bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Games of Chance
Authors: Harries David
Published: November 2023

The purpose of this chapter is to introduce you to ideas of probability through an approach involving games. By the end of the work you will have been introduced to basic ideas of probability and expectation; be in a position to extend your own concepts and ideas by further reading and exploration; be able to further develop your analytical problem solving skills, including planning and designing appropriate situations for experiments and games. Some of the tasks are best carried out as part of a group. Although this may not always be possible, it is important that you discuss your ideas with others whenever you can, so that you clarify and extend your own thinking and communication skills. Individual work is also needed in analysing and designing the situations.
Balloons and Bubbles
Authors: Sewell Michael
Published: November 2023

Try to blow up a rubber party balloon, using only your lungs instead of a balloon pump. When the balloon is of the kind which becomes pseudospherical or pear-shaped, what significant experimental fact do you notice during the inflation process? You will usually find that inflation is difficult at first, and becomes easier in the later stages. We shall look for a mathematical expression of this fact. You might have expected the opposite effect, that it would be progressively harder to inflate the balloon because the rubber surface has to be stretched more and more. The reality is more subtle, because opposing factors have to be balanced, as we shall see.
Pythagorean Number Triples
Authors: Stirling David
Published: November 2023

The subject of this class is called number theory, which deals with the whole numbers, that is 1, 2, 3, 4 and so on and their negatives ‒1, ‒2, ‒3, …We shall not be interested in fractions or decimal numbers. This is a very old and beautiful subject but it is rather different from the way we do ordinary calculations for we cannot always solve simple equations. For example, the equation 2x = 3 does not have a solution if we only allow x to be a whole number. Some positive whole numbers can be expressed as the product of two smaller positive whole numbers (for example 6 = 2 × 3), while others cannot (for example, 7). The numbers which cannot be factorized into the product of two smaller numbers are called prime numbers. The first few prime numbers are 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17,… A great deal is known about the prime numbers but a lot has yet to be discovered. For example, we know that the list of prime numbers is infinite, that is, it never ends.
Plato, Polyhedra and Weather Forecasting
Authors: White Andy
Published: November 2023

Polyhedra are the main theme of this article; I’ll explain what they are very soon. Weather forecasting motivates what we’re going to do, and I’ll say something about it in Section 2. As we shall see later, Plato is associated with an important particular sort of polyhedron. We shall also meet Archimedes, Euclid and Euler. We have three aims.
Malingering and the law: a third way?
Authors: Sprince Alan
Published: November 2023

This chapter examines the phenomenon of malingering in the context of contemporary English law. It does so in three interlinking sections. In the first section, the various references to malingering in the modern legal context are identified and categorized. The second section examines the way in which the law actually addresses those malingering issues. Such an examination exposes something of a disparity between the noticeable number and nature of references to malingering in the modern cases and their ultimate insignificance in direct substantive terms. In the final section, the same material is subjected to critical analysis in order to offer an explanation for that discrepancy and, with it, perhaps the basis for an indirect legal contribution to the wider discourse.
Investigating the genetics of polygenic ischaemic stroke using intermediate phenotypes
Authors: Jerrard-Dunne Paula , Hassan Ahamad , Markus Hugh S
Published: November 2023

As stroke is the end result of a number of pathologically different processes, it is possible that many genes, each conferring a small amount of risk, are involved in influencing the end phenotype. Conventional case control studies may not be sufficiently powerful to detect the contribution of an individual disease allele. One logical step is to use intermediate phenotypes. Intermediate phenotypes represent specific components of the disease process. As the number of genes involved is likely to be less than that for ischaemic stroke, it is hypothesized that the overall contribution of each allele to the intermediate phenotype is greater and therefore easier to detect.
Genetics of intracerebral haemorrhage
Authors: Haan Joost
Published: November 2023

In a patient with acute neurological signs and symptoms, the diagnosis of a HS is often straightforward, as cerebral CT- and MRI-scan are almost 100 per cent reliable in detecting or excluding the presence of intracranial haemorrhage. The cause of the HS is, however, very often not immediately clear. Sometimes there are clues that point to a certain cause, such as the previous medical history of the patient, use of medication, age of the patient, the localization size and form of the haemorrhage, and its association with other structural abnormalities seen on imaging.
Modelling the cost-effectiveness of new interventions: how can technological change be incorporated?
Authors: Grieve Richard
Published: November 2023

To allocate health care resources in an efficient way, policy makers require information on the costs and outcomes of competing health care interventions (Maynard and Kavanos 2000). However, published information on the cost-effectiveness of new interventions is often not available (Davies et al. 1994). To address this problem, an increasing number of economic evaluations are being commissioned and published (Elixhauser et al. 1998; Pritchard 1998). Many economic evaluations now use models as trials are of insufficient duration to estimate cost-effectiveness over the required time horizon (Buxton et al. 1997).
Governance arrangements for the control of infectious disease
Authors: Allen Pauline
Published: November 2023

This chapter is about the effect of governance structures on the ability of public health services to carry out infectious disease control. The economics of governance as developed in new institutional economics and the closely related socio-legal study of contracting will be used as analytical tools to understand how organizational structures affect infectious disease control. Data from a study of contracting for infectious disease control in the former British National Health Service (NHS) will be used to illustrate underlying principles.
Epilogue: Application to Contemporary Challenges: Avian ‘flu and MRSA
Authors: Roberts Jennifer A
Published: November 2023

The purpose of this volume was two fold to offer those involved in the control of infectious disease an economic perspective and tools that would contribute to their task, and to introduce economists to some of the characteristics of infectious disease that pose interesting challenges for the discipline. The application of economics to the control or management of many of the major infections is provided in this volume and these applications offer insights and templates that might be used to explore other diseases. Economics has a role in placing a disease on the policy agenda. It can help in understanding the incentives and motivations of those involved in reporting and containing the spread of disease. It can evaluate and contribute to the design of cost-effective interventions. Economics can show the implications of poor governance structures and weak contracts for the design and application of guidance and regulations.
What is the Secret of All Life?
Authors: Acheson David
Published: November 2023

When I started school in the 1950s we had one elderly teacher – I will call her Miss H – who had a real air of mystery about her. She spoke in a thick foreign accent, and gave her lessons from a darkened corner of the classroom, where she sat huddled in a shawl.
A Dane for all seasons
Authors: Pais Abraham
Published: November 2023

In October 1957 man entered the space age. On 5 October the New York Times carried a headline spanning the entire front page: ‘Soviet fires earth satellite into space; it is circling the globe at 18000 mph; sphere tracked in 4 crossings over US.’ Sputnik I had gone into orbit.
In which Bohr goes to England for postdoctoral research
Authors: Pais Abraham
Published: November 2023

One day in late September 1911, as Bohr was crossing the Great Belt by ferry, he wrote to his fiancée: ‘I am taking off with all my silly fierce spirit’ (Jeg rejser ud med alt mit dumme vilde Mod). Financed by a stipend from the Carlsberg Foundation (a Danish institution) for a year’s study abroad, he was on his way to Cambridge to start postdoctoral research under J. J. Thomson, the director of the Cavendish. In his baggage he carried the poor translation of his Ph.D. thesis, which he had helped prepare a little earlier (6d).
‘Student’
Authors: Pearson E S , Plackett R L , Barnard G A
Published: November 2023

‘Student’ was the pseudonym which William Sealy Gosset used when pub lishing his scientific work. He was employed for the whole of his working life as a Brewer with Arthur Guinness, Son & Co. Ltd., as the firm was then called, but his publications over thirty years during the early part of the twentieth century, and his friendship with other statistical pioneers, have had a pro found effect on the practical use of statistics in industry and agriculture. The account of his work and correspondence which follows has been developed from the writings ofEgon Sharpe Pearson, who knew him well. After Gosset’s death in 19 37, Pearson published an essay on ‘Student’ as statistician, and towards the end of his own life in 1980 he commented in typescript on his correspondence with Gosset, as well as on the earlier correspondence between his father Karl Pearson and Gosset. We have attempted to collate and edit all this material with the objective of presenting a rounded biography of a distinguished statistician, whose attractive personality shone out in every thing that he did.
Background
Authors: Pearson E S , Plackett R L , Barnard G A
Published: November 2023

Statistics is a scientific discipline concerned with the collection, analysis, and interpretation of data obtained from observation or experiment. The subject has a coherent structure based on the theory of probability, and includes many different procedures which contribute to research and development throughout the whole of science and technology. Statisticians engage in specialist activities worldwide, working for government, industry, higher education, and research institutions. They are organized in professional bodies, both national and international. and meet regularly to discuss progress, in groups which range in size from small seminars to large conferences. Their interests extend from theoretical studies which examine methodology to practical applications in a wide variety of fields. Textbooks which describe every aspect of the subject and journals which report on progress over the spectrum of activities have both steadily built up into large collections of scientific material.
William Sealy Gosset
Authors: Pearson E S , Plackett R L , Barnard G A
Published: November 2023

The Gossets were an old Huguenot family who left France at the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685, and became middle class with army and clerical traditions. Among them was Frederic Gosset, a Colonel in the Royal Engineers, who in 18 75 married Agnes Sealy Vidal. There were five children, the eldest being William Sealy Gosset, born on 13 June 1876 in Canterbury. He was bright enough to win scholarships, which must have provided welcome additions to the funding of his education, since the family had to live frugally. Gosset was a Scholar of Winchester College from 1889 to 1895. The school had been founded in 1382 by William of Wykeham, and towards the end of the nineteenth century was with other public schools beginning to go through an intellectual renaissance. Unable to follow his father into the Royal Engineers because of poor eyesight, Gosset took up a scholarship at New College, Oxford, another Wykehamite foundation. Here he obtained a First in Mathematical Moderations in 1897 and left in 1899 with a First Class degree in Chemistry.
Egon S. Pearson
Authors: Pearson E S , Plackett R L , Barnard G A
Published: November 2023

Without doubt the four persons who played the greatest part in shaping my approach to the discipline of mathematical statistics were Karl Pearson (inevitably). R. A. Fisher, W. S. Gosset, and my friend and collaborator, Jerzy Neyman. My mathematical powers were only moderate, for my degree in Mathematics at Cambridge was based on taking Part I of the Mathematical Tripos in 1915, and then, after the First World War using war service at the Admiralty and Ministry of Shipping, plus attendance during 1919-20 at selected Part II lectures to complete my course for the B.A. degree.

This weakness in mathematics undoubtedly had certain compensations: it caused me to thrash out problems with greater thoroughness, and to use an innate capacity for visual presentation. For both these reasons, I was, perhaps, the better teacher of many of the students who came to learn statistics at University College, and better able to give help later on as an adviser over industrial quality control problems and during the Second World War to technical officers in the Services, when three members of my staff and I were attached to the Ordnance Board, Ministry of Supply.
Multivariate calibration
Authors: Brown Philip J
Published: November 2023

Multivariate regression is concerned with the relationship between two sets of variables. The two sets of variables are treated asymmetrically. The response set is regarded as random and the explanatory set treated as if it is fixed, even though in reality both may be random. Inference may centre on predicting the random set given values of the fixed set, and this is standard regression prediction; or it may concentrate on estimation of the fixed explanatory vector that gave rise to observations on the random set, the calibration problem. Multiple regression in the previous two chapters dealt with the special standard case of just one response variable. Just as in this univariate case, the multivariate calibration problem depends crucially on whether in reality in the training data the explanatory variables are randomly observed or are fixed by design.
Introduction
Authors: Atkinson A C , Doney A N
Published: November 2023

This book is concerned with the design of experiments when uncontrollable fluctuations are appreciable compared with the effects to be investigated. Statistical methods are essential for experiments which provide unambiguous answers with a minimum of effort and expense, particularly if the effects of several factors are to be studied. The emphasis is on designs derived using the theory of optimum experimental design. Two main contributions result from such methods. One is the provision of algorithms for the construction of designs, and the other is the availability of quantitative methods for the comparison of proposed experiments. As we shall see, many of the widely used standard designs are optimum in ways to be defined in later chapters. The algorithms of the theory allow the incorporation of non-standard features into designs, often with little loss of efficiency.
The choice of a model
Authors: Atkinson A C , Doney A N
Published: November 2023

Optimum experimental designs depend upon the model or models to be fitted to the data, although not usually, for linear models, on the values of the parameters of the models. This chapter is intended to give some advice on the choice of an appropriate form for a model. Whether or not the choice was correct can, of course, only be determined by analysis of the experimental results.
Standard designs
Authors: Atkinson A C , Doney A N
Published: November 2023

The examples in Chapter 6 show that it is not always possible to find a design which is simultaneously optimum for several criteria. When there are only one or two factors, plots of the variance function, like those in Chapter 6, can be used to assess different aspects of a design’s behaviour. But when there are several factors and the model is more complicated, such plots cannot be drawn. Designs satisfying one or several criteria arc then found by numerical optimization of the design criterion, a function of the design points and of the number of trials. Algorithms for the construction of continuous designs, which do not depend on the total number of trials, are described in Chapter 9. The more complicated algorithms for exact designs are the subject of Chapter 15. In this chapter we give a short survey of some standard designs which avoid the use of these algorithms, particularly when the factors arc all quantitative. If particular properties of the design arc important, the equivalence theorems of Chapter 10 can be usd to assess and compare designs.
Failure of the experiment and design augmentation
Authors: Atkinson A C , Doney A N
Published: November 2023

There arc many possible reasons for disappointment or dissatisfaction with the results of an experiment. Four common ones arc considered here:
Non-linear models
Authors: Atkinson A C , Doney A N
Published: November 2023

Experimental designs for non-linear models depend on the values of the parameters, which will generally be unknown. In this section we first give four examples of non-linear models and then consider the general implications for design of this dependence on unknown values.
Optimum Bayesian designs
Authors: Atkinson A C , Doney A N
Published: November 2023

Optimum designs for non-linear models depend on the values of the vector of unknown parameters θ. fn Chapter 18 this dependence was resolved by replacing Oby a prior point estimate θ0, use of which yielded locally optimum designs. In this chapter we consider instead design when there is a prior distribution for θ, which may be either discrete or continuous. This extra information is incorporated into the design by taking expectations of the design criterion over the prior distribution. A general equivalence theorem for such criteria is given in §19.2. The principal difference between this equivalence theorem and that of §9.2 is that Caratheodory’s Theorem no longer provides an upper bound on the number of trials in the experimental design.
Examples. Random-effects models
Authors: Longford Nicholas T
Published: November 2023

In this chapter random-effects methods are illustrated for the five datasets introduced in Section 2.2. The analyses are incomplete and they highlight the need for analysis with more general patterns of between-cluster variation. After the theoretical groundwork layed in Chapter 4, the same datasets are reanalysed in Chapter 5. Throughout the chapter, statistical significance at the 5 per cent level is used.
Examples using random coefficient models
Authors: Longford Nicholas T
Published: November 2023

Random coefficient models are illustrated in this chapter for the datasets introduced in Chapter 2 and analysed in Chapter 3 using random-effects models. The analyses focus on patterns of between-cluster variation.
A General Theory of Biplots
Authors: Gower JC
Published: November 2023

An account is given in this chapter of recent extensions to biplot method ology that permit graphical representations of the samples and variables of multivariate data-matrices whose inter-sample distances may be defined generally and which are approximated by general methods of multidimensional scaling. The extensions admit quantitative and/or categorical variables. An important distinction for the proper interpretation of such biplots is whether their use is for interpolation or prediction. The key to these ex tensions is via generalised coordinate axes or even more general reference systems. Classical linear biplots, based on principal components analysis, and multiple correspondence analysis, are special cases of the generalisations.
Field-work and methods
Authors: Pennington Renee , Harpending Henry
Published: November 2023

The collection of good data is not a well studied aspect of demography. Since the quality and nature of data affect the scope of their usefulness and determine the validity of any conclusions drawn from them, we discuss in detail how we collected our data and how our methods may lead to various sources of bias. We also compare anthropological data collection techniques with those standard in demography. While the methods differ in scale and detail, there are big advantages in terms of data quality in smaller studies. We also discuss features of the Herero population by examining peculiarities in their age-sex pyramid.
Modelling Frequency and Count Data
Authors: Lindsey J k.
Published: November 2023

Categorical data analysis is a special area of generalised linear models, which has become the most important area of statistical applications in many disciplines, from medicine to social sciences. This text presents the standard models and many newly developed ones in a language which can be immediately applied in many modern statistical packages such as GLIM, GENSTAT, S-Plus, as well as SAS and LISP-STAT. The book is structure around the distinction between independent events occurring to different individuals, resulting in frequencies, and repeated events occurring to the same individuals, yielding counts. The book demonstates that much of modern statistics can be seen as special cases of categorical data models; both generalized linear models and proportional hazards models can be fitted as log linear models. More specialized topics such as Markov chains, overdispersion and random effects, are also covered.
Larger tables
Authors: Lindsey J k.
Published: November 2023

In Chapter 1, we studied some models for patterns in one-way tables. These methods can often be extended directly to larger tables. Here, we shall be interested in the dependence of a response distribution on explanatory variables in a variety of contexts. Thus, as often in statistics, we shall distinguish between response variables and explanatory variables af!-d look for patterns in the dependence of (the distribution of) the former on the latter. In some cases, we may even be able to expect a certain precise pattern of dependence for theoretical reasons; in the latter context, we shall conclude the chapter by looking at an example from genetics.
Ordinal variables
Authors: Lindsey J k.
Published: November 2023

In the analysis of categorical data, ordinal variables are commonly encountered. The categories are known to have an order but knowledge of the scale is insufficient to consider them as forming a metric. Although they may be treated simply as nominal categories, as in the first two chapters, valuable information is being lost. At the same time, they cannot be handled as continuous variables, using the models of the previous chapter, without making often unjustified assumptions. Occasionally, a linear scale can be used for an ordinal variable, but the goodness of fit of such a model should be checked, as we shall always do below. However, in most cases, special models are required for such variables. Thus, ordinal variables lie in between nominal and continuous variables. In this chapter, we shall employ several approaches to modelling them.
Zero frequencies
Authors: Lindsey J k.
Published: November 2023

When several categorical variables are cross-tabulated to form a table of several dimensions, some cells often contain zero frequencies of response. Such a situation may arise in at least three ways. The zero may have occurred simply because the sample size was not large enough and that combination of categories is not represented. A large enough sample would theoretically include such combinations. In the other two cases, the combination of categories is actually impossible, either a structural zero or a model zero, the latter being produced by excluding the combination from the model for some theoretical reason. In the first case, the expected frequencies or fitted values should be positive. In the latter two cases, the expected frequencies for any model must be zero. In the next section, we shall consider the first case, that of sampling zeros. In subsequent sections, as well as in Part II, various forms of incomplete tables with structural and model zeros will be covered.
Counting processes
Authors: Lindsey J k.
Published: November 2023

In this part, we shall look at dependent events. These will usually be events occurring to the same individual unit, instead of to independently sampled units, as was the case for the frequencies of events in the first part. Often a sequence of events over time will be available. One way to model such data is to look at the probability, called the risk or intensity, of an event in each small interval of time. Models will describe how this changes, over time, since a previous event or since the process began, and with various explanatory variables. Another equivalent way is to look at the accumulating number of events. As its name suggests, this counting process is a random variable over time, N(t), which counts the number of events which have occurred up to t. Then the intensity is just the (local average) rate at which the counting process changes over time, so that the two approaches are very closely related.
Markov chains
Authors: Lindsey J k.
Published: November 2023

In Section 7.3, we briefly introduced models for Markov chains in the simple case where there were only two possible responses: an event occurs or not. However, such models have much wider application. In continuous time models, where each subject is in one of several possible states at any given point, they are often called semi-Markov processes or Markov renewal processes and may be analysed by the counting process methods of Chapter 7. The intensities, then, refer to the transition probabilities between states, as we saw in Section 7.7. In this chapter and the next, we shall be looking at Markov chains in discrete time, where the response is only recorded a few times, but where several states are usually possible. In such cases, observations are usually made on a large number of units. Here, we shall consider some traditional aspects of such chains, such as their order and whether or not the transition matrix is stationary. In the next chapter, we study how to impose more complex structures on the transition matrix.
Parametric Statistical Inference
Authors: Lindsey J K
Published: November 2023

Inference involves drawing conclusions about some general phenomenon from limited empirical observations in the face of random variability. In a scientific context, the general must include the completely unforeseen if all possibilities are to be considered. Many of the statistical models most used to describe such phenomena belong to one of a small number of families--the exponential, transformation, and stable families. In the past 25 years, the likelihood function has been recognized as the fundamental element of approach to drawing scientific conclusions. This book brings together for the first time these two components of statistics as the central themes of statistical inference. Chapters focus on model building, approximations, and examples. There are also appendices on the elements of measure theory, probability theory, and numerical methods. The discussions are appropriate for students of mathematical statistics.
The patient with insomnia
Authors: Mynors-Wallis Dr Laurence , Moore Dr Michael , Maguire Mr Jon , Hollingbery Mr Timothy
Published: November 2023

Advising those with sleep problems on what to do is an activity common in both general practice and everyday life. Much of such advice is common sense, some evidence based and some folklore. There are a range of effective drug and non-drug interventions for insomnia. This chapter will set out a systematic approach to the management of sleep problems in primary care. Insomnia is the perception, or complaint, of inadequate or poor-quality sleep because of one or more of the following:
The patient with an eating disorder
Authors: Mynors-Wallis Dr Laurence , Moore Dr Michael , Maguire Mr Jon , Hollingbery Mr Timothy
Published: November 2023

In adolescent girls, eating disorders are the third most common disorder behind obesity and asthma. Rates for males are about 5-10% those for females. The prevalence of eating disorders is directly related to rates of dieting behaviour, although only a minority of young people who diet go on to develop an eating disorder. When dieting and the desire to be thin combine with problems of self-esteem and interpersonal relationships, an eating disorder is a possible outcome.
Perspectives in higher-order motor deficit rehabilitation. Which approach for which ecological result?
Authors: Rossetti Yves , Rode, Gilles , Goldenberg Georg
Published: November 2023

There is a wide variability of motor impairments. Motor deficits can result from the damage of pure motor, sensory, or cognitive systems, or from combinations of the three. While sensory deficits can be partially compensated by learning specific strategies to use the remaining senses, motor deficits due to lesion of the motor output areas and from cognitive functions linked to action planning or to space representation have strong debilitating consequences. As examples of these conditions, in this chapter we will discuss the methods used to rehabilitate some intrinsic or extrinsic motor disorders such as hemiplegia, apraxia, and those disorders resulting from misrepresentation of space.
The Story Of Life
Authors: Southwood T R E
Published: November 2023

How did life begin? What really was 'snowball earth'? Why did the dinosaurs go extinct? Are we all descended from 'African Eve'? Will humans be responsible for the next major extinction? All these are addressed in this fascinating book. The story unfolds with the formation of the earth around four thousand million years ago, though it took until after massive bombardment by asteroids a hundred million years later for life to emerge and another fifteen million years until more complex life began to appear. Periods of relatively calm, like a kaleidoscope held still, were punctuated by five vigorous shakes of the kaleidoscope representing major extinctions, with innumerable minor jolts along the way. Five million years ago an able ape evolved that gradually came to dominate and control the other animals and plants. Evolution in all its complexity has been put aside and the future lies in the hands of single species. Southwood's love for his subject, and for the life he describes, shines through this carefully and straightforwardly crafted story. It is generously illustrated with line drawings showing the creatures and plants that inhabited the changing world and reconstructions of entire habitats, with maps of the globe that show the progress of the land itself.
Sand, Mud and Shallow Seas
Authors: Southwood T R E
Published: November 2023

During this period—;the Silurian and Devonian—;the continental land masses were, in the main, slowly approaching each other. Gondwana was a single entity, moving over the South Pole. So the continental land masses that now constitute Central Africa, Southern Africa, and South America all passed over the pole until Gondwana was clear of the pole, only to move back again at the end of the period (fig. 6.1). The northern edge of Gondwana was fringed by extensive shallow seas and at one stage these were contiguous with those of the land mass that now includes China—;one of several land masses in the north, that would come together to form the supercontinent Laurasia. The North American and Northern European (Baltica) continents came together, forcing up mountain ranges such as the Appalachians and the ‘Caledonide’of Scotland and Norway.
The Giant Continent Forms
Authors: Southwood T R E
Published: November 2023

At the start of this period Gondwana and Laurasia had just started to collide; by the end of it, the giant continent of Pangaea stretched from the South Pole to near the North Pole with the Palaeo-Tethys Sea on its east-ern side, almost entirely enclosed by ‘continents’ that have come to be parts of China and south-east Asia. In the tropical regions, around the Palaeo-Tethys Sea there were, particularly in the Carboniferous period, extensive forested swamps, now represented by deposits of coal, oil and gas; later in the Permian period coal was deposited further away from the equator. In the early Carboniferous an ice sheet formed over the southern portion of Gondwanaland which became increasingly more extensive until the late Permian.
Alcohol, drugs: having fun or playing with fire?
Authors: Graham Philip
Published: November 2023

Most parents would find it impossible to give a straight answer to that question. They might perhaps say that they would be very unhappy about their child drinking at 13 years of age, but feel quite relaxed about it by the time their child was at the end of the teens. But the way they behave to their children makes it likely that their attitudes are a great deal more complicated than that would suggest. Many parents who would be horrified if their 13-year-old went to a party where unlimited alcohol was on offer would think it quite normal to let their child have a glass of wine when the family was having a celebratory meal at home. And why not? In contrast, they would probably not feel at all relaxed if their 19-year-old son or daughter was frequently drunk, drinking to relieve feelings of depression, getting into fights while drunk, or having unprotected sex with numerous different partners while drunk. So the answer to the question about how parents feel about their children and alcohol is not straightforward. Clearly the age of the child in question is a major consideration, but so is the amount drunk and the circumstances in which drinking is taking place.
The geological time frame
Authors: Fenchel Tom
Published: November 2023

From the beginning of the 19th century it became possible to establish a relative geological time-scale on the basis of the layering of different types of rock. A given stratum could be expected to be younger than underlying strata, and older than overlying ones. Some rocks may be sedimentary-deposited in water to become sandstone, shale, or limestone. Metamorphosed rocks resulted from the melting and subsequent solidification of other types of rocks. Igneous rocks were solidified lava or magma.
What is life?
Authors: Fenchel Tom
Published: November 2023

Something with eyes or antennae that crawls or walks is easily recognized as ‘life’. When shown a dried seed or a slimy bacterial film, many people would be less certain. In fact, it is not easy to define life. Among many other difficulties it is a problem that we know of only one kind of life. It is possible to rephrase the question by asking what sort of scientific equipment should be placed in a space probe that is sent off into space to investigate whether there is life on some other planet. This was topical when planning the Viking mission that landed two probes on Mars in 1976 and again today in connection with future Mars missions.
Transitions during the evolution of life
Authors: Fenchel Tom
Published: November 2023

Contemporary understanding of evolution (often referred to as the Neo-Darwinian Synthesis) explains directional evolution as the replacement of alleles in species populations driven by natural selection. An overwhelming amount of theoretical and experimental documentation as well as data deriving from palaeontology and natural history shows that this description is fundamentally correct. It is not, however, always appreciated that the effect of natural selection is often the mainte nance of stable phenotypes over long periods of geological time.
Implications
Authors: Gaston Kevin J
Published: November 2023

One of the major, and arguably the most important, driving forces behind recent, on-going, and planned studies in the field of aerography is concern about some of the significant environmental problems that humanity is facing at present (Section 1.2.1). These include such issues as the loss of biodiversity, the impacts of climate change, the spread of invasive species, and the control of pests and diseases.
Array features
Authors: Metcalf Michael , Reid John , Cohen Malcolm
Published: November 2023

In an era when many computers have the hardware capability for efficient processing of array operands, it is self-evident that a numerically-based language such as Fortran should have matching notational facilities. Such facilities provide not only a notational convenience for the programmer, but provide an opportunity to extend the power of the language.
Establishing and moving data
Authors: Metcalf Michael , Reid John , Cohen Malcolm
Published: November 2023

Many relatively minor improvements have been made to the pre-existing facilities for manipulating data objects. It is now possible for some components of a type to be private while others remain public. The private statement in a type, which previously set all components to be private, now merely sets the default accessibility of components to be private.
Miscellaneous enhancements
Authors: Metcalf Michael , Reid John , Cohen Malcolm
Published: November 2023

This chapter collects together a number of miscellaneous enhancements made in Fortran 2003 that do not fit into any convenient category. The intent attribute has been extended to include pointers. For a pointer, the intent refers to the pointer association and not to the value of the target; that is, it refers to the descriptor. An intent (out) pointer has undefined association status on entry to the procedure; an intent(in) pointer cannot be nullified or associated during execution of the procedure; and the actual argument for an intent (inout) pointer must be a pointer variable (that is, it cannot be a reference to a pointer-valued function).
Graphical models in credit scoring
Authors: Sewart Pete , Whittaker Joe
Published: November 2023

Graphical models simplify the analysis of multivariate observations by summarizing conditional independences in the data. Variables are represented by nodes. and the absence of an edge between two nodes signifies their conditional independence. While graphical modeling has been used in several applications of statistics. credit scoring has only recently been suggested as a suitable candidate.

This chapter suggests the following potential uses for graphical models: to display and interpret the associations between variables taken from a credit-card application form; to compare the credit scoring of sub-populations; to give a description of the credit-scoring selection process in terms of influence diagrams; and to assess the effect of selection bias and stratification on the interdependency of variables.
Psychogeriatric services: trends in Latin America
Authors: Tamai Sergio
Published: November 2023

At the end of the last century the proportion of the population older than 65 approximated or exceeded the 10 per cent level - i.e. slightly below those attained in Canada and the United - in only five countries: Argentina, Barbados, Cuba, Martinique and Uruguay (Pan American Health Organization, 1997).
The role of psychogeriatric services in long-term residential care settings
Authors: Snowdon John
Published: November 2023

There are considerable differences in long-term residential care arrangements between different parts of the world. and there have been variations over time. The percentage of people who live to be old and disabled has dramatically increased, but to an extent that varies between countries. For example, the percentage of people aged over 80 years in Kenya, Egypt and the Philippines was under 0.25 per cent in 1980, but was expected to double in twenty years or so, while already in 1980 in France, the United Kingdom (UK), West Germany and Sweden about 2.5 per cent were aged over 80 years (Selby and Schechter, 1982). Some countries have devoted considerable resources to provision of long-term accommodation and services for disabled older persons, but the World Health
Prophylactic treatment and course of the disease in headache associated with sexual activity
Authors: Frese A , Frese K , Schwaag S , Rahmann A , Husstedt, I -W , Evers S
Published: November 2023

Since the 1970s, attention has been drawn to a benign form of headache appearing during sexual activity. In their landmark papers, Paulson and Klawans and Lance distinguished three different types of headache associated with sexual activity (HSA), which are regarded as idiopathic. The International Headache Society (IHS) classifies HSA under ‘miscellaneous headaches unassociated with structural lesions’ ( diagnosis 4.6.1-4.6.3) and differentiates three subtypes. Type 1 is a dull ache in the head and neck that intensifies as sexual excitement increases. Type 2, also called the explosive subtype, is the most frequent type accounting for 69% of the first 70 published cases of HSA. Its intensity and sudden onset makes the exclusion of a subarachnoid hemorrhage necessary. Type 3 is a postural headache resembling the one caused by low cerebrospinal fluid pressure. This headache develops after coitus.
Nonlinear Lattices
Authors: Scott Alwyn
Published: November 2023

Hitherto we have considered nonlinear partial differential equations, in which both the time and space coordinates are continuous independent variables. In the present chapter, we take the spatial variable to be a lattice of points, so the objects of study are sets of nonlinear ordinary differential equations, with time remaining a continuous independent variable. Such problems have a venerable place in the history of nonlinear wave studies, going back at least to the 1939 investigation by Frenkel and Kontorova of plastic deformations in crystals that led them to a spatially discrete version of the sine-Gordon equation [60].
Perturbation Theory
Authors: Scott Alwyn
Published: November 2023

In the previous chapters of this book, we have considered a number of exact solutions for nonlinear dynamic equations. These include the famous solitons, of course, and N-soliton formulas, but other sorts of traveling-waves have been examined, including those on lattices and nonlinear diffusion systems. That such solutions exist is an important fact, involving a shift in paradigm that has overtaken the fields of applied science since the 1970s.
Living with a Long-Term Illness
Authors: Campling Frankie , Sharpe Michael
Published: November 2023

All long-term illnesses, whatever their diagnosis, have much in common. The difficulties and challenges that come with illness, and the strategies to overcome them, are shared by most patients. Managing an illness effectively and tackling the difficulties it causes can greatly improve how you feel and your quality of life. This book identifies the challenges posed by illness and suggests a wide variety of ways in which you might meet them. Key to this is the idea of becoming expert in managing your own illness and learning how best to deal with it. The authors accept that you know more than them about how you experience it, so that rather than telling you what to do, they offer a tool box from which you may pick the strategies that best suit you. The two authors, one a person with a long-term illness and one a doctor, combine their expertise and experience to offer a practical and comprehensive guide along your own unique journey. If you have a long-term illness, or if you care for someone who does, then this is a book for you.
Managing Illness
Authors: Campling Frankie , Sharpe Michael
Published: November 2023

This book is essentially about managing your illness. Management includes both medical management and your own self-management. Active self-management of your illness is an opportunity to improve your quality of life that should not be missed.
Managing Fatigue
Authors: Campling Frankie , Sharpe Michael
Published: November 2023

Fatigue is one of the most common symptoms of many long-term illnesses. It can range from just getting tired more easily than normal to a feeling of total exhaustion after not doing much. It can reduce your activities and take the edge off your pleasure in what you do manage. As this is probably one of the three or four symptoms that most reduces quality of life, it seems reasonable to start a discussion of managing specific problems with this one. Although we cannot suggest a ‘magic bullet’ of a drug that will eliminate fatigue, we can suggest ways of managing it. If you tire easily and have a very limited amount of energy, then it is very important to manage what energy you do have in the best way so that you are able to do more without becoming exhausted. There are various techniques that really do help.
Managing Bladder and/or Bowel Problems
Authors: Campling Frankie , Sharpe Michael
Published: November 2023

These can be very common for a lot of people, and can add to the difficulties of managing a long-term illness. If you suffer from them, it is always worth getting medical help and advice. Being afraid to go too far away from the toilet is very restricting and reduces your quality of life.
Eating Well and Wisely
Authors: Campling Frankie , Sharpe Michael
Published: November 2023

Good food, and the pleasure and nourishment you can get from it, should be part of your self-management plan. If you are feeling unwell or tired, it can be all too easy to neglect yourself, going for the easiest options in meals and eating at odd hours, but a good, varied diet is important for health. Maintain or get back into the habit of having meals at consistent, normal times—breakfast, lunch and supper. Some people feel better if they do not go too long between meals. If you are one of them, then including small, healthy snacks between meals can be a good idea.
Improving Your Quality of Life
Authors: Campling Frankie , Sharpe Michael
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, we look at ways of making your life simpler or easier, so as to get the best from today. Improving the quality of your life today is a worth while aim. Making today better can also alleviate fears about tomorrow .Even if you believe that your health is not likely to improve, trying out some of the strategies we have suggested in this book may reduce some of your symptoms. Finding ways of overcoming some of the difficulties caused by your illness can improve the quality of your life. If you can feel that you are coping pretty well with what is happening now, you are more likely to feel more confident that you will cope with whatever tomorrow brings.
Getting Practical and Financial Assistance
Authors: Campling Frankie , Sharpe Michael
Published: November 2023

Getting practical assistance with the things in your daily life which you find difficult, painful, fatiguing or even plain impossible can make managing your illness easier and improve your quality of life. Just how much help you need or would like will obviously depend on your particular illness and your individual circumstances. It is easy enough to talk about getting help, but in reality it can often be difficult.
Ambulatory paediatrics
Authors: Lachman Peter , Isaza Fernando , Bucknall Jackie
Published: November 2023

The concept of ‘ambulatory paediatrics’ evolved in the USA in the early 1960s. Heller (1994) described the development of paediatricians who could take an overview of children’s needs especially those who did not need admission. In this chapter we intend to break down the misconceptions of the terminology and to lead the reader into a clearer understanding of how a modern healthcare service can develop and how this can link into the services provided by the general practitioner.