bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
CONTINGENCY CONTRACTING WITH DELINQUENTS: EFFECTS OF A BRIEF TRAINING MANUAL ON STAFF CONTRACT NEGOTIATION AND WRITING SKILLS
Authors: Welch Steven J. , Holborn Stephen W.
Published: March 2006

A brief training manual was developed for the purpose of teaching child‐care workers to contingency contract with delinquent youths living in residential care facilities. The manual was designed to require minimal supplementary training by a professional. In Experiment 1 a multiple baseline design was used to assess the effect of the manual on 4 child‐care workers' contract negotiation and writing behaviors. Experiment 2 consisted of four A‐B systematic replications. Behaviors were assessed within the context of analogue training simulations and generalization tests with delinquent youths. Results from the analogue simulations indicated that the manual was successful in increasing both types of behaviors to a level of proficiency that equaled or surpassed that of behaviorally trained graduate students, and results from the generalization tests indicated that the child‐care workers were able to apply their newly acquired contracting skills with delinquent youths. Procedural reliability varied across child‐care workers, but was usually high.
MODIFYING FOOD PURCHASES IN SUPERMARKETS WITH MODELING, FEEDBACK, AND GOAL‐SETTING PROCEDURES
Authors: Winett Richard A. , Kramer Kathryn D. , Walker William B. , Malone Steven W. , Lane M. K.
Published: March 2006

We compared several procedures designed to modify consumer food purchases with the objectives of reducing fat and increasing carbohydrate content, and reducing dollar expenditures on food. Participants were 126 volunteer community households which, after a 7‐week baseline period, were randomly assigned to video‐modeling, video‐modeling‐feedback, video‐lecture, video‐lecture feedback, participant‐modeling, video‐modeling‐discussion, and control conditions. The main dependent measure was a weekly record of food purchases, convertible to percentages of nutrients and dollar expenditures. Results indicated that modeling‐feedback and participant‐modeling procedures were most effective (e.g., 6% reduction of total fat consumption, 19% dollar savings). Strategies to refine and automate modeling and feedback in supermarkets that may benefit consumers, corporations, and government are discussed.
MULTIPLE EFFECTS OF PERFORMANCE‐CONTINGENT PAY FOR WAITPERSONS
Authors: George James T. , Hopkins B. L.
Published: March 2006

The owners of three restaurants requested help with the pay of waitpersons who were paid by the hour. The waitpersons asked for raises which the owners said they could not afford. This research changed the method of compensating waitpersons by making their pay contingent on dollars of food sold. Increased productivity and increased earnings per hour of work for all of the waitpersons followed the beginning of the performance‐contingent pay. Most of the waitpersons also earned increased take‐home pay when the performance‐contingent pay began. There was little improvement in labor costs per dollar of food sold, a measure of benefit to the owners. The fact that benefits to workers occurred without benefits to owners is contrary to common views about the effects of performance‐contingent pay.
FACILITATING GENERALIZED REQUESTING BEHAVIOR IN BROCA'S APHASIA: AN EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS OF A GENERALIZATION TRAINING PROCEDURE
Authors: Doyle Patrick J. , Goldstein Howard , Bourgeois Michelle S. , Nakles Karen Oleyar
Published: March 2006

The effects of a generalization training procedure on requesting by 4 subjects with chronic Broca's aphasia were examined using a multiple baseline design across behaviors and subjects. Subjects were trained to request information on three topics sequentially. Generalization across topics and persons was assessed in weekly probe sessions consisting of 5‐min conversational interactions with trainers and unfamiliar volunteers in a nontreatment setting. Results revealed generalization effects were greatest when trainers, as opposed to unfamiliar volunteers, served as conversational participants. Nevertheless, subjects' requests increased with all conversational participants to a level comparable to a normal comparison group assessed under conditions identical to the experimental probes. Social validation of treatment effects using a subjective evaluation procedure revealed significant improvement on the parameters of talkativeness, inquisitiveness, and conversational success.
ACQUISITION, GENERALIZATION, AND MAINTENANCE OF QUESTION‐ANSWERING SKILLS IN AUTISTIC CHILDREN
Authors: Secan Kristin E. , Egel Andrew L. , Tilley Cynthia S.
Published: March 2006

We conducted an investigation to evaluate the effects of a training strategy for teaching autistic students generalized responses to three forms of wh— questions (what, how, and why). Students were taught, using modeling and reinforcement procedures, to answer questions with magazine pictures as the referents. Each question form was divided into two or more subcomponents reflective of common social usage and was taught within the context of a modified multiple probe design across subcomponents. Following acquisition of each subcomponent, generalization to natural context and storybook questions was assessed; additional probes were conducted to assess responding over time and whether acquisition of responses to questions promoted question‐asking skills. Results showed that the picture training procedure was effective in teaching a generalized response to questions for which the relevant cue was visible, whereas specific generalization programming was required for situations in which the relevant cue was not visible. All acquired responses were durable over time.
PARENT EDUCATION PROJECT III: INCREASING AFFECTION AND RESPONSIVITY IN DEVELOPMENTALLY HANDICAPPED MOTHERS: COMPONENT ANALYSIS, GENERALIZATION, AND EFFECTS ON CHILD LANGUAGE
Authors: Feldman Maurice A. , Case Laurie , Rincover Arnold , Towns Fay , Betel Judith
Published: March 2006

We evaluated the effects of a parent training program consisting of verbal instruction, modeling, and feedback on the affection and responsivity of 3 developmentally handicapped mothers towards their children. The results indicated the following: First, the training package increased maternal physical affection, praise, and imitation of child vocalizations. These parenting skills increased to levels found in comparison groups of nonhandicapped mothers. Second, the training package was more effective than verbal instruction alone, the latter being the predominant method presently used by social service workers. Third, most maternal gains were maintained over a 3‐ to 18‐month follow‐up period, although one mother required a reinforced maintenance procedure. Fourth, instructing mothers to generalize served to increase the generalization of newly acquired skills from play times (the training context) to child‐care tasks (e.g., diapering, feeding). Fifth, teaching the parents to imitate child vocalizations was related to gains in both the frequency and quality of verbal behavior of the two language delayed children as measured by standardized developmental tests and in vivo comparisons with age‐matched children (who had nonhandicapped parents). These results show that behavioral instruction can improve important child‐rearing skills of developmentally handicapped mothers, with corresponding benefits to their children.
TEACHING SELF‐CATHETERIZATION SKILLS TO CHILDREN WITH NEUROGENIC BLADDER COMPLICATIONS
Authors: Neef Nancy A. , Parrish John M. , Hannigan Kathleen F. , Page Terry J. , Iwata Brian A.
Published: March 2006

We examined the effects of simulation training on the acquisition of self‐catheterization skills in 2 female children with spina bifida. Based on a task analysis, the children were taught to perform on a doll each of the components of preparation, and, using a mirror to locate the urinary meatus, to insert and remove the catheter and to clean‐up. Before, during, and after training, the children's performance of the skills on the doll and on themselves was assessed. Results of a multiple baseline design across subjects and skill components showed that doll training facilitated the children's acquisition of self‐catheterization skills.
EVALUATION OF THE GENERALIZED EFFECTS OF A PEER‐TRAINING PROCEDURE WITH MODERATELY RETARDED ADOLESCENTS
Authors: Wacker David P. , Berg Wendy K. , Choisser Lucy , Smith Joy
Published: March 2006

The use of peer‐training procedures by moderately mentally retarded adolescents was evaluated in two experiments. In Experiment 1, 2 students received instruction on peer‐training skills to teach a vocational task to 7 classmates. Following instruction, both peer trainers were successful in teaching their classmates to perform the target task and a second untrained (generalization) task. In Experiment 2, 1 peer trainer taught 3 peers to use picture prompts to complete one or two complex vocational tasks. Following instruction by the peer trainer, the trainees independently used novel pictures on novel tasks. The results of both experiments indicate that peer training with moderately handicapped students can be an effective instructional procedure, with generalization occurring for both the trainers (Experiment 1) and the trainees (Experiment 2).
EFFECTS OF WAIT‐TIME AND INTERTRIAL INTERVAL DURATIONS ON LEARNING BY CHILDREN WITH MULTIPLE HANDICAPS
Authors: Valcante Greg , Roberson Wynelle , Reid William R. , Wolking William D.
Published: March 2006

We investigated the influence of teacher wait‐time and intertrial interval durations on the performance of 4 multiply handicapped students during instruction in 10 skills. Four experimental conditions were evaluated: long wait‐time and long intertrial interval, long wait‐time and short intertrial interval, short wait‐time and long intertrial interval, and short wait‐time and short intertrial interval. Instructors attempted to keep short intervals as close as possible to 1 s and long intervals as close as possible to 10 s for both variables. Results showed that student performance was superior under the long wait‐time conditions irrespective of the length of the intertrial interval.
AN EVALUATION OF GENTLE TEACHING AND VISUAL SCREENING IN THE REDUCTION OF STEREOTYPY
Authors: Jordan Jennifer , Singh Nirbhay N. , Repp Alan C.
Published: March 2006

Gentle teaching and visual screening techniques have been used to control severe behavior problems in persons with mental retardation. An alternating treatments design was used to compare gentle teaching, visual screening, and a task‐training condition in the reduction of the high‐level stereotypy of 3 persons with mental retardation. Following a baseline phase, a task‐training condition using standard behavioral techniques was implemented to establish the effects of training the subjects on the tasks. Results showed a modest decrease in stereotypy. This phase was followed by an alternating treatments phase in which visual screening, gentle teaching, and baseline conditions were compared. Both procedures were superior to the control condition in reducing stereotypic behavior, with visual screening being more effective than gentle teaching. When compared with data from the prior phase, gentle teaching was found to be more effective than task training for 2 subjects but less effective for the 3rd, whose stereotypy increased during gentle teaching. Two succeeding phases in which visual screening was implemented across two and then all three daily conditions reduced stereotypy further to near‐zero levels. An additional phase with 1 subject demonstrated that the treatment effects of visual screening were easily replicated across therapists. Mixed and idiosyncratic changes in collateral behaviors occurred. For example, “bonding,” the goal of gentle teaching, occurred at the same low levels under both treatments, contrary to the predictions of gentle teaching's proponents. The results indicate that gentle teaching may not be the universal treatment of choice for stereotypy its proponents suggest, and that it requires further empirical evaluation.
EVALUATION OF TACTILE PROMPTS WITH A STUDENT WHO IS DEAF, BLIND, AND MENTALLY RETARDED
Authors: Berg Wendy K. , Wacker David P.
Published: March 2006

We provided tactile cues to a student who was deaf, blind, and mentally retarded to guide her performance on a variety of packaging tasks. The student had previously received extensive training on multiple packaging and sequencing tasks through her vocational education program. Although she was able to complete these tasks, each change in materials necessitated that similar levels of retraining be conducted in order for her to perform revised tasks. Tactile cues were introduced and evaluated through a multiple baseline with sequential withdrawal design for two envelope‐stuffing tasks and one bagging task. Results indicated that the tactile prompts were effective in guiding her performance on the training task and in promoting generalization to novel tasks and cues. Continued use of the cues was necessary to maintain the student's performance. Our findings suggest that tactile prompts function similarly to picture prompts and may be an effective alternative external prompting system for persons for whom picture prompts would not be appropriate.
A FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS OF THE COMPREHENSIVE APPLICATION OF BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS TO SCHOOLING
Authors: Selinske Jane E. , Greer R. Douglas , Lodhi Seema
Published: March 2006

This study tested the effects of a comprehensive application of behavior analysis to schooling on the total trials taught, correct student trials, and objectives achieved in a small school. The package was implemented in a school for children with multiple disabilities and included a staff training program based on a personalized system of instruction, organizational behavior management procedures for supervisors, regular assessment of teacher behaviors, and teacher assessment of all instructional trials received by the 38 children to a scripted curriculum. The design was a multiple baseline across four groups of teachers and included baseline, training, and full treatment phases over a 2‐year period. The results showed educationally significant increases in trials taught, correct trials, and student objectives achieved as a function of the introduction of the package. A 3rd year of follow‐up data and an analysis of the turnover of staff showed that the effects of the package were maintained and that the package had social validity.
PARTICIPATORY MANAGEMENT: MAINTAINING STAFF PERFORMANCE IN A UNIVERSITY HOUSING COOPERATIVE
Authors: Johnson Steven P. , Welsh Thomas M. , Miller L. Keith , Altus Deborah E.
Published: March 2006

To apply behavior analysis to normal adults in non institutional settings, we may have to encourage their participation in the design and implementation of behavioral technology. This study evaluates a technology by which the members of a student housing cooperative manage their own staff with a minimum of supervision by one of the program designers. This staff management system consisted of prompts, self‐reports, spot checks, and contingent rent reductions. Six resident staff members performed substantially more of their assigned tasks when this system was used. In addition, the management system was acceptable to the members, was affordable, and maintained high levels of staff performance during a 5‐year follow‐up. Participation by the members in the design and implementation of this system appears to have been useful in helping the behavior analysts to develop an unusually durable management system.
BEACHES: AN OBSERVATIONAL SYSTEM FOR ASSESSING CHILDREN'S EATING AND PHYSICAL ACTIVITY BEHAVIORS AND ASSOCIATED EVENTS
Authors: McKenzie Thomas L. , Sallis James F. , Nader Philip R. , Patterson Thomas L. , Elder John P. , Berry Charles C. , Rupp Joan W. , Atkins Catherine J. , Buono Michael J. , Nelson Julie A.
Published: March 2006

An integrated system for coding direct observations of children's dietary and physical activity behaviors was developed. Associated environmental events were also coded, including physical location, antecedents, and consequences. To assess the instrument's reliability and validity, 42 children, aged 4 to 8 years, were observed for 8 consecutive weeks at home and at school. Results indicated that four 60‐min observations at home produced relatively stable estimates for most of the 10 dimensions. Interobserver reliabilities during live and videotaped observations were high, with the exception of “consequences” categories that occurred in less than 1% of observed intervals. Evidence of validity was provided by findings that antecedents were associated with respective dietary and physical activity behaviors. The five physical activity categories were validated by heart‐rate monitoring in a second study. The Behaviors of Eating and Activity for Children's Health Evaluation System is appropriate for studying influences on diet and physical activity in children in a variety of settings.
TEACHING MEMORIZED SPELLING WITH A MICROCOMPUTER: TIME DELAY AND COMPUTER‐ASSISTED INSTRUCTION
Authors: Stevens Kay B. , Blackhurst A. Edward , Slaton Deborah Bott
Published: March 2006

A computer‐assisted instruction program was evaluated that used a constant time‐delay procedure to teach 5 students 18 spelling words. In addition to delivering the instructional procedure, the program managed the presentation of training content based on individual student responding and collected instructional data on individual student performance. The procedure was effective at teaching 4 of the 5 students the words, and generalization occurred from the computer‐delivered keyboard response format to a teacher‐delivered hand‐written response format. Maintenance data varied among the students. The study demonstrated the feasibility of using microcomputers to deliver time‐delay instruction in special education classrooms and suggested several research questions related to specific features of microcomputer‐delivered time‐delay instruction.
SOCIAL VALIDITY ASSESSMENTS: IS CURRENT PRACTICE STATE OF THE ART?
Authors: Schwartz Ilene S. , Baer Donald M.
Published: March 2006

The use of evaluative feedback from consumers to guide program planning and evaluation is often referred to as the assessment of social validity. Differing views of its role and value in applied behavior analysis have emerged, and increasingly stereotyped assessments of social validity are becoming commonplace. This paper argues that current applications of social validity assessments are straying from the point originally proposed for them. Thus, several suggestions for improving current social validity assessment are proposed, including (a) expanding the definition of consumers to acknowledge the variety of community members able and likely to affect a program's survival, (b) increasing the psychometric rigor of social validity assessments, (c) extending assessment to heretofore underrepresented populations, (d) implementing widespread application of well‐designed social validity assessments, (e) increasing meaningful consumer involvement in the planning and evaluation of behavioral programs, and (f) educating consumers to make better informed programming decisions.
IS SOCIAL VALIDITY WHAT WE ARE INTERESTED IN? ARGUMENT FOR A FUNCTIONAL APPROACH
Authors: Hawkins Robert P.
Published: March 2006

It is argued that neither the term social nor the term validity is best to identify the processes used or the results obtained in questioning consumers about the goals set, procedures employed, or outcomes achieved in habilitative programming. The term consumer satisfaction acknowledges the fact that it is essentially a collection of consumer opinions. The underlying intent of the process might be called habilitative validation, a name that seems to better guide our validation efforts. More important, in carefully considering consumer satisfaction assessment, it becomes clear that not only does consumer satisfaction itself need to be validated, but also that more objective methods can be used for assessing habilitative validity. However, legitimate uses still remain for consumer satisfaction measurement, as long as we do not mistake it for strong evidence of the habilitative validity of our goals, procedures, or outcomes.
EXTENDING THE CONCEPT OF SOCIAL VALIDITY: BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS FOR DISEASE PREVENTION AND HEALTH PROMOTION
Authors: Winett Richard A. , Moore John F. , Anderson Eileen S.
Published: March 2006

A broader definition of social validity is proposed wherein a socially valid behavior‐change intervention is directed to a problem of verifiable importance, the intervention is valued and used appropriately by designated target groups, and the intervention as used has sufficient behavioral impact to substantially reduce the probability of the problem's occurrence in target populations. The verifiable importance of a problem is based on epidemiological data, and the value and appropriate use of an intervention are enhanced through the use of conceptual frameworks for social marketing and behavior change and considerable formative and pilot research. Behavioral impact is assessed through efficacy and effectiveness studies. Thus, the social validity of a behavior‐change intervention is established through a number of interactive, a priori steps. This approach to defining social validity is related to critical analysis and intervention issues including individual and population perspectives and “top‐down” and “bottom‐up” approaches to intervention design. This broader definition of social validity is illustrated by a project to reduce the risk of HIV infection among adolescents. Although the various steps involved in creating socially valid interventions can be complicated, time‐consuming, and expensive, following all the steps can result in interventions capable of improving a nation's health.
CONSTRUCTED‐RESPONSE MATCHING TO SAMPLE AND SPELLING INSTRUCTION
Authors: Dube William V. , McDonald Stephen J. , McIlvane William J. , Mackay Harry A.
Published: March 2006

The development of interactive programmed instruction using a microcomputer as a teaching machine is described. The program applied a constructed‐response matching‐to‐sample procedure to computer‐assisted spelling instruction and review. On each trial, subjects were presented with a sample stimulus and a choice pool consisting of 10 individual letters. In initial training, sample stimuli were arrays of letters, and subjects were taught to construct identical arrays by touching the matching letters in the choice pool. After generalized constructed‐response identity matching was established, pictures (line drawings) of common objects were presented as samples. At first, correct spelling was prompted by also presenting the printed name to be “copied” via identity matching; then the prompts were faded out. The program was implemented with 2 mentally retarded individuals. Assessment trials determined appropriate words for training. Correct spelling was established via the prompt‐fading procedure; training trials were interspersed among baseline trials that reviewed and maintained spelling of previously learned words. As new words were learned, they were added to a cumulative baseline to generate an individualized review and practice battery for each subject.
IMPROVING THE DRIVING PRACTICES OF PIZZA DELIVERERS: RESPONSE GENERALIZATION AND MODERATING EFFECTS OF DRIVING HISTORY
Authors: Ludwig Timothy D. , Geller E. Scott
Published: March 2006

A practical intervention program, targeting the safety belt use of pizza deliverers at two stores, increased significantly the use of both safety belts (143% above baseline) and turn signals (25% above baseline). Control subjects (i.e., pizza deliverers at a third no‐intervention store and patrons driving to the pizza stores) showed no changes in belt or turn signal use over the course of 7‐month study. The intervention program was staggered across two pizza stores and consisted of a group meeting wherein employees discussed the value of safety belts, received feedback regarding their low safety belt use, offered suggestions for increasing their belt use, and made a personal commitment to buckle up by signing buckle‐up promise cards. Subsequently, employee‐designed buckle‐up reminder signs were placed in the pizza stores. By linking license plate numbers to individual driving records, we examined certain aspects of driving history as moderators of pre‐ and postintervention belt use. Although baseline belt use was significantly lower for drivers with one or more driving demerits or accidents in the previous 5 years, after the intervention these risk groups increased their belt use significantly and at the same rate as drivers with no demerits or accidents. Whereas baseline belt use was similar for younger (under 25) and older (25 or older) drivers, younger drivers were markedly more influenced by the intervention than were older drivers. Individual variation in belt use during baseline, intervention, and follow‐up phases indicated that some drivers require more effective and costly intervention programs to motivate their safe driving practices.
EFFECTS OF CONTEXTUAL COMPETENCE ON SOCIAL INITIATIONS
Authors: Breen Catherine G. , Haring Thomas G.
Published: March 2006

The frequency of social initiations and satisfaction with interactions in three dyads, each consisting of 1 student with disabilities and 1 nondisabled peer, were assessed under two alternating conditions: Condition 1 assessed the interactions around a set of four trained computer games, and Condition 2 assessed interactions when students were playing a set of four untrained computer games. Training was conducted with a multiple baseline design across participants and was followed by social interaction probes using an alternating treatments design. The results indicated greater frequencies of social initiations by 5 of 6 participants, higher degrees of game satisfaction by all participants, and equal or higher degrees of peer satisfaction by 5 of 6 participants when playing trained games in comparison to untrained games.
INDUCING VARIABILITY IN COMMUNICATIVE GESTURES USED BY SEVERELY RETARDED INDIVIDUALS
Authors: Duker Pieter C. , van Lent Chretienne
Published: March 2006

Handicapped individuals who have been taught spontaneous gesture requests often use only a small part of their vocabulary. Procedures to recover the unused part of this vocabulary have not been documented. This study was designed to identify procedures for increasing the proportion of gestures used spontaneously. Six mentally handicapped individuals served as subjects. After a baseline phase during which spontaneous gesture requests were reinforced, consequences were withheld for high‐rate gesture requests. This led to an increase in different gesture requests. Although gesture requests did not return to baseline levels during a reversal condition, functional control was demonstrated by way of a multiple baseline across subjects. The absence of a reversal effect suggests enduring effects of the procedure.
EFFECTS OF SELF‐MANAGEMENT TRAINING AND REINFORCEMENT ON THE TRANSFER OF IMPROVED CONDUCT IN THE ABSENCE OF SUPERVISION
Authors: Ninness H. A. Chris , Fuerst John , Rutherford Roger D. , Glenn Sigrid S.
Published: March 2006

The instruction, maintenance, and transfer of training of social skills of 3 seriously emotionally disturbed adolescents were accomplished by a self‐management training and reinforcement package. During baseline sessions these students, who were covertly filmed in their classroom, averaged over 90% off‐task or socially inappropriate behavior while their teacher was out of the room. They showed similar behaviors when walking between classes, unattended by their teacher. Treatment was introduced in the classroom and consisted of social skills and self‐management training and reinforcement. Treatment procedures included instruction, modeling, and role playing of social skills, as well as self‐assessment, self‐recording, and self‐reinforcement for correct approximations of these skills. After 5 weeks of training, all subjects demonstrated substantial improvements in the classroom during the teacher's absence and when distracted by other students; however, transfer of social skills did not occur to the between‐class setting until students were given explicit instruction to initiate self‐managing procedures in this setting.
A BRIEF FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS OF AGGRESSIVE AND ALTERNATIVE BEHAVIOR IN AN OUTCLINIC SETTING
Authors: Northup John , Wacker David , Sasso Gary , Steege Mark , Cigrand Karla , Cook Joni , DeRaad Agnes
Published: March 2006

We conducted a brief functional analysis to identify maintaining variables for aggressive behavior and an alternative replacement response during a 90‐min outpatient evaluation of 3 individuals with severe handicaps. During the initial analogue assessment, which focused on identifying maintaining contingencies for aggressive behavior, each participant displayed a substantially greater frequency of aggressive behavior during one condition than during any other. The contingency that produced the highest percentage of aggressive behavior was then presented for the occurrence of a specific alternative behavior (a mand). During this contingency reversal phase, each participant displayed a substantial reduction in aggressive behavior and a substantial increase in alternative behavior, thus providing a direct analysis of the equivalency of the contingency for maintaining either behavior.
THE EFFECTS OF SEVERE BEHAVIOR PROBLEMS IN CHILDREN ON THE TEACHING BEHAVIOR OF ADULTS
Authors: Carr Edward G. , Taylor Jill C. , Robinson Sarah
Published: March 2006

Applied behavior analysts have focused on how adults can influence the problem behavior of children using a variety of behavior modification strategies. A related question, virtually unexplored, is how the behavior problems of children influence adults. This child‐effects concept was explored empirically in a study involving 12 adults who were asked to teach four pairs of children in which one member of the pair exhibited problem behavior and the other typically did not. Results demonstrated that problem children displayed tantrums, aggression, and self‐injury contingent on adult instructional attempts but not at other times, whereas nonproblem children showed little or no problem behavior at any time. Importantly, from a child‐effects perspective, adults engaged in teaching activities with nonproblem children more often than with problem children. Also, when an adult worked with a problem child, the breadth of instruction was more limited and typically involved those tasks associated with lower rates of behavior problems. The implications of these results are discussed with respect to theories of escape behavior, current assessment practices, and intervention issues related to maintenance. The existence of child effects suggests that problem behavior may be better understood when it is conceptualized as involving a process of reciprocal influence between adult and child.
EFFECTS OF PUBLIC POSTING ON DRIVING SPEED IN ICELANDIC TRAFFIC
Authors: Ragnarsson Ragnar S. , Björgvinsson Thröstur
Published: March 2006

We replicated a study by Van Houten, Nau, and Marini (1980) that had revealed reductions in vehicle speeding following the posting of percentages of drivers not speeding on a sign at roadside. Our subjects were drivers entering a residential area where the speed limit changed from 90 km/hr (55.9 mph) to 60 km/hr (37.3 mph). A total of 4,409 vehicle speeds were taken from two observation sessions per day for 20 consecutive weekdays. The intervention consisted of a single posting condition, in which a hypothetical daily percentage of drivers not speeding was posted on a feedback sign, followed by a double posting condition, in which a sign posting a best result was erected beyond the feedback sign. Results revealed a significant speed reduction from an average of 69.0 km/hr (42.9 mph) during baseline to 63.4 km/hr (39.4 mph) during single posting. Average speed during double posting was 62.9 km/hr (39.1 mph). The percentage of drivers exceeding 70 km/hr (43.5 mph) dropped from 41.0 during baseline to 20.5 during single posting. The significant speed reductions add to the generality of findings of similar studies in Canada and Israel and offer possible explanations for the failure of feedback posting to reduce speed in the U.S.
EFFECTS OF CALORIC LEVEL ON RUMINATING
Authors: Johnston J. M. , Greene Katherine S. , Rawal Aseem , Vazin Tina , Winston Merrill
Published: March 2006

A series of recent studies has shown that a number of dietary variables affect ruminative behavior in institutionalized retarded persons. This experiment extends an earlier study that examined the influence of the caloric level of the diet on the frequency of ruminating. Subjects consumed regular portions of food that varied between phases from normal to high caloric levels. The data show a clear but modest inverse relation between the caloric value of the diet and the rates of postmeal ruminating.
CONTINGENT REINFORCEMENT OF ABSTINENCE WITH INDIVIDUALS ABUSING COCAINE AND MARIJUANA
Authors: Budney Alan J. , Higgins Stephen T. , Delaney Dawn D. , Kent Lisa , Bickel Warren K.
Published: March 2006

Two males diagnosed with cocaine dependence received a behavioral intervention comprised of contingency management and the community reinforcement approach. During the initial phase of treatment, reinforcement was delivered contingent on submitting cocaine‐free urine specimens. The community reinforcement approach involved two behavior therapy sessions each week. Almost complete cocaine abstinence was achieved, but regular marijuana use continued. During a second phase, reinforcement magnitude was reduced, but remained contingent on submitting cocaine‐free specimens. Behavior therapy was reduced to once per week. Cocaine abstinence and regular marijuana use continued. Next, reinforcement was delivered contingent on submitting cocaine‐ and marijuana‐free specimens. This modified contingency resulted in an abrupt increase in marijuana abstinence and maintenance of cocaine abstinence. One‐ and 5‐month follow‐ups indicated that cocaine abstinence continued, but marijuana smoking resumed. These results indicate that the behavioral intervention was efficacious in achieving abstinence from cocaine and marijuana; maintenance, however, was achieved for cocaine only.
A TECHNOLOGY FOR PROGRAM MAINTENANCE: PROGRAMMING KEY RESEARCHER BEHAVIORS IN A STUDENT HOUSING COOPERATIVE
Authors: Altus Deborah E. , Welsh Thomas M. , Miller L. Keith
Published: March 2006

Behavioral researchers play critical, but often unanalyzed, roles in the programs they develop. Unless they replace their key activities with standardized procedures, their continued participation may be essential to program success—a situation that is often not only impractical but may be prohibitively expensive and disliked by local staff. This study was conducted in a student housing cooperative that is dependent on close researcher supervision for its continued health and survival. A key activity of the co‐op researchers was to provide public recognition for good job performance by co‐op members. The purposes of this study were (a) to replace that idiosyncratic recognition with systematic procedures so members, instead of the researchers, would provide public recognition to each other for good job performance; and (b) to evaluate those procedures by comparing job performance when member‐delivered recognition was provided and when it was not. When the procedures were in place, job performance increased and fines for poor job performance and complaining at meetings decreased. This study suggests that procedures can be developed to reduce program reliance on the researcher that are effective, inexpensive, sustainable, and acceptable to the participants—a first step toward developing a technology of program maintenance.
THE EFFECTS OF RESPONSE EFFICIENCY ON FUNCTIONALLY EQUIVALENT COMPETING BEHAVIORS
Authors: Horner Robert H. , Day H. Michael
Published: March 2006

Three experiments addressed the role of response efficiency in the application of functional equivalence training. Functional equivalence training includes conducting a functional assessment of the problem behavior. Variables that predict and maintain the problem behavior are defined, and socially appropriate, functionally equivalent skills are identified and taught. The logic is that if the learner has a socially appropriate way to achieve the same function, he or she will be less likely to use problem behaviors. This study examined the role of response efficiency in functional equivalence training. Response efficiency was examined in terms of three variables: (a) physical effort, (b) schedule of reinforcement, and (c) the time delay between presentation of the discriminative stimulus and reinforcer delivery. Each of the three experiments involved a person who performed a set of problem behaviors and a functional assessment of the problem behaviors. A socially appropriate alternative response was taught, but this new response was less efficient than the problem behavior on one of the efficiency variables (effort, schedule, delay in time). The new behaviors did not compete successfully with the problem behaviors until a new, more efficient, alternative behavior was taught. These results are discussed in terms of our understanding of response covariation and the need in applied contexts to include response efficiency in any functional analysis assessment.
INCREASING AUTISTIC CHILDREN'S DAILY SPONTANEOUS SPEECH
Authors: Charlop Marjorie H. , Trasowech Jane E.
Published: March 2006

We investigated the effectiveness of teaching parents of 3 autistic boys to use a time delay procedure to increase their children's appropriate spontaneous speech in several naturally occurring daily settings (e.g., saying “good morning” in the morning). Generalization across settings and within settings across persons and locations was assessed. Variation in the children's spontaneous speech was also assessed. In addition procedural errors in the parents' use of time delay were calculated. Results indicated that all children increased their daily spontaneous speech and generalized their speech to other locations and persons.
AN ANALYSIS OF ERROR‐CORRECTION PROCEDURES DURING DISCRIMINATION TRAINING
Authors: Rodgers Teresa A. , Iwata Brian A.
Published: March 2006

Mechanisms involved in error‐correction procedures during behavioral acquisition were examined. Seven developmentally delayed subjects participated in match‐to‐sample discrimination training, consisting of three conditions arranged in a multielement design. Correct responses in all conditions were followed by praise and either food or pennies. In the baseline condition (differential reinforcement), an error produced no consequences. In the practice condition, an error was followed by repetition of the trial until a correct response occurred. In the avoidance condition, an error was followed by additional trials consisting of irrelevant stimuli; this condition separated the effects of repeated exposure to the same task from those of negative reinforcement, both of which existed in the practice condition. All 7 subjects made noticeable progress in the baseline condition. However, 5 of the 7 performed better in one of the error‐correction conditions: 2 performed better in the practice condition, and 3 performed better in the avoidance condition. These data indicate that error‐correction procedures may serve multiple functions and suggest that the practice requirement in this study included both avoidance and stimulus control components. More generally, the data indicate that additional control procedures should be included in acquisition studies to identify the relevant behavioral mechanism(s).
PEER‐MEDIATED PROCEDURES TO INDUCE SWALLOWING AND FOOD ACCEPTANCE IN YOUNG CHILDREN
Authors: Greer R. Douglas , Dorow Laura , Williams Gladys , McCorkle Nan , Asnes Russ
Published: March 2006

Two studies demonstrated a functional relationship between a peer modeling procedure and the treatment of feeding disorders with 2 young children. In the first experiment, the use of a peer model treatment package was shown to induce swallowing in a child with dysphagia who had never swallowed food or liquid. In the second experiment, a child who consistently declined food was induced to increase food acceptance as a function of the same peer modeling package. In the latter experiment, a peer‐mediated procedure, consisting of rotated opportunities to consume food with a peer, was found to increase consumption more than did modeling alone. The first experiment used a multiple baseline design across solids and liquids, and the second used a multiple treatment design. The results of both experiments are discussed as new and nonaversive treatments for feeding disorders of young children who are imitative.
ASSESSMENT OF STIMULI CONTROLLING THE REQUESTS OF STUDENTS WITH SEVERE MENTAL RETARDATION DURING A SNACK ROUTINE
Authors: Schussler Nancy G. , Spradlin Joseph E.
Published: March 2006

This study assessed stimuli controlling requests during a snack routine after extensive request training with a delayed prompt procedure. During training sessions, one of three three‐item snack groups was presented to 3 subjects with severe mental retardation. Assessment sessions involved (a) training conditions (all items were visible), (b) presenting two of three items from a particular group, or (c) presenting no items. One subject requested food items when no food items were present, 2 frequently requested a missing item when the two other items were visible, and all subjects requested visible items. Procedures for assessing stimulus control, such as those described in the current paper, should lead to a better understanding of the variables controlling behaviors that initially appear perplexing and unpredictable.
EFFECTS OF SELF‐EVALUATION ON PRESCHOOL CHILDREN'S USE OF SOCIAL INTERACTION STRATEGIES WITH THEIR CLASSMATES WITH AUTISM
Authors: Sainato Diane M. , Goldstein Howard , Strain Phillip S.
Published: March 2006

This study investigated effects of a self‐evaluation procedure on preschool children's use of social interaction strategies among their classmates with autism. Three triads of children (comprised of 1 trained normally developing peer, 1 untrained peer, and 1 child with autism) participated. A multiple baseline design across subjects was used to demonstrate that peers who were taught facilitative strategies increased their use of strategies only after the self‐evaluation intervention was introduced. Improvements in social behavior of children with autism was associated with peers' increased strategy use. Untrained peers demonstrated little change in their social behavior. Treatment effects were replicated when trained peers were asked to use self‐evaluation with other children with autism during other play times. Self‐evaluation procedures enhanced the use of social interaction strategies on the part of normally developing peers during social skills interventions.
THE EFFECTS OF VARIABLE‐INTERVAL REINFORCEMENT ON ACADEMIC ENGAGEMENT: A DEMONSTRATION OF MATCHING THEORY
Authors: Martens Brian K. , Lochner David G. , Kelly Susan Q.
Published: March 2006

The single‐alternative form of the matching law has enjoyed extensive support in laboratory research with both animals and humans. However, few data exist concerning its validity as a description of behavior in applied settings. In Experiment 1, 2 fourth‐grade students were exposed to variable‐interval schedules of social reinforcement contingent on academic engagement. The data for each subject were then plotted via Herrnstein's equation. The results showed Herrnstein's equation to account for 99.1% and 87.6% of the variance in student engagement, respectively. In Experiment 2, control over student engagement by two of the reinforcement schedules was examined further within an alternating treatments design with similar results. The implications of these findings for linking experimental and applied behavior analysis are discussed.
TEACHING IDIOM COMPREHENSION TO CHILDREN WITH MENTAL RETARDATION
Authors: Ezell Helen K. , Goldstein Howard
Published: March 2006

This study examined the effectiveness of a training program designed to teach children with mild mental retardation the meaning of 12 idiomatic phrases, such as “to hit the sack.” Four 9‐year‐old children participated in the training. A multiple baseline design across subjects and across three sets of idioms was implemented. Training consisted of presenting both literal and idiomatic contexts in the form of story narratives, and asking the children to explain the outcome of the story and to select one picture from an array of four that represented the outcome. All children demonstrated learning, although 1 child required review procedures to facilitate maintenance. Children were able to generalize their receptive learning to an expressive task with varying levels of success. All children demonstrated an ability to understand the learned idioms when presented in unfamiliar contexts.
PROMOTING INTERACTION DURING SOCIODRAMATIC PLAY: TEACHING SCRIPTS TO TYPICAL PRESCHOOLERS AND CLASSMATES WITH DISABILITIES
Authors: Goldstein Howard , Cisar Connie L.
Published: March 2006

We investigated the effects of teaching sociodramatic scripts on subsequent interaction among three triads, each containing 2 typical children and 1 child with autistic characteristics. The same type and rate of teacher prompts were implemented throughout structured play observations to avoid the confounding effects of script training and teacher prompting. After learning the scripts, all children demonstrated more frequent theme‐related social behavior. These improvements in social‐communicative interaction were replicated with the training of three sociodramatic scripts (i.e., pet shop, carnival, magic show) according to a multiple baseline design. These effects were maintained during the training of successive scripts and when the triads were reconstituted to include new but similarly trained partners. Results provided support for the inclusion of systematic training of scripts to enhance interaction among children with and without disabilities during sociodramatic play.
PROMOTING STIMULUS CONTROL WITH TEXTUAL PROMPTS AND PERFORMANCE FEEDBACK FOR PERSONS WITH MILD DISABILITIES
Authors: Cuvo Anthony J. , Davis Paula K. , O'Reilly Mark F. , Mooney Brenda M. , Crowley Ruth
Published: March 2006

We assessed whether written task analyses would serve as textual prompts for performing functional tasks by persons with mild disabilities. Several variables that could influence the effectiveness of textual prompts to promote stimulus control were examined across four groups. A consistent finding was that written specific task analyses combined with end‐of‐trial performance feedback were effective for promoting the acquisition and generalization of several tasks. Performance transferred immediately to natural discriminative stimuli when the written task analyses and feedback were withdrawn for most tasks and participants. For 2 participants, transfer of stimulus control was accomplished by prompt fading, using individualized written task analyses either with or without performance feedback (Group 1). When feedback was not provided, the effectiveness of written specific task analyses was inconsistent across groups. In contrast to the controlling effects of written specific task analyses, written generic task analyses, which specified only major task outcomes, when combined with performance feedback (Group 1) did not control responding. Overall, this research demonstrated the effectiveness of written specific task analyses and performance feedback to promote stimulus control for persons with mild disabilities.