bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Estimating Daily Evapotranspiration From Remotely Sensed Instantaneous Observations With Simplified Derivations of a Theoretical Model
Authors: Tang Ronglin , Li Zhao‐Liang
Published: September 2017

Surface evapotranspiration (ET) is one of the key components in global hydrological cycle and energy budget on Earth. This paper designs a theoretical relationship between daily and instantaneous ETs with a multiplication of multiple fractions through a mathematical derivation of the physics‐based Penman‐Monteith equation and further develops five methods for converting remotely sensed instantaneous ET to daily values, one of which is equivalent to the conventional constant evaporative fraction (EF) method. The five methods are then evaluated and intercompared using long‐term ground‐based eddy covariance system‐measured half‐hourly latent heat flux (LE) and three groups of Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer‐based instantaneous LE data sets collected from April 2009 to late October 2011 at the Yucheng station. Overall, the constant decoupling factor (Ω) method, the constant surface resistance (Rc) method, and the constant ratio of surface resistance to aerodynamic resistance (Rc/Ra) method could produce daily LE estimates that are in reasonably good agreement with the ground‐based eddy covariance measurements, whereas the constant EF method and the constant Priestley‐Taylor parameter (α) method underestimate the daily LE with larger biases and root‐mean‐square errors. The former three methods are of more solid physical foundation and can effectively capture the effect of temporally variable meteorological factors on the diurnal pattern of surface ET. They provide good alternatives to the nowadays commonly applied methods for the conversion of remotely sensed instantaneous ET to daily values.
Troposphere‐Stratosphere Temperature Trends Derived From Satellite Data Compared With Ensemble Simulations From WACCM
Authors: Randel William J. , Polvani Lorenzo , Wu Fei , Kinnison Douglas E. , Zou Cheng‐Zhi , Mears Carl
Published: September 2017

Decadal‐scale trends in tropospheric and stratospheric temperatures derived from satellite measurements over 1979–2014 are compared with ensemble simulations from the Whole Atmosphere Community Climate Model (WACCM). The model is forced with observed sea surface temperatures, changes in greenhouse gases, and ozone‐depleting substances, plus solar and volcanic effects, and results from five WACCM realizations (with slightly different initial conditions) are analyzed. We focus on the vertical structure of tropospheric warming and stratospheric cooling increasing with height, the latitudinal and seasonal dependence of trends, and on the temporal evolution of stratospheric temperatures in response to stratospheric ozone depletion and partial recovery. The model captures the observed trend structure in most respects, and the ensemble of simulations provides quantitative estimates of the impact of internal variability on trend estimates. In regions of low variability (e.g., over low latitudes) the ensemble mean trends agree with the observations, while in regions of high variability (e.g., the polar stratosphere) the observations mostly fall within the range of realizations. Temperature response to evolving stratospheric ozone is evaluated by computing separate trends over 1979–1997 (ozone depletion) and 1998–2014 (partial recovery). Robust changes in temperature trends between these periods occur in the global upper stratosphere and in the Antarctic spring lower stratosphere, with consistent behavior between model and observations. Observed lower stratospheric temperatures in the Antarctic show statistically significant warming after 1998, reflecting recently reported healing of the ozone hole.
Investigating the Seasonal and Diurnal Cycles of Ocean Vector Winds Near the Philippines Using RapidScat and CCMP
Authors: Lang Timothy J.
Published: September 2017

The seasonal and diurnal cycles of ocean vector winds in the domain of the South China Sea are characterized and compared using RapidScat and the Cross‐Calibrated Multi‐Platform (CCMP) data sets. Broad agreement in seasonal flow patterns exists between these data sets during the year 2015. Both observe the dramatic reversal from wintertime trade winds (November–April) to westerly flow associated with the summer monsoon (May–October). These seasonal changes have strong but not equivalent effects on mean wind divergence patterns in both data sets. Specifically near the Philippines, the data sets agree on several aspects of the seasonal mean and diurnal cycle of near‐surface vector winds and divergence. In particular, RapidScat and CCMP agree that daytime onshore and nocturnal offshore flow patterns affect the diurnal cycle of winds up to ~200 km west of Luzon, Philippines. Observed disagreements over the diurnal cycle are explainable by measurement uncertainty, as well as shortcomings in both data sets.
Spatial Patterns of Groundwater Biogeochemical Reactivity in an Intertidal Beach Aquifer
Authors: Kim Kyra H. , Heiss James W. , Michael Holly A. , Cai Wei‐Jun , Laattoe Tariq , Post Vincent E. A. , Ullman William J.
Published: September 2017

Beach aquifers host a dynamic and reactive mixing zone between fresh and saline groundwater of contrasting origin and composition. Seawater, driven up the beachface by waves and tides, infiltrates into the aquifer and meets the seaward‐discharging fresh groundwater, creating and maintaining a reactive intertidal circulation cell. Within the cell, land‐derived nutrients delivered by fresh groundwater are transformed or attenuated. We investigated this process by collecting pore water samples from multilevel wells along a shore‐perpendicular transect on a beach near Cape Henlopen, Delaware, and analyzing solute and particulate concentrations. Pore water incubation experiments were conducted to determine rates of oxygen consumption and nitrogen gas production. A numerical model was employed to support field and laboratory interpretations. Results showed that chemically sensitive parameters such as pH and ORP diverged from salinity distribution patterns, indicating biogeochemical reactivity within the circulation cell. The highest respiration rates were found in the landward freshwater‐saltwater mixing zone, supported by high dissolved inorganic carbon. Chlorophyll a, a proxy for phytoplankton, and particulate carbon did not co‐occur with the highest respiration rates but were heterogeneously distributed in deeper and hypoxic areas of the cell. The highest rates of N2 production were also found in the mixing zone coinciding with elevated O2 consumption rates but closer to the lower discharge point. Model results were consistent with these observations, showing heightened denitrification in the mixing zone. The results of this work emphasize the relationship between the physical flow processes of the circulation cell and its biogeochemical reactivity and highlight the environmental significance of sandy beaches.
Plant Cell Walls in the Post‐Genomic Era
Authors: Scheible Wolf‐Rüdiger , Bashir Sajid , Rose Jocelyn K.C.
Published: September 2017

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Genome Annotation and Identification of Cell Wall Related Genes and Proteins

Assigning Gene Functions Using Reverse Genetics and the Tools of Functional Genomics

Forward Genetics in the Post‐Genome Era

Technologies for Transcript Profiling and Their Use to Study Cell Wall Formation and Differentiation

Proteomic Analysis of Plant Cell Walls

Glycomics

New and Emerging Technologies to Detect and Screen for Changes in Cell Wall Polymers

Outlook

Acknowledgements
How to Make a Vesicle: Coat Protein–Membrane Interactions
Authors: Aniento F. , Helms J. Bernd , Memon Abdul R.
Published: September 2017

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Clathrin‐Coated Vesicles

COPIVesicles

COPIIVesicles

Acknowledgements
Perturbation ofER‐Golgi Vesicle Trafficking
Authors: Robinson David G. , Ritzenthaler Christophe
Published: September 2017

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Metabolic Inhibitors

Low Temperature Effects

Cytoskeleton Inhibitors

pH‐Modulators

BrefeldinA(BFA)

PerturbingER‐Golgi Structure and Function through Viral Infection
Cytokinesis: Membrane Trafficking by Default?
Authors: Jürgens Gerd , Pacher Tobias
Published: September 2017

The sections in this article are

Introduction

A Dynamic View of Cell Plate Formation

Formation of Cytokinetic Vesicles

Delivery of Cytokinetic Vesicles

Vesicle Fusion in the Plane of Cell Division

What Determines the Specificity of Cytokinetic Vesicle Trafficking?

How Can Cytokinesis be Carried out So Fast?

Concluding Remarks
Interactions between Nitrogen and Phosphorus Metabolism
Authors: Raven John A.
Published: September 2017

Nitrogen and phosphorus are essential for all organisms, and are often the elements that limit primary productivity. Both, nitrogen and phosphorus have many roles in photosynthetic organisms. In some roles (e.g. in nucleic acids and proteins) neither nitrogen nor phosphorus can be substituted by other elements. By contrast, polar lipids containing either nitrogen or phosphorus can be replaced by polar lipids lacking nitrogen or phosphorus. The nitrogen:phosphorus ratio in photosynthetic organisms is quite variable, and interpretation in terms of metabolically active nitrogen and phosphorus compounds is made difficult by variations in the storage pools of nitrogen and phosphorus. Geographical variations in organism nitrogen:phosphorus ratios have been rationalised in terms of external nitrogen and phosphorus availability or internal responses to (for example) the length of the growing season. Many interactions of nitrogen and phosphorus occur in their acquisition from the medium; examples include the production of ectoenzymes that require phosphorus (for
RNA
in protein synthesis) and nitrogen (in the
RNA
and ectoenzymes). These are involved in converting otherwise inaccessible organic nitrogen and phosphorus into forms that can be taken up.
The Role of Intracellular and Secreted Purple Acid Phosphatases in Plant Phosphorus Scavenging and Recycling
Authors: Tian Jiang , Liao Hong
Published: September 2017

Purple acid phosphatases (PAPs) belong to a special group of acid phosphatases (APases), which hydrolyse phosphate from phosphomonoesters and anhydrides with an optimumpHbelow 7.0. Although somePAPshave been shown to play a vital role in plant adaptation to phosphorus (P) deficiency, precise functions of mostPAPsremain fragmentary due to their diversity and ubiquity. A combined application of genetic, biochemical and physiological approaches is required to integrate all available knowledge ofPAPproperties into a mosaic of functional roles. The chapter aim is to summarize and integrate the structural, biochemical (e.g. substrate specificity) and molecular (e.g. subcellular localisation, transcriptional and post‐transcriptional regulation) characteristics ofPAPs, which might facilitate further understanding of their complex functions, especially in relation to P scavenging and recycling in plants. Increased insights into the physiological roles ofPAPswill be essential to improve crop P acquisition and utilisation efficiency through the tools of biotechnology, so as to reduce or eliminate humankind's overuse of nonrenewable P‐containing fertilizers.
Algae in a Phosphorus‐Limited Landscape
Authors: Grossman Arthur R. , Aksoy Munevver
Published: September 2017

Phosphorus (P) is an essential nutrient that is integral to lipids, nucleic acids and various metabolites, and also binds proteins covalently in ways that may alter their catalytic activities and interactions with other proteins. Phosphate (PO43−), both inorganic and organic, is the major source of P for nearly all microbes, algae and plants, although in some environments organic PO43−molecules (including nucleic acids, phospholipids and phosphonates) comprise a significant proportion of the available P. Many natural environments have low levels of available P, which limits the growth of plants, algae and microbes. These organisms have developed a diversity of strategies to scavenge PO43−from external sources, to recycle and balance P utilization within the cell in response to environmental conditions, and to coordinate cell growth and division with P availability. Furthermore, agricultural lands may be depleted of many nutrients including nitrogen (N) and P. Fertilizers with high N and P contents are liberally applied to many millions of acres of farmland globally, and these could be leached from the soil to contaminate lakes, rivers, ponds and coastal waters. Research groups are now starting to understand the complexity of P cycling in the environment and the molecular mechanisms associated with the acclimatisation of photoautotrophic and heterotrophic organisms to P limitation. In this chapter, P availability in the natural environment is discussed, and the physiological and molecular strategies used by algae (in the context of other organisms) for the efficient capture of external P, to recycle P‐containing molecules in the cell, and to reconfigure cellular metabolism to sustain viability in a P‐limited landscape, are emphasised.
Addiction and Exposure
Authors: Griffiths Mark
Published: September 2017

For many people the concept of addiction involves the ingestion of a drug. However, there is now a growing movement that views a number of behaviors as potentially addictive, including some that do not involve the ingestion of a drug, such as gambling, sex, and exercise (Orford 2001; Griffiths 2005, 2011). Increasing research into behavioral addictions has also concentrated on a particular sub‐group that has been termed “technological addictions.” Technological addictions are nonchemical (behavioral) addictions that involve excessive human–machine interaction. They can either be passive (e.g., watching television) or active (e.g., playing video games), and usually contain inducing and reinforcing features, which may contribute to the promotion of addictive tendencies (Griffiths 2008; King et al. 2012). Possible activities that could be included under this category are such activities as television addiction, computer addiction (e.g., hacking, programming), video game addiction, mobile phone addiction, Internet addiction, and social networking addiction (Kuss & Griffiths 2011, 2012) (→ Exposure to Communication Content).
Advertising: Global Industry
Authors: Sinclair John
Published: September 2017

Advertising is the key link in the mutually sustained global expansion of consumer goods and services industries and the media of communication that carry their commercial messages. In this structural context, → advertising is much more than the → images and brand names (→ Brands; Branding) that form the surface of → consumer culture. It is the life‐blood of the media, and the motive force behind media industry development. Further, it is the publicly most visible dimension of → marketing, that is, the cultural industry that seeks to connect the producers of consumer goods and services with their potential markets, and in fact, to bring those markets into being. This integrated institutional relationship between production and consumption, with the advertising agency at its center, may be referred to as the “manufacturing–marketing–media complex.”
Advertising as Persuasion
Authors: Fennis Bob M.
Published: September 2017

Advertising as → Persuasion may be defined as an instrumental and intentional form of commercial communication by which a deliberate attempt is made to convince consumers of the value of the message position, i.e., the product or brand advertised. Advertising as persuasion focuses on the impact of advertising stimuli on cognitive, affective, and behavioral consumer responses (Kardes 2002). Implied in this conceptualization is a focus on the effectiveness of advertising on the individual level, rather than on a more aggregate level. Advertising stimuli can pertain to message elements (e.g., advertising format, the use of fear appeals, humor, sex, music, or number of arguments), source elements (e.g., brand familiarity, endorser characteristics such as fame, attractiveness, or credibility), or channel elements (e.g., visual versus nonvisual means of communication). Cognitive responses include belief and attitude formation and change (→ Attitudes). Affective responses include the influence of ads on → emotions and mood. Behavioral responses pertain to purchase and choice behavior, consumer decision‐making, and brand loyalty.
Advertising Strategies
Authors: van den Putte Bas
Published: September 2017

Advertising strategy is the set of decisions an organization takes with respect to the employment of → advertising to reach one or more objectives among a specific target group. Each advertising strategy is based on the → Marketing strategy that encompasses the strategic decisions regarding all marketing activities, such as packaging, price, distribution, and promotion. Within this set of marketing activities, advertising is part of the promotion strategy. Besides defining target group and communication objectives, main parts of the advertising strategy are message strategy and → media planning strategy (→ Advertising Frequency and Timing).
Alternative Journalism
Authors: Bekken Jon
Published: September 2017

Alternative journalism is a fluid concept, often casually attributed to a wide array of media practices unified only by being different from the journalism in so‐called mainstream media. Such a “definition” can encompass everything from local entertainment weeklies thick with advertising to the clandestine media of revolutionary movements. Recent scholarship has moved beyond this approach to focus on practices that challenge the communicator/audience divide typical of mainstream media, including the range of voices presented, the privileging of marginalized and excluded news sources over traditional elites, a conscious identification with the audience being served, and a conception of journalism that promotes social action (Atton 2002; Downing 2001; → Citizens' Media; Community Media; Development Journalism; Media Democracy Movement; Social Mobilization).
Americanization of the Media
Authors: McQuail Denis
Published: September 2017

The term “Americanization” has been used with varying intended meaning and with varying degrees of precision over the last three or four decades of communication research. The common element is a reference to a process or trend affecting either the media of countries external to the USA or the generality of media and media‐related practices globally (→ International Communication). When and where the term is used, it is usually based on the assumption that American mass media are in some respects dominant and ubiquitous and exert a strong pull on other systems to become like them or to incorporate content imported from the USA.
Anime
Authors: Cooper‐Chen Anne
Published: September 2017

The term “anime” is abbreviated from the Japanese word
animēshon
, which in turn is a direct transliteration of the English word → animation. Comprised mainly of TV series created in Japan, anime features distinctive characters, long‐running storylines, and unique aesthetics (→ Cartoon). As Japan's most visible export, anime and related products –
manga
, toys, action figures, and → video games – challenge the worldwide dominance of and serve as an alternative to US popular media (→ Comics). Starting as a major influence in about 1995 and abetted by the Internet, Japanese pop youth culture has spread not just to the US, but also to western Europe, East Asia, and Latin America.
Art as Communication
Authors: Griffin Michael
Published: September 2017

In modern western culture, art has increasingly been defined as an elite sphere of activity distinct from broader notions of social communication. Since Kant and Hume, discriminations of sensory beauty and “delicacy of taste” have been invoked in judgments of → aesthetic value that separate those forms of communication that qualify as art from those that do not. Gross has argued that art appreciation is dependent upon the “perception and evaluation of the competence displayed by the artist,” the degree to which the viewer/reader attributes skill on the part of the artist in the intentional “selecting, transforming, and ordering of the elements” (Gross 1973, 124, 127). These demonstrations of competence may be appreciated anonymously, as examples of conventionally recognized ability or talent, but most often they depend upon the valorization of an individual artist, the repository of the skill that is distinguished.
Attitude Accessibility
Authors: Roskos‐Ewoldsen David R.
Published: September 2017

Attitude accessibility concerns how quickly an → attitude is activated from → memory. Attitudes that are more accessible from memory are more predictive of behavior, influence what messages are attended to, and how those messages are processed, and are more stable across time. Unfortunately, little is known about how to change the accessibility of attitudes from memory, particularly with regards to how persuasive messages influence accessible attitudes (→ Information Processing; Memory, Message).
Audience
Authors: Dohle Marco
Published: September 2017

The audience is an essential part of mass communication processes, and since the beginnings of communication research, it has been one of its central topics. As regards mass communication, the term “audience” describes the sum of all persons who receive or received (parts of) a media offering. Thus, audience is a group participating in the public communication process but normally it is not involved in the making of its contents. Audience is not a lasting social formation; it rather originates as the case arises via → exposure to communication content.
Audience
Authors: Dohle Marco
Published: September 2017

The audience is an essential part of mass communication processes, and since the beginnings of communication research, it has been one of its central topics. As regards mass communication, the term “audience” describes the sum of all persons who receive or received (parts of) a media offering. Thus, audience is a group participating in the public communication process but normally it is not involved in the making of its contents. Audience is not a lasting social formation; it rather originates as the case arises via → exposure to communication content.
Australia: Media System
Authors: Putnis Peter
Published: September 2017

European settlement of Australia commenced with the establishment in 1788 of a British penal settlement in what later became the city of Sydney. While Australia was inhabited by an estimated 750,000 Aboriginal people, the continent was claimed as a possession of the British Empire. By the middle of the nineteenth century Australia comprised six internally self‐governing colonies centered on the capitals of Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Adelaide, Perth, and Hobart. With federation in 1901 these colonies became States of the Commonwealth of Australia, a constitutional democracy based on a federal division of powers.
Availability, Cognitive
Authors: Greifeneder Rainer , Bless Herbert
Published: September 2017

The term “availability heuristic” refers to a judgmental rule of thumb for estimating frequencies and probabilities. It states that individuals determine frequencies and probabilities “by the ease with which relevant instances come to mind” (Tversky & Kahneman 1973, 207). The logic underlying the availability heuristic holds that frequent and probable events are well represented in memory and are therefore easy to retrieve. Reversing this link, the experienced ease associated with retrieving specific events from memory can be used as an indicator for the frequency and probability of events. For example, when asked how many different game shows are currently aired on TV, one may determine how easy or difficult pertaining instances can be recalled and base the judgment on the experienced ease or difficulty associated with this recall (“If it so easy to recall examples of different game shows, then there must be many”).
Family Communication Patterns
Authors: Caughlin John P. , Scott Allison M.
Published: September 2017

Communication patterns in families refer to repeated interaction styles and behaviors. A single family member's communication behaviors over time can be patterned, but family communication scholars tend to focus on patterns among family members. Family relationships are typically involuntary and long‐lasting (Vangelisti 1993). One usually cannot choose one's siblings, for instance, and sibling relationships – even strained ones – commonly endure for most of one's lifetime. The involuntary and lengthy nature of family relations provides myriad opportunities for various communication patterns to emerge.
Fantasy/Imagination
Authors: Valkenburg Patti M.
Published: September 2017

The past three decades have witnessed a considerable increase in empirical research into the origins, contents, and effects of people's fantasy and imagination. What exactly is meant by fantasy and imagination, however, often remains unclear. Moreover, the two terms are often used without distinction, suggesting that they capture one and the same experience. Of course, fantasy and imagination overlap to some extent. Both activities require the generation of thoughts, and in both activities associative thinking plays a role. However, there are also differences between the two activities. First, fantasy usually takes place separately from the context from which the fantasy emerged. Fantasizing is a shift of attention away from an ongoing task or external stimulus toward a response to an internal stimulus. Imagination, by contrast, does not necessarily take place apart from an external context. Imagination is the ability to reproduce images or concepts originally derived from the basic senses but now reflected in one's consciousness (Singer 1966).
Fashion
Authors: Frith Katherine T. , Merskin Debra
Published: September 2017

Fashion, as extension of a human being beyond the corporeal body, is also a method of demarcating sameness and difference. As communicated through advertising, fashion not only reflects an individual's self‐image, but also is done in anticipation of how others will regard the dramaturgical display (Goffman 1959). As an expression of popular preferences and culture (→ Popular Culture), fashion is constructed not by an actual garment, but by the desire it creates (Barthes 1983). Theories of communication studies suppose and propose that audience or consumer liking/disliking is often expressed in ways that reflect not only what people value, but also what producers want them to value (Merskin & Tankel, in press; → Communication Theory and Philosophy; Audience; Audience Commodity). As a creative cultural expression and commodity, fashion functions ecologically as a system of → meaning. To survive and thrive, fashion requires the constant cultivation, renewal, commodification, and reproduction of public desire.
Federal Communications Commission (FCC)
Authors: Paterson Chris , Gangadharan Seeta Peña
Published: September 2017

The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) is the regulatory agency in the United States charged with oversight of electronic communications (→ Television Broadcasting, Regulation of; United States of America: Media System). Since the 1980s, it has taken much of the blame for the lack of diversity and the concentration of ownership in US broadcasting, the rise of → media conglomerates, and pro‐market regulation of Internet‐related industries. The FCC has more responsibilities and autonomy than regulators in other industrialized countries.
Group Decision‐Making, Functional Theory of
Authors: Gouran Dennis S.
Published: September 2017

The functional theory of group decision‐making, while relatively recent as a formal theory, has origins dating well back into the twentieth century. One significant origin is the adaptation of US philosopher John Dewey's
method of reflective thinking
for use in the teaching of group discussion by speech teachers (Dewey 1997, 1st pub. 1910; → Speech Communication, History of). In Dewey's characterization, the method consists of five steps: (1) a felt difficulty; (2) its location and definition; (3) suggestion of possible solution; (4) development by reasoning of the bearings of the suggestion; and (5) further observation and experiment leading to its acceptance or rejection; that is, the conclusion of belief or disbelief. Early on, teachers interested in communication in groups converted these steps into a standard agenda for conducting decision‐making and problem‐solving discussions (e.g., Ewbank & Auer 1941). The presumption was that following these steps and cultivating the corresponding habits of mind would lead to better decisions (→ Group Communication; Group Communication and Problem‐Solving).
Habermas, Jürgen
Authors: Wessler Hartmut
Published: September 2017

Jürgen Habermas (born 1929 in Düsseldorf, Germany) is one of the leading philosophers of the second half of the twentieth and the beginning of the twenty‐first centuries. He has had and continues to have a decisive influence on communication theory and research internationally through his work on the public sphere and his theory of communicative action, as well as his theory of deliberative democracy and public deliberation.
Intercultural and Intergroup Communication
Authors: Giles Howard , Watson Bernadette
Published: September 2017

Social groups, such as adolescents, police, and ethnic groups, very often have their own distinctive cultures that include such ingredients as specialized foods and utensils, customs and rituals, dress styles, art, dance, literature, music (Giles et al. 2009), and so forth, while other intergroup situations (e.g., artificially constructed laboratory groups) constitute social categories that cannot claim such cultural artifacts (Fortman & Giles 2006). Reading, thinking, and research are needed at interfaces between the all too independent fields of intercultural communication on the one hand, and intergroup communication on the other (see, however, Gudykunst et al. 1988). Intercultural communication is not subsumed under, or even a special case of, intergroup communication, but rather the two are parallel traditions capable of significant coalescence.
Intergroup Accommodative Processes
Authors: Gallois Cindy
Published: September 2017

We constantly interact with people from different social groups to our own: cultures, ethnic groups, genders, ages, occupations, organizations, even clubs (→ Intercultural and Intergroup Communication). We may wish to affiliate with another person or group, or to distinguish ourselves from them. We express this motivation through language and communication, and through our interpretation of others' communication. The main communication dimensions considered here are intergroup (versus interpersonal) and accommodation (versus nonaccommodation). The main theory describing and explaining them is → Communication Accommodation Theory (CAT: Gallois et al. 2005; Giles & Gasiorek 2013).
Internet News
Authors: Deuze Mark , Quandt Thorsten
Published: September 2017

Between the release of the World Wide Web (WWW) standard in 1991, the start of the first online news publications worldwide in the mid‐1990s, the
Kidon Media‐Link
international database of 18,318 online news media in 2006, and the emergence of 70 million or more weblogs and podcasts, of which about one‐tenth focus on news, one could say the Web has become a widely accepted and used platform for the production and dissemination of news – by both professional reporters and amateurs (or “citizen journalists”). Not only have thousands of professional news media started websites, but also millions of individual users and special interest groups have used the Web as an outlet for their news. The technological hurdles to produce or access information have been minimized, and with → Twitter, → Facebook, and other → social media platforms, the production and sharing of content have become a daily routine for users worldwide. However, professionals also use these channels as sources and (secondary) outlets for fully developed news stories.
Internet and Popular Culture
Authors: Lambiase Jacqueline
Published: September 2017

Communication created and shared through the → Internet has proliferated since 1990, with 2.8 billion people worldwide adapting to the web's creative spaces through easy‐to‐use technology on computers and mobile phones (→ Exposure to the Internet). The Internet not only provides access to web spaces where people view or listen to professional and amateur digital video, photographs, music, and stories, but also allows people to produce and disseminate their creative materials to mass audiences (→ Photography; Popular Music). In this respect, the Internet serves as a literal “circuit of culture,” a theory explaining human identity, production, consumption, regulation, and representation of the cultural objects of everyday life (→ Information Society).
Interpersonal Communication Competence and Social Skills
Authors: Spitzberg Brian H.
Published: September 2017

Every act and artifact of communication is open to evaluations of its quality, or how well it is accomplished. Because such evaluations involve individual and social judgments of communicative performance, especially in interpersonal contexts, and because virtually all achievements of interpersonal communication depend on performance and subsequent evaluations, a theory of interpersonal communication competence is tantamount to a theory of interpersonal communication. Interpersonal communication competence and social skills are concerned with both the performance of communication and the evaluation of its quality.
Interview
Authors: Möhring Wiebke , Schluetz Daniela
Published: September 2017

The term “interview” allows for several definitions. In this entry, all forms of the socio‐scientific interview – also called → Survey – are dealt with. The interview – along with content analysis and observation – is one of the three basic empirical instruments of data collection. It is defined as a planned and systematic situation in which knowledge is gained by human subjects. The aim is to generate individual answers, which in their entirety lead to the clarification of a (scientific) question. This method has been in use since the end of the eighteenth century. Significant impulses for its establishment and development in the field of mass communication were set by several mainly sociological studies. These were conducted in both scientific (by a group around → Paul F. Lazarsfeld) and applied (by George Gallup; → Election Surveys) contexts. Socio‐scientific interviews are conducted to elicit subjective evaluations, judgments, attitudes or interpretations of an issue. Interviews are also conducted to measure both cognitive contents and behavior that cannot be observed. In mass communication, interviews are central to measuring the process, evaluating, and studying the effects of mass media use (→ Media Effects), as well as to examine the state and trend of → public opinion.
Paralanguage
Authors: Meservy Thomas O. , Burgoon Judee K.
Published: September 2017

Paralanguage refers to the nonverbal elements of speech – such as vocal pitch, intonation, and speaking tempo – that can be used to communicate attitudes, convey emotion, or modify meaning. In simple terms, paralanguage can be thought of as how something is said rather than what is said.
LaBoétie,Etienne de (1530–1563)
Authors: Polese Abel
Published: September 2017

Etienne de La Boétie was a distinguished lawyer, poet, and humanist who also translated Xenophon and Plutarch. Most importantly, his “Discourse of Voluntary Servitude” is considered the basis for modern non‐violent protest movements.
L
abor's
V
olunteer
A
rmy
Authors: O'Brien Stephen
Published: September 2017

In July 1916, with Australia deeply involved in the European war, a wave of opposition to military conscription swept the country. The movement was strongest in Broken Hill, where 2,500 men swore to resist industrial or military conscription by the “capitalist military oligarchy” by signing up to Labor's Volunteer Army (LVA).
L
abour
P
arty,
B
ritain
Authors: McCormick John
Published: September 2017

The Labour Party is one of Britain's two major political parties. It was founded in 1900, following debate about the need for a party to represent the interests of Britain's working‐class population. In 1922 it replaced the Liberals as the opposition to the Conservatives, and headed its first coalition government in 1924 under Ramsay MacDonald. Labour won outright power for the first time in 1945 under Clement Attlee and set about completing construction of a welfare state and a managed economy, nationalizing key industries and creating a national health service, a social security system, and a subsidized education system. It lost power in 1951, but returned in 1964–70 and again in 1974–6 under Harold Wilson, and in 1976–9 under James Callaghan. It went into opposition in 1979, losing four straight general elections and undergoing a crisis of confidence before finally regaining power in 1997 under Tony Blair.
L
alor,
P
eter (1827–1889)
Authors: Beggs‐Sunter Anne
Published: September 2017

Peter Lalor achieved fame as the leader of the gold diggers in their revolt against the British government at the Eureka Stockade, Ballarat, Victoria in 1854. Lalor was born in Ireland in 1827, the youngest of 11 sons of Patrick and Ann Lalor of County Laois, Ireland. His father sat in the House of Commons with Daniel O'Connell in the Reform Parliament, and the family became involved with the movement for repeal of the Act of Union and for land reform in Ireland. The eldest son, James Fintan, became a Young Irelander in 1848 and gave his life for the cause.
L
amartine,
A
lphonse de (1790–1869)
Authors: Harison Casey
Published: September 2017

Alphonse de Lamartine flashed across the historical landscape during France's Revolution of 1848. A political moderate rather than a revolutionary, the lofty rhetoric for which Lamartine was known was not matched by skills in governing. In the end, Lamartine's fall was as grand as his rise.
L
ebanon,
C
ivil
W
ar, 1975–1990
Authors: Patrick Alexander Kristian
Published: September 2017

The Lebanese Civil War went through various phases (approximately nine) of shifting alliances and changing issues. Two broad coalitions – the Lebanese Front and the Lebanese National Movement – opposed each other during the initial phase. The Lebanese Front was made up of mainly Christian Maronite groups, such as the Tigers of Camille Chamoun and Pierre Gemayel's Phalangist Party. The Phalange or Lebanese Kataeb Social Democratic Party was established in 1936 by Pierre Gemayel, a Maronite Christian, who very much symbolized the pro‐western stance and anti‐pan‐Arab sentiments. Its goal was to drive out the Palestinians and maintain political dominance over the state. The Lebanese National Movement blended various parties ranging from centrist to extreme left, comprised of Kamal Jumblatt's PSP (Parti Socialist Populaire), the Lebanese Communist Party, the Syrian National Social Party, the Murabitun (Sunni Nationalist Party), and later the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO).
London, Jack (1876–1916)
Authors: Raskin Jonah
Published: September 2017

Emma Goldman, the Russian‐born American anarchist, spoke for a generation of readers when she described Jack London as “the only revolutionary writer in America.” Many of London's literary contemporaries, like Upton Sinclair, attacked social ills, but they often fixed on reform. London, by contrast, brazenly called for revolution. A writer with a global consciousness, he denounced war and greed in
The War of the Classes
(1905) and
Revolution
(1910). At the peak of his career, he supported the abortive 1905 Russian Revolution and, in a lecture to college students, he endorsed industrial sabotage in America. More than Goldman, and perhaps more than Eugene Debs, he Americanized socialism by writing in a colloquial style and drawing on his own life, even while mythologizing himself as larger‐than‐life proletarian.
Lum, Dyer (1839–1893)
Authors: Sprayberry Gary S.
Published: September 2017

Dyer Lum, abolitionist, reformer, and individualist, is a paradoxical figure. A rationalist, he was also drawn to mysticism; a champion of labor, he also advocated laissez‐faire economics; a seemingly genteel intellectual, he was also “an uncompromising rebel” (Tweed 2000: 129; Lum 1890; Avrich 1984: 319).
Madero, Francisco (1873–1913)
Authors: Ávila‐Espinosa Felipe Arturo
Published: September 2017

Francisco I. Madero was a member of one of the most affluent families in northern Mexico in the early twentieth century. He is known, through his writings and political action, as an originator of the Mexican Revolution. Madero was born on the estate of El Rosario, Coahuila, on October 30, 1873. His family belonged to the rural Mexican aristocracy, with business holdings in agriculture, commerce, and industry throughout the north‐east. He was educated in the United States and Europe.
Madres De La Plaza De Mayo
Authors: Grenat Stella
Published: September 2017

The Madres de la Plaza de Mayo (Mothers of the May Square) is one of the principal human rights organizations created during Argentina's long years under military dictatorship, which began in 1976. Thousands of people “disappeared” during those years, leaving mothers of the disappeared to wander through the corridors of the Department of Justice, police departments, and churches in search of their children. On April 30, 1977, 14 mothers who had searched in vain for their children or for information concerning their children's whereabouts gathered in the square, located in front of the government house in Buenos Aires, to wait for the highest authority of state, Lieutenant General Jorge Rafael Videla. This action, initiated by Azucena Villaflor, was an attempt to hold the government responsible for their children's disappearances.
Malato, Charles (1857–1938)
Authors: Bantman Constance
Published: September 2017

Charles Malato was one of the best‐known publicists of pre‐World War I anarchism. He left an important legacy as an anarchist essayist (
Philosophie de l'anarchie
), a newspaper editor (
La Révolution Cosmopolite, Le Tocsin
), a journalist (
Les Temps nouveaux, L'Intransigeant …
), and a chronicler of the movement in its heyday (
De la Commune à l'anarchie, Les Joyeusetés de l'exil).
He was also an activist who was involved in protest campaigns and possibly a few revolutionary “interventions.” The son of a Sicilian who had fought in the 1848 Italian revolution and the Commune, Malato experienced exile at an early age, following his parents in Caledonia where his father was deported.
Malta, Protest and Revolution
Authors: Buttigieg Emanuel
Published: September 2017

The history of protest and revolt in Malta is complex and intriguing, particularly given its small size (the surface area of Malta is only 122 square miles). Such a varied history is the result of a particular interaction between geography and the actions of people. The Maltese Islands lie right in the center of the Mediterranean Sea, 37 miles to the south of Sicily and 217 miles north of Libya. The major island, Malta, gives its name to the whole of the archipelago, and the word
Malta
is used interchangeably with the phrase
Maltese Islands
. The second island, Gozo, is about a third the size of Malta, and the third island, Comino, is miniscule and practically uninhabited. Though Malta lacks any natural resources, its position at the crossroads of the Mediterranean has always made it the object of interest of the powers that vied for control of this sea.
Marcos, Subcomandante (b. ?)
Authors: Zimmering Raina
Published: September 2017

Subcommander Marcos is the spokesman and commander of the Zapatista Army of National Liberation (Ejército Zapatista de Liberación Nacional, EZLN). He is also a representative of the Indigenous Clandestine Revolutionary Committee – General Headquarters (CCRI‐CG) of the Zapatistas. In public he always appears with a mask to avoid identification, a pipe, an old kerchief, and two watches. All these symbols refer to the EZLN and the uprising on January 1, 1994 for democratization, liberty, and equality against hundreds of years of oppression of indigenous people as well as against the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). The mask symbolizes indigenous people made invisible by repression.
Mariátegui, José Carlos (1894–1930)
Authors: Germana César
Published: September 2017

José Carlos Mariátegui, a self‐educated journalist born into poverty and raised by a single mother, was the first Peruvian thinker to conceive of the modernization of Peru as a process of socialist democracy. The uniqueness of his political proposal can only be understood by taking into account that his work was the result of an encounter between western culture, particularly Marxism, and Andean culture. In his work Mariátegui emphasized the political importance of the Andean Indian community, or
ayllu
, for any future socialist project in Peru.
Marley, Bob (1945–1981)
Authors: Wilson Joseph
Published: September 2017

Jamaican‐born Robert “Bob” Nesta Marley (1945–81) was the twentieth century's foremost Reggae artist – singer, composer, musician, and bandleader of the Wailers. He became a global cultural icon and leading proponent of African and Afro‐Caribbean liberation from colonial domination and apartheid.
Martí, Farabundo (1893–1932)
Authors: Lambert Tobias
Published: September 2017

Agustín Farabundo Martí was a communist leader and social protester in El Salvador. Today he is one of the most popular icons among the Salvadoran left. While studying political science and law at the University of El Salvador, he participated in a student protest against the government of Jorge Meléndez in February 1920. Meléndez was one of the presidents during the so‐called Meléndez‐Quiñónez dynasty, which governed the country between 1913 and 1927. Police suppressed the protest violently and arrested 20 students, including Martí, who was deported to Guatemala. There he abandoned his studies and began work, obtaining jobs in breweries and also working as a bricklayer, a day laborer in the countryside, and a private teacher. When German coffee planters accused him of being an agitator, Martí went to Mexico, returning to Guatemala in 1923. Two years later he co‐founded the Central American Communist Party, which continued until 1927.
Marx, Eleanor (1855–1898)
Authors: Block Marcelline
Published: September 2017

Jenny Julia Eleanor Marx, the sixth and last child of Karl Marx and Jenny Von Westphalen, was born in London. She formed a close bond with her father early on and shared his love for literature and fascination for drama. Karl Marx felt a kindred spirit to his gifted daughter and stated: “Tussy is me” (Florence 1975: 11).
Mayakovsky, Vladimir (1893–1930)
Authors: Buzby Amy
Published: September 2017

Vladimir Mayakovsky was born in Georgia in 1893. He attended school in Kutaisi, where he began participating in socialist protests and marches at age 14. Upon his father's death in 1906 the family moved to Moscow, where Mayakovsky became infatuated with Marxist literature and attended numerous Russian Social‐Democratic Labor Party (RSDLP) events. Mayakovsky soon became a member of the Bolshevik Party and frequently served as a lookout and messenger. In March 1908 he was arrested for the possession and dissemination of revolutionary proclamations.