bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Malicious Data Stream Identification to Improve the Resource Elasticity of Handheld Edge Computing System
Authors: Rajaguru D.  , Puviyarasi T.  , Vengattaraman T.
Published: September 2018

This article lights the need for the identification of resource elasticity in handheld edge computing systems and its related issues. Under a few developing application situations, for example, in urban areas, operational checking of huge foundations, wearable help, and the Internet of Things, nonstop information streams must be prepared under short postponements. A few arrangements, including various programming motors, have been created for handling unbounded information streams in an adaptive and productive way. As of late, designs have been proposed to utilize edge processing for information stream handling. This article reviews the cutting-edge stream preparing motors and systems for misusing asset versatility which highlights distributed computing in stream preparation. Asset flexibility takes into consideration an application or administration to scale out/in as per fluctuating requests. Flexibility turns out to be much more difficult in conveyed conditions involving edge and distributed computing assets. Device security is one of the real difficulties for fruitful execution of the Internet of Things and fog figuring conditions in the current IT space. Specialists and information technology (IT) associations have investigated numerous answers for shield frameworks from unauthenticated device assaults. Fog registering utilizes organize devices (e.g. switch, switch and center) for dormancy mindful handling of gathered information utilizing IoT. This article concludes with the various process for improvising the resource elasticity of handheld devices for leading the communication to the next stage of computing.
Defensive Mechanism Against DDoS Attack to Preserve Resource Availability for IoT Applications
Authors: Aridoss Manimaran
Published: September 2018

The major challenge of Internet of Things (IoT) generated data is its hypervisor level vulnerabilities. Malicious VM deployment and termination are so simple due to its multitenant shared nature and distributed elastic cloud features. These features enable the attackers to launch Distributed Denial of Service attacks to degrade cloud server performance. Attack detection techniques are applied to the VMs that are used by malicious tenants to hold the cloud resources by launching DDoS attacks at data center subnets. Traditional dataflow-based attack detection methods rely on the similarities of incoming requests which consist of IP and TCP header information flows. The proposed approach classifies the status patterns of malicious VMs and ideal VMs to identify the attackers. In this article, information theory is used to calculate the entropy value of the malicious virtual machines for detecting attack behaviors. Experimental results prove that the proposed system works well against DDoS attacks in IoT applications.
Image Visual Improvement on Handheld Devices Using Linear Mapping Function
Authors: Natarajan Balakrishnan , Periyasamy Shantharajah , Shrinivas S.G.
Published: September 2018

In the current scenario, handheld devices play a major role in the human life. Handheld devices become an essential kit, not only acting as a conduit for social media, but also in medicine. Several new opportunities for the different applications of mobile image processing exist, such as to improve the visual quality, and image recognition. Captured images do not provide an effective visualization due to the poor specifications of the device camera, low light, poor sensing features, etc. In this article, an adaptive histogram equalization for contrast enhancement using a linear mapping function scheme is proposed to improve the images. The image from the mobile device is fed into a contrast improvement phase. The intensity value of each pixel is processed to improve the image visuals. The pixel density value is measured and according to it, the low-density value is changed. Hence, the image is tuned finely to yield better results.
Image-Based 3D Reconstruction on Distributed Hash Network
Authors: Zhong Jin Hua , Fang Wan
Published: September 2018

In order to optimize the workflow of iterative 3D reconstruction and support the goal of massive image data processing, high performance and high scalability, this article proposes an image distributed computing framework FIODH. It is a distributed computing framework based on distributed hash algorithm, which accomplishes the task of storing, calculating and merging the image data in multiple nodes. A SIFT algorithm is used to extract feature points from the original images which are distributed on the hash nodes. During the process of image clustering computation, the agent nodes are responsible for task management and intermediate result calculation. The clustering results in hierarchical trees which can be converted into computational tasks and assigned to the appropriate nodes. The experimental analysis shows that the algorithm has achieved satisfactory results in efficiency and error adjustment. In a large amount of experiment data, the advantage of the algorithm is more obvious.
A Novel Hybrid Firefly Bee Algorithm for Optimization Problems
Authors: Nemmich Mohamed Amine , Debbat Fatima , Slimane Mohamed
Published: September 2018

The Bees Algorithm (BA) is a recent and powerful foraging algorithm which imitates the natural behaviour of bees. However, it suffers from certain limitations, essentially in the initialization step of the research areas, which is generally random and depends on the individuals' number in the population. In order to solve this problem, this paper proposes a novel hybrid optimisation approach, namely a Hybrid Firefly Bee Algorithm (HFBA), by using the Bees Algorithm (BA) and the Firefly Algorithm (FA). The FA is a swarm intelligence technique based upon the communication behaviour and the idealized flashing features of tropical fireflies. The proposed approach uses a FA in initialization step for a best exploration and detection of promising areas in research space. The performance of HFBA was investigated on a set of benchmark functions and compared with BA, and other well-knows methods. The results show that the HFBA has improved the computational time. It is also very efficient in finding optimal or near optimal solutions, and outperforms the other algorithms in terms of accuracy and speed.
Toward a Model for Ethical Cybersecurity Leadership
Authors: Cleveland Marisa , Spangler Tonia
Published: September 2018

With no clear model for ethical cybersecurity leadership, the field of cybersecurity is largely unregulated. The advances in technology and the Internet of Things come at a price—security. Since there is a lack of regulation, no clear guidelines exist. Furthermore, there is a gap in the literature to identify a set of global ethical standards for cybersecurity leaders. This article proposes an international model of ethical standards with three ethical propositions to ensure the users of technology in today's global industry remain confident in the corporations entrusted with the users' information.
Why We Disclose Personal Information Despite Cybersecurity Risks and Vulnerabilities
Authors: Offor Patrick I.
Published: September 2018

Is it fair to say that the disclosure of personal information, in an online setting, is voluntary or due to incentivization, cognitive risk-benefit analysis, cognitive predisposition, or based on information sensitivity, whereas our personal information is being collected, knowingly and forcibly most of the time, and unknowingly and inadvertently at other times? While the collection of personal information is necessary to organizations and online users alike, in completing online transactions, the issue is the collection of additional non-pertinent information that serves only organizations' prescriptive and predictive analytics and their business interests, and not the users'. Most study on the phenomenon have centered on voluntary or willful disclosure, and on technical collections. This article examines the phenomenon based on the concept of the obligatory passage point and found that online users disclose their personal information online mostly because the information are designated as required in an online setting, contrary to conventional beliefs.
Promotion of Positive Behaviour and Social Emotional Development in Institutional Care
Authors: Nimante Dita , Daniela Linda , Martinsone Baiba
Published: September 2018

Personnel working in institutional care have the important role of providing for the development of children who have experienced the trauma of being separated from their families. Personnel need to be emotionally responsive, able to form consistent, trusting, and long-term relationships with children, believe in them, support them in continuing education, and have high expectations for them. Despite these facts, there is no Latvian legal requirement for personnel working in institutional care to have a pedagogical education. This article describes the implementation of two professional in-service training programs: “Promotion of Positive Behaviour in Children with Institutional Care Experience” and “Social Emotional Development” in one children's home-shelter and the effects of the programs at the level of personnel, children, and organization.
Crafts and Home Economics Studies Abroad
Authors: Urdziņa-Deruma Māra , Šelvaha Lolita
Published: September 2018

The purpose of this article is to research and analyze the differences students have noted in foreign programmes and suggest ways to development the crafts and home economics teacher education programme in Latvia. Students (n=14) were interviewed and asked to describe any noted differences in the study organization process; indicate the various methods, assignments, and assessment practices used in home economics and craft courses, including teaching practice; and attitude of students towards the study process. Content analysis of the interviews indicate students' suggestions to development the crafts and home economics learning and teaching process, as well changes in teaching practice made by the students. Research results indicate that the students offered more information on differences than suggestions for development. The greatest differences were noted in the acquisition of crafts skills, followed by the organization of the study process and home economics. Student suggestions focused mainly on course content, but actual changes were implemented in teaching methods.
Young Children's Engagement With Digital Technologies in the Family Context
Authors: Liubinienė Vilmantė , Kasperavičienė Ramunė
Published: September 2018

Although more and more children engage in daily online activities with digital technologies, the roles that online technologies play in children's lives are still understudied. This article aims at identifying the role of digital devices as well as practices in which young children are engaged at home. It also strives to explore digital literacy practices and to research how these are embedded into the family context. The case study of Lithuania discussed in this article contributes with new knowledge about the local contexts and may help to understand the main problems to be further worked upon with on a global and European scale. The research of young children and their engagement with digital technology in Lithuania comes as part of the EC JRC project “Young Children (0–8) and Digital Technologies.” The findings reveal that although children perceive online technologies and the use of smart devices as entertainment and relaxation, they are not addicted. Several factors affect young children's uses and skills of digital technologies, including family constitution and parental styles.
Use of Social Network Sites (SNS) by Library Academics in the Workplace: Perspectives of University Librarians in Sri Lanka
Authors: Weerasinghe Sureni , Hindagolla B. M. M. C. B.
Published: September 2018

Libraries and in particular, university libraries around the globe are constantly revolutionized due to technological advancements which provide rich opportunities for libraries to embed blends of innovations into the work environment and render better services for their user communities. This research attempted to render views of library academics with regard to their current use of Social Network Sites (SNS) in the workplace. The objectives of the study were to investigate the background of SNS use by university library academics inclusive of their usage experience, skills and frequency of use, to examine the types of SNS used by them, professional purposes as well as personal purposes for using SNS in the workplace and to investigate the access methods and user perceptions towards SNS use in the workplace. Data were gathered from a study population of 116 university librarians in Sri Lanka via the survey strategy based on a questionnaire and the data analysis was done using descriptive statistics. The key findings of the study included that the majority (78.4%) of university librarians who participated in the survey used SNS in the workplace, respondents who had 1-5year experience in using SNS were in majority (44.8%), a high percentage (64.7%) of respondents assessed themselves as having “moderate experience” in using SNS, more than half (52.6%) of the respondents felt that they possessed adequate skills to use SNS, Facebook was the social network site most frequently used by the respondents (64.7%), most university librarians used SNS in the workplace to fulfill both professional and personal purposes, while the highest percentage of university librarians (58.6%) used SNS in the workplace for the specific professional purpose of “interacting with co-workers and professionals in the field” and the highest percentage of them (47.4%) used SNS for the specific personal purpose of “personal contact”, and the majority of them used the university network to access SNS in the workplace. Sri Lankan university librarians should keep pace with new innovative technologies such as SNS to remain worthy and important in this competitive digital world.
Evaluation of Usage and User Satisfaction on Electronic Information Resources and Services: A Study at Postgraduate Institute of Medicine Library, University of Colombo
Authors: Sritharan T.
Published: September 2018

This study investigated the level of user satisfaction of electronic information resources and services available at library, Postgraduate Institute of Medicine, University of Colombo. The objective was to determine the level of satisfaction on the use of electronic resources and services by medical postgraduate trainees at Postgraduate Institute of Medicine, University of Colombo. Total number of 427 registered postgraduate medical trainees during the years of 2014 and 2015 was the sample population.  Sample size of 100 trainees from 32 medical specialties were selected randomly. Self-administrated questionnaire was used as the data collection instrument. The study revealed that 95.5% of the respondents have their own computers and Internet connection to access electronic resources. Postgraduate medical trainees use electronic resources for multiple purposes. Among them 98.6 % of the respondents use the electronic resources for their studies and updating knowledge. Among them 70.5% of the respondents use electronic resources for gathering general information. Regarding the level of satisfaction on electronic resources and services 60.2 % of the respondents strongly agreed the satisfaction level on provision of Internet access at library, Postgraduate Institute of Medicine. The satisfaction level of subscribed e-journals was agreed by 56.8% of the respondents. Lack of time to access e-journals at library, lack of training, non-availability of remote access for subscribed resources were identified as significant issues.  Based on the research findings it can be recommended that the library should subscribe more electronic books and journals; more training programs should be arranged; remote access facility should be provided for subscribed electronic sources. Further, mobile alert services should be arranged to make aware about the latest issues and updates.
Pulmonary hypertension: the state of the art
Authors: Dimopoulos Konstantinos , Favoccia Carla
Published: September 2018

Pulmonary hypertension (PH) is a hemodynamic and pathophysiological condition defined as an increase in mean pulmonary arterial pressure of 25 mmHg or more at rest assessed by right heart catheterisation. It is a progressive disease characterized by high mortality and morbidity. Current PH guidelines suggest that patients with PH should be cared for in dedicated specialist centres, with expertise and resources available to provide high quality care to this fragile population. In this review, we focus on the clinical manifestations, diagnostic algorithm, risk assessment and therapeutic strategies for PH. We also provide an overview of the organisation of PH services in United Kingdom, including designation of expert centres, national audit and steps to ensure the quality and financial viability of PH care.
Refractive error and visual impairment in primary school children in Onitsha, Anambra State, Nigeria
Authors: Ezinne Ngozika E. , Mashige Khathutshelo P.
Published: September 2018

Background: Vision problems have been shown to adversely affect a child’s achievement in school.Aim: To determine the prevalence of refractive error and visual impairment in primary school children in Onitsha, Anambra State, Nigeria.Setting: The study was conducted in a primary school in Onitsha, Anambra State, Nigeria.Methods: A stratified random cluster sampling method was used to select primary school children aged between 5 and 15 years from grades 1 to 6 in primary schools in Onitsha North and South. A total of 1020 children in 102 clusters were enumerated and 998 (97.8%) were examined. The examination included visual acuity measurements, ocular motilities, retinoscopy and auto-refraction under cycloplegia, and examination of the anterior segment, media and fundae.Results: The prevalence of uncorrected, presenting and best corrected visual acuity of 20/40 or worse in the better eye was 9.7%, 7.7% and 1.3%, respectively. Refractive error accounted for 86.6% of all causes of visual impairment. Myopia was the most prevalent refractive error (46.4%), followed by astigmatism (36.1%) and hyperopia (17.5%). Refractive error and visual impairment were significantly more prevalent in females than in males (p = 0.04). Refractive error was highest among children aged between 11 and 13 years, while visual impairment was greatest among children aged between 5 and 7 years.Conclusion: The prevalence of refractive error and visual impairment among primary school children in Onitsha was relatively high, highlighting the need for services and strategies to address these conditions in that area.
The training of language and conceptual thinking in the child with brain damage
Authors: Jolles Isaac
Published: September 2018

No abstract available.
Trends in the field habilitation of the cerebal palsied
Authors: Tragott-Vorwerg F. M.
Published: September 2018

No abstract available.
Antibiotic Resistance Patterns and Molecular Characterization of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus in Clinical Settings in Rwanda
Authors: Masaisa Florence , Kayigi Etienne , Seni Jeremiah , Bwanga Freddie , Muvunyi Claude Mambo
Published: September 2018

The escalating burden of infections attributable to methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in East African countries is calling for interventional strategies to control the spread of this strain. The present study aimed at determining the prevalence, antimicrobial profiles, and staphylococcal cassette chromosome mec (SCCmec) typing of MRSA strains. This was a cross-sectional laboratory-based study involving 226 non-duplicated S. aureus isolates from different clinical samples of patients attending a referral hospital in Kigali. Kirby–Bauer disk diffusion method was used for drug susceptibility testing. Methicillin-resistant S. aureus were confirmed using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay for the mecA gene and SCCmec type PCR assay was used for genotyping. Of 138 S. aureus, 39 (31.2%) were found to be MRSA strains. The mean age of the patients was 21.9 years. The incidence of MRSA increases with age and was 27.1% in patient age group younger than 18 years, 33.3% in the age group between 19 and 65 years, and 66.7% in patient age group older than 65 years. There was a significant association between geographic regions and incidence of MRSA (P = 0.02) with the high MRSA isolates from Northern (61.5%) and Western (50%) provinces. Methicillin-resistant S. aureus strains were found to be mostly susceptible to linezolid (93.5%). Among the MRSA strains, SCCmec type I and SCCmec type IV were the most prevalent at 56.4% and 17.9%, respectively. A high prevalence of MRSA was found in Rwanda. Staphylococcal cassette chromosome mec type I (52.2%) was the most predominant. A continuous surveillance of MRSA strains, particularly in the hospital settings, should be an enduring exercise in Rwanda.
Bayes, Thomas (1701–61)
Authors: Callergård Robert
Published: September 2018

Thomas Bayes was a Presbyterian minister and mathematician who today is mostly remembered for a discovery in probability theory and statistics which in its general form has come to be referred to as Bayes’ theorem. The application of this theorem to a great many problems in a variety of mathematical and philosophical subdisciplines has given rise to several new solutions and approaches commonly labelled ‘Bayesian’. Bayes’ discovery was posthumously published by Richard Price. During his life, Bayes published only twice, both times anonymously: a tract in natural theology (1731) in answer to a tract by Thomas Balguy, and an introduction to and defence of the theory of fluxions (1736) triggered by the sceptical remarks of George Berkeley.
Barrow, Isaac (1630–77)
Authors: Callergård Robert
Published: September 2018

Isaac Barrow was a mathematician and theologian who spent most of his successful academic lifetime in Cambridge. He was a professor of Greek and of geometry, and the first Lucasian Professor of Mathematics. Resigning the latter chair, he was succeeded by his student, friend, and colleague Isaac Newton. Barrow produced influential research in optics and mathematics. Precise evaluation of his role in the development leading to the calculus of Leibniz and Newton has been the subject of controversy. Barrow has also been much admired for his many sermons.
Hutcheson, Francis (1694–1746)
Authors: Maurer Christian
Published: September 2018

Francis Hutcheson was an Irish–Scottish moral philosopher. He is best known for his epistemological claim that a disinterested moral sense is the source of our ideas of moral good and evil, and for his psychological claim that human beings are naturally motivated by disinterested benevolence, and not by self-love alone. At the dawn of the Scottish Enlightenment, these claims carried considerable philosophical and theological weight – Hutcheson’s optimism regarding the moral capacities of human nature is particularly noteworthy.

Hutcheson’s arguments in moral epistemology for the reality of a disinterested moral sense are developed in opposition to different versions of ethical rationalism and ethical egoism, and they further oppose Calvinist ideas about the incapacity of corrupt postlapsarian human beings to know moral good and evil. Hutcheson’s arguments in moral psychology for the reality of disinterested benevolence are developed in opposition to different egoistic psychologies which resolve all desires into self-love. For Hutcheson, such debates are intrinsically connected to those on the moral status of human nature: both his defence of the reality of benevolence and his defence of the disinterestedness of the moral sense are directed against conceptions of human nature as morally corrupt. Hutcheson’s ideas about aesthetics and politics, his approach to natural law theories, and the religious dimensions of his philosophy have also attracted scholarly attention.

Hutcheson had an affectionate interest in classical thinkers like Cicero and Marcus Aurelius, and in early modern figures like the Cambridge Platonists and, especially, Shaftesbury. He was inspired by John Locke’s theory of ideas and Samuel Pufendorf’s natural law theory, albeit dealing with those at some critical distance. Like so many of his contemporaries, he attacked Thomas Hobbes and Bernard Mandeville. The development of his writings makes manifest his critical engagement with contemporary ethical rationalists like Samuel Clarke, Gilbert Burnet, and John Balguy, and with psychological egoists like John Clarke of Hull and Archibald Campbell. Joseph Butler was a source of inspiration for Hutcheson. Hutcheson himself exerted a considerable influence on the Scottish Enlightenment and beyond: he had a complex relationship with David Hume, he was the teacher of Adam Smith; and various famous thinkers like Richard Price, Thomas Reid, Immanuel Kant, and Jeremy Bentham reacted to Hutcheson’s moral philosophy.
Truth, correspondence theory of
Authors: Rasmussen Joshua
Published: September 2018

The correspondence theory in its simplest form says that truth is a connection to reality. To be true is to accurately describe – in other words, match, picture, depict, express, conform to, agree with or correspond to – the real world or parts of it. For example, the proposition that a cat is on a mat is true if a real cat is on a real mat. Otherwise, that proposition fails to be true. In general, the truth of a proposition is sensitive to how real things are. In short, truth connects to reality.

There are different ways to articulate the connection between true things and the reality they describe. Some theories, for example, treat the connection as a structural relation that ties constituents of a true thing to constituents of the world. Other theories treat the connection as a nonstructural correlation between true things and the world. This difference between structural and correlation theories depends on one’s theories of three components: true things, real things described by the true things, and the correspondence between true things and real things. All versions of the correspondence theory arise from theories of these components.

A principle advantage of a correspondence theory is that it accounts for the apparent correlation between the aspects of reality and the truth-value of a proposition. When the cat is on the mat, the proposition that the cat is on the mat is true. If the cat gets off the mat, that proposition is not true. Therefore, a change in the cat correlates with a change in the proposition. Why? The correspondence theory predicts this correlation by analysing truth as a connection to reality.

A principle challenge, on the other hand, is to understand the nature of the connection. There are metaphysical and epistemological worries. On the metaphysical side, there is the worry that a correspondence relation is intolerably mysterious. Correspondence is not analysable in terms of familiar physical relations, like distance or force. So what is correspondence? Some philosophers worry that by analysing truth as correspondence you exchange the mystery of truth for a greater mystery. On the epistemology side, there is the worry that you could never know whether a proposition corresponds with things beyond your head, since you can’t get outside your head to see things as they are. The worry here is that you cannot know whether any proposition is true if truth requires correspondence.

Another challenge arises from alleged counterexamples. It is true that there are no hobbits. Yet, it is unclear how a true proposition about what is not real could correspond to something that is real.

A common response to the challenges involves developing theories of the components involved. For example, there are structural accounts of correspondence designed to remove the metaphysical and epistemological mysteries. Moreover, there are accounts of negative facts, which serve as correspondents for negative truths.
Epistemic value
Authors: Greco John , Pinto de Sa Luis
Published: September 2018

Epistemic value is a kind of value possessed by knowledge, and perhaps other epistemic goods such as justification and understanding. The problem of explaining the value of knowledge is perennial in philosophy, going back at least as far as Plato’s Meno. One formulation of the problem is to explain why and in what sense knowledge is valuable. Another version of the problem is to explain why and in what sense knowledge is more valuable than mere true belief or opinion. This article looks at various formulations of the value problem and various accounts of the value of knowledge in ancient and modern philosophy. The article then considers some contemporary discussions of the value problem, including the charge that reliabilist accounts cannot account for the value of knowledge over mere true belief. Various virtue-theoretic accounts of epistemic value are discussed as possible improvements over process reliabilism, and the epistemic value of understanding (as compared to knowledge) is considered.
Territorial rights
Authors: Catala Amandine
Published: September 2018

Inherent in the notion of territorial rights is the idea of exercising control over a geographically bounded area of land. The question of territorial rights as a philosophical, normative question arises in connection with the conception of the modern state as entailing a claim to exclusive control over its territory. Such control typically involves three different types of prerogatives: (i) making, enforcing, and adjudicating the laws that apply in its territory; (ii) regulating the flow of goods and people that can leave and enter its territory; and (iii) exploiting and managing the natural resources found in its territory. Territorial rights can therefore be divided into three conceptually distinct types of rights: (i) rights of jurisdiction over a territory; (ii) rights of control over the borders that circumscribe this territory; and (iii) rights of control over the natural resources that lie within this territory.

But what justifies the state’s territorial rights or exclusive control over its territory? Competing theories of territorial rights have advanced different justificatory criteria. Acquisition theories offer a Lockean criterion based on either individual property rights and consent, or the state’s labor and desert. Statist theories point to the state’s function and advance either a Hobbesian criterion of securing peace and order, or a Kantian criterion of meeting standards of justice and legitimacy. For non-statist theories, the state simply exercises territorial rights on behalf of either a cultural or a political group that has historically occupied the territory and developed a particular kind of attachment to it that is central to the group’s identity.

While territorial rights might seem to concern primarily a state’s internal affairs, they in fact raise many important issues of international or global justice that involve redrawing state jurisdictions, accessing natural resources, or crossing borders. Issues raised by territorial rights include colonialism, decolonization, annexation, secession, the just distribution of the earth’s resources, immigration, ecological refugees, and the rectification of historical injustice.
Parental partiality and justice
Authors: Seglow Jonathan
Published: September 2018

The problem of parental partiality and justice concerns the conflict between parents’ natural desire to put their own children’s interests first and the principles of egalitarian justice which express equal concern with the well-being of all. The underlying dilemma between partial concern and impartial treatment is a much discussed one in moral and political philosophy. Parental partiality raises that dilemma in an acute form given the very close attachment that parents have to their children and the substantial and ongoing social and economic inequalities present in contemporary societies. Investigating the meaning of egalitarian justice reveals that under any interpretation it imposes substantial obligations which many parents concerned with their own children’s interests will reject. Parental partiality, in turn, can be theorized as a social convention or personal project, but is most plausibly seen as realizing a special kind of value or form of flourishing, such as intimacy for example. Short of abolishing the family or abandoning the commitment to egalitarian justice, any reconciliation of this conflict will have to speak to both sets of values. One option is to circumscribe the domain of parental partiality by arguing that parents only have rights to realize a particular kind of valuable relationship with their children; another is to build in to our conception of parental partiality moral constraints of which egalitarian justice might be one. As long as we live in an unequal world where parents have strong attachments to their children, this debate looks set to continue.
Sensations
Authors: Myin Erik , Zahidi Karim
Published: September 2018

Apart from the common use of ‘sensation’ to refer to bodily feelings, the word has been adopted by philosophers and scientists to talk about specific feelings arising from stimulation of the sensory organs. Sensations are often ascribed particular properties: of being conscious and inner, of being more immediate than perception, and of being atomic. In epistemology sensations have been taken as infallible foundations of knowledge, in psychology as elementary constituents of perceptual experience. Critics have argued that, given the nature of knowledge and of perceptual experience, sensations are unfit to play these roles.

Some philosophers have ascribed mistaken theorizing about sensation to the tendency to conceive of sensations as inner objects of experience. As an alternative the adverbial theory of sensations has been proposed. According to it sensations are ways of experiencing, rather than objects of experience. Representationalism proposes to conceive of sensations as representations. Yet another way of thinking about sensations is to characterize them as embodied reactions of organisms to specific stimuli. An important issue that needs to be addressed by all general accounts of sensations is whether it is legitimate to treat theoretical posits such as colour sensations on a par with bodily sensations such as pain.
Collective intentionality
Authors: Tollefsen Deborah , Friedlaender Christina
Published: September 2018

Intentionality refers to the capacity of mental states to be about or directed toward some object or state of affairs. Collective intentionality refers to a growing area of intradisciplinary and interdisciplinary research that studies the ways in which individuals share mental states such as belief, knowledge, and intention, and the possibility that groups themselves are the bearers of mental states. In addition, those working within this area have developed accounts of joint action, group mind/cognition, collective responsibility, and the construction of social reality.

Theories of shared intention attempt to characterize the intentional structure that underlies joint action. Individual action is guided and informed by intentions. When we act together, intentions seem to play a role as well. The question is whether individual intentions to do one’s part are sufficient to explain joint action. Some theorists argue that they are not and that what is needed is either a special type of individual intention (a we-intention) or a complex set of interconnected individual attitudes that are common knowledge among participants.

In addition to acting together, members of a group make judgments together. A search committee might make a judgment about a candidate that diverges from the beliefs that individuals have about a candidate. Theories of group belief aim to capture the ways in which beliefs might be appropriately attributed to a group. Some theorists argue that attributions of belief to a group are appropriate on the basis of the fact that members have accepted the proposition as being the group’s belief or have jointly committed to believing the proposition as a group (i.e., as single person would). Debates surrounding the idea of group belief focus on the question of whether group belief is really a form of belief.

Finally, the formation of group attitudes is often done in the context of joint deliberation or joint problem-solving and collective remembering. Group cognition is the idea that in these contexts cognition is distributed across members of a group and can be appropriately attributed to the group itself rather than to the individuals within the group. Accounts of group cognition have been influenced by functionalism in the philosophy of mind, by the field of distributed cognition, and by the extended-mind hypothesis.
Disjunctivism
Authors: Fish William
Published: September 2018

The disjunctivist claims that the mental states involved in a case of successful – "veridical" – perception of an object differ from those involved in a hallucinatory experience of such an object, even in those cases in which the two experiences are indiscriminable for their subject. Among its supporters, there tend to be two main motivations for endorsing disjunctivism: because it is necessary if we are to hold that, in cases of successful perception, worldly objects and properties are literally constituents of our experiences, and because it offers us a way of responding to the challenge of skepticism. Among other things, its opponents argue that it is inconsistent with both empirical findings in, and the underlying commitments of, the psychology of vision, and challenge the disjunctivist to provide explanations of hallucination and illusion that explain how such states can be indiscriminable from veridical perceptions without positing some common factor – such as a common conscious / experiential core – that is shared by the different cases.
Academy
Authors: Barnes Jonathan
Published: September 2018

The Academy was a public gymnasium in northwest Athens. Plato taught there, and the Academy remained the centre of Platonic philosophizing until the first century bc. Hence the term ‘Academy’ came to be used to designate Plato’s school; members of the school were called ‘Academics’. (And hence, ultimately, the modern use of the words to describe intellectual institutions and their members.)
Alcinous (c. 2nd century AD)
Authors: Dillon John
Published: September 2018

Long misidentified with the Middle Platonist philosopher Albinus, Alcinous is author of a ‘handbook of Platonism’, which gives a good survey of Platonist doctrine as it was understood in the second century ad. The work covers logic, physics and ethics, and shows considerable influence from both Stoicism and Aristotelianism, in both terminology and doctrine, while remaining in all essentials Platonic.
Anaximenes (6th century BC)
Authors: McKirahan Richard
Published: September 2018

The Greek philosopher Anaximenes of Miletus followed Anaximander in his philosophical and scientific interests. Only a few words survive from his book, but there is enough other information to give us a picture of his most important theories. Like the other early Presocratic philosophers he was interested in the origin, structure and composition of the universe, as well as the principles on which it operates. Anaximenes held that the primary substance – both the source of everything else and the material out of which it is made – is air. When rarefied and condensed it becomes other materials, such as fire, water and earth. The primordial air is infinite in extent and without beginning or end. It is in motion and divine. Air generated the universe through its motion, and continues to govern it. The human soul is composed of air and it is likely that Anaximenes believed the entire kosmos (world) to be alive, with air functioning as its soul. Like other Presocratics, he proposed theories of the nature of the heavenly bodies and their motions, and of meteorological and other natural phenomena.
Antiphon (late 5th century BC)
Authors: Hobbs Angela
Published: September 2018

Antiphon was a Greek Sophist. His most famous work, On Truth, partially survives in two substantial papyrus fragments, plus a number of purported quotations. It sets up a bold antithesis between the claims of physis (nature) and nomos (law/convention), arguing that it is more advantageous to follow nature when one can do so without detection. The antithesis suggests several important questions about the meaning of ‘nature’ and its role in ethics, the origin of social laws and their authority and the meaning and value of justice. It is disputed whether he is to be identified with the orator Antiphon of Rhamnus.
Antisthenes (c.445–c.365 BC)
Authors: Schofield Malcolm
Published: September 2018

Antisthenes was one of the most devoted followers of Socrates. As a young man he was heavily influenced by the display speeches of Gorgias the rhetorician and the interpretation of Homer practised by the Sophists. He himself wrote much in the same vein, although almost all has been lost.

Antisthenes’ influence can be recognized most in the writer Xenophon. Although it is likely that he succeeded in annoying Plato and Isocrates, his influence on Cynicism has been greatly exaggerated.

Little survives of his moral philosophy, but what there is is Socratic in conception, and indeed Socrates’ own courage and tenacity are its avowed inspiration. Antisthenes focuses on virtue, conceived as inner strength, a fortress founded on wisdom and its unassailable reasonings. Virtue is acquired and maintained by ‘exertions’, a term deliberately recalling the labours of Heracles: these consist of the struggle to overcome the difficulties of, for example, poverty or unpopularity, by understanding how they can be viewed as good things – provided the riches of the soul are intact. Pleasure and sex are accordingly seen as threats to virtue’s integrity. Antisthenes enjoins us to redraw our moral categories: the good and just are our true friends and kin.

In theory of language Antisthenes defended the paradox that contradiction is impossible, deriving his argument from the idea that there can be no successful reference to anything except by its own ‘account’, revealing what it is.
Ariston of Chios (early to mid 3rd century BC)
Authors: Sedley David
Published: September 2018

The Greek philosopher Ariston (alternatively Aristo), from the Aegean island of Chios, was an exceptionally independent-minded member of the early Stoic school. A pupil of the founder Zeno of Citium, he was among the most prominent philosophers working at Athens in the mid-third century bc. He concentrated on ethics, dismissing logic and physics as irrelevant.

Like many contemporary philosophers, including Zeno, Ariston undoubtedly saw his own views as the ones most authentically capturing those of Socrates. Virtue he considered a unitary intellectual state, its conventional fragmentation into kinds being misleading at best. He resisted Zeno’s doctrine that nonmoral desiderata like health, although indifferent, were naturally ‘preferable’. Total indifference to them, rather than rationally choosing between them, was the true goal of life. He rejected rules of conduct – much favoured by Zeno – as founded on the same mistake of treating indifferent things as if they could be ranked in terms of intrinsic values.
Chrysippus (c.280–c.206 BC)
Authors: Sedley David
Published: September 2018

The Greek philosopher Chrysippus of Soli was the third and greatest head of the Stoic school in Athens. He wrote voluminously, and in particular developed Stoic logic into a truly formidable system. His philosophy is effectively identical with ‘early Stoicism’.
Cicero, Marcus Tullius (106–43 BC)
Authors: White Stephen A.
Published: September 2018

Cicero, pre-eminent Roman statesman and orator of the first century bc and a prolific writer, composed the first substantial body of philosophical work in Latin. Rising from small-town obscurity to the pinnacle of Rome’s staunchly conservative aristocracy, he devoted most of his life to public affairs. But he was deeply interested in philosophy throughout his life, and during two intervals of forced withdrawal from politics wrote two series of dialogues, first elaborating his political ideals and later examining central issues in epistemology, ethics and theology. Designed to establish philosophical study as an integral part of Roman culture, these works are heavily indebted to Greek philosophy, and some of the later dialogues are largely summaries of Hellenistic debates. But Cicero reworked his sources substantially, and his methodical expositions are thoughtful, judicious and, on questions of politics and morals, often creative. An adherent of the sceptical New Academy, he was opposed to dogmatism but ready to accept the most cogent arguments on topics important to him. His vigorously argued and eloquent critical discussions of perennial problems greatly enriched the intellectual and moral heritage of Rome and shaped Western traditions of liberal education, republican government and rationalism in religion and ethics. These works also afford invaluable insight into the course of philosophy during the three centuries after Aristotle.
Cynics
Authors: Branham R. Bracht
Published: September 2018

Cynicism (originating in the mid-fourth century bc) was arguably the most original and influential branch of the Socratic tradition in antiquity, whether we consider its impact on the formation of Stoicism or its role in the Roman Empire as a popular philosophy and literary tradition. The self-imposed nickname ‘Cynic’, literally ‘doglike’, was originally applied to Antisthenes and to Diogenes of Sinope, considered the founders of Cynicism, and later to their followers, including Crates of Thebes and Menippus. It emphasizes one of the most fundamental and controversial features of Cynic thought and practice – its radical re-examination of the animal nature of the human being. Their decision to ‘play the dog’ revolutionized moral discourse, since humans had traditionally been defined by their place in both a natural (animal → human → god) and a civic hierarchy. By calling such hierarchies into question, Cynicism re-evaluated the place of humankind in nature and the role of civilization in human life.

Cynicism includes an innovative and influential literary tradition of satire, parody and aphorism devoted to ‘defacing the currency’ (that is, the dominant ideologies of the time). It proposes a new morality based on minimizing creaturely needs in pursuit of self-sufficiency (autarkeia), achieved in part by physical training (askēsis), and on maximizing both freedom of speech (parrhēsia) and freedom of action (eleutheria) in open defiance of the most entrenched social taboos; and an anti-politics which sees existing governments as a betrayal of human nature, and traditional culture as an obstacle to happiness. In their place, Cynics advocated an immediate relationship to nature and coined the oxymoron kosmopolitēs or ‘citizen of the cosmos’. However the literary, ethical and political elements of Cynicism are interrelated, all are most easily defined by what they oppose – the inherited beliefs and practices of classical Greek civilization.

The virtual loss of all early Cynic writings means that the history of Cynicism must be reconstructed from much later sources dating from the Roman Empire, the most important of which is Diogenes Laertius (third century ad).
Dialectical school
Authors: Sedley David
Published: September 2018

An offshoot of the Megarian school, and active c.350–250 bc, the Dialectical school was an important precursor of Stoic logic. Its leading members were Diodorus Cronus and Philo. Its interests included modality, conditionals and logical puzzles. Its primary allegiance was probably Socratic, but with some additional debt to the Eleatic Zeno.