bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
PREVENTION OF MARINE POLLUTION THROUGH UNDERSTANDING
Authors: Hammer Paul M.
Published: January 2013

In order to place new emphasis on marine pollution prevention in the complex field of tanker operations, the author developed, and is currently conducting, a Shipboard Pollution Control Indoctrination and Training Program. This program, presented on-board during passage, covers all aspects of ship operations at sea and in port which have pollution potential. Through the use of movies, slides, formal and informal discussion sessions the officers and crew are given a better understanding of the economic, legal and technical factors of marine pollution; good operating practices are reviewed; the ship/terminal relationship is explored; the policies and programs of management are emphasized; personnel are prepared for more effective action should an incident occur; and the overall pollution control posture of the vessel and terminals is evaluated. Meetings with management are held before and after the shipboard session as a result of which comprehensive pollution control programs are instituted or updated based to a great extent upon the feedback from the ships and recommendations of the author.

Based upon experiences with independent, oil company and government contract tanker operators, and government agencies functioning in the field, 1) details of the program and its reception are reviewed, 2) observations are presented relative to conditions and particular problem areas encountered, 3) suggestions for further concerted efforts in the direction of pollution prevention are set forth and, 4) further desirable actions in the direction of education and training are outlined.
Remote Sampler for Determining Residual Oil Content of Surface Waters
Authors: Schatzberg Paul , Jackson Drew F.
Published: January 2013

Residual oil contents of coastal and estuarine surface waters must be determined to establish an oil pollution data base, monitor changes in oil content with time and relate these changes to polluting sources. A simple flow-through device has been developed which, in conjunction with a skimmer and pump, can process 100 to 200 liters or more of surface water, removing any oil present in a separate phase. Thus concentrated, the oil can be extracted at a laboratory, its quantity and nature determined, and when related to the volume of water processed through the sampler, provide oil concentration data on a time-integrated basis.

Key to the development of this device was identification of a sorbent material which would quantitatively remove oil from a moving water stream and permit simple extraction of that oil in a laboratory. A laboratory apparatus was designed to generate a flowing water stream containing parts per million (ppm) quantities of oil. A number of sorbent materials were examined with this apparatus and several were found effective. Effort was concentrated on the most promising one. Experiments showed that 5–25 ppm oil in a flowing water stream is quantitatively absorbed by the sorbent. The concentrated oil is easily removed from the sorbent with carbon tetrachloride used as solvent and a Soxhlet extractor. The sorbent is regenerated by this process and can be reused many times. Concentration of the extracted oil is determined by infrared spectrophotometry.
An Optimal Prevention and Detection Model for Pollution Patrol
Authors: Olson David G. , Wright Gordon P.
Published: January 2013

This paper presents a flight scheduling model for sensor (infra-red and ultra-violet) equipped aircraft whose mission is the detection and prevention of harbor and coastal oil and hazardous material pollution. The objective of the model is to maximize the expected number of pollution incidents detected per pollution flight.

The model requires, as an input, parameters representing probabilities of pollution incidents occurring for different geographical sectors. These parameters are estimated using, coastwise and harbor, petroleum and hazardous material shipping statistics. The shipping statistics considered include movement of petroleum products along the Atlantic, Pacific, and Gulf coasts as well as the movement of such commodities in the intra-coastal waterway system and the Great Lakes. Particular port characteristics and past pollution incident statistics are also used to estimate required parameters of the scheduling model. The constraints in the model concern the availability of aircraft, flight hours, mission hours, and the significant environmental factors which affect the performance of the sensors.
Developing a Total Oil Spill Cleanup Capability in the San Francisco Bay Area
Authors: Smith Forrest M.
Published: January 2013

This is an 18-month progress report on the development of a total capability for rapid cleanup of oil spills in the Greater San Francisco Bay Area and 340 miles of ocean coastline outside the Bay by Clean Bay Inc., a ten-member, non-profit corporation formed on July 1, 1971. In the time span covered by this report, CBI:Devised a three-phase Master Plan for completion by July 1, 1974.Evolved an oil spill contingency plan through testing and revision.Developed first aid capability available to each member facility for small spill cleanup.Fostered closer working relationships with other West Coast oil spill cooperatives.Implemented a concerted approach to working with governmental agencies and environmental and wildlife organizations.

Major emphasis has been placed on preparedness for massive spills, with a supporting role in minor incidents in conjunction with the first aid capability of member companies. Clean Bay's Master Plan is geared to cleaning up a 100,000-barrel spill in seven days, with tanker lightering capability of up to 400,000 barrels.
Development of the “Next Generation” Chemical Dispersants
Authors: Canevari Gerard P.
Published: January 2013

In order to fully appreciate the development trend for the “next generation” chemical dispersants for oil spills, the current status of this field is briefly reviewed. Recent applications illustrate the specific beneficial potential role of chemical dispersants in the oil spill control, as well as their limitation.

The present mechanism of dispersing oil spills by the application of chemical dispersants is well understood and is the subject of many technical papers. While there is some variation in the relative performance and toxicity of the many commercially available products, they all require mixing after application. In instances wherein the dispersant has been marginally effective, inadequate mixing was usually the reason.

Thus, mixing is the limiting step rather than application. The mixing of an oil spill by boat propellers, fire hoses, etc., is laborious and time consuming. However, dispersant may be readily applied to large areas by aerial application similar to “crop dusting.” In some instances, the oil spill may even become inaccessible for convenient mixing (e.g., under piers, shallow water). Hence, the elimination (or minimizing) of the mixing step would be a major improvement in the dispersion process.

The “next generation” oil spill dispersants will require little or no mixing energy and will approach spontaneous emulsification. The mechanism of “self-mixing” will be outlined in this presentation. Performance data comparing this generic type of chemical dispersant with the more conventional systems commonly used will illustrate the major differences.

Another important aspect of this system is the resultant dispersed oil droplet size. The remaining concerns and other considerations requiring further study will be discussed.
Laboratory and Field Testing of Surface-Film Forming Chemicals for Use as Oil Collecting Agents
Authors: Barger William R.
Published: January 2013

Since it is desirable to minimize the area covered by oil spilled on water, and since all oil recovery devices operate more efficiently on thicker oil layers, there is much interest in chemicals which can slow the spreading of oil or even drive the oil back into a thicker layer after it has already spread. Forty-seven commercially available chemicals capable of controlling oil were examined in the laboratory during 1971 to determine which were practical oil collecting agents. A series of screening tests was developed, based upon physical properties and surface-chemical properties. The materials judged to be most useful by these tests are presently being evaluated in multicomponent field tests of oil recovery equipment. Both laboratory and field tests have indicated that such materials can aid in cleaning up spilled oil.
The Toxicity Testing of Oils and Dispersants: A European View
Authors: Wilson K. W. , Cowell E. B. , Beynon L. R.
Published: January 2013

This paper represents a review of European approaches to the purpose and problems of testing the toxicity of hydrocarbons and dispersants. It was prepared by the authors following a meeting of a group of European ecologists, which was convened by the Dispersant Working Group of the UK Institute of Petroleum Co-ordinating Committee for the Prevention of Sea Pollution.

The paper deals with the aims of toxicity tests, and draws distinctions between those devised for toxicity ranking purposes, required by governments and industry for assessing the potential of new products, and those tests done for predicting possible ecological effects from the spillage of oil or use of dispersants.

The paper also discusses the principles guiding the two approaches, and compares the use of LD50 with tests examining recovery and survival.

Laboratory tests are examined in relation to field experiments and experience.

In discussing laboratory practice, chemical problems, standardisation, the selection of test organisms, sampling, experimental design data processing and data presentation are considered.
Sorbent System Development for Oil Spill Cleanup
Authors: Dorrler J. Stephen
Published: January 2013

In June of 1971, EPA awarded five research contracts designed to develop efficient unit operations for the removal of floating oil with the aid of sorbent materials. Each contract considered the following basic unit operations:Sorbent BroadcastingOil-Sorbent HarvestingOil-Sorbent SeparationVessel or Platform ConfigurationOil Storage or DisposalSorbent Reuse and/or Disposal

Of the five contracts awarded, one involved the utilization of material handling systems for oil recovery use, one consisted of a study optimizing the broadcasting and harvesting of sorbents, one involved the in situ generation of foamed sorbent material, and two involved the use of specially designed platforms for the unit operations under consideration.

Analysis of the research results indicate that mechanical sorbent systems can be used efficiently and effectively to recover spilled oil Recovery efficiencies better than 90 percent can be expected. Within design limitations, wave action will have little effect on oil-sorbent recovery. In practice, wave action actually increases oil removal rates by bringing the oil into more intimate contact with the sorbent. Wind will produce detrimental effects on the broadcasting unit operation. However, these effects can be minimized by proper field operating techniques.

This paper evaluates the unit operations developed by the five contractors and discusses the additional work required for prototype system development.
New Device for Removing Oil Slicks from the Surface of Water
Authors: Asper J. J. , Bolli P.
Published: January 2013

With the sponsorship of SEACLEAN S.A., Luxembourg, the Geneva Research Centre of Battelle carried out an analytical study on devices designed to remove oil slicks floating on water. The conclusion was that the majority of existing devices are not easily adaptable to marine operation. To overcome this disadvantage, Battelle has conceived a new device described in this paper. The system is composed of a rotating, multi-thread screw in a casing. The oil and water enter the system at a given speed and are trapped between the threads. As the pitch of the threads progressively diminishes, the oil thickens and is removed by a pump from a chamber situated at the end of the screw, while the water is removed through an aperture below the screw casing. Disordered motion of the waves is absorbed by the last stage of the screw and the whole device follows the movement of the swell.

This paper also describes the related laboratory development work and data on the performance of the device. The research team comprised:S. Arieh, J. H. Asper, P. Bolli,G. Goertz, G. Senn and R. Strub
Free Vortex Recovery of Floating Oil
Authors: Nebeker Eugene B. , Rodriguez Sergio E. , Mikolaj Paul G.
Published: January 2013

A technique using a free vortex to recover oil from high sea, stream, and harbor waters is presented. Initial results of a current concept development program are given.

An oil slick will be drawn into the center of the vortex due to water flow induced by an impeller and other rotating hardware. As a result, a significant “captive radius” is demonstrated which draws in oil from appreciable distances from the device—useful around piers, ships, etc., in harbors. Upon approaching the vortex, the oil will submerge and accumulate within a center region of the vortex. This pocket will contain a concentrated mass of oil which can be removed by conventional pumping. Since oil collection is not directly performed by hardware, but rather by the induced vortex flow, essentially the same hardware was also used to collect sorbent materials of various sizes and shapes.

Tests were performed with a free vortex oil recovery device having an impeller diameter of two feet. Performance data were obtained both under quiescent water conditions and also under environmental conditions that simulated a severe sea state four with 20 knot winds and two knot currents. Oil recovery rates and oil/water ratios are reported for oil film thickness ranging between 1/16 to one inch thick using No. 2 Fuel Oil, Heavy Crude Oil, and a Residual Fuel Oil. Scaling considerations based on this test data indicated performance characteristics of larger sized prototypes.
Oil Recovery on the High Seas
Authors: Leigh James T.
Published: January 2013

Two prototype oil recovery systems currently under construction are described. Design goals for the systems include air transportability, recovery of a complete range of oil types at 2000 gpm in a sea state 4, use with a Coast Guard developed boom and Coast Guard boats and ships. One system utilizes a rotating disc-drum for oil removal. The drum is mounted in a unique catamaran which utilizes inflatable pontoon hull sections. Oil recovery rate is dependent on viscosity, slick thickness, current and wave conditions. In all conditions efficiency is expected to approach 100 percent. The second system utilizes a wave conforming weirbasin. Oil recovery rate is primarily dependent on slick thickness and current. Efficiency is expected to approach 100 percent for all conditions.
Physical Requirements for Oil Pollution Control Barriers
Authors: Milgram Jerome H.
Published: January 2013

To be effective, an oil pollution control barrier must fulfill a number of requirements. It must have adequate strength to withstand wave and current forces in the sea. In addition to this, it must be adequately strong to withstand nonoperating loads such as those encountered in construction, packaging, launching, recovery and refurbishment for further use. The barrier must have seakeeping responses which are correct for the purpose of containing oil. Sway response of a barrier is needed to avoid large relative flow velocities in waves. Heavy response is needed so that the relative height of the oil on the barrier will not become too large allowing oil to pass over the barrier or become too low and allow oil to pass beneath the barrier. The roll angle of the barrier must be relatively small to prevent leakage as well. The above factors are considered in this paper. This consideration is based on full scale trials of barriers, theoretical studies and model tests.
Mechanical Control of Oil Spills Utilizing a Streamlined Boom
Authors: Wooten David C.
Published: January 2013

Conventional oil retention booms fail to contain oil in currents above one to two knots. A steamlined boom to operate in currents or while being towed in excess of two knots was designed and tested under varying current and combined wave-current conditions. The boom consists of airfoil-shaped sections which resemble hydrofoils operating at the water surface. The boom is designed so that the stagnation streamline at the leading edge of the foil is located beneath the oil spill under a range of dynamic current and wave conditions. Motion of the boom through the water (or the flow past the boom due to a net current) causes a bow wave which sweeps oil and water over the top of the leading edge of the boom and into a sump. Tests indicated that the streamlined boom profile has a drag coefficient of less than one-third that of conventional boom shapes. Collection efficiency measurements with oil indicate that collection efficiencies greater than 75 percent can be achieved at three knots.
Oil Water Separation by Ultrafiltration
Authors: Goldsmith Robert L. , Hossain Sohrab
Published: January 2013

Ultrafiltration with one-inch diameter tubular membranes produced highly-purified water from oil emulsions. For kerosene, No. 6 Fuel oil, Venezuelan crude and lubricating oil at input ratios of 100 ppm to 90 percent, treated water was uniformly free of visible oil and had less than ten ppm oil. Ultrafiltration rate depended on oil type, input ratio and operating conditions. Typically, rates were high (50–150 gal/day-ft-2), but decreased with time due to membrane fouling. Factors which increased emulsion stability or decreased concentration polarization (e.g. high feed circulation rate) minimized fouling. Membrane cleanup was simple and effective, with no loss in long-term membrane capacity in over 3000 continuous test hours, with cleanup each 72 hours.

Cost and physical requirements for systems of 10, 100, 1000, and 10,000 gpm were estimated for membranes in tubular and spiral wound configurations. The latter, currently untested, is favored because of lower cost, weight, power, and space requirements. Field trials with actual oily wastes are recommended.
Drop Size Distributions in Oil Water Mixtures
Authors: Stokes Vijay K. , Harvey Andrew C.
Published: January 2013

The oil drop size distribution in oil water mixtures is of importance in the design of separators that make use of settling or enhanced settling as in centrifuges. This paper describes an attempt to identify the parameters that affect the size distribution of drops in mechanically generated emulsions.

Oil/water mixtures were made by three different methods. On the basis of the results of these tests, a standard procedure for making mixtures was adopted. This paper presents the results of an extensive series of tests, with three different oils, in which the drop size distributions were measured by a Coulter Counter.
Large-Scale Experiments on the Spreading of Oil at Sea and its Disappearance by Natural Factors
Authors: Jeffery P. G.
Published: January 2013

This paper describes those considerations that are of importance in undertaking large-scale oil-spreading experiments. One such experiment involving a discharge of 120 tons of Iranian Light Crude Oil in the North Atlantic is described, and the spreading pattern observed is reported in detail. The observations continued over a period of four days, after which the bulk of the oil had disappeared by natural factors, leaving only a few patches of thicker oil, largely in the form of a water-in-oil emulsion, which was also rapidly disappearing. Blokker constants have been calculated for the observed spreading of the slick, and these are reasonably constant throughout the four-day period.
Distribution of Heavy Hydrocarbons in Some Atlantic Ocean Waters
Authors: Brown R. A. , Searl T. D. , Elliott J. J. , Phillips B. G. , Brandon D. E. , Monaghan P. H.
Published: January 2013

During 1971–72 ocean water samples were collected off tankers along two well traveled routes, including:U.S. Gulf Coast to East CoastCaribbean to East Coast

Approximately 400 samples were taken near the surface and at a depth of about 10 meters. At the time of collection, each sample was extracted with carbon tetrachloride. The extract was subsequently analyzed for hydrocarbon content and, in many cases, the hydrocarbons were characterized as to compound types. Nonvolatile or persistent hydrocarbons were found to be generally in the concentration range of .001 to .012 ppm (wt.). Some variations in the amount and composition were observed according to geographical location of the sample.

Sampling and analysis methods are briefly described.
Petroleum Residues in the Sargasso Sea and on Bermuda Beaches
Authors: Morris Byron F. , Butler James N.
Published: January 2013

Petroleum residues (“tar lumps”) are found throughout the Atlantic Ocean. An estimate of the current standing stock of tar in the Northwest Atlantic is 86,000 metric tons, of which 66,000 tons are found in the Sargasso Sea. Although there are wide seasonal variations, the amount observed near Bermuda has not increased significantly from 1971 to 1972. Beach deposits also undergo wide variations (4 g/m to 1700 g/m), and seem to act, on the average, as collectors of tar from a strip of water about 20 km wide. Chemical characteristics of tar lumps (analyzed by gas chromatography) vary widely, but almost all have distinctive paraffinic wax components in the C30 to C40 range, implying that their origin is in crude oil sludge from tanker washings. The standing stock is probably between 20 to 50 percent of the total annual influx of petroleum from this source. Degradation of tar lumps at sea, after rapid losses by evaporation and dissolution, takes times of the order of years, probably because of their substantial content of high-melting point waxes and asphaltenes.
Design of a Refinery Dock to Prevent Oil Spills
Authors: Nieman L. D. , Cline W. G. , Woodford C. R.
Published: January 2013

The modern dock operated by Shell Oil Company as part of the Wood River Refinery in Illinois was designed to include features which minimize the possibility of oil spills. The dock is located on the Mississippi River near St. Louis. It is comprised of four floating sections and is designed to load and unload barges only. Solid pipe loading arms are used to make the connections between the floating dock manifold and the barge header. The primary loading valves on the floats can be operated manually or electrically from a local station or remotely from the dock control center. Each floating dock is equipped with a drainage system to prevent spillage into the river. An intercom system provides communication between the dock control center and the loading areas. The dock operator is also in direct radio and telephone contact with refinery operating personnel responsible for the transfer of oil. Operation of this facility has met the criteria of efficient operation and protection against spills.
Simulation of Movement of Oil Slicks in the Strait of Georgia Using Simple Atmosphere and Ocean Dynamics
Authors: Murty T. S. , Khandekar M. L.
Published: January 2013

Hydrodynamical techniques were used to investigate the movement of oil slicks in the Strait of Georgia by assuming that the oil moves with the current and not with the wind. The divergence of the isobaths near Alden Bank probably makes the current branch while that southeast of Pt. Roberts narrows and intensifies the current. The effect of mutual interaction among several slicks both with and without a steering current such as a tidal or wind-generated current is found to be important in determining their trajectories. For oils with large viscosities, an oscillatory tidal current could give rise to an unstable situation in which the oil spreads in the form of long lines radiating out from the spill similar to the spokes in a bicycle wheel. Stratification of the water causes the oil plume to bifurcate and due to this phenomena, even if one branch of the plume carrying the oil goes away from the coast, the second branch carries oil to the coast.
Lake Champlain: A Case History on the Cleanup of #6 Fuel Through Five Feet of Solid Ice at Near-Zero Temperatures
Authors: Lamp'l Howard J.
Published: January 2013

Lake Champlain: A case history on the cleanup of #6 fuel through five feet of solid ice at near-zero temperatures.

This is a report on the removal of 44,000 gallons of #6 fuel from Lake Champlain in March, 1971, while the lake was frozen to a depth of five feet in the area affected by the spill, The circumstances of the spill, the location and the adverse weather conditions presented a unique challenge to on scene personnel in their quest to remove thick, viscous oil from a frozen, high-amenity lake.

When confronted with this major spill (as classified by the National Contingency Plan) the on scene personnel had no precedence upon which to base their plan of attack. Improvisation was the keynote of the whole operation during the “life” of this spill. Many novel ideas and techniques were utilized, not only to remove the oil, but to contain it from further polluting the waters of Lake Champlain.
Successes and Failures with Oil Spills in the Southeastern Inland Waters
Authors: Smith Al J.
Published: January 2013

This paper presents a brief review of several spill cases that have occurred in the Southeast in the recent past. Each case describes a unique situation — either in terms of containment, retention or removal methodology.

At Athens, Georgia, a pipeline break caused the closure of the Athens Water Supply System for twenty-four (24) hours. Poor initial retention allowed taste, odors, and some light sheens to pass through the filters at the water plant into the home, causing some sixty-four (64) complaints within a matter of hours. Several inexpensive changes in retention procedures and water treatment techniques returned the situation to normal in a matter of hours.

A pipeline break near Shepherdsville, Kentucky, forced some 16,000 gallons of crude oil into a subsurface layer of gravel. Storage of the oil in this fashion constituted a leaching source for the nearby water course that could have persisted for a year or more. Interception trenches were used to tap the gravel layers and water was forced into the layer up the gradient in order to “flush” the system. Ninety percent recovery was achieved at moderate expense.

A vandalized storage tank adjacent to the Congaree River was emptied of 10,000 gallons of Bunker “C” near Columbia, South Carolina. Elaborate containment and recovery procedures were employed downstream. The oil, however, disappeared — save for minor vegetation stain. Not even a sheen reached the recovery site. River velocity, wind speed, temperature of the water and turbidity are discussed as contributors to this phenomena.

At Jackson, Mississippi, a broken sludge pond dyke at a drilling operation dumped 40,000 gallons of “oil slops” and brine into the Big Black River. Retention on the surface was impossible because of the eight to ten knot river velocity. Light disposable sorbing booms were used to recover an estimated eighty percent of the oil.

At Memphis, Tennessee, a piston film “Herder” was used to aid in recovering a portion of a 100,000 gallon spill. Because of surface debris, wind and river velocity, the Herder forced the oil into difficult tree and brush infested areas. The oil literally “ringed” every obstacle floating – or fixed — in the area. Cleanup costs soared.

Pictures and sketches will be utilized to emphasize technical aspects of each situation.
A Dual Program for Prevention of Oil Spills in Offshore Drilling and Producing Operations
Authors: Wilson R. L. , Shirley O. J.
Published: January 2013

Virtually all oil spills resulting from oil drilling and production activities in the Nation's waterways are caused by accidents. Therefore it follows that prevention of accidents and prevention of oil spills are synonymous objectives. Accidents can be broadly classified into two categories, that is those caused by equipment failure and those caused by human error. A program for accident prevention addressing both causes was developed and has now been fully implemented throughout Shell Oil Company's offshore operations in the Gulf of Mexico.
Codes of Practice for Dealing with Oil Spills at Sea and On Shore: A European View
Authors: Beynon L. R.
Published: January 2013

For several years institutions concerned with the petroleum industry in Western Europe have been endeavoring to ensure effective cooperation in certain important fields. In one of these, representatives of nine countries have been preparing codes of practice for dealing with oil spills at sea and those which have reached the shore. This paper describes the codes which have been produced.

The codes are intended for the guidance of those people in national bodies, local authorities, industry and elsewhere who may have to undertake clean-up operations. They set out the recommended methods, in order of priority, for six main “location variables.”

1. Open or rough sea (> 1 km from shore)

2. Open sea, close to shore (> 1 km from shore)

3. Estuaries

4. Sheltered, calm waters (including ports and harbors)

5. On shore

6. Ice conditions

The other main variables taken into account are type and quantity of oil spilt. “Oil type” has been subdivided into:

(i) Crude oils which spread on contact with water

(ii) Crude oils which have weathered on the sea

(iii) Water-in-oil emulsions

(iv) Heavy fuel oils

(v) Distillate fuels

(vi) Waxy oils which tend to coagulate into lumps on contact with the sea.

The size of an oil spill has been defined as:

(a) small, if it is less than 10 tons

(b) medium, if it is between 10 and 500 tons

(c) large, if it is greater than 500 tons.

It is felt that our present knowledge is adequate to ensure that, with correct preparation, the task of clean-up may be tackled with confidence of success.
Oil/Sorbent Harvesting Systems for Use on Vessels of Opportunity
Authors: Sartor James D. , Foget Carl
Published: January 2013

A system for harvesting mixtures of oil and sorbent materials, primarily straw, which could be utilized for the recovery of floating oil from water was developed for use on vessels of opportunity.

A three-phase test program was conducted to evaluate candidate system components and operating specifications for the oil/sorbent harvesting system. The first phase of the program involved testing individual system components and operating parameters as to their effectiveness in picking up sorbents only. The first phase was conducted under actual conditions in a saltwater slough. The second phase of the test program entailed evaluating those operating characteristics of the harvesting system components selected in the first phase using crude oil and various sorbents in a test tank. The third phase of the test program entailed the installation of the complete system on a vessel of opportunity (an LCM), and demonstration of the ability of the system to operate under actual conditions. The system was evaluated both in the San Francisco Bay and off Coal Oil Point, Santa Barbara, where sorbent materials were dispensed over natural oil slicks.

The system utilizes commercially and readily available equipment which, with minor modifications, was assembled on-site onto available vessels. The system was found to be very effective in recovering sorbents (straw and polyurethane foam) from the water surface.
Prevention — the Best Method of Controlling Pollution
Authors: Jr. Frank C. Folger,
Published: January 2013

By far the best method of controlling pollution is to prevent its occurrence in the first place. Prevention is the result of pre-planned, voluntary action, carried out under conditions controlled by the operator. Containment and countermeasures, no matter how well planned and executed, are still involuntary re-actions, carried out under emergency conditions over which the operator has limited or no control (at least initially). The primary objective of an environmental management program must therefor be to prevent pollution.

This paper discusses techniques and procedures which are practical, readily applied, and easily administered. They can be incorporated into day-to-day operations with no disruption, and a minimum of additional effort. The paper considers equipment design (with particular respect to whether or not original design is still suitable for current operating conditions), alarm and shut-down systems, inspection and testing, maintenance, and operation. The paper also considers personnel training, definition of duties and responsibilities, and interdependence of personnel to achieve a common objective.
Toxicity and Avoidance Tests with Prudhoe Bay Oil and Pink Salmon Fry
Authors: Rice Stanley D.
Published: January 2013

With the potential of oil pollution harming Alaska's marine resources, experiments were conducted at the National Marine Fisheries Service, Auke Bay Fisheries Laboratory to determine the concentrations of Prudhoe Bay crude oil that are acutely toxic to pink salmon fry in fresh water and seawater and also the concentrations of this oil that the fry would avoid. Observed 96-hour TLM values were 88 mg of oil/liter of water in fresh water and 213 mg/liter in seawater in June and 110 mg/liter in seawater in August. Among fry held in seawater, older fry were more susceptible to oil toxicity than younger fry and older fry were also more sensitive in their detection and avoidance of oil; older fry in seawater avoided oil concentrations as low as 1.6 mg of oil/liter of water. The avoidance of oil by salmon fry was quite apparent and suggests that there is potential for oil pollution to change their migration behavior.
A Reinvestigation of Southern California Rocky Intertidal Beaches Three and One-Half Years after the 1969 Santa Barbara Oil Spill: A Preliminary Report
Authors: Cimberg Robert , Mann Steven , Straughan Dale
Published: January 2013

Ten rocky intertidal beaches in southern California, which were surveyed for a 12 month period following the 1969 Santa Barbara oil spill, were reinvestigated in June and July of 1972. Data from this 1972 survey as well as data collected during the same months on the same beaches in 1969 and 1970 were analyzed by forming beach groupings using cluster analysis. This analysis indicates that sand movement and substrate stability are the two most important factors affecting the presence of marine organisms on these beaches during this period. Overall, the effect of the 1969 Santa Barbara oil spill on the presence and abundance of rocky intertidal organisms was less important than other environmental factors. Most mortalities reported were localized in tide pools and high intertidal areas.
The Toxicity of Crude Oil and its Components to Freshwater Algae
Authors: Kauss P. , Hutchinson T. C. , Soto C. , Hellebust J. , Griffiths M.
Published: January 2013

Field and laboratory experiments have been conducted to determine the toxicity of crude oil to freshwater algae. In the field, experiments were continued for a two year period and changes in the abundance and species composition of phytoplankton tabulated. Species were found to differ markedly in their response to an oil spill—varying from considerable suppression of growth to stimulation.

In the laboratory, the effects of aqueous extracts of seven crude oils on a selected test species, Chlorella vulgaris, were determined. Marked differences in toxicity, as indicated by reduced growth, were found to exist between oils. Work with oil extracts of different ages suggests that the short-term toxicity of oils is due to the rapid loss of volatile compounds. Differences in the toxicity of selected aromatic components of crude oils—benzene, toluene, o-xylene and naphthalene—were observed and are believed to relate to an increase in methylation. Aqueous crude oil and naphthalene depressed the 14C-NaHC03 uptake (i.e. photosynthesis) of Chlamydomonas angulosa. 14C-naphthalene was rapidly taken up by Chlamydomonas cells. However, release of this compound was much slower, and, in unwashed cells, seemingly dependent upon cell division.

Possible mechanisms of crude oil toxicity are discussed.
Respiratory Response of Juvenile Chinook Salmon and Striped Bass Exposed to Benzene, a Water-Soluble Component of Crude Oil
Authors: Brocksen Robert W. , Bailey Howard T.
Published: January 2013

Interest surrounding the potential effects of crude oil on aquatic organisms has increased in recent years due to the incidence of accidental oil spills. There are few experimental results reported, however, dealing with the effect on aquatic species of water-soluble aromatic hydrocarbons contained in crude oil. Such compounds are highly toxic to mammals.

Experiments were conducted using juvenile chinook salmon, Oncorhynchus tshawytscha, and striped bass, Morone saxatilis. The fish were exposed to sub-lethal concentrations of the aromatic hydrocarbon benzene, for periods ranging from 1–96 hours. Prior to exposure, and after exposure to the benzene, respiration rates of individual fish were measured. Results show increases in respiratory rate up to 115 percent above that of control fish after exposure periods of 24 hours for striped bass and 48 hours for chinook salmon. Fish exposed to benzene concentrations of 10 ppm for periods longer than those listed exhibited a narcosis that caused a decrease in respiratory rate. The narcotic state induced by exposure to benzene was shown to be reversible when the fish were placed in fresh water and kept for periods longer than 6 days. Possible biochemical mechanisms leading to this response are hypothesized.
ANALYTICAL METHODS FOR POLYNUCLEAR AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS IN CRUDE OILS, HEATING OILS, AND MARINE TISSUES*
Authors: Pancirov R. J. , Brown R. A.
Published: January 2013

This paper primarily covers the first phase of a project to demonstrate analytical methods in their ability to measure individual polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons in typical petroleum oils and marine animal tissues. The study of petroleum oils is complete as described herein. Work on marine tissues is in its initial stage as an analytical method is shown to be capable of measuring benz(a)-anthracene and benzo(a)pyrene when added to clams at the 5 parts per billion (ppb) level. Evaluation of results indicate a detectability of 1 ppb.

Eleven to sixteen individual hydrocarbons were measured in samples of a South Louisiana crude, Kuwait crude, a No. 2 heating oil, and a Bunker C fuel. These compounds included the principal 3-to 5-ring aromatics found in petroleum and one 6-ring (benzo(ghi)-perylene). The tricyclics (phenanthrene, methylphenanthrenes) were generally present in the highest concentration and covered the range 26–7677 ppm by weight. Four- and five-ring aromatics occurred in the range <0.5–240 ppm. Concentrations of the most widely studied polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons, benzo(a)pyrene and benz(a)anthracene, were similar to one another being present at 0.6 to 2.8 ppm in the crude oils and heating oil, whereas in Bunker C their concentrations were 44 and 90 ppm, respectively Measurements of benzo(a)pyrene by previous investigators are tabulated and compared with those of this paper.

Data are also presented to show that the alkyl-substituted forms of these compounds are present at much higher concentrations than the parent compound itself.
THE EVALUATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF PASSIVE TAGGING PROCEDURES FOR THE IDENTIFICATION OF CRUDE OIL SPILLED ON WATER
Authors: Hunt G. , Horton D. , Levine J. , Mayo D. , Donovan D. , Shelley W. , Jiang L. , Crane R. , Johnson R.
Published: January 2013

Several off-the-shelf passive tagging techniques were used to evaluate the viability of Maine's Oil Conveyance Law to determine the origin of mystery oil spills. Duplicating the operating conditions of the law, ship's samples of all crude oil shipments received during a 15-day period at Portland Harbor were collected. Selected crude oils were subjected to weathering in 500-gallon tanks exposed to the outdoor ambient conditions of Portland, Maine. Subsamples of the weathering spill were taken at several intervals up to 15 days. Attempts were made to correctly match the weathered “unknown” to one of the collection of ships’ samples by passive tagging. Techniques employed included the comparison of gas chromatograms by several procedures, vanadium-nickel ratios, sulfur-nitrogen ratios, and infrared spectra. In a preliminary review of the data, successes and limitations are discussed.
NAVY SHIPBOARD INVESTIGATION OF OILY WASTES
Authors: Smookler A. L. , Harden J. W.
Published: January 2013

The Navy's shipboard oily waste problem is defined. The nature, sources, and generation rates of oily waste produced by Naval ships while in port and at sea under various modes of operation are presented.

In surveys of bilge oily waste conducted on 32 ships, bilge fluid generation rates, while in-port cold iron, ranged from a low of approximately 3,000 gallons per day for various destroyers to a high of 80,000 gallons per day for an attack carrier. These fluids were characterized as approximately 99.9% water; oil films or layers amounted to 0.1% of the total bilge fluid volume. The water layer contained less than 91 parts per million oil and 34 milligrams per liter solids 90% of the time. The principal particulate constituents are defined as approximately 75% organic and 25% inorganic with the major inorganic elements comprised of iron oxide, zinc and aluminum.

Questionnaire surveys of nearly 500 ships, followed by some ship visits, indicate that approximately 10% of all shipboard oily waste is comprised of ballast waters of which 73% is contributed by oilers; over 50% of the remaining ship population accounts for less than 3% of the ballast oily waste.

Additional oily waste sources are defined. Principal bilge fluid sources are identified, and methods of reducing the volume of bilge fluids generated are explained. Survey data indicate that the major effort of the Navy's oil pollution abatement program should be the development of suitable shipboard oil-water separators.
OAKLAND ESTUARY OIL SPILL CLEANUP: A REVIEW OF A MAJOR OIL SPILL CLEANUP IN A TRASH-LADEN ESTUARY EMPHASIZING SMALL BOAT HARBOR CLEANUP
Authors: Hanson James R. , Kochis David M.
Published: January 2013

Shortly before midnight, January 18, 1973, 171,000 gallons of oil spilled into storm drains and waters of the Oakland (California) Estuary. This report covers the $1.2 million cleanup by Clean Bay, Inc., an industry-sponsored oil spill cooperative designated by the U.S. Coast Guard as the principal cleanup contractor. The report includes a day-by-day review of the cleanup experience and an evaluation of procedures, emphasizing problems encountered in cleanup of oil in trash-laden waters. Experience gained in the cleanup of 16 small boat harbors is reviewed, including pre-cleanup arrangements, techniques of consolidating and removing oil around boats and finger-piers, and the final cleanup of marina facilites.
AN ORGANIZATION PLAN FOR MINIMIZING THE DAMAGING EFFECTS OF A MAJOR OIL SPILL
Authors: Alberts Donald A. , Park William C.
Published: January 2013

Oil handling facilities operate with the potential for an extensive oil spill every day, but fortunately only a few are ever faced with a major discharge. When major spills have occurred, it has developed that on some occasions the party responsible was not fully prepared to organize forces for an effective cleanup. To date, little has been published on a realistic organizational guide to properly prepare personnel in charge. Lacking such guidance, spill cleanup may be costly, inefficient, and/or ineffective and can result in oil being relegated to the environment in lieu of being recovered. A concept for the organization of cleanup forces is presented, based on the authors’ experiences, which will result, if implemented, in a cost-effective and efficient cleanup effort. Problem areas properly addressed will result in an effective operation. Included is a typical line diagram organizational chart, but stressed are basic concepts with specific implementation dependent upon the actual situation.
PLANNING FOR MINIMUM OIL-SPILL RISK: ESTERO BAY DEEPWATER TERMINAL AND PIPELINE
Authors: Mayer Jules F.
Published: January 2013

Estero Bay, California, located midway between San Francisco and Los Angeles, may be the site of the first deepwater terminal in the United States capable of handling tankers larger than 200,000 deadweight tons. The ships would be moored 2.6 miles from shore at a single point mooring (SPM). Crude oil would be transferred to the San Francisco Bay area by a 280-mile pipeline.

One of the first questions asked by most permitting organizations is, what is the chance of an oil spill and how would you clean it up. The environmental studies for the project have addressed this question with particular attention to the prevention of spillage and, secondarily, to the cleanup equipment and organization required in the event that spillage should occur. Equal consideration is being given to the operational procedures, including use of owner-trained mooring masters. A plan for manpower organization and the pooling of people during an emergency has been developed.
A RISK-ANALYTIC APPROACH TO CONTROL OF LARGE-VOLUME OIL SPILLS
Authors: Paulson A. S. , Schumaker A. D. , Wallace W. A.
Published: January 2013

The frequency of large-volume oil spills is considerably greater than is consistent with prediction based upon traditional methods. The reason for this phenomenon is that standard probability distributions of magnitude of spills do not have the flexibility to admit of very large coefficients of variation, especially for distributions which are highly skewed to the right. Hence, distributions which have large means relative to the median and which have long thick tails are prerequisites for an appropriate treatment of the problem. The class of stable laws provides a convenient method for investigating the empirical oil spill experience: several large spills dominate the total volume of spillage in virtually all accounting periods; e.g., quarterly. Our methodology involves a statistical assessment of “accident-proneness component;” if one exists, the data is further examined to identify insofar as is possible the genesis of the component (s); if none exists, we assess the frequency and severity of discharge for various geographic areas. A new approach has been utilized to fit these long, thick-tailed probability distribution to a U.S. Coast Guard data file on oil spills, the pollution incident reporting system (PIRS), with considerable success. We pay particular attention to the fitted upper tail vis-a-vis the actual upper tail. The agreement, where our methodology is deemed applicable, is very good We also indicate improvements to methodology and applications.
FEDERAL REGULATORY CONTROL OF OIL SPILL REMOVAL METHODS
Authors: Snyder Harold J.
Published: January 2013

The development of federal regulatory controls for oil removal methods is traced from the concerns that were developed over the use of dispersants during the Torrey Canyon incident. The evolution of annexes for chemical use control in the National Contingency Plan is described starting with the 1968 plan to the 1974 version being prepared for publication by the Council on Environmental Quality. Chemical and biological agent data requirements being included in the 1974 version are explained with emphasis on the rationale for selecting the type of data being requested. Possible directions for future federal regulatory control for removal methods are discussed.