bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Inflation
Authors: Tomlinson Jim
Published: October 2017

This chapter analyses the inflation problem, assessing how accounts of inflation shaped the approach to incomes policies and their accompanying publicity. The focus is on the 1970s, when peacetime inflation peaked along with policy focus on its reduction. The discussion is in four sections. The first shows how a narrative about inflation was constructed, before and during the 1970s. The second looks at the Counter-Inflation Publicity Unit (CIPU), created by the government in 1975. The unit’s purpose was to shape opinion, but it also sponsored a substantial number of surveys of public understanding of inflation, so that from its records we can examine not only government statements on the issue, but how these impacted upon the intended audience. The third section assesses the relationship between the CIPU’s framing of the inflation issue and popular understanding, whilst the final section suggests the ambiguous effects of the unit’s activities
Conclusions
Authors: Tomlinson Jim
Published: October 2017

This chapter examines two narratives that have recently developed a role in understandings of post-war Britain. First, the ‘rise of neo-liberalism’. Neo-liberalism has become a hugely influential narrative in academic circles, though it has had little resonance with governments or a wider public. It suggests a fundamental turning point in economic life in the 1970s, when Britain is said to have moved from a broadly social-democratic to neo-liberal policies. The second narrative, of deindustrialization, identifies not a revolution in political ideas about the economy but a structural shift, a shift that is said to have underpinned many of the other changes in economic life. In the 1970s deindustrialization briefly became a prominent topic of debate, but this quickly faded. Though less widely used as an overarching framework by academics than neo-liberalism, there is a growing body of work that sees it as having major significance in understanding post-war Britain.
Multi-Level Electoral Politics
Authors: Golder Sona N. , Lago Ignacio , Blais André , Gidengil Elisabeth , Gschwend Thomas
Published: October 2017

National-level elections receive more attention from scholars and the media than elections at other levels, even though in many European countries the importance of both regional and European levels of government has grown in recent years. The growing importance of multiple electoral arenas suggests that scholars should be cautious about examining single levels in isolation. Taking the multi-level structure of electoral politics seriously requires a re-examination of how the incentives created by electoral institutions affect the behaviour of voters and party elites. The standard approach to analysing multi-level elections is the second-order election model, in which national elections are considered to be first-order elections while other elections are second order. However, this model does not provide micro mechanisms that determine how elections in one arena affect those in another, or explain variations in individual voting behaviour. The objective of this book is to explain how party and voter behaviour in a given election is affected by the existence of multiple electoral arenas. This book uses original qualitative and quantitative data to examine European, national, and subnational elections in France, Germany, and Spain from 2011 to 2015. Party mobilization efforts across multiple electoral arenas are examined, as well as decisions by individual voters with respect to turnout, strategic voting, and accountability. This book provides the first systematic analysis of multi-level electoral politics at three different levels across multiple countries.
Multi-Level Governance
Authors: Golder Sona N. , Lago Ignacio , Blais André , Gidengil Elisabeth , Gschwend Thomas
Published: October 2017

The existing framework for explaining variation in voter turnout and vote choice across multiple levels of government is more useful for addressing aggregate patterns than for addressing micro-level behaviour. To better understand the aggregate outcomes of interest, this chapter proposes an examination of individual voter behaviour and strategies of party elites that take account of the incentives provided by multiple electoral arenas. In doing so, the chapter investigates the variation in both party and voter behaviour that is often overlooked in existing work. In the presence of multiple electoral arenas, the behaviour of both party elites and voters in one arena is affected by what happens in another. The decisions of party elites and voters are shaped by the incentive structure that is produced by the combination of multiple arenas with different electoral rules.
Strategic and Sincere Voting in Multi-Level Systems
Authors: Golder Sona N. , Lago Ignacio , Blais André , Gidengil Elisabeth , Gschwend Thomas
Published: October 2017

This chapter develops and tests hypotheses about the implications of different kinds of strategic behaviour on the part of voters at the individual, regional, and party levels. Whereas some voters try to avoid wasting their vote on unviable parties, others deviate from their preferred small party to make it more likely that the more preferred of the large parties can assume the prime ministership in a potential government. Some voters deviate from their most preferred party in order to balance the overall direction of policies by having ideologically different governments at different levels of governance. Overall, the chapter cautions against a naïve approach that assumes that voters are voting strategically if they vote for different parties in different levels of election, because the electoral context, election campaigns, the number and the type of parties that compete in each election are different.
Accountability across Elections
Authors: Golder Sona N. , Lago Ignacio , Blais André , Gidengil Elisabeth , Gschwend Thomas
Published: October 2017

How do voters use elections as mechanisms of accountability in the multi-level systems in France, Germany, and Spain? The extent to which the voters attribute blame or credit for economic outcomes to the government at any one level depends on whether the voter believes that the government at that level plays an important role in shaping the economy. Also examined are voter opinions about corruption in government across all three levels. This is an issue that should affect voter satisfaction with, and trust in, their democratic institutions. In spite of the difficulties faced by voters in attributing responsibility, they do manage to vote in ways consistent with their evaluations of government performance at different levels.
Insecurity and Opportunity in the Middle Sea
Authors: Tazzara Corey
Published: October 2017

Chapter 2 argues that endemic insecurity in the Mediterranean and the instability of religious boundaries conditioned the expansion of Livorno. The process of settling merchants in Livorno raised issues of contract enforcement comparable to that of commerce itself. Medici legislation did not offer sufficient protections against expulsions of settlers and expropriations of property. Regime agents worked tirelessly to provide adequate assurances that Livorno’s privileges would be enforced. These negotiations channeled the city’s growth in unexpected directions. Rather than provide Tuscan merchants with a means of breaking directly into distant markets, Livorno came to serve foreign merchants as a center of deposit and transit for goods traversing the shores of the Mediterranean.
Institutions, Information, and the Invention of Free Trade
Authors: Tazzara Corey
Published: October 2017

Chapter 3 shows that the legislative framework erected by the Medici was full of lacunae and uncertainties. A system of supplications, or personal requests for ducal favor, was responsible for elaborating the theory and practice of the free port in the first half of the century. Although the central government played a formal role in resolving requests, in practice local officials made decisions in particular cases. The supplications functioned according to a bureaucratic logic that tended willy-nilly to serve the interests of the growing business community in Livorno: foreigners of any ethno-religious affiliation could trade in Livorno by virtue of its character as a free port.
Governance and Tax Collection in a Free Port
Authors: Tazzara Corey
Published: October 2017

Chapter 4 argues that the Customs Office played a unique role in structuring economic life in the port. It shows that the procedures associated with the early free port complicated rather simplified efforts to administer trade. Often, the office became the spokesperson for the business classes owing to its intimate, dense ties with merchants. These relationships were cultivated to facilitate revenue collection, coordinate policy decisions, and grease the wheels of commerce—often illicitly, through bribery or other malfeasance. The resulting arrangements promoted the development of a freer marketplace, comparable in many respects to that of Amsterdam, but at the expense of great administrative complexity.
Brokering Trade in the Central Mediterranean
Authors: Tazzara Corey
Published: October 2017

Chapter 6 offers a quantitative examination of the commercial development of Livorno, showing how it plugged local and regional exchange networks into the currents of global commerce. Livorno was at the epicenter of the reorganization of maritime trade in the Tyrrhenian and throughout the Mediterranean. Despite dense connections between north-central Italy and the free port, however, international commerce did not substantially affect productive relations in the hinterland. North-central Italy remained an autonomous region; rather than a colonial outpost subservient to northern capitalism, Livorno was a large marketplace connecting otherwise distinct economies. The Tuscan city’s success in organizing trade eventually provoked a competitive response by neighboring ports.
Free Trade before Liberalism
Authors: Tazzara Corey
Published: October 2017

Chapter 8 situates Livorno amidst a larger picture of competition in the central Mediterranean. It analyzes the spread of free ports by considering the two axes along which Italian ports liberalized during the early modern period: hospitality toward merchants and openness toward goods. Despite much institutional variation, a maritime free trade zone was in existence by the mid-eighteenth century. The intellectual legacy of free ports such as Livorno was nonetheless ambivalent. Though some Enlightenment thinkers used free ports to formulate general theories of free trade, others believed they promoted the subjection of state policy to foreign merchants.
Conclusion
Authors: Tazzara Corey
Published: October 2017

The conclusion draws on the book’s key themes to revisit models of the policy process in early modern Europe, particularly that of rent-seeking as understood by public choice economists. It shows that the fight against monopoly was co-constituted with the origins of a science of commerce during the Enlightenment. If the mercantilist state of the Ancien Régime was an outgrowth of a rent-seeking society, it was because the rent-seekers themselves enjoyed a monopoly on economic expertise until the eighteenth century. The new science of economics did not expel local merchants from regime counsels as much as reformers might have desired, however. It gave merchants a powerful rhetorical arsenal concerning economic liberty that helped secure localities from unwanted interference by the central government.
Only Imagine
Authors: Stock Kathleen
Published: October 2017

This book begins with a detailed description and defence of a controversial theory of fictional content (or ‘fictional truth’) known as ‘extreme intentionalism’. On this view, roughly, the fictional content of a particular text is equivalent to exactly what the author of the text intended the reader to imagine. The book situates this theory in relation to its competitors including hypothetical intentionalism, value-maximizing theory, and the influential anti-intentionalism view of David Lewis—and puts forward a strong argument for its superiority, despite its many detractors. In the second half of the book, some consequences of extreme intentionalism are explored as they affect questions such as: the relation of fiction to testimony and belief; whether there are any limits to what we can imagine, and what explains those limits; what is the nature of fiction; to what extent imagination resembles belief; and to what extent the imagination can contribute to the provision of counterfactual and modal knowledge.
Introduction
Authors: Stock Kathleen
Published: October 2017

The author’s argumentative strategy for the book is introduced, and situated methodologically. An explanation follows that in the first half of this book a theory of fictional content known as ‘extreme intentionalism’ is proffered, with the argument that it should be taken very seriously as an adequate account of fictional truth. Some critics of the theory are canvassed and extreme intentionalism is differentiated from certain other positions with which it might be confused. It is then indicated how, in the second half of the book, it will be shown that extreme intentionalism and the lessons learnt from it can illuminate cognate questions in the philosophy of fiction and imagination. The author’s aim in this book is explained as being to construct three complementary explanatory theories simultaneously, one about fictional truth, one about fictional content, and one about imagination. In each case the methodological approach employed is distinguished from that of straightforward conceptual analysis. Finally, several advantages of the proposed approach are pointed out.
Extreme Intentionalism about Fictional Content
Authors: Stock Kathleen
Published: October 2017

The defence of extreme intentionalism is launched. The notion of an intention is introduced in some detail, as well as some skeletal presuppositions about the sort of imagining called for by fiction. Grice’s theory of the meaning of conversational utterance is introduced, with an outline of how it might be extended to fictional content, with certain important adjustments. On the view favoured by the author, the content of fiction is what a reader is reflexively intended by the author to imagine, rather than what she is intended to believe. Finally four common objections to extreme intentionalism are introduced, and the first of these is rejected: namely, that extreme intentionalism entails that individual speakers can arbitrarily change or elude the conventionally given, rule-bound meanings of sentences, so that miswriting is ruled out as impossible.
Back to the Imagination
Authors: Stock Kathleen
Published: October 2017

This chapter returns to the propositional imagination, examining it in the light of conclusions reached thus far about the nature of fiction and what it calls for, properly understood. In particular two dominant tendencies in treatment of the propositional imagination are rejected: to treat it as ‘belief-like’ in a certain sense; and to treat it as radically unconstrained and stipulative. The argument is made that, though propositional imagining can be either belief-like as indicated, or radically unconstrained, neither of these characterizations is good as a general description. The possibility of a connection between imagination and counterfactual and/or modal knowledge is defended, engaging with recent arguments by Peter Kung and Marcello Fiocco. Further differences between imagining and belief are explored; and a discussion of the nature of supposition, and its relation to propositional imagining conducted, concluding that fictions tend to call extensively for supposition on the part of the reader, by default.
Intimation
Authors: Ferrari G. R. F.
Published: October 2017

The communicative scale is introduced. What is fundamental to communication is the intention of the communicator rather than the codes that languages employ. Following the model first proposed by Paul Grice and developed in Dan Sperber and Deirdre Wilson’s ‘relevance theory’, the structure of communicative intentionality is understood to be recursive: its underlying form is ‘I want you to know that I want you to know’. This leaves room for a simpler kind of transmission, to be called ‘intimation’, whose underlying form would be ‘I want you to know’. If communication is a transmission at the ‘full-on’ position of the scale, and if the switch is off when no communication is intended, then intimation would be at the intermediate, ‘half-on’ position. Intimation is particularly useful in contexts where discretion, suggestiveness, or plausible deniability are needed. It is strongly connected to self-presentation in social life (as studied by Erving Goffman).
Dressed to Communicate—Or Not
Authors: Ferrari G. R. F.
Published: October 2017

Intimation is illustrated with an extended example: how we dress. Full-on communication with clothes is rare. The reason is this: unless the audience is already primed for a communication, your clothes must startle if they are to make your communicative intention unmistakable. Most of the messages we send when we dress, fashionably or otherwise, we send as half-on intimations. The chapter concentrates on the intentions of the individual dresser, contenting itself with the metaphor of the cultural ‘brand’ to explain how an entire culture may communicate with its clothes. The point of intimating with clothes is to get something across to another. Since clothes are the face we present to the world, this will most likely be something about ourselves; we tend to use clothes to offer a sample of ourselves. The chapter resists the idea that our clothes are never more than a social disguise.
Storytelling as Intimation
Authors: Ferrari G. R. F.
Published: October 2017

Full-on communications and half-on intimations are both overt. A kind of intimation that combines the overt and covert is now introduced, whose underlying form is ‘I want you to know that I do not want you to know that I want you to know’. Instances of such intimation in social life are common, often conditioned by politeness or self-protectiveness. The focus of the chapter, however, is on showing that the same pattern applies to the intimations that storytellers make to their audiences in the established narrative arts. Stories are overt about being pretences, since we know they are fictional; they are a mixture of covert and overt, however, when it comes to how they captivate their audience. Audiences must be made to lose themselves in the dramatically convincing story while still knowing the plot for the contrivance that it is. This achievement is the author’s overarching contrivance.
Depression
Authors: Cowen Philip
Published: October 2017

This chapter discusses the symptomatology, diagnosis, and classification of depression. It begins with a brief historical background on depression, tracing its origins to the classical term ‘melancholia’ that describes symptoms and signs now associated with modern concepts of the condition. It then considers the phenomenology of the modern experience of depression, its diagnosis in the operational scheme of ICD-10 (International Classification of Diseases, tenth edition), and current classificatory schemes. It looks at the symptoms needed to meet the criteria for ‘depressive episode’ in ICD-10, as well as clinical features of depression with ‘melancholic’ features or ‘somatic depression’ in ICD-10. It also presents an outline of the clinical assessment of an episode of depression before concluding with an overview of issues that need to be taken into account when addressing approaches to treatment, including cognitive behavioural therapy and the administration of antidepressants.
The Aetiology of Depression
Authors: Bargiotas Theodoros
Published: October 2017

This chapter discusses the aetiology of depression. It begins with an overview of reasons why the aetiology of depression has been and still is difficult to define, including its heterogeneity and the wider philosophical and methodological challenges involved. It then considers life events and social determinants of depression as well as psychological factors relevant to depression, including childhood development and early experiences, parenting style, and personality and personality disorders. It also examines cognitive behavioural theories of depression, neuropsychology, and psychodynamic theories, along with the role of unconscious processes and ego psychology in the aetiology of depression. Finally, the chapter describes the biological determinants of depression, paying attention to genetics, neurochemical changes in the brain, and stress and thyroid hormones.
The Cultural History of Depression
Authors: Berrios German E , Marková Ivana S
Published: October 2017

This chapter discusses the cultural history of depression, treating the term ‘depression’ as a ‘cultural construct’ within the confines of Western psychopathology. It begins with a historiographical overview of the cultural history of depression and what the term ‘depression’ means. It then considers the emergence of the term ‘depression’ to replace ‘melancholia’, along with the convergences of ‘melancholia’. It also examines the classification of depression, with particular emphasis on various assumptions that accumulated with regard to the nature of this group of disorders. The different varieties of depression and the minor depressions are described as well as the studies carried out by Robert Dick Gillespie and E Farquhar Buzzard. Finally, the chapter assesses the relationship between depression, the affective disorders, and issues concerning mental capacity and legal and ethical responsibility.
The Treatment of Depression
Authors: Series Hugh
Published: October 2017

This chapter considers some of the physical options for the treatment of the affective disorders, depression, and mania. It first provides an historical overview of physical treatments for depression, including drugs such as opium, morphine, and diamorphine, chloral, and barbiturates, as well as electroconvulsive therapy (ECT). It then examines whether antidepressants work and how they are used before describing the biological basis of depression. It also looks at different classes of antidepressants, including monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs), reuptake inhibitors, and mood stabilizers. Finally, it evaluates non-pharmacological physical treatments ranging from ECT to transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), psychosurgery and deep brain stimulation, and novel therapies.
Treatment
Authors: Osborne David , Williams Chris
Published: October 2017

This chapter discusses talking therapies, or psychotherapies, for people with depression. For many years the predominant clinical model of depression has relied on medication as the gold standard for treatment. However, the cost of antidepressant medication prescribing is significant and rising. In response, recent government mental health targets also emphasize psychological interventions as an important treatment option. This chapter provides an overview of the characteristics of people who typically access talking therapies before turning to talking therapies that are available, including those that are recommended by national treatment guidelines such as NICE in England and Wales and SIGN in Scotland. In particular, it considers evidence-based talking therapies such as cognitive behavioural therapy, mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT), interpersonal therapy (IPT), and psychoanalysis and psychodynamic psychotherapy. The chapter also assesses the implications of talking therapies for clients of legal professionals.
The Impact of Depression on Health Care Decisions
Authors: Saracino Rebecca , Masterson Melissa , Rosenfeld Barry
Published: October 2017

This chapter examines how depression affects health care decisions, with particular emphasis on patient autonomy, capacity, and competence for decision-making. It first considers the ethical boundaries and psycho-legal criteria for assessing decision-making capacity in the context of medical treatment decisions, attending to issues of autonomy and beneficence as well as the debate over whether paternalistic approaches have a place in our health care system. It then discusses the parameters that help define the debate over paternalism, along with the clinical challenges that accompany the assessment and implementation of these alternative approaches to health care decision-making. The chapter also reviews research exploring the impact of depressive symptoms on decision-making capacity and treatment refusal more specifically. It cites the doctrine of informed consent, the goal of which is to promote patient autonomy and rational decision-making. The chapter concludes with recommendations for a comprehensive approach to decision-making capacity assessment and directions for future research.
Depression and Consent to Treatment
Authors: Donnelly Mary
Published: October 2017

This chapter examines the law’s approach to decision-making capacity in the context of severe depression, with particular emphasis on decisions in respect of treatment (both treatment for the depressive condition itself and for other conditions that are not directly linked). It draws on the work of Matthew Ratcliffe on experiences of depression to highlight difficulties in applying the legal standard for decision-making capacity in the Mental Capacity Act 2005 (MCA) to people with severe depression. The chapter explains how the law can address the limits of a capacity-based approach to consent to treatment and argues that an appropriate legal framework requires better engagement with the experiences of people living with depression. This framework should be grounded in recovery norms rather than autonomy/capacity norms—even if it recognizes that the two will overlap in many situations.
Depression and Public Health Law
Authors: Coggon John
Published: October 2017

This chapter examines arguments for framing and approaching depression as a public health question, paying attention to legal, regulatory, and practical issues. A public health approach focuses on effecting positive health changes through methods of socially coordinated, population-level intervention. Public health agendas aim to prevent or mitigate the incidence of ill health in the first place to promote broader concepts of well-being. This chapter explains a public mental health law approach to depression by addressing two sets of questions: why we would wish to take a public health approach and how we go about it. It presents and expands on a dominant understanding of public health before turning to a broad characterization of public health law, and considering some practicalities of taking a public health approach. It concludes with a discussion of why depression is apt to be framed and addressed as a matter for public health law.
Depression and Civil Liability
Authors: Foster Charles
Published: October 2017

This chapter discusses the law in England and Wales relating to civil liability where people with depression are parties to litigation. It begins by considering how depression can truncate one’s capacity to conduct litigation. Where it does, and the person consequently ‘lacks capacity to conduct the proceedings’, litigation either for or against the depressed person has to be conducted through a ‘litigation friend’. No step in the litigation can occur unless a litigation friend has been appointed. In the Civil Procedure Rules, the term ‘lacks capacity’ is defined by reference to the Mental Capacity Act 2005. The chapter also examines the relevance of the mental health of parties to the litigation in a wide variety of claims, along with litigation against depressed people or in relation to damage caused by depressed people.
Introduction
Authors: Stoljar Daniel
Published: October 2017

This chapter introduces the main thesis of the book, reasonable optimism, according to which there is progress on reasonably many of the big problems of philosophy. It also introduces two distinctions central to that thesis: between big questions in philosophy and small questions, and between the subject matter of philosophy, and the big questions that people have asked in different times and places about that subject matter. Examples of professional philosophers who endorse either pessimism or something close to it are set forth and analysed. Scientific realism, a position often associated with reasonable optimism about history or science, is also introduced.
Six Further Arguments
Authors: Stoljar Daniel
Published: October 2017

This chapter criticizes six arguments for pessimism: the womb of disciplines argument, which suggests that philosophy is by definition the subject that does not make progress; the methodology argument, which suggests that philosophers are using the wrong tools for the problems that confront them; the pseudo-problems argument, which suggests that philosophical problems are not the sort for which progress should be expected; the speculation argument, which suggests that philosophy involves an illegitimate and irresponsible form of speculation; the history argument, which suggests that philosophy bears a different relation to its past than do sciences such as physics, and in consequence exhibits a different pattern of success and failure; and the technicalia argument, which suggests that the technical language so prevalent in philosophy is a bar to progress. In each case this chapter argues that these present no grounds for doubting reasonable optimism.
Introduction
Authors: Lifschitz Avi , Squire Michael
Published: October 2017

The volume’s introduction sketches the scope of Lessing’s Laocoon and reassess its legacy on the occasion of its 250th anniversary. It outlines Lessing’s arguments about the ‘limits’ (Grenzen) of poetry and painting, while situating Lessing’s project within Enlightenment ideas about the classical past and contemporary aesthetic criticism. The editors also lay out the overall purpose of the volume and introduce each of the chapters that follow, explaining the need for a cross-disciplinary approach.
Criticism as Poetry?
Authors: Décultot Élisabeth
Published: October 2017

If Laocoon constitutes an attempt to delineate the boundaries of poetry and painting, to what extent can these categories be applied to Lessing’s essay itself? Is Laocoon an exercise in poetry—and what is the relationship between Lessing’s own mode of writing and his theoretical delimitation of poetry? To answer these questions, Elisabeth Décultot turns to a 1755 text that Lessing composed together with Moses Mendelssohn (Pope—a Metaphysician!), a treatise in which both thinkers had tried to delineate the different realms of poetry and philosophy. Décultot argues that there is a close proximity between what Lessing calls ‘poetry’ and the nature of his own critical writing: criticism, at least as Lessing practises it in Laocoon, narrates action in time through the representation of a sequence of readings and debates with Lessing’s contemporaries.
Suffering in Art
Authors: Robertson Ritchie
Published: October 2017

Ritchie Robertson situates Lessing’s text within debates over the proper depiction of extreme suffering in art, focusing on Goethe’s essay on the Laocoon group (1798), as well as other late eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century works on the representation of pain. The issue of suffering in art was of utmost significance to Goethe’s ideology of the classical, Robertson explains; more than that, the themes introduced in Lessing’s essay—above all, its concerns with how suffering can be depicted in words and images—proved pivotal within Goethe’s prescriptions about the relationship between idealism and individuality (or ‘the characteristic’) in art. As part of a larger campaign against what he called ‘naturalism’ in art, Goethe argued that the ancients did not share the false notion that art must imitate nature. For Goethe, responding to Lessing, the power of the Laocoon group lay precisely in its depiction of bodily suffering as something not just beautiful, but also anmutig (‘sensuously pleasing’).
Transparency and Imaginative Engagement
Authors: Gaiger Jason
Published: October 2017

One of the most challenging aspects of Lessing’s Laocoon, Jason Gaiger argues, is its argument about the interplay between an artwork and the imaginative response of the subject. What role does the actual medium of a representation play in Laocoon? Does Lessing champion a ‘transparency theory of art’, whereby the medium of representation is ideally ‘transparent’ to what it represents? Or does Laocoon assume a more dynamic mode of engagement between material form and subjective imagination? Gaiger explores how critics over the last 250 years have differently approached these questions, while also outlining his own art-historical attempts at some critical answers.
Envoi
Authors: Gumbrecht Hans Ulrich
Published: October 2017

In his epilogue to the volume, Hans Ulrich Gumbrecht examines what it means to read Lessing’s text from a distance of 250 years. Tackling problems of hermeneutics, materiality, and the reception of the past, Gumbrecht explores both the proximity and distance between our current intellectual concerns and those that motivated Lessing and his contemporaries in 1766. According to Gumbrecht, the various ‘Classical Presences’ of Lessing’s treatise find their parallel in our own mediations of Lessing’s text.
Introduction
Authors: Shea C. Michael
Published: October 2017

The introduction provides an overview of Newman’s theory of doctrinal development as it appeared in his 1845 An Essay on the Development of Christian Doctrine, as well as a brief exploration of major social factors surrounding its publication and early reception among Roman Catholics. The introduction also includes a detailed discussion of methodological issues relating to the problem of reception across languages, social networks and other types of divisions and media, and an overview of previous scholarship on the early influence of Newman’s theory of development. The section concludes with an outline of the three parts and seven chapters of the study.
Promise and Peril
Authors: Shea C. Michael
Published: October 2017

This chapter undertakes a comparison of John Henry Newman’s reflections on faith and reason with those of his French contemporary, Louis Bautain, and the German writer, Georg Hermes. Both writers faced scrutiny from ecclesiastical authorities on the issue of faith and reason in the middle decades of the nineteenth century. The analysis shows that Newman shared affinities with both thinkers on the level of technical language and teachings regarding faith and reason. Newman’s view of implicit reason was at times strikingly similar to Bautain’s notion of raison, and Newman’s passing statements on proofs for the existence of God and use of Butler’s language of probability bore close and sometimes misleading resemblances to Hermes’s notion of Wahrscheinlichkeit. There were also key differences between Newman and these writers, which are shown in later chapters to have played a role in the early reception of the Essay on Development.
Promise and Peril in Rome, Part Three
Authors: Shea C. Michael
Published: October 2017

This chapter builds on the conceptual analyses in previous sections and examines Newman’s written and oral strategies for defending his Essay on Development and writings on faith in reason while he was in Rome as a seminary student in 1846 and 1847. The chapter focuses on the composition, which has later become known as the “Theses de fide” as well as on his proposed introduction to the French edition of the Oxford University Sermons, and Newman’s reliance on Perrone’s writings in these drafts. The chapter additionally explores the Jesuit theologian Giacomo Mazio’s public and private maneuvers in introducing Newman to important authorities and advocating for his theory of doctrinal development.
Perrone’s Reception of the Essay on Development
Authors: Shea C. Michael
Published: October 2017

Chapter 6 explores the 1847 document that has become known as the “Newman–Perrone Paper on Development.” Newman never intended this paper for publication. He composed the work in Rome for Perrone in order to see how far his theory of development was acceptable to Roman theologians. The document included several of Perrone’s terse but significant remarks. The first section of this chapter establishes a date for the Newman–Perrone exchange in spring of 1847, after Newman’s worries about the perceived orthodoxy of his views had subsided. The second part offers an analysis of the theological tenets of the document from both contributors. The chapter concludes with a revised interpretation of text, namely, that the theological encounter recorded in the “Newman–Perrone Paper” was not one of private admonition, but rather support.
Conclusion
Authors: Shea C. Michael
Published: October 2017

The conclusion reassesses the early impact of Newman’s theory of development. Contrary to studies of the last several decades, Newman’s theory was not marginal to nineteenth-century Roman Catholic thought; it played a role in the Church’s attempts to come to terms with history as a field of theological inquiry. The conclusion also offers an account of doctrinal development’s subsequent fall into obscurity. As Newman’s theory reached the pinnacle of influence in the decade after his conversion, a new movement in theology, Neoscholasticism, began to expand among Roman Catholics. Neoscholasticism was, in part, a reaction to political events that punctuated the nineteenth century, and the movement was less amenable than the Roman School to the idea of development. It was in large measure the rise of this movement, and the lack of sensitivity to these events in twentieth-century scholarship, which obscured the early significance of Newman’s theory.
Theoretical Responses and Methodology
Authors: Gerken Mikkel
Published: October 2017

Chapter 3 begins with a partial taxonomy of the theoretical responses to the puzzling patterns of knowledge ascriptions. This includes a characterization of pragmatic encroachment that captures a wide variety of views. Moreover, the main lines of argument from the various effects on knowledge ascriptions to unorthodox theories of knowledge are sketched. The chapter concludes with a discussion of methodology. Some critical points are set forth against DeRose’s methodology of the straightforward. On a positive note, some principles of an alternative equilibristic methodology are articulated. According to this methodology, it is sometimes reasonable to revise our intuitive judgments in the light of theoretical considerations.
Cognition and Communication
Authors: Gerken Mikkel
Published: October 2017

Chapter 8 connects the discussion of epistemic norms of assertion to pragmatics more generally and to the pragmatics of knowledge ascriptions in particular. Some pragmatic theories and recent work in cognitive pragmatics and psycholinguistics are presented. By conjoining these accounts with the psychological considerations of Chapter 5, it is argued that knowledge ascriptions are often used as communicative heuristics, which are effective, albeit inaccurate, ways of getting complex epistemic points across. This conclusion is developed with regard to knowledge ascriptions which carry the directive force of recommending. Thus, Chapter 8 concludes Part II of the book by unifying some of its central discussions about cognitive psychology, epistemic norms, and pragmatics.
Diagnosing Salient Alternative Effects
Authors: Gerken Mikkel
Published: October 2017

Chapter 10 addresses the salient alternative effects on knowledge ascriptions by developing the epistemic focal bias account. According to this account, denials of knowledge in the face of a salient alternative often amount to false negatives. But while this is argued to be central to a comprehensive diagnosis, it is recognized that other psychological factors may also influence this class of judgments, and some of these are discussed. Furthermore, the epistemic focal bias account is integrated with a number of assumptions drawn from cognitive pragmatics. In this manner, Chapter 10 provides an empirical account and philosophical diagnosis of the puzzling pattern of knowledge ascriptions constituted by salient alternative effects.
Diagnosing Contrast Effects
Authors: Gerken Mikkel
Published: October 2017

Chapter 11 concerns the contrast effects on knowledge ascriptions. It begins by articulating the epistemic focal bias account according to which the contrast effects amount to false positives. On this basis, it is argued that the epistemic focal bias account fulfills an important desideratum of providing a unified account of the contrast effect and salient alternatives effects. The empirical case for the focal bias account is augmented with a number of experimental results. Moreover, it is related to further psychological considerations and the philosophical anti-contrastivist arguments from Chapter 4. Finally, the account is connected to some pragmatic considerations that pertain to presupposition accommodation. In sum, Chapter 11 provides an account of the puzzling patterns of knowledge ascriptions constituted by contrast effects.
Diagnosing Practical Factor Effects
Authors: Gerken Mikkel
Published: October 2017

Chapter 12 deals with the practical factor effects by arguing that in the cases where practical factor effects are generated, the focus is on some pertinent action. In the cases where the knowledge ascription is merely mental, it is argued to serve as a heuristic proxy for a more complex judgment about epistemic actionability. Linguistic knowledge ascriptions are argued to serve a directive communicative function in the relevant cases. Therefore, the “shifty” judgments about the knowledge ascriptions reflect whether they meet or violate the epistemic norm governing directive speech acts—specifically the speech act of recommending. Thus, Chapter 12 combines psychological and linguistic considerations to account for the puzzling patterns of knowledge ascriptions constituting practical factor effects.
Historical Figure and Divine Being
Authors: ter Haar Barend J.
Published: October 2017

This chapter first provides a general introduction to the historical figure of Guan Yu and the cult which grew around him, Lord Guan becoming one the most popular and influential deities of imperial China. It surveys the historiography of the cult, from its earliest beginnings in the form of hagiographical compilations to academic research in Japanese, Chinese, and Western languages. Chinese language research in particular even today is often still hagiographic in character. A critical discussion is provided of this scholarship and its analytical problems. The chapter concludes with a detailed discussion of the nature of the historical evidence on a cult such as that of Lord Guan.
The Educated Deity
Authors: ter Haar Barend J.
Published: October 2017

During the sixteenth century, the educated elite developed their own beliefs about Lord Guan, with very distinct stories and expectations that were not necessarily shared by the non-literate community. As literacy increased during the Qing period, these beliefs and associated practices then also spread to a larger segment of the population, especially during the nineteenth century. From being a deity who primarily operated through his violent martial actions, appearing in dreams and visions, he acquired a new dimension in which he communicated with his literate audience through writing. He assisted his devotees with a more personal kind of help, still appearing in real life, dreams, and visions, but now also providing counsel by means of prognostication and spirit writing. The deity’s predictions were often enigmatic and became clear only after the unfolding of events, serving as a confirmation of what had happened rather than a very clear guide.
A Sustainable Century?
Authors: Blum Matthias , Ducoing Cristián , McLaughlin Eoin
Published: October 2017

This chapter traces the long-run development of genuine savings (GS) during the twentieth century using a panel of developed countries (Great Britain, Germany, Switzerland, France, the US, and Australia) and resource-abundant countries in Latin America (Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, and Mexico) representing approximately 50% of the world’s output in terms of GDP by 1950. It includes large economies and small open economies, and resource-rich and resource-scarce countries, allowing comparison of their historical experiences. Components of GS considered include physical and human capital as well as resource extraction and pollution damages. Generally, there is evidence of positive GS over the course of the twentieth century, although the two world wars and the Great Depression left considerable marks, but also striking differences between Latin American and developed countries when total factor productivity is included; this could be a signal of natural resource curse or technological gaps unnoticed in previous works.
Historical Wealth Accounts for Britain
Authors: McLaughlin Eoin , Hanley Nick , Greasley David , Kunnas Jan , Oxley Les , Warde Paul
Published: October 2017

Estimates of Britain’s comprehensive wealth are reported for the period 1760–2000. They include measures of produced, natural, and human capital, and illustrate the changing composition of Britain’s assets over this time period. This chapter shows how genuine savings (GS—a year-on-year measure of the change in total capital and a claimed indicator of sustainable development) has evolved over time. Changes in total wealth are compared to alternative, investment-based measures of GS, including variants augmented with the value of exogenous technology. In addition, the possible effects of population change on wealth, and the implications of including carbon dioxide emissions in natural capital, are considered.
The Economics of Sovereign Wealth Funds
Authors: Ossowski Rolando , Halland Håvard
Published: October 2017

Many countries have set up sovereign wealth funds (SWFs) as vehicles for public saving and wealth management. The majority are in resource-exporting countries; frequently stated objectives are macroeconomic and fiscal stabilization, intertemporal transfer of wealth, and national development. Some resource funds hold assets equivalent to several multiples of GDP, but many funds are relatively small. The evidence shows that the design and operation of an SWF can help or encumber economic management and wealth preservation. Poorly designed stabilization and saving funds without operational flexibility can be costly and interfere with wealth objectives. Many SWFs conduct domestic operations; this creates opportunities but also potentially serious risks to public wealth that must be addressed. Strong SWF governance and transparency are key to achieving sustainable performance and preventing political capture and misuse of public resources. While a number of funds have made progress in these areas, in others much remains to be done.
Contemporary Spirituality
Authors: Bruce Steve
Published: October 2017

The histories of the Findhorn Foundation (which is Europe’s oldest New Age centre) and of Glastonbury (England’s main New Age town) and detailed biographies of producers and consumers of holistic spirituality instruction, rituals, and therapies are used to describe such basic themes of the contemporary cultic milieu as individual autonomy, the importance of intuition, the persistence of the self through reincarnation, a melding of the realms of the living and the dead, the occult, a romantic preference for the natural and the ancient over the modern and the industrial, tolerance of diversity, and syncretism and holism. The unusual structure of the cultic milieu is described, and attention is drawn to the importance of ‘subsistence spirituality’: while some New Age activity is commercial, much is based on people providing services for themselves and their associates.