bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Awareness of Arousal and its Relation to Aggression
Authors: GEEN RUSSELL G. , RAKOSKY JOHN J. , PIGG ROGER
Published: July 2011

A confederate arbitrarily gave electric shocks to each of 30 male subjects as they read a sexually exciting story. One‐third of the subjects were informed that they were aroused by the shocks, and one‐third that they were aroused by the story. The remaining subjects were not led to attribute arousal to either the shocks or the effects of the story. Subjects who attributed arousal to the shocks subsequently attacked the confederate more intensely than subjects who believed themselves sexually aroused. Self‐ratings of anger were highest among subjects who considered themselves aroused by the shocks. The results indicated that behaviour following an attack is consistent with the victim's cognition of his response to that attack.
Bipolar Factors in Mood Adjective Checklists
Authors: MEDDIS RAY
Published: July 2011

Previous attempts, using adjective checklists, to demonstrate the existence of mood factors have found only monopolar factors where commonsense would lead us to expect bipolar factors. This surprising effect is attributed to deficiencies in the rating scale used. An improved rating scale is compared with one commonly employed. The results show that monopolarity is associated with the old scale, whilst bipolarity emerges with a new improved scale. A complete reappraisal of the current status of mood adjective checklist factors is recommended.
On Failing to Test a Theory of Mental Pathology
Authors: HOPE K.
Published: July 2011

In their recent discussion of the Symptom‐Sign Inventory (SSI), Gordon & Gregson (1970) deduce some empirical hypotheses from the theory advanced by Foulds (1965) and test them on a small body of data which they have assembled. The purpose of this note is to show that some of their deductions from the theory are mistaken.
The Influence of Sex, Training and Length of Service on the Conceptions of Teachers in Hospital of their Role
Authors: FINLAYSON DOUGLAS S. , APPLETON MARION C.
Published: July 2011

The construction of a role‐definition instrument for teachers in hospital settings is described. Six scales were derived: general therapeutic concern, concern for hospital‐derived stress, autocratic orientation, attitude towards hospital staff, openness, avoidance of disturbance of the hospital system. Male hospital teachers had more positive expectations of hospital staff than female teachers and expected to be consulted more about ward organization. Attendance at courses providing an additional qualification in the teaching of handicapped children was associated with greater general therapeutic concern for children in hospital, with greater concern for hospital‐derived stress, with less autocratic attitudes and with more positive expectations of hospital staff. Length of hospital service bore no simple relationship to any of the scales. The usefulness and limitations of such empirical data in decisions related to planned change in hospitals is discussed.
Personality and the Pursuit of Distributive Justice: An Experimental Study of Children's Moral Behaviour
Authors: STEPHENSON GEOFFREY M. , BARKER JOHN
Published: July 2011

Stephenson & White (1970) reported that the effect of status (‘privileged’ or ‘deprived’) on cheating for gain by 10‐year‐old boys depended on how that status was achieved. Privilege encouraged cheating only if it was justified. Deprivation encouraged cheating only if it was unjustified. The present study confirms that finding, but suggests that the effect is limited to introverted children. Extraverted children did not show the expected interaction between status and its source. This may be because extraverts are less susceptible to moral considerations, or because they redress injustice in ways other than by cheating for gain. There was no evidence overall that extraverts cheated more than introverts.
The Effect of Social Class on Imitation in a Pre‐experience Situation
Authors: KNIVETON BROMLEY H. , STEPHENSON GEOFFREY M.
Published: July 2011

Kniveton & Stephenson (1970) showed that middle‐class children, when permitted to play with toys before presentation of a filmed model, will later imitate the model less than those who do not have this pre‐experience. An experiment is described which tests the same hypothesis for working‐class children. The hypothesis is rejected. This apparent interaction between social class and pre‐experience is confirmed in a second experiment. A further hypothesis was tested that the class difference in response to pre‐experience will vary inversely with the magnitude of pre‐experience. This was not supported.
Eysenck's Theory of Criminality: A Test of Some Objections to Disconfirmatory Evidence
Authors: BURGESS P. K.
Published: July 2011

Eysenck has advanced a number of objections to empirical studies which have failed to find support for his theory of criminality. An attempt was made to test the validity of two such objections, by choosing samples of prisoners unlikely to have become ‘institutionalized’, and by selecting a control group equivalent in terms of neuroticism. Eysenck's hypothesis that the prisoners would exhibit higher mean extraversion scores was not confirmed, and doubts are cast on the suggestion that normal subjects with high neuroticism scores exhibit a correlation between extraversion and neuroticism. Theoretical objections to Eysenck's correlation arguments are advanced, and it is concluded that such arguments cannot be used to invalidate the studies failing to support Eysenck's theory.
Personality Patterns of Iranian Boys and Girls on Cattell's 16 Personality Factor Test
Authors: MEHRYAR A. H.
Published: July 2011

A Persian translation of Cattell's 16 Personality Factor test (Form A) was given to a group of 598 Iranian secondary‐school students, 259 girls and 339 boys, aged between 17 and 19. The results were analysed with respect to sex and academic specialization and compared with American norms.

Iranian boys were found to score higher than Iranian girls on factors C, E, H and L, but lower than them on factors A, I, M, O and Q4. Boys following the mathematics or physical science branches differed from those enrolled in the literature or humanities branch on factors A, C, G, I, L, M, N, O and Q4; those following natural science (biology) differed from the literary group on factors C, I, M, N, O and Q4. The two scientific branches were significantly different only on factors G, I and L. For the girls, significant differences were observed only on the A and I factors. On the whole, the picture presented by the Iranian mathematics and natural science groups is very similar to that of the physical scientist as revealed by Western studies.

Iranian boys differ from their American counterparts on factors G, L, N, Q3, E, F, Q2 and Q4. Similarly, Iranian girls emerge as different from American girls on factors A, F, G, H, I, L, N, O, Q3 and Q4. The findings are discussed in the light of other evidence regarding Iranian culture and the performance on the 16 PF test in other cultural settings.
Cross‐Cultural Stability of Second‐Order Factors in the 16 PF
Authors: PHILIP ALISTAIR E.
Published: July 2011

An examination of the claims made by Cattell regarding the stability of the second‐order structure of the 16 PF across cultures indicated that these claims were based on limited evidence. The second‐order structure of the 16 PF was obtained for a group of British normals, the data for males, females and total group being factor analysed separately to identify replicable factors. These results were compared with those published by Cattell & Warburton and by Gorsuch & Cattell. There was high congruence across all samples for a factor which could be labelled ‘Anxiety v. Adjustment,’ but there were at least two possible contenders for the label ‘Introversion‐Extraversion’. The hazards consequent upon the identification of similar factors by ‘eye test’ and other possible methodological problems are discussed. It is concluded that Cattell's claims regarding the cross‐cultural stability of factors cannot be substantiated for all factors.
To Rotate or Not to Rotate: The Question of the Conservatism Scale
Authors: BOSHIER ROGER
Published: July 2011

Conservatism was conceived by the constructors of the C Scale as a generalized factor that affected all or most social attitudes. With the exception of Bagley's (1970) rotation, there has hitherto been available only unrotated factor matrices which demonstrate the existence of ‘general’, ‘sexual’, ‘racial’ and ‘religious’ conservatism factors. Some problems encountered whilst interpreting unrotated matrices are discussed. Also reported is an oblique rotation yielding 15 first‐order factors which were subsequently reduced to four essentially uncorrelated third‐order factors. The meaning of these factors is discussed. It is suggested that there are attitudes that cut across a simple liberal‐conservative polarity and that this notion is in accord with events in New Zealand and elsewhere.
Effect of Severe Stress on the Maudsley Personality Inventory Score in Normal Subjects
Authors: HARE E. H. , PAYNE HELLY , LAURENCE K. M. , RAWNSLEY K.
Published: July 2011

The short form of the Maudsley Personality Inventory was given up to four times to 146 mothers of spina bifida children and 78 control mothers of normal children, as part of an investigation into the social and psychological effects upon the family of the birth of a seriously malformed infant. The first test was given shortly after the birth, often when the mother was still in hospital, and the retests were carried out one month, one year and two years later, at home. There was no significant difference in the scores according to the venue of the test and there was no difference in mean E or N scores between the cases and controls. Among the cases, the N score increased significantly over successive occasions where a child's handicap was severe or moderate. N scores were closely related to the mothers' self‐reported nervous health and, among the cases, nervous health was closely related to the severity of the child's handicap. The findings are considered to add to the evidence that the MPI score is influenced by a disturbance of mental state.
The Cognitive Determinants of Defensive Behaviour
Authors: KREITLER HANS , KREITLER SHULAMITH
Published: July 2011

The purpose of the study was to test a deduction from the authors' theory of cognitive orientation about the relations between cognitive contents and behaviour. The hypothesis was that beliefs of four types—Norms, General Beliefs, Beliefs about Self, and Goals—whose contents are orienting towards behaviours corresponding to the defence mechanisms of rationalization, denial and projection, are related to behaviours reflecting these same defence mechanisms. Beliefs were assessed through a questionnaire and behaviour by means of three behavioural measures administered after a series of frustrations. The subjects were 24 volunteer undergraduates of both sexes. The findings show that cognitive contents are predictive of behaviour when all four types of beliefs, or at least three types, are considered. However, merely summing the beliefs supporting one or another course of action, without considering separately the four types of beliefs, does not enable prediction of behaviour. Implications concerning defences and relations between cognitive contents and behaviour are discussed.
Judgement of Attitude Statements as a Function of Judges' Attitudes and the Judgemental Dimension
Authors: EISER J. RICHARD
Published: July 2011

Judges were required to rate 30 statements concerning drug use on each of five Thurstone‐type scales. On two of these scales the ‘pro‐drug’ extreme was labelled by a term with relatively negative value connotations, and on the other three scales by a term with relatively positive value connotations. The results supported the hypothesis that judges would tend to show a relatively high degree of polarization in their ratings along scales where their own position lay closer to the positively valued end of the scale, and a relatively low degree of polarization along scales where their own position lay closer to the negative end. These differences were independent of a tendency for some judges, irrespective of their own attitude, to give more extreme ratings than other judges on all five scales.
A Social‐Psychological Examination of Privacy
Authors: KELVIN PETER
Published: July 2011

Privacy has been almost wholly neglected as an area of study. This paper attempts to clarify some of the basic conceptual problems associated with privacy which may have been partly responsible for inhibiting research. In particular, it examines the relationship between privacy and social power and norms. In conclusion, it suggests an approach to the measurement of privacy and an attempt at a tentative theoretical model for the study of privacy.
An Empirical Investigation of the Relationship between Conservatism and Superstition
Authors: BOSHIER ROGER
Published: July 2011

According to the Authoritarian Personality researchers (Adorno et al., 1950) superstition was a central component of the highly conservative fascistic type person and indicates a tendency to shift responsibility from the individual on to outside forces beyond his control; it indicates that the ego might already have “given up”, that is to say, renounced the idea that it might determine the individual's fate by overcoming external forces' (p. 236). However, close examination of the Authoritarian Personality reveals the evidence in support of the above proposition to be somewhat equivocal. Furthermore, findings derived from studies using the F Scale are now suspect because of criticisms levelled at the F Scale concerning acquiescence response bias (viz. Peabody, 1966).

The constructors of the Conservatism Scale included items such as ‘horoscopes' and ‘inborn conscience’ in order to tap superstition. The balanced keying of items has successfully overcome problems of acquiescence response bias inherent in propositional statement type measures of conservatism (Cloud & Vaughan, 1970).
Comment on H. B. Gibson's Report on the Validity of the Eysenck Personality Inventory‐Extraversion, Degree of Acquaintanceship, and Mean Peer‐Ratings
Authors: VINGOE F. J.
Published: July 2011

This paper comments on a recent report (Gibson, 1971) concerning the validity of the Eysenck Personality Inventory via peer‐rating item by item and by social comparison. Data on self‐ratings, mean peer‐ratings, and test scores of EPI Extraversion and five California Psychological Inventory (CPI) variables are presented. Gibson's finding of a significant correlation of E score with status was replicated. In addition, it was found that status was significantly related to mean peer‐ratings on Extraversion, Sociability, Self‐acceptance, Responsibility and Psychological‐mindedness. It was especially noted that mean peer‐ratings were consistently more closely associated with status than were either test scores or self‐ratings. The highest correlation (0.745) was found between the mean peer‐rating on Sociability and status. The importance of: (a) status, (b) liking and (c) target's and judge's position on the Introversion‐Extraversion continuum are discussed in relation to the accuracy of personality judgement.
The Structure of Genotypic and Environmental Covariation for Personality Measurements: An Analysis of the PEN
Authors: EAVES L. J.
Published: July 2011

Phenotypic covariation for personality measurements reflects covariation due to both genetical and environmental influences. An attempt was made to separate covariation due to genetical causes from that due to environmental causes among the responses of 101 pairs of monozygotic twins to an 80‐item questionnaire providing scores of psychoticism, extraversion and neuroticism. At least part of the covariation of items known to load for extraversion could be explained by the unitary action of environmental influences. The same conclusion was reached with respect to neuroticism, but there was little evidence that environmental differences resulted in any covariation between the psychoticism items.

Although genetical influences were more important in determining the relationships among the P items there was no clear indication that psychoticism was a unitary genotypic factor. The covariation of the N items, however, could reasonably be attributed to unitary genetical influences on neurotic behaviour. It was found that more than one genetical factor was probably involved in the determination of covariation among the E items, suggesting that the apparently unitary nature of extraversion at the phenotypic level could be due to environmental rather than to genetical influences.
Naive British Judgements of Therapeutic Conditions
Authors: SHAPIRO D. A.
Published: July 2011

Three studies are reported in which three different groups of naive British judges ranked sets of transcripts of recorded psychotherapy, representative of the ranges of the Accurate Empathy, Non‐possessive Warmth and Genuineness scales, developed in the U.S.A. to measure ‘therapeutic conditions’. Rankings of Accurate Empathy examples for the therapist's understanding agreed with the criterion scale fairly consistently. Rankings of Non‐possessive Warmth examples for the therapist's warmth were unreliable, but showed slight evidence of concordance with the criterion. Rankings of Genuineness examples for honesty and genuineness showed some evidence of reliable divergence from the criterion scale. Some evidence was obtained that sets of examples chosen to illustrate the ranges of the three therapeutic condition scales are not interchangeable, as far as judgements of understanding are concerned. However, rankings of the Non‐possessive Warmth and Genuineness examples for understanding attained a significant degree of reliability, suggesting that the examples chosen to illustrate differing levels of these two scales may also differ in empathy. Together with the results of a preliminary study, these findings encourage the use of the Accurate Empathy scale in British research. They do not, however, give comparable support to the other two scales.
The Effects of Context Upon the Frequency of Short‐Term Changes in Affective States
Authors: SHAPIRO M. B. , LITMAN G. K. , HENDRY E.
Published: July 2011

Individual‐centred experiments were carried out on two subjects in order to investigate the effects of two kinds of context upon short‐term changes in the intensity of feelings. One context was termed ‘referential’, i.e. the feelings were related to circumstances outside the subject himself and to times other than the present. An example is ‘I feel depressed because I am not needed’. The other context was termed ‘non‐referential’, i.e. the feelings were not related to anything but the subject in the immediate present. An example is ‘I feel depressed’. Each patient assessed the intensity of a number of her affective states immediately before and immediately after situations such as behaviour therapy and psychotherapy sessions. Each of three situations was presented on between 6 and 10 occasions to each patient. Each affect was assessed in both referential and non‐referential contexts. In accordance with expectation, referential states produced less frequent reductions of intensity than non‐referential states. Similar results for increases of intensity were produced by one patient and inconsistent results by the other. These results have implications for a theory of affective change and for the development of treatment strategies.
Dimensions of Personality and Meaning in Self‐Ratings of Personality
Authors: GRAY JOHN E.
Published: July 2011

It has been suggested that the orthogonal dimensions of emotional adjustment and extraversion found by Eysenck and others in personality data are topical variants of the more general dimensions of evaluation, potency and activity found in the attribution of meaning to objects by Osgood. Emotional adjustment is identified with the evaluation dimension and extraversion with the activity and potency dimensions. Subjects were given the EPI and a self‐concept Semantic Differential consisting of scales measuring evaluation, potency and activity and also scales measuring emotional adjustment and aspects of extraversion. A principal components analysis with Varimax rotation revealed four factors. Although EPI neuroticism did not load highly on the evaluative factor, the Semantic Differential scale of emotional adjustment did. The EPI and Semantic Differential extraversion scales loaded on an activity factor.
Outcomes Associated with Direct and Vicarious Experience in Training Groups: II. Attitudes, Dogmatism
Authors: McLEISH JOHN , PARK JAMES
Published: July 2011

In a previous paper (McLeish & Park, 1972) the allocation of 94 subjects randomly to one of six treatments was described. The general conditions of the experimental procedures were given, the educational objectives and test instruments were outlined. As far as personality changes are concerned, training groups of the kind used in this experiment appear to have no systematic effect. This second paper reports that no systematic changes in attitudes or personal values could be detected in any of the treatment groups, although these areas were sampled extensively. Nor was the score on Rokeach's Dogmatism Scale (Form E) influenced by the treatments.
Outcomes Associated with Direct and Vicarious Experience in Training Groups: III. Intended Learning Outcomes
Authors: McLEISH JOHN , PARK JAMES
Published: July 2011

Four basic measures were administered as pre‐ and post‐treatment tests on 94 subjects placed at random in one of six treatment conditions. These tests (two of which were specially devised for the purpose) measure two different kinds of skill: empathic discrimination and response, and understanding of group dynamics. In the DC treatment the intended outcome was the development of empathy; in the SAT treatment the objective was an increased understanding of group dynamics. It has been established that these skills can be learned (better in the case of group dynamics) vicariously, by observer groups. There is a slight advantage in being a participant if the task is to learn empathy. On the other hand, a high proportion of participants in a self‐analytic group may lose drastically their initial insights. This is probably due to defensive repression of earlier understandings.
Identification with the Winner of a Fight and Name Mediation: Their Differential Effects upon Subsequent Aggressive Behaviour
Authors: LEYENS JACQUES‐PHILIPPE , PICUS STEVE
Published: July 2011

The present study aims at measuring the effects of name mediation and of identification with the winner on subsequent aggressive behaviour. After having been angered by an experimental confederate, subjects watched a 6 1/2 min. clip from the film The Champion (Berkowitz, 1965). Upon conclusion of the film, the subjects were given an opportunity to administer electric shocks to the confederate. More aggression was exhibited by subjects who identified more strongly with the winner of the fight. The high‐identifiers also described themselves as more refreshed, light‐hearted and pleased than the low‐identifiers.
Some Fantasy Correlates of Experimentally Aroused Aggression
Authors: MILLER TIIU‐IMBI , MILLER PATRICK McC.
Published: July 2011

Fifty‐one male and 36 female university students, divided into high and low scorers on the Marlowe‐Crowne Social Desirability Scale (M‐C SD), wrote TAT‐type stories before being frustrated by being led to believe that a partner was deliberately cheating them. The relationships between behavioural retaliation in this situation, M‐C SD score, and two measures of fantasy aggression were investigated. The main results were (1) M‐C SD score showed no direct relation to either fantasy or behavioural aggression, (2) females showed less general fantasy aggression than males, but not less behavioural or fantasy retaliation, (3) for the high M‐C SD scorers only, there was a significant positive relationship between fantasy and behavioural retaliation, (4) for the low M‐C SD scoring women, there was a negative relation between fantasy general aggression and behavioural retaliation, (5) in a subsample who wrote further TAT stories after being frustrated there was little tendency for fantasy retaliation to be more evident in the second group of stories than the first, and (6) high M‐C SD scorers showed a negative correlation between behavioural aggression and change in retaliatory aggression. Possible interpretations of the fantasy measure used are suggested.
Personality and Pathology: Stable and Unstable Correlates
Authors: HORVATH PETER , FOULDS G. A. , ADAMOWICZ J. K.
Published: July 2011

Fifty‐three psychiatric patients were tested and retested on a battery of personality scales in order to confirm Foulds' and Presly's differentiation of these measures into those assessing stable and those assessing unstable personality characteristics. These authors arrived at their conclusions by analysing scale score distributions in normal and abnormal populations. In this study the criterion for differentiation consisted of change in scale scores from test to retest. Those scales measuring the unstable personality characteristics were expected to change significantly, whereas those measuring the stable personality characteristics were not. The 21 scales used in this study were taken from the Personal Disturbance Scale of the Symptom‐Sign Inventory, the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire, and the Hostility‐Direction of Hostility Questionnaire. Five of the six predicted changes in tests scores did in fact occur. These findings were discussed with reference to the distinctions between symptoms, states and deviant and normal traits, and their relationship to psychopathology.
A Further Study of the Grid Test of Thought Disorder
Authors: McPHERSON F. M. , BLACKBURN IVY M. , DRAFFAN JOAN W. , McFADYEN M.
Published: July 2011

The performance of 36 thought‐disordered schizophrenics, 24 non‐thought‐disordered schizophrenics, 18 manics and 33 depressives was compared on four measures derived from the Bannister‐Fransella Grid Test of Thought Disorder, i.e. Intensity, Consistency, Element Consistency and Social Deviation. On all four measures, the thought‐disordered schizophrenics had significantly poorer scores than the other groups, which did not differ among themselves. Within a subgroup of 19 schizophrenics, each of the four measures correlated significantly with clinical ratings of the severity of thought disorder. However, when the effects of Intensity and Consistency were each partialled out, the correlation between Element Consistency and clinical ratings was reduced to insignificance, whereas when Element Consistency was partialled out, Intensity and Consistency remained significantly correlated with the ratings. It is argued that, not only has the Bannister‐Fransella test been successfully cross‐validated as a measure of thought disorder, but that the results also support Bannister's explanation that low scores on the test reflect a loose construct system.
Group Learning and Performance: A Reclassification
Authors: FOOT HUGH C.
Published: July 2011

The distinction between coaction and interaction is examined in the context of group learning and performance tasks. The traditional, narrow definition of coaction in terms of zero or minimal interchange of social and task‐relevant cues between group members is criticized on the basis of the difficulty of determining whether or not such interchange is entirely absent or at least at a minimum. A broader interpretation is suggested to take account of situations where these cues are available for use by group members. Coaction might then refer to situations where individuals may, but are not obliged to, use information from their co‐workers, whereas interaction might refer to situations where there is necessary interchange, i.e. where the group members must use cues or information from each other in order to perform their task. With this distinction in mind, an outline for a new classification of group learning and performance tasks is proposed, based upon the availability of cues and upon the opportunity or need for interchange between group members.
Belief Instability as a Mediating Variable in Opinion Change: The Effects of Attack Discrepancy
Authors: KOSLIN BERTRAM. L. , SUEDFELD PETER , PARGAMENT RICHARD
Published: July 2011

According to the uncertainty model of opinion change, a persuasive message induces instability in the recipient's belief system. Opinion change is then a function of the degree of instability which has been induced. Subjects possess a repertoire of arguments to bolster beliefs which support their own attitudes, and another repertoire to refute messages advocating opposite beliefs; they are less well‐prepared to counter messages which are only moderately discrepant, and such messages should consequently induce the most instability. Thus there is a curvilinear relationship between attack discrepancy and belief instability or uncertainty, as measured by inconsistencies in the ranking of belief‐relevant statements. The relationship between instability and opinion change is positive and linear. Data from an experiment using messages of various degrees of extremeness opposing the use of automobile seat‐belts supported these hypotheses. Furthermore, subjects whose own attitudes had been previously made salient showed more uncertainty after a mildly discrepant and less after a severely discrepant message. The uncertainty model, which is based upon an objectively measured intervening variable, provides an unusually exact and testable starting point for hypothesis generation in the field of attitude change.
Uncertainty and Power Inversion in Coalition Formation: Again Strength is Weakness
Authors: WILKE HENK , MEERTENS ROEL , STEUR THEO
Published: July 2011

The standard pachisiboard game was used to study the effect of uncertainty on coalition formation. Three conditions were investigated. In the deterministic condition the chance of future success of any coalition is equal to 1ṁ00. In both probabilistic conditions the chance of future success of any coalition is less than 1ṁ00. Uncertainty had no effect on coalition formation: a power inversion effect was found in all three conditions. There was a discrepancy between players' expectancies about coalition before the game and the actual coalition formation during the game. Results of an additional experiment suggest that a coalition with A must be made very attractive for B and C before power inversion can be cancelled.
Performance on an Intelligence Test as a Function of Personality
Authors: GRAY JOHN E. , McLEAN P. D.
Published: July 2011

The study attempts to investigate the contention that personality differences result in differential response styles which affect speed and accuracy of performance on intelligence tests. Subjects were assessed by the Eysenck Personality Inventory and then completed a nonverbal intelligence test (AH5) which, although timed, was presented in a low‐drive context. Neuroticism and extraversion did not relate to speed or accuracy on the intelligence test; however, an extreme group analysis disclosed a significant interaction effect, attributable to the finding that neurotic introverts worked faster but made more errors than the other groups. This finding is not in accord with the argument that extraverts are fast and inaccurate, but can be partially accounted for by assuming that neurotic introverts are at a level of drive higher than is optimal for such a complex task as an intelligence test.
Time Perspective, Purpose in Life, Extraversion and Neuroticism in New Zealand Prisoners
Authors: BLACK W. A. M. , GREGSON R. A. M.
Published: July 2011

Personality characteristics of young adult criminals prone to reoffend were investigated. Thirty recidivists, 30 first‐sentence prisoners and 30 ‘normals’ were compared on five measures of time perspective and on the Purpose In Life Test and the Eysenck Personality Inventory. The results indicate that recidivists find little purpose in life and, at least while in prison, they have a restricted future time perspective (FTP) as well as a high level of emotionality or ‘neuroticism’. No differences were found between the three groups in either past time perspective (PTP) or extraversion. Penological implications are considered briefly.
Mood Changes in Relation to Age, EPI Scores, Time and Day
Authors: CHRISTIE MARGARET J. , VENABLES PETER H.
Published: July 2011

Eighty male subjects between the ages of 23 and 59 years completed Nowlis Mood Adjective Check Lists (MACL) at the beginning and end of a Friday and a Monday: both occasions were working days. In addition, they completed a questionnaire designed to assess the extent to which their jobs were regarded as congenial, and the extent to which they were perceived as stressful. Eysenck Personality Inventories were also completed. The subject population was classified by age, extraversion and neuroticism, and the MACL data were examined by means of analyses of variance. The dimensions providing the most significant data were those of Activation, Deactivation and Concentration: these could be summed to provide a dimension designated Efficiency, the results from analysis of which are described. There were, in general, biggest MACL score changes in subjects with high Neuroticism/low Extraversion scores, and lowest in subjects having low Neuroticism/high Extraversion scores. In the Efficiency data there was a reduction in the evening score for all the subgroups formed on the basis of the personality inventory ratings. The results are discussed in relation to research on one‐day absence from industry; as the subjects of this study reported that their work was congenial, it would be of interest to have similar data from a subject population regarding itself as being employed in uncongenial working conditions.
Measuring the Attitudes of Prisoners by the Semantic Differential
Authors: HESKIN K. J. , BOLTON N. , SMITH F. V.
Published: July 2011

Selection of semantic differential scales by reference to the table of factor loadings of Osgood et al. (1957) may be of doubtful validity if concept‐scale interactions produce wide variations in factor structure between concepts. In order to investigate this problem with respect to the measurement of prisoners' attitudes, factor analyses were carried out for each of 12 concepts and for the concepts as a whole. The overall analysis yielded a cognitive‐evaluative factor, an affective‐evaluative factor and a third factor in which the two activity scales featured strongly. That the first two factors appeared in many of the individual concept analyses was interpreted as providing some justification for the use of the overall analysis as a basis for the selection of scales. However, in order to construct the most sensitive measures of attitudes to particular concepts, selection of scales from the individual concept analyses here reported is recommended.
Bannister‐Fransella Grid Performance: Relationships with Personality and Intelligence
Authors: KEAR‐COLWELL J. J.
Published: July 2011

The Bannister‐Fransella Grid, the Progressive Matrices, the Mill Hill Vocabulary Scale and the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire were given to 150 admission psychiatric patients. The study was to investigate the relationships between performance on this measure of formal thought disorder, personality structure, as measured by the 16 PF, and intellectual ability. The results of a subjects × treatments analysis of variance suggested that the performance of subjects on the Bannister‐Fransella grid was independent of both the 16 PF and intellectual ability in the sample studied.
Anxiety and Gaze Aversion in Dyadic Encounters
Authors: HOBSON G. N. , STRONGMAN K. T. , BULL D. , CRAIG G.
Published: July 2011

Provision exists in the Argyle & Dean (1965) ‘affiliative conflict’ theory for testing a hypothesis that the frequency of gaze aversion in a dyadic encounter will increase as the anxiety of one or both of the participants increases. While these and other researchers have implied this to be the case, no systematic study of the phenomenon appears to have been undertaken. Two studies respectively involving transient and predispositional anxiety were carried out, but in neither did the results support this hypothesis.
Social Facilitation and Coping with Stress
Authors: DAVIDSON PARK O. , KELLEY WILLIAM R.
Published: July 2011

Drive theories of social facilitation typically assume that the presence of an audience is threatening or aversive. In some social situations such as hospitals, however, the presence of others (particularly doctors or nurses) observing one's behaviour may represent a safety signal rather than a threat signal. Such an audience should therefore reduce anxiety rather than increase it. To test this possibility 20 hospitalized psychiatric patients were exposed to a stressful film either alone or with a nurse present as an audience. The experiment was repeated with 20 non‐patients. The effects of the nurse on the dependent variables of autonomic response and verbal report of stress, while not completely consistent, supported the view that this particular audience represented a safety signal and not a threat signal. The results are discussed in terms of alternatives to the Hull‐Spence learning theory that is used in most social facilitation research. Particular emphasis is placed on the importance of cognitive variables in understanding social facilitation.
Cognitive Differentiation of Self and Parents in Delinquent and Non‐Delinquent Girls
Authors: DONNENWERTH GREGORY V. , TEICHMAN MEIR , FOA URIEL G.
Published: July 2011

Previous findings showing that parents of delinquent children tend to be erratic and inconsistent in their reactions to the child led to the hypotheses that delinquent youth will differentiate less between self and parent and more between father and mother than will non‐delinquents. Using comparable groups of delinquent and non‐delinquent girls, the hypotheses were tested by analysing intercorrelations of the girls' perception of their own and their parents' behaviour, and were generally supported; differentiation between self and father was particularly low for delinquent girls. The relationship between cognitive and behavioural data is discussed.
A Modification of the Sexual Orientation Method and an Automated Technique for Presentation and Scoring
Authors: SAMBROOKS JEAN E. , MacCULLOCH M. J.
Published: July 2011

A computer‐assisted psychometric system (C.A.P.S.) for automated presentation of psychometric tests and questionnaires is described, and some of its clinical applications are discussed. The system has been used to present a modification of the widely used Sexual Orientation Method (S.O.M.) of Feldman et al. (1966). This questionnaire was designed to assess a subject's sexual orientation towards males and females. Details of the modification of the questionnaire and a paper and pencil version are presented. The implications of data obtained from a group of volunteer heterosexual males is discussed and it can be seen that the revision of the questionnaire was a necessary advance as some of the data derived from the original version are merely artifacts of the erroneous assumptions upon which the S.O.M. was originally based. The increasing need to gather and evaluate larger and larger amounts of clinical data in a psychiatric setting is beginning to cause problems; the computer‐assisted psychometric system is an inexpensive time‐saving device with wide applications relevant to this problem.
Some Tests of Intelligence and Learning for Elderly Psychiatric Patients: a Validation Study
Authors: ALEXANDER DAVID A.
Published: July 2011

A group of 14 psychiatric patients suffering from senile dementia was compared with 40 elderly normal and 20 non‐brain‐damaged psychiatric controls on an abbreviated WAIS, the Coloured Matrices, Inglis' Paired Associate Learning Test and a nonsense syllable learning task. The Block Design was the only WAIS subtest to differentiate the brain‐damaged patients from the controls. The former also performed poorly on the Coloured Matrices, suggesting that senile dementia is associated with decline in the ability to manipulate visuo‐spatial material. In contrast, their ability to deal with vocabulary and verbal comprehension tasks was comparable to that of the controls. The Paired Associate Learning Test did not differentiate among the groups, but the poor performance of the demented patients was evident on a test requiring the serial learning of nonsense syllables. The inability to devise and utilize mnemonic devices was thought to underlie their difficulty.
Fear of Failure in Group Risk‐taking
Authors: HARTNETT JOHN J. , BARBER ROBERT M.
Published: July 2011

High‐school students were administered items from the CDQ (Choice Dilemmas Questionnaire) under success‐orientated or failure‐orientated instructions. A control group of college subjects was administered the usual success‐orientated instructions. Subjects in the failure‐orientated condition were significantly more risky in their decisions than subjects in the success‐orientated condition, indicating that ‘fear of failure’ in decisions involving risk results in high‐risk decisions. A risky shift was not found in any of the conditions, although subjects in both success conditions perceived themselves as more risky than their peers.
Address Forms Used by Members of a Department Store*
Authors: STAPLES LUCY M. , ROBINSON W. P.
Published: July 2011

Address forms are one readily observed index of the nature of social relationships among participants in face‐to‐face interactions. Previous work has related asymmetry of forms to differences in power and status, and symmetrical use of ‘informal’ forms to solidarity and friendship. In this study address forms given to and received from members of the same and different ranks in a hierarchically ordered department store are shown to vary as a function of situation and the relative rather than absolute status of participants. Asymmetry of address forms appears to be mainly a matter of rank rather than age. Discrepancies between expected and received forms are interpreted as a result of high‐status persons maximizing differentials and of low‐status persons minimizing them.
Changes in Locus of Control as a Function of Value Modification
Authors: HAMID PAUL N. , FLAY BRIAN R.
Published: July 2011

In terms of balance theory formulations, and on the basis of previous findings with the IE scale, it was hypothesized that Externals would show an increase in the importance of certain values after being made aware of inconsistencies already existing within the value system (Rokeach effect) significantly more than Internals. Further, it was hypothesized that Internals would change in the opposite direction, though to a lesser degree. The hypotheses were not supported, but instead it was found that those subjects who showed the Rokeach effect also showed a change in their IE score, becoming more External, and that those subjects who changed in the opposite direction became more Internal. The implications of this finding for the Internal‐External locus of control construct are discussed.
Generalizability Studies in Clinical Settings
Authors: LEVY PHILIP
Published: July 2011

The generalizability theory of Cronbach et al. (1972) is illustrated by three reliability studies conducted in clinical settings. Data are presented for the Koppitz‐Bender emotional indicators, for the WAIS verbal subtests, and for ratings in the study of a single case. It is argued that classical reliability theory is not adequate to deal with many of the questions which clinicians are led to ask: the question may have greater complexity than the classical view readily admits; or the questions may have practical and procedural implications which the classical theory does not recognize. Generalizability theory offers a more direct expression for questions having clear operational meaning.
Experiments on the Feeling of Depression
Authors: SHAPIRO M. B. , SHAPIRO D. A.
Published: July 2011

Individual‐centred experiments were carried out on the state described by the word ‘depression’. The subjects were six non‐psychotic psychiatric inpatients. Three of them were in a therapeutic community and three in a general psychiatric ward. In the first three subjects changes in the feeling of depression, during interpretative psychotherapeutic sessions, were compared with changes during unsupervised sessions in the ward. In the second three patients the comparison was between sessions of non‐directive psychotherapy and of behavioural modification. Interpretative interviews were associated with a relatively high frequency of within‐session worsening compared with ward sessions. During modification sessions there was a higher frequency of within‐session improvement than during non‐directive interviews. Size of difference, in both groups, was highly inconsistent between patients. Similar differences were found for tension states and fear‐anxiety states but were consistently large for the former and consistently small for the latter. Anomalous results were obtained for various kinds of somatic states.
Cluster Analysis of Personal Questionnaires Compared with Principal Component Analysis
Authors: RUMP E. E.
Published: July 2011

When intensity levels for several symptoms are obtained by use of a personal questionnaire on a series of occasions, it is convenient to reduce the scores to a smaller set of variables by grouping symptoms. Elementary cluster analysis is suitable for this purpose, in that cluster scores are easily calculated, and their interpretation is directly meaningful in relation to the patient's progress. The advantages of cluster analysis are illustrated in comparison with the principal component analysis recommended by Slater.
Speed of Response and Associative Errors in Schizophrenia
Authors: HEMSLEY DAVID R. , HAWKS DAVID V.
Published: July 2011

Two groups of schizophrenics, acutes and chronics, were administered a card‐sorting test giving a measure of associative errors; measures of retardation and psychiatric ratings were also obtained. By manipulating response speed it was possible to change the number of associative errors made by both groups. The number of associative errors made in the unpaced condition was unrelated to measures of retardation for the group as a whole. However, when age and intelligence were covaried out there was a significant negative correlation between the number of associative errors and the time taken to complete the sorting task. Differences between the acute and chronic groups seemed largely explicable in terms of differing age and intelligence. Retesting most of the acute patients after three months indicated considerable stability in the number of associative errors made. The results are discussed in terms of a two stage model of schizophrenia, an initial psychological deficit and a secondary adaptation to this hypothesized deficit, leading to retardation.
Children Coping with Crisis: an Analogue Study
Authors: VINEY LINDA L. , CLARKE ALEX M.
Published: July 2011

To test the effects of some characteristics of a crisis on subsequent behaviour, the extinction period of an instrumental learning paradigm was employed with kindergarten‐age children who were working with a three‐choice discrimination task. The analysis of the data showed that: (a) a ‘crisis’ involving loss of reward from a social rather than a non‐social source leads to greater disorganization and more fixed or rigid response from the children; (b) a ‘crisis’ requiring social rather than non‐social responses results in the trying of more new responses and less frustration in boys and less ‘giving up’ by girls; and (c) girls who have experienced more reliable previous social sources of supplies withdraw less after a ‘crisis’ than those with less reliable sources. Both psychoanalytic and learning approaches were employed in discussing these findings and their implications for the future use of this laboratory analogue.