bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Anophthalmia/Microphthalmia/Coloboma (
MAC
)
Authors: Schneider Adele , Kopinsky Sarina
Published: March 2017

Microphthalmia/anophthalmia/coloboma (MAC) are congenital anomalies of the eye that form a continuum from coloboma at the mild end to anophthalmia at the severe end. When we refer to anophthalmia, usually we mean clinical anophthalmia where there is so little eye tissue that it is not visible, but it is in fact severe microphthalmia. On magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the orbit, rudimentary tissue might be visible and in some cases, you can see a hypoplastic optic nerve. There may be eye adnexa present like tear ducts. Microphthalmia can be very variable from clinical anophthalmia to slightly small eye. Ultrasound of the orbit can help determine the actual size and structure of the eye.

MAC is genetically heterogeneous. This means that there are many different causes. MAC may be associated with other anomalies (syndromal) or alone (nonsyndromal). There are many developmental genes that can be implicated in these eye anomalies.

Key Concepts

Anophthalmia is a very small, abnormal eye and often has no useful vision.

Microphthalmia is more variable and can even be a small and normal looking eye.

Coloboma develops when the optic fissure does not close fully as the eye develops in the embryo, vision loss is variable.

Genetic causes of MAC can be due to mutations in many genes or chromosomal trisomies, deletions/duplications that include eye development genes.

Some teratogens such as alcohol can cause MAC.

MAC can occur in one eye or both the eyes and each eye can have a different problem.
When Did the Renaissance in Architecture Begin?: From Panofskian Mythography to Vasarian History
Authors: Trachtenberg Marvin
Published: March 2017

As the editor of this volume notes, Wölfflin famously asked more than a century ago, “Why did the Renaissance end?” Behind the flat question, I hear a pang of regret. A student of Burckhardt and a man of his time, perhaps Wölfflin was really asking, “Why…why did it all have to end?” Given the unflagging celebrity of the Renaissance, not least among scholars, many may share Wölfflin's regret, especially anyone who harbors the fantasy that the Renaissance still lives on in spirit at the heart of modernity. Turning Wölfflin on his head, however, we may entertain an even more telling question that the great historian did
not
ask: “Why did the Renaissance
begin
?” This question is seldom posed because the answer seems self‐evident to most. Humanism, wealth, and individual genius combined to lift Italy, beginning with Florence, from the cultural gutter of the Middle Ages. Like a rising tide, the turn had to come. Steeped in the belief that modernity originated in the period, for modern people the idea of “no Renaissance” remains virtually unthinkable (like imagining having no grandparents). An absent Renaissance would be an intolerable loss for all.
The Birth of the Modern City
Authors: Conforti Claudia
Published: March 2017

This chapter addresses the relationship between architecture and the birth of the modern city in the Italian Renaissance, focusing in particular on the relations between buildings, context, and, above all, the urban infrastructures (roads, bridges, squares, water mains) that acquired a fundamental role in the cities of the sixteenth century. Florence and Rome are the two main case studies. These two cities, which were experimental laboratories for the “modernamente antica” architecture in the fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries, subsequently developed different architectural and urban forms, not only as a consequence of the political and social frameworks but also of the different organization of the building process and its changing economic role. In Rome, this culminated in the baroque explosion that disseminated forms, spaces, and models for the city throughout the world. In Florence, after the innovative period during the reign of Cosimo I Medici (1537–74), architecture turned in upon itself well into the seventeenth century for dynastic and economic reasons, thus rendering sterile the inheritance of the architects of the golden age (such as Michelangelo, 1475–1564).
The City At War and The Semantic Armament of Renaissance Architecture
Authors: Hilliges Marion
Published: March 2017

War and destruction affected the architecture and urban planning of the Early Modern period, even more than scholars have acknowledged so far. In fact, the necessity of fortifying and modernizing old city walls triggered technical innovations, new construction techniques, and a modern architectural language dominated by symbolism of strength, force, and security. This new manner appears not only in the peninsula of Italy – the region with the most innovative impulse – but also in most other European countries. This military architectural manner was a kind of “international style” disseminated by Italian engineers. This chapter provides synthetic perspective of the issue, focusing on some striking aspects and significant examples of modern regulated cities and edifices in this design vocabulary.
Taking Place: Architecture and Religious Devotion in Seventeenth‐Century Italy
Authors: Hills Helen
Published: March 2017

Baroque ecclesiastical architecture declares itself to be separate, distinct, apart, almost another world. Thus the vault of Il Gesù in Rome offers a glimpse into Paradise, even as heavenly figures spill over into this world. It exposes us to a relation in which architecture and heaven are at once distinct from and integral to each other, in which one sunders the other but also makes it possible. The paradoxes of enclosure seem to lie at the heart of both architecture and Christianity. Yet since all boundaries are necessarily porous, to conceive of seventeenth‐century religious architecture simply either as enclosure or as its obverse, as porous, risks confining it to a limiting form of its own enclosure. While scholarship persists in treating baroque architecture in those terms, I argue here that it is more productively thought of in terms of its potential for opening and, like Christianity itself, as an address toward something that there is no possibility of reaching. Just as in Christianity the promise is at once already realized and yet to come, baroque architecture may usefully be thought of as that which also opens the possibility of what is to come. It gestures toward the existence of what is not in this world, without being another world for all that. Thus this chapter explores baroque religious architecture not as enclosure or container for something stable and containable, or as a closure that therefore inevitably disencloses, but in terms of immanence, as that which makes possible new openings, without resorting to a transcendent. This chapter concentrates on Naples in order to counter the persistent overwhelming scholarly bias in favor of Rome, Florence, and Venice that continues to marginalize and exoticize the Italian south.
Jesuit Architecture Worldwide: A Culture of Corporate Invention
Authors: Levy Evonne
Published: March 2017

The rapidly expanding early modern religious order, the Society of Jesus, built churches and other structures all over the world starting in the mid‐sixteenth century. Because the Jesuits were a highly centralized organization and oversaw design of their global building projects, it has often been thought that design was dictated by Roman authorities. While that view has been considerably nuanced it is still important to weigh the desire for a corporate sense of identity and the practices within the Society of Jesus that encouraged references among Jesuit buildings, against the inventiveness of individual architects and local building practices and traditions. Because “normative” Jesuit practices always arose from unique cases this chapter considers general principles against three detailed cases studies: the Jesuit Mother Church, il Gesù, in Rome (which acquired exemplary status), and the Jesuit churches in Munich and in Antwerp.
Classicism and Church Architecture in Early Seventeenth‐Century France: Aspects and Debates
Authors: Naginski Erika
Published: March 2017

Much has been made of the stylistic and typological diversity of French religious edifices dating from the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. Searching for architectural paradigms strikes one as a remarkably futile exercise in Counter‐Reformation France, and there are countless reasons for this. Among them, one can cite the ideological differences between Catholic and Protestant liturgical practices and the dynastic change from the House of Valois to the House of Bourbon, as well as the resistance of the Gallican church to certain Tridentine decrees. Important, too, is the lack of uniformity of the so‐called “Jesuit Style” as it spread across Europe – this despite the prototype instantiated by Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola and Giacomo della Porta's Church of Il Gesù (1568–76), Rome, whose architectural lineaments were promulgated through the efficient channels of the Society of Jesus’ institutional structures. Those lineaments articulated anew the relationship of exterior and interior by means of pedimented, two‐story aedicular façades with volutes affixed to light‐filled, unified, and monumental rectangular spaces. Domes maximizing the visibility of the altar and the “pronounced integration of the longitudinal and centralized schemes,” as the architectural historian Christian Norberg‐Schulz described it, aimed to abolish barriers between the clergy and laity. Yet such objectives were complicated outside Italy by the multifaceted encounters between northern and southern building traditions.
Religious Architecture and the Image in the Southern Netherlands after theBeeldenstorm: Shrines for Miracle‐Working Statues of the Virgin Mary
Authors: Delbeke Maarten
Published: March 2017

The earliest modern historiography of the religious architecture of the Southern Netherlands already raised the question of exactly how the religious and political turmoil in the region affected the stylistic and typological evolution of the architecture. In particular, early architectural historians have been interested in understanding how, under these circumstances, Italian models became incorporated in local architectural practice. Starting from Victor Hugo's and Charles Baudelaire's early comments about baroque architecture and its role in nineteenth‐century Catholic devotion, this chapter combines the findings of recent architectural historical scholarship with new views about the Catholic religiosity of the region to examine how new and restored shrines for miracle‐working statues of Mary exemplify the role of architecture in establishing an at once age‐old and new Catholic landscape. Drawing on learned and popular seventeenth‐century Catholic historiography, this chapter considers religious buildings not only as the architectural answer to the often complex demands of patrons and users, but also as key components in the material culture of religion.
British Classicism to 1700 and the Search for a National Architectural Style
Authors: Hart Vaughan
Published: March 2017

In 1624 the English diplomat Henry Wotton (1568–1639) noted the “naturall imbecility” of pointed arches, and advised that they “ought to bee exiled from judicious eyes, and left to their first inventors, theGothesorLumbards, amongst otherReliquesof that barbarousAge.” Wotton had served as Stuart ambassador to Venice, and was a keen advocate of the use of the antique columns (or “orders”) that he had witnessed there. He was writing at a time when there were early signs of a fundamental change in the accepted style of British court buildings and in the architectural fashion that they led. This shift in fashion had spread north from Italy during the sixteenth century. The Banqueting House by Inigo Jones (1573–1652) had only just been completed at Whitehall (1619–23), and the ground story of his Queen's House now stood at Greenwich (1616–18). English construction practices were moving away from the mixture of rich medieval and antique decoration that had been favored by Elizabethan courtiers, toward the more restrained and exclusive use of antique ornament and forms that is evident in most of Jones’ work. These forms were derived from Italian sources and included, for the first time under Jones, temple fronts with pediments and porticoes.
Architectural Dialogues Across the Eastern Mediterranean: Monumental Domed Sanctuaries in the Ottoman Empire and Renaissance Italy
Authors: Necipoğlu Gülru
Published: March 2017

This chapter aims to elucidate the connectedness of architectural cultures in the Eastern Mediterranean basin, with a particular focus on monumental domed churches and mosques in Italy and the Ottoman empire from the fifteenth through the sixteenth centuries, the era conventionally labeled the Renaissance. By the early sixteenth century, the eastern half of the sea effectively became the “Ottoman Mediterranean,” in contradistinction to its western part dominated by the Spanish Habsburgs. That is why in his “Book of Navigation” the Ottoman admiral Piri Reis (d,1553) called the Eastern Mediterranean the “Ottoman Sea” (Bahr‐i Rūm: Roman Sea) and its western counterpart the “Spanish Sea” (Bahr‐i İsbāniye). This division into two zones was noted by Fernand Braudel: “The story of the Mediterranean in the sixteenth century is in the first place a story of dramatic political growth, with the leviathans taking up their positions.” While Portugal and France were important players in the game, Braudel conceded that “the rise of empires in the Mediterranean means essentially that of the Ottoman Empire in the East and that of the Habsburg Empire in the West.”
The Classical Ideal in Portugal and the Portuguese World: From Lisbon to China
Authors: Senos Nuno
Published: March 2017

In his account of the life of Andrea Sansovino (circa 1467–1529), Giorgio Vasari explained that, having finished the Corbinelli altarpiece, the Italian sculptor was sent by Lorenzo de Medici to work for the king of Portugal in whose service he remained for nine years. That which was but a short sentence in the
torrentiniana
edition of his
Lives of the Artists
(1550) and enlarged with more detail in the
juntina
edition (1568) was the source of a complex and passionate discussion among historians of the art of Portugal for many years. There were two main issues at the basis of this discussion: the lack of surviving material evidence of nearly a decade of work by such an important artist, and the ultimate disbelief that a “peripheral” country such as Portugal could have entered the sphere of the Renaissance at such an early date (the 1490s) and through such distinguished hands.
The Architecture of the Early Modern Period: “Because Vitruvius did not Recommend Square Columns”: Europe, Latin America and the Globalization of the Renaissance
Authors: Cummins Thomas
Published: March 2017

There has never been as rapid, ordered, chaotic, original, repetitive, eclectic, imaginative, banal, precise, and massive a building campaign as was undertaken in America in the sixteenth century. From 1492 until 1600, the built landscape of pre‐Columbia America with all of its distinct traditions in forms and material was transformed to become a uniform whole, based on late medieval and Renaissance principles of an ordered civic life and Catholic piety. Even imperial Rome as it expanded its empire could not compete with the totality of the transformation of cultures encountered in so short a time and so vast a geographic space as were to become the viceroyalties of New Spain and Peru. The great cities of Tenochtitlan, the Aztec capital, and Cuzco, the Inca capital, were literally pulled apart and rebuilt using much of their material to become Renaissance cities filled with new buildings, new urban forms, and a cosmopolitan populace. In fact, the Spanish Renaissance's relation to Rome and its traces, most often visible as spolia in sixteenth‐century Spain, were keenly felt as Spanish towns and buildings were raised over the remains of the pre‐Columbian one. For example, the Yucatán colonial city, Mérida, was so named because when the Spaniards first came to the site they found so many buildings of stone and mortar that they were reminded of the Roman buildings of Mérida in Spain.
Northern Imaginative Antiquarianism: The Dismembered Column as Relic and Tool
Authors: Heuer Christopher P.
Published: March 2017

For many Northern Europeans, the overwhelming source about architecture – antique or modern ‐ was prints. German, Dutch, French, English, Swedish, Russian, and Czech translations of Serlio or Palladio all appeared before 1800. What such prints, in league with loose entablature engravings, often “systematized” was the idea that no purist canon of the classical orders existed, only signature, localized version of ornament. Unlike certain Italians, that is, the question besetting many northerners was not how to understand physical bits strewn around them; but to make sense of thebooksthat were flooding their cities. Such images functioned as – and changed the ideaof– architectural tools, often drawing upon a late‐medieval poetics of sacral fragmentation.
The Reception and Flowering of Classicism in the German Lands
Authors: Mallgrave Harry Francis
Published: March 2017

Historians have traditionally discussed the reception of classical ideas in the German‐speaking areas of northern Europe in two ways: first the relatively slow acceptance of these ideas in relation to other countries such as Spain and France, and second the dependence of the German‐speaking north on the successive development of baroque tendencies in the south. Given the vast cultural divide between the building traditions of Germanic and Latin cultures, the dissemination of classical ideas to the north is more complex than generally portrayed. Even with the smaller scale of building activities in the fragmented and less‐wealthy northern states, the acceptance of classical ideas in the north paralleled that of France and Spain, particularly when taking into account both practice and theory. Second, the German north enjoyed its own early baroque phase, that is, until the interruption of the religious and political conflicts of the seventeenth century. With the return to economic prosperity, however, the German‐speaking areas of the north enjoyed a unique phase of baroque development.
Ornament in Architecture
Authors: Bédard Jean‐François
Published: March 2017

Academic authors such as Jacques‐François Blondel saw a clear division between ornament and architecture. Blondel understood ornament as sculptural decoration distinct from a building's essential forms that included the orders and their moldings. Previous writers had a different point of view, one in which ornament played a vital role in buildings. Vitruvius designated asornamentumthe three parts of the entablature, an essential component of trabeated buildings. Alberti understood ornament as the phenomenal manifestation of a building's geometric design. For eighteenth‐century rationalists, however, ornament was by nature excessive and needed to be regulated. They believed that ornaments should stem fromimitation, the doctrine according to which architectural forms originated in wooden construction. For these, they maintained, the architects of antiquity provided the best models. They also advocated thatdecorumshould guide architects in the handling of ornament, much as orators calibrated their vocabulary according to the purpose and audience of their speeches. Other authors, on the contrary, celebrated the auxiliary nature of ornament as a platform for unconstrained invention. Piranesi for instance claimed that designers should eschew the rationality of imitation and the strictures of decorum: like the designers of grotesques, he believed architects should forgo tectonic considerations and incorporate to their creations forms unknown to the Greco‐Roman tradition. Liberated from their historical underpinnings and their social purpose, ornaments became at the end of the century the exemplars of free beauty on which Kant grounded his aesthetic theory.
Castle Howard, Its Landscape, and Its Garden Structures (1699–circa 1745)
Authors: Levine Neil
Published: March 2017

Designed by John Vanbrugh and Nicholas Hawksmoor for Charles Howard, the third Earl of Carlisle, Castle Howard was built beginning in 1699. The house itself, a baroque palace following a Palladian plan, was completed in 1712. The vast landscape garden with outbuildings, a very early example of picturesque design, was finished over the next three decades. Revolutionary in concept as compared with the house, the garden, with its three main structures—the Temple of Four Winds, Mausoleum, and Pyramid—replaces the classical method of rhetorical representation of the house with a new subjective, narrative form of historical reference related to the client's ambitions for his estate.
Basilica of Superga (1716–1731)
Authors: Jöchner Cornelia
Published: March 2017

The Basilica of Superga designed by Filippo Juvarra is one of the great royal votive churches of the early modern period. Stylistically classified by previous researchers as an example of either classical architecture (Kauffmann) or an eclectic late style (Wittkower), a contemporary spatial analysis focuses on the church's conceptual design and concludes that Juvarra's late baroque style constituted a conscious, distinctive architectural style (Jöchner) culminating in a striking design for the Superga. Pivotal for the interior are the two “visual axes” (Hager): the unusually tall vertical axis for its day extending up into the rotunda and echoing older churches in northern Italy (e.g. the Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna and San Siro di Pavia), and the pronounced spatial depth of the choir for a centrally‐planned building. The Superga's unified architecture still reflects Vitruvian principles rather than being a collection of individual elements as suggested by analysing the ground plan alone. Instead, in Juvarra's illustrative architecture, the two main axes unite to form a striking spatio‐visual composition of a royal votive church encouraging its active use. The relief adorning the high altar clearly shows the original inspiration for the basilica's construction, while the elevation of the House of Savoy to kingly status resulting from Victor Amadeus's victory is symbolized near the top of the dome. Seen thus, the Superga extends rather than contradicts the idea of a centrally planned building developed during the Renaissance. The alignment of the church extending from its interior symbolically maps out the geopolitical coordinates of the House of Savoy's territory. Instead of reflecting stereometric concepts of classicism, the Superga's interior and exterior are clearly rooted in early modern spatio‐visual concepts.
Experiencing Architectural Space
Authors: de Jong Sigrid
Published: March 2017

This chapter examines a range of original texts in which architectural experience has a crucial role. In these texts buildings are no longer described from the perspective of the architect, but from that of the viewer's experience. This important move in perspective was theorized in architectural writings of the second half of the eighteenth century. These writings range from analyses of perceiving a building, to giving tools for how to design with the future experience of the viewer already in mind. The focus is on actual accounts of looking at buildings and architectural experiences by Laugier, Soufflot, Le Roy, Reveley, Soane, or Boullée. These accounts were produced after 1740, when some major developments in architectural thought were fueled by granting a key role to experience. This chapter thus traces the growing prominence of the experience of buildings in architectural thought, the different ways in which such experiences were conceptualized, and the new ideas they present that open up toward nineteenth‐century thought on the subject. It traces the growing importance of the movements of the spectator in these texts, and most of all the implications of these movements for the way architecture was viewed: that a growing awareness of the essentially spatial character of architecture was connected to the awareness of a moving viewer.
Festival Architecture as Well‐Ordered Entertainment
Authors: Monin Éric
Published: March 2017

At times controversial due to the colossal cost of their organization, festivals and public festivities, which reached their peak in the Age of Enlightenment, served as a testing ground for new artistic experiences that reflected the King's power. Instruments of celebration and outdoor performances, this type of event provided an opportunity to explore often complex symbolic programs on a grand scale, allowing authors like Claude‐François Ménestrier to illustrate their ingenuity at inventing themes adapted to all festival situations, with corresponding inscriptions, mottos, and emblems. Our focus, however, is less on the political issues, or the symbolic and stylistic considerations underlying the development of these great official events, and more on how the festivals were created and their material construction and installation in the city, designed for townspeople who were both the witnesses and the spectators of the colossal events. Here architecture, and more specifically its image, at times formed the subject but was above all an instrument that transformed the townscape and temporarily shook up the cities that were in the throes of major change.
Karlskirche (1716–1737)
Authors: Schürmann Anja
Published: March 2017

On the border between the first and fourth districts of Vienna, facing toward the Emperor's palace, the Hofburg, the
Karlskirche
, commissioned by Emperor Charles VI (1685–1740) to his royal architect Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach (1656–1723) as a votive church to give thanks for surviving the plague, was built between 1716 and 1737. Competing models for the
Karlskirche
had been submitted by Ferdinando Galli‐Bibbiena (1657–1743) and Johann Lucas von Hildebrandt (1668–1745). Construction began in 1716 under the supervision of Anton Erhard Martinelli (1684–1747), but around 1722 Fischer handed the supervision of the construction site, a project financed by the whole House of Hapsburg with Spain, Italy, the Netherlands, and Hungary due to the high costs, to his son Joseph Emanuel (1693–1742) and because of the church's elaborate interior décor, construction was not finished before 1737, after Fischer's death. In 1737 the building was formally dedicated and presented by the Emperor to a branch of the Knights of Malta, the Order of the Cross with the Red Star, which still today oversees the church until this day. The building has survived largely undamaged and the iconographical program remains today as originally intended.
Hôtel Amelot (1717)
Authors: Schmidt Freek
Published: March 2017

Germain Boffrand (1667–1754), who is often regarded the greatest French architect of the first half of the eighteenth century, designed the Hôtel de Montmorency as a speculator on the rue Saint‐Dominique. From the seventeenth century, the lavish houses of eminent or rich people in Paris increasingly became known as
hôtels
. The
hôtel
was renamed Amelot after the owner who bought and completed it in 1717. The building is a relatively compact nobleman's townhouse with an ingenious elevation matching the original plan and distribution. The concave shape is a rather unusual feature for the façade of a
hôtel
. The garden façade is less formal, reflecting the private nature of this area. The plan of the ground floor is at once simple in its organization and intricate in its detailing; every room has its own specific shape in which regularity and symmetry are observed in the placement of windows, fireplaces, and doorways. Every room would have been appropriately decorated, respecting its use and position in the hierarchy in the distribution.
Chiswick House (1726–1732)
Authors: Arciszewska Barbara
Published: March 2017

Lord Burlington's Chiswick House (1726–32) has been cast as the epitome of Anglo‐Palladianism and the nexus of narratives associating the Palladian revival with aristocratic and thoroughly British national “style.” This iron‐cast image of Chiswick conceals, however, a set of cultural concerns that destabilize the prevailing interpretations of the building, highlighting numerous issues spanning classical tradition and bourgeoning modernity in Britain as well as on the Continent.
Interiors and Patronage
Authors: Martin Meredith
Published: March 2017

This chapter surveys major developments regarding the creation and use of interiors in eighteenth‐century Europe, focusing on four geographic regions—France, Germany, Italy, and England—and three principal design styles: Rococo, Neoclassicism, and chinoiserie. Interiors were a privileged site of innovation for both architects and patrons in eighteenth‐century Europe. Changing social, political, and economic structures had a major impact on the design of interiors and generated a new class of patrons who were eager to use architectural space to display their status to others. At the same time, evolving notions of privacy and interiority encouraged eighteenth‐century patrons to think differently about how they lived or interacted with the world around them, and to favor the creation of comfortable, intimate environments where they could cultivate new forms of self. Architects responded eagerly to these new client demands, and they relished the freedom they were given in interiors to indulge their most forward‐thinking schemes. Interiors were also discussed at length in architectural literature, novels, and travel guides and were represented in ornament prints that spread across Europe, contributing to the international exchange of styles and ideas.
Female Architectural Patronage in France
Authors: Ollagnier Claire
Published: March 2017

Though the presence of women on the architectural scene has been recognized, it remains poorly understood in all its facets. Yet from queen—or king's mistress—to actress, noblewoman to petit bourgeois, women have played a key role in both architectural patronage and the evolution of tastes and ways of life. In France, female patronage provides a means not only of understanding the role played by women under the Ancien Régime, but also of examining the various criteria that determined how dwellings were laid out. Yet, to this day art historians have not yet studied the importance and influence of women in the modern world of domestic architecture.
Residenz Würzburg (1729–1744)
Authors: Schmidt Freek
Published: March 2017

In 1719 Johann Philips Franz von Schönborn became prince‐bishop of Würzburg (Franconia), part of the Habsburg empire, and decided to replace the small
schloss
by a new and relocated residence, for which the court architect Balthasar Neumann (1687–1753) drafted the first designs. The ideas for a new residence and its situation were discussed at length between the prince and his relatives, and he offered the services of his architect, Johann Lukas von Hildebrandt. For further advice Neumann went to Paris in 1723 to consult two of the most distinguished architects of the time, Robert de Cotte and Germain Boffrand, who were experienced in the design and planning of palaces for the pinnacle of European courts and added their creative architectural expertise to accommodate the princely aims. The interior decorations were carried out by famous stuccoworkers like Antonio Bossi, while Giovanni Battista Tiepolo created the large stucco painting for the
Treppenhaus
, one of the largest and most impressive structures of eighteenth‐century architecture.
Radcliffe Camera (1739–1749)
Authors: Hart Vaughan
Published: March 2017

John Radcliffe, physician to William III and Mary II, let it be known around 1712 that he intended to build a library for the Natural Sciences in Oxford. When he died in 1714 his will of 8 December left £40,000 for that purpose. The Radcliffe Camera was eventually built between 1739 and 1749 to a design by James Gibbs, although its origins firmly lay in earlier schemes by Nicholas Hawksmoor.
Vierzehnheiligen (1742–1744)
Authors: Bédard Jean‐François
Published: March 2017

In his pilgrimage church for the Fourteen Holy Helpers (the
vierzehn Heiligen
), Balthasar Neumann explored daring spatial configurations, which resulted in a highly plastic and powerful structure devised to heighten the pilgrims’ religiosity.
Schloß Sanssouci (1743–1745)
Authors: Bédard Jean‐François
Published: March 2017

A summer retreat more than a genuine palace, Schloß Sanssouci's unique layout owes as much to the idiosyncratic personality of its patron and designer, Frederick II, king of Prussia, as it does to the eighteenth‐century French architectural type of the
maison de plaisance
(pleasure retreat). Prototypical enlightened ruler and keen Francophile, Frederick, known as Frederick the Great, combined military prowess with a discerning interest in philosophy, classical letters, and the arts. He not only corresponded with and hosted such preeminent minds of the time as Voltaire but was also himself an accomplished musician and composer, a notable art collector, even a skilled architect. At Sanssouci, he adapted the French model of the
pavillon à l'italienne
—a single‐story garden pavilion—to an original program, part guesthouse, part intellectual retreat.
Strawberry Hill (1749–1790)
Authors: Snodin Michael
Published: March 2017

Strawberry Hill, built between 1749 and 1790, was the lifetime project of Horace Walpole, the author, collector, historian, and commentator. It was a summer villa that evoked a particular vision of both national and family history, and became nationally and internationally famous. Although Strawberry Hill gave its name to the style of the early Gothic revival, it was not the first such Gothic building. It was, however, the first revival house to be consistently Gothic both inside and out and the first to have asymmetrical planning and massing that gave the impression of a house built over many years. It also pioneered the use of correct Gothic detailing in the form of architectural quotations from medieval originals, and was the first scheme to combine a naturalistic garden with a picturesque house.
Albergo dei Poveri (1751)
Authors: Thomas Robin L.
Published: March 2017

The Albergo dei Poveri in Naples was one of the largest hospices for the poor constructed in Europe. It was built as a massive demonstration of royal charity, offering urban mendicants food and shelter along with training in a trade and religious instruction. Designed by Ferdinando Fuga, who shepherded the project through three different planning stages, it became a model of rigorous architectural order, and featured an innovative five‐nave church at its core.
Royal Palace Caserta (1751)
Authors: Thomas Robin L.
Published: March 2017

Building the royal palace at Caserta, one of Europe's largest, was part of the Bourbon king of Naples' political and economic revival of his kingdom. Designed by Luigi Vanvitelli with input from the sovereign, it was built around four courtyards. At the building's core Vanvitelli planned a magnificent staircase and royal chapel. The garden axis extended through the center of the building and toward Naples, providing an organizing fulcrum for the surrounding area.
Science, Mathematics and Architecture
Authors: Walker Matthew
Published: March 2017

In the period covered by this volume, the disciplines of architecture and science were far closer than they are today. According to the seventeenth‐century author John Evelyn, not only was architecture part of science and mathematics, it could, in theory, represent the apogee of those practices. As all writers on architecture in this period agreed, it was amongst the most useful applications of mathematical and scientific knowledge. Yet architecture's place amongst the early modern sciences was a complicated and contested one and the analysis of the early modern science/architecture relationship comes with many potential pitfalls. These problems primarily stem from the insecure disciplinary status of both science and architecture in the period. As we shall see, it is no exaggeration to say that science, as a coherent intellectual category, did not exist before the nineteenth century. Add to this the problems of defining architecture as a profession in the period and the task of the historian becomes doubly difficult. This chapter will carefully set out these problems in some detail before introducing the reader to various ways in which historians have attempted to overcome them. Much of the discussion will focus on the final years of the seventeenth century and the beginning of the eighteenth century. This was a critical period in the histories of both science and architecture, but it also represented the apex of their intellectual relationship. Later into the eighteenth century, architecture retained its close allegiance with surveying, building technologies and engineering but perhaps lost forever its affinity with more pure forms of science.
Villa Albani (1757–1759)
Authors: Schijvens Lauran
Published: March 2017

Veduta della Villa Albani
by Giovanni Battista Piranesi (1720–78) depicts a view—from around 1763—of the Roman villa of Cardinal Alesandro Albani. The image gives the viewer the opportunity to experience the scenography of the contemporary Villa Albani in the best possible way. The Villa Albani is a unity of buildings and garden in which nature and culture interact. Piranesi's building portrait emphasizes both these aspects by the way it shows the palace and the terraced sculpture garden of the cardinal whose most important adviser was Johann Joachim Winckelmann, for whom observation and knowledge were essential in the creation and presentation of a prestigious collection.
Syon House (1760–1768)
Authors: Aymonino Adriano
Published: March 2017

This chapter focuses on Robert Adam's refurbishment of Syon House, conducted between 1760 and 1768, and on the integrated references to classical architecture, sculpture, and decoration employed to create one of the earliest and most extravagant neoclassical interiors.
Petit Trianon (1761)
Authors: Armstrong Christopher Drew
Published: March 2017

Located amidst greenhouses, farm buildings, and a splendid botanical garden, the Petit Trianon is a small palace built for Louis XV as a retreat from the rigid protocols of Versailles. The royal architect Gabriel began the design in 1761 and construction was carried out between 1762 and 1768. The Petit Trianon came to be closely associated with Marie‐Antoinette, who replaced the botanical garden with an extensive, English‐inspired landscape. The building is regarded as a masterpiece of French neoclassical architecture.
École De Chirurgie (1769–1774)
Authors: Wittman Richard
Published: March 2017

The construction of Jacques Gondoin's École de Chirurgie in Paris (1769–74) presents an external façade characterized by dramatic horizontal extension, eager visual transparency, and, most of all, by many, many columns. It was originally intended to form one side of a new square, on which Gondoin envisaged a deployment of the classical orders that would have presented the square's proposed trio of buildings—debtor's prison, church, and surgery school—as an allegory of body and spirit, secularity and religion. The dense planning of the surgery school itself accommodated myriad functions on two levels around an oblong rectangular court, in an arrangement that recalled both local and historical architectural models. Mainstream Paris guidebooks and accounts by Gondoin's fellow architects lavished the building with praise, counting it among the best of the century in Paris. More politicized critics, however, including Louis Sébastien Mercier, resented what they saw as the unnecessary and disproportionate lavishness of the building, and the inordinate expense it had entailed.
Barrières
and Tax Wall Paris (1785)
Authors: Armstrong Christopher Drew
Published: March 2017

In the early 1780s, the chemist Lavoisier conceived the idea of building a new tax wall around Paris as a means to increase royal revenues. With the backing of the minister of finance, the city of Paris approved the plan in May 1784. The architect Ledoux was chosen to design 42 new entries, which were largely built between 1785 and 1791. Designed in a severe neoclassical style, only eight of the original buildings survive at four sites around the city.
Realism in Nineteenth‐Century British Architecture
Authors: Brittain‐Catlin Timothy
Published: March 2017

Functionalism in nineteenth‐century Britain took a specific form: realism. This was an approach to design which emphasized the real, physical, nature of building materials and the practical function of a designed object from its smallest details to its overall form. Born from an early nineteenth‐century interest in the practical aspects of horticulture and architecture pioneered by John Claudius Loudon, and in the newly scientific approach to architectural history of John Britton, realism took off from 1836 with the ascent of the architect and designer A. W. N. Pugin. Pugin's texts, especiallyThe True Principlesof 1841, presented a theory of a rational, comprehensive architecture derived from an intimate knowledge of medieval buildings. This strongly appealed to architects who were facing new professional challenges and were frustrated by low building standards. Architects directly inspired by Pugin, including George Gilbert Scott, George Edmund Street, and William Butterfield, established the revived Gothic style and created an unprecedented international reputation for British architecture. A younger generation, from the 1880s onward, revived Puginian ideas especially in their rich designs for houses and interiors, but realism was eventually defeated by its own obsessiveness and detachment from the motives that had inspired it.
Viollet‐Le‐Duc's Rationalism
Authors: Bressani Martin
Published: March 2017

This chapter presents Eugène‐Emmanuel Viollet‐le‐Duc's quest for a rational architecture in terms of struggle and as a process of fusion, seeking an architecture “animated” by the structural conflict of a network of forces. The emergence of Gothic construction in the middle ages described by Viollet‐le‐Duc is the paradigmatic example: the slow and progressive liberation of the structural skeleton from the stone mass transforms the structure into an “elastic,” free entity as from a living, biological process. Similarly, his series of speculative projects using iron construction designed in the late 1860s renders palpable the action of support, resorting to oblique members that act as a structural crutch or prosthesis.
Between the Visible and the Legible: Iron and Reinforced Concrete in Fin‐De‐Siècle France
Authors: Legault Réjean
Published: March 2017

With its vast Galerie des machines and soaring Eiffel Tower, the 1889 Universal Exhibition in Paris epitomized the triumph of iron in architecture. Yet by the turn of the century, metal had already lost its revolutionary appeal, hidden as it was behind the stone façades of the 1900 Exhibition pavilions. Experiments with reinforced concrete construction had taken center stage and architects were now vigorously debating the impact the new building system would have on the future of architecture. With the immersion of an iron framework in a mixture of concrete, the original properties of these formerly distinct materials were suddenly put into question. Disrupting current doctrinal and stylistic discourses, this technical operation gave rise to unexpected arguments about what constitutes truth and the visible in architecture. Focusing on the period between 1889 and 1905, this chapter examines the conceptual transition from iron to reinforced concrete, a shift that set the stage for a dialectical confrontation between two modern materials that would have a lasting impact on French architectural culture.
“The Science of The Plan”: House‐Building and the Like, 1860–1930
Authors: Stalder Laurent , Denton Jill
Published: March 2017

As a technique of representation and a design tool, the plan acquired a central role in residential architecture in the latter half of the nineteenth century. It gradually superseded other representation techniques such as the cross section, elevation, or perspective, before becoming, in the twentieth‐century interwar period and along with photography, if not the most innovative then certainly the most favored one. However obvious the importance of the plan may have seemed around 1930, it was by no means as self‐evident a century earlier. In England, an independent tradition in planning emerged in the first half of the century, which would eventually be elevated by its protagonists to a so‐called “science of the plan,” and which finds its origins in the environmental theories of the nineteenth century.
Comfort: Architecture's Technological Dream
Authors: Teyssot Georges
Published: March 2017

During the nineteenth century, a shift in meaning of the notion of type took place, accompanied by the idea of an explicit inscription of habits and needs in space. A new correlation between the architectural type and the habitual was established. If only tentatively, aesthetics and planning could now be harmoniously reunited through the introduction of new habits in order to generate a collective way of living. As a result, the object of architecture became to moralize and to reform. The “dream” of this period was that of a purely technological solution for civil building and housing. It would further expand into the vision of the exact partitioning of living space, and of the invention of perfect machines for healing, controlling, and living. In fact, two genealogies began to merge: total sanitariness, which led to the exact quantification of fluids piped into buildings; and total technology, which aimed, through the use of new materials, at the precise programming and optimization of space. Numerous projects proposed the irrigation of the urban complex with fluids, reinforcing the idea of ventilation as the primary condition for the establishment of domestic comfort, and explicating the relevance of careful management of the flow of air, heat, and light. Two contrasting modes of subjectivity thus began to insinuate themselves into the world of things. On the one hand, transitoriness defined humans as mobile and nomadic; on the other, a deeply rooted individualism safeguarded the traditional notions of permanence and inalienable property and habitation. Underlying the thousands of proposals for housing in the nineteenth century, the idea of the circulation of goods and people was crucial, and dependent on the imperatives of mobility and decentralization. Traces of such “dream architecture” remained in the form of the features that would become an intrinsic part of twentieth‐century, “modernistic” architecture.
From Object to Field: The Uses of Photography by Nineteenth‐Century Architects
Authors: Sealy Peter
Published: March 2017

In the decades following its public unveiling, photographs offered nineteenth‐century French architects a vast and invaluable archive for recording historic monuments and disseminating historicist motifs. The utility of photographs for architects, especially for those engaged in historic restoration such as Eugène‐Emmanuel Viollet‐le‐Duc, lay in their claim to irrefutable facticity. However, early architectural photographs often failed to live up to their promise of unmediated objectivity, because of too‐pronounced shadows, perspectival distortions, or simply blur. These defaults were often corrected through translations into engravings. While early architectural photographs often adhered to existing representational codes, especially the Beaux‐Arts distrust of perspectives, a new regime of “photo‐scopic” imagery emerged in the French architectural press around 1870. No longer surveying a building from an idealized or abstract viewpoint, this free photographic scanning dissolved the architectural object into a series of autonomous fragments. The viewer wanders through an infinite field of possible views, pausing at moments of heightened visual interest. Such images respond to a visual curiosity – or visual pleasure – in the dynamic comprehension of space rather than to any desire to comprehend a unified whole. Whether generated through photography or not, they are symptoms of a growing interest in spatial affect on the part of French architects and critics including Viollet‐le‐Duc, Charles Garnier, and Auguste Choisy.