample. In general, when the sample size is small, either because the original number of ortets was low or because of poor rootability, the LOC is lower. When rootability is low or when only a small percentage of the possible genotypes is considered desirable, the original number of ortets required to achieve a given LOC is higher. Both LOC and sample size are highly influenced by the target number of desirable genotypes to be captured in a sample of ortets. South. J. Appl. For. 27(3):160–163.
Timber Harvesting and Flooding: Emerging Legal Risks and Potential Mitigations
Authors: Mortimer Michael J. , Visser Rien J. M.
Published: August 2019

The relationship between timber harvesting in steep terrain and natural calamities such as flooding has recently coalesced as extensive litigation in West Virginia. Accusations that timber harvesting was responsible for widespread flooding includes novel uses of the legal theories of negligence per se and strict liability. Managing for increases in water yield, application of best management practices (BMP), and predictability of flooding events all play a role in whether timber operations are ultimately susceptible to liability for flooding events. The authors suggest that recent legal actions and difficulties in predicting the outcomes of such lawsuits necessitates a fundamental review of best management practice design and implementation. Consideration of water quantity BMP may be warranted. South. J. Appl. For. 28(2):69–75.
Assessing the Use of Chopper Herbicide for Establishing Hardwood Plantations on a Cutover Site
Authors: Schuler Jamie L. , Robison Daniel J. , Quicke Harold E.
Published: August 2019

Successful establishment of hardwood plantations requires effective weed management. Mechanical weed control is inefficient, and few herbicides are available for use in hardwood plantations. In an effort to identify new chemical control options, the potential of imazapyr (Chopper herbicide) for site preparation prior to planting three common southern hardwood species was assessed. Twelve site preparation treatments were tested using Chopper applied at four rates and three timings prior to planting. Each site preparation rate and time pairing was repeated under two postplant herbicide regimes—directed glyphosate (Accord herbicide) sprays designed to maintain weed-free conditions and a single broadcast sulfometuron methyl (Oust herbicide) treatment designed to test a potential operational sequencing of Chopper site preparation followed by herbaceous weed control. Although results must be evaluated in the context of a single site and set of environmental conditions, they demonstrate the utility of Chopper herbicide for site preparation prior to planting hardwoods. For sycamore (Platanus occidentalis L.)and sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua L.),site preparation before the end of July with Chopper rates up to 64 oz/ac improved survival and growth over postplant treatments alone. For later season applications, sycamore and sweetgum were more sensitive to the Chopper site preparation rate. For Oct. site preparation, Chopper rates above 16 oz/ac adversely affected planted sycamore seedlings and rates greater than 32 oz/ac adversely effected planted sweetgum seedlings. Cherrybark oak (Quercus pagoda Raf.)performed best using the highest Chopper rate of 64 oz/ac regardless of timing. South. J. Appl. For. 28(3):163–170.
A Random-Parameter Height-Dbh Model for Cherrybark Oak
Authors: Lynch Thomas B. , Holley A. Gordon , Stevenson Douglas J.
Published: August 2019

A random-parameter model was used to relate total height to diameter at breast height (dbh) for cherrybark oak (Quercus pagoda Raf.). Data were obtained from 561 trees located in 50 stands occurring on bottomland hardwood sites in East Texas, near the western extent of the cherrybarkoak natural range. Mixed-model estimation techniques were used to fit fixed-effects parameters to the height-dbh relationship for cherrybark oak, with random-effects parameters representing sample stands from which tree data were obtained. The fixed-effect parameter estimates can be used topredict average cherrybark oak height for a given dbh in the region from which the data were obtained. Because random parameters associated with stands were used in the data-fitting process, the models can be calibrated to fit new stands by obtaining measurements to fit appropriate randomparameters for that stand. This calibration improves height predictions for individual stands while requiring less data than would the development of a completely new height prediction model for that stand. South. J. Appl. For. 29(1):22–26.
A Review of the Biological, Social, and Regulatory Constraints to Intensive Plantation Culture
Authors: Rousseau Randall , Kaczmarek Don , Martin John
Published: August 2019

Substantial progress continues to be made in a variety of biological fields toward increasing plantation productivity. Productivity in a wide variety of forest ecosystems is controlled by environmental variables, cultural treatments, the genotypes deployed, and the interactions thatmay exist among these various factors. Effective and efficient increases in productivity require a thorough understanding of these complex interactions. A thorough understanding of the biological limits to productivity and the development of effective genetic resources and cultural regimesto overcome some of these limitations is only one facet that forest managers must currently address. New management strategies for future plantations inherently carry new challenges and limitations that must prove to be substantially more profitable and ecologically sound than current technologies.To operate in the social context we currently face, industrial forest lands will continue to represent a range of management intensities with differing primary management objectives. On many of our most intensively managed forest lands, clonal plantation forestry is becoming the future. Thenext step in this progression may be the use of genetically modified trees. The form that intensive forest management will take in the future in the United States is subject to factors beyond the development of improved cultural regimes or new genotypes that may be deployed. Government restrictionsmay greatly impede or halt new technologies. Beyond controls imposed by formal regulations, negative public sentiment has been seen in the form of boycotts of retail markets thus pressuring the industry to use more costly management strategies. Research that is not directly related to stand productivity but rather possible impacts of increasing stand productivity to the environment and other ecological processes will draw even greater attention. South. J. Appl. For. 29(2):105–109.
Planting Nonlocal Seed Sources of Loblolly Pine – Managing Benefits and Risks
Authors: Lambeth Clem , McKeand Steve , Rousseau Randy , Schmidtling Ron
Published: August 2019

Seed source testing of loblolly pine (Pinus taeda), which began in the 1920s, has allowed large realized genetic gains from using nonlocal seed sources in operational plantations. Seed source testing continues, and deployment guidelines are still being refined. Some general effects of seed source movement can be described, but there are still gaps in (1) understanding exactly how far certain seed sources can be moved, (2) the degree of risk involved, and (3) how certain traits such as wood quality vary by seed source, especially with seed source movement. In some cases, seed source movement gains can be achieved with little risk; for example, planting Livingston Parish, Louisiana material for rust resistance in more easterly Gulf Coastal areas. Also, movement of seed sources one plant hardiness zone north can result in increased growth with little concern for winter damage. Big gains in growth, however, from using nonlocal seed sources may come at significant risk. Two industrial examples of planting nonlocal seed sources and how risks were managed are covered: (1) South-to-north movement: MeadWestvaco's use of loblolly pine north of the native range in Kentucky and surrounding areas, and (2) East-to-west movement: Weyerhaeuser's use of North Carolina coastal plain families in southern Arkansas and southeast Oklahoma. To deal with the significant risks of seed source movements, one must be aware of the risk factors, understand historical climatic data (are the risks high or low within a typical harvest rotation period), and have silvicultural and genetic strategies to mitigate or reduce risk. Possible genetic strategies include thorough testing and allocation of orchard families of the nonlocal seed source, development of a “land race” (breeding and testing for local adaptation of the nonlocal seed source), interprovenance hybrids, and interspecific hybrids. Examples of these are discussed in this article. South. J. Appl. For. 29(2):96–104.
The Effects of Spatial Harvest Scheduling Constraints on the Value of a Medium-Sized Forest Holding in the Southeastern United States
Authors: Batten Wise H. , Bettinger Pete , Zhu Jianping
Published: August 2019

Forest plans related to a number of spatial harvest scheduling scenarios were developed for a medium-sized forest holding using a heuristic forest planning technique (tabu search). Green-up periods of 2 to 7 years were assessed in conjunction with the two types of adjacency constraints. The results indicate for this one property that a short green-up period (2–3 years) did not significantly affect the economic value of the forest holding studied. Longer green-up periods and smaller maximum clearcut sizes could reduce the net present value of this forest holding by as much as 5 to 15% depending on the clearcut adjacency rules used. In a validation of the heuristic solutions, we found that the best solution generated with the heuristic (for three separate problems) was within 0.25% of the integer programming solution. South. J. Appl. For. 29(4):185–193.
The Breithaupt Todis Dendrometer—An Analysis
Authors: Eller R. C. , Keister T. D.
Published: August 2019

The Breithaupt Todis, a variable-base, fixed-convergence-angle dendrometer, is described and the results of tests for bias and precision are presented. No systematic bias was detected and upper-stem diameters can be measured within ±0.7 cm (0.28 inch) 95 percent of the time. The instrument can also be used to measure distance and height, and all measurements can be read in the field (in metric units). It should be useful for stand mapping and on sample plots when several trees need a number of measurements. It is not a good instrument to use for timber cruises covering large areas that only require a few measurements of a large number of trees.
Analyzing Alternative Hardwood Management Strategies
Authors: Porterfield Richard , Utz Keith , Balmer William
Published: August 2019

An analysis of the per cubic foot investment costs associated with hardwood production under each of three management alternatives is presented: (1) plantation establishment; (2) a harvest cut followed by natural regeneration; (3) rehabilitation through timber stand improvement (TSI). The indication is that the vast majority of southern hardwood stands will continue to be naturally regenerated given landowner objectives, ownership patterns, and current stumpage prices.
Planting Season for Cottonwood Can Be Extended
Authors: Kennedy Harvey E.
Published: August 2019

Cottonwood cuttings planted as early as November and as late as May survive and grow well if sufficient soil moisture is available and cuttings are properly handled. About 6 inches or more of well distributed rainfall is needed in September and October to recharge Commerce soil. If these two months are dry, planting should be delayed. In March or later, cuttings should not be planted during dry spells of two weeks or longer. Early planting does not significantly improve root development but does give the trees a growth advantage in the first year.
Response of Slash Pine to Different Spacings and Site-Preparation Treatments
Authors: Sarigumba T. I. , Anderson G. A.
Published: August 2019

Seventeen years after installation, an experiment testing the effect of spacing and four site-preparation treatments yielded data on growth, volume, disease incidence, and survival of slash pine (Pinus elliottii var. elliotti Engelm.) Across all spacings and treatments, growth and yield were generally greater on better drained soils. Spacing had a decided effect on growth and volume: wider spacings resulted in greater d.b.h. but reduced volume; the closer the spacing, the more merchantable volume was produced; 6' x 12' spacing seems the most acceptable compromise. Site-preparation methods had a visible effect on disease incidence and survival: burn-bedding and burn-harrowing enhanced growth and increased volume yield and survival; burn-scalping proved detrimental. Although stem canker infection was higher on intensively prepared plots, they produced the greatest wood yield.
Mortality among Seed Trees in Longleaf Pine Shelterwood Stands
Authors: Boyer William D.
Published: August 2019

Mortality of longleaf pine (Pinus palustris Mill.) seed trees was recorded in 27 regeneration areas ranging from North Carolina to Louisiana. Annual mortality averaged 0.7 percent before, and 1.9 percent after a seed cut reduced stand density to about 30 square feet of basal area per acre. On a per-acre basis, however, annual losses averaged 0.4 tree both before and after cutting. Yearly mortality of 0.2 tree per acre or less was recorded for more than half of all observations.
A New Approach to Log Volume Estimation
Authors: Sadiq Riyaz A.
Published: August 2019

Estimation of volume of logs requires measurement on three log parameters, namely diameter, length, and taper of the log. Three well-known formulas for estimating volumes of various log shapes are: Huber’s, Smalian’s, and Newton’s. These formulas are based on products of average cross-sectional areas and the length of the log. Averaging of the cross-sectional area(s) is in a way inclusion of taper rate in these formulas. However, this premise does not always work well for the three common geometric log shapes, namely frustums of neiloids, paraboloids, and cones.

This article proposes a log volume estimation formula that uses the Disk method of integral calculus for estimating volume of solids of different geometrical shapes. The proposed formula takes the taper rate of the logs into consideration while evaluating their volumes. Based on the archival water displacement method, a unique technique, using cutting-edge computer software technology has been used for setting up log benchmark volume. A comparative study between the newly proposed formula and those currently used indicates its user-friendly application and a performance level comparable to Newton’s; but significantly better than the others.South. J. Appl. For. 30(1):30 –39.