bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Assessment and Gender
Authors: Linn Marcia C , Kessel Cathy
Published: November 2023

This chapter explores sources of gender bias in assessments of psychological health and makes recommendations for recognizing, isolating, neutralizing, and investigating these effects. Measures used in assessments serve as proxies for constructs and, as a result, are open to invalid, inaccurate, and biased interpretation. Differences in social roles, societal expectations, opportunity to learn, or biological characteristics may con-found assessment responses and interpretations for females and males. Training programs for mental health professionals may predispose individuals to take a biomedical, cultural, or a psychological view of health rather than combining them in a biopsychosocial perspective. Lack of research or clear recommendations about certain populations, such as adolescents, further confounds efforts to assess females and males. Establishing valid assessments for complex constructs such as depression, mathematics anxiety, or eating disorders may require differential norms for females and males, multiple indicators, or a team of interpreters.
Anxiety Disturbance in Girls and Women
Authors: Silverman Wendy K , carter Rona
Published: November 2023

Although distinctions have been made between fear (a response to imminent threat), worry (a preparation for future threat), and anxiety (apprehension and anticipation), they all share a similar response pattern that may lead to impairing anxiety symptoms or disorders. These response patterns typically fall under three different but interrelated components: cognitive responses (e.g., “People will laugh at me if I raise my hand”), physiological responses (e.g., increased heart rate or sweating), and behavioral responses (e.g., avoidance of social situations). An important challenge for researchers lies in distinguishing aspects of transitory fears, worries, and anxieties that differ for females and males from fears, worries, and anxieties that persist and impair functioning over different developmental periods.
Self-Esteem
Authors: malanchuk Oksana , Eccles jacquelynne s.
Published: November 2023

Much has been written about self-esteem in the past 50 years, most of it with the assumption that self-esteem is a pervasive and universal phenomenon with primarily beneficial outcomes. The emphasis has been mostly on levels of self-esteem and their accompanying correlates, with a concomitant interest in how to obtain high selfesteem. This line of research eventually fostered a practical approach in the 1980s on how to provide self-esteem to children in school-based programs (Mecca, Smelser, & Vasconcellos, 1989). No easily definable outcomes having resulted from this approach, an extensive review of the literature was undertaken in the 1990s. The surprising conclusion was that self-esteem is not discernibly related to any beneficial outcomes and that high self-esteem may not always be a good thing (Baumeister, Campbell, Kreuger, & Vohs, 2003). Most recently, the focus has shifted from selfesteem as an entity to self-esteem as a process, from self-esteem as a passive personality characteristic to self-esteem as a motive (Crocker & Park, 2004a).
Resilience and Empowerment
Authors: O’leary Virginia E , bhaju jeshmin
Published: November 2023

Until recently, most psychological theory and research on women’s health and well-being focused exclusively on the vulnerability deficit model of girls and women (c.f., O’Leary & Flanagan, 2001). In actuarial terms, this focus appears warranted as women are more likely than men to be poor (Wyche, 2001), to have higher rates of morbidity (Landrine & Klonoff, 2001; Stanton & Gallant, 1996), to be widowed (Lopata, 1988; Wortman & Silver, 1989), and to be the victims of violence (Koss, 1990). However, the same differential distribution of challenges that puts girls and women at risk for adversity affords them the opportunity, if they are empowered (Johnson, 2001; Worell, 2001), to exhibit resilience in the face of adversity and even to thrive (O’Leary & Ickovics, 1995).
Girls and Academic Success: Changing Patterns of Academic Achievement
Authors: Halpern Diane F
Published: November 2023

Although the focus of this chapter is on girls’ learning and academic achievement, there is always an assumed or implied comparison—that is, how well and what are girls learning relative to whom or to what groups—with the obvious comparison being boys of similar ages and backgrounds. We cannot interpret female cognitive development without at least some reference to male cognitive development for points of comparison. Whether we choose to emphasize similarities or differences, we need to know how girls and boys are faring as we prepare them for adult life. What are girls and boys learning at school? Of course, the answer includes arithmetic, reading, spelling, and the other subjects that are commonly listed on elementary school report cards, but curricular content is only one of many lessons learned in those critical years between the start of kindergarten and transition into middle school (or junior high school) and beyond. Children are also learning important life skills—following directions, sitting quietly, sharing, and understanding a variety of social roles, including the roles of students and teachers, girls and boys, bigger children and younger children, classroom aide, and principal.
Gender and Schooling: Progress and Persistent Barriers
Authors: Meece Judith L , Scantlebury Kathryn
Published: November 2023

Since the enactment of Title IX of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act in 1972, much has been written about the schooling experiences of girls in America’s schools. Reports leading up to this legislation documented numerous barriers that inhibited women’s access to vocational, athletic, and educational programs. Title IX legislation was designed to be a comprehensive federal mandate to address gender inequities at all levels of schooling, from admission policies to career education. Over the last three decades, unprecedented changes in women’s level of educational participation and achievement have been observed. For the first time in U.S. history, women today are earning more college degrees than are men, and a record number of women are earning law, medical, and business degrees. However, numerous reports suggest that significant disparities in girls’ schooling experiences exist, especially when differences are examined by socioeconomic status, geographic location, ethnicity, and/or disability (American Association of University Women [AAUW], 1998a).
Women’s Reproductive Health: Issues, Findings, and Controversies
Authors: Beckman Linda J
Published: November 2023

In recent years health organizations, professionals, and policy makers have concurred that reproductive issues for women extend beyond fertility and pregnancy. The World Health Organization has defined reproductive health to include mental, physical, and social well-being in all areas involving the reproductive system including sexual health (Murphy, 2003). Thus, reproductive health issues for women are broadly defined to include fertility and infertility, contraception, abortion, unintended pregnancy, maternal mortality and morbidity, pregnancy loss, healthy sexual development, sexual satisfaction, sexually transmitted infections including HIV, depression and other psychological symptoms related to reproductive events, sexual abuse, physical violence from sexual partners, access to reproductive health services, and cultural and gender inequities that limit certain groups’ reproductive health. Moreover, gender inequities including greater male control and decision-making power in intimate relationships may prevent women from exercising autonomy over sexual and reproductive events, thus limiting their reproductive rights and often compromising their reproductive health (Murphy, 2003).
The Mixed Messages of Motherhood
Authors: Rice Joy K , else-quest nicole
Published: November 2023

The construction of motherhood by modern psychological theories has provided an often unfair portrayal of mothers. Mothers have been simultaneously revered for their vital nurturance and blamed for their children’s unsatisfactory well-being. The theories rarely address the psychological experience of motherhood (i.e., how it feels to be a mother) and have tended to focus on the needs of the child rather than on those of the mother. They have reinforced the motherhood mandate, arguing that women are fully developed only once they have borne children. Following brief overviews of developmental and psychoanalytic perspectives on motherhood, womancentered perspectives are discussed as alternative frameworks. Then five issues regarding the myths surrounding motherhood are discussed, including the myth of choice; the role of lence, and depression; stereotypes of “ideal” motherhood; and the purported qualities that make a “good” mother. Implications for clinicians are also included.
Midlife Transitions
Authors: Etaugh Claire A , Bridges judith S
Published: November 2023

Although midlife is generally a time of good health, the first indications of physical aging become noticeable and signs of chronic health conditions may appear. There are enormous individual-of chronic illness. Genetic makeup and lifestyle choices involving good nutrition, physical activity, and not smoking all contribute to health during the middle years (Goldman & Hatch, 2000). In our youth-oriented society, the prospect of getting older generally is not relished by either sex.
Signal Detection and Processing in Nonlinear Optical Microscopes
Authors: Yazdanfar Siavash , Peter T C So
Published: November 2023

The inherent three-dimensional (3D) resolution is an important strength of nonlinear microscopy. However, 3D resolution comes at the price that the optical signal originating from a subfemtoliter size volume is inherently weak. The need to rapidly acquire data, for example to observe sample dynamics or to image volumetric data, restricts pixel dwell time. These factors jointly limit the image signal level and demand highly sensitive optical detectors, since the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) directly determines image quality. The advent of optoelectronic detector technology has been partly responsible for the practical applications of nonlinear microscopy in biology and medicine.
Applications of Second-Harmonic Generation Microscopy
Authors: Mertz Jerome
Published: November 2023

By far the most best-known form of nonlinear microscopy is based on two-photon excited fluorescence (TPEF) (Denk et al., 1990), which is described in considerable detail in Chapters 4 and 5. However, a lesser-known formof this microscopy was used several years prior to the invention of TPEF microscopy, based on the generation of second-harmonic light either from surfaces (Hellwarth & Christensen, 1964; Sheppard et al., 1977) or fromendogenous tissue structures such as rat-tail tendons (Freund et al., 1986). Because of difficulties in signal interpretation and perhaps because of its seemingly arcane utility, at least in biological imaging, second-harmonic generation (SHG) microscopy has gone by relatively unnoticed until only very recently (Campagnola et al., 1999; Guo et al., 1997; Moreaux et al., 2001). The discovery that exogenous markers (Chemla & Zyss, 1984; Prasad, 1991) can lead to exceptionally high signal levels has been a leading cause for the revival of SHG microscopy. In particular, SHG markers, when properly designed and collectively organized, can produce signal levels comparable to those encountered in standard TPEF microscopy (Moreux et al., 2000a, 2000b). Moreover, the spatial resolutions provided by SHG and TPEF microscopies are commensurate, meaning that the two contrasts can be conveniently derived from the same instrument. Despite their similarities, SHG and TPEF are based on fundamentally different phenomena (Bloembergen, 1965; Butcher & Cotter, 1990). The first relies on nonlinear scattering, whereas the second relies on nonlinear absorption followed by fluorescence emission. In other words, the first is coherent, whereas the second is not. The consequences of this basic difference will be described below. The organization of this chapter is as follows. First, the basic principles of SHG will be qualitatively described at the molecular level. Second, typical experimental configurations for combined SHG and TPEF imaging will be briefly described, along with basic protocols for sample preparation and labeling. Finally, various applications of SHG microscopy will be addressed, with an emphasis on high-sensitivity membrane potential imaging and on endogenous imaging in thick tissue.
Lifetime-Resolved Imaging in Nonlinear Microscopy
Authors: Becker Wolfgang , Bergmann Axel
Published: November 2023

Since their broad introduction in the early 1990s, confocal [139] and multiphoton laser scanning microscopes [57,136] have initiated a breakthrough in biomedical fluorescence imaging [206]. The high image quality obtained in these instruments mainly results from the fact that of out-of-focus light is strongly suppressed or, in the case of two-photon excitation, not even excited. As a result, images of high contrast are obtained, and 3D imaging becomes feasible. Moreover, the scanning technique makes detection in several wavelength channels and multispectral detection [60] relatively easy. More features, such as excitation wavelength scanning, polarization imaging, and second-harmonic imaging, have been added in the recent years. These multidimensional features make laser scanning microscopes an almost ideal choice for steady-state fluorescence imaging of biological samples [90,107,152,153].
Diffraction Unlimited Far-Field Fluorescence Microscopy
Authors: Schönle Andreas , Keller Jan , Harke, Benjamin , Hell Stefan W
Published: November 2023

For centuries, light microscopy has been an important tool in many fields of science. With the quality of available optical components becoming better over time, it has delivered ever-sharper images of small structures. However, in 1873, Ernst Abbe discovered a fundamental limitation known as the diffraction barrier (Abbe, 1873): Far-field light microscopes would never be able to resolve features smaller than approximately half the wavelength of the light used. However, many modern imaging applications obviously necessitate a higher resolution. Since the diffraction barrier had been accepted as an unalterable fact, the use of focused visible light was not considered an option in these situations. Consequently, alternative methods were developed to deliver images with much higher resolution. Two prominent examples are electron microscopy, which focused (matter) waves of much shorter wavelengths, and atomic force microscopy, which gave up focusing altogether. Nevertheless, far-field light microscopy has remained an irreplaceable tool, especially in the life sciences, due to a number of exclusive advantages: it has the ability to image samples in three dimensions with minimal negative impact on the (living) specimen. Unlike some other methods, it is not restricted to surfaces and does not require any special sample preparation. Finally, it can be combined with fluorescence to image features of interest with high specificity. Mapped with a confocal or multiphoton excitation microscope (Denk et al., 1990; Sheppard & Kompfner, 1978; Wilson & Sheppard, 1984), fluorescence emission readily measures protein 3D distributions, or those of other fluorescently labeled molecules within the complex inside of biological specimens. The development of a microscope that retains all these advantages while not being limited by diffraction would therefore almost certainly lead to exciting new discoveries and become a crucial tool for scientists not only in biology. However, due to the fundamental nature of Abbe’s law, all attempts to break this barrier seemed futile.
Multiphoton Imaging in Animal Development
Authors: Larina Irina V , Dickinson Mary E
Published: November 2023

Vital time-lapse microscopy is a powerful and exciting way to study development. Many protocols for live cell imaging are now available for a large variety of developmental systems, and the advent of multicolor fluorescent proteins and turnkey instrumentation has attracted many scientists to this active field. Multiphoton microscopy is particularly well suited for developmental studies and has been used to answer many interesting questions about the mechanisms of invertebrate and vertebrate ontogeny. In this chapter we have highlighted a selection of recent studies where multiphoton microscopy has been used to study animal development. We describe animal models, pointing out their advantages and limitations for microscopic imaging, and review major achievements of multiphoton imaging in studying development of the different physiological systems.
Evaluation of Mineral Reserves
Authors: Journel André G , Kyriakidis Phaedon C
Published: November 2023

This book addresses the practice of geostatistical simulation to evaluation of mineral reserves, prediction of recovered tonnages and mineral grades and the impact of mining dilution. Such prediction is absolutely critical for mine planning and investment decisions, yet it cannot be made on maps directly interpolated from present data. Various dilution factors need to be introduced to account for · the support effect: mining unit volumes are vastly different from composite data unit volumes · the information effect: future selection of ore/waste will be based on vastly different data than that presently available. Geostatistical simulations allow a rigorous evaluation of these effects on reserves recovery. These stochastic simulations have the potential to be for the mining industry what a wind tunnel is for aircraft design. This book is written by two expert geostatisticians—Journel is the pioneer of mining geostatistics—and established academics.
Genetics and Evolution in Structured Populations
Authors: Goodnight Charles J
Published: November 2023

Structured populations, or metapopulations, are sets of small populations tied together by migration, extinction, and recolonization. Because of the importance of population structure, the genetics of metapopulations cannot be modeled as simple extensions of standard single population systems. Genetic evolution, typically defined as changes in allele frequency (Dobzhansky 1937; see Futuyma 1998 for a more complete discussion), is normally considered to occur as a result of exactly four forces: selection, mutation, migration, and genetic drift. Within a single population only the first two, selection and mutation, are the primary forces of interest. Migration necessarily involves more than a single population, and becomes the cohesive force that distinguishes a metapopulation from a set of independently evolving populations. Genetic drift also takes on special meaning in a metapopulation. Whereas in a single population the consequences of small population size are limited to the effects on variation within demes, in metapopulations the effects of small deme size on the variation among demes also becomes an important area of study. Although generally considered as a force within single populations, selection also needs to be considered specifically within the context of metapopulations since selection, especially when it is coupled with genetic drift, may have very different consequences in a metapopulation compared with the well-understood effects it has in unstructured populations.
Genetics of Sexual Selection
Authors: Moore Allen J , Moore Patricia J
Published: November 2023

Sexual selection was defined by Darwin (1871) as selection that “depends on the advantage that certain individuals have over other individuals of the same sex and species, in exclusive relation to reproduction.” Sexual selection was developed separately from natural selection because Darwin wished to explain the evolution of elaborate characters, particularly secondary sexual characters (traits “not directly connected with the act of reproduction”; i.e., traits that influence but are not required for copulation). Such traits apparently have no benefit outside of influencing the outcome of male-male competition or female mate choice. Secondary sexual traits might even be counter to survival and natural selection by drawing the attention of predators or limiting physiological performance. Why should traits be so elaborate when their function is apparently limited to influencing the competition for mates? Darwin’s solution was sexual selection with two main mechanisms: female mate choice and male-male competition. Darwin suggested that male combat or female preferences resulted in particularly strong selection. He saw these as fundamentally different from the mechanisms leading to the process of natural selection because they involved social interactions and influenced mating success rather than survival or fecundity and so might have no limits to the evolved outcome or expression. There need not be an optimum expression, as the “best” was that which was most extreme.
If the Glove Fits: The Art of Theoretical Choice in Psychobiography
Authors: Elms Alan C
Published: November 2023

For the past twenty years, I ‘ve regularly taught an undergraduate course on psychobiography. Students in this course must write a brief but original psychobiographical term paper on a subject of their choice. Most students quickly choose a subject who meets the assignment ‘s basic requirements: he or she must be publicly known for some kind of achievement (political, scientific, artistic, criminal, or whatever), and the student must be able to obtain a substantial amount of biographical information. But then, because this is to be a psychobiographical paper and not merely a biographical sketch, each student faces the problem of which psychological concepts, or what psychological theory, to apply. By the time they get around to writing a rough draft, my students have already been exposed, in class and in assigned reading, to a variety of short and long examples of psychobiography, and to several different theories of personality. But the relationships between these examples or theories and a student ‘s chosen subject may not be at all obvious. Indeed there may be little apparent connection between, let ‘s say, Erik Erikson ‘s analysis of Gandhi and the student ‘s typical term-paper choice of Madonna or Charles Manson.
Margaret ‘s Smile
Authors: Ogilvie Daniel M
Published: November 2023

Afew guidelines usually govern my activities when I conduct case study research: (a) per-the person who is the object of my investigation to take the lead as far as he or she is able to go, (b) suspend any notions regarding how the study will work out, (c) be open to surprises,(d) use the problems that arise as opportunities to learn about and welcome developments in surrounding disciplines, and (e) estimate how much time it will take to complete the project, triple it, and be prepared to triple it again. I didn ‘t think I would need to consult my guidelines when I embarked on a study of James M. Barrie. I intended it to be a simple investigation with a specific focus on the possible Oedipal origins of Barrie ‘s famous story about Peter Pan. My original purpose went no further than to locate and organize some new material for a course in personality psychology that I have taught for many years. In the context of a field deeply rooted in the tradition of psychometric science wherein variables instead of people are the preferred units of analysis, I felt it would do no harm to expose my students to “old “ ways of thinking about personality development, if only in the form of interludes or breaks between lectures on scale construction and research designs.
In his Father ‘s Shadow: George W. Bush and the Politics of Personal Transformation
Authors: Renshon Stanley A
Published: November 2023

In order to understand who George W. Bush is, one must first understand who he was. His story, like the man himself, is not particularly complicated, at least in broad outline. He was born into an accomplished and wealthy family, and then took some time to find his way. The most important ingredients of adult development were consolidated only very gradually by Mr. Bush. How did Mr. Bush ‘s life begin? With great promise, many assets, and colossal advantages. But with these benefits came demands. The complexities he faced, and the talents he brought to bear—and developed—as he faced these demands are the focus of this chapter. Understanding Mr. Bush requires special emphasis be placed on Mr. Bush ‘s relationships with his father and mother, the challenges of being born into such a spectacularly successful family, his battles with alcohol, and his ownership role in the Texas Rangers baseball team. All these experiences propelled Mr. Bush into what can only be described as a profound psychological impasse. His life history, combined with his private ambition, pushed toward success. Yet every time he sought to gain a foothold, he found little solid ground. The result was an erratic commitment to the outward manifestations of conventional achievement, first in adolescence, then early adulthood, and finally on to middle adulthood. Bush became the family rebel and in school the campus cutup. Later, he combined hard work with equally hard- driving living, including too much drinking. Self-medication with alcohol and acting out in middle and late adulthood became a partial substitute for the success he so desired but that remained out of reach—for a time. The story of how Mr. Bush managed to forge a stable and successful adulthood is one of perseverance, resilience, determination, and profound but gradual personal transformation. It is seen, by some, as a tale of faith restored; Mr. Bush first rejected, then rediscovered, a personal God. Yet his is more than a story of personal faith. It is, in addition, a story of inner resolve.
Filamentous Phage
Authors: Model Marjorie Russel Peter
Published: November 2023

Filamentous phages constitute a large family of bacterial viruses that infect many Gram-negative bacteria and even a Gram-positive bacterium (18). These long, slender viruses contain a circular, single-stranded DNA genome encased in a somewhat flexible tube composed of thousands of copies of a single major coat protein (figure 12-1). Two minor proteins at one end and two others at the other end Figure 12-1 Filamentous phage f1/M13/fd: genes and gene products.
Phages with Segmented Double-Stranded RNA Genomes
Authors: Mindich Leonard
Published: November 2023

The first member of this family of bacteriophages, the Cystoviridae, was isolated in 1973. This phage, named f6, was found to have a genome of three double-stranded RNA molecules packaged within a polyhedral nucleocapsid surrounded by a lipid-containing membrane (47, 52). The basic outlines of the life cycle of f6 were described in several reviews (25, 29). Since that time, a number of important advances have been made. The structures of the virus and subviral particles have been defined through the application of cryoelectron microscopy (1,7). The structure of the RNA-dependent polymerase has been elucidated through X-ray diffraction studies on protein crystals (2, 3). The reassembly of inner core particles of both f6 and f8 has been accomplished with pure individual proteins (21, 40). The packaging of the genomic segments has been elucidated and several reverse genetic systems have been developed (27, 28, 48). Recombination between the genomic segments has been described (26). In addition, a number of relatives of f6 have been isolated from nature, enlarging the family of Cystoviridae (31).
Viruses of Archaea
Authors: zillig Kenneth M Stedman david prangishvili wolfram
Published: November 2023

The Archaea (previously known as archaebacteria) were originally identified as such by Carl Woese in the late 1970s (121) and are now accepted as one of the three major divisions or domains of life, along with the Bacteria and the Eukarya. They have recently been shown by molecular techniques to be ubiquitous and may even be the dominant organisms in the open ocean (22, 45). Phylogenetically the Archaea have been split into four major phyla: the Euryarchaeota, the Crenarchaeota, the Korarchaeota, and the Nanoarchaeota. The Euryarchaeota comprise the methanogens (6), the extreme halophiles, and the extremely thermophilic Thermococcales (29). All isolated members of the Crenarchaeota are extreme thermophiles; however, some as yet uncultured members appear to be mesophilic or even psychrophilic, for example in marine environments (28). Korarchaeota are not yet represented by any cultured organisms (8, 56, 87). The recently discovered phylum Nanoarchaeota is represented to date by only one apparently parasitic organism (38).
Molecular Genetics of Streptomyces Phages
Authors: Smith Margaret C M
Published: November 2023

Bacteria in the genus Streptomyces are abundant in most soil environments (103). They are prolific producers of secondary metabolites, which often have antibiotic or other biological activity, and they have an unusual growth habit (57). A streptomycete colony grows initially as a vegetative mycelium, containing branching hyphal filaments with occasional cross-walls. As the colony matures, signals govern the production of aerial hyphae, which differentiate to form chains of spores. As spores are resistant to drought and can persist in the soil for many years, the high streptomycete count in soils is often attributable to the presence of spores (16). The isolation of phages from soil samples using a Streptomyces host is generally easy with most samples yielding phage after enrichment (57). Streptomyces coelicolor A3(2) is a model organism for this genus and has been studied most intensively. The linear genome contains 8,667,507 bp (5).
Lactobacillus Phages
Authors: Bruässow Harald , Suárez Juan E
Published: November 2023

The studies conducted with Lactobacillus bacteriophages reflect the economic and medical importance of their hosts. Due to the variety of food fermentation lactobacilli-based processes that can become disrupted by phage development, and the diversity of mucosal surfaces colonized by lactobacilli, phage research has not concentrated on a single Lactobacillus species or phage. Lactobacillus phage research also is frequently directed by practical needs. For example, the industrially relevant properties of lactic acid bacteria are often plasmid-encoded. These plasmids are intrinsically unstable, which frequently leads to strain degeneration. The DNA-integration mechanism used by temperate Lactobacillus phages therefore has been studied to develop tools for chromosomal stabilization of economically important traits (57, 73). In addition, many fermented products undergo a ripening period that may last several months. Early lysis of the starter bacteria might accelerate ripening through release of the intracellular enzymes into the food matrix. To this aim, the expression of cloned phage lysis cassettes, controlled by inducible promoters, has been studied (19). Furthermore, the need of phage-insensitive Lactobacillus-based fermentation starters has promoted the generation of strains harbouring a cI-like repressor gene or a phage replication origin (3, 59).
Bacteriophage as Pollution Indicators
Authors: Gerba Charles P
Published: November 2023

Because of the difficulty and cost of detecting water-borne enteric pathogens, indicator organisms have been used since the beginning of the twentieth century. Much of the work in this area has focused on bacterial indicators, such as coliform and fecal coliform bacteria. However, it has been recognized in the last 30 years that these traditional indicators do not always reflect the waterborne occurrence of human pathogenic viruses and protozoa. Thus, bacteriophages have been investigated as a better indicator of these groups of pathogens in water, as models of enteric virus removal by treatment processes, and to examine the fate and transport of enteric viruses in the environment (12).
Probing Unconscious Emotional Processes:On Becoming a Successful Masketeer
Authors: Wiens Stefan , Öhman Arne
Published: November 2023

Have you ever had an unconscious emotion? As conscious beings, humans might consider this question absurd. Because everyday experience suggests that all important mental events are accompanied by consciousness, humans are convinced that consciousness is critical in mediating and controlling these events and behavior. Accordingly, emotion is commonly equated with emotional experience (feeling), and the notion of unconscious emotion seems either contradictory in terms or not worth discussing, as unconscious emotions would play only a trivial, if any, role at all in mental life. William James (1884), one of the forefathers of modern psychology, supported this notion by stating that “our feeling . . . IS the emotion” (p. 190). This discussion of emotion in terms of conscious experience (feeling) has a long tradition in psychology (e.g., Damasio, 1994; Frijda, 1986; Schachter & Singer, 1962).
Introduction
Authors: Post Stephen G , Binstock Robert H
Published: November 2023

Atiaging interventions-a wide variety of ambitions and measures to slow, arrest, and reverse phenomena associated with aging-have been part of human culture and societies since early civilizations. An obsession with immortality is a central theme in a Babylonian legend about King Gilgamesh, who ruled southern Mesopotamia in about 3000 B.c. In the third century B.C., adherents of the Taoist religion in China developed a systematic program for prolonging life (Olshansky and Carnes, 2001). Perhaps the oldest written record of attempts to reverse aging is in an Egyptian papyrus, circa 1600 B.c., which provides instructions for preparing an ointment that transforms an old man into a youth of 20 and claims that it has been “found effective myriad times” (quoted in Hayflick, 1994, p. 267). Through the centuries, a variety of anti-aging approaches have recurred.
In Defense of Immortality
Authors: Zaleski Carol G
Published: November 2023

Not a ringing endorsement perhaps, but James was sure of one thing: that the common arguments against immortality need not deter us. In his 1898 Ingersoll Lecture on the Immortality of Man, James set out with his usual relish to kick over the obstacles to belief. Chief among those obstacles was a general climate of learned doubt. Our situation today is not so different. Although social surveys indicate that roughly 80% of Americans believe in life after death, it is a belief cherished against the grain of perceived official skepticism. Therefore it is a belief riddled with anxiety and doubt. While our ancestors worried about their fate at the seat of judgment and hun¬ gered for assurance that their sins would be dissolved, we moderns worry about our fate at the hands of death and hunger for assurance that our personalities will remain intact. To this worry and this hunger one can attribute much of the current fascination not only with life extension but also with personal transcendence of death.
Eat Less, Eat Better, and Live Longer: Does It Work and Is It Worth It? The Role of Diet in Aging and Disease
Authors: Casadesus Gemma , Perry George , Joseph, James A , Smith Mark A
Published: November 2023

Unless a cure is found, the number of individuals afflicted by, and dying from, Alzheimer’s (AD) and Parkinson’s disease (PD) is projected to rise exponentially such that, by the middle of the twenty-first century, 30% of the aged population will be afflicted by motor and/or cognitive declines. Even though the mechanisms resulting in the onset of AD and PD are unknown, it is clear that oxidative stress, a cellular condition associated with free radical dam¬ age, is centrally involved such that oxidative stress is one of the earliest alterations of AD (Olanow, 1992; Smith et al., 1995, 1996, 2000;Jenner and Olanow, 1996; Finch and Cohen, 1997; Nunomura et al., 2001). Oxidative stress, albeit at lower levels than those seen in neurodegenerative disease, is also centrally involved in aging (Harman, 1992) and likely plays a critical role in the cognitive and functional declines apparent in many aged individuals.
Medication Treatment
Authors: Simeon Daphne , Abugel Jeffrey
Published: November 2023

As shown in the last chapter, the world of depersonalization, like the ocean, is vast, mysterious, and deep. But someone who is drowning couldn’t care less about that. He wants to be safely back in the boat or on shore. Only from that perspective, when his immediate fears have subsided, can he begin to explore the wonder of what nearly killed him.
Global models
Authors: Motulsky Harvey , Christopoulos Arthur
Published: November 2023

The example models in the previous chapters each define a single curve. Routinely, therefore, you would fit those models to a single set of data. This is the way curve fitting is usually done-fitting a model to a single set of data. An alternative approach is to create a global model that defines a family of curves, rather than just a single curve. Then use a nonlinear regression program that can perform global fitting to fit a family of data sets at once. The important point is that when you fit the global model, you tell the program to share some parameters between data sets. For each shared parameter, the program finds one (global) best-fit value that applies to all the data sets. For each nonshared parameter, the program finds a separate Oocal) best-fit value for each data set.
Compartmental models and defining a model with a differential equation
Authors: Motulsky Harvey , Christopoulos Arthur
Published: November 2023

Let’s create a pharmacokinetic model that explains how the concentration of a drug in blood plasma declines over time. You inject a bolus of drug, and measure plasma drug levels at various times thereafter. The drug is metabolized by a liver enzyme that is far from fully saturated. In this situation, the rate of drug metabolism is proportional to the concentration of drug in the plasma. This is called.first-order kinetics. When the plasma concentration is cut in half, so is the rate of drug metabolism.
Generating confidence intervals by Monte Carlo simulations
Authors: Motulsky Harvey , Christopoulos Arthur
Published: November 2023

As discussed in the previous chapter, the asymptotic method built in to most nonlinear regression programs is only an approximate method to determine the confidence interval of a best-fit parameter. This chapter presents one alternative method, and the next chapter presents still another alternative method. The idea here is to simulate a bunch of data sets, each with different random scatter. Then fit each simulated data set to determine the best-fit values of the parameters. Finally, we’ll use the distribution of best-fit parameters among the simulated data sets to create confidence intervals.
Examples of comparing the fit of two models to one data set
Authors: Motulsky Harvey , Christopoulos Arthur
Published: November 2023

Look at the graph of the one site fit model (dashed curve). It seems to deviate systematically from the data points, but not so badly that we will reject the model completely. The graph of the two-site fit looks better. Do the best-fit values of the two-site model make sense? The best-fit two-site curve has a high affinity site with a logEC50 of-7.5 comprising 31% of the sites, and a low affinity site with a logEC50 of-6.1. These results are certainly scientifically plausible. Next we look at the confidence intervals, which are reasonably narrow (given so few data points). Because the results are sensible, it makes sense to compare the sum-of-squares statistically.
Using an unpaired t test to test for a treatment effect in a series of unmatched experiments
Authors: Motulsky Harvey , Christopoulos Arthur
Published: November 2023

We measured enzyme velocity as a function of substrate concentration in the presence and absence of a treatment. We had three control animals and three treated. We obtained tissue from each, and measured enzyme activity at various concentrations of substrate. All six curves were obtained at one time, with no pairing or matching between particular control and treated animals.
The law of mass action
Authors: Motulsky Harvey , Christopoulos Arthur
Published: November 2023

Analyses of radioligand binding experiments and enzyme kinetics are based on a simple molecular model called the law of mass action. This “law” states that the velocity of a chemical reaction is proportional to the product of the concentrations (or mass) of the reactants. In the simplest case, one kind of molecule is transformed into a different kind of molecule. The rate at which the reaction occurs is proportional to the concentration of the starting material.
The operational model of agonist action
Authors: Motulsky Harvey , Christopoulos Arthur
Published: November 2023

Fitting a standard sigmoidal (logistic) equation to a dose-response curve to determine EC50 (and perhaps slope factor) doesn’t tell you everything you want to know about an agonist. The problem is that the EC50 is determined by two properties of the agonist: A single dose-response experiment cannot untangle affinity from efficacy. Two very different drugs could have identical dose-response curves, with the same EC50 values and maximal responses (in the same tissue). One drug binds tightly with high affinity but has low efficacy, while the other binds with low affinity but has very high efficacy. Since the two dose-response curves are identical, there is no data analysis technique that can tell them apart. You need to analyze afamily of curves, not an individual curve, to determine the affinity and efficacy. The rest of this chapter explains how.
Linear regression with Prism
Authors: Motulsky Harvey , Christopoulos Arthur
Published: November 2023

You may force the regression line to go through a particular point such as the origin. In this case, Prism will determine only the best-fit slope, as the intercept will be fixed. Use this option when scientific theory tells you that the line must go through a particular point (usually the origin, X=o, Y=o) and you only want to know the slope. This situation arises rarely, and you should use common sense when making your decision. For example, consider a protein assay. You measure optical density (Y) for several known concentrations of protein in order to create a standard curve. You then want to interpolate unknown protein concentrations from that standard curve. When performing the assay, you adjusted the spectrophotometer so that it reads zero with zero protein. Therefore you might be tempted to force the regression line through the origin. But this constraint may result in a line that doesn’t fit the data well. Since you really care that the line fits the standards very well near the unknowns, you will probably get a better fit by not constraining the line.
Graphing a family of theoretical curves
Authors: Motulsky Harvey , Christopoulos Arthur
Published: November 2023

You’ll often find it useful to graph a theoretical curve, or a family of theoretical curves, as a way to understand the properties of the model. This is sometimes called “plotting a function”. This is different from fitting a curve with nonlinear regression. With nonlinear regression, you choose the equation and Prism finds the values of the parameters that make that equation fit your data the best. When plotting theoretical curves, you choose both the equation and the values of the parameters, and Prism graphs the function. You don’t need to enter any data, and there is no curve fitting involved.
Prognosis
Authors: Ahlskog J Eric
Published: November 2023

Initially being told that you have Parkinson’s disease (PD) can be devastating. Often the first thing that comes to mind is an image of a relative or an acquaintance with terrible, end-stage problems. We tend to remember worst- case scenarios. Hearing Parkinson’s disease may evoke a mental image of Uncle Frank with PD, who was in a wheelchair and died in a nursing home. However, someone in the workplace, still leading a full life after ten years of PD, may be forgotten. Furthermore, Uncle Frank may not have had PD but a disorder that only looks like PD, or possibly his course was complicated by a stroke. Also, Uncle Frank may have developed PD before effective medications became available.
The Causes of PD: What We Know and Where This is Leading Us
Authors: Ahlskog J Eric
Published: November 2023

As we have already seen, Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disorder, one of a variety of such conditions. To date, we have not identified the cause for any of them, despite major research efforts in laboratories and clinics around the world. For decades, theories have been proposed for the cause of PD, but with little support from hard facts. Blame has been placed on everything from viruses and bacteria to the food we eat. Each hypothesis has had enough supporting evidence to stimulate research, mostly leading to dead ends. We need credible clues to point us in the right direction. Clues are slowly accumulating, although some may be red herrings. However, the answer is probably buried in what we already know. The trick is to figure out which of the many pieces of evidence will lead us to the cause of PD. Let’s first review two areas of investigation that have been a central focus in the past ten to twenty years—the MPTP story and the oxidative stress hypothesis.
Medications for Movement Problems (Gait, Tremor, Slowness)
Authors: Ahlskog J Eric
Published: November 2023

Although we do not have drugs that affect the underlying cause or progression of Parkinson’s disease (PD), we have very good drugs for controlling many of the symptoms. The progression of PD is slow, and hence the symptomatic treatment is often gratifying for many years. Although the treatment of the symptoms is not always smooth or perfect, optimal adjustment of medications can typically keep people in the mainstream of their lives and turn back the clock on this disorder. This symptomatic treatment capitalizes on our understanding of brain chemistry. Thus there is a rational basis for the drugs, based on scientific principles. To appreciate the treatment principles and understand the role for the medications, we will first need to review some basics about relevant brain chemistry.
Starting Treatment of Movement Problems: Which Drug and When?
Authors: Ahlskog J Eric
Published: November 2023

Now we are ready to address practical issues. If you have read the previous chapters, you should have a good background for the subject of this chapter. Having Parkinson’s disease (PD) does not mean you must start on a medication. If we had drugs that slowed the progression of PD, then beginning them at the first sign of parkinsonism would obviously be important. Although some drugs have been touted to slow PD progression (such as pramipexole and ropinirole), compelling proof is lacking. Your symptoms determine when to start a medication for PD. If the symptoms don’t bother you, medications can be deferred. Sooner or later a medication will become necessary, but this can be put off until the symptoms get in the way.
Starting Dopamine Agonist Treatment
Authors: Ahlskog J Eric
Published: November 2023

In chapter 12, we considered principles and guidelines for starting carbidopa/ levodopa. Now we examine the use of dopamine agonist medications. As you read this chapter, you will recognize that many of the same principles that were discussed in this previous chapter also apply to dopamine agonist therapy. Dopamine agonists are used to treat Parkinson’s disease (PD) in two situations: • as the initial medication and (2) added to carbidopa/levodopa later in the course to help counter motor fluctuations. We will address both uses in this chapter, since the dosage guidelines are similar. In subsequent chapters we will look at levodopa-related motor fluctuations in more detail; when they demand dopamine agonist treatment, we will refer back to the guidelines in this chapter.