bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Introduction
Authors: Constantinesco Thomas
Published: January 2022

This Introduction sets out the theoretical and methodological stakes of the book, along with its historical range. It begins by exposing the problem of pain as a tension between the evidence of pain and its enigma, which the rest of the book investigates. It then develops the claim that pain, while undeniably destructive, is also generative—of language, subjectivities, and collectivities—as it circulates within and between persons and through writing. Linking literary formalism with individual and social formation, the chapter argues for close reading as a method to recover the theoretical work of literature. It further positions the argument within the field of pain studies, before tracing the main transformations of the United States’ culture of pain in the nineteenth century, from the rise of secularism, sentimentalism, and utilitarianism, to the invention of anesthesia and the development of tort law, as well as the politics of pain during the Civil War and in the early years of Reconstruction. It ends with an overview of the book’s structure that emphasizes the affordances of pain—their limitations and their potentialities—in the shaping of individual and collective identities.
The Pedagogy of Pain in Elizabeth Stuart Phelps’s The Gates Ajar
Authors: Constantinesco Thomas
Published: January 2022

This chapter examines the forms and functions of grief in Elizabeth Stuart Phelps’s Civil War fiction, The Gates Ajar (1868). It shows how this sentimental novel problematizes its relation to the conventions of sentimentality, as its form as a diary helps emphasize the limits of misguided sympathy. It also illuminates how Phelps deploys sentimentalism against itself to imagine the successful work of mourning as relying on the recovery, or the invention, of authentic fellow-feeling. The chapter further argues that, in the novel, family sympathy allegorizes the prospect of national reunion in a succession of scenes of women caring for each other. It then demonstrates that Phelps’s queer pedagogy of pain culminates in the picturing of heaven as a paradise of painless re-embodiment. Relating the novel’s economy of compensation to Emerson’s philosophy of pain, the chapter reveals how grief may be recuperated for Phelps through a transformative ecology of sacrifice and death. It concludes by arguing that Phelps invites us to recognize pain so that we may overcome it, not by burying the dead in the vain hope of forgetting them, but by burying them to ensure their survival with us and in us.
Pain, Will, and Writing in the Diary of Alice James
Authors: Constantinesco Thomas
Published: January 2022

This chapter returns to the challenges of the sentimental response to pain through a reading of Alice James’s diary, in which she meditates on her invalidism and her alleged hysteria. First reading the diary as an introspective exercise and an enterprise in self-recovery from pain, it then follows the movement of James’s writing as it turns away from the pain of bodily deterioration and toward the enjoyable “drama of life” outside the sickroom. The chapter shows however that, in looking at the spectacle of the world, Alice James becomes herself the unwitting spectacle of pain incarnate. She is thus subjected to the disabling effects of sympathy, which she associates with the figure and the work of her brother, William James, a physician by training and a key figure of the emerging science of psychology. The chapter further illuminates how Alice James uses her own spectacularization to critique the manipulative politics of invalidism in the Victorian era and to put forward a model of abandonment to pain that echoes Emerson’s philosophy of selfhood. It eventually argues that, in repurposing the spectacle of sympathy by casting herself in the role of grotesque monster, Alice James performs her identity as a body in pain and a suffering invalid, thus literally producing herself as other in the pages of her diary.
Introduction
Authors: Lewis Simon
Published: January 2022

The Introduction summarizes the aims and methodologies of the book. It discusses the ways in which historians have approached not only anti-Methodism in eighteenth-century England but also the theology of the Georgian Church of England. The Introduction proceeds to state how this study enhances the existing secondary literature on these two interconnected subjects, while also justifying the book’s chronological scope. It also illuminates the complexity of defining the terms ‘evangelicalism’ and ‘Methodism’, the latter of which conjured up different images for different people in eighteenth-century England. The Introduction closes by providing a summary of each chapter.
A ‘Torrent’ of Opposition
Authors: Lewis Simon
Published: January 2022

Chapter 1 charts the rise of Methodism, focusing particularly on the development of its relationship with the Church of England. The turbulent nature of this relationship was evidenced by the explosion of anti-Methodist literature during the late 1730s and early 1740s. This chapter proceeds to discuss the sale, dissemination, and readership of these texts. Much of the early anti-Methodist literature was pitched to a lay audience, whom the authors sought to deter from revival meetings. To numerous clergymen these meetings were hotbeds of immoral and riotous behaviour. Such perceptions illuminate the convergence of socio-political and doctrinal concerns about Methodism—a point which is stressed throughout the book.
Justification and Assurance
Authors: Lewis Simon
Published: January 2022

Chapter 2 explores the soteriological clashes between Methodists and their High Church opponents. It locates these exchanges as a continuation of a historic dispute over definitions of ‘true’ Church of England doctrines, as taught in the Thirty-Nine Articles of Religion. Calvinist evangelicals believed they were fulfilling the work of Reformed Anglicans, such as John Edwards (1637–1716), who had maintained the ‘good old way’ of the Reformation after the Restoration. Anti-Methodist High Churchmen, on the other hand, perceived these harangues as merely a feeble attempt to reignite a war already won by post-Restoration Arminian divines, most notably George Bull (1634–1710). Arminian evangelicals, such as John Wesley, occupied an awkward middle ground in this dispute. Despite his overt anti-Calvinism, Wesley was often charged with aiding Whitefield and other so-called ‘antinomians’ by denying that works were a condition of the new birth.
Perfectionism and Self-Denial
Authors: Lewis Simon
Published: January 2022

Chapter 3 further highlights the convergence of sociological and theological ideas by exploring responses to Methodist asceticism. It shows that Wesley’s and Whitefield’s concerns about allegedly sinful luxuries were shared not only by members of the laity, but also by several of their Anglican opponents. This chapter, therefore, de-emphasizes both the novelty of Methodist perfectionism and the alleged lethargy of the Georgian Church. Those divines, such as Joseph Trapp, who attacked Methodist perfectionism viewed such teachings as a theological, as well as a social, transgression. Basing this theory on the example allegedly set by sixteenth-century German Anabaptists and other radical Christian groups, Trapp and others described a direct lineage linking perfectionism, anticlericalism, and antinomianism.
Histories of ‘Enthusiasm’, Schism, and Popery
Authors: Lewis Simon
Published: January 2022

Methodists often faced charges of ‘enthusiasm’ because of their seemingly irrational emphasis on supernatural experiences, such as prophecies and bodily agitations. Allegations of ‘enthusiasm’ often featured alongside the interlinked charges of ‘schism’ and ‘popery’. When defining each of these three transgressions of ‘true religion’, anti-Methodist High Churchmen cited historic examples of ‘enthusiastic’ and schismatic papists. To these divines the ‘schismatic’ acts committed by Methodists represented not only a political rebellion, but also a sin, reminiscent of regicidal Puritans, who had allegedly aided the Papacy during the previous century by toppling both the Church and the monarchy. Methodists, on the other hand, posited their work as a continuation of the Reformation, comparing their opponents to ‘popish’ and schismatic Counter-Reformers. By exploring the conflicting ways in which Methodists and their opponents deployed histories of ‘popery’, this chapter illuminates not only the many varieties of anti-Catholicism in eighteenth-century England, but also the highly contested status, purpose, and meaning of the Reformation during this period.
Deism and Melancholia
Authors: Lewis Simon
Published: January 2022

By showing that discussions of deism featured prominently in the printed attacks on Wesley and Whitefield, Chapter 5 offers a fundamental reappraisal of the perceived relationship between early evangelicalism and irreligion, while also illuminating the ways in which anti-Methodism was informed by other theological controversies. Crucially, by showing that attacks on evangelicalism often mirrored attacks on irreligion, this chapter argues that categorizations such as ‘Enlightenment’ and ‘Counter-Enlightenment’ are unhelpful when describing contemporary perceptions of Methodism and deism. As with deists, Methodists were often viewed by their clerical opponents as melancholic ‘enthusiasts’—the antithesis of ‘true religion’. Conversely, freethinkers sometimes utilized the evangelical movement for their own polemical purposes. By exploring these deistic responses to Methodism, this chapter illuminates the prominence of deception and disguise in eighteenth-century religious polemic. Freethinkers sometimes disguised themselves as religious ‘enthusiasts’ in their polemical attacks on priestly religion. On the other hand, anti-Methodism provided Peter Annet with a Trojan Horse to attack priestly religion.
Miracles and Demons
Authors: Lewis Simon
Published: January 2022

Attitudes to miracles was one litmus test for ‘true religion’. Some religious groups, such as Roman Catholics and evangelicals, were open to the possibility of new miracles. Orthodox Anglicans, on the other hand, believed that miracles had ceased shortly after Constantine’s conversion during the fourth century, which marked the end of Christianity’s days as a marginalized sect. Others, however, displayed far less trust in patristic accounts of miracles. The Cambridge librarian and Anglican divine Conyers Middleton believed that miracles had ceased by the end of the first century. More controversially, deists denied that miracles had ever occurred at all. Each of these beliefs is explored in Chapter 6, which discusses anti-Methodism in the context of the eighteenth-century miracles debate. Building on the previous chapter’s discussions of the perceived relationship between Methodism and irreligion, Chapter 6 also illuminates several clergymen who feared that Methodism’s emphasis on the supernatural fuelled doubts about biblical and patristic miracles.
God and Possibilities
Authors: Adams Robert Merrihew
Published: January 2022

Section 11.1 of this chapter discusses how (and whether!) God can know all possibilities without actualizing all of them. For if unactualized conscious states and processes are to be permanent objects of actual thoughts in an eternal mind, how different is that from their being actual conscious states and processes of that mind? It is argued that discursive knowledge of logic and mathematics is not problematic in this way—and in section 11.2 that “intuitive” knowledge of qualities raises additional issues, but none that God could not manage. Section 11.3 points out that God does not need to know nearly as much about possibilities if God need not and does not try to create a “best possible world,” but is motivated by grace and love for actual creatures. Section 11.4 addresses two questions about causal explanation: First, the teleological question: “What am I doing, or at least trying to do, and why am I trying to do it?” I think I often know an at least roughly right answer to that question. The second and much harder question is “Why is it that I can do what I am trying to do, if indeed I can?” Occasionalism implies that it depends on God. That is where this line of explanations stops. No causal explanation of God’s omnipotence is on offer.
The Non-Discrimination Rules For Services
Authors: Bates Alan , McGurk Brendan , Peretz George , Williams Jack
Published: January 2022

This chapter examines the application and effect of sections 20 and 21 of the Act, which render regulatory requirements imposed under the legislation applicable in one part of the United Kingdom ‘of no effect’ in relation to a service provider that has a ‘relevant connection’ to another part of the United Kingdom, if those requirements directly or indirectly discriminate against that service provider. Section 20 is concerned with directly discriminatory requirements, i.e. regulatory requirements that treat a service provider ‘less favourably than other service providers’ by reason of its either having, or not having, a ‘relevant connection’ to a part of the United Kingdom. Section 21 is concerned with indirectly discriminatory requirements, i.e. regulatory requirements that are not directly discriminatory, but which put an ‘incoming service provider’ at a disadvantage, have an adverse market effect, and cannot reasonably be considered a necessary means of achieving a legitimate aim. The term ‘incoming service provider’, as used in section 21, is restricted to service providers that do not have a registered office or place of business in, or provide the relevant services from, the part of the United Kingdom where the regulatory requirement in question is imposed. This chapter answers four overarching questions. What are the non-discrimination rules relating to provision of services? In what circumstances does each of the rules apply? When are the rules excluded? What effect do the rules have in practice?
Professional Qualifications and Regulation
Authors: Bates Alan , McGurk Brendan , Peretz George , Williams Jack
Published: January 2022

This chapter examines the provisions in Part 3 of the Act, which is entitled ‘UK Market Access: Professional Qualifications and Regulations’. Part 3 contains sections 24–29 of the Act. The provisions in respect of professional qualifications and professional regulation are a very obvious application of the principles of mutual recognition and non-discrimination embodied within the Act. The main object of Part 3 of the Act is to avoid new barriers to the movement of professionals within the United Kingdom internal market by making provision for an overarching system of mutual recognition of professional qualifications across the United Kingdom. Part 3 also provides for a number of exceptions to the right of access that the Act confers.
Monitoring of the UK Internal Market
Authors: Bates Alan , McGurk Brendan , Peretz George , Williams Jack
Published: January 2022

The parts of the Act covered by this chapter concern what might be called the administration of the Act, as opposed to its application by courts in legal proceedings. The bulk of the chapter deals with the advisory and reporting role, and associated information-gathering powers, given to the Competition and Markets Authority (CMA), and to specially constituted panels of the CMA in particular, in Part 4 of the Act. The final sections of the chapter deal with sections 12 and 13, which confer powers and duties on the Secretary of State in relation to guidance and review of the use of the Secretary of State’s powers of amendment.
The Limits of the Doxastic
Authors: Crane Tim , Farkas Katalin
Published: January 2022

It is usual to distinguish between two kinds of doxastic attitude: standing or dispositional states, which govern our actions and persist throughout changes in consciousness; and conscious episodes of acknowledging the truth of a proposition. What is the relationship between these two kinds of attitude? Normally, the conscious episodes are in harmony with the underlying dispositions, but sometimes they come apart and we act in a way that is contrary to our explicit conscious judgements. Philosophers have often tried to explain these situations in largely doxastic terms, by identifying one or other of the attitudes as our ‘real’ beliefs. This chapter argues that this is not generally realistic and we should appeal to a wider range of psychological attitudes. Such an account would be best supported by a picture of the unconscious mind which does not sharply separate the doxastic from the conative and the affective.
Perceptual Experiences
Authors: Jackson Frank
Published: January 2022

Why believe in belief de se? Someone crossing the road against traffic needs reliable beliefs about how things are relative to themselves. Why accept one version or another of the causal–historical theory of reference for proper names? It explains why names can serve as parts of information channels—a property we exploit when we use names to get directions. We have here two examples of what happens when we ask why belief de se and proper names are so useful—the utility question. This chapter focusses on the utility question for perceptual experiences, describing the kind of theory that comes from asking what makes perceptual experiences so useful. However, what’s of most importance is the voyage, not the destination. I hope that even those convinced that the view we end up with is mistaken will take on board the requirement that a theory of perceptual experiences needs a good answer to the utility question.
Spinoza on Mind, Body, and Numerical Identity
Authors: Morrison John
Published: January 2022

Spinoza claims that a person’s mind and body are one and the same. But he also claims that minds think and do not move, whereas bodies move and do not think. How can we reconcile these claims? I believe that Spinoza is building on a traditional view about identity over time. According to this view, identity over time is linked to essence, so that a thing that is now resting is identical to a thing that was previously moving, provided that they share the same essence. I believe that Spinoza has a similar view about the identity of minds and bodies. In particular, a thing that is thinking in the attribute of thought is identical to a thing that is moving in the attribute of extension, provided that they share the same essence.
Empiricism is Natural
Authors: Berent Iris , Platt Melanie , Sandoboe Gwendolyn
Published: January 2022

Few questions are as controversial as the origins of knowledge. Chapter 5 demonstrates that laypeople are systematically biased against innate ideas, and that this bias arises from intuitive Dualism and Essentialism. Specifically, if per Dualism, ideas are immaterial, whereas, if per Essentialism, ideas must be material, then it follows that ideas cannot be innate. Experiments 1–4 suggest that people view epistemic traits (i.e., ideas) as less material (e.g., less localized in the brain, in line with Dualism). Experiments 5–8 suggest that traits presented as innate (i.e., essence-defining) are viewed as more material (in line with Essentialism). Finally, Experiments 9 and 10 suggest that the effect of Dualism and Essentialism is causal: when people are presented with evidence of either mind-body Physicalism, generally, or of the materiality of individual traits, specifically, their presumption of innateness increases. These results open the possibility that empiricism is natural: it arises from principles that lie deep within human cognition.
Legal Toleration and Rights to Do Wrong
Authors: Laborde Cécile
Published: January 2022

This chapter explores the possibility that morally ambivalent practices (practices that are neither morally abhorrent nor morally indifferent) can be protected as rights to do wrong. The chapter considers three possible justifications for Legal Toleration: Integrity, Uncertainty and Disagreement. Each relies on a distinctive account of what it means for a practice to be morally ambivalent. After showing the limits of the Integrity and the Uncertainty accounts, the chapter discusses in greater depth the potential and pitfalls of a defence of Legal Toleration grounded in Disagreement. On that view, morally ambivalent actions are liable to be exempted from general laws because they express liberal disagreement about justice. The defensibility of Legal Toleration ultimately hinges on the plausibility of compromises about justice within political liberal theories of public justification.
Pardons
Authors: Perry Adam
Published: January 2022

Pardon powers are ubiquitous but difficult to justify. A pardon power is, roughly, a power that is (a) possessed by a non-judicial official, (b) used to cancel legal liability to a criminal sanction in a particular case without thereby altering the law, and (c) unconstrained by law. This chapter provides a novel defence of pardon powers. It argues that pardon powers are an appropriate vehicle for selective deviation. Selective deviation calls for a power that can be used to set aside the code without changing it. It calls for a power that can be used inconsistently. Moreover, it calls for a power that is not in the hands of a body institutionally disposed towards consistency in decision-making, such as the judiciary. This defence overcomes various objections to pardon powers, such as the objection from the separation of powers and the objection from the rule of law.
Humanitarian Intervention, Other-Defense, and Consent
Authors: Bowen Joseph
Published: January 2022

This chapter examines the role that the consent of intended beneficiaries plays in the moral permissibility of humanitarian intervention. When consent is not unanimous among a group to be defended, many doubt that consent has any bearing on the permissibility of defending others. It is held that allowing the refusal of consent to bear on the permissibility of other-defense wrongly enables some subset of the group to control whether the group as a whole is saved. This chapter argues that this view is mistaken. By refusing to consent to intervention, people leave in deliberation their rights against being subjected to risk and make it impermissible for interveners to appeal to the good of saving them. This makes it harder to justify intervention. Conversely, by consenting, people allow interveners to appeal to the prospective good of saving them to justify intervention. This makes it easier to justify intervention.
Shifting from Aristotelianism to Modern Theories
Authors: Förköli Gábor
Published: January 2022

This chapter gives a thorough examination of the work of a teacher named Johann Weiss, a professor of both ethics and politics at the University of Giessen. It details how Weiss started from Lutheran scholasticism and a Christianized notion of Aristotelian prudence, which is included among the necessary readings for ethical education new authorities, such as Machiavelli, Justus Lipsius, and Jean Bodin. It also discusses the infiltration of the university curricula by texts and genres not directly related to moral philosophy. The chapter highlights the academic discipline of ethics that gradually incorporated non-academic genres into the syllabus, including teachers of other subjects that displayed a marked attention to ethical issues. It cites early modern political and moral theories that challenged the traditional, Aristotelian-Thomist concepts, which classified prudence as a moral virtue.
Virtutes Docuit Sedulitate Bona
Authors: Wallura Benjamin
Published: January 2022

This chapter talks about Johann Barthold Niemeier as another useful example for appraising the teaching of ethics provided by professors of other disciplines. It points out that Niemeier is as professor of metaphysics, logic, and later theology at Helmstedt university. Niemeier constantly focused his attention on ethics and the role of Aristotelian philosophy, exerting a strong influence on the teaching of ethics in the university environment. The chapter reviews teaching of ethics, which was a major issue for early modern Lutheran universities and involved questions about moral concepts and the role of Aristotelian philosophy in seventeenth-century academic thought and milieus. It also mentions teaching reports from Bologna, Halle, Wittenberg, Heidelberg, Tübingen, and Helmstedt.
The Emblems of the Altdorf Academy
Authors: Wade Mara R.
Published: January 2022

This chapter focuses on the Lutheran Academy of Altdorf near Nuremberg, which was founded in 1573. It covers the production of ethical-political emblems that is explained in academic speeches and reproduced in medals awarded to the most outstanding students. It also highlights a precise program of intellectual and moral education based on the interaction between image, written judgment, and spoken word. The chapter discusses the notable contribution to the establishment of Altdorf Academy's program by Johann Thomas Freigius, one of the first rectors of the school and one of the first and most famous followers of Petrus Ramus. It elaborates the innovative use of the emblem that became characteristic of the Academy's procedures and was pursued more widely in the life of the city of Nuremberg.
Paradox in the Poem
Authors: Crisafi Nicolò
Published: January 2022

The chapter focuses on the non-linear alternative narrative created by the Commedia’s many paradoxes. Critiquing readings that seek to establish a hierarchy between the two contradictory elements of a paradox, the chapter investigates various rhetorical and narrative forms with which Dante neutralizes the teleological narrative in order to make it possible, on the one hand, to represent the complex theological and metaphysical ideas of the poem and, on the other, to expose the reader’s wish for reductive interpretations. The chapter contextualizes Dante’s distinctive practice in its cultural milieu by exploring paradox in medieval scholastic theology and mystical writings. Scholastic thinkers often conflated paradox with the appearance of paradox, treating it as a problem of form that may be translated into non-paradoxical language. By contrast, mystical writers tended to treat the paradoxical character of the form as pointing to something inherent in its content, and therefore irreducible. The Commedia reflects these antithetical attitudes to paradox, which carry different assumptions about the structure of the universe and its intelligibility, raising important issues over the relationship between form and content, fiction and reality, affect and intellect. The seamless alternation between the teleological masterplot and the alternative narrative of paradox is the first example of Dante’s narrative pluralism. The Commedia remains agile in its alternation of the various models and it demands similar agility from its readers to the very end. The chapters shows seamless ways in which the Commedia entrusts them with the responsibility of experiencing and performing its paradoxes.
The Value and Probabilities of Existence
Authors: Roberts M. A.
Published: January 2022

The purpose of this chapter is to explore the Better Chance Puzzle and, with that puzzle, a question not entirely resolved by Derek Parfit in Reasons and Persons or in his later work: whether, other things being equal, an additional worth-having existence makes things better. The Better Chance Puzzle commences with the surely correct claim—the Better Chance Claim—that the fact that a given choice creates a better chance of a future person’s coming into existence often makes an otherwise wrong choice permissible. A fertility pill might, for example, come with side effects that burden a future child. But if taking the pill is necessary for that child to have any significance chance of existing at all, and the existence itself is worth having, the choice to take the pill is, we think, permissible. The Better Chance Claim is (however quietly) used in the construction of many of the most powerful versions of the nonidentity problem, including Parfit’s own risky policy and depletion examples. At the same time, Parfit introduces us to what he calls the Person-Affecting Intuition, the idea that, other things being equal, the addition of the worth-having existence doesn’t make things better. Though Parfit himself considered the intuition problematic, we may nonetheless continue to find it compelling. And thus the puzzle: how can the better chance of existence, in some sense, make things morally better when the actual fact of the additional existence is capable of no such thing?
Population Ethics Forty Years On
Authors: Temkin Larry
Published: January 2022

This chapter explores some lessons learned from Parfit’s seminal work on population ethics, and some unresolved problems it leaves us with. It illustrates how the Repugnant Conclusion, Hell Three, and other examples generate important insights about axiology. It shows how the Standard Model of Utility and the Standard Model for Combining Ideals jointly entail the Repugnant Conclusion. It offers an alternative approach for assessing outcome goodness, the Capped Model of Ideals, which avoids the Repugnant Conclusion, but notes that it is limited in scope, and faces various worries. It considers whether we should be neutral both within and between different possible locations of the good—persons, spaces, and times; and whether, setting aside cases involving special relations, we should treat people, spaces, and times the same. It argues that in certain cases we should give preference to people over spaces and times, and times and over spaces, but that, surprisingly, in other cases we should give preference to times over people. It considers four approaches to a Capped Model of Ideals, noting both advantages and disadvantages of each. It argues that Parfit’s Absurd Conclusion may not be absurd after all. It concludes by noting that while much progress has been made in population ethics, many of Parfit’s deepest problems and paradoxes remain unresolved.
Context-Dependent Betterness and the Mere Addition Paradox
Authors: Frick Johann
Published: January 2022

This chapter proposes a new solution to Derek Parfit’s Mere Addition Paradox. It argues that the paradox trades on an ambiguity about the context of choice. There is a sense in which all three intuitive judgments about Parfit’s case are true, namely as pairwise comparisons in a two-possible case, i.e. in a choice situation where the option set contains only these two outcomes. The air of paradox arises from the assumption that these pairwise judgments carry over to a three-possible case, in which all three outcomes are possible. But this, the chapter argues, is not the case. If sound, this argument shows how we can make sense of each of our pairwise intuitions in the Mere Addition Paradox, without incurring the cost of intransitivity within an option set. This solves the Mere Addition Paradox and blocks the argument toward the Repugnant Conclusion. Parfit’s case also holds a general lesson about the nature of value, but one that is less revisionary than some had thought. Correctly understood, Parfit’s Mere Addition Case challenges not the transitivity of the “better than”-relation, as Larry Temkin has argued, but instead a different, and less sacrosanct, idea, namely the so-called Independence of Irrelevant Alternatives principle. What Parfit’s puzzle teaches us is that betterness is sometimes context-dependent: the relative goodness of two outcomes can depend on whether or not a third outcome could have instead been chosen.
Are We Living at the Hinge of History?
Authors: MacAskill William
Published: January 2022

In the final pages of On What Matters, Volume II, Derek Parfit comments: “We live during the hinge of history…If we acit wisely in the next few centuries, humanity will survive its most dangerous and decisive period…What now matters most is that we avoid ending human history.” This passage echoes Parfit’s comment, in Reasons and Persons, that “the next few centuries will be the most important in human history”. But is the claim that we live at the hinge of history true? The argument of this chapter is that it is not. The chapter first suggests a way of making the hinge of history claim precise and action-relevant in the context of the question of whether altruists should try to do good now, or invest their resources in order to have more of an impact later on. It then canvasses arguments for and against the hinge of history claim, and suggests that, though we certainly live at an unusual time, we don’t have sufficient evidence to think that the present is the most influential time ever.
Rector Prideaux and Chancellor Laud, 1630–6
Authors: Maddicott John
Published: January 2022

The focus of this chapter is on the increasingly difficult relationship between Prideaux and William Laud, Oxford’s chancellor from 1630 and Canterbury’s archbishop from 1633. It describes a series of initial minor conflicts culminating in the much larger conflict of 1631, when Prideaux appears to have promoted an unsuccessful Calvinist rebellion against the growing Arminian presence within the university. Particular attention is paid to the enmity between Prideaux and Peter Heylyn, Laud’s leading henchman, who maliciously foisted on Prideaux radically sabbatarian views designed to turn his puritan supporters against him. A related conflict set Prideaux against his College for the first and only time in his life. Laud was also at odds with Prideaux over relations with the foreign Protestant churches, which Laud wished to keep at arm’s length but which Prideaux supported––though not to the extent of giving his backing to the ecumenist John Dury, who vainly sought Prideaux’s help in promoting the reunion of the churches. The chapter also analyses Prideaux’s opposition to the heretical Socinians and, unrelatedly, to Laud’s revision of the university statutes, the culminating triumph of his chancellorship and one which, in 1636, brought the king to Oxford for a grand celebration.
The Impact of Migration on Employment Outcomes
Authors: Lam David , Elsayed Ahmed
Published: January 2022

Chapter 5 deals with rural–urban, seasonal, international, and return migration that play an important role in many LICs. Today’s migration patterns are quite different than in the past, with heavy South–North migration flows that are linked to large remittance flows, brain drain issues and other connections that link LICs to the international economy. The chapter looks at the impact of credit and information constraints and discusses evidence on how responsive rural labour markets are to labour demand shocks. Innovative GLM|LIC projects use mobile phones to track seasonal labour migration and to analyse the impact of mobile banking on remittances between rural and urban areas. Other projects illustrate the large impact international remittances can have on labour markets and entrepreneurial activity in sending countries as well as the impact of forced migration and refugee shocks on development perspectives.
The Madman and the Churchrobber
Authors: Peacey Jason
Published: January 2022

This microhistory reconstructs and analyses a protracted legal dispute over a small parcel of land called Warrens Court in Nibley, Gloucestershire, which was contested between successive generations of two families from the mid-sixteenth century to the early eighteenth century. Employing a rich cache of archival material, it traces legal contestation over time, and through a range of different courts, as well as in Parliament and the public domain, and it contends that a microhistorical approach makes it possible to shed valuable light upon the legal and political culture of early modern England, not least by comprehending how certain disputes became protracted and increasingly bitter, and why they might fascinate contemporaries. This involves recognising the dynamic of litigation, in terms of how disputes changed over time, and how those involved in myriad lawsuits found legal reasons for prolonging contestation. It also involves exploring litigants’ strategies and practices, as well as competing claims about the way in which adversaries behaved, and incompatible expectations of the legal system. Finally, it involves teasing out the structural issues in play, in terms of the social, cultural and ideological identities of successive generations. Ultimately, this dispute is employed to address important historiographical debates surrounding the nature of civil litigation in early modern England, and to provide new ways of appreciating the nature, severity, and visibility of political and religious conflict in the decades before and after the English Revolution.
Conclusion
Authors: Peacey Jason
Published: January 2022

This chapter reflects upon the significance of the protracted history of the Warrens Court dispute, partly by highlighting the extraordinary way in which it was revived in the early eighteenth century, and partly by identifying other lengthy disputes that reveal similar phenomena. Such contextualisation is used to support conclusions about how to relate a particularly well-documented dispute to the wider landscape of litigation in early modern England, about how to understand the divisions it highlights within contemporary society, and about how to use the affair to reflect upon the existing historiography on the decades surrounding the English revolution. Crucially, this involves reflecting upon the possibilities that microhistories offer for rethinking the severity and visibility of ideological conflict.
Neo-Calvinist Culture Protestantism
Authors: Molendijk Arie L.
Published: January 2022

Kuyper reinterpreted Calvinism as a combination of the richness of its tradition with an endorsement of modern principles and ways of life (except for gambling, theatre-going, and dancing). Yet the acceptance of the modern way of life did not mean secularism; on the contrary, according to Kuyper Calvinism in itself was a modern principle, which—against the prevailing powers of a secularizing modernity—could permeate society as a whole. The chapter argues that Kuyper’s Neo-Calvinist worldview was a pre-eminently modern invention in its own right, and thus signified a major break with traditional Calvinism, notwithstanding elements of continuity. A somewhat similar programme of reconciliation of religion and modernity was pursued at the time by liberal Protestants (Kulturprotestanten) in Germany, who contrary to Kuyper accepted the fact that cultural domains such as politics and the economy followed their own non-religious rules.
Abraham Kuyper’s Religio-Political Rhetoric
Authors: Molendijk Arie L.
Published: January 2022

Even Kuyper’s critics acknowledge his great powers of oratory. Kuyper’s rhetoric had a strong romantic flavour of artistic inspiration and aimed at a vivid representation of reality. His stalwart defence of Calvinism against modernism (here taken by Kuyper as the predominant secular worldview) drew from personal experience and from the struggles in Dutch history, resulting in strong opinions couched in both military and organic metaphors. His mastery of the psychology of mass communication (Gustave le Bon) served his political goals rather well. Kuyper was also aware of the importance of modern media such as rallies, stump speeches, journals and pamphlets (which had a broad circulation at the time) and reflected on how to make good use of modern forms of communication. Kuyper’s rhetorical and polemical mastery not only empowered and energized his constituency, but also led to divisions in Dutch society that are still visible in the present day and are now termed ‘pillarization’.
Conclusion
Authors: Molendijk Arie L.
Published: January 2022

In West European history the nineteenth century has been termed the ‘second confessional age’ (after the sixteenth to seventeenth centuries) because of the revival of religion and the strengthening of confessional divisions, which penetrated politics, society, and everyday culture. The Netherlands was no exception to these trends. Abraham Kuyper provided here the theoretical underpinnings of the process of pillarization (the politico-denominational segregation of a society). The old liberal ideal of an inclusive People’s Church that tolerated a broad range of Christian believers was not achieved. The rise of the critical study of the Bible and science of religion were the most conspicuous scholarly developments in Dutch theology in the second half of the nineteenth century. Methodologically speaking, a historical way of thinking was taking hold of the field. This does not imply that positivism and Darwinism played no role in theological debates, but doubtless the emerging historical-critical approach did much more damage to the credibility of traditional Christian dogma than naturalistic theories. The theologians who have figured in this book all formulated their position with a view to the changing world around them. Some were fundamentally affirmative about new cultural and political developments (Protestant modernist theologians), others were downright critical (Isaac da Costa), while Abraham Kuyper developed a new, modern, and competing worldview vis-à-vis the dominant liberal stance. Nevertheless, in a variety of ways, all protagonists addressed the challenges of the slowly modernizing Dutch society in the nineteenth century and can be called modern thinkers in their own right.
From Breakthrough to Blockbuster
Authors: Drakeman Donald L. , Drakeman Lisa N. , Oraiopoulos Nektarios
Published: January 2022

Beginning in the 1970s, several scientific breakthroughs promised to transform the creation of new medicines. As investors sought to capitalize on these Nobel Prize–winning discoveries, the biotech industry grew to thousands of small companies around the world. Each sought to emulate what the major pharmaceutical companies had been doing for a century or more, but without the advantages of scale, scope, experience, and massive resources. How could a large collection of small companies, most with fewer than fifty employees, compete in one of the world’s most breathtakingly expensive and highly regulated industries? This book shows how biotech companies have met the challenge by creating nearly 40% more of the most important treatments for unmet medical needs. Moreover, they have done so with much lower overall costs. The book focuses on both the companies themselves and the broader biotech ecosystem that supports them. Its portrait of the crucial roles played by academic research, venture capital, contract research organizations, the capital markets, and pharmaceutical companies shows how a supportive environment enabled the entrepreneurial biotech industry to create novel medicines with unprecedented efficiency. In doing so, it also offers insights for any industry seeking to innovate in uncertain and ambiguous conditions. Looking to the future, it concludes that biomedical research will continue to be most effective in the hands of a large group of small companies as long as national healthcare policies allow the rest of the ecosystem to continue to thrive.
The Biotech Industry Track Record
Authors: Drakeman Donald L. , Drakeman Lisa N. , Oraiopoulos Nektarios
Published: January 2022

This chapter compares the output of the biotechnology industry, as a whole, to that of the pharmaceutical industry in terms of new FDA-approved medicines created. It shows that the biotech industry has been much more effective than the pharmaceutical industry in developing the medicines that address important unmet medical needs. It discusses how this result, which was predicted by the theoretical literature on innovation management but is only now shown empirically, flows from the structure of the biotech ecosystem. Having thousands of small companies competing for funding provided by thousands of independent investors fosters the high volume of risk-taking that enhances the development of genuinely novel products in an environment in which there is no way accurately to predict the product characteristics needed for success.
Body Plans
Authors: Schram Frederick R. , Koenemann Stefan
Published: January 2022

Pancrustacea is a misnomer; the overwhelming number of species are not crustaceans—they are insects (Hexapoda). But most of the anatomical disparity in this subphylum occurs among the crustaceans. The preferred name would have been Tetraconata, based on an actual diagnostic feature—the presence of four cone cells in their eye ommatidia. The “crustacean” paraphyletic components of the subphylum form the main focus in this book. These form three monophyletic clades. Members of one clade have their gonopores located mid-body, somewhere on the trunk segments 6–8: Malacostraca, Copepoda, Thecostraca, and the extinct Cyclida. Members of a second clade, the oligostracans, have gonopores closer to the posterior aspect of the head on trunk segment 4. These include the parasitic branchiurans and their sister group, the tongue worms (pentastomids); the mystacocarids along with the Cambrian skaracarids; and Ostracoda. A third clade contains three groups: the freshwater branchiopods, the xenocaridans (remipedes and cephalocarids), and Hexapoda (insects). None of the classic so-called diagnostic features apply to all pancrustacean clades. Nevertheless, a great disparity of bauplan is evident in the subphylum.
Development
Authors: Schram Frederick R. , Koenemann Stefan
Published: January 2022

Most developmental biologists implicitly understand the focus of their research as the processes extending from a zygote to an adult condition, which include embryonic and larval development. Data are available from not only living species but also the fossil record (especially from the Cambrian Orsten faunas). Although the nauplius often occurs as the initial larval stage, an intimal nauplius is not universal, and several distinct nauplii are recognizable. One must distinguish between an orthonauplius and various types of metanauplii, as well as germ bands and egg nauplii. Ontogeny is a sequence of independent stages in which no one stage can predict what the next stage will look like, let alone what the final stage will look like. Each stage is autonomous. Care must be exercised in analyzing and interpreting biohistorical events.
Bradoriida and Phosphatocopida
Authors: Schram Frederick R. , Koenemann Stefan
Published: January 2022

Paleontologists long considered Bradoriida and Phosphatocopida as members of Ostracoda. New insights into their soft anatomy from unusually preserved fossils indicate their status is much more complicated. Both these groups are largely Cambrian in age, with only a few exceptions, and both exhibited completely encompassing bivalved and bilobed shells. Bradoriida had a head larva. They were at best stem forms of the pancrustaceans, but possibly better located closer to the root of the Mandibulata. Authorities have offered Phosphatocopida as a sister group to Crustacea sensu stricto, in what they call “Eucrustacea.” Phosphatocopes were generally tiny arthropods, less than 1mm to 2 mm, but sometimes up to 10 mm. Thousands of specimens are available for study; however, these so far are larval instars. Wide consensus seems to favor a sister status to all pancrustaceans. Without knowledge of the adults, caution must be exercised in this regard.