bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The officium in Medieval Ecclesiastical Law as a Prototype of Modern Administration
Authors: Padoa-Schioppa Antonio
Published: November 2023

The subject of this chapter is ecclesiastical office (officium ecclesiasticum) and more generally ecclesiastical administration in the Middle Ages and in early modern times, with particular reference to the two episcopal offices of the official and the vicar-general. The choice and presentation of this subject are based on two fundamental arguments, namely, on the one hand, that ‘the office’ as an ele ment of modern state organization is of such fundamental importance that an investigation of its medieval roots is justified and, on the other, that this central element of the modern state was formed within the organization and law of the Church in the Middle Ages; moreover, ecclesiastical structures were the model for the secular sphere and were adopted for that reason. The two episcopal offices played such a special part here that they could be called the prototype of the mod ern office and office-holder.
Constitutional Devices Implementing State Power in Poland, 1300-1700
Authors: Uruszczak Wadaw
Published: November 2023

At thebeginning of the fourteenth century one of the Polish dukes of the Piast dynasty; Wladislaus Lokietek, was successful in unifying under his sceptre the two most significant Polish provinces, Wielkopolska and Malopolska. This led to his coronation as king of Poland in 1320. The kingdom thus restored displayed social and constitutionalfeatures typical of the monarchy of estates. The monarch was not an independent sovereign and the estates had their share in the govern ment of the country, although only to a limited extent. The role of the estates grew in the course of time as a result of the difficulties faced by the next monarchs and arising from the childless death of Casimir the Great (1370), as well as from the lack of male heirs to the throne after Louis of Hungary who ruled Poland in 1370-84. The system of the monarchy of estates was fully consolidated in the Jagellonian period (1385-1572).
Training and Professionalization
Authors: Ridder-Symoens Hilde de
Published: November 2023

Contemporary sociologists generally trace the process of the transformation of an occupation into an independent profession in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Historians of medieval and early modern history trace the roots of professionalization much earlier, either in the Middle Ages or from the sixteenth century onwards. Of course it depends on one ‘s concept of professionalization. Instead of going into sociological debates as to how that process should be defined, we will limit ourselves here to some of the main components of professionalization in medieval and early modern society. It concerns primarily the ‘learned ‘ professions and consists of the following elements: (1) Education: the professional possesses a theoretical knowledge based on specialized and uniform training; (2) Organization: the professional is set apart from non-professionals by various signs and symbols; he is a member of a professional, self-regulating organization which sees to the competence, knowledge, and integrity of its peers; the professional is subject to self-control by codes of conduct; (3) Autonomy: in exercising his specialized knowledge the professional uses his own judgement and authority and thus he enjoys autonomy, restrained by responsibility; (4) Service: the professional is expected to provide service and to put the client ‘s interest above his own.
Forms and Character of Peasant Resistance
Authors: Blickle Peter
Published: November 2023

This analysis of Scandinavian peasant resistance will focus on Norway, though with some glances at the other Scandinavian countries. This geographical restriction can be justified by the widely held view that Scandinavian resistance had many common features.
The Right of Representation: The Resistance Movements
Authors: Blickle Peter
Published: November 2023

The most important institutional link between the rank and file of Spanish society and royal power was no doubt the Cortes. All three kingdoms had their own a monarch over a number of provinces, which were sometimes united and sometimes divided; an adversary of the estates in financial and religious conflicts; lord of most Austrian towns; >the highest judge over all of his subjects.
Introduction
Authors: Caine Barbara
Published: November 2023

The history of feminism has developed into a major field in recent years as scholars from many disciplines and in many countries have sought to explore the ways in which women’s oppression has been represented, discussed, and resisted in the past few centuries. This new scholarship and research has revealed the intensity, the extent, the duration, and the complexity of the concern to understand the meaning of sexual difference and to end sexual oppression and hierarchy, which is the core of feminism. Until quite recently, feminist discussion and debate was seen as spasmodic and fragmentary, at least until the midnineteenth century, and then as going into abeyance after the First World War. Now, by contrast, it is possible to construct a more or less continuous history of British feminism, showing its persistence in terms of published texts and active engagement at least from the seventeenth century to the present.
Feminism and the Woman Question in the Early Nineteenth Century
Authors: Caine Barbara
Published: November 2023

The demand for the Rights of Woman in the late eighteenth century provided the basis and the framework for modern feminism. In Britain its emergence was closely bound up with the broad range of social and economic changes brought by industrialization and urbanization in the later eighteenth century, the expansion in wealth and power of the middle class, and the new emphasis on individualism and economic independence which accompanied it. But it was the political upheaval of the French Revolution and the debates about political rights and citizenship which surrounded it that brought the first extensive discussion of women’s emancipation, the central concern of modern feminism.
Mid-Victorian Feminism
Authors: Caine Barbara
Published: November 2023

The period after the death of Mary Wollstonecraft raises many complex issues for historians of feminism. It is generally accepted that feminist debate and discussion ceased completely at this time. The French Revolution and the wars that followed them brought a powerful conservative reaction which made any suggestion of political and social reform all but impossible. And within this context, any suggestion of the need for women’s rights or for changes in sexual relations or family life invoked developments in France and raised fears, not only of revolution, but of contaminating British ways of life with French ideas. The sense of Britain as exemplified by manliness, which was accepted even by Wollstonecraft, had as its counterpart a sense of France as excessively feminine and as a country in which women had too much power. Thus traditional family structures and ideals of masculinity and femininity came increasingly to be seen as a central and defining part of British life. Godwin’s revelations about Wollstonecraft confirmed both the anti-French sentiment and the counter-revolutionary belief that the discussion of women’s rights-was inseparable from political subversion and personal immorality, ensuring that Wollstonecraft’s ideas were not generally discussed or elaborated for some decades. But this very conjunction of France with a fear of femininity and of women’s power raised sexual anxieties and made questions of gender central political ones.
The annotations in oxford, bodleian library, auct. D. 11. 14
Authors: Ganz David
Published: November 2023

Oxford, Bodleian Library, Auct. D. II. 14 is one of two surviving Italian gospel books which had reached Anglo-Saxon England by the end of the seventh century (pls. 1-2). The other, Cambridge, Corpus Christi College, 286 has long been called the Gospels of St Augustine, and fanciful accounts of its place of origin and its arrival in England have ensured that it has recently kept company with England’s primates. Oxford, Bodleian Library, Auct. D. II. 14 was given to Sir Thomas Bodley by Robert Cotton in 1603, and clear evidence of its earlier history is lacking. It contains an Italian text of the gospels, now incomplete,4 which editors have long calledO. The frequent annotations found in this manuscript make it possible to explore its history and use from the seventh to the twelfth century.
The Voice of Charlemagne
Authors: Nelson Janet L
Published: November 2023

Modern historians might well sympathize with the difficulty medieval people had in gaining access to kings. In our case, the reasons have nothing to do with obtrusive favourites or officious ostiarii, or with the magnum impedimentum in palatio caused by the throng of clamatores, seekers of redress. Our direct evidence on rulers’ aims and characters is so inadequate that we are likely to despair of ever scenting human flesh (to borrow Marc Bloch’s phrase). Yet we occasionally have a sense of contact with the individuals in question which may not be mere illusion.
True Teachers and Pious Kings: Salzburg, Louis the German, and Christian Order
Authors: Airlie Stuart
Published: November 2023

The church of Salzburg in the Carolingian era can easily appear as a missionary station focused on the frontiers of the empire. Writing to his friend Arn, bishop and after 798 archbishop of Salzburg, Alcuin referred to the latter’s proximity to the ‘frontiers of the Christian empire’. Alcuin was concerned with the work of conversion among the pagan Avars, whose military power had just been broken by Carolingian might. A century later one of Am’s successors, Archbishop Theotmar (873-907), wrote to the pope to express his anger at the savage behaviour of the pagan Hungarians which threatened the Christian culture of Pannonia. Theotmar, together with two other Bavarian bishops and a host of warriors, was in fact to perish in battle against the Hungarians at Pressburg (Bratislava) in 907.
An Ottonian Sacramentary in Oxford
Authors: Kauffmann Martin
Published: November 2023

A reconsideration of Oxford’s most important Ottonian illuminated manuscript seems appropriate in a volume dedicated to Henry Mayr-Harting, whose ground-breaking contextual study of Ottonian illuminated manuscripts reminded the scholarly world that Ottonian books were made by and for real people in particular religious and political situations, people who may even have gone so far on occasion as to talk to one another. Oxford, Bodleian Library, MS. Canon. Liturg. 319, a sacramentary,2 was first described in detail in the early twentieth century, and was subjected to close examination in the mid-1960s by two liturgical scholars, who reached markedly different conclusions as to its origins (pls. 8-ro, 12, 14, 16, and 18). Since then considerable progress has been made by palaeographers and art historians in the study of Ottonian manuscript production, much of which has implications for our understanding of the Oxford sacramentary.
Pastorale pedum ante pedes apostolici Posuit: Dis- and reinvestiture in the Era of the investiture contest
Authors: Reuter Timothy
Published: November 2023

Historians of the eleventh-century church are familiar with the public renunciations by bishops of the symbols of office followed by their return by the pope, acting either in consistory or in council: the first and most spectacular example took place at the Council of Reims in 1049, when Leo IX received an episcopal submission in this way, as we shall see. The action might seem to need no explanation, and it has certainly received none, but it does raise several interesting questions, in particular what it meant and why people began using it in this period. We may begin by looking at some detailed examples, and then move on to elucidate the meaning and the prehistory of this ritual, and the methodo-logical questions it raises.
Two Concepts of Temptation*
Authors: Leyser Henrietta
Published: November 2023

He asked Abba Joseph of Panepho, ‘What would I do when the passions assail me? Should I resist them, or let them enter?’ The old man answered, ‘Let them enter, and fight against them.’ Poemen returned to Scetis where he remained (as a hesychast). Now someone from Thebes came to Scetis and said to the brothers, ‘I asked Abba Joseph, “When a passion draws near, should I oppose it or allow it to enter?” He answered me, “Absolutely do not let the passions enter, but cut them off at once.”‘ When Abba Poemen learned that Abba Joseph had spoken to the Theban in such a manner, he arose, went to see him in Panepho, and said, ‘Abba, I confided my thoughts to you; and you have said one thing to me, and another to the Theban.’
Peter of Poitiers’s Compendium in Genealogia Christi’. The Early English Copies
Authors: Panayotova Stella
Published: November 2023

The balance between scholarship and teaching which challenges modern academics and inspires their students was part of the ideal image of the twelfth-century magister.
The Domesday Texts
Authors: Roffe David
Published: November 2023

To All Appearances the Domesday process is remarkably well documented. There is a handful of more or less independent accounts of the purpose of the inquiry and the methods that it employed, and, in addition to the two volumes of Domesday Book, a mass of documentation that was collected in the course of the inquest itself The historian may wish for more, but in fact the volume of evidence is remarkable for the period. Comparison with the Hundred Roll inquiry of 1279 underlines the point. This was commissioned at the height of Edward I’s experiment in interventionist government and, if it was ever finished, amounted to the most comprehensive survey of land tenure, Domesday Book notwithstanding, that was undertaken anywhere in medieval Europe. And yet there is not a single reference to this momentous event in contemporary chronicles and only fragmentary verdicts survive from a dozen or so counties. Even the immensely popular inquest of 1274/5, that promised the restitution of lands and rights after the civil war of 1264–5, only merited a single reference and this only to note that ‘nothing came of it.’3 The Domesday inquest was different. It attained talismanic status at an early date, and in consequence the inquest was noticed and its records preserved.
The Writing of Great Domesday Book
Authors: Roffe David
Published: November 2023

The Mystique That surrounded Domesday Book in the popular mind was in no small measure a function of the sacral connotations of the book form. Nevertheless, the extent to which such symbolism was fostered by government should not be exaggerated. In 1279 Edward I ordered his commissioners to enter the Hundred Rolls ‘in books [in libris] ‘. Edward was certainly aware of the power of appropriate iconography; that of his Welsh castles evoked images of a triumphant Albion. But the survey of 1279 was never completed and it is therefore impossible to determine what was intended. Nevertheless, throughout the Middle Ages inquests were abbreviated and copied into books for more prosaic reasons. Almost all of the major surveys brought to light information that was of continuing interest to government, and convenient summaries were frequently made to facilitate reference. Sometimes the process was contemporary or almost contemporary. The Rotuli de Dominabus certainly date from the late twelfth century and Round believed them to be the verdicts of the inquest of 1185. In reality they appear to be abbreviations (here in roll form, albeit sewn together) of the inquest, for the names of the jurors are not preserved and the rolls were apparently not sealed. More often abbreviation post-dates by many years the inquests. Thus it is that many of the twelfth-and early-thirteenth-century surveys are preserved in works of reference of the later thirteenth and fourteenth centuries.
Constables and Other Officers
Authors: Beattie J M
Published: November 2023

The forces charged with keeping order in the City of London consisted of constables, the night watch, the beadles, and the City marshals. The beadles-generally speaking one in each ward-and the two marshals, who were helped by a half dozen marshalsmen, were paid and uniformed, and to some extent experienced, in that they tended to continue in office from one year to another. The watchmen, beadles, and marshals were charged with a range of duties, but their principal tasks centred on maintaining order in the streets, controlling vagrancy, prostitution, and begging, and preventing disorderly behaviour in general.
Detection and Prosecution: Thief-takers, 1690-1720
Authors: Beattie J M
Published: November 2023

Early modern policing, like modern policing, centred broadly on the maintenance of the peace and the keeping of order in society.1 Then, as now, crime prevention was a major concern of the authorities, and, as we have seen, they thought that surveillance on the streets and public places was one way to achieve that. But in 1700 other aspects of what we take to be matters at the heart of modern policing were not within the purview of the constabulary or the night watch¬ men. No public body had the responsibility to investigate crimes, to detect offenders, or to gather the evidence that would sustain a prosecution. All of that was left to the victim. The state provided the machinery of criminal justice, but there was no expectation that constables, or other public officials, would act as detectives or prosecutors-not, at least, with respect to the serious offences that harmed individual victims.
Crime and the State, 1714-1750
Authors: Beattie J M
Published: November 2023

In 1701 the author of that gloomy treatise on the state of crime in London Hanging  Not  Punishment  Enough had no doubt that there had been a sharp increase in crime in the capital over the previous few years, particularly robberies and burglaries-a ‘Lamentable Increase’, as he put it, ‘of High-way-Men, and House-breakers ... ‘. Nor had he any doubt about the causes: ‘We need not go far for Reasons of the great numbers and increase of these Vermin: for tho’ no times have been without them, yet we may now reasonably believe, that after so many Thousands of Soldiers disbanded, and Mariners discharged, many of them are driven upon necessity, and care not to work, and many (I fear) cannot, if they would.’1 It might not be entirely their fault, he conceded, but these ex-soldiers and sailors had been corrupted by the irregular life they had led in the forces, and when they were discharged some of them turned inevitably to take by plunder what they could not or would not earn by working.
The physical environment
Authors: Haughton J P
Published: November 2023

The island has a compact shape with a maximum length of 480 km (280 miles) from Malin Head in the north to Cape Clear in the south, and a maximum width of 300 km (190 miles) from Belmullet in Mayo to the Ards peninsula in County Down. Within its 84,400 km (32,000 square miles) a variety of relief and soil conditions provide a wide range of physical environments. About 12 per cent of the total area is occupied by inhospitable, windswept hills and plateaus where rocky outcrops alternate with spreads of heather-covered peat.
The archaeology of early medieval Ireland, c.400–1169: settlement and economy
Authors: Edwards Nancy
Published: November 2023

It is still possible to trace great numbers of sites, both secular and ecclesiastical, in the landscape, some with substantial upstanding remains. For example, it is estimated that as many as 45,000 ringforts are still identifiable. Only a tiny fraction of the sites known has been sampled by excavation, but where conditions of survival are favourable, notably those caused by waterlogging, it has proved possible to learn an increasing amount about the way in which the early medieval Irish lived, their houses, and a range of other structures, such as Souter rains and water-mills.
The church in Irish society, 400–800*
Authors: Hes Kathleen Hug
Published: November 2023

when Christianity reached Ireland in the fifth century it came from different sources, from Britain and from the Continent. Both were very different from Ireland. Gaul lay at the end of a very long and thorough period of romanisation. The barbarians were moving into Gaul in the fourth century, but they were barbarians who had lived for some time on the fringes of the Roman world and who were anxious to be assimilated into it. The church in Gaul was identified with some aspects of the culture of the empire: most of her bishops spoke and wrote good Latin; they presided in judicial disputes; they had taken over the administration of some cities, organising their provisioning and even their defence.
Music in Ireland to c.1500
Authors: Buckley Ann
Published: November 2023

Two requirements for the investigation of prehistoric music cultures are archaeological excavation and a broad range of comparative data. The former is essential, since the only evidence we can hope for is that of material survivals. We have no written records; thus objects which would have been used for producing sound, and depictions of these objects, or of music making situations (e.g., dance), are our only sources. Comparative data are usually a sine qua non, for the range of sound-producing objects is, in theory, unlimited.
The Time: Economic Crisis and Political Repression in the I87os
Authors: Blackbourn David
Published: November 2023

Prussian victory over France in 1870 laid the basis of the German Empire that came into being the following year. The formation of the new state seemed to many contemporaries to mark the beginning of a new age. One of them later wrote that the events of the 1870s were like a spring wind, signalling ‘the end of the Middle Ages, the beginning of the modern era’.1 The sentiment was widespread. Pride in the might of German arms, symbolized in the celebration of Sedan Day as a national festival, was joined to pride in German material and cultural achievements. Unification was widely perceived as providing a framework within which the railway and the telegraph, the educational system and the rule of law, would make an Age of Progress still more complete.’ This sense of buoyancy was fuelled by the heady upward movement of all the economic indicators during the so-called Griinderzeit, the post-unification boom of 1871–3.
The Reaction of the Clergy
Authors: Blackbourn David
Published: November 2023

In 1877 the Catholic writer Joseph Rebbert published a booklet on Marpingen, in which he discussed the position of Catholic priests faced with such events. His emphasis was on their ability to master the situation. The clergy was ‘superior to all other classes in its scholarship’ and fully alive to the dangers of delusion, deception, and diabolical influence; it operated within the clear ground-lines set out by the Catholic Church and could expect the laity to follow its leaders without question.’ Things were a little different in practice. Many priests embraced the apparitions with a passionate conviction that left little room for doubt. Others were more sceptical, expressing alarm at the direction events were taking. But the enthusiasm of the pilgrims, the rash of imitative apparitions, and the political background of the 1870s all made it more difficult to exert control over popular sentiment. The clergy found itself caught between the rules of the church, the pressure of the civil authorities, and the demands of the faithful. Particular problems inevitably arose for any priest whose own parish was the centre of attention. The situation was especially difficult in Marpingen. Jakob Neureuter not only had to cope with the sustained pressure that arose from highly publicized apparitions, but was forced to do so at a time when the Kulturkampfhad robbed the diocese of its bishop and generally disrupted the hierarchical chain of command.
The Catholic Response
Authors: Blackbourn David
Published: November 2023

Catholic commentators rightly mocked the claims of some local officials that events in Marpingen were a frontal challenge to the authority of the state. The Trierische Landeszeitung asked sarcastically whether those who had their homes searched were petroleurs, and insisted that ‘no popular rising has taken place’. A pamphlet writer scorned the view that Marpingen represented a ‘revolutionary movement’. The conspiracy theory presented a broad target. Yet if Marpingen was no insurrectionary affair, the emphasis laid by Catholic writers on peacefully praying women and children was also misleading. The coercive measures of the Prussian authorities did produce acts and threats of violence in response. Some of the most violent incidents occurred on the evening of 13 July 1876, in the hours after the arrival of the army. While most of the infantry company was engaged in requisitioning and billeting, Lieutenant Lent established a sentry-post at the apparition site. Around 9 o’clock, a group of about thirty men gathered on the edge of the woods, some wearing miners’ caps and nearly all carrying sticks or clubs. They mocked and cursed the soldiers, and threats were made (‘You scoundrels, you’ll pay for this’).
The Centre
Authors: Pethybridge Roger
Published: November 2023

As the crow flies, or rather those rooks in A. K. Savrasov’s famous painting, the distance south-east from Smolensk to Kursk is 480 km., which is a fraction more than the distance due north from Kursk to Moscow, and 80 km. deeper into the provinces than Smolensk from the capital. Like Smolensk, Kursk was a guberniia administrative centre in 1922 and also lay in a river-valley ( the Seim) amongst low hills. However surrounding agricultural conditions were very different. We shall not linger in Kursk itself but wander gently down a side road through this part of the Central Agricultural Region until we reach the Nikol’skaia volost’ (cluster of villages) roughly 40 km. to the south-east (Roslavl’ lay 10km. from Smolensk). Here relationships between the local inhabitants and party members and agents will be examined without reference to Kursk, let alone to Moscow. Then we shall head due south again on the same road, passing into the Ukraine and out of the hills. The first large and industrial city we reach is Kharkov.
The South-East
Authors: Pethybridge Roger
Published: November 2023

In 1922 they were the hub of the maelstrom that was the great famine of 1921-2. The whole of Russia was affected by its repercussions. Many historians maintain that they are concerned, not with human actions of all kinds, but only with those that are reflective, arising from a purpose pursued. They rarely study natural events, and only in so far as they impinge on the human world. In the Soviet context an inordinate amount of attention has been paid to the willed aims of Bolshevik leaders. On the other hand, since nearly 80 per cent of the nation were illiterate in early NEP, consisting of a disorganized and fragmented peasantry, it has often been assumed that the actions of this class have been both unreflective and ineffective. Illiterates leave no written record of their views, but they nevertheless reflect and act accordingly. Peasants caught up in the Tambov and other revolts did just this, although they remained politic ally ineffective for lack of large-scale organization. We have noted how the peasantry of the Black-Earth region was palp ably influenced in its social and political manners by its traditional natural background.
Kazakhstan
Authors: Pethybridge Roger
Published: November 2023

If the learned members of the Tver pedagogical institute thought they were being adventurous in embarking upon an anthropological expedition to the Upper Mologa river, a mere 300 km. from Moscow, what would they have thought about doing a survey of Kazakhstan in 1926? Its western edges lay approximately 2,300 km. from the capital. Here was isolation indeed, though of a completely different geographical, socio economic, and religious type from the solitudes of European Russia. We have seen how agricultural and other local conditions had important effects on social and political life in Smolensk and above all in the Volga provinces in 1921-2. The area that became known as the Kazakh Autonomous Republic from 1924 onwards contained features which were completely different from any that we have encountered in other regions. These features were bound to have an enormous influence on political conduct. For this reason the geographical and ethnic contours of the area are surveyed first.
The Peoples Executioners
Authors: Evans Richard J
Published: November 2023

Bismarck might have secured the inclusion of capital punishment in the Criminal Code for the North German Confederation by his intervention in the Reichstag debate of May 1870, but he had in fact achieved less than a total victory. The constitution of the new German Reich, which was effectively the same as that of its predecessor the North German Confederation, simply extended to include the south German states and Alsace-Lorraine, did not contain any statement of human rights-the only modern German constitution not to do so-and so failed to provide any opportunity for the debating of such issues of principle as capital punishment. However, neither did it contain any explicit affirmation of the death penalty or indeed have any bearing on such issues as the sovereign power of clemency. Part of the price that he had paid to the old order for securing its acquiescence in the creation of the German nation-state was a constitution that preserved the fiction that the new German Empire was a federation of sovereign powers.
A New Beginning?
Authors: Evans Richard J
Published: November 2023

The overthrow of the Kaiser and the other German monarchs in the Revolution of 1918 did not usher in a period of smooth transition to the new republican order. On the right, radicalized defenders of the old regime mustered themselves, while on the left, revolutionary groups also mobilized in the hope of achieving a thorough transformation of the German social order. In November 1918 and the following months, the prime aim of Friedrich Ebert and the other moderate Social Democrats who led the provisional revolutionary council was to get a grip on the country and manage a smooth transition to a peacetime economy, a stable society, and a parliamentary democracy. The events of the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 in Russia, and the ensuing Red Terror in 1918-19, in which thousands were brutally murdered by Lenin’s secret police, the Cheka, were very much present in the minds of Ebert and his colleagues as they embarked upon this process.
Legacies of Terror
Authors: Evans Richard J
Published: November 2023

The four countries whose armies occupied the defeated German Reich in 1945 were all firm adherents of the death penalty. Executions for treason, mutiny, and other military offences were commonplace in Britain, France, the United States, and the Soviet Union during the war. Britain still hanged people for murder; France had only stopped guillotining them in public in 1939; the United States made liberal use of the rope, the gas chamber, and the electric chair; while the Soviet Union had been killing its own citizens in staggering numbers ever since the Revolution of 1917. The movement for the abolition of capital punishment had made little political headway in these countries. To be sure, the excessive use of executions by the German judicial system under the Nazis met with the strong disapproval of the occupying powers; but the justice of which they considered this to be a perversion was emphatically a justice that included the death sentence.
Bourgeois Revolution Revivified: 1789 and Social Change
Authors: Jones Colin
Published: November 2023

The decision on 16 July 1789 to demolish the Bastille presented a wonderful opportunity to Pierre-Frangois Palloy.1 The 34-year- old building contractor, who—so he said—had helped to storm the Bastille on 14 July, took on the job of demolition. The grim medieval fortress was soon a building site, offering much- needed employment to about 1,000 hungry Parisian labourers and providing a diverting and edifying spectacle for the leisured élite.
The Revolution: Catastrophe or New Dawn for the French Economy?
Authors: Bergeron Louis
Published: November 2023

The very fact of choosing this topic and of expressing it in the form of this question testifies to the survival of recurrent polemics about the long-term effects of the 1789 Revolution. These polemics continue to mark even the most recent develop ments in French historiography. To be sure, in past but not so very remote times, great French historians belonging to the Jacobin or Marxist traditions argued in oversimplified terms and predicated the opening of a new era of economic progress with 1789, as if it were a kind of ‘natural consequence’ of a political and social revolution which itself appeared as a sort of prerequisite for such progress. According to this logic, the abolition of feudalism in all its aspects was to be followed by the blossoming of individual initiative and the multiplication of wealth. The same historians tended also to glorify the various aspeds of state interventionism which, for a while, were enforced by the revolutionary govern ment and assemblies, and which they depicted as a magic weapon ensuring military success and greater social justice in general.
Protestant Demonology: Sin, Superstition, and Society (c.1520-c.1630)
Authors: Clark Stuart
Published: November 2023

IN 1584 the Elizabethan sceptic Reginald Scot claimed that only the Catholic Church really took witchcraft seriously. Witch mongers and mass mongers were one and the same thing, whereas the religion of the gospel could stand ‘without such peevish trumperie’. It was, he said, ‘incomprehensible to the wise, learned or faith full; a probable matter to children, fooles, melancholike persons and papists’. All the same, he was obliged to acknowledge the demonologies of leading European Protestant theologians like Lambert Daneau and Niels Hemmingsen, and he deplored the way in which the ordinary English clergy lent credibility to popular witchcraft beliefs by recognizing the existence of healers and conjurors in their parishes and making allegations against local witches.
Satanic Myths and Cultural Reality
Authors: Muchembled Robert
Published: November 2023

WITCH-HUNTING is a liturgy of fear. It spreads obsessions that are essentially those of the learned, but which inspire real dread and anxiety among the peasant masses. Holding up to the latter a mirror of Satanism and sorcery, magistrates and demonologists exacerbate the social rifts innate in rural society by conferring on them a cultural, moral, and religious justification. Every villager can recognize his own beliefs and practices, real enough to him, but diabolical in the eyes of his betters; each man must then decide in what fashion to present his own image. The intensity and continuity of persecutions depend on the good pleasure of those in authority, but also on the receptivity of some peasants to the message offered them. It is thus possible to define communities that are ‘open’ or ‘closed’ to persecution, and more generally to propose an overall explanatory model, valid for several European countries in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.
Independence, 1866–1881
Authors: Hitchins Keith
Published: November 2023

The decade in which Rumania achieved independence began in 1866 with the overthrow of Prince Alexandru Cuza by an unlikely combination of Conservative and radical Liberal politicians. At odds with one another on almost every significant public issue, they none the less found ample reason to join forces in opposing what they claimed were Cuza’s abuses of power and his intention to establish a dictatorship. A reformer who had seen the urgent need to rationalize government administration and increase the productivity of agriculture, Cuza had made the mistake of imposing his Statut and an agrarian reform bill, both in 1864, in such a manner as to alienate old supporters and unify his enemies. Thus isolated politically, he himself encouraged the plotters by intimating that he might abdicate. On 23 February 1866, swiftly and without public disorder or resistance from Cuza, the coalition, led by the radical Liberals Ion C. Bratianu and C. A. Rosetti, both revolutionaries of 1848, forced Cuza to abdicate and go into exile.
The Impact Of Processions And Ceremonial
Authors: Thompson Guy Llewelyn
Published: November 2023

Political attitudes can be formed not only by what people read or see or want, but also by events in which they share. It is thus interesting to examine the political connotations of any large-scale group activity that offers scope for the distribution of information, the generation of emotional excitement, and the organization of considerable numbers of people. Such events occurred fairly infrequently in fifteenth-century France but, amongst them, processions and major outdoor rituals were of particular significance. The spectacular ceremonies connected with the monarchy will not be the first priority of this chapter, since the basic symbolism and procedures are now fairly well known. Instead, let us concentrate on the less elaborate, but much more widespread, religious processions in which people were not only spectators but participants. If we wish to study the interaction between political events and society during the period of the Anglo-Burgundian regime, then these occasions, on which people were gathered together by hundreds or even by thousands, are useful fields to explore.2 Accordingly, this chapter aims to do two things in parallel: to determine what these processions were like and to decide what role they played in political life. In the light of conclusions drawn from that study, it is hoped that a fuller understanding of certain royal ceremonies will be possible.
Progress and Poverty
Authors: Daunton M J
Published: November 2023

BL The only general textbook to examine the social and political implications of the economics of the period British society and the British economy underwent major structural change over the period from 1700 to 1850, as population moved from agriculture and rural life to industry and towns. Unlike previous textbooks on this period, written either from a social and political standpoint, or about economics in the abstract, this book incorporates the work of social and political historians with revisionist work on British economic growth. It stresses the connections between the economy and debates over public policy, and examines the regional variations in agriculture and industry, with particular attention to the differences between England and Scotland. Much revisionist work concerns the operation of assumed national markets; the aim of the book is to show how these markets were formed, and how a national economy was created. Martin Daunton gives a clear and balanced picture of the continuity and change in the early development of the world's first industrial nation.
The Domestic System of Manufactures
Authors: Daunton M J
Published: November 2023

Daniel Defoe, in A Tour through the Whole Island of Great Britain (1724–6), described his journey across the Pennines to Halifax. He was surprised to find that the hills, despite their steepness, were ‘spread with houses, and that very thick; for the land being divided into small enclosures, that is to say, from two acres to six or seven acres each, seldom more; every three or four pieces of land had a house belonging to it.’ The explanation was not far to seek: outside most houses was a tenter on which was stretched a piece of cloth. The land alone, Defoe estimated, could support only a fifth of the population. When he visited a master manufacturer, Defoe found ‘a house full of lusty fellows, some at the dye-vat, some dressing the cloths, some in the loom, some one thing, some another, all hard at work’. Scattered amongst the houses of the master manufacturers, Defoe found ‘an infinite number of cottages or small dwellings, in which dwell the workmen which are employed, the women and children of whom are always busy carding, spinning, etc so that no hands being unemployed, all can gain their bread, even from the youngest to the ancient; hardly any thing above four years old, but its hands are sufficient to itself.’
Poor Relief and Charity
Authors: Daunton M J
Published: November 2023

Sir Francis Brewster’s complaint of 1695 was directed against the poor law legislation of 1598-1601 which came into effect at the end of the ‘Blessed Reign’ of Elizabeth and survived until the creation of the new poor law of 1834. The Elizabethan legislation made it a mandatory responsibility of each parish to maintain the ‘impotent’ and to provide work for the able-bodied under the supervision of the overseers of the poor. Finance was raised by the church¬ wardens, who increasingly relied upon an annual poor rate. England was the only country in Europe with a system of poor relief financed from taxation: Brewster could equally well have drawn a contrast within Britain, for tax-funded poor relief was by no means the norm in Scotland.
Formative Years: I762-I773
Authors: McGrew Roderick E
Published: November 2023

Paul’s formal education was Count Panin’s responsibility. On the whole, he discharged it very well. He created a comfortable environment in which Paul lived, for the most part happily, for thirteen years, while studying a rich and varied curriculum under a surprisingly good group of teachers. Panin’s success with Paul owed to his own broad cultural background, his sympathetic and kindly ways, his personal commitment to Paul’s welfare, and to the educational philosophy on which he built his programme. When chosen oberhofmeister for the heir, Panin knew little or nothing about his future charge. But he was familiar with several European courts, and he was interested in contemporary educational theories. Muscovy’s princes had traditionally received a narrow training based on theology. The cultural climate, however, had changed radically since the seventeenth century, and no one seriously considered a traditional Russian education for Paul. The problem was to choose among contemporary European alternatives.
Merchant Capital And Economic Decolonization
Authors: Fieldhouse D K
Published: November 2023

The United Africa Company (UAC), formed in 1929 by the fusion of the Niger Company and the African and Eastern Corporation, was by far the largest single commercial organization in West and Equatorial Africa, and thus central to modern African economic history. This is the first detailed account to be published and one which fills a serious gap in the literature. It was not commissioned by the company (now reabsorbed into Unilever) but the author had full access to all confidential material in the UAC and Unilever archives and complete freedom in what he wrote. The book is not intended to be primarily a company history but uses the UAC as a focal point for detailed study of how the role of foreign merchant capital changed in response to economic and political developments in Black Africa during this critical half century.
The Company 1960–1987
Authors: Fieldhouse D K
Published: November 2023

There are a number of reasons why the structure and character of UAC, remarkably consistent since the early 1930s, should have changed after the 1950s. Some of them were personal, others institutional, involving innovation in the policy-making processes; but the most important were made in response to fundamental changes in the economic and political environment in which the company had to operate overseas. This chapter will start with institutional changes in the European head offices, then examine the restructuring of the business as a whole within Europe, and finally summarize the far more radical changes that took place overseas.
Pools and Cocoa
Authors: Fieldhouse D K
Published: November 2023

The dominant characteristic of the West African market economy of the period before 1939, for reasons described in the previous chapter, was that it was a commercial jungle. Perhaps because the economy was uniquely geared to the international and highly speculative international commodity market, which determined the value of both its exports and imports, its domestic market fluctuated far more erratically than that of industrialized countries tied to the international business cycle. Because there were no effective barriers to entrance by firms from any other country, the number of foreign companies competing in both the import and export trades was considerable; in addition, particularly in the British territories, there was an increasing number of locally based African, Levantine, and other traders. Finally no West African government before 1939 attempted seriously to control trading activities beyond the level of quality controls. In short, West African trading conditions resembled Hobbes’s definition of the state of nature; and, as in that state, the life of most firms proved to be solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.
Industry: Nigeria
Authors: Fieldhouse D K
Published: November 2023

The first decade of independence in Black Africa, designated by the United Nations the ‘Development Decade’, was the golden age of African industrialization if there ever was one. The newly independent states, whatever their size, resources, and markets, were encouraged by an unusual alliance of interested parties from most developed parts of the world to make industrialization the foundation of their drive towards affluence. Development economists claimed that industry was essential for economic ‘take-off’ and were keen to see their hypothesis proven. Foreign governments were willing to lend or give money in order to establish good political relationships. Bankers peregrinated like hucksters round the capitals offering loans on excessively easy terms. Foreign industrialists saw both the need and opportunity to operate within the rapidly rising tariff walls and physical controls on imports. Finally, the new national governments, overwhelmed by this flood of advice and money, and anxious to provide jobs for the growing numbers of rural people emigrating to the towns, adopted slogans such as ‘self-sufficiency’ and welcomed almost all manufacturing proposals from overseas or their own nationals with generous protection and other fiscal incentives. There is little information available on annual growth rates of manufacturing in most parts of Black Africa in the 1960s; but, according to the World Bank, in that decade Senegal achieved an average annual increase of 6.2 per cent, the Ivory Coast 11.6 per cent, and Nigeria 9.1 per cent.
Lordship and Government
Authors: Bartlett Robert
Published: November 2023

England in our period was a land in which ties of lordship and dependence were among the most essential and characteristic features of society. Reciprocal, but unequal, relationships of a personal kind tied lords and men in networks of mutual support. Lordship of this kind sharply marks off medieval from modern western societies. It involved a blend of powers and authorities usually kept distinct in the modern world, for all medieval lordship included elements that we would now distinguish as rights of property and rights of jurisdiction.
Trade and Merchants
Authors: Prestwich Michael
Published: November 2023

The Exceed from the backs of English sheep, once it was sorted, packed into woolsacks, and exported to be spun and woven in the Low Countries, underlay many of the successes of this period. At the peak of this trade, in the early fourteenth century, about 40,000 or more sacks were sent abroad each year. Some 10 million sheep had to be sheared to produce such a quantity. The value of exports on this scale came to roughly $250,000. It was hardly surprising that Edward I’s opponents in 1297 claimed that wool amounted to half the wealth of England. While the wool trade was dominant, commerce in wine from Gascony was also important, and a wide range of other commodities were imported and exported.